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olume  is  for 
REFERENCE  USE  ONLY 


THE 

OXFORD  COMPANION 
TO 

ENGLISH 
LITERATURE 


THE  OXFORD 

COMPANION 
TO  ENGLISH 
LITERATURE 

Compiled  and  edited 
by 

SIR  PAUL  HARVEY 


OXFORD 
AT  THE  CLARENDON  PRESS 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

AMEN  HOUSE,  E.G.  4 

LONDON   EDINBURGH   GLASGOW 

LEIPZIG   NEW  YORK   TORONTO 

MELBOURNE   CAPETOWN   BOMBAY 

CALCUTTA  MADRAS  SHANGHAI 

HUMPHREY  MILFORD 

PUBLISHER  TO  THE 
UNIVERSITY 


First  published  November  i$32 
Reprinted  December  1932 
January  zojj  with  corrections 
March  1933  with  corrections 


PRINTED  IN  CHEAT  BRITAIN 


PREFACE 

THIS  volume  will  serve  its  purpose  if  it  proves  a  useful  companion  to 
ordinary  everyday  readers  of  English  literature.  It  is  necessarily  a  work 
of  compilation  and  selection,  because  the  range  of  the  possible  subject-matter 
is  so  great.  English  literature  has  a  continuous  history  of  over  a  thousand 
years,  it  has  been  produced  in  many  lands,  and  there  is  no  subject  on  which 
it  does  not  touch.  Completeness  in  a  moderate  compass,  and  the  equipment 
of  a  specialist  at  all  points,  are  therefore  impossible. 

According  to  the  general  scheme  of  the  work,  as  designed  by  the  publishers, 
two  main  elements  are  included,  in  alphabetical  arrangement.  The  one  is 
a  list  of  English  authors,  literary  works,  and  literary  societies  which  have 
historical  or  present  importance.  Under  an  author's  name  is  given  a  selection 
of  facts — especially  dates — bearing  on  his  life  and  literary  activity.  Under  the 
title  of  a  work  there  is  some  indication  of  its  nature,  and  for  the  greater  works 
of  fiction  of  the  past — whether  poetry,  prose,  or  drama — there  is  usually 
a  brief  sketch  of  the  plot.  American  literature  is  an  essential  part  of  the 
literature  of  our  language,  and  a  certain  number  of  American  authors  and  of 
their  works,  those  best  known  in  this  country,  have  been  treated  on  the  above 
lines.  Original  literary  appreciation  is  not  attempted,  and  comments  verging 
on  aesthetic  criticism  are  intended  to  give  rather  a  conventional  view  of  the 
importance  and  distinctive  qualities  of  the  author  or  work  under  discussion. 
In  this  part  of  the  volume,  where  a  compiler  must  often  plead  for  the  in- 
dulgence of  experts,  living  authors  present  the  hardest  problem.  Contem- 
porary judgement  is  notoriously  fickle  and  tends  to  be  impassioned.  I  could 
have  wished  to  exclude  all  living  authors ;  yet  some  have  established  reputa- 
tions that  can  hardly  be  ephemeral,  and  some  may  claim  at  least  a  place  beside 
the  popular  favourites  of  other  days.  I  have  therefore,  on  advice,  given  very 
brief  entries  to  a  limited  number  of  living  authors  and  recent  works;  but 
without  finding  a  criterion  of  choice  that  satisfies  me.  I  must  apologize  to 
those  whose  merits  I  have  unintentionally  neglected,  and  ask  readers  to  pass 
lightly  over  errors  of  selection  on  this  difficult  borderland.  After  all,  it  com- 
prises only  one  of  some  fifty  generations  of  English  authors. 

The  other  element  is  the  explanation  of  allusions  commonly  met  with,  or 
likely  to  be  met  with,  in  English  literature,  in  so  far  as  they  are  not  covered  by 
the  articles  on  English  authors  and  works.  The  selection  is  limited  to  allusions 
which  contain  a  proper  name  with  a  few  special  exceptions :  some  literary 
terms,  some  names  of  wines,  and  names  of  old  coins  like  'gold  moidores*  and 
'pieces  of  eight5,  which  are  more  than  mere  common  nouns  to  readers  of 
English.  Even  among  proper  names  the  number  of  possible  entries  is  huge. 
Apart  from  the  characters  of  English  fiction,  one  must  reckon  with  names 
from  several  mythologies,  with  saints,  heroes,  statesmen,  philosophers,  men 
of  science,  artists,  musicians,  actors,  with  literary  forgers  and  impostors — in 
short,  with  every  kind  of  celebrity.  In  order  to  restrict  the  field  of  choice 
I  have  had  to  bear  in  mind  that  this  is  not  a  dictionary  of  mythology,  or 

[v] 


PREFACE 

history,  or  science,  or  music,  but  a  companion  to  English,  literature,  and 
therefore  to  look  at  all  such  special  subjects  through  the  mirror  of  English 
literature.  It  is  sometimes  a  distorting  mirror.  Thus  foreign  authors  are  in- 
cluded as  matter  of  allusion  in  English,  not  on  any  scale  of  merit  which  would 
satisfy  students  of  those  literatures.  Eustache  Deschamps,  for  instance,  ap- 
pears because  of  his  relations  with  Chaucer,  though  many  greater  figures  in 
French  literature  are  passed  over.  In  the  selection  of  place-names,  the  grounds 
of  choice  are  similar.  A  volume  of  this  size  would  not  hold  all  the  places 
referred  to  in  English  writers  of  some  standing.  But  Grub  Street  and  Fleet 
Street  have  associations  which  greater  thoroughfares  do  not  share;  Harvard 
and  Yale  have  claims  to  inclusion  over  and  above  their  merits  as  universities ; 
Mount  Helicon  must  be  preferred  to  Everest. 

If  these  general  principles  of  selection  win  approval,  it  still  remains  true 
that  no  two  persons  would  agree  on  their  application  in  detail.  But  I  hope 
I  have  included  a  large  proportion  of  entries  which  would  be  admitted  by 
common  consent,  and  have  contrived  to  provide  many  signposts  that  will 
direct  the  inquirer  to  fuller  knowledge.  Some  of  the  entries  may  appear 
unnecessary  from  the  very  familiarity  of  the  subject;  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  what  is  familiar  to  residents  in  this  country  may  not  always 
be  so  to  readers  in  other  lands  which  have  a  common  heritage  in  our 
literature. 

In  a  compilation  such  as  this,  the  debt  to  previous  writers  is  necessarily 
very  great,  coextensive  in  fact  with  the  book  itself.  I  must,  to  begin  with, 
acknowledge  my  special  indebtedness  to  certain  sources  of  general  literary 
information.  These  are:  the  Cambridge  Histories  of  English  Literature  and  of 
American  Literature;  the  various  works  of  Prof.  Saintsbury  (including  the 
Periods  of  European  Literature  issued  under  his  general  editorship);  the 
Surveys  of  Prof.  Elton;  and  A.  C.  Ward's  Twentieth-Century  Literature. 
The  biographies  of  British  authors  in  the  following  pages  are  mainly,  but  not 
exclusively,  based  on  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  Many  definitions 
are  adapted  and  much  miscellaneous  literary  information  derived  from  the 
Oxford  English  Dictionary.  I  have,  in  addition,  profited  by  the  labours  of 
the  innumerable  editors,  biographers,  and  commentators  of  authors  whose 
works  are  dealt  with  herein.  It  would  be  impossible  to  name  them  all,  but 
I  should  perhaps  mention  my  special  debt  to  such  outstanding  biographers 
as  J.  G.  Lockhart  and  Sir  E.  K.  Chambers. 

The  articles  on  classical  mythology  are  based,  in  the  main,  on  Homer, 
Hesiod's  Theogony,  the  Greek  tragedians,  Virgil,  and  Ovid,  with  much 
guidance  and  assistance  from  the  Classical  Dictionaries  of  Sir  William  Smith 
and  Lempriere.  Those  on  Scandinavian  mythology  are  founded  on  the 
Poetic  Edda  and  the  Heimskringla;  those  on  Celtic  mythology,  on  the  Htbbert 
Lectures  of  Prof.  John  Rhys  and  the  Mythology  of  the  British  Islands  of 
C.  Squire;  and  the  few  notes  on  Indian  and  Moslem  theology  and  mythology 
on  W.  J.  Wilkins's  Hindu  Mythology,  Sale's  Koran,  and  Duncan  Forbes's 
Mohammedan  Mythology.  In  matters  of  archaeology  and  ancient  religion  and 


PREFACE 

philosophy,  I  should  mention  the  assistance  I  have  had  from  the  encyclopaedic 
writings  of  M.  Salomon  Reinach,  and  in  respect  of  English  philosophy  from 
Prof.  J.  Seth,  English  Philosophers  and  Schools  of  Philosophy.  As  regards  early 
English  romances,  I  am  particularly  indebted  to  J.  C.  Wells,  Manual  of  the 
Writings  in  Middle  English. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  within  the  compass  of  a  short  preface 
the  works  that  I  have  had  recourse  to  when  dealing  with  special  subjects 
such  as  Old  London,  the  history  of  journalism,  London  clubs,  &c.  I  have 
endeavoured  to  draw  my  information  from  the  authors  best  qualified  to  give 
it,  and  I  hope  that  my  acknowledgements  in  this  general  form  will  be  accepted. 

I  have  also  consulted  on  particular  points  a  number  of  works  of  reference 
such  as  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (nth  and  i4th  editions),  the  Century 
Cyclopaedia  of  Names,  and  Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates,  from  which  I  have 
taken  a  few  facts  and  dates ;  also  Notes  and  Queries,  and  its  French  counter- 
part, the  Intermediate  des  Chercheurs;  and  the  invaluable  Dictionary  of  Phrase 
and  Fable  and  Reader9 s  Handbook  of  Dr.  Brewer. 

I  should  not  omit  to  mention  the  assistance  I  have  had  from  the  ever 
instructive  pages  of  the  Times  Literary  Supplement,  from  the  staff  of  the 
London  Library,  and  from  friends  and  correspondents  in  England,  Ireland, 
France,  and  America.  I  owe  a  special  debt  of  gratitude  to  Mr.  C.  R.  L. 
Fletcher,  who  has  read  and  commented  on  the  whole  of  the  proofs;  and  to 
the  staff  of  the  Oxford  University  Press  for  general  guidance  and  detailed  help 
in  the  preparation  of  the  work.  Mr.  B.  R.  Redman,  who  read  the  proofs 
with  that  object,  has  added  a  number  of  short  articles  to  fill  gaps  in  the 
treatment  of  American  authors  and  subjects.  The  suggestions  and  corrections 
of  these  helpers  have  contributed  immensely  to  whatever  standard  of  com- 
pleteness and  accuracy  has  been  achieved.  I  only  regret  that  considerations  of 
space  and  the  limited  scope  of  the  work  have  made  it  impossible  to  in- 
corporate all  the  additions  that  they  proposed.  For  the  blunders  that  may 
have  escaped  their  scrutiny,  I  alone  am  responsible. 

H.  P.  H. 
Oct.  1932. 


[vii] 


NOTE 

THE  names  of  AUTHORS,  at  the  head  of  articles,  are  printed  in  capitals^  (e.g. 
KEATS,  JOHN);  the  TITLES  OF  LITERARY  WORKS  in  bold  italics  (e.g.  Lycidas) ; 
other  subjects  of  articles,  in  ordinary  bold  type  (e.g.  Gotham,  WISE  MEN  OF). 

CHARACTERS  IN  FICTION  and  PERSONS  IN  REAL  LIFE  are  entered  under  their 
surnames,  e.g.  'Samuel  Weller'  under  'Weller';  John  Dryden  under  'Dryden'; 
unless  the  two  names  form  in  current  use  an  indissoluble  whole,  or  the  surname 
is  little  known.  Thus  Teter  Pan'  appears  under  Teter',  'Little  Nell  (Trent)* 
under  'Little  Nell*.  As  regards  names  such  as  Thomas  of  Erceldoune,  William 
of  Malmesbury,  the  entry  in  the  D.N.B.  has  in  each  case  been  followed. 

Where  the  TITLE  OF  A  WORK  consists  of  a  Christian  name  and  a  surname,  it  is 
entered  under  the  Christian  name,  e.g.  "Barnaby  Rudge'  under  'Barnaby*. 

Cross-references  have  been  added  where  it  appeared  advisable.  In  com- 
paratively rare  cases,  especially  when  a  play  or  novel  is  mentioned  in  connexion 
with  some  minor  character  in  it,  '(q.v.y  after  the  name  of  the  novel  or  play 
signifies  no  more  than  that  an  article  will  be  found  on  it;  the  article  may  contain 
no  reference  to  the  character  in  question. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


a.  =  ante,  before. 

ad  fin.         =  adfinem,  near  the  end. 

b.  —  born. 

B.M.  Cat.  =  British  Mttseum  Catalogue. 

c.  =  circa,  about. 

c.  or  ch.     =  chapter. 
cent.  —  century. 

cf.  =  confer,  compare. 

C.H.A.L.  =  Cambridge        History        of 

American  Literature. 
C.H.EX.  =  Cambridge        History        of 

English  Literature. 

d.  «  died. 

D.N.B.  ==  Dictionary  of  National  Bio- 
graphy. 

E.B.  ~  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

ed.  ==  edition. 

E.E.T.S.    =  Early  English  Text  Society. 

et  seq.         —  et  sequentes,  and  following. 

ft.  =  flourished. 

Gk.  =  Greek. 

I.D.C.  =  Intermediate  des  Chercheurs 
(the  French,  counterpart 
of  Notes  and  Queries). 

L.  =  Latin. 


1.,  11.  =  line,  lines. 

LXX  =  Septuagint. 

ME.  =  Middle  English, 

M.Gk.  =  Modern  Greek. 

MHG.  =  Middle  High  German. 

N.  &  Q.  =  Notes  and  Queries. 

N.T.  =  New  Testament. 

OE.  =  Old  English  (Anglo-Saxon). 

OED.  —  Oxford  English  Dictionary. 

Olr.  =  Old  Irish. 

ON.  =  Old  Norse. 

op.  cit.  =  opus  citatum,  work  quoted. 

O.T.  =  Old  Testament. 

P.EX.  =  Periods  of  European  Litera- 
ture. 

pron,  =  pronounced. 

q,v.  =  quod  vide,  which  see. 

qq.v.  ==  quae  vide,  both  which,  or  all 
which,  see. 

sc.  =  scilicet,  understand  or 
supply. 

S.P.E.  =  Society  for  Pure  English. 

s.v.  =  sub  verbo,  under  the  word. 

TX.S.  =  Times  Literary  Supplement. 

tr.  —  translation  or  translated  by. 


[viii] 


A 


A.  E.,  see  Russell  (G.  W.). 

A  BECKETT,  GILBERT  ABBOTT 
(1811-56),  educated  at  Westminster  School, 
and  called  ,  to  the  bar  at  Gray's  Inn,  was  the 
first  editor  of  *  Figaro  in  London'  and  on  the 
original  staff  of  'Punch'  (q.v.).  He  was  for 
many  years  a  leader-writer  on  'The  Times' 
and  'Morning  Herald',  and  was  appointed  a 
Metropolitan  police  magistrate  in  1849.  He 
wrote  a  large  number  of  plays  and  humorous 
works,  including  a  '  Comic  History  of  Eng- 
land' (1847-8),  a  'Comic  History  of  Rome' 
(1852),  and  a  'Comic  Blackstone'  (1846). 

His  son,  GILBERT  ARTHUR  A  BECKETT 
(1837-91),  educated  at  Westminster  School 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  was,  like  his 
father,  a  regular  member  of  the  staff  of 
'Punch*  from  1879.  He  wrote,  in  collabora- 
tion with  Sir  W.  S.  Gilbert  (q.v.),  the  success- 
ful comedy,  'The  Happy  Land'  (1873). 

A  per  se,  the  letter  A  when  standing  by 
itself,  hence  the  first,  chief,  most  excellent, 
most  distinguished,  or  unique  person  or 
thing.  'The  floure  and  A  per  se  of  Troie  and 
Grece*  (Henryson,  'Testament  of  Cresseid*). 

Abaddon,  the  Hebrew  name  of  Apollyon, 
the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit  (Rev.  ix.  n). 

Abana  and  Pharpar,  the  rivers  of  Damas- 
cus referred  to  by  Naaman  as  better  than  all 
the  waters  of  Israel  (z  Kings  v.  12). 

Abaris,  a  Scythian  priest  of  Apollo,  who  is 
said  to  have  visited  Greece,  and  to  have 
ridden  through  the  air  on  an  arrow,  the  gift  of 
the  god. 

Abbasides,  a  dynasty  of  Caliphs,  descen- 
dants of  Abbas  (uncle  of  Mohammed),  who 
ruled  from  A.D.  750,  when  theUmayyads  (q.v.) 
were  finally  defeated,  to  1258.  Among  them 
the  most  famous  was  Haroun-al-Raschid 
(q.v.).  The  sultans  of  Turkey  derived  their 
claim  to  the  Caliphate  from  this  family. 

Abbey  of  Thelema,  see  Thelema. 
Abbey  Theatre,  Dublin,  see  Yeats. 

ABBO  OF  FLEURY  (945-1004),  a  French 
theologian,  author  of  an  'Epitome  de  Vitis 
Romanorum  Pontificum*  and  of  lives  of  the 
saints,  one  of  the  sources  utilized  by  .ZElfric 


Abbot,  The,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.), 
published  in  1820,  a  sequel  to  'The  Monas- 
tery* (q.v.). 

The  work  is  concerned  with  that  period  of 
the  life  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  which  she 
spent  in  imprisonment  at  Lochleven  Castle, 
her  escape,  the  rally  of  her  supporters  and 
their  defeat  at  the  battle  of  Langside,  and  her 
withdrawal  across  the  border  to  England. 
With  these  historical  events  is  woven  the 
romantic  story  of  Roland  Graeme,  or  Roland 

3868  [j] 


Avenel,  a  spirited  but  hare-brained  youth, 
over  whose  parentage  hangs  a  certain  mystery. 
After  being  brought  up  in  the  castle  of 
Avenel  as  page  to  the  Lady  of  Avenel,  he  is 
sent  by  the  Regent  Murray  to  act  as  page  to 
Mary  Stuart  in  her  imprisonment,  with 
directions  to  watch  and  report  any  attempt 
at  escape.  These  directions  he  is  prevented 
from  carrying  out  both  by  his  own  chivalrous 
loyalty,  by  the  influence  of  his  fanatical 
grandmother,  Magdalen  Graeme,  and  by  his 
love  for  Catherine  Seyton,  one  of  the  queen's 
attendant  ladies.  Instead,  he  becomes  an 
active  agent  in  devising  the  queen's  flight. 
The  mystery  of  his  birth  is  explained  and  he 
is  found  to  be  the  heir  of  the  house  of 
Avenel.  He  is  pardoned  by  the  Regent  and 
marries  Catherine  Seyton.  The  novel  takes 
its  title  from  the  abbot  of  Kennaquhair, 
Edward  Glendinning  (Father  Ambrose), 
brother  of  Sir  Halbert  Glendinning,  the 
knight  of  Avenel  (see  Monastery)* 

Abbot  of  Misrule,  see  Misrule. 

Abbotsford,  the  name  of  Sir  W.  Scott's 
property  near  Melrose  on  the  Tweed,  pur- 
chased in  1812. 

Abbotsford  Club,  THE,  was  founded  in 
1834,  in  memory  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  for  the 
purpose  of  publishing  materials  bearing  on 
the  history  or  literature  of  any  country  dealt 
with  in  Scott's  writings.  It  ceased  its  publica- 
tions in  1865. 

Abdera,  a  Greek  city  on  the  coast  of  Thrace, 
birthplaceof  Democritus (q.v.), Protagoras  the 
sophist,  and  Anaxarchus  the  philosopher;  in 
spite  of  which  its  inhabitants  were  proverbial 
for  stupidity. 

Abdiel,  in  Milton's  'Paradise  Lost*,  v.  805 
and  897,  the  loyal  seraph,  who  resists  Satan's 
proposal  to  revolt :  'Among  the  faithless,  faith- 
ful only  he*. 

AB£LARD   or   ABAILARD,   PIERRE 

(1079-1 142),  a  brilliant  disputant  and  lecturer 
at  the  schools  of  St.  Genevieve  and  Notre 
Dame  in  Paris,  where  John  of  Salisbury  (q.v.) 
was  among  his  pupils.  He  was  an  advocate  of 
rational  theological  inquiry  and  the  founder 
of  scholastic  theology.  He  fell  in  love  with 
Heloise,  the  niece  of  an  old  canon  of  Notre 
Dame,  one  Fulbert,  in  whose  house  he  lodged, 
a  woman  of  much  learning  to  whom  he  gave 
lessons.  Their  love  ended  in  a  tragic  sepa- 
ration, and  in  a  famous  correspondence* 
Abelard  was  much  persecuted  for  alleged 
heresy,  in  particular  by  St.  Bernard  (q.v.), 
but  was  sought  out  by  students.  Heloise 
died  in  1 163  and  was  buried  in  the  same  tomb 
as  her  lover. 

Pope's  poem  'Eloisa  to  Abelard'  was  pub- 
lished in  1717;  G.  Moore's  'H£lo5se  and 
Abelard'  was  published  in  1921. 


ABENCERRAGES 

Abencerrages,  THE,  a  legendary  Moorish 
family  of  Granada,  at  enmity  with  the  Zegris, 
another  family  of  Moors.  This  feud  and  the 
destruction  of  the  Abencerrages  by  Abu 
Hassan,  Moorish  king  of  Granada,  in  the 
Alhambra,  have  been  celebrated  by  Spanish 
writers,  and  form  the  subject  of  a  romance  by 
Chateaubriand  (q.v.).  The  Abencerrages  and 
Zegris  figure  in  Dryden's  'Conquest  of 
Granada'  (q.v.). 

ABERCROMBIE,  LASCELLES  (1881- 
),  poet  and  critic.  His  chief  published 
works  are:  'Interludes  and  Poems'  (1908), 
'Emblems  of  Love'  (1912),  'Deborah' (1912), 
all  poetry;  'Thomas  Hardy,  a  Critical  Study' 
(1912),  'The  Epic'  (1914),  'Theory  of  Art' 
(1922),  all  critical;  'Collected  Poems'  (in  the 
'Oxford  Poets',  1930). 

Abershaw,  Louis  JEREMIAH  or  JERRY  (i  773  ?- 
95),  highwayman,  the  terror  of  the  roads 
between  London,  Kingston,  and  Wimbledon. 
Hanged  on  Kennington  Common. 
Abessa,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  I.  iii, 
the  'daughter  of  Corceca  slow'  (blindness  of 
heart),  and  the  personification  of  superstition. 
Abigail,  in  I  Samuel  xxv,  the  wife  of  Nabal 
and  subsequently  of  David.  The  name  came 
to  signify  a  waiting-woman,  from  the  name 
of  the  'waiting  gentlewoman'  in  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher's  'The  Scornful  Lady'  (q.v.),  so 
called  possibly  in  allusion  to  the  expression 
'thine  handmaid*,  so  frequently  applied  to 
herself  by  Abigail  in  the  above  chapter. 
Abingdon  Law.  It  is  said  that  Maj.-Gen. 
Brown  of  Abingdon,  during  the  Common- 
wealth, first  hanged  his  prisoners  and  then 
tried  them. 

Abora,  MOUNT,  in  Coleridge's  'Kubla  Khan*, 
is  perhaps  to  be  identified  with  Milton's  Mt. 
Amara  (q.v.).  See  J.  L.  Lowes,  'The  Road 
to  Xanadu'  (1927),  pp.  374~S- 
Abou  Ben  Adhem,  may  Ms  tribe  in- 
crease, the  first  line  of  a  poem  by  Leigh 
Hunt  (q.v.).  Abou  Ben  Adhem  sees  a  vision 
of  an  angel  writing  in  a  book  of  gold  the 
names  of  those  who  love  the  Lord.  His  own 
name  is  not  included.  He  prays  that  he  may 
be  written  down  as  one  who  loves  his  fellow 
men.  The  next  night  the  angel  returns  and 
Abou  Ben  Adhem's  name  then  heads  the  list. 
Abou  Hassan,  in  the  'Arabian  Nights'  (q.v., 
'The  Sleeper  Awakened'),  a  merchant  of 
Bagdad,  carried  while  intoxicated  to  the  palace 
of  Haroun-al-Raschid,  and  persuaded  when 
he  woke  up  that  he  was  the  Caliph.  Cf .  the 
incident  of  Christopher  Sly  in  the  Induction 
of  Shakespeare's  £The  Taming  of  the  Shrew'. 
Abracadabra,  a  cabalistic  word  intended  to 
suggest  infinity,  which  first  occurs  in  a 
poem  by  Q.  Severus  Sammonicus,  2nd  cent. 
It  was  used  as  a  charm  and  believed  to 
have  the  power,  when  written  in  a  triangular 
arrangement  and  worn  round  the  neck,  to 
cure  agues,  &c.  Fun  is  made  of  it  in  'A 
Lay  of  St.  Dunstan5  in  Barham's  *Ingoldsby 
Legends'  (q.v.). 


ABSALOM  AND  ACHITOPHEL 

Abraham,  the  Hebrew  patriarch,  figures 
largely  in  Arabian  and  Mohammedan  legend. 
It  is  said,  for  instance,  that  King  Nimrod 
sought  to  throw  him  into  a  fiery  furnace, 
whence  he  was  rescued  by  the  grace  of  God. 
This  legend  is  referred  to  by  Moore  in  'Lalla 
Rookh'(q.v.,  'Fire- Worshippers').  Again,  the 
black  stone  in  the  Kaaba  (q.v.),  which  had 
fallen  from  Paradise,  was  given  by  Gabriel  to 
Abraham,  who  built  the  Kaaba. 
Abraham- man,  ABRAM-MAN,  one  of  fa  set 
of  vagabonds,  who  wandered  about  the 
country,  soon  after  the  dissolution  of  the 
religious  houses ;  the  provision  of  the  poor  in 
those  places  being  cut  off,  and  no  other 
substituted'  (Nares).  The  OED.  suggests 
that  the  name  is  possibly  in  allusion  to  the 
parable  of  the  beggar  Lazarus  in  Luke  xvii. 
Brewer  states  that  inmates  of  Bedlam  who 
were  not  dangerously  mad  were  kept  in 
'Abraham  Ward',  and  were  allowed  out  from 
time  to  time  in  a  distinctive  dress  and  per- 
mitted to  beg.  The  'Abraham-man*  is  re- 
ferred to  in  Awdeley's  'Fraternitye  of  Vaca- 
bones'  (1561)  and  frequently  in  the  dramatists 
of  the  i6th-i7th  cents.  Hence,  to  sham 
Abram,  to  feign  sickness.  'When  Abraham 
Newland  was  cashier  of  the  Bank  of  England, 
and  signed  their  notes,  it  was  sung:  "I  have 
heard  people  say  That  sham  Abraham  you 
may,  But  you  mustn't  sham  Abraham  New- 
land"  '  (J.  C  Hotten,  'Diet.  Slang'). 
Absalom,  the  son  of  King  David,  who  re- 
belled against  his  father,  and  whose  ^eath 
occasioned  David's  lament  in  2  Sam.  xviii.  33. 

Absalom  and  Achitophel f  a  satirical  poem,  in 
heroic  couplets,  by  Dryden  (q.v.),  published 
in  1 68 1.  The  poem  deals  in  allegorical  form 
with  the  attempt  by  Lord  Shaftesbury 's  party 
to  exclude  the  Duke  of  York  from  the  suc- 
cession and  to  set  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  in 
his  place.  It  was  written  at  the  time  when 
Shaftesbury's  success  or  failure  hung  in  the 
balance,  and  was  designed  to  influence  the 
issue  by  showing,  under  their  scriptural  dis- 
guise, the  true  characters  of  the  various  politi- 
cal personages  involved.  Chief  among  these 
are:  Monmouth  (Absalom);  Shaftesbury  (the 
false  tempter  Achitophel);  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham  (Zimri),  who,  as  responsible  for 
the  'Rehearsal'  (q.v.),  was  particularly  ob- 
noxious to  Dryden;  Charles  II  (David); 
Titus  Gates  (Corah);  and  Slingsby  Bethel, 
sheriff  of  London  (Shimei). 

The  poem,  which  was  immensely  popular, 
was  followed  in  1682  by  a  second  part,  which 
was  in  the  main  written  by  Nahum  Tate 
(q.v.),  but  revised  by  Dryden,  who  moreover 
contributed  200  lines,  entirely  his  own,  con- 
taining, among  a  number  of  savagely  satirical 
portraits,  the  famous  characters  of  Og 
(Thomas  Shadwell,  q.v.)  and  Doeg  (Elkanah 
Settle,  q.v.).  The  lines  in  question  begin 

Next  these  a  troop  of  busy  spirits  press, 
and  end  with 

To  talk  like  Doeg,  and  to  write  like  thee. 


ABSENTEE 

Absentee,  The,  a  novel  by  M.  Edgeworth 
(q.v.),  published  in  1809. 

Lord  Clonbrony,  the  absentee  landlord  of 
Irish  estates,  lives  in  London  to  please  his 
extravagant  wife,  who  is  ashamed  of  her 
Irish  origin,  and  is  mocked  by  the  society 
into  which  she  forces  her  way  by  her  lavish 
expenditure.  Lord  Clonbrony  becomes 
heavily  indebted  and  is  threatened  with 
an  execution.  Meanwhile  his  son,  Lord 
Colambre,  a  sensible  young  man,  has  gone 
incognito  to  visit  his  father's  estates,  and  his 
eyes  are  opened  to  the  evils  of  absenteeism. 
He  helps  his  father  to  discharge  his  debts  on 
condition  that  he  returns  to  his  estates,  a 
condition  to  which  Lady  Clonbrony  is  with 
difficulty  brought  to  consent;  and  the  story 
closes  with  the  promise  of  a  happier  era. 

Absinthe,  a  potent  liqueur,  distilled  from 
wine  mixed  with  wormwood.  Barnes  New- 
come  (in  *The  Newcomes*,  q.v.)  drank 
absinthe-and-water  at  Bays's.  See  also 
Artemisia. 

Absolute,  SIR  ANTHONY,  and  his  son  CAP- 
TAIN ABSOLUTE,  characters  in  Sheridan's  'The 
Rivals'  (q.v.). 

Abt  Vogler,  a  poem  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.). 
The  Abbe"  Vogler  (1749-1814),  the  subject  of 
the  poem,  was  court  chaplain  at  Mannheim 
and  inventor  of  improvements  in  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  organ.  Vogler  has  been  extem- 
porizing upon  the  musical  instrument  of  his 
invention,  calling  up  a  vision  of  pinnacled 
glory.  He  laments  that  this  palace  of  beauty 
has  disappeared  with  the  music.  But  presently 
he  takes  comfort  in  the  thought  that  there  is 
no  beauty,  nor  good,  nor  power,  whose  voice 
has  gone  forth,  but  survives  the  melodist.  It 
is  enough  that  God  has  heard  it. 

Abu  Bakr,  the  first  Caliph  elected  after  the 
death  of  Mohammed. 

Abu  Ibn  Sina,  commonly  known  as  Avi- 
cenna  (q.v.). 

Abus,  THE,  the  Roman  name  of  the  river 
Humber,  mentioned  in  Spenser's  'Faerie 
Queene*,  n.  x.  16. 

Abydos,  a  city  of  Asia,  on  the  shores  of  the 
Hellespont,  famous  for  the  loves  of  Hero  and 
Leander.  For  Byron's  poem  see  Bride  of 
Abydos.  See  also  Sestos. 

Abyla,  one  of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  (q.v.). 

Academus,  a  Greek  who  revealed  to  Castor 
(q.v.)  and  Pollux,  when  they  invaded  Attica 
to  recover  their  sister  Helen,  the  place  where 
Theseus  had  concealed  her.  See  Academy. 

Academy  or  ACADEME,  from  Academia,  a 
grove  near  Athens,  sacred  to  the  hero  Acade- 
mus (q.v.),  near  which  Plato  (q.v.)  had  a  house 
and  garden  and  in  which  he  opened  his  school 
of  philosophy.  The  second  Academy,  where 
a  modified  Platonic  doctrine  was  taught,  was 
founded  by  Arcesilaus  about  250  B.C.;  the 
third  by  Carneades  about  213  B.C.  Together 


ACAPULCO  SHIP 

with  the  School  of  Athens,  the  Academy 
was  finally  closed  by  Justinian. 

Academy,  The,  a  periodical,  was  founded  in 
1869  as  ca  monthly  record  of  literature, 
learning,  science,  and  art',  by  Charles  Ed- 
ward Cutts  Birch  Appleton.  In  1871  it  was 
converted  into  a  fortnightly,  and  in  1874  into 
a  weekly  review.  It  included  Matthew 
Arnold,  T.  H.  Huxley,  Mark  Pattison,  and 
John  Conington,  among  its  early  contributors. 
*The  Academy'  came  to  an  end  in  1909. 

Academy,  THE  BRITISH,  a  society,  incorpor- 
ated in  1902,  for  the  promotion  of  the  study 
of  the  moral  and  political  sciences,  including 
history,  philosophy,  law,  political  economy, 
archaeology,  and  philology.  It  publishes 
Proceedings,  administers  endowments  for  a 
number  of  annual  lectures,  encourages 
archaeological  and  oriental  research,  &c. 
Its  first  secretary  was  Sir  Israel  Gollancz. 

Academy,  THE  DELLA  CRUSCA,  see  Delia 
Crusca. 

Academy,  THE  FRENCH  (Academie  Fran- 
faise),  was  founded  by  Carolinal  Richelieu  in 
1635.  It  is  essentially  a  literary  academy. 
One  of  its  principal  functions  is  the  compila- 
tion and  revision  of  a  dictionary  of  the  French 
language.  The  first  edition  of  this  appeared 
in  1694,  and  there  have  been  numerous 
subsequent  editions.  A  work  that  has  been 
approved  by  the  Academy  is  said  to  be 
'crowned*  by  it.  See  Immortals. 

Academy  of  Arts ,  THE  ROYAL,  was  founded 
under  the  patronage  of  George  III  in  1768, 
for  the  annual  exhibition  of  works  of  con- 
temporary artists  and  for  the  establishment 
of  a  school  of  art.  It  was  housed  at  first  in 
Somerset  House,  then  in  the  National  Gallery, 
and  finally  removed  to  Burlington  House  in 
1869.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  was  its  first  presi- 
dent. It  is  occasionally  referred  to  as  'The 
Forty*,  from  the  number  of  the  Acade- 
micians. 

Acadia,  now  known  as  Nova  Scotia,  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Cabots  (1497)  and  first  settled 
by  the  French  at  the  end  of  the  i6th  cent., 
who  gave  it  the  name  of  Acadia.  The  French 
inhabitants  were  attacked  by  the  Virginians 
in  1613,  and  the  country  was  in  1622  occupied 
by  Scotsmen  under  Sir  William  Alexander, 
who  obtained  a  grant  of  it  from  James  I.  Its 
possession  was  finally  confirmed  to  England 
by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  The  sufferings  of 
the  French  Acadians,  when  expelled  in  the 
1 8th  cent.,  are  recounted  in  Longfellow's 
'Evangeline*  (q.v.). 

Acapulco  ship,  THE,  another  name  for  the 
cManila  ship',  one  of  the  Spanish  royal  ships 
that  sailed  annually  from  Manila  in  the 
Philippines  for  Acapulco  on  the  coast  of 
Mexico,  and  brought  back  from  that  port  the 
output  of  the  Mexican  mines.  They  were 
regarded  as  valuable  prizes  by  the  English 
privateers  of  the  I7th-i8th  cents.  Anson 
(q.v.)  is  said  to  have  taken  the  equivalent  of 


[3] 


B2 


ACATALECTIC 

£500,000  in  the  Acapulco  ship  that  he  cap- 
tured (see  his  'Voyage  round  the  World', 
a  viii).  See  also,  e.g.,  Woodes  Rogers, 
'Cruizing  Voyage'. 

Acatalectic,  *not  catalectic*  (q.v.),  a  term 
applied  to  a  verse  whose  syllables  are  com- 
plete, not  wanting  a  syllable  in  the  last  foot. 
'Stern  daughter  of  the  voice  of  God !'  is  an 
iambic  dimeter  (see  Metre)  acatalectic. 
Aceldama  (pron.  Acel'da-mah),  a  Hebrew 
word,  the  'field  of  blood*,  the  name  given 
to  the  'potter's  field*  purchased  with  Judas 's 
thirty  pieces  of  silver,  to  bury  strangers  in. 
See  Matt,  xxvii.  8  and  Acts  i.  ig. 

Acestes,  in  Virgil's  'Aeneid'  (v.  525),  a 
Sicilian  who  shot  an  arrow  with  such  swiftness 
that  it  caught  fire  from  friction  with  the  air. 

Achates,  usually  styled  'Fidus  Achates',  a 
friend  of  Aeneas  (q.v.),  whose  fidelity  was 
so  exemplary  as  to  become  proverbial. 

AchSron,  a  river  of  Hades,  interpreted  as 
o  o#ea  peW,  the  river  of  woe.  See  Styx. 

Achffles,  son  of  Peleus  and  Thetis  (qq.v.), 
the  bravest  of  the  Greeks  in  the  Trojan  War. 
During  his  infancy  Thetis  plunged  him  in  the 
Styx,  thus  making  his  body  invulnerable, 
except  the  heel,  by  which  she  held  him.  He 
was  educated  by  the  centaur  Cheiron,  who 
taught  him  the  arts  of  war  and  of  music.  To 
prevent  him  from  going  to  the  Trojan  War, 
where  she  knew  he  would  perish,  Thetis  sent 
him  to  the  court  of  Lycomedes,  where  he  was 
disguised  in  female  dress  among  the  king's 
daughters.  As  Troy  could  not  be  taken  with- 
out the  help  of  Achilles,  Ulysses  went  to  the 
court  of  Lycomedes  disguised  as  a  merchant, 
and  displayed  jewels  and  arms.  Achilles  dis- 
covered his  sex  by  showing  his  preference  for 
the  arms  and  went  to  the  war.  He  was 
deprived  by  Agamemnon  of  Briseis,  who  had 
fallen  to  his  lot  in  a  division  of  booty.  For  this 
affront  he  retired  in  anger  to  his  tent,  and 
refused  to  appear  in  the  field,  until  the  death 
of  his  friend  Patroclus  recalled  him  to  action. 
In  armour  made  for  him  by  Hephaestus,  he 
slew  Hector,  the  champion  of  Troy,  and 
dragged  his  corpse,  tied  to  his  chariot,  thrice 
round  the  walls  of  Troy.  He  was  wounded  in 
the  heel  by  Paris  as  he  solicited  the  hand  of 
Polyxena,  a  daughter  of  Priarn,  in  the  temple 
of  Athena.  Of  this  wound  Achilles  died. 

The  TENDON  OF  ACHILLES,  the  tendon  by 
which  the  muscles  of  the  calf  of  the  leg  are 
attached  to  the  heel,  is  so  called  from  the 
above  story  of  the  vulnerable  heel  of  Achilles. 

Achilles'  spear:  Telephus,  a  son-in-law  of 
Priam,  and  king  of  Mysia,  attempted  to  pre- 
vent a  landing  of  the  Greeks  on  their  way  to 
Troy,  and  was  wounded  by  Achilles.  Learn- 
ing from  an  oracle  that  he  would  be  cured 
only  by  the  wounder,  he  sought  the  camp  of 
the  Greeks,  who  had  meanwhile  learnt  that 
they  needed  the  help  of  Telephus  to  reach 
Troy.  Achilles  accordingly  cured  Telephus 
by  applying  rust  from  the  point  of  his  spear. 


ACTES  AND  MONUMENTS 

Shakespeare  ('2  Henry  VI*,  V.  i)  and  Chaucer 
('Squire's  Tale',  232)  refer  to  this  power  of 
the  spear  of  Achilles  both  to  kill  and  cure. 

The  plant  ACHILLEA  (milfoil)  is  supposed 
to  have  curative  properties. 
Achilles  and  the  Tortoise,  a  paradox  pro- 
pounded by  the  philosopher  Zeno  (q.v.). 
Achilles  and  a  tortoise  have  a  race.  Achilles 
runs  ten  times  as  fast  as  the  tortoise,  which 
has  a  hundred  yards  start.  Achilles  can  never 
catch  the  tortoise,  because  when  Achilles  has 
covered  the  hundred  yards,  the  tortoise  has 
covered  ten;  while  Achilles  is  covering  these 
ten,  the  tortoise  has  gone  another  yard;  and 
soon. 

Achitophel,  see  Absalom  and  AchitopheL 
Ahitophel  (2  Sam.  xv — xvii,  spelt  'AchitopheF 
in  the  Vulgate  and  Coverdale's  version)  con- 
spired with  Absalom  against  David,  and  his 
advice  being  disregarded,  hanged  himself. 
AcidaHa,  a  surname  of  Aphrodite,  from  the 
well  Addalius  near  Orchomenos  in  Boeotia. 
Acis,  see  Galatea. 

Acrasia,  in  Spenser's*  Faerie  Queene*,  II.  xii, 
typifies  Intemperance.  She  is  captured  and 
bound  by  Sir  Guyon,  and  her  Bower  of  Bliss 
destroyed. 

Acre  or  ST.  JEAN  D'ACRE,  a  seaport  on  the 
coast  of  Palestine,  was  captured  by  the  Cru- 
saders of  the  Third  Crusade  in  1191,  Richard 
Cceur  de  Lion  contributing  by  his  energy  to 
its  fall.  It  was  the  last  stronghold  held  by  the 
Christians  in  the  Holy  Land.  It  was  success- 
fully defended  in  1799  againstBupnaparteby  a 
Turkish  garrison  aided  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith. 
It  was  captured  from  Mehemet  Ali  in  1840  by 
the  allied  fleet  under  Sir  Robert  Stopford, 
with  Sir  Charles  Napier  (1786-1860)  as  his 
second  in  command. 

Acres,  BOB,  a  character  in  Sheridan's  'The 
Rivals'  (q.v.). 
Acrisias,  see  Danae. 

Actaeon,  according  to  Greek  legend  a 
famous  hunter,  who  saw  Artemis  and  her 
attendants  bathing,  or,  according  to  another 
version,  boasted  himself  superior  to  her  in  the 
chase.  For  this  he  was  changed  into  a  stag, 
and  devoured  by  his  own  dogs. 

Actes  and  Monuments  of  these  latter 
perilous  times  touching  matters  of  the  Church, 
popularly  known  as  the  BOOK  OF  MARTYRS,  by 
Foxe  (q.v.),  first  published  at  Strasburg  in 
Latin  in  1559,  and  printed  in  English  in  1563. 
This  enormous  work,  said  to  be  twice  the 
length  of  Gibbon's  'Decline  and  Fall',  is  a 
history  of  the  Christian  Church  from  the 
earliest  times,  with  special  reference  to  the 
sufferings  of  the  Christian  martyrs  of  all  ages, 
but  more  particularly  of  the  protestant 
martyrs  of  Mary's  reign.  The  book  is,  in  fact, 
a  violent  indictment  of  *the  persecutors  of 
God's  truth,  commonly  called  papists*.  The 
author  is  credulous  in  his  acceptance  of  stories 
of  martyrdom  and  partisan  in  their  selection. 
The  work  is  written  in  a  simple  homely  style, 


ACTON 

and  enlivened  by  vivid  dialogues  between  the 
persecutors  and  their  victims.  The  title  of 
the  Latin  version  is  'Rerum  in  Ecclesia 
Gestarurn  .  . .  maximarumque  per  Europam 
persecutionum,  &c.' 

ACTON,  SIR  JOHN  EMERICH  EDWARD 
DALBERG,  first  Baron  Acton  (1834-1902), 
was  born  at  Naples  of  a  Shropshire  Roman 
Catholic  family,  and  educated  at  Paris,  Oscott, 
and  privately  at  Edinburgh.  He  studied  his- 
tory and  criticism  at  Munich  under  Dollinger 
from  1848  to  1854,  and  with  him  visited  Italy 
in  1857.  He  was  Whig  M.P.  for  Carlow 
(1859-65)  and  formed  a  friendship  with  Glad- 
stone. In  the  'Rambler'  (converted  under  his 
direction  to  the  'Home  and  Foreign  Review') 
he  advocated  Ddllinger's  proposed  reunion  of 
Christendom,  but  stopped  the  *  Review'  on 
the  threat  of  a  papal  veto.  He  was  strenuous 
in  his  opposition  to  the  definition  by  the 
Catholic  Church  of  the  dogma  of  papal  in- 
fallibility, publishing  his  views  in  his  'Letters 
from  Rome  on  the  Council*  (1870).  In  1874, 
in  letters  to  'The  Times',  he  criticized  Glad- 
stone's pamphlet  on  'The  Vatican  Decrees'. 
His  literary  activity  was  great,  and  took  the 
form  of  contributions  to  the  'North  British 
Review*,  the  'Quarterly  Review',  and  the 
'English  Historical  Review*  (which  he 
founded),  besides  lectures  and  addresses. 
Lord  Acton  was  appointed  Regius  professor 
of  modern  history  at  Cambridge  in  1895,  on 
which  occasion  he  delivered  a  remarkable 
inaugural  lecture  on  the  study  of  history  (re- 
printed in  'Lectures  on  Modern  History*, 
1906).  One  of  his  principal  works  was  the 
planning  of  the  'Cambridge  Modern  History* 
(1899—1912),  for  which  he  wrote  the  opening 
chapter.  His  other  published  works  include 
'Historical  Essays  and  Studies*  (1907),  'The 
History  of  Freedom'  (1907),  and  'Lectures  on 
the  French  Revolution'  (1910).  He  had 
planned  early  in  life  a  history  of  liberty,  *the 
marrow  of  all  modern  history'  in  his  view, 
and  for  this  he  collected  much  material, 
but  only  fragments  of  it,  as  above,  were 
published. 

Ada  Clare,  one  of  the  two  wards  in  Chancery 

in  Dickens's  'Bleak  House*  (q.v.)- 

Adah,  in  Byron's  'Cain'  (q.v.),  Cain's  wife. 

Adam ,  the  name  given  in  the  Bible  to  the  first 
man,  the  father  of  the  human  race,  'the 
goodliest  man  of  men  since  born*  of  Milton's 
'Paradise  Lost'  (iv.  323).  Hence  the  phrase 
the  Old  Adam,  the  unregenerate  condition  or 
character. 

Adam,  the  designation  of  a  i2th-cent. 
Norman-French  dramatic  representation  of 
scriptural  history,  probably  written  in  Eng- 
land, of  which  only  a  part  survives,  important 
in  the  evolution  of  the  drama  in  England  from 
its  liturgical  origins. 

Adam,  in  Shakespeare's  'As  You  Like  It* 
(q.v.),  the  faithful  old  servant  who  accom- 
panies Orlando  in  exile. 


ADAM  BELL 

Adam,  ROBERT  (1728-92),  architect,  the 
most  famous  of  four  brothers,  John,  Robert, 
James,  and  William,  of  Maryburgh,  Fife.  In 
1762,  after  visiting  Italy  (including  the  earlier 
excavations  at  Pompeii)  and  Diocletian's 
palace  at  Spalato,  Robert  Adam  was  ap- 
pointed architect  to  the  Board  of  Works  (in 
which  post  he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
James),  and  subsequently  entered  parliament. 
With  his  three  brothers  he  acquired  on  a  99 
years'  lease  the  land  on  the  bank  of  the  Thames 
on  which  was  erected  the  Adelphi,  a  fine  group 
of  buildings  of  Adam's  design,  so  called  from 
the  Greek  dSeX<j>ot  ('brothers'),  reminiscent 
of  the  Spalato  ruins.  Robert  Adam  also  de- 
signed the  screen  and  gate  of  the  Admiralty, 
Portland  Place,  other  buildings  in  London  and 
Edinburgh,  and  various  country  mansions, 
e.g.  Kenwood,  Osterley,  Kedleston.  He 
influenced  English  furniture  as  well  as  archi- 
tecture, introducing  a  light  simple  style,  with 
painted  and  inlaid  decorative  motives,  in 
which  the  wreath,  the  honeysuckle,  and  the 
fan  are  prominent.  He  also  produced  beau- 
tiful ceilings  and  mantelpieces. 

Adam  Bede,  a  novel  by  G.  Eliot  (q.v.), 
published  in  1859. 

The  plot  is  founded  on  a  story  told  to 
George  Eliot  by  her  aunt  Elizabeth  Evans,  a 
Methodist  preacher  and  the  original  of  the 
Dinah  Morris  of  the  novel,  of  a  confession  of 
child-murder,  made  to  her  by  a  girl  in  prison. 
Hetty  Sorrel,  pretty,  vain,  and  selfish,  is  the 
niece  of  the  genial  farmer,  Martin  Poyser. 
She  is  loved  by  Adam  Bede,  a  stern  high- 
minded  village  carpenter,  but  is  deluded  by 
the  prospect  of  the  position  which  marriage 
with  the  young  squire,  Arthur  Donnithorne, 
would  give  her,  and  is  seduced  by  him,  in 
spite  of  the  efforts  of  Adam  Bede  to  save  her. 
Arthur  breaks  off  relations  with  her,  and 
Hetty,  broken-hearted,  presently  consents  to 
marry  Adam.  But  before  the  marriage, 
Hetty  discovers  that  she  is  pregnant,  flies 
from  her  home  to  seek  Arthur,  fails  to  find 
him,  is  arrested  and  convicted  of  the  murder 
of  her  child,  and  is  transported.  After  a  time 
Adam  discovers  that  he  has  won  the  heart  of 
Dinah  Morris,  a  deeply  religious  young 
Methodist  preacher,  whose  serene  influence 
pervades  the  whole  story,  and  whom  Adam's 
brother,  the  gentle  Seth,  has  long  loved 
hopelessly,  and  now  with  a  fine  unselfishness 
resigns  to  him. 

The  work  is  remarkable  for  the  characters 
of  the  two  brothers;  of  Dinah  and  Hetty;  of 
the  garrulous  Mrs.  Poyser;  the  kindly  vicar, 
Mr.  Irwine;  and  the  sharp-tongued  school- 
master, Bartle  Massey.  Also  for  its  pleasant 
descriptions  of  scenery,  and  particularly  of 
the  Poysers*  farm. 

Adam  Bell,  Clym  of  the  dough  (or 
CLEUGH),  and  William  of  Cloudesley, 

three  noted  outlaws,  as  famous  for  their  skill 
in  archery  in  Northern  England  as  Robin 
Hood  and  his  fellows  in  the  Midlands.  They 
lived  in  the  forest  of  Englewood,  not  far 


[5] 


ACATALECTIC 

from  Carlisle,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been 
contemporary  with  Robin  Hood's  father. 
Clym  of  the  plough  is  mentioned  in  Jon- 
son's  'Alchemist5,  I.  ii;  and  in  D*Avenant's 
'The  Wits',  II.  L  There  are  ballads  on  the 
three  outlaws  in  Percy's  'Reliques*  ('Adam 
BelF)  and  in  Child's  collection.  In  these, 
William  of  Cloudesley,  after  having  been  cap- 
tured by  treachery,  is  rescued  by  his  com- 
rades. They  surrender  themselves  to  the 
king  and  are  pardoned  on  William's  shooting 
an  apple  placed  on  his  little  son's  head. 

Adam  Blair ,  see  Lockkart. 
Adam  Cast  Forth,  a  dramatic  poem  (1908) 
by  C.  M.  Doughty  (q.v.),  dealing  with  the 
separation  of  Adam  arid  Eve  after  the  ex- 
pulsion, and  their  reunion. 
Adam  Cupid,  in  Shakespeare's  'Romeo  and 
Juliet',  ii.  i.  13,  perhaps  alludes  to  Adam  Bell 
(q.v,),  the  archer. 

Adam,  or  EDOM,  o*  Gordon,  a  Berwick- 
shire freebooter,  subject  of  a  Scottish  ballad 
included  in  Percy's  'Reliques'. 

Adam's  Ale,  a  humorous  expression  for 
water,  as  the  only  drink  of  our  first  parents. 

Adamastor,  in  the  'Lusiads*  (v.  li)  of  Ca- 
moens  (q.v.),  the  spirit  of  the  Cape  of  Storms 
(now  known  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope),  who 
appears  to  Vasco  da  Gama  and  threatens  all 
who  dare  venture  into  his  seas.  'Adamastor' 
is  the  title  of  a  poem  by  Roy  Campbell. 

Adamites,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  the  name 
of  sects  who  affected  to  imitate  Adam  in 
respect  of  his  nakedness.  'An  enemy  to 
Clothes  in  the  abstract,  a  new  Adamite* 
(Carlyle,  'Sartor  Resartus'). 

ADAMNAN,  ST.  (c.  625-704),  abbot  of  lona 
from  679.  The  life  of  St.  Columba  is  generally 
attributed  to  him. 

Adams,  PAHSON  ABRAHAM,  a  character  in 
Fielding's  'Joseph  Andrews'  (q.v.). 

ADAMS,  HENRY  BROOKS  (1838-1918), 
American  man  of  letters  and  grandson  and 
great-grandson  of  Presidents  of  the  United 
States.  His  most  ambitious  work  was  a  his- 
tory of  the  administrations  of  Jefferson  and 
Madison  in  nine  volumes,  but  it  is  probable 
that  he  will  be  remembered  chiefly  by  'Mont- 
Saint-Michel  and  Chartres'  (1904),  and  'The 
Education  of  Henry  Adams*  (1906),  an 
autobiography. 

ADAMS,  JAMES  TRUSLOW(i878-       ), 

American  historian  and  essayist,  born  at 
Brooklyn,  New  York.  His  chief  works  are: 
£The  Founding  of  New  England'  (1921), 
'Our  Business  Civilization' (published  in  Eng- 
land as  'A  Searchlight  on  America',  1929), 
'The  Adams  Family'  (1930),  'The  Epic  of 
America*  (1931). 

ADAMS,  SARAH  FLOWER  (1805-48),  is 
remembered  as  a  writer  of  hymns,  including 
'Nearer,  my  God,  to  Thee'.  She  also  wrote 
*Vivia  Perpetua',  a  dramatic  poem  (1841). 


[6] 


ACTES  AND  MONUMENTS 

ADAMSON,  ROBERT  (1852-1902),  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  University,  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  political  economy 
at  Owens  College,  Manchester,  and  subse- 
quently at  Aberdeen  and  Glasgow.  His  chief 
works,  'On  the  Philosophy  of  Kant'  (1879),  a 
monograph  on  Fichte  (1881),  'The  Develop- 
ment of  Modern  Philosophy'  (1903)?  and  'A 
Short  History  of  Logic*  (191 1,  the  reprint  of 
an  earlier  article),  show  a  gradual  reaction 
from  idealism  to  realism. 

ADDISON,  JOSEPH  (1672-1719),  the  son 
of  a  dean  of  Lichfield,  was  educated  at  the 
Charterhouse  with  Steele,  and  at  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  and  Magdalen,  of  which  he 
became  fellow.  He  was  distinguished  as  a 
classical  scholar  and  attracted  the  notice  of 
Dryden  by  his  Latin  poems.  He  travelled  on 
the  Continent  from  1699  to  1703,  having  been 
granted  a  pension  for  the  purpose,  with  a  view 
to  qualifying  for  the  diplomatic  service.  His 
'Dialogues  upon  the  usefulness  of  Ancient 
Medals'  (published  posthumously)  were  prob- 
ably written  about  this  time.  In  1704  he 
published  'The  Campaign',  a  poem  in  heroic 
couplets,  in  celebration  of  the  victory  of 
Blenheim.  He  was  appointed  under-secre- 
tary  of  state  in  1706,  and  was  M.P.  from  1708 
till  his  death.  In  1709  he  went  to  Ireland  as 
chief  secretary  to  Lord  Wharton,  the  Lord 
Lieutenant.  He  formed  a  close  friendship 
with  Swift,  Steele,  and  other  writers,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  Kit-Cat  Club  (q.v.). 
Addison  lost  office  on  the  fall  of  the  Whigs  in 
1711.  Between  1709  and  1711  he  contributed 
a  number  of  papers  to  Steele's  'Tatler*  (q.v.), 
and  joined  with  him  in  the  production  of  the 
'Spectator*  (q.v.)  in  1711-12.  His  tragedy 
'Cato'  was  produced  with  great  success  in 
1713,  and  during  the  same  year  he  contributed 
to  Steele's  periodical,  the  'Guardian*,  and 
during  1714  to  the  revived  'Spectator'.  His 
prose  comedy,  'The  Drummer'  (q.v.,  1715), 
proved  a  failure.  On  the  return  of  the  Whigs 
to  power,  Addison  was  again  appointed  chief 
secretary  for  Ireland,  and  started  his  political 
newspaper,  the  'Freeholder*  (1715-16).  In 
1716  he  became  a  lord  commissioner  of  trade, 
and  married  the  countess  of  Warwick.  In 
1718  he  retired  from  office  with  a  pension  of 
£1,500.  His  last  year  was  marked  by  in- 
creasing tension  in  the  relations  between  him 
and  Steele,  of  which  several  papers  by  Addi- 
son in  the  'Old  Whig*  are  evidence.  Addison 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and 
lamented  in  a  noble  elegy  by  Tickell  (q.v.). 
He  was  satirized  by  Pope  in  the  character  of 
'Atticus*  (q.v.). 

Addison  of  the  North,  see  Mackenzie  (H.). 

Addled  Parliament,  THE,  the  parliament 
summoned  by  James  I  in  1614  in  the  hope  of 
obtaining  money.  Being  met  by  a  demand 
that  Impositions  (duties  raised  by  the  sole 
authority  of  the  king)  should  be  abolished  and 
the  ejected  clergy  restored  to  their  livings, 
the  king  dissolved  the  parliament,  which, 


ADE,  GEORGE 

having  passed  no  act  and  granted  no  sup- 
plies, received  the  above  nickname. 

ADE,  GEORGE  (1866-  ),  American 
humorist  and  dramatist,  born  in  Kentland, 
Indiana,  educated  at  Purdue  University, 
whose  reputation  was  largely  won  by  several 
volumes  of  'Fables  in  Slang* — 'Fables  in 
Slang'  (1900),  'More  Fables'  (1900),  'Forty 
Modern  Fables'  (1901),  'Ade's  Fables'  (1914), 
'Hand-Made  Fables'  (1920). 

Adeler,  MAX,  pseudonym  of  Charles  Heber 
Clark. 

Adeline,  LADY,  in  Byron's  'Don  Juan'  (q.v.), 
the  wife  of  Lord  Henry  Amundeville. 
Adelphl,  THE,  see  Adam  (R.). 

Adicia,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  v.  viii, 
the  wife  of  the  Soldan  (Philip  of  Spain),  the 
symbol  of  injustice. 

Aditl,  in  the  Veda  (q.v.),  the  impersonation 
of  infinity,  or  of  all-embracing  nature.  In 
post-Vedic  Hindu  mythology,  the  mother  of 
the  gods. 

Admetus,  the  husband  of  Alcestis  (q.v.). 
Admirable  Grichton,  THE,  see  Crichton. 

Admiral  Hosiers  Ghost,  a  party  song, 
written  by  R.  Glover  (q.v.),  on  the  taking  of 
Porto  Bello  from  the  Spaniards  in  1739* 
Hosier  had  been  sent  in  1726  in  command  of 
a  squadron  to  the  West  Indies,  but  was 
reduced  by  his  orders  to  long  inactivity, 
during  which  his  men  perished  by  disease, 
and  he  himself  is  said  to  have  died  of  a  broken 
heart.  The  ballad  is  in  Percy's  'Reliques*. 

Adonai,  the  Supreme  Being,  a  Hebrew  word 
signifying  'my  Lords'.  It  is  one  of  the  names 
given  in  the  O.T.  to  the  Deity,  and  is 
substituted  by  the  Jews,  in  reading,  for  the 
'ineffable  name',  Yahweh  or  Jehovah. 

AdonaiSt  An  Elegy  on  the  Death  of  John 
Keats,  a  poem  in  Spenserian  stanzas  by 
P.  B.  Shelley  (q.v.),  published  in  1821. 

The  death  of  Keats  moved  Shelley  not 
only  to  sorrow  for  one  whom  he  classed 
among  the  writers  of  the  highest  genius  of 
the  age,  but  to  indignation  at  the  savage  cri- 
ticisms on  Keats's  work  which  he  believed  had 
hastened  his  end.  In  this  elegy  (founded  on 
Bion's  lament  for  Adonis)  the  poet  pictures 
the  throng  of  mourners,  the  Muse  Urania, 
Dreams  and  Desires,  Sorrow  and  Pleasure, 
Morning  and  Spring,  and  the  fellow-poets,  all 
bringing  their  tribute  to  the  bier  of  Adonais. 
The  lament  then  changes  to  a  triumphant 
declaration  of  the  poet's  immortality. 

Adonis,  the  son  of  Cin^ras,  king  of  Cyprus, 
and  Myrrha;  a  beautiful  youth  beloved  by 
Aphrodite.  He  received  a  mortal  wound  from 
a  wild  boar,  and  the  flower  anemone  was 
said  to  have  sprung  from  his  blood.  Proser- 
pine restored  him  to  life,  on  condition  that  he 
should  spend  six  months  with  her  and  the 
rest  of  the  year  with  Aphrodite,  a  symbol  of 
winter  and  summer.  His  death  and  revival 


ADVENTURES  OF  A  GUINEA 

were  widely  celebrated  (in  the  East  under  the 
name  of  his  Syrian  equivalent,  Thamuz;  cf. 
'Paradise  Lost9,  i.  446-52).  As  a  feature  in 
this  worship,  the  image  of  Adonis  was  sur- 
rounded with  beds  of  plants  in  flower,  whose 
rapid  withering  symbolized  the  cycle  of  life 
and  death  in  the  vegetable  world.  These 
'Gardens  of  Adonis'  are  referred  to  in  Spen- 
ser, 'Faerie  Queene',  in.  vi.  29,  and  'Colin 
Clouts  come  home  againe*,  in  Shakespeare, 
'i  Henry  VI*,  I.  vi,  and  in  Milton,  'Paradise 
Lost',  ix.  440. 

An  ADONIS  in  the  i8th  cent,  was  a  particu- 
lar kind  of  wig  ('a  fine  flowing  adonis'; 
Graves,  'Spiritual  Quixote*,  ill.  xix). 

See  also  Venus  and  Adonis. 
Adramelecn,  in  Milton's  'Paradise  Lost', 
vi.  365,  one  of  the  rebel  angels. 
Adrastus,  king  of  Argos,  leader  of  the  ex- 
pedition of  the  'Seven  against  Thebes*  (see 
Eteocles),  and  of  the  second  expedition  against 
Thebes,  known  as  the  war  of  the  Epigoni. 
Adriana,    in    Shakespeare's    'Comedy    of 
Errors'  (q.v.),  the  jealous  wife  of  Antipholus 
of  Ephesus. 

Adriano  de  Armado,  a  character  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Love's  Labour 's  Lost*  (q.v.). 
Adriatic :  the  annual  ceremony  of  the 
wedding  of  the  Doge  of  Venice  to  the  Adriatic, 
the  Sposalizio  del  Mar,  was  symbolical  of  the 
sea  power  of  Venice.  Traces  of  the  ceremony 
are  found  as  early  as  the  nth  cent.  The  Doge, 
in  his  state  barge,  the  Bucentaur,  proceeded 
to  sea  on  Ascension  Day  and  dropped  a  ring 
into  the  water. 

Aduilamites,  a  name  applied  to  a  group  of 
liberal  M.P.'s,  including  Edward  Horsman, 
Robert  Lowe,  and  Earl  Grosvenor,  who 
seceded  from  the  Reform  party  in  1866  and 
opposed  the  Franchise  Bin.  The  name  was 
first  given  by  John  Bright  to  Horsman,  who, 
he  said,  'had  retired  into  what  may  be  called 
his  political  cave  of  Adullam,  to  which  he  in- 
vited everyone  who  was  in  debt,  and  everyone 
who  was  discontented*,  (i  Sam.  xxii.  1-2.) 

Advancement  of  Learning,  The,  a  philo- 
sophical treatise  by  Francis  Bacon  (q.v.), 
published  in  1605.  Unlike  most  of  Bacon's 
philosophical  works,  it  appeared  in  English 
and  not  in  Latin.  After  disposing  of  the 
various  objections  to  learning  and  enun- 
ciating its  advantages,  the  author  considers 
the  various  methods  of  advancing  knowledge 
and  the  defects  in  present  practice.  After 
which,  the  divisions  of  knowledge — history, 
poetry,  and  philosophy — are  enumerated  and 
analysed.  This  work  was  later  expanded  in 
Bacon's  'De  Augmentis*. 
Adventurer,  The,  a  periodical  conducted 
during  1752-4  by  John  Hawkesworth  (1715?- 
73),  to  which  Samuel  Johnson  and  Joseph 
Warton  (qq.v.)  contributed  many  papers. 

Adventures  of  a  Guinea,  Chrysal,  or  thet  a 
satirical  narrative  by  Charles  Johnstone 
(i7i9?-i8oo?),  published  in  1760-5,  in 


ADVENTURES  OF  A  YOUNGER  SON 

which,  a  guinea  is  made  to  describe  its  various 
owners.  Several  chapters  are  given  to  an 
account  of  the  'Hellfire  Club*  (q.v.). 
Adventures  of  a  Younger  Son,  The,  a  novel 
by  E.  J.  Trelawny  (q.v.),  published  in  1831. 
The  work,  which  is  partly  autobiographical, 
is  the  story  of  the  life  of  a  wild  Byronic 
character,  a  lawless  daredevil,  warped  in 
youth  by  the  harshness  of  his  father^  who 
deserts  from  the  navy  and  takes  to  a  life  of 
piracy  in  -die  Indian  Ocean,  encountering 
many  exciting  adventures.  These  are  told 
with  much  vigour  and  freshness,  and  there 
are  good  descriptions  of  Eastern  scenes. 

Adventures  of  an  Atom  t  The,  see  Atom. 
Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville,  by  Wash- 
ington Irving  (q.v.),  published  in  1837,  and 
based  upon  Captain  Bonneville Js  own  record 
of  his  life  among  the  hunters  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

Adventures  of  Philip,  The,  see  Philip. 
Advice  to  a  Painter,  see  Instructions  to  a 
Painter. 

Advocates'  Library,  THE,  in  Edinburgh, 
founded  by  Sir  George  Mackenzie  of  Rose- 
haugh(i636— 91),  king's  advocate,  and  opened 
in  1 689.  It  was  presented  to  the  nation  by  the 
Faculty  of  Advocates  in  1924,  and  endowed 
by  Sir  A.  Grant  with  £100,000.  It  became 
the  National  Library  of  Scotland  in  1925,  and 
is  one  of  the  libraries  that  receive  a  copy  of 
all  works  published  in  Great  Britain. 
Advocatus  Diaboli,  or  Devil's  Advocate, 
the  popular  name  for  the  Promoter  Fidei,  who, 
in  a  proposal  for  canonization  before  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  in  the  R.C. 
Church,  advances  what  there  is  to  be  said 
against  the  candidate's  claim. 

Aedon,  see  Itylus. 

Aegeon  (known  to  the  gods,  says  Homer,  as 
BBIAREUS),  a  monster  with  a  hundred  arms, 
son  of  Uranus,  who  with  his  brothers  Gyges 
and  Cottus,  helped  to  conquer  the  Titans 
when  they  warred  with  the  gods.  According 
to  other  legends  they  were  among  the  giants 
who  attacked  Olympus. 

Aegeon,  in  Shakespeare's  'Comedy  of  Errors' 
(q.v.),  the  Syracusan  merchant  who  is  father 
of  the  Antipholus  twins. 

Aegeus  (two  syllables),  a  mythical  king  of 
Athens  and  father  of  Theseus  (q.v.).  The 
AEGEAN  SEA  was  named  from  him. 

Aeginetan  Marbles,  THE,  from  the  temple 
of  Athena  in  the  island  of  Aegina.  They 
represent  groups  of  warriors  fighting,  and  a 
figure  now  identified  as  Aphaea  (Britomartis) 
standing  in  the  centre.  The  Marbles  were 
bought  in  1812  by  Crown  Prince  Louis  of 
Bavaria  and  placed  in  the  Glyptothek  at 
Munich. 

Aegir,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  chief 
of  the  sea-giants.  He  represents  the  peaceful 
ocean.  His  wife,  Ran,  draws  mariners  down 


JELFTHRYTH 

to  her  abode  in  the  deep.  They  have  nine 
daughters,  the  stormy  billows.  A  banquet 
given  by  Aegir  to  the  gods  is  a  prominent 
incident  in  this  mythology. 
Aegisthus,  according  to  Greek  legend,  was 
the  son  of  Thyestes  (the  son  of  Pelops)  and 
his  daughter  Pelopia.  As  a  result  of  the  feud 
between  Thyestes  and  his  brother  Atreus 
(q.v.),  Aegisthus  murdered  Atreus.  When 
the  sons  of  Atreus,  Agamemnon  (q.v.),  king  of 
Argos,  and  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  went  to 
the  Trojan  War,  Aegisthus,  who  had  been 
reconciled  to  them,  was  left  guardian  of 
Agamemnon's  kingdom  and  of  his  wife 
Clytemnestra  (q.v,).  But  he  betrayed  his 
trust,  became  the  paramour  of  Clytemnestra, 
and  with  her  murdered  Agamemnon  on  his 
return  from  Troy.  Orestes  (q.v.),  the  son  of 
Agamemnon,  would  have  shared  his  father's 
fate,  but  was  saved  by  his  sister  Electra.  With 
her  assistance  Orestes  subsequently  avenged 
his  father  by  killing  Aegisthus  and  Clytem- 
nestra. 

Aeglamour,  the  cSad  Shepherd'  in  Ben 
Jonson's  pastoral  drama  of  that  name  (q.v.). 

Aeglogue,  an  obsolete  spelling  of  'Eclogue* 
(q.v.),  associated  with  a  fanciful  derivation 
from  a?f,  goat  (as  if  'discourse  of  goat- 
herds'). 

Aegyptus,  see  Danaides. 
Alfred,  see  Alfred. 

^CLFRIC,  called  GRAMMATICUS  (d.  c.  1020), 
was  a  monk  at  Winchester  and  Cerne  and 
abbot  of  Eynsham,  His  chief  works  are 
Catholic  Homilies  {990-2),  largely  drawn 
from  the  works  of  St.  "Augustine,  St.  Jerome, 
St.  Gregory,  and  other  Latin  writers,  and 
'Lives  of  Saints'  (993-6),  a  series  of  sermons 
in  alliterative  rhythms.  His  Paschal  homily 
against  transubstantiation  was  published  in 
1566  under  ecclesiastical  patronage  as  'A 
Testimonie  of  Antiquitie*.  Several  other 
works  of  his  survive,  including  a  Latin 
grammar;  a  'Colloquy*  between  the  teacher, 
the  pupil,  and  various  persons,  a  plough- 
man, a  shepherd,  a  hunter,  &c.;  a  para- 
phrase in  the  vernacular  of  the  first  seven 
books  of  the  Bible  (not  all  of  it  his  own  work) ; 
and  a  treatise,  'De  Veteri  et  de  Novo  Testa- 
mento',  an  introduction  to  the  Testaments. 
^Elfric  is  a  most  prominent  figure  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  literature,  and  the  greatest  prose 
writer  of  his  time ;  his  writings  are  important 
from  their  illustration  of  the  belief  and  prac- 
tice of  the  early  English  Church. 

^Elfthryth  (ELPRIDA)  (c.  945-1000),  the 
daughter  of  Ordgar,  ealdorman  of  Devon,  the 
second  wife  of  King  Eadgar,  and  mother  of 
^Ethelred  the  Unready.  She  was  believed  to 
have  caused  the  death  of  her  stepson,  Eadward 
the  Martyr.  According  to  William  of  Malmes- 
bury's  mainly  fabulous  account  of  her  life, 
King  Eadgar,  hearing  of  her  beauty,  sent 
^Ethelwald,  ealdorman  of  East  Anglia,  to  see 
her.  JEthelwald  falling  in  love  with  her, 


[8] 


JELLA 

reported  disparagingly  on  her  appearance, 
in  order  to  marry  her  himself.  Eadgar  sub- 
sequently discovered  the  deceit,  caused  the 
death  of  JEthelwald,  and  took  ^Ifthryth  to 
wife. 

Mild,  Songe  to,  one  of  the  'Rowley  Poems'  of 
Chatterton  (q.v.). 

Aeneas,  the  son  of  Anchises  and  Aphrodite, 
and  the  husband  of  Creusa,  daughter  of 
Priam,  king  of  Troy,  by  whom  he  had  a  son, 
Ascanius.  When  Troy  was  in  flames  at  the 
end  of  the  Trojan  War,  he  carried  away  upon 
his  shoulders  his  father  Anchises  and  the 
statues  of  his  household  gods,  leading  his  son 
by  the  hand  and  leaving  his  wife  to  follow 
behind.  But  she  was  separated  from  him  in 
the  confusion  and  lost.  His  subsequent 
adventures  are  told  by  Virgil  in  the  'Aeneid' 
and  by  other  Latin  authors,  who,  in  a  spirit  of 
flattery,  traced  the  descent  of  the  Roman 
emperors  to  Aeneas.  Leaving  Troy  with  a 
fleet  of  twenty  ships,  he  was  shipwrecked  near 
Carthage,  where  he  was  kindly  entertained 
by  Dido  the  queen,  who  fell  in  love  with 
him.  But  Aeneas  left  Carthage  by  order  of 
the  gods,  and  Dido  in  despair  took  her  own 
life.  Coming  to  Cumae,  Aeneas  was  con- 
ducted by  the  Sibyl  to  the  nether  world,  that 
he  might  hear  from  his  father's  shade  the 
fates  of  his  posterity.  After  a  voyage  of  seven 
years,  and  the  loss  of  thirteen  ships,  he  reached 
the  Tiber,  where  he  married  Lavinia,  the 
daughter  of  King  Latinus,  having  slain  in 
single  combat  Turnus,  his  rival  for  her  hand. 
Aeneas  succeeded  his  father-in-law  as  king  of 
the  Latins  and  after  a  short  reign  was  killed 
in  a  battle  with  the  Etruscans.  He  is  known  as 
'pious  Aeneas*  for  his  filial  piety  and  fidelity 
to  his  mission. 

AENEAS  SILVIUS  PICCOLOMINI 
(1405-64),  Pope  Pius  II  from  1458,  was  a 
patron  of  letters,  and  author  of  a  romance, 
'Eurialus  and  Lucretia*,  of  treatises  on  many 
subjects,  and  of  Commentaries  on  his  times. 
Aeneid  f  The,  a  poem  in  Latin  hexameters  by 
Virgil  (q.v.),  recounting  the  adventures  of 
Aeneas  (q.v.)  from  the  fall  of  Troy. 

Aedlus,  the  god  of  the  winds.  In  the 
'Odyssey'  (x.  i  et  seq.),  Aeolus  was  the  ruler 
of  a  floating  island  in  the  west,  on  whom  Zeus 
had  conferred  dominion  over  the  winds. 
When  Ulysses  was  returning  to  Ithaca, 
Aeolus  gave  him,  confined  in  a  bag,  all  the 
winds  unfavourable  to  his  voyage;  but  the 
companions  of  Ulysses  out  of  curiosity  untied 
the  bag  and  released  the  winds.  Hence  his 
shipwreck. 

AESCBT$XUS  (525-456  B.C.),  the  great 
Athenian  tragic  poet,  was  present  in  the 
Athenian  army  at  the  battles  of  Marathon, 
Salamis,  and  Plataea.  Much  of  the  latter  part 
of  his  life,  after  he  had  been  defeated  by  his 
younger  rival  Sophocles  in  468  B.C.,  was  spent 
in  Sicily  with  Hieron  of  Syracuse.  Legend 
attributes  the  manner  of  his  death  to  the 
fall  of  a  tortoise  which  an  eagle  let  drop, 


JETHELRED 

mistaking  his  bald  pate  for  a  rock.  Of 
the  large  number  of  tragedies  that  he 
wrote  only  seven  have  come  down  to  us: 
'The  Persians'  (on  the  triumph  of  Greece 
over  the  Persian  invaders),  'The  Seven 
against  Thebes*  (the  story  of  Eteocles  and 
Polyneices),  the  'Prometheus  Bound*,  'The 
Suppliants '  (i.e.  the  fifty  daughters  of  Danaus), 
and  the  great  trilogy  on  the  story  of  Orestes, 
the  'Agamemnon',  the  'Choephori5,  and  the 
'Eumenides*.  Aeschylus  may  be  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  Greek  tragedy,  having  intro- 
duced a  second  actor  (where  there  had  pre- 
viously been  only  one  actor  and  the  chorus), 
and  subordinated  the  chorus  to  the  dialogue. 

Aesculapius  (ASCLEPIUS),  son  of  Apollo  and 
Coronis,  was  taught  the  art  of  medicine  by 
Cheiron  (q.v.),  the  Centaur,  and  restored 
many  to  life.  Of  this  Pluto  complained  to 
Zeus,  who  struck  Aesculapius  with  lightning. 
After  his  death  he  was  honoured  as  the  god  of 
medicine,  and  was  represented  holding  in  his 
hand  a  staff,  round  which  is  wreathed  a  ser- 
pent, a  creature  peculiarly  sacred  to  him. 
Among  his  children  was  a  daughter,  Hygieia 
(q.v.).  His  principal  temple  was  at  Epidaurus ; 
patients  who  slept  in  the  temple  learnt  in  a 
dream  the  method  of  cure. 
Msir,  THE,  in  Scandinavian  mythology  the 
collective  name  of  the  gods,  of  whom  the 
chief  are  Odin,  his  wife  Frigga,  and  his  sons 
Thor,  Balder,  Tyr,  Vali,  Vidar,  Bragi,  Hodur, 
and  Hermod  (qq.v.).  Loki  (q.v.)  was  also  one 
of  the  JEsir,  but  an  evil  spirit.  Their  dwelling 
was  known  as  Asgard.  See  also  Vanir  and 
Ragnarok. 

Aeson,  king  of  lolchus  and  father  of  Jason 
(q.v.).  He  was  restored  to  youth  by  the  arts 
of  Medea  (q.v.). 

AESOP  (c.  570  B.C.),  a  Phrygian,  originally 
a  slave,  who  received  his  freedom  from  his 
master  ladmon,  a  Samian.  He  chiefly  resided 
at  the  court  of  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  to 
whom  he  dedicated  his  fables.  But  _  those 
attributed  to  him  are  probably  a  compilation 
of  the  fables  of  many  authors.  They  were  put 
into  Greek  verse  by  Babrius  (A.D.  40)  and 
translated  into  Latin  by  Phaedrus  (q.v.).  The 
story  that  Aesop  was  ugly  and  deformed 
appears  to  have  originated  with  Maximus 
Planudes,  a  i4th-cent.  monk. 
Aesthetic  Movement,  a  movement  dur- 
ing the  eighties  of  the  last  century  in  which 
the  adoption  of  sentimental  archaism  as  the 
ideal  of  beauty  was  carried  to  extravagant 
lengths  and  accompanied  by  affectation  of 
speech  and  manner  and  eccentricity  of  dress. 
It  was  much  ridiculed,  e.g.  in  'Punch*  and  in 
Gilbert  and  Sullivan's  opera  'Patience*. 
JSthefflaed  (d.  c.  918),  the  'Lady  of  Mercia*, 
daughter  of  King  Alfred,  and  wife  of  ^Ethel- 
red,  ealdorman  of  Mercia.  She  was  a  great 
warrior,  and  aided  her  brother  Eadward  to 
subdue  the  Danish  parts  of  England  as  far 
north  as  the  Humber. 
^Ethelred,  king  of  Wessex,  866-71. 


[9] 


JETHELRED  THE  UNREADY 


the  Unready,  king  of  England, 
979-1016.  'Unready*  is  properly  'Rede-less% 
the  man  without  counsel. 

^Ethelstan,  king  of  England,  925-40.  In 
his  reign  considerable  progress  was  made  to- 
wards the  unification  of  the  English  people, 
and  his  policy  tended  to  bring  ^England  into 
closer  contact  with  the  Continent.  Many 
of  the  cultural  changes  which  are  commonly 
attributed  to  the  Norman  Conquest  can  be 
traced  back  to  -£Ethelstan's  reign. 

^thelwald,  see  Mlfthryih. 

^THELWOLD  or  ETHELWOLD,  ST. 
(908  P-984),  born  at  Winchester,  entered  the 
monastery  of  Glastonbury,  of  which  St. 
Dunstan  was  abbot,  and  became  dean 
thereof.  He  subsequently  re-established  a 
monastic  house  at  Abingdon,  introducing 
the  strict  Benedictine  rule  from  Fleury  ;  and 
when  Eadgar  became  king  of  England  and 
Dunstan  primate,  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Winchester.  He  co-operated  with  Dunstan 
and  Oswald  (qq.v.)  in  reforming  religion, 
expelling  the  secular  clergy  from  Winchester, 
Chertsey,  Milton,  and  Ely,  and  substituting 
monks.  He  rebuilt  the  church  of  Peter- 
borough, and  built  a  new  cathedral  at  Win- 
chester. He  exerted  his  influence  also  for  the 
revival  of  learning.  He  was  author  of  a 
treatise  on  the  circle,  and  of  a  collection  of 
the  regulations  and  customs  of  Benedictine 
convents  entitled  'Regularis  Concordia*.  He 
is  commemorated  on  i  August. 

Aethiopica,  a  Greek  romance  by  one  Helio- 
dorus  of  Emesa  (?  3rd  cent.,  at  one  time 
thought  to  have  been  bishop  of  Trikka  in 
Thessaly).  Chariclea  is  the  daughter  of  Per- 
sine,  wife  of  the  king  of  Ethiopia,  and  was  born 
white  owing  to  the  effect  of  a  marble  statue  on 
her  mother  while  pregnant.  The  mother  in 
fear  of  the  accusations  to  which  this  might 
give  rise,  entrusts  the  child  to  Charicles'the 
Pythian  priest,  and  Chariclea  becomes 
priestess  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  Theagenes,  a 
Thessalian,  falls  in  love  with  her  and  carries 
her  off.  After  many  adventures  they  reach 
Ethiopia,  and  Chariclea  is  about  to  be  immo- 
lated when  she  is  discovered  to  be  the 
daughter  of  the  king  of  the  country.  Sidney 
drew  on  this  romance  in  his  'Arcadia*  (q.v.). 
An  English  version  by  Thomas  Underdowne 
(1569?)  is  included  in  the  Tudor  translations. 

Aetion,  in  Spenser's  'Colin  Clouts  come  home 
againe',  possibly  represents  Shakespeare. 
Agtius,  the  Roman  general  who  in  451  A.D.,  in 
conjunction  with  Theodoric,  defeated  Attila 
and  the  Huns  near  Chalons.  He  was  mur- 
dered by  Valentinian  in  454. 

Affectionate  Shepherd,  The,  see  Barnfield. 
Affery,  see  Flintwinch. 
Afrasiab,  in  the  'Shahnatneh'  of  Firdusi 
(q.v.),  the  king  of  Turan  who  carries  on  a  long 
warfare  with  the  kings  of  Iran,  and  is  killed 
by  Kaikhosru  (q.v.). 


AGLAIA 

Afreet,  EFREET,  AFRIT,  AFRITE,  an  evil  de- 
mon or  monster  of  Mohammedan  mythology. 
Agag,  in  Dryden's  'Absalom  and  Achito- 
phel',  i.  675,  is  generally  supposed  to  repre- 
sent Sir  Edmond  Berry  Godfrey,  the  Middle- 
sex magistrate  who  took  the  depositions  of 
Titus  Gates  and  was  soon  after  found  mur- 
dered in  the  fields  near  Primrose  Hill. 

'And  Corah  [Titus  Gates]  might  for  Agag's 
murder  call 

In  terms  as  coarse  as  Samuel  used  to  Saul.* 
The  reference  is  to  i  Sam.  xv. 
Agamedes,  see  Trophonius. 

Agamemnon,  king  of  Argos,  the  son  or 
grandson  of  Atreus  (q.v.).  He  married  Clytem- 
nestra  (q.v.)  and  was  elected  commander  of 
the  Greek  host  that  went  to  Troy  to  recover 
Helen,  the  wife  of  his  brother  Menelaus, 
carried  off  by  Paris  (qq.v.).  The  Greek  fleet 
was  detained  at  Aulis,  where  Agamemnon 
sacrificed  his  daughter  Iphigenia  (q.v.)  to 
appease  Artemis,  whose  favourite  stag  he 
had  killed.  After  the  fall  of  Troy,  Cassandra 
(q.v.)  fell  to  his  share  and  foretold  that  his 
wife  would  put  him  to  death.  On  his  return 
to  Argos,  he  was  murdered  by  Clytemnestra 
and  her  paramour  Aegisthus  (q.v.).  See 
Aeschylus  and  Browning  (R.). 

Aganippe,  a  fountain  on  Mt.  Helicon  (q.v.), 
sacred  to  the  Muses. 

Agape,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  rv.  ii. 
41,  the  Fay,  mother  of  Priamond,  Diamond, 
and  Triamond,  who,  seeking  to  obtain  for  her 
children  from  the  Fates 

'Long  life,  thereby  did  more  prolong  their 

pain5. 
The  word  in  Greek  means  affection,  charity. 

Agapemone,  meaning  'abode  of  love*,  an 
institution  founded  in  1845  at  Charlinch  near 
Bridgwater,  Somerset,  by  one  Henry  James 
Prince,  where  he  and  his  followers  lived  on  a 
communist  basis,  professing  certain  spiritual 
doctrines.  (See  Hepworth  Dixon,  'Spiritual 
Wives'  (1868),  c.  xxii  et  seq.) 

Agdistes,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  II. 
xii.  48,  the  porter  of  the  Bower  of  Bliss. 

Agdistis,  a  Phrygian  nature-goddess,  some- 
times identified  with  Cybele  (q.v.),  and  con- 
nected with  the  legend  of  Attis  (q.v.). 

Age  of  Innocence,  The,  a  novel  by  Edith 
Wharton,  published  in  1920. 

Age  of  Reason,  The,  by  Thomas  Paine  (q.v.), 
published  as  a  whole  in  1795.  The  first  part 
appeared  in  1793,  but  no  copies  are  extant. 

This  work,  which  sets  forth  Paine's 
'thoughts  on  religion',  was  written  in  Paris 
at  the  height  of  the  Terror. 

Agincourt,  a  village  in  the  north  of  France 
where,  on  St.  Crispin's  day,  25  Oct.  1415, 
Henry  V  of  England  defeated  a  superior  force 
of  French. 

Aglaia,  one  of  the  Graces  (q.v.). 


[10] 


AGNES,  ST. 

Agnes,  ST.,  the  patron  saint  of  virgins, 
martyred  in  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  and 
commemorated  on  ai  January.  It  was  a 
popular  belief  that  by  performing  certain 
ceremonies  on  St.  Agnes's  Eve,  one  would 
dream  of  the  person  whom  one  was  destined 
to  marry.  Tennyson  wrote  a  poem,  'St.  Agnes* 
Eve'. 

For  Keats 's  poem  see  Eve  of  St.  Agnes. 

Agnes  Grey,  a  novel  by  Anne  Bronte  (q.v.), 
published  in  1847.  It  is  the  story  of  a 
rector's  daughter  who  takes  service  as  a 
governess,  and  is  ill-treated  and  lonely.  She 
experiences  kindness  from  no  one  but  the 
curate,  Mr.  Weston,  whom  she  finally  marries. 
With  her  modest  demeanour  is  contrasted 
the  conduct  of  Rosalie  Murray,  her  eldest 
charge,  a  heartless  coquette. 

Agnes  Wickfield,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'David  Copperfield*  (q.v.). 

Agni,  in  the  religion  of  the  Vedas  (q.v.),  the 
god  of  fire,  an  immortal  who  has  taken  up  his 
abode  among  men,  the  lord  and  protector  of 
the  household. 

Agramant,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato' 
and  the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (qq.v.),  the  em- 
peror of  Africa,  supreme  ruler  of  the  infidels, 
a  descendant  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who 
leads  his  hosts  against  Charlemagne. 

Agravain,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morted'Arthur', 
the  son  of  King  Lot  and  brother  of  Gawain, 
Gaheris,  and  Gareth,  who  conspires  against 
Launcelot,  and  discloses  to  King  Arthur 
Launcelot's  love  for  Guinevere. 

Agrican,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato'  (q.v.), 
the  king  of  Tartary  to  whom  the  hand  of 
Angelica  (q.v.)  has  been  promised.  He 
besieges  her  in  Albracca,  and  is  slain  by 
Orlando. 

Agricola,  CNAEUS  JULIUS  (A.D.  37-93),  was 
Roman  governor  of  Britain  and  subdued  the 
whole  country  with  the  exception  of  the  high- 
lands of  Scotland.  Tacitus  the  historian,  his 
son-in-law,  wrote  his  life. 

Agrippa,  see  Herod. 

AGRIPPA,  HENRICUS  CORNELIUS, 
of  Nettesheim  (1486-1535),  a  scholar  and 
writer  on  the  occult  sciences.  He  wrote  'De 
Occulta  Philosophia,  libri  tres'  (1529)  and 
eDe  Vanitate  Scientiarum*  (1530),  and  argued 
against  the  persecution  of  witches.  Jacke 
Wilton  and  the  earl  of  Surrey  meet  him  in 
the  course  of  their  travels  (Nash,  'The  Un- 
fortunate Traveller*,  q.v.).  He  is  said  to  be 
the  astrologer,  Her  Trippa,  of  Rabelais's 
Third  Book. 

Aguecheek,  SIR  ANDREW,  in  Shakespeare's 
'Twelfth  Night'  (q.v.),  a  ridiculous  foppish 
knight. 

Ahab,  CAPTAIN,  a  character  in  Herman  Mel- 
ville's 'Moby  Dick*  (q.v.). 


AIDS  TO  REFLECTION 

Ahania,  in  the  mystical  poems  of  Blake  (q.v.), 
the  wife  of  Urizen,  symbolical  perhaps  of 
physical  desire. 

Ahasuerus,  see  Wandering  Jew. 

Ahmed,  Prince,  and  the  Fairy  Peri-Banou, 
the  subject  of  one  of  the  'Arabian  Nights* 
(q.v.).  The  three  sons  of  a  king  were  in  love 
with  his  niece,  the  princess  Nur-al-Nihar. 
The  king,  embarrassed  to  choose  between 
them,  promised  her  to  whichever  son  should 
bring  him  the  greatest  marvel.  Hussein,  the 
eldest,  secured  a  flying  carpet  which  would 
transport  whoever  sat  on  it  wherever  he 
wished ;  Ali,  the  second,  a  spying-tube  which 
permitted  one  to  see  whatever  one  desired; 
and  Ahmed,  the  youngest,  a  magical  apple 
the  scent  of  which  cured  all  disorders.  The 
brothers  met  at  an  appointed  place.  The 
spying-tube  revealed  Nur-al-Nihar  dying  of 
a  disorder;  the  carpet  transported  them  to 
her  presence;  and  the  apple  cured  her.  The 
king,  still  embarrassed,  proposed  a  shooting 
match,  in  which  Ahmed's  arrow  travelled  so 
far  that  it  could  not  be  found,  and  Nur-al- 
Nihar  was  assigned  to  one  of  the  other 
brothers.  But  Ahmed,  seeking  his  arrow, 
encountered  the  beautiful  fairy  Peri-Banou, 
fell  in  love  with  her  and  married  her. 

Aholah  and  Aholibah,  in  Ezek.  yyiii,  per- 
sonifications of  Samaria  and  Jerusalem  as 
harlots,  whom  the  prophet  reproves  for  their 
adulterous  intercourse  with  false  religions. 
There  is  a  poem  entitled  'Aholibah'  in  Swin- 
burne's 'Poems  and  Ballads,  ist  Series' (1866). 

Aholibamah,  a  character  in  Byron's 
'Heaven  and  Earth*  (q.v.).  For  the  scriptural 
Aholibamah  see  Gen.  xxxvi.  2. 

Ahrimam  or  ANGRA  MAINYU,  in  the  Zoro- 
astrian  system,  the  principle  of  evil,  in  per- 
petual conflict  with  Ormazd,  the  god  of  good- 
ness and  light. 

Alrara  Mazda,  see  Ormazd. 

Aidoneus,  a  name  of  Pluto  or  Hades  (q.v.). 

Aids  to  Reflection,  a  philosophical  treatise 
by  S.  T.  Coleridge  (q.v.)  in  the  form^of  a 
series  of  aphorisms  and  comments,  published 
in  1825. 

The  principal  philosophical  doctrine  ad- 
vanced in  this  is  the  distinction  between 
Understanding  and  Reason.  Understanding 
is  the  faculty  by  which  we  reflect  and  general- 
ize from  sense-impressions;  while  Reason 
either  predetermines  experience  or  avails 
itself  of  a  past  experience  to  supersede  its 
necessity  in  all  future  time.  The  appropriate 
sphere  of  the  Understanding  is  the  natural 
not  the  spiritual  world.  By  Reason,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  have  knowledge  (and  herein 
Coleridge  parts  company  with  Kant)  of 
ultimate  spiritual  truths.  Morality  and  Pru- 
dence in  turn  are  distinguished  by  the  fact 
that  the  former  flows  from  the  Reason  and 
Conscience  of  man,  the  latter  from  the 
Understanding.  The  above  doctrine  is  to  be 


£«] 


AIKEN,  CONRAD 

gathered  in  the  main  from  the  part  of  the  work 
entitled  'Aphorisms  on  Spiritual  Religion 
Indeed'. 

AIKEN,  CONRAD  (1889-  ),  American 
critic  and  poet,  born  in  Georgia  but  now 
resident  in  England.  His  chief  works  are: 
'Earth  Triumphant*  (1914),  'Nocturne  of 
Remembered  Spring'  (1917),  'The  Charnel 
Rose'  (1918), 'Notes  on  Contemporary  Poetry* 
(i9i9),'BlueVoyage*(novel,  1927),  'Costumes 
by  Eros*  (short  stories,  1928).  He  also  edited 
'Modern  American  Poets'  (1922),  'Selected 
Poems  of  Emily  Dickinson*  (1924). 

Aimweli,  a  character  in  Farquhar's  'The 
Beaux'  Stratagem*  (q.v.). 

AINGER,  ALFRED  (1837-1904),  educated 
at  King's  College  and  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, became  canon  of  Bristol  (1887-1903) 
and  master  of  the  Temple  (1894  till  his 
death).  He  was  a  popular  lecturer  and 
preacher,  and  author  of  a  life  of  Charles 
Lamb  (1882),  of  an  edition  of  Lamb's  Works 
(1883-8),  of  a  life  of  Crabbe  (1903),  and  of 
'Lectures  and  Essays'  (published  posthu- 
mously, 1905). 

Aino,  in  the  'Kalevala*  (q.v.),  the  sister  of 
Youkahainen,  whom  Wainamoinen  wins  for  a 
bride,  and  who  to  avoid  him  drowns  herself. 

AINSWORTH,  WILLIAM  HARRISON 
(1805-82),  educated  at  Manchester  Grammar 
School,  published  his  first  novel  'Rookwood*, 
which  was  immediately  successful,  in  1834. 
He  edited  'Bentley's  Miscellany',  1840-2, 
and  'Ainsworth's  Magazine',  1842-53,  and 
then  acquired  the  'New  Monthly  Magazine*. 
He  wrote  thirty-nine  novels,  chiefly  with 
some  historical  basis,  of  which  the  best 
known  are  'Jack  Sheppard*  (1839),  'The 
Tower  of  London*  (1840),  'Old  St.  Paul's* 
(1841),  'Guy  Fawkes*  (1841),  'The  Miser's 
Daughter*  (1842),  'Windsor  Castle*  (1843), 
'The  Lancashire  Witches'  (1848),  and  'The 
South  Sea  Bubble'  (1868). 

Ajax,  the  son  of  Telamon,  king  of  Salamis, 
was,  after  Achilles,  the  bravest  of  the  Greek 
host  that  besieged  Troy.  After  the  death  of 
Achilles,  Ajax  and  Ulysses  contended  for  the 
arms  of  the  dead  hero.  When  they  were 
allotted  to  Ulysses,  Ajax,  maddened  with 
rage,  slaughtered  a  flock  of  sheep,  thinking 
them  the  sons  of  Atreus  who  had  given  the 
preference  to  Ulysses,  and  stabbed  himself. 
From  his  blood  sprang  a  purple  flower  (per- 
haps the  iris  or  the  hyacinth).  He  was  known 
as  Telamonian  Ajax  to  distinguish  him  from 
Ajax  son  of  Oileus,  king  of  Locris,  who  went 
with  forty  ships  to  the  Trojan  War,  having 
been  one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen  (q.v.).  On 
his  return  homewards,  his  ship  was  wrecked, 
but  Poseidon  brought  him  to  a  rock,  and  he 
would  have  been  saved  if  he  had  not  boasted 
that  his  escape  was  due  to  his  own  efforts. 
Whereupon  Poseidon  split  the  rock  with  his 
trident  and  Ajax  was  drowned.  According  to 
Virgil's  account,  Ajax  was  struck  by  lightning 


ALABAMA 

after  the  shipwreck,  having  incurred  the 
anger  of  Athene. 

Akbar  K&an,  the  great  Mogul  emperor  of 
Hindustan,  who  reigned  1556-1605. 

AKENSIDE,  MARK  (1721-70),  the  son 
of  a  butcher  of  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  and  a 
physician  who  rose  to  eminence  in  his  pro- 
fession. He  was  the  author  of  'The  Pleasures 
of  Imagination'  (q.v.),  published  in  1744  (re- 
written and  published  in  1757  as  'The 
Pleasures  of  the  Imagination');  also  of  a 
number  of  odes  and  minor  poems,  of  which 
the  best  is  the  'Hymn  to  the  Naiads'  (q.v.), 
written  in  1746  and  published  in  Dodsley's 
'Collection  of  Poems*  (1758). 
Akhnaton,  Amenhotep  IV,  king  of  Egypt, 
who  came  to  the  throne  about  1375  B.C.,  and 
introduced  a  new  religion,  in  which  the  sun- 
god  Ra  (designated  as  'Aton')  superseded 
Amon.  He  himself  assumed  the  office  of 
high-priest,  and  left  Thebes,  which  was 
identified  with  the  worship  of  Amon,  for  a 
new  capital,  Tell-el-Amarna.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son-in-law,  Tutankhamen 
(q.v.). 

AKSAKOV,  SERGEI  TIMOFEYEVICH 
(1791-1859),  Russian  author,  who  drew  his 
inspiration  from  Gogol  (q.v.)  and  depicted 
family  life  in  a  rural  community,  showing  a 
passionate  sympathy  with  nature.  His  chief 
works  are :  'Chronicles  of  a  Russian  Family* 
(1856),  'Recollections' (1856),  'Years  of  Child- 
hood' (1858);  they  are  autobiographical. 

Al  Asnam,  Zayn,  the  subject  of  a  tale  in  the 
'Arabian  Nights*  (q.v.).  Zayn  was  a  prodigal 
king  of  Basra,  who  wasted  his  substance 
and  ruined  his  city.  When  reduced  to  poverty 
he  consulted  a  sheikh,  and  by  his  advice  dug 
in  the  grounds  of  his  palace  near  his  father's 
tomb  and  there  came  upon  a  cavern  in  which 
were  eight  female  statues  made  of  precious 
stones;  the  pedestal  for  a  ninth  statue  was 
vacant.  He  was  told  that  this  missing  statue 
was  twenty-fold  more  precious,  and  that  in 
order  to  secure  it  he  must  first  find  a  maiden 
of  immaculate  purity.  For  this  purpose  he 
was  given  a  mirror  which  revealed  any  secret 
blemish.  After  long  search  he  discovered 
the  perfect  damsel  and  fell  in  love  with  her. 
On  proceeding  to  the  cavern,  he  found  that 
the  damsel  herself  was  the  missing  statue  and 
occupied  the  ninth  pedestal. 

Al  Sirat,  in  the  Mohammedan  creed,  the 
bridge,  'stretched  over  the  back  of  Hell, 
sharper  than  a  sword  and  finer  than  a  hair. 
The  feet  of  the  unbelievers  slip  upon  it,  by 
the  decree  of  God,  and  fall  with  them  into  the 
fire.  But  the  feet  of  believers  stand  firm  upon 
it,  by  the  grace  of  God,  and  so  they  pass  to  the 
Abiding  Abode'.  (A  short  creed  by  Al- 
Ghazzali,  in  Macdonald,  'Muslim  Theology'.) 

Alabama,  The,  the  name  of  a  war-steamer 
built  at  Birkenhead  for  the  Confederates 
during  the  American  Civil  War,  which 
wrought  much  havoc  among  the  Federal 


ALADDIN 

mercantile  shipping^  The  British  govern- 
ment was  charged  with  breach  of  neutrality 
in  allowing  the  'Alabama'  to  sail  (1862)  from 
a  British  port,  and  heavy  damages  were 
awarded  by  arbitration  against  it. 

Aladdin  and  the  Wonderful  Lamp,  an 
oriental  tale  generally  regarded  as  belonging 
to  the  'Arabian  Nights*  (q.v.),  but  not  con- 
tained in  any  MS.  of  the  collected  tales. 

Aladdin,  the  scapegrace  son  of  a  poor 
tailor  in  China,  is  employed  by  a  Moorish 
sorcerer  to  obtain  for  him,  from  a  sub- 
terranean cavern,  a  lamp  possessing  magic 
powers,  but  disappoints  the  sorcerer  by 
retaining  the  lamp  for  himself.  Discovering 
its  power,  he  acquires  great  wealth  and 
marries  Bedr-el-Budur,the  Sultan's  daughter, 
for  whom  by  means  of  the  lamp  he  constructs 
a  wonderful  palace.  The  sorcerer,  disguised 
as  an  itinerant  merchant,  recovers  the  lamp 
by  offering  'new  lamps  for  old',  and  whisks 
palace  and  princess  off  to  Africa.  Aladdin 
pursuing,  kills  the  magician,  regains  the  lamp 
and  conveys  palace  and  bride  back  to  China. 

Alaham,  a  tragedy  by  Fulke  Greville  (q.v.), 
Lord  Brooke,  posthumously  published  in 
1633. 

Alaham,  second  son  of  the  king  of  Ormus, 
deposes  his  father,  and  orders  him  as  well  as 
his  elder  brother  Zophi  to  be  blinded.  They 
are  taken  to  places  of  refuge  by  CaeHca, 
the  king's  daughter.  Alaham  causes  search  to 
be  made  for  them,  threatens  CaeHca  with 
the  rack,  and  finally  orders  all  three  to  the 
stake.  A  messenger  relates  their  death  and 
the  popular  discontent  that  follows.  The 
tragedy  might,  as  Charles  Lamb  remarked, 
with  more  propriety  be  termed  a  political 
treatise  than  a  play. 

Alasfor,  or  The  Spirit  of  Solitude,  a  poem  by 
P.  B.  Shelley  (q.v.),  published  in  1816. 
'Alastor*  is  Greek  for  'avenger'. 

This  was  the  poet's  first  important  work. 
It  is  an  allegory  in  which  the  idealist  is 
depicted  happy  in  the  contemplation  of  high 
"thoughts  and  visions  of  beauty.  Presently  he 
seeks  in  reality  the  counterpart  of  his  dreams. 
He  meets  with  frustration,  is  plunged  into 
despair,  and  dies.  The  poem  is  a  condemna- 
tion of  self-centred  idealism,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  lament  for  a  world  in  which  'many 
worms  and  beasts  and  men  live  on*,  while 
'some  surpassing  spirit'  is  borne  away  leaving 
'pale  despair  and  cold  tranquillity*  behind. 

Alban,  ST.  (d.  ?  304),  the  first  British 
martyr,  who  is  said  to  have  been  put  to  death 
under  the  edicts  of  Diocletian.  While  still 
a  pagan,  he  had  sheltered  in  his  house  a 
Christian  cleric  by  whom  he  was  converted. 
The  cleric  was  traced  to  Alban's  house,  and 
Alban,  wrapped  in  the  cleric's  mantle,  was 
arrested  in  his  place.  His  identity  having 
been  discovered,  he  boldly  declared  himself 
a  Christian  and  was  ordered  to  immediate 
execution.  The  prodigies  that  attended  his 
removal  so  impressed  the  executioner  that  he 


ALBION 

too  declared  himself  a  Christian,  and  another 
soldier  had  to  be  found  to  take  his  place. 
St.  Alban  was  put  to  death  on  the  hill  over- 
looking the  town  of  Verulam  (q.v.).  He  is 
commemorated  on  22  June. 

Albany,  ALBAINN,  ALBIN,  ALBANIA,  ancient 
poetic  names  of  Gaelic  origin  for  the  northern 
part  of  Britain. 

Albany,  DUKE  OF,  a  character  in  Shake- 
speare's 'King  Lear'  (q.v.). 
Albany,  THE,  Piccadilly,  originally  a  single 
mansion,  so  called  from  the  second  title  of 
the  duke  of  York  who  owned  it  at  the  end 
of  the  i8th  cent.,  subsequently  divided  into 
bachelor  chambers.  Lord  Byron,  Macaulay, 
George  Canning,  'Monk*  Lewis,  and  Bulwer 
Lytton  (qq.v.)  Hved  there. 
Alberich,  in  Scandinavian  mythology  the 
king  of  the  elves.  In  the  'Nibelungenlied* 
(q.v.)  he  guards  the  treasure  of  the  Nibelungs, 
and  is  robbed  of  it  by  Siegfried.  In  Wagner's 
version  of  the  story  he  is  the  Nibelung  who 
steals  the  gold  of  the  Rhine  maidens  and 
makes  it  into  a  ring. 

ALBERICUS  GENTILIS,  see  Gentilis. 
Albert  Memorial,  THE,  erected  in  Hyde 
Park  in  memory  of  the  Prince  Consort  (d. 
1861),  was  designed  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott, 
whose  idea,  as  quoted  by  Mr.  Lytton  Strachey 
('Queen  Victoria'),  'was  to  erect  a  kind  of 
ciboriurn  to  protect  the  statue  of  the  Prince 
. . .  designed  in  some  degree  on  the  principles 
of  the  ancient  shrines*.  It  includes  a  frieze 
containing  170  life-size  figures,  besides 
statues  representing  the  virtues  and  sciences, 
and  took  some  seven  years  to  complete  (1872). 
The  statue  of  the  prince,  by  J.  H.  Foley,  was 
not  finished  till  some  years  later. 
ALBERTUS  MAGNUS  (1193-1280),  a  na- 
tive of  S  wabia,  a  Dominican  monk,  and  a  great 
scholastic  philosopher.  He  was  an  interpreter 
of  Aristotle,  whose  doctrine  he  expounded  at 
Cologne  and  Paris.  Thomas  Aquinas  was 
among  his  pupils.  His  wide  learning  earned 
for  him  the  name  of  Doctor  Universalis. 
Albigenses,  a  Christian  sect  living  in  Pro- 
vence in  the  I2th  cent.,  who  took  their  name 
from  the  town  of  Albi,  and  were  conspicuous 
in  a  dissolute  age  for  their  piety  and  virtue. 
They  censured  the  corruptions  of  the  papacy, 
and  were  accused  of  holding  Manichaean 
(q.v.)  doctrines.  Pope  Innocent  III  preached 
a  crusade  against  them,  which  was  conducted 
with  extreme  cruelty  by  Simon  de  Montfort 
(1208-13),  and  resulted  in  the  fall  of  Count 
Raymond  of  Toulouse,  the  ruler  of  Provence, 
thus  beginning  the  subjection  of  the  Southern 
Provinces  of  France  to  the  central  govern- 
ment in  Paris.  There  is  an  interesting  passage 
on  the  Albigenses  in  Bridges,  *The  Testament 
of  Beauty',  iii.  680  et  seq. 
Albinus,  see  Alcuin. 

Albion  an  ancient  poetical  name  for  Britain, 
perhaps  derived  from  its  white  (Latin,  albus) 
cliffs,  visible  from  the  coast  of  GauL 


ALBION'S  ENGLAND 
Albion's  England,  see  Warner. 
Alboin,  see  Albovine. 

Albovine,  a  tragedy  by  D'Avenant  (q.v.), 
printed  in  1629,  the  author's  first  play. 

Albovine  (Alboin),  king  of  the  Lombards, 
having  triumphantly  entered  Verona,  marries 
his  captive,  Rhodolinda,  whose  royal  father 
he  has  conquered  and  killed.  In  drunken 
exaltation  at  the  marriage  feast  he  requires 
Rhodolinda  to  drink  a  health  from  a  cup 
formed  of  her  father's  skull.  In  revenge  she 
determines  on  his  death,  and  is  assisted  by 
her  favourite,  Hermegild,  to  whom  she 
promises  herself  and  the  kingdom.  For  this 
purpose  they  make  use  of  Paradine,  the  king's 
minion,  making  him  believe  that  the  king 
has  dishonoured  his  bride  Valdaura.  Para- 
dine  kills  Valdaura,  and  then  the  king.  The 
truth  being  revealed  to  him,  he  kills  Rhodo- 
linda and  Hermegild.  The  story,  drawn  from 
the  history  of  the  Lombards  by  Paulus 
Diaconus,  is  told  in  a  novel  by  Bandello, 
translated  by  Belleforest  ('Histoires  Tragi- 
ques').  The  same  subject  is  treated  in 
"The  Witch*  (q.v.)  by  Middleton,  and  in 
Swinburne's  'Rosamund,  Queen  of  the 
Lombards*. 

Albracca,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato' 
(q.v.),  the  capital  of  Galafron,  king  of  Cathay, 
in  which  Angelica  is  besieged  by  Agrican 

(qq.v.). 

Albranazar,  an  Arabian  astronomer  (805- 
85),  author  of  astronomical  works.  He 
is  the  subject  of  a  play  by  Tomkis  (q.v.), 
acted  in  1615  before  James  I  at  Cambridge. 
In  this,  Albumazar  is  a  rascally  wizard,  who 
transforms  the  rustic  Trincalo  into  the  person 
of  his  absent  master  with  absurd  conse- 
quences. The  play  was  subsequently  (1668) 
revived,  and  Dryden  wrote  a  prologue  for  it, 
in  which  he  wrongly  charged  Ben  Jonson 
with  adopting  it  as  the  model  for  his  'Al- 
chemist* (q.v.).  It  was  again  revived  by 
Garrick. 

ALCAEUS  (fl.  c.  611-580  B.C.),  a  celebrated 
lyric  poet  of  Mitylene  in  Lesbos,  author  of 
hymns  to  the  gods,  and  songs  of  war  and  love, 
of  which  only  a  few  fragments  survive  in 
Athenaeus.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the 
Alcaic  (q.v.)  metre. 

Alcaic,  the  metre  invented  by  Alcaeus  (q.v.), 
a  stanza  of  Jour  lines,  as  follows  : 

--  v^  —  —  |  —  v/w  —  wv-i  (twice) 


_  ^ 

Tennyson  experimented  in  this  metre: 
O  mighty-mouthed  inventor  of  harmonies, 
O  skilTd  to  sing  of  Time  or  Eternity, 
God-gifted  organ-voice  of  England, 

Milton,  a  name  to  resound  for  ages. 
Alceste,  see  Misanthrope. 

Alcestis,  one  of  the  daughters  of  Pelias 
(q.v.),  who  promised  her  in  marriage  to 
Admetus  if  he  came  to  fetch  her  in  a  chariot 


[14] 


ALCMAEON 

drawn  by  lions  and  boars.  This  feat  Admetus 
performed.  Alcestis  gave  her  life  to  redeem 
her  husband  from  death  (see  under  Apollo), 
and  was  brought  back  from  Hades  by  Her- 
cules. She  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  plays 
of  Euripides.  See  Balaustion's  Adventure. 
Alchemist,  The,  a  comedy ^  by  Jonson  (q.v.), 
first  acted  in  1610  and  printed  in  1612,  by 
many  considered  the  greatest  of  his  plays. 
Love- wit,  during  an  epidemic  of  the  plague, 
leaves  his  house  in  London  in  charge  of  his 
servant,  Face.  The  latter,  with  Subtle,  the 
Alchemist,  and  Dol  Common,  his  consort, 
use  the  house  as  a  place  for  deluding  and 
cheating  gullible  people,  by  holding  out  to 
them  promise  of  the  philosophers*  stone. 
Among  their  victims  are  Sir  Epicure  Mam- 
mon, a  greedy,  voluptuous  knight;  Tribula- 
tion Wholesome,  and  Ananias,  puritans; 
Dapper  and  Drugger,  a  clerk  and  a  tobacco- 
nist; and  Kastril,  the  quarrelsome  lad  who 
wants  a  good  match  for  his  sister  Dame 
Pliant.  Surly,  the  gamester,  who  sees  through 
the  fraud,  attempts  to  expose  it,  by  presenting 
himself  disguised  as  a  Spaniard;  and  the 
unexpected  return  of  Love-wit  puts  Subtle 
and  Dol  to  sudden  flight.  Face  makes  peace 
with  his  master  by  resourcefully  marrying 
him  to  Dame  Pliant. 

Alcldes,  a  name  of  Hercules  (q.v.),  who  was 
the  stepson  of  Amphitryon  (q.v.),  the  son  of 
Alcaeus. 

Alcina,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato*  and  the 
'Orlando  Furioso*  (qq.v.),  a  witch  who  was 
mistress  of  an  enchanted  garden,  and  changed 
her  lovers  into  beasts,  stones,  or  trees. 
Astolfo  and  Rogero  were  among  her  prisoners. 

Alcinous,  the  prosperous  king  of  Phaeacia 
and  father  of  Nausicaa  (q.v.),  who  hospitably 
entertained  Ulysses  when  cast  upon  his  coast, 
on  his  return  from  Troy. 

ALGIPHRON,  a  Greek  writer  of  about 
A.D.  1 80,  author  of  letters  describing  the 
manners  and  characters  of  contemporary 
Greeks. 

Alciphron,  or  The  Minute  Philosopher,  a 
philosophical  treatise  in  the  form  of  dialogues 
by  Berkeley  (q.v.),  published  in  1732. 

There  are  seven  dialogues,  in  which  the 
interlocutors  are  Euphranor  and  Crito  on 
the  one  side,  and  Alciphron  and  Lysicles,  the 
'minute  philosophers*,  on  the  other.  The 
'minute  philosophers'  are  the  free-thinkers, 
who  have  rejected  the  ancient  methods  of 
philosophy  and  adopted  new  views  of  religion 
and  morality.  In  the  dialogues  the  free- 
thinkers are  discussed  as  atheists,  libertines, 
metaphysicians,  &c.  The  setting  is  pleasant, 
and  the  polemic  vigorous,  with  occasional 
touches  of  the  Socratic  method. 

Alcmaeon,  son  of  Amphiaraus  and  Eiiphyle. 
His  mother,  induced  by  the  present  of  the 
fatal  necklace  of  Harmonia  (q.v.),  engaged 
her  husband,  Amphiaraus,  to  take  part  in 
the  expedition  against  Thebes.  Amphiaraus, 


ALCMAN 

knowing  that  he  would  perish  in  it,  enjoined 
on  Alcmaeon  to  slay  his  mother.  This  he  did, 
and  was  punished  by  the  gods  with  madness. 
Alcmaeon's  wife,  Callirrhoe,  also  desired  to 
possess  the  necklace,  and  his  attempt  to  pro- 
cure it  for  her  was  the  cause  of  his  own  death. 
ALCMAN  (fl.  630  B.C.),  the  principal  lyric 
poet  of  Sparta,  by  birth  a  Lydian,  was 
brought  to  Sparta  as  a  slave.  He  was  the  first 
to  give  artistic  form  to  the  choral  lyric,  by 
introducing  the  strophe  and  antistrophe  (qq.v.). 
His  poem  'The  Partheneion'  exists  only  as 
a  papyrus  fragment  in  the  Louvre.  Once 
thought  to  contain  disconnected  verses  illus- 
trating some  law  of  metric,  it  was  later  re- 
garded as  the  only  fair  specimen  of  a  poem 
by  Alcman  as  well  as  of  a  Greek  partheneion 
(choral  song  for  maidens).  (See  W.  W. 
Wilson,  *The  Partheneion  of  Alcman*,  in  the 
'American  Journal  of  Philology*,  1913.) 

Alcmena,  see  Amphitryon. 

ALCQFRIBAS  NASIER,  the  pseudonym 
under  which  Fran?ois  Rabelais  (q.v.)  pub- 
lished his  'Gargantua*  (q.v.);  an  anagram  of 
the  authors  name. 

Alcor,  see  Alioth. 

Alcott,  AMOS  BRONSON,  see  Transcendental 
Club. 

ALCOTT,  LOUISA  M.  (1832-88),  Ameri- 
can author  of  books  for  girls,  among  which 
'Little  Women*  (q.v.,  1868)  enjoyed  a  very- 
wide  popularity. 

ALCUIN  or  ALBINUS  (English  name 
EALHWINE)  (735-804),  theologian,  man  of 
letters,  and  coadjutor  of  Charlemagne  in 
educational  reforms.  He  was  born  at  York 
and  educated  in  the  cloister  school  of  York 
under  Archbishop  Egbert.  He  met  Charle- 
magne at  Parma  in  781,  and  settled  on  the 
Continent,  becoming  finally  abbot  of  Tours. 
He  wrote  liturgical,  grammatical,  hagiologi- 
cal,  and  philosophical  works  and  numerous 
letters  and  poems,  including  a  Latin  elegy  on 
the  destruction  of  Lindisfarne  by  the  Danes. 

Alcuin  Club,  THE,  founded  to  encourage 
and  assist  in  the  practical  study  of  ceremonial, 
and  the  arrangement  of  churches,  their 
furniture,  and  ornaments,  in  accordance  with 
the  rubrics  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
strict  obedience  to  which  is  the  guiding 
principle  of  the  Club.  The  first  publication 
of  the  Club  ('English  Altars',  by  W.  H.  St. 
John  Hope),  for  the  years  1897-8,  was  issued 
in  1899. 

Alcyon,  see  Halcyon.  Alcyon,  in  Spenser's 
'Daphnaida*  and  'Colin  Clout',  is  Sir  Arthur 
Gorges,  on  whose  wife's  death  the  *Daph- 
naida*  is  an  elegy.  Gorges  commanded  the 
'Warspite',  Ralegh's  flagship  on  the  Islands 
Voyage,  1597,  and  was  a  poet  and  translator. 
He  died  in  1625. 

Aldebaran,  the  Arabic  name  of  a  star  of  the 
first  magnitude  in  the  constellation  of  Taurus 
(a  Tauri). 


ALESSANDRIA 

Aldersgate,  originally  EAUDREDESGATE,  one 
of  the  old  gates  of  London.  From  the  old 
gatehouse  John  Day  (q.v.),  the  printer,  issued 
his  editions  of  Ascham's  'The  Scholemaster', 
Foxe's  'Book  of  Martyrs',  and  some  of  Tyn- 
dale's  works. 

Aldgate,  the  principal  east  gate  of  the 
ancient  city  of  London.  Its  earlier  name  was 
ALEGATE  or  ALGATE,  the  derivation  of  which 
is  doubtful.  The  gatehouse  was  at  one  time 
occupied  by  Chaucer. 

ALDHELM,  ST.  (640  P-7O9),  the  first  titular 
of  the  bishopric  of  Sherborne,  was  edu- 
cated under  Theodore  (q.v.)  at  Canterbury 
and  was  foremost  in  the  intellectual  move- 
ment led  by  him.  He  was  author  of  a 
number  of  Latin  works  (including  treatises  in 
prose  and  verse  on  the  merits  of  virginity, 
with  illustrious  examples  of  chaste  living), 
which  reveal  a  wide  knowledge  of  classical 
and  Christian  authors.  His  ornate  and  diffi- 
cult vocabulary  shows  the  influence  of  Irish 
models.  He  was  abbot  of  Malmesbury  and 
built  churches  at  Malmesbury,  Bruton,  and 
Wareham,  and  monasteries  at  Frome  and 
Bradford.  He  is  commemorated  on  25  May. 
The  best  edition  of  his  'Opera*  is  that  by 
Rudolfus  Ehwald  for  the  'Monumenta 
Germaniae  Historica*  (1913-19). 

Aldiborontipnoscophornio,  see  Chro- 
nonhotonthologos. 

Aldine  Press,  see  Aldus  Manutius. 

Aldingar,  SIR,  the  subject  of  a  ballad  in- 
cluded in  Percy's  'ReHques*,  the  treacherous 
steward  of  King  Henry,  who  brings  a  false 
accusation  against  Queen  Eleanor. 
ALDRICH,  THOMAS  BAILEY  (1836- 
1907),  a  New  England  author,  born  at  Ports- 
mouth, New  Hampshire,  who  edited  the 
'Atlantic  Monthly*  from  1881  to  1890.  His 
best-known  work  is  'The  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy' 
(1870).  Other  prose  works  are  'Marjorie 
Daw'  (1873),  'Prudence  Palfrey*  (1874),  'The 
Stillwater  Tragedy*  (1880).  He  also  wrote 
verse,  especially  vers  de  societe. 

Aldus  Manutius  (Auoo  MANUZIO,  1449- 
1515),  the  celebrated  Venetian  printer,  who 
founded  the  Aldine  Press,  whence  he  issued 
the  first  printed  editions  of  the  works  of  a 
large  number  of  Greek  authors,  influenced 
Greek  typography,  and  powerfully  assisted  the 
advance  of  classical  learning.  He  popularized 
the  octavo  in  place  of  the  cumbrous  folio. 

Alecto,  one  of  the  Furies  (q.v.). 

Alectryon,  a  youth  set  by  Ares  to  watch 
against  the  approach  of  the  sun,  during  his 
amour  with  Aphrodite.  But  Alectryon  fell 
asleep,  and  Ares  and  Aphrodite  were  dis- 
covered. Ares,  in  his  wrath,  changed  Alec- 
tryon into  a  cock,  who  still  heralds  the  dawn 
(Lucian,  'Alectryon*). 

Alessandria,  the  city  founded  by  the  Lom- 
bard League  in  the  I2th  cent,  to  defy  Frederic 
Barbarossa,  who  had  destroyed  Milan. 


[IS] 


ALEXANDER 

Alexander,  a  name  borne  by  Paris  (q.v.), 
son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy. 

ALEXANDER,  Sm  WILLIAM,  Earl  of 
Stirling  (1567  ?— 1640),  a  courtier,  and  a  friend 
of  Drummond  of  Hawthornden  (q.v.).  He 
was  secretary  of  state  for  Scotland  from 
1626  till  his  death.  His  chief  poetical  works 
are  a  collection  of  sonnets  called  'Aurora* 
(1604),  along  poem  on  'Doomsday* (1614)  in 
eight-lined  stanzas,  a  'Paraenesis*  to  Prince 
Henry,  and  four  tragedies  on  Darius,  Croesus, 
Alexander,  and  Caesar,  similar,  but  inferior, 
to  those  of  Fulke  Greville  (q.v.),  Lord  Brooke. 
Alexander  VI,  see  Borgia  (Rodrigo). 

ALEXANDER  OF  HALES  (d.  1245),  a 
native  of  Gloucestershire,  held  various  ecclesi- 
astical appointments  and  was  finally  arch- 
deacon. He  retired  to  Paris,  where  he  studied 
metaphysics  and  theology  and  lectured  to  the 
Franciscan  order.  By  direction  of  Inno- 
cent III  he  prepared  a  'Summa  Theologiae*, 
a  vast  work  which  he  left  unfinished  and 
which  was  completed  by  his  pupils.  It  earned 
for  its  author  the  title  of  the  Irrefragable 
Doctor. 

Alexander  the  Great  (356-323  B.C.),  son  of 
Philip  II  of  Macedon  and  Olympias,  born  at 
Pella,  and  educated  by  Aristotle,  became  king 
of  Macedon  in  336  B.C.  He  caused  the  Greek 
states  to  nominate  him  to  conduct  the  war 
against  Persia  and  in  334  crossed  the  Helles- 
pont. He  captured  Darius  and  his  family  and 
extended  his  conquests  to  Egypt,  where  he 
founded  Alexandria;  and  after  completely 
defeating  the  Persians  at  the  battle  of  Arbela 
in  331,  to  India.  He  married  Roxana,  the 
captive  daughter  of  Oxyartes,  a  Bactrian 
prince,  and  a  second  wife,  Barsine,  daughter 
of  Darius  and  Statira.  He  is  said  to  have 
destroyed  Persepolis,  the  capital  of  the  Persian 
empire,  at  the  instance  of  the  courtesan 
Thais  (331).  His  horse  was  named  Buce- 
phalus. See  also  Clitus,  Diogenes,  Parmenio, 
Perdiccas. 

Alexander  was  made  the  centre  of  a  cluster 
of  medieval  legends,  comparable  to  those  of 
the  Carlovingian  and  Arthurian  cycles.  The 
chief  of  the  romances  concerning  him  are  the 
great  French  'Roman  d'AIexandre'  of  the 
1 2th  cent.,  some  20,000  Alexandrines,  and 
the  English  'King  Alisaunder'  of  the  I3th 
cent.,  8,000  octosyllabic  verses.  The  story  of 
the  rivalry  of  Ms  two  wives  forms  the  subject 
of  Nathaniel  Lee's  tragedy,  'The  Rival 
Queens*  (q.v.). 

Alexander  and  Campaspe,  see  Campaspe. 

Alexander  and  Lodowick,  'the  Two 
Faithful  Friends,  who  were  so  like  one 
another  that  none  could  know  them  asunder; 
wherein  is  declared  how  Lodowick  married 
the  Princess  of  Hungaria  in  Alexander's 
name  and  each  night  laid  a  naked  sword  be- 
tween him  and  the  princess,  because  he 
would  not  wrong  his  friend',  an  old  ballad  in 
Evans's  collection.  There  was  also  a  play 


ALFRED 

written  by  Martin  Slaughter,  called  'Alexan- 
der and  Lodowick*  (Dyce).  The  story  is 
referred  to  in  Webster,  'The  Duchess  of 
Malfi',  I.  iL 

Alexander's  Feast,  see  Dryden. 
Alexandria,  the  capital  of  Egypt  under  the 
Ptolemies,  was  founded  by  order  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  in  332  B.C. 
Alexandrian  Library,  THE,  was  formed  at 
Alexandria  during  the  reign  of  the  Ptolemies 
(beginning  with  Ptolemy  Soter,  306-285  B.C.). 
It  is  said  to  have  contained  at  one  time  about 
400,000  manuscripts,  of  which  a  part  were 
accidentally  burnt  when  Julius  Caesar  was 
besieged  in  Alexandria.  The  story  that  the 
library  was  destroyed  by  order  of  the  Caliph 
Omar  is  without  foundation. 
Alexandrian  Period,  THE,  of  Hellenistic 
literature  is  that  which  existed  with  Alexan- 
dria as  its  chief  centre,  from  the  end  of  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great  to  the  Roman 
conquest  of  Greece,  300-146  B.C. 

Alexandrine,  an  iambic  line  of  six  feet, 
which  is  the  French  heroic  verse,  and  in 
English  is  used,  e.g.,  as  the  last  line  of  the 
Spenserian  stanza.  Some  derive  the  name 
from  Alexandre  Paris,  an  old  French  poet 
who  used  this  verse;  others  from  the  fact  that 
several  poems  on  Alexander  the  Great  were 
written  in  it  by  early  poets. 

Alfheim,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
home  of  the  Elves  (Alfar),  and  of  the  god 
Frey  or  Freyr  (q.v.). 

ALFIERI,  VITTORIO  (1749-1803),  Italian 
dramatist,  of  a  Piedmontese  family  and 
French  in  education,  so  that  he  subsequently 
had  to  master  the  Italian  language.  He  was 
the  devoted  lover  of  the  countess  of  Albany, 
wife  of  the  Young  Pretender.  Between  1777 
and  1789  he  wrote  nineteen  tragedies,  most 
of  them  on  classical  subjects  from  the  Greek 
(Agamemnon,  Antigone,  Orestes,  Oedipus 
Rex,  &c.),  others  on  more  romantic  themes 
(Saul,  Myrrha,  Mary  Stuart),  marked  by 
severe  conciseness  and  austerity  of  form. 
Alfieri  also  wrote  comedies,  mostly  of  a 
satirical  turn,  a  satire  on  the  extremists  of  the 
French  Revolution  ('II  Misogallo'),  and  a  re- 
markable autobiography. 

ALFRED  (ALFRED)  (849-901),  king  of  the 
West  Saxons  (871-901),  is  important  in  the 
history  of  literature  for  the  revival  of  letters 
that  he  effected  in  the  west  of  England.  He 
first  translated  into  English  the  'Cura  Pas- 
toralis*  of  Pope  Gregory,  with  a  view  to  the 
spiritual  education  of  the  clergy.  A  copy  was 
sent  to  each  bishop.  The  preface  to  this 
translation  refers  to  the  decay  of  learning  in 
Wessex  and  indicates  Alfred's  intention  of 
restoring  it.  He  then  translated  the  'Historia 
adversus  Paganos*  of  Orosius  (q.v.),  inserting 
the  latest  geographical  information  at  his  dis- 
posal, notably  accounts  of  the  celebrated 
voyages  of  Ohthere  to  the  White  Sea  and  of 
Wulfstan  in  the  Baltic,  which  he  received 


[16] 


ALFRED 

direct  from  the  explorers.  He  had  a  trans- 
lation made  of  Bede's  'Historia  Ecclesiastica' 
(q.v.),  with  some  omissions,  but  giving  a 
West- Saxon  version  of  the  hymn  of  Cssdmon 
(q.v.).  He  also  translated  the '  De  Consoiatione 
Philosophiae'  of  Boethius  (q.v.),  with  some 
original  additions.  The  West-Saxon  version 
of  Augustine's  'Soliloquia*  is  also  probably 
the  work  of  Alfred.  He  composed  a  code  of 
laws,  drawing  on  the  Mosaic  and  earlier 
English  codes.  The  'Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle* 
(q.v.)  may  represent  in  part  his  work  or 
inspiration. 

Alfred,  a  masque,  containing  'Rule,  Bri- 
tannia', see  Thomson  (jf.f  1700-48). 

Alfred,  Proverbs  of,  see  Proverbs  of  Alfred. 

Alftruda,  a  character  in  C.  Kingsley's  'Here- 
ward  the  Wake*  (q.v.). 

Algarsife,  one  of  the  two  sons  of  King 
Cambuscan,  in  Chaucer's  'Squire's  Tale* 
(see  Canterbury  Tales). 

Algrind,  in  Spenser's  'Shepheards  Calender* 
(q.v.),  Edmund  Grindal,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  1576-83. 

Alhambra,  THE,  from  the  Arabic  al-Jiamra, 
'the  red  house',  the  palace  of  the  Moorish 
kings  at  Granada,  built  in  the  i3th  cent. 
'The  Alhambra'  is  the  name  of  a  work  by 
Washington  Irving  (q.v.). 

All,  the  first  cousin  and  son-in-law  of 
Mohammed  (q.v.).  He  was  the  fourth 
Caliph ;  but  the  Shia  (q.v.)  sect  consider  him 
the  first,  regarding  his  three  predecessors  as 
interlopers.  His  descendants,  the  ALIDS,  in- 
clude Aii's  sons  Hasan  and  Hoseyn,  the 
Fatimid  dynasty  of  Egypt,  the  sherifs  of 
Morocco,  and  other  rulers  of  parts  of  the 
Moslem  world.  Ali  was  assassinated  A.D.  660. 

All  Baba  and  the  Forty  Thieves,  an  oriental 
tale  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the  f  Arabian 
Nights'  (q.v.),  but  not  included  in  any  MS.  of 
these.  The  source  from  which  Galland  drew 
it  is  unknown. 

Ali  Baba  and  Kassim  were  two  brothers  in 
a  town  of  Persia.  Ali  Baba  one  day,  while 
collecting  wood  in  the  forest,  observed  forty 
robbers  obtain  access  to  a  cave  by  pro- 
nouncing the  words,  'Open,  Sesame !*,  where 
upon  a  door  in  the  rock  opened.  Using  the 
same  password  he  presently  entered  the  cave, 
found  it  full  of  the  robbers*  treasure,  and 
brought  home  some  sacks  full  of  gold.  He 
was  soon  compelled  to  reveal  his  discovery  to 
Kassim,  who  in  turn  went  to  the  cave,  but 
forgot  the  password  after  entering  it,  and  was 
unable  to  get  out.  He  was  discovered  in  the 
cave  by  the  robbers,  cut  in  quarters,  and 
hungup  in  the  cave.  AH  Baba,  coming  to  seek 
him,  conveyed  the  body  home,  and  in  order 
to  simulate  a  natural  death,  sent  for  an  old 
cobbler  to  sew  the  quarters  of  the  body 
together.  Through  this  cobbler  the  thieves, 
determined  to  destroy  the  person  who  still 
knew  their  secret,  eventually  traced  the  house 
of  AH  Baba,  though  at  first  their  purpose  was 


ALISON 

defeated  by  the  ingenuity  of  Morgiana,  Ali 

Baba's  servant,  who  placed  chalk-marks  on 
the  neighbouring  doors  similar  to  that  by 
which  the  thieves  had  sought  to  recognize  her 
master's.  At  last  the  captain  of  the  thieves 
brought  his  men  concealed  in  leather  oil-jars 
to  the  house  of  Ali  Baba,  intending  to  kill  him 
in  the  night,  but  was  again  defeated  by 
Morgiana,  who  destroyed  them  with  boiling 
oil,  and  finally  killed  the  captain  himself. 

Alice,  or  The  Mysteries,  see  Ernest  Maltraoers* 

Alice  Brand,  a  ballad  in  the  4th  canto  of 

Scott's  'Lady  of  the  Lake*  (q.v.),  telling  how 
Urgan,  *a  christened  man',  who  has  been 
carried  off  by  the  Elfin  king  and  changed  into 
a  dwarf,  is  re- transformed  into  'the  fairest 
knight*  by  Alice  Brand  and  is  found  to  be  her 
lost  brother. 

Alice's  Adventures  in  Wonderland,  a  story 

for  children  by  Lewis  Carroll  (see  Dodgson), 
published  in  1865. 

Alice  is  a  little  girl  who  dreams  that  she 
pursues  a  White  Rabbit  down  a  rabbit-hole, 
and  there  meets  with  strange  adventures  and 
odd  characters,  the  Duchess  and  the  Cheshire 
Cat,  the  Mad  Hatter  and  the  March  Hare, 
the  King  and  Queen  of  Hearts,  and  the  Mock 
Turtle.  See  also  Through  the  Looking-Glass. 
Alads,  see  AIL 

Alifanfaron,  in  medieval  romance,  the 
pagan  emperor  of  Taprobane  (q.v.),  in  love 

with  the  daughter  of  Pentapolin,  the  Christian 
king  of  the  Garamantes.  Don  Quixote  (q.v.) 
takes  two  flocks  of  sheep  for  their  opposing 
armies,  and  attacks  what  he  supposes  to  be 
the  forces  of  AHfanfaron. 

Alioth  and  Alcor,  two  stars  in  the  constela- 
tion  of  the  Great  Bear. 

Alisaunderf  King,  the  legendary  story  of 

Alexander  the  Great,  a  verse  romance  of  the 
early  I4th  cent.,  some  8,000  lines  in  octo- 
syllabic couplets.  According  to  the  legend, 
Nectanabus,  king  of  Egypt,  had  tricked 
Olympias,  wife  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  by 
magic  and  begotten  Alexander.  The  poem 
deals  with  the  birth  and  youth  of  Alexander, 
his  succession  to  Philip's  throne,  the  con- 
quest of  Carthage  and  other  cities,  and  his 
wars  with  Darius.  The  latter  part  of  the 
poem  relates  Alexander's  perils  and  con- 
quests in  the  Far  East  (describing  the 
geography  and  wonders  of  those  regions),  his 
seduction  by  Candace,  and  his  death  by 
poison. 

ALISON,  SIR  ARCHIBALD  (1792-1867), 
educated  at  Edinburgh  University,  and  called 
to  the  Scottish  bar,  was  a  frequent  contribu- 
tor to  'Biackwood's  Magazine*,  and  the  author 
of  a  'History  of  Europe  during  the  French 
Revolution'  (1833-42),  and  its  sequel, 
'Europe  from  the  Fall  of  the  First  to  the 
Accession  of  the  Third  Napoleon*  (18527$). 
He  also  wrote  a  'History  of  Scottish  Criminal 
Law*  (i  833-3)  and  an  'Autobiography*  (edited 
by  his  daughter,  in  1883). 


3868 


[17] 


ALISON  WILSON 

Alison  Wilson,  in  Scott's  'Old  Mortality' 

(q.v.),  the  housekeeper  of  Silas  Morton  of 

Milnwood. 

Alken,  HENRY  (fl.  1816-31),  a  famous 
draughtsman  of  sporting  prints,  some  of 
which  appeared  in  the  'Life  of  a  Sportsman* 
and  'Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  John  Mytton* 
by  C.  J.  Apperley  ('Nimrod'),  in  ^Surtees^s 
*  Analysis  of  the  Hunting  Field',  and  in  Alken's 
'National  Sports  of  Great  Britain'. 

All  Fools,  a  comedy  by  George  Chapman 
(q.v.)»  first  published  in  1605,  but  probably 
produced  in  1599-  The  plot  is  adapted  from 
the  Heautontimoroumenos,  and  some  of  the 
characters  from  the  Adelpkt,  of  Terence.  It 
deals  with  the  fooling  of  Gostanzo,  a  dicta- 
torial and  conceited  father,  who  is  made 
instrumental  in  promoting  the  love-affairs  of 
his  son  and  daughter, 

All  Fools'  Day,  see  April  Fool's  Day. 

All  for  Love,  or  The  World  well  lost,  an  his- 
torical tragedy  by  Dryden  (q.v.),  published  in 
1678. 

In  this,  his  finest  play,  Dryden  abandoned 
the  use  of  the  rhymed  couplet,  and  adopted 
blank  verse.  The  plot  deals  with  the  story  of 
Antony  and  Cleopatra,  but,  as  ^  compared 
with  Shakespeare's  treatment  of  it,  Dryden 
gains  simplicity  and  concentration  by  con- 
fining his  play  to  the  last  phase  of  Antony's 
career,  when  he  is  besieged  in  Alexandria,  and 
to  the  struggle  between  Ventidius  his  general, 
Dolabella  his  friend,  and  Octavia  his  wife,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  Cleopatra  on  the  other,  for 
the  soul  of  Antony.  The  former  are  on  the 
point  of  success,  and  a  composition  is  to  be 
made  with  Caesar  (Octavianus,  afterwards 
Augustus)  involving  the  separation  of  Antony 
from  Cleopatra,  when  Antony  falls  into  jealous 
suspicion  that  Dolabella  will  supplant  him 
in  Cleopatra's  affections.  Meanwhile  the 
forces  of  Caesar  are  pressing  him  hard.  The 
defection  of  the  Egyptian  fleet  seems  the 
final  blow.  On  a  false  report  that  Cleopatra 
has  taken  her  life,  Antony  falls  on  his  sword. 
Cleopatra  finds  him  dying,  and  applies  the  asp 
to  her  arm. 

All  for  Love,  or  A  Sinner  well  saved,  a  poem 
by  Southey  (q.v.)  published  in  1829.  The 
story  is  taken  from  a  life  of  St.  Basil,  and  tells 
how  a  freedman,  Eleemon,  makes  a  compact 
with  Satan  to  forgo  his  hope  of  heaven  if  he 
may  have  his  master's  daughter,  the  high- 
born Cyra,  for  his  wife.  They  live  happily 
married  for  twelve  years,  after  which  the 
compact  is  revealed  by  the  ghost  of  Cyra's 
father.  Eleemon  in  agony  of  spirit  ^flies  to  St. 
Basil,  who  imposes  a  penance  on  him.  When 
Satan  claims  the  fulfilment  of  his  compact, 
Basil  meets  him  in  argument  and  proves  the 
bond  invalid. 

All-Hallows'  Day,  All  Saints'  Day,  the  ist 
November.  ALL-HALLOW  EVE,  or  Hallow- 
e'en,  the  3ist  October,  was  in  the  old  Celtic 
calendar  the  last  night  of  the  old  year,  the 


ALL'S  WELL  THAT  ENDS  WELL 

night  of  all  the  witches,  the  new  year  be- 
ginning on  the  ist  November.  Many  super- 
stitious and  ancient  customs,  such  as  bobbing 
for  apples,  attached  to  it.  See  Burns's 
'Halloween*  for  Scottish  customs.  Mary 
Avenel,  in  Scott's  'The  Monastery'  (q.v.), 
being  born  on  AH- Hallow  Eve,  is  supposed 
to  be  gifted  with  second  sight. 

All  Saints'  Day,  the  ist  November,  the 
festival  on  which  there  is  a  general  celebration 
of  the  saints,  instituted  early  in  the  yth  cent., 
when  Pope  Boniface  IV  transformed  the 
heathen  Pantheon  at  Rome  into  a  church 
dedicated  to  the  Christian  martyrs. 

All  Souls  College,  Oxford,  was  founded 
in  1437  by  Archbishop  Chicheley  (1362?- 
1443),  the  friend  of  Henry  V,  to  pray  for  the 
souls  of  those  who  fell  in  the  wars  of  that 
king  and  of  his  son,  Henry  VI,  against 
France.  It  is  a  unique  foundation,  consisting 
of  a  Warden  and  forty  Fellows,  and  only 
four  undergraduates,  called  'Bible  Clerks'. 
The  college  is  largely  devoted  to  the  study 
of  law. 

All  Souls*  Day,  the  2nd  November,  the 
festival  on  which  prayers  are  offered  for  the 
souls  of  all  the  faithful  deceased.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  instituted  at  Cluny  at  the  end 
of  the  loth  cent. 

All  the  Talents  Administration,  formed 
after  the  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806,  by  William, 
Lord  GrenvUle,  Pitt's  cousin.  It  was  saidyto 
contain  'all  the  talents,  wisdom,  and  ability 
of  the  country*,  and  the  term  was  used 
derisively  by  its  opponents. 

All  the  Year  Round,  see  Dickens. 

All  >s  Lost  by  Lust,  a  tragedy  by  W.  Rowley 

(q.v.),  printed  in  1633.  It  has  not  since  been 

reprinted. 

This  was  Rowley's  principal  play.  Accord- 
ing to  the  argument  prefixed  to  it,  Roderigo, 
king  of  Spain,  deeply  enamoured  of  Jacynta, 
daughter  of  Juliano  his  principal  general,  and 
urged  on  by  Lothario,  a  gentleman  of  better 
fortunes  than  condition,  sends  Juliano  to  fight 
against  Mulymamen,  king  of  Barbary,  and  in 
his  absence  ravishes  Jacynta.  She  escapes  to 
her  father,  and  he  to  avenge  her  induces 
Mulymamen  to  join  him  in  ousting  Roderigo 
from  his  kingdom.  This  they  do,  and  Muly- 
mamen now  demands  the  hand  of  Jacynta, 
but  she  scorns  him.  The  infuriated  barbarian 
and  Juliano  fight  with  one  another.  Muly- 
mamen snatches  Jacynta  before  him  as 
Juliano  rushes  to  the  attack,  so  that  the  fatfier 
slays  his  own  daughter  and  is  presently  him- 
self slain  by  the  Moor.  Cf.  Landor's  'Count 
Julian'  and  Southey's  'Roderick'  (qq.v.). 

AlPs  Well  that  Ends  Well,  a  comedy  by 
Shakespeare  (q.v.),composed  at  an  uncertain 
date,  placed  by  some  as  early  as  about  1 595,  by 
others  as  late  as  about  1604  (E.  K.  Chambers, 
1602-3),  first  printed  in  the  folio  of  1623. 

The  plot  is  drawn  from  Painter's  'Palace  of 
Pleasure'  (No.  xxxviii).  Bertram,  the  young 


[18] 


ALLEGORY 

count  of  Rousillon,  on  the  death  of  his  father 
is  summoned  to  the  court  of  the  king  of 
France,  leaving  his  mother  and  with  her 
Helena,  daughter  of  the  famous  physician 
Gerard  de  Narbon,  The  long  is  sick  of  a 
disease  said  to  be  incurable.  Helena,  who 
loves  Bertram,  conceives  the  project  of  going 
to  Paris  to  attempt  the  king's  cure  by  means 
of  a  prescription  left  by  her  father,  and  Ber- 
tram's mother,  discovering  Helena's  love  for 
her  son,  furthers  its  accomplishment.  Helena 
effects  the  cure  and  as  a  reward  is  allowed  to 
choose  her  husband,  and  names  Bertram, 
who  unwillingly  obeys  the  king's  order  to 
wed  her.  But  under  the  influence  of  the 
worthless  braggart  Parolles,  he  at  once  takes 
service  with  the  duke  of  Florence,  writing  to 
Helena  that  until  she  can  get  the  ring  from  his 
finger  'which  never  shall  come  off',  and  is 
•with  child  by  him,  she  may  not  call  him  hus- 
band. Helena,  passing  through  Florence  on 
a  pilgrimage,  finds  Bertram  courting  Diana, 
the  daughter  of  her  hostess  there.  Disclosing 
herself  as  his  wife  to  these,  she  obtains  per- 
mission to  replace  Diana  at  a  midnight  inter- 
view with  Bertram,  having  that  day  caused 
him  to  be  informed  that  Helena  is  dead. 
Thereby  she  obtains  from  Bertram  his  ring, 
and  gives  him.  one  that  the  king  had  given  her. 
Bertram  returns  to  his  mother's  house,  where 
the  king  is  on  a  visit.  The  latter  sees  on 
Bertram's  finger  the  ring  that  he  had  given 
Helena,  suspects  Bertram  of  haying  destroyed 
her,  and  demands  an  explanation  on  pain  of 
death.  Helena  herself  now  appears,  explains 
what  has  passed,  and  claims  that  the  condi- 
tions named  in  Bertram's  letter  have  been 
fulfilled.  Bertram,  filled  with  remorse,  accepts 
her  as  his  wife. 

Allegory,  a  figurative  narrative  or  descrip- 
tion, conveying  a  veiled  moral  meaning;  an 
extended  metaphor. 

Allegro t  L\  a  poem  by  Milton  (q.v.),  written 
in  1632.  The  Italian  title  means  'the  cheerful 
man',  and  this  idyll  is  an  invocation  to  the 
goddess  Mirth  to  allow  the  poet  to  live  with 
her,  first  amid  the  delights  of  rustic  scenes, 
then  amid  those  of  'towered  cities'  and  the 
'busy  hum  of  men*.  Cf,  Penseroso  (II). 

Allen,  BENJAMIN  and  ARABELLA,  characters 
in  Dickens's  'Pickwick  Papers'  (q.v.). 

Allen,  ETHAN  (1739-89),  a  famous  soldier  in 
the  American  Revolution,  who  was  born  in 
Connecticut,  but  who  removed  to  New 
Hampshire  in  1769.  His  name  is  inseparably 
associated  with  the  'Green  Mountain  Boys' 
(q.v.),  whose  leader  he  was.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution  he  captured  Ticonderoga 
with  a  small  force,  demanding  the  surrender 
of  the  British  garrison,  it  is  said,  'in  the  name 
of  the  great  Jehovah  and  the  Continental 
Congress',  words  which  have  become  his- 
toric (though  perhaps  never  spoken). 

ALLEN,  JAMES  LANE  (1849-  )»  an 
American  novelist,  born  in  Kentucky,  who 
turned  to  literature  after  an  early  career  as  a 


ALMA  MATER 

teacher.  Among  his  chief  works  are  *A 
Kentucky  Cardinal'  (1895),  'The  Choir  In- 
visible' (1897),  and  'The  Mettle  of  the  Pas- 
ture* (1903). 

Allen,  RALPH  (1694-1764),  of  Prior  Park, 
Bath,  the  correspondent  of  Pope,  and  bene- 
factor of  Fielding.  He  was  deputy  post- 
master at  Bath,  and  devised  and  managed  a 
system  of  cross-posts  for  England  and  Wales 
by  which  he  amassed  a  large  fortune.  He 
gave  large  sums  in  charity  and  was  one  of 
the  models  from  whom  Fielding  drew  Squire 
Allworthy  in  'Tom  Jones*  (q.v.). 

Let  humble  Allen,  with  an  awkward  shame, 
Do  good  by  stealth,  and  blush  to  find  it 

fame. 
(Pope,  Epilogue  to  'Satires',  Dial.  L  135-6.) 

Allen-a~Dale,  one  of  the  companions  of 
Robin  Hood  (q.v.).  He  is  the  subject  of  a  song 
in  the  4th  canto  of  Scott's  'Rokeby*  (q.v.). 

Alleyn,  EDWARD  (1566-1626),  an  actor 
(Richard  Burbage's  chief  rival)  and  partner  of 
Philip  Henslowe,  with  whom  he  built  the 

Fortune  Theatre,  Cripplegate.  There  he 
acted  at  the  head  of  the  Lord  Admiral's  com- 
pany, playing  among  other  parts  the  hero  in 
Marlowe's  'Tamburlaine*,  *Jew  of  Malta', 
and  'Faustus*.  He  acquired  great  wealth, 
bought  the  Manor  of  Dulwich,  and  built  and 
endowed  Dulwich  College.  His  first  wife 
was  Henslowe's  stepdaughter,  his  second  the 
daughter  of  Dr.  Donne.  He  was  a  patron  of 
Dekker,  John  Taylor,  and  other  writers, 

Alliteration,  the  commencement  of  two  or 
more  words  in  close  connexion  with  the  same 
letter  or  the  same  sound.  Alliteration  was  the 
basis  of  versification  in  OE.  poetry,  and 
among  modems  is  conspicuous  in  that  of 
Swinburne. 

AUworth,  TOM  and  LADY,  characters  in 
Massinger's  *A  New  Way  to  pay  Old  Debts* 
(q.v.). 

AHwortfayv  SQUIRE  and  BRIDGET,  characters 
in  Fielding's  'Torn  Jones*  (q.v.).  The  char- 
acter of  Squire  Allworthy  was  drawn  from 
Fielding's  benefactors  Ralph  Allen  and  Lord 
Lyttelton  (qq.v.). 

Alma,  a  river  in  the  Crimea,  scene  of  the 
first  battle  in  the  Crimean  War,  1854,  *a 
which  the  allies  under  Lord  Raglan  and 
Marshal  St.  Arnaud  defeated  the  Russians 
under  Prince  Menschikoff. 

Alma  (in  Italian  meaning  'soul*,  espirits),  in 
Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  u.  DC  and  3ds 
represents  the  virgin  soul.  She  is  the  Lady 
of  the  House  of  Temperance,  where  she  is 
visited  by  Prince  Arthur  and  Sir  Guyon,  and 
defended  against  her  enemies  by  the  former. 

Alma,  the  title  of  a  poem  by  Matthew  Prior 


Alma  Mater,  'bounteous  motibter*,  a  title 
given  by  the  Romans  to  several  goddesses, 
especially  to  Ceres  and  Cybele,  and  applied 


ALMACK'S 

in  England  to  universities  and  schools  in 
respect  of  their  relation  to  their  pupils. 

Almack's  Assembly  Rooms  stood  in  King 
Street,  St.  James's,  and  were  celebrated  in  the 
1  8th  and  early  iQth  cents,  as  the  scene  of 
social  functions.  They  were  founded  by  one 
William  Aknack  (d.  1781),  who  appears  to 
have  come  to  London  as  valet  to  the  duke  of 
Hamilton.  Almack's  was  replaced  as  a  social 
centre  after  1863  by  Willis's  Rooms,  and 
these  have  now  been  applied  to  other  pur- 
poses. AJrnack  was  also  founder  of  a  gaming 
club,  since  converted  into  Brooks's  (q.v.). 
Almagest  (from  Arabic  article  al  and  Greek 
fieyi'an?,  greatest),  the  name  applied  to  the 
great  astronomical  treatise  of  Ptolemy  (see 
Ptolemy,  Claudius),  and  extended  in  the 
Middle  Ages  to  other  great  text-books  of 
astrology  and  alchemy. 

Almansur,  'the  victorious*,  a  title  assumed 
by  many  Mohammedan  princes,  notably  by 
the  Amir  Mohammed  of  Cordova  (939-1002), 
an  enlightened  administrator,  who  became 
king  of  Andalusia  in  996  and  greatly  ex- 
tended the  Moslem  power  in  Spain  and 
Africa. 

Mmanzor  and  Almahtde,  see  Conquest  of 


Almayer's  Folly,  a  novel  by  Joseph  Conrad 
(q.v.),  published  in  1904. 

Almeria,  the  heroine  of  Congreve's  "The 
Mourning  Bride*  (q.v.), 

Almesbury,  in  the  Arthurian  legend,  is  the 
modem  Amesbury  in  Wiltshiie. 
Alnaschar,  in  the  'Arabian  Nights*  (q.v., 
'The  Barber's  Fifth  Brother'),  a  beggar  who 
inherited  a  hundred  pieces  of  silver,  invested 
them  in  a  basket  of  glassware,  and  then  in- 
dulged in  visions  of  the  riches  and  grandeur 
that  would  come  from  successive  trading 
ventures.  These  culminated  in  the  dream 
that  he  had  married  the  daughter  of  the  chief 
Vizier,  and  haughtily  spumed  her  with  his 
foot,  'Thus!'  —  whereupon  he  kicked  the 
basket,  and  scattered  all  his  wares. 

Alonzo  the  Brave  and  the  Fair  Imagine,  a 
ballad  by  M.  G.  Lewis  (q.v.). 

Aloysius,  ST.,  see  Eloi. 

Alpfa,  in  Coleridge's  'Kubla  Khan*  (q.v.), 
the  sacred  river  in  Xanadu.  For  its  connexion 
with  the  river  AJpheus  and  with  the  Nile,  see 
J.  L.  Lowes,  "The  Road  to  Xanadu*  (1927). 

Alphonsine  Tables,  astronomical  tables  by 
Arab  and  Spanish  astronomers,  collected 
under  the  direction  of  Alphonso  X  of  Castile, 
in  1253.  Also  called  TOLETAN  TABLES,  from 
the  fact  that  they  were  adapted  to  the  city  of 
Toledo.  They  are  referred  to  under  the  latter 
name  by  Chaucer,  'Franklin's  Tale*,  545. 

Alsatia,  a  cant  name  given  to  the  precinct  of 
Whitefriars  in  London,  which,  until  its  privi- 
leges were  abolished  in  1697,  was  a  sanctuary 
for  debtors  and  lawbreakers.  These  privi- 


AMADIS  OF  GAUL 

leges,  which  were  confirmed  by  James  I  in  a 
charter  of  1608,  had  their  origin  in  the 
exemption  from  the  ordinary  jurisdiction  en- 
joyed by  the  establishment  of  Carmelite  friars 
that  originally  occupied  the  precinct.  See 
Shadwell,  'The  Squire  of  Alsatia*,  and  Scott, 
'The  Fortunes  of  Nigel',  where  the  turbulent 
society  of  Alsatia  is  described.  The  name  is 
taken  from  Alsace,  the  'debatable  land*  be- 
tween France  and  Germany. 

Altamont,  a  character  in  Rowe's  'The  Fair 
Penitent*  (q.v.). 

Altamont,  FREDERICK,  in  Thackeray's 
'Memoirs  of  Mr.  C.  J.  Yellowplush'  (q.v.),  a 
handsome  young  gentleman  who  keeps  a 
tilbury  and  disappears  during  the  day  on 
some  business  in  the  City,  which  turns  out  to 
be  sweeping  a  crossing. 

Altamont,  COLONEL  JACK,  alias  AMORY, 
alias  ARMSTRONG,  a  character  in  Thackeray's 
'Pendennis*  (q.v.). 

Althaea,  in  Greek  mythology,  see  Meleager. 
Althea,  see  Lovelace  (Richard). 

Altisidora,  in  'Don  Quixote*  (q.v.),  the 
duchess's  wanton  damsel,  who  made  love  to 
the  don,  and  then  accused  him  of  stealing 
her  garters.  She  finally  admitted  that  she 
was  like  the  man  who  searched  for  the  mule 
on  which  he  was  riding. 

Alton  Locke,  Tailor  arid  Poet,  a  novel  by 
C.  Kingsley  (q.v.),  published  in  1850. 

The  hero,  the  son  of  a  small  London  trades- 
man, educated  by  a  puritanical  widowed 
mother,  is  brought  into  contact  with  the 
misery  of  the  working  classes  by  being  ap- 
prenticed to  a  sweating  tailor,  and  becomes 
imbued  with  Chartist  ideas.  His  poetical  gift 
leads  to  his  being  befriended  first  by  a 
humorous  old  Scotch  bookseller,  Saunders 
Mackaye,  and  then  by  a  benevolent  dean,  his 
beautiful  daughter  Lillian  (with  whom  he 
falls  hopelessly  in  love),  and  her  cousin 
Eleanor  Staunton.  Under  their  influence  he 
momentarily  consents  to  the  emasculation  of 
his  revolutionary  poems  before  publication,  a 
weakness  that  he  bitterly  regrets.  Roused  by 
the  taunts  of  his  Chartist  comrades,  he  under- 
takes a  mission  that  involves  him  in  a  riot, 
and  is  sentenced  to  three  years*  imprisonment. 
On  emerging  from  this  he  learns  that  Lillian 
is  engaged  to  his  prosperous  time-serving 
cousin,  falls  ill  of  typhus,  is  nursed  by 
Eleanor  and  brought  by  her  to  a  saner  under- 
standing of  the  grievances  of  the  poor  and  of 
the  teaching  of  Christianity.  He  emigrates 
to  America  and  dies  on  the  voyage. 

Altruria,  a  Utopian  land  created  by  William 
Dean  Howells  (q.v.)  in  'A  Traveller  from 
Altruria*,  published  in  1894. 

Amadzs  of  Gaul  (Amadis  de  Gaula),  a 
Spanish  or  Portuguese  romance,  written  in 
the  form  in  which  we  have  it  by  Garcia  de 
Montalvo  in  the  second  half  of  the  1 5th  and 
printed  early  in  the  i6th  cents.,  but  taken 


[20] 


AMADIS  OF  GREECE 

from  'ancient  originals*,  now  lost,  perhaps  by 
Joham  de  Lobeira  (1261-1325),  or  by  Vasco 
de  Lobeira  (d.  1403),  the  materials  of  the 
story  being  of  French  source.  Many  continua- 
tions were  written  relating  to  the  son  and 
nephew  of  Amadis,  Esplandian  and  Flori- 
sando. 

Perion,  king  of  Gaul  (Wales  ?),  falls  in  love 
with  Elisena,  daughter  of  Garinter,  king  of 
Lesser  Britain;  their  child  Amadis  is  placed 
in  an  ark  on  the  river,  and  until  his  identity  is 
revealed,  is  known  as  the  £  Child  of  the  Sea*. 
He  becomes  the  flower  of  chivalry  and 
achieves  wonderful  feats  of  arms.  He  loves 
Oriaria,  daughter  of  Lisuarte,  king  of  Great 
Britain,  who  is  sought  in  marriage  by  the 
emperor  of  Rome  and  granted  to  him  by  her 
father,  but  rescued  by  Amadis.  Whence 
arises  a  great  conflict.  The  emperor  arrives 
with  his  fleet,  but  is  defeated  and  killed. 
Amadis  then  comes  to  the  succour  of  Lisuarte, 
reconciliation  follows,  and  all  ends  happily. 

The  romance  was  translated  into  French 
by  Herberay  des  Essarts  in  1540,  and  an 
abridged  version  of  it  was  published  (1803) 
by  R.  Southey  (q.v).  'Amadis  of  Gaul'  and 
'Palmerin  of  England*  were  the  two  works 
specially  excepted  from  the  holocaust  of 
romances  of  chivalry  carried  out  by  the 
curate  and  the  barber  in  'Don  Quixote*  ( 


Amadis  of  Greece,  a  Spanish  continuation  of 
the  seventh  book  of  'Amadis  of  GauF  (q.v.), 
of  which  Lisuarte  of  Greece,  the  grandson  of 
Amadis,  is  the  hero  .  The  work  is  probably  by 
Feliciano  de  Silva  (i6th  cent.). 
Amaimon,  a  devil  of  medieval  demonology. 

Amalthea,  the  nymph  who  nursed  the  in- 
fant Zeus  (q.v.)  in  Crete.  According  to  the 
legend,  she  fed  him  with  the  milk  of  a  goat. 
It  was  a  horn  of  this  goat  that  Zeus  endowed 
with,  the  power  of  producing  whatever  the 
possessor  wished,  and  gave  to  Amalthea  and 
her  sisters.  This  horn  of  Amalthea  was  the 
'horn  of  plenty*  or  cornucopia,  the  symbol  of 
abundance.  It  is  also  called  the  'Ammonian 
Horn*,  from  the  identification  of  Zeus  with 
Ammon.  In  another  version  Amalthea  was 
the  name  of  the  goat. 

Amara,  MT.,  a  place  in  Abyssinia,  where  the 
kings  of  that  country  secluded  their  sons,  to 
protect  themselves  from  sedition  (Milton, 
'Paradise  Lost*,  iv.  28).  It  figures  as  <Amhara' 
in  Johnson's  'Rasselas*  (q.v.). 
Amarant,  a  giant  slain  by  Sir  Guy  of 
Warwick  on  his  way  to  the  Holy  Land,  the 
subject  of  a  ballad  in  Percy's  'Reliques', 
which  is  part  of  a  longer  poem  by  Samuel 
Rowlands  (1649). 

Amaryllis,  the  name  given  to  a  shepherdess 
by  Theocritus,  Virgil,  and  Ovid.  Spenser,  in 
his  'Colin  Clouts  come  home  againe',  uses  the 
name  to  signify  Alice,  one  of  the  daughters  of 
Sir  John  Spencer  of  Althorpe.  She  became 
the  countess  of  Derby  for  whom  Milton  wrote 
his  'Arcades*  (q.v.). 
Amasis,  see  Poly  crates. 


AMAZONS 

Amaurote*  the  capital  of  Sir  Thomas 
More's  'Utopia*  (q.v.),  Rabelais  (n.  radii) 
uses  the  name  'Amaurotes*  for  an  imaginary 
people  invaded  by  the  Dipsodes. 

Amazing  Marriage,  The%  a  novel  by  G.  Mere- 
dith (q.v.),  published  in  1895. 

Carinthia  Jane  and  her  brother  Chilian  are 
children  of  old  Captain  John  Peter  Kirby,  the 
'Old  Buccaneer*,  who  carried  off  the  countess 
of  Cresset  under  her  husband's  nose,  and 
married  her  when  the  earl  conveniently  died 
a  fortnight  later.  On  the  old  buccaneer's 
death  they  are  left  not  far  from  destitute,  and 
at  the  mercy  of  a  miserly  old  uncle,  Lord 
Levellier.  Carinthia  is  a  fine  elemental 
creature,  a  'beautiful  Gorgon*,  brought  up  in 
the  wilds  of  the  Austrian  mountains.  Lord 
Fleetwood,  spoilt  by  his  immense  wealth  and 
parasitical  companions,  tyrannical  and  im- 
pulsive, proposes  to  her  in  the  course  of  a 
quadrille  the  first  day  he  sees  her,  and  is 
accepted  by  the  artless  girl.  He  soon  repents 
of  his  mad  freak,  and  trusts  that  the  girl  has 
done  the  same.  But  he  is  held  to  his  engage- 
ment by  Lord  Levellier,  anxious  to  be  rid  of 
the  charge  of  his  niece.  Fleetwood,  priding 
himself  on  being  a  man  of  his  word,  consents 
to  many  her,  meets  her  at  the  church  doort 
drives  her  straight  to  a  prize-fight,  which  he 
forces  her  to  witness,  leaves  her  indefinitely 
at  an  inn,  and  goes  on  with  his  ordinary 
avocations,  refusing  to  see  her  and  treating 
her  with  every  circumstance  of  insult,  in  order 
to  punish  her  for  forcing  his  hand.  The  birth 
of  her  child  only  increases  his  resentment. 
Circumstances  have  brought  her  for  refuge 
to  the  home  in  Whitechapel  of  the  Woodseexs, 
the  father  a  minister  among  the  poor,  the  son 
Gower  Woodseer  (drawn  perhaps  from  R.  L. 
Stevenson),  a  penniless  philosopher,  with 
flashes  of  wit  and  a  'broad  playfulness*. 
While  walking  in  the  Alps  he  has  met 
Carinthia  and  Fleetwood,  has  become  the 
devoted  admirer  of  the  first  and  friend  of  the 
second,  and  now  strives  to  bring  about  a 
change  of  heart  in  Fleetwood.  This  comes  at 
last,  with  the  discovery  of  what  a  treasure  he 
has  lost.  For  Carinthia's  heart  has  changed 
likewise,  and  when  Fleetwood  belatedly  does 
penance  and  comes  to  woo  his  wife,  he  finds 
that  she  is  no  longer  to  be  won.  She  accom- 
panies her  brother,  as  an  army  nurse,  to  an 
insurrectionary  war  in  Spain,  leaving  Fleet- 
wood  to  turn  Roman  Catholic  monk  and  die 
of  his  austerities. 
Amazon,  RIVER,  see  Orellana* 
Amazons,  a  race  of  female  warriors  sieged 
by  Herodotus  to  exist  in  Scythia.  They  figure 
also  in  mythology  in  the  legends  of  Hercules, 
Theseus  (qq.v.),  &c. 

The  word  is  explained  by  the  Greeks  from 
a  privative  and  polos  a  breast  (in  connexion 
with  the  fable  that  they  destroyed  the  right 
breast  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  use  of  the 
bow),  but  this  is  probably  the  popular 
etymology  of  an  unknown  foreign  word, 
[OEDJ 


AMBASSADORS 

Ambassadors,   The,  a  novel  by  H.  James 
(q.v,),  published  in  1903. 

This  is  one  of  the  novels  in  which,  with 
much  humour  and  delicacy  of  perception,  the 
author  depicts  the  reaction  of  different 
American  types  to  the  European  environ- 
ment. Chadwick  Newsome,  a  young  man  of 
independent  fortune,  the  son  of  Mrs.  New- 
some  of  Woollett,  Mass.,  a  widow  of  over- 
powering virtue  and  perfection,  has  been 
living  in  Paris  and  is  reported  to  have^got 
entangled  with  a  wicked  woman.  Mrs.  New- 
some  has  decided  to  send  out  an  ambassador 
to  rescue  Chad  and  bring  him  home.  This 
ambassador  is  the  elderly,  amiable,  guileless 
Strether,  dependent  on  Mrs.  Newsome,  for 
whom  he  entertains  prodigious  respect  and  to 
whom  he  has  allowed  himself  to  become 
engaged.  The  story  describes  Strether's 
evolution  in  the  congenial  atmosphere  of 
Paris,  his  desertion  to  the  side  of  Chad  and 
the  bewitching  comtesse  de  Vionnet  (he  is 
convinced  that  the  relation  between  them 
is  virtuous),  and  his  own  mild  flirtation 
with  the  pleasant  cosmopolitan  Maria 
Gostrey.  Meanwhile  his  attitude  and  the 
disquieting  report  of  Waymarsh,  Strether's 
stolid  and  conscientious  American  friend, 
have  caused  dismay  at  Woollett,  and  Mrs. 
Newsome  sends  out  a  fresh  ambassador  in 
the  person  of  her  daughter,  the  coldly  glit- 
tering Sarah  Pocock.  The  attempts  to  bam- 
boozle Sarah  utterly  fail,  and  she  presents  her 
ultimatum — immediate  return  to  America — 
to  the  delinquents  Chad  and  Strether.  Chad, 
exhorted  by  Strether,  refuses  to  abandon 
the  lady ;  and  poor  Mr.  Strether  is  accordingly 
notified  that  all  is  over  between  him  and 
Mrs.  Newsome.  Then,  and  then  only^  an 
accident  throws  Strether  unexpectedly  into 
the  company  of  Chad  and  Mme  de  Vionnet  in 
circumstances  which  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the 
nature  of  their  real  relations.  Sadly  dis- 
illusioned, but  still  insisting  on  the  necessity 
of  Chad's  loyalty  to  Mme  de  Vionnet,  Strether 
from  a  sense  of  duty  turns  his  back  on  Paris. 

Amber  Witch,  Mary  Schweidler,  The,  a  novel 
by  Meinhold  (q.v.),  published  in  1843  and 
translated  from  the  German  by  Lady  Duff 
Gordon. 

It  is  a  story,  remarkable  for  its  simplicity 
and  realism,  told  by  a  pastor  of  the  island  of 
Usedom,  of  the  time  of  the  Thirty  Years 
War,  of  the  fearful  sufferings  of  the  people, 
and  of  their  belief  in  witchcraft.  Mary 
Schweidler,  the  amiable  daughter  of  the 
pastor,  has  the  misfortune  to  attract  the 
attention  of  the  unscrupulous  sheriff  of  the 
district,  who,  unable  to  obtain  possession  of 
her  otherwise,  causes  her  to  be  suspected  of 
witchcraft,  arrested,  and  subjected  to  a  cruel 
trial,  without  being  able  to  bend  her  to  his 
will.  At  last,  on  the  way  to  the  stake,  the  girl 
is  rescued  by  a  sensible  young  nobleman 
who  disbelieves  in  witchcraft,  the  sheriff 
meets  a  fearful  death,  and  all  ends  well. 

Ambree,  MARY,  a  legendary  English  heroine, 


AMELIA 

supposed  to  have  taken  part  in  the  siege  of 
Ghent  in  1584,  when  that  town  was  held  by 
the  Spaniards.  A  ballad  about  her  is  included 
in  Percy's  'Reliques',  and  she  is  referred  to  by 
Ben  Jonson  ('Epiccene',  iv.  ii ;  'Tale  of  a  Tub*, 
i.  iv,  and  "Fortunate  Isles')  and  other  Eliza- 
bethan dramatists. 

Ambrose,  FATHER,  in  Scott's  'The  Abbot* 
(q.v.),  Edward  GlencHnning,  abbot  of  Kenna- 
quhair. 

AMBROSE,  ST.(  c.  340-9?),  bornat  Treves, 
was  a  celebrated  bishop  of  Milan  (elected 
against  his  wiU  by  the  people  when  still  a 
catechumen),  one  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
and  a  vigorous  opponent  of  the  Arians.  He 
developed  the  use  of  music  in  the  services  of 
the  church,  restoring  its  ancient  melodies 
and  founding  what  is  known  as  the  Ambrosian 
chant(as  opposed  to  the  Gregorian  chant  intro- 
duced two  centuries  later  by  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great).  He  composed  several  ^  hymns, 
including,  according  to  one  tradition,  the 
'Te  Deum'. 

Ambrose  Lamela,  see  Don  Raphael 
Ambrose's  Tavern,  the  supposed  scene  of 
the  'Noctes  Ambrosianae'  (q.v.).  'The  Street 
or  Lane  in  which  Ambrose's  Tavern  is 
situated  derives  its  name  of  Gabriel's  Road 
from  a  horrible  murder  which  was  com- 
mitted there'  (Lockhart,  'Peter's  Letters  to 
his  Kinsfolk',  1819,  vol.  ii,  p.  197)-  "This 
locality,  which  still  bears  the  name  by  which 
it  was  so  bloodily  baptised,  is  situated  in  the 
vicinity  of  West  Register  Street,  at  the  back  of 
the  east  end  of  Princes  Street,  and  close  to 
the  Register  Office.  .  .  .  But  a  too  literal 
interpretation  is  not  to  be  given  to  the  scene 
of  these  festivities.  Ambrose's  Hotel  was 
indeed  "a  local  habitation  and  a  name",  and 
many  were  the  meetings  which  Professor 
Wilson  and  his  friends  had  within  its  walls. 
But  the  true  Ambrose  must  be  looked  for  only 
in  the  realms  of  the  imagination — the  verit- 
able scene  of  the  "Ambrosian  Nights"  existed 
nowhere  but  in  their  author's  brain,  and  their 
flashing  fire  was  struck  out  in  solitude  by 
genius  independent  of  the  stimulus  of  com- 
panionship' (Preface  to  Professor  Ferrier's 
edition  of  John  Wilson's  'Works'). 
Ambrosian  Library,  THE,  at  Milan, 
founded  in  1609,  was  originally  the  private 
library  of  Cardinal  Borromeo  (1564-1631), 
archbishop  of  Milan,  and  was  bequeathed  by 
him  to  public  uses.  It  was  named  after  St. 
Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan. 
Ambrosio,  the  hero  of  M.  G.  Lewis's  'The 
Monk'  (q.v.). 

Amelia,    the   heroine    of  the    episode    of 
Celadon  and  Amelia  in  the  book  on  'Summer* 
of  Thomson's  'The  Seasons*  (q.v.). 
Amelia,  a  novel  by  H.  Fielding  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1751. 

This  is  the  last  of  Fielding's  novels  and  the 
story  is  less  successfully  told  than  that  of 
'Tom  Jones*.  A  good  deal  of  the  book  is 


Fas! 


AMERICAN 

devoted  to  exposing  various  social  evils  of  the 
time,  such  as  the  defects  in  the  law  of  debt, 
and  the  scandals  of  the  sponging-houses  and 
prisons.  William  Booth,  a  penniless  young 
officer,  with  little  to  recommend  him  beyond 
a  good  person  and  physical  courage,  has  run 
away  with  the  virtuous  Amelia,  against  her 
mother's  wishes.  The  poverty  of  the  couple, 
Booth's  folly  and  wealmess  of  character,  and 
the  beauty  of  his  wife,  involve  the  couple  in  the 
series  of  misfortunes  with  which  the  story  is 
occupied.  Booth  himself  succumbs  to  the 
charms  of  Miss  Matthews,  whom  he  meets  in 
prison,  but  his  infidelity,  when  it  subse- 
quently comes  to  the  knowledge  of  Amelia,  is 
generously  forgiven.  Amelia  becomes  the 
object  of  the  illicit  pursuits  of  various  un- 
scrupulous admirers.  The  couple  are  re- 
duced to  the  utmost  misery,  and  the  long- 
suffering  devotion  of  Amelia  is  prolonged, 
until  the  situation  is  saved  by  the  discovery 
that  the  will  by  which  her  sister  inherited  her 
mother's  property  is  forged  and  Amelia  is  the 
true  heiress.  Among  the  pleasant  features  of 
the  book  are  some  of  the  minor  characters,  the 
faithful  Sergeant  Atkinson;  the  benevolent 
Dr.  Harrison,  a  sort  of  second  Squire  All- 
worthy;  the  pair  of  Colonels,  James  the  un- 
principled, and  Bath,  whose  bravery  is  only 
equalled  by  his  punctiliousness;  and  the 
admirably  drawn  women,  Mrs.  Atkinson  and 
Miss  Matthews. 

American,  The,  a  novel  by  H.  James  (q.v.), 
published  in  1877. 

American  Democrat,  The,  or  Hints  on  the 
Social  and  Civic  Relations  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  by  James  Fenimore 
Cooper  (q.v.),  published  in  1838.  In  this 
vigorous  work  Cooper  examined  and  set 
forth,  to  the  offence  of  his  countrymen,  the 
defects  and  dangers  of  democracy  as  it 
flourished  in  America. 

American  Fabius,  THE,  a  name  bestowed 
on  George  Washington  because  his  tactics  re- 
sembled those  of  Fabius  Maximus  (q.v.). 

American  Taxation,  On,  a  speech  by  E. 
Burke  (q.v.),  made  in  1774  on  a  motion  for 
the  repeal  of  the  American  Tea  Duty. 

After  dealing  with  the  narrower  arguments 
as  to  the  expediency  of  the  proposal,  Burke 
turns  to  a  broad  historical  view  of  the  subject, 
going  back  to  the  Navigation  Act  and  ex- 
plaining the  course  of  British  policy.  He 
shows  that  the  Tea  Duty  is  at  variance  with 
the  declarations  of  ministers  and  an  'exhaust- 
less  source  of  jealousy  and  animosity*  without 
practical  benefit.  He  exhorts  the  Govern- 
ment to  abandon  it.  'Do  not  burden  the 
Americans  with  taxes.  You  were  not  used  to 
do  so  from  the  beginning.  Let  this  be  your 
reason  for  not  taxing.  These  are  the  argu- 
ments of  states  and  kingdoms.  Leave  the  rest 
to  the  schools/ 

Amerigo  Vespucci  (1451-1512),  a  Floren- 
tine merchant  who  settled  at  Seville  and  sailed 


AMIS  AND  AMILOUN 

in  1499  in  an  expedition,  to  the  West  under 
Ojeda,  and  again  in  1501  in  the  service  of  the 
king  of  Portugal.  In  the  summary  account  of 
his  travels  addressed  in  1504  to  Duke  Ren£ 
of  Lorraine,  which  appeared  in  a  book  pub- 
lished in  1507  at  St.  Diez  in  Lorraine,  he 
claimed  to  have  made  a  voyage  in  1497  in 
which  he  discovered  'Terra  F'iraia*,  the  main- 
land of  S.  America.  His  name  was  given  to 
the  continent  of  America  in  virtue  of  this 
claim,  which  is  not  substantiated  by  evidence. 
The  matter  is  discussed  at  length  in  an  ap- 
pendix to  Washington  Irving's  'Life  of 
Columbus*. 

Amhara,  see  Amara. 

Amfaaric,  the  principal  language  spoken 
in  Abyssinia.  It  is  partly  Semitic,  partly 
Hamitic,  in  origin. 

Amiatinus  Codex,  the  best  extant  MS.  of 
the  Vulgate,  so  called  from  the  abbey  of 
Monte  Amiata,  to  which  it  was  presented. 
It  was  discovered  in  the  igth  cent,  to  have 
been  written  in  England,  early  in  the  8th  cent,, 
at  Weaimouth  or  Jarrow.  It  was  probably 
copied  from  an  Italian  original.  It  is  now  in 
the  Laurentian  Library  at  Florence, 

Amidas,  in  Spenser's  "Faerie  Queene*,  V.  iv, 
the  brother  of  Bracidas.  Their  dispute  over 
their  inheritance  is  solved  by  Sir  ArtegalL 

AMIEL,  HENRI-FRfiDERIC  (1828-81), 
Swiss  author.  His  *  Journal  intime*,  originally 
published  in  2  volumes  in  1883,  was  trans- 
lated by  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward  and  published 
in  America  in  1885. 

Amiens,  THE  TREATY  OF,  concluded  in  1802 
between  the  British  and  French  governments. 
Great  Britain  abandoned  her  recent  con- 
quests with  the  exception  of  Ceylon  and 
Trinidad,  while  France  retained  her  con- 
quests in  Europe.  War  was  renewed  in 
1803. 

Amintor,    the    hero    of    Beaumont    and 
Fletcher's  'The  Maid's  Tragedy'  (q.v.). 
Amis  and  Amiloun  t  a  metrical  romance  pf  the 

Middle  English  period,  in  which  the  virtue  of 
friendship  is  exalted.  It  is  adapted  from  the 
French  z  3th- cent,  romance,  *LI  amitiez  di 
Ami  et  Amiie*. 

Amis  and  Amiloun,  two  noble  foster- 
brothers,  are  bound  in  close  friendship. 
Amiloun  takes  the  place  of  Amis  in  a  trial  by 
combat,  for  which  piece  of  guileful  devotion 
he  is  punished  with  leprosy.  Amis,  discover- 
ing his  friend  in  this  grievous  plight,  at  the 
bidding  of  Raphael  sacrifices  his  own  children 
in  order  to  cure  the  leprosy.  But  the  gods  do 
not  allow  the  sacrifice  to  be  realized.  Amis 
and  his  wife  Belisante  go  to  see  the  dead 
bodies  of  their  children  and  find  them  only 
sleeping.  This  noble  and  pathetic  tale  finds  a 
place  in  one  of  Pater's  *  Studies  in  the  History 
of  the  Renaissance1,  and  has  been  told  in 
prose  by  W.  Morris;  both  use  the  form 
*Amis  and  Amile*. 


123] 


AMLET 

Amlet,  MRS.  and  DICK,  characters  in  Van- 
brugh's  *The  Confederacy'  (q.v.). 
Ammon,  or  more  correctly  AMON  or  AMUN, 
the  supreme  god  of  the  Egyptians  in  the 
Theban   religion.     His   worship   spread   to 
Greece,  where  he  was  Identified  with  Zeus, 
and  to  Rome,  where  he  was  known  as  Jupiter 
Ammon,  His  oracle  in  Africa  became  famous 
after  Alexander  the  Great  had  visited  it. 
Amraonian  Horn,  see  Amaltkea. 
Ainon,  see  Ammon. 

Amontillado,  a  dry  Sherry  (q.v.)  wine,  of  a 
peculiar  flavour,  made  by  a  special  process 
and  in  small  quantity.  'The  Cask  of  Amontil- 
lado* is  the  title  of  a  story  by  Poe  (q.v.). 
Amoret,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  in. 
vi  and  xii,  and  iv.  vii,  daughter  of  the  nymph 
Chrysogone  and  twin  sister  of  Belphoebe. 
She  is  *bf  grace  and  beauty  noble  Paragon', 
and  has  been  married  to  Sir  Scudamour,  but 
carried  off  immediately  after  by  the  enchanter 
Busirane  and  imprisoned  by  him  until  re- 
leased by  Britomart.  Timias  (q.v.)  loves  her, 
but  being  reproved  by  Beiphoebe  leaves  her. 
This  incident  refers  to  the  displeasure  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  at  the  relations  of  Sir  W. 
Ralegh  (q.v.)  with  Elizabeth  Throgmorton. 

Amoretti,  a  series  of  eighty-eight  sonnets  by 
Spenser  (q.v.),  which  have  been  thought  to 
illustrate  the  course  of  his  wooing  of  Elizabeth 
Boyle,  the  lady  whom  he  married.  These 
were  printed  with  the  'Epithalamion*  (q.v.) 
in  1595- 

Amory,  BLANCHE,  a  character  in  Thackeray's 
Tendennis'  (q.v.). 

AMORY,  THOMAS  (1691  ?-i?88),  a  writer 
of  Irish  descent,  the  author  of  two  eccentric 
works  of  fiction,  'Memoirs  of  several  Ladies 
of  Great  Britain*,  published  in  1755,  and 
'The  Life  of  John  Buncle,  Esq.*,  published  in 
1756—66.  Eighteen  imaginary  ladies  were  to 
foe  the  subjects  of  the  'Memoirs',  but  the 
author  confines  himself  to  one,  Mrs.  Marinda 
Benlow,  adding  disquisitions  on  a  great  many 
miscellaneous  subjects,  among  others,  the 
doctrines  of  Athanasius.  'John  Buncle'  (q.v.) 
is  virtually  a  sequel  of  the  'Memoirs*,  but  is  a 
good  deal  more  entertaining.  Amory  was  an 
ardent  Unitarian,  and  a  student  of  medicine, 
geology,  and  antiquities,  and  in  his  rambling 
narratives  and  digressions  he  gives  a  mass 
of  information  on  these  subjects. 

Amos  Barton,  The  Sad  Fortunes  of  the  Rev., 
see  Scenes  of  Clerical  Life. 
Amphibology,  AMPHIBOLY,  a  sentence  that 
may  be  construed  in  two  distinct  senses; 
ambiguity  arising  from  the  uncertain  con- 
struction of  a  sentence. 

Amphibrach,  a  foot  consisting  of  a  long 
between  two  short  syllables. 

Ampnion,  son  of  Zeus  and  Antiope.  Hermes 
gave  him  a  lyre  on  which  he  played  with  such 
skill  that  when  he  and  his  brother  Zethus 


AMYAS  LEIGH 

were  fortifying  Thebes  the  stones  moved  of 
their  own  accord  and  formed  a  wall.  See 
also  Antiope. 

Ampfoisfoaena  (from  the  Greek  dfi&Cs,  both 
ways,  jSeuWcv,  to  go),  a  fabulous  serpent  with 
a  head  at  each  end  and  able  to  move  in  either 
direction. 

Amphitryon,  a  Theban  prince,  who  ob- 
tained the  promise  of  the  hand  of  Alcmena, 
daughter  of  Eiectryon,  king  of  Mycenae,  on 
condition  that  he  should  avenge  the  death  of 
that  king's  sons,  who  had  been  killed  by  the 
Teleboans.  Zeus,  captivated  with  the  charms 
of  Alcmena,  borrowed  the  features  of  Am- 
phitryon while  he  was  gone  to  the  war,  and 
introduced  himself  to  her  as  her  victorious 
husband.  The  son  of  Zeus  and  Alcmena  was 
Hercules.  This  legend  is  the  subject  of  plays 
by  Plautus,  Moliere,  and  Dryden  (see  below). 
Amphitryon's  connexion  with  gastronomy 
arises  from  a  line  in  the  play  of  Moliere.  The 
servant  of  Amphitryon,  perplexed  by  the  re- 
semblance of  the  two  who  claim  to  be  his 
master,  hears  Jupiter  invite  some  friends  to 
dinner,  and  is  thereby  convinced  that  he 
is  the  genuine  Amphitryon — cLe  veritable 
Amphitryon  est  TAmphitryon  ou  Ton  dine'. 

Amphitryon*  a  comedy  by  Dryden  (q.v.), 
published  in  1690. 

The  play  is  adapted  from  the  comedies  of 
Plautus  and  Moliere  on  the  subject  of  Amphi- 
tryon (see  above),  who,  expecting  to  arrive  at 
home  on  the  morrow  from  a  successful  cam- 
paign, sends  his  slave  Sosia  in  advance  to 
announce  his  return  to  his  wife,  Alcmena. 
Jupiter,  in  order  to  enjoy  the  favours  of 
Alcmena,  assumes  the  form  of  Amphitryon, 
and  forestalls  her  husband ;  at  the  same  time 
ordering  Mercury  to  take  the  form  of  Sosia, 
and  keep  out  the  true  Sosia.  ^The  comedy, 
which  is  of  a  somewhat  licentious  character, 
consists  in  the  complications  arising  from  the 
successive  arrival  at  Amphitryon's  palace  of 
two  indistinguishable  Arnphitryons,  and  two 
indistinguishable  Sosias,  and  the  final  con- 
frontation of  the  two  Arnphitryons. 

Amram,  the  father  of  Moses  (Exod.  vi.  20). 
There  is  a  reference  to  'Amram's  son*  in 
Milton,  'Paradise  Lost*,  i.  339. 

Amrita,  a  Sanskrit  word  meaning  'immortal*; 
in  Hindu  mythology,  the  water  of  life  or 
ambrosia,  procured  by  the  gods  by  churning 
the  ocean. 

Amundeville,  LORD  HENRY,  a  character  in 
Byron's  'Don  Juan'  (q.v.),  whose  house  is  the 
scene  of  part  of  the  last  three  cantos. 

Amurath  (Murad),  the  name  of  several 
Turkish  Sultans  in  the  i4th-i6th  cents.  *Not 
Amurath  an  Amurath  succeeds,  But  Harry 
Harry*;  Shakespeare,  '2  Henry  IV,  v.  ii. 

Amyas,  in  Spenser's  *Faerie  Queene*,  'the 
Squire  of  low  degree'.  See  Poeana. 

Amyas  Leigh,  the  hero  of  C.  Kingsley's 
'Westward  Hoi*  (q.v.). 


AMYMONfi 

Amymone,  one  of  the  daughters  of  Danaus 
(see  Danaides).  Mentioned  by  Milton, 
'Paradise  Regained',  ii.  188,  as  a  *  beauty  rare'. 

Amyntas,  in  Spenser's  'Colin  Clouts  come 
home  againe*,  is  Thomas  Watson  (q.v.). 

AMYOT,  JACQUES  (1513-93),  a  French 
writer,  whose  version  of  Plutarch  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Sir  T.  North  (q.v.). 

Amys  and  Amylion,  see  Amis  and  Amiloun. 

Anabaptist,  one  who  baptizes  over  again,  as 
the  due  performance  of  a  rite  ineffectually 
performed  in  infancy;  the  name  of  a  sect  that 
arose  in  Germany  in  1531.  There  was  a  re- 
volt of  Anabaptists  in  1534  at  Minister,  under 
John  of  Leyden,  who  founded  a  theocracy, 
and  "was  executed  in  1536.  The  name  is 
applied  (more  or  less  opprobriouslyj  to  the 
Protestant  religious  body  of  the  Baptists. 

Anabasis »  see  Xenophon. 

Anacharsis,  a  Scythian  who  went  to  Athens 
about  594  B.C.,  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Solon,  and  became  famous  for  his  wisdom,  in 
contrast  to  the  stupidity  and  ignorance  of  his 
fellow  countrymen. 

AnacharsiSt  Le  Voyage  dujeune,  an  historical 
romance  by  the  Abbe*  Jean- Jacques  Barthe- 
lemy  (1716-93),  descriptive  of  Greece  in  the 
time  of  Pericles.  It  was  published  in  1788 
and  enjoyed  a  long  popularity. 

Anacharsis  Clootz,  see  Clootz. 

Anacoluthon,  Greek,  'wanting  sequence';  a 
sentence  in  which  a  fresh  construction  is 
adopted  before  the  former  is  complete. 

ANACREON  (c.  563-478  B.C.),  a  famous 
lyric  poet  of  Teos  in  Ionia,  author  of  many 
melodious  verses  on  love  and  wine.  He  lived 
chiefly  at  Samos,  but  went  to  Athens  at  the 
invitation  of  the  tyrant  Hipparchus.  He  is 
said  to  have  died  choked  by  a  grape-stone. 
Of  his  poems  only  a  few  genuine  fragments 
have  survived,  many  songs  that  bear  his  name 
being  by  other  authors.  T.  Moore  (q.v.) 
published  in  1800  a  translation  of  the  'Odes 
of  Anacreon"  into  English  verse.  Byron  calls 
Moore  'Anacreon  Moore*. 
Anacrusis,  'striking  up%  an  additional 
syllable  at  the  beginning  of  a  verse  before  the 
normal  rhythm,  e.g.  the  'and*  in  the  second 
of  the  following  lines : 

Till  danger's  troubled  night  depart 
And  the  star  of  peace  return. 
Anady5fm£ne,  see  Venus. 

Analogy  of  Religion,  Natural  and  Revealed, 
to  the  Constitution  and  Course  of  Nature ;  The, 
a  treatise  in  defence  of  the  Christian  religion, 
by  J.  Butler  (q.v.),  published  in  1736.^ 

The  treatise  is  directed  against  the  views  of 
the  Deists,  which  were  very  prevalent  at  that 
time.  The  author  takes  as  starting-point  the 
assumption,  which  was  common  ground  to 
him  and  his  adversaries,  'that  there  is  an  in- 
telligent Author  of  Nature,  and  natural 
Governor  of  the  world'.  Proceeding  from 


ANATOMY  OF  MELANCHOLY 

that  part  of  the  Divine  government  over 
intelligent  creatures  which  comes  under  our 
view,  to  the  larger  and  more  genera!  govern- 
ment which  is  beyond  it,  and  comparing  the 
acknowledged  dispensations  of  Providence 
with  what  religion  teaches  us  to  believe  and 
expect,  he  finds  that  the  two  are  analogous 
and  of  a  piece,  and  that  the  latter  must 
reasonably  therefore  be  accepted.  On  these 
lines  the  author  discusses  the  credibility  of  a 
future  life,  of  miracles,  of  revelations,  and 
other  religious  doctrines. 
Ananias,  (i)  the  Jewish  high-priest  before 
whom  Paul  was  brought  and  who  caused  him 
to  be  smitten  on  the  mouth  (Acts  zziii);  (2) 
the  husband  of  Sapphira  who  was  struck  dead 
because  he  lied  unto  God*  (Acts  v);  (3)  a 
character  in  Jensen's  'The  Alchemist*  (q.v.). 
Anapaest,  Greek,  'reversed*;  a  reversed 
dactyl,  a  metrical  foot  composed  of  two  short 
followed  by  a  long  syllable. 

Anaphora,  *  carrying  back",  the  repetition  of 
the  same  word  or  phrase  in  several  successive 
clauses;  for  instance,  'Awake  up,  my  glory; 
awake,  lute  and  harp;  I  myself  will  awake 
right  early.* 

Anarchiad,  The,  a  verse  satire  produced  in 
America  during  the  Revolutionary  period. 
It  was  inspired  by  the  conflict  with  England 
and  the  subsequent  internal  fight  between 
American  Whigs  and  Tories.  Four  of  the 
'Hartford  Wits*  (q.v.)— Joel  Barlow,  John 
Trumbull,  David  Humphreys,  and  Lemuel 
Hopkins — collaborated  in  writing  it. 

Anarchifj  The  Masque  of,  a  poem  by  P.  B. 
Shelley  (q.v.),  'written  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Massacre  of  Manchester*  (the  Peterloo  affair, 
August  1819). 

AnasfasiuSt  a  picaresque  novel  by  Hope 
(q.v.),  published  in  1819. 

The  story,  told  in  the  form  of  an  auto~ 
biography,  is  that  of  a  Greek  of  Chios,  a  man 
of  courage  and  ability,  but  utterly  unscrupu- 
lous, who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  iSth 
cent.  It  takes  the  reader  to  Greece,  where  the 
hero  rights  with  prowess  against  the  rebellious 
Albanians ;  to  Constantinople,  where  he  lives 
by  his  wits,  and  turns  Moslem  to  escape  the 
consequences  of  detection  in  an  amour  with 
a  Turkish  lady;  to  Egypt,  where  he  enters  the 
service  of  the  Mamelukes  and  rises  tem- 
porarily to  a  position  of  some  eminence;  to 
Smyrna,  where  he  behaves  atrociously  to  an 
amiable  and  trustful  young  lady;  and  to 
Arabia,  where  he  lives  for  a  time  among  the 
Wahabis.  Notwithstanding  the  great  variety 
of  the  adventures  recounted  and  of  the  places 
whose  oriental  customs  are  depicted,  the 
book,  which  is  very  long,  is  monotonous.  It 
enjoyed,  however,  considerable  popularity. 

Anatomfe  of  Abuses,  The,  see  Stubbes. 
Anatomy  of  Melancholy  t  The,  a  treatise  by 

Robert  Burton  (q.v.),  published  WL  162,1. 

In  purpose  the  treatise  is  a  medical  work. 
The  introduction  sets  out  that  melancholy  is 


[35] 


ANCAEUS 

'an  inbred  malady  in  every  one  of  us*.  Part  i 
deals  with  the  definition,  causes,  symptoms, 
and  properties  of  melancholy ;  part  ii,  with  its 
cure;  part  iii,  with  the  melancholy  of  love, 
and  the  melancholy  of  religion.  But  the 
subject  is  expanded  until  it  covers  the 
whole  life  of  man;  and  social  and  political 
reform,  as  well  as  bodily  and  mental  health, 
are  brought  within  its  purview.  The  treat- 
ment is  marked  by  a  sense  of  humour  and 
pathos,  and  a  tolerant  spirit  in  religion.  In 
the  exposition  and  illustration  of  his  argu- 
ment, Burton  uses  quotation  (or  paraphrase) 
to  an  extreme  degree,  drawing  on  a  very  wide 
field  of  literature,  from  the  Bible  and  the 
fathers,  through  Greek  and  Latin  classics,  to 
the  Elizabethan  writers.  His  book  thus  be- 
comes a  store-house  of  the  most  miscellaneous 
learning,  and  is  apt  to  be  regarded  in  that 
light  rather  than  as  a  medical  treatise. 

Ancaeus,  the  steersman  of  the  ship  'Argo* 
(see  Argonauts)^  who  is  said  to  be  the  occasion 
of  a  well-known  proverb.  He  had  been  told 
by  a  seer  that  he  should  not  live  to  taste  the 
wine  of  his  vineyard.  A  cup  of  his  own  wine 
being  set  before  him,  he  laughed  at  the  seer, 
who  replied,  TroAAd  fj,€ra£v  TrcAet  KvXiKos  KQJ, 
XetAeo?  aKpov,  'There  *s  many  a  slip  between 
the  cup  and  the  lip*.  At  that  moment  Ancaeus 
was  told  that  a  wild  boar  was  near.  He  went 
out  to  pursue  it  and  was  killed. 

Anchlses,  a  Trojan  prince,  who  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  Venus,  and  became  by  her  father  of 
Aeneas  (q.v.). 

Ancien  Regime ',  a  French  expression  signi- 
fying the  old  order  of  things  before  the 
French  Revolution. 

Ancient  Mariner,  The  Rime  of  the,  a  poem  by 
S.  T.  Coleridge  (q.v.),  which  first  appeared 
in  1798  in  Wordsworth's  and  Coleridge's 
'Lyrical  Ballads*  (q.v.),  and  subsequently  in 
the  latter's  'Sibylline  Leaves',  published  in 
1817. 

AJI  ancient  mariner  meets  three  gallants 
on  their  way  to  a  marriage  feast  and  detains 
one  to  recount  his  story.  He  tells  how  his  ship 
was  drawn  towards  the  South  Pole  by  a 
storm.  When  the  ship  is  surrounded  by  ice, 
an  albatross  comes  through  the  snow-fog  and 
is  received  with  joy  and  hospitality,  but  is 
presently  shot  by  the  mariner.  For  this  act 
of  cruelty  a  curse  falls  on  the  ship.  She  is 
driven  north  to  the  Line,  and  becalmed.  The 
crew  die  of  thirst  except  the  mariner,  who 
by  the  light  of  the  moon  beholding  God's 
creatures  of  the  great  calm  and  their  beauty, 
blesses  them  in  his  heart.  The  spell  breaks 
and  the  ship  is  brought  back  to  England,  but 
the  mariner  for  penance  is  condemned  ever 
to  travel  from  land  to  land  and  to  teach  by  his 
example  love  and  reverence  to  all  God's 
creatures.  J.  L.  Lowes,  in  his  'The  Road  to 
Xanadu*,  traces  the  process  by  which  Cole- 
ridge built  up  the  poem  from  various  sources. 

Ancient  of  Days,  a  scriptural  title  of  God; 
Dan.  vii.  9. 


ANDREA  OF  HUNGARY 

Ancients  and  Moderns,  Quarrel  of  the,  see 
Battle  of  the  Books. 

Ancrene  Riwle,  or^  Ancrene  Wisse,  The,  a 
devotional  manual  in  prose  written  for  the 
rule  and  guidance  of  certain  English  nuns. 
The  author  is  unknown.  Besides  the  Middle 
English  copies,  which  vary  considerably, 
there  are  French  and  Latin  versions.  The 
work,  which  is  animated  by  a  'lofty  morality 
and  infinite  tenderness*  (C.H.E.L.), belongs  to 
the  early  Middle  English  period  (c.  1200-50). 

ANDERSEN,  HANS  CHRISTIAN  (1805- 
75),  Danish  poet  and  author  of  dramas,  novels, 
and  books  of  travel,  is  chiefly  known  in  Eng- 
land for  his  series  of  fairy  tales,  of  which  the 
first  volume  appeared  in  1 835.  They  were  first 
translated  into  English  by  Mary  Howitt(i846), 
and  by  Caroline  Peachey  in  the  same  year. 

ANDERSON,  SHERWOOD  (1876-  ), 
American  writer,  born  in  Ohio.  His  chief 
works  are:  'Marching  Men*  (1917),  'The 
Triumph  of  the  Egg*  (1921),  'A  Story-teller's 
Story'  (1924),  'Dark  Laughter*  (1925),  'Hello 
Towns*  (1929).  Anderson  is  considered  as  the 
doyen  of  the  modem  American  school  of 
story  writers. 

Andouillets,  ABBESS  OF,  the  subject  of  an 
episode  in  vol.  vii  of  Sterne's  'Tristram 
Shandy*  (q.v.). 

Andr6,  MAJOR  JOHN  (1751-80),  an  officer 
in  the  British  army  who  during  the  American 
War  of  Independence  was  entrusted  with 
secret  negotiations  with  Benedict  Arnold,  an 
American  general,  for  the  betrayal  by  the 
latter  of  the  forts  on  the  Hudson  River. 
Andr£  was  captured  within  the  American 
lines  and  hanged  as  a  spy.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Andrea  del  Sartp,  a  poem  by  R.  Browning 
(q.v.),  included  in  'Men  and  Women*,  pub- 
lished in  1855. 

Andrea  del  Sarto  (see  Sarto)  was  called  'The 
FaultlessPamter'.Thepoetpresents  him  as  re- 
flecting, inamonologue  addressed  to  Lucrezia, 
his  wife,  on  his  deficiencies:  his  inferiority  in 
inspiration  to  Raphael ;  his  faithlessness  to  his 
patron  Francis  I ;  his  neglect  of  his  parents ; 
his  weak  devotion  to  Lucrezia,  who  is,  in  fact, 
unworthy.  But  he  is  peaceful  and  resigned. 
Perhaps  in  the  New  Jerusalem  there  will  be 
four  walls  to  be  decorated,  by  Leonardo, 
Raphael,  Michelangelo,  and  himself. 

Andrea  Ferrara,  a  celebrated  maker  of 
swords,  probably  a  Venetian,  of  the  i6th  cent. 
The  name  came  to  be  frequently  used  to 
signify  a  broadsword.  According  to  the 
author's  notes  on  'Waverley*  (q.v.),  it  is 
generally  believed  that  Andrea  Ferrara  was 
brought  over  by  James  IV  or  V  to  instruct 
the  Scots  in  the  manufacture  of  sword-blades. 

Andrea  of  Hungary,  Giovanna  of  Naples, 
and   Fra    "Rupert,   three   plays   forming   a 
trilogy,  by  W.  S.  Landor  (q.v.),  published  in 
1839-40. 
These  plays   deal  with  the  marriage  of 


[26] 


ANDREAS 

Andrea,  brother  of  King  Lewis  of  Hungary,  to 
Giovanna,  queen  of  Naples,  in  the  i4th  cent.; 
his  assassination  at  his  wedding-feast  owing 
to  the  intrigues  of  the  Hungarian  monk  Fra 
Rupert ;  the  accusation  brought  against  Gio- 
vanna of  causing  her  husband's  murder;  the 
attempts,  finally  successful,  to  oust  her  from 
her  throne;  and  the  exposure  at  the  last  of 
Fra  Rupert. 

Andreas,  an  OE.  poem  attributed  by  some  to 
Cynewulf  (q.v.),  included  in  the  'Vercelli 
Book*  (q.v.).  It  recounts  a  mission  of  St. 
Andrew  to  the  Mermedonians,  Ethiopian 
savages,  among  whom  St.  Matthew  was  in 
danger.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  description  of 
a  sea  voyage. 

Andre"  e,  SALOMON  AUGUST  (1854-97),  the 
Arctic  explorer,  bom  at  Grenna  in  Sweden, 
and  educated  as  an  engineer.  With  Nils 
Strindberg  and  Knut  Fraenkel,  he  attempted 
in  1897  to  cross  the  North  Polar  regions  in  a 
balloon.  They  started  on  1 1  July  from  Danes 
Island,  Spitsbergen,  but  their  balloon  was 
driven  down  in  83°  N.  lat.  Their  remains, 
diaries,  &c.,  were  accidentally  found  on 
White  Island^  off  the  NE.  coast  of  Spits- 
bergen by  a  Norwegian  expedition  in  August 
1930. 

ANDREW  OF  WYNTOUN,  see  Wyntoun. 

ANDREWES,  LANCELOT  (1555-1626), 
educated  at  Merchant  Taylors*  and  Pem- 
broke Hall,  Cambridge,  became  bishop  suc- 
cessively of  Chichester,  Ely,  and  Winchester 
(1619).  He  was  renowned  for  his  patristic 
learning,  wrote  theological  works,  and  was 
first  on  the  list  of  the  divines  appointed  to 
make  the  'authorized  version*  of  the  Bible. 

Androcles,  or  Androclus,  and  the  Lion,  a 
story  told  by  Aulus  Geliius  (v.  14)  of  a  slave 
who,  running  away  from  a  cruel  master  and 
concealing  himself  in  a  cave  in  Africa,  was 
confronted  by  a  lion.  The  animal  presented 
to  him  a  swollen  paw,  from  which  he  ex- 
tracted a  thorn.  Androcles  was  subsequently 
captured  and  sentenced  to  fight  with  a  lion  in 
the  arena.  It  chanced  that  this  lion  was  the 
same  that  he  had  relieved.  The  lion  recog- 
nized its  benefactor  and  instead  of  attacking 
him,  showed  every  sign  of  affection  and 
gratitude.  Bernard  Shaw  wrote  a  play 
'Androcles  and  the  Lion*  (1912). 

AndrS'mScne,  the  wife  of  Hector  (q.v.)  and 
mother  of  Astyanax,  Her  parting  with  Hec- 
tor before  a  battle  is  the  most  pathetic  passage 
inHomerVIliad'(BookVI).  After  the  capture 
of  Troy  she  fell  to  the  share  of  Neoptolemus, 
and  was  given  by  him  to  Helenus  (q.v.),  a 
brother  of  Hector.  Aeneas  met  with  her  in 
Epirus  ('Aeneid*,  iii). 

AndrSme'da,  a  daughter  of  Cepheus,  king  of 
Ethiopia,  and  Cassiopea.  Cassiopea  boasted 
herself  (or  her  daughter)  more  beautiful  than 
the  Nereids.  Whereupon  Poseidon  in  anger 
sent  a  sea-monster  to  ravage  the  country. 
To  abate  his  wrath,  Andromeda  was  exposed 


ANGELICA 

on  a  rock  to  the  monster,  but  was  rescued  by 
Perseus  (q.v.),  who,  returning  through  the 
air  from  the  conquest  of  the  Gorgons, 
changed  the  monster  to  a  rock  by  showing  it 
the  Medusa's  head.  Charles  Kingsley  (q.v.) 
wrote  a  poem  on  this  myth,,  entitled  'Andro- 
meda'. 

Andronicus  Comneniusf  see  Wilson  (J.,  1627- 
96). 

Andvari,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  a 
dwarf  who  was  forced  by  Loki  to  give  up  his 
treasure  and  the  magic  ring  with  which  he 
could  make  gold  (known  in  German  romance 
as  the  Ring  of  the  Nibelungs).  It  passed  into 
the  possession  of  Fafair,  was  taken  from  him 
by  Sigurd,  and  by  Sigurd  given  to  Brynhild. 

Aneirin,  The  Book  of,  see  Aneurin, 

Anelida  and  Arcite,  a  poem  in  rhyme-royal 
by  Chaucer  (q.v.),  belonging  to  his  early 
period.  It  is  the  lament  of  Queen  Anelida 
for  the  falseness  of  Arcite  her  lover. 

ANEURIN  or  ANEIRIN  (fl.  600?),  a  Welsh 
bard  whose  compositions  are  contained  in  a 
MS.  'Book  of  Aneirin*  of  the  13th  cent.  This 
contains  the  'Gododin',  an  elegy  on  the 
Welsh  chieftains  who  fell  at  Cattraetli  at  the 
hands  of  the  Saxons. 


Angel,  from  the  Greek  word  ayycAos,  a 
messenger,  used  in  the  LXX  to  translate  the 
Hebrew  Malak,  in  full  malak-yehowah^ 
'messenger  of  Jevohah",  whence  the  name  and 
doctrine  of  angels  passed  into  Latin  and  the 
modern  languages.  [OEDJ  The  angels  in 
the  Scriptures  are  prominent  chiefly  in  the 
apocalyptic  books,  e.g.  Revelation  and  the 
apocryphal  Book  of  Enoch  (q.v.).  The  latter 
(c.  xxi)  enumerates  seven  archangels:  Uriel^ 
Raphael,  Raguel,  Michael,  Sariel,  Gabriel, 
and  Jerahxneel.  But  the  names  vary  in  other 
passages.  According  to  the  4th-cent.  work 
attributed  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  the 
heavenly  beings  are  divided  into  three  hier- 
archies, each  containing  three  orders  or  choirs, 
viz.  seraphim,  cherubim,  thrones ;  dominions, 
virtues,  powers;  principalities,  archangels, 
angels.  The  Koran  (q.v.)  names  four  chief 
angels :  Gabriel,  who  writes  down  the  divine 
decrees ;  Michael,  the  champion  of  the  faith ; 
Azrael,  the  angel  of  death;  and  Israfel,  who 
will  sound  the  trump  at  the  resurrection. 

Angel,  the  coin,  see  Noble. 

Angel  in  the  House*  Thet  see  Patmore. 

Angelic  Doctor,  THE,  Thomas  Aquinas 
(q.v.). 

Angelica,  in  the  ' Orlando  Innamorato* 
(q.v.)  and  *  Orlando  Furioso*  (q.v.),  the 

daughter  of  Galafron,  king  of  Cathay,  the 
object  of  Orlando's  love  and  the  cause  of 
his  madness.  For  the  story  see  under  tibe 
above-named  poems.  Cf.  Milton,  'Paradise 
Regained*,  iii.  341. 

Angelica,  the  heroine  of  Congreve's  *Love 
for  Love* 


ANGELICO 

AngeEco,  FRA,  see  Fra  Angelica . 

Angelo,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Measure  for  Measure'  (q.v.). 

ANGELO,  HENRY (1760-1 839  ?),  a  fencing- 
master  patronized  by  the  fashionable,  and 
especially  by  Byron.  In  1830  he  published 
his  'Reminiscences*. 

Angles,  THE,  one  of  the  Low  German  tribes 
that  settled  in  Britain,  where  they  formed  the 
kingdoms  of  Northumbria,  Mercia,  and  East 
Anglia,  and  finally  gave  their  name  to  the 
whole  English  people.  The  name  in  its 
origin  signifies  the  people  of  Angul,  a  district 
of  Holstein,  so  called  from  its  angular  shape. 
[OED.] 
Anglo- Catholic,  see  Catholic  Church. 

Anglo-Saxon,  originally  a  collective  name 
for  the  Saxons  of  England  as  distinct  from  the 
cOld  Saxons'  of  the  Continent,  was  extended 
to  the  entire  Old  English  people  and  language 
before  the  Conquest.  After  the  Conquest, 
natives  and  new  incomers  were  at  first  dis- 
tinguished as  English  and  French;  but  as 
the  latter  also  became  in  a  few  generations 
English  politically  and  geographically,  the 
name  could  no  longer  be  applied  distinctively 
to  the  people  of  Edward  the  Confessor  and 
Harold.  Hence  the  extended  use  of  the  name 
Anglo-Saxon.  [OED.]  In  this  book  the 
English  language  before  the  Conquest  is  re- 
ferred to  as  Old  English  (see  English).  See 
also  Angles  and  Saxon. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  The,  compiled  by 
monks  working  at  different  centres,  notably 
Winchester,  Canterbury,  and  Peterborough, 
is,  in  the  main,  a  dry  chronological  record,  in 
vernacular,  of  events  in  England  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era  to  the  middle 
of  the  1 2th  cent.  It  contains,  however,  some 
vivid  and  more  detailed  passages,  notably  the 
account  of  the  struggle  with  the  Danes  during 
the  period  893-7,  and  of  the  misery  of  the  com- 
mon people  during  the  civil  wars  of  the  reign 
of  Stephen.  In  the  portion  of  the  'Chronicle* 
relating  to  the  loth  cent,  are  inserted  some 
important  poems,  among  others  the  'Brunan- 
burh'  (q.v.).  The  earlier  part  of  the  'Chron- 
icle', down  to  892,  may  represent  the  work  or 
inspiration  of  King  Alfred. 

Anzma  Poetae,  a  collection  of  aphorisms, 
observations,  reflections,  and  other  literary 
material,  extracted  from  the  numerous  note- 
books of  S.  T.  Coleridge  (q.v.),  and  pub- 
lished by  Ernest  Hartley  Coleridge  in  1895. 
Anitra,  in  Ibsen's  'Peer  Gynt*  (q.v.),  an 
unscrupulous  Arab  damsel,  with  whom  the 
hero  flirts  when  masquerading  as  a  prophet. 

Anna  Christie,  a  play  by  Eugene  O'Neill,  first 
produced  in  1921,  which  was  one  of  the 
playwright's  early  successes. 

Anna  Karenina>  a  novel  by  Tolstoy  (q.v.). 
ANNA  COMNENA  (b.  1083),  the  daughter 
of    the    emperor   Alexius    Comnenus,    and 
author  of  the  'Alexiad'  (a  history  in  fifteen 


ANNE  OF  GEIERSTEIN 

books,  mainly  of  her  father's  life).  She  figures 
in  Scott's  'Count  Robert  of  Paris*  (q.v.). 

Annales  Cambriae,  ancient  annals  of  Wales, 
of  which  the  earliest  extant  MS.  dates  from 
the  second  half  of  the  loth  cent.  They  have 
a  special  literary  interest  on  account  of  their 
reference  to  the  'Battle  of  Badon,  in  which 
Arthur  carried  the  cross  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  on  his  shoulders,  and  the  Britons  were 
victors',  placing  it  in  the  year  518.  They  also 
refer  to  the  battle  of  Camlan  in  539,  cin  which 
Arthur  and  Medraut  [Modred]  fell'.  We 
have  here  one  of  the  sources  of  the  subse- 
quent Arthurian  legend. 

Annalia  Dubrensia,  see  Cotswold  Games. 

Annals  of  the  Parish,  a  novel  by  Gait  (q.v.), 
published  in  1821,  in  which  the  Rev.  Micah 
Balwhidder  chronicles,  with  quaint  simplicity 
and  unconscious  humour,  the  events,  great 
and  small,  that  affected  the  homely  lives  of 
the  parishioners  of  Dalmailing  in  Ayrshire 
during  the  period  1760-1810.  The  scene  of 
the  death  of  Mr.  Cayenne  (ch.  xlvii)  has 
been  declared  by  a  competent  authority  'one 
of  the  greatest  things  in  all  literature*. 

Anne,  queen  of  England,  1702-14. 

Anne  of  Geierstein,  or  The  Maiden  of  the 
Misty  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1829. 

The  period  of  the  story  is  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.  The  earl  of  Oxford  and  his  son 
Arthur  de  Vere,  exiled  from  England  after  the 
victory  of  the  Yorkist  party  at  Tewkesbury, 
are  travelling  on  the  Continent  engaged  in 
intrigues  in  the  Lancastrian  interest,  under 
the  name  of  Philipson  and  in  the  guise  of 
merchants.  Passing  through  Switzerland  and 
overtaken  by  a  storm  in  the  mountains,  they 
are  hospitably  entertained  by  Arnold  Bieder- 
man,  the  Landamman  or  chief  magistrate 
of  Unterwalden,  whose  niece,  the  young 
countess  Anne  of  Geierstein,  rescues  Arthur 
from  death.  The  business  of  the  Philipsons 
being  with  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, they  accompany  Biederman  and  other 
Swiss  delegates  who  are  setting  out  to 
remonstrate  with  the  latter  against  the  out- 
rageous proceedings  to  which  the  Swiss  have 
been  subject  at  his  hands.  The  Philipsons 
are  seized  by  the  cruel  Archibald  of  Hagen- 
bach,  the  duke's  governor  of  the  citadel  of 
Brisach,  and  narrowly  escape  death,  a  fate 
only  averted  by  a  rising  of  the  citizens  against 
Hagenbach  and  his  condemnation  by  the 
Vehmgericht  (q.v.)  and  execution.  The 
story  is  then  occupied  with  the  negotiations 
between  Philipson  (or  Oxford),  the  duke  of 
Burgundy,  and  Margaret  of  Anjou  (Henry 
IV's  queen),  of  which  the  object  is  to  secure 
the  duke's  assistance  to  the  Lancastrian  cause 
in  return  for  the  cession  to  him  of  Provence. 
These  negotiations  are  interrupted  by  the 
utter  defeat  of  the  duke  by  the  Swiss  at 
Granson  and  Morat.  After  the  duke's  death 
at  Nancy,  Oxford  and  his  son  return  to 
Geierstein,  where  Arthur  marries  Anne. 


[28] 


ANNOT  LYLE 

Apart  from  the  vivid  portrait  of  Charles 
the  Bold,  and  the  picture  of  the  court  of 
Rene",  the  king  of  Troubadours,  the  most 
interesting  feature  in  the  book  is  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  secret  tribunal  of  the  Vehmgericht, 
of  which  Anne's  father,  Count  Albert  of 
Geierstein  (alias  the  Black  Priest  of  St.  Paul's), 
is  for  the  time  being  the  chief  figure.  For  this 
description  Scott  drew  on  Goethe's  *Goetz 
von  Berlichingen*,  which  he  had  translated, 

Amaot  Lyle,  a  character  in  Scott's  *  Legend 
of  Montrose'  (q.v.). 

Annual  Register,  The,  an  annual  review  of 

events  of  the  past  year,  founded  by  Dodsley 
(q.v.)  in  1758,  which  still  survives. 

Annus  MirdbiUs,  a  poem  by  Dryden  (q.v.) 
published  in  1667,  and  probably  written  at 
Charlton  in  Wiltshire,  where  the  poet  lived 
during  the  plague  and  fire  years.  It  is  written 
in  quatrains  on  the  model  of  'Gondibert* 
(q.v.),  of  which  the  first  200  deal  with  the 
sea-fight  against  the  Dutch  at  Bergen  on 
3  August  1665,  the  indecisive  four  days'  battle 
of  June  1666,  and  the  victory  over  the  Dutch 
off  the  N.  Foreland  on  25  July  of  the  same 
year.  The  remaining  hundred  couplets  relate 
the  Fire  of  London  (2-7  Sept.  1666) 

ANSELM,   ST.  (1033-1109),  a  native  of 

Aosta  in  N.  Italy,  and  a  pupil  of  Lanfranc  at 
the  abbey  of  Bee  in  Normandy.  He  made  the 
monastic  profession  and  became  in  time 
abbot  of  Bee.  While  he  held  this  office  he 
visited  England,  where  William  Rufus  had 
left  the  see  of  Canterbury  vacant  for  four 
years.  In  a  fit  of  sick-bed  repentance,  Rufus 
appointed  Anselm  archbishop  (1093),  a  re- 
sponsibility which  the  latter  reluctantly  ac- 
cepted. The  king  resumed  his  tyrannous 
course  and  in  1097  Anselm  withdrew  to  Rome. 
He  returned  to  England  as  archbishop  under 
Henry  I.  Anselm  wrote  many  theological 
and  philosophical  works,  including  the 
famous  *Monologion*,  'Proslogion',  and  *Cur 
Deus  Homo'.  He  is  commemorated  on 
21  April. 
Anselmo,  see  Curious  Impertinent. 

Anson,  GEORGE,  BARON  ANSON  (1697-1762), 
who  became  first  lord  of  the  Admiralty,  made 
his  famous  voyage  round  the  world  in  1740—4. 
The  account  of  it,  compiled  by  his  chaplain, 
R.  Waters,  was  published  in  1748.  It  is  a 
stirring  narrative  of  the  sea.  The  seven 
vessels  of  the  squadron  were  reduced  by 
storms  to  three.  Of  these,  two  sailed  refitted 
from  Juan  Fernandez,  attacked  and  destroyed 
the  town  of  Paita,  and  captured  the  Manila 
galleon  with  a  vast  treasure.  Anson  finally 
reached  home  with  a  single  ship. 

ANSON,  Sm  WILLIAM  REYNELL 
(1843-1914),  Warden  of  AH  Souls,  M.P.  for 
the  University  of  Oxford,  and  a  learned  writer 
on  the  Law  and  Custom  of  the  Constitution 
(1879-86)  and  on  Contracts  (1879). 

Anster  Fair,  see  Tennant. 


AXTlGOXfi 

ANSTEY,  CHRISTOPHER  (1724-1805), 
educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, is  remembered  as  the  author  of  the 
*Xew  Bath  Guide*  (1766),  a  series  of  letters 
in  anapaestic  verse,  describing  the  adven- 
tures of  the  'Blunderhead  Family*  at  Bath, 
and  depicting  the  manners  of  the  place  and 
time  with  much  good  humour  and  drollery. 
ANSTEY,  F.,  the  pseudonym  of  Thomas 
Anstey  Guthrie  (1856—  ),  who  is  author 
of  many  novels  and  dialogues,  including: 
'Vice  Versa*  (q.v.,  1882),  'The  Giant's 
Robe*  (1883),  *The  Tinted  Venus*  (1885), 
'A  Fallen  Idol*  (1886),  'The  Pariah  '(1889), 
'Voces  Populi*  (1890),  'Tourmalin's  Time 
Cheques'  (1891),  'The  Talking  Horse*  (1892), 
*The  Man  from  BlankleyY  (1893),  'Mr. 
Punch's  Pocket  Ibsen*  (1893),  'The  Brass 
Bottle*  (1900), f  Salted  Almonds*  (1906). 

Antaeus,  a  Libyan  giant,  son  of  Poseidon 
and  Ge  (the  Earth),  and  a  mighty  wrestler, 
Hercules  attacked  him,  and  as  Antaeus  drew 
new  strength  from  his  mother  whenever  he 
touched  the  earth,  Hercules  lifted  him  in  the 
air  and  squeezed  Km  to  death  in  his  arms. 
Ante-Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers, 
terms  applied  respectively  to  Christian  litera- 
ture from  the  time  of  the  Apostles  to  the 
Council  of  Nicaea  (A.D.  325),  and  from  the 
Council  of  Nicaea  to  Pope  Gregory  I  (d.  604), 
Antenor,  a  wise  counsellor  of  Priam  (q.v.), 
king  of  Troy.  In  post-Homeric  legend  he  is 
a  traitor,  who  plans  to  surrender  the  city  and 
the  palladium  (q.v.)  to  the  Greeks. 
Anthology*  The  Greek,  a  collection  of 
about  4,500  poems,  inscriptions,  &c.s  by 
more  than  300  writers  (sth  cent.  B.C. -6th 
cent.  A.D.),  originating  in  a  collection  by 
Meleager  of  Gadara  (the  'Garland  of  Me- 
leager*,  c.  60  B.C.),  which  grew  by  successive 
additions.  In  its  present  form  it  is  sub- 
stantially the  work  of  Constantius  Cephalas,  a 
Byzantine  of  the  loth  cent.  A.D. 

Anthropo'phagi,  in  Greek  legend,  a  people 
of  Scythia  that  fed  on  human  flesh. 
Antichrist,  the  archetypal  personal  opponent 
of  Christ  and  His  Kingdom,  expected  by  the 
Early  Church  to  appear  before  the  end  of  the 
world,  and  much  referred  to  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  term  was  at  one  time  applied  by 
some  (e.g.  Wycliffe)  to  the  Pope  or  the  Papal 
power.  *  Antichrist*  is  mentioned  in  i  John  ii 
1 8,  22,  and  z  John  vii,  and  variously  referred 
to  as  the  Man  of  Sin  (2  Thess.  ii.  3),  the 
Beast  (Revelation),  &c. 
Anti- Corn- Law  League,  see  Corn  Laws. 

Antlgdne,  a  daughter  of  Oedipus  (q.v.)  and 
Jocasta.  When  the  strife  between  her  brothers 
Eteocles  (q.v.)  and  Polyneices  had  led  to  the 

death  of  the  latter,  she  buried  his  body  by 
night,  against  the  order  of  King  Creon,  and 
was  ordered  by  him  to  be  buried  alive.  She 
took  her  own  life  before  the  sentence  was 
executed,  and  Haemon,  the  king's  son,  who 
passionately  loved  her,  killed  Mmself  on  her 


[39] 


ANTIGONUS 

grave.  The  incident  was  made  the  subject  of 
one  of  the  tragedies  of  Sophocles. 
Antigonus,  (i)  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'The  Winter's  Tale'  (q.v.);  (2)  a  character  in 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  'The  Humorous 
Lieutenant'  (q.v.);  (3)  the  name  of  one  of 
Alexander's  generals,  who  on  Alexander's 
death  received  certain  provinces  of  Asia,  and 
of  some  of  his  descendants,  kings  of  Mace- 
donia. 

Anti-Jacobin,  The,  a  journal  founded  by 
Canning  (q.v.),  to  combat  the  subversive 
principles  of  philosophy  and  politics  that  were 
current  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  cent.,  and  to 
deride  their  supporters.  It  was  edited  by 
Gifford  (q.v.),  and  included  among  its 
contributors,  besides  Canning,  Ellis  (q.v.,  a 
converted  author  of  'RolliacT  satires),  and 
Frere  (q.v.).  In  addition  to  ordinary  news,  the 
journal  published  satirical  verse,  mainly  in  the 
form  of  parody,  of  which  'The  Needy  Knife- 
grinder',  a  parody  of  Southey,  and  'The  Loves 
of  the  Triangles',  a  parody  of  Erasmus 
Darwin's  'The  Loves  of  the  Plants',  are  famous 
examples.  'The  Rovers'  was  an  amusing 
burlesque  of  contemporary  German  drama. 
Its  final  and  most  important  satire  was  'The 
New  Morality'  by  Canning,  a  denunciation  of 
the  French  propaganda  and  an  exhortation  to 
maintain  the  old  English  institutions.  The 
'Anti- Jacobin*  came  to  an  end  in  1798,  but  its 
crusade,  in  feebler  form,  was  continued  by 
'The  Anti- Jacobin  Review  and  Magazine'. 
'The  Poetry  of  the  Anti- Jacobin*  was  reprinted 
in  1852,  with  explanatory  notes  by  Charles 
Edmonds. 

Antilia,  see  Seven  Cities. 
Antinomian,  one  who  maintains  that  the 
moral  law  is  not  binding  upon  Christians, 
under  the  'law  of  grace'.  A  sect  appeared  in 
Germany  in  1535  which  was  alleged  to  hold 
this  opinion. 

Antmous,  a  youth  of  remarkable  beauty, 
who  was  a  favourite  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian. 
He  was  drowned  in  the  Nile  in  A.D.  122. 
AntiSpe,  a  daughter  of  Nycteus,  king  of 
Thebes,  was  beloved  by  Zeus,  by  whom  she 
became  mother  of  Amphion  and  Zethus.  To 
avoid  her  father's  anger  she  fled  to  Epopeus, 
king  of  Sicyon,  or  was  carried  off  by  him. 
Nycteus  made  war  on  Epopeus  and  when 
dying  entreated  his  brother  Lycus  to  con- 
tinue the  war  and  recover  his  daughter.  This 
Lycus  did  and  married  Antiope.  But  Dirce, 
the  first  wife  of  Lycus,  imprisoned  and  tor- 
mented Antiope.  The  latter  escaped  to  her 
sons,  who  undertook  her  revenge.  They 
killed  Lycus  and  tied  Dirce  to  the  tail  of  a 
bull,  which  dragged  her  till  she  died. 
Dionysus  changed  Dirce  into  a  fountain  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Thebes,  and  deprived 
Antiope  of  her  senses. 

Antipholus,  the  name  of  the  twin  brothers, 
sons  of  Aegeon,  in  Shakespeare's  'Comedy  of 
Errors'  (q.v.). 

Antiquaries,  THE  SOCIETY  OF,  was  founded 


ANTONINUS  PIUS 

about  the  year  1572  at  the  instance  of  Arch- 
bishop Parker,  but  was  suppressed  on  the 
accession  of  James  I.  The  present  Society 
was  founded  in  January  1717-18,  with  Peter 
Le  Neve  as  president.  Its  'Archaeologia' 
was  first  printed  in  1770. 
Antiquary,  The,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott 
(q.v.),  published  in  1816. 

A  gallant  young  officer,  known  as  Major 
Neville,  on  whose  birth  there  is  supposed 
to  be  the  stain  of  illegitimacy,  falls  in  love 
in  England  with  Isabella  Wardour,  who,  in 
deference  to  the  prejudices  of  her  father,  Sir 
Arthur  Wardour,  repulses  him.  Under  the 
assumed  name  of  Lovel,  he  follows  her  to 
Scotland,  falling  in  on  the  way  with  Jonathan 
Oldbuck,  laird  of  Monkbarns,  a  learned  and 
garrulous  antiquary,  and  a  neighbour  of  Sir 
Arthur.  Lovel  saves  the  lives  of  Sir  Arthur 
and  his  daughter  at  the  peril  of  his  own,  fights 
a  duel  with  Hector  M'Intyre,  Oldbuck's 
impetuous  nephew,  and  saves  Sir  Arthur 
from  the  ruin  that  his  credulity  and  the 
impositions  of  the  German  charlatan  Dous- 
terswivel  have  brought  on  him.  He  finally 
turns  out  to  be  the  son  and  heir  of  the  earl 
of  Glenallan,  and  all  ends  happily.  The 
charm  of  the  book,  Scott's  'chief  favourite 
among  all  his  novels',  lies  in  the  character  of 
the  Antiquary,  drawn  according  to  Scott  from 
a  worthy  friend  of  his  boyish  days  (George 
Constable),  but  in  which  we  may  recognize  a 
portrait  or  caricature  of  Scott  himself;  and  in 
that  of  old  Edie  Ochiltree,  the  king's  bedes- 
man, shrewd,  ironical,  and  kindly,  who  is 
instrumental  in  routing  the  rascally  Dous- 
terswivel,  and  in  bringing  events  to  a  satis- 
factory termination. 

Antiquary,  The,  a  comedy  by  Shackerley 
Marmion  (q.v.). 

Antiquities  of  Warwickshire,  see  Dugdale. 
AntisthSnes,  the  founder  of  the  Cynic 
school  of  philosophy.  He  was  an  Athenian, 
lived  in  the  5th  cent.  B.C.,  and  was  a  pupil  of 
Socrates.  He  taught  in  the  Cynosarges,  for 
which  reason  probably  his  pupils  were  called 
Cynics,  though  others  attribute  the  name 
to  their  surliness  (from  /ctkov,  a  dog).  He 
despised  art  and  learning,  and  the  luxuries 
and  comforts  of  life,  and  taught  that  virtue 
consists  in  the  avoidance  of  evil  and  in- 
dependence of  needs.  Diogenes  (q.v.)  was 
the  most  famous  of  his  pupils. 
Anti'str6phS,  meaning  'turning  about',  in  a 
Greek  chorus,  the  response  to  the  strophe 
(q.v.),  recited  as  the  chorus  proceeded  in  the 
opposite  direction  to  that  followed  in  the 
strophe.  The  metre  of  strophe  and  antistrophe 
was  the  same. 

Antoninus  Pius  (A.D.  86-161),  Roman 
emperor  from  1 3  8  to  1 6 1 .  He  devoted  himself 
to  promoting  the  happiness  of  his  people  and 
his  reign  was  an  exceptionally  peaceful  and 
prosperous  one.  The  WALL  OF  ANTONINUS, 
or  Antonine  Wall,  was  built  in  the  course 
of  the  reign  by  the  prefect  Lollius  Urbicus 


[30] 


ANTONIO 

between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde  to  streng- 
then the  protection  of  the  province  of  Britain 
against  invasions  from  the  North. 

Antonio,  (i)  the  Merchant  of  Venice,  in 
Shakespeare's  play  of  that  name  (q.v.) ;  (2)  the 
brother  of  Prospero  in  'The  Tempest'  (q.v.) ; 

(3)  a  sea-captain  in  'Twelfth  Night"  (q.v.); 

(4)  the  brother  of  Leonato  in  'Much  Ado 
about   Nothing'    (q.v.);    (5)    the    father   of 
Proteus  in  'Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona*  (q.v.). 

Antonio  and  Mellida  f  a  tragedy  by  J.  Marston 
(q.v.),  printed  in  1602,  and  probably  acted 
two  years  earlier,  is  interesting  as  having  pro- 
vided Ben  Jonson  with  materials  for  his 
ridicule  of  Marston  in  the  'Poetaster*  (q.v.). 
In  Part  I  of  the  play,  Antonio,  son  of  Andra- 
gio,  duke  of  Genoa,  is  in  love  with  Mellida, 
daughter  of  Piero,  duke  of  Venice.  The  two 
states  are  at  war  and  Genoa  has  been  defeated, 
and  a  price  set  in  Venice  on  the  heads  of 
Antonio  and  Andrugio.  Antonio,  disguised  as 
an  Amazon,  comes  to  Piero's  court  to  seek 
Mellida.  Mellida  flees  with  Antonio  but  is 
captured.  Andnigio  offers  himself  as  a 
victim  to  Piero,  who  appears  to  relent,  and 
assents  to  the  marriage  of  Antonio  and  Mel- 
lida, and  the  first  part  closes  joyfully. 

In  Part  II  Piero  reveals  his  true  character. 
He  kills  Andrugio,  contrives  the  dishonour  of 
Mellida  in  order  to  prevent  the  match,  plots 
the  death  of  Antonio,  and  gains  the  hand  of 
Andrugio *s  widow.  Mellida  dies  broken- 
hearted. Antonio,  urged  by  the  ghost  of  his 
father,  assumes  the  disguise  of  a  fool,  and 
kills  Piero. 

Antony  and  Cleopatra,  an  historical  tragedy 
by  Shakespeare  (q.v.),  probably  written  about 
1606—7,  anci  first  printed  in  the  folio  of 
1623.  In  it  the  poet  closely  follows  North's 
'Plutarch'. 

The  play  presents  Mark  Antony,  the  great 
soldier  and  noble  prince,  at  Alexandria,  en- 
thralled by  the  beauty  of  the  Egyptian  queen, 
Cleopatra.  Recalled  by  the  death  of  his  wife 
Fulvia  and  political  developments,  he  tears 
himself  from  Cleopatra  and  returns  to  Rome, 
where  the  estrangement  between  him  and 
Octavius  Caesar  is  terminated  by  his  mar- 
riage to  Octavia,  Caesar's  sister,  an  event 
which  provokes  the  intense  jealousy  of 
Cleopatra.  But  the  reconciliation  is  short- 
lived, and  Antony  leaves  Octavia  and  returns 
to  Egypt.  At  the  battle  of  Actium,  the  flight 
of  the  Egyptian  squadron  is  followed  by  the 
retreat  of  Antony,  pursued  to  Alexandria  by 
Caesar.  There,  after  a  momentary  success, 
Antony  is  finally  defeated.  On  the  false 
report  of  Cleopatra's  death,  he  falls  upon  his 
sword.  He  is  borne  to  the  monument  where 
Cleopatra  has  taken  refuge  and  dies  in  her 
arms.  Cleopatra,  fallen  into  Caesar's  power, 
but  determined  not  to  grace  his  triumph, 
takes  her  own  life  by  the  bite  of  an  asp. 

See  also  Cleopatra. 

Anubis,  an  ancient  Egyptian  deity,  ruler  of 
the  dead,  whom  he  conducts  to  the  shades. 


APICIUS 

He  was  represented  by  the  Egyptians  with  the 
head  of  a  jackal,  and  by  the  Romans  with  that 
of  a  dog. 

Anushirvan,  see  Khusrau  L 
Anville,    Miss,    the   name   borne   by  the 
heroine  of  Miss  Burney*s  'Evelina*  (q.v.), 
until  she  is  recognized  by  her  father. 

Aonia,  a  part  of  Boeotia  (q.v.)  which  includes 
Mt.  Helicon  and  the  fountain  Aganippe,  sacred 
to  the  Muses.  Hence  Milton  speaks  of  "the 
Aonian  Mount*  ('Paradise  Lost',  i.  15),  and 

Thomson  ('Castle  of  Indolence9,  li.  ii)  refers 
to  poets  as  'the  Aonian  hive*. 

Apache,  the  name  of  a  tribe  of  Red  Indians, 
applied  in  recent  times  to  the  hooligans  of 
Paris.  Cf.  Mohock. 

Apache  State,  Arizona,  see  United  States. 

Apelles,  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  bom 
probably  at  Colophon  in  Ionia,  of  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  who,  it  is  said,  honoured 
him  so  much  that  he  forbade  any  man  but 
Apelles  to  draw  his  portrait.  When  Alexander 
ordered  him  to  make  a  picture  of  Campaspe, 
one  of  his  mistresses,  Apelles  became 
enamoured  of  her,  and  Alexander  allowed 
him  to  marry  her.  His  most  celebrated 
paintings  were  a  picture  of  Venus  Anadyo- 
mene  for  a  temple  at  Cos  (subsequently 
placed  by  Augustus  in  the  temple  of  Caesar  at 
Rome),  and  a  portrait  of  Alexander  wielding 
a  thunderbolt.  Apelles  is  said  never  to  have 
let  pass  a  day  without  practising  with  his 
pencil,  whence  the  proverb,  nulla  dies  sins 
lima.  Apelles  is  a  character  in  Lyfy*s  'Alex- 
ander and  Campaspe*  (see  Campaspe). 

APELLES  AND  THE  COBBLER:  a  cobbler, 
having  found  fault  with  the  drawing  of  a  shoe- 
latchet  in  one  of  the  pictures  of  Apelles*  pro- 
ceeded to  criticise  the  drawing  of  the  legs. 
To  which  Apelles  replied,  *ne  supra  crepldam 
judicaret",  or  according  to  another  version, 
*ne  sutor  ultra  crepidam*,  of  which  the 
modern  equivalent  is  'the  cobbler  should  stick 
to  his  last*.  Hazlitt  coined  the  word  'ultxa- 
crepidarian*  for  a  critic  who  goes  beyond 
the  sphere  of  his  knowledge,  with  reference 
to  William  Gilford  (q.v.),  at  one  time  a  shoe- 
maker's apprentice. 

Apemantas,  the  £churlish  philosopher*  in 
Shakespeare's  'Tirnon  of  Athens*  (q.v.). 
Apnaeresis,  the  suppression  of  a  letter  or 
syllable  at  the  beginning  of  a  word. 

Aphorism  or  APOPHTHEGM,  a  short  pithy 
sentence  into  which  much  thought  or  ob- 
servation is  compressed. 
Aphrddite,  see  Venus. 
Apicius,  the  name  of  three  notorious 
gluttons.  The  best  known  of  the  three  was 
Marcus  Gabius  Apicius,  who  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Tiberius.  Having  squandered  his 
fortune  till  it  was  reduced  to  about  £80,000, 
he  hanged  himself  from  despair  at  having  so 
little  left  to  live  on. 


APIS 

Apis,  an  ancient  Egyptian  deity,  the  incar- 
nation as  a  bull  of  Ptah,  the  god  of  the  sun, 
identified  with  Osiris  (q.v.).  Apis  was 
represented  as  a  bull  with  the  disk  of  the  sun 
between  his  horns. 

Apocrypha,  THE,  in  its  special  sense,  those 
books  included  in  the  Septuagint  and  Vul- 
gate versions  of  the  O.T.  which  were  not 
originally  written  in  Hebrew  and  not  counted 
genuine  by  the  Jews,  and  which,  at  the 
Reformation,  were  excluded  from  the  Sacred 
Canon  by  the  Protestant  party,  as  haying  no 
well-grounded  claim  to  inspired  authorship. 
They  are  Esdras  (I  and  II),  Tobit,  Judith,  the 
Rest  of  Esther,  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch  (with  the  Epistle  of 
Jeremiah),  the  Song  of  the  Three  Holy 
Children,  the  History  of  Susanna,  Bel  and  the 
Dragon,  the  Prayer  of  Manasses,  Maccabees 
(I  and  II). 

The  texts  of  the  Apocryphal  Gospels,  Acts, 
Epistles,  and  Apocalypses  are  printed  in 
"The  Apocryphal  New  Testament',  trans- 
lated by  M.  R.  James  (1924). 

Apollo,  called  also  PHOEBUS,  often  identified 
with  the  sun,  was  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Latona 
(q.v.).  He  was  the  god  who  brings  back  sun- 
shine in  spring,  who  sends  plagues,  and  who 
founds  states  and  colonies.  He  was  the  god 
of  music  and  poetry  (cf.  Shelley's  'Hymn  of 
Apollo')  and  had  the  gift  of  knowing  the 
future,  so  that  his  oracles  were  in  high  repute. 
He  was  the  type  of  manly  youth  and  beauty, 
and  was  represented  in  the  famous  Colossus 
(q.v.)  at  Rhodes.  When  his  son  Aesculapius 
(q.v.)  had  been  killed  by  the  thunders  of  Zeus, 
Apollo  in  his  resentment  killed  the  Cyclops 
who  had  fabricated  the  thunderbolts.  Ban- 
ished by  Jupiter  from  heaven  for  this  act,  he 
hired  himself  to  Admetus,  king  of  Thessaly, 
as  one  of  his  shepherds  and  served  him  for 
nine  years.  He  rewarded  the  kind  treatment 
of  Admetus  by  obtaining  for  him  the  boon  that 
he  might  be  redeemed  from  death,  if  another 
would  die  in  his  place  (see  Alcestis).  See 
also  Delos,  Delphi.  The  BELVEDERE  APOLLO 
is  a  statue  of  the  god  in  the  Vatican  (Belve- 
dere is  the  name  of  a  part  of  the  Vatican 
palace,  originally  a  garden  pavilion). 

Apollonius  of  Tyana  in  Cappadocia  (b.  c. 
4  B.C.),  a  Pythagorean  philosopher  who  at- 
tained so  great  a  fame  by  his  pretended 
magical  and  wonder-working  powers  that 
divine  honours  were  paid  to  him.  His  life 
was  written  by  Philostratus. 

Apollonius  of  Tyre,  the  subject  of  a  popu- 
lar medieval  romance.  See  Pericles  (Shake- 
speare's drama). 

APOLLONIUS  RHODIUS,  a  poet  and 
grammarian  of  Alexandria,  who  wrote  at  the 
end  of  the  $rd  and  beginning  of  the  2nd  cents. 
B.C.  His  'Argonautica*,  a  poem  in  the  Homeric 
style  on  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts  (q.v.), 
was  coldly  received  and  caused  a  quarrel 
between  him  and  Callimachus  (q.v.).  In  con- 
sequence he  migrated  to  Rhodes,  where  he 


APPIAN 

was  well  received  and  made  a  citizen.    He 

subsequently  became  chief  librarian  at  Alex- 

andria. 

Apollyon,  'The  Destroyer',  the  angel  of  the 

bottomless  pit  (Rev.  ix.  n).    He  figures  in 

Bunyan's  Tilgnm's  Progress'  (q.v.). 

Apologia  pro  Vita  sua,  see  Newman. 

Apologie  for  Poetrie,  The,  or  Defence  of 
Poesie,  a  prose  essay  by  Sir  P.  Sidney  (q.v.), 
probably  written  at  Wilton  in  1580  during  the 
queen's  temporary  displeasure  with  him.  A 
treatise  by  Stephen  Gosson  (q.v.),  entitled 
the  'School  of  Abuse,  containing  a  pleasant 
invective  against  Poets,  Pipers,  Players, 
Jesters,  and  Such  like  Caterpillers  of  a 
Commonwealth',  dedicated  to  Sidney,  was 
probably  the  occasion.  The  'Apologie*  was 
published  in  1595  after  Sidney's  death,  in  two 
editions,  one  of  which  bore  the  first  of  the 
above  titles,  the  other  the  second. 

It  is  a  methodical  examination  of  the  art  of 
poetry  and  a  critical  discussion  of  the  state 
of  English  poetry  in  the  author's  time,  such 
as  had  not  before  appeared  in  English.  Start- 
ing with  the  essential  nature  of  poetry,  the 
art  of  imitation  or  representation,  the  author 
classifies  the  various  kinds  of  poetry,  discusses 
their  relation  to  philosophy  and  history,  the 
objections  (including  Plato's)  that  have  been 
raised  to  poetry,  and  English  poetry  from 
Chaucer  to  his  own  day.  He  next  deals  with 
the  principles  that  should  be  observed  in 
tragedy  and  comedy,  laments  the  poverty  of 
English  lyrical  poetry  and  the  affectation  of 
the  current  English  style.  Lastly,  he  deals 
with  prosody  in  its  special  relation  to  the 
English  language. 

Apologue,  a  fable  conveying  a  moral  lesson. 

Apology  for  Smectymnuus,  see  Smectym- 
nuus. 

Apology  for  the  Life  of  Mr.  Colley  Gibber, 
see  Gibber. 

Apology  for  .  .  .  the  People  called  Quakers, 

by  Robert  Barclay  (1648-90),  published  in 
1678. 

Apophthegm,  see  Aphorism. 

Aposiopesis,  a  rhetorical  artifice,  in  which 
the  speaker  comes  to  a  sudden  halt  in  the 
middle  of  a  sentence,  as  if  unable  or  unwilling 
to  proceed. 

Appeal  from  the  New  to  the  Old  Whigs,  see 
Burke 


APPERLEY,  CHARLES  JAMES,  a  Shrop- 
shire squire  and  sportsman,  educated  at 
Rugby,  wrote,  under  the  pseudonym  *Nim- 
rod',  'Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  John  Mytton* 
(1837)  and  'The  Life  of  a  Sportsman*  (1842), 
both  illustrated  by  Henry  Alken.  He  was  a 
contributor  to  'The  Sporting  Magazine*  and 
a  member  of  the  staff  of  'The  Sporting 
Review*. 

APPIAN,  an  historian  born  at  Alexandria, 
who  lived  at  Rome  in  the  first  half  of  the 


APPIAN  WAY 

2nd  cent.  A.D.  He  wrote  in  Greek  a  history 
of  the  countries  forming  the  Roman  Empire, 
of  which  a  part  survives. 

Appiam  Way,  THE,  the  first  great  public 
road  made  by  the  Romans.  It  was  constructed 
in  the  censorship  of  Appius  Claudius  Caecus 
(312  B.C.)  and  ran  from  Rome  to  Capua  and 
thence  to  Brundusium  (Brindisi). 
Appius,  see  Virginia. 

Appius  and  Virginia  ff  (i)  a  tragedy  commonly 
attributed  to  J.  Webster  (q.v.),  by  some 
authorities  to  J.  Heywood  (q.v.),  in  whole  or 
part  (T.L.S.  30.  vii.  31).  The  date  of  produc- 
tion is  uncertain.  It  appears  not  to  have  been 
printed  until  1654.  The  plot  is  taken  from 
the  classical  legend  (see  Virginia},  which 
forms  one  of  the  stories  in  Painter's  'Palace  of 
Pleasure'  (q.v.). 

(2)  A  tragedy  by  John  Dennis  (q.v.). 
April  Fool's  Day,  i  April,  the  celebration  of 
which  is  probably  the  survival  of  ancient  festi- 
vities formerly  held  at  the  spring  equinox,  from 
25  March  (old  New  Year's  Day)  to  i  April. 
Apsley  House,  Hyde  Park  Comer,  built  for 
Lord  Apsley  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  cent.,  was 
the  residence  of  the  duke  of  Wellington  after 
1820.    Its  windows  were  broken  in  the  Re- 
form Bill  riots  (1832). 

APULEIUS  (b.  c.  A.D.  114),  of  Madaura  in 
Africa,  educated  at  Carthage  and  Athens,  was 
author  of  the  'Metamorphoses  seu  de  Asino 
Aureo',  'The  Golden  Ass'  (q.v.). 

Aqua  Toffana,  a  slow-acting  transparent 
odourless  poison,  probably  arsenical,  invented 
in  the  I7th  cent,  by  an  Italian  woman  named 
Toffana,  who  lived  at  Palermo  and  Naples, 
and  used  to  sell  it  in  vials  labelled  Manna 
di  S.  Nicola  di  Bari.  Several  poisoners, 
headed  by  an  old  hag  named  Spara,  who  had 
the  secret  from  Toffana,  were  arrested  in 
1659,  and  five  of  them  were  executed. 

Aquarius,  a  constellation  that  gives  its  name 
to  the  eleventh  sign  of  the  zodiac,  which  the 
sun  enters  on  21  Jan.  It  is  represented  by  the 
figure  of  a  man  pouring  water  from  a  pitcher. 
Aquilo,  see  Boreas. 

AQUINAS,  ST.  THOMAS  (c.  1225-74),  of 

Aquino  in  Sicily,  Italian  philosopher  and 
Dominican  monk,  a  compound  of  the  seeker 
after  truth  and  the  Christian  apologist.  He 
represents  in  his  writings,  and  notably  in  his 
'Summa  Totius  Philosophiae*,  the  culmina- 
tion of  scholastic  philosophy,  the  harmony  of 
faith  and  reason.  The  above  work,  which  re- 
mained unfinished,  was  a  vast  synthesis  of  the 
moral  and  political  sciences,  brought  within 
a  theological  and  metaphysical  framework, 
one  of  the  greatest  monuments  of  the  medie- 
val intellect.  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  was  known 
as  the  *  Angelic  Doctor',  and  by  his  school 
companions  as  'the  Dumb  Ox*.  His  followers 
were  called  THOMISTS. 
Ara  vos  prec,  the  title  of  a  work  by  T.  S. 
Eliot  (q.v.),  taken  from  Dante,  Turgatorio*, 

3868  [33] 


ARAFA 

xxvi.  145.  The  words  are  Provencal,  *Xow 
I  do  pray  you'. 

Arabesque,  the  Arabian  or  Moorish  style  of 
mural  decoration,  composed  in  flowing*  lines 
of  branches,  leaves,  and  scroll-work  fancifully 
intertwined.  Representations  of  living  crea- 
tures were  excluded  from  it.  But  in  the 
arabesques  of  the  Renaissance  human  and 
animal  figures,  both  natural  and  grotesque, 
were  freely  introduced. 

Ajrabia  Deserta,  Felix,  Petraea,  in  ancient 

geography,  the  several  parts  of  the  desert 
region  between  Egypt,  Syria,  and  the 
Euphrates.  ARABIA  PETRAEA  included  the 
peninsula  of  Mt.  Sinai  and  the  country  N. 
and  NE.  of  it,  and  was  named  after  its 
capital  Petra.  ARABIA  DESERTA  included  the 
Syrian  desert  and  part  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula.  ARABIA  FELIX  (i.e.  fertile,  as  it 
was  supposed  to  be)  included  the  more 
southern  parts  of  the  peninsula. 

Arabia  Deserta,  see  Doughty. 

Arabian  Nights9  Entertainments,  or  The 
Thousand  and  One  Nights,  is  a  collection  of 
stories  written  in  Arabic  which,  were  made 
known  in  Europe  early  in  the  i8th  cent,  by 
the  translation  into  French  of  Antoine 
Galland.  They  were  translated  into  English 
by  Edward  William  Lane  in  1840,  with  some 
omissions,  and  an  unexpurgated  version  was 
published  by  Sir  Richard  Burton  in  1885-8. 
There  is  a  French  translation  by  J,  C.  Mar- 
drus  (1899  and  subsequent  years). 

The  source  of  the  tales  is  uncertain.  The 
framework  (that  is,  the  story  of  the  king  who 
killed  his  wives  successively  on  the  morning 
after  the  consummation  of  their  marriage, 
until  he  married  the  clever  Scheherazade,  who 
saved  her  life  by  the  tales  she  told  him)  is  of 
Persian  origin.  It  is  mentioned  by  Mas*udi 
(A.D.  944)  and  in  the  'Fihrist'  (A.D.  987)  as 
occurring  in  a  book  called  the  *Hezar 
Afsane'  or  'Thousand  Tales',  attributed  to  a 
Princess  Homai,  the  daughter  according  ^to 
tradition  of  Artaxerxes  I.  But  the  stories 
themselves  told  by  Scheherazade  are,  for 
the  most  part,  not  Persian  but  Arabian 
in  character,  and  were  probably  collected  in 
Egypt  by  a  professional  story-teller  at  some 
time  in  the  I4th-i6th  cents. 

Arabin,  THE  REV.  FRANCIS,  a  character  in 
Trollope's  'Barchester  Towers*  (q.v.)  and 

subsequent  Barsetshire  novels,  a  prot£g£  of  Dr. 
Grantly,  vicar  of  St.  Ewold's  and  afterwards 
Dean  of  Barchester.  He  marries  the  widow, 
Eleanor  Bold. 

Aracfaxie,  a  woman  of  Colophon  in  Lydia,  so 
skilful  a  weaver  that  she  challenged  Athene 
(q.v.)  to  a  contest.  She  depicted  in  her  work 
the  amours  of  the  gods,  thereby  arousing  the 
wrath  of  Athene,  who  tore  the  work  in  pieces. 
Arachne  in  despair  hanged  herself,  but  was 
changed  into  a  spider. 

Arafa  or  ARAFAT,  a  hill  near  Mecca,  the 
scene  of  certain  ceremonies  in  the  course  of 


ARAMIS 

the  Mohammedan  pilgrimage  (such  as  pelting 
a  cairn  with  stones),  no  doubt  the  survival  of 
heathen  rites,  explained  by  legends  relative  to 
Adam  and  Eve,  to  Abraham's  sacrifice,  and 
the  like. 

Aramis,  see  Three  Musketeers. 

Arbaces,  (i)  the  legendary  founder  of  the 
Median   empire  (see   Sardanapalus);  (z)  a 
character  in  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  *A 
King  and  No  King*  (q.v.). 
Arbiter  elegantiae,  see  Petronius. 
Arblay,  MADAME  D5,  see  Bumey. 

ARBUTHNOT,  JOHN  (1667-1735),  was 
M.D.  of  St.  Andrews  and  physician  in 
ordinary  to  Queen  Anne.  He  formed  a  close 
friendship  with  Swift  and  was  acquainted 
with  Pope  and  most  of  the  literary  men  of 
his  day,  and  earned  general  praise  both  for  his 
medical  science,  his  wit  and  humour,  and 
his  kind  heart.  His  'History  of  John  Bull* 
(q.v.),  a  collection  of  pamphlets  issued  in  1712 
advocating  the  termination  of  the  war  with 
France,  was  included  in  Pope  and  Swift's 
'Miscellanies'  of  1727.  The  first  of  these 
pamphlets  was  called  'Law  is  a  Bottomless 
Pit,  exemplified  in  the  case  of  the  Lord  Strutt, 
John  Bull,  Nicholas  Frog,  and  Lewis  Baboon, 
who  spent  all  they  had  in  a  Law  Suit'.  This 
work  was  the  origin  of  JOHN  BULL,  the 
typical  Englishman.  Dr.  Arbuthnot  was  the 
principal  author  of  the  'Memoirs  of  Martinus 
Scriblerus*  (q.v.),  which  were  published  with 
Pope's  *  Works*  in  1741.  He  also  wrote 
medical  works,  which  proved  him  to  be  in 
advance  of  his  age  in  medical  science.  Of 
these  the  most  interesting  is  'An  Essay  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  Aliments*  (1731),  in 
which  he  urges  the  efficacy  of  appropriate 
diet  in  disease,  and  cAn  Essay  concerning  the 
effect  of  Air  on  Human  Bodies'  (1733).  In 
*A  Sermon  preached  to  the  People  at  the 
Mercat  Cross,  Edinburgh'  (1706),  he  ad- 
vocated the  union  of  Scotland  with  England. 
His  'Essay  on  the  Usefulness  of  Mathe- 
matical Learning'  (1701)  is  said  to  be  an 
excellent  work.  He  wrote  one  poem,  an 
ethical  study,  TNtiS!  ZEAYTON,  Know 
Thyself  (1734). 

Arc,  JOAN  OF,  see  Joan  of  Arc. 

Arcades ,  Part  of  an  Entertainment  presented 
to  the  Countess- Dowager  of  Derby  at  Harefield 
by  some  noble  persons  of  her  Family,  by  Milton 
(q.v.),  written  about  1633.  It  was  probably 
composed  at  the  request  of  Henry  Lawes,  the 
musician,  while  Milton  was  at  Horton. 

The  piece  is  short,  and  consists  of  a  song 
by  nymphs  and  shepherds  as  they  approach 
the  seat  of  state  of  the  countess,  an  address  to 
them  by  the  Genius  of  the  Wood,  in  deca- 
syllabic couplets,  describing  his  occupations 
and  praising  music,  and  two  further  songs,  one 
by  the  Genius,  the  other  by  the  chorus. 

Arcadia,  a  mountainous  district  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnese,  taken  as  an  ideal  region  of  rustic 
contentment. 


ARCADIA 

Arcades  ambo,  'Arcadians  both',  is  applied 
by  Virgil  (Eel.  vii.  4)  to  Corydon  and  Thyrsis, 
young  shepherds  and  poets. 

Arcadia,  a  series  of  verse  eclogues  connected 
by  prose  narrative,  published  in  1504  by 
Sannazzaro  (q.v.),  occupied  with  the  loves, 
laments,  and  other  doings  of  various  shep- 
herds in  Arcadia.  The  work,  which  was  im- 
mensely popular,  was  a  link  between  the 
pastorals  of  Theocritus  and  Virgil  and  those 
of  Montemayor,  Sidney,  Spenser,  and  later 
writers. 

Arcadia,  Greene's,  see  Menaphon. 
Arcadia,  The,  a  prose  romance  by  Sir  P.  Sidney 
(q.v.),  including  at  the  end  of  each  book  a 
pastoral  eclogue.  It  was  begun  in  1 580  for  the 
amusement  of  his  sister,  the  countess  of 
Pembroke,  but  not  published  until  1590,  after 
Sidney's  death.  Sidney  had  no  high  opinion 
of  the  work  and  is  said  to  have  asked  when 
dying  that  it  should  be  destroyed.  But  it  has 
an  important  place  in  the  history  of  English 
literature.  The  chief  incidents  were  drama- 
tized in  'The  Arcadia*  (1640)  by  James  Shirley 
(q.v.). 

The  scene  is  laid  in  Arcadia,  with  its  flowery 
meads,  where  'shepherd  boys  pipe  as  tho* 
they  would  never  be  old*.  The  main  thread 
of  the  story,  which  is  diversified  by  incidents 
and  interposed  narratives,  is  as  follows. 
Pyrocles  and  Musidorus,  son  and  nephew  of 
the  king  of  Macedon,  gallant  knights  and 
devoted  friends,  after  achieving  many  ad- 
ventures, are  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Laconia. 
Pyrocles  is  carried  off  by  pirates,  Musidorus 
rescued  by  shepherds  and  carried  to  Arcadia, 
whose  king,  Basilius,  in  consequence  of  an 
oracle,  has  retired  with  his  young  wife 
Gynecia  and  his  beautiful  daughters  Pamela 
and  Philoclea  into  a  forest. 

After  a  number  of  preliminary  incidents, 
Pyrocles  seeing  Philoclea  in  the  forest  falls  in 
love  with  her,  disguises  himself  as  a  woman 
(Zelmane),  and  is  admitted  by  Basilius  to  his 
household.  Basilius  falls  in  love  with  Zel- 
mane, while  both  Philoclea  and  her  mother 
Gynecia,  seeing  through  the  disguise,  also 
fall  in  love  with  him. 

Musidorus  discovers  Pyrocles,  falls  in  love 
with  Pamela,  and  obtains  employment  as 
servant  to  Dametas,  who  has  charge  of 
Pamela.  He  makes  love  to  Mopsa,  daughter 
of  Dametas,  to  veil  his  affection  for  Pamela. 
The  pathetic  story  is  here  introduced  of  the 
true  Zelmane,  daughter  of  the  wicked 
Plexistus,  who  from  love  of  Pyrocles  had 
followed  him  as  a  page,  fallen  sick,  and  died. 
(The  character  of  Bellario  in  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  'Philaster'  is  borrowed  from  this 
Zelmane.)  Cecropia,  who  had  been  heiress 
to  the  crown  of  Arcadia  until  Basilius  married 
and  had  daughters,  now  carries  off  Pamela, 
Philoclea,  and  the  disguised  Pyrocles.  She 
is  besieged  in  the  castle  where  she  holds  them 
captive,  trying  by  the  most  cruel  devices  to 
make  one  or  other  of  the  sisters  marry  her  son 
Amphialus.  (Pamela's  prayer  during  im- 


[34] 


ARCHANGEL 

prisonment  acquired  celebrity;  Charles  I  on 
the  scaffold  handed  a  copy  of  it  to  Bishop 
Juxon,  incurring  thereby  the  censure  of 
Milton.)  Finally,  after  deeds  of  valour  by  the 
disguised  Pyxocles,  the  stirring  narrative  of 
which  is  unfortunately  unfinished,  the  sisters 
are  delivered. 

The  sisters  and  Pyrocles  return  to  the 
forest,  where  finally  Musidoras  runs  away 
with  Pamela,  and  Pyrpcles,  pestered  by  both 
Basiiius  and  Gynecia,  gives  to  each  an 
assignation  in  a  cave  on  the  same  night,  thus 
confronting  husband  and  wife  with  each 
other.  On  this  occasion  Basiiius  drinks  a  love 
potion  intended  by  Gynecia  for  Pyrocles,  and 
falls  apparently  dead.  Pyrocles  is  found  in 
Philoclea's  chamber  and  arrested;  Musidorus 
is  captured.  Gynecia  confesses  that  she  is  the 
cause  of  Basilius's  death.  Pyrocles  and  Musi- 
dorus are  sentenced  to  death,  Gynecia  to  be 
buried  alive,  Philoclea  to  a  nunnery.  At  this 
moment  a  stranger  arrives,  who  reveals  the 
identity  of  Pyrocles  and  Musidorus  as  princes 
of  Macedon  and  Thessaly,  and  Basiiius  comes 
to  life  again,  his  potion  proving  to  have  been 
only  a  sleeping  draught.  A  general  pardon 
and  clearing  up  follow. 

The  miscellaneous  poems  printed  with  the 
*  Arcadia*  contain  little  that  is  comparable  to 
Sidney's  other  work,  but  they  include  the 
splendid  dirge  *Ring  out  your  bells,  let  mourn- 
ing shews  be  spread*,  and  the  song  *My  true 
love  hath  my  heart*. 

Archangel,  an  angel  of  the  highest  rank,  a 
title  generally  applied  in  Christian  legend  to 
Michael  (q.v.).  For  the  seven  archangels 
enumerated  by  the  Book  of  Enoch,  see  under 
Angel. 

Archdeacon  Singleton,  Letters  to,  see  Single- 
ton. 

Archer,  ISABEL,  the  heroine  of  H.  James's 
'The  Portrait  of  a  Lady*  (q.v.). 
Archer,  a  character  in  Farquhar's  'The 
Beaux*  Stratagem*  (q.v.). 
ARCHER,  WILLIAM  (1856-1924),  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  University,  was  a  dis- 
tinguished dramatic  critic,  and  is  remembered 
for  his  editing  and  translation  of  the  plays  of 
Ibsen.  He  also  wrote  a  life  of  Macready 
(1890),  a  study  of  Henry  Irving  (1883),  and 
other  works,  including  the  play,  'The  Green 
Goddess*. 

Arches,  COURT  OF,  the  ecclesiastical  court 
of  appeal  for  the  province  of  Canterbury, 
formerly  held  at  the  church  of  St.  Mary-le- 
Bow  or  'of  the  Arches*  (so  called  from  its 
arched  crypt). 

Archie,  a  popular  name  during  the  War  for 
an  anti-aircraft  gun. 

ARCHILOCHUS  of  Paros  (fl.  648  B.C.), 
'one  of  the  great  original  forces  in  Greek 
literature*  (Jebb),  especially  celebrated  for  his 
satirical  iambic  verses,  and  proverbial  for 
his  bitterness.  It  is  said  that  when  Neobule, 
who  had  been  promised  to  Archilachus  in 


ARDEN  OF  FEVERSHAM 

marriage,  was  given  by  her  father  to  a 
wealthier  man,  the  poet's  satire  drove  her  and 
her  sisters  to  suicide. 

Archimago  or  ABCHIMAGE,  in  Spenser's 

c  Faerie  Queene*,  is  the  great  enchanter, 
symbolizing  Hypocrisy,  who  deceives  Una  by 
assuming  the  appearance  of  the  Red  Cross 
Knight  (i.  i).  His  deceits  are  exposed  and 
Archimago  is  'laid  full  low  in  dungeon  deep* 
(i.  adi.  36).  From  this  he  emerges  in  Book  II 
to  seek  vengeance  on  Sir  Guyon  for  what  he 
has  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  Red  Cross 
Knight,  and  employs  Braggadochio  (q.v.)  for 
the  purpose. 

Archimedes  (287-212  B.C.),  a  famous 
mathematician  of  Syracuse,  many  of  whose 
works  are  extant,  including  the  treatises  *De 
Sphaera  et  Cylindro',  *CircuIi  Dimensio*,  &c. 
He  is  said  to  nave  constructed  a  kind  of  orrery 
representing  the  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  to  have  invented  the  screw  for  raising 
water  which  bears  Ms  name,  and  to  have  set 
on  fire  with  lenses  the  ships  of  the  Roman 
consul  Marcellus  that  were  besieging  Syra- 
cuse. When  the  town  was  taken,  file  Roman 
general  gave  strict  orders  that  Archimedes 
should  not  be  hurt  and  offered  a  reward  to 
whoever  should  bring  him  alive.  But  a 
soldier,  not  knowing  who  he  was,  killed 
Archimedes,  who  was  engaged  in  solving  a 
problem  and  refused  to  follow  him.  *  Give  me 
where  to  stand  and  I  will  move  the  earth*  is 
a  saying  attributed  to  him.  See  also  Eureka. 
Arch-poet,  see  Golias.  The  term  is  also 
applied  in  Philemon  Holland's  translation  of 
Camden's  'Britannia*  to  *Henrie  of  Aurenches, 
Archpoet  to  King  Henrie  the  Third',  and  used 
by  Pope  and  Fielding  as  equivalent  to  poet 
laureate  (q.v.). 

Arcite,  see  Palamon  and  Arcite* 
Ardashlr  Babagan,  a  Persian  employed  by 
the  Parthian  king  Ardawan,  who,  as  told  in 
the  'Shahnameh*  of  Firdusi  (q.v.),  eloped 
with  Ardawan  *s  favourite  wife,  made  himself 
master  of  Persia,  and  became  the  founder  of 
the  Sasanian  dynasty.  In  A.D.  226  he  occu- 
pied Ctesiphon  and  took  the  title  of  king  of 
the  Iranians, 

Arden,  a  large  forest  in  the  Midlands, 
centred  in  Warwickshire,  which  figures  fre- 
quently in  Elizabethan  literature.  The  scene 
of  the  greater  part  of  Shakespeare's  *As  You 
Like  It*  is  laid  there.  Drayton  in  'Polyolbion', 
xiii.  15,  makes  it  extend  from  the  Severn  to 
the  Trent. 

Arden  of  Fever  sham,  The  Tragedy  of  Mr.,  a 
play  published  in  1592,  of  which  the  author 
is  unknown.  It  has  been  attributed  by  some 
to  Shakespeare.  It  deals  with  the  persistent 
attempts,  finally  successful,  of  Mistress  Arden 
and  her  paramour,  IMosbie,  to  murder  Arden, 
for  which  purpose  they  hire  two  murderers, 
Black  Will  and  Shakbag.  The  crime  is  dis- 
covered and  Mosbie  and  Mrs.  Arden  are 
executed.  The  play  is  founded  on  a  murder 
actually  committed  in  February  1550/1  and 


[35] 


DZ 


ARDENNE 

recorded  by  Hplinshed.  A  play  on  the  same 
subject  was  written  by  Lillo  (q.v.). 
Ardenne,  THE  FOUNTAIN  OF,  in  Boiardo's 
'Orlando  Innamorato'  (q.v.),  had  the  power 
of  changing  to  hate  the  love  of  those  who 
drank  its  waters. 

Ardennes,  THE  WILD  BOAR  OF  THE,  William 
de  la  Marck,  the  third  son  of  John  I,  count  of 
La  Marck  and  Arernberg,  so  called  because 
of  his  ferocity  and  acts  of  rapine.  He  was 
beheaded  in  1485  by  order  of  the  Emperor 
Maximilian.  He  figures  in  Scott's  'Quentin 
Durward',  where  the  historical  facts  regard- 
ing him  are  perverted. 

Areopagitica :  a  Speech  of  Mr.  John  Milton 
for  the  Liberty  of  Unlicensed  Printing  to  the 
Parliament  of  England,  by  Milton  (q.v.), 
published  in  1644.  The  title  is  derived  from 
Areopagus  (q.v.). 

In  this  discourse  Milton,  addressing  the 
'Lords  and  Commons  of  England',  attacks 
their  recent  order  'that  no  book  .  .  .  shall  be 
henceforth  printed  unless  the  same  be  first 
approved  and  licensed  by  such  ...  as  shall  be 
thereto  appointed*.  He  shows,  first  that 
licensing  has  been  chiefly  the  practice  of 
those  whom  the  Presbyterian  Government 
most  detest,  viz.  the  Papacy  and  the  Inquisi- 
tion; while  Moses,  Daniel,  St.  Paul,  and  the 
Fathers,  by  precept  or  example,  enjoin  free- 
dom in  the  pursuit  of  learning.  Next,  that 
promiscuous  reading  is  necessary  to  the 
constituting  of  human  virtue.  And  thirdly, 
that  the  attempt  to  keep  out  evil  doctrine  by 
licensing  is  like  'the  exploit  of  that  gallant 
man  who  thought  to  pound  up  the  crows  by 
shutting  his  park  gate*.  Not  only  will 
licensing  do  no  good,  but  it  will  be  a  grave 
discouragement  and  affront  to  learning;  and 
he  quotes  the  case  of  the  imprisoned  Galileo. 
Milton  ends  with  a  magnificent  exhortation 
to  the  'Lords  and  Commons  of  England*  to 
consider  'what  nation  it  is  whereof  ye  are, 
and  whereof  ye  are  the  governors :  a  nation 
not  slow  and  dull,  but  of  a  quick,  ingenious 
and  piercing  spmt*.  He  compares  it  to  an 
'eagle  mewing  its  mighty  youth',  and  urges 
that  it  should  not  be  shackled  and  restricted. 
'Give  me  the  liberty  to  know,  to  utter,  and  to 
argue  freely  according  to  conscience,  above 
all  liberties.' 

Areopagus,  the  hill  of  Ares  (Mars),  near  the 
Acropolis  at  Athens.  It  was  the  place  of  meet- 
ing^  of  the  'Upper  Council',  the  highest 
judicial  ^tribunal  of  the  city,  with  general 
supervision  in  political  and  religious  matters. 
Ares,  the  god  of  war  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
identified  by  the  Romans  with  Mars.  He 
was  said  to  be  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  and 
to  have  been  detected  by  Hephaestus  (Vul- 
can) in  an  amorous  intrigue  with  Aphrodite, 
caught  in  a  net,  and  exposed  to  the  ridicule 
of  the  assembled  gods. 
Arethusa,  one  of  the  Nereids  (q.v.),  and 
nymph  of  the  fountain  that  bore  her  name 
in  the  island  of  Qrtygia  rjear  Syracuse. 


ARGONAUTS 

Legend  relates  that  the  river-god  Alpheus 
pursued  the  nymph,  and  that  both  were 
turned  into  streams  that  passed  .under  the 
sea  and  were  united  in  Ortygia.  See  Shelley's 
poem,  'Arethusa'. 

Arethusa,  a  character  in  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  Thilaster'  (q.v.). 
ARETINO,  PIETRO,  or  the  ARETINE 
(1492—1556),  born  at  Arezzo  in  Italy,  whence 
his  name.  He  was  author  of  five  comedies  and 
a  tragedy,  and  also  of  satires  and  other  poems 
of  a  scandalous  or  licentious  character.  He  is 
frequently  mentioned  in  English  works  of  the 
Elizabethan  and  later  periods  and  differently 
appreciated,  from  'It  was  one  of  the  wittiest 
knaves  God  ever  made*  of  Nash  ('The  Un- 
fortunate Traveller')  to  'that  notorious  ribald 
of  Arezzo'  of  Milton  ('Areopagitica'). 
Argalia,  in  Boiardo's  'Orlando  Innamorato*, 
the  brother  of  Angelica  (q.v.). 
Argan,  the  malade  imaginaire  in  Moliere's 
comedy  of  that  name. 

Argante,  (i)  in  the  Arthurian  legend, 
Morgan  le  Fay  (q.v.),  the  fairy  queen  to  whom 
Arthur,  after  the  last  battle,  is  borne  to  be 
healed  of  his  wounds ;  (2)  in  Spenser's  'Faerie 
Queene'  (in.  vii),  a  mighty  and  licentious 
giantess,  daughter  of  Typhoeus  the  Titan, 
whom  Satyrane  puts  to  flight;  (3)  a  character 
in  Moliere's  *Les  Fourberies  de  Scapin*. 
Argantes,  in  Tasso's  'Jerusalem  Delivered' 
(q.v.),  a  fierce  Circassian,  a  champion  on  the 
pagan  side,  finally  killed  by  Tancred. 
Argents,  see  Barclay  (J.). 
Ar gentile  and  Cur  an,  a  story  in  the  'Albion's 
England*  of  Warner  (q.v.),  reprinted  in 
Percy's  'Reliques'.  King  Adelbright  on  his 
death-bed  leaves  his  daughter  Argentile  to  the 
care  of  King  Edel,  who,  hoping  to  get  her 
kingdom,  keeps  her  from  the  sight  of  princely 
suitors.  Curan,  son  of  a  Danish  prince,  takes 
service  in  Edel's  household  as  a  kitchen 
drudge  in  order  to  woo  her,  and  Edel,  to 
further  his  own  plans,  encourages  his  suit. 
The  indignant  Argentile  flees,  and  Curan  in 
despair  becomes  a  shepherd.  He  falls  in  love 
with  a  neatherd's  maid,  who  turns  out  to  be 
Argentile.  They  are  married,  and  Curan, 
claiming  his  wife's  kingdom,  conquers  and 
kills  Edel  and  becomes  king  of  Northumber- 
land. 

Argentina  or  ARGENTORATUM,  in  imprints, 
Strasburg. 

Argestes,  the  Latin  name  for  the  west- 
south-west,  or  according  to  Pliny  the  west- 
north-west,  wind. 

Argonauts,  the  name  given  to  the  heroes 
who  accompanied  Jason  (q.v.)  on  board  the 
ship  'Argo'  to  Colchis  to  recover  the  Golden 
fleece.  The  cause  of  this  expedition  was  as 
follows:  Phrixus  and  Helle,  pursued  by  the 
hatred  of  their  step-mother  Ino  (q.v.),  fled 
from  Thebes  to  the  court  of  Aeetes,  king  of 
Colchis,  on  the  back  of  a  ram  who  had  a 
goldeu  fleece  and  wings.  On  the  way,  Helle 


[36] 


ARGOS 

became  giddy  and  fell  into  the  part  of  the  sea 
called,  in  consequence,  the  Hellespont;  but 
Phiixus  arrived  safely,  sacrificed  the  ram  to 
Zeus,  and  dedicated  the  golden  fleece.  Aeetes, 
to  obtain  possession  of  the  fleece,  murdered 
Phrbois.  When  Jason,  some  time  after,  de- 
manded of  his  uncle  Pelias  the  kingdom  of 
lolchos,  which  Pelias  had  usurped,  Pelias  to 
get  rid  of  him  said  he  would  surrender  the 
kingdom  if  Jason  would  first  avenge  the 
death  of  their  relation  Phrixus.  Jason  under- 
took the  expedition,  embarked  on  the  'Argo* 
with  the  bravest  of  the  Greeks,  and  after 
many  adventures  reached  Colchis.  Aeetes 
promised  to  surrender  the  fleece,  which  had 
been  the  cause  of  the  death  of  Phrixus,  if  Jason 
performed  certain  difficult  tasks.  These  in- 
cluded the  sowing  of  a  dragon's  teeth,  from 
which  armed  men  would  arise  whose  fury 
would  be  turned  against  Jason.  With  the  help 
of  Medea  (q.v.),  the  king's  daughter,  who  fell 
in  love  with  Jason  and  possessed  a  knowledge 
of  enchantments,  the  tasks  were  successfully 
accomplished,  and  Jason  and  Medea  returned 
to  lolchos  with  the  golden  fleece. 

The  story  is  the  subject  of  one  of  Pindar's 
best  odes  (Pyth.  iv),  of  the  *Argonautica*  of 
Apollonius  Rhodius  (q.v.),  and  of  W.  Morris's 
'Life  and  Death  of  Jason*  (q.v.). 

Argos  or  ARGUS,  (i)  a  monster  with  a  hun- 
dred eyes.  Hera,  jealous  of  lo  (q.v.),  whom 
Zeus  had  changed  into  a  heifer,  sent  Argus 
to  watch  her  rival.  But  Hermes  by  order  of 
Zeus  slew  him,  having  lulled  him  to  sleep 
with  his  lyre.  Hera  put  the  eyes  of  Argus  in 
the  tail  of  the  peacock,  a  bird  sacred  to  her. 
(2)  the  dog  of  Ulysses  (q.v.),  who  recognized 
his  master  on  his  return  from  Troy  after  an 
absence  of  twenty  years. 

Argyle,  ARCHIBALD  CAMPBELL,  eighth  earl, 
first  marquess  of  (1598—1661),  who  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  events  in  Scotland 
that  contributed  to  the  downfall  of  Charles  I, 

figures  in  Scott's  'The  Legend  of  Montrose* 
(q.v.),  where  his  character  is  contrasted  with 
that  of  his  great  rival,  the  earl  of  Montrose. 
Beheaded  1661. 

Argyle,  JOHN  CAMPBELL,  second  duke  of 
(1678—1743),  a  prime  agent  in  bringing  about 
the  union  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  a 
distinguished  military  commander  (he  sup- 
pressed Mar's  rising  of  1715),  figures  In 
Scott's  'The  Heart  of  Midlothian*  (q.v.). 

Ariadne,  daughter  of  Minos  (q.v.),  king  of 
Crete,  fell  in  love  with  Theseus  (q.v.),  who 
was  shut  up  in  the  labyrinth  to  be  devoured 
by  the  Minotaur.  She  gave  him  a  clue  of 

thread  by  which  he  extricated  himself  from 
his  confinement.  After  conquering  the  Mino- 
taur, Theseus  carried  her  away  and  married 
her,  but  when  they  arrived  at  the  island  of 
Naxos,  forsook  her.  Ariadne  in  despair 
hanged  herself,  or  according  to  another  legend 
married  Dionysus  (Bacchus). 

Arian  heresy:  'under  Constantlne  the 
emperor  about  three  hundred  years  and  up- 


ARIOX 

ward  after  Christ,  Arius  a  priest  in  the  church 
of  Alexandria,  a  subtle-witted  and  a  marvel- 
lous fair-spoken  man,  but  discontented  that 
one  should  be  placed  before  him  in  honour, 
whose  superior  he  thought  himself  in  desert, 
became  through  envy  and  stomach  prone 
unto  contradiction,  and  bold  to  broach  at  the 
length  that  heresy,  wherein  the  deity  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  contained  but  not  opened 
in  the  [Apostles']  creed,  the  co-equality  and 
co-eternity  of  the  Son  with  the  Father,  was 
denied*  (Hooker,  'Ecdes.  Polity*,  v.  xlii).  The 
heresy  was  repudiated  in  the  Nicene  Creed 
and  in  the  Athanasian  Creed.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  points  about  this  heresy  is 
that  all  the  'barbarian*  tribes  who  overran  the 
western  Roman  Empire  in  the  4th,  5th,  and 
6th  cents,  had  been  converted  by  Arian 
preachers  (except  the  Franks,  who  were 
heathens  till  the  time  of  Clovis,  and  the 
Angles  and  Saxons).  The  result  was  that 
the  Franks  were  Catholics  from  the  first,  and 
had  inducement  to  fight  the  Arian  tribes, 

Ariel,  (i)  in  Shakespeare's  'The  Tempest* 
(q.v.),  an  airy  spirit  whom  the  witch  Sycorax 
has  imprisoned  in  a  cloven  pine  and  whom 
Prospero  by  his  magic  releases  and  employs 
to  give  effect  to  his  designs;  (2)  in  Milton's 
'Paradise  Lost*  (vi.  371),  a  rebel  angel;  (3)  in 
Pope's  'The  Rape  of  the  Lock*  (ii.  53  et  seq.)s 
the  chief  of  the  sylphs  £whose  humbler  pro- 
vince is  to  tend  the  fair'. 

Aries,  see  Ram. 

Arimanes,  Ahriman  (q.v.),  the  form  of  that 
name  used  by  Byron  in  his  'Manfred*  (q.v.). 

Arirnaspians,  a  Scythian  people,  of  whom 
Herodotus  (iv.  27)  relates  that  they  had  only 
one  eye,  and  that  there  were  gold-guarding 
gryphons  in  their  country;  a  legend  that 
probably  relates  to  the  presence  of  gold  in  the 
Urals. 

Arioch,  in  Milton's  'Paradise  Lost*,  vi.  371,, 
one  of  the  rebel  angels. 

AR1ON  (fl.  600  B.C.),  a  famous  poet  and 
musician  of  Lesbos,  whose  principal  achieve- 
ment was  to  perfect  the  dithyramb  or  hymn 
to  Dionysus.  A  fragment  of  Ms  poetry  sur- 
vives, addressed  to  Poseidon,  telling  how  the 
dolphins  wafted  him  to  land,  when  he  had 
lost  his  way  at  sea.  A  legend  grew  up  that 
having  gained  great  riches  at  the  court  of 
Periander,  tyrant  of  Corinth,  by  his  pro- 
fession, he  went  to  Sicily  to  take  part  in  a 
musical  contest.  On  his  return,  the  sailors 
of  his  ship  resolved  to  murder  him,  to  obtain 
the  wealth  that  he  was  carrying.  Arion 
begged  that  he  might  be  allowed  to  play  some 
melodious  tune  before  his  death.  Having 
done  so,  he  flung  himself  into  the  sea.  A 
number  of  dolphins  had  been  attracted  by  his 
music,  and  one  of  them  bore  Arion  safely 
on  its  back  to  land. 

Arion,  a  fabulous  horse,  the  son  of  Poseidon, 
which  had  the  gift  of  speech.  Hercules  gave  it 
to  Adrastus,  long  of  Argos, 


[37] 


ARIOSTO 

ARIOSTO,  LUDOVICO  (1474-1533),  born 
at  Reggio,  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  at 
Ferrara  and  for  many  years  was  in  the  service, 
first  of  Cardinal  Ippolito,  and  then  of  Duke 
Alfonso  of  Este,  This  family  he  exalted 
in  his  poern,  the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (q.v.), 
published  in  its  final  form  in  1532,  the 
greatest  of  Italian  romantic  epics.  There  is 
a  portrait  by  Titian,  said  to  be  of  Ariosto,  in 
the  National  Gallery. 

Ariosto  of  the  North,  so  Byron  calls  Sir  W. 
Scott  ('Childe  Harold *s  Pilgrimage',  iv.4o). 

Aristaeus,  an  ancient  divinity  worshipped 
in  many  parts  of  Greece,  as  the  protector  of 
flocks  and  herds,  and  vines  and  olives.  He  is 
generally  described  as  the  son  of  Apollo  and 
Cyrene.  He  was  father  of  Actaeon  (q.v.). 

Aristarchus  of  Sarnos,  who  lived  about 
280  B.C.,  was  an  eminent  astronomer  and 
mathematician ;  he  lived  at  Alexandria.  Going 
beyond  Pythagoras  (q.v.),  he  maintained 
that  the  earth  revolved  round  the  sun,  and 
that  this  was  the  cause  of  the  seasons. 

Aristarchus  of  Samothrace  (jL  150 
B.C.),  a  celebrated  grammarian  and  critic, 
who  founded  a  grammatical  school  at  Alexan- 
dria. His  principal  work  was  the  revision  of 
the  text  of  Homer's  'Iliad*  and  'Odyssey*. 

Aristides,  an  Athenian  general  and  states- 
man, surnamed  'The  Just',  who  commanded 
his  tribe  at  the  battle  of  Marathon  (490  B.C.) 
and  was  archon  in  489.  He  was  the  advocate 
of  a  quiet  and  conservative  policy  as  opposed 
to  the  'strong  navy*  policy  of  Themistocles. 
The  struggle  between  the  leaders  became 
acute  and  Aristides  was  ostracized  (see  below) 
in  483,  but  fought  at  the  battle  of  Salamis, 
and  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Plataea.  He 
died  about  468  B.C.,  so  poor  that  his  funeral 
could  not  be  defrayed  from  his  estate. 
Ostracism  (from  oarpeov,  oyster)  was  effected 
by  popular  vote,  the  voters  writing  on  an 
oyster-shell  or  potsherd  the  name  of  the 
person  they  desired  to  be  sent  into  exile. 
Plutarch  relates  that  an  illiterate  voter  asked 
Aristides  (not  knowing  him)  to  write  Aristides 
upon  his  shell.  The  good  man,  surprised, 
asked  whether  Aristides  had  ever  injured 
him.  'No,3  replied  the  voter,  'but  it  vexes  me 
to  hear  him  everywhere  called  the  Just.' 

Aristippus,  founder  of  the  Cyrenaic 
school  of  philosophy,  was  born  at  Cyrene 
about  428  B.C.  He  taught  that  man  should 
devote  himself  to  extracting  from  life  the 
maximum  of  pleasure  and  the  minimum  of 
pain.  But  he  was  not  a  sensualist,  and  held 
that  the  pleasant  was  identical  with  the  good, 
and  must  be  obtained  by  self-control. 

Aristippus,  or  the  Joviall  Philosopher,  see 
Randolph  (T.). 

ARISTOPHANES  (c.  444-*.  380  B.C.),  the 
great  Athenian  comic  poet,  whose  comedies 
are  of  great  historical  value  for  their  carica- 
tures of  the  leading  personages  of  the  time 
and  their  comments  on  current  affairs.  The 


ARISTOTLE 

following  are  his  extant  comedies:  the 
'Acharnians'  (an  attack  on  the  war-party), 
the  'Knights*  (an  attack  on  the  demagogue 
Cleon),  the  'Clouds*  (a  criticism  of  the  new 
spirit  of  philosophical  inquiry),  the  'Peace* 
(advocating  peace  with  Sparta),  the  'Wasps* 
(an  attack  on  demagogues),  the  'Birds* 
(general  political  satire),  the  'Frogs'  (Euripides 
and  Aeschylus  contending  for  the  tragic  prize 
among  the  dead),  the  'Plutus*  (an  allegory 
on  the  coming  of  wealth  to  the  worthy),  the 
'Lysistrata*  and  'Ecclesiazusae*  (dealing  with 
government  by  women),  and  the  'Thesmo- 
phoriazusae*  (Euripides  tried  and  convicted 
at  the  female  festival  of  the  Thesmophoria). 
Aristophanes,  THE  ENGLISH,  Foote  (q.v.). 

Aristophanes'*   Apology,    a    poem    by    R. 
Browning  (q.v.),  published  in  1875. 

Balaustion  (see  Balaustion's  Adventure)  is 
returning  to  Rhodes,  with  Euthukles  her 
husband,  after  the  fall  of  Athens  and  the 
death  of  Euripides.  She  relates  the  events  of 
the  night  on  which  the  news  of  the  death  of 
Euripides  was  received.  Aristophanes,  half- 
drunk  and  flushed  with  the  triumph  of  his 
'Thesmophoriazusae',  had  come  to  their 
house,  and  a  discussion  had  followed,  which 
forms  the  substance  of  the  poem,  between 
Aristophanes  and  Balaustion:  the  former  de- 
fending comedy  as  the  representation  of  real 
life  and  attacking  the  ascetic  and  unnatural 
Euripides ;  the  latter  maintaining  the  superior 
value  of  the  tragic  poet,  and  supporting  her 
view  by  reading  his  'Herakles'. 
ARISTOTLE  (384-322  B.C.),  the  great 
Greek  philosopher,  was  born  at  Stageira  in 
Chalcidice  (Macedonia).  His  father  was 
Nicomachus,  the  physician  of  Amyntas  II, 
king  of  Macedonia,  and  author  of  treatises  on 
natural  science.  Aristotle  studied  at  Athens 
under  Plato,  and  stayed  there  for  twenty 
years,  latterly  also  giving  instruction  in 
rhetoric.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  by 
Philip  of  Macedon  to  be  tutor  to  his  son 
Alexander.  On  the  accession  of  the  latter 
to  the  throne  (335),  Aristotle  returned  to 
Athens,  where  in  the  shady  paths  (-TreptWroi) 
surrounding  the  Lyceum  he  lectured  to 
many  scholars,  while  walking  up  and  down 
(irepiTTOT&v).  For  one  or  other  of  these  reasons, 
his  school  came  to  be  known  as  the  Peripatetic. 
He  remained  thus  occupied  for  thirteen 
years,  and  here  composed  the  greater  part 
of  his  works.  Shortly  before  his  death  he 
came  under  political  suspicion  and  retired 
to  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  where  he  died.  His 
writings,  which  had  an  immense  influence  on 
thought  and  some  of  which  serve  as  text-books 
to-day,  cover  an  extraordinarily  wide  field: 
logic,  moral  philosophy,  metaphysics,  poetry, 
physics,  zoology,  politics,  and  rhetoric.  He 
created  Logic,  the  science  of  reasoning.  He 
surveyed  the  whole  range  of  zoology,  adopt- 
ing broad  classifications  which  have  been 
accepted  by  later  science.  His  most  famous 
works  are  his  'Ethics',  an  introduction  to 
moral  philosophy  (he  was  the  first  to  point 


[38] 


ARK 

out  that  virtue  is  a  state  of  the  will,  and  not 

of    the    reason),    'Poetics*,    and    'Politics*, 

though  the  scope  of  this  last  is  limited  to  the 

city-state  of  his  day.  He  was  made  known  in 

the  Middle  Ages  by  Latin  versions  of  the 

commentaries  of  the  Arabian  scholar  Averroes 

(q.v.). 

Ark,  The,  Sir  W.  Ralegh's  ship  at  the  battle 

with  the  Spanish  Armada. 

Arlotto  Mainardo  (1396-1484),  the  curate 

or  piovano  of  S.  Cresci  di  Maciuoli,  near 

Fiesole,  a  witty  and  jovial  priest,  who  made 

several  journeys  to  Flanders  and  is  said  even 

to  have  visited  England,  where  he  obtained 

the  favour  of  Edward  IV.    The  witticisms 

attributed  to  him  were  collected  in  'Facetie 

Piacevoli*   (1500),  which    were    frequently 

reprinted. 

Annachanus,  the  Latin  title  of  the  arch- 
bishops of  Armagh;  see  Fztzratpk. 

Armada,  THE  INVINCIBLE,  consisting  of 
some  130  ships  (besides  smaller  vessels),  was 
collected  by  Philip  II  of  Spain  and  dispatched 
in  1588  under  the  duke  of  Medina  Sidonia. 
It  was  to  sail  to  Flanders  to  transport  thence 
to  England  the  Spanish  army  of  the  duke  of 
Parma.  It  was  defeated  and  dispersed  by  the 
English  fleet  under  Lord  Howard  of  Effing- 
ham  and  such  captains  as  Drake,  Frobisher, 
and  Hawkins. 

Armadale,  a  novel  by  Wilkie  Collins  (q.v.), 
published  in  1866. 

Armado,  DON  ADRIANO  DE,  a  character  in 
Shakespeare's  'Love's  Labour  *s  Lost'  (q.v.). 

Armageddon,  in  Rev.  xvi.  16,  the  place 

where  the  Kings  of  the  Earth  are  to  be 
gathered  together  for  'the  battle  of  that  great 
day  of  God  Almighty*. 

Armida,  in  Tasso's  'Jerusalem  Delivered* 
(q.v.),  the  niece  of  Hidraotes,  king  of  Damas- 
cus, a  powerful  magician.  She  offered  her 
services  to  the  defenders  of  Jerusalem  when 
it  was  besieged  by  the  Christians  under 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  and  going  to  the 
Christian  camp  lured  away  by  her  beauty 
many  of  the  principal  knights.  She  inveigled 
them  by  magic  power  into  a  delicious  garden, 
where  they  were  overcome  by  indolence. 
Among  her  captives  were  Rinaldo  of  Este 
and  Tancred  (qq.v). 

Annine,  FERDINAND,  the  hero  of  Disraeli's 
'Henrietta  Temple*  (q.v.). 

Arminianism,  the  doctrine  of  James 
Arminius  or  Harmensen  (d.  1609),  a  Dutch 
protestant  theologian,  who  put  forth  views 
opposed  to  those  of  Calvin,  especially  on  pre- 
destination, refusing  to  hold  God  responsible 
for  evil.  In  1618—19  his  doctrines  were  con- 
demned by  the  synod  of  Dort;  but  they 
spread  rapidly  and  were  embraced,  in  whole 
or  in  part,  by  large  sections  of  the  Reformed 
Churches. 

Arminius  (latinized  form  of  HERMANN) 
(B.C.  i8-A.D.  19),  the  chief  of  the  German 


ARNOLD 

tribe  of  the  Cherusci,  who  incited  his  country- 
men to  rise  against  the  Romans  and  destroyed 
the  army  of  Varas  in  A.D.  8.  He  also  con- 
ducted the  resistance  to  Germanicus. 
ARMSTRONG,  JOHN  (1709-79),  a  phy- 
sician and  poet,  author  of  the  4Art  of  Pre- 
serving Health*  (1774),  a  surprisingly  pleasant 
poem  in  spite  of  its  unattractive  title ;  also  of 
'Taste*,  a  satirical  epistle  of  literary  criticism. 

Armstrong,  WILLIAM,  known  as  KINMONT 

WILLIE  (fl.   1596),  a  border  moss-trooper, 

whose  nickname  is  taken  from  his  castle  of 
Kinrnont  in  Canonby,  Dumfriesshire.  He 
was  captured  in  1587  but  escaped;  he  was 
imprisoned  in  1596  at  Carlisle,  but  was 
rescued  by  the  Scottish  warden.  His  fate  is 
unknown.  He  is  the  hero  of  the  ballad, 
*KInmont  Willie',  included  in  Scott's  *  Border 
Minstrelsy*. 

Arnaut,  an  Albanian. 

Amo,  the  river  on  which  stands  Florence, 
the  city  where  Dante  was  bom  and  the  home 
of  Boccaccio,  the  Medici,  &c. 

Arnold,  in  Byron's  *The  Deformed  Trans- 
formed* (q.v.),  the  ugly  son  of  Bertha,  who  is 
miraculously  transformed  into  the  shape  of 
Achilles. 

Arnold,  BENEDICT,  see  AndrS. 

ARNOLD,  Sm  EDWIN  (1832-1904),  edu- 
cated at  King's  College,  London,  and  Uni- 
versity College,  Oxford,  was  principal  of  the 
Deccan  College,  Bombay,  from  1856  to  x$6i, 
when  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  'Daily  Tele- 
graph*. The  fruit  of  his  Indian  experience  is 
seen  at  its  best  in  *The  Light  of  Asia,  or 
The  Great  Renunciation1  (q.y.,  1879),  a  poem 
of  which  Buddha  is  the  subject.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  other  poems,  some  of  them  trans- 
lations from  the  Sanskrit. 

ARNOLD,  MATTHEW  (1822-88),  son  of 

T.  Arnold  (q.v.),  the  great  head  master  of 
Rugby,  was  educated  at  Rugby,  Winchester, 
and  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  won  the 
Newdigate  Prize.  He  became  fellow  of  Oriel 
College,  and  an  Inspector  of  schools,  a  post 
which  he  held  from  1851  nearly  until  his 
death.  He  was  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford 
from  1857  to  1867.  His  first  volume  of 
poems,  *The  Strayed  Reveller  and  other 
Poems',  appeared  in  1849.  It  contained  'The 
Forsaken  Merman*,  *The  Sick  King  in  Bo- 
khara5, and  the  sonnet  on  Shakespeare. 
*Empedocles  on  Etna  [q.v.],  and  other 
Poems*,  containing  'Tristram  and  Iseult' 
(q.v,),  followed  in  1852.  Both  these  volumes 
were  shortly  afterwards  withdrawn  from 
circulation.  In  1853  appeared  a  volume  of 
'Poems*  containing  extracts  from  the  earlier 
books,  cSohrab  and  Rustum*  and  *The 
Scholar-Gipsy*  (qq.v.);  also  the  'Church  of 
Brou*,  *Requiescat*,  the  'Memorial  Verses  to 
Wordsworth*  and  the  *  Stanzas  in  Memory  of 
the  Author  of  Obermann*.  'Poems,  Second 
Series",  including  'Balder  Dead*  (q.v.),  ap- 
peared in  1855 ;  *Merope,  a  Tragedy*  in  1858; 


[39] 


ARNOLD 

and  'New  Poems',  including  'Thyrsis*  (q.v.), 
'Rugby  Chapel*,  'Heine's  Grave*,  'A  Southern 
Night*  (a  lament  for  one  of  his  brothers), 
and  other  well-known  pieces,  in  1867. 

The  bulk  of  Matthew  Arnold's  prose 
works  appeared  after  1860.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  were  the  'Essays  in  Criticism' 
(1865  and  1888),  in  which  he  gave  literary 
criticism  an  unusually  wide  scope,  extending 
it  to  an  attack  on  the  'phiHstimsm*  or  'pro- 
vinciality* then,  in  his  opinion,  prevailing  in 
England.  He  also  published  lectures  'On 
Translating  Homer*  (1861)  and  'The  Study 
of  Celtic  Literature'  (1867)'.  His  'Culture 
and  Anarchy*,  a  criticism  of  English  social 
and  political  life,  appeared  in  1869;  and  this 
was  followed  by  various  works  of  religious 
criticism,  *St.  Paul  and  Protestantism*  (1870), 
'Literature  and  Dogma*  (1873),  'God  and  the 
Bible*  (1875),  and  'Last  Essays  on  Church 
and  Religion*. 

Special  reference  is  due  to  Arnold's 
attempts  to  secure  the  improvement  of 
education,  and  particularly  secondary  educa- 
tion, in  England.  He  was  sent  in  1859,  and 
again  in  1865,  to  study  educational  systems 
on  the  Continent,  and  his  reports,  'The 
Popular  Education  of  France*  (1861)  and 
'Schools  and  Universities  on  the  Continent*, 
drew  attention  to  our  deficiencies  in  this 
respect.  There  are  further  references  to  his 
views  on  education  in  other  writings,  e.g. 
'Culture  and  Anarchy*  (1869),  and  the 
'Letters  on  Compulsory  Education"  in 
'Friendship's  Garland*  (1871). 
ARNOLD,  THOMAS  (1795-1842),  edu- 
cated at  Winchester  and  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  is  principally  remembered 
as  the  head  master  (1828-42)  who  raised 
Rugby  to  the  rank  of  a  great  public  school. 
He  was  author  of  an  unfinished  'History  of 
Rome*  (1838-42),  inspired  by  Niebuhr  (q.v.), 
and  of  an  edition  of  Thucydides  (1830-5). 
He  was  appointed  Regius  professor  of  modern 
history  at  Oxford  in  1841.  His  'History  of 
the  later  Roman  Commonwealth*  appeared 
posthumously  in  1845. 
ARNOLD,  SIR  THOMAS  WALKER 
(1864—1930),  a  learned  writer  on  the  Cali- 
phate, Legacy  of  Islam,  &c. 
Arnold  of  Brescia  (d.  1155),  an  Italian 
Augustinian,  an  eloquent  ascetic,  who 
vigorously  condemned  the  temporal  power 
and  abuses  of  the  clergy  and  papacy.  He 
gathered  round  him  a  following  known  as 
Amoldists,  and  fomented  the  revolution  by 
which  the  Roman  republic  of  1145  was 
instituted.  Arnold  fled  from  Rome  in  1155, 
was  seized  by  order  of  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
handed  over  to  the  pope,  Adrian  IV  (Nicholas 
Breakspear),  and  executed. 
Arraignment  of  Paris,  They  a  pastoral  pky 
in  verse  by  Peele  (q.v.),  published  in  1584. 

It  was  written  for  and  played  before  Queen 
Elizabeth,  whose  beauty  and  virtue  are  duly 
celebrated.  Paris  is  tending  his  flocks  on 
Ida,  with  Oenone  his  wife,  when  he  is  called 


ARTEMISIA 

on  to  decide  to  which  of  the  three  goddesses, 
Juno,  PallaSj  or  Venus,  the  golden  apple  shall 
be  awarded.  He  decides  in  favour  of  Venus, 
who  carries  away  Paris,  leaving  Oenone  dis- 
consolate. Juno  and  Pallas  arraign  Paris 
before  the  gods  of  partiality  in  his  judgement. 
The  case  is  referred  to  Diana.  She  evades 
the  delicate  choice  by  awarding  the  apple  to 
the  nymph  Eliza,  'our  Zabeta  fair*. 

Arria,  see  Paetus. 

ARRIAN  (b.  c.  100  A.D.),  of  Nicomedia  in 
Bithynia,  a  pupil  of  Epictetus,  and  consul 
under  Antoninus  Pius,  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Asiatic  expedition  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  a  work  on  India,  including  the  voyage 
of  Nearchus,  Alexander's  general,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Indus  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Arrowsmith,  Martin,  a  novel  by  Sinclair 
Lewis  (q.v.),  published  in  1925. 

Arsaces,  the  founder  of  the  Parthian  empire 
and  the  first  of  the  Arsacid  rulers.  He  re- 
volted against  the  Seleucids  about  250  B.C. 

Arsis,  in  modern  acceptation,  the  strong  or 
accented  syllable  in  English  metre.  The  pre- 
cise meaning  of  the  word  in  Greek  is  un- 
certain. 
Art  of  Dining,  see  Hayward  (A.*)* 

Art  of  English  Poesy,  Observations  on  the,  an 
attack  on  the  use  of  rhyme  in  English  poetry 
by  Thomas  Campion  (d.  1619),  to  which  S. 
Daniel  (q.v.)  replied  in  his  'Defence  of 
Rhyme*. 

Arte  of  English  Poesie,  see  Puttenham. 
Art  of  Rhetorique,  see  Wilson  (TV). 

Artaxominous,  the  king  in  'Bombastes 
Furioso*  (q.v.). 

Artegal,  a  legendary  king  of  Britain,  son  of 
Gorbonian,  deposed  for  his  crimes  and  re- 
placed by  his  brother  Elidure.  When  Artegal 
returned  from  exile,  Elidure  restored  him  to 
the  throne.  The  story,  which  is  in  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth,  is  the  subject  of  a  poem, 
'Artegal  and  Elidure',  by  Wordsworth. 

Artegall,  SIR,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
Bk.  V,  the  champion  of  Justice.  Britomart 
(q.v.),  to  whom  his  image  has  been  revealed 
by  a  magic  mirror,  is  in  love  with  him,  and 
her  quest  of  him  ends  in  their  union.  He 
undertakes  the  rescue  of  Irena  (Ireland)  from 
the  tyrant  Maltorto,  symbolizing  Lord  Grey 
de  Wilton.  Jointly  with  Prince  Arthur  he 
slays  the  Soudan  (Philip  II  of  Spain). 

Artemis,  see  Diana. 

Artemisia,  (i)  a  queen  of  Halicarnassus  in 
Caria,  who  accompanied  Xerxes  in  his  in- 
vasion of  Greece  and  fought  with  distinction 
at  the  battle  of  Salamis.  This  is  'the  Carian 
Artemisia*  referred  to  by  Tennyson  in  'The 
Princess*,  ii;  (2)  the  sister,  wife,  and  suc- 
cessor of  Mausolus,  king  of  Caria.  Her  grief 
at  his  death  was  so  great  that  she  mixed  his 
ashes  with  her  drink,  and  built  in  his  memory 


ARTFUL  DODGER 

at  Halicamassus  the  Mausoleum,  which 
passed  for  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
world.  She  reigned  352-350  B.C. 

The  name  'Artemisia'  is  given  to  the  genus 
of  plants  that  includes  wormwood  and 
absinthe,  either  from  the  goddess  Artemis, 
because  of  their  medicinal  properties,  or 
from  the  above  queen,  who  mixed  her  hus- 
band's ashes  with  her  drink. 

Artful  Dodger,  THE,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Oliver  Twist*  (q.v.). 

Arthur,  KING.  The  romantic  figure  of  King 
Arthur  has  probably  some  historical  basis, 
and  there  is  reason  to  think  that,  as  Nennius 
(q.v.)  states,  he  was  a  chieftain  or  general 
(dux  bellorum}  in  the  5th  or  6th  cents.  The 
'Annales  Cambriae*  (q.v.)  place  the  battle  of 
Mount  Badon,  £in  which  Arthur  carried  the 
cross  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  on  his 
shoulders',  in  518,  and  the  'battle  of  Camlan, 
in  which  Arthur  and  Medraut  fell",  in  539. 
The  contemporary  chronicler  Gildas  (q.v.) 
makes  no  mention  of  Arthur  (though  he 
refers  to  the  battle  of  Badon),  nor  do  some 
of  the  principal  Welsh  bards  of  the  6th  and 
yth  cents.  But  there  is  mention  of  him  in 
certain  ancient  poems  contained  in  the  'Black 
Book  of  Carmarthen*  and  more  especially  in 
the  ancient  Welsh  romance  'Kilhwch  and 
Olwen*  (q.v.),  where  he  figures  with  Kay, 
Bedivere,  and  Gawain  (Gwalchmei).  But 
this  Arthur  is  a  king  of  fairyland,  and  the 
author  of  the  tale  is  building,  in  Matthew 
Arnold's  words,  with  the  'materials  of  an 
older  architecture,  greater,  cunninger,  and 
more  majesticaP.  In  fact,  Arthur  and  several 
other  characters  in  the  Ajthurian  legend  can 
be  traced  to  figures  in  the  ancient  Celtic 
pantheon  (Rhys,  'Studies  in  the  Arthurian 
Legend*,  1901),  but  their  working  up  and 
fashioning  was,  in  the  wide  sense  of  the  word, 
English  (Saintsbury,  *The  Flourishing  of 
Romance*  in  P.E.L.).  Rhys  suggests  that 
there  were  originally  two  Arthurs,  the  British 
god  and  the  human  general,  whose  characters 
have  become  blended  in  legend. 

Arthur  first  takes  definite  form  as  a  roman- 
tic hero  in  the  'Historia  Regum  Britanniae*  of 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (q.v.),  a  work  in 
which  the  author's  imagination  played  a  very 
large  part.  In  this  narrative  Arthur  is  the  son 
of  Uther  Pendragon  (Welsh = chief  leader  in 
war)  and  Ygaerne  (Igraine),  wife  of  Gorlois  of 
Cornwall,  whom  Uther  wins  by  the  help  of 
Merlin's  magic.  The  elves  bestow  on  him 
long  life,  riches,  and  virtues.  At  the  age  of  15 
he  becomes  king  of  Britain  and  wars  against 
Scots,  Picts,  and  Saxons.  With  his  sword 
'Calibum*  (Excalibur)  he  slays  Childric,  de- 
feats the  heathen,  and  conquers  Scotland, 
Ireland,  Iceland,  and  the  Orkneys.  He 
marries  Guanhamara(Wenhaver,  Guinevere), 
a  lady  of  noble  Roman  family.  He  conquers 
many  lands  on  the  Continent.  His  court  is  at 
Caerleon  on  Usk.  He  is  summoned  to  pay 
tribute  to  the  Emperor  Lucius  of  Rome, 
resists,  and  declares  war.  Guanharnara  and 


ARTHUR 

the  kingdom  are  left  in  Modred,  his  nephew's, 
charge.  On  his  way  to  Rome  he  slays  the 
giant  of  St.  Michael's  Mount,  Walwain 

(Gawain),  his  ambassador,  defies  the  emperor 
and  bears  himself  bravely  in  the  ensuing 
combat.  Arthur  is  about  to  enter  Rome  when 
he  receives  warning  that  Modred  has  seized 
Guanharnara  and  the  kingdom.  He  returns 
with  Walwain,  who  is  slain  on  landing, 
Modred  retreats  to  Cornwall,  and  in  a  final 
battle  on  the  Camel,  is  slain  with  all  his 
knights.  Arthur  is  mortally  wounded,  and  is 
borne  to  the  island  of  Avalon  for  the  healing 
of  his  wounds.  Guanharnara  takes  the  veil. 

This  story  was  developed  by  the  Norman 
writer  Wace  (q.v.),  who  added  many  details. 
The  'Round  Table'  is  first  mentioned  by  him, 
a  device  to  settle  the  disputes  as  to  precedence 
among  Arthur's  knights.  The  wounded  king 
is  expected  to  return  from  Avalon  and  resume 
his  kingdom.  Wace's  work  served  as  the  basis 
of  the  *Bnit9  of  Layamon  (q.v.),  the  first 
English  record  of  the  *noble  deeds  of 
England*,  which  adds  many  romantic  details, 
and  a  fairy  element,  to  the  story.  Elves  are 
present  at  Arthur's  birth,  his  sword  and 
spear  are  of  magic  origin.  After  the  final 
battle  at  Camelford,  Arthur  is  borne  off  to 
Argante  (Morgan  le  Fays  q.v.)  in  Avalon,  in  a 
magic  boat. 

The  Arthurian  story  was  also  developed  in 
the  French  Matiere  de  Bretagne,  by  such 
writers  as  Marie  de  France  and  Chretien  de 
Troyes,  and  later  by  Robert  de  Boron. 
Arthur  became  the  centre  of  a  mass  of  legends 
in  various  tongues.  A  number  of  these,  deal- 
ing with  various  personages,  Merlin,  Launce- 
lot,  Tristram,  &c.,  were  gradually  associated 
with  him.  He  is  the  central  figure  only  in  the 
narratives  of  his  earlier  years  and  of  his  final 
battles  and  death.  In  the  other  tales  Ms 
court  is  merely  the  rallying-point  for  the 
various  adventurous  knights.  He  ceases  to  be 
the  model  of  purity  and  valour,  and  yields  in 
importance  to  Gawain  and  Launcelot. 

The  story  of  Arthur,  as  summarized  above, 
is  the  foundation  of  Malory's  'Morte 
d'Arthur9  (q.v.),  but  the  greater  part  of  this 
work  is  occupied  with  the  exploits  of  the 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  the  quest  of  the 
Holy  Grail,  the  loves  of  Launcelot  and  Guine- 
vere and  of  Tristram  and  Iseult.  For  Tenny- 
son's presentment  of  the  story  see  Idylls  of 
the,  King.  See  also  William  of  Malmcsburyi 
and  Glastonbury  for  Arthur's  alleged  burial 
there. 

Arthur,  PRINCE,  in  Spenser's  *Faerie 
Queene*,  symbolizes  *  Magnificence*  (?Mag- 
nanimity),  in  the  Aristotelian  sense  of  the 
perfection  of  all  the  virtues.  He  enters  into 
the  adventures  of  the  several  knights  and 
brings  them  to  a  fortunate  conclusion.  His 
chief  adventures  are  the  slaying  of  the  three- 
bodied  monster  Gerioneo  (Philip  II  of  Spain) 
and  the  rescue  from  him  of  Belgfe  (the  Nether- 
lands) (Bk.  v,  x  and  si);  and,  jointly  with 
Artegall,  the  slaying  of  the  Soudan  (Philip  II) 


ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATION 

in  Bis  'chariot  high'  (the  Armada)  (v.  viii). 
Whether  Spenser  had  in  mind  any  particu- 
lar living  person  in  his  description  of  Arthur 
is  uncertain;  perhaps  the  earl  of  Leicester 
is  indicated. 

Articles  of  Confederation  and  Perpetual 
Union,  THE,  were  the  thirteen  Articles, 
agreed  to  by  the  Continental  Congress  in 
*777>  which  provided  for  a  union  of  the 
American  Colonies  to  be  known  as  the 
United  States  of  America.  The  Articles  were 
subject  to  ratification  by  the  individual 
States,  and  it  was  not  until  1781 ,  when  Mary- 
land finally  agreed  to  the  Articles,  that 
ratification  was  complete.  Once  the  Articles 
were  effective,  the  old  Continental  Congress 
proceeded  to  act  as  the  Congress  of  the 
Confederation . 

Articles  of  Religion,  THE,  or  THE  THIRTY- 
NINE  ARTICLES,  the  thirty-nine  statements  to 
which  those  who  take  orders  in  the  Church 
of  England  subscribe.  In  1553  forty-two 
Articles  were  published.  These  were  modified 
and  reduced  by  Convocation  to  thirty-nine 
and  received  parliamentary  sanction  in  1571. 

Arundel  Marbles,  THE,  part  of  a  collection 
of  statuary,  pictures,  gems,  and  books  made 
by  Thomas  Howard,  2nd  earl  of  Arundel 
(1585?-!  646),  a  patron  of  learning  and  the 
arts.  The  marbles  and  many  statues  were 
given  by  his  grandson,  the  6th  duke  of  Nor- 
folk, to  the  University  of  Oxford.  The 
marbles  include  the  Tarian  Chronicle*  (q.v.). 

Arundines  Cami,  a  collection  of  Cambridge 
Latin  verses,  projected  and  published  in 
1841  by  Henry  Drury  (1812-63). 

Arvalan,  the  son  of  Kehama,  in  Southey's 
'Curse  of  Kehama'  (q.v.). 

Arveragiis,  in  Chaucer's  'Franklin's  Tale' 
(see  under  'Canterbury  Tales'),  the  husband 
of  Dorigen. 

Arviragus,  in  Shakespeare's  'Cymbeline* 
(q.v.),  one  of  the  king's  sons. 

Aryan,  a  term  applied  by  some  to  the  great 
division  or  family  of  languages  which  in- 
cludes Sanskrit,  Zend,  Persian,  Greek,  Latin, 
Celtic,  Teutonic,  and  Slavonic,  with  their 
modern  representatives;  also  called  Indo- 
European  and  Indo-Germanic.  Also  applied 
to  a  member  of  the  Aryan  family,  one  belong- 
ing to  or  descended  from  the  ancient  people 
who  spoke  the  parent  Aryan  language. 
[OED.] 

As  You  Like  It,  a  comedy  by  Shakespeare 
(q.v.),  probably  produced  about  1599,  not 
printed  till  the  folio  of  1623.  It  is  a  dramatic 
adaptation  of  Lodge's  romance  fRosalynde' 
(q.v.),  with  the  addition  of  the  characters  of 
Jaques  and  Touchstone,  the  humorous  scenes, 
and  other  minor  alterations. 

Frederick  has  usurped  the  dominions  of 
the  Duke  his  brother,  who  is  living  with  his 
faithful  followers  in  the  forest  of  Arden  (q.v.). 
Celia,  Frederick's  daughter,  and  Rosalind, 


ASCHAM 

the  Duke's  daughter,  living  at  Frederick's 
court,  witness  a  wrestling  match  in  which 
Orlando,  son  of  Sir  Rowland  de  Boys,  defeats 
a  powerful  adversary,  and  Rosalind  falls  in 
love  with  Orlando  and  he  with  her.  Orlando, 
who  at  his  father's  death  has  been  left 
in  the  charge  of  his  elder  brother  Oliver,  has 
been  driven  from  home  by  Oliver's  cruelty. 
Frederick,  learning  that  Orlando  is  the  son 
of  Sir  Rowland,  who  was  a  friend  of  the  exiled 
Duke,  has  his  anger  against  the  latter  revived, 
and  banishes  Rosalind  from  his  court,  and 
Celia  accompanies  her.  Rosalind  assumes 
a  countryman's  dress  and  takes  the  name 
Ganymede ;  Celia  passes  as  Aliena  his  sister. 
They  live  in  the  forest  of  Arden,  and  fall  in 
with  Orlando,  who  has  joined  the  banished 
Duke.  Ganymede  encourages  Orlando  to 
make  love  to  her  as4  though  she  were  his 
Rosalind.  Oliver  comes  to  the  forest  to  kill 
Orlando,  but  is  saved  by  him  from  a  lioness, 
and  is  filled  with  remorse  for  his  cruelty.  He 
falls  in  love  with  Aliena,  and  their  wedding  is 
arranged  for  the  morrow.  Ganymede  under- 
takes to  Orlando  that  she  will  by  magic 
produce  Rosalind  at  the  same  time  to  be 
married  to  him.  When  all  are  assembled  in 
presence  of  the  banished  Duke  to  celebrate 
the  double  nuptials,  Celia  and  Rosalind  put 
off  their  disguise  and  appear  in  then:  own 
characters.  News  is  brought  that  Frederick 
the  usurper,  setting  out  to  seize  and  destroy 
his  brother  and  his  followers,  has  been  con- 
verted from  his  intention  by  £an  old  religious 
man*  and  has  made  restitution  of  the  duke- 
dom. 

Jaques,  a  lord  attending  on  the  banished 
Duke,  a  contemplative  character,  com- 
pounded of  humour  and  melancholy,  and 
Touchstone,  a  cynical  philosopher  in  the  garb 
of  a  buffoon,  who  marries  the  country  wench, 
Audrey,  are  among  the  delightful  minor 
characters  of  the  play. 

Asaph,  in  the  part  of  'Absalom  and  Achito 
pheP  (q.v.)  written  by  Tate,  is  Dryden,  and 
refers  to  the  Asaph  of  i  Chron.  xvi.  4—7  and 
xxv.  i,  and  the  hereditary  choir,  the  'Sons  of 
Asaph*,  who  conducted  the  musical  services 
of  the  Temple. 

Asaph,  ST.  (d.  c.  600),  a  pupil  of  St. 
Kentigern  (q.v.)  in  his  monastery  at  Llanelwy, 
and  his  successor  as  its  prior.  He  was  the 
first  bishop  of  that  see,  which  took  his  name. 
He  is  commemorated  on  i  May. 

Ascalaphus,  see  Proserpine. 
Ascanius,  the  son  of  Aeneas  (q.v,). 

Ascapart,  the  giant  conquered  and  con- 
verted by  'Bevis  of  Hampton*  (q.v.). 

Ascendant,  see  House  (Astrological). 

ASCHAM,ROGER(i5i5~68),was  educated 
at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  in  classics  and  became 
Greek  reader  in  1538.  He  published  in  1545 
'Toxophilus*,  a  treatise  in  English  in  dialogue 
form  on  archery,  urging  the  importance  of 


ASCLEPIADES 

physical  training  in  education.  He  succeeded 
Grindal  as  tutor  to  Princess  Elizabeth  in  1548, 
and  travelled  on  the  Continent  as  secretary  to 
Sir  Thomas  Morison,  English  ambassador  to 
Charles  V,  in  1550-3.  In  the  latter  year  he 
became  Latin  secretary  to  Queen  Mary,  being 
specially  permitted  to  continue  in  his  pro- 
fession of  Protestantism.  In  1558  he  was 
appointed  private  tutor  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 
In  his  'Scholemaster',  published  after  his 
death,  he  dealt  with  the  education  of  boys  of 
position  both  at  school,  of  which  he  criticized 
the  prevailing  discipline,  and  after  leaving  it, 
pointing  out  the  dangers  of  idle  attendance  at 
court  and  of  Italian  travel.  By  his  'Toxophi- 
lus*  and  'Scholemaster*  and  by  his  'Letters' 
he  contributed  notably  to  the  development  of 
a  simple  English  prose  style.  His  love  of 
sport  is  interesting.  According  to  Camden 
('Annals',  1568),  he  lived  and  died  a  poor 
man,  owing  to  his  addiction  to  dicing  and 
cock-fighting.  Whatever  may  be  the  truth 
about  his  gambling  (which  he  condemns  in 
'Toxophilus'),  he  acknowledges  in  the 
'Scholemaster*  his  interest  in  cock-fighting. 

ASCLEPIADES,  a  lyric  poet  of  Samos,  of 
the  2nd  cent.  B.C.,  to  whom  is  attributed  the 
invention  of  the  Asclepiadic  metre  (a  spondee, 
two  or  three  choriambs,  and  an  iambus.) 
Asclepius,  see  Aesculapius. 
Asiandiyar,  see  Isfendiyar. 

Asgarct,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 

region,  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  in- 
habited by  the  gods. 

Ash  Wednesday,  the  first  day  of  Lent,  so 
called  from  the  practice  in  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  of  marking  the  foreheads  of 
penitents  with  ash  on  that  day. 

Ash  Wednesday,  the  title  of  a  book  of  poems 
by  T.  S.  Eliot  (q.v.). 

Ashfield,  FARMER  and  MRS.,  characters  in 
Morton's  'Speed  the  Plough*  (q.v.). 

Ashkenazim,  see  Sephardim. 

AsMey  Library,  the  foremost  private  library 
in  England,  collected  by  Thomas  James  Wise 
(q.v.).  It  is  remarkable  for  its  first  editions 
of  famous  English  poets  and  dramatists  from 
Jacobean  times,  i.e.  from  Ben  Jonson  down- 
wards. The  catalogue  of  the  library  (id 
volumes)  appeared  in  1922—30. 

ASHMOLE,  ELIAS  (1617^92),  antiquary 
and  astrologer,  studied  physics  and  mathe- 
matics at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford.  He 
joined  the  Royalists  and  held  several  govern- 
ment appointments.  He  presented  his  col- 
lection of  curiosities  (see  Askmolean  Building) 
to  Oxford  University,  to  which  he  subse- 
quently bequeathed  his  library.  He  wrote  or 
edited  antiquarian  and  Rosicrucian  works. 
Ashmolean  Building  (the  'Old  Ashmo- 
lean*),  Oxford.  Erected  between  1679  and 
1683  at  the  charge  of  the  University,  for  the 
reception  of  the  collection  of  natural  and 
artificial  curiosities  given  by  Elias  Ashmole 


ASOKA 

(based  on  the  nucleus  of  a  collection  of 
John  Tradescant,  1608-62),  and  for  the  pro- 
motion of  the  study  of  chemistry  and  natural 
philosophy.  The  architect  of  the  building 
is  said  ('Oxford  Historical  Register*  and 
^University  Calendar')  to  have  been  Mr. 
Wood,  *a  stone-cutter  or  mason  of  Oxford*; 
the  claim  that  the  designer  was  Sir  Christo- 
pher Wren  is  discussed  in  Sir  Charles 
Mallet's  'History  of  Oxford*  (vol.  3,.  1927). 
The  main  floor  of  the  building  has  been  in 
use  since  1901  for  the  compilation  of  the 
Oxford  English  Dictionary.  In  1897  the 
Ashmolean  collection,  considerably  aug- 
mented since  its  inception,  was  removed  to 
new  buildings  in  Beaumont  Street,  now 
known  as  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  of  Art  and 
Archaeology.  The  present  Museum  includes 
also  the  pictures  belonging  to  the  University 
Galleries. 

Ashmolean  Museum,  see  the  preceding 
entry. 

Ashtarofh,  see  Astarte. 

Ashton,  SIR  WILLIAM,  LADY,  and  LUCY, 
characters  in  Scott's  'Bride  of  Lammermoor* 


Asia,  PAMPERED  JADES  OF,  see  under  Tambur- 
laine  the  Great. 

Asiento  Treaty,  a  treaty  between  Great 
Britain  and  Spain,  accompanying  the  Treaty 
of  Utrecht  of  1713,  by  which  Great  Britain 
obtained  the  exclusive  right  for  a  period  of 
years  of  importing  negro  slaves  into  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  America,  and  also  the 
right  of  sending  each  year  one  cargo  of  goods 
to  Portobello. 

Aslaugo?s   Knight,   a  romance  by  De  La 

Motte  Fouque"  (the  author  of  *  Undine*,  q.v.) 
translated  by  Carlyle  in  *  German  Romance** 
Aslauga  was  the  daughter  of  Sigurd  and 
wife  of  Ragnar  Lodbrog.  The  Knight  Froda, 
long  afterwards  reading  of  her,  elects  her  as 
the  lady  of  his  heart  and  Ms  helper  in  fight 
and  song.  Aslauga  appears  to  him  from  time 
to  time  and  controls  his  destiny,  and  finally 
carries  Mm  off  to  the  land  of  spirits. 

Asmadai,  in  Milton's  ^Paradise  Lost*,  vi, 
365,  one  of  the  rebel  angels,  vanquished  by 
Raphael.  The  name  is  the  same  as  *Asmo- 
deus'  (q.v.). 

Asmodaeus,  in  Tobit  ili.  89  the  evil  spirit 
who  loved  Sarah,  daughter  of  Raguel,  and 
slew  the  seven  husbands  given  to  her  in 
succession.  The  spirit  was  driven  away  to 
Egypt  by  the  smoke  made  by  the  heart  and 
liver  of  a  fish  laid  on  the  ashes  of  incense, 
according  to  instructions  given  by  the  angel 
to  Tobias;  after  which  the  latter  was  able  to 
marry  Sarah  in  peace. 

Asmodeus  is  the  name  given  by  Le  Sage 
in  his  *Diable  Boiteux'  (q.v.)  to  the  demon 
companion  of  Don  Cleofas. 


Asoka,   emperor   of   India,   264-228  B.C. 


[43] 


ASOLANDO 

Inscriptions  state  that  he  abandoned  a  career 
of  conquest  by  the  sword  in  order  to  spread 
the  religion  of  Buddha.  He  sent  missionaries 
far  and  wide  for  this  purpose,  and  is  highly 
venerated  by  Buddhists. 

Asolando,  the  title  of  the  collection  of  the 
last  poems  of  R.  Browning  (q.v.),  published 
in  1890.  It  contains  some  of  the  author's 
most  beautiful  short  pieces,  and  ends  with 
the  well-known  'Epilogue' — 'At  midnight  in 
the  silence  of  the  sleep-time1.  The  title  is 
derived,  as  the  poet  explains  in  the  preface, 
from  a  word  ascribed  to  the  inventiveness 
of  Cardinal  Bembo,  asolare,  'to  disport  in 
the  open  air,  amuse  oneself  at  random*. 

Aspasia,  the  famous  Greek  courtesan, 
daughter  of  Axiochus  of  Miletus,  came  to 
Athens,  where  she  acquired  fame  by  her 
beauty,  culture,  and  wit.  She  so  captivated 
Pericles  (q.v.),  that  he  made  her  his  lifelong 
companion.  See  Pericles  and  Aspasia. 

Aspatia,  a  character  in  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  'The  Maid's  Tragedy*  (q.v.). 

Asphodel,  a  genus  of  liliaceous  plants, 
mostly  native  of  Southern  Europe.  The  poets 
make  it  the  flower  of  the  Elysian  fields 
(Homer,  'Odyssey*,  xi.  539)  and  connect  it 
with  the  legend  of  Proserpine  (q.v.).  The 
word  'daffodil'  is  a  corruption  of  'asphodel'. 
Aspramont,  Aspramonte  in  Calabria,  which 
figures  in  the  Charlemagne  legends  as  the 
scene  of  a  fictitious  campaign  against  the 
Saracen  king. 

Asraei,  see  Azrael. 

Assassins,  THE,  a  fanatical  sect  whose  re- 
ligion was  compounded  of  Magianism  and 
Mohammedanism,  founded  in  Persia  at  the 
end  of  the  i  ith  cent,  by  Hasan-ben-Sabbah, 
known  as  the  'Old  Man  of  the  Mountain', 
from  the  castle  of  Alamut  in  the  mountains 
south  of  the  Caspian  which  was  his  strong- 
hold. The  Assassins  migrated  to  the  Lebanon 
and  were  notorious  for  the  secret  murders 
that  they  carried  out  at  the  orders  of  their 
chief.  It  was  said  that  before  they  attacked 
an  enemy  they  intoxicated  themselves  with 
hashish,  whence  their  name,  which  means 
'hashish-eaters*. 

For  the  story  of  Hasan-ben-Sabbah 's  re- 
lations with  Nizam-uI-Mulk  and  Omar  Khay- 
yam, see  under  Nizam-ul-Mulk. 

Asseneth,  in  a  variant  of  the  story  of  Joseph 
and  Potiphar's  wife,  is  Potiphar's  daughter, 
whom  Joseph  consents  to  marry  if  she  will 
renounce  her  gods,  which  she  does.  An  angel 
signifies  approval  and  Pharaoh  gives  a  feast 
to  celebrate  the  nuptials.  The  story,  perhaps 
of  early  Christian  invention,  was  made  the 
subject  of  a  French  prose  romance,  early  in 
the  14-th  cent.,  by  Jean  de  Vignay. 

ASSER  (d.  909?),  a  monk  of  St.  David's, 
who  entered  the  household  of  King  Alfred 
and  studied  with  him  for  six  months  in  each 
year  (c.  885).  He  received  the  monasteries  of 


ASTOLFO 

Amesbury  and  Banwell,  and  later  a  grant  of 
Exeter  and  its  district,  and  was  bishop  of 
Sherborne.  He  wrote  a  Latin  life  of  Alfred 
and  a  chronicle  of  EngHsh  history  between  849 
and  887.  The  authenticity  of  these  has  been 
disputed.  The  'Life*  is  important  as  'the 
earliest  biography  of  an  English  layman'.  The 
classic  edition  is  by  W.  H.  Stevenson  (1904). 

Assiento  Treaty,  see  Asiento. 

Assonance,  the  correspondence  or  rhyming 
of  one  word  with  another  in  the  accented  and 
following  syllables,  but  not  in  the  consonants, 
as,  e.g.,  in  Old  French  versification. 

Assur,  ASHUR,  or  ASSHUR,  the  local  god  of 
the  city  of  the  same  name,  which  was  the 
metropolis  of  the  first  Assyrian  kingdom.  He 
became  the  supreme  god  of  the  Assyrians, 
the  god  of  war,  the  protector  of  the  people, 
represented  in  a  horned  cap,  shooting  an 
arrow  from  his  bow.  His  wife  was  Belit. 

Astarte,  ASHTAROTH,  ASHTORETH,  ISHTAR, 
the  eastern  equivalent  of  the  Greek  Aphro- 
dite, the  goddess  of  love  and  fruitful  increase. 
ASTARTE  is  the  name  under  which 
Augusta  (Byron's  half-sister)  figures  in  his 
poem  'Manfred'  (q.v.).  The  story  of  Byron 
and  Astarte  is  told  in  'Astarte',  by  Ralph 
Milbanke,  earl  of  Lovelace  (issued  privately 
in  1905  and  for  general  sale  in  1921). 

Asti,  the  name  of  various  wines,  still  and 
sparkling,  produced  at  Asti  in  Piedmont. 

Astley,  SIR  JACOB,  Baron  Astley  (1579- 
1652),  a  Royalist  who  served  as  major-general 
with  distinction  in  the  Civil  War.  He  was 
'hurt'  at  Edgehill.  His  prayer  before  Warwick 
is  famous :  'Lord,  I  shall  be  very  busy  this  day : 
if  I  forget  Thee,  do  not  Thou  forget  me.* 

Astley,  PHILIP  (1742-1814),  the  famous 
equestrian  performer  and  circus-owner, 
joined  General  Elliott's  light  horse  in  1759 
and  became  breaker-in  and  sergeant-major. 
He  opened  an  exhibition  of  horsemanship  at 
Lambeth,  and  in  1770  a  wooden  circus  at 
Westminster.  Subsequently  he  established  in 
all  nineteen  equestrian  theatres,  including 
Astley's  Royal  Amphitheatre,  London. 

Astolat,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur* 
(Ascplet  in  'Le  Morte  Arthur*,  q.v.),  is,  ac- 
cording to  Malory,  Guildford  in  Surrey.  For 
the  'Fair  Maid  of  Astolat'  see  Elaine  le  Blank. 

Astolfo,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato*  and 
the  'Orlando  Furioso'  (qq.v.),  a  courteous  and 
graceful  English  knight,  one  of  the  suitors  of 
Angelica  (q.v.),  and  at  one  time  a  prisoner  of 
Alcina  (q.v.).  He  receives  from  Logestilla 
(q.v.)  a  magic  horn,  the  blast  of  which  fills  its 
hearers  with  panic,  and  a  book  that  tells  him 
all  he  wishes  to  know.  He  gets  possession  of 
the  hippogriff  of  Rogero,  and  with  an  Eng- 
lishman's partiality  for  travel,  flies  about  the 
world,  relieves  Prester  John  in  Nubia  of  his 
troubles  with  harpies,  visits  Paradise,  whence 
St.  John  carries  him  in  a  chariot  to  the  moon. 
There,  in  a  valley,  are  collected  all  the  things 


ASTORIA 

that  are  lost  on  earth,  lost  kingdoms,  lost 
reputations,  lost  time,  and  in  the  heap  he  finds 
the  lost  wits  of  Orlando,  which  he  restores  to 
the  crazy  hero.  As  regards  his  description 
as  an  English  knight,  it  appears  that  in  the 
earlier  French  chanson  he  figures  as  Estout  de 
Langres,  or  Lengrois,  corrupted  into  Lenglois 
and  PEnglois  (F.  J.  Snel!  in  P.B.L.,  'The 
Fourteenth  Century'). 

Astoria,  or  Anecdotes  of  an  Enterprise 
Beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains*  by  Washing- 
ton Irving  (q.v.)»  published  in  1836. 

One  of  living's  early  books,  devoted  to 
John  Jacob  Astor's  development  of  the  fur 
trade  in  the  American  North-west,  and  based 
upon  the  first-hand  information  furnished 
by  various  travellers, 

Astraea,  a  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Themis. 
According  to  the  poets,  she  lived  on  earth 
during  the  golden  age  and  was  a  source  of 
blessing  to  men ;  but  their  impiety  drove  her 
to  heaven  during  the  brazen  and  iron  ages, 
and  she  was  placed  among  the  constellations 
of  the  zodiac,  under  the  name  Virgo. 

ASTRAEA  in  line  290  of  Pope's  'Imitations 
of  Horace*,  Ep.  n.  i, 

'The  stage  how  loosely  does  Astraea  tread*, 
is  3V Irs.  Behn  (q.v.). 

Astraea  Redux,  a  poem  on  the  Restoration  of 
Charles  II,  by  Dryden  (q.v.),  published  in 
1660. 

Astrte,  see  Utf& 

Astropkel,  a  pastoral  elegy,  written  by 
Spenser  (q.v.)  in  1586  on  the  death  of  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,  who  was  mortally  wounded  in 

that  year  at  Zutphen.  Spenser  again  lamented 
him.  in  sThe  Ruines  of  Time*  (q.v.). 
Astrophel  and  Stella,  the  series  of  sonnets 
in  which  Sir  P.  Sidney  (q.v.),  according  to  the 
common  account,  expressed  his  love  for 
Penelope  Devereux,  daughter  of  the  ist  earl 
of  Essex.  In  1580  she  was  married  against 
her  will  to  Lord  Rich,  and  Sidney's  dis- 
appointment and  passion  are  supposed  to 
have  found  voice  in  these  poems.  It  appears, 
however,  that  Penelope  was  in  love  before  her 
marriage  with  Charles  Blount,  earl  of  Devon- 
shire, whom  she  married  after  her  divorce 
from  Lord  Rich.  This  renders  the  theory  of 
Sidney's  devotion  to  her  improbable,  but  not 
impossible.  The  sonnets  were  not  published 
until  1591,  after  Sidney's  death,  and  their 
chronological  order  is  uncertain.  Eleven 
songs,  originally  printed  after  the  Sonnets, 
were  interspersed  among  them  in  the 'Arcadia* 
of  1598. 

Asuras,  in  later  Hindu  mythology,  evil 
demons,  the  enemies  of  the  gods.  In  the 
Vedas  the  term  is  frequently  applied  to  the 
gods  themselves. 

Asyniur,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
collective  name  of  the  goddesses  (see  JSEsir). 
Atabalipa,  in  Milton's  'Paradise  Lost*,  si. 
409,  is  Atahualpa,  the  Inca  of  Peru  who  was 
conquered  by  Pizarro, 


ATHANASIUS 
Atala,  see  Chateaubriand.  * 

Atalanta,  according  to  legend  the  daughter 
of  lasus  and  Clymene,  who  was  exposed  by 
her  father  and  suckled  by  a  she-bear.  She 
lived  in  celibacy,  but  her  beauty  gained  her 
many  admirers.  She  required  her  suitors  to 
run  a  race  with  her.  If  any  reached  the  goal 
before  her,  he  was  to  be  her  husband  ;  but  ail 
whom  she  distanced  were  to  be  killed  with 
her  dart.  As  she  was  almost  invincible  in 
running,  many  suitors  perished  in  the  at- 
tempt, till  Milanion  presented  himself. 
Aphrodite  had  given  him  three  golden  apples 
from  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides,  and  as 
soon  as  he  had  started  on  his  course  he  cun- 
ningly threw  down  the  apples,  and  Atalanta, 
charmed  at  the  sight,  stopped  to  gather  them, 
so  that  Milanion  arrived  first  at  the  goal. 
(According  to  another  version,  the  successful 
suitor  was  Hippomenes.)  Atalanta  was  pre- 
sent at  the  hunting  of  the  Calydonian  Boar 
(q.v.),  which  she  was  the  first  to  wound.  She 
received  its  head  from  Meleager  (q.v.).  For 
Swinburne's  'Atalanta  in  Calydon"  see 
Swinburne.  'Atalanta's  Race*  is  the  first 
poem  in  W.  Morris's  'The  Earthly  Paradise* 
(q.v.). 
AtalantiSf  The  New,  see  Manley. 

Ate,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  daughter  of 
Zeus,  the  goddess  of  evil,  who  incites  men  to 
wickedness  and  strife. 

Atellan  or  OSCAN  FABLES,  Atellanae  Fabulaet 
so  called  from  Atella,  a  town  of  the  Osci  in 

Campania.  They  were  *a  comic  but  not 
wanton  kind  of  popular  farce  '  (Lewis  and 
Short),  from  which  magistrates  and  other 
persons  of  high  rank,  and  also  characters 
from  low  life,  were  excluded*  They  were  per- 
formed not  by  professional  actors,  but  by 
Roman  citizens  of  good  birth.  They  were 
written  in  the  Oscan  language  of  southern 
Italy,  which  resembled  Latin. 

Athalie,  the  name  of  Racine's  greatest  play, 
which  deals  with  the  story  of  AthaHah, 
daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  and  wife  of 
Joram,  king  of  Judah.  She  put  to  death  all 
the  children  of  the  house  of  David,  save 
Joash,  who  escaped  and  was  hid  in  the  house 
of  the  Lord.  After  six  years  Joash  was  pro- 
claimed king,  and  Athaliah  slam  (2  Rings  xi). 

Atfaamas,  see  I«o. 


Athanasian  Creed,  THE,  the  creed 
cumque  uult,  called  in  some  manuscripts  the 
creed  of  St.  Athanasius  (q.v.).  Its  origin  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  controversy.  It  is 
perhaps  the  work  of  Caesarius,  bishop  of 
Axles  (503-43)- 

Athanasius  (c.  296-373),  a  famous 
bishop  of  Alexandria  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Constantine,  and  a  vigorous  op- 
ponent of  the  Arian  heresy.  He  was  in 
consequence  much  attacked  by  the  Arians, 
and  persecuted  by  Constantine  and  his 
successor  Constantius.  For  the  creed  that 
bears  his  name  see  previous  entry.  He  was 


[45] 


ATHEISM 

repeatedly  driven  into  exile  and  concealment, 
but  remained  steadfast  in  his  faith. 

Atheism*  On  the  Necessity  of,  see  Shelley 
(P.  B.). 

Atheist's  Tragedie,  The,  a  tragedy  by 
Tourneur  (q.v.),  printed  in  1611. 

D'Amville,  the  'atheist',  desiring,  from  the 
wish  to  increase  the  wealth  of  his  family,  to 
marry  his  son  to  Castabella,  who  is  betrothed 
to  Charlemont,  the  son  of  Montferrers,  his 
brother,  arranges  that  Charlemont  shall  go 
abroad  on  military  service.  During  Ms 
absence,  D'Amville  and  Belforest,  Casta- 
bella^ father,  achieve  their  purpose,  and 
Castabella  is  married  to  the  sickly  Rousard. 
D'Amville  then  murders  Montferrers.  Char- 
lemont, falsely  reported  dead,  and  exhorted 
by  the  ghost  of  his  father  to  'leave  vengeance 
to  the  King  of  Kings*,  now  returns.  D'Amville 
endeavours  to  secure  his  murder,  but  ven- 
geance comes  upon  him  in  the  death  of  his 
two  sons.  Finally,  when  himself  about  to 
carry  out  the  execution  of  Charlemont,  he 
dashes  out  his  own  brains  by  accident,  and 
Charlemont  is  united  to  Castabella. 

Athelstane  of  Goningsburgli,  a  character 
in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe*  (q.v.). 

Athelston,  a  verse  romance  of  about  the  year 
1350,  of  some  800  lines.  Four  messengers 
meeting  by  chance  in  the  forest  swear  brother- 
hood. One,  Atheiston,  becomes  king  of 
England,  and  makes  one  of  the  brothers 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  one  earl  of  Dover, 
and  one  earl  of  Stane  and  husband  of  Athel- 
ston's  sister.  Dover  secretly  accuses  Stane 
and  his  wife  of  plotting  against  the  king. 
Athelston  imprisons  them.  The  queen  inter- 
cedes, but  the  king  brutally  kicks  her  and 
kills  her  unborn  child.  The  archbishop, 
interceding  in  turn,  is  ordered  to  give  up  his 
office,  but  excommunicates  the  king,  who 
submits  on  a  threat  of  popular  rising.  Stane 
is  tried  by  ordeal  and  exculpated.  The  king 
declares  the  son  of  the  countess  of  Stane 
(St.  Edmund)  his  heir-  Dover  is  exposed  by 
ordeal  and  executed. 

Athenae  Oxonienses,  see  Wood  (A.). 

Athenaeum,  The,  a  literary  and  artistic 
review  founded  in  1828  by  James  Silk 
Buckingham  (q.v.).  It  rose  to  eminence 
under  the  editorship  of  Charles  Wentworth 
Dilke  (q.v.),  and  many  of  the  greatest  English 
writers  of  the  nineteenth  century  were 
among  its  contributors.  elt  was  full  of  the 
most  awful  swipes  about  poetry  and  the 
use  of  globes. . . .  Golly,  what  a  paper!*  (John 
Finsbury  in  'The  Wrong  Box*  by  R.  L. 
Stevenson  and  Lloyd  Osboume,  1889,  ch. 
xv).  'The  Athenaeum*  was  incorporated 
in  'The  Nation  and  Athenaeum3  in  1921, 
and  this  in  turn  in  'The  New  Statesman* 
in  1931. 

Athenaeum  Club,  THE,  in  London,  was 
founded  in  1824  as  an  association  of  persons  of 
literary,  scientific,  and  artistic  attainments, 


ATHOS,  PORTHOS,  AND  ARAMIS 

patrons  of  learning,  &c.  Among  its  founders 
were  the  earls  of  Liverpool  and  Aberdeen,  the 
marquess  of  Lansdowne,  Scott,  Davy,  Fara- 
day, Croker,  Lawrence,  and  Moore.  (There 
was  an  'Athenaeum*  at  Rome,  a  university  on 
the  Capitoline,  founded  by  the  emperor 
Hadrian,  for  the  promotion  of  science  and 
literature.) 

Athene,  the  Greek  goddess  of  wisdom,  in- 
dustry, and  war,  identified  by  the  Romans 
with  their  goddess  MINERVA.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Zeus  and  Metis,  and  sprang  fully 
grown  and  armed  from  the  brain  of  her 
father,  who  had  swallowed  Metis  when 
pregnant,  fearing  that  her  child  would  be 
mightier  than  he.  Athene  quarrelled  with 
Poseidon  for  the  right  of  giving  the  name 
to  the  capital  of  Cecropia  (see  under  Cecrops). 
The  assembly  of  the  gods  settled  the 
dispute  by  promising  the  preference  to 
whichever  gave  the  more  useful  present  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  Thereupon 
Poseidon  struck  the  ground  with  his  trident, 
and  a  horse  sprang  up.  But  Athene 
produced  the  olive,  was  adjudged  the  victor, 
and  called  the  capital  ATHENAE.  Her  other 
name  Pallas,  which  perhaps  signifies 
'brandishing*  (her  spear),  has  probably  sug- 
gested another  legend  that  she  was  the 
daughter  of  the  giant  Pallas.  She  is 
represented  generally  with  a  countenance 
marked  by  masculine  firmness  and  com- 
posure rather  than  by  softness  and  grace. 
In  one  hand  she  holds  a  spear,  in  the  other 
a  shield  with  the  head  of  Medusa  (q.v.) 
displayed  upon  it.  See  also  Arachne, 
Marsyas. 

Athenian  Gazette,  The  (afterwards  known  as 
the  'Athenian  Mercury'),  'resolving  all  the 
most  Nice  and  Curious  Questions',  was  a 
penny  weekly  sheet  issued  from  1689/90  to 
1695/6,  a  precursor  of  'Notes  and  Queries*. 
It  was  published  by  Dunton  (q.v.). 

Athens  of  the  North,  a  term  applied  some- 
times to  Edinburgh,  sometimes  to  Copen- 
hagen. 

Atherstone,  THE,  a  celebrated  pack  of  fox- 
hounds, dating  from  the  end  of  the  i8th  cent., 
whose  country  lies  partly  in  Leicestershire, 
partly  in  Oxfordshire,  with  Nuneaton  as  the 
centre. 

ATHERTON,  GERTRUDE  (1857-  ), 
American  novelist,  born  at  San  Francisco. 
Her  chief  works  are:  'Patience  Sparhawk  and 
her  Times'  (1897),  'The  Aristocrats*  (1901), 
'Tower  of  Ivory'  (1910),  'Black  Oxen'  (1923), 
'The  Crystal  Cup*  (1925). 

Athos,  Mr.,  the  'Holy  Mountain',  the 
easternmost  of  the  three  Chalcidic  peninsulas 
projecting  into  the  Aegean  Sea  from  Mace- 
donia. It  has  been  occupied  since  the  Middle 
Ages  by  various  communities  of  monks. 

Athos,  Porthos,  and  Aramis,  the  'Three 
Musketeers'  (q.v.)  in  Alexandre  Dumas*  novel 
of  that  name. 


ATKINS 

Atkins,  THOMAS  or  TOMMY,  see   Tommy 

Atkins. 

Atlantic  Monthly,  The,  an  American,  and 

more  particularly  a  New  England,  magazine, 
founded  in  1857  with  J.  R.  Lowell  (q.v.)  as 
editor.  It  has  numbered  among  its  dis- 
tinguished contributors,  O.  W.  Holmes, 
Emerson,  Bret  Harte,  Whittier,  and  C.  E. 
Norton  (qq.v.), 

Atlantis,  a  fabulous  island  in  the  ocean 
west  of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  a  beautiful  and 
prosperous  country,  the  seat  of  an  empire 
which  dominated  part  of  Europe  and  Africa. 
But  owing  to  the  impiety  of  its  inhabitants,  it 
was  swallowed  up  by  the  sea.  The  story  is 
told  by  Plato  in  the  'Timaeus*. 

Atlantis,  New,  see  New  Atlantis, 

Atlas,  one  of  the  Titans  (q.v.),  and  king  of 
Mauritania.  He  was  changed  into  a  moun- 
tain by  Perseus  (q.v.),  who,  being  refused 
hospitality  by  Atlas,  turned  the  eyes  of  the 
Medusa  upon  him.  This  mountain,  which 
runs  east  and  west  across  the  deserts  of 
North  Africa,  is  so  high  that  the  ancients 
thought  the  heavens  rested  on  its  summit,  and 
that  Atlas  supported  the  world  on  his 
shoulders.  According  to  Lucian  ('Charon') 
Hercules  visited  Atlas  and  relieved  him  of  his 
burden.  Atlas  was  father  of  the  Pleiades, 
Hyades,  and  Hesperides  (qq.v.). 

Atli,  in  W.  Morris's  'Sigurd  the  Volsung* 
(q.v.),  the  Attila  of  history. 

Atom,  The  History  and  Adventures  of  an,  a 
satire  by  Smollett  (q.v.),  published  in  1769. 

The  Atom,  having  in  the  course  of  its 
transmigrations,  lived  in  the  body  of  a  Japan- 
ese, relates  to  one  Nathaniel  Peacock  his 
experiences  in  Japan.  Japan  stands  for 
England,  and  the  various  Japanese  personages 
referred  to  in  the  story  represent  prominent 
characters  in  the  recent  political  history  of 
England  (e.g.  Yak-strot,  the  earl  of  Bute). 
The  satire  is  of  the  utmost  coarseness. 

Atossa,  see  Moral  Essays* 

Atreus,  according  to  Greek  legend,  a  son  of 
Pelops  (q.v.)  and  king  of  Argos.  The  tragedy 

associated  with  his  name  does  not  appear  in 
Homer,  The  post-Homeric  poets  relate  that 
Atreus,  to  revenge  himself  on  his  brother 
Thyestes  for  seducing  his  wife,  invited 
Thyestes  to  a  banquet  and  served  him  the 
flesh  of  his  children  to  eat.  Thyestes  fled  in 
horror,  cursing  the  house  of  Atreus,  which 
was  visited  by  various  calamities.  Thyestes 
became  the  father  of  Aegisthus  (q.v.)  by 
his  own  daughter  Pelopia.  Aegisthus  slew 
Atreus,  who  had  ordered  him  to  kill  Thyestes, 
and  restored  Thyestes  to  the  throne  of  which 
Atreus  had  deprived  him.  Atreus  was  the 
father  (or  according  to  some  authors  the 
grandfather)  of  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus 
(qq.v.). 

Atropos,  see  Parcae. 
ATTERBURY,    FRANCIS    (1662-1732), 


ATTIS 

educated  at  Winchester  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  became  bishop  of  Rochester,  after 
holding  various  important  preferments.  Ke 
engaged  in  the  Phalaris  (q.v.)  controversy, 
and  in  the  political  and  theological  disputes 
of  the  day.  He  was  imprisoned  in  1720  for 
alleged  participation  in  a  plot  to  restore  the 
Stuarts,  and  subsequently  left  the  country 
and  threw  in  his  lot  definitely  with  the  Jaco- 
bites. In  religion  he  was  a  strong  supporter 
of  the  Church  of  England,  and  opposed  to 
the  Latitudinarians  (q.v.).  He  was  a  notable 
preacher  and  a  trenchant  political  writer.  His 
'Sermons*  were  published  in  1740,  and 
his  'Miscellaneous  Works'  in  1789-98.  His 
'Discourse  occasioned  by  the  Death  of  Lady 
Cutts*  appeared  in  1698. 

Attic,  a  dialect  of  ancient  Greek  spoken  at 
Athens  and  in  the  surrounding  country 
(Attica).  As  an  epithet,  it  is  applied  to  a  pure, 
simple,  polished  style,  as  being  characteristic 
of  the  best  Greek  writers. 

ATTIC  SALT,  refined,  delicate,  poignant  wit, 
of  a  kind  characteristic  of  the  ancient 
Athenians.  From  the  Latin  sal  atticum,  the 
word  sal  meaning  both  'salt*  and  'wit*. 

See  also  Order* 

Attic  boy,  THE,  in  Milton's  £I1  Penseroso* 
(q.v.);  see  Cephalus. 

Atticus,  the  character  under  which  Pope 

(q.v.)  satirized  Addison  (q.v.)  in  lines  pub- 
lished in  1723  in  a  miscellany  entitled 
'Cytherea,  or  poems  upon  Love  and  In- 
trigue*, and  reprinted  in  'Miscellanies,  the 
last  Volume*,  1728.  The  lines,  much  altered,, 
reappeared  in  Pope's  *  Epistle  to  Dr.  Arbuth- 
not*  (193-214),  1735. 

The  original  of  the  character,  T.  Pom- 
ponius  Atticus  (109-32  B.C.),  was  a  Roman 
eques  (a  member  of  the  order  of  'Knights*, 
who  held  a  middle  rank  between  the  Senate 
and  the  Plebs).  His  surname  was  given  him 
on  account  of  his  long  residence  in  Athens  and 
knowledge  of  Greek  literature.  He  was  a 
close  friend  of  Cicero,  whose  letters  to  him 
still  exist. 

Attila,  king  of  the  Huns.  He  ravaged  the 
Eastern  Empire  during  the  years  445-50,  and 
after  making  peace  with  Theodosius,  in- 
vaded the  Western  Empire  and  was  defeated 
at  Chalons  by  Aetius  in  451.  He  died  in  453. 
The  terror  he  inspired  is  shown  in  the  name 
given  to  him,  the  *  Scourge  of  God*  (flagellttm 
Dei).  In  German  heroic  legend  he  figures  aa 
ETZEL,  and  in  Norse  legend  as  ATLI. 

Attis  or  ATYS,  a  Phrygian  deity  connected 
with  the  myth  of  the  'Great  Mother*,  Rhea, 
Cy  bele,  or  Agdistis,  Attis  was  the  beautiful 
son  of  Nana,  daughter  of  the  river-god 
Sangarius ;  she  conceived  him  after  gathering 
the  fruit  of  an  almond  tree  sprung  from  the 
blood  of  Agdistis.  Agdistis  fell  in  love  with 
Attis,  and  because  he  wished  to  marry  the 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Pessinus,  drove  him 
mad ;  so  that  he  mutilated  himself.  His  spirit 


[471 


AUBREY 

passed  into  a  pine  tree  and  violets  sprang  up 
from  his  blood.  His  death  was  mourned  for 
two  days,  after  which  his  recovery  was 
celebrated,  a  symbol  of  the  death  and  revival 
of  plant  life. 

AUBREY,  JOHN  (1626-97),  antiquary, 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  was 
author  of  a  *  Perambulation  of  Surrey*,  which 
was  included  in  Rawlinson's  'Natural  His- 
tory and  Antiquities  of  Surrey'  (1719);  of  a 
collection  of  'Lives*  of  eminent  persons, 
much  used  by  Anthony  a  Wood  (q.v.),  and 
subsequently  published  in  1813  (fuller  edi- 
tions in  1898  and  1931) ;  and  of  'Miscellanies* 
(1696),  a  book  of  stories  and  folk-lore. 

Auburn,  see  Deserted  Village. 

Aufousson  carpets,  carpets  made  at  the 
celebrated  factory  of  Aubusson,  in  the  Creuse, 
a  department  of  central  France.  The  factory 
dates  from  the  i$th  cent. 
Aucassin  and  Nicolette,  a  late  isth-cent. 
legend  of  Provence,  which  has  been  trans- 
lated or  adapted  by  F.  W.  Bourdillon,  Swin- 
burne, Andrew  Lang,  and  Eugene  Maron. 
With  'Amis  and  Amile'  (see  Amis  andAmiloun) 
it  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Pater's  'Studies 
in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance*.  The  ori- 
ginal is  in  prose  interspersed  with  songs. 

Aucassin,  son  of  Count  Garins  of  Beaucaire, 
loves  Nicolette,  a  beautiful  Saracen  captive. 
The  father  forbids  their  marriage  and  im- 
mures Nicolette  in  a  tower,  and  subsequently, 
after  further  dissension  with  his  son,  im- 
prisons Aucassin  himself.  The  damsel 
escapes  and  is  followed  by  Aucassin,  and  the 
story  is  concerned  with  their  simple  adven- 
tures and  faithful  love,  which  is  finally 
rewarded. 

Auchinleck  (pron.  'Affleck'),  the  name  of 
the  family  and  estate  of  James  Boswell  (q.v.). 
Audhumla,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
cow  that  fed  the  giant  Ymir  (q.v.)  with  her 
milk. 

Audrey,  in  Shakespeare's  'As  You  Like  It* 
(q.v.),  the  country  wench  wooed  and  won  by 
Touchstone. 

Audrey,  ST.,  St.  Etheldreda,  daughter  of 
Anna  (king  of  East  Anglia)  and  patron  saint 
of  Ely. 

TAWDRY  LACE,  a  silk  'lace'  or  neck-tie  much 
worn  by  women  in  the  i6th  and  early  i7th 
cents.,  appears  in  the  earliest  quotation  as  St. 
Audrey's  lace.  It  is  told  by  Baeda  that  St. 
Audrey  died  of  a  tumour  in  the  throat,  which 
she  considered  to  be  a  just  retribution  because 
in  her  youth  she  had  for  vain  show  worn 
many  splendid  necklaces.  Harpsfield,  arch- 
deacon of  Canterbury  in  the  i6th  cent., 
thinks  that  the  silk  neck-tie  may  have  been 
worn  in  memory  of  this.  Skinner  in  his 
'Etymologicon*  (1688)  explains  tawdry  lace 
as  'ties  .  .  .  bought  at  the  fair  held  at  the  fane 
of  St.  Etheldreda'.  There  is  no  discrepancy 
between  the  two  statements.  'St.  Audrey's 
laces'  would  naturally  be  largely  offered  for 


AUGUSTAN  AGE 

sale  at  her  fair,  and  this  doubtless  led  to  the 
production  of  cheap  and  showy  qualities  of 
the  article,  which  at  length  gave  to  tawdry 
its  later  meaning,  [OED.] 

AUDUBON,  JpHN  JAMES  (1780-1851), 
an  American  ornithologist  of  French  descent, 
noted  for  his  remarkable  pictures  of  birds. 
His  'Birds  of  America'  was  published  in 
1827-30,  and  his  'Ornithological  Biography* 
in  1831-9. 

Aufidius,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Coriolanus*  (q.v.). 

Augean  Stables,  Augeas,  king  of  Elis,  had 
an  immense  herd  of  oxen,  whose  stables  had 
never  been  cleansed.  The  cleansing  in  one 
day  was  one  of  the  labours  imposed  on 
Hercules  (q.v.)  by  Eurystheus.  Hercules 
undertook  the  task  for  a  reward  of  a  tenth 
part  of  the  herd,  and  accomplished  it  by 
changing  the  course  of  the  river  Alpheus  so 
that  it  should  flow  into  the  stables.  Augeas 
refused  the  promised  payment  on  the  pretext 
that  Hercules  had  made  use  of  artifice. 
Hercules  thereupon  conquered  Elis  and  put 
Augeas  to  death. 

Augsburg,  INTERIM  OF,  a  statement  of 
religious  doctrine  prepared  at  the  bidding  of 
Charles  V  in  1548,  which  was  in  the  nature 
of  a  compromise,  adopting  from  the  Roman 
Catholic  position  such  doctrines  as  transub- 
stantiation  and  papal  supremacy,  and  from 
the  Protestant  position  justification  by  faith 
.  and  the  marriage  of  priests. 

Augsburg  Confession,  a  statement  of  the 
Protestant  position  drawn  up  by  Melanch- 
thon  for  the  Diet  of  1530. 

Augusta,  the  name  of  several  Roman  towns 
colonized  by  Augustus  or  otherwise  con- 
sidered worthy  of  the  title.  Thus  Augusta 
Emerita  (Merida)  in  Lusitania  was  colonized 
by  Augustus  with  veterans  of  the  fifth  and 
tenth  legions,  and  Augusta  Praetoria  (Aosta) 
with  men  of  the  praetorian  guard. 

Ammianus  Marcellinus  (fl.  A.D.  390)  refers 
to  Londinium  (the  Roman  London)  as  a  city 
on  which  the  title  Augusta  had  been  con- 
ferred.  Thomson  in  his  'Seasons'  ('Spring') 
uses  the  name  for  London. 
Augusta,  in  imprints,  Augsburg. 
Augusta   Leigh,   Byron's   half-sister,    see 
Leigh. 

Augusta  Trebocorum,  in  imprints,  Stras- 
burg.   See  also  Argentina. 
Augusta  Treverorum,  in  imprints,  Treves. 
Augusta  Trinofoantum,  in  imprints,  Lon- 
don. 

Augusta  of  Berkely,  THE  LADY,  the 
heroine  of  Scott's  'Castle  Dangerous'  (q.v.). 
Augustan  Age,  a  period  of  literary  eminence 
in  the  life  of  a  nation,  so  named  because 
during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Augustus 
(27  B.C.-A.D.  14)  Virgil,  Horace,  Ovid, 
Tibullus,  &c.  flourished.  The  term  is  applied 


[43] 


AUGUSTIX 

in  the  history  of  English  literature  to  the 
period  of  Pope  and  Addison,  or  limited  to 
the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  or  extended  back- 
wards to  include  Dryden.  In  French  litera- 
ture the  term  is  applied  to  the  period  of 
Corneille,  Racine,  and  Moliere.  Goldsmith 
has  an  essay  on  the  'Augustan  Age  in  Eng- 
land* in  'The  Bee';  he  identifies  it  with  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne.  See  also  Saintsbury's 
'The  Peace  of  the  Augustans*,  a  survey  of 
iSth-cent.  English  literature  (1916). 
Augustin  or  AUSTIN  FRIARS,  a  religious 
order  of  mendicant  friars,  formed  in  the  isth 
cent,  to  bring  together  under  the  single  rule 
of  St.  Augustine  a  number  of  small  congrega- 
tions of  hermits.  Many  houses  of  the  order 
were  swept  away  by  the  Reformation.  Austin 
Friars  Church  in  London  (Old  Broad  Street) 
formed  part  of  the  priory  founded  in 
I253>  when  the  first  friars  of  the  order  had 
recently  reached  England.  At  the  dissolu- 
tion, the  church  was  transferred  to  the  Dutch 
Protestants,  who  still  possess  it. 

AUGUSTINE,  ST.,  OF  HIPPO  (345-430), 
was  born  at  Tagastein  Nurnidia(Constantine), 
his  mother  being  Monica,  a  devout  Christian. 
He  was  trained  as  a  rhetorician,  formed  an 
irregular  union,  and  was  father  of  a  son 
(Adeodatus).  He  was  for  a  time  a  Mani- 
chaean,  but  was  converted  after  hearing  the 
sermons  of  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  where 
Augustine  was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  The 
scene  of  his  conversion  is  vividly  described 
in  his  'Confessions*.  He  became  bishop  of 
Hippo,  and  was  engaged  in  constant  theo- 
logical controversy,  combating  Manichaeans, 
Donatists,  and  Pelagians.  The  most  famous 
of  his  numerous  works  is  the  £De  Civitate 
Dei*  (cCity  of  God*),  a  treatise  in  vindication 
of  the  Christian  Church.  His  Confessions* 
contain  a  striking  account  of  his  early  life. 
His  sermons  were  used  throughout  the 
Middle  Ages.  Augustine  died  during  the 
siege  of  Hippo  by  the  Vandals.  His  principal 
tenets  were  the  immediate  efficacy  of  grace, 
and  absolute  predestination;  he  furnished 
the  doctrinal  basis  of  the  revolt  of  Luther 
and  Calvin,  and  of  the  Jansenist  heresy. 

Augustine,  ST.  (d.   604),  first  archbishop 

of  Canterbury.  He  was  prior  of  Pope  Gre- 
gory Ps  monastery  of  St.  Andrew  at  Rome, 
and  was  sent  by  that  pope  with  forty  monks 
to  preach  the  Gospel  in  England.  He  was 
favourably  received  by  King  Ethelbert,  who 
was  afterwards  converted.  Augustine  was 
consecrated  *  bishop  of  the  English*  at  Aries. 
He  founded  the  monastery  of  Christ  Church 
at  Canterbury.  St.  Augustine*s,  also  at 
Canterbury,  was  a  Benedictine  abbey,  named 
from  its  founder,  and  is  now  used  as  a 
missionary  college.  St.  Augustine  is  com- 
memorated on  26  May. 

Au^ustinian  Canons,  an  order  of  canons 
regular  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  who 
adopted  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine  in  the  nth 
cent.  The  order  spread  to  various  parts  of 

3868  L 


AURORA 

Europe,  including  England,  during  the  later 
Middle  Ages. 

Augustus,    CAIUS   JULIUS   CAESAR   OCTA- 

VIANUS  (63  B.C.— AJX  14)5  the  nephew  of  Julius 
Caesar,  and  first  Roman  emperor,  occupying 
the  throne  from  27  B.C.  till  his  death.  The 
title  of  Augustus  was  conferred  on  him  in 
27  B.C.  by  the  senate  and  people  as  a  mark  of 
their  veneration.  It  was  borne  by  all  subse- 
quent Roman  Emperors;  even  Charlemagne 
used  it,  and  several  of  his  successors  in  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire. 

Auld  Lang  Syne,  a  song  whose  words  were 

contributed  by  Burns  (q.v.)  to  the  fifth 
volume  of  James  Johnson's  *  Scots  Musical 
Museum,31  (1787—1803).  It  was  not  entirely 
of  Burns's  composition,  but  was  taken  down 
by  him,  according  to  his  own  account,  *from 
an  old  man's  singing*.  But,  in  fact,  the  re- 
frain, at  least,  had  long  been  in  print.  The 
original  version  has  been  attributed  to 
Sir  Robert  Aytoun,  an  ancestor  of  W.  E. 
Aytoun  (q.v.). 

Auld  Reekie,  a  term  familiarly  applied  to 
the  old  town  of  Edinburgh,  in  allusion  to  its 
smoky  atmosphere. 

AuldRobin  Gray,  see  under  Lindsay  (Lady  A.). 

Aulic  Council,  a  sovereign  court  in  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  instituted  in  1506, 

which  sat  at  Vienna.  It  heard  appeals  from 
the  courts  of  the  Germanic  states. 

AULUS  GELLIUS,  see  Gellius. 

Aurelia  Allobrogum,  in  imprints,  Geneva. 

Aureng-Zebe,  a  tragedy  by  Dryden  (q.v.), 
published  in  1676. 

This  was  Dryden's  last  rhymed  play,  and 
he  subsequently  adopted  the  use  of  blank 
verse.  The  plot  is  remotely  based  on  the 
contemporary  events  by  which  Aureng-Zebe 
wrested  the  empire  of  India  from  Shah 
Jehan,  his  father,  and  from  his  brothers. 
But  it  turns  on  the  attempt  first  of  the  old 
emperor,  then  of  Morat,  one  of  his  sons,  to 
take  from  Aureng-Zebe,  by  violent  means, 
Indamora,  a  captive  queen,  his  affianced 
bride.  The  attempt  is  defeated  by  the  con- 
stancy of  Indamora  and  the  generous 
qualities  displayed  by  Aureng-Zebe  and  by 
Arimant,  the  governor  of  Agra,  aided  by  the 
jealous  rivalry  of  Nouxmahal,  the  empress. 
Atirignac,  in  the  Haute-Garorme,  France, 
gives  its  name,  from  the  flint  implements 
found  there,  to  an  industry  or  culture,  the 
AURIGNACIAN,  which  is  believed  to  have 
prevailed  in  France  from  about  11,500  to 
10,009  B.C.  'Throughout  all  this  time  Aurig- 
nacian  men  continued  to  carve  figures  and 
engrave  small  objects,  and  to  decorate  the 
walls  of  the  caves  which  they  inhabited*  (Peake 
and,  Fleure,  'Hunters  and  Artists*).  The  three 
principal  types  of  man  of  this  culture  are  the 
Grimaldi,  Cro-Magnon,  and  Combe  Capeile. 
Aurora,  the  Greek  Eos,  a  daughter  of 
Hyperion  (q.v.)  and  the  goddess  of  the  dawn. 


AURORA  LEIGH 

She  is  represented  by  the  poets  as  rising  in 
the  east  from  the  couch  of  her  husband 
Tithonus,  drawn  in  a  rose-coloured  chariot, 
preceding  the  sun,  pouring  the  dew  upon  the 
earth,  and  making  the  flowers  grow. 

Aurora  Leigh,  a  romance  in  blank  verse  by 
E.  B.  Browning  (q.v.),  published  in  1856. 

Aurora  Leigh  tells  the  story  of  her  life. 
She  is  left  an  orphan,  studious  and  poetical 
by  nature,  and  is  brought  up  in  the  uncon- 
genial home  of  an  aunt.  She  is  often  with  her 
rich  cousin,  Romney  Leigh,  a  man  wrapped 
up  in  philanthropic  schemes,  but  arrogant 
and  dogmatic.  He  proposes  to  her,  but  his 
proposal,  suggestive  that  he  wants  a  'help- 
mate not  a  mistress',  wounds  her  pride  and 
she  refuses  him.  She  goes  to  live  in  London, 
earning  her  bread  by  her  pen.  Romney 
rescues  a  poor  outcast  daughter  of  a  tramp, 
Marian  Erie,  and  offers  to  marry  her.  But 
the  project  is  defeated.  Later,  when  mis- 
fortune has  overtaken  Romney,  his  philan- 
thropic plans  have  failed,  his  Hall  has  been 
burnt  down  and  himself  blinded,  he  and 
Aurora  come  together.  The  story  is  made 
the  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  the  author's 
views  on  a  variety  of  subjects,  social,  literary, 
and  ethical. 

Aurora  Raby,  a  character  in  the  last  three 
cantos  of  Byron's  'Don  Juan*  (q.v.),  a  beauti- 
ful and  innocent  young  heiress. 

Aurungzebe,  see  Aureng-Zebe. 

Ausonia,  a  name  applied  by  poets  to  Italy, 
from  the  Ausones  or  Aurunci,  an  ancient  (prob- 
ably Latin)  tribe,  which  settled  in  Campania 
but  subsequently  disappeared  from  history. 

AUSONIUS,  DECIMUS  MAGNUS  (c. 
A.D.  310-90),  a  Roman  poet,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux, near  which  he  also  died.  He  taught 
grammar  and  rhetoric,  and  acquired  such 
reputation  that  he  was  appointed  tutor  to 
Gratian,  son  of  the  Emperor  Valentinian,  and 
in  Gratian's  reign  rose  to  high  official  posi- 
tion. He  sang  of  the  Moselle,  its  wine  and 
trout,  says  Professor  Saintsbury  in  his  'Notes 
on  a  Cellar-book*. 

AUSTEN,  JANE  (1775-1817),  was  born  at 
Steventon  in  Hampshire,  of  which  her  father 
was  rector,  and  lived  an  uneventful  life  at  her 
birthplace,  at  Bath,  Southampton,  Chawton 
(near  Alton),  and  Winchester,  where  she  died 
and  is  buried.  Of  her  completed  novels  (for 
which  see  under  their  titles) 'Sense  and  Sensi- 
bility* appeared  in  181 1,  Tride  and  Prejudice* 
in  1813,  'Mansfield  Park*  in  1814,  'Emma*  in 
December  1815,  'Northanger  Abbey*  and 
'Persuasion'  posthumously  in  1818.  The 
order  in  which  they  were  written  is  somewhat 
different.  'Pride  and  Prejudice',  in  its 
original  form  and  entitled  'First  Impressions', 
was  begun  in  1796,  refused  by  a  publisher  in 
1797,  and  revised  before  ultimate  publication. 
'Sense  and  Sensibility*  was  begun  in  1797, 
but  apparently  left  unfinished  for  many  years. 
'Northanger  Abbey*  was  begun  in  1797,  sold 


AUSTIN 

to  a  publisher  in  1803,  but  not  then  published. 
The  manuscript  was  recovered  in  1816,  and 
may  have  been  revised,  but  appears  to 
represent  the  earliest  of  her  work  as  we  have 
it  in  the  six  published  novels.  'Mansfield 
Park'  was  begun  in  1811,  'Emma*  in  1814, 
and  'Persuasion*  in  1815.  Besides  these  Jane 
Austen  was  author  of  two  works  which  she 
did  not  publish,  'Lady  Susan*  (the  story, 
written  about  1805,  and  told  in  letters,  of  a 
designing  coquette,  the  widow  Lady  Susan 
Vernon)  and  a  fragment,  'The  Watsons* 
(q.v.).  These  were  published  by  J.  E.  Austen- 
Leigh  in  the  second  edition  of  his  'Memoir  of 
Jane  Austen*  (1871).  A  further  fragment, 
written  in  1817,  known  to  her  family  as 
'Sanditon',  was  published  in  1925.  The 
standard  edition  of  Jane  Austen  is  that  of 
R.  W.  Chapman,  1923;  Letters,  1932. 
Auster,  see  Notus. 

AUSTIN,  ALFRED  (1835-1913),  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  family,  was  educated  at 
Stonyhurst  and  Oscott  College.  He  became  a 
barrister,  but  soon  abandoned  the  legal  pro- 
fession for  literature.  He  was  much  interested 
in  foreign  politics  and  a  devoted  follower  of 
Disraeli.  In  1883  he  became  joint-editor 
with  W.  J.  Courthope  of  the  newly  founded 
'National  Review*,  and  was  its  sole  editor  for 
eight  years  after  the  latter's  resignation  in 
1887.  Between  1871  and  1908  he  published 
twenty  volumes  of  verse,  of  little  merit.  A 
prose  work,  'The  Garden  that  I  love',  pub- 
lished in  1894,  proved  very  popular,  and  in 
1896  Austin  was  made  poet  laureate,  shortly 
afterwards  publishing  in  'The  Times'  an  un- 
fortunate ode  celebrating  the  Jameson  Raid. 
Some  of  his  pleasantest  work  is  to  be  found 
in  his  prose  writings,  on  the  garden  of  his 
Kentish  home  (Swinford  Old  Manor)  and 
kindred  subjects.  His  'Autobiography*  ap- 
peared in  1911. 

AUSTIN,  JOHN  (1790-1859),  was  called  to 
the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  after  serving 
in  the  army,  was  professor  of  jurisprudence  at 
the  London  University,  1826-32,  and  while 
holding  this  post  wrote  his  famous  'Province 
of  Jurisprudence  Determined*  (1832).  His 
'Lectures  on  Jurisprudence*  were  published 
in  1863. 

AUSTIN,  MARY  HUNTER  (1869-  ), 
American  novelist,  short -story  writer, 
essayist,  and  dramatist,  chiefly  known  for  her 
studies  of  American  Indian  life.  Among  her 
works  are  'The  Arrow  Maker*  (1911),  'The 
Basket  Woman*  (1904),  'A  Woman  of  Genius* 
(1912),  'The  Land  of  Little  Rain*  (1903), 
'The  American  Rhythm*  (1923). 

AUSTIN,  SARAH  (1793-1867),  nee  Taylor, 
wife  of  John  Austin  (q.v.),  translated  Ranke's 
'History  of  the  Popes'  (1840),  'The  History 
of  the  Reformation  in  Germany*  (1845),  and 
'Germany  from  1760  to  1814*  (1854);  also 
F.  W.  Carove"'s  'Story  without  an  End' (1834). 

Austin,  the  name  of  a  popular  English  make 
of  motor-car,  after  Sir  Herbert  Austin,  the 


ISO] 


AUSTIN  FRIARS 

manufacturer;  the  'Baby  Austin',  a  7  h.p. 
model,  was  the  first  successful  attempt  to 
produce  a  reliable  car  of  very  small  horse- 
power. 

Austin  Friars,  see  Augustin  Friars. 
Authorized  Version,  see  Bible  (The  Eng- 
lish). 

Auto-da-fe",  a  Portuguese  expression  (Span- 
ish, auto-de-fe),  meaning  'Act  of  Faith',  an 
act  or  decision  of  the  Holy  Inquisition,  and 
its  execution;  hence  popularly  applied  to  the 
burning  alive  of  heretics. 

Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table,  The,  see 
Holmes  (O.  W.). 

AutSIycus,  (i)  in  Greek  mythology,  a  son 
of  Hermes,  celebrated  for  his  craft  as  a  thief, 
who  stole  the  flocks  of  his  neighbours  and 
mingled  them  with  his  own.  In  this  he  was 
outwitted  by  Sisyphus  (q.v.);  (2)  the  witty 
rogue  and  pedlar  in  Shakespeare's  *The 
Winter's  Tale'  (q.v.). 

Automedon,  the  charioteer  of  Achilles 
(q.v.).  Hence  a  name  used  to  signify  a 
coachman. 

Autun,  TEE  BISHOP  OF,  sometimes  used  to 
designate  Talleyrand  (Charles  Maurice  de 
Talleyrand-P&rigord,  1754-1838),  the  French 
diplomatist  who  played  a  great  role  as 
minister  under  Napoleon  I  and  Louis  XVIII. 
He  had  been  appointed  bishop  of  Autun  in 
1788.  He  accepted  the  Civil  Constitution  of 
the  Clergy,  but  afterwards  put  off  his  orders. 

Avalon,  AVALLON,  or  AVELION,  in  the 
Arthurian  legend,  a  place  in  the  'Isle  of  the 
Blessed'  of  the  Celts,  a  mythical  land  like  the 
Fortunate  Isles  (q.v.).  It  is  to  Avalon  that 
Arthur  is  borne  after  his  death.  See  Olaston- 
bury  for  its  identification  with  that  place. 

Avare,  V  ('The  Miser'),  one  of  Moliere's 
most  famous  comedies.  Harpagon,  the 
miser,  and  his  son  Cl£ante  are  rivals  for  the 
hand  of  Marianne.  Cle*ante  gets  possession  of 
the  casket  containing  the  miser's  treasure, 
and  gives  his  father,  whom  his  loss  has  re- 
duced to  frenzy,  the  choice  between  Marianne 
and  the  casket.  The  old  man  chooses  the 
latter  and  abandons  Marianne  to  his  son. 

Avars,  a  Tartar  tribe  who  migrated  to  the 
region  about  the  Don,  the  Volga,  and  the 
Caspian  Sea  in  the  6th  cent.  Thence  they 
extended  their  dominion  westward  to  the 
Danube,  were  subdued  by  Charlemagne,  and 
disappeared  from  history  in  the  9th  cent. 
They  built  stockades  of  wood  and  earth 
round  their  settlements,  known  as  AVAR 
RINGS,  of  which  traces  still  remain.  In  one 
of  these,  in  796,  Charlemagne,  after  defeating 
the  Avars,  captured  an  immense  treasure, 
the  fruit  of  the  pillage  of  the  Greek  Empire 
by  the  Avars. 

Avatar,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the  descent 
of  a  deity  to  the  earth  in  incarnate  form; 
hence  loosely,  a  manifestation,  display,  phase. 


AVIGNON 

Ave  atque  vale,  Latin,  ehail  and  farewell !', 
as  a  farewell  to  the  dead,  notably  in  the  poem 
of  Catullus  in  memory  of  his  brother,  to 
which  Tennyson  refers  in  his  poem  'Frater, 
ave  atque  vale*. 

Ave  Maria,  cHail  Mary!',  the  angelic  salu- 
tation to  the  Virgin  (Luke  i.  28)  combined 
with  that  of  Elizabeth  (v.  42),  used  as  a 
devotional  recitation,  with  the  addition  (in 
more  recent  times)  of  a  prayer  to  the  Virgin, 
as  Mother  of  God;  so  named  from  its  first 
two  words.  [OED.] 

AVEIX  ANEDA,  ALONSO  FERNANDEZ 
DE,  the  name  assumed  by  the  author  of  the 
false  Part  II  of  Cervantes 's  'Don  Quixote', 
issued  in  1614.  Cervantes's  own  Part  II  ap- 
peared in  1615. 

Avenel,  SIR  JULIAN  and  MARY,  characters  in 
Scott's  'The  Monastery'  and  'The  Abbot* 
(qq.v.).  ROLAND  AVENEL  is  the  hero  of  the 
latter  work.  The  WHITE  LADY  OF  AVENEL  is 
a  supernatural  being  introduced  in  'The 
Monastery*. 

Aventine,  THE,  the  most  southerly  and  one 
of  the  highest  hills  of  Rome.  On  it  was  a 
temple  of  Diana,  the  sanctuary  of  runaway 
slaves  and  of  plebeians. 

Avermis,  a  lake  of  Campania,  filling  the 
crater  of  an  extinct  volcano.  From  its  surface 
mephitic  vapours  arose,  which  led  the 
ancients  to  regard  it  as  the  entrance  to  the 
infernal  regions. 

AVERROES  (ABUL  WALID  MOHAMMED  BEN 
AHMED  IBN  ROSHD)  (1126-98),  a  Moslem 
doctor  born  at  Cordova,  and  a  philosopher,  the 
author  of  a  famous  commentary  on  Aristotle. 
He  is  mentioned  with  Avicenna  (q.v.)  by 
Dante,  'Averrois  che  il  gran  cornento  feo* 
('Inferno*,  iv.  144). 

Avesta,  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Parsees, 
usually  attributed  to  Zoroaster  (q.v.).  As  we 
have  them,  they  are  the  fragmentary  and  com- 
posite relic  of  an  ancient  priestly  literature 
said  to  have  been  destroyed  by  Alexander  the 
Great  at  Persepolis.  In  its  present  form  it 
probably  dates  from  the  Sasanian  period,  but 
the  oldest  extant  manuscript  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  date  (i3th  cent.). 

AVIANUS,  FLAVIUS,  probably  of  the  4th 
cent.  A.D.,  the  author  of  fables  in  Latin 
elegiacs,  which  were  much  used  as  a  school 
book  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Avice  Garo,  in  Hardy's  'The  Well-Beloved' 
(q.v.),  the  name  of  the  three  women,  mother, 
daughter,  and  granddaughter,  loved  in  suc- 
cession by  Jocelyn  Pierston. 
AVICENNA  (ABU  IBN  SINA)  (980-1036),  a 
Persian  physician  and  philosopher  and  com- 
mentator on  Aristotle.  He  is  mentioned  by 
Dante  ('Inferno',  iv.  143). 
Avignon,  a  city  on  the  Rhdne  in  France. 
Clement  V  removed  the  papal  seat  to  Avignon 
in  1308,  and  there  it  remained  until  1377.  It 

[1  E2 


AURORA  LEIGH 

She  is  represented  by  the  poets  as  rising  in 
the  east  from  the  couch  of  her  husband 
Tithonus,  drawn  in  a  rose-coloured  chariot, 
preceding  the  sun,  pouring  the  dew  upon  the 
earth,  and  making  the  flowers  grow. 

Aurora  Leigh,  a  romance  in  blank  verse  by 
E.  B.  Browning  (q.v.),  published  in  1856. 

Aurora  Leigh  tells  the  story  of  her  life. 
She  is  left  an  orphan,  studious  and  poetical 
by  nature,  and  is  brought  up  in  the  uncon- 
genial home  of  an  aunt.  She  is  often  with  her 
rich  cousin,  Romney  Leigh,  a  man  wrapped 
up  in  philanthropic  schemes,  but  arrogant 
and  dogmatic.  He  proposes  to  her,  but  his 
proposal,  suggestive  that  he  wants  a  'help- 
mate not  a  mistress',  wounds  her  pride  and 
she  refuses  him.  She  goes  to  live  in  London, 
earning  her  bread  by  her  pen.  Romney 
rescues  a  poor  outcast  daughter  of  a  tramp, 
Marian  Erie,  and  offers  to  marry  her.  But 
the  project  is  defeated.  Later,  when  mis- 
fortune has  overtaken  Romney,  his  philan- 
thropic plans  have  failed,  his  Hall  has  been 
burnt  down  and  himself  blinded,  he  and 
Aurora  come  together.  The  story  is  made 
the  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  the  author's 
views  on  a  variety  of  subjects,  social,  literary, 
and  ethical. 

Aurora  Raby,  a  character  in  the  last  three 
cantos  of  Byron's  'Don  Juan'  (q.v.),  a  beauti- 
ful and  innocent  young  heiress. 

Aurungzebe,  see  Aureng-Zebe. 

Ausonia,  a  name  applied  by  poets  to  Italy, 
from  the  Ausones  or  Aumnci,  an  ancient  (prob- 
ably Latin)  tribe,  which  settled  in  Campania 
but  subsequently  disappeared  from  history. 

AUSONIUS,  DECIMUS  MAGNUS  (c. 
A.D.  310-90),  a  Roman  poet,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux, near  which  he  also  died.  He  taught 
grammar  and  rhetoric,  and  acquired  such 
reputation  that  he  was  appointed  tutor  to 
Gratian,  son  of  the  Emperor  Valentinian,  and 
in  Gratian's  reign  rose  to  high  official  posi- 
tion. He  sang  of  the  Moselle,  its  wine  and 
trout,  says  Professor  Saintsbury  in  his  'Notes 
on  a  Cellar-book*. 

AUSTEN,  JANE  (1775-1817),  was  born  at 
Steventon  in  Hampshire,  of  which  her  father 
was  rector,  and  lived  an  uneventful  life  at  her 
birthplace,  at  Bath,  Southampton,  Chawton 
(near  Alton),  and  Winchester,  where  she  died 
and  is  buried.  Of  her  completed  novels  (for 
which  see  under  their  titles)  'Sense  and  Sensi- 
bility' appeared  in  181 1,  'Pride  and  Prejudice' 
in  1813,  'Mansfield  Park'  in  1814,  'Emma*  in 
December  1815,  'Northanger  Abbey'  and 
'Persuasion'  posthumously  in  1818.  The 
order  in  which  they  were  written  is  somewhat 
different.  'Pride  and  Prejudice',  in  its 
original  form  and  entitled  'First  Impressions', 
was  begun  in  1796,  refused  by  a  publisher  in 
1797,  and  revised  before  ultimate  publication. 
'Sense  and  Sensibility*  was  begun  in  1797, 
but  apparently  left  unfinished  for  many  years. 
'Northanger  Abbey'  was  begun  in  1797,  sold 


AUSTIN 

to  a  publisher  in  1 803,  but  not  then  published. 
The  manuscript  was  recovered  in  1816,  and 
may  have  been  revised,  but  appears  to 
represent  the  earliest  of  her  work  as  we  have 
it  in  the  six  published  novels.  'Mansfield 
Park'  was  begun  in  1811,  'Emma'  in  1814, 
and  'Persuasion'  in  1815.  Besides  these  Jane 
Austen  was  author  of  two  works  which  she 
did  not  publish,  'Lady  Susan'  (the  story, 
written  about  1805,  and  told  in  letters,  of  a 
designing  coquette,  the  widow  Lady  Susan 
Vernon)  and  a  fragment,  'The  Watsons' 
(q.v.).  These  were  published  by  J.  E.  Austen- 
Leigh  in  the  second  edition  of  his  'Memoir  of 
Jane  Austen'  (1871).  A  further  fragment, 
written  in  1817,  known  to  her  family  as 
'Sanditon',  was  published  in  1925.  The 
standard  edition  of  Jane  Austen  is  that  of 
R.  W.  Chapman,  1923;  Letters,  1932. 
Auster,  see  Notus. 

AUSTIN,  ALFRED  (1835-1913),  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  family,  was  educated  at 
Stonyhurst  and  Oscott  College.  He  became  a 
barrister,  but  soon  abandoned  the  legal  pro- 
fession for  literature.  He  was  much  interested 
in  foreign  politics  and  a  devoted  follower  of 
Disraeli.  In  1883  he  became  joint-editor 
with  W.  J.  Courthope  of  the  newly  founded 
'National  Review',  and  was  its  sole  editor  for 
eight  years  after  the  latter's  resignation  in 
1887.  Between  1871  and  1908  he  published 
twenty  volumes  of  verse,  of  little  merit.  A 
prose  work,  'The  Garden  that  I  love*,  pub- 
lished in  1894,  proved  very  popular,  and  in 
1896  Austin  was  made  poet  laureate,  shortly 
afterwards  publishing  in  'The  Times'  an  un- 
fortunate ode  celebrating  the  Jameson  Raid. 
Some  of  his  pleasantest  work  is  to  be  found 
in  his  prose  writings,  on  the  garden  of  his 
Kentish  home  (Swinford  Old  Manor)  and 
kindred  subjects.  His  'Autobiography*  ap- 
peared in  1911. 

AUSTIN,  JOHN  (1790-1859),  was  called  to 
the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  after  serving 
in  the  army,  was  professor  of  jurisprudence  at 
the  London  University,  1826-32,  and  while 
holding  this  post  wrote  his  famous  'Province 
of  Jurisprudence  Determined'  (1832).  His 
'Lectures  on  Jurisprudence'  were  published 
in  1863. 

AUSTIN,  MARY  HUNTER  (1869-  ), 
American  novelist,  short -story  writer, 
essayist,  and  dramatist,  chiefly  known  for  her 
studies  of  American  Indian  life.  Among  her 
works  are  'The  Arrow  Maker*  (1911),  'The 
Basket  Woman*  (1904),  'A  Woman  of  Genius* 
(1912),  'The  Land  of  Little  Rain*  (1903), 
'The  American  Rhythm'  (1923). 

AUSTIN,  SARAH  (1793-1867),  nee  Taylor, 
wife  of  John  Austin  (q.v.),  translated  Ranke's 
'History  of  the  Popes*  (1840),  'The  History 
of  the  Reformation  in  Germany'  (1845),  and 
'Germany  from  1760  to  1814'  (1854);  also 
F.  W.  Carove"'s  'Story  without  an  End'  (1834). 

Austin,  the  name  of  a  popular  English  make 
of  motor-car,  after  Sir  Herbert  Austin,  the 


[50] 


AUSTIN  FRIARS 

manufacturer;  the  'Baby  Austin*,  a  7  h.p. 
model,  was  the  first  successful  attempt  to 
produce  a  reliable  car  of  very  small  horse- 
power. 

Austin  Friars,  see  Augustin  Friars. 

Authorized  Version,  see  Bible  (The  Eng- 
lish}. 

Auto-da-fe,  a  Portuguese  expression  (Span- 
ish, auto-de-fe),  meaning  'Act  of  Faith',  an 
act  or  decision  of  the  Holy  Inquisition,  and 
its  execution;  hence  popularly  applied  to  the 
burning  alive  of  heretics. 

Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table,  The,  see 
Holmes  (O.  W.). 

Autolycus,  (i)  in  Greek  mythology,  a  son 
of  Hermes,  celebrated  for  his  craft  as  a  thief, 
who  stole  the  flocks  of  his  neighbours  and 
mingled  them  with  his  own.  In  this  he  was 
outwitted  by  Sisyphus  (q.v.);  (2)  the  witty 
rogue  and  pedlar  in  Shakespeare's  *The 
Winter's  Tale'  (q.v.). 

Automedon,  the  charioteer  of  Achilles 
(q.v.).  Hence  a  name  used  to  signify  a 
coachman. 

Autun,  THE  BISHOP  OF,  sometimes  used  to 
designate  Talleyrand  (Charles  Maurice  de 
Talleyrand-Pe*rigord,  1754-1838),  the  French 
diplomatist  who  played  a  great  role  as 
minister  under  Napoleon  I  and  Louis  XVIII. 
He  had  been  appointed  bishop  of  Autun  in 
1788.  He  accepted  the  Civil  Constitution  of 
the  Clergy,  but  afterwards  put  off  his  orders. 

Avalon,  AVALLON,  or  AVELION,  in  the 
Arthurian  legend,  a  place  in  the  'Isle  of  the 
Blessed'  of  the  Celts,  a  mythical  land  like  the 
Fortunate  Isles  (q.v.).  It  is  to  Avalon  that 
Arthur  is  borne  after  his  death.  See  Olaston- 
bury  for  its  identification  with  that  place. 

Avare,  V  ('The  Miser'),  one  of  Moliere's 
most  famous  comedies.  Harpagon,  the 
miser,  and  his  son  Cle"ante  are  rivals  for  the 
hand  of  Marianne.  Cle*ante  gets  possession  of 
the  casket  containing  the  miser's  treasure, 
and  gives  his  father,  whom  his  loss  has  re- 
duced to  frenzy,  the  choice  between  Marianne 
and  the  casket.  The  old  man  chooses  the 
latter  and  abandons  Marianne  to  his  son. 

Avars,  a  Tartar  tribe  who  migrated  to  the 
region  about  the  Don,  the  Volga,  and  the 
Caspian  Sea  in  the  6th  cent.  Thence  they 
extended  their  dominion  westward  to  the 
Danube,  were  subdued  by  Charlemagne,  and 
disappeared  from  history  in  the  9th  cent. 
They  built  stockades  of  wood  and  earth 
round  their  settlements,  known  as  AVAR 
RINGS,  of  which  traces  still  remain.  In  one 
of  these,  in  796,  Charlemagne,  after  defeating 
the  Avars,  captured  an  immense  treasure, 
the  fruit  of  the  pillage  of  the  Greek  Empire 
by  the  Avars. 

Avatar,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the  descent 
of  a  deity  to  the  earth  in  incarnate  form; 
hence  loosely,  a  manifestation,  display,  phase. 


AVIGNON 

Ave  atque  vale,  Latin,  'hail  and  farewell  I', 
as  a  farewell  to  the  dead,  notably  in  the  poem 
of  Catullus  in  memory  of  his  brother,  to 
which  Tennyson  refers  in  his  poem  'Frater, 
ave  atque  vale*. 

Ave  Maria,  'Hail  Mary!',  the  angelic  salu- 
tation to  the  Virgin  (Luke  i.  28)  combined 
with  that  of  Elizabeth  (v.  42),  used  as  a 
devotional  recitation,  with  the  addition  (in 
more  recent  times)  of  a  prayer  to  the  Virgin, 
as  Mother  of  God;  so  named  from  its  first 
two  words.  [OED.] 

AVELLANEDA,  ALONSO  FERNANDEZ 
DE,  the  name  assumed  by  the  author  of  the 
false  Part  II  of  Cervantes's  'Don  Quixote', 
issued  in  1614.  Cervantes's  own  Part  II  ap- 
peared in  1615. 

Avenel,  SIR  JULIAN  and  MARY,  characters  in 
Scott's  'The  Monastery*  and  'The  Abbot* 
(qq.v.).  ROLAND  AVENEL  is  the  hero  of  the 
latter  work.  The  WHITE  LADY  OF  AVENEL  is 
a  supernatural  being  introduced  in  'The 
Monastery*. 

Aventine,  THE,  the  most  southerly  and  one 
of  the  highest  hills  of  Rome.  On  it  was  a 
temple  of  Diana,  the  sanctuary  of  runaway 
slaves  and  of  plebeians. 

Avernus,  a  lake  of  Campania,  filling  the 
crater  of  an  extinct  volcano.  From  its  surface 
mephitic  vapours  arose,  which  led  the 
ancients  to  regard  it  as  the  entrance  to  the 
infernal  regions. 

AVERROES  (ABUL  WALID  MOHAMMED  BEN 
AHMED  IBN  ROSHD)  (1126-98),  a  Moslem 
doctor  born  at  Cordova,  and  a  philosopher,  the 
author  of  a  famous  commentary  on  Aristotle. 
He  is  mentioned  with  Avicenna  (q.v.)  by 
Dante,  'Averrois  che  il  gran  comento  feo* 
('Inferno',  iv.  144). 

Avesta,  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Parsees, 
usually  attributed  to  Zoroaster  (q.v.).  As  we 
have  them,  they  are  the  fragmentary  and  com- 
posite relic  of  an  ancient  priestly  literature 
said  to  have  been  destroyed  by  Alexander  the 
Great  at  Persepolis.  In  its  present  form  it 
probably  dates  from  the  Sasanian  period,  but 
the  oldest  extant  manuscript  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  date  (isth  cent.). 
AVIANUS,  FLAVIUS,  probably  of  the  4th 
cent.  A.D.,  the  author  of  fables  in  Latin 
elegiacs,  which  were  much  used  as  a  school 
book  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Avice  Caro,  in  Hardy's  'The  Well-Beloved' 
(q.v.),  the  name  of  the  three  women,  mother, 
daughter,  and  granddaughter,  loved  in  suc- 
cession by  Jocelyn  Pierston. 
AVIGENNA  (ABU  IBN  SINA)  (980-1036),  a 
Persian  physician  and  philosopher  and  com- 
mentator on  Aristotle.  He  is  mentioned  by 
Dante  ('Inferno',  iv.  143). 

Avignon,  a  city  on  the  Rh6ne  in  France. 
Clement  V  removed  the  papal  seat  to  Avignon 
in  1308,  and  there  it  remained  until  137?-  I* 


AVON 

was  sold  by  Joanna  I,  queen  of  Naples,  to 
Pope  Clement  VI  in  1348,  Provence  being 
then  the  inheritance  of  the  Angevin  kings  of 
Naples.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  papal 
schism  in  1378,  two  anti-popes,  Clement  VII 
and  Benedict  XIII,  resided  successively  in 
Avignon,  the  latter  being  expelled  from  the 
town  in  1408.  The  city  remained,  with  inter- 
ruptions, in  the  possession  of  the  popes  until 
annexed  by  the  French  National  Assembly  in 
1791.  Avignon  is  also  famous  for  its  connexion 
with  Petrarch  (q.v.). 

Avon,  THE  SWAN  OF,  Shakespeare,  born  at 
Stratford-on-Avon,  so  called  by  Jonson  ('To 
the  Memory  of  Shakespeare1). 

Awkward  Age,  Thet  a  novel  by  Henry  James 
(q.v.),  published  in  1899. 

Awntyrs  (Adventures)  of  Arthure  at  the 
Terne  Wathelyne,  an  alliterative  verse 
romance  of  the  i4th  cent.,  containing  two 
parts.  In  the  first,  Arthur  and  his  court  go 
from  Carlisle  to  'Tarn  Wathelyne'  (Tarn 
Wadling  near  Hesket  in  Cumberland)  to 
hunt.  Queen  Guinevere  is  entrusted  to  the 
care  of  Gawain.  During  a  storm,  a  fearful 
figure,  the  spirit  of  Guinevere's  mother, 
appears  to  Guinevere  and  Gawain,  reproaches 
her  for  her  evil  life,  exhorts  her  to  penance 
and  amendment,  and  prophesies  the  destruc- 
tion of  King  Arthur  and  the  Round  Table. 
The  second  part  relates  a  fight  between 
Gawain  and  Sir  G aileron  of  Galway,  who 
seeks  to  recover  his  lands  taken  by  Arthur 
and  given  to  Gawain.  Arthur  stops  the  fight, 
makes  Gawain  lord  of  Wales,  and  restores  to 
Galleron  his  former  territory. 

Ayala's  Angel,  a  novel  by  A.  Trollope  (q.v.), 
published  in  1881. 

Lucy  and  Ayala  Dormer,  after  having  been 
brought  up  in  an  artistic  and  luxurious  home, 
are  left  penniless  orphans.  The  romantic 
Ayala  is  taken  into  the  family  of  her  aunt 
Emmeline,  the  vulgar  and  purse-proud  wife 
of  the  city  millionaire,  Sir  Thomas  Tringle ; 
while  Lucy  goes  to  the  home  of  her  uncle 
Dosett,  a  civil  servant  of  small  means,  and  his 
conscientious  but  depressing  wife.  Trouble 
soon  follows.  Lucy  rebels  against  the  drab 
conditions  of  life  in  the  small  house  at  Notting 
Hill,  and  Ayala  shows  a  lack  of  proper 
deference  to  her  wealthy  aunt  and  cousins. 
An  exchange  is  effected,  and  Ayala  goes  to 
Notting  Hill.  But  this  does  not  mend  matters. 
Lucy  falls  in  love  with  an  impecunious  artist; 
and  Ayala,  with  equal  perversity,  refuses 
three  eligible  suitors:  Tom  Tringle,  her 
cousin,  who  tries  to  charm  her  by  a  display 
of  his  jewellery,  and  shows  his  disappoint- 
ment by  knocking  the  breath  out  of  a 
policeman  and  other  outrageous  proceedings ; 
Colonel  Jonathan  Stubbs,  an  Admirable 
Crichton  but  for  his  red  hair  and  large 
mouth ;  and  the  absurd  Captain  Batsby,  who 
thinks  the  possession  of  a  very  pretty  little 
place  of  his  own  down  in  Berkshire  a  suffi- 
cient claim  to  her  affections.  In  the  end, 


AZOTH 

however,  Ayala  discovers  that  Stubbs  is  the 
'Angel'  after  all,  and  sufficient  means  of 
subsistence  are  found  for  Lucy  and  her 
artist.  Many  amusing  situations  are  also 
furnished  by  the  love  affairs  of  the  two 
Tringle  daughters. 

Ayenbite  oflnwit,  'Remorse  of  Conscience', 
a  prose  translation  from  a  French  moral 
treatise,  made  by  Dan  Michel  of  Northgate, 
Canterbury,  about  1340,  and  chiefly  of 
philological  interest. 

Ayesha,  the  favourite  wife  of  Mohammed 
(q.v.).  To  her  loss  of  a  necklace  under  con- 
ditions regarded  as  suspicious  may  broadly 
be  traced,  it  is  said,  the  seclusion  of  Moslem 
women  down  to  the  present  times. 

Ayesha,  a  novel  by  Sir  Rider  Haggard  (q.v.). 

Aymon,  The  Four  Sons  of,  a  medieval  French 
romance  of  the  Carlovingian  cycle.  See 
Rinaldo. 

Ayrshire  Legatees,  The,  a  novel  by  Gait 
(q.v.),  published  in  1820. 

It  takes  the  form  of  letters  recording  the 
proceedings  of  a  worthy  Scottish  minister 
and  his  family  in  the  course  of  a  visit  which 
they  pay  to  London  in  order  to  take  posses- 
sion of  a  legacy.  Their  naive  comments  on 
their  experiences,  and  the  comments  of  their 
friends  in  Scotland  on  the  letters  themselves, 
make  an  entertaining  miscellany. 

AYTOUN,  WILLIAM  EDMONDSTONE 
(1813-65),  a  descendant  of  the  poet  Sir  Robert 
Aytoun  (1570-1638)  who  was  the  reputed 
author  of  the  lines  on  which  Burns  based  his 
'Auld  Lang  Syne',  was  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh Academy  and  University.  He  divided 
his  life  between  law  and  literature,  becoming 
professor  of  Belles-Lettres  at  Edinburgh  in 
1845,  and  sheriff  of  Orkney  in  1850.  He  is 
chiefly  remembered  for  his  share  in  the  'Bon 
Gaultier  Ballads'  (q.v.,  1845),  for  his  'Lays 
of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers'  (q.v.,  1849),  and  for 
his  'Firmilian,  or  the  Student  of  Badajpz* 
(1854),  a  mock- tragedy,  in  which  he  parodied 
and  ridiculed  the  poems  of  the  so-called 
'Spasmodic  School'  (q.v.).  The  hero  of 
'Firmilian*,  a  student  at  the  university  of 
Badajoz,  is  engaged  in  writing  a  tragedy  on 
the  subject  of  Cain.  In  order  to  equip  him- 
self for  his  task,  to  learn  'the  mental  spasms 
of  the  tortured  Cain',  he  embarks  on  a  career 
of  crime,  with  absurd  results. 

Azaria  and  Hushai,  see  Pordage. 

Azazel,  see  Scapegoat.  In  Milton's  'Paradise 
Lost'  (i.  534),  Azazel  is  the  'Cherub  tall'  who 
raises  the  standard  of  the  host  of  Satan. 

Azim,  the  hero  of  'The  Veiled  Prophet  of 
Khorassan',  one  of  the  tales  in  Moore's 
'Lalla  Rookh'  (q.v.). 

Azo,  in  Byron's  'Parisina*  (q.v.),  the  mar- 
quis of  Este. 

Azoth,  the  alchemists'  name  for  mercury, 
and  the  universal  remedy  of  Paracelsus  (q.v.). 


AZRAEL 

Azrael,  in  Jewish  and  Mohammedan 
mythology,  the  angel  who  in  death  severs  the 
soul  from  the  body. 

Aztecs ,  a  native  American  people  first  known 
as  inhabitants  of  the  valley  of  Mexico.  They 
became  important  and  extended  their  con- 
quests in  the  I5th  cent.,  their  most  successful 
leader  being  Montezuma  I  (1440-69).  The 


BABYLOJST 

Aztecs  were  conquered  by  the  invading 
Spaniards  under  Cortez,  early  in  the  i6th 
cent.  They  figure  in  Southey's  'Madoc* 
(q.v.). 

Aztlan,  in  Southey's  'Madoc'  (q.v.),  the 
capital  of  the  Aztecas.  The  word  means 
'place  of  the  heron*  and  is,  in  Aztec  legend, 
the  original  home  of  the  Aztec  race. 


B 


B.B.G.,  THE,  the  BRITISH  BROADCASTING 
CORPORATION,  the  national  broadcasting 
authority,  constituted  in  1927.  It  succeeded 
the  British  Broadcasting  Company,  which 
had  been  formed  in 


Baal,  name  of  the  chief  god,  or  in  the  plural 
(BAALIM)  of  the  gods,  of  the  Phoenician  and 
Canaanitish  nations  ;  hence,  a  false  god.  The 
name  appears  in  various  forms  and  com- 
binations, e.g.  BEL,  the  Baal  of  Babylon; 
BAAL-ZEBUB,  the  'fly-god',  &c. 

B§b,  THE,  or  GATE,  the  name  given  to  Mirza 
Mohammed  AH,  a  Shiite,  who  began  to 
preach  a  reformed  Moslem  religion  in  Persia 
in  1845  and  was  executed  in  1850.  His 
followers  were  called  the  BASIS,  and  his  re- 
ligion BABISM.  The  Babis  were  expelled 
from  Persia  after  an  attempt  on  the  life  of  the 
Shah. 

The  Bab  was  succeeded  in  1866  by  Abdul- 
Baha,  who  preached  a  revised  form  of 
Babism,  in  which  the  Koran  is  recognized, 
but  its  finality  as  a  revelation  is  denied.  The 
BAHAIS  are  now  a  flourishing  sect,  with  their 
centre  at  Acre. 

Bab  Ballads,  a  collection  of  humorous 
ballads  by  W.  S.  Gilbert  (q.v.),  published  in 
'Fun'  in  1866-71  and  in  volume  form  in  1869 
and  ('More  Bab  Ballads')  1873.  Several  of 
the  Gilbert  and  Sullivan  operas  (q.v.)  owed 
their  origin  to  the  'Ballads',  e.g.  'Patience', 
'lolanthe*,  'Ruddigore',  and  'The  Yeomen 
of  the  Guard'.  This  matter  is  fully  dealt  with 
in  I.  Goldberg's  'The  Story  of  Gilbert  and 
Sullivan*  (1929). 

Babbage,  CHARLES  (1792-1871),  educated 
at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  a  mathematician 
and  scientific  mechanician.  He  was  a  founder, 
secretary,  and  later,  member,  of  the  Astro- 
nomical Society.  He  devoted  thirty-seven 
years  of  his  life  and  much  of  his  fortune  to 
the  perfection  of  a  calculating  machine  of  his 
invention. 

Babbitt,  a  novel  by  S.  Lewis  (q.v.),  published 
in  1922. 

The  book  depicts  life  in  Zenith,  a  pros- 
perous American  town  of  the  present  century, 
with  its  hustle,  'business-punch',  and  'modem 
ideals',  where  minds  and  electrical  appliances 
are  equally  standardized.  Against  this  back- 
ground the  author  draws  in  minute  detail  the 
character  and  mode  of  life  of  George  F. 
Babbitt,  a  successful  real-estate  broker  (what 


we  should  call  a  house-agent),  weak,  snob- 
bish, lying,  not  averse  to  a  questionable 
business  deal  if  sufficiently  remunerative; 
but  periodically  revolting  against  the  futility 
of  his  life  and  the  tyranny  of  his  environment, 
even  developing  mildly  liberal  opinions 
(quickly  suppressed  by  the  'Good  Citizens* 
League') — altogether  an  intensely  human  and 
familiar  being. 

BABBITT,  IRVING  (1865-  ),  Ameri- 
can critic  and  professor  at  Harvard,  born  in 
Dayton,  Ohio,  who,  with  Paul  Elmer  More 
and  W.  C.  Brownell,  is  a  defender  of  the 
classic  tradition  in  recent  American  criticism. 
Among  his  works  are  'The  New  Laokoon* 
(1910),  'The  Masters  of  Modern  French 
Criticism*  (1912),  'Rousseau  and  Romanti- 
cism* (1919),  'Democracy  and  Leader- 
ship' (1924),  and  'On  Being  Creative* 
(1932)- 

Babes  in  the  Wood,  see  Children  in  the 
Wood. 

Babism,  see  Bab. 
Baboo,  see  Babu. 
Baboon,  LEWIS,  see  John  Bull. 

Babu,  a  Hindu  title  of  respect  answering  to 
our  Mr.  or  Esquire;  hence,  a  native  Hindu 
gentleman;  also  in  (Anglo-Indian  use)  a 
native  clerk  or  official  who  writes  English; 
sometimes  applied  disparagingly  to  a  Hindu, 
or  more  particularly  a  Bengali,  with  a  super- 
ficial English  education. 

Babylon,  a  magnificent  city,  once  the  capital 
of  the  Chaldee  empire;  also  the  mystical  city 
of  the  Apocalypse ;  whence  in  modern  times 
applied  polemically  to  Rome  or  the  papal 
power,  and  rhetorically  to  any  great  and 
luxurious  city. 

THE  WHORE  OF  BABYLON  as  a  term  applied 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  by  the  early 
puritans,  with  reference  to  Rev.  xviu 

The  HANGING  GARDENS  OF  BABYLON  are 
said  to  have  been  made,  on  the  slope  of  the 
city  towards  the  river,  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
(605-562  B.C.),  who  devoted  much  care  to 
beautifying  the  city  (Diodorus  Siculus). 
Babylon,  an  old  ballad,  of  which  the  plot  is 
known  €to  all  branches  of  the  Scandinavian 
race',  of  three  sisters,  to  each  of  whom  in  turn 
an  outlaw  proposes  the  alternative  of  be- 
coming a  'rank  robber's  wife*  or  death.  The 


[53] 


BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY 

first  two  choose  death  and  are  killed  by  the 
outlaw.  The  third  threatens  the  vengeance 
of  her  brother  'Baby  Lon'.  This  is  the  out- 
law himself,  who  thus  discovers  that  he  has 
unwittingly  murdered  his  own  sisters,  and 
thereupon  takes  his  own  life.  The  ballad  is  in 
Child's  collection  (1883-98). 

Babylonian  Captivity,  the  period  (c.  603- 
536  B.C.)  during  which  the  Jews  were  captive 
in  Babylon.  Nebuchadnezzar,  having  sub- 
dued Judaea,  removed  the  inhabitants  to 
Babylon,  whence  they  were  released  by 
Cyrus.  *By  the  waters  of  Babylon  we  sat 
down  and  wept,  when  we  remembered  thee, 
O  Sion';  Ps.  cxxxvii.  i. 

'Babylonian  Captivity'  is  also  applied  to 
the  period  of  the  residence  of  the  popes  at 
Avignon,  under  French  influence,  beginning 
with  Clement  V  in  1308. 

Bacbuc,  in  Rabelais,  IV.  i,  and  V.  xxxiv  et  seq., 
the  oracle  of  the  Holy  Bottle,  consulted  by 
Panurge  on  the  question  whether  he  should 
marry  (see  PantagrueT). 

Bacchanalia,  the  mysteries  or  orgies  cele- 
brated in  ancient  Rome  in  honour  of  Bacchus 
(q.v.).  They  were  attended  by  such  licentious- 
ness and  excesses  that  they  were  suppressed 
in  186  B.C.,  and  replaced  by  a  more  innocent 
festival,  the  Liberalia. 

Bacchanals ,  priests,  priestesses,  or  votaries 
of  Bacchus  (q.v.). 

Bacchantes,  priestesses  of  Bacchus,  repre- 
sented with  dishevelled  hair  and  garlands  of 
ivy,  carrying  a  thyrsus,  and  clashing  cymbals. 

Bacchus,  also  known  as  Dionysus  to  the 
Greeks,  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Semele  (q.v.),  and 
the  foster-son  of  Silenus,  was  worshipped  as  the 
god  of  wine.  Zeus,  to  save  the  infant  Bacchus 
from  the  resentment  of  his  wife,  Hera,  con- 
veyed him  to  Mt.  Nysa,  where  he  was  brought 
up  by  the  nymphs,  whom  Zeus  rewarded  by 
placing  them  among  the  stars  as  the  HYADES. 
Bacchus,  when  grown  up,  made  an  expedi- 
tion to  Eastern  lands  (according  to  later 
legends  as  far  as  India),  teaching  mankind  the 
elements  of  civilization  and  the  use  of  the 
vine.  In  this  connexion  he  is  frequently 
represented  drawn  in  a  chariot  by  tigers.  He 
married  Ariadne  (q.v.)  after  she  had  been 
deserted  by  Theseus  in  Naxos.  Greek  tragedy 
was  developed  from  the  custom  of  repre- 
senting the  history  of  the  god  in  sacred 
choruses  at  his  festival. 

BACCHiXIDfiS,  the  mostimportant  Greek 
lyric  poet  after  Pindar,  since  the  publication 
by  F.  G.  Kenyon  (1897)  of  the  large  papyrus 
fragments.  He  lived  about  470  B.C.,  a  native 
of  lulis  in  Ceos,  and  was  a  nephew  o£ 
Simonides. 

Bach,  JOHANN  SEBASTIAN  (1685-1750), 
born  at  Eisenach,  of  a  family  that  in- 
cluded many  musicians,  was  one  of  the 
greatest  composers  of  all  time.  He  was  for 
many  years  musical  director  of  two  churches 


BACON 

at  Leipzig,  where  he  composed  most  of  his 
music.  Much  of  this  is  of  a  sacred  character, 
highly  intellectual,  and  showing  a  supreme 
command  of  counterpoint  and  fugue. 
Bacharach,  a  town  on  the  Rhine  giving  its 
name  to  a  wine  formerly  much  esteemed. 

BACHELLER,  IRVING  (1859-  ), 
American  writer  born  at  Pierpont,  N.Y.,  and 
educated  at  St.  Lawrence  University,  known 
chiefly  for  his  popular  novel,  'Eben  Holden' 
(1900),  and  for  his  story  of  Lincoln,  *A  Man 
for  the  Ages'  (1919). 

Back  Kitchen,  THE,  in  Thackeray's  *Pen- 
dennis'  (q.v.),  was  "The  Cyder  Cellars*  in 
Maiden  Lane,  frequented  by  Person,  Maginn, 
Charles  Dickens,  Sec. 

Backbite,  SIR  BENJAMIN,  one  of  the  scandal- 
mongers in  Sheridan's  'School  for  Scandal' 
(q.v.). 

Backwell,  EDWARD  (d.  1683),  a  London 
goldsmith  and  banker  at  the  Unicorn  in 
Fleet  Street,  probably  the  chief  originator  of 
the  system  of  bank-notes.  He  had  financial 
dealings  with  Cromwell  and  Charles  II,  and 
was  ruined  by  the  closing  of  the  exchequer 
by  the  latter  in  1672.  There  are  frequent 
references  to  him  in  Pepys's  'Diary*. 

Bacon,  FRIAR,  see  Friar  Bacon  and  Friar 
Bungay. 

BACON,  FRANCIS,  first  BARON  VERULAM 

and  VISCOUNT  ST.  ALBANS  (1561-1626),  was 
the  younger  son  of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  Lord 
Keeper  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign.  Fie  was 
born  at  York  House,  in  the  Strand,  London, 
and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
He  was  admitted  to  Gray's  Inn  and  went 
through  the  various  steps  of  the  legal  pro- 
fession. He  entered  Parliament  in  1584  as 
member  for  Melcombe  Regis  and  subse- 
quently represented  other  constituencies.  He 
then  wrote  papers  on  public  affairs,  including 
a  'Letter  of  Advice  to  Queen  Elizabeth* 
urging  strong  measures  against  the  Catholics. 
He  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  earl  of 
Essex,  who  treated  him  with  generosity  and 
endeavoured  to  advance  him  in  his  career. 
Nevertheless,  having  been  appointed  to  in- 
vestigate the  causes  of  Essex's  revolt  in  1601, 
he  was  largely  responsible  for  the  earl's  con- 
viction. He  married  Alice  Barnham  in  1606, 
became  Solicitor-General  in  1607,  Attorney- 
General  in  1613,  Lord  Keeper  in  1617,  and 
Lord  Chancellor  in  1618.  In  1621  he  was 
charged  before  the  House  of  Lords  with 
bribery,  and  confessed  that  he  had  been 
guilty  of  *  corruption  and  neglect'  but  denied 
that  he  had  ever  perverted  justice.  He  was 
deprived  of  the  great  seal,  fined,  condemned 
to  confinement  during  the  king's  pleasure, 
and  disabled  from  sitting  in  parliament.  He 
remained  in  the  Tower  only  a  few  days,  the 
fine  being  subsequently  assigned  by  the  king 
to  trustees  for  Bacon's  own  use.  The  re- 
maining years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
literary  and  philosophical  work.  Pope 


[54] 


BACON 

described  him  as  'the  wisest,  brightest, 
meanest  of  mankind*. 

Bacon's  works  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes,  the  philosophical  (which  form  by  far 
the  greatest  portion),  the  literary,  and  the 
professional  works.  The  principal  and  best 
known  of  the  philosophical  works  are :  (i)  the 
'Advancement  of  Learning*  (q.v.),  published 
in  English  in  1605 ;  (2)  the  'Novum  Organum* 
(q.v.),  published  in  Latin  in  1620,  under  the 
general  title  'Francisci  de  Verulamio  .  .  . 
Instauratio  Magna*,  with  a  second  title  (after 
the  preface)  'Pars  secunda  operis,  quae  dicitur 
Novum  Organum  sive  indicia  vera  de  inter- 
pretatione  naturae*;  and  (3)  the  'De  Aug- 
ments' (q.v.),  published  in  Latin  in  1623  with 
the  title  'Opera  F.  Baconis  de  Verulamio  .  . . 
Tomus  primus,  qui  continet  de  Dignitate  et 
Augmentis  Scientiarum  libros  ix*.  It  was 
Bacon's  ambition  to  create  a  new  system  of 
philosophy,  based  on  a  right  interpretation 
of  nature,  to  replace  that  of  Aristotle ;  the 
*  Novum  Organum'  describes  the  method  by 
which  the  renovation  of  knowledge  was  to  be 
achieved,  and  is  thus  the  keystone  to  the 
whole  system.  The  'Advancement  of  Learn- 
ing', of  which  the  'De  Augmentis*  may  be 
regarded  as  an  enlarged  edition,  was  included 
in  the  'Great  Instauration*  or  Renewal  of  the 
Sciences  as  a  preliminary  review  of  the  present 
state  of  knowledge.  Of  Bacon's  literary  works, 
the  most  important  are  the  'Essays*  (q.v.), 
first  published  in  1597,  and  issued  in  final 
form,  1625;  'De  Sapientia  Veterum',  pub- 
lished in  1609 ;  'Apophthegms  New  and  Old*, 
published  in  1624;  the  'New  Atlantis*  (q.v.) 
in  1626;  and  the  'History  of  Henry  the 
Seventh*,  in  1622.  The  largest  and  most 
important  of  his  professional  works  are  the 
treatises  entitled  'Maxims  of  the  Law*  and 
'Reading  on  the  Statute  of  Uses*. 

Bacon  wrote  much  in  Latin  and  always 
endeavoured  to  clothe  in  that  language  the 
works  to  which  he  attached  importance,  with 
a  view,  as  he  supposed,  to  their  greater 
permanence.  Yet  he  was  capable  of  varied 
and  beautiful  styles  in  English,  and  there  is  a 
peculiar  magnificence  and  picturesqueness  in 
much  of  his  writing.  Many  of  the  sentences 
in  the  'Essays*  have  assumed  almost  the 
character  of  proverbs.  But  he  is  sometimes 
obscure.  The  standard  edition  of  Bacon's 
'Works'  is  that  of  James  Spedding  (q.v.), 
published  in  1857-9,  followed  by  the  'Life 
and  Letters*  in  1861-74. 

BACON,  ROGER  (i2i4?~94),  philosopher, 
studied  at  Oxford  and  Paris,  where  he  may 
have  graduated  doctor,  returned  to  England 
c.  1250,  and  probably  remained  at  Oxford 
till  c.  1257,  when  he  incurred  the  suspicion  of 
the  Franciscan  order,  to  which  he  belonged. 
He  was  sent  under  surveillance  to  Paris, 
where  he  remained  in  confinement  ten  years. 
He  produced  at  the  request  of  Pope  Cle- 
ment IV  Latin  treatises  on  the  sciences 
(grammar,  logic,  mathematics,  physics,  and 
modern  philosophy) — 'Opus  Majus',  and, 


BADAJOZ 

perhaps,  'Opus  Secundum*  and  'Opus  Ter- 
tium'.  He  was  again  in  confinement  for  his 
heretical  propositions,  c.  1278—92,  and  is  said 
to  have  died  and  to  have  been  buried  at 
Oxford.  He  wrote  also  on  chemistry  and 
alchemy.  By  the  public  of  his  day  he  was 
regarded  as  a  necromancer,  and  was  believed 
to  have  constructed  a  brazen  head  capable  of 
speech. 

Roger  Bacon  may  be  described  as  the 
founder  of  English  philosophy.  Like  Hs 
more  famous  namesake  of  the  i7th  cent.,  he 
advocated  the  substitution  of  an  appeal  to 
experience  for  the  scholastic  method  of  argu- 
ment jfrom  general  premisses  based  on 
authority.  Like  him,  he  begins  by  stating  the 
chief  causes  of  error  (offendicula) — authority, 
custom,  the  opinion  of  the  ignorant  many,  the 
concealment  of  ignorance  under  a  show  of 
knowledge.  But,  unlike  Francis  Bacon,  he 
attached  importance  to  mathematics,  and  Hs 
scientific  method,  by  recognizing  the  value  of 
deduction,  is  better  than  that  of  his  namesake. 
At  the  same  time,  Bacon's  outlook  remained 
medieval  and  mystical.  His  attack  on  the 
methods  of  scholasticism  was  taken  up  again 
and  developed  by  William  Ockham  (q.v.)  in 
the  next  century.  Bacon  was  a  man  of  great 
learning:  he  had  a  wide  knowledge  of  the 
sciences,  was  an  accomplished  Greek  scholar, 
and  knew  Hebrew  and  Aramaic.  As  a 
practical  scientist  he  invented  spectacles,  and 
indicated  the  manner  in  which  a  telescope 
might  be  constructed. 

Bacon  and  Bungay  (i)  the  rival  publishers 
in  Thackeray's  'Pendennis*  (q.v.).  (2)  See 
Friar  Bacon  and  Friar  Bungay. 

Baconian  Theory,  the  theory  that  Francis 
Bacon  (q.v.)  wrote  the  plays  attributed  to 
Shakespeare.  It  was  started,  apparently,  in 
the  middle  of  the  i8th  cent.,  and  is  based 
partly  on  (supposed)  internal  evidence  in 
Shakespeare's  plays  (the  knowledge  displayed 
and  the  vocabulary),  and  partly  on  external 
circumstances  (the  obscurity  of  Shakespeare's 
own  biography).  Some  holders  of  the  theory 
have  found  in  the  plays  cryptograms  in 
support  of  it,  e.g.  in  the  word  'honorificabili- 
tudinitatibus*  in  'Love's  Labour 's  Lost'  (v.  i). 
Among  prominent  supporters  of  the  theory, 
some  of  them  Americans,  may  be  mentioned 
Lord  Penzance  ('Judicial  Summing  Up'),  Sir 
T.  Martin  ('Shakespeare  or  Bacon'),  I.  Don- 
nelly ('The  Great  Cryptogram'),  Mrs.  Gallup 
('Bi-Literal  Cypher'),  Sir  G.  Greenwood 
('Shakespeare  Problem  re-stated'),  and  Sir  E. 
Durning-Lawrence  ('Bacon  is  Shake-speare*, 
1910;  "The  Shakespeare  Myth',  1912). 

Badajoz,  SIEGE  OF,  in  Spain,  undertaken  by 
Wellington  in  1811.  Badajoz  and  Ciudad 
Rodrigo  were  two  strong  fortresses  which 
barred  Wellington's  advance  from  Portugal 
into  Spain.  Badajoz  was  stormed  in  April 
1812  with  very  heavy  losses  to  the  British 
troops  and  the  capture  was  attended  with 
acts  of  great  cruelty  and  outrage. 


[55] 


BADGER  STATE 

Badger  State,  Wisconsin,  see  United 
States. 

Badinguet,  a  nickname  of  Napoleon  III. 

Badman,  The  Life  and  Death  of  Mr.,  an 
allegory  by  Bunyan  (q.v.),  published  in  1680. 
The  allegory  takes  the  form  of  a  dialogue, 
in  which  Mr.  Wiseman  relates  the  life  of  Mr. 
Badman,  recently  deceased,  and  Mr.  Atten- 
tive comments  on  it.  The  youthful  Badman 
shows  early  signs  of  his  vicious  disposition. 
He  beguiles  a  rich  damsel  into  marriage  and 
ruins  her;  sets  up  in  trade,  swindles  his 
creditors  by  fraudulent  bankruptcies,  and 
his  customers  by  false  weights;  breaks  his 
leg  when  coming  home  drunk,  and  displays  a 
short-lived  sickbed  repentance.  His  wife  dies 
of  despair,  and  Badman  marries  again,  but 
his  second  wife  is  as  wicked  as  he  is,  and  they 
part  'as  poor  as  Howlets*.  Finally  Badman 
dies  of  a  complication  of  diseases.  The  story 
is  entertaining  as  well  as  edifying,  and  has 
a  place  in  the  evolution  of  the  English 
novel. 

Badminton,  the  name  of  the  duke  of  Beau- 
fort's country  seat  in  Gloucestershire.  It  has 
been  given  to  a  cooling  summer  drink,  to  the 
game  resembling  lawn-tennis  played  with 
shuttlecocks,  and  to  a  series  of  books  on  the 
various  sports. 

Badon,  MOUNT,  the  scene  of  a  battle  con- 
nected with  the  legends  of  Arthur.  It  is  first 
mentioned  by  Gildas  (q.v.),  but  without 
reference  to  Arthur.  The  'Annales  Cambriae* 
(q.v.)  give  the  date  of  the  battle  as  518,  and 
state  that  Arthur  bore  the  cross  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  there  and  the  Britons  were 
victorious.  Badon  is  identified  by  some 
authorities  with  Bath,  by  others  with  Badbury 
near  Wimborne.  For  a  discussion  of  the 
question  see  E.  K.  Chambers,  'Arthur  of 
Britain*. 

Badour  or  BADOURA,  PRINCESS,  see  Ca~ 
maralzaman. 

Badr-ed-Din,  HASSAN,  see  Nur-ed-Din. 

Badroulboudour  or  BEDR-EL-BUDUR  (£moon 
of  moons'),  in  'Aladdin  and  die  Wonderful 
Lamp*  (q.v.),  the  daughter  of  the  Sultan  of 
China. 

Baedeker,  KARL  (1801-59),  printer  and  pub- 
lisher, of  Essen,  Germany.  He  started  the  issue 
of  the  famous  guide-books  in  Coblenz,  and 
this  was  continued  by  his  son,  Fritz,  who 
transferred  the  business  to  Leipzig. 

Baetica,  a  Roman  province  of  Spain,  of 
which  Corduba  (Cordova)  was  the  capital, 
deriving  its  name  from  the  river  Baetis 
(Guadalquivir),  whence  'Baetic  vale*. 

Baffin,  WILLIAM  (d.  1622),  navigator 
and  discoverer.  He  was  pilot  in  the  Mus- 
covy Company's  expeditions  of  1615  and 
1616  in  search  of  the  North- West  Passage, 
which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  bay 
which  has  since  been  given  his  name.  He 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Kishm  in  an  ex- 


BAILEY 

pedition  against  the  Portuguese  in  the  Persian 
Gulf.  He  wrote  accounts  of  most  of  his 
voyages. 

BAGE,  ROBERT  (1728-1801),  a  paper- 
maker  by  trade,  was  author  of  six  novels, 
'Mount  Kenneth*  (1781),  'Barham  Downs' 
(1784),  'The  Fair  Syrian'  (1787),  'James 
Wallace*  (1788),  *Man  as  he  is*  (1792),  and 
'Hermsprong  or  Man  as  he  is  not*  (1796). 
Scott  included  the  first,  second,  and  fourth 
in  his  'Ballantyne  novels*.  Bage  was  a 
materialist,  and  'Hermsprong',  the  best  of 
his  works,  the  story  of  a  'natural  man*  without 
morals  or  religion,  is  written  to  expound  his 
views. 

B AGEHOT,  WALTER  (i  826-77),  of  Lang- 
port,  Somerset,  educated  at  Bristol  and  at 
University  College,  London,  was  a  banker 
and  shipowner,  joint-editor  with  R.  H. 
Hutton  of  the 'National  Review*  after  1855, 
and  editor  of  the  'Economist*  from  1860  till 
his  death.  His  remarkable  insight  into  eco- 
nomic and  political  questions  is  shown  in 
his  'The  English  Constitution*  (1867),  'Lom- 
bard Street*  (1873),  and  'Economic  Studies* 
(1880,  ed.  Hutton).  His  'Physics  and  Politics* 
(1876)  is  an  'application  of  the  principles  of 
natural  selection  and  inheritance  to  political 
society*.  In  his  'Literary  Studies'  (1879)  were 
republished  papers  contributed  by  him  to 
the  'National  Review'. 

Bagford  Ballads,  The,  illustrating  the  last 
years  of  the  Stuarts'  rule  and  the  last  years 
of  the  I7th  cent.,  were  published  by  the 
Ballad  Society  in  1878.  They  were  assembled 
by  John  Bagford  (1651-1716),  originally  a 
shoemaker,  a  book-collector  who  made  for 
Robert  Harley,  first  earl  of  Oxford,  the 
collection  of  ballads  that  was  subsequently 
acquired  by  the  duke  of  Roxburghe,  and 
at  the  same  time  made  a  private  collection 
for  himself. 

Bagnell,  MRS.,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'Lord  Ormont  and  his  Aminta'  (q.v.). 

Bagnet,  MR.  and  MRS.,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'Bleak  House*  (q.v.). 

Bagstock,  MAJOR  JOE,  a  character  in 
Dickens's  'Dombey  and  Son'  (q.v.). 

Bahaism,  see  Bab. 

Bahrain  I,  the  king  of  Persia  who  put  to 
death  Mani,  the  founder  of  Manichaeism,  in 
A.D.  274. 

Bahram  Gur,  or  the  'Wild  Ass',  a  national 
hero  of  Persia,  who  came  to  the  throne  in 
A.D.  420,  celebrated  as  a  hunter  in  the 
'Rubaiyyat*  of  Omar  Khayyam  (q.v.). 

Baiae,  a  town  on  a  small  bay  near  Naples,  in 
beautiful  surroundings  and  possessing  warm 
mineral  springs,  a  favourite  resort  of  the 
Romans,  who  built  many  palaces  and  villas 
there.  Its  site  is  now  covered  by  the  sea. 

Bailey,  THE  OLD,  on  the  site  of  Newgate 
gaol,  the  seat  of  the  Central  Criminal  Court 


[56] 


BAILEY 

in  London,  so  called  from  the  ancient  bailey 
or  ballium  of  the  city  wall  between  Lud  Gate 
and  New  Gate,  within  which  it  was  situated. 
(A  bailey  is  an  external  wall  enclosing  the  outer 
court  of  a  feudal  castle,  forming  the  first  line 
of  defence.) 

BAILEY,  NATHAN  or  NATHANIEL  (d. 
1742),  author  of  an  etymological  dictionary 
(1721). 

BAILEY,  PHILIP  JAMES  (1816-1902), 
was  privately  educated  at  Nottingham  and 
matriculated  in  Glasgow  University  with  a 
view  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  but  soon 
renouncing  this  intention',  studied  law  in  a 
solicitor's  office  and  became  a  barrister  of 
Lincoln's  Inn.  Deeply  impressed  by  Goethe's 
*  Faust*  and  feeling  compelled  to  give  his  own 
version  of  the  legend,  he  retired  in  1836  to 
the  seclusion  of  his  father's  house  at  Old 
Basford,  near  Nottingham,  where  in  three 
years  he  wrote  the  original  version  of  his 
'Festus'  (q.v.),  published  in  1839.  A  second, 
much  enlarged  edition  appeared  in  1845.  The 
final  edition  of  1889,  which  exceeded  40,000 
lines,  incorporated  the  greater  part  of  three 
volumes  of  poetry  that  had  appeared 
separately  in  the  interval :  'The  Angel  World* 
(1850),  'The  Mystic'  (1855),  and  'The  Uni- 
versal Hymn'  (1867).  Bailey  is  often  regarded 
as  the  father  of  the  'Spasmodic  School'  (q.v.). 
In  1856  he  received  a  civil  list  pension.  In 
1858  he  published  'The  Age',  a  colloquial 
satire. 

Bailiff's  Daughter  of  Islington,  The,  the 
title  of  an  old  ballad,  included  in  Percy's 
'Reliques'.  A  squire's  son  loves  the  bailiff's 
daughter  of  Islington  (probably  the  place  of 
that  name  in  Norfolk),  but  his  friends  send 
him  to  London  bound  as  an  apprentice. 
After  seven  years  the  lovers  meet  again  and 
are  united. 

BAILLIE,  JOANNA  (1762-1851),  Scottish 
dramatist  and  poetess,  published  in  1798  her 
first  volume  of  'Plays  on  the  Passions',  con- 
taining 'Basil'  and  *De  Monfort';  the  latter 
was  produced  by  Kemble  and  Mrs.  Siddons 
in  1800.  A  second  volume  appeared  in  1802, 
and  a  third  in  1812.  Her  most  successful 
drama,  'The  Family  Legend*,  was  produced 
in  1 8 10.  'Miscellaneous  Plays'  appeared  in 
1836.  Miss  Baillie's  poems  ('Fugitive  Verses', 
1790,  and  'Metrical  Legends',  1821)  show 
sprightly  humour.  She  was  a  close  friend  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  much  admired  the 
'Plays  on  the  Passions'. 

BAILLIE,  ROBERT  (1599-1662),  Scottish 
Presbyterian  divine,  minister  of  Kttwinning, 
Ayrshire,  and  subsequently  professor  of 
divinity  (1642)  and  principal  (1660)  of  Glas- 
gow University.  He  was  with  the  Covenan- 
ter's army  at  Dunse  Law,  1639,  and  in  1640 ; 
and  was  sent  to  London  to  draw  up  accusa- 
tions against  Laud,  1640.  His  'Letters  and 
Journals'  (Bannatyne  Club,  1841-2)  are  of 
importance  for  the  history  of  the  Civil  War. 


BALAAM 

Bailly,  HENRY,  in  Chaucer's  'Canterbury 
Tales'  (q.v.),  the  host  of  the  Tabard  Inn. 
BAIN,  ALEXANDER  (1818-1903),  born  in 
Aberdeen  of  humble  parents,  left  school 
when  eleven  years  old  to  work  as  a  weaver, 
but  continued  his  studies  and  obtained  a 
bursary  at  Marischal  College.  He  visited 
London  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  Mill 
and  Carlyle.  In  1860  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  logic  at  Aberdeen.  In  1876  he 
founded  the  periodical  'Mind'.  His  two 
principal  philosophical  works  were  'The 
Senses  and  the  Intellect'  (1855)  and  'The 
Emotions  and  the  Will*  (1859).  His  other 
works  include  'Mental  and  Moral  Science' 
(1868),  'Logic'  (1870),  'Mind  and  Body' 
(1872),  and  'James  Mill,  a  Biography'  and 
'].  S.  Mill,  a  Criticism  with  Personal  Recol- 
lections' (1882).  Bain  was  one  of  the  first 
exponents  of  a  scientific  psychology  based  on 
a  physiological  method  that  traces  psycho- 
logical phenomena  to  nerve  and  brain.  He 
elaborated  Mill's  doctrine  that  the  mind  is  to 
be  explained  by  experience  and  association  of 
ideas,  extending  this  view  from  the  intellect 
to  the  will  and  emotions.  Though  a  Utili- 
tarian in  general,  he  accepted  the  existence  in 
the  human  mind  of  'motives  that  pull  against 
our  happiness',  and  held  that  purely  altruistic 
conduct  is  possible. 

Baines,  CONSTANCE  and  SOPHIA,  characters 
in  Bennett's  'The  Old  Wives'  Tale'  (q.v.). 

Bairam,  the  name  of  two  Mohammedan 
festivals — the  LESSER  BAIRAM,  lasting  three 
days,  which  follows  the  fast  of  Ramadan  (q.v.), 
and  the  GREATER  BAIRAM,  seventy  days  later, 
lasting  four  days. 

Bajardo,  in  the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (q.v.),  the 
horse  of  Rinaldo.  See  Bayard. 
Bajazet  or  BAJAYET,  ruler  of  the  Ottomans 
(1389—1402),  overran  the  provinces  of  the 
Eastern  empire  and  besieged  Constantinople, 
but  was  interrupted  by  the  approach  of 
Timour  (Tamerlane),  and  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  him.  He  figures  in  Mar- 
lowe's 'Tamburlaine  the  Great'  and  Rowe's 
'Tamerlane*  (qq.v.).  . 

BAKER,  SIR  SAMUEL  WHITE  (1821- 
93),  traveller  and  sportsman,  whose  explora- 
tions contributed  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
sources  of  the  Nile.  He  discovered  and 
named  Albert  Nyanza.  He  was  appointed  in 
1869  for  four  years  governor-general  of  the 
Equatorial  Nile  basin.  His  best-known  works 
are  'Rifle  and  Hound  in  Ceylon'  (1853),  'The 
Nile  Tributaries  of  Abyssinia'  (1872),  and 
'Ismailia'  (1874). 

Balaam,  requested  by  Balak,  king  of  Moab, 
to  curse  the  invading  Israelites,  but  warned 
by  God  not  to  do  so,  yet  went  on  his  ass 
with  the  princes  of  Moab.  He  would  have 
been  killed  by  an  angel  standing  in  the  way 
if  his  ass  had  not  saved  him.  When  he  beat  the 
ass,  the  Lord  opened  her  mouth,  and  she 
reproved  him.  Finally  Balaam,  inspired  by 


[S7] 


BALAAM 

God,  foretold  the  happiness  of  Israel  (Num. 

xxii-xxiv). 

Balaam.,   SIR,   the   subject  of  a  pungent 

satire  in  Pope's  'Moral  Essays',  Ep.  iii.  339  et 

seq.,   a  religious,   punctual,    frugal    citizen 

tempted  by  the  Devil  through  wealth,  who 

becomes  a  corrupt  courtier.  He  takes  a  bribe 

from  France  and  is  hanged: 

The  Devil  and  the  king  divide  the  prize; 

And  sad  Sir  Balaam  curses  God  and  dies. 
Balaclava,  a  small  seaport  on  the  coast  of 
the  Crimea,  near  Sebastopol,  was  the  scene 
in  the  Crimean  War  of  the  famous  charge  of 
the  Light  Brigade  (26  Sept.  1854),  celebrated 
in  Tennyson's  poem.  The  Russians,  about 
12,000  strong  under  General  Liprandi,  had 
captured  certain  redoubts  held  by  a  small 
force  of  Turks,  and  thus  threatened  the  port. 
They  had  next  attacked  the  English  and  been 
repulsed  by  the  Heavy  Brigade  under  General 
Scarlett.  Owing  to  a  misconception  of  Lord 
Raglan's  orders,  Lord  Lucan  then  ordered 
Lord  Cardigan  with  the  Light  Cavalry  to 
charge  the  Russian  army,  which  had  re- 
formed with  artillery  in  front.  The  charge 
was  heroically  carried  out,  but  put  of  673 
officers  and  men  who  took  part  in  it,  247  were 
killed  or  wounded. 

Balade  of  Charitie,  The,  see  Chatterton. 
BalafrS,  LE,  HENRI  DE  GUISE  (1550-88),  a 
leader  of  the  Ligue  directed  against  the  Pro- 
testants in  France  and  one  of  the  authors  of 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  so  called 
from  a  scar  on  his  face.    He  conspired  to 
oust  Henri  III  from  the  throne  of  France, 
but  the  latter  caused  him  to  be  assassinated 
at  the  chateau  of  Blois.    Scott  gives  this  nick- 
name, in  his  'Quentin  Durward'  (q.v.),  to 
.  Ludovic  Lesly,  the  hero's  uncle,  one  of  the 
Scottish  Archers  of  the  Guard. 
Balan,  see  Balin  and  Balan. 
Balance,  THE,  see  Libra. 

Balaustiorts  Adventure,  a  poem  by  R. 
Browning  (q.v.),  published  in  1871. 

Balaustion,  a  RJhodian  girl,  a  deep  admirer 
of  the  Athenian  poet  Euripides,  persuades 
her  kinsfolk  to  leave  Rhodes  when  that  island 
joins  the  Peloponnesian  league  against 
Athens.  Her  ship  is  pursued  by  a  pirate  into 
the  harbour  of  Syracuse,  the  bitter  enemy  of 
Athens,  where  refuge  is  denied  them.  The 
hostility  of  the  Syracusans  is  however 
changed  to  welcome  when  Balaustion  recites 
to  them  Euripides'  play,  the  'Alkestis',  in 
which  their  god  Herakles  is  celebrated. 
Browning  'transcribes'  the  play,  putting  his 
comments  in  the  mouth  of  Balaustion. 

Balaustion  appears  again  in  'Aristophanes 
Apology'  (q.v.). 

Balbec,  the  name  used  by  Proust  (q.v.)  for 
the  seaside  resort  (Cabourg)  in  Normandy 
which  is  the  scene  of  many  of  the  incidents  of 
*A  la  recherche  du  temps  perdu'. 

Balboa,  VASCO  NUNEZ  DE  (1475-1517),  one 
of  the  companions  of  Cortez,  the  conqueror 


BALDERSTONE 

of  Mexico.  He  is  said  to  have  joined  the 
expedition  of  1510  to  Darien  as  a  stowaway. 
It  was  he  who  first,  in  1513,  discovered  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  not  Cortez,  as  Keats  supposed 
when  he  wrote : 

Or  like  stout  Cortez  when  with  eagle  eyes 

He  stared  at  the  Pacific. 
(Nor  was  Balboa  silent  on  this  occasion,  as 
Keats   makes   Cortez.    He  said  'Hombre!') 
Balboa  was  beheaded  by  Pedrarias,  governor 
of  Darien,  on  a  charge  of  treason. 
Balchristie,  JENNY,  in  Scott's  'The  Heart  of 
Midlothian'  (q.v.),  the  housekeeper  of  the 
laird  of  Dumbiedikes. 

Balclutha,  in  the  Ossianic  poern  'Carthon* 
(q.v.),  a  town  on  the  Clyde,  burnt  by  Combal, 
father  of  Ossian,  in  one  of  his  raids. 

Balder  or  BALDUR,  in  Scandinavian  my- 
thology, a  son  of  Odin  (q.v.),  the  god  of  the 
summer  sun,  beloved  by  all,  but  threatened 
with  death.  Frigga,  his  mother,  has  per- 
suaded all  things  to  vow  not  to  injure  him, 
but  has  overlooked  the  mistletoe.  Loki  (q.v.) 
induces  the  blind  god  Hodur  to  throw  a 
branch  of  mistletoe  at  Balder,  and  this  kills 
him.  In  another  legend  Hodur  is  the  rival  of 
Balder  for  the  beautiful  Nanna,  and  has  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  irresistible  Miming 
(q.v.)  sword  'Mistelteinn*  (mistletoe).  For 
the  legend  of  Hermod's  journey  to  hell  to 
recall  Balder  to  the  upper  world,  see  Balder 
Dead. 

Balder  t  a  dramatic  poem  by  Dobell  (q.v.), 
published  in  1854. 

A  poet  has  taken  his  young  bride  to  live  in 
ca  tower  gloomy  and  ruinous'.  He  is  engaged 
in  mystic  meditations,  and  believes  himself 
selected  to  conquer  the  secret  of  the  universe. 
Meanwhile  she  pines,  but  is  for  a  time  com- 
forted by  the  presence  of  her  infant  child. 
Presently  the  child  sickens  and  dies,  and  the 
mother  goes  mad.  The  poet  conjures  the 
doctor  to  cure  her,  threatening  him  with  death 
if  he  fails.  Finally,  unable  to  witness  his 
wife's  sufferings  and  to  listen  to  her  prayers 
for  death,  he  kills  her. 

The  poem,  which  contains  some  fine 
passages,  but  is  hardly  readable  to-day  as  a 
whole,  is  the  most  notable  production  of  the 
'Spasmodic  School'  (q.v.). 

Balder  Dead,  a  poem  by  M.  Arnold  (q,v.), 
published  in  1853. 

Balder  (q.v.)  has  been  slam  by  the  blind 
Hodur  through  the  scheming  of  Loki.  The 
poem  tells  of  the  lament  of  the  gods  for  him, 
and  of  Hermod's  journey  to  the  shades  to 
persuade  Hela  to  give  him  up.  Hela  consents 
if  all  things  on  earth  will  weep  for  Balder. 
This  they  all  do  except  Loki,  who,  in  the 
guise  of  an  old  hag,  refuses.  Hermod  returns 
and  relates  his  failure  to  Balder,  who  is 
reconciled  to  his  lot,  and  holds  out  the  hope 
of  a  happier  world,  after  the  destruction  of 
Odin  and  the  gods  at  Ragnarok. 

Balderstone,  CALEB,  a  character  in  Scott's 
*Bride  of  Lammermoor*  (q.v.). 


[58] 


BALDUR 
Baldur,  see  Balder. 

Baldwin,  the  name  of  four  of  the  Christian 
kings  of  Jerusalem  (and  a  nominal  Baldwin  V, 
an  infant),  including  the  successor  of  Godfrey 
de  Bouillon,  who  figures  in  Tasso's  *  Jerusalem 
Delivered*  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Christian  host,  and  also  in  Scott's  'Count 
Robert  of  Paris*  (q.v.). 

BALDWIN,  WILLIAM,  see  Mirror  for 
Magistrates. 

BALE,  JOHN  (1495-1563),  bishop  of  Os- 
sory,  author  of  several  religious  plays,  a 
history  of  English  writers,  and  numerous 
polemical  works  in  favour  of  the  cause  of  the 
Reformation.  He  is  notable  in  the  history  of 
the  drama  as  having  written  'King  John',  the 
first  English  historical  play,  or  at  least  a 
bridge  between  the  interlude  and  the  his- 
torical play  proper. 

BALFOUR,  ARTHUR  JAMES,  Earl  of 
(1848-1930),  a  distinguished  statesman,  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, notable  in  a  literary  connexion  as  the 
author  of  'A  Defence  of  Philosophic  Doubt' 
(1879),  'The  Religion  of  Humanity*  (1888), 
'Essays  and  Addresses'  (1893),  'The  Founda- 
tions of  Belief*  (1895),  'Questionings  on 
Criticism  and  Beauty*  (Romanes  Lecture, 
1909),  'Theism  and  Humanism*  (Gifford 
Lectures,  1915),  'Essays  Speculative  and 
Political*  (1920),  'Theism  and  Thought*  (Gif- 
ford Lectures,  1923),  and  'Opinions  and 
Argument*  (1927). 

Balfour,  DAVID,  a  character  in  R.  L.  Steven- 
son's 'Kidnapped*  (q.v.)  and  'Catriona*. 

Balfour  of  Burley,  JOHN,  a  leader  of  the 
Cameronian  sect,  who  figures  in  Scott's  'Old 
Mortality*  (q.v.). 

Balifoari,  THE  CHEVALIER  DE,  in  Thackeray's 
'Barry  Lyndon*  (q.v.),  the  uncle  of  the  hero. 

Balin  and  Balan,  one  of  Tennyson's  'Idylls 
of  the  King*  (q.v.),  published  in  1885  with 
*Tiresias*.  See  Balin  le  Savage  and  Balan. 

The  poem  is  described  in  the  original 
edition  as  *an  introduction  to  Merlin  and 
Vivien*.  Balin,  a  violent,  choleric,  but  honest 
man,  a  knight  of  Arthur's  court,  is  filled 
with  humble  devotion  to  Queen  Guinevere. 
Disturbed  by  a  glimpse  that  he  gets  of  the 
intrigue  between  Launcelot  and  the  queen, 
he  leaves  the  court.  His  suspicions  are  finally 
confirmed  by  the  perfidious  Vivien.  Possessed 
with  fury  at  the  shattering  of  ^his  idol,  he 
defaces  the  queen's  crown  on  his  shield  and 
flings  it  from  him.  His  brother  Balan,  another 
knight  of  Arthur's  court,  who  has  been  given 
the  quest  of  a  demon,  passing  at  the  moment 
and  thinking  that  this  mad  knight  must  be 
the  demon  of  whom  he  is  in  search,  attacks 
him.  The  two  brothers  fall,  mortally 
wounded  by  each  other. 

Balin  le  Savage  and  Balan,  two  brothers, 
'marvellous  good  knights*  whose  deeds  and 
death  at  each  other's  hands  unwittingly  are 


BALLADE 

told  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur',  Bk.  II ; 
also  in  Swinburne's  'Tale  of  Balen*  (1896). 
They  appear  to  have  had  their  origin  in 
Belinus  and  Bran  (qq.v.),  gods  of  the  sky  and 
nether  world  respectively  in  Celtic  mythology 
(J.  Rhys,  'Studies  in  the  Arthurian  Legend*). 

Baliol,  MRS.  BETHUNE,  in  the  introduction  to 
Scott's  'Chronicles  of  the  Canongate*  (q.v.), 
the  friend  of  Chrystal  Croftangry,  on  whose 
recollections  the  latter  draws  for  his  stories. 

Baliol,  JOHN  DE  (d.  1269),  father  of  John  de 
Baliol,  king  of  Scotland  (1292-6),  founded 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  about  1263,  as  an  act 
of  penance  imposed  for  having  'vexed  and 
damnified*  the  churches  of  Tynemouth  and 
Durham. 

Balkis,  or  BELKIS,  the  name  given  by  the 
Arabs  to  the  queen  of  Sheba  who  visited 
Solomon  (i  Kings  x).  The  Koran  (c.  xxvii) 
contains  an  allusion  to  the  story  that  Solomon, 
having  heard  a  report  that  her  legs  and  feet 
were  covered  with  hair,  invited  her  into  a  court 
of  which  the  floor  was  covered  with  glass. 
The  queen,  mistaking  this  for  water,  lifted  her 
robe  in  order  to  pass  through  it,  thus  giving 
Solomon  an  opportunity  of  ascertaining  the 
truth  of  the  report.  According  to  some  le- 
gends Balkis  (on  her  return  to  Ethiopia)  bore 
a  son  to  Solomon  whom  she  named  David  and 
who  became  king  of  Abyssinia. 

See  also  the  song  'Balkis  was  in  her  marble 
town*  in  'Emblems  of  Love*  (Pt.  Ill ,  'Virginity 
and  Perfection')  by  Abercrombie  (q.v.). 

Ball,  JOHN,  a  leader  of  the  Peasants*  Revolt  of 
1381.  He  was  a  priest.  He  is  the  subject  of  W. 
Morris's  romance  'The  Dream  of  John  Ball*. 

Ballad,  originally  a  song  intended  as  the 
accompaniment  to  a  dance;  hence  a  light, 
simple  song  of  any  kind,  or  a  popular  song, 
often  one  celebrating  or  attacking  persons  or 
institutions.  From  this  last  is  derived  the 
modern  sense  in  which  a  ballad  is  a  simple 
spirited  poem  in  short  stanzas  in  which  some 
popular  story  is  graphically  narrated.  [OEDJ 
In  this  sense  of  the  word  oral  tradition  is  an 
essential  element.  There  has  been  much  dis- 
cussion as  to  the  origin  and  composition  of 
the  old  English  ballads.  They  appear  to  date, 
mostly,  from  the  isth  cent.  (See  'The  Ballad 
of  Tradition',  by  G.  H.  Gerould,  1932.) 

Ballad  of  Bouillabaisse  t  a  ballad  by  W.  M. 
Thackeray  (q.v.),  published  in  'Punch*  in 
1 849.  The  author  muses  on  the  sad  memories 
recalled  by  the  old  accustomed  corner  in  the 
Paris  inn,  where  with  his  young  wife  and 
friends  he  used  to  eat  bouillabaisse. 

Ballade,  strictly,  a  poem  consisting  of  one 
or  more  terns,  or  triplets  of  seven  (or,  after- 
wards, eight-lined)  stanzas,  each  ending  with 
the  same  line  as  refrain,  and  usually  an  envoy 
addressed  to  a  prince  or  his  substitute; 
e.g.  Chaucer's  'Compleynt  of  Venus*.  More 
generally,  a  poem  divided  into  stanzas  of 
equal  length,  usually  of  seven  or  eight  lines. 


[59] 


BALLADINO 

Balladino,  ANTONIO,  in  Jonson's  'The  Case 
is  altered*  (q.v.),  the  character  under  which 
Munday  (q.v.)  is  ridiculed. 

Ballantyne,  JAMES  (1772-1833),  at  first  a 
solicitor,  then  a  printer  in  Kelso,  printed  Sir 
W.  Scott's  'Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border* 
in  1802,  and  thenceforth  continued  to  print 
Scott's  works.  He  received  a  loan  from  Scott 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  printing 
business  in  Edinburgh  in  1802,  and  took  a 
half-share  with  his  brother,  John,  in  the  book- 
selling business,  started  in  1808  by  Scott.  He 
was  ruined  by  the  bankruptcy  of  Constable 
&  Co.  in  1826.  BaUantyne 's  'Novelists' 
Library',  with  'Lives  of  the  Novelists' 
prefixed  by  Scott,  was  issued  in  1821-4. 
Scott  nicknamed  him  'Aldiborontiphosco- 
phornio'  from  the  character  in  Carey's 
*Chrononhotonthologos'  (q.v.). 

Ballantyne,  JOHN  (1774-1821),  brother  of 
James  Ballantyne  (q.v.),  became  in  1808 
manager  of  the  publishing  firm  started  by 
Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  was  nicknamed  by 
Scott  'Rigdumfunnidos'  from  the  character  in 
Carey's  'Chrononhotonthologos'  (q.v.). 

BaUiol  College,  Oxford,  was  founded  by 
John  de  Baliol  (q.v.)  in  1263,  and  his  founda- 
tion was  much  increased  by  his  widow, 
Devorguilla.  Among  famous  masters  of  this 
college  have  been  John  WyclifTe  and  Ben- 
jamin Jowett  (qq.v.),  and  among  its  many 
distinguished  members  Humphrey  (q.v.), 
duke  of  Gloucester,  Adam  Smith  (q.v.),  and 
a  large  proportion  of  the  British  statesmen 
of  the  last  hundred  years. 

Balmawhapple,  THE  LAIRD  OF,  FALCONER 
by  surname,  a  character  in  Scott's  'Waverley' 
(q.v.). 

Balmoral  Castle,  a  royal  residence  near 
Braemar  in  Aberdeenshire.  Queen  Victoria 
visited  the  neighbourhood  in  the  summers  of 
1848—50,  taking  a  lease  of  Balmoral  House; 
and  the  estate  was  purchased  by  her  in  1852. 
The  present  castle  was  commenced  in  1853. 

Balnibarbi,  in  'Gulliver's  Travels*  (q.v.), 
the  country,  subject  to  the  king  of  Laputa,  of 
which  Lagado  is  the  capital,  where  in  every 
town  there  is  an  academy  of  projectors,  en- 
gaged on  projects  for  increasing  the  welfare 
of  mankind,  none  of  which  come  to  perfection. 

Balor,  the  chief  of  the  Fomors  (q.v.)  of 
Gaelic  mythology.  One  of  his  eyes  had  the 
power  of  destroying  whatever  it  looked  on. 
The  eye  was  put  out  and  himself  slain  by 
Lugh,  the  sun-god,  at  the  great  battle  of 
Moytura. 

Balthazar  ('possessor  of  treasure'),  one  of  the 
three  Magi  (q.v.)  or  Vise  men  of  the  East*. 
He  is  represented  as  king  of  Chaldea. 

BALTHAZAR  is  the  name  assumed  by  Portia 
as  a  lawyer  in  Shakespeare's  'Merchant  of 
Venice*  (q.v.). 

Baltic,  The  Battle  of,  see  Campbell, 


BANCROFT 

Balwhidder,  THE  REV.  MICAH,  in  Gait's 
'Annals  of  the  Parish*  (q.v.),  the  minister  of 
Dalmailing. 

BALZAC,  HONORfi  DE  (1799-1850), 
French  novelist,  author  of  the  great  collec- 
tion of  romances  entitled  *La  Come*  die 
Humaine'  in  which  he  endeavoured  to  repre- 
sent, faithfully  and  minutely,  the  whole 
complex  system  of  French  society.  The 
design  is  expounded  in  his  famous  'General 
Preface*  (1842).  He  has  been  considered  by 
many  authorities  (including  Henry  James) 
the  greatest  of  all  novelists,  and  has  powerfully 
influenced  later  writers  of  fiction.  Balzac  was 
a  Parisian,  poor  and  lonely  during  most  of  his 
life,  working  in  a  garret.  He  first  attained 
success  by  'Les  Chouans*  (1829),  ^nd  more 
conspicuously  by*  La  Peau  de  Chagrin'  (1830). 
These  were  followed  by  a  number  of  master- 
pieces, 'Eugenie  Grandet',  'Le  Pere  Goriot', 
'Le  Cousin  Pons',  &c.  His  'Contes  Drola- 
tiques',  a  Rabelaisian  work,  published  in  1833, 
and  a  few  comedies,  stand  apart  from  the 
main  body  of  his  work. 
Bamboccio  (cripple),  the  nickname  of  Pieter 
van  Laar  (1613-74  ?),  Dutch  painter  of  scenes 
of  low  life,  whence  the  name  BAMBOCHADES  for 
genre  pictures  of  this  kind. 
Bampton  Lectures,  THE,  on  theological 
subjects,  are  delivered  at  Oxford  annually, 
the  cost  being  defrayed  out  of  the  proceeds  of 
the  estate  left  for  the  purpose  by  the  Rev. 
John  Bampton,  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
and  a  prebendary  of  Salisbury,  who  died  in 
1751.  Among  notable  Bampton  lecturers 
have  been  Whately,Milman,Mansel,  Liddon, 
and  Rashdall. 

Ban,  in  the  Arthurian  legends,  king  of 
Brittany  and  father  of  Launcelot  (q.v.). 

Banastaire,  HUMFREY,  in  Sackville's  'Com- 
plaint of  Buckingham'  (q.v.),  the  dependant 
of  Buckingham  who  betrayed  him. 
Banbury,  a  town  in  Oxfordshire,  formerly 
noted  for  the  number  and  zeal  of  its  Puritan 
inhabitants.  Whence  'Banbury  man'  is  used 
by  Ben  Jonson  and  others  for  a  sanctimonious 
fellow. 

BANBURY  CAKES  were  known  to  Gervase 
Markham  ('English  Huswife',  n.ii,  1615),  and 
are  still  famous. 

BANBURY  CHEESES  were  thin,  and  Bardolph 
in  Shakespeare's  'Merry  Wives'  (i.  i)  ad- 
dresses Slender  as  'You  Banbury  cheese  !* 

BANBURY  CROSS,  destroyed  by  the  Puritans, 
has  been  restored  in  recent  times.  It  is  the 
subject  of  a  well-known  nursery  rhyme. 

BANCROFT,  GEORGE  (1800-91),  Ameri- 
can historian  and  diplomat,  born  at  Worces- 
ter, Massachusetts,  and  educated  at  Harvard 
College  and  Gottingen.  The  'History  of  the 
United  States  from  the  Discovery  of  the 
American  Continent'  appeared  from  1834  to 
1874.  Two  supplementary  volumes,  'History 
of  the  Formation  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States',  appeared  in  1882. 


[60] 


BANDELLO 

BANDELLO,  MATTEO  (14801-1562),  a 
Lombard  who  fled  to  France  and  was  made 
bishop  of  Agen  by  Francois  I,  was  an  Italian 
writer  of  amusing  and  licentious  romances, 
which  were  translated  by  Belleforest  into 
French  in  1565,  and  some  of  them  into  Eng- 
lish in  the  "Tragical  Discourses'  of  Geoffrey 
Fenton  (1567),  and  became  widely  known. 
The  tales  in  Painter's  'Palace  of  Pleasure* 
(q.v.)  are  largely  drawn  from  Bandello. 

Bandusia,  a  fountain  celebrated  by  Horace, 
probably  on  his  Sabine  farm. 

Bangorian  Controversy,  a  church  con- 
troversy of  the  early  years  of  the  reign  of 
George  I.  The  Anglican  Church,  which  was 
committed  to  the  hereditary  principle  of 
monarchy,  found  itself  in  a  difficulty  when 
the  claims  of  the  Stuarts  were  set  aside  on  the 
death  of  Queen  Anne  and  a  parliamentary 
king  brought  in  from  Hanover.  Strict 
churchmen  refused  the  oaths  of  allegiance  to 
the  new  king,  and  there  was  strong  feeling 
between  the  non-jurors  and  the  rest.  Benja- 
min Hoadly,  bishop  of  Bangor  and  the  king's 
chaplain,  published  a  pamphlet  and  preached 
a  sermon  in  1717  reducing  Church  authority 
to  a  minimum  and  making  sincerity  the  chief 
test  of  true  religion.  These  gave  rise  to  the 
'Bangorian  controversy*,  in  which  a  great 
number  of  pamphlets  were  issued,  the  most 
.important  among  them  being  the  'Three 
Letters  to  the  Bishop  of  Bangor*  of  W.  Law 
(q.v.). 

BANIM,  JOHN  (1798-1842),  the  'Scott  of 
Ireland',  novelist,  dramatist,  and  poet,  is 
chiefly  remembered  for  the  pictures  of  Irish 
life  and  character,  drawn  with  greater 
fidelity  than  by  earlier  novelists,  and  with 
more  attention  to  the  sombre  side,  contained 
in  his  'Tales  by  the  O'Hara  Family'  (first 
series,  1825).  In  some  of  these  he  was 
assisted  by  his  brother,  MICHAEL  BANIM 
(1796-1874),  who  also  wrote  'Father  Con- 
nell'  (1842),  'Clough  Fion',  and  'The  Town 
of  the  Cascades'. 

Bank  of  England,  THE,  was  founded  on  the 
basis  of  a  scheme  put  forward  by  William 
Paterson  (1658-1719,  who  also  conceived  the 
unfortunate  Darien  project,  q.v.),  with  a  view 
to  raising  money  for  William  Ill's  foreign 
campaigns.  The  charter,  after  violent  op- 
position in  Parliament,  was  granted  in  1695. 
Sir  John  Hpublon  was  appointed  the  first 
governor,  with  Michael  Godfrey  (a  nephew 
of  Sir  Edmund  Berry  Godfrey),  one  of  the 
most  active  promoters,  as  deputy-governor. 
The  bank  began  its  operations  in  the  Grocers' 
Hall.  The  standard  history  appears  to  be  by 
a  Greek  professor  in  Athens,  'A  History  of 
the  Bank  of  England',  by  A.  Andr&ides  (P.  S. 
King).  'The  Bank  of  England  from  Within, 
1694-1900',  by  W.  Marston  Acres  (2  vols., 
1931),  may  also  be  consulted.  In  this^work 
the  financial  side  of  the  Bank  is  subordinated 
to  internal  affairs  and  the  human  element  in 
the  Bank's  history. 


BARABAS 

Bankers'  Marks,  see  Freemasons. 

Banks,  SIR  JOSEPH  (1743-1820),  an 
eminent  explorer  and  natural  historian,  and 
a  great  pioneer  of  science,  who  studied  the 
flora  of  Newfoundland  in  1766,  and  ac- 
companied Cook  in  his  expedition  round  the 
world  in  the  'Endeavour',  subsequently 
visiting  Iceland.  He  made  valuable  natural 
history  collections,  which  are  preserved  in 
the  British  Museum.  He  was  president  of 
the  Royal  Society,  1778-1820.  Banks  left  a 
narrative  of  Cook's  voyage. 

Banks 's  or  BANKES'S  HORSE,  see  under 
Morocco. 

B'ankside,  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames  at 
South  wark  (q.v.),  noted  in  the  i6th  and  i7th 
cents,  for  its  theatres  and  disreputable  haunts. 

Bannatyne  Club,  THE,  was  founded  in 
1823,  with  Sir  Walter  Scott  as  president,  for 
the  publication  of  old  Scottish  documents 
(see  Lockhart's  'Scott',  Iviii).  The  club  was 
dissolved  in  1861.  George  Bannatyne  (1545— 
1608),  in  whose  honour  it  was  named,  was 
the  compiler  in  1568  of  a  large  collection  of 
Scottish  poems. 

Bannockburn,  near  Stirling,  the  scene  of 
the  great  battle  in  1314,  when  Robert  Bruce 
utterly  routed  the  English  under  Edward  II, 
and  all  Scotland  was  lost  to  the  latter.  The 
battle  is  described  in  Scott's  'Lord  of  the 
Isles',  vi. 

Banquo,  in  Shakespeare's  'Macbeth*  (q.v.), 
a  general  of  the  king  of  Scotland's  army. 
Though  mentioned  by  Holinshed,  he  is  not 
regarded  as  an  historical  character. 

Banshee,  a  supernatural  being  supposed  by 
the  peasantry  of  Ireland  and  the  Scottish 
Highlands  to  wail  under  the  windows  of  a 
house  when  one  of  the  inmates  is  about  to  die. 
Certain  families  of  rank  were  reputed  to  have 
a  special  'family  spirit*  of  this  kind.  The 
word  is  a  phonetic  spelling  of  the  Irish  'bean 
sfdhe',  from  Olr.  *ben  side',  a  female  spirit  or 
elf.  [OEDJ 

Bantam,  ANGELO  CYRUS,  in  Dickens's 
'Pickwick  Papers*  (q.v.),  Grand  Master  of  the 
Ceremonies  at  Bath. 

Bantam  Battalions,  figured  in  the  early 
years  of  the  Great  War.  They  were  made 
up  of  men  too  small  in  stature  for  inclusion 
in  the  ordinary  formations.  They  were  dis- 
continued before  1917. 

Baphomet,  the  alleged  name  of  the  idol  that 
the  Templars  were  accused  of  worshipping. 
According  to  1'Abbe*  Constant,  quoted  by 
Littre",  this  word  was  cabalistically  formed 
by  writing  backwards  tern.  o.  h.  p.  ab.t  ab- 
breviation of  templi  omnium  hominum  pads 
abbas,  'abbot  of  the  temple  of  peace  of  all 


Barabas,  the  'Jew  of  Malta*,  in  Marlowe's 
play  of  that  name  (q.v.). 


[61] 


BARABBAS 

Barabbas,  the  notable  robber,  released  in- 
stead of  Jesus  (Matt,  xxvii.  16-26). 
Baralipton,  a  mnemonic  term  in  scholastic 
logic  constructed  to  represent  by  its  first 
three  vowels  a  syllogism  in  which  the  two 
premisses  are  universal  affirmatives,  and 
the  conclusion  a  particular  affirmative  (see 
Barbara). 

Barataria,  in  'Don  Quixote*  (q.v.),  the 
island  of  which  Sancho  Panza  is  made 
governor. 

Barathron  or  BARATHRUM,  a  deep  chasm 
behind  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  into  which 
criminals*  corpses  were  thrown. 

Barbara,  in  logic,  a  mnemonic  term  desig- 
nating the  first  mood  of  the  first  figure  of 
syllogisms,  the  three  A's  signifying  that  the 
major  and  minor  premisses  and  the  conclusion 
are  universal  affirmatives.  In  this  system, 
E  signified  a  universal  negative  proposition, 
I  a  particular  affirmative,  O  a  particular 
negative.  Of  the  possible  combinations  of 
these  four  letters  in  groups  of  three,  only 
nineteen  are  valid  syllogisms,  which  are 
enumerated  in  a  well-known  mnemonic  verse, 
beginning  : 

BArbArA,  cElArEnt,  dAril,  fErioque  prioris. 
(See  Aldrich,  'Artis  Logicae  Rudimenta'.) 

Barbara  Allan,  a  Scottish  ballad  included  in 
Percy's  'Reliques',  on  the  subject  of  the 
death  of  Sir  John  Grehme  for  unrequited 
love  of  Barbara  Allan,  and  her  subsequent 
remorse.  'Barbara  Allen's  Cruelty',  another 
ballad  on  the  same  theme,  is  also  in  the 
'Reliques*. 

Barbarossa,  the  nickname  (£Red-Beard*)  of 
the  emperor  Frederick  I  of  Germany  (1152- 
90).  He  made  five  expeditions  into  Italy  for 
the  purpose  of  its  subjugation,  and  entered 
Rome.  But  the  last  expedition  was  opposed 
by  the  Lombard  League  and  was  a  failure. 
Barbarossa  was  drowned  in  a  river  in  the 
course  of  the  Third  Crusade  (having  gone  by 
land  to  avoid  the  perils  of  the  sea),  but 
legend  says  that  he  still  sleeps  in  a  cavern 
in  the  KyfThauser  mountain,  with  his  com- 
panions about  him  and  his  beard  grown 
round  a  stone  table,  until  the  need  of  his 
country  shall  summon  him  forth.  This 
legend  appears  to  have  been  transferred  from 
Charlemagne  to  Barbarossa,  and  from  Bar- 
barossa to  his  grandson,  Frederick  II. 

Barbary  Corsairs,  the  cruisers  of  Barbary 
(the  Saracen  countries  along  the  N.  coast  of 
Africa),  to  whose  attacks  the  ships  and  coasts 
of  the  Christian  countries  were  incessantly 
exposed. 

Barbason,  the  name  of  a  demon  mentioned 
by  Shakespeare  in  'The  Merry  Wives',  II.  ii, 
and  'Henry  V*,  II.  i. 

BARBAULD,  MRS.  ANNA  LETITIA 
(1743-1825),  nee  AIKIN,  was  author  of 
miscellaneous  poems  and  prose  essays,  in- 
cluding nature  studies  entitled  'Hymns  in 


BARCHESTER  TOWERS 

Prose*.  She  is  chiefly  remembered  for  her 
fine  lines  beginning: 

Life !  I  know  not  what  thou  art. 

Barbican,  an  outer  fortification  to  a  city  or 
castle.  The  Barbican  in  London  (Aldersgate 
Street)  was,  according  to  Stow,  the  site  of  an 
old  watch-tower  'whence  a  man  might  behold 
the  whole  Citie  toward  the  South,  as  also  into 
Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey'.  In  the  street 
named  after  it  lived  Gondomar,  the  Spanish 
Ambassador,  and  John  Milton  (1645-7). 

BARBOUR,  JOHN  (i3i6?~95),   Scottish 

g>et,  was  archdeacon  of  Aberdeen  in  1357. 
e  probably  studied  and  taught  at  Oxford 
and  Paris.  He  was  one  of  the  auditors  of 
exchequer,  1372,  1382,  and  1384.  He  com- 
posed his  poem  'The  Bruce'  (q.v.),  celebrat- 
ing the  war  of  independence  and  deeds  of 
King  Robert  and  James  Douglas,  about  1375. 
Other  poems  which  have  with  reasonable 
certainty  been  ascribed  to  him  are  the  'Le- 
gend of  Troy'  and  'Legends  of  the  Saints', 
being  translations  from  Guido  da  Colonna's 
'Historia  Destructionis  Troiae'  and  the  *Le- 
genda  Aurea*. 

B ARBUSSE,  HENRI  (i 875-  ),  French 
novelist,  author  of  the  well-known  volume  of 
short  stories  of  the  War,  'Le  Feu'  (1916); 
also  of  'Clarte*'  (1919),  £La  Lueur  dans 
1'abime*  (1921),  &c. 

Barchester  Towers,  a  novel  by  A.  Trollope 
(q.v.),  published  in  1857. 

This  is  the  second  in  the  Barsetshire  series, 
the  sequel  to  'The  Warden'  (q.v.).  To  the 
characters  included  in  that  work  are  now 
added  Dr.  Proudie,  the  new  bishop  of  Bar- 
chester, henpecked  by  the  masterful  Mrs. 
Proudie,  and  the  bishop's  chaplain,  the 
intriguing  and  hypocritical  Mr.  Slope.  'Bar- 
Chester  Towers'  is  mainly  occupied  with  the 
struggle  between  Mr.  Slope  and  Mrs. 
Proudie  for  the  control  of  the  diocese,  and 
in  particular  for  the  disposal  of  the  warden- 
ship  of  Hiram's  Hospital  as  between  the  two 
candidates,  Mr.  Harding,  the  former  warden, 
and  Mr.  Quiverful,  the  incumbent  of  a  small 
living  and  the  father  of  fourteen  children,  a 
struggle  in  which  the  lady  comes  out  triumph- 
ant. Mr.  Slope's  manoeuvres  are  dictated 
partly  by  his  rivalry  with  Mrs,  Proudie, 
partly  by  his  desire  to  win  the  hand  of  the 
widowed  Mrs.  Bold,  Mr.  Harding's  daughter, 
while  at  the  same  time  he  is  smitten  with  a 
violent  passion  for  the  Signora  Vesey- 
Neroni,  the  daughter  of  Canon  Stanhope,  a 
lady  in  an  equivocal  matrimonial  position. 
Mr.  Harding's  candidature  for  the  warden- 
ship  is  defeated,  in  spite  of  the  strenuous 
advocacy  of  Archdeacon  Grantly  and  his 
allies ;  but  the  tables  are  turned  by  the  offer 
to  him  of  the  vacant  deanery  of  Barchester, 
which  Mr.  Slope  had  hoped  to  obtain. 
Mr.  Slope,  defeated  by  Mrs.  Proudie,  dis- 
appointed of  his  hope  of  the  deanery,  rejected 
with  contumely  by  Mrs.  Bold,  publicly 
exposed  by  the  Signora  Neroni,  is  un- 


[62] 


BARCHINO 

ceremoniously  bundled  out  of  his  chaplaincy 
and  disappears  from  view.  Mrs.  Bold  marries 
Mr.  Arabin  (q.v.). 
BarcMno,  in  imprints,  Barcelona. 

BARCLAY,  ALEXANDER  (i475?-i55a), 
poet,  scholar,  and  divine,  probably  of  Scot- 
tish birth,  was  successively  a  priest  in  the 
college  of  Ottery  St.  Mary,  Devonshire,  a 
Benedictine  monk  at  Ely,  a  Franciscan  at 
Canterbury,  and  rector  of  All  Hallows,  Lom- 
bard Street,  London.  He  translated  Brant's 
'NarrenschifF  into  English  verse  as  'The  Ship 
of  Fools'  (q.v.,  1509),  and  wrote  his  'Eclogues' 
(q.v.)  at  Ely  (1515).  He  also  translated  a  life 
of  St.  George  from  Baptist  Mantuan,  and 
Sallust's  'Bellum  Jugurthinum*  (c.  1520). 

BARCLAY,  JOHN  (1582-1621),  a  Scot 
born  at  Pont-a-Mousson  in  France,  author 
of  'Argenis'  (1621),  a  Latin  political  and 
historical  romance,  in  which  there  is  refer- 
ence, more  or  less  precise,  to  recent  events 
on  the  Continent,  notably  to  the  wars  of  the 
League,  and  the  characters  have  some  re- 
semblance to  actual  personages,  such  as 
Henri  IV  of  France.  He  also  wrote  'Euphor- 
mionis  Satyricon*,  a  satire  on  the  Jesuits  in 
the  form  of  a  picaresque  novel,  in  Latin,  in 
two  parts,  published  in  1603  ?~7. 

Bard,  The,  a  Pindaric  ode  by  Gray  (q.v.), 
published  in  1757. 

The  ode  is  based  on  a  tradition  current  in 
Wales  that  Edward  I,  when  he  completed  the 
conquest  of  that  country,  ordered  all  the 
bards  that  fell  into  his  hands  to  be  put  to 
death.  It  is  a  lamentation  by  a  Welsh  bard, 
and  a  curse  pronounced  by  him  and  the 
ghosts  of  his  slaughtered  companions  on 
Edward's  race,  whose  misfortunes  are  fore- 
told. Then  the  bard  sings  of  the  glories  that 
will  come  with  the  house  of  Tudor,  and  of  the 
poets  of  that  age. 

Bardeil,  MRS.,  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick 
Papers'  (q.v.),  Mr.  Pickwick's  landlady,  who 
sues  him  for  breach  of  promise. 

Bardolph,  in  Shakespeare's  'Henry  IV 
and  'Henry  V  (qq.v.),  one  of  Falstaff's 
disreputable  boon  companions.  He  is  *  white- 
livered  and  red-faced,  by  means  whereof  *a 
faces  it  out  and  fights  not'.  He  is  hanged  for 
looting  in  the  French  war.  In  Shakespeare's 
'Merry  Wives  of  Windsor'  (q  v.)  we  find  him 
discarded  by  FalstafT  and  employed  as  tapster 
by  the  host  of  the  Garter  Inn. 

Bareacres,  EARL  and  COUNTESS  OF,  charac- 
ters in  Thackeray's  'Vanity  Fair*  (q.v.). 
Barebones  Parliament,  the  assembly 
summoned  by  Cromwell  in  1653,  consisting 
of  133  members,  so  called  from  one  of  its 
members,  Praise-God  Barbon,  an  Anabaptist 
leather-seller  in  Fleet  Street. 

BARETTI,  GIUSEPPE  MARC'  AN- 
TONIO (1719-89),  bom  at  Turin,  came  to 
London  and  opened  a  school  for  teaching 
Italian  in  1751.  His  'Italian  and  English 


BARLAAM  AND  JOSAPHAT 

Dictionary'  was  published  in  1760.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Johnson  and  Thrale. 

BARHAM,  RICHARD  HARRIS  (1788- 
1845),  educated  at  St.  Paul's  School  and 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  took  orders  and 
held  various  preferments,  including  that  of  a 
minor  canon  of  St.  Paul's.  His  'Ingoldsby 
Legends',  written  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  and  first  published  in  'Bentley's  Mis- 
cellany' and  'The  New  Monthly  Magazine', 
were  reissued  in  1840,  and  by  their  humour, 
felicity  of  verse,  narrative  power  and  variety 
of  subject,  became  immensely  popular, 
though  charges  of  irreverence  and  the  like 
have  been  made  against  them.  He  was  par- 
ticularly successful  in  the  grotesque  or  frankly 
comic  treatment  of  medieval  legend. 

BARING-GOULD,  SABINE  (1834-1 924), 
educated  at  Clare  College,  Cambridge,  was 
rector  of  Lew  Trenchard  in  Devon,  and 
author  of  a  large  number  of  religious  and 
other  works,  and  novels.  The  latter  include 
'Mehalah'  (1880),  'John  Herring'  (1883), 
'Court  Royal'  (1886),  'Richard  Cable'  (1888), 
&c.  He  also  wrote  'Curious  Myths  of  the 
Middle  Ages'  (1866-8). 

BARKER,  HAJILEY  GRANVILLE  (i  877- 
),  dramatist,  author  of  'The  Marrying 
of  Ann  Leete'  (1901),  'The  Voysey  Inheri- 
tance' (1905),  'Waste*  (1907),  'The  Madras 
House*  (1910),  'The  Secret  Life'  (1923)* 
and  a  number  of  other  plays  and  pub- 
lications, including  two  interesting  series 
of  prefaces  to  plays  of  Shakespeare.  As  a 
theatrical  producer  Mr.  Barker  is  especially 
known  for  his  remarkable  productions  of 
Shakespeare's  'Winter's  Tale*  (1912),  'A  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream'  (1914),  and  'Twelfth 
Night*  (1912),  at  the  Savoy  Theatre. 

Barkis,  in  Dickens's  'David  Copperfield' 
(q.v.),  the  carrier,  who  sent  a  message  by 
David  to  Clara  Peggotty  that  'Barkis  is 
willin' ». 

Barlaam  and  Josaphat,  a  medieval  religious 
romance,  interesting  as  a  christianized  ver- 
sion of  the  legend  of  Buddha.  It  appears  first 
in  the  works  of  John  of  Damascus  (8th  cent.), 
then  in  the  'Lives  of  the  Saints*  of  Symepn 
Metaphrastes,  a  celebrated  Byzantine  hagip- 
grapher,  and  subsequently  was  widely  dis- 
seminated. 

Josaphat  was,  according  to  the  story,  the 
son  of  an  Indian  king,  Abenner,  who  perse- 
cuted the  Christians.  A  glorious  and  pros- 
perous reign  was  foretold  for  Josaphat,  but 
in  a  higher  kingdom  \  and  it  was  said  that 
he  would  become  a  Christian.  Abenner, 
perturbed  by  the  prophecy,  for  a  time 
secluded  his  son  from  the  world,  but  yielding 
to  his  entreaties  at  last  allowed  him  freedom. 
Barlaam,  a  holy  man,  now  visited  India, 
conversed  with  Josaphat,  and  converted  him 
to  Christianity.  His  father  having  ^  failed  to 
shake  him  in  his  faith,  associated  him  in  the 
kingdom,  was  himself  converted,  and  then 


[63] 


BARLEYCORN 

died.  Josaphat  handed  over  the  kingdom  to 
Barachias,  sought  out  Barlaarn,  and  died  a 
hermit. 

Barleycorn,  JOHN,  the  personification  of 
barley,  as  the  grain  from  which  malt  liquor 
is  made. 

BARLOW,  JOEL  (1754-1812),  American 
poet  and  diplomat,  born  at  Reading,  Con- 
necticut, who  is  remembered  as  the  author 
of  'The  Columbiad*  (q.v.),  and  as  one  of 
the  'Hartford  Wits'  (q.v.). 

Barmecide,  the  patronymic  of  a  family  of 
princes  ruling  at  Bagdad  just  before  Haroun- 
al-Raschid,  concerning  one  of  whom  the  story 
is  told  in  the  'Arabian  Nights*  (q.v.,  the  story 
of  the  Barber's  Sixth  Brother)  that  he  put 
a  succession  of  imaginary  dishes  before  a 
beggar,  pretending  that  they  contained  a 
sumptuous  repast.  The  beggar,  entering  into 
the  spirit  of  the  jest,  pretended  to  be  in- 
toxicated by  the  imaginary  wine  offered  him, 
and  fell  upon  his  entertainer.  Hence  'Barme- 
cide* is  used  of  one  who  offers  illusory  bene- 
fits. See  also  Jaffar. 

Barn  Elms,  at  Barnes,  near  London,  had  in 
the  i7th-i 8th  cents,  a  fashionable  promenade, 
favoured  by  Evelyn,  and  notorious  for  the 
duels  fought  there.  Referred  to  in  Congreve's 
'Love  for  Love*  (q.v.),  n.  ii. 

Barnaby  Bright,  or  LONG  BARNABY,  St. 
Barnabas'  Day,  n  June,  in  the  old  style 
reckoned  the  longest  day  of  the  year. 

Barnaby  Rudge,  a  novel  by  Dickens  (q.v.), 
published  in  1841,  as  part  of  'Master  Hum- 
phrey's Clock*.  This  was  the  earlier  of 
Dickens's  two  historical  novels  (for  the  other 
see  Tale  of  Two  Cities) ,  the  period  dealt  with 
being  that  of  the  Gordon  anti-popery  riots 
of  1780.  Reuben  Haredale,  a  country  gentle- 
man, has  been  murdered,  and  the  murderer 
has  never  been  discovered.  Geoffrey  Hare- 
dale,  his  brother,  a  Roman  Catholic,  and 
Sir  John  Chester  are  enemies.  Chester's  son 
Edward  is  in  love  with  Haredale's  niece, 
Emma;  and  the  elders  combine,  in  spite  of 
their  hatred,  to  thwart  the  match.  The 
Gordon  riots  supervene,  fomented  secretly 
by  the  smooth  villain  Chester.  Haredale's 
house  is  burnt,  and  Emma  carried  off. 
Edward  saves  the  lives  of  Haredale  and 
Emma,  and  wins  Haredale's  consent  to  his 
marriage  with  the  latter.  Haredale  discovers 
the  murderer  of  his  brother,  the  steward 
Rudge,  the  father  of  the  half-witted  Barnaby 
and  the  blackmailer  of  the  unhappy  Mrs. 
Rudge.  Rudge  pays  the  penalty  of  his  crime. 
Chester  is  killed  by  Haredale  in  a  duel. 

The  principal  interest  of  the  book  lies  in 
the  vivid  descriptions  of  the  riots,  which  held 
London  terrorized  for  several  days,  and  in 
the  characters  accessory  to  the  above  plot: 
the  pathetic  figure  of  Barnaby;  the  sturdy 
locksmith  Gabriel  Varden,  with  his  peevish 
wife,  and  the  incomparable  Dolly,  his 
coquettish  daughter;  Simon  Tappertit  his 


BARNAVELT 

apprentice,  small  in  body  but  aspiring  and 
anarchical  in  soul,  and  Miss  Miggs,  his  mean 
and  treacherous  servant;  John  Willet,  host  of 
the  Maypole  Inn,  and  Joe  his  gallant  son; 
Hugh  the  savage  ostler,  who  turns  out  to  be 
Chester's  son,  and  Dennis  the  Hangman; 
and  lastly  Grip,  Barnaby*s  raven. 
Barnacle,  a  character  in  Shirley's  'The 
Gamester*  (q.v.). 

Barnacles,  THE,  in  Dickens's  'Little  Dorrit' 
(q.v.),  types  of  government  officials  in  the 
'Circumlocution  Office*. 
BARNARD,  LADY  ANNE,  see  Lindsay 
(Lady  A.). 

Barnard's  Inn,  one  of  the  old  Inns  of 
Chancery  (q.v.).  It  was  bequeathed  by  John 
Mackworth  (d.  1451),  dean  of  Lincoln,  the 
owner,  to  the  Dean  and  Chapter  of  Lincoln. 
It  was  at  the  time  occupied  by  one  Barnard 
and  became  a  law  students*  Inn,  but  remained 
the  property  of  the  Dean  and  Chapter  until 
1894,  when  it  was  sold  to  the  Mercers* 
Company,  who  established  their  school  there. 
(G.  R.  Stirling  Taylor,  'Historical  Guide  to 
London'.) 

Barnardine,  in  Shakespeare's  'Measure  for 
Measure*  (q.v.),  a  prisoner  'that  apprehends 
death  no  more  dreadfully  but  as  a  drunken 
sleep ;  careless,  reckless,  and  fearless  of  what  *s 
past,  present,  or  to  come*. 

Barnardo,  THOMAS  JOHN  (1845-1905),  born 
in  Dublin  of  a  German  father  and  an  English 
quaker  mother,  entered  the  London  Hospital 
in  1866  as  a  missionary  medical  student, 
intending  to  go  to  China,  but  found  that  the 
need  for  rescue  work  was  more  urgent  at 
home.  He  founded  an  East  End  juvenile 
mission  for  destitute  children  in  1867,  and 
in  1870  opened  the  boys'  home  in  Stepney 
which  developed  into  'Dr.  Barnardo 's  Homes'. 
This  was  followed  by  the  'Girls*  Village 
Home*  at  Barkingside  in  Essex  in  1876.  He 
sent  his  first  party  of  boys  to  Canada  in  1882. 
Since  then  his  institutions  have  been  re- 
sponsible for  sending  over  fifty  thousand 
children  to  the  colonies  and  dependencies, 
where  many  have  risen  to  good  positions. 
At  his  death  he  had  been  the  means  of  assist- 
ing 250,000  children.  He  was  an  excellent 
man  of  business,  and  successfully  refuted 
charges  against  his  disinterestedness. 

Barnavelt f  Sir  John  van  Olden,  an  historical 
tragedy,  probably  by  J.  Fletcher  (q.v.),  acted 
in  1619.  This  remarkable  play  was  dis- 
covered by  Mr.  A.  H.  Bullen  among  the  MSS. 
of  the  British  Museum  and  was  printed  in 
his  'Old  English  Plays*  (1883). 

The  play  deals  with  events  in  the  contem- 
porary history  of  Holland.  Barnavelt,  the 
great  advocate,  disturbed  by  the  growing 
power  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  the  army, 
under  cloak  of  a  religious  movement  con- 
spires against  him  and  raises  companies  of 
burghers  in  the  towns  to  resist  the  army. 
The  plot  is  discovered,  the  companies  dis- 


BARNES 

armed,  and  Barnavelt's  principal  associates 
are  captured.  One  of  these,  Leidenberch, 
confesses.  Barnavelt,  who  by  virtue  of  his 
great  position  is  still  left  at  liberty  though 
suspect,  upbraids  him  and  tells  him  that 
death  is  ^the  only  honourable  course  left  to 
him.  Leidenberch,  in  remorse,  takes  his  own 
life.  The  Prince  of  Orange,  who  had  hitherto 
counselled  moderation,  now  convinced  of  the 
gravity  of  the  conspiracy,  advises  severe 
measures.  Barnavelt  is  arrested,  tried,  and 
executed. 

BARNES,  BARNABE  (is69?-i6o9),  edu- 
cated at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  was  a 
voluminous  writer  of  verse.  He  issued  (per- 
haps privately)  'Parthenophil  and  Parthe- 
nophe,  Sonnettes,  Madrigals,  Elegies,  and 
Odes*  in  1593,  and  *A  Divine  Centurie  of 
Spirituall  Sonnets'  in  1595.  He  also  wrote  an 
anti-popish  tragedy,  'The  Devil's  Charter*. 

BARNES,  WILLIAM  (1801-86),  the  son 
of  a  farmer  in  Blackmoor  Vale,  Dorset, 
entered  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1838,  took  orders,  and  became  rector  of  Came 
in  1862,  where  he  remained  till  his  death. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  poems  in  the  Dorset 
dialect,  marked  by  pleasant  sentiment  and 
a  strong  perception  of  the  charms  of  the 
country  ('Poems  of  Rural  Life',  three  series, 
1844,  1859,  and  1863). 

Barney,  in  Dickens's  'Oliver  Twist*  (q.v.),  a 
Jew,  associate  of  Fagin. 

BARNFIELD,  RICHARD  (1574-1627), 
educated  at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  pub- 
lished 'The  Affectionate  Shepherd*  (1594), 
'Cynthia,  with  certain  Sonnets*  (1595),  and 
other  poems  (1598),  including  two  pieces, 
which  appeared  in  the  'Passionate  Pilgrim* 
(q.v.,  1599),  and  were  long  attributed  to 
Shakespeare,  the  better  known  of  these  being 
the  ode,  'As  it  fell  Upon  a  day,  In  the  merry 
month  of  May*.  'The  Affectionate  Shepherd* 
is  a  pastoral,  based  on  the  second  eclogue  of 
Virgil  and  dedicated  to  Lady  Rich  (Sidney's 
'Stella').  In  1598  Barnfield  published  'The 
Encomion  of  Lady  Pecunia*,  a  satirical  poem 
on  the  power  of  money. 

Barnum,  PHINEAS  TAYLOR  (1810-91),  the 
great  American  showman,  began  his  career 
by  exhibiting  a  bogus  nurse  of  George 
Washington,  alleged  to  be  aged  161.  He  then 
started  the  American  museum,  containing 
curiosities  and  monstrosities.  He  conducted 
Tom  Thumb  to  Europe  in  1844,  and  Jenny 
Lind  to  America  in  1850.  In  1881  he  com- 
bined forces  with  the  keenest  of  his  rivals, 
launching  the  firm  of  Barnum  and  Bailey, 
which  visited  Olympia  (London)  in  1889. 
He  acquired  the  elephant  Jumbo  in  1882. 

Barnwell,  George,  see  George  BarnwelL 
Baroque,  a  word  adapted  from  the  Portu- 
guese barroco,  Spanish  barrueco,  meaning  a 
rough  or  imperfect  pearl.  It  is  applied  to  the 
heavily  and  grotesquely  ornamented  style  of 
architecture  that  succeeded  the  style  of  the 


BARRINGTON 

Renaissance.  Baroque  reached  its  culmina- 
tion in  Italy  and  France  in  the  early  part  of 
the  1 8th  cent.  Cf.  Rococo. 

BARRfcS,  MAURICE  (1862-1923),  French 
writer  and  politician  who  is  best  known  out- 
side France  for  the  extreme  Nationalism  of 
his  views,  the  almost  mystical  fervour  of  his 
patriotism,  and  the  fame  that  was  brought 
to  his  writings  by  the  War.  Among  his  own 
countrymen  his  reputation  was  of  longer 
standing,  and  was  more  purely  literary.  By 
birth  he  was  a  Lorrainer,  and  the  love  of  his 
own  particular  corner  of  France  was  really 
the  living  heart  of  his  fervent  gallicism.  At 
his  death  he  may  be  said  to  have  ranked  with 
Anatole  France  as  one  of  the  representative 
figures  of  the  literature  of  igth  and  early 
2Oth  century  France.  His  best-known  books 
are:  'Un  Homme  Libre*  (1889),  'Le  Jardin 
de  Be*re"nice*  (1891),  'Le  Roman  de  Pfinergie 
Nationale*  (1897),  'L'Appel  au  Soldat*  (1900), 
'Colette  Baudouche*  (1909),  'Les  Amities 
Francaises*  (1903),  'Le  Voyage  de  Sparte* 
(1906),  'Greco*  (1912),  'La  Colline  InspireV 
(1913).  During  the  War  he  contributed  a 
daily  article  for  four  years  to  the  '"Echo  de 
Paris*,  and  these  were  collected  and  published 
in  a  long  series  extending  over  the  years 
1915-19,  entitled  'L'Ame  Francaise  et  la 
Guerre'. 

BARRIE,  SIR  JAMES  MATTHEW  (1860- 
),  educated  at  Dumfries  Academy  and 
Edinburgh  University,  was  in  his  early  days 
a  journalist  (his  experiences  in  this  profession 
are  reflected  in  his  'When  a  Man *s  Single', 
1888).  Among  the  best  of  his  earlier  works 
are  tiie  biography  of  his  mother,  'Margaret 
Ogilvy*  (1896),  and  such  sketches  as  'A 
Window  in  Thrums'  (1889).  As  a  dramatist 
his  most  original  work  is  to  be  found  in 
'Quality  Street*  (1901),  'The  Admirable 
Crichton*  (1902),  'What  Every  Woman 
Knows*  (in  which  he  pricks  the  bubble  of 
male  self-sufficiency,  1908),  and  'The  Twelve- 
Pound  Look'  (the  exposure  of  a  pompous 
egoist,  1910) ;  while  he  gained  immense  popu- 
larity with  'Peter  Pan*  (q.v.,  1904).  His  other 
publications  include:  'Better  Dead'  (1887), 
*Auld  Licht  Idylls'  and  'An  Edinburgh 
Eleven*  (1888),  'My  Lady  Nicotine'  (1890), 
'The  Little  Minister*  (1891,  the  play  was 
produced  in  1897),  'Sentimental  Tommy* 
(1896),  'Tommy  and  Grizel'  (1900),  'The 
Little  White  Bird*  (1902),  'Peter  Pan  in 
Kensington  Gardens*  (1906),  and  'Peter  and 
Wendy*  (1911).  Also  a  number  of  dramatic 
works,  among  others,  'The  Professor's  Love 
Story',  produced  in  1894 ;  'The  Little  Minis- 
ter' (1897),  'Little  Mary'  (i9O3),*Alice  Sit-by- 
the-Fire'  (1905),  'Dear  Brutus'  (1917),  fMary 
Rose'  (1920).  See  Kailyard  School. 

Barrington,  DAINES  (1727-1800),  lawyer, 
antiquary,  and  naturalist,  is  said  to  have  in- 
duced Gilbert  White  (q.v.)  to  write  his 
'Natural  History  of  Selborne'. 

Barrington,  GEORGE  (&.  i755)>  whose  real 


3868 


[6S] 


BARROW 

name  was  WALDRON,  was  a  famous  pick- 
pocket, who  was  ultimately  transported  to 
Botany  Bay.  He  moved  in  good  society  and 
robbed  Prince  Orloff  of  a  diamond  snuff-box 
said  to  be  worth  £30,000.  He  published  a 
description  of  his  voyage  to  Botany  Bay  and 
is  chiefly  remembered  for  the  lines  attributed 
to  him  (when  a  convict) : 

True  patriots  we,  for  be  it  understood, 
We  left  our  country  for  our  country's  good. 
But  these  are  now  said  to  be  by  another  hand 
(see  R.  S.  Lambert,  'The  Prince  of  Pick- 
pockets'). 

HARROW,  ISAAC  (1630-77),  educated  at 
Charterhouse,  Felstead,  and  Peterhouse, 
Cambridge,  was  successively  professor  of 
Greek  at  Cambridge,  of  geometry  at  Gre- 
sham  College,  and  of  mathematics  at  Cam- 
bridge, resigning  the  latter  appointment  in 
1669  in  favour  of  his  pupil,  Isaac  Newton. 
He  became  master  of  Trinity  in  1672.  He 
wrote  an  'Exposition  of  the  Creed,  Decalogue, 
and  Sacraments*  (1669),  'Euclidis  Elementa' 
(1655),  'Archimedis  Opera*  (1675),  and  a 
treatise  on  'The  Pope's  Supremacy'  (published 
1680).  His  sermons  rank  among  the  best  in 
the  English  tongue;  they  are  written  with  great 
smoothness  and  lucidity,  but  are  extremely 
long.  Coleridge  ('Anima  Poetae')  refers  to 
Barrow's  'verbal  imagination',  in  which  he 
'excels  almost  every  other  writer  of  prose*. 

Barrow,  SIR  JOHN  (1764-1848),  accom- 
panied Lord  Macartney  on  his  missions 
to  China  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  He 
became  assistant  secretary  to  the  Admiralty, 
and  revived  the  projects  to  explore  the  Arctic 
for  a  NW.  passage,  which  had  been  dropped 
since  the  failure  of  Baffin  (q.v.).  His  'Auto- 
biographical Memoir'  (1847)  contains  an 
interesting  account  of  his  travels.  He  also 
published  a  'History  of  Voyages  into  the 
Arctic  Region*  (1718)  and  other  books  of  travel. 

Barry,  ELIZABETH  (1658-1713),  a  celebrated 
actress  who  owed  her  entrance  to  the  stage 
to  the  patronage  of  the  earl  of  Rochester.  She 
'created*  more  than  one  hundred  roles,  in- 
cluding Monimia  in  Otway's  'The  Orphan*, 
Belvidera  in  'Venice  Preserved',  and  Zara  in 
'The  Mourning  Bride*.  Otway  was  passion- 
ately devoted  to  her,  but  she  did  not  return 
his  affection. 

BARRY  CORNWALL,  see  Procter  (B.  W.\ 
Barry  Lyndon,  The  Luck  of,  a  Romance^  of 
the  Last  Century,  by  Fitsboodle,  a  satirical 
romance  by  Thackeray  (q.v.),  published  in 
'Eraser's  Magazine'  in  1844,  subsequently 
entitled  'The  Memoirs  of  Barry  Lyndon, 
Esq.,  by  Himself. 

,  It  takes  the  form  of  the  autobiography  of 
Redmond  Barry,  an  impudent  Irish  ad- 
venturer, who  flies  from  Ireland  under  the 
delusion  that  he  has  killed  (at  the  age  of 
fifteen)  his  adversary  in  a  duel,  serves  in  the 
English  and  Prussian  armies,  and  then  turns 
gamester  and  man  of  fashion,  a  career  in  which 


BARTHOLOMEW  FAYRE 

he  meets  with  such  prodigious  success  that 
he  becomes  well-to-do,  and  by  his  effrontery 
is  able  to  bully  the  wealthy  widow,  the  coun- 
tess of  Lyndon,  into  marrying  him;  where- 
upon he  assumes  the  name  of  Lyndon.  He 
dissipates  her  fortune  and  grossly  maltreats 
her  until  she  is  rescued  by  her  relatives.  He 
now  falls  on  evil  days  and  ends  his  life  in  the 
Fleet  prison.  In  spite  of  being  a  thorough 
blackguard,  his  courage  and  frankness  retain 
the  reader's  interest.  And  his  old  rascal  of  an 
uncle,  the  Chevalier  de-Balibari,  is  likewise 
an  entertaining  figure. 

Barsetshire  Novels,  The,  of  A.  Trollope 
(q.v.)  are  the  following:  *  The  Warden',  'Bar- 
chester  Towers',  'Doctor  Thome',  'Framley 
Parsonage',  'The  Small  House  at  Allington*, 
and  'The  Last  Chronicle  of  Barset*  (qq.v.). 
Barth6Iemy,  JEAN  JACQUES,  see  Anacharsis 
(Le  Voyage  dujeune). 

BARTHOLOMAEUS  ANGLICUS  (fl. 
1230—50),  also  known  as  BARTHOLOMEW  DE 
GLANVILLE,  though  the  addition  'de  Glan- 
ville*  is  most  uncertain;  a  Minorite  friar, 
professor  of  theology  at  Paris,  and  author  of 
T>e  proprietatibus  rerum*,  an  encyclopaedia 
of  the  Middle  Ages  first  printed  c.  1470.  ^A 
I4th-cent.  English  version  by  John  Trevisa 
was  issued  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  c.  1495. 

Bartholomew,  MASSACRE  OF  ST.,  the 
massacre  of  Huguenots  throughout  France 
ordered  by  Charles  IX  at  the  instigation  of 
his  mother  Catherine  de  Me*dicis,  and  begun 
on  the  night  of  the  festival,  24  Aug.  1572. 

Bartholomew  Fair  was  held,  at  least  from 
Henry  II's  time,  within  the  churchyard  of 
the  priory  of  St.  Bartholomew,  Smithfield, 
London,  at  Bartholomew  tide  (24  August, 
O.S.),  attended  by  the  'Clothiers  of  all  Eng- 
land and  drapers  of  London'  (Stow),  and  'a 
Court  of  pie-powders  (q.v.)  was  daily  during 
the  fair  holden  for  debts  and  contracts*.  The 
fair  was  continued  as  a  pleasure-fair  until 
1855.  For  a  description  of  the  fair  in  the 
1 7th  cent,  see  Ben  Jonson's  'Bartholomew 
Fayre':  see  also  H.  Morley,  'History  of 
Bartholomew  Fair*  (1858). 

Bartholomew  Fayre,  a  farcical  comedy  by 
Jonson  (q.v.),  produced  in  1614.  The  play, 
the  plot  of  which  is  very  slight,  presents,  with 
much  humour  and  drollery,  if  somewhat 
coarsely,  the  scenes  of  a  London  holiday  fair, 
with  its  ballad-singers,  stall-keepers,  bullies, 
bawds,  and  cut-purses.  Bartholomew  Cokes, 
the  perfect  simpleton,  visits  the  fair  and  is 
successively  robbed  of  his  purses,  his  cloak 
and  sword,  and  finally  of  his  future  wife, 
whom  he  is  to  marry  against  her  will;  while 
his  servant,  the  self-confident  and  arrogant 
Waspe,  is  robbed  of  the  licence  which  is  to 
marry  them,  and  is  put  in  the  stocks  for 
brawling.  The  puritan,  Zeal-of-the-land 
Busy,  is  ridiculed  for  his  hypocrisy,  and  like- 
wise gets  put  in  the  stocks.  Overdo,  the  Jus- 
tice of  the  Peace,  who  attends  the  fair  in 


[66] 


BARTHOLOMEW  PIG 

disguise  to  discover  its  'enormities',  is  taken 
for  a  pickpocket  and  subjected  to  the  same 
humiliation. 

Bartholomew  Pig,  a  pig  sold  at  Bartholo- 
mew Fair  (q.v.).  'Little  tidy  Bartholomew 
boar-pig*  is  a  name  applied  by  Doll  Tear- 
sheet  to  FalstafT  ('2  Henry  IV*,  n.  iv). 

Bartholomew's  Day,  ST.,  on  this  day 
(24  August)  in  1662  some  2,000  of  the  Eng- 
lish clergy  resigned  their  cures,  refusing  to 
assent  to  everything  contained  in  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,  as  required  by  the  Act 
of  Uniformity. 

Bartholomew's  Hospital,  ST.,  see  Rakere. 

Bartolist,  a  student  of  Bartolo,  an  eminent 
Italian  jurist  (1313-5?);  hence,  a  person 
skilled  in  the  law. 

Barton,  SIR  ANDREW,  the  subject  of  a  ballad 
in  two  parts,  included  in  Percy's  'Reliques*. 
He  was  a  Scottish  sea  officer  who  lived  in  the 
j  6th  cent.  He  obtained  letters  of  marque  to 
make  reprisals  against  the  Portuguese  for 
damage  suffered  at  their  hands  by  his  father, 
and  availed  himself  of  them  to  interfere  with 
English  ships.  The  earl  of  Surrey  fitted  out 
two  ships  under  his  sons  Sir  Thomas  and  Sir 
Edward  Howard,  who  after  an  obstinate 
engagement,  in  which  Barton  was  killed, 
captured  the  two  Scottish  vessels. 

Barton,  ELIZABETH  (1506-34),  the  NUN  or 
MAID  OF  KENT,  was  a  domestic  servant,  and 
at  one  time  subject  to  trances.  She  attributed 
her  utterances  during  these  trances  to  reli- 
gious inspiration.  She  was  induced  by  Bock- 
ing,  a  monk  of  Canterbury,  to  anathematize 
all  opponents  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
and  inveighed  against  Henry  VIIFs  divorce 
from  Catharine  of  Aragon,  prophesying  that 
he  would  die  in  a  month  after  his  marriage 
with  Anne  Boleyn.  She  was  executed  with 
her  accomplices  at  Tyburn.  The  story  is  told 
by  Froude  in  his  'History*. 

Bas  Bleu,  see  Blue  Stocking* 

Bashan,  a  kingdom  beyond  the  Jordan  con- 
quered (with  its  King  Og)  by  the  Israelites 
under  Moses  (Num.  xxi.  33).  The  mention 
of  'fat  bulls  of  Basan*  is  in  Ps.  xxii.  12. 

BASHKIRTSEFF,  MARIE  (1860-84),^ 
Russian  diarist,  whose  *  Journal*,  written  in 
French  and  published  posthumously  in  1  887, 
attained  a  great  vogue  by  its  morbid  intro- 
spection and  literary  quality,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages  (Engl.  translation, 
1890,  by  Mathilde  Blind). 

Basil,  Pot  of,  see  Isabella  or  the  Pot  of  Basil. 
The  word  'basil3  is  derived  from  the  Greek 


t/cov,  'royal*,  perhaps  because  the  plant 
was  'used  in  some  royal  unguent  bath  or 
medicine'  (Prior).  For  the  many  Greek  and 
Italian  traditions  concerning  this  plant  and 
its  dual  character,  erotic  and  sinister,  see 
Gubernatis,  'Mythologie  des  Plantes',  vol.  ii. 
The  belief  among  the  Creoles  of  Louisiana  in 


BASS 

its  power  of  attracting  love  is  referred  to  in 
'The  Grandissimes'  by  G.  W.  Cable  (c.  ix). 
Basilea,  in  imprints,  Basle. 
Basilikon  Doron,  see  James  L 
Basilisco,  a  braggart  knight  in  'Solyman  and 
Perseda'  (perhaps  by  Kyd,  q.v.),  referred  to 
in  Shakespeare's  'King  John',  i,  i. 

Basilisk,  a  fabulous  reptile,  also  called  a 
cockatrice,  alleged  to  be  hatched  by  a  serpent 
from  a  cock's  egg.  According  to  ancient 
authors  its  breath,  even  its  look,  was  fatal. 
According  to  Pliny,  it  was  so  called  from  a 
spot  resembling  a  crown  on  its  head. 
Medieval  authors  furnished  it  with  *a  certain 
combe  or  coronet*  [OED.].  In  the  i6th  cent, 
the  name  was  given  to  a  kind  of  large  brass 
cannon. 

Basilius ,  (i)  a  character  in  Sidney's  'Arcadia* 
(q.v.) ;  (2)  in  'Don  Quixote*,  the  rival  of  Cama- 
cho  (q.v.). 

Baskerville,  JOHN  (1706-75),  the  famous 
printer,  began  life  as  a  schoolmaster  at 
Birmingham,  where  he  taught  writing  and 
book-keeping,  and  carved  monumental  in- 
scriptions. He  began  to  occupy  himself  with 
type-founding  in  1750,  and  after  experiment- 
ing for  several  years  produced  a  type  with 
which  he  was  satisfied.  His  first  work,  a 
quarto  edition  of  Virgil,  appeared  in  1757, 
and  his  'Milton*  in  1758,  in  which  year  he  was 
appointed  printer  to  Cambridge  University 
for  ten  years.  He  first  printed  his  edition  of 
the  Prayer  Book  in  1760,  and  of  the  Bible, 
one  of  the  finest  ever  published,  in  1763.  He 
brought  out  a  Greek  New  Testament^(quarto 
and  octavo)  in  1763,  a  quarto  Horace  in  1770, 
and  in  1772-3  a  famous  series  of  quarto 
editions  of  Latin  authors.  His  printing  plant 
was  purchased  after  his  death  by  Beau- 
marchais  (q.v.). 

Baskett,  JOHN  (d.  1742),  king's  printer,  was 
printer  to  the  University  of  Oxford,  171 1-42. 
He  printed  editions  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  and  the  'Vinegar  Bible'  (q.v.)  in  two 
volumes  (1716-17),  of  which  it  was  said  that 
it  was  'a  basketful  of  errors'. 

Basoche,  the  guild  of  clerks  and  lawyers 
attached  to  the  French  courts  of  justice  under 
the  old  regime,  which  at  one  time  possessed 
certain  privileges,  appointed  a  king  (roi  de  la 
lasoche),  held  parades,  and  gave  literary 
entertainments. 

Basrig  or  BACSECG,  the  Danish  king  defeated 
and  killed  at  the  battle  of  Assendon  t^Esces- 
dun)  in  871  by  the  English  under  ^thelred. 

Bass,  a  celebrated  kind  of  ale,  which  takes 
its  name  from  the  firm  of  Bass  of  Burton-on- 
Trent. 

O  Beer!  O  Hodgson,  Guinness,  Allsopp, 
Bass!  .         9 

Names  that  should  be  on  every  infant  s 
tongue ! 

(Calverley,  'Beer'.) 


[67] 


BASSANIO 

Bassanio,  in  Shakespeare's  'Merchant  of 
Venice*  (q.v.),  the  lover  of  Portia. 

Bassett,  COUNT,  a  character  in  Vanbrugh 
and  Gibber's  'The  Provok'd  Husband1  (q.v.). 

Bassianus,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Titus  Andronicus'  (q.v.). 

Bastard,  The,  see  Savage  (#.)• 
Bastard,  PHILIP  THE,  son  of  Sir  Robert 
Faulconbridge,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'King  John1. 

Bastard,  WILLIAM  THE,  in  English  history, 
is  William  the  Conqueror,  the  natural  son 
of  Duke  Robert  of  Normandy  and  of  the 
daughter  of  a  tanner  of  Falaise. 

Bastille,  THE,  in  Paris,  was  built  as  a  fort  by 
Charles  V,  king  of  France,  in  1369,  and  was 
later  used  as  a  State  prison.  It  was  destroyed 
by  the  populace  of  Paris  on  14  July  1789. 
The  anniversary  of  its  fall,  as  marking  the  end 
of  the  old  regime,  is  the  national  holiday  of 
republican  France. 

Batavia,  the  Netherlands,  formerly  in- 
habited by  a  Celtic  tribe  called  the  BATAVI. 
Also  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 

Bates,  Miss,  a  character  in  Jane  Austen's 
'Emma*  (q.v.). 

Bates,  CHARLEY,  ui  Dickens 's  'Oliver  Twist* 
(q.v.),  one  of  the  pickpockets  in  Fagin's  gang. 

BATES,  HENRY  WALTER  (1825-92), 
naturalist,  who  visited  Para  with  Alfred 
Russel  Wallace  in  1 848  and  the  Amazons  in 
1851-9.  His  researches  revealed  over  8,000 
species  new  to  science.  He  published  his 
'The  Naturalist  on  the  Amazons'  in  1863. 

Bates,  JOHN,  in  Shakespeare's  'Henry  V 
(q.v.),  one  of  the  English  soldiers  with  whom 
the  king  converses  before  the  battle  of 
Agincourt. 

Bath,  from  aet  Bathun  ('at  the  baths'),  the 
well-known  city  in  the  west  of  England,  so 
called  from  its  hot  springs,  said  to  have  been 
discovered  by  the  legendary  prince  Bladud. 
The  Romans,  who  called  it  AQUAE  SULIS 
(from  a  deity  called  Sul),  built  there  a  con- 
siderable city  with  fine  baths  and  temples. 
Bath's  modern  reputation  dates  from  the 
1 7th  cent.,  but  it  rose  to  the  zenith  of  its 
fame  and  prosperity  under  the  rule  of  Richard 
('Beau')  Nash  (q.v.),  the  'King  of  Bath'  in 
the  1 8th  cent.  It  is  the  subject  of  very  fre- 
quent literary  allusion,  having  been  visited 
among  many  others  by  Smollett,  Fielding, 
Sheridan,  Fanny  Burney,  Goldsmith, 
Southey,  Landor,  Jane  Austen,  Words- 
worth, Cowper,  Scott,  Moore,  and  Dickens. 
Its  ruins  seem  to  be  the  subject  of  the  OE. 
poem  'Ruin'  (q.v.).  It  was  once  a  cloth- 
making  centre,  and  is  mentioned  in  this 
,  connexion  by  Chaucer  ('Canterbury  Tales', 
Prologue  447,  concerning  the  'Wife  of  Bath'). 
Bath  owes  many  of  its  Palladian  buildings 
to  John  Wood  (i  705^-54),  the  architect,  and 
Jiis  son  (d.  1782)  of  the  same  name. 


BATTLE  OF  LAKE  REGILLUS 

Bath,  COLONEL,  a  character  in  Fielding's 

'Amelia'  (q.v.). 

Bath,  KING  OF,  see  Nash  (R.). 

Bath,  ORDER  OF  THE,  an  order  of  British 

knighthood,  so  called  from  the  bath  which 

preceded  installation,  instituted  in  1399. 

Bath,  Wife  of,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 
Bath  Guide,  The  New,  see  Anstey  (C.). 
Bathos,  Greek,  'depth'.  The  current  usage 
for  'descent  from  the  sublime  to  the  ridicu- 
lous* is  due  to  Pope's  satire,  'Bathos,  the  art 
of  sinking  in  Poetry'  ('Miscellanies',  1727-8). 
The  title  was  a  travesty  of  Longinus's  essay, 
'On  the  Sublime'. 

Bathsheba  Everdene,  a  character  in 
Hardy's  'Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd' 
(q.v.) 

Bathyllus,  a  beautiful  youth  of  Samos, 
loved  by  Anacreon  (q.v.). 

Batrachomyomachia,  or  Battle  of  the  Frogs 
and  the  Mice,  a  mock-heroic  Greek  poem,  at 
one  time  erroneously  attributed  to  Homer. 
It  describes  in  Homeric  style  a  battle  between 
the  tribes  of  the  mice  and  the  frogs,  the  cause 
of  hostilities  being  the  destruction  of  a  mouse 
while  visiting  a  frog.  Zeus  and  Athena 
deliberate  as  to  the  sides  that  they  shall 
take.  The  frogs  are  at  first  defeated,  but 
reinforcements,  in  the  shape  of  a  party  of 
crabs,  come  to  their  assistance. 

Thomas  Parnell  (q.v.)  wrote  a  satirical 
'Homer's  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  the  Mice' 
(1717),  directed  against  Theobald  and 
Dennis. 

Battle,  SARAH,  the  subject  of  one  of  Lamb's 
*Essays  of  EUa'  (q.v.),  'Mrs.  Battle's  Opinions 
on  Whist',  a  character  drawn  from  Mrs. 
Burney,  the  wife  of  Admiral  Burney,  and 
sister-in-law  of  Fanny  Burney  (q.v.). 

Battle  of  Alcazar,  The,  a  play  in  verse  by 
Peele  (q.v.),  published  in  1594.  It  deals  with 
the  war  between  Sebastian,  king  of  Portugal, 
and  Abdelmelec,  king  of  Morocco,  who  had 
recovered  his  kingdom  from  a  usurper, 
Muly  Mahamet.  The  latter  invokes  the 
assistance  of  Sebastian,  offering  to  give  up  the 
kingdom  of  Morocco  to  him  and  to  become 
his  tributary.  Sebastian  sails  with  his  fleet 
to  Morocco,  and  at  the  battle  of  Alcazar  is 
killed,  as  are  also  Abdelmelec  and  Muly 
Mahamet,  the  latter  being  drowned  while 
fleeing  from  the  field.  Sebastian  is  assisted 
in  his  expedition  by  the  adventurer  Stukeley 
(q.v.)  who  is  likewise  killed  at  the  battle 
(which  was  fought  in  1578). 

Battle  of  Dorking,  The,  an  imaginary  ac- 
count of  a  successful  invasion  of  England, 
designed  to  draw  attention  to  the  lack  of 
adequate  military  preparation,  published  in 
'Blackwood's  Magazine*,  May  1871,  by 
General  Sir  G.  T.  Chesney. 

Battle  of  Lake  Regillus,  The,  the  title  of  one 
of  Macaulay's  'Lays  of  Ancient  Rome'  (q.v.). 


[68] 


BATTLE  OF  MALDON 

Lake  Regillus  lay  east  of  Rome  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Tusculum  and  on  its  banks  was  won 
the  great  victory  of  the  Romans  over  the 
Latins  under  Tarquin  in  498  B.C. 

Battle  ofMaldon,  see  Maldon. 

Battle  of  Otterbourne,  see  Otterbourne. 

Battle  of  the  Books,  The,  a  prose  satire  by 
Swift  (q.v.),  written  in  1697,  when  Swift  was 
residing  with  Sir  W.  Temple,  and  published 
in  1704. 

Temple  had  written  an  essay  on  the  com- 
parative merits  of  'Ancient  and  Modern 
Learning*  (the  subject  at  that  time  of  an 
animated  controversy  in  Paris),  in  which  by 
his  uncritical  praise  of  the  spurious  Epistles 
of  Phalaris  he  had  drawn  on  himself  the 
censure  of  William  Wotton  and  Bentley. 
Swift,  in  his  'Battle  of  the  Books',  treats  the 
whole  question  with  satirical  humour.  The 
'Battle*  originates  from  a  request  by  the 
moderns  that  the  ancients  shall  evacuate 
the  higher  of  the  two  peaks  of  Parnassus 
which  they  have  hitherto  occupied.  The 
books  that  are  advocates  of  the  moderns  take 
up  the  matter;  but  before  the  actual  en- 
.  counter,  a  dispute  arises  between  a  spider 
living  in  the  corner  of  the  library  and  a  bee 
that  has  got  entangled  in  the  spider's  web. 
Aesop  sums  up  the  dispute:  the  spider  is  like 
the  moderns  who  spin  their  scholastic  lore 
out  of  their  own  entrails ;  the  bee  is  like  the 
ancients  who  go  to  nature  for  their  honey. 
Aesop's  commentary  rouses  the  books  to 
fury,  and  they  join  battle.  The  ancients, 
under  the  patronage  of  Pallas,  are  led  by 
Homer,  Pindar,  Euclid,  Aristotle,  and  Plato, 
with  Sir  W.  Temple  commanding  the  allies ; 
the  moderns  by  Milton,  Dryden,  Descartes, 
Hobbes,  Scotus,  and  others,  with  the  support 
of  Momus  and  the  malignant  deity,  Criticism. 
The  fight  is  conducted  with  great  spirit. 
Aristotle  aims  an  arrow  at  Bacon  but  hits 
Descartes.  Homer  overthrows  Gondibert. 
Virgil  encounters  his  translator  Dryden,  ,in  a 
helmet  nine  times  too  big.  Boyle  transfixes 
Bentley  and  Wotton.  On  the  whole  the 
ancients  have  the  advantage,  but  a  parley 
ensues  and  the  tale  leaves  the  issue  un- 
decided. 

Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  the  Mice,  see 
Batrachomyomachia. 

Battle  of  the  Spurs,  a  name  given  (i)  to 
the  battle  of  Courtrai  (1302)  in  which  the 
Flemings  defeated  Robert,  count  of  Artois, 
on  account  of  the  number  of  gilt  spurs  the 
victors  collected;  (2)  to  the  battle  of  Guine- 

fitte  (1513)  in  which  Henry  VIII  with  the 
mperor  Maximilian  defeated  the  French,  on 
account  of  the  hurried  flight  of  the  latter. 

Battle  Abbey  Roll,  THE,  was  probably 
compiled  about  the  i4th  cent,  purporting  to 
show  the  names  of  families  that  came  over 
to  England  with  William  the  Conqueror.  The 
roll  itself  is  not  extant.  We  have  only 
i6th-cent.  versions  by  Leland,  Holinshed, 


BAYARD 

and  Duchesne,  all  said  to  be  imperfect  and 
to  contain  names  which  have  obviously  no 
right  there.  [E.B.] 

Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic,  a  patriotic 
hymn  of  the  Federal  party  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  written  by  Julia  Ward 
Howe  (1819-1910).  She  visited  the  army  of 
the  Potomac  in  1861,  and  was  invited  to  pro- 
vide dignified  words  for  the  popular  marching 
tune,  'John  Brown's  body  lies  a-mouldering  in 
the  grave*  (q.v.).  The  fine  stanzas  beginning 
'Mine  eyes  have  seen  the  glory  of  the  coming 
of  the  Lord'  were  the  result  of  her  effort. 
The  poem  was  first  published  in  the  'Atlantic 
Monthly*  in  1862. 

Battledore-book,  see  Horn-book. 

Battus,  a  shepherd  of  Arcadia,  who  saw 
Hermes  steal  the  flocks  of  Admetus.  He  was 
bribed  by  the  god  not  to  tell,  but  broke  his 
promise,  and  was  turned  into  a  stone. 

Baucis,  see  Philemon. 

BAUDELAIRE,  CHARLES  (1821-67), 
French  poet,  whose  chief  work  is  contained 
in  his  'Fleurs  du  MaF  (1857),  poems  in  which 
the  melancholy  romantic  spirit  is  carried  to 
a  morbid  excess ;  but  remarkable  for  their 
originality  and  peculiar  charm.  The  first 
edition  was  suppressed ;  a  second  eolition  with 
omissions  and  additions  appeared  in  1861. 

Baviad,  The,  see  Gifford. 
Bavieca,  the  horse  of  the  Cid  (q.v.). 
BAXTER,  RICHARD  (1615-91),  a  presby- 
terian  divine,  who  sided  with  parliament  and 
was  a  military  chaplain  during  the  Civil  War. 
'A  pious,  useful,  irrepressible  heresiarch* 
(Saintsbury),  he  was  the  author  of  the  'Saint's 
Everlasting  Rest'  (1650,  the  book  that  Mrs. 
Glegg,  in  'The  Mill  on  the  Floss',  used  to 
favour  in  a  domestic  crisis),  and  the  'Call  to 
the  Unconverted*  (1657).  He  contributed 
powerfully  to  the  Restoration  and  had  a 
bishopric  offered  to  him;  but  soon  after 
refusing  it  he  suffered  much  ill-treatment 
under  Charles  II  and  James  II,  being  im- 
prisoned in  1685-6,  and  fined  by  Judge 
Jeffreys  on  the  charge  of  libelling  the  Church 
in  his  'Paraphrase  of  the  New  Testament* 
(1685).  His  numerous  writings  include 
a  lengthy  autobiography,  'Reliquiae  Baxter- 
ianae',  published  in  1696. 

Bay  State,  Massachusetts,  see  United 
States. 

Bayard  or  BAYARDO,  the  magic  horse  given 
by  Charlemagne  to  Renaud,  son  of  Aymon,  or 
Rinaldo  (q.v.),  which  figures  in  'The  Four 
Sons  of  Aymon',  the  'Orlando  Innamorato*, 
and  the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (qq.v.).  Bayard 
was  formerly  used  as  a  mock-heroic  allusive 
name  for  any  horse,  and  also  as  a  type  of 
blind  recklessness.  [OED  J 

Bayard,  PIERBE  DU  TERRAIL,  SEIGNEUR  DE 
(1476-1524),  the  'chevalier  sans  peur  et  sans 
reproche',  born  in  the  Dauphine",  a  famous  cap- 
tain in  the  Italian  campaigns  of  Charles  VIII, 


[69] 


BATES 

Louis  XII,  and  Fran?ois  I,  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Romagnano.  He  won  his  first 
laurels  fighting  against  the  'Great  Captain*, 
Gonsalyo  de  Cordova  (q.v.),  at  the  Gari- 
gliano  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

Bayes,  the  name  under  which  Dryden  is 
ridiculed  in  Buckingham's  'The  Rehearsal' 
(q.v.).  The  name  is  taken  from  the  bay  laurel, 
sprigs  of  which  were  woven  into  a  wreath  to 
crown  a  conqueror  or  poet. 

Bayeux  Tapestry,  THE,  a  strip  of  linen 
19  inches  wide  and  over  200  feet  long,  on 
which  are  represented  the  events  in  the  life 
of  Harold  from  his  visit  to  William,  duke  of 
Normandy,  until  his  death.  It  was  tradition- 
ally said  to  be  the  work  of  Matilda,  wife  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  It  is  preserved  at 
Bayeux  near  Caen,  and  a  reproduction  is  in 
the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  South 
Kensington.  Although  known  as  a  tapestry, 
'it  is  exclusively  of  needlework,  executed  in 
wools  of  different  colours'  (A.  F.  Kendrick, 
'English  Embroidery'),  and  is  thought  by  Mr. 
F.  R.  Fowke  ('The  Bayeux  Tapestry')  to  have 
been  ordered  by  Bishop  Odo  of  Bayeux  for 
the  decoration  of  his  cathedral  and  worked  by 
Normans  in  the  vicinity  of  that  city. 

Bayham,  FRED,  'huge,  handsome,  and  jolly*, 
a  character  in  Thackeray's  'The  Newcomes' 
(q.v.). 

BAYLE,  PIERRE  (1647-1706),  French 
philosopher,  author  of  the  'Dictionnaire  his- 
torique  et  critique'  (1697-1702),  a  pioneer 
work  in  scientific  biography  and  in  criticism 
of  religion  and  legend.  There  were  English 
editions  in  1710,  1734-8,  1734-41,  and  1826* 

BAYLY,  THOMAS  HAYNES  (1797- 
1839),  educated  at  Winchester  and  St.  Mary 
Hall,  Oxford,  produced  songs,  ballads,  and 
dramatic  pieces,  including  'I'd  be  a  butterfly', 
'She  wore  a  wreath  of  roses',  and  'Perfection' 
(a  successful  farce).  Becoming  involved  in 
financial  difficulties,  he  in  a  short  time  pro- 
duced thirty-six  pieces  for  the  stage.  His 
verse  has  been  the  object  of  a  good  deal  of 
ridicule. 

Baynard  Castle,  Blackfriars,  London,  per- 
haps a  royal  residence  in  pre-Conquest  times 
(see  W.  R.  Lethaby,  'London  before  the 
Conquest'),  took  its  name  from  Baynard,  a 
follower  of  William  the  Conqueror,  to  whom 
the  estate  was  granted.  From  him  it  passed 
to  the  Fitzwalters,  by  whom  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Black  Friars.  A  later  Baynard's 
Castle,  farther  east  (Upper  Thames  Street), 
was  an  important  residence  of  the  dukes  of 
York  in  the  i$th  cent.  It  was  destroyed  in 
the  Great  Fire. 

Baynes,  GENERAL,  MRS.,  and  CHARLOTTE, 
characters  in  Thackeray's  'The  Adventures 
of  Philip' (q.v.). 

Bayona,  see  Namancos. 

Bazzard,  MR.,  in  Dickens 's  'Edwin  Drood' 
(q.v.),  Mr.  Grewgious's  clerk. 


BEAU  TIBBS 

Beaconsfield,  EARL  OF,  see  Disraeli. 
Beagle,  H.M.S.,  see  Darwin  (C.  R.). 
Bean  Lean,  DONALD,  in  Scott's  'Waverley* 
(q.v.),  a  Highland  marauder. 

Bear,  THE,  AT  THE  BRIDGE  FOOT,  a  tavern 
that  stood  just  outside  the  Great  Gate  at  the 
Southwark  end  of  old  London  Bridge  (q.v.). 
It  is  frequently  mentioned  by  Pepys,  e.g. 
2,6  Oct.  1664;  24  Feb.  1666-7. 

Bear,  THE  GREAT,  for  its  mythological 
origin  see  Callisto. 

Bear  and  Ragged  Staff,  THE,  a  crest  of  the 

earls  of  Warwick,  borne  before  the  Conquest 

'  by  the  Saxon  earls  of  Warwick,  and  derived 

from  the  chivalrous  Guy  of  Warwick  (q.v.). 

Beardsley,  AUBREY  VINCENT  (1872-98), 
an  artist  in  black  and  white,  worked  for  a 
short  time  in  an  architect's  office  after 
leaving  school  and  then  became  a  clerk  in  the 
Guardian  Insurance  Company.  At  about 
the  age  o£  eighteen  he  became  known  in  a 
narrow  circle  for  the  designs  that  were  to 
make  him  famous.  His  earliest  important 
commission  was  from  Messrs.  Dent  &  Sons, 
to  illustrate  the  'Morte  d'Arthur'.  He  became 
art  editor  of  the  'Yellow  Book'  in  1894;  and 
his  connexion  with  that  periodical  lasted  a 
little  more  than  a  year.  Shortly  after  this  had 
ceased,  Beardsley  joined  in  the  production  of 
'The  Savoy',  of  which  eight  numbers  ap- 
peared, and  to  which  he  contributed  three 
poems  and  a  prose  fragment,  'Under  the  Hill*. 
His  later  work  included  designs  for  Oscar 
Wilde's  'Salome',  'The  Rape  of  the  Lock*, 
'Mademoiselle  de  Maupin',  Ernest  Dowson's 
'Pierrot  of  the  Minute',  and  a  set  of  initials 
for  an  edition  of  'Volpone'.  Beardsley  died 
of  consumption  in  his  26th  year,  after 
achieving  an  unusual  amount  of  work  in  so 
brief  a  life. 

Beatrice,  DANTE'S,  see  Dante. 

Beatrice,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Much 
Ado  about  Nothing'  (q.v.). 

BEATTIE,  JAMES  (1735-1803),  professor 
of  moral  philosophy  at  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen,  and  poet,  is  remembered  as  the 
author  of  'The  Minstrel',  a  poem  in  Spen- 
serian stanzas,  tracing  the  development  of  a 
poet  in  a  primitive  age.  The  work  remained 
unfinished.  Book  I  appeared  in  1771, 
Book  II  in  1774. 

Beau  Beamish,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'The  Tale  of  Chloe'  (q.v.). 

Beau  Brummel,  see  Brummel. 
Beau  Nash,  see  Nash  (R.). 

Beau  Tibbs,  a  character  in  Goldsmith's 
'The  Citizen  of  the  World'  (q.v.) ;  an  absurd 
creature,  poor  and  unknown,  but  boasting  of 
familiarity  with  the  nobility  and  affecting  the 
airs  of  a  man  of  fashion.  His  wife  is  at  once 
a  slattern  and  a  coquette,  who  washes  her 
husband's  shirts  while  her  talk  is  of  countesses. 


[70] 


BEAUCHAMP'S  CAREER 

Beauchamp's  Career,  a  novel  by  G.  Mere- 
dith  (q.v.)»  published  serially  in  1875,  in 
volume  form  in  1876. 

Nevil  Beauchamp's  career  begins  in  the 
navy,  where  he  shows  himself  a  gallant  officer 
and  a  chivalrous  if  somewhat  Quixotic  gentle- 
man. In  spite  of  subversive  views  on  political 
and  social  questions,  he  earns  the  approval  of 
his  rich  aristocratic  uncle,  the  Hon.  Everard 
Romfrey,  a  medieval  baron  in  ideas  and  a 
hater  of  radicals  and  the  like.  After  the  Crim- 
ean War,  Nevil  plunges  into  politics,  stands 
unsuccessfully  as  a  radical  candidate  for 
parliament,  and  comes  under  the  influence 
of  Dr.  Shrapnel,  an  enthusiastic  servant  in 
the  cause  of  humanity,  but  a  republican,  a 
free-thinker,  and  everything  that  is  detest- 
able in  the  eyes  of  Mr.  Romfrey  and  his 
friends.  Induced  by  misrepresentations, 
Romfrey  goes  so  far  as  to  horsewhip  Shrapnel, 
thereby  incurring  the  fierce  indignation  of 
his  nephew,  who  makes  it  a  point  of  honour 
to  force  his  proud  uncle  to  apologize  to  the 
radical.  This  apparently  hopeless  enterprise 
becomes  an  obsession  with  Nevil,  whose  love 
affairs  are  likewise  a  source  of  distress  to  him. 
He  is  torn  between  his  early  passion  for 
Rene*e  de  Croisnel,  now  the  unhappy  wife  of 
an  elderly  Frenchman,  and  his  love  for  her 
utter  contrast,  the  ideal  English  girl,  Cecilia 
Halkett.  He  resists  the  temptation  which  the 
flight  of  Rene"e  from  her  husband  places  in 
his  way;  but  he  loses  Cecilia,  whom  her 
father  and  her  friends  conspire  to  marry  to 
Nevil's  more  humdrum  cousin.  Harassed 
and  unhappy,  Nevil  falls  desperately  ill  and 
lies  at  death's  door.  His  danger  effects  the 
miracle,  and  Romfrey  comes  to  Shrapnel's 
cottage,  where  the  sick  man  lies,  and  tenders 
his  apology.  Nevil  recovers  and  marries 
Shrapnel's  ward,  Jenny  Denham,  a  kindred 
soul.  But  after  a  few  months*  happiness, 
Beauchamp's  career  is  prematurely  closed. 
He  is  drowned  while  trying  to  rescue  a  child 
from  the  sea. 

Beaumains,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur', 
the  nickfiame  given  to  Sir  Gareth  by  Sir  Kay, 
the  steward. 

Beaumanoir,    in    Disraeli's    *Coningsby* 
(q.v.),  represents  Belvoir  Castle. 
Beaumanoir,  Sm  LUCAS,  in  Scott's  'Ivan- 
hoe'  (q.v.),  Grand  Master  of  the  Knights 
Templars. 

BEAUMARCHAIS,  PIERRE  AUGUSTS 
CARON  DE  (1732-99),  son  of  a  Paris  watch- 
maker of  the  name  of  Caron.  He  obtained 
admission  to  the  court  of  Louis  XV  as 
watchmaker,  became  popular  there,  had  many 
adventures,  and  took  the  name  of  Beau- 
marchais  from  a  small  property  belonging  to 
his  wife.  He  was  author  of  the  famous 
comedies  *Le  Barbier  de  Seville'  (i775)  anc* 
'Le  Manage  de  Figaro*  (1784),  the  latter  a 
keen  satire  on  French  society. 
BEAUMONT,  FRANCIS  (1584-1616), 
was  born  at  Grace-Dieu  in  Leicestershire  of 


BEAUX'  STRATAGEM 

an  ancient  family.  He  was  educated  at 
Broadgates  Hall,  Oxford,  and  was  entered  at 
the  Middle  Temple  in  1600.  He  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Jonson,  for  several  of  whose 
plays  he  wrote  commendatory  verses,  and  of 
Drayton.  He  collaborated  with  John  Fletcher 
in  dramatic  works  from  about  1606  to  1616 
(for  a  list  of  the  plays  so  produced  see  under 
Fletcher,  .?.)•  _  'The  Woman-Hater'  (1607),  a 
comedy  showing  the  influence  of  Jonson  and 
based  on  the  'humour*  of  the  principal 
character,  is  probably  the  work  of  his  sole  pen. 
Dryden  states  that  Beaumont  was  'so  accurate 
a  judge  of  plays  that  Ben  Jonson,  while  he 
lived,  submitted  all  his  writings  to  his  censure, 
and  'tis  thought  used  his  judgement  in 
correcting,  if  not  contriving,  all  his  plots*. 
And  this  superior  faculty  for  the  construction 
of  plots  is  discernible  in  some  of  the  plays 
that  he  wrote  in  collaboration  with  Fletcher. 
Beaumont  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
near  Chaucer  and  Spenser. 

Beauty  and  the  Beast,  a  fairy  tale  of  which 
the  best-known  version  appears  in  the  French 
'Contes*  of  Mme  de  Villeneuve  (1744).  A 
somewhat  similar  story  is  included  in  the 
Tiacevole  Notti*  of  Straparola  (1550). 

Beauty  ('la  Belle')  is  the  youngest  and 
favourite  daughter  of  a  merchant,  who  suffers 
reverses.  He  sets  out  on  a  journey  in  the 
hope  of  restoring  his  shaken  fortunes.  Un- 
like her  sisters,  Beauty  asks  him  to  bring  her 
back  only  a  rose.  The  journey  proves  a 
failure,  but  on  his  return,  in  the  beautiful 
garden  of  an  apparently  uninhabited  palace, 
he  plucks  a  rose  for  Beauty.  The  Beast,  an 
ugly  monster,  to  whom  the  palace  belongs, 
threatens  him  with  death  as  the  penalty  for 
his  theft  unless  he  gives  him  his  youngest 
daughter.  Beauty  sacrifices  herself  and  goes 
to  the  Beast's  palace  and  lives  there.  She  is 
gradually  rilled  with  pity  and  affection  for  the 
Beast  and  finally  consents  to  marry  him, 
whereupon  he  turns  into  a  beautiful  prince, 
having  been  released  from  a  magic  spell  by 
her  virtue  and  courage. 

Beaux'  Stratagem,  The,  a  comedy  by 
Farquhar  (q.v.),  produced  in  1707. 

Aimwell  and  Archer,  two  friends  who  have 
run  through  their  estate,  arrive  at  the  inn  at 
Litchfield,  in  search  of  the  adventure  that 
will  rehabilitate  their  fortunes.  Archer  for 
the  nonce  passes  as  AimwelTs  servant.  There 
is  much  speculation  as  to  who  they  are,  and 
Boniface  the  landlord  concludes  that  they 
are  highwaymen.  This  curiosity  is  shared  by 
Dorinda,  daughter  of  the  wealthy  Lady 
Bountiful,  who  has  fallen  in  love  with  Aim- 
well  at  first  sight — in  church,  and  Mrs. 
Sullen,  wife  of  Lady  Bountiful's  son,  a 
drunken  sot.  Aimwell,  thinking  Dorinda  a 
suitable  prey,  gets  admission  to  Lady 
Bountiful's  house  on  a  pretext,  with  Archer, 
between  whom  and  Mrs.  Sullen  a  mutual 
attraction  has  sprung  up.  An  attack  by 
rogues  on  the  house  is  the  occasion  of  the 
rescue  of  the  ladies  by  Aimwell  and  Archer, 


BEAVER  STATE 

and  they  both  press  the  advantage  thus 
gained.  But  Aimwell,  who  has  passed  him- 
self off  as  his  elder  brother,  Lord  Aimwell, 
smitten  with  remorse  in  presence  of  the 
trustfulness  of  Dorinda,  confesses  the 
fraud.  At  this  moment  Mrs.  Sullen's  brother 
opportunely  arrives,  to  rescue  his  sister  from 
the  brutality  of  Sullen.  He  brings  news  of  the 
death  of  Aimweirs  elder  brother  and  of  the 
accession  of  Aimwell  to  title  and  fortune. 
Sullen  at  the  same  time  willingly  agrees  to 
the  dissolution  of  his  marriage,  so  that 
Mrs.  Sullen  is  free  to  marry  Archer,  and  all 
ends  happily. 
Beaver  State,  Oregon,  see  United  States. 

Beazeley,    OLD  TOM   and  YOUNG  TOM, 
characters    in    Marryat's    'Jacob    Faithful' 


Beck,  MADAME,  a  character  in  Charlotte 
Bronte's  'Villette'  (q.v.). 
Becket)  a  tragedy  by  A.  Tennyson  (q.v.), 
published  in  1884. 

The  subject  of  the  play  is  the  bitter 
quarrel  that  arose  between  Henry  II  and 
Thomas  k  Becket  when  the  king  had  ap- 
pointed the  latter,  already  his  chancellor, 
to  be  archbishop  of  Canterbury  against  his 
wish,  culminating  in  the  words  of  the  king 
which  authorized  the  four  knights  to  seek 
out  Becket  at  Canterbury  and  kill  him  in  the 
Cathedral.  With  this  is  woven  the  story  of 
the  love  of  Henry  for  Fair  Rosamund,  whom 
he  entrusts  to  Becket's  protection;  of  Queen 
Eleanor's  finding  her  way  to  Rosamund's 
bower  with  intent  to  lull  her;  and  of  Rosa- 
mund's rescue  by  Becket  and  relegation  to 
Godstow  nunnery. 

Becket,  THOMAS  A,  see  Thomas  a  Becket. 

BECKFORD,  PETER  (1740-1811),  master 
of  foxhounds  and  scholar,  was  author  of  the 
famous  'Thoughts  upon  Hare  and  Fox 
Hunting*  and  'Essays  on  Hunting*  (1781), 
which  marked  an  era  in  the  history  of  hunt- 
ing. Beckford  also  wrote  'Familiar  Letters 
from  Italy*  (1805). 

BECKFORD,  WILLIAM  (1759-1844),  son 
of  William  Beckford  (1709-70)  the  alderman 
and  lord  mayor  in  the  days  of  Wilkes,  was 
a  man  of  great  wealth,  M.P.  successively  for 
Wells  and  Hindon,  who  spent  large  sums  in 
collecting  works  of  art  and  curios,  and  in  the 
building  and  decoration  of  his  mansion  of 
Fonthill,  where  he  lived  in  almost  complete 
seclusion.  He  is  remembered  chiefly  as  the 
author  of  the  fantastic  oriental  tale  'Vathek* 
(q.v.).  But  many  readers  will  derive  more 
pleasure  from  his  two  books  of  travel, 
'Dreams,  Waking  Thoughts,  and  Incidents* 
(1783,  revised  1834),  and  'Recollections  of  an 
Excursion  to  the  Monasteries  of  Alcobafa  and 
Batalha'  (1835). 

Bed  of  Ware,  THE  GREAT,  an  oak  bed 
10  ft.  9  in.  in  length  and  breadth,  with  a 
richly  carved  headboard,  columns,  and 
canopy,  of  the  i6th  cent.,  whose  first  home 


BEDIVERE 

may  have  been  Ware  Park.  It  was  transferred 
to  the  Saracen's  Head  Inn  at  Ware,  apparently 
before  the  end  of  the  i6th  cent.  It  is  referred 
to  by  Shakespeare  ('Twelfth  Night*,  in.  ii); 
Jonson  ('Epiccene',  v.  i);  and  Farquhar  ('The 
Recruiting  Officer',  I.  i).  It  was  exhibited  in 
London  in  1931. 

BEDDOES,  THOMAS  LOVELL  (1803- 
49),  educated  at  Charterhouse  and  Pembroke 
College,  Oxford,  went  abroad  to  study  medi- 
cine and  settled  at  Zurich  in  1835,  living 
thereafter  mostly  abroad.  He  published  in 
1821  'The  Improvisatore*  and  in  1823  'The 
Bride's  Tragedy*.  His  most  important  work, 
'Death's  Jest-Book*  (q.v.),  a  play  in  the 
Elizabethan  spirit,  was  begun  in  1825  and 
repeatedly  altered  at  various  times,  not  being 
published  until  1850,  after  his  death  by  sui- 
cide. Beddoes  showed  in  his  work,  besides 
a  taste  for  the  macabre  and  supernatural,  a 
capacity  for  occasionally  fine  blank  verse,  and 
more  especially  a  poignant  lyrical  gift,  dis- 
played in  his  dirge  for  Wolfram  in  'Death's 
Jest-Book*,  in  his  beautiful  'Dream  Pedlary* 
('If  there  were  dreams  to  sell,  What  would  you 
buy?'),  and  in  many  other  short  pieces.  His 
poetical  works  were  edited  by  Gosse  in  1890 
and  1928. 

BEDE  or  B^EDA  (673-735),  historian  and 
scholar,  was  when  young 'placed  under  the 
charge  of  Benedict  Biscop,  abbot  of  Wear- 
mouth.  Thence  he  went  to  the  monastery  of 
Jarrow,  where  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his 
life.  He  appears  from  his  writings  to  have 
been  wise,  learned,  and  humble.  He  was  a 
diligent  teacher,  and  a  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew  scholar,  and  found  many  pupils 
among  the  monks  of  Wearmouth  and  Jarrow. 
He  was  buried  at  Jarrow,  but  his  bones  were 
taken  to  Durham  during  the  first  half  of  the 
nth  cent.  The  epithet  'Venerable*  was  first 
added  to  his  name  in  the  century  following 
his  death.  His  'Historia  Ecclesiastica  Gentis 
Anglorum*  (q.v.)  was  brought  to  an  end 
in  731,  and  by  that  year  he  had  written 
nearly  forty  works,  chiefly  biblical  com- 
mentaries. The  treatise  'De  Natura  Rerurn*, 
one  of  his  earliest  works,  contains  such 
physical  science  as  was  then  known,  and  has 
the  merit  of  referring  phenomena  to  natural 
causes. 

BEDE,  CUTHBERT,  pseudonym  of  E. 
BRADLEY  (q.v.). 

Bedford  Coffee-house,  THE,  stood  at  the 
north-east  corner  of  Co  vent  Garden.  It  was 
frequented  by  actors  and  others,  including 
Garrick,  Foote,  Sheridan,  Hogarth,  and 
Fielding. 

Bedivere,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur', 
one  of  Arthur's  knights.  He  and  his  brother 
Sir  Lucan,  with  Arthur,  alone  survived  the 
last  battle,  and  it  was  he  who  at  Arthur's 
bidding  threw  Excalibur  into  the  water,  and 
bore  the  king  to  the  barge  that  carried  him 
away  to  Avalon. 


[72] 


BEDLAM 

Bedlam,  a  corruption  of  Bethlehem,  applied 
to  the  Hospital  of  St.  Mary  of  Bethlehem,  in 
Bishopsgate,  London,  founded  as  a  priory 
in  1247,  with  the  special  duty  of  receiving 
and  entertaining  the  clergy  of  St.  Mary  of 
Bethlehem,  the  mother  church,  as  often 
as  they  might  come  to  England.  In  1330 
it  is  mentioned  as  'an  hospital*,  and  in  1402 
as  a  hospital  for  lunatics.  In  1346  it  was 
received  under  the  protection  of  the  City 
of  London,  and  on  the  dissolution  of  the 
monasteries,  it  was  granted  to  the  mayor  and 
citizens.  In  1547  it  was  incorporated  as  a 
royal  foundation  for  the  reception  of  lunatics. 
In  1675  a  new  hospital  was  built  in  Moor- 
fields,  and  this  in  turn  was  replaced  by  a 
building  in  the  Lambeth  Road  in  1815.  The 
hospital  has  now  been  transferred  to  Monks 
Orchard,  Eden  Park,  Beckenham. 

From  Bedlam  are  derived  such  expressions 
as  TOM  o*  BEDLAM  (q.v.)  and  BESS  o*  BEDLAM, 
for  wandering  lunatics,  or  mendicants  posing 
as  lunatics. 

Bedr-ed-Din,  HASSAN,  see  under  Nur-ed- 
Din. 

Bedr-el-Budur,  see  Badroulboudour. 

Bee,  The,  see  Goldsmith. 

BEECHER,  HENRY  WARD,  see  Stowe. 

Beef  Steaks,  THE  SUBLIME  SOCIETY  OF,  was 
founded  in  1735  by  John  Rich,  the  manager 
of  the  Covent  Garden  Theatre.  The  society, 
which  included  many  eminent  persons,  used 
to  meet  and  dine  in  a  room  at  the  theatre,  the 
name  being  derived  from  the  beef-steaks 
served.  When  Covent  Garden  Theatre  was 
burnt,  the  Society  moved  to  the  Bedford  Coffee- 
House,  and  later  to  the  Lyceum  Theatre. 

Beef- steak  Club,  THE,  was  founded  about 
1876;  the  members  used  to  dine  in  a  room 
at  Toole's  Theatre,  and  moved,  when  this 
was  demolished,  to  Green  Street,  Leicester 
Square.  There  was  an  earlier  club  of  the 
same  name.  These  are  not  to  be  confused 
with  the  'Sublime  Society  of  Beef  Steaks'. 

Beefeater,  an  eater  of  beef,  a  popular  appella- 
tion of  the  Yeomen  of  the  Guard  in  the  house- 
hold of  the  Sovereign,  instituted  at  the 
accession  of  Henry  VII  in  1485 ;  also  of  the 
Warders  of  the  Tower,  who  were  named 
Yeomen  Extraordinary  of  the  Guard  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  (The  conjecture  that 
the  word  has  some  connexion  with  the  French 
buffet  is  historically  baseless.)  [OED.] 

Beefington,  a  character  in  'The  Rovers' 
(see  Anti-Jacobin). 

Beelzebub,  adapted  from  the  Latin  word 
used  in  the  Vulgate  to  render  both  the  Greek 
/?eeA£e/3ouA  of  the  received  text  of  the  N.T., 
and  the  Hebrew  'baal-zebub',  'fly-lord',  men- 
tioned in  2  Kings  i.  2  as  'God  of  Ekron\  The 
/JeeA£e/?ouA  represents  the  Assyrian  for  'lord  of 
the  high  house',  but  was  understood  in  N.T. 
times  as  'lord  of  the  underworld'.  In  Matt, 
xii.  24  Beelzebub  is  spoken  of  as  'prince  of  the 


BEGGARS  BUSH 

devils'.  Milton  gives  the  name  to  one  of  the 
fallen  angels,  next  to  Satan  in  power  (' Para- 
dise Lost*,  i.  79). 

BEERBOHM,  MAX  (1872-  ),  edu- 
cated at  Charterhouse  and  Merton  College, 
Oxford,  a  critic,  essayist,  and  caricaturist, 
published  his  first  book,  'The  Works  of  Max 
Beerbohm',  in  1896.  A  master  of  wit,  irony, 
and  satire,  and  of  a  polished  and  incisive 
style,  he  directs  his  criticism  at  literary 
mannerisms  and  social  pretences.  He  suc- 
ceeded Bernard  Shaw  as  dramatic  critic  of 
the  'Saturday  Review/  in  1898.  One  of  the 
best  known  of  his  critical  works  is  CA  Christ- 
mas Garland'  (1912),  a  series  of  parodies  of 
contemporary  authors,  Wells,  Bennett,  Con- 
rad, Chesterton,  &c.  'Zuleika  Dobson*  (1911) 
is  an  amusing  story  of  the  devastating  effect 
on  the  youth  of  Oxford  of  a  beautiful  ad- 
venturess. H!is  other  principal  works  are: 
'More*, '  Yet  Again','And  Even  Now'(essays) ; 
'Seven  Men'  (stories)  j  also  volumes  of  carica- 
tures, among  others — 'The  Poet's  Corner* 
(1904),  £A  Book  of  Caricatures*  (1907), 
'Rossetti  and  his  Circle*  (1922). 
Bees,  Fable  of  the,  see  Mandeville  (B.  de). 
Beethoven,  LUDWIG  VAN  (1770-1827), 
born  at  Bonn  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  of  Dutch 
descent,  the  famous  German  musical  com- 
poser. He  studied  under  Haydn.  He  be- 
came afflicted  with  deafness  in  1802,  which  in- 
creased until  it  became  complete,  but  did  not 
arrest  his  creative  genius.  Beethoven  died  in 
Vienna.  His  principal  achievement  was  the 
introduction  into  the  art  of  music  of  some- 
thing other  than  the  mere  development  of 
musical  themes.  His  musical  conceptions 
have  an  intellectual  and  moral  quality  that 
was  previously  unknown.  He  perfected  the 
symphony.  His  compositions  included  one 
opera  ('Fidelio'),  two  masses,  nine  sym- 
phonies, and  a  large  number  of  concertos, 
sonatas,  quartets,  and  trios. 
BEETON,  MRS.  ISABELLA  MARY 
(1836-65),  nee  Mayson,  author  of  a  famous 
book  of  cookery  and  domestic  economy,  first 
published  in  1859-61  in  'The  English- 
woman's Domestic  Magazine'  and  in  book 
form  in  1861  ('The  Times',  3  Feb.  1932). 
Befana,  an  Italian  corruption  of  EPIPHANIA, 
Epiphany,  an  Italian  female  Santa  Claus,  who 
fills  children's  stockings  on  Twelfth  Night. 
Her  name  is  also  used  as  a  bogy  to  frighten 
children. 

Beggar's  Bush,  according  to  Ray's  'Pro- 
verbs' (p.  244,  ed.  1768),  *a  tree  notoriously 
known  on  the  London  Road  from  Hunting- 
ton  to  Caxton*,  frequented  by  beggars. 
Beggars  Bush,  The,  a  drama  by  J.  Fletcher 
(q.v.),  and  perhaps  Massinger,  probably 
produced  in  1622. 

Florez,  the  rightful  heir  of  the  earldom  of 
Flanders  but  ignorant  of  his  rights,  and  living 
as  a  rich  merchant  at  Bruges,  is  in  love  with 
Bertha,  who  is  heiress  of  Brabant,  but  has 
been  stolen  away  and  placed  with  the  Burgo- 


[73] 


BEGGAR'S  DAUGHTER 

master  of  Bruges  and  is  equally  ignorant  of 
her  rights.  Gerrard,  father  of  Florez,  who  has 
been  driven  from  Flanders,  has  concealed  him- 
self among  the  beggars  near  Bruges,  is  their 
king,  and  watches  over  the  interests  of  Florez. 
Wolfort,  the  usurper,  proposes  to  marry 
Bertha  and  restore  her  to  her  rights,  thus 
obtaining  possession  of  Brabant.  He  sends 
Hubert,  one  of  his  nobles,  who  is  in  love  with 
Jacqueline,  Gerrard's  daughter,  to  effect  his 
purpose.  Hubert,  however,  joins  the  beggars, 
among  whom  Jacqueline  is  living,  and  plots 
with  Gerrard  to  get  Wolfort  into  their  power. 
In  this  they  are  successful.  The  identity  of 
Florez  and  Bertha  is  revealed  and  they  are 
married.  The  play  is  interesting  by  reason 
of  its  examples  of  early  thieves*  cant,  and  its 
realistic  picture  of  vagabond  life. 

Beggar's  Daughter  ofBednatt  Green,  The,  a 
ballad  written  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  and 
included  in  Percy's  'Reliques'. 

Bessee  is  the  fair  daughter  of  a  blind 
beggar,  employed  at  the  inn  at  Romford  and 
courted  by  four  suitors,  a  knight,  a  gentleman 
of  good  birth,  a  merchant  of  London,  and  the 
innkeeper's  son.  They  all  withdraw  their  suit 
on  being  referred  by  her  to  her  father,  except 
the  knight.  The  old  beggar  gives  her  as 
dowry  three  thousand  pounds,  two  pounds 
for  every  one  the  knight  puts  down.  It  now 
appears  that  the  beggar  is  Henry,  son  of 
Simon  de  Montfort,  who  has  assumed  the 
disguise  of  a  beggar  for  safety. 

The  story  forms  the  basis  of  Chettle  and 
Day's  'Blind  Beggar  of  Bednal  Green'  (1600, 
printed  1659).  J.  S.  Knowles  (q.v.)  also  wrote 
a  comedy  called  'The  Beggar's  Daughter  of 
Bethnal  Green* ;  and  R.  Dodsley  (q.v.)  wrote 
a  musical  play,  'The  Blind  Beggar  of  Bethnal 
Green*. 

Beggar's  Opera,  The,  a  musical  play  by 
J.  Gay  (q.v.),  produced  in  1728. 

The  play  arose  out  of  a  suggestion  by 
Swift  to  Gay  that  a  Newgate  pastoral  'might 
make  an  odd  pretty  sort  of  thing'.  The  prin- 
cipal characters  are  Peachum,  a  receiver  of 
stolen  goods,  who  also  makes  a  living  by  in- 
forming against  his  clients ;  his  wife,  and  his 
pretty  daughter,  Polly;  Lockit,  warder  of 
Newgate,  and  his  daughter  Lucy;  and  Cap- 
tain Macheath,  highwayman  and  light- 
hearted  winner  of  women's  hearts.  Polly 
falls  desperately  in  love  with  Macheath,  who 
marries  her.  Her  father,  furious  at  her  folly, 
decides  to  place  her  in  the  'comfortable  estate 
of  widowhood*  by  informing  against  Mac- 
heath,  who  is  arrested  and  sent  to  Newgate. 
Here  he  makes  a  conquest  of  Lucy's  heart, 
and  there  is  a  spirited  conflict  between  Polly 
and  Lucy,  the  rival  claimants  to  his  affection 
('How  happy  could  I  be  with  either,  Were 
t'other  dear  charmer  away!').  In  spite  of  her 
jealousy,  Lucy  procures  the  escape  of  Mac- 
heath.  The  play  was  a  great  success  and  Gay 
is  said  to  have  made  £800  by  it.  (It  was  said 
to  have  made  Gay  rich,  and  Rich— the  pro- 
ducer— gay.) 


BEL  AND  THE  DRAGON 

Beghard,  a  name  derived  like  B£GUINE 
(q.v.)  from  the  surname  of  Lambert  Begue, 
given  to  members  of  certain  lay  brotherhoods 
which  arose  in  the  Low  Countries  early  in  the 
1 3th  cent,  in  imitation  of  the  beguine  sister- 
hoods. From  the  i4th  cent,  the  beghards 
were  denounced  by  Popes  and  Councils  and 
persecuted,  and  such  as  survived  in  the  i7th 
cent,  were  absorbed  in  the  Tertiarii  of  the 
Franciscans.  [OED.] 

Be"guines,  a  name  derived  from  the  sur- 
name of  Lambert  Begue  or  le  Begue  ('the 
stammerer'),  a  priest  of  Lie"ge  in  the  i2th 
cent.,  given  to  the  members  of  certain  lay 
sisterhoods  which  began  in  the  Low  Countries 
in  the  izth  cent.;  they  devoted  themselves  to 
a  religious  life,  but  were  not  bound  by  strict 
vows.  They  were  protected  by  Pope  John 
XXII  when  he  persecuted  the  Beghards 
(q.v.),  and  are  still  represented  by  small 
communities  in  the  Netherlands.  [OED.] 

Behemoth,  an  animal  mentioned  in  Job 
xl.  10,  probably  a  hippopotamus.    Used  in 
modern  literature  as  a  general  expression  for 
one  of  the  largest  and  strongest  animals. 
Behemoth,  biggest  born  of  earth. 

(Milton,  'Paradise  Lost*,  vii.  471.) 
The  might  of  earth-convulsing  behemoth. 
(Shelley,  'Prometheus  Unbound*,  iv.  i.  310.) 
The  OED.  supports  Milton's  accentuation. 

Behistun  Inscription,  THE,  a  cuneiform 
inscription  in  the  three  languages  of  the 
Persian  empire,  on  a  lofty  rock  between 
Hamadan  and  Kirmanshah,  recounting  the 
events  of  the  reign  of  Darius.  It  was  copied 
and  deciphered  by  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson. 

Behmenism,  see  Boehme. 

BEHN,  MRS.  AFRA,  APHRA,  APHARA, 
or  AYFARA  (1640-89),  daughter  of  John 
and  Amy  Amis,  lived  as  a  child  in  Surinam, 
Guiana.  She  returned  to  England  in  1658,  and 
married  Behn,  a  city  merchant.  She  was 
employed  by  Charles  II  as  a  spy  in  Antwerp 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Dutch  war.  Between 
1671  and  1689  she  produced  fifteen  plays,  of 
which  the  most  popular  was  'The  Rover* 
(in  two  parts,  1677-81),  dealing  with  the 
amorous  adventures  in  Naples  and  Madrid  of 
a  band  of  English  cavaliers  during  the  exile  of 
Charles  II.  'The  City  Heiress*  (q.v.),  1682, 
is  one  of  her  typical  coarse  comedies  of  con- 
temporary London  life.  She  also  wrote  poems 
(including  the  beautiful  *Love  in  fantastic 
triumph  sat'),  and  novels,  of  which  her 
'Oroonoko,  or  the  History  of  the  Royal  Slave* 
(q.v.)  is  the  best  known.  It  is  the  first  English 
philosophical  novel  containing  dissertations 
on  abstract  subjects,  such  as  the  religion 
of  humanity.  Afra  Behn  was  buried  in  the 
east  cloister  of  Westminster  Abbey. 

Bel  and  the  Dragon,  one  of  the  apocryphal 
books  of  the  O.T.,  detached  from  the  Book  of 
Daniel.  Bel  was  an  idol  worshipped  by  the 
Babylonians  (the  word  is  equivalent  to  Baal), 


[74] 


BELARIUS 

and  the  story  tells  how  Daniel  convinced 
King  Astyages  that  it  was  a  mere  image  of 
brass.  The  dragon  was  a  living  animal, 
which  was  also  worshipped.  Daniel  dis- 
proved its  divine  character  by  giving  it  lumps 
of  pitch,  fat,  and  hair  to  eat,  so  that  it  burst 
asunder. 

Belarius,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Cymbeline*  (q.v.). 

Belch,  SIR  TOBY,  in  Shakespeare's  'Twelfth 
Night*  (q.v.)^a  roistering  humorous  knight, 
uncle  to  Olivia. 

Belcher,  a  neckerchief  with  blue  ground  and 
large  white  spots  having  a  dark  blue  spot  or 
eye  in  the  centre,"  named  after  the  celebrated 
pugilist  Jim  Belcher  (1781-1811). 

Belial,  adapted  from  the  Hebrew  words 
beli-ya*al,  means  literally  'worthlessness' 
and  'destruction',  but  in  Deut.  xiii.  13,  and 
elsewhere,  in  the  phrase  'sons  of  Belial',  it  is 
retained  untranslated  in  the  English  version, 
as  a  proper  name.  It  has  thus  come  to  mean 
the  spirit  of  evil  personified,  and  is  used  from 
early  times  as  a  name  for  the  Devil  or  one  of 
the  fiendsj  and  by  Milton  ('Paradise  Lost', 
i.  490)  as  the  name  of  one  of  the  fallen  angels. 

Belinda,  (i)  the  heroine  of  Pope's  'The  Rape 
of  the  Lock'  (q.v.);  (2)  a  character  in  Van- 
brugh's  'The  Provok'd  Wife*  (q.v.);  (3)  the 
title  of  a  novel  by  Maria  Edgeworth  (q.v.); 
(4)  the  niece  of  Mr.  John  Jprrocks,  who 
promised  her  (on  her  marriage)  £1,000 
every  time  she  should  have  twins. 

Belirms,  the  name  of  a  Celtic  sun-god,  and 
of  a  legendary  British  king  (perhaps  the  same 
as  Cassibelaunus)  who  built  a  tower  and  made 
a  haven  for  ships  at  what  was  afterwards 
London.  Billingsgate  (q.v.)  is  thought  by 
some  to  be  connected  with  his  name. 

Belisarius,  the  great  military  commander 
during  the  reign  of  Justinian  (527763),  was  a 
native  of  Illyria  and  of  humble  birth.  After 
successful  campaigns  against  the  Vandals, 
Goths,  and  Bulgarians,  he  was  in  563  accused 
of  conspiring  against  the  emperor.  His  eyes, 
according  to  tradition,  were  put  out,  and  he 
was  reduced  to  wandering,  a  beggar,  about 
the  streets  of  Constantinople.  But,  in  fact, 
he  appears  to  have  been  only  imprisoned  for 
a  year. 

Belit,  see  Assur. 
Belkis,  see  Balkis. 
Bell,  ADAM,  see  Adam  Bell. 

Bell,  ALEXANDER  GRAHAM  (1847-1922),  born 
at  Edinburgh  and  educated  at  Edinburgh 
and  London  Universities,  went  to  Canada  in 
1870,  and  thence  to  Boston,  U.S.A.,  where  he 
became  professor  of  vocal  physiology.  He 
exhibited  in  1876  his  invention  of  the  means 
of  transmitting  sound  by  electricity,  which, 
when  perfected,  became  the  telephone. 
BELL,  CURRER,  ELLIS,  and  ACTON,  see 
Bronte  (C.,  E.t  and  A.). 


BELLASTON 
Bell,  JOHN,  see  Egan. 

Bell,  LAURA,  the  heroine  of  Thackeray's 
'Pendennis'  (q.v.). 

Bell-the-Cat,  Archibald  Douglas,  fifth  earl 
of  Angus  (1449?-!  5  14),  who  earned  the 
nickname  by  declaring  to  his  confederates 
that  he  would  'bell  the  cat',  i.e.  kill  Robert 
Cochrane,  earl  of  Mar,  the  hated  favourite  of 
James  III.  He  figures  in  Scott's  'Marmion* 


Bell's  Life  in  London,  see  Egan. 

Bella  Wilfer,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Our 
Mutual  Friend'  (q.v.). 

Bellafront,  in  Dekker's  "The  Honest  Whore' 
(q.v.),  the  repentant  courtesan,  and  exem- 
plary wife  of  the  worthless  Matheo. 

Bellair,  a  character  in  Etherege's  'The  Man 
of  Mode*  (q.v.). 

Bellamira,  a  comedy  by  Sir  C.  Sedley  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1687. 

It  is  a  coarse  but  lively  play,  founded  on 
the  'Eunuchus'  of  Terence,  reflecting  the 
licentious  manners  of  Sedley's  day.  Danger- 
field,  a  braggart  and  a  bully,  whose  cowardice 
is  exposed  in  an  adventure  similar  to  that  of 
FalstafT  at  Gadshill,  is  an  amusing  character. 

BELLAMY,  EDWARD  (1850-98),  Ameri- 
can author,  born  at  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass., 
whose  fame  rests  upon  his  popular  Utopian 
romance,  'Looking  Backward*  (1888). 

The  hero  of  'Looking  Backward'  falls 
asleep  in  1887  and  awakes  in  Boston,  in  the 
year  2000,  to  find  great  social  changes. 
Private  capitalism  has  been  replaced  by 
public  capitalism,  and  all  work  is  done  for 
public  benefit  rather  than  private  gain.  Few 
'Utopias*  have  been  thought  out  more 
logically,  or  in  more  detail,  than  Bellamy's. 
His  communistic  ideas  gave  rise  to  a  new 
political  party;  but  it  is  in  Russia  that  his 
theories  have  been  most  closely  approached 
in  practice. 

Bellario  ,  (i)  the  name  assumed  by  the  heroine 
of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  'Philaster*  (q.v.) 


BELLAKMINE,  ROBERTO  FRAN- 
CESCO ROMOLO  (1542-1621),  an  Italian 
cardinal  and  a  powerful  defender  of  the 
Roman  cause  against  the  Protestants,  was 
author  of  'Disputationes  de  Controversiis 
Christianae  Fidei  adversus  hujus  temporis 
haereticos'  (1581-93)- 

The  name  'BeHarmine*  was  given  to  a  large 
glazed  dxinking-jug  with  capacious  belly  and 
narrow  neck,  originally  designed  by  the 
Protestant  party  in  the  Netherlands  as  a 
burlesque  likeness  of  their  great  opponent, 
the  cardinal.  [OED.] 

Bellaston,  LADY,  a  character  in  Fielding's 
*Tom  Jones*  (q.v.). 


[75] 


BELLE 

Belle  or  ISOPEL  Berners,  a  character  in 
Sorrow's  'Lavengro'  (q.v.),  a  sturdy  wander- 
ing lass,  who  acts  as  second  to  Lavengro  in 
his  fight  with  the  Flaming  Tinman. 

Belle  Dame  sans  Merci,  La,  a  ballad  by 
Keats  (q.v.),  written  in  1819. 

The  knight-at-arms,  enthralled  by  an  elf, 
wakes  from  the  dream  of  his  lady,  not  to  find 
his  dream  realized,  but  the  cold  hill's  side, 
where  'no  birds  sing'.  The  poem  is,  says 
Oliver  Elton,  'a  touchstone*  for  this  kind  of 
composition.  'La  Belle  Dame  sans  Merer*  is 
also  the  title  of  a  poem,  in  rhyme  royal  and 
octaves,  translated  from  Alain  Chartier, 
attributed  at  one  time  to  Chaucer,  but  now 
thought,  on  manuscript  authority,  to  be  the 
work  of  Sir  Richard  Ros. 

Belle  Sauvage,  or  BELL  SAVAGE,  Inn,  THE, 
stood  on  Ludgate  Hill,  and  dated  at  least 
from  the  i5th  cent.  In  a  deed  of  1453  it  is 
described  as  'Savages  Inn*  or  the  'Bell-on- 
the-Hoop*;  and  the  name  eBell  Savage*  per- 
haps arose  from  the  association  of  the  name 
of  the  proprietor  with  the  sign  of  the  Bell. 
Dramatic  performances  and  bull-baiting  took 
place  in  its  yard  in  the  i6th  and  iyth  cents., 
and  it  was  a  starting-place  for  coaches  in  the 
1 8th  cent.  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt's  march  on 
London  came  to  an  end  there.  The  site  is 
now  occupied  by  the  publishing  house  of 
Cassell,  whose  publisher's  design  interprets 
the  name  as  meaning  'the  beautiful  savage 
woman** 

Belle's  Stratagem,  The,  a  comedy  by  Mrs.  H. 
Cowley  (q.v.),  produced  in  1780. 

Doricourt  returns  from  his  travels  to  marry 
Letitia  Hardy,  whom  he  has  not  seen  since 
his  childhood,  the  match  having  been  ar- 
ranged by  their  parents.  He  finds  her  beauti- 
ful but  lacking  in  animation ;  she  falls  in  love 
with  him  at  once.  Distressed  by  his  cold 
reception,  she  determines  to  win  him  by  first 
disgusting  him  through  the  assumption  of 
the  manners  of  a  country  hoyden,  and  then 
conquering  his  heart  by  her  sprightliness  at 
a  masquerade,  and  this  scheme  she  success- 
fully accomplishes.  The  sub-plot  is  con- 
cerned with  Sir  George  Touchwood,  a  doting 
husband,  who  brings  his  wife,  Lady  Frances, 
to  London  for  the  first  time  in  her  life;  the 
attempt  of  Courtall  to  seduce  her  at  the 
masquerade  by  assuming  the  same  disguise 
as  her  husband ;  and  the  defeat  of  the  plot  by 
her  old  admirer,  Saville. 

BELLENDEN,  or  BALLENDEN,  JOHN 
(fl-  I533~^7\  Scottish  poet  and  translator 
into  Scots  of  Livy. 

Bellenden,  LADY  MARGARET,  EDITH,  and 
MAJOR,  characters  in  Scott's  'Old  Mortality* 
(q.v.). 

Bellerophon,  son  of  Glaucus,  king  of 
Corinth.  He  was  banished  for  a  murder,  and 
fled  to  the  court  of  Proetus,  king  of  Argos, 
where  Antaea,  the  king's  wife,  fell  in  love 
with  him.  As  he  slighted  her  passion,  she 


BELLS  AND  POMEGRANATES 

accused  him  to  her  husband  of  an  attempt  on 
her  virtue.  Proetus,  unwilling  to  violate  the 
laws  of  hospitality  by  killing  Bellerophon 
under  his  roof,  dispatched  him  to  his  father- 
in-law,  lobates,  bearing  a  letter  signifying  that 
he  should  be  killed  (whence  the  expression 
Bellerophontis  litterae).  lobates  accordingly 
sent  Bellerophon  against  the  monster  Chi- 
maera  (q.v.);  but  Bellerophon,  with  the  aid 
of  the  winged  horse  Pegasus  (q.v,),  overcame 
it.  He  afterwards  destroyed  assassins  sent  by 
lobates,  and  was  successful  in  an  expedition 
against  the  Amazons.  Thereupon  lobates, 
despairing  of  killing  the  hero,  gave  him  his 
daughter  to  wife  and  the  succession  to  his 
throne.  Other  legends  relate  that  he  at- 
tempted to  fly  to  heaven  on  Pegasus,  but  that 
Zeus  by  means  of  a  gadfly  caused  the  horse  to 
throw  its  rider. 

Bellerophon,  H.M.S.,  the  ship  (Captain 
Maitland)  on  board  of  which  Napoleon  sur- 
rendered himself  in  1815. 
Bellems,  the  name  of  a  fabulous^  person 
introduced  by  Milton  in  his  'Lycidas*  to 
account  for  Bellerium  or  Bolerium,  the  Roman 
name  of  Land's  End,  in  Cornwall. 

Bellisant  or  BELLISANCE,  in  the  tale  of 
'Valentine  and  Orson*  (q.v.),  the  sister  of 
king  Pepin,  and  wife  of  the  emperor  of 
Constantinople,  mother  of  Valentine  and 
Orson. 

BELLOG,  JOSEPH  HILAIRE  PIERRE 
(1870-  ),  born  in  France,  educated  at  the 
Oratory  School,  Edgbastpn,  and  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  is  a  versatile  writer  of  essays, 
novels,  verse,  travels,  history,  biography,  and 
criticism.  Among  his  best  works  is  'The 
Path  to  Rome*  (1902),  the  description  of  a 
tramp  from  Toul  in  the  north  of  France, 
through  Switzerland  and  northern  Italy,  to 
Rome,  with  divagations  on  innumerable  sub- 
jects. His  other  best-known  writings  include : 
'Hills  and  the  Sea' (1906),  'The  Bad  Child's 
Book  of  Beasts',  'More  Beasts  for  Worse 
Children',  'The  Modern  Traveller',  'Cau- 
tionary Tales '(all  light  verse);  'TheGirondin', 
'The  Green  Overcoat',  'Mr.  Clutterbuck's 
Election',  'A  Change  in  the  Cabinet'  (novels) ; 
'The  Four  Men*  (fantastic  travel);  'Marie 
Antoinette*  (history);  'The  Servile  State* 
(sociology);  'British  Battles';  'History  of 
England' ;  and  books  of  essays  on  'Nothing*, 
'Something',  'Everything',  &c. 
Bellona,  the  Roman  goddess  of  war. 

Bells f  The,  a  dramatic  adaptation  by  L.  Lewis 
of  'The  Polish  Jew'  of  Erckmann-Chatrian, 
the  story  of  a  burgomaster  haunted  by  the 
consciousness  of  an  undiscovered  murder 
that  he  has  committed.  It  provided  Sir  H. 
Irving  with  one  of  his  most  successful  parts. 

Bells  and  Pomegranates,  the  title  under 
which  a  series  of  poems  was  published  by 
R.  Browning  (q.v.)  between  1841  and  1846, 
including  'Pippa  Passes',  'Dramatic  Lyrics* 
('The  Pied  Piper',  'Waring',  &c.),  'The 


[76] 


BELLYN 

Return  of  the  Druses',  CA  Blot  in  the 
'Scutcheon*,  'Colombo's  Birthday',  'Dram- 
atic Romances*  ('How  they  brought  the  good 
news',  &c.),  and  'Luria*  (qq.v.).  The  entire 
series  was  then  issued  in  one  volume  under 
the  above  title  (1846). 

Bellyn,  in  'Reynard  the  Fox"  (q.v.),  the 
name  of  the  ram. 

Belmont,  Portia's  house  in  Shakespeare's 
'The  Merchant  of  Venice*  (q.v.). 

Belmont,  SIR  FRANCIS,  the  heroine's  father 
in  Miss  Burney's  'Evelina'  (q.v.). 

Belphegor,  the  LXX  and  Vulgate  form  of 
the  Moabitish  'Baal-Peor*  mentioned  in  Num. 
xxv. 

In  Machiavelli's  'Novella*  (1469),  Bel- 
phegor is  the  name  of  an  archdevil  sent  by 
Pluto  to  the  world  to  investigate  the  truth  of 
the  complaints  made  by  many  souls  reaching 
hell,  that  they  have  been  sent  there  by  their 
wives.  Belphegor  has  orders  to  take  a  wife, 
arrives  in  Florence  well  provided  with  money 
and  a  retinue  of  devils  as  servants,  and  marries. 
But  he  is  unable  to  put  up  with  his  wife's 
insolence,  and  prefers  to  run  away  from  her 
and  return  to  hell.  We  have  echoes  of  this 
legend  in  one  of  the  stories  of  Barnabe  Rich's 
'Farewell  to  the  Military  Profession' (1581), 
and  in  Jonson's  'The  Devil  is  an  Ass*(i6i6). 
John  Wilson  (?  1627-96)  produced  a  tragi- 
comedy, 'Belphegor,  the  Marriage  of  the 
Devil*,  in  1690. 

Belphoebe,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  the 
chaste  huntress,  daughter  of  the  nymph 
Chrysogone,  and  twin  sister  of  Amoret  (q.v.) ; 
she  symbolizes  Queen  Elizabeth.  Belphoebe 
puts  Braggadochio  (q.v.)  to  night  (n.  iii), 
finds  herbs  to  heal  the  wounded  Timias 
('whether  it  divine  Tobacco  were,  or  Pana- 
chea,  or  Polygony*,  in.  v),  and  rescues 
Amoret  from  Cornambo  (q.v.,  IV.  iii). 

Belshazzar  *s  Feast,  the  feast  made  by  Bel- 
shazzar, the  son  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  the 
last  king  of  Babylonia,  at  which  his  doom  was 
foretold  by  writing  on  the  wall,  as  interpreted 
by  Daniel  (Dan.  v).  Belshazzar  was  killed  in 
the  sack  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  (538  B.C.).  He 
is  the  subject  of  dramas  by  Hannah  More 
and  Milman,  of  Robert  Landor's  'Impious 
Feast',  and  of  a  poem  by  Lord  Byron  (qq.v.). 

Beltane,  the  Celtic  name  of  the  first  of  May, 
the  beginning  of  summer,  used  for  old  May 
Day  in  Scotland,  where  anciently  it  was  one 
of  the  quarter-days.  It  is  also  the  name  of 
an  ancient  Celtic  anniversary  celebration  on 
May  Day,  in  connexion  with  which  great 
bonfires  were  kindled  on  the  hills.  Cormac's 
Glossary  explains  belltaine  as  'two  fires  which 
the  Druids  used  to  make,  and  they  used  to 
bring  the  cattle  [as  a  safeguard]  against  the 
diseases  of  each  year  to  those  fires'  [OED.]. 
Beltenebros,  the  name  assumed  by  Amadis 
of  Gaul  (q.v.)  when  he  retired  to  the  wilder- 
ness to  do  penance,  being  in  disgrace  with 
Oriana, 


BENAVENTE  Y  MARTINEZ 

Beltham,  SQUIRE  and  DOROTHY,  characters 
in  Meredith's  'Harry  Richmond*  (q.v.). 
Belton  Estate,  The,  a  novel  by  A.  Trollope 
(q.v.),  first  published  in  'The  Fortnightly 
Review'  in  1865,  and  reprinted  separately  in 
1866. 

The  Belton  property  in  Somerset,  belonging 
to  Mr.  Amedroz,  is  entailed,  in  default  of 
any  son  of  his  own,  on  a  distant  cousin,  Will 
Belton.  Charles,  the  son  of  Mr.  Amedroz, 
commits  suicide,  and  Clara  his  sister  is 
menaced  with  destitution  when  her  father 
shall  die.  Will  Belton,  a  warm-hearted,  self- 
confident  young  farmer,  hardly  known  to  the 
Amedroz  family,  comes  forward  on  the  death 
of  Charles  with  offers  of  assistance,  wins  the 
affection  of  the  feckless  Mr.  Amedroz,  force- 
fully puts  his  affairs  in  order,  and  is  welcomed 
as  a  brother  by  Clara.  He  promptly  proposes 
to  her  and  is  rejected,  because  Clara  is 
already  in  love  with  Captain  Aylmer,  her 
cold-blooded,  mean-spirited  relative,  whose 
true  character  she  has  not  gauged.  In  com- 
pliance with  a  promise  that  he  has  given  to 
his  aunt  on  her  death-bed,  Aylmer  proposes 
to  Clara  and  is  accepted.  But  his  meanness 
and  tyrannical  disposition  soon  come  to  light, 
as  also  those  of  his  odious  mother  and  sister, 
and  arouse  the  resentment  of  Clara.  She 
breaks  off  her  engagement  and  is  finally 
married  to  Will  Belton. 
Belvedere  Apollo,  see  Apollo. 
Belvidera,  the  heroine  of  Otway's  'Venice 
Preserv'd'  (q.v.). 

Belvoir  Hunt,  THE  (pron.  bever),  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  in  the  Shires,  dates  from 
about  1756  and  was  established  in  the  days 
of  the  third  duke  of  Rutland,  the  owner  of 
Belvoir  Castle,  near  Grantham,  from  which 
the  hunt  is  named. 

Bembo,  PIETRO  (1470-1547),  Italian  human- 
ist, became  bishop  of  Bergamo,  a  cardinal, 
and  historiographer  of  Venice.  He  wrote  in 
Latin  and  Italian,  in  prose  and  verse.  He  was 
a  devoted  admirer  of  Lucrezia  Borgia  (q.v.), 
and  figures  prominently  in  the  'Cortegiano* 
of  Castiglione  (q.v.). 

Ben,  BIG,  the  great  bell  in  the  Clock  Tower 
of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  at  Westminster, 
named  after  Sir  Benjamin  Hall,  Chief  Com- 
missioner of  Works  (1855-8),  during  whose 
term  of  office  it  was  cast. 
Ben  Htir:  A  Tale  of  the  Christ,  by  Lew 
Wallace,  published  in  1880. 
Ben  trovato,  from  the  Italian  phrase  £se  pop 
e  vero,  e  ben  trovato'  (if  it  is  not  true  it  is 
well  invented),  sometimes  used  as  an  epithet 
of  a  good  story,  &c. 

BENAVENTE  Y  MARTINEZ  JACINTO 
(1866-  ),  Spanish  playwright  and  critic, 
who  was  awarded  the  Nobel  Prize  in  1922. 
He  is  the  author  of  many  light  and  pleasant 
comedies  of  which  the  following  are  the  best 
known  in  English  translations:  'Saturday 
Night*  (1903),  'Rose  of  Autumn'  (1905), 


[77] 


BENBOW 

'Vested  Interests'  (1907),  'Brute  Force* 
(1908). 

Benbow,  JOHN  (1653-1702),  a  gallant 
British  admiral,  master  of  the  fleet  in  the 
battle  off  Beachy  Head  (1690)  and  at  Bar- 
fleur  and  La  Hogue  (1692),  and  commander 
of  the  bombarding  flotilla  at  Saint  Malo  and 
Dunkirk  (1693-4-5).  He  was  later  com- 
mander-in-chief  in  the  West  Indies,  where, 
badly  supported  by  the  ships  of  his  squadron, 
he  endeavoured  to  bring  Du  Casse,  the  French 
admiral,  to  an  engagement  off  Santa  Marta. 
He  here  had  his  right  leg  shattered  by  a 
chain  shot,  but  after  having  had  the  wound 
dressed,  returned  to  the  quarter-deck.  He 
died  of  his  wounds  at  Port  Royal. 

Benedick,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Much  Ado  about  Nothing'  (q.v.).  The  name 
is  used  (also  erroneously  in  the  form  'Bene- 
dict') of  an  apparently  confirmed  bachelor 
who  marries. 

Benedict  Biscop,  ST.  (628?-69o),  a  thegn 
of  Oswiu,  long  of  Northumbria,  who  after 
making  two  pilgrimages  to  Rome  retired 
to  the  Isle  of  Le"rins,  where  he  adopted  the 
monastic  life.  After  two  years  he  again  went 
to  Rome  and  was  directed  by  the  pope, 
Vitalian,  to  accompany  Theodore  of  Tarsus 
from  Rome  to  Canterbury.  He  was  then  ap- 
pointed abbot  of  St.  Peter's,  Canterbury 
(669),  resigning  the  dignity  two  years  later  to 
visit  Rome  once  more.  During  this  journey 
he  collected  and  brought  back  many  volumes 
and  relics.  On  his  return  he  founded  (in  674) 
the  monastery  of  St.  Peter  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Wear,  importing  workmen  to  build 
a  church  of  stone  and  to  glaze  the  windows. 
Once  more  he  went  to  Rome,  bringing  back 
a  further  store  of  books  and  relics.  After  this 
he  founded  the  sister  monastery  of  St.  Paul 
at  J  arrow.  He  was  buried  in  his  church  at 
Wearmouth,  haying  left  directions  for  the 
careful  preservation  of  his  library.  He  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  originators  of  the  artistic 
and  literary  development  of  Northumbria 
in  the  next  century.  He  is  commemorated 
on  i  a  Feb. 

Be'ne'dictine,  the  name  of  a  liqueur  made  at 
Fecamp,  near  Havre,  in  France;  formerly 
(before  the  French  Revolution)  by  the  monks 
of  the  Benedictine  abbey  there,  each  bottle 
bearing  the  inscription  D.O.M.  (Deo  Optimo 
Maximo). 

Benedictines!  the  order  of  monks,  also 
known  from  their  dress  as  'Black  Monks', 
established  by  St.  Benedict  (480-543)  about 
the  year  529,  when  he  founded  the  monastery 
on  Monte  Cassino  in  Campania;  the  first  in 
time,  as  in  fame,  of  the  great  Western  Church 
orders.  It  became  noted  for  its  wealth  and  for 
the  learning  of  its  members.  Among  its  oif- 
shoots  were  the  Cluniacs  and  Cistercians. 
Battle  Abbey  in  Sussex  was  built  for  them  by 
William  I  where  the  battle  of  Hastings  was 
fought.  As  regards  their  valuable  literary 
work  see  Maurists. 


BENNETT 
Benenj|eH,  see  Cid  Hornet  BenengelL 

BENET,  STEPHEN  VINCENT  (1898- 
),  American  writer,  born  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. His  chief  works  are:  'Five  Men  and 
Pompey'  (1915),  'Young  Adventure*  (1918), 
"Tiger  Joy'  (1925),  'John  Brown's  Body '(1928, 
a  chronicle  drama  in  verse  dealing  with  the 
Civil  War). 

Benicia  Boy,  nickname  of  John  Heenan,  an 
American  pugilist,  who  fought  Thomas  Sayers, 
the  champion  of  England,  in  1 860.  Heenan  was 
a  much  bigger  and  stronger  man  than  Sayers, 
but  the  latter  was  more  skilful.  The  desper- 
ate fight  between  them  was  interrupted,  and 
a  silver  belt  awarded  to  each. 
Benjamin,  used  of  a  youngest  and  favourite 
son,  in  allusion  to  the  youngest  son  of  Jacob 
(Gen.  xxxv.  8 ;  xlii,  &c.). 
Benjamin,  A,  in  the  first  half  of  the  i9th 
cent.,  was  an  overcoat  of  a  particular  shape 
(according  to  Brewer  from  the  name  of  a 
tailor). 

BENJAMIN,  REN£  (1885-  ),  French 
writer,  author  of  'La  prodigieuse  vie  de  H. 
de  Balzac*  (1925),  'Les  Justices  depaix*(i9i3), 
*Les  Plaisirs  du  Hasard*  (comedy,  1922),  &c. 
BENJAMIN  OF  TXJDELA  (fl.  c.  1150),  a 
Spanish  Jew  and  traveller  in  the  East,  whose 
itinerary  'Masaoth*,  printed  at  Constanti- 
nople in  1543  and  at  Ferrara  in  1556,  was 
translated  into  English  in  1840  by  A.  Asher. 
Benjamin  visited  Constantinople,  the  Aegean, 
Damascus,  Jerusalem,  Bagdad,  Basra,  Aden, 
Assuan,  and  Egypt,  of  which  Saladin  was 
then  vizier. 

Bennet,  MR.,  MRS.,  JANE,  ELIZABETH,  MARY, 
KITTY,  and  LYDIA,  characters  in  Jane  Austen's 
'Pride  and  Prejudice*  (q.v.). 

BENNETT,  ENOCH  ARNOLD  (1867- 
1931),  born  near  Hanley  in  Staffordshire, 
spent  his  childhood  in  modest  surroundings, 
and  was  educated  locally  and  at  London 
University.  He  became  a  solicitor's  clerk  in 
London  and  in  1893  assistant  editor  and  sub- 
sequently editor  of  the  periodical  'Woman*. 
After  1900  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to 
writing,  theatre  journalism  being  among  his 
special  interests. 

His  fame  as  a  novelist  rests  chiefly  on  'The 
Old  Wives'  Tale'  (q.v.,  1908)  and  the  'Clay- 
hanger*  series  ('Clayhanger*  (1910),  'Hilda 
Lessways'  (1911),  'These  Twain*  (1916),  re- 
printed as  'The  Clayhanger  Family'  (1925)). 
The  'Five  Towns*  which  figure  prominently 
in  these  works  are  Tunstall,  Burslem,  Han- 
ley,  Stoke-upon-Trent,  and  Longton,  centres 
of  the  pottery  industry;  and  the  features, 
often  ugly  and  sordid,  of  this  background  are 
skilfully  woven  into  stories  of  lives  which  he 
presents  dispassionately,  with  an  infinite  de- 
light in  significant  detail,  but  without  com- 
ment or  protest.  'Riceyman  Steps*  (1923) 
is  another  of  Bennett's  pictures  of  life  in  drab 
surroundings  in  which  the  novelist  is  seen  at 
his  best.  It  is  the  story  of  a  miser,  a  second- 


[78] 


BENNETT 

hand  bookseller  in  Clerkenwell,  who  not 
only  starves  himself  to  death,  but  infects  his 
wife  with  his  passion  for  economy  and  brings 
her  also  to  an  untimely  end.  Among  Bennett's 
other  best-known  works  are:  'The  Grand 
Babylon  Hotel'  (1902),  'The  Grim  Smile  of 
the  Five  Towns'  (short  stories,  1907),  'Mile- 
stones' (play,  with  E.  Knoblock),  and  'The 
Matador  of  the  Five  Towns'  (short  stories, 
1912). 

Bennett,  JAMES  GORDON  (1795-1872),  born 
in  Scotland,  became  celebrated  as  the  founder 
of  the  American  newspaper  the  'New  York 
Herald*  (now  'New  York  Herald-Tribune'  by 
amalgamation).  He  sent  Stanley  to  Africa 
as  explorer  in  1871-2. 

BENOIT  DE  STE-MAURE  OR  STE- 
MORE,  a  i2th-cent.  trouvere,  born  at  Sainte- 
Maure  in  Touraine  and  patronized  by  Henry  1 1 
of  England,  for  whom  he  composed  a  verse 
history  of  the  dukes  of  Normandy.  His  best- 
known  work  is  the 'Roman  de  Troie',  based  on 
the  writings  of  Dares  Phrygius  and  Dictys 
Cretensis  (qq.v.).  The'Roman'wastranslated 
into  Latin  prose  by  Guido  de  Colonna  (q.v.), 
and  thus  served  as  a  source  on  which  many 
subsequent  writers  drew,  including  Boc- 
caccio, followed  by  Chaucer  and  Shakespeare, 
in  the  story  of  'Troilus  and  Cressida'. 

Bensalem,  the  name  of  the  imaginary  island 
in  Bacon's  'New  Atlantis'  (q.v.). 

BENSON,  EDWARD  FREDERIC  (1867- 

),  noted  as  the  author  of  the  popular 

novel  'Dodo'  (1893),  and  many  other  stories. 

BENSON,  STELLA  (1892-  ),  novelist, 
whose  chief  works  are:  'I  Pose'  (1915), 
'Living  Alone'  (1919),  'This  is  the  End',  'The 
Poor  Man*  (1922),  'Good-bye,  Stranger* 
(1926),  'Worlds  within  Worlds'  (1928),  'Tobit 
Transplanted'  (1931). 

BENTHAM,  JEREMY  (1748-1832),  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  and  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn, 
but  never  practised,  and  turned  his  mind  to 
physical  science  and  political  speculation. 
He  published  anonymously  in  1776  his 
'Fragment  on  Government',  in  form  a 
criticism  of  Blackstone's  'Commentaries',  in 
which  he  first  sketches  his  theory  of  govern- 
ment. While  in  Russia,  during  1785-8,  he 
wrote  his  'Defence  of  Usury'  (178?)  and  a 
series  of  letters  on  a  'Panopticon'  (1791),  a 
scheme  for  improving  prison  discipline.  In 
1789  he  published  his  'Introduction  ^to 
Principles  of  Morals  and  Legislation'  (which 
had  been  first  printed  in  1780).  Besides  these 
he  produced  a  number  of  works  on  ethics, 
jurisprudence,  logic,  and  political  economy, 
his  influence  proving  greatest  in  the  first  two 
of  these  spheres.  In  the  dissemination  of  his 
views,  Bentham  was  greatly  assisted  by  his 
devoted  disciple,  fitienne  Dumont  of  Geneva, 
who  compiled  a  number  of  treatises  based  on 
Bentham's  manuscripts  and  published  them, 
between  1802  and  1825,  in  French.  A  con- 


BENTLEY 

siderable  part  of  Bentham's  published  works 
are  retranslations  of  Dumont. 

It  is  in  the  'Fragment  on  Government*  and 
more  fully  in  the  'Principles  of  Morals  and 
Legislation*  that  we  have  enunciated  the 
political  and  ethical  theory  (rather  than 
philosophical  doctrine)  of  'Utility'  by  which 
Bentham  is  principally  remembered.  'It  is 
the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number 
that  is  the  measure  of  right  and  wrong.'  Pain 
and  pleasure  are  the  'sovereign  masters* 
governing  man's  conduct;  'it  is  for  them 
alone  to  point  out  what  we  ought  to  do'. 
Pleasures  and  pains  can  be  quantitatively 
measured  according  to  their  intensity, 
duration,  certainty,  and  propinquity.  When 
the  pleasures  and  pains  resulting  from  any  act 
to  all  the  members  of  the  community  affected 
have  been  measured  by  these  standards,  we 
are  in  a  position  to  determine  the  moral 
quality  of  the  act.  The  criterion  of  the 
goodness  of  a  law  is  this  principle  of  Utility, 
the  measure  in  which  it  subserves  the  happi- 
ness to  which  every  individual  is  equally 
entitled.  The  motive  of  an  act  being  always 
self-interest,  it  is  the  business  of  law  and 
education  to  make  the  sanctions  sufficiently 
strong  to  induce  the  individual  to  sub- 
ordinate his  own  happiness  to  that  of  the 
community.  Bentham.  worked  out  the  quanti- 
tative value  of  pains  and  pleasures  as  motives 
of  action  with  extraordinary  minuteness,  with 
the  object  of  giving  scientific  accuracy  to 
morals  and  legislation. 

Bentham.  did  not  share  the  theoretical 
views  of  the  French  Revolutionists,  and  he 
criticized  the  'Declaration  of  the  Rights  of 
Man'  in  his  'Anarchical  Fallacies*  (included 
in  his  collected  works).  His  democratic  views 
are  expressed  in  his  'Constitutional  Code' 
(1830).  His  'Chrestomathia',  a  series  of 
papers  on  education,  appeared  in  1816.  He 
also  propounded  a  number  of  valuable  re- 
forms in  the  administration  of  English  justice, 
which  have  since  his  time  been  applied.  In 
1824  Bentham,  with  the  assistance  of  James 
Mill  (q.v.),  founded  the  'Westminster  Review', 
the  organ  of  the  philosophical  radicals,  which 
lasted  until  1907. 

Bentley,  the  name  of  a  well-known  make  of 
English  motor-car,  expensive  and  capable  of 
high  speed. 

BENTLEY,  RICHARD  (1662-1742)*  born 
at  Oulton  in  Yorkshire,  was  educated  at  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  appointed 
by  Stillingfleet,  bishop  of  Worcester,  tutor  to 
his  son,  remaining  six  years  in  his  household. 
He  was  brought  into  great  repute  as  a  scholar 
by  his  'Epistpla  ad  Millium'  in  1691,  a  critical 
letter  in  Latin  on  the  Greek  dramatists,  con- 
tributed to  John  Mill's  edition  of  Malelas,  a 
medieval  chronicler.  In  1692  Bentley  de- 
livered the  first  Boyle  lectures,  entitled  *A 
Confutation  of  Atheism*,  seeking  for  part  of 
his  argument  the  assistance  of  Isaac  Newton 
(q.v.).  He  became  keeper  of  the  king's 
libraries  in  1694.  During  1697-9  he  was 


[79] 


BENTLEY 

engaged  in  the  famous  controversy  relating 
to  the  'Epistles  of  Phalaris*  (see  Phalaris, 
Epistles  of),  which  he  proved  to  be  spurious. 
In  1699  he  was  appointed  Master  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  which  he  ruled  with 
such  despotic  power  that  he  was  brought 
before  the  bishop  and  nominally,  though  not 
effectually,  deprived  of  his  mastership. 
Among  his  greatest  critical  works  were  his 
bold  revisions  of  the  text  of  Horace  and 
Manilius.  His  arbitrary  revision  of  Milton's 
'Paradise  Lost',  on  the  other  hand,  was  a 
venture  in  a  field  unsuited  to  his  genius. 
Bentley  is  caricatured  by  Pope  in  the  *Dun- 
ciad'  (Bk.  IV.  201  et  seq.).  His  son  Richard 
(1708-82)  was  a  correspondent  of  Horace 
Walpole  (q.v.). 

Bentley,  RICHARD  (1794-1871),  publisher, 
the  founder  of  'Bentley 's  Miscellany'  (1837) 
with  Charles  Dickens  as  editor.  His  issue  at  a 
low  price  of  127  volumes  of 'Standard  Novels' 
was  not  only  a  successful  but,  from  the  public 
standpoint,  a  beneficial  venture.  He  was 
succeeded  in  the  business  by  his  son  GEORGE 
BENTLEY  (1828-95),  who  introduced  many 
notable  novelists  to  the  public,  including 
Wilkie  Collins,  Mrs.  Henry  Wood,  and  Miss 
Rhoda  Broughton. 

Benvolio,  in  Shakespeare's  'Romeo  and 
Juliet'  (q.v.),  a  cousin  and  friend  of  Romeo. 

Beowulf,  the  name  given  to  an  Old  English 
poem  of  some  3,200  lines,  perhaps  the  earliest 
considerable  poem  in  any  modern  language. 
The  manuscript,  of  the  late  loth  cent., 
formed  part  of  the  collection  of  Sir  Robert 
Bruce  Cotton,  whence  it  passed  into  the 
British  Museum. 

The  poem  opens  with  praise  of  the  deeds 
of  the  Danes,  Scyld  their  king,  and  his 
descendants.  One  of  these,  Hrothgar,  builds 
a  great  hall,  Heorot.  The  monster  Grendel 
enters  the  hall  at  night  and  carries  off  thirty 
of  Hrothgar's  thanes,  and  haunts  the  hall  for 
twelve  years,  accomplishing  more  murders. 
Beowulf,  the  nephew  of  Higelac,  king  of  the 
Geats  (a  tribe  living  in  the  south  of  Sweden), 
hearing  of  the  trouble,  comes  with  fourteen 
companions  across  the  sea  to  give  assistance, 
and  is  welcomed  by  Hrothgar,  but  taunted 
by  Unferth,  one  of  Hrothgar's  followers,  for 
his  defeat  by  Breca  in  a  swimming-match.' 
Beowulf  tells  the  true  story  and  retorts  on 
Unferth  for  not  facing  Grendel.  Beowulf 
and  his  men  sleep  in  the  hall ;  Grendel  breaks 
in  and  devours  Hondscio,  one  of  these,  and 
seizes  Beowulf,  who  unarmed  wrestles  with 
him  and  tears  out  his  arm.  Grendel,  mor- 
tally wounded,  makes  off  to  his  lair.  Hroth- 
gar rewards  Beowulf,  and  Unferth  is  silenced. 
The  minstrel  sings  the  tale  of  Finn,  a  Frisian 
king,  who  had  carried  off  Hildeburh,  and  was 
attacked  by  her  brothers  Hnaef  and  Hengest, 
and  of  the  recovery  of  Hildeburh  by  Guthlaf 
and  Oslaf.  Grendel's  mother,  a  water-hag, 
enters  the  hall  to  revenge  her  son,  and  carries 
off  Aeschere,  the  counsellor  of  Hrothgar. 


BfiRANGER 

Beowulf  prepares  to  attack  her.  Unferth, 
recognizing  the  greater  prowess  of  Beowulf, 
lends  him  his  sword.  Beowulf  dives  into  the 
mere,  and  reaches  a  cave  where  the  witch's 
lair  is,  and  rights  with  her,  but  the  sword 
fails  to  wound  her.  She  nearly  kills  him,  but 
his  woven  armour,  with  God's  assistance, 
saves  him.  He  sees  an  old  sword,  made  by 
giants,  among  the  armour  in  the  cave,  and 
with  this  cuts  off  the  witch's  head,  and  also 
the  head  of  Grendel,  who  is  lying  in  the  cave. 
But  their  blood  melts  the  sword,  of  which 
only  the  hilt  remains.  With  this  and  the 
head  of  Grendel,  Beowulf  returns  to  Heorot. 
Hrothgar  praises  him,  but  warns  him  against 
pride.  Beowulf  and  his  Geats  return  to  their 
own  land.  Beowulf  surrenders  the  gifts  he 
has  received  to  Higelac,  his  king,  and  receives 
in  return  the  sword  of  Hrethel,  seven  thou- 
sands in  money,  and  a  part  of  the  kingdom. 

After  the  death  of  Higelac  and  Heardred 
his  son,  Beowulf  succeeds  to  the  kingdom, 
where  he  reigns  for  fifty  years.  A  dragon 
which  has  been  guarding  a  treasure  finds  that 
it  has  been  robbed,  and  devastates  the 
country.  Beowulf  and  eleven  companions 
go  out  to  meet  it.  The  dragon  issues  from 
its  mound  breathing  out  fire.  All  the  com- 
panions, save  Wiglaf,  fly  to  a  wood.  Beowulf's 
sword  breaks,  and  the  dragon  sets  its  teeth  in 
Beowulf  s  neck.  Wiglaf  wounds  it,  and  its 
strength  wanes.  Beowulf  kills  it,  but  is 
mortally  wounded.  He  bids  Wiglaf  bring  the 
treasure  out  of  the  mound,  that  he  may  see 
it.  He  directs  that  a  barrow  be  built  for  him 
on  the  Whale's  Headland,  and  dies.  Wiglaf 
rebukes  his  companions  and  sends  word  of 
Beowulf's  death.  The  messenger  warns  the 
people  of  coming  troubles.  Beowulf's  body 
is  burnt  on  a  pyre,  with  his  armour  and  the 
treasure. 

Many  of  the  persons  referred  to  in  Beowulf 
are  known  to  us  from  other  sources,  and  it  is 
possible  to  fix  the  date  of  the  historical  events 
in  the  first  part  of  the  6th  cent.  The  date  of 
the  composition  of  the  poem  is  more  un- 
certain, for  it  includes  religious  elements 
both  of  a  Christian  and  a  heathen  character. 

There  is  a  good  edition  of  the  poem  by 
F.  Klaeber  (1922)  and  a  number  of  transla- 
tions, one  of  them  by  William  Morris  in 
collaboration  with  A.  J.  Wyatt  (1892). 

Beppo:  A  Venetian  Story,  a  poem  by  Lord 
Byron  (q.v.),  published  in  1818. 

The  poem  tells,  in  the  mock-heroic  style, 
with  much  gaiety  and  gentle  irony,  the  story 
of  a  Venetian  carnival,  at  which  a  lady's 
husband,  Beppo  (short  for  Giuseppe),  who 
has  been  absent  for  many  years,  returns  in 
Turkish  garb,  and  confronts  her  and  the 
cavaliere  servente  whom  she  has  taken  to 
herself.  No  tragedy  follows,  but  reconcilia- 
tion over  a  cup  of  coffee. 

B&RANGER,  PIERRE  JEAN  DE  (1780- 
1857),  French  poet,  the  author  of  cheerful 
trivial  songs  of  Parisian  bourgeois  life,  whose 
natural  and  unconventional  form,  a  reaction 


[go] 


BERENICE 

from  the  classical  rigidity,  gained  them  much 
popularity. 

Berenice,  the  wife  of  Ptolemy  III  Euergetes. 
When  her  husband  invaded  Syria  to  avenge 
the  death  of  his  sister  (also  named  Berenice) 
who  had  been  murdered  by  her  husband 
Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  she  dedicated  her 
hair  as  a  votive  offering  for  his  safe  return. 
This  hair,  placed  in  the  temple  of  Arsinoe  at 
Zephyrium,  was  stolen  thence  and  said  to 
have  become  the  constellation  Coma  Bere- 
nices (near  the  tail  of  Leo).  Callimachus  wrote 
a  poem  in  celebration  of  it,  which  Catullus 
translated.  Berenice  was  put  to  death  by  her 
son,  Ptolemy  IV  Philopator,  in  A.D.  221. 

Berenice,  daughter  of  Agrippa  I  (grandson 
of  Herod  the  Great),  and  wife  of  her  uncle 
Herod,  king  of  Chalcis.  After  his  death  in 
A.D.  48,  she  lived  with  her  brother  Agrippa  II. 
She  is  the  Bernice  of  Acts  xxv.  Titus  is  said 
to  have  fallen  in  love  with  her.  She  is  the 
subject  of  Otway's  play,  'Titus  and  Berenice', 
and  of  Racine's  'Berenice'. 

Bergamask  or  BERGOMASK,  the  name  of  a 
dance  'framed  in  imitation  of  the  people  of 
Bergamo  (a  province  in  the  state  of  Venice), 
ridiculed  as  clownish  in  their  manners  and 
dialect*  (Nares),  referred  to  in  Shakespeare's 
'Midsummer  Night's  Dream',  v.  360. 

BERGERAG,  CYRANO  DE  (1619-55),  a 
gallant  French  soldier,  whom  a  bad  wound  in 
the  Spanish  War  turned  into  an  author  of 
comedies.  He  is  the  subject  of  a  highly  suc- 
cessful play  by  the  French  dramatist,  Ed- 
mond  Rostand  (1898). 
BERGSON,  HENRI  (1859-  ),  French 
philosopher,  born  in  Paris  of  Anglo-Jewish 
parents,  taught  philosophy  at  various  schools 
and  universities  in  France  until  he  gave  up 
teaching  in  1918.  His  principal  works  in- 
clude: 'L'eVolution  cre"atrice'  (1907),  'Matiere 
et  me'moire'  (i  896),  'La  perception  du  change- 
ment*  (Oxford  lecture,  1911),  'Le  rire*  (1900), 
*Dure*e  et  simultanelte'  (a  discussion  of 
Einstein's  theories,  1922). 

His  philosophical  attitude  may  be  gathered, 
in  its  main  lines,  from  the  Oxford  lecture 
above  mentioned.  The  insoluble  difficulties 
and  antinomies  of  metaphysics,  according  to 
Bergson,  arise  from  the  attempt  to  seek  the 
reality  beyond  the  appearance  of  change  and 
movement,  and  the  immutable  and  stable 
which  are  subject  to  these,  by  a  faculty 
radically  distinct  from  the  senses.  Our 
logical  and  mathematical  mental  processes 
are  incapable  of  revealing  the  real  world.  We 
must  return  to  the  immediate  perception  of 
change  and  movement.  It  is  a  delusion  to 
suppose  that  movement,  like  the  space  it 
traverses,  is  divisible,  and  that  change  is  a 
series  of  successive  states.  The  instability  of 
change  and  the  immutability  of  substance  are 
mere  abstractions,  which  the  mind  hypo- 
statizes  into  multiple  states  on  the  one  hand, 
and  thing  or  substance  on  the  other.  Cases 
of  apparent  stability  are  the  outcome  of  a 


BERKELEY 

situation  analogous  to  that  of  two  trains 
moving  parallel  at  the  same  rate,  the  harmony 
of  movement  to  movement  giving  the  im- 
pression of  immobility.  There  is  change,  not 
things  that  change ;  there  is  movement,  but  not 
necessarily  invariable  objects  that  move.  The 
indivisible  continuity  of  change  constitutes 
true  duration,  what  is  called  time,  but  time 
perceived  as  indivisible.  Change  is  reality 
itself,  the  very  substance  of  things,  whether 
we  are  dealing  with  self  or  the  external  world. 
In  indivisible  change,  past  and  present  are 
one  (font  corps).  All  things  should  be  per- 
ceived sub  specie  durationis. 

Berinthia,  a  character  in  Vanbrugh's  cThe 
Relapse*  and  Sheridan's  *A  Trip  to  Scar- 
borough* (qq.v.). 

Berkeley,  The  Old  Woman  of,  a  poem  by 
Southey  (q.v.). 

BERKELEY,  GEORGE  (1685-1753),  phi- 
losopher, was  born  at  Dysert  Castle,  in  Kil- 
kenny county,  and  educated  at  Kilkenny  and 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  came  to  Eng- 
land in  1713,  and  became  associated  with 
Steele,  Addison,  Pope,  Swift,  and  others. 
He  travelled  abroad  and  later  went  to  America 
on  philanthropic  business.  He  was  dean  of 
Derry  in  1724  and  bishop  of  Cloyne  in  1734, 
where  he  remained  till  1752.  He  then  re- 
tired to  Oxford,  where  lie  died. 

His  chief  works  were  the  'Essay  towards  a 
New  Theory  of  Vision*  (1709)  on  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  ideas  derived  from  sight  and 
feeling  and  their  'arbitrary*  though  constant 
connexion ;  the  'Principles  of  Human  Know- 
ledge' (1710);  and  the  'Dialogues  between 
Hylas  and  Philonous*  (1713).  These  embody 
his  earlier  system  of  philosophy.  He  pub- 
lished his  dialogues  of  'Alciphron*  (q.v.)  in 
1732,  his  'Theory  of  Vision'  in  1733,  and 
'Siris*,  a  miscellany  on  the  virtues  of  tar- 
water  for  the  body  and  of  a  more  mystical 
philosophy  than  that  of  his  earlier  years  for 
the  soul,  in  1744.  In  1713  he  contributed  to 
the  'Guardian*  (q.v.)  essays  against  the  free- 
thinkers ;  in  1734  ne  published  the  'Analyst*, 
a  criticism  of  the  new  mathematical  positions ; 
and  in  1735-7  the  'Querist*,  dealing  with 
questions  of  social  reform.  His  'Common- 
place Book*  was  discovered  and  published  in 
1871. 

Berkeley  takes  up  the  evolution  of  English 
philosophy  where  Locke  left  it  (see  Essay 
concerning  the  Human  Understanding),  and  his 
work  is  primarily  a  destructive  criticism  of 
Locke's  external,  material,  reality.  Only  par- 
ticular things  exist,  and  since  these  are  only 
a  complex  of  sensations,  if  we  abstract  from 
them  that  of  which  we  have  perception, 
nothing  remains.  The  'support*  of  ideas  or 
sensations  is  percipient  mind.  The  esse  of 
material  things  is  percipi.  Locke's  distinc- 
tion between  the  primary  and  secondary 
qualities  of  objects  has  no  validity.  Both  are 
exclusively  mental.  Locke's  dualism  of  spirit 
and  matter,  like  that  of  Descartes,  leads,  in 
Berkeley's  view,  to  scepticism  and  atheism 


3868 


[Si] 


BERLIN 

(of  which  Hobbes  (q.v.)  is  the  prominent 
example),  and  these  Berkeley  was  specially 
concerned  to  combat.  According  to  him, 
spirit  is  the  only  real  cause  or  power.  Of  the 
existence  of  our  own  percipient  mind  we  have 
knowledge  from  experience.  The  existence 
of  other  finite  spirits  is  at  least  probable, 
principally  because  they  speak  to  us.  For  the 
same  reason  we  believe  in  the  existence  of 
God,  who  speaks  to  us  in  the  whole  system  of 
nature,  through  the  sense-experiences  pro- 
duced in  our  minds  in  a  regular  and  uniform 
manner. 

In  his  'Alciphron'  Berkeley,  through  the 
medium  of  pleasant  Platonic  dialogues,  com- 
bats the  views  that  he  attributes  to  the  deists, 
discusses  the  nature  of  virtue,  finds  proof  of 
the  existence  of  God  in  the  theory  of  vision, 
&c.  In  his  last  work,  'Siris',  his  idealism 
takes  a  more  transcendental  form,  and  the 
intellectual  processes  are  exalted  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  senses.  Berkeley  was  a  master 
of  English  prose;  he  is  remarkable  for  his 
lucidity,  grace,  and  dignity  of  expression. 

Berlin  or  BERLINE,  an  old-fashioned  four- 
wheeled  covered  carriage,  with  a  seat  behind 
covered  with  a  hood,  introduced  by  an  officer 
of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  c.  1670. 

Berlin  Decree,  see  Or  den  in  CounciL 

Bermootnes,  THE,  in  Shakespeare's  'The 
Tempest',  I.  ii,  are  the  Bermuda  islands,  dis- 
covered by  Juan  de  Bermudez,  a  Spaniard,  in 
1515,  and"  rediscovered  by  English  explorers 
in  1609. 

Bermudas,  They  see  MarvelL 

'THE  BERMUDAS',  also  called  'The  Streights' 
(Straits),  was  a  cant  term  for  certain  obscure 
courts  and  alleys  near  St.  Martin's  Lane, 
frequented  by  thieves,  debtors,  knights  of 
the  post,  &c. 

BERNARD,  ST.  (109  i-i  1 53),  a  great  French 
ecclesiastic,  founder  of  the  abbey  of  Clair- 
vaux,  one  of  the  four  'Latin  Fathers',  the 
glory  of  the  Cistercian  Order,  and  practically 
dictator  of  Christendom.  In  the  schism  of 
1130  between  Anacletus  and  Innocent  II, 
Bernard  vigorously  supported  Innocent.  He 
preached  the  second  Crusade.  He  was  an 
adversary  of  Abelard  (q.v.).  He  left  some 
remarkable  letters  and  theological  treatises, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Latin 
hymnody. 

BERNARD  OF  MORLAIX,  a  Benedictine 
monk  of  the  monastery  of  Cluny  in  Burgundy, 
lived  in  the  i2th  cent.,  and  was  author  of  the 
beautiful  Latin  poem,  'De  ContempruMundi*, 
of  which  Archbishop  Trench  (q.v.)  published 
extracts  in  his  'Sacred  Latin  Poetry',  and 
which  inspired  the  hymn,  'Jerusalem  the 
Golden',  by  Neale  (q.v.). 

Bernardine,  see  Cistercian. 
Bernardo  del  Garpio,  a  semi-legendary 
hero  of  Spanish  chivalry,  the  son  of  a  secret 
marriage  between  the  Count  de  Saldana  and 


BERSERK 

the  sister  of  Alfonso  the  Chaste.  His  father 
was  imprisoned  by  the  king,  and  Spanish 
ballads  deal  with  Bernardo's  attempts  to  get 
his  release,  his  rebellion  after  the  Count's 
death  in  prison,  and  his  other  achievements. 
He  lived  in  the  9th  cent.,  but  according  to  one 
legend  he  pressed  Roland  to  death  in  his  arms 
at  Roncesvalles  (see  'Don  Quixote*,  i.  xxvi). 
The  legend  of  Bernardo  del  Carpio  is  a  kind  of 
rejoinder  by  the  Spaniards  to  the  chansons  of 
French  prowess  associated  with  Charlemagne 
and  Roland. 
Berners,  BELLE  or  ISOPEL,  see  Belle  Earners. 

BERNERS,  JOHN  BOURCHIER,  second 
Baron  (1467-1533),  statesman  and  author. 
He  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1516 
and  attended  Henry  VIII  at  the  Field  of  the 
Cloth  of  Gold.  He  translated  the  'Chronicles' 
of  Froissart  (q.v.,  1523-5);  'Huon  of  Bor- 
deaux' (q.v.,  probably  printed  in  1534); 
Guevara's  'El  Relox  de  Principes*  under  the 
title  of  the  'Golden  Boke  of  Marcus  Aurelius* 
(1534) ;  and  another  Spanish  work,  the  'Castell 
of  Love*  (printed  1540). 

BERNERS,  JULIANA,  see  Book  of  St. 
Albans. 

Bernhardt,  SARAH  (RosiNE  BERNARD)  (i  845- 
1923),  a  celebrated  French  actress,  partly 
of  Jewish  descent.  Her  earliest  successes, 
during  the  period  1867-77,  were  in  Victor 
Hugo's  'Ruy  Bias',  as  Zanetto  in  CoppeVs 
'Le  Passant',  as  Dona  Sol  in  Hugo's  'Her- 
nani',  and  as  Phedre  in  Racine's  tragedy. 
They  were  largely  due  to  her  beautiful  voice 
and  magnetic  personality.  She  was  fre- 
quently seen  in  London.  The  loss  of  a  leg, 
late  in  her  life,  owing  to  an  accident,  did  not 
dimmish  her  activity,  and  she  acted  at  the 
front  during  the  War. 

BERNI,  FRANCESCO  (1490-1536),  an 
Italian  poet  of  the  mock-heroic  school,  which 
took  from  him  the  name  of  Bernesque.  It  is 
this  school  on  which  Byron  modelled  his 
'Don  Juan'  and  'Beppo'.  Berni  wrote  a 
rifacimento  or  recast  of  Boiardo's  'Orlando 
Innamorato',  which  ousted  the  original  in  the 
estimation  of  his  countrymen. 

Bernstein,  BARONESS,  see  Virginians  (The). 

Berosus  (BAR-()SEA),  a  priest  at  Babylon  in 
the  reign  of  Antiochus  Soter  (280-261  B.C.), 
author  of  chronicles  of  Chaldea,  known  to  us 
only  through  'quotations  at  second  or  third 
hand'  (Sayce). 

The  'Berosi  Antiquitatum  libri  quinque*, 
forged  by  Annius,  a  monk  of  Viterbo  ( 
cent.),  were  long  accepted  as  genuine. 

Berowne, in  Shakespeare's  'Love's  Labour's 
Lost'  (q.v.),  one  of  the  three  lords  attending 
on  the  king  of  Navarre. 

Berserk,  BERSERKER,  from  an  Icelandic  word 
of  disputed  etymology,  a  wild  Norse  warrior 
of  great  strength  and  ferocious  courage,  who 
fought  in  the  battle-field  with  a  frenzied  fury 
known  as  the  'berserker  rage'.  It  often 


[82] 


BERTHA 

means  a  lawless  bravo  or  freebooter.  [OED.] 

The  word  is  sometimes  explained  as  equiva- 
lent to  'baresark',  one  who  fought  without 
armour,  in  his  bare  shirt. 

Bertha,  a  character  (i)  in  Scott's  'Count 
Robert  of  Paris'  (q.v.) ;  (2)  in  Dickens 's  'The 
Cricket  on  the  Hearth*  (q.v.). 
Bertha,  BIG,  the  German  gun  that  during 
the  Great  War  fired  on  Paris  at  a  range  of 
70  (?)  miles;  used  generically  for  all  big 
German  guns. 

Bertlie  au  grand  pied  (d.  783),  the  wife  of 
P6pin  le  Bref  and  mother  of  Charlemagne. 
She  is  the  subject  of  an  early  French  chanson 
de  geste. 

Bertram;  or  the  Castle  of  St.  Aldobrand,  a 
play  by  Maturin  (q.v.),  produced  in  1816, 
highly  successful  in  its  time,  but  rendered 
unreadable  to-day  by  its  overwrought  senti- 
ment and  passion. 

Bertram,  COUNT  OF  ROUSILLON,  a  character 
in  Shakespeare's  'All's  Well  that  Ends  Well' 
(q.v.). 

BERTRAM,  CHARLES  (1723-65),  some- 
times self-styled  CHARLES  JULIUS,  literary 
forger,  English  teacher  in  a  school  for  naval 
cadets  at  Copenhagen.  He  produced-between 
1747  and  1757  an  alleged  transcript  of  a 
manuscript  work  on  Roman  antiquities  by 
Richard  of  Cirencester  (q.v.),  together  with 
a  copy  of  an  ancient  itinerary  of  Britain,  at 
many  points  supplementing  and  correcting 
the  itinerary  of  Antoninus.  He  also  published 
works  of  Gildas  and  Nennius,  with  the  text 
of  his  forgery  and  a  commentary  on  it,  at 
Copenhagen,  1757,  and  several  philological 
works.  His  imposture  was  finally  exposed 
by  B.  B.  Woodward  in  the  'Gentleman's 
Magazine*,  1866-7. 

Bertram,  HAKRY,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Guy  Mannering'  (q.v.). 

Bertram  Risingham,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Rokeby'  (q.v.). 

Besant,  MRS.  ANNIE  (1847-  ),  n&e  Wood, 
an  ardent  supporter  of  Liberal  causes,  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Mme  Blavatsky  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Theosophical  Society  (q.v.)  in 
1889.  She  was  President  of  the  Society  in 
1907.  In  1917  she  was  President  of  the 
Indian  National  Congress  and  has  been 
active  in  the  cause  of  Indian  self-government. 

BESANT,  SIR  WALTER  (1836-1901), 
was  educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  He  published 
'Early  French  Poetry'  in  1868  and  'The 
French  Humourists*  in  1873,  was  secretary  to 
the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  1868-86, 
and  with  E.  H.  Palmer  wrote  'Jerusalem* 
(1871).  As  a  contributor  to  'Once  a  Week',  he 
became  acquainted  in  1869  with  James  Rice, 
with  whom  he  collaborated  in  several  novels, 
including  'Ready-Money  Mortiboy*  (1871), 
'The  Golden  Butterfly*  (1876),  'By  Celia's 
Arbour*  (1878),  and  'The  Chaplain  of  the 


BESTIARIES 

Fleet*  (1881).  From  1882  he  continued  to 
write  fiction  without  collaboration,  chiefly 
based  on  historical  incident,  e.g.,  'Dorothy 
Forster*  (1884)  and  'For  Faith  and  Freedom* 
(1888).  'The  Revolt  of  Man'  (1882)  is  a 
satirical  romance,  in  which  Besant  shows 
himself  a  critic  of  women's  claims  to  political 
power.  In  'All  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men* 
(1882)  and  'Children  of  Gibeon'  (1886),  he 
called  attention  to  social  evils  in  East  London, 
and  stimulated  the  foundation  of  'The 
People's  Palace',  Mile  End,  for  intellectual 
improvement  and  rational  amusement  (1887). 
He  helped  to  found  the  Society  of  Authors 
(1884),  and  edited  'The  Author*  (1890).  He 
defined  the  financial  position  of  authors  in 
'The  Pen  and  the  Book'  (1899).  In  1894 
Besant  commenced  the  'Survey  of  London*, 
which  he  unfortunately  left  unfinished  (the 
work  appeared  in  1902-12),  but  published 
'London'  in  1892,  'Westminster'  in  1895,  and 
'South  London'  in  1899.  His  other  works 
include  'The  Eulogy  of  Richard  Jefferies* 
(1888),  'Captain  Cook*  (1889),  and  (with 
W.  J.  Brodribb)  'Constantinople*  (1879). 
His  'Autobiography*  appeared  in  1902. 
Bess  o'  Bedlam,  see  Bedlam. 

Bess  of  Hardwick,  Elizabeth  Talbot, 
countess  of  Shrewsbury  (1518—1608),  daugh- 
ter and  co-heir  of  John  Hardwick  of  Hard- 
wick,  Derbyshire.  She  is  described  as  'a 
woman  of  masculine  understanding  and  con- 
duct, proud,  furious,  selfish,  anda  unfeeling* 
(Lodge).  To  her  care  and  to  that  of  her 
husband,  the  sixth  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  was  entrusted  in  1569  at 
Tutbury.  She  married  her  daughter  to 
Charles  Stuart,  younger  brother  of  Darnley 
(Arabella  Stuart  was  the  issue  of  the  marriage), 
and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  in  conse- 
quence. She  was  herself  four  times  married 
and  inherited  the  fortunes  of  her  four  hus- 
bands, her  income  being  estimated  at 
£60,000.  She  built  Chatsworth  (not  the 
present  building)  and  Hardwick  Hall. 

Bessus,  in  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  'A 
King  and  no  King'  (q.v.),  a  cowardly  brag- 
gart. 

The  historical  Bessus  was  Satrap  of  Bactria 
under  Darius  III.  After  the  defeat  of  the 
latter  by  Alexander  the  Great  at  Arbela, 
Bessus  murdered  Darius,  assumed  the  title  of 
king,  was  betrayed  to  Alexander,  and  put  to 
death. 

Bessy,  the  name  given  to  one  of  the^stock 
characters,  a  man  dressed  as  a  woman,  in  the 
medieval  sword-dance  (q.v.)  and  in  the 
Mummer's  Play  (q.v.). 
Bestiaries,  allegorical  poems,  popular  from 
the  sth  cent,  to  the  Middle  Ages,  in  which 
human  beings  are  satirized  under  the  form  of 
beasts,  birds,  and  fishes,  and  often  in  the 
later  periods,  I2th-i4th  cents.,  richly  illus- 
trated with  miniatures.  The  chief  example 
is  the  romance  of  Reynard  (q.v.),  the  fox. 
They  have  their  origin  in  ancient  times, 


[83] 


G2 


BETHGELERT 

notably  in  the  fables  of  Aesop  in  Greece,  and 
in  those  of  Phaedrus  and  Babrius  in  Rome. 
Later  came  the  PHYSIOLOGI,  in  which  natural 
history  was  combined  with  Christian  re- 
ligious instruction.  There  is  an  Old  English 
'Physiologus',  which  has  been  attributed  to 
Cynewulf,  the  animals  presented  being  the 
panther,  the  whale,  and  the  partridge ;  and  a 
'Bestiary*  of  the  period  1150-1250,  based  on 
the  Latin  'Physiologus'  of  Thetbaldus.  The 
'Owl  and  the  Nightingale*  (q.v.)  contains 
kindred  elements.  The  name  Bestiaries  is 
also  applied  to  early  popular  treatises  on 
natural  history. 

Bethgelert,  meaning  'grave  of  Gelert*. 
According  to  a  story  traditional  in  the  village 
at  the  foot  of  Snowdon,  where  Llewellyn  the 
Great  had  his  abode,  Gelert  was  a  hound 
given  by  Kong  John  to  Llewellyn.  On  one 
occasion  this  favourite  hound  was  missing 
when  Llewellyn  went  to  the  chase.  On  his 
return  he  found  the  hound  smeared  with 
blood,  his  child's  bed  in  disorder,  while  the 
child  was  not  to  be  seen.  Thinking  that  the 
hound  had  devoured  the  child,  the  father 
killed  Gelert  with  his  sword.  The  child, 
awakened  by  the  hound's  dying  yell,  cried 
out  from  under  a  heap  of  coverings,  and  under 
the  bed  was  found  a  great  wolf  which  the 
hound  had  slain. 

The  story  is  the  subject  of  a  ballad  by 
W.  R.  Spencer  (1811).  Similar  stories  are 
found  in  other  places  and  in  the  'Gesta 
Romanorum*,  and  Baring-Gould  ('Curious 
Myths3)  traces  their  origin  to  Indian  sources. 
Bethnal  Green,  see  Beggars  Daughter  of 
Bednal  Green.  Bethnal  Green  was  a  hamlet 
separated  from  London  by  fields  when  Pepys 
drove  there  by  coach  to  dine  at  Sir  W.  Rider's 
(16  June  1663),  at  the  house  said  to  have  been 
built  by  the  'Blind  Beggar*. 
Betrothed,  The,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott 
(q.v.),  published  in  1825. 

Though  styled  one  of  the  'Tales  of  the 
Crusaders',  it  has  in  fact  little  to  do  with  these. 
The  scene  is  laid  in  the  Welsh  Marches,  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.  Eveline  Berenger,  the 
sole  child  of  a  Norman  baron,  finds  herself 
in  grave  peril  when  the  fierce  Welsh  prince, 
Gwenwyn,  besieges  her  father's  castle  of 
Garde  Douloureuse,  and  the  old  warrior 
himself  is  killed  in  an  imprudent  sally.  She 
is  rescued  by  Hugo  de  Lacy,  Constable  of 
Chester,  and  under  the  influence  of  gratitude 
and  of  a  vow  made  in  the  moment  of 
danger,  consents  to  be  affianced  to  him, 
though  his  age  commands  her  respect  rather 
than  her  love,  and  he  is  under  pledge  more- 
over to  set  off  immediately  to  the  Crusade. 
Left  to  the  care  of  his  nephew,  the  gallant 
Damian,  whom  she  secretly  loves,  and  ex- 
posed not  only  to  malicious  tongues  but  to 
the  machinations  of  Randel,  another  de  Lacy- 
kinsman,  Eveline  spends  the  years  of  his 
absence  in  a  position  of  much  difficulty  and 
danger.  Hugo's  return  is  only  just  in  time  to 
extricate  Eveline  and  Damian  from  a  position 


BEULAH 

of  the  utmost  peril;  for  they  are  charged  with 
high  treason,  and  accused  moreover  of  taking 
a  disloyal  advantage  of  his  absence  to  indulge 
their  mutual  love.  The  old  Constable  clears 
up  the  situation,  releases  Eveline  from  her 
pledge  to  him,  and  places  her  hand  in  that  of 
Damian. 

Betteredgej  GABRIEL,  in  Wilkie  Collins's 
'The  Moonstone*  (q.v.),  steward  in  Lady 
Verinder's  house  and  narrator  of  parts  of  the 
story. 

BETTERTON,  THOMAS  (i635?-i7io), 
actor  and  dramatist,  joined  Sir  John  D'Ave- 
nant's  company  at  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  in 
1 66 1,  and  was  associated  in  the  management 
of  the  Dorset  Garden  Theatre  from  1671. 
He  opened  a  'theatre  in  Little  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields'  in  1695,  producing  Congreve's  'Love 
for  Love',  and  in  1705  the  theatre  erected  by 
Sir  John  Vanbrugh  in  the  Haymarket.  His 
impersonations  included  Hamlet,  Mercutio, 
Sir  Toby  Belch,  Macbeth,  Bosola  (in  the 
'Duchess  of  Main*),  and  Heartwell  (in  Con- 
greve's 'The  Old  Bachelor').  His  dramas 
include  the  'Roman  Virgin*,  acted  1670, 
adapted  from  Webster's  'Appius  and  Vir- 
ginia'; the  'Prophetess*,  1690,  an  opera  from 
the  'Prophetess*  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher; 
'King  Henry  IV,  1700  (in  which  he  played 
FalstafT),  from  Shakespeare;  the  'Amorous 
Widow*,  c.  1670,  from  Moliere's  'Georges 
Dandin';  and  the  'Bondman',  printed  in 
1719,  from  Massinger.  He  was  a  man  of  high 
character,  and  was  much  esteemed  as  an  actor 
by  his  contemporaries. 

Betterton,  MRS.  (d.  1711),  the  wife  of 
Thomas  Betterton  (q.v.),  at  first  known  on 
the  stage  as  Mrs.  Saunderson,  the  first 
notable  actress  on  the  English  stage  (until 
1660  female  parts  were  taken  by  men  or  boys). 
Mrs.  Betterton  was  the  first  woman  to  act  a 
series  of  Shakespeare's  great  female  charac- 
ters, such  as  Lady  Macbeth,  Ophelia,  and 
Juliet. 

Betty,  Miss,  in  Fielding's  'Amelia*  (q.v.),  the 
spiteful  and  rapacious  sister  of  the  heroine. 

Betty,  WILLIAM  HENRY  WEST  (1791-1874), 
actor,  called  the  'Young  Roscius'.  He  played 
Romeo  at  Belfast,  and  Hamlet  and  Prince 
Arthur  at  Dublin  in  1803,  when  only  twelve. 
He  appeared  in  London  in  1804—5.  He 
subsequently  went  to  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, returned  to  the  stage  in  1813,  and 
finally  retired  in  1824. 

Betty  Martin,  ALL  MY  EYE  AND,  a  colloquial 
expression  meaning  'all  humbug*,  occurs  in 
Grose's  'Classical  Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar 
Tongue*  (1785).  The  shorter  form,  'all  my 
eye',  occurs  in  Goldsmith,  'The  Good- 
natured  Man'  (1768).  The  fanciful  deriva- 
tion from  an  imaginary  Latin  prayer,  'Ah, 
mihi,  beate  Martine*,  has  no  authority. 

Beulah,  LAND  OF,  see  Isaiah  bcii.  4.  In 
Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's  Progress*,  it  lies  'beyond 
the  valley  of  the  Shadow  of  Death  and  also  out 


BEUVES  DE  HANSTONE 

of  the  reach  of  Giant  Despair'.  Here  the 
pilgrims  were  in  sight  of  the  Heavenly  City, 
'they  heard  continually  the  singing  of  birds 
and  saw  every  day  the  flowers  appear  in  the 
earth*. 

Beuves  de  Hanstone,  a  isth-cent.  French 
chanson  de  geste,  of  which  Bevis  of  Hampton 
(q.v.)  is  the  subject. 

Beverly  of  Graustark,  see  under  Grau- 
stark. 

Bevis  of  Hampton t  a  popular  verse  romance 
of  4,000  lines,  of  the  early  I4th  cent.  The 
mother  of  Bevis,  wife  of  Guy,  earl  of 
Southampton,  having  procured  the  murder 
of  her  husband  by  Mordure,  son  of  the 
emperor  of  Germany,  marries  the  murderer. 
Bevis  is  sold  as  a  slave  and  given  to  the 
king  of  Armenia,  who  offers  him  his  daughter 
Josian  as  wife.  Bevis,  as  a  Christian,  at  first 
refuses  the  union,  but  saves  Josian  from  an 
unwelcome  suitor,  Brademond;  and  finally 
accepts  Josian  on  her  promise  to  become  a 
Christian.  The  king,  misled  as  to  the  lovers* 
relations,  sends  Bevis  with  a  sealed  letter  to 
Brademond,  who  imprisons  him  for  seven 
years.  Josian  is  married  first  to  Yvor,  king 
of  Mombrant,  then  to  Earl  Miles,  whom  she 
hangs  on  the  wedding  night.  Bevis  rescues 
her  from  the  stake,  and  takes  her  to  England. 
He  defeats  and  slays  the  emperor  and  Yvor. 
After  various  adventures,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  converts  the  giant  Ascapart  or 
Asclopard,  he  and  Josian  return  to  the  East. 
The  story  is  told  in  Drayton's  'Polyolbion' 
(ii.  259).  The  sword  of  Bevis  was  called 
'Morglay'. 

Bewick,  THOMAS  (1753-1828),  wood-en- 
graver, apprenticed  to,  and  subsequently 
partner  of,  Ralph  Beilby.  He  engraved  blocks 
for  Gay's  Tables'  (1779),  'Select  Fables' 
(1784),  'General  History  of  Quadrupeds' 
(1790),  'History  of  British  Birds*  (i797  and 
1804),  and  'Fables  of  Aesop*  (1818).  The 
text  of  the  'British  Birds'  was  by  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Cotes,  of  the  'Quadrupeds'  by  Beilby. 

BEYLE,  HENRI,  see  Stendhal 
Bezae,  CODEX,  see  Bible  (The). 

Bezonian,  from  Italian  bisogno,  Spanish 
bisono,  a  raw  recruit,  a  needy  beggar,  base 
fellow,  knave,  rascal.  'Under  which  king, 
Bezonian?  speak,  or  die'  (Shakespeare, 
'2  Henry  IV,  v.  iii.  1 16). 
Bianca,  (i)  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'The  Taming  of  the  Shrew'  (q.v.);  (2),  in  his 
'Othello'  (q.v.),  the  mistress  of  Cassio. 
Bianchi  and  Nerl,  'White'  and  'Black*,  the 
name  of  two  factions  formed  by  the  citizens 
of  Florence  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Ghi- 
bellines  in  the  isth  cent.  The  Bianchi, 
refusing  to  submit  to  the  directions  of  Pope 
Boniface,  and  threatened  by  the  approach  of 
Charles  of  Valois,  fled  from  the  city  (among 
them  Dante  and  the  father  of  Petrarch)  in 
1301,  and  ultimately  joined  the  Ghibellines. 


BIBLE 

BIA0ANAT02,  A  Declaration  of  that  Paradoxe 
or  Thesis  that  Self-Homicide  is  not  so  Naturally 
Sinne  that  it  may  never  be  otherwise)  by  John 
Donne  (q.v.),  published  in  1624. 

Bible,  THE.  (i)  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  The 
oldest  Hebrew  text  that  we  possess  of  this 
{Codex  Babylonicus  Petropolitanus)  is  com- 
paratively recent,  dating  only  from  916  A.D.  It 
is  a  Masoretic  text,  i.e.  one  prepared  by  the  gild 
of  scholars  called  Masoretes  (see  Masora).  Of 
much  earlier  date  ($th  cent.  B.C.)  is  the 
Samaritan  text  of  the  Pentateuch.  We  have 
also  the  Targums  or  Aramaic  paraphrases, 
written  at  various  times  subsequent  to  the 
date  when  Aramaic  superseded  Hebrew  as 
the  language  spoken  by  the  Jews  (shortly 
before  the  Christian  era).  The  Greek  version, 
known  as  the  Septuagint  (q.v.),  of  the  3rd 
cent.  B.C.  is  of  far  greater  importance. 
Other  translations  into  Greek  were  made  in 
the  2nd  cent.  A.D.  and  were  collected  in 
parallel  columns,  together  with  the  current 
Hebrew  text  and  a  revised  text  of  the  Septua- 
gint, by  Origen  in  his  Hexapla.  This  has 
perished  with  the  exception  of  the  revised 
Septuagint,  of  most  of  which  we  possess  an 
8th-cent.  copy.  In  addition  to  the  above, 
there  was  an  old  Latin  version  (known  as  Vetus 
Itala)  of  an  early  Greek  translation,  of  which 
fragments  alone  remain,  and  which  was 
superseded  by  Jerome's  Latin  text,  known  as 
the  Vulgate  (q.v.). 

(2)  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT.  Of  this  we 
possess  manuscripts  in  Greek,  and  manu- 
scripts of  translations  from  the  Greek  into 
Latin,  Syriac,  and  Coptic.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  the  Greek,  of  which  the 
chief  are  the  Codex  Vaticanus  and  the  Codex 
Sinaiticus,  uncial  manuscripts  of  the  4th  cent.; 
the  Codex  Bezae,  containing  the  Greek  text 
on  the  left-hand  page  and  the  Latin  on  the 
right,  probably  earlier  than  the  6th  cent.; 
and  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  an  uncial  of  the 
5th  cent.  Of  the  Latin  versions  there  were^ 
before  Jerome  undertook  their  revision  in  the 
Vulgate,  two  main  types  current  respectively 
in  Africa  and  Europe.  Several  manuscripts  of 
these  survive.  Of  the  Vulgate  text  there  are 
a  large  number  of  manuscripts,  of  which  the 
best  are  Northumbrian  (based  on  Italian 
originals),  Irish,  and  Spanish.  (See  in  this 
connexion  Amiatinus  Codex  and  Lindisfarne 
Gospels.) 

See  also  Bible  (The  English),  Mazarin  Bible, 
Zurich  Bible,  Polyglot  Bible,  Complutensian 
Polyglot,  Luther,  and  Gutenberg. 

Bible,  THE  ENGLISH.  Apart  from  para- 
phrases attributed  to  Csedmon  (q.v.)  and  the 
translation  by  Bede  (q.v.)  of  part  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John,  the  earliest  attempts  at 
translation  into  English  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures are  the  9th-  and  loth-cent,  glosses  and 
versions  of  the  Psalms,  followed  by  the  loth- 
cent.  glosses  and  versions  of  the  Gospels  (the 
'Durham  Book'  or  'Lindisfarne  Gospels', 
q.v.,  and  the  'West-Saxon  Gospels'),  and 
JElfric's  translation  of  the  O.T.  at  the  close 


[85] 


BIBLE 

of  the  same  century.  After  this  little  was 
done  until  the  time  of  Wycliffe  (q.v.),  to 
whom  and  his  followers  we  owe  the  two  I4th- 
cent.  versions  associated  with  his  name,  the 
first  complete  renderings  into  English  of  the 
Scriptures.  Of  these  two  versions,  taken 
from  the  Latin  text,  which  appeared  about 
1382  and  1388,  it  is  doubtful  how  much  was 
Wycliffe's  own  work.  The  second,  or  revised 
version,  was  a  great  improvement  on  ^the 
first,  and  is  a  readable  and  correct  translation. 

William  Tyndale  (q.v.)  was  the  first  to 
translate  the  N.T.  into  English  from  the 
Greek  text;  this  he  probably  did  in  Witten- 
berg, the  translation  being  printed  first  at 
Cologne,  and  when  this  was  interrupted,  at 
Worms  (1525-6).  In  1530  his  translation  of 
the  Pentateuch  was  printed  at  Marburg, 
followed  by  a  translation  of  the  Book  of 
Jonah.  These  translations  were  made  from 
the  Hebrew,  with  reference  also  to  the  Vul- 
gate, Erasmus's  Latin  version,  and  Luther's 
Bible.  Our  Authorized  Version  (see  below)  is 
essentially  the  text  of  Tyndale.  The  complete 
English  Bible  that  bears  the  name  of  Miles 
Coverdale  (q.v.)  was  printed  in  1535.  It  is 
not  a  translation  from  the  original  texts,  but 
probably  from  Luther's  version,  the  Zurich 
Bible,  and  the  Vulgate,  with  assistance  from 
Tyndale's  version.  A  second  edition  was 
issued  in  1537.  The  Prayer  Book  text  of  the 
Psalms  is  largely  Coverdale's  version. 

'Matthew's  Bible*  was  issued  in  I537» 
under  the  pseudonym  of  John  Matthew,  by 
John  Rogers  (isoo?~55).  He  was  a  friend  of 
Tyndale,  was  converted  to  Protestantism,  and 
prepared  and  annotated  his  version  for  publi- 
cation, Rogers  was  burnt  at  Smithfield  in 
Mary's  reign. 

'Taverner's  Bible*,  prepared  by  Richard 
Taverner  (i5os?-75),  was  a  revision  of 
Matthew's.  It  appeared  in  1539.  Richard 
Taverner  was  a  religious  author  who  was 
patronized  by  Wolsey  and  Cromwell,  was 
sent  to  the  Tower  on  the  latter's  fall, 
but  subsequently  obtained  the  favour  of 
Henry  VIII. 

The  'Great  Bible',  also  called  'Cranmer's 
Bible',  was  brought  out  in  1539  under  the 
auspices  of  Henry  VIII ;  Coverdale  was  placed 
by  Cromwell  in  charge  of  its  preparation. 
The  printing  of  it  was  begun  in  Paris  and 
finished  in  London. 

Towards  the  end  of  Henry  VIII's  reign, 
there  were  interdictions  on  the  use  of  the 
Bible.  During  Mary's  reign,  the  reformers 
took  refuge,  some  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
some  in  Geneva,  where  in  1560  appeared 
the  Genevan  or  'Breeches'  (q.v.)  Bible. 
It  had  a  marginal  commentary  which  proved 
agreeable  to  the  Puritans. 

In  1568  was  published  the  'Bishops'  Bible", 
an  edition  promoted  by  Archbishop  Parker 
to  counteract  the  popularity  of  the  Calvinistic 
Genevan  Bible;  while  Romanists  made  a 
translation,  known  as  the  Rheims  and  Douai 
version,  which  appeared,  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  1582,  the  Old  Testament  in  1609-10. 


BIBLE  IN  SPAIN 

It  is  characterized  by  the  frequent  use  of 
Latinisms. 

The  'Authorized  Version*  arose  out  of  a 
conference  at  Hampton  Court,  convened  by 
James  I  in  1604,  between  the  High  Church 
and  Low  Church  parties.  The  undertaking 
was  proposed  by  Dr.  Reynolds,  president  of 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  and  was 
supported  by  the  king.  The  revisers  were 
forty-seven  in  number,  divided  into  com- 
panies dealing  with  various  sections  of  the 
Bible,  and  were  drawn  from  the  most 
eminent  scholars  and  divines  of  the  day. 
They  were  instructed  to  follow  the  text  of  the 
'Bishops'  Bible*  wherever  they  could.  The 
work  of  revision  and  retranslation  occupied 
three  years  and  a  half,  and  the  so-called 
'Authorized  Version'  (it  was  not  authorized 
by  any  official  pronouncement)  appeared  in 
161 1.  It  is  practically  the  version  of  Tyndale 
with  some  admixture  from  Wycliffe.  Two 
issues  of  it  were  made  in  1611,  known  re- 
spectively as  tihie  'He  Bible*  and  the  'She 
Bible',  because  in  the  first  the  words  in  Ruth 
iii.  15  read  'and  he  went  into  the  citie',  and  in 
the  second  'and  she  went  into  the  citie'. 
Modern  bibles  are  based  with  slight _  varia- 
tions on  the  'She  Bible'.  Various  editions  of 
the  Bible  are  named  after  eccentricities  of 
wording  or  mistakes  in  the  printed  text;  a 
few  of  the  more  important  of  these,  such  as 
'Breeches  Bible*  and  'Vinegar  Bible',  are 
dealt  with  under  their  respective  names. 

In  1870  the  Convocation  of  Canterbury 
appointed  a  committee  to  consider  the 
question  of  revision,  and  as  a  consequence  of 
their  report  two  companies  were  constituted 
to  revise  the  authorized  versions  of  the  O.T. 
and  N.T.  respectively.  The  Revised  Text 
was  published,  of  the  N.T.  in  1881,  of  the 
O.T,  in  1884.  That  of  the  N.T.  was  un- 
favourably received,  owing  to  many  irritating 
and  apparently  unnecessary  alterations  of 
familiar  passages.  The  Revised  Version  of 
the  O.T.,  though  not  altogether  free  from 
these,  was  in  many  respects  an  improvement 
on  the  Authorized  text.  In  1923  the  Rev. 
James  MofFatt,  Washburn  Professor  of 
Church  History  in  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  produced  a  'New  Translation  of 
the  New  Testament',  and  in  1924  'The  Old 
Testament,  a  new  Translation*,  both  of  which 
caused  some  controversy. 

Bible  in  Spain,  The,  a  narrative  of  travel,  by 
Borrow  (q.v.),  published  in  1843. 

Borrow  travelled  in  Spain  as  colporteur  of 
bibles  for  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  from  1835  to  1840,  and  this  book 
purports  to  be  an  account  of  the  adventures 
that  he  met  with  in  that  country,  at  a  time 
of  great  disturbance  owing  to  the  Carlist 
troubles.  It  is  impossible  to  say  how  far  the 
various  incidents  recounted  actually  oc- 
curred ;  but  the  vivid  picture  that  the  author 
gives  of  Spain  is  unquestionably  true,  and  the 
work  is  one  of  the  best  of  English  books  of 
travel. 


[86] 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETY 

Bibliographical  Society,  THE,  founded  in 
1892.  Its  'Transactions*  were  first  published 
in  1893  (merged  with  'The  Library'  (q.v.)  in 
1920).  The  Society  publishes  also  separate 
monographs,  and  in  1926  issued  the  in- 
valuable 'Short-Title  Catalogue  of  English 
Books,  1475-1640*. 

Bibliography,  WORKS  OF,  see  under  Bohn, 
Brydges,  Dewey,  Dibdin  (T.  F.\  Hazlitt 
(W.  C.),  Lang,  Lowndesy  McKerrow,  Quaritch, 
Watt  (R.\  and  previous  entry. 

Bicester,  THE,  a  famous  pack  of  fox-hounds, 
whose  country  lies  round  the  town  of  Bicester 
in  Oxfordshire. 

Bickerstaff,  ISAAC,  a  fictitious  person  in- 
vented by  Swift  (q.v.).  A  cobbler,  John 
Partridge,  claiming  to  be  an  astrologer,  had 
published  predictions  in  the  form  of  an 
almanac.  Swift  in  the  beginning  of  1708 
produced  a  parody  entitled  'Predictions  for 
the  ensuing  year,  by  Isaac  BickerstafF,  in 
which  he  foretold  the  death  of  Partridge  on 
29  March.  On  30  March  he  published  a 
letter  giving  an  account  of  Partridge's  end. 
Partridge  indignantly  protested  that  he  was 
still  alive,  but  Swift  retorted  in  a  'Vindica- 
tion* proving  that  he  was  really  dead.  Other 
writers  took  up  the  joke,  and  Steele,  when  he 
launched  'The  Tatler'  in  1709,  adopted  the 
name  of  Bickerstaff  for  the  supposed  author. 

BIGKERSTAFFE,  ISAAC  (d.  1812?),  an 
Irish  playwright,  who  produced  many  success- 
ful comedies  and  opera  libretti,  including  the 
popular  comic  opera  'Love  in  a  Village'  (1762), 
'The  Maid  of  the  Mill*  (1765),  'The  Padlock' 
(q.v.,  1768).  'The  Hypocrite'  (1769,  adapted 
from  Moliere's  'TartunV  and  Gibber's  'The 
Non- Juror')  contains  the  well-known  charac- 
ter of  a  hypocrite  'Mawworm'.  His  'Lionel 
and  Clarissa',  successfully  produced  in  1768, 
later  appeared  as  'The  School  for  Fathers'. 
Bickerstafife  fled  the  country  in  1772  sus- 
pected of  a  capital  crime. 

Bidpai  or  Pilpay,  The  Fables  of,  or  Kalilah 
and  Dimnah,  is  the  title  of  the  Arabic  version 
of  a  lost  original  of  the  'Panchatantra*,  a  cele- 
brated Sanskrit  collection  of  fables,  the  source 
of  much  European  folk-lore.  'Bidpai'  is  a 
corruption  of  'bidbah',  the  appellation  of  the 
chief  scholar  at  the  court  of  an  Indian  prince. 
Biedemeier,  a  German  style  of  furniture, 
showing  the  pseudo-classical  taste  of  the  late 
French  'Empire*.  It  takes  its  name  from  a 
political  caricature  in  'Fliegende  Blatter',  and 
was  in  vogue  from  about  1815  to  1848. 

Biederman,  ARNOLD,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Anne  of  Geierstein'  (q.v.). 
BIERCE,  AMBROSE  (1838-1914  ?),  Ameri- 
can short-story  writer,  born  in  Ohio.  He 
served  throughput  the  Civil  War.  In  1913 
he  went  to  Mexico  to  join  the  staff  of  the  rebel 
general,  Villa,  and  disappeared  mysteriously. 
His  best  stories  are  in  'Tales  of  Soldiers 
and  Civilians*  (1891) — the  title  of  which  was 
later  changed  to  *In  the  Midst  of  Life*.  His 


BINGHAM 

greatest  single  tale  is  'An  Occurrence  at  Owl 
Creek  Bridge*. 

Bifrost,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
bridge  by  which  the  gods  cross  from  heaven 
to  earth,  the  rainbow.  It  is  guarded  by 
Heimdal,  and  at  its  summit  sit  the  Norns 


Big-endians  and  Little-endians,  see 
Gulliver's  Travels. 

Biglow  Papers,  see  Lowell  (J.  jR.). 
Bilbo,  ^  apparently  from  Bilbao  in  Spain  (long 
called  in  English  Bilboa),  a  sword  noted  for 
its  elasticity  and  temper.    'Bilbow  blades* 
could  be  bent  till  point  met  hilt. 

Bilboes,  of  uncertain  derivation,  but,  like  the 
preceding,  usually  referred  to  Bilbao  on  the 
alleged  ground  that  many  of  these  instru- 
ments were  manufactured  there,  were  a  long 
iron  bar  with  sliding  shackles  to  confine  the 
ankles  of  a  prisoner,  and  a  lock  by  which  to 
fix  one  end  of  the  bar  to  the  floor.  [OEDJ 

Bildad,  one  of  the  three  friends  of  Job  (q.v.). 
Bill  of  Rights,  see  Rights,  Bill  of. 

Billickin,  MRS.,  in  Dickens's  'Edwin  Drood* 
(q.v.),  a  cousin  of  Mr.  Bazzard,  who  keeps 
lodgings  in  Bloomsbury. 

BILLINGS,  JOSH,  see  Shaw  (H.  W.). 

Billingsgate,  the  name  of  one  of  the  gates 
of  London  on  the  river  side,  and  hence  of  the 
fish  market  there  established.  It  is  perhaps 
derived  from  a  personal  name,  Billing  (cf. 
Billingshurst),  and  according  to  fable  from 
Belinus  (q.v.),  a  legendary  British  king. 
There  are  frequent  references  in  i7th-cent. 
literature  to  the  abusive  language  .of  the 
Billingsgate  market;  hence  foul  language  is 
itself  called  'billingsgate'. 

Bills  of  Mortality,  official  returns  of  the 
deaths  in  a  certain  district,  which  began  to  be 
published  weekly  by  the  London  Company 
of  Parish  Clerks  in  1592  for  109  parishes  in 
and  around  London.  Hence  this  district  (the 
precise  limits  of  which  were  often  modified) 
became  known  as  'within  the  bills  of  mor- 
tality' [OEDJ. 

Billy  Taylor,  the  subject  of  an  old  song. 
He  is  pressed  and  sent  to  sea  and  followed  by 
his  true  love,  disguised  as  a  sailor,  who  shoots 
him  when  she  finds  him  unfaithful  to  her, 
and  is  made  first  lieutenant  of  the  'Gallant 
Thunderbomb'.  The  text  is  in  Oliver's 
'Comic  Songs*  fend  ed.  1825?,  according  to 
B.M.  Cat.). 

Bingen,  BISHOP  OF,  otherwise  known  as 
Bishop  Hatto  (q.v.). 

BINGHAM,  JOSEPH  (1668-1723),  fellow 
of  University  College,  Oxford.  He  withdrew 
from  the  university,  being  unjustly  charged 
with  preaching  heretical  doctrine.  He  was 
author  of  'Origines  Ecclesiasticae,  or  the 
Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church*  (1708- 
22),  a  very  learned  work,  which  long  retained 
its  authoritative  character. 


P7] 


BINGLBY 

Bingley,  CHARLES,  a  character  in  Jane 
Austen's  'Pride  and  Prejudice'  (q.v.). 

Binks,  SIR  BINGO  and  LADY,  characters  in 
Scott's  'St.  Ronan's  Well'  (q.v.). 

BINYON,  LAURENCE  (1869-  ), 
Keeper  of  Oriental  prints  and  drawings  in 
the  British  Museum,  noted  as  an  authority 
on  Chinese  art.  He  is  the  author  of  many 
volumes  of  poems,  of  which  the  first  was 
'Lyric  Poems*  (1894),  and  of  some  plays. 
Among  his  publications  may  be  mentioned 
'Auguries'  (1913),  'The  Anvil  and  other 
Poems*  (1916),  and  the  drama  'Arthur* 


Biographia  Literaria,  a  literary  auto- 
biography by  S.  T.  Coleridge  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1817. 

The  autobiographical  thread  is  slender. 
The  work  consists  in  the  main  of  a  discussion 
of  the  philosophy  of  Kant,  Fichte,  and 
Schelling,  and  a  criticism  of  Wordsworth's 
poetry.  (For  Coleridge's  philosophical  doc- 
trines see  under  Aids  to  Reflection.) 

BION  (fl.  c.  280  B.C.),  a  pastoral  poet  of 
Smyrna,  who  ended  his  life  in  Sicily,  where 
he  was  poisoned.  He  is  best  known  for  his 
lament  for  Adonis,  on  which  Shelley  partly 
modelled  his  'Adonais*.  Moschus(q.v.)  called 
himself  the  pupil  of  Bion. 
Birch,  HARVEY,  the  mysterious  pedlar  and 
spy  in  J.  Fenimore  Cooper's  novel  of  the 
American  Revolution,  'The  Spy'. 
Birdcage  Walk,  in  St.  James's  Park,  Lon- 
don, so  called  from  the  cages  for  birds  and 
beasts  kept  there  for  the  amusement  of 
Charles  II. 

Birds  of  America,  see  Auduban,  John  James. 
Birnam  Wood,  see  Macbeth. 
Biron  or  BEROWNE,  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's 
Labour's  Lost*  (q.v.),  one  of  the  three  lords 
attending  on  the  king  of  Navarre. 
Biron,  a  character  in  Southerne's  'The  Fatal 
Marriage'  (q.v.). 

BIBJREIX,  AUGUSTINE  (1850-  ), 
President  of  the  Board  of  Education,  1905-7; 
chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  1907-16;  author 
of  'Obiter  Dicta*  (1884,  1887,  1924),  'William 
Hazlitt*  (1902),  'Andrew  Marvell*  (1905). 

Bishop  Blpugrarrfs  Apology,  a  poem  by 
R.  Browning  (q.v.),  included  in  *Men  and 
Women',  published  in  1855. 

The  poem  is  a  casuistical  apology  for  the 
position  of  a  beneficed  priest  whose  belief 
does  not  extend  to  all  the  doctrines  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion.  Though  a  mono- 
logue in  form,  it  is  in  fact  an  argument 
between  the  bishop  and  Mr.  Gigadibs,  his 
critic,  in  which  the  bishop  succeeds,  at  least, 
in  silencing  the  critic.  But  Browning  has  the 
last  (crushing)  word.  Cardinal  Wiseman  was 
the  model  from  whom  Bishop  Blougram  was 
drawn. 

Bishop  Hatto:   a  legend  of  the  loth  cent. 


BLACK  BOOK  OF  CARMARTHEN 

relates  that  Hatto,  archbishop  of  Mainz,  at  a 
time  of  famine  (970)  assembled  a  company  of 
poor  people  in  a  barn  and  burnt  them  to 
death,  that  there  might  be  more  food  for  the 
rich.  He  was  pursued  by  an  army  of  mice,  took 
refuge  in  a  tower  on  the  Rhine  still  known 
as  the  Mauserturm,  and  was  there  devoured 
by  them.  The  legend  is  told  in  'Coryat's 
Crudities',  and  in  a  poem  by  Southey  (q.v.). 
The  historical  Bishop  Hatto  was  not  guilty 
of  this  atrocity,  and  the  Mauserturm  was  in 
fact  erected  for  the  collection  of  tolls  on 
river  traffic.  The  legend  is  said  to  arise  from 
an  erroneous  derivation  of  Mauserturm  from 
mause  (mice).  Similar  legends  of  men  de- 
voured by  mice  or  rats  are  widely  prevalent 
among  northern  nations;  Baring- Gould 
('Curious  Myths')  attributes  their  origin  to 
the  heathen  practice  of  human  sacrifice  in 
times  of  famine. 

Bishopsgate,  the  principal  north  gate  of  the 
ancient  city  of  London.  It  is  mentioned  as 
porta  episcopi  in  Domesday,  but  the  particu- 
lar bishop  with  whom  it  was  connected  is 
unknown.  Loftie  thinks  it  may  have  been 
Erkenwald  or  St.  Botolph.  Burbage's  first 
theatre  was  just  outside  Bishopsgate. 

Bismarck,  OTTO  EDUARD  LEOPOLD,  PRINCE 
VON  (1815-98),  afterwards  duke  of  Lauen- 
burg,  known  as  'The  Iron  Chancellor',  born 
at  Friedrichsruh  in  Prussia,  became  Prussian 
prime  minister  in  1862,  and  under  his  admini- 
stration were  fought  the  war  against  Denmark 
of  1864  and  the  war  against  Austria  of  1866. 
Bismarck  became  chancellor  of  the  North  Ger- 
man Federation  in  1867,  and  in  1870-1  ensued 
the  war  with  France,  in  which  the  southern 
states  co-operated  with  Northern  Germany. 
The  German  Empire  was  constituted  in  1871 
and  Bismarck  was  its  first  chancellor.  He 
presided  at  the  Congress  of  Berlin  in  1878 
and  concluded  the  Triple  Alliance  in  1883. 
Having  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Em- 
peror William  II,  he  resigned  in  1890. 

BLACK,  WILLIAM  (1841-98),  a  native  of 
Scotland,  war  correspondent  of  the  'Morning 
Star*  during  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  and 
subsequently  sub-editor  of  the  'Daily  News', 
is  remembered  for  some  of  his  novels:  'A 
Daughter  of  Heth'  (1871),  'A  Princess  of 
Thule'  (1873),  'Macleod  of  Dare'  (1879), 
stories  of  his  native  country;  and  'The 
Strange  Adventures  of  a  Phaeton*  (1872), 
which  combines  romance  with  descriptions 
of  English  localities. 

Black  Agnes,  Agnes,  countess  of  Dunbar 
(i3i2?~69),  daughter  of  the  first  earl  of 
Moray  and  wife  of  the  tenth  earl  of  Dunbar, 
remembered  for  her  spirited  defence  of 
Dunbar  Castle  against  the  English  (1339). 

Black  Beauty,  see  Sewell. 

Black  Bess,  the  celebrated  mare  of  Dick 
Turpin  (q.v.). 

Black  Book  of  Carmarthen,  THE,  a 
Welsh  manuscript  of  the  i2th  cent.,  contain- 


[88] 


BLACK  BOOK  OF  THE  ADMIRALTY 

ing  a  collection  of  ancient  Welsh  poetry, 
interesting  among  other  things  for  references 
to  King  Arthur. 

Black  Book  of  the  Admiralty,  an  ancient 
code  of  rules  for  the  government  of  the  navy, 
said  to  have  been  compiled  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  III. 

Black  Bninswickers,  a  military  mounted 
force  raised  by  Frederick  William,  duke  of 
Brunswick(i77i-i8i5,  killed  at  QuatreBras), 
for  service  against  the  French  in  the  Napo- 
leonic wars.  There  is  a  famous  picture  by 
Millais  representing  *The  Black  Bruns- 
wicker'.  See  also  Hussars. 

Black  Death,  THE,  the  name  now  com- 
monly given  to  the  Great  Pestilence  or 
visitation  of  the  Oriental  Plague,  which  de- 
vastated most  countries  of  Europe  near  the 
middle  of  the  I4th  cent.,  and  caused  great 
mortality  in  England  in  1348-9;  sometimes 
also  including  the  recurrences  of  the .  epi- 
demic in  1360  and  1379.  The  epithet  'black' 
is  of  uncertain  origin  and  not  known  to  be 
contemporary  anywhere.  It  is  first  found  in 
Swedish  and  Danish  i6th-cent.  chroniclers. 
[OEDJ 
Black  Douglas,  see  Douglas  (The  Black). 

Black  Dwarf,  The,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott 
(q.v.),  the  first  of  the  'Tales  of  My  Landlord*, 
published  in  1816. 

The  principal  character  in  the  story,  who 
gives  it  its  title,  is  a  dwarf  of  extraordinary- 
ugliness  and  strength  who  takes  up  his 
abode  in  a  lonely  spot  in  southern  Scotland 
at  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  cent.,  builds 
himself  a  hovel  of  mighty  stones,  and 
acquires  a  reputation  for  supernatural  powers. 
He  is  called  Elshender  the  Recluse,  or 
Elshie  of  the  Mucklestanes,  and  his  acri- 
monious speech  suggests  an  excessively 
misanthropical  disposition.  Yet  the  story,  of 
which  the  plot  is  slender,  tells  of  his  bene- 
ficent influence  on  events  in  his  neighbour- 
hood. A  robber  carries  off  Grace  Armstrong, 
to  the  distress  of  her  lover,  the  young  farmer 
Hobbie  Elliot,  but  she  is  immediately  restored 
on  the  dwarf's  intervention.  His  intervention 
prevents  the  marriage  of  Isabella  Vere  with 
Sir  Frederick  Langley,  to  which  her  un- 
willing consent  has  been  wrung  by  her 
father,  the  laird  of  Ellieslaw,  for  his  own  ends. 
It  turns  out  that  the  Dwarf  is  the  rich  Sir 
Edward  Manley,  the  near  kinsman  of  Isabella, 
a  man  embittered  by  his  deformity  and  by  his 
unhappy  love  for  Isabella's  mother;  he  has 
long  been  supposed  dead,  and  Ellieslaw  is 
deeply  indebted  to  him. 

Black-eyed  Susan,  see  Gay  (7-). 

Black  Friars,  members  of  the  order  of  the 
Dominicans,  founded  at  the  beginning  of  the 
1 3th  cent,  by  St.  Dominic,  so  called  from 
the  colour  of  their  dress.  They  had  a  con- 
vent in  the  part  of  the  City  of  London  that 
still  bears  their  name.  The  buildings  were 
surrendered  to  the  Crown  in  Henry  VIII's 


BLACKMOOR  VALE 

reign,  and  the  case  for  his  divorce  from 
Queen  Catherine  was  heard  there  by  the 
papal  legate.  For  Burbage's  theatre  in  the 
precincts  of  the  old  monastery,  see  Blackfriars 
Theatre. 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  the  punishment 
cell  of  the  barracks  in  Fort  William,  Calcutta, 
into  which,  by  order  of  Suraja  Dowlah,  146 
Europeans  were  thrust  for  a  whole  night  in 
1756,  of  whom  only  twenty-three  survived 
till  the  morning. 

Black  Hussars,  see  Hussars. 

Black  Letter,  a  name  (which  came  into  use 
about  1600)  for  the  form  of  gothic  type  used 
by  the  early  printers,  as  distinguished  from  the 
'Roman*  type  which  subsequently  prevailed. 
A  form  of  it  is  still  in  use  in  Germany. 

Black  Maria,  popular  name  for  a  prison  van. 
Black  Michael,  nickname  of  Sir  Michael 
Hicks  Beach  (1837-1916,  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  1885  and  1895-1902),  from 
Black  Michael,  the  king's  wicked  brother  in 
'The  Prisoner  of  Zenda'  (q.v.). 

Black  Monks,  the  Benedictines  (q.v.),  so 
called  from  the  colour  of  their  dress. 

Black  Prince,  THE,  a  name  given  (apparently 
by  1 6th- cent,  chroniclers)  to  Edward,  the 
eldest  son  of  Edward  III  (1330-76).  The 
origin  of  the  appellation  is  a  matter  of  con- 
jecture, and  published  sources,  says  die 
OED.,  afford  no  evidence.  It  was  perhaps 
due  to  'his  dreaded  acts  in  battle',  or  to  his 
wearing  black  armour. 

Black  Rod,  short  for  'Gentleman  Usher  of 
the  Black  Rod',  so  called  from  his  black  wand 
of  office,  is  the  Chief  Gentleman  Usher  of  the 
Lord  Chamberlain's  department  of  the  royal 
household,  who  is  also  usher  to  the  House  of 
Lords  and  to  the  Chapter  of  the  Garter. 

Black  Watch,  THE,  the  42nd  (Highland) 
Regiment  of  the  British  Army,  so  called  from 
the  colour  of  their  uniform,  a  dark  tartan. 

Blackacre,  THE  WIDOW,  a  character  in 
Wycherley's  'The  Plain  Dealer'  (q.v.). 

Blackfriars  Theatre,  THE,  an  apartment  in 
the  dissolved  monastery  of  the  Black  Friars 
(q.v.)  adapted  for  a  play-house  and  purchased 
by  James  Burbage  (q.v.)  in  1596.  Owing  to 
local  opposition,  it  was  handed  over  to  the 
Children  of  the  Chapel  (q.v.)  but  reverted  to 
Richard  Burbage  Cq.v.)  in  1608.  After  this 
date  Shakespeare  acted  there.  The  site  of  the 
theatre  is  marked  by  Playhouse  Yard  near 
'The  Times'  office  (Loftie). 

BLACKMAN,  BLAKMAN,  or  BLAKE- 
MAN,  JOHN  (fl.  1436-48),  fellow  of  Mer- 
ton  College,  Oxford,  chaplain  and  con- 
temporary biographer  of  Henry  VI,  our  main 
authority  for  his  piety,  &c. 
Blackmoor  Vale,  THE,  a  celebrated  pack  of 
hounds  in  the  west  country  (Dorset).  Its 
praises  were  sung  by  Whyte-Melville  (q.v.). 


[89] 


BLACKMORE 

BLACKMORE,  Sm  RICHARD  (d.  1729), 
physician  to  Queen  Anne,  produced  some 
indifferent  poems  of  great  length,  heroic  and 
epic,  and  'The  Creation,  a  philosophical 
poem  demonstrating  the  existence  and  provi- 
dence of  God*  (1712),  which  was  warmly 
praised  by  Dr.  Johnson. 

BLACKMORE,  RICHARD  DOD- 
DRIDGE  (1825-1900),  educated  at  Blun- 
dell's  School,  Tiverton,  and  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  published  some  volumes  of  verse  and 
a  number  of  novels,  of  which  the  most 
famous  was  'Lorna  Doone*  (q.v.,  1869). 
Among  the  others  were  'Clara  Vaughan* 
(1864),  'Cradock  Nowell*  (1866),  'The  Maid 
of  Sker*  (1872),  'Alice  Lorraine*  (1875), 
'Cripps  the  Carrier*  (1877),  'Christowell* 
(1881),  and  'Springhaven*  (1887).  The  last  is 
a  pleasant  tale  of  adventure  and  romance 
centring  in  a  small  southern  port  in  the 
days  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  presenting 
Wellington,  Napoleon,  and  George  III. 

Blackpool,  STEPHEN,  a  character  in  Dickens  *s 

'Hard  Times'  (q.v.). 

Blackstick,  FAIRY,  see  Rose  and  the  Ring. 

BLACKSTONE,  Sm  WILLIAM  (1723- 
80),  educated  at  Charterhouse  School  and 
Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  was  a  fellow 
of  All  Souls  and  the  first  Vinerian  professor 
of  English  law  at  Oxford.  His  fame  rests 
on  his  *  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of 
England*  (1765-9),  a  comprehensive  picture 
of  the  English  law  and  constitution  as  a 
single  organic  structure.  The  work  was 
criticized  by  Bentham  ('Fragment  on  Govern- 
ment') and  others,  but  exercised  a  powerful 
influence.  It  was  translated  into  French, 
German,  Italian,  and  Russian.  Blackstone 
published  a  collection  of  'Law  Tracts*  in 
1762-.  He  was  made  a  judge  in  1770. 

Blackwood's  Edinburgh  Magazine,  a  month- 
ly periodical  started  in  1817  by  William 
Blackwood  (1776-1834)  the  publisher,  as  a 
rival  to  the  'Edinburgh  Review'  (q.v.),  of  a 
less  ponderous  kind  than  the  'Quarterly* 
(q.v.).  It  had  John  Wilson,  J.  G.  Lockhart, 
and  James  Hogg  (qq.v.)  on  its  staff.  The 
number  for  October  1817  contained  the 
famous  satire  on  Edinburgh  notabilities 
which  took  the  form  of  a  pretended  'Chaldee 
MS.'  'Blackwood's*  was  then  Tory  in 
politics,  and  -die  avowed  enemy  of  the  'Cock- 
ney School'  in  literary  matters,  i.e.  Lamb, 
Hazlitt,  and  in  particular  Leigh  Hunt.  In 
1819  William  Maginn  (q.v.)  was  added  to 
the  staff.  He  was  perhaps  the  originator 
of  the  'Noctes  Ambrosianae*  (q.v.),  which 
shortly  began  to  appear  in  'Maga',  as  'Black- 
wood's*  was  familiarly  called.  De  Quincey 
was  also  among  the  early  contributors. 

Mrs.  Oliphant's  interesting  'Annals  of  a 
Publishing  House:  William  Blackwood  and 
his  Sons'  appeared  in  1897. 

Bladud,  a  legendary  king  of  Britain,  father 
of  Lear,  and  founder  of  the  city  of  Bath. 


BLAKE 

Blair,  HUGH  (1718-1800),  Scottish  divine 
and  professor  of  rhetoric,  is  remembered  for 
his  famous  sermons  (5  vols,  1777-1801)  and 
Lectures  on  Rhetoric.  He  belonged  to  a 
distinguished  literary  circle  which  included 
Hume,  A.  Carlyle,  Adam  Smith,  and 
Robertson. 

BLAIR,  ROBERT  (1699-1746),  educated  at 
Edinburgh  and  in  Holland,  was  ordained 
minister  of  Athelstaneford  in  East  Lothian  in 
1731.  He  published  in  1743  'The  Grave',  a 
didactic  poem  of  some  800  lines  of  blank 
verse,  in  which  he  celebrates  death,  the 
solitude  of  the  tomb,  and  the  anguish  of 
bereavement.  The  poem  compares  favour- 
ably with  the  somewhat  similar  'Night 
Thoughts'  (q.v.)  of  Edward  Young,  with 
which  it  was  almost  exactly  contemporary. 
It  was  illustrated  by  William  Blake  (q.v.). 

Blaize,  Elegy  on  Mrs.  Mary,  a  burlesque 
elegy  by  Goldsmith  (q.v.),  published  in  'The 
Bee*. 

Blaize,  FARMER,  in  Meredith's  'The  Ordeal 
of  Richard  Feverel',  Lucy  FeverePs  uncle. 

BLAKE,  WILLIAM  (1757-1827),  the  son 
of  a  London  hosier,  did  not  go  to  school,  but 
was  apprenticed  to  James  Basire,  engraver 
to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  His  earliest 
poems  are  contained  in  'Poetical  Sketches', 
published  in  1783  at  the  expense  of  his 
friends,  Flaxman  and  Mrs.  Mathew.  In  1789 
he  engraved  and  published  his  'Songs  of 
Innocence*,  in  which  he  first  showed  the 
mystical  cast  of  his  mind.  Their  underlying 
theme  is  the  all-pervading  presence  of  divine 
love  and  sympathy,  even  in  trouble  and 
sorrow.  'The  Book  of  Thel*  appeared  in  the 
same  year,  and  its  theme  is  similar:  the 
maiden  Thel  laments  the  vanity  and  tran- 
sience of  life,  and  is  answered  by  the  lily,  the 
cloud,  the  worm,  and  the  clod;  they  explain 
the  principle  of  mutual  self-sacrifice  and  that 
death  means  a  new  birth.  'Tiriel'  belongs  to 
the  years  1788-9.  It  is  the  story  of  a  tyrant 
and  his  rebellious  children,  the  symbolic 
meaning  of  which  is  obscure.  In  1790  Blake 
engraved  his  principal  prose  work,  the 
'Marriage  of  Heaven  and  Hell',  in  which  with 
vigorous  satire  and  telling  apologue,  he  takes 
up  his  revolutionary  position,  of  which  the 
main  features  are  the  denial  of  the  reality  of 
matter,  the  denial  of  eternal  punishment,  and 
the  denial  of  authority.  In  the  'French 
Revolution'  (1791),  'America*  (1793),  and  the 
'Visions  of  the  Daughters  of  Albion*  (1793), 
his  attitude  of  revolt  against  authority  is 
further  developed.  He  creates  a  mythology 
of  his  own,  with  Urizen,  the  deviser  of  moral 
codes,  and  Ore,  the  arch  rebel,  for  central 
figures.  The  'Songs  of  Experience*  (1794) 
are  in  marked  contrast  with  the  'Songs  of 
Innocence*.  The  brightness  of  the  earlier 
work  gives  place  to  a  sense  of  gloom  and 
mystery,  and  of  the  power  of  evil.  We  find 
again  a  protest  against  restrictive  codes  and 
an  exaltation  of  the  spirit  of  love.  The  'Songs 


BLAKESWARE 

of  Experience'  include  the  famous  'Tiger! 
Tiger!  burning  bright*.  In  'The  Book  of 
Urizen'  (i?94)>  'The  Book  of  Ahania',  'The 
Book  of  Los*  (i795)>  Blake  pursues,  in 
mythological  form,  his  exposure  of  the  errors 
of  the  moral  code.  By  an  inversion  of  the 
Miltonic  story,  it  is  Urizen,  the  author  of 
moral  law,  who  is  expelled  from  the  abode  of 
the  Eternals,  and  obtains  control  over  the 
human  world.  In  'Europe*  (1794)  and  "The 
Song  of  Los*  (1795),  Enitharmon  is  the  giver 
of  restrictive  morality,  on  behalf  of  Urizen, 
to  the  sons  of  men;  Los,  a  changing  and  per- 
plexing character,  appears  to  be  the  per- 
sonification of  Time,  a  champion  of  light,  but 
held  in  bondage;  Ore  rises  in  rebellion,  a 
symbol  of  the  French  Revolution.  In  'Vala* 
(1797),  subsequently  in  great  part  re-written 
and  re-named  'The  Four Zoas',the  symbolism 
is  exceptionally  difficult  to  follow,  but  we 
still  have  the  opposition  of  Urizen  and  Ore, 
representing  authority  and  anarchy ;  the  con- 
demnation of  the  oppressive  code  of  morality ; 
the  ultimate  triumph  of  Ore  and  of  liberty. 
In  the  later  version  (the  'Four  Zoas*) 
there  is  a  new  element,  the  revelation  of 
forgiveness  through  Jesus  Christ.  In  1804 
Blake  began  to  engrave  his  final  symbolic 
works,  'Milton*  and  'Jerusalem*.  Milton 
returns  from  eternity  to  correct  the  error  to 
which  he  had  given  currency,  and  enters  into 
Blake,  who  preaches  the  doctrine  of  Jesus, 
of  self-sacrifice  and  forgiveness.  In  'Jerusa- 
lem* we  have  expounded  Blake's  theory  of 
Imagination,  'the  real  and  eternal  world  of 
which  the  Vegetable  Universe  is  but  a  faint 
shadow';  'the  world  of  imagination  is  the 
world  of  eternity.  It  is  the  divine  bosom  into 
which  we  shall  all  go  after  the  death  of  the 
vegetated  body.*  In  the  'Ghost  of  Abel* 
(1822),  a  short  dramatic  dialogue,  Blake, 
referring  to  Byron's  'Cain*,  combats  the  view 
that  the  curse  of  Cain  was  uttered  by  Jehovah, 
and  attributes  it  to  Satan.  His  later  minor 
poems  include  some  beautiful  lyrics,  such  as 
'The  Morning*  and  'The  Land  of  Dreams'; 
also  the  fragmentary  'The  Everlasting  Gospel*, 
his  own  interpretation  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ. 

Blake  made,  and  sometimes  engraved, 
designs  in  illustration  of  many  works  besides 
his  own  poems,  notably  Young's  'Night 
Thoughts',  Blair's  'Grave',  Gray's  Poems,  the 
Book  of  Job,  and  the  'Divina  Commedia', 
designs  which  reveal  his  greatness  as  an 
artist.  There  is  a  good  edition  of  'The 
Poetical  Works  of  William  Blake*  by  John 
Sampson,  Oxford,  1905.  A  'Life  of  Blake'  by 
Alexander  Gilchrist  was  published  in  1863 
(2nd  ed.,  1880;  new  ed.,  1906). 

[In  the  preparation  of  the  above  summary 
of  Blake's  symbolic  poems,  much  help  has 
been  obtained  from  vol.  xi,  ch.  ix.  of  the 
C.H.E.L.] 

Blakesware,  in  Hertfordshire,  the  *Blakes- 
moor*  of  the  Essays  of  Elia  (q.v.),  the  great 
house  where  Mary  Field,  Lamb's  grand- 
mother, was  housekeeper. 


BLEAK  HOUSE 

Blancheflenr  or  BLANCHEFLOUR,  see  Flares 
and  Blancheflour. 

Blandamour,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
Bk.  IV,  a  'jolly  youthful  knight*,  'his  fickle 
mind  full  of  inconstancie',  who  consorts  with 
Paridell  and  Duessa  (qq.v.). 

Blank  Verse,  verse  without  rhyme,  espe- 
cially the  iambic  pentameter  or  unrhymed 
heroic,  the  regular  measure  of  English 
dramatic  and  epic  poetry,  first  used  by  the 
earl  of  Surrey  (q.v.). 

Blanketeers,  a  body  of  operatives  who  met 
at  the  so-called  Blanket  Meeting  in  St.  Peter's 
Fields,  Manchester,  on  10  March  1817,  pro- 
vided with  blankets  or  rugs,  in  order  to  march 
to  London  and  press  their  grievances  on  the 
attention  of  the  government. 

Blankley's,  Man  from,  a  play  by  F.  Anstey 
(q.v.). 

Blarney,  a  village  near  Cork.  In  the  Castle  of 
Blarney  there  is  an  inscribed  stone  in  a 
position  difficult  of  access.  The  popular 
saying  is  that  any  one  who  kisses  the  'Blarney 
stone*  will  ever  after  have  'a  cajoling  tongue 
and  the  art  of  flattery  or  of  telling  lies  with  un- 
blushing effrontery*  (Lewis,  'Topographical 
Dictionary  of  Ireland',  quoted  in  OED.), 

Blarney,  LADY,  in  Goldsmith's  'Vicar  of 
Wakefield*  (q.v.),  one  of  the  fine  ladies  intro- 
duced to  the  Primroses  by  Squire  Thornhill. 

Blatant  Beast,  THE,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie 
Queene*  (vi.  xii),  a  monster,  the  personifica- 
tion of  the  calumnious  voice  of  the  world, 
begotten  of  Envy  and  Detraction.  Sir  Cali- 
dore  (q.v.)  pursues  it,  finds  it  despoiling 
monasteries  and  defiling  the  Church,  over- 
comes it  and  chains  it  up.  But  finally  it 
breaks  the  chain,  'and  now  he  raungeth 
through  the  world  again*.  Cf.  Questing  Beast, 
below. 

Blattergowl,  DR.,  in  Scott's  'The  Anti- 
quary* (q.v.),  the  minister  of  Trotcosey  and  a 
neighbour  of  Mr.  Oldbuck. 
Blavatsky,  MADAME  HELENA  PETROVNA 
(1831-91),  a  Russian,  who  in  1873  Jbecame 
connected  with  spiritual  research  in  New 
York,  and  there,  with  Col.  H.  S.  Olcott  and 
W.  Q.  Judge,  founded  the  Theosophical 
Society.  In  1879  she  transferred  her  activities 
to  India,  where  the  Theosophical  Society 
was  organized  on  a  new  basis  (see  Theosophy). 

Blazed  Trail,  The,  a  popular  novel  of  the 
Michigan  lumber  camps,  published  in  1902, 
by  the  American  writer,  Stewart  Edward 

White. 

Bleak  House,  a  novel  by  Dickens  (q.v.), 
published  in  monthly  parts  in  1852—3. 

The  book  contains  a  vigorous  satire  on  the 
abuses  of  the  old  court  of  Chancery,  the  delays 
and  costs  of  which  brought  misery  and  ruin  on 
its  suitors.  The  tale  centres  in  the  fortunes  of 
an  uninteresting  couple,  Richard  Carstone,  a 
futile  youth,  and  his  amiable  cousin  Ada  Clare. 
They  are  wards  of  the  court  in  the  case  of 


BLEAK  HOUSE 

Jarndyce  and  Jarndyce,  concerned  with  the 
distribution  of  an  estate,  which  has  gone  on 
so  long  as  to  become  a  subject  of  heartless 
joking  as  well  as  a  source  of  great  profit  to 
those  professionally  engaged  in  it.  The  wards 
are  taken  to  live  with  their  kind  elderly 
relative  John  Jarndyce.  They  fall  in  love  and 
secretly  marry.  The  weak  Richard,  in- 
capable of  sticking  to  any  profession  and 
lured  by  the  will-o'-the-wisp  of  the  fortune 
that  is  to  be  his  when  the  case  is  settled,  sinks 
gradually  to  ruin  and  death,  and  the  case  of 
Jarndyce  and  Jarndyce  comes  suddenly  to  an 
end  on  the  discovery  that  the  costs  have 
absorbed  the  whole  estate  in  dispute. 

When  Ada  goes  to  live  with  John  Jarndyce, 
she  is  accompanied  by  Esther  Summerson,  a 
supposed  orphan,  one  of  Dickens 's  saints, 
and  the  narrative  is  partly  supposed  to  be 
from  her  pen. 

Sir  Leicester  Dedlock,  a  pompous  old 
baronet,  is  devotedly  attached  to  his  beautiful 
wife,  Lady  Dedlock.  The  latter  hides  a 
dreadful  secret  under  her  haughty  and  in- 
different exterior.  Before  her  marriage  she 
has  loved  a  certain  Captain  Rawdon  and  has 
become  the  mother  of  a  daughter,  whom  she 
believes  dead.  Rawdon  is  supposed  to  have 
perished  at  sea.  In  fact  the  daughter  lives  in 
the  person  of  Esther  Summerson,  and  Raw- 
don in  that  of  a  penniless  scrivener.  The 
accidental  sight  of  his  handwriting  in  a  legal 
document  discovers  to  Lady  Dedlock  the  fact 
of  his  existence,  and  its  effect  on  her  awakens 
the  cunning  old  lawyer  Tulkinghorn  to  the 
existence  of  a  mystery.  Lady  Dedlock's 
inquiries  bring  her,  through  the  medium  of 
a  wretched  crossing-sweeper,  Jo,  to  the 
burial-ground  where  her  former  lover's 
miserable  career  has  just  ended.  Jo's  un- 
guarded revelation  of  his  singular  experience 
with  this  veiled  lady  sets  Tulkinghorn  on 
the  track,  until  he  possesses  all  the  facts  and 
tells  Lady  Dedlock  that  he  is  going  to  expose 
her  next  day  to  her  husband.  That  night 
Tulkinghorn  is  murdered.  Bucket,  the  de- 
tective, presently  reveals  to  the  baronet  what 
Tiilkinghorn  had  discovered,  and  arrests 
a  former  French  maid  of  Lady  Dedlock, 
a  violent  woman,  who  has  committed  the 
murder.  Lady  Dedlock,  learning  that  her 
husband  knows  her  secret,  flies  from  the 
house  in  despair,  and  is  found  dead  near  the 
grave  of  her  lover,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  her 
husband  and  Esther  to  save  her. 

Much  of  the  story  is  occupied  with 
Esther's  devotion  to  John  Jarndyce;  her 
acceptance  of  his  offer  of  marriage  from  a 
sense  of  duty  and  gratitude,  though  she  loves 
a  young  doctor,  Woodcourt;  Jarndyce's  dis- 
covery of  the  state  of  her  heart;  and  his  sur- 
render of  her  to  Woodcourt. 

There  are  a  host  of  interesting  minor 
characters,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned 
Harold  Skimpole  (drawn 'in  the  light  externals 
of  character'  from  Leigh  Hunt),  who  disguises 
his  utter  ^selfishness  under  an  assumption  of 
childish  irresponsibility;  Mrs.  Jellyby,  who 


BLESSINGTON 

sacrifices  her  family  to  her  selfish  addiction  to 
professional  philanthropy;  Jo,  the  crossing- 
sweeper,  who  is  chivied  by  the  police  to  his 
death;  Chadband,  the  pious,  eloquent  hum- 
bug; Turveydrop,  the  model  of  deportment; 
Krook,  the  'chancellor'  of  the  rag  and  bone 
department,  who  dies  of  spontaneous  com- 
bustion; Guppy,  the  lawyer's  clerk;  Guster, 
the  poor  slavey;  the  law-stationer  Snagsby; 
Miss  Flite,  the  little  lunatic  lady  who  haunts 
the  Chancery  courts ;  and  Jarndyce's  friend, 
the  irascible  and  generous  Boythorn  (drawn 
from  Walter  Savage  Landor). 
*  The  case  of  'Jarndyce  and  Jarndyce'  was 
suggested  by  the  celebrated  proceedings 
arising  from  the  intestacy  of  one  William 
Jennings,  who  died  in  1798,  leaving  property 
at  Birmingham  worth  many  millions. 

Bleeding  Heart  Yard,  London,  in  Dickens's 
'Little  Dorrit'  (q.v.),  the  abode  of  Pancks,  the 
Plornishes,  &c.  It  stood  on  the  south  side  of 
Charles  Street,  Hatton  Garden.  The  author 
of  the  'Ingoldsby  Legends'  (q.v.)  tells  in  cThe 
House- Warming'  of  the  carrying  off  of  Lady 
Hatton,  wife  of  Sir  Christopher,  by  the 
Devil,  with  whom  she  had  a  compact,  and  of 
the  finding  of  her  heart  in  this  locality. 

Blefuscu,  in  Swift's  'Gulliver's  Travels* 
(q.v.),  an  island  separated  from  Lilliput  by  a 
narrow  channel. 

Bleise  or  BLEYS,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d 'Arthur' 
and  Tennyson's  'Coming  of  Arthur'  (qq.v.), 
is  described  as  the  master  of  Merlin.  He 
dwelt  in  Northumberland. 

Blemmyes,  a  people  of  Africa  who,  accord- 
ing to  fable  (Herodotus,  iv.  85),  had  no  heads, 
but  eyes  and  mouth  placed  in  the  breast. 

Blenheim,  BATTLE  OF  (sometimes  called 
battle  of  Hochstedt),  in  Bavaria,  in  1704, 
in  which  Marlborough,  having  marched  to 
the  Upper  Danube  and  joined  Prince  Eugene, 
defeated  the  French  and  Bavarians  under 
Marshal  Tallard.  For  poems  on  the  battle 
see  Addison  and  Southey. 

Blenheim  Palace,  the  mansion  near  Wood- 
stock, Oxfordshire,  erected  by  the  nation  for 
the  duke  of  Marlborough  after  the  victory  of 
Blenheim  (1704).  It  was  built  on  the  designs 
of  Sir  John  Vanbrugh  (q.v.),  and  the  park 
comprises  part  of  the  old  Royal  'Chase'. 

Blessed  Damozel,  The,  a  poem  by  D.  Gi 
Rossetti  (q.v.),  of  which  the  first  version 
appeared  in  'The  Germ*  (q.v.,  1850),  and 
revised  versions  in  1856  and  1870. 

In  this  poem  the  maiden,  'one  of  God's 
choristers',  leans  out  from  the  rampart  of 
heaven,  sees  the  worlds  below  and  the  souls 
mounting  up  to  God,  and  prays  that  she  may 
be  united  once  more  with  the  lover  whom 
she  has  left  on  earth  and  whose  own  com- 
ments are  introduced  parenthetically  into  the 
poem. 

BLESSINGTON,  MARGUERITE 
POWER,  Countess  of  (1789-1849),  after  an 


BLIFIL 

unhappy  first  union,  married  the  earl  of 
Blessington,  and  travelled  on  the  Continent 
with  him  and  Alfred,  Count  d'Orsay,  with 
whom  she  ultimately  lived.  She  published  c  A 
Journal  of  Conversations  with  Lord  Byron* 
in  1832,  'The  Idler  in  Italy*  and  'The  Idler 
in  France*,  and  a  number  of  novels. 

Blifll,  in  Fielding's  *Tom  Jones*  (q.v.),  a 
character  representing  the  extreme  of  cunning 
hypocritical  meanness. 

Bligh,  WILLIAM  (1754-1817),  the  comman- 
der of  H.M.S.  'Bounty*  (q.v.)  who  was  cast 
adrift  by  her  mutinous  crew.  He  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  New  South  Wales  (1805), 
and  was  forcibly  deposed  and  imprisoned  by 
disaffected  military  officers.  He  became  vice- 
admiral  of  the  Blue. 

Blimber,  DR.,  and  his  daughter  CORNELIA, 
characters  in  Dickens's  'Dombey  and  Son* 


Blind   Beggar  of  Bethnal   Green,   see 

Beggar's  Daughter  of  Bednal  Green. 
Blind  Harry,  see  Henry  the  Minstrel 
Blithedale  Romance,  The,  see  Hawthorne. 

Blondel  de  Nesle,  a  legendary  minstrel  in 
the  court  of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion.  Richard, 
on  his  return  from  the  Holy  Land  in  1192, 
was  imprisoned  by  the  duke  of  Austria.  Ac- 
cording to  Favine*s  'Theatre  of  Honour  and 
Knighthood*  (translated  from  the  French, 
London,  1623),  Blondel  set  out  to  find  him, 
for  no  news  of  him  had  reached  England  for  a 
year.  Coming  to  a  certain  castle  in  Austria  he 
heard  that  a  single  prisoner  was  detained 
there,  but  could  not  learn  his  name.  Ac- 
cordingly he  sat  under  a  window  of  the  castle, 
and  sang  a  song  in  French  that  he  and  the 
king  had  composed  together;  half-way 
through  the  song  he  paused,  and  Richard 
took  up  the  other  half  and  completed  it.  So 
Blondel  returned  to  England  and  reported 
where  the  king  was. 

Blood,  THOMAS  (i6i8?~8o),  an  adventurer 
who,  among  other  exploits,  headed  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  take  Dublin  Castle  from 
the  Royalists  in  1663,  and  tried  to  steal  the 
Crown  jewels  from  the  Tower  in  1671.  He 
figures  in  Scott's  'Peveril  of  the  Peak*  (q.v.). 
Bloody  Assizes,  THE,  the  name  given  to 
the  assizes  held  in  1685  in  the  west  of  Eng- 
land by  Judge  Jeffreys  (q.v.)  for  the  trial  of 
the  supporters  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth  after 
his  defeat  at  Sedgemoor.  Some  300  persons 
are  said  to  have  been  executed  and  1,000  sent 
as  slaves  to  the  American  plantations. 
Bloody  Brother,  The,  or  Rollo,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  a  play  by  J.  Fletcher  (q.v.),  Jon- 
son  (q.v.),  and  perhaps  other  collaborators, 
produced  about  1616. 

The  duke  of  Normandy  has  bequeathed 
his  dukedom  to  his  two  sons  Rollo  and  Otto. 
Rollo,  the  elder,  a  resolute  and  violent 
man,  in  order  to  secure  the  whole  heritage, 
kills  his  brother  and  orders  to  immediate 


BLOSSOM'S  INN 

execution  all  who  refuse  to  further  his  ends, 
including  his  old  tutor  Baldwin.  The  latter's 
daughter,  Edith,  pleads  for  his  life,  and  her 
beauty  captivates  Rollo,  but  his  order  to  stay 
the  execution  comes  too  late.  Edith  deter- 
mines to  revenge  her  father's  death,  and 
prepares  to  kill  Rollo  when  he  comes  to  woo 
her.  His  apparent  repentance  shakes  her 
determination.  While  she  hesitates,  the 
brother  of  another  of  Rollo's  victims  enters 
and  kills  the  tyrant.  The  scene  between 
Latorch,  Rollo*s  favourite,  and  the  Astro- 
logers was  probably  written  by  Jonson,  as 
also  part  of  Act  IV,  sc.  i. 
Bloomer,  a  form  of  female  attire  that 
originated  in  America  about  1850,  being 
adopted  for  a  time  by  some  of  the  American 
pioneers  of  the  movement  for  women's  rights. 
'It  was  invented  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Smith 
Miller,  the  daughter  of  Gerrit  Smith,  a 
prominent  abolitionist,  a  great  landowner  in 
western  New  York. . . .  Mrs.  Miller  wanted  a 
dress  in  which  she  could  easily  take  long 
walks  about  her  country  home.  It  consisted 
of  a  small  jacket,  a  full  skirt  descending  a 
little  below  the  knee,  and  trousers  down  to 
the  ankle.  It  was  not  beautiful,  but  was  very 
comfortable  and  convenient  and  entirely 
modest.  Mrs.  Amelia  Bloomer,  editor  of  the 
"Lily",  the  first  woman's  paper,  was  much 
pleased  with  it,  and  advocated  it  warmly  in 
her  paper,  and  thus  it  became  associated  with 
her  name.'  (A.  S.  Blackwell,  'Lucy  Stone: 
Pioneer  of  Woman's  Rights',  Boston,  1930.) 
BLOOMFIELD,  ROBERT  (1766-1 823),  of 
humble  origin,  worked  as  an  agricultural 
labourer  and  then  as  a  shoemaker  under  his 
brother  George  in  London,  enduring  extreme 
poverty.  He  is  remembered  as  author  of  the 
poem,  'The  Farmer's  Boy*,  published  in 
1800,  of  which  it  is  said  that  26,000  copies 
were  sold  in  less  than  three  years.  The 
similarity  of  his  circumstances  to  those  of 
John  Clare  (q.v.)  leads  to  their  being  fre- 
quently compared,  but  the  talent  of  Bloom- 
field  was  inferior  to  that  of  Clare. 
Bloomsbury  Square,  near  the  British 
Museum,  was  one  of  the  first  squares  to  be  laid 
out  in  London  (by  the  earl  of  Southampton  in 
1665).  Bloomsbury,  part  of  the  old  manor  of 
Rugmere,  was  so  called  from  one  Blemund, 
owner  of  the  land  in  the  time  of  King  John. 
Sir  Charles  Sedley,  Steele,  Disraeli,  and  other 
notable  persons,  lived  there. 
Blossom's  Inn  or  BOSOM'S  INN,  an  inn  in 
Lawrence  Lane,  Cheapside,  occasionally  re- 
ferred to  by  Elizabethan  writers. 

'Our  jolly  clothiers  kept  up  their  courage 
and  went  to  Blossom's  Inn,  so  called  from, 
a  greasy  old  fellow  who  built  it,  who  always 
went  nudging  with  his  head  in  his  bosom 
winter  and  summer,  so  that  they  called  him 
the  picture  of  old  Winter.'  ('History  of 
Thomas  of  Reading',  c.  ii,  quoted  by  Soane, 
'New  Curiosities  of  Literature',  ii.  333,  who 
adds  that  in  the  rest  of  the  tale  the  name  is 
given  as  'Bosom's  Inn'.) 


[93] 


BLOT  IN  THE  'SCUTCHEON 

Blot  in  the  'Scutcheon,  A,  a  tragedy  in  three 
acts,  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.),  performed  at 
Co  vent  Garden  Theatre  in  1843. 

The  events  take  place  in  the  i8th  cent. 
Lord  Henry  Mertoun  loves  Mildred,  the 
sister  and  ward  of  Lord  Tresham,  but  delays 
to  ask  her  hand  of  him  until  he  has  already 
become  intimate  with  her.  Lord  Tresham 
willingly  gives  his  consent,  but,  warned  by 
a  retainer  that  some  man  has  access  to  Mil- 
dred's chamber,  obtains  from  her  an  admis- 
sion of  her  guilt,  but  not  a  confession  of  her 
lover's  name.  Lord  Tresham  surprises  Mer- 
toun and  kills  him,  but  is  filled  with  despair 
by  the  youth's  story  of  his  love,  error,  and 
remorse,  and  the  sense  that  he  has  ruined  his 
sister's  happiness.  Mildred  dies  of  a  broken 
heart  and  Lord  Tresham  takes  poison. 

Blougram,  BISHOP,  see  Bishop  Blougram's 
Apology. 

Blount,  MARTHA  (1690-1762),  the  friend  of 
Pope  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  'Epistle  on 
Women' ('Moral  Essays')  and  his  Epistles  'To 
a  Young  Lady  with  the  Works  of  Voiture*  and 
'To  the  same  on  her  leaving  the  Town'  fin 
which  occurs  the  character  of  Zephalinda), 

Blouzelinda,  a  shepherdess  in  *The  Shep- 
herd's Week'  of  J.  Gay  (q.v.). 

Blue  and  the  Gray,  THE,  familiar  names  for 
the  armies  of  the  North  and  South  during  the 
American  Civil  War,  referring  to  the  fact  that 
the  first  wore  blue  uniforms  and  the  second 
gray. 

Blue  and  Yellow,  The,  the  'Edinburgh 
Review*  (q.v.),  so  called  from  the  colours  of 
its  cover,  which  were  the  election  colours  of 
the  Whig  party  when  the  Review  was  started. 

Blue  Beard,  a  popular  tale  in  an  oriental 
setting,  from  the  French  of  Perrault  (q.v.), 
translated  by  Robert  Samber  (1729?). 

A  man  of  great  wealth,  but  disfigured  by  a 
blue  beard,  and  of  evil  reputation  because  he 
has  married  several  wives  who  have  dis- 
appeared, asks  for  the  hand  of  Fatima,  the 
younger  of  the  two  daughters  of  a  neighbour- 
ing lady  of  quality.  At  last  she  is  prevailed 
on  to  marry  him.  Blue  Beard,  called  away  on 
business,  leaves  the  keys  of  all  his  treasures 
to  his  young  wife,  but  strictly  enjoins  her  not 
to  make  use  of  the  key  of  a  particular  room. 
Overcome  by  curiosity,  she  opens  this  room 
and  finds  in  it  the  bodies  of  Blue  Beard's 
previous  wives.  Horror-struck,  she  drops  the 
key,  which  becomes  indelibly  stained  with 
blood.  Blue  Beard  returns,  discovers  her 
disobedience,  and  orders  her  to  death.  She 
begs  for  a  little  delay,  'Sister  Anne'  sees  her 
brothers  arriving,  and  Blue  Beard  is  killed 
before  he  can  execute  the  sentence. 

Andrew  Lang,  in  his  'Perrault's  Popular 
Tales/  discusses  the  many  parallel  stories 
found  in  other  countries.  Blue  Beard  is 
identified  by  local  tradition  in  Brittany  with 
Gilles  de  Retz  (q.v.). 


BLUNDERBORE 

Blue  Grass  State,  Kentucky,  see  United 
States. 

Blue  Stocking,  a  woman  having  or  affecting 
literary  tastes.  The  origin  of  the  term  is  to  be 
found  in  the  evening  parties  held  about  1750 
in  the  houses  of  Mrs.  Vesey,  Mrs.  Montagu, 
and  Mrs.  Ord,  who  endeavoured  to  substi- 
tute for  card-playing,  which  then  formed  the 
principal  recreation,  more  intellectual  modes 
of  spending  the  time,  including  conversations 
on  literary  subjects  in  which  eminent  men  of 
letters  often  took  part.  Many  of  those  who 
attended  eschewed  efull  dress',  among  them 
Benjamin  Stillingfleet,  who  habitually  wore 
blue  worsted s  in  lieu  of  black  silk,  stockings. 
In  reference  to  this,  Admiral  Boscawen  is 
said  to  have  dubbed  the  coterie  the  *Blue 
Stocking  Society'  [OED.].  There  is  an 
account  of  the  *  Blue-stocking  Clubs*  in  Bos- 
well,  under  the  year  1781,  and  Hannah  More 
(q.v.)  wrote  a  poem  'Bas  Bleu,  or  Conversa- 
tion' on  the  same  subject.  Mrs.  Chapone 
(q.v.)  was  another  member  of  the  coterie. 

Blue- coat  School,  a  charity  school  of  which 
the  pupils  wear  the  almoner's  blue  coat.  Of 
these  schools  there  are  many  in  England,  the 
most  noted  being  Christ's  Hospital  (q.v.), 
formerly  in  London,  founded  by  Edward  VI, 
whose  uniform  is  a  long  dark  blue  gown 
fastened  at  the  waist  by  a  belt,  and  bright 
yellow  stockings. 

Bluemantle,  one  of  the  four  Pursuivants 
(officers  ranking  below  Heralds)  attached  to 
the  English  College  of  Arms  (see  Heralds' 
College). 

Blue- nose,  a  nickname  for  a  native  of  Nova 
Scotia  (the  term  frequently  occurs  in  Hall- 
burton's  'Sam  Slick');  also  applied  to  Nova 
Scotian  ships. 

Blues,  THE,  the  Regiment  of  Royal  Horse 
Guards,  originally  the  Royal  Regiment  of 
Horse,  one  of  the  New  Model  regiments  dis- 
banded in  1660  and  immediately  raised  afresh, 
so  called  from  the  colour  of  its  uniform. 

BluUe,  CAPTAIN,  a  character  in  Congreve's 
'The  Old  Bachelor'  (q.v.). 

Blumine,  in  Carlyle's  'Sartor  Resartus' 
(q.v.),  the  lady  with  whom  Herr  Teufels- 
drockh  falls  in  love. 

BLUNDEN,  EDMUND  (1896-  ),  poet 
and  scholar,  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital 
and  Queen's  College,  Oxford.  During  the 
War  he  served  with  the  Royal  Sussex  and  has 
written  one  of  the  best  books  of  the  War — 
'Undertones  of  War*  (1928).  After  his  own 
poetry  (collected  edition,  1930),  his  greatest 
service  to  poetry  has  been  the  researches  into 
and  discovery  and  publication  of  the  hitherto 
unpublished  poems  of  John  Clare  (q.v.).  He 
has  also  published  the  first  adequate  bio- 
graphy of  Leigh  Hunt. 

Blunderbore,  a  giant  in  the  tale  of  'Jack  the 
Giant-killer'  (q.v.). 


[94] 


BLUNT 

BLUNT,  WILFRID  SCAWEN  (1840- 
1922),  poet  and  publicist,  author  of  'The 
Love  Sonnets  of  Proteus*  (1880)  and  other 
volumes  of  poetry  (complete  edition,  1914). 
His  political  life  and  writings  were  all  in 
defence  of  nationalism,  Irish,  Egyptian,  and 
Indian. 

Boadicea,  BONDUCA,  misspellings  for  Bou- 
DICCA,  queen  of  the  Iceni  in  the  east  of 
Britain,  who  led  a  revolt  against  the  Romans, 
but  was  finally  defeated  by  Suetonius  Paulinus 
in  A.D.  6 1  and  took  her  own  life. 

'Boadicea'  is  the  title  and  subject  of  a 
poem  in  galliambics  by  Tennyson ;  also  of  a 
fine  ballad  by  W.  Cowper.  See  also  Bonduca. 

Boanerges,  'sons  of  thunder',  the  name 
given  by  Jesus  Christ  to  James  and  John 
(Mark  iii.  17),  because  they  offered  to  call 
down  fire  from  heaven  to  consume  the  in- 
hospitable Samaritans  (Luke  ix.  54). 

Boar  of  the  Ardennes,  THE  WILD,  William 
Count  de  la  Marck,  who  figures  in  Scott's 
'Quentin  Durward*  (q.v.). 

Boar's  Head  Inn,  THE,  celebrated  in  con- 
nexion with  Falstaff  (Shakespeare's  'Henry 
IV),  was  in  Eastcheap,  where  the  statue  of 
William  IV  now  stands.  The  inn  was  in 
existence  until  1831.  It  is  the  subject  of  a 
paper  in  Washington  Irving's  'Sketch  Book*. 
One  of  the  best  of  Goldsmith's  essays  is  his 
'Reverie  in  the  Boar's  Head  Tavern  at 
Eastcheap'. 

Boaz  and  JacMn,  the  names  of  the  two 
pillars  set  up  by  Solomon  in  the  porch  of  the 
Temple  (i  Kings  vii.  21). 

Bob  Logic,  in  'Life  in  London*  by  Egan 
(q.v.),  the  Oxonian  associate  of  Jerry  Haw- 
thorn and  Corinthian  Tom. 

Bobadill,  CAPTAIN,  a  character  in  Jonson's 
'Every  Man  in  his  Humour'  (q.v.),  an  old 
soldier,  vain,  boastful,  and  cowardly,  notable 
among  the  braggarts  of  comedy  for  his 
gravity  and  decorum. 

FRANCESCO  BOBADILLA  was  the  Spanish 
governor  of  Hispaniola,  appointed  in  1499, 
who  put  Columbus  and  his  brother  in 
chains,  and  sent  them  back  to  Spain. 

BOABDIL,  a  corruption  of  Abou  Abdullah, 
was  the  last  Moorish  king  of  Granada  (1482- 
92),  a  pathetic  figure  in  Washington  Irving's 
'Conquest  of  Granada*. 

Bobby,  a  slang  nickname  for  a  policeman, 
probably  an  allusion  to  the  name  of  Mr. 
(afterwards  Sir)  Robert  Peel,  who  was  home 
secretary  when  the  new  Metropolitan  Police 
Act  was  passed  in  1828.  Cf.  Peelers. 

BOCCACCIO,  GIOVANNI  (1313  ?-7S), 
Italian  novelist,  poet,  and  humanist,  was  born 
in  Paris,  the  son  of  a  Florentine  merchant  and 
a  French  woman  named  Jeanne.  He  was 
brought  up  in  Florence,  and  fell  in  love  with 
Maria  d*Aquino,  illegitimate  daughter  of 
King  Robert  of  Naples,  and  wife  of  a  Count 


BODLEY 

d*Aquino,  who  inspired  many  of  his  works, 
and  is  the  Fiammetta  of  his  novel  of  that 
name.  In  1351  Boccaccio  carried  to  Petrarch 
(q.v.)  a  letter  from  the  Florentine  authorities 
announcing  to  him  the  restoration  of  his 
family  property  and  inviting  him  to  return  to 
Florence.  Boccaccio  was  a  friend  and  ad- 
mirer of  Dante  and  endeavoured,  apparently 
with  little  success,  to  interest  Petrarch  in  his 
fellow  poet.  He  wrote  a  Life  of  Dante  which 
is  one  of  our  principal  sources  of  knowledge 
on  the  subject.  Boccaccio's  chief  works,  apart 
from  the  'Decameron'  (q.v.),  were :  the  'Filo- 
copo*  a  prose  romance,  embodying,  with 
adaptations  to  his  own  love-affair,  the  story  of 
'Mores  and  Blanchefleur*  (q.v.) ;  the  'Amorosa 
Visione',  a  long  poem  describing  the  poet's 
visit,  in  a  dream,  to  the  realms  of  Love,  Fame, 
&c. ;  the  *Filostrato',  a  poem  on  the  story  of 
Troilus  and  Cressida;  and  the  *Teseide*,  a 
poem  on  the  story  of  Theseus,  Palamon,  and 
Arcite,  which  was  translated  by  Chaucer. 
Boccaccio  also  wrote  a  Latin  treatise,  T>e 
Genealogia  Deorum*. 

Boccaccio  is  an  important  figure  in  the 
history  of  literature,  and  particularly  of  the 
novel,  and  among  the  poets  who  found  in- 
spiration in  his  works  were  Chaucer,  Shake- 
speare, Dryden,  Keats,  Longfellow,  and 
Tennyson. 

Boche,  abbreviation  of  Attache  (=AUe- 
mand),  a  French  popular  and  contemptuous 
name  for  a  German  (Larousse),  which  came 
into  vogue  in  England  during  the  Great  War. 

Bodle,  a  Scottish  copper  coin  of  the  value  of 
two  pennies  Scots  or  (c.  1600)  one-sixth  of  an 
English  penny.  The  name  is  reputed  to  be 
derived  from  the  name  of  a  mint-master 
Bothwell,  but  no  documentary  evidence  is 
cited.  [OED.] 

Bodleian  Library,  see  Bodley. 

Bodley,  SIR  THOMAS  (1545-1613),  was  edu- 
cated at  Geneva,  whither  his  parents  had  fled 
during  the  Marian  persecution,  and  subse- 
quently at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford;  After 
being  for  some  time  a  lecturer  in  that 
university,  he  travelled  abroad,  and  from 
1588  to  1596  was  English  diplomatic  repre- 
sentative at  The  Hague.  He  devoted  the 
rest  of  his  life  and  most  of  his  resources  to 
founding  at  Oxford  the  great  library  that 
bears  his  name.  It  was  opened  in  1602.  In 
1609  Bodley  endowed  it  with  land  in  Berk- 
shire and  houses  in  London,  and  in  1610  the 
Stationers'  Company  undertook  to  give  to  the 
library  a  copy  of  every  book  printed  in  Eng- 
land. It  received  also  important  gifts  of  books, 
in  its  early  days,  from  Laud,  Oliver  Cromwell, 
and  Robert  Burton  (author  of  the  'Anatomy 
of  Melancholy*).  Among  other  considerable 
accessions  may  be  mentioned  the  library  of 
Bishop  Jerome  Osorius  (q.v.),  seized  on  the 
occasion  of  the  descent  of  Essex  on  Faro  in 
Portugal  (i  596)  and  subsequently  given  to  the 
Bodleian;  also  John  Selden's  library,  given 
in  1659,  and  the  Rawlinson  MSS.  in  more 


[95] 


BOECE 

recent  times.  The  Canonici  MSS.  were 
purchased  in  1817  and  the  Oppenheimer 
Collection  of  Hebrew  books  in  1829.  The 
Bodleian  shares  with  the  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity Library,  the  National  Library  of 
Scotland  (see  Advocates*  Library),  the  Library 
of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  (with  limita- 
tions) the  National  Library  of  Wales,  the 
right,  under  the  Copyright  Act  (1911),  to 
receive  on  demand  a  copy  of  every  book 
published  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Macray's 
'Annals  of  the  Bodleian'  (1868,  1890)  is  a 
standard  work  on  the  history  of  the  Library. 

BOECE,  see  Boethius. 

BOECE  or  BO&THIUS,  HECTOR(i46s  ?- 
1536),  a  native  of  Dundee  and  a  student  in 
the  University  of  Paris,  where  he  became  a 
professor.  He  published  Latin  lives  of  the 
bishops  of  Mortlach  and  Aberdeen  (1522), 
and  a  Latin  history  of  Scotland  to  the  ac- 
cession of  James  III  (1527),  the  latter  in- 
cluding many  fabulous  narratives,  among 
others  that  of  Macbeth  and  Duncan,  which 
passed  into  Holinshed's  chronicles  and  thence 
to  Shakespeare. 

Boehme  or  BEHMEN,  JACOB  (1575-1624),  a 
peasant  shoemaker  of  Gorlitz  in  Germany,  a 
mystic.  The  essential  features  of  his  doctrine 
(known  as  Behmenism]  were  that  will  is  the 
original  force,  that  all  manifestation  involves 
opposition  (that  good  can  only  be  known 
through  contrast  with  evil),  that  existence  is  a 
process  of  conflict  between  pairs  of  contrasted 
principles,  and  that  these  are  ultimately  re- 
solved into  some  new  unity.  The  doctrine  of 
Boehme  strongly  influenced  W.  Law  (q.v.). 
English  translations  of  Bpehme's  works,  by 
various  hands,  appeared  in  1645-62.  A  re- 
print of  the  works  in  English,  ed.  C.  J. 
Barker,  has  appeared  (1910-24). 

Boeotia  (pron.  Be-o'shia),  a  country  in 
central  ^Greece,  surrounded  by  mountains, 
containing  the  valleys  of  the  Cephissus  and 
Asopus,  and  having  Thebes  for  its  capital. 
Its  inhabitants  were  proverbial  for  dullness 
of  intellect,  but  -die  country  gave  birth  to 
many  illustrious  men,  such  as  Hesiod,  Pindar, 
Plutarch,  and  Democritus  (qq.v.).  'Boeotian* 
has  come  to  be  used  as  a  derogatory  adjective, 
synonymous  with  boorish,  dull-witted. 

BOfiTHIUS,  ANICIUS  MANLIUS 
SEVERINUS,  frequently  referred  to  as 
'Boece*  in  the  Middle  Ages,  born  at  Rome 
between  A.D.  470  and  475,  was  consul  in  510 
and  in  favour  with  Theodoric  the  Great;  but 
incurring  his  suspicion  of  plotting  against 
the  Gothic  rule,  was  imprisoned  and  put  to 
death  in  525.  In  prison  he  wrote  the  cele- 
brated work,  'De  Consolatione  Philosophiae*, 
which  was  translated  by  King  Alfred  (q.v.). 
Two  versions  of  the  translation  exist,  in  one 
of  which  the  metrical  portions  of  the  original 
are  rendered  in  prose,  in  the  other  in  verse. 
The  'De  Consolatione*  was  also  translated 
by  Chaucer  under  the  title  'Boethius',  by 
Queen  Elizabeth,  and  by  others. 


BOKE  OF  THE  DUCHESSE 

Boffin  ,  MR.  and  MRS.,  characters  in  Dickens  Js 

'Our  Mutual  Friend'  (q.v.). 

Boggley  Wallah,  THE  COLLECTOR  OF,  Jos 

Sedley,  a  character  in  Thackeray's  'Vanity 

Fair*  (q.v.). 

Bogle,  The  Rhyme  of  Sir  Lancelot,  see  Bon 

Gaultier  Ballads. 


Bogomils,  a  sect  which  arose  in  the 
cent,  in  Bulgaria,  holding  heretical  views  on 
the  divine  birth  of  Christ,  on  the  sacraments, 
and  on  other  points  of  dogma.  They  held 
Manichaean  (q.v.)  opinions  on  the  dual  origin 
of  good  and  evil. 

Boheme,  Scenes  de  la  vie  det  a  well-known 
romance  of  Paris  student  life,  by  Murger 
(q.v.),  published  in  1848;  Puccini's  opera 
'Boheme'  was  founded  on  it. 

Bohemia,  SEA  COAST  OF:  in  Shakespeare's 
'The  Winter's  Tale',  in.  iii,  Antigonus  says, 
'our  ship  hath  touched  upon  the  deserts  of 
Bohemia'.  Sometimes  quoted  as  one  of  the 
rare  instances  where  Shakespeare  failed  in 
general  knowledge,  since  Bohemia  is  an  en- 
tirely inland  country. 

Bohemia,  Story  of  the  King  o/,  told  by 
Corporal  Trim  in  vol.  viii  of  Sterne's 
'Tristram  Shandy*  (q.v.). 
Bohemian  is  frequently  used  in-the  sense  of 
a  gipsy  of  society,  especially  an  artist,  literary 
man,  or  actor,  who  leads  a  free,  vagabond,  or 
irregular  life,  and  despises  conventionalities. 
In  this  sense  the  term  was  adopted  from 
French,  in  which  boh§me,  bohemien,  have  been 
applied  to  the  gipsies  since  their  first  appear- 
ance in  the  i$th  cent.,  because  they  were 
thought  to  come  from  Bohemia.  The  word, 
with  this  meaning,  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
lish by  Thackeray.  [OED.] 

BOHN,  HENRY  GEORGE  (1796-1884), 
publisher,  and  author  of  the  'Guinea  Cata- 
logue* of  old  books  (1841),  a  valuable  early 
bibliographical  work.  Among  Bonn's  many 
publications  ('Standard  Library*,  'Classical 
Library',  'Scientific  Library*,  &c.)  may  be 
specially  mentioned  his  'Antiquarian  Library* 
(1847  onwards). 

BOIAKDO,  MATTEO  MARIA  (1434-94), 
an  Italian  poet  of  the  old  chivalry,  who  drew 
on  the  legends  of  Arthur  and  Charlemagne 
for  his  materials.  His  principal  work  was  the 
unfinished  'Orlando  Innamorato*  (q.v.). 

BOILEAU  (DESPREAUX),  NICOLAS 
(1636-1711),  French  critic  and  poet,  the 
friend  of  Moliere,  La  Fontaine,  and  Racine, 
who  _  by  his  'Satires',  'Epitres',  and  'Art 
Poe"tique',  remarkable  for  discrimination  and 
good  sense,  did  much  to  form  French  literary 
taste,  previously  vitiated  by  Spanish  and 
Italian  influences.  He  was  known  as  the 
legislateur  du  Parnasse. 

Bois-Guilbert,  SIR  BRIAN  DE,  the  fierce 
Templar  in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe'  (q.v.). 
Boke  of  the  Duchesse,  The,  a  poem  of  some 
1,300  lines  by  Chaucer,  written  in  1369.  It  is 


[96] 


BOLD 

an  allegorical  lament  on  the  death  of  Blanche 
of  Lancaster,  first  wife  of  John  of  Gaunt. 
In  a  dream  the  poet  joins  a  hunting  party  of 
the  Emperor  Octovien.  He  comes  upon  a 
knight  in  black  who  laments  the  loss  of  his 
lady.  The  knight  tells  of  her  virtues  and 
beauty  and  their  courtship,  and  in  answer  to 
a  question  declares  her  dead.  The  hunting 
party  reappears,  a  bell  strikes  twelve,  and 
the  poet  awakes,  with  the  story  of  Ceyx  and 
Halcyone,  which  he  had  been  reading,  in 
his  hand. 

Bold,  JOHN,  a  character  in  Trollope's  'The 
Warden3  (q.v.).  Mrs.  Bold,  his  widow, 
figures  prominently  in  its  sequel,  'Barchester 
Towers*  (q.v.),  and  in  'The  Last  Chronicle 
of  Barset',  where  she  is  the  wife  of  Dean 
Arabin. 

Bold  Stroke  for  a  Wife,  A,  a  comedy  by 
Mrs.  Centlivre  (q.v.),  produced  in  1718. 
Colonel  Fainall,  to  win  the  consent  of 
Obadiah  Prim,  the  quaker  guardian  of  Anne 
Lovely,  to  his  marriage  with  the  latter,  im- 
personates Simon  Pure,  'a  quaking  preacher*. 
No  sooner  has  he  obtained  it  than  the  true 
Quaker  arrives  and  proves  himself  'the  real 
Simon  Pure',  a  phrase  that  has  become 
proverbial. 

BOLDREWOOD,  ROLF,  pseudonym  of 
T.  A.  BROWNE  (q.v.). 

Boldwood,  FARMER,  a  character  in  Hardy's 
'Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd*  (q.v.). 

Bolingbroke,  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  the 
future  Henry  IV,  figures  in  Shakespeare's 
'Richard  II'  (q.v.). 

BOLINGBROKE,  HENRY  ST.  JOHN, 
first  Viscount  (1678-1751),  educated  at  Eton 
and  perhaps  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  a  sup- 
porter of  Harley  and  the  Tory  party  in  parlia- 
ment, became  secretary  of  state  in  1710,  was 
created  Viscount  Bolingbroke  in  1712,  and 
was  in  charge  of  the  negotiations  which  led 
to  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713).  He  founded 
the  'Brothers'  Club'  (q.v.)  in  1711.  He  was 
dismissed  from  office  on  the  accession  of 
George  I,  was  attainted,  and  his  name  was 
erased  from  the  roll  of  peers.  He  fled  to 
France  and  was  secretary  of  state  to  James 
the  Pretender,  from  whose  service  he  was  dis- 
missed in  1716.  His  'Letter  to  Sir  William 
Wyndham*  (q.v.)  was  written  in  1717.  He 
was  pardoned  and  returned  to  London  in 
1723,  and  settled  at  Dawley  near  Oxford.  It 
is  to  the  following  period  that  his  principal 
political  and  philosophical  writings  belong. 
He  contributed  to  the  '  Craftsman*  ^  (q.v.) 
from  1727  to  1733  a  number  of  virulent 
attacks  on  the  Whig  government  under 
Walpole  and  Townshend,  notably  in  the 
'Remarks  on  the  History  of  England*  (1730- 
31)  and  in  'A  Dissertation  upon  Parties* 
(X735)-  In  1735  he  retired  to  Chanteloup  in 
Touraine,  and  there  wrote  his  'Letters  on 
the  Study  and  Use  of  History*  (1752),  .in 
which  he  points  out  the  failure  of  English 


BOMBASTES  FURIOSO 

historical  literature  to  produce  either  a  general 
history,  or  particular  histories  comparable  to 
those  of  foreign  nations.  In  1736  he  wrote 
'A  Letter  on  the  Spirit  of  Patriotism'  (q.v.), 
and  in  1738  'The  Idea  of  a  Patriot  King* 
(q.v.,  published  1749)-  In  1749  he  issued 
'Some  Reflections  on  the  Present  State  of  the 
Nation',  dealing  principally  with  the  question 
of  the  public  debt. 

Bolingbroke 's  chief  strength  lay  in  oratory. 
His  policy  was  a  kind  of  democratic  Toryism, 
anticipating  that  of  Disraeli.  He  can  hardly 
claim  to  be  a  philosopher,  but  some  occasional 
writings  of  his,  of  a  deistic  tendency,  were 
published  as  his  'Philosophical  Works*  in 
1752.  The  influence  of  these  is  seen  in  Pope's 
'Essay  on  Man*  (q.v.).  Bolingbroke's  col- 
lected works  were  published  by  David  Mallet 
in  1752. 

Bolivar,  SIMON  (1783-1830),  'The  Libera- 
tor*, the  leader  of  the  revolution  of  Venezuela 
against  Spain.  He  founded  the  republic  of 
Colombia,  uniting  Venezuela,  New  Granada 
(the  modern  Colombia), and  Ecuador;  became 
dictator  of  Peru ;  and  formed  the  republic  of 
Bolivia.  Peru  and  Bolivia  turned  against  him 
in  1826,  and  the  republic  of  Colombia  broke 
up  soon  after  his  death. 

Bollandists,  Belgian  Jesuits  who  publish 
the  'Acta  Sanctorum',  legends  of  saints 
arranged  according  to  the  days  of  the  calendar. 
The  work  was  begun  at  Antwerp  by  John 
Bolland,  a  Flemish  Jesuit  of  the  i7th  cent., 
the  first  volume  appearing  in  1643,  and  the 
last  volume  of  the  original  series  in  1786  after 
the  dispersal  of  the  Jesuits.  The  Bollandists 
were  re-established  in  Brussels  in  1837  and 
continue  their  hagiographic  studies,  but  in  a 
more  historical  spirit.  Their  quarterly  review 
('Analecta  Bollandiana*)  was  founded  in  1882. 

Bolshevik,  the  Russian  name  for  a  member 
of  the  revolutionary  party  led  by  Lenin, 
which  seized  power  in  Russia  in  1917,  pro- 
fessing to  act  in  the  name  of  the  proletariat, 
confiscated  the  property  of  the  landowners 
and  distributed  it  among  the  peasants,  and 
in  general  attacked  the  bourgeoisie  and  the 
capitalistic  system.  The  word  (colloquially 
'Bolshie')  is  frequently  used  in  England  and 
America  to  signify  any  advocate  of  a  radical 
reform  of  the  social  and  economic  system. 

Bolt  Court,  Fleet  Street,  contained  the 
home  of  Dr.  Johnson  from  1776  to  1784. 
Cobbett  (q.v.)  published  his  'Political  Regis- 
ter* there. 

Bolton,  FANNY,  a  character  in  Thackeray's 
'Pendennis*  (q.v.). 

Bomba,  KING,  Ferdinand  II  (of  the  Bourbon 
dynasty)  of  Naples,  whose  treacherous  and 
tyrannical  reign  extended  from  1830  to  1859, 
so  called  on  account  of  his  bombardment  of 
Messina  in  1848. 

Bombastes  Fwrioso,  a  burlesque  by  William 
Barnes  Rhodes  (1772-1826),  published  in 
1 8 10,  with  illustrations  by  G.  Cruikshank. 


3868 


[971 


BOMBASTUS 

The  name  is  applied  to  a  person  who  talks 
in  a  bombastic  way.  (The  word  'bombast' 
originally  means  cotton-wool,  hence  cotton- 
wool used  as  padding,  and  so  inflated  lan- 
guage.) 

The  characters  in  the  burlesque  are  King 
Artaxominous,  Fusbos,  his  minister,  General 
Bombastes,  and  Distaffina.  The  king  is 
divided  in  his  affections  between  his  queen 
Griskinissa  and  Distaffina,  who  is  beloved 
by  Bombastes.  He  is  discovered  in  Dis- 
taffina's  cupboard  by  Bombastes  and  prepares 
to  hang  himself,  but  decides  to  hang  up  his 
boots  instead.  Bombastes  fights  with  and 
kills  the  king,  and  is  in  turn  wounded  by 
Fusbos ; 

Here  lies  Bombastes,  stout  of  heart  and 
limb, 

Who  conquer'd  all  but  Fusbos — Fusbos 

him. 

Fortunately  the  dead  revive  and  all  join  hands 
and  dance. 

Bombastus,  in  Butler's  'Hudibras'  (n.  iii, 
q.v.),  refers  to  Paracelsus  (q.v.). 

Son  Gaultier Ballads ,  a  collection  of  parodies 
and  light  poems  by  W.  E.  Aytoun  (q.v.)  and 
Sir  T.  Martin  (q.v.),  published  in  1845. 
Among  the  authors  parodied  are  Tennyson 
(notably  his  'Locksley  Hall',  in  the  'Lay  of 
the  Lovelorn'),  Macaulay,  Lockhart,  and 
Mrs.  Browning  (in  'The  Rhyme  of  Sir 
Lancelot  Bogle'). 

'Bon  Gaultier'  was  the  pseudonym  under 
which  Sir  Theodore  Martin  (q.v.)  contributed 
to  'TaitY  and  'Fraser's*  magazines.  It  is 
taken  from  Rabelais  (Prologue  to  'Gargan- 
tua'),  who  uses  the  words  in  the  sense  of 
'good  fellow'  or  'good  companion*  ('Gaultier* 
is  a  proper  name  generalized). 

Bond  Street,  London,  named  after  Sir 
Thomas  Bond,  who  began  its  construction 
about  1688.  Sterne,  Sir  T.  Lawrence,  and 
Boswell  (qq.v)  lived  there  at  various  times. 
It  has  long  been  famous  for  its  shops. 

Bonduca  (Boadicea),  a  tragedy  by  J.  Fletcher 
(q.v.),  produced  some  time  before  March 
1619  (the  date  of  the  death  of  Richard 
Burbage,  who  acted  in  it). 

The  tragedy  is  based  on  the  story  of 
Boadicea  (q.v.)  as  given  by  Holinshed.  But 
the  principal  character  in  the  tragedy  is 
Caratach  (Caractacus),  the  sagacious  and 
patriotic  soldier,  a  generous  enemy,  and  a 
wise  counsellor  to  the  impetuous  British 
queen.  The  play  presents  the  battles  in 
which  Boadicea  is  defeated  and  killed,  her 
daughters  take  their  lives,  and  Caratach  is 
taken  prisoner.  Incidents  worked  into  the 
general  action  are  the  love  of  the  Roman 
officer  Junius  for  Bonduca's  daughter,  and 
her  treachery;  and  the  disobedience  of 
Poenius  Postumus  to  his  general's  orders, 
expiated  by  his  suicide. 

Boniface,  the  landlord  of  the  inn  in  Far- 
quhar's  'The  Beaux'  Stratagem'  (q.v.); 


BOONE 

whence  taken  as  the  generic  proper  name  of 

innkeepers. 

Boniface,  ABBOT,  in  Scott's  'The  Monastery' 

(q.v.),  the  abbot  of  Kennaquhair. 

Boniface,  ST.  (680-755),  the  apostle  of 
Germany,  born  at  Kirton  or  Crediton  in 
Devonshire,  was  educated  in  a  monastery  at 
Exeter  and  at  Nursling,  near  Winchester.  He 
went  to  Rome  in  718,  and  with  authority  from 
Pope  Gregory  II,  proceeded  to  Germany, 
where  he  preached,  established  monasteries, 
and  organized  the  Church.  He  was  slain  with 
his  followers  by  pagans  at  Dokkum  on  the 
Bordau.  He  is  commemorated  on  5  June. 
His  original  name  is  said  to  have  been 
Wynfrith. 

Bonivard,  see  Prisoner  of  Chilian. 
Bonny  Dundee,  Graham  of  Claverhouse 
(q.v.)- 

Bontemps,  ROGER,  the  subject  of  a  song  by 
P.  J.  de  Be*ranger  (q.v.),  the  type  of  cheerful 
contentment. 

Bonthron,  ANTHONY,  in  Scott's  'Fair  Maid 
of  Perth'  (q.v.),  a  villainous  cut-throat,  em- 
ployed by  Sir  John  Ramorny  to  murder 
Henry  Smith  and  the  duke  of  Rothsay. 

Booby,  SIR  THOMAS  and  LADY,  and  SQUIRE 
BOOBY,  characters  in  Fielding's  'Joseph 
Andrews'  (q.v.). 

Boojum,  in  Lewis  Carroll's  'The  Hunting 
of  the  Snark',  an  imaginary  creature,  a 
dangerous  variety  of  the  snark. 

Book  ofKells,  see  Kells. 

Book  of  Martyrs,  see  Actes  and  Monuments, 

Book  of  Mormon  f  see  Mormons. 

Book  of  St.  Albans,  The,  was  issued  by  the 
press  that  was  set  up  at  St.  Albans  about 
1479,  soon  after  Caxton  had  begun  to  print  at 
Westminster.  It  contains  treatises  on  hawk- 
ing, hunting,  and  heraldry,  and  its  authorship 
is  attributed  to  a  certain  Juliana  Berners, 
whom  tradition  represents  as  prioress  of  the 
nunnery  of  Sopwell  in  Hertfordshire.  The 
book  is  a  compilation  and  probably  not  all  by 
one  hand.  An  edition  printed  by  Wynkyn  de 
Worde  in  1496  also  included  a  treatise  on 
'Fishing  with  an  Angle'. 

Book  of  Snobs ,  The,  see  Snobs  of  England. 
Book  of  the  Duchess  j  The,  see  Boke. 
Booksellers'  Row,  a  name  that  was  given 
to  the  old  Holywell  Street,  which  ran  parallel 
to  the  Strand  between  St.  Clement  Dane's 
and  St.  Dunstan's,  before  the  formation  of 
Aldwych  at  the  end  of  the  I9th  cent.;  so 
called   from   the   number   of  second-hand 
booksellers  that  had  shops  there. 

Boone,  DANIEL  (1735-1820?),  American 
pioneer,  explorer,  and  Indian  fighter,  who 
played  a  notable  part  in  the  opening  up  and 
settlement  of  Kentucky  and  Missouri.  His 
name^  is  a  synonym  for  pioneering  courage, 
sagacity,  and  endurance. 


[98] 


BOOTES 

Bo6tes,  from  the  Greek  word  meaning 
ploughman,  wagoner;  a  northern  constella- 
tion, 'the  Wagoner*,  situated  at  the  tail  of  the 
Great  Bear  and  containing  the  bright  star 
Arcturus.  See  Icarius. 

Booth,  CHARLES  (1840-1916),  a  suc- 
cessful shipowner,  was  author  of  a  monu- 
mental inquiry  into  the  condition  and  occupa- 
tions of  the  people  of  London,  of  which  the 
earlier  part  appeared  as  'Labour  and  Life  of 
the  People*  in  1889,  and  the  whole  as  'Life 
and  Labour  of  the  People  in  London"  in 
seventeen  volumes  (1891-1903).  Its  object 
was  to  show  'the  numerical  relation  which 
poverty,  misery,  and  depravity  bear  to  regu- 
lar earnings  and  comparative  comfort,  and  to 
describe  the  general  conditions  under  which 
each  class  lives".  The  passing  of  the  Old 
Age  Pensions  Act  in  1908  was  largely  due  to 
Booth's  advocacy  of  this  reform. 

After  an  interval  of  forty  years  a  'New 
Survey  of  London  Life  and  Labour"  on  the 
lines  of  Booth's  inquiry  has  recently  been 
undertaken  by  the  London  School  of 
Economics. 

Booth,  WILLIAM  (1829-1912),  popularly 
known  as  'General'  Booth,  famous  as  the 
founder  of  the  Salvation  Army  (q.v.),  was 
born  in  a  suburb  of  Nottingham,  the  son  of  a 
speculative  builder.  He  joined  the  Metho- 
dists, and  became  a  travelling  preacher  of 
Methodism,  but  broke  with  his  Church  and 
turned  independent  revivalist.  He  started 
his  Christian  Mission  in  Whitechapel,  the 
nucleus  of  the  Salvation  Army,  in  1865. 
Though  entirely  ignorant  of  theology,  and  a 
man  of  narrow  prejudices,  he  became,  by  his 
sympathy  for  the  degraded  poor,  by  his  fer- 
vour, and  by  his  gift  for  advertisement,  a 
considerable  force  in  the  religious  life  of  the 
country. 

Booth,  WILLIAM,  the  hero  of  Fielding's 
'Amelia*  (q.v.). 

Bor  or  BORR,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  son  of  Buri  (the  first  man,  made  by  the 
cow  Audhumla  licking  the  salt  stones),  and 
father  of  Odin  (q.v.). 

Borachio,  a  large  leather  bottle  or  bag  used 
in  Spain  for  wine  or  other  liquors;  hence  a 
drunkard,  a  mere  'wine-bag*.  Shakespeare 
used  the  word  as  the  name  of  one  of  the 
characters  in  his  'Much  Ado  about  Nothing" 
(q.v.),  and  it  occurs  in  Congreve,  Middleton, 
&c.,  to  signify  a  drunkard. 
Borak,  AL,  the  winged  horse  of  Mohammed, 
on  which  he  was,  in  a  vision,  borne  to  Jerusa- 
lem and  to  heaven. 

Bordeaux  wine,  see  Claret. 

Borderers,  The,  a  tragedy  by  Wordsworth 
(q.v.),  composed  in  1795-6. 

The  gentle  Marmaduke,  leader  (in  the 
reign  of  Henry  III)  of  a  band  of  Borderers 
whom  he  has  collected  to  protect  the  inno- 
cent, is  induced  by  the  perfidy  of  the  villain- 


BORON 

ous  Oswald  to  cause  the  death  of  the  blind 
old  Baron  Herbert,  whose  daughter  Idonea 
he  loves,  being  led  to  believe  that  her  father 
intends  to  sell  her  into  infamy. 

Boreas,  the  North  wind;  in  mythology  the 
son  of  the  Titan  Astraeus  and  of  Eos,  and 
brother  of  the  other  winds,  Zephyrus  and 
Notus.  He  dwelt  on  Mt.  Haemus  in  Thrace. 
Identified  with  the  Aquilo  of  the  Romans. 

Borgia,  CESARE  (1476-1507),  favourite  son 
of  Pope  Alexander  VI,  notorious  for  his 
violence  and  crimes,  at  the  same  time  a  man 
of  great  military  capacity,  and  one  of  the 
early  believers  in  the  unity  of  Italy.  He  per- 
haps murdered  his  brother  Giovanni,  duke 
of  Gandia,  and  he  instigated  the  murder  of 
Alfonso  of  Aragon,  his  sister  Lucrezia's 
husband.  He  conquered  Romagna,  but  his 
position  was  shaken  by  a  conspiracy  of  the 
dispossessed  or  threatened  nobles  (the  Orsini, 
Baglioni,  &c).  Borgia  decoyed  them  to  his 
house,  had  them  arrested,  and  two  of  them 
strangled.  His  power  came  to  an  end  after 
the  death  of  his  father.  Julius  II  had 
him  arrested,  but  he  was  released  on 
condition  of  surrendering  his  castles  in 
Romagna.  Borgia  fled  to  the  court  of  Navarre 
(he  had  married  Charlotte,  sister  of  the  king 
of  Navarre),  and  was  killed  in  the  service  of 
the  king.  He  is,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
the  'hero*  of  Machiavelli's  'II  Principe'. 

Borgia,  LUCREZIA  (1480-1519),  daughter  of 
Pope  Alexander  VI  and  sister  of  Cesare 
Borgia  (q.v.).  She  was  married  when  very 
young  to  Don  Gasparo  de  Procida,  but  the 
marriage  was  annulled  by  her  father,  and  she 
was  betrothed  to  Giovanni  Sforza.  This 
engagement  was  also  cancelled  by  her  father 
for  political  reasons,  and  Lucrezia  was 
married  to  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  a  relative  of 
the  king  of  Naples.  Alfonso  was  murdered 
by  direction  of  Cesare  Borgia,  and  Lucrezia 
then  married  Alfonso  d'Este,  heir  to  the 
duke  of  Ferrara,  being  at  the  time  22.  Her 
life  henceforth  was  peaceful,  and  when  her 
husband  reached  the  throne,  her  court  be- 
came a  centre  for  artists,  poets,  and  men  of 
learning,  such  as  Ariosto,  Titian,  and  Aldus 
Manutius  (qq.v). 

Borgia,  RODRIGO  (1431-1503),  Pope  Alexan- 
der VI,  a  Spaniard  by  birth,  the  father  of 
Cesare  and  Lucrezia  Borgia  (qq.v.),  elected 
to  the  pontificate  in  1492.  His  policy  was 
mainly  directed  to  the  recovery  of  the  Papal 
States  and  the  unscrupulous  promotion  of  the 
interests  of  his  family.  The  tradition  that  the 
Borgias  possessed  the  secret  of  a  mysterious 
and  deadly  poison,  which  they  used  against 
their  enemies,  has  not  been  substantiated  by 
historical  research.  It  may  be  accounted  for 
by  the  hostility  of  contemporary  chroniclers 
and  by  the  tendency  to  attribute  to  poison 
any  unexplained  and  sudden  death. 

BORON  or  BORRON,  ROBERT  DE,  a 
I2th-i3th-cent.  French  poet,  to  whom  is 


[99] 


H2 


BOROUGH 

attributed  the  authorship  of  two  important 
parts  of  the  Arthurian,  cycle  of  legends,  a 
poem  on  Merlin,  and  one  on  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  and  the  Holy  Grail.  There  is  also 
a  prose  version  of  the  poems,  *not  necessarily 
by  Boron's  own  hand*  (E.  K.  Chambers). 

Borough,  THE,  London,  signifies  South- 
wark  (q.v.). 

Borough,  The>  a  poem  by  Crabbe  (q.v.), 
published  in  1810,  in  twenty-four  'Letters* 
describing  life  and  character  as  seen  by  the 
poet  in  Aldeburgh.  Among  the  most  striking 
of  the  tales  are  those  of  'Peter  Grimes', 
'Ellen  Orford',  and  'Clelia'  (qq.v.). 

Borr,  see  Bor. 

BORROW,  GEORGE  (1803-81),  was  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  High  School  and  at  Nor- 
wich and  articled  to  a  solicitor,  but  adopted 
literature  as  a  profession.  He  assisted  in  com- 
piling the  'Newgate  Calendar*  (q.v.),  and  then 
travelled  thro  ugh  England,  France,  Germany, 
Russia,  Spain,  and  in  the  East,  studying  the 
languages  of  the  countries  he  visited.  In  Russia 
and  Spain  he  acted  as  agent  for  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  in  the  latter 
country  as  correspondent  for  'The  Times*. 
Finally  he  settled  near  Oulton  Broad  in  Nor- 
folk, where  he  became  celebrated  for  his 
promiscuous  hospitality.  He  published  a 
number  of  books  based  in  part  on  his  own 
life,  experiences,  and  travels:  'The  Zincali, 
or  an  account  of  the  Gypsies  in  Spain*  (1841), 
*The  Bible  in  Spain*  (q.v.,  1843),  'Lavengro* 
(q.v.,  1851),  'The  Romany  Rye*  (q.v.,  1857), 
and  'Wild  Wales*  (1862).  His  novels  have  a 
peculiar  picaresque  quality,  graphically  pre- 
senting a  succession  of  gipsies,  rogues,  strange 
characters  and  adventures  of  all  kinds,  with- 
out much  coherence,  the  whole  permeated 
with  the  spirit  of  the  'wind  on  the  heath*  and 
of  the  unconventional.  'Lavengro'  and  'The 
Romany  Rye*  are  largely  autobiographical, 
but  the  border-line  between  autobiography 
and  fiction  in  them  is  hard  to  trace. 

Bors  de  Ganis,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morte 
d' Arthur*,  one  of  the  knights  of  the  Round 
Table,  and  cousin  of  Sir  Launcelot.  He 
takes  part  in  the  quest  of  the  Holy  Grail. 

BOSGAN,  JUAN  (c.  1490-1542),  a  Spanish 
poet  born  at  Barcelona,  who  did  much  to 
introduce  Italian  verse  forms  into  the  poetry 
of  his  country.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
another  Spanish  poet,  Garcilasso  (q.v.)  de  la 
Vega,  and  the  two  are  mentioned  together  by 
Byron  in  'Don  Juan*  (i.  95). 

Boscobel,  a  farm  near  Shifnal  in  Shropshire, 
where  Charles  II  lay  in  hiding  after  the  battle 
of  Worcester.  The  'royal  oak*,  which  stood 
near  it,  has  now  disappeared.  See  also 
Pendrell. 


Bosola,    a    character   in    Webster's 
Duchess  of  Malfi*  (q.v.). 

Bosom 's  Inn,  see  Blossom's  Inn. 


'The 


BOSWELL 

Bosphorus,  or  more  correctly  BOSPORUS,  the 
channel  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of 
Marmora,  said  to  be  so  called  from  the  legend 
of  lo  (q.v.). 

BOSSUET,  JACQUES  BfiNIGNE  (1627- 
1704),  French  divine  and  famous  preacher, 
one  of  the  leading  figures  at  the  court  of 
Louis  XIV,  of  whose  son,  the  Dauphin,  he 
was  tutor,  and  bishop  of  Meaux.  His  fame 
rests  principally  on  his  eloquent  funeral 
orations  on  great  personages  of  the  reign. 
His  'Discours  sur  1'Histoire  Universelle* 
(1679)  is  a  summary  of  history  in  which  the 
divine  intervention  is  traced  at  each  stage. 
He  also  wrote  a  'Histoire  des  Variations  de 
1'figlise  re'forrneV  (1688).  Bossuet  was  a 
rigidly  dogmatic  theologian ;  he  entered  into 
controversy  with  Fe*nelon  (q.v.)  on  the 
subject  of  Quietism  (q.v.)  and  secured  the 
condemnation  of  his  adversary's  doctrines  by 
the  court  of  Rome. 

Boston  Tea  Party,  the  name  given  to  the 
act  of  violence  by  which  the  American 
colonists  in  1773  manifested  their  objection 
to  the  tea  duty  imposed  by  parliament.  A 
large  quantity  of  tea  shipped  to  Boston  was  on 
arrival  seized  and  thrown  into  the  harbour  by 
a  number  of  young  men  disguised  as  Red 
Indians. 

Bostonians,  The,  a  novel  by  Henry  James 
(q.v.),  published  in  1866. 

BOSWELL,  JAMES  (1740-95),  born  at 
Edinburgh,  the  son  of  Alexander  Boswell, 
Lord  Auchinleck,  a  Scottish  judge  who  took 
his  title  from  the  family  estate  in  Ayrshire. 
He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  High  School 
and  University,  and  reluctantly  studied  law  at 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Utrecht,  his  am- 
.  bition  being  directed  to  literature  or  politics. 
He  made  the  acquaintance  of  Samuel  John- 
son (q.v.)  in  London  in  1763.  He  travelled  on 
the  Continent  in  1765-6  and  was  introduced 
to  General  Paoli  in  Corsica.  As  a  result  he 
became  absorbed  in  Corsican  affairs,  and 
published  'An  Account  of  Corsica*  in  1768, 
and  'Essays  in  Favour  of  the  Brave  Corsicans* 
in  1769.  Boswell  paid  frequent  visits  to 
Johnson  in  London  (from  Edinburgh,  where 
he  practised  at  the  bar)  between  1772  and 
1784,  and  made  a  tour  in  Scotland  and  the 
Hebrides  with  Johnson  in  1773.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Literary  Club  in 
1773,  succeeded  to  his  father's  estate  in  1782, 
was  called  to  the  English  bar  in  1786,  and 
was  recorder  of  Carlisle  in  1788-90.  In  1789 
he  came  to  reside  in  London.  His  f  Journal 
of  a  Tour  to  the  Hebrides'  appeared  in  1785. 
He  had  been  storing  up  materials  for  his 
great  work,  the  'Life  of  Samuel  Johnson* 
since  1763,  and  after  Johnson's  death  in  1784, 
he  applied  himself  to  the  task  under  pressure 
from  Malone.  The  book  appeared  in  1791, 
and  proved  BoswelPs  extraordinary  aptitude 
and  talent  as  a  biographer.  While  Johnson 
owes  much  to  Boswell,  Boswell's  devotion 
to  Johnson  was  the  source  of  his  own  fame. 


BOSWORTH 

Much  information  concerning  his  life  may 
be  obtained  from  his  letters  to  the  Rev.  W.  J. 
Temple,  published  in  1857  (new  ed.  with 
other  letters  of  Boswell,  by  C.  B.  Tinker, 
Oxford,  1924).  BoswelPs  voluminous  journals, 
recently  discovered,  are  now  in  process  of 
publication.  See  also  under  Zelide. 

Bosworth,  BATTLE  OF,  in  Leicestershire,  the 
last  battle  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  fought  in 
1485,  when  Richard  III  was  defeated  by  the 
earl  of  Richmond  (Henry  VII)  and  killed. 

Botanic  Garden,  The,  see  Darwin  (E.). 

Botany  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
New  South  Wales,  where  a  penal  settlement 
was  established  in  1787-8. 

Botany  Bay  Eclogues,  early  poems  by 
Southey  (q.v.),  written  at  Oxford  in  1794. 
They  take  the  form  of  monologues  and  dia- 
logues by  transported  felons. 

Bothie  ofTober-na-Vuolich,  The,  a  poem  in 
English  hexameters  by  Clough  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1848  as  'The  Bothie  of  Toper-na- 
Fuosich*. 

The  poem,  described  as  'A  Long- vacation 
Pastoral',  tells  the  story  of  the  love  of  Philip 
Hewson,  a  young  Oxford  radical  on  a  reading- 
party  in  Scotland,  for  Elspie,  the  daughter  of 
a  Highland  farmer. 

(A  'bothie*  is  a  hut  or  cottage.) 

Bothwell,  JAMES  HEPBURN,  fourth  earl  of 
(1536  ?~78),  husband  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 
is  the  subject  of  an  historical  poem  by  W.  E. 
Aytoun  (q.v.,  1856),  and  of  a  tragedy  by 
Swinburne  (q.v.,  1874). 

Bothwell,  SERGEANT,  in  Scott's  'Old 
Mortality',  a  soldier  in  Claverhouse's  force, 
who  claims  the  name  of  Francis  Stewart. 

Botolph  or  BOTULF,  ST.  (d.  680),  an 
Englishman  who  studied  in  Germany  and 
became  a  Benedictine  monk.  He  founded  a 
monastery  at  Ikanho  (perhaps  near  the  present 
town  of  Boston),  which  was  destroyed  by  the 
Danes.  He  died,  with  a  high  reputation  for 
sanctity,  at  Botolphstown  (Boston).  Four 
churches  in  London  are  dedicated  to  him, 
and  he  is  also  commemorated  in  Botolph's 
Lane  and  Botolph's  wharf. 

Bo-tree,  theficus  religiosa  or  pipal  tree  (from 
bodhi,  'perfect  knowledge'),  the  sacred  tree  of 
the  Buddhists.  It  was  under  a  tree  of  this 
kind  that  Gautama  attained  the  enlighten- 
ment which  constituted  him  'the  Buddha'. 
It  is  regarded  as  the  embodiment  of  universal 
wisdom  and  in  some  sort  identified  with 
Buddha  himself. 

Botticelli,  SANDRO  (1447-1510),  a  Floren- 
tine painter,  whose  family  name  was^Filipepi 
(Sandro  is  short  for  Alessandro,  Botticelli  the 
name  of  the  goldsmith  who  was  his  first 
instructor).  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  painter 
Filippo  Lippi.  Abandoning  the  simple  re- 
ligion that  had  occupied  Giotto  and  his 
followers,  he  sought  inspiration  in  the  works 


BOUNTY 

of  Dante  and  Boccaccio  or  the  classics,  and 
treated  religious  subjects  with  a  peculiar 
sympathetic  humanity.  His  paintings  (among 
them  the  famous  'Birth  of  Venus'  are  marked 
by  the  freshness  of  the  early  Renaissance.  In 
1491  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Savona- 
rola and  became  one  of  his  ardent  supporters. 

Bottom,  NICK,  the  weaver  in  Shakespeare's 
'Midsummer  Night's  Dream*  (q.v.). 

A  'droll',  'The  Merry  Conceits  of  Bottom 
the  Weaver*,  adapted  from  Shakespeare's 
play,  was  printed  in  1646. 

BOUGIGAULT  (originally  BOURCI- 
CAULT),  DIONYSIUS  ('DION')  LARD- 
NER  (i820?-9o),  educated  at  London 
University,  was  a  skilful  adapter  of  plays  from 
plays  or  novels  by  other  hands.  He  produced 
'London  Assurance'  in  1841,  'The  Corsican 
Brothers'  (from  the  French)  in  1848,  'The 
Colleen  Bawn*  in  1859,  'Arrah-na-Pogue*  in 
1864,  and  'The  Shaughraun'  in  1875. 

Bouillabaisse,  see  Ballad. 

Bouillon,  GODEFROI  DE,  duke  of  Lower 
Lorraine,  leader  of  the  ist  Crusade  and  pro- 
claimed 'Protector  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre' 
in  1099.  He  died  in  uoo.  He  figures  in 
Scott's  'Count  Robert  of  Paris'  (q.v.). 

Boule,  ANDK&  CHARLES,  a  wood-carver  in 
France  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  who  gave 
the  name  to  Boule-work,  less  correctly  Buhl- 
work,  brass,  tortoiseshell,  or  other  material, 
worked  into  ornamental  patterns  for  inlaying. 

Bouncer,  MR.,  a  character  in  the  'Adven- 
tures of  Mr.  Verdant  Green';  see  Bradley  (E.). 

Bounderby,  JOSIAH,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'Hard  Times'  (q.v.). 

Bountiful,  LADY,  a  character  in  Farquhar's 
'The  Beaux'  Stratagem'  (q.v.). 

Bounty,  The  Mutiny  and  Piratical  Seizure  of 
H.M.S.,  a  narrative  by  Sir  J.  Barrow  (q.v.), 
published  in  1831. 

H.M.S.  'Bounty*,  a  ship  of  about  215  tons, 
which  had  been  sent  to  the  South  Sea  Islands 
to  collect  breadfruit  trees,  left  Tahiti  early  in 
1789  for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the 
West  Indies.  On  April  28  of  that  year, 
Fletcher  Christian,  Alexander  Smith  (the 
John  Adams  of  Pitcairn  Island)  and  others, 
seized  Lt.  Bligh,  the  commander,  and  placed 
him  and  18  of  the  crew  in  an  open  boat  and 
cast  them  adrift.  These  eventually  reached 
Timor.  The  'Bounty*  then  sailed  east  with 
25  of  the  crew  to  Tahiti,  where  16  were  put 
ashore.  These  were  subsequently  arrested 
and  many  of  them  were  drowned  in  H.M.S. 
'Pandora*.  Fletcher  Christian  and  8  others 
with  some  Tahitians  went  on  and  settled  at 
Pitcairn  Island.  There  they  founded  a  colony, 
of  which  John  Adams  became  the  leader, 
and  which  was  subsequently  taken  under 
the  protection  of  the  British  government. 
These  events  form  in  part  the  basis  of 
Lord  Byron's  poem  'The  Island'  (q.v.). 


[101] 


BOURBONS 

Bourbons,  THE,  a  branch  of  the  royal  family 
of  France,  the  descendants  of  Robert  de  Cler- 
mont,  sixth  son  of  Louis  IX,  who  in  1272 
married  Beatrix  de  Bourbon,  in  the  Bour- 
bonnais,  one  of  the  old  provinces  in  the  centre 
of  France.  The  Bourbons  ascended  the 
throne  in  the  person  of  Henri  IV  in  1589,  and 
retained  it,  apart  from  the  Revolutionary  and 
Napoleonic  periods,  until  1830,  or  indeed, 
taking  Louis  Philippe  (Bourbon- Orleans)  into 
account,  until  1848.  The  Bourbons  also 
furnished  kings  to  Naples,  and  to  Spain, 
through  the  duke  of  Anjou,  grandson  of 
Louis  XIV. 

Bourdaloue,  Louis  (1632-1704),  a  cele- 
brated French  divine  and  preacher  of  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV. 

BOURGET,  PAUL  (1852-  ),  French 
novelist,  whose  works  are  notable  for  their 
psychological  analysis.  Among  the  best 
known  of  these  are  cLe  Disciple'  (1889), 
'Cruelle  finigme'  (1885),  'Mensonges'  (1888), 
<Andr6  Cornells'  (1887),  and  'L'Etape'  (1902). 

Boustrophedon,  from  the  Greek  words 
meaning  *ox  turning',  written  alternately 
from  right  to  left  and  left  to  right,  Hke  the 
course  of  the  plough  in  successive  furrows, 
as  in  various  ancient  inscriptions  in  Greek 
and  other  languages. 

Bouts- rimSs,  'The  bouts-rimez  were  the 
favourites  of  the  French  nation  for  a  whole 
age  together. . . .  They  were  a  List  of  Words 
that  rhyme  to  one  another,  drawn  up  by 
another  Hand,  and  given  to  a  Poet,  who  was 
to  make  a  poem  to  the  Rhymes  in  the  same 
Order  that  they  were  placed  upon  the  list.* 
Addison,  'Spectator',  No.  60. 

Bovary,  Madame,  the  chief  work  of  Flaubert 
(q.v.). 

Bow  Bells,  the  bells  of  Bow  Church,  i.e.  St. 
Mary-le-Bow,  formerly  'Seyn  Marie  Chyrche 
of  the  Arches',  in  Cheapside,  London,  so 
called  from  the  'bows'  or  arches  that  sup- 
ported its  steeple.  This  church  having  long 
had  a  celebrated  peal  of  bells,  and  being 
nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  City,  the  phrase 
'within  the  sound  of  Bow-bells'  has  come  to 
be  synonymous  with  'within  the  City  bounds* 
[OED.]. 

Bow  Street,  a  street  in  London  near  Co  vent 
Garden,  in  which  the  principal  Metropolitan 
police  court  is  situated.  Hence  'Bow  Street 
Runner*  was  used  in  the  first  half  of  the  igth 
cent,  for  a  police  officer.  Henry  Fielding  (q.v.) 
was  magistrate  here.  Will's  Coffee-house  (q.v.) 
was  at  No.  i  Bow  Street.  Waller,  Wycherley, 
Garrick,  Mrs.  Woffington,  at  various  times 
lived  in  this  street. 

BOWI»LER,  THOMAS  (1754-1825),  M.D. 
of  Edinburgh,  published  his  'Family  Shake- 
speare', an  expurgated  edition  of  the  text,  in 
1818;  and  prepared  on  similar  lines  an 
edition  of  Gibbon's  'History'.  His  works 
gave  rise  to  the  term,  'to  bowdlerize*. 


BOX  AND  COX 

Bower  of  Bliss,  THE,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie 
Queene',  n.  xii,  the  home  of  Acrasia  (q.v.), 
demolished  by  Sir  Guyon, 
Bowery,  THE,  a  street  in  the  lower  (southern) 
part  of  New  York,  said  to  have  been  so  called 
because  it  ran  through  Peter  Stuyvesant's 
bouverie  or  farm  (see  W.  Irving's  'Knicker- 
bocker's History  of  New  York').  It  was  for- 
merly notorious  as  a  haunt  of  the  criminal 
classes.  Its  present  population  is  cosmopolitan* 
Bowge  of  Court,  The,  an  allegorical  poem  in 
seven-lined  stanzas  by  Skelton  (q.v.), 
satirizing  court  life.  The  word  'bowge'  is  a 
corrupt  form  of  'bouche',  meaning  court- 
rations,  from  the  French  'avoir  bouche  a  cour', 
to  have  free  board  at  the  king's  table. 
BOWLES,  WILLIAM  LISLE (1762-1850), 
educated  at  Winchester  and  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  was  vicar  of  Bremhill  in  Wiltshire 
from  1804  to  1850,  and  a  canon  of  Salisbury. 
He  is  remembered  chiefly  for  his  'Fourteen 
Sonnets'  published  in  1789,  the  first  of  any 
merit  that  had  appeared  for  a  long  period. 
They  stimulated  Coleridge  and  Southey,  and 
the  former  made  many  manuscript  copies  of 
them  for  his  friends.  In  1806  Bowles  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Pope,  which  aroused  a 
controversy,  with  Byron  and  Campbell  as 
participants,  as  to  the  value  of  Pope's  poetry. 

Bowling,  LIEUTENANT  TOM,  in  Smollett's 
'Roderick  Random'  (q.v.),  Roderick's  gener- 
ous uncle  and  protector. 

Bowling,  TOM,  the  subject  of  a  well-known 
song  by  C.  Dibdin  (q.v.),  included  in  his 
'Oddities'  performed  at  the  Lyceum  in 
1788-9,  is  said  to  represent  his  brother  Tom 
Dibdin,  who  died  at  Cape  Town  on  his  way 
home  from  India  in  1780. 

Bows,  MR.,  in  Thackeray's  Tendennis" 
(q.v.),  the  first  fiddler  in  the  orchestra  of  Mr. 
Bingley's  company,  and  instructor  of  Miss 
Fotheringay  in  acting. 

BOWYER,  WILLIAM  (1699-1777),  'the 
learned  printer*,  was  printer  of  votes  of  the 
House  of  Commons  (1729),  printer  to  the 
Royal  Society  (1761),  and  to  the  House  of 
Lords  (1767).  He  published  his  'Origin  of 
Printing'  in  1774. 

Bowzybeus,  a  drunken  swain,  the  subject 
of  the  last  pastoral  in  the  'Shepherd's  Week* 
of  J.  Gay  (q.v.). 

Sox  and  Cox,  a  farce  by  J.  M.  Morton  (q.v.), 
adapted  from  two  French  vaudevilles,  and 
published  in  1847.  Box  is  a  journeyman 
printer,  Cox  a  journeyman  hatter.  Mrs. 
Bouncer,  a  lodging-house  keeper,  has  let  the 
same  room  to  both,  taking  advantage  of  the 
fact  that  Box  is  out  all  night,  and  Cox  out 
all  day,  to  conceal  from  each  the  existence 
of  the  other.  Discovery  comes  when  Cox 
unexpectedly  gets  a  holiday.  Indignation 
follows,  and  complications  connected  with  a 
widow  to  whom  both  have  proposed  marriage ; 
and  finally  a  general  reconciliation.  See  also 
Cox  and  Box. 


[102] 


BOXERS 

Boxers,  THE,  the  name  (a  translation  of 
Chinese  words  meaning  'fist  of  harmony*)  of 
a  secret  Chinese  association  in  which  popular 
discontent  took  an  anti-foreign  form  at  the 
end  of  the  igth  cent.  The  Boxers  besieged 
the  legations  at  Pekin  early  in  1900.  The  latter 
were  relieved  by  an  international  force  in 
August  of  that  year. 

Boxiana,  see  Egan. 

Boy  and  the  Mantle,  The,  a  ballad  included 
in  Percy's  'Reliques',  which  tells  how  a  boy 
visits  King  Arthur's  court  at  'Carleile',  and 
tests  the  chastity  of  the  ladies  there  by  means 
of  his  mantle,  a  boar's  head,  and  a  golden 
horn.  Sir  Cradock's  (Caradoc's)  wife  alone 
successfully  undergoes  the  ordeal. 

Boy  Bishop,  THE,  one  of  the  choir-boys 
formerly  elected  at  the  annual  'Feast  of  Boys* 
in  certain  cathedrals,  to  walk  in  a  procession 
of  the  boys  to  the  altar  of  the  Innocents  or  of 
the  Holy  Trinity,  and  perform  the  office  on 
the  eve  and  day  of  the  Holy  Innocents,  the 
boys  occupying  the  canons*  stalls  in  the 
cathedral  during  the  service.  Provision  for 
this  is  made  in  the  Sarum  Office  (see  E.  K. 
Chambers,  'The  Mediaeval  Stage*,  App.  M). 
This  custom  dates  from  the  I3th  cent,  and 
lasted  until  the  Reformation.  There  is  an 
effigy  of  a  Boy  Bishop  in  Salisbury  Cathedral. 
Boy  Bishops  were  appointed  also  in  religious 
houses  and  in  schools. 

Boycott,  CHARLES  CUNNINGHAM  (1832-97), 
agent  for  Lord  Erne's  estates  in  co.  Mayo, 
came  into  conflict  with  the  Irish  Land 
League  and  suffered  annoyances  which  in 
1880  gave  rise  to  the  word  'boycott*. 

BOYER,  ABEL  (1667-1729),  a  French 
Huguenot  who  settled  in  England  in  1689. 
He  published  a  yearly  register  of  political 
and  other  occurrences  (1703-13)  and  a 
monthly  periodical,  the  'Political  State  of 
Great  Britain*  (1711-29).  He  also  brought 
out  an  English- French  and  French-English 
Dictionary,  a  'History  of  William  III*  (1702), 
and  a  'History  of  Queen  Anne*  (1722).  He 
translated  into  English  the  'Memoirs  of 
Gramont*  (q.v.). 

Boyg,  THE,  in  Norwegian  folk-lore  and  in 
Ibsen's  'Peer  Gynt'  (q.v.,  II.  vii),  a  vague, 
impalpable,  ubiquitous,  and  invulnerable 
troll-monster. 

Boyle,  CHARLES, fourth  earl 'of  Orrery  (1676- 
1731),  editor  of  the  spurious  Epistles  of 
Phalaris  which  led  to  the  Phalaris  (q.v.) 
controversy. 

BOYLE,  ROGER,  first  earl  of  Orrery  (1621- 
79),  author  of  'Parthenissa'  (1654-65),  a 
romance  in  the  style  of  La  Calprenede  and 
Mile  de  Scudery  (qq.v.),  which  deals  with  the 
prowess  and  vicissitudes  of  Artabanes,  a 
Median  prince,  and  his  rivalry  with  Surena, 
an  Arabian  prince,  for  the  love  of  Parthenissa. 
Boyle  also  wrote  a  'Treatise  on  the  ^Art  of 
War*  (1677)  and  some  rhymed  tragedies. 


BRACY 

Boyle  Lectures,  THE,  (i)  BOYLE  LECTURE 
SERMONS,  on  religion,  established  in  1691 
under  the  terms  of  the  will  of  the  Hon. 
Robert  Boyle  (1627-91),  son  of  the  first  earl 
of  Cork,  natural  philosopher  and  chemist, 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  was  also  deeply  interested  in  theology,  and 
studied  Hebrew,  Greek,  Chaldee,  and  Syriac. 
(2)  BOYLE  LECTURES,  founded  by  the  Oxford 
University  Junior  Scientific  Club  in  1892. 
Both  series  of  lectures  are  described,  listed, 
and  dated  in  Oxford  Bibliographical  Society, 
'Proceedings  and  Papers',  iii.  i. 

Boyne,  BATTLE  OF  THE,  fought  in  1690  on  and 
across  the  river  Boyne  in  Ireland.  William  III 
and  the  Protestant  army  defeated  James  II, 
who  fled  to  Kinsale  and  escaped  to  France. 

Boythorn,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Bleak 
House*  (q.v.). 

BOZ,  the  pseudonym  used  by  Dickens  (q.v.) 
m  his  contributions  to  the  'Morning  Chron- 
icle' and  in  the  'Pickwick  Papers',  'was  the 
nickname  of  a  pet  child,  a  younger  brother, 
whom  I  had  dubbed  Moses,  in  honour  of  the 
Vicar  of  Wakefield ;  which  being  facetiously 
pronounced  .  .  .  became  Boz'.  (Dickens, 
Preface  to  'Pickwick  Papers',  ed.  1847.) 

Bozzy  and  Piozzi,  see  Wolcot. 

Brabanconne,  THE,  the  national  anthem  of 
Belgium,  composed  by  F.  Campenhout  at 
the  time  of  the  revolution  of  1830. 

Brabantio,  in  Shakespeare's  'Othello*  (q.v.), 

the  father  of  Desdemona. 

Bracegirdle,  ANNE  (1663?-! 748),  a  famous 
and  enchanting  actress,  the  friend  of  Con- 
greve,  to  the  success  of  whose  comedies  on 
the  stage  she  largely  contributed.  She  also 
created  Belinda  in  Vanbrugh's  'Provok'd 
Wife*,  and  played  Portia,  Desdemona, 
Ophelia,  Cordelia,  and  Mrs.  Ford,  in  Shake- 
spearian adaptations.  She  was  finally 
eclipsed  by  Mrs.  Oldfield  in  1707  and  retired 
from  the  stage  in  consequence. 

Bracidas,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  V.iv, 
the  brother  of  Amidas,  whose  dispute  over 
their  inheritance  from  their  father  Milesio  is 
settled  by  Sir  Artegall. 

BRACKENRIDGE,      HUGH      HENRY 

(i 748— 1 8 1 6),  American  writer,  whose  satirical 
novel  'Modem  Chivalry*  gives  a  good  descrip- 
tion of  men  and  manners  during  the  early 
days  of  the  American  Republic. 

Brackyn,  see  Parnassus  Plays  and  Ignoramus. 

BRACTON,  BRATTON,  or  BRETTON, 
HENRY  DE  (d.  1268),  a  judge  and  ecclesias- 
tic, was  author  of  the  famous  treatise  *De 
Legibus  et  Consuetudinibus  Angliae*,  the 
first  attempt  at  a  complete  treatise  on  the 
laws  and  customs  of  England.  He  also  left  a 
'Note-book*  containing  -some  two  thousand 
legal  cases  with  comments. 
Bracy,  SIR  MAURICE  BE,  in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe' 


[103] 


BRADAMANTE 

(q.v.),  one  of  Prince  John's  knights,  a  suitor 
for  the  hand  of  Rowena. 

Bradamante,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato* 
and  'Orlando  Furioso'  (qq.v.),  a  maiden 
warrior,  sister  of  Rinaldo.  She  fights  with 
the  great  Rodomont  (q.v.).  Rogcro  (q.y.) 
comes  to  her  assistance,  and  falls  in  love  with 
her.  For  the  sequel  see  under  Rogero. 

BRADDON,  MARY  ELIZABETH  (MRS. 
MAXWELL)  (1837-1915),  became  famous 
by  her  novel  'Lady  Audley's  Secret',  first 
published  in  'The  Sixpenny  Magazine*  and 
issued  separately  in  1862.  She  contributed  to 
'Punch*  and  'The  World1,  wrote  plays,  and 
edited  magazines,  including  'Temple  Bar' 
and  'Belgravia'.  But  she  is  best  known  by  her 
novels,  which,  though  criticized  on  the  score 
of  their  sensationalism,  have  merits  which 
commend  them  to  good  judges. 

BRADLAUGH,  CHARLES  (1833-91), 
famous  as  an  advocate  of  free  thought,  was 
a  private  soldier  in  the  army,  1850-3,  then  a 
solicitor's  clerk,  and  proprietor  of  the  'National 
Reformer'  from  1862.  He  was  elected  M.P.  for 
Northampton  in  1880,  but  unseated,  having 
been  refused  the  right  to  affirm  instead  of 
swearing  on  the  bible.  He  was  re-elected  in 
1 88 1  and  a  prolonged  struggle  ensued,  ending 
in  1886,  when  he  was  at  last  allowed  to  take 
his  seat.  Bradlaugh  engaged  in  several  law- 
suits to  maintain  the  freedom  of  the  press, 
published  pamphlets  on  various  subjects,  and 
during  1874-85  was  associated  with  the  work 
of  Mrs.  Besant  (q.v.). 

BRADLEY,  ANDREW  CECIL  (1851-  ), 
brother  of  F.  H.  Bradley  (q.v.),  and  literary 
critic,  especially  noted  for  his  contributions 
to  Shakespearian  scholarship.  His  best-known 
works  are  'Shakespearean  Tragedy*  (1904) 
and  'Oxford  Lectures'  (1909).  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  poetry  at  Oxford,  1901-6. 

BRADLEY,  EDWARD  (1827-89),  educated 
at  University  College,  Durham,  and  rector 
of  Stretton,  Rutland,  is  remembered  as  the 
author  of  the  'Adventures  of  Mr.  Verdant 
Green,  an  Oxford  Freshman*  (1853-6). 
Under  the  pseudonym  'Cuthbert  Bede*  he 
contributed  extensively  to  periodicals,  and 
published  works  in  verse  and  prose,  some  of 
which  he  illustrated  himself.  He  also  drew 
for  'Punch'. 

BRADLEY,  FRANCIS  HERBERT  (1846- 
1924),  brother  of  A.  C.  Bradley  (q.v.),  and 
fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  published 
'Ethical  Studies'  in  1876,  and  'Principles  of 
Logic'  in  1883.  His  'Appearance  and  Reality* 
(1893),  a  work  of  profound  criticism  of  current 
metaphysical  thought,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  philosophical  works  produced  in 
England  in  recent  times.  Bradley's  'Essay  on 
Truth  and  Reality',  a  book  less  negative  in 
character  than  its  predecessors,  appeared  in 
1914- 

BRADLEY,  DR.  HENRY  (1845-1923), 
philologist,  is  principally  remembered  for  his 


BRAHMA 

work  on  the  'Oxford  English  Dictionary* 
(q.v.).  He  first  gave  help,  while  still  in 
London,  with  the  letter  B ;  then  undertook  in 
1889  the  independent  editing  of  the  letter  E, 
and  removed  to  Oxford  in  1896.  He  suc- 
ceeded Sir  James  Murray  (q.v.)  as  chief 
editor.  He  also  wrote  a  successful  book  on 
*The  Making  of  English*  (1904).  A  memoir 
on  him  by  R.  Bridges  (q.v.)  is  prefixed  to 
'Collected  Papers  of  Henry  Bradley'  (1928). 
BRADSHAW,  HENRY  (1831-86),  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, scholar  and  antiquary,  was  librarian 
of  his  university,  1867-86.  He  published 
treatises  on  typographical  and  antiquarian 
subjects,  some  containing  original  discoveries. 
BRADSTREET,  ANNE  (1612-72),  Ameri- 
can poet,  was  born  in  England  but  emigrated 
to  Massachusetts  in  1630.  Her  volume  of 
poems,  published  in  England  in  1650,  under 
the  title  of  'The  Tenth  Muse,  Lately  Sprung 
Up  in  America*,  and  in  Boston  in  1678,  was 
the  first  literary  work  of  any  significance  to 
be  produced  in  the  New  England  colony. 

Bradshaw's  Railway  Guide  was  first  pub- 
lished in  1839  in  the  form  of  'Railway  Time 
Tables'  by  George  Bradshaw  (1801-53),  en- 
graver and  printer.  These  developed  into 
'Bradshaw's  Monthly  Railway  Guide'  in 
1841. 

Bradwardine,  THE  BARON  OF,  and  ROSE, 
characters  in  Scott's  'Waverley'  (q.v.). 
Braes  of  Yarrow,  THE,  see  Yarrow. 

Braggadochio  ,in  Spenser's 'Faerie  Queene', 
the  typical  braggart.  His  adventures  and 
final  exposure  and  humiliation  occur  in 
Bks.  II.  iii;  in.  viii;  and  v.  iii. 
Bragi,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  son  of 
Odin,  and  god  of  poetry  and  eloquence.  It  is 
he  who  welcomes  the  heroes  as  they  enter 
Valhalla.  He  is  the  husband  of  Iduna  (q.v.). 

Bragwaine  orBRANGWAiNE,  in  the  Arthurian 
legend,  the  maid-attendant  of  Isoud  of  Ire- 
land. See  Tristram. 

Brahe,  TYCHO  (pron.  Teeko  Brah'e)  (1546- 
1601),  a  famous  Danish  astronomer,  who  built 
for  Frederick  II  of  Denmark  the  great  obser- 
vatory on  the  island  of  Hven,  known  as  the 
Uraniborg.  He  made  important  astrono- 
mical discoveries,  but  did  not  accept  the 
Copernican  system. 

Brahma,  the  supreme  God  of  post-Vedic 
Hindu  mythology,  and  in  the  later  panthe- 
istic systems,  the  Divine  reality,  of  which  the 
entire  universe  of  matter  and  mind  is  only  a 
manifestation.  The  personal  god  Brahma, 
the  creator,  is  evolved  from  the  above  abstrac- 
tion, and  with  Vishnu,  the  preserver,  and  Siva, 
the  destroyer,  forms  the  TRIMURTI,  the  great 
Hindu  triad.  Brahma  is  now  less  worshipped 
by  Hindus  than  the  other  members  of  the 
triad. 

A  BRAHMIN  or  BRAHMAN  is  a  member  of 
the  highest  or  priestly  caste  among  the 
Hindus. 


[104] 


BRAHMS 

Brahms,  JOHANNES  (1833-97),  born  at 
Hamburg,  a  great  composer  of  the  classic 
type,  author  of  many  beautiful  songs,  of 
examples  of  every  kind  of  chamber  music, 
and  of  four  symphonies. 

BRAINARD,  JOHN  G.  C.  (1796-1838), 
author  of  'Occasional  Pieces  of  Poetry'  (1825), 
born  at  New  London,  Connecticut,  U.S. A. 
His  literary  remains,  with  a  biographical 
sketch  by  John  Greenleaf  Whittier,  appeared 
in  1832. 

B  rainworm,  a  character  in  Jonson's  'Every 
Man  in  his  Humour'  (q.v.). 

Bramble,  MATTHEW  and  TABITHA,  charac- 
ters in  Smollett's  'Humphry  Clinker'  (q.v.). 

Brambletye  House,  see  Smith  (Horatio). 
Bramine,  see  Draper. 

Bran,  in  Macpherson's  Ossianic  poem 
'Temora',  Fingal's  dog,  which  is  found  lying 
on  the  broken  shield  of  Fillan,  before  the 
cave  where  the  hero  lies  dead. 

Bran,  the  Blessed,  a  son  of  Llyr  (q.v.).  His 
tale  is  told  in  the  'Mabinogion'  (q.v.).  In 
Celtic  mythology  he  was  a  god  of  the  under- 
world, who  later  assumed  the  character  of  a 
hero,  and  finally  was  made  the  father  of 
Caractacus,  a  convert  to  Christianity,  and  an 
introducer  of  that  religion  to  Britain. 

Bran,  The  Voyage  ofy  an  early  Irish  work, 
partly  in  prose,  partly  in  verse,  originally 
written,  according  to  Kuno  Meyer,  in  the 
7th  cent,  and  copied  in  the  loth. 

Bran,  son  of  Febal,is  summoned  by  a  woman 
bearing  a  silver  apple-tree  branch  to  Emain, 
the  'Happy  Otherworld',  a  distant  island  in 
the  western  ocean.  He  sets  out  upon  the  sea 
with  three  companies  of  nine  men.  They  first 
touch  at  the  Island  of  Joy,  then  at  the  Land  of 
Women.  The  chief  of  the  Women  draws 
Bran  ashore  with  a  magic  clew  and  keeps  him 
with  her  for,  it  seems,  a  year.  Longing  seizes 
one  of  the  band  to  return.  All  accompany 
him,  and  on  their  arrival  in  Ireland  they  find 
they  have  been  absent  so  long  that  their 
departure  is  forgotten  save  in  the  ancient 
stories.  Bran  tells  his  adventures  and  dis- 
appears again  from  mortal  ken;  his  com- 
panion who  touches  the  Irish  soil  is  reduced 
to  ashes.  (See  Alfred  Nutt,  'The  Voyage  of 
Bran'.) 

Brand,  a  lyrical  drama  by  Ibsen  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1866. 

Brand,  a  young  Norwegian  clergyman, 
filled  with  contempt  for  the  timorous  practical 
compromising  spirit  of  the  religion  of  his 
countrymen,  and  an  ardent  conviction  that 
*all  or  nothing'  should  be  the  principle  of 
faith,  goes  at  the  call  of  duty  to  a  town  on  a 
distant  sunless  fiord.  Unbendingly  he  prac- 
tises his  principle  and  enforces  it  on  others, 
though  it  costs  him  the  life  of  his  child  and 
of  his  wife.  Finally  the  people  whom  he  has 
sacrificed  himself  to  elevate  turn  against  him 
and  drive  him  out  into  the  snow,  and  he  is 


BRASS 

reduced  to  despair.  An  avalanche  over- 
whelms him  as  he  makes  his  last  appeal  to  the 
Deity,  and  receives  the  answer,  'He  is  the 
God  of  Love'. 

Brandan,  ST.,  see  Brendan. 

Brandon,  COLONEL,  a  character  in  Jane 
Austen's  'Sense  and  Sensibility'  (q.v.),  who 
marries  Marianne  Dashwood. 

Brandon,  MRS.,  the  'Little  Sister'  in 
Thackeray's  'The  Adventures  of  Philip* 
(q.v.),  who  had  previously  figured  in  his  'A 
Shabby  Genteel  Story'. 

Brandon,  RICHARD  (d.  1649),  the  execu- 
tioner of  Charles  I  and  various  distinguished 
Royalists.  He  was  the  son  of  Gregory  Bran- 
don, common  hangman  of  London. 

Brandt,  see  Gertrude  of  Wyoming. 

Brandt,  MARGARET,  the  heroine  of  Reade's 
'The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth'  (q.v.). 

Branghtons,  THE,  in  Miss  Burney's 
'Evelina'  (q.v.),  the  heroine's  vulgar  relations. 
Brangwaine,  see  Bragwaine. 

BRANT6ME,  PIERRE  DE  BOUR- 
DELLES,  Abbeond  Seigneur  de  (c.  1527-1 614), 
French  author  of  memoirs,  a  soldier  who 
fought  in  many  countries  and  was  for  a  time 
chamberlain  to  Henri  III.  An  excellent 
witness  to  the  vices  of  his  age,  being  moved 
neither  by  shame  nor  indignation,  he  left  a 
series  of  memoirs,  much  of  them  of  a  scandal- 
ous character,  which  were  not  published  until 
after  his  death.  These  include:  cLes  Grands 
Capitaines  Fran?ais*,  *Les  Grands  Capitaines 
Etrangers',  'Vie  des  Dames  Illustres  francaises 
et  e"trangeres',  and  'Vie  des  Dames  galantes', 
titles  given  by  the  booksellers,  for  Brantdme 
left  two  great  collections,  named  respectively 
'Des  Homines'  and  'Des  Femmes'. 

Branwen,  see  Mabinogion. 

Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  was  founded 
in  1509,  replacing  an  earlier  Brasenose  Hall. 
In  1344  a  part  of  the  students  of  Oxford 
migrated  for  a  time  to  Stamford,  where  they 
occupied  a  house  known  as  Brasenose  Hall, 
on  the  door  of  which  was  a  brass  knocker 
shaped  like  a  nose.  The  knocker  remained  at 
Stamford  until  1890,  when  it  was  acquired 
by  the  College.  It  was  this  knocker  which 
probably  gave  its  name  to  the  Hall,  although 
it  has  been  maintained  that  the  origin  of 
Brasenose  is  to  be  sought  in  'brasiniurn',  a 
brewery. 

Brasidas,  a  famous  Spartan  general  in  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  killed  in  422  B.C.  For  the 
story  of  Brasidas  sparing  the  mouse  that  bit 
his  finger,  for  its  show  of  fight,  see  Bridges, 
'Testament  of  Beauty',  1.  531. 

Brasil,  see  Brazil. 

Brass,  a  character  in  Vanbrugh's  'The  Con- 
federacy' (q.v.). 
Brass,  MAN  OF,  see  Talus. 


[105] 


BRASS 

Brass,  SAMPSON,  and  his  sister  SALLY, 
characters  in  Dickens *s  'Old  Curiosity  Shop* 
(q.v.). 

Brawne,  FANNY,  the  lady  whom  Keats  (q.v.) 
met  in  1818  and  with  whom  he  fell  in  love. 
'She  is  an  East- Indian  and  ought  to  be  her 
grandfather's  heir. . . .  She  has  a  rich  Eastern 
look*  (Keats  to  his  brother  George,  Oct. 
1818).  His  passion  is  reflected  in  one  or  two 
of  his  sonnets,  notably  'The  day  is  gone*,  and 
cl  cry  your  mercy'.  His  letters  to  her  were 
published  in  1878  (ed.  H.  B.  Forman).  They 
are  in  the  collected  edition  of  the  'Letters' 
(193*)- 

Bray,  MADELINE,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Nicholas  Nickleby'  (q.v.). 
Bray,  Vicar  of,  see  Vicar  of  Bray. 
Brazen,  CAPTAIN,  a  character  in  Farquhar's 
'The  Recruiting  Officer*  (q.v.). 

Brazil,  a  word  of  unknown  origin,  perhaps  a 
corruption  of  an  oriental  name  of  the  dye- 
wood  originally  so  called.  On  the  discovery 
of  an  allied  species,  also  yielding  a  dye,  in 
S.  America,  the  territory  where  it  grew  was 
called  terra  de  brasil  'red-dye-wood  land*, 
afterwards  abbreviated  to  Brasil,  'Brazil*. 

The  name  Brasil  figures  in  connexion  with 
the  legendary  'Island  of  the  Blest*  in  the 
Western  Ocean  ('O 'Brazil,  the  Island  of  the 
Blest*  is  a  poem  by  Gerald  Griffin). 

Bread  and  Cheese  Club,  THE,  a  New 
York  literary  society  founded  by  James  Feni- 
more  Cooper. 

Bread  Street,  off  Cheapside,  was  at  one 
time  the  chief  bread  market  in  the  City  of 
London.  In  the  time  of  Stow  (q.v.)  it  was 
'wholely  inhabited  by  rich  merchants,  and 
divers  fair  inns  be  there*.  John  Milton  was 
born  in  Bread  Street. 

Breck,  ALAN,  a  character  in  R.  L.  Steven- 
son's 'Kidnapped*  (q.v.)  and  'Catriona*. 

Breeches  Bible,  THE,  a  name  given  to  the 
edition  of  the  English  Bible  printed  at  Geneva 
in  1560  (see  Bible,  the  English),  in  allusion  to 
the  version  adopted  therein  of  Gen.  iii.  7, 
'They  sewed  fig  leaves  together,  and  made 
themselves  breeches', 

Breitmann,  HANS,  see  Leland(C.  G.). 

Brendan,  BRANDAN,  or  BRENAINN,  ST. 
(484-577),  of  Clonfert  in  Ireland,  perhaps 
made  a  journey  to  the  northern  and  western 
isles  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  medieval 
legend  of  the  'Navigation  of  St.  Brendan*. 
The  legend,  of  which  the  oldest  extant  version 
dates  from  the  nth  cent.,  has  been  repeated 
in  many  languages  at  various  times,  and 
recently  by  Matthew  Arnold  and  Sebastian 
Evans.  The  saint,  sailing  in  search  of  the 
earthly  Paradise,  which  at  last  he  reaches, 
meets  with  fabulous  adventures.  Of  these 
the  best  known  is  his  meeting  with  Judas  on 
a  lonely  rock  on  Christmas  night,  where  the 
traitor  is  allowed  once  a  year  to  cool  himself, 
in  recompense  for  a  single  act  of  charity  in  his 


BRIAREUS 

lifetime.  (Cf.  the  stories  of  the  'Voyage  of 
Bran*  and  'Maeldun*,  qq.v.)  St.  Brendan 
visited  Brittany  between  520  and  530,  and  is 
said  to  have  accompanied  St.  Malo  there. 
He  is  commemorated  on  16  May. 

(There  was  another  St.  Brendan,  almost 
contemporary,  of  Birr,  a  disciple  of  St.  Fin- 
nian  of  Clonard,  to  whom  the  voyage  to 
Brittany  is  by  some  attributed.) 

Brengwaine,  see  Bragwaine. 

Brennus,  the  Gaulish  chief  who  in  390  B.C. 

defeated  the  Romans  at  the  Allia  and  took 
Rome,  all  but  the  Capitol,  which  he  held  to 
ransom.  See  Vae  Victis. 

Brentford,  Two  KINGS  OF,  see  Rehearsal. 

Brer  Fox  and  Brer  Rabbit,  the  chief 
characters  in  'Uncle  Remus'.  See  Harris 
(?•  C.). 

BRETON,    NICHOLAS    (1545?-!  626?), 

educated  at  Oxford,  was  author  of  a  mis- 
cellaneous collection  of  satirical,  religious, 
romantic,  and  pastoral  writings  in  verse  and 
prose.  His  best  work  is  to  be  found  among 
his  short  lyrics  in  'England's  Helicon*  (q.v.), 
and  in  his  pastoral  volume  'The  Passionate 
Shepheard*  (1604).  His  other  writings  in- 
clude (in  verse)  'The  Pilgrimage  to  Paradise* 
and  'The  Countess  of  Penbrooke's  Love* 
(1592),  'Pasquil's  Mad-cappe*  (earliest  known 
copy,  1626),  'The  Soules  Heavenly  Exercise" 
(1601),  'The  Honour  of  Valour*  (1605);  and 
(in  prose)  an  angling  idyll  entitled  'Wits 
Trenchmour*  (1597),  'The  Wil  of  Wit,  Wit*s 
Will  or  Wil's  Wit*  (^99),  'Crossing  of 
Proverbs'  (1616),  'The  Figure  of  Foure*  (first 
published  c.  1597),  'A  Mad  World,  my 
Masters*  (1603,  a  dialogue),  and  'The 
Fantasticks*  (1626,  a  collection  of  observa- 
tions on  men  and  things  arranged  calendar- 
wise  according  to  seasons,  days,  and  hours). 

Bretton,  MRS.  and  JOHN,  characters  in 
Charlotte  Bronte's  'Villette*  (q.v.). 

Bretwalda,  a  title  given  in  the  Old  English 
Chronicle  to  King  Egbert,  and  (retrospec- 
tively) to  seven  earlier  kings  of  various  Old 
English  states,  said  to  have  held  superiority, 
real  or  titular,  over  their  contemporaries ;  also 
occasionally  assumed  by  later  Old  English 
kings.  Its  sense  can  only  be  'lord  (or  ruler) 
of  the  Britons*  or  'of  Britain*  [OED.]. 

Brian  Boru  (926-1014),  having  become* 
king  of  Munster,  started  on  a  career  of  con- 
quest, in  which  he  defeated  the  Danes,  and 
gradually  extended  his  dominion  to  the  whole 
of  the  island,  becoming  chief  king  of  Ireland 
in  1 002.  He  gained  a  great  victory  over  the 
Danes  at  Clontarf  in  1014,  but  was  slain  in 
his  tent  after  the  battle. 

Briana,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  vi.  i, 

the  mistress  of  a  castle  who  takes  a  toll  of 
ladies'  locks  and  knight's  beards  to  make  a 
mantle  for  her  lover  Cruder. 

Briareizs,  according  to  Greek  mythology,  a 


[!06] 


BRIDAL  OF  TRIERMAIN 

giant  with  100  hands  and  50  heads.  He  as- 
sisted the  giants  in  their  war  against  the  gods, 
and  by  some  accounts  was  thrown  under 
Mt.  Etna.  See  also  Aegean  and  Argus. 

Bridal  ofTriermain,  The,  a  poem  by  Sir  W. 
Scott  (q.v.),  published  in  1813.  It  is  a  ro- 
mance of  love  and  magic,  telling  of  the  quest 
of  Roland  de  Vaux,  lord  of  Triermain,  for  the 
maid  Gyneth,  daughter  of  King  Arthur  and 
the  fay  Guendolen,  and  her  rescue  from  the 
spell  that  Merlin  has  laid  on  her. 

Bride  ofAbydos,  The,  a  poem  by  Lord  Byron 
(q.v.),  published  in  1813. 

Zuleika,  daughter  of  the  Pasha  Giaffir,  is, 
by  her  father's  order,  to  be  the  reluctant  bride 
of  the  rich  bey  of  Karasman,  whom  she  has 
never  seen.  She  confesses  her  grief  to  her 
beloved  brother  Selim.  The  latter  reveals  to 
her  that  he  is  not  her  brother,  but  her  cousin, 
the  son  of  her  father's  brother,  murdered  by 
her  father.  Moreover  he  is  a  pirate  chief,  and 
he  asks  Zuleika  to  share  his  lot.  At  this 
moment  Giaffir,  waving  his  sabre,  comes  upon 
them.  Selim  is  killed  and  Zuleika  dies  of 
grief. 

Bride  of  Lammermoor ,  The,  a  novel  by 
Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.),  published  in  1819  (third 
series  of  the  'Tales  of  My  Landlord'). 

Lord  Ravenswood,  deprived  of  his  title  for 
the  part  he  had  taken  in  the  Civil  War  of  1689, 
and  dispossessed  of  his  estate  in  East  Lothian 
by  the  legal  chicanery  of  Sir  William  Ashton, 
a  clever  upstart  lawyer  who  has  attained  the 
office  of  Lord  Keeper,  dies  in  a  fit  of  fury 
against  the  man  whom  he  regards  as  the 
author  of  his  ruin.  His  son,  the  fiery  sombre 
Master  of  Ravenswood,  inherits  his  hatred, 
and,  as  sole  possession,  the  ruinous  tower  of 
Wolf's  Crag.  Chance  leads  to  his  saving  the 
life  of  his  enemy,  Sir  William  Ashton,  and  of 
Lucy  Ashton,  his  daughter,  and  he  falls 
deeply  in  love  with  the  latter  and  she  with 
him*  Political  changes  raise  the  friends  of 
Ravenswood  to  power,  and  the  timid  Sir 
William  thinks  it  advisable  to  conciliate 
Ravenswood,  which  he  does  so  effectually 
that  the  latter  overcomes  his  desire  for  ven- 
geance and  becomes  secretly  betrothed  to 
Lucy  Ashton.  Lady  Ashton,  a  woman  of 
violent  and  domineering  character,  who  has 
hitherto  been  absent  from  her  home,  now 
returns,  learns  the  state  of  affairs,  and  con- 
temptuously dismisses  Ravenswood,  who 
proceeds  on  a  foreign  mission  after  having 
renewed  his  pledge  to  Lucy.  Lady  Ashton 
now  sets  about  breaking  her  daughter's 
spirit  and  obliging  her  to  marry  a  husband  of 
her  own  choice,  the  Laird  of  Bucklaw,  by  a 
course  of  cruel  oppression.  To  this  the  gentle 
Lucy  appears  at  last  to  yield,  only  stipulating 
that  she  shall  write  to  Ravenswood  and  ob- 
tain his  release  from  her  pledge.  The  letter  is 
intercepted  by  her  mother,  and  Lucy  in 
despair  consents  to  the  fixing  of  the  wedding 
day,  convinced  that  her  lover  has  abandoned 
her.  Immediately  after  the  ceremony  Ravens- 
wood,  at  last  apprised  of  what  is  going 


BRIDGES 

forward,  appears,  and  challenges  Lucy's 
brother  and  her  husband  to  duels  on  the 
morrow.  The  ^  same  night,  Lucy  stabs  her 
husband  and  is  found  insane  and  shortly 
after  dies.  Ravenswood  galloping  furiously 
along  the  shore  to  meet  his  antagonists,  is 
swallowed  up  in  a  quicksand. 

One  of  the  characters  in  the  book  is 
Caleb  Balderstone,  the  old  butler  of  Ravens- 
wood,  determined  to  maintain  in  the  eyes 
of  the  world  the  fallen  dignity  of  the 
family,  who  resorts  for  this  purpose  to  the 
most  absurd  devices. 

Bride  of  the  Sea,  Venice,  see  Adriatic. 

Bridehead,  SUE,  a  character  in  Hardy's 
'Jude  the  Obscure*  (q.v.). 

Bridewell,  originally  the  name  of  a  royal 
palace  in  London,  which  stood  on  the  bank  of 
the  Thames  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Fleet 
and  near  a  well  of  St.  Bride.  This  palace  was 
rebuilt  by  Henry  VIII  for  the  reception  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  It  is  the  scene  of  the 
third  act  of  Shakespeare's  'Henry  VIII*.  It 
was  given  by  Edward  VI  for  a  hospital,  and 
afterwards  converted  into  a  house  of  correc- 
tion. It  was  in  great  part  destroyed  in  the 
Fire  of  London. 

Bridge  of  Sighs,  THE,  at  Venice,  the  bridge 
connecting  the  Palace  of  the  Doge  with  the 
State  prison,  across  which  prisoners  were 
conducted  from  judgement  to  punishment, 

Bridge  of  Sighs,  The,  a  poem  by  T.  Hood 
(q.v.),  published  in  1846. 

This  was  one  of  Hood's  most  popular 
works  and  shows  his  power  of  pathos  at  its 
highest.  Its  subject  is  the  finding  of  the 
drowned  body  of  a  woman,  an  outcast  of 
society,  who  has  sought  refuge  from  life  in 
the  gloomy  river. 

Bridgenorth,  MAJOR  and  ALICE,  characters 
in  Scott's  Teveril  of  the  Peak'  (q.v.). 

BRIDGES,  ROBERT  (1844-1930),  born  at 
Walmer,  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford,  and  studied,  and 
for  a  time  practised,  medicine.  His  reputa- 
tion as  a  poet  was  made  by  the  successive 
volumes  of  his  *  Shorter  Poems',  published 
in  1873,  1879,  1880,  1890,  and  1893.  He 
also  published  some  longer  poems:  'Prome- 
theus, the  Firegiver'  (i 884),  'Eros  and  Psyche* 
(1894),  and  'Demeter'  (1905).  'Eden*,  an 
oratorio,  appeared  in  1891.  An  edition  of  the 
'Poetical  Works  of  Robert  Bridges'  appeared 
in  1898-1905,  which  contained  in  addition 
the  sonnet  sequence  'The  Growth  of  Love* 
(first  form  1876),  the  Purcell  Commemor- 
ation ode,  some  reprints  of  poems  from 
magazines,  and  his  eight  plays  (published 
between  1885  and  1893):  cNero*  (two  parts), 
'Palicio',  'The  Return  of  Ulysses,  The 
Christian  Captives',  'Achilles  in  Scyros 
'The  Humours  of  the  Court*,  and  'The  Feast 
of  Bacchus'  (partly  from  the  'Heauton- 
timoroumenos*  of  Terence).  The  Oxford 
Press  edition  of  the  'Poetical  Works*  (1912) 


[107] 


BRIDGET 

first  made  the  author  known  to  the  world 
in  general.  In  1913  Bridges  was  appointed 
poet  laureate.  In  1914  he  issued  privately 
'October,  and  other  Poems',  subsequently 
published,  with  some  war  poems  added, 
in  1920.  In  1916  he  published  'The  Spirit  of 
Man',  a  collection  of  prose  and  verse  extracts 
from  various  authors,  having  special  bearing 
on  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  time,  and  in 
1925  a  volume  of  'New  Verse'.  Bridges  also 
wrote  much  prose,  including  essays  on 
'Milton's  Prosody'  (1893),  "John  Keats 
(1895),  and  on  'The  Influence  of  the 
Audience  on  Shakespeare's  Drama'.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  for  Pure 
English  (q-v.)  and  edited  its  series  of  Tracts. 

The  author  of  many  beautiful  lyrics  and  a 
remarkable  metrist,  Bridges  was  perhaps  too 
subtle  and  severe  a  poet  to  appeal  to  a  very 
wide  public.  But  his  great  philosophical 
poem  in  'loose  Alexandrines',  'The  Testa- 
ment of  Beauty'  (1929),  a  compendium  of 
the  wisdom,  learning,  and  experience  of  an 
artistic  spirit,  went  through  fourteen  editions 
or  impressions  in  its  first  year. 

Bridges  was  intimately  associated  with  the 
Oxford  University  Press,  taking  an  active 
interest  in  questions  of  type,  spelling,  and 
phonetics,  and  did  much  to  encourage  taste 
and  accuracy  in  printing.  He  was  also  in- 
terested in  Church  music,  and  collected 
'Chants  for  the  Psalter'  (privately  printed  in 
1899)  and  the  Yattendon  Hymnal. 

Bridget  or  BRIGIT  or  BRIDE,  ST.  (453-523), a 
patron  saint  of  Ireland.  She  was  born,  it  is 
said,  at  Faugher,  near  Dundalk,  the  daughter 
of  Dubhtach  by  his  bondmaid  Brotsech. 
She  took  the  veil  and  was  probably  invested 
with  rank  corresponding  to  that  of  bishop. 
She  was  the  founder  of  the  church  of  Kildare, 
and  is  commemorated  on  I  ^  Feb.  Other 
authorities  see  in  her  a  survival  of  Birgit, 
the  Gaelic  goddess  of  fire,  an  origin  attested 
by  the  sacred  flame  in  her  shrine  at  Kildare, 
and  other  attributes  (C.  Squire,  'Mythology 
of  the  British  Islands'). 

Bridgewater  Treatises:  the  Revd.  Francis 
Henry,  8th  earl  of  Bridgewater  (1756-1829), 
left  £8,000  for  the  best  work  on  'The  Good- 
ness of  God  as  manifested  in  the  Creation*, 
which  was  divided  among  the  eight  authors  of 
the  'Bridgewater  Treatises'  (Sir  Charles  Bell, 
Dr.  T.  Chalmers,  Dr.  John  Kidd,  Dean 
Buckland,  Dr.  William  Prout,  Dr.  Peter  M. 
Roget,  Dr.  William  Whewell,  and  the  Revd. 
William  Kirby). 

Bridlegoose,  in  Rabelais,  in.  xxxix,  et  seq., 
the  judge  who  decided  causes  by  throw  of 
dice. 

BRIEUX,  EUGENE  (1858-  ^  ),  French 
dramatist,  author  of  plays  on  social  themes, 
<Les  trois  filles  de  M.  Dupont*  (1897),  'Les 
AvarieV  ('Damaged  Goods',  1901),  *Les 
Hannetons'  (1906),  'Blanchette'  (1892),  'La 
Robe  Rouge*  (1900),  &c.  He  was  made 
known  to  English  readers  in  general  by  G.  B. 


BRITANNIA 

Shaw  (q.v.),  in  an  introduction  to  a  transla- 
tion by  his  wife  of  three  of  Brieux's  plays 
(1911). 

Brigadore,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  the 
horse  of  Sir  Guyon,  stolen  by  Braggadochio 
(v.  iii.  34)- 

Brigantes,  THE,  a  powerful  British  tribe, 
who  occupied  most  of  the  country  from  the 
Humber  to  the  Roman  Wall.  Their  capital 
was  Eboracum  (York).  They  were  not 
thoroughly  subdued  by  the  Romans  until 
the  reign  of  Hadrian. 

Briggs,    a    character    in    Miss    Burney's 
'Cecilia'  (q.v.),  drawn  in  some  respects  from 
the  sculptor  Nollekens. 
Briggs,  Miss,  a  character  in  Thackeray's 
'Vanity  Fair'  (q.v.). 

Bright,  JOHN  (1811-89),  son  of  a  Rochdale 
miller,  famous  as  a  leading  agitator  against 
the  Corn  Laws,  and  as  an  orator.  He  was 
M.P.  successively  for  Durham  (1843),  Man- 
chester, and  Birrningharn,  and  held  various 
posts  in  Mr.  Gladstone's  governments  (1868 
onwards).  Bright  and  Cobden  (q.v.)  were  the 
two  leading  representatives  of  the  emergence 
of  the  manufacturing  class  in  English  politics 
after  the  Reform  Act  of  1832. 
Brigliadoro,  the  horse  of  Orlando  (q.v.). 

Brigs  of  Ayr,  THE,  the  Old  and  New 
Bridges  across  the  river  Ayr  at  Ayr,  cele- 
brated by  Burns  in  his  poem  of  that  name. 

BRILLAT  -  S AVARIN,  ANTHELME 
(1755-1826),  French  magistrate  and  writer, 
author  of  the  famous  gastronomic  work,  'La 
Physiologic  du  Gout'. 

Brisels,  daughter  of  Brises  of  Lyrnessus, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Achilles  (q.v.)  when  her 
country  was  conquered  by  the  Greeks,  but 
was  taken  from  him  by  Agamemnon  when  the 
latter  was  obliged  to  surrender  Chryseis  (q.v.). 
This  was  the  occasion  of  the  wrath  of  Achilles 
and  of  his  prolonged  withdrawal  from  the 
Trojan  War. 

Brisk,  FASTIDIOUS,  a  character  in  Jonson's 
'Every  Man  out  of  his  Humour'  (q.v.). 
Brisk,  a  voluble  coxcomb  in  Congreve's 
'The  Double  Dealer'  (q.v.). 
Bristol  Boy,  THE,  Chatterton  (q.v.). 
Bristol- diamond  or  BRISTOL  STONE,  a  kind 
of  transparent  rock-crystal,   found   in   the 
Clifton  limestone  near  Bristol,  and  alluded 
to  by  Spenser  in  the  'Faerie  Queene'  (iv.  xi. 

But  Avon  marched  in  a  more  stately  path, 
Proud  of  his  Adamants  with  which  he 

shines 
And  glisters  wide. 

Bristol  Milk,  Sherry  wine  shipped  to* 
Bristol,  or  according  to  Macaulay  ('Hist,  of 
England*,  I.  iii),  ea  rich  beverage  made  of  the 
best  Spanish  wine'. 

Britannia,  the  Latin  name  of  Britain,  and  a 
[108] 


BRITANNIA 

poetic  name  for  Britain  personified.  For  the 
figure  of  Britannia  on  the  copper  coinage  of 
1672,  the  earliest  modern  coin  on  which  it 
appears,  Frances  Teresa  Stuart  or  Stewart, 
duchess  of  Richmond,  was  probably  the 
model. 

Britannia,  or  according  to  the  sub-title,  *a 
chorographical  description  of  the  flourishing 
Kingdoms  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland 
from  the  earliest  antiquity',  by  W.  Camden 
(q.v.),  was  published  in  Latin  in  1586,  the 
sixth  (much  enlarged)  edition  appearing  in 
1607.  It  was  translated  in  1610  by  Philemon 
Holland  (q.v.).  It  is  in  effect  a  guide-book  of 
the  country,  county  by  county,  replete  with 
archaeological,  historical,  physical,  and  other 
information . 

Britannia's  Pastorals,  see  Browne  (W.). 
British  Academy,  see  Academy. 
British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  THE,  held  its  first  meeting 
at  York  in  1831.   Its  object  is  the  promotion 
and  diffusion  of  science,  and  the  encourage- 
ment of  intercourse  of  scientists  of  the  British 
Empire  with  one  another  and  with  foreign 
philosophers. 

British  Magazine,  The,  founded  in  1759  by 
Newbery  (q.v.),  with  Smollett  (q.v.)  for 
editor,  and  Goldsmith  (q.v.)  among  its  con- 
tributors. 

British  Museum,  THE,  Bloomsbury,  occu- 
pies the  site  of  the  old  Montagu  House, 
which  was  acquired  in  1753  to  house  the 
library  and  collection  of  curiosities  of  Sir 
Hans  Sloane  (q.v.).  These  were  from  time  to 
time  enormously  increased,  notably  by  the 
purchase  of  the  Harleian  MSS.,  the  gift  by 
George  II  and  George  IV  of  royal  libraries, 
the  purchase  of  the  Elgin  Marbles  (q.v.),  and 
the  acquisition  of  Egyptian  antiquities  (in- 
cluding the  Rosetta  Stone,  q.v.)  and  of  the 
Layard  Assyrian  collections.  The  new  build- 
ings were  erected  in  1823-47,  and  the  great 
reading-room,  designed  by  Antonio  Panizzi, 
the  librarian,  was  opened  in  1857. 
Britomart,  the  heroine  of  Bk.  II  of  Spen- 
ser's 'Faerie  Queene',  the  daughter  of  King 
Ryence  of  Brittany  and  the  female  knight  of 
chastity.  She  has  fallen  in  love  with  Artegall 
(q.v.),  whose  image  she  has  seen  in  a  magic 
mirror,  and  the  poet  recounts  her  adventures 
in  her  quest  for  him. 

Britomartis,  in  classical  mythology,  was  a 
Cretan  deity,  mistress  of  the  fruits  of  the 
earth,  who  presided  over  hunting  and  fishing. 
She  was  also  known  as  Dictynna,  goddess  of 
nets. 

Briton,  The,  a  weekly  periodical  conducted 
in  1762  by  Smollett  (q.v.)  in  Lord  Bute's 
interest.  Wilkes's  'North  Briton*  (q.v.)  was 
started  in  opposition  to  it. 
Broad  Stone  of  Honour,  The,  a  work  by 
Kenelm  Henry  Digby  (1800-80),  first  pub- 
lished in  1833  (re-written  and  enlarged 
1826-7). 


BROKEN  HEART 

It  is  a  study  of  chivalry,  which  is  defined 
as  'that  general  spirit  and  state  of  mind  which 
disposes  men  to  heroic  and  generous  actions 
and  keeps  them  conversant  with  all  that  is 
beautiful  and  sublime  in  the  intellectual 
and  moral  world',  and  is  considered  histori- 
cally, in  its  relation  to  Christianity,  knight- 
hood, women,  &c.  In  the  preface  to  the  work 
the  author  says:  'I  have  enterprized  ...  to 
frame  and  imprint  a  book  .  .  .  which  I  call 
The  Broad  Stone  of  Honour,  seeing  that  it 
will  be  a  fortress  like  that  rock  upon  the 
Rhine  where  coward  or  traitor  never  stood, 
which  bears  this  proud  title,  and  is  impreg- 
nable.' The  reference  is  to  the  fortress  of 
Ehrenbreitstein,  of  the  name  of  which  the 
title  is  the  English  translation. 

Broadside,  a  sheet  of  paper  printed  on  one 
side  only,  forming  one  large  page;  a  term 
generally  used  of  ballads,  &c.,  so  printed. 

Brobdingnag,  see  Gulliver's  Travels. 

Broceliande,  in  the  Arthurian  cycle,  a 
legendary  region,  adjoining  Britanny,  where 
Merlin  lies  enchanted  by  Vivien.  There  is  a 
forest  of  Bre*cilieu  in  Brittany,  in  which  a 
legendary  tomb  of  Merlin  is  shown. 

Brocken,  SPECTRE  OF  THE,  a  natural 
phenomenon,  first  observed  in  1780  on  the 
Brocken  in  the  Harz  mountains  (North 
Germany),  in  which  an  enlarged  shadow  of 
the  spectator  is  thrown  by  the  rays  of  the 
evening  sun  on  a  bank  of  cloud  opposite  him. 
Goethe  uses  the  Brocken  as  the  scene,  in 
'Faust',  of  the  Witches'  Sabbath. 

Brodie,  WILLIAM  (d.  1788),  deacon  of  the 
Incorporation  of  Edinburgh  Wrights  and 
Masons,  and  a  town  councillor,  became  the 
head  of  a  gang  of  burglars  which  operated  in 
Edinburgh,  1787-8.  One  of  the  gang  turned 
king's  evidence;  Brodie  fled,  but  was  at  last 
found  in  Amsterdam.  He  was  executed  on 
i  Oct.  1788.  He  is  the  subject  of  a  play  by 
R.  L.  Stevenson  and  W.  E.  Henley  (qq.v.), 
'Deacon  Brodie,  or  the  Double  Life*. 

Broken  Heart,  The,  a  tragedy  by  J.  Ford 
(q.v.),  printed  in  1633. 

The  scene  is  Laconia.  Penthea,  who  was 
betrothed  to  Orgilus,  whom  she  loved,  has 
been  forced  by  her  brother  Ithocles  to  marry 
the  jealous  and  contemptible  Bassanes,  who 
makes  her  life  so  miserable  that  presently  she 
goes  mad  and  dies.  Ithocles  returns,  a  suc- 
cessful general,  from  the  conquest  of  Messene 
and  is  honourably  received  by  the  king.^  He 
falls  in  love  with  Calantha,  the  king's 
daughter,  and  she  with  him,  and  their 
marriage  is  sanctioned  by  the  king.  Orgilus, 
to  avenge  the  fate  of  Penthea,  of  which  he  has 
been  the  witness,  entraps  Ithocles  and  kills 
him.  During  a  feast,  Calantha  hears  in  close 
succession  the  news  of  the  death  of  Penthea, 
of  her  father,  and  of  Ithocles.  She  dances  on, 
apparently  unmoved.  When  the  feast  is  done, 
she  sentences  Orgilus  to  death,  and  herself 
dies  broken-hearted. 


BROME 

BROME,  RICHARD  (d.  1652?),  was  ser- 
vant or  perhaps  secretary  to  Jonson,  whose 
friendship  he  afterwards  enjoyed  and  in  con- 
junction with  whose  son  he  wrote  a  comedy, 
'A  Fault  in  Friendship3  (1623),  which  has 
.  not  survived.  'The  Northern  Lass*  (q.v.), 
his  first  extant  play,  was  printed  in  1632. 
'The  Sparagus  Garden'  (a  place  to  which 
more  or  less  reputable  persons  resorted  to  eat 
asparagus  and  otherwise  amuse  themselves), 
a  comedy  of  manners,  was  acted  in  1635. 
The  'City  Witt'  (q.v.)  was  printed  in  1653. 
'The  Joviall  Crew'  (q.v.),  his  masterpiece  and 
latest  play,  was  acted  in  1641.  His  other 
plays  (fifteen  in  all  of  his  plays  have  survived) 
include  the  *  Queen's  Exchange*  (printed 
1657)  and  the  *  Queen  and  Concubine* 
(printed  1659),  romantic  dramas.  Some  of 
the  plays,  particularly  'The  City  Witt*,  show 
the  marked  influence  of  Jonson,  others  that 
of  Dekker. 

BRONTE,  ANNE  (1820-49),  sister  of 
Charlotte  and  Emily  Bronte  (q.v.),  was  part 
author  with  her  sisters  of  'Poems,  by  Currer, 
Ellis,  and  Acton  Bell',  and  author,  under  the 

E:donym  Acton  Bell,  of  'Agnes  Grey* 
,,  1847),  and  of  'The  Tenant  of  Wildfell 
'  (q.v.,  1848). 

BRONTE,  CHARLOTTE,  afterwards 
NICHOLLS  (1816-55),  daughter  of  Patrick 
Prunty  or  Bronte,  an  Irishman,  perpetual 
curate  of  Haworth,  Yorkshire,  from  1820  till 
his  death  in  1861.  Charlotte's  mother  died  in 
1821,  leaving  five  daughters  and  a  son.  Four 
of  the  daughters  were  sent  to  a  clergy 
daughters*  boarding-school  (of  which  Char- 
lotte gives  her  recollection  in  the  Lowood  of 
*Jane  Eyre*),  an  unfortunate  step  which  may 
have  hastened  the  death  of  Charlotte's  two 
elder  sisters.  In  1831—2  Charlotte  was  at 
Miss  Wooler's  school  at  Roehead,  whither 
she  returned  as  a  teacher  in  1835-8.  She  was 
subsequently  a  governess,  and  in  1842  went 
with  her  sister  Emily  to  study  languages  at  a 
school  in  Brussels,  where  during  1843  she 
was  employed  as  teacher.  In  the  next  year 
Charlotte  was  back  at  Haworth,  and  in  1846 
appeared  a  volume  of  verse  entitled  'Poems  by 
Currer,  Ellis,  and  Acton  Bell',  the  pseudo- 
nyms of  Charlotte,  Emily,  and  Anne.  'The 
Professor',  Charlotte's  first  novel,  was  refused 
by  Messrs.  Smith  Elder  and  other  publishers, 
and  was  not  published  until  1857;  while 
Emily's  *Wuthering  Heights*  (q.v.)  and 
Anne's  'Agnes  Grey*  were  accepted  by  J. 
Cantley  Newby  in  1847  and  published  in 
1848.  Charlotte's  'Jane  Eyre'  (q.v.)  was 
published  by  Smith  Elder  in  1847  and 
achieved  immediate  success.  Fresh  sorrows 
now  descended  on  the  author:  her  brother, 
whose  vicious  habits  had  caused  the  sisters 
much  distress,  died  in  September  1848, 
Emily  before  the  end  of  the  same  year,  and 
Anne  in  the  following  summer,  and  Charlotte 
alone  survived  of  the  seven  children.  She 
produced  'Shirley*  q.v.)in  i849,and  'Villette* 
),  founded  on  her  memories  of  Brussels, 


BROOKE 

in  1853;  both  stories,  as  well  as  'Jane  Eyre', 
appeared  under  the  pseudonym  Currer  Bell. 
'Emma',  a  fragment,  appeared  in  the  'Cornhill 
Magazine'  in  1860,  after  her  death.  Charlotte 
married  in  1854  the  Rev.  A.  B.  Nicholls,  her 
father's  curate,  but  died  a  few  months  later. 
BRONTE,  EMILY  (1818-48),  sister  of 
Charlotte  and  Anne  Bronte  (qq.v.),  was  part 
author  with  her  sisters  of  'Poems  by  Currer, 
Ellis,  and  Acton  Bell*  (1846),  and  author, 
under  the  pseudonym  of  Ellis  Bell,  of 
'Wuthering  Heights'  (q.v.).  'Last  Lines'  and 
'Remembrance*  are  among  her  finest  poems. 
She  was,  at  her  best,  a  great  poet. 
Bronte,  (PATRICK)  BRANWELL  (1817-48),  the 
brother  of  Charlotte,  Anne,  and  Emily.  He 
was  a  clerk  on  the  Leeds  and  Manchester 
railway,  and  was  dismissed  for  culpable 
negligence.  He  was  subsequently  tutor  to  a 
family.  He  took  to  opium  and  died  of 
consumption. 

Bronte,  DUKE  OF,  see  Nelson. 
Brontes  or  BRONTEUS,  see  Cyclopes. 

Brook,  MASTER,  on  Shakespeare's  'Merry 

Wives  of  Windsor*  (q.v.),  the  name  assumed 

by  Ford  when  Falstaff  is  making  love  to  his 

wife. 

Brook  Farm  Institute,  see  Transcendental 

Club. 

Brooke,  LORD,  see  Greville  (Futke). 

Brooke,  DOROTHEA  and  MR.,  characters  in 
G.  Eliot's  'Middlemarch'  (q.v.). 

BROOKE,  HENRY  (1703-83),  born  in  Ire- 
land and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
lived  most  of  his  life  in  Ireland.  He  is 
principally  remembered  as  the  author  of  the 
curious  novel  'The  Fool  of  Quality*  (q.v., 
1760-72).  His  other  novel  'Juliet  Grenville* 
(1774)  is  of  less  importance.  He  published 
in  1739  a  tragedy  entitled  'Gustavus  Vasa', 
on  the  delivery  of  the  Swedes  from  the 
Danish  yoke  in  1521  by  the  valour  of 
Gustavus.  The  performance  of  this  play  was 
prohibited,  owing  to  the  fancied  resemblance 
of  the  villain  in  it  to  Sir  Robert  Walpole. 
Brooke  publicly  advocated  the  relaxation  of 
the  penal  laws  against  Roman  Catholics. 
His  philosophical  poem,  'Universal  Beauty', 
was  published  in  1735. 
BROOKE,  RUPERT  (1887-1915),  the  son 
of  a  Rugby  master,  was  educated  at  Rugby 
School  and  King's  College,  Cambridge.  He 
began  to  write  poetry  while  at  Rugby,  and  his 
first  volume  of  verse  was  published  in  1911. 
During  1913-14  Brooke  travelled  in  America 
and  the  South  Seas.  When  the  War  brokeout, 
he  took  part  in  the  unsuccessful  defence  of 
Antwerp,  and  early  in  1915  was  sent  to  the 
Mediterranean.  He  died  and  was  buried  at 
Scyros  on  23  April  of  that  year.  His  'Collected 
Poems*  (1918),  including  the  '1914*  group  of 
sonnets  (published  in  1915),  show  that  he  was 
a  poet  of  exceptional  promise.  His  'Letters 
from  America*  appeared  in  1916,  with  an 
introduction  by  Henry  James. 


BROOKS  OF  SHEFFIELD 

Brooks  of  Sheffield,  in  Dickens's  'David 
Copperfield'  (q.v.),  an  imaginary  person 
invented  by  Mr.  Murdstone  to  indicate 
David  to  his  friend  Quinnion. 

Brooks 's,  a  club  founded  by  Almack  (q.v.) 
in  the  middle  of  the  i8th  cent.  It  was  origin- 
ally in  Pall  Mall,  and  the  present  club-house 
dates  from  1778.  In  its  early  days  it  was  a 
noted  gambling  centre,  and  was  much  as- 
sociated with  the  names  of  C.  J.  Fox  and 
Sheridan.  Horace  Walpole  writes  of  it  to 
Sir  Horace  Mann  on  2  Feb.  1770,  *The 
young  men  of  the  age  lose  five,  ten,  fifteen 
thousand  pounds  in  an  evening  there*. 

Brother  Jonathan,  the  nickname  of  the 
American  nation,  as  John  Bull  is  of  the 
British.  The  origin  is  unknown.  It  is 
attributed  by  some,  without  historical 
evidence,  to  Jonathan  Trumbull  (1710-85), 
Governor  of  Connecticut  during  the  Ameri- 
can war  of  independence,  a  friend  and  coun- 
sellor of  Washington,  to  whom  Washington 
used  to  refer  familiarly  as  'Brother  Jonathan'. 

Brothers,  The,  a  comedy  by  Cumberland 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1769. 

The  younger  Belfield  has  been  dispossessed 
of  his  estate  by  his  brother,  and  driven  from 
his  sweetheart,  Sophia,  whom  that  brother 
is  now  courting,  having  forsaken  his  wife 
Violetta.  A  privateer  is  wrecked  on  the 
coast,  on  board  of  which  are  the  younger 
Belfield  and  Violetta.  Their  unexpected 
arrival  frustrates  the  designs  of  the  elder 
brother. 

Brothers*  Club,  THE,  founded  by  St.  John 
(Bolingbroke)  in  1711  at  the  inspiration  of 
Swift  'to  advance  conversation  and  friend- 
ship* and  assist  deserving  authors  and  wits. 
It  was  composed  of  members  of  the  Tory 
Ministry  and  some  of  their  supporters,  and 
included  Swift,  Prior,  Arbuthnot,  Harley's 
son,  Lord  Orrery,  and  others. 

Brou,  CHURCH  OF,  at  Bourg-en-Bresse,  near 
Lyons,  a  beautiful  church  built  (1511-36)  by 
Margaret  of  Austria,  wife  of  Philibert  II, 
duke  of  Savoy.  It  contains  exquisite  tombs 
of  Philibert,  his  wife,  and  his  mother, 
Margaret  of  Bourbon.  It  is  celebrated  in  a 
poem  by  M.  Arnold  (q.v.). 

Brough,  the  swindling  philanthropist  in 
Thackeray's  'The  Great  Hoggarty  Diamond' 
(q.v.). 

Brougham,  a  one-horse  closed  carriage, 
with  two  or  four  wheels,  named  from  the 
following. 

BROUGHAM,  HENRY  PETER,  BARON 
BROUGHAM  AND  VAUX  (1778-1868),  educated 
at  Edinburgh  High  School  and  University, 
rose  to  be  Lord  Chancellor.  Best  known  as 
a  parliamentary  orator  and  the  advocate  of 
Queen  Caroline,  in  the  history  of  literature 
he  is  remembered  principally  as  one  of  the 
founders,  with  Jeffrey  and  Sydney  Smith,  of 
the  'Edinburgh  Review*  (q.v.)  in  1802.  He 


BROWN 

also  wrote  'Observations  on  the  Education  of 
the  People'  (1825),  'Historical  Sketches  of 
Statesmen  in  the  time  of  George  I  IF  (1839- 
43),  'Demosthenes  upon  the  Crown,  trans- 
lated* (1840),  and  'Life  and  Times  of  Lord 
Brougham'  published  posthumously  in  1871. 
Brougham  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of 
the  article  on  'Hours  of  Idleness'  in  the 
'Edinburgh  Review*  (January  1808)  which 
provoked  Byron's  'English  Bards  and  Scotch 
Reviewers*.  He  was  a  man  of  amazing 
activity,  effected  considerable  improvements 
in  the  court  of  chancery,  took  an  important 
part  in  founding  London  University  (1828), 
and  sat  constantly  in  the  supreme  court  of 
appeal  and  judicial  committee  of  the  privy 
council.  His  features  lent  themselves  to 
caricature  in  'Punch'.  Of  the  many  squibs 
written  on  him  the  most  famous  is  the 
description  of  him  in  Peacock's  'Crotchet 
Castle*  (q.v.,  in  the  chapter  'The  March  of 
Mind'),  where  he  figures  as  'the  learned 
friend*. 

Brougham  Castle  f  Song  at  the  Feast  of,  a 
poem  by  Wordsworth  (q.v.),  composed  in 
1807.  See  under  Shepherd  (Lord  Clifford, 
the). 

BROUGHTON,  RHODA  (1840-1920), 
novelist.  When  Miss  Broughton  started  to 
write  she  had  a  reputation  for  audacity  of 
which  a  younger  generation  deprived  her — 
much  to  her  private  amusement.  She  once 
said  of  herself,  CI  began  my  career  as  Zola, 
I  finish  it  as  Miss  Yonge'.  Her  best-known 
books  are:  'Cometh  up  as  a  Flower'  (1867), 
'Not  Wisely  but  too  WelT  (1867),  'Doctor 
Cupid'  (1886),  'A  Waif's  Progress'  (1905). 

Browdie,  JOHN,  in  Dickens's  'Nicholas 
Nickleby'  (q.v.),  a  bluff  kind-hearted  York- 
shireman,  who  befriends  Nicholas  and 
Smike. 

Brown,  CAPTAIN  and  JESSIE,  characters  in 
Mrs.  Gaskell's  'Cranford'  (q.v.). 

Brown,  FATHER,  in  G.  K.  Chesterton's 
detective  stories,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest, 
highly  successful  in  the  detection  of  crime  by 
intuitive  methods. 

BROWN,  CHARLES  BROCKDEN  (177°- 
1810),  born  in  Philadelphia,  was  one  of  the 
earliest  American  novelists.  His  most  power- 
ful novel,  'Wieland'  (1798),  was  based  upon 
the  true  story  of  a  religious  fanatic.  Other 
works  are:  'Arthur  Mervyn*  (1799*  written 
under  the  influence  of  William  Godwin's 
'Caleb  Williams'),  'Ormond'  (1799),  'Edgar 
Huntly'  (1799). 

Brown,  JOHN  *of  Ossawatomie*  (1800-59), 
the  anti-slavery  leader  commemorated  in  the 
well-known  marching  song  'John  Brown's 
body  lies  a-moulderingin  the  grave',  was  born 
at  Torrington,  Connecticut.  In  1855  he 
migrated  to  Kansas,  where  he  became  a  leader 
of  the  anti-slavery  movement.  On  the  night 
of  16  October  1859,  at  the  head  of  a  small 


BROWN 

party  of  his  followers,  he  seized  the  arsenal  of 
Harper's  Ferry,  Virginia,  intending  to  arm  the 
negroes  and  start  a  revolt.  He  was  quickly 
captured,  tried  by  the  authorities  of  Virginia, 
and  hanged  at  Charleston,  Virginia. 

The  author  of  the  song  is  unknown ;  it  was 
set  to  an  old  Methodist  hymn-tune  and 
became  the  most  popular  marching-song  of 
the  Federal  forces.  See  also  Battle  Hymn  of 
the  Republic, 

BROWN,  DR.  JOHN  (1810-82),  educated 
at  Edinburgh  High  School  and  University, 
practised  as  a  physician  in  Edinburgh  with 
success,  and  was  author  of  essays  published 
under  the  title  'Horae  Subsecivae*  ('odd 
hours',  1858-61),  including  in  the  second 
series  the  beautiful  dog  story  'Rab  and^his 
Friends',  'a  flawless  example  of  pathos  in  a 
brief  compass'  (Elton) ;  and  of  an  essay  on 
Marjorie  Fleming  (q.v.). 

Brown,  JOHN  (1826-83),  for  over  thirty 
years  a  favourite  and  devoted  Scotch  atten- 
dant of  Queen  Victoria,  who  enjoyed  a 
singularly  privileged  position,  and  became 
'almost  a  State  personage*.  (See  Lytton 
Strachey,  'Queen  Victoria',  pp.  272-3.) 

Brown,  LANCELOT  (1715-83),  'Capability 
Brown*,  the  reviver  of  a  natural  style  of 
landscape-gardening.  He  laid  out  the  gardens 
at  Kew  and  Blenheim,  and  was  architect  of 
many  country  houses. 

BROWN,  THOMAS  (1663-1704),  satirist, 
educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where 
he  wrote  the  famous  CI  do  not  love  thee, 
Dr.  Fei'  (see  Fell).  He  afterwards  settled  in 
London  as  a  hack  writer  and  translator.  His 
'Amusements  Serious  and  Comical'  (1700) 
contain  entertaining  sketches  of  London  life. 
His  collected  works  appeared  in  1707. 

BROWN,   THOMAS    EDWARD   (1830- 

97),  born  in  the  Isle  of  Man  and  educated  at 
King  William's  College,  Isle  of  Man,  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  was  a  fellow  of  Oriel 
College,  and  second  master  at  Clifton  from 
1864  to  1893.  He  published  ' Betsy  Lee,  a 
Foc's'le  Yarn'  in  1873,  'Foe Vie  Yarns'  in 
1 88 1 ,  and  other  books  of  verse.  His  collected 
poems  were  issued  in  1900,  and  there  is  a 
selection  of  the  best  of  them  in  the  'Golden 
Treasury*  series.  The  greater  part  of  his 
poems  are  in  the  Manx  dialect  and  deal  with 
the  life  of  the  humble  inhabitants  of  the  island. 
They  have  found  very  warm  admirers,  who 
rank  Brown  high  among  the  English  poets  of 
the  iQth  cent. 

Brown  Bess,  the  name  familiarly  given  in 
the  British  army  to  the  old  flint-lock  musket. 
BROWN  MUSKET  was  in  earlier  use;  both 
names  ^existed  long  before  the  process  of 
'browning'  the  barrel,  and  apparently  referred 
to  the  brown  walnut  stock.  [OED.] 

Brown,    Jones,    and    Robinson,    THE 

PLEASURE  TRIPS  OF,  a  series  of  drawings  with 
descriptive  underlines,  by  R.  Doyle  (q.v.), 


BROWNE 

setting  forth  the  experiences  of  B.,  J.,  and  R. 
at  various  places  and  functions  in  England 
(and  including  two  sets  of  pictures  dealing 
with  the  Rhine),  appeared  in  Tunch'  from 
July  to  November  1850.  In  1854,  after 
Doyle  had  (in  1850)  severed  his  connexion 
with  'Punch*,  a  further  series  of  drawings 
appeared  as  a  separate,  publication,  under  the 
title  of  'The  Foreign  Tour  of  Brown,  Jones, 
and  Robinson',  satirizing  the  manners  of 
English  travellers  on  the  Continent. 

BROWNE,  CHARLES  FARRAR  (1834- 
67),  born  in  Maine,  U.S.,  an  American 
humorous  moralist,  who  wrote  under  the 
pseudonym  of  ARTEMUS  WARD.  He  purports 
to  describe  the  experiences  of  a  travelling 
showman,  and  like  'Josh  Billings*  (H.  W. 
Shaw,  q.v.)  uses  his  own  phonetic  spelling. 
He  contributed  to  Tunch'  and  died  in 
England. 

Browne,  HABLOT  KNIGHT  (1815-82),  under 
the  pseudonym  'Phiz',  illustrated  some  of  the 
works  of  Dickens,  Surtees,  Smedley,  &c. 

Browne,  ROBERT,  see  Brownists. 

BROWNE,  SIR  THOMAS  (1605-82),  was 
born  in  London  and  educated  at  Winchester 
and  Broadgates  Hall,  Oxford.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Montpellier,  Padua,  and  Leyden, 
and  graduated  at  this  last  university  as  doctor. 
In  1637  he  settled  at  Norwich,  where  he  prac- 
tised physic.  He  was  knighted  in  1671  on  the 
occasion  of  a  royal  visit  to  Norwich.  His 
'Religio  Medici*  (q.v.)  appeared  in  1643, 
though  writtensome  years  earlier ;  his  Tseudo- 
doxia  Epidemica',  better  known  as  *  Vulgar 
Errors'  (q.v,);  appeared  in  1646;  'Urn  Burial' 
(q.v.)  and  'Garden  of  Cyrus"  in  1658;  his 
'Christian  Morals*  was  notpublished  till  1716, 
after  his  death,  and  was  later  (1756)  edited  by 
Samuel  Johnson.  The  best  edition  of  his 
collected  works  is  by  G.  Keynes  (Faber  and 
Faber,  1931). 

BROWNE,  THOMAS  ALEXANDER 
(1826-1915),  best  known  under  his  pseudo- 
nym 'Rolf  Boldrewood",  an  Australian  squat- 
ter and  police  magistrate,  and  a  warder  of 
goldfields,  was  author  of  the  very  popular 
'Robbery  under  Arms*  (1888),  the  story  of  a 
bushranger,  Captain  Starlight;  also  of  'The 
Miner's  Right'  (1890).  The  'Squatter's 
Dream*  and  'A  Colonial  Reformer*  appeared 
in  the  same  year,  giving  excellent  pictures  of 
the  life  of  the  Australian  squatter. 

BROWNE,  WILLIAM  (1591-1643),  was  a 
Devonshire  man  educated  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford.  He  published  'Britannia's  Pastorals', 
a  fluent  but  desultory  narrative  poem, 
dealing  with  the  loves  and  woes  of  Marina, 
Celia,  and  the  like,  in  couplets  interspersed 
with  lyrics,  Bk.  I  in  1613,  Bk.  II  in  1616;  but 
Bk.  Ill  remained  in  manuscript  till  1852.  His 
'Shepherd's  Pipe',  written  in  conjunction 
with  Wither  (q.v.),  appeared  in  1614.  Among 
various  epitaphs  he  wrote  the  well-known 
lines  on  the  dowager  countess  of  Pembroke, 


[112] 


BROWNIE 

'Sidney's  sister,  Pembroke's  mother'  (at- 
tributed however  to  Ben  Jonson  in  Whalley's 
edition  of  that  poet,  1756).  His  poetry  is 
characterized  by  a  genuine  love  of  nature,  and 
influenced  Milton,  Keats,  and  Mrs.  Brown- 
ing. His  works  were  collected  by  W.  C. 
Hazlitt  in  1868. 

Brownie,  a  benevolent  spirit  or  goblin,  of 
shaggy  appearance,  supposed  to  haunt  old 
houses,  especially  farmhouses,  in  Scotland, 
and  sometimes  to  perform  useful  household 
work  while  the  family  were  asleep.  [OEDJ 

BROWNING,  ELIZABETH  BARRETT 
( 1 806-61),  whose  father's  name  Moulton  was 
changed  to  Barrett  on  succeeding  to  an  estate, 
married  Robert  Browning  in  1846.  Her 
'Essay  on  Mind ;  with  other  Poems'  appeared 
in  1826 ;  'Prometheus  Bound,  translated  from 
the  Greek  of  Aeschylus ;  and  Miscellaneous 
Poems'  in  1833;  'The  Seraphim  and  other 
Poems'  (including  'Cowper's  Grave')  in 
1838;  a  volume  of  'Poems'  (including  'The 
Cry  of  the  Children')  in  1844;  'Sonnets  from 
the  Portuguese'  (privately  printed  in  1847) 
in  1850;  'Casa  Guidi  Windows*  (recording 
political  events  in  Italy  and  manifesting 
Mrs.  Browning's  enthusiasm  for  the  cause  of 
Italian  liberty)  in  1851 ;  'Aurora  Leigh*  (q.v.) 
in  1857;  and  'Poems  before  Congress*  in 
1860.  'Last  Poems*  appeared  posthumously 
in  1862.  After  her  marriage  Mrs.  Browning 
lived  mostly  in  Italy,  and  died  at  Florence. 
Her  best  work  is  contained  in  the  'Sonnets 
from  the  Portuguese*,  where  the  form 
restricted  her  tendency  to  prolixity.  Mrs. 
Browning's  romance  is  the  subject  of  'Miss 
Barrett's  Elopement*  by  Mrs.  Carola  Lenan- 
ton  (Oman),  1929,  and  of  the  successful  play, 
'The  Barretts  of  Wimpole  Street',  by  Rudolf 
Besier,  1930. 

BROWNING,  ROBERT  (1812-89),  the  son 
of  a  clerk  in  the  Bank  of  England,  was 
privately  educated.  His  first  poem,  'Pauline* 
(q.v.),  a'ppeared  in  1833  and  he  first  visited 
Italy  in  1834.  'Paracelsus'  (q.v.),  which 
attracted  the  friendly  notice  of  Carlyle, 
Wordsworth,  and  other  men  of  letters,  ap- 
peared in  1835.  He  next  published  'Straf- 
ford*  (q.v.),  a  tragedy,  which  was  played  at 
Covent  Garden  in  1837.  'Sordello*  (q.v.) 
followed  in  1840.  'Bells  and  Pomegranates' 
(including  'Pippa  Passes',  'The  Return  of  the 
Druses',  'A  Blot  in  the  'Scutcheon*,  *Col- 
ombe's  Birthday*,  'Luria',  'A  Soul*s  Tragedy*, 
qq.v.,  and  other  pieces)  appeared  during 
1841-6.  In  1846  he  married  Elizabeth 
Barrett  (see  under  Browning,  E.  B.)t  and  lived 
with  her  mainly  in  Italy  at  Pisa,  Florence, 
and  Rome,  until  her  death  in  1861 ,  after  which 
Browning  settled  in  London.  In  1 850  he  pub- 
lished'Christmas  Eve  and  Easter  Day'  (q.v.), 
and  in  1855  'Men  and  Women*  (q.v.).  'Dra- 
matis Personae*  (q.v.)  appeared  in  1864,  and  in 
1 868-9  the  long  poem  'The  Ring  and  the  Book' 
(q.v.).  His  chief  remaining  works  appeared 
as  follows:  'Balaustion's  Adventure*  (q.v.) 
and  'Prince  Hohenstiel-Schwangau*  (q.v.) 

3868 


BRUGGLESMITH 

in  1871,  'Fifine  at  the  Fair'  (q.v.)  in  1872, 
'Red  Cotton  Nightcap  Country*  (q.v.)  in 
1873,  'Aristophanes'  Apology'  (q.v.)  and  'The 
Inn  Album*  (q.v.)  in  1875,  a  translation  of 
the  'Agamemnon*  of  Aeschylus  in  1877, 
'Dramatic  Idyls*  in  two  series  in  1879-80, 
'Jocoseria'  (containing  the  fine  dramatic 
monologue  'Cristina  and  Monaldeschi')  in 
1883,  'Ferishtah's  Fancies*  in  1884,  and 
'Parleyings  with  certain  People*  in  1887.  His 
last  volume  of  poems,  'Asolando*  (q.v.), 
was  published  on  the  day  of  his  death.  He 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Two 
volumes  of  his  correspondence  with  Mrs. 
Browning  have  been  published. 

Brownists,  adherents  of  the  ecclesiastical 
principles  of  Robert  Browne  (1550?-!  633?), 
who  preached  c.  1578  denouncing  the  paro- 
chial system  and  ordination,  whether  by 
bishops  or  by  presbytery.  About  1580  he, 
with  Robert  Harrison,  collected  a  congrega- 
tion at  Norwich,  which  they  called  'the 
church*,  but  which  was  familiarly  known  as 
'the  Brownists'.  He  finally  submitted  to  the 
bishop  of  Peterborough  and  became  for 
forty  years  rector  of  Achurch  in  Northamp- 
tonshire. He  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
Congregationalism. 

Bro willow,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'Oliver  Twist'  (q.v.). 

BRUCE,  JAMES  (1730-94),  educated  at 
Harrow,  African  traveller,  was  author  of  an 
interesting  narrative  of  his  'Travels  to  dis- 
cover the  source  of  the  Nile*  (he  discovered 
that  of  the  Blue  Nile),  and  of  his  visit  to 
Abyssinia,  published  in  1790.  His  veracity 
was  long  doubted,  but  established  by  Burton, 
Speke,  and  Baker. 

Bruce  and  the  Spider :  according  to  legend, 
Bruce  while  lying  concealed  from  the  English 
in  the  island  of  Rathlin,  one  day  watched  a 
spider  making  repeated  attempts  to  fix  its 
web  to  a  beam  of  the  ceiling,  and  at  last 
succeeding.  Encouraged  by  this  example,  he 
left  the  island  in  1307,  landed  at  Carrick  with 
a  small  band  of  followers,  and  gradually  drove 
the  English  from  Scotland. 

Bruce,  The,  an  epic  poem  by  Barbour  (q.v.), 
written  about  1375. 

The  author  relates  the  story  of  King  Robert 
the  Bruce  and  James  Douglas,  and  of  the  war 
of  independence,  mingling  anecdote  with 
substantially  accurate  history.  It  contains 
some  good  descriptive  passages,  notably  of 
the  Battle  of  Bannockburn,  and  a  frequently 
quoted  outburst  on  freedom,  beginning 
'A!  Fredome  is  a  noble  thing  I* 

Brugglesmith,  the  title  of  a  short  story  by 
Kipling  (q.v.),  included  in  'Many  Inventions', 
of  an  amusing  midnight  adventure  in  the 
streets  of  London  with  a  drunken  man.  (He 
gives  his  address  as  'Brugglesmith*  inter- 
preted by  a  policeman  as  'Brook  Green, 
Hammersmith*.) 


BRUIN 

Bruin,  meaning  'brown',  the  name  of  the 
bear  in  'Reynard  the  Fox*  (q.v.),  whence  it 
has  corne  to  signify  a  bear  in  general. 

Brumaire,  from  French  brume,  mist,  the 
name  of  the  second  month  of  the  year  in  the 
French  revolutionary  calendar.  It  extended 
from  22  Oct.  to  20  Nov.  The  i8th  Brumaire 
of  the  year  VIII  (9  Nov.  1799)  was  the  day 
on  which  the  French  Directory  fell  and  the 
supreme  power  was  entrusted  to  Napoleon 
Buonaparte,  as  first  Consul,  with  Sieyes  and 
Roger-Ducos  as  his  associates. 

Brummagem,  a  local  vulgar  form  of  the 
name  of  the  town  of  Birmingham,  hence 
(contemptuously)  an  article  of  Birmingham 
manufacture;  used  especially  of  cheap 
jewellery  and  the  like.  The  old  spelling  of 
'Birmingham*,  e.g.  in  Clarendon,  is  often 
*Bromwicham*,  which  would  naturally  be 
pronounced  'Brummagem5. 

Bmmmel,  GEORGE  BRYAN  (1778-1840), 
generally  called  BEAU  BRUMMEL,  a  friend  of 
the  prince  regent  (George  IV)  and  leader  of 
fashion  in  London.  He  died  in  poverty  at 
Caen. 

Brunariburh,  a  poem  in  Old  English,  included 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  (q.v.)  under 
the  year  937,  dealing  with  the  battle  fought  in 
that  year  at  Brunanburh  between  ^Ethelstan 
with  an  English  army  and  the  Northmen 
supported  by  the  forces  of  Scotland  and 
Wales.  The  site  of  the  battle  is  unknown. 
It  is  a  song  of  triumph  recounting  the  deeds 
of  ^Ethelstan  and  his  brother  Eadmund, 
and  the  rout  and  slaying  of  the  invaders. 
J.  H.  Frere  (q.v.)  and  A.  Tennyson  wrote 
translations  of  the  poem. 

Brunehaut,  BRUNHALT,  see  Thierry  and 
Theodoret. 

Brunei,  SIR  MARC  ISAMBARD  (1769-1849), 
born  in  Normandy  and  educated  for  the 
Church,  served  in  the  French  navy  and 
emigrated  to  America  in  1793.  There  he 
practised  as  a  surveyor  and  engineer.  He  came 
to  England  in  1799,  where  he  had  a  distin- 
guished career  as  an  inventor  and  engineer, 
having  charge,  among  other  important  works, 
of  the  construction  of  the  Thames  tunnel 
(1825-43). 

His  son  ISAMBARD  KINGDOM  BRUNEL(i8o6- 
59),  also  a  distinguished  engineer,  designed 
Clifton  suspension  bridge  (1831),  built  the 
Great  Western  Railway  (1833  onwards),  and 
did  much  marine  building,  e.g.  the  'Great 
Eastern*  (1852-8)  and  other  steamships.  He 
was  also  concerned  in  the  buildings  for  the 
Great  Exhibition  of  1851. 
BrunMId,  see  Brynhild. 

Bruno,  GIORDANO  (?i548-?i599),  Italian 
philosopher  (who  saw  God  as  the  unity 
reconciling  spirit  and  matter),  born  at  Nola. 
He  was  in  early  life  a  Dominican  friar, 
but  broke  from  his  order  and  wandered  about 
Europe  teaching  his  philosophical  doctrines, 
which  are  obscure,  or  embodying  them  in 


BRYAN 

dialogues  and  verse  (some  of  them  dedicated 
to  Sir  P.  Sidney,  under  whose  auspices  he 
visited  Oxford)  of  great  fire  and  vigour.  He 
finally  quarrelled  with  one  of  the  Mocenigos, 
by  whom  he  was  employed  at  Venice,  was 
denounced  to  the  Inquisition,  arrested,  con- 
demned to  death,  and  burnt  (whether  in 
reality  or  in  effigy  is  not  quite  certain). 

Brut,  meaning  'chronicle*,  is  a  transferred 
use  of  Brut- -Brutus ',  the  legendary  founder 
of  Britain,  as  in  the  French  title,  'Roman  de 
Brut',  and  in  the  'Brut*  of  Layamon  (q.v.). 

Brut  of  Layamon,  see  Layamon. 

Brute  or  BRUTUS,  legendary  founder  of  the 
British  race.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (q.v.) 
states  that  Walter  Archdeacon  of  Oxford  gave 
him  an  ancient  book  in  the  British  tongue, 
containing  an  account  of  the  kings  of  Britain 
from  Brutus  to  Cadwallader.  This  Brutus 
was  son  of  Sylvius,  grandson  of  Ascanius  and 
great-grandson  of  Aeneas.  Having  had  the 
misfortune  to  kill  his  father,  he  collected  a 
remnant  of  the  Trojan  race  and  brought  them 
to  England  (uninhabited  at  the  time  'except 
by  a  few  giants'),  landing  at  Totnes.  He 
founded  Troynovant  or  New  Troy  (later 
known  as  London)  and  was  the  progenitor 
of  a  line  of  British  kings  including  Bladud, 
Gorboduc,  Ferrex  and  Porrex,  Lud,  Cym- 
beline,  Coel  (Cole,  the  'merry  old  soul'), 
Vortigern,  and  Arthur.  The  name  *Troy- 
novant*  is  a  back-formation  from  'Trinovan- 
tes*,  the  name  of  the  powerful  British  tribe 
that  lived  north  and  east  of  London.  Drayton, 
in  his  'Polyolbion*  (i.  312),  relates  the  legend, 
and  Selden,  in  his  'Illustrations*  to  that  work, 
discusses  its  probability. 

Brute,  SIR  JOHN  and  LADY,  characters  in 
Vanbrugh's  'The  Provok'd  Wife'  (q.v.). 

Brutus,  DECIUS,  a  character  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Julius  Caesar'  (q.v.). 

Brutus,  Lucius  JUNKTS,  the  legendary  first 
consul  of  Rome.  His  brother  was  murdered 
by  Tarquinius  Superbus,  and  he  escaped 
the  same  fate  only  by  simulating  idiocy — 
whence  the  name  Brutus.  After  the  death  of 
Lucretia  (q.v.),  he  stirred  the  Romans  to 
expel  the  Tarquins  and  was  elected  to  the 
consulship.  He  put  to  death  his  two  sons  for 
conspiring  to  restore  the  Tarquins. 

Brutus,  MARCUS  JUNIUS  (85-42  B.C.),  joined 
Pompey  in  the  civil  war  (49),  but  after  the 
battle  of  Pharsalia  was  pardoned  by  Caesar. 
He  nevertheless  joined  the  conspirators  who 
assassinated  Caesar,  in  the  hope  of  restoring 
republican  government.  On  the  occasion  of 
Caesar's  murder,  the  dying  man  uttered  the 
famous  words,  (Et  tttt  Brute\  In  the  subse- 
quent war  between  Brutus  and  Cassius  on  the 
one  hand  and  Octavian  and  Antony  on  the 
other,  the  former  were  defeated  at  Philippi 
(42),  and  Brutus  took  his  own  life.  His  wife 
was  Porcia,  daughter  of  Cato  of  Utica. 

BRYAN,  Sm  FRANCIS  (d.  1550),  poet, 
soldier,  and  diplomatist,  was  Henry  VIIFs 


BRYANT 

permanent  favourite,  held  various  court  posts, 
and  was  sent  on  diplomatic  missions.  He 
behaved  discreditably  in  the  matter  of  the 
execution  of  his  cousin,  Anne  Boleyn,  and 
accepted  a  pension  vacated  by  one  of  her 
accomplices.  Cromwell,  in  writing  of  this 
circumstance  to  Gardiner  and  Wallop,  calls 
him  'the  vicar  of  hell*,  which  became  a  popu- 
lar nickname.  It  is  to  this,  no  doubt,  that 
Milton  in  the  'Areopagitica*  refers  when  he 
writes,  'I  name  not  him,  for  posterity's  sake, 
whom  Henry  VIII  named  in  his  merriment 
his  vicar  of  hell*.  Bryan  contributed  to  'Tot- 
ters Miscellany*  and  his  poetry  was  highly 
valued  in  his  day,  but  is  now  undiscoverable. 
BRYANT,  WILLIAM  CULLEN  (1794- 
1878),  American  poet,  born  at  Cummington, 
Massachusetts,  first  a  poor  country  lawyer, 
then  a  pioneer  in  the  prairies  of  Illinois,  and 
finally  a  New  York  editor  (who  raised  'The 
Evening  Post*  to  a  great  position  in  America). 
His  first  volume  of  collected  poems  (in- 
cluding 'Thanatopsis')  appeared  in  1821,  and 
further  collections  at  various  subsequent 
dates.  His  poetry  reveals  a  very  elementary 
philosophy,  based  on  the  O.T.,  a  love  of 
political  freedom,  and  a  strong  and  simple 
sense  of  the  relation  of  man  to  nature. 

BRYGE,  JAMES  (1838-1922),  VISCOUNT 
BRYCE,  educated  at  the  High  School  and 
University  of  Glasgow,  at  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  and  at  Heidelberg,  was  Regius  pro- 
fessor of  civil  law  at  Oxford,  1870-93,  and 
held  a  number  of  high  political  and  diplo- 
matic posts,  including  those  of  chief  secretary 
for  Ireland  (1905-6)  and  ambassador  at 
Washington  (1907-13).  His  publications  in- 
clude two  classical  works :  'The  Holy  Roman 
Empire'  (1864)  and  'The  American  Common- 
wealth* (1888),  besides  a  number  of  other 
writings  on  various  subjects:  'Impressions 
of  South  Africa*  (1897),  'Studies  in  His- 
tory and  Jurisprudence*  (1901),  'Studies  in 
Contemporary  Biography*  (1903),  'South 
America:  Observations  and  Impressions* 
(1912),  'Modern  Democracies*  (1922). 

BRYDGES,  SIR  SAMUEL  EGERTON 
(1762-1837),  bibliographer,  published  his 
valuable  'Censura  Literaria*  in  1805-9  and 
1815,  'The  British  Bibliographer*  in  1810-14, 
and  'Restituta:  or  Titles,  Extracts,  and  Char- 
acters of  old  books  in  English  Literature 
Revived*  in  1814-16. 

Brynhild  or  BRUNHILD,  one  of  the  principal 
characters  in  the  'Volsunga  Saga*  (see  under 
Sigurd  the  Vohung)  and  in  the  'Nibelungen- 
Hed*  (q.v.). 

Brythons,  a  Welsh  name  used  to  distinguish 
the  branch  of  the  Celtic  race  which  was 
ultimately  driven  into  Wales  and  Cornwall, 
from  the  Goidels  (q.v.). 

Bubastis,  the  Greek  name  of  the  Egyptian 

goddess  PASHT,  identified  by  the  Greeks  with 

Artemis  (q.v.),  and  represented  under  the 

'  form  of  a  cat.   The  town  of  Bubastis,  on  the 


BUCHANAN 

Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile,  was  the  chief  seat 
of  the  worship  of  this  goddess. 
Buccaneer,  from  the  French  boucanier, 
originally  'one  who  hunts  wild  oxen*  (Littre*) 
from  boucan  (a  S.  American  name  for  a 
hurdle  on  which  meat  was  roasted  or  smoked 
over  a  fire),  a  barbecue,  boucaner,  to  dry  meat 
on  a  barbecue.  Thus  the  word  was  used  to 
mean  one  who  dries  and  smokes  flesh  on  a 
boucan  after  the  manner  of  the  Indians.  The 
name  was  first  'given  to  the  French  hunters  of 
St.  Domingo,  who  prepared  the  flesh  of  the 
wild  oxen  and  boars  in  this  way*.  Hence  it  was 
extended  to  'piratical  rovers  who  formerly 
infested  the  Spanish  coasts  in  America* 
(E.  B.  Tylor,  quoted  in  OED.).  See 
Esquemeling. 

Bucentaur,  see  Adriatic. 

Bucephalus,  from  Greek  ftovs,  ox,  /ce^oA^, 
head,  a  horse  of  Alexander  the  Great,  whose 
head  resembled  that  of  a  buU. 

BUCHAN,  JOHN  (1875-  ),  author. 
Private  secretary  to  the  high  commissioner  of 
S.  Africa,  1901-3;  on  H.Q.  staff  of  British 
Army,  France,  1916-17;  director  of  informa- 
tion under  the  prime  minister,  1917-18. 
Among  his  writings  are:  'Montrose*  (1913), 
'History  of  the  Great  War*  (1921-2),  'Lord 
Minto*  (1924),  'Julius  Caesar*  (1932).  His 
novels  include:  'Thirty-Nine  Steps*  (1915), 
'Greenmantle*  (1916),  'Mr.  Steadfast*  (1919), 
'Midwinter*  (1923),  'The  Three  Hostages* 
(  r  924), 'Dancing  Floor*  (i  926) ,  "The  Blanket  of 
the  Dark*  (i  93 1),  'Gap  in  the  Curtain*  (1932). 

BUCHANAN,  GEORGE  (1506-82),  born 
at  KiUearn  in  Stirlingshire,  studied  at  St. 
Andrews  and  Paris,  and  became  tutor  to  a 
natural  son  of  James  V.  He  satirized  the 
Franciscans,  thus  provoking  Cardinal  Beaton, 
and  was  imprisoned  at  St.  Andrews.  Escap- 
ing thence  he  went  to  the  Continent,  became 
a  professor  at  Bordeaux,  where  he  had  Mon- 
taigne among  his  pupils,  and  in  1547  was 
invited  to  teach  in  the  university  of  Coimbra, 
but  was  imprisoned  by  the  Inquisition,  1549- 
51.  After  some  years  in  France  he  returned 
to  Scotland  and  professed  himself  a  protes- 
tant.  He  became  a  bitter  enemy  of  Mary,  in 
consequence  of  the  murder  of  Darnley,  and 
vouched  that  the  Casket  Letters  were  in  her 
handwriting.  He  wrote  his  'Detectio  Mariae 
Reginae*  in  1571.  He  was  tutor  to  James  VI 
and  I  during  1570—8.  Chief  among  his  many 
writings  are  his  Latin  poem  'De  Sphaera*,  an 
exposition  of  the  Ptolemaic  system  as  against 
that  advocated  by  Copernicus,  and  his  Latin 
'Rerum  Scoticarum  Historia*  (1582),  which 
for  long  was  regarded  as  a  standard  authority. 
His  first  elegy  'Quam  misera  sit  conditio 
docentium  literas  humaniores  Lutetiae*,  de- 
scribes the  hard  lot  of  the  student  at  Paris 
in  those  days. 

BUCHANAN,  ROBERT  WILLIAMS 
(1841-1901),  poet  and  novelist,  the  son  of  a 
socialist  and  secularist  tailor  who  owned 

12 


BUCHANAN 

several  socialistic  journals  in  Glasgow.  He 
came  to  London  in  1860,  and  made  his 
reputation  by  'London  Poems'  in  1866, 
'Master  Spirits*  (1874),  and  'Ballads  of  ^  Life, 
Love,  and  Humour*  (1882).  He  satirized 
Swinburne  and  others  in  'The  Session  of  the 
Poets'  in  the  'Spectator'  (1866),  and  attacked 
the  Pre-Raphaelites  (q.v)  in  the  *  Contem- 
porary* (1871)  in  a  pseudonymous  article 
entitled  'The  Fleshly  School  of  Poetry1, 
which  led  to  a  prolonged  controversy.  Of 
his  novels  (all  now  forgotten)  the  principal 
are  'The  Shadow  of  the  Sword'  (1876)  and 
*God  and  the  Man*  (1881).  He  wrote  many 
plays,  of  which  the  chief  successes  were 
'Alone  in  London'  (1884),  *A  Man's  Shadow' 
(1889),  'The  Charlatan'  (1894),  'The  Strange 
Adventures  of  Miss  Brown*  (1895). 

Buchanan  and  Targe,  in  J.  Moore's 
'Zeluco*  (q.v.),  the  Scotsmen  who  quarrel 
about  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 

Bucket,  INSPECTOR,  the  detective  in  Dickens  *s 
'Bleak  House'  (q.v.). 

Buckeye  State,  Ohio,  see  United  States. 

BUCKHURST,  LORD,  see  Sackuille  (T.) 
and  Sackville  (C.). 

Buckingham  :  the  line,  'Off  with  his  head! 
So  much  for  Buckingham*,  occurs,  not  in  the 
Shakespearian  text,  but  in  Colley  Gibber's 
version  of  'Richard  III'  (in.  i). 

'Buckingham,  Complaint  of,  see  Complaint  of 
Buckingham. 

Buckingham,  GEORGE  VILLIERS,  first  duke 
of  (1592-1628),  the  favourite  of  James  I,  by 
whom  he  was  familiarly  known  as  'Steenie', 
figures  in  Scott's  'Fortunes  of  Nigel'  (q.v.). 
He  was  assassinated  by  John  Felton. 


Buckingham,  GEORGE  ^VHXIERS,  second 
duke  of  (1628—87),  a  prominent  figure  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II  and  an  influential  member 
of  the  Cabal,  was  the  Zirnri  of  Dryden's 
'Absalom  and  Achitophel*  (q.v.).  He  was 
author  of  the  burlesque  'The  Rehearsal* 
(q.v.),  1671,  and  of  other  verses  and  satires. 
He  figures  in  Scott's  Teveril  of  the  Peak* 
(q.v.). 

BUCKINGHAM,  JAMES  SILK  (1786- 
1855),  author  and  traveller,  and  founder  of 
the  'Athenaeum'  (q.v.). 

Buckingham  Palace,  in  London,  stands 
on  the  site  of  an  old  mulberry  garden  planted 
in  1  609  by  order  of  James  I,  which  became 
a  favourite  place  of  popular  resort.  It  was 
bought  in  1703  by^the  duke  of  Buckingham, 
who  built,  or  rebuilt,  a  house  in  the  garden. 
It  was  bought  in  1762  by  George  III  (and 
then  known  as  'Queen's  House'),  and  the 
house  rebuilt  in  1825  by  John  Nash  the 
architect,  whose  large  gateway,  known  as 
the  'Marble  Arch',  was  in  1851  transferred  to 
its  present  position.  Queen  Victoria  made 
Buckingham  Palace  the  most  usual  royal  resi- 
dence in  London. 


BUDDHA 

BUCKIAND,  FRANCIS  TREVELYAN 
(1826-80),  naturalist,  educated  at  Winchester 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  published 
Curiosities  of  Natural  History*  and  kindred 
works,  and  started  'Land  and  Water'  in  1866. 
Bucldaw,  THE  LAIRD  OF,  Frank  Hayston,  a 
character  in  Scott's  cThe  Bride  of  Lammer- 
moor'  (q.v.). 

BUCKLE,  HENRY  THOMAS  (1821-62), 
received  no  school  or  college  training  and 
devoted  himself  to  travelling  on  the  Conti- 
nent, where  he  acquired  the  principal 
languages.  The  first  volume  of  his  'History 
of  Civilization  in  England'  appeared  in  1857 
and  the  second  in  1861.  These  were  only 
to  be  introductory  portions  of  a  far  larger 
work,  which  the  author's  premature  death 
at  Damascus  prevented  him  from  executing. 
Buckle  criticized  the  methods  of  previous 
historians  and  sought  to  adopt  a  more 
scientific  basis,  with  special  regard  to  the 
physical  conditions  of  various  countries,  such 
as  their  climate  and  soil.  In  the  second 
volume  he  illustrated  his  method  by  applying 
it  to  the  history  of  Spanish  civilization  from 
the  sth  to  the  iQth,  and  of  Scottish  civiliza- 
tion to  the  i  Sth  cent. 

Bucklersbury ,  a  street  off  Cheapside,  in  the 
City  of  London,  Stow  says  that  its  western 
end  was  'possessed  of  Grocers  and  Apothe- 
caries*, which  explains  the  following: 

'Like  a  many  of  these  lisping  hawthorn- 
buds,  that  come  like  women  in  men's 
apparel,  and  smell  like  Bucklersbury  in 
simple-time/ 

(Shakespeare,  'Merry  Wives',  in.  iii.  87.) 

The  name  was  originally  BUKERELSBURY, 
from  the  name  of  an  old  city  family. 

Bucolic,  from  Greek  jSou/coAos-,  herdsman, 
means  pastoral;  and  the  plural,  BUCOLICS, 
pastoral  poems. 

Buddha,  *the  Enlightened*,  the  title  given 
by  the  adherents  of  one  of  the  great  Asiatic 
religions,  thence  called  BUDDHISM,  to  the 
founder  of  their  faith,  Sakyamuni,  Gautama, 
or  Siddartha,  who  flourished  in  northern 
India  in  the  5th  cent.  B.C.  Sakyamuni  is 
regarded  as  only  the  latest  of  a  series  of 
Buddhas  or  infallible  religious  teachers, 
which  is  hereafter  to  be  continued  in- 
definitely. [OED.]  He  was  the  son  of  the 
king  of  Kapilavastu  (at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  of  Nepal).  Finding  salvation 
neither  in  the  teaching  nor  in  the  austerities 
of  the  Brahmans,  he  developed  by  long 
meditations  his  own  religion,  which  he  ex- 
pounded at  various  places  in  India,  making 
many  disciples.  The  principal  doctrines  of 
Buddhism  are,  that  suffering  is  inseparable 
from  existence,  which  is  an  evil;  that  the 
principal  cause  of  suffering  is  desire ;  that  the 
suppression  of  suffering  can  be  obtained  by 
the  suppression  of  desire,  and  this  in  turn 
by  Buddhist  discipline,  of  which  nirvana  is 
the  reward.  Nirvana  is  the  extinction  of 


BUDGELL 

individual  existence  and  absorption  into  the 
supreme  spirit. 

BUDGELL,  EUSTACE  (1686-1737),  a 
cousin  of  Addison,  a  miscellaneous  writer 
who  contributed  to  the  *  Spectator*  and  is 
alluded  to  by  Pope  in  the  'Dunciad*. 
Buffalo  Bill,  the  name  under  which  William 
Cody  (1846-1917)  obtained  a  world-wide 
fame.  He  was  born  in  Iowa,  worked  as  a 
herder  in  the  western  plains,  and  served  as 
hospital  orderly  in  the  Civil  War.  His  fame 
as  a  scout,  slayer  of  Indians,  and  terror  of 
bandits  was  largely  fictitious,  the  result  of 
the  works  of  the  American  novelist  Ned 
Buntline  and  of  the  press  campaign  of  John 
Burke.  He  achieved  great  success  in  Europe 
with  his  'Wild  West  Show'  and  was  lionized 
in  England  in  consequence  of  his  spurious 
fame  and  striking  appearance.  But  the  tide 
of  prosperity  passed  away,  and  though  Cody 
struggled  on  gamely  to  the  last,  he  died  in 
poverty  and  comparative  obscurity.  The 
T.L.S.  of  17  Oct.  1929  contains  an  interesting 
article  on  the  'Legend  of  Buffalo  Bill*,  from 
which  the  above  facts  are  taken. 

BufiSe,  SIR  RAFFLE,  a  character  in  Trollope*s 
'Small  House  at  Allington*  and  'Last 
Chronicles  of  Barset',  John  Eames*s  bluster- 
ing official  chief. 

BUFFON,  GEORGES  LOUIS  LECLERC 
DE  (1707-88),  French  naturalist,  was  keeper 
of  the  king's  garden,  and  author  of  a  re- 
markable 'Histoire  Naturelle*  in  thirty-six 
volumes  (1749-88),  in  which  he  deals  not 
only  with  natural  history,  but  with  mineralogy 
and  such  questions  as  the  origin  of  the  earth. 

Buffone,  CARLO,  in  Jonson*s  'Every  Man  out 
of  his  Humour*  (q.v.),  'a  public  scurrilous 
profane  jester*,  perhaps  intended  to  designate 
'Marston*  (q.v.). 

Our  word  BUFFOON  is  derived  through  the 
French  'boufTon*  from  the  Italian  'buffone*, 
a  jester  (buffa,  a  jest,  bujfare  to  puff,  either 
in  the  sense  of  something  light  and  frivolous, 
or  with  reference  to  puffing  out  the  cheeks  as 
a  comic  gesture). 

Buffs,  THE,  the  East  Kent  Regiment,  the 
old  3rd  Foot  regiment  of  the  line,  so  called 
from  the  buff  facings  of  its  uniform. 

Bufo,  a  character  in  Pope's  'Epistle  to  Dr. 
Arbuthnot'  (q.v.,  11.  230-48).  It  is  uncertain 
whom  it  represents. 

Bug  Bible,  a  name  given  to  versions  of  the 
English  Bible  (Coverdale*s  and  Matthew's) 
in  which  the  words  in  Psalm  xci.  5  are 
translated  'thou  shalt  not  be  afraid  for  any 
bugs  by  night*. 

Buhl,  see  Boule. 

Bukton,  a  friend  of  Chaucer,  to  whom  he 
addressed  an  'Envoy*,  of  some  interest  for  the 
light  it  throws  on  the  author. 
Bulbo,  PRINCE,  a  character  in  Thackeray's 
'Rose  and  the  Ring*  (q.v.). 

En 


BUMPER 

Bulbul^a  bird  of  the  thrush  family,  much 
admired  in  the  East  for  its  song;  hence  some- 
times called  the  'nightingale*  of  the  East. 

Bull,  from  Latin  bulla,  the  leaden  seal 
attached  to  the  Pope's  edicts,  and  hence  a 
papal  or  episcopal  edict.  The  word  is  applied 
to  a  non-episcopal  edict  in  'the  Golden  Bull', 
a  decree  issued  by  Charles  IV  in  1356  to 
regulate  the  election  and  coronation  of  an 
emperor. 

Bull,  an  expression  containing  a  manifest 
contradiction  in  terms  or  involving  a  ludicrous 
inconsistency  unperceived  by  the  speaker. 
The  origin  of  the  term  is  unknown.  No 
foundation  appears  for  the  guess  that  it 
originated  in  a  contemptuous  allusion  to 
papal  edicts  or  for  the  assertion  of  the 
'British  Apollo*  (1708,  no.  22)  that  'it  became 
a  Proverb  from  the  repeated  Blunders  of  one 
Obadiah  Bull,  a  Lawyer  of  London,  who 
lived  in  the  reign  of  K.  Henry  the  Seventh* 
(OED.).  Often  associated  with  the  Irish. 

Bull,  JOHN,  see  John  Bull. 

Bull,  DR.  JOHN  (i563?-i628),  composer, 
singing-man  of  the  Chapel  Royal  (1583),  and 
professor  of  music  at  Gresham  College  (1597— 
1607).  He  was  subsequently  (1617-28) 
organist  of  Antwerp  Cathedral.  See  National 
Anthem. 

Bull  Run,  the  name  of  a  small  river  or  creek 
in  eastern  Virginia,  the  scene  of  two  im- 
portant battles  in  the  American  Civil  War,  in 
1861  and  1862.  The  Federals  were  severely 
defeated  in  both  battles. 

Bull- dogs,  the  colloquial  name  of  the 
'University  Police*,  the  Proctors'  attendants 
at  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 

Bulls  of  Basan,  see  Bashan. 
Bully  Bluck,  see  Magog  Wrath. 

Bulstrode,  MR.,  a  character  in  George 
Eliot's  'Middlemarch*  (q.v.). 

Bultitude,  MR.  and  DICK,  characters  in  F. 
Anstey's  'Vice  Versa*  (q.v.). 

Bumble,  the  beadle  in  Dickens*s  'Oliver 
Twist*  (q.v.),  a  type  of  the  consequential, 
domineering  parish  official. 

Bumby ,  MOTHER,  a  fortune-teller  frequently 
alluded  to  by  the  Elizabethan  dramatists. 
Lyly  (q.v.)  wrote  a  play  entitled,  'Mother 
Bombie*  (1594),  which  is,  says  HazHtt,  'very 
much  what  its  name  would  import,  old, 
quaint,  and  vulgar*,  'little  else  than  a  tissue  of 
absurd  mistakes,  arising  from  the  confusion 
of  the  different  characters  one  with  another, 
like  another  Comedy  of  Errors,  and  ends  in 
their  being  (most  of  them)  married ...  to  the 
persons  they  most  dislike*. 

Bumper,  SIR  HARRY,  in  Sheridan's  *School 
for  Scandal*  (q.v.),  one  of  Charles  Surface's 
convivial  companions,  who  sings  the  famous 
song: 

'Here  's  to  the  maiden  of  bashful  fifteen*. 

7] 


BUMPPO 

Bumppo,  NATTY,  see  Cooper  (J.  Fenlmore). 

Bunbury,  an  imaginary  character  intro- 
duced by  Wilde  (q.v.)  in  his  play  'The 
Importance  of  being  Earnest',  where  Bun- 
bury  serves  as  an  excuse  for  visits  to  various 
places. 

BUNBURY,  HENRY  WILLIAM  (1750- 
1811),  a  Norfolk  squire,  is  remembered  as  a 
great  caricaturist,  and  as  the  author  of  the 
'Academy  for  Grown  Horsemen  ...  by 
Geoffrey  Gambado*,  'Master  of  the  Horse  to 
the  Doge  of  Venice',  a  humorous  work  illus- 
trated by  his  own  comic  plates,  and  an  early 
example  of  the  literature  of  sport. 

Bunce,  JACK,  alias  ALTAMONT,  ex-actor  and 
pirate  in  Scott's  'The  Pirate'  (q.v.). 
Bunce,  PETER,   one  of  the   bedesmen   in 
Trollope's  'The  Warden*  (q.v.). 

Bunch,  MOTHER,  an  ale-wife  of  London, 
well  known  in  the  i6th  cent.  There  is  a 
reference  to  her  in  Nash's  'Pierce  Penniless', 
in  Dekker's  'Satiromastix*  (1.  1178),  and  in 
'The  Weakest  goeth  to  the  Wall'  (attributed 
to  Webster).  The  name  of  'Mother  Bunch* 
was  adopted  in  the  title  of  many  zyth-cent. 
books  of  anecdotes  and  jests. 

Bunde,  John,  see  John  Buncle. 

Bungay  and  Bacon,  the  rival  publishers  in 
Thackeray's  'Pendennis'  (q.v.).  Bungay  is 
there  proprietor  of  the  (fictitious)  'Pall  Mall 
Gazette*. 

Bungay,  THOMAS,  known  as  'Friar  Bungay9 
(fl.  1290),  a  Franciscan,  who  was  divinity 
lecturer  of  his  order  in  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  vulgarly  accounted  a  magician 
and  is  frequently  referred  to  in  that  capacity. 
See  Friar  Bacon  and  Friar  Bungay.  FRIAR 
BUNGEY,  an  astrologer,  figures  in  Lytton's 
'The  Last  of  the  Barons'  (q.v.). 
Bungay  Castle,  in  Suffolk.  When  Hugh 
Bigot  in  Henry  IFs  reign  'added  fortifications 
to  his  Castle  of  Bungay,  he  gave  out  this 
rhyme,  therein  vaunting  it  impregnable : 

Were  I  in  my  castle  of  Bungey 

Upon  the  river  of  Waveney 

I  would  ne  care  for  the  King  of  Cockney.' 
Ray's  'Pro verbs',  p.  251  (ed.  1768). 
Bunion,  ROSA,  in  Thackeray's  'Mrs.  Per- 
kins's Ball*  (q.v.),  poetess,  author  of  'Heart- 
strings', 'Passion  Flowers',  &c.,  who  loves 
waltzing  even  beyond  poesy,  and  lobster 
salad  as  much  as  either. 

Bunker's  Hill,  more  correctly  Breed's  Hill, 
a  height  near  Boston  in  America,  where  in 
1775  an  English  force,  after  severe  fighting, 
compelled  the  withdrawal  of  the  American 
insurgents. 

Bunkum,  BUNCOMBE,  empty  clap-trap 
oratory,  from  Buncombe,  the  name  of  a 
county  in  N.  Carolina,  U.S.  The  use  of  the 
word  originated  near  the  close  of  the  debate 
on  the  'Missouri  Question'  in  the  i6th  con- 
gress, when  the  member  for  this  district  rose 


BURBAGE 

to  speak,  and  persevered  in  spite  of  impatient 

calls  for  the  'Question*,  declaring  he  was 

bound    to    make   a   speech  for    Buncombe. 

[OEDJ 

Bunsby,   CAPTAIN   JOHN,    a   character   in 

Dickens's  'Dombey  and  Son*  (q.v.),  a  friend 

of  Captain  Cuttle. 

Bunthorne,  REGINALD,  the  principal  male 
character  in  Gilbert  and  Sullivan's  comic 
opera  'Patience',  'a  fleshly  poet'  in  whose  per- 
son the  'Aesthetic  Movement'  of  the  eighties 
was  caricatured. 

BUNYAN,  JOHN  (1628-88),  born  at 
Elstow,  near  Bedford,  the  son  of  a  tinsmith, 
learned  reading  and  writing  at  the  village 
school  and  was  early  set  to  his  father's  trade. 
On  completing  his  sixteenth  year  he  was 
drafted  into  the  parliamentary  army  and  was 
stationed  at  Newport  Pagnell  from  1644  to 
1646  under  the  command  of  Sir  Samuel  Luke, 
an  experience  perhaps  reflected  in  his  'The 
Holy  War*.  In  1653  he  joined  a  Non- 
conformist church  in  Bedford,  preached 
there,  and  came  into  conflict  with  the  Quakers, 
against  whom  he  published  his  first  writings, 
'Some  Gospel  Truths  opened'  (1656),  and 
'A  Vindication'  thereof  (1657).  He  had 
profited  by  two  religious  books  belonging  to 
his  first  wife  (who  died  c.  1656,  leaving  four 
young  children)  and  devoted  himself  to 
reading  the  Bible.  'I  was  never  out  of  the 
Bible  either  by  reading  or  meditation.*  He 
married  his  second  wife,  Elizabeth,  c.  1659, 
and  was  arrested  in  November  1660  for 
preaching  without  a  licence.  Refusing  to 
comply  with  the  law,  he  was  kept  in  prison 
for  twelve  years,  until  Charles  II's  Declara- 
tion of  Indulgence.  During  the  first  half 
of  this  period  he  wrote  nine  of  his  books, 
the  principal  of  which  was  his  'Grace 
Abounding  to  the  Chief  of  Sinners"  (q.v., 
1666).  In  the  same  year  appeared  *The 
Holy  City,  or  the  New  Jerusalem',  inspired 
by  a  passage  in  the  book  of  Revelation.  After 
this  he  wrote  no  more  until,  in  1671,  he 
published  *A  Confession  of  my  Faith,  and  a 
Reason  of  my  Practice'.  After  his  release  in 
1672  he  was  appointed  pastor  to  the  same 
church  in  Bedford,  but  was  again  imprisoned 
for  a  short  period,  during  which  he  wrote  the 
first  part  pf  'The  Pilgrim's  Progress  from  this 
World  to  that  which  is  to  come'  (q.v.).  The 
second  part,  with  the  whole  work,  was 
published  in  1678.  His  other  principal  works 
are  'The  Life  and  Death  of  Mr.  Badman' 
(q.v.,  1680),  and  'The  Holy  War'  (q.v.,  1682). 
Bunyan  preached  in  many  places,  but  was  not 
further  molested.  He  was  buried  in  Bunhill 
Fields,  London. 

Surana  Carmina,  see  Carmlna  Burana. 
Burbage,  JAMES  (d.  1597),  actor,  was  a 
joiner  by  trade.  He  was  one  of  the  earl  of 
Leicester's  players  in  1574.  He  leased  land  in 
Finsbury  Fields  (1576),  on  which  he  erected, 
of  wood,  the  first  building  in  England 
specially  intended  for  plays.  In  1596  he 


[118] 


BURBAGE 

acquired  a  house  in  Blackfriars,  and  con- 
verted it  into  the  *  Blackfriars  Theatre*  (q.v.). 
He  lived  in  Holywell  Street,  Shoreditch,  1 576- 
97.  The  first  English  playhouse  is  mentioned 
in  an  order  of  council,  August  1577,  and  was 
known  as  'The  Theatre* ;  the  fabric  was  re- 
moved, c.  December  1598,  to  the  Bankside 
and  set  up  as  the  Globe  Theatre.  It  was 
burnt  down  in  1613. 

Burbage,  RICHARD  (1567 ?-i6i9),  actor,  was 
son  of  James  Burbage  (q.v.),  from  whom  he 
inherited  a  share  in  Blackfriars  Theatre  and 
an  interest  in  the  Globe  Theatre.  He  acted  as 
a  boy  at  the  theatre  in  Shoreditch  and  rose 
to  be  an  actor  of  chief  parts,  1595-1618,  in 
plays  by  Shakespeare,  Ben  Jonson,  and 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher.  He  excelled  in 
tragedy.  Burbage  lived  in  Holywell  Street, 
Shoreditch,  1603-19.  He  is  known  also  as  a 
painter  in  oil-colours. 

Burbon,  SIR,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
v.  xi,  represents  Henry  of  Navarre. 

Burchell,  MR.,  in  Goldsmith's  *  Vicar  of 
Wakefield'  (q.v.),  the  name  assumed  by  Sir 
William  Thornhill. 

Burden  of  a  song,  from  the  Romanic  bour~ 
don,  the  continuous  bass  or  'drone*  of  a  bag- 
pipe, is  the  refrain  or  chorus,  a  set  of  words 
recurring  at  the  end  of  each  verse. 

In  the  English  Bible  (e.g.  Isa.  xiii.  i,  'The 
burden  of  Babylon*)  'burden*  is  used  to 
render  the  Hebrew  massa,  which  Gesenius 
would  translate  'lifting  up  (of  the  voice), 
utterance,  oracle*.  But  it  is  generally  taken 
in  English  to  mean  a  'burdensome  or  heavy 
lot  or  fate*  [OED.]. 

BURGOYNE,  SIR  JOHN  (1722-92), 
nicknamed  'Gentleman  Johnny',  remembered 
principally  as  the  general  who  was  forced  to 
capitulate  to  the  Americans  at  Saratoga  in 
1777,  was  the  author  of  a  clever  and  success- 
ful comedy  'The  Heiress*  (1786),  in  which 
the  vulgarity  of  the  rich  Alscrip  family  is 
contrasted  with  the  native  good  breeding  of 
Clifford,  Lord  Gayville,  and  his  sister;  while 
the  temporary  humiliation  of  the  virtuous 
heroine,  Miss  Alton,  who  is  driven  to  take 
service  in  the  Alscrip  family,  until  she  is  dis- 
covered to  be  an  heiress  and  Clifford's  sister, 
provides  a  sentimental  interest.  He  also 
wrote  'The  Maid  of  the  Oaks*  (i774)>  a 
cheerful  little  comedy  of  country  life.  He 
figures  in  G.  B.  Shaw's  play  'The  Devil's 
Disciple*  (1900). 

Burgundy,  at  one  time  a  kingdom,  then  an 
independent  duchy,  united  to  France  in  1477 
as  one  of  its  provinces  (capital,  Dijon). 
There  was  also  a  'County*  of  Burgundy, 
Franche-Comte",  ceded  to  France  in  1678. 
Burgundy  gives  its  name  to  a  red  •wine  of  high 
quality  and  considerable  potency.  The  best 
burgundies  are  produced  along  a  narrow  strip 
of  the  C6te  d'Or ,  on  the  right  as  one  drives  from 
Dijon  to  Beaune  and  beyond.  Famous  among 
the  best  are  Clos  Vougeot,  Romance,  Riche- 
bourg,  and  Chambertin  (Napoleon's  favourite 


BURKE 

wine).  Corton,  Beaune,  and  Pommard  are 
sound,  less  eminent  burgundies.  There  is  a 
reference  to  burgundy  wine  in  England  as 
early  as  Wycherley's  'Love  in  a  Wood*,  I.  ii 
(i  672).  The  finest  of  the  white  burgundies  is 
Montrachet. 

Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore,  The,  see  Wolfe. 

Buridan,  a  French  scholastic  philosopher  of 
the  end  of  the  i2th  cent,  to  whom  is  attri- 
buted the  sophism  of  the  ass  equally  pressed 
by  hunger  and  thirst  and  placed  between  a 
bundle  of  hay  and  a  pail  of  water,  who  must 
die  of  hunger  and  thirst,  having  no  deter- 
mining motive  to  direct  him  to  one  or  the 
other.  'Like  Buridan's  ass  between  two 
bundles  of  hay*  is  said  of  a  person  undecided 
between  two  courses  of  action,  who  adopts 
neither.  According  to  tradition  Buridan  was 
thrown  into  the  Seine  in  a  sack  (Villon, 
'Ballade'). 

Burke,  *A  Genealogical  and  Heraldic  His- 
tory of  the  Peerage  and  Baronetage  of  the 
United  Kingdom*,  first  compiled  by  John 
Burke  and  published  in  1826.  Since  1847 
it  has  been  published  annually. 

BURKE,  EDMUND  (1729-97),  the  second 
son  of  a  Dublin  attorney,  who  was  a  Protes- 
tant married  to  a  Catholic  wife.  He  was 
brought  up  as  a  Protestant,  and  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  entered  the 
Middle  Temple  in  1750.  His  first  published 
works,  'A  Vindication  of  Natural  Society* 
(q.v.)  and  'A  Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the 
Sublime  and  the  Beautiful*  (q.v.),  appeared  in 
1756.  In  the  same  year  he  married  Jane 
Nugent.  He  started  the  'Annual  Register* 
in  1759,  and  contributed  to  it  till  1788.  He 
became  private  secretary  to  the  marquis  of 
Rockingham  in  1765,  who  from  time  to  time 
helped  him  by  advances  of  money  and  at  his 
death  directed  that  the  bonds  should  be 
destroyed.  Burke  entered  parliament  as 
member  for  Wendover  in  the  same  year,  and 
first  spoke  in  the  House  in  1766  on  the 
American  question.  During  the  following 
years  he  vehemently  attacked  the  Tory 
government.  He  participated  in  stock 
jobbing  operations  and  remained  in  con- 
sequence involved  in  financial  difficulties 
for  the  rest  of  his  life,  but  bought  an  estate  at 
Beaconsfield  in  1768,  before  the  crash  came. 
He  published  his  'Observations  on  "The 
Present  State  of  the  Nation"  '  (q.v.)  in  1769, 
and  'Thoughts  on  the  Present  Discontents* 
(q.v.)  in  1770.  He  became  M.P.  for  Bristol 
on  the  invitation  of  the  citizens  in  1774,  and 
made  his  speeches  'On  American  Taxation* 
and  'On  Conciliation  with  the  Colonies*  in 
1774  and  1775.  His  'Letter  to  the  Sheriffs  of 
Bristol*  (q.v.)  was  written  in  I777»  an(*  his 
great  speech  against  employing  Indians  in 
the  war  was  made  in  1778.  His  speech  on 
economical  reform  was  made  in  February 
1780.  His  championship  of  free  trade  with 
Ireland  and  of  Catholic  emancipation  lost  him 
his  seat  at  Bristol  in  1780,  and  his  'Two 


BURKE 

Letters  ...  to  Gentlemen  in  the  City  of 
Bristol'  (1778)  and  his  'Speech  at  the  Guild- 
hall, in  Bristol'  (1780),  form  a  noble  vindica- 
tion of  his  attitude.  He  became  M.P.  for 
Malton  in  Yorkshire  in  1781.  By  his  attacks 
on  the  conduct  of  the  American  War  he 
contributed  powerfully  to  North's  resigna- 
tion of  office.  He  became  paymaster  of  the 
forces  in  1782  but  retired  from  the  ministry 
with  Fox,  returning  to  the  same  post  in  1783 
under  the  coalition  government.  His  sympathy 
with  the  Irish  Catholics  is  shown  by  his  letters 
'To  a  Peer  of  Ireland  on  the  Penal  Laws' 
(1782)  and  'To  Sir  Hercules  Langrishe' 
(1792).  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  investi- 
gation of  the  affairs  of  the  East  India  Company 
and  became  the  relentless  enemy  of  Warren 
Hastings  (q.v.).  His  famous  speeches  on  the 
East  India  Bill  and  'On  the  Nabob  of  Arcot's 
Private  Debts1  were  delivered  in  1783  and 
1785.  He  opened  the  case  for  the  impeach- 
ment of  Warren  Hastings  in  1788,  and  sup- 
ported Wilbei force  in  advocating  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  slave-trade  in  1788-9.  His 
'Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution*  (q.v.) 
appeared  in  1790,  followed  by  'A  Letter  .  .  . 
to  a  Member  of  the  National  Assembly* 
(1791),  and  by  'An  Appeal  from  the  New  to 
the  Old  Whigs'  in  1791,  a  defence  against  the 
charge  of  inconsistency  between  his  attitude 
towards  the  American  colonies  and  his  de- 
nunciation of  the  French  Revolution.  In  the 
same  year  appeared  'Thoughts  on  French 
Affairs';  'Remarks  on  the  Policy  of  the  Allies' 
in  1793 ;  and  the  'Letters  on  a  Regicide  Peace* 
(q.v.)  in  1795-7.  He  retired  from  parliament 
in  1794  and  received  a  pension  from  the 
ministry,  for  which  he  was  criticized,  chiefly 
by  the  duke  of  Bedford  and  earl  of  Lauder- 
dale.  He  defended  himself  in  his  'Letters  to  a 
Noble  Lord*  (q.v.)  in  1796.  His  collected 
works  were  published  in  1792-1827. 

Burke's  political  life  was  devoted  to  five 
'great,  just,  and  honourable  causes':  the 
emancipation  of  the  House  of  Commons 
from  the  control  of  George  III  and  the 
'King's  friends';  the  emancipation  (but  not 
the  independence)  of  the  American  colonies ; 
the  emancipation  of  Irish  trade,  the  Irish 
parliament,  and  the  Irish  Catholics;  the 
emancipation  of  India  from  the  misgovern- 
meat  of  the  East  India  Company;  and 
opposition  to  the  atheistical  jacobinism 
displayed  in  the  French  Revolution.  An 
historical  study  of  Burke  was  published 
by  Lord  Morley  in  1867,  and  a  life  by  him  in 
the  English  Men  of  Letters  series  in  1879. 

Burke,  WILLIAM,  the  name  of  a  notorious 
criminal  executed  at  Edinburgh  in  1829  for 
smothering  many  persons  in  order  to  sell 
their  bodies  for  dissection  (his  accomplice 
was  William  Hare).  Hence  *to  burke*  is  to 
murder  as  Burke  did,  and,  figuratively,  to 
smother,  'hush  up',  suppress  quietly. 

Burleigh  or  Burgnley,  WILLIAM  CECIL, 
LORD  (1520—98),  lord  treasurer  under  Queen 
Elizabeth  and  her  chief  minister.  He  had 


BURNELL  THE  ASS 

previously  been  secretary  to  Lord  Protector 
Somerset;  secretary  of  state,  1550-3;  and 
employed  in  negotiations  by  Queen  Mary. 
He  is  introduced  in  Sheridan's  'The  Critic* 
(q.v.),  where,  in  Puff's  tragedy,  he  comes  on 
the  stage  and  shakes  his  head,  being  too  much 
occupied  with  cares  of  state  to  talk,  whence 
the  expression,  'Burleigh's  nod'. 
Burlesque,  from  Italian  burla,  ridicule, 
mockery,  literary  composition  or  dramatic 
representation  winch  aims  at  exciting  laughter 
by  the  comical  treatment  of  a  serious  sub- 
ject or  the  caricature  of  the  spirit  of  a  serious 
work.  Notable  examples  of  burlesque  in 
English  literature  are  Butler's  'Hudibras*, 
and  'The  Rehearsal'  (qq.v.). 
Burlington  House,  London,  was  begun  by 
the  ist  earl  of  Burlington  about  1664,  and 
rebuilt  in  the  Palladian  style  by  the  3rd  earl, 
the  architect,  about  1731.  It  was  bought  by 
the  government  in  1854.  It  houses  the  Royal 
Academy  and  various  learned  societies,  in- 
cluding the  British  Academy.  The  name  is 
often  used  to  signify  the  Royal  Academy. 
Burman,  MRS.,  in  Meredith's  *One  of  our 
Conquerors'  (q.v.),  Victor  Radnor's  wife. 
BURNABY,  FREDERICK  GUSTAVUS 
(1842-85),  cavalry  officer  and  traveller,  com- 
manded the  3rd  household  cavalry,  1881-5; 
killed  in  the  attempt  to  relieve  Khartoum. 
He  was  author  of  'A  Ride  to  Khiva'  (1876). 
BURNAND,  SIR  FRANCIS  COWLEY 
(1836-1917),  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  had  a  vocation  for  the 
stage  which  manifested  itself  in  the  produc- 
tion of  a  large  number  of  burlesques,  notably 
'Black-eyed  Susan'  (1866),  'Cox  and  Box* 
(1867),  and  'The  Colonel'  (1881).  f  He  con- 
tributed to  'Punch'  from  1863  and  joined  the 
staff;  his  'Happy  Thoughts'(i  866)  proved  one 
of  the  most  popular  series  in  that  periodical. 
He  was  editor  of  'Punch',  1880-1906. 
Burne- Jones,  SIR  EDWARD  COLEY  (1833- 
98),  an  eminent  painter  of  the  romantic  school, 
a  friend  of  D.  G.  Rossetti  and  W.  Morris 
(qq.v.);  famous  for  his  pictures  ('King 
Cpphetua',  &c.)»  designs  for  stained-glass 
windows,  and  other  decorative  work. 
Burnell  the  Ass,  the  hero  of  the  'Speculum 
Stultorum'  of  Wireker  (q.v.).  Burnell,  an  ass 
who  wishes  to  acquire  a  larger  tail,  goes  to 
Salerno  and  to  Paris  to  study,  meets  with 
various  adventures,  and  finally  loses  his  tail 
altogether.  In  the  course  of  these  travels  he 
hears  the  story  to  which  Chaucer  alludes  in 
the  'Nun's  Priest's  Tale'  (1.  492): 

I  have  read  well  in  Dan  Burnell  the  Ass, 
Among  his  verse,  how  that  there  was  a  cock, 
For  that  a  priestes  son  gave  him  a  knock 
Upon  his  leg,  while  he  was  young  and  nice, 
He  made  him  for  to  lose  his  benefice. 

The  story  is  that  Gundulf,  driving  some 
chicks  from  the  granary,  struck  a  cockerel 
and  broke  its  leg.  The  cock  bided  its  time. 
On  the  day  on  which  Gundulf  was  to  receive 
his  father's  benefice,  he  was  to  start  at  cock- 


[MO] 


BURNET 

crow  for  the  town  where  the  installation  was 
to  take  place.  But  the  cock  that  day  failed  to 
crow;  Gundulf  was  late,  and  lost  his  benefice. 
In  the  main  narrative,  the  Ass  represents 
the  monk  who  is  discontented  with  his  lot. 
BURNET,  GILBERT  (1643-1715),  edu- 
cated at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  was  a 
popular  preacher  and  was  offered  four  bishop- 
rics before  he  was  twenty-nine.  These  he 
refused,  and  in  1674  was  dismissed  from  the 
post  of  king's  chaplain  for  remonstrating  with 
Charles  II  for  his  profligacy.  He  was  chaplain 
to  Mary  when  she  was  still  Princess  of  Orange. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1689  under 
William  III.  He  published  his  account  of  the 
death-bed  repentance  of  Rochester  (q.v.), 
'Some  passages  in  the  Life  and  Death  of  the 
right  honourable  John  Earl  of  Rochester*,  in 
1680,  and  his  'History  of  the  Reformation  in 
England',  vol.  i  in  1679,  vol.  ii  in  1681,  vol.  iii 
in  1714.  His  'Exposition  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles*  appeared  in  1699,  and  his  best- 
known  work,  'The  History  of  My  Own 
Times',  posthumously  (1724-34).  Other 
notable  works  by  Burnet  were  the  'Memoires 
of  the  .  .  .  Dukes  of  Hamilton*  (1677),  the 
'Life  of  Sir  Matthew  Hale*  (1682),  and  the 
'Journal  of  Lord  RusselPs  last  week*  (first 
published  in  the  'General  Dictionary',  1739, 
and  subsequently  in  the  'Life  of  William 
Lord  Russell*,  1819). 

BURNET,  THOMAS  (1635^-1715},  a 
Yorkshire  divine  and  master  of  the  Charter- 
house. He  was  the  author  of  'The  Sacred 
Theory  of  the  Earth'  (1684—90),  an  imagina- 
tive and  romantic  cosmogony,  suggested  to 
him  by  a  voyage  across  the  Alps.  It  contains, 
particularly  in  the  third  book,  descriptive 
passages  that  are  highly  sonorous  and  mag- 
niloquent. The  work  was  much  praised  by 
Addison  in  No.  146  of  the  'Spectator'. 
BURNETT,  FRANCES  ELIZA  HODG- 
SON (1849-1924),  writer  of  popular  stories, 
born  in  Manchester,  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  in  her  youth.  Best  known 
as  the  author  of  'Little  Lord  Fauntleroy*. 
BURNEY,  FRANCES,  MADAME 
D'ARBLAY  (1752-1840),  daughter  of  Dr. 
Burney,  the  historian  of  music,  lived  during 
her  youth  in  the  midst  of  that  literary  society 
which  included  Dr.  Johnson  and  Burke.  _  In 
1778  she  published  her  first  novel  'Evelina* 
(q.v.)  anonymously,  but  the  revelation  of  its 
authorship  brought  her  into  prominence,  and 
she  was  appointed  second  keeper  of  the  robes 
to  Queen  Charlotte  (1786).  Being  broken  in 
health,  she  with  difficulty  obtained  permis- 
sion to  retire.  In  1793  she  married  General 
D'Arblay,  a  French  refugee  in  England. 
From  1802  to  1812  she  was  interned  by 
Napoleon  and  lived  in  France.  The  last 
part  of  her  life  was  spent  in  England. 
Her  second  novel  'Cecilia'  (q.v.)  was  pub- 
lished in  1782,  'Camilla*  (q.v.)  in  1796,  'The 
Wanderer'  in  1814.  She  edited  her  father's 
'Memoirs*  in  1832.  Her  'Early  Diary* 
(1768-78),  with  pleasant  sketches  of  Johnson 


BURNS 

and  Garrick,  was  published  in  1889,  and  her 
later  'Diary  and  Letters'  (1778-1840),  which 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  her  life  at 
court,  in  1 842-6.  Miss  Burney  was  the 
originator  of  the  simple  novel  of  home  life, 
taking  as  her  theme  the  entry  into  the  world 
of  a  young  girl  of  virtue  and  understanding, 
but  inexperienced,  and  exposing  her  to 
circumstances  and  incidents  that  develop  her 
character,  and  display  the  various  droll  per- 
sons with  whom  she  comes  in  contact. 

Burning  Babe,  The,  see  Southwell. 

BURNS,  ROBERT  (1759-96),  born  at 
Alloway  in  Ayrshire,  was  the  son  of  a  cottar, 
and  was  educated  by  his  father.  Set  to  work 
as  a  farm  labourer,  he  early  developed  an 
inclination  for  literature,  and  also  a  tendency 
to  dissipation.  From  1784  to  1788  he  farmed 
118  acres  in  partnership  with  his  brother 
Gilbert  at  Mossgiel,  and  during  this  period 
wrote  some  of  his  best  work :  'The  Cotter's 
Saturday  Night',  'The  Twa  Dogs',  'Hallow- 
een*,  'The  Jolly  Beggars'  (a  cantata  descrip- 
tive of  a  vagabonds'  festival),  'To  a  Mouse*, 
'To  a  Mountain  Daisy*,  and  some  of  his 
keenest  satires,  'Death  and  Dr.  Hornbook* 
(against  a  village  apothecary)  and  'Holy 
Willie's  Prayer*  (against  a  self-righteous  elder 
of  Mauchline).  In  1786,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  passage-money  for  a  voyage  to  Jamaica, 
where  a  post  on  a  plantation  had  been  offered 
him,  he  published  the  Kilmarnock  edition  of 
his  early  poems.  It  made  him  famous,  and 
took  him  for  a  time  to  Edinburgh,  where  his 
modesty,  the  charm  and  ease  of  his  con- 
versation, and  his  conviviality,  made  him  very 
popular.  The  second  edition  of  his  poems 
(published  by  William  Creech)  brought  him 
£500  and  enabled  him  to  settle  down  on  a 
small  farm  at  Ellisland  and  to  marry  Jean 
Armour,  one  of  his  many  loves  (another  had 
been  Alison  Begbie,  'Mary  Morison',  who 
rejected  him;  and  another  Mary  Campbell, 
a  Glasgow  skipper's  daughter,  who  died, 
and  was  the  subject  of  his  "To  Mary  in 
Heaven').  Burns  also  received  an  excise- 
man's place,  which  after  the  failure  of  his 
farm  was  his  principal  means  of  support. 
Apart  from  songs,  he  now  wrote  little  of 
importance  f Tarn  o'  Shanter*,  q.v.,  and 
'Captain  Matthew  Henderson*  are  the  chief 
exceptions).  He  contributed  some  200  songs, 
new  or  adapted,  to  the  successive  volumes 
of  James  Johnson's  'Scots  Musical  Museum' 
(1787-1803),  among  others  the  famous  'Auld 
Lang  Syne*  (q.v.),  'Scots  wha  hae',  'A 
Red,  Red  Rose*,  and  'It  was  a*  for  our 
Richtfu*  King*.  In  1792  he  also  accepted  an 
invitation  from  George  Thomson  to  supply 
songs  for  his  'Scottish  Airs  with  Poetry*. 
Among  his  many  beautiful  lyrics  may  be 
mentioned  'John  Anderson,  my  Jo*,  'Comin* 
thro*  the  Rye*,  'The  Banks  of  Doon*,  and 
'Mary  Morison*.  In  a  different  category  fall 
the  humorous  vernacular  'Address  to  the 
Deil*,  'To  a  Louse*,  and  'The  Auld  Farmer's 
New  Year  Salutation  to  his  Mare  Maggie*, 


[121] 


BURTON 

a  delightful  retrospect  of  a  long  association 
between  man  and  beast. 

The  sympathy  that  Burns  had  at  first  mani- 
fested for  the  French  revolutionaries  brought 
him  into  bad  odour  with  the  authorities  and 
nearly  cost  him  his  place;  while  his^  inclina- 
tion to  convivial  living  imdermined  his  health. 
In  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  he  began  to 
see  through  the  aims  of  France.  His  last 
ballad,  'Does  haughty  Gaul  invasion  threat?' 
shows  his  patriotic  spirit ;  he  joined  the  Dum- 
friesshire Volunteers  in  1794  and  was  buried 
•with  military  honours.  See  also  Sylvander. 
BURTON,  JOHN  HILL  (1809-81),  edu- 
cated at  Aberdeen,  wrote  much  for  Edin- 
burgh booksellers,  reviews,  and  newspapers, 
and  made  his  mark  by  a  life  of  David  Hume 
(1846).  He  published  a  'History  of  Scotland 
(1853,  1867-70),  'The  Book-hunter'  (1862), 
'The  Scot  Abroad'  (1864),  and^many  other 
treatises  and  editions,  chiefly  historical. 

BURTON,  Sm  RICHARD  FRANCIS 
(1821-90),  matriculated  at  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  but  joined  the  Indian  Army  in  1843 
without  graduating.  His  Indian  experiences 
are  recorded  in  'Scinde,  or  the  Unhappy 
Valley'  (1851);  his  experiences  in  Africa, 
where  he  travelled  with  Speke,  in  'First 
Footsteps  in  East  Africa'  (1856)  and  'The 
Lake  Region  of  Central  Africa*  (1860).  He 
was  one  of  the  first  Englishmen  to  visit  Mecca, 
making  the  pilgrimage  in  *disguise,  and  pub- 
lished his  narrative  thereof  in  1855-6.  After 
many  other  travels  in  Africa  and  America, 
recorded  in  various  volumes,  he  devoted 
himself  to  literature  and  published  his  trans- 
lation of  the  'Arabian  Nights'  (q.v.)  in 
1885-8.  Burton  also  wrote  a  translation  of 
the  'Lusiads'  of  Camoens  (q.v.,  iSSj).  He 
was  consul  at  Damascus,  1869-71;  *uicL  at 
Trieste  (1872),  where  he  died. 
BURTON,  ROBERT  (1577-1640),  edu- 
cated at  Nuneaton  and  Sutton  Coldfield 
schools,  and  at  Brasenose  College  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  became  vicar  of  St. 
Thomas's,  Oxford,  and  rector  of  Segrave, 
Leicestershire.  He  was  author  of  the 
'Anatomy  of  Melancholy*  (q.v.). 

BURY,  RICHARD  DE  (1281-1345),  named 
from  his  birthplace,  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  was 
tutor  to  Edward  III  when  Prince  of  Wales, 
became  bishop  of  Durham,  and  is  celebrated 
as  a  patron  of  learning.  He  was  an  ardent 
collector  of  books,  employing  for  this  pur- 
pose members  of  the  mendicant  orders.  He 
founded  a  library  in  Durham  College,  Oxford, 
and  was  author  of  'Philobiblon*,  the  auto- 
biographical sketch  in  Latin  of  a  lover  of 
letters,  first  printed  in  1473.  An  English 
translation  was  published  in  1832. 

Busby,  RICHARD  (1606-95),  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
was  a  famous  head  master  of  Westminster 
School  from  1638  to  1695.  Among  his  pupils 
were  Dryden,  Locke,  Atterbury,  and  Matthew 
Prior. 


BUSSY  D'AMBOIS 

Busirane,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  in. 
xi  and  xii,  the  'vile  Enchaunter'  symbolizing 
unlawful  love.  He  is  stricken  down  by  Brito- 
mart  in  his  castle  and  forced  to  release 
Amoret.  On  the  door  of  one  of  the  rooms  of 
the  castle  was  written: 

'Be  bolde,  be  botde,  and  everywhere,  Be 

bold'; 
but  on  another  iron  door, 

'Be  not  too  bold.' 

Busiris,  a  mythical  king  of  Egypt,  son  of 
Poseidon,  who  sacrificed  all  strangers  who 
came  to  the  country.  He  was  slain  by 
Hercules.  There  was  a  city  of  Busiris 
(Abousir)  in  the  Delta.  Milton  attributes  the 
name  Busiris  to  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus 
('Paradise  Lost',  i.  306). 
Busiris,  King  of  Egypt,  a  tragedy  by  Edward 
Young  (q.v.). 

Buskin,  a  word  existing  in  many  European 
languages,  whose  ultimate  derivation  is  un- 
known. The  special  source  of  the  English 
word  is  likewise  uncertain.  It  is  the  word 
used  for  the  high  thick-soled  boot  (cothurnus) 
worn  by  actors  in  ancient  Athenian  tragedy, 
frequently  contrasted  with  the  'sock'  (soccus) 
or  low  shoe  worn  by  comedians.  Hence  ^it  is 
applied  figuratively  to  the  style  or  spirit  of 
tragedy,  the  tragic  vein.  To  put  on  the  buskins, 
to  write  tragedy.  [OED.] 

Bussy  D'Ambois,  a  tragedy  by  Chapman 
(q.v.),  published  in  1607,  and  the  most  fam- 
ous of  the  author's  plays.  It  was  severely 
criticized  by  Dryden. 

Bussy  D'Ambois,  (in  real  life,  Louis  de 
Bussy-d'Amboise),  a  man  of  insolence  and 
fiery  courage,  is  introduced  to  the  court  of 
Henri  III  of  France  by  Monsieur,  brother  of 
the  king,  his  protector.  He  quarrels  with  the 
king's  courtiers,  of  whom  he  kills  three  in  an 
encounter,  and  even  with  the  Due  de  Guise. 
He  wins  the  favours  of  the  wife  of  the  count 
of  Montsurry  (Montsoreau),  and  this  fact 
becoming  known  to  Monsieur,  who  is  also 
enamoured  of  the  lady,  is  by  him  from 
jealousy  revealed  to  Montsurry.  The  latter 
forces  his  wife  by  torture  to  send  a  letter 
summoning  Bussy  to  her.  On  his  arrival, 
Bussy  is  overpowered  and  killed. 

The  story  is  the  same  as  that  told  by 
Dumas  in  'La  Dame  de  Montsoreau*.  It  is 
interesting  that  both  writers  make  the  same 
alteration  of  the  actual  fact,  which  was  that 
the  king,  who  detested  Bussy,  and  not  Mon- 
sieur, revealed  Bussy's  amour  to  Montsoreau. 

Bussy  D'Ambois,  The  Revenge  of,  a  tragedy 
by  Chapman  (q.v.),  composed  in  1610  or 
161 1,  printed  in  1613.  The  play  is  a  sequel  to 
the  tragedy  'Bussy  D'Ambois*  (q.v.). 

Clermont  D'Ambois,  brother  of  Bussy,  a 
courageous  stoical  gentleman,  close  friend  of 
the  Due  de  Guise,  being  urged  by  the  ghost 
of  his  dead  brother  to  avenge  his  murder, 
will  only  do  so  by  the  honourable  method  of 
a  duel,  for  which  he  sends  a  challenge  to  the 


[iaa] 


BUSYBODY 

cowardly  Montsurry,  who  evades  it.  Urged 
again  by  the  ghost,  he  introduces  himself  to 
Montsurry's  house,  forces  him  to  fight,  and 
kills  him.  He  then  learns  the  assassination  of 
his  patron  Guise,  and  refusing  to  live  amid 
'all  the  horrors  of  the  vicious  time',  kills 
himself.  The  similarity  of  the  play  in  certain 
respects  to  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet'  is  evident. 

Busybody,  The,  a  comedy  by  Mrs.  Centlivre 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1709. 

Sir  George  Airy  and  Miranda  are  in  love 
with  one  another,  but  her  guardian,  Sir 
Francis  Gripe,  has  the  design  of  marrying 
her  himself  and  believes  that  she  loves  him. 
The  devices  by  which  his  intentions  are 
defeated,  and  those  by  which  Charles,  Gripe's 
son,  secures  the  hand  of  Isabinda,  whom  her 
father  intends  for  a  Spanish  merchant, 
occupy  the  play.  The  character  of  Marplot, 
whose  well-meant  but  misdirected  inter- 
ference constantly  endangers  the  course  of 
true  love,  has  enriched  the  language  with  a 
name  for  the  blundering  busybody. 

Butcher,  THE  BLOODY,  a  term  applied  to 
the  duke  of  Cumberland,  second  son  of 
George  II,  on  account  of  the  cruelty  with 
which,  after  Culloden,  he  suppressed  the 
rebellion  of  1745. 

BUTLER,  ALBAN  (1711-73),  educated  at 
Douai,  where  he  was  subsequently  professor 
of  philosophy  and  divinity.  In  1746  he  was 
sent  to  England  and  became  chaplain  to  the 
duke  of  Norfolk.  He  was  president  of  the 
English  college  at  St.  Omer,  1768-73.  He 
was  author  of  'The  Lives  of  the  . . .  Principal 
Saints*  (1756-9). 

BUTLER,  JOSEPH  (1692-1752),  was  son  of 
a  Presbyterian  linen-draper  at  Wantage,  and 
was  educated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  He 
was  made  rector  of  Haughton-le-Skerne  in 
Durham  in  1722,  and  in  1725  of  Stanhope 
in  the  same  county.  In  1736  he  was  brought 
into  prominence  by  being  appointed  clerk  of 
the  closet  to  the  queen,  and  in  1738  bishop  of 
Bristol,  from  which  he  was  translated  to 
Durham  in  1750.  In  1726  he  published 
'Fifteen  Sermons'  preached  at  the  Rolls 
Chapel,  in  which '  he  defines^  his  moral 
philosophy,  affirming  an  intuitional  theory 
of  virtue.  While  recognizing  benevolence 
and  a  due  degree  of  self-love  as  elements  in 
virtuous  conduct,  he  regards  conscience  as 
governing  and  limiting  them  by  considera- 
tions, not  of  happiness  or  misery,  but  of  right 
and  wrong.  In  1736  appeared  his  *  Analogy 
of  Religion'  (q.v.),  a  defence  of  the  Christian 
religion  against  the  Deists  by  showing  that 
their  natural  religion  is  open  to  the  same 
objections  as  revelation.  To  this  was  added 
his  essay,  'Of  the  Nature  of  Virtue*. 

Butler,  THE  REV.  REUBEN,  in  Scott's  'The 
Heart  of  Midlothian*  (q.v.),  Jeanie  Deans's 
lover  and  husband. 

BUTLER,  SAMUEL  ('Hudibras'  Butler) 
(1612-80),  born  at  Strensham  in  Worcester- 


BUTLER 

shire,  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  educated 
at  the  King's  School,  Worcester.  As  atten- 
dant on  Elizabeth,  countess  of  Kent,  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  Selden  (q.v.).  Nothing 
further  is  known  of  his  life  until  1661,  when 
he  was  employed  by  the  earl  of  Carbery. 
About  1673  he  enjoyed  the  patronage  of 
George  Villiers,  second  duke  of  Buckingham, 
who,  however,  is  satirized  in  his  'Characters* 
(on  the  model  of  those  of  Theophrastus,  q.v., 
published  in  his  'Genuine  Remains*  in  1759) 
and  his  'Hudibras'  (q.v.).  Of  the  latter  work, 
Pt.  I  was  published  in  1663,  Pt.  II  in  1664, 
and  Pt.  Ill  in  1678.  It  was  highly  approved 
by  Charles  II,  who  gave  the  author  £300  and 
later  a  pension  of  £100  a  year ;  but  Butler  was 
perhaps  for  a  time  neglected,  and  was  said  to 
have  died  in  penury.  This  is  commemorated 
in  the  epigram  on  the  monument  erected  to 
his  memory  in  Westminster  Abbey: 

The  Poets  Fate  is  here  in  emblem  shown: 
He  asked  for  Bread  and  he  received  a 
Stone. 

Butler's  verse  also  includes  *The  Elephant 
in  the  Moon*,  a  satire  directed  against  Sir 
Paul  Neale,  of  the  Royal  Society.  The 
elephant  turns  out  to  be  a  mouse,  which  has 
got  into  the  telescope.  Butler's  'Genuine 
Remains  in  Verse  and  Prose*  were  edited  in 
1759  by  Robert  Thyer,  and  more  completely 
by  A.  R.  Waller  and  R.  Lamar  in  1908-28. 

BUTLER,  SAMUEL  ('Erewhon*  Butler) 
(1835—1902),  the  grandson  of  Dr.  Samuel 
Butler  (1774-1839),  the  great  head  master  of 
Shrewsbury  School  and  bishop  of  Lichfield, 
was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  and  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge.  He  abandoned  the  inten- 
tion of  taking  holy  orders  and  went  to  New 
Zealand  in  1859,  where  he  succeeded  as  a  sheep 
breeder,  as  recounted  in  his  'A  First  Year  in 
Canterbury  Settlement'  (1863).  He  returned 
to  England  in  1864  and  settled  in  Clifford's 
Inn.  In  1872  he  published  'Erewhon*  (q.v.) 
and  in  1873  'The  Fair  Haven*,  an  ironic 
defence  of  Christian  evidences.  'A  Psalm  of 
Montreal*,  a  short  satirical  presentation  of 
the  conflict  between  Greek  art  and  modem 
gospels,  evoked  by  the  discovery  of  a  plaster 
cast  of  the  Discobolus  in  a  Montreal  lumber- 
room,  was  written  in  Canada  in  1875  and  pub- 
lished in  1884.  He  next  wrote  a  series  of  works 
of  scientific  controversy,  'Life  and  Habit* 
(1877),  'Evolution  Old  and  New*  and  'God  the 
Known  and  God  the  Unknown*  (1879),  'Un- 
conscious Memory '(1880),  'Luck  or  Cunning* 
(1887),  and  'The  Deadlock  in  Darwinism*. 
His  general  attitude  in  these  was  one  of  pro- 
test against  the  Darwinian  banishment  of 
mind  from  the  universe;  and  he  maintained 
the  transmissibility,  by  heredity,  of  acquired 
habits.  He  published  in  1881  'Alps  and 
Sanctuaries  of  Piedmont  and  the  Ticino',  a 
delightful  travel-book  combining  wit  and 
humour  with  a  keen  appreciation  of  beauty 
of  scenery  and  the  character  of  the  people; 
and  in  1888  'Ex  Voto*,  on  the  Sacro  Monte 


BUTTON'S  COFFEE-HOUSE 

of  Varallo-Sesia.  In  1896  appeared  his 
"Life  and  Letters  of  Dr.  Samuel  Butler',  his 
grandfather.  Meanwhile  Butler  had  developed 
a  keen  interest  in  Homer,  which  led  to  his 
theory  of  the  feminine  authorship  of  the 
'Odyssey'  and  its  origin  at  Trapani  in  Sicily. 
On  the  latter  subject  he  published  an  article 
in  1893;  'The  Authoress  of  the  Odyssey* 
appeared  in  1897,  and  translations  of  the 
'Iliad*  and  the  'Odyssey'  into  a  vigorous 
homely  prose  in  1898  and  1900.  'Shake- 
speare's Sonnets  Reconsidered'  appeared  in 
1899,  and  'Erewhon  Revisited'  (q.v.)  in  1901. 
Butler's  autobiographical  novel,  'The  Way 
of  All  Flesh*  (q.v.)  was  published  post- 
humously in  1903,  and  selections  from  his 
note-books  in  1912,  under  the  title,  'The 
Note-books  of  Samuel  Butler'. 

Butler  was  pre-eminently  a  satirist,  who 
waged  war  against  the  torpor  of  thought,  the 
suppression  of  originality,  the  hypocrisies  and 
conventions,  that  he  saw  around  him. 

Button's  Coffee-house,  the  rival  of  Will's 
(q.v.),  stood  in  Russell  Street,  Covent  Garden. 
It  was  frequented  by  Dryden,  Addison, 
Steele,  and  Pope.  Button  was  an  old  servant 
of  Addison. 

Buzfuz,  MR.  SERJEANT,  in  Dickens's  'Pick- 
wick Papers'  (q.v.),  counsel  for  the  plaintiff  in 
Bardell  v.  Pickwick. 

Bycorne,  see  Chichevacke. 

By- Ends,  MR.,  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's  Pro- 
gress* (q.v.),  'a  very  arch  fellow,  a  downright 
hypocrite;  one  that  would  be  religious, 
which  way  ever  the  world  went:  but  so 
cunning,  that  he  would  be  sure  never  to  lose 
or  suffer  for  it'. 

Byng,  ADMIRAL  JOHN  (1704-57),  was  sent  in 
1756  to  relieve  Port  Mahon  in  Minorca, 
which  was  threatened  by  a  French  fleet.  He 
was  repulsed,  sentenced  by  court-martial  for 
neglect  of  duty,  and  shot  at  Portsmouth. 
Voltaire  wrote,  in  'Candide*  (1759),  *I1  est 
bon  de  tuer  de  temps  en  ternps  un  amiral 
pour  encourager  les  autres*. 

Byrhtnoth's  Death,  see  Maldon  (Battle  of). 

BYROM,  JOHN  (1692-1763),  educated  at 
Merchant  Taylors'  School  and  a  fellow  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  taught 
shorthand  in  Manchester,  where  he  chiefly 
lived,  ^  and  elsewhere,  and  wrote,  besides  a 
quantity^  of  religious  verse,  a  pleasant 
anapaestic  'Pastoral*  celebrating  the  daughter 
of  Richard  Bentley  (q.v.),  with  whom  he  fell 
in  love.  He  was  a  Jacobite  and  an  enthusiastic 
admirer  of  W.  Law  (q.v.)  and  turned  some 
of  his  teaching  into  verse,  introducing  the 
anapaest  with  strange  effect.  His  'Private 
Journal  and  Literary  Remains'  throw  much 
light  on  Law's  character.  Byrom  wrote  the 
hymn,  'Christians,  awake!  Salute  the  happy 


BYRON,  GEORGE  GORDON,  6th  Baron 
(1788-1824),  son  of  Captain  John  Byron,  a 


BYRON 

profligate,  and  Catherine  Gordon  of  Gight, 
was  born  in  London  and  came  into  the  title 
when  ten  years  old.  He  had  unexpectedly 
become  heir-presumptive  in  1794,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  fifth  baron's  grandson  falling 
in  action  in  Corsica.  He  was  educated  at 
Harrow  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
While  at  Cambridge  he  printed  his  'Hours  of 
Idleness*  (at  first  named  'Juvenilia'),  pub- 
lished in  1807,  which  were  severely  criticized 
in  the  'Edinburgh  Review*.  To  this  criticism 
he  replied,  in  1809,  in  'English  Bards  and 
Scotch  Reviewers'  (q.v.).  From  1809  to  1811 
he  travelled  abroad,  visiting  Portugal,  Spain, 
Greece,  and  the  Levant,  and  addressing  'Maid 
of  Athens*  to  Theresa  Maori.  On  his  return  he 
took^his  seat  in  the  Lords,  and  in  1812  pub- 
lished the  first  two  cantos  of  'Childe  Harold* 
(q.v.).  During  the  next  four  years  appeared 
'The  Giaour',  'The  Bride  of  Abydos*,  'The 
Corsair',  'Lara',  'Parisina*,  'The  Siege  of 
Corinth',  and  'Hebrew  Melodies'  (all  dealt 
with  under  their  titles),  also  'The  Dream',  a 
beautiful  visionary  poem  in  blank  verse.  In 
1815  Byron  married  Anne  Isabella  Milbanke, 
an  heiress,  from  whom  he  was  separated  in 
1816.  He  thereupon  left  England,  never  to 
return,  embittered  by  the  strictures  of  what 
he  regarded  as  a  hypocritical  society.  In 
company  part  of  the  time  with  the  Shelleys, 
he  travelled  to  Switzerland  and  Venice, 
which,  with  Ravenna,  Pisa,  and  Genoa,  be- 
came his  head-quarters.  Canto  iii  of  'Childe 
Harold*  appeared  in  1816,  canto  iv  in  1818. 
In  1817  appeared  'The  Lament  of  Tasso*,  a 
dramatic  soliloquy,  expressing  the  poet's 
passionate  love  and  regret,  as  he  lies  in  prison, 
for  Leonora  d'Este.  Byron  wrote  the  first 
five  cantos  of  'Don  Juan*  (q.v.)  in  1818-20; 
'Beppo*  (q.v.)  appeared  in  1818.  In  1819 
began  his  connexion  with  Teresa,  Countess 
Guiccioli,  who  lived  with  him  for  a  time  at 
Venice,  and  whom  he  followed  to  Ravenna. 
While  there  and  subsequently  at  Pisa  he 
wrote  his  dramas,  the  principal  of  which  are 
'Manfred',  'Cain',  'Marino  Faliero',  'The 
Two  Foscari',  'Sardanapalus',  'Heaven  and 
Earth"  (dealt  with  under  their  titles);  also 
'Mazeppa*  (q.v.),  'The  Prophecy  of  Dante*  (a 
dramatic  soliloquy  embodying  the  poet's 
vision  of  the  future  liberation  of  Italy),  and 
the  later  cantos  of  the  unfinished  'Don  Juan*. 
In  1822  Byron  and  Leigh  Hunt  joined  in 
the  production  of  'The  Liberal*  magazine. 
The  first  number  contained  Byron's  'The 
Vision  of  Judgment*  (q.v.),  an  outcome  of  his 
feud  with  Southey.  The  second  contained 
'Heaven  and  Earth';  and  the  fourth,  Byron's 
translation  of  the  first  canto  of  Pulci's  'Mor- 
gante  Maggiore*.  No  further  numbers  ap- 
peared. In  1823  Byron  set  out  to  join  the 
Greek  insurgents,  and  died  of  fever  at 
Missolonghi  in  April  1824.  His  last  works 
include  the  tragedy  'Werner*  (q.v.,  1823), 
the  beautiful  romantic  verse  tale  "The  Island* 
(q.v.,  1823),  *The  Age  of  Bronze'  (1823),  a 
satirical  poem  inspired  by  the  Congress  of 
Verona,  and  'The  Deformed  Transformed* 


[124] 


BYRON 

(q.v.),  an  unfinished  drama  (1834).  Byron's 
body  was  brought  home  from  Greece  and 
buried  at  Hucknall  Torkard,  in  Nottingham- 
shire, near  his  family  seat. 

Byron's  poetry,  though  much  criticized  on 
moral  grounds,  was  immensely  popular  at 
home,  and  also  abroad,  where  it  exerted  great 
influence  on  the  Romantic  movement.  This 
popularity  it  owed  to  the  author's  persistent 
attacks  on  'cant  political,  religious,  and  moral*, 
to  the  novelty  of  his  oriental  scenery,  to  the 
romantic  character  of  the  Byronic  hero  (con- 
stantly reappearing  in  successive  works),  and 
to  the  ease  and  fluency,  and  (very  frequently) 
the  real  beauty,  of  his  verse. 

Byron,  HARRIET,  the  heroine  of  Richardson's 
'Sir  Charles  Grandison*  (q.v.). 

BYRON,  JOHN  (1723-86),  as  a  midship- 
man on  the  'Wager',  one  of  the  ships  of  Lord 
Anson's  squadron  in  his  famous  voyage,  was 
wrecked  on  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Chile  in 
1741.  His  'Narrative*  of  the  shipwreck,  pub- 
lished in  1768,  was  used  by  his  grandson, 
Lord  Byron,  in  his  description  of  the  storm 
and  wreck  in  *Don  Juan*. 

Byron,  The  Conspiracy  and  Tragedy  of 
Charles  Duke  of,  a  double  play  by  Chapman 
(q.v.),  published  in  1608. 

The  play  deals  with  the  intrigues  of  Charles 
Gontaut,  Due  de  Biron,  a  brave  soldier  who 
had  fought  successfully  and  been  nobly  re- 
warded by  Henri  IV  of  France,  but  whose 
overweening  ambition  made  him  disloyal  to 
the  king.  His  plots  are  discovered,  he  asks 
forgiveness  and  is  pardoned.  But  his  restless 
ambition  makes  him  prepare  a  new  con- 
spiracy, which  is  revealed  to  the  king.  He  is 
arrested  and  condemned  to  death.  He  pro- 
fesses his  innocence  and  is  reduced  to  frenzy 
and  despair  when  he  realizes  that  he  is  to  die. 


CABELL 

Byronic,  characteristic  of  or  resembling 
Lord  Byron  (q.v.)  or  his  poetry,  that  is  to  say, 
contemptuous  of  and  rebelling  against  con- 
ventional morality,  or  defying  fate,  or  pos- 
sessing the  characteristics  of  Byron's  romantic 
heroes,  or  imitating  his  dress  and  appearance ; 
'posturing  statuesque  pathetic*,  as  Meredith 
describes  it ;  *  a  man  proud,  moody,  cynical, 
with  defiance  on  his  brow,  and  misery  in  his 
heart,  a  scorner  of  his  kind,  implacable  in 
revenge,  yet  capable  of  deep  and  strong  affec- 
tion' (Macaulay, /Byron'). 

BYWATER,  INGRAM  (1840-1914),  edu- 
cated at  University  College  School  and  King's 
College  School,  London,  and  at  Queen's 
College,  Oxford,  and  a  fellow  of  Exeter 
College,  was  an  eminent  Greek  scholar.  He 
succeeded  Jowettas  Regius  professor  of  Greek 
in  1893.  He  had  acquired  a  European  repu- 
tation by  his  edition  (1877)  of  the  Fragments 
of  Heraclitus.  His  monumental  edition  of  the 
'Poetics'  of  Aristotle  appeared  in  1909.  He 
made  important  contributions  to  the  OED'., 
and  guided  the  critical  methods  of  the  editors 
of  the  long  series  of  Oxford  Classical  Texts. 

Byzantine,  the  word  used  to  designate  the 
art,  and  especially  the  architecture,  developed 
in  the  Eastern  division  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
This  Eastern  division  endured  from  the 
partition  of  the  Empire  between  the  two  sons 
of  Theodosius  in  A.D.  395  to  the  capture  of 
Constantinople,  its  capital,  formerly  known 
as  Byzantium,  by  the  Turks  in  1453.  The 
Byzantine  architecture  is  distinguished  by  its 
use  of  the  round  arch,  cross,  circle,  dome,  and 
rich  mosaic  ornament.  St.  Mark's  at  Venice 
is  a  prominent  example. 

The  'Byzantine  historians*  are  those  who 
lived  in  the  Eastern  Empire  from  the  6th 
to  the  1 5th  cents. 


C.IJX,  the  Criminal  Investigation  Depart- 
ment of  Scotland  Yard. 
C.S.C.,  see  Calverley. 

Qa  ira,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  French 
revolutionary  song,  of  which  the  refrain  is 

Ah!  53  ira,  9aira! 

Les  aristocrates  a  la  lanterne! 

Caaba,  see  Kaaba. 

Cabal,  from  the  Hebrew  word  qabbalah 
(see  Cabbala),  a  secret  intrigue  of  a  sinister 
character  formed  by  a  small  body  of  persons, 
or  a  small  body  of  persons  engaged  in  such  an 
intrigue;  in  British  history  applied  specially  to 
the  five  ministers  of  Charles  II  who  signed  the 
treaty  of  alliance  with  France  for  war  against 
Holland  in  1672;  these  were  Clifford,  Arling- 
ton, Buckingham,  Ashley,  and  Lauderdale, 
the  initials  of  whose  names  thus  arranged 
happened  to  form  the  word  cdbaL  [OED  J 


Cabbala,  from  the  Hebrew  qabbalah,  tradi- 
tion, a  Jewish  tradition  of  the  mystical  inter- 
pretation of  the  Scriptures,  a  reaction  from 
the  rationalism  of  the  school  of  Maimonides 
(q.v.),  developed  between  the  9th  and  I3th 
cents.,  comprising  the  'Sepher  Yezirah*  ('Book 
of  Creation*)  and  the  'Zohar*  ('Splendour*). 
These  mystic  doctrines  included  the  exist- 
ence of  'Sephiroth*,  realized  abstractions  or 
emanations,  by  which  the  infinite  entered 
into  relations  with  the  finite;  and  the  belief 
that  the  letters  of  the  biblical  text,  converted 
into  numbers,  may  be  manipulated  in  such 
a  way  as  to  reveal  hidden  truths.  There  is 
perhaps  a  trace  of  this  in  the  number  of  the 
Beast  in  Rev.  xiii.  18. 

CABELL,  JAMES  BRANCH  (1879-  ), 
American  novelist,  born  at  Richmond,  Vir- 
ginia, His  chief  works  are:  'The  Rivet  in 
Grandfather's  Neck*  (1915)*  'Jurgen*  (1919), 


CABLE 

'Figures  of  Earth*  (1921),  'The  High  Place' 
(1923),  'The  Silver  Stallion'  (1926),  Some- 
thing about  Eve*  (1927)- 
GABLE,  GEORGE  WASHINGTON 
(1844-1925),  American  novelist,  author  of 
some  charming  stories  of  the  old  Creole 
society  of  Louisiana,  including  'Old  Creole 
Days1  (1879),  'The  Grandissimes'  (1880),  and 
'Madame  Delphine'  (1881). 
Gacodemon,  from  the  Greek  word  meaning 
an  evil  spirit,  in  which  sense  it  is  used  in 
Shakespeare's  'Richard  III',  I.  iii.  In 
astrology  the  name  is  applied  to  the  Twelfth 
House  in  a  figure  of  the  Heavens,  so  called 
from  its  baleful  influence. 

Gacus,  a  famous  robber,  son  of  Vulcan  and 
Medusa,  represented  as  a  three-headed 
monster  vomiting  flames.  He  stole  some  of 
the  oxen  of  Hercules,  and  dragged  them 
backwards  into  his  cave  to  escape  discovery. 
Hercules  departed  without  perceiving  the 
theft,  but  the  lowing  of  his  other  oxen  was 
answered  by  those  in  the  cave.  Hercules 
thereupon  attacked  Cacus  and  strangled  him 
in  his  arms. 

Cade,  JACK,  REBELLION  OF,  a  political  move- 
ment in  1450  by  the  men  oi  Kent  against  the 
misrule  of  Henry  VI  and  his  council.  It  was 
headed  by  Jack  Cade,  an  Irish  adventurer 
who  took  the  name  of  Mortimer.  With  a 
large  mob  he  marched  on  London,  entered 
the  city  in  triumph  and  beheaded  Lord  Say, 
the  lord  treasurer.  After  a  fight  on  London 
Bridge,  the  insurgents  deserted  Cade,  who 
was  pursued  into  Sussex  and  slain. 

Cadenus  and  Vanessa,  a  poem  by  Swift 
(q.v.),  written  in  1713  for  Esther  Vanhom- 
righ  ('Vanessa*,  q.v.),  and  published  after  her 
death  by  her  request.  It  is  the  narrative,  in 
rnock  classical  form,  of  the  author's  relations 
with  *Vanessa"  and  an  apology  for  his  conduct. 
*  Cadenus'  is  an  obvious  anagram  of  'Decanus*. 
It  is  evident  that  Miss  Vanhomrigh  took  no 
exception  to  his  statement  of  the  facts,  since 
she  preserved  the  poem  and  desired  it  to  be 
published. 

Cadmean  victory,  *a  victory  involving  one's 
own  ruin'  (Liddell  and  Scott),  usually 
associated  with  Thebes  or  the  Thebans. 
Cadmus  (q.v.)  was  the  founder  of  Thebes. 
Cf.  Pyrrhic  Victory. 

Cadmus,  son  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoenicia, 
was  sent  by  his  father  in  search  of  his 
sister  Europa  (q.v.),  whom  Zeus  had  carried 
away.  His  companions  were  devoured  by  a 
dragon,  which  he  attacked  and  overcame  by 
the  assistance  of  Athene.  He  sowed  its 
teeth  in  the  plain,  upon  which  armed  men 
sprang  up.  He  threw  a  stone  in  the  midst 
of  them,  whereupon  they  turned  their  arms 
against  each  other,  till  all  perished  except 
five,  who  helped  Cadmus  to  found  the  city  of 
Thebes  in  Boeotia.  Cadmus  married  Har- 
monia,  a  daughter  of  Aphrodite.  Owing  to  the 
misfortunes  of  their  children  (Ino,  Semele, 


CAELIA 

qq.v.,  £c.),  whom  Hera  persecuted,  Cadmus 
and  Harmonia  entreated  the  gods  to  relieve 
them  of  the  miseries  of  life,  and  were  turned 
into  serpents.  Cadmus  was  reputed  the  first 
to  introduce  the  use  of  letters  into  Greece. 
Cadogan,  a  mode  of  knotting  the  hair  behind 
the  head,  said  to  be  derived  from  the  first 
earl  of  Cadogan  (d.  1726).  It  was  popular 
among  French  ladies  in  the  i8th  cent. 
Cadoudal,  GEORGES  (1771-1804),  a  leader 
of  the  Chouans  (q.v.),  executed  for  plotting 
against  the  Hfe  of  Napoleon  Buonaparte. 
CadflcSus,  the  wand  carried  by  an  ancient 
Greek  or  Roman  herald,  and  specially  the 
fabled  wand  carried  by  Hermes  (q.v.)  as 
messenger  of  the  gods.  It  is  usually  repre- 
sented with  two  serpents  twined  round  it. 
As  Hermes  was  thought  to  have  the  power 
of  bringing  sleep  to  men,  Milton  ('Paradise 
Lost',  xi.  132)  speaks  of  'the  pastoral  reed 
of  Hermes,  or  his  opiate  rod*. 
Cadwal,  in  Shakespeare's  'Cymbeline' 
(q.v.),  the  name  borne  by  Arviragus  while 
he  lived  in  the  woods. 

Gadwallader,  the  son  of  Cadwallon  and  last 
king  of  the  Britons,  who  reigned  in  the  7th 
cent.  He  defended  Wales  against  the  Saxons, 
and  Merlin  prophesied  his  return  at  some 
future  time  to  expel  them.  He  joined  Penda, 
king  of  Mercia  (an  Angle),  against  Eadwine, 
the  Angle  king  of  Northumbria. 

CADWALLADER  is  also  the  name  of  a 
character  in  Smollett's  Teregrine  Pickle* 
(q.v.),  and  a  Mrs.  Cadwallader  figures  in 
George  Eliot's  'Middlemarch*  (q.v.). 
CJEDMON  (corruptly  CEDMON),  (fl.  670), 
entered  the  monastery  of  Streaneshalch 
(Whitby)  between  658  and  680,  when  already 
an  elderly  man.  He  is  said  by  Bseda  to  have 
been  an  unlearned  herdsman,  who  received 
suddenly,  in  a  vision,  the  power  of  song,  and 
later  put  into  English  verse  passages  trans- 
lated to  him  from  the  Scriptures.  The  name 
Csedmon  cannot  be  explained  in  English, 
and  has  been  conjectured  to  be  Celtic  (an 
adaptation  of  the  British  Catumanus).  In 
1655  Fran?oisDujon(Franciscus  Junius)  pub- 
lished at  Amsterdam  from  the  unique  Bodleian 
MS.  Junius  1 1  (c.  1000)  long  scriptural  poems, 
which  he  took  to  be  those  of  Csedmon.  It  is 
now  generally  admitted  that  these  poems  are 
of  at  least  two  dates,  the  first  portion  (con- 
taining versions  of  Genesis,  Exodus,  Daniel) 
being  earlier  than  the  second  portion  (i,  the 
fall  of  man ;  2,  the  descent  into  hell,  ascension, 
and  second  advent;  3,  the  temptation),  and 
all  of  them  later  than  Csedmon.  The  only 
authentic  fragment  of  his  work  that  survives 
is  his  first  Hymn,  which  Bede  quotes. 
Caelestina,  a  character  in  Dekker's  'Satiro- 
mastix'  (q.v.).  See  also  Celestina. 
Caelia,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*  (q.v.), 
I.  x,  the  Lady  of  the  House  of  Holiness, 
mother  of  Fidelia,  Speranza,  and  Charissa 
(Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity). 


[126] 


CAELICA 

Caelica,  a  collection  of  sonnets  and  songs  by 
Sir  Fulke  Greville  (q.v.). 

Caerleon,  see  Carlion. 

Caermarthen,  Black  Book  of,  a  Welsh  MS. 
of  the  1 2th  cent.,  containing  poems  attributed 
to  the  great  traditional  bards  of  Wales. 

CAESAR,  the  name  of  a  patrician  family 
of  Rome,  which  CAIUS  JULIUS  CAESAR,  the 
conqueror  of  Gaul  and  dictator  (102  ?~44  B.C.), 
raised  to  the  highest  eminence.  He  was  not 
only  a  great  general  and  statesman,  but  an 
orator,  poet,  and  historian.  The  only  work 
of  his  that  has  come  down  to  us  is  his  'Com- 
mentarii',  the  history  of  the  first  seven  years 
of  the  Gallic  War,  and  of  part  of  the  Civil 
War.  The  name  Caesar  was  assumed  by 
his  adopted  son,  Octavianus,  on  whom  the 
Senate  conferred  the  title  'Augustus',  and 
by  Tiberius  as  the  adopted  son  of  Augustus. 
Both  names  were  used  by  successive  emperors, 
whether  of  the  family  of  Caesar  or  not.  Caesar 
survived  as  a  title  in  Kaiser  and  Tsar. 

Caesar's  Wife:  Julius  Caesar  divorced  his 
wife  Pompeia,  who  was  accused  of  an  in- 
trigue with  Clodius,  not  because  he  thought 
her  guilty,  but  because  Caesar's  wife  must  be 
above  suspicion. 

Caesar  and  Cleopatra,  a  play  by  G.  B.  Shaw 
(q.v.,  1901). 

Caesar  and  Luath,  Burns's  'Twa  Dogs*. 

Caesar  and  Pompey,  a  Roman  tragedy  by 
Chapman  (q.v.),  published  1631,  but  written 
at  an  earlier  date. 

It  deals  with  the  contention  of  Caesar  and 
Pompey,  the  events  leading  up  to  the  battle 
of  Pharsalus  (48  B.C.),  the  murder  of  Pompey, 
and  the  suicide  of  Cato  of  Utica.  The  latter 
is  the  real  hero  of  the  play,  of  which  the 
motto  is  'Only  a  just  man  is  a  free  man*. 

Caesaraugusta,  in  imprints,  Saragossa. 

Caesarean    or    CAESARIAN    operation  or 

SECTION,  the  delivery  of  a  child  by  cutting 
through  the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  as  was  done 
in  the  case  of  Julius  Caesar. 

Caesarion,  son  of  Caius  Julius  Caesar  (q.v.) 
and  Cleopatra  (q.v.).  He  was  executed  by 
order  of  Augustus. 

Caesu'ra,  in  Greek  and  Latin  prosody,  the 
division  of  a  metrical  foot  between  two 
words,  especially  in  certain  recognized  places 
near  the  middle  of  the  line;  in  English 
prosody,  a  pause  about  the  middle  of  a 
metrical  line,  generally  indicated  by  a  pause 
in  the  sense. 

Cagliostro,  COUNT  ALESSANDRO  (i743~95)> 
whose  real  name  was  Giuseppe  Balsamo, 
was  a  charlatan  born  at  Palermo.  After  a 
dissolute  and  criminal  youth,  he  travelled 
in  the  East  and  studied  alchemy.  He  then 
wandered  about  Europe  selling  drugs  and 
philtres,  and  acquired  a  great  reputation. 
He  visited  London  several  times  and  was 
received  in  the  best  society,  but  finally  under- 


CAIRBAR 

went  a  period  of  imprisonment  in  the  Fleet. 
In  1785  he  was  implicated  in  the  affair  of  the 
'Diamond  Necklace5  (q.v.).  He  was  acquitted 
in  this  connexion,  but  imprisoned  on  other 
grounds.  He  was  finally  arrested  in  Rome  in 
1789  as  a  heretic  (on  the  denunciation  of  his 
wife,  Serafina)  and  sentenced  to  death,  but 
the  punishment  was  commuted  to  perpetual 
imprisonment. 

Ca&ors,  in  the  S.  of  France,  a  famous  seat 
of  Italian  money-changers  and  financiers  in 
the  Middle  Ages ;  whence  the  name  CAORSIN 
for  a  money-dealer  from  Cahors.  The 
Caorsins  were  expelled  from  England  by 
Henry  III  in  1240,  readmitted  on  the  inter- 
vention of  the  pope  in  1250,  and  again  pro- 
scribed and  imprisoned  in  1251  'on  account 
of  their  unbounded  and  detestable  usury* 
[OED.].  Dante  couples  Cahors  with  Sodom 
in  'Inferno*  xi.  50. 

Cain:  A  Mystery,  a  tragedy  by  Lord  Byron 
(q.v.),  published  in  1821. 

Cain,  revolting  against  the  toil  imposed  upon 
him  as  the  consequence  of  another's  fault, 
and  puzzled  to  reconcile  what  he  sees  with 
what  he  has  been  taught  of  the  Omnipotent 
God,  becomes  a  pupil  of  Lucifer,  and  ques- 
tions him  as  to  the  problems  of  existence. 
Lucifer's  teaching  intensifies  the  revolt  of 
Cain  against  the  conditions  he  endures,  and  in 
a  fit  of  passion  at  Abel's  devotion  to  Jehovah, 
he  strikes  his  brother  and  kills  him.  Re- 
morse and  punishment  follow,  and  Cain  goes 
out  into  exile.  The  audacity  of  the  poem 
aroused  intense  indignation,  and  evoked  many 
attacks  on  the  author. 
Cain,  The  Wanderings  of,  see  Wanderings. 
Cain- coloured,  of  the  reputed  colour  of  the 
hair  of  Cain,  to  whom,  as  to  Judas  Iscariot,  a 
red  or  reddish-yellow  beard  was  attributed. 
He  hath  but  a  little  wee  face,  with  a  little 
yellow  beard,  a  Cain-coloured  beard. 

(Shakespeare,  'Merry  Wives',  I.  iv.  22.) 

CAINE,  SIR  THOMAS  HENRY  HALL 
(1853-1931),  of  Manx  and  Cumberland 
parentage,  was  befriended  by  D.  G.  Rossetti 
(q.v.),  whom  he  first  met  in  1880.  Caine  was 
Rossettfs  housemate  from  1881  tiU  the 
latter's  death.  He  was  author  of  a  number 
of  novels  of  wide  popularity,  many  of  them 
centred  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  including  'The 
Shadow  of  a  Crime*  (1885),  'The  Deemster* 
(1887),  'The  Bondman'  (1890),  'The  Scape- 
goaf  (1891),  'The  Manxman*  (1894),  'The 
Christian*  (1897),  'The  Eternal  City*  (1901), 
'The  Prodigal  Son'  (1904),  'The  White  Pro- 
phet* (1909),  'The  Woman  Thou  Gavest  Me* 
(1913).  Several  of  the  above  have  been 
dramatized.  'My  Story*,  a  narrative  of  the 
early  years  of  Caine's  literary  career,  ap- 
peared in  1908. 

Gairbar,  in  Macpherson*s  Ossianic  poems, 
a  lord  of  Connaught,  who  rebels  against 
King  Corrnac,  murders  him  and  usurps  the 
crown.  It  is  he  who  slays,  and  is  slain  by* 
Oscar,  son  of  Ossian, 


CAIRD 

CAIRD,  EDWARD  (1835-1908),  educated 
at  Greenock  Academy,  Glasgow  and  St. 
Andrews  Universities,  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  which  he  entered  in  1860.  An  older 
man  than  his  fellow-undergraduates  at 
Balliol,  he  found  his  most  intimate  associates 
among  graduates,  notably  T.  H.  Green  (q.v.). 
Jowett  was  his  tutor.  He  became  fellow  and 
tutor  of  Merton  College,  and  in  1866  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  at  Glasgow.  In 
1893  he  succeeded  Jowett  as  master  of 
Balfiol  College.  In  his  'Philosophy  of  Kant' 
(1868),  'The  Critical  Philosophy  of  Im- 
manuel  Kant*  (1889),  and  his  monograph  on 
Hegel  (1883),  he  produced  brilliant  ex- 
positions and  criticisms  of  the  systems  of 
these  two  philosophers.  In  1893  he  published 
his  Gifford  lectures  on  'The  Evolution  of 
Religion*. 

CAIRD,  JOHN  (1820-98),  principal  of  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  and  elder  brother  of 
Edward  Caird  (q.v.) ;  author  of  'An  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Philosophy  of  Religion'  (1880),  in 
which  he  discusses  the  evolution  of  religion, 
and  shows  ground  for  thinking  that  theorganic 
development  of  Christianity  is  not  inconsis- 
tent with  its  divine  or  supernatural  origin. 

Cains  (pron.  'Keys*)  College,  Cambridge 
(full  title,  Gonville  and  Caius  College),  was 
formerly  Gonville  Hall,  which  was  founded 
by  Edmund  Gonville  in  1348.  John  Caius 
or  Kay  (1510-73),  scholar  and  physician  to 
Edward  VI  and  Mary,  who  was  educated 
at  Gonville  Hall,  refounded  and  enlarged  it  as 
Caius  College  in  I557,andwasmaster,  1559-73. 

Caius,  DR.,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
cMerry  Wives  of  Windsor'  (q.v.). 

Calais  was  taken  by  Edward  III  in  1347, 
the  lives  of  the  principal  burgesses  being 
spared  at  Queen  Philippa's  intercession.  It 
was  recaptured  in  Mary's  reign  by  the  duke 
of  Guise  (1558),  to  the  deep  mortification  of 
the  queen.  During  her  last  illness  she  told 
a  lady-in-waiting,  'When  I  am  dead  and 
opened,  you  shall  find  Calais  lying  upon  my 
heart'  (Holinshed). 

Calandrino,  a  foolish  credulous  fellow,  to 
whom  many  ludicrous  misfortunes  happen 
in  the  Decameron  (q.v.)  of  Boccaccio  (e.g. 
viii.  3,  viii.  6,  ix.  3). 

Calantha,  the  heroine  of  Ford's  The 
Broken  Heart*  (q.v.). 

CALDER6N  DE  LA  BARCA,  PEDRO 

(1600-81),  a  great  Spanish  dramatist,  and  the 
successor  of  Lope  de  Vega  (q.v.).  Eight  of 
his  plays  were  translated  into  English  by 
Fitzgerald  (q.v.).  The  best  known  is  'La 
Vida  es  Sueno5.  Dryden,  Goethe,  Shelley, 
Bridges,  among  others,  were  under  obliga- 
tions to  him.  Besides  some  120  plays,  Cal- 
derdn  wrote  more  than  70  autos,  dramatic 
presentations  of  the  Mystery  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist,  in  which  his  genius  is  said  to  be 
seen  at  its  best  (Magnus,  'Diet,  of  European 
Literature'). 


CALENDAR 

CALDERON,  GEORGE  (1868-1915),  Eng- 
lish dramatist,  was  educated  at  Rugby  and 
Trinity  College,  Oxford.  His  plays  include: 
'The  Fountain'  (1909),  'The  Little  Stone 
House*  (1911),  'Revolt'  (1912),  and  a  tragedy 
in  blank  verse,  'Cromwell :  Mall  o'  Monks'  (in 
his  collected  plays,  1921-2). 

Caleb  Balderstone,  a  character  in  Scott's 
*The  Bride  of  Lammermoor'  (q.v.). 

Caleb  Williams,  Adventures  of,  a  novel  by 
W.  Godwin  (q.v.),  published  in  1794. 

This  work  is  interesting  as  an  early  example 
of  the  propagandist  novel  and  the  novel  of 
crime  and  its  detection.  It  was  designed  to 
show  'the  tyranny  and  perfidiousness  exer- 
cised by  the  powerful  members  of  the  com- 
munity against  those  who  are  less  privileged 
than  themselves*.  The  first  part  of  the  book 
deals  with  the  misdeeds  of  Tyrrel,  an  arro- 
gant and  tyrannical  country  squire,  who 
ruins  one  of  his  tenants,  Hawkins,  for  re- 
fusing to  yield  to  one  of  his  whims,  and 
drives  to  the  grave  his  niece,  Miss  Melville, 
for  refusing  to  marry  a  boor  of  his  selection. 
In  the  course  of  these  doings  he  comes  into 
conflict  with  Falkland,  a  neighbouring  squire 
of  high-minded  and  benevolent  disposition, 
knocks  him  down  in  public,  and  is  shortly 
after  found  murdered.  Suspicion  falls  on 
Falkland  as  the  murderer,  but  is  diverted  to 
Hawkins  and  his  son,  who  are  tried  and 
executed.  From  this  time  Falkland  becomes 
eccentric  and  solitary.  Caleb  Williams,  the 
self-educated  son  of  humble  parents,  is  ap- 
pointed his  secretary,  and  presently  becomes 
convinced  that  Falkland  is  in  fact  the  mur- 
derer of  Tyrrel.  The  remainder  of  the  book 
is  taken  up  with  the  unrelenting  persecution 
of  Williams  by  Falkland,  in  spite  of  Williams's 
devotion  to  his  employer,  and  his  refusal 
to  betray  the  latter's  secret.  By  Falkland's 
cunning  dispositions,  Williams  is  imprisoned 
on  a  charge  of  robbing  his  employer.  He 
escapes  from  prison,  but  is  tracked  from  con- 
cealment to  concealment  by  Falkland's 
agents,  until,  driven  to  desperation,  he  lays  a 
charge  of  murder  against  Falkland,  is  con- 
fronted with  him,  and  although  he  has  no 
proof  to  offer,  by  the  generosity  and  sincerity 
of  his  statement,  wins  from  the  murderer  a 
confession  of  his  own  guilt. 

Caledonia ,  the  Roman  name  for  the  northern 
part  of  Britain.  Hence  used  poetically  for 
Scotland. 

Calendar,  the  system  according  to  which  the 
beginning  and  length  of  the  year  are  fixed. 

The  JULIAN  CALENDAR  is  that  introduced 
by  Julius  Caesar  in  46  B.C.,  in  which  the 
ordinary  year  has  365  days,  and  every  fourth 
year  is  a  leap  year  of  366  days,  the  months 
having  the  names,  order,  and  length  still 
retained.  This  was  known  as  'Old  Style* 
when  the  Gregorian  Calendar  was  introduced. 

The  GREGORIAN  CALENDAR  is  the  modi- 
fication of  the  preceding,  adapted  to  bring  it 
into  closer  conformity  with  astronomical  data 


CALENDER 

and  the  natural  course  of  the  seasons,  and  to 
rectify  the  error  already  contracted  by  its  use. 
This  modification  was  introduced  by  Pope 
Gregory  XIII  in  1582,  and  adopted  in  Great 
Britain  in  1752.  It  was  known  as  'New  Style'. 
The  error,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Julian  year 
of  365!  days  (allowing  for  leap  years)  was 
ii  minutes  10  seconds  too  long,  amounted 
in  1752  to  1 1  days,  and  in  order  to  correct  this, 
2  Sept.  was  in  that  year  followed  by  14  Sept., 
while  for  the  future  the  years  2000,  2400, 
2800,  were  to  be  reckoned  as  leap  years,  but 
the  other  hundredth  years,  1800,  1900,  2100, 
&c.,  were  to  be  ordinary  years. 

The  FRENCH  REPUBLICAN  CALENDAR  made 
the  year  begin  at  the  autumnal  equinox,  and 
was  in  use  in  France  from  22  Sept.  1792,  date 
of  the  proclamation  of  the  Republic,  until 
i  Jan.  1806.  Its  twelve  months  of  thirty  days 
(supplemented  by  five  intercalary  days)  were 
Vendemiaire  (Sept.-Oct.),  Brumaire  (Oct.- 
Nov.),  Frimaire  (Nov.-Dec.),  Nivdse  (Dec.- 
Jan.),  Plumose  (Jan.-Feb.),  Ventdse  (Feb.- 
Mar.),  Germinal  (Mar.-Apr.),  Floreal  (Apr.- 
May),  Prairial  (May-June),  Messidor  (June- 
July),  Thermidor  (July-Aug.),  Fructidor 
(Aug.-Sept.).  The  names  were  invented  by 
Fabre  d'Eglantine  (1755-94),  tne  French 
poet,  and  the  chronological  arrangement  de- 
vised by  Gilbert  Romme  (1750-95). 

The  JEWISH  CALENDAR  combines  solar 
years  with  lunar  months,  an  additional  month 
being  intercalated  in  each  of  seven  years  in 
every  cycle  of  nineteen  years.  It  reckons 
from  the  creation  of  the  world  (3760  B.C.). 
The  new  year  begins  on  the  first  day  of  the 
month  Tishri.  Thus  A.D.  1932  =  A.M.  5692- 
3,  Tishri  i  of  A.M.  5693  falling  on  I  Oct.  1932. 

In  the  MOHAMMEDAN  CALENDAR  the  year 
consists  of  twelve  lunar  months  dating  from 
1 6  July  622,  the  day  of  the  Hegira  (q.v.). 

See  also  Calends,  Nones,  Ides,  and  Newgate 
Calendar. 

Calender  or  KALENDER,  one  of  a  mendicant 
order  of  dervishes  in  Turkey  and  Persia. 

Calends  or  KALENDS,  the  first  day  of  any 
month  in  the  ancient  Roman  calendar.  The 
Romans  reckoned  the  days  forward  to  the 
Calends,  Nones,  or  Ides  next  following.  Thus 
27  May  was  described  as  the  sixth  day  before 
the  Calends  of  June. 
See  also  Greek  Calends. 

Calenius,  WALTER  (d.  1151),  a  name  used 
by  John  Bale  (q.v.)  for  an  undefined  writer 
who  was  archdeacon  of  Oxford,  1115-38. 
This  Walter,  according  to  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth  (q.v.),  brought  from  Brittany  the 
Celtic  chronicle  which  Geoffrey  professed  to 
translate.  'Galena'  being,  in  the  bastard 
Latin  of  the  i6th  cent.,  used  for  Oxford,  Bale 
by  'Calenius*  meant  only  Walter  of  Oxford. 
He  is  sometimes  confused  with  later  arch- 
deacons of  Oxford,  Walter  of  Coutances 
(1183)  and  Walter  Map  (q.v.). 

CALEPINO,   AMBROSIO  (d.   1511),   an 

Italian  Augustinian  monk,  author  of  a  Latin 

3868 


CALIPHATE 

dictionary,  whence  the  French  word  calepin 
(note-book).  'Calepin'  occurs  in  English 
literature  in  the  sense  of  'book  of  reference'. 

Gales,  KNIGHT  OF:  'Cales  [Cadiz]  knights 
were  made  in  that  voyage  [1596]  by  Robert, 
earl  of  Essex,  to  the  number  of  sixty; 
whereof  (though  many  of  great  worth)  some 
were  of  low  fortunes:  and  therefore  Queen 
Elizabeth  was  half  offended  with  the  Earl 
for  making  knighthood  so  common*  (Ray, 
quoted  by  W.  C.  Hazlitt). 

Caliban,  in  Shakespeare's  'Tempest*  (q.v.), 
the  misshapen  evil-natured  monster,  son  of 
the  witch  Sycorax;  'an  attempt  to  reduce  to 
one  common  denominator  the  aboriginal  type 
whom  the  dramatist  had  seen  [brought  to 
England  from  America  by  travellers  and 
exhibited]  or  of  whom  he  had  heard  or  read  * 
(Sir  S.  Lee). 

Caliban  upon  Setebos,  a  poem  by  R.  Browning 
(q.v.),  included  in  'Dramatis  Personae'  (q.v.). 
Caliban  (q.v.),  lying  in  the  mud  in  a  cave, 
while  Prospero  and  Miranda  believe  him  at 
work,  thinks  out,  from  a  savage's  point  of 
view,  the  problem  of  the  creation  of  the 
world  by  his  god  Setebos  (q.v.).  He  speaks 
in  the  third  person.  Setebos,  dwelling  'in  the 
cold  of  the  Moon*,  himself  subordinate  to 
a  higher  deity 'The  Quiet',  has  made  the  world 
as  a  plaything  to  amuse  himself,  just  as  Caliban 
himself  would  make  a  clay  bird,  and  throw  it 
in  the  air  and  laugh  if  its  leg  were  broken. 
Setebos  is  like  Caliban  in  other  respects  also, 
neither  kind  nor  cruel,  good  in  the  main,  but 
jealous.  In  the  fancied  security  of  his  cave 
Caliban  expresses  a  hope  that  Setebos  may 
some  day  come  to  an  end.  But  a  thunder- 
storm brings  him  promptly  to  order:  'Lol 
'Lieth  flat  and  loveth  Setebos  !* 

Caliburn,  see  ExcaKbur, 

Calidore,  SIR,  the  Knight  of  Courtesy,  the 
hero  of  Bk.  VI  of  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene'. 
He  pursues  and  chains  the  'Blatant  Beast* 
(q.v.). 

Caligula,  CAIUS  CAESAR,  son  of  Germani- 
cus,  so  called  from  his  wearing,  when  a 
boy,  caligae  or  soldiers'  boots,  was  Roman 
emperor  A.D.  37-41.  The  cruelties  and  vices 
that  marked  his  reign  were  perhaps  due 
to  his  madness.  He  considered  himself  a  god 
and  erected  a  temple  in  his  own  honour. 
He  raised  his  horse  ('Incitatus')  to  the  con- 
sulship, and  committed  other  outrageous 
eccentricities.  He  was  finally  murdered. 
Horace  Walpole,  in  his  letters  to  Mann,  ii. 
103,  refers  to  the  'Caligulisms'  of  Frederick, 
Prince  of  Wales. 

Caliphate,  the  rule  of  the  Caliphs  ('vice 
regents')  who  succeeded  Mohammed  (q.v.). 
The  first  four  were  Abu  Bekr,  Omar, 
Othman,  and  AH.  These  were  followed  by 
the  Umayyad  and  the  Abbasid  caliphs. 
The  Abbasid  dynasty  came  to  an  end  with 
Mu'tasim,  the  last  caHph  of  Bagdad,  in  1258. 
The  title  of  caliph  was  subsequently  assumed 


CALIPOLIS 

by  the  Ottoman  sultans.  The  caliphate 
practically  ceased  to  exist  after  the  abolition 
of  the  sultanate  in  1922.  There  were  also 
Fatimite  caliphs  in  Egypt  (see  Fatima)  in  the 
ioth-i2th  cents.  Various  other  Moslem 
dynasties  have  from  time  to  time  assumed  the 
dignity  of  the  Caliphate.  The  chief  of  these 
is  perhaps  that  of  the  sultans  of  Morocco, 
who,  under  the  title  of  Grand  Sherifs,  are 
still  revered  as  caliphs  by  their  subjects. 

Galipolls,  in  Peele's  'Battle  of  Alcazar9 
(q.v.),  the  wife  of  Muley  Muhamet,  the 
Moorish  Icing,  frequently  quoted  as  typical  of 
a  sweetheart  (e.g.  Shakespeare,  '2  Henry  IV, 
II.  iv).  Sir  W.  Scott  writes  the  name, 
'Callipolis'. 

Galista,  the  heroine  of  Rowe's  cThe  Fair 
Penitent'  (q.v.),  in  which  the  'gay  Lothario' 
figures  as  her  lover. 

Calisto,  see  Callisto. 

Some  beauty  rare,  Calisto,  Clymene. 

(Milton,  'Paradise  Regained',  ii.  186.) 
Calisto  and  Melifoea,  see  Celestina. 

Call  of  the  Wild,  The,  the  story  of  the 
dog  Buck  by  Jack  London  (q.v.),  published 
1903. 

CALLIMACHUS,  a  celebrated  poet  of 
Alexandria,  who  was  chief  librarian  of  the 
library  of  that  city  about  260—240  B.C.  Some 
of  his  poems  survive  and  justify  Ovid's 
comment,  'quamvis  ingenio  non  valet,  arte 
valet*.  His  epitaph  on  Heracleitus  has  been 
translated  in  a  well-known  poem  by  W.  J. 
Cory  (q.v.).  He  also  wrote  a  poem  on  the 
'Lock  of  Berenice*  (q.v.),  which  Catullus 
"translated. 

CalliSpe,  the  muse  (q.v.)  of  epic  poetry. 
CaUipolis,  see  Calipolis. 

Callirrhoe,  the  wife  of  Alcmaeon  (q.v.). 
Callirrhoe  is  also  the  name  of  the  heroine  of 
the  romance  'Chaereas  and  Callirrhoe'  (q.v.). 

Callista,  a  religious  novel  by  J.  H.  Newman 
(q-v-)»  published  in  1856. 

Callistnenes,  a  philosopher  of  Olynthus,  and 
pupil  of  Aristotle,  who  accompanied  Alexan- 
der the  Great  on  his  expedition.  He  became 
obnoxious  to  the  monarch,  was  accused  of 
being  privy  to  a  plot  against  him,  and  was 
put  to  death,  or,  according  to  legend,  sub- 
jected to  various  tortures  and  finally  given 
poison. 

Callisto,  a  nymph,  the  daughter  of  Lycaon 
(q.v.),  the  companion  of  Artemis  and  a 
huntress,  was  beloved  by  Zeus  and  became 
the  mother  of  Areas  (the  eponymous  hero  of 
Arcadia).  She  was  metamorphosed  into  a 
she-bear  by  the  design  of  the  jealous  Hera, 
and  was  slain  by  Artemis  in  the  chase;  or 
according  to  another  legend,  was  on  the 
point  of  being  slain  by  her  son  in  the  chase, 
when  both  were  turned  into  stars,  Callisto 
into  the  Great  Bear. 


CALYPSO 

Calpe,  the  modern  Gibraltar,  one  of  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules.  The  'Calpe  foxhounds' 
is  a  celebrated  pack,  hunting  the  country 
inland  from  La  Linea. 

CALPREN&DE,  GAUTIER  DE  COSTES 
DE  LA,  see  La  Calprenede. 

Calvary  (from  Latin  cafoaria,  skull,  used  to 
translate  the  Aramaic  gulgaltd,  Heb.  gulgo- 
leth,  which  in  Gk.  N.T.  becomes  'Golgotha'), 
the  name  of  the  mount  of  the  Crucifixion,  near 
Jerusalem.  Hence  'a  Calvary'  is  a  life-size 
representation  of  the  Crucifixion,  in  the  open 
air,  or  a  series  of  representations,  in  a  church 
or  chapel,  of  the  scenes  of  the  Passion. 

CALVERLEY,  CHARLES  STUART 
(1831-84),  educated  at  Harrow  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  whence  he  migrated  to 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  became  a 
barrister  of  the  Inner  Temple,  but  suffered 
grievously  in  health  from  an  accident  in  1867, 
which  impaired  his  power  of  work.  He  pub- 
lished 'Verses  and  Translations*  in  1862  and 
'Fly  Leaves'  in  1866,  becoming  famous  under 
the  initials  CC.S.C.*  for  his  parodies  (of 
Browning,  Macaulay,  Tupper,  among  others) 
and  for  the  wit  and  scholarship  of  his  verse. 

Calves'  Head  Club,  an  association  formed 
at  the  end  of  the  I7th  cent,  to  ridicule 
Charles  I,  calves'  heads  being  used  to  repre- 
sent the  monarch  and  his  courtiers  on  the 
anniversary  of  his  execution.  The  club  was 
suppressed  in  1735. 

CALVIN,  JOHANNES  (1509-64),  Jean 
Chauvin  or  Cauvin,  the  great  French  theo- 
logical writer  and  reformer,  was  born  at 
Noyon  in  Picardy.  He  settled  at  Geneva  in 
1536,  where  he  became  dictator  of  a  kind  of 
theocracy,  and  caused  Servetus  (q.v.)  to  be 
burnt  in  1553.  His  great  work  was  the 
'Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion',  written 
first  in  Latin  (Basel,  1535)  and  afterwards  in 
French,  in  which  he  expounded  his  doctrine 
of  original  sin,  of  predestination  and  election, 
and  his  anti-Roman  views,  and  showed  him- 
self a  master  of  prose.  He  was  the  spiritual 
father  of  John  Rnox  and  the  originator  of  the 
dogma  of  Scottish  Presbyterianism.  Wher- 
ever Protestantism  has  had  to  fight  for  its  life, 
it  has  sought  strength  in  the  discipline  of 
Calvinism. 

The  'Calvinistic  Methodists'  are  the  sec- 
tion of  the  Methodists  who  follow  the 
calvinistic  opinions  of  Whitefield  (q.v.)  as 
opposed  to  the  Arminian  (q.v.)  opinions  of 
J.  Wesley  (q.v.). 

Calydon,  an  ancient  town  and  district  of 
Aetolia.  See  Meleager. 

Calypso,  one  of  the  daughters  of  Oceanus,  a 

nymph  who  reigned  in  the  island  of  Ogygia. 
When  Ulysses  (q.v.)  was  shipwrecked  on  her 
coasts,  she  received  him  hospitably  and 
offered  him  immortality  if  he  would  remain 
with  her.  The  hero  refused,  and  after  seven 
years'  delay  was  allowed  to  depart. 


[130] 


CAM  AND  ISIS 

Cam  and  Isis,  the  rivers  on  which  Cam- 
bridge and  Oxford  stand,  sometimes  used 
to  signify  these  universities.  But  there  is  no 
real  river  Isis:  the  Romans  called  the  river 
Thamesis  from  source  to  sea.  The  corruption, 
as  old  as  Leland's  time,  arose  from  the 
'Thame  stream'  coming  in  at  Dorchester. 
Hence  'Thame'  and  'Isis*  are  bred  out  of  the 
real  name  Thamesis. 

Cama,  see  Kama. 

Camacho,  in  'Don  Quixote'  (q.v.,  n.  xx,  xxi), 
a  rich  farmer  of  La  Mancha,  who  prepares  a 
splendid  feast  in  anticipation  of  his  wedding 
with  Quiteria;  of  whom,  however,  he  is  de- 
prived, by  means  of  a  stratagem,  by  his  rival 
Basilius. 

Camalodimum,  the  Roman  name  of 
Colchester. 

Camaralzaraan  ('Moon  of  the  Age'),  in  the 
'Arabian  Nights'  (q.v.),  the  prince  who  marries 
Badoura,  daughter  of  the  king  of  China.  They 
were  brought  together  secretly  one  night  by 
the  intervention  of  the  jinn,  fell  in  love  with 
one  another  and  exchanged  rings.  Then  the 
jinn  separated  them,  and  they  were  lost  to 
one  another,  but  were  ultimately  reunited. 

Carnarina,  a  town  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Sicily,  a  colony  of  Syracuse.  In  its  neighbour- 
hood was  a  marsh  which  the  inhabitants 
drained,  in  defiance  of  the  advice  of  an  oracle, 
thus  opening  a  way  for  their  enemies  to 
attack  them.  In  the  ist  Punic  War,  Ca- 
marina  was  captured  by  the  Romans  and  the 
inhabitants  sold  into  slavery.  Whence  the 
proverb :  IATJ  KIVCI  /ca^apivav,  ne  moveas  Cama- 
rinam  (Don't  disturb  Carnarina),  quoted  by 
Dominie  Sampson  in  Scott's  'Guy  Man- 
nering',  c.  viii. 

Cambal,  CAMBALLO,  one  of  the  two  sons 
of  King  Cambuscan,  in  Chaucer's  'Squire's 
Tale'  (see  Canterbury  Tales ;  see  also  Cambell 
for  the  continuation  of  his  story  in  Spenser's 
cFaerie  Queene'). 

Gambell  or  CAMBELLO,  the  name  given  by 
Spenser  in  the  'Faerie  Queene',  iv.  iii,  to 
Cambal  (q.v.),  whose  tale  he  borrows  from 
'Dan  Chaucer,  well  of  English  undefyled*, 
and  completes.  Cambell  is  brother  of  Canace, 
for  whom  there  are  many  suitors.  It  is 
arranged  that  the  strongest  of  these,  three 
brothers,  shall  fight  with  Cambell,  and  the 
lady  be  awarded  to  the  victor.  Two  of  the 
brothers  are  defeated;  the  contest  between 
the  third,  Triamond,  and  Cambell  is  un- 
decided, each  wounding  the  other.  They  are 
reconciled  by  Cambina,  Triamond 's  sister; 
Canace  is  awarded  to  Triamond  and  Cambel 
marries  ^Cambina.  The  magic  ring  of  Canace 
in  the  'Squire's  Tale'  reappears  in  the  'Faerie 
Queene',  with  the  power  of  healing  wounds. 

Camber,  according  to  legend,  one  of  the 
sons  of  Brute  (q.v.),  the  legendary  first  king 
of  Britain.  Camber  is  supposed  to  have  given 
his  name  to  Cambria  (Wales),  but  this  is  in 


CAMDEN 

fact  a  latinized  derivative  of  Cymry  (Welsh- 
men). 

Cambrai,  THE  ARCHBISHOP  OF,  Fenelon 
(q.v.). 

CAMBRENSIS,  GIRALDUS,  see  Giral- 
dus  de  Barri. 

Cambria,  see  Camber. 

Cambridge,  in  Old  English  Granta  Bricge, 
was  according  to  legend  made  the  seat  of 
a  school  by  Sigebert,  king  of  the  East  Angles, 
about  630.  The  first  historical  trace  of  Cam- 
bridge as  a  university  (studium  generate}  is  in 
1209,  its  first  recognition  in  a  royal  writ  to  the 
chancellor  of  Cambridge  in  1230,  the  first 
papal  recognition  in  1233.  The  process  of 
development  of  the  prerogatives  of  the  Uni- 
versity was  slow,  the  chancellor's  jurisdiction 
reaching  its  full  extension  in  1383.  (See 
H.  Rashdall,  'Universities  of  Europe'.) 

Cambridge  (Mass.,  U.S. A.),  near  Boston,  is 
the  seat  of  Harvard  University. 
Cambridge  Platonists,  see  Platonists. 

Cambridge    University    Press.     Books 

were  first  printed  at  Cambridge  in  1521-2  by 
John  Siberch  (John  Lair  of  Siegburg),  a  friend 
of  Erasmus.  A  charter  was  granted  to  the 
University  by  Henry  VIII  in  1 534  authorizing 
the  printing  of  books  there,  but  not  until  1583 
was  the  first  university  Printer,  Thomas 
Thomas,  appointed.  The  undertaking  was 
opposed  by  the  Stationers'  Company  as  an 
infringement  of  their  privilege,  but  the 
University  finally  vindicated  its  rights.  The 
activity  of  the  Press  was  developed  under  the 
influence  of  R.  Bentley  (1662-1742,  q.v.), 
and  many  notable  books  were  produced  by  it 
in  the  i8th  cent.  Among  these  were  four 
Prayer-books  and  a  Bible  printed  by  Basker- 
ville  (q.v.).  The  Pitt  Press  Building  was 
erected  early  in  the  iQth  cent,  out  of  the 
surplus  contributions  for  the  statue  to  Pitt 
in  Hanover  Square. 

Cambuscan,  in  Chaucer's  'Squire's  Tale* 
(see  Canterbury  Tales},  a  king  of  Tartary. 
Cambyses,  KING,  subject  of  a  tragedy  (1569) 
by  Thomas  Preston  (q.v.),  which  illustrates 
the  transition  from  the  morality  play  to  the 
historical  drama.  It  is  founded  on  the  story 
of  Cambyses  in  Herodotus;  its  bombastic 
grandiloquence  became  proverbial,  and  is  re- 
ferred to  in  1 1  Henry  IV,  n.  iv:  'I  must  speak 
in  passion,  and  I  will  do  it  in  King  Cambyses* 
vein*.  Among  the  characters  are  three  comic 
villains,  Ruff,  Huff,  and  Snuff,  who  figure 
again  in  the  'Martin  Marprelate  Controversy* 
(q.v.)  in  the  course  of  Lyly's  'Pappe  with  an 
Hatchet*. 

CAMDEN,  WILLIAM  (1551-1623),  anti- 
quary and  historian,  was  educated  at  Christ's 
Hospital,  St.  Paul's  School,  and  Magdalen 
College  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was 
appointed  head  master  of  Westminster  School 
in  1 593 .  He  made  tours  of  antiquarian  investi- 
gation up  and  down  England,  and  published 


CAMDEN  SOCIETY 
his  'Britannia*  (q.v.)  in  1586,  of  which  the 
sixth  (greatly  enlarged)  edition  appeared  in 
1607.  He  published  in  1615  'Annales  . 
regnante  Elizabetha  ...  ad  annum  1589. 
largely  a  panegyric  of  Queen  Elizabeth; 
the  second  part  was  printed  posthumously 
in  1627.  He  founded  a  chair  of  history  in 
Oxford  University.  He  wrote  principally  in 
Latin,  but  his  'Britannia*  was  translated  into 
English  by  Philemon  Holland  (q.v.)  in  1610, 
and  his  'Annales'  in  1625,  1628,  and  1635  by 
other  hands. 

Camden  Society,  founded  in  1838  in 
honour  of  W.  Camden  (q.v.),  for  the  purpose 
of  publishing  documents  relating  to  the  early 
history  and  literature  of  the  British  Empire. 
The  CAMBRIDGE  CAMDEN  SOCIETY  was 
founded  by  Neale  (q.v.)  in  1839  for  the  study 
of  ecclesiology.  Its  name  was  afterwards 
changed  to  £The  Ecclesiological  Society'. 

CameHard,  in  Malory's  cMorte  d 'Arthur*, 
the  realm  of  King  Leodogrance,  father  of 
Guinevere. 

Camelot,  in  the  Arthurian  legend,  the  place 
where  King  Arthur  held  his  court,  is  stated 
by  Malory  to  be  Winchester.  But  there  was 
a  Camelot  in  Somersetshire,  which  still  sur- 
vives in  Queen's  Camel,  and  Leland  found 
traditions  of  Arthur  there.  Drayton,  in  the 
Tolyolbion'  (3rd  Song,  1.  395),  refers  as 
follows  to  the  river  Ivel  in  Somersetshire : 

The  nearest  neighbouring  place  to  Arthur's 
ancient  seat, 

Which  made  the  Britons'  name  through  all 
the  world  so  great. 

Like  Camelot  what  place  was  ever  yet 
renowned? 

On  which  Selden  (in  his  'Illustrations*  to 
the  Tolyolbion3)  observes:  *By  South  Cad- 
bury  is  that  Camelot,  a  hill  of  a  mile  compass 
at  the  top,  four  trenches  circling  it,  and  twixt 
every  of  them  an  earthen  wall.*  There  is 
something  of  the  sort  there. 

Cameronians,  the  followers  of  Richard 
Cameron  (d.  1680),  a  noted  Scottish  Cove- 
nanter and  field  preacher,  who  rejected^  the 
indulgence  granted  to  nonconforming  minis- 
ters and  formaEy  renounced  allegiance  to 
Charles  II.  His  followers  afterwards  con- 
stituted the  body  called  the  'Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland'.  The 
Cameronians  figure  prominently  in  Scott's 
'Old  Mortality'  (q.v.). 

The  CAMERONIAN  REGIMENT  (the  old  26th 
Regiment  of  Foot,  now  the  ist  battalion  of 
the  Scottish  Rifles),  was  formed  originally 
from  the  Cameronians  and  other  Presby- 
terians who  rallied  to  the  cause  of  William  III 
and  fought  at  the  battle  -of  Killiecrankie. 

Camilla,  queen  of  the  Volsci,  was  dedicated 
when  young  to  the  service  of  Diana.  She  was 
so  fleet  of  foot  that  she  could  run  over  a 
field  of  corn  without  bending  the  blades, 
and  over  the  sea  without  wetting  her  feet 
(Virg.  *Aen.*  vii.  808  et  seq.).  She  marched 


CAMPAIGN 

to  assist  Turnus  against  Aeneas  and  died  of  a 
wound  she  received  from  Aruns. 
Camilla,  or  a  Picture  of  Youth,  a  novel  by 
F.  Burney  (q.v.),  published  in  1796.  _ 

The  story  deals  with  the  matrimonial  con- 
cerns of  a  group  of  young  people,  Camilla 
Tyrold  and  her  sisters,  the  daughters  of  a 
country  parson,  and  her  cousin  Indiana 
Lynmere;  and  centres  round  the  love-affair 
of  Camilla  herself  and  her  eligible  suitor, 
Edgar  Mandlebert.  Its  happy  consummation 
is  delayed  over  five  volumes  by^  intrigues, 
contretemps,  and  misunderstandings.  The 
book,  especially  in  its  earlier  chapters,  con- 
tains some  of  the  comic  situations  and 
absurd  characters  in  which  Miss  Burney 
excelled.  Among  the  latter  are  Sir  Hugh 
Tyrold,  Camilla's  good-natured  but  un- 
practical uncle;  the  grotesque  tutor,  Dr.  Ork- 
borne,  so  wrapt  up  in  his  own  studies  that 
he  can  give  no  attention  to  the  duties  for 
which  he  is  engaged;  and  the  fop  Sir  Sedley 
Clarendel.  But  the  drollery  soon  gives  place 
to  overstrained  romance. 

Camillo,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Win- 
ter's Tale'  (q.v.). 

Camiola,  the  heroine  of  Massinger's  'The 
Maid  of  Honour'  (q.v.). 

Camisard  (from  camisa,  a  shirt),  a  name 
given  to  the  Calvinist  insurgents  of  the 
Cevennes  during  the  persecution  (the  *dra- 
gonnades')  which  followed  the  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes  by  Louis  XIV  in  1685. 

Camlan,  according  to  the  *Annales  Cam- 
briae*  (q.v.)  the  scene  of  a  battle  in  539  'where 
Arthur  and  Medraut  fell*,  is  perhaps 
Slaughter  or  Bloody  Bridge  on  the  Camel 
near  Camelford  in  Cornwall,  or  a  site  on  the 
Cam  near  Cadbury.  Malory  places  the  last 
battle  on  a  down  beside  Salisbury  and  not 
far  from  the  sea. 

CAMOENS,  LUIS  DE  (1524-80),  a  Portu- 
guese poet,  who  lost  an  eye  in  service  against 
the  Moors  and  suffered  other  misfortunes, 
including  a  shipwreck  off  the  coast  of 
Cochin  China,  in  which  he  is  said  to  have  lost 
all  his  property,  swimming  to  shore  with  one 
hand  while  he  held  his  poems  in  the  other. 
He  died  miserably  in  Lisbon.  He  was  the 
author  of  cOs  Lusiadas',  the  'Lusiads*,  an 
epic  poem  on  the  descendants  of  Lusus,  the 
legendary  hero  of  his  country,  and  more  par- 
ticularly on  the  exploits  of  Vasco  da  Gama 
(q.v.),  the  great  Portuguese  navigator.  This 
was  published  in  1572.  There  is  a  close 
translation  in  English  by  Aubertln,  and  Sir 
Richard  Burton  also  wrote  a  version. 

Gamorra,  a  secret  society  of  lawless  mal- 
contents in  Naples  and  other  Neapolitan  cities, 
which  existed  during  the  I9th  cent. 

Campagna ,  THE  ROMAN,  the  plain  surround- 
ing Rome,  extending  from  the  sea  on  the  W. 
to  the  Sabine  hills. 

Campaign,  THE,  see  Addison. 


CAMPAIGNER 

Campaigner,  THE,  see  Newcomes. 

Campaspe,  Alexander  and,  a  prose  comedy 
by  Lyly  (q-v.),  published  in  1584.  Alexander 
the  Great,  enamoured  of  his  Theban  captive 
Campaspe,  gives  her  freedom  and  engages 
Apelles  to  paint  her  portrait.  Apelles  and 
Campaspe  fall  in  love  with  each  other,  and 
when  the  portrait  is  finished,  Apelles  spoils  it, 
so  as  to  have  occasion  for  further  sittings. 
Alexander  suspects  the  truth  and  by  a  trick 
makes  him  reveal  it.  He  surrenders  Cam- 
paspe to  Apelles  and  returns  to  his  wars, 
saying  'It  were  a  shame  Alexander  should 
desire  to  command  the  world,  if  he  cannot 
command  himself.  The  play  includes  the 
charming  lyric,  ( Cupid  and  my  Campaspe 
playd,  At  cards  for  kisses  .  .  /  The  story  of 
Alexander,  Campaspe,  and  Apelles  is  told  in 
Pliny's  'Natural  History',  xxxv.  36. 

Campbell,  the  family  name  of  the  earls  of 
Argyle  (q.v.),  celebrated  in  the  song  'The 
Campbells  are  coming*.  The  chief  of  the 
house  is  styled  in  Gaelic  Mac  Calain  More, 
after  its  ancestor,  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  sur- 
named  More  or  Great,  for  his  achievements 
in  war. 

CAMPBELL,  THOMAS  (1777-1844),  son 
of  a  Glasgow  merchant,  was  educated  at 
Glasgow  University.  He  published  'The 
Pleasures  of  Hope*  (q.v.)  in  1799,  'Gertrude 
of  Wyoming*  (q.v.)  in  1809,  'Theodric'  and 
other  poems  in  1824,  and  'The  Pilgrim  of 
Glencoe'  and  other  poems  in  1842.  He  is 
principally  remembered  for  his  splendid 
war-songs,  'Hohenlinden',  'The  Battle  of 
the  Baltic*,  and  'Ye  Mariners  of  England*; 
for  'The  Soldier's  Dream',  'Lord  UUin's 
Daughter*,  'Lochiel's  Warning*,  and  'Lines 
on  Revisiting  a  Scene  in  Argyllshire* ;  and  also 
for  some  single  lines  that  have  become  pro- 
verbial, such  as  'Like  angel-visits,  few  and  far 
between*  ('Pleasures  of  Hope*,  Pt.  II),  taken 
from  Blair's  'Like  angels*  visits,  short  and  far 
between*. 

Campeador,  EL,  a  surname  of  the  Cid 
(q.v.),  meaning  'the  Champion*. 

Camperdown,  a  village  on  the  coast  of  the 
Netherlands,  off  which  in  1797  the  British 
fleet  under  Duncan  defeated  the  Dutch  under 
De  Winter,  thereby  preventing  a  projected 
invasion  of  Ireland. 

Campion,  EDMUND  (1540-81),  fellow  of  St. 
John's  College,  Oxford  (1557),  went  toDouai 
in  1571  and  graduated  there,  and  joined  the 
Jesuits  in  1573.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1580,  preached  privately  in  London,  was 
arrested  in  1581,  sent  to  the  Tower,  examined 
under  torture,  and  executed. 

CAMPION,  THOMAS  (d.  1619),  men- 
tioned as  a  'doctor  in  phisicke',  published  in 
1595  a  volume  of  Latin  Toemata',  and  in 
1602  'Observations  in  the  Art  of  English 
Poesie*  directed  'against  the  vulgar  and  un- 
artificial  custom  of  riming*.  He  wrote 
masques  for  presentation  at  court,  a  treatise 


CANDLEMAS 

on^  music,  a  volume  of  songs  on  the  death  of 
Prince  Henry,  and  four  'Books  of  Ayres* 
(1610—12),  containing  pleasant  lyrics  (some 
set  to  music  by  Campion  himself),  including 
the  beautiful  'There  is  a  garden  in  her  face'. 

Campo- Basso,  COUNT  OF,  an  Italian  cap- 
tain in  the  army  of  Charles  the  Bold  of 
Burgundy,  who  figures  in  Scott's  'Quentin 
Durward*  and  'Anne  of  Geierstein'  (qq.v.). 

Canace  (pron.  Can'ase),  the  daughter  of  King 
Cambuscan  (q.v.),  in  Chaucer's  'Squire's 
Tale*  (see  Canterbury  Tales),  and  in  Spenser's 
'Faerie  Queene'  (Bk.  IV). 

Ganaletto  or  Canale,  ANTONIO  (1697-1768), 
a  Venetian  painter,  who  painted  many 
architectural  pictures  of  his  own  city.  He 
visited  England  in  1746—7  and  painted  views 
of  Whitehall  and  the  Thames. 

Canary,  a  light  sweet  wine  from  the  Canary- 
Islands. 

Canby ,  HENRY  SEIDEL  (i  878-  ),  American 
journalist,  born  in  Delaware,  editor  of  the 
'Saturday  Review  of  Literature*,  New  York — 
the  leading  paper  in  America  devoted  to 
literature. 

Cancel,  in  printing,  a  new  page  or  sheet 
substituted  for  one  cancelled  or  suppressed. 

Cancer,  (a)  the  zodiacal  constellation  of  the 
Crab,  lying  between  Gemini  and  Leo;  (b) 
the  fourth  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  which 
the  sun  enters  on  2 1  June.  The  sign  originally 
coincided  with  the  constellation. 

Candace,  (i)  a  legendary  queen  of  Tarsus 
who,  in  an  episode  of  the  legends  attaching  to 
Alexander  the  Great  (q.v.),  lures  the  con- 
queror by  her  fascination  to  a  life  of  sloth. 
(2)  The  queen  of  the  Ethiopians,  whose 
treasurer  was  converted  and  baptized  by 
Philip  (Acts  viii.  27-39).  Her  name  seems  to 
have  been  common  to  queens  of  Ethiopia 
(Smith's  'Classical  Diet.').  Another  of  this 
name  invaded  Egypt  in  22  B.C. 

Candaules,  a  legendary  king  of  Lydia.  See 
Gyges. 

Candida,  one  of  the  'pleasant'  plays  in  G.  B. 
Shaw's  Tlays,  Pleasant  and  Unpleasant' 
(q.v.). 

It  deals  with  the  conflict  between  'a  higher, 
but  vaguer  timider  vision  ...  an  incoherent 
mischievous  even  ridiculous  unpracticalness*, 
represented  by  the  poet  Eugene  Marchbanks, 
and  'the  clear  bold  sure  sensible  benevolent 
salutarily  shortsighted  Christian  Socialist 
ideal',  represented  by  the  Hackney  parson 
MoreE.  Candida  is  Morell's  wife. 
Candide,  a  romance  by  Voltaire  (q.v.), 
satirizing  optimistic  philosophies. 
Candlemas,  2  Feb.,  the  feast  of  the  Purifica- 
tion of  the  Virgin  Mary,  celebrated  with  a 
great  display  of  candles.  Brand  ('Popular 
Antiquities')  quotes  Becon  ('Reliques  of 
Rome')  as  tracing  this  ceremony  of  candle- 
bearing  to  an  ancient  Roman  custom  of 


CANDOR 

carrying  torches  in  honour  of  Juno  Februata. 
Candlemas  Day  is  one  of  the  quarter-days  ia 
Scotland. 

Candor,  see  Public  Advertiser. 
Candour,  MRS.,  one  of  the  scandal-mongers 
in   Sheridan's   'School   for   Scandal'  (q.v.), 
rendered  peculiarly  odious  by  her  assump- 
tion of  a  love  of  truth. 

Canephoras,  in  ancient  Greece,  one  of  the 
'maidens  who  carried  on  their  heads  baskets 
containing  the  sacred  things  used  at  the  feasts 
of  Demeter,  Bacchus,  and  Athena'  (Liddell 
and  Scott) ;  hence  applied  to  figures  of  young 
persons  carrying  baskets  on  their  heads. 
Ganfield,  DOROTHY,  see  Dorothy  Canfield 
Fisher. 

Canicular  Days ,  the  days  immediately  pre- 
ceding and  following  the  heliacal  rising  of  the 
dog-star  (either  Sirius  or  Procyon),  about 
ii  Aug.;  the  dog-days. 
Canicular  Year,  the  ancient  Egyptian  year, 
which  was  reckoned  from  one  heliacal  rising 
of  Sirius  to  the  next. 
Canicular  period,  see  Sothic  Cycle. 

Ganidia,  a  Neapolitan  courtesan  whom 
Horace  once  loved,  and  whom,  after  her 
desertion  of  him,  he  holds  up  to  contempt  as 
a  sorceress.  (Horace,  Epodes  v  and  xvii,  also 
Satires,  I.  viii.) 

Cannae  T  the  site,  in  Apulia,  of  the  memorable 
defeat  of  the  Romans  by  Hannibal  in  216  B.C. 

CANNING,  GEORGE  (1770-1827),  states- 
man and  author,  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was  appointed 
foreign  secretary  in  1822  and  premier  in  1827. 
Apart  from  his  political  speeches  (published  in 
1828),  he  is  remembered  in  a  literary  con- 
nexion as  founder  of  and  contributor  to  'The 
Anti-Jacobin*  (q.v.) ;  his  Toems'  were  pub- 
lished in  1823. 

Canon's  Yeoman's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury 
Tales. 

Canongate,  Chronicles  of  the,  see  Chronicles 
of  the  Canongate* 

Canonical  Hours,  stated  times  of  the  day 
appointed  by  the  canon  of  the  Catholic 
Church  for  prayer  and  devotion ;  the  Canoni- 
cal Hours  have  been  fixed  since  the  6th 
cent,  as  follows :  Lauds,  Prime,  Terce,  Sext, 
None,  Vespers,  Compline  (Mass  is  celebrated 
normally  between  Terce  and  Sext).  Also  the 
hours  (now  from  8  a.m.  to  3  p.m.)  within 
which  marriage  can  legally  be  performed  in  a 
parish  church  in  England. 

Ganopic  Vase  (from  Ganopus>  a  town  of 
ancient  Egypt),  a  vase  used  in  Egypt,  chiefly 
for  holding  the  entrails  of  embalmed  bodies. 
Its  distinctive  feature  was  that  its  lid  was  in 
the  form  of  a  human  head.  The  town  CANO 
PUS  was  supposed  to  derive  its  name  from 
Canopus,  the  helmsman  of  Menelaus,  who 
died  in  Egypt  on  the  return  from  Troy. 


CANTERBURY  TALES 

CANOPUS  is  also  the  name  of  the  bright 
star  o:  in  the  southern  constellation  Argo. 
Canossa,  in  the  district  of  Modena,  a  castle 
of  Matilda,  countess  of  Tuscany,  where  in 
1077  the  emperor  Henry  IV  submitted  to  the 
penance  and  humiliation  imposed  on  him  by 
Pope  Gregory  VII ;  hence  'to  go  to  Canossa* 
implies  a  reconciliation,  real  or  feigned,  with 
the  pope. 

Cantab,  a  contraction  of  CANTABRIGIAN,  of 
or  belonging  to  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
Cantabrian  (from  Cantabri,  a  people  who 
lived  in  the  north  of  Spain),  means  Spanish  or 
Biscayan. 

Cantacuzene,  a  noble  Byzantine  family,  a 
member  of  which,  John,  the  historian,  be- 
came emperor  of  the  East  in  1341. 
Canterbury  Pilgrims,  THE,  a  name  given 
to  the  Anglican  settlers  who  founded  Christ- 
church  in  New  Zealand  in  1851.  See  also 
next  entry. 

Canterbury  Tales,  The>  Chaucer's  greatest 
work,  designed  about  1387,  and  written  for 
the  greater  part  in  heroic  couplets  (about 
17,000  lines).  The  main  Prologue  is  espe- 
cially interesting  for  the  vivid  picture  it 
presents  of  contemporary  life.  A  party  of 
twenty-nine1  pilgrims  are  assembled  at  the 
Tabard  Inn  in  Southwark,  about  to  travel 
to  the  shrine  of  Becket  at  Canterbury,  and 
of  each  of  these  the  poet  draws  a  striking 
portrait.  They  are  the  following: 

1.  Knight;  19-  Tapicer     (maker 

2.  Squire ;  of  tapestry) ; 

3.  Yeoman        (ser-    20.  Cook; 

vant);  21.  Shipman  (sailor) ; 

4.  Prioress;  22.  Doctor  of  Physic; 

5.  Nun;  23.  Wife  of  Bath; 

6,  7,  8.  Three  Priests;  24.  Parson      (parish 

9.  Monk;  priest); 

10.  Friar;  25.  Ploughman; 

11.  Merchant;  26.  Miller; 

12.  Clerk  of  Oxford;  27.  Manciple    (stew- 

1 3 .  Sergeant  of  Law ;  ard) ; 

14.  Franklin      (free-  28.  Reeve  (bailiff); 

man  and  free-    29.  Summoner  (offi- 
holder) ;  cer  of  ecclesias- 

15.  Haberdasher;  tical  court); 

1 6.  Carpenter;  30.  Pardoner     (seller 

17.  Webbe  (weaver);  of  indulgences); 

1 8.  Dyer;  31.  Chaucer  himself . 
After  supper  the  host  proposes  that  they  shall 
shorten  the  way  by  telling  each  a  story  on  the 
way  out  and  one  on  the  way  back.  The  teller 
of  the  best  stories  shall  have  a  free  supper  on 
his  return.    The  host  will  accompany  them 
and  act  as  guide.  The  pilgrims  agree  and  the 
tales  follow,  preceded  each  of  them  by  a 
short  prologue.  But  the  poem  was  not  com- 

1  So  the  prologue  states,  but  according  to  the  enu- 
meration there  are,  including1  Chaucer  himself,  thirty- 


utry  reierence  uj  a  siugie  ^AICSSL.  .out  cviu.cxn.ij' 
v^iir  changed  his  mind  as  the  work  proceeded,  and 
left  it  unfinished  when  he  died, 


[134] 


CANTERBURY  TALES 

pleted  and  contains  only  twenty-three  tales, 
as  follows : 

1.  The  Knight's  Tale,  a  shortened  version 
of  the  'Teseide'  of  Boccaccio,  the  story  of  the 
love  of  Palamon   and  Arcite,   prisoners  of 
Theseus,  king  of  Athens,  for  Emilia,  sister  of 
Hippolyta,  queen  of  the  Amazons,   whom 
Theseus  has  married.    The  rivals  compete 
for  her  in  a  tournament.  Palamon  is  defeated, 
but  Arcite,  the  favourite   of  Mars,   at  the 
moment  of  his  triumph  is  thrown  and  injured 
by  his  horse  through  the   interposition  of 
Venus  and  Saturn,  and  dies.  Palamon  and 
Emilia,  after  prolonged  mourning  for  Arcite, 
are  united. 

2.  The  Miller's  Tale,  a  ribald  story  of  the 
deception,  first  of  a  husband  (a  carpenter) 
through  the  prediction  of  a  second  flood,  and 
secondly  of  a  lover  who  expects  to  kiss  the 
lady's  lip  and  avenges  himself  for  his  dis- 
appointment with  a  hot  coulter. 

3.  The  Reeve's  Tale,  connected  with  the 
French  fabliau,   'De  Gombert  et  ses  deux 
Clers*,  and  the  'Decameron*,  D.  x,  N.  6,  an  in- 
decent story  of  two  clerks  who  are  robbed  by 
a  miller  of  part  of  their  meal,  and  revenge 
themselves  on  the  miller's  wife  and  daughter. 
(The  Reeve,  who  had  been  a  carpenter,  thus 
retorts  upon  the  Miller.) 

4.  The  Cook's  Tale  (another  tale  of  'har- 
lotrie*  as  Chaucer  calls  it)  is  imperfect  and 
omitted  in  some  manuscripts.   It  is  followed 
by   the    Cook's    Tale  of  Gamelyn   (not  by 
Chaucer),   for  the  substance  of  which  see 
under  Gamelyn. 

5 .  The  Man  of  Law's  Tale,  related  to  a  story 
in  Gower's  'Confessio  Amantis',  B.  ii,  is  the 
story  of  Constance,  daughter  of  a  Christian 
emperor,   married  to   the   Soldan   on   con- 
dition that  he  shall  become  a  Christian,  and  by 
the  device  of  the  Soldan's  mother  cast  adrift 
on  the  sea.   Her  subsequent  misfortunes  are 
very  similar  to  those  told  in  the  verse  romance 
'Emare"  (q.v.). 

6.  The  Wife  of  Bath's  Tale  is  preceded  by 
a  long  prologue,  in  which  Chaucer  places  in 
her  mouth  a  condemnation  of  celibacy  in  the 
form  of  an  account  of  her  life  with  her  five 
successive    husbands.     The    Tale    is    like 
Gower's  story  of  Florent  in  'Conf.  Amant.' 
B.  i,  but  is  transferred  to  the  court  of  King 
Arthur.     It   relates  how  a   knight  who  is 
required,   in  order  to   avoid   execution,   to 
answer  correctly  within  a  twelvemonth  the 
question,  what  do  women  love  most,  is  told 
the  right  answer — 'sovereignty' — by  a  foul 
old  witch  on  condition  that  he  marries  her. 
He  reluctantly  complies  and  finds  the  witch 
restored  to  youth  and  beauty. 

7.  The  Friar's    Tale   tells   how   a   Sum- 
moner  meets  the  devil  dressed  as  a  bailiff, 
who  confides  to  him  his  methods  in  dealing 
with  men.  The  Summoner  attempts  to  extort 
a  gift  from  a  widow,  who  commends  him  to 
the  devil.  The  devil  thereupon  hales  him  off 
to  hell. 

8.  The  Summoner,  in  retaliation,  relates 
how  the  manoeuvres  of  a  greedy  and  hypo- 


CANTERBURY  TALES 

critical  friar  by  a  sick-bed  were  unsavourily 
defeated. 

9.  The  Clerk's  Tale,  which  the  poet  states 
he  learnt  from  Petrarch,  was  translated  by  the 
latter  into  Latin  from  the  'Decameron',  D.  x, 
N.  10.    It  tells  how  the  Marquis  of  Saluces 
married  the  humble   Griselda,   and   of  her 
virtues  and  patience  under  trials.  (The  same 
story  is  treated  in  Dekker's  'Patient  GrissiT, 
q.v.). 

10.  The  Merchant's  Tale,  of  an  old  man 
and  his  young  wife.   The  old  man  becomes 
blind ;  the  wife  and  her  lover  take  advantage 
of  this  in  a  pear-tree.  Pluto  suddenly  restores 
the  husband's  sight,  but  Proserpine  enables 
the  wife  to  outwit  him.  The  precise  source  of 
the  story  has  not  been  traced. 

1 1 .  The  Squire's  Tale,  of  Cambuscan,  king 
of  Tartary,  to  whom  on  his  birthday  an  envoy 
from  the  king  of  Arabia  brings  magic  gifts, 
including   a   ring   for   the   king's   daughter 
Canace,  which  enables  her  to  understand  the 
language   of  birds.    A   female   falcon  tells 
Canace  the  story  of  her  own  desertion  by  a  ter- 
celet.  The  poet  promises  the  continuation  of 
the  tale,  but  it  is  incomplete.    (See  under 
Cambell  for  the  continuation  in  Spenser's 
'Faerie  Queene').   The  tale  is  referred  to  by 
Milton  in  'II  Penseroso': 

Or  call  up  him  who  left  half-told 
The  story  of  Cambuscan  bold, 
Of  Cambal  and  of  Algarsife 
And  who  had  Canace  to  wife. 

Carnbal  and  Algarsife  are  Cambuscan's  sons. 

The  origin  of  the  tale  is  unknown. 

12.  The   Franklin's    Tale,   of  a   woman, 
Dorigen  wife  of  Arveragus,  who  to  escape  the 
assiduity  of  her  lover,  the  squire  Aurelius, 
makes  her  consent  depend  upon  an  impossible 
condition,  that  all  the  rocks  on  the  coast  of 
Brittany  be  removed.  When  this  condition  is 
realized  by  the  aid  of  a  magician,  the  lover, 
from  a  generous  remorse,  releases  her  from 
her  promise.    Chaucer  states  that  the  tale  is 
taken  from  a  'British  Lay*,  but  this  is  lost* 
Similar  stories  are  found  in  Boccaccio's  'Filo- 
copo*,  B.  v,  and  'Decameron9,  D.  x,  N.  5. 

13.  The  Second  Nun's    Tale,  in  rhyme- 
royal,  is  perhaps  translated  from  the  life  of 
St.  Cecilia  in  the  Golden  Legend  of  Jacobus 
a  Voragine.    It  describes  the  miracles  and 
martyrdom   of   the   noble   Roman   maiden 
Cecilia  and  her  husband  Valerian. 

A  certain  canon  and  his  yeoman  having 
joined  the  party  at  Boughton-under-Blee,  we 
next  have 

14.  The  Canon's   Yeoman's  Tale,  an  ex- 
posure of  the  follies  and  rogueries  of  the 
Alchemists. 

15.  The  Doctor's  Tale,  of  the  death  of 
Virginia  by  her  own  wish  at  her  father's 
hands,  to  save  her  from  the  designs  of  the 
wicked    judge    Apius,   who   has   conspired 
to  get  possession  of  her.    Chaucer  quotes 
Livy  as  the  source,  but  has  followed  fairly 
closely  the  version  of  the  story  in  the  'Roman 
de  la  Rose'. 


[1351 


CANTERBURY  TALES 

1 6.  The  Pardoner's  Tale  has  an  analogue  in 
an  Italian  miscellany  known  as  the  l  Cento 
Novelle  Antiche',  N.  Lxxxii.   The  Pardoner 
discourses    on   the    evils  of  Gluttony   and 
Drunkenness,  Gambling  and  Swearing.  This 
theme  is  illustrated  by  the  story  of  three 
revellers  who  in  plague-time  set  out  on  a 
search  for  Death,  who  has  killed  one  of  their 
comrades.  An  old  man  tells  them  they  will 
find  him  under  a  certain  tree.   There  they 
discover  a  heap  of  gold.   Each  designs  to  get 
sole  possession  of  the  treasure,  but  they  only 
succeed  in  killing  one  another. 

17.  The  Shipman's  Tale.  There  is  a  similar 
story  in  the  'Decameron*,  D.  viii,  N.  i.  The 
wife  of  a  niggardly  merchant  asks  the  loan  of 
a  hundred  francs  from  a  priest  to  buy  finery. 
The  priest  borrows  the  sum  from  the  mer- 
chant and  hands  it  to  the  wife,  and  the  wife 
grants  him  her  favours.    On  the  merchant's 
return  from  a  journey  the  priest  tells  him  that 
he  has  repaid  the  sum  to  the  wife,  who  cannot 
deny  receiving  it. 

1 8.  The  Prioress's  Tale,  the  source  of  which 
is  unknown,  is  the  legend  of  a  widow's  child 
murdered  by  Jews  because  he  sings  'O  alma 
Redemptoris  mater*  when  passing  through 
the  Ghetto  at  Lincoln  on  his  way  to  school. 
The  body  is  discovered  owing  to  the  fact  that 
he  miraculously  continues  his  song  after  his 
throat  is  cut.  This  tale  is  in  rhyme-royal. 

19.  Chaucer's  own  contribution  follows, 
in  the  form  of  the  Tale  of  Sir  Thopas,  in 
which  he  slyly  ridicules  the  romances  of 
knight-errantry  by  contemporary  rhymers.  It 
contains  phrases  from  'Isumbras*,  'Li  Beaus 
Desconus*  (qq.v.),  and  refers  to  Sir  Bevis,  Sir 
Guy,  &c.  It  is  soon  interrupted,  and  Chaucer 
then  gives  the  Tale  oJMelibeus,  a  prose  trans- 
lation of  a  French  romance,  *a  moral  ^tale 
vertuous'.    It  is  a  long  and  (to  us)  tedious 
disputation  between  Melibeus  and  his  wife 
Prudence  on  the  most  judicious  method  of 
dealing  with  enemies  who  have  done  them 
grievous  injuries. 

20.  The  Monk's   Tale  is  composed  of  a 
number  of  'tragedies*  of  persons  fallen  from 
high  estate,  taken  from  different  authors  and 
arranged  on  the  model  of  Boccaccio's  ^  *De 
casibus  virorum  illustriurn'.    The  tale  is  in 
eight-lined  stanzas. 

21.  The  Nun's  Priest's  Tale,  perhaps  de- 
veloped from  one  of  the  episodes  in  the  French 
story  of  Reynard  the  Fox,  tells  of  a  fox  that 
beguiled  a  cock  by  praising  his  father's  sing- 
ing, and  was  beguiled  in  turn  to  let  the  cock 
escape. 

22.  The  Manciple's  Tale  is  the  fable  of  the 
Crow,   which  had  been  treated  by  many 
authors    from    Ovid    onwards.     A    certain 
Phebus  has  a  crow  that  is  white  and  can 
counterfeit  any  man's  speech.  It  thus  reveals 
to  Phebus  his  wife's  infidelity.   Phebus  in  a 
fury  kills   his  wife,  and  then,   in  remorse, 
plucks  out  the  crow's  white  feathers,  deprives 
it  of  its  speech,  and  throws  it  out  'unto  the 
devil',  which  is  why  crows  are  now  black. 

23.  The  Parson's   Tale,  a  dissertation  in 


CAPGRAVE 

prose  on  penitence,  the  character  of  each 
kind  of  sin,  and  the  appropriate  remedy.  ^  It 
is  probably  the  raw  material  on  which 
Chaucer  proposed  to  work,  rather  than  his 
finished  tale. 

Tyrwhitt's  famous  text  of  the  'Canterbury 
Tales*,  with  introductory  discourse,  was  pub- 
lished in  1775-8. 

Canute  or  CNUT,  a  Dane,  king  of  England, 
1016-35.  The  old  story  of  Canute  and  the  sea 
is  told  in  Holinshed,  vn.  xiii.  Being  on  the 
seashore  near  Southampton,  he  sat  down  close 
to  the  rising  tide  and  bade  it  go  no  farther. 
When  it  advanced  and  wetted  him,  he  said 
to  his  courtiers  that  they  called  him  king,  but 
that  he  'could  not  stay  by  his  command- 
ment so  much  as  this  small  portion  of  water*. 
This  he  did  to  reprove  their  flattery.  Cf. 
Thackeray's  satirical  ballad  on  the  subject 
in  'Rebecca  and  Rowena*  (q.v.). 

Canute,  The  Song  of,  a  famous  early  English 
ballad,  stated  to  have  been  composed  and 
sung  by  the  king  as  he  rowed  past  Ely,  and 
recorded  by  a  monk  of  Ely  in  1 1 66.  It  begins : 

Merie  sungen  the  munechis  binnen  Ely 

Tha  Cnut  ching  rew  tHer  by. 

Canute's  or  CANUTUS  BIRD,  the  Knot.  The 
derivation  of  the  name  of  this  bird  from 
King  Canute  (mentioned  by  Camden  and 
Draytpn)  is  said  by  the  OED.  to  be  without 
historical  or  even  legendary  foundation. 

Caorsin,  see  Cahors. 

Cap  of  Liberty  or  PHRYGIAN  BONNET,  the 
conical  cap  placed  in  Roman  times  on  the 
head  of  a  slave  on  his  emancipation.  It  was 
adopted  as  a  symbol  of  liberation  (the  bonnet 
rouge}  by  the  French  Revolutionary  Jacobins 
in  April  1792,  when  the  Swiss  survivors  of 
the  Mutiny  at  Nancy  of  Aug.-Sept.  1791 
were  released  from  the  galleys;  for  the  red 
'Phrygian  bonnet'  was  the  head-dress  of  the 
galley  slaves  at  Marseilles,  where  these  men 
had  been  confined. 

'Capability*  Brown,  see  Brown  (L.). 

Gapaneus,  one  of  the  seven  heroes  who 
marched  from  Argos  against  Thebes  (see 
under  Eteocles).  He  was  struck  with  a 
thunderbolt  by  Zeus  when  scaling  the  walls 
of  Thebes,  because  he  defied  the  god. 

Cape  of  Storms,  Cabo  Tormentoso,  the 
name  given  to  the  south-western  cape  of 
Africa  by  its  discoverer,  Bartholomew  Diaz, 
in  1487;  subsequently  changed  by  John  II  of 
Portugal  to  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Capet,  the  name  of  the  French  dynasty 
founded  by  Hugo  Capet  in  987,  which  ruled 
until  1328,  when  it  was  succeeded  by  the 
House  of  Valois.  Louis  XVI  was  described 
as  Louis  Capet  when  tried  before  the  Con- 
vention in  1793.  The  origin  of  the  nickname 
of  Hugo  I  is  unknown. 

CAPGRAVE,  JOHN  (1393-1464),  an  Au- 

gustinian  friar,  who  resided  most  of  his  life  in 


CAPITOL 

the  friary  at  King's  Lynn.  He  wrote,  in  Latin, 
sermons,  theological  tracts,  and  commentaries 
on  many  books  of  scripture.  His  chief  Latin 
historical  works  are  'Nova  Legenda  Angliae', 
'De  illustrious  Henricis',  and  'Vita  Humfredi 
Ducis  Glocestriae'.  In  English  he  wrote  lives 
of  St.  Gilbert  of  Sempringham  and  of  St. 
Catharine  of  Alexandria,  also  a  chronicle  of 
English  history  extending  to  A.D.  1417,  of 
some  importance  as  an  early  English  prose 
work. 

Capitol,  THE,  in  ancient  Rome,  that  summit 
of  the  Capitoline  hill  on  which  stood  the 
magnificent  temple  of  Jupiter.  In  this  temple 
were  kept  the  Sibylline  books,  and  here  the 
consuls  took  the  vows  on  entering  upon  office. 
It  was  to  this  temple  also  that  victorious 
generals  were  carried  in  triumph  to  render 
thanks  to  Jupiter. 

In  modern  Rome  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
Piazza,  del  Campidoglio,  in  the  depression 
between  the  two  summits  of  the  Capitoline 
Mil,  where  Brutus  made  his  speech  after  the 
murder  of  Caesar.  In  the  centre  of  the  Piazza. 
stands  the  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Marcus 
Aurelius.  On  one  side  is  the  Palace  of  the 
Senator,  where  it  is  said  that  Petrarch  (q.v.) 
was  crowned  and  Rienzi  (q.v.)  ruled  as 
tribune. 

In  Washington  the  Capitol  is  the  seat  of 
the  National  Congress.  It  is  built  in  Re- 
naissance style,  and  surmounted  by  a  great 
dome.  It  was  completed  in  1830. 

Capitolinus,  MARCUS  MANLIUS,  see  Manlius 
Capitolinus. 

Capitulary,  a  collection  of  ordinances, 
especially  those  made  by  the  Prankish  kings. 

CaponsaccM,  CANON  GIUSEPPE,  one  of  the 
principal  characters  in  Browning's  'The  Ring 
and  the  Book'  (q.v.). 

Capricorn,  (<2)  the  zodiacal  constellation  of 
the  He-goat,  lying  between  Sagittarius  and 
Aquarius;  (b)  the  tenth  of  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac,  which  the  sun  enters  about  21  Dec. 
The  sign  originally  coincided  with  the  con- 
stellation. 

Captain,  THE  GREAT,  see  Cordova. 
Captain  Kettle,  see  Kettle. 
Captain  Nemo,  see  Nemo. 

Captain  Singleton,  Adventures  of,  see  Single- 
ton. 

Capua,  a  prosperous  city  of  Campania.  It  is 
said  that  the  soldiers  of  Hannibal  were 
enervated  by  its  luxury  when  moved  to 
winter  quarters  there  after  the  battle  of 
Cannae. 

Capuchin,  a  friar  of  the  order  of  St.  Francis, 
of  the  new  rule  of  1528,  so  called  from  their 
sharp-pointed  capuches  or  hoods. 
Capulet,  in  Shakespeare's  'Romeo  and 
Juliet'  (q.v.),  the  noble  Veronese  house  to 
which  Juliet  belongs,  hostile  to  the  family  of 
Montagu. 


CARDINAIX 

Caput^Mortraim  ('dead  head'),  in  alchemy, 
the  residuum  remaining  after  the  distillation 
or  sublimation  of  any  substance,  good  for 
nothing  but  to  be  thrown  away,  all  virtue 
having  been  extracted. 

Carabas,  MARQUESS  OF,  a  character  in  the 
fairy  tale  of  Tuss  in  Boots*  (q.v.) ;  also  in  a 
song  by  BeYanger  (q.v.);  in  B.  Disraeli's 
'Vivian  Grey'  (q.v.);  and  in  Thackeray's 
'Book  of  Snobs*. 

Caractacus  or  CARADOC,  king  of  the  Silures 
in  the  west  of  Britain  during  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  was  defeated  by  the  Romans  and 
fled  to  Cartimandua,  queen  of  the  Brigantes, 
who  betrayed  him.  He  was  taken  a  prisoner 
to  Rome  in  A.D.  51,  where  his  noble  spirit  so 
pleased  the  emperor  that  he  pardoned  and 
released  him.  He  figures  as  Caratach  in 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  'Bonduca'  (q.v.). 
W.  Mason  (q.v.)  wrote  a  play  'Caractacus'. 
Caradoc,  see  Caractacus. 

Caradoc  or  CRADOCK,  SIR,  see  Boy  and  the 
Mantle. 

Caran  d  'Ache ,  adapted  from  a  Russian  word 
meaning  'pencil',  the  pseudonym  of  Em- 
manuel Poire"  (1858-1909),  a  celebrated 
French  humorous  illustrator,  who  employed 
the  method  of  silhouettes  outlined  by  a  single 
continuous  line. 

Carausius,  see  Caws. 

Carbine,  a  famous  horse,  brought  by  the 
duke  of  Portland  from  Australia  in  1895.  He 
won  thirty-three  out  of  his  forty-three  races 
in  Australia,  and  was  only  once  unplaced. 

Carbonari  ('charcoal-burners'),  the  name  of 
a  secret  political  association  formed  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  during  the  French  occu- 
pation under  Murat,  with  the  design  of  intro- 
ducing a  republican  government.  It  lasted 
during  part  of  the  igth  cent.  Louis  Napoleon 
was  a  Carbonaro  in  his  youth. 

Carbonek,  in  the  legend  of  the  Holy  Grail, 
the  enchanted  castle  where  the  Grail  is  found. 

Cardan,  JEROME  (GIROLAMO  CARDANO) 
(1501-76),  a  famous  Italian  mathematician, 
and  writer  on  medicine  and  the  occult 
sciences. 

Cardenio ,  in  'Don  Quixote'  (q.v.),  the  lover  of 
Lucinda,  who,  driven  mad  by  the  loss  of  her, 
haunts  the  Sierra  Morena,  and  is  finally  re- 
united with  her. 

Cardinal3 s  Snuff-Box,  The,  Henry  Harland's 
most  popular  novel. 

Cardinal^  The,  a  tragedy  by  James  Shirley 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1641,  and  printed  in  1652. 
This  is  one  of  the  best  of  Shirley's  plays. 
The  cardinal,  urged  by  ambition,  designs 
that  the  Duchess  Rosaura,  the  widowed 
daughter-in-law  of  the  king  of  Navarre,  shall 
marry  his  nephew  Columbo,  general  of  the 
army,  and  obtains  the  support  of  the  king. 
The  duchess  is  betrothed  to  Columbo 


[X37l 


CARDOILE 

accordingly,  although  she  loves  the  Count 
Alvarez.  While  Columbo  is  at  the  wars  she 
obtains  the  king's  consent  to  her  marriage 
with  Alvarez.  On  the  wedding  night, 
Columbo  murders  Alvarez.  Hernando,  a 
colonel  who  has  been  affronted  by  Columbo 
in  the  field,  plots  with  the  duchess  to  be 
revenged,  she  promising  him  her  hand  if 
he  succeeds.  Hernando  kills  Columbo  in  a 
duel.  The  cardinal,  suspecting  the  complicity 
of  the  duchess,  plans  to  ravish  and  kill  her. 
Hernando,  concealed  behind  the  arras,  kills 
the  cardinal,  but  not  before  the  latter  by  a 
trick  has  effected  the  poisoning  of  the  duchess. 
Hernando  takes  his  own  life. 

CardoMe,  CARDUEL,  in  the  Arthurian  ro- 
mances, perhaps  Carlisle,  but  in  the  History 
of  Merlin  said  to  be  in  Wales. 

CARDUCCI,    GIOSU£    (1836-1907),    an 

eminent  Italian  poet,  author  of  'Odi  Barbare', 

£c. 

Careless,  in  Sheridan's  'School  for  Scandal* 

(q.v.),   one   of  the   companions   of  Charles 

Surface.  Also  a  character  in  Congreve's  'The 

Double  Dealer'  (q.v.). 

Careless  Husband,  The,  a  comedy  by  Cibber 
(q.v.),  printed  in  1715. 

Sir  Charles  Easy,  who  neglects  his  wife  and 
carries  on  an  intrigue  with  her  woman  and 
with  Lady  Graveairs,  is  brought  to  contrition 
by  discovering  that  his  wife's  gentle  and 
friendly  treatment  of  him  is  due  not  to  ignor- 
ance of  his  infidelities,  but  to  her  virtue  and 
sense  of  duty.  The  coquette,  Lady  Betty 
Modish,  is  led  to  accept  the  suit  of  her 
honourable  lover,  Lord  Morelove  (with  whom 
is  contrasted  the  boastful  lady-killer,  Lord 
Foppington),  by  a  plot  to  excite  her  jealousy 
and  to  persuade  her  that  Morelove,  weary 
of  her  contempt,  is  about  to  give  her  up. 

Carew,  BAMFYLDE  MOORE  (1693-1770?), 
son  of  a  Devonshire  rector,  who  ran  away 
from  Tiverton  School,  joined  the  gipsies  and 
became  a  clever  sharper.  He  went  to  New- 
foundland, and  on  his  return  again  joined  the 
gipsies  and  was  convicted  of  being  an  idle 
rogue.  He  was  transported  to  Maryland,  but 
escaped  and  returned  to  England.  He  fol- 
lowed Prince  Charles  Edward's  army  to 
Derby  in  1745. 

CAREW  (pron.  'Carey'),  THOMAS  (1598  ?- 
1639?),  a  son.  of  Sir  Thomas  Carew,  a  master 
in  Chancery,  was  educated  at  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  and  became  secretary  to  Sir 
Dudley  Carleton  at  Venice  and  subsequently 
for  a  short  time  at  The  Hague.  He  won  the 
favour  of  Charles  I,  was  appointed  to  an  office 
at  court,  and  received  an  estate  from  him. 
He  was,  in  poetry,  a  disciple  of  Ben  Jonson, 
and  wrote  a  fine  elegy  on  Donne.  His  principal 
works  are  a  masque,  'Coelurn  Britannicum' 
(1634),  'The  Rapture'  (a  fine  but  licentious 
amatory  poem),  and  numerous  graceful  songs 
and  lyrics. 

CAREY,  HENRY  (d.  1743),  is  remembered 


CARLTON  HOUSE 

as  the  author  of  the  burlesque  *Chronon- 
hotonthologos'  (q.v.),  as  the  inventor  of  the 
nickname  of  Ambrose  Philips  (q.v.),  and 
principally  as  the  author  of  the  words  and 
music  of  'Sally  in  our  Alley*.  He  also  wrote 
a  burlesque  opera,  'The  Dragon  of  Wantley' 


Carfax  (Latin  quadrifurcus,  four-forked),  a 
place  where  foureroads  meet,  the  intersection 
of  two  principal  streets  in  a  town,  as  at  Oxford 
and  Exeter.  The  crossing  of  the  great  streets 
of  medieval  London  at  Leadenhall  (q.v.) 
market  was  called  the  'Carfukes  of  Leaden- 
hall*  in  1357  (Lethaby). 
Carinthia  Jane,  the  heroine  of  Meredith's 
'The  Amazing  Marriage'  (q.v.). 

Carker,  JAMES,  a  character  in  Dickens  's 
'Dombey  and  Son'  (q.v.). 

Carleton,  Memoirs  of  Captain,  see  Memoirs 
of  Captain  Carleton. 

CARLETON,  WILLIAM  (1794-1869), 
born  in  Tyrone,  the  son  of  a  poor  peasant, 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  remarkable 
stories  of  Irish  peasant  life,  of  which  he  paints 
the  melancholy  as  well  as  the  humorous  side. 
His  'Traits  and  Stories  of  the  Irish  Peasantry' 
were  collected  and  published  in  1832  (first 
contributed  to  'The  Christian  Examiner'),  a 
second  series  following  in  1833,  and  'Tales  of 
Ireland*  in  1834.  The  best  of  his  longer 
stories  was  'Fardorougha,  the  Miser'  (q.v., 
1839)- 

Carlion,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur'  (q.v.), 
the  city  where  Arthur  was  crowned  and  held 
his  court,  probably  Caerleon-upon-Usk, 
though  in  places  Carlisle  appears  to  be  meant. 

CARLISLE,  FREDERICK  HOWARD, 
fifth  earl  of  (1748-1825),  Chancery  guardian 
to  Lord  Byron  and  attacked  by  him  in 
'English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers'.  His 
tragedy,  'The  Father's  Revenge',  was  praised 
by  Johnson  and  Walpole. 

Carlos,  DON,  the  deformed  son  of  Philip  II 
of  Spain.  The  marriage  of  the  latter  with 
Elizabeth  of  France,  who  had  been  affianced 
to  Don  Carlos,  forms  the  subject  of  Otway's 
tragedy  'Don  Carlos'  (q.v.). 

Carlovingians  or  CAROLINGIANS,  the  second 
royal  dynasty  of  France,  of  which  Pepin,  the 
father  of  Charlemagne,  was  the  first  king 
(752).  It  was  succeeded  by  the  Capetian 

line  in  987. 

Carlton  Club,  THE,  was  founded  in  1831  by 
the  duke  of  Wellington  and  his  political 
friends.  It  is  a  political  club  for  men  of 
Conservative  opinions.  Its  present  house  in 
Pall  Mall,  replacing  an  earlier  one  built 
in  1836,  was  opened  in  1855. 

Carlton  House,  London,  from  which  Carl- 
ton  House  Terrace  is  named,  was  built  for 
Henry  Boyle,  Baron  Carleton  (d.  1725),  and 
sold  to  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1732.  It  be- 
came famous  as  the  home  of  George  IV  when 
Prince  of  Wales. 


CARLYLE 

CARLYLE,  ALEXANDER  (1723-1805), 
nicknamed  'Jupiter',  educated  at  Edinburgh 
University,  Glasgow,  and  Leyden,  a  minister 
and  leader  of  the  Scottish  'Broad  Church* 
party,  was  author  of  an  interesting  auto- 
biography which  refers  to  various  notable 
events  and  personalities  of  the  period 
(printed  in  1860). 

Garlyle,  JANE  BAILLIE  WELSH  (i  801-66), 
wife  of  Thomas  Carlyle  (q.v.).  Collections 
of  her  letters  were  published  in  1883,  1924, 
and  1931. 

GARLYLE,  THOMAS  (1795-1881),  was 
born  at  Ecclefechan,  in  Dumfriesshire,  of 
peasant  stock.  He  was  educated  at  the  parish 
school,  then  at  Annan  Academy,  and  at  the 
age  of  1 5  entered  Edinburgh  University.  He 
was  subsequently  a  schoolmaster  at  Annan 
and  Kirkcaldy,  but  soon  took  to  literary  work, 
contributing  to  Brewster's  'Edinburgh  Ency- 
clopaedia', studying  German  literature,  and 
writing  his  'Life  of  Schiller*,  which  appeared 
in  the  'London  Magazine*  in  1823-4  and  was 
separately  published  in  1825.  His  translation 
of  'Wilhelm  Meister's  Apprenticeship*  ap- 
peared in  1824,  followed  by  that  of  'Wilhelm 
Meister's  Travels'  (included  in  'German  Ro- 
mance*, 1827).  In  1826  he  married  Jane 
Welsh,  a  Scottish  lady  of  strong  character 
and  shrewd  wit,  one  of  the  best  letter- writers 
in  the  English  language,  and  retired  to  her 
farm  at  Craigenputtock,  on  the  lonely  moors 
of  Nithsdale.  He  contributed  essays  on  Ger- 
man literature  to  the  'Edinburgh*  and  other 
reviews,  wrote  'Sartor  Resartus*  (q.v.),  which 
was  published  by  'Eraser's  Magazine*  in 
1833-4,  and  the  first  part  of  the  'French 
Revolution*  (q.v.).  He  removed  to  Cheyne 
Row,  Chelsea  in  1834.  The  manuscript  of 
the  first  volume  of  the  'French  Revolution* 
was  accidentally  burnt  while  in  J.  S.  Mill's 
keeping,  but  Carlyle  re-wrote  it  and  the 
work  finally  appeared  in  1837.  In  the  same 
and  following  years  he  gave  several  courses 
of  popular  lectures,  the  most  successful,  that 
'On  Heroes,  Hero-Worship,  and  the  Heroic 
in  History*,  being  published  in  1841.  In  his 
'Chartism*  (1839)  and  'Past  and  Present* 
(1843)  he  turned  his  attention  to  political 
problems  of  the  day,  and  the  present  and 
future  of  Labour,  expressing  his  contempt 
for  the  teachings  of  political  economy  and 
democratic  nostrums.  Salvation,  according 
to  him-,  was  to  be  sought  in  a  return  to 
medieval  conditions  and  the  rule  of  the 
strong  just  man,  who  was  not  to  be  got  by 
popular  election.  The  same  views,  in  an 
exaggerated  form,  are  to  be  found  in  his 
'Latter- Day  Pamphlets*  (1850).  Carlyle *s 
second  great  work,  'Oliver  Cromwell *s  Letters 
and  Speeches*,  was  published  in  1845,  and 
the  'Life  of  John  Sterling'  in  1851.  After  this 
he  spent  fourteen  years  on  the  preparation  of 
the  'History  of  Frederick  the  Great*  (pub- 
lished 1858-65),  of  which,  though  it  is  the 
most  entertaining  of  his  works,  the  result  is 
generally  considered  disproportionate  to  the 


CARNEGIE 

labour  spent  on  it.  Mrs.  Carlyle  died  in  1866, 
and  after  this  he  wrote  little  of  importance. 
'The  Early  Kings  of  Norway*  appeared  in 
1875.  JHis  'Reminiscences'  appeared  in  1881, 
and  his  'Life*  was  written  with  more  frank- 
ness than  judgement  by  his  friend  and 
disciple,  James  Anthony  Froude  (q.v.). 
Several  volumes  of  his  letters  have  been  pub- 
lished: editions  by  C.  E.  Norton  (1886  and 
1888),  'Correspondence  of  Carlyle  and  R.  W. 
Emerson'  (1883),  'Letters  of  T.  Carlyle  to  his 
Younger  Sister*  (1899),  'New  Letters  of  T. 
Carlyle*  (1904),  'Love  Letters  of  T.  Carlyle 
and  Jane  Welsh*  (1909),  'Letters  to  Mill, 
Sterling,  &c.'  (1923). 

Carmagnole,  a  kind  of  dress  much  worn 
in  France  from  10  Aug.  1792.  It  was  the 
southern  name  for  a  long  waistcoat  worn  by 
the  Marseillais  'Fe"dereV  who  came  to  Paris 
at  that  date  and  helped  to  storm  the  Tuileries. 
The  name  was  extended  to  a  lively  song  and 
dance  popular  among  "the  revolutionists  in 
1793- 
CarmatMans,  see  Karmathians. 

Carmelites,  an  order  of  mendicant  friars 
(called  also,  from  the  white  cloak  which  forms 
part  of  their  dress,  WHITE  FRIARS)  and  nuns, 
who  derive  their  origin  from  a  colony  founded 
on  Mt.  Carmel  by  Berthold,  a  Calabrian,  in 
the  i2th  cent. 

Carmilhan,  a  spectre  ship,  the  subject  of 
one  of  Longfellow's  'Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn*. 
She  brings  disaster  to  whatever  ship  meets 
her.  The  captain  of  the  'Valdemar*  derides 
the  legend,  but  encounters  the  'Carmilhan* 
(with  Klaboterman,  the  Kobold  of  the  sea, 
on  board)  in  a  storm,  and  the  'Valdernar*  is 
sunk. 

Carmina  Rurana,  a  collection  of  Goliardic 
(q.v.)  poems  from  the  Benedictine  monastery 
of  Benedictbeuem  in  Bavaria.  The  best 
edition  is  by  A.  Hilka  and  O.  Schumann,  of 
which  the  first  two  volumes  were  published  in 
1930. 

Camac,  in  the  Morbihan,  Brittany,  famous 
for  its  stone  circles  and  other  megalithic 
monuments.  The  circles  of  Carnac  differ 
from  the  British  circles  in  that  the  stones 
nearly  touch  one  another. 

Carnegie,  ANDREW  (1835-1919),  the  son  of 
a  damask  linen  weaver  of  Dunfermline, 
was  taken  when  a  child  to  America  by  his 
parents,  who  emigrated  thither  during  the 
'hungry  forties'.  At  the  age  of  13  he  began 
work  in  a  cotton  factory.  Later,  by  his  energy 
and  shrewd  speculative  investments,  he  be- 
came enormously  rich  and  one  of  the  fore- 
most ironmasters  in  the  United  States.  In 
1900  he  published  his  'Gospel  of  Wealth* 
maintaining  that  a  'man  who  dies  rich  dies 
disgraced*,  and  in  1901,  retiring  from  busi- 
ness, set  about  the  distribution  of  his  surplus 
wealth.  The  most  important  of  his  bene- 
factions from  a  literary  standpoint  was  his 
provision  of  public  libraries  in  Great  Britain 


[139] 


CAROL 

and  the  United  States,  on  condition  that  the 
local  authorities  provided  site  and  mainte- 
nance. He  also  instituted  a  trust  for  the 
universities  of  Scotland,  and  several  trusts  for 
the  advancement  of  research  and  education 
in  the  United  States.  Mention  must  also  be 
made  of  his  endowment  for  the  promotion 
of  international  peace. 

Carol,  a  word  whose  etymology  is  obscure, 
and  of  which  the  earliest  meaning  appears  to 
be  a  round  dance;  thence  a  song,  originally 
the  song  accompanying  the  dance,  and 
especially  a  song  of  joy  sung  at  Christmas 
time  in  celebration  of  the  Nativity.  The  first 
collection  of  Christmas  carols  that  we  possess 
was  printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  1521. 

Carolina,  American  State,  appears  to  have 
been  named  after  Charles  I  and  Charles  II, 
under  the  latter  of  whom,  in  1663,  the  final 
settlement  was  made.  Cf.  Maryland. 

Caroline,  a  term  applied  to  the  dramatists, 
authors,  &c.,  of  the  period  of  Charles  I. 
Caroline,  QUEEN,  (i)  consort  of  George  II, 
figures  in  Scott's  'The  Heart  of  Midlothian' 
(q.v.)  and  is  prominent  in  the  memoirs  of  the 
time;  (2)  consort  of  George  IV,  figures  in 
Byron's  poems,  &c. 
Caroline  Gann  or  BRANDON,  see  Brandon. 

Caroline  Minuscule,  a  style  of  writing  de- 
veloped at  Tours  under  Charlemagne,  and 
perpetuated  in  our  modern  hand. 
Carolingians,  see  Carlovingians. 
Garos,  in  Macpherson's  Ossianic  poem  of 
that  name,  is  the  Carausius  of  history.  He  was 
the  commander  of  a  fleet  charged  to  protect 
the  coast  of  Gaul  in  the  reign  of  Maximian, 
but  becoming  suspect  to  the  emperor,  crossed 
to  Britain,  assumed  the  title  Augustus,  and 
was  finally  acknowledged  by  Diocletian  and 
Maximian  as  their  colleague  in  Britain,  where 
he  continued  to  rule  until  murdered  in  293. 
In  the  Ossianic  poem  he  is  attacked  by  Oscar 
and  his  troops  put  to  flight. 
Carpathian  wizard,  see  Proteus. 

"CARPENTER,  JOHN  (1370  ?-i44i  ?),  town 
clerk  of  London,  1417-38,  compiled  the 
'Liber  Albus',  a  valuable  collection  of  records 
of  the  city  of  London  (printed  in  the  RoUs 
Series,  1859,  translated  by  Rttey,  1861).  He 
left  lands  for  educational  purposes,  from  which 
the  City  of  London  School  was  founded. 

Carpet,  MAGIC,  see  Ahmed  for  that  described 
in  the  'Arabian  Nights'.  According  to  Mo- 
hammedan legend  Solomon  had  a  carpet 
which  transported  him  and  his  army,  the 
wind  carrying  it  wherever  he  wished  to  go. 
See  Koran,  c.  xsi,  and  Sale's  notes  to  c.  xxvii. 

Carpet-bagger,  in  U.S.  political  slang,  a 
scornful  term  applied  after  the  American 
Civil  War  of  1861-5  to  immigrants  from  the 
northern  to  the  southern  states,  whose  'pro- 
perty qualification'  consisted  merely  of  the 
contents  of  the  carpet-bag  which  they  had 
brought  with  them.  Hence  applied  oppro- 


CARTHON 

briously  to  all  northerners  who  went  south 
and  tried,  by  the  Negro  vote  or  otherwise, 
to  obtain  political  influence;  and  generally  to 
any  one  interfering  with  the  politics  of  a 
locality  with  which  he  is  thought  to  have  no 
genuine  or  permanent  connexion. 

Carpio,  BERNARDO  DEL,  see  Bernardo  del 
Carpio. 

Carrasco,  SAMSON,  in  'Don  Quixote'  (q.v.), 
a  bachelor  of  the  University  of  Salamanca,  a 
little  mirth-loving  man,  who,  in  order  to  cure 
Don  Quixote  of  his  folly,  disguises  himself 
as  the  Knight  of  the  Mirrors,  overcomes  him 
in  combat,  and  requires  him  to  return  home 
and  abstain  from,  chivalric  exploits  for  a  year. 
He  boasted  to  Don  Quixote  that  he  had  fixed 
Giralda,  the  weathercock  on  the  cathedral  of 
Seville. 
CARROLL,  LEWIS,  see  Dodgson. 

Carson,  KIT  (1809-68),  famous  American 
trapper  and  guide,  whose  activities  were 
mainly  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  region. 

Garstone,  RICHARD,  one  of  the  two  wards  in 
Chancery  in  Dickens's  'Bleak  House*  (q.v.). 

Cartaphilus,  see  Wandering  Jew. 

CARTER,  ELIZABETH  (1717-1806), 
daughter  of  a  Kent  clergyman,  and  a  member 
of  the  Blue  Stocking  (q.v.)  circle,  was  a  friend 
of  Richardson,  and  of  Dr.  Johnson,  who  had 
a  high  opinion  of  her  abilities  and  to  whose 
'Rambler'  she  contributed  two  numbers. 
She  published  a  translation  of  Epictetus  in 
1758.  Her  letters  to  Miss  Talbot,  Mrs.yesey, 
and  Mrs.  Montagu,  were  published  after 
her  death  (1809-17). 

Cartesianism,  see  Descartes. 

Carthage,  a  famous  city  of  the  ancient 
world,  situated  about  the  centre  of  the  coast 
of  N.  Africa,  whose  power  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  3rd  cent.  B.C.  under  the  leadership  of 
Hannibal  gravely  threatened  Rome.  The 
Punic  Wars  (as  the  wars  between  Rome  and 
Carthage  were  called1),  which  lasted  265-242, 
218-201,  and  149-146  B.C.,  ended  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  latter  city.  It  was  rebuilt  by 
Augustus,  and  became  an  important  post  of 
the  Roman  province  of  Africa.  For  the  phrase 
*delenda  est  Carthago',  see  Cato  the  Censor. 
See  also  Marius  among  the  ruins  of  Carthage. 

Carthon,  the  title  of  one  of  Macpherson's 
Ossianic  poems.  Clessammor,  the  uncle  of 
Fingal,  being  driven  to  Balclutha  by  a  storm, 
has  married  Moina,  daughter  of  a  local  chief, 
but  has  been  driven  away,  and  left  his  bride 
behind  him,  and  she,  after  giving  birth  to 
Carthon,  has  died.  Combal,  father  of  Fingal, 
has  burnt  Balclutha.  Carthon,  who  was 
carried  off  to  safety  by  his  nurse,  when  grown 

*  Punic,  from  L.  Punicus,  earlier  Poenicus,  from  Gk. 
$otm£,  Phoenician.  The  epithet  is  applied  to  Carthage 
because  it  was  a  Phoenician  colony.  Phoenicia  was  an 
ancient  country  consisting  of  a  narrow  strip  of  land  on 
the  coast  of  Syria,  containing  the  cities  of  Tyre  and 
Sid  on.  There  were  many  Phoenician  colonies  on  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean. 


[140] 


CARTHUSIANS 

to  man's  estate  invades  Morven  to  revenge 
the  destruction  of  Balclutha.  He  is  slain  in 
single  combat  by  his  own  father,  Clessammor, 
who  does  not  know  him,  but  dies  from  grief 
on  discovering  that  he  has  killed  his  son. 

Carthusians,  an  order  of  monks  founded  in 
the  Dauphine"  by  St.  Bruno  in  1086,  re- 
markable for  the  severity  of  their  rule.  The 
name  is  derived  'from  Catursiani  Monies,  or 
from  Catorissium,  Chatrousse,  a  village  in  the 
Dauphine*,  near  which  their  first  monastery 
was  founded'  [Littre"]  (not  from  La  Grande 
Chartreuse,  which  was  named  after  the  order). 
See  also  under  Charterhouse. 

Carton,  SYDNEY,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'A  Tale  of  Two  Cities'  (q.v.). 

Caruso,  ENRICO  (1873-1921),  the  famous 
Italian  operatic  singer,  a  tenor,  was  born  at 
Naples.  He  first  came  into  prominence  by 
his  singing  in  £La  Boheme'  in  1894,  in  which 
as  Rodolfo  he  subsequently  achieved  one  of 
his  greatest  successes.  He  sang  only  in 
Italian  and  French  opera.  From  1903  till  his 
death  he  was  the  leading  tenor  of  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York. 

Carvel,  Hans,  see  Hans  CarveL 

GARY,  HENRY  FRANCIS  (1772-1844), 
educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  was  an 
assistant  librarian  at  the  British  Museum 
from  1826  to  1837.  He  translated  Dante's 
'Divina  Commedia'  ('Inferno',  1805;  'Purga- 
torio*  and  Taradiso*,  1812),  the  'Birds*  of 
Aristophanes  (1824),  and  Pindar  (1832). 

Carya'tids  (from  Kapvdns,  a  priestess  of 
Artemis  at  Caryae  in  Laconia),  female  figures 
used  as  columns  to  support  an  entablature, 
perhaps  originally  statues  of  maidens  taking 
part  in  the  festival  of  Artemis  Caryatis. 
[Smith,  'Classical  Dictionary'.] 

CARYL!/,  JOHN  (1625-1711),  diplomatist, 
secretary  to  Mary  of  Modena,  queen  of 
James  II,  and  author  of  'Sir  Solomon  Single*, 
a  comedy.  He  was  a  friend  and  correspondent 
of  Pope,  to  whom  he  suggested  the  subject 
of  'The  Rape  of  the  Lock*  (q.v.). 

Casablanca,  Louis  (1755-98),  a  Corsican 
who  commanded  the  French  vessel  TOrient* 
at  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  where  he  is  said,  to 
have  blown  up  his  ship  to  prevent  its  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  English,  and  'perished 
with  his  little  son.  This  incident  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  well-known  poem  by  Mrs.  Hemans 


CASANOVA    DE    SEINGALT,     GIA- 

COMO  (1725-98),  an  Italian  adventurer, 
whose  Memoirs,  written  in  an  imperfect  but 
lively  French,  describe  his  rogueries,  adven- 
tures, and  amours  in  most  countries  of 
Europe.  The  licentious  and  indecent  character 
of  various  passages  mars  a  highly  entertaining 
account  of  i8th-cent.  European  society  and 
the  portrait  of  its  very  singular  author. 
Casanova's  veracity  has  been  much  ques- 
tioned, and  no  doubt  it  is  rather  in  the  main 


CASLON 

outlines  of  the  picture  than  in  its  details  that 
he  is  to  be  trusted. 

Casaubon,  MR.,  a  leading  character  in  G. 
Eliot's  'Middlemarch'  (q.v.). 

CASAUBON,  ISAAC  (i  559-1 614),  aFrench 
Huguenot  scholar  and  theologian,  born  in 
exile  at  Geneva,  who  resided  in  London  from 
1610  to  1614.  His  chief  work  was  his 
criticism  of  the  'Annales  Ecclesiastici'  of 
Baronius,  in  his  *De  rebus  sacris  et  ecclesi- 
asticis  exercitationes'  (1614).  He  published 
critical  editions  of  a  number  of  classical 
authors  of  the  early  Christian  era.  He  was 
too  learned  and  too  critical  a  scholar  to  find 
rest  in  any  of  the  churches  of  the  day.  A  life 
of  Casaubon  was  written  by  Mark  Pattison 
(q.v.,  1875). 

Casby,  CHRISTOPHER  and  FLORA,  characters 
in  Dickens's  'Little  Dorrit*  (q.v.). 

Casca,  one  of  the  conspirators  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Julius  Caesar'  (q.v.). 

Case  is  altered,  The,  a  comedy  by  Jonson 
(q.v.),  printed  in  1609,  but  written  before 

1599. 

Count  Ferneze,  who  has  lost  an  infant  son, 
Camillo,  when  Vicenza  was  captured  by  the 
French  general  Chamont,  sees  his  elder  son 
Paulo  go  off  to  the  wars  against  this  same 
Chamont,  under  the  special  care  of  his  general 
Maximilian.  Paulo  is  taken  prisoner,  but 
on  the  other  hand  Maximilian  brings  back 
Chamont  and  his  friend  Gasper  captive.  It 
is  agreed  that  Gasper  shall  return  and  effect 
an  exchange  between  Paulo  and  Chamont, 
but  Gasper  personates  Chamont,  and 
Chamont  himself  departs.  The  trick  is 
discovered,  and  Ferneze  is  on  the  point  of 
executing  Gasper,  when  Chamont  returns 
with  Paulo,  and  it  is  moreover  discovered 
that  Gasper  is  Ferneze's  lost  son  Camillo. 
The  other  elements  of  the  play  are  more 
amusing:  the  attempts  made  by  various 
parties  to  secure  the  daughter  and  the 
treasure  of  the  beggar  Jaques  de  Prie  (neither 
of  them  his  by  rights),  and  the  fun  made  of 
Antonio  Balladino,  a  character  in  which 
Anthony  Munday  (q.v.)  is  ridiculed. 

Caseldy,  a  character  in  Meredith's  'The 
Tale  of  Chloe*  (q.v.). 

Cask  of  Amontillado,  The,  a  tale  by  Edgar 
Allan  Poe  (q.v.). 

Casket  Letters,  THE,  letters  supposed  to 
have  passed  between  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
and  Bothwell,  and  to  have  established  her 
complicity  in  the  murder  of  Darnley.  They 
were  repudiated  by  the  queen  as  forgeries 
(and  some  have  suspected  George  Buchanan, 
q.v.,  as  the  forger),  but  it  was  threatened  that 
they  would  be  used  as  evidence  against  her. 
They  disappeared  before  the  end  of  the  i6th 
cent,  and  have  never  been  recovered. 

Gaslon,  WILLIAM  (1692-1766),  a  London 
type-founder,  famous  in  the  history  of 
printing.  His  broadside  showing  specimens 


CASSANDRA 

of  roman  and  italic  in  no  fewer  than  twelve 
different  sizes  was  issued  in  1734.  Caslon 
type  has  been,  in  the  late  i  gth  and  early  2oth 
cents.,  perhaps  the  most  popular  in  good  book 
printing. 

Cassandra ,  daughter  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy, 
received  the  gift  of  prophecy  from  Apollo, 
who  was  enamoured  of  her.  But  as  she 
slighted  him,  the  god  contrived  that  no  trust 
should  be  placed  in  her  predictions.  After  the 
fall  of  Troy  she  fell  to  the  lot  of  Agamemnon, 
who  took  her  back  to  Greece  and  to  whom  she 
foretold  the  calamities  that  awaited  him.  She 
was  murdered  by  Clytemnestra  (q.v.). 

Cassandre,  by  La  Calprenede  (q.v.).  It  was 
translated  into  English  in  the  middle  of  the 
1 7th  cent,  and  is  said  to  have  been  read  by 
Charles  I  in  prison. 

Cassibellaun  (CASSIBELAN  in  Shakespeare's 
'Cymbeline'),  or  CASSIVELAUNUS,  the  ruler  of 
the  country  north  of  the  Thames,  who  was 
given  the  chief  command  of  the  British  forces 
that  resisted  Caesar's  second  invasion  (54  B.C.). 
He  was  defeated  and  obliged  to  sue  for  peace. 
Legend  makes  him  brother  and  successor  of 
Lud  (q.v.). 
Cassim,  the  brother  of  All  Baba  (q.v.). 

Cassio,  MICHAEL,  in  Shakespeare's  'Othello' 
(q.v.),  the  Moor's  lieutenant. 

CASSIODORUS,  MAGNUS  AURELIUS 
(b.  c.  A.D.  468),  of  Scylacium  in  Bruttiurn  (the 
modern  Squillace  in  Cantabria),  a  distin- 
guished statesman  who  governed  for  many 
years  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom  under  Theo- 
doric  the  Great  and  his  successors,  and  a 
man  of  exceptional  learning  for  his  period. 
He  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  at  the 
monastery  at  Viviers  which  he  had  founded. 
There  he  set  his  monks  to  copy  classical 
(Latin)  manuscripts ;  much  would  have  been 
lost  but  for  this.  He  was  author  of  several 
works  in  Latin,  of  which  the  most  important 
is  a  collection  of  state  papers  known  as 
'Variarum  Epistolarum  Libri  XII*. 

Gassio pea,  wife  of  Cepheus,  king  of  Ethiopia, 
and  mother  of  Andromeda  (q.v.),  who  boasted 
herself  (or  according  to  another  version,  her 
daughter)  more  beautiful  than  the  Nereids, 
thus  incurring  the  wrath  of  Poseidon.  She 
was  changed  into  a  northern  constellation, 
the  'starr'd  Ethiop  queen'  of  Milton's  'II 
Penseroso'. 

Gassiterides,  the  'tin  islands',  from  Cassi- 
terum,  tin;  possibly  the  Scilly  Isles,  or  Corn- 
wall, where  there  are  tin  mines ;  but  probably 
islands  off  the  Spanish  coast,  near  Finisterre. 

Cassius,  in  Shakespeare's  'Julius  Caesar', 
the  friend  of  Brutus  and  leader  of  the  con- 
spiracy against  Julius  Caesar. 

Castalia,  the  name  of  a  spring  on  Mt.  Par- 
nassus, sacred  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses,  said 
to  be  so  called  from  Castalia  (daughter  of 
Achelous),  who  plunged  into  it  to  escape  the 
pursuit  of  Apollo. 


CASTLE  OF  OTRANTO 

Gastalio,    a    character    in    Otway's    'The 
Orphan*  (q.v.). 
Castara,  see  Habington. 

CASTIGLIONE,  BALDASSARE  (1478- 
1529),  Italian  humanist,  chiefly  known  for 
his  prose  dialogue,  'II  Cortegiano'  (1528), 
translated  in  1561  into  English  by  Sir 
Thomas  Hoby  (1530-66).  In  this  dialogue, 
which  takes  place  at  the  court  of  Urbino,  and 
is  presided  over  by  the  duchess,  all  the  quali- 
fications of  the  ideal  courtier,  ethical  and 
intellectual,  as  well  as  military,  sporting,  and 
elegant,  are  set  out  and  discussed.  The  work 
had  much  influence  on  the  literature  of  Eng- 
land, e.g.  on  Surrey,  Wyatt,  Sidney,  and 
Spenser. 

Castle  Dangerous,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott 
(q.v.)  published  in  1832,  as  the  last  of  the 
'Tales  of  My  Landlord'. 

The  story  deals  with  the  defence  in  1306 
of  Douglas  Castle  by  Sir  John  de  Walton, 
assisted  by  the  young  knight  Aymer  de 
Valence,  on  behalf  of  the  king  of  England, 
against  the  forces  of  Robert  the  Bruce  and 
Sir  James  Douglas  ('The  Black  Douglas'). 
The  Lady  Augusta  of  Berkeley,  a  noble  and 
beautiful  young  Englishwoman,  has  offered 
her  hand  and  fortune  to  the  English  knight 
who  will  hold  it  for  a  year  and  a  day.  In  a 
spirit  of  light-hearted  frolic  she  herself  goes 
in  disguise,  with  an  aged  minstrel,  Bertram, 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  castle.  Here  she 
is  in  danger  of  being  treated  as  a  spy  by  Sir 
John,  before  he  discovers  her  identity,  and 
then  is  captured  by  the  Douglas,  and  is 
offered  to  Sir  John  in  exchange  for  the  castle. 
Sir  John's  embarrassment  is  solved  by  the 
arrival  of  orders  to  surrender  the  castle,  and 
the  lady  is  restored  to  her  lover. 

Castle  of  Bungay,  see  Bungay. 

Castle  of  Indolence,  The,  a  poem  in  Spen- 
serian stanzas  by  J.  Thomson  (1700-48,  q.v.), 
published  in  1748, 

This,  the  most  beautiful  and  musical  of 
Thomson's  works,  was  begun  in  1733.  It 
consists  of  two  cantos,  of  which  the  first 
describes  the  castle  of  the  wizard  Indolence, 
into  which  he  entices  the  weary  pilgrims  of 
this  earth.  Once  there,  a  torpor  steals  over 
them,  and  they  sink  into  idleness  amid 
delightful  sights  and  sounds.  With  a  light 
touch  of  caricature  various  real  persons,  in- 
cluding the  poet  himself,  inhabitants  of  the 
castle,  are  sketched  in.  Presently,  becoming 
diseased  and  loathsome,  the  inmates  are 
thrown  into  a  dungeon  and  left  there  to 
languish.  The  second  canto  describes  the 
conquest  of  the  wizard  and  the  destruction 
of  his  castle  by  the  knight  of  Arms  and 
Industry. 

Castle  of  Otranto,  They  a  Gothic  Story,  a 
novel  by  H.  Walpole  (q.v.),  published  in 
1764.^ 

This  work  purported  in  the  first  edition 
to  be  a  translation  from  the  Italian,  but  its 


CASTLE  PERILOUS 

authorship  was  acknowledged  in  the  second 
edition.  The  events  related  are  supposed  to 
have  occurred  in  the  i2th  or  I3th  cents. 
Manfred,  prince  of  Otranto,  the  villain  of 
the  story,  is  the  grandson  of  a  usurper  of  the 
realm,  who  had  poisoned  Alfonso,  the  right- 
ful lord.  It  had  been  prophesied  that  the  line 
of  the  usurper  should  continue  to  reign  until 
the  rightful  owner  had  grown  too  large 
to  inhabit  the  castle  and  as  long  as  male 
issue  of  the  usurper  remained  to  enjoy  it. 
When  the  story  opens,  Manfred  is  about  to 
marry  his  only  son  to  the  beautiful  Isabella, 
but  on  the  eve  of  the  wedding  the  son  is 
mysteriously  killed.  Terrified  lest  he  should 
be  left  without  male  descendants,  Manfred 
determines  to  divorce  his  wife  and  marry 
Isabella  himself.  Isabella  escapes  with  the 
assistance  of  Theodore,  a  young  peasant, 
bearing  a  singular  resemblance  to  the 
portrait  of  Alfonso,  and  already  under  sus- 
picion of  some  connexion  with  the  death  of 
Manfred's  son.  Theodore  is  imprisoned,  but 
is  released  by  Matilda,  Manfred's  daughter, 
with  whom  he  falls  in  love.  Manfred,  sus- 
picious of  an  amour  between  Theodore  and 
Isabella,  and  learning  that  Theodore  and  a 
lady  from  the  castle  are  together  by  night  at 
Alfonso's  tomb,  hurries  there  and  stabs  the 
lady,  only  to  find  that  he  has  killed  his  daugh- 
ter, Matilda.  The  supernatural  element  that 
has  pervaded  the  story  now  brings  it  to  an 
end.  The  ghost  of  Alfonso  (a  mysterious 
gigantic  figure  that  haunts  the  castle),  in 
accordance  with  the  prophecy  has  grown  too 
big  for  the  edifice,  and  throws  it  down,  and 
terror  forces  Manfred  to  reveal  the  usurpa- 
tion. Theodore  turns  out  to  be  the  heir  of 
Alfonso  and  the  rightful  prince,  and  marries 
Isabella. 

Castle  Perilous,  in  Malory's  *Morte 
d'Arthur*  (the  story  of  Beaumains  or  Sir 
Gareth),  the  castle  of  the  Lady  Lyones.  See 
Gareth  and  Lynette. 

Castle  Rackrent,  a  novel  by  M.  Edgeworth 
(q.v.),  published  in  1801. 

Thady  Quirk,  steward  to  the  Rackrent 
family,  tells  the  story  of  the  family  since  he 
has  known  it.  He  begins  with  the  hard- 
drinking  Sir  Patrick  who  dies  singing  his 
favourite  song: 

He  that  goes  to  bed,  and  goes  to  bed  sober, 

Falls  as  the  leaves  do  ... 
Next  comes  the  litigious  Sir  Murtagh,  who 
'out  of  forty-  nine  suits  which  he  had,  never 
lost  one  butr  seventeen'.  Then  follows  the 
quarrelsome  Sir  Kit,  who  marries  a  'Jewish', 
and  locks  her  up  for  seven  years.  Last  comes 
Sir  Condy,  who  tosses  up  whether  he  shall 
marry  the  rich  Miss  Moneygawl  or  the  pretty 
Judy  Quirk,  and  runs  through  the  remainder 
of  the  Rackrent  property,  much  of  which 
passes  into  the  hands  of  Attorney  Quirk, 
Thady's  son,  a  sharp-witted  rascal.  The  book 
gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  reckless  living 
which  in  the  iSth  cent,  brought  many  Irish 
landlords  to  ruin. 


CATACOMB 

Castlereagli,  ROBERT  STEWART,  second  mar- 
quis of  Londonderry,  better  known  as  Viscount 
Castlereagh  (1769-1822),  was  chief  secretary 
for  Ireland  1799-1801,  and  secured  the 
passing  of  the  Act  of  Union  by  the  Irish 
parliament.  He  was  subsequently  president 
of  the  board  of  control  and  in  charge  of  the 
war  and  colonial  offices.  He  sent  Wellesley  to 
Portugal  and  was  responsible  for  the  Wal- 
cheren  expedition.  He  fought  a  duel  with 
Canning  in  1809,  wounded  him,  and  resigned 
office.  He  was  foreign  secretary  from  1812  to 
1 822,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the  European 
settlement  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  and  after 
Waterloo,  restraining  the  allies  from  retalia- 
tion on  France.  His  mind  became  affected  by 
work  and  responsibility  and  he  committed 
suicide.  Shelley  (q.v.)  in  his  'Masque  of 
Anarchy*  (provoked  by  the  Peterloo,  q.v., 
affair)  wrote : 

I  met  Murder  on  the  way — 
He  had  a  face  like  Castlereagh. 

Castlewood,  THOMAS,  third  Viscount,  and 
his  wife  ISABEL;  FRANCIS,  fourth  Viscount, 
his  wife  RACHEL,  and  his  daughter,  BEATRIX  ; 
FRANCIS,  fifth  Viscount ;  characters  in  Thack- 
eray's 'Esmond'  (q.v.).  Also  Eugene,  EARL 
OF  CASTLEWOOD,  in  Thackeray's  fThe  Vir- 
ginians* (q.v.),  son  of  the  last  named. 

Castor  and  Pollux,  twin  brothers,  known 
as  the  DIOSCURI,  sons  of  Zeus  by  Leda  (q.v.). 
They  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  the  Ar- 
gonauts (q.v.),  in  the  course  of  which  Pollux 
defeated  and  slew  Amy  cus  in  the  combat  of  the 
cestus,  and  was  thereafter  reckoned  the  god 
of  wrestling  and  boxing.  Castor  distinguished 
himself  in  the  management  of  horses.  The 
twins  were  also  regarded  as  the  friends  of 
navigators,  having  the  power  to  calm  storms. 
They  were  made  a  constellation  known  as 
Gemini  or  the  Twins. 

Castor  is  a  name  given  to  the  phenomenon 
known  as  a  Corposant  (see  Elmo's  Fire).  When 
two  corposants  were  seen  together,  they  were 
called  Castor  and  Pollux  and  were  thought 
to  portend  the  cessation  of  a  storm. 

Castriot,  GEORGE,  see  Scanderbeg. 

Castruccio  Castracani,  The  Sword  of,  a 
poem  by  E.  B.  Browning.  He  was  a  famous 
soldier  of  the  i4th  cent,  and  a  leader  of  the 
Ghibellines.  His  sword,  which  had  been 
kept  till  some  patriot  should  arise  and  free 
Italy,  was  offered  to  Victor  Emmanuel,  who 
exclaimed,  'Questa  e  per  me'. 

Catachresis,  application  of  a  term  to  a 
thing  it  does  not  properly  denote ;  misuse  of 
words. 

Catacomb,  a  word  of  uncertain  etymology, 
(a)  representing  the  Latin  catacumbus,  used 
as  early  as  the  5th  cent,  in  connexion  with  the 
subterranean  cemetery  under  the  Basilica  of 
St.  Sebastian  on  the  Appian  Way  near  Rome, 
in  or  near  which  the  bodies  of  the  apostles 
Peter  and  Paul  were  said  to  have  been  de- 
posited: this  is  the  only  sense  in  which  the 


CATAIAN 

word  is  used  in  English  before  the  I7th  cent, 
(j)  In  later  times  applied  (in  the  plural)  to  all 
the  subterranean  cemeteries  lying  around 
Rome  (some  of  which,  after  having  long  been 
covered  up  and  forgotten,  were  accidentally 
discovered  in  1578).  The  word  is  also 
extended  to  similar  subterranean  works  else- 
where. Scott  in  'Old  Mortality',  c.  ix,  uses 
it  for  a  compartment  in  a  cellar. 

Catalan,  variant  of  CATHAIAN,  a  man  of 
Cathay  or  China;  'used  also  to  signify  a 
sharper,  from  the  dexterous  thieving  of  those 
people'  [Nares],  and  so  used  by  Shakespeare 
in  'Merry  Wives',  n.  L 
Catalectic,  said  of  a  verse  whose  last  foot 
is  truncated  and  has  only  one  syllable,  or  is 
altogether  cut  off;  e.g.  'Best  and  brightest, 
come  away*.  Cf.  acatalectic. 

Caterans,  Highland  irregular  fighting  men, 
marauders. 

Catharine  of  Alexandria,  ST.,  a  princess 
in  the  3rd  cent.,  who  embraced  the  Christian 
religion  by  divine  inspiration,  and  converted 
all  with  whom  she  came  in  communication, 
including  the  wife  of  the  Emperor  Maxentius 
and  his  general  Porphyrius.  She  was  be- 
headed in  307,  after  other  methods  of  putting 
her  to  death,  including  that  of  the  wheel 
which  bears  her  name  (a  diabolical  engine 
consisting  of  four  wheels  armed  with  knives 
and  teeth  turning  different  ways),  had  failed 
owing  to  divine  interposition.  Her  body  was 
conveyed  by  angels  to  Mount  Sinai,  where 
the  convent  of  St.  Catharine  was  founded  to 
commemorate  the  spot. 

A  CATHERINE  WHEEL  is  a  kind  of  firework 
which  rotates  while  burning;  or  a  lateral 
somersault. 

CATHARINE  OF  GENOA,  ST.  (b.  1447), 
born  at  Genoa  of  an  illustrious  family .  She  felt 
an  early  vocation  to  a  convent  life,  but  was 
refused  on  account  of  her  youth.  Her  mar- 
riage to  Giuliano  Adorno  was  unhappy.  She 
became  an  outstanding  mystic>  and  wrote 
'Dialogues  of  the  Soul  and  Body*  and  a 
'Treatise  on  Purgatory'. 

Catharine  of  Siena,  ST.  (1347-80),  an 
Italian  saint.  Her  holiness  of  life  and  gift  of 
diplomacy  were  so  famous  that  she  was  called 
upon  to  mediate  between  Pope  Urban  VI 
and  the  Florentines  in  1378.  It  was  through 
her  persuasion  that  Gregory  XI  returned 
from  Avignon  to  Rome.  Her  extensive 
correspondence  with  popes  and  princes,  in- 
stinct with  religious  fervour,  was  published 
in  1860. 

Cathay  ('Khitai'),  the  name  under  which 
China  was  known  under  the  Mongol  dynasty, 
the  Khitans  being  a  people  of  Manchu  race 
to  the  NE.  of  China  who  established  an  em* 
pire  over  north  China  during  two  centuries 
ending  in  1123.  See  'Cathay,  and  the  way 
thither,  or  the  medieval  geography  of  Asia' 
by  Sir  Henry  Yule  (1866),  which  includes  the 
narratives  of  the  voyages  of  Friar  Odoric  of 


CATILINE 

Pordenone  early  in  the  I4th  cent.,  of  Ibn 
Batuta  of  Tangier  (1325-55),  and  of  Benedict 
Goes,  a  Jesuit  born  about  1561  in  the  Azores, 
who  was  one  of  the  missionaries  sent  to 
Akbar  in  1594;  he  proceeded  from  India  to 
China  early  in  the  I7th  cent. 

GATHER,  WILLA  (1876-  ),  American 
novelist,  born  in  Virginia.  Her  chief  books 
are:  'My  Antonia'  (19*8),  *  Youth  and  the 
Bright  Medusa'  (1920),  'One  of  Ours'  (1922), 
'A  Lost  Lady'  (1923),  'Death  Comes  for  the 
Archbishop*  (1927),  'Shadows  on  the  Rock* 


Catherine,  a  novel  by  Thackeray  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1839-40,  and  written  under  the 
pseudonym  'Ikey  Solomons,  junior*.  It  is 
an  ironical  tale  of  a  criminal  life,  designed 
to  discredit  the  practice  of  ennobling  crime 
in  fiction.  Catherine  Hayes,  from  whom 
'Catherine'  was  drawn,  was  executed  for  the 
murder  of  her  husband  in  1726. 

Catherine  de  Bourgh,  LADY,  a  character  in 
Jane  Austen's  'Pride  and  Prejudice*  (q.v.). 

Catholic  Church,  a  term  first  applied  to 
the  whole  body  of  Christian  believers,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  an  individual  congregation 
or  particular  body  of  Christians.  After  the 
separation  of  the  Eastern  and  Western. 
Churches,  'Catholic*  was  assumed  by  the 
latter  as  its  descriptive  epithet,  and  'Ortho- 
dox* by  the  former.  At  the  Reformation  the 
term  'Catholic'  was  claimed  as  its  exclusive 
right  by  the  body  remaining  under  the  Roman 
obedience,  in  opposition  to  the  Protestant  or 
Reformed  Churches.  These  however  also 
retained  the  term,  giving  it,  for  the  most  part, 
a  wider  and  more  ideal  and  absolute  sense. 
In  England  it  was  claimed  that  the  Church, 
even  as  Reformed,  was  the  national  branch  of 
the  'Catholic  Church'  in  its  proper  historical 
sense.  As  a  consequence,  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish the  unreformed  Latin  church,  its 
chosen  epithet  of  'Catholic'  was  further 
qualified  by  'Roman*.  On  this  analogy 
'Anglo-Catholic*  has  been  used  by  some, 
since  about  1835,  of  the  Anglican  Church,  in 
preference  to  'Protestant*  [OED.].  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  igth  and  in  the  2oth  cents., 
the  term  Anglo-Catholic  has  been  applied  in  a 
more  special  sense  to  the  present  high  church 
element  in  the  Anglican  Church,  which  was 
associated  with  the  Oxford  Movement  (q.v.) 
and  emphasizes  the  Catholic  as  distinct  from 
the  Protestant  character  of  that  Church. 

The  OLD  CATHOLICS  are  a  religious  party 
who  separated  from  the  Roman  Catholic 
communion  in  Germany  after  the  Vatican 
Council  of  1870-1. 

Catholic  King,  His  CATHOLIC  MAJESTY,  a 
tide  assumed  by  the  kings  of  Spain.  It  was 
given  first  to  Isabella  (by  Alexander  VI),  then 
to  her  and  her  husband  Ferdinand. 

Catiline,  a  Roman  tragedy  by  Jonson  (q.v.), 
first  acted  in  1611.  The  play  is  based  on 
the  events  of  the  year  63  B.C.,  when  Catiline 


CATNACH 

organized  a  conspiracy  to  overthrow  the 
existing  government  and  to  renew  with  the 
aid  of  Sulla's  veterans  the  scenes  of  blood- 
shed which  Rome  had  recently  seen.  Cicero 
and  Antonius  were  elected  consuls,  and  Cati- 
line, secretly  encouraged  by  Caesar  and 
Crassus,  prepared  for  a  rising.  Cicero,  how- 
ever, warned  by  Fulvia,  the  mistress  of 
Curius,  of  the  intention  to  assassinate  him  as 
a  first  step  in  the  movement,  summons  the 
senate  and  accuses  Catiline,  who  leaves  Rome 
and  joins  the  troops  raised  by  his  adherents 
at  Faesulae.  Cicero  obtains  evidence  of  the 
guilt  of  the  conspirators  through  the  am- 
bassadors of  the  Allobroges,  and  submits  it 
to  the  senate,  which  resolves  that  they  shall 
be  put  to  death.  Catiline  falls  in  the  decisive 
engagement  between  his  troops  and  those  of 
the  government  commanded  by  Petreius. 

Catnach,  JAMES  (1792-1841),  a  publisher  in 
Seven  Dials,  London.  He  issued  a  large 
number  of  penny  and  farthing  chap-books, 
ballads,  and  broadsides,  many  of  them  about 
crimes,  highwaymen,  and  executions,  which 
throw  much  light  on  his  period.  - 

Cato,  a  tragedy  by  Addison  (q.v.),  produced 
in  1713. 

It  deals  with  the  last  phase  of  the  life  of 
Marcus  Porcius  Cato  the  republican,  who  is 
besieged  in  Utica  by  Caesar  (46  B.C.).  He  is 
betrayed  by  Sempronius,  a  senator,  and  by 
Syphax,  a  Numidian  ally,  but  faithfully  sup- 
ported by  Juba,  the  Numidian  prince. 
Further  resistance  to  Caesar  bemg  useless,  he 
provides  for  the  escape  of  his  friends  and 
takes  his  own  life  rather  than  surrender  to  the 
dictator.  A  love  interest  is  added  to  the  play 
in  the  devotion  of  Juba  to  Cato's  daughter 
Marcia,  and  in  the  rivalry  of  the  two  sons  of 
Cato  for  the  hand  of  Lucia,  a  rivalry  resolved 
by  the  death  of  one  of  them  while  bravely 
resisting  the  traitor  Syphax. 

The  political  excitement  at  the  moment 
when  the  play  was  produced — Anne's  health 
was  failing  and  the  question  of  the  succession 
was  acute — contributed  to  the  success  of  a 
drama  dealing  with  Cato's  last  stand  for 
liberty. 

Cato  the  Censor  (234-149  B.C.)  was  famous 
for  his  opposition  in  that  office  to  the  preva- 
lent fashions  of  luxury,  which  he  combated  by 
heavy  taxation.  Having  been  sent  on  a  mission 
to  Africa,  he  was  so  struck  with  the  power 
and  prosperity  of  Carthage  that  he  became 
convinced  that  Rome  would  never  be  safe 
until  Carthage  was  destroyed.  Therefore 
whenever  called  upon  to  vote  in  the  senate, 
and  whatever  the  subject,  his  final  words 
(according  to  Florus)  were  'Delenda  est  Car- 
thago'. 

Cato  Street  Conspiracy,  a  plot  by  a  certain 
Thistlewood  (q.v.)  and  some  thirty  other  per- 
sons in  1820  to  murder  the  ministers  of  the 
Crown  at  a  cabinet  dinner,  provoked  by  the 
repressive  measures  taken  by  the  govern- 
ment against  the  advocates  of  reform.  The 

3868 


CAVE 

conspirators  met  in  a  stable  in  Cato  Street 
near  the  Edgware  Road.  The  conspiracy  was 
betrayed  and  the  leaders  executed. 

Catriona,  see  Kidnapped. 

CATULLUS,  QUINTUS  VALERIUS 
(87-54?  ?-c-)  a  great  Roman  poet  and  epi- 
grammatist, born  in  or  near  Verona.  The 
Lesbia  celebrated  in  his  poems  was  probably 
Clodia,  the  notorious  sister  of  Publius 
Clodius.  He  had  a  country  house  at  Sirrnio 
on  the  Lacus  Benacus  (Lake  of  Garda),  the 
Sirmione  of  Tennyson's  'Frater,  ave  atque 
vale'. 

Caucus,  a  word  of  obscure  origin,  which 
arose  in  New  England,  said  to  have  been  used 
in  Boston  (U.S.)  before  1724.  In  the  U.S.  it 
signifies  a  private  meeting  of  the  representa- 
tives of  a  political  party  previous  to  an  elec- 
tion or  to  a  general  meeting  of  the  party,  to 
select  candidates  for  office  or  to  concert  other 
measures  for  furthering  the  party's  interests. 
In  English  newspapers  since  1878  it  has  been 
generally  misused  and  applied  opprobriously 
to  a  committee  or  organization  charged  with 
seeking  to  manage  the  elections  and  dictate 
to  the  constituencies,  but  which  is  in  fact 
usually  a  representative  committee  popularly 
elected  for  the  purpose  of  securing  conceited 
political  action  in  a  constituency.  [OED.] 

Candine  Forks,  narrow  passes  in  the 
mountains  of  Samnium  where  the  Roman 
army  surrendered  to  the  Samnites  in  321  B.C., 
and  were  obliged  to  pass  under  the  yoke  (a 
spear  supported  transversely  by  two  others 
placed  upright)  to  symbolize  their  subju- 
gation. 

Caudle  Lectures,  see  Mrs.  Caudle's  Curtain 
Lectures. 

Cauline,  SIR,  the  subject  of  a  ballad  included 
in  Percy's  *Reliques',  a  young  knight  at  the 
court  of  the  king  of  Ireland,  who  falls  in  love 
with   Christabelle   the   king's   daughter,   is 
banished,  returns  in  disguise  and  slays  a  grim 
'Soldan*  giant  who  is  a  suitor  for  the  princess, 
but  is  himself  mortally  wounded.    Christa- 
belle dies  of  a  broken  heart. 
Canrus,  Latin  name  of  the  NW.  wind. 
Cavalier,  Memoirs  of  a,  see  Memoirs. 

Cavaliers,  a  name  given  to  the  adherents  of 
the  king  in  the  Civil  War  of  the  I7th  cent.  It 
was  originally  reproachful  and  given  to  the 
swashbucklers  on  the  king's  side,  who  hailed 
the  prospect  of  war. 

CAVALIER  LYRICS,  a  term  applied  to  the 
lyrical  poetry  of  which  there  was  a  remarkable 
outburst  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I,  and  of 
which  the  court  was  the  centre,  though 
Robert  Herrick,  the  chief  of  these  lyrists,  was 
not  a  courtier.  The  principal  other  CavaHer 
lyrists  were  Thomas  Carew,  Sir  John  Suck- 
ling, and  Richard  Lovelace  (qq.v.). 

Cave,  EDWARD  (1691-1754),  the  son  or  a 
Rugby  cobbler,  became  a  London  printer  and 
published  many  journals  and  books,  but  is 


CAVE  OF  ADULLAM 

chiefly  remembered  as  the  founder  of  the 
'Gentleman's  Magazine'  (q.v.),  which  he 
conducted  from  1731  until  his  death. 

Gave  of  Adullam,  see  Aduttamites. 

Gave  of  Harmony,  THE,  in  Thackeray's 
'The  Newcomes'  (q.v.),  was  drawn  from 
Evans's  Tavern  at  the  NW.  corner  of  Co  vent 
Garden  piazza,  frequented  by  Douglas  Jer- 
rold,  G.  A.  Sala,  Leech,  &c.;  and  from  the 
'Coal  Hole'  in  Fountain  Court,  Strand, 

Cave  of  Mammon,  see  Mammon. 
Cavelarice ,  see  Markham  (G.). 

CAVENDISH,  GEORGE  (1500-61?),  a 
gentleman  of  Thomas  Wolsey's  household, 
and  author  of  a  remarkable  biography  of  the 
cardinal,  in  which  with  much  art  he  contrasts 
the  magnificence  of  the  cardinal's  life  with 
his  subsequent  disgrace,  and  indicates  'the 
wondrous  mutability  of  vain  honours  . . .  and 
the  fickle  trust  to  worldly  princes'.  It  was  first 
printed  in  1641 ,  but  was  previously  circulated 
in  manuscript. 

Cavendish,  HENRY  (1731-1810),  natural 
philosopher,  grandson  of  the  second  duke  of 
Devonshire,  educated  at  Peterhouse,  Cam- 
bridge. He  discovered  the  constitution  of 
water  and  atmospheric  air,  and  experimented 
on  electricity  and  the  density  of  the  earth. 
His  name  is  commemorated  in  the  CAVENDISH 
LABORATORY  at  Cambridge  for  physical  re- 
search, founded  in  1874  by  the  seventh  duke 
of  Devonshire. 

Cavendish,  THOMAS  (1560-92),  fitted  out 
three  ships  in  1586  and  circumnavigated  the 
globe,  reaching  Plymouth  on  his  return  in 
September  1588.  His  ship  was  the  'Desire'. 
In  the  course  of  his  voyage  he  captured  the 
great  treasure-ship  off  the  coast  of  Cali- 
fornia. He  planned  another  voyage  in  1591 
with  Capt.  John  Davis,  but  died  at  sea. 

Cavendish  on  Whist,  *The  Principles  of 
whist,  stated  and  explained  by  Cavendish* 
(the  pseudonym  of  HENRY  JONES,  1831-99), 
published  in  1862.  Jones  was  a  member  of 
the  Cavendish  Whist  Club. 

CavouT,CAMiLLO  BENSO,  Count  di  (1810-61), 
was  prime  minister  in  the  Sardinian  govern- 
ment   1852-9    and    1860-1.     He    caused 
Sardinia  to  join  the  western  allies  against 
Russia  in  1855  and  sent  a  Sardinian  force  to 
the  Crimea  under  La  Marmora.  Having  thus 
enhanced  the  international  status  of  Sardinia, 
he  in  1858  secured  an  alliance  with  Napoleon 
III,  which  led  to  the  successful  campaign  of 
1859  against  Austria.   He  resigned  office  in 
anger  on  learning  the  terms  of  peace  settled 
by  the   two    emperors   at  Villafranca   and 
accepted   by  Victor  Emmanuel,  by  which 
Sardinia  acquired  only  Lombardy.    On  his 
return  to  office  in  1860  he  effected  the  an- 
nexation of  Tuscany,  and  after  Garibaldi's 
adventurous,    and    at   times    embarrassing, 
expedition  to  Sicily  and  Naples,  the  annexa- 
tion of  southern  Italy.    His  statesmanship 


CAXTONS 

thus  brought  about,  before  his  death,  the 
unification  of  the  greater  part  of  Italy. 

Cawdor,  THANE  OF,  see  Macbeth. 

Gaxon,  JACOB,  in  Scott's  'The  Antiquary* 
(q.v.),  hairdresser  at  Fairport,  employed  by 
Jonathan  Oldbuck. 

CAXTON,  WILLIAM  (1422  ?-9i),  the  first 
English  printer,  was  born  in  Kent  and  ap- 
prenticed, 1438,  to  a  London  mercer.  He 
went,  after  his  master's  death,  to  Bruges, 
1441,  where  he  remained  till  1470  engaged  in 
business  and  acting  (1465-9)  as  governor  of 
the  English  merchants  in  the  Low  Countries. 
He  was  also  employed  in  negotiating  com- 
mercial treaties  with  the  dukes  of  Burgundy. 
From  1471  to  1476  he  was  in  the  household 
of  Margaret  (sister  of  Edward  IV)  duchess  of 
Burgundy.  Caxton  began  translating  the 
French  romance  cLe  Recueil  des  Histoires  de 
Troves'  in  March  1469  at  Bruges  and  finished 
it  in  1471  at  Cologne.  He  learned  printing 
after  1471  and  before  1474,  perhaps  at 
Cologne  and  in  company  of  Colard  Mansion. 
He  printed  his  'Recuyell  of  the  Histories  of 
Troy',  folio,  probably  in  1474,  and  'The 
Game  and  Playe  of  the  Chesse'  (q.v.),  another 
translation  from  the  French,  probably  in 
1475,  both  perhaps  at  a  press  set  up  in  1473 
by  Colard  Mansion  at  Bruges  and  belonging 
to  Caxton.  He  came  to  England  in  1476,  and 
continued  in  favour  with  Edward  IV,  Richard 
III,  and  Henry  VII.  He  established  a  press 
at  Westminster  from  which  he  issued,  1477- 
91,  nearly  eighty  separate  books,  many  of 
them  translations  by  himself  from  French 
romances  (the  first  of  them  was  the  earl  of 
Rivers's  translation  of  'The  Dictes  and  Say- 
ings of  the  Philosophers*,  1477).  Six  distinct 
founts  of  type  were  used  by  Caxton.  At 
Westminster  he  lived  in  a  house  in  the 
Almonry,  near  the  west  end  of  the  abbey. 
His  importance  in  the  history  of  English 
literature  is  by  no  means  confined  to  his 
work  as  a  printer,  for  he  contributed  by  his 
translations  to  the  formation  in  the  i5th  cent, 
of  an  English  prose  style. 

Caxtonsf  The,  a  novel  by  Bulwer  Lytton 
(q.v.),  published  in  1849. 

Pisistratus  Caxton  narrates,  with  gentle 
humour,  the  simple  annals  of  the  Caxton 
family.  He  gives  a  pleasant  picture  of  his 
father,  a  kindly  scholar  absorbed  in  a  great 
work;  his  uncle  Jack  who  pursues  his  mania 
for  speculative  enterprises  with  results 
disastrous  to  the  family;  and  his  other  uncle, 
Roland,  an  old  warrior  in  whose  opinion 
Sir  William  Caxton  who  fought  at  Bosworth 
is  a  more  creditable  ancestor  than  Caxton  the 
printer.  The  only  considerable  incident  in 
the  story  is  the  attempt  of  the  Byronic  youth 
Vivian,  who  turns  out  to  be  the  reprobate  son 
of  Roland,  to  carry  off  Fanny  Trevanion,  the 
rich  heiress.  Pisistratus,  who  has  been  in 
love  with  her  and  secretary  to  her  father, 
emigrates  to  Australia  and  eventually  marries 
his  cousin  Blanche. 


CAYSTER 

Gayster,  a  river  in  Lydia,  falling  into  the 
Aegean  Sea  near  Ephesus,  and  according  to 
the  poets  celebrated  for  its  swans. 

Gebes,  a  Greek  philosopher,  of  Thebes,  a 
friend  and  disciple  of  Socrates;  he  figures 
in  Plato's  Thaedo'.  The  'Picture'  or  'Table' 
(mvag),  a  work  once  attributed  to  him,  a 
symbolical  representation  of  the  life  of  man, 
is  now  held  to  be  spurious. 

Cecial,  TOM,  in  'Don  Quixote* (q.v.),  Sancho 
Panza's  neighbour,  who  engages  himself  as 
mock-squire  to  the  bachelor  Samson  Carras- 
co  (q.v.)  when  the  latter  masquerades  as  the 
Knight  of  the  Mirrors. 

Cecilia,  ST.,  a  Christian  martyr  who  died  at 
Rome  in  230.  She  is  said  to  have  been  forced 
to  marry,  in  spite  of  her  vows  of  celibacy,  a 
certain  Valerian.  She  converted  him  to 
Christianity,  and  both  suffered  martyrdom. 
Through  a  medieval  misinterpretation  of  a 
sentence  in  her  Acts  ('Cantantibus  organis  in 
corde  suo  soli  domino  decantabat')  she  came 
to  be  associated  with  church  music  and  in 
particular  with  the  organ,  which  she  was 
supposed  to  have  played.  When  the  Academy 
of  Music  was  founded  at  Rome  in  1584  she 
was  adopted  as  the  patroness  of  Church 
Music.  Her  story  is  told  in  Chaucer's 
'Second  Nun's  Tale*  (see  Canterbury  Tales). 
Dryden  (q.v.)  wrote  a  'Song  for  St.  Cecilia's 
Day*,  and  Pope  (q.v.)  an  cOde  for  Music  on 
Saint  Cecilia's  Day'. 

Cecilia,  or  Memoirs  of  an  Heiress,  a  novel  by 
F.  Burney  (q.v.),  published  in  1782. 

This  was  the  second  of  Miss  Burney's 
novels,  and  was  at  once  successful.  Cecilia 
Beverley  has  inherited  a  large  fortune  on  the 
sole  condition  that  her  husband  must  take 
her  name.  Until  she  comes  of  age  she  is 
required  to  live  with  one  of  her  three 
guardians.  The  first  of  these  is  Harrel,  a 
gambler,  who,  failing  in  his  attempt  to  exploit 
her,  and  to  save  himself  from  ruin,  commits 
suicide.  The  second  is  the  impossibly  vulgar 
and  avaricious  Briggs.  Cecilia  goes  to  stay 
with  the  third,  the  Hon.  Compton  Delvile,  a 
man  of  overweening  family  pride,  'arrogant 
without  merit,  imperious  without  capacity'. 
She  and  Mortimer  Delvile,  his  son,  fall 
deeply  in  love  with  one  another;  but  old 
Delvile  treats  Cecilia  with  contempt,  and  is 
furious  at  the  idea  that  his  son  should  ex- 
change his  name  for  hers.  A  marriage  is 
nevertheless  arranged  between  the  young 
couple  on  the  basis  that  Cecilia  shall  re- 
nounce her  fortune  and  Delvile  keep  his 
name.  But  this  plan  is  defeated  by  the 
machinations  of  the  crafty  Monckton,  whom 
Cecilia  has  always  regarded  as  a  trusty  friend, 
but  who,  being  married  to  a  woman  much 
older  than  himself,  hopes  to  win  Cecilia  and 
her  fortune  when  his  own  wife  dies.  Monck- 
ton's  treachery  is  exposed,  Cecilia  and 
Mortimer  Delvile  are  married,  and  after 
further  tribulations  old  Delvile  is  reconciled 
to  the  match.  There  are  many  admirably 


CELESTINA 

drawn  subsidiary  characters,  notably  the 
mischievous  rattle,  Lady  Honoria  Pemberton. 

Cecilia  Haikett,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'Beauchamp's  Career'  (q.v.). 

Cecrops,  the  legendary  first  king  of  Attica, 
which  was  called  CECROPIA  after  him,  and 
founder  of  Athens.  See  Athene. 

Cedilla,  a  mark  (5),  derived  through  the 
letter  z  from  the  Arabic  letter  sad,  written, 
especially  in  French  and  Portuguese  words, 
under  the  letter  c,  to  show  that  it  has  the  soft 
sound  in  positions  in  which  the  hard  sound 
would  be  normal,  as  before  a,  o,  u. 

Cedric  the  Saxon,  one  of  the  principal 
characters  in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe*  (q.v.). 

Ceix  and  Alceone,  a  tale  in  bk.  v  of  Gower's 
'Confessio  Amantis'  (q.v.).  See  Haley  one. 

Celadon  and  Amelia,  the  hero  and  heroine 
of  an  episode  included  in  Thomson's  'Sea- 
sons' (q.v.)  in  the  book  on  'Summer*.  Amelia 
is  killed  by  lightning  in  her  lover's  arms. 

Celaeno*  one  of  the  Harpies  (q.v.). 

Celestial  City,  THE,  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's 
Progress'  (q.v.),  signifying  Heaven. 

Celestial  Empire,  THE,  the  translation  of 
one  of  the  native  names  for  China. 

Celestina ,  or  the  Tragi- Comedy  of  Calisto  and 
Melibea,  a  dialogue  in  21  acts,  the  greater 
part  by  Fernando  de  Rojas  (q.v.),  published 
in  1501. 

The  work  takes  the  form  of  a  dialogue,  but 
is  essentially  dramatic,  and  marks  an  im- 
portant stage  in  the  literary  history  of  Spain 
and  of  Europe.  Though  as  Mabbe,  its  trans- 
lator observes,  'some  part  of  it  seemeth  some- 
what more  obscene  than  may  suit  with  a  civil 
style',  it  is  an  extremely  vivid,  entertaining 
work,  one  of  the  first  to  present  romance  in 
everyday  life.  The  reader  is  brought  into 
disreputable,  but  admirably  depicted  com- 
pany. The  principal  interlocutors  are  these: 
Calisto,  a  young  gentleman  of  birth  and  for- 
tune ;  Melibea,  a  modest  and  romantic  young 
lady;  Celestina,  a  crafty  wise  old  bawd; 
Parmeno  and  Sempronio,  the  rascally  brag- 
gart servants  of  Calisto ;  and  Elicia  and  Areu- 
sa,  two  wenches.  The  plot  is  briefly  as  follows. 
Calisto  casually  meeting  Melibea  falls  violently 
in  love  with  her,  but  is,  from  her  modesty, 
sharply  repulsed.  On  the  advice  of  one  of  his 
servants  he  calls  in  the  aid  of  Celestina,  who 
interposing  in  the  affair  deflects  Melibea 
from  the  path  of  virtue  and  brings  about  a 
general  catastrophe.  Celestina  is  murdered 
by  Parmeno  and  Sempronio  for  a  share  in 
the  reward  that  she  has  received,  and  these 
are  punished  with  death  for  their  crime. 
Calisto  is  killed  in  one  of  his  secret  meetings 
with  Melibea,  and  she  in  despair  takes  her 
own  life. 

An  excellent  and  racy,  if  exuberantly  dif- 
fuse translation  into  English  was  made  by 
James  Mabbe  (q.v.)  and  published  in  1631. 
It  has  been  reissued  in  the  Tudor  Translations. 


CELIA 

An  English  play  or  interlude,  of  unknown 
authorship,  called  'Calisto  and  Melibea',  was 
published  by  John  Rastell  about  1530.  It  is 
an  adaptation  of  the  earlier  part  of  the  Span- 
ish work,  and  is  one  of  the  first  English 
dramatic  works  that  approach  true  comedy. 
Celia,  one  of  the  principal  characters  in 
Shakespeare's  'As  You  Like  It'  (q.v.).    See 
also  Caelia. 
Celimene,  see  Misanthrope. 

CELLINI,  BENVENUTO  (1500-71),  a 
Florentine  goldsmith  and  sculptor,  and 
author  of  one  of  the  most  vivid  and  interesting 
autobiographies  ever  written.  The  first 
edition  was  published  in  1730  (dedicated  to 
Richard  Boyle)  at  Naples.  The  best  English 
translation  is  that  by  J.  A.  Symonds  (q.v.), 
published  in  1888.  There  is  also  a  translation 
by  Thomas  Roscoe  (1791-1871),  with  some 
passages  omitted ;  reissued  (with  the  omitted 
passages  restored)  in  the  'World's  Classics', 
1926.  Cellini  combined  the  characters  of 
artist  and  bravo ;  he  was  an  arrogant,  pas- 
sionate, conceited  man,  vainglorious  but  not 
(thinks  Symonds)  deliberately  untruthful. 
His  autobiography  gives  a  striking  picture 
of  i6th-cent.  life  in  Rome  and  Paris,  and 
throws  interesting  light  on  such  personages 
as  Pope  Paul  III,  Frangois  I,  and  Cosimo 
de*  Medici. 

Celt,  a  name  applied  in  modern  times  to 
peoples  speaking  languages  akin  to  those  of 
the  ancient  Galli  or  Gauls,  including  the 
Bretons  in  France,  the  Cornish,  Welsh,  Irish, 
Manx,  and  Gaelic  of  the  British  Isles.  Also 
a  name  applied  to  flint  implements  of  the 
Stone  Age. 

Celtic  Twilight,  The,  a  collection  of  stories  by 
Yeats  (q.v.),  published  in  1893,  illustrating 
the  mysticism  of  the  Irish  and  their  belief  in 
fairies,  ghosts,  and  spirits.  It  has  since  be- 
come a  generic  phrase  (slightly  ironical)  for 
the  whole  Irish  literary  revival  movement. 

Cenci,  The,  a  tragedy  by  P.  B.  Shelley  (q.v.), 
published  in  1819. 

Count  Francesco  Cenci,  the  head  of  one 
of  the  noblest  and  richest  families  in  Rome 
under  the  pontificate  of  Clement  VIII,  after  a 
life  of  wickedness  and  debauchery,  conceived 
an  implacable  hatred  against  his  children, 
which  towards  one  daughter  Beatrice  took  the 
form  of  an  incestuous  passion.  Beatrice  after 
vain  attempts  to  escape  from  her  miserable 
situation,  plotted  with  her  step-mother 
Lucretia,  and  her  brother  Bernardo,  the 
murder  of  their  common  tyrant.  It  was  done 
by  two  hired  assassins.  Circumstances  having 
aroused  suspicion  against  them,  the  Cenci 
were  arrested,  and  by  dint  of  examinations 
and  torture,  the  facts  were  discovered,  and 
the  Cenci  sentenced  to  death.  In  spite  of  the 
compassion  aroused  by  their  lamentable  tale, 
the  executions  of  Beatrice,  her  step-mother, 
and  one  of  her  brothers  were  carried  out  by 
order  of  the  pope.  These  events  occurred  in 


CEPOLA 

the  year  1599,  and  are  made  the  subject  of 
Shelley's  play. 

Cent  Nouvelles  Nouvelles,  Les,  a  collection 
of  French  tales,  long  attributed  to  Louis  XI, 
but  probably  by  Antoine  de  la  Salle  (c.  1398- 
c.  1462),  of  the  jokes  and  intrigues  of  burghers 
and  their  dames  and  serving-maids,  licentious 
in  character,  and  showing  Italian  influence 
(e.g.  of  the  'Decameron'). 
Centaurs,  THE,  a  fabulous  people  of 
Thessaly,  half  men  and  half  horses.  The 
legend  of  their  existence  perhaps  arose  from 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Thessaly  haying 
tamed  horses  and  appearing  to  their  neigh- 
bours mounted  on  horseback.  The  cele- 
brated battle  of  the  Centaurs  and  the 
Lapithae  (q.v.)  occurred  in  consequence  of  a 
quarrel  at  the  marriage  of  Hippodamia  and 
Peirithous,  king  of  the  Lapithae.  The  Cen- 
taurs, who  had  been  invited  to  the  feast, 
intoxicated  with  wine,  offered  violence  to  the 
women.  The  Lapithae  resented  the  injury, 
and  drove  the  Centaurs  from  the  country. 
Famous  among  the  Centaurs  was  Cheiron 


Centennial  State,  Colorado,  see  United 
States. 

CENTLIVRE,  SUSANNAH  (1667?-!  723), 
actress  and  dramatist,  married  in  1706  Joseph 
Centlivre,  cook  to  Queen  Anne.  She  wrote 
eighteen  plays,  chiefly  comedies,  between 
1700  and  1722.  'The  Wonder  1  A  Woman 
Keeps  a  Secret'  (1714)  provided  Garrick  with 
one  of  his  most  successful  parts,  and  'The 
Busybody*  (q.v.,  1709)  and  'A  Bold  Stroke 
for  a  Wife*  (q.v.,  1718)  are  tolerably  good 
comedies. 

Cento  (Latin  cento  t  a  garment  of  patchwork), 
a  literary  composition  made  up  of  scraps  from 
various  authors,  or,  more  loosely,  a  'string'  or 
farrago. 

Cephalus  (i)  the  husband  of  Procris, 
daughter  of  Erechtheus.  Eos  (see  Aurora)  fell 
in  love  with  him,  and  caused  dissension 
between  husband  and  wife.  Artemis  gave 
Procris  a  dog  called  Laelaps  ('Storm')  and  a 
spear  that  never  missed  its  aim.  These  Procris 
gave  to  Cephalus  and  a  reconciliation  followed. 
But  Procris  was  still  jealous,  and  watched  her 
husband,  hidden  in  a  bush,  when  he  was 
hunting.  Cephalus  thinking  that  he  heard 
some  animal  stirring  in  the  bush,  hurled  the 
spear  and  killed  Procris.  There  is  a  reference 
to  this  myth  in  the  'Shafalus'  and  'Proems*  of 
Pyrarnus  and  Thisbe  (Shakespeare,  'Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream*,  v.  i),  Milton  refers 
to  Cephalus  as  'the  Attic  boy*  in  'II  Pen- 
seroso*  (q.v.).  (2)  The  old  man  in  Bk.  I  of 
Plato's  'Republic*. 

Cephissus,  THE,  the  chief  river  of  Attica, 
flowing  from  Mt.  Pentelicus  past  Athens. 

CEPOLA  or  CEPOLLA,  BARTOLOMfi 

(d.  c.  1477),  an  Italian  jurist  born  at  Verona, 
author  of  various  legal  works.  His  *Cautelae 


[x48] 


CERBERUS 

juris  utilissimae*  (Venice,  1485)  or  'Devices' 
and  tricks  for  evading  the  law  are  often 
alluded  to  (e.g.  Rabelais,  II.  x). 

Cerberus,  the  dog  of  Pluto  (q.v.),  who  had 
fifty  heads  according  to  Hesiod,  and  three 
according  to  other  authors.  He  was  stationed 
at  the  entrance  of  hell,  to  prevent  the  living 
from  descending  to  the  infernal  regions,  and 
the  dead  from  escaping.  The  heroes  who  in 
their  lifetime  visited  Pluto's  kingdom  ap- 
peased him  with  a  cake,  for  instance  Aeneas 
('Aen'.  vi.  417),  whence  the  expression  'a  sop 
to  Cerberus';  Orpheus  (q.v.)  lulled  him  to 
sleep  with  his  lyre. 

Cercopes,  cunning  thievish  gnomes,  on  the 
island  of  Pithecusa,  who  robbed  Hercules  in 
his  sleep,  and  were  changed  by  Zeus  into 
monkeys. 

Cerdic  (d.  534),  a  Saxon  ealdorman,  who 
according  to  the  tradition,  received  but  diffi- 
cult to  believe,  landed  near  Southampton  in 
495,  defeated  the  Britons,  and  acquired  South 
Hampshire,  and  subsequently  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  and  took  the  title  of  king  of  the  West 
Saxons.  He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  English 
royal  line. 

Cerdon,  a  cobbler,  one  of  the  bear-baiters  in 
Butler's  'Hudibras'  (q.v.). 
Ceres,  see  Demeter. 

CERVANTES  SAAVEDRA,  MIGUEL 
DE  (1547—1616),  the  great  Spanish  novelist 
and  dramatist,  was  born  at  ALcalk  of  an  an- 
cient but  impoverished  family,  and  was 
wounded  and  lost  for  life  the  use  of  his  left 
hand  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto  (1571).  He  was 
taken  by  pirates  in  1575,  and  spent  the  next 
five  years  as  a  prisoner  at  Algiers.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was,  for  the  greater  part, 
occupied  with  a  struggle  to  earn  a  livelihood 
from  literature  and  humble  government  em- 
ployment. His  greatest  work  'Don  Quixote* 
(q.v.)  was  published,  the  first  part  in  1605,  the 
second  in  1615.  He  also  wrote  a  number  of 
plays  (only  two  of  which  survive),  a  collection 
of  short  stories  ('Novelas  Ejemplares')  and  a 
tale  of  adventure,  'Persiles  y  Sigismunda'. 
Fletcher  drew  largely  on  these  last  two  for  the 
plots  of  his  plays. 

Cestus,  the  girdle  of  Aphrodite  or  Venus, 
which  had  the  power  of  awakening  love. 
CESTUS  was  also  the  name  for  the  leather 
thongs  which  were  bound  round  the  hands  of 
Greek  and  Roman  boxers  to  make  their  blows 
more  effectual. 

Cestus  of  Aglaia,  The,  a  poem  by  Ruskin 
(q.v.),  in  which  he  lays  down  the  laws  of  art. 

Ceyx,  see  Haley  one  and  Ceix. 
Cezanne,  PAUL  (1839-1 906),  French  painter, 
born  at  Aix,  one  of  the  chief  masters  of  the 
Modern  French  School,  remarkable  for  his 
sense  of  form,  sincerity,  and  power  of 
expression.  For  long,  the  Salon  refused 
admission  to  his  works.  His  life  is  in  part 
described  in  'L'CEuvre'  of  his  friend  Zola.  He 


CHALMERS 

is  associated  with  the  movement  known  as 
Post- Impressionism  (q.v.). 

Chablis,  a  well-known  light  dry  white  wine, 
produced  near  Auxerre  in  Yonne  (France). 
Chabot,  The  Tragedy  of,  a  tragedy  by  Chap- 
man (q.v.),  probably  revised  and  added  to  by 
Shirley,^  published  in  1639.  The  date  of  its 
composition  is  uncertain. 

Philip  de  Chabot,  High  Admiral  of  France 
under  Fra^ois  I,  a  loyal  servant  of  the  king, 
incurs  the  enmity  of  Montmorency,  the  High 
Constable,  Poyet  the  Chancellor,  and  their 
faction.  By  fearless  insistence  on  his  inno- 
cence he  infuriates  the  king,  is  accused  on 
•trumped-up  charges,  and  found  guilty  of 
high  treason  by  the  judges  under  pressure 
from  the  chancellor.  The  king  pardons  him 
and  discovers  the  abusive  conduct  of  the 
chancellor,  who  is  tried  and  sentenced.  But 
Chabot's  heart  is  broken  by  the  unj  ust  treat- 
ment he  has  suffered,  and  he  dies. 

Chace,  The,  see  Somervile. 

Chadband,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Bleak 
House'  (q.v.). 

Chaereas  and  Callinhoe,  a  Greek  romance 
by  Chariton  (?  6th  cent.),  one  of  the  sources 
on  which  Sidjney  drew  in  his  'Arcadia'. 

Chaffanbrass,  MR.,  the  skilful  cross- 
examining  counsel  in  A.  Trollope's  'The 
Three  Clerks'  (q.v.)  and  'Orley  Farm*  (q.v.). 

Chainmail,  MR.,  a  character  in  Peacock's 
'Crotchet  Castle'  (q.v.).  He  believes  the  isth 
cent,  to  be  the  best  period  in  English  history. 

Chaldean,  a  native  of  Chaldea,  especially  one 
skilled  in  occult  learning,  astrology,  &c. 
Hence  generally  a  seer,  soothsayer,  astrologer. 

Chaldee  MS.,  see  Blackwood's  Magazine. 

CHALKHIXX,  JOHN  (fl.  1600),  the  author 
of  a  pastoral  'Thealma  and  Clearchus',  pub- 
lished in  1683  by  Izaak  Walton,  and  repro- 
duced in  Saintsbury's  'Caroline  Poets',  vol.  ii 
(1906),  and  of  other  verse  included  in  the 
'Compleat  Angler*.  Nothing  definite  is 
known  about  his  life. 

Challenger  Expedition,  THE,  for  deep-sea 
exploration,  in  which  H.M.S.  'Challenger' 
was  employed,  1872-6.  It  was  conducted  by 
Sir  Charles  Wyville  Thomson  (1830-82),  the 
naturalist,  who  published  'The  Voyage  of 
the  Challenger'  in  1877. 

CHALMERS,  THOMAS  (1780-1847),  edu- 
cated at  St.  Andrews,  where  he  was  professor 
of  moral  philosophy,  1823-8.  He  was  sub- 
sequently (1828-43)  professor^of  divinity  at 
Edinburgh,  and  an  active  pioneer  of  the 
movement  which  led  to  the  disruption  of  the 
Scottish  Established  Church  and  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Free  Church.  He  was  a.  great 
preacher  and  author  of  many  theological  and 
philosophical  treatises,  including  'The  Adap- 
tation of  External  Nature  to  the  Moral  and 
Intellectual  Constitution  of  Man'  (Bridge- 
water  Treatise,  1833). 


[149] 


CHAM 

Cham,  an  obsolete  form  of  the  word  Khan, 
formerly  applied  to  the  rulers  of  the  Tartars 
and  the  Mongols,  and  to  the  emperor  of  China. 
Smollett,  in  a  letter  to  Wilkes,  16  March 
1759  (in  Boswell),  refers  to  Johnson  as  'that 
great  Cham  of  literature5. 
Chamade,  through  French  and  Portuguese 
from  L.  clamor e,  to  call,  a  signal  by  beat  of 
drum  or  sound  of  trumpet  inviting  to  a  parley. 
CHAMBEKLAYNE,  EDWARD  (1616- 
1703),  educated  at  St.  Edmund  Hall,  Ox- 
ford, tutor  to  the  duke  of  Grafton  and  to 
Prince  George  of  Denmark,  was  author  of 
'Angliae  Notitia,  or  the  Present  State  of 
England*  (1669),  a  handbook  of  social  and 
political  conditions,  which  met  with  extra- 
ordinary success,  and  was  enlarged  by  his 
son,  John  Chamberlayne. 
CHAMBERLAYNE,  WILLIAM  (1619- 
89),  was  a  physician  at  Shaftesbury  in  Dorset. 
He  published  a  play  entitled  e Love's  Victory* 
in  1658,  but  is  remembered  for  his  cPharon- 
nida*  (1659),  an  heroic  poem  in  five  books  of 
rhymed  couplets.  It  deals  with  the  romantic 
tale  of  ArgaUa,  a  land  of  knight  errant,  res- 
cued from  the  Turks  on  the  coast  of  the 
Morea;  threatened  with  execution  for  nearly 
slaying  Almanzor,  the  villain  of  the  story,  but 
reprieved;  falling  in  love  with  Pharonnida, 
the  king's  daughter;  and  after  many  vicissi- 
tudes united  to  her.  The  style  is  obscure  and 
involved,  and  the  tale  somewhat  incoherent ; 
but  the  poem  is  not  without  beauties.  It  is  in 
Saintsbury's  'Caroline  Poets*,  vol.  i  (1905). 

CHAMBERS,  SIR  EDMUND  KER- 
CHEVER  (1866-  ),  civil  servant  (Educa- 
tion) and  literary  critic.  He  is  best  known  for 
the  critical  exactness  and  range  of  his  history 
of  the  Elizabethan  drama  down  to  and 
including  Shakespeare.  His  publications 
include:  'The  Medieval  Stage*  (1903),  'The 
Elizabethan  Stage*  (1923),  'William  Shake- 
speare* (1930). 

CHAMBERS,  EPHRAIM  (d.  1740),  pub- 
lished his  'Cyclopaedia*  (the  first  English 
Encyclopaedia,  which  has  no  connexion  with 
the  current  '  Chambers *s  Encyclopaedia*)  in 
1728.  See  Encyclopedia.  , 

CHAMBERS,ROBERT(i8o2-7i),founded 
with  his  brother  the  publishing  firm  of 
W.  and  R.  Chambers,  Edinburgh,  and  wrote 
and  issued  a  number  of  books  on  Scottish 
history,  biography,  and  literature.  He 
established  'Chambers 's  Journal*  in  1832, 
and  wrote  and  published  anonymously  in 
1844  'Vestiges  of  Creation*  in  which  he 
maintained  a  theory  of  evolution  of  species  in 
animal  life  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
modern  scientific  view  of  the  history  of  the 
earth.  His  'Book  of  Days*,  an  antiquarian 
miscellany,  appeared  in  1862-4. 

Chambers's  Encyclopaedia  was  begun  in 
1859  and  completed  in  1868,  by  the  firm  of 
W.  and  R.  Chambers  (see  preceding  entry). 
Chambertin,  see  Burgundy. 


CHANGELING 

GHAMISSO,  ADELBERT  VON  (1781- 
1838),  German  zoologist  and  poet,  chiefly 
remembered  for  his  'Peter  Schlemihls 
Wunderbare  Geschichte*.  See  Schlemihl. 
Chamont,  one  of  the  principal  characters  in 
Otway's  'The  Orphan*  (q.v.). 
Champagne,  the  name  of  a  former  province 
in  eastern  France,  through  which  flows  the 
Marne.  Its  wine  ranks  highest  among  those 
of  France.  The  best  known  is  sparkling  and 
straw-coloured,  but  other  varieties  are  still, 
rose-coloured  or  red.  Its  fame  dates  far  back. 
It  is  related  for  instance  that  Wenceslaus,  king 
of  Bohemia,  coming  in  1397  to  Rheims  to 
negotiate  a  treaty  with  Charles  VI,  found  the 
wine  so  much  to  his  taste  that  he  spun  out  the 
discussion  to  the  utmost,  getting  drunk  daily 
before  dinner.  It  is  mentioned  by  Butler  in 
'Hudibras',  n.  i  (1664);  and  in  Etherege*s 
'Man  of  Mode*  (1676),  iv.  i,  occur  the  lines, 

Then  sparkling  Champaigne 

Puts  an  end  to  their  reign. 
Among  the  best-known  names  of  champagne 
houses  are  Roederer,  Perrier-Jouet,  Veuve 
Clicquot,    Pommery,    Heidsieck,    Murnm, 
Moe't  et  Chandon. 

See  also  Sittery,  P&rignon. 

Champion  9  The,  a  periodical  issued  thrice  a 
week  in  1739-40,  mainly^  written  by  H. 
Fielding  (q.v.).  The  essays  in  it  centre  round 
an  imaginary  group,  the  Vinegar  family. 

Champion  of  the  King,  or  OF  ENGLAND: 
his  office  is,  at  the  coronation,  to  ride  armed 
into  Westminster  Hall,  and  challenge  to 
combat  any  one  who  disputes  the  king's  title. 
The  office  is  attached  to  the  manor  of  Scrivels- 
by,  formerly  held  by  the  Marmion  family, 
and  is  now  held  by  the  Dyrnoke  family.  The 
last  performance  was  at  the  coronation  of 
George  IV. 

Ghampollion,  JEAN  FRANCOIS  (1790-1832), 
a  French  Egyptologist,  who  was  the  first  to 
interpret  Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  See  also 
Wilkinson. 

Chances,  The,  a  play  by  J.  Fletcher,  with 
perhaps  some  contributions  by  another  hand. 
(The  prologue  and  epilogue  are  not  by 
Fletcher.)  The  date  of  the  play  is  uncertain. 
The  prologue  refers  to  a  production  after 
Fletcher's  death.  The  plot  is  based  on  a 
novel^of  Cervantes,  and  the  *  Chances*  are  the 
coincidences  by  which  Constantia,  who  is 
eloping  with  the  duke  of  Ferrara,  and  the 
duke  himself,  are  brought  into  a  number  of 
complications,  from  which  they  are  extricated 
by  Don  John  and  Don  Frederick,  two  Span- 
ish gallants,  Dame  Gillian  their  landlady  at 
Bologna,  and  Vecchio,  a  professional  wizard. 
The  dialogue  shows  Fletcher  at  his  best. 

Changeling,  The,  a  tragedy  by  T.  Middleton 
(q.v.)  and  W.  Rowley  (q.v.),  printed  in  1653, 
but  acted  as  early  as  1623. 

Beatrice- Joanna,  daughter  of  the  Governor 
of  Alicant,  is^  ordered  by  her  father  to  marry 
Alonso  de  Piracquo.  She  falls  in  love  with 


CHANNING 

Alsemero,  and  in  order  to  avoid  the  marriage 
imposed  on  her,  employs  the  ill-favoured 
villain  De  Flores,  whom  she  detests  but  who 
cherishes  a  passion  for  her,  to  murder 
Alonzo.  To  the  horror  of  Beatrice,  De  Flores 
exacts  the  reward  he  had  lusted  for.  Beatrice 
is  now  to  marry  Alsemero.  To  escape 
detection  she  arranges  that  her  maid 
Diaphanta  shall  take  her  place  on  the  wedding 
night;  and  to  remove  a  dangerous  witness, 
De  Flores  then  kills  the  maid.  The  guilt  of 
Beatrice  and  De  Flores  is  revealed  to 
Alsemero,  and  they  are  both  brought  before 
the  governor,  whereupon  they  take  their  own 
lives.  The  title  of  the  play  is  taken  from  the 
sub-plot,  in  which  Antonio  disguises  himself 
as  a  crazy  changeling  in  order  to  get  access  to 
Isabella,  wife  of  the  keeper  of  a  madhouse. 
The  main  plot  is  taken  from  John  Reynolds 's 
'God's  revenge  against  Murther'  (1621). 

CHANNING,  WILLIAM  ELLERYCiySo- 
1842),  an  American  Unitarian  clergyman, 
much  involved  in  the  Unitarian  controversy 
c.  1815.  He  exercised  a  marked  influence 
on  American  literature,  imbuing  it  with  a 
religious  spirit  (as  exemplified  in  Emerson, 
Bryant,  and  Longfellow).  His  'Remarks  on 
American  Literature'  appeared  in  1830. 

His  nephew,  WILLIAM  ELLERY  CHANNING 
(1818-1901),  poet  and  transcendentalist,  is 
chiefly  remembered  for  his  friendship  with 
Emerson.  His  'Poems*  appeared  in  1843-7, 
'The  Woodman  and  Other  Poems'  in  1849. 

Chansons  de  Geste,  French  historical  verse 
romances,  mostly  connected  with  Charle- 
magne, composed  in  the  nth-i3th  cents.,  of 
which  the  CHANSON  DE  ROLAND  (see  Roland) 
is  the  oldest  and  best-known  example.  They 
were  the  work  of  the  trouveres  and  trouba- 
dours, the  former  being  the  poets  of  northern, 
the  latter  of  southern,  France.  The  Chansons 
de  geste  were  rendered  by  jongleurs  in  open 
places,  cloisters,  but  especially  in  medieval 
castles. 

Chanticleer,  the  cock,  figures  in  'Reynard 
the  Fox*  (q.v.)  and  in  Chaucer's  'Nun's 
Priest's  Tale*  (see  Canterbury  Tales). 
Chantrey  Bequest:  Sir  Francis  Chantrey 
(1781-1841),  sculptor,  left  about  £3,000  a 
year  to  the  Royal  Academy  for  the  purchase 
of  works  of  art  for  the  nation,  and  other  pur- 
poses. Chantrey  was  the  son  of  a  carpenter 
and  began  life  as  a  grocer's  boy  in  Sheffield. 
Chaonia,  a  district  of  Epirus  where  the 
doves,  'Chaonian  birds',  were  said  to  deliver 
oracles.  Cf.  Dodona. 

Chap-book,  a  modern  name  applied  by 
book-collectors  and  others  to  specimens  of 
the  popular  literature  which  was  formerly 
circulated  by  itinerant  dealers  or  chapmen, 
consisting  chiefly  of  small  pamphlets  of 
popular  tales,  ballads,  tracts,  &c.  They  were 
illustrated  with  wood-blocks,  and  consisted 
of  sixteen  pages  octavo  or  twenty-four  pages 
duodecimo,  and  were  sold  at  a  penny  to  six- 
pence. They  reproduced  old  romances,  such 


CHARACTER  OF  A  TRIMMER 

as  4Bevis  of  Hampton*  and  'Guy  of  Warwick*, 
or  such  stories  as  John  Gilpin,  Robinson 
Crusoe,  or  nursery  rhymes  and  fairy  tales. 
They  were  issued  in  great  numbers  through- 
out the  1 8th  cent. 

Chapel,  CHILDREN  OF  THE,  see  Paul's 
(Children  of). 

Chaplin,  CHARLES  SPENCER  (1889-  ), 
film  comedian  ('Charlie  Chaplin'),  born  in 
London,  but  now  resident  in  America. 

CHAPMAN,  GEORGE  (i559?-i634?), 
born  probably  near  Hitchin  in  Hertfordshire, 
and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  is  chiefly  known 
for  his  translation  of  Homer,  animated  by  *a 
daring  fiery  spirit'  (Pope)  and  commemorated 
in  Keats 's  sonnet,  'Much  have  I  travelled  in 
the  realms  of  gold';  but  Swinburne  and 
others  have  drawn  attention  to  the  remark- 
able quality  of  his  dramatic  works.  He  was 
renowned  as  a  scholar  and  is  perhaps  the 
'rival  poet*  of  Shakespeare's  'Sonnets*. 

He  published  the  obscure  poem  £The 
Shadow  of  Night*  in  1594,  'Ovid's  Banquet 
of  Sence*  in  1595,  and  a  continuation  of  Mar- 
lowe's 'Hero  and  Leander'  in  1598.  His 
principal  tragedies  were  published  at  the 
following  dates:  'Bussy  D'Ambois*  (q.v., 
1607),  'The  Conspiracy  and  Tragedy  of 
Byron*  (q.v.,  1608),  'The  Revenge  of  Bussy 
D'Ambois'  (q.v.,  1613),  'Caesar  and  Pompey* 
(q.v.,  1631),  'The  Tragedy  of  Chabot'  (q.v., 
1639).  His  principal  comedies  were  published 
at  the  following  dates :  'The  Blind  Beggar  of 
Alexandria*  (1598),  'An  Humorous  Day's 
Mirth*  (1599),  'All  Fools'  (q.v.,  1605),  'May- 
Day*  (1611),  'The  Gentleman  Usher'  (q.v., 
1606),  'Monsieur  D'Olive*  (q.v.,  1606),  'The 
Widow's  Tears'  (1612),  'Eastward  Hoi*  (q.v., 
1 605).  This  last  play  was  written  in  collabora- 
tion with  Ben  Jonson  and  Marston,  and  con- 
tains a  flippant  allusion  to  the  Scots,  which 
gave  offence  at  Court,  and  led  to  the  tempo- 
rary imprisonment  of  the  authors.  Chapman 
published  a  specimen  of  his  rhyming  four- 
teen-syllable  version  of  the  'Iliad*  in  1598, 
and  the  whole  'Iliad'  in  1611,  adding  the 
'Odyssey*  (rhyming  ten-syllable)  in  1614-15, 
and  the  hymns  &c.  in  1616.  Translations  by 
him  from  Petrarch  appeared  in  1612,  from 
Musaeus  in  1616,  Hesiod's  'Georgicks'  in 
1618,  and  a  satire  of  Juvenal  in  1629.  He 
wrote  also  copies  of  verses  for  his  friends* 
books,  court  poems,  and  a  masque  (1614). 
His  collected  works  appeared  in  1873-5,  with 
an  essay  by  Swinburne. 
CHAPONE,  HESTER  (1727-1801),  ne'e 
Mulso,  a  friend  of  Samuel  Richardson  and 
Gilbert  White,  published  verses  and  tales 
(1750-3)  and  essays  (i773~7)-  She  wrote 
part  of  No.  10  of  the  'Rambler*.  Her  'Works' 
and  'Posthumous  Works*  appeared  in  1807. 
Her  'Letters  on  the  Improvement  of  the 
Mind*  (1774)  were  highly  esteemed  in  her 
day.  She  was  a  member  of  the  (Blue  Stocking* 
(q.v.)  coterie. 
Character  of  a  Trimmer,  see  Savile  (G.). 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MEN 

Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners,  Opinions, 
Times,  see  Shaftesbury. 

Charalois,  the  hero  of  Massinger's  'The 

Fatal  Dowry'  (q.v.). 

Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade,  THE,  see 

Balaclava. 

Charidea,  see  Aethiopica. 

Charing  Cross,  London:  the  site  of  what 
was  the  hamlet  of  Charing  in  the  time  of 
Edward  I,  who  set  up  there  one  of  the 
Eleanor  Crosses  (q.v.). 

CHARING  CROSS  ROAD  nas  replaced  Holy- 
well  Street  (see  Bookseller's  Row)  as  the  home 
of  secondhand  booksellers. 

Charitie,  The  Balade  of,  see  Chatterton. 

Charivari  (from  i4th-cent.  French  ^  and 
medieval  Latin  words  of  unknown  origin),  a 
serenade  of  erough  music*  with  kettles,  pans, 
tea-trays  and  the  like,  used  in  France  in 
derision  of  unpopular  marriages,  and  un- 
popular persons  generally.  Hence  a  confused 
medley  of  sounds.  [OED.]  'Charivari'  was 
taken  as  the  name  of  a  satirical  journal  in 
Paris,  and  adopted  in  1841  as  part  of  the  title 
of  the  London  'Punch'  (q.v.). 

Charlemagne  (742-814),  king  of  the  Franks 
(768)  and  emperor  of  the  West  (800),  the 
son  of  Pepin.  He  and  his  paladins  are  the 
subject  of  numerous  chansons  de  geste,  of 
which  the  *  Chanson  de  Roland'  is  the  most 
famous  (see  Roland).  Legend  relates  that  he 
is  not  dead,  but  sleeping  in  the  Odenberg  in 
Hesse,  or  in  the  Unsterberg  near  Salzburg, 
whence  he  will  emerge  when  the  persecutions 
of  Antichrist  are  completed,  to  avenge  the 
blood  of  the  saints. 

Charles  I,  king  of  England,  1625-49. 

Charles  II,  king  of  England,  1660-85.  He 
figures  in  Scott's  'Peveril  of  the  Peak*  and 
'Woodstock'  (qq.v.),  and  many  other  works. 

Charles  XII,  king  of  Sweden,  1682-1718, 
and  a  great  military  commander,  who  led 
his  forces  successfully  against  the  northern 
coalition.  He  captured  the  capital  of  Poland 
from  Augustus  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  and 
invaded  Russia,  defeating  Peter  the  Great  at 
Narva  (1700)  and  being  in  turn  totally  de- 
feated at  Poltava  in  1709,  after  which  he 
retreated  to  Turkey.  He  returned  in  1714  to 
Stralsund,  which  alone  remained  to  him  of 
his  continental  possessions,  but  was  driven 
thence  to  Sweden.  He  was  killed  at  Frede- 
rikshald  in  a  war  with  Norway.  His  life 
was  written  by  Voltaire.  Johnson  ('Vanity  of 
Human  Wishes')  says  of  him: 

He  left  a  name  at  which  the  world  grew 
pale, 

To  point  a  moral  or  adorn  a  tale. 
See  also  Mazeppa. 

Charles  Edward  Stuart  (1720-88),  the 
Young  Pretender,  figures  in  Scott's  *  Waverley' 
and  'Redgauntlet*  (qq.v.). 


CHARTIST 

Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy 
(1467-77),  married  Margaret  of  York,  sister 
of  Edward  IV.  He  was  severely  defeated  by 
the  Swiss  at  Granson  and  Morat,  and  killed 
in  an  engagement  with  them  before  Nancy. 
He  figures  in  Scott's  'Anne  of  Geierstein'  and 
'Quentin  Durward'  (qq.v.). 
Charles's  Wain,  the  constellation  com- 
prising the  seven  bright  stars  in  Ursa  Major ; 
known  also  as  'The  Plough'  and  'The  Dipper* 
(U.S. A.).  The  name  appears  to  rise  out  of  the 
verbal  association  of  the  star-name  Arcturus 
with  Arthur,  and  the  legendary  association  of 
Arthur  with  Charlemagne ;  so  that  what  was 
originally  the  wain  of  Arcturus  became  at 
length  the  wain  of  Charlemagne.  [OED.] 

Charley,  CHARLIE,  the  name  colloquially 
given  in  former  times  to  a  night-watchman. 
The  origin  is  unknown:  some  have  con- 
jectured 'because  Charles  I  in  1640  extended 
and  improved  the  watch  system  in  the 
metropolis'. 

Also  a  small  triangular  beard  extending 
from  the  under  lip  to  a  point  a  little  below  the 
chin :  as  seen  in  portraits  of  Charles  I.  [OED .] 

Charley's  Aunt,  a  highly  popular  farcical 
comedy  by  Brandon  Thomas,  produced  in 
1892  and  still  frequently  played. 
Charmian,  in  Shakespeare's  'Antony  and 
Cleopatra*  and  Dryden's  CA11  for  Love* 
(qq.v.),  the  attendant  of  Cleopatra.  The 
name  is  in  Plutarch's  'Antony'. 
Charmond,  FELICE,  a  character  in  Hardy's 
'The  Woodlanders'  (q.v.). 
Charon,  a  god  of  hell,  son  of  Erebus, 
who,  for  an  obolus,  ferried  the  souls  of 
the  dead  over  the  rivers  Styx  and  Acheron  to 
the  infernal  regions.  It  was  usual  among  the 
ancients  to  place  a  piece  of  money  under  the 
tongue  of  the  deceased  for  the  purpose  of 
this  payment. 

Charriere,  MADAME  DE,  see  ZSlide. 

Charterhouse,  THE,  near  Smithfield,  Lon- 
don, was  one  of  the  houses  of  the  Carthusian 
(q.v.)  order  in  England.  It  was  built  in  1371 , 
and  at  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries 
under  Henry  VIII  was  taken  from  the  monks 
with  circumstances  of  great  cruelty.  It 
passed  through  the  hands  of  various  nobles, 
and  was  finally  sold  to  Sir  Thomas  Sutton, 
merchant,  who  converted  it  into  a  school  and 
a  house  for  the  aged  poor.  The  school  be- 
came famous  and  numbered  Steele,  Addison, 
Wesley,  Leech,  and  Thackeray  among  its 
pupils.  The  home  for  poor  brethren  is  the 
scene  of  Colonel  Newcome's  last  days  and 
death  in  Thackeray's  'The  Newcomes*  (q.v.). 
The  old  school  has  been  removed  to  Godal- 
ming,  and  the  school  of  the  Merchant  Taylors 
has  taken  its  place. 

Charteris,  SIR  PATRICK,  the  provost  of 
Perth,  in  Scott's  'Fair  Maid  of  Perth*  (q.v.). 
Chartist,  one  of  the  body  of  political  re- 
formers (chiefly  of  the  working  classes)  who 


CHARTREUSE 

arose  In  1837  and  who  made  certain  de- 
mands embodied  in  the  'Six  Points*  of  the 
document  called  the  'People's  Charter5,  viz. 
Universal  Suffrage,  Vote  by  Ballot,  Annual 
Parliaments,  Payment  of  Members,  Aboli- 
tion of  the  Property  Qualification,  and  Equal 
Electoral  Districts.  The  'Chartists',  as  such, 
disappeared  after  1848. 

Chartreuse,  a  liqueur  that  derives  its  name 
from  having  been  formerly  made  by  the 
monks  of  La  Grande  Chartreuse,  the  Carthu- 
sian monastery  near  Grenoble,  with  aromatic 
herbs  and  brandy.  The  best  Chartreuse  is 
green  in  colour. 

Charybdis,  a  dangerous  whirlpool  on  the 
coast  of  Sicily,  in  the  straits  of  Messina, 
opposite  Scylla  (q.v.).  It  proved  fatal  to  part 
of  the  fleet  of  Ulysses.  It  was  said  that 
Charybdis  was  an  avaricious  woman,  who 
stole  the  oxen  of  Hercules,  for  which  theft 
she  was  struck  with  a  thunderbolt  by  Zeus, 
and  turned  into  a  whirlpool. 

Chase,  The,  see  Somervile. 

Chaste  Maid  in  Cheapside,  A,  a  comedy  by 
T.  Middleton  (q.v.),  printed  in  1630. 

The  play  centres  round  the  attempt  of  the 
dissolute  Sir  Walter  Whorehound  to  pass  off 
his  mistress  as  his  niece  (the  'Chaste  Maid') 
and  to  marry  her  to  the  foolish  pedantic  son 
of  Yellowhammer,  a  rich  goldsmith;  while 
Whorehound  himself  is  to  marry  Yellow- 
hammer's  daughter,  Moll.  The  first  part  of 
the  plot  succeeds,  but  the  second  fails.  For 
Moll  and  the  resourceful  young  Touchwood 
are  in  love  with  one  another,  and  their 
attempts  to  evade  the  parents  and  get  married, 
though  repeatedly  foiled,  are  finally  success- 
ful. 

Chastelard,  a  tragedy  by  Swinburne  (q.v.), 
published  in  1865,  on  the  subject  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  and  Chastelard,  a  grandson 
of  Bayard,  who  fell  desperately  in  love  with 
her  and  followed  her  to  Scotland.  He  was 
discovered  in  her  room,  sentenced  to  death, 
and  executed. 

Chatauqua,  see  Chautauqua. 
Chateau  d> Amour,  see  Grosseteste. 

Chateau  Gaillard,  a  fortress  built  by 
Richard  I  on  the  height  of  Les  Andelys 
overlooking  the  Seine,  for  the  purpose  of  his 
war  with  the  French  king.  It  was  lost  by 
John  (1204). 

CHATEAUBRIAND,  FRANCOIS  RENfi, 
Vicomte  de  (1768-1848),  one  of  the  pioneers 
of  the  French  romantic  movement.  His  fame 
rests  principally  on  his  'Le  Ge"nie  du 
Christianisme'  (1802),  a  work  of  _  Christian 
apologetic,  based  on  the  emotional  and 
imaginative  appeal  of  religion  to  the  deepest 
instincts  in  man's  nature.  'Of  all  religions 
that  have  ever  existed* — thus  the  author  sums 
up  his  thesis — 'the  Christian  religion  is  the 
most  poetical,  the  most  favourable  to  free- 
dom, art,  and  letters ;  the  modern  world  owes 


CHAUCER 

all  to  it,  from  agriculture  to  the  abstract 
sciences/  From  this  work  Chateaubriand 
detached  and  published  in  advance  two  frag- 
ments, 'Atala',  the  romance  of  a  young  Red 
Indian,  Chactas,  and  an  Indian  maiden, 
Abala;  and  'Rene*',  the  story  of  a  young 
European,  the  author  himself  under  a  thin 
disguise,  devoured  by  a  secret  sorrow,  who 
flees  to  the  solitudes  of  America.  Both  were 
enthusiastically  received.  Of  Chateau- 
briand's later  works,  besides  the  romances 
'Les  Martyrs*  (1809)  and  'Le  Dernier  des 
AbenoSrages*  (1826),  the  best  known  is  the 
autobiographical  'Me"moires  d'Outre-tombe' 
(1849-50).  Early  in  the  igth  cent.  Chateau- 
briand turned  his  attention  to  politics.  He 
became  a  minister  under  Louis  XVIII,  and 
went  as  ambassador  to  Berlin  and  London. 
Chatham,  EARL  OF,  see  Pitt. 
Chats  worth,  the  famous  mansion  in  Derby- 
shire of  the  dukes  of  Devonshire.  The 
original  house  was  built  by  Sir  William 
Cavendish,  husband  of  Bess  of  Hardwick 
(q.v.).  This  was  rebuilt  in  1688  by  the  first 
duke  of  Devonshire. 

CHATTERTON,  THOMAS  (1752-70), 
son  of  a  writing-master  who  was  a  lay  clerk 
of  Bristol  Cathedral,  while  still  at  school  at 
Colston's  Hospital  wrote  a  notable  satire 
'Apostate  Will',  1764,  and  other  verses.  In 
1768  he  published  a  pseudo-archaic  descrip- 
tion of  the  mayor  of  Bristol's  passing  over 
the  I3th-cent.  bridge,  and  met  William 
Barrett,  an  antiquarian  surgeon  who  was 
writing  a  history  of  Bristol,  George  Catcott, 
and  Henry  Burgum,  pewterers,  for  all  of 
whom  he  fabricated  documents,  pedigrees, 
poems,  of  which  he  claimed  to  possess  the 
originals.  He  also  fabricated  a  number  of 
poems  purporting  to  be  the  work  of  an 
imaginary  isth-cent.  Bristol  poet,  Thomas 
Rowley,  a  monk  and  friend  of  William 
Canynge,  an  historical  Bristol  merchant.  He 
offered  some  of  these  to  Dodsley,  the  pub- 
lisher, and  sent  a  history  of  painting  in  Eng- 
land (supposed  to  be  by  Rowley)  to  Horace 
Walpole,  who  was  temporarily  deceived. 
The  fraud  was  exposed  by  T.  Tyrwhitt  in 
his  'Poems  supposed  to  have  been  written  . . . 
by  Thomas  Rowley*,  1777  and  1778  •>  but  the 
poems  are  none  the  less  the  work  of  a  poetical 
genius.  'Elinoure  and  Juga',  published  in  the 
'Town  and  Country  Magazine',  1769,  was  the 
only  'Rowleian*  piece  to  appear  in  his  life- 
time, and  editions  of  the  poems  of  'Thomas 
Rowley'  were  published  in  1778  and  1782. 
In  1770  Chatterton  came  to  London,  and  his 
burlesque  opera  'The  Revenge'  was  success- 
fully produced  in  that  year.  Reduced  to 
despair  by  his  poverty,  he  poisoned  himself 
with  arsenic,  24  Aug.  1770,  at  the  age  of  17. 
His  collected  works  appeared  in  1803,  and 
have  been  several  times  reprinted. 
CHAUCER,  GEOFFREY  (i34o?-*4«>), 
was  son  of  John  Chaucer  (d.  1366),  vintner,  of 
London.  The  date  of  his  birth  has  been 
matter  for  much  discussion.  In  1357  he  was 


[153] 


CHAUCER  SOCIETY 

employed  in  the  service  of  Lionel,  afterwards 
duke  of  Clarence.  He  entered  military  service 
in  1359,  served  in  France,  was  taken  prisoner, 
but  shortly  ransomed.  He  married  Philippa, 
probably  daughter  of  Sir  Payne  Roet,  and 
sister  of  John  of  Gaunt's  third  wife.  He 
evidently  enjoyed  John  of  Gaunt's  patronage. 
Philippa  died  apparently  in  1387.  Chaucer 
held  various  positions  at  court  and  in  the 
king's  service,  and  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Genoa  and  Florence  in  1372-3,  when  he 
perhaps  met  Boccaccio  and  Petrarch.  He  was 
sent  on  secret  service  to  Flanders  in  1376  and 
1377,  and  was  attached  to  embassies  to 
France  and  Lombardy  in  1378.  In  1374  he 
was  appointed  controller  of  customs  in  _  the 
port  of  London  and  leaseci  the  dwelling- 
house  over  Aldgate.  He  was  knight  of  the 
shire  for  Kent  in  1386,  and  went  the  Canter- 
bury pilgrimage  in  April  1388.  About  this 
time  he  was  clerk  of  the  king's  works  at 
various  places,  including  Westminster  Abbey, 
Hving  close  to  St.  Margaret's.  He  received 
pensions  from  Edward  III,  John  of  Gaunt, 
Richard  II,  and  Henry  IV.  He  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  a  monument  being 
erected  to  him  in  1555. 

Chaucer's  writings  fall  into  three  periods: 
(i)  The  period  of  French  influence  (1359-72), 
in  which  he  uses  the  octosyllabic  couplet.  To 
this  period  belong  'The  Boke  of  the  Duch- 
essej,  1369,  and  the  'Romaunt  of  the  Rose*,  so 
far  as  written  by  Chaucer.  (2)  The  period  of 
Italian  influence,  especially  of  Dante  and 
Boccaccio,  1372—86,  in  which  he  leaves  off 
the  octosyllabic  couplet,  uses  mainly  the 
'heroic*  stanza  of  seven  lines,  and  begins  to 
use  the  heroic  couplet.  To  this  period  belong 
"The  Hous  of  Fame*;  "The  Assembly  of 
Foules9;  'Troylus  and  Cryseyde';  'The 
Legende  of  Good  Women';  and  the  first 
drafts  of  some  of  his  tales.  (3)  The  period  of 
his  maturity,  1386-1400,  in  which  he  uses 
the  heroic  couplet.  To  this  period  belong  the 
'Canterbury  Tales',  designed  about  1387. 
His  various  poetical  works  will  be  found 
referred  to  under  their  several  titles.  His 
prose  works  include  a  translation  of  Boethius, 
and  a  'Treatise  on  the  Astrolabe'  compiled  for 
'little  Lewis  my  son',  in  English,  'for  Latin 
ne  canst  thou  yet  but  small,  my  little  son*. 

Chaucer's  well-known  portrait  was  made 
from  memory  by  Occleve  on  the  margin  of 
one  of  his  works.  The  'Canterbury  Tales' 
were  first  printed  by  Caxton  in  1475  J tn^  col- 
lected works  were  first  issued  by  W,  Thynne 
in  1 532.  The  fullest  edition  is  that  of  W.  W. 
Skeat,  with  introductions  and  notes,  Oxford, 
7  vols.  (1894-7). 

Chaucer  Society,  THE,  founded  in  1868  by 
Fumiyall  (q.v.),  for  the  purpose  of  collecting 
materials  for  the  study  of  Chaucer. 

GJhautauqua,  sometimes  incorrectly  spelt 
Chatauqua,  an  American  literary  institution 
founded  in  1874.  For  a  period  of  years  its 
work  was  confined  to  summer  literary  classes 
held  on  Lake  Chautauqua,  New  York  State. 


CHEKE 

Later  a  Chautauqua  Reading  Circle  was 
formed  with  a  series  of  text-books  arranged 
for  home  reading  and  study.  The  name 
Chautauqua  is  now  also  applied  to  travelling 
entertainments  of  an  educational  nature — 
lectures,  concerts,  and  drama.  In  the  words 
of  the  official  historian  of  the  movement,  the 
Chautauqua  idea  is  'education  for  everybody, 
everywhere  and  in  every  department  of 
knowledge,  inspired  by  a  Christian  faith'. 
Chauvinism,  an  exaggerated  and  bellicose 
patriotism,  a  word  derived  from  one  Nicholas 
Chauvin  of  Rochefort,  a  veteran  French 
soldier  of  the  First  Republic  and  Empire, 
whose  demonstrative  patriotism  was  cele- 
brated and  at  length  ridiculed  by  his  com- 
rades. Chauvin  figured  in  the  'Soldat 
Laboureur*  of  Scribe,  and  his  name  was 
especially  popularized  by  Cpgniard's  famous 
vaudeville,  'La  Cocarde  Tricolore*  (1831). 
Ghaworth,  MARY  ANNE,  later  Mrs.  Cha- 
worth-Musters,  the  lady  with  whom  Byron 
fell  in  love  in  his  youth,  and  to  whom  he 
proposed  in  1803.  She  is  celebrated  in 
Byron's  poem,  'The  Dream'. 
Cneapside  ('cheap 'is  from  Old  English  ceap, 
buying  and  selling)  was  a  busy  market  in 
medieval  London,  and  a  place  for  pageants 
and  sports,  and  occasionally  for  executions 
(until  Tudor  times,  there  were  no  buildings 
on  the  north  side,  so  that  more  space  was 
available  than  now).  It  was  surrounded  by 
streets  whose  names  suggested  the  trade 
of  the  locality,  Bread  Street,  Poultry,  Iron- 
monger Lane,  Honey  Street,  Milk  Street,  &c. 
Cheddar  Caves,  stalactite  caves  in  the  cliffs 
of  the  Mendip  Hills,  near  the  village  of  Ched- 
dar. CHEDDAR  CHEESE,  for  which  this  district 
is  also  famous,  is  mentioned  as  early  as  1666. 
Bailey  in  his  dictionary  of  1721  mentions 
(s.v.  Cheddar)  that  'the  milk  of  all  the  town 
cows  is  brought  every  day  into  one  common 
room',  duly  recorded,  'and  one  common 
cheese  made  with  it*. 

Cheeryble  Brothers,  THE,  Ned  and 
Charles,  characters  in  Dickens 's  'Nicholas 
Nickleby*  (q.v.). 

Cheiron  or  Chiron,  a  centaur  (q.v.),  the  son 
of  Cronos  (q.v.)  and  Philyra,  famous  for  his 
knowledge  of  medicine,  music,  and  archery. 
He  taught  mankind  the  use  of  medicinal  herbs, 
and  was  the  instructor  of  many  heroes  and 
the  friend  of  Hercules.  He  was  wounded  by 
Hercules  in  the  knee  when  the  latter  fought 
with  the  centaurs.  Hercules  went  to  his  assis- 
tance,but  as  the  wound  was  incurable,  Cheiron 
prayed  Zeus  to  relieve  him  of  his  immortality, 
and  he  was  placed  by  the  god  among  the 
constellations  under  the  name  of  Sagittarius. 
CHEKE,  SIR  JOHN  (1514-57),  fellow  of 
St.  John's  College,  tutor  to  Edward  VI,  and 
subsequently  professor  of  Greek  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  imprisoned  by  Queen  Mary, 
J553~4'  He  was  an  eminent  scholar,  and 
though  he  wrote  little  in  the  vernacular  (but 
many  Latin  translations  from  the  Greek), 


[154] 


CHEKHOV 

was  influential  in  promoting  a  simple  style  of 
English  prose.  He  is  referred  to  ((O  soul  of 
Sir  John  Cheeke')  in  Milton's  Sonnet  XI,  *A 
Book  was  writ  of  late*. 

CHEKHOV,  ANTON  PAVLOVICH 
(1860-1904),  Russkn  dramatist  and  novelist, 
whose  gift  of  satirical  humour  has  given  a 
wide  vogue  to  his  works.  His  first  play  was 
'Ivanov'  (1887),  followed  by  'The  Seagull*, 
'Uncle  Vanya*,  'The  Three  Sisters',  and 
(what  is  generally  considered  the  best)  'The 
Cherry  Orchard*.  Chekhov's  fame  rests 
chiefly  on  these  and  on  his  short  tales,  but 
he  also  wrote  a  number  of  novels:  'The 
Peasants',  'My  Life',  'Ward  No.  6',  &c. 

Chelsea,  probably  from  Chels-ey,  the 
gravelly  island.  Here  (on  the  site  of  the 
present  Danvers  Street)  Sir  Thomas  More 
(q.v.)  had  his  residence,  where  he  received 
Erasmus.  In  the  zyth  and  i8th  cents,  it  was 
much  patronized  by  Cockneys  and  was  famous 
for  its  bun-house  (see  below).  See  also  Con- 
greve's  'Love  for  Love*,  II.  ii.  The  manor  of 
Chelsea  was  purchased  in  1712  by  Sir  Hans 
Sloane  (q.v.),  who  founded  there  the  Botanic 
Garden.  The  Cremorne  Gardens  (q.v.) 
were  in  Chelsea.  Chelsea  has  a  reputation  as 
a  home  of  painters:  Rossetti,  Whistler,  and 
many  others  lived  there. 

Chelsea,  SAGE  OF,  T.  Carlyle  (q.v.). 

Chelsea  Bun- House,  THE,  famous  in  the 
1 8th  cent.,  and  kept  in  its  palmy  days  by 
one  Richard  Hand,  stood  in  Jew's  Row  (now 
Pimlico  Road).  It  was  demolished  in  1839. 
Swift  (q.v.)  writes  to  Stella  about  the  'r-r-rare 
Chelsea  buns*. 

Chelsea  Hospital,  for  disabled  soldiers 
('Chelsea  Pensioners'),  was  founded  by 
Charles  II  and  built  from  the  designs  of 
Sir  Christopher  Wren.  Fanny  Burney's  father 
was  for  many  years  organist  there. 

Chemos  or  CHEMOSH,  a  Moabite  god 
(i  Kings  is.  7),  ranks  after  Moloch  in  Milton's 
hierarchy  of  hell  ('Paradise  Lost*,  i.  406). 

CH&NIER,  ANDR£  (1772-94),  French 
poet  and  one  of  the  earliest  figures  in 
the  French  Romantic  movement.  Inspired 
by  the  spirit  of  the  Greek  anthologists,  he 
wrote  idylls,  eclogues,  and  elegies  marked  by 
pastoral  simplicity  and  freshness.  At  first  a 
revolutionary,  he  was  presently  alienated  by 
the  excesses  of  the  Terror  and  wrote  a  fine 
ode  in  defence  of  Charlotte  Corday.  He  was 
arrested  early  in  1794  and  after  some  months 
in  prison  was  guillotined  on  the  7th  Thermi- 
dor,  immediately  before  the  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre. 

His  brother,  MARIE- JOSEPH  CHENIER  ( 1 764- 
181 1),  was  a  dramatic  poet,  and  author  of  the 
'Chant  du  Depart*. 

Chequers,  a  Tudor  mansion  near  Princes 
Risborough,  Bucks.,  presented  to  the  nation 
in  1917  by  Lord  and  Lady  Lee  of  Fare- 
ham  for  the  purpose  of  serving  as  the 


CHESTERFIELD 

country  seat  of  the  Prime  Minister  of  Eng- 
land for  the  time  being. 

Cherith,  the  name  of  the  brook  where 
Elijah  was  fed  by  ravens  (i  Kings  xvii). 

Cherry  and  Merry,  in  Dickens's  'Martin 
Chuzzlewit'  (q.v.),  Pecksniff's  daughters, 
Charity  and  Mercy. 

Cherry  and  the  Sloe,  The,  see  Montgomery* 

Cherubim,  a  Hebrew  word  of  uncertain 
derivation.  In  the  O.T.  they  are  living  crea- 
tures with  two  or  four  wings,  but  the  accounts 
of  their  form  are  not  consistent.  They  first 
appear  in  Gen.  Hi.  24,  as  guardians  of  the 
tree  of  life.  The  Divine  Being  is  frequently 
stated  to  dwell  or  sit  between  (or  on)  the 
cherubim.  Their  inclusion  among  the  angels 
appears  to  belong  to  Christian  mysticism. 
According  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  they 
form  the  second  of  the  nine  orders  of  angels. 
See  Angel. 

Cheshire  Cat,  To  grin  like  a:  no  satisfactory 
explanation  of  the  allusion  has  been  put 
forward.  It  has  been  attributed  to  the  fact 
that  Cheshire  cheeses  were  at  one  time 
moulded  in  the  shape  of  a  cat;  and  to  the 
attempts  of  a  sign-painter  to  represent  a  lion 
rampant  on  the  signs  of  many  of  the  Cheshire 
inns.  (N.  &  Q.,  ist  series  ii,  412;  v.  402). 
The  Cheshire  Cat  figures  in  Lewis  Carroll's 
'Alice  in  Wonderland'  (q.v.). 

Cheshire  Cheese,  THE,  a  hostelry  in  Wine 
Office  Court,  off  Fleet  Street,  London,  re- 
built shortly  after  the  Restoration,  frequented 
by  Ben  Jonson,  and  still  in  existence. 
CHBSNEY,  SIR  GEORGE  TOMKYNS 
(1833-95),  a  distinguished  Indian  officer, 
published  in'Blackwood's  Magazine'  in  1871 
'The  Battle  of  Dorking'  (q.v.),  which  created 
a  sensation,  and  in  1876  'The  Dilemma',  a 
powerful  story  of  the  Mutiny,  besides  other 
novels. 

Chester,  SIR  JOHN,  and  EDWARD  his  son, 
characters  in  Dickens's  'Barnaby  Rudge* 


Chester  Plays,  see  Miracle  Plays. 
CHESTERFIELD,  PHILIP  DORMER 
STANHOPE,  fourth  earl  of  (1694-1773), 
statesman  and  diplomatist,  was  ambassador 
at  The  Hague,  1728-32,  and  entered  the 
Pelham  ministry  in  1744.  His  tolerant 
policy  as  viceroy  of  Ireland  in  1745-6  kept 
that  country  quiet.  He  was  a  wit  and  an 
orator,  wrote  political  tracts,  and  contributed 
to  the  *  World',  but  is  remembered  as  a 
writer  principally  for  his  'Letters*  to  his 
natural  son,  Philip  Stanhope.  These  were 
written  almost  daily  from  1737  onwards 
and  were  designed  for  the  education  of 
the  young  man.  They  are  full  of  sensible 
instruction,  admirably  expressed,  more 
particularly  in  matters  of  good  breeding  (for 
the  boy  was  exceptionally  awkward  and  un- 
graceful), but  have  been  reprobated  on 
account  of  a  few  passages  contrary  to  good 


CHESTERTON 

morals,  in  which  he  commended  intrigue 
while  condemning  vulgar  vice.  The  letters 
to  his  son  were  followed  by  letters  to  his  god- 
son, also  named  Philip  Stanhope.  These 
letters  are  on  the  same  lines  as  their  prede- 
cessors. The  letters  to  his  son  were  pub- 
lished (by  the  son's  widow)  in  1774;  those  to 
his  godson,  by  Lord  Carnarvon,  in  1890.  A 
complete  edition  of  all  Chesterfield's  letters, 
by  B.  Dobre"e,  appeared  in  1932.  Chester- 
field is  also  remembered  in  connexion 
with  Johnson's  'Dictionary*.  Johnson  had 
addressed  the  'Plan'  of  that  work  to  Chester- 
field, but  it  was  received  with  neglect  (un- 
intentional according  to  the  latter).  On  the 
publication  of  the  Dictionary,  Chesterfield 
wrote  two  papers  in  the  'World*  in  commen- 
dation of  it.  Thereupon  on  7  Feb.  1755 
Johnson  addressed  to  Chesterfield  the  famous 
letter,  in  which  he  bitterly  rejected  a  notice 
which  'had  it  been  early,  had  been  kind ;  but 
it  has  been  delayed  till  I  am  indifferent,  and 
cannot  enjoy  it ;  till  I  am  solitary  and  cannot 
impart  it;  till  I  am  known,  and  do  not  want 
it*.  Lord  Chesterfield  also  wrote  some  'Char- 
acters of  Eminent  Persons*  which  contain 
valuable  historical  matter.  Every  one  feared 
him  because  he  was  believed  to  be  writing 
his  own  Memoirs,  which  would  brand  most 
people  severely.  He  gave  his  name  to  a  kind 
of  overcoat  and  to  a  kind  of  couch. 

CHESTERTON,  GILBERT  KEITH 
(1874-  ),  educated  at  St.  Paul's  School,  is 
an  essayist,  critic,  novelist,  and  poet,  among 
whose  best-known  writings  are:  (novels  and 
short  stories)  'The  Napoleon  of  Netting 
Hal',  'The  Man  who  was  Thursday',  'The 
Flying  Inn',  'The  Ball  and  the  Cross',  'The 
Innocence  of  Father  Brown*,  'The  Wisdom 
of  Father  Brown';  (poetry)  'The  Ballad  of 
the  White  Horse',  'Wine,  Water,  and  Song', 
'Poems';  (essays)  'Heretics',' Generally  Speak- 
ing*, 'What's  Wrong  with  the  World';  (bio- 
graphy) 'Robert  Browning', £  Charles  Dickens'; 
(criticism)  <G.  F.  Watts',  'William  Blake*. 

GHESTRE,  THOMAS,  see  Launfal 

CHETTLE,  HENRY  (d.  1607?),  the  son 
of  a  London  dyer,  was  apprenticed  to  a 
stationer,  and  was  for  a  time  a  partner  in  a 
printing  business.  Upon  its  failure  he  took 
to  writing  plays,  of  which  he  is  reputed  the 
author  of  thirteen,  and  the  joint-author  of 
considerably  more  (including  'The  Blind 
Beggar  of  Bednal  Green',  q.v.,  with  J.  Day). 
The  only  extant  play  attributed  to  him  alone 
as  'The  Tragedy  of  Hoffman'  (1602),  dealing 
with  the  story  of  a  Danish  pirate  who  is  exe- 
cuted, and  the  revenge  and  execution  of  his 
son.  He  edited  Greene's  'Groatsworth  of 
Wit'  (q.v.)  in  1592,  and  wrote  two  satirical 
pamphlets,  'Kind-Hart's  Dreame'  (1593)  and 
'Pierce  Plaines'  Prentiship'  (1595).  He  also 
published  'Englande's  Mourning  Garment', 
an  elegy  on  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  1603. 

Chevalier,  THE  YOUNG,  Charles  Edward 
Stuart  (1720-88),  the  Young  Pretender. 


CHIFFINCH 

Chevalier  de  St.  George,  James  Francis 
Edward  Stuart  (1688-1766),  the  Old  Pre- 
tender, called  by  the  Jacobites  'King  James  III 
and  VIII*. 

Chevy  Chase,  The  Ballad  of,  one  of  the 
oldest  of  the  English  ballads,  probably  dates 
in  its  primitive  form  from  the  I5th  cent.  Its 
subject  is  the  rivalry  of  the  neighbouring 
families  of  Percy  and  Douglas,  heightened  by 
the  national  quarrel  between  England  and 
Scotland.  Percy,  earl  of  Northumberland,  has 
vowed  to  hunt  for  three  days  across  the 
Scottish  border  'maugre  the  doughty  Doug- 
las'.  The  two  parties  meet  and  fight,  there  is 
great  slaughter  on  both  sides,  and  both  Percy 
and  Douglas  are  killed.  (Cf.  Otterbourne.)  The 
ballad  was  printed  in  Capell's  'Prolusions'  in 
1760  and  is  included  in  Percy's  'Reliques*. 
Cheyne  Row  and  Walk,  in  Chelsea,  named 
from  Lord  Cheyne,  who  sold  the  manor  to 
Sir  Hans  Sloane  (q.v.).  Carlyle lived  in  Cheyne 
Row;  George  Eliot,  Count  d'Orsay,  D.  G. 
Rossetti,  Turner,  in  Cheyne  Walk.  Don 
Saltero's  coffee-house  (q.v.)  stood  in  Cheyne 
Walk. 

Ghianti,  the  name  of  a  group  of  mountains 
near  Siena  in  Italy,  which  produce  a  cele- 
brated wine. 

Chiaroscuro,  meaning  originally  the  style 
of  pictorial  art  in  which  only  the  light  and 
shade,  and  not  the  various  colours,  are 
represented,  is  used  figuratively  of  poetic 
and  literary  treatment  in  the  sense  of  mingled 
clearness  and  obscurity,  light  and  gloom, 
praise  and  blame,  &c.;  but  is  still  used 
chiefly  for  pictorial  art. 

Chiasmus,  a  figure  of  speech  by  which  the 
order  of  the  words  in  the  first  of  two  parallel 
clauses  is  reversed  in  the  second,  e.g.  'He 
saved  others ;  himself  he  cannot  save*. 
Ghichele  or  Ghicheley,  HENRY  (1362?- 
1443),  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  son  of  a 
yeoman  of  Higham  Ferrers,  Northampton- 
shire. He  was  educated  at  Winchester  and 
New  College,  Oxford,  and  became  arch- 
bishop in  1414.  He  founded  the  Chichele 
chest  in  Oxford  University  for  the  relief  of 
poor  students,  built  a  house  for  Cistercians 
in  Oxford,  and  was  founder  of  All  Souls 
College  (q.v.). 

Chichevache,  a  perversion  of  the  French 
chicheface,  'thin-face*,  the  name  of  a  fabulous 
monster  said  to  feed  only  on  patient  wives, 
and  hence,  from  scarcity  of  the  diet,  to  be 
always  lean  and  hungry.    Her  spouse,  the 
Bycorne,  on  the  contrary  grew  fat  on  his 
abundant  diet  of  patient  husbands. 
O  noble  wyves,  ful  of  heigh  prudence, 
Let  noon  humilitie  your  tongues  nayle  .  .  . 
Lest    Chichevache    you    swolwe    in    her 
entrayle.  (Chaucer)  Clerk's  Tale',  1132.) 
Chiffinch,   WILLIAM   (1602-88),   the   con- 
fidential agent  of  Charles  II,  page  of  the  bed- 
chamber, figures  in  Scott's  'Peveril  of  the 
Peak'  (q.v.). 


[156] 


CHILD 

CHILD,  FRANCIS  JAMES  (1825-96),  born 
at  Boston,  U.S.A.,  the  son  of  a  sailmaker,  and 
educated  at  Harvard,  where  he  remained  for 
a  time  as  a  tutor.  He  was  much  interested  in 
English  philology,  and  after  studying  at 
Gottingen  and  Berlin  became  in  1876  pro- 
fessor of  English  at  his  university.  He  edited 
the  poetical  works  of  Spenser  in  1855 ;  con- 
tributed 'Observations  on  the  Language  of 
Chaucer'  and  of  Gower's  'Confessio  Amantis' 
to  the  Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences  in  1863  and  1873;  and 
published  his  great  collection  of  'English  and 
Scottish  Popular  ^  Ballads'  in  1883-98.  He 
was  instrumental  in  obtaining  the  publication 
of  the  Percy  Folio  (q.v.)  MS.  ('Diet.  American 
Biography'). 

Cbilde,  in  'Childe  Harold',  'Childe  Roland', 
&c.,  signifies  a  youth  of  gentle  birth,  and  is 
used  as  a  kind  of  title.  In  the  I3th  and  i4th 
cents,  'child*  appears  to  have  been  applied  to  a 
young  noble  awaiting  knighthood. 

Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage,  a  poem  in 
Spenserian  stanzas  by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.), 
begun  in  Albania  in  1809,  of  which  the  first 
two  cantos  appeared  in  1812,  canto  iii  in 
1816,  canto  £v  in  1818. 

The  poem  purports  to  describe  the  travels 
and  reflections  of  a  pilgrim  who,  sated  and 
disgusted  with  a  life  of  pleasure  and  revelry, 
seeks  distraction  in  foreign  lands.  The  first 
two  cantos  take  the  reader  to  Portugal,  Spain, 
the  Ionian  Isles,  and  Albania,  and  end  with 
a  lament  on  the  bondage  of  Greece.  In  the 
third  canto  the  pilgrim  passes  to  Belgium,  the 
Rhine,  the  Alps,  and  the  Jura.  The  historical 
associations  of  each  place  are  made  the  poet's 
theme,  the  Spanish  war,  the  eve  of  Waterloo 
and  Napoleon,  and  more  especially  Rousseau 
and  Julie.  In  the  fourth  canto  the  poet 
abandons  his  imaginary  pilgrim  and  speaks 
in  his  own  person,  of  Venice,  Arqua  and 
Petrarch,  Ferrara  and  Tasso,  Florence  and 
Boccaccio,  Rome  and  her  great  men,  from  the 
Scipios  to  Rienzi. 

Childe  of  Elle,  the  subject  of  an  old  ballad 
included  in  Percy's  'Reliques',  who  loves*  the 
fair  Emmeline,  runs  away  with  her,  slays  the 
foremost  of  the  pursuers,  and  is  finally  for- 
given by  the  baron  her  father. 

Childe  Roland,  in  an  old  Scottish  ballad,  a 
son  of  King  Arthur.  His  sister,  Burd  Ellen, 
is  carried  away  by  the  fairies  to  the  castle  of 
the  king  of  Elfland.  Aided  by  the  instructions 
of  Merlin,  Childe  Roland  makes  his  way  into 
the  castle  and  rescues  his  sister. 

Child  Rowland  to  the  dark  tower  came, 
His  word  was  still  'Fie,  foh,  and  fum, 
I  smell  the  blood  of  a  British  man.* 

(Shakespeare,  'King  Lear%  ni,  iv.) 

HalliweU  ('Nursery  Rhymes')  thinks  that 
Shakespeare  is  here  quoting  from  two  differ- 
ent compositions,  the  first  line  from  a  ballad 
on  Roland,  the  second  and  third  from  the 
story  of  Jack  the  Giant-killer  (q.v.). 


CHILLINGWORTH 

Childe  Roland  to  the  Dark  Tower  Came,  a 
poem  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.),  included  in 
'Dramatic  Romances*,  published  in  'Men 
and  Women'  in  1855. 

A  brave  knight  is  attempting  an  adventure, 
in  which  all  who  have  previously  undertaken 
it  have  failed.  He  reaches  the  tower  just 
when  he  despairs  of  succeeding.  Around  him 
he  sees  the  figures  of  the  'lost  adventurers'. 
He  sounds  his  horn  to  announce  that  he  has 
come.  We  may  see  in  the  dreamlike  narrative 
an  allegory  of  life. 

Childe  Waters,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  the  old  ballads,  celebrating  the  constancy  of 
Ellen  to  Childe  Waters,  her  heartless  lover, 
whom  she  serves  as  a  page,  receiving  cruel 
and  degrading  treatment.  Her  child  is  born 
in  a  stable,  where  she  is  tending  her  master's 
horse.  He  hears  her  singing  a  lullaby  and 
wishing  herself  dead,  relents,  and  marries 
her.  The  ballad  is  in  Percy's  'ReHques'. 

Childermas,  the  festival  of  the  Holy  Inno- 
cents (28  December),  commemorating  the 
slaughter  of  the  children  by  Herod  (Matt.  ii. 
16). 

Children  in  the  Wood,  THE,  the  subject  of 
an  old  ballad  (apparently  written  in  1595), 
which  is  included  in  Percy's  and  Ritson's 
collections.  A  gentleman  of  Norfolk  on  his 
death-bed  leaves  his  property  to  his  infant  son 
and  daughter,  and  gives  the  charge  of  them 
to  his  brother.  The  brother  designs  to  get 
possession  of  the  property  by  making  away 
with  the  children.  He  hires  two  ruffians  to 
slay  them  in  a  wood.  One  of  these,  more 
tender-hearted  than  the  other,  repents  and 
kills  his  fellow,  and  then  abandons  the  chil- 
dren in  the  wood.  The  children  perish  and 
the  Robin-redbreast  covers  them  with  leaves. 
The  wrath  of  God  falls  upon  the  wicked  uncle, 
who  loses  his  sons  and  his  goods,  and  dies  in 
gaol.  The  surviving  ruffian  is  arrested  for 
robbery,  condemned  to  death,  and  confesses 
the  deed. 

A  similar  story  is  the  subject  of  the  second 
of  'Two  lamentable  Tragedies ;  the  one  the 
murder  of  Maister  Beech,  a  chandler  in 
Thames  Street.  The  other  of  a  young  child 
murthered  in  a  wood  by  two  rufEns,  with 
the  consent  of  his  unkle.  By  Robt.  Harring- 
ton, 1 60 1,  4to.' 

Children  of  the  Chapel,  CHILDREN  OF 
PAUL'S,  see  Paul's  (Children  of). 

Chillingworth,  ROGER,  in  Hawthorne's 
'The  Scarlet  Letter'  (q.v.),  the  name  assumed 
by  Hester  Prynne's  husband. 

CHILLINGWORTH,  WILLIAM  (1602- 
44),  a  scholar  and  fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  embraced  Romanism  and  went  to 
Douai  in  1630,  but  abjured  that  creed  in 
1634.  He  was  one  of  the  literary  coterie  that 
gathered  round  Lord  Falkland  at  Great  Tew, 
and  was  the  author  of  the  controversial  work, 
*The  Religion  of  the  Protestants  a  safe  Way 
to  Salvation'  (1638). 


[157] 


CHILLIP 

GMliip,  DR.,  in  Dickens's  'David  Copper- 
field'    (q.v.),   the   physician   who   attended 
Mrs.  Copperfield  at  the  hero's  birth. 
Chilian,    The  Prisoner  of,   see  Prisoner  of 
Chilian. 

Chiltera  Hundreds,  hundreds  (i.e.  sub- 
divisions of  a  county,  having  their  own 
courts)  in  Oxfordshire  and  Buckinghamshire 
which  contain  the  Chiitern  Hills.  The 
manorial  rights  of  these  belonged  to  ^  the 
Crown,  which  appointed  over  them  bailiffs 
and  stewards.  These  offices  are  now  obsolete, 
but  the  stewardship  of  the  three  Buckingham- 
shire hundreds  (Stoke,  Desborough,  and 
Burnham)  has  been  retained  for  a  special 
purpose.  No  member  of  parliament  may  by 
law  resign  his  seat  so  long  as  he  is  duly 
qualified ;  on  the  other  hand  a  member  who 
accepts  an  office  of  profit  under  the  Crown 
must  vacate  his  seat  subject  to  re-election. 
Therefore  a  member  who  desires  to  resign 
applies  for  the  'Stewardship  of  the  Chiitern 
Hundreds5  or  other  similar  post,  which  is,  by 
a  legal  figment,  held  to  be  such  an  office;  the 
appointment  entails  his  resignation,  and 
having  thus  fulfilled  its  purpose,  is  itself 
vacated.  [OED.] 

CMmaera,  according  to  Greek  legend,  a 
monster  with  three  heads,  those  of  a  lion, 
a  goat  and  a  dragon,  which  continually 
vomited  flame.  It  was  overcome  by  Bellero- 
phon  (q.v.),  mounted  on  the  winged  horse 
Pegasus. 

According  to  Rabelais  (n.  vii),  among  the 
books  found  by  Pantagruel  in  the  library  of 
St.  Victor  was  a  treatise  on  the  very  subtle 
question,  debated  for  seventy  days  at  the 
Council  of  Constance,  futrum  chimaera  in 
vacuo  bombinans  possit  comedere  secundas 
intentiones',  a  formula  in  which  the  author 
sums  up  the  inanities  of  decadent  scholas- 
ticism. 

Chim&ne,  or  XIMENA,  the  wife  of  the  Cid 
(q.v.). 

Chimes,  The,  a  Christmas  book  by  Dickens 
(q.v.),  published  in  1845. 

It  is  the  story  of  a  nightmare  or  vision  in 
which  Toby  Veck,  porter  and  runner  of 
errands,  under  the  influence  of  the  goblins  of 
the  church  bells  and  a  dish  of  tripe,  witnesses 
awful  misfortunes  befalling  his  daughter,  a 
vision  happily  dissipated  at  the  end;  together 
with  some  social  satire  on  justices,  aldermen, 
and  the  like,  in  the  persons  of  Sir  Joseph 
Bowley  and  Mr.  Cute. 

Chingachgook,  the  Indian  chief  in  the 
*Leathersto  eking'  series  of  tales  of  Indian  life 
of  J.  F.  Cooper  (q.v.). 

Chios,  an  island  in  the  Aegean  Sea,  one  of 
the  reputed  birthplaces  of  Homer.  It  was 
celebrated  for  its  wine. 
Chippendale,  THOMAS  (d.  1779),  a  famous 
furniture-maker  of  London,  noted  for  his 
light  and  elegant  style.  He  published  in  1752 
'The  Gentleman  and  Cabinet  Maker's 
Director*. 


CHRIST  CHURCH 

CMvery,  MR.  and  'YouNG  JOHN',  characters 
in  Dickens's  'Little  Dorrit*  (q.v.). 

Chloe,  see  Daphnis  and  Chloe.  'Chloe*  is 
the  name  by  which  Pope  ('Moral  Essays',  ii. 
157)  refers  to  Lady  Suffolk,  mistress  of 
George  II.  Matthew  Prior  has  several  poems 
to  'Chloe'. 

The  'Chloe*  or  *Cloe*  mentioned  in  several 
of  Horace  Walpole's  letters  was  the  duke  of 
Newcastle's  French  cook,  Clouet. 
Chloe,  The  Tale  of,  see  Tale  of  Chloe. 
Choice,  The,  see  Pom/ret. 
Choir  Invisible  f  The,  a  romantic  novel  of  the 
Kentucky  wilderness,  by  J.  L.  Allen  (q.v.), 
published  1897, 
Choliamb,  see  Scazon. 

Chopin,  FR£DJ§RIC  FRANCOIS  (1809-49), 
pianist  and  composer,  was  born  near  Warsaw 
of  a  French  father  and  Polish  mother.  He 
composed  two  concertos,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  pianoforte  solo  compositions,  etudes, 
mazurkas,  preludes,  nocturnes,  &c.  His  ro- 
mantic connexion  with  George  Sand  (q.v.)  is 
recorded  in  her  'Lucrezia  Floriani',  where 
Chopin  figures  as  Prince  Karol. 

Chopine,  a  kind  of  shoe  raised  by  a  cork  sole 
or  the  like,  worn  about  1600  in  Spain  and 
Italy,  and  on  the  English  stage.  'Your  lady- 
ship is  nearer  heaven  than  when  I  saw  you 
last,  by  the  altitude  of  a  chopine'  (Shake- 
speare, 'Hamlet*,  n.  ii),  which  implies  that 
the  boy-actor  (who  took  female  parts)  had 
grown. 

Chops  of  the  Channel,  the  entrance  into 
the  English  Channel  from  the  Atlantic. 

Choriamb,  a  metrical  foot  of  four  syllables, 
the  first  and  last  long,  the  two  others  short. 
A  Choree  is  a  Trochee  (q.v.). 

Chouans,  a  name  given  to  irregular  bands 
•who  maintained  in  the  west  of  France  (the 
Vende'e  and  Brittany)  a  partisan  war  against 
the  Republic  and  the  first  empire,  after  1793 ; 
hence  a  polemical  name  for  partisans  of  the 
Bourbons.  The  word  is  perhaps  from  the 
name  of  Jean  Chouan,  said  to  be  one  of  their 
leaders,  or  from  chouan  an  older  form  of 
chat-huant,  a  species  of  owl.  Probably  the 
coincidence  suggested  the  appellation. 
[OED.]  It  is  said  that  the  Chouans  imitated 
the  hoot  of  an  owl  as  a  rallying-cry.  See 
Balzac  for  his  novel  'Les  Chouans'. 

CHRESTIEN  DE  TROYES,  a  izth-cent. 
French  author  of  part  of  the  group  of  Ar- 
thurian romances,  notably  the  Story  of 
Perceval,  in  his  unfinished  'Conte  del  Graal*. 
This  is  an  important  source  for  all  the  Grail 
stories. 

Christ  Church,  Oxford,  a  college  begun  by 
Cardinal  Wolsey  (it  was  to  be  called  'Cardinal 
College'),  and  taken  over  after  his  fall  and 
established  by  Henry  VIII  in  1546.  Among 
famous  men  educated  there  were  John 
Wesley,  Dr.  Pusey,  and  Gladstone.  Christ 


CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL 

Church  is  at  the  same  time  the  cathedral  of 
Oxford,  the  cathedral  being  within  the  waU& 
of  the  college  and  serving  as  its  chapel. 
Christ's  Hospital,  London,  also  known  as 
the  BLUECOAT  SCHOOL  (q.v.),  founded  under 
a  charter  of  Edward  VI  as  a  school  for  poor 
children,  in  buildings  that  before  the  dissolu- 
tion had  belonged  to  the  Grey  Friars.  Here 
were  educated  Coleridge,  Lamb,  and  Leigh 
Hunt.  The  school  was  removed  to  Horsham. 

Christs  Teares  over  Jerusalem,  a  tract  by 
T.  Nash  (q.v.),  published  in  1593.  Abandon- 
ing his  contentious  and  vituperative  writings, 
Nash  here  figures  as  a  religious  reformer.  He 
applies  Christ's  prophecy  of  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  as  a  warning  to  sinful  London. 
He  analyses  with  his  usual  vigour  the  vices 
and  abuses  of  contemporary  society. 

Christs  Vicforie  and  Triumph,  the  principal 
poem  of  Giles  Fletcher  (q.v.). 

Christabel,  a  poem  by  S.  T.  Coleridge  (q.v.), 
published  in  1816, 

The  poem  is  unfinished.  The  first  part 
was  written  at  Stowey  in  Somerset  in  1797, 
the  second  at  Keswick  in  Cumberland  in 
1800  after  the  poet's  return  from  Germany. 
Christabel,  daughter  of  Sir  Leoline,  praying 
at  night  in  the  wood  for  her  betrothed  lover, 
finds  a  lady  in  distress,  the  fair  Geraldine,  and 
brings  her  to  the  castle,  where  she  is  hos- 
pitably received.  She  claims  to  be  the 
daughter  of  Lord  Roland  de  Vaux,  who  had 
once  been  the  friend  of  Sir  Leoline  before 
they  were  estranged  by  a  quarrel,  and  to  have 
been  forcibly  abducted  from  her  home.  In 
reality  she  is  a  malignant  supernatural 
creature  who  has  assumed  the  form  of 
Geraldine  in  order  to  work  evil,  and  Christa- 
bel has  seen  through  her  disguise,  but  is 
forced  to  silence  by  a  spell.  Sir  Leoline  sends 
his  bard  to  Lord  Roland  to  tell  him  that  his 
daughter  is  safe  and  to  offer  reconcilement. 

The  poem,  apart  from  introducing  a  new 
metre,  is  important  as  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  in  English  poetry. 

Christian,  the  hero  of  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's 
Progress'  (q.v.). 

Christian,  EDWARD,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Peveril  of  the  Peak'  (q.v.). 
Christian,  FLETCHER,  see  Bounty. 

Christian  Hero,  The.  An  Argument  proving 
that  no  Principles  but  those  of  Religion  are 
Sufficient  to  make  a  great  Man,  a  treatise  by 
Steele  (q.v.),  published  in  1701. 

Finding,  as  the  author  tells  us,  'Military 
life  exposed  to  much  Irregularity*,  he  wrote 
this  little  work  'with  a  design  to  fix  upon  his 
own  Mind  a  strong  Impression  of  Virtue  and 
Religion,  in  opposition  to  a  stronger  Propen- 
sity towards  unwarrantable  Pleasures'.  In  it 
he  inculcates  the  value  of  the  Bible  as  a  moral 
guide  and  the  failure  of  the  old  philosophy. 
The  treatise  ends  with  a  comparison  between 
Louis  XIV  and  William  III,  and  includes  a 
significant  passage  recommending,  in  con- 


CHRISTMAS  CAROL 

trast  with  the  immorality  that  pervaded  most 
of  ^the  writings  of  the  day,  a  chivalrous 
attitude  towards  women.  The  work  is 
important  as  one  of  the  first  signs  of  a  change 
of  tone  in  English  literature. 

Christian  King,  MOST,  a  title  of  the  kings  of 
France  since  the  middle  of  the  I5th  cent., 
or  even,  according  to  some  authorities,  since 
Pepin  le  Bref  (Larousse). 

Christian  Morals,  see  Browne  (Sir  TV). 

Christianity,  An  Argument  against  abolishing, 
see  Swift. 

Christian  Year,  The,  a  collection  of  sacred 
poems  by  Keble  (q.v.),  published  in.  1827. 
The  book  attained  great  popularity  both 
because  of  the  beauty  of  much  of  the  verse 
and  owing  to  its  connexion  with  the  Oxford 
Movement  (q.v.),  of  which  it  expressed  the 
sentiment. 

Christiana,  in  the  second  part  of  the  Til- 
grim 's  Progress*  (q.v.),  the  wife  of  Christian. 

Christie  Johnstone,  a  novel  by  Reade  (q.v.), 
published  ini853.  It  is  a  romantic  story,  not 
devoid  of  humour,  telling  how  the  gallant 
large-hearted  Christie,  a  Scottish  fisher-girl, 
proved  herself  more  than  worthy  to  marry 
the  weak-willed  artist,  Charles  Gatty,  and, 
by  saving  him  from  drowning,  won  over  even 
his  dour  mother. 

Christie's  galleries,  in  King  Street,  St. 
James,  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  art  sales  in 
London.  James  Christie,  the  elder  (1730-" 
1803),  was  an  auctioneer  in  London  (1766— 
1803).  His  eldest  son,  James  Christie,  the 
younger  (1773-1831),  took  over  his  father's 
business,  and  moved  to  the  present  premises 
in  1824.  He  wrote  on  the  antiquity  of  chess, 
Greek  vases,  &c. 

Christis  Kirk  on  the  Green,  an  old  Scottish 
poem,  doubtfully  attributed  to  James  I  or 
James  V  of  Scotland,  in  nine-lined  stanzas 
with  a  ebob'  after  the  eighth  line,  descriptive 
of  the  rough  fun,  dancing,  and  love-making 
of  a  village  festival  or  'wappinshaw*.  Two 
additional  cantos  were  composed  by  Allan 
Ramsay  (q.v.). 

Christmas-box,  originally  a  box,  usually 
of  earthenware,  in  which  contributions  of 
money  were  collected  at  Christmas  by 
apprentices,  &c.,  the  box  being  broken  when 
full  and  the  contents  shared.  Now,  a  present 
given  at  Christmas  to  employees  and  trades- 
people. Hence  'Boxing  Day*. 

Christmas  Carol,  A,  a  Christmas  book  by 
Dickens  (q.v.),  published  in  1843. 

Scrooge,  an  old  curmudgeon,  receives  on 
Christmas  Eve  a  visit  from  the  ghost  of 
Marley,  his  late  partner  in  business,  and 
beholds  a  series  of  visions  of  the  past,  present, 
and  future,  including  one  of  what  his  own 
death  will  be  like  unless  he  is  quick  to  amend 
his  ways.  As  a  result  of  this  he  wakes  up  on 
Christmas  morning  an  altered  man.  He  sends 
a  turkey  to  his  iU-used  clerk,  Bob  Cratchit, 


[I59l 


CHRISTMAS  EVE  AND  EASTER  DAY 

positively  enjoys  subscribing  to  Christmas 
charities,  and  generally  behaves  like  the 
genial  old  fellow  that  he  has  become. 
Christmas  Eve  and  Easter  Day,  two  distinct 
poems  under  one  title,  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.), 
published  in  1850. 

In  the  first  the  narrator  recounts  a  spiritual 
experience,  a  vision  in  which  he  is  taken  first 
to  a  dissenting  chapel,  then  to  St.  Peter's 
Church  at  Rome,  then  to  a  lecture-room 
where  a  German  professor  is  investigating 
the  origin  of  the  Christian  myth,  and  finally 
back  to  the  dissenting  chapel.  He  concludes 
that  his  'heart  does  best  to  receive  in  meek- 
ness' this  last  mode  of  worship,  where  earthly 
aids  are  cast  aside  and  God  'appears  serene 
with  the  thinnest  human  veil  between'. 

In  'Easter  Day*  a  Christian  and  a  sceptic 
are  disputing.  The  Christian  narrates  a  vision 
from  which  he  has  learnt  the  value  of  life,  with 
its  limitations,  but  with  the  hope  remaining 
'to  reach  one  eve  the  Better  Land*. 

Christoplier,  ST.,  meaning  *  Christ-bearer*, 
a  Christian  martyr  of  the  3rd  cent.,  said  to 
have  lived  in  Syria  and  to  have  been  a  man 
of  exceptional  size  and  strength.  As  a  penance 
for  his  past  sins  he  used  to  carry  pilgrims 
over  a  river.  Jesus  Christ,  the  legend  says, 
came  to  him  in  the  form  of  a  child,  to  be 
carried  over,  but  before  Christopher  reached 
the  other  side,  the  burden  became  so  heavy 
that  he  nearly  failed.  'Marvel  not,'  said 
Christ,  'for  with  me  thou  hast  carried  the 
sins  of  all  the  world.'  The  saint  is  com- 
memorated on  25  July.  He  is  the  patron 
saint  of  wayfarers. 

CHRISTOPHER  NORTH,  a  pseudonym 
used  by  J.  WILSON  (1785-1854,  q.v.). 
Christopher  Robin,  a  small  boy  who 
figures  in  the  nursery  tales  of  Mr.  A.  A. 
Milne.  'The  Christopher  Robin  Story  Book* 
appeared  in  1929. 

Christopher  Sly,  see  Taming  of  the  Shrew. 
Christy  Minstrels,  a  troup  of  minstrels 
imitating  negroes,  originated  in  the  I9th 
cent,  by  one  George  Christy  of  New  York. 
The  name  was  afterwards  extended  to  any 
similar  company  with  blackened  faces  who 
sing  negro  melodies  interspersed  with  jokes. 

Chronicles,  see  under  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle,  Annales  Cambriae,  Asser,  Bede, 
Camden  (William),  Capgrave  (John},  Ciren- 
cestery  Eadmer,  Fabyan  (Robert),  Flodoard, 
Florence  of  Worcester,  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth, 
Gesta  Francorum,  Gildas,  Giraldus  Cambrensis, 
Hall  (Edward),  Harrison  (William),  Hayward 
(Sir  John},  Holinshed  (Raphael),  Hoveden 
(Roger),  Jocelin  de  Brakelond,  Nennius, 
Richard  III  (History  of),  Robert  of  Gloucester, 
Speed  (John),  Stow  (John),  Vergil  (Polydore), 
Wall^  of  Jersey,  William  of  Malmesbury, 
William  of  Newburgh,  Wyntoun  (Andrew  of). 
Chronicles  of  the  Canongate,  The,  an  in- 
clusive title  for  certain  of  Sir  W.  Scott's 
novels,  'The  Highland  Widow',  'The  Two 


CHRYSOSTOM 

Drovers',  and  'The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth* 
(qq.v.),  to  which  the  author  attached  the 
fiction  that  they  were  written  by  Mr.  Chrystal 
Croftangry,  who  draws  on  the  recollections 
of  his  old  friend  Mrs.  Bethune  Balliol,  a 
resident  in  the  Canongate,  Edinburgh.  Mr. 
Croftangry's  own  story,  notable  among 
Scott's  shorter  sketches,  forms  an  introduction 
to  the  Chronicles. 

Chrononhofonthologos,  a  burlesque  of  con- 
temporary drama  by  Henry  Carey  (q.v.), 
'the  Most  Tragical  Tragedy  that  ever  was 
Tragediz'd  by  any  Company  of  Tragedians', 
acted  in  1734.  Chrononhotonthologos  is 
king  of  Queerummania,  and  two  of  the 
characters  are  Aldiborontiphoscophornio  and 
Rigdum-Funnidos,  names  which  Scott  gave 
to  James  and  John  Ballantyne,  on  account  of 
the  pomposity  of  the  one  and  the  fun  and 
cheerfulness  of  the  other. 

Chrysal,  or  the  Adventures  of  a  Guinea,  see 
Adventures  of  a  Guinea. 

Chrysaor,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  v.  i. 
9  and  v.  xii.  40,  the  sword  of  Justice,  wielded 
by  Sir  Artegal.  The  Chrysaor  of  Greek 
mythology  was  a  son  of  Poseidon  and  Medusa. 

Chryseis,  daughter  of  Chryses,  a  priest  of 
Apollo.  She  had  been  taken  prisoner  and 
allotted  to  Agamemnon.  Chryses  came  to 
the  Greek  camp  to  win  his  daughter's  free- 
dom, but  was  received  by  Agamemnon  with 
contumely.  Thereupon  the  god  sent  a  plague 
on  the  Greek  host.  To  avert  this,  Achilles 
urged  that  Agamemnon  should  follow  the 
advice  of  Calchas,  the  seer,  and  surrender 
the  damsel.  This  he  finally  was  obliged 
to  do,  but  in  his  wrath  he  took  from 
Achilles  the  girl  Briseis  (q.v.),  thereby  causing 
Achilles  to  retire  for  a  time  from  the  Trojan 
War. 

CHRYSOSTOM,  ST.  JOHN  (c.  345-407), 
one  of  the  Greek  Fathers  of  the  Church,  was 
born  at  Antioch  of  Syria  of  a  noble  family. 
Under  his  mother's  influence  he  was  baptized 
in  370,  and  spent  ten  years  in  the  desert, 
leading  an  ascetic  life  and  studying  theology. 
He  became  bishop  of  Constantinople,  and 
applied  the  revenues  of  the  see  to  charit- 
able purposes.  He  was  a  most  eloquent 
preacher,  and  his  sermons,  directed  against  the 
vices  of  the  capital  and  of  the  leading  person- 
ages of  the  empire  (including  the  empress 
Eudoxia),  coupled  with  his  disciplinary 
measures,  aroused  much  hostility.  He  was 
condemned  by  a  packed  synod  (Ad  Quercum), 
banished  to  Nicaea,  recalled,  and  deposed  by 
a  second  synod.  He  was  sent  to  Cocysus  on 
the  slopes  of  Mount  Taurus ;  but  his  energy 
was  unquelled,  and  he  was  again  removed 
to  more  distant  regions,  but  died  on  the  way 
at  Comana,  In  his  writings  he  emphasized 
the  ascetic  element  in  religion  and  the  need 
for  personal  study  of  the  Scriptures.  His 
voluminous  works  include,  notably,  com- 
mentaries on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  and 
on  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  Corin- 


[160] 


CHUCKS 

thians.  The  name  'Chrysostom*  means 
'golden-mouth*  and  was  given  to  him  on 
account  of  his  eloquence. 

Chucks,  MR.,  a  character  in  Marryat's  'Peter 
Simple'  (q.v.). 

Chuffey,  in  Dickens's  'Martin  Chuzzlewit* 
(q.v.),  Anthony  Chuzzlewit's  old  clerk. 

Chump,  MRS.,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
Sandra  Belloni*  (q.v.). 

CHURCH,  RICHARD  WILLIAM  (1815- 
90),  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  was  author  of  lives  of 
St.  Wulfstan  (1844)  and  St.  Anselm  (1870), 
and  of  Spenser  and  Bacon  (1879  and  1884)  in 
the  English  Men  of  Letters  series.  He  also 
wrote  a  notable  history  of  the  'Oxford  Move- 
ment* (1891)  and  an  essay  on  Dante,  of 
whom  he  was  a  devoted  student;  this  was 
republished  with  a  translation  of  Dante's 
'De  Monarchia*  in  1878.  He  published 
a  large  number  of  essays,  sermons,  and 
addresses,  and  an  interesting  little  book 
on  'The  Beginnings  of  the  Middle  Ages* 
(i877). 

CHURCHILL,  CHARLES  (1731-64),  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  School.  He  went  to 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  but  his 
university  career  was  interrupted  by  his 
marriage  at  the  age  of  18.  He  became 
famous  by  his  satire  on  contemporary  actors, 
'The  Rosciad',  published  in  1761,  and  his 
violent  satire  on  Bute  and  the  Scots,  'The 
Prophecy  of  Famine',  published  in  1763.  He 
attached  himself  to  John  Wilkes  (q.v.)  and 
contributed  largely  to  his  paper  'The  North 
Briton*.  He  wrote  other  political  and  social 
satires  (notably  'The  Author',  against 
Smollett;  'The  Epistle  to  William  Hogarth* 
and  'The  Duellist',  1763;  'The  Times', 
1764;  and  'The  Candidate*,  directed  against 
'Jemmy  Twitcher*,  Lord  Sandwich,  1764), 
but  died  young,  at  Boulogne,  on  his  way 
to  visit  Wilkes  in  France. 

Churchill,  FRANK,  a  character  in  Jane 
Austen's  'Emma'  (q.v.). 

CHURCHILL,  RT.  HON.  WINSTON 
(LEONARD  SPENCER)  (1874-  ),  eldest 
son  of  the  late  Lord  Randolph  Churchill 
(third  son  of  the  seventh  duke  of  Marl- 
borough).  He  entered  the  army  in  1895  and 
served  in  Cuba,  India,  Tirah,  and  Egypt; 
was  present  as  a  war  correspondent^  Spion 
Kop,  Diamond  Hill,  &c.;  and  served  in  France 
as  Lieut.-Col.  in  1916.  He  was  under-sec,  of 
state  for  the  colonies,  1906-8;  president  of 
the  board  of  trade,  1908-10;  home  secretary, 
1910-1 1 ;  first  lord  of  the  Admiralty,  191 1-15 ; 
secretary  of  state  for  war,  1918-21;  for  the 
colonies,  1921—2 ;  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
1924—9.  Among  his  publications  are:  'The 
Story  of  the  Malakand  Field  Force*  (1898), 
'The  River  War*  (1899),  'London  to  Lady- 
smith  via  Pretoria'  (1900),  'Ian  Hamilton's 
March*  (1900),  'Lord  Randolph  Churchill* 
(1906-7),  'My  African  Journey*  (1908), 
'Liberalism  and  the  Social  Problem*  (1909), 


CICERO 

*The  World  Crisis*  (4  vols.  1923-9),  'My  Early 
Life*  (1930),  and  a  novel,  'Savrola'  (1900). 

CHURCHILL,  WINSTON  (1871-  ), 
American  novelist,  was  born  in  St.  Louis, 
graduated  from  the  U.S.  Naval  Academy,  and 
settled  in  New  Hampshire.  Among  his  chief 
works  are:  'Richard  Carvel*  (1899),  'The 
Crisis*  (1901),  'The  Crossing*  (1904), 
'Coniston*  (1906),  'Mr.  Crewe's  Career' 
(1908),  and  'The  Inside  of  the  Cup'  (1913). 

CHURCHYARD,  THOMAS  (i52o?-i6o4), 
at  one  time  page  to  Henry,  earl  of  Surrey,  the 
poet,  lived  a  wandering  life,  partly  as  a  soldier 
in  Scotland,  Ireland,  France,  and  the  Low 
Countries,  partly  as  a  hanger-on  of  the  court 
and  the  nobility.  He  published,  before  1553, 
*A  myrrour  for  man*.  Between  1560  and 
1603  he  issued  a  multitude  of  broadsheets 
and  small  volumes  in  verse  and  prose,  several 
containing  autobiographical  pieces  and 
notices  of  current  events.  His  best-known 
works  are  'Shore*s  Wife*  (1563),  in  the 
'Mirror  for  Magistrates'  (q.v.),  and  the 
'Worthmes  of  Wales*  (1587).  Among  his 
narrative  poems  are  the  'Wofull  Warres  in 
Flaunders'  (1578)  and  the  'General  Re- 
hearsall  of  Warres'  (1579),  in  which  he  made 
use  of  his  own  experience  as  a  soldier.  Spenser 
in  his  'Colin  Clout*  refers  to  Churchyard 
as  ^'Old  Palaemon  that  sung  so  long  until 
quite  hoarse  he  grew'. 

CIBBER,  COLLEY  (1671-1757),  son 
of  Cams  Cibber  the  sculptor,  was  educated 
at  Grantham  School  and  became  an  actor 
in  1690.  He  brought  out  his  first  play 
'Love's  Last  Shift*  in  1696,  of  which  Con- 
greve  said  'that  'it  has  only  in  it  a  great 
many  things  that  were  like  wit,  that  in 
reality  were  not  wit',  a  criticism  applicable 
to  his  numerous  other  plays,  in  which  he 
showed  skill  as  a  playwright  rather  than  the 
qualities  of  a  man  of  letters.  Sir  Novelty 
Fashion  in  'Love's  Last  Shift*  suggested 
Vanbrugh's  Lord  Foppington  in  'The  Re- 
lapse* (q.v.).  One  of  the  best  of  Gibber's 
plays  was  'The  Careless  Husband*  (q.v.), 
printed  in  1705.  Cibber  was  made  poet 
laureate  in  1730,  and  was  fiercely  attacked  in 
consequence  by  other  writers.  Pope  made 
him  the  hero  of  the  'Dunciad*  (q.v.)  in  the 
final  edition  of  that  poem.  Cibber  published 
in  1740  an  autobiography,  entitled  'Apology 
for  the  life  of  Colley  Cibber,  Comedian'. 
By  this  he  is  principally  remembered,  on 
account  of  the  admirable  theatrical  portraits, 
of  Betterton,  Mrs.  Bracegirdle,  Nokes,  &c., 
that  it  contains. 

CICERO,  MARCUS  TULLIUS  (106- 
43  B.C.),  sometimes  referred  to  in  English 
literature  as  Tully,  was  born  near  Arpinum. 
After  studying  law  and  philosophy  he  came 
forward  as  a  pleader.  His  success  in  this 
capacity  opened  the  way  for  him  to  the 
highest  offices,  and  he  became  consul  in  63. 
His  political  fame  is  chiefly  based^  on  his 
vigorous  action  against  the  conspiracy  of 

M 


CICISBEO 

Catiline.  Owing  to  the  enmity  of  Clodius  he 
was  banished  in  58  for  a  short  time.  In  the 
civil  war  between  Caesar  and  Pompey  he 
joined  the  party  of  the  latter,  but  after 
Pharsalia  was  pardoned  by  Caesar.  After 
Caesar's  assassination  he  took  the  lead 
of  the  republican  party  and  vigorously 
attacked  Mark  Antony  in  his  Philippic 
orations.  On  the  formation  of  the  trium- 
virate he  was  proscribed,  and  put  to  death  in 
43.  His  works  consist  of  writings  on  the  art 
of  rhetoric  (of  which  the  'De  Oratore'  is  the 
chief) ;  on  political  philosophy  ('De  Legibus* 
and  *De  Republica');  on  moral  philosophy 
(cDe  OfficuV,  'De  Senectute',  and  'De 
Amicitia');  and  on  theology  (eDe  %  Natura 
Deorurn') ;  of  a  large  number  of  orations  (in- 
cluding the  Verrine  and  the  Philippics)  and 
epistles  (many  of  them  to  his  friend  Atticus). 

Gicisbeo  (pron.  tchi-tchiz-bay'-o),  the  name 
formerly  given  in  Italy  to  the  recognized 
gallant  of  a  married  woman.  The  word, 
whose  origin  is  uncertain,  is  also  used  for  a 
knot  of  ribbon  tied  to  a  sword-hilt,  walking- 
stick,  &c. 

Cid,  THE,  the  favourite  hero  of  Spain,  in  the 
account  of  whom  history  and  myth  are  diffi- 
cult to  disentangle.  Rodrigo  Diaz  de  Bivar, 
el  Cid  Campeador  (cel  Seyd',  the  lord,  'Cam- 
peador*,  champion),  of  a  noble  Castilian 
family,  was  born  c.  1030,  rose  to  fame  by  his 
prowess  in  the  war  between  Sancho  of  Castile 
and  Sancho  of  Navarre,  and  in  conflicts  with 
the  Moors.  Having  incurred  the  jealousy  of 
Alphonso,  king  of  Castile,  he  was  banished 
and  became  a  soldier  of  fortune,  righting  at 
times  for  the  Christians,  at  others  for  the 
Moors.  His  principal  feat  was  the  capture 
of  Valencia  from  the  Moors  after  a  siege  of 
nine  months.  He  died  of  grief  at  the  defeat 
of  his  force,  in  1099. 

In  myth  his  character  has  been  glorified 
into  a  type  of  knightly  and  Christian  virtue 
and  patriotic  zeal.  His  achievements  are 
narrated  in  the  'Poema  del  Cid*  of  the  isth 
cent,  (the  most  important  of  early  Spanish 
poems,  some  3,700  irregular  lines),  in  the 
Spanish  Chronicle  of  the  I3th  cent.,  and  in 
numerous  ballads.  The  chronicles  relating 
to  him  were  translated  by  R.  Southey  (q.v., 
1808).  The  Cid  is  the  subject  of  the  most 
famous  drama  of  Corneille  (q.v.).  The  Cid's 
horse  was  called  Babieca. 

Cid  Hamet  Ben  Engeli,  an  imaginary 
Arabian  author  to  whom  Cervantes  attributes 
the  story  of  Don  Quixote  (q.v.). 

Cider:  for  J.  Philips's  poem,  see  Cyder. 

Ci-devant,  a  French  term  meaning  'for- 
merly', signifies,  in  the  language  of  the 
French  Revolution,  a  man  of  rank,  i.e.  one 
formerly  such,  the  Republic  having  sup- 
pressed distinctions  of  nobility. 
CImabue,  GIOVANNI  (1240-^.  1302),  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence.  His  best-known 
work  is  the  'Madonna*  in  the  church  of 


CINQUE  PORTS 

Santa  Maria  Novella  at  Florence,  which 
excited  such  enthusiasm  that  it  was  carried 
in  public  procession  from  Cimabue's  studio 
to  the  church. 

Cimmerian,  of  or  belonging  to  the  Cim- 
merii,  a  people  fabled  by  the  ancients  to  live 
in  perpetual  darkness;  hence  proverbially 
used  as  a  qualification  of  dense  darkness. 
The  historical  Cirnmerii  lived  on  the  Sea  of 
Azov,  and  the  word  Crimea  is  derived  from 
their  name. 

Cimon  and  Iphigenia,  see  Cymon  and  Iphi- 
genia. 

Cincinnati,  THE,  an  order  founded  in  1783 
by  the  officers  of  the  American  Revolutionary 
army  'to  perpetuate  friendship,  and  to  raise 
a  fund  for  the  relief  of  the  widows  and  or- 
phans of  those  who  fell  in  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence*. The  badge  of  the  society  shows 
Cincinnatus  receiving  the  ensigns  of  dictator. 

Cincinnatus,  Lucius  QUINTUS,  a  type  of 
old-fashioned  integrity  and  frugality  in  the 
annals  of  the  Roman  republic.  He  was  called 
in  458  B.C.  from  the  plough,  with  which  he 
cultivated  his  own  land,  to  deliver  the  Roman 
army  from  the  peril  in  which  it  stood  in  its 
conflict  with  the  Aequians.  Having  success- 
fully done  this  and  held  the  command  for 
only  1 6  days,  he  returned  to  his  plough. 

Cinderella)  a  fairy  tale,  from  the  French  of 
Perrault  (q.v.),  translated  by  Robert  Sarnber 
(1729?). 

The  gentle  Cinderella  is  cruelly  used  by 
her  step-mother  and  two  step-sisters,  and 
when  her  household  drudgery  is  done,  sits 
at  the  corner  of  the  hearth  in  the  cinders, 
whence  her  name.  Her  step-sisters  having 
gone  to  a  ball,  she  is  left  crying  at  home.  Her 
fairy  godmother  arrives,  provides  her  with 
beautiful  clothes,  a  coach  made  out  of  a 
pumpkin,  and  six  horses  transformed  from 
mice,  and  sends  her  to  the  ball,  on  condition 
that  she  returns  before  the  stroke  of  twelve. 
The  prince  falls  in  love  with  her.  She  hurries 
away  at  midnight,  losing  one  of  her  tiny  glass 
slippers  (pantpufle  de  verre;  perhaps  verre 
should  be  vair,  minever),  and  resumes  her 
humble  garb  at  the  fireside.  The  prince  has 
search  made  for  her  and  announces  that  he 
will  marry  her  whom  the  slipper  fits.  To  the 
discomfiture  of  the  step-sisters  the  slipper  is 
found  to  fit  only  Cinderella,  who  produces 
the  fellow  to  it  from  her  pocket,  and  marries 
the  prince.  Andrew  Lang,  in  his  'Perraulfs 
Popular  Tales'  discusses  the  analogous  stories 
which  ^  exist  in  the  folk-lore  of  various 
countries. 

Cinque  Ports,  a  group  of  sea-ports 
(originally  five,  Hastings,  Dover,  Sandwich, 
Romney,  Hythe,  to  which  were  added  the 
two  'ancient  towns',  Rye  and  Winchelsea,  and 
many  associated  towns)  having  jurisdiction 
along  the  south-east  coast  from  Seaford  to 
Sussex  to  Birchington  in  Kent.  In  ancient 
times  they  furnished  the  chief  part  of  the 


CINQUECENTO 

English  navy,  in  consideration  of  which  they 
received  many  important  privileges  and 
franchises.  These  were  mostly  abolished  in 
1832  and  1835,  and  the  Lord  Wardenship  is 
now  chiefly  an  honorary  dignity.  Each  of  the 
associated  towns  above  referred  to  was  called 
a  'limb'  of  one  of  the  ports,  and  contributed 
its  ship  to  the  the  tale  of  fifty-seven  which  the 
ports  had  to  furnish  in  the  I3th  cent.  The 
origin  of  the  group  is  unknown;  no  real 
charter  was  granted  before  Edward  I. 

GInquecento,  a  term  applied  in  Italy  to  the 
1 6th  cent.,  and  to  that  style  of  art  and  archi- 
tecture, characterized  by  a  reversion  to 
classical  forms,  which  arose  about  1450. 

CINTHIO,  GIAMBATTISTA  GERALD! 
(1504-73),  born  at  Ferrara,  the  author  of 
'Hecatommithi*  or  hundred  tales,  told  after 
the  manner  of  Boccaccio's  'Decameron'  (q.v.) 
by  ten  ladies  and  gentlemen  sailing  to  Mar- 
seilles after  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1527.  Some 
of  these  were  incorporated  by  Painter  in  his 
'Palace  of  Pleasure'  (q.v.)  and  provided  the 
plots  of  Shakespeare's  'Othello'  and  'Measure 
for  Measure',  and  of  plays  by  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher  and  Shirley. 

Circassian,  the  name  of  the  inhabitants  of 
a  region  in  the  NW.  of  the  Caucasus,  for- 
merly known  as  Cir cassia  (now  Kuban). 
They  were  finally  subjugated,  after  a  long 
struggle,  by  the  Russians  in  1864,  after  which 
many  thousands  migrated  to  Turkish  terri- 
tory. They  were  notable  for  beauty  of  form 
and  feature.  Circassian  fathers  used  to  sell 
their  daughters  to  Turkish  merchants  for 
Turkish  harems. 

Circe,  celebrated  for  her  knowledge  of  magic 
and  venomous  herbs,  inhabited  an  island 
called  Aeaea.  Ulysses,  returning  from  the 
Trojan  War,  visited  this  island.  His  com- 
panions were  changed  by  Circe's  potions 
into  swine.  Ulysses,  fortified  against  her  en- 
chantment by  the  herb  called  moly,  demanded 
from  Circe,  sword  in  hand,  the  restoration 
of  his  companions.  Circe  complied,  and 
Ulysses  remained  with  her  for  a  year,  be- 
coming by  her  the  father  of  Telegonus,  or 
according  to  Hesiod  of  Agrius  and  Latinus. 
See  also  Scylla  and  Gryll. 

Circumcellion,  *a  name  given  to  the 
Donatist  fanatics  in  Africa  during  the  4th 
cent,  from  their  habit  of  roving  from  place 
to  place'  ['Diet,  of  Christian  Antiquities'], 
extended  to  vagabond  monks  generally. 

Circumlocution  Office,  THE,  the  type 
of  a  government  department,  satirized  in 
Dickens's  'Little  Dorrit'  (q.v.). 
CIRENCESTER,RICHARDoF(^.  1401  ?), 
a  monk  of  St.  Peter's,  Westminster,  who  com- 
piled a  'Speculum  Historiale',  A.D.  447-1066. 
See  Bertram  (Charles). 

Cirrha,  a  seaport  on  the  Corinthian  Gulf, 
near  Delphi  and  Mt.  Parnassus.  The  region 
was  sacred  to  Apollo. 

[163] 


CITY  MADAM 

Cistercians,  the  name  of  a  monastic  order, 
an  offshoot  of  the  Benedictines,  founded  at 
Cistercium  or  Citeaux  in  1098  by  Robert, 
abbot  of  Molesme.  St.  Bernard  (q.v.)  was 
a  Cistercian;  his  Bernar -dines  were  a  branch 
of  the  Cistercians  with  reformed  rules. 
Cities  of  the  Plain,  THE,  see  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah. 

Citizen  of  the  World,  The,  by  Goldsmith 
(q.v.),  a  collection  of  letters  purporting  to 
be  written  by  or  to  an  imaginary  philosophic 
Chinaman,  Lien  Chi  Altangi,  residing  in 
London.  They  first  appeared  as  'Chinese 
Letters*  in  Newbery's  'Public  Ledger*,  most 
of  them  in  the  course  of  1760.  They  were 
republished  under  the  title  of  'The  Citizen 
of  the  World'  in  1762.  They  are  in  effect 
a  series  of  whimsical  or  satirical  comments 
on  English  customs  and  peculiarities,  on  the 
mental  and  moral  characteristics  of  the 
race,  and  on  literary  subjects,  together  with 
character-sketches  and  episodes,  the  whole 
strung  on  a  slender  thread  of  narrative.  The 
best-known  character-sketches  in  the  book  are 
those  of  the  'Man  in  Black*  (q.v.)  and  'Beau 
Tibbs'  (q.v.). 

City,  THE,  short  for  the  City  of  London,  that 
part  of  London  which  is  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Lord  Mayor  and  Corporation ; 
more  particularly,  the  business  part  of  this, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Exchange  and 
Bank  of  England.  It  substantially  repre- 
sents the  ancient  city  that  was  enclosed  in 
the  Roman  wall,  with  the  addition  of  the 
wards  of  Farringdon  Without  and  Bishops- 
gate  Without.  "The  City*  is  used  metaphori- 
cally of  business  interests  or  business  men. 

City  Heiress,  The,  a  comedy  by  Aphra  Behn 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1682. 

Sir  Timothy  Treat-all,  *an  old  seditious 
knight,  who  keeps  open  house  for  Common- 
wealthsmen*,  has  disinherited  his  Tory 
nephew,  Tom  Wilding.  Wilding  is  courting 
Chariot,  the  city-heiress,  and  introduces  his 
mistress  Diana  to  Sir  Timothy,  as  Chariot. 
Sir  Timothy,  under  this  deception,  arranges 
a  marriage  with  her.  During  an  entertain- 
ment at  his  house,  he  is  visited  by  a  strange 
nobleman  who  offers  him  the  crown  of 
Poland.  The  same  night  however  his  house 
is  burgled  and  his  papers  stolen,  and  himself 
and  the  strange  lord  bound  fast.  It  turns 
out  not  only  that  Sir  Timothy  has  married 
his  nephew's  mistress,  but  that  the  Polish 
Ambassador  was  Wilding  in  disguise,  and 
the  burglars  his  associates,  who  have  got 
possession  of  Sir  Timothy's  treasonable 
correspondence,  and  of  the  ^papers  relating 
to  his  estate.  Wilding  is  united  to  Chariot. 
The  plot  is  complicated  by  another  intrigue, 
in  which  Wilding  and  his  friend  Sir  Charles 
Merriwill  seek  the  favour  of  the  rich  widow, 
Lady  Galliard. 

City  Madam,  The,  a  comedy  by^Massinger 
(q.v.),  acted  in  1632  and  printed  in  1659. 

The  wife  and  daughters  of  Sir  John  Frugal, 

M2 


CITY  OF  DESTRUCTION 

a  rich  merchant,  are  grown  extravagant  and 
presumptuous  as  a  result  of  their  wealth. 
The  girls  repel  their  suitors,  Sir  Maurice 
Lacy  and  Mr.  Plenty,  by  attaching  intolerable 
conditions  to  the  grant  of  their  hands.  To 
teach  them  a  lesson,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
test  his  brother,  Luke,  a  ruined  prodigal 
whom  he  has  taken  into  his  house  (where  he 
occupies  a  servile  position  and  feigns  virtue 
and  humility),  Sir  John  pretends  to  retire 
into  a  monastery  and  to  hand  over  his 
property  and  the  management  of  his  family 
to  Luke.  Being  placed  in  this  position,  the 
brother  acts  with  great  harshness  to  Lady 
Frugal  and  her  daughters,  and  to  Sir  John's 
creditors  and  apprentices.  Luke's  hypocrisy 
is  exposed,  the  return  of  Sir  John  is  welcomed 
by  his  family,  and  his  daughters  gladly 
promise  submission  to  their  suitors. 

City  of  Destruction,  THE,  in  Bunyan's 
'Pilgrim's  Progress'  (q.y.),  typifies  the  state 
of  the  worldly  and  irreligious. 

City  of  Dreadful  Night,  The,  see  under 
Thomson  (J.,  1834-82)  and  Kipling. 

City  of  Refuge,  in  the  Mosaic  dispensation, 
a  walled  town  set  apart  for  the  protection  of 
those  who  had  accidentally  committed  man- 
slaughter. See  Deut.  iv.  41-3. 

City  of  Seven  Hills,  THE,  Rome.  The  seven 
hills  are  the  Palatine,  Aventine,  Capitoline, 
Caelian,  Esquiline,  Viminal,  and  Quirinal. 

City  of  Dreaming  Spires,  M.  Arnold 
('Thyrsis')  refers  to  Oxford  as  'that  sweet 
city  with  her  dreaming  spires'. 

City  of  the  Tribes,  THE,  Galway,  so  called 
from  the  fourteen  families  or  'tribes*  whose 
ancestors  settled  there  about  1270. 

City  of  the  Violet  Crown,  THE,  Athens,  see 
Violet-crowned  City. 

City  Witt,  The,  or  the  Woman  wears  the 
Breeches,  a  comedy  by  Brome  (q.v.),  printed 
in  1653.^ 

This  is  the  brightest  and  most  amusing 
of  Brome's  comedies.  Crasy,  a  young  citizen, 
has  been  ruined  by  his  generous  and  easy- 
going disposition,  and  is  cursed  moreover 
with   a  virago   for  a  mother-in-law,   Mrs. 
Pyannet   Sneakup.    From  her  he  gets  no 
mercy  in  his  misfortune,   and  the  friends 
whom  he  has  helped  in  the  past  turn  from 
him  when  he  comes  to  them  for  assistance. 
His  wife  indulges  her  amorous  proclivities 
as  soon  as  he  leaves  her.   He  determines  to 
show  them  all  that  his  past  good -nature  was 
not  due  to  want  of  wit,  and  disguising  him- 
self in   various   characters   plays   on   their 
several  vices  to  extort  from  them  the  money 
and  jewels  he  has  lent  them  or  they  have 
stolen   from    him.     Aided    by   his  servant 
Jeremy,  who  passes  himself  off  as  the  rich 
widow   Tryman,    he   contrives   a   marriage 
between     the    latter    and    his    malignant 
brother-in-law,  a  drubbing  for  each  of  his 
wife's  would-be  lovers,  and  humiliation  for 
his  mother-in-law.    The  pedant,  Sarpego, 


CLANDESTINE  MARRIAGE 

with  his  comically  apposite  snatches  of  Latin, 
who  refuses  to  repay  him  a  loan  of  ten  pounds, 
does  not  escape  his  share  of  punishment. 
Civil  War,  THE,  in  English  history,  the  war 
between  Charles  I  and  Parliament,  which 
began  in  1642  and  ended  virtually  in  1646. 
It  was  followed  by  the  second  Civil  War  of 
1648-51,  which  was  terminated  by  the 
battle  of  Worcester. 

In  American  history,  the  Civil  War  or 
War  of  Secession  (1861-5)  was  caused  by  the 
secession  of  the  eleven  southern  or  Con- 
federate (q.v.)  states  (as  a  result  of  the  anti- 
slavery  agitation  and  the  growth  of  the 
doctrine  of  state  sovereignty)  and  was 
terminated  by  the  surrender  of  their  armies. 

Civil  Wars  between  the  two  Houses  of  York 
and  Lancastert  an  epic  poem  by  S.  Daniel 
(q.v.),  of  which  the  first  four  books  appeared 
in  1595.  The  complete  work,  comprising 
eight  books,  was  published  in  1609.  It  con- 
tains some  900  eight-lined  stanzas,  of  a  grave 
and  philosophic  cast,  and  marked  by  strong 
patriotism.  The  first  book  deals  with  the 
period  from  the  Conquest  to  Hereford's 
rising  against  Richard  II,  the  remaining 
seven  with  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  to  the 
accession  of  Henry  VII. 

Clack,  Miss,  in  Wilkie  Collins's  'The 
Moonstone*  (q.v.),  a  niece  of  Sir  John 
Verinder,  and  narrator  of  part  of  the  story. 

Claimant,  THE,  Arthur  Orton;  see  Tick- 
borne. 

Clairmont,  CLAIRE  (CLARA  MARY  JANE)' 
(1798-1879),  daughter  of  Mary  Clairmont 
who  became  William  Godwin's  (q.v.)  second 
wife.  She  accompanied  Mary  Godwin  on 
her  elopement  with  Shelley  (q.v.),  and  in 
spite  of  pursuit  remained  with  them  on  the 
Continent,  giving  rise  to  most  of  the  calum- 
nies directed  against  Shelley.  She  returned 
to  London  with  the  Shelleys  and  in  1816  ob- 
tained an  introduction  to  Byron,  becoming 
so  intimate  with  him  that  when  he  went  to 
Switzerland  the  Shelleys  were  induced  to 
follow  him.  Her  child  Allegra  was  born  in 
1817,  and  for  nearly  three  years  lived  with 
Byron.  In  1821  Allegra  was  placed  in  a 
convent  near  Ravenna  much  against  the  will 
of  Claire,  and  died  in  1822  as  the  result  of  a 
fever.  Claire's  subsequent  life  was  spent  in 
Russia,  Italy,  and  Paris.  She  died  in  Flor- 
ence in  1879. 

Clan  na  Gael,  'brotherhood  of  Gaels',  an 

Irish  secret  society,  which  had  its  origin  in  1 870 
among  the  Fenians  (q.v.),  and  represented 
the  party  of  extreme  violence  in  the  move- 
ment for  Irish  independence. 

Clandestine  Marriage,  The,  a  comedy  by 
Colman  the  elder  and  Garrick  (qq.v.), 
produced  in  1766. 

This  entertaining  comedy  was  suggested  by 
Hogarth's  pictures  of  'Marriage-a-la-Mode*. 
Lovewell,  the  clerk  of  Mr.  Sterling,  a  wealthy 
and  purse-proud  London  merchant,  has 


CLARA  DOUGLAS 

secretly  married  his  employer's  younger 
daughter,  Fanny,  but  dares  not  brave  the 
father's  anger  by  a  disclosure.  The  father, 
ambitious  to  ally  himself  with  a  noble  family, 
has  arranged  a  marriage  between  his  elder 
daughter  and  Sir  John  Melvil,  the  son  of 
Lord  Ogleby,  who  accept  the  alliance  as  a 
way  out  of  their  pecuniary  difficulties.  Lord 
Ogleby  and  Melvil  arrive  at  Sterling's  house 
to  make  the  final  arrangements,  when  the  son 
suddenly  reveals  his  aversion  for  the  match 
with  the  elder  Miss  Sterling  and  his  passion 
for  the  more  attractive  Fanny.  The  latter 
with  embarrassment  repels  his  advances,  but 
hesitates  to  reveal  her  marriage.  Melvil 
turns  to  Mr,  Sterling  and  induces  him,  for  a 
financial  consideration,  to  agree  to  the  trans- 
fer of  his  affections  to  the  younger  daughter. 
But  now  Mrs.  Heidelberg,  Mr.  Sterling's 
wealthy  sister,  strongly  resents  the  proposed 
affront  to  the  family,  and  orders  Fanny  to  be 
packed  off  from  the  house.  Fanny  in  despair 
applies  to  Lord  Ogleby,  an  amorous  old  beau, 
who  mistaking  her  inarticulate  confession  for 
a  declaration  of  love  for  himself,  announces 
that  he  will  himself  marry  her,  thereby 
further  increasing  the  perplexity  of  Lovewell 
and  Fanny.  Finally  a  lover  is  discovered 
in  Fanny's  bedroom,  and  the  household 
assemble  outside  the  door  for  the  exposure  of 
the  villain.  When  he  turns  out  to  be  Lovewell, 
Lord  Ogleby  good-naturedly  intervenes  on 
behalf  of  the  guilty  couple,  offers  to  take 
Lovewell  under  his  own  protection,  and 
appeases  Sterling's  wrath. 

Clara  Douglas,  the  heroine  of  Bulwer 
Lytton's  comedy  'Money'  (q.v.). 

Clara  Middleton,  the  heroine  of  Meredith's 
'The  Egoist'  (q.v.). 

Clare,  a  nun  of  the  order  instituted  at 
Assisi,  c.  12 1 2  by  St.  Clare,  who  was  in- 
spired by  admiration  for  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi.  The  sisters  are  also  called  Toor 
Clares'  and  'Minoresses*. 

CLARE,  JOHN  (1793-1864),  the  son  of  a 
Northamptonshire  labourer,  and  himself  at 
various  times  a  herd-boy,  militiaman,  vagrant, 
and  unsuccessful  farmer,  who  became  insane 
in  1837.  He  published  in  1820  'Poems 
Descriptive  of  Rural  Life',  'The  Village 
Minstrel'  in  1821,  'The  Shepherd's  Calendar' 
in  1827,  and 'The  Rural  Muse'  in  1835.  Other 
poems  of  his  were  published  after  his  death 
(ed.  A.  Symons,  1908),  and  an  edition  of  his 
poems  by  Blunden  and  Porter  appeared  in 
1920.  An  autobiography  of  his  early  years 
was  edited  by  Edmund  Blunden  in  1931. 

Clarenceux,  the  second  king-of-arms  in 
England  (see  Heralds3  College),  whose  office 
is  to  marshal  and  arrange  the  funerals  of  all 
baronets,  knights,  and  esquires  south  of  the 
river  Trent.  He  was  formerly  called  Surroy  as 
opposed  to  Norroy  the  northern  king-of-arms. 
The  name  Clarenceux  is  derived  from  the 
English  dukedom  created  for  Lionel,  second 


CLARENDON'S  HISTORY 

son  of  Edward  III,  when  he  married  the 
heiress  of  Clare  in  Suffolk.  [OED.] 

Clarendon,  CONSTITUTIONS  OF,  enacted  at 
a  council  summoned  in  1164  by  Henry  II 
to  meet  at  Clarendon  in  Wiltshire.  Their 
object  was  to  check  the  power  of  the  clergy. 
The  most  important  of  the  sixteen  articles 
declared  that  beneficed  clergy  should  not 
leave  the  realm  without  the  king's  leave; 
that  no  tenant-in-chief  should  be  excom- 
municated without  the  king's  knowledge; 
that  a  criminous  clerk  should  be  tried  in  the 
king's  court;  and  that  after  conviction  he 
should  not  be  protected  by  the  Church  from 
punishment.  After  the  murder  of  Becket, 
Henry  was  compelled  to  give  up  the  Consti- 
tutions of  Clarendon. 

CLARENDON,  EDWARD  HYDE,  earl  of 
(1609-74),  was  educated  at  Magdalen  Hall, 
Oxford,  and  practised  law.  As  M.P.  for 
Wootton  Bassett  in  the  Short  Parliament  and 
for  Saltash  in  the  Long  Parliament,  he  at 
first  sided  with  the  opposition,  but,  as  a 
strong  Anglican,  from  1641  onwards  he  was 
one  of  the  chief  supporters  and  advisers  of 
the  king.  He  followed  the  Prince  of  Wales  in 
his  exile  to  Scilly  and  Jersey,  where  he  began 
his  'History'.  He  was  lord  chancellor  and 
chief  minister  to  Charles  II  from  1658,  re- 
taining this  position  at  the  Restoration.  The 
future  James  II  married  his  daughter,  Anne 
Hyde.  He  subsequently  became  unpopular, 
partly  owing  to  the  ill-success  of  the  Dutch 
war;  and  being  impeached,  he  fled  to  France 
in  1667  and  lived  at  Montpellier  and  Rouen, 
dying  at  the  latter  place.  At  Montpellier  he 
composed  his  'Life',  part  of  which  he  in- 
corporated with  the  'History'. 

The  'History'— 'The  True  Historical 
Narrative  of  the  Rebellion  and  .Civil  Wars  in 
England' — was  first  printed  from  a  transcript 
under  the  supervision  of  Clarendon's  son  in 
1702—4,  the  original  manuscript  (now  in  the 
Bodleian)  being  first  used  in  Bandinel's 
edition  (1826).  But  Bandinel  either  de- 
ciphered it  badly  or  garbled  it,  and  the  first 
true  text  is  that  of  Dr.  Macray  (Oxford,  1 888). 
The  'Life  of  Clarendon',  by  himself,  appeared 
in  1759,  the  'History  of  Rebellion  and  Civil 
War  in  Ireland'  in  1721,  and  selections  from 
his  correspondence  ('Clarendon  State  Papers'), 
edited  by  Scrope  and  Monkhouse,  in  1767-86. 

Clarendon  was  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Oxford  from  1660  until  his  fall.  His 
works  were  presented  to  the  University  by 
his  heirs,  and  from  the  profits  of  the  publica- 
tion of  the  'History'  a  new  printing-house, 
which  bore  his  name,  was  built  for  the 
University  Press  (q.v.). 
Clarendon  Press,  see  Oxford  University 
Press. 

Clarendon  type,  a  thick-faced,  condensed 
type,  in  capital  and  small  letters. 

Clarendon's  History  of  the  Rebellion  and 
Civil  Wars  in  England,  see  Clarendon 
(Edward  Hyde). 


[165] 


CLARET 

Claret,  from  French  clairet,  diminutive  of 
dair,  'clear,  light,  bright',  a  name  originally 
given  to  wines  of  a  yellowish  or  light  red 
colour,  as  distinguished  alike  from  'red  wine* 
and  'white  wine' ;  the  contrast  with  the  for- 
mer ceased  about  1600,  and  the  name  is 
now  applied  to  the  red  wines  of  the  Bor- 
deaux region.  The  finest  clarets  come  from 
the  Me*doc,  a  plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Garonne,  and  include  the  Chateaux  Lafite, 
Latour,  and  Margaux,  together  with  Mouton 
Rothschild  and  Pontet  Canet.  With  these  is 
generally  classed  Haut  Brion  (Pepys's  'Ho 
Bryen5),  sometimes  a  very  fine  wine,  though 
this  is  grown  in  the  Graves  area. 

Clarinda,  the  name  used  by  Mrs.  Agnes 
Maclehose  (nee  Craig)  in  her  correspondence 
with  Burns  (q.v.),  who  signed  himself 
Sylvander. 

Clarissa,  one  of  the  principal  characters  in 
Vanbrugh's  'The  Confederacy5  (q.v.). 

Clarissa  Harlowe,  a  novel  by  Richardson 
(q.v.),  of  which  two  volumes  were  issued  in 
1747  and  five  in  1748. 

This  was  the  second  of  Richardson's  novels 
and,  as  in  the  others,  the  story  is  told  by 
means  of  letters,  written  by  the  heroine 
Clarissa  to  her  friend  Miss  Howe,  and  by  the 
other  principal  character,  Robert  Lovelace,  to 
his  friend  John  Belford.  Clarissa,  a  young  lady 
of  good  family,  eof  great  Delicacy,  mistress 
of  all  the  Accomplishments,  natural  and 
acquired,  that  adorn  the  Sex*,  is  wooed  by 
Lovelace,  an  attractive  and  versatile  but  un- 
scrupulous man  of  fashion.  Clarissa's  family 
oppose  the  match  because  of  his  doubtful 
reputation,  and  Clarissa  for  a  time  resists  his 
advances.  But  she  is  secretly  fascinated  by 
him,  and  he  succeeds  in  carrying  her  off. 
Clarissa  dies  of  shame,  and  Lovelace  is 
killed  in  a  duel  by  her  cousin,  Colonel 
Morden.  The  novel,  as  the  title-page  shows, 
was  intended  as  a  warning  of  'the  Distresses 
that  may  attend  Misconduct  both  of  Parents 
and  Children  in  relation  to  Marriage',  and 
was  thus  in  some  sort  a  complement  of 
'Pamela'.  Clarissa  suggested  the  theme  of 
Rousseau's  'Nouvelle  Heloi'se'. 

CLARK,.  JOHN  WILLIS  (1833-1910), 
educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  registrar  of  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity from  1891  till  his  death,  is  remembered 
for  his  'Architectural  History  of  the  Colleges 
of  Cambridge'  (with  Robert  Willis,  1886), 
his  'Barnwell  Priory*  (1897,  1907),  and  his 
admirable  history  of  libraries,  entitled  'The 
Care  of  Books'  (1901). 

CLARKE,  CHARLES  COWDEN-  (1787- 
1877),  the  schoolmaster  and  friend  of  Keats 
(q.v.),  and  author  of  'Recollections  of 
Writers'  (with  Mary  Co wden» Clarke,  1878), 
&c. 

CLARKE,  MARY  VICTORIA  COWDEN- 
(1809-98),  wife  of  Charles  Cowden-Clarke 
(q.v.),  is  remembered  as  the  author  of  the 


CLAUD  IAN 

'Complete  Concordance  to  Shakespeare', 
which  she  published  in  monthly  parts, 
1844-5. 

CLARKE,  MARCUS  ANDREW  HISLOP 
(1846-81),  emigrated  to  Victoria  in  1863,  and 
wrote  a  number  of  plays  and  novels,  of  which 
the  best  known  is  'For  the  Term  of  his 
Natural  Life'  (1874),  a  vivid  and  gloomy  tale 
of  a  penal  settlement. 

CLARKE,  SAMUEL  (1675-1729),  educated 
at  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  metaphysician, 
moralist,  and  opponent  of  the  Deists.  His 
view  of  morality  was  that  there  exists,  in  the 
nature  of  things,  an  immutable  agreement 
or  harmony  of  certain  things  and  circum- 
stances with  certain  others,  an  aspect  of 
reality  like  its  causal  relations,  apparent  to 
the  understanding.  Clarke's  principal  works 
were  his  Boyle  Lectures  (1704  and  1705), 
'A  Demonstration  of  the  Being  and  Attributes 
of  God'  and  'A  Discourse  concerning  the 
Unchangeable  Obligations  of  Natural  Re- 
ligion*. 

Classic,  in  relation  to  literature,  is  defined  by 
Sainte-Beuve  as  what  is  very  good  and  is 
made  to  last.  The  OED.  defines  it  as  (i)  'Of 
the  first  class,  of  the  highest  rank  or  impor- 
tance; approved  as  a  model;  standard, 
leading.  (2)  Of  or  belonging  to  the  standard 
authors  of  Greek  and  Latin  antiquity.  (3)  In 
the  style  of  the  literature  of  Greek  and  Latin 
antiquity.*  Cf.  Romantic. 

Classic  Races,  THE,  a  name  applied  to  the 
five  chief  annual  horse-races  in  England: 
•die  Two  Thousand  Guineas  (for  three-year- 
old  colts  and  fillies),  the  One  Thousand 
Guineas  (for  three-year-old  fillies),  the  Derby 
(for  three-year-old  colts  and  fillies),  the  Oaks 
(for  three-year-old  fillies),  and  the  St.  Leger 
(for  three-year-old  colts  and  fillies).  The  first 
two  are  run  at  Newmarket,  the  second  two  at 
Epsom,  the  last  at  Doncaster. 

Claude  (1807-80),  the  chief  of  the  Paris 
police  1859-75,  who  acquired  celebrity  in 
many  criminal  affairs.  Entirely  apocryphal 
memoirs  of  Claude  (10  vols.)  appeared  in 
1881-3. 

Claude  Lorraine,  more  correctly  CLAUDE 
LE  LoRRAiN,is  Claude  Gel6e(i6oo-82),a  great 
French  kndscape  painter,  whom  Ruskin  held 
up  to  scorn,  in  contrast  with  Turner. 

Claude  Melnotte,  the  hero  of  Bulwer 
Lytton's  'The  Lady  of  Lyons'  (q.v.). 

CLAUDEL,  PAUL  (1868-  ),  French 
diplomatist,  poet,  and  dramatist,  author  of 
'L'Otage',  'La  Tete  d'Or',  L'Annonce  faite 
a  Marie*,  &c. 

CLAUDIAN,CLAUDUS  CLAUDIANUS, 
the_  last  poet  of  the  Ancient  World,  was  a 
native  of  Alexandria.  He  is  known  to  have 
lived  in  Rome  c.  A.D.  395-404,  where  he  en- 
joyed the  favour  of  Stilicho.  The  Christian 
hymns  attributed  to  him  are  spurious. 


[166] 


CLAUDIO 

Glaudio,  (i)  the  lover  of  Hero  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Much  Ado  about  Nothing*  (q.v.); 
(2)  a  character  in  his  'Measure  for  Measure* 
(q.v.). 

Claudius,  in  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet'  (q.v.), 
the  king  of  Denmark. 
Glaus,  see  Santa  Glaus. 
Claverliouse,  GRAHAM  OF,  see  Graham  of 
Claverhouse. 

Glavering,  SIR  FRANCIS  and  LADY,  charac- 
ters in  Thackeray's  Tendennis'  (q.v.). 
Claverings,    The,  a  novel  by  A,  Trollope 
(q.v.),  published  in  1867. 

Harry  Clavering  and  Julia  Brabazon  have 
been  in  love,  but  the  latter,  having  debts  and 
expensive  tastes,  throws  over  her  impecuni- 
ous lover  and  marries  the  wealthy  Lord 
Ongar,  a  worn-out  debauchee.  He  dies 
within  a  year,  having  led  her  a  terrible  life 
and  contrived  to  asperse  her  honour.  Mean- 
while Harry  Clavering  has  become  engaged 
to  Florence  Burton,  daughter  of  the  engineer 
in  whose  house  he  has  lived  as  a  pupil,  a 
young  lady  of  amiable  character  but  modest 
charms.  Julia  returns  to  London,  a  social 
outcast,  and  Harry  becomes  entangled  with 
her,  at  last  finding  himself  in  the  position  of 
having  promised  to  marry  both  Florence  and 
the  widow.  Finally,  under  gentle  pressure 
from  various  quarters,  Harry  decides  to  be 
faithful  to  Florence.  The  story  includes 
various  repellent  characters,  Julia's  brother- 
in-law  Sir  Hugh  Clavering,  and  Count 
Pateroff  and  his  sister  Mme  Gordeloup, 
whose  proceedings  intensify  the  punishment 
meted  out  to  Julia  for  her  worldly  choice  of  a 
husband. 

Clavijo,  DON,  in  'Don  Quixote*  (n.  xxxviii, 
et  seq.),  a  gentleman  who  is  transformed  into 
a  crocodile  by  Malambruno,  and  released 
from  the  enchantment  by  Don  Quixote. 

Clavileno,  in  *Don  Quixote*  (q.v.,  n.  xli), 
the  wooden  horse  supposed  to  possess  magic 
properties,  on  which  Don  Quixote  mounts 
to  achieve  the  adventure  of  Trifaldi  and 
Malambruno,  and  which,  being  full  of  com- 
bustibles, blows  up  on  a  match  being  applied 
to  its  tail. 
Glayhanger,  see  Bennett  (E.  A.). 

Glaypole,  NOAH,  in  Dickens's  'Oliver  Twist" 
(q.v.),  a  fellow-apprentice  of  the  hero  in  the 
establishment  of  Mr.  Sowerberry,  the  under- 
taker ;  and  subsequently  one  of  Fagin's  gang 
of  thieves. 

Cleanness,  an  alliterative  poem  of  1,800  lines, 
of  the  period  1300-60,  exalting  purity  and  the 
delights  of  lawful  love.  It  deals  with  three 
subjects  from  the  Scriptures,  to  enforce  its 
moral:  the  Flood,  the  destruction  of  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah,  and  the  fall  of  Belshazzar. 
It  includes  passages  of  great  power,  such^as 
the  denunciation  of  Sodom  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  destruction  of  Babylon.  It  is 
attributed  to  the  same  author  as  'Pearl*  and 
'Patience*  (qq.v.). 


CLEMENTINA  PORRETTA 
CleishbotJiam,  JEDEDIAH,  schoolmaster  and 
parish  clerk  of  Gandercleugh,  who,  by  a 
fiction  of  Sir  W.  Scott,  sold  to  publishers  the 
'Tales  of  My  Landlord*  (q.v.).  These  had 
been  composed  by  his  assistant  schoolmaster 
Peter  Pattieson  from  the  stories  told  by  the 
landlord  of  the  Wallace  Inn  at  Gander- 
cleugh. (See  the  introduction  to  'The  Black 
Dwarf'.) 

Clelia  or  CLOELIA,  a  Roman  maiden  who, 
being  among  the  hostages  given  to  Porsena, 
escaped  and  swam  across  the  Tiber  to  Rome. 
The  Romans  returned  her  to  Porsena,  who 
from  admiration  of  her  courage  released  her. 
She  is  the  subject  of  the  'Clelie*  of  Mile  de 
Scude*ry  (q.v.). 

Clelia,  the  coquette  whose  gradual  decline 
to  the  almshouse  is  described  by  Crabbe 
(q.v.)  in  one  of  the  tales  of  'The  Borough*. 

CLEMENS,  SAMUEL  LANGHORNE, 
who  wrote  under  the  pseudonym  MARK 
TWAIN  (1835-1910),  born  in  Missouri  of  a 
Virginian  family,  was  apprenticed  in  boy- 
hood to  a  printer,  became  a  pilot  on  the 
Mississippi  in  1857  and  a  newspaper  cor- 
respondent in  1862,  being  at  that  time  in 
Nevada.  He  then  adopted  as  pseudonym  the 
leadsman's  call  which  had  become  familiar 
to  him  on  the  Mississippi.  He  first  came  into 
prominence  as  a  writer  with  his  'Jim  Smiley 
and  his  Jumping  Frog'  in  1865,  and  shortly 
after  became  a  popular  lecturer.  His  best- 
known  works  are  'The  Innocents  Abroad* 
(1869),  the  fruit  of  a  voyage  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Holy  Land;  'A  Tramp 
Abroad*  (1880);  'Life  on  the  Mississippi* 
(1883);  'Tom  Sawyer*  (1876),  an  amusing 
tale  of  young  scapegraces  of  Missouri;  and 
'Huckleberry  Finn'  (1884),  a  masterpiece  of 
humorous  fiction  and  at  the  same  time,  it  is 
said,  an  accurate  picture  of  the  old  rough 
civilization  of  the  Mississippi.  His  'A  Con- 
necticut Yankee  at  the  Court  of  King  Arthur* 
appeared  in  1889,  'In  Defence  of  Harriet 
Shelley*  in  1894,  'Joan  of  Arc*  in  1896. 

CLEMENT  I,  a  bishop  of  Rome  of  the  ist 
cent.,  of  whom  little  is  known  with  certainty. 
According  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome  he  died 
in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Trajan. 
Two  'Epistles  to  the  Corinthians',  probably 
spurious,  are  attributed  to  him.  These  were 
highly  regarded  in  the  early  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era,  then  disappeared,  and  were 
rediscovered  by  Patrick  Young  (Patricius 
Junius,  1584-1651,  librarian  to  James  I  and 
Charles  I),  in  the  Alexandrian  codex  of  the 
LXX. 

CLEMENT  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  a  Greek 
Father  of  the  Church,  probably  born  at 
Alexandria,  c.  A.D.  150.  Four  of  his  works 
have  come  down  to  us.  He  was  the  first  to 
apply  Greek  culture  and  philosophy  to  the 
exposition  of  the  Christian  faith. 

Clementina  Porretta,  a  character  in 
Richardson's  *Sir  Charles  Grandison*  (q.v.). 


[167] 


CLEMENTINE  DECRETALS 
Clementine  Decretals,  see  Decretals. 
Clementine  Vulgate,  see  Vulgate. 
Glennam,  ARTHUR  and  MRS.,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'Little  Dorrit'  (q.v.). 

Gleofas  Zambullo,  DON,  the  hero  of  'Le 
Diable  Boiteux'  (q.v.)  of  Le  Sage. 

Cleombrotus,  a  philosopher  of  Ambracia, 
who  is  said,  after  reading  the  Thaedo'  of  Plato, 
to  have  leapt  into  the  sea  and  drowned  him- 
self to  exchange  this  life  for  a  better. 

'Ha!  Cleombrotus!  And  what  salads  in 
faith  did  you  light  on  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Mediterranean  ?' 

(Charles  Lamb,  'All  Fools'  Day'.) 

Cleon,  an  Athenian  general  and  demagogue, 
originally  a  tanner,  an  opponent  of  Pericles 
and  after  his  death  leader  of  the  party  that 
opposed  peace  in  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
He  achieved  military  fame  by  taking  prisoners 
in  424  B.C.  the  Spartans  in  the  island  of 
Sphacteria.  He  was  subsequently  defeated 
by  Brasidas  and  killed  in  battle  (422). 

Gleon,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Pericles* 


Cleon,  a  poem  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1855. 

Cleon  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  poets  to 
whom  St.  Paul  in  Acts  xvii.  28  refers  in  the 
words,  *As  certain  also  of  your  own  poets 
have  said,  For  we  are  also  his  offspring'. 
Cleon  believes  in  Zeus  as  the  one  God,  but 
sees  no  warrant  for  the  belief  in  immortality. 
He  states  the  case  to  King  Protus:  his  sense 
of  the  inadequacy  of  this  life,  and  his  con- 
ception of  another  in  which  realization  shall 
be  as  ample  as  unrealized  desire  is  on  earth. 
But  Zeus  has  not  revealed  such  a  life,  and 
Cleon  grieves  in  consequence. 

Cleopatra,  eldest  daughter  of  Ptolemy 
Auletes,  king  of  Egypt,  was  born  in  68  B.C. 
She  was  named  by  her  father  heir  of  the 
kingdom  in  conjunction  with  her  brother 
Ptolemy,  but  was  driven  from  the  throne  by 
his  guardians  Pothinus  and  Achillas.  She  was 
restored  to  the  throne  with  her  brother  by 
Julius  Caesar,  and  when  her  brother  perished 
in  the  Alexandrine  War  became  sole  ruler  of 
Egypt.  By  Caesar  she  had  a  son  named 
Caesarion.  After  Caesar's  death  in  44  B.C. 
she  met  Antony  in  Cilicia  and  gained  his 
heart  by  her  beauty  and  fascination.  In  the 
war  between  Antony  and  Augustus  she 
followed  her  lover,  and  the  defection  of  her 
fleet  at  the  battle  of  Actium  (31  B.C.) 
hastened  his  defeat.  Despairing  of  Antony's 
fortunes,  she  retired  to  her  mausoleum  at 
Alexandria  and  caused  a  report  to  be  spread 
of  her  death.  Thereupon  Antony  stabbed 
himself.  To  escape  being  carried  captive  to 
Rome  by  Augustus,  Cleopatra  took  her  own 
life  (30  B.C.).  The  story  of  her  relations  with 
Antony  has  been  made  the  theme  of  three 


famous    plays,   Shakespeare's   'Antony  and 
Cleopatra'  (q.v.),  Dryden's   'All  for  Love' 


CLICHY 

(q.v.),  and  Samuel  Daniel's  'Cleopatra*  (see 
below).  Her  relations  with  Caesar  are  the 
theme  of  a  play  by  G.  B.  Shaw  (q.v.),  'Caesar 
and  Cleopatra'. 

The  granite  obelisks  called  CLEOPATRA'S 
NEEDLES  have  nothing  to  do  with  that  queen, 
but  were  erected  at  Heliopolis  by  Thothmes 
III  about  1600  B.C.  That  which  stands  on 
the  Thames  Embankment  was  brought  to 
England  in  1878. 

Cleopatra,  a  tragedy  in  blank  verse  by  S. 
Daniel  (q.v.),  published  in  1594.  It  is  on 
the  Senecan  model,  and  deals  with  the  story 
of  Cleopatra  after  the  death  of  Antony. 
Octavius  Caesar  endeavours  to  persuade  her 
to  leave  the  monument  that  she  had  caused 
to  be  built,  in  order  that  he  may  have  her  to 
grace  his  triumph.  Feigning  to  yield,  she 
asks  permission  first  to  sacrifice  to  the  ghost 
of  Antonius.  After  the  performance  of  the 
rites  she  dines  with  great  magnificence,  and 
by  her  order  a  basket  of  figs  is  brought  her 
which  contains  an  asp.  With  this  she  does 
herself  to  death.  Her  son  Caesario  about  the 
same  time  is  murdered  at  Rhodes  and  the 
race  of  the  Ptolemies  become^  extinct. 

Cleopatra,  in  Dickens's  'Dombey  and  Son* 
(q.v.),  the  name  by  which  Mrs.  Skewton 
(q.v.)  was  known,  from  the  resemblance  of 
her  attitude  when  young  in  her  barouche  to 
that  of  the  Egyptian  princess  in  her  galley. 
When  old  she  maintained  a  bath  chair  for  the 
sake  of  maintaining  the  attitude. 

Cleopatre,  see  La  Calprenede. 

Clerimond,  in  the  tale  of  'yalentine  and 
Orson*  (q.v.),  the  sister  of  the  giant  Ferragus. 

Clerk  of  Chatham,  THE,  the  schoolmaster 
in  Shakespeare's  *2  Henry  VI',  who  in  Act  IV. 
ii  is  haled  before  Jack  Cade. 

Clerk's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 
CLERK-MAXWELL,  JAMES  (1831-79), 
was  the  first  professor  of  experimental 
physics  at  Cambridge.  His  best-known  re- 
searches relate  to  electricity  and  magnetism, 
and  his  theories  with  regard  to  these  were 
fully  propounded  in  a  treatise  published  in 
1873.  Its  fundamental  ideas  have  been 
generally  accepted  and  have  formed  the  basis 
of  much  subsequent  work.  They  contributed 
to  the  development  of  the  theory  of  the 
Conservation  of  Energy. 
Clerkenwell,  in  London,  a  district  that  took 
its  name  from  a  well  at  which  the  parish 
clerks  of  London  used  each  year  to  perform 
a  miracle  play.  The  Knights  Hospitallers 
(q.v.)  of  St.  John  had  their  house  and  church 
in  this  district. 

Cleveland,  CAPTAIN  CLEMENT,  a  character 
in  Scott's  'The  Pirate'  (q.v.). 

Cliche",  French,  'a  stereotype  block5,  a  stock 
expression  which  by  constant  use  has  become 
hackneyed  and  lost  its  sharp  edge. 
Clichy,  a  suburb  of  Paris.   The  CLICHIENS 
were  a  royalist  club  that  met  there. 


[168] 


CLICQUOT 

Clicquot,  VEUVE,  see  Champagne. 

Clifford,  LORD,  THE  SHEPHERD,  see  Shep- 
herd (Lord  Clifford,  the). 

CLIFFORD,  SOPHIA  LUCY(^.  1929),  nee 
Lane,  wife  of  Professor  W.  K.  Clifford  (q.v.), 
is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  author  of  two 
striking  novels,  'Mrs.  Keith's  Crime*  (1885, 
on  the  painful  theme  of  a  mother's  right  to 
end  the  misery  of  a  suffering  and  incurable 
child)  and  'Aunt  Anne'  (1893).  'A  Wild 
Proxy'  (1894),  'A  Flash  of  Summer'  (1895), 
'The  Love-Letters  of  a  Worldly  Woman* 
(1913),  and  'Anyhow  Stories*  (for  children, 
1882),  may  also  be  mentioned.  Of  her  plays, 
'The  Likeness  of  Night*  was  produced  in 
1901  at  the  St.  James's  Theatre,  'The  Search- 
light* was  produced  by  Miss  Horniman  in 
1910,  and  'A  Woman  Alone*  in  1914. 

Clifford,  WILLIAM  KINGDON  (1845-79), 
educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  professor  of 
applied  mathematics  at  University  College, 
London.  He  wrote  some  philosophical 
treatises  ('Seeing  and  Thinking*,  1879; 
'Lectures  and  Essays*,  1879),  conceiving  con- 
sciousness as  built  up  out  of  simple  elements 
of  'mind-stuff*.  His  contributions  to  philo- 
sophy were  cut  short  by  his  early  death. 

Clifford's  Inn,  one  of  the  old  Inns  (q.v.)  of 
Chancery,  situated  in  the  corner  of  Fleet 
Street  and  Chancery  Lane,  and  said  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  a  Robert  Clifford,  to 
whom  Edward  II  granted  the  property  in 
1310  (Stow).  The  Society  of  law  students  who 
came  into  possession  of  it  was  dissolved  at 
the  beginning  of  the  2Oth  cent. 

Clink,  THE  LIBERTY  OF  THE,  in  Southwark,  a 
precinct  surrounding  the  London  house  of 
the  bishops  of  Winchester.  The  Clink  itself 
was  a  noted  prison.  The  liberty  enjoyed 
exemption  from  the  ordinary  jurisdiction; 
and  here  stood  the  early  theatres  (the  Globe, 
the  Hope,  &c.),  the  bear-gardens,  and  the 
stews  (G.  R.  Stirling  Taylor,  'Historical 
Guide  to  London').  Hence  the  slang  ex- 
pression 'in  clink*  for  'in  prison*. 

Clio,  the  Muse  (q.v.)  of  history. 

CLIO  were  the  letters  with  one  or  other 
of  which  Addison  signed  all  his  papers  in  the 
'Spectator*. 

Clitus  or  CLEITUS,  a  friend  and  general  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  saved  Alexander's 
life  at  the  battle  of  Grarncus  (334  B.C.). 
Taunted  by  Clitus  at  a  banquet  in  328, 
Alexander,  who  was  heated  with  wine,  killed 
him  with  a  javelin,  and  was  then  inconsolable 
for  his  loss. 

GLIVE,  MRS.  CAROLINE  ARCHER 
(1801-73),  nee  Meysey-Wigley,  published, 
chiefly  under  the  initial  V,  verses  and  novels, 
including  'Paul  FerrolF  (q.v.,  1855).  She  was 
accidentally  burnt  to  death. 

Clive,    CATHERINE,    commonly    known    as 

[169] 


CLOISTER  AND  THE  HEARTH 

KITTY  CLIVE  (1711-85),  actress,  and  friend 
of  Horace  Walpole,  by  whom  she  was 
pensioned. 

Clive,  ROBERT,  Baron  Clive  ofPlassey  (1725- 
74),  obtained  an  ensign's  commission  in  the 
East  India  Company's  service  in  1747.  He 
showed  his  bravery  and  military  gifts  by  the 
capture  of  Arcot  in  1751  and  his  subsequent 
defence  of  that  city  against  a  vastly  superior 
force  of  French  and  natives.  In  1757  he 
avenged  the  tragedy  of  the  Black  Hole  of 
Calcutta  (q.v.)  by  defeating  Suraj  ud  Dowlah 
in  the  great  victory  of  Plassey.  He  became 
governor  of  Bengal  in  1758,  and  a  second 
time  (after  a  visit  to  England)  in  1765.  He 
resigned  owing  to  ill-health  in  1767.  His 
conduct  was  subjected  in  1772—3  to  a  parlia- 
mentary inquiry,  which  resulted  substantially 
in  his  favour. 

Cloacina,  a  surname  of  Venus,  'the  purifier', 
so  called  because  the  Romans,  after  the  end 
of  the  Sabine  War,  purified  themselves  in  the 
vicinity  of  her  statue  with  myrtle  boughs. 
The  name  is  derived  from  cloaca,  sewer,  and 
the  goddess  Cloacina  is  regarded  as  presiding 
over  these. 

Clockmdker,  Sam  Slick,  the,  see  Haliburton. 

Cloddipole,  one  of  the  rustics  in  Gay's 
'Shepherd's  Week*  (q.v.). 

Cloister  and  the  Hearth,  The,  an  histori- 
cal romance  by  Reade  (q.v.),  published  in 
1861. 

The  story,  which  is  laid  in  the  i$th  cent., 
was  inspired  by  the  author's  reading  of  the 
'Colloquies'  and  life  of  Erasmus,  and  the 
writings  of  Froissart  and  Luther.  Gerard, 
the  hero,  the  son  of  a  mercer  of  Tergou, 
is  destined  for  the  Church,  but  falls  in 
love  with  Margaret  Brandt  the  daughter 
of  a  poor  scholar,  suspected  of  sorcery. 
He  abandons  his  career  and  betroths  him- 
self to  her,  but  the  anger  of  his  father,  the 
hostility  of  the  burgomaster,  and  the  envy  of 
his  two  wicked  brothers  succeed  in  preventing 
the  marriage,  and  Gerard  is  imprisoned. 
He  escapes  to  Margaret,  but  is  presently 
pursued  and  obliged  to  flee  the  country. 
The  story  now  proceeds  through  a  series 
of  exciting  incidents  and  vivid  scenes  in 
monasteries,  taverns,  and  palaces,  as  Gerard 
travels  through  the  disturbed  countries  of 
Germany  and  Burgundy  to  Italy.  Here,  by 
the  cruel  device  of  his  enemies,  he  receives 
false  news  of  the  death  of  Margaret,  and  in 
despair  gives  himself  up  to  ^a  life  of  de- 
bauchery, and  then  takes  the  "cowl.  Mean- 
while Margaret  gives  birth  to  a  son  and  is 
reduced  to  despair  by  the  loss  of  all  trace  of 
Gerard.  Finally,  as  a  Dominican  preacher,  he 
returns  to  his  native  town,  is  astounded  to 
discover  Margaret  alive,  and  is  at  length  per- 
suaded, through  the  agency  of  his  little  son, 
to  return  to  her  and  accept  the  living  of 
Gouda.  This  same  son,  the  close  of  the  story 
indicates,  is  the  future  Erasmus  (q.v.). 


CLOOTIE 

Clootie,  a  name  for  the  Devil,  as  popularly 
represented  with  a  cloven  hoof  (probably 
derived  from  an  old  word  meaning  'claw'). 
O  thou  I  whatever  title  suit  thee, 
Auld  Hornie,  Satan,  Nick  or  Clootie. 

(Burns,  'Address  to  the  DeiT.) 

Clootz,  ANACHARSIS,  Jean  Baptiste  Clootz 
(1755-94),  a  Prussian,  who  migrated  to  Paris, 
took  the  name  Anacharsis  (q.v.),   adopted 
revolutionary  views,  but  was  purged  from  the 
Jacobins  and  guillotined  (see  Carlyle,  'French 
Revolution',  I.  iii  and  VI.  i). 
Clorin,     the     'Faithful     Shepherdess'    in 
Fletcher's  drama  of  that  name  (q.v.). 
Clorinda,  in  Tasso's  'Jerusalem  Delivered', 
a  leader  of  the  pagan  forces,  the  daughter  of 
the  king  of  Ethiopia,  who  had  been  lost  as  a 
babe  in  the  forest  and  suckled  by  a  tigress. 
Tancred,  who  has  fallen  in  love  with  her, 
slays  her  unwittingly  in  a  night  attack. 
Clos  Vougeot,  see  Burgundy. 
Cloten,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  eCym- 
beline'  (q.v.). 
dotho,  see  Parcae. 

Cloud-cuckoo-land,  see  Nephelococcygia* 
Gloudesley,  WILLIAM  OF,  see  Adam  Bell. 

CLOUGH,  ARTHUR  HUGH  (1819-61), 
son  of  a  Liverpool  cotton  merchant,  and 
educated  at  Rugby  and  Balliol  College,  Ox- 
ford, became  a  fellow  of  Oriel,  and  after 
throwing  up  his  fellowship,  principal  of  Uni- 
versity Haft,  London.  He  was  subsequently 
an  examiner  in  the  Education  Office.  He  died 
at  Florence,  and  Matthew  Arnold's  'Thyrsis' 
was  written  to  commemorate  his  death.  He 
is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  author  of  the 
hexameter  poem,  'The  Bothie  of  Tober-na- 
Vuolich'  (q.v.,  1848),  and  of  some  fine  lyrics, 
including  the  well-known  'Say  not  the 
struggle  nought  availeth*,  which  bear  the 
mark  of  the  spiritual  agitation  caused  by 
religious  doubts.  His  longer  poems,  pub- 
lished posthumously,  include  'Dipsychus' 
(q.v.,  1869),  'Amours  de  Voyage'  (like  the 
'Bothie'  in  hexameters),  and  'Mari  Magno', 
a  series  of  tales  (1862). 

Clove,  a  character  in  Jonson's  cEvery  Man 
out  of  his  Humour',  who  makes  a  pretence  to 
learning  by  a  display  of  long  words  and 
abstruse  terms. 

Club,  THE,  see  Johnson  (Samuel). 
Clumsy,  Sm  TUNBELLY,  a  character  in  Van- 
brugh's   'The  Relapse*  and   Sheridan's  CA 
Trip  to  Scarborough'  (qq.v.). 

Clutha ,  in  Macpherson's  Ossianic  poems,  the 

river  Clyde. 

Clutter-buck,  CAPTAIN  CUTHBERT,  a  fictitious 

personage  supposed  to  be  concerned  with  the 

publication  of  some  of  Sir  W.  Scott's  novels, 

e.g.  'The  Monastery'. 

Clym  of  the  dough,  see  Adam  Bell 

Clym  Yeobright,  a  character  in  T.  Hardy's 

'The  Return  of  the  Native'  (q.v.). 


COBBETT 

Clymene,  (i)  daughter  of  Oceanus  and 
Tethys,  and  mother  of  Atlas  and  Prometheus. 
(2)  According  to  Hesiod,  the  mother  of 
Phaethon  by  Atlas. 

Some  beauty  rare,  Calisto,  Clymene. 
(Milton,  'Paradise  Regained',  ii.  186.) 

Clytemnestra,  daughter  of  Tyndarus,  king 
of  Sparta,  and  Leda  (q.v.),  and  wife  of 
Agamemnon  (q.v.),  king  of  Argos.  On  the 
return  of  Agamemnon  from  the  Trojan  War, 
she,  with  her  paramour  Aegisthus  (q.v.), 
murdered  her  husband,  and  was  in  turn 
slain  by  Orestes,  Agamemnon's  son. 

Clytia  or  CLYTIE,  a  nymph,  daughter  of 
Oceanus,  who  was  loved  by  Apollo.  She  was 
deserted  by  him,  pined  away,  and  was 
changed  into  a  sunflower,  which  constantly 
turns  its  head  to  the  sun. 

Cnut  or  CANUTE  (q.v.),  king  of  England, 

1016-35. 

Coal  Hole,  THE,  a  tavern  in  Fountain  Court, 

Strand,  from  which  Thackeray  in  part  drew 

his  'Cave  of  Harmony'  (q.v.). 

Coart,  COUWAERT,  or  CUWAERT,  in  'Reynard 
the  Fox*  (q.v.),  the  name  of  the  hare.  It  is  the 
same  word  as  our  'coward*. 

Coatel,  a  character  in  Southey's  'Madoc' 
(q.v.). 

Coavinses,  in  Dickens 's  'Bleak  House'  (q.v.), 
see  Neckett. 

COBBE,  FRANCES  POWER  (1822-1 904), 
philanthropist  and  religious  writer,  published 
anonymously  'The  Theory  of  Intuitive 
Morals'  in  1855-7.  She  was  associated  with 
Mary  Carpenter  in  her  ragged  school  and  re- 
formatory work,  and  occupied  herself  with 
relief  of  destitution  and  workhouse  philan- 
thropy. Her  voluminous  writings  include 
'Broken  Lights*  (1864),  'Darwinism  in 
Morals*  (1872),  'The  Duties  of  Women* 
(1881),  and  an  autobiography  (1904).  She  was 
an  early  advocate  of  women's  suffrage  and 
opponent  of  vivisection. 

COBBETT,  WILLIAM  (1762-1835),  the 
son  of  a  labourer  at  Farnham,  and  self- 
educated,  enlisted  as  a  soldier  and  served  in 
Florida  from  1784  to  1791.  He  obtained  his 
discharge,  brought  an  accusation  of  pecula- 
tion against  some  of  his  former  officers,  and 
in  1792  retired  to  America  to  avoid  prosecu- 
tion. There  he  published  pro-British  pam- 
phlets under  the  pseudonym  of  'Peter  Porcu- 
pine'. He  returned  to  England  in  1800 
and  became  a  Tory  journalist,  editing  *Cob- 
bett's  Political  Register',  a  weekly  news- 
paper, from  1802.  Soon  he  adopted  popular 
opinions  and  wrote  from  1804  in  the  radical 
interest.  He  published  'Parliamentary  De- 
bates', afterwards  taken  over  by  Hansard, 
and  'State  Trials',  wrote  an  'English  Gram- 
mar' (1817)  and  a  number  of  books  on 
economics  and  other  subjects.  He  also 
farmed  in  Hampshire  and  subsequently  in 
Surrey.  From  1817  to  1819  he  was  in 


[170] 


COBDEN 

America.  His  'History  of  the  Protestant 
"Reformation"  in  England  and  Ireland'  ap- 
peared" in  1824;  his  'Advice  to  Young  Men' 
in  1829.  He  became  M.P.  for  Oldham  in 
1832.  He  wrote  with  exceptional  perspicuity 
and  vigour,  and  showed  good  sense  and  sound 
observation  in  agricultural  matters.  But  his 
honesty  and  shrewdness  are  marred  by  an 
arrogant  and  quarrelsome  attitude,  and  by 
wrong-headed  prejudices.  His  *  Rural  Rides* 
(q.v.),  collected  in  1830,  are  to-day  the  most 
interesting  of  his  writings.  His  'Political 
Register*,  which  attained  a  very  large  circu- 
lation, was  continued  until  his  death. 

Gobden,  RICHARD  (1804-65),  son  of  a  Sussex 
farmer,  settled  in  Manchester  in  1832.  He 
was  a  foremost  leader  of  the  Anti-Corn-Law 
League,  and  M.P.  for  Stockport  (1841-7), 
for  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire  (1847-57), 
and  for  Stockdale  in  1859.  By  his  strenuous 
advocacy  he  powerfully  contributed  to  the 
repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws  (1846).  He  ne- 
gotiated the  commercial  treaty  with  France, 
1859-60. 

GOGGAI,  MERLIN,  see  Folengo. 
Cock-and-bull  story,  an  ^  expression  that 
apparently  had  its  origin  in  some  tale  or 
fable,  means  a  long  idle  rambling  story ;  or  a 
concocted,  incredible  story.   Cf.  the  French 
coq-a~rd.net  a  disconnected,  extravagant  story. 
'Some  mens  whole  delight  is  ...  to  talk 
of  a  cock  and  a  bull  over  a  pot.* 
(Burton,  'Anatomy  of  Melancholy*,  II.  ii.  4.) 

Cock  and  Pie,  used  in  asseverations,  is  per- 
haps for  *God  and  Pie*,  where  'Pie*  is  the 
table  of  rules  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
governing  the  offices  for  each  day. 

eBy  cock  and  pie,  you  shall  not  choose,  sir! 
come,  come/ 

(Shakespeare,  'Merry  Wives',  I.  i.) 

Cock  Lane  Ghost  9  a  supposed  ghost  to  which 
were  attributed  mysterious  noises  heard  at 
No.  33  Cock  Lane,  Smithfield,  of  which  the 
object  was  said  to  be  the  detection  of  a  crime. 
They  were  discovered  in  1762  to  be  due  to  an 
imposition  practised  by  one  William  Parsons, 
his  wife,  and  daughter,  but  not  before  the 
report  had  created  much  excitement.  Dr. 
Johnson  took  part  in  the  investigation  of  the 
mystery  (see  BoswelPs  'Life',  1763).  See 
A.  Lang,  'Cock  Lane  and  Common  Sense', 
1894. 

Cock  of  the  North,  George,  fifth  duke  of 
Gordon  (1770-1836),  who  raised  the  regi- 
ment now  known  as  the  Gordon  Highlanders 
and  commanded  it  (1795-9)  *&  Spain, 
Corsica,  Ireland,  and  Holland,  where  he  was 
severely  wounded.  'Cock  of  the  North*  is 
also  the  name  of  a  well-known  tune  on  the 
pipes. 

Cockatrice  (from  Latin  calcatrix,  ap- 
parently a  medieval  translation  of  the  Greek 
Ixyevfjicav,  ichneumon),  a  serpent  identified 
with  the  basilisk  (q.v.),  fabled  to  kill  by  its 
mere  glance,  and  to  be  hatched  from  a  cock's 


COCOA-TREE  CLUB 

egg.  In  heraldry,  it  is  a  hybrid  monster  with 
the  head,  wings,  and  feet  of  a  cock,  terminat- 
ing in  a  serpent  with  a  barbed  tail. 

Cockayne  or  COCKAIGNE,  LAND  OF,  the 
name  of  a  fabulous  country,  the  abode  of 
luxury  and  idleness.  The  origin  of  the  term 
has  been  much  discussed  but  remains 
obscure.  Baring-Gould  (c Curious  Myths') 
regards  it  as  originally  a  nickname  for  the 
'Fortunate  Isles'  (q.v.).  The  word  in  its 
derivation  is  connected  with  'cook*  or  'cake*. 
The  OED.  gives  a  quotation  c.  1305,  from 
which  it  appears  that  the  houses  in  Cockayne 
were  covered  with  cakes. 
Cocke  LorelVs  Bote,  a  popular  satire  of  the 
1 6th  cent.,  in  verse,  in  which  types  of  the 
various  tradesfolk  take  ship  and  sail  through 
England.  The  captain  of  the  'Bote'  is  Cocke 
Lorell,  a  tinker  and  probably  an  historical 
personage.  It  is  an  interesting  picture  of  low 
life. 

COCKER^  EDWARD  (1631-75),  a  teacher 
of  arithmetic  and  writing  in  London,  whose 
treatise  on  arithmetic  attained  great  popu- 
larity and  gave  rise  to  the  expression  'accord- 
ing to  Cocker'. 

Cockney,  from  Middle  English  coken-ey, 
'cocks'  egg*,  of  which  the  original  meaning 
was  perhaps  one  of  the  small  or  misshapen 
eggs  occasionally  laid  by  fowls.  It  came  to 
mean  'a  cockered  child',  an  effeminate  fellow 
or  milksop,  and  so  was  used  derisively  for  a 
townsman  in  contrast  to  the  hardier  in- 
habitants of  the  country,  and  finally  for  one 
born  in  the  city  of  London  (always  more  or 
less  in  a  contemptuous  or  bantering  sense). 
Hence  it  was  extended  to  the  London  dialect 
or  accent. 

THE  COCKNEY  SCHOOL  was  a  nickname 
given  by  Lockhart  to  a  set  of  igth-cent. 
writers  belonging  to  London,  of  whom  Leigh 
Hunt  and  Hazlitt  were  representative 
members. 

Cockpit,  THE,  the  name  of  a  theatre  in 
London  in  the  I7th  cent.,  referred  to  by 
Pepys  (n  Oct.  1660  and  5  Jan.  1662—3).  Also 
the  name  of  a  block  of  buildings  near  White- 
hall erected  by  Henry  VIII  as  government 
offices. 

The  COCKPIT  OF  EUROPE  is  an  expression 
applied  to  Belgium  as  the  scene  of  many 
wars  (a  cockpit  being  the  scene  of  cock- 
fights). 

Codes,  PUBLIUS  HORATIUS,  a  Roman  who 
at  first  with  two  companions  and  then  alone 
opposed  the  whole  army  of  Porsena,  king 
of  Etruria,  at  the  head  of  the  bridge  leading 
into  Rome,  while  his  companions  behind 
him  were  cutting  off  communication  with  the 
other  shore.  When  the  bridge  was  destroyed, 
Codes,  though  wounded,  leapt  into  the  Tiber 
and  swam  across  it  with  his  arms.  The  feat  is 
the  subject  of  one  of  Macaulay's  'Lays  of 
Ancient  Rome*. 

Cocoa-tree  Club,  THE,  in  St.  James's 
Street,  originally  a  chocolate  house  of  the 


COCtTUS 

same  name,  dating  from  the  early  i8th  cent. 
After  being  a  Tory  centre  and  subsequently, 
in  1745,  a  resort  of  the  Jacobite  party,  it 
became  a  fashionable  club  where,  as  Horace 
Walpole's  letters  attest,  there  was  gambling 
for  high  stakes.  'At  the  Cocoa-tree  Lord 
Stavordale,  not  one-and-twenty,  lost  eleven 
thousand  last  Tuesday,  but  recovered  it  by 
one  great  hand  at  hazard*  (1770). 
Cocytus,  the  'river  of  lamentation*,  from 
KCDKVO),  I  howl ;  a  river  of  Epirus,  and  by  the 
poets  regarded  as  a  river  of  Hades.  See  Styx. 

Godille,  a  term  used  in  the  game  of  ombre, 
when  the  adversaries  of  ombre  win  the  game. 
Just  in  the  jaws  of  ruin,  and  Codille. 

(Pope,  'Rape  of  the  Lock',  iii.  93.) 

Godlin  and  Short,  in  Dickens's  cOld 
Curiosity  Shop'  (q.v.),  travel  about  the 
country  with  a  Punch  and  Judy  show. 
Thomas  Codlin  was  a  surly  misanthrope; 
Short  (whose  real  name  was  Harris,  but  was 
familiarly  known  as  'Short  Trotters')  was  a 
cheerful  little  man.  Codlin,  who  suspects 
that  Little  Nell  and  her  grandfather  have 
run  away  from  their  friends  and  is  anxious  to 
get  the  reward  for  their  discovery,  assures 
Nell  that  'Codlin's  the  friend,  not  Short*. 

Codrington,  CHRISTOPHER  (1668-1710), 
born  in  Barbados,  and  educated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  became  captain-general  of 
the  Leeward  Islands  in  1697.  He  spent  the 
last  years  of  his  life  in  study  on  his  Barbados 
estates,  which  be  bequeathed  to  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  for  the 
foundation  of  a  college  in  Barbados.  He  also 
left  his  books  and  £10,000  to  All  Souls 
College,  Oxford,  a  bequest  out  of  which  was 
founded  the  CODRINGTON  LIBRARY. 

Coalebs  in  Search  of  a  Wife,  a  novel  by 
Hannah  More  (q.v.),  published  in  1809.  It  is 
a  collection  of  social  sketches  and  precepts, 
strung  together  on  the  thread  of  the  hero's 
search  for  a  young  woman  who  shall  possess 
the  qualities  stipulated  for  by  his  departed 
parents. 

Coffee-houses  were  first  introduced  in 
London  in  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth 
and  were  much  frequented  in  the  i7th  and 
1 8th  cents,  for  political  and  literary  dis- 
cussion, circulation  of  news,  &c.  There  is  an 
interesting  description  of  them  in  Macaulay's 
'History  of  England',  c.  iii.  See  Button's, 
WilPs9  Grecian,  Garrazuay's. 

Cogglesby,  ANDREW  and  TOM,  characters  in 
Meredith's  'Evan  Harrington*  (q.v.). 

Cognac,  a  French  brandy  of  superior  quality 
distilled  from  the  wine  of  Cognac,  in  the 
Charente.  The  name  is  sometimes  extended 
to  any  French  brandy. 

COKE,  SIR  EDWARD  (1552-1634),  edu- 
cated at  Norwich  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  a  barrister  of  the  Inner  Temple, 
was  advanced  by  Burghley's  influence  to  be 
attorney-general,  to  the  disappointment  of 


COLD  HARBOUR 

Francis  Bacon  (q.v),  whose  lifelong  rival  he 
was.  He  became  chief  justice  of  the  Common 
Pleas  in  1606,  of  the  King's  Bench  in  1613. 
Here  he  quarrelled  incessantly  with  the 
Court  of  Chancery  and  was  dismissed  by  the 
king  in  1616.  Gardiner  calls  his  dismissal 
a  'turning  point'  in  the  relations  of  king  and 
parliament.  Coke's  fame  as  a  legal  author 
rests  on  his  eleven  volumes  of  'Reports* 
(1600-15),  and  his  'Institutes'  (1628-44)  in 
which  he  recast,  explained,  and  defended 
the  common  law  rules.  The  first  part  of  the 
'Institutes'  is  the  commentary  on  the  'Ten- 
ures' of  Littleton  (q.v.),  whence  the  term, 
now  obsolete,  Coke-upon-Littleton,  a  cant 
name  for  a  mixed  drink. 

Coke,  LADY  MARY  (1726-1811),  a  daughter 
of  John,  Duke  of  Argyll,  the  wife  of  Edward 
Viscount  Coke.  Her  entertaining  *  Letters 
and  Journals'  have  been  privately  printed 
(1889-96). 

Cokes,  BARTHOLOMEW,  a  character  in  Jon- 
son's  'Bartholomew  Fayre'  (q.v.). 

Golbek,  THE  DANCERS  OF,  the  subject  of  a 
story  in  Robert  Mannyng's  *Handlyng  Synne" 
(q.v.). 

A  band  of  'fools*  led  by  Bovo  and  Gerlew 
come  to  Colbek  (Kolbigk  in  Anhalt,  Saxony) 
and  dance  and  sing  in  the  churchyard,  en- 
ticing the  priest's  daughter  to  dance  with 
them.  The  priest,  about  to  begin  mass,  bids 
them  desist,  but  they  continue.  He  curses 
them  and  prays  that  they  may  be  obliged  to 
dance  for  a  twelvemonth.  This  they  do  in 
obedience  to  the  curse,  and  although  the 
others  survive  the  ordeal,  the  priest's 
daughter  falls  dead  at  the  end,  and  the  priest 
dies  soon  after. 

The  circumstances  (perhaps  an  epidemic 
of  St.  Vitus's  dance)  from  which  the  story 
sprang  appear  to  belong  to  1021.  Two  letters 
narrating  the  event  were  circulated  as  cre- 
dentials by  pretended  survivors  of  the  band. 
One  of  these,  the  letter  of  Theodric,  makes 
Bruno,  bishop  of  Toul  (afterwards  Pope 
Leo  IX),  vouch  for  the  facts.  Theodric  was 
miraculously  cured  at  the  shrine  of  St.  Edith 
of  Wilton,  and  the  letter  was  preserved  in  the 
Acts  of  St.  Edith,  and  Mannyng  had  it  before 
him. 

Colbrand,  in  the  romance  of  cGuy  of  War- 
wick' (q.v.),  the  Danish  giant  slain  by  Sir 
Guy.  The  story  is  also  told  in  Drayton's 
'Polyolbion*,  xii.  130  et  seq, 

Gold  Harbour  or  COLD  HARBOROUGH,  an 
ancient  building  in  the  parish  of  All  Hallows 
the  Less,  in  Dowgate  Ward,  London,  at 
one  time  the  College  of  Heralds,  and  subse- 
quently the  residence  of  Bishop  Tunstall 
(1474-1559).  It  was  removed  by  the  earl  of 
Shrewsbury,  who  erected!  small  tenements 
in  its  place,  where  debtors  and  others  took 
sanctuary,  a  character  that  the  locality  en- 
joyed perhaps  owing  to  its  connexion  with 
the  bishop.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  dere- 
lict houses  (perhaps  destroyed  in  the  Saxon 


COLDBATH  FIELDS 

and  Angle  invasions  of  Britain)  and  is  borne 
by  several  localities  in  England. 

Goldbath  Fields,  in  Clerkenwell,  London, 
famous  for  a  prison  established  there  in  the 
reign  of  James  I,  now  closed. 

Cole,  KING,  the  'merry  old  soul*  of  the 

nursery  rhyme,  was  Coel,  one  of  the  legendary 
kings  of  Britain  enumerated  by  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth  (q.v.)  in  his  'Historia  Regum 
Britanniae*.  Some  authorities  trace  him  even 
farther  back,  to  the  god  Camulus,  whose 
name  is  seen  in  Camulodunum  (Colchester). 
There  is  a  poem  about  him  by  Masefield 
(q.v.)  in  'King  Cole  and  other  Poems'  (1923). 

COLENSO,  JOHN  WILLIAM  (1814-83), 
started  life  as  a  poor  Cornish  boy,  became 
a  sizar  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  a 
master  at  Harrow,  and  ultimately  bishop  of 
Natal.  Besides  text-books  on  arithmetic  and 
algebra,  he  published  'Ten  Weeks  in  Natal' 
in  1854;  a  'Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans'  (1861),  which  attacked  the  sacra- 
mental system  and  evoked  much  opposition ; 
and  a  'Critical  Examination  of  the  Pentateuch* 
(1862—79),  concluding  that  these  books  were 
post-exile  forgeries.  He  was  deposed  and 
excommunicated  by  Bishop  Gray  of  Cape- 
town (who  had  no  jurisdiction  over  him),  but 
confirmed  in  the  possession  of  his  see  by  the 
law  courts  (1866). 

COLERIDGE,  HARTLEY  (1796-1849), 
eldest  son  of  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge  (q.v.), 
educated  at  Ambleside  and  Merton  College, 
Oxford,  was  appointed  a  probationer  fellow 
of  Oriel  College,  but  dismissed  in  1820  on 
a  vague  charge  of  intemperance.  He  tried 
work  as  a  schoolmaster,  with  little  success, 
contributed  to  the  'London  Magazine*  and 
'Blackwood  V,  and  lived  mainly  at  Grasmere. 
His  longest  work  is  the  'Biographia  Borealis* 
or  'Lives  of  Northern  Worthies*  (1833-6, 
1852).  His  poems  include  some  beautiful 
sonnets,  notably  those  'On  Prayer*,  'To 
Homer',  'To  Shakespeare',  and  that  on 
hims"elf — 'When  I  review  the  course  that  I 
have  run',  and  some  pieces  marked  by  a 
singular  melancholy  charm,  such  as  'She  is 
not  fair  to  outward  view*,  and  'She  pass'd 
away  like  morning  dew*.  His  collected  poems 
were  issued  in  1851,  and  his  essays  and  some 
of  his  notable  marginalia  in  the  same  year 
by  his  brother,  Derwent. 

COLERIDGE,  MARY  ELIZABETH 
(1861-1907),  belonged  to  the  same  family  as 
her  great  namesake;  for  her  grandfather, 
Francis  George  Coleridge,  was  the  nephew  of 
S.  T.  Coleridge  (q.v.).  She  was  author  of 
some  remarkable  poetry.  Her  'Poems  Old 
and  New'  (1907)  and  'Gathered  Leaves* 
(1910)  were  published  posthumously.  Her 
first  novel,  'The  Seven  Sleepers  of  Ephesus* 
(1893),  was  praised  by  R.  L.  Stevenson.  'The 
King  with  Two  Faces',  an  historical  novel 
centring  round  Gustavus  III  of  Sweden, 
appeared  in  1897. 

[173] 


COLERIDGE 

COLERIDGE,  SAMUEL  TAYLOR 
(1773-1834),  son  of  the  vicar  of  Ottery  St. 
Mary,  Devon,  was  educated  at  Christ's 
Hospital  (Lamb,  in  his  Elia  essay,  describes 
the  impression  that  Coleridge,  some  years  his 
senior  there,  made  upon  him),  and  at  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge.  Thence  for  an  un- 
known reason  he  betook  himself  to  London 
and  enlisted  in  the  isth  Dragoons,  but  was 
discharged  after  a  few  months  and  returned 
to  Cambridge.  He  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Robert  Southey  (q.v.),  and  the  pair  devoted 
themselves  to  'Pantisocracy',  a  form  of  com- 
munism which  they  contemplated  realizing 
on  the  banks  of  the  Susquehanna.  He 
married  Sara  Fricker  in  1795,  Southey  marry- 
ing her  sister. 

He  contributed  verses  to  the  'Morning 
Chronicle*  as  early  as  1793-5,  and  in  1794 
wrote  and  published  in  conjunction  with 
Southey  'The  Fall  of  Robespierre*.  In  1796 
he  started  a  newspaper,  'The  Watchman*, 
which  lasted  for  only  ten  numbers.  In 
1795  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Words- 
worth and  the  two  poets,  between  whom 
there  sprang  up  4  deep  friendship,  lived  in 
close  intercourse  for  about  a  year  at  Nether 
Stowey  and  Alfoxden  in  Somerset.  Their 
'Lyrical  Ballads*  (q.v.)  containing  Coleridge's 
'Ancient  Mariner*  (q.v.)  appeared  in  1798. 
Coleridge  wrote  the  first  part  of  'Chris- 
tabel*  (q.v.)  and  'Kubla  Khan*  (q.v.)  in  1797, 
and  contributed  some  of  his  best  poems 
to  the  'Morning  Post*  during  1798-1802. 
'France,  an  Ode*,  a  retractation  of  his  faith 
in  the  revolutionary  movement,  appeared 
in  1798.  'Dejection*  was  written  in  1802. 
After  his  visit  to  Germany  in  1798—9,  he 
published  (1799-1800)  his  translations  of 
Schiller's  'Piccolomini*  and  'The  Death  of 
Wallenstein*  under  the  title  'Wallenstein*. 
He  settled  for  a  time  (1800-4)  at  Keswick, 
where  he  wrote  the  second  part  of  'ChristabeP. 
In  1804  he  travelled  to  Malta  and  Italy,  re- 
turning in  1806  broken  in  health  and  a  prey 
to  the  use  of  opium.  In  1808  he  gave  lectures 
on  the  English  poets  at  the  Royal  Institution, 
which  were  imperfectly  reported,  and  in  1809 
he  launched  his  second  periodical,  'The 
Friend*,  'a  literary,  moral,  and  political 
weekly  paper',  subsequently  re-written  and 
published  as  a  book  (1818).  In  this  appeared 
the  grim  ballad-tale  of  'The  Three  Graves', 
written  some  twelve  years  previously.  He 
spent  much  of  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  the 
houses  of  friends,  notably  of  John  Morgan  at 
Hammersmith  and  subsequently  at  Calne, 
and  after  1816  of  a  kindly  surgeon,  James 
Gillman,  at  Highgate.  He  had  been  given 
annuities  of  £75  each  by  Josiah  and  Thomas 
Wedgewood,  but  Josiah's  was  withdrawn  in 
1811.  In  1817  appeared  his  'Biographia 
Literaria*  (q.v.)  or  literary  autobiography, 
and  in  1825  his  'Aids  to  Reflection*  (q.v.),  in 
the  first  of  which  he  did  much  to  introduce 
German  philosophy  to  English  -thinkers, 
though  some  of  his  philosophical  doctrines 
were  arrived  at  independently.  He  also  wrote 


COLERIDGE 

three  plays,  'The  Fall  of  Robespierre*  (1794), 
'Zapolya'  (1817),  and  'Osorio'.  This  last, 
written  before  1798,  was  acted,  under  the 
title  'Remorse',  at  Drury  Lane  in  1813.  Cole- 
ridge's finest  poems,  "The  Ancient  Mariner', 
'Kubla  Khan*,  and  'Christabel*,  are  charac- 
terized by  the  sense  of  mystery  that  he  sug- 
gests. His  gift  in  a  lighter  mood  is  seen  in 
such  a  poem  as  'The  Devil's  Thoughts'  (q.v.), 
written  with  Southey. 

Apart  from  his  poetry,  Coleridge  did 
valuable  work  in  literary  criticism,  maintain- 
ing that  the  true  end  of  poetry  is  to  give 
pleasure  'through  the  medium  of  beauty*. 
The  'Biographia'  contains  much  of  this  criti- 
cism, in  particular  of  the  poems  of  Words- 
worth. In  philosophy,  he  courageously 
stemmed  the  tide  of  the  prevailing  doctrines 
derived  from  Hume  and  Hartley,  advocating 
a  more  spiritual  and  religious  interpretation 
of  life,  based  on  what  he  had  learnt  from 
Kant  and  Schelling.  'Anima  Poetae'  (q.v.), 
edited  from  his  unpublished  note-books  in 
1895  by  E.  H,  Coleridge,  contains  some  of  his 
most  interesting  work  in  this  sphere.  Men- 
tion must  also  be  made  of  his  'Confessions 
of  an  Enquiring  Spirit*,  edited  by  H.  N. 
Coleridge  in  1840,  letters  revealing  his  atti- 
tude to  the  question  of  Biblical  inspiration. 
In  political  philosophy,  to  which  he  paid 
much  attention,  he  declared  himself  the  heir 
of  Burke  and  an  enemy  of  Jacobinism, 
though  constructively  he  had  little  to  offer. 
The  standard  biography  of  Coleridge  is  that 
of  J.  Dykes  Campbell  (1894).  His  'Letters' 
were  edited  by  T.  AUsop  in  1836.  Two 
volumes  of  his  'Unpublished  Letters'  were 
edited  by  E.  L.  Griggs  in  1932. 

COLERIDGE,  SARA  (1802-52),  daughter 
of  S,  T.  Coleridge  (q.v.)  and  wife  of  Henry 
Nelson  Coleridge,  was  author  of  'Phantas- 
mion'  (1837),  an  elaborate  romantic  fairy-tale, 
with  a  host  of  characters,  among  whom  figure 
Oloola,  the  spirit  of  the  storm,  and  Valhorga, 
the  earth  spirit.  Even  Potentilla,  the  special 
protectress  of  Prince  Phantasmion,  is  a  fairy 
of  no  mean  powers,  for  she  is  able  to  convert 
him  into  a  sort  of  flying  sea-serpent,  for  the 
discomfiture  of  the  pirates  who  infest  his 
shores.  The  story,  which  is  concerned  with 
the  love  of  Phantasmion  for  larine,  whom 
after  many  adventures  he  wins  from  his  rivals 
Karadan  and  the  wicked  king  Glandreth,  is 
told  with  much  charming  fancy,  and  inter- 
spersed with  many  pleasant  lyrics.  Sara 
Coleridge  also  helped  her  brother  Derwent 
to  edit  their  father's  poems,  and  her  husband 
to  edit  her  father's  philosophical  writings. 
Her  interesting  'Letters'  were  published  in 
1873- 

COLET,  JOHN  (1467 ?-isi9),  dean  of  St. 
Paul's  and  the  principal  Christian  humanist 
of  his  day  in  England.  He  studied  at  Oxford 
and  in  Italy,  and  lectured  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment at  Oxford  from  1496  to  1504,  Erasmus 
being  among  his  hearers.  As  dean  of  St. 
Paul's,  he  founded  and  endowed  St.  Paul's 


COLLEEN  BAWN 

School,  for  which  he  wrote  a  Latin  accidence, 
W.  Lily  supplying  the  syntax.  This  book, 
revised  by  Erasmus,  ultimately  developed 
into  the  'Eton  Latin  Grammar*.  Colet  was  a 
pioneer  of  the  English  Reformation,  famous 
as  a  preacher  aiid  lecturer.  His  'Exposition 
of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans'  and 
'Exposition  of  St.  Paul's  First  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians'  (ed.  by  J.  H.  Lupton  in  the 
Cambridge  University  Library)  throw  light 
upon  his  method  of  exegesis.  There  is  an 
interesting  picture  of  Colet  and  his  school  in 
Erasmus,  Ep.  1211  (in  Allen's  ed. ;  translation 
by  J.  H.  Lupton,  1883.) 
Colin  and  Lucy,  see  Tickell. 

Colin  Clout,  the  name  adopted  by  Edmund 
Spenser  (q.v.)  in  the  'Shepheards  Calender* 
and  'Colin  Clouts  come  home  againe*  (qq.v.). 
COLIN  CLOUT  is  also  the  name  of  a  rustic  in 
Gay's  'Shepherd's  Week*  (q.v.).  See  also 
Colyn  Cloute. 

Colin  Clouts  come  home  againe,  an  allegorical 
pastoral  written  by  Spenser  (q.v.)  on  his 
return  to  Kilcolman  after  his  visit  to  London 
of  1589-91.  It  was  dedicated  to  Sir  Walter 
Ralegh  'in  part  paiment  of  the  infinite  debt 
in  which  I  acknowledge  my  selfe  bounden 
unto  you,  for  your  singular  favours  and 
sundrie  good  turnes,  shewed  to  me  at  my  late 
being  in  England'.  The  poem  describes  in 
allegorical  form  how  Ralegh  visited  Spenser 
in  Ireland,  and  induced  him  to  come  to 
England  'his  Cynthia  to  see' — i.e.  the  queen. 
There  is  a  charming  description  of  the  sea 
voyage;  after  which  the  poet  tells  of  the 
glories  of  the  queen  and  her  court,  and  the 
beauty  of  the  ladies  who  frequent  it.  Then 
follows  a  bitter  attack  on  the  envies  and  in- 
trigues of  the  court.  The  poem  ends  with 
a  tribute  to  'Rosalind*  in  spite  of  her  cruelty 
to  the  poet.  Of  the  characters  mentioned 
in  the  work,  Cynthia  is  Queen  Elizabeth, 
Hobbinol  is  G.  Harvey  (q.v.),  Amyntas  is 
T.  Watson  (q.v.),  the  Shepheard  of  the  Sea 
is  Sir  W.  Ralegh  (q.v.). 

Coliseum  or  COLOSSEUM,  THE,  or  Flavian 
amphitheatre,  in  Rome,  was  begun  by  Ves- 
pasian in  A.D.  72  and  inaugurated  by  Titus, 
after  his  return  from  the  conquest  of  Jerusa- 
lem. It  was  the  scene,  during  four  centuries, 
of  countless  gladiatorial  combats  and  of  the 
martyrdom  of  many  Christians.  It  was  re- 
duced to  its  present  ruinous  condition  partly 
by  earthquakes,  partly  by  being  used  as  a 
quarry  for  building-stone. 

Colkitto,  *or  MACDONNEL,  or  GALASP*,  in 
Milton's  first  'Tetrachordon'  sonnet,  was  the 
lieutenant-general  of  the  marquis  of  Mon- 
trose  in  his  campaign  on  behalf  of  Charles  I. 
He  was  called  Alexander  Macdonnel,  Mac- 
Colkittoch,  Mac-Gillespie,  that  is  to  say 
Alexander  Macdonnel,  the  son  of  Colkittoch, 
the  son  of  Gillespie  (or  Galasp).  He  figures 
in  Scott's  'Legend  of  Montrose'  (q.v.). 

Colleen  JBawn,  The  (Anglo-Irish,  meaning 
'The  Fair  Girl'),  the  title  of  a  play  by  Dion 


[i74] 


COLLEGE  OF  ARMS 

Boucicault  (1859),  founded  on  Gerald 
Griffin's  'The  Collegians'  (q.v.). 

College  of  Arms,  see  Heralds'  College. 

Collegians,  The,  a  novel  by  Griffin  (q.v.), 
published  in  1829. 

It  is  a  sombre,  sensational  story  of  the  in- 
judicious secret  marriage  of  young  Hardress 
Cregan  with  a  girl  of  lower  station  than  his 
own,  repented  when  he  finds  himself  loved 
by  a  woman  of  no  less  beauty  and  greater 
refinement.  He  allows  himself  to  become 
affianced  to  the  latter  under  strong  pressure 
from  an  imperious  mother,  and  connives  at 
the  removal,  in  fact  at  the  murder,  of  his 
innocent  young  wife.  He  is  arrested  on  the 
eve  of  his  marriage  with  his  second  love.  The 
tragedy  is  relieved  by  some  amusing  scenes 
of  Irish  life,  quiet  humour,  and  good  ballads. 
Dion  Boucicault's  play  'The  Colleen  Bawn* 
was  founded  on  this  novel. 

Collegiate  Ladles,  in  Jonson's  'Epicoene* 
(q.v.),  a  group  of  dissolute  women  'between 
courtiers  and  country  madams,  who  live 
from  their  husbands  and  give  entertainment 
to  all  the  wits  and  braveries  [beaux]  of  the 
time'. 

COLLIER,  JEREMY  (1650-1 726),  educated 
at  Ipswich  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  was 
rector  of  Ampton,  t  Suffolk,  1679-85.  He 
publicly  absolved  on  the  scaffold  two  of 
those  executed  for  the  assassination  plot,  in 
1696,  and  was  in  consequence  outlawed.  He 
was  ordained  a  nonjuring  bishop  in  1713.  He 
is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  'Short  View 
of  the  Immorality  and  Profaneness  of  the 
English  Stage*,  1698,  in  which  he  particularly 
attacked  Congreve  and  Vanbrugh  (q.v.).  The 
work  created  a  great,  if  temporary,  impression. 
Congreve  and  D'Urfey  were  prosecuted, 
Betterton  and  Mrs.  Bracegirdle  were  fined, 
and  some  of  the  poets  replied,  though  not 
very  effectively.  But  the  futility  of  Collier's 
attack  is  shown  by  the  continued  success  of 
the  type  of  play  that  he  inveighed  against. 
Collier  published  a  learned  'Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Great  Britain'  in  1708-14. 

COLLINS,  ARTHUR  (i69o?-i76o),  a 
bookseller  in  London,  was  author  of  the 
'Peerage  of  England*  (1709,  enlarged  editions, 
1735  and  1756),  and  of  the  'Baronetage  of 
England9  (1720). 

COLLINS,  JOHN  CHURTON  (1848- 
1908),  was  educated  at  Kong  Edward's 
School,  Birmingham,  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford.  He  was  greatly  interested  in  English 
literature  and  long  agitated,  with  ultimate 
success,  for  its  academic  recognition  at 
Oxford.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
'Quarterly  Review',  'The  Saturday  Review*, 
and  other  periodicals,  and  became  professor 
of  English  at  the  University  of  Birmingham. 
He  edited  Cyril  Tourneur's  works  (1878), 
Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury's  poems  (1881), 
and  Robert  Greene's  works  (1905);  and  pub- 
lished 'Ephemera  Critica*  (1901),  'Studies  in 


COLMAN 

Shakespeare*  (1904),  'Studies  in  Poetry  and 
Criticism'  (1905),  and 'Voltaire,  Montesquieu, 
and  Rousseau  in  England'  (1905).  Churton 
Collins  was  found  drowned  at  Oulton  Broad, 
near  Lowestoft. 

COLLINS,  WILLIAM  (1721-59),  the  son  of 
a  Chichester  hatter,  educated  at  Winchester 
and  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  He  was  an 
exquisite  lyrical  poet,  but  his  verse  was  unfor- 
tunately small  in  quantity,  and  some  of  it  (the 
'Ode  on  the  Music  of  the  Grecian  Theatre', 
written  in  1750,  and  'The  Bell  of  Aragon'  his 
last  ode)  is  unfortunately  lost.  He  published 
his  'Persian  Eclogues'  as  an  undergraduate  in 
1742,  and  in  1747  his  'Odes*.  The  best 
known  of  these  are  the  'Ode  to  Evening',  the 
'Ode  to  Simplicity*,  and  the  'Ode  written  in 
1746'  ('How  sleep  the  brave').  The  charming 
'Dirge  in  Cymbeline' must  also  be  mentioned. 
His  long  'Ode  on  the  popular  Superstitions 
of  the  Highlands',  containing  some  magnifi- 
cent verse,  was  written  in  1749  and  pub- 
lished posthumously.  He  became  insane  and 
died  in  his  sister's  house  at  Chichester. 

Collins,  WILLIAM,  in  Jane  Austen's  'Pride 
and  Prejudice'  (q.v.),  a  pompous,  silly,  and 
self-satisfied  young  clergyman,  excessively 
obsequious  to  persons  of  high  social  station. 
The  solemn  letter  of  thanks  that  he  addresses 
to  Mr.  Bennet  (c.  xxiii,  though  the  text  is  not 
given)  after  his  stay  with  the  family  has  led 
to  his  name  being  colloquially  associated 
with  such  letters. 

COLLINS,  WILLIAM  WILKIE  (1824- 
89),  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1851,  but 
adopted  literature  as  a  profession.  He  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Dickens  and  contributed 
to  'Household  Words*  from  1855.  It  was  in 
this  periodical  that  he  published  in  1860  'The 
Woman  in  White*  (q.v.),  by  which  his  fame 
was  established  as  practically  the  first  English 
novelist  who  dealt  with  the  detection  of  crime. 
His  other  works  include:  'Antonina,  or  the 
Fall  of  Rome'  (1850),  'Hide  and  Seek'  (1854), 
'The  Dead  Secret'  (1857),  'My  Miscellanies* 
(1862),  'No  Name*  (1862),  'Armadale'  (1866), 
'The  Moonstone'  (q.v.,  1868),  'Man  and  Wife* 
(1870),  'Poor  Miss  Finch*  (1872),  'The  New 
Magdalen*  (1873),  eA  Rogue's  Life*  (1879), 
'Little  Novels'  (1879),  "The  Black  Robe' 
(1881).  For  the  collaboration  of  Collins  with 
Dickens,  see  Dickens. 

COLMAN,  GEORGE,  the  eider  (1732-94), 
born  in  Florence,  where  his  father  was 
British  envoy,  was  educated  at  Westminster 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was  manager 
of  the  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  1767-74,  and 
of  the  Haymarket  Theatre,  1777-89.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Garrick  and  collaborated  with 
him  in  writing  the  excellent  comedy,  'The 
Clandestine  Marriage'  (q.v.,  1766).  He  wrote 
or  adapted  some  thirty  dramatic  pieces,  edited 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher  (1778),  and  trans- 
lated Terence  (1765)  and  Horace's  'Art  of 
Poetry*  (1783).  His  most  effective  plays  were 


[175] 


COLMAN 

Tolly  Honeycombe'  (1760)  and  *The  Jealous 
Wife'  (1761,  an  adaptation  of  Fielding's 
'Tom  Jones'). 

GOLMAN,  GEORGE,  the  younger  (1762- 
1836),  son  of  George  Colman  the  elder  (q.v.), 
educated  at  Westminster  School,  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  and  Aberdeen  University, 
made  his  name  as  a  dramatist  by  the  romantic 
comedy  'Inkle  and  Yarico'  (q.v.,  1787).  His 
comedy  'The  Heir-at-Law*  (1797)  is  famous 
for  its  presentation  of  Dr.  Pangloss,  the 
greedy,  pompous  pedant.  'John  Bull'  (1803) 
contains  the  supposed  type  of  the  British 
character,  Job  Thornberry.  'The  Iron  Chest* 
(1796)  is  a  dramatization  of  'Caleb  Williams' 
(q.v.).  Colman's  other  pieces  are  less 
important. 

Colmekill,  in  Shakespeare's  'Macbeth',  n. 
iv,  is  I-Colm-kill  (the  island  of  Columba  of 
the  Church),  the  modern  lona  (q.v.). 
Cologne,  see  Ursula  and  Colonia. 

Cologne,  THREE  KINGS  OF,  or  Wise  Men  of 
the  East:  the  Magi,  Caspar,  Melchior,  and 
Balthazar,  whose  bones  the  Emperor  Bar- 
barossa  is  said  to  have  brought  from  Milan 
and  deposited  in  Cologne  Cathedral. 

Colombe's  Birthday,  a  play  by  R.  Browning 
(q.v.),  published  in  1844  and  acted  in  1853. 
Colombe  is  duchess  of  JuHers  and  Cleves, 
liable  however  to  be  ousted  under  the  Salic 
Law  by  her  cousin  Prince  Berthold.  The 
latter  claims  his  rights,  and  offers  the  young 
duchess  marriage,  employing  her  advocate 
Valence  to  convey  his  offer.  But  Valence 
himself  loves  Colombe,  and  finally  wins  her 
by  his  loyalty  and  self-denial. 

Colonel  Jack,  The  History  and  Remarkable 
Life  of  Colonel  Jacque,  Commonly  CalVd,  a 
romance  of  adventure  by  Defoe  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1722. 

The  supposed  narrator,  abandoned  by  his 
parents  in  childhood,  falls  into  bad  company 
and  becomes  a  pickpocket.  His  profession 
grows  distasteful  to  him,  and  he  enlists,  and 
presently  deserts  to  avoid  being  sent  to  serve 
in  Flanders.  He  is  kidnapped,  sent  to  Vir- 
ginia, and  sold  to  a  planter.  He  is  promoted 
to  be  an  overseer,  is  given  his  liberty,  becomes 
himself  a  planter,  and  acquires  much  wealth. 
He  returns  home,  has  a  series  of  unfortunate 
matrimonial  adventures,  but  finally  ends  in 
prosperity  and  repentance, 
Colonia,  COLONIA  AGRIPPINA,  COLONIA 
CLAUDIA,  or  COLONIA  UBIORUM,  in  imprints, 
Cologne.  Colonia  is  also  an  imprint  for 
Naples. 

Colonia  Allobrogum,  in  imprints,  Geneva. 
Colonia  Munatiana,  in  imprints,  Basle. 

COLONNA,  VITTORIA  (1490-1547), 
granddaughter  of  Frederick,  duke  of  Urbino, 
and  devoted  wife  of  the  marquis  of  Pescara, 
was  a  woman  remarkable  in  a  dissolute  age 
for  her  stainless  character  and  the  admiration 
she  inspired  among  great  men,  among  others 


COLUMBUS 

Michelangelo.  Her  writings,  largely  religious, 
include  some  notable  sonnets. 

Colophon,  from  Gk.  Ko\o<j>a>v9  summit, 
'finishing  touch',  the  inscription  or  device 
sometimes  pictorial  or  emblematic,  formerly 
placed  at  the  end  of  a  book  or  manuscript, 
and  containing  the  title,  the  scribe's  or 
printer's  name,  the  date  and  place  of  print- 
ing, &c. 

Colosseum,  see  Coliseum. 

Colossus  of  Rhodes,  a  celebrated  statue  of 
Apollo  by  the  sculptor  Chares  of  Lindus  in 
Rhodes,  which  passed  for  one  of  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  world.  According  to  an  un- 
founded tradition,  its  feet  rested  on  two 
moles,  which  formed  the  entrance  of  the 
harbour,  and  ships  passed  between  its  legs. 
It  is  said  by  Pliny  to  have  been  seventy 
cubits  high.  It  was  demolished  by  an  earth- 
quake in  224  B.C. 

COLUMBA,  ST.,  otherwise  COLUMCILLE 
or  COLUMBANUS  (521-597),  sonof  Feidilmid, 
an  Ulster  chief,  and  a  pupil  of  St.  Finnian, 
became  a  recluse  at  Glasnevin,  and  built 
churches  at  Derry  and  other  places.  He 
went  to  Scotland  in  563,  founded  the 
monastery  of  Hy  (lona),  and  preached  to  the 
Picts.  His  relics  were  translated  to  Ireland 
in  878,  but  were  destroyed  by  the  Danes  in 
1127.  Several  books  believed  to  have  been 
written  by  him  were  long  venerated  in  Ire- 
land. He  is  commemorated  on  9  June. 

Columfoan,  ST.  (543-615),  born  in  Lein- 
ster  and  a  monk  under  St.  Comgall  at 
Bangor,  Down,  resided  in  Burgundy,  585- 
6 10.  There  he  built  monasteries  at  Anegray 
and  Luxeuil,  for  which  he  drew  up  a  monas- 
tic rule,  afterwards  common  in  France,  until 
replaced  by  that  of  St.  Benedict.  He  was 
expelled  from  Burgundy  by  Theodoric  II 
and  preached  to  the  heathen  Germans  and 
Suabians.  He  founded  the  monastery  of 
Bobbio  in  the  Piedmont  and  died  there.  He 
is  commemorated  on  21  Nov. 

Coliuribiad,  The,  a  lengthy  epic  poem  by  Joel 
Barlow  (q.v.),  which  surveys  the  panorama 
of  early  American  history,  as  viewed  by 
Columbus.  After  bringing  his  history  up  to 
date,  the  author  launches x  into  prophecy. 
First  published  as  *The  Vision  of  Columbus* 
(1787),  the  poem  was  renamed  'The  Colum- 
biad'  in  1807. 

Columbine,  a  character  in  Italian  comedy, 
the  daughter  of  Pantaloon  and  mistress  of 
Harlequin,  which  has  been  transferred  to  our 
pantomime  or  harlequinade. 

Columbus,  CHRISTOPHER  (c.  1445-1506), 
in  Spanish  CniSTdvAL  COLO"N,  a  Genoese 
navigator,  the  discoverer  of  America.  He 
is  said  to  have  first  proposed  his  expedi- 
tion of  discovery  to  the  Genoese  republic 
and  other  powers,  but  was  rebuffed.  He 
finally  obtained  the  favour  of  Queen  Isabella 
of  Castile  and  embarked  on  his  first  voyage  in 


COLUMBUS'S  EGG 

1492.  He  met  with  much  ingratitude  and 
persecution,  but  made  in  all  four  voyages  to 
the  West  Indies.  His  object  was  to  reach  the 
Cathay  of  Marco  Polo,  and  he  remained 
under  the  impression  that  the  regions  he 
discovered  were  the  fringes  of  the  Asiatic 
continent. 

A  Castilla  y  a  Le6n 

Nuevo  mundo  did  Coldn, 

is  his  epitaph  in  the  cathedral  of  Seville. 
Columbus 's  Egg:  after  the  return  of 
Columbus  from  his  successful  voyage  of  dis- 
covery he  was  invited  to  a  banquet  by  Car- 
dinal Mendoza.  'A  shallow  courtier  present, 
impatient  of  the  honours  paid  to  Columbus, 
abruptly  asked  him  whether  he  thought  that 
in  case  he  had  not  discovered  the  Indies, 
there  were  not  other  men  in  Spain  who  would 
have  been  capable  of  the  enterprise.  To  this 
Columbus  made  no  immediate  reply,  but 
taking  an  egg,  invited  the  company  to  make 
it  stand  on  end.  Every  one  attempted  it,  but 
in  vain.  Whereupon  he  struck  it  upon  the 
table  so  as  to  break  the  end  and  left  it  stand- 
ing on  the  broken  part;  illustrating  in  this 
simple  manner  that  when  he  had  once  shown 
the  way  to  the  New  World  nothing  was  easier 
than  to  follow  it.*  (W.  Irving,  'Life  of  Colum- 
bus0, y.  vii,  on  the  authority  of  the  Italian 
historian  Benzoni.) 

COLUMEIXA,  LUCIUS  JUNIUS  MO- 
DERATUS,  a  native  of  Gades  in  Spain.  He 
was  a  contemporary  of  Seneca  and  the  author 
of  a  work  on  the  various  forms  of  agriculture, 
the  keeping  of  live-stock  and  bees,  &c.,  in 
twelve  books.  The  'Columella*  of  Jane 
Austen  is  the  name  of  a  book  by  Richard 
Graves  (q.v.). 

COLVIN,  SIR  SIDNEY  (1845-1927),  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  be- 
came Slade  Professor  of  Fine  Art  at  Cam- 
bridge (1873-85),  and  keeper  of  the  prints  and 
drawings  at  the  British  Museum  (1884— 
1912).  Besides  numerous  contributions  to 
periodicals,  chiefly  on  the  history  and 
criticism  of  art,  he  published  lives  of  Walter 
Savage  Landor  (1881)  and  Keats  (1887)  in 
the  English  Men  of  Letters  series;  'A 
Florentine  Picture  Chronicle'  (1898);  'Early 
Engraving  and  Engravers  in  England*  (1905) ; 
'Drawings  by  Old  Masters  at  Oxford* 
(1902-8).  Colvin  edited  the  'Letters  of  Keats', 
1887,  the  Edinburgh  edition  of  R.  L. 
Stevenson's  works  (1894-7),  and  the  'Letters 
of  R.  L.  Stevenson'  (1899  and  1911).  He 
published  'John  Keats,  his  Life  and  Poetry*  in 
1917,  'Memories  and  Notes  of  Persons  and 
Places"  in  1921. 

Colyn  Cloute,  a  satirical  poem  by  Skelton 
(q.v.),  directed  against  ecclesiastical  abuses, 
and  written  about  1519.  See  also  Colin  Clout. 

Comala,  the  title  of  one  of  the  Ossianic 
poems  of  Macpherson  (q.v.).  Comala, 
daughter  of  Sarno,  king  of  Inistore,  is  in 
love  with  Fingal,  and  follows  him,  disguised 


COMEDY  OF  ERRORS 
as  a  youth.  Her  romantic  passion  so  much 
recommends  her  to  the  king  that  he  is  about 
to  marry  her,  when  the  invasion  of  Caracul 
(Caracalla)  intervenes.  Comala  sees  the  battle 
from  a  neighbouring  hill,  and  on  the  victory 
of  Fingal,  dies  from  the  revulsion  to  joy  from 
terror. 

COMBE,  WILLIAM  (1741-1823),  edu- 
cated at  Eton,  published  a  number  of  metrical 
satires,  including  'The  Diaboliad'  (1776,  di- 
rected against  Simon,  Lord  Irnham).  He  is 
specially  remembered  for  the  verses  that  he 
wrote  to  accompany  Rowlandson's  drawings 
of  the  adventures  of  'Dr.  Syntax*.  The  first  of 
these  works,  'Dr.  Syntax  in  search  of  the  Pic- 
turesque*, a  parody  of  the  popular  books  of 
picturesque  travels  of  the  day  (and  particu- 
larly of  those  of  William  Gilpin,  q.v.),  ap- 
peared in  "The  Poetical  Magazine*  in  1809 
(reprinted  in  1812).  Dr.  Syntax  is  the 
grotesque  figure  of  a  clergyman  and  school- 
master, who  sets  out  during  the  holidays,  on 
his  old  horse  Grizzle,  to  'make  a  TOUR  and 
WRITE  IT*,  and  meets  with  a  series  of  amusing 
misfortunes.  This  was  followed  in  1820  by 
'The  Second  Tour  of  Dr.  Syntax  in  search 
of  Consolation*  for  the  loss  of  his  wife,  and 
in  1821  by  'The  Third  Tour  of  Dr.  Syntax 
in  search  of  a  Wife*.  Combe  also  wrote  the 
letterpress  for  Rowlandson's  'Dance  of 
Death'  (1815-16),  'Dance  of  Life*  (1816), 
'Johnny  Quae  Genus*  (1822),  and  for  *The 
Microcosm  of  London*  (1808). 

Comedy,  from  /c<w£ia)Sos=/cco/zaoiSos  singer  in 
the  /txojuos  or  comic  chorus,  a  stage  play 
of  a  light  and  amusing  character  with  a  happy 
conclusion  to  its  plot.  Also,  that  branch  of 
the  drama  which  adopts  a  humorous  or 
familiar  style,  and  depicts  laughable  charac- 
ters and  incidents.  [OED.]  Greek  comedy 
originated  in  the  festivals  of  Dionysus  (q.v.), 
celebrated  with  song  and  merriment  at  the 
vintage.  See  also  Sentimental  Comedy. 

Comedy,  The  Divine,  see  Divina  Commedia. 

Comedy  of  Errors,  The,  a  comedy  by 
Shakespeare  (q.v.),  acted  in  1594  (and  perhaps 
as  early  as  1 592),  and  first  printed  in  the  folio 
of  1623.  This  is  one  of  the  earliest  and 
crudest  of  Shakespeare's  plays  and  is,  in  the 
main,  an  adaptation  of  the  'Menaechmi*  of 
Plautus. 

Syracuse  and  Ephesus  being  at  enmity, 
any  Syracusan  found  in  Ephesus  is  put  to 
death  unless  he  can  pay  a  ransom  of  a  thou- 
sand marks.  Aegeon,  an  old  Syracusan  mer- 
chant has  been  arrested  in  Ephesus,  and  on 
the  duke*s  order  explains  how  he  came  there. 
He  and  his  wife  Aemilia  had  twin  sons, 
exactly  alike  and  each  named  Antipholus ;  the 
parents  had  purchased  twin  slaves,  also  exactly 
alike,  and  each  named  Dromio,  who  attended 
on  their  sons.  *  Having  in  a  shipwreck  been 
separated,  with  the  younger  son  and  one 
Dromio,  from  his  wife  and  the  other  son  and 
slave,  Aegeon  had  never  seen  them  since.  The 
younger  son  (Antipholus  of  Syracuse)  on 


[177] 


N 


COMESTOR 

reaching  manhood  had  gone  (with  his 
Dromio)  in  search  of  his  brother  and  mother 
and  had  no  more  been  heard  of,  though 
Aegeon  had  now  sought  him  for  five  years 
over  the  world,  coming  at  last  to  Ephesus. 

The  duke,  moved  by  this  tale,  gives  Aegeon 
till  evening  to  find  the  ransom.  Now,  the 
elder  Antipholus  (Antipholus  of  Ephesus), 
with  one  of  the  Dromios,  has  been  living  in 
Ephesus  since  his  rescue  from  shipwreck  and 
is  married.  Antipholus  of  Syracuse  and  the 
other  Dromio  have  arrived  there  that  very 
morning.  Each  twin  retains  the  same  con- 
fusing resemblance  to  his  brother  as  in 
childhood.  From  this  the  comedy  of  errors 
results.  Antipholus  of  Syracuse  is  summoned 
home  to  dinner  by  Drornio  of  Ephesus ;  he  is 
claimed  as  husband  by  the  wife  of  Antipholus 
of  Ephesus,  the  latter  being  refused  admit- 
tance to  his  own  house,  because  he  is  sup- 
posed to  be  already  within;  and  so  forth. 
Finally  Antipholus  of  Ephesus  is  confined  as 
a  lunatic,  and  Antipholus  of  Syracuse  takes 
refuge  from  his  brother's  jealous  wife  in  a 
convent. 

Meanwhile  evening  has  come  and  Aegeon 
is  led  to  execution.  As  the  duke  proceeds  to 
the  place  of  execution,  Antipholus  of  Ephesus 
appeals  to  him  for  redress.  Then  the  abbess 
of  the  convent  presents  Antipholus  of  Syra- 
cuse, also  claiming  redress.  The  simul- 
taneous presence  of  the  two  brothers  explains 
the  numerous  misunderstandings,  Aegeon 
recovers  his  two  sons  and  his  liberty,  and  the 
abbess  turns  out  to  be  his  lost  wife,  Aemilia. 

COMESTOR,  PETRUS,  of  Troyes,  In 
Champagne,  of  the  I2th  cent.,  so  named  on 
account  of  his  voracity  in  the  matter  of  books. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  'Historia  Scholastica*, 
a  collection  of  scriptural  narratives  with 
commentary.  His  work  was  apparently 
known  to  Chaucer.  Dante  places  him  among 
the  Doctors  of  the  Church  in  the  Heaven  of 
the  Sun,  'Paradiso',  xii.  134. 

Comet  Wine  or  COMET  VINTAGE,  wine  made 
in  a  comet  year,  popularly  supposed  to  be  of 
superior  flavour.  The  year  1858,  a  comet 
year,  was  that  of  a  great  claret  vintage,  fre- 
quently referred  to. 

Comhal,  in  Macpherson's  Ossianic  poems, 
the  father  of  Fingal  (q.v.). 

Comical  Revenge,  The,  or  Love  in  a  Tub,  a 
comedy  by  Etherege  (q.v.)  acted  in  1664, 
important  as  the  first  example  of  English 
prose  comedy,  as  afterwards  seen  in  Congreve 
and  Sheridan ;  while  the  serious  portions  are 
written  in  rhymed  heroics.  The  play  shows 
the  author's  acquaintance  with  the  early 
comedies  of  Moliere. 

The  serious  part  of  the  plot  deals  with  the 
rivalry  of  Lord  Beaufort  and  Colonel  Bruce  for 
the  hand  of  Graciana.  A  duel  ensues.  Bruce 
is  defeated,  tries  to  kill  himself  in  despair, 
is  cured  of  his  wound,  and  consoled  with 
Graciana's  sister.  The  comic  and  farcical  part 
has  only  a  slender  plot  and  centres  about  the 


COMMINES 

French  valet  Dufoy,  who  for  his  impudence  is 
confined  by  his  fellow-servants  in  a  tub.  His 
master,  Sir  Frederick  Frolick,  the  fine  gentle- 
man of  the  times,  is  courted  by  a  rich  widow; 
he  cajoles  her  out  of  £200  and  finally  marries 
her.  There  is  a  foolish  country  knight,  Sir 
Nicholas  Cully,  whom  two  rogues  cozen  out 
of  a  thousand  pounds.  The  knaves  and  the 
fool  are  exposed,  and  for  punishment  married 
off  against  their  will  and  expectation. 

COMINES,  PHILIPPE  DE,  see  Commines. 

Coming  of  Arthur,  The,  the  first  of  Tenny- 
son's *  Idylls  of  the  King'  (q.v.),  published  in 
1869. 

Arthur,  newly  crowned  and  setting  out  to 

conquer  his  rebellious  barons,  sees  and  falls 

in  love  with  Guinevere,  daughter  of  King 

Leodegran   of    Cameliard;    and    after    his 

success  sends  to  ask  her  hand.    Leodegran 

hesitates,  owing  to  the  mystery  that  surrounds 

the  birth  of  Arthur,  but  after  hearing  the 

advice  of  Bellicent,  wife  of  King   Lot  of 

Orkney,  consents.   Lancelot  comes  to  fetch 

Guinevere,  and  Arthur  and  she  are  married. 

An  indication  is  given  of  the  purpose  that 

Arthur  sets  before  himself  in  his  kingdom,  to 

Have  power  on  this  dark  land  to  lighten  it, 

And  power  on  this  dead  world  to  make  it 

live. 

Coming  Racef  The,  a  romance  by  Bulwer 
Lytton  (q.v.),  published  in  1871. 

The  narrator  describes  his  visit  to  a  sub- 
terranean race  that  in  distant  ages  took  refuge 
from  inundations  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 
Owing  to  the  discovery  of  Vril,  a  form  of 
energy  embodying  all  the  natural  forces,  this 
race  has  reached  a  high  degree  of  civilization 
and  scientific  invention.  Their  country  is  a 
Utopia  in  which  there  is  neither  war  nor 
crime,  neither  poverty  nor  inequality.  The 
inhabitants  regard  with  contempt  the  type 
of  society  which  they  describe  as  *Koom- 
Posh — viz.  the  government  of  the  ignorant 
upon  the  principle  of  being  the  most 
numerous*,  which  leads  to  rivalry,  misery, 
and  degradation.  Their  women  are  physically 
stronger  than  their  men,  and  it  is  the  women 
who  choose  their  spouses,  a  custom  that  in- 
volves the  narrator  in  grave  embarrassment 
and  finally  in  danger  of  his  life,  from  which 
he  is  saved  by  the  devotion  of  his  host's 
daughter  and  restored  to  the  upper  regions  of 
the  earth. 

Commander  of  the  Faithful,  a  title  of  the 
Caliphs  (q.v.). 

Commedia  dell'  Arte,  in  the  history  of 
Italian  drama,  improvised  drama  performed 
by  professional  actors,  developed  in  the  i6th 
cent,  from  the  popular  character  comedy,  and 
having  its  origin  in  the  Atellane  (q.v.)  farces. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Francesco 
Cherea,  a  favourite  actor  of  Pope  Leo  X. 

COMMINES,  PHILIPPE  DE  (1445-1509), 
of  a  Flemish  family,  first  served  Philip  of 
Burgundy  and  his  son  Charles  the  Bold,  and 


COMMON 

then  entered  the  service  of  the  French  king 
Louis  XI,  whose  counsellor  he  became.  He 
wrote  remarkable  chronicles  of  Louis  XI  and 
Charles  VIII,  which  were  translated  into 
English  by  Thomas  Danet  (1596),  and  in- 
spired Sir  W.  Scott's  'Quentin  Durward* 
(q.v.,  in  which  Commines  himself  figures). 
Commines  was  the  first  critical  and  philoso- 
phical historian  since  classical  times. 

Common,  DOL,  a  character  in  Jonson's 
'The  Alchemist*  (q.v.). 

Common  Prayer,  The  Book  of,  was  evolved 
in  the  i6th  cent,  to  meet  the  popular  need 
for  aids  to  devotion  (not  entirely  satisfied 
by  the  Primers,  q.v.)  and  the  demand  for  the 
use  of  the  vernacular  in  church  services. 
Its  development  was  gradual.  The  Sarum 
breviary  was  reissued  in  1541  and  ordered  to 
be  used  throughout  the  province  of  Canter- 
bury in  1542.  The  reading  in  churches  of 
a  chapter  of  the  Bible  in  English,  and  the 
Litany  in  English  (probably  the  work  of 
Cranmer,  q.v.),  were  introduced  in  1544,  ancl 
an  English  communion  service  in  1548. 
About  the  same  time  the  Primers  were  re- 
vised, and  the  King's  Primer  issued  in  1545 
in  the  interests  of  uniformity;  it  included  the 
English  Litany.  Cranmer  and  a  commission 
each  drafted  a  scheme  for  a  prayer  book,  and 
these  were  discussed  in  Edward  VI 's  reign, 
leading  to  the  successive  issue  of  the  Prayer 
Books  of  1549  and  1552.  In  the  latter  the 
form,  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was 
practically  settled,  though  a  revision  was 
made  under  Elizabeth  (1559),  minor  changes 
under  James  I,  and  the  final  text  is  that  of 
1662.  As  it  stands  the  Prayer  Book  represents 
largely  the  work  of  Cranmer;  Nicholas  Ridley 
(q.v.)  may  perhaps  claim  some  share. 

Common  Prayer,  The  Revised  Book  of, 
embodied  the  proposals  which,  after  pro- 
longed discussion,  the  bishops,  presided  over 
by  Archbishop  Randall  Davidson,  laid  before 
Convocation  in  1927.  It  ^  consisted  of  the 
Prayer  Book  of  1662  with  a  permissive 
alternative  version  as  regards  Holy  Com- 
munion, Baptism,  Confirmation,  and  Matri- 
mony, and  numerous  additional  occasional 
prayers.  Opposition  arose  in  regard  to  ^the 
revision  of  the  office  for  Holy  Communion, 
and  when  the  Revised  Book  was  submitted  to 
Parliament  at  the  end  of  1927,  it  was  rejected 
by  the  House  of  Commons  though  passed 
by  the  House  of  Lords.  It  was  again  sub- 
mitted in  the  following  year  with  certain 
modifications,  but  again  rejected. 

Common  Sense  school  of  philosophy, 
see  Reid. 

Communism,  a  theory  that  advocates  a 
state  of  society  in  which  there  should  be  no 
private  ownership,  all  property  being  vested 
in  the  community  and  labour  organized  for 
the  common  benefit  of  all  members,  each 
working  according  to  his  capacity  and  re- 
ceiving according  to  his  wants.  [OED.] 


COMPLUTENSIAN  POLYGLOT  BIBLE 

COMNENA  and  GOMNENUS,  see  Anna 
Comnena. 

Comparini,  PIETRO  and  VIOLANTE,  the 
putative  parents  of  Pompilia,  in  Browning's 
'The  Ring  and  the  Book*  (q.v.). 

Complaint,  The,  or  Night  Thoughts  on  Life, 
Death,  and  Immortality,  see  Night  Thoughts. 

Complaint  of  Buckingham,  The,  a  poem  by 
T.  Sackville  (q.v.),  contributed  by  him  to  the 
'Mirror  for  Magistrates'  (q.v.). 

Henry  Stafford,  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
after  his  rebellion  against  Richard  III,  takes 
refuge  with  a  dependant,  Humfrey  Banastaire. 
Banastaire  betrays  him  to  the  king,  and 
Buckingham  is  executed.  As  his  corpse  lies 
on  the  ground,  it  raises  its  head  and  heaps 
curses  on  Banastaire  and  his  children. 

Complaint  of  Dear,  see  Dear. 

Complaynt  to  the  King,  see  Lindsay  (Sir  D.). 

Compleat  Angler,  The,  or  the  Contemplative 
Man's  Recreation,  a  discourse  on  fishing  by 
I.  Walton  (q.v.),  first  published  in  1653,  the 
second  edition  in  1655.  The  fifth  edition, 
containing  Cotton's  continuation,  appeared 
in  1676. 

It  takes  the  form  of  a  dialogue,  at  first 
between  the  author  'Piscator*  (a  fisherman), 
Auceps  (a  fowler),  and  Venator  (a  hunter), 
each  commending  his  own  recreation,  in 
which  Auceps  is  silenced,  and  Venator 
becomes  a  pupil  of  the  angle ;  then  between 
Piscator  and  Venator  alone.  In  the  course 
of  this,  after  a  short  spell  with  the  otter- 
hounds, the  author  instructs  his  pupil  in 
the  mode  of  catching  all  the  various  kinds 
of  fresh-water  fish,  with  directions  for  dress- 
ing some  of  them  for  the  table.  There  are 
observations  on  rivers  and  fish-ponds,  and 
directions  for  the  making  of  artificial  flies 
and  fishing  line.  The  instruction  is  given  as 
they  fish  along  the  river  Lea  near  London, 
and  there  are  pleasant  interludes  of  verse 
and  song.  But  Walton,  though  a  proficient 
angler,  knew  little  of  fly-fishing,  and  what  he 
tells  about  it  is  admittedly  in  the  main  at 
second-hand.  The  continuation,  supplied  by 
Charles  Cotton  (q.v.),  takes  the  form  of  con- 
versations between  Tiscator*  and  'Viator'  (a 
traveller,  who  turns  out  to  be  Venator  of  the 
earlier  part),  as  they  fish  along  the  river  Dove, 
which  divides  the  counties  of  Derby  and  Staf- 
ford. Tiscator*  instructs  'Viator*  in  fishing 
'fine  and  far  off'  for  trout  and.  grayling;  and 
opportunities  are  taken  to  indicate  the  rocky 
and  picturesque  scenery  of  the  district. 
There  are  also  fuller  directions  for  the 
making  of  artificial  flies  than  had  appeared  in 
Walton's  work. 

Complutensian  Polyglot  Bible,  THE,  the 
earliest  complete  polyglot  Bible,  containing 
the  Hebrew,  Septuagint,  and  Vulgate  texts, 
a  Hebrew  dictionary,  &c.,  prepared  at  the 
expense  of  Cardinal  Ximenes  in  the  Dearly 
part  of  the  i6th  cent.,  at  Alcala  in  Spain  (of 
which  town  Complutum  is  the  ancient  name). 


[179] 


COMTE 

The  special  Greek  type  used  has  formed  the 
basis  of  modern  Greek  type-design  (Proctor 
types  and  others).  It  has  been  called  the 
finest  Greek  type  ever  designed. 

GOMTE,  AUGUSTE  (1798-1857),  French 
philosopher,  was  in  early  life  secretary  to  the 
socialist  C.  H.  de  Saint-Simon  (q.v.),  by 
whom  he  was  influenced,  but  whom  he  subse- 
quently repudiated.  He  was  the  chief  ex- 
ponent of  the  positivist  philosophy,  which 
excludes  metaphysics  and  revealed  religion, 
and  substitutes  the  religion  of  humanity  and 
sociological  ethics,  based  on  history  and 
designed  for  the  improvement  of  the  human 
race.  Comte's  principal  work  was  the  'Cours 
de  Philosophic  Positive*  (1830-42),  in  which 
he  worked  out  the  three  stages  of  knowledge, 
the  theological,  the  metaphysical,  and  the 
positive,  and  classified  the  sciences  according 
to  their  decreasing  generality  and  increasing 
complexity :  mathematics,  astronomy,  physics, 
chemistry,  biology,  sociology.  In  his  later 
work,  'Systeme  de  Politique  Positive*  (1851— 
4),  he  attempted  to  frame  a  positivist  religion 
which  is  a  sort  of  parody  of  Roman  Catholi- 
cism, with  sacraments,  prayers,  &c.  His 
principal  English  disciple  was  F.  Harrison 
(q.v.)»  but  he  also  influenced  J.  S.  Mill  (q.v.). 

Comus,  A  Masque,  presented  at  Ludlow 
Castle,  1634,  before  the  Earl  of  Bridgewater, 
Lord  President  of  Wales,  by  Milton  (q.v.). 
Though  described  as  a  'masque',  it  is  strictly 
a  pastoral  entertainment. 

This  work  was,  like  the  'Arcades*  (q.v.), 
written  at  the  request  of  Henry  Lawes,  the 
musician,  while  Milton  was  at  Horton.  The 
occasion  was  the  celebration  of  the  earl  of 
Bridgewater's  entry  on  the  presidency  of 
Wales  and  the  Marches.  The  name  'Comus* 
was  not  included  in  the  title  in  the  first  three 
printed  editions,  but  is  taken  from  one  of  the 
characters,  a  pagan  god  invented  by  Milton, 
son  of  Bacchus  and  Circe,  who  waylays 
travellers  and  tempts  them  to  drink  a  magic 
liquor  which  changes  their  countenances  into 
the  faces  of  wild  beasts.  A  lady  and  her  two 
brothers  are  benighted  in  a  forest.  The  lady, 
separated  from  her  companions,  and  at- 
tracted by  the  revelry  of  Comus  and  his  rout, 
comes  upon  Comus,  in  the  guise  of  a  shep- 
herd, who  offers  to  lodge  her  in  his  cottage, 
and  leads  her  off.  The  brothers  appear  and 
are  told  what  has  happened  by  the  good 
Attendant  Spirit,  who  has  taken  the  form  of 
the  shepherd  Thyrsis.  He  warns  them  of  the 
magic  power  of  Comus  and  gives  them  the 
root  of  the  plant  Haemony  as  a  protection. 
The  scene  changes,  and  Comus,  with  his 
rabble  round  him,  is  discovered  pressing  the 
lady  to  drink  from  a  glass,  while  she,  strong 
in  her  purity,  resists  his  enticements.  The 
brothers  burst  in  and  disperse  the  crew.  Un- 
fortunately they  have  not  secured  the  wand 
of  Comus,  and  are  unable  to  release  the  lady 
from  the  enchanted  chair  in  which  she  sits. 
Thyrsis  thereupon  invokes  Sabrina,  goddess 
of  the  neighbouring  river  Severn,  who  comes 


CONCILIATION  WITH  AMERICA 

attended  by  water-nymphs,  and  frees  the 

lady.  After  an  ode  of  thanks  to  Sabrina,  the 

lady  and  her  brothers  return  safely  to  Ludlow 

Castle. 

Conachar,  in  Scott's  'Fair  Maid  of  Perth9 

(q.v.),  the  Highland  apprentice  of  Simon 

Glover. 

Conan,   in   the   legends    relating  to   Finn 

(Fingal),  'in  some  respects  a  kind  of  Ther- 

sites  (q.v.),  but  brave  and  daring  even  to 

rashness*    (Author's   notes   to    'Waverley'). 

Having    visited    the    infernal    regions,    he 

received  a  cuff  from  the  Arch-fiend,  which  he 

instantly  returned  with  the  words  'blow  for 

blow*. 

Conary,  a  poem  by  Ferguson  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1880,  and  based  on  the  old  Irish 
bardic  tale  of  the  'Destruction  of  the  Guest- 
house of  Da  Derga*.  Conary  is  a  king  of 
Ireland.  Three  lawless  brothers  banished 
for  their  crimes,  and  joined  by  the  brothers 
of  the  king,  roam  the  seas.  They  make  a 
piratical  raid  on  Ireland  and  attack  the  guest- 
house, where  the  champions  of  Ireland  are 
assembled  under  the  king.  Learning  that  the 
king  himself  is  there,  two  of  his  brothers  take 
their  own  lives;  the  third  is  killed.  But 
Conall,  the  mighty  champion,  is  led  away  by 
fairies,  and  Conary,  left  almost  alone,  is 
killed. 

Conchobar  or  CONCHUBAE,  in  the  Ulster 
cycle  of  Irish  mythology,  king  of  Ulster. 
See  Guchulain  and  Deirdre. 

Conciliation  with  America,  Speech  on,  by 
E.  Burke  (q.v.),  made  in  the  House  of 
Commons  on  22  March,  1775. 

This  was  a  last  effort  by  Burke  to  find  a 
peaceful  solution  of  the  difference  with  the 
American  colonies,  and  is  one  of  his  greatest 
speeches,  and  a  literary  masterpiece.  Burke's 
proposal  is  to  restore  order  and  repose  to  the 
empire  'by  restoring  the  former  unsuspecting 
confidence  of  the  colonies  in  the  mother 
country*.  He  rejects  the  use  of  force,  as 
temporary  and  uncertain  in  its  effects,  as  im- 
pairing what  it  is  sought  to  preserve,  as  con- 
trary to  experience  in  our  colonial  administra- 
tion, and  as  inapplicable  to  the  'fierce  spirit 
of  liberty*  prevailing  in  the  English  colonies. 
He  traces  the  'capital  sources*  from  which 
this  spirit  has  grown  up,  descent,  religion, 
remoteness  of  situation ;  and  propounds  three 
alternatives,  to  change  this  spirit,  to  prose- 
cute it  as  criminal,  to  comply  with  it  as  neces- 
sary. He  shows  the  first  two  courses  to  be 
impossible  or  inexpedient.  He  dismisses 
American  representation  in  parliament  as 
impracticable.  He  finds  the  solution  in  the 
taxation  of  America  through  grants  by  the 
local  legislatures  and  not  by  imposition.  His 
trust  is  in  America's  interest  in  the  British 
constitution:  'My  hold  of  the  colonies  is  in 
the  close  affection  which  grows  from  common 
names,  from  kindred  blood,  from  similar 
privileges,  and  equal  protection.*  'Freedom 
they  can  have  from  none  but  you.  This  is  the 

So] 


CONCORDAT 

commodity  of  price,  of  which  you  have  the 
monopoly.'  'Magnanimity  in  politics  is  not 
seldom  the  truest  wisdom ;  and  a  great  empire 
and  little  minds  go  ill  together.' 

Concordat,  an  agreement  between  Church 
and  State,  especially  between  the  Roman  See 
and  a  secular  government  relative  to  matters 
that  concern  both.  One  of  the  most  famous 
of  such  agreements  was  that  made  in  1801 
between  Napoleon  and  Pius  VII. 

Condell,  HENRY,  see  Heming. 
CONDORCET,  JEAN  ANTOINE  NICO- 
LAS CARITAT,  Marquis  de  (1743-94),  see 
Philosophes. 

Conduct  of  the  Allies  .  .  .,  The,  title  of  a 
pamphlet  by  Swift  (q.v.),  composed  in  Nov. 
1711  in  favour  of  peace. 

Confederacy,  The,  a  comedy  by  Vanbrugh 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1705,  adapted  from 
d'Ancourt's  cLes  Bourgeoises  a  la  Mode'. 

Gripe  and  Moneytrap,  two  rich  usurers, 
are  niggardly  husbands,  and  Gripe's  wife, 
Clarissa,  in  order  to  pay  her  debts,  is  obliged 
to  pawn  her  necklace  with  Mrs.  Amlet,  a 
seller  of  paint  and  powder  and  the  like  to 
ladies.  Mrs.  Amlet  has  a  knave  of  a  son,  Dick, 
who  passes  himself  off  as  a  colonel,  and  is 
trying  to  win  by  fair  means  or  foul  the  hand 
of  Gripe's  daughter  Corinna,  assisted  in  the 
plot  by  his  confederate  Brass,  who  acts  as  his 
footman,  and  by  Flippanta,  Clarissa's  maid. 
Meanwhile  Gripe  falls  in  love  with  Money- 
trap's  wife,  and  Moneytrap  falls  in  love  with 
Gripe's  wife.  This  the  ladies  communicate 
to  each  other  and  contrive  to  turn  to  their 
mutual  advantage.  By  their  directions,  Brass 
and  Flippanta,  who  act  as  go-betweens,  ex- 
tract two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  apiece 
from  the  would-be  lovers  to  relieve  their 
ladies*  immediate  necessities.  An  amusing 
scene  follows  in  which  the  two  couples  are 
at  tea  together,  very  cheerful,  each  of  the  four 
pleased  with  the  course  of  events,  when  the 
pawned  necklace  brings  about  a  general 
exposure.  Clarissa  has  told  her  husband  that 
she  has  lost  it,  and  he  has  warned  the  gold- 
smiths to  look  out  for  it.  Dick  has  stolen  it 
from  his  mother  and  sent  Brass  to  try  and  sell 
it.  The  goldsmith  to  whom  Brass  offers  it 
now  brings  it  to  Gripe.  Dick's  true  character 
and  the  pawning  of  the  necklace  are  thus 
brought  to  light.  Clarissa,  to  silence  her 
husband,  alludes  to  the  £250  given  to  Mrs. 
Moneytrap;  and  the  latter,  to  silence  hers, 
to  the  like  present  to  Clarissa.  However,  as 
Corinna  is  prepared  to  take  Dick  in  spite  of 
all,  and  Mrs.  Amlet  to  endow  him  with 
£10,000,  roguery  meets  with  some  measure 
of  success. 

Confederate  States  of  America,  the  name 
assumed  by  the  eleven  southern  states 
(Virginia,  Georgia,  North  and  South  Caro- 
lina, Alabama,  Tennessee,  Louisiana,  Ar- 
kansas, Mississippi,  Florida,  Texas)  which 
seceded  from  the  American  Union  in  1860-1 
and  formed  a  confederacy.  After  their  defeat 


CONFUCIUS 

in  the  Civil  War  (q.v.,  1865)  they  were  forced 
into  reunion  with  the  Northern  States. 
Confederation  of  the  RMne,  the  union  of 
certain  German  states  under  the  protection 
of  the  French  Empire  from  1806  to  1813;  it 
was  an  interesting  reversion  to  the  policy  of 
Cardinal  Richelieu  (q.v.). 

Confessio  Amantis,  The,  is  the  principal 
English  poem  of  Gower  (q.v.).  It  exists  in 
three  versions  completed  probably  between 
1386  and  1390.  The  first  version  is  dedicated 
to  Richard  II,  the  second  to  Henry  IV. 
Caxton's  edition  (1483)  follows  the  second 
version  and  is  the  basis  of  Professor  Morley's 
text  (1888).  This  version  omits  passages  in 
praise  of  Richard  II  and  Chaucer  that  had 
appeared  in  the  first.  The  poem  contains 
34,000  lines  in  short  couplets. 

The  poet  tells  how  he,  a  lover  weary  of 
life,  appealed  to  Venus,  who  required  him 
to  make  full  confession  to  Genius,  her  priest. 
This  the  lover  does,  and  the  priest  instructs 
him  concerning  each  of  the  seven  deadly  sins 
and  its  remedy,  exemplifying  each  point  with 
one  or  more  stories.  Venus  reappears,  shows 
the  poet  his  grey  hairs  in  a  mirror,  and 
dismisses  him  from  her  court  as  too  old  for 
love,  giving  him  a  pair  of  black  beads  marked 
*pour  reposer*.  The  stories  are  taken  from 
classical  and  medieval  sources  and  include 
the  tale  of  Florent  (told  also  by  Chaucer's 
'Wife  of  Bath')  and  that  of  Constance 
(Chaucer's  'Man  of  Lawes  Tale').  The 
poem  shows  the  influence  of  Chaucer,  and 
the  language  is  substantially  the  same  as  his. 

Confession  ofRakow,  see  Sodniamsm. 
Confessions,  see  Augustine  and  Rousseau. 

Confessions  of  an  English  Opium  Eater,  by 
De  Quincey  (q.v.),  published  in  1822  (en- 
larged edition  1856). 

This  book,  which  established  De  Quincey  *s 
literary  reputation,  after  an  account  of  his 
early  years  and  his  rambling  life  in  Wales, 
relates  how  he  was  led  by  physical  suffering 
and  nervous  irritation  first  to  take  opium,  and 
then  to  increase  his  consumption  of  it,  until 
he  reached  the  large  quantity  of  8,000  drops 
of  laudanum  a  day.  He  describes  the  fearful 
effects,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  tumultuous 
dreams,  brought  about  by  this  abuse  of  the 
drug,  continued  during  eight  years,  until, 
alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  imrninent  death, 
he  determined  to  conquer  the  habit.  The 
narrative  ends  with  the  account  of  the 
gradual  reduction  that  he  effected  in  his  daily 
dose,  a  reduction  itself  attended  by  great 
suffering,  but  finally  in  the  main  successful. 

Confessions  of  an  Enquiring  Spirit,  see 
Coleridge  (S*  T.). 

Confucius  or  K'UNG  FU-TZE  (550  or  5*5*1- 
478  B.C.),  meaning  'philosopher  k'ung*^  was 
born  of  a  noble  but  impoverished  Chinese 
family,  in  Lu,  a  part  of  what  is  now  the 
province  of  Shan-tung. 

He  was  a  teacher  of  moral  and  political 


[181] 


CONGREVE 

science,  claiming  no  divine  revelation,  and 
showed  for  a  time  his  ability  as  a  practical 
administrator  and  reformer  in  the  chief  magis- 
tracy of  the  city  of  Chung-tu.  He^  gathered 
round  him  a  large  number  of  disciples,  but 
left  no  written  record  of  his  ethical  principles. 
His  wise  maxims  and  sayings,  chief  among 
which  was  his  rule  "Do  not  unto  others 
what  you  would  not  wish  done  unto  your- 
self, were  recorded  by  bis  followers.  He 
put  forward  no  distinctive  religion,  and  his 
teaching  related  in  the  main  to  temporal  and 
secular  matters,  unlike  that  of  Lao-tsze  (q.v.), 
whom  the  sage  is  said  to  have  visited.  His 
sayings,  which  are  widely  known  and  con- 
stantly quoted  among  the  Chinese,  have 
played  an  important  part  in  forming  the 
character  of  the  people. 

CONFUCIANISM  was  a  system  of  cosmology, 
politics,  and  ethics  evolved  in  China  during 
the  Han  dynasty  (206  B.C.-A.D.  220).  It  re- 
garded the  emperor  and  the  hierarchy  of 
officials  as  divinely  appointed,  and  the  social 
relations  as  governed  by  the  rule  of  Confucius 
above  quoted.  Under  it  the  nature  gods  (the 
Sun,  Heaven,  Earth,  &c.)  were  worshipped 
by  the  emperor  and  the  officials;  while 
ancestor-worship  was  practised  by  the  people. 
The  fall  of  the  empire  has  brought  the  system, 
in  its  original  form,  to  an  end. 

CONGREVE,  WILLIAM  (1670-1729), 
born  at  Bardsey,  near  Leeds,  of  an  ancient 
family.  Owing  to  the  fact  of  his  father's 
commanding  the  garrison  at  Youghal,  he 
was  educated  at  Kilkenny  school  and  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  at  both  of  which  he  was  a 
fellow-student  of  Swift.  He  entered  the 
Middle  Temple,  but  soon  gave  up  law  for 
literature,  published  a  feeble  novel  of  in- 
trigue, 'Incognita*  (1691),  and  in  1693  sud- 
denly achieved  fame  by  his  comedy  'The  Old 
Bachelor'  (q.v.).  Of  his  other  comedies,  "The 
Double  Dealer'  (q.v.)  appeared  in  1694, 
'Love  for  LoveJ  (q.v.)  in  1695,  an-d  'The  Way 
of  the  World*  (q.v.)  in  1700.  In  these  Con- 
greve  shows  himself  the  supreme  master  of 
the  artificial  comedy  or  comedy  of  manners, 
displaying  the  narrow  world  of  fashion  and 
gallantry.  His  one  tragedy  'The  Mourning 
Bride*  (q.v.)  was  produced  in  1697.  He 
replied  in  that  year  to  the  attack  made  on  him 
in  the  'Short  View'  of  Jeremy  Collier  (q.v.). 
Congreve  gave  up  writing  for  the  stage  in 
consequence,  it  is  said,  of  the  comparative 
failure  of  his  last  comedy.  But  he  was  then 
in  moderately  affluent  circumstances,  holding 
more  than  one  government  post,  and  enjoying 
general  admiration  and  the  friendship  of 
men  like  Swift,  Steele,  and  Pope.  He  was 
visited  by  Voltaire,  and  was  closely  attached 
to  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough.  He  was 
throughout  the  friend  of  the  enchanting 
Mrs.  Bracegirdle  (q.v.).  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

Coningsby,  or  The  New  Generation,  a 
political  novel  by  Disraeli  (q.v.),  published 
in  1844. 


CONQUEROR 

The  background  of  the  story  is  formed  by 
the  political  events  from  the  passage  of  the 
Reform  Bill  in  1832  down  to  the  fall  of  the 
Melbourne  ministry  in  1841.  These  provide 
the  author  with  opportunity  for  expounding 
his  own  political  creed,  his  contempt  for  the 
Conservatism  without  principles  which  he 
attributed  to  the  party  of  Peel ;  his  hostility  to 
the  Whigs  and  Utilitarianism ;  his  condemna- 
tion of  the  new  poor  law  and  the  unimagina- 
tive treatment  of  the  peasantry.  The  existing 
system  of  government  with  its  self-seeking 
politicians  like  Rigby,  and  its  Tadpoles  and 
Tapers  (the  typical  party  wire-pullers),  must 
be  amended,  and  the  representation  of  the 
people  obtained.  Against  this  background  we 
have  the  story  of  the  early  life  of  Harry 
Coningsby,  a  generous  and  intelligent  lad, 
the  orphan  grandson  of  the  wealthy  marquess 
of  Monmouth.  Young  Coningsby,  whose 
parents  had  incurred  Lord  Monmouth's  dis- 
pleasure by  their  marriage,  is  now  restored  to 
his  grandfather's  favour,  and  sent  to  Eton, 
where  he  becomes  the  friend  and  saves  the  life 
of  Oswald  Millbank,  son  of  a  rich  Lancashire 
manufacturer,  who  is  Lord  Monmouth's 
bitterest  enemy.  The  story  traces  Conings- 
by's  career  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  the 
development  of  political  views  contrary  to 
those  of  his  grandfather,  and  his  falling  in 
love  with  Edith,  the  daughter  of  Millbank. 
The  discovery  by  Lord  Monmouth  of 
these  deplorable  tendencies  in  his  grandson 
leads  to  a  crisis  in  the  hero's  fortunes.  On 
the  death  of  Lord  Monmouth  it  is  found 
that  Coningsby  has  been  disinherited.  He 
bravely  renounces  his  life  of  ease  and  sets  to 
work  as  a  barrister.  But  Millbank,  the 
manufacturer,  who  had  been  no  less  hostile 
than  Lord  Monmouth  to  Coningsby's  mar- 
riage with  Edith,  impressed  by  the  young 
man's  proof  of  character,  now  relents,  and 
the  story  ends  with  Coningsby's  election  to 
parliament  for  Millbank's  constituency,  his 
marriage  to  Edith,  and  his  restoration  to 
fortune. 

Lord  Monmouth  is  drawn  from  the  same 
Lord  Hertford  who  provided  the  model  for 
Thackeray's  Lord  Steyne  (q.v.),  but  without 
the  latter 's  more  repellent  features.  Rigby  is  a 
caricature  of  Croker  (q.v.).  Sidonia,  the  Jew 
superman,  who  figures  again  in  'Tancred* 
(q.v.),  here  makes  his  first  appearance. 

Coningtcra,  JOHN  (1825-69),  educated  at 
Rugby  and  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and 
fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford,  was  the 
first  professor  of  Latin  at  Oxford  (1854-69). 
He  edited  Virgil  and  Persius,  published  verse 
translations  of  Horace  (1863-9),  the  'Aeneid* 
(1866),  and  half  the  'Iliad'  (1868). 

Connoisseur,  The,  a  periodical  conducted  in 
1754-6  by  George  Colman  the  elder  and 
Bonnell  Thornton,  contained  some  early 
papers  by  W.  Cowper  (q.v.). 

Conqueror,  The,  a  novel  by  Gertrude 
Atherton  (q.v.),  published  in  1902. 


CONQUEST  OF  GRANADA 

Conquest  of  Granada,  The,  or  Aknanzor  and 
Almahide,  a  heroic  play  in  rhymed  couplets, 
in  two  parts,  by  Dry  den  (q.v.).  It  appeared 
in  1670. 

The  play  was  very  famous  in  its  day,  and 
besides  much  rant  and  bombast,  contains 
some  good  verse  and  pleasant  lyrics.  It  was 
one  of  the  principal  objects  of  satire  in  -die 
'Rehearsal'  (q.v.).  The  plot  is  much  embroiled 
and  not  worth  giving  in  detail.  The  back- 
ground is  the  quarrels  of  the  rival  factions  of 
Moors,  the  Abencerrages  and  the  Zegrys, 
under  Boabdelin  the  last  ruler  of  the  king- 
dom of  Granada,  and  the  war  in  which  that 
kingdom  fell  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Al- 
manzor  is  a.  valiant  soldier  who  aids  the 
Moors  against  the  Spaniards,  but  finally 
turns  out  to  be  the  long-lost  son  of  the  duke 
of  Arcos,  a  noble  Spaniard.  Almahide  is  the 
betrothed  of  Boabdelin,  with  whom  Almanzor 
falls  in  love.  She  returns  his  love,  but  is 
faithful  to  her  promise  to  Boabdelin,  who 
throughout  the  play  is  torn  between  jealousy 
of  Almanzor  and  need  for  his  strong  arm. 
Almanzor's  suit  remains  unsuccessful  until 
after  the  death  of  Boabdelin  in  the  last  act. 
A  second  love  interest  is  provided  by  the 
rivalry  of  Abdalla,  the  king's  brother,  and 
Abdelmelich,  chief  of  the  Abencerrages,  for 
the  hand  of  the  imperious  Lyndaraxa,  sister 
of  the  chief  of  the  Zegrys;  and  a  third,  by 
the  troubled  course  of  the  love  of  Ozmyn, 
a  brave  young  Abencerrage,  for  Benzayda,  a 
Zegry  maiden. 

Conquest  of  Granada,  The,  a  romantic 
history  in  satirical  vein,  by  Washington 
Irving  (q.v.),  published  in  1829. 

Conrad,  the  pirate  chief  in  Lord  Byron's 
'The  Corsair'  (q.v.). 

CONRAD,  JOSEPH  (1857-1924),  whose 
full  name  was  Teodor  Josef  Konrad  Kor- 
zeniowski,  was  born  of  Polish  parents  in  the 
Ukraine.  He  accompanied  his  parents  when 
they  were  exiled  (in  consequence  of  revolu- 
tionary activities)  to  Vologda  in  Northern 
Russia,  where  his  mother  died;  was  subse- 
quently for  a  time  at  school  at  Cracow;  and 
in  1874  became  member  of  the  crew  of  a 
French  vessel,  thus  satisfying  a  long-felt 
craving  for  a  seafaring  life.  In  1878  he  joined 
an  English  merchant  ship,  and  in  1884  gained 
his  Board  of  Trade  certificate  as  a  Master 
and  was  naturalized  as  a  British  subject.  He 
left  the  sea  in  1894  and  devoted  himself  to 
literature. 

The  sea  provides  the  setting  of  most  of 
his  works,  and  his  devotion  to  it  is  seen 
at  its  best  in  his  'Mirror  of  the  Sea*  (1906). 
His  earlier  novels,  'Almayer's  Folly5  (1895) 
and  'An  Outcast  of  the  Islands'  (1896),  reveal 
Conrad  struggling  with  the  difficulties  of  a 
language  and  a  technique  unfamiliar  to  him. 
But  he  achieved  success  in  'The  Nigger  of 
the  Narcissus'  (1898),  and  'Lord  Jim'  (1900), 
the  tale  of  a  young  Englishman  who  in  a 
moment  of  panic  deserts  his  apparently 
sinking  ship,  loses  his  honour,  and  finally 


CONSTABLE 

retrieves  it  by  an  honourable  death.  In 
'Youth',  'Heart  of  Darkness*,  and  'Typhoon* 
(1902)  Conrad  produced  three  of  his  finest 
short  stories.  Among  his  other  best-known 
works  were  'Nostromo*  (1904),  'The  Secret 
Agent*  (1907),  'Under  Western  Eyes'  (1911), 
'Chance'  (1914),  'Within  the  Tides'  (1915), 
and  'The  Rescue*  (1920). 
Conrade  of  Montserrat,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'The  Talisman*  (q.v.),  based  on  the 
historical  Conrad  of  Montf errat. 

Conscience,  MR.,  in  Bunyan's  'Holy  War* 
(q.v.),  the  Recorder  of  the  city  of  Mansoul, 
deposed  from  his  office  during  the  tyranny  of 
Diabolus. 

Conscious  Lovers,  The,  a  comedy  by  Steele 
(q.v.),  based  on  the  'Andria*  of  Terence, 
produced  in  1722.  This  was  Steele*s  last  play, 
and  in  it  he  illustrates  his  views  on  duelling, 
the  proper  attitude  of  men  to  women,  &c. 

Young  Bevil  is,  at  his  father's  desire,  about 
to  marry  Lucinda,  daughter  of  the  wealthy 
Mr.  Sealand.  But  he  has  fallen  in  love  with 
Indiana,  an  orphan,  whom  he  has  found 
destitute  and  friendless  in  a  foreign  town  and 
has  honourably  supported;  she  loves  him  in 
return.  Not  wishing  openly  to  oppose  his 
father's  wishes,  he  makes  known  to  Lucinda 
his  aversion  to  the  proposed  marriage,  the 
more  readily  because  his  friend  Myrtle  loves 
her,  while  she  is  also  sued  by  an  avaricious 
pedant,  Cimberton.  In  doing  this  he  offends 
Myrtle,  is  challenged  to  a  duel,  declines,  and 
exhibits  the  folly  of  duelling.  Indiana  turns 
out  to  be  the  lost  daughter,  by  a  former 
marriage,  of  Mr.  Sealand,  who  is  happy  to 
bestow  her  on  Bevil  in  place  of  Lucinda.  As 
the  latter's  dowry  is  now  halved  in  conse- 
quence of  the  discovery  of  her  sister,  Cimber- 
ton renounces  his  suit,  and  Myrtle  success- 
fully asserts  his  claim- 
Conscript  Fathers,  a  collective  title  by 
which  the  Roman  senators  were  addressed; 
used  also  as  a  title  by  the  Venetian  senate. 

CONSTABLE,  HENRY  (1562-1613),  was 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
embraced  Roman  Catholicism,  and  withdrew 
to  Paris.  He  published  'Diana',  a  volume  of 
sonnets,  in  1592;  it  was  republished  in  1594 
with  additions,  many  of  them  by  other 
poets.  He  was  sent  as  papal  envoy  to  Edin- 
burgh in  1599  and  pensioned  by  the  French 
king.  He  came  to  London  in  1603,  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  Tower  in  1604  and  released 
the  same  year.  He  died  at  Liege.  Verses  by 
him  were  embodied  in  various  collections, 
among  others  in  'England's  Helicon*  (q.v.). 
His  collected  works  were  published  in  1859. 
Many  of  his  sonnets  are  modelled  on  or  trans- 
lated from  sonnets  by  Desportes. 
Constable,  JOHN  (1776-1837),  the  land- 
scape painter,  was  born  at  East  Bergholt  in 
Suffolk  and  educated  at  Dedham  school  in 
Essex.  His  father  was  a  miller.  He  became  a 
student  at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1799  an<* 
thereafter  lived  mainly  in  London,  except 


CONSTANCE 

for  summer  tours  In  the  country.  He  painted 
portraits  to  support  himself,  and  his  genius 
as  a  painter  of  landscape  met  with  little  con- 
temporary recognition  in  England,  though 
he  was  more  highly  esteemed  in  France, 
where  his  work  had  much  influence  on  the 
landscape-painters  of  the  mid- 1 9th  cent.  He 
was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1829. 
His  'Life'  by  his  friend  C.  R.  Leslie,  R.A. 
(1843),  is  reckoned  a  model  biography  of  one 
artist  by  another. 

Constance,  (i)  the  heroine  of  the  'Man  of 
Lawes  Tale'  in  the  'Canterbury  Tales'  (q.v.); 
(2)  in  Shakespeare's  'King  John*  (q.v.),  the 
mother  of  Arthur,  the  king's  nephew. 
Constance   of  Beverley,   a   character  in 
Scott's  'Marmion'  (q.v.). 
Constant  Couple,    The,   or  a    Trip   to  the 
Jubilee,  a  comedy  by  Farquhar  (q.v.),  pro- 
duced in  1700. 

The  play,  which  is  coarse  and  farcical,  was 
very  successful,  owing  chiefly  to  the  amus- 
ing character  of  Sir  Harry  Wildair,  'an  airy 
gentleman,  affecting  humorous  gaiety  and 
freedom  in  his  behaviour'.  It  had  a  less  suc- 
cessful sequel  in  'Sir  Harry  Wildair'  (1701). 
CONSTANT  DE  REBECQUE,  BENJA- 
MIN (1767-1830),  French  philosopher, 
orator,  and  politician,  born  at  Lausanne  of  a 
family  of  French  Protestant  refugees,  and 
educated  partly  in  Germany  and  England. 
He  removed  to  Paris  in  1795,  and  was  a 
friend  of  Mme  de  Stael  (q.v.)  and  a  prominent 
liberal  politician  and  parliamentary  orator. 
His  best-known  works  are  a  psychological 
romance,  'Adolphe*  (1816),  a  philosophical 
treatise,  *De  la  religion  conside*re*e  dans  les 
sources  .  .  .'  (1824-30),  and  his  'Memoires*. 
Constantia,  a  famous  red  wine  grown  on  the 
Constantia  farm  near  Capetown,  S.  Africa. 
Constantia  Durham,  a  character  in  Mere- 
dith's 'The  Egoist'  (q.v.). 
Constantine  the  Great,  Roman  Emperor, 
A.D.  306-37.  He  was  converted  to  Christi- 
anity, it  is  said,  by  seeing  a  luminous  cross  in 
the  sky  with  the  words  eV  TQVTO>  VLKO.  (in  hoc 
signo  vince)  before  the  battle  (3 12)  in  which  he 
defeated  his  rival  Maxentius.  He  transferred 
the  capital  of  the  empire  to  Byzantium,  which 
he  renamed  Constantinople.  See  Helena 
(Saint},  Euselius,  Donation  of  Constantine, 
Labarum. 

Contarini  Fleming,  a  Psychological  Romance, 
by  Disraeli  (q.v.),  published  in  1832. 

^The  book  takes  the  form  of  an  auto- 
biography, showing  the  development  of  a 
poetic  character.  Contarini  Fleming  is  the 
son  of  a  Saxon  nobleman  and  a  Venetian  lady 
of  ancient  lineage.  A  child  of  an  imaginative 
and  melancholy  disposition,  he  is  wretched  at 
school,  from  which  he  runs  away,  and  is 
introduced  into  social  and  political  life,  for 
which  he  shows  precocious  aptitude,  by  his 
father,  who  has  a  sympathetic  understanding 
of  his  peculiar  temperament.  His  first  at- 
tempts at  literature  are  crude  or  ill-judged. 


COOLING  CARD 

He  realizes  the  chief  desire  of  his  youth  by 
visiting  Venice,  where  he  falls  madly  in  love 
with  a  cousin,  Alceste  Contarini,  whom  he 
marries,  but  loses  within  a  year.  He  then 
travels  in  Spain  and  the  Levant,  finally  takes 
up  his  abode  in  Rome,  and  devotes  himself  to 
'the  amelioration  of  his  kind*  and  'the  study 
and  creation  of  the  beautiful'. 

Contemporary  Review,  The,  was  founded 
in  1865,  and  edited  for  many  years  by  Sir 
Percy  Bunting. 

Continental  system,  THE,  the  plan  of 
Napoleon  Buonaparte  for  cutting  off  Great 
Britain  from  all  connexion  with  the  Conti- 
nent, by  forbidding  to  his  subjects  and  allies 
the  importation  of  British  goods.  This  was 
proclaimed  by  the  'Berlin  Decree'  of  19  Nov. 
1806. 

Conversation,  A  complete  Collection  of  polite 
and  ingenious,  by  Swift  (q.v.),  published  in 
1738. 

In  this  entertaining  work  Swift  good- 
humouredly  satirizes  the  stupidity,  coarse- 
ness, and  attempted  wit  of  the  conversation  of 
fashionable  people  as  he  had  observed  it.  In 
three  dialogues  he  puts  into  the  mouth  of 
various  characters,  Lord  Sparkish,  Miss 
Notable,  Lady  Smart,  Tom  Neverout,  £c., 
samples  of  questions  and  answers,  smart 
sayings,  and  repartees,  fitted,  as  he  explains 
in  the  amusing  introduction,  'to  adorn  every 
kind  of  discourse  that  an  assembly  of  English 
ladies  and  gentlemen,  met  together  for  their 
mutual  entertainment,  can  possibly  want'. 
The  work  was  published  under  the  pseudo- 
nym of  'Simon  WagstarT,  Esq.'. 

COOK,  ELIZA  (1818-89),  poet.  Her  com- 
plete collected  poems  were  published  in  1870. 
The  most  popular  of  these  was  'The  Old 
Arm  Chair',  which  ha,d'  appeared  in  1837. 
She  conducted  'Eliza  Cook's  Journal',  1849- 
54- 

COOK,  JAMES  (1728-79),  the  celebrated 
circumnavigator,  published  his  'Sailing 
Directions'  in  1766-8.  He  left  records  of 
his  three  principal  voyages:  the  first,  round 
the  Horn  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
1768—71  (an  account  of  this  was  compiled  by 
J.  Hawkesworth  from  the  journals  of  Cook 
and  his  botanist  Joseph  Banks,  q.v.,  and 
published  in  1773 ;  Cook's  own  journal  was 
edited  by  Wharton  in  1893);  the  second,  'A 
Voyage  towards  the  South  Pole  and  round 
the  World  in  1772-5*,  published  in  1777;  the 
third,  'A  Voyage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  in 
1776-80*,  published  in  1784  (the  third  volume 
by  Capt.  T.  King).  Cook  touched  at  Hawaii 
in  1779,  was  driven  off  by  a  storm,  and  on 
putting  back  to  refit  was  murdered  by  the 
natives. 

Cook's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 

Cooling  Card,  apparently  a  term  of  some  un- 
known game,  applied  figuratively  to  anything 
that  'cools*  a  person's  passion  or  enthusiasm. 
The  expression  is  frequent  in  Elizabethan 


[1843 


COOPER 

literature,  e.g.  in  Lyly's  'Euphues9  and 
Shakespeare's  ci  Henry  VI',  v.  iii. 

COOPER,  JAMES  FENIMORE  (1789- 
1851),  born  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  spent 
his  youth  partly  on  a  pioneer  settlement  on 
Otsego  Lake  (N.Y.),  partly  in  the  merchant 
marine  (after  dismissal  from  Yale),  partly  in 
the  American  navy.  He  then  settled  down  as 
a  country  proprietor  and  a  writer  of  novels. 
His  first  book  'The  Spy*  (1821),  a  stirring 
tale  of  the  American  Revolution,  brought  him 
into  prominence.  His  other  best-known 
works  are:  'The  Pioneers'  (1823),  'The 
Pilot*  (1824)  and  'The  Red  Rover'  (1828), 
two  notable  early  tales  of  adventure  at  sea; 
'The  Last  of  the  Mohicans'  (1826),  'The 
Prairie'  (1827),  'The  Pathfinder'  (1840),  and 
'The  Deerslayer*  (1841).  The  last  four,  with 
'The  Pioneers',  form  a  series,  'The  Leather- 
stocking  Tales',  dealing  with  Indian  life  in 
the  forest  and  the  wilderness,  and  centring 
in  the  adventures  of  Natty  Bumppo;  they 
furnish  not  only  exciting  incidents,  but  a 
vivid  picture  of  the  Red  Indian  and  his 
surroundings  in  a  period  that  has  passed 
away.  Cooper's  'England,  with  Sketches  of 
Society  in  the  Metropolis',  a  sarcastic  account 
of  English  society,  appeared  in  1837. 

Cooper's  Hillt  see  Denham. 

Copenhagen,  the  duke  of  Wellington's 
famous  horse,  which  carried  him  in  the 
Peninsular  War  and  at  Waterloo. 

Copenhagen,  THE  BOMBARDMENT  OF,  by 
Nelson  (under  Sir  Hyde  Parker)  in  1801,  was 
undertaken  in  order  to  break  up  the  Northern 
Confederacy  (Russia,  Sweden,  and  Den- 
mark) against  Britain.  It  was  in  the  course 
of  this  that  Nelson,  placing  his  telescope  to 
his  blind  eye,  declared  that  he  could  not  see 
the  signal  of  recall  hoisted  by  Admiral 
Parker. 

Copernicus,  latinized  form  of  the  sur- 
name of  NICOLAS  KOPPERNIK  (1473-1543),  a 
nativ^-eaMFriorn  in  Prussian  Poland  and 
a  canon  of  Frauenburg,  a  celebrated  astro- 
nomer, who  propounded  the  theory  that  the 
planets  including  the  earth  move  in  orbits 
round  the  sun  as  centre,  in  opposition  to  the 
older  theory  of  Ptolemy  (q.v.)  that  the  sun 
and  planets  move  round  the  earth.  His  'De 
revolutionibus'  was  published  in  1543,  but 
a  brief  popular  account  of  his  theory  was 
circulated  in  manuscript  from  1530. 

Cophetua,  KING,  a  legendary  king  in  Africa, 
who  cared  not  for  womankind,  until  he  saw  a 
beggar  maid  'all  in  gray',  with  whom  he  fell 
in  love.  He  married  her  and  together  they 
lived  'a  quiet  life  during  their  princely  reign*. 
The  tale  is  told  in  one  of  the  ballads  in- 
cluded in  Percy's  'Reliques',  where  the  maid's 
name  is  given  as  Penelophon.  Shakespeare 
in  'Love's  Labour's  Lost'  (Act  rv,  sc.  i)  gives 
it  as  Zenelophpn.  There  are  other  references 
to  the  story  in  Shakespeare's  'Romeo  and 
Juliet*  (n.  i)  and  (z  Henry  IV  (v,  iii),  in 


CORDOVA 

Jonson's  'Every  Man  in  his  Humour'  (in.  Iv), 
and  in  Tennyson's  'The  Beggar  Maid'. 

Copmanhurst,  CLERK  OF,  otherwise  Friar 
Tuck  (q.v.),  in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe'  (q.v.). 

COPP&E,  FRANCOIS  fiDOUARD 
JOACHIM  (called  Francois)  (1842-1908), 
French  poet  and  dramatist,  noted  for  his 
studies  of  humble  life  in  Paris.  His  verse 
includes  'Le  Reliquaire*  (1866),  'Intimitey 
(1868),  'La  Greve  des  Forgerons'  (1869), 
'Contes  et  Vers'  (1881-7).  Among  his  plays 
are:  'Le  Passant'  (1869),  'Le  luthier  de 
Cre*mone*  (1877),  'Madame  de  Maintenon* 
(1881).  His  plays  have  been  collected  in  four 
volumes  (1873-86). 

Copt,  a  native  Egyptian  Christian  belonging 
to  the  Jacobite  sect  (Monophysites  (q.v.)  who 
take  their  name  from  Jacobus  Baradaeus  of 
Edessa,  a  6th-cent.  heresiarch).  The  word  is 
probably  a  form  of  AlyvTmos  (Egyptian), 
though  some  refer  it  to  Coptos,  the  name  of 
an  ancient  city  in  Upper  Egypt.  Coptic,  a 
descendant  of  ancient  Egyptian,  has  become 
a  dead  language,  but  is  much  studied  because 
there  are  Coptic  versions  of  the  Scriptures. 

Coranto,  or  current  of  news,  the  name 
applied  to  periodical  news-pamphlets  issued 
between  1621  and  1641  (their  publication 
was  interrupted  between  1632  and  1638) 
containing  foreign  intelligence  taken  from 
foreign  papers.  The  Corantos  were  one  of 
the  first  forms  of  English  journalism,  and 
were  followed  by  the  'newsbook'  (q.v.). 

COKANTO  or  COURANTE  was  also  the  name 
of  a  dance  formerly  in  vogue,  distinguished 
by  a  running  or  gliding  step. 

Corbaccio,  a  character  in  Jonson's  'Vol- 
pone*  (q.v.). 

Corceca,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  I.  iii. 
1 8,  'blindness  of  heart',  an  old  blind  woman, 
mother  of  Abessa  (Superstition). 

Cordelia,  in  Shakespeare's  'King  Lear' 
(q.v.),  the  youngest  daughter  of  the  king. 

Cordelier,  a  Franciscan  friar  of  the  strict 
rule,  so  called  from  the  knotted  cord  worn 
round  the  waist.  The  'Cordeliers'  was  the 
name  of  a  political  club  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, which  met  in  an  old  convent  of  this 
order.  It  included  Danton  and  Marat  among 
its  members,  and  represented  the  most  ad- 
vanced revolutionary  faction.  See  Jacobin. 

Cordon  Bleu,  the  sky-blue  ribbon  worn  by 
the  Knights  Grand  Cross  of  the  French  order 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  highest  order  of 
chivalry  under  the  Bourbon  kings.  The^name 
is  applied,  as  signifying  a  person  of  distinc- 
tion, to  a  first-class  cook. 

Cordova,  GONSALVO  HERNANDEZ  DE  (1453- 
1515),  a  famous  Spanish  general  known  as 
the  'Great  Captain',  who,  under  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic,  fought  against  Portugal  and  the 
Moors,  and  drove  the  French  out  of  Naples. 
See  Bayard. 


CORDUBA 

Corduba,  Cordova  in  Spain,  the  birthplace 
of  the  two  Senecas  and  Lucan  (qq.v.). 

GORELLI,  MARIE  (1854-1924),  novelist. 

Her  publications  include:  'A  Romance  of 

Two    Worlds'    (1886),    'Barabbas*    (1893), 

'Sorrows   of   Satan*    (1895),    'The   Mighty 

Atom*  (1896),  'The  Master  Christian'  (1900), 

'Temporal    Power*    (1902),    'The    Young 

Diana'  (1917),  'The  Secret  Power'  (1921). 

Corfiambo,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*, 

IV.  vii  and  viii,  'a  mighty  man,  Ryding  upon 

a  Dromedare  on  hie,  Of  stature  huge  and 

horrible  of  hew*,  symbolizes  lust.  He  carries 

off  Amoret,  who  is  released  from  him  by 

Timias  and  Belphoebe.  He  is  slain  by  Prince 

Arthur. 

CORIAT,  THOMAS,  see  Coryate. 

Corineus,  see  Gogmagog. 

Corinna,  (i)  a  Greek  poetess  of  Tanagra  in 

Boeotia  (fl.  490  B.C.).    She  gained  a  victory 

over  Pindar  at  the  Theban  games.  (2)  Ovid's 

flame. 

Corinne,  the  title  of  a  novel  by  Mme  de  Stael 

(q.v.). 

Corinthian,  from  the  proverbial  luxury  and 
licentiousness  of  ancient  Corinth,  a  gay 
licentious  man. 

*I  am  ...  a  Corinthian,  a  lad  of  mettle,  a 
good  boy.' 

(Shakespeare,  *r  Henry  IV*,  n.  iv.  13.) 
In  the  first  half  of  the  igth  cent.,  'Corinthian' 
was  used  for  a  man  of  fashion  about  town. 

Corinthian  Order,  the  lightest  and  most 
ornate  of  the  three  Grecian  orders  of  archi- 
tecture (Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian),  having  an 
inverted  bell-shaped  capital  adorned  with 
rows  of  acanthus-leaves,  giving  rise  to  graceful 
volutes  and  helices. 

Corinthian  Tom,  a  character  in  Pierce 
Egan's  *Life  in  London'.  See  Egan. 

Corinthians,  THE,  a  well-known  amateur 
Association  Football  club,  founded  in  1882. 

Coriolanus,  a  Roman  historical  drama,  by 
Shakespeare  (q.v.),  probably  written  about 
1608,  It  was  printed  in  the  folio  of  1623. 
The  story  is  taken  from  North's  Plutarch. 

Caius  Marcius,  a  proud  Roman  general, 
performs  wonders  of  valour  in  a  war  against 
the  Volscians,  and  captures  the  town  Corioli, 
receiving  in  consequence  the  surname  Corio- 
lanus. On  his  return  it  is  proposed  to  make 
him  consul,  but  his  arrogant  and  outspoken 
contempt  of  the  Roman  rabble  makes  him 
unpopular  with  the  fickle  crowd,  and  the 
tribunes  of  the  people  have  no  difficulty  in 
securing  his  banishment.  He  betakes  himself 
to  the  house  of  Aufidius,  the  Volscian  general, 
his  enemy  of  long  standing,  is  received  with 
delight,  and  leads  the  Volscians  against  Rome 
to  effect  his  revenge.  He  reaches  the  walls  of 
the  city,  and  the  Romans,  to  save  it  from 
destruction,  send  emissaries,  old  friends  of 
Coriolanus,  to  propose  terms,  but  in  vain. 


CORNHILL 

Finally  the  mother,  wife,  and  son  of  Corio- 
lanus come  and  beseech  him  to  spare  the  city. 
He  yields  to  their  prayers,  makes  a  treaty 
favourable  to  the  Volscians,  and  returns 
with  them  to  Antium,  a  Volscian  town.  Here 
the  Volscian  general  turns  against  him, 
accusing  him  of  betraying  the  Volscian 
interests,  and  with  the  assistance  of  con- 
spirators of  his  faction,  slays  Coriolanus  in  a 
public  place. 

Cormac,  in  the  Ossianic  poems  of  Mac- 
pherson  (q.v.),  the  king  of  Ireland  during 
whose  minority  Cuthullin  commands  the  Irish 
forces,  Swaran  invades  Ireland,  and  Fingal 
comes  to  the  rescue.  Cormac  is  murdered  by 
Cairbar. 

Cormoran,  a  Cornish  giant  slain  by  Jack  the 
Giant-killer. 

Corn  Laws,  THE,  restricting  the  importation 
of  foreign  corn,  were  a  subject  of  acute  con- 
troversy during  the  first  half  of  the  igth  cent. 
The  principal  of  these,  Robinson's  Act  of 
1815,  permitted  importation  only  when  the 
price  of  wheat  reached  8os.  a  quarter.  A 
sliding-scale  act  was  passed  in  1828.  The 
Corn  Law  was  abolished  by  Peel  in  1846,  as 
a  consequence  of  the  agitation  of  the  Anti- 
Corn-Law  League  of  Bright  and  Cobden, 
the  distress  prevalent  in  England,  and  the 
Irish  famine  of  1845. 

CORNEILLE,  PIERRE  (1606-84),  French 
dramatist.  He  was  one  of  the  group  of 
authors  who  wrote  under  the  direction  of 
the  Cardinal  de  Richelieu,  but  not  proving 
sufficiently  docile  was  dismissed.  His  genius 
was  first  shown  in  his  tragedy  'Me'de'e*  (1635), 
followed  by  his  masterpiece  *Le  Cid'  (q.v., 
1636)  based  on  the  legends  and  plays  con- 
cerning that  Spanish  hero.  The  other  great 
works  by  which  he  founded  classical  tragedy 
in  France  were  'Horace*  (1639),  'Cinna' 
(1639),  'Polyeucte*  (1640),  'La  Mort  de 
PompeV  (1641),  and  'Rodogune*  (1644).  His 
fine  comedy  *Le  Menteur*  (1642)  is  adapted 
from  the  Spanish  of  Alarcon.  His  later  plays 
are  less  important,  and  he  was  eclipsed  by  the 
greater  mastery  of  Racine.  The  characteristic 
of  his  tragedies  is  the  nobility  and  grandeur  of 
his  heroes  and  heroines,  simple  and  easily 
comprehended,  but  lacking  in  subtlety.  The 
style  is  severe  and  dignified. 
CorneHa,  'Mother  of  the  Gracchi*  (2nd  cent. 
B.C.),  was  the  daughter  of  Publius  Scipio 
Africanus  the  elder.  She  married  Tiberius 
Sempronius  Gracchus  and  became  mother 
of  the  famous  tribunes,  Tiberius  and  Caius. 
When  a  lady  once  made  a  show  of  her  jewels 
at  Cornelia's  house,  and  asked  to  see 
Cornelia's,  the  latter  produced  her  two  sons, 
saying  'These  are  my  jewels'. 

Cornelia,  the  wife  of  Pompey  in  Kyd's 
tragedy,  see  Pompey  the  Great ;  also  in  Mase- 
field's  'Tragedy  of  Pompey  the  Great*. 

Cornhill,  in  the  city  of  London,  *a  corn- 
market  time  out  of  mind',  says  Stow.  Here 
there  were  stocks  and  a  pillory. 


[186] 


CORNHILL  MAGAZINE 

Cornhill  Magazine,  The,  a  monthly  periodi- 
cal, was  founded  in  1860  with  Thackeray 
(q.v.)  as  first  editor.  His  last  two  novels,  'The 
Adventures  of  Philip*  and  'Denis  DuvaP,were 
published  in  it,  as  were  also  contributions 
from  Ruskin  and  Matthew  Arnold,  Mrs. 
Gaskell's  'Cousin  Phillis'  and  'Wives  and 
Daughters',  and*  some  of  Trollope's  novels. 
Sir  Leslie  Stephen  (q.v.)  was  editor  from 
1871  to  1882,  and  subsequently  James  Payn, 
].  St.  Loe  Strachey,  and  R.  ].  Smith.  'Our 
storehouse  being  in  Cornhill,'  writes  Thack- 
eray in  the  preface  to  the  first  number,  'we 
date  and  name  our  magazine  from  its  place 
of  publication/ 

Corn-law  rhymer,  see  Elliott  (#.). 
Cornubia,  a  Roman  name  for  Cornwall. 
Cornucopia,  see  Amalthea. 
CORNWALL,  BARRY,  see  Procter  (B.  W.). 

Corny,   KING,   Cornelius   O 'Shane,   'King 
of  the  Black  Islands',  a  character  in  Maria 
Edgeworm's  'Ormono?  (q.v.). 
Coronach  (from  the  Irish  coronach,  Gaelic 
corranach),  a  funeral  dirge. 

Coronis,  (i)  the  daughter  of  Phlegias,  loved 
by  Apollo,  by  whom  she  became  mother  of 
Aesculapius  (q.v.);  (2)  the  daughter  of 
Phoroneus,  king  of  Phocis,  who  was  changed 
by  Athene  into  a  crow. 

Corot,  JEAN-BAPTISTE  CAMILLE  (1796-1875), 
a  celebrated  French  landscape-painter. 

Corporate,    CHRISTOPHER,    in    Peacock's 
'Melincourt*  (q.v.),  the  solitary  elector  of  the 
borough  of  Onevote,   which   returns   two 
members  to  parliament. 
Corposant,  see  Elmo's  Fire. 

Corpus  Christi,  the  Feast  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  or  Body  of  Christ,  observed  on 
the  Thursday  after  Trinity  Sunday.  It  was 
instituted  by  Pope  Urban  IV  about  1264,  and 
at  many  places  (e.g.  York  and  Coventry)  was 
celebrated  by  the  performance  of  sacred 
plays  (see  Miracle  Plays). 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge, 
founded  in  1352  by  a  guild  of  Cambridge 
townsmen.  It  contains  the  library  of  Arch- 
bishop Parker  (q.v.),  one  of  the  most  famous 
collections  of  manuscripts  in  England. 

Correggio,  ANTONIO  ALLEGRI  (1494-1534), 
called  *I1  Correggio*  from  the  place  of  his 
birth  in  Lombardy,  a  great  Italian  painter. 
His  principal  works  are  in  Parma. 

Corroboree,  the  native  dance  of  the 
Australian  aborigines,  of  a  festive  or  warlike 
character,  danced  at  night  by  moonlight  or  a 
bush  fire. 

Corsair,  the  name,  in  the  languages  of  the 
Mediterranean,  for  a  privateer,  chiefly  applied 
to  the  cruisers  of  Barbary,  which  preyed  on 
the  shipping  and  coasts  of  Christendom.  The 
word  is  often  treated  as  identical  with  pirate , 
though  the  Barbary  corsairs,  who  chiefly 


GORTON 

sailed  from  N.  African  ports,  were  licensed 
by  the  Turkish  government  at  Constanti- 
nople. 

Corsair,  The,  a  poem  in  heroic  couplets  by 
Lord  Byron  (q.v.),  published  in  1814. 

Conrad,  a  pirate  chief  in  the  Aegean  Sea, 
a  man  of  many  vices  and  one  virtue  (a  certain 
sense  of  chivalry),  receives  warning  that 
Seyd,  the  Turkish  Pacha,  is  preparing  a  fleet 
for  a  descent  on  his  island.  He  determines  to 
anticipate  him,  takes  leave  of  his  beloved 
Medora,  arrives  at  the  Pacha's  rallying-point 
at  night,  and  introduces  himself  to  his 
presence  as  a  dervish  escaped  from  the 
pirates.  The  premature  firing  of  the  Pacha's 
galleys  by  Conrad's  men  gives  warning  of  the 
intended  coup,  which  is  only  partially  success- 
ful. Conrad  is  wounded  and  taken  prisoner, 
but  not  before  he  has  rescued  Guinare,  the 
chief  slave  in  the  Pacha's  harem,  from  im- 
minent death.  She  becomes  enamoured  of 
him,  obtains  the  postponement  of  his 
execution,  and  finally  brings  him  a  dagger 
wherewith  he  may  kill  Seyd  in  his  sleep. 
From  this  act  he  revolts,  whereupon  she 
herself  kills  the  Pacha,  and  escapes  with 
Conrad.  But  she  has  now  become  repulsive 
to  him.  They  arrive  at  the  pirate  island, 
where  Conrad  finds  Medora  dead  from  grief 
at  the  reported  slaying  of  her  lover.  Conrad 
disappears  and  is  never  heard  of  more. 

Corsican,  THE,  the  CORSICAN  UPSTART, 
GENERAL,  &c.,  Napoleon  Buonaparte,  born  at 
Ajaccio  in  Corsica  in  1769. 

Corsican  Brother sf  The,  a  play  translated  by 
Boucicault  (q.v.)  from  the  French,  and 
produced  in  1848. 

Cortegiano,  II,  see  Castiglione. 

Cortes,  THE,  the  legislative  assemblies  of 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  kingdoms. 

Cortese,  GIACOMO,  Italian  scholar,  in  1884 
described  a  page  of  a  palimpsest  fragment 
which  he  had  found  in  the  binding  of  Ovid's 
'Metamorphoses*.  He  gave  a  reproduction 
of  the  page,  and  attributed  the  fragment  to 
Cornelius  Nepos.  The  attribution  and  date 
were  actively  discussed  by  scholars,  and  the 
piece,  which  contained  a  reference  to  En- 
nius,  passed  into  the  histories  of  Latin  litera- 
ture as  'Anonymus  Cortesianus'.  In  1904 
L.  Traube  (q.v.)  showed  that  Cortese  (by 
this  time  professor  of  classical  philology  at 
Rome)  had  invented  the  text  and  fabricated 
the  reproduction  by  taking  all  the  letters 
from  Angelo  Mai's  plate  of  a  palimpsest  of 
a  part  of  Cicero's  *de  Republica',  published 
in  1822. 

Cortez,  HERNANDO  (1485-1547)^1^6  con- 
queror  of  Mexico.  He  entered  Mexico  City  in 
1519.  It  was  not  he,  but  Balboa  (q.v.)  who 
first  of  all  Europeans  gazed  on  the  Pacific 
(see  Keats's  sonnet  'On  first  looking  into 
Chapman's  Homer'). 

Gorton,  see  Burgundy. 


i8?] 


CORVINO 

Corvino,  a  character  in  Jonson's  'Volpone* 
(q.v.). 

GORY,  WILLIAM  JOHNSON  (1823-92), 
educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, was  an  assistant  master  at  Eton  and 
changed  his  name  from  Johnson  to  Cory  in 
1872.  He  published  some  educational  works, 
but  is  remembered  as  the^  author  of  two 
volumes  of  poems,  notably  his  'lonica'  (1858) 
containing  the  well-known  translation  of  the 
epitaph  on  Heraclirus  by  the  Alexandrian 
poet  Callimachus,  'They  told  me,  Heraclitus, 
they  told  me  you  were  dead'.  His  'Letters 
and  Journals'  (1897,  edited  by  F.  Warre- 
Cornish)  are  a  classic. 

GORYATE,  THOMAS  (i577?-i6i7),  the 
son  of  a  rector  of  Odcombe,  educated  at 
Gloucester  Hall,  Oxford,  travelled  in  1608 
through  France,  Italy,  Switzerland,  Ger- 
many, and  Holland,  mainly  on  foot.  He 
published  in  1611  a  narrative  of  his  travels, 
entitled  'Coryats  Crudities',  with  two  ap- 
pendices 'Coryats  Cramb*  and  'The  Od- 
combian  Banquet'.  In  1612  he  set  out  on  an 
overland  journey  to  India,  travelling  through 
Constantinople,  Palestine,  Mesopotamia,  and 
reaching  Agra  in  1616.  He  died  at  Surat.  A 
letter  of  his  from  the  court  of  the  Great 
Mogul  is  printed  by  Purchas,  and  this  and 
another  letter  from  the  East  are  included 
in  a  compilation  called  'Thomas  Coriate 
Traveller  for  the  English  Wits:  Greeting' 
( 1 6 1 6).  Coryate  wrote  in  a  strange  and  extra- 
vagant style. 

Corybantes,  the  priests  of  Cybele  (q.v.), 
who  in  the  celebration  of  their  festivals  beat 
their  cymbals  and  behaved  as  if  delirious. 
The  infant  Zeus  (q.v.)  was  entrusted  to  their 
care,  and  with  their  cymbals  they  drowned 
his  cries  and  prevented  Cronos  from  finding 
where  he  was  concealed* 
Corycian  Cave,  THE,  on  Mt.  Parnassus, 
derived  its  name  from  a  nymph  Corycia, 
beloved  of  Apollo.  The  Muses  are  sometimes 
called  Corycian  Nymphs. 

Gorydon,  a  shepherd  who  figures  in  the 
Eclogues  of  Virgil  and  in  Theocritus,  and 
whose  name  has  become  conventional  in 
pastoral  poetry. 

Coryphaeus,  the  leader  of  a  chorus  in  the 
Attic  drama. 

Cosmos ,  see  Humboldt. 

Costard,  a  clown  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's 
Labour 's  Lost'  (q.v.). 

Costigan,  CAPTAIN  and  EMILY  (Miss 
Fotheringay),  characters  in  Thackeray's 
Tendennis*  (q.v.). 

Cote  Rotie,  the  name  of  a  red  wine  grown 
on  a  hill  near  Ampuis  in  the  Rhdne  region, 
of  which  the  best  quality  is  highly  esteemed, 
but  is  small  in  quantity. 

COTGRAVE,  RANDLE(rf.  1634?),  author 
of  a  famous  French-English  Dictionary  pub- 
lished in  161 1.  He  was  a  scholar  of  St.  John's 


COTTON 

College,  Cambridge.  He  had  a  wide  know- 
ledge not  only  of  French  and  French  litera- 
ture, but  of  the  slang  of  the  day,  and  also  of 
natural  history.  Urquhart  relied  largely  upon 
his  dictionary  for  the  translation  of  Rabelais. 
Gotman,  JOHN  SELL  (1782-1842),  a  great 
landscape-painter  of  Crome's  'Norwich 
School'. 

Gotswold  Games,  public  athletic  contests 
held,  from  an  uncertain  antiquity,  on  the 
open  rounded  hills  of  the  Cotswolds.  They 
were  revived  and  organized  about  1604 
by  Captain  Robert  Dover,  who  lived  in  the 
Cotswolds,  and  were  made  the  subject  of 
'Annalia  Dubrensia,  or  Celebration  of  Cap- 
tain Robert  Dover's  Cotswold  Games',  a 
collection  of  poems  by  thirty-three  writers, 
including  such  well-known  names  as  Dray- 
ton,  Ben  Jonson,  Randolph,  and  Heywood. 
The  games  continued  to  be  held  during 
Whitsun-week  until  the  end  of  the  i8th  cent. 
'Dover's  Games*  are  the  scene  of  Wild- 
goose's  first  exploit  in  Graves 's  'The 
Spiritual  Quixote'  (q.v.).  'Dover's  Hill'  is 
the  name  of  the  flat  top  of  the  Cotswold 
escarpment  above  Chipping  Campden. 

Cotswold,  LION  OF,  i.e.  a  sheep.  John 
Heywood,  in  the  i6th  cent.,  refers  to  some 
one  who  was  as  fierce  'as  a  lion  of  Cotswold'. 

Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  The,  a  poem  by 
Burns  (q.v.). 

Cottesmore,  THE,  a  famous 'pack  of  fox- 
hounds, whose  country  adjoins  that  of  the 
Quorn  (q.v.),  founded  by  Sir  William  Lowther 
(afterwards  ist  earl  of  Lonsdale)  towards  the 
end  of  the  i8th  cent. 

COTTON,  CHARLES  (1630-87),  of  Beres- 
ford  Hall,  Staffordshire,  is  chiefly  re- 
membered as  the  author  of  the  dialogue  be- 
tween 'Piscator'  and  'Viator*  written  in  1676, 
which  forms  the  second  part  in  the  fifth 
edition  of  Izaak  Walton's  'Compleat  Angler' 
(q.v.).  He  also  wrote  many  pleasant  verses, 
including  the  'New  Year  Poem'  praised  by 
Charles  Lamb,  burlesques  of  Virgil  (1664) 
and  Lucian  (1665),  and  a  translation  of 
Montaigne's  'Essays'  (1685),  closer  but  less 
racy  than  Florio's  (q.v.). 
COTTON,  SIR  ROBERT  BRUCE  (1571- 
1631),  educated  at  Westminster  School  and 
Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  was  an  antiquary 
and  collector  of  manuscripts  and  coins.  He 
gave  the  free  use  of  his  library  to  Bacon, 
Camden,  Ralegh,  Selden,  Speed,  Ussher, 
and  other  scholars,  and  sent  a  gift  of  manu- 
scripts to  the  Bodleian  Library  on  its  founda- 
tion. He  joined  the  parliamentary  party  and 
published  various  political  tracts.  The  COT- 
TONIAN  LIBRARY,  largely  composed  of  works 
rescued  from  the  dissolved  monasteries,  was 
left  to  the  nation  by  Sir  John  Cotton  (1621- 
1701),  grandson  of  Sir  Robert;  it  was  placed 
in  Essex  House,  then  in  Ashburnham  House, 
where  it  suffered  severely  from  fire  in  173 1.  It 
was  removed  to  the  British  Museum  in  1753. 
It  includes  such  treasures  as  the  Lindisfarne 


COTTON  STATE 

Gospels  (q.v.)  and  other  splendid  biblical 
MSS.  such  as  the  Codex  Purpureus,  and  the 
MSS.  of  'Beowulf,  'Pearl',  and  'Gawain  and 
the  Green  Knight*  (qq.v.). 

Cotton  State,  Alabama,  see  United  States. 

Cottys  or  COTTUS,  a  hundred-handed  giant, 
brother  of  Briareus  (q.v.)  and  Gyges. 

Cotytto,  the  goddess  of  debauchery,  wor- 
shipped originally  in  Thrace,  and  subse- 
quently also  at  Athens. 

COUCH,  SIR  ARTHUR  THOMAS 
QUILLER-,  see  Quitter-Couch. 


Cou£,  finiLE  (1857-1926),  a  chemist  of 
Troyes  in  France,  who  developed  a  system  of 
psychotherapy  by  which  he  claimed  that  per- 
sons, through  auto-suggestion,  could  counter- 
act a  tendency  to  disease.  His  formula,  'Every 
day,  in  every  way,  I  am  becoming  better  and 
better*,  had  a  wide  vogue. 

Coulin,  a  British  giant  mentioned  in  Spen- 
ser's 'Faerie  Queene*,  n.  x.  n. 

Council  of  Trent,  an  'oecumenical*  council 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  which  sat, 
with  considerable  intervals,  at  Trent  in  the 
Tyrol,  1545-63,  settling  in  a  coherent  form 
the  doctrines  of  that  Church  in  opposition  to 
those  of  the  Reformation.  Its  decisions  are 
the  recognized  Roman  Catholic  authority  on 
matters  of  faith  and  discipline. 

Count  Julian,  a  tragedy  by  Landor  (q.v.), 
published  in  1812. 

It  deals  with  the  story  of  the  vengeance 
taken  by  Count  Julian,  a  Spanish  nobleman, 
on  Roderigo  the  king,  who  has  dishonoured 
Julian's  daughter;  and  Julian's  fate.  The 
subject  is  also  treated  in  Southey's  'Roderick* 
(q.v.),  and  in  a  different  form  by  Rowley  in 
his  'All's  Lost  by  Lust*  (q.v.). 

Count  Robert  of  Paris,  a  novel  by  Sir  W. 
Scott  (q.v.),  published  in  1831,  the  year 
before  the  author's  death.  This  was,  with  the 
exception  of  'The  Surgeon's  Daughter',  his 
last  novel.  It  was  written  in  ill-health  and 
betrays  the  decline  of  his  powers. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  Constantinople  in  the 
days  of  the  Emperor  Alexius  Comnenus 
(1081-1118),  and  the  story  centres  in  the 
arrival  there  of  the  first  crusaders,  and  in  a 
plot  of  Nicephorus  Briennius,  the  husband  of 
Anna  Cornnena  (q.v.),  to  dethrone  his  father- 
in-law.  Anna  Comnena  herself  figures  largely 
in  the  novel  and  provides  some  of  its  best 
pages.  Count  Robert  of  Paris,  a  proud  and 
valiant  Frankish  knight,  and  his  Amazonian 
wife  Brenhilda,  are  among  the  crusaders.  On 
the  occasion  of  the  homage  done  by  these  to 
the  emperor,  Count  Robert  grossly  insults  the 
latter  by  seating  himself  on  his  throne.  He 
thereby  arouses  the  wrath  of  Hereward,,  an 
English  soldier  of  the  emperor's  Varangian 
(q.v.)  guard.  The  count  and  his  wife,  by  a  de- 
vice of  the  emperor's,  are  detained  as  hostages 
for  the  crusaders  when  these  cross  to  Asia; 
the  count  is  thrown  into  prison,  and  rescued 


•COUNTY  PALATINE 

thence  by  the  chivalrous  Hereward.  Mean- 
while his  wife  Brenhilda  is  exposed  to  the 
unwelcome  attentions  of  Briennius,  and 
challenges  him  to  a  duel,  agreeing  to  sur- 
render herself  to  him  if  defeated.  When  the 
time  for  the  duel  comes,  Count  Robert 
presents  himself  in  her  stead,  and  as  Brien- 
nius fails  to  appear,  Hereward  fights  on  his 
behalf.  He  is  defeated,  but  his  life  is  spared 
by  the  count  in  consideration  of  his  past 
services.  Hereward  attaches  himself  to  the 
count,  having  discovered  his  old  Saxon  love, 
Bertha,  in  the  countess's  waiting- woman. 

Counter-Reformation,  a  movement  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  opposition  to 
the  Protestant  Reformation.  It  developed  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  i6th  cent.,  after  the 
Council  of  Trent  (1545-63)  and  the  peace  of 
Cateau-Cambresis  (1559)  between  Philip  II 
and  Henri  II  of  France.  In  the  course  of  the 
repressive  measures  which,  together  with  re- 
forms and  reorganization,  formed  part  of  this 
movement,  Giordano  Bruno  (q.v.)  was  burnt 
as  a  heretic. 

Countess  Cathleen,  The,  a  play  by  Yeats 
(q.v.),  published  in  1892,  one  of  the  two 
plays  with  which  the  Irish  Literary  Theatre 
(q.v.)  started  on  its  course. 

The  scene  is  laid  'in  Ireland  in  old  times* 
at  a  period  of  famine.  The  people  sell  their 
souls  to  the  demons  for  food.  The  countess 
does  all  she  can  to  relieve  their  needs,  till 
the  demons  steal  her  wealth.  Finally  she  sells 
her  own  soul  to  the  demons  for  a  great  sum, 
sacrificing  her  hope  of  salvation  for  the 
people.  But  at  the  end  she  is  forgiven,  for 
her  intention  was  good. 

Country  Wife,  The,  a  comedy  by  Wycherley 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1675. 

This  is  one  of  the  wittiest  of  Wycherley's 
plays,  but  the  manners  depicted  are  coarse 
and  indecent.  The  plot  illustrates  the  folly 
both  of  excessive  jealousy  and  of  excessive 
credulity  in  lovers.  Mr.  Pinchwife,  having 
occasion  to  come  to  London  for  the  marriage 
of  his  sister,  Alithea,  brings  with  him  has 
artless  young  country  wife,  and  the  excess  of 
his  suspicion  puts  ideas  into  her  head  which 
are  the  cause  of  his  undoing.  Sparkish,  who 
was  to  marry  Alithea,  from  the  opposite 
excess  of  confidence  and  credulity  loses  her 
at  the  last  moment  to  a  new  wooer.  While 
Homer,  a  witty  young  libertine,  who  has 
spread  a  false  report  about  himself  in  order 
to  facilitate  his  amours,  is  able  to  satisfy 
Pinchwife  of  his  wife's  innocence. 

This  play  was  adapted  by  Garrick  as  'The 
Country  Girl'. 

County  Palatine,  in  England,  a  county  o£ 
which  the  earl  or  lord  had  originally  royal 
privileges,  with  the  right  of  exclusive  civil 
and  criminal  jurisdiction.  The  counties 
palatine  are  now  Cheshire  and  Lancashire. 
The  word  Palatine  meant  originally  *of  or 
belonging  to  the  imperial  palace  of  the 
Caesars*. 


COUP  DE  THEATRE 

Coup  de  theatre,  an  unexpected  and  sensa- 
tional turn  in  a  play. 

Courcy,  LORD  and  LADY  DE,  and  their  sons 
and  daughters,  characters  in  A.  Trollope's 
Barsetshrre  series  of  novels,  types  of  a 
worldly,  self-seeking,  heartless  aristocracy. 

Courier,  The,  a  newspaper  that  attained  con- 
siderable importance  in  the  early  part  of  the 
1 9th  cent.,  under  the  management  of  Daniel 
Stuart   (q.v.).    Coleridge  and  Wordsworth 
were  among  its  contributors.  Gait  (q.v.)  was 
at  one  time  its  editor. 
Courier  of  Lyons,  The,  see  Reade. 
Court  of  Arches,  see  Arches  (Court  of). 

Court  of  Love,  an  institution  said  to  have 
existed  in  Provence  and  Languedoc  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  a  tribunal  composed  of  lords 
and  ladies  for  deciding  questions  of  gallantry. 

Court  of  Love,  The,  an  allegory  (1,400  lines 
in  rhyme-royal)  attributed  doubtfully  to 
Chaucer,  in  which  the  poet  visits  the  Court 
of  Venus,  converses  with  those  who  frequent 
it,  and  reads  its  twenty  statutes.  He  is  as- 
signed as  'servant*  to  a  damsel,  named 
Rosiall,  and  witnesses  various  allegorical 
scenes,  notably  the  picture  of  those  who  have 
voluntarily  renounced  love.  The  poem  ends 
with  a  charming  concert  of  the  birds  on  May- 
day, when  they  sing  descants  on  the  opening 
words  of  psalms.  Linguistic  peculiarities 
suggest  that  this  poem  was  of  later  date  than 
Chaucer,  or  was  extensively  re-written.  It 
purports  to  be  the  work  of  one  Thilo- 
genet,  of  Cambridge,  clerk*.  In  spirit  it  is 
thoroughly  Chaucerian. 

Court  of  Pie- Powder,  seePiepowder  Court. 

COURTELINE,  the  name  by  which 
GEORGES  MOINAUX  (1860-1929)  is  generally 
known,  French  humorist  and  satirist, 
who  ridiculed  French  officialdom  in  his 
'Messieurs  les  Ronds-de-Cuir'  (translated 
as  'The  Bureaucrats'),  and  French  legal 
absurdities  in  a  number  of  short  plays. 

COURTHOPE,  WILLIAM  JOHN  (1842- 
1917),  educated  at  Harrow,  and  Corpus 
Christi  College  and  New  College,  Oxford, 
became  a  civil  service  commissioner  and 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford.  His  chief 
works  are  the  last  rive  volumes  of  the  stan- 
dard edition  of  Pope's  works,  including  a 
'Life*  (1871-89);  and  a  'History  of  English 
Poetry5  (1895-1910).  In  1884  he  contributed 
a  volume  on  Addison  to  the  English  Men  of 
Letters  series.  His  other  works  include 
'Ludibria  Lunae*  (1869),  and  the  delightful 
Aristophanic  'Paradise  of  Birds*  (1870,  in 
which  a  philosopher  and  a  poet  are  tried  for 
the  crimes  of  mankind  against  the  birds  and 
are  barely  acquitted).  "The  Country  Town 
and  other  Poems',  published  in  1920  after 
his  death,  contain  many  pieces  of  great 
charm. 

Courtier,  THE  (fll  Cortegiano'),  see  Cos- 
ttglione. 


COVENTRY 

Courtoys,  the  name  of  the  hound  in  'Rey- 
nard the  Fox*  (q.v.). 

Courtship  of  Miles   Blandish,   see  Miles 

Standish, 

Couwaert,  see  Coart. 

Covenant,  THE,  or  NATIONAL  COVENANT,  a 
protestation  signed  all  over  Scotland  in  1638, 
in  which  the  subscribers  swore  to  defend  the 
Protestant  religion  and  to  resist  all  contrary 
errors  and  corruptions.  A  COVENANTER  (in 
Scotland  traditionally  pronounced  cove- 
nan'ter)  was  a  subscriber  or  adherent  of  the 
above. 

Covenant,  THE  SOLEMN  LEAGUE  AND,  a 
treaty  between  the  English  and  Scottish 
nations  concluded  in  1643,  stipulating  the 
preservation  of  the  reformed  Church  in 
Scotland,  the  reformation  of  religion  in 
England,  the  extirpation  of  popery  and 
episcopacy,  and  peace  between  the  kingdoms. 

Co  vent  Garden,  in  London,  the  old  Con- 
vent Garden  of  Westminster.  At  the  dis- 
solution of  the  monasteries,  it  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Russell  family,  who  built 
Bedford  House  north  of  the  Strand  and 
laid  out  the  garden  for  building,  with  the 
market  as  the  centre.  Inigo  Jones  built 
St.  Paul's  Church  there,  and  the  piazza,  that 
runs  along  two  sides  of  the  market-place. 
Many  celebrated  people  lived  in  Covent 
Garden  (Sir  Kenelm  Digby,  Sir  Godfrey 
Kneller,  Sir  Peter  Lely,  ZofTany,  Lady  Mary 
Wortley  Montagu,  among  others),  and  the 
Bedford  Coffee-house,  and  those  of  Will  and 
Button  (qq.v.)  were  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Covent  Garden  is  frequently  mentioned  in 
1 7th-  and  i8th-cent.  literature,  generally  as  a 
centre  of  dissipation.  It  is  still  the  principal 
wholesale  market  in  London  for  vegetables, 
fruit,  and  flowers. 

The  first  COVENT  GARDEN  THEATRE  was 
opened  by  Rich  in  1732.  It  was  burnt  down 
in  1808,  and  its  successor  in  1856.  In  these, 
many  famous  actors  were  seen,  including 
Munden,  the  Kembles,  Braham,  Mrs. 
Siddons,  and  Macready.  The  new  theatre 
(by  Barry)  opened  in  1858  has  been  the 
principal  home  in  England  of  English  and 
Italian  opera. 

Covent  Garden  Journal,  a  periodical  issued 
twice  a  week  during  1752  by  H.  Fielding 
(q.v.),  under  the  pseudonym  of  Sir  Alexander 
Drawcansir,  containing  essays  on  literature 
and  manners.  It  contained  an  attack  on 
Smollett's  'Peregrine  Pickle*  and  'Roderick 
Random',  to  which  that  author  replied  in  a 
scurrilous  pamphlet,  'A  Faithful  Narrative  of 
.  .  .  Habbakuk  Hilding,  Justice,  Dealer,  and 
Chapman'  (1752). 

Coventry,  To  SEND  TO,  to  exclude  a  person 
from  the  society  of  which  he  is  a  member,  on 
account  of  objectionable  conduct.  The  origin 
of  the  expression  is  perhaps  indicated,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  OED.»  by  the  following 
quotation: 


[190] 


COVENTRY 

'At  Brormngham  a  town  so  generally 
wicked  that  it  had  risen  upon  small  parties 
of  the  king's,  and  killed  or  taken  them 
prisoners  and  sent  them  to  Coventry*  [then 
strongly  held  for  the  parliament]. 
Clarendon,  'History  of  the  Rebellion*,  vr,  §  83. 

COVENTRY,  FRANCIS  (d.  1759?),  edu- 
cated at  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge, 
author  of  the  'History  of  Pompey  the  Little* 
(1751),  a  satire  in  the  form  of  the  picaresque 
narrative  of  the  life  of  a  lap-dog,  who  under- 
goes many  vicissitudes,  passing  from  one 
owner  to  another  of  very  diverse  stations. 

Coventry  Miracle  Plays,  see  Miracle 
Plays. 

COyERDALE,  ^  MILES  (1488-1568), 
studied  at  Cambridge,  was  ordained  priest 
in  1514  and  adopted  Lutheran  views.  He 
translated  at  Antwerp,  apparently  in  the  pay 
of  Jacob  van  Meteren,  the  Bible  and  Apocry- 
pha from  German  and  Latin  versions  with 
aid  of  Tyndale's  New  Testament.  His  trans- 
lation was  first  printed  perhaps  by  Christo- 
pher Froschouer  of  Zurich.  A  modified 
version  was  issued  in  1537.  Coverdale  also 
superintended  the  printing  of  the  c  Great 
Bible'  of  1539  (see  under  Bible,  The  English). 
He  was  bishop  of  Exeter  in  1551-3,  and  was 
allowed  to  leave  England  in  1554  after  Queen 
Mary's  accession.  He  was  in  England  again 
in  1559,  published  his  last  book,  'Letters  of 
Saintes',  in  1564,  and  was  rector  of  St.  Mag- 
nus, London  Bridge,  from  1563  to  1566. 
His  collected  works,  which  include  trans- 
lations of  theological  tracts  and  German 
hymns,  were  published  in  1844—6.  If  he  was 
in  fact  (which  has  been  questioned)  the 
translator  of  the  version  of  the  Bible  at- 
tributed to  him,  he  is  entitled  to  the  credit 
for  much  of  the  noble  language  of  the 
Authorized  Version,  and  in  particular  for  the 
Prayer-book  version  of  the  Psalter. 

Coverley,  SIR  ROGER  DE,  a  character  de- 
scribed by  Addison  (q.v.)  in  the  'Specta- 
tor* (q.v.).  He  is  a  member  of  the  Spectator 
Club,  'a  gentleman  of  Worcestershire,  of 
ancient  descent,  a  baronet.  His  great 
grandfather  was  inventor  of  that  famous 
country-dance  which  is  called  after  him.  He 
is  a  gentleman  that  is  very  singular  in  his 
behaviour,  but  his  singularities  proceed 
from  his  good  sense,  and  are  contradictions 
to  the  manners  of  the  world,  only  as  he 
thinks  the  world  is  in  the  wrong.  ...  It  is 
said,  he  keeps  himself  a  batchelor,  by  reason 
he  was  crossed  in  love  by  a  perverse  beautiful 
widow  of  the  next  county  to  him.*  He  figures 
in  a  number  of  the  'Spectator'  papers  (both 
by  Addison  and  Steele),  being  depicted  at 
home,  at  church,  at  the  assizes,  in  town,  at 
the  play,  at  Vauxhall,  &c. 
COWLEY,  ABRAHAM  (1618-67),  was  son 
of  a  wealthy  citizen  of  London,  king's  scholar 
at  Westminster,  and  scholar  and  fellow  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  His  amazing 
precocity  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  when  ten 


COWPER 

years  of  age,  he  composed  an  epical  romance 
of  'Pyramus  and  Thisbe',  followed  two  years 
later  by  the  epic  'Constantia  and  Philetus* 
(both  included  in  'Poetical  Blossoms'  pub- 
lished in  1633).  'Love's  Riddle',  a  pastoral 
drama,  appeared  in  1638;  'Naufragium  Jocu- 
lare*,  a  Latin  comedy,  in  the  same  year;  and 
'The  Guardian',  reissued  as  'The  Cutter  of 
Coleman  Street',  a  comedy  directed  against 
the  Puritans,  in  1641.  Ejected  from  Cam- 
bridge in  that  year  as  a  result  of  the  Civil 
War,  he  went  first  to  Oxford  and  thence  in 
1646  to  Paris,  where  he  became  cipher- 
secretary  to  Queen  Henrietta  Maria  and  was 
employed  on  delicate  diplomatic  missions. 
He  came  as  a  Royalist  spy  to  England  in  1655, 
was  imprisoned,  released  on  bail  (his  release 
occasioned  suspicions  of  his  honesty),  and 
studied  medicine  at  Oxford.  After  the  restora- 
tion, a  competence  was  provided  for  him  by  the 
earl  of  St.  Albans  and  the  duke  of  Bucking- 
ham, and  he  received  a  grant  of  the  manor 
of  Oldcourt  (Nethercot). 

His  principal  works,  besides  those  men- 
tioned above,  are  'The  Mistress',  a  love-cycle, 
1647;  'Miscellanies*  including  four  books  of 
the  'Davideis*,  an  epic  in  decasyllabic  coup- 
lets on  the  biblical  history  of  David,  1656; 
odes  on  the  Restoration  and  against  Crom- 
well, 1660-1 ;  'Verses  on  several  occasions', 
1663.  In  his  'Pindarique  Odes',  included  in 
the  'Miscellanies',  he  introduced  the  fashion 
of  the  rhetorical  ode,  in  irregular  verse, 
imitated  by  Dryden  and  others.  His  prose 
works,  marked  by  grace  and  simplicity  of 
style,  include  a  tract  on  the  'Advancement  of 
Experimental  Philosophy*  (1661),  a  'Dis- 
course by  way  of  Vision  concerning  Oliver 
Cromwell'  (1661),  and  some  'Essays*,  notably 
one  'Of  Myself  containing  interesting  par- 
ticulars of  his  early  life. 

COWLEY,  MRS.  HANNAH  (1743-1809), 
nee  Parkhouse,  wrote  a  number  of  comedies 
between  1776  and  1795,  including  'The 
Runaway'  (1776)  and  'A  Bold  Stroke  for  a 
Husband3  (1783),  of  which  the  most  success- 
ful was  'The  Belle's  Stratagem'  (q.v.),  pro- 
duced in  1780.  She  contributed  weekly 
sentimental  verses  to  the  'World*  as  'Anna 
Matilda*. 

GOWPER,  WILLIAM  (pron.  Cooper), 
(1731-1800),  son  of  a  rector  of  Great  Berk- 
hampstead,  was  educated  at  a  private  school 
(where  he  was  bullied)  and  at  Westminster 
School.  He  was  then  articled  to  a  solicitor 
(i75o-2),in  1752  took  chambers  in  the  Middle 
Temple,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1754.  He 
suffered  from  fits  of  depression,  which,  when 
he  was  offered  a  clerkship  in  the  House  of  Lords 
in  1763,  developed  into  mania,  and  he  tried 
to  commit  suicide.  From  his  mania  he  was 
cured,  but  he  thereafter  lived  in  retirement. 
In  1765  he  became  a  boarder  in  the  house  of 
Morley  Unwin  at  Huntingdon,  where  the 
cheerful  simple  life  perfectly  suited  him. 
After  Unwin's  death,  he  removed  with  Mary, 
Unwin's  widow,  to  Olney,  coming  under  the 


COX  AND  BOX 

influence  of  Newton,  the  evangelical  curate 
of  the  place,  at  whose  instance  he  con- 
tributed to  the  collection  of  'Olney  Hymns' 
(published  in  1779),  his  contributions  in- 
cluding such  well-known  hymns  as  'Hark, 
my  soul!  it  is  the  Lord*,  and  'God  moves  in 
a  mysterious  way'.  He  became  engaged  to 
Mrs.  Unwin,  but  suffered  another  outbreak 
of  mania  in  1773.  In  1779,  the  influence  of 
the  strenuous  Newton  being  withdrawn, 
Cowper  entered  upon  the  most  peaceful 
period  of  his  life,  and  began  to  write  much 
poetry.  In  1781  he  published  'Anti-Thely- 
phthora',  a  reply  to  a  book  by  his  cousin  Mar- 
tin Madan  advocating  polygamy.  At  the  sug- 
gestion of  Mrs.  Unwin  he  wrote  eight  satires: 
'Table  Talk',  'The  Progress  of  Error*, 
'Truth',  'Expostulation*,  'Hope*,  'Charity', 
'Conversation*,  and  'Retirement*.  These 
were  published  in  1782.  The  volume  in- 
cluded some  shorter  poems,  among  others  the 
well-known  'Boadicea  and  'Verses  supposed 
to  be  written  by  Alexander  Selkirk'.  In 
1782  he  wrote  'John  Gilpin*  (q.v.)  and  in 
1784  'The  Task'  (q.v.).  The  volume  which 
contained  these  (published  in  1785)  also  in- 
cluded 'Tirocinium',  a  vigorous  attack  on 
public  schools  as  Cowper  knew  them.  In 
1786  he  moved,  with  Mrs.  Unwin,  to  Weston, 
where  he  wrote  some  short  poems  published 
after  his  death,  including  'Yardley  Oak* 
(1791),  the  verses  'On  the  Loss  of  the  Royal 
George*,  the  sonnet  'To  Mrs.  Unwin',  the 
beautiful  lines  'To  Mary',  and  'The  Poplar 
Field*.  In  1785  he  undertook  the  translation 
of  Homer,  published  in  1791,  which  was  not 
successful.  He  received  a  pension  in  1794. 
Mrs.  Unwin  died  in  the  same  year,  and  her 
loss  left  Cowper  shattered  in  mind  and  body. 
He  wrote  the  fine  but  gloomy  poem  'The 
Castaway*  shortly  before  his  death. 

Cpwper's  admirable  letters,  of  which  several 
editions  have  been  published,  throw  light  on 
his  simple,  gentle,  and  humane  personality. 
"His  poetry  is  notable  as  heralding  a  simpler 
and  more  natural  style  than  the  classical 
style  of  Pope  and  his  inferior  imitators. 

Cox  and  Box,  an  operetta  by  Sir  F.  Burnand, 
music  by  Sir  A.  Sullivan  (qq.v.),  produced  in 
1867. 

Cox's  Museum :  James  Cox,  jeweller  and 
clockmaker  in  Shoe  Lane,  had  a  museum  in 
Spring  Gardens,  of  which  catalogues  for 
1772  and  1774  figure  in  the  Catalogue  of  the 
British  Museum.  The  East  India  Co.  ordered 
two  clocks  from  him  to  be  sent  to  the  emperor 
of  China.  But  the  museum  did  not  prosper, 
and  the  stock  was  disposed  of  by  a  lottery. 
See  Mrs.  Ellis's  notes  in  Mackinnon*s  edition 
(1930)  of  Miss  Burney's  'Evelina',  in  which 
book  there  is  a  reference  to  the  museum. 

Crab,  in  Shakespeare's  'Two  Gentlemen  of 
Verona'  (q.v.),  Launce's  dog. 

CRABBE,  GEORGE  (1754-1832),  was  born 
at  Aldeburgh  in  Suffolk,  where  his  father  was 
collector  of  salt-duties.  He  was  apprenticed 


CRAFTSMAN 

to  a  doctor,  and  subsequently  practised 
medicine  at  Aldeburgh.  During  his  ap- 
prenticeship he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Sarah  Elmy,  whom  he  married  ten  years  later. 
In  1780  he  went  to  London,  where  he  was 
generously  befriended  by  Edmund  Burke 
and  on  his  advice  published  'The  Library'  in 
1781,  a  poem  in  the  manner  of  Pope  con- 
taining the  author's  somewhat  common- 
place reflections  on  books  and  reading.  In 
the  same  year  he  took  orders  and  became 
curate  of  Aldeburgh,  and  from  1782  to  1785 
was  chaplain  at  Belvoir  to  the  duke  of  Rut- 
land. In  1783  appeared,  after  revision  by 
Burke  and  Johnson,  'The  Village'  (q.v.),  a 
poem  in  heroic  couplets.  A  long  interval 
followed  during  which  Crabbe  published 
nothing  of  importance.  In  1807  appeared  a 
volume  containing  among  other  poems  'The 
Parish  Register*  (q.v.),  which  first  revealed 
the  gifts  of  Crabbe  as  a  narrative  poet.  The 
same  volume  contained  'Sir  Eustace  Grey*, 
the  terrible  account,  in  eight-lined  stanzas, 
by  a  patient  in  a  madhouse,  of  his  decline 
from  happiness  and  prosperity.  In  1810  he 
published  'The  Borough'  (q.v.),  a  poem  in 
twenty-four  'letters',  in  which  he  illustrates 
by  various  stories  the  life  of  a  country  town. 
This  was  followed  in  1812  by  'Tales',  twenty- 
one  stories  in  which  the  poet  again  shows  his 
power  of  narrative  and  character-drawing. 
The  best  known  of  these  is  'The  Frank 
Courtship',  the  comedy  of  the  wooing  of  the 
worldly  Sybil  by  the  puritan  Josiah.  This 
and  other  'Tales',  notably  'The  Patron*  and 
'The  Gentleman  Farmer',  reveal  Crabbe's 
somewhat  grim  sense  of  humour.  In  1814 
Crabbe  was  appointed  vicar  of  Trowbridge, 
and  in  1819  he  published  'Tales  of  the  Hall', 
stories  again,  terrible,  humorous,  or  sad. 
This  was  the  last  volume  published  in  his 
life-time,  but  the  collected  edition  of  his 
works  issued  by  his  son  in  1834  contained 
some  fresh  tales  of  considerable  merit,  such 
as  'The  Equal  Marriage*  and  'Silford  Hall*. 
A  complete  collection  of  Crabbe's  poems, 
edited  by  A.  W.  Ward,  was  issued  by  the 
Cambridge  University  Press  in  1905-7. 
Crabbe  was  a  realistic  describer  of  life  as  he 
saw  it,  in  all  its  ugliness — 'Though  nature's 
sternest  painter  yet  the  best*,  as  Byron  called 
him — and  rarely  rose  to  the  higher  flights  of 
poetry.  He  visited  Scott  at  Edinburgh  in 
1822  (there  is  a  pleasant  account  in  Lockhart, 
Ivi),  and  the  two  authors,  though  their  out- 
look was  so  different,  appear  to  have  enjoyed 
each  other's  poetry. 

Cradock,  SIR,  see  Boy  and  the  Mantle. 

Crafts7nant  The,  a  periodical  started  in 
December  1726  by  Nicholas  Amhurst  ('Caleb 
D'Anvers'),  to  which  Bolingbroke  (q.v.)  con- 
tributed his  'Remarks  upon  the  History  of 
England*  (September  I73o-May  1731)  and 
his  'Dissertation  upon  Parties'  (1733), 
Among  other  contributors  were  Dr.  Arbuth- 
not,  Swift,  Budgell,  and  perhaps  Pope.  Its 
title  was  intended  to  indicate  Sir  Robert 


CRAIGDALLIE 

Walpole  as  a  *man  of  craft';  and  its  essence 
(so  far  as  it  was  political)  lay  in  its  opposition 
to  Walpole  and  his  cabinets.  The  journal 
ran  for  about  ten  years. 

Craigdallie,  in  Scott's  'The  Fair  Maid  of 
Perth'  (q.v.),  the  bailie  of  Perth. 
Graigenputtock,  see  Carlyle  (T.). 
GRAIK,  MRS.,  see  Mulock. 
Crane,  ICHABOD,  see  Sleepy  Hollow. 

CRANE,  STEPHEN  (1871-1900),  an 
American  novelist,  whose  early  death  inter- 
rupted a  career  of  promise,  is  remembered 
as  the  author  of  'The  Red  Badge  of  Courage, 
an  Episode  of  the  American  Civil  War'  (1895) 
and  of  a  volume  of  short  stories.  'The  Open 
Road'  (1898). 

Crane,  WALTER  (1845-1915),  artist,  is  re- 
membered chiefly  as  a  decorator  of  rooms 
and  furniture  and  for  his  work  in  the  illustra- 
tion of  books,  especially  of  books  for  children, 
but  including  an  edition  of  Spenser's  'Faerie 
Queene*  (1894-6)  and  some  poems  of  his 
own.  He  became  in  1898  principal  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Art,  South  Kensington. 
His  art  showed  the  influence  of  the  Pre- 
Raphaelites,  particularly  of  Morris,  with 
whose  socialistic  views  Crane  was  in  agree- 
ment, He  was  the  first  president  of  the  Art 
Workers'  Guild,  founded  in  1884,  and  from 
1895  to  his  death  was  president  of  the  Arts 
and  Crafts  Exhibition  Society. 

Cranford,  a  novel  by  Mrs.  Gaskell  (q.v.), 
published  in  'Household  Words'  in  1851-3, 
republished  in  1853. 

'Cranford'  is  a  prose  idyll,  in  which  the 
authoress,  drawing  in  part  on  her  ex- 
periences of  Knutsford,  describes  with  much 
tenderness,  and  a  just  blend  of  humour  and 
pathos,  life  in  a  quiet  Cheshire  village  in  the 
early  1 9th  cent.  Gentility  is  the  predominant 
note  in  Cranford,  and  the  ladies  (there  are 
hardly  any  gentlemen)  practise  'elegant 
economy'.  Mrs.  Gaskell  draws  delightful 
portraits  of  these  ladies,  from  the  Honourable, 
but  dull  and  pompous,  Mrs.  Jamieson  (with 
her  butler,  Mr.  Mulliner,  who  resembles  £a 
sulky  cockatoo')  to  Miss  Betty  Barker,  the  old 
clerk's  daughter.  But  the  principal  characters 
are  the  daughters  of  a  former  rector,  Matilda 
Jenkyns  (the  gentle  Miss  Matty)  and  her 
stern  elder  sister  Miss  Deborah,'  who  thinks 
'Pickwick*  by  no  means  equal  to  Dr:  Johnson. 
We  have  sketches  of  the  tragedy  of  the  genial 
Captain  Brown,  run  over  by  a  train  while 
deep  in  the  perusal  of  a  number  of  the  ob- 
noxious 'Pictwick';  of  Miss  Matty's  un- 
happy little  love  story ;  of  the  panic  caused  in 
the  village  by  a  succession  of  purely  imaginary 
robberies;  of  the  flutter  due  to  the  visit  of 
Lady  Glenmire^  widow  of  a  Scottish  baron, 
and  still  more*  to  her  marriage  with  the  rather 
vulgar  Mr.  Hoggins,  the  surgeon;  and  so 
forth,  ending  with  the  ruin  of  Miss  Matty 
through  the  failure  of  a  bank,  the  kindly 
devices  of  her  friends  to  help  her,  and  the 


CRASHAW 

fortunate  return  from  India  of  her  long-lost 
brother  Peter,  who  describes  how  he  once 
'shot  a  Cherubim'. 

Granion,  in  Drayton's  'Nymphidia*  (q.v.), 
Queen  Mab's  charioteer. 

CRANMER,  THOMAS  (1489-1556),  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  was  a  fellow  of  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge.  He  propounded  views 
in  favour  of  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII  from 
Catharine  of  Aragon,  was  appointed  to  the 
archbishopric  in  1533,  and  maintained  the 
king's  claim  to  be  the  supreme  head  of 
the  Church  of  England.  He  supervised  the 
production  of  the  first  prayer-book  of  Edward 
VI,  1549;  prepared  the  revised  prayer-book 
of  1552;  and  promulgated  the  forty-two 
articles  of  religion  (afterwards  reduced  to 
thirty-nine)  in  the  same  year.  To  meet  the 
need  for  suitable  sermons,  he  contributed  to 
and  probably  edited  the  first  book  of  'Homi- 
lies* issued  in  1547.  In  Queen  Mary's  reign  he 
was  condemned  for  heresy  by  Cardinal  Pole, 
recently  appointed  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  degraded  in  1556.  He  signed  six  docu- 
ments admitting  the  supremacy  of  the  pope 
and  the  truth  of  all  Roman  Catholic  doctrine 
except  transubstantiation,  in  vain,  and  was 
burned  at  the  stake  repudiating  these  admis- 
sions on  21  March  1556.  He  suffered  at 
Oxford,  in  company  with  Ridley  (q.v.),  hold- 
ing his  right  hand  (which  had  written  his 
recantation)  steadily  in  the  flames,  that  it 
might  be  the  first  burnt.  He  compiled  a 
'Reformatio  Legum  Ecclesiasticarum'  (1550), 
which  never  saw  the  light,  and  wrote  on 
Anglican  discipline  and  theology;  but  his 
chief  title  to  fame  is  that  of  being  the  principal 
author  of  the  English  liturgy. 

For  CRANMER'S  BIBLE  see  under  Bible  (The 
English). 

Grapand  or  JOHNNY  CRAPAUD,  a  derisive 
term  at  one  time  in  use  for  a  Frenchman. 
According  to  Guillim  and  Peacham,  lyth- 
cent.  writers  on  heraldry,  the  ancient  arms 
of  France  were  three  crapauds  or  toads. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem,  it  appears  uncertain 
whether  this  is  true  or  not.  There  is  much 
discussion  of  the  subject  in  the  'I.D.C.*.  A 
statue  of  King  Clovis  at  Frankfort-on-Main 
shows,  it  is  said,  three  toads  on  his  shield, 
and  a  i4th-cent.  tapestry  in  Rheims  Cathedral 
likewise  shows  toads  as  his  device.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  argued  that  heraldic  emblems 
were  adopted  in  France  only  after  the  first 
crusade,  much  later  than  Clovis.  On  the 
whole  it  appears  that  the  so-called  toads  are 
rudely  executed  attempts  to  represent  fleurs- 
de-lis,  or  lance-heads. 

CRASHAW,  RICHARD  (1612  ?~49),  the 
son  of  a  noted  anti-papal  preacher,  was  edu- 
cated at  Charterhouse  and  Pembroke  Hall, 
Cambridge,  and  was  a  fellow  of  Peterhouse 
from  1637  to  1643.  He  entered  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  and  went  to  Paris,  and 
appears  to  have  been  introduced  to  Queen 
Henrietta  Maria  by  his  friend  Cowley  (q.v.)» 


3868 


[193] 


CRATCHIT 

her  secretary.  She  in  turn  introduced  him 
to  Cardinal  Pallotto,  the  governor  of  Rome, 
who  appointed  him  his  private  secretary, 
and  subsequently  procured  him  a  benefice 
in  the  Basilica-church  of  Our  Lady  of  Loretto 
in  1649,  where  he  died  shortly  after  his  arrival. 
His  principal  poetical  work  was  the  'Steps 
to  the  Temple*  (1646),  a  collection  of 
religious  poems  showing  great  devotional 
ecstasy,  and  the  influence  of  Marino  and  also, 
as  Gosse  has  pointed  out,  of  the  Spanish 
Mystics.  To  this  was  attached  a  secular 
section,  the  'Delights  of  the  Muses',  con- 
taining the  well-known  'Music's  Duel',  a 
paraphrase  of  the  Latin  of  Strada,  in  which 
the  nightingale  and  the  lute-player  contend 
until  the  former  'unable  to  measure  all  those 
wild  diversities  of  chatt'ring  strings',  fails 
and  dies;  and  also  the  pretty  'Wishes  to  his 
unknown  Mistress',  beginning  'Whoe'er  she 
be'.  His  poem,  'The  Flaming  Heart',  a 
hymn  to  St.  Teresa,  belongs  to  the  period 
before  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic.  The 
posthumous  'Carmen  Deo  Nostro*  (1652) 
included  reprints  of  many  of  his  best  earlier 
poems  besides  new  works. 

Cratchit,  BOB,  a  character  in  Dickens's  £A 
Christmas  Carol'  (q.v.). 

Craven  Fellowships  and  scholarships  at 
Oxford,  and  Craven  scholarships  and  student- 
ships at  Cambridge,  were  founded  by  John, 
Baron  Craven  of  Ryton  (d.  1649). 

Crawford,  LORD,  in  Scott's  'Quentin  Dur- 
ward'  (q.v.),  the  commander  of  the  Scottish 
Archers  of  the  Guard. 

CRAWFORD,  FRANCIS  MARION(i854- 
1909),  was  born  of  American  parents  at 
Bagni  di  Lucca  in  Tuscany,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard,  Heidelberg,  and  Rome. 
He  edited  for  a  time  the  'Indian  Herald*  at 
Allahabad.  His  first  novel,  'Mr.  Isaacs,  a  tale 
of  Modern  India*,  was  published  in  America 
in  1882.  He  returned  to  Italy  in  1883  and 
thereafter  lived  principally  at  Sorrento.  He 
travelled  extensively  and  his  novels  reflect 
his  knowledge  of  foreign  lands.  Thus  four 
have  Rome  for  their  scene:  'Saracinesca' 
(1887),  'Sant'  Ilario*  (1889),  'Don  Orsino' 
(1892),  and  'Corleone*  (1896);  one  has 
Constantinople,  'Paul  PatofF  (1887);  three 
have  the  East,  'Zoroaster*  (1885),  'Khaled* 
(1891),  'Via  Crucis*  (1898);  and  three  have 
Germany,  'Dr.  Claudius'  (1883),  'Greifen- 
stein'  (1889),  and  'The  Cigarette-maker's 
Romance'  (1890) ;  while  the  scene  of  others  is 
laid  in  England  or  America. 

CRAWFORD,  ISABELLA  VALANEY 
(1850-86),  Canadian  poet,  was  born  in  Dub- 
lin, and  from  the  age  of  eight  lived  in  Canada. 
Her  collected  poems,  which  show  a  con- 
siderable lyrical  gift,  were  published  in  1905. 

Crawley,  THE  REV.  JOSIAH,  and  his 
daughter  GRACE,  characters  in  A.  Trollope's 
'Framley  Parsonage'  and  'Last  Chronicle  of 
Barset'  (qq.v.). 


CREMONA 

Crawley,  PETER,  a  character  in  Reade's  'It  is 
Never  too  Late  to  Mend*  (q.v.). 
Crawley,  SIR  PITT,  his  sister  Miss  CRAWLEY, 
his  brother  the  REV.  BUTE,  and  MRS.  BUTE, 
and  his  sons,  PITT  and  RAWDON,  leading 
characters  in  Thackeray's  'Vanity  Fair'  (q.v.). 

Craye,  COL.  HORACE  DE,  a  character  in  Mere- 
dith's 'The  Egoist'  (q.v.). 
CRAYON,  GEOFFREY,  pseudonym  of  W, 
IRVING  (q.v.). 

Crazy  Kate,  the  subject  of  a  digression  in 
'The  Sofa',  the  first  part  of  Cowper's  'The 
Task'. 

Creakle,  in  Dickens's  'David  Copperfield' 
(q.v.),  the  bullying  head  master  of  the  hero's 
first  school. 

Credo,  'I  believe',  the  first  word  of  the 
Apostles*  and  Nicene  Creeds  in  Latin.  Hence 
a  name  for  either  of  these  creeds.  Also  used 
for  the  short  space  of  time  in  which  a  man 
might  say  his  Creed. 

CREEVEY,  THOMAS  (1768-1838),  was 
whig  M.P.  successively  for  Thetford  and 
Appleby.  The  'Creevey  Papers'  published 
in  1903,  consisting  of  letters  to  his  step- 
daughter, Elizabeth  Ord,  extracts  from  his 
journal,  and  letters  to  Creevey  from  various 
important  persons,  are  interesting  for  their 
gossip,  and  the  light  they  throw  on  the 
characters  of  prominent  persons  and  on  the 
society  of  the  later  Georgian  era.  In  Cree- 
vey's  old  age,  when  the  Whigs  were  in  power, 
he  held  office  as  treasurer  of  Ordnance,  and 
afterwards  as  treasurer  of  Greenwich  Hos- 
pital. Charles  Greville  (q.v.)  in  his  'Memoirs' 
(20  Feb.  1838)  refers  to  Creevey 's  cheerful 
and  sociable  disposition ;  he  was  at  once  'per- 
fectly happy  and  exceedingly  poor'. 

CREIGHTON,  MANDELL  (1843-1901), 
fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  held  the 
living  of  Embleton  in  Northumberland 
until  appointed  in  1884  to  the  chair  of 
ecclesiastical  history  at  Cambridge.  He  was 
the  first  editor  of  the  'English  Historical 
Review3,  surrendering  the  post  on  his  selec- 
tion for  the  bishopric  of  Peterborough  in 
1891,  whence  he  was  transferred  to  that  of 
London  in  1897.  His  important  'History  of 
the  Papacy  during  the  Reformation'  appeared 
in  1882-94.  His  other  historical  works  in- 
clude 'The  Tudors  and  the  Reformation' 
(1876),  "The  Age  of  Elizabeth'  (1876),  and 
biographies  of  Simon  de  Montfort  (1876), 
Cardinal  Wolsey  (1888),  and  Queen  Eliza- 
beth (1896).  His  'Life  and  Letters'  was  pub- 
lished by  his  widow  in  1904. 

Cremona,  a  town  in  Lombardy  where  the 
art  of  violin-making  reached  its  highest  excel- 
lence in  the  I7th  and  early  i8th  cents.  The 
two  Amatis,  Stradivarius,  and  Guarnerius 
lived  there.  Its  celebrity  occasioned  the 
famous  quotation  of  Dean  Swift,  when  a 
lady's  mantua  knocked  over  a  violin: 

'Mantua     vae    miserae     nimium     vicina 
Cremonae'  (Virgil,  'Eclogues',  ix.  28). 


[194] 


CREMORNE  GARDENS 

Cremome  Gardens,  in  Chelsea,  were  a 
popular  place  of  entertainment  during  the 
middle  of  the  igth  cent.,  but  became  no- 
torious for  irregularities  and  were  closed  in 
1877- 

Creon,  the  father  of  Jocasta  (see  Oedipus) 
and  of  Creusa  (q.v.). 

Crescent  and  the  Cross,  The,  the  narrative 
of  an  eastern  tour  by  Bartholomew  Elliott 
George  Warburton  (1810-51),  an  Irish  bar- 
rister, generally  known  as  'Eliot  Warburton*. 
The  book,  which  covers  much  the  same 
ground  as  Kinglake's  'Eothen'  (q.v.),  had 
great  success. 

Cresseid,  The  Testament  of,  the  chief  work 
of  the  Scottish  poet  Henryson  (q.v.),  was 
printed  in  1 593 .  It  is  written  in  rhyme-royal. 
The  poet  describes  in  the  prologue  how  he 
took  up  a  book 

Written  by  worthie  Chaucer  glorious 
Of  fair  Cresseid  and  lusty  Troilus, 

and  proceeded  to  tell  the  retribution  that 
came  upon  the  fickle  Cressida. 

Diomede,  wearied  of  Cressida,  repudiates 
her;  she  takes  refuge  with  her  father  Calchas 
and  bitterly  reproaches  Venus  and  Cupid. 
A  council  of  the  gods  discusses  the  punish- 
ment for  her  ^blasphemy.  Finally  Saturn 
deprives  her  of  joy  and  beauty,  and  the  Moon 
strikes  her  with  leprosy.  As  she  sits  by  the 
wayside,  with  her  leper's  cup  and  clapper, 
Troilus  rides  by,  with  a  party  of  victorious 
Trojans; 

Then  upon  him  she  cast  up  baith  her  ene ; 

And  with  ane  blenk  it  come  into  his  thocht 

That  he  sumtime  hir  face  before  had  seen; 

But  she  was  in  sic  plye  he  knew  her  nocht. 

Nor  do  her  dim  eyes  recognize  him ;  but  she 

receives  his  alms,  and  learns  who  he  is,  and 

dies  after  sending  him  a  ring  he  once  had 

given  her. 

Cressida,   see    Troiltis   and   Cressida,   also 

Cresseid. 

Creusa,  (i)  a  daughter  of  Creon,  king  of 
Corinth.  When  she  was  about  to  marry 
Jason  (q.v.),  she  put  on  a  garment  given  her 
by  Medea,  whom  Jason  had  divorced.  This 
garment  was  poisoned,  and  set  her  body  on 
fire,  so  that  she  died  in  torment.  (2)  A 
daughter  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  and  the 
wife  of  Aeneas  (q.v.)  and  mother  of  Ascanius. 
In  the  flight  after  the  fall  of  Troy  she 
became  separated  from  her  husband,  who 
never  recovered  her.  According  to  Virgil, 
she  appeared  to  Aeneas  in  a  dream  and  pre- 
dicted the  calamities  and  eventual  fame  that 
awaited  him. 

Creweian  Oration,  THE,  at  Oxford,  com- 
memorates the  benefactions  to  the  University 
and  to  Lincoln  College  of  Nathaniel  Crewe, 
third  Baron  Crewe  (1633-1721),  bishop  of 
Oxford  and  subsequently  of  Durham,  who 
was  rewarded  with  the  deanery  of  the  Chapel 
Royal  for  his  subserviency  to  James  II.  He 


CRISPARKLE 

was  excepted  from  the  general  pardon  of 
1690,  but  retained  his  see  of  Durham.  The 
Creweian  Oration  has  come  to  include  all  other 
benefactions  during  the  preceding  year,  and 
is  delivered,  in  alternate  years,  by  the  public 
orator  and  the  professor  of  poetry. 

Crewler,  THE  REV.  HORACE  and  MRS., 
characters  in  Dickens's  *  David  Copperneld* 
(q.v.),  the  parents  of  SOPHY,  whom  Traddles 
marries. 

CRICHTON,  JAMES,  cTms  ADMIRABLE' 
(1560-85?),  son  of  Robert  Crichton  of 
Eliock,  was  educated  at  St.  Andrews,  and 
travelled  to  Paris,  1577,  where  he  is  said  to 
have  disputed  on  scientific  questions  in 
twelve  languages.  He  served  in  the  French 
army,  and  visited  Genoa,  Venice,  and  Padua, 
where  he  successfully  challenged  the  univer- 
sity in  discussion.  He  was  a  staunch  Catholic 
and  a  good  swordsman.  He  was  killed  in  a 
brawl  at  Mantua.  His  authentic  and  extant 
works  consist  mainly  of  odes  and  orations 
addressed  to  Italian  nobles  and  scholars.  His 
title  of  Admirable  originated  in  Sir  Thomas 
Urquhart's  narrative  of  his  career,  1652. 

For  the  play  *The  Admirable  Crichton',  see 
Barrie. 

Cricket  on  the  Hearth,  The,  a  Christmas 
book  by  Dickens  (q.v.),  published  in  1846. 

John  Peerybingle,  carrier,  and  his  much 
younger  wife,  Dot,  are  as  happy  a  couple  as 
possible,  although  the  venomous  old  Tackle- 
ton,  who  himself  is  about  to  marry  the  young 
May  Fielding,  throws  suspicion  on  Dot's 
sincerity.  This  suspicion  appears  to  be 
disastrously  verified  when  an  eccentric  old 
stranger  takes  up  his  abode  with  the  Peery- 
bingles  and  is  discovered  one  day  by  John, 
metamorphosed  into  a  bright  young  man  by 
the  removal  of  his  wig,  in  intimate  conversa- 
tion with  Dot.  By  the  fairy  influence  of  the 
Cricket  on  the  Hearth  John  is  brought  to  the 
decision  to  pardon  her  offence,  which  he 
attributes  to  the  incompatibility  of  their 
ages  and  temperaments.  But  there  turns  out 
to  be  no  occasion  for  forgiveness,  for  the 
bright  young  man  is  an  old  friend,  the  lover 
of  May  Fielding,  believed  dead,  who  has 
turned  up  just  in  time  to  prevent  her  marry- 
ing TacMeton.  Among  the  other  characters 
are  Caleb  Plummer  and  his  blind  daughter, 
Bertha,  the  toy-makers;  and  Tilly  Slowboy, 
most  loving  and  incompetent  of  nurses. 
Crimsworth,  WILLIAM,  the  hero  of  Char- 
lotte Bronte's  'The  Professor*  (q.v.). 
Cripplegate,  one  of  the  gates  of  the  city  of 
London,  of  which  there  is  record  as  early  as 
the  year  1000.  The  name  is  probably  derived 
from  an  OE.  word  crepel,  meaning  a  burrow 
or  narrow  passage,  and  indicates  that  the 
gate  was  a  narrow  and  less  important  one. 
Stow  repeatedly  refers  to  it  as  a  postern,  but 
attributes  the  name  to  the  number  of  cripples 
who  resorted  there. 

Grisparkle,  THE  REV.  SEPTIMUS,  a  character 
in  Dickens's  'Edwin  Drood*  (q.v.). 


[195] 


02 


CRISPIN 

Crispin  and  Crispinian,  SAINTS,  brothers, 
members  of  a  noble  Roman  family,  according 
to  tradition,  who  left  Rome  for  Soissons  to 
preach  Christianity  and  supported  them- 
selves there  by  shoemaking.  They  were 
ordered  by  the  Emperor  Maximian  to  be  put 
to  death,  but  survived  various  attempts  to 
kiU  them,  until  their  heads  were  cut  off.  They 
are  the  patron  saints  of  shoemakers,  and  are 
commemorated  on  25  Oct.,  date  of  the  battle 
of  Agincourt.  See  Shakespeare's  'Henry  V*, 
iv,  iii  40  :  'This  day  is  calTd  the  feast  of 
Crispian',  &c. 

Crispinus,  in  Jonson's  'The  Poetaster*  (q.v.)> 
represents  the  dramatist  Marston. 

Critic,  The,  or  a  Tragedy  Rehearsed,  a 
comedy  by  R.  B.  Sheridan  (q.v.),  produced  in 


In  this  play  Sheridan  satirized,  after  the 
manner  of  Buckingham's  'Rehearsal'  (q.v.), 
not  only  the  sentimental  drama,  but  also  the 
malignant  literary  criticism  of  the  day.  We 
have  first  Dangle  and  Sneer,  the  venomous 
critics;  Sir  Fretful  Plagiary,  the  poetaster  (a 
caricature  of  Richard  Cumberland)  ;  and  PufT, 
the  unscrupulous  advertiser  of  literary  wares, 
who  has  reduced  the  puff  to  a  science.  But 
Puff  himself  has  written  a  tragedy,  'The 
Spanish  Armada',  to  the  rehearsal  of  which 
he  takes  Sneer  and  Dangle.  This  is  an 
absurd  historical  drama  with  an  admixture  of 
the  sentimental  element,  written  in  bombas- 
tic style,  in  which  Sir  Walter  Ralegh,  Sir 
Christopher  Hatton,  the  earl  of  Leicester,  and 
Lord  Burleigh  are  presented,  at  the  moment 
when  the  Armada  is  approaching;  while 
Tilburina,  the  daughter  of  the  governor  of 
Tilbury  Fort,  is  in  love  with  Don  Ferolo 
Whiskerandos,  a  Spanish  prisoner.  The  dis- 
cussion of  the  play  by  the  author  and  the  two 
critics,  as  the  rehearsal  proceeds,  makes  a 
highly  entertaining  caricature  of  the  dramatic 
art. 

Critical  Review,  The,  a  Tory  and  Church 
paper,  founded  in  1756  by  Archibald  Hamil- 
ton, an  Edinburgh  printer,  in  opposition  to 
the  'Monthly  Review*  (q.v.).  It  was  edited 
during  1756-9  by  Smollett  (q.v.)  and  sup- 
ported by  Johnson  and  Robertson.  It  carne 
to  an  end  in  1817. 

Croaker,  a  character  in  Goldsmith's  'The 
Good-natured  Man'  (q.v.). 

CROCE,  BENEDETTO  (1866-  ), 
Italian  philosopher.  His  publications  in- 
clude ^Filosofia  dello  spirito*  (i  Estetica; 
2,  Logica;  3  FHosofia  della  pratica;  4  Teoria 
della  storiografk),  'Problemi  di  estetica'; 
also  some  volumes  of  criticism  and  history, 
'Saggi  sulla  letteratura  italiana  del  Seicento'; 
'Conversazioni  critiche*;  'Goethe';  'La  Poe- 
sia  di  Dante';  'Storia  d'ltalia  dal  1871  al 
1915*;  'Contribute  alia  critica  di  me  stesso*. 

Crockett,  DAVID  (1786-1836),  American 
hunter  and  eccentric  who  has  become  a 
legendary  character  in  American  literature. 


CROKER 

Crockford,  'Crockford's  Clerical  Direc- 
tory', first  published  in  1857,  and  now  issued 
annually.  A  book  of  reference  for  facts  re- 
lating to  the  Clergy  and  the  Church. 
Crocodile 's  Tears :  the  crocodile  was 
fabulously  said  to  weep,  either  to  allure  a 
man  for  the  purpose  of  devouring  him,  or 
while  devouring  him.  Whence  many  allu- 
sions in  literature.  Sir  John  Mandeville 
(xxviii)  says,  'In  that  centre  .  .  .  ben  gret 
plentee  of  Cokadrilles.  Theise  serpents  sleu 
men,  and  thei  eten  them  wepynge'.  'Sir  J. 
Hawkins*  Voyage*  in  Hakluyt,  iii,  has  this 
passage:  *In  this  river  we  saw  many  Croco- 
dils. .  .  .  His  nature  is  ever  when  hee  would 
have  his  prey,  to  cry  and  sob  like  a  Christian 
body,  to  provoke  them  to  come  to  him,  and 
then  hee  snatcheth  at  them.* 

Crocus,  in  mythology,  the  lover  of  ^  the 
maiden  Smilax.  The  pair  were  changed  into 
the  plants  that  bear  their  names. 

Croesus,  the  last  of  the  kings  of  Lydia,  who 
passed  for  the  richest  of  mankind.  In  con- 
versation with  Solon  he  claimed  to  be  the 
happiest  of  men,  but  the  philosopher  replied 
that  no.man  should  be  deemed  happy  until  he 
had  finished  his  life  happily.  When  Croesus 
had  been  conquered  by  Cyrus  and  was  about 
to  be  burnt  alive,  he  thrice  exclaimed  loudly 
'Solon!'  Cyrus  asking  the  reason  for  this, 
was  moved  at  the  explanation  and  at  the 
recollection  of  the  inconstancy  of  human 
affairs,  and  released  Croesus,  whom  he  made 
his  friend. 

Croft,  ADMIRAL  and  MRS.,  characters  in 
J.  Austen's  'Persuasion*  (q.v.). 

Croftangry,  CHRYSTAL,  see  Chronicles  of  the 
Canongate. 

CROKER,  JOHN  WILSON  (1780-1857), 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  was 
secretary  to  the  Admiralty  and  a  prominent 
Tory  politician.  He  is  the  supposed  original 
of  Rigby  in  Disraeli's  'Coningsby'  (q.v.). 
He  was  a  contributor  to  the  'Quarterly 
Review',  and  became  notorious  for  his 
scathing  criticism  of  Keats's  'Endymion*. 
He  edited  BoswelTs  'Life  of  Johnson'  (1831) 
and  was  severely  criticized  by  Macaulay, 
whose 'History  of  England*(first  two  volumes) 
he  in  turn  attacked  in  1849.  His  works  in- 
clude 'An  Intercepted  Letter  from  Canton* 
(1804,  a  satire  on  Dublin  society),  'Military 
Events  of  the  French  Revolution  of  1830* 
(1831),  and  'Essays  on  the  Early  Period  of 
the  French  Revolution5  (1857).  The  'Croker 
Papers',  published  in  1884,  are  interesting  for 
the  light  they  throw  on  the  political  life  of 
Croker's  period  of  office  (1808-32),  and  for 
the  letters  they  include  from  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  and  others.  It  was  Croker  whom 
Macaulay  said  he  'detested  more  than  cold 
boiled  veal'. 

CROKER,  THOMAS  CROFTON  (1798- 

1854),  author  of  'Researches  in  the  South  of 
Ireland'  (1824),  'Fairy  Legends  and  Tradi- 


CROLY 

tions'  (1825-8),  'Legends  of  theLakes*  (1829), 
afterwards  called  'Killarney  Legends',  and 
'Popular  Songs  of  Ireland'  (1839).  Croker's 
'Legends',  which  are  the  work  of  an  accom- 
plished antiquary  and  earned  the  enthusiastic 
admiration  of  Scott,  are  a  storehouse  of 
information  on  Irish  folk-lore. 

CROLY,  GEORGE  (1780-1860),  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  rector  of 
St.  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  was  author  of 
'Salathiel'  (1829),  a  weird  romance  of  the 
wandering  Jew,  Rome  under  Nero,  and  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus;  'Marston' 
(1846),  a  romance  of  which  the  French 
Revolution  and  the  Napoleonic  wars  provide 
the  background;  'Catiline'  (1822),  a  tragedy; 
and  numerous  narrative  and  romantic  poems. 
Byron  ('Don  Juan',  xi.  57)  refers  to  him  as  the 
'Revd,  Rowley  Powley'. 

Grornagnon,  the  name  of  a  cave  near  Les 
Eyzies  in  the  Dordogne,  where  in  1868  were 
discovered  four  skeletons  in  association  with 
objects  of  the  Aurignacian  (q.v.)  period. 
They  were  of  a  tall  race  with  large  low  skulls, 
the  face  short  and  broad,  the  eye-sockets  low, 
and  the  nose  narrow  and  prominent,  and 
form  one  of  the  three  main  types  of  man  of 
the  Aurignacian  culture. 

Crome,  JOHN  (1768-1821),  generally  called 
'Old  Crome*  to  distinguish  him  from  his  son, 
one  of  the  greatest  landscape-painters  of 
Britain.  He  was  born  in  humble  circum- 
stances and  apprenticed  to  a  sign-writer.  He 
founded  the  Norwich  school  of  painting,  and 
was  particularly  successful  in  the  treatment 
of  trees. 

Cromwell,  The  True  Chronicle  Historie  of 
the  whole  life  and  death  of  Thomas  Lord,  a 
play  published  in  1602  and  stated  in  the  title 
to  have  been  'written  by  W.  S.*.  It  was  in- 
cluded in  the  srd  and  4th  Shakespeare  folios 
(1663  and  1685).  The  play  has  little  merit 
and  is  certainly  not  by  Shakespeare. 
Cromwell,  OLIVER,  Lord  Protector,  1653-8. 
He  figures  in  Scott's  'Woodstock'  (q.v.). 
His  name  was  pronounced  'CrumwelP, 
whence  the  Royalist  toast,  *God  send  this 
crumb  well  down!" 
Cromwell,  RICHARD,  Lord  Protector,  1658-9. 

Cromwell,  THOMAS,  Earl  of  Essex  (1485?- 
1540),  secretary  to  Cardinal  Wolsey  (q.v.)  and 
subsequently  to  Henry  VIII,  and  his  chief 
adviser  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  He  was  the 
principal  promoter  of  the  dissolution  of  the 
monasteries.  He  negotiated  Henry's  marriage 
with  Anne  of  Cleves.  The  failure  of  this 
match  and  of  the  policy  that  underlay  it, 
coupled  with  the  intense  unpopularity  of  the 
minister,  led  to  his  downfall.  A  bill  of  at- 
tainder was  passed  and  Cromwell  was 
executed. 

Cronos  or  KRONOS,  in  Greek  mythology,  one 
of  the  Titans,  a  son  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  and 
father  by  Rhea  of  Hestia,  Demeter,  Hera, 
Hades,  and  Zeus.  The  children  of  Uranus 


CROWN  OF  WILD  OLIVE 

conspired  against  their  father,  who  immedi- 
ately after  their  birth  had  confined  them 
in  Tartarus,  and  Uranus  was  castrated  and 
divided  from  Ge  by  Cronos  (a  widely  diffused 
cosmogonic  myth ;  see  A.  Lang,  *  Custom  and 
Myth').  Cronos  succeeded  Uranus  as  ruler 
of  the  universe,  and  was  in  turn  dethroned 
by  Zeus.  The  Saturn  (q.v.)  of  the  Romans 
was  identified  with  him. 

Crop -ears  or  Crop-eared,  terms  applied 
to  the  Puritans  or  'Roundheads'  (q.v.)  by 
their  opponents,  and  probably  intended  to 
associate  them  with  those  whose  ears  had 
been  cut  off  as  a  punishment.  [OEDJ 

Crosbie,  ADOLPHUS,  a  character  in  A. 
Trollope's  'The  Small  House  at  AlHngton* 
(q.v.). 

Crosby  Hall,  in  Bishopsgate,  London,  a 
splendid  mansion  built  by  alderman  Sir  John 
Crosby  (d.  1475)  about  1466.  It  was  an  im- 
portant feature  of  i6th-cent.  London.  Sir 
Thomas  More  lived  there  about  1520,  and 
the  countess  of  Pembroke,  'Sidney's  sister', 
in  1609.  It  is  mentioned  in  Shakespeare's 
'Richard  III',  r.  iii,  and  m.  L  The  Hall,  after 
a  chequered  career,  was  re-erected  in  1908  on 
a  site  in  Chelsea.  It  is  now  a  hostel  for 
women  students. 

Crossjay  Patterne,  a  character  in  Mere- 
dith's 'The  Egoist'  (q.v.). 

Crotchet  Castle,  a  novel  by  Peacock  (q.v.), 
published  in  1831.  As  in  most  of  Peacock's 
novels,  the  story  includes  an  assembly  of 
oddities  at  a  country  house,  Mr.  Skionar 
(Coleridge),  Mr.  MacQuedy  (a  Scottish 
economist),  Mr.  Firedamp  (a  meteorologist), 
Mr.  Chainmail  (typifying  medieval  romance), 
and  others.  This  is  varied  by  a  trip  by  river 
and  canal  to  Wales,  reminiscent  of  a  trip  taken 
by  Peacock  with  Shelley  up  the  Thames. 
The  best  character  is  the  Rev.  Dr.  Folliott, 
a  man  'both  learned  and  jolly*,  of  robust 
common  sense,  an  improvement  on  Dr.  Gaster 
and  a  forerunner  of  Dr.  Opimian  (qq.y.). 
The  plot  is  extremely  slight,  and  is  supplied 
by  young  Mr.  Crotchet's  unfortunate  love 
affairs  with  Miss  Touchandgo  and  Lady 
Clarinda. 

Crowdero,  the  one-legged  fiddler  (crowd,  an 
old  English  word  for  fiddle)  and  leader  of  the 
bear-baiters  in  Butler's  'Hudibras'  (q.v.). 

Crowe,  CAPTAIN,  the  Sancho  Panza  of  Sir 

Launcelot  Greaves  in  Smollett's  (q.v.)  novel 

of  that  name. 

CROWE,  WILLIAM,  see  Lewesdon  Hill. 

Crowland,  see  Croyland. 

Crown  of  Thorns,  THE,  the  crown  that  the 

soldiers  put  on  the  head  of  Jesus  Christ  before 

the  Crucifixion  (Mart.  xxviL  29). 

Crown  of  Wild  Olive,  The,  four  lectures  by 
Ruskin  (q.v.),  delivered  in  1866;  the  first 
on  'War',  delivered  at  the  Royal  Military 
Academy;  the  second  on  'The  Future  of 
England*,  at  the  Royal  Artillery  Institution; 


[197] 


CROWNE 

the  third  on  'Work',  to  a  working  men's 
institute,  dealing  in  particular  with  the 
objects,  sometimes  wasteful  or  futile,  to 
which  capital  directs  labour;  the  fourth,  in 
the  Bradford  Town  Hall,  on  ^'Traffic'  (in  the 
sense  of  buying  and  selling),  in  which  he  dis- 
cussed architecture  in  its  relation  to  religion, 
and  the  false  ideals  of  wealth. 

A  crown  of  wild  olive  was  the  only  prize 
at  the  Olympic  Games  (q.v.).  RusHn  used  it 
as  a  title  in  allusion  to  the  importance  of  not 
working  for  a  false  idea  of  reward. 

CROWNE,  JOHN  (i64o?-i7o3  ?),  probably 
the  son  of  William  Crowne,  an  emigrant  to 
Nova  Scotia.  He  returned  to  London  by 
1665,  when  his  romance  Tandion  and  Am- 
phigenia*  was  published.  His  first  comedy, 
'The  Country  Wit*,  appeared  in  1675,  con* 
taining  the  character  of  Sir  Mannerly 
Shallow,  the  pompous  fool,  subsequently 
developed  by  him  into  Sir  Courtly  Nice  in 
the  play  of  that  name.  Three  dull  tragedies 
followed,  and  then  his  best  comedies  'City 
Politiques*  (1683),  a  satire  on  the  Whigs,  and 
'Sir  Courtly  Nice5  (q.v.)  in  1685.  He  wrote 
three  further  tragedies  (including  'Thyestes', 
1681)  and  two  comedies :  'The  English  Frier* 
(1690),  a  satire  on  the  Catholic  priests  who 
had  been  prominent  at  the  court  of  James  II ; 
and  'The  Married  Beau7  (1694),  founded  on 
the  story  of  'The  Curious  Impertinent'  (q.v.) 
in  eDon  Quixote'. 

Croyland  or  CROWLAND,  a  famous  abbey  in 
Lincolnshire  founded  by  TEthelbald  of  Mer- 
cia  in  the  8th  cent.,  near  the  tomb  of  St. 
Guthlac.  It  figures  prominently  in  C.  Kings- 
ley's  'Hereward  the  Wake*  (q.v.). 

Croyland  or  Cropland  History*  The,  a 
chronicle  of  the  I4th  or  isth  cents.,  printed 
by  Savile  in  1596,  and  for  long  erroneously 
attributed  to  Ingulf,  Abbot  of  Croyland 
(d.  1 109),  secretary  to  William  the  Conqueror. 
It  was  shown  by  Sir  Francis  Palgrave  and 
others  to  be  a  forgery  of  the  I5th  cent. 

CRUDEN,  ALEXANDER  (1701-70),  a 
bookseller  in  the  Royal  Exchange  and 
corrector  of  the  press,  who  in  1737  published 
his  'Biblical  Concordance*.  He  suffered 
periodical  attacks  of  insanity,  and  once  be- 
lieved himself  divinely  appointed  to  reform 
the  nation. 

Cruikshank,  GEORGE  (1792-1878),  artist  and 
caricaturist,  son  of  Isaac  Cruikshank,  also  a 
famous  caricaturist  (of  Revolutionary  and 
Napoleonic  war  times).  George  Cruikshank 
illustrated  a  large  number  of  literary  works 
and  periodicals,  including  *The  Scourge* 
(1811-16)  and  'The  Meteor*  (1813-14), 
Pierce  Egan's  'Life  in  London'  (1821  on- 
wards), Grimm's  'Popular  Tales'  (1824-6), 
Dickens  Js  'Sketches  by  Boz'  and  'Oliver 
Twist',  novels  by  Harrison  Ainsworth, 
Thackeray's  'Legend  of  the  Rhine',  &c. 
Cruikshank  issued  for  some  years  from  1835 
an  illustrated  'Comic  Almanack*,  one  of  the 
predecessors  of  'Punch*. 


CUCKOLD'S  HAVEN 

Crummies,  MR.  VINCENT,  MRS.,  and 
NINETTE  ('the  infant  phenomenon'),  charac- 
ters in  Dickens's  'Nicholas  Nickleby*  (q.v.). 
Cruncher,  JERRY,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Tale  of  Two  Cities'  (q.v.). 
Crusoe,  ROBINSON,  see  Robinson  Crusoe. 
Cratched,  CROUCHED,  or  CROSSED  Friars 
(Fratres  cruciferi),  a  minor  order  of  friars  so 
called  from  their  bearing  or  wearing  a  cross. 
Their  house  stood  at  the  corner  of  Seething 
Lane  and  Crutched  Friars  Street  in  the  City 
of  London.  After  their  dissolution  in  1539 
and  the  destruction  of  the  monastic  buildings, 
the  Navy  Office  was  constructed  on  part  of 
the  site.  There  Samuel  Pepys  lived  and  con- 
ducted his  business  ('Diary',  18  July  1660, 
&c.). 

Cry  of  the  Children,  The,  one  of  the  best 
known  of  the  poems  of  E.  B.  Browning  (q.v.), 
published  in  1843  in  'Blackwood's  Magazine*. 
It  is  the  lament  of  the  children  in  factories 
and  mines,  the  victims  of  industrial  develop- 
ment. 
Crystal  Palace,  see  Exhibition. 

Cubism,  a  movement  in  2oth-cent.  art 
generally  held  to  originate  with  the  Spanish 
painter  Pablo  Picasso  (b.  iSSi),  but  of  which 
examples  are  to  be  found  in  the  work  of  Paul 
Cezanne  (1839-1906).  The  essence  of  cubism 
is  to  emphasize  the  three  dimensional  struc- 
ture and  mass  of  objects  by  eliminating 
curved  lines  and  reducing  bodies  to  primary 
forms,  such  as  prisms,  cubes,  octahedrons, 
&c.;  in  other  words  presenting  nature  as  a 
cubic  pattern. 

Cuctalain  (pronounced  Cuhoo'lin),  one  of 
the  principal  heroes  of  the  Ulster  cycle 
of  Irish  mythology,  the  nephew  or  ward  of 
Conchubar,  king  of  Ulster.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  era.  His  birth  was  miraculous,  and 
he  snowed  his  strength  and  prowess  at  an 
early  age.  While  still  a  child  he  killed  the 
terrible  watch-dog  of  the  Smith  Culan,  and 
compensated  the  owner  by  undertaking  to 
guard  his  house  in  the  dog's  place,  whence 
the  name  Cuchulain,  signifying  'Culan 's 
hound*.  Of  his  numerous  feats  o£  valour, 
which  won  him  the  love  of  many  women,  the 
chief  was  his  defence  of  Ulster,  single- 
handed,  against  Medb  or  Maeve,  queen  of 
Connaught,  who  attacked  it  in  order  to  carry 
off  the  Brown  Bull  of  Cuailgne  (pron.  Cooley). 
Cuchulain  was  killed,  when  27,  by  Lugaid, 
son  of  a  king  of  Ulster,  and  the  daughters 
of  Calatin  the  wizard,  in  vengeance  for  their 
fathers  whom  Cuchulain  had  slain. 

A  series  of  the  legends  about  him  have  been 
translated  by  Lady  Gregory  (q.v.,  'Cuchulain 
of  Muirthernne').  He  figures  in  Macpher- 
son's  Ossianic  poems  as  'Cuthullin'  (q.v.). 
Cuckold's  Haven  or  Point,  a  spot  on  the 
Thames  riverside,  a  little  below  Rotherhithe, 
so  called,  according  to  tradition,  because  in 
King  John's  reign,  a  miller  there  had  a 


[198] 


CUCKOO-SONG 

beautiful  wife,  who  attracted  the  king's 
favour.  The  miller  was  compensated,  says 
the  tale,  by  a  grant  of  as  much  land  on  that 
side  as  he  could  see  from  his  house. 

Cuckoo-Song,  The,  see  'Sumer  is  icumen  in\ 

Cuddle  Headrigg,  in  Scott's  'Old  Mortality' 
(q.v.),  the  ploughman  in  Lady  Bellenden's 
service. 

Cuddy,  a  herdsman  or  shepherd,  in  the 
'Shepheards  Calender*  of  Spenser,  and  in  the 
'Shepherd's  Week*  of  Gay  (qq.v.). 

CUDWORTH,  RALPH  (1617-88),  edu- 
cated at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  was 
one  of  the  leading  members  of  the  Cam- 
bridge Platonists,  He  was  successively 
master  of  Clare,  professor  of  Hebrew,  and 
master  of  Christ's.  His  principal  works  were 
'The  True  Intellectual  System  of  the  Uni- 
verse* (1678);  and  a  'Treatise  concerning 
Eternal  and  Immutable  Morality*,  published 
after  his  death  (1731).  His  style  is  lucid,  but 
has  not  the  vigorous  and  striking  quality  of 
that  of  Hobbes. 

The  characteristic  feature  of  the  philosophy 
of  Cudworth  and  the  other  Platonists  is  its 
reaction  against  the  narrow  Puritan  dog- 
matism, and  against  the  materialism  of 
Hobbes  and  Descartes.  They  were  idealists, 
and  maintained  the  spiritual  constitution  of 
the  universe.  Sense  can  reveal  only  appear- 
ance; reality  consists  in  'intelligible  forms', 
which  are  'not  impressions  printed  on  the 
soul  without,  but  ideas  vitally  protended  or 
actively  exerted  from  within  itself*.  As 
moralists  they  held  that  reason  and  religion 
are  in  harmony;  truth  and  true  goodness 
cannot  be  disunited ;  morality  is  based  upon 
reason. 

Cuff,  SERGEANT,  the  detective  in  Wilkie 
Collins's  'The  Moonstone'  (q.v.). 

Cufic,  a  variety  of  Arabic  writing  attributed 
to  the  scholars  of  Cufa  or  Kufa,  an  ancient 
city  near  Babylon,  the  residence  of  the 
Caliphs  before  the  building  of  Bagdad,  and  a 
great  seat  of  Mohammedan  learning.  Cufic 
differs  from  ordinary  Arabic  writing  in  the 
angular  form  of  many  of  the  letters  and  the 
general  rigidity  of  the  strokes.  [OED.] 

Culdee,  from  the  Old  Irish  c&le  dey  associate 
or  servant  of  God,  member  of  an  ancient 
Scoto-Irish  religious  order,  found  from  the 
8th  cent,  onwards.  The  name  appears  to  have 
been  first  given  to  solitary  recluses;  these 
were  afterwards  associated  in  communities  of 
anchorites;  and  finally  brought  under  the 
canonical  rule  along  with  the  secular  clergy 
by  the  end  of  the  nth  cent.  [OED.] 
Culling,  MRS.,  afterwards  LADY  ROMFREY, 
a  character  in  Meredith's  'Beauchamp's 
Career*  (q.v.). 

Gull6vden,  near  Inverness,  the  site  of  the 
battle  in  which  in  1746  the  duke  of  Cumber- 
land defeated  the  force  of  the  Young 
Pretender. 


CUNNINGHAME  GRAHAM 

GULVERWEL,  NATHANAEL  (d.  1651  ?), 
educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
was  one  of  the  Cambridge  Platonists  (q.v.). 
His  'Light  of  Nature',  in  which  he  sought  to 
apportion  the  respective  spheres  of  reason  and 
faith,  was  published  in  1652.  His  early  death, 
probably  when  only  32,  prevented  the  execu- 
tion of  a  larger  design,  the  reconciliation  of 
the  teaching  of  the  Gospel  with  reason. 

CUMBERLAND,  RICHARD  (173 2-1811), 
educated  at  Westminster  School  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  was  author  of  a  number 
of  sentimental  comedies,  of  which  cThe  West 
Indian*  and  'The  Brothers'  (qq.v.)  are  the 
best;  some  tragedies;  two  novels,  'Arundel* 
(1789)  and  'Henry*  (1795),  and  a  translation 
of  the  'Clouds'  of  Aristophanes;  also  of  an 
interesting  autobiography.  Cumberland  is 
caricatured  by  Sheridan  as  Sir  Fretful  Plagiary 
in  'The  Critic'  (q.v.). 

Cumberland,  WILLIAM  AUGUSTUS,  duke  of 
(1726-65),  second  son  of  George  II,  and  in 
command  of  the  English  army  at  Culloden 
(1746);  known  as  'the  Butcher*  on  account 
of  the  severity  with  which  he  stamped  out 
disaffection  among  the  Highlanders.  He 
figures  in  Scott's  'Waverley*  (q.v.). 

Cumnor,  LORD  and  LADY,  and  their  daugh- 
ter, LADY  HARRIET,  characters  in  Mrs. 
GaskelTs  'Wives  and  Daughters'  (q.v.). 

Gunctator,  see  Fabius. 

CUNNINGHAM,  ALLAN  (1784-1842),  a 
native  of  Dumfriesshire,  was  at  first  a  stone- 
mason and  subsequently  secretary  to  Francis 
Chantrey,  the  sculptor.  He  supplied  to 
R.  H.  Cromek  much  of  the  material  (fabri- 
cated by  himself)  of  Cromek*s  'Remains  of 
Nithsdale  and  Galloway  Song*.  He  published 
'Traditional  Tales  of  the  English  and  Scottish 
Peasantry*  in  1822,  'The  Songs  of  Scotland, 
Ancient  and  Modern*  (including  the  famous 
'A  Wet  Sheet  and  a  Flowing  Sea*)  in  1 825,  and 
'Lives  of  the  most  eminent  British  Painters, 
Sculptors,  and  Architects'  in  1829-33.  Many 
of  Cunningham's  short  pieces  and  imitations 
of  ancient  ballads,  such  as  'Hame,  Hame, 
Hame*  and  'The  sun  rises  bright  in  France*, 
gained  much  popularity. 

CUNNINGHAM,  JOHN  (1729-73),  author 
of  the  successful  farce  'Love  in  a  Mist*  (i747)> 
and  of  much  tuneful  contemplative  verse,  not 
all  of  it  included  in  his  'Poems,  chiefly 
Pastoral*  (1766). 

CUNNINGHAME  GRAHAM,  ROBERT 
BONTINE  (1852-  ),  the  son  of  a  Scottish 
laird,  educated  at  Harrow,  a  man  of  varied 
career,  during  which  lie  has  been  M.P.,  a 
leader  of  the  Dock  Strike  in  1 887,  an  anarchist, 
and  a  traveller  in  remote  parts  of  the  world, 
particularly  in  the  interior  of  Spanish 
America,  where  he  gained  an  intimate  know- 
ledge of  gaucho  life  and  of  the  older  civiliza- 
tion surviving  from  the  period  of  Spanish  rule. 
His  writings  include  remarkable  stories  of 
travel  and  descriptions  of  strange  scenes  and 


CUNOBELIN 

people,  and  tales  of  Scotland,  notably  in 
'Mogreb-ei-Acksa»  (Morocco,  1898),  "Thir- 
teen Stories*  (1900),  'Success*  (1902),  *Her- 
nando  de  Soto'  (1903),  'Scottish  Stories* 
(1914),  'The  Horses  of  the  Conquest'  (1930). 

Gunobelin  (Cymbeline),  a  king  of  Britain  in 
the  early  years  of  the  Christian  era,  and  father 
of  Caractacus  (q.v.). 

Cup,  The,  a  tragedy  by  A.  Tennyson  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1881.  Camma,  the  wife  of  Sin- 
natus,  tetrarch  of  Galatia,  poisons  the  pro- 
Roman  traitor  Synorix  (who  has  killed  her 
husband  and  tried  to  seduce  her),  and  takes 
her  own  life. 

Cupid,  identified  by  the  Romans  with  the 
Greek  EROS,  the  god  of  Love.  He  is  generally 
represented  to  be  the  son  of  Venus  (Aphro- 
dite), but  his  father  is  variously  stated  to  be 
Jupiter,  Mars,  or  Mercury.  He  is  pictured 
as  a  winged  infant,  armed  with  a  bow,  a 
quiver  full  of  arrows,  and  torches. 

Cupid's  Revenge,  see  Fletcher  (J.). 
Cupid  and  Campaspe,  see  Campaspe. 

Cupid  and  Psyche,  an  allegorical  episode  in 
the  fable  of  the  'Golden  Ass*  (q.v.)  of  Apu- 
leius.  Cupid  becomes  enamoured  of  Psyche, 
daughter  of  a  king,  and  visits  her  every  night, 
but  remains  invisible  and  forbids  her  to 
attempt  to  see  him.  Her  sisters  tell  her  that 
her  lover  is  a  serpent  and  will  finally  devour 
her.  One  night  she  takes  a  lamp  and  looks 
at  Cupid  while  he  sleeps,  and  agitated  by  the 
sight  of  his  beauty  lets  fall  a  drop  of  hot  oil  on 
his  shoulder.  The  angry  god  departs  and 
leaves  Psyche  solitary  and  remorseful.  She 
wanders  over  the  earth  in  search  of  her  lover, 
subjected  by  Venus  to  hardships  and  trials 
until  Jupiter,  taking  pity  on  her,  makes  her 
immortal  and  reunites  her  to  Cupid. 

This  fable  was  the  subject  of  a  poem  by 
Shackerley  Marmion  (q.v.),  15637;  of  another 
by  William  Morris  in  the  'Earthly  Paradise' 
(q.v.);  and  there  is  a  version  of  it  in  Pater's 
'Marius  the  Epicurean'  (q.v.)  and  in  the 
*Eros  and  Psyche*  of  Bridges  (q.v.). 

Cura^oa,  a  liqueur  consisting  of  spirits 
flavoured  with  the  peel  of  bitter  oranges  and 
sweetened;  so  called  either  because  first  re- 
ceived from  the  island  of  Curacao  (a  Dutch 
dependency  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela),  or 
because  Curacao  oranges  were  used  in  its 
preparation.  The  Hon.  Bertie  Cecil,  ist  Life 
Guards,  hero  of  Ouida's  'Under  Two  Flags', 
breakfasted  (it  would  appear  exclusively)  off 
a  glass  of  curafoa. 

Cur£  de  Meudon,  Rabelais  (q.v.). 

Cure  for  a  Cuckold,  A,  a  comedy  by  J. 
Webster  (q.v.)  and  W.  Rowley  (q.v.),  brought 
out  in  1661. 

It  deals  with  the  love-affairs  of  two  couples, 
Bonville  and  Annabel,  and  Lessingham  and 
Clare ;  and  contains  a  notable  duel  scene  on 
Calais  sands.  It  cannot  be  called  a  satis- 
factory play;  but  there  are  scenes  in  it  which, 


CURSE  OF  KEHAMA 

on  internal  evidence,  Gosse  showed  to  be 
attributable  to  Webster;  and  these,  if 
separated  from  the  inferior  matter  provided 
by  Rowley,  form  a  complete  and  charming 
idyll,  which  Gosse  proposed  to  call  'Love's 
Graduate'.  Under  this  name  they  were 
issued  in  1884,  edited  by  S.  E.  Spring-Rice. 
Curfew  (from  French  couvre-feu),  originally 
a  regulation  in  force  in  medieval  Europe  by 
which  at  a  fixed  hour  in  the  evening,  indi- 
cated by  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  hearth-fires  were 
to  be  covered  over  or  extinguished,  the 
probable  object  of  the  regulation  being  the 
prevention  of  conflagrations.  Hence  it  has 
come  to  mean  the  practice  of  ringing  a  bell  at 
a  fixed  hour  in  the  evening,  continued  after 
the  original  purpose  was  obsolete.  [OED.] 

Curie,  MARIE  (1867-  ),  n&e  Slodowska, 
born  at  Warsaw,  the  widow  of  M.  Pierre 
Curie,  a  professor  of  physics  at  the  Sorbonne. 
With  her  husband  she  discovered  radium  in 
1898  and  has  contributed  greatly  to  the 
knowledge  of  radio-activity.  M.  and  Mme 
Curie  received  the  Nobel  prize  for  physics  in 
1903,  and  Mme  Curie  (who  succeeded  her 
husband  in  his  professorship  after  his  death 
in  1906)  received  in  1911  that  for  chemistry 
also. 

Curious  Impertinent  (OT  The  Fatal  Curiosity), 
an  episode  in  'Don  Quixote'  (q.v.),  which 
provided  the  plot  for  more  than  one  of  the 
English  i7th-cent.  dramas.  Anselmo  having 
married  the  beautiful  Camilla,  urges  his 
friend  Lothario  to  test  the  virtue  of  the  latter 
by  making  love  to  her.  Lothario,  at  first 
reluctant,  yields  to  the  constant  pressure  o£ 
his  friend,  with  results  disastrous  to  all  con- 
cerned. The  lapse  of  Camilla  encourages  the 
licentiousness  of  her  maid  Leonela,  and  this 
leads  to  the  discovery  of  her  mistress's  in- 
fidelity, the  death  of  Anselmo  and  Lothario, 
and  Camilla's  retirement  to  a  convent. 

Curius  Dentatus,  MARCUS,  Roman  consul 
in  290,  275,  and  274  B.C.,  celebrated  as  a  type 
of  old  Roman  frugality  and  virtue.  After 
repeatedly  defeating  the  enemies  of  Rome,  he 
retired  to  his  small  farm  and  cultivated  the 
land  with  his  own  hands.  Compare  Gindn- 
natus. 

CURLL,  EDMUND  (1675-1747),  a  book- 
seller and  pamphleteer,  chiefly  remembered 
for  the  controversy  about  the  publication  of 
Pope's  correspondence  (see  under  Pope, 
Alexander),  and  on  account  of  his  literary 
frauds  and  indecent  publications  (Pope  refers 
to  'Curl's  chaste  press'  in  the  'Dunciad',  i. 
40).  Curll  is  also  mentioned  in  Swift's  poem 
'On  the  Death  of  Dr.  Swift'. 

CURRER  BELL,  see  Bronte  (C.). 

Curryfin,  LORD,  a  character  in  Peacock's 
cGryll  Grange'  (q.v.). 

Curse  of  Kehama,  The,  a  poem  by  Southey 
(q.v.),  published  in  1810. 

The  peasant  Ladurlad  kills  Arvalan,  son  of 
the  mighty  Raja  of  the  world,  Kehama,  to 


[200] 


CURSIVE 

protect  his  daughter  Kailyal  from  Arvalan's 
lust.  Ladurlad  and  Kailyal  are  brought 
before  the  infuriated  Kehama  for  punish- 
ment. Kailyai  clings  for  protection  to  the 
statue  of  the  goddess  Marriataly,  falls  into 
the  river,  and  is  borne  away.  Kehama  pro- 
nounces a  curse  on  Ladurlad,  charming  his 
life,  so  that  he  cannot  be  harmed  by  disease 
or  weapons  or  age,  but  at  the  same  time  is 
denied  water  and  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 
Kailyal  and  Ladurlad,  in  his  misery,  are  re- 
united. Then  follow  a  succession  of  incidents 
in  which  the  fate  of  this  unfortunate  pair  is 
subjected  to  the  influence  of  the  various 
powers,  good  and  evil,  of  the  complicated 
Hindu  mythology,  while  the  revengeful 
spirit  of  Arvalan  seeks  again  to  get  possession 
of  Kailyal.  The  curse  of  Kehama  turns  into 
a  blessing,^  for  by  his  immunity  from  death, 
Ladurlad  is  able  to  save  his  daughter  from 
the  dangers  that  threaten  her.  Finally 
Kehama,  who  has  obtained  dominion  over 
Swerga  or  heaven,  aspires  also  to  the  throne 
of  Paladon  or  hell.  He  drinks  the  'amreeta* 
or  cup  of  immortality,  to  find  that  he  has 
drunk  immortal  death  and  punishment,  and 
becomes  the  fourth  supporter  of  the  throne 
of  Yamen  the  lord  of  hell.  Kailyal  also  drinks 
it,  and  is  boine  to  the  Bower  of  Bliss,  to  enjoy 
immortal  life.  Ladurlad  sinks  to  rest  and 
awakes  in  heaven. 

Cursive,  see  Minuscule. 

Cursor  Mundi,  a  poem  in  Northern  Middle 
English  of  some  30,000  lines,  mainly  in  eight- 
syllabled  couplets,  of  the  early  I4th  cent. 
It  recounts,  with  many  divagations,  tradi- 
tions, and  fragments  of  hagiology,  the  Bible 
history  from  the  creation  onwards*  The 
author,  whose  name  is  unknown,  shows 
skill  in  popularizing  religious  instruction. 
Many  copies  of  the  poem  survive,  indicat- 
ing the  favour  in  which  it  was  held. 

Curtana,  the  pointless  sword  carried  before 
the  king  of  England  at  his  coronation, 
emblematic  of  the  sword  of  mercy. 

CURTIS,  GEORGE  WILLIAM  (1824-92), 
American  writer,  born  at  Providence,  R.I., 
author  of  pleasant  essays  and  books  of  travel, 
chiefly  known  in  England  for  his  charming 
little  work,  True  and  I*  (1856),  in  which  he 
depicts  the  happiness  of  the  poor  man  gifted 
with  imagination  and  blessed  in  love. 
Curtius,  METTUS:  according  to  legend  a 
chasm  appeared  in  the  Roman  forum  in  362 
B.C.,  which  the  soothsayers  declared  could 
only  be  filled  if  Rome's  greatest  treasure  were 
thrown  into  it.  Whereupon  Curtius,  saying 
that  Rome  could  have  no  greater  treasure 
than  a  brave  citizen,  mounted  his  steed  in 
full  armour  and  leapt  into  the  chasm,  which 
thereupon  closed  over  him. 
Curule  Chair,  in  Roman  antiquity,  was  a 
chair  inlaid  with  ivory  and  shaped  like  a 
camp-stool,  used  by  the  highest  magistrates. 

CURZON,    ROBERT,   fourteenth    Baron 


CUSTOS  ROTULORUM 

Zouche  (1810-73),  educated  at  Charterhouse 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  was  author  of  a 
*  Visit  to  the  Monasteries  of  the  Levant'  (i  849), 
a  fascinating  record  of  travels,  undertaken 
in  search  of  manuscripts,  to  Mount  Athos, 
Greece,  Palestine,  and  Egypt;  also  of 
'Armenia*  (1854),  and  of  an  'Account  of  the 
most  celebrated  Libraries  of  Italy'  (1854). 

CURZON  OF  KEDLESTON,  GEORGE 
NATHANIEL,  first  Marquess  (1859-1925), 
as  a  young  man  travelled  in  India,  Persia,  and 
the  Far  East;  was  viceroy  of  India  from  1899 
to  1905,  chancellor  of  Oxford  University  from 
1907,  and  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs, 
1918—22.  His  chief  publication  was  'Persia 
and  the  Persian  Question*  (1892),  a  monu- 
mental survey  of  the  country,  remarkable 
for  its  range,  accuracy,  and  first-hand  infor- 
mation. As  viceroy  Lord  Curzon  devoted 
great  care  to  the  neglected  ancient  monuments 
of  India,  and  created  the  post  of  director- 
general  of  archaeology.  Lord  Curzon's  im- 
mense powers  of  work,  combined  with  a 
certain  aloofness  of  demeanour  and  prefer- 
ence for  splendour  and  formality  in  official 
life,  gave  rise  to  numerous  legends,  many  of 
them  of  a  humorous  character* 

Custance,  the  widow  in  Udall's  'Ralph 
Roister  Doister*  (q.v.). 

Custaunce  or  CONSTAUNCE,  the  heroine  of 
Chaucer's  'Man  of  Lawes  Tale*  (see  Canter- 
bury Tales). 

Custom  of  the  Country,  The,  a  romantic 
drama  by  J.  Fletcher  (q.v.)  and  Massinger 
(q.v.),  composed  between  1619  and  1622, 
derived  from  the  'Persiles  y  Sigismunda*  of 
Cervantes.  The  play  is  disfigured  by  the  in- 
decency of  some  of  its  scenes. 

Count  Clodio,  an  Italian  governor,  is 
suitor  to  Zenocia,  but  she  loves  Amoldo  the 
younger  of  two  brothers  and  marries  him. 
Zenocia  and  the  two  brothers  forcibly  oppose 
Clodio's  claim  to  the  'custom  of  the  country* 
(by  which  he  may  spend  the  bridal  night 
with  every  bride),  and  escape  by  sea.  Zenocia 
is  captured  by  a  Portuguese  captain,  and 
placed  in  the  service  of  Hippolita  at  Lisbon, 
where  Arnoldo  also  arrives.  Hippolita  falls 
in  love  with  Arnoldo,  who  endeavours  to 
recover  Zenocia.  A  meeting  between  them 
is  witnessed  by  the  jealous  Hippolita,  who 
orders  Zenocia  to  be  strangled;  but  this 
is  prevented  by  the  governor  of  Lisbon,  to 
whom  the  repentant  Clodio  has  applied  for 
her  release.  Hippolita  now  has  recourse  to  the 
witch  Sulpitia,  who  causes  Zenocia  to  waste 
away,  by  melting  a  waxen  image  of  her.^  But 
Arnoldo  wastes  away  in  sympathy.  Hippo- 
lita, moved  to  remorse,  cancels  the  charm, 
and  resigns  Zenocia  to  Amoldo.  There  is  an 
underplot  concerned  with  the  adventures  of 
Arnoldo's  elder  brother  Rutilio. 
Gustos  Rotulorum,  the  principal  justice 
of  the  peace  in  a  county,  who  has  the  custody 
of  the  rolls  and  records  of  the  sessions  of  the 
peace. 


[201] 


CUTE 

Cute,  ALDERMAN,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'The  Chimes'  (q.v.),  said  to  be  intended  for 
Sir  Peter  Laurie,  the  City  magistrate. 
Cuthbert,  ST.  (d.  687),  in  his  youth 
kept  sheep  on  the  hills  near  the  Lauder,  a 
tributary  of  the  Tweed.  He  entered  the 
monastery  of  Melrose,  of  which  he  became 
prior.  In  course  of  time  he  was  sent  to  fill 
the  post  of  abbot  of  Lindisfarne,  on  which 
the  monastery  of  Melrose  then  depended; 
and  after  several  years,  feeling  himself  called 
to  a  life  of  perfect  solitude,  he  retired  to  the 
small  island  of  Fame.  In  684,  at  a  synod  held 
under  St.  Theodore,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, he  was  selected  for  the  see  of  Lindis- 
farne, and  to  overcome  his  unwillingness  to 
accept  it.  King  Egfrith  himself,  accompanied 
by  the  bishop  of  the  Picts,  visited  him  on  his 
island.  After  two  years,  feeling  death  ap- 
proaching, he  retired  to  the  solitude  of  his 
island,  and  died  in  his  cell.  His  body,  which 
was  said  to  have  remained  for  many  years  in  a 
state  of  incorruption  and  was  carried  away 
by  the  monks  when  they  were  driven  by  the 
Danes  from  Lindisfarne,  was  finally  buried 
in  Durham  cathedral.  He  is  commemorated 
on  20  March. 

ST.  CUTHBERT'S  BEADS  is  a  popular  name, 
originating  on  Holy  Island  and  the  Northum- 
brian coast,  for  the  detached  and  perforated 
joints  of  the  encrinites  (a  fossil  lily-like  marine 
animal)  there  found. 

CUTHBERT  BEDE,  see  Bradley  (£.). 

Cuthullin,  in  the  Ossianic  poems  of  Mac- 
pherson  (q.v.),  the  Irish  hero  Cuchulain 
(q.v.),  transposed  in  time  so  as  to  be  con- 
temporary with  Finn  (Fingal).  See  FingaL 

Cutpurse,  MOLL,  see  Moll  Cutpurse. 

Cutter  of  Coleman  Street,  The,  see  Cowley 
(A.). 

Cuttle,  CAPTAIN  EDWARD,  a  character  in 
Dickens's  'Dombey  and  Son*  (q.v.).  His 
favourite  expression  is,  'When  found,  make  a 
note  of*. 

Cutty  Sark,  (i)  see  Tarn  o*  Shanter;(2)  the 
name  of  a  famous  clipper  ship  built  in  1869 
for  the  China  tea  trade.  She  sailed  363  miles 
in  one  day.  She  is  still  in  existence,  used  as  a 
naval  training  ship. 

Cutty  Stool,  formerly  in  Scotland,  a  particu- 
lar seat  in  church  where  offenders  against 
chastity,  &c.,  had  to  sit  during  divine  service 
and  receive  a  public  rebuke  from  the  minister. 

Cuvier,  GEORGES  (1769-1 832),  a  great  French 
naturalist,  and  a  founder  of  the  sciences  of 
comparative  anatomy  and  palaeontology. 
Cuwaert,  see  Coart. 

Guyp,  AELBERT  (1605-91),  a  famous  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  who  has  been  called  'the 
Dutch  Claude'. 

Cyanean  Rocks  or  SYMPLEGADES,  two 
rugged  islands  at  the  entrance  of  the  Euxine 
Sea,  against  which  the  sea  beating  with 


CYMBELINE 

violence  was  supposed  to  render  the  passage 
dangerous  to  mariners.  These  rocks  were 
even  believed  to  float  and  to  come  together, 
crushing  vessels  that  passed  between  them. 
They  were  fixed  in  their  places  by  the  lyre 
of  Orpheus  (q.v.)  when  the  Argonauts  (q.v.) 
sailed  between  them. 

Gybele,  a  goddess  representing  the  fecundity 
of  nature,  worshipped  in  Phrygia.  Thence  her 
cult  passed  into  Greece,  where  she  was  known 
as  RHEA.  According  to  mythology  she  be- 
came enamoured  of  the  shepherd  Atys  or 
Attis  (q.v.),  a  legend  connected  with  the 
productivity  of  the  earth. 

Cyclades,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Aegean 
sea,  regarded  as  lying  in  a  circle  round  Delos. 
Cyclic  poets,  a  group  of  Greek  epic  writers 
whose  writings  collectively  formed  a  cycle  or 
series  of  mythic  and  heroic  story  down  to  the 
death  of  Ulysses. 

CyclopSs,  a  race  of  giants  having  but  one  eye, 
in  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  who  inhabited 
the  western  part  of  the  island  of  Sicily.  When 
Ulysses  visited  the  island,  Polyphemus  (q.v.) 
was  chief  among  them.  The  most  solid  walls 
and  impregnable  fortresses  were  attributed 
to  their  work,  and  as  they  lived  near  Mt.  Etna, 
they  were  supposed  to  be  the  workmen  of 
Hephaestus  and  to  fabricate  the  thunderbolts 
of  Zeus.  Among  the  Cyclopes  mentioned  by 
name  in  English  literature  are  Brontes  (or 
Bronteus)  and  Pyracmon. 

Cyder,  a  poem  in  blank  verse,  in  two  books, 
by  J.  Philips  (q.v.),  published  in  1708,  on  the 
cultivation  of  cider  apples,  and  the  manu- 
facture and  virtues  of  cider,  written  in  imita- 
tion of  Virgil's  Georgics. 

Cyllene,  one  of  the  highest  mountains  in  the 
Peloponnese,  fabled  to  be  the  birthplace  of 
Hermes  (or  Mercury,  q.v.). 

Cyrribeline,  a  play  by  Shakespeare  (q.v.), 
acted  in  1610  or  1611,  first  printed  in  the 
folio  of  1623,  in  which  he  combines  a  frag- 
ment of  British  history,  freely  adapted  from 
Holinshed,  with  the  story  of  Ginevra  from 
Boccaccio's  'Decameron*  (ii.  9). 

Imogen,  daughter  of  Cymbeline,  king  of 
Britain,  has  secretly  married  Leonatus  Post- 
humus,  an  accomplished  gentleman.  The 
queen,  Imogen's  step-mother,  desirous  that 
her  son  Cloten  should  marry  Imogen,  reveals 
this  secret  marriage  to  the  king,  who  banishes 
Posthumus.  The  latter,  at  Rome,  boasts  of 
the  virtue  of  Imogen,  and  enters  into  a  wager 
with  lachimo  that  if  he  can  win  Imogen's 
favour  he  shall  have  a  diamond  ring  that 
Imogen  had  given  Posthumus.  lachimo, 
repulsed  by  Imogen,  by  a  stratagem  gets 
admission  to  her  chamber  at  night,  brings 
back  to  Posthumus  evidence  that  convinces 
him  of  her  infidelity,  and  receives  the  ring. 
Posthumus  writes  to  Pisanio,  his  servant  at  the 
court,  directing  him  to  kill  Imogen.  Pisanio 
from  compassion  spares  her,  provides  her 
with  a  man's  apparel,  and  leaves  her  in  a 


[202] 


CYMOCHLES 

forest,  where  she  is  kindly  entertained  by 
Bellarius  and  the  two  sons  of  Cymbeline, 
whom  he  had  stolen  in  their  infancy.  A 
Roman  army  invades  Britain.  Imogen  falls 
into  the  hands  of  the  Roman  general  and 
becomes  his  page.  In  the  ensuing  battle, 
Cymbeline  is  captured  and  then  rescued,  and 
the  general  and  Imogen  are  taken  prisoners, 
as  also  lachimo,  thanks  to  the  valour  of 
Bellarius,  of  the  king's  sons,  and  also  of 
Posthumus,  who  has  returned  from  Rome  to 
fight  for  Cymbeline.  He  now  surrenders 
himself  for  execution  as  having  returned 
from  banishment.  The  Roman  general  asks 
Cymbeline  to  spare  Imogen.  The  king  moved 
by  something  familiar  in  her  appearance, 
spares  her  life  and  grants  her  a  boon.  She 
asks  that  lachimo  be  forced  to  tell  how  he 
came  by  the  ring  that  he  wears  on  his  finger, 
lachimo  discloses  his  treachery.  Posthumus, 
learning  that  his  wife  is  innocent  and  be- 
lieving her  dead,  is  in  despair,  till  Imogen 
reveals  herself.  The  king's  joy  at  recovering 
his  daughter  is  intensified  when  Bellarius 
restores  to  him  his  two  lost  sons,  and  the 
scene  ends  in  a  general  reconciliation.  The 
play  contains  the  beautiful  dirge,  'Fear  no 
more  the  heat  o*  the  sun*. 

Cymochles  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
II.  v,  vi,  and  viii,  'a  man  of  rare  redoubted 
might',  'given  all  to  lust  and  loose  living',  the 
husband  of  Acrasia  (q.v.)  and  brother  of 
Pyrochles  (q.v.).  He  sets  out  to  avenge  on 
Sir  Guyon  the  supposed  death  of  his  brother. 
But  Phaedria  (q.v.)  intervenes.  He  is  finally 
slain  by  Prince  Arthur. 

Cymod6ce,  one  of  the  Nereids.  Cymodoce 
is  the  name  of  the  mother  of  Marinell  in 
Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  IV.  xii.  Swin- 
burne's *  Island  of  Cymodoce*  in  *  Songs  of 
the  Springtides'  is  the  island  of  Sark. 

Cymon  and  Iphigenia,  one  of  Dryden's 
'Fables*,  taken  from  the  'Decameron*  (v.  i)  of 
Boccaccio. 

Cymry,  the  Welsh.  The  word,  which  is 
Welsh,  probably  means  'the  compatriots*. 

CYNEWULF,  probably  a  Northumbrian 
poet  of  the  latter  part  of  the  8th  cent.,  the 
author  of  four  poems  in  Old  English  contained 
in  the  'Exeter  Book*  and  the  'Vercelli  Book* 
(qq.v.).  The  epilogues  of  these  poems  contain 
runic  characters  corresponding  to  the  letters 
that  compose  the  name  Cynewulf.  These 
poems  deal  with  the  following  subjects: 

1.  The  Ascension. 

2.  The  Legend  of  St.  Juliana. 

3.  The  'Elene',  or  story  of  the  discovery  of 
the  true  cross  by  the  Empress  Helena, 
mother  of  Constantine. 

4.  The  'Fates  of  the  Apostles*. 

The  first  of  these  is  placed  in  the^manu- 
script  between  a  poem  on  the  Incarnation  and 
one  on  the  Last  Judgement,  which  have  also 
been  doubtfully  attributed  to  Cynewulf,  the 
three  together  being  commonly  referred  to  as 


CYPRIAN 

*  Christ'.  Of  the  four  poems  mentioned,  the 
finest  is  the  'Elene'.  It  consists  of  fifteen 
cantos,  containing  descriptive  passages  of 
great  beauty,  and  the  last  of  these  is  interest- 
ing as  throwing  light  on  the  character  and 
circumstances  of  the  author.  Resemblances 
between  this  poem  and  the  'Dream  of  the 
Rood*  (q.v.)  make  it  possible  that  Cynewulf 
was  also  the  author  of  the  latter. 

Cynics,  see  Antisthenes. 

Cynosure,  'dog's  tail',  the  constellation  Ursa 
Minor,  which  contains  in  its  tail  the  Pole 
star;  hence  a  centre  of  attraction. 

Cynthia,  (i)  a  surname  of  Artemis  or  Diana 
(q.v.),  the  moon;  from  Mt.  Cynthus  in  Delos, 
where  Artemis  was  supposed  to  have  been 
born.  (2)  Spenser,  in  'Colin  Clouts  come 
home  againe*,  uses  the  name  to  designate 
Queen  Elizabeth.  (3)  In  Congreve's  *The 
Double  Dealer*  (q.v.),  the  daughter  of  Sir 
Paul  Plyant,  afHanced  to  Mellefont. 

Cynthia,  a  poem  by  R.  Barnfield  (q.v.). 

Cynthia?  s  Revels,  a  comedy  by  Jonson  (q.v.), 
printed  in  1601,  satirizing  some  court  types. 
These  figure  under  the  names  of  Amorphus, 
a  traveller  who  has  drunk  of  the  fountain  of 
self-love;  Asorus,  a  foolish  young  gallant; 
Hedon  the  voluptuous;  Anaides  the  impu- 
dent; Philautia,  self-love;  Argurion,  money; 
Moria,  folly.  Cynthia  is  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Actaeon  alludes  to  Essex;  Cupid  and  Mer- 
cury in  disguise  are  pages  at  her  court.  The 
plot  is  extremely  slight,  and  the  play  is 
tedious  and  of  little  interest  at  the  present 
day.  The  song  of  Hesperus  in  Act^v,  sc.  Hi, 
'Queen  and  huntress,  chaste  and  fair*,  is  one 
of  Jonson's  most  beautiful  lyrics. 

Cypress,  a  coniferous  tree,  often  regarded 
as  symbolic  of  mourning,  frequently  planted 
in  cemeteries  of  southern  Europe,  and  its 
branches  or  sprigs  used  at  funerals  (the 
'invisae  cupressi*  of  Horace,  Od.  n.  xiv). 
For  the  triple  signification  of  the  cypress 
among  the  ancients,  as  a  symbol  of  genera- 
tion, of  death,  and  of  immortality,  see 
De  Gubernatis,  'Mythologie  des  Plantes*, 
ii.  s.v.  Cypres. 

In  Shakespeare's  'Twelfth  Night',  II.  iv('in 
sad  cypress  let  me  be  laid'),  'cypress*  in  the 
opinion  of  Aldis  Wright  means  a  coffin  of 
cypress  wood,  or  a  bier  strewn  with  cypress 
branches;  but  in  in.  i,  of  the  same  play,  *a 
cypress,  not  a  bosom,  hideth  my  heart*,  the 
word  means  'cypress  lawn*  or  crape.  Cf. 
Milton,  'II  Penseroso*,  'sable  stole  of  cypress 
lawn*.  In  the  latter  sense  the  word  is  derived 
from  the  name  of  the  island  of  Cyprus. 

Cypress,    MR.,   a   character  in  Peacock's 

'Nightmare  Abbey*  (q.v.),  a  caricature  of 

Byron. 

Cypresse  Grove,  THE,  see  Drummond  of 


Cyprian,  belonging  to  Cyprus,  an  island 
famous  in  ancient  times  for  the  worship  of 


[203] 


CYPRIAN 

Aphrodite  or  Venus.  Hence  the  word  is  used 
in  the  sense  of  'lewd*  or  'licentious',  and  in 
the  i8th-i9th  cents,  was  used  to  signify  a 
prostitute. 

CYPRIAN,  ST.  (c.  A.D.  200-58),  bishop  of 
Carthage  and  a  Father  of  the  Church,  author 
of  'De  Unitate  Catholicae  Ecclesiae*  and 
other  theological  works,  beheaded  under  the 
Emperor  Valerian. 


DAMIEN 

Cyrano  de  Bergerac,  see  Bergerac. 
Cyrenaic  School  of  philosophy,  see  Aris- 
tippus. 
Cyrus*  Le  Grand,  see  Scudery. 

Cythera,  an  island  (Cerigo)  on  the  coast  of 
the  Peloponnese,  sacred  to  the  goddess 
Aphrodite,  who  was  thence  surnamed 
Cytherea. 


D 


Dacier,  THE  HON.  PERCY,  a  character  in 
Meredith's  'Diana  of  the  Crossways5  (q.v.)- 
Dactyl,  a  metrical  foot  consisting  of  one  long 
followed  by  two  short  syllables,  or  of  one 
accented  followed  by  two  unaccented  (de- 
rived from  the  three  joints  of  the  finger, 
See  Metre. 


Daedalus,  an  ingenious  Athenian,  said  to  be 
the  inventor  of  the  wedge  and  other  mechani- 
cal devices.  Having  murdered  his  nephew 
Talus,  as  likely  to  prove  his  rival  in  ingenuity, 
he  fled  with  his  son  Icarus  to  Crete,  where  he 
constructed  the  famous  labyrinth  for  King 
Minos  (q.v.).  Having  incurred  the  king's 
displeasure,  he  was  himself  confined  in  the 
labyrinth.  Thence  he  escaped  with  Icarus  by 
means  of  wings.  But  Icarus  flew  too  high, 
and  the  heat  of  the  sun  melted  the  wax  where- 
with the  wings  were  fastened,  so  that  he  fell 
into  the  sea  west  of  Samos  (hence  called  the 
Icarian  Sea)  and  was  drowned.  Daedalus 
made  his  way  to  Sicily. 
Dagobert  I,  the  son  of  Clotaire  and  king  of 
the  Franks  (638-38).  St.  Eloi  (q.v.)  was  his 
treasurer. 

Dagon,  the  national  deity  of  the  ancient 
Philistines,  represented  as  half  man,  half  fish 
(Judges  xvi.  23;  Milton,  'Paradise  Lost',  L 
462). 

Dagonet,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur', 
King  Arthur's  fool. 

Daguerreotype,  an  early  photographic  pro- 
cess, so  called  from  Louis  Jacques  Daguerre 
(1787-1851)  who  (with  Niepce)  invented  it 
in  1839. 

Daily  Courant,  The,  the  first  English  daily 
newspaper,  started  in  March  1702.  It  con- 
tained foreign  intelligence,  translated  from 
foreign  newspapers.  It  lasted  till  1735. 

Daily  News,  The,  was  founded  by  Dickens 
(q.v.),  as  a  Liberal  rival  to  the  'Morning 
Chronicle',  in  1846.  But  Dickens  soon 
abandoned  the  editorship  to  John  Forster 
(q.v.).  Among  notable  contributors  and 
members  of  its  staff  at  various  times  may  be 
mentioned  Harriet  Martineau  (q.v.),  Andrew 
Lang  (q.v.),  and  the  eminent  war  correspon- 
dent, Archibald  Forbes  (1839-1900).  It  is 
now  'The  News  Chronicle',  having  absorbed 
*The  Daily  Chronicle*  in  1930. 


Daily  Telegraph,  The,  founded  in  1855,  was 
the  first  daily  paper  to  be  issued  in  London 
at  a  penny.  Its  enterprising  character  and 
rather  highly  coloured  style  proved  so  suc- 
cessful that  for  a  time  it  enjoyed  a  larger 
circulation  than  any  other  English  newspaper. 
Among  famous  members  of  its  staff  have  been 
George  Augustus  Sala  (q.v.),  Sir  Edwin 
Arnold  (q.v.),  and  Edward  Dicey  (1832- 
1911). 

Daimler,  a  superior  and  particularly  quiet 
make  of  English  motor-car,  generally  asso- 
ciated in  novels  with  dignity  and  high  life. 
It  is  named  after  one  of  the  first  German  car 
manufacturers. 

Dairyman's  Daughter,  The,  a  moral  tale 
by  Legh  Richmond  (1772-1827),  rector  of 
Turvey,  published  in  1809.  This  tract  had  an 
enormous  circulation,  reaching  two  million 
copies. 

Daisy,  SOLOMON,  see  Solomon  Daisy. 

Daisy  Miller,  one  of  Henry  James's  (q.v.) 
most  famous  stories,  published  in  1878, 
which  recounts  the  adventures  of  a  young 
American  girl  travelling  in  Europe. 

Dalai-Lama,  see  Lama. 

Dale,  LAETITIA,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'The  Egoist*  (q.v.). 

Dale,  LILY,  the  heroine  of  A.  Trollope's 
'Small  House  at  Arlington*  (q.v.).  Her  sister, 
Bell,  her  uncle  the  Squire,  and  her  cousin, 
Bernard,  are  other  important  characters  in 
this  novel. 

D'Alembert  or  DALEMBERT,  JEAN  LE  ROND 
(1717-83),  see  Philosophes  and  Encyclopedic. 

Dalgarno,  LORD,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Fortunes  of  Nigel'  (q.v.). 

Dalgetty,  DUGALD,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Legend  of  Montrose*  (q.v.). 

Dame  Durden,  the  subject  of  a  well-known 
song,  who  kept  five  men-servants  eto  use  the 
spade  and  flail',  and  five  women  servants  'to 
carry  the  milken-paiP. 

Damien,  FATHER  JOSEPH  (1841-89),  a  Belgian 
priest  at  Honolulu,  went  in  1873  to  the  neg- 
lected leper  settlement  on  the  island  of 
Mplpkai.  There  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
ministering,  single-handed  for  the  first  twelve 


[204] 


DAMIENS 

years,  to  the  spiritual  and  material  welfare  of 
700  lepers.  In  1885  he  contracted  the  disease, 
but  continued  at  work  until  his  death.  R.  L. 
Stevenson  wrote  an  account  of  him,  'Father 
Damien*,  in  1890  ('  Chambers  's  Biographical 
Dictionary')- 

Damiens,  ROBERT  FRANgois  (1714-57),  a 
madman  who  attempted  the  life  of  Louis  XV. 
He  was  executed  after  having  been,  it  is  said, 
chained  on  a  steel  bed  that  was  heated.  Hence 
the  reference  in  Goldsmith's  'The  Traveller' 
(q.v.)  to  'Damiens'  bed  of  steel'. 

Damocles,  one  of  the  flatterers  of  Dionysius 
the  elder,  tyrant  of  Sicily.  He  pronounced 
Dionysius  the  happiest  of  men,  whereupon 
Dionysius  invited  him  to  experience  the 
happiness  of  a  monarch.  He  placed  him  at 
a  banquet,  where  presently  Damocles  per- 
ceived a  naked  sword  hanging  over  his  head 
by  a  single  hair. 

Damoetas,  a  shepherd  in  the  'Idylls  of 
Theocritus*  and  'Eclogues'  of  Virgil.  Also  a 
character  in  Sidney's  'Arcadia' 


Damon,  a  shepherd  singer  in  Virgil's  eighth 
*Eclpgue*;  a  name  adopted  by  poets  for  a 
rustic  swain.  Cf.  'Epitaphium  Damonis*  of 
Milton  (q.v.),  his  Latin  elegy  on  his  friend 
Charles  Diodati  (q.v.). 

Damon  and  Musidora,  two  lovers,  who 
are  the  subject  of  an  episode  in  Thomson's 
'Seasons*  (q.v.,  'Summer'). 

Damon  and  Pythias,  a  rhymed  play  by 
R.  Edwards  (q.v.),  acted  probably  in  1564, 
printed  in  1571.  Damon  and  Pythias, 
Pythagorean  Greeks,  visit  Syracuse,  and  the 
former  is  presently  arrested  on  a  baseless 
charge  of  spying  and  conspiring  against 
Dionysius  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  who  orders 
his  execution.  Damon  obtains  a  respite  of 
two  months  to  return  home  in  order  to  settle 
his  affairs,  Pythias  offering  himself  as 
security  for  his  return.  Damon  is  delayed 
and  arrives  when  Pythias  is  just  about  to  be 
put  to  death.  They  contend  which  shall  be 
executed,  each,  striving  to  save  the  other. 
Dionysius,  impressed  with  their  mutual 
loyalty,  pardons  Damon  and  asks  to  be 
admitted  to  their  brotherhood. 

In  the  original  classical  legend  it  is  Phin- 
tias  (of  which  'Pythias*  is  a  corruption),  not 
Damon,  who  is  sentenced,  and  Damon  who 
goes  bail  for  him. 

DAMPIER,  WILLIAM  (1652-1715),  buc- 
caneer, logwood-cutter,  privateer,  and  ex- 
plorer, visited  in  the  course  of  his^  activities 
many  parts  of  the  world,  the  Spanish  Main, 
Yucatan,  the  Pacific,  Australia,  and  the  East 
Indies.  He  published  accounts,  in  a  vivid  and 
straightforward  style,  of  his  travels  and  obser- 
vations, in  his  'Voyages*  (1697),  'Voyages  and 
Descriptions*  (1699),  and  'A  Voyage  to  New 
Holland*  (1703-9).  Dampier  also  figures 
in  Woodes  Rogers's  journal  of  his  privateer- 
ing expedition  (see  Rogers,  TF.). 


DANDIE  DINMONT 

D'Amville,  the  'atheist'  in  Tourneur's  'The 
Atheist's  Tragedy'  (q.v.). 
Dan  to  Beersheba,  FROM,  i.e.  from  one 
end  of  the  land  to  the  other,  an  expression 
said  to  be  first  used  by  Sterne  (q.v.)  in  the 
'Sentimental  Journey*.  The  city  Dan  was  at 
the  extreme  north  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
Beersheba  at  the  extreme  south. 

DANA,  RICHARD  HENRY  (1815-82), 
born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  an  Ameri- 
can jurist  and  politician,  shipped  in  1834  as  a 
sailor  for  a  voyage  in  the  Pacific,  for  reasons 
of  health.  He  published  in  1840  a  record  of 
this  experience  under  the  title  'Two  Years 
before  the  Mast*. 

Danae,  the  daughter  of  Acrisius,  king  of 
Argos.  An  oracle  foretold  that  the  king  would 
be  killed  by  his  daughter's  son,  and  Acrisius 
therefore  confined  her  in  a  brazen  tower. 
Zeus,  who  was  enamoured  of  her,  visited  her 
there  in  a  shower  of  gold.  Their  son  was 
Perseus  (q.v.).  Danae  and  the  child  were 
cast  adrift  on  the  sea  in  a  boat  and  borne  to  the 
island  of  Seriphos,  where  they  were  kindly 
treated  by  the  King  Polydectes.  For  the 
further  story  of  Danae  and  Perseus,  see 
Perseus. 

Danaides,  the  fifty  daughters  of  Danaus, 
king  of  Argos,  were  promised  in  marriage  to 
their  fifty  cousins,  the  sons  of  Aegyptus. 
Danaus,  who  had  been  informed  by  an  oracle 
that  he  would  perish  at  the  hands  of  his  sons- 
in-law,  made  his  daughters  promise  to  slay 
their  husbands  on  their  wedding  night.  This 
they  all  did  except  Hypermnestra,  who  suf- 
fered her  husband  Lynceus  to  escape.  The 
others  were  condemned  to  eternal  punishment 
in  hell,  being  required  to  fill  a  sieve  with 
water. 

Dance  of  Death,  or  Danse  Macabre,  of 
which  most  nations  of  Europe  had  a  version, 
pictorial  or  written,  embodies  ideas  prevalent 
especially  in  the  i5th  cent.,  as  a  consequence 
of  the  terrible  plague  known  as  the  Black 
Death.  The  name  is  especially  given  to  a 
series  of  emblematic  designs  mainly  by 
German  artists  of  the  I5th  and  i6th  cents. 
The  'Dance  of  Death'  attributed  to  Holbein 
was  printed  at  Lyons  in  1538  and  at  Basel  in 
1594.  The  word  Macabre  was  originally 
Macabre*,  a  proper  name,  variant  ofMachab^e, 
perhaps  that  of  the  painter  who  first  depicted 
the  dance  (Hatzfeld  and  Darmesteter). 
Dancer,  DANIEL,  a  famous  miser  (1716-94), 
in  whose  wretched  hovel  large  sums  of  money 
were  found  after  his  death. 
Dancers  of  Colbek,  see  Colbek* 
Dandle  Dinmont,  in  Scott's  'Guy  Manner- 
ing*  (q.v.),  a  sturdy  hospitable  Liddesdale 
farmer,  and  the  owner  of  a  special  breed  of 
terriers.  The  author  explains  in  a  note  that 
the  character  was  drawn  from  no  individual, 
but  that  after  the  tale  had  been  written^the 
name  Dandie  Dinmont  was  generally  given 
to  Mr.  James  Davidson  of  Hindlee,  on  the 


[205] 


DANDIN 

edge  of  the  Teviotdale  mountains,  who,  be- 
sides bearing  a  general  resemblance  to  the 
character  in  the  novel,  possessed  a  celebrated 
race  of  terriers,  named  Mustard  or  Pepper 
according  to  their  colours,  without  other  in- 
dividual distinction,  except  'old*,  'young',  and 
'little*. 

Dandin,  GEORGE,  the  hero  of  a  comedy  of 
that  name  by  Moliere  (q.v.),  a  tradesman  who 
marries  a  noble's  daughter  and  suffers  many 
humiliations  in  consequence.  'Vous  1'avez 
voulu,  George  Dandin',  is  his  frequent  com- 
ment on  his  situation. 

Dandiprat,  a  small  coin  current  in  England 
in  the  i6th  cent.,  worth  three-halfpence. 
Hence  a  small,  insignificant,  or  contemptible 
fellow. 

Danegeld,  an  annual  tax  imposed  at  the  end 
of  the  loth  cent,  or  in  the  nth  cent., 
originally  (as  is  supposed)  to  provide  funds 
for  the  protection  of  England  from  the  Danes, 
and  continued  after  the  Norman  Conquest 
as  a  land-tax.  [OEDJ 

Dane- law,  the  part  of  England  over  which 
Danish  law  prevailed,  being  the  district  NE. 
of  Watling  Street  ceded  by  the  treaty  of 
Wedmore  (878),  or  perhaps  the  Northum- 
brian territory  in  Danish  occupation.  [OED.] 

Dangerfield,  a  character  in  Sedley's  'Bel- 
laraira*  (q.v.);  also  a  character  in  Sir  W. 
Scott's  'Peveril  of  the  Peak'  (q.v.). 

Dangle,  a  character  in  Sheridan's  'The 
Critic'  (q.v.). 

Daniel,  CHARLES  HENRY  OLIVE  (1836-1919), 
scholar,  fellow,  and  Provost  of  Worcester  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  is  remembered  for  his  lifelong 
interest  in  printing.  He  established  a  private 
press  at  Oxford,  where  he  revived  the  use  of 
the  Fell  type  (see  Fell),  and  produced  some 
fine  examples  of  typography,  including  plays 
and  poems  of  Robert  Bridges. 

The  DANIEL  MARK  sometimes  called  the 
Misit  Mark,  the  special  note  of  the  press, 
represents  Daniel  in  the  lions*  den  with  the 
motto :  'Misit  Angelum  suum'  ('He  sent  his 
Angel'). 

DANIEL,  SAMUEL  (1562-1619),  the  son 
of  a  music-master,  entered  Magdalen  Hall, 
Oxford,  in  1579,  and  after  visiting  Italy  be- 
came tutor  to  William  Herbert,  third  earl 
of  Pembroke,  and  later  to  Anne  Clifford, 
daughter  of  the  countess  of  Cumberland.  He 
is  mentioned  in  Spenser's  'Colin  Clout'  (q.v.) 
as  the  'new  shepherd  late  up  sprong'.    He 
published  'Delia',  a  collection  of  sonnets  in- 
spired by  Tasso  and  Desportes,  in  1592;  the 
*Complaynt  of  Rosamond',  in  which  Fair 
Rosamund  confesses  and  laments  her  rela- 
tions with  the  king,  also  in  1592;  and  'Cleo- 
patra' (q.v.),    a   Senecan   tragedy  in    1594. 
'Musophilus,   or  Defence  of  all  Learning* 
(q.v.)  appeared   in   1599;    the  'Defence  of 
Rhyme*  in  i6o2(?),  in  which  he  maintained, 
in  reply  to  Thomas  Campion's  'Art  of  English 
Poesy',  the  fitness  of  the  English  language 


D'ANNUNZIO 

for  rhymed  verse;  *Philptas*  (q.v.),  a  Senecan 
tragedy,  in  1605.  He  issued  in  1609  a  new 
edition  of  his  'Civill  Warres*  (q.v.),  which 
had  first  appeared  in  1595.  He  Composed 
numerous  masques  for  court  festivities,  in- 
cluding 'Tethys  Festival',  1610,  and  'Hy- 
men's Triumph*,  1615.  He  was  inspector  of 
the  children  of  the  queen's  revels  from  1615 
to  1618.  His  poems  were  sharply  criticized 
by  Ben  Jonson,  with  whom  he  was  'at 
jealousies',  but  praised  for  their  'sweetness  of 
ryming'  by  Drurnmond  of  Hawthornden,  and 
for  their  purity  of  language  by  Sir  John 
Harington  and  S.  T.  Coleridge.  William 
Browne  (q.v.)  calls  him  'well-languaged 
Daniel'. 

Daniel  Deronda,  a  novel  by  G.  Eliot  (q.v.), 
published  in  1876,  the  last  of  her  novels. 

Gwendolen  Harleth,  high-spirited,  self- 
confident,  and  self-centred,  marries  Hen- 
leigh  Grandcourt,  an  arrogant  selfish  man  of 
the  world,  for  his  money  and  position,  to 
save  her  mother  and  herself  from  destitution, 
and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  she  knows  of  the 
existence  of  another  woman  and  children  to 
whom  Grandcourt  is  in  honour  bound.  She 
comes  under  the  influence  of  the  high-souled 
Daniel  Deronda,  and  her  dependence  on  his 
guidance  increases  as  the  brutality  of  her 
husband  drives  her  to  revolt  and  even  to 
thoughts  of  murder.  Daniel's  own  parentage 
is  enveloped  in  mystery,  which  is  gradually 
revealed  by  his  attraction  to  the  noble  Jew, 
Mordecai,  and  his  gentle  sister,  Mirah,  and 
the  final  disclosure  of  his  Jewish  birth. 
Grandcourt's  tragic  death,  of  which  Gwen- 
dolen feels  herself  partly  guilty,  leaves  her 
with  Daniel  as  her  only  hope.  This  is  changed 
to  despair  when  she  learns  his  intention  of 
devoting  himself  to  the  cause  of  a  national 
centre  for  the  Jewish  race,  and  of  marrying 
Mirah,  a  despair  that  gradually  gives  place  to 
resignation.  Klesmer,  the  musician,  whose 
genius  and  devotion  to  his  art  atone  for  his 
personal  deficiencies,  is  notable  among  the 
minor  characters. 

Daniel  come  to  judgement,  A,  a  quota- 
tion from  Shakespeare's  'The  Merchant  of 
Venice',  IV.  i,  in  allusion  to  Dan.  vi.  2,  &c. 

Daniel  in  the  lions '  den,  a  reference  to  the 
story  in  Dan.  vi  of  Daniel  being  cast,  by 
order  of  King  Darius,  into  the  den  of  lions, 
and  of  their  mouths  being  shut  by  the  angel 
of  God,  so  that  they  did  not  hurt  him. 

Dannisburgh,  LORD,  a  character  in  Mere- 
dith's 'Diana  of  the  Crossways'  (q.v.),  drawn 
from  Lord  Melbourne. 

D 'ANNUNZIO,  GABRIELS  (1863-  ), 
Italian  poet  and  novelist.  His  best-known 
works  are:  'Intermezzo  di  rime*  (1883);  'II 
libro  delle  vergini*  (1884);  'Chimera*  (1888) ; 
'Elegie  romane*;  *Le  vergini  delle  rocce' 
(1896),  *I1  trionfo  del  morte*  (1894),  'La 
citta  morta*  (1898),  *I1  fuoco*  (1900),  'Forse 
che  sf,  forse  che  no'  (1910). 


[206] 


DANSKER 
Dansker,  a  Dane. 

'Inquire  me  first  what  Danskers  are  in 
Paris/ 

(Shakespeare,  'Hamlet',  II.  i.  7.) 

DANTE  ALIGHIERI  (1265-1321),  a  great 
Italian  poet,  was  born,  probably  at  Florence, 
of  a  Guelf  family.  His  father,  Alighiero,  is  said 
to  have  been  a  lawyer.  The  circumstances  of 
his  life  are  somewhat  obscure,  and  have  been 
the  subject  of  much  debate;  our  principal 
source  of  information  about  them  is  the  'Life 
of  Dante'  by  Boccaccio. 

Dante,  in  the  'Vita  Nuova',  written  in  his 
26th  year,  the  first  of  his  three  principal 
works,  states  that  when  he  was  nearly  ten 
he  first  saw  the  'glorious  lady  of  his  mind', 
who  was  called  Beatrice,  who  was  then  nine 
and  to  whom  he  became  devoted.  Nine  years 
later  he  saw  her  again  in  the  street,  when  she 
courteously  saluted  him;  and  subsequently 
on  divers  occasions.  Then  Beatrice  died  in 
the  year  1290,  and  Dante  mourned  her. 
Presently  another  lady  came  into  his  life, 
whom  he  first  beheld  gazing  with  pity  at  him 
from  a  window.  These  and  other  incidents 
evoked  sonnets  and  other  short  poems  which 
Dante  incorporated  in  the  'Vita  Nuova'. 
Who  this  Beatrice  was  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  much  discussion.  The  generally 
accepted  view  is  that  she  was  Bice  Portinari, 
who  married  Simone  de  Bardi.  According  to 
another  view  she  was  another  Florentine  lady, 
whose  identity  Dante  designedly  kept  secret; 
while  others  hold  that  she  was  an  ideal 
person  without  earthly  existence.  The  second 
lady  in  the  poem  was  probably  Gemma 
Donati,  Dante's  wife,  whom  he  married  some 
time  before  1298. 

Dante  joined  the  party  of  the  Bianchi 
(q.v.),  attained  the  municipal  office  of  prior, 
and,  incurring  the  special  displeasure  of  the 
Pope,  was  sentenced  to  fine  and  imprison- 
ment. He  fled  from  Florence  in  1301  and  his 
subsequent  movements  are  obscure,  but  we 
know  that  he  led  a  wretched  wandering  life, 
that  he  was  for  a  time  in  Paris,  and  that  he 
ended  his  days  at  Ravenna. 

Dante's  second  principal  work,  probably 
written  about  1300,  was  the  'Convivio'  or 
'Convito*  or  'Feast*,  an  unfinished  philo- 
sophical work  (Dante  was  an  Aristotelian). 
The  third  was  his  'Divina  Commedia*  (q.v.), 
which  is  dealt  with  separately.  He  also  wrote 
two  Latin  treatises,  'De  Vulgari  Eloquentia'. 
on  the  philology  of  the  Romance  languages 
and  poetical  metre,  and  'De  Monarchia',  on 
the  relations  of  pope  and  prince.  He  was 
really  the  'founder*  (if  such  an  expression  can 
be  used)  of  the  Italian  language :  down  to  his 
time  it  was  uncertain  whether  Provencal  or 
some  other  southern  French  dialect  would 
become  the  speech  of  northern  Italy  and 
spread  southwards.  Dante  made  his  Tuscan 
into  Italian. 

Danton,  JACQUES  (1759-94),  a  celebrated 
French  statesman  of  the  Revolution,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Convention  and  of  the  first  (Dan- 


DARES  PHRYGIUS 
tonist)  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  which 

Sve    place    to    the    'Great    [Robespierrist] 
^mmittee*  in  July  1793.    He  finally  came 
into    conflict    with    Robespierre    and    was 
guillotined. 

Danu,  in  Gaelic  mythology,  the  mother  of 
the  gods  (the  Tuatha  dl  Danann). 

Daphnaida,  an  elegy  by  Spenser  (q.v.).  See 
Alcyon. 

Daphne,  according  to  mythology,  a  daughter 
of  the  river  Peneus,  of  whom  Apollo  became 
enamoured.  Daphne  fleeing  from  his  im- 
portunities entreated  the  assistance  of  the 
gods,  who  changed  her  into  a  laurel.  Hence 
the  laurel  became  the  favourite  tree  of  Apollo. 

Daphnis,  a  son  of  Hermes,  who  was  brought 
up  by  the  nymphs,  was  taught  by  Pan  to  play 
on  the  flute,  and  became  a  shepherd  on  the 
slopes  of  Mt.  Aetna.  He  was  regarded  as  the 
inventor  of  pastoral  poetry.  According  to  one 
form  of  the  legend,  he  was  struck  with  blind- 
ness for  infideHty  to  the  Naiad  whom  he  loved. 
See  also  Lityerses. 

Daphnis  and  Chloe,  a  Greek  pastoral 
romance,  one  of  the  earliest  works  of  its  kind, 
sometimes  attributed  to  an  author  Longus, 
of  whom  nothing  is  known.  Its  date  is  un- 
certain, perhaps  the  2nd  cent.  A.D.  It  is  the 
story  of  two  infants  discovered  respectively  by 
Lamon  and  Dryas,  shepherds  of  Mitylene, 
and  brought  up  by  them  to  tend  their  sheep 
and  goats,  and  tells  of  their  love  and  adven- 
tures, and  final  union,  after  the  discovery  of 
their  wealthy  parents.  G.  Moore  (q.v.)  wrote 
a  translation  ('The  Pastoral  Loves  of  Daphnis 
and  Chloe'),  published  in  a  limited  edition  in 
1924. 

Dapper,  a  character  in  Jonson's  'The 
Alchemist*  (q.v.). 
D'ARBLAY,  MME,  see  Burney. 
Darby  and  Joan,  a  jocose  appellation  for  an 
attached  husband  and  wife,  especially  in 
advanced  years  and  humble  life.  The '  Gentle- 
man's Magazine'  of  1735,  V.  153,  has,  under 
the  title  'The  joys  of  love  never  forgot;  a 
song*,  a  mediocre  copy  of  verses  containing 
a  reference  to  'Old  Darby,  with  Joan  by  his 
side*,  who  'are  never  happy  asunder'.  This 
has  usually  been  considered  the  source  of  the 
names,  and  various  conjectures  have  been 
made  both  as  to  the  author  and  as  to  the 
identity  of  'Darby  and  Joan',  but  with  no 
valid  results,  [OED.] 

Darcy,  FITZWILLIAM,  one  of  the  principal 
characters  in  Jane  Austen's  'Pride  and  Pre- 
judice* (q.v.). 

Dares,  the  boxer  at  the  funeral  games,  in 
Virgil,  'Aen.*  v.  369  et  seq. 
Dares  Phrygius,  in  Homer's  'Iliad*,  y.  9, 
a  priest  of  Hephaestus  among  the  Trojans. 
A  work  in  Latin  purporting  to  be  the  transla- 
tion of  an  account  by  him  of  the  destruction 
of  Troy,  known  as  the  De  Exddio  Trojae,  was 
popular  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  one  of  the 


[207] 


DARIEN  SCHEME 

sources  of  Trojan  legend.  It  dates  perhaps 
from  the  6th  cent.  A.D.  See  Dictys  Cretensu. 
Barien  Scheme,  THE,  a  scheme  proposed 
by  William  Paterson  (1658-1719),  the  pro- 
jector of  the  Bank  of  England,  for  a  Scottish 
settlement  on  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  An 
expedition  for  the  purpose  set  out  in  1698, 
but  proved  unsuccessful,  and  the  scheme  was 
abandoned  in  1700.  Practically  the  whole 
circulating  capital  of  the  Scottish  people  was 
invested  in  the  scheme ;  and  so,  at  the  Union 
(1707),  a  sum  of  money  was  paid  by  England 
in  compensation  for  the  losses  sustained  by 
Scotland. 

Darius  the  Great,  son  of  Hystaspes,  was 
king  of  Persia  521-485  B.C.  According  to 
Herodotus  (iii.  85),  he  and  six  other  chiefs, 
having  slain  the  usurper  of  the  throne, 
Gomates,  agreed  that  that  chief  should  be 
king  whose  horse  neighed  first,  and  in  this 
way  Darius  was  chosen,  thanks^  to  the  in- 
genuity of  his  groom.  He  greatly  extended 
the  Persian  empire  and  in  his  reign  began  the 
great  war  between  the  Persians  and  the 
Greeks.  His  army  was  defeated  at  Marathon, 
and  before  he  was  able  to  renew  the  struggle 
he  died,  leaving  the  execution  of  his  schemes 
to  his  son  Xerxes.  Darius  is  referred  to  in 
Daniel  V.  31,  and  the  following  chapters. 
Dark  Ages,  a  term  sometimes  applied  to  the 
period  of  the  Middle  Ages  (q.v.)  to  mark  the 
intellectual  darkness  of  the  time, 
DARLEY,  GEORGE  (1795-^46),  an  Irish 
poet  and  mathematician,  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
staff  of  the  'London  Magazine*  and  wrote  the 
pleasant  pastoral  drama  'Sylvia'  (1827)  and 
the  poem  'Nepenthe*,  besides  a  good  deal  of 
other  verse,  including  'The  Errors  of  Ecstacie* 
(1822),  which  shows  his  considerable  lyrical 
power.  Some  of  his  prose  tales  were  col- 
lected in  'Labours  of  Idleness*  (1826). 
Darley  Arabian,  a  bay  Arab  stallion  from 
whom  the  best  English  race-horses  are 
descended,  imported  about  1700  by  Mr. 
Darley  of  Yorkshire.  'Flying  Childers*  (q.v.) 
was  his  son,  and  'Eclipse1  (q.v.)  ids  great- 
great-grandson. 

Darling,  GRACE,  daughter  of  James  Darling, 
keeper  of  the  Outer-Farn  lighthouse,  off  the 
coast  of  Northumberland,  who  with  her 
father  in  1838  gallantly  put  out  in  a  coble  in  a 
heavy  sea  and  rescued  several  passengers  of 
tne  wrecked  'Forfarshire*  steamer. 

Darnay,  CHARLES,  a  character  in  Dickens  *s 
'A  Tale  of  Two  Cities*  (q.v.). 

D  'Artagnan,  one  of  the  heroes  of  Alexandre 
Dumas*  'The  Three  Musketeers*  (q.v.). 

Dartle,  ROSA,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
*David  Copperfield*  (q.v.). 

DARWIN,  CHARLES  ROBERT  (1809- 
82),  born  at  Shrewsbury,  grandson  of  Eras- 
mus Darwin  (q.v.),  was  educated  at  Shrews- 
bury, Edinburgh  University,  and  Christ's 


DASENT 

College,  Cambridge.  He  embarked  in  1831 
as  naturalist  on  the  'Beagle',  bound  ^for 
South  America  on  a  scientific  expedition. 
He  returned  in  1836,  and  published  in 
1839  his  'Journal  of  Researches  into  the 
Geology  and  Natural  History  of  the  various 
countries  visited  by  H.M.S.  Beagle*.  His 
'Structure  and  Distribution  of  Coral  Reefs 
appeared  in  1842,  'Geological  Observations 
on  Volcanic  Islands'  in  1844,  and  'Geological 
Observations  on  S.  America*  in  1846.  His 
great  work,  cOn  the  Origin  of  Species  by 
means  of  Natural  Selection',  appeared  in 
1859.  Darwin  had  received  in  1858  from  Dr. 
A.  R.  Wallace  (q.v.)  a  manuscript  containing 
a  theory  of  the  origin  of  species  identical 
with  his  own.  This  he  had  published  with  a 
letter  of  his  own,  addressed  to  Dr.  Asa  Grey 
in  1857,  containing  a  sketch  of  his  theory. 
Darwin's  book  gave  rise  to  intense  opposition, 
but  found  distinguished  supporters  in  Huxley, 
Lyell,  and  Sir  Joseph  Hooker.  It  was  followed 
by  'The  Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  under 
Domestication'  (1868),  and  'The  Descent  of 
Man*  (1871).  Ainong  Darwin's  other  works 
were  'The  Fertilisation  of  Orchids*  (1862), 
supplemented  by  *  Cross  and  Self-Fertilisation* 
(1876);  "The  Movements  and  Habits  of 
Climbing  Plants3  (1864);  'The  Expression  of 
the  Emotions  in  Man  and  Animals5  (1872); 
'Insectivorous  Plants'  (1875);  'The  Power  of 
Movement  in  Plants'  (1880),  in  which  was 
formulated  his  theory  of  circumnutation ;  and 
'Formation  of  Vegetable  Mould  through  the 
action  of  Worms'  (1881).  The  'Life  and 
Letters  of  Charles  Darwin',  edited  by  his 
son  Francis  Darwin,  appeared  in  1887,  and 
'More  Letters  of  Charles  Darwin,  by  Francis 
Darwin  and  A.  C.  Seward*  in  1903. 

DARWIN,  ERASMUS  (1731-1802),  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  spent 
much  of  his  life  as  a  physician  at  Lichfield, 
where  he  established  a  botanical  garden.  He 
embodied  the  botanical  system  of  Linnaeus 
in  a  poem  'The  Botanic  Garden',  of  which 
Pt.  II,  'The  Loves  of  the  Plants',  appeared  in 
1789,  and  Pt.I,  'The  Economy  of  Vegetation', 
in  1791.  The  poem  is  in  heroic  couplets,  in 
imitation  of  Pope.  The  goddess  of  Botany, 
descending  on  earth,  holds  forth  on  various 
natural  phenomena  throughout  the  four 
cantos  of  Pt.  I,  while  Pt.  II  describes  'the 
Ovidian  metamorphosis  of  the  flowers,  with 
their  floral  harems',  stamens  and  pistils 
figuring  as  beaux  and  belles.  The  work  was 
ridiculed  by  Canning  and  Frere  in  'The 
Loves  of  the  Triangles*.  In  his  'Zoonomia*, 
published  in  1794—6,  Darwin  expounds  the 
laws  of  organic  life  on  the  evolutionary 
principle. 

DASENT,  Sm  GEORGE  WEBBE  (1817- 
96),  Scandinavian  scholar,  educated  at  West- 
minster and  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford.  He 
was  the  interpreter  of  Icelandic  sagas  to  us, 
publishing  many  translations,  'Popular  Tales 
from  the  Norse'  (1859),  'The  Story  of  Burnt 
Njal'  (1861),  &c. 


[208] 


DAVIES 

Muse's  Sacrifice',  containing  the  author's 
famous  'Picture  of  an  Happy  Man*  (1612), 
and  'Wit's  Bedlam'  (1617).  He  also  issued  an 
'Anatomy  of  Fair  Writing*  (1633).  Some  of 
his  epigrams,  most  of  which  are  contained  in 
'The  Scourge  of  Folly '(undated),  are  valuable 
for  their  notices  of  Ben  Jonson,  Fletcher,  and 
other  contemporary  poets. 

DAVIES,  SIR  JOHN  (1569-1626),  a 
Wiltshire  man  of  good  family,  educated  at 
Winchester  and  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
solicitor-  and  attorney-general  for  Ireland, 
and  subsequently  appointed  lord  chief  jus- 
tice of  the  King's  Bench  in  England  as 
a  reward  for  maintaining  the  legality  of 
Charles  Fs  forced  loans.  He  died  before 
taking  up  this  office.  His  'Orchestra',  a  poem 
in  seven-lined  stanzas,  of  the  school  of  Spen- 
ser, in  which  natural  phenomena  are  reduced 
to  an  ordered  motion  or  'dancing',  was  pub- 
lished in  1 596.  'Astraea',  a  collection  of  acros- 
tics on  the  name  Elizabeth  appeared  in  1599, 
and  'Nosce  Teipsum*  (highly  praised  by  Cole- 
ridge), a  philosophical  poem  on  the  nature 
of  man,  and  on  the  nature  and  immortality  of 
the  soul,  in  the  same  year. 

DAVISON,  FRANCIS  (iS7S?-i6i9?),  son 
of  William  Davison,  secretary  of  state  to 
Queen  Elizabeth ;  educated  at  Gray's  Inn,  and 
befriended  by  Essex.  He  issued,  with  his 
brother  Walter,  a  'Poetical  Rapsody'  (q.v.) 
'containing  divers  sonnets,  odes,  elegies, 
maolrigals,  and  other  Poesies*  in  1602,  2nd 
edition  in  1611;  a  3rd  edition  appeared  in 
1621. 

Davus  sum,  in  Byron's  'Don  Juan',  xm. 
xiii: 

But  I'm  not  Oedipus  and  Life's  a  Sphinx; 

I  tell  the  tale  as  it  was  told,  nor  dare 
To  venture  a  solution,  Davus  sum, 

is  a  quotation  from  Terence,  'Andria*  (i.  ii), 
where  the  slave  Davus,  in  answer  to  a 
question,  says,  'Davus  sum,  non  Oedipus', 
alluding  to  the  fact  that  Oedipus  alone  was 
able  to  solve  the  riddle  of  the  Sphinx  (q.v.). 

DAVY,  SIR  HUMPHRY  (1778-1829), 
natural  philosopher,  was  professor  of  chemis- 
try at  the  Royal  Institution,  and  greatly 
advanced  the  knowledge  of  chemistry  and 
galvanism.  He  invented  the  miner's  safety- 
lamp.  His  collected  works,  prose  and  verse, 
with  a  memoir  by  his  brother,  were  published 
in  1839-40.  Mention  may  be  made  of  his 
little  dialogue  'Salmonia,  or  Days  of  Fly- 
fishing, by  an  Angler'  (1828),  which  in  its 
form  and  style  reminds  the  reader  of  Izaak 
Walton.  Davy  was  a  friend  of  Sir  W.  Scott, 
and  there  is  a  pleasant  account  in  Lockhart 
of  Davy's  visits  to  Abbotsford. 

Davy  Jones,  in  nautical  slang,  the  spirit  of 
the  sea,  the  sailor's  devil.  DAVY  JONES'S 
LOCKER,  the  grave  of  those  who  perish  at  sea. 

Davys  (often  wrongly  spelt  DAVIS),  JOHN 
(1550  ?-i6c«5),  Arctic  explorer  and  inventor  of 


DAY 

nautical  instruments.  'Davis  Strait*  is  named 
after  him. 

Daw,  SIR  JOHN,  in  Jonspn's  'Epiccene'  (q.v.), 
a  braggart  cowardly  knight,  who  pretends  to 
learning. 

Dawes  Plan,  THE,  an  arrangement  evolved 
by  an  international  committee  of  financial 
experts  set  up  at  the  end  of  1923  to  consider 
the  question  of  the  Reparations  to  be  paid  by 
Germany.  Germany  had  declared  it  impos- 
sible to  pay  the  annuities  fixed  by  the  Allies 
in  1921  (£100,000,000  plus  26  per  cent,  of 
exports)  and  France  had  begun  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  Ruhr.  The  Committee,  presided 
over  by  General  Charles  G.  Dawes  of  the 
United  States,  comprised  two  representatives 
each  for  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  Bel- 
gium, and  the  United  States.  They  reported 
in  April  1924,  making  recommendations  for 
the  stabilization  of  the  German  currency,  the 
reorganization  of  the  Reichsbank,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  Transfer  Committee  to 
receive  payments  in  marks  from  Germany 
and  carry  out  transfers  of  these  to  the  Allies. 
They  also  drew  up  a  schedule  of  annuities 
ranging  from  1,000  million  to  2,500  million 
gold  marks,  secured  on  taxes,  railways,  and 
industrial  securities.  The  plan  was  put  into 
operation,  but  was  superseded  by  the  Young 
Scheme  (q.v.). 

Dawks* s  Letter,  a  newspaper  of  the  late  ryth 
cent.,  printed  in  written  characters  to  re- 
semble a  manuscript  letter. 

Dawson,  BULLY,  a  notorious  character  in  the 
1 7th  cent.  Addison  in  the  'Spectator*,  No.  2, 
writes:  'Sir  Roger  was  what  you  call  a  fine 
gentleman,  had  often  supped  with  my  Lord 
Rochester  and  Sir  G.  Etherege . . .  and  kicked 
Bully  Dawson  in  a  public  coffeehouse  for 
calling  him  youngster*.  Charles  Lamb  refers 
to  Bully  Dawson  in  the  'Essays  of  Elia' 
('Popular  Fallacies'). 

Dawson,  JEMMY,  the  hero  of  a  ballad  by 
Shenstone  (q.v.).  He  was  one  of  the  Man- 
chester rebels  who  supported  the  Young 
Pretender,  and  was  drawn,  hung,  and 
quartered  on  Kennington  Common  in  1746. 

Dawson,  PHOEBE,  the  heroine  of  one  of  the 

tales  in  Crabbe's  'The  Parish  Register',  H 

(q.v.). 

Day,  FANCY,  the  heroine  of  Hardy's  'Under 

the  Greenwood  Tree'  (q.v.). 

Day,  DAYE,  or  DAIE,  JOHN  (1522-84),  printer, 
imprisoned  for  his  protestant  zeal  in  Queen 
Mary's  reign,  is  remembered  as  having 
printed  the  first  church-music  book  in  Eng- 
lish (1560)  and  the  first  English  edition  of 
Foxe's  'Martyrs'  (1563);  and  as  having  been 
the  first  to  cast  Anglo-Saxon  type  in  England. 
He  introduced  a  new  italic,  a  Roman,  and  a 
Greek  type. 

DAY,  JOHN  (ft.  1606),  was  educated  at 
Caius  College,  Cambridge*  He  collaborated 
with  Dekker  and  others  in  a  number  of  plays. 


DAY 

Of  his  own  extant  works,  'The  Isle  of  Gulls', 
suggested  by  Sidney's  'Arcadia*,  appeared  in 
1606,  'Law  Trickes'  in  1608,  and  'Humour 
out  of  Breath*  in  the  same  year.  His  best 
work,  'The  Parliament  of  Bees'  (q.v.),  ap- 
peared perhaps  in  1607,  though  the  earliest 
extant  copy  is  of  1641.  His  works  were 
collected  by  A.  H.  Bullen  in  1881.  See  also 
Parnassus  Plays. 

BAY,  THOMAS  (1748-89),  educated  at 
Charterhouse  and  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford,  and  a  barrister  of  the  Middle  Temple, 
devoted  himself  largely  to  works  of  moral  and 
social  reform.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
'History  of  Sandford  and  Merton*  (i783~9» 
see  Sandford  and  Merton},  in  which  _  he 
attempted  to  reconcile  Rousseau's  naturalism 
with  a  sounder  morality. 

Day  of  Doom,  The,  a  poem  by  Michael  Wig- 

glesworth,  published  in  New  England  in  1 662, 

with  the  sub-title:  CA  Poetical  Description 

of  the  Great  and  Last  Judgment*. 

De  Augmentis,  see  Bacon  (Francis). 

De  Bourgh,  LADY  CATHERINE,  a  character  in 

Jane  Austen's  Tride  and  Prejudice*  (q.v.). 

Be  Craye,  COLONEL,  a  character  in  Mere- 
dith's 'The  Egoist*  (q.v.). 
Be  Croye,  ISABELLE  and  HAMELINE,  charac- 
ters in  Scott's  'Quentin  Durward*  (q.v.). 

BE  LA  MARE,  WALTER  (1873-  ), 
educated  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  School,  and 
for  some  years  engaged  in  business  in  London, 
is  the  author  of  many  poems  in  which  dreams 
and  reality,  fairies  and  humble  natural  crea- 
tures, are  delightfully  blended.  His  works 
include  'The  Listeners'  (1912),  'Peacock  Pie* 
(1913),  'The  VeiT(i92i),  all  poems; 'Collected 
Poems*  (i  920) ;  'Henry  Brocken*  (i 904),  'The 
Return'  (1910),  'Memoirs  of  a  Midget*  (1921) 
(novels).  His  early  books  were  published 
under  the  name  of  Walter  Ramel. 

BE  LA  RAMfiE,  MARIE  LOUISE,  see 
Ouida. 

BE  MORGAN,  WILLIAM  FREND  (1839- 
1917),  educated  at  University  College,  Lon- 
don, at  first  devoted  his  attention  to  art  and  in 
particular  to  the  production  of  stained  glass 
and  glazed  pottery,  working  for  a  time  in 
association  with  his  friend  William  Morris 
(q.v.).  He  was  particularly  successful  with 
decorative  tiles,  but  ill-health  brought  his 
activities  in  this  direction  to  an  end,  and  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  he  turned  to  the  writing 
of  fiction.  'Joseph  Vance*,  his  masterpiece, 
appeared  in  1906,  'Alice-for-Short*  in  1907, 
'Somehow  Good' in  1908,  'It  never  can  happen 
again*  in  1909,  'An  Affair  of  Dishonour'  in 
1910,  *A  Likely  Story*  in  1911,  and  'When 
Ghost  meets  Ghost*  in  1914.  'The  Old  Mad- 
house* (1919)  and  'The  Old  Man's  Youth' 
(1921),  left  unfinished  by  De  Morgan,  were 
skilfully  completed  by  his  widow.  De  Morgan 
also  wrote  two  treatises  on  the  craft  of  pottery 
(Society  of  Arts  Journal,  vol.  xl,  and  a  'Report 


DE  VERB 

on  the  Feasibility  of  a  Manufacture  of  Glazed 
Pottery  in  Egypt',  1894). 
De  Nugis  Curialium,  see  Map.  This  is  also 
the  sub-title  of  the  'Policraticus9  of  John  of 
Salisbury  (q.v.). 

De  Profundis,  'Out  of  the  depths',  the  first 
two  words  of  the  Latin  version  of  Psalm  cxxx. 
It  is  the  title  of  the  prose  apologia  of  Oscar 
Wilde  (q.v.). 

BE  QUINGEY,  THOMAS  (1785-1859). 
the  son  of  a  Manchester  merchant,  was  edu- 
cated at  Manchester  Grammar  School,  and 
after  leading  for  some  time  a  rambling  life, 
went  to  Worcester  College,  Oxford,  but  took 
no  degree.  He  here  first  began  opium-eating. 
He  was  one  of  the  early  members  of  the  staff 
of  'Blackwood's  Magazine'  (q.v.),  for  which  he 
wrote  the  'Confessions  of  an  English  Opium 
Eater1  (q.v.,  1822,  enlarged  ed.  1856),  and 
*On  Murder  as  one  of  the  Fine  Arts*  (1827). 
De  Quincey  produced  a  great  deal  of  miscel- 
laneous literary  work,  including  the  transla- 
tion of  a  German  novel  ('Walladmor'),  an 
original  novel  'Klosterheim*  (1832),  'The 
Logic  of  Political  Economy*  (1844),  and  a 
large  number  of  essays  on  a  great  variety  of 
subjects.  Mention  should  be  made  of  his 
'Autobiographic  Sketches'  (1834-53),  his 
articles  on  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Lamb, 
and  others,  his  dream  visions  ('Suspiria  de 
Profundis',  'Savannah-La-Mar*,  'Levana  and 
Our  Ladies  of  Sorrow',  'The  English  Mail- 
Coach'),  and  his  tales,  *The  Spanish  Military 
Nun*  and  'The  Revolt  of  the  Tartars*.  Of  his 
critical  work,  his  essay  'On  the  Knocking  at 
the  Gate  in  Macbeth*  is  best  remembered. 
He  wrote  an  ornate  prose,  sometimes  marked 
by  splendid  imagery  (as  in  passages  of  'Our 
Ladies  of  Sorrow*,  the  'Confessions*,  and  the 
'Autobiography')  and  humour.  His  works 
have  been  more  than  once  collected.  An 
edition  by  D.  Masson  in  fourteen  volumes 
appeared  in  1889—90. 

De  Rerum  Natura,  the  great  philosophical 
•poem  by  Lucretius  (q.v.). 
De  Sublimitate,  the  critical  treatise  attributed 
to  Longinus  (q.v.). 

DE  TABLEY,  LORD,  see  Warren  (J.  B.L.). 
De  Vere,  ARTHUR,  alias  YOXJNG  PHILIPSON, 
son  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'Anne  of  Geierstein*  (q.v.). 
DE  VERE,  AUBREY  THOMAS  (1814- 
1902),  the  son  of  Sir  Aubrey  de  Vere  (1788- 
1846,  himself  a  poet),  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  He  came  early  under  the 
influence  of  Coleridge  and  Wordsworth.  He 
was  a  friend  of  Tennyson,  and  a  lifelong 
friend  and  advocate  of  Sir  Henry  Taylor,  as 
poet  and  dramatist.  Later  friends  included 
Robert  Browning  and  R.  H.  Hutton.  He 
published  'The  Waldenses  and  other  Poems* 
in  1842,  and  'English  Misrule  and  Irish 
Misdeeds9,  displaying  Irish  sympathies,  in 
1 848.  In  1 85 1  he  was  received  into  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church*  His  voluminous  works  in- 


[312] 


DE  VERITATE 

elude  "The  Legends  of  St.  Patrick'  (1872), 
'Critical  Essays'  (1887-9),  'Recollections' 
(1897),  and  dramas.  He  is  the  subject  of  a 
'Memoir'  by  Wilfrid  Ward  (1904). 

De    Veritate,    the   principal    philosophical 
work  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  (q.v.). 
Dead  Souls,  see  GogoL 
Dean  of  St.  Patrick's,  THE,  Swift  (q.v.). 
Deane,  MR.  and  LUCY,  characters  in   G. 
Eliot's  'The  Mill  on  the  Floss'  (q.v.). 
Deans,  DOUCE  DAVIE,  and  his   daughters 
JEANIE  and  EFFIE,  the  principal  characters  in 
Scott's  'The  Heart  of  Midlothian'  (q.v.). 
Dearbhorgil,  see  Devorguilla  (2). 

Death  and  Dr.  Hornbook,  a  satirical  poem 
by  Burns  (q.v.) .  Dr.  Hornbook  was  a  fictitious 
village  schoolmaster  who  eked  out  his  salary 
by  the  sale  of  drugs. 

Death  of  Blanche*  The,  see  Boke  of  the 
Duchesse. 

Death's  Jest-Book,  or  The  Poors  Tragedy,  a 
play  by  Beddoes  (q.v.),  begun  by  him  in  1825 
and  altered  and  touched  up  by  him  until  the 
end  of  his  life.  It  was  published,  after  his 
death,  in  1850.  Three  distinct  manuscript 
versions  of  the  play  exist. 

Wolfram  and  Isbrand  have  entered  the 
service  of  Melveric,  the  duke  of  Munster- 
berg,  in  disguise,  to  take  vengeance  on  him 
for  the  death  of  their  father  and  the  dishonour 
of  their  sister ;  Wolfram  in  the  character  of  a 
knight,  Isbrand  of  a  court-fool.  Wolfram,  of 
a  generous  and  forgiving  temper,  is  sent  to 
rescue  Melveric  from  captivity  among  the 
Moors,  and  chivalrously  carries  out  his 
mission.  He  finds  Melveric  in  love  with 
Sibylla,  a  fellow  captive,  whose  affection  has 
already  been  given  to  Wolfram.  Contention 
arises,  in  which  Wolfram's  generosity  is 
repaid  first  with  a  poisoned  cup  and  then 
with  death  by  Melveric's  sword.  Melveric 
returns  to  his  country,  where  many  troubles 
await  him  and  where  he  is  haunted  by  the 
ghost  of  Wolfram.  There  follows  a  strange 
medley  of  conspiracy,  murder,  and  charnel- 
house  scenes,  with  an  element  of  the  super- 
natural, which  ends  in  the  death  of  all  the 
principal  characters,  the  ghost  of  Wolfram 
leading  off  Melveric  to  the  sepulchre  as  the 
curtain  falls.  The  play  contains  some  fine 
blank  verse  and  beautiful  lyrics,  notably  the 
dirge  for  Wolfram,  beginning 

If  thou  wilt  ease  thy  heart 
Of  love  and  all  its  smart. 

Debatable  Land,  a  tract  of  country  between 
the  Esk  and  the  Sark  on  the  borders  of 
Cumberland,  claimed  before  the  Union  by 
both  England  and  Scotland,  and  the  scene 
of  frequent  conflicts. 

Debrett,  the  peerage  of  the  United  King- 
dom first  published  in  1803  by  John 
Debrett,  under  the  title  'Peerage  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  containing  an  Account 
Of  all  the  Peers'.  Now  issued  annually. 


DECLINE  AND  FALL 

Decameron,  The,  a  collection  of  tales  by 
Boccaccio  (q.v.),  written  between  1348  and 
1358  and  drawn  from  many  sources.  The 
setting  of  the  tales  is  as  follows.  Florence 
being  visited  by  the  plague  in  1348,  seven 
young  ladies  and  three  young  men  leave  the 
city  for  neighbouring  villas,  the  beauty  of 
which  is  described,  and  spend  part  of  each  of 
ten  days  (whence  the  name)  in  diverting  one 
another  with  stories,  each  person  telling 
one  tale  on  each  day,  so  that  there  are  one 
hundred  tales  in  all.  The  work  had  much 
influence  on  English  literature,  notably  on 
Chaucer,  and  many  of  the  tales  were  in- 
corporated in  Painter's  'Palace  of  Pleasure* 
(q.v.). 

Declaration  of  Independence,  THE,  the 
document  signed  4  July  1776,  whereby  the 
American  Congress  declared  the  United 
States  of  North  America  to  be  independent 
of  the  British  Crown.  Thomas  Jefferson, 
John  Adams,  Roger  Sherman,  Robert  R. 
Livingstone,  and  Benjamin  Franklin  drew  up 
the  Declaration,  which  was  signed  by  eleven 
states. 

Declaration  of  Indulgence,  THE,  was 
issued  by  Charles  II  in  1672  suspending  the 
penal  laws  in  ecclesiastical  matters  in  such  a 
way  as  to  give  religious  liberty  to  Roman 
Catholics  and  Dissenters.  It  was  recalled  in 
1673  under  pressure  from  the  Commons.  A 
fresh  Declaration  of  Indulgence  was  issued 
by  James  II  in  1687;  and  a  third  in  April 
1688.  It  was  for  refusing  to  compel  their 
clergy  to  read  the  last  that  the  seven  bishops 
were  brought  to  trial.  Three  successive 
Declarations  of  Indulgence  were  published 
in  Scotland,  1662-4,  to  the  advantage  of 
moderate  Presbyterianism. 

Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  The, 
an  historical  work  by  Gibbon  fa.v.),  of  which 
vol.  i  of  the  first  (quarto)  edition  was  pub- 
lished in  1776,  vols.  ii  and  iii  in  1781,  and 
the  last  three  volumes  in  1788. 

This,  the  greatest  of  historical  works  in 
English  literature,  falls  into  three  divisions, 
as  defined  by  the  author  in  the  preface :  from 
the  age  of  Trajan  and  the  Ante-nines  to  the 
subversion  of  the  western  Empire;  from  the 
reign  of  Justinian  in  the  East  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  second  or  German  Empire  of  the 
West,  under  Charlemagne;  from  the  revival 
of  the  western  Empire  to  the  taking  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Turks.  It  thus  covers 
a  period  of  about  thirteen  centuries,  and 
comprehends  such  vast  subjects  as  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Christian  religion,  the  move- 
ments and  settlements  of  the  Teutonic 
tribes,  the  conquests  of  the  Mahommedans, 
and  the  crusades.  It  traces  in  fact  the  con- 
nexion of  the  ancient  world  with  the  modern. 

The  history  is  marked  by  lucidity,  com- 
pleteness, and  substantial  accuracy,  though 
in  the  latter  respect  it  has  been  superseded 
by  later  works  written  in  the  light  of  fuller 
knowledge.  (It  is  supplemented  by  notes  in 
the  editions  of  J.  B.  Bury,  1896-1900,  1909- 


DECRETALS 

13.)  The  principal  criticism  to  which  it  is 
open  is  a  certain  lack  of  proportion,  and  a 
want  of  sympathy  with  man  in  his  nobler 
impulses.  History  was  to  Gibbon  'little  more 
than  the  crimes,  follies,  and  misfortunes  of 
mankind*. 

Decretals,  epistles  of  the  popes  on  points  of 
doctrine  or  ecclesiastical  law.  The  first  col- 
lection of  decretals  was  that  of  Gregory  IX  in 
five  books  (1234),  followed  by  a  sixth  book 
in  1298,  by  the  CLEMENTINES  of  Clement  V  in 
1313,  and  by  the  EXTRAVAGANTS  of  John  XXII 
and  his  successors.  The  decretals  constitute 
the  'new*  canon  law  as  distinguished  from 
the  'old*  canon  law  contained  in  Gratian's 
'Decree*  of  1150. 

The  FALSE  or  ISIDORIAN  DECRETALS  are  a 
collection  of  decretals,  made  in  the  9th  cent., 
containing  certain  spurious  documents  sup- 
porting the  papal  claim  to  temporal  power. 
The  author  takes  the  name  of  Isidore,  arch- 
bishop of  Sevile  (d.  636).  The  forged  docu- 
ments contain  about  a  hundred  letters  pur- 
porting to  be  from  early  popes,  and  include 
the  famous  'Donation  of  Constantine'  (q.v.). 
They  were  finally  shown  to  be  spurious  by 
Laurentius  Valla,  the  great  humanist,  In  the 
1 5th  cent. 

Dedlock,  SIR  LEICESTER,  LADY,  and  Vo- 
LUMNIA,  characters  in  Dickens's  'Bleak  House' 
(q.v.). 
Dee,  MILLER  OF  THE,  see  Miller  of  the  Dee. 

DEE,  DR.  JOHN  (1527-1608),  mathema- 
tician and  astrologer,  was  educated  at  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  became  a 
fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where 
the  stage  effects  he  introduced  into  a  per- 
formance of  the  'Peace'  of  Aristophanes  pro- 
cured him  his  lifelong  reputation  of  being  a 
magician;  this  was  confirmed  by  his  erudition 
and  practice  of  crystallomancy  and  astrology. 
He  wrote  numerous  learned  works,  including 
eDe  Trigono*  (1565),  'Navigationis  ad  Catha- 
yam  .  .  .  delineatio  Hydrographica*  (1580), 
and  a  'Treatise  on  the  Rosie  Crucian  Secrets*. 

Deerbrook,  a  novel  by  Harriet  Martineau 

(q.v.),  1839. 

Deerslayer,  The,  a  novel  by  James  Fenimore 

Cooper  (q.v.). 

Def arge ,  M.  and  MME,  characters  in  Dickens's 

'A  Tale  of  Two  Cities'  (q.v.). 

Defence  of  All  Learning,  see  Musophilus. 
Defence  ofPoesie,  see  Apologia  for  Poetry. 
Defence  of  Poetry,  see  Shelley  (P.  B.). 
Defender  of  the  Faith,  DEFENSOR  FIDEI,  a 
title  conferred  on  Henry  VIII  by  Leo  X  in 
1521,  in  recognition  of  Henry's  'Defence  of 
the    Seven    Sacraments'.     The   Bull   is   in 
Ryrner's  'Foedera*,  vi,  and  in  an  Appendix  to 
Roscoe's  'Leo  X*. 

Deffand,  MME  Du,  MARIE  DE  VICHY- 
CHAMROND  (1697-1780),  a  French  literary 
hostess,  whose  salon  was  frequented  by 


DEFOE 

Montesquieu,  D'Alembert,  and  others,  and 
who  became  blind  in  later  life.  Horace  Wai- 
pole  was  her  close  friend,  and  a  large  number 
of  her  letters  to  him  survive  (edited  by  Mrs. 
Paget  Toynbee,  1912).  Walpole's  letters  to 
her  were  destroyed  by  his  request. 

DEFOE,  DANIEL  (i66o?-i73i)»  born  in 
London,  the  son  of  James  Foe,  a  butcher. 
He  changed  his  name  to  Defoe  c.  1703.  He 
married  Mary  TufHey  in  January  1683/4, 
being  at  that  time  a  hosiery  merchant  in 
Cornhill,  and  having  apparently  travelled  in 
Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  and  France.  He  took 
part  in  Monmouth's  rebellion,  and  joined 
William  Ill's  army  in  1688.  In  1701  he 
published  'The  True-born  Englishman*,  a 
satirical  poem  combating  the  popular  preju- 
dice against  a  king  of  foreign  birth.  In  1702 
appeared  'The  Shortest  Way  with  the  Dis- 
senters', a  notorious  pamphlet  in  which  Defoe, 
himself  a  dissenter,  ironically  demanded  the 
total  suppression  of  dissent,  at  any  cost,  to 
show  the  absurdity  of  ecclesiastical  intoler- 
ance. For  this  he  was  fined,  imprisoned 
(May-November,  1703),  and  pilloried.  Al- 
though he  was  regarded  as  a  hero  by  the  peo- 
ple, the  sense  of  his  unjust  treatment  appears 
to  have  affected  his  character.  Under  the 
influence  of  this  and  of  pecuniary  distress — 
he  attributed  his  ruin  to  his  imprisonment- 
he  became  shifty  and  mercenary  in  public 
affairs.  He  wrote  his  'Hymn  to  the  Pillory',  a 
mock-Pindaric  ode,  while  imprisoned,  and 
started  his  newspaper  'The  Review'  (q.v.) 
in  1704.  In  the  same  year  appeared  his 
pamphlet  'Giving  Alms  no  Charity',  and  in 
1706  his  'True  Relation  of  the  Apparition  of 
one  Mrs.  Veal',  a  vivid  piece  of  reporting  of 
a  current  ghost  story.  During  the  following 
years  he  was  employed  as  a  secret  agent  of 
Harley  and  Godolphin,  largely  in  Scotland, 
in  support  of  the  union,  but  his  fidelity  to  his 
employers  is  questioned.  Certain  ironical 
anti- Jacobite  pamphlets  in  1712-13  led  to  his 
prosecution  by  the  Whigs  for  treasonable 
publications  and  to  a  brief  imprisonment.  He 
now  started  a  new  trade  journal,  'Mercator*, 
in  place  of  'The  Review*.  In  1715  he  was 
convicted  of  libelling  Lord  Annesley,  but 
escaped  punishment  by  the  favour  of  Lord 
Townshend,  the  Whig  secretary  of  state,  to 
whom  he  sold  his  services  as  a  secret  agent 
and  journalist. 

He  published  the  first  volume  of  his  best- 
known  work  'Robinson  Crusoe*  (q.v.)  in 
1719,  the  'Farther  Adventures'  of  his  hero 
following  a  few  months  later.  The  next  five 
years  saw  the  appearance  of  his  most  im- 
portant works  of  fiction,  as  follows :  'Life  and 
Adventures  of  Mr.  Duncan  Campbell',  the 
deaf  and  dumb  conjurer,  and  'Captain 
Singleton*  (q.v.),  in  1720;  'Moll  Flanders' 
(q.v.),  'A  Journal  of  the  Plague  Year*  (q.v.), 
'The  History  of  Peter  the  Great',  and  'Colonel 
Jack'  (q.v.)  in  1722;  'Roxana*  (q.v.),  the 
'Memoirs  of  a  Cavalier*  (q.v.,  not  quite 
certainly  by  Defoe),  his  tracts  on  Jack 


DEFORMED  TRANSFORMED 

Sheppard  (q.v.),  and  *A  New  Voyage  round 
the  World*,  in  1724;  'The  Four  Voyages 
of  Capt.  George  Roberts*  in  1726.  The 
'Memoirs  of  Captain  George  Carleton* 
(q.v.),  which  appeared  in  1728,  were  probably 
largely  by  his  hand.  His  'Tour  through  the 
Whole  Island  of  Great  Britain',  a  delightful 
guide-book,  in  three  volumes,  appeared  in 
1724-7.  During  the  last  six  years  of  his  life 
(1725-31)  his  principal  works  were  'The 
Complete  English  Tradesman*  (1726),  *Au- 
gusta  Triumphans,  or  the  Way  to  make 
London  the  Most  Flourishing  City  in  the 
Universe'  (1728),  'A  Plan  of  the  English 
Commerce*  (1728),  and  'The  Complete  Eng- 
lish Gentleman*,  not  published  until  1890. 
In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  above, 
Defoe  produced  a  vast  number  of  pamphlets 
on  all  sorts  of  subjects;  in  all  he  published 
over  250  works.  He  died  in  his  lodgings  in 
Ropemaker's  Alley,  Moorfields,  and  was 
buried  in  what  is  now  Bunhill  Fields.  Defoe, 
apart  from  the  political  shiftiness  above 
alluded  to,  was  not  only  an  extraordinarily 
prolific  and  versatile,  but  a  liberal,  humane, 
and  moral  writer. 

Deformed  Transformed,  The,  an  unfinished 
drama  by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.),  written  in  1822. 
Arnold  is  a  hideous  hunchback  and 
miserable  in  consequence  of  his  deformity. 
A  stranger,  the  Devil  in  disguise,  offers  to 
change  his  shape,  and  calls  up  the  forms  of 
Caesar,  Alcibiades,  and  others  to  tempt  him. 
Arnold  chooses  the  form  of  Achilles,  and 
this  the  stranger  confers  upon  him,  assuming 
in  exchange  the  hunchback  shape  of  Arnold, 
whom  he  thereafter  follows  as  an  attendant. 
Part  II  presents  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1527,  in 
the  course  of  which  Arnold  distinguishes 
himself.  At  this  point  the  fragment  ends. 

Degare  or  Degore,  Sir,  a  metrical  romance 
of  some  900  lines,  of  the  early  I4th  cent.  The 
daughter  of  a  king  of  England,  who  has  been 
ravished  by  a  knight,  secretly  bears  a  son. 
She  abandons  him  in  the  forest  with  a  purse 
of  money,  a  letter  of  directions,  and  a  pair  of 
gloves  designed  to  indicate  the  lady  he  is  to 
marry.  The  poem  relates  the  prowess  of  the 
son  in  numerous  adventures  encountered  in 
his  search  for  his  father.  The  name  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  corruption  of  Uegare,  and  is 
the  origin  of  'Diggory*. 
Deianira,  a  daughter  of  Oeneus,  king  of 
Aetolia.  Her  beauty  gained  her  many  ad- 
mirers and  her  father  promised  to  give  her 
to  him  who  proved  the  strongest.  Hercules 
obtained  the  prize  and  married  Deianira. 
As  they  travelled  together,  they  were  stopped 
by  the  swollen  stream  of  the  Evenus,  and  the 
centaur  Nessus  offered  to  carry  her  safely 
to  the  opposite  shore.  Hercules  consented, 
but  no  sooner  had  Nessus  reached  the  op- 
posite bank  than  he  offered  violence  to 
Deianira.  Hercules,  seeing  this,  shot  a 
poisoned  arrow  and  mortally  wounded 
Nessus.  To  avenge  himself  the  latter  gave 
Deianira  his  tunic,  stained  with  blood  in- 


DEKKER 

fected  by  the  poisoned  arrow,  telling  her  that 
it  had  the  power  to  reclaim  a  husband  from 
unlawful  loves.  When  Hercules  was  un- 
faithful to  her,  Deianira  sent  him  the  centaur's 
garment,  which  caused  his  death. 

Deldamia,  a  daughter  of  Lycomedes,  at 
whose  court  Achilles  (q.v.)  spent  some  time 
in  concealment.  She  bore  to  Achilles  a  son, 
Neoptolemus. 

Dez7,  Address  to  the,  a  poem  by  Burns 
(q.v.). 

DeiphSbus,  a  son  of  Priam  of  Troy,  who 
married  Helen  (q.v.)  after  the  death  of  his 
brother  Paris.  He  was  betrayed  by  her  and 
slain  by  Menelaus.  He  figures  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Troilus  and  Cressida*  (q.v.). 

Deirdre,  the  heroine  of  the  tale  of  'The 
Sons  of  Usnach*  (pron.  *Usna'),  one  of  the 
'Three  Sorrowful  Stories  of  Erin*.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Fedlimid,  harper  to  King 
Conchobar  of  Ulster,  and  Cathbad  the  Druid 
prophesied  that  her  beauty  would  bring 
banishment  and  death  to  heroes.  Conchobar 
destined  her  for  his  wife  and  had  her  brought 
up  in  solitude.  But  she  accidentally  saw  and 
fell  in  love  with  Naoise  (pron.  'Naisi'),  the  son 
of  Usnach,  who  with  his  brothers  carried 
her  off  to  Scotland.  They  were  lured  back 
by  Conchobar  and  treacherously  slain,  and 
Deirdre  took  her  own  life.  (See  Lady 
Gregory,  'Cuchulain  of  Muirthemne*,  and 
the  dramas  on  Deirdre  by  G.  W.  Russell, 
Synge,  and  Yeats.) 

Deism,  or  'natural  religion',  the  belief  in  a 
Supreme  Being  as  the  source  of  finite  exis- 
tence, with  rejection  of  revelation  and  the 
supernatural  doctrines  of  Christianity. 

The  DEISTS,  who  came  into  prominence  at 
the  end  of  the  I7th  and  during  the  i8th  cents., 
were  a  group  of  writers  holding  the  above 
belief,  of  whom  the  chief  were  Charles 
Blount  (1654-^93),  John  Toland  (1670-1722), 
Matthew  Tindal  (1657-1733),  Anthony 
Collins  (1676-1729),  Thomas  Chubb  (1679- 
1747),  and  the  third  earl  of  Shaftesbury  (q.v.). 
Their  views  derived  from  those  of  Lord 
Herbert  of  Cherbury  (q.v.). 

DEKKER,  THOMAS  (i57o?-i632),  was 
born,  and  mainly  lived,  in  London,  the 
manners  of  which  his  writings  vividly  illus- 
trate. He  suffered  from  poverty  and  was  long 
in  prison  for  debt,  but  appears  to  have  been 
a  man  of  happy  and  lovable  temperament. 
He  was  engaged  about  1598  by  Philip 
Henslowe  (q.v.)  to  write  plays  (most  of  which 
are  now  lost)  in  collaboration  with  Drayton, 
Ben  Jonson,  and  many  others.  He  published 
'The  Shoemaker's  Holiday*  (q.v.)  and  'Old 
Fortunatus*  (q.v.),  comedies,  in  1600.  Having 
been  ridiculed,  jointly  with  Marston,  by  Ben 
Jonson  in  the  'Poetaster*,  he  retorted  in 
'Satiromastix*  (q.v.),  a  play  produced  in  1602. 
His  other  principal  plays  are  'The  Honest 
Whore*  (q.v.),  of  which  Pt.  I  appeared  in 
1604,  and  Pt.  II  in  1630;  'Patient  Grissil* 


DELANE 

(q.v.),  written  in  collaboration  with  Chettle 
and  Haughton,  1603;  the  *  Witch  of  Edmon« 
ton'  (q.v.),  written  in  collaboration  with  Ford 
and  Rowley,  1623.  He  also  collaborated  with 
Middleton  in  the  'Roaring  Girl'  (q.v.),  1611$ 
and  Massinger  in  the  'Virgin  Martyr*  (q.v.), 
1622.  He  published  a  tragi-comedy  'Match 
Mee  in  London',  1631.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  pamphlets,  as  follows:  'The  Wonderful 
Yeare  1603*,  containing  a  poignant  descrip- 
tion of  London  during  the  plague  of  that 
year;  *The  Seuen  deadly  Sinnes  of  London', 
and  'Newes  from  Hell*,  an  imitation  of  Nash, 
1606;  *The  Belman  of  London*,  a  social 
satire,  1608.  He  produced  cThe  Guls  Horne- 
booke*  (q.v.),  1609,  and  'Fowre  Birds  of 
Noahs  Arke',  a  prose  devotional  work,  1609. 
*The  Batchelors  Banquet*,  a  tract  founded  on 
*Les  Quinze  Joyes  de  Manage',  has  been 
wrongly  attributed  to  him.  His  dramatic 
works  were  collected  by  R.  H.  Shepherd  in 
3:873,  and  his  miscellaneous  works  by  Dr. 
Grosart  in  'The  Huth  Library'.  His  writings 
are  marked  by  a  sunny  simplicity  and  sym- 
pathy for  the  poor  and  oppressed  (including 
animals  tortured  for  man's  amusement). 
DELANE,  JOHN  THADDEUS  (1817-79), 
educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and 
Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  the  famous  editor  of 
'The  Times'  (q.v.),  1841-77. 
DELANY,  MRS.  MARY  (1700-88),  of  the 
Granville  family,  the  wife  (after  the  death  of 
her  first  husband)  of  Dr.  Patrick  Delany  (the 
friend  of  Swift),  has  left  a  voluminous 
correspondence  ('Autobiography  and  Corre- 
spondence', 1861-2;  see  also  'Mrs.  Delany  at 
Court',  R.  Brimley  Johnson,  1925)  throwing 
much  light  on  the  mode  of  life  among 
people  of  quality  in  the  i8th  cent.  Mrs. 
Delany  introduced  Fanny  Burney  at  court. 

Delectable  Mountains,  THE,  in  Bunyan's 
'Pilgrim's    Progress'     (q.v.),     'Emmanuel's 
Land*,  within  sight  of  the  Celestial  City. 
Delenda  est  Carthago,  see  Cato  the  Censor. 

Delia,  a  name  of  Artemis  or  Diana,  who  was 
said  to  have  been  born  in  the  island  of  Delos. 

Delia,  a  collection  of  sonnets  by  S.  Daniel 
(q.v.),  published  in  1592. 

Delilah  (DALILA  in  Milton),  in  Judges  xvi, 
a  woman  of  the  valley  of  Sorek,  loved  by 
Samson,  who  persuaded  him  to  tell  her  the 
secret  of  his  strength  and  (by  cutting  off  his 
hair)  betrayed  him  to  the  Philistines. 

Delia  Crusca,  ACCADEMIA,  literally  academy 
of  the  bran  or  chaff,  the  name  of  an  academy 
established  at  Florence  in  1582,  mainly  with 
the  object  of  sifting  and  purifying  the  Italian 
language ;  whence  its  name,  and  its  emblem, 
a  sieve.  The  first  edition  of  its  dictionary 
appeared  in  1612. 

The  name  Delia  Cruscan  is  also  applied  to 
a  school  of  English  poetry,  at  once  silly  and 
pretentious,  started  towards  the  end  of  the 
1 8th  cent.  It  was  taken  from  the  Florentine 
Academy,  to  which  Robert  Merry  (1755-98), 


DELPHI 

one  of  the  members  of  the  school,  in  fact 
belonged.  The  Delia  Cruscan  poets  were 
attacked  by  W.  GirTord  (q.v.)  in  his  'Baviad* 
and  'Maeviad'. 

Delia  Robbia,  LUCA  (1400-82),  a  Florentine 
sculptor,  famous  for  his  work  in  terra-cotta, 
for  the  bas-reliefs  on  Giotto's  Campanile, 
the  bronze  doors  of  the  sacristy  of  the 
Duomo,  and  other  sculptures  in  Florence. 
The  secret  of  his  terra-cotta  process  was  in- 
herited by  his  nephew  Andrea,  and  the  four 
sons  of  the  latter ;  and  the  work  of  the  various 
members  of  the  family  is  not  ^easy  to  dis- 
tinguish. Its  chief  characteristic  is  the  use 
of  white  figures  against  a  blue  or  other 
coloured  background. 

Delmour,  COLONEL,  and  his  brother  MR. 
DELMOUR,  characters  in  Miss  Ferrier's  'The 
Inheritance'  (q.v.). 

DELONEY,  THOMAS  (i  543  ?-i6oo  ?), 
ballad-writer  and  pamphleteer,  was  by  trade 
a  silk-weaver.  He  wrote  ballads  and  broad- 
sides (three  on  the  Spanish  Armada,  1588). 
But  his  three  chief  works,  written  between 
1596  and  1600,  are  prose  narratives  relating 
respectively  to  the  clothier's  craft  ('William 
of  Reading*),  the  weaver's  craft  ('Jack  of 
Newbury'),  and  the  shoemaker's  craft  ('The 
Gentle  Craft').  This  last  includes  the  story 
of  *Simon  Eyre*,  the  shoemaker's  apprentice 
who  became  lord  mayor  and  founder  of 
Leadenhall  (a  story  adapted  by  Dekker  in 
his  'Shoemaker's  Holiday',  q.v.) ;  and  that  of 
'Richard  Casteler'  in  which  figures  Long 
Meg  or  Meg  of  Westminster  (q.v.).  In  these 
works  the  author,  with  considerable  humour, 
portrays  the  life  of  the  middle  classes  of 
Elizabethan  times,  and  gives  vivid  pictures 
of  London  scenes. 

Deloraine,  WILLIAM  OF,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel'  (q.v.). 

Delos,  an  island  in  the  Aegean,  one  of  the 
Cyclades,  supposed  to  have  been  raised  from 
the  sea,  as  a  floating  island,  by  Poseidon,  and 
anchored  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea  by  Zeus,  to 
be  a  resting-place  for  Latona  (q.v.).  It  con- 
tained temples  of  Apollo  and  Latona.  The 
whole  island  was  declared  sacred  by  the 
Greeks,  and  was  made  the  treasury  of  the 
Greek  confederacy  against  the  Persians.  It 
was  the  transfer  of  this  treasury  to  Athens 
that  provoked  the  jealousy  of  other  Greek 
states,  and  thus  led  to  the  Peloponnesian  War. 

Delphi,  situated  in  Phocis,  on  the  south- 
west slopes  of  Mt.  Parnassus,  was  the  seat  of  a 
temple  to  Apollo  and  of  an  oracle  of  world- 
wide fame.  The  oracles  were  delivered 
by  a  priestess  of  Apollo  called  the  PYTHIA, 
who  was  supposed  to  be  inspired  by  the 
sulphurous  vapours  issuing  from  a  cavity 
in  the  ground  within  the  temple.  It  was 
customary  for  those  who  consulted  the  oracle 
to  give  large  presents  to  the  god;  whence 
were  derived  the  immense  treasures  of  the 
temple.  The  oracle  was  in  existence  in  the 


[316] 


DELPHI 

Mycenaean  age  and  did  not  finally  disappear 
until  the  4th  cent.  A.p.  But  its  period  of 
greatest  influence  was  in  the  8th  to  5th  cents. 
B.C.  It  was  looted  by  Sulla  and  sank  into 
decay  during  the  ist  cent.  A.D.  There  was  a 
revival  under  Hadrian  and  the  final  flicker 
came  under  Julian  (A.D.  360). 

The  PYTHIAN  GAMES  were  held  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Delphi  every  four  years,  in 
the  interval  between  the  Olympic  Games 
(q.v.),  in  the  third  year  of  each  Olympiad, 

DelpM,  in  imprints,  Delft. 

Delpfain  Classics,  ad  usum  Delphini,  see 
Dauphin. 

Delvile,  MORTIMER,  the  hero  of  Miss 
Burney's  'Cecilia*  (q.v.). 

Deme'ter,  known  as  CERES  to  the  Romans, 
was  the  Greek  goddess  of  the  corn-bearing 
earth  and  of  agriculture.  Mythology  made 
her  the  daughter  of  Cronos  and  sister  of 
Zeus,  but  she  does  not  figure  among  Homer's 
Olympian  deities.  Persephone  (Proserpine, 
q.v.)  was  her  daughter.  She  instructed  Trip- 
tolemus,  the  son  of  Celeus,  king  of  Attica, 
in  the  arts  of  agriculture,  and  lent  him  her 
chariot,  wherein  he  travelled  all  over  the 
world  bringing  corn  to  the  inhabitants.  After 
the  carrying  off  of  Proserpine  by  Pluto  (see 
under  Proserpine) ,  she  endeavoured  in  vain  to 
recover  her  daughter,  and  so  great  was  her 
grief  that  Jupiter  granted  Proserpine  to  spend 
part  of  the  year  with  her  mother  and  the 
remainder  with  Pinto.  This  myth,  symbolical 
of  the  sowing  of  the  seed  (the  sojourn  of 
Proserpine  with  Pluto  in  the  nether  regions) 
and  growing  of  the  corn  (her  return  to  the 
upper  world),  and  perhaps  also  of  the  death 
of  man  and  his  future  life,  was  celebrated 
in  the  great  Eleusinian  mysteries. 

The  myth  has  been  treated  by  Lord 
Tennyson  in  his  'Demeter  and  Persephone*, 
and  by  Robert  Bridges  in  his  mask  'Demeter' 
(1905). 

Demetrius,  PSEUDO-,  an  impostor  who 
usurped  the  Russian  throne  in  1605-6,  and 
was  assassinated  in  Moscow  in  the  latter 
year.  He  was  a  monk,  Otrefief  by  name,  who 
pretended  to  be  Demetrius,  the  son  of  the 
Tsar  Ivan  whom  Boris  the  usurper  had  put 
to  death. 

Demetrius,  the  silversmith  of  Ephesus,  who 
stirred  up  his  fellow-craftsmen  against  Paul; 
see  Acts  xix.  24  et  seq. 

Demetrius,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Midsummer  Night's  Dream'  (q.v.);  also 
in  Jonson's  'The  Poetaster*  (q.v.),  where 
Demetrius  represents  the  poet  Marston ;  also 
in  Fletcher's  'The  Humorous  Lieutenant* 
(q.v.). 

Demiurge,  in  the  Platonic  philosophy,  the 
maker  or  creator  of  the  world;  in  certain 
later  systems,  as  the  Gnostic,  a  being  sub- 
ordinate to  the  Supreme  Being,  and  some- 
times conceived  as  the  author  of  evil. 


DENHAM 

Dem0*'c2itus,  a  celebrated  Greek  philoso- 
pher, born  at  Abdera  about  460  B.C.  His 
cheerfulness,  unperturbed  even  in  blindness, 
led  to  his  being  called  the  laughing  philo- 
sopher. He  had  a  wide  knowledge  of  the 
natural  sciences,  mathematics,  music,  and 
grammar.  He  advanced  (with  Leucippus) 
the  theory  that  the  world  was  formed  by  the 
concourse  of  atoms,  the  theory  subsequently 
expounded  by  Lucretius,  and  confirmed  and 
developed  by  recent  scientific  discovery. 

DEMOCRITUS  JUNIOR,  pseudonym  of 
ROBERT  BURTON  (q.v.). 

Demogorgon,  the  name  of  a  mysterious  and 
terrible  infernal  deity,  first  mentioned,  so  far 
as  is  known,  by  the  scholiast  (Lactantius  ?)  on 
Statius's  'Thebais*;  also  mentioned  by  the 
scholiast  on  Lucan's  'Pharsalia',  perhaps  a 
mistake  for  fyftiovpyos.  Demogorgon  is  de- 
scribed in  the  'Genealogia  Deorum*  of 
Boccaccio  as  the  primeval  god  of  ancient 
mythology,  and  this  appears  to  be  the  sense 
of  the  word  in  modern  literature  (Spenser, 
Milton,  Shelley,  &c.).  [OEDJ  In  Shelley's 
'Prometheus  Unbound'  (q.v.)  Demogorgon 
is  an  eternal  principle  or  power  which  ousts 
the  gods  of  a  false  theology.  The  countess 
of  Saldar's  'Demogorgon*  (in  Meredith's 
'Evan  Harrington',  q.v.)  is  tailordom. 
Demon-lover,  THE,  see  Lenore. 
DemS'phSon  or  De'mSphon,  (i)  son  of 
Celeus,  king  of  Eleusis,  and  brother  of 
Triptolemus  (q.v.).  Celeus  hospitably  re- 
ceived Ceres  (q.v.)  when  she  was  wandering 
about  the  world  in  search  of  her  daughter, 
and  she,  to  mark  her  gratitude,  tried  to  make 
Demophoon  immortal  by  placing  him  in  the 
flames,  in  order  to  purge  away  his  mortal 
elements.  But  his  mother,  Metanira,  was 
terrified  and  intervened,  and  Demophoon 
perished  in  the  fire ;  (2)  son  of  Theseus  (q.v.) 
and  Phaedra,  and  lover  of  Phyllis,  daughter 
of  Sithpn,  king  of  Thrace.  He  left  her  to  go 
for  a  time  to  Athens  but  prolonged  his  ab- 
sense,  and  Phyllis,  thinking  herself  aban- 
doned, took  her  own  life  and  was  changed 
into  a  tree. 

DEMOSTHENES  (c.  385-323  B.C.),  the 
Athenian  orator,  born  in  the  Attic  deme  of 
Paeania.  His  fame  as  an  orator,  won^it  is 
said,  in  spite  of  grave  physical  disabilities, 
rests  principally  on  the  orations  delivered  to 
rouse  his  countrymen  to  the  danger  of  the 
subjugation  of  Greece  by  Philip  of  Macedon 
(hence  the  word  'philippic').  Alexander,  and 
after  him  Antipater,  demanded  the  surrender 
of  Demosthenes,  who,  pursued  by  the  Mace- 
donian emissaries,  took  poison  and  died. 
Dempster,  MB.  and  JANET,  characters  in 
G.  Eliot's  'Janet's  Repentance'  (see  Scenes  of 
Clerical  Life). 

DENHAM,  SIR  JAMES  STEUART,  see 
Steuart. 

Denham,  JENNY,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
*Beauchamp's  Career'  (q.v.). 


DENHAM 

DENHAJVt,  SIR  JOHN  (1615-69),  was  born 
in  Dublin  and  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Oxford.  He  took  part  in  public  affairs  on  the 
king's  side  and  was  forced  to  surrender 
Farnham  Castle,  of  which  he  was  governor, 
to  Sir  William  Waller  in  1642.  His  chief 
poetical  work  is  the  topographical  poem 
'Cooper's  Hill'  (1642),  combining  description 
of  scenery  with  reflections,  moral,  historical, 
and  political,  and  containing  the  well-known 
quatrain  on  the  River  Thames,  which  begins 
*O  could  I  flow  like  thee*.  Denham  published 
*The  Sophy',  an  historical  tragedy  of  the 
Turkish  court,  in  1641 ;  also  a  paraphrase  of 
part  of  the  'Aeneid*,  and  occasional  verses  and 
satires. 

Denis,  ST.,  first  bishop  of  Paris  and  patron 
saint  of  France,  decapitated  in  280  with 
two  companions  on  the  hill  of  Montrnartre. 
Legend  (which  also  identifies  Denis  with 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite  of  Acts  xvii)  relates 
that  they  carried  their  heads  in  their  hands  to 
the  spot  where  subsequently  the  town  of 
Saint  Denis,  near  Paris,  was  built. 

Denis  Duval,  an  unfinished  novel  by 
Thackeray  (q.v.),  published  in  the  'Cornhill 
Magazine*  in  1864.  This  was  Thackeray's 
last  work  of  fiction. 

The  principal  scene  of  the  fragment  is 
Rye  in  the  second  half  of  the  i8th  cent.,  with 
its  colony  of  French  refugees,  and  its  wide- 
spread smuggling  activities.  Here  Denis 
Duval,  a  descendant  of  French  Protestant 
pastors,  lives  with  his  grandfather,  a  barber 
and  smuggler,  and  his  Alsatian  mother*  He 
tells  the  story  of  his  life,  how  in  early  youth 
he  fell  in  love  with  Agnes,  the  daughter  of 
Mrne  de  Saverne,  a  Frenchwoman  who  had 
fled  to  England  from  the  tyranny  of  her  half- 
cra2y  husband,  under  the  evil  influence  of 
the  Chevalier  de  la  Motte,  a  sinister  person 
who  subsequently  kills  her  husband.  De  la 
Motte  settles  in  Rye  and  joins  in  the  smug- 
gling business,  and  (with  Lutterloh,  a  Ger- 
man associate)  in  more  treasonable  practices, 
which  Denis  Duval  is  the  means  of  bring- 
ing to  light.  Denis  incurs  the  fierce  enmity 
of  the  smuggling  confederacy  of  Rye,  is 
vigorously  persecuted,  escapes  great  dangers, 
and  takes  to  the  sea.  And  here  the  fragment 
breaks  off.  But  we  know  from  Thackeray's 
notes  that  it  was  intended  that  Denis  should 
go  through  a  long  course  of  adventures  in  the 
naval  service,  from  the  sea-fight  with  Cap- 
tain Paul  Jones  to  the  defeat  of  Admiral 
Grasse's  squadron ;  that  De  la  Motte  should 
endeavour  forcibly  to  marry  Agnes  to 
Lutterloh ;  that  De  la  Motte  was  hanged,  and 
that  Lutterloh  went  down  on  the  'Royal 
George*,  on  board  of  which  he  had  gone  to 
receive  payment  for  his  work  as  a  spy. 

Dennis,  in  Dickens  *s  'Bamaby  Rudge*  (q.v.), 
the  hangman  and  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
No-Popery  riots. 

DENNIS,  JOHN  (1657-1734),  educated  at 
Harrow  and  Cains  College,  Cambridge,  was 


DERRICK 

author  of  'Rinaldo  and  Arrnida*  (1699)  and 
other  tragedies,  one  of  which,  'Appius  and 
Virginia*  (1709)  was  satirized  jfor  its  bombast 
by  Pope  ('Essay  on  Criticism',  iii.  585-8) .  To 
this  Dennis  replied  in  his  'Reflections,  Critical 
and  Satirical*  (1711).  Pope  retorted  in  his 
'Narrative  of  Dr.  Robert  Norris,  concerning 
the  strange  and  deplorable  Frenzy  of  Mr. 
J.  Denn —  an  officer  in  the  Custom-House" 
(1713),  an  employment  held  by  Dennis.  He 
is  best  known  for  his  critical  works,  which 
include  'The  Advancement  and  Reformation 
of  Modern  Poetry*  (1701),  'The  Grounds  of 
Criticism  in  Poetry'  (1704),  'An  Essay  on  the 
Genius  and  Writings  of  Shakespeare'  (1712). 
Dennison,  JENNY,  in  Scott's  'Old  Mortality* 
(q.v.),  the  attendant  on  Edith  Bellenden. 
Deodand,  a  thing  forfeited  to  God;  specifi- 
cally in  English  law  a  personal  chattel  which, 
having  been  the  immediate  occasion  of  the 
death  of  a  human  being,  was  forfeited  to  God 
as  an  expiatory  offering,  i.e.  forfeited  to  the 
Crown  to  be  applied  to  pious  uses.  Deodands 
were  abolished  by  statute  in  1846. 

Dl£on,  LE  CHEVALIER  (1728-1810),  a  French 
political  adventurer,  who  assumed  at  times 
the  dress  of  a  woman,  and  in  this  character 
was  sent  by  Louis  XV  on  a  mission  to 
Catharine  of  Russia.  Havelock  Ellis  has 
introduced  the  word  EONISM  into  psycho- 
pathology  as  the  generic  term  for  cases  of 
Transvertism,  or  the  mania  of  men  to  wear 
women's  clothes. 

Deor>  Complaint  of,  an  OE.  poem  of  42 
verses,  divided  into  stanzas.  Its  date  is  un- 
certain but  it  may  be  classed  chronologically 
with  'Beowulf*  (q.v.).  It  is  included  in  the 
'Exeter  Book*  (q.v.).  Deor  is  a  minstrel  who 
has  fallen  out  of  favour  and  been  supplanted 
by  another  minstrel,  Heorrenda,  and  consoles 
himself  by  considering  the  misfortunes  of 
others,  Wayland  the  Smith,  Thepdoric, 
Hermanric,  &c.  Each  stanza  ends  with  the 
refrain  'That  passed ;  this  also  may*, 

'Deputy*,  in  Dickens's  'EdwiaDrood*(q.v.), 
the  nearest  thing  to  a  name  acknowledged  by 
the  imp  who  attends  on  Durdles. 

Derby,  COUNTESS  OF,  wife  of  the  seventh 
earl,  who  as  'queen*  of  the  Isle  of  Man 
figures  in  Scott*s  'Peveril  of  the  Peak*  (q.v.). 

Derby,  THE,  the  most  noted  annual  horse- 
race in  England,  founded  in  1780  by  the  lath 
earl  of  Derby,  for  three-year-olds,  run  at 
Epsom  usually  on  the  Wednesday  before  or 
the  second  Wednesday  after  Whit-Sunday. 
Hence  DERBY  DAY,  the  day  on  which  the 
race  is  run. 

A  DERBY  HAT  is  a  stiff  felt  hat  with  rounded 
crown  and  narrow  brim  (U.S  A.). 
Derceto,   the  fish-goddess  of  Ascalon   in 
Syria,  the  legendary  mother  of  Semiramis 
(q.v.). 

Derrick,  a  noted  hangman  at  Tyburn, 
c.  1600,  the  origin  of  the  word  'derrick*,  a 
crane. 


[ai8] 


DERRIMAN 

Derriman,  FESTUS,  the  braggart  yeoman  in 
Hardy's  'The  Trumpet-Major'  (q.v.). 
Dervish,  a  Mohammedan  friar,  who  has 
taken  vows  of  poverty.  Some  bodies  of 
Dervishes  are  known  by  their  fantastic 
practices  of  dancing  or  whirling,  and  howling. 

Desborough,  LUCY,  a  character  in  Mere- 
dith's "The  Ordeal  of  Richard  Feverel*  (q.v.). 

DESCARTES,  RENfi  (1596-1650),  a 
French  mathematician,  physicist,  and  philo- 
sopher, the  founder  of  the  school  of  philo- 
sophy known  as  CARTESIAN.  He  lived  a  great 
part  of  his  life  in  Holland,  and  was  invited 
by  Queen  Christina  to  Sweden,  where  he 
died.  The  starting-point  of  his  philosophy, 
expounded  in  his  chief  work  'Le  Discours  de 
la  Me"thode*  (1637),  was  the  famous  phrase 
cogito,  ergo  sum ,  'I  think,  therefore  I  am', 
and  the  distinction  between  spirit  and  matter. 
Rejecting  philosophical  authority  and  tradi- 
tion, he  relied  exclusively  on  reason,  and 
adopted  a  quasi-mechanical  conception  of  the 
universe,  which  he  reduced  to  space,  matter, 
and  motion,  operating  under  mathematical 
laws.  He  did  not,  however,  explain  the  inter- 
action of  spirit  and  matter,  while  some  of  his 
principal  physical  theories  were  upset  by 
Newton's  discoveries.  But  his  influence  on 
the  development  of  philosophy  and  science 
was  immense.  It  extended  to  literature, 
where  the  impulse  he  gave  to  the  rule  of 
reason  is  manifested  in  the  writers  of  the 
Augustan  Age.  The  chief  ethical  work  of 
Descartes  was  his  *Trait6  des  Passions' 
(1649). 

DESCHAMPS,  EUSTACHE,  surnamed 
MOREL  (6.  c.  1340),  French  poet  and 
fabulist,  one  of  the  creators  of  the  ballade. 
He  addressed  a  complimentary  poem  to 
Chaucer,  whom  he  styled  'great  translator*. 

Desdemona,  the  heroine  of  Shakespeare's 
'Othello'  (q.v.). 

Deseret  State,  Utah,  see  United  States. 

Deserted  Village,  The,  a  poem  by  Gold- 
smith (q.v.),  published  in  1770,  of  which  the 
theme  is  the  superiority  of  agriculture  to 
trade  in  the  national  economy.  The  poet 
revisits  Auburn,  a  village  hallowed  by  early 
associations,  and  marks  its  depopulation  and 
the  inroads  of  monopolizing  riches,  which 
have  driven  the  peasants  to  emigration.  He 
laments  a  state  of  society  where  'wealth 
accumulates  and  men  decay'.  The  poem 
contains  charming  descriptions  of  village  life 
and  character.  Boswell  attributes  the  last 
four  lines  to  Johnson.  Goldsmith's  pictures 
of  a  happy  rural  community  provoked  a  pro- 
test in  Crabbe's  'The  Village'. 
Despair,  GIANT,  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's 
Progress*  (q.v.),  imprisons  Christian  and 
Hopeful  in  Doubting  Castle. 

Desperate  Remedies,  a  novel  by  Hardy 
(q.v.),  published  in  1871. 

This  was  the  first  of  Hardy's  published 


DEUCALION 

novels,  and  belongs  in  his  classification  to 
the  group  of  'novels  of  ingenuity',  with  the 
best  claim  to  that  description  of  the  three 
novels  of  that  group.  It  is  a  tale  of  'mystery, 
entanglement,  surprise,  and  moral  obliquity*, 
in  which  Cytherea  Graye,  beloved  by  and 
loving  a  young  architect,  Edward  Springrove, 
is  forced  by  poverty  to  accept  a  post  as  lady's 
maid  to  the  eccentric  Miss  Aldclyffe,  the 
woman  whom  her  father  had  loved  but  had 
been  unable  .  to  marry.  Miss  Aldclyffe's 
machinations,  the  discovery  that  Edward  is 
already  engaged  to  a  woman  whom  he  does 
not  love,  and  the  urgent  need  of  supporting 
a  sick  brother,  drive  Cytherea  to  accept  the 
hand  of  Aeneas  Mauston,  Miss  Aldclyffe*s 
illegitimate  son,  a  passionate  villain,  whose 
first  wife  is  believed  to  have  perished  in  a  fire. 
No  sooner  is  the  wedding  ceremony  performed 
than  Cytherea  discovers  that  Edward  is  free 
from  his  entanglement  and  that  there  is 
reason  to  think  that  Mauston's  first  wife  is 
still  alive,  and  she  escapes  from  his  clutches, 
Ingenious  detective  work  brings  to  light  the 
fact  that  Mauston  has  murdered  his  first 
wife,  in  order  to  gain  Cytherea.  He  hangs 
himself  in  his  cell,  and  the  lovers  are  finally 
united. 

Destiny,  a  novel  by  Miss  Ferrier  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1831. 

The  story  deals  with  the  fortunes  of  the 
various  members  of  the  Malcolm  family: 
Glenroy,  a  typical  Highland  chief,  married, 
after  the  death  of  his  first  wife,  to  the  London- 
bred  Lady  Elizabeth  Waldegrave,  who  finds 
conditions  of  life  in  her  husband's  home  so 
intolerable  that  she  separates  from  him; 
Glenroy's  poor  but  worthy  cousin  Captain 
Malcolm  and  his  son  Ronald;  another  cousin, 
the  misanthrope  Inch- Orran,  who  disappoints 
Glenroy  by  leaving  his  estate  to  Ronald  and 
his  father;  Glenroy's  nephew  Reginald,  who 
plights  his  troth  to  Edith,  the  chiefs  daughter 
by  his  first  wife,  and  jilts  her  to  marry  her 
half-sister;  Ronald,  who  voluntarily  disap- 
pears after  a  shipwreck  to  leave  his  father  in 
possession  of  the  Inch-Orran  property,  and 
returns  after  years  to  marry  the  jilted  Edith. 
The  story  of  their  vicissitudes,  somewhat 
artificial,  is  relieved  by  one  or  two  good 
characters,  notably  that  of  the  boorish 
minister,  the  Rev.  Duncan  M'Dow. 
Detectives  in  Fiction,  see  Brown  (Father), 
Bucket,  Cuff,  Dupin,  Fortune,  French, 
Hanaud,  Holmes,  Lecoq,  Lupin,  Poirot, 
Tabaret,  Thorndyke,  Trent,  Vance,  Wimsey 
(Lord  Peter). 

Deucalion,  a  son  of  Prometheus  (q.v.),  and 
ruler  of  part  of  Thessaly,  who  married 
Pyrrha,  daughter  of  Epimetheus  (q.v.). 
Jupiter,  angered  by  the  impiety  of  mankind, 
covered  the  earth  with  a  deluge.  Deucalion 
and  Pyrrha  saved  their  lives  by  taking  refuge 
on  the  top  of  Parnassus,  or,  according  to  some, 
by  building  a  ship  as  advised  by  Prometheus, 
in  which  they  were  carried  to  the  top  of 
that  mountain.  After  the  flood  had  subsided, 


DEUCEACE 

Deucalion  and  Pyrrha  consulted  the  oracle  of 
Themis  on  the  question  how  to  repair  the  loss 
of  mankind  and  were  told  to  throw  stones 
behind  them.  The  stones  thrown  by  Deuca- 
lion became  men,  and  those  thrown  by  Pyrrha 
women. 

Deuceace,  THE  HON.  ALGERNON  PERCY, 
youngest  son  of  the  earl  of  Crabs,  a  character 
in  Thackeray's  'The  Memoirs  of  Mr.  C.  J. 
Yellowplush  (q.v.). 

Deuceace  is  an  unscrupulous  gambler  and 
swindler,  who,  after  ruining  the  simpleton 
Dawkins,  overreaches  himself  in  the  pursuit 
of  the  large  fortune  left  by  Sir  George  Griffin 
to  his  pretty  young  widow  and  his^  crook- 
backed  daughter  by  an  earlier  marriage,  on 
conditions  which  are  unknown.  Uncertain 
which  to  marry,  Deuceace  determines  to 
have  two  strings  to  his  bow.  His  design  is 
discovered  by  the  widow  and  her  bitter 
vindictiveness  aroused.  She  lures  him  first 
into  a  duel,  in  which  he  loses  a  hand,  and 
then  into  a  marriage  with  the  humpback,  to 
discover  too  late  that  the  latter  is  penniless, 
and  that  he  has  been  outwitted  by  his  own 
father — a  cleverer  scoundrel — who  has  mar- 
ried the  widow  and  secured  the  fortune. 

Deus  ex  macnina,  'God  from  the  machine', 
an  unexpected  event  or  intervention  in  a  play 
or  novel,  which  resolves  a  difficult  situation. 
When  a  god  was  introduced  in  the  ancient 
Greek  drama,  he  was  brought  on  to  the  stage 
by  some  mechanical  device  Owftawj). 

Deuteronomy  (from  Greek  Sevrepos  second, 
and  vofjios  law),  the  title  of  the  fifth  book  of 
the  Pentateuch,  originating  in  a  mistransla- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  words  in  Deut.  xyii  18, 
which  mean  'a  copy  or  duplicate  of  this  law'. 
The  book  contains  a  repetition,  with  com- 
ments, of  the  Decalogue  and  most  of  the 
laws  contained  in  Exodus  xxi-xriii  and  xxxiv. 
Some  authorities  regard  it  as  the  'book  of  the 
law*  discovered  by  Hilkiah,  the  high  priest, 
in  -die  house  of  the  Lord,  during  the  reign  of 
Josiah  (2  Kings  xxii.  8). 
Deva,  one  of  the  good  spirits  of  Hindu 
mythology. 

Deva,  the  river  Dee  in  Cheshire. 

Where  Deva  spreads  her  wizard  stream. 
(Milton,  'Lycidas'.) 

Devi,  in  Hindu  mythology,  *the  goddess*,  the 
wife  of  Siva  (q.v.). 

Devil,  THE  (from  the  Greek  StajSoAb?,  'dis- 
torter, traducer',  the  word  used  by  the 
Septuagint  to  translate  the  Hebrew  word 
'Satan*),  in  Jewish  and  Christian  theology, 
the  name  of  the  supreme  spirit  of  evil, 
subordinate  to  the  Creator,  but  possessing 
superhuman  powers  of  access  to, and  influence 
over,  men.  [OEDJ  The  conception  of  the 
Devil  may  be  traced  to  the  idea  widely  dif- 
fused among  men,  of  the  dual  principles  of 
good  and  evil  in  the  scheme  of  things,  an  idea 
expressed,  for  instance,  in  the  Orrnazd  and 
Ahriman  of  the  Persians.  In  the  Jewish 


DEVORGUILLA 

religion  this  conception  is  personified  at  first 
in  the  serpent,  a  malignant  and  treacherous 
creature.  The  word  'devil'  is  also  applied  to 
malignant  beings  of  supernatural^  powers,  of 
whom  Satan  is  the  prince,  clothed,  in  medieval 
conception,  in  grotesque  and  hideous  forms, 
with  horns,  tails,  and  cloven  hoofs,  derived 
from  figures  of  Greek  and  Roman  mythology 
(Pan,  the  satyrs) ;  thence  it  is  transferred  to 
malignantly  wicked  or  cruel  men.  It  is  finally 
applied  colloquially  to  a  junior  legal  counsel 
who  does  professional  work  for  his  leader,  a 
literary  hack,  and  generally  one  who  does 
work  for  which  another  receives  credit  or 
remuneration  or  both.  A  Printer's  devil  is  the 
errand-boy  in  a  printer's  office ;  but  Johnson 
(in  Boswell,  20  April  1781)  speaks  of  a  man 
having  married  a  printer's  devil. 

Devil  is  an  Ass,  The,  a  comedy  by  Jonson 
(q.v.),  first  acted  in  1616,  ridiculing  the  'pro- 
jectors* or  monopolists,  and  exposing  the 
pretended  demoniacs  and  witch-finders,  of 
the  day.  Fitzdottrel,  a  'gull1  or  simpleton,  is 
cheated  out  of  his  estate  by  Meercraft,  a 
'projector',  who  parades  various  ridiculous 
schemes  for  making  money,  and  deludes  him 
with  the  promise  that  he  will  make  him  duke 
of  Drowndland  through  a  project  for  land 
reclamation.  When  Fitzdottrel  finds  he  has 
made  over  his  estate  to  the  wrong  person,  he 
consents  to  pretend  to  be  bewitched: 
It  is  the  easiest  thing,  Sir,  to  be  done, 
As  plain  as  fizzling:  roll  but  with  your  eyes 
And  foam  at  the  mouth.  A  little  castle- 
soap  will  do  it, 

and  deceives  a  justice  by  the  simple  fraud. 
Pug,  *a  less  devil*  who  has  been  allowed  by 
Satan  to  try  his  hand  at  iniquity  on  earth  for 
one  day,  finds  himself  completely  outwitted 
by  human  knaves,  outdone  in  wickedness, 
and  finally  sent  to  Newgate. 
Devil  upon  Two  Sticks  in  England,  The,  a 
continuation  by  W.  Combe  (q.v.),  published 
in  1 790,  of  Le  Sage's  'Diable  Boiteux'  (q.v.). 
Foote  (q.v.)  also  wrote  a  farce  called  'The 
Devil  upon  Two  Sticks',  produced  in  1768, 
satirizing  the  College  of  Physicians  and  quack 
doctors. 
Devil's  Advocate,  see  Advocatus  Diaboti. 

Devil's  Island,  THE,  the  tie  du  Diable,  one 
of  the  three  small  Mes  du  Salut  off  the  coast 
of  French  Guiana,  part  of  the  French  penal 
settlement  in  that  colony. 

Devil's  Thoughts,  The,  a  humorous  satirical 
poem  by  S.  T.  Coleridge  and  Southey  (qq.v.) 
describing  the  Devil  going  a-walking  and 
enjoying  the  sight  of  the  vices  of  men  as  they 
follow  their  several  avocations.  The  poem 
was  imitated  by  Byron  in  his  'Devil's  Drive', 
and  by  Shelley  in  his  'Devil's  Walk'.  Some 
lines  in  it  have  become  familiar,  such  as 

And  the  Devil  did  grin,  for  his  darling  sin 

Is  pride  that  apes  humility. 

Devorguilla,  (i)  the  wife  of  John  de  Baliol, 
founder  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  After  his 


[220] 


DEWEY 

death  she  increased  the  endowment  of  the 
college.  In  fact,  the  college  was  founded  out 
of  Devorguilla's  property.  She  was  a  great 
heiress  in  Galloway.  John  de  Baliol  had 
little  land  of  his  own.  (2)  or  Dearbhorgil, 
wife  of  O'Ruark,  prince  of  Meath.  Dermot 
MacMurchad,  king  of  Leinster,  during  the 
absence  of  O'Ruark  on  a  pilgrimage,  eloped 
with  her  to  his  capital,  Ferns.  Roderick  of 
Connaught,  high  king  of  Ireland,  came  to 
O'Ruark's  assistance.  Dermot  fled  to  Eng- 
land and  received  help  from  Henry  II.  This 
was  the  occasion  of  tne  Anglo-Norman  in- 
vasion of  Ireland  in  1170.  The  story  is  told 
by  Giraldus  Cambrensis  ('History  of  the 
Conquest  of  Ireland*,  ch.  i  et  seq.). 

DEWEY,  JOHN  (1859-  )»  American 
philosopher,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Prag- 
matist  school,  born  at  Burlington,  Vermont. 
His  chief  works  are:  'Critical  Theory  of 
Ethics'  (1894),  'Studies  in  Logical  Theory' 
(1903),  'Democracy  and  Education"  (1916), 
'Human  Nature  and  Conduct*  (1922). 
Dewey,  MELVIL  (1851-1932),  a  well-known 
American  librarian,  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  American  Library  Association  and  of 
the  School  of  Library  Economy.  He  is  the 
originator  of  the  'Decimal  system  of  classifica- 
tion for  library  cataloguing*.  He  advocated  a 
phonetic  system  of  spelling,  which  is  adopted 
in  his  'Decimal  System  of  Classification'. 

Dewy,  DICK,  the  hero  of  Hardy's  'Under  the 
Greenwood  Tree'  (q.v.). 

Dhulkarnain,  the  name  under  which 
Alexander  the  Great  figures  in  the  Koran 
(c.  xviii),  and  builds  the  wall  against  the 
irruptions  of  Gog  and  Magog  (q.v.).  The 
word  means  'two-horned'  (see  Dulcarnori), 
and  various  reasons  are  given  for  the  name 
being  applied  to  Alexander,  such  as  that  he 
was  king  of  the  East  and  of  the  West. 

Didble  Boiteux,  Le  ('The  Lame  Devil'), 
a  romance  by  Le  Sage  (q.v.),  published  in 
1707. 

Asmodeus  (q.v.),  a  demon  released  by  Don 
Cleofas  Zambullo  from  a  bottle  in  which  he 
has  been  imprisoned  by  a  magician,  diverts 
his  benefactor  by  lifting  the  roofs  off  houses 
and  showing  him  what  is  passing  within,  thus 

Providing  a   series  of  satirical  pictures  of 
panish  life.    He  assists  Don  Cleofas  in  a 
number  of  adventures  and  finally  effects  his 
union  with  his  beloved  Serafina.   See  Devil 
upon  Two  Sticks. 

Diacritic,  from  Sia/c/Hmv  to  separate,  a  sign 
or  mark  above  or  under  a  letter  used  to  dis- 
tinguish its  various  sounds  or  values,  e.g.  6, 

t,  ?,  a. 

Diadochos ,  meaning  'successor*  (plural,  Dia- 
dochi),  the  name  given  to  the  Macedonian 
generals  among  whom  the  empire  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  was  divided  after  his  death. 

Diaeresis,  from  Statpeew  to  divide,  (i)  the 
separation  of  a  diphthong  into  two  separate 
vowels;  (2)  the  sign  ["*]  placed  over  the 


DIALOGUS  DE  SCACCARIO 
second  of  two  vowels,  which  otherwise  make 
a  diphthong  or  single  sound,  to  indicate  that 
they  are  to  be  pronounced  separately. 

Diafoirus,  a  doctor  in  the  'Malade  Imagi- 
naire*  of  Moliere  (q.v.). 

Dial,  The,  the  literary  organ  of  the  American 
Transcendental  movement  (see  Transcen- 
dental Club),  which  appeared  for  a  few  years 
from  1840,  and  of  which  R.  W.  Emerson 
(q.v.)  was  for  a  time  editor.  It  contained 
contributions  from  Thoreau  (q.v.)» 

Diall  of  Princes,  the  title  of  the  translation  by 
Sir  T.  North  (q.v.)  of  Guevara's  'El  Relox 
de  Principes',  published  in  1577,  which 
provided  much  of  the  material  for  Lyly's 
'Euphues*  (q.v.). 

Dialogues  of  the  Dead,  Four,  by  Prior  (q.v.), 
imaginary  conversations  on  the  model  set  by 
Lucian.  The  first  is  between  'Charles  the 
Emperor  and  Clenard  the  Grammarian'  on 
the  relative  character  of  greatness ;  the  second 
is  between  'Mr.  John  Lock  and  Seigneur  de 
Montaigne*;  the  third  between  'The  Vicar 
of  Bray  and  Sir  Thomas  Moor';  and  the 
fourth  between  'Oliver  Cromwell  and  his 
Porter'. 

George,  Lord  Lyttelton  (q.v.),  also  wrote 
'Dialogues  of  the  Dead*  (1760). 

Dialogues  concerning  Natural  Religion^  a 
treatise  on  natural  theology,  by  Hume  (q.v.), 
published  in  1779. 

There  are  three  interlocutors  in  the  Dia- 
logues, whose  attitudes  are  indicated  by 
Hume  where  he  contrasts  'the  accurate 
philosophical  turn  of  Cleanthes*  with  'the 
careless  scepticism  of  Philo*  and  'the  rigid 
inflexible  orthodoxy  of  Demea'.  Hume  in- 
tends to  make  Cleanthes  the  hero  of  the 
dialogue;  his  position  is  that  of  a  philo- 
sophical theism,  in  which  divine  intelligence 
and  goodness  are  inferred  from  evidences  of 
purpose  in  the  world  as  we  know  it.  But  in 
the  course  of  the  dialogue  the  scepticism  of 
Philo  makes  considerable  impression  upon 
his  opponent. 

The  subject  of  the  Dialogues  is  the  nature 
of  God  (the  existence  of  God  is  considered 
unquestionable).  Philo  attacks  the  anthropo- 
morphism of  the  theologians,  who  see  in  the 
nature  of  God  a  counterpart  of  that  of  man. 
The  discussion  brings  Philo  and  Cleanthes 
into  agreement  on  the  existence  of  the  evi- 
dences of  design  in  the  works  of  God.  But 
as  to  the  inferences  to  be  drawn  thence, 
Philo  will  not  go  beyond  the  inference  of  a 
divine  intelligence.  He  cannot  accede  to  the 
inference  of  divine  goodness.  Divine  good- 
ness may  be  compatible  with  the  misery  that 
we  see  in  the  world,  but  is  assuredly  not  to  be 
inferred  thence. 

Dialogus  de  Scaccario,  or  Dialogue  of  the 
Exchequer,  is  the  work  of  Robert  Fitz-Nigel, 
treasurer  of  England  from  1168  to  1198,  and 
bishop  of  London  1 189-98.  It  takes  the  form 
of  a  dialogue  in  Latin  between  teacher  and 


[331] 


DIAMOND  NECKLACE 

pupil,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  sources  of 
our  knowledge  of  the  Norman  administration 
in  England  prior  to  Magna  Carta. 

Diamond  Necklace,  AFFAIR  OF  THE,  the 
name  given  to  the  plot,  successfully  carried 
out  in  1783-4,  of  Jeanne  de  St.  Remy  de 
Valois,  the  descendant  of  an  illegitimate  son  of 
Henri  II  and  wife  of  a  self-styled  Comte  de 
Lamotte,  to  get  possession  of  a  diamond 
necklace  from  the  jewellers  who  had  made  it, 
on  the  pretence  that  Queen  Marie  Antoinette 
had  consented  to  purchase  it.  Jeanne  de 
Valois  had  persuaded  the  Cardinal  de  Rohan, 
her  dupe,  who  was  desirous  of  dispelling  the 
disfavour  in  which  he  was  held  at  court,  that 
she  was  in  favour  with  the  queen;  she  had 
even  effected  an  interview  between  him  and 
a  woman  who  personated  the  queen.  The 
cardinal  was  next  led  to  believe  that  the  queen 
wished  to  purchase  the  necklace  and  to 
employ  him  as  intermediary.  By  this  means, 
and  a  forged  document  purporting  to  signify 
the  queen's  acceptance  of  the  terms  of  pur- 
chase, Jeanne  got  possession  of  the  necklace. 
It  was  broken  up,  and  the  Comte  de  Lamotte 
fled  to  England  with  most  of  the  jewels. 
The  cardinal  and  Jeanne  were  arrested ;  the 
cardinal  was  acquitted,  Jeanne  was  whipped 
and  branded.  She  escaped  from  the  Salpe- 
triere,  where  she  was  imprisoned,  came  to 
England,  wrote  her  memoirs,  and  died  in 
1791.  Though  the  innocence  of  the  queen  is 
now  established,  much  suspicion  and  discredit 
clung  to  her  for  a  time.  (See  A.  Lang, 
'Historical  Mysteries',  and  T.  Carlyle,  'The 
Diamond  Necklace'.) 

Diamond  Pitt,  see  Pitt  (T.). 

Diamond  State,  Delaware,  see  United 
States. 

Diana,  a  Roman  goddess  identified  with  the 
Greek  AKTEMIS.  The  latter  was  the  daughter 
of  Zeus  and  Leto,  and  the  twin  sister  of 
Apollo.  She  lived  in  perpetual  celibacy  and 
was  the  goddess  of  the  chase.  She  also  pre- 
sided over  child-birth,  and  in  post-Homeric 
literature  was  identified  with  the  moon,  in 
which  character  she  frequently  occurs  in 
English  literature.  There  was  a  famous 
temple  of  Diana  or  Artemis  at  Ephesus,  but 
here  her  characteristics  were  different,  and 
were  those  of  an  Eastern  nature-goddess .  Her 
statue  at  Ephesus,  which  was  supposed  to 
have  fallen  from  heaven,  was  a  many-breasted 
idol,  symbolizing  the  productive  forces  of 
nature.  'Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians'  was 
the  cry  of  the  silversmiths  of  Ephesus,  when 
they  found  their  trade  in  shrines  for  Diana 
threatened  by  the  preaching  of  Paul  (Acts 
xiz.  24  et  seq.). 

Diana,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  *A13  's 
WeH  that  Ends  Well'  (q.v.). 

Diana,  a  volume  of  sonnets  by  H.  Constable 
(q.v.),  first  published  in  1592. 

Diana  Enamorada,  see  Montemayor. 


DIBDIN 

Diana  Meriott,  the  heroine  of  Meredith's 
'Diana  of  the  Crossways'  (q.v.). 
Diana  of  the  Crossways,  a  novel  by  Mere- 
dith  (q.v.),  published  in  1885.  The  story 
has  some  historical  foundation,  but  not 
in  respect  of  the  central  incident  of  the 
betrayal  of  a  political  secret  with  which 
the  name  of  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Norton,  Sheri- 
dan's granddaughter,  was  falsely  connected. 
The  beautiful  and  witty  Irish  girl,  Diana 
Merion,  marries  Mr.  Warwick,  'a  gentlemanly 
official',  a  man  of  limited  intelligence,  quite 
incapable  of  understanding  the  exceptional 
qualities  of  his  wife.  Her  innocent  indis- 
cretions awaken  his  jealousy  and  ^  he  brings 
an  action  for  divorce  against  her,  citing  Lord 
Dannisburgh,  an  eminent  statesman  (drawn 
from  Lord  Melbourne),  which  he  loses. 
Husband  and  wife  then  live  apart.  Percy 
Dacier,  a  rising  young  politician,  falls  in  love 
with  her  and  she  with  him,  and  under  stress 
of  persecution  by  her  husband,  she  is  on  the 
point  of  accepting  his  protection,  when  the 
dangerous  illness  of  her  devoted  friend, 
Lady  Dunstane,  recalls  her  to  her  senses. 
Dacier  perseveres  in  his  attentions,  and  she 
is  once  more  on  the  point  of  yielding  to  his 
importunities  when  he  discovers  that  an 
important  political  secret  confided  by  him  to 
her  has  been  communicated,  from  mixed 
motives,  among  others  pecuniary  embarrass- 
ment, to  the  editor  of  a  London  newspaper. 
This  produces  a  final  breach  between  them. 
At  this  point  Diana's  husband  dies.  After  a 
time  she  gives  her  hand  to  her  steady  faithful 
adorer,  Thomas  Redworth,  who,  without 
brilliancy,  has  sufficient  wit  to  understand 
and  appreciate  her. 

Diana  Vernon,  a  character  in  Scott's  'Rob 

Roy' (q.v.). 

Diarmid  or  DIARMAIT  O'Duibhne,  in  the 

legends  relating  to  the  Irish  hero  Finn,  the 
lover  of  Grainne  (q.v.). 

Diary  of  a  Country  Parson  t  The,  see  Wood- 
forde. 

Diary  of  a  Nobody,  The,  by  George  and 
Weedon  Grossmith,  published  in  1892.  It 
originally  appeared  in  'Punch*.  It  is  the  diary 
of  Charles  Pooter,  of  The  Laurels,  Holloway, 
an  assistant  in  a  mercantile  business,  and 
recounts  with  an  amusing  simplicity  his 
domestic,  social,  and  business  troubles,  and 
their  satisfactory  issue. 

DIBDIN,  CHARLES  (1745-1814),  dra- 
matist and  song-writer,  is  best  remembered 
for  his  nautical  songs,  including  *Tom 
Bowling*.  He  published  a  'History  of  the 
Stage*  (1795),  and  produced  several  plays  at 
the  Haymarket  and  Lyceum  theatres. 

DIBDIN,  THOMAS  FROGNALL  (1776- 
1847),  nephew  of  Charles  Dibdin  (q.v.), 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  a 
famous  bibliographer,  was  librarian  to  Lord 


Spencer    at    Althorp.     He    published    his 
'Introduction  to  the  Knowledge  of  Rare 


dge  of  Rare  and 


[222] 


DIBUTADES 

Valuable  Editions  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Classics9  in  1802,  his  *  Bibliomania'  (a 
'bibliographical  romance*,  in  which  the 
study  of  bibliography  is  recommended  as  a 
cure  for  bibliomania)  in  1809,  'A  Biblio- 
graphical, Antiquarian,  and  Picturesque  Tour 
in  France  and  Germany'  in  1821,  his  'Library 
Companion'  in  1824,  'Reminiscences  of  a 
Literary  Life'  m  1836,  and  his  'Biblio- 
graphical, Antiquarian,  and  Picturesque 
Tour  in  the  Northern  Counties  of  England' 
in  1838. 

Dibutades,  a  sculptor  of  Sicyon,  the  re- 
puted inventor  of  sculpture  in  relief. 

DICEY,  ALBERTVENN  (1835-1922),  edu- 
cated at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  fellow  of 
All  Souls,  and  Vinerian  professor  of  law.  He 
was  author  of  an  'Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  Law  of  the  Constitution*  (1885)  and 
other  legal  works. 

Dick,  MR.,  the  amiable  lunatic  in  Dickens's 
'David  Copperfield'  (q.v.). 

Dick  Amlet,  a  character  in  Vanbrugh's  'The 
Confederacy'  (q.v.). 

DICKENS,  CHARLES  (1812-70),  the  son 
of  a  government  clerk,  underwent  in  early 
life,  as  the  result  of  his  family's  poverty  (his 
father  was  imprisoned  in  the  Marshalsea), 
experiences  similar  to  some  of  those  depicted 
in  'David  Copperfield*,  and  received  little 
education.  He  became  reporter  of  debates  in 
the  Commons  to  the  'Morning  Chronicle* 
in  1835,  and  contributed  to  the  'Monthly 
Magazine*  (1833-5),  to  the  'Evening  Chron- 
icle* (1835),  and  other  periodicals,  the  articles 
that  were  subsequently  republished  as 
'Sketches  by  Boz,  Illustrative  of  Every-Day 
Life  and  Every-Day  People1  (1836-7).  These 
were  immediately  followed  by  'The  Post- 
humous Papers  of  the  Pickwick  Club',  of 
which  the  publication  in  twenty  monthly 
numbers  began  in  April  1836  (the  author 
being  then  24).  In  this  work  Dickens  sud- 
denly reached  the  plenitude  of  his  powers  as 
a  humorist  and  achieved  success  and  financial 
ease.  'Oliver  Twist*  (q.v.,  1837-8)  followed 
in  'Bentley's  Miscellany',  and  'Nicholas 
Nickleby'  (q.v.,  1838—9)  in  monthly  numbers. 
His  next  two  novels,  'The  Old  Curiosity  Shop' 
(q.v.)  and  'Barnaby  Rudge*  (q.v.),  Dickens 
published  as  parts  of  the  serial  'Master 
Humphrey's  Clock*  (1840-1),  an  unnecessary 
device  which  he  soon  abandoned.  In  1842 
he  went  to  America,  where  he  advocated 
international  copyright  and  the  abolition  of 
slavery.  The  literary  results  of  the  voyage 
were  'American  Notes*  (1842)  and  'Martin 
Chuzzlewit'  (q.v.,  1843-4).  'A  Christmas 
Carol*  appeared  in  1843,  a  Christmas  book 
that  was  followed  in  each  of  the  succeeding 
years  by  'The  Chimes',  'The  Cricket  on  the 
Hearth',  'The  Battle  of  Life',  and /The 
Haunted  Man',  works  described  by  him  as 
'a  whimsical  sort  of  masque  intended  to 
awaken  loving  and  forbearing  thoughts', 
which  added  greatly  to  his  popularity.  He 


DIDDLER 

paid  a  long  visit  to  Italy  in  1844,  which 
produced  the  'Pictures  from  Italy*  con- 
tributed to  the  'Daily  News*  in  1846 
(Dickens  was  the  founder  and  for  a  short  time 
editor  of  this  paper),  and  to  Switzerland  in 
1846,  where  he  wrote  'Dombey  and  Son* 
(q.v.),  published  in  1848.  In  1849  Dickens 
started  the  weekly  periodical  'Household 
Words',  succeeded  in  1859  by  'All  the  Year 
Round*,  and  this  he  carried  on  until  his 
death.  In  these  he  published  much  of  his 
later  writings,  including  the  Christmas 
stories  that  replaced  the  earlier  Christmas 
books.  'David  Copperfield'  (q.v.),  appeared 
in  monthly  numbers  in  1849-50,  'Bleak 
House*  (q.v.)  in  1852-3,  the  unsuccessful 
'Child's  History  of  England*  in  1852-4, 
'Hard  Times*  (q.v.)  in  1854,  'Little  Dorrit* 
(q.v.)  in  1857-8,  'A  Tale  of  Two  Cities'  (q.v.) 
in  1859,  'Great  Expectations*  (q.v.)  in  1860-1, 
and  'Our  Mutual  Friend*  (q.v.)  in  1864-5. 
Dickens  had  begun  to  give  public  readings  in 
1858,  which  he  continued  during  his  second 
visit  to  America  in  1867-8.  After  his  return  he 
began,  in  1870,  'Edwin  Drood'  (q.v.),  but 
died  suddenly  before  finishing  it.  Among 
minor  works  of  his  later  years  should  be 
mentioned  'Hunted  Down*  ('New  York 
Ledger*,  1859,  'Household  Words',  1860), 
'Holiday  Romance'  (1868),  'The  Uncom- 
mercial  Traveller*  series  (q.v.,  1861).  Dickens 
collaborated  with  WiUde  Collins  in  various 
stories  which  appeared  in  'Household  Words' 
and  'AH  the  Year  Round'  (e.g.  'The  Wreck  of 
the  Golden  Mary*,  'A  Message  from  the  Sea', 
and  'No  Thoroughfare').  The  standard  bio- 
graphy of  Dickens  is  that  of  John  Forster 
(1872-4;  memorial  edition,  1911). 

DICKINSON,  EMILY  (1830-86),  Ameri- 
can poet,  born  at  Amherst,  Massachusetts. 
She  lived  a  quiet  and  secluded  Hfe,  and  her 
poems  were  published  only  after  her  death. 
They  are  remarkable  for  their  mystic  quality, 
and  she  now  ranks  high  as  a  poet,  with  a 
reputation  that  extends  far  beyond  her  own 
country.  The  published  volumes  are: 
'Poems,  1890*;  'Poems,  1891';  'Poems,  1896'; 
'The  Single  Hound*  (1914),  'Further  Poems* 
(1929),  'The  Complete  Poems  of  Emily 
Dickinson*  (1924).  A  Life  with  a  selection 
of  her  Letters  was  published  in  1924. 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  see 
National  Biography. 

Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  At  by 
S.  Johnson,  see  Johnson's  Dictionary* 

DIGTYS  CRETENSIS,  the  reputed  author 
of  a  diary  of  the  Trojan  War.  A  Latin  trans- 
lation of  what  purported  to  be  a  Greek 
version  of  this  diary  has  come  down  to  us. 
According  to  the  preface  to  this  work 
Dictys  was  a  Cretan  of  Cnossos  who  accom- 
panied Idomeneus  to  the  Trojan  War.  This 
and  the  narrative  of  Dares  Phrygius  (q.v.) 
are  the  chief  sources  of  medieval  Trojan 
legends. 
Diddler,  JEREMY,  the  chief  character  in 


[223] 


DIDEROT 

James  Kenney's  farce  'Raising  the  Wind* 
(1803).  Jeremy's  characteristic  methods  ^  of 
'raising  the  wind*  by  continually  borrowing 
small  sums  which  he  does  not  pay  back,  and 
otherwise  sponging  on  people,  probably  gave 
rise  to  the  current  sense  of  the  verb  'diddle 
— to  cheat  or  victimize.  [OEDJ 
DIDEROT,  DENIS  (1713-84),  French 
philosopher,  dramatist,  and  critic,  the  son  of 
a  cutler,  chiefly  remembered  in  England  as 
one  of  the  founders  (with  D'Alembert)  of  the 
'Encyclopedic*  (q.v.).  He  was  the  author  of 
sentimental  comedies  ('Le  Fils  Naturel , 
1757;  'Le  Pere  de  Famille',  1758),  of  a  work 
of  dramatic  criticism  (£La  Poesie^  Drama- 
tique'),  of  the  amusing  dialogue  on  literature, 
education,  and  many  other  things,  'Le 
Neveu  de  Rameau*  (i773)»  of  novels  /'La 
Religieuse'  1760;  'Jacques  *e  Fataliste , 
1773),  of  the  philosophical  'Lettre  surges 
Aveugles*  (1749)  and  'Entretien  d'un  philo- 

sophe  avec  la  Mar£chale  de *  (*777)»  °f 

articles  in  the  'Encyclopedic*,  and  of  much 
miscellaneous  writing. 

Dido,  also  called  ELISSA,  the  daughter  of  a 
Tyrian  king.  She  was  married  to  her  uncle, 
Acerbas,  who  was  murdered  for  the  sake  of 
his  wealth.  But  Dido  sailed  secretly  from 
Tyre  with  his  treasure.  Arriving  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  she  bought  as  much  land  as 
could  be  covered  with  the  hide  of  a  bull.  But 
she  had  the  hide  cut  into  thin  strips  and  en- 
closed a  space  which  became  the  fort  of 
Carthage.  Threatened  by  the  neighbouring 
King  larbas,  who  demanded  her  in  marriage, 
she  erected  a  funeral  pile  and  took  her  own 
life.  Virgil  makes  Dido  a  contemporary  of 
Aeneas  (q.v.).  She  falls  in  love  with  him 
when  he  is  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of 
Carthage.  When  Aeneas ,  by  order  of  the  gods, 
forsakes  her,  Dido  kills  herself.  There  is  an 
opera,  'Dido  and  Aeneas',  by  Henry  Purcell 
(q.v.). 

Dido,  The  Tragedy  of,  a  tragedy  by  Marlowe 
and  Nash  (qq.v.),  published  in  1594. 
Die-hard,  one  that  resists  to  the  last;  an 
appellation  of  the  57th  regiment  of  Foot  in 
the  British  army,  earned  by  their  gallant 
conduct  at  the  battle  of  Albuera  (D.N  JB.,  s.v. 
Inglis,  Sir  William) ;  now  frequently  applied 
in  a  political  sense  to  those  who  are  ultra- 
conservative  in  their  general  views  or  in 
reference  to  some  particular  subject  of  con- 
troversy. 

Dies  Irae,  cday  of  wrath3,  the  first  words  of 
the  greatest  among  medieval  Latin  hymns, 
the  authorship  of  which  Is  attributed  to 
Thomas  of  Celano  (fl.  c.  1225). 
Dietrich  of  Bern,  the  name  given  in  the 
'Nibelungenlied'  (q.v.)  to  Theodoric,  a  great 
king  of  the  Ostrogoths  (c.  454-526),  who  in- 
vaded Italy  and  decisively  defeated  Odoacer 
at  Verona  (Bern)  in  489.  He  was  the  hero  of 
the  German  Minnesingers  (q.v.)  and  of  the 
Teutonic  race  in  general,  and  the  centre 
round  which  clustered  many  legends. 


DINAS  VAWR 

Dieu  et  mon  droit,  'God  and  my  right', 
said  to  be  the  password  given  by  Richard  I 
at  the  battle  of  Gisors  (119$),  m  which  he 
defeated  the  French.  It  has  been  the  motto  of 
the  sovereigns  of  England  since  the  time  of 
Henry  VI. 

DIGBY,  Sm  KENELM  (1603-65),  was  edu- 
cated at  Gloucester  Hall  (Worcester  College), 
Oxford.  This  versatile  man  was  an  author,  a 
naval  commander  (who  defeated  the  French 
and  Venetian  fleets  in  Scanderopn  harbour, 
1628),  and  a  very  rash  diplomatist.^  He  was 
interested  in  physical  science  (he  discovered 
the  necessity  of  oxygen  to  the  life  of  plants, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  Royal 
Society).  He  published  a  criticism  of  Sir  T. 
Browne's  cReligio  Medici'  in  1643,  and  wrote 
'Of  Bodies'  and  'Of  the  Immortality  of  Man's 
Soul'  in  the  same  year.  His  'Private  Memoirs* 
(an  account,  under  disguised  names,  of  his 
wooing  and  wedding  of  Venetia  Stanley) 
were  published  in  1827-8. 
DIGBY,  KENELM  HENRY  (1800-80), 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
converted  to  Roman  Catholicism,  was  author 
of 'The  Broad  Stone  of  Honour9  (q.v.,  1822), 
'Mores  Catholici'  (1831-40),  &c. 
Digests  of  Justinian,  see  Pandects. 
Dilettanti,  SOCIETY  OF  THE,  originally 
founded  about  1732  as  a  dining  society  by 
some  gentlemen  of  wealth  and  position  who 
had  travelled  in  Italy,  soon  devoted  itself  to 
the  patronage  of  the  fine  arts.  It  has  chiefly 
encouraged  the  study  of  classical  archaeology. 
See  Lionel  Cust's  'History*  of  the  society 
(1898). 

DILKE,  SIR  CHARLES  WENTWORTH 
(1843-1911),  liberal  statesman,  was  author 
of  'Greater  Britain*  (1868),  the  record  ^  of 
a  tour  through  many  parts  of  the  British 
Empire.  He  treated  more  fully  questions 
connected  with  the  empire  in  his  'Problems 
of  Greater  Britain*  (1890).  He  published 
anonymously  in  1874  a  lively  satirical 
brochure,  'The  Fall  of  Prince  Florestan 
of  Monaco*.  He  was  proprietor  of  the 
'Athenaeum*  and  'Notes  and  Queries'. 
DILLON,  WENTWORTH,  fourth  earl  of 
Roscommon  (1633  ?-8s),  author  of  a  blank- 
verse  translation  of  Horace's  'Ars  Poetica' 
(1680)  and  an  'Essay  on  Translated  Verse* 
(1684).  He  was  the  first  critic  who  publicly 
praised  Milton's  'Paradise  Lost*. 
Dimeter,  see  Metre. 

Dimmesdale,  REV.  ARTHUR,  a  character  in 
Hawthorne's  "The  Scarlet  Letter'  (q.v.). 
Dinadan,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur*, 
one  of  King  Arthur's  knights  and  in  the 
opinion  of  Sir  Tristram  'the  best  joker  and 
jester,  and  a  noble  knight  of  his  hands,  and 
the  best  knight  that  I  know*. 
Dinarzade,  in  the  'Arabian  Nights'  (q.v.), 
the  sister  of  Scheharazade  (q.v.). 
Dinas  Vawr,   The  War-Song  of,  see  Mis- 
fortunes of  Elphin. 


[224] 


DINGLEY  DELL 

Dingley  Dell,  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick 
Papers*  (q.v.),  the  home  of  the  hospitable 
Mr.  Wardie. 

Dinmont,  see  Dandie  Dinmont. 
Diocletian  (245-313),  born  of  obscure 
parents  in  Dalmatia,  rose  to  distinction  in  the 
army,  and  was  proclaimed  Roman  emperor 
an  284.  In  consequence  of  the  attacks  to 
which  the  empire  was  exposed  in  many 
directions,  he  shared  the  rule  first  with 
Maximian,  and  subsequently  with  two  other 
Caesars,  taking  the  East  for  his  own  share. 
In  305  he  abdicated  and  retired  to  his  native 
Dalmatia,  where  he  built  the  magnificent 
palace,  the  ruins  of  which,  still  known  as 
SPALATO,  inspired  Robert  Adam's  design  of 
the  Adelphi.  The  Christians  were  subjected 
to  severe  persecution  in  his  reign  (303).  He 
was  the  first  Roman  emperor  to  establish  the 
joint  rule  system  on  a  permanent  basis. 
Diodati,  CHARLES  (d.  1638),  son  of  an 
Italian  Protestant  who  had  settled  in  London 
and  married  an  English  wife,  the  school- 
fellow and  close  friend  of  Milton.  Milton 
addressed  to  him  two  of  his  Latin  elegies,  and 
lamented  his  death  in  the  pastoral  'Epita- 
phium  DamomV. 

DIODORUS  SICULUS,  a  Greek  historian 
born  in  Sicily,  who  flourished  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  ist  cent.  B.C.  He  wrote  a  history  of 
the  world  in  forty  books,  of  which  we  possess 
i-v  (dealing  with  the  early  history  of  Egypt, 
Assyria,  Ethiopia,  and  Greece)  and xi-xx (from 
the  Persian  invasion  of  Greece  to  302  B.C.). 

DIOGENES  LAERTIUS,  of  Laerte  in 
Cilicia,  an  author  of  the  2nd  or  3rd  cents.  A.D., 
who  wrote  ten  books  of  "Lives  of  the  Philo- 
sophers', which  have  survived. 
Diogenes  the  Cynic,  a  Greek  philosopher 
born  at  Sinope  in  Pontus  about  412  B.C.,  who, 
after  a  dissolute  youth,  practised  at  Athens 
the  greatest  austerity,  finally  taking  up  his 
residencer  it  is  said,  in  a  large  earthenware  jar. 
He  censured  all  intellectual  pursuits,  such  as 
astronomy,  not  directed  to  some  obvious 
practical  advantage.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
by  pirates,  and  sold  as  a  slave  at  Corinth,  but 
soon  received  his  freedom.  Here  occurred  his 
famous  interview  with  Alexander  the  Great, 
who  asked  him  whether  he  could  oblige  him 
in  any  way,  and  was  told  'Yes,  by  standing 
out  of  my  sunshine'.  It  is  said  that  Alexander 
was  so  struck  with  his  independence  that  he 
said,  'If  I  were  not  Alexander,  I  should  wish 
to  be  Diogenes.'  When  Philip  of  Macedon 
was  threatening  Corinth  and  the  inhabitants 
feverishly  set  about  strengthening  the  de- 
fences, Diogenes,  not  to  be  outdone  in  activity, 
trundled  his  tub  to  and  fro  (Lucian,  'De 
Hist.  Conscr.%  3). 

Diomedes,  son  of  Tydeus  and  king  of  Argos, 
was  one  of  the  Greek  princes  who  joined  in 
the  expedition  against  Troy,  and,  next  to 
Achilles,  was  the  bravest  in  the  host.  Athene 
aided  him  in  battle  and  enabled  him  to 
wound  even  Ares  and  Aphrodite.  According 


DIPLOMATIC 

to  post-Homeric  legend  he  helped  Odysseus 
to  carry  off  the  palladium  (q.v.)  from  Troy. 

There  was  another  Diomedes,  king  of  the 
Bistones  in  Thrace.  He  owned  famous  mares, 
which  he  fed  on  human  flesh.  He  was  killed 
by  Hercules. 

Dione,  according  to  Homer,  the  mother  of 
Aphrodite  by  Zeus;  according  to  Hesiod, 
the  daughter  of  Oceanus.  In  early  Greek 
mythology  she  was  probably  the  supreme 
goddess,  the  female  counterpart  of  Zeus 
(her  name  is  from  Ai6st  genitive  of  Zofc). 

Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  a  disciple  of 
St  Paul  (Acts  xvii.  34).  A  5th-cent. 
writer  who  sought  to  introduce  certain 
mystical  elements  into  Christianity  from 
Neoplatonism  claimed  to  be  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite,  and  successfully  imposed  on 
medieval  Christendom. 

Dionysius,  the  ELDER  and  YOUNGER,  were 
tyrants  of  Syracuse  (405-367  B.C.,  and  367- 
343  B.C.  respectively).  The  elder  is  reputed 
.  to  have  been  in  his  later  years  a  cruel  and 
suspicious  tyrant,  though  he  encouraged  lit- 
erature and  art,  and  gathered  distinguished 
men  about  him,  including  Plato.  He  is  said 
to  have  made  a  subterranean  cave,  known 
as  DIONYSIUS*  EAR,  with  peculiar  acoustic 
properties,  from  which  he  could  hear  what 
was  said  by  prisoners  whom  he  held  in  con- 
finement. (This  is  referred  to  in  Scott's 
'Fortunes  of  Nigel*.) 

The  younger  was  twice  driven  from  the 
throne,  and  finally  was,  it  is  said,  reduced  to 
support  himself  at  Corinth  as  a  schoolmaster. 
To  this  Byron  refers  in  his  'Ode  to  Napoleon* : 
That  Corinth's  pedagogue  hath  now 
Transferred  his  by-word  to  thy  brow. 

Dionysius   of  Halicarnassus   (ist  cent. 

B.C.),  the  most  important  Greek  rhetorician 

after  Longinus  (q.v.). 

Dionysus,  see  Bacchus. 

Dionyza,    a    character    in    Shakespeare's 

'Pericles'  (q.v.). 

Dioscuri,  or  'sons  of  Zeus',  a  name  given  to 

Castor  (q.v.)  and  Pollux. 

Diotima,  a  priestess  of  Mantinea,  reputed 

teacher  of  Socrates  in  philosophy,  referred  to 

in  the  'Symposium*  of  Plato. 

Diplomatic,  originally  meant  cof  or  pertain- 
ing to  official  or  original  documents*  (from 
Greek  SfaXupa,  a  doubling,  a  folded  paper, 
a  letter  of  recommendation),  and  the  diplo- 
matic science  was  the  science  of  palaeo- 
graphy, in  which  sense  it  is  used  in  the  title 
of  the  great  work  of  Mabillon  (q.v.),  'De  re 
diplomatica*.  The  transition  to  its  later 
meaning  appears  to  have  arisen  from  the 
title  'Corps  Universel  Diplomatique  du 
Droit  des  Gens'  of  Dumont  (1726),  where, 
as  the  subject  matter  was  international 
relations,  'corps  diplomatique',  though  used 
in  its  original  sense,  came^  to  be  taken  as 
meaning  'having  to  do  with  international 
relations'.  [OEDJ 


3868 


[225] 


DIPSAS 

Dipsas,  a  serpent  whose  bite  was  fabled  to 
produce  raging  thirst. 

Cerastes    hornM,   Hydrops,   and   Ellops 

drear, 
And  Dipsas. 

(Milton,  'Paradise  Lost',  s.  526.) 

Dipsodes,  'the  thirsty  ones',  the  people  whose 
conquest  by  Pantagruel  (q.v.)  is  related  by 
Rabelais  (Bk.  II.  sziii,  xxviii,  et  seq.). 
Dipsychus,  a  poem  by  Clough  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished posthumously.  The  poem,  which 
represents  the  'conflict  between  a  tender 
conscience  and  the  world',  takes  the  form  of 
dialogues  between  Dipsychus  and  an  atten- 
dant Mephistophelean  spirit,  'a  compound 
of  convention  and  impiety*,  who  endeavours 
to  persuade  him  to  adopt  a  worldly  standard 
of  conduct.  The  scene  is  set  in  Venice. 
Dirce,  see  under  Antiope.  The  fountain 
Dirce  being  near  Thebes,  the  epithet 
DIRCEAN  is  used  by  poets  as  equivalent  to 
Theban  or  Boeotian,  and  applied  to  Pindar 
('the  Dircean  Swan')  and  others. 
Discoverie  of  Witchcraft,  The,  see  Scott 
{Reginald). 

Discoveries  made  upon  Men  and  Matter, 
see  Timber. 

Dismal  Science,  THE,  political  economy;  so 
named  by  T.  Carlyle  ('The  Nigger  Question', 
Misc.  Ess.  vii.  84). 

Bismas,  or  DYSMAS,  or  DIMAS,  the  legendary 
name  of  the  Penitent  Thief  crucified  by  the 
side  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  name  of  the  Im- 
penitent Thief  was  Gestas. 

Disowned,  The,  a  novel  by  Bulwer  Lytton 
(q.v.),  published  in  1828.  It  is  the  story  of  a 
young  man,  Clinton  L'Estrange,  who  is  re- 
pudiated by  his  father  Lord  Ulswater  (from  a 
mistaken  suspicion  that  he  is  not  in  fact  his 
son),  but  is  finally  rehabilitated.  The  villain 
Crauford  is  drawn  from  Henry  Fauntleroy, 
the  banker  and  forger,  who  was  executed  in 
1824. 

Dispensary,  The,  see  Garth. 

DISRAELI,    BENJAMIN,   first    earl    of 

Beaconsfield  (1804-81),  eldest  son  of  Isaac 

D 'Israeli  (q.v.),  received  his  literary  training 

chiefly  in  his  father's  library,  and  was  never 

at  a  university.  He  entered  Lincoln's  Inn  in 

1824,  anc*  published  his  first  novel  'Vivian 

Grey*    (q.v.)    in    his    twenty-second    year 

(1826-7).   He  was  much  hampered  by  debt 

during  his  early  years,  but  he  made  the  grand 

tour.    He  published  'The  Young  Duke*  in 

1831,   'Contarini   Fleming*  (q.v.)   in   1832, 

'Alroy*  and  'Ixion  in  Heaven*  (q.v.)  in  1833, 

'The  Infernal  Marriage*  (q.v.)  in  1834,  'The 

Rise  of  Iskander'  in  1834,  'Henrietta  Temple* 

(q.v.)  in  1837,  and  'Venetia*  (q.v.)  in  the 

same  year.     In  that  year  also  he  entered 

parliament     as     member     for     Maidstone. 

'Coningsby*  and  'Sybil*  (qq.v.)  appeared  in 

1844  and  1845,  'Tancred'  (q.v.)  in  1847.  For 

many  years  after  this  political  affairs  ab- 


DIVES 

sorbed  his  energies,  and  it  was  not  until  1870 
that  his  next  famous  novel  'Lothair*  (q.v.) 
was  published.  He  was  prime  minister  from 
February  to  December  1868,  and  again  from 
1874  to  1880.  He  became  the  intimate  friend 
of  Queen  Victoria.  He  published  his  lastnovel, 
'Endymion*  (q.v.),  in  the  latter  year.  His 
principal  merit  as  a  novelist  is  his  skill  in 
presenting  political  and  social  types  and  the 
motives  by  which  they  are  actuated,  as  a 
rule  with  a  kindly  humour.  Many  of  his 
characters  are  drawn  from  personages  of  his 
time.  Among  Disraeli's  writings  outside 
fiction,  the  best  is  his  'Lord  George  Bentinck: 
a  Political  Biography*  (1852).  He  also  wrote 
a  'Vindication  of  the  English  Constitution* 
(1835),  'The  Letters  of  Runnymede'  (mostly 
vigorous  attacks  on  contemporary  politicians) 
and  'The  Spirit  of  Whiggism*  (1836).  Dis- 
raeli's 'Correspondence  with  his  Sister,  1832— 
52*  was  published  in  1886,  and  'Home  Letters 
and  Correspondence*  in  1887,  both  edited  by 
Ralph  Disraeli.  His  'Letters  to  Lady  Bradford 
and  Lady  Chesterfield '  appeared  in  1 929 .  His 
Life  has  been  written  by  W.  F.  Monypenny 
and  G.  E.  Buckle  (revised  edition,  1929). 

D'ISRAELI,  ISAAC  (1766-1848),  de- 
scended from  a  Jewish  family  which  had  fled 
from  Spain  to  Venice  in  time  of  persecution, 
the  father  of  Benjamin  Disraeli  (q.v.),  was 
the  author  of  several  discursive  collections 
of  Kterary  and  historical  anecdotes,  of  which 
the  first,  and  best,  was  'Curiosities  of  Litera- 
ture* (1791-3  and  1823).  He  also  wrote 
'Calamities  of  Authors'  (1812-13),  'Quarrels 
of  Authors'  (1814),  and  'Amenities  of 
Literature*  (1841). 

Dissertation  upon  Parties,  A,  see  under 
BoHngbroke  (  Viscount). 

Distaff's  or  ST.  DISTAFF'S  Day,  the  day 
after  Twelfth  Day  or  the  Feast  of  the  Epiph- 
any (7  Jan.),  on  which  women  resumed  their 
ordinary  employments  after  the  holidays. 
Also  called  rock-day,  the  'rock*  being  the 
staff  of  a  hand  spinning-wheel. 

Distaffina,  a  character  in  Rhodes's  'Bom- 
bastes  Furioso*  (q.v.). 

Dithyramb,  a  Greek  choric  hymn,  originally 
in  honour  of  Dionysus  or  Bacchus,  vehement 
and  wild  in  character. 

Dittany,  the  name  of  a  plant  reputed  to  have 
the  power  of  drawing  weapons  from  wounds 
and  healing  these,  so  called  from  Mt.  Dicte 
in  Crete,  where  it  grew. 
Diurnalls,  see  Newsbooks. 
Divan,  a  word,  originally  Persian,  meaning  a 
fascicle  of  written  sheets,  hence  a  collection 
of  poems,  an  account-book,  an  office  of 
accounts,  a  tribunal  of  revenue  or  justice, 
a  council  of  state,  a  council-chamber,  a 
cushioned  bench. 

Diversions  of  Purley,  "Evea  irrepoevra  or, 
see  Tooke. 

Dives,  a  Latin  word  meaning  'rich  man% 
which  occurs  in  the  Vulgate  version  of  the 


[226] 


DIVINA  COMMEDIA 

parable  of  Lazarus  (Luke  xyi),  and  has  come 
to  be  used  generically  for  'rich  man*. 
Divina  Commedia  (pron.  commay'dyah), 
the  greatest  work  of  Dante  (q.v.),  probably 
begun  about  1300,  comprising  the  'Inferno', 
the  'Purgatorio*  and  the  'Paradiso',  in  lines 
of  eleven  syllables  rhyming  ababcbcdc. 

The  *  Inferno*  is  a  description  of  Hell, 
conceived  as  a  graduated  conical  funnel,  to 
the  successive  circles  of  which  the  various 
categories  of  sinners  are  assigned.  The 
'Purgatorio'  is  a  description  of  Purgatory,  a 
mountain  rising  in  circular  ledges,  on  which 
are  the  various  groups  of  repentant  sinners. 
In  his  visit  to  Hell  and  Purgatory,  Dante  has 
for  guide  the  poet  Virgil,  and  there  he  sees 
and  converses  with  his  lost  friends  or  former 
foes.  The  'Paradiso'  is  a  vision  of  a  world  of 
beauty,  light,  and  song,  where  the  Poet 
encounters  Beatrice,  now  an  angel.  The 
poem  is  not  only  an  exposition  of  the 
future  life,  but  a  work  of  moral  edification, 
replete  with  symbolism  and  allusions  based 
on  Dante's  wide  knowledge  of  philosophy, 
astronomy,  natural  science,  and  history. 

Among  well-known  translations  are  those 
of  Longfellow  and  H.  F.  Gary  (qq.v.). 
Divine  Legation  of  Moses,  see  Warburton 
(William). 

Divine  Sarah,  Sarah  Bernhardt  (q.v.). 
Divio,  in  imprints,  Dijon. 
Divorce,  The  Doctrine  and  Discipline  o/,  the 
first  of  Milton's  Divorce  Tracts.  See  Milton. 
Dixie,  the  name  of  an  American  national 
song,  composed  in  1859  by  Daniel  Decatur 
Emmett  (1815-1904),  musician  and  composer 
of  negro  melodies  to  Bryant's  Minstrels,  New 
York.  It  made  a  special  appeal  to  the  army 
of  the  Confederate  States  in  the  American 
Civil  War,  and  still  enjoys  great  popularity. 
'Dixie*  in  the  song  signifies  the  Southern 
States ;  it  is  'de  land  ob  cotton'.  It  occurs  in 
many  other  Southern  songs  which  the  Civil 
War  produced.  The  origin  of  the  name  is 
obscure.  Some  refer  it  to  Jeremiah  Dixon, 
who  with  Charles  Mason  in  1763-7  surveyed 
the  boundary  between  Maryland  and  Penn- 
sylvania, which  later  separated  the  slave  states 
from  the  free  states;  and  there  are  various 
other  explanations,  none  of  them  convincing. 
DIXON,  RICHARD  WATSON  (1833- 
1900),  educated  at  King  Edward's  School, 
Birmingham,  and  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
became  the  intimate  friend  of  Burne- Jones, 
William  Morris,  R.  Bridges,  and  G.  M.  Hop- 
kins, held  various  preferments,  and  was  canon 
of  Carlisle  for  many  years.  He  published  an 
elaborate  'History  of  the  Church  of  England 
from  the  Abolition  of  Roman  Jurisdiction* 
(1877-1900)  and  several  volumes  of  poems, 
of  which  the  longest  (in  terza  rima)  is  'Mano, 
or  a  poetical  history  .  .  .  concerning  the  ad- 
ventures of  a  Norman  Knight*  in  the  loth 
and  nth  cents.  (1883);  the  best  are  included 
in  the  selection  of  'Poems'  issued  with  a 
memoir  by  Dr.  R.  Bridges  in  I9°9« 


DOCTOR 

Dizzy,  familiar  abbreviation  of  the  name  of 

Benjamin  Disraeli  (q.v.),  earl  of  Beaconsfield. 

Djinn,  see  Jinn. 

Dmitri,  see  Demetrius. 

Dobbin,    CAPTAIN,    afterwards    COLONEL, 

WILLIAM,  a  character  in  Thackeray's  'Vanity 

Fair*  (q.v.). 

Dobbs,  DOMINE,  a  character  in  Marryat's 

'Jacob  Faithful'  (q.v.). 

DOBELL,  SYDNEY  THOMPSON  (1824- 
74),  who  was  privately  educated,  published  in 
1850  'The  Roman',  a  dramatic  poem  inspired 
by  sympathy  with  oppressed  Italy,  and  in 
1853  'Balder'  (q.v.).  Under  the  influence  of 
the  Crimean  War  he  issued  in  1855  'Sonnets 
on  the  War*  (jointly  with  Alexander  Smith), 
and  in  1856  'England  in  Time  of  War*.  Two 
volumes  of  his  poetical  works  appeared  in 
1875.  Dobell  was  a  leading  member  of  the 
'Spasmodic  School'  ridiculed  by  Aytoun 
(q.v.).  His  best-known  pieces  are  'Tommy's 
Dead',  the  lament  of  a  father  over  his  son; 
and  the  ballad  with  the  refrain  'Oh,  Keith  of 
Ravelston*,  included  in  'A  Nuptial  Song*. 

DOBSON,  HENRY  AUSTIN  (1840-1921), 
educated  at  Beaumaris  Grammar  School  and 
at  a  gymnase  at  Strasbourg,  then  a  French 
city,  entered  the  Board  of  Trade,  where  he 
served  from  1856  to  1901.  He  was  an  accom- 
plished writer  of  verse  of  the  lighter  kind, 
some  of  his  best  work  appearing  in  'Vignettes 
in  Rhyme*  (1873),  'Proverbs  in  Porcelain* 
(1877),  and  in  'Old  World  Idylls'  (1883).  A 
further  volume  'At  the  Sign  of  the  Lyre* 
(1885)  was  extremely  popular.  Dobson  had 
a  wide  knowledge  of  the  i8th  cent., 
testified  by  his  prose  biographies  of  William 
Hogarth  (1879,  extended  1891),  Steele  (1886), 
Goldsmith  (1888),  Horace  Walpole  (1890), 
Samuel  Richardson  (1902),  Fanny  Burney 
(1903).  Under  the  title  of  'Four  French- 
women* (1890)  he  published  essays  on  Char- 
lotte Corday,  Madame  Roland,  the  Princesse 
de  Lamballe,  and  Madame  de  Genlis.  He 
also  published  three  series  of  'Eighteenth- 
Century  Vignettes'  (1892-4-6),  besides  several 
volumes  of  collected  essays. 

Doch-an-doris  or  DOCH-AN-DOROCH  (Gae- 
lic), a  stirrup-cup,  or  a  final  drink  at  night. 

Doctor ,  The>  a  miscellany  by  Southey  (q.v.), 
published  in  1837-47.  It  is  a  collection  of 
articles  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  differing 
from  a  common-place  book  in  that  they  are 
connected  together,  somewhat  loosely,  by  the 
story  that  runs  through  them  of  an  imaginary 
Dr.  Daniel  Dove  of  Doncaster  and  his  horse 
Nobs.  It  contains  the  nursery  story  of 
The  Three  Bears,  and  its  humour  is  occa- 
sionally Rabelaisian. 

Doctor  ANGELICUS,  Thomas  Aquinas  (q.v.) ; 
INVINCIBILIS,  William  Ockham  (q.v.);  IRRE- 
FRAGABILIS,  Alexander  of  Hales  (q.v.); 
MIRABILIS,  Roger  Bacon  (q.v.);  SUBTILIS, 
Duns  Scotus  (q.v.);  UNIVERSALIS,  Albertus 
Magnus  (q.v.). 


[227] 


DOCTOR  FAUSTUS 
Doctor  Faustus  f  The  tragical  history  of,  a 
drama  in  blank  verse  and  prose  by  Marlowe 
(q.v.),  published  apparently  in  1604,  though 
entered  in  the  Stationers '  Register  in  1 60 1 ,  and 
probably  produced  in  1588.  Itjs  perhaps 
the  first  dramatization  of  the  medieval  legend 
of  a  man  who  sold  his  soul  to  the  Devil,  and 
who  became  identified  with  a  Dr.  Faustus, 
a  necromancer  of  the  i6th  cent.  The  legend 
appeared  in  the  'Volksbuch'  published  at 
Frankfort  in  1587,  and  was  translated  into 
English  as  "The  History  of  the  Damnable 
Life  and  Death  of  Dr.  John  Faustus*.  Mar- 
lowe's play  follows  this  translation  in  the 
general  outline  of  the  story,  though  not  in 
the  conception  of  the  principal  character  /who, 
under  the  poet's  hand,  from  a  mere  magician, 
becomes  a  man  athirst  for  infinite  power,  am- 
bitious to  be  *great  Emperor  of  the  world'. 

Faustus,  weary  of  the  sciences,  turns  _to 
magic  and  calls  up  Mephistopheles,  with 
whom  he  makes  a  compact  to  surrender  his 
soul  to  the  Devil  in  return  for  twenty-four 
years  of  life;  during  these  Mephistopheles 
shall  attend  on  him  and  give  him  whatsoever 
he  demands.  Then  follow  a  number  of 
scenes  in  which  this  compact  is  executed, 
notable  among  them  the  calling  up  of  Paris 
and  Helen,  where  Faustus  addresses  Helen 
in  the  well-known  lines :  'Was  this  the  face 
that  launched  a  thousand  ships  .  .  .*  The 
anguish  of  mind  of  Faustus  as  the  hour  for 
the  surrender  of  his  soul  draws  near  is 
poignantly  depicted.  Both  in  its  end  and  in 
the  general  conception  of  the  character  of 
Faustus,  the  play  thus  differs  greatly  from  the 
*Faust'  of  Goethe  (q.v.). 
Doctor  FeH,  see  Fell 
Dr.  Syntax,  see  Combe, 

Doctor  Thorne,  a  novel  by  A.  Trollope  (q.v.)» 
published  in  1858,  one  of  the  Barsetshire 
group  of  novels. 

Dr.  Thorne,  a  man  of  good  family,  is 
the  medical  practitioner  at  the  village  of 
Greshamsbury.  His  brother,  Henry  Thorne, 
has  seduced  the  sister  of  Roger  Scatcherd,  a 
stonemason,  and  been  killed  by  him.  Roger 
Scatcherd  has  been  imprisoned  and  liberated, 
his  sister  has  emigrated  and  married,  and  her 
child,  known  as  Mary  Thorne,  has  been 
brought  up  by  Dr.  Thorne;  but  the  cir- 
cumstances of  her  birth  are  not  generally 
known.   Scatcherd,  in  spite  of  a  propensity 
to  drink,  has  become  a  wealthy  contractor. 
Mr.  Gresham,  squire  of  Greshamsbury,  has 
been  impoverished   by  extravagant  expen- 
diture, partly  due  to  his  aristocratic  wife, 
a  member  of  the  De   Courcy  family;   he 
is  gravely  embarrassed  and  his  property  is 
largely    mortgaged    to    Scatcherd.     Frank 
Gresham,   his   son,   falls  in  love  with  the 
obscure  and  penniless  Mary  Thorne.   The 
novel  is  occupied  mainly  with  the  attempts 
of  his  family  to  induce  him  to  abandon  Mary, 
and  to  'marry  money',  in  particular  Miss 
Dunstable,  the  heiress  of  wealth  made  by  a 
patent  unguent,  and  a  sensible  and  enter- 


DODD 

taining  person,  though  somewhat  elderly. 

Their  efforts  are  defeated,  and  when  Mary 

is  found  to  be  the  heiress  of  old  Scatcherd, 

all  obstacles  to  her  union  with  Frank  are 

removed. 

Dr.  Wortle's  School,  a  novel  by  A.  Trollope 

(q.v.),  published  in  1881. 

Dr.  Wortle  is  the  proprietor  of  a  highly 
successful  private  school  patronized  by  the 
nobility.  He  engages  as  assistant  master  a 
certain  Mr.  Peacocke,  a  former  fellow  of 
Trinity,  Oxford,  a  man  in  holy  orders,  who 
has  spent  five  years  in  the  United  States  and 
there  married.  Though  he  and  his  wife  (as 
the  matron)  are  thoroughly  efficient  and 
agreeable,  there  is  some  mystery  about  their 
past,  and  suspicion  arises  that  they  are  not 
married.  Their  union  was  in  fact  not  regular, 
for  their  marriage  had  taken  place  when 
Mrs.  Peacocke's  first  husband,  a  brutal 
drunkard,  was,  without  their  knowledge, 
still  alive.  The  scandal  increases,  fomented 
by  an  enemy  of  Dr.  Wortle,  and  he  receives 
what  he  considers  an  impertinent  admonition 
from  the  bishop.  Dr.  Wortle,  who  has  a 
good  deal  of  the  sturdy  independence  of 
Archdeacon  Grantly  (q«v.),  moved  by  com- 
passion for  the  unfortunate  couple  and  annoy- 
ance at  the  interference  of  the  bishop  and  the 
complaints  of  various  sanctimonious  parents, 
obstinately  takes  his  assistant's  side,  in  spite 
of  the  threatened  ruin  of  his  school.  Matters 
are  put  right  by  the  death  of  the  first  husband, 
and  Dr.  Wortle  triumphs. 
Doctors'  Commons,  originally  the  common 
table  and  dining-hall  of  the  College  of 
Doctors  of  Civil  Law  in  London ;  hence  the 
name  is  applied  to  the  buildings  occupied  by 
these,  and  now  to  their  site,  to  the  south  of 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  The  society  was  formed 
in  1509,  and'in  their  buildings  were  held  the 
Ecclesiastical  and  Admiralty  courts.  The 
society  was  dissolved  in  1858  and  the  build- 
ings taken  down  in  1867.  Literary  allusions 
to  Doctors'  Commons  in  later  times  generally 
relate  to  marriage  licences,  probate  and 
registration  of  wills,  and  divorce  proceedings, 
presumably  because  such  matters  were  dealt 
with  there. 

Doctors  of  the  Church,  certain  early 
'fathers',  distinguished  by  their  learning  and 
sanctity:  especially,  in  the  Western  Church, 
Ambrose,  Augustine,  Jerome,  Gregory ;  in  the 
Eastern  Church,  Athanasius,  Basil,  Gregory 
of  Nazianzum,  and  Chrysostom. 

Doctor's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 

DODD,  WILLIAM  (1729-77),  a  forger, 
educated  at  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  and 
rector  of  HocklifTe  and  Vicar  of  Chalgrove 
(1772).  He  forged  a  bond  for  j£4,2oo  in  the 
name  of  his  former  pupil,  the  fifth  Lord 
Chesterfield,  and  was  executed,  in  spite  of 
many  petitions  on  his  behalf,  one  of  them 
•written  by  Dr.  Johnson.  Dodd's  numerous 
publications  include  'Beauties  of  Shake- 
speare* (1752). 


[228] 


DODDRIDGE 

DODDRIDGE,  PHILIP  (1702-51),  a  non- 
conformist divine,  was  a  celebrated  hymn- 
writer  and  author  of  'The  Rise  and  Progress 
of  Religion  in  the  Soul*  (1745),  a  work 
notable  for  its  literary  as  well  as  its  devotional 
quality.  He  also  published  in  1747  'Some  Re- 
markable Passages  in  the  Life  of  CoL  James 
Gardiner',  the  reformed  rake  (1688-1745)  and 
colonel  of  dragoons  who  became  a  religious 
enthusiast,  was  killed  at  Prestonpans,  and 
figures  in  Scott's  'Waverley*  (q.v.). 
DODGSON,  CHARLES  LUTWIDGE 
(1832-98),  celebrated  under  his  pseudonym 
LEWIS  CARROLL,  was  educated  at  Rugby 
School  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was 
mathematical  lecturer  at  Oxford  from  1855 
to  1 88 1.  Dodgson  wrote  books  for  children 
that  had  the  advantage  of  appealing  by  their 
humour,  logic,  and  inventive  absurdity  to 
grown-up  people  also.  His  most  popular 
works  were  'Alice's  Adventures  in  Wonder- 
land' (1865),  and  'Through  the  Looking- 
Glass'  (1872),  both  illustrated  by  Sir  John 
Tenniel.  His  other  publications  include  'The 
Hunting  of  the  Snark'  (q.v.,  1876),  'Rhyme? 
and  Reason?'  (1883),  and  'Sylvie  and  Bruno* 
(1889),  besides  various  mathematical  treatises 
of  which  the  most  valuable  is  'Euclid  and  his 
Modern  Rivals'  (1879). 

DODINGTON,  GEORGE  BUBB  (1691- 
1762),  a  time-serving  politician  who  attained 
high  office  and  a  peerage  (as  Baron  Mel- 
combe),  was  author  of  a  'Diary',  published 
posthumously  in  1784,  which  throws  much 
light  on  the  venal  politics  of  his  day. 

Dodona,  in  Epirus,  the  seat  of  a  celebrated 
oracle  of  Zeus,  the  oldest  in  Greece.  The 
will  of  the  god  was  signified  by  the  rustling 
of  the  wind  in  the  oak  trees. 

Dods,  MEG,  in  Scott's  'St.  Ronan's  Well* 
(q.v.),  the  landlady  of  the  Cleikum  Inn. 

DODSLEY,  ROBERT  (1703-64),  while  a 
footman  in  the  service  of  the  Hon.  Mrs. 
Lowther,  published  'Servitude,  a  Poem* 
(1729,  afterwards  reissued  as  'The  Footman's 
Friendly  Advice  to  his  Brethren  of  the 
Livery').  He  became  a  bookseller  and  wrote 
several  plays,  including  a  tragedy  'Cleone* 
(1758),  a  musical  play,  'The  Blind  Beggar  of 
Bethnal  Green*  (1741),  and  'The  Toyshop, 
a  dramatic  Satire*  (1735).  But  he  is  chiefly 
remembered  as  the  publisher  of  works  by 
Pope,  Johnson,  Young,  Goldsmith,  and 
Gray,  and  of  the  'Select  Collection  of  Old 
Plays'  (1744)  and  CA  Collection  of  Poems  by 
several  hands*  (1748-58),  revised  and  con- 
tinued by  Pearch  (1775).  In  1758  he  founded, 
in  conjunction  with  Edmund  Burke,  the  'An- 
nual Register',  which  still  appears.  His  place 
of  business  was  at  'Tully's  Head'  in  Pall  Mall. 

Dodson  and  Fogg,  in  Dickens 's  ePickwick 
Papers'  (q.v.),  Mrs.  Bardell's  attorneys. 

Doe,  JOHN,  see  John  Doe. 

Dogberry  and  Verges,  in  Shakespeare's 

'Much  Ado  about  Nothing'  (q.v.),  constables. 


DOLL  TEARSHEET 

Dogberry  is  a  precursor  of  Mrs.  Malaprop 
in  his  gift  for  misapplying  words. 

Dog-Latin,  bad,  unidiomatic  Latin.  *  "Ne- 
scio  quid  est  materia  cum  me",  Sterne  writes 
to  one  of  his  friends  (in  dog-Latin,  and  very 
sad  dog- Latin  too)' ;  Thackeray,  'Eng.  Hum.' 
vi.  Cf.  Doggerel. 

Dog-star,  the  star  Sirius,  in  the  constellation 
of  the  Greater  Dog,  the  brightest  of  the  fixed 
stars.  Also  applied  to  Procyon  (the  Lesser 
Dog-Star),  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude  in  the 
Lesser  Dog. 

The  days  about  the  time  of  the  heliacal 
rising  of  the  Dog-Star  are  known  as  the 
DOG-DAYS  (in  current  almanacs  3  July  to 
1 1  Aug.).  The  name  arose  from  the  pernicious 
'influence*  attributed  to  the  Dog-Star,  but  it 
has  long  been  popularly  associated  with  the 
belief  that  at  this  season  dogs  are  most  apt 
to  run  mad.  [OED.] 

Doge  of  Venice :  for  his  wedding  with  the 
sea,  see  Adriatic. 

Doggerel,  comic  or  burlesque,  or  trivial, 
mean,  or  irregular  verse.  The  derivation  is 
unknown,  but  cf.  Dog-Latin.  [OEDJ 

Doggett,  THOMAS  (d.  1721),  actor  and  joint- 
manager  of  the  Haymarket,  and  subsequently 
of  Drury  Lane,  theatres,  and  friend  of  Con- 
greve  and  Colley  Gibber,  instituted  in  17 1 6,  in 
honour  of  the  anniversary  of  the  accession  of 
George  I,  a  prize,  known  as  DOGGETT'S  COAT 
AND  BADGE,  for  a  rowing  competition  among 
Thames  watermen,  which  as  still  held. 

Doit,  an  old  Dutch  coin,  the  eighth  of  a 

stiver,  worth  about  half  a  farthing  in  English 

money. 

Dol  Common,  in  Jonson's  'The  Alchemist* 

(q.v.),  the  female  confederate  of  Subtle  and 

Face. 

Dolabella,  a  character  In  Shakespeare's 
'Antony  and  Cleopatra'  (q.v.),  and  in  Dry- 
den's  'All  for  Love'  (q.v.). 

DOLBEN,  DIGBY  MACKWORTH  (1848- 
67),  was  educated  at  Eton,  where  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Manning,  for  whom  he 
developed  a  strong  admiration.  Even  at  school 
he  displayed  Roman  Catholic  tendencies  as 
well  as  a  marked  poetic  gift.  He  became  an 
Anglican  Benedictine  monk  in  1864.  He  was 
accidentally  drowned  in  the  river  ^Welland 
in  his  twentieth  year,  when  preparing  to  go 
up  to  Oxford.  His  poems,  many  of  them 
religious  and  devotional,  were  edited  with  a 
memoir  by  Robert  Bridges  in  1915. 

Doldrums,  THE,  a  condition  of  dullness  or 
drowsiness;  hence  the  condition  of  a  ship 
that  is  becalmed;  and  the  region  near  the 
Equator  where  the  trade  winds  meet  and 
neutralize  each  other,  and  ships  are  liable  to 
be  becalmed. 
Doll  Common,  see  Dol  Common. 

Doll  Tearsheet,  a  character  in  Shake- 
speare's '2  Henry  IV*  (q.v.). 


[229] 


DOLLALOLLA 

Dollalolla,  QUEEM,  a  character  in  Fielding's 
'Tom  Thumb*  (q.v.). 

Dollar,  the  English  name  for  the  German 
thaler ',  a  large  silver  coin,  of  varying  value, 
current  in  the  German  states  from  the  i6th 
cent.;  especially  the  unit  of  the  German 
monetary  union  (1857-73)  equal  to  3  marks 
(about  25.  i id'.).  The  word  thaler  is  short 
for  Joachimsthaler,  literally  '(gulden)  of 
JoachimsthaF  (in  Bohemia),  where  they  were 
coined  in.  1519  from  a  silver  mine  opened 
there  in  1516. 

DOLLAR  is  also  the  English  name  for  the 
peso  or  piece  of  eight  (i.e.  eight  reales),  worth 
about  4$.  6d.,  formerly  current  in  Spain  and 
the  Spanish  American  colonies,  and  marked 
with  the  figure  8.  The  dollar  is  now  the 
standard  unit  of  coinage  (worth  4$.  zd.  at 
par)  of  the  United  States,  and  the  name  is 
also  applied  to  various  foreign  coins  of  a  value 
more  or  less  approaching  that  of  the  Spanish 
or  American  dollar.  The  dollar  sign  $  is 
perhaps  a  corruption  of  p$,  the  Spanish  con- 
traction for  peso ;  or  a  corruption  of  the  two 
pillars  (symbolizing  the  Pillars  of  Hercules) 
on  Spanish  coins,  with  the  scroll  about  them; 
or  of  the  figure  8  and  the  pillars. 

Dolliiiger ,  JOHANN  JOSEPH  IGNAZ  VON  (1799- 
1890),  a  great  German  Church  historian,  a 
Liberal,  and  the  head  of  the  'Old  Catholic' 
party  in  the  Roman  Church.  He  opposed 
the  declaration  relating  to  papal  infallibility, 
and  was  excommunicated  by  the  archbishop 
of  Munich  in  1871. 

Dolly  Dialogues,  The,  by  Anthony  Hope 
(Hawkins),  published  in  1894,  reprinted  from 
the  'Westminster  Gazette*.  They  are  amusing 
and  witty  conversations,  hung  on  a  slight 
thread  of  story,  in  which  figure  Samuel 
Travers  Carter,  a  middle-aged  bachelor,  and 
the  attractive  Dolly  Foster,  with  whom  he  has 
flirted  at  Monte  Carlo,  and  whose  marriage 
to  Lord  Mickleham  is  understood  to  have 
caused  Carter  much  unhappiness. 

Dolly  Varden,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Barnaby  Rudge*  (q.v.).  Also  the  name  of  a 
picture  hat. 

Dolon,  a  Trojan  who  went  by  night  as  a  spy 
to  the  Greek  camp  and  was  slain  by  Ulysses 
and  Diomedes  ('Iliad*,  x).  In  Spenser's 
'Faerie  Queene*,  y.  vi,  Dolon  is  'a  man  of 
subtill  wit  and  wicked  mind'  who  tries  to 
entrap  Britomart. 

Dolores,  a  poem  in  anapaests  by  Swinburne 
(q.v.)  included  in  the  first  series  of  'Poems 
and  Ballads*.  It  is  addressed  to  'Our  Lady 
of  Pain'  and  in  it  the  poet  sings  of  forbidden 
pleasures  and  the  weariness  and  satiety  that 
follow  them. 

Dom,  a  shortened  form  of  the  Latin  dominus, 
prefixed  to  the  names  of  Roman  Catholic 
ecclesiastical  and  monastic  dignitaries,  es- 
pecially of  Benedictine  and  Carthusian 
monks. 


DOMESDAY  BOOK 

Dombey  and  Son,  [Dealings  with  the  Firm 
of],  a  novel  by  Dickens  (q.v.)  published  in 
1847-8. 

When  the  story  opens  Mr.  Dombey,  the 
rich,  proud,  frigid  head  of  the  shipping  house 
of  Dombey  and  Son,  has  just  been  presented 
with  a  son  and  heir,  Paul,  and  his  wife  dies. 
The  father's  love  and  hopes  are  centred  in 
the  boy,  an  odd,  delicate,  prematurely  old 
child,  who  is  sent  to  Dr.  Blimber's  school, 
under  whose  strenuous  discipline  he  sickens 
and  dies.  Dombey  neglects  his  daughter, 
Florence,  and  the  estrangement  is  increased 
by  the  death  of  her  brother.  Walter  Gay,  a 
frank,  good-hearted  youth  in  Dombey's 
employment,  falls  in  love  with  her,  but  is 
sent  to  the  West  Indies  by  Dombey,  who 
disapproves  of  their  relations.  He  is  ship- 
wrecked on  the  way  and  believed  to  be 
drowned.  Dombey  marries  again — a  proud 
and  penniless  young  widow,  Edith  Granger, 
but  his  arrogant  treatment  drives  her  into 
relations  with  his  villainous  manager,  Carker, 
with  whom  she  flies  to  France,  fiercely 
repelling,  however,  the  natural  view  he 
takes  of  the  situation.  They  are  pursued, 
Carker  meets  Dombey  in  a  railway  station, 
falls  in  front  of  a  train,  and  is  killed. 
The  house  of  Dombey  fails;  Dombey  has 
lost  his  fortune,  his  son,  and  his  wife;  his 
daughter  has  been  driven  by  ill-treatment 
to  fly  from  him,  and  has  married  Walter 
Gay,  who  has  survived  his  shipwreck.  Tho- 
roughly humbled,  he  lives  in  desolate  solitude 
till  Florence  returns  to  him  and  at  last  finds 
the  way  to  his  heart. 

Among  the  other  notable  characters  in  the 
book  are  Solomon  Gills,  the  nautical  instru- 
ment-maker and  uncle  of  Walter  Gay,  and 
his  friend  Cuttle,  the  genial  old  sea-captain ; 
Susan  Nipper,  Florence's  devoted  servant; 
Toots,  the  innocent  and  humble  admirer  of 
Florence;  Joe  Bagstock,  the  gouty  retired 
Major;  and  'Cousin  Feenix*,  the  good- 
natured  aristocrat. 

Domdaniel,  apparently  from  the  Greek  or 
Latin  words  meaning  'hall  or  house  of 
Daniel*.  A  fictitious  name  introduced  in  the 
French  'Continuation  of  the  Arabian  Nights* 
by  Dom  Chaves  and  M.  Cazotte,  1788-93, 
whence  adopted  by  Southey  in  'Thalaba* 
(q.v.),  and  so  by  Carlyle.  It  is  not  clear 
whether  'Daniel'  is  intended  to  refer  to  the 
Hebrew  prophet  or  to  ea  great  Grecian  Sage* 
of  that  name  who  appears  in  the  tale  of  'the 
Queen  and  the  Serpents*  in  the  'Arabian 
Nights*.  Domdaniel  is  a  fabled  submarine 
hall  where  a  magician  or  sorcerer  met  with 
his  disciples.  [OED.] 

Domesday  Book,  where  'Domesday*  is  a 
Middle  English  spelling  of  'Doomsday',  day 
of  judgement,  is  the  name  applied  since  the 
I2th  cent,  to  the  record  of  the  Great  In- 
quest or  survey  of  the  lands  of  England, 
made  by  order^  of  William  the  Conqueror  in 
1086.  It  contains  a  record  of  the  ownership, 
area,  and  value  of  these  lands,  and  of  the 


DOMETT 

numbers  of  tenants,  livestock,  &c.  The  name 
originated  in  a  popular  appellation  given  to 
the  book,  as  being  a  final  and  conclusive 
authority  on  all  matters  connected  with  land- 
tenure. 

DOMETT,  ALFRED  (1811-87),  educated 
at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  a 
barrister  of  the  Middle  Temple,  emigrated 
to  New  Zealand.  He  was  a  friend  of  R. 
Browning,  who  lamented  his  departure  in 
'Waring'  (q.v.).  Domett  was  author  of 
'Ranolf  and  Amohia,  a  South  Sea  Day  Dream* 
(1872)  and  'Flotsam  and  Jetsam'  (1877).  Of 
these  poems  the  former  is  a  story  of  Maori 
life,  and  contains  beautiful  descriptions  of 
New  Zealand  scenery. 

Dominicans,  an  order  of  mendicant  friars 
instituted  in  1215  by  the  Spanish  ecclesiastic, 
Domingo  de  Guzman,  also  called  St. 
Dominic.  They  were  known  in  England  as 
the  Black  Friars  from  the  colour  of  their 
dress. 

Ddn,  the  British  equivalent  of  the  Gaelic 
Danu  (q.v.),  the  mother  of  the  gods. 

Don  Carlos  (1788-1855)  second  son  of 
Charles  IV  of  Spain,  a  claimant  to  the  Span- 
ish throne,  deprived  of  the  position  of  heir 
presumptive  by  the  abolition  of  the  Salic  law 
(pragmatic  sanction  of  1830).  His  son  and 
grandson  were  likewise  claimants.  CARLIST 
risings  in  their  favour  are  frequently  referred 
to. 
Don  John  of  Austria,  see  John. 

Don  Carlos,  a  tragedy  by  Otway  (q.v.),  in 
rhymed  verse,  produced  in  1676. 

Philip  II,  king  of  Spain,  having  married 
Elizabeth  of  Valois,  who  had  been  affianced 
to  his  son  Don  Carlos,  is  stirred  to  jealousy  by 
their  mutual  affection.  This  jealousy  is  in- 
flamed by  the  machinations  of  Ruy  Gomez 
and  his  wife  the  duchess  of  Ebofi,  till  he 
believes  in  their  guilty  relations;  he  causes 
the  queen  to  be  poisoned  and  Don  Carlos 
takes  his  own  life,  the  king  discovering  too  late 
their  innocence. 

Don  Juan,  according  to  a  Spanish  story  first 
dramatized  by  Gabriel  Tellez  (1571-1641, 
who  wrote  under  the  pseudonym  of  Tirso  de 
Molina)  in  'El  Burlador  de  Sevila*,  and 
subsequently  by  Moliere  in  'Le  Festin  de 
Pierre*,  and  in  Mozart's  great  opera  'Don 
Giovanni',  was  Don  Juan  Tenorio,  of 
Seville.  Having  attempted  to  ravish  Dona 
Anna,  the  daughter  of  the  commander  of 
Seville,  he  is  surprised  by  the  father,  whom 
he  kills  in  a  duel.  A  statue  of  the  commander 
is  erected  over  his  tomb.  Juan  and  his 
cowardly  servant  Leporello  visit  the  tomb, 
when  the  statue  is  seen  to  move  its  head. 
Juan  jestingly  invites  it  to  a  banquet.  The 
statue  comes,  seizes  Juan,  and  delivers  him 
to  devils.  Don  Juan  is  the  proverbial  heart- 
less and  impious  seducer.  His  injured  wife  is 
Elvira. 

Don  Juan  is  the  theme  of  a  play  by  Shad- 


DON  QUIXOTE 

well  (q.v.),  'The  Libertine';  and  of  a  poem  by 
Lord  Byron  (see  below).  For  R.  Browning's 
Don  Juan,  see  Fifine  at  the  Fair;  and  for 
G.  B.  Shaw's,  see  Man  and  Superman* 

Don  Juan,  an  epic  satire  in  ottava  rima,  in 
sixteen  cantos  by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1819-24. 

Don  Juan,  a  young  gentleman  of  Seville, 
in  consequence  of  an  intrigue  with  Donna 
Julia,  is  sent  abroad  by  his  mother  at  the  age 
of  1 6.  The  vessel  in  which  he  travels  is 
wrecked  and  crew  and  passengers  take  to 
the  long-boat.  After  much  suffering,  in  the 
course  of  which  first  Juan's  spaniel,  then  his 
tutor,  are  eaten  by  the  crew,  Juan  is  cast  up 
on  a  Greek  island.  He  is  restored  to  life  by 
Haide"e,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  a  Greek 
pirate,  and  the  pair  fall  in  love.  The  father, 
who  is  thought  dead,  returns,  finds  the  lovers 
together,  and  cuts  down  Juan,  who  is  placed 
in  chains  on  one  of  the  pirate's  ships. 
Haide"e  goes  mad  and  dies,  and  Juan  is  sold 
as  a  slave  in  Constantinople  to  a  sultana  who 
has  fallen  in  love  with  him.  He  has  the  mis- 
fortune to  arouse  her  jealousy,  is  menaced 
with  death,  but  escapes  to  the  Russian  army 
which  is  besieging  Ismail.  In  consequence 
of  his  gallant  conduct  at  the  capture  of  the 
town,  he  is  sent  with  dispatches  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, where  he  attracts  the  favour  of  the 
Empress  Catharine.  The  latter  sends  him 
on  a  political  mission  to  England.  The  last 
cantos  (the  poem  is  unfinished)  are  taken  up 
with  a  satirical  description  of  social  con- 
ditions in  England,  and  in  a  less  degree  with 
the  love-affairs  of  Juan.  With  the  story  are 
intermingled  innumerable  digressions  on 
every  sort  of  subject,  treated  in  a  mocking 
vein;  and  with  attacks  on  the  victims  of 
Byron's  scorn  or  enmity,  Southey,  Coleridge, 
Wellington,  Lord  Londonderry,  and  many 
others.  The  lovely  lyric,  'The  Isles  of 
Greece*,  occurs  in  canto  Hi. 

The  hero  himself,  unlike  the  proverbial 
Don  Juan,  is  a  charming,  handsome,  and  un- 
principled young  man,  who  delights  in 
succumbing  to  the  beautiful  women  he  meets, 
until  the  whole  poem  becomes  a  species  of 
worldly  fantasy  intershot  with  Byron's 
passionate  wit.  The  form  of  the  poem  was 
inspired  by  the  'Whistlecraft'  of  J.  H.  Frere 
(q.v.). 

Don  Quixote  de  la  Mancka,  a  satirical  romance 
by  Cervantes  (q.v.),  published  in  1605,  a 
second  part  appearing  in  1615. 

Cervantes  gave  to  this  work  the  form  of  a 
burlesque  of  the  romances  of  chivalry,  which 
were  already  losing  their  popularity  with  his 
countrymen.  But  he  soon  ceased  to  write 
mere  burlesque;  the  character  of  the  hero 
gradually  deepens  and  the  work  becomes  a 
criticism  of  life,  which  Spaniards  accept  as 
permanent  and  universal.  The  substance  of 
the  story  is  as  follows.  Don  Quixote,  a  poor 
gentleman  of  La  Mancha,  a  man  of  amiable 
character,  and  otherwise  sane,  has  had  his  wits 
disordered  by  inordinate  devotion  to  such 


DON  RAPHAEL 

tales,  and  imagines  himself  called  upon  to 
roam  the  world  in  search  of  adventures,  on  his 
old  horse,  and  accoutred  in  rusty  armour, 
accompanied  by  a  squire  in  the  person  of  the 
rustic  Sancho  Panza,  a  curious  mixture  ^of 
credulity  and  shrewdness,  whom  he  lures  with 
the  prospect  of  the  governorship  of  an  island. 
He  conforms  to  chiyalric  tradition  _  in 
nominating  a  good-looking  girl  of  a  neigh- 
bouring village  to  be  mistress  of  his  heart, 
under  the  style  of  Dulcinea  del  Toboso,  an 
honour  of  which  she  is  entirely  unaware.  To 
the  disordered  imagination  of  the  knight  the 
most  commonplace  objects  assume  fearful^or 
romantic  forms,  and  he  is  consequently  in- 
volved in  the  most  absurd  adventures  with 
distressing  consequences  to  himself.  Finally 
one  of  his  friends,  the  bachelor  Samson 
Carrasco,  in  order  to  force  him  to  return  to 
his  home,  disguises  himself  as  a  knight,  over- 
throws Don  Quixote,  and  requires  him  ^  to 
abstain  for  a  year  from  chivalrous  exploits. 
This  period  Don  Quixote  resolves  to  spend 
as  a  shepherd,  living  a  pastoral  life,  but  falling 
sick  on  his  return  to  his  village,  after  a  few 
days  he  dies. 

The  above  story,  as  has  been  said,  consists 
of  two  parts.  After  the  first  had  been  pub- 
lished, a  continuation  was  issued  by  a  writer 
who  styled  himself  Alonso  Fernandez  de 
Avellaneda.  This  forgery,  which  Cervantes 
appears  to  have  resented,  stimulated  him  to 
write  his  own  Part  II.  The  book  was  trans- 
lated into  English,  as  early  as  1612,  by  Thomas 
Shelton,  and  in  1712  by  Motteux  (qq.v.); 
and  the  plots  of  several  pth-cent.  English 
plays  have  been  traced  to  it. 
Don  Raphael  and  Ambrose  Lamela,  in 
Le  Sage's  'Gil  Bias*  (q.v.),  a  pair  of  cunning 
rogues  who  appear  from  time  to  time  in  the 
course  of  the  story,  and  are  finally  among  the 
victims  at  an  auto-da-fe. 

Don  Saltero's  Coffee-house,  founded  by 
John  Salter  about  1690,  stood  in  Cheyne 
Walk,  Chelsea.  It  was  stiU  in  existence  when 
Carlyle  moved  into  Cheyne  Row  in  1834. 
There  is  at  present  a  house  on  its  site  called 
Don  Salteros. 

Don  Sebastian,  a  tragi- comedy,  by  Dryden 
(q.v.),  published  in  1691. 
_  The  play  is  based  on  the  legend  that  Sebas- 
tian  (q.v.)  king  of  Portugal   survived   the 
battle  of  Alcazar.  He  is  presented  as  a  captive 
of  Muley  Moluch,  the  Moor,  together  with 
Almeyda,  a  princess  of  the  royal  house,  with 
whom  Sebastian  is  in  love.  Muley  Moluch, 
moved  by  Sebastian's  courage  and  dignity, 
spares  his  life;  but  on  learning  that  he  has 
used  his  liberty  to  marry  Almeyda  (of  whom 
Muley   Moluch  has   become  violently  en- 
amoured), orders  his  execution.  The  person 
charged  to  carry  it  out  is  Dorax,  a  noble 
Portuguese,  who  in  consequence  of  what  he 
considers  unjust  treatment  by  Don  Sebastian 
in  the  past,  has  turned  renegade  and  is  now 
governor  of  the  fortress.    Dorax,  however, 
saves  Sebastian,  desiring  a  more  honourable 


DONNE 

revenge.  Muley  Moluch  is  killed  in  a  revolt, 
and  Almeyda  and  Sebastian  are  established 
in  control  of  the  kingdom.  But  horrified  at 
the  discovery  that  they  have  the  same  father, 
Sebastian  becomes  an  anchorite  and  Almeyda 
takes  the  veil.  There  is  a  fine  scene  where 
Dorax,  after  having  saved  Sebastian,  reveals 
himself  as  the  aggrieved  Don  Alonzo,  and 
demands  satisfaction ;  a  scene  which  ends  in 
a  display  of  generosity  on  each  side  and 
reconciliation.  The  author  uses  the  character 
of  the  Mufti  to  ridicule  the  Christian  clergy. 
Donation  of  Constantine,  THE,  the  sup- 
posed grant  by  the  Emperor  Constantine  to 
Pope  Silvester  of  temporal  power  over  Rome 
and  Italy,  in  gratitude  for  his  conversion  to 
Christianity.  The  grant,  which  was  probably 
forged  at  Rome  in  the  8th  cent.,  is  included 
in  the  False  Decretals  (q.v.). 

Donatists,  a  Christian  sect  which  arose  in 
North  Africa  in  A.D.  311  out  of  a  dispute  con- 
cerning the  election  of  a  bishop  of  Carthage. 
They  maintained  that  their  own  party  was 
the  only  true  Church,  and  that  the  baptisms 
and  ordinations  of  others  were  invalid.  Their 
name  was  derived  from  Donatus,  a  supporter 
of  Majorinus  (the  bishop  elected  by  the 
Donatists),  or  from  Donatus  the  Great,  who 
succeeded  Majorinus  as  bishop.  [OED.] 

DONATUS,  AELIUS,  a  grammarian  who 
taught  at  Rome  in  the  4th  cent,  and  had 
St.  Jerome  among  his  pupils.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  Latin  grammar, £  Ars  Grammatical 
known  as  the  'Donet*  or  'Donat',  which  has 
served  as  the  basis  of  later  works.  A  'Donet* 
is  hence  used  for  an  introduction  to,  or  the 
elements  of,  any  art  or  science.  It  is  men- 
tioned in  Tiers  Plowman*,  A,  v.  123,  and 
other  early  English  works.  The  original 
'Donat*  is  ridiculed  by  Rabelais  as  one  of  the 
works  in  which  Thubal  Holofernes  instructed 
the  youthful  Gargantua  (q.v.,  I.  xiv). 

Donet  or  DONAT,  see  Donatus. 

DONNE,  JOHN  (1572-1631),  the  son  of  a 
London  ironmonger  and  of  a  daughter  of 
J.  Heywood  (q.v.)  the  author,  was  educated 
both  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  was 
entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  was  in  the 
early  part  of  his  life  a  Roman  Catholic.  He 
was  secretary  to  Sir  T.  Egerton,  keeper  of 
the  great  seal  from  1596  to  1601,  but  alien- 
ated his  favour  by  a  secret  marriage  with 
Anne  More,  niece  of  the  lord  keeper's  wife. 
He  sailed  in  the  two  expeditions  of  Essex,  to 
Cadiz  and  to  the  Islands,  in  1596  and  1597, 
an  episode  of  which  we  have  a  reflection  in 
his  early  poems  'The  Storm*  and  'The  Calm*. 
He  took  Anglican  orders  in  1615  and  preached 
sermons  which  rank  among  the  best  of  the 
1 7th  cent.  From  1621  to  his  death  he  was 
dean  of  St.  Paul's  and  frequently  preached 
before  Charles  I. 

In  verse  he  wrote  satires,  epistles,  elegies, 
and  miscellaneous  poems,  distinguished  by 
wit,  profundity  of  thought  and  erudition, 
passion,  and  subtlety,  coupled  with  a  certain 


[232] 


DONNITHORNE 

roughness  of  form  ('I  sing  not  Syren-like  to 
tempt;  for  I  am  harsh').  He  was  the  greatest  of 
the  writers  of  'metaphysical5  poetry,  in  which 
passion  is  interwoven  with  reasoning. 
Among  his  more  important  poems  is  the 
satirical  Trogresse  of  the  Soiie',  begun  in 
1601,  in  which,  adopting  the  doctrine  of 
metempsychosis,  he  traces  the  migration  of 
the  soul  of  Eve's  apple  through  the  bodies 
of  various  heretics.  But  he  left  the  work  un- 
completed. His  best-known  poems  are  some 
of  the  miscellaneous  ones,  'The  Ecstasie', 
'Hymn  to  God  the  Father*,  the  sonnet  to 
Death  ('Death,  be  not  proud'),  'Go  and  catch 
a  falling  star',  &c.  They  include  also  a 
fine  funeral^  elegy  (in  'Anniversaries')  on  the 
death  of  Elizabeth  Drury,  and  an  'Epithala- 
mium*  on  the  marriage  of  the  Count  Palatine 
and  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  1613.  Thomas 
Carew  described  him  as 

A  king  who  ruled  as  he  thought  fit 
The  universal  monarchy  of  wit, 

and  Ben  Jonspn  wrote  of  him  that  he  was 
'the  first  poet  in  some  things*. 

Imperfect  collections  of  his  poems  ap- 
peared in  1633-49,  and  'Letters*  by  him  in 
1651.  His  poems  were  edited  by  Dr.  Grosart 
in  1872-3,  by  C.  E.  Norton  in  1895,  by  E.  K. 
Chambers  in  1896,  and  by  H.  J.  C.  Grierson 
(Oxford  English  Texts,  1913;  Oxford  Poets, 
1929),  the  standard  edition.  A  biography  of 
Donne  was  written  by  Izaak  Walton,  pub- 
lished in  1640,  another  by  E.  Gosse  in  1899. 
His  name  is  pronounced  and  was  frequently 
spelt  'Dun'. 

Donnithorne,  ARTHim,  a  character  in 
George  Eliot's  'Adam  Bede*  (q.v.). 

Donnybrook,  a  village  near  Dublin, 
famous  for  its  fair,  the  scene  of  much  riotous 
jollity,  dating  from  the  time  of  Kong  John, 
and  suppressed  in  the  i9th  cent. 

Donzel,  from  Latin  dominicellus*  diminutive 
of   dominuSy    a   young    gentleman   not  yet 
knighted,  a  squire  or  page.  'Damsel*  is  the 
feminine  form. 
Dooley,  MR.,  see  Dunne. 

Doolin  of  Mayence,  the  subject  of  a  French 
chanson  de  geste  of  the  I4th  cent.,  and  of  a 
prose  romance  of  the  I5th  cent.  He  was 
reputed  an  ancestor  of  Ogier  the  Dane  (q.v.). 

Doomsday  Book,  see  Domesday  Book. 

Doomster,  in  a  Scottish  court  of  law,  the 
officer  (usually  the  executioner)  who  formerly 
read  or  repeated  the  sentence. 

Doorm,  EARL,  a  character  in  Tennyson's 
'Idylls  of  the  King*  ('Geraintand  Enid',  q.v.). 

Dora,  the  popular  name  for  the  Defence  of 
the  Realm  Act,  1914,  under  which  ^  many 
regulations  restrictive  of  liberty  were  issued. 

Dora  Spenlow,  in  Dickens's  'David  Copper- 
field*  (q.v.),  the  hero's  'child-wife*. 

Dorastus  and  Fawnia,  see  Pandosto. 


DOS  PASSOS 

Dorax,  a  character  in  Dryden's  'Don 
Sebastian5  (q.v.). 

Dorcas  Society,  a  ladies'  association,  con- 
nected with  a  church,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  clothes  for  the  poor;  called  after  the 
Dorcas  mentioned  in  Acts  is.  36. 

Dorian  Mode,  in  music,  one  of  the  ancient 
Greek  modes,  of  a  simple  and  solemn 
character,  a  minor  scale  appropriate  to 
earnest  or  warlike  melodies  (Jebb). 

Doric,  derived  from  Doris,  a  small  country 
in  Greece,  south  of  Thessaly,  the  home  of 
the  Dorians,  one  of  the  principal  Hellenic 
races.    From  Doris  the  Dorians  migrated  to 
the  Peloponnese  (Herodotus  i.  56).  The  word 
is  used  to  signify  unrefined,  as  opposed  to 
'Attic'  (q.v.),  and  also  rustic,  as  in 
With  eager  thought  warbling  his  Doric  lay. 
(Milton,  'Lycidas'.) 

It  is  used  also  of  a  'broad*  or  rustic  dialect  of 
English,  as  that  of  the  north  of  England,  and 
Scotland. 

DOKIC  ORDER,  in  architecture,  one  of  the 
three  Grecian  orders  (Doric,  Ionic,  Corin- 
thian); of  which  it  is  the  oldest,  strongest, 
and  simplest. 

Doricourt,  a  character  in  Mrs.  Cowley's 
'The  Belle's  Stratagem*  (q.v.). 

Borigen,  the  heroine  of  the  Franklin's  Tale, 
in  Chaucer's  'Canterbury  Tales*  (q.v.). 

Dorimant,  a  character  in  Etherege's  'The 
Man  of  Mode*  (q.v.). 

Dorothea,  the  heroine  of  'Hermann  and 
Dorothea*,  a  poem  by  Goethe  (q.v.). 

Dorothea,  ST.,  a  Christian  martyr  who 
suffered  in  the  persecution  under  Diocletian 
(303).  She  is  commemorated  on  6  February. 
Her  story  forms  the  subject  of  Massinger's 
'The  Virgin-Martyr*  (q.v.). 

Dorothea  Brooke,  the  heroine  of  G.  Eliot's 
'Middlemarch*  (q.v.). 

D'Orsay,  ALFRED  GUILLAUME  GABRIEL, 
(1801—52)  a  Frenchman  who,  corning  to  Lon- 
don in  1821,  soon  made  himself  famous  as  a 
wit,  a  dandy,  and  an  artist.  He  was  adopted 
by  the  Count  and  Countess  of  Blessington. 
In  1823,  with  his  benefactors,  he  travelled 
to  Genoa,  where  he  met  Byron  and  made 
a  rapid  pencil  sketch  of  title  poet  which 
has  survived.  In  1827  he  married  Lady 
Harriet  Gardiner,  Lord  Blessington's  daugh- 
ter by  a  former  marriage,  but  a  separation 
took  place  almost  immediately.  He  was 
prominent  in  the  society  of  Gore  House  at 
which  Lady  Blessington  entertained  all  liter- 
ary, political  and  artistic  London, 

Dorset,  EARL  OF,  see  under  Sackvitte  (C.) 
and  Sackville  (T.). 

DOS  PASSOS,  JOHN (1896-  ),  Ameri- 
can noveHst,  born  at  Chicago.  His  chief 
books  are:  'Three  Soldiers*  (1921),  'Man- 
hattan Transfer*  (1925),  'The  42nd  Parallel' 


[233] 


DOSTOEVSKY 

(1930).  Dos  Passes  is  one  of  the  most  read  of 
the  young  American  novelists,  and  is  well 
known  in  this  country.  He  has  developed  a 
technique  by  which  he  obtains  a  remarkable 
atmosphere  of  stress  and  hustle.  This  he 
does,  mostly,  by  alternating  in  rapid  se- 
quence scenes  from  a  great  number  of  in- 
dividual lives  and  groups,  throwing  them, 
together  so  that  he  obtains  a  cinematographic 
effect. 

DOSTOEVSKY,  FEODOR  MICHAELO- 
VITCH  (1821-81),  Russian  novelist,  who  in 
1849  was  condemned  to  death  for  revolu- 
tionary activities,  and  spent  years  of  hard 
labour  in  the  Siberian  mines.  The  first  of  his 
novels  was  'Poor  People*  (1846),  followed  by 
'Letters  from  a  Dead  House'  (1861-2),  his 
masterpiece  'Crime  and  Punishment*  (1866), 
'The  Idiot'  (1866),  'The  Possessed*  (1871), 
and  the  unfinished  'The  Brothers  Karamazov* 
(i  880).  Dostoevsky  'extended  the  boundaries 
and  enlarged  the  horizons  of  the  novel  by  ex- 
ploring the  dark  places  of  the  human  spirit 
...  he  abstracted  mind  and  will  and  passion 
from  their  background  of  names  and  clothes 
and  addresses,  and  exhibited  them  in  pure 
disembodied  states  of  being'  (T.L.S.  5  June, 
1930). 

Dotheboys  Hall,  in  Dickensjs  'Nicholas 
Nickleby'  (q.v.),  the  school  conducted  by 
Mr.  Squeers. 
Douay  Bible,  see  Bible  (The  English). 

Double  Dealer,  The,  a  comedy  by  Congreve 
(q.v,),  produced  in  1694. 

Mellefont,  nephew  and  prospective  heir  of 
Lord  Touchwood,  is  about  to  marry  Cynthia, 
daughter  of  Sir  Paul  Plyant.  Lady  Touch- 
wood, a  violent  dissolute  woman,  is  in  love 
with  Mellefont,  but  as  he  rejects  her  ad- 
vances, determines  to  prevent  the  match  and 
ruin  him  in  Lord  Touchwood's  esteem.  In 
this  design  she  finds  a  confederate  in  Mask- 
well,  the  Double-Dealer,  who  has  been  her 
lover,  pretends  to  be  Mellefont 's  friend,  and 
aspires  to  cheat  him  of  Cynthia  and  get  her 
for  himself.  To  this  end  he  leads  Plyant  to 
suspect  an  intrigue  between  Mellefont  and 
Lady  Plyant,  and  Touchwood  an  intrigue 
between  Mellefont  and  Lady  Touchwood; 
and  contrives  that  Touchwood  shall  find 
Mellefont  in  the  latter's  chamber.  Mellefont 
is  disinherited  and  Cynthia  is  to  be  made 
over  to  Maskwell.  The  latter's  plot,  however, 
here  goes  wrong.  Lord  Touchwood  informs 
Lady  Touchwood  of  MaskwelPs  intention  to 
marry  Cynthia.  This  awakens  her  jealousy. 
She  finds  Maskwell  and  upbraids  him,  and  is 
overheard  by  Lord  Touchwood,  who  now 
perceives  Maskwell's  treachery,  and  defeats 
his  final  attempt  to  carry  off  Cynthia. 

Double  Deceit,  The,  or,  The  Cure  for 
Jealousy,  a  lively  comedy  by  William  Popple 
(1701-64),  produced  in  1735.  Two  young 
men,  whom  it  is  proposed  to  marry  to  two 
heiresses  who  are  unknown  to  them,  con- 
spire to  defeat  the  project.  They  arrange  to 


DOUGLAS 

exchange  places  with  their  valets,  who  are  to 
court  the  ladies.  The  ladies,  apprised  of  the 
trick,  exchange  places  with  their  maids.  But 
the  pseudo- valets  fall  in  love  with  the  pseudo- 
maids,  and  all  ends  well. 

Doubloon,  a  Spanish  gold  coin,  originally 
double  the  value  of  a  pistole  (q.v.),  i.e.=33  to 
36  shillings  English. 

Doubting  Castle,  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's 
Progress'  (q.v.),  the  castle  of  Giant  Despair. 
Doucepers,  see  Douzepers. 

DOUGHTY,  CHARLES  MONTAGU 
(1843-1926),  educated  at  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  is  principally  remembered  for 
his  remarkable  record  of  'Travels  in  Arabia 
Deserta*  carried  out  in  1876-8,  first  pub- 
lished in  1888  (republished  in  1920  and  1921). 
It  is  notable  for  its  style,  Chaucerian  and 
Elizabethan  English  mixed  with  Arabic. 
Doughty  also  wrote  a  number  of  poems :  'The 
Dawn  in  Britain*  (6  vols.,  1906),  'Adam  cast 
forth'  (a  sacred  drama,  1908),  'The  Cliffs' 
(1909),  'The  Clouds'  (1912),  'The  Titans' 
(1916),  'Mansoul,  or  the  Riddle  of  the  World' 
(1920). 

Douglas,  a  romantic  tragedy  by  J.  Home 
(q.v.),  based  on  a  Scottish  ballad,  and  acted 
in  1756. 

Old  Norval,  the  shepherd,  brings  up  the 
infant  son  of  Douglas  and  Sir  Malcolm's 
daughter,  who  after  his  birth  has  married 
Lord  Randolph.  The  child  has  been  exposed 
owing  to  Sir  Malcolm's  hatred.  Known  as 
Young  Norval,  he  saves  the  life  of  Lord 
Randolph,  and  is  given  a  commission  in  the 
army.  Hated  and  traduced  by  Glenalvon, 
Lord  Randolph's  heir-presumptive,  he  is 
waylaid,  slays  Glenalvon,  but  is  himself 
killed  by  Lord  Randolph.  His  identity  is 
discovered,  and  Ms  mother  in  despair  takes 
her  own  life. 

Douglas,  ARCHIBALD,  fifth  earl  of  Angus 
(Bell-the-cat,  q.v.),  figures  in  Sir  W.  Scott's 
'Marmion'  (q.v.). 

Douglas,  THE  BLACK,  a  name  applied  to  two 
of  the  Douglases: 

(i)  Sir  James  Douglas  (i286?-i33o),  who 
in  1319,  in  ^ the  days  of  Robert  Bruce  and 
Edward  II,  invaded  England  and  plundered 
many  towns  and  villages  in  the  North.  'It 
was  said  that  the  name  of  this  indefatigable 
and  successful  chief  had  become  so  formid- 
able that  women  used  in  the  northern  counties 
to  still  their  froward  children  by  threatening 
them  with  the  Black  Douglas'  (Scott,  'His- 
tory of  Scotland',  ch.  xi).  He  three  times 
destroyed  an  English  garrison  in  his  castle 
of  Douglas,  which  he  burnt  twice  (see  Douglas 
Larder),  and  it  is  on  one  of  these  incidents 
that  Scott  bases  the  story  of  his  'Castle  Danger- 
ous' (q.v.).  After  the  conclusion  of  peace  with 
Edward  III,  James  Douglas  set  out  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  carrying  the 
heart  of  Bruce,  but  was  killed  on  the  way, 
fighting  the  Moors  in  Andalusia. 


[234] 


DOUGLAS 

(2)  Sir  William  Douglas,  Lord  of  Nithsdale 
(d.  1392  ?),  illegitimate  son  of  Archibald,  third 
earl  of  Douglas.  He  married  a  daughter  of 
Robert  II  and  received  the  lordship  of  Niths- 
dale in  1387.  In  1388  he  made  a  retaliatory 
raid  on  Ireland,  burning  Carlingford  and 
plundering  the  Isle  of  Man. 

Douglas,  ELLEN,  heroine  of  Sir  W.  Scott's 
'Lady  of  the  Lake'  (q.v.). 

DOUGLAS,  GAWIN  or  GAVIN  (1474?- 
1522),  Scottish  poet  and  bishop  of  Dunkeld, 
was  third  son  of  Archibald,  fifth  earl  of  Angus. 
He  wrote  two  allegorical  poems,  'The  Palice 
of  Honour*  (first  published  1553  ?)  and  'King 
Hart'  (first  printed  1786);  also  a  translation 
of  the  *Aeneid'  with  prologues  (1553),  which 
constitutes  him  the  earliest  translator  of  the 
classics  into  English;  probably  there  were 
earlier  editions  published  both  of  the  'Aeneid' 
and  of  'The  Palice  of  Honour*.  There  is  an 
edition  of  Douglas's  works  by  John  Small  of 
Edinburgh  (1874). 

Douglas,  Sm  JAMES  and  SIR  WILLIAM,  see 
Douglas  (The  Black,  (i)  and  (2)). 

DOUGLAS,  NORMAN,  contemporary 
writer.  Among  his  works  are  'Alone*  (1921), 
'South  Wind*  (1917),  'In  the  Beginning* 
(1928),  'Three  of  Them'  (1930). 

Douglas  Larder,  THE:  the  English  in  the 
time  of  Edward  I  had  placed  a  garrison  in 
Douglas  Castle  and  stored  it  with  provisions 
for  the  English  army.  Sir  James  Douglas 
(q.v.)  surprised  the  garrison  on  Palm  Sunday 
1306-7  and  got  possession  of  the  castle.  He 
broke  up  the  barrels  of  provisions,  killed  his 
prisoners  and  threw  in  their  dead  bodies ;  and 
then  set  fire  to  the  castle.  (Scott,  'Tales  of  a 
Grandfather*,  ch.  ix.) 

Douglas  Tragedy,  The,  a  ballad  included  in 
Scott's  'Border  Minstrelsy*,  the  story  of  the 
carrying  off  of  Lady  Margaret  by  Lord 
William  Douglas.  They  are  pursued  by  her 
father  and  seven  brothers,  who  fall  in  the 
ensuing  fight.  But  Lord  William  dies  of  his 
wounds,  and  Lady  Margaret  does  not  survive 
him, 

Dousterswivel,  HERMAN,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'The  Antiquary*  (q.v.). 
Douzepers,  DOUCEPERS,  in  the  Carlovingian 
romances,  the  twelve  peers  or  paladins  of 
Charlemagne,  said  to  be  attached  to  his 
person  as  being  the  bravest  of  his  knights. 
Spenser  in  the  'Faerie  Queene*,  ill.  x.  31, 
likens  Braggadochio  to  'a  doughty  Doucepere*. 

Dove  Cottage,  a  short  distance  from  the 
NE.  shore  of  Grasmere  Lake,  taken  by 
Wordsworth  and  his  sister  at  the  end  of  1799 
when  they  migrated  to  the  Lakes.  They 
occupied  it  till  the  end  of  1807. 
Dover,  CAPTAIN  ROBERT,  see  Cotswold Games. 

DOWDEN,  EDWARD  (1843-1913),  edu- 
cated at  Queen's  College,  Cork,  and  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  became  professor  of  Eng- 


DOYLE 

lish  literature  at  the  latter  in  1867.  He  was 
noted  as  a  Shakespearian  scholar,  publishing 
in  1875  'Shakespere,  his  Mind  and  Art*,  and 
his  'Shakespere  Primer'  in  1877,  followed  by 
many  editions  of  single  plays.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  other  volumes  of  criticism,  the 
standard  'Life  of  Shelley*  (1886),  and  short 
biographies  of  Southey,  Browning,  and  Mon- 
taigne. 

Dowel,  Dobet,  Dobest,  characters  in  Tiers 
Plowman'  (q.v.),  Passus  ix. 

DOWLAND,  JOHN  (1563  ?-i626  ?),  lutenist 
and  composer,  published  three  books  of 
'Songes  or  Ayres  of  Foure  Partes  with 
Tableture  for  the  Lute*  (1597,  1600,  and 
1603).  He  dedicated  his  'Lachrymae*  to  Anne 
of  Denmark,  and  was  lutenist  to  Charles  I, 
1625. 

Down  with  Knavery,  see  Hey  for  Honesty. 

Downing,  SIR  GEORGE  (i623?-84),  soldier, 
diplomat,  and  politician,  was  scout-master- 
general  of  CromwelFs  army  in  Scotland  in 
1650  and  headed  the  movement  for  offering 
Cromwell  the  crown.  He  was  British  resi- 
dent at  The  Hague  both  under  Cromwell  and 
Charles  II,  and  M.P.  for  Morpeth  in  1670. 

DOWNING  STREET,  Westminster,  No.  10  of 
which  is  the  official  residence  of  the  prime 
minister,  is  named  after  the  above.  The  street 
also  contains  the  official  residence  of  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  the  foreign 
and  colonial  offices  stand  on  its  S.  side.  So 
that  'Downing  Street*  is  often  used  to  signify 
the  British  government. 

Sir  George  Downing  (i684?-i749),  the 
grandson  of  the  above,  left  estates  from  the 
proceeds  of  which,  after  much  litigation, 
DOWNING  COLLEGE,  Cambridge,  was  founded. 

Dowsabel,  an  English  form  of  the  Latin 
female  name  DulcibeZla^  used  generically  for 
a  sweetheart. 

DOWSON,  ERNEST  (1867-1900),  author 
of  a  book  of  remarkable  poems  (1896),  of 
which  the  best  known  is  Non  sum  qualis 
eram  . .  .*  with  the  refrain  'I  have  been  faith- 
ful to  thee,  Cynaral  in  my  fashion*. 

DOYLE,  SIR  ARTHUR  CONAN  (1859- 
1930),  educated  at  Stonyhurst  and  Edin- 
burgh University,  adopted  the  profession  of 
medicine  and  practised  at  Southsea,  1882—90. 
He  will  be  remembered  chiefly  for  his  crea- 
tion of  the  amateur  detective,  SherlockHolmes 
(q.v.),  embodied  in  a  cycle  of  stories  ('The 
Adventures  of  Sherlock  Holmes'  (1891),  'The 
Memoirs  of  Sherlock  Holmes'  (1894),  and 
others),  and  of  his  friend  and  foil  Dr.  Watson. 
Doyle's  first  work  of  fiction,  *A  Study  in  Scar- 
let* (also  a  Holmes  story),  appeared  in  1887, 
and  was  followed  by  a  series  of  historical  and 
other  romances  for  half  a  century.  Notable 
among  them  may  be  mentioned  *Micah 
Clarke'  (1889),  £The  White  Company'  (1891), 

«TU«.   Exploits    ^   P-rtrwaHtiar    dprnrrC  ff8o6Y 


'Rodney  Stone'  (1896).    His  patriotism  was 
shown  in  his  pamphlet  'The  Great  Boer  War* 


DOYLE 

(igoo),  designed  to  place  the  true  facts  of  that 
war  before  the  world.  His  *  Story  of  Wa.teiloo3, 
a  one-act  play  (1900),  furnished  Sir  Henry 
Irving  with  one  of  his  most  successful  parts. 
He  wrote  a  'History  of  Spiritualism*  (1926), 
a  subject  in  which  during  his  later  years  he 
was  much  interested. 

BOYLE,  SIR  FRANCIS  HASTINGS 
CHARLES  (1810-88),  second  baronet,  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford, and  became  fellow  of  All  Souls^  and 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford.  He  published 
several  volumes  of  verse,  including  ballads 
on  military  subjects  ('The  Loss  of  the  Birken- 
head',  'The  Red  Thread  of  Honour',  and 
'The  Private  of  the  Buffs'). 
Doyle,  RICHARD  (1824-83),  artist  and  carica- 
turist. He  designed  the  cover  of  'Punch* 
(q.v.),  and  contributed  to  that  periodical  from 
1843  to  1850,  when  he  severed  his  connexion 
with  it  owing  to  its  strong  anti-Papal  tone 
(Doyle  was  a  devout  Catholic).  Among  his 
best-known  drawings  were  the  'Brown,  Jones, 
and  Robinson'  (q.y.)  series.  He  also  illus- 
trated Ruskin's  'King  of  the  Golden  River' 
(1851),  Thackeray's  'The  Newcomes'  (1853- 
5),  and  other  books. 

Drachenfels,  a  mountain  in  the  Siegenge- 
birge  on  the  Rhine,  in  which  is  the  Drachen- 
hphle  or  dragon's  cave,  the  lair  of  the  dragon 
killed  by  Siegfried  (q.v.). 
Draco,  a  celebrated  lawgiver  of  Athens, 
whose  code  (621  B.C.)  was  noted  for  its 
severity.  It  imposed  the  penalty  of  death  for 
almost  all  crimes;  hence  the  adjective  *dra- 
conian*  =  'severe*. 

Dragon  of  Wantley,  The,  a  humorous  ballad, 
probably  of  the  i7th  cent.,  satirizing  the 
old  verse  romances.  It  tells  of  a  Yorkshire 
dragon  that  devoured  children  and  cattle, 
and  was  killed  by  More  of  More  Hall.  The 
ballad  is  included  in  Percy's  'Reliques',  the 
editor  of  which  provides  the  following  key : 
Wantley  is  Wharncliffe,  in  the  parish  of 
Penniston,  Yorks.  A  conflict  having  arisen 
between  the  parishioners  and  Sir  Francis 
Wortley  (the  dragon)  with  regard  to  the 
tithes,  More  of  More  Hall  as  attorney  or 
counsellor  conducted  the  suit,  which  was 
decided  in  favour  of  the  parishioners.  For 
another  explanation  see  Lockhart's  'Scott*, 
ch.  xii. 

A  burlesque  opera  called  the  'Dragon  of 
Wantley*  by  Henry  Carey  (q.v.)  was  produced 
in  1 734.  The  inn  at  Barchester  mentioned  by 
Trollope  (passim)  is  'The  Dragon  of  Wantley'. 
Dragon's  Teetk,  see  Cadmus. 

Dragonnades,  a  series  of  persecutions 
directed  by  Louis  XIV  against  the  Protestants 
of  France,  so  called  because  dragoons  were 
quartered  upon  them.  Hence  the  word 
'dragonnade*  is  applied  to  any  persecution 
with  the  help  of  troops. 

Drake,  SIR  FRANCIS  (1540 ?~o.6),  circunv 
navigator  and  admiral,  was  bom  at  Tavistock, 


DRAPIER'S  LETTERS 

Devonshire.  His  early  sea-career  is  uncer- 
tain, but  he  was  undoubtedly  engaged  in  the 
Guinea  trade  with  Sir  John  Hawkins.  He 
commanded  the  'Judith'  in  Hawkins's  ill- 
fated  expedition  to  San  Juan  de  Ulloa  of  1567, 
and  made  three  voyages  to  the  W.  Indies  in 
1570-2.  In  1577  he  set  out  in  the  'Pelican* 
(afterwards  renamed  'The  Golden  Hind') 
for  the  river  Plate,  sailed  through  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  (after  executing  Thomas  Doughty, 
one  of  his  officers,  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy), 
plundered  Valparaiso,  rounded  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  completed  the  circumnavi- 
gation of  the  world .  He  was  knighted  by  Eliza- 
beth on  his  return  in  1581.  Under  a  com- 
mission from  Elizabeth  he  plundered  St.  lago 
and  burnt  Vigo  in  1 585,  and  took  San  Domingo 
and  Cartagena.  In  1587  he  destroyed  a 
Spanish  armament  in  the  harbour  of  Cadiz, 
unaware  that  the  order  to  commit  acts  of 
war,  in  so  far  as  it  extended  to  Spanish  terri- 
tory, had  been  withdrawn.  Drake,  ^  as  vice- 
admiral,  commanded  one  of  the  divisions  of 
the  English  fleet  against  the  Armada,  which  he 
defeated  off  Gravelines  and  pursued  to  the 
north  of  Scotland.  He  was  subsequently  as- 
sociated with  Sir  John  Norris  in  an  expedition 
which  in  1589  plundered  Coruna  and  destroyed 
much  Spanish  shipping.  Drake  died  in  Janu- 
ary 1596  off  Portobello  in  the  course  of  an 
unsuccessful  expedition  with  Sir  John  Haw- 
kins to  the  W.  Indies;  Hawkins  had  died  on 
the  same  expedition  a  few  weeks  before 
Drake.  The  narratives  of  some  of  his  ex- 

E editions  figure  in  Hakluyt  and  Purchas,  and 
e  became  the  hero  of  many  legends. 

DRAKE,  JOSEPH  RODMAN  (1795-1820), 
American  poet,  born  in  New  York  City, 
author  of  a  fantastic  poem,  'The  Culprit  Fay*. 
His  collected  verse,  'The  Culprit  Fay  and 
Other  Poems*,  was  published  in  1836. 

Drama  of  Exile,  A,  a  poem  by  E.  B.  Browning 
(q.v.). 

Dramatis  Personae,  a  collection  of  poems  by 
R.  Browning  (q.v.),  published  in  1864,  three 
years  after  his  wife's  death.  The  collection 
includes  'Abt  Vogler*  (q.v.),  'Prospice',  'Rabbi 
Ben  Ezra*  (q.v.),  'A  Death  in  the  Desert*, 
and  the  longer  pieces  'Caliban  upon  Setebos* 
(q.v.)  and  'Mr.  Sludge,  "The  Medium*'  * 
(q.v.). 

Draper,  MRS.  ELIZA  (1744-78),  wife  of 
Daniel  Draper  (an  official  in  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Company),  with  whom  Sterne 
(q.v.)  had  one  of  his  love-affairs.  She  is 
the  'Eliza*  and  the  'Bramine*  of  the  'Journal 
to  Eliza*  and  of  the  'Letters  from  Yorick  to 
Eliza*. 

Drapier's  Letters,  The,  published  by  Swift 
(q.v.)  in  1724.  The  word  'Drapier* = 'Draper*. 
A  patent  had  been  granted  to  the  duchess 
of  Kendal  for  supplying  copper  coins  for  use  in 
Ireland,  and  by  her  had  been  sold  to  a  certain 
William  Wood  for  £10,000.  The  profit  on 
the  patent  would  have  been  apparently  some 
£35,000.  In  1723  the  Irish  houses  of  par- 


[236] 


DRAWCANSIR 

Kament  voted  addresses  protesting  against 
the  transaction.  Swift  took  up  the  cudgels  on 
behalf  of  the  Irish.  Writing  in  the  character 
of  a  Dublin  draper,  he  published  a  series  of 
four  letters  in  which  he  prophesied  ruin  to 
the  Irish  if  'Wood's  half-pence*  were  admitted 
into  circulation.  The  letters  produced  an 
immense  effect,  and  the  government  was 
forced  to  abandon  the  project  and  com- 
pensate Wood. 

Drawcansir,  a  character  in  Buckingham's 
cThe  Rehearsal*  (q.v.),  parodying  Alrnanzor 
in  Dryden's  'Conquest  of  Granada*  (q.v.). 
DRAWCANSIR,      SIR      ALEXANDER, 
pseudonym  of  H.  FIELDING  (q.v.). 

DRAYTON,  MICHAEL  (1563-1631),  born 
at  Hartshill  in  Warwickshire,  but  of  the 
details  of  whose  life  little  is  known,  produced 
a  vast  quantity  of  historical,  topographical, 
and  religious  verse,  besides  odes,  sonnets, 
and  satires.  His  earliest  work  was  a  volume  of 
sacred  verse,  the  'Harmonic  of  the  Church*, 
paraphrases  of  songs  and  prayers  from  the 
O.T.  and  Apocrypha,  published  in  1591.  In 
1 593  he  published  'Idea,  the  Shepheards  Gar- 
land', eclogues  in  the  tradition  of  Spenser, 
praising  Elizabeth,  lamenting  Sir  P.  Sidney, 
&c.,  and  containing  pleasant  songs.  These 
were  republished  with  alterations  as  'Eglogs* 
c.  1605  in  'Poems  Lyrick  and  Pastoral*,  and 
as  'Pastorals'  in  1619.  Drayton's  'Ideas 
Mirrour',  a  series  of  sonnets,  many  of  them 
inspired  by  French  originals,  and  including 
the  magnificent  'Since  there 's  no  help,  come 
let  us  kiss  and  part',  was  published  in  1594. 
The  lady  referred  to  under  the  name  'Idea* 
was  probably  Anne,  second  daughter  of  Sir 
Henry  Goodere,  an  early  patron  of  Drayton. 
'Endknion  and  Phoebe',  a  pastoral,  was 
written  about  1595. 

Drayton's  great  topographical  poem  on 
England  'Polyolbion'  (q.v.)  was  completed  in 
1622.  'The  Owle*,  a  satire,  appeared  in  1604; 
and  'Poemes  Lyrick  and  Pastorall',  contain- 
ing the  splendid  'Ballad  of  Agincourt'  ('Fair 
stood  the  wind  for  France'),  the  ode  'To  the 
Virginian  Voyage',  and  some  other  notable 
odes  on  the  Anacreontic  model,  c.  1605. 
'Nimphidia'  (q.v.)  and  other  poems,  including 
two  pleasant  pastorals  and  the  interesting 
autobiographical  and  critical  letter  in  verse 
'To  Henery  Reynolds',  appeared  in  1627. 

Drayton's  chief  historical  poems  were 
'Piers  Gaveston',  1593 ;  'Matilda',  1594 ;  'The 
Tragicall  Legend  of  Robert,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandie*,  1596;  'Mortimeriados',  republished 
as  'The  Barrens  Wars',  1603 ;  and  the  'Legend 
of  Great  Cromwell',  included  in  the  1610 
edition  of  the  'Mirror  for  Magistrates* 
(q.v.).  In  1597  appeared  his  'England's 
Heroicall  Epistles',  imaginary  letters  in  verse 
exchanged  by  historical  personages,  of  whom 
there  are  twelve  couples  in  the  first^  edition 
of  the  work,  such  as  Henry  II  and  Fair  Rosa- 
mund, Edward  IV  and  Jane  Shore,  Lord 
Guildford  Dudley  and  Lady  Jane  Grey. 
Drayton  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 


DREYFUS 

Dreadnought,  the  name  of  a  large  battle- 
ship, the  first  of  its  class  (having  ten  12-inch 
guns  in  five  turrets,  turbine  engines,  and 
other  innovations),  built  for  the  British 
navy  in  1905.  It  was  the  name  of  a  queen's 
ship  in  Elizabeth's  reign.  A  ship  of  the  same 
name  was  engaged  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar 
and  subsequently  served  as  a  hospital  for 
seamen  of  all  nations,  now  replaced  by  the 
Seamen's  Hospital  at  Greenwich. 

Dream,  The,  a  poem  by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.), 
written  in  1816  and  inspired  by  his  love  for 
Mary  Chaworth. 

Dream  of  Fair  Women,  A,  a  poem  by  A. 
Tennyson  (q.v.). 

Dream  of  Gerontius,  see  Newman. 

Dream  of  the  Rood,  The,  an  OE.  poem, 
attributed  by  some  to  Casdmon  (q.v.),  by 
others  to  Cynewulf  (q.v.).  It  consists  of  a 
narrative  introduction,  relating  the  vision  of 
the  cross,  and  the  poet's  emotions  in  its 
presence;  followed  by  the  address  of  the 
visionary  cross  to  the  poet,  telling  of  the  cruci- 
fixion and  resurrection,  his  reflections  there- 
on, and  allusions  to  the  sufferings  of  spirits  in 
hell  and  the  joys  of  saints  and  angels  in 
heaven. 

The  poem  is  included  in  the  Vercelli  MS. 
and  parts  of  it  are  inscribed  in  runes  on  the 
Ruthwell  Cross  in  Annandale. 
Dreams,  GATES  OF,  according  to  Greek 
legend,  the  ivory  gate  and  the  gate  of  horn, 
through  which  false  and  true  dreams  re- 
spectively issue.  There  is  a  reference  to  them 
in  the  'Odyssey',  xix,  562,  and  in  the  'Aeneid', 
vi.  894  et  seq. 

DREISER,  THEODORE  (1871-  ), 
American  novelist,  born  in  Indiana.  His 
chief  books  are:  'Sister  Carrie*  (1900),  'The 
Financier'  (1912),  'The  Genius'  (1915),  eA 
Book  about  Myself  (1922),  'An  American 
Tragedy*  (1925),  'Dawn'  (autobiographical, 
1931).  Dreiser's  mood  is  one  of  austere, 
humourless,  but  very  powerful  realism, 
written  in  a  rugged  and  ugly  style.  He  may 
be  said  to  carry  into  American  fiction  the 
tradition  of  Zola. 

Dreme,  The,  see  Lindsay  (Sir  £).). 
Dresden  China:  Augustus,  elector  of 
Saxony  (1670—1733),  formed  a  collection  of 
Chinese  and  Japanese  porcelain  and  estab- 
lished experimental  pottery  works  at  Dresden. 
Here  Boltger  discovered  how  to  make  a 
porcelain  resembling  the  Chinese  ware,  first 
exhibited  in  1710.  The  manufacture  was 
conducted  with  extreme  secrecy  at  Meissen 
near  Dresden,  where  the  factory  remained 
until  the  igth  cent.,  its  products  being  known 
as  Dresden  china.  Here  Kandler,  the  chief 
modeller  of  the  factory  from  1731  to  1775, 
produced  the  little  statuettes  and  groups 
particularly  associated  with  the  name. 
Dreyfus,  ALFRED  (1859-  ),  an  officer  in  the 
French  army,  famous  owing  to  the  judicial 
miscarriage  which  caused  his  imprison- 


[237] 


DRINKWATER 

ment  and  the  fierce  controversy  which  pre- 
ceded his  rehabilitation.  In  1894  a  letter 
(known  as  the  bordereau  or  schedule),addressed 
to  the  German  military  attach^  in  Paris  and 
enumerating  a  number  of  documents  which 
were  to  be  sent  to  the  latter,  was  purloined  from 
the  German  embassy  and  handed  to  the  French 
Ministry  of  War.  Owing  to  the  similarity  of 
the  handwriting  of  this  unsigned  letter  to 
that  of  Dreyfus,  who  held  an  appointment 
at  the  ministry,  he  was  arrested,  tried,  and 
convicted,  and  sent  to  the  Devil's  Island  off 
the  coast  of  Guiana.  In  1896  Col.  Picquart 
came  accidentally  upon  evidence  indicating 
that  the  true  criminal  was  a  certain  Major 
Esterhazy.  But  the  strongest  opposition, 
involving  the  use  of  forgery,  intimidation, 
and  a  violent  anti-semitic  press  campaign, 
was  raised  to  the  reopening  of  the  question 
of  the  guilt  of  Dreyfus.  In  the  course  of 
this  controversy,  Emile  Zola  published  his 
famous  letter,  entitled 'J'accuse*,in'L'Aurore* 
(Jan.  1898),  and  was  condemned  in  conse- 
quence to  a  year's  imprisonment.  It  was  not 
until  1906  that  the  sentence  condemning 
Dreyfus  was  finally  quashed  by  the  Court  of 
Appeal.  The  controversy  gave  rise  to  the 
term  DREYFUSARD,  to  signify  a  supporter  of 
the  innocence  of  Dreyfus.  Extracts  from  the 
papers  of  Col.  Schwartzkoppen,  the  German 
military  attache*  in  Paris  at  the  time,  con- 
firming the  guilt  of  Esterhazy,  were  published 
in  1930. 

DRINKWATER,  JOHN  (1882-  ),  poet 
and  dramatist,  is  perhaps  best  known  for  his 
fine  historical  play  'Abraham  Lincoln'  (1918). 
His  published  works  include  other  historical 
plays  on  'Oliver  Cromwell'  (1921),  'Mary 
Stuart*  (1921),  and  'Robert  E.  Lee*  (1923), 
several  volumes  of  verse,  an  edition  of  Sir 
Philip  Sidney's  poems,  studies  of  William 
Morris  (1912)  and  Swinburne  (1913),  &c. 
He  published  in  1930  a  life  of  Pepys.  His 
autobiography  is  in  course  of  publication. 

Droit  d'aubaine,  a  right  claimed  by  French 
kings,  in  default  of  treaty  to  the  contrary,  to 
the  property  of  any  alien  who  died  in  their 
country.  It  was  abolished  in  1790,  re- 
established by  Napoleon  I,  and  finally  an- 
nulled in  1819.  The  etymology  of  aubaine  is 
uncertain;  Hatzfeldt  and  Darmesteter  refer 
aubain,  an  alien,  to  a  presumed  late  Latin 
form  alibanum,  from  alibi. 

Drolls  or  DROLL-HUMOURS,  in  Common- 
wealth days,  when  various  devices  were  em- 
ployed to  evade  the  ordinance  of  2  Sept.  1642 
forbidding  stage  plays,  were  farces  or  comic 
scenes  adapted  from  existing  plays  or  in- 
vented by  the  actors,  and  produced  generally 
on    extemporized    stages    at    fairs    and    in 
taverns.  Among  the  subjects  of  such  'drolls* 
were  Falstaff,  the  grave-diggers'  colloquy  in 
'Hamlet',  and  Bottom  the  Weaver. 
Dromio,  the  name  of  the  twin  slaves  in 
Shakespeare's  'Comedy  of  Errors'  (q.v.). 
Drows,  see  Trows. 


DRUMMOND  OF  HAWTHORNDEN 

Drugger,  ABEL,  a  character  in  Jonson's 
'The  Alchemist'  (q.v.).  One  of  Garrick's  most 
famous  parts. 

Druidism,  a  religious  system  that  prevailed 
among  the  ancient  Celts  of  Gaul  and  Britain. 
According  to  Caesar  the  Druids  were  a 
learned  and  priestly  class.  They  believed  in 
the  immortality  and  transmigration  of  the 
soul.  Their  rites  were  conducted  in  oak- 
groves,  and  the  oak  and  mistletoe  (q.v.)  were 
objects  of  veneration  to  them.  In  Irish  and 
Welsh  legend  they  figure  as  magicians  and 
soothsayers.  After  their  defeat  in  Mona 
(Anglesey)  by  the  Romans  under  Suetonius 
Paulinus,  there  is  no  further  mention  of  their 
existence  in  England  and  Wales,  but  they 
survived  in  Ireland  and  north  Britain. 

The  modern  'Druids'  are  a  Friendly 
Society  founded  in  England  in  1781,  and 
since  extended  to  America  and  Australia. 

Drum  ecclesiastic,  the  pulpit,  from  the 
stanza  in  Butler's  'Hudibras'  (q.v.,  I.  i): 

When  Gospel  trumpeter,  surrounded 
With  long-eared  rout,  to  battle  sounded ; 
And  pulpit,  drum  ecclesiastic, 
Was  beat  with  fist  instead  of  a  stick. 

Drum's  Entertainment,  JACK  or  TOM,  a 
rough  reception,  turning  an  unwelcome 
guest  out  of  doors ;  'to  bale  a  man  in  by  the 
head,  and  thrust  him  out  by  both  the 
shoulders*  (Holinshed).  The  expression 
occurs  in  Shakespeare,  'All  Js  Well',  in.  vi. 

Drummer,  The,  a  comedy  by  Addison  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1715.  Sir  George  Truman,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  killed  in  the  wars,  returns 
after  twelve  months'  captivity  and  ousts  the 
suitors  of  Lady  Truman,  including  one  who, 
in  order  to  forward  his  plans,  has  assumed 
the  disguise  of  a  ghostly  drummer. 

DRUMMOND,  HENRY  (1851-97),  theo- 
logical writer,  author  of  'Natural  Law  in  the 
Spiritual  World'  (1883),  'Ascent  of  Man' 
(1894). 

DRUMMOND,  WILLIAM  HENRY 
(1854-1907),  Canadian  poet,  was  born  in 
Ireland  and  went  to  Canada  with  his  family 
at  the  age  of  1 1 .  He  is  the  poet  of  the  French- 
Canadian  habitant  and  voyageur,  and  treats  in 
simple  homely  verse  of  their  oddities  and 
backwoods  life.  He  published  'The  Habi- 
tant' (1897),  'Johnny  Courteau*  (1901),  'The 
Voyageur'  (1905),  'The  Great  Fight*  (1908). 
DRUMMOND  OF  HAWTHORNDEN, 
WILLIAM  (1585-1649),  was  born  at  the 
manor  of  Hawthornden  near  Edinburgh.  He 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh  University,  and 
travelled  abroad.  He  was  a  friend  of  Drayton 
and  an  acquaintance  of  Ben  Jonson,  a  Royalist 
and  episcopalian,  and  he  wrote  pamphlets 
and  verses  in  the  Royalist  cause.  He  had  an 
unhappy  love  story:  Mary  Cunningham  of 
Barns,  to  whom  he  was  affianced,  died  on  the 
eve  of  their  wedding,  and  inspired  many  of 
his  sonnets  and  songs.  He  also  wrote  elegies, 
satires,  and  hymns. 


DRURY  LANE 

Drurnmond  lamented  Prince  Henry  in 
'Tears  on  the  Death  of  Mceliades*  in  1613, 
and  published  'Flowers  of  Zion*  (religious 
verse)  and  'The  Cypresse  Grove',  his  finest 
work,  a  prose  meditation  on  death,  in  1623. 
He  wrote  a  'History  of  Scotland'  from  1423 
to  1524,  which  was  first  printed  in  1655.  He 
also  left  manuscript  notes  (printed  in  1832) 
of  a  visit  that  Ben  Jonson  paid  him.  The  first 
collected  edition  of  his  poems  was  issued  in 
1656,  his  complete  works  were  printed  in 
1711,  and  there  have  been  in  the  igth  cent, 
editions  by  Laing,  by  the  Maitland  Club,  and 
a  life  of  him  by  David  Masson.  There  is  a 
critical  edition  of  the  poems  by  L.  E.  Kastner, 
1913- 

Drury  Lane,  London,  was  so  called  from  the 
Drury  family,  who  had  a  large  house  there 
from  Tudor  times.  The  theatre  of  that  name 
was  originally  a  cock-pit  in  the  Lane,  con- 
verted into  a  theatre  in  James  I's  time.  It 
was  rebuilt  by  Thomas  Killigrew  (1612-83, 
q.v.),  to  whom  Charles  II  granted  a  patent  in 
1662,  again  by  Wren  in  1674,  and  again  in 
1812.  The  reopening  of  the  theatre  on  this 
last  occasion  was  celebrated  in  'Rejected 
Addresses'  (q.v.).  Booth,  Garrick,  Mrs. 
Siddons,  Kemble,  and  K.ean  are  among  the 
famous  actors  who  have  been  seen  there.  In 
the  i  Qth  cent,  it  was  the  great  house  of 
Christmas  pantomimes. 

Druses,  or  DRUZES,  a  political  and  religious 
sect,  inhabiting  the  region  round  Mt.  Le- 
banon, and  the  Hauran  in  Syria.  They  are  be- 
lieved to  derive  their  name  from  Ismail  al- 
Darazi,  who  in  1040  supported  the  claim  of 
the  tenth  Fatimite  Caliph,  Hakim  Biamrillahi, 
to  be  a  divine  incarnation,  and  introduced 
this  belief  to  the  Lebanon.  [OED.]  Darazi 
was,  however,  declared  apostate  by  Hamzah 
ibn  AH  ibn  Hamzah,  who  is  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  their  faith.  The  religious  tenets 
of  the  Druses,  a  singularly  exclusive  body, 
are  sedulously  veiled  in  obscurity.  See  also 
Return  of  the  Druses. 

Dryads  and  Hamadryads,  in  the  belief  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  were  the  nymphs 
(q.v.)  of  trees,  and  were  thought  to  die  with 
the  trees  that  had  been  their  abode. 

Dryasdust,  DR.  JONAS,  a  fictitious  character, 
a  prosy  antiquarian,  to  whom  Sir  W.  Scott 
addresses  the  prefaces  of  some  of  his  novels. 

DRYDEN,  JOHN  (1631-1700),  was  born  at 
the  vicarage  of  Aldwinkle  All  Saints,  between 
Thrapston  and  Oundle  in  Northampton- 
shire. He  was  educated  at  Westminster,  under 
Busby,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
He  had  a  small  competence  and  is  said  to  have 
attached  himself  to  his  wealthy  cousin,  Sir 
Gilbert  Pickering,  Cromwell's  chamberlain. 
In  1658  he  wrote  his  remarkable  'Heroic 
Stanzas*  (quatrains)  on  the  death  of  Cromwell 
'Astraea  Redux'  in  1660,  on  the  return  of 
CharlesII,  in  which  he  first  showed  his  mastery 
of  the  heroic  couplet;  and  a  'Panegyric*  on 


DRYDEN 

the  Restoration  in  1661.  His  early  plays,  The 
Wild  Gallant*  (in  prose,  acted  in  1663)  and 
'The  Rival  Ladies*  (acted  in  1664),  are  not  of 
great  importance,  except  that  the  latter  is  an 
early  example  of  the  use  of  the  rhymed  coup- 
let in  dramatic  verse.  'The  Indian  Emperor* 
(1665)  (an  heroic  play  dealing  with  the  con- 
quest of  Mexico  by  Cortez,  the  love  of  the 
Emperor  Montezuma's  daughter  for  Cortez, 
and  the  death  of  father  and  daughter)  was 
very  popular  and  is  one  of  the  best  of  its  kind. 
In  1663  Dryden  married  Lady  Elizabeth 
Howard,  eldest  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Berk- 
shire. The  marriage  appears  not  to  have  been 
altogether  a  happy  one,  though  there  is  no 
evidence  of  actual  disunion.  His  wife  sur- 
vived him  until  1714.  In  1667  Dryden  pub- 
lished his  'Annus  Mirabilis*  (q.v.).  He  was 
appointed  poet  laureate  in  1668  and  historio- 
grapher in  1 670,  and  wrote  some  fourteen  plays 
between  1668  and  1681.  Of  these  the  most 
important  are  the  following :  'Tyrannic  Love 
or  the  Royal  Martyr '(q.v.),  1669,  and  'Alman- 
zor  and  AJmahide  or  the  Conquest  of  Gra- 
nada* (q.v.),  1670;  'Amboyna*  a  tragedy  in 
prose  and  blank  verse  produced  in  1673, 
designed  to  exasperate  the  English  against 
the  Dutch  by  reviving  the  story  of  the 
massacre  of  some  Englishmen  at  that  place 
(in  the  Moluccas)  by  the  Dutch  in  1623; 
*Aurengzebe*  (q.v.),  his  last  rhymed  tragedy, 
1676 ;  the  'Spanish  Fryar',  1681,  an  attack  on 
•die  papists  (Elvira  with  the  aid  of  a  friar 
carries  on  an  intrigue  with  Lorenzo,  who  is 
discovered  to  be  her  brother).  His  best  play 
and  his  first  drama  in  blank  verse,  'All  for 
Love'  (q.v.),  a  version  of  the  story  of  Antony 
and  Cleopatra,  appeared  in  1678.  Of  his 
earlier  comedies  the  best  is  'Marriage-a-la- 
Mode'  (q.v.),  produced  in  1673;  the  'Mock 
Astrologer'  (1668),  adapted  from  Corneille, 
contains  four  fine  songs.  In  1679  he  wrote 
an  adaptation  of  'Troilus  and  Cressida'  (q.v.), 
'which  might',  says  Mr.  Saintsbury,  'much 
better  have  been  left  unattempted*.  Dryden 
makes  Cressida  kill  herself  because  her 
fidelity  to  Troilus  is  doubted;  and  Troilus 
kills  Diomede,  and  is  in  turn  killed  by 
Achilles ;  a  commonplace  solution. 

In  1671  appeared  the  'Rehearsal*  (q.v.), 
attributed  to  Buckingham,  satirizing  the 
rhymed  heroic  plays  of  Dryden,  D'Avenant, 
and  others.  In  1673  Dryden  was  engaged  in 
a  literary  controversy  with  Elkanah  Settle 
(q.v.),  author  of  a  series  of  bombastic  dramas 
which  enjoyed  considerable  popularity. 
In  1679,  having  incurred  the  ill-will  of 
John  WHmot,  second  earl  of  Rochester,  on 
account  of  a  passage  in  the  earl  of  Mulgrave's 
anonymous  'Essay  on  Satire',  which  was 
attributed  to  Dryden,  the  latter  was  attacked 
and  beaten,  at  Rochester's  instigation,  by 
masked  men  in  Rose  Alley,  Covent  Garden. 

Dryden  wrote  a  number  of  critical  pieces 
which  generally  took  the  form  of  prefaces  to 
his  plays;  but  one,  the  'Essay  of  Dramatic 
Poesy*  (q.v.),  was  an  independent  work.  It 
was  published  in  1668.  His  'Defence  of  the 


[239] 


DRYDEN 

Epilogue*  at  the  end  of  the  'Conquest  of 
Granada'  contains  a  criticism  of  Fletcher  and 
of  certain  aspects  of  Shakespeare's  writing; 
and  the  Dedication  to  'Examen  Poeticum* 
(vol.  iii  of  'Miscellany  Poems')  is  another 
notable  piece  of  critical  work. 

In  1680  began  the  period  of  Dryden's 
satirical  and  didactic  poems.  'Absalom  and 
Achitophel*  (q.v.)  appeared  in  1681;  The 
Medal*  (q.v.)  in  1682;  'Mac  Flecknoe  (q.v.) 
piratically  in  1682  (authorized  ed.  1684,  prob- 
ably written  c.  1679);  'Religio  Laici'  (q.v.) 
also  in  1682 ;  TheHind  and  the  Panther '(q.v.) 
in  1687,  after  his  conversion  to  Roman  Catho- 
licism in  1686.  His  Pindaric  ode  on  the  death 
of  Charles  II  Threnodia  Augustalis'  and  his 
much  finer  'Ode  to  the  Memory  of  Mrs.  Anne 
Killigrew'  (pronounced  by  Johnson  to  be  the 
finest  in  the  language)  appeared  in  1685  and 
1686.  (Anne  Killigrew  was  a  poetess  and 
painter,  who  was  drowned  'shooting*  London 
Bridge.)  His  later  dramas  include  two  operas, 
'Albion  and  Albanius'(i  685)  and  'King  Arthur* 
(1691);  'Don  Sebastian'  (q.v.),  a  tragi-comedy, 
and  'Amphitryon'  (q.v.),  a  comedy,  both  of  the 
year  1690;  and  'Cleomenes*,  a  tragedy  based 
on  Plutarch's  account  of  the  Spartan  hero, 
1692.  His  last  play  was  'Love  Triumphant', 
a  tragi-comedy  on  the  lines  of  eMarriage-a-la- 
Mode*,  1694. 

Dryden  refused  to  take  the  oaths  at  the 
Revolution  and  was  deprived  of  the  laureate- 
ship  and  of  a  place  in  the  Customs  that  he  had 
held  since  1683.  The  last  part  of  his  life  was 
occupied  largely  with  translations,  many  of 
which  appeared  in  'Miscellany  Poems'  (1684 
and  later  years).  He  translated  in  verse  Per- 
sius  and  the  Satires  of  Juvenal  (1693),  the 
whole  of  Virgil  (the  complete  work  appeared 
in  1697),  and  parts  of  Horace,  Ovid,  Homer, 
Theocritus,  and  Lucretius.  The  translation 
of  Virgil  was  very  successful,  and  according 
to  Pope  brought  him  in  £1,300.  The  trans- 
lation of  Juvenal  and  Persius  was  prefaced 
by  a  'Discourse  concerning  the  Original 
and  Progress  of  Satire'  (1693).  Dryden  also 
paraphrased  the  Latin  hymn  'Veni  Creator 
Spiritus*  ('Creator  Spirit,  by  whose  aid'),  and 
Scott  further  attributed  to  him  a  version  of 
the  Te  Deum'  and  of  a  hymn  for  the  Nativity 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist.  He  wrote  his  famous 
second  ode  for  St.  Cecilia's  day  (the  first 
'Song  for  St.  Cecilia's  Day'  was  published  in 
1687),  entitled  'Alexander's  Feast*,  for  a 
musical  society  in  1697;  he  thought  it  the 
best  of  all  his  poetry.  His  last  great  work 
was  the  collection  of  paraphrases  of  tales  by 
Chaucer,  Boccaccio,  and  Ovid,  called  Tables, 
Ancient  and  Modern*  (q.v.),  with  a  delightful 
preface,  published  late  in  1699,  shortly  before 
his  death  in  April  1700.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  in  Chaucer's  grave,  and 
twenty  years  later  a  monument  to  him  was 
erected  there  by  John  Sheffield,  Lord 
Mulgrave  (Duke  of  Buckingham). 

Dryden's  published  works  were  very  nu- 
merous ;  in  addition  to  those  referred  to  above, 
mention  may  be  made  of  the  following: 


DU  BARTAS 

Poems— 'Upon  the  death  of  Lord  Hastings* 
(1649),  contributed  to  'Lachrymae  Musarum* 
when  Dryden  was  at  Westminster;  verses 
prefixed  to  John  Hoddesdon's  'Sion  and 
Parnassus'  (1650);  lines  To  My  Lord  Chan- 
cellor' Clarendon  (1662)  and  'Verses  to  Her 
Royal  Highness  the  Duchess  of  York', 
Clarendon's  daughter  (1665);  'Britannia 
Rediviva:  a  Poem  on  the  Birth  of  the  Prince* 
(1688);  'Eleonora;  a  Panegyrical  Poem  to  the 
Memory  of  the  Countess  of  Abingdon' 
(1692) ;  'An  Ode,  on  the  Death  of  Mr.  Henry 
Purcell*  (1696);  the  'Secular  Masque*,  pro- 
logue and  epilogue,  written  for  the  revival  of 
Fletcher's  play,  The  Pilgrim*  (1700).  In 
addition  Dryden  wrote  a  large  number  of 
prologues  and  epilogues  for  his  own  plays 
and  those  of  other  authors,  or  to  be  spoken 
on  special  occasions. 

Plays — 'Secret  Love,  or  the  Maiden- 
Queen*  (1668);  'Sir  Martin  Mar-all,  or  the 
Feign'd  Innocence*  (1668);  The  Tempest*, 
an  adaptation  of  Shakespeare's  play  by 
D'Avenant  and  Dryden  (1670);  The  Assigna- 
tion, or  Love  in  a  Nunnery*  (1672);  The 
State  of  Innocence,  and  Fall  of  Man*,  a 
dramatic  version  of  Milton's  'Paradise  Lost* 
(1677) ;  'Oedipus*  (with  Nathaniel  Lee,  1679) ; 
The  Kind  Keeper,  or  Mr.  Limberham* 
(1680);  The  Duke  of  Guise*  (with  Nathaniel 
Lee,  1683).  Dryden  also  contributed  to  Sir 
Robert  Howard's  'Indian  Queen*  (1665). 

Prose  Works — A  life  of  Plutarch,  prefixed 
to  a  translation  of  Plutarch's  'Lives'  'by 
several  hands*  (1683);  part  of  'A  Defence  of 
the  Papers  Written  by  the  late  King  and 
Duchess  of  York'  (i  686) ;  the  'Character  of  St. 
Evremont'  in  'Miscellaneous  Essays  by  St. 
Evremont*  (1692);  the  'Character  of  Polybius 
and  his  writings'  in  The  History  of  Polybius 
translated  by  Sir  H.  S.'  (1693-8);  'Life  of 
Lucian',  written  in  1696  for  a  projected  trans- 
lation of  Lucian*s  'Dialogues*  (1711).  Also 
translations  of  The  History  of  the  League', 
by  Maimbourg  (1684);  The  Life  of  St. 
Francis  Xavier*  by  Bouhours  (1686);  and 
'De  Arte  Graphica',  by  Du  Fresnoy  (1695). 

The  standard  edition  of  Dryden's  collected 
works  is  that  of  Sir  W.  Scott,  published  in  1808, 
and  revised  and  corrected  by  George  Saints- 
bury  in  1882.  A  collection  of  Dryden's  'Critical 
Essays',  by  W.  P.  Ker,  was  published  in  1900. 
There  is  a  life  of  Dryden  by  G.  Saintsbury  in 
the  English  Men  of  Letters  series  (1881). 

Du  Barry,  JEANNE  B6cu,  Comtesse  (1743-93), 
mistress  of  Louis  XV,  executed  during  the 
Terror. 

DU  BARTAS,  GUILLAUME  SAL- 
LUSTE  (1544-90),  a  French  poet  and  sol- 
dier, who  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle 
of  Ivry.  As  a  poet  he  was  less  appreciated  in 
France  than  in  Britain,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived by  James  VI  of  Scotland  and  by  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  welcomed  by  Sir  Philip  Sid- 
ney. He  published  in  1578  an  epic  on  the 
creation  of  the  world,  called  'La  Semaine', 
which  was  translated  into  English  by  Joshua 


[240] 


DU  BOIS 

Sylvester  (1605).  He  may  have  influenced 
Spenser  and  Donne;  and  Milton,  in  writing 
the  'Paradise  Lost',  had  perhaps,  here  and 
there,  Sylvester's  translation  in  mind. 

DU  BOIS,  WILLIAM  EDWARD  BURG- 
HARDT  (1868-  ),  American  writer,  born 
in  Massachusetts.  Du  Bois  is  of  negro  descent 
and  his  work  has  been  devoted  to  the  negro 
question.  His  works  present  the  attitude  and 
mentality  of  the  negro  from  the  negro  point  of 
view.  His  chief  books  are :  'The  Souls  of  Black 
Folk'  (1903);  'John  Brown'  (1909);  'Quest 
of  the  Silver  Fleece'  (1911);  'The  Negro* 
(1915). 

DU  GANGE,  CHARLES  DU  FRESNE, 
SIEUR  (1610-88),  French  man  of  letters, 
author  of  a  valuable 'Glossarium  ad  scrip  tores 
mediae  et  infimae  latinitatis*  (1678),  and 
editor  of  Joinville's  and  Villehardouin's 
chronicles. 

DU  MAURIER,  GEORGE  LOUIS  PAL- 
MELLA  BUSSON  (1834-96),  born  in  Paris, 
where  he  was  educated,  was  the  author  of 
three  novels,  'Peter  Ibbetson*  (1891),  'Trilby' 
(1894),  and  'The  Martian'  (published  post- 
humously  in  1896).  They  are  rendered  in- 
teresting by  the  author's  recollections  of 
early  days  as  an  art  student  in  Paris  and  Ant- 
werp, but  are  somewhat  marred  by  senti- 
mentalism  and  melodrama.  He  contributed 
occasional  drawings  to  'Punch*  from  1860,  and 
joined  its  regular  staff  in  1864,  in  succession 
to  John  Leech.  His  drawings  chiefly  satirize 
upper  and  middle-class  society  in  the  spirit  of 
Thackeray.  He  also  contributed  verse  and 
prose  to  the  same  periodical  from  1865, 
including  'The  History  of  the  Jack  Sprats'. 

Dualism,  a  philosophical  system  that  recog- 
nizes two  ultimate  and  independent  principles 
in  the  scheme  of  things,  such  as  mind  and 
matter,  or  good  and  evil.  It  is  opposed  to 
idealism  and  to  materialism. 

Dubric  or  DUBRICIUS,  ST.  (d.  612),  the 
reputed  founder  of  the  bishopric  of  Llandaff, 
said  by  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  to  have 
crowned  Arthur  king  of  Britain  and  to  have 
been  archbishop  of  Caerleon.  He  is  mentioned 
in  Tennyson's  'The  Coming  of  Arthur'  (q.v.). 

Ducat,  from  Italian  ducato,  late  Latin  duca- 
tus, used  as  the  name  of  a  silver  coin  issued 
in  1140  by  Roger  II  of  Sicily,  bearing  the 
superscription  R  DX  AP,  i.e.  Rogerus  Dux 
Apuliae,  to  which,  according  to  Du  Cange, 
'Glossarium',  'Ducatus  nomen  imposuit'.  In 
1284  the  first  gold  ducat  (worth  about  95.) 
was  struck  at  Venice  under  the  doge  John 
Dandolo,  with  the  legend  'sit  tibi  Christe 
datus  quern  tu  regis  iste  ducatus'.  This, 
though  it  did  not  originate,  may  have  con- 
tributed to  spread  the  name.  [OED.]  The 
silver  ducat  was  worth  about  35-.  6 d. 

Ducdame,  ducdame,  ducdame,  in  Shake- 
speare's 'As  You  Like  It',  n.  v,  perhaps  a 


DUFARGE 

transposition  for  due  ad  me,  'bring  to  me' 
(Hanmer,  also  Johnson),  or  mere  jargon. 

Duchess  of  Malfi,  The,  a .  tragedy  by  J. 
Webster  (q.v.),  published  in  1623,  btrt 
played  before  1614.  The  story  is  taken  from 
one  of  Bandello's  novelle,  through  Painter's 
'Palace  of  Pleasure'  (q.v.),  and  also  shows  the 
influence  of  Spenser's  'Arcadia'  (q.v.). 

The  duchess,  a  spirited  and  high-minded 
woman,  a  widow,  in  a  charming  scene  reveals 
her  love  for  the  honest  Antonio,  the  steward 
of  her  court.  They  are  secretly  married,  in 
spite  of  the  warning  of  her  brothers,  the 
cardinal  and  Ferdinand,  duke  of  Calabria, 
that  she  must  not  remarry;  a  warning  in- 
duced by  consideration  for  their  'royal  blood 
of  Arragon  and  Castile',  and,  as  Ferdinand 
afterwards  confesses,  by  desire  to  inherit  her 
property.  They  place  in  her  employment,  to 
spy  upon  her,  the  ex-galley-slave  Bosola, 
who  betrays  her  to  them.  The  duchess  and 
Antonio  fly  and  separate.  The  duchess  is 
captured  and  is  subjected  by  Ferdinand  and 
Bosola  to  fearful  mental  tortures  and  finally 
strangled  with  two  of  her  children.  Retribu- 
tion comes  upon  the  murderers;  Ferdinand 
goes  mad,  the  cardinal  is  killed  by  the 
remorseful  Bosola,  and  Bosola  by  the  lunatic 
Ferdinand.  Bosola  has  already  killed  An- 
tonio, mistaking  him  for  the  cardinal.  The 
often-quoted  dramatic  line  'Cover  her  face. 
Mine  eyes  dazzle.  She  died  young',  occurs  in 
Act  rv,  sc.  ii. 

Ducrow,  ANDREW  (1793-1842),  a  celebrated 
equestrian  performer,  the  son  of  a  Flemish 
'strong  man'.  He  was  the  chief  equestrian  at 
Astley's  (q.v.)  circus  and  the  originator  of 
many  feats  of  horsemanship  still  seen  at 
circuses.  He  subsequently  became  proprietor 
of  Astley's  with  William  Best, 

Dudon,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato*  and 
'Orlando  Furioso*  (qq.v.),  son  of  Ogier  the 
Dane,  is  captured  by  Rodomont  and  sent  a 
prisoner  to  Africa,  where  he  helps  to  destroy 
the  fleet  of  Agramant. 

Duenna,  The,  a  comic  opera  by  R.  B. 
Sheridan  (q.v.),  produced  in  1775. 

Don  Jerome,  an  obstinate  irascible  father, 
is  determined  that  his  daughter  Louisa  shall 
rnarry  an  odious  little  Jew,  Isaac,  but  she  is 
in  love  with  Antonio.  Jerome  discovers  that 
the  duenna  is  acting  as  intermediary  between 
Louisa  and  Antonio,  dismisses  the  duenna 
and  locks  up  Louisa.  Louisa  disguised  as  the 
duenna  escapes  from  the  house,  leaving  the 
duenna  to  take  her  place.  The  Jew  is  fooled 
into  marrying  the  duenna  and  into  bringing 
Antonio  and  Louisa  together. 
Duessa,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  the 
daughter  of  Deceit  and  Shame,  Falsehood 
in  general,  in  Book  I  signifies  in  particular 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  in  Book  V, 
ix,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (the  reference 
causing  great  offence  to  the  king  of  Scotland). 

Dufarge,  M.  and  MME,  characters  in 
Dickens's  *A  Tale  of  Two  Cities'  (q.v.). 


3868 


[341] 


DUFF 

DUFF,  JAMES  GRANT (1789-1 858),  a  dis- 
tinguished Anglo-Indian  official,  was  author 
of  an  important  'History  of  the  Mahrattas 
(1826). 

DUFFY,  SIR  CHARLES  GAVAN  (1816- 
1903),  Irish  nationalist,  is  ^remembered  ^in 
a  literary  connexion  as  having  started  with 
Thomas  Osborne  Davis,  in  1842,  the  'Nation', 
a  journal  for  which  he  gathered  a  brilliant 
staff  of  'Young  Inlanders'.  The  'Nation*  was 
suppressed  on  political  grounds  in  1848-9. 
Dufiy  emigrated  to  Australia  in  1855  and  rose 
to  political  eminence  there.  He  wrote  'Young 
Ireland,  1840-50'  (1880-3),  'Life  of  Thomas 
Davis*  (1890),  'Conversations  with  Thomas 
Carlyle'  (1892),  and  'My  Life  in  Two  Hemi- 
spheres' (1898). 

DUGDALE,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1605-86), 
garter  king-at-arms,  and  author  of  'The 
Antiquities  of  Warwickshire',  a  topographical 
history  that  showed  a  great  advance^  in 
respect  of  fullness  and  accuracy  on  previous 
works  of  the  same  kind.  It  was  published  in 
1656.  Dugdale's  'Monasticon  Anglicanum', 
written  in  collaboration  with  Roger  Dods- 
worth,  an  account  of  the  English  monastic 
nouses,  appeared  in  three  volumes  in  1655- 
73.  In  1658  he  published  his  'History  of  St. 
Paul's  Cathedra]',  and  in  1662 'The  History  of 
Imbanking  and  Drayning  of  divers  Fenns  and 
Marshes',  in  which  he  strays  beyond  the 
limits  of  his  subject  to  give  much  informa- 
tion of  antiquarian  and  historical  interest. 
He  also  wrote  'Origines  Juridiciales*  (1666), 
a  history  of  English  laws,  law-courts,  and 
kindred  matters,  and  'The  Baronage  of 
England*  (1675-6). 

Duke,  THE  IRON,  the  duke  of  Wellington, 
so  called  from  his  firm  will. 

Duke  of  Exeter's  Daughter,  the  name 

given  to  a  rack  in  the  Tower  of  London,  of 
which  the  invention  is  attributed  to  John 
Holland,  duke  of  Exeter,  constable  of  the 
Tower  in  1420. 

Duke  of  Milan,  The,  a  tragedy  by  Massinger 
(q.v.),  printed  in  1623,  one  of  his  earliest  and 
most  popular  plays. 

Ludovico  Sforza,  duke  of  Milan,  has,  in  the 
war  between  the  Emperor  Charles  and  the 
French,  allied  himself  with  the  latter.  On 
their  defeat,  he  goes  to  surrender  himself  to 
Charles,  but  in  fear  of  his  fate,  first  gives  a 
written  instruction  to  his  wicked  favourite 
Francisco  to  put  his  beloved  wife  Marcelia 
to  death  if  anything  untoward  happens  to 
himself.  Francisco,  in  order  to  make  Mar- 
celia yield  to  his  lust,  reveals  this  warrant  to 
her,  but  fails  to  move  her  chastity  and  only 
incenses  her  against  the  duke,  so  that  on  his 
return  after  his  reconciliation  with  Charles, 
she  receives  him  coldly.  This,  coupled  with 
accusations  from  various  quarters  of  his 
wife's  intimacy  with  Francisco,  makes  him 
suspicious  of  her.  Francisco,  to  avenge  him- 
self for  his  failure,  now  tells  the  duke  that 


DUMAS 

Marcelia  has  made  amorous  advances  to  him, 
which  so  inflames  the  duke  with  anger  that  he 
stabs  her  to  death;  but  dying,  she  reveals 
the  truth  and  the  duke  is  distracted  with 
remorse.  Francisco,  a  price  being  put  on 
his  head,  returns  to  court  in  the  disguise 
of  a  Jewish  doctor,  and  undertakes  to  restore 
Marcelia  to  life.  He  is  discovered  and  sent  to 
torture,  but  not  before  he  has  poisoned  the 
duke. 

Duke's  Children,  The,  see  Phineas  Finn. 
Dukexies,  THE,  a  district  in  Nottingham- 
shire containing  several  ducal  estates,  Wei- 
beck  (duke  of  Portland),  Clumber  (duke  of 
Newcastle),  Worksop  (formerly  belonging  to 
the  duke  of  Norfolk),  Thoresby  (Earl  Man- 
vers,  formerly  belonging  to  the  duke  of 
Kingston). 

Dulcarnon,  from  an  Arabic  word  meaning 
'two-horned'  (see  Dhu*lkarnain)>  a  dilemma; 
at  dulcarnon,  non-plussed.    Chaucer  has, 
I  am,  til  God  me  bettere  mynde  sende, 
At  dulcarnon,  right  at  my  wittes  ende. 

('Troylus  and  Cryseyde',  iii.  88 1.) 

Dulce  domum,  a  Latin  poem,  the  school 
song  of  Winchester,  of  which  ^the  author  is 
unknown.  According  to  tradition  'he  was  a 
child  belonging  to  the  school  who  was  kept 
at  Winchester  during  the  holidays  for  having 
committed  some  serious  offence*.  Its  date  is 
also  uncertain,  some  authorities  assigning  it 
to  the  1 6th,  others  to  the  I7th  cents.  The 
tune  is  generally  accepted  as  the  composition 
of  John  Reading,  organist  of  Winchester 
College  1681-92. 

Dulcinea  del  Toboso,  the  name  given  by 

Don  Quixote  (q.v.)  to  the  peasant  girl  Alonza 

Lorenzo,  whom  he  elects  to  be  mistress  of  his 

heart. 

Dumaine,  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's  Labour's 

Lost*  (q.y.),  one  of  the  three  lords  attending 

on  the  king  of  Navarre. 

DUMAS,  ALEXANDRE  (1803-70),  French 
dramatist  and  novelist,  known  generally  as 
'Dumas  pere*,  was  the  son  of  a  mulatto 
general  of  the  Empire.  His  fame  rests  mainly  on 
the  long  series  of  romantic  novels  in  which  he 
dealt  with  many  periods  of  European  history. 
His  backgrounds  are  less  solidly  constructed 
than  Scott's,  and  his  characters  less  elaborate, 
but  in  vigour  and  vitality  his  work  compares 
with  the  best  of  Scott's  historical  novels. 
The  most  famous  'groups'  into  which  his 
chief  novels  fall  are:  (i)  the  d'Artagnan  group 
('Les  Trois  Mousquetaires',  'Vingt  Ans 
Apres*,  'Le  Vicomte  de  Bragelonne',  &c. 
&c.)j  00  the  Chicot  group  (£La  Dame^  de 
Monsoreau' — known  in  England  as  'Chicot 
the  Jester',  'Les  Quarante-Cinq*,  'La  Reine 
Margot');  (3)  -die  Revolution  group  ('Me*- 
moires  d'un  Me*decin*,  'Le  Collier  de  la  reine*, 
*La  Comtesse  de  Charny',  'Le  Chevalier  de 
rnaison  rouge3).  In  England  his  'Comte  de 
Monte-Cristo*  is  perhaps  as  well  known  as 


DUMAS 

the  above,  and  is  a  favourite  with  boys;  but 
Dumas — and  his  assistants — wrote  endless 
books  of  which  the  titles  here  given  are  a  very 
small  selection. 

DUMAS,  ALEXANDRE,  known  as  'Dumas 
fils'  (1824-95),  son  of  A.  Dumas  the  novelist 
(1803-70,  q.v.),  was  the  author  of  some 
highly  successful  romantic  dramas,  of  which 
the  best  known  are  cLa  Dame  aux  Camelias', 
*Le  Demi-Monde',  'Francillon*,  and  'Denise*. 
Dumb  Ox  of  Cologne,  Thomas  Aquinas 
(q.v.),  so  Called  by^  his  fellow  monks,  be- 
cause of  his  taciturnity. 

Dumbello,  LADY,  in  A.  Trollope's  Barset- 
shire  series  of  novels,  the  married  name  of 
Griselda,  daughter  of  Archdeacon  Grantly 
(q.v.). 

Dumbiedikes,  THE  LAIRD  OF,  in  Scott's 
'The  Heart  of  Midlothian'  (q.v.),  (i)  the 
grasping  landlord  of  the  widow  Butler  and 
Davie  Deans;  (2)  Jock  Dumbie,  his  son, 
Jeanie  Deans's  silent  suitor. 

Dun  Cow,  Book  of  the,  an  Irish  manuscript 
of  the  nth  cent,  containing  mythological 
romances.  A  fragment  of  it  survives,  con- 
taining in  particular  many  of  the  feats  of 
Cuchulain  (q.v.). 

Dun  Cow  of  Dunsmore,  a  monstrous  animal 
slain  by  Guy  of  Warwick  (q.v.). 

Dun  in  the  Mire,  where  'Dun'  (originally 
a  dun  horse)  is  a  quasi-proper  name  for  any 
horse,  is  the  name  of  an  old  Christmas  game 
(also  called  'drawing  Dun  out  of  the  mire'), 
in  which  the  horse  in  the  mire  is  represented 
by  a  heavy  log,  and  the  players  compete  to 
lift  and  carry  it  off. 

If  thou  art  Dun,  well  draw  thee  from  the 
mire. 

(Shakespeare,  'Romeo  and  Juliet',  I.  iv.  41.) 

DUNBAR,  WILLIAM  (1465^-1530^ 
Scottish  poet,  was  possibly  M.A.  of  St. 
Andrews,  and  for  a  time  a  Franciscan  friar. 
He  was  wrecked  off  Zealand  while  carrying 
out  a  diplomatic  mission  for  James  IV.  He 
was  pensioned  in  1500.  He  wrote  'The 
Thrissill  and  die  Rois',  his  first  great  poem, 
in  1503;  'The  Dance  of  the  Sevin  Deidly 
Synnis'  between  1503  and  1508;  "The 
Goldyn  Targe*,  the  'Lament  for  the  Makaris*, 
and  'The  Twa  Maryit  Women  and  ^the 
Wedo',  about  1508;  and  numerous  minor 
pieces.  Dunbar  wrote  a  poem  'In  Honour  of 
the  City  of  London',  inspired  by  his  visit 
with  the  ambassadors  to  the  court  of  Henry 
VII  during  the  negotiations  for  the  marriage 
of  Margaret  Tudor.  He  described  Queen 
Margaret's  visit  to  the  north  of  Scotland  in 
'The  Quenis  Progress  at  Aberdeen'.  He  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  fallen  at  Flodden 
(151 3),  by  others  to  have  written  the  'Orisone* 
after  1517. 

The  'Thrissill  and  the  Rois*  (Thistle  and 
the  Rose)  is  a  political  allegory  in  rhyme- 
royal;  the  Rose  is  Margaret  Tudor,  married 
to  James  IV  (the  Thistle).  The  'Twa  Maryit 


DUNCIAD 

Women  and  the  Wedo*  (widow),  a  conversa- 
tion in  which  the  three  interlocutors  relate 
their  experiences  of  marriage,  is  a  satire  on 
women  reminiscent  of  the  'Wife  of  Bath'. 
The  'Goldyn  Targe'  is  an  allegory  in  which 
the  poet,  appearing  in  a  dream  before  the 
court  of  Venus,  is  wounded  by  the  arrows  of 
Beauty  in  spite  of  the  shield  of  Reason.  In 
the  'Dance  of  the  Sevin  Deidly  Synnis',  the 
poet  in  a  trance  sees  the  fiend  Mahoun  call  a 
dance  of  unshriyen  outcasts,  who  are  depicted 
with  extreme  vigour.  The  'Lament  for  the 
Makaris'  (makers = poets)  is  a  splendid  elegy, 
suggestive  of  Villon,  with  a  refrain  Timor 
mortis  conturbat  me,  in  which  he  bewails  the 
transitoriness  of  things,  and  the  deaths  of  his 
predecessors  (beginning  with  Chaucer)  and 
contemporaries.  His  works  show  much 
Rabelaisian  humour,  satirical  power,  and 
imagination. 

Duncan,  in  Shakespeare's  'Macbeth*  (q.v.), 
the  king  of  Scotland  murdered  by  Macbeth. 

Duncan  Gray,  a  poem  by  Burns  (q.v.). 

Dunciad,  The,  a  satirical  poem  by  Pope  (q.v.), 
of  which  three  books  were  published  anony- 
mously in  1728.  Its  authorship  was  acknow- 
ledged in  1735.  The  'New  Dunciad*  was 
Eublished  in  1742,  and  this  forms  the  fourth 
ook  of  the  complete  work  as  it  appeared  in 
1743.  The  poem  had  been  under  preparation 
for  some  years  and  its  issue  was  determined  by 
the  criticisms  on  Pope's  edition  of  Shakespeare 
contained  in  Theobald's  'Shakespeare  Re- 
stored'. Theobald  (q.v.)  was  made  the  hero 
of  the  poem  in  its  earlier  form,  but  in  the 
final  edition  of  1743  Cibber  (q.v.)  was  en- 
throned in  his  stead.  The  satire  is  directed 
against  Dulness  in  general,  and  in  the  course 
of  it  all  the  authors  who  have  earned  Pope's 
condemnation  are  held  up  to  ridicule.  But  the 
work  is  not  confined  to  personal  abuse,  for 
literary  vices  receive  their  share  of  exposure. 
The  argument  of  the  poem  is  as  follows. 

Book  I.  The  reign  of  Dulness  is  described. 
Bayes  (i.e.  Cibber)  is  shown  debating  whether 
he  shall  betake  himself  to  the  church,  or 
gaming,  or  party-writing,  but  is  carried  off  by 
the  goddess  and  anointed  king  in  the  place 
of  Eusden,  the  poet  laureate,  who  has  died. 

Book  II.  This  solemnity  is  graced  by 
games,  in  which  poets,  critics,  and  book- 
sellers contend.  There  are  races,  with  divers 
accidents,  in  which  booksellers  pursue  the 
phantom  of  a  poet;  exercises  for  the  poets; 
and  finally  a  test  for  the  critics,  to  decide 
whether  they  can  hear  the  works  of  two 
authors  read  aloud  without  sleeping.  But 
presently  spectators,  critics,  and  all,  fall  fast 
asleep. 

Book  III.  The  king,  slumbering  with  his 
head  on  the  lap  of  the  goddess,  is  transported 
to  the  Elysian  shades,  where,  under  the 
guidance  of  Elkanah  Settle  (q.v.),  he^  sees 
visions  of  the  past  triumphs  of  the  empire  of 
Dulness  and  of  the  future,  how  this  shall 
extend  to  the  theatres  and  the  court,  the  arts 
and  the  sciences. 


[243] 


DUNDREARY 

Book  IV.  The  realization  of  these  prophe- 
cies is  described,  and  the  subjugation  of  the 
sciences  and  universities  to  Dulness,  the 
growth  of  indolence,  the  corruption  of  edu- 
cation, and  the  consummation  of  all  in  the 
restoration  of  night  and  chaos. 

Dundreary,  LORD,  a  character  in  'Our 
American  %  Cousin*  (1858)  by  Tom  Taylor 
(q.v.),  an  indolent  brainless  peer,  a  part  de- 
veloped and  acted  with  great  success  by 
E.  A.  Sothern  in  New  York.  His  long  drooping 
whiskers  became  proverbial. 

Dunedin,  a  poetic  name  for  Edinburgh 
(q.v.).  'Dun*  is  Gaelic  for  fortress,  or  indeed 
for  any  hill.  Edinburgh  is  the  hill  on  which 
King  Edwin  of  Northumbria  built  his  castle, 
*Edwinsburgh' . 

Dunmow  Flitch,  THE,  according  to  an 
ancient  custom  of  the  manor  of  Dunmow  in 
Essex,  was  given  to  any  married  couple  who 
after  twelve  months  of  marriage  could  swear 
that  they  had  maintained  perfect  harmony 
and  fidelity  during  that  time.  The  antiquity 
of  the  custom  is  shown  by  the  reference  to  it 
in  the  Prologue  to  Chaucer's  'Wife  of  Bath's 
Tale': 

The  bacoun  was  nought  fet  for  hem,  I 
trowe, 

That  some  men  fecche  in  Essex  at  Dun- 

mowe. 

The  custom  is  said  to  have  been  instituted 
by  Robert  Fitz- Walter  in  1244  and  is  still 
observed. 

DUNNE,  FINLEY  PETER  (1867-  ), 
American  author,  remembered  as  the  creator 
of  'Mr.  Dooley ',  whose  shrewd  and  humorous 
sayings  helped  to  steady  American  public 
opinion  during  and  after  the  Spanish- 
American  War  of  1898. 

DUNS,  JOANNES  SCOTUS,  known  as  the 
DOCTOR  SUBTILIS  (1265?-! 308?),  a  Francis- 
can, is  said,  without  evidence,  to  have  been 
fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1301 
professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford.    He  is  also 
stated  to  have  been e a  regent  master  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris'.  Possibly  he  died  at  Cologne, 
there  being  a  tradition  that  he  was  buried 
alive.  Duns  was  the  author  of  a  philosophic 
grammar,  entitled,  {De  Modis  Significandi 
sive  Grammatica  Speculativa'  (printed,  1499), 
of  logical  'Qusestiones'  (edited,  1474),  of  a 
work   on   metaphysics    called    'De   Rerum 
Principle'  (edited,  1497),  and  of  the  'Opus 
Oxoniense*  (printed,    1481),  a  commentary 
on  the  'Sentential  of  Peter  Lombard.    An 
extreme  realist  in  philosophy,  he  borrowed 
from  Ibn  Gebirol  (fl.  1045)  the  theory  of  a 
universal  matter,  the  common  basis  of  all 
existences,  while,  by  attacking  the  validity  of 
'natural  theology',  he  was  one  of  the  first  to 
challenge  the  harmony  of  faith  and  reason, 
which  was  an  essential  point  in  the  doctrine  of 
Thomas  Aquinas.    He  was  a  vigorous  sup- 
porter of  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  and  of  the  freedom  of  the  will. 


DUODECIMO 

His  followers,  the  SCOTISTS,  were  a  pre- 
dominating scholastic  sect  until  the  i6th  cent. 
when  the  system  was  attacked,  first  by  the 
humanists,  and  then  by  the  reformers,  as  a 
farrago  of  needless  entities  and  useless  dis- 
tinctions. The  DUNSMEN  or  DUNSES,  on  their 
side,  railed  against  the  'new  learning*,  and 
the  name  DUNS  or  DUNCE,  already  synony- 
mous with  'cavilling  sophist',  soon  passed 
into  the  sense  of  'blockhead  incapable  of 
learning  or  scholarship*. 

Dunstable,  the  name  of  a  town  in  Bedford- 
shire, used  in  such  expressions  as  'plain  as 
Dunstable  way',  apparently  referring  to  the 
road  from  London  to  Dunstable,  a  part  of  the 
ancient  Roman  Road  called  Watling  Street, 
notable  for  its  long  straight  stretches,  and 
general  evenness.  [OED.] 

Dunstable,  Miss,  a  character  in  A.  Trol- 
lope's  'Dr.  Thome'  and  'Framley  Parsonage* 
(qq.v.). 

Dunstan,  ST.  (924-88),  born  at  Glaston- 
bury  of  a  noble  family,  was  educated  by  the 
Irish  scholars  who  had  settled  at  that  place. 
He  became  a  favourite  of  King  JEthelstan, 
but  was  expelled  from  the  court  on  an  accu- 
sation of  being  a  wizard.  He  spent  part  of 
the  period  of  his  disgrace  with  -^Elfheah 
(Elphege),  bishop  of  Winchester,  by  whom 
he  was  persuaded  to  take  the  monastic  vows. 
He  is  also  said  to  have  practised  the  arts 
of  metal- working,  painting,  and  transcribing. 
Dunstan  was  restored  to  favour  by  King 
Eadmund  and  appointed  by  him  abbot 
of  Glastonbury.  He  restored  the  abbey 
materially  and  spiritually  and  made  it  a 
famous  school.  He  became  one  of  the  chief 
advisers  of  kings  Eadmund  and  Eadred,  but 
when  King  Eadwig  succeeded,  he  incurred 
his  disfavour  by  rebuking  him  for  his  vicious 
propensities  and  retired  to  Flanders  in  dis- 
grace in  956,  Count  Arnulf  assigning  him  a 
residence  at  Ghent.  Eadgar  recalled  Dun- 
stan to  him  and  appointed  him  bishop  of 
Worcester  (957),  bishop  of  London  (959),  and 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  (961).  He  devoted 
his  energies  to  restoring  and  reforming  Eng- 
lish monasteries  and  to  making  the  Danes  an 
integral  part  of  the  nation.  He  averted  civil 
war  by  crowning  Eadward  in  975,  and  fore- 
told to  King  ^Bthelred  the  calamities  by 
which  the  nation  would  expiate  Eadward's 
murder.  His  festival  is  kept  on  19  May. 
There  ^is  a  famous  late  story  of  the  Devil 
appearing  in  the  form  of  a  woman  to  tempt 
Dunstan,  who  seized  the  apparition  by  the 
nose  with  red-hot  smith's  tongs. 

DUNTON,  JOHN  (1659-1733),  a  publisher 
and  bookseller,  who  in  1690-6  issued  the 
'Athenian  Gazette'  (afterwards  'Athenian 
Mercury')  dealing  with  philosophical  and 
other  abstruse  matters,  and  was  the  author  of 
a  large  number  of  political  pamphlets,  and  of 
The  Life  and  Errors  of  John  Dunton'  (1705). 
Duodecimo,  generally  abbreviated  'lamo', 
the  size  of  a  book  in  which  each  leaf  is  one- 


[244] 


DUPIN 

twelfth  of  a  whole  sheet.  Hence  applied  to  a 
person  or  thing  of  diminutive  size. 
Bupin,  the  detective  in  the  detective  tales 
of  Poe  (q.v.). 

Burandal,  see  Durindana. 
Burandarte,  a  hero  of  Spanish  legend  and 
ballad,    killed   at   Roncesvalles.     See   'Don 
Quixote',  Pt.  II,  ch.  xxiii.  He  is  the  subject  of 
a  ballad  by  M.  G.  Lewis  (q.v.). 
Burden,  DAME,  see  Dame  Burden. 
Burdles,    the    stone-mason    in    Dickens's 
'Edwin  Drood'  (q.v.). 

Diirer,  ALBRECHT  (1471-1528),  born  in 
Nuremberg,  the  son  of  a  Hungarian  gold- 
smith. He  spent  most  of  his  life  at  Nurem- 
berg, but  visited  Italy  and  the  Netherlands. 
He  was  not  only  a  great  painter,  but  also  an 
engraver,  sculptor,  and  architect,  the  greatest 
artist  of  the  Renaissance  in  Germany.  Most 
of  his  works,  including  his  great  painting  of 
the  four  apostles,  are  in  Germany.  Of  his 
engravings  the  best  known  is  perhaps  that 
of  'The  Knight,  Death,  and  the  Devil'. 
D'URFEY,  THOMAS  (1653-1723),  a 
French  Huguenot  by  descent,  familiarly 
known  as  Tom  Durfey,  wrote  a  large  num- 
ber of  songs,  tales,  satires,  melodramas,  and 
farces.  He  was  a  scurrilous  fellow,  but  the 
familiar  friend  of  every  one,  including 
Charles  II  and  James  II.  He  replied  to  the 
strictures  of  Jeremy  Collier  (q.v.)  in  his  *The 
Campaigners',  a  comedy,  1698.  Among  his 
other  comedies  may  be  mentioned  'Madame 
Fickle'  (1677)  and  'The  Jealous  Wife'  (1680). 
His  'Wit  and  Mirth,  or  Pills  to  purge 
Melancholy*,  1719,  is  an  interesting  collection 
of  songs  and  ballads. 

Durga,  see  Siva. 

Durham,  CONSTANT: A,  a  character  in  Mere- 
dith's 'The  Egoist'  (q.v.). 

Durham  Report,  The,  'on  the  Affairs  of 
British  North  America',  1839,  was  made  by 
the  first  earl  of  Durham,  governor-general  of 
the  British  provinces  in  N.  America  and  high 
commissioner  for  the  adjustment  of  impor- 
tant questions  in  Lower  and  Upper  Canada. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  mostly  written  by  his 
secretary,  Charles  Buller;  it  was  notable  for 
its  liberal  character  and  determined  the  policy 
of  Durham's  successors.  There  is  a  good 
life  of  Lord  Durham  ('Radical  Jack')  by 
Chester  W.  New  (Oxford,  1929). 

Burindana  or  DURANDAL,  the  sword  of 
Roland  or  Orlando,  which  had  been  that  of 
Hector  of  Troy. 

Butch,  MY  OLD,  the  title  of  a  famous  music- 
hall  song,  put  in  the  mouth  of  a  coster- 
monger  ;  the  word  'Dutch'  is  an  abbreviation 
of  'Dutchess'  (old  spelling  of  'Duchess')  and 
is  slang  for  'wife'. 

Butch  courage,  courage  induced  by  liquor, 
an  allusion  to  the  drinking  habits  ascribed  to 
the  'Dutch'  (meaning  perhaps  little  more 
than  'foreigners'). 


DYER 

Dutch  Courtezan,  The,  a  comedy  by  Marston 
(q.v.),  printed  in  1605. 

Young  Freevill,  being  about  to  marry 
Beatrice,  daughter  of  Sir  Hubert  Subboys, 
determines  to  break  his  connexion  with 
Franceschina,  the  Dutch  Courtezan.  He 
introduces  the  latter  to  his  self-righteous 
friend  Malheureux,  who  becomes  violently 
enamoured  of  her.  She  consents  to  gratify  his 
passion  if  he  will  kill  Freevill,  and  bring  proof 
of  the  deed  in  the  shape  of  a  ring  given  by 
Beatrice  to  Freevill.  Malheureux  discloses 
the  situation  to  Freevill,  who  consents  to 
help  him.  A  pretended  quarrel  is  arranged, 
Freevill  disappears,  Malheureux  takes  the 
ring  to  Franceschina,  who  hastens  to  com- 
municate the  news  to  old  Freevill  and  Sir 
Hubert  Subboys.  Malheureux  is  arrested 
for  the  murder  of  Freevill  and  sentenced  to 
death.  At  the  last  moment  Young  Freevill 
appears,  and  begs  forgiveness  for  the  device 
that  he  has  adopted  to  cure  his  friend  of  his 
passion.  Franceschina  is  condemned  to  the 
whip  and  gaol. 

Buval,  CLAUDE  (1643-70),  a  highwayman 
notorious  for  his  daring  and  gallantry.  He 
was  born  in  Normandy,  came  to  England, 
took  to  the  road,  and  was  executed.  His 
death  was  the  subject  of  a  satiric  ode  by 
Samuel  Butler. 

Bwarf,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
name  of  a  class  of  supernatural  beings  sprung 
from  the  decaying  body  of  Ymir  (q.v.).  They 
were  of  diminutive  form,  dwelt  under  the 
earth,  and  their  nature  partook  of  good  and 
evil.  They  were  particularly  skilful  in  work- 
ing metals.  It  is  they  who  kill  Kvasir,  from 
whose  blood  the  Odhaerir  (q.v.)  or  poetic 
mead  is  made,  and  who  forge  the  chain 
(Gleipmr)  with  which  Fenrir  (q.v.)  is  bound. 

BYER,  SIR  EDWARD  (d.  1607),  was  edu- 
cated either  at  Balliol  College  or  Broadgates 
Hall,  Oxford.  He  was  introduced  by  the  earl 
of  Leicester  at  court,  where  he  held  various 
official  positions.  His  most  famous  poem 
is  the  description  of  contentment,  beginning, 
*My  mind  to  me  a  kingdom  is*.  Meres  men- 
tions him  as  'famous  for  elegy',  and  according 
to  Collier  he  translated  part  of  Theocritus. 
Sir  Philip  Sidney's  pastoral,  'Join,  mates,  in 
mirth  with  me',  is  addressed  to  him  and  Sir 
Fulke  Greville. 

BYER,  GEORGE  (1755-1841),  educated  at 
Christ's  Hospital  and  Emmanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  usher  at  Dedham  Grammar 
School,  and  subsequently  in  a  school  at 
Northampton,  and  author  of  poems  and 
critical  essays.  He  is  remembered  princi- 
pally as  the  friend  of  C.  Larnb  (q.v.),  who 
speaks  of  him  as  a  gentle  and  kindly  eccentric. 
He  was  nearly  drowned  in  the  New  River 
while  in  a  fit  of  abstraction.  See  'Anaicus 
Redivivus'  in  the  'Essays  of  Elia'. 

BYER,  JOHN  (1699-1758),  a  Welshman  re- 
membered as  the  author  of  'Grongar  Hill',  a 


[345] 


DYMOKE 

poem  descriptive  of  the  scenery  of  the  river 
Towy,  published  in  1726.  His  later  didactic 
poems,  'The  Ruins  of  Rome'  (1740)  and  'The 
Fleece'  (1757,  on  the  unpromising  subject  of 
sheep  and  the  wool  trade),  merit  less  notice. 

Dymoke,  see  Champion  of  the  King. 

Dynasts,  The,  An  Epic- Drama  of  the  War 
with  Napoleon,  in  three  Parts,  nineteen  Acts 
and  one  hundred  and  thirty  Scenes,  by  Thomas 
Hardy  (q.v.)»  was  published,  Part  I  in  1904, 
Part  II  in  1906,  Part  III  in  1908. 

This  great  work  is  written  mainly  in  blank 
verse,  partly  in  a  variety  of  other  metres, 
partly  in  prose.  The  stirring  events  of  history 
with  which  it  deals  are  recounted  in  the 
descriptive  passages  and  stage  directions. 
The  whole  centres  round  the  tragic  figure 
of  Napoleon.  Part  I  opens  with  the  year 
1805,  and  Napoleon's  threat  of  invasion.  It 
presents  the  House  of  Commons  discussing 
the  repeal  of  the  Defence  Act,  Napoleon's 
coronation  at  Milan,  the  preparations  at 
Boulogne  for  invasion,  the  battles  of  Ulm 
and  Austerlitz,  Trafalgar,  the  death  of  Nelson, 
and  the  death  of  Pitt. 

In  Part  II  we  have  the  defeat  of  the  Prus- 
sians at  Jena,  the  meeting  of  Napoleon  and 
Alexander  at  Tilsit,  the  battle  of  Wagram,  the 
fall  of  Godoy  and  the  abdication  of  the  king 
of  Spain,  and  war  in  Spain  (Coruna,  Tala- 


EARTHLY  PARADISE 

vera,  Torres  Vedras),  the  divorce  of  Josephine, 
and  Napoleon's  marriage  with  Marie  Louise. 
Part  III  presents  the  Russian  expedition  of 
1812,  the  British  victories  in  the  Pyrenees, 
the  battle  of  Leipzig,  Napoleon's  abdication, 
his  return  from  Elba,  the  ball  in  Brussels, 
Quatre-Bras,  and  Waterloo,  By  the  side  of 
the  major  scenes  are  little  'patches  of  life' 
seen  at  close  quarters,  episodes  showing  how 
these  great  events  affected  English  rustics  in 
Wessex,  private  soldiers,  camp-followers, 
and  other  humble  folk.  And  above  them  all, 
'supernatural  spectators  of  the  terrestrial 
action',  are  'certain  impersonated  abstractions 
or  Intelligences,  called  Spirits',  the  Ancient 
Spirit  of  the  Years,  the  Spirit  of  the  Pities, 
the  Spirits  Sinister  and  Ironic,  the  Spirit  of 
Rumour,  with  their  respective  choruses; 
also  the  Shade  of  the  Earth,  and  the  Record- 
ing Angels.  At  the  head  of  them  is  the 
Immanent  Will,  the  force,  unconscious  and 
heedless,  that  moves  the  world.  They  are 
introduced  not,  as  the  author  is  careful  to 
point  out  in  his  preface,  'as  a  systematized 
philosophy  warranted  to  lift  "the  burthen  of 
the  mystery"  of  this  unintelligible  world', 
but  to  give  by  their  comments  a  universal 
signification  to  the  particular  events  re- 
counted, 

Dysmas,  see  Dismas. 


E 


Eadgar,  king  of  England,  959-75.  In  957 
Eadgar,  the  younger  of  the  two  brothers, 
divided  the  realm  with  Eadwig:  Eadwig  died 
in  959,  and  Eadgar  united  the  whole  realm 
till  his  death  in  975. 

EADMER  (d.  1 124  ?),  a  monk  of  Canterbury, 
who  wrote  a  Latin  chronicle  of  the  events  of 
his  own  time  down  to  1122  ('Historia  Novo- 
rurn  in  Anglia'),  and  a  biography  of  his  friend 
and  leader  Anselm. 

Eadmund,  king  of  England,  940-6. 
Eadmund  Ironside,  king  of  England  in 
1016.  After  dividing  the  realm  with  Canute 
the  Dane,  he  died  suddenly  (probably  mur- 
dered by  Canute). 

Eadred,  king  of  England,  946-55. 

Eadward  the  Confessor,  king  of  England, 
1042-66. 

Eadward  the  Elder,  king  of  England, 
901-24. 

Eadward  the  Martyr,  king  of  England 
975-9- 

Eadwig,  king  of  England,  955-9  (but  see 
Eadgar). 

Eagle,  SOLOMON,  a  crazy  fanatic  in  Ains- 
worth's  'Old  St.  Paul's'. 


Eagle  of  Meaux,  THE,  Bossuet  (q.v.). 


Eames,  JOHNNY,  a  character  in  A.  Trollope's 
'The  Small  House  at  Allington*  and  'Last 
Chronicle  of  Barset'  (qq.v.). 

Earine  (i)  in  Jonson's  'The  Sad  Shepherd* 
(q.v.),  the  shepherdess  loved  by  ^glamour; 
(2)  in  G.  Moore's  'Aphrodite  in  Aulis',  the 
girl  who  marries  the  sculptor  Rhesus  and 
inspires  him  with  his  ideal  figure  of  Aphro- 
dite. 

EARLE,  JOHN,  see  Microcosmographie. 
Early  English  Text  Society,  founded  in 
1864  by  Frederick  James  Furnivall  (q.v.), 
for  the  publication  of  Early  and  Middle 
English  texts. 

Earnscliff,  a  character  in  Scott's  'The  Black 
Dwarf'  (q.v.). 

Earnshaw,  HINDLEY  and  HARETON,  charac- 
ters in  Emily  Bronte's  'Wuthering  Heights' 
(q.v.). 

Earthly  Paradise,  THE,  see  Paradise. 
Earthly  Paradise, ,  The,  a  poem  by  W.  Morris 
(q.v.),  published  in  1868-70,  consisting  of  a 
prologue  and  twenty-four  tales,  in  Chaucer- 
ian  metres. 

The  prologue  tells  how  a  company  of 
Norsemen,  fleeing  from  the  pestilence,  set 
sail  in  search  of  the  fabled  Earthly  Paradise 
'across  the  western  sea  where  none  grow  old'. 
They  are  disappointed  of  their  quest  and 


[346] 


EAST  INDIA  COMPANY 

return  after  long  wanderings,  'shrivelled, 
bent,  and  grey',  to  a 'nameless  city  in  a  distant 
sea'  where  the  ancient  Greek  gods  are  still 
worshipped.  They  are  hospitably  received 
and  there  spend  their  remaining  years.  Twice 
in  each  month  they  meet  their  hosts  at  a  feast 
and  a  tale  is  told,  alternately  by  one  of  the 
elders  of  the  city  and  one  of  the  wanderers. 
The  tales  of  the  former  are  on  classical 
subjects  (Atalanta,  Perseus,  Cupid  and 
Psyche,  Alcestis,  Pygmalion,  the  Apples  of 
the  Hesperides,  Bellerophon,  &c.),  those  of 
the  latter  from  Norse  and  other  medieval 
sources.  Among  the  wanderers'  tales,  'The 
Lovers  ^of  Gudrun'  (q.v.),  a  version  of  the 
Icelandic  Laxdsela  Saga  (q.v.),  is  the  most 
striking.  Between  the  tales  of  each  month  are 
interpolated  lyrics  in  which  the  author  gives 
expression  to  his  sense  of  the  effect  of  the 
changing  year  on  the  English  landscape. 

East  India  Company,  THE,  or  the  'Com- 
pany of  Merchants  trading  to  the  East  Indies9, 
was  incorporated  in  1600,  and  from  1773  naa^ 
the  chief  part  in  the  political  administration 
of  Hindustan,  until  1858.  After  the  Mutiny 
the  government  was  assumed  by  the  Crown. 
It  was  familiarly  known  as  'John  Company*, 
an  appellation  taken  over  from  the  name  JAN 
KOMPANIE  by  which  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company,  and  now  the  Dutch  government, 
are  known  to  natives  in  the  East. 

East  Lynne,  a  novel  by  Mrs.  H.  Wood 
(q.v.). 

Easter  Day,  one  of  the  great  festivals  of 
the  Christian  Church,  commemorating  the 
Resurrection  of  Christ,  and  corresponding  to 
the  Jewish  Passover.  It  is  celebrated  on  the 
first  Sunday  after  the  calendar  full  moon  which 
happens  on  or  after  2 1  Mar.  The  name  Easter 
is  derived  from  the  Saxon  goddess  EOSTRE, 
originally  the  dawn-goddess,  whose  festival 
was  celebrated  at  the  vernal  equinox. 

Easter  Island,  in  the  S.  Pacific,  probably 
discovered  by  Capt.  Davis  in  1687,  but  first 
visited  by  the  Dutch  navigator  Roggeveen 
on  Easter  Day  1722,  and  later  by  Capt.  Cook, 
when  it  was  uninhabited.  It  is  noted  for  its 
remarkable  monolithic  statues  facing  sea- 
wards, some  of  them  20  feet  and  more  in 
height,  erected,  according  to  Roggeveen,  for 
protection  from  enemies  coming  from  the 
sea.  There  were,  he  says,  special  priests  who 
served  the  idols.  The  idols  had  long  ears, 
and  the  people  had  their  ears  dragged  down 
to  their  shoulders.  The  date  of  the  idols 
is  unknown.  The  inhabitants  of  the  island 
also  used  a  pictographic  script  engraved  on 
wooden  tablets. 

Eastern  Church,  see  Orthodox  Church. 

Eastern  Empire,  the  more  easterly  of  the 
two  parts  into  which  the  Roman  Empire 
was  divided  in  A.D.  395.  Its  capital  was 
Byzantium  (Constantinople),  which  was 
taken  by  the  Turks  under  Mahomet  II  in 
1453- 


ECCLESIASTES 

Eastward  Hoe,  a  comedy  by  G.  Chapman 
(q:v.),  Jonson  (q.v.),  and  J.  Marston  (q.v.), 
printed  in  1605,  having  been  previously 
performed  by  the  Children  of  the  Revels 
at  the  Blackfriars.  The  literary  controversy 
between  Jonson  and  Marston  had  for  the 
time  ceased.  A  passage  derogatory  to  the 
Scots  (in.  iiu  40-7)  gave  offence  at  court, 
and  the  three  authors  were  imprisoned,  but 
released  on  the  intercession  of  powerful 
friends.  The  play  is  particularly  interesting 
for  the  light  it  throws  on  London  life  of  the 
time.  Like  Dekker's  'Shoemaker's  Holiday*, 
it  gives  a  sympathetic  picture  of  a  tradesman. 
The  plot  contrasts  the  careers  of  the  vir- 
tuous and  idle  apprentices,  Golding  and 
Quicksilver,  of  the  goldsmith  Touchstone; 
and  the  fates  of  his  two  daughters,  the 
modest  Mildred,  who  marries  the  industrious 
Golding,  and  the  immodest  Gertrude  who, 
in  order  to  ride  in  her  own  coach,  marries  the 
penniless  adventurer  Sir  Petronel  Flash. 
Golding  soon  rises  to  the  dignity  of  a  deputy- 
alderman,  while  Sir  Petronel,  having  sent  off 
his  lady  in  a  coach  to  an  imaginary  castle  of 
his,  and  filched  her  dowry,  sets  off  for  Vir- 
ginia, accompanied  by  the  prodigal  Quick- 
silver, who  has  robbed  his  master.  They  are 
wrecked  on  the  Isle  of  Dogs,  and  brought  up 
before  Golding,  the  deputy-alderman.  After 
some  days  in  prison,  where  their  mortifica- 
tions lead  them  to  repent,  they  are  released  at 
Golding's  intercession. 

Eatanswill,  the  scene  of  the  parliamentary 
election  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick  Papers'  (q.v.). 

Ebionites,  a  body  of  heretics  of  the  ist  and 
2nd  cents,  who  held  that  Jesus  was  a  mere 
man  and  that  the  Mosaic  law  was  binding 
upon  Christians.  [OED.] 

Eblana,  in  imprints,  Dublin. 

Eblis,  in  the  Moslem  religion,  the  Devil,  the 
chief  of  the  apostate  angels,  who  refused  to 
worship  Adam.    He  figures  in  Beckford's 
'Vathek'  (q.v.). 
Efooracum,  in  imprints,  York. 

Ebuda,  in  the  'Orlando  Furioso'  (q-v-)>  the 
island  on  which  Angelica  was  exposed  to 
the  Ore. 

Ecbatana,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Medes 
(q.v.).  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  Harnadaru 

Ecce  Homo,  'Behold  the  man*  (John  xix.  5), 
hence  used  for  a  picture  representing  Christ 
wearing  the  crown  of  thorns.  See  also  Seeley. 

Eccles,  ROBERT,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'Rhoda  Fleming*  (q.v.).  (He  calls  himself 
Robert  Armstrong  in  the  early  stages  of  the 
story.) 

Ecclesiastes  (Greek  rendering  of  the  Hebrew 
Koheleth,  preacher),  one  of  the  books  of 
the  O.T.,  formerly  ascribed  to  King  Solomon, 
but  now  thought  to  be  of  later  date,  probably 
of  the  3rd  cent.  B.C.  The  author  exhorts 
to  wisdom,  industry,  and  the  fear  of  God ; 


[247] 


ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY 

but  the  book  concludes,  as  it  begins,  sombrely: 
*  Vanity  of  vanities,  saith  the  Preacher;  all 
is  vanity.1 

Ecclesiastical  History  of  Bede,  see  Historia 
Ecdesiastica^ 

Ecclesiastical  Politie,  Of  the  Laws  of,  see 
Laws  of  Ecclesiastical  Politie. 

Ecclesiastical  Sonnets:  see  Wordsworth. 

Ecclesiasticus,  meaning  the  'Book  of  the 
Church*,  a  name  given  to  it  in  the  African 
Church  owing  to  its  use  as  a  book  of  instruc- 
tion, is  a  book  of  the  Apocrypha  otherwise 
known  as  'The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  son  of 
Sirach*.  It  is  a  collection  of  moral  and 
practical  maxims,  dating  probably  from  the 
first  half  of  the  2nd  cent.  B.C. 

Echidna?  in  Greek  mythology,  a  monster, 
half  woman  and  half  snake.  She  was  the 
mother  of  various  other  monsters  of  antiquity, 
such  as  Chimaera,  the  dragon  that  guarded 
the  apples  of  the  Hesperides,  of  Cerberus, 
of  the  Sphinx  (qq.v.),  &c.  In  Spenser's 
'Faerie  Queene'  (vi.  vi),  she  is  the  mother  of 
the  Blatant  Beast  (q.v.). 

Echo,  according  to  Ovid  was  an  Oread  (q.v.) 
whose  loquacity  caused  Juno  to  change  her 
into  an  echo,  something  which  cannot  speak 
until  some  one  else  has  spoken,  and  then  must 
repeat  the  words  it  hears.  She  fell  in  love 
with  Narcissus  and  pined  away  for  love  of 
him  till  only  her  voice  remained. 

Eckermann,  JOHANN,  see  Goethe. 

Eckhart  or  Eckhard,  JOHANNES,  known  as 
MEISTER  ECKHART  (1260?-!  327?),  a  German 
philosopher  and  mystic.  He  was  a  Domini- 
can and  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  from 
Boniface  VIII.  He  was  subsequently  sum- 
moned before  the  Inquisition  and  made  a 
partial  recantation  of  his  doctrines.  He  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  German  mysticism. 

Eckhart,  TRUSTY,  the  subject  of  a  German 
legend  and  of  a  tale  by  Ludwig  Tieck  (trans- 
lated by  Carlyle).  In  the  latter  he  is  a 
follower  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy  who  gives 
his  son  to  save  his  master's  life.  He  incurs 
unjust  suspicion,  and  another  of  his  sons  is 
killed  by  the  duke.  He  is  reconciled  with  the 
duke  as  the  latter  lies  dying  and  is  made 
guardian  of  his  children. 

In  the  German  legend  of  Holle  or  Holde 
(Venus)  he  is  an  old  man  who  appears  on 
Maundy  Thursday  to  warn  people  against  the 
monsters  that  rush  through  the  streets  in 
Holle's  train  on  that  night;  or  sits  outside  the 
Venusberg  to  warn  passing  knights  of  its 
dangers. 

Eclectics,  a  class  of  philosophers  who  neither 
attached  themselves  to  any  school,  nor  con- 
structed independent  systems,  but  'selected 
such  doctrines  as  pleased  them  in  every 
school'  (Liddell  and  Scott).  In  modern  use 
the  term  eclectic  has  both  the  same  significa- 
tion and  a  vaguer  sense  of  one  unfettered  by 


EDDINGTON 

a  narrow  system  in  matters  of  opinion  or 
practice. 

Eclipse,  the  famous  race-horse,  born  during 
an  eclipse,  died  in  1789,  aged  25  years.  He 
was  never  beaten.  He  was  the  property  of 
Colonel  O 'Kelly,  an  Irish  adventurer,  who, 
born  in  humble  circumstances,  became  a 
count  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  The  say- 
ing 'Eclipse  first  and  the  rest  nowhere'  arose 
on  the  occasion  of  Eclipse's  first  race,  the 
Queen's  Plate  at  Winchester,  when  O 'Kelly 
made  his  famous  bet  of  placing  the  horses  in 
order,  and  won  it  by  running  Eclipse  first 
and  the  rest  nowhere. 

Eclogue,  from  Greek  e/cAoyT?,  a  selection,  is  a 
short  poem,  especially  a  pastoral  dialogue, 
such  as  Virgil's  'Bucolics*. 

Eclogue,  Virgil's  Fourth,  see  Virgil. 

Eclogues,  The,  of  A.  Barclay  (q.v.),  written 
about  1515,  are  interesting  as  the  earliest 
English  pastorals,  anticipating  Spenser.  They 
are  moral  and  satirical  in  character,  dealing 
with  such  subjects  as  the  evils  of  a  court  life 
and  the  happiness  of  the  countryman's  lot. 
They  are  modelled  upon  Baptist  Mantuan 
and  the  'Miseriae  Curialium*  of  Aeneas 
Sylvius  (qq.v.). 

Economist,  The,  a  weekly  financial  and  com- 
mercial review  founded  in  1843.  James  Wil- 
son was  its  first  editor.  It  advocated  free 
trade  and  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws  and 
took  up  a  sound  attitude  in  opposition  to  the 
reckless  railway  speculation  of  the  middle  of 
the  century.  Among  its  later  editors  was 
Bagehot  (q.v.),  Wilson's  son-in-law. 

Economy  of  Vegetation,  The,  see  Darwin  (E.). 

Ector,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur* 
(q.v.),  the  knight  to  whom  the  infant  King 
Arthur  was  entrusted.  He  was  father  of  Sir 
Kay  (q.v.),  the  seneschal. 

Ector  de  Maris,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morte 
d'Arthur*  (q.v.),  a  knight  of  the  Round 
Table  and  brother  of  Sir  Launcelot.  It  is  he 
who,  in  the  last  chapter  of  the  work,  finds  Sir 
Launcelot  dead  and  utters  his  great  lament 
over  him. 

Edda,  an  old  Norse  name  of  two  distinct 
Icelandic  books: 

(a)  The  Prose  or  Younger  Edda.   A  sum- 
mary of  Odinic  mythology,  followed  by  two 
treatises  on  poetic  composition,  the  whole 
forming  a  manual  of  instruction  for  poets. 
This  work  is  attributed  to  Snorri  Sturlason 
(q.v.,  c.  1230). 

(b)  The  Poetic  or  Elder  Edda.  A  collection 
(made  c.  1200)  of  old  Norse  poems  on  cos- 
mogony, mythology,  and  traditions  of  Norse 
heroes.    The  name  of  'Edda  of  Ssemund* 
was^  applied  to  this  work,  from  an  erroneous 
attribution  of  the  compilation  to  Sa5mund. 

The  Eddas  are  the  chief  source  of  our 
knowledge  of  Scandinavian  mythology. 

EDDINGTON,  SIR  ARTHUR  STANLEY 
(1882-  ),  educated  at  Owens  College, 


[248] 


EDDY 

Manchester,  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
and  professor  of  astronomy  at  Cambridge,  is 
well  known  for  his  researches  into  the  mo- 
tions of  stars  and  the  structure  of  the  heavens ; 
also  for  his  contributions  to  the  theory  of 
Relativity  and  the  popularization  of  modern 
physical  theory. 

EDDY,  MRS.  MARY  BAKER  GLOVER 
(1821-1910),  born  at  Bow,  New  Hampshire, 
the  founder  of  Christian  Science,  of  which,  as 
expounded  in  'Science  and  Health'  (1875, 
several  later  editions),  the  central  doctrine  is 
that  'there  is  no  life,  truth,  intelligence,  nor 
substance  in  matter.  All  is  infinite  Mind  and 
its  infinite  manifestation,  for  God  is  All-in-all. 
Spirit  is  immortal  Truth;  matter  is  mortal 
error.  Spirit  is  the  real  and  eternal ;  matter  is 
the  unreal  and  temporal.  Spirit  is  God,  and 
man  is  His  image  and  likeness.  Therefore 
man  is  not  material ;  he  is  spiritual'  (p.  468). 
Mrs.  Eddy  founded  a  Church  to  teach  her 
principles.  An  influence  that  contributed 
greatly  to  the  initiation  of  Mrs.  Eddy's  move- 
ment was  that  of  P.  P.  Quimby,  a  successful 
mental  healer  of  Portland,  Maine. 

Eden,  in  Dickens's  'Martin  Chuzzlewit* 
(q.v.),  a  dismal  pestilential  settlement  in  the 
United  States,  promoted  by  swindlers,  where 
even  Mark  Tapley  finds  it  creditable  to  be 
jolly. 

Eden,  GARDEN  OF,  in  the  Biblical  narrative, 
the  first  abode  of  man,  a  region  from  which 
issued  the  four  rivers,  Hiddekel  (Tigris), 
Euphrates,  Pison,  and  Gihon,  which  point  to 
some  locality  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Meso- 
potamia (Gen.  ii.  8  et  seq.).  The  word  Eden 
means  'delight',  and  the  term  is  used 
figuratively  to  signify  a  paradise. 

EDEN,  EMILY  (1797-1869),  daughter  of 
William  Eden,  first  baron  Auckland,  ac- 
companied her  brother,  governor-general  of 
India,  to  that  country,  and  published  'Por- 
traits of  the  People  and  Princes  of  India* 
(1844),  'Up  the  Country'  (1866),  and  'Letters 
from  India'  (1872);  also  two  novels,  'The 
Semi-detached  House'  (1859)  and  'The 
Semi-attached  Couple'  (1860). 

Eden  Bower,  a  poem  by  D.  G.  Rossetti,  in- 
cluded in  his  'Poems'  of  1870.  Lilith  (q.v.), 
Adam's  mythical  first  wife,  persuades  Satan 
to  let  her  personate  him  in  the  temptation  of 
Eve,  the  woman  who  has  ousted  her. 

Eden  Hall,  LUCK  OF,  see  Luck  of  Eden  Hall 

Edgar,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'King 
Lear'  (q.v.). 

Edgar,  master  of  Ravenswood,  the  hero  of 
Scott's  'Bride  of  Lammermoor'  (q.v.). 

Edgar  Huntly,  the  pioneer  novel  of  American 
frontier  fiction,  published  in  1799,  by  C.  B. 
Brown  (q.v.). 

Edge-hill,  see  jfago. 

EDGEWORTH,  MARIA  (1767-1849), 
daughter  of  Richard  Lovell  Edgeworth(i744- 


EDISON 

1817),  an  Irishman  and  an  educationist,  who 
wrote  jointly  with  his  daughter  'Practical 
Education'  (1798),  a  work  which  shows  the 
influence  of  Rousseau's  ideas.  Maria  Edge- 
worth  was  a  successful  novelist,  and  a  friend 
of  Sir  W.  Scott,  who  admired  her  work.  Her 
principal  novels,  devoted  in  great  part  to 
depicting  Irish  life,  were  'Castle  Rackrent' 
(q.v.),  published  in  1800;  'Belinda'  (1801),  a 
picture  of  society  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  cent., 
commended  by  Jane  Austen  in  'Northanger 
Abbey'  (q.v.);  'The  Absentee'  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1812,  one  of  a  series  of  'Tales  of 
Fashionable  Life';  'Ormond'  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1817.  She  is  also  remembered  for 
the  excellent  presentation  of  child  life  in 
'The  Parent's  Assistant'  (1796-1801),  'Early 
Lessons'  (1801),  'Moral  Tales'  (1801),  'Popu- 
lar Tales'  (1804),  'Frank'  (1832),  and  'Harry 
and  Lucy'  (1825). 

Edict  of  Nantes,  issued  by  Henri  IV  of 
France  in  1598,  granting  liberty  of  conscience 
to  the  Protestants,  certain  facilities  for  wor- 
ship, access  to  public  offices,  permission  for 
Protestant  schools,  &c.  The  Edict  was  re- 
voked by  Louis  XIV  in  1685. 

Edinburgh,  the  capital  of  Scotland,  was 
originally  a  military  station  established  by 
Edwin,  the  first  Christian  king  of  Northum- 
bria  (617—33),  from  whom  it  takes  its  name, 
It  was  made  a  royal  burgh  by  charter  of 
David  I  (1124-53)  and  became  the  capital  in 
the  1 5th  cent.  'Dunedin*  and  'Edina*  are 
poetical  names  for  Edinburgh. 

Edinburgh  Review,  The,  a  quarterly  periodi- 
cal established  in  October  1802  by  Francis 
Jeffrey,  Henry  Brougham,  and  Sydney  Smith 
(qq.v.),  and  published  originally  by  Messrs. 
Constable.  It  initiated  a  new  era  in  literary 
criticism,  adopting  a  higher  and  more  in- 
dependent tone  than  its  predecessors. 
Though  Tories  (including  at  first  Sir  W. 
Scott)  wrote  for  it,  it  assumed  gradually  a 
completely  Whig  attitude.  It  was  notable  for 
its  condemnation  of  the  school  of  Lake  poets. 
Among  famous  contributors  to  it  were 
Macaulay,  Carlyle,  Hazlitt,  Arnold,  Arthur 
Stanley,  Sir  J.  Stephen,  and  Gladstone. 
The  'Edinburgh  Review*  came  to  an  end  in 
1929. 

There  was  an  earlier  'Edinburgh  Review* 
of  1755,  but  although  it  had  distinguished 
contributors  (including  Adam  Smith),  only 
two  numbers  of  it  appeared, 

Edison,  THOMAS  ALVA  (1847-1931),  born  in 
the  United  States  of  mixed  Dutch  and 
Scottish  ancestry,  had  a  very  limited  educa- 
tion and  became  a  newsboy  on  the  railways 
at  12,  and  afterwards  a  telegraph  operator, 
devoting  his  spare  time  to  study  and  experi- 
ments. His  first  patent  was  taken  out  in  1868 
and  this  was  followed  by  a  number  of  in- 
ventions, among  others  one  that  contributed 
an  important  element  to  the  Bell  telephone. 
His  most  important  inventions  were  the 
'phonograph*,  or  original  of  the  gramophone, 


[249] 


EDITH  GRANGER 

in  1877,  and  the  incandescent  electric  lamp 
in  1879.      He  also  devised  a  'kinetoscopic 
camera'  for  taking  moving  pictures,  and  did 
much,  to  develop  the  transmission  and  storage 
of  electrical  power. 
Edith  Granger,  see  Granger. 
Edith  of  Lorn,  the  heroine  of  Scott's  'Lord 
of  the  Isles'  (q.v.). 

Edith  Plantagenet,  THE  LADY,  kinswoman 
of  Richard  I,  a  character  in  Scott's  'The 
Talisman'  (q.v.). 

Edith  Swan- neck,  mistress  of  Harold,  king 
of  England.  Harold  had  three  sons  and  two 
daughters,  probably  by  her.  When  he  was 
dead,  she  was  fetched  to  identify  the  body, 
which  she  did  not  by  the  face,  for  that  was 
mangled,  but  by  some  marks  known  only 
to  her. 

Edmund  or  EADMUND  (841-70),  king  of  the 
East  Angles,  martyr  and  saint,  was  born  at 
Nuremberg,  the  son  of  King  Alkmund,  and 
adopted  by  OfTa,  king  of  the  East  Angles, 
about  854.  He  succeeded  to  Offa's  throne  in 
855.  He  was  defeated  by  the  Danes  at 
Hoxne,  bound  to  a  tree,  scourged,  shot  at 
with  arrows,  and  beheaded  on  refusing  to 
renounce  Christianity.  He  was  interred  at 
Hoxne,  and  subsequently  enshrined  at  Bury 
St.  Edmunds.  He  is  commemorated  on 
20  November. 

Edmund,  in  Shakespeare's  'King  Lear* 
(q.v.),  the  bastard  son  of  the  earl  of  Glou- 
cester. 

Edom  o1  Gordon,  see  Adam  o9  Gordon. 

Edward,    a   fine   old    Scottish    ballad    of 
domestic  tragedy,  included  in  Percy's  fRe- 
liques*  and  beginning: 
Why  does  your  brand  sae  drop  wi*  blude, 
Edward,  Edward? 

Edward  the  Confessor,  see  Eadward. 
Edward  the  Martyr,  see  Eadward. 
Edward  I,  king  of  England,  1272-1307. 
Edward  II,  king  of  England,  1307-27. 

Edward  II,  an  historical  drama  in  blank  verse 
by  Marlowe  (q.v.),  produced  in  1593.  It 
deals  with  the  recall  by  Edw_ard  II,  on  his 
accession,  of  his  favourite,  Piers  Gaveston; 
the  revolt  of  the  barons,  and  the  capture  and 
execution  of  Gaveston;  the  period  during 
which  Spenser  (Hugh  le  Despenser)  suc- 
ceeded Gaveston  as  the  king's  favourite;  the 
estrangement  of  Queen  Isabella  from  her 
husband;  her  rebellion,  supported  by  her 
paramour  Mortimer,  against  the  king;  the 
capture  of  the  latter,  his  abdication  of  the 
crown,  and  his  murder  in  Berkeley  Castle. 
'The  death-scene  of  Marlowe's  king',  wrote 
Charles  Lamb,  'moves  pity  and  terror  beyond 
any  scene,  ancient  or  modern,  with  which  I 
am  acquainted'  ('Specimens  of  the  English 
Dramatists'). 

Edward  III,  king  of  England,  1327-77. 


EDWARDS 

Edward  ///,  The  Raigne  of,  an  historical 
play,  published  in  1596,  of  uncertain  author- 
ship, attributed  by  some,  at  least  in  part,  to 
Shakespeare. 

The  two  first  acts  are  concerned  mainly 
with  the  dishonourable  wooing  of  the  coun- 
tess of  Salisbury  by  the  king,  who  is  finally 
brought  to  a  sense  of  shame  by  her  deter- 
mination to  kill  herself  if  he  pursues  his  suit. 
The  remainder  of  the  play  is  occupied  with 
the  French  wars. 

Edward  IV,  king  of  England,  1461-83. 
Edward  V,  king  of  England  in  1483,  in 
which  year  he  was  deposed  and  murdered. 
He  was  then  a  boy  of  12,  and  on  his  ac- 
cession his  uncle,  Richard,  duke  of  Glouces- 
ter, was  named  Protector.   Edward  and  his 
brother,  the  duke  of  York,  were  removed  to 
the  Tower,  where  they  were  put  to  death, 
probably  by  their  uncle's  order. 
Edward  VI,  king  of  England,  1547-53. 
Edward  VII,  king  of  England,  1901-10. 

Edwardian,  characteristic  of  the  early  years 
of  the  present  century  (roughly,  the  reign  of 
Edward  VII),  a  term  frequently  used  in  con- 
trast with  'Victorian'  (q.v.),  as  implying  a 
reaction  from  some  of  the  tendencies  of  the 
Victorian  age,  notably  its  self-satisfaction 
and  unquestioning  acceptance  of  authority 
in  religion,  morality,  and  literature.  The 
Edwardian  age  is  in  the  main  an  age  of 
criticism,  and  questioning,  and  of  refusal  to 
accept  established  institutions.  This  ten- 
dency is  seen,  for  instance,  in  the  works  of 
G.  B.  Shaw,  H.  G.  Wells,  and  Arnold 
Bennett.  From  another  point  of  view  the 
Edwardian  age  appears  as  a  time  of  great 
prosperity  and  glitter,  of  social  stability  and 
spacious  ease,  the  halcyon  period  before  the 
storm. 

EDWARDS,  JONATHAN  (1703-5?),  born 
at  Windsor,  Connecticut,  the  philosopher, 
ardent  divine,  and  formidable  preacher,  who 
provoked  the  movement  of  religious  revival 
and  exaltation  in  New  England  known  as 
the  'Great  Awakening'.  In  his  'Treatise 
concerning  Religious  Affection'  (1746)  he 
nicely  discriminated  between  the  state  of 
grace  and  the  state  of  worldliness.  His 
attempt  to  make  this  distinction  a  criterion  of 
fitness  to  receive  the  Eucharist  led  to  his 
dismissal  from  the  charge  of  the  church  of 
Northampton,  Mass.,  in  1750.  He  then 
became  for  six  years  a  missionary  to  the 
Indians.  His  principal  philosophical  work, 
on /The  Freedom  of  the  Will'  (1754),  in 
which  he  combated  from  a  predestinarian 
standpoint  the  Arminian  view  of  liberty, 
occasioned  Boswell's  remark  that  'the  only 
relief  I  had  was  to  forget  it*,  and  Johnson's 
aphorism,  'All  theory  is  against  freedom  of 
the  will ;  all  experience  for  it*.  (Boswell,  'Life 
of  Johnson',  under  the  year  1778,  ed.  G.  B- 
Hill,  iii.  291.) 

EDWARDS,  RICHARD  (1533  ?-66),  of 
Corpus  Christi  College  and  Christ  Church, 


[250] 


EDWIN  AND  ANGELINA 

Oxford,  was  master  of  the  children  of  the 
Chapel  Royal,  1561.  He  composed  'Palamon 
and  Arcite*  (now  lost)  for  Queen  Elizabeth's 
entertainment  at  Oxford,  1566.  The  'Ex- 
cellent Comedie  of  ...  Damon  and  Pithias* 
(q.v.),  1571*  is  his  only  extant  play.  He  was 
the  compiler  of  the  'Paradise  of  Daynty 
Devises'  (q.v.),  published  after  his  death 
(1576). 

Edwin  and  Angelina,  see  Hermit. 

Edwin  Drood  t  The  Mystery  of,  an  unfinished 
novel  by  Dickens  (q.v.),  published  in  1870. 
The  fathers  of  Edwin  Drood  and  Rosa 
Bud,  both  of  them  widowers,  have  before 
their  deaths  betrothed  their  young  children 
to  one  another.  The  orphan  Rosa  has  been 
brought  up  in  Miss  Twiokleton's  school  at 
Cioisterham  (Rochester),  where  Edwin,  also 
an  orphan,  has  an  uncle,  John  Jasper,  the 
precentor  of  the  cathedral,  to  whom  he  is 
devoted  and  who  appears  to  return  the 
devotion.  It  is  understood  that  the  two 
young  people  are  to  marry  as  soon  as  Edwin 
comes  of  age,  although  this  very  under- 
standing has  been  fatal  to  love  between  them. 
Jasper,  a  sinister  and  hypocritical  character, 
gives  Rosa  music-lessons  and  loves  her 
passionately,  but  inspires  her  with  terror  and 
disgust.  There  now  come  upon  the  scene 
two  other  orphans,  Neville  and  Helena 
Landless.  Neville  and  Edwin  at  once  become 
enemies,  for  Neville  admires  Rosa  and  is 
disgusted  at  Edwin's  unappreciative  treat- 
ment of  her.  This  enmity  is  secretly  fomented 
by  Jasper  and  there  is  a  violent  quarrel 
between  tihte  young  men.  On  the  last  of  Ed- 
win's periodical  visits  to  Cioisterham  before 
the  time  of  his  anticipated  marriage,  Rosa 
and  he  recognize  that  this  marriage  will  not 
be  for  their  happiness,  and  break  off  the 
engagement.  But  Edwin  postpones  telling 
his  uncle  Jasper.  That  same  night  Edwin 
disappears  under  circumstances  pointing  to 
foul  play  and  suggestive  of  the  possibility 
that  he  has  been  murdered  by  Neville  Land- 
less, a  theory  actively  supported  by  Jasper. 
But  Jasper  receives  with  uncontrollable 
symptoms  of  dismay  the  intelligence  that  the 
engagement  of  Edwin  and  Rosa  had  been 
broken  off  before  Edwin's  disappearance,  and 
this  betrayal  of  himself  is  noted  by  Mr.  Grew- 
gious,  Rosa's  eccentric  good-hearted  guar- 
dian. Neville  is  arrested,  but  as  the  body  of 
Edwin  is  not  found,  is  released  untried.  He 
is  ostracized  by  public  opinion  and  is  obliged 
to  hide  himself  as  a  student  in  London.  The 
remainder  of  the  fragment  of  the  novel  is 
occupied  with  the  continued  machinations  of 
Jasper  against  Neville  and  his  pursuit  of 
Rosa,  who  in  terror  of  him  flies  to  her 
guardian  in  London;  with  the  countermoves 
prepared  by  Mr.  Grewgious,  assisted  by  the 
amiable  minor  canon  Mr.  Crisparkle,  and  a 
new  ally,  the  retired  naval  officer,  Mr.  Tartar; 
also  with  the  proceedings  of  the  mysterious 
Mr.  Datchery,  directed  against  Jasper.  Of 
the  solution  or  catastrophe  intended  by  the 


EGERIA 

author  no  hint  exists,  beyond  those  which 
the  fragment  itself  contains,  and  the  state- 
ment as  to  the  broad  lines  of  the  plot  given 
by  John  Forster,  the  biographer  of  Dickens. 
There  have  been  many  conjectures,  turning 
mainly  on  two  points :  whether  Edwin  Drood 
had  in  fact  been  murdered  or  had  miracu- 
lously survived;  and  who  was  Datchery. 
With  regard  to  the  latter  it  has  been  suggested 
for  instance  that  Datchery  was  Drood  him- 
self, or  Grewgious,  or  Grewgious's  clerk 
Bazzard,  or  Helena  Landless,  in  disguise. 

Besides  the  persons  above  referred  to, 
mention  should  be  made  of  some  notable 
characters :  the  fatuous  Mr.  Sapsea,  auction- 
eer and  mayor;  Mr.  Honeythunder,  the 
bullying  philanthropist';  the  grim  stone- 
mason Durdles,  and  his  attendant  imp 
'Deputy'. 

Efreet,  see  Afreet. 

3iigalit£,  the  name  assumed  by  Philippe, 
Due  d'Orleans,  in  1792.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly  and  Convention, 
gave  his  vote  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI,  and 
was  himself  arrested  and  executed  in  1793. 
He  was  the  father  of  King  Louis  Philippe. 

EGAN,  PIERCE,  the  elder  (1772-1849), 
is  remembered  as  the  author  of  'Life  in 
London ;  or  the  Day  and  Night  Scenes  of  Jerry 
Hawthorn  and  his  elegant  friend  Corinthian 
Tom',  issued  in  monthly  numbers  from  1821, 
illustrated  by  George  and  Robert  Cruikshank, 
The  book  is  a  description  of  the  life  of  the 
'man  about  town*  of  the  day,  interesting  for 
the  light  it  throws  on  the  manners  of  the  period 
and  for  the  many  slang  phrases  it  introduces. 
In  1824  Egan  began  the  issue  of  a  weekly 
paper,  'Pierce  Egan's  Life  in  London  and 
Sporting  Guide*,  which  subsequently  de- 
veloped into  the  well-known  sporting  journal 
'Bell's  Life  in  London'.  The  title  of  this 
periodical  was  taken  from  John  Bell  (1745- 
1831),  printer,  publisher,  and  journalist,  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  'Morning  Post*  and 
proprietor  of  'Bell's  Weekly  Messenger*, 
whose  fame  and  popularity  had  given  his 
name  a  commercial  value  (see  Stanley 
Morrison, * John  Bell',  1 930).  'Bell's  Life*  was 
in  1859  incorporated  in  'Sporting  Life*. 
Egan  was  also  author  of  the  successful 
'Boxiana;  or  Sketches  of  Antient  and 
Modern  Pugilism*  (founded  on  an  earlier 
work  by  George  Smeeton),  published  in 
1818-21.  A  further  series  of  'Boxiana* 
appeared  in  1828-9. 

EGAN,  PIERCE,  the  younger  (1814-80), 
novelist,  son  of  the  preceding  and  associated 
with  him  in  several  of  his  works.  He  wrote 
a  vast  number  of  novels  and  is  accounted  a 
'pioneer  of  cheap  literature*. 

Egdon  Heatli,  the  scene  of  Hardy's  'The 
Return  of  the  Native*  (q.v.). 

Egeria,  a  nymph  of  Aricia  in  Italy,  a  seat  of 
the  worship  of  Diana.  According  to  Roman 
legend  she  was  the  counsellor  and  wife  of 


EGERTON 

King  Numa  (the  successor  of  Romulus), 
who,  in  order  that  he  might  commend  his 
laws  to  the  people,  declared  that  they  were 
previously  sanctified  and  approved  by  the 
nymph.  Ovid  says  that  she  was  disconsolate 
at  the  death  of  Numa,  that  she  melted  into 
tears,  and  was  changed  into  a  fountain  by 
Diana. 

EGERTON,  SIR  THOMAS,  Baron  Elles- 
mere  and  Viscount  Brackley  (1540  ?-i6i?)»  was 
lord  chancellor  from  1603  till  his  death.  He 
befriended  Francis  Bacon.  John  Donne  was 
his  secretary  for  four  years  (1596-1601),  and 
Samuel  Daniel  and  John  Owen  addressed 
poems  to  him.  He  left  judicial  and  legal 
treatises  in  manuscript. 

EGGLESTON,  EDWARD  (1837-1902), 
itinerant  Methodist  preacher  and  author, 
born  in  Indiana,  ILS.A.  His  fame  rests  upon 
'The  Hoosier  School-Master*  (1871),  in 
which  the  author  sought  to  depict,  faithfully 
and  realistically,  the  men  and  women  of  the 
backwoods  of  his  native  state. 

Egil,  in  Scandinavian  legend,  a  brother  of 
Volunder  (see  Wayland  Smith).   He  was  a 
skilled  workman  and  archer,  and,  like  the 
William  Tell  of  later  legend,  was  required  by 
King  Nidhud  to  shoot  an  arrow  at  an  apple 
placed  on  his  son's  head. 
Egil    Skailagrimsson,   the   hero   of  the 
Egla  Saga  (see  Saga). 
EGINHARB,  see  Einhard. 
Egla  Saga,  see  Saga. 

Eglantine  or  EGLENTYNE,  MADAME,  the 
Prioress  in  Chaucer's  'Canterbury  Tales' 
(q.v.). 

Eglinton  Tournament,  THE,  an  attempt  to 
revive  the  ancient  tourney,  made  in  1 839^1  the 
suggestion  of  the  thirteenth  earl  of  Eglinton. 
The  tournament  was  held  at  Eglinton  Castle, 
Ayrshire.  There  is  a  good  description  of  it 
in  Disraeli's  'Endymion',  cc.  59  and  60. 

Egoist,  The,  a  novel  by  Meredith  (q.v.), 
published  in  1879. 

It  is  *  a  comedy  in  narrative*  of  which  the 
central  figure  is   Sir  Willoughby  Patterne, 
rich  and  handsome,  with  a  great  position 
in  the  county,  but  insufferably  selfish  and 
fatuously  conceited.    Laetitia  Dale,  a  lady 
with  brains,  but  poor  and  shy,   has  long 
cherished    a    romantic    passion    for    him, 
which  he  has  not  discouraged.    But  he  has 
proposed  and  been  accepted  by  Constantia 
Durham,    'the    Racing    Cutter*,     as    Mrs. 
Mountstuart  Jenkinson,  a  clever  neighbour 
with  a  gift  for  descriptive  phrases,  calls  her. 
Constantia    soons   finds   out   the  true    Sir 
Willoughby,  and  one  day  during  the  court- 
ship it  is  learnt  that  she  has  eloped  with  an 
officer  of  hussars — Willoughby's  first  humili- 
ation.   Presently  he   discovers  the  qualities 
needed  for  a  Lady  Patterne  in  Clara  Middle- 
ton,  the  daughter  of  an  epicurean  professor, 
and    the    'dainty    rogue    in    porcelain'    of 


EIKON  BASILIKE 

Mrs.  Mountstuart,  and  wins  her  hand  in  a 
whirlwind  courtship.  Clara's  liberation  is  a 
longer  affair  than  that  of  her  predecessor, 
and  is  the  main  theme  of  the  book.  For 
Clara  is  a  woman  of  greater  delicacy  than 
Constantia,  and  Willoughby  fights  hard 
against  a  second  jilting.  He  cunningly  wins 
her  father's  powerful  support  by  the  charm 
of  Patterne  port,  fan  aged  and  a  great  wine*. 
On  the  other  side  are  the  scholar  Vernon 
Whitfbrd  ('Phoebus  Apollo  turned  fasting 
friar*),  and  young  Crossjay,  son  of  Lieuten- 
ant Patterne,  a  gallant  officer  of  marines  and 
poor  relative  of  Willoughby,  whose  shabby 
appearance  has  drawn  on  him  an  un- 
forgettable insult  from  the  baronet.  Cross- 
jay,  a  jolly  little  lad,  is  finally  the  instrument 
of  her  release,  for  he  unintentionally  over- 
hears Willoughby,  seriously  threatened  ^  by 
Clara's  recalcitrance,  seeking  a  line  of  retire- 
ment by  a  proposal  to  Laetitia  Dale,  which 
the  latter,  with  a  remnant  of  pride,  refuses. 
So  Willoughby  finds  himself  once  more  and 
doubly  humiliated;  though  in  the  end,  by 
sheer  pressure  of  persistence,  he  obtains  the 
hand  of  the  reluctant  Laetitia.  Clara  marries 
Vernon  WHtford.  Dr.  Middleton  was  drawn 
from  T.  L.  Peacock  (q.v.),  and  Vernon  Whit- 
ford  from  Leslie  Stephen  (q.v.). 

Egremont,  CHARLES,  the  hero  of  Disraeli's 
'Sybil*  (q.v.). 

Egyptian  thief,  THE,  in  Shakespeare's 
'Twelfth  Night*  (v.  i.  i  r  2) ,  is  from  the  story  of 
'Theagenes  and  Chariclea*  in  the  'Ethiopica* 
of  Heliodorus.  They  were  carried  off  by 
Thiamis,  an  Egyptian  pirate,  who  fell  in  love 
with  Chariclea,  and  being  pursued,  shut  her 
up  in  a  cave  with  his  treasure.  When  escape 
seemed  impossible,  being  determined  that 
she  should  not  survive  him,  ^  he  thrust  her 
through,  as  he  thought,  with  his  sword 
(Aldis  Wright). 

Eidothea,  according  to  Homer  (Od.  IV)  the 
daughter  of  Proteus.  She  teaches  Odysseus 
how  to  seize  and  question  her  father. 
Eighteenth  Century,  an  age  associated  in 
England,  in  a  literary  connexion,  with  the 
names  of  Swift,  Pope,  Defoe,  Goldsmith, 
Richardson,  Sterne,  Johnson,  Bolingbroke, 
Berkeley,  Burke,  and  Young;  an  age  of  prose 
rather  than  poetry,  of  lucidity,  simplicity, 
and  grace,  rational  and  witty  rather  than 
humorous,  and  somewhat  lacking  in  intensity. 

££#072  Basilike,  the  Pourtmicture  of  His 
Sacred  Majestie  in  His  Solitudes  and  Suffer- 
ings, a  book  by  Dr.  Gauden  (q.v.),  purporting 
to  be  meditations  by  King  Charles  I,  and 
accepted  as  such  at  the  time,  published 
shortly  after  his  execution.  The  book 
appealed  to  the  popular  sentiment  of  the 
moment  so  strongly  that  forty-seven  editions 
of  it  were  published,  and  the  parliament 
thought  it  necessary  to  issue  at  reply,  in  the 
form  of  Milton's  'Eikonoklastes',  published 
in  1649.  'Eikon  Basilike'  means  *royal 
image',  and  *Eikonoklastes',  image-breaker. 


[252] 


EIKONOKLASTES 

'Eikonoklastes*  takes  the  'Eikon5  paragraph  by 
paragraph,  and  purports  to  refute  it,  but  does 
so  in  a  tedious  and  unworthy  manner. 

Eikonoklastes,  see  Eikon  Basilike. 

EINHARD  or  EGINHARD  (77o?-84O?), 
a  Prankish  noble  in  the  service  of  Charle- 
magne and  subsequently  of  Louis  le  Debon- 
naire.  He  wrote  a  biography  of  Charlemagne 
(Vita  Car oli  Magni)  and  was,  according  to 
(false)  tradition,  his  son-in-law. 

EINSTEIN,  ALBERT  (1879-  ),  born 
at  Ulm  in  Wurtemberg  of  German-Jewish 
parents,  and  educated  at  Munich  and  in 
Switzerland,  became  in  1902  an  engineer  in 
the  Swiss  Patent  Office,  where  he  remained 
until  1909.  It  was  during  this  period  that  he 
evolved  some  of  his  principal  theories,  the 
Special  Theory  of  Relativity,  the  Inertia  of 
Energy,  &c.  His  General  Theory  of  Rela- 
tivity followed  some  years  later  (1915-17). 
From  1909  to  1911  he  was  professor  at 
Zurich,  Prague,  and  finally  at  the  Prussian 
Academy  of  Science.  He  is  chiefly  famous 
for  his  revolutionary  theory  of  the  nature 
of  space  and  time,  known  as  the  Theory 
of  Relativity,  which  entirely  upset  the  New- 
tonian conception  of  the  universe;  but 
he  has  also  done  important  work  in  other 
branches  of  physics,  e.g.  by  providing  a 
mathematical  theory  of  the  Brownian  move- 
ment of  molecules. 

The  Special  or  Restricted  Theory  of  Re- 
lativity states  broadly  that  natural  pheno- 
mena run  their  course  according  to  the  same 
general  laws  in  respect  of  two  observers  of 
whom  one  is  moving  in  a  uniform  rectilinear 
manner  in  respect  of  the  other.  This  theory- 
appears  to  be  substantially  in  accord  with 
our  observation  of  natural  phenomena;  but 
it  conflicts  with  the  law  of  the  propagation  of 
light,  viz.  that  this  takes  place,  in  vacua,  in 
straight  lines  at  a  velocity  of  300,000  km.  a 
second.  If  it  does  this  for  one  observer,  it 
cannot  do  so  for  another  observer  moving, 
e.g.,  away  from  him  with  a  certain  additional 
velocity.  But  this  conflict  is  based  on  two 
assumptions:  (i)  that  the  time-interval  be- 
tween two  events  is  independent  of  the  con- 
dition of  motion  of  the  observer ;  (2)  that  the 
space  interval  between  two  points  of  a  rigid 
body  is  independent  of  the  condition  of 
motion  of  the  observer.  To  maintain  the 
theory  of  relativity  these  assumptions  must 
be  abandoned  and  a  formula  sought  by 
which  the  quantities  noted  by  the  first  ob- 
server may  be  made  to  correspond  with 
the  quantities  noted  by  the  second  observer, 
so  that  the  law  of  the  transmission  of  light 
shall  hold  good  for  both.  This  formula 
Einstein  finds  in  the  equations  of  what 
is  known  as  the  'Lorentz  Transformation*, 
from  which  it  results  that  relatively  to  a 
stationary  observer,  a  metre  rod  laid  in  the 
axis  of  a  moving  system  is  not  one  metre  long 
but  only  *Ji  —  v*\(?  of  a  metre,  where  v  is  the 
velocity  of  the  moving  system,  and  c  that  of 


EL  GRECO 

light;  and  similarly  that  the  intervals  between 
the  beats  of  a  clock  in  a  moving  system  are 
not  of  one  second  but  slightly  more.  This 
surprising  conclusion  cannot  be  verified  by 
ordinary  experience  because  the  differences 
cannot  be  detected  with  ordinary  velocities, 
but  it  is  confirmed  by  certain  experiments. 
The  f  Restricted  Theory  of  Relativity  thus 
requires  that  every  general  law  of  nature  must 
be  so  constituted  that  it  applies  when,  instead 
of  the  space-time  data  of  one  observer,  we 
substitute  those  of  another  in  uniform  recti- 
linear motion.  And  the  theory  so  stated  is 
borne  put  by  many  optical  and  electro- 
magnetic facts  of  experience. 

But  it  appears  unlikely  that  the  laws  of 
nature  should  hold  good  only  in  relation  to 
observers  in  particular  states  of  motion.  The 
General  Theory  of  Relativity  avoids  this 
improbability  by  adopting  a  physics  such 
that  the  laws  of  nature  hold  good  in  all  cases ; 
in  other  words  by  such  an  interpretation  of 
the  properties  of  space  and  gravitational 
fields  as  will  admit  the  general  extension  of 
the  recognized  laws  of  nature.  Under  this 
interpretation,  space  loses  its  Euclidean 
characteristics,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  matter 
becomes  curved,  gravitation  and  inertia  be- 
come indistinguishable,  the  'force'  of  gravi- 
tation appears  an  illusion,  the  curved  path  of 
projectiles  being  due  to  their  effort  to  keep 
a  straight  track  in  a  curved  space.  This 
General  Theory,  like  the  Restricted  or  Special 
Theory  of  Relativity,  has  been  confirmed  by 
observation,  notably  by  the  displaced  appar- 
ent position  of  stars  whose  rays  pass  near  the 
sun  during  a  total  solar  eclipse. 

Space,  thus  being  curved,  becomes,  under 
the  theory,  not  unlimited,  though  unbounded, 
like  the  surface  of  a  sphere.  Its  geometrical 
properties  are  determined  by  the  distribution 
of  matter  in  it.  If  matters  were  uniformly 
distributed,  space  would  be  spherical ;  as  it  is 
not,  space  deviates  from  the  spherical,  but 
is,  according  to  Einstein,  necessarily  finite, 
though  expanding  (Einstein,  'Relativity,  A 
Popular  Exposition*,  trans,  by  R.  W.  Lawson ; 
Eddington,  'Space,  Time,  and  Gravitation'; 
&c.). 

Eisteddfod,  a  Welsh  word  meaning  'session*, 
the  congress  of  Welsh  bards  held  annually. 
El  Dorado,  the  name  of  a  fabulous  country 
or  city,  'The  Great  and  Golden  City  of 
Manoa*,  which  was  believed  by  the  Spaniards 
and  Sir  Walter  Ralegh  to  exist  on  the  banks 
of  the  Amazon  or  the  Orinoco.  It  was  sup- 
posed to  abound  in  gold,  whence  the  name, 
which  means  'the  gilded  one*,  perhaps  applied 
to  the  king  of  that  country. 
El  Greco,  DOMENICO  THEOTOCOPULI 
(i545?-i6i4),  painter,  was  born  in  Crete, 
studied  art  under  Titian,  and  settled  per- 
manently in  Spain  about  1577.  His  work, 
chiefly  religious  pictures  and  portraits,  is 
characterized  by  an  apparent  distortion  of 
forms,  and  by  livid  colour  schemes,  which  for 
generations  led  critics  to  overlook  its  great 


ELAGABALUS 

qualities.  In  recent  years  El  Greco  has  come 
to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  of 
European  painters.  The  best  collection  of  his 
works  is  in  the  Prado  Museum  at  Madrid. 

Elagabalus  or  HELIOGABALUS,  Varius  Avitus 
Bassianus  (c.  201-22),  born  at  Emesa, 
became  a  priest  of  the  Syro-Phoenician  sun- 
god  Elagabalus,  whose  name  he  took.  He 
became  emperor  through  the  intrigue  of  his 
grandmother,  Julia  Maesa,  who  induced  the 
troops  in  Syria  to  proclaim  him  their  sove- 
reign by  pretending  that  he  was  the  son  of 
Caracalla.  His  reign,  notable  for  his  profli- 
gacy, lasted  from  218  to  222,  when  he  was 
slain  by  the  troops. 

Elaine,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur',  (i) 
ELAINE  LE  BLANK,  the  daughter  of  Sir  Ber- 
nard of  Astolat  and  known  as  the  FAIR  MAID 
OF  ASTOLAT,  who  falls  in  love  with  Launcelot 
and  dies  for  love  of  him  (see  under  Launcelot 
of  the  Lake) ;  (2)  the  daughter  of  King  Pelles 
and  the  mother,  by  Launcelot,  of  Galahad; 

(3)  the  wife  of  King  Nentres  (Malory,  i.  ii) ; 

(4)  the  wife  of  King  Ban  (rv.  i) ;  (5)  the  daugh- 
ter of  King  Pellinore  (m.  xv).     Some  or  all 
of  these  may  derive  from  the  Elen,  wife  of 
Myrddin  (Merlin),  of  British  mythology. 

Elberich,  see  Alberich. 

Elder  Brother,  The,  a  drama  by  J.  Fletcher 
(q.v.),  assisted  probably  by  Massinger  (q.v.), 
and  completed  about  1635  (after  the  former's 
death). 

Lewis,  a  French  lord,  proposes  to  marry 
his  daughter  Angelina  to  one  of  the  sons  of 
Brisac,  a  country  gentleman.  Charles,  the 
heir  of  Brisac,  devoted  to  study,  declines 
marriage;  and  Brisac  thereupon  proposes 
that  Angelina  shall  marry  the  younger 
brother,  Eustace,  and  that  Charles  shall  be 
induced  to  surrender  the  bulk  of  his  in- 
heritance to  Eustace,  who  eagerly  falls  in 
with  the  proposal.  The  plan  is  in  a  fair 
way  of  accomplishment,  when  Charles  sees 
Angelina  and  they  mutually  fall  in  love.  Eus- 
tace, a  poor-spirited  courtier,  is  routed,  and 
after  various  complications  the  lovers  are 
united. 

Eldon,  JOHN  SCOTT,  first  earl  of  '(1751-1838), 
fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford,  lord 
chancellor  1801— 6  and  1807—27,  famous  as  one 
of  the  greatest  of  English  lawyers:  famous 
also  for  the  delays  of  his  court. 

Eleanor  Crosses,  crosses  erected  by  Ed- 
ward I  at  the  places  where  the  remains  of  his 
queen,  Eleanor  of  Castile,  rested  when  being 
brought  for  burial  from  Lincoln  to  West- 
minster^ Among  these  places  are  said  to  have 
been  Lincoln,  Geddington,  Northampton, 
Stony  Stratford,  Woburn,  Dunstable,  St. 
Albans,  Waltham,  West  Cheap  in  London, 
and  Charing  Cross ;  and  there  were  probably 
others. 

Eleatic,  the  name  used  to  describe  the 
philosophy  of  Xenophanes  (570-460  B.C.), 
Parmenides  (d.  c.  450  B.C.),  and  Zeno  (fl.  c. 


ELEUSINIA 

460  B.C.),  who  lived  or  were  born  at  Elea, 
an  ancient  Greek  city  on  the  west  coast  of 
south  Italy.  These  philosophers  combated 
the  anthropomorphic  religion  taught  by  the 
ancient  poets,  and  maintained  that  there  was 
a  single  eternal  god,  resembling  mortals 
neither  in  appearance  nor  thought. 

Elector  Palatine,  the  ruler  of  a  state  of  the 
old  German  Empire,  including  two  territories : 
one  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine,  just  south  of 
Mainz ;  the  other  in  (later)  Bavaria,  just  north 
of  the  Danube  and  south  of  the  Upper  Main. 
He  was  one  of  the  seven  original  electors  of 
the  empire  (see  Holy  Roman  Empire).  The 
word  'palatine',  from  Lat.  palatium  signified 
an  officer  of  the  palace  or  court  of  the  Ger- 
man emperors. 

Electra,  a  daughter  of  Agamemnon  (q.v.). 
She  incited  her  brother  Orestes  (q.v.)  to 
avenge  their  father's  death  by  assassinating 
Clytemnestra  (q.v.).  Orestes  gave  her  in 
marriage  to  his  friend  Pylades.  She  is  the 
subject  of  plays  by  Sophocles  and  Euripides. 

Elegant  Extracts,  see  Knox  (V.). 

Elegiac,  (i)  in  prosody,  the  metre  consisting 
of  a  dactylic  hexameter  and  pentameter 
(qq.v.),  as  being  the  metre  appropriate  to 
elegies;  (2)  generally,  of  the  nature  of  an 
elegy,  which  according  to  Coleridge  *is  the 
form  of  poetry  natural  to  the  reflective  mind*. 
It  may  treat,  he  adds,  of  any  subject,  if  it  does 
so  with  reference  to  the  poet  himself.  In  a 
narrow  sense,  an  elegy  is  a  song  of  lamenta- 
tion for  the  dead. 

Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard,  a  meditative 
poem  in  quatrains  of  ten-syllabled  lines  by 
Gray  (q.v.),  published  in  1750,  having  been 
begun  in  1742. 

The  churchyard  referred  to  is  perhaps  that 
of  Stoke  Poges.  The  poet  in  a  reflective  and 
melancholy  mood  gives  expression  to  the 
thoughts  called  up  in  his  mind  by  the  sight 
of  the  tombs  of  the  'rude  forefathers  of  the 
hamlet',  and  compares  their  humble  lot 
with  the  great  careers  from  which  their  fate 
excluded  them.  The  poem  ends  on  a  per- 
sonal note,  with  -die  supposed  death  of  the 
author,  his  burial  in  the  churchyard,  and  the 
epitaph  on  his  grave. 

Elene,  see  Cynewulf. 

Elephant  in  the  Moon,  see  Butler  (Samuel, 
1612-80). 

Eleusinia,  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  the 
most  famous  of  the  religious  ceremonies  of 
Greece,  celebrated  in  honour  of  Demeter  and 
Persephone,  at  Eleusis  near  Athens.  Nothing 
certain  is  known  of  the  nature  of  the  mysteries. 
The  most  probable  view  is  that  they  were  the 
remains  of  a  worship  which  preceded  the  rise 
of  the  Hellenic  mythology,  grounded  on  a 
view  of  nature,  less  fanciful,  and  better 
fitted  to  awaken  both  philosophical  thought 
and  ^  religious  feeling  (Smith,  'Dictionary  of 
Antiquities'). 


[254] 


ELEVEN  THOUSAND  VIRGINS 

Eleven  Thousand  Virgins,  THE,  see 
Ursula. 

Elf,  the  name  of  a  class  of  supernatural 
beings,  in  Teutonic  mythology  supposed  to 
possess  magical  powers,  which  they  used 
variously  for  the  benefit  or  injury  of  mankind. 
They  were  believed  to  be  of  dwarfish  form, 
to  cause  nightmares  and  diseases,  to  steal 
children,  &c.  In  modern  literature  elf  is  a 
mere  synonym  of  fairy,  which  generally 
denotes  a  more  playful  and  less  terrible 
creature  than  the  'elf*  as  originally  conceived. 
Spenser  applied  the  word  'elf'  to  the  knights 
of  his  allegorical  'faerie  land*. 

Elfrida,  see  Mlfthryih. 

Elgin  Marbles,  THE,  derived  chiefly  from 
the  frieze  and  pediment  of  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens,  the  work  of  Pheidias  (c.  440  B.C.). 
They  were  collected  by  the  earl  of  Elgin 
(1766-1841)  when  envoy  to  the  Porte  (1799- 
1803),  conveyed  to  England  (the  ship  con- 
taining them  was  wrecked  near  Cerigo),  and 
sold  to  the  British  government.  They  were 
placed  in  the  British  Museum  in  1816. 

Elia,  see  Essays  ofElia. 

Elidure,  a  legendary  king  of  Britain,  see 
ArtegaL 

Elijah,  a  Hebrew  prophet  in  the  reign  of 
Ahab.  He  was  miraculously  fed  by  ravens 
at  the  brook  Cherith ;  raised  the  dead  son  of 
the  widow  of  Zarephath;  confuted  the  pro- 
phets of  Baal ;  and  was  carried  to  heaven  in  a 
chariot  of  fire  (i  Kings  xvii  et  seq.). 

ELIOT,  SIR  CHARLES  (1863-1931),  edu- 
cated at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  was  a 
distinguished  diplomatist,  vice-chancellor  of 
Sheffield  University  from  1905,  and  principal 
of  the  University  of  Hong-Kong,  1912-18. 
He  was  author  of  'Turkey  in  Europe*  (pub- 
lished in  1901  under  the  pseudonym 
'Odysseus'),  a  learned  and  entertaining 
account  of  Macedonia  and  its  various  races 
under  the  old  regime;  of  'Letters  from  the 
Far  East*  (1907);  and  of  'Hinduism  and 
Buddhism'  (1921). 

ELIOT,  GEORGE  (MAHY  ANN  CROSS,  born 
EVANS)  (1819-80),  spent  the  early  part  of  her 
life  in  Warwickshire,  where  her  father  was 
agent  for  an  estate.  From  somewhat  narrow 
religious  views  she  was  freed  by  the  influence 
of  Charles  Bray,  a  Coventry  manufacturer, 
and  devoted  herself  to  completing  a  trans- 
lation of  Strauss's  'Life  of  Jesus'  (1846).  In 
1850  she  became  a  contributor  to  the 
'Westminster  Review*  (q.v.)  and  in  ^1851  its 
assistant  editor,  resigning  the  post  in  1853. 
In  1854  she  published  a  translation  of 
Feuerbach's  'Essence  of  Christianity*  and 
about  the  same  time  joined  George  Henry 
Lewes  (q.v.)  in  a  union,  without  legal  form, 
that  lasted  until  his  death.  'Amos  Barton*, 
the  first  of  the  'Scenes  of  Clerical  Life*, 
appeared  in  'Blackwood's  Magazine*  in  1857, 
followed  by  'Mr.  Gilfil's  Love-Story'  and 


ELIZABETH  OF  HUNGARY 

'Janet's  Repentance*  in  the  same  year;  these 
at  once  excited  admiration  of  her  talent  as  a 
novelist.  'Adam  Bede*  (q.v.)  was  published 
in  1859,  'The  Mill  on  the  Floss*  (q.v.)  in  1860, 
and  'Silas  Marner*  (q.v.)  in  1861.  In  1860 
and  1861  she  visited  Florence,  where  the  story 
of  'Romola*  (q.v.)  was  conceived;  it  was 
published  in  the  'CornhilF  in  1862-3.  'Felix 
Holt*  (q.v.),  her  only  novel  that  deals  with 
English  politics,  appeared  in  1866.  She 
travelled  in  Spain  in  1867  and  her  dramatic 
poem,  'The  Spanish  Gipsy',  appeared  in 
1868,  'Middlemarch*  (q.v.)  was  published 
in  instalments  in  1871-2,  and  'Daniel 
Deronda*  (q.v.),  her  last  great  work,  in  the 
same  way  in  1874-6.  Among  her  less  im- 
portant writings  may  be  mentioned  the 
satirical  'Impressions  of  Theophrastus  Such* 
(1879)  and  the  poems,  'How  Lisa  loved  the 
King*  (1867),  'Agatha*  (1869),  'Armgart' 
(1870),  'The  Legend  of  Jubal'  (1870). 

In  May  1880  she  married  John  Walter 
Cross,  but  died  in  December  of  the  same  year. 
Her  novels  reveal  an  exceptional  sense  of  the 
humour  and  pathos  of  human  life,  a  deep 
religious  conviction  of  the  purifying  effect 
of  human  trials,  and  wide  and  varied 
learning. 

ELIOT,  THOMAS  STEARNS  (1888-  ), 
of  American  birth,  author  and  editor  of  the 
'Criterion',  whose  chief  works  are:  'The 
Waste  Land*  (1922),  'Ash  Wednesday  '  (1930), 
poems  ;  'Homage  to  John  Dryden*  (i  924),  'For 
Lancelot  Andrewes*  (1928),  'Dante*  (1929), 
criticism. 

Eliphaz,  one  of  the  three  candid  friends  of 
Job  (q.v.). 

Elisha,  the  successor  as  prophet  of  Elijah 
(q.v.),  whose  mantle  he  received;  the 
children  that  mocked  him  were  eaten  by 
bears  (2  Kings  ii).  For  his  miracles  (the 
Shunammite's  son,  Naaman's  leprosy,  &c.) 
see  2  Kings  iii  et  seq. 

Elision,  the  suppression  of  a  vowel  or  syllable 
in  pronouncing. 

Elissa,  (i)  a  name  borne  by  Dido  (q.v.); 
(2)  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  11.  ii.  one  of 
the  two  'froward  sisters*  of  the  sober  Medina 


Elivagar,  see  Hvergelmir. 
Eliza,  in  the  'Journal  to  Eliza'  and  'Letters 
from    Yorick    to    EHza*>    was    Mrs.    Eliza 
Draper  (q.v.). 

Elizabeth,  queen  of  England,  1558-1603. 
Elizabeth  and  her   German   Garden,  an 
amusing  and  successful  novel  by  Elizabeth 
Mary,  Countess  Russell,  by  her  first  marriage 
Countess  von  Arnim,  published  in  1898. 
Elizabeth  of  Bohemia,  daughter  of  James  I. 
See  under  Queen  of  Hearts  and  Wotton. 
Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  ST.,  the  wife  of 
Louis,  Landgrave  of  Thuringia  (1207-31) 
the  subject  of  the  dramatic  poem  'The  Saint's 
Tragedy*,  by  C.  Kingsley  (q.v.). 


[255] 


ELIZABETHAN  LITERATURE 

Elizabethan  Literature,  a  name  often  ap- 
plied vaguely  to  the  literature  produced  in 
-die  reign  of  Elizabeth  and  the  first  Stuarts. 

Ellen,  the  heroine  of  the  ballad  of  'Childe 
Waters'  (q.v.). 

ELLEN  ALLEYN,  the  pseudonym  under 
which  C.  Rossetti  (q.v.)  produced  her  earlier 
poems. 

Ellen  Douglas,  the  'Lady  of  the  Lake*  in 
Scott's  poem  of  that  name  (q.v.). 

Ellen  Qrford,  one  of  the  tales  in  Crabbe's 
'The  Borough*  (q.v.).  It  is  the  melancholy 
story  of  a  woman  who,  after  a  neglected  child- 
hood, is  seduced  and  abandoned;  her  child 
turns  out  an  idiot;  she  marries,  her  husband 
dies,  and  his  death  is  followed  by  the  tragic 
end  of  their  children ;  she  herself  is  stricken 
with  blindness,  but  finds  consolation  in  her 
trust  in  God. 
EUesmere,  LORD,  see  Egerton  (Sir  T.). 

Ellieslaw,  RICHARD  VERE,  laird  of,  and  his 
daughter  ISABELLA,  characters  in  Scott's  'The 
Black  Dwarf  (q.v.). 

Elliot,  HOBBIE  or  HALBERT,  a  character  in 
Scott's  cThe  Black  Dwarf*  (q.v,). 

ELLIOT,  JANE  (1727-1805),  third  daughter 
of  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot,  of  Minto,  was  author  of 
the  most  popular  version  of  the  old  lament 
for  Flodden,  'The  Flowers  of  the  Forest*, 
beginning,  'I've  heard  them  lilting  at  our  ewe- 
milking*. 

Elliot,  SIR  WALTER,  his  daughters  ANNE  and 
MARY  (Mrs.  Musgrove), and  his  heir  presump- 
tive WILLIAM  WALTER  ELLIOT,  characters  in 
J.  Austen's  'Persuasion*  (q.v.). 

ELLIOTT,  EBENEZER  (1781-1849),  be- 
came a  master-founder  at  Sheffield,  and  is 
remembered  as  the  'Corn-law  Rhymer*.  As 
poet  he  attracted  the  attention  of  Southey. 
He  bitterly  condemned  the  bread- tax,  to 
which,  in  his  'Corn-Law  Rhymes*  (1828),  he 
attributed  all  national  misfortunes.  His  other 
principal  long  poems  are  'The  Village 
Patriarch'  and  'Love*,  but  he  also  wrote  some 
lyrics  of  much  beauty,  and  the  well-known 
political  'Battle  Song*.  His  verse  was 
collected  in  1846. 

Elliott,  KIRSTIE,  ROBERT,  GILBERT,  CLE- 
MENT, and  ANDREW,  characters  in  R.  L. 
Stevenson's  'Weir  of  Hermiston'  (q.v.). 

Ellipsis,  the  leaving  out  from  a  sentence 
words  necessary  to  express  the  sense  com- 
pletely. 

ELLIS,  GEORGE  (1753-1815),  was  one  of 
the  founders  with  Canning  of  the  'Anti- 
Jacobin*  (q.v.),  after  having  previously  taken 
a  hand  on  the  other  side  in  the  'Rolliad*  (q.v.). 
He  published  in  1805  his  valuable  'Speci- 
mens of  Early  English  Romances  in  Metre*. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Sir  W.  Scott.  His  'Poetical 
Tales  by  Sir  Gregory  Gander3  appeared  in 
1778. 


[356] 


ELY  PLACE 

Ellwood,  THOMAS  (1639-1713),  Quaker  and 
friend  of  Milton  (q.v.),  to  whom  he  suggested 
by  a  chance  remark  the  writing  of  'Paradise 
Regained*  (q.v.). 

Elmo's  Fire,  ST.,  or  CORPOSANT,  the  ball  of 
light  sometimes  seen  about  the^  masts  or 
yard-arms  of  a  ship  in  a  storm.  This  St.  Elmo 
is  said  to  have  been  Pedro  Gonzalez  of  Astorga 
(1190-1240),  a  Dominican  who  devoted  him- 
self to  preaching  to  the  mariners  of  Galicia. 

The  St.  Elmo  of  ST.  ELMO'S  CASTLE  at 
Naples  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of  St.  Ermo, 
or  St.  Erasmus,  an  Italian  bishop  martyred 
under  Domitian  and  a  patron  of  sailors  in  the 
Mediterranean. 

Elohim,  in  Hebrew  a  plural  form  signifying 
'gods*,  but  often  construed  as  singular,  with 
the  sense  'God*.  The  words  'Elohimic*  and 
'Elohistic*  are  applied  to  passages  of  the 
Hebrew  scriptures  characterized  by  the  use 
of  the  word  'Elohim'  instead  of  the  word 
'Yahveh*  (Jehovah,  whence  Jahvistic  or 
Jehovistic). 

Eloi  or  ELOY  (ELIGIUS),  ST.  (588-659),  a 
skilful  goldsmith,  who  was  treasurer  of  the 
French  kings  Clotaire  II  and  Dagobert  I,  and 
became  bishop  of  Noyon.  He  is  the  patron  of 
craftsmen.  'By  Seint  Elpy*  was  the  'greatest 
oath*  of  Chaucer's  Prioress.  His  day  is 
i  December. 

Eloisa  or  HELOISE,  see  Abelard. 

ELPHINSTONE,  MOUNTSTUART 
(1779-1859),  governor  of  Bombay  from  1819 
to  1827,  was  author  of  a  classic  'History  of 
India*  (1841)  and  of  'The  Rise  of  the  British 
Power  in  the  East*  (1887). 
Elshender  the  Recluse,  or  ELSHIE  OF  THE 
MUCKLESTANES,  the  'Black  Dwarf  in  Scott's 
novel  of  that  name  (q.v.). 

Elsinore,  a  seaport  in  Denmark,  on  the 
Sound,  the  scene  of  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet* 
(q.v).  Now  called  Helsingor. 

ELTON,  OLIVER  (1861-  ),  author  of 
'The  Augustan  Ages'  in  'Periods  of  European 
Literature*  (1899),  and  of  three  'Surveys  of 
English  Literature',  viz.  1780-1830  (1912), 
1830-80  (1920),  and  1730-80  (1928). 

Elton,  THE  REV.  PHILIP,  in  Jane  Austen's 
'Emma*  (q.v.),  the  conceited  young  vicar  of 
Highbury.  He  marries  the  rich  ill-bred 
Miss  Hawkins  of  Bristol,  sister  of  Mrs. 
Suckling  of  Maple  Grove. 

Elvira,  (i)  the  heroine  of  Dryden's  'The 
Spanish  Fryar9  (see  under  Dryden);  (2) 
the  mistress  of  Pizarro  in  Sheridan's  'Pizarro* 
(see  under  Sheridan,  R.  £.);  (3)  the  heroine 
of  Victor  Hugo's  'Hernani*  (q.v.).  See  also 
Elvire. 

Elvire,  the  wife  of  Don  Juan  (q.v.).  She 
figures  in  Browning's  'Fifine  at  the  Fair* 
(q.v.). 

Ely  Place,  see  Holborn.  It  is  sometimes 
mentioned  in  allusion  to  Sir  G.  Lewis  (q.v.), 


ELYOT 

of  a  famous  firm  of  solicitors,  which  has  its 
offices  there. 

ELYOT,  SIR  THOMAS  (i499?-i546), 
author  of  the  'Boke  named  the  Govemour', 
published  in  1531,  a  treatise  on  education 
and  politics,  which  displays  the  influence  at 
this  time  of  the  classics,  and  Plato  in  par- 
ticular, and  illustrates  the  evolution  of 
English  prose.  To  this  book  Elyot  owed  his 
appointment  as  ambassador  to  Charles  V. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  other  works,  including 
'The  Doctrine  of  Princes'  (translated  from 
Isocrates,  1534),  'The  Image  of  Governance* 
(translated  from  a  Greek  manuscript  o£ 
Eucolpius,  the  secretary  of  the  Emperor 
Alexander  Severus,  and  first  published  1540), 
and  Platonic  dialogues  and  compilations  from 
the  Fathers.  His  translations  did  much  to 
popularize  the  classics  in  England. 

Elysium,  a  place  or  island  in  the  western 
ocean,  where,  according  to  Greek  mythology, 
the  souls  of  the  virtuous  enjoy  complete 
happiness  and  innocent  pleasures.  Virgil 
places  it  in  Hades. 

Elzevir,  the  name  (properly  ELZEVIER)  of  a 
family  of  printers  at  Amsterdam,  The  Hague, 
Leyden,  and  Utrecht  (1592-1680),  famous 
chiefly  for  their  editions  of  the  classics,  many 
of  which  are  valued  by  collectors. 

Emare,  a  i4th-cent.  verse  romance  of  1,000 
lines.  Emare*  is  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Artyus.  By  the  order  of  her  unnatural  father, 
she  is  cast  adrift  in  a  boat,  clothed  in  a  robe 
beautifully  embroidered  with  four  legends. 
She  is  found  on  the  coast  of  Galys  and  mar- 
ried by  Sir  Cador,  king  of  that  country.  Her 
son  Segramour  is  born.  By  the  wiles  of  the 
king's  mother  she  is  again  cast  adrift  with  her 
son  and  robe,  and  reaches  Rome,  where  she 
is  succoured  by  a  merchant  and  works 
embroidery.  For  seven  years  her  husband 
laments  her,  and  coming  to  Rome  to  do 
penance  is  reunited  with  her. 

Emathia,  a  region  of  Macedonia,  the 
original  seat  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy. 
Hence  'Emathian  conqueror*  for  Alexander 
the  Great  in  Milton's  sonnet,  'When  the 
assault  was  intended  to  the  City'. 

Ember  Days,  four  periods  of  fasting  and 
prayer  appointed  by  the  Church  to  be  ob- 
served respectively  in  the  four  seasons  of  the 
year.  By  the  Council  of  Placentia  (1095)  they 
were  appointed  to  be  the  Wednesday,  Friday, 
and  Saturday  next  following  (i)  the  first 
Sunday  in  Lent,  (2)  Whit-Sunday,  (3)  Holy 
Cross  Day,  14  Sept.,  (4)  St.  Lucia's  Day, 
13  Dec.  The  word  Ember  appears  in  the 
'Laws  of  JEthelred'  as  ymbren,  perhaps  a 
corruption  of  OE.  ymbrine,  period,  revolu- 
tion of  time.  But  it  may  be  due  to  popular 
etymology  working  upon  some  vulgar  Latin 
corruption  of  quatuor  tempora;  cf.  German 
quatember  Ember-tide.  [OED.] 

Emblem-book,   a   book   containing   pic- 

3S68 


EMERSON 

torial  representations  whose  symbolic  mean- 
ing is  expressed  in  words.  This  kind  of 
literature  was  begun  by  Alciati,  a  Milanese, 
whose  'Emblematum  Libellus'  appeared  in 
1522.  The  best  known  of  his  English  fol- 
lowers were  Quarles  and  Wither  (qq.v.). 
Emblematic  verses  sometimes  also  took  the 
form  of  verses  themselves  shaped  in  various 
forms,  such  as  crosses,  altars,  bottles,  &c. 
Wither  for  instance  wrote  a  rhomboidal  dirge. 

Emblems,  a  book  of  short  devotional  poems 
by  Quarles  (q.v.),  published  in  1635. 

The  poems  are  in  various  metres,  each 
based  on  some  scriptural  text,  followed  by 
appropriate  quotations  from  the  Fathers,  and 
an  epigram,  and  illustrated  by  quaint  en- 
gravings, mostly  by  WilliamMarshaUC/Z.  1630- 
50),  and  some  of  them  taken  from  Herman 
Hugo's  *Pia  Desideria',  Some  of  the  poems 
take  the  form  of  dialogues,  e.g.  between  Eve 
and  the  Serpent,  between  Jesus  and  the  Soul, 
and  between  the  Flesh  and  the  Spirit. 

A  'Collection  of  Emblemes'  was  also  pub- 
lished by  Wither  (q.v.),  similarly  illustrated, 
in  1634-5. 

Emblems  of  Lovet  a  volume  of  poems  in 
dramatic  form  by  Abercrombie  (q.v.). 

Emelye,  see  Emilia. 

Emerald  Isle,  Ireland,  so  called  on  account 
of  its  verdure.  Dr.  W.  Drennan  claimed  to 
have  first  used  the  expression  in  his  poem 
'Erin*  (i?9S). 

EMERSON,  RALPH  WALDO  (1803-82), 
philosopher  and  poet,  was  born  in  Concord, 
Mass.,  inheriting  from  his  parents  strong 
religious  and  spiritual  tendencies.  He  was 
educated  at  Harvard,  studied  theology,  was 
ordained,  and  became  pastor  at  Boston,  but 
resigned  his  charge  owing  to  his  views  on  the 
nature  of  the  sacrament,  which  he  was  unable 
to  regard  'as  a  divinely  appointed,  sacred 
ordinance  of  religion'.  He  came  to  Europe 
and  visited  England  in  1833,  meeting 
Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  and  Carlyle.  On 
his  return  to  America  he  lectured  on  litera- 
ture, biography,  history,  and  human  culture, 
and  settled  at  Concord  in  1835.  Emerson's 
prose  essay  'Nature*,  on  the  relation  of  the 
soul  to  nature,  was  published  in  1836,  and 
earned  for  his  philosophical  doctrine  the 
epithet  'transcendental'  (q.v.),  which  signifies 
that  he  was  an  idealist  with  a  tinge  of 
mysticism:  'Nature  is  the  incarnation  of 
thought.  The  world  is  the  mind  precipitated.* 
Emerson  lectured  on  various  reforms  during 
1838-9,  and  was  editor  of  the  idealist 
periodical  'The  Dial*  (q.v.)  until  1844.  In 
this  appeared  his  poems,  'The  Problem', 
'Wood-Notes',  'The  Sphinx*,  and  'Fate'.  In 
1841  was  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
'Essays',  the  second  in  1844,  and  a  collection 
of  poems  in  1847.  The  first  volume  of  the 
'Essays*  contains  his  important  discourses  on 
'Self-Reliance',  'Compensation*,  and  'The 
Over-Soul*.  He  again  came  to  England  in  1847 


EMILIA 

and  delivered  lectures  in  the  following  year. 
'Representative  Men'  was  published  in  1850, 
and  'English  Traits*  in  1856.  During  this 
period  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  anti- 
slavery  campaign.  From  1 857  he  contributed 
poems  and  prose  (including  'The  Roman 
Girl',  'Terminus*,  &c.)  to  the  'Atlantic 
Monthly*,  of  which  James  Russell  Lowell 
was  editor.  'The  Conduct  of  Life',  a  series  of 
essays  on  Worship,  Fate,  Power,  Wealth,  &c., 
appeared  in  1860;  the  poem  'May-Day*  in 
1867;  the  essay  'Society:  Solitude'  in  1870; 
'Letters  and  Social  Aims'  in  1876.  'Miscel- 
lanies* and  'Lectures  and  Biographical 
Sketches'  were  published  posthumously. 
His  'Journals*,  published  in  1909-14,  contain 
records  of  his  self-communion  and  observa- 
tions on  men  and  books,  as  well  as  chronicles 
of  daily  events. 

Emilia,  (i)  the  lady  loved  by  Palamon  and 
Arcite,  the  EMELYE  of  the  'Knight's  Tale* 
(see  Canterbury  Tales),  who  figures  also  in 
Fletcher's  'Two  Noble  Kinsmen*  (q.v.);  (2) 
in  Shakespeare's  'Othello*  (q.v.),  the  wife  of 
lago. 

Emilia  in  England,  see  Sandra  Bettoni, 
Emilia  Viviani,  see  Epipsychidion. 

Em'ly,  LITTLE,  a  character  in  Dickens  *s 
'David  Copperfield'  (q.v.). 

Emma,  a  novel  by  J.  Austen  (q.v.),  begun  in 
1814  and  published  in  1816. 

Emma,   a  clever  and  very  self-satisfied 
young  lady,  is  the  daughter,  and  mistress  of 
the  house,  of  Mr.  Woodhouse,  an  amiable 
old  valetudinarian.    Her  former  governess 
and  companion,  Miss  Taylor,  beloved  of 
both  father  arid  daughter,  has  just  left  them 
to  marry  a  neighbour,  Mr.  Weston.  Missing 
her  companionship,  Emma  takes  under  her 
wing    Harriet    Smith,    parlour-boarder    at 
Mrs.  Goddard's  school  in  the  neighbouring 
village  of  Highbury,  the  natural  daughter  of 
some  person  unknown,  a  pretty  but  foolish 
girl  of  17.  Emma's  active  mind  sets  to  work 
on  schemes  for  Harriet's  advancement,  and 
the    story    is    mainly    occupied    with    the 
mortifications  to  which  Emma  is  subjected 
as  a  result  of  her  injudicious  attempts  in  this 
connexio2i.jShe  first  prevents  Harriet  from 
'^CXSp^S^ain  eligible  offer  from  Robert  Mar- 
tin, a  young  farmer,  as  being  beneath  her; 
much  to  the  annoyance  of  Mr.  Knightley, 
the    bachelor    owner    of   Donwell    Abbey, 
Martin's  landlord,  the  friend  of  the  Wood- 
houses,  and  one  of  the  few  people  who  could 
see  faults  in  Emma.  She  has  hopes  of  effect- 
ing a  match  between  Harriet  and  Mr.  Elton, 
the  young  vicar,   only  to   find  that  Elton 
despises  Harriet,  and  has  the  presumption  to 
aspire  to  her  own  hand.  Frank  Churchill,  the 
son  of  Mr.  Weston  by  a  former  marriage,  an 
attractive  but  thoughtless  young  man,  now 
appears  on  the  scene.  Emma  at  first  fancies 
him  in  love  with  herself,  but  presently  thinks 
that  Harriet  might  attract  him,   and   en- 


ENCELADUS 

courages  her  not  to  despair,  encouragement 
which  Harriet  applies  not  to  Frank  Church- 
ill, of  whom  she  has  no  thought,  but  to  the 
great  Mr.  Knightley  himself,  with  whom 
Emma  is  unconsciously  in  love.  Emma  has 
the  double  mortification  of  discovering,  first 
that  Frank  Churchill  is  already  secretly 
engaged  to  Jane  Fairfax,  niece  of  Miss  Bates, 
the  kindly  garrulous  daughter  of  a  former 
vicar  of  Highbury,  and  secondly  that  Harriet 
has  hopes,  which  appear  to  have  some  founda- 
tion, of  supplanting  her  in  Mr.  Knightley's 
affections.  But  all  ends  well,  for  Mr. 
Knightley  proposes  to  a  humiliated  and 
repentant  Emma,  and  Harriet  is  easily  con- 
soled with  Robert  Martin,  on  his  proposing 
to  her  a  second  time. 

Emmaus,  a  village  'about  threescore  fur- 
longs from  Jerusalem',  to  which  two  of  the 
disciples  were  going  on  the  day  of  the 
Resurrection,  when  Jesus  himself  drew  near 
and  went  with  them  (Luke  xxiv). 

Empe'dScles,  a  learned  and  eloquent 
philosopher,  of  Agrigentum  in  Sicily,  who 
flourished  about  444  B.C.  It  is  said  that  his 
curiosity  to  visit  the  crater  of  Etna  proved 
fatal  to  him,  a  legend  to  which  Milton  refers 
in  'Paradise  Lost*,  iii.  471,  Lamb  in  'All  Fools* 
Day3,  and  Meredith  in  'Empedocles'. 
Matthew  Arnold  (q.v.)  also  wrote  a  dramatic 
poem  'Empedocles  on  Etna*  (first  published 
anonymously  in  1852),  in  which  the  philoso- 
pher, once  powerful  in  Sicily,  but  now  'the 
weary  man,  the  banished  citizen',  climbs  to 
the  summit  of  the  mountain  resolved  to  die. 
He  muses  on  man's  mediocre  lot  and  his 
own  happier  days,  and  speculates  on  the  fate 
of  the  soul  after  death,  before  plunging  into 
the  crater. 
Empedocles  on  Etna,  see  Empedocles. 

'  Empire,  (i)  the  ROMAN,  a  term  applied  to  the 
period  of  the  rule  of,  or  to  the  territories  ruled 
by,  the  Roman  Emperors,  beginning  with 
Augustus  Caesar  (27  B.C.).  The  Roman 
Empire  was  divided  into  Eastern  and  Western 
(qq.v.)  Empires  in  A.D.  395;  see  also  Holy 
Roman  Empire.  (2)  The  FIRST,  of  France, 
Napoleon  I  emperor,  1804-1 5 ;  (3)  the  SECOND, 
of  France,  Napoleon  III  emperor,  1852-70; 
(4)  the  INDIAN,  instituted  in  1876,  when 
Queen  Victoria  was  proclaimed  Empress  of 
India;  and  many  others. 
Empire  State,  New  York,  see  United  States. 
Empire  State  of  the  South,  Georgia,  see 
United  States. 

Empyrean,  THE,  in  ancient  cosmology,  the 
highest  heaven,  the  sphere  of  the  pure 
element  fire  (from  the  Greek  IjitTrv/Jos1,  fiery). 
In  Christian  use,  the  abode  of  God  and  the 
angels. 

Enceladus,  a  son  of  Tartarus  and  Ge,  one 
of  the  hundred-handed  giants  who  made  war 
on  the  gods.  According  to  one  version  of  the 
legend,  he  was  killed  by  the  lightning  of  Zeus, 
and  buried  under  Mt.  Etna. 


[258] 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA  BRITANNICA 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  The  word  en~ 
cyclopaedia  means  instruction  in  the  whole 
circle  of  learning.  Among  early  precursors  of 
the  E.B.  ^may  be  mentioned  the  'Grand 
Dictipnnaire*  of  More"ri  (1643-80),  the 
'Dictionnaire  historique  et  critique'  of 
Bayle  (1647-1706),  and  the  great  French 
'Encyclopedic*  (q.v.)  of  the  i8th  cent. 

The  first  'Encyclopaedia  Britannica'  was 
issued  by  a  'Society  of  Gentlemen  in  Scot- 
land* in  numbers  (1768-71),  the  editor  be- 
ing William  Smellie,  a  printer,  afterwards 
secretary  of  the  Society  of  Scottish  Anti- 
quaries. It  was  a  dictionary  of  the  Arts  and 
Sciences.  The  second  edition  (1777-84),  in 
ten  volumes,  added  history  and  biography. 
The  third  edition,  in  fifteen  volumes, 
appeared  in  1788-97;  and  the  fourth  edition, 
in  twenty  volumes,  in  1801-10.  The  under- 
taking was  taken  over  by  Constable  in  1812, 
and  the  copyright  sold  after  the  failure  of  that 
house  in  1826.  After  some  further  editions 
it  passed  to  Cambridge  University  for  the 
publication  in  1910-11  of  the  eleventh 
edition  in  28  volumes.  [E.BJ  The  tenth  and 
eleventh  editions  were  by  H.  E.  Hooper.  The 
fourteenth  edition,  under  the  editorship-in- 
chief  of  Mr.  J.  L.  Garvin,  was  published  in 
London  and  New  York  in  1929.  See  also 
Chambers's  Encyclopaedia. 

Encyclopaedists,  the  collaborators  in  the 
Encyclopedic  (q.v.)  of  Diderot  and  D'Alem- 
bert. 

Encyclopedic)  L9,  an  encyclopaedia  pub- 
lished under  the  direction  of  Diderot  and 
D'Alembert,  (qq.v.)  in  35  volumes,  between 
1751  and  1776.  It  originated  in  a  French 
translation  of  Ephraim  Chambers's  'Cyclo- 
paedia* (1728).  Its  contributors  included 
Voltaire,  Montesquieu,  J.  J.  Rousseau, 
Buffon,  Turgot,  and  other  brilliant  writers. 
It  embodied  the  philosophic  spirit  of  the 
1 8th  cent.,  and  its  attempt  to  give  a  rational 
explanation  of  the  universe  is  marked  by 
love  of  truth  and  contempt  for  superstition. 
Its  sceptical  tendencies  brought  upon  it  the 
hostility  of  the  clergy  and  official  classes,  and 
its  publication  was  twice  prohibited. 

Endeavour,  The,  Captain  Cook's  ship  on  his 
first  voyage  to  the  Pacific. 

Endimion,  The  Man  in  the  Moone,  an 
allegorical  prose  play  by  Lyly  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished 1591.  Endimion  abandons  Tellus  (the 
earth)  in  consequence  of  a  hopeless  passion 
for  Cynthia  (the  moon).  Tellus  conspires 
with  the  witch  Dipsas  against  Endimion, 
who  is  sent  to  sleep  for  forty  years.  ^Cynthia 
breaks  the  spell  and  releases  Endimion  with 
a  kiss.  The  dramatic  element  is  slight,  the 
allegory  perhaps  relating  to  the  rivalry 
between  Elizabeth  (Cynthia)  and  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  (Tellus),  and  the  favour  of 
Elizabeth  for  Leicester  (Endimion).  This  is 
supplemented  by  subordinate  allegories  in 
the  quarrel  of  the  witch  Dipsas  and  her 
husband  Geron  (the  earl  and  countess  of 


ENDYMION 

Shrewsbury),  and  the  relations  of  Eumenides 
(perhaps  Sir  Philip  Sidney)  with  Semele 
(perhaps  Lady  Rich). 

Bndor,  THE  WITCH  OF,  the  woman  with  *a 
familiar  spirit*  consulted  by  Saul,  when  for- 
saken of  God  and  threatened  by  the  Philis- 
tines. At  his  request  she  calls  up  Samuel, 
who  prophesies  die  death  of  Saul  and  the 
destruction  of  his  army  (i  Sam.  xxviii). 

Endymion,  a  beautiful  shepherd,  of  whom 
Selene  (Diana)  became  enamoured  when  she 
saw  him  sleeping  on  Mt.  Latinos.  She  caused 
him  to  sleep  for  ever  that  she  might  enjoy  his 
beauty,  whence  the  proverb,  'Endymionis 
somnum  dormire*,  to  signify  a  long  sleep. 
According  to  another  version  he  obtained 
from  Zeus  eternal  youth  and  the  gift  of 
sleeping  as  long  as  he  wished. 

Endymion,  a  poem  in  four  books,  by  Keats 
(q.v.),  published  in  1818. 

The  poem  tells,  and  develops  with  a  wealth 
of  invention,  the  story  of  Endymion,  the 
'brain-sick  shepherd-prince'  of  Mt.  Latmos, 
with  whom  the  moon  goddess  (Cynthia, 
Phoebe)  falls  in  love,  and  whom,  after  luring 
him,  weary  and  perplexed,  through  'cloudy 
phantasms',  she  bears  away  to  eternal  life 
with  her.  With  this  story  is  mingled  the 
legends  of  Venus  and  Adonis,  of  Glaucus 
and  Scylla,  and  of  Arethusa.  The  poem  in- 
cludes in  Bk.  I  the  great  'Hymn  to  Pan',  and 
in  Bk.  TV  the  beautiful  roundelay  *O  sorrow*. 

In  his  preface,  Keats  described  this  work 
as  *a  feverish  attempt  rather  than  a  deed 
accomplished*.  It  is  the  work  of  an  immature 
genius,  the  product  of  sensation  rather  than 
thought.  The  allegory,  which  is  somewhat 
obscure,  represents  the  poet  pursuing  ideal 
perfection  and  distracted  from  his  quest  by 
human  beauty.  The  poem  was  violently 
attacked  in  'Blackwood's  Magazine'  and  the 
'Quarterly'. 

Endymion,  a  novel  by  Disraeli  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1880. 

This  was  the  last  of  the  author's  novels. 
Endymion  and  Myra  are  the  twin  children 
of  William  Pitt  Ferrars,  a  rising  politician, 
who,  when  on  the  point  of  reaching  cabinet 
rank,  is  overtaken  by  misfortune,  and,  after  a 
period  spent  in  retirement,  dies  penniless. 
Endymion  is  withdrawn  from  Eton  and  ob- 
tains a  clerkship  at  Somerset  House;  Myra 
becomes  companion  to  Adriana,  the  daughter 
of  the  rich  and  genial  banker  Adrian  Neu- 
chatel  (subsequently  Lord  Hainault).  The 
author  traces  the  rise  to  social  eminence  of 
Myra,  a  beautiful,  proud,  ambitious,  and 
determined  woman,  and  to  political  eminence 
of  Endymion,  a  clever  and  amiable,  but  more 
passive  character.  Myra's  success  is  due  to 
her  captivating  and  marrying  first  Lord 
Roehampton,  the  foreign  secretary,  and 
secondly  the  parvenu  monarch,  King 
Florestan.  Endymion  owes  his  successless 
to  his  own  ability  than  to  the  support  given 
him  by  his  brother-in-law,  Lord  Roehampton, 


[259] 


S2 


ENGLAND  EXPECTS 

and  to  the  influence  exerted  on  him  by  his 
imperious  sister  and  by  Lady  Monmouth, 
a  leader  of  political  society,  whom  he  marries 
on  the  death  of  her  first  husband.  The  story- 
provides  a  succession  of  cleverly  drawn 
characters  and  of  entertaining  pictures  of 
life  in  high  social  and  political  spheres.  The 
period  dealt  with  is,  in  the  main,  that  of 
the  administrations  of  Lord  Melbourne  and 
Sir  Robert  Peel  (1834-41),  and  Lord  Roe- 
hampton  is  a  thinly  veiled  portrait  of  Lord 
Palmerston. 

In  the  title  of  this  novel,  Buckle,  Disraeli's 
biographer,  sees  a  possible  compliment  to 
Selina,  Lady  Bradford,  the  Endymion  of 
mythology  being  a  lover  of  the  moon 
(Selene). 

England  expects  that  every  man  will  do 
Ms  duty,  Nelson's  famous  signal  before  the 
battle  of  Trafalgar. 

England's  Helicon ,  a  miscellany  of  Eliza- 
bethan verse,  published  in  1600,  edited  by 
Bullen  in  1887  and  included  in  Arber's 
'English  Scholar's  Library*.  It  is  the  best 
collection  of  lyrical  and  pastoral  poetry  of  the 
Elizabethan  age,  and  includes  pieces  by 
Sidney,  Spenser,  Drayton,  Green,  Lodge, 
Ralegh,  Marlowe,  and  others. 
England's  Parnassus,  a  collection  of  extracts 
from  contemporary  poets,  by  R.  Allot, 
published  in  1600. 

English,  originally  the  dialect  of  the  Angles 
(the  first  to  be  committed  to  writing),  and 
extended  to  all  the  dialects  of  the  vernacular, 
whether  Anglian  or  Saxon.  OLD  ENGLISH  or 
ANGLO-SAXON  is  the  English  language  of  the 
period  which  ends  about  1100—50;  followed 
by  MIDDLE  ENGLISH  during  the  period  to 
about  1500;  and  after  this  by  MODERN 
ENGLISH,  which  derives  from  the  East  Midland 
dialect,  especially  that  of  London.  KING'S 
or  QUEEN'S  ENGLISH  is  correct  grammatical 
English. 

Abusing  of  God's  patience  and  the  king's 
English. 
(Shakespeare,  'Merry  Wives',  I.  iv.  5.) 

English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers,  a 
satirical  poem  in  heroic  couplets  by  Lord 
Byron  (q.v.),  published  in  1809. 

^  Nettled  by  a  contemptuous  criticism  on 
his  'Hours  of  Idleness*  in  the  'Edinburgh 
Review',  Byron  wrote  this  vigorous  satire,  in 
which  he  attacks  not  only  Jeffrey,  the  editor 
of  the  'Review5,  but  Southey,  Scott,  Words- 
worth, and  Coleridge,  and  tilts  indiscrimi- 
nately at  all  the  poets  and  poetasters  of  the 
romantic  school,  while  holding  up  to  admira- 
tion Dryden  and  Pope,  and  their  followers, 
Campbell  and  Rogers,  in  the  classical 
tradition. 

English  Place-Name  Society,  THE, 
founded  in  1923  to  carry  out  the  survey  of 
English  place-names  inaugurated  under  the 
auspices  of  the  British  Academy  in  1922. 
One  volume  of  the  Survey  is  published 
annually. 


[260] 


ENNIUS 

English  Poets,  Lives  of  the,  originally  en- 
titled Trefaces  biographical  and  critical  to 
the  Works  of  the  English  Poets.  By  Samuel 
Johnson*  (q.v.)>  published  in  1779-81. 

The  work  was  undertaken  at  the  request 
of  certain  London  booksellers,  to  serve  as 
biographical  prefaces  to  a  reprint,  which  they 
contemplated,  of  the  works  of  the  English 
poets.  The  selection  of  the  poets  was  made 
by  them  and  includes  authors  of  very  differ- 
ent merit,  and  no  poet  earlier  than  Milton. 
The  'Lives'  contain  much  interesting  bio- 
graphical matter,  but  are  not  always  trust- 
worthy and  have  been  superseded  in  this 
respect.  The  criticism  is  unequal.  At  its 
best,  it  is  some  of  the  finest  in  the  language; 
it  is  at  its  worst  when  Johnson  is  dealing  with 
authors  with  whom  he  is  out  of  sympathy, 
such  as  Milton  and  Gray.  His  condemnation 
of  Milton's  'Lycidas'  on  the  grounds  of  its 
artificiality  and  insincerity  is  well  known. 

English  Traveller,  The,  a  romantic  drama  by 
T.  Heywood  (q.v.),  printed  in  1623. 

Geraldine,  returning  from  his  travels, 
finds  that  the  lady  whom  he  loves  has  been 
married  to  Wincot,  a  worthy  old  gentleman, 
to  whom  he  is  under  obligations.  He  and  the 
lady  bind  themselves,  she  that  she  will  marry 
him  after  Wincot's  death,  he  that  he  will 
remain  single  till  then.  A  base  plot  by  his 
treacherous  friend  Delavil  leads  to  Geraldine's 
discovery  that  Delavil  has  seduced  Wincot's 
wife.  Heartbroken,  Geraldine  decides  to 
leave  the  country.  Before  doing  so  he 
attends  a  farewell  feast  given  him  by  Wincot. 
Wincot's  wife  hypocritically  taxes  him  with 
his  desertion  of  her,  whereupon  he  reveals 
his  discovery  and  upbraids  her  as  an  adul- 
teress. She,  in  contrition  and  despair,  dies. 

There  is  a  humorous  under-plot,  borrowed 
from  the  'Mostellaria*  of  Plautus:  the 
prodigal  son  -who  wastes  his  father's  sub- 
stance on  a  voyage,  the  father's  unexpected 
return,  the  tricks  of  a  resourceful  servant  to 
postpone  the  discovery  of  the  prodigal's 
doings,  and  the  final  pardon  and  general 
reconciliation. 

Enid,  see  Geraint  and  Enid. 

Enitharmpn,  in  the  mystical  poems  of  Blake 
(q.v.),  a  minister  of  Urizen  (q.v.) ;  she  con- 
veys his  moral  laws  to  mankind.  In  some 
parts  she  is  the  equivalent  of  Space,  and 
nearly  always  the  feminine  counterpart  of 
Los  (q.v.). 

Enjambment,  a  technical  term  in  verse, 
signifying  the  carrying  on  the  sense  of  a  line 
or  couplet  into  the  next. 

Enna,  the  name  of  the  vale  in  Sicily  in  which 
Proserpine  (q.v.)  was  gathering  flowers  when 
she  was  carried  off  by  Pluto. 
Enneads,  see  Plotinus. 

ENNIUS,  QUINTUS  (239-169  B.C.),  born 
in  Calabria,  of  Greek  family  but  a  Roman 
subject  Ennius  was  the  originator  of  Roman 
epic  poetry,  introducing  the  hexameter  and 


ENOBARBUS 

the  Homeric  mode  of  treatment,  in  which 
he  was  followed  by  Virgil.  His  most  im- 
portant work  was  'Annaliuin  Libri  xviii*,  a 
history  of  Rome  from  the  arrival  of  Aeneas  in 
Italy,  in  the  form  of  an  epic  poem  in  dactylic 
hexameters.  Only  fragments  survive. 

Enobarbus  [TDomitius  Ahenobarbus],  in 
Shakespeare's  'Antony  and  Cleopatra*  (q.v.), 
Antony's  follower. 

Enoch,  the  sixth  in  descent  from  Adam 
and  father  of  Methuselah;  he  did  not  die, 
but  was  translated  to  heaven  (Gen.  v.  24). 
To  his  authorship  are  ascribed  two  apocry- 
phal works,  the  'Book  of  Enoch'  and  the 
'Book  of  the  Secrets  of  Enoch*.  The  former 
is  an  important  collection  of  Pharisaic  frag- 
ments, dating  from  the  2nd  or  ist  cent.  B.C. 
The  second  is  of  later  date  and  was  perhaps 
written  by  a  Hellenistic  Jew  of  Alexandria. 
These  writings  deal  with  a  multitude  of 
subjects,  astronomical,  physical,  historical, 
and  apocalyptic. 

Enoch  Arden,  a  poem  by  A.  Tennyson  (q.v.), 
published  in  1864. 

Enoch  Arden,  Philip  Ray,  and  Annie  Lee 
are  children  together  in  a  little  seaport  town. 
Both  the  boys  love  Annie,  but  Enoch,  more 
resolute,  wins  her,  and  they  live  happily  for 
some  years,  till  Enoch,  under  temporary 
adversity,  accepts  an  offer  to  go  as  boatswain 
in  a  merchantman.  He  is  shipwrecked  and 
for  more  than  ten  years  nothing  is  heard  of 
him.  Annie  is  reduced  to  poverty,  and  Philip, 
who  has  faithfully  loved  her  throughout, 
convinced  of  the  death  of  Enoch,  renews 
his  wooing  and  finally  makes  her  his  wife. 
Then  Enoch,  rescued  from  a  lonely  island, 
returns.  He  witnesses,  unknown,  the  happi- 
ness of  Annie  and  his  children  and  Philip. 
Broken-hearted,  he  finds  strength  to  resolve 
that  they  shall  not  know  of  his  return  until 
after  his  death. 

Enquiry  concerning  Human  Understanding, 
by  Hume,  see  Treatise  of  Human  Nature. 

Enquiry  concerning  the  Principles  of 
Morals,  by  Hume,  see  Treatise  of  Human 

Nature. 

Enquiry  into  the  Present  State  of  Polite 
Learning f  An,  a  treatise  by  Goldsmith  (q.v.), 
published  in  1759- 

This  was  Goldsmith's  first  considerable 
piece  of  writing,  but  the  subject  was  hardly 
suited  to  his  genius.  In  it  he  examines  the 
causes  of  the  decline  of  polite  learning  from 
ancient  times,  through  the  dark  ages,  to  its 
present  state  in  France,  Italy,  Holland,  Ger- 
many, and  England.  He  attributes  the  existing 
literary  decay  in  England  to  the  pedantry, 
solemnity,  and  lack  of  naturalness  of  poets, 
to  the  restrictions  to  which  dramatic  writers 
are  subject,  and  to  the  defective  system  of  the 
English  universities. 

Entail>  The,  a  novel  by  Gait  (q-y-)>  published 
in  1823,  the  story  of  the  iniquitous  dis- 
inheritance, by  Claud  Walkinshaw,  a  success- 


EPICEDE 

ful  packman,  of  his  eldest  son  in  favour  of 
his  second  son,  a  'natural',  because  he  is 
enabled  thereby  to  reconstitute  the  ancestral 
property  of  the  Walkinshaws.  The  disastrous 
consequences  of  this  unnatural  act  recoil  on 
himself,  and  on  his  children  and  grand- 
children. The  melancholy  story  is  enlivened 
by  many  racy  and  humorous  passages,  such 
as  the  description  of  the  judicial  inquiry  into 
the  fatuity  of  the  'natural*,  and  by  the 
admirable  portraits  of  the  Walkinshaw 
family. 

Entelechy,  an  Aristotelian  term  meaning  the 
realization  or  complete  expression  of  some 
function ;  used  by  later  writers  to  signify  that 
which  gives  perfection  to  anything,  the  in- 
forming spirit,  the  soul.  In  Rabelais,  v.  xix, 
'Entelechy'  is  the  kingdom  of  the  lady 
Quintessence. 

Entente  Cordiale,  THE,  the  political  under- 
standing between  Great  Britain  and  France 
established  about  1904.  It  was  rendered 
possible  by  the  agreement  arrived  at  in  that 
year  on  certain  outstanding  subjects  of  dis- 
pute, notably  Egypt  and  Morocco. 

Eolus,  see  Aeolus. 
Eos,  see  Aurora. 
Eothen,  see  Kingldke. 

Ephesians,  inhabitants  of  Ephesus,  a  word 
used  by  Shakespeare  ('z  Henry  IV*,  n.  ii, 
'Merry  Wives*,  rv.  v)  for  boon  companions. 
Shakespeare  uses  'Corinthian*  (q.v.)  in  much 
the  same  sense. 

For  'Diana  of  the  Ephesians*  see  Diana. 

Ephesus,  SEVEN  SLEEPERS  OF,  see  Seven 
Sleepers  of  Ephesus. 

Ephialtes,  a  demon  supposed  to  cause 
nightmare,  probably  derived  from  a  Greek 
verb  meaning  'to  leap  upon*. 

Epic,  AN,  a  poem  that  celebrates  in  the  form 
of  a  continuous  narrative  the  achievements  of 
one  or  more  heroic  personages  of  history  or 
tradition.  Among  the  great  epics  of  the  world 
may  be  mentioned  the  'Iliad*,  'Odyssey*,  and 
'Aeneid*  of  classical,  and  the  'Mahabharata* 
and  'Ramayana*  of  Hindu  literature;  the 
Chanson  de  Roland;  the  'Poema  del  Cid*; 
Milton's  'Paradise  Lost;  Boiardo's  'Orlando 
Innamorato*;  Ariosto's  'Orlando  Furioso*; 
Tasso's  'Gerasalemme  Liberata';  and  Ca- 
moens's  'Lusiads*  (qq.v.). 

Epic  of  Hades,  The,  a  poem  in  blank  verse 
by  Sir  L.  Morris  (q.v.),  published  in  1876-7. 
It  consists  of  monologues  put  in  the 
mouths  of  some  of  the  principal  characters  of 
Greek  mythology,  such  as  Marsyas,  Helen, 
Psyche,  Andromeda,  Narcissus,  Laocoon, 
whom  the  poet  encounters  as  he  visits 
successively  Tartarus,  Hades,  and  Olympus. 

Epic  of  the  Wheat,    The,  name  given  an 
unfinished  trilogy  by  the  American  author 
Frank  Norris  (q.v.). 
Epicede  or  EPICEDIUM,  a  funeral  ode. 


[261] 


EPICCENE 

Epic&ne,  or  The  Silent  Woman,  a  comedy  by 
Jonson  (q.v.),  first  acted  in  1609,  and  one 
of  the  most  popular  of  his  dramas.  Morose, 
an  egotistic  bachelor  with  an  insane  aversion 
to  noise,  proposes  to  disinherit  his  nephew 
Sir  Dauphine  Eugenie,  whom  he  suspects  of 
ridiculing  him,  and  to  marry,  if  he  can  find 
a  Silent  Woman,  Cutbeard,  his  barber  has 
found  such  a  one  in  Epiccene.  Immediately 
after  the  marriage  Epicoene  recovers  the 
vigorous  use  of  her  tongue,  to  the  dismay  of 
Morose,  which  is  increased  by  the  arrival 
of  his  nephew  and  friends,  with  a  party  of 
'Collegiate  Ladies'  and  musicians  to  cele- 
brate the  bridal.  Driven  frantic  by  the 
hubbub,  and  having  in  vain  consulted  a 
pseudo-divine  and  a  canon  lawyer  as  to 
possible  grounds  of  divorce,  he  accepts  his 
nephew's  offer  to  rid  him  of  Epicoene  for 
five  hundred  pounds  a  year  and  the  reversion 
of  his  property.  Whereupon  Sir  Dauphine 
pulls  off  Epicoene's  peruke  and  reveals  her  as 
a  boy  whom  he  has  trained  for  the  part  (the 
word  'Epicene*  means  'with  characteristics  of 
either  sex')- 

Among  the  characters  who  contribute  to 
the  humour  of  the  play  are  Captain  Otter, 
who  always  speaks  under  correction  when  his 
wife  is  present;  Sir  Amorous  La-Foole,  a 
braggart  and  coward ;  the  Collegiate  Ladies, 
(q.v.),  and  Sir  John  Daw,  a  braggart  knight, 
who  pretends  to  learning  and  collects  the 
titles  of  classical  works  without  knowing 
their  contents. 

Epictetus,  Stoic  philosopher  (ist  cent. 
A.D.)  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia,  a  freedman  of 
Epaphroditus,  himself  a  freedman  of  Nero. 
He  taught  at  Rome  and  subsequently  at 
Nicopolis  in  Epirus,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
lame  and  poor.  He  wrote  nothing  himself, 
and  the  'Enchiridion*,  or  collection  of  his 
principles,  was  compiled  by  his  disciple 
Arrian  (q.v.).  According  to  Epictetus,  virtue 
consists  in  endurance  and  abstinence.  Eiches 
and  honours  are  foreign  to  man  and 
independent  of  him;  but  the  true  good  and 
evil  of  life  are  within  his  control. 

Epicurean,  The,  a  prose  romance  by  T. 
Moore  (q.v.),  published  in  1827. 

This  is  the  story  of  Alciphron,  a  Greek 
Epicurean  philosopher,  who  goes  to  Egypt  in 
A.D.  257  to  learn  the  secret  of  eternal  life. 
He  there  assists  a  young  Egyptian  priestess, 
Alethe,  who  is  secretly  a  Christian,  to  escape. 
By  her  and  by  an  anchorite  he  is  converted  to 
Christianity.  Alethe  suffers  martyrdom,  and 
Alciphron  himself  is  sentenced  to  hard 
labour  and  dies  in  the  mines. 

EPICURUS  (343-270  B.C.),  the  founder  of 
the  school  of  philosophy  that  bears  his  name, 
was  the  son  of  an  Athenian  father.  He  was 
brought  up  in  Samos,  and  after  teaching 
philosophy  in  various  places  finally  estab- 
lished his  school  in  Athens.  His  will  and 
some  fragments  of  his  writings  survive,  but 
his  philosophy  may  be  best  read  in  the  'De 
Rerum  Natura*  of  Lucretius.  He  adopted 


EPISTOLAE  OBSCURORUM  VIRORUM 
the  atomic  theory  of  Democritus  (q.v.),  con- 
cerning the  universe,  and  in  ethics  regards 
the  absence  of  pain — arapagta,  or  repose  of 
mind — as  the  greatest  good.  Since  virtue 
produces  this  repose,  it  is  virtue  that  we 
should  pursue. 

Epidaurus,  a  town  on  the  NE.  coast  of  the 
Peloponnese  and  a  centre  of  the  worship  of 
Aesculapius  (q.v.),  whom  Milton  refers  to  as 
'the  God  in  Epidaurus'  ('Par.  Lost',  ix.  506). 
Epig6nl,  'the  Descendants',  the  name  given 
in  Greek  mythology  to  the  sons  of  the  seven 
heroes  who  perished  in  the  expedition  against 
Thebes  (see  Eteocles).  Ten  years  after  this 
expedition  the  Epigoni,  led  by  Adrastus  (q.v.), 
attacked  Thebes  to  avenge  their  fathers,  and 
razed  it  to  the  ground.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  the  heirs  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
Epigram,  originally  an  inscription,  usually 
in  verse,  e.g.  on  a  tomb ;  hence  a  short  poem 
ending  in  a  witty  or  ingenious  turn^  of 
thought;  hence  a  pointed  or  antithetical 
saying. 

EPIMfeNIDES,  a  Cretan  poet  and  sooth- 
sayer, who  visited  Athens  in  596  B.C.  and 
delivered  the  city  from  a  plague  by  the  purifi- 
cation that  he  effected.  Legend  relates  that 
while  tending  his  father's  flocks  in  his  boy- 
hood, he  one  day  entered  a  cave,  fell  asleep, 
and  did  not  awake  for  57  years,  when  to  his 
surprise  he  found  his  brother  grown  an  old 
man.  The  quotation  in  Titus  i.  12,  Kptfres 
ad  ^eSorat,  £c.,  is  said  to  be  from  his  works. 
Epimetheus,  a  son  of  lapetus  and  Clymene, 
and  brother  of  Prometheus  (q.v.).  Less  wise 
than  his  brother,  he  married  Pandora  (q.v.) 
and  opened  her  box,  whence  issued  the  train 
of  evils  which  have  since  vexed  mankind. 

Epiphany,  THE,  meaning  'manifestation*, 
the  festival  commemorating  the  manifesta- 
tion of  Christ  to  the  Gentiles  in  the  persons 
of  the  Magi;  observed  on  6  Jan.  Hence 
twelfth-night',  the  festival  of  the  'Three 
Kings'. 

Epipsychidion,  a  poem  by  P.  B.  Shelley 
(q.v.),  published  in  1821. 

The  poem  is  addressed  to  Emilia  Viviani, 
a  lady  in  whom  the  poet  thought  he  had 
found  the  visionary  soul  in  perfect  harmony 
with  his  own  ('Epipsychidion'  would  mean  *a 
soul  upon  a  soul*,  that  is  'a  soul  that  is 
complementary  to  a  soul').  The  poem  is  an 
exposition  and  defence  of  free  love,  not  only 
Platonic  but  passionate. 

Episfofae  Obscurorum  Virorum  (eEpistles 
of  Obscure  Men5),  published  in  1515-17,  are 
an  anonymous  collection  of  letters  in  medieval 
Latin  purporting  to  be  written  by  various 
bachelors  and  masters  in  theology  to  Ortuinus 
Gratius,  a  famous  opponent  of  the  new 
learning,  in  which  they  incidentally  expose 
themselves  to  ridicule  and  to  scurrilous 
charges.  They  are  attributed  principally  to 
Ulrich  von  Hutten  (1488-1523),  soldier, 
humanist,  and  supporter  of  Luther,  and  were 


[262] 


EPITHALAMION 

written  in  connexion  with  the  celebrated 
Reuchlin-Pfefferkorn  (qq.v.)  controversy. 

Epithalamion,  a  splendid  hymn  by  Spenser 
(q.v.),  perhaps  in  celebration  of  his  marriage 
with  Elizabeth  Boyle  in  1594.  The  poem  was 
printed  with  the  'Amoretti'  (q.v.)  1111595.  The 
name  is  Greek,  'upon  the  bride  chamber*. 

Epode,  (i)  a  kind  of  lyric  poem  invented  by 
Archilochus,  in  which  a  long  line  is  followed 
by  a  shorter  one,  in  metres  different  from  the 
elegiac  (q.v.),  as  in  Horace's  'Epodes*;  (2) 
the  part  of  a  lyric  ode  sung  after  the  strophe 
and  antistrophe  (q.v.). 

Eponymous,  that  gives  his  name  to  any- 
thing, used  especially  of  the  mythical  per- 
sonages from  whose  names  the  names  of  places 
or  peoples  are  reputed  to  be  derived. 

Epopee,  an  epic  poem,  or  the  epic  species  of 
poetry. 

Eppie,  in  G.  Eliot's  'Silas  Marner'  (q.v.),  the 
daughter  of  Cass  and  adopted  child  of  Silas 
(abbreviation  of  Hephzibah,  'if  it*s  nowise 
wrong  to  shorten  the  name'). 

Eppur  si  ratiove,  see  Galileo. 

Epsom,  in  Surrey,  became  famous  for  the 
races  held  on  the  neighbouring  downs  from 
the  time  (1779-80)  when  the  Oaks  and  the 
Derby  (qq.v.)  were  instituted,  although  races 
were  run  there  much  earlier.  A  mineral 
spring,  from  which  EPSOM-SALT  (magnesium 
sulphate)  was  first  extracted,  was  discovered 
at  Epsom  in  1618. 

Equality  State,  Wyoming,  see  United 
States. 

Er  the  Son  ofArmenius,  The  Myth  of,  in  the 
loth  book  of  Plato's  'Republic'  (q.v.).  Er, 
having  been  killed  in  battle,  came  to  life 
again  on  the  twelfth  day  and  related  what  he 
had  seen  in  the  other  world.  The  story  is  told 
to  illustrate  the  rewards  that  await  the  just 
after  death. 

ERASMUS,  DESIDERIUS  (1466-1536), 
the  great  Dutch  humanist,  was  born  at 
Rotterdam.  Under  pressure  of  his  guardians 
he  became  an  Augustinian  monk,  but  thanks 
to  the  protection  of  the  bishop  of  Cambrai 
was  allowed  to  leave  the  cloister  and  travel 
extensively  in  Europe.  He  came  more  than 
once  to  England,  where  he  was  welcomed  by 
the  great  scholars  of  the  day,  More,  Colet, 
and  Grocyn,  and  was  induced  by  Fisher  to 
lecture  at  Cambridge  on  Greek  (he  was 
appointed  Lady  Margaret  Reader)  from 
1511  to  1514.  He  received  from  Archbishop 
Warham  the  benefice  of  Aldington  in  Kent, 
and  on  his  resigning  it,  a  pension  which  was 
continued  until  his  death.  His  principal 
works  were  the  'Novum  Instrumentum',  a 
new  Latin  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
with  a  commentary  (1516);  'Encomium 
Moriae"  ('The  Praise  of  Folly',  1512,  a  satire 
written  at  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Thomas  More, 
principally  directed  against  theologians  and 
Church  dignitaries);  'Enchiridion  Militis 


ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN 

Christian!5  (1503,  a  manual  of  simple  piety  ac- 
cording to  the  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ,  which 
was  translated  by  Tyndale  into  English,  and 
also  into  other  languages),  'Institutio  Chris- 
tiani  Principis  ('Education  of  a  Christian 
Prince*),  the  vivid  and  entertaining '  Colloquia' 
and  letters  furnishing  autobiographical  details 
and  pictures  of  contemporary  life,  v/hich  have 
been  drawn  upon  by  C.  Reade  in  'The 
Cloister  and  the  Hearth'  (q.v.)  and  by  Sir  W. 
Scott  in  'Anne  of  Geierstein'  (q.v.).  His 
'Adagia*,  a  collection  of  Latin  and  Greek 
proverbs,  traced  to  their  source  with  witty 
comments,  one  of  the  first  works  of  the  new 
learning  (1500),  was  much  drawn  upon  by 
Rabelais  among  others.  Erasmus  prepared 
the  way  for  the  Reformation  by  his  writings 
— his  version  of  the  New  Testament,  the 
scathing  comments  on  Church  abuses  that 
accompanied  it,  and  his  'Encomium  Moriae'. 
With  the  movement  itself  he  sympathized  at 
first.  But  he  refused  to  intervene  either  for 
or  against  Luther  at  the  time  of  the  Diet  of 
Worms,  although  invoked  by  both  sides.  He 
urged  moderation  on  both  and  disclaimed 
sympathy  with  Luther's  violence  and  ex- 
treme conclusions,  and  at  a  later  stage  (1524, 
in  his  tract  on  'Free  Will')  entered  into 
controversy  with  him.  The  standard  edition 
of  the  'Letters'  of  Erasmus,  by  P.  S.  and 
H.  M.  Allen,  is  in  course  of  publication. 

Erastian,  a  name  applied  to  the  doctrine, 
attributed  to  Erastus,  of  the  subordination 
of  the  ecclesiastical  to  the  secular  power. 
Erastus,  or  Liebler,  was  a  physician  of 
Heidelberg  in  the  i6th  cent.  His  actual 
efforts  were  mainly  directed  against  the  use 
of  excommunication,  which  was  exercised 
tyrannically  by  the  Calvinistic  churches. 
[OEDJ 

Er&to,  one  of  the  Muses  (q.v.),  who  presided 
over  love  poetry. 

ERCELDOUNE,  THOMAS  OF,  called  also 
the  RHYMER  and  LEAKMONT  (fl.  1220?- 
1297?),  seer  and  poet,  is  mentioned  in  the 
chartulary  (1294)  of  the  Trinity  House  of 
Soltra  as  having  inherited  lands  in  Ercel- 
doune,  a  Berwickshire  village.  He  is  said  to 
have  predicted  the  death  of  Alexander  III, 
long  of  Scotland,  and  the  battle  of  Bannock- 
burn,  and  is  the  traditional  fountain  of  many 
(fabricated)  oracles,  one  of  which  'foretold* 
the  accession  of  James  VI  to  the  English 
throne.  He  is  reputed  author  of  a  poem  on 
the  Tristram  story,  which  Sir  Walter  Scott 
considered  genuine ;  it  probably  emanated 
from  a  French  source.  The  romance  of 'True 
Thomas'  and  the  'ladye  gave",  popularly 
attributed  to  him,  may  be  placed  after  1401 
(edited  by  Dr.  J.  A.  H.  Murray,  1875). 

ERGKMANN-CHATRIAN,  the  joint 
name  adopted  by  ISMILE  ERCKMANN  (1822- 
99)  and  ALEXANDRE  CHATRIAN  (1826-90), 
Lorrainers,  authors  of  a  series  of  novels  treat- 
ing of  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution 


[263] 


ERfiBUS 

and  the  Napoleonic  period,  as  seen  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  humble  soldier.  The 
best  known  of  them  are  the  'Histoire  d'un 
consent'  (1864),  'Waterloo'  (1865),  and  'His- 
toire  d'un  paysan*  (1868).  'I/Ami  Fritz 
(1876),  which  falls  outside  this  cycle,  was 
also  a  successful  work. 

Erebus,  a  deity  of  hell,  son  of  Chaos.  The 
name  signifies  darkness,  and  is  often  used  by 
the  poets  to  signify  hell  itself. 
Erebus  and  the  Terror,  The,  the  ships  of 
Sir  John  Franklin's  expedition,  which  sailed 
in  1845  in  search  of  the  North- West  Passage. 
They  were  abandoned  in  1848  after  having 
been  for  18  months  beset  in  the  ice.  Both 
ships  had  been  employed  by  Sir  James 
Clark  Ross  in  his  Antarctic  voyage  of  1839-41 . 
Hence  the  great  volcano  Mt.  Erebus  was 
named. 

Erechtheus,  a  mythical  long  of  Athens, 
either  identical  with,  or  the  grandson  of,  the 
equally  mythical  Erichthonius.  In  a  ^war 
between  the  Athenians  and  the  Eleusinians, 
Erechtheus  killed  Eumolpus,  the  son  _  of 
Poseidon.  Poseidon  demanded  in  expiation 
the  sacrifice  of  one  of  the  daughters  (Creusa, 
Chthonia,  and  Orithyia)  of  Erechtheus  and 
ids  wife  Praxithea.  The  choice  was  made  by 
lot,  whereupon  the  two  other  sisters  resolved 
to  die  also,  and  Erechtheus  himself  was  killed 
by  a  thunderbolt  at  the  request  of  Poseidon. 
Erechtheus  is  the  subject  of  a  tragedy  in  the 
Greek  form  by  Swinburne  (q.v.). 
Erewhon  (pronounced  as  three  short  syl- 
lables, 'e-re-whon'),  a  satirical  romance  by 
S.  Butler  (1835-1902,  q.v.),  published  in 
1873. 

The  narrator  having  crossed  an  unexplored 
chain  of  mountains  in  a  remote  part  of  a 
colony  (Butler  had  in  mind  New  Zealand), 
conies  upon  the  land  of  Erewhon  (an 
anagram  of  'nowhere').  The  institutions  that 
he  finds  there  and  describes  are  a  vigorous 
satire  on  the  hypocrisy,  compromise,  and 
mental  torpor  that  Butler  was  ever  inveighing 
against.  The  most  notable  feature  in  the 
Erewhonian  system,  is  the  paradoxical 
substitution  for  moral  obliquity  of  physical 
ailment  as  a  proper  subject  for  punishment. 
Whereas  pulmonary  consumption  is  a  crime, 
embezzlement  is  a  matter  for  condolence  and 
curative  treatment.  In  the  Musical  Banks, 
the  Birth  Formulae,  &c.,  we  have  satires 
on  ecclesiastical  institutions  and  parental 
tyranny.  There  is  an  ingenious  description 
of  the  development  of  machinery  to  the  point 
when  it  had  to  be  completely  abolished  lest 
it  should  'take  charge*  and  overwhelm  the 
inhabitants.  Finally  the  narrator  escapes  from 
the  country  in  a  balloon  of  his  own  con- 
struction, accompanied  by  an  Erewhonian 
lady  with  whom  he  has  fallen  in  love. 

Erewhon  Revisited,  a  sequel  to  'Erewhon1 
(q.v.)  by  S.  Butler  (1835-1902,  q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1901. 

Higgs  (to  adopt  the  name  by  which  the 


ERMINE  STREET 

narrator  of  Erewhon  was  known  to  the 
Erewhonians),  driven  by  an  overmastering 
desire  to  revisit  that  country,  does  so  after  an 
interval  of  twenty  years,  to  discover  that  his 
ascent  in  a  balloon  has  been  held  miraculous, 
that  a  religious  myth  has  grown  up  round  it, 
that  he  is  himself  now  worshipped  as  the 
child  of  the  sun,  and  that  a  great  temple  is  on 
the  point  of  being  dedicated  to  him.  The 
way  in  which  public  credulity  has  been  ex- 
ploited by  the  professors  Hanky  and  Panky, 
and  the  new  religion  adopted  by  the  'musical 
banks*,  is  told  with  consummate  irony. 
Horrified  at  the  mischief  he  has  done,  and 
goaded  by  Hanky's  sermon  at  the  dedication, 
Higgs  reveals  himself,  but  is  hustled  away 
by  friendly  hands.  An  amusing  conference 
follows  between  all  concerned  to  decide  what 
is  to  be  done  about  'Sunchildism',  as  the  new 
religion  is  called ;  and  Higgs  is  then  smuggled 
out  of  the  country. 

Eric,  a  legendary  king  of  Sweden,  who  could 
control  the  direction  of  the  wind  by  turning 
his  cap. 

Eric,  or  Little  by  Little,  an  edifying  story  of 
school  life  by  Frederic  William  Farrar  (1831- 
1903,  dean  of  Canterbury)^ published  in  1858. 
The  book,  which  was  written  when  Farrar 
was  a  master  at  Harrow,  proved  highly 
popular. 

Eridanus,  originally  a  river-god,  mentioned 
by  Hesiod  and  Herodotus  as  a  northern  river 
in  which  amber  was  found.  ^  But  Latin  poets 
identify  Eridanus  with  the  river  Po. 
ERIGfiNA,  see  Scotus. 
Eiigone,  see  Icarius. 
Erin,  the  ancient  name  of  Ireland. 
Erin  go  bragh!  'Ireland  for  ever!*,  the 
refrain  of  *The  Exile  of  Erin',  a  poem  by 
Campbell  (q.v.). 
Erinyes,  see  Furies. 
Erkenwald,  see  Paul's  Cathedral. 
Erl-King,    the    German    erl-konig   (alder- 
king),  an  erroneous  rendering  of  the  Danish 
etter-konge,  king  of  the  elves,  a  malignant 
goblin,   who   in    German    legend,    and    in 
Goethe's  poem  on  the  subject,  haunts  the 
Black  Forest,  and  lures  people,  particularly 
children,  to  destruction.  Goethe's  poem  was 
the  foundation  of  one  of  Schubert's  best- 
known  songs  CErlkonig',  written  in  1816),  and 
was  translated  by  Sir  W.  Scott. 
Ermeline,   in   'Reynard   the    Fox'   (q.v.), 
Reynard's  wife. 
Ermensul,  see  IrminsuL 

Ermine  Street  or  ERMING  STREET  or  ERMYK 
STREET,  the  name  of  a  road  corresponding  in 
parts  with  the  old  Roman  road  from  London 
through  Huntingdon  to  Lincoln.  The  deriva- 
tion is  uncertain.  Dr.  Guest  connected  it  with 
the  names  of  the  Ermings  or  Fenmen.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  it  is  from  'Irmin* 
the  Teutonic  god  whose  name  appears  in 
'IrminsuT  (q.v.). 


[264] 


ERNANI 

Ernanif  see  HernanL 

Ernest  Maltravers,  and  Alice,  or  the 
Mysteries,  a  novel  and  its  sequel  by  Bulwer 
Lytton  (q.v.),  published  in  1837  and  1838. 
The  author,  in  his  preface,  states  that  he  is 
indebted  to  Goethe's  'Wilhelm  Meister*  for 
the  idea  of  a  moral  education  set  forth  in  these 
books.  Ernest  Maltravers,  a  young  man  of 
wealth  and  position,  benighted  on  a  moor 
seeks  refuge  in  the  hovel  of  Luke  Darvil,  a 
villainous  cut- throat.  He  is  saved  from  mur- 
der and  robbery  by  Darvil's  daughter  Alice, 
a  beautiful,  uneducated,  and  morally  un- 
developed child,  who  at  the  same  time 
escapes  from  her  father's  cruel  treatment. 
Touched  by  her  helplessness  Ernest  con- 
stitutes himself  her  protector,  but  finally 
yields  to  his  passion  for  her.  Alice  there* 
after  remains  faithful  to  Ernest,  though 
circumstances  separate  them  for  many  years. 
During  these  Ernest  loves  a  number  of 
women,  and  twice  becomes  engaged,  but  the 
marriages  are  prevented  by  the  designs  of 
his  unscrupulous  enemy,  Lumley  Ferrers. 
Finally  Ernest  is  reunited  and  married  to 
Alice.  With  this  story  is  woven  the  tragedy 
of  the  unfortunate  Castruccio  Cesarini,  the 
disappointed  Italian  poetaster,  who  becomes 
the  tool  and  finally  the  murderer  of  Ferrers. 

Ernulf  or  ERNULPHUS  (1040-1124),  bishop 
of  Rochester,  and  author  of  the  'Textus 
RofTensis',  a  collection  of  laws,  papal  decrees, 
and  documents  relating  to  the  church  of 
Rochester.  The  comprehensive  curse  or 
excommunication  of  Ernulphus  figures  in 
Bk.  Ill,  chs.  x,  ad  of  Sterne's  'Tristram 
Shandy'  (q.v.). 

Eros,  see  Cupid.  Eros  in  Shakespeare's 
'Antony  and  Cleopatra*  (q.v.)  is  the  faithful 
attendant  of  Antony,  who  kills  himself  to 
avoid  killing  his  master.  It  is  also  the  name 
given  to  the  winged  figure  of  an  archer  over 
the  bronze  fountain  in  Piccadilly  Circus,  by 
Alfred  Gilbert,  R.A.,  erected  in  1893  as  a 
memorial  to  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  (1801— 
85),  the  philanthropist. 

Erostratus  or  ERATOSTRATUS,  see  Hero* 
stratus. 

Erotokritos  of  Vincenzo  Kornaros,  a 
medieval  Greek  epic,  edited  (1929)  by  J. 
Mavrogordato. 

ERRA- PATER,  the  assumed  name  of  the 
author  of  an  astrological  almanac  first 
published  in  1535,  referred  to  by  Butler  in 
'Hudibras',  i.  i,  and  by  Congreve  in  'Love  for 
Love'  (qq.v.). 

Erse,  a  term  used  to  designate  (i)  Irish 
Gaelic;  (2)  in  i8th-cent.  practice,  the  Gaelic 
language  of  Scotland  (which  is  in  fact  of  Irish 
origin). 

Esau,  see  Jacob  and  Esau. 
Esculapius,  see  Aesculapius. 

Escurial  or  ESCORIAL,,  THE,  a  vast  and 
gloomy  edifice  on  the  Sierra  NW.  of  Madrid, 


ESMOND 

designed  as  a  palace,  a  convent,  and  a  tomb 
by  Philip  II,  who  erected  it  in  accomplish- 
ment of  a  vow  made  in  a  moment  of  panic 
at  the  battle  of  St.  Quentin  (1557).  San 
Lorenzo,  to  whom  the  vow  was  made,  was 
burnt  to  death  on  a  slow  fire,  and  the  plan  of 
the  building  resembles  a  gridiron.  Philip  II 
died  there  (1598),  after  having  lived  there 
fourteen  years.  The  origin  of  the  name  is 
uncertain, 

Esdras,  the  reputed  author  of  two  of  the 
books  of  the  Apocrypha:  the  first  mainly  a 
compilation  from  Chronicles,  Nehemiah,  and 
Ezra;  the  second  a  record  of  angelic  revela- 
tions and  visions,  pointing  to  the  destruction 
of  the  wicked  and  the  salvation  of  the 
righteous. 

Esmond,  The  History  of  Henry  Esmond, 
Esquire,  a  novel  by  Thackeray  (q.v.),  published 
in  1852. 

The  History  is  narrated  by  Henry  Esmond 
himself.  He  is  the  son  (supposed  to  be 
illegitimate)  of  the  3rd  Viscount  Castlewood, 
who  was  killed  fighting  for  King  James  at  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne.  Henry  then  comes 
under  the  protection  of  the  4th  viscount,  in 
whose  household  he  serves  as  page.  He  is 
kindly  treated  by  Lord  Castlewood,  and 
particularly  by  Lady  Castlewood,  for  whom 
he  conceives  a  profound  devotion.  He  has 
the  misfortune  to  bring  the  small-pox  into  the 
household,  by  which  Lady  Castlewood  loses 
some  of  her  beauty,  and  in  consequence  much 
of  her  husband's  love.  The  unprincipled 
Lord  Mohun  takes  advantage  of  the  estrange- 
ment between  them  to  attempt  to  seduce 
Lady  Castlewood.  This  attempt  is  discovered 
by  Lord  Castlewood,  and  in  spite  of  Henry's 
endeavour  to  take  the  quarrel  on  himself,  a 
duel  follows,  in  which  Lord  Castlewood  is 
mortally  wounded.  On  his  death-bed  he 
reveals  to  Henry  that  the  3rd  viscount  was 
married  to  Henry's  mother  and  that  Henry 
is  the  rightful  owner  of  the  tide  and  property. 
Henry  decides  to  sacrifice  himself  and  not 
claim  his  rights,  so  as  not  to  injure  Lady 
Castlewood  and  her  son  Frank.  But  Lady 
Castlewood,  in  her  passionate  grief  for  her 
lord's  death,  bitterly  upbraids  Henry  for 
allowing  the  duel  to  take  place,  and  banishes 
him  from  her  house. 

Henry  joins  the  army  and  serves  with  dis- 
tinction in  Marlborough's  campaigns,  from 
Blenheim  to  Malplaquet.  In  lie  course  of 
his  service  he  returns  to  England,  and  hearing 
a  false  rumour  that  Lady  Castlewood  is  about 
to  marry  her  chaplain,  the  square-toed  Tom 
Tusher,  hurries  to  see  her.  The  scene  of  their 
reunion,  in  Winchester  Cathedral,  is  one  of 
the  most  touching  and  dramatic  passages  in 
Thackeray's  works.  In  spite  of  her  petulance, 
Lady  Castlewood  has  given  her  heart  to 
Henry,  and  henceforth  loves  him  tenderly. 
But  meanwhile  her  two  children,  Frank,  the 
present  viscount,  and  Beatrix:  his  sister,  have 
grown  up.  The  latter  is  a  girl  of  extraordinary 
beauty,  but  vain  of  her  beauty  and  ambitious. 


[265] 


ESMOND 

Henry  falls  deeply  in  love  with  her,  but  she 
is  too  proud  to  consider  an  alliance  with,  one 
whom  she  regards  as  of  illegitimate  birth.  She 
becomes  affianced  to  the  duke  of  Hamilton,  but 
he  is  murdered  by  Lord  Mohun  before  the 
marriage  can  take  place.  Finally  she  causes 
the  failure  of  a  scheme  promoted  by  Henry 
for  the  proclamation  of  the  Pretender,  by 
flirting  with  the  Prince  and  luring  him  to 
Castlewood  at  the  moment  when  his  presence 
in  London  is  necessary.  Completely  dis- 
illusioned, Henry  abandons  her  and  marries 
Lady  Castlewood,  his  act  of  self-sacrifice 
having  before  this  become  known  both  to  her 
and  to  her  son  and  daughter.  Henry  and  his 
wife  migrate  to  Virginia  and  their  subsequent 
history  in  that  country  is  referred  to  in  'The 
Virginians*  (q.v.).  Beatrix,  it  appears  from 
the  latter  work,  subsequently  married  Tom 
Tusher  (who  became  a  bishop),  and  after  his 
death,  Baron  Bernstein.  Thackeray  gives  a 
vivid  picture  of  English  society  in  the  early 
years  of  the  i8th  cent.,  introducing  Dick 
Steele  and  his  Prue,  Marlborough  and  his 
Duchess,  Swift,  and  Addison. 
Esmond,  BEATRIX,  one  of  the  principal 
characters  in  Thackeray's  'Esmond*  and  'The 
Virginians*  (qq.v.). 
Esop,  see  Aesop. 

Esotg'rlc,  a  word  used  by  Lucian,  who 
attributes  to  Aristotle  a  classification  of  his 
own  works  into  'esoteric',  i.e.  designed  for, 
or  appropriate  to,  an  inner  circle  of  advanced 
or  privileged  disciples,  and  'exoteric*,  i.e, 
popular,  untechnical.  Later  writers  use  the 
word  to  designate  the  secret  doctrines  said 
to  have  been  taught  by  Pythagoras  to  a  select 
few  of  his  disciples. 

Esperanto,  a  universal  language  introduced 
in  1887  by  Dr.  L.  L.  Zamenhof,  and  now 
somewhat  widely  used. 
Esplandian,  the  son  of  Amadis  of  Gaul 
(q.v.)  and  Oriana.  In  his  childhood  he  was 
suckled  by  a  lioness  by  which  he  had  been 
carried  off,  but  being  recovered  by  his 
parents  became  a  doughty  knight,  performed 
great  exploits  against  the  Turks,  and  married 
Leonorina,  the  daughter  of  the  Greek 
emperor. 
Espriella,  Letters  of,  see  Southey. 

Esprit  d'Escalier,  French,  a  tardy  wit, 
which  thinks  of  a  smart  retort  or  witticism 
too  late,  when  its  owner  is  going  downstairs, 
on  his  way  out  of  the  house. 

ESQUEMELING,  EXQUEMELING,  or 
OEXMELIN,  ALEXANDER  OLIVIER,  a 
Dutch  physician,  who  lived  with  the  buc- 
caneers (q.v.),  1668-74,  and  published  an 
account  of  them  (including  Morgan)  and 
their  doings.  This  was  translated  into 
Spanish,  French,  and  English. 

Essay  concerning  Human  Understanding , 
a  philosophical  treatise  by  Locke  (q.v.), 
published  in  1690  (2nd  edition,  1694;  4th, 
I7°°  >  Stb,  1706 ;  each  with  large  additions). 


ESSAY  ON  HUMAN  UNDERSTANDING 
The  Essay  is  an  examination  into  the 
nature  of  knowledge,  as  calculated  to  guide 
us  to  the  proper  use  of  our  understanding. 
Locke  begins  by  refuting  the  doctrine  of 
'innate  ideas',  and  maintaining  that  all  know- 
ledge is  of  empiric  origin.  The  materials  or 
objects  of  understanding  are  termed  by 
him  ideas,  and  after  giving  an  account  of 
the  origin,  sorts,  and  extent  of  our  ideas,  he 
considers  what  knowledge  the  mind  derives 
from  them.  The  source  of  ideas  is  experience, 
the  observation  of  external  objects  or  the 
internal  operations  of  the  mind,  i.e.  sensa- 
tion or  reflection.  Sensation  is  always  of  a 
quality.  Qualities  are  either  primary — exten- 
sion, figure,  mobility  and  number;  or  second- 
ary— not  really  belonging  to  things,  but 
imputed  to  them,  depending  on  our  subjective 
perception,  and  inscrutably  connected  with 
the  primary  qualities,  which  alone  really 
belong  to  things.  A  number  of  simple  ideas 
being  constantly  found  to  go  together,  the 
mind  is  led  to  suppose  a  substratum  for  them, 
and  this  we  call  substance,  but  have  no  other 
idea  of  its  nature.  We  are  equally  ignorant 
of  spiritual  substance,  the  substratum  of 
the  operations  of  the  mind.  We  do  not  even 
know  whether  material  and  spiritual  sub- 
stance are  the  same  or  different.  The  idea  of 
cause  or  power  is  derived  from  experience, 
principally  of  the  workings  of  the  mind.  The 
idea  of  infinity  is  a  negative  idea  derived 
from  experience  of  the  absence  of  any  limit 
to  the  power  of  imagination  to  extend  space, 
time,  or  number. 

Knowledge  consists  in  the  perception  of  the 
agreement  or  disagreement  of  ideas,  and  is 
either  intuitive  and  direct,  or  demonstrative 
(through  the  interposition  of  a  third  idea). 
Knowledge  in  matters  of  real  existence  is 
limited  to  two  certainties,  of  our  own  exist- 
ence, by  intuition,  and  of  the  existence  of 
God,  by  demonstration.  For,  as  regards  the 
latter,  we  have  intuitive  certainty  that  bare 
nothing  cannot  produce  any  real  being. 
Therefore  from  eternity  there  has  been  some- 
thing to  which  thinking  perceiving  beings 
owe  their  powers,  that  is  God,  Eternal  Mind. 
We  have  a  lesser  degree  of  certainty  of  the 
existence  of  finite  beings  without  us,  of  which 
the  mind  perceives  nothing  but  its  own  ideas, 
and  cannot  know  that  they  agree  with  the 
things  themselves.  Locke  advances  various 
arguments  for  the  objective  validity  of 
sensitive  knowledge,  but  points  out  that  even 
if  we  admit  its  validity,  this  knowledge  is 
narrowly  limited:  we  know  only  of  the  exist- 
ence together,  here  and  now,  of  collections  of 
simple  ideas;  we  cannot  demonstrate  the 
necessity  of  their  coexistence.  There  are 
therefore  very  few  general  propositions, 
carrying  with  them  undoubted  certainty,  to 
be  made  concerning  substances;  a  perfect 
science  of  natural  bodies  is  unattainable. 
Experience  and  history  is  all  we  can  attain 
to,  from  which  we  may  derive  advantages  of 
ease  and  health.  Still  less  can  we  attain  to 
fscientificaP  knowledge  of  spirits.  Know- 


ESSAY  ON  CRITICISM 

ledge  at  once  general  and  real  must  be,  not  of 
the  relations  of  ideas  to  reality,  but  of  ideas 
to  each  other,  e.g.  mathematics,  and  also 
moral  science  (though  on  the  latter  point  he 
is  more  doubtful  in  his  'Reasonableness  of 
Christianity').  The  faculty  that  God  has 
given  us  in  place  of  clear  knowledge  is  judge- 
ment, whereby  the  mind  takes  a  proposition 
to  be  true  or  false  without  demonstration. 
Locke  discusses  the  relations  of  faith  and 
reason.  Unlike  Bacon  and  Hobbes,  he  holds 
that  faith  is  nothing  but  the  firm  assent  of  the 
mind,  which  cannot  be  accorded  to  anything 
except  on  good  reason.  Revelation  must  be 
judged  by  reason.  But  the  field  of  knowledge 
being  so  limited,  it  must  be  supplemented  by 
faith,  and  this  is  the  basis  of  Locke's  'Reason- 
ableness of  Christianity*  published  in  1695. 

Essay  on  Criticism,  a  didactic  poem  by  Pope 
(q.v.),  in  heroic  couplets,  published  anony- 
mously in  171 1.  It  begins  with  an  exposition 
of  the  rules  of  taste  and  the  authority  to  be 
attributed  to  the  ancient  writers  on  the 
subject.  The  laws  by  which  a  critic  should 
be  guided  are  then  discussed,  and  instances 
are  given  of  critics  who  have  departed  from 
them.  The  work  is  remarkable  as  having 
been  written  when  Pope  was  only  twenty- 
one. 

Essay  on  Dramatic  Poesie,  by  Dryden  (q.v.), 
published  in  1668,  and  probably  written  at 
Charlton,  near  Malmesbury,  in  Wiltshire, 
whither  the  poet  betook  himself  during  the 
plague. 

It  takes  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between 
four  interlocutors,  Eugenius  (Dorset),  Crites 
(Sir  Robert  Howard),  Lisideius  (Sir  Charles 
Sedley),  and  Neander  (Dryden  himself). 
The  four  friends  have  taken  a  boat  on  the 
Thames  on  the  day  of  the  engagement 
between  the  English  and  Dutch  fleets  in  the 
mouth  of  the  river  (3  June  1665).  At  first 
the  friends  are  mainly  occupied  with  this 
stirring  event,  but  presently  as  the  sound  of 
firing  becomes  more  distant,  their  talk  turns 
to  literary  subjects,  and  they  discuss  the 
comparative  merits  of  the  English  and 
French  drama,  and  of  the  old  and  the  new 
English  drama.  The  Essay  is  largely  con- 
cerned with  a  defence  of  the  use  of  rhyme  in 
drama.  It  also  contains  an  admirable  appre- 
ciation of  Shakespeare. 

Essay  on  Man,  a  philosophical  poem  in 
heroic  couplets  by  Pope  (q.v.),  published 
in  1732-4. 

It  consists  of  four  epistles,  addressed  to 
Henry  St.  John,  Loi?d  Bolingbroke,  and 
perhaps  to  some  extent  inspired  by  his 
fragmentary  philosophical  writings.  It  is 
part  of  a  larger  poem  projected  but  not  com- 
pleted. Its  object  is  to  vindicate  the  ways  of 
God  to  man ;  to  prove  that  the  scheme  of  the 
universe  is  the  best  in  spite  of  appearances  of 
evil,  and  that  our  failure  to  see  the  perfection 
of  the  whole  is  due  to  our  limited  vision. 
Epistle  I  treats  of  the  nature  and  state  of  man 
with  respect  to  the  universe;  Epistle  II,  of 


ESSAYS  IN  EDINBURGH  REVIEW 

man  with  respect  to  himself  as  an  individual; 
Epistle  III,  of  man  with  respect  to  society; 
Epistle  IV,  of  man  with  respect  to  happiness. 
Dugald  Stewart  expressed  the  view  that  the 
Essay  is  'the  noblest  specimen  of  philosophi- 
cal poetry  which  our  language  affords5  ('Active 
and  Moral  Powers',  Works,  7.  133),  a  judge- 
ment which  would  now  hardly  be  endorsed. 
Dr.  Johnson's  verdict  was  very  different: 
'Never  were  penury  of  knowledge  and 
vulgarity  of  sentiment  so  happily  disguised.* 

Essays  and  Reviews,  a  collection  of  essays 
on  religious  subjects  from  a  broad  church 
standpoint,  published  in  1860.  The  editor 
was  the  Rev.  Henry  Bristow  Wilson  (author  of 
'The  Communion  of  Saints',  1851),  and  the 
other  contributors  were  Frederick  Temple 
(the  future  archbishop),  Mark  Pattison 
(q«v.),  Jowett  (q.v.),  Rowland  Williams, 
Baden  Powell,  and  C.  W.  Goodwin. 

The  essays,  which  were,  in  general,  critical 
of  doctrine,  and  in  some  instances  provoca- 
tive in  form,  occasioned  much  offence. 
Wilson  and  Williams  were  tried  in  the  court 
of  arches  (q.v.)  and  found  guilty  of  heresy, 
but  were  acquitted  on  appeal.  The  only  essay 
that  has  much  interest  to-day  is  Pattison's,  on 
the  'Tendencies  of  Religious  Thought  in 
England,  1688-1750'. 

Essays,  Counsels,  Civill  and  Morall,  The,  of 
F.  Bacon  (q.v.),  are  collections  of  reflections 
and  generalizations,  and  extracts  from  pre- 
vious authors,  woven  together,  for  the  most 
part,  into  counsels  for  the  successful  conduct 
of  life,  and  the  management  of  men. 

Three  editions  of  the  essays  were  published 
in  Bacon's  lifetime.  The  first,  that  of  1597, 
contained  ten  essays;  the  second,  that  of 
1612,  contained  thirty-eight  essays;  and  the 
third,  that  of  1625,  contained  fifty-eight.  Of 
these  some  deal  with  questions  of  state 
pottcy,  such  as  the  essay  on  'Greatness  of 
Kingdoms';  some  with  personal  conduct, 
such  as  those  on  'Wisdom  for  a  Man's  Self 
and  'Cunning';  some  on  abstract  subjects 
such  as  'Truth*,  'Death*,  and  'Unity' ;  while 
some  reveal  Bacon's  delight  in  Nature,  such 
as  the  pleasant  essay  on  'Gardens*. 

Essays  contributed  to  the  Edinburgh  Re- 
view, Critical  and  Historical^  by  T .  B .  Macau- 
lay  (q.v.),  a  collection  published  in  1843  and 
later  editions. 

The  'Essays'  deal  with  the  following 
subjects  (the  date  of  original  publication  is 
appended):  Milton  (1825),  Machiavelli 
(1827),  Hallam's  Constitutional  History 
(1828),  Southey's  Colloquies  on  Society 
(1830),  Robert  Montgomery's  Poems  (1830), 
Southey's  Edition  of  the  Pilgrim's  Progress 
(1830),  Civil  Disabilities  of  the  Jews  (1831), 
Moore's  Life  of  Byron  (1831),  Croker's 
Edition  of  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson  (1831), 
Lord  Nugent's  Memorials  of  Hampden 
(1831),  Burleigh  and  his  Times  (1832),  War  of 
the  Succession  in  Spain  (1833),  Horace  Wai- 
pole  (1833),  William  Pitt  (1834),  Mackin- 
tosh's History  of  the  Revolution  (1835), 


[267] 


ESSAYS  IN  CRITICISM 
Lord  Bacon  (1837),  Sir  William  Temple 
(1838),  Gladstone  on  Church  and  State 
(1839),  Lord  Clive  (1840),  Ranke's  History 
of  the  Popes  (1840),  Comic  Dramatists  of 
the  Restoration  (1841),  Lord  Holland  (1841), 
Warren  Hastings  (1841),  Frederic  the  Great 
(1842),  Madame  d'Arblay  (1843),  Addison 
(1843),  The  Earl  of  Chatham  (1844).  They 
take,  as  a  rule,  the  form,  not  so  much  of  a 
review  of  the  books  named  at  the  head  of 
each,  but  of  a  general  survey,  biographical, 
political,  or  literary,  of  the  subject  of  that  book. 
They  are  occasionally  truculent,  as  that  on 
Croker's  'BoswelF,  and  misleading  (it  is 
said),  as  those  on  Bacon  and  Hastings.  The 
best  are  those  on  Chatham,  Clive,  and  Sir 
William  Temple. 
Essays  in  Criticism,  see  Arnold  (M.)* 

Essays  ofEHa,  The,  miscellaneous  essays  by 
C.  Lamb  (q.v.),  of  which  the  first  series  ap- 
peared in  the  'London  Magazine*  between 
1820  and  1823,  and  were  republished  in  a 
separate  volume  in  the  latter  year.  The 
second  series  was  published  in  1833.  Lamb 
adopted  the  pseudonym  Elia  (to  be  pro- 
nounced, according  to  Lamb  himself,  'Ell-ia') 
to  save  the  susceptibilities  of  his  brother 
John,  still  a  clerk  in  the  South- Sea  House, 
which  Is  the  subject  of  the  first  of  the  'Essays'. 
The  name  was  that  of  an  Italian  clerk  for- 
merly in  the  service  of  that  institution.  ^ 

The  'Essays'  are  largely  autobiographical; 
they  deal  with  mankind  at  large  as  seen 
through  the  medium  of  Lamb's  own  experi- 
ences and  impressions.  They  present,  with 
exquisite  humour  and  pathos,  and  in  a 
brilliant  and  inimitable  style,  characters  that 
the  author  has  known  (such  as  Samuel  Salt, 
his  father's  employer,  in  cSome  of  the  Old 
Benchers  of  the  Inner  Temple'),  recollec- 
tions of  childhood  (as  in  'Christ's  Hospital* 
and  *BIakesmcor'),  or  of  later  life  (as  in  'The 
South-Sea  House'),  personal  experiences 
(as  in  'The  Superannuated  Man*),  the  produc- 
tions of  a  playful  or  melancholy  fancy  (as  in 
*A  Dissertation  upon  Roast  Pig*  and  'Dream 
Children1),  and  general  comments  and  criti- 
cism.. 

Essenes,  a  Jewish  sect,  dating  from  before 
the  Christian  era,  whose  name  is  perhaps  de- 
rived from  a  Syriac  word  meaning  'pious'. 
They  held  certain  speculative  opinions, 
grafted  on  their  Judaism,  regarding  the  soul 
and  the  future  life,  and  offered  prayers  to  the 
sun.  They  Hved  a  monastic  and  ascetic  life, 
renouncing  marriage,  and  had  community  of 
goods. 

Este,  HOUSE  OF,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  princely  families  of  Italy.  Albert  Azzo, 
lord  of  Este  in  Italy,  born  about  996,  said  to 
be  descended  from  Odoacer,  king  of  Italy 
(476),  married  first  Cunegonda  of  the  house 
of  Guelf,  by  whom  he  became  the  ancestor  of 
the  houses  of  Brunswick  and  Hanover,  and 
secondly  Gersonda,  whose  descendants  were 
the  Estes,  lords  of  Ferrara  and  Modena. 


ESTMERE 

The  house  of  Este  is  exalted  in  Ariosto's 
'Orlando   Furioso*  (q.v.),   where   Ruggiero 
(Rogero,  q.v,)  is  represented  as  its  ancestor. 
See  also  Leonora  d'Este. 

Estella,  a  character  in  Dickens 's  'Great 
Expectations'  (q.v.). 

Esther  Lyon  (or  BYCLIFFE),  the  heroine  of 
G.  Eliot's  'Felix  Holt'  (q.v.). 

Esther  Summerson,  a  character  in 
Dickens's  "Bleak  House'  (q.v.),  and  narrator 
of  part  of  the  story. 

Esther  Wafers,  a  novel  by  G.  Moore  (q.v.), 
published  in  1894. 

It  is  the  story  of  the  life  of  a  religiously 
minded  girl,  a  Plymouth  Sister,  driven  from 
home  into  service  at  17  by  a  drunken  step- 
father. She  obtains  a  situation  at  Woodview, 
the  house  of  the  Barfields,  where  a  racing- 
stable  is  kept,  and  all  above  and  below- 
stairs  (except  Mrs.  Barfield,  a  Plymouth 
Sister  like  Esther)  are  wrapt  up  in  gambling 
on  races.  There,  in  a  moment  of  weakness, 
she  is  seduced  by  a  fellow  servant  and  de- 
serted. She  has  to  leave  her  place,  though 
kindly  treated  by  Mrs.  Barfield.  Then 
follows  a  poignant  tale  of  poverty,  hardship, 
and  humiliation:  the  lying-in  hospital,  service 
as  wet-nurse,  other  miserable  situations, 
even  the  workhouse,  in  the  mother's  brave 
struggle  to  rear  her  child.  Her  seducer  re- 
enters  her  life,  marries  her,  and  makes  a  good 
husband.  But  he  is  a  book-maker  and  public- 
house  keeper;  exposure  to  weather  _at  the 
races  ruins  his  health,  and  trouble  with  the 
authorities  over  betting  at  his  house  causes 
the  latter  to  be  closed.  He  dies,  and  leaves 
his  wife  and  son  penniless.  Finally  Esther 
returns  to  Woodview,  where  she  finds  peace 
at  last,  with  Mrs.  Barfield,  now  a  widow, 
living  alone  and  impoverished  in  a  corner 
of  the  old  house. 

Estienne  (STEPHANUS),  the  name  of  a  family 
of  French  printers  of  the  i6th  cent.  Henri 
Estienne  (d.  1520),  of  a  noble  family  of  Pro- 
vence, carne  to  Paris  in  1502  and  started 
printing.  Of  his  sons,  Robert  (i5°3-59)>  a 
scholar  as  well  as  a  printer,  who  adopted  the 
device  of  the  olive  tree,  printed  a  number  of 
important  works,  a  critical  Latin  New  Testa- 
ment (1523),  a  Latin  Bible  (1528),  a  'Thesau- 
rus linguae  Latinae'  (1532,  the  best  Latin 
dictionary  of  the  time),  and  'Ecclesiasticae 
Historiae*  with  Garamond  Greek  type  (1544)- 
He  moved  to  Geneva  in  1 5  5 1 .  Henri  Estienne 
(1531-98),  the  son  of  Robert,  did  valuable 
work  in  collecting  and  collating  manuscripts 
in  Italy.  He  printed  at  Geneva  works  of 
Greek  authors  and  a  'Thesaurus  Graecae 
Linguae'.  He  was  the  father-in-law  of  Isaac 
Casaubon  (q.v.). 

Estmere,  KING,  the  subject  of  an  ancient 
legend  preserved  in  one  of  the  ballads  in 
Percy's  'Reliques'  (q.v.). 

King  Estmere  is  a  king  of  England  who 
with  his  brother  Adler  goes  to  the  court  of 


[268] 


ESTO  PERPETUA  CLUB 

King  Adland  to  ask  the  hand  of  his  daughter, 
but  learns  that  Sir  Brernor,  *a  fpule  paynim', 
king  of  Spain,  has  forestalled  him.  The  lady 
however  accepts  him.  While  preparations 
are  making  for  the  wedding,  the  king  of 
Spain  arrives  and  claims  his  bride.  Estmere 
returns  disguised  as  a  harper,  slays  the  king 
of  Spain,  drives  off  the  'Kempery  men'  (i.e. 
the  fighting  men),  and  marries  the  lady. 
Esto  Perpetua  Club,  THE,  founded  in 
1784,  consisted  of  supporters  of  Fox  against 
Pitt,  including  Dr.  French  Laurence,  George 
Ellis,  the  antiquary,  General  Richard  Fitz- 
patrick,  and  Lord  John  Townshend.  The 
idea  of  'The  Rolliad'  (q.v.)  originated  with 
this  club. 

Estotiland,  a  mythical  tract  in  North 
America,  supposed  to  lie  near  the  Arctic 
circle,  east  of  Hudson  Bay.  It  is  men- 
tioned by  Milton,  'Paradise  Lost*,  x.  686. 

Estrildis,  a  German  maiden  brought  to 
England  by  King  Humber  (q.v.),  loved  by 
Locrine,  king  of  Britain,  and  mother  by  him 
of  Sabrina.  She  and  her  daughter  were 
drowned  in  the  Severn  by  Locrine's  angry 
queen,  Gwendolen.  The  story  is  told  by 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  and  reappears  in 
Spenser's  *Faerie  Queene*  (n.  x),  also  in 
Swinburne's  'Locrine'.  In  Wace  and  Laya- 
mon,  the  name  of  j£Estrild's  daughter  is 
Abren,  and  she  is  drowned  in  the  river  Auren, 
which  Sir  F.  Madden  (note  in  his  edition  of 
Layamon,  1. 2498)  thinks  is  the  Avon  (flowing 
into  the  sea  at  Christchurch).  The  Welsh 
name  of  the  Severn  is  Havren. 

Eteocles,  son  of  Oedipus  (q.v.)  and  Jocasta, 
and  brother  of  Polyneices.  After  their  father's 
death,  it  was  agreed  that  the  brothers  should 
reign  in  Thebes  in  alternate  years;  but 
Eteocles  refused  to  give  up  the  throne  at  the 
appointed  time.  Polyneices,  assisted  by  Ad- 
rastus,  king  of  Argos,  and  the  Argive  army 
headed  by  seven  heroes,  marched  against 
Thebes,  and  was  opposed  by  Eteocles.  After 
indecisive  fighting,  it  was  decided  that  the 
struggle  should  be  settled  by  the  brothers  in 
single  combat.  In  this  they  slew  each  other. 
The  Argive  chiefs  were  slain  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Adrastus.  This  war  was  known  as  that 
of  'The  Seven  against  Thebes',  the  subject 
of  a  tragedy  by  Aeschylus. 
Ethan  Brand,  a  tale  by  Nathaniel  Haw- 
thorne (q.v.),  published  in  1851. 
Ethelburga's,  ST.,  the  earliest  extant  church 
in  London.  Ethelburga  was  the  daughter  of 
King  Jithelbert  of  Kent,  who,  according  to 
Bede,  built  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  the  7th 
cent. 

Ethtelfleda,  see  Mthelflaed* 
Ethelred,  see  JEthelred. 
Ethelwold,  ST.,  see  Mthelwold. 
ETHEREGE     or     ETHEREDGE,     SIR 
GEORGE    (i634?-9i?),    perhaps    son    of 
Capt.  George  Etheredge,  an  early  planter  in 
the  Bermudas,  spent  part  of  his  early  man- 


ETRUSCANS 

hood  in  France.  He  produced  'The  Comical 
Revenge,  or  Love  in  a  Tub'  (q.v.),  in  1664. 
The  serious  portions  are  in  rhymed  heroics, 
setting  a  fashion  that  was  followed  for  some 
years,  while  the  comic  underplot  in  prose 
with  its  lively  realistic  scenes  was,  as  Gosse 
has  pointed  out,  the  foundation  of  the  English 
comedy  of  Congreve,  Goldsmith,  and  Sheri- 
dan. In  this,  Etherege  drew  his  inspiration 
from  Moliere.  In  1668  he  produced  'She 
would  if  she  could',  and  in  1676  'The  Man  of 
Mode'  (q.v.),  two  further  comedies.  Ether- 
ege, thanks  to  the  protection  of  Mary  of 
Modena,  was  sent  in  1685  as  envoy  to  Ratis- 
bon,  where  he  remained  for  some  years,  a 
period  of  his  life  on  which  his  manuscript 
'Letter-book*,  discovered  by  Sir  Edmund 
Gosse  (and  since  published),  throws  an 
interesting  light. 

Etherington,  EAHL  OF,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'St.  Ronan's  Well'  (q.v.). 

EtMop  queen,  THE  STARR'D,  in  Milton's 
'II  Penseroso'  (q.v.),  is  Cassiopea  (q.v.). 

£tienne  (STEPHANUS),  the  printer,  see 
Estienne. 

Eton  College,  near  Windsor,  was  founded 
by  Henry  VI,  as  a  preparatory  school  for 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  the  charter  of 
foundation  being  dated  1440  and  followed  by 
various  charters  of  endowment.  The  College 
included,  in  addition  to  some  300  sons  of 
noblemen  and  gentlemen,  70  king's  scholars 
on  the  foundation,  who  passed  by  seniority  to 
King's  College,  Cambridge  (see  also  under 
Montem).  In  1443,  Waynflete,  head  master 
of  Winchester,  was  induced  by  the  king  to 
migrate  to  Eton,  and  was  accompanied  by 
five  fellows  and  thirty-five  scholars  of 
Winchester. 

Among  the  many  names  eminent  in 
literature,  connected  with  Eton,  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  Edward  Hall,  the  his- 
torian, Thomas  Tusser,  Sir  Henry  Wotton, 
Edmund  Waller,  Henry  More,  Bishop  Pear- 
son, Bolingbroke,  Henry  Fielding,  Thomas 
Gray,  Horace  Walpole,  George  Canning, 
Richard  Person,  Shelley,  Praed,  Gladstone, 
Hallam,  Milman,  Swinburne,  and  Robert 
Bridges  (qq.v.). 

Etruria,  see  Wedgwood. 

Etruscans,  THE,  a  people  of  Anatolian 
origin,  probably  came  to  Italy  by  sea  about 
the  9th  cent.  B.C.,  and  establishing  them- 
selves in  what  is  now  Tuscany,  developed  a 
system  of  powerful  city  states  and  a  flourish- 
ing civilization  of  which  many  remains  have 
been  discovered.  Their  language,  known  to 
us  in  inscriptions,  is  still  unread  except  for 
some  names  and  isolated  words.  The  Etrus- 
cans formed  a  small  ruling  class  in  most  of  the 
cities  they  dominated;  at  the  height  of  their 
power  in  the  7th  cent,  B.C.  their  influence  ex- 
tended from  the  Po  to  Campania,  Rome  being 
governed  during  some  part  of  the  time  by  the 
Etruscan  family  of  the  Tarquinii.  After 


ETTARRE 

500  B.C.  the  political  strength  of  the  Etruscans 
began  to  decline,  though  the  influence  of 
their  more  highly  developed  art  and  civiliza- 
tion continued  to  be  felt  in  Rome. 
Ettarre,  see  Pelleas  and  Ettarre. 
Ettrick  Shepherd,  THE,  see  Hogg. 
Etzel,  the  name  given  in  German  legend  to 
Attila,  long  of  the  Huns. 
EUCLID  (EUCLEIDES),   the    celebrated 
geometrician,  lived  at  Alexandria  in  the  reign 
of  the  first  Ptolemy  (323-283  B.C.), .but  the 
place  of  his  birth  is  not  known.  His  works 
on  elementary  geometry  and  applied  mathe- 
matics   are    extant,    but    those    on    higher 
geometry  are  lost. 

Euclio,  in  the  'Aulularia*  of  Plautus,  an  old 
miser,  on  whom  Moliere  modelled  his  Harpa- 
gon  (in  'L'Avare'). 

Eugene  Aram,  a  novel  by  Bulwer  Lytton 
(q.v.),  published  in  1832.  It  is  based  on  the 
story  of  Eugene  Aram,  a  schoolmaster  of 
Knaresborough,  a  man  said  to  have  been  of 
unusual  ability  and  gentle  disposition,  who  in 
1759  was  tried  and  executed  at  York  for  the 
murder  of  one  Clarke. 

In  the  novel  Eugene  Aram  is  represented 
as  a  romantic  character,  who  under  pressure 
of  dire  poverty  consents  to  the  murder, 
which  is  done  by  his  accomplice  Houseman. 
From  this  moment  Aram  suffers  the  torments 
of  remorse.  He  settles  in  a  remote  village  and 
falls  in  love  with  Madeline  Lester,  a  woman 
of  noble  character.  Their  marriage  is  about 
to  take  place  when  Houseman  reappears  and 
betrays  Aram,  who  is  imprisoned,  tried,  and 
sentenced  to  death,  while  Madeline  suc- 
cumbs to  the  shock. 

Eugene  Aram,  The  Dream  of,  a  poem  by 
Hood  (q.v.),  based  on  the  same  story  as  the 
preceding. 

Eugenius,  a  character  in  Sterne's  'Tristram 
Shandy*  (q.v.),  the  friend  of  Yorick.  He  repre- 
sents John  Hall  Stevenson  (q.v.). 

EXJHfiMEHUS,  probably  a  Sicilian,  lived 
at  the  court  of  Cassander  in  Macedonia  about 
316  B.c.  After  travels  for  which  Cassander 
furnished  him.  with  the  means,  he  wrote  a 
*Sacred  History*  with  the  object  of  showing 
that  myths  were  derived  from  actual  his- 
torical events.  THs  method  of  explaining 
mythological  stories  was  called  after  him 

EUHEMERISM. 

Eulenspiegel,  TILL,  the  name  of  a  German, 
bom  according  to  tradition  about  1300,  the 
son  of  a  peasant,  and  the  subject  of  a  collection 
of  satirical  tales,  German  or  Flemish  in  origin, 
published  in  1519  (Flemish  version  1520-1) 
He  is  a  scapegrace  whose  knaveries  and  esca- 
pades are  carried  on  under  a  pretence  of  sim- 
plicity and  stupidity,  and  are  directed  against 
noblemen,  priests,  tradesmen,  and  inn- 
keepers. One  of  these  incidents  figures  in 
Chaucer's  'Sompnour's  Tale*.  The  book  was 
translated  into  many  languages,  among  others 


EUPHUES 

into  English  in  an  abridged  form  by  William 
Copland,  under  the  title  of  'Howleglass*,  about 
1560.  See  'The  Marvellous  Adventures  . . . 
of  Master  Tyll  Owlglass',  transl.  by  K.  R.  H. 
Mackenzie,  1860. 

Eumaeus,  the  swineherd  of  Ulysses  (q.v.), 
who  recognized  his  master  on  his  return  from 
the  Trojan  War  and  helped  him  to  destroy 
the  suitors  of  Penelope. 
Eumenldes,  see  Furies. 

Euphelia  and  Cloe,  the  subjects  of  a 
frequently  quoted  ode  by  Prior  (q.v.) : 

EupheHa  serves  to  grace  my  measure, 

But  Cloe  is  my  real  flame. 

Euphemism,  the  substitution  of  a  less  dis- 
tasteful phrase  or  word  for  a  more  accurate 
but  more  offensive  one. 

Buphorion,  in  Pt.  II  of  Goethe's  *Faust' 
(q.v.),  represents,  at  one  stage  of  the  drama, 
Lord  Byron,  whom  Goethe  laments  in  a 
famous  dirge. 

Euphormionis  Satyricont  see  Barclay  (J.). 
Euphrosyne,  one  of  the  Graces  (q.v.). 

Euphues,  a  prose  romance  by  Lyly  (q.v.), 
of  which  the  first  part,  'Euphues:  the 
Anatomy  of  Wit',  was  published  in  1579,  and 
the  second,  'Euphues  and  his  England',  in 
2580.  The  plot  of  each  is  very  slender  and 
little  but  a  peg  on  which  to  hang  discourses, 
conversations,  and  letters,  mainly  on  the 
subject  of  love.  The  work  is  largely  based  on 
North's  'Diall  of  Princes'  (q.v.).  In  the  first 
part,  Euphues,  a  young  Athenian,  visits 
Naples,  where  he  makes  the  acquaintance 
of  Philaurus,  an  Italian,  and  a  friendship 
develops  between  them.  None  the  less 
Euphues  proceeds  to  oust  Philautus  from  the 
affections  of  Lucilla,  to  be  in  turn  ejected  by 
one  Curio.  Euphues  and  Philautus,  after  up- 
braiding one  another,  unite  in  holding  LuciUa 
cas  most  abhominable*,  and  part  friends, 
Euphues  returning  to  Greece  and  leaving 
behind  him  a  pamphlet  of  advice  to  lovers, 
which  he  terms'a  coolingCarde  for  Philautus'. 

In  Pt.  II  Euphuea  and  Philautus  travel 
to  England,  where  their  adventures  are  even 
less  entertaining  than  at  Naples.  They  are 
largely  concerned  with  the  love-affairs  on 
which  Philautus  embarks,  in  spite  of  the 
advice  of  Euphues  to  use  circumspection  in 
his  dealings  with  English  ladies;  and  much 
space  is  occupied  by  a  discussion  on  such 
questions  as  'whether  in  love  be  more 
required  secrecie  or  constancie'.  Finally 
Euphues  is  recalled  to  Greece.  From.  Athens 
Euphues  addresses  a  letter  to  the  ladies  of 
Italy,  'Euphues*  glass  for  Europe*,  in  which 
he  ^  describes  England,  its  institutions,  its 
ladies,  its  gentlemen,  and  its  queen;  and  a 
final  letter  of  general  advice  from  Euphues  to 
Philautus  completes  the  work. 

'Euphues*  is  famous  for  its  peculiar  style, 
to  which  it  has  given  the  name  'Euphuism*. 
Its  principal  characteristics  are  the  excessive 
use  (i)  of  antithesis,  which  is  pursued  regard- 


[270] 


EUPHUES  GOLDEN  LEGACIE 

less  of  sense,  and  emphasized  by  alliteration 
and  other  devices;  and  (2)  of  allusions  to 
historical  and  mythological  personages  and 
to  natural  history  (probably  drawn  from  the 
writings  of  Erasmus).  Scott  has  satirized 
Euphuism  in  the  character  of  Sir  Piercie 
Shafton  in  'The  Monastery*  (q.v.),  and  C. 
Kingsley  has  defended  'Euphues'  in  'West- 
ward Ho!*  (q.v.). 

The  work  is  interesting  for  its  place  in  the 
evolution  of  the  English  novel,  and  it  had  a 
stimulating  effect  on  the  writers  of  the  age, 
such  as  Lodge  and  Greene. 
Euphues  Golden  Legacie,  see  Rosalynde* 
Euphuism,  see  Euphues. 

Eureka!,  a  Greek  word  meaning  'I  have 
found  it',  the  exclamation  uttered  by  Archi- 
medes (q.v.)  when  he  discovered,  by  observ- 
ing in  his  bath  the  water  displaced  by  his 
body,  the  means  of  testing  (by  specific 
gravity)  whether  base  metal  had  been  intro- 
duced in  Micro's  crown. 

EURIPIDES  (480-406  B.C.),  the  youngest 
and  most  'modem-minded*  of  the  three 
great  Attic  tragedians,  said  to  have  been 
born  at  Salamis  on  the  day  of  the  defeat 
of  the  Persians  in  the  naval  battle  off  that 
island.  The  characteristics  of  his  plays  are 
their  human  quality  (men  are  represented 
in  them  as  they  are  in  everyday  life),  their 
poignant  realism,  and  the  frequent  use  of 
divine  intervention,  the  deus  ex  machind>  in 
their  conclusion.  His  extant  plays,  the  sur- 
vivals of  some  ninety  that  he  is  said  to  have 
written,  are  the  following : ' Alcestis',  'Medea', 
'Hippolytus',  'Hecuba',  'Andromache*,  'Ion* 
(the  founder  of  the  Ionian  race),  the  'Sup- 
pliants' (the  refusal  of  Creon  of  Thebes  to 
bury  the  Argive  warriors),  the  'Heracleidae* 
(the  children  of  Hercules  persecuted  by 
Eurystheus),  the  'Mad  Heracles',  'Iphigenia 
among  the  Tauri',  the  'Trojan  Women', 
'Helen',  the  'Phoenissae*  (the  story  of 
Eteocles  and  Polyneices,  with  a  chorus  of 
Phoenician  maidens),  'Electra*,  'Orestes', 
'Iphigenia  at  Aulis',  the  'Bacchae*  (the  de- 
struction of  King  Pentheus  by  the  Bacchants), 
and  the  'Cyclops',  a  'satyr  play*  dealing  with 
the  story  of  Odysseus  and  Polyphemus. 
Euripides  was  unsparingly  ridiculed  by  the 
comic  poet  Aristophanes. 
Europa,  daughter  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoe- 
nicia, of  whom  Zeus  became  enamoured.  He 
assumed  the  shape  of  a  beautiful  bull  and 
mingled  with  the  herds  of  Agenor.  Europa 
caressed  him  and  sat  upon  his  back.  Zeus 
thereupon  carried  her  off  to  Crete,  where  she 
became  the  mother  of  Minos,  Sarpedon,  and 
Rhadamanthus  (q.v.). 
Eurus,  the  East  wind. 
EurJ&lus,  see  Nisus. 
EurJ'dice,  see  Orpheus. 

Eurystheus,  a  king  of  Argos,  in  whose  ser- 
vice Hercules  (q.v.)  executed  his  twelve 
labours. 


EVAN  HARRINGTON 

EUSDEN,  LAURENCE  (1688-1730),  poet 
laureate  from  1718  until  his  death.  He  had 
celebrated  the  marriage  of  the  duke  of  New- 
castle, who  gave  him  the  laureateship.  Pope 
refers  to  him  in  the  'Dunciad'  (q.v.): 

Know  Eusden  thirsts  no  more  for  sack  or 
praise ; 

He  sleeps  among  the  dull  of  ancient  days. 
EUSEBIUS  of  Caesarea  in  Palestine  (c.  A.D. 
275-340),  bishop  of  Caesarea,  and  a  cele- 
brated historian  and  theologian.  He  was  in- 
volved in  the  Arian  controversy,  was  one  of  the 
leaders  at  the  Council  of  Nicaea,  and  voted  for 
the  *Nicene  formula'.  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer,  and  a  valuable  authority  on  the  early 
church,  showing  diligence  and  sincerity.  His 
'History  of  the  Christian  Church',  which 
earned  him  the  title  of  'Father  of  Church 
history',  was  completed  c.  325.  His  *De  Vita 
Constantini',  often  tacked  on  to  the  'History* 
but  evidently  written  earlier,  is  of  especial 
interest;  for  the  question  whether  Constan- 
tine  was  ever  actually  baptized  rests  upon 
Eusebius. 

Eustace,  FATHER,  a  character  in  Scott's  'The 
Monastery'  (q.v.),  the  energetic  sub-prior  of 
Kennaquhair. 

Eustace  Diamonds,  The,  a  novel  by  A. 
Trollope  (q.v.),  reprinted  from  the  'Fort- 
nightly Review*  in  1873. 

Lizzie  Greystock,  the  daughter  of  old 
Admiral  Greystock,  beautiful  but  grasping, 
and  a  clever  unscrupulous  liar,  wins  the  hand 
of  the  wealthy  Sir  Florian  Eustace,  who  soon 
leaves  her  a  widow.  He  has  given  her  a 
diamond  necklace  that  has  been  for  genera- 
tions in  his  family,  and  is  worth  £10,000. 
The  story  centres  on  this  necklace,  which  the 
lawyer  of  the  Eustace  family  is  determined  to 
recover  as  an  heirloom,  while  'Lizzie  is  equally 
determined  to  retain  it.  She  intends  at  the 
same  time  to  marry  the  worthy  Lord  Fawn, 
who  insists  on  the  surrender  of  the  necklace. 
Lizzie  is  finally  exposed,  and  having  failed 
to  catch  any  of  her  other  admirers  is  re- 
duced to  marrying  Mr.  Emilius,  a  popular 
preacher,  but  suspected  to  be  a  Bohemian 
Jew,  with  a  wife  already  at  Prague. 

Euterpe,  the  Muse  (q.v.)  of  lyric  poetry. 

Euxine,  the  ancient  Greek  name  of  the 
Black  Sea.  The  word  signifies  'hospitable* 
and  the  name  was  given  in  a  euphemistic 
sense,  on  account  of  its  rough  and  stormy 
character. 

Evadne,  a  character  in  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  'The  Maid's  Tragedy'  (q.v.). 

Evalak  or  EVELAKE,  king  of  Sarras  in  the 
legend  of  the  Grail  (q.v.). 

Evan  Harrington,  a  novel  by  Meredith  (q.v.), 
published  in  1861. 

Evan  Harrington  is  the  son  of  Melchize- 
dek  Harrington,  the  glorified  tailor  of  Lym- 
port,  'the  great  MeF,  'the  Marquis',  as  he 
is  known,  a  man  of  distinguished  appear- 
arice  and  fine  manners.  Evan's  sisters  have 


EVANDALE 

married,  one  an  officer  of  Marines,  one  a  rich 
brewer,  Andrew  Cogglesby,  and  one  a 
Portuguese  nobleman,  the  Count  de  Saldar. 
The  sisters  are  all  anxious  to  forget  their 
connexion  with  taiiordom — 'Demogorgon'  as 
the  countess  calls  it — and  to  establish  Evan  in 
a  good  position  by  a  grand  marriage.  ^  Evan 
has  been  staying  with  the  countess  in  Lisbon, 
has  been  employed  as  temporary  secretary  to 
the  British  envoy,  the  Hon.  Melville  Jocelyn, 
and  has  fallen  in  love  with  his  niece  Rose. 
Evan's  father  has  just  died,  leaving  heavy 
debts.  The  novel  tells  the  story  of  the  gallant 
fight  made  by  the  countess,  with  endless 
resource  and  audacity,  to  launch  Evan  in 
'high  life'  and  conceal  the  undesirable  con- 
nexion, in  the  face  of  the  honest  Evan's 
reluctance,  of  the  determination  of  their 
mother,  'a  woman  of  mark  and  strict 
principle*,  that  Evan  shall  carry  on  the 
tailoring  business,  and  of  various  dis- 
concerting incidents.  The  whole  truth  of 
course  comes  out,  but  Evan  has  by  that  time 
confessed  to  Rose  and  won  her  heart.  And 
now  the  countess  overreaches  herself.  She 
adopts  a  dishonourable  device  for  the  dis- 
comfiture of  Ferdinand  Laxley,  Evan's  rival 
and  enemy,  of  which  Evan  feels  in  honour 
bound  to  assume  the  guilt.  He  is  dismissed 
the  house  and  his  engagement  with  Rose 
broken  off.  Meanwhile  Juliana  Bonner,  the 
sickly  cousin  of  Rose,  and  immediate  heiress 
of  the  Jocelyn  property,  has  fallen  in  love 
with  Evan,  whose  innocence  she  discovers. 
Rejected  by  him,  on  her  death-bed  she  makes 
the  truth  known  to  Rose,  and  bequeathes 
the  whole  Jocelyn  property  to  Evan.  His 
renunciation  of  this  in  favour  of  the  Jocelyn 
family,  coupled  with  the  clearing  of  his 
character  and  the  financial  support  of  his 
eccentric  old  bachelor  uncle,  Tom  Coggles- 
by, leads  to  a  happy  conclusion  of  the  story. 
Among  the  minor  characters  may  be  men- 
tioned Evan's  friend,  Jack  Raikes,  the  butt 
of  old  Cogglesby's  farcical  humour. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  Meredith 
was  himself  the  grandson  of  a  famous  Ports- 
mouth tailor. 

Evandale,  LORD,  a  character  in  Scott's  'Old 
Mortality*  (q.v.). 

Evangelical,  a  term  applied  from  the  i8th 
cent,  to  that  school  of  Protestants  which 
maintains  that  the  essence  of  'the  Gospel* 
consists  in  die  doctrine  of  salvation  by  faith 
in  the  atoning  death  of  Christ,  lays  more 
stress  on  faith  than  on  works  or  on  sacra- 
mental grace,  and  upholds  the  verbal  inspira- 
tion of  the  Bible.  As  a  distinct  party  desig- 
nation, the  term  came  into  general  use,  in 
England,  at  the  time  of  the  Methodist  re- 
vival; and  it  may  be  said,  with  substantial 
accuracy,  to  denote  the  school  of  theology 
which  that  movement  represents. 

Evangeline  >  a  narrative  poem  in  hexameters, 
by  Longfellow  (q.v.),  published  in  1847. 

Gabriel  Lajeunesse  and  Evangeline  Belle- 
foataine,  son  and  daughter  of  two  well-to-do 


EVANS 

peasants  of  Grandpr£  in  Acadia  have  recently 
been  betrothed,  when  the  inhabitants  are 
driven  from  their  homes  for  disaffection  to  the 
English  rule.  By  accident  the  lovers  embark 
on  different  ships  and  are  carried  to  widely 
distant  destinations.  Gabriel  and  his  father 
become  prosperous  farmers  in  Louisiana. 
Evangeline,  her  father  having  died  of  grief, 
travels  to  seek  Gabriel,  and  at  length  reaches 
his  farm,  only  to  find  that  he  has  migrated  to 
the  western  prairies.  After  years  of  fruitless 
search  she  becomes  a  sister  of  mercy  and 
tends  the  sick.  At  length  she  finds  Gabriel, 
at  the  point  of  death,  in  an  almshouse,  and 
the  lovers  are  united  as  he  dies.  The  poem 
is  notable  for  its  descriptions  of  American 
scenery  and  its  idyllic  simplicity. 

EVANS,  SIR  ARTHUR  JOHN  (1851-  ), 
son  of  Sir  J.  Evans  (q.v.),  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  and  at 
Gottingen,  was  made  keeper  of  the  Ash- 
molean  Museum  in  1884,  and  from  1893  was 
engaged  on  archaeological  investigations  in 
Crete,  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the 
pre-Phoenician  script  and  an  entire  new 
civilization.  Since  1 900  he  has  been  engaged  on 
the  excavation  of  the  Palace  of  Knossos,  Crete. 
His  chief  publications  have  been :  'Through 
Bosnia,  &c.*  (1895),  'Antiquarian  Researches 
in  Illyricum'  (1883-5),  'Cretan  Pictographs 
and  Pre-Phoenician  Script'  (1896),  'Further 
Discoveries  of  Cretan  and  Aegean  Script* 
(1898),  'The  Mycenaean  Tree  and  Pillar  Cult* 
(1901),  'Scripta  Minoa'  (vol.  i,  1909),  and 
'The  Palace  of  Minos  at  Knossos'  (vols.  i-iii, 
1922-30;  in  progress). 

Evans,  SIR  HUGH,  a  Welsh  parson  in 
Shakespeare's  'Merry  Wives  of  Windsor' 
(q.v.).  He  is  the  'Sir  Hugh*  referred  to  in 
Lamb's  *Amicus  Redivivus'(f Essays  of  Elia'). 

EVANS,  SIR  JOHN  (1823-1908),  archaeo- 
logist and  numismatist,  was  president  of  the 
Geological,  Numismatic,  and  Antiquarian 
Societies,  and  was  author  of  several  learned 
works :  'Flint  Implements  of  the  Drift'  (1860), 
'The  Coins  of  the  Ancient  Britons'  (1864), 
*The  Ancient  Stone  Implements,  Weapons, 
and  Ornaments  of  Great  Britain'  (1872),  and 
"The  Ancient  Bronze  Implements,  Weapons, 
and  Ornaments  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland9 
(1881). 

EVANS,  MARY  ANNE,  see  Eliot  (G.). 

EVANS,  SEBASTIAN  (i 830-1 9o9),brother 
of  Sir  J.  Evans  (q.v.),  educated  at  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge,  was  editor  of  the 
^Birmingham  Daily  Gazette',  1867-70,  and 
part  founder  and  editor  of  the  'People', 
1878-81.  He  was  also  an  artist  and  exhibited 
at  the  Royal  Academy.  In  literature  he  is 
remembered  as  an  ardent  medievalist,  as 
the  author  of  'Brother  Fabian's  Manuscripts* 
(1865),  'Songs  and  Etchings'  (1871),  'In  the 
Studio*  (1875),  and  as  translator  of  'The  High 
History  of  the  Holy  Graal'  (1898-1903,1910); 
he  also  wrote  an  original  study  of  the  Grail 
('In  quest  of  the  Holy  Grail',  1898). 


[272] 


EVANS'S 

Evans's,  in  the  NW.  corner  of  the  Piazza, 
Covent  Garden,  originally  the  residence  of 
the  earl  of  Orford  (d.  1727),  converted  into  an 
hotel  in  1774.  In  1844  it  passed  under  the 
management  of  one  Paddy  Green  and  became 
famous  for  its  musical  parties  and  suppers. 
Thackeray's  'Cave  of  Harmony*  is  partly 
drawn  from  it.  It  was  subsequently,  for  a 
time,  the  home  of  the  National  Sporting 
Club. 

Eve,  the  name  given  by  Adam  to  his  wife 
(Gen.  iii.  20),  the  first  woman.  'The  fairest 
of  her  daughters,  Eve*  (Milton,  'Paradise 
Lost',  iv.  324). 

Eve's  Diary,  a  half-humorous,  half-senti- 
mental, imaginary  diary  of  the  world's  first 
woman,  by  Mark  Twain  (q.v.),  published  in 
1905- 

Eve  ofSt*  Agnes f  The,  a  poem  by  Keats  (q.v.) 
written  in  1819.  Madeline  has  been  told  the 
legend  that  on  St.  Agnes*  Eve  maidens  may 
have  visions  of  their  lovers.  Her  lover 
Porphyro  is  of  hostile  lineage,  and  she  is 
surrounded  by  'hyena  foemen,  and  hot- 
blooded  lords'.  Yet  he  steals  in  on  this  night, 
and  when  she  wakes  from  dreams  of  him, 
she  finds  him  by  her  bedside.  Together 
they  escape  from  the  castle. 

A.  Tennyson  (q.v.)  also  wrote  a  poem,  'St. 
Agnes*  Eve',  describing  the  rapture  of  a 
nun  in  her  convent  garden  on  that  night. 

Evelina,  a  novel  by  Fanny  Burney  (q.v.), 
published  in  1778. 

Sir  Francis  Belmont,  disappointed  of  the 
fortune  which  he  expected  to  receive  with 
his  wife,  abandons  her  and  her  child  Evelina, 
who  is  brought  up  in  seclusion  by  a  guardian, 
Mr.  Villars.  Evelina,  who  has  grown  up  a 
beautiful  and  intelligent  girl,  goes  to  visit  a 
friend,  Mrs,  Mirvan,  in  London,  where  she  is 
introduced  into  society  and  falls  in  love  with 
the  handsome  and  dignified  Lord  Orville, 
but  is  exposed  to  much  mortification  by 
reason  of  her  vulgar  grandmother,  Mme 
Duval,  her  ill-bred  relatives,  and  the  pursuit 
of  her  pertinacious  lover,  Sir  Clement 
Willoughby.  An  attempt  is  made  to  induce 
Sir  Francis  Belmont  to  recognize  Evelina  as 
his  daughter,  which  is  met  by  the  surprising 
announcement  that  his  daughter  had  been 
conveyed  to  him  by  the  woman  who  had 
attended  Lady  Belmont  in  her  last  illness  and 
had  been  in  his  care  since  infancy.  It  is  now 
discovered  that  this  nurse  had  passed  her  own 
child  off  on  Sir  Francis.  Evelina  is  recognized 
as  his  heir,  and  marries  Lord  Orviile. 

EVELYN,  JOHN  (1620-1706),  educated  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  was  a  man  of  means, 
of  unblemished  character,  and  a  dilettante, 
who  helped  to  advance  English  civilization. 
He  published  in  1661  'Fumifugium,  or  The 
inconvenience  of  the  Air  and  Smoke  of 
London  dissipated';  in  1662  'Sculptura*,  a 
book  on  engraving;  'Sylva',  a  book  on 
practical  arboriculture,  which  exerted  great 
influence,  in  1664;  'Navigation  and  Com- 


EVERY  MAN  OUT  OF  HIS  HUMOUR 

merce'  in  1674;  a**d  a  number  of  translations 
from  the  French  on  architecture,  gardening, 
&c.  He  is  remembered  principally  by  his 
'Diary',  describing  his  travels  on  the  Conti- 
nent and  containing  brilliant  portraits  of  his 
contemporaries;  it  cbvers  his  whole  life.  It 
was  first  published  in  1818,  but  never  printed 
in  its  entirety  (a  complete  edition  is  in 
preparation).  Evelyn's  'Life  of  Mrs.  Godol- 
phin'  was  first  printed  in  1847,  and  various 
other  minor  works  have  been  published  in 
recent  times. 
Evening  9  Ode  to,  see  Collins  (William). 

Everard,  COLONEL  MARKHAM,  a  character 
in  Scott's  'Woodstock*  (q.v.). 

Evergreen,  THE,  see  Ramsay 


Evergreen  State,  Washington,  see  United 

States. 

Every  Man  in  his  Humour,  a  comedy  by 

Jonson   tq.v.),   performed    at    the   Curtain 

Theatre  (with  Shakespeare  in  the  cast)  in 

1598. 

Kitely,  a  merchant,  is  the  husband  of  a 
young  and  pretty  v/ife,  and  his  'humour*  is 
jealousy.  His  house  is  resorted  to  by  his 
young  brother  with  a  crowd  of  riotous  but 
harmless  gallants,  and  these  he  suspects  of 
designs  on  his  wife.  One  of  these  young  men 
is  Edward  Knowell,  whose  father's  'humour* 
is  excessive  solicitude  for  his  son's  morals. 
Dame  Kitely,  though  not  suspicious  by 
nature,  becomes  highly  credulous  when  her 
suspicions  are  aroused.  Bridget,  Kitely  *s 
sister,  is  merely  a  young  woman  easily  wooed 
and  won.  Bobadill,  one  of  Jonson's  greatest 
creations,  a  'Paul's  man*  (q.v.),  is  a  boasting 
cowardly  soldier,  who  associates  with  the 
young  gallants  above  mentioned.  Out  of 
these  .elements,  by  the  aid  of  the  devices  and 
disguises  of  the  mischievous  Brainworm, 
Knowell's  servant,  an  imbroglio  is  produced 
in  which  Kitely  and  his  wife  are  brought 
face  to  face  at  a  house  to  which  each  thinks 
the  other  has  gone  for  an  improper  purpose  ; 
Bobadill  is  exposed  and  beaten;  young 
Knowell  is  married  to  Kitely's  sister;  and 
poetasters  and  'gulls'  are  held  up  to  ridicule. 
The  misunderstandings  are  cleared  up  by 
the  shrewd  and  kindly  Justice  Clement. 

The  prologue  contains  an  exposition  of 
Jonson's  dramatic  theory. 

Every  Man  out  of  his  Humour,  a  satirical 
comedy  by  Jonson  (q.v.),  first  acted  in  1599 
at  the  Globe  Theatre,  in  which  the  poet  holds 
up  to  ridicule  various  absurd  characters  and 
fashions  of  the  day:  Fastidious  Brisk,  the 
spruce  fashionably-dressed  courtier;  Fun- 
goso,  a  student,  whose  aim  in  life  is  to  be  a 
courtier,  but  who  is  always  behind  the 
fashion  ;  Sordido,  his  father,  a  countryman, 
whose  recreation  is  reading  almanacs  and  his 
felicity  bad  weather,  because  his  barns  are 
full;  Sogliardo,  Sordido's  brother,  whose 
ambition  is  to  be  taken  for  a  man  of  quality; 
Deliro,  who  dotes  absurdly  on  his  wife; 
Puntarvolo,  a  vainglorious  knight,  who  makes 


3863 


[273] 


EVERYMAN 

a  ridiculous  insurance  on  the  safe  return  of 
Ms  cat  and  dog  from  a  voyage  to  Con- 
stantinople. They  are  all  put  'out  of  humour* 
with  their  various  predilections. 
Everyman,  the  title  of  a  popular  morality 
(q.v.)  of  the  i  sth  cent.,  of  Dutch  origin.  The 
characters  are  God,  Messenger,  Death, 
Everyman,  Fellowship,  Kindred,  Good 
Deeds,  Goods,  Knowledge,  Beauty,  Strength, 
and  similar  abstractions.  The  theme  is  the 
summoning  of  Everyman  by  Death.  Every- 
man finds  that  no  one  of  his  friends  except 
Good  Deeds  will  accompany  him. 
Everyman's  Library,  a  series  of  cheap 
reprints  of  the  world's  masterpieces  of 
literature;  the  series  also  includes  some 
original  works  of  reference. 

Evidences  of  Christianity,  see  Paley. 

Evil,  THE,  see  King's  Evil. 

Ewart,  NANTY,  captain  of  the  smuggler's 

brig  in  Scott's  'Redgauntlet'  (q.v.). 

EWING,  MRS.  JULIANA  HORATIA 
(1841-85),  n&e  GATTY,  a  notably  successful 
writer  of  books  for  the  young.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  'A  Flat  Iron  for  a  Far- 
thing' (1873),  'Lob-lie-by-the-Fire*  (1873), 
'The  Miller's  Thumb'  (in  'Aunt  Judy's 
Magazine',  1873,  republished  as  'Jan  of  the 
Windmill',  1884),  'Jackanapes*  (1884),  'The 
Story  of  a  Short  Life'  (1885). 

Ex  pede  Herculem,  'judge  the  size  of 
Hercules  from  his  foot'.  Aulus  Gellius  (i.  i) 
quotes  Plutarch  as  stating  (in  a  work  now 
lost)  that  Pythagoras  calculated  the  stature 
of  Hercules  by  comparing  the  length  of  the 
stadium  of  Olympia  with  the  stadia  in  other 
parts  of  Greece.  The  former  was  600  ft.  in 
length  as  measured  by  Hercules;  the  latter 
600  ft.  as  measured  by  ordinary  men.  Cf.  the 
similar  expression,  "ex  ungue  leonem'  ('judge 
the  lion  from  its  claw'). 

Examination  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's 
Philosophy,  a  treatise  by  J.  S.  Mill  (q.v.), 
published  in  1865,  and  amplified  in  subse- 
quent editions. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  work  is  the 
doctrine  developed  by  Mill  in  regard  to  the 
external  world   (expressed   in   the   famous 
phrase  'permanent  possibility  of  sensation') 
and  the  mind  or  self.    JIf  we  speak  of  the 
Mind  as  a  series  of  feelings,  we  are  obliged  to 
complete  the  statement  by  calling  it  a  series 
of  feelings  which  is  aware  of  itself  as  past  and 
future;  and  we  are  reduced  to  the  alternative 
of  believing  that  the  Mind,  or  Ego,  is  some- 
thing different  from  any  series  of  feelings,  or 
possibilities  of  them,  or  of  accepting  the 
parados,  that  something  which  ex  hypothesi 
is  but  a  series  of  feelings,  can  be  aware  of 
itself  as  a  series.*    'I  ascribe  a  reality  to  the 
Ego — to  my  own  Mind — different  from  that 
real   existence  as   a  Permanent  Possibility, 
which  is  the  only  reality  I  acknowledge  in 
Matter/ 

Examiner t  The,  a  Tory  periodical  started  by 


EXCURSION 

Viscount  Bolingbroke  (q.v.),  in  the  autumn 
of  1710,  and  conducted  by  Jonathan  Swift 
until  June  1711.  Prior  was  a  contributor. 
Some  forty  numbers  appear  to  have  been 
published.  It  engaged  in  controversy  with 
Steele's  'Guardian'  (q.v.)  and  Addison's 
'Whig  Examiner'. 

Examiner,  The,  a  weekly  periodical  launched 
in  1808  by  John  Hunt  and  his  brother 
Leigh  Hunt  (q.v.),  dealing  with  literature 
and  politics,  which  by  its  independent  atti- 
tude exercised  a  considerable  influence  on  the 
development  of  English  journalism*  From 
1821  to  1849  it  was  edited  by  Albany 
Fonblanque,  a  radical ;  then  by  John  Forster 
and  Henry  Morley.  It  lasted  until  1880. 

Excalibur,  a  corrupt  form  of  'Caliburn*  (the 
name  used  in  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth),  was 
King  Arthur's  sword,  which  he  drew  out  of 
a  stone  when  no  one  else  could  draw  it 
(Malory,  I.  iv),  or  which  was  given  him  by  the 
Lady  of  the  Lake  (Malory,  n.  iii).  Malory 
says  that  the  word  is  equivalent  to  'cut-steel'. 
'The  Welsh  form  in  the  Mabinogion  is  Ceded* 
vwlch)  which  has  a  resemblance,  that  cannot 
well  be  accidental,  to  Caladbolg,  the  name  of 
a  famous  sword  in  Irish  legend*  [OEDJ. 
When  Arthur  was  mortally  wounded  in  the 
last  battle,  he  ordered  Sir  Bedivere  to  throw 
Excalibur  into  the  water.  A  hand  rose  from 
the  water,  caught  the  sword,  and  vanished. 

Excelsior,  Latin  'higher*,  the  motto  adopted 
(in  defiance  of  Latin  grammar)  by  the  state 
of  New  York  in  1778;  used  by  Longfellow 
(as  an  expression  of  incessant  aspiration  after 
higher  attainment)  for  the  refrain  of  a  well- 
known  poem. 

Exchange,  THE  LONDON  STOCK,  for  the  sale 
and  purchase  of  securities  (shares,  stocks,  and 
bonds)  was  originally  conducted  at  Jona- 
than's coffee-house  in  Change  Alley,  and 
subsequently  in  a  room  taken  by  the  brokers 
in  Sweeting's  Alley,  which  was  given  the 
name  of  the  Stock  Exchange  Coffee  House. 
In  1801  joint  stock  capital  was  raised  to 
provide  premises  on  the  present  site  of  the 
Stock  Exchange  in  Capel  Court.  These 
premises  have  since  been  extended. 

Exchange,  THE  NEW,  a  bazaar  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Strand,  a  popular  resort  in  the 
I7th~i8th  cents.,  frequently  referred  to  in 
the  drama  of  the  period. 
Exchange,  THE  ROYAL,  London,  was 
originally  founded  by  Sir  T.  Gresham  (q.v.) 
in  1566  and  opened  by  Queen  Elizabeth.  It 
was  destroyed  in  the  Great  Fire  of  1666.  Its 
successor  was  likewise  burnt  in  1838.  The 
present  building  was  opened  in  1844. 
Excursion,  The,  a  poem  in  nine  books 
by  ^ Wordsworth  (q.v.),  published  in  1814. 
This  is  the  middle  portion  of  a  great 
philosophical  poem  'on  man,  on  nature  and 
on  human  life',  in  three  parts,  designed  by 
the  author,  but  of  which  this  alone  was 
completed.  The  whole  work  was  to  be  en- 
titled 'The  Recluse*,  'as  having  for  its 


[274] 


EXETER  BOOK 

principal  subject  the  sensations  and  opinions 
of  a  poet  living  in  retirement'.  It  was 
planned  in  1798,  when  Wordsworth  was 
living  at  Alfoxden,  near  Coleridge. 

The  story  is  very  slight.  The  poet  travel- 
ling with  the  Wanderer,  a  philosophic 
pedlar,  meets  with  the  latter's  friend,  the 
pessimistic  Solitary.  The  source  of  the 
latter's  despondency  is  traced  to  his  want  of 
religious  faith  and  of  confidence  in  the  virtue 
of  man,  and  is  reproved  in  lengthy  arguments. 
Another  character,  the  Pastor,  is  introduced, 
who  illustrates  the  harmonizing  effect  of 
virtue  and  religion  by  narratives  of  the  lives 
of  persons  interred  in  his  churchyard.  They 
visit  the  pastor's  house,  and  the  Wanderer 
draws  his  general  philosophical  and  political 
conclusions  from  the  discussions  that  have 
passed.  The  last  two  books  deal  in  particular 
with  the  industrial  expansion  of  the  early 
part  of  the  century  and  the  degradation  of 
the  humbler  classes  that  followed  in  its  train. 
The  remedy  is  found  in  the  provision  of 
proper  educational  facilities  for  the  children. 
Book  I  embodies  the  beautiful  'Story  of 
Margaret*  or  'The  Ruined  Cottage*,  originally 
written  as  a  separate  poem. 

Exeter  Book,  THE,  a  famous  collection  of 
old  English  poems,  copied  about  975,  given 
by  Bishop  Leofric  (d.  1072)  to  Exeter  Cathe- 


FABRICIUS 

dra!,  where  it  still  remains.  The  book  con- 
tains many  important  works,  including 
'Widsith'  and  'Deor*  (qq.v.). 

Exeter  Hall,  a  large  hall  in  the  Strand, 
London,  opened  in  1831,  for  meetings  of 
religious  and  philanthropic  bodies,  concerts, 
&c.  It  was  noted  for  the  religious  services 
held  there  in  1856  by  the  Rev.  C.  Spurgeon 
(q.v.).  It  was  purchased  for  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  in  1880  (Haydn).  The 
name  is  used  allusively  of  Evangelicalism. 

Exhibition,  THE  GREAT,  the  first  inter- 
national exhibition  of  the  products  of  in- 
dustry, promoted  by  Prince  Albert,  and  held 
in  1851  in  Hyde  Park  in  the  Crystal  Palace 
(afterwards  removed  to  Sydenham). 

Exoteric,  see  Esoteric. 

Expansion  of  England,  The,  see  Seeley. 

Extravagants,  see  Decretals. 

Extravaganza,  a  composition,  literary, 
musical,  or  dramatic,  of  an  extravagant  or 
fantastic  character. 

Eyck,  JAN  VAN  and  HUIBHECHT  VAN,  see  Van 
Eyck. 

Eyrbyggja  Saga,  see  Saga. 

Eyre,  SIMON,  see  Simon  Eyre. 


FABER,  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  (1814- 
63),  educated  at  Shrewsbury,  Harrow,  and 
Balliol  College,  and  a  friend  of  Coleridge  and 
Newman.  He  was  received  into  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  1845,  having  previously 
been  rector  of  Elton.  With  Father  Hutchison 
he  founded  the  London  Oratory.  He  pub- 
lished many  hymns  (including  'Pilgrims  of 
the  Night*  and  'The  Land  beyond  the  Sea9) 
and  devotional  treatises. 

Fabian,  in  Shakespeare's  'Twelfth  Night' 
(q.v.),  a  servant  of  Olivia,  who  joins  in  the 
schemes  against  Malvolio  and  Sir  Andrew 
Aguecheek. 

FABIAN,  ROBERT,  see  Fabyan. 

Fabian  Society,  a  society  founded  in  1884 
consisting  of  socialists  who  advocate  a 
'Fabian*  policy  (see  Fabius)  as  opposed  to 
immediate  attempts  at  revolutionary  action. 
The  'Fabian  Essays*  of  the  society  were 
issued  in  1889.  The  names  of  Sidney  Webb 
and  Mrs.  Webb,  and  of  G.  B.  Shaw  (qq.v.), 
are  especially  associated  with  it. 

Fabiola,  or  the  Church  of  the  Catacombs^  a 
novel  of  early  church  history  published  in 
1854,  by  Nicholas  Wiseman  (1802-65),  the 
cardinal  archbishop  of  Westminster. 

Fabius,  Quintus  Fabius  Maximus,  sur- 
named  Cunctator  or  'the  delayer',  was  ap- 


pointed dictator  at  Rome  after  the  great 
victory  won  by  Hannibal  over  the  Romans  in 
317  B.C.  He  carried  on  a  defensive  campaign 
against  Hannibal,  avoiding  direct  engage- 
ments, and  harassing  the  enemy.  Hence  the 
expressions,  'Fabian  tactics',  'Fabian  policy*. 

Fable  of  the  Bees,  or  Private  Vices,.  Public 
Benefits,  see  under  Mandeville  (B.  de). 

Fables,  Ancient  and  Modernt  by  Dryden 
(q.v.),  published  in  1699. 

They  are  verse  paraphrases  of  tales  by 
Chaucer,  Boccaccio,  and  Ovid.  From 
Chaucer  Dryden  took  'Palamon  and  Arcite*, 
'The  Cock  and  the  Fox*,  'The  Wife  of  Bath's 
Tale*,  and  the  'Character  of  the  Good  Parson'; 
from  Boccaccio,  'Sigisrnonda  and  Guiscardo', 
'Theodore  and  Honoria',  'Cymon  and 
Iphigenia';  from  Ovid  he  took  some  of  the 
'Metamorphoses*. 

Fabliau,  a  short  tale  in  verse,  almost  in- 
variably in  octosyllabic  couplets,  dealing  for 
the  most  part  from  a  comic  point  of  view  with 
incidents  of  ordinary  life  (Saintsbury).  The 
fabliau  was  an  important  element  in  the 
French  poetry  of  the  I2th-i3th  cents. 

Fabricius,  Caius  Fabricius  Luscinus,  who 
was  consul  in  282  and  278  B.C.,  was,  like 
Cincinnatus  (q.v.),  a  typical  example  of 
ancient  Roman  honesty,  simplicity,  and 
frugality.  As  censor  in  275  he  was  dis- 


[375] 


FABYAN 

tinguished  for  the  severity  with  which  he 
endeavoured  to  repress  the  growing  tendency 
to  luxury. 

FABYAN,  ROBERT  (d.  1513),  chronicler, 
was  sheriff  of  London  in  1493.  He  expanded 
his  diary  into  'The  Concordance  of  Histories', 
a  compilation  extending  from  the  arrival  of 
Brutus  in  England  (see  Brute)  to  the  death 
of  Henry  VII  (first  printed,  1516;  edited  by 
Ellis  in  1811).  His  chronicles  are  of  impor- 
tance with  respect  to  the  history  of  London. 
Face,  a  character  in  Jonson's  'The  Alchemist 

Factotum,  see  Johannes  Factotum. 
Fadladeen,   the   pompous   chamberlain  in 
Moore's  'Laila  Rookh'  (q.v.), 
Faerie  Queene,  The,  the  greatest  work  of 
Spenser  (q.v.),  of  which  the  first  three  books 
were  entrusted  to  the  printer  in  November 
1589,  and  the  second  three  were  published 
in  1596, 

The  general  scheme  of  the  work  is  ex- 
pounded in  the  author's  introductory  letter 
addressed  to  Sir  Walter  Ralegh.  By  the 
Faerie  Queene  the  poet  signifies  Glory 
in  the  abstract,  and  Queen  Elizabeth  in 
particular  (who  also  figures  under  the 
names  of  Belphoebe,  Mercilla,  and  Gloriana). 
Twelve  of  her  knights,  the^  'patrons*  or 
examples  of  twelve  different  virtues,  under- 
take each  an  adventure,  on  the  twelve  succes- 
sive days  of  the  Queen's  annual  festival. 
Prince  Arthur  symbolizes  'magnificence*,  in 
the  Aristotelian  sense  (says  the  author)  of  the 
perfection  of  all  the  other  virtues  (he  must 
have  meant  not  'magnificence*  but  'mag- 
nanimity*, fteyoAot/ruxta,  or  fgentiemanliness% 
/coAo/caya&'a).  Arthur  has  a  vision  of  the 
Faerie  Queene,  and,  determining  to  seek  her 
out,  is  brought  into  the  adventures  of  the 
several  knights  and  carries  them  to  a 
successful  issue.  But  this  explanation,  given 
in  the  introduction,  does  not  appear  from, 
the  poem  itself;  for  the  author  starts  at  once 
with  the  adventures  of  the  knights,  ^intending 
to  give  his  account  of  their  origin  in  the  last 
of  the  twelve  books  which  the  work  was  to 
contain,  but  this  was  never  written.  Spenser 
published  only  six  books,  of  which  the  sub- 
jects are  as  follows : 

(i)  the  adventures  of  the  Red  Cross 
Knight  of  Holiness  (the  Anglican  Church), 
the  protector  of  the  Virgin  Una  (truth,  or  the 
true  religion),  and  the  wiles  of  Archimago 
(q.v.)  and  Duessa  (q.v.); 

(ii)  the  adventures  of  Sir  Guyon,  the  Knight 
of  Temperance,  his  encounters  with  Pyrocles 
and  Chymocles,  his  visit  to  the  cave  of 
Mammon  and  the  House  of  Temperance 
and  his  destruction  of  Acrasia  (q.v.)  and  her 
Bower  of  Bliss .  Canto  x  of  this  Book  contains 
a  chronicle  of  British  kings  from  Brute  to 
Elizabeth; 

(iii)  the  legend  of  Chastity,  exemplified  by 
Britomart  and  Belphoebe ; 

(iv)  the  legend  of  Triamond  and  Cambell, 


FAIR  MAID  OF  PERTH 

exemplifying  Friendship;  together  with  the 
story  of  Scudamour  and  Amoret; 

(v)  the  adventures  of  Artegall,  the  Knight 
of  Justice,  in  which  allegorical  reference  is 
made  to  various  historical  events  of  the  reign 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  defeat  of  the 
Spaniards  in  the  Netherlands,  the  recantation 
of  Henri  IV  of  France,  the  execution  ^  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and  the  administration 
of  Ireland  by  Lord  Grey  de  Wilton; 

(vi)  the  adventures  of  Sir  Calidore, 
exemplifying  Courtesy. 

We  have  also  a  fragment  on  Mutability, 
being  the  sixth  and  seventh  cantos  of  the 
legend  of  Constance,  which  was  to  have 
formed  the  seventh  Book.  This  fragment 
contains  acharming  description  of  the  Seasons 
and  the  Months. 

The  work  as  a  whole,  modelled  to  some 
extent  on  the  'Orlando  Furioso5  of  Ariosto, 
suffers  from  a  certain  monotony,  and  its  chief 
beauties  lie  in  the  particular  episodes  with 
which  the  allegory  is  varied  and  in  descrip- 
tions, such  as  those  of  the  Cave  of  Mammon 
and  the  temptation  of  Sir  Guyon  by  the  Lady 
of  the  Idle  Lake,  in  Book  ii.  The  meaning  of 
many  of  the  allusions ,  which  must  have  added 
to  the  interest  of  the  work  for  contemporaries, 
is  now  lost.  The  poem  is  written  in  the 
stanza  invented  by  Spenser  (and  since  utilized 
by  Thomson,  Keats,  Shelley,  and  Byron),  in 
which  a  ninth  line  of  twelve  syllables  is  added 
to  the  eight  lines  of  ten  syllables  of  the 
ottava  rima,  rhyming  ababbcbcc. 
Fafnir,  in  the  Volsunga  Saga  (q.v.),  the 
dragon  who  guards  the  Nibelungs*  hoard  of 
gold,  and  is  slain  by  Sigurd, 
Fag,  Captain  Absolute's  servant  in  Sheri- 
dan's 'The  Rivals'  (q.v.). 
Fagin,  a  character  in  Dickens's  *  Oliver 
Twist*  (q.v.). 

Fainall  and  Mrs.  Falnall,  characters  in 
Congreve's  'The  Way  of  the  World'  (q.v.). 
Faineant,  French  word  meaning  'do- 
nothing*.  Rois  faineants  is  a  designation  ^of 
the  later  Merovingian  kings,  whose  authority 
was  superseded  by  that  of  the  'Mayors  of  the 
Palace'. 

Fair  Maid  of  Perth,  Valentine's  Day,  or  the, 
a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.),  published  in 
1828,  as  the  second  of  the  'Chronicles  of  the 
Canongate*. 

The  scene  is  laid  at  Perth  in  the  turbulent 
times  at  the  close  of  the  I4th  cent,  when  the 
mild  Robert  III  was  king  of  Scotland;  and 
the  story  opens  with  an  attempt  by  the 
profligate  young  duke  of  Rothsay,  the  king's 
son,  aided  by  his  villainous  Master  of  the 
Horse,  Sir  John  Ramorny,  to  break  into  the 
house  of  an  honest  burgher,  Simon  Glover, 
and  carry  off  his  daughter  Catharine,  the 
Fair  Maid  of  Perth.  The  attempt  is  defeated 
by  the  sturdy  armourer,  Henry  Smith  or 
Gow,  who,  in  the  affray,  hacks  off  the  hand 
of  Ramorny.  Henry  is  as  strong  and  skilful 
in  the  use  of  weapons  as  in  their  forging,  and 


1276} 


FAIR  MAID  OF  THE  WEST 

his  addiction  to  fighting  mars  his  prospect  of 
winning  the  hand  of  the  gentle  Catharine, 
though  he  has  a  vigorous  advocate  in  her 
father.  This  incident  is  followed  by  the 
endeavours  of  Ramorny  to  wreak  his  ven- 
geance first  on  the  armourer,  in  which  he  is 
unsuccessful,  then  on  his  patron  Rothsay,  by 
whom  he  considers  himself  betrayed.  At  the 
instigation  of  the  crafty  duke  of  Albany,  the 
king's  ambitious  brother,  the  unfortunate 
Rothsay  is  lured  by  Ramorny,  with  Catharine 
as  bait,  to  the  tower  of  Falkland,  where  he  is 
done  to  death.  Meanwhile  a  Highland  ap- 
prentice of  Simon  Glover,  the  fiery  youth 
Conachar,  has  become,  by  the  death  of  his 
father,  chief  of  the  clan  Quhele.  He  passion- 
ately loves  Catharine,  and  bitter  enmity  has 
arisen  between  him  and  the  armourer*  A 
feud  between  the  clan  Quhele  and  the  clan 
Chattan  is  to  be  settled  by  mortal  combat 
between  thirty  representatives  of  each  clan, 
among  whom  the  chiefs  are  necessarily  in- 
cluded. But  here  enters  a  tragic  element; 
for  Conachar's  hot  temper  is  strangely 
blended  with  constitutional  cowardice,  of 
which  the  youth  is  grievously  conscious.  One 
of  the  champions  of  the  clan  Chattan  having 
at  the  last  moment  defaulted,  his  place  is 
taken  by  the  armourer,  who  eagerly  grasps 
the  opportunity  of  finding  himself  face  to 
face  with  Conachar.  After  a  fearful  battle 
during  which  Conachar  has  been  protected  by 
the  devotion  of  his  foster-father,  Torquil 
of  the  Oak,  and  his  eight  sturdy  sons,  most  of 
the  combatants  lie  dead  or  wounded  on  the 
field,  and  Conachar  is  finally  confronted  by 
Henry  Smith.  His  courage,  hitherto  pain- 
fully maintained,  now  gives  way,  and  he  turns 
and  flees,  to  hide  his  disgrace  in  suicide. 
Henry,  sickened  with  the  carnage,  vows  to 
hang  up  his  broadsword  for  ever,  and  is 
accepted  by  Catharine. 

Fair  Maid  of  the  West,  The,  or  At  Girle 
worth  Gold,  a  comedy  of  adventure,  in  two 
parts,  by  Heywood  (q.y.),  printed  in  1631. 

The  play  opens  with  a  vivid  scene  at 
Plymouth,  where  Essex's  expedition  is  on 
the  point  of  sailing  for  the  Azores  (1597),  and 
gallant  Master  Spencer  has  the  misfortune 
to  kill  a  man  while  protecting  Besse  Bridges, 
*the  flower  of  Plymouth',  from  insult.  He 
has  to  fly  the  country,  but  first  makes  pro- 
vision for  Besse,  by  handing  over  to  her  the 
Windmill  Tavern  at  Fowey,  which  she  subse- 
quently conducts  with  equal  spirit  and  de- 
corum. Meanwhile  Spencer,  who  has  sailed 
to  the  Azores,  is  wounded  to  the  point  of 
death  in  trying  to  stop  a  quarrel.  He  sends 
a  message  to  Besse,  bidding  her  adieu  and 
devising  all  his  property  to  her.  Besse  em- 
ploys part  of  this  to  fit  out  a  privateer,  in 
which  she  sets  sail  to  bring  home  his  body. 
Instead  she  rescues  Spencer  himself,  who  has 
recovered  and  been  captured  by  Spaniards. 
After  many  adventures  Besse  is  finally  united 
to  her  lover.  The  first  part,  at  least,  makes  a 
breezy  and  entertaining  melodrama. 


FAITHFUL 

Fair  Penitent,  The,  a  tragedy  in  blank  verse 
by  Rowe  (q.v.),  produced  in  1703. 

The  plot  of  the  play  is  that  of  Massinger 
and  Field's  'Fatal  Dowry*  (q.v.),  shortened 
and  somewhat  modified  at  the  end.  Chara- 
lois  becomes  Altarnont;  Beaumelle,  Calista; 
Rochfort,  Sciolto;  Romont,  Horatio;  and 
No  vail,  Lothario.  The  play  was  extremely 
successful  and  was  constantly  revived  until 
the  early  igth  cent.  The  'haughty,  gallant, 
gay  Lothario*  has  become  proverbial,  and 
was  the  model  on  which  Richardson  drew 
Lovelace  in  his  'Clarissa  Harlowe*  (q.v.).  In 
revivals  of  the  play  Garrick  acted  Lothario, 
and  subsequently  Mrs.  Siddons,  Calista. 
Johnson  said  of  it  that  'there  is  scarcely  any 
work  of  any  poet  at  once  so  interesting  by 
the  fable,  and  so  delightful  by  the  language'. 
He  observes,  however,  with  reference  to  the 
title  of  the  play,  that  Calista  'may  be  reason- 
ably suspected  of  feeling  pain  from  detection 
rather  than  from  guilt*. 

Fair  Quarrel,  A,  a  comedy  by  Middleton 
(q.v.)  and  W.  Rowley  (q.v.),  published  in 
1617. 

Captain  Ager  receives  from  a  fellow  officer 
an  insult  which  reflects  on  his  mother's  virtue. 
A  duel  is  arranged,  but  Ager  is  too  conscien- 
tious to  fight  unless  he  is  satisfied  that  his 
cause  is  a  just  one.  He  tells  his  mother  of  the 
accusation,  which  she  at  first  indignantly 
denies,  but  presently,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
duel,  admits  to  be  true.  Ager  then  declines 
to  fight,  and  is  branded  by  his  adversary  as  a 
coward.  Having  now  what  he  considers  an 
adequate  reason,  he  fights  and  defeats  his 
enemy.  They  are  reconciled  and  all  ends 
well.  The  offensive  under-plot  of  the  play  calls 
for  no  special  notice.  The  treatment  by  the 
authors  of  the  problem  presented  in  the  main 
plot  was  made  the  subject  of  a  warm  eulogy 
by  Charles  Lamb  in  his  'Specimens'. 

Fair  Rosamond,  see  Rosamond. 
Fairchild  Family,  The,  see  Sherwood. 

Fail-field,  LEONARD,  a  character  in  Bulwer 
Lytton's  'My  Novel*  (q.v.). 

Fairford,  ALAN,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Redgauntlet*  (q.v.). 

Fair  service,  ANDREW,  in  Scott's  'Rob  Roy* 
(q.v.),  a  gardener  at  Osbaldistone  ^  Hall, 
employed  as  servant  by  Francis  Osbaldistone, 
a  sanctimonious,  self-important,  cowardly 
rascal,  who  by  his  loquacity  and  disloyalty 
adds  to  his  master's  difficulties. 

Faithful,  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's  Progress' 
the  companion  of  Christian;  he  is  put  to 
death  at  Vanity  Fair. 

To  deal  faithfully  is  to  treat  in  the  manner 
in  which  Faithful  dealt  with  ^Talkative; 
Christian  observes  'There  is  but  little  of  this 
faithful  dealing  with  men  nowadays,  and  that 
makes  religion  to  stink  so  in  the  nostrils  of 
many  as  it  doth*. 

Faithful,  JACOB,  see  Jacob  Faithful. 


[377] 


FAITHFUL  SHEPHERDESS 

Faithful  Shepherdess,  The,  a  pastoral  play  by 
J.  Fletcher  (q.v.),  printed  not  later  than  1610. 

It  deals  with  the  love-affairs  of  various 
shepherds  and  shepherdesses.  Clorin,  the 
Faithful  Shepherdess,  skilled  in  simples 
and  strong  in  her  chastity,  has  vowed  fidelity 
to  her  dead  lover  and  lives  by  his  tomb. 
Thenot  is  in  love  with  her,  but  only  so  long 
as  she  remains  faithful  to  her  dead  lover. 
Perigot  is  in  love  with  Amoret,  and  Amarillis 
with  Perigot,  Amarillis  being  repulsed,  enlists 
the  services  of  the  Sullen  Shepherd  to  cross 
Perigot's  love  for  Amoret.  The  wanton  Cloe, 
seeking  a  lover,  finds  Daphnis  too  coy,  and 
makes  an  assignation  with  Alexis.  ^  m 

The  various  couples  assemble  at  night  in 
the  forest,  and  Amarillis,  by  dipping  in  a 
magic  well,  assumes  the  form  of  Amoret. 
Complications  follow,  and  are  finally  re- 
solved. Though  without  much  dramatic  inter- 
est, the  play  is  full  of  passages  of  poetic  beauty, 
and  ranks,  as  a  pastoral,  with  Ben  Jonson  s 
*Sad  Shepherd*  and  Milton's  'Comus'. 

Falconer,  ALGERNON,  a  character  in  Pea- 
cock's 'GryU  Grange1  (q.v.). 

FALCONER,  WILLIAM  (1732-69),  author 
of  'The  Shipwreck*,  a  poem  in  three  cantos 
recounting  the  wreck  of  a  ship  on  the  coast  of 
Greece,  which  had  considerable  vogue  in  its 
day.  It  appeared  in  1762  (revised  versions  in 
1 764  and  1769).  Falconer  was  drowned  at  sea. 

Falemian,  a  wine  celebrated  among  the 
ancient  Romans,  made  from  the  grapes  of 
Falernus  in  Campania. 

Falkland,  one  of  the  principal  characters  in 
God-win's  'Caleb  Williams*  (q.v.).  See  also 
Paulklond. 

Falkland,  Lucius  GARY,  second  Viscount 
(1610  ?— 43),  a  famous  Royalist,  *a  man  learned 
and  accomplished,  the  centre  of  a  circle  [at 
Great  Tew,  near  Oxford]  which,  embraced 
the  most  liberal  thinkers  of  his  day,  a  keen 
reasoner  and  an  able  speaker,  whose  con- 
victions still  went  with  the  Parliament,  while 
his  wavering  and  impulsive  temper,  his  love  of 
the  Church,  his  passionate  longings  for  peace, 
led  him  to  struggle  for  a  king  whom  he  dis- 
trusted, and  to  die  for  a  cause  that  was  not 
his  own*  (J.  R.  Green).  He  fell  atNewbury. 

Falkland  Islands,  THE,  were  seen  by  Davis 
in  1592,  and  by  Hawkins  in  1594.-  Capt. 
Strong  in  1690  sailed  through  the  sound 
between  them,  naming  it  Falkland  Sound. 
In  1764  De  Bougainville  took  possession  of 
the  islands  for  France,  which  subsequently 
ceded  them  to  Spain.  Meanwhile  Commo- 
dore Byron  had  occupied  one  of  the  small 
islands  of  the  group.  Spain  renounced  her 
claim  in  favour  of  Great  Britain  in  1771.  The 
neighbouring  ocean  was  the  scene  of  the  naval 
action  of  8  Dec.  1914,  in  which  the  squadron 
of  Admiral  von  Spee  was  (with  the  exception 
of  one  ship)  destroyed  by  the  British  squadron 
commanded  by  Sir  Doveton  Sturdee. 


FANSHAWE 

FALKNER  (originally  FAULKNER), 
WILLIAM  (1897-  ),  bom  at  New 
Albany,  Mississippi,  one  of  the  most  ^  re- 
markable of  the  young  American  novelists. 
Of  his  books  the  following  have  been  pub- 
lished in  England:  'Soldiers'  Pay'  (1930), 
'The  Sound  and  the  Fury'  (1931)*  'Sanctuary* 
(1931), 'Sartoris*  (1932)- 
Fall  of  Robespierre,  The,  a  drama  (1794) 
written  by  Coleridge  (Act  I)  and  Southey 
(Acts  II  and  III)  in  collaboration,  of  little 
value. 

Falls  of  Princes,  see  Lydgate. 
False  One,    The,  a  tragedy  attributed  to 
J.  Fletcher  (q.v.),  in  which  Massinger  may 
also  have  had- a  share,  printed  in  1647;  the 
date  of  production  is  uncertain. 

The  play  deals  with  the  joint  occupation  of 
the  throne  of  Egypt  by  Ptolemy^  and  his 
sister  Cleopatra,  and  the  intrigues  of 
Photinus  relating  thereto;  the  treacherous 
murder  of  Pompey  by  Septimius;  the  en- 
tanglement of  Caesar  by  the  charms  of 
Cleopatra;  the  revolt  of  the  Alexandrians; 
the  further  treachery  and  hanging  of  Septi- 
mius ('The  False  One');  the  suppression  of 
the  revolt  by  Caesar;  the  death  of  Ptolemy; 
and  the  reconciliation  of  Caesar  with  Cleo- 
patra. 

Falstaff,  SIR  JOHN,  in  Shakespeare's 
'Henry  IV*  (q.v.),  a  fat,  witty,  good-humoured 
old  knight,  loving  jests,  self-indulgent,  and 
over-addicted  to  sack;  a  braggart  who,  when 
exposed,  has  presence  of  mind  and  resource 
enough  to  find  some  shift  to  save  his  face; 
he  seems  to  exaggerate  and  boast  his  vices 
in  order  to  bring  out  their  humorous  side. 
The  Falstaff  of  Shakespeare's  'Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor'  (q.v.),  written  to  command, 
presents  a  very  different  character.  A  mere 
designing  knave,  with  but  few  sparks  of 
his  former  ingratiating  humour,  he  cuts 
a  sorry  figure  in  the  indignities  and  morti- 
fications to  which  his  vices  expose  him. 
The  character  was  originally  called  Old- 
castle,  but  objection  was  taken  by  Lord  Cob- 
ham,  a  descendant  of  the  original  Sir  John 
Oldcasde  (q.v.),  'for  he  died  a  martyr'. 
Falstaff,  Original  Letters  of  Sir  John,  and  his 
Friends;  now  first  made  public  by  a  Gentleman, 
a  Descendant  of  Dame  Quickly,  by  James 
White  (1775-1820),  a  friend  of  C.  Lamb, 
who  collaborated  in  their  production.  They 
were  published  in  1796. 
Familiar  Letters,  see  Howell  (y.). 
FancyfuH,  LADY,  a  character  in  Vanbrugh's 
'The  Provok'd  Wife'  (q.v.). 
Fanny,  Lord,  see  Hervey  (John). 

Fanny's  First  Play,  a  comedy  by  G.  B.  Shaw 
(q.v.),  published  in  1911. 

Fanny's  Way,  PRETTY,  see  Pamett  (T.). 

FANSHAWE,  ANNE,  LADY  (1625-80), 
wife  of  Sir  Richard  Fanshawe,  who  was  a 
devoted  adherent  to,  and  sufferer  for,  the 


[278] 


FANSHAWE 

Royalist  cause,  and  after  the  Restoration  was 
ambassador  to  Portugal  and  subsequently  to 
Spain.  Lady  Fanshawe  shared  her  husband's 
wanderings  and  wrote  interesting  'Memoirs', 
first  printed  in  1829. 

FANSHAWE,  CATHERINE  MARIA 
(1765—1834),  poetess,  remembered  on  ac- 
count of  her  riddle  on  the  letter  H,  which 
has  often  been  attributed  to  Byron.  The 
opening  line  originally  ran  *  'Twas  in  heaven 
pronounced,  and  'twas  muttered  in  helF; 
but  the  accepted  reading — and  the  alteration 
is  generally  assigned  to  James  Smith  (q.v.) — 
now  is  "Twas  whispered  in  heaven,  'twas 
muttered  in  hell'. 

Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd,  a  novel  "by 
Hardy  (q.v.),  published  in  1874. 

The  theme,  which  recurs  in  other  of 
Hardy's  novels,  is  the  contrast  of  a  patient 
and  generous  devotion,  with  selfish  un- 
scrupulous love  and  with  violent  passion. 
Gabriel  Oak,  the  shepherd,  serves  the 
capricious  Bathsheba  Ever  dene  for  many 
years  with  a  humble  unselfish  devotion. 
Sergeant  Troy,  the  gallant  fascinating 
soldier,  who  deserts  Fanny  Robin  and  lets 
her  die  in  childbed  in  a  workhouse,  wins 
Bathsheba  for  his  wife  and  then  ill-treats  her. 
Troy  is  murdered  by  Farmer  Bpldwood,  who 
is  impelled  by  a  furious  longing  for  Bath- 
sheba. Boldwood  becomes  a  lunatic,  and 
Gabriel  and  Bathsheba  are  at  last  united. 

FARADAY,  MICHAEL  (1791-1867),  the 
eminent  physicist,  was  the  son  of  a  black- 
smith and  was  apprenticed  as  a  book- 
binder. He  attracted  the  attention  of  Sir  H. 
Davy  (q.v.)  and  was  engaged  by  him  as  an 
assistant  in  1812.  Faraday  made  notable 
contributions  to  nearly  all  branches  of 
physical  science;  but  his  greatest  achieve- 
ment was  the  discovery  of  magneto-electricity. 
He  propounded  the  theory  of  'lines  of  force', 
developed  electro-chemistry,  and  originated 
the  theory  of  the  atom  as  a  'centre  of  force'. 
His  'Experimental  Researches  in  Electricity*, 
reprinted  from  'Philosophical  Transactions', 
were  published  in  1839-55;  his  'Life  and 
Letters'  in  1870.  It  was  said  that  'Sir  H. 
Davy's  greatest  discovery  was  Michael 
Faraday*. 

Farce  (from  a  metaphorical  use  of  the  word 
farce,  stuffing),  was  originally  applied  to 
explanatory  or  additional  matter  introduced 
into  the  liturgy;  thence  to  the  impromptu 
buffoonery  which  the  actors  were  wont  to 
insert  in  the  text  of  religious  dramas.  It 
now  means  a  dramatic  work  designed  solely 
to  excite  laughter.  It  should  be  distinguished 
from  Extravaganza  (q.v.),  with  which  it  is 
sometimes  confused. 

Fardorougha,  the  Miser,  a  novel  by 
W.  Carleton  (q.v.)  published  in  1839. 

It  is  a  powerful  study  of  an  Irish^  farmer 
torn  between  the  passion  of  avarice  and 
the  love  for  a  son  who  has  come  late  into 
his  married  life.  The  villainous  Bartle 


FASCIST 

Flanagan,  to  revenge  himself  on  the  old 
usurer,  who  has  been  the  cause  of  his  ruin, 
enters  his  service  and  cunningly  fixes  the 
guilt  of  a  crime  he  has  committed  on 
Fardorougha's  son,  Conor,  and  gets  him 
transported ;  finally  attempting,  with  the  help 
of  the  lodge  of  Ribbonmen  (q.v.)  to  which  he 
belongs,  to  abduct  his  victim's  sweetheart. 
He  overreaches  himself,  and  is  hanged,  but 
not  before  he  has,  in  the  terror  of  death, 
exculpated  Conor.  There  are  many  humor- 
ous passages  in  this  sombre  tale. 

Farmer  George:  George  III  was  carica- 
tured as  'Farmer  George'  on  account  of  the 
simplicity  of  his  tastes  and  his  interest  in 
agriculture. 

Farmer's  Boy,  The,  see  Bloomfield. 

Farnese,  the  name  of  an  Italian  family 
which  rose  to  importance  through  the  eleva- 
tion of  Alexander  Farnese  to  the  papal  see  as 
Paul  III  (1534).  He  created  the  duchy  of 
Parma  for  his  son  Pietro. 

The  FARNESE  BULL  is  a  group  of  statuary 
by  the  brothers  Apollonius  and  Tauriscus  of 
Tralles  (c.  150  B.C.)  showing  Dirce  tied  to  a 
wild  bull  by  Zethus  and  Amphion  (see  under 
Antiope).  The  sculpture  was  found  in  the 
Baths  of  Caracalla  and  placed  in  the  Farnese 
palace. 

The  FARNESE  HERCULES  is  a  statue  by  the 
Athenian  sculptor  Glycon  (ist  cent.  B.C.)  of 
the  hero  leaning  on  his  club,  perhaps  copied 
from  an  original  by  Lysippus. 

FARQUBAR,  GEORGE  (1678-1707),  was 
a  sizar  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  after 
being  an  officer  in  the  army  became  an  actor, 
but  gave  up  the  stage  in  consequence  of 
accidentally  wounding  a  fellow  player.  He 
took  to  writing  comedies,  and  produced 
'Love  and  a  Bottle*  in  1699,  'The  Constant 
Couple,  or  a  Trip  to  the  Jubilee'  (q.v.)  in 
1700,  'Sir  Harry  Wildair*  in  1701,  'The  In- 
constant' and  'The  Twin  Rivals'  in  1702, 
'The  Stage  Coach'  (with  Motteus,  q.v.J  in 
1704,  'The  Recruiting  Officer*  (q.v.)  in 
1706,  and  'The  Beaux'  Stratagem*  (q.v.) 
in  1707.  The  last  two  are  the  best  of  his 
plays,  and  are  marked  by  an  atmosphere  of 
reality  and  genial  merriment  very  different 
from  that  of  the  artificial  comedy  of  the 
period.  They  reveal  the  good-natured  and 
easy-going  character  of  the  author,  though 
his  satire  is  sometimes  pungent.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  deceived  by  his  wife,  from  love 
of  him,  as  to  her  fortune,  but  to  always  have 
treated  her  with  tenderness  and  indulgence. 
He  died  in  poverty.  A  present  of  twenty 
guineas  from  the  actor  Robert  Wilks  gave 
him  the  means  of  writing  his  last  play,  'The 
Beaux*  Stratagem',  and  he  lived  just  long 
enough  to  hear  of  its  success. 

Fascist  (pron.  fashist),  from  Italian  fasdsti, 
which  is  derived  from  fascio  (Latin  fascis),  a 
sheaf  or  bundle,  used  metaphorically  in.  fascio 
delleforze  in  the  sense  of  union  or  association 


[279] 


FARRAGO 

of  forces.  In  this  sense  the  word  fascio  was 
adopted  by  the  Italian  socialists  at  the  end 
of  the  igth  cent.,  particularly  in  Sicily,  where 
certain  socialist  groups  called  Fasci  Siciliani 
became  well  known.  Early  in  1915  a  group  of 
Italian  revolutionary  socialists  led  by  Musso- 
lini and  Corridoni  separated  themselves  from 
the  official  party  and  formed  a  Fascio  inter- 
ventista,  advocating  intervention  in  the  War. 
This  had  £I1  Popolo  d'ltahV  as  its  organ  in 
the  press,  and  obtained  a  rapidly  increasing 
membership.  After  the  peace,  weak^  govern- 
ments allowed  the  official  socialists  to  intensify 
their  communistic  propaganda,  to  pour  scorn 
on  the  leaders  of  the  army  and  the  combatants 
in  the  War,  and  to  emphasize  the  economic 
difficulties  that  had  resulted  from  interven- 
tion. In  March  1919,  Mussolini,  who  had 
himself  fought  in  the  War,  and  many  of 
whose  friends  and  followers  had  been  killed, 
disgusted  with  this  attitude,  formed  at  Milan 
a  small  group  of  daring  young  men  called 
Fascio  nazionale  di  combattimento ,  ^with  the 
object  of  resisting  by  every  means,  including 
violence,  the  communistic  movement.  The 
activities  of  the  Fasdsti,  as  the  members  of 
this  Fascio  were  called,  were  so  effective  in 
checking  the  Communists,  that  many  consti- 
tutional Italians  felt  justified  in  supporting 
them,  and  the  membership  of  the  Fascio 
spread  rapidly  over  Italy.  Its  success  was 
due  to  strong  organization  and  leadership 
and  the  fine  fighting  qualities  of  the  fasdsti, 
a  large  number  of  whom  met  their  death  in 
conflicts  with  the  Communist  forces.  At  the 
end  of  1921,  when  the  government  of  the  day 
seemed  inclined  to  declare  the  Fasci  to  be 
unlawful  armed  bands,  a  party  was  formed 
(Partito  nazionale  fascista)  which  absorbed 
the  old  Fasci  di  combattimento  and  took  as  its 
symbol  the  Roman  fasces.  It  was  this  party 
that  in  October  1923  marched  on  Rome  and 
accomplished  the  Fascist  revolution.  (The 
above  is  based  on  an  article  in  S.P.E. 
Tract  XIX.) 

Farrago,  CAPTAIN,  an  American  Don 
Quixote  and  hero  of  the  satirical  novel 
'Modern  Chivalry*,  by  H.  H.  Brackenridge 
(q.v.).  The  role  of  Sancho  Panza  is  played 
by  Captain  Farrago's  man  Teague. 

Fashion,  SIR  NOVELTY  and  YOUNG,  charac- 
ters in  Vanbrugh's  'The  Relapse1  (q.v.),  who 
reappear  in  Sheridan's  adaptation  ({A  Trip 
to  Scarborough')- 

Fastidious  Brisk,  a  character  in  Jonson's 
'Every  Man  out  of  his  Humour*  (q.v.). 

Fastolf,  SIR  JOHN  (1378-1459),  a  dis- 
tinguished warrior  in  the  French  wars  of 
Henry  V,  who  contributed  towards  the 
building  of  the  philosophy  schools  at  Cam- 
bridge and  bequeathed  funds  which  were 
devoted  to  the  foundation  of  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford.  The  few  coincidences  be- 
tween the  careers  of  Fastolf  and  Shake- 
speare's Sir  John  Falstaff  are  accidental. 


FATAL  MARRIAGE 

Fastrade  (764-94)*  queen  of  France,  third 
wife  of  Charlemagne.    She  is  mentioned  by 
Longfellow  in  the  'Golden  Legend',  vi. 
Fat  Boy,  THE,  Joe,  Mr.  Wardle's  servant  in 
the  'Pickwick  Papers'  (q.v.). 
Fata  Morgana,  see  Morgan^  le^  Fay.   (The 
word/£fcz  in  Italian  means  'fairy'.) 
Fatal  Curiosity,   The,  a  tragedy  by  Lillo 
(q.v.),  published  in  1736,  based  on  an  old 
story  of  a  Cornish  murder.  Old  Wilmot,  under 
stress  of  poverty  and  urged  by  his^  wife, 
murders   a   stranger  who   has   deposited   a 
casket  with   them,   only   to   find   that  the 
murdered  man  is  his  son,  supposed  to  have 
been  lost  in  a  shipwreck. 

The  Fatal  Curiosiiy  is  also  another  name 
for  the  episode  in  'Don  Quixote'  of  'The 
Curious  Impertinent1. 

Fatal  Dowry,  The,  a  tragedy  by  Massinger 
and  Field  (qq.v.),  printed  in  1632.  The  text 
as  we  have  it  is  corrupt. 

When  the  play  opens,  Charalois's  father, 
the  distinguished  marshal  of  Charles,  duke 
of  Burgundy,  has  just  died  in  debt,  and  his 
creditors  refuse  to  allow  his  body  to  be 
buried.  Charalois  offers  to  go  to  prison  if 
the  creditors  will  release  the  body.  The  offer 
is  accepted ;  Charalois  goes  to  prison  with  his 
friend,  the  blunt  soldier  Romont.  Rocbfort, 
ex-president  of  the  parliament,  touched  by 
the  piety  of  Charalois  and  the  honesty  of 
Romont,  procures  their  release,  and  more- 
over gives  Charalois  his  daughter,  Beaumelle, 
to  wife.  She  is  presently  found  by  Romont 
exchanging  kisses  with  her  former  suitor, 
the  mean-spirited  fop  Novall.  Charalois,  at 
first  incredulous,  presently  himself  finds 
Beaumelle  and  Novall  together,  and  forcing 
a  duel  on  the  latter  Mils  him.  He  calls  upon 
Rochfort  to  judge  his  daughter.  The  father 
himself  condemns  her,  and  Charalois  stabs 
her.  But  the  father^  immediately  jturns  on 
Charalois  and  upbraids  him  for  his  lack  of 
mercy.  Charalois  is  tried  for  the  murder  of 
Novall  and  Beaumelle,  and  acquitted,  but 
killed  by  a  friend  of  Novall,  who  in  turn  is 
killed  by  Romont. 

Rowe's  'Fair  Penitent*  (q.v.)  is  founded  on 
this  play. 

Fatal  Marriage,  The,  or  the  Innocent 
Adultery,  a  tragedy  by  Southerne  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1694. 

Biron,  having  married  Isabella  against  his 
father's  wish,  is  sent  by  him  to  the  siege  of 
Candy,  and  reported  killed.  His  widow  is 
repudiated  by  the  father  and  brought  to 
misery.  During  seven  years  she  is  courted  by 
Villeroy,  and  finally,  from  gratitude  for  his 
devotion  and  urged  by  Carlos,  Biron's  younger 
brother,  she  marries  him.  Biron,  who  has  all 
this  time  been  a  captive,  now  returns  and 
reveals  himself  to  Isabella.  Carlos,  it  now 
appears,  had  known  that  Biron  was  alive,  but 
had  concealed  his  knowledge,  wishing  to  oust 
him  from  the  succession.  For  the  same 
reason  he  had  urged  the  marriage  of  Isabella, 


[280] 


FATES 

in  order  finally  to  ruin  her  and  her  son  in 
his  father's  estimation.  Carlos  waylays  and 
mortally  wounds  Biron.  Isabella,  already 
distracted  by  the  situation  in  which  she  finds 
herself,  takes  her  own  life.  The  guilt  of 
Carlos  is  exposed. 

The  play  is  founded  on  Mrs.  Aphra  Behn's 
novel  'The  Nun  or  the  Perjur'd  Beauty*. 
Isabella  was  one  of  Mrs.  Barry's  (q.v.)  most 
effective  parts.  The  play  was  revived  (with 
alterations)  by  Garrick  under  the  title  'Isa- 
bella, or  the  Fatal  Marriage'. 

Fates,  THE,  see  Parcae. 

Father  Brown,  see  Brown  (Father). 

Father  O'Flynn,  a  popular  Irish  song,  by 
A.  P.  Graves  (q.v.). 

Fathers,  THE  APOSTOLIC,  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church  (q.v.)  who  were  contemporary,  or 
nearly  contemporary,  with  the  apostles,  as 
Clement,  Hernias,  Barnabas,  Polycarp,  Pa- 
pias,  and  Ignatius. 

Fathers  of  the  Church,  the  early  Christian 
writers,  a  term  usually  applied  to  those  of  the 
first  five  centuries.  Sometimes  the  Greek  and 
Latin  fathers  are  distinguished,  the  former 
including  Cyprian,  Athanasius,  Basil  the 
Great,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Chrysostom ; 
the  latter  Jerome,  Ambrose,  Augustine, 
Gregory  (Pope  Gregory  I),  and  Bernard. 
Fathom,  FERDINAND  COUNT,  see  Ferdinand. 
Fatima,  the  daughter  of  Mohammed  (q.v.) 
and  the  wife  of  the  Caliph  Ali  (q.v.).  Her 
descendants,  known  as  the  FATIMIDS,  include 
the  rulers  of  Egypt  from  959  to  1171.  In 
fiction  Fatima  is  the  name  of  the  last  wife  of 
Bluebeard  (q.v.). 

Faulcosabridge,  ROBERT  and  PHILIP  THE 
BASTARD,  his  half-brother,  characters  in 
Shakespeare's  'King  John*  (q.v.). 

Faulkland,  a  character  in  Sheridan's  'The 
Rivals*  (q.v.). 

Faulkner,  WILLIAM,  see  Falkner  (William). 

Faunus,  an  ancient  Italian  nature-god,  wor- 
shipped as  the  guardian  of  herds  and  patron 
of  rural  pursuits.  Later  there  were  supposed 
to  be  several  Fauns,  who  were  assimilated  to 
the  Satyrs  (q.v.)  of  Greek  mythology. 

Faust,  the  subject  of  the  great  dramas  of 
Marlowe  and  Goethe,  was  a  wandering  con- 
jurer, who  lived  in  Germany  about  1488- 
1541  (H.  G.  Meek,  'Johann  Faust',  Oxford 
University  Press)  and  is  mentioned  in  various 
documents  of  the  period.  (Not  to  be  con- 
fused with  Johann  Fust  or  Faust  the  printer, 
q.v.).  For  Marlowe's  play  see  Doctor 
Faustus.  'Faust',  the  drama  by  Goethe,  was 
begun  by  him  about  the  year  1770  and  not 
completed  till  just  before  his  death  in  1832. 
It  consists  of  two  parts,  the  first  of  which  was 
published  in  1808,  the  second  in  1832.  It 
begins  with  a  Prologue  in  Heaven,  in  which 
Mephistopheles  obtains  permission  to  try  to 
effect  the  ruin  of  the  soul  of  Faust,  the  Lord 


FEEBLE 

being  confident  that  he  will  fail.  The  play 
itself  opens  with  a  soliloquy  by  Faust,  dis- 
illusioned with  the  world  and  despairing. 
Mephistopheles  having  presented  himself, 
Faust  enters  into  a  compact  to  become  his 
servant  if  Faust  should  exclaim,  of  any  mo- 
ment of  delight  procured  for  him,  'Stay, 
thou  art  so  fair'.  Then  follow  the  attempts  of 
Mephistopheles  to  satisfy  Faust,  culminating 
in  the  incident  of  Gretchen  (Margaret),  whom 
Faust,  at  the  Devil's  instigation,  though  not 
without  some  rebellion  by  his  better  self, 
seduces,  bringing  about  her  miserable  death. 
This  is  the  end  of  Pt.  I,  Faust  being  left 
remorseful  and  dissatisfied. 

The  story  of  Pt.  II  is  extremely  complex 
and  its  symbolism  obscure.  It  consists  in  the 
main  of  two  portions,  of  which  the  first  is  the 
incident  of  Helen,  originally  written  as  a 
separate  and  complete  poern.  Helen,  sym- 
bolizing perfect  beauty  as  produced  by  Greek 
art,  is  recalled  from  Hades  and  ardently 
pursued  by  Faust,  but  finally  reft  from  him. 
Euphorion,  their  son,  personifying  poetry 
and  the  union  of  the  classical  and  the 
romantic,  and  at  the  end  representing  Lord 
Byron,  vanishes  in  a  flame.  In  the  second 
portion  (Acts  rv  and  v),  the  purified  Faust, 
pursuing  the  service  of  man,  reclaims  from 
the  sea,  with  the  help  of  Mephistopheles,  a 
stretch  of  submerged  land.  But  Care  attacks 
and  blinds  him.  Finally  satisfied  in  the 
consciousness  of  a  good  work  done,  he  cries  to 
the  fleeting  moment,  'Ah,  stay,  thou  art  so 
fair',  and  falls  dead.  Hell  tries  to  seize  his 
soul,  but  it  is  borne  away  by  angels. 

Faustus,  DOCTOR,  see  Doctor  Faustus. 

Favonius,  the  Latin  name  of  the  zephyr  or 
west  wind.    Also   of  a   celebrated   Derby 
winner  (1871). 
Fawn,  The,  see  Parasitaster. 
Fawrda,  see  Pandosto. 

Feast  of  Fools,  a  medieval  festival  originally 
of  the  sub-deacons  of  the  cathedral,  held 
about  the  time  of  the  Feast  of  the  Circum- 
cision (i.e.  i  Jan.),  in  which  the  humbler 
cathedral  officials  burlesqued  the  sacred 
ceremonies.  A  lord  of  the  feast  was  elected, 
styled  bishop,  cardinal,  abbot,  &c.,  accord- 
ing to  the  locality  (cf.  Boy  Bishop).^  The 
Feast  of  Fools  had  its  chief  vogue  in  the 
French  cathedrals,  but  there  are  records  of  it 
in  a  few  English  cathedrals,  notably  at  Lin- 
coln, and  at  Beverley  Minster. 
Feathernest,  MR.,  in  Peacock's  *Melin- 
court'  (q.v.),  a  caricature  of  Southey. 
Federal  States,  the  name  given  to  those 
northern  States  in  the  American  War  of 
Secession  (1861-5)  which  resisted  the  at- 
tempt of  the  Southern  or  Confederate  (q.v.) 
States  to  secede. 

Feeble,  in  Shakespeare's  '2  Henry  IV,  in.  ii, 
'most  forcible  Feeble',  fa  woman's  tailor*, 
one  of  the  recruits  brought  up  before 
Falstaff. 


[28!] 


FEENIX 

Feenix,  COUSIN,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Dombey  and  Son'  (q.v.),  the  nephew  of  Mrs. 
Skewton,  and  cousin  of  Edith,  Dombey's 
second  wife. 

Feet  of  Fines :  'fine*  here  means  the  com- 
promise of  a  collusive  suit  for  the  possession 
of  lands,  a  procedure  formerly  in  use  as  a 
mode  of  conveyance  where  the  ordinary 
modes  were  unsuitable  (cf.  'Recovery',  the 
process,  based  on  a  legal  fiction,  by  which 
entailed  estate  was  commonly  transferred 
from  one  party  to  another.  'A  great  buyer  of 
land,  with  .  . .  his  fines,  his  double  vouchers, 
his  recoveries';  Shakespeare,  'Hamlet',  v.  i. 
121—3).  The  person  to  whom  the  land  was 
to  be  conveyed  sued  the  holder  for  wrong- 
fully keeping  him  out  of  possession;  the 
defendant  acknowledged  the  right  of  the 
plaintiff;  the  compromise  was  entered  on 
the  records  of  the  court;  and  the  particulars  of 
it  were  set  out  in  a  document  called  *the  foot 
of  the  fine*,  one  of  the  parts  of  a  tripartite 
indenture,  which  remained  with  the  court, 
the  other  two  being  retained  by  the  parties. 
It  was  at  the  'foot'  of  the  undivided  parch- 
ment, so  that  its  indentation  was  at  the  top. 
[OED.]  The  collection  of  feet  of  fines  is  con- 
tinuous from  the  time  of  Richard  I  and  almost 
coeval  with  the  royal  court.  Conveyance  by 
fine  was  looked  upon  with  great  respect.  It 
was  said  in  parliament  in  1291  that  cin  this 
realm  there  is  neither  provided  nor  devised  a 
greater  or  more  solemn  assurance,  nor  one 
through  which  a  man  may  have  a  more 
secure  estate  .  .  .  than  a  fine  levied  in  the 
court  of  our  lord  the  king*  (Holdsworth, 
'History  of  English  Law'). 
Felix,  see  Hildesheim. 
Felix  Holt,  the  Radical,  a  novel  by  G.  Eliot 
(q.v.),  published  in  1866. 

Felix  Holt  is  a  noble-minded  young  re- 
former, an  example  of  self -sacrifice,  with  the 
courage  of  his  political  convictions,  who  de- 
liberately chooses  the  life  of  a  humble  artisan 
in  order  to  bring  home  to  his  fellow  workers 
that  the  hope  of  an  improvement  in  their  con- 
ditions lies  in  education  and  learning  to  think 
for  themselves,  and  not  in  this  or  that  legis- 
lative programme.    With  him  is  contrasted 
the  conventional  radical  politician,  the  rich 
Harold  Transome,  a  decent  good-natured 
fellow,  whose  political  convictions,  however, 
when  he  stands  for  parliament,  are  not  in- 
compatible  with   'treating'  and    other   de- 
moralizing practices.    The  heroine,  Esther, 
supposed  to  be  the  daughter  of  old  Lyon,  the 
Independent  minister,  is  brought  by  circum- 
stances to  a  choice  between  the  two  men  and 
the  contrasted  lives  they  offer  her,  and  after  a 
struggle   chooses  Felix   and  poverty.     The 
story  is  complicated  by  the  involved  legal 
question  of  the  ownership  of  the  Transome 
estate,    and    marred    for  many  readers   by 
melodramatic  and  improbable  elements. 
Felix  the  Cat,  the  subject  of  a  series  of  re- 
markable   cinema    films    representing    the 
ridiculous  adventures  of  an  imaginary  cat. 


FENELLA 

The  films,  instead  of  being  photographed 
from  actual  scenes,  are  obtained  from  large 
numbers  of  successive,  drawings  ('cartoons') 
each  differing  minutely  from  the  last,  so  that 
their  sequence  represents  movement.  The 
drawings  were  by  Pat  Sullivan  (d.  1933). 
'Micky  Mouse'  is  the  subject  of  a  more  recent 
series  by  Walt  Disney. 
PELL,  DR.  JOHN  (1625-86),  successively 
dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  bishop 
of  Oxford,  is  chiefly  to  be  remembered  in  a 
literary  connexion  as  the  enthusiastic  patron 
and  promoter  of  the  Oxford  University  Press 
(q.v.),  to  the  development  of  which  he  greatly 
contributed,  procuring  for  it  from  abroad  the 
matrixes  and  punches  of  the  best  types  that 
could  be  found  (from  which  the  'Fell  types* 
are  still  cast),  undertaking  with  three  other 
University  men  the  financial  responsibility 
for  the  printing  work  (previously  leased  to 
craft  printers),  and  arranging  every  year  for 
the  publication  of  some  classical  author. 
Fell  was  author  of  a  critical  edition  of 
Cyprian,  and  edited  with  many  arbitrary 
alterations  the  'Historia  Universitatis  Oxoni- 
ensis*  of  Anthony  a  Wood  (q.v.).  He  built 
the  tower  over  the  principal  gateway  of 
Christ  Church,  to  which  he  transferred  the 
re-cast  bell  'Great  Tom'. 

It  is  curious  that  the  name  of  so  con- 
siderable a  benefactor  of  letters  should  be 
principally  associated  with  the  widely  known 
jingle, 

I  do  not  love  thee,  Dr.  Fell, 
The  reason  why  I  cannot  tell, 

a  translation  of  Martial,  Epigrams,  i.  32,  by 
Thomas  Brown  (q.v.),  one  of  the  under- 
graduates of  his  college.  'Doctor  Fell'  has 
thus  come  to  be  used  to  describe  a  type  of 
vaguely  unamiable  person  against  whom  no 
precise  ground  of  dislike  can  be  adduced. 

FELLTHAM,  OWEN  (1602  ?-68),  pub- 
lished c.  1620,  when  18  years  of  age,  'Re- 
solves*, a  series  of  moral  essays.  He  con- 
tributed to  'Jonsonus  Virbius*  (q.v.). 
Felton,  JOHN  (i595?-i628),  assassin  of  the 
duke  of  Buckingham  (1592-1628,  q.v.). 

Female  or  FEMININE  Rhymes,  see  Rhymes. 

Female  Quixote,  The>  or  The  Adventures  of 
Arabella,  a  romance  in  imitation  of  'Don 
Quixote'  by  Mrs.  Charlotte  Lennox  (1720— 
1 804),  a  lady  who  was  flattered  and  befriended 
by  Dr.  Johnson.  It  was  published  in  1752. 
Fencible,  a  person  capable  of  making  de- 
fence, fit  and  liable  to  be  called  on  for  military 
service.  'The  ^Fencibles'  was  the  name  of 
bodies  of  militia  raised  at  various  times,  and 
particularly  of  a  force  of  some  15,000  men 
raised  in  1794  ^d  in  subsequent  years  for 
service  in  any  part  of  Great  Britain  during 
the  war  with  France.  €Sea-Fencibles'  were 
similarly  raised  for  coast  defence. 
Fenella  or  ZARAH,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Peveril  of  the  Peak'  (q.v.),  suggested  to  the 
author  by  Goethe's  'Mignon*  (q.v.). 


[282] 


FENELLAN 

Fenellan,  DARTREY  and  SIMON,  characters 
in  Meredith's  'One  of  our  Conquerors'  (q.v.). 
F&NELON,  FRANQOIS  DE  SALIGNAC 
DE  LA  MOTHE-  (1651-1715),  French 
divine,  tutor  of  the  due  de  Bpurgogne  (the 
son  of  the  Dauphin),  and  archbishop  of  Cam- 
brai.  He  came  into  conflict  with  Bossuet 
(q.v.)  by  reason  of  his  religious  views.  'The 
apostle  of  interior  inspiration',  as  opposed  to 
the  inflexible  dogmatism  of  Bossuet,  he  ex- 
pounded his  Quietist  (q.v.)  doctrine  in  the 
'Maximes  des  Saints*  (1697),  of  which  Bos- 
suet obtained  the  condemnation  by  Rome. 
Fenelon  at  once  submitted.  His  best-known 
work  is  the  'Aventures  de  Telemaque'  (1699), 
a  graceful  narrative  in  admirable  prose, 
written  for  the  instruction  of  his  pupil.  He 
addressed  in  1704  a  letter  to  Louis  XIV  on 
the  abuses  of  his  reign  (published  after  his 
death),  wrote  valuable  *  Directions  pour  la 
conscience  d'un  roi',  and  some  excellent 
critical  works :  'Lettre  sur  les  occupations  de 
FAcade'mie  Fran£aise*,  'Dialogues  sur  Pelo- 
quence',  &c. 

Fenians,  originally  a  semi-mythical,  semi- 
historical  military  body  said  to  have  been 
raised  for  the  defence  of  Ireland  against  Norse 
raids.  Finn  (q.v.),  in  his  day,  was  its  chief. 
The  force  was  exterminated  by  King  Cairbre", 
it  is  said,  at  the  end  of  the  3rd  cent.  The 
Fenians  of  modern  times  were  an  association 
formed  among  the  Irish  in  the  United  States 
and  in  Ireland  in  the  middle  of  the  i9th  cent, 
for  promoting  the  overthrow  of  the  English 
government  in  Ireland.  Their  activity  was 
greatest  between  1865  and  1870,  when  they 
attempted  invasions  of  Canada,  and  caused  a 
disastrous  explosion  at  Clerkenwell,  but  it 
continued  to  the  end  of  the  century  and  a 
Fenian  plot  to  blow  up  public  buildings  in 
London  was  discovered  in  1883. 
Fenrir  or  the  FENRIS-WOLF,  in  Scandinavian 
mythology,  a  monster,  the  son  of  Loki  (q.v.). 
He  is  fettered  by  Tyr  (q.v.)  with  the  chain, 
Gleipnir,  made  by  the  Dwarfs,  but  breaks 
loose  at  Ragnarok  (q.v.),  helps  to  defeat  the 
gods,  and  is  slain  by  Vidar  (q.v.). 
Fenton,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor*  (q.v.). 
Feramorz,  in  Moore's  'Lalla  Rookh'  (q.v.), 
the  name  assumed  by  the  king  of  Bucharia, 
FERBER,  EDNA,  American  novelist.  Her 
books  published  in  England  are;  'So  Big* 
(1924),  'Show  Boat*  (1926),  'Mother  Knows 
Best*  (1927),  'Cimarron*  (1920),  *  American 
Beauty*  (1931). 

Ferdinand,  (i)  in  Shakespeare's  'Tempest5 
(q.v.),  son  of  the  king  of  Naples;  (2)  in 
Shakespeare's  'Love's  Labour 's  Lost*  (q.v.), 
the  king  of  Navarre. 

Ferdinand  Count  Fathom,  The  Adventures 
of,  a  romance  by  Smollett  (q.v.),  published  in 

I753- 

This  is  the  story  of  an  unmitigated  villain, 
whose  mother  was  a  camp-follower  in  Marl- 
borough's  army,  and  who  took  the  title  of 


FERNET 

count  without  any  right  to  it.  Endowed  with 
talents  and  adroitness,  but  with  no  spark  of 
honour  or  decency,  he  is  received  and  brought 
up  in  the  family  of  the  German  Count 
Melville,  whose  benevolence  he  repays  by 
attempting  to  beguile  his  daughter  into 
marriage,  and,  when  he  fails,  by  organizing 
with  his  confederate,  the  daughter's  maid,  a 
series  of  thefts  on  the  family.  Fathom  passes 
from  fraud  to  fraud,  and  seduction  to  seduc- 
tion, in  repulsive  succession.  His  principal 
achievement  is  the  betrayal  of  the  honest 
Renaldo,  his  benefactor's  son,  and  his 
attempt  to  seduce  Monimia,  the  woman 
whom  Renaldo  is  about  to  marry,  and  who 
only  escapes  his  violence  by  feigning  death. 
Finally  Fathom  is  detected  in  his  crimes  and 
imprisoned;  and  Monimia,  whom  Renaldo 
had  mourned  as  dead,  is  restored  to  her  lover. 
But  the  author  relents  and  saves  Fathom  from 
the  fate  he  has  richly  merited,  by  an  un- 
convincing repentance. 

FERGUSON,  SIR  SAMUEL  (1810-86), 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  deputy- 
keeper  of  the  records  of  Ireland.  He  came 
into  notice  as  a  poet  by  his  'Forging  of  the 
Anchor'  contributed  to  'Blackwood*  in  1832, 
wrote  a  fine  elegy  on  Thomas  Davis,  the 
nationalist  leader,  in  1845,  and  his  epic 
'CongaP  (on  the  last  stand  of  Irish  paganism 
against  Christianity)  in  1872.  'Conary'  (q.v.)t 
perhaps  ^his  finest  poem,  and  'Deirdre',  ap- 
peared in  1880.  'Ogham  Inscriptions  in 
Ireland,  Wales,  and  Scotland*  (1887)  is  his 
most  important  antiquarian  work. 

FERGUSSON,  ROBERT  (1750-74),  edu- 
cated at  St.  Andrews,  and  subsequently 
employed  in  the  commissary  clerk's  and 
sheriff  clerk's  offices,  published  a  volume  of 
poems  in  1773,  which  were  much  praised  by 
Burns  and  Stevenson.  His  lyrics  are  inter- 
esting as  an  anticipation  of  the  manner  of 
Burns,  and  as  giving  a  vivid  and  racy  picture 
of  the  life  and  amusements  of  the  Edinburgh 
poor. 

Feridun,  one  of  the  principal  heroes  of  the 
'Shahnameh'  of  Firdusi  (q.v.),  a  legendary 
king  of  Persia,  who  overthrew  and  succeeded 
Zohak,  the  slayer  of  Jamshid.  He  divided 
his  dominions  among  has  three  sons,  Salm, 
Tur,  and  Iraj.  Their  fratricidal  quarrels 
represent  the  frequent  wars  between  the 
Iranians  and  Turanians. 
Fern  seed :  before  the  mode  of  reproduc- 
tion of  ferns  was  understood,  they  were 
popularly  supposed  to  produce  an  invisible 
seed,  which  was  capable  of  communicating 
its  invisibility  to  any  person  who  possessed  it. 
*We  have  the  receipt  of  fern-seed,  we  walk 
invisible/ 
(Shakespeare,  fi  Henry  IV,  II.  i.  96.) 

Ferney,  a  village  near  Geneva,  but  within 
the  French  frontier,  where  Voltaire  (q.v.) 
spent  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life.  He  is 
in  consequence  frequently  referred  to  as  the 
'Philosopher  of  Ferney'. 


[283] 


FERRAGUS 

Fcrragus,  (i)  in  the  tale  of  'Valentine  and 
Orson'  (q.v.),  the  giant  from  whose  power 
their  mother  Bellisant  is  rescued ;  (2)  the  giant 
(also  called  Ferracute)  whom  Roland  fights 
and  slays  in  Charlemagne's  Spanish  war.  He 
figures  as  FERRAU  (q.v.)  in  the  *  Orlando 
Innamorato*  (q.v.). 

Ferrar,  NICHOLAS  (1592-1637),  educated  at, 
and  fellow  of,  Clare  College,  Cambridge,  was 
a  member  of  parliament,  and  active  in  the 
affairs  of  the  Virginia  Company.  In  1625 
he  retired  to  Little  Gidding^  received  holy 
orders,  and  acted  as  chaplain  there  to  a 
small  Anglican  community,  composed  of  his 
brother's  and  brother-in-law's  families,  who 
devoted  their  lives  to  contemplation  and 
prayer.  The  community  was  dispersed  and 
their  house  and  church  ransacked  by  the 
parliamentary  troops  in  1646.  A  record  of  its 
activities  survives  in  the  'Little  Gidding 
Story  Books*,  five  manuscript  volumes  bound 
by  Mary  Collett,  a  member  of  the  community, 
of  which  a  part  was  printed  in  1899,  contain- 
ing romances  and  pious  discourses.  An 
interesting  picture  of  the  community  is  given 
in  'John  Inglesant*  (q.v.). 
Ferrara,  see  Andrea  Ferrara. 

Ferrars,  WILLIAM  PITT,  ENDYMION,  and 
MYRA,  characters  in  Disraeli's  'Endymion* 
(q.v.). 

Ferran  or  FERRAGUS,  in  the  'Orlando  Inna- 
morato'  (q.v.),  a  Moorish  knight  of  Spain,  one 
of  the  suitors  for  the  hand  of  Angelica  (q.v.), 
and  the  slayer  of  her  brother  Argalia.  He  is 
killed  by  Orlando. 

Ferrers,  GEORGE,  see  Mirror  for  Magistrates. 
Ferrex  and  Porrex,  see  Gorboduc. 

FBRRIER,  JAMES  FREDERICK  (1808- 
64),  nephew  of  Susan  Ferrier  (q.v.),  educated 
at  Edinburgh  University  and  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  studied  German  philosophy 
at  Heidelberg,  and  was  successively  professor 
of  civil  history  at  Edinburgh  (1842-5)  and  of 
moral  philosophy  and  political  economy  at 
St.  Andrews  (1845-64). 

His  idealist  philosophy,  connected  with 
that  of  Berkeley,  is  set  forth  in  'The  Institutes 
of  Metaphysics*  (i  854)  and  'Lectures  on  Greek 
Philosophy  and  other  Philosophical  Remains* 
(1866).     The    principal    positions    of    his 
philosophy  are  two :  firstly,  that  'Along  with 
whatever  any  intelligence  knows,  it  must,  as 
the  ground  or  condition  of  its  knowledge, 
have  some  cognisance  of  itself.*   Nor  can  it 
know  itself  except  in  relation  with  objects. 
Mind  and  matter,  per  se>  are  unknowable. 
Secondly,  that  we  can  be  ignorant  only  of 
whatsis  capable  of  being  known.  From  these 
positions   he   reaches    his   ontological   con- 
clusion:   'Speculation    shows    us    that   the 
universe  ...  is  incapable  of  self-subsistency, 
that  it  can  exist  only  cum  alia,  that  all  true  and 
cogitable  and  non-contradictory  existence  is 
a_  synthesis  of  the  subjective  and  the  objec- 
tive ;  and  then  we  are  compelled,  by  the  most 


FESTUS 

stringent  necessity  of  thinking,  to  conceive 
a  supreme  intelligence  as  the  ground  and 
essence  of  the  Universal  whole.  Thus  the 
postulation  of  the  Deity  is  not  only  per- 
missible, it  is  unavoidable.*  In  substance, 
Ferrier's  conclusions  closely  resemble  those 
of  Hegel  (q.v.),  though  reached  indepen- 
dently and  from  a  different  starting-point. 
They  are  well  set  out  in  his  'Introduction 
to  the  Philosophy  of  Consciousness'  (1838-9) 
and  in  his  'Berkeley  and  Idealism'  (1842). 
He  is  a  vigorous  and  stimulating  writer. 

FERRIER,  SUSAN  EDMONSTONE 
(1782-1854),  a  friend  of  Sir  W.  Scott,  and  the 
authoress  of  three  good  novels  of  Scottish 
life,  'Marriage*  (q.v.)  published  in  1818,  'The 
Inheritance*  (q.v.)  published  in  1824,  and 
'Destiny*  published  in  1831,  all  marked  by  a 
sense  of  humour  and  high  comedy. 

Ferumbras,  Sir,  a  Middle  English  metrical 
version  of  the  French  Charlemagne  romance 
Fierebras.  Ferumbras  is  the  son  of  the  sultan 
of  Babylon.  He  captures  Rome  and  removes 
the  holy  relics.  He  is  overcome  in  single 
combat  by  Oliver  (q.v.)  and  baptized.  His 
sister  Floripas,  for  love  of  the  Christians, 
obtains  the  care  of  Roland  and  Oliver,  whom 
the  pagans  have  taken  prisoners,  and  helps 
them  to  kill  many  pagans  at  a  feast.  The 
sultan  besieges  the  Christians.  Charlemagne 
comes  to  their  help  and  is  caught  between 
the  gates  of  the  city,  but  is  rescued  by 
Ferumbras.  Floripas  is  baptized  and  marries 
Guy  of  Burgundy.  The  holy  relics  are  re- 
covered. The  same  story  is  told  in  the 
'Sowdone  of  Babylon',  a  paraphrase  (of 
about  the  year  1400)  of  a  lost  French  poem. 

Fescennine  Verses,  verses  of  a  licentious 
or  scurrilous  character,  from  Fescennia  in 
Etruria,  famous  for  a  sort  of  jeering  dialogue 
in  verse. 

Fesole,  the  modern  Fiesole,  a  hill  and  small 
town  adjoining  Florence. 

The  moon,  whose  orb 
Through  optic  glass  the  Tuscan  artist 

views 

At  evening  from  the  top  of  Fesole, 
Or  in  Valdarno. 

(Milton,  'Paradise  Lost',  i.  288.) 

Feste,  the  fool  in  Shakespeare's  'Twelfth 
Night*  (q.v.). 

Festin  de  Pierre,  LE,  see  Don  yuan. 

Festus,  a  poem  by  P.  J.  Bailey  (q.v.),  first 
published  in  1839.  Successive  editions 
appeared,  and  the  poem  gradually  increased 
in  length,  until  the  fiftieth  anniversary  edi- 
tion (1893)  contained  some  40,000  lines.  The 
work  was  at  one  time  immensely  popular. 
The  poem  is  written  in  blank  verse,  inter- 
spersed with  couplets  and  lyrics,  and  takes 
the  form  of  dialogues  distributed  over  some 
fifty  scenes. 

The  story  is  on  the  lines  of  that  of  Faust. 
Lucifer  receives  from  God  permission  to 
tempt  Festus,  and  accompanies  him  through 


[284] 


FESTUS 

life,  as  does  also  Festus's  guardian  angel. 
But  the  bulk  of  the  dialogue  is  carried  on, 
sometimes  in  speeches  of  tremendous  length, 
between  Festus  and  Lucifer.  Together  they 
perambulate  the  universe,  from  the  Inter- 
stellar Space,  Heaven,  and  Hell,  to  'An 
Apartment  in  a  Mansion*  and  'A  Garden, 
and  Bower  by  the  Sea*.  In  the  supra- 
mundane  scenes  Festus  converses  with  the 
great  spirits  of  those  regions,  Luniel,  Martiel, 
&c.  In  the  terrestrial  scenes  he  enjoys  the 
society  of  a  succession  of  fair  ladies  and  other 
companions.  With  one  of  the  ladies  designed 
for  Festus's  temptation,  Elissa,  Lucifer  has 
the  misfortune  himself  to  fall  in  love ;  another, 
Festus  finally  marries  under  pressure  from 
his  guardian  angel.  At  the  bidding  of  Festus, 
Lucifer  reveals  to  him  all  the  mysteries  of 
the  universe,  and  finally  makes  him  lord  of 
the  earth;  for  the  aim  of  Festus,  who  never 
wholly  yields  to  Lucifer's  temptations,  is  to 
unite  all  peoples  in  peace  and  brotherly  love. 
But  immediately  after  this  consummation  of 
his  desires,  the  end  of  the  world  supervenes, 
all  mankind  dies,  and  Festus  likewise;  and 
the  long  work  ends  with  the  Last  Judgement 
and  the  admission  of  Festus  among  the  Elect 
Spirits. 

The  poem  is  *a  sketch  of  world-life  and  a 
summary  of  its  combined  moral  and  physical 
conditions,  estimated  on  a  theory  of  spiritual 
things  opposed  as  far  as  possible  to  that  of 
the  .  .  .  sceptic;  not  only  in  regard  to  the 
creation  and  government  of  the  world,  but  in 
its  views  as  to  the  origin  of  moral  evil ;  and  in 
its  general  positions  known  as  universalist* 
(Author's  preface  to  the  fiftieth  anniversary 
edition).  Watts-Dunton  claimed  for  it  that 
it  contains  'lovely  oases  of  poetry'  among 
*wide  tracts  of  ratiocinative  writing*. 

Festus,  PORCIUS,  Roman  procurator  of 
Judaea  in  A.D.  62,  before  whom  the  apostle 
Paul  was  brought.  He  declared  that  Paul  had 
done  nothing  worthy  of  death,  but  as  he 
had  appealed  to  Caesar,  sent  him  to  Rome 
(Acts  xxv  and  xxvi). 

Fetter  Lane,  from  Fleet  Street  to  Holborn, 
London,  probably  a  corruption  of  Faitours 
Lane,  from  faitour,  an  impostor,  vagabond ; 
'so  called  of  the  fewters  or  idle  people  lying 
there'  (Stow). 

FEUGHTWANGER,  LION  (1884-  ), 
German  novelist,  best  known  as  the  author  of 
'Die  hassliche  Herzogin*  (1923,  'The  Ugly 
Duchess')  and  'Jud  Suss*  (1925,  'Jew  Suss*). 

Feuilleton,  a  portion  of  French  newspapers 
marked,  off  by  a  rule  and  appropriated  ^  to 
light  literature,  criticism,  &c.  Also,  in- 
correctly, used  in  England  for  a  serial  or 
short  story  in  a  daily  paper. 
Fezziwig,  MR.  and  MRS.,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'A  Christmas  Carol*  (q.v.). 
Fiammetta,  the  name  given  by  Boccaccio 
(q.v.)  to  the  lady  whom  he  loved,  one  Maria, 
illegitimate  daughter  of  Robert,  _  king  of 
Naples>  and  wife  of  a  Count  d'Aquino. 


FIELD  OF  THE  FORTY  FOOTSTEPS 

FIGHTE,  JOHANN  GOTTLIEB  (1762- 
1814),  German  philosopher,  a  pupil  of  Kant 
(q.v.),  from  whose  dualism  he  subsequently 
dissented.  He  became  professor  of  philo- 
sophy at  Jena  in  1793,  but  was  accused  of 
atheism  and  dismissed  in  1799.  He  subse- 
quently taught  at  the  University  of  Berlin. 
Fichte's  philosophy  is  a  pure  idealism.  He 
rejected  the  noumena  of  Kant  and  retained 
the  human  mind,  the  thinking  self  or  ego, 
as  the  only  reality.  This  ego,  in  defining 
and  limiting  itself,  creates  the  non-ego,  the 
world  of  experience,  as  its  opposite,  the 
medium  through  which  it  asserts  its  freedom. 
This  doctrine  he  expounded  in  his  principal 
work,  'Wissenschaftslehre',  published  in 
1794.  In  his  later  writings  ('Das  W"esen  des 
Gelehrten*,  1805)  Fichte  sought  reality,  not  in 
the  ego,  but  in  the  'divine  idea  which  lies  at 
the  base  of  all  experience',  and  of  which  the 
world  of  the  senses  is  the  manifestation. 

Fidele,  in  Shakespeare's  'Cymbeline'  (q.v.), 
the  name  assumed  by  Imogen  when  dis- 
guised as  a  boy. 

Fidelio,  Beethoven's  opera,  see  Leonora. 

Fidessa,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  I.  ii, 
the  name  assumed  by  the  fair  companion  of 
Sansfoy  (q.v.),  whom  the  Red  Cross  Knight 
takes  under  his  protection  after  slaying  that 
'faithless  Sarazin*.  She  turns  out  to  be  the 
false  Duessa  (q.v.). 

FIELD,  EUGENE  (1850-95),  American 
poet,  author  of  'With  Trumpet  and  Drum*, 
'A  Little  Book  of  Western  Verse*,  'The  Love 
Affairs  of  a  Bibliomaniac*. 

FIELD,  MICHAEL,  the  pseudonym 
adopted  by  Katharine  Bradley  and  Edith 
Cooper.  The  following  are  among  their 
joint  novels :  'Calirrhoe*  (1884),  'The  Father's 
Tragedy*  (1885),  'Brutus  Ultor*  (1886), 
'Canute  the  Great*  (1887),  'Deirdre'  (1918), 
'In  the  Name  of  Time*  (1919). 

FIELD,  NATHANIEL  (1587-1633),  actor 
and  dramatist,  acted  in  plays  by  Shakespeare, 
Ben  Jonson,  and  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 
His  name  is  made  synonymous  with  'best 
actor*  in  Jonson's  'Bartholomew  Fair*.  He 
wrote  two  comedies  of  some  merit,  the  first 
of  which  shows  the  influence  of  Jonson,  'A 
Woman  *s  a  Weathercock*  (1612)  and  'Amends 
for  Ladies'  (1618).  But  he  is  remembered 
chiefly  as  having  collaborated  in  Massinger's 
'The  Fatal  Dowry*  (q.v.). 
Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  the  meeting- 
place  of  Henry  VIII  and  Fra^ois  I  of  France, 
near  Calais,  in  1520,  so  called  from  the 
magnificence  of  the  display  made  by  the  two 
monarchs.  The  meeting  was  the  prelimi- 
nary to  the  long  struggle  between  Frangois 
and  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  when  each  was 
endeavouring  to  secure  the  support  of 
Henry  VIII. 

Field  of  the  Forty  Footsteps,  The,  a  story  by 
A.  M.  Porter  (q.v.)  embodying  a  legend  about 
a  field  behind  the  present  British  Museum, 


[285] 


FIELDING 

at  the  north-east  corner  of  what  is  now  Upper 
Montagu  Street,  where  two  brothers  met  in 
a  sanguinary  duel  at  the  time  of  the  duke  of 
Monmouth's  rebellion.  It  was  believed  that 
no  grass  would  grow  where  they  had  trodden. 

Fielding,  MRS.  and  MAY,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth'  (q.v.). 

FIELDING,  HENRY  (1707-54),  was  born 
at  Sharpham  Park  in  Somerset,  was  educated 
at  Eton  (where  he  was  contemporary  with  the 
elder  Pitt  and  the  elder  Fox),  and  studied  law 
at  Leyden.  He  supported  himself  in  London 
by  writing  for  the  stage,  mostly  comedies  and 
farces,  which  contain  some  spirited  songs,  but 
of  which  the  only  ones  that  are  remembered 
are  his  burlesque  of  the  popular  playwrights  of 
the  day,  'The  Tragedy  of  Tragedies,  or  Tom 
Thumb*  (q.v,,  1730),  and  his  two  political  and 
social  satires,  Tasquin*  (1736)  and  'The  His- 
torical Register  for  1736*  (1737).  He  reverted 
to  the  study  of  the  law  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1740.  In  1734  he  had  married  Char- 
lotte Cradock,  from  whom  Sophia  Western 
(in  'Torn  Jones*)  and  Amelia  were  drawn. 
She  died  in  1744,  and  in  1747  Fielding 
married  her  maid,  Mary  Daniel.  During 
1739-41  be  conducted  the  'Champion* 
periodical  (q.  v.).  The  publication  of  Richard- 
son's 'Pamela'  (q.v.)  provoked  Fielding  to 
parody  it  and  led  to  the  publication  in  1742 
of  'The  History  of  the  Adventures  of  Joseph 
Andrews  and  his  friend  Mr.  Abraham 
Adams*  (q.v.).  Fielding  was  also  perhaps  the 
author  of  'Shamela'  (1741).  In  1743  he  pub- 
lished three  volumes  of  'Miscellanies',  in- 
cluding his  powerful  satire  'Jonathan  Wild 
the  Great'  (q.v.),  and  *A  Journey  from  this 
World  to  the  Next*  (q.v.).  He  now  took  up 
political  journalism  and  by  the  help  of  his 
patron,  Lord  Lyttelton,  was  made  justice  of 
the  peace  for  Westminster,  where  he  was 
specially  active  in  suppressing  ruffianism.  In 
1749  appeared  his  great  novel  'Tom  Jones' 
(q.v.),  and  in  1751  'Amelia*  (q.v.).  In  1752  he 
started  'The  Covent  Garden  Journal*  (q.v.) 
tinder  the  pseudonym  Sir  Alexander  Draw- 
cansir,  which  contains  some  of  his  best  mis- 
cellaneous essays.  His  health  now  broke 
down,  and  in  1754,  in  an  attempt  to  recover 
it,  he  made  a  voyage  to  Portugal,  of  which  he 
has  left  a  pleasant  account  in  his  'Journal  of  a 
Voyage  to  Lisbon*,  published  posthumously. 
He  died  at  Lisbon.  He  contributed  power- 
fully to  determine  the  form  of  the  English 
novel.  An  essentially  honest,  manly,  and 
humane  character,  he  poured  contempt  on 
hypocrisy,  meanness,  and  vanity. 
FIELDING,  SARAH  (1710-68),  sister  of 
Henry  Fklding  (q.v.),  and  authoress  of  ro- 
mances, including  'The  Adventures  of  David 
Simple  in  search  of  a  Faithful  Friend*  (q.v.). 
published  in  1744.  She  translated  Xeno- 
phon's  'Memorabilia*  and  'Apologia*  (1762), 
Fierabras  or  FIEREBRAS,  see  Ferumbras. 
Fiery  Gross  or  FIRE-CROSS,  a  signal  used 
anciently  to  summon  the  clansmen  of  the 


FINE  AND  RECOVERY 

Scottish  Highlands  to  a  rendezvous  on  the 
outbreak  of  war.  It  consisted  of  a  cross 
of  wood,  burnt  at  one  end  and  dipped  in 
blood  at  the  other — symbolical  of  fire  and 
sword — which  was  handed  from  clansman  to 
clansman.  [OEDJ 

Fiftne  at  the  Fair,  a  poem  by  R.  Browning 
(q.v.),  published  in  1872. 

The  poet  puts  into  the  mouth  of  a  Breton 
*Don  Juan*  a  defence  of  inconstancy  in  love, 
on  the  occasion  of  a  visit  to  a  fair,  where  he  is 
fascinated  with  the  beauty  of  the  rope-dancer, 
Fifine.  He  expatiates  on  her  charms,  dis- 
cusses her  deficiencies,  contrasts  her  with 
Helen  and  Cleopatra,  avows  himself  a  lover 
of  novelty,  and  strives  to  reassure  his  wife 
Elvire  by  proclaiming  her  superiority  to  them 
all.  He  discourses  interminably  on  the  ethics 
of  love,  and  then  leaves  Elvire  with  a  He  on 
his  lips — to  join  Fifine.  He  finds  Ms  punish- 
ment in  the  epilogue. 

Fifteen,  THE,  the  Jacobite  rising  of  1715. 

Fifth  Monarchy  Men,  English  fanatics  of 
the  1 7th  cent,  who  believed  that  the  second 
coming  of  Christ  was  at  hand,  and  that  it  was 
the  duty  of  Christians  to  be  prepared  to 
assist  in  establishing  his  reign  by  force,  and  in 
the  meantime  to  repudiate  allegiance  to  any 
other  government.  The  Fifth  Monarchy  is 
the  last  of  the  five  great  empires  referred  to  in 
the  prophecy  of  Daniel  (Dan.  ii.  44), identified 
by  the  above  with  the  millennial  reign  of 
Christ  predicted  in  the  Apocalypse.  [OED.] 

Fig  Sunday,  a  dialectal  name  for  Palm 
Sunday  (q.v.). 

Figaro,  the  barber  in  Beaumarchais*  'Barbier 
de  Seville'  and  the  valet  in  his  'Mariage  de 
Figaro*,  a  typical  ingenious  and  cunning 
rascaL 

Filer,  a  canting  churl  in  Dickens's  'The 
Chimes*  (q.v.). 

Filioque,  the  Latin  word  meaning  'and  from 
the  Son*  irregularly  inserted  in  the  Western 
version  of  the  Nicene  creed  to  assert  the 
doctrine  of  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
from  the  Son  as  well  as  from  the  Father. 
More  than  anything  else  it  prevented  the  re- 
union of  the  Western  and  Eastern  Churches. 

Filomena,  Santa,  a  poem  by  Longfellow,  in 
which  the  poet  celebrated  Florence  Nightin- 
gale. A  note  to  the  poem  states  that  'at  Pisa 
the  church  of  San  Francisco  contains  a 
chapel  added  recently  to  St.  Filomena.  Over 
the  alter  is  a  picture  by  Sabatelli  representing 
the  saint .  .  .  floating  down  from  heaven  .  .  . 
and  beneath  in  the  foreground  the  sick  and 
maimed,  who  are  healed  by  her  intercession/ 

Wilostrato,  a  poem  in  ottava  rima  on  the  story 
of  Troilus  and  Cressida,  by  Boccaccio  (q.v.), 
of  special  interest  as  the  source  of  Chaucer's 
'Troylus  and  Cryseyde*. 

Finch,  ANNE,  see  Winchilsea  (Countess  of). 
Fine  and  Recovery,  see  Feet  of  Fines. 


[286] 


FINGAL 

Fingal,  the  name  given  by  Macpherson 
(q.v.)  in  his  Ossianic  poems  to  the  hero  Finn 
(q.v.).  He  is  the  son  of  the  giant  Comhal,  and 
Idng  of  Morven,  the  land  of  the  north-west 
Caledonians.  In  the  epic  entitled  'Fingal* 
he  crosses  to  Ireland  and  aids  Cuthullin, 
vicegerent  of  the  Irish  kingdom  during  Cor- 
mac's  minority,  against  Swaran,  the  Scandi- 
navian king  of  Lochlin,  who  invades  Ireland. 
Swaran  is  defeated  and  captured  by  Fingal. 
The  story  is  continued  in  the  further  epic 
*Temora'  (q.v.).  Fingal  moreover  figures, 
chiefly  as  a  righter  of  wrongs  and  defender  of 
the  oppressed,  in  many  of  the  other  Ossianic 
poems.  It  is  noteworthy  that  Macpherson 
brings  together  Fingal  and  Cuthullin  (the 
Irish  Cuchulain,  q.v.),  who  according  to 
legend  were  divided  by  centuries,  and  makes 
the  Irish  Finn  into  a  Scot. 

Fingal 's  Cave,  a  vast  natural  cavern  in  the 
island  of  Staff  a,  in  a  stratum  of  columnar 
basalt,  described  by  Sir  W.  Scott  in  his 
'Lord  of  the  Isles*  (Canto  iv). 

FINLAY,  GEORGE  (1799-1875),  studied 
law  at  Glasgow  and  Gottingen,  and  went  to 
Greece  in  1823,  where  he  took  part  in  the 
war  of  independence.  At  the  close  of  this  he 
bought  an  estate  in  Attica  and  died  at  Athens. 
His  *  History  of  Greece*  covers  the  period 
from  its  conquest  by  the  Romans  (146  B.C.) 
to  modern  times,  thus  covering  the  Byzantine 
Empire  and  the  long  period  of  Greece's 
subjugation.  It  appeared  in  sections  between 
1844  and  1861,  and  was  published  collectively 
in  1877.  In  his  later  years  he  wrote  from 
Greece  to  'The  Times*  letters  chronicling 
the  political  developments  of  that  country. 

Finn  or  FIONN,  the  principal  hero  of  the 
southern  or  later  cycle  of  Irish  legends,  also 
called  the  Fenian  or  Ossianic  cycle.  Finn 
Mac  Coul  has  been  thought  an  historical 
personage  by  some  modern  authorities; 
others  regard  him  as  mythical.  He  was  the 
son  of  Cumal  (Comhal)  and  father  of  Ossian 
(q.v.),  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
3rd  cent.  A.D.  ,  a  contemporary  of  King  Cormac. 
The  king  appointed  him  chief  of  the  Fianna 
(pron.  Fena)  or  Fenians,  a  military  body 
composed  of  men  of  exceptional  strength  and 
prowess,  of  whose  heroic  or  romantic  deeds 
there  are  endless  tales.  Finn  was  chosen  their 
leader  not  for  surpassing  physical  qualities, 
but  on  account  of  his  truth,  wisdom,  and 
generosity.  He  is  said  to  have  perished  in  an 
affray  with  mutinous  Fenians  in  A.D.  283. 

For  the  story  of  Finn,  Grainne,  and  Diar- 
mait,  see  Grainne. 

Flnsburh,  the  name  given  to  a  fragment  (of 
50  lines)  of  an  Old  English  epic  poem,  dealing 
with  a  portion  of  the  tale  of  Finn  and  Hilde- 
burh  sung  by  the  minstrel  in  the  poem 
'Beowulf*  (q.v.). 

Finsbury,  a  district  north  of  the  old  city  of 
London,  so  called  from  the  fen  or  marsh 
formed  there  probably  by  the  interruption  of 


FIRST  OF  JUNE 

water-courses  when  the  city  wall  was  built. 
It  adjoins  Moorgate  and  Moorfields. 
FIONA  MACLEOD,  see  Sharp  (W.). 
Fionnuala,  the  subject  of  one  of  Moore's 
'Irish  Melodies',  is  a  daughter  of  Lir  (q.v.), 
transformed  by  supernatural  power  into  a 
swan  and  condemned  to  wander  over  the 
waters  of  Ireland  until  the  coming  there  of 
Christianity. 

Fir  Bolgs,  legendary  early  invaders  of  Ire- 
land, according  to  tradition  of  an  Iberian 
tribe,  who  were  driven  into  Arran,  Islay,  and 
the  Hebrides,  by  the  Milesians  (q.v.). 

FIRDUSI  or  FIRDAUSI,  ABUL  KASIM 
MANSUR  (c.  950-1020),  Persian  poet,  and 
author  of  the  cShahnameh',  the  great  epic 
recounting  the  deeds  of  Persian  heroes  and 
kings  from  the  earliest  times.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  shabbily  treated  by  the  Sultan 
Mahmud  of  Ghazni  (q.v.),  who  had  promised 
him  a  piece  of  gold  for  every  line  of  the 
'Shahnarneh',  but  gave  him  silver  instead, 
and  repented  too  late.  He  is  believed  to  be 
buried  near  Meshed.  For  the  subject  of  the 
'Shahnameh*  see  Feridun,Isfendiyar,Jam$hidt 
Rustem. 

Fire  of  London,  THE  GREAT,  in  1666,  broke 
out  in  a  baker's  house  in  Pudding  Lane,  and 
in  four  days  (Sept.  2-6)  destroyed  the 
buildings  on  some  400  acres,  including  St. 
Paul's  and  87  churches,  and  over  13,000 
houses.  It  extended  from  the  Tower  to  the 
Temple  and  northwards  as  far  as  Cripplegate. 

Fire- drake,  a  fiery  dragon  of  Germanic 
mythology,  used  in  a  transferred  sense  of  a 
person  with  a  fiery  nose,  as  in  Shakespeare, 
'Henry  VIII*,  V.  iv.  46,  'That  fire-drake  did 
I  hit  three  times  on  the  head'. 

Fire-Worshippers,  The,  see  Lalla  Rookh. 
Firmilian,  see  Aytoun. 

Firmin,  DR.  GEORGE  BRAND  and  PHILIP,  the 
principal  characters  in  Thackeray's  'The 
Adventures  of  Philip'  (q.v.) ;  Dr.  Firmin  had 
previously  figured  in  his  *A  Shabby  Genteel 
Story*. 

Firouz,  a  Persian  prince,  the  hero  of  one  of 
the  tales  in  the  'Arabian  Nights*  (q.v.).  An 
Indian  provides  him  with  a  magic  horse,  on 
which  he  is  transported  to  Bengal.  There  he 
falls  in  love  with  a  princess  and  brings  her 
back  to  Persia.  The  Indian,  being  defrauded 
of  the  recompense  stipulated  for  the  horse, 
carries  her  off  to  Cashmere,  where  the  sultan 
cuts  off  his  head  and  proposes  to  marry  the 
princess  himself.  She  feigns  madness  and  is 
rescued  by  Firouz  in  the  guise  of  a  physician. 
First  Gentleman  of  Europe,  GEORGE  IV, 
so  called  on  account  of  the  gracious  manner 
he  could  assume,  and  his  deportment  in 
public. 

First  of  June,  THE  GLORIOUS,  the  date  of  a 
naval  battle  in  which,  in  i794>  Lord  Howe 
defeated  a  French  fleet  some  distance  out 
from  Ushant. 


FIRTH 

FIRTH,  SIR  CHARLES  HARDING 
(1857-  ),  historian  and  literary  critic; 
Regius  professor  of  modern  history  at  Ox- 
ford, 1904-25  (and  Emeritus  professor  since 
1925);  Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.  His 
writings  include  'Ludlow's  Memoirs'  (1894), 
'Oliver  Cromwell*  (1900);  he  contributed 
many  articles  to  the  'Dictionary  of  National 
Biography*.  A  bibliography  of  his  writings 
was  published  in  1928. 

FISHER,  DOROTHY  CANFIELD  (1879- 
),  an  American  writer,  born  in  Kansas, 
who  is  known  chiefly  for  her  novels  'The 
Bent  Twig*  (1915)  and  'The  Brimming  Cup* 
(1921),  and  for  her  translation  of  Papini's 
'Life  of  Christ*. 

FISHER,  JOHN  (1459-1535),  was  educated 
at  Michaelhouse  (absorbed  in  Trinity 
College,  1546),  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
was  appointed  master  in  1497.  He  became 
chancellor  of  the  university  and  bishop  of 
Rochester,  1504,  and  was  president  of 
Queens*  College,  Cambridge,  from  1505  to 
1508.  He  was  a  patron  of  Erasmus  (q.v.)  and 
induced  him  to  lecture  on  Greek  at  Cam- 
bridge from  1511  to  1514.  He  wrote  three 
treatises  against  the  Lutheran  reformation 
and  was  fined  for  denying  the  validity  of  the 
divorce  of  Queen  Catharine,  1534.  He  was 
committed  to  the  Tower  for  refusing  to  swear 
to  the  Act  of  Succession,  and  the  pope  did 
not  improve  his  chances  of  escape  from 
death  by  sending  him  a  Cardinal's  hat  while 
he  was  in  prison.  Fisher  was  deprived, 
attainted,  and  beheaded,  1535,  for  refusing 
to  acknowledge  the  king  as  supreme  head  of 
the  Church.  His  Latin  theological  works 
were  issued  in  1597;  vol.  i  of  Ins  collected 
English  works  appeared  in  1876,  and  no 
other  has  since  been  published.  His  English 
prose  style  showed  a  great  advance,  in  point 
of  rhetorical  artifice  and  effect,  on  that  of  his 
predecessors. 

FITZ-BOODLE,  GEORGE  SAVAGE,  a 
pseudonym  assumed  by  Thackeray  (q.v.) 
in  the  *Fitz-Bopdle  Papers*  contributed  to 
'Fraser's  Magazine3,  1842-3. 

Fitz-Futke,  HEBE,  Duchess  of,  a  character  in 
Byron's  fDon  Juan'  (q.v.). 

FITZGERALD,  EDWARD  (1809-83), 
educated  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds  and  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  lived  a  retired  life 
in  Suffolk  and  was  a  friend  of  Carlyle, 
Thackeray,  and  the  Tennysons.  His  chief 
work  was  the  English  poetic  version  (from  the 
Persian)  of  the  'Rubaiyat  of  Omar  Khayyam* 
(Q*V-)>  published  in  1859  anonymously.  In 
1851  had  appeared  his  'Euphranor', 
dialogue  on  systems  of  education  set  in  the 
scenery  of  Cambridge.  In  1852  he  published 
'Polonius*,  a  collection  of  aphorisms,  and  in 
1853  'Six  Dramas  of  Calderon*,  free  trans- 
lations in  blank  verse  and  prose  (he  sub- 
sequently translated  two  more).  He  likewise 
made  English  versions  of  the  ' Agamemnon' 
of  Aeschylus  and  of  the  two  'Oedipus' 


FIZKIN 

tragedies  of  Sophocles.  He  also  wrote  a 
biography  of  his  father-in-law,  Bernard  Bar- 
ton, the  poet  and  friend  of  Charles  Lamb,  for 
an  edition  of  some  of  his  poems,  and  compiled 
'Readings  from  Crabbe*  (1879). 
Fitzpiers,  EDRED,  a  character  in  Hardy's 
'The  Woodlanders'  (q.v.). 
FITZRALPH,  RICHARD  (d.  1360),  fre- 
quently referred  to  as  <Armachanus*,  was 
chancellor  of  Oxford  (1333)  and  archbishop 
of  Armagh  (1347).  He  had  great  repute  as  a 
preacher,  attacked  the  friars,  and  was  cited  in 
1357  to  defend  his  opinions  before  the  pope 
at  Avignon,  which  he  did  in  his  'Defensio 
Curatorum*.  He  also  wrote  a  treatise  against 
the  friars'  doctrine  of  obligatory  poverty,  'De 
Pauperie  Salvatoris*,  in  which  he  discussed 
'dominion*  or  'lordship*,  expressing  the  view 
on  this  subject  that  Wycliffe  (q.v.)  adopted. 
FITZSTEPHEN,  WILLIAM  (d.  1190?), 
author  of  a  life  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  which 
contains  in  the  prologue  a  valuable  account  of 
early  London. 

FITZROY,  VICE-ADMIRAL  ROBERT  (1805- 
65),  commanded  the  'Beagle*  in  the  survey- 
ing expedition  to  Patagonia  and  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  (1828-36),  having  Darwin  as 
naturalist  for  the  last  five  years.  With  Dar- 
win he  wrote  a  narrative  of  the  voyage.  He 
became  chief  of  the  meteorological  depart- 
ment of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  1854  and  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  meteorological 
science.  He  suggested  the  plan  of  the  Fitzroy 
barometer  and  instituted  a  system  of  storm 
warnings,  the  first  weather  forecasts. 
Fitzwilliam  Museum,  THE,  at  Cambridge, 
was  founded  by  Richard  Viscount  Fitzwilliam 
(1745-1816),  who  left  his  collection  of 
pictures  and  books  to  the  university,  together 
with  £100,000  for  the  construction  of  a 
building  to  house  them.  Extensive  collections 
representing  classical  and  medieval  European 
archaeology  have  since  been  added;  and  a 
recent  benefaction  by  Mr.  Courtauld  has 
splendidly  enlarged  the  Museum. 
Five  Nations,  The,  a  collection  of  poems  by 
Kipling  (q.v.)  published  in  1903.  The  'Five 
Nations*  are  the  chief  component  parts  of  the 
British  Empire. 

In  America  the  Five  Nations  were  a  league 
of  five  tribes  of  Iroquois  Indians,  living  in 
Central  New  York  State,  formed  in  the  i6th 
cent,  shortly  before  the  arrival  of  white 
settlers.  The  Tuscarora  Indians  joined  them 
in  1715,  and  they  then  formed  the  'League  of 
Six  Nations*. 

Five  Towns,  THE,  in  the  novels  of  Arnold 
Bennett  (q.v.),  Tunstall,  Burslem,  Hartley, 
Stoke-upon-Trent,  and  Longton,  now  form- 
ing the  federated  borough  of  Stoke-on-Trent. 
These  are  represented  in  the  novels  by  Turn- 
hill,  Bursley,  Hanbridge,  Knype,  and  Long- 
shaw. 

Fizkin,  HORATIO,  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick 
Papers*  (q.v.),  the  Buff  candidate  in  the 
Eatanswill  election. 


FLACCUS 

FLAGGUS,  see  Horace. 
Flagellants,  a  sect  of  fanatics  that  arose 
in  Europe  in  the  i3th  cent.,  and  again  in 
1348  as  a  consequence  of  the  Black  Death, 
asserting  that  self-flagellation  was  necessary  to 
appease  the  divine  anger.  They  were  declared 
heretics  by  Clement  VI  in  1349,  but  the  sect 
survived  for  a  time  and  some  of  them  were 
burnt  in  1414. 

Flamborough,  FARMER  and  the  MISSES, 
characters  in  Goldsmith's  'The  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field'  (q.v.). 

Flamboyant,  in  architecture,  a  style 
characterized  by  waved  flame-like  lines, 
which  prevailed  in  France  in  the  I5th  and 
early  i6th  cents.  It  is  rare  in  England,  where 
Gothic  developed  a  'Perpendicular'  style. 
Flaming  Tinman,  THE,  a  character  in 
Borrow's  'Lavengro*  (q.v.). 

Flaminian  Way,  THE,  the  great  northern 
road  of  Rome.  It  was  constructed  in  the 
censorship  of  Caius  Flaminius  (220  B.C.)  and 
ran  from  Rome  northwards  across  the  Apen- 
nines to  Ariminum  (Rimini)  on  the  Adriatic. 
It  was  extended  thence  under  the  name  of 
the  Aemilian  Way  through  the  heart  of 
Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  later  still  by  the  Aurelian 
Way  up  the  valley  of  the  Rh6ne  to  Lyons. 

Flanders,  MOLL,  see  Moll  Flanders. 

Flanders  Mare :  Henry  VIII  said  of  Anne 
of  Cleves,  his  fourth  wife,  on  the  day  after 
first  meeting  her  at  Rochester,  that  she  was 
*no  better  than  a  Flanders  mare'.  He  married 
and  divorced  her  in  1540.  W.  C.  Hazlitt 
gives  as  a  proverb,  'Like  Flanders  mares, 
fairest  afar  off'. 

FLATMAN,  THOMAS  (1637-88),  scholar 
of  Winchester,  and  scholar  and  fellow  of 
New  College,  Oxford,  much  esteemed  as  a 
painter  of  miniatures.  He  also  wrote  poems, 
'A  Thought  of  Death*,  'Death,  a  Song',  and 
some  hymns  ('Poems  and  Songs',  1674). 

FLAUBERT,  GUSTAVE  (1821-80), 
French  novelist,  remarkable  for  his  highly 
finished  style  and  for  the  impersonal,  objec- 
tive, carefully  sculptured  method  of  narrative 
which  he  introduced  into  the  novel.  His  most 
famous  novel,  'Madame  Bovary*,  a  realistic 
sordid  tale  of  bourgeois  life,  was  published 
in  1856.  His  other  principal  works  were 
'Salammbo',  a  Carthaginian  story  (1862), 
'L'education  sentimentale'  (1869),  *La  Tenta- 
tion  de  Saint-Antoine'  (1874),  and  the  un- 
finished 'Bouvard  et  P^cuchet'  (1881). 

Flavins,  in  Shakespeare's  'Timpn  of  Athens 
(q.v.),  the  faithful  steward  of  Timon. 

Fleance,  in  Shakespeare's  'Macbeth'  (q.v.), 
the  son  of  Banquo. 

FLECKER,  (HERMAN)  JAMES  ELROY 
(1884-1915),  educated  at  Uppingham  and 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  entered  the  con- 
sular service  and  spent  two  years  at  Beirut. 
But  his  health  broke  down  and  he  died  of 


FLEMING 

consumption  in  Switzerland.  He  published 
'The  Bridge  of  Fire'  (1907),  'Forty-Two 
Poems*  (1911),  'The  Golden  Journey  to 
Samarkand'  (1913),  and  'The  Old  Ships' 
(1915).  His  'Collected  Prose',  of  less  im- 
portance, appeared  in  1920.  His  two  plays, 
'Hassan'  and  'Don  Juan',  were  published 
posthumously  in  1922  and  1925.  The  former 
has  attained  celebrity. 

FLECKNOE,  RICHARD  (d.  1678?),  said 
to  have  been  an  Irish  priest,  printed  privately 
several  poems  and  prose  works,  including  'A 
Relation  of  Ten  Years'  Travel  in  Europe, 
Asia,  Affrique,  and  America'  (1656)  and  'A 
short  Discourse  on  the  English  Stage'  (1664). 
He  was  the  subject  of  a  lampoon  by  Andrew 
Marvell  (1645),  which  suggested  to  Dry  den 
his  satire  on  Shadwell,  'Mac  Flecknoe'  (q.v.). 

Fledgeby,  in  Dickens 's  'Our  Mutual  Friend' 
(q.v.),  a  cowardly  villain,  who  conceals  his 
money-lending  business  under  the  descrip- 
tion 'Pubsey  and  Co/. 

Fleece,  GOLDEN,  see  Golden  Fleece. 

Fleet  Prison,  THE,  stood  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  present  Farringdon  Street, 
London,  alongside  of  the  Fleet  river.  It  was 
built  in  the  time  of  Richard  I,  and  long  after- 
wards served  as  a  place  of  imprisonment  for 
persons  condemned  by  the  Star  Chamber. 
After  the  abolition  of  the  latter  in  1640,  it 
served  mainly  as  a  debtors*  prison,  until  de- 
molished in  1848.  As  a  debtors'  prison  it 
figures  in  Dickens's  novels,  notably  in  'Pick- 
wick' (q.v.). 

In  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  cent,  the 
notorious  FLEET  MARRIAGES  were  celebrated 
by  accommodating  clergymen  imprisoned  in 
its  walls,  without  licence  or  banns,  until  the 
practice  was  stopped  by  the  Marriage  Act 
of  1753.  Its  evils  are  depicted  in  'The  Chap- 
lain of  the  Fleet'  by  Besant  (q.v.)  and  Rice. 

Fleet  Street,  now  the  head-quarters  of 
London  journalism,  takes  its  name  from  the 
old  Fleet  river,  which,  running  south  from 
Hampstead,  along  the  line  of  the  Farringdon 
Road,  flowed  into  the  Thames  at  Blackfriars, 
passing  under  the  Fleet  Bridge  at  what  is 
now  Ludgate  Circus.  In  its  upper  course  it 
appears  to  have  been  known  as  the  Hole 
Bourne  (Holborn),  or  the  Turnmill  (q.v.) 
Brook.  Boats  could  ascend  the  Fleet  as  far  as 
the  Holborn  Bridge  as  late  as  the  i6th  cent. 
(Stow).  Wren  in  his  plan  for  rebuilding 
London  after  the  Great  Fire  proposed  to 
canalize  it  as  far  as  Holborn  Bridge. 
Fleet  Street  Eclogues,  see  Davidson. 
Fleetwood,  THE  EARL  OF,  a  character  in 
Meredith's  'The  Amazing  Marriage*  (q.v.). 
FLEMING,  MARGARET  (1803-11),  Tet 
Marjorie',  the  daughter  of  James  Fleming  of 
Kirkcaldy ,  was  a  youthful  prodigy  and  a  pet  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott.  She  wrote  a  quaint  diary, 
a  poem  on  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and  other 
verses,  and  she  was  the  subject  of  an  essay 
by  Dr.  John  Brown  (q.v.). 


3868 


[389] 


FLEMING 

Fleming,  (i)  ROSE  and  AGNES,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'Oliver  Twist'  (q.v.);  (2)  ARCH- 
DEACON, in  Scott's  'The  Heart  of  Midlothian* ; 
(3)  LADY  MARY,  in  Scott's  'The  Abbot';  (4) 
SIR  MALCOLM,  in  Scott's  'Castle  Dangerous'; 
(5)  PAUL,  in  Longfellow's  'Hyperion';  (6) 
FARMER,  RHODA,  and  DAHLIA,  in  Meredith's 
'Rhoda  Fleming'  (qq.v.). 

Flemish  School  of  Painting.  Painting  in 
the  'Low  Countries1  (outside  Holland)  had 
two  great  periods.  The  School  of  Bruges 
(1366-1550)  produced  painters  of  religious 
subjects  much  influenced  by  Italian  art;  the 
brothers  van  Eyck,  Hans  Memling,  Rogier 
Van  der  Weyden,  Quentin  Matsys,  and 
Mabuse,  were  the  masters  of  this  period.  The 
second  great  period  belongs  to  the  iyth  cent., 
and  produced  such  portraitists  as  Rubens 
and  Vandyck,  as  well  as  genre  painters  such 
as  David  Teniers. 

Fleshly  School  of  Poetry,  The,  the  title  of 
an  article  in  the  'Contemporary  Review' 
(Oct.  1871),  in  which  Robert  Buchanan 
(q.v.),  under  the  pseudonym  of  'Robert 
Makland',  attacked  the  Pre-Raphaelites  (q.v.), 
especially  D.  G.  Rossetti.  This  attack  was 
the  prelude  to  a  long  and  bitter  controversy. 

Fleta,  a  Latin  treatise  on  the  common  law 
of  England,  largely  a  summary  of  Bracton 
(q.v.),  published  anonymously  c.  1290. 

FLETCHER,  GILES,  the  elder  (1549?- 
1611),  educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in 
1568,  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Russia  in  1588. 
His  book  on  Russia  (1591),  suppressed,  and 
only  partially  printed  in  Hakluyt  and  Purchas, 
was  published  entire  in  1856  (ed.  Bond). 
'Licia,  or  Poemes  of  Love'  (1593),  printed  by 
Grosart,  1871,  is  of  some  importance  as  one 
of  the  first  collections  of  sonnets  that  followed 
the  appearance  of  Sidney's  'Astrophel  and 
Stella'.  He  was  uncle  of  John  Fletcher  (q.v.), 
the  collaborator  of  Beaumont. 

FLETCHER,  GILES,  the  younger  (1588?- 
1623),  the  younger  son  of  Giles  Fletcher  the 
elder  (q.v.),  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  He  was  rector  of  Alderton,  Suf- 
folk, and  a  poet  of  the  Spenserian  School, 
who  dealt  with  religious  themes  allegorically, 
His  'Christ's  Victorie  and  Triumph  in  Heaven 
and  Earth*  (1610)  has  been  several  times 
reprinted. 

FLETCHER,  JOHN  (1579-1625),  was  born 
at  Rye  in  Sussex,  of  which  place  his  father 
(who  subsequently  was  chaplain  at  the  execu- 
tion of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  became 
bishop  of  Bristol  and  of  London)  was  then 
minister.  John  Fletcher  was  nephew  of  Giles 
Fletcher  the  elder  (q.v.)  and  cousin  of  Giles 
the  younger  and  Phineas  Fletcher  (qq.v.).  He 
was  educated  at  Benet  College,  Cambridge. 
He  died  of  the  plague  and  was  buried  at  St. 
Saviour's,  Southwark.  Fletcher  collaborated 
with  Francis  Beaumont  from  about  1606  to 
1616  in  the  production  of  plays,  the  exact 


FLETCHER 

number  of  which  is  not  known,  but  does  not 
exceed  fifteen.  He  was  sole  author  of  not  less 
than  sixteen  plays,  and  collaborated  with 
Massinger,  Rowley,  and  others  in  yet  other 
plays. 

The  principal  plays  of  which  Fletcher  was 
author  or  part  author  are  the  following : 

Probably  by  Fletcher  alone:  'The  Faithful 
Shepherdess'  (q.v.),  printed  by  1610;  'Wit 
without  Money',  a  comedy,  printed  in  1639; 
'Valentinian'  (q.v.),  acted  before  1619;  'The 
Loyal  Subject'  (q.v.),  acted  in  1618;  *The 
Mad  Lover',  acted  before  1619;  'The 
Humorous  Lieutenant'  (q.v.),  acted  in  1619; 
'Women  Pleased',  a  comedy,  c.  1620,  printed 
in  1647;  'The  Wild  Goose  Chase'  (q.v.), 
1621,  printed  in  1652;  'The  Pilgrim*,  a 
comedy,  1621,  printed  in  1647;  'The  Island 
Princess',  1621,  a  romantic  comedy;  'Mon- 
sieur Thomas',  1619,  printed  in  1639;  'The 
Woman's  Prize,  or  The  Tamer  Tamed',  a 
comedy  (the  taming  of  Shakespeare's 
Petruchio),  written  before  1625,  printed  in 
1647;  *A  Wife  for  a  Month',  a  romantic 
drama,  acted  in  1 624 ;  'Rule  a  Wife  and  have 
a  Wife'  (q.v.),  acted  in  1624;  'The  Chances* 
(q.v.),  1620,  printed  in  1647. 

Certainly  or  probably  by  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher:  'Four  Plays  in  One*,  four  short  plays 
(two  founded  on  Boccaccio,  one  on  Bandello, 
one  an  allegory  about  false  and  true  friends), 
probably  acted  c.  1608;  'The  Knight  of  the 
feurning  Pestle'  (q.v.),  1609,  printed  in.  1613 ; 
'The  Scornful  Lady',  1610,  printed  in  1616; 
'Philaster'  (q.v.),  1611,  printed  in  1620;  'The 
Maid's  Tragedy*  and  'A  King  and  no  Kong* 
(qq.v.),i6u,printed  in  1619 ;  'The  Coxcomb', 
a  romantic  comedy,  acted  in  1612,  printed  in 
1647;  'Cupid's  Revenge',  a  tragedy  based  on 
material  in  the  second  Book  of  Sidney's 
'Arcadia*,  acted  in  1612,  printed  in  1615; 
'The  Captain*,  a  comedy,  acted  in  1612-13; 
'The  Honest  Man's  Fortune*,  printed  in 
1647 ;  'Bonduca*  (q.v.),  1614,  printed  in  1647 ; 
'The  Knight  of  Malta',  a  tragi-comedy,  acted 
before  March  1619,  printed  in  1647;  'Thierry 
and  Theodoret*  (q.v.),  printed  in  1621 ;  'Love's 
Cure',  printed  in  1647. 

Probably  by  Fletcher  and  some  other  drama- 
tist: 'Love's  Pilgrimage*  and  'The  Double 
Marriage',  comedies  printed  in  1647;  'Sir 
John  van  Olden  Barnavelt'  (q.v.),  acted  in 
1619;  'The  False  One*  (a  Cleopatra  play), 
'The  Little  French  Lawyer'  (q.v.),  'The 
Custom  of  the  Country'  (q.v.),  and  'The 
Laws  of  Candy',  all  printed  in  1647;  'The 
Spanish  Curate*  (q.v.)  and  'The  Beggars 
Bush*  (q.v.),  acted  in  1622.  In  all  the 
above  Fletcher  certainly  or  probably  col- 
laborated with  Massinger.  The  romantic 
drama,  ^'The  Lovers'  Progress'  (q.v.),  pro- 
duced in  1623  a»d  printed  in  1647,  was 
an  adaptation  by  Massinger  of  an  earlier 
play  by  Fletcher.  'The  Maid  in  the  Mill' 
was  written  by  Fletcher  and  Rowley 
(licensed  in  1623).  "The  Elder  Brother'  (q.v.), 
printed  in  1637,  is  thought  to  have  been 
written  by  Fletcher  and  revised  by  Massinger. 


[290] 


FLETCHER 

'The  Fair  Maid  of  the  Inn*,  printed  in  1647, 
was  probably  the  result  of  similar  collabora- 
tion, with  perhaps  assistance  from  Jonson 
and  Rowley.  'The  Nice  Valour',  a  comedy, 
printed  in  1647,  was  probably  written  by 
Fletcher  and  Middleton.  It  contains  the 
lyric  'Hence  all  you  vain  delights',  which 
suggested  'II  Penseroso'  to  Milton.  In  'The 
Bloody  Brother,  or  Rollo,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy' (q.v.),  Fletcher  is  supposed  to  have 
had  the  assistance  of  Jonson  (in  the  astro- 
logical scene)  and  others;  this  tragedy  was 
probably  produced  about  1616.  It  contains 
the  lyric  'Take,  oh  take  those  lips  away5, 
which  occurs  with  certain  changes  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Measure  for  Measure*.  'The  Noble 
Gentleman*,  a  comedy  acted  in  1626,  is  by 
Fletcher  with  Beaumont,  or  perhaps  Rowley. 
'The  Two  Noble  Kinsmen*  (q.v.),  printed 
1634,  was  probably  the  work  of  Fletcher  and 
Shakespeare.  It  is  probable  also  that  Fletcher 
had  a  share  in  the  composition  of  Shake- 
speare's 'Henry  VIII*. 

FLETCHER,  PHINEAS  (1582-1650),  the 
elder  son  of  Giles  Fletcher  the  elder  (q.v.), 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  was  rector  of  Hilgay, 
Norfolk,  1621-50.  Like  his  brother  Giles,  he 
was  a  poet  of  the  Spenserian  School.  His 
chief  work,  'The  Purple  Island*,  an  alle- 
gorical poem  on  the  human  body,  the  mind, 
and  the  virtues  and  vices,  was  published  in 
1633 ;  'The  Locusts  or  Apollyonists*,  an  at- 
tack on  the  Jesuits,  in  1627;  and  'Elisa*,  an 
elegy  on  the  death  of  Sir  Antony  Irby,  in 
1633.  'Britain's  Ida*,  1628,  seems  to  be  his. 

Fleur  and  Blanchefleur,  see  Mores  and 
Blancheflour. 

Flibbertigibbet,  probably  in  its  original 
form  'flibbergib*,  which  Latimer  uses  in  a 
sermon  for  a  chattering  or  gossiping  person. 
Harsnet  in  his  'Popish  Impostures'  (1603) 
gives  'Fliberdigibbet*  as  the  name  of  a  devil 
or  fiend.  And  Shakespeare  in  'King  Lear* 
in.  iv  has  'Flibbertigibbet',  'the  foul  fiend* 
who  walks  at  night,  'gives  the  web  and  the 
pin,  squints  the  eye,  and  makes  the  hare-lip*. 
Scott,  in  'Kenilworth'  (q.v.),  gives  the  nick- 
name 'Flibbertigibbet*  to  Dickie  Sludge. 

Flicker-tail  State,  North  Dakota,  see 
United  States. 

Flintwinch,  a  character  in  Dickens *s  'Little 
Dorrit'  (q.v.).  His  wife  was  known  as  Affery. 

Flippanta,  a  character  in  Vanbrugh's  'The 
Confederacy*  (q.v.). 

Flite,  Miss,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Bleak 
House*  (q.v.). 

Flodden  or  FLODDON  Field,  the  battle  of 
Flodden,  in  Northumberland,  fought  on  gth 
Sept.  1513,  when  the  earl  of  Surrey  on  behalf 
of  Henry  VIII  (then  in  France)  defeated 
James  IV  of  Scotland,  the  latter  sovereign 
being  killed  on  the  field.  It  was  made  the 
subject  of  poems,  of  rejoicing  or  lament,  on 
both  sides  of  the  border.  Skelton's  'Against 


FLORESTAN 

the  Scots'  is  a  rude  song  of  exultation  on  the 
English  victory,  and  several  English  ballads 
appeared,  of  which  one  by  Thomas  Deloney 
(q.v.)  is  printed  in  Ritson's  collection.  On 
the  Scottish  side  there  is  the  beautiful  lament, 
'The  Flowers  of  the  Forest*,  of  which  the 
most  popular  version  is  by  Jane  Elliot  (q.v.). 
The  battle  is  described  in  the  6th  canto  of 
Scott's  'Marmion,  A  Tale  of  Flodden  Field* 


FLODOARD  (894-966),  of  Rheims  in 
France,  left  valuable  chronicles  of  the  period 
919—66,  and  a  'Historia  Remensis  Ecclesiae*. 
Flora,  the  goddess  of  flowers  and  spring  of 
the  ancient  Romans. 

Florae,  COMTE  DE,  in  Thackeray's  'The  Vir- 
ginians* (q.v.),  a  young  French  officer  who 
rescues  George  Warrington  from  the  Indians  ; 
in  'The  Newcomes*  (q.v.)  an  emigre  from 
France.  His  wife  (who  had  been  loved  as 
a  girl  by  Thomas  Newcome),  son,  and 
daughter-in-law  figure  in  the  same  novel. 
Flordelis,  in  the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (q.v.), 
the  devoted  wife  of  Brandimarte,  the  paladin 
killed  in  the  great  fight  with  Agramant  and 
Gradasso  at  Lipadusa. 

Flordespina,  in  the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (q.v.), 
a  princess  who  falls  in  love  with  Bradamante, 
being  led  by  her  armour  to  take  her  for  a 
man. 

FLORENCE  OF  WORCESTER  (d.  1118), 
a  monk  of  Worcester  who  was  author  of  a 
'Chronicon  ex  Chronicis'  (based  upon  the 
work  of  Marianus,  an  Irish  monk),  ex- 
tending to  1117,  which  was  continued  by 
other  hands  till  1295  (Cambridge  MS.).  It 
was  first  printed  in  1592,  and  translated  for 
Bohn  (1847)  and  for  Stevenson's  'Church 
Historians*  (1853). 

Florent  or  FLORENTIXTS,  the  subject  of  a  tale 
in  Gower's  'Confessio  Amantis*  (q.v.),  and 
of  the  'Wife  of  Bath's  Tale*  in  Chaucer's 
'Canterbury  Tales'  (q.v.). 

Flores  (pron.  Flo'res),  the  westernmost 
island  of  the  Azores  off  which  Sir  Richard 
Granville  fought  his  great  sea  fight  with  the 
Spaniards  in  1591,  celebrated  in  Tennyson's 
'The  Revenge*. 

Flores  and  Blanche  flow  ',  a  metrical  romance 
of  the  Middle  English  period,  relating  the 
adventures  of  Blancheflour,  a  Christian 
princess  carried  off  by  the  Saracens  and 
brought  up  with  the  Christian  prince  Flores. 
They  fall  in  love  and  are  separated,  but 
Blancheflour  gives  Flores  a  ring  which  will 
tarnish  when  she  is  in  danger.  Blancheflour 
is  threatened  by  a  false  accusation,  and 
Flores,  warned  by  the  ring,  finds  her  in  a 
seraglio  in  Egypt,  whither  she  has  been  sent 
as  a  slave.  The  lovers  are  pardoned  by  the 
Emir  and  all  ends  well.  A  version  of  this 
story  forms  the  subject  of  Boccaccio's  'Filo- 
copo*. 

Florestan,  KING,  a  character  in  Disraeli's 
*Endymion*  (q.v.). 


[291] 


FLORIMELL 

Florimell,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
Bks.  Ill  and  IV,  the  type  of  chastity  and 
virtue  in  woman.  She  Is  in  love  with  the 
knight  Marinell,  who  'sets  nought*  by  her. 
She  ikes  refuge  from  her  pursuers  in  the  sea 
and  is  imprisoned  by  Proteus.  Finally  the 
heart  of  Marinell  is  touched  by  her  complaint, 
and  Neptune  orders  Proteus  to  release  her. 

Florin,  the  English  name  of  a  gold  coin  first 
issued  at  Florence  in  1252,  so  called  because 
it  had  a  flower  stamped  upon  it.  The  name 
was  applied  to  two  English  gold  coins  (known 
also  as  'leopards*  and  'double  leopards')  of 
the  value  of  35-.  and  6s.,  issued  by  Edward  III, 
of  the  weight  of  one  and  two  Florentine 
florins  respectively.  The  English  silver  coin 
worth  2,s.  called  a  florin  was  first  minted  in 
1849. 
Floxinda,  a  character  in  Southey's  "Roderick 


FLORIO,  JOHN  (i553?~i625)>  son  of  *n 
Italian  Protestant  refugee,  was  born  in 
London  and  educated  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford.  He  was  reader  in  Italian  to  Queen 
Anne,  1603,  and  groom  of  the  privy  chamber, 
1604.  His  great  Italian-English  dictionary 
appeared  in  1598.  He  published  a  transla- 
tion of  Montaigne's  'Essays'  in  1603,  which 
had  an  important  influence  on  English  litera- 
ture and  philosophy.  It  is  marked  by  a  cer- 
tain extravagance  and  eccentricity  of  language, 
but  he  loved  his  author  and  made  a  vivid 
work  of  the  translation.  Florio  married 
Rosa  Daniel,  the  sister  of  Samuel  Daniel 
(q.v.),  the  Rosalind  of  Spenser's  'Shepheards 
Calender'. 
Florisando,  see  Amadis  of  Gaul. 

Florismart,  in  the  Charlemagne  romances, 
one  of  the  paladins,  and  friend  of  Roland. 

Florizel,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Winter's  Tale*  (q.v.),  the  lover  of  Perdita. 
'FlorizeP  was  the  name  adopted  by  George 
IV,  when  Prince  of  Wales,  in  his  correspond- 
ence with  Mary  Robinson  (q.v.),  the  actress, 
with  whose  performance  as  Perdita  he  had 
been  captivated. 

Florizel,  PRINCE,  the  chief  character  in  the 

'New  Arabian  Nights'  of  R.  L.  Stevenson 

(q.v.). 

Flosky,    MR.,    a    character    in    Peacock's 

'Nightmare  Abbey'  (q.v.),  who  illustrates  the 

transcendentalism  of  Coleridge. 

Flower  and  the  Leaf,  The,  an  allegory  of  600 

lines  in  rhyme-royal,  formerly  attributed  to 
Chaucer,  in  which  the  poet  wandering  in  a 
grove  sees  the  white  company  of  knights  and 
ladies  of  the  leaf  (Diana,  goddess  of  chastity), 
and  the  green  company  of  the  flower  (Flora), 
the  'folk  that  loved  idleness*  and  had  delight 
'of  no  businesse,  but  for  to  hunt  and  hauke, 
and  pley  in  medes*,  and  witnesses  their 
processions  and  sports. 

Linguistic  characteristics  suggest  that  this 
poem  is  of  later  date  than  Chaucer  or  was 


FOLENGO 

extensively  re-written.  The  spirit  of  the  poem 

is  thoroughly  Chaucerian. 

Flowers  of  the  Forest,  see  Elliot  (Jane). 

FLUDD,  ROBERT  (1574-1637),  physician 
androsicrucian(q.v.),was  as  a  writer  a  medical 
mystic  of  the  school  that  looked  to  the  Bible 
for  secret  clues  to  science.  He  vindicated 
the  fraternity  of  the  Rosy  Cross  in  several 
treatises. 

Fluellen,  in  Shakespeare's  'Henry  V*  (q.v.), 
a  brave,  choleric,  and  pedantic  Welsh  officer. 
Flute,  in  Shakespeare's  'Midsummer  Night's 
Dream'  (q.v.),  a  bellows-mender,  who  takes 
the  part  of  Thisbe  in  the  play  of  'Pyramus 
and  Thisbe'. 

Flutter,  SIR  FOPLING,  a  character  in 
Etherege's  'The  Man  of  Mode'  (q.v.). 

Flying  ChUders,  reputed  the  fastest  race- 
horse ever  bred,  the  son  of  Darley  Arabian 
(q.v.),  was  bred  in  1715  by  the  duke  of 
Devonshire,  and  died  in  1741. 

Flying  Dutchman,  The,  a  phantom  ship, 
which,  in  consequence  of  a  murder  committed 
on  board,  is  supposed  to  haunt  the  sea  in  a 
perpetual  endeavour  to  make  Table  Bay.  It  is 
seen  in  stormy  weather  off  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  forebodes  disaster.  Capt .  Marryat's 
novel  'The  Phantom  Ship'  and  a  music-drama 
by  R.  Wagner  (q.v.)  are  founded  on  this 
legend. 

Flying  Fox,  a  famous  racehorse  belonging 
to  the  duke  of  Westminster,  which  (in  1899) 
won  the  'Triple  Crown*,  that  is  to  say,  the 
Two  Thousand  Guineas,  the  Derby,  and 
St.  Leger. 

Foedera,  Conventiones,  et  cujuscunque 
generis  Acta  Publica,  a  collection  of  public 
records  in  twenty  volumes,  by  Rymer  (q.v.) 
and  Robert  Sanderson,  published  in  1704-35 
(vols.  xvi-xx:  were  prepared  by  Sanderson, 
the  first  of  these  chiefly  from  Rymer's 
materials).  The  documents  (treaties,  con- 
ventions, letters,  &c.  between  the  kings  o£ 
England  and  foreign  sovereigns  and  states) 
extend  down  to  1654,  and  provided  for  the 
first  time  a  scientific  basis  for  the  writing  of 
history. 

Fogg,  PHILEAS,  the  hero  of  Jules  Verne's 
'Round  the  World  in  Eighty  Days'. 

Foible,  in  Congreve's  'The  Way  of  the 
World*  (q.v.),  Lady  Wishfort's  woman. 

Foigard,  FATHER,  in  Farquhar's  'The  Beaux* 
Stratagem*  (q.v.),  a  pretended  French  priest ; 
'his  French  shows  him  to  be  English,  and  his 
English  shows  him  to  be  Irish*. 

Foker,  HAKRY,  a  character  in  Thackeray's 
'Pendennis*  (q.v.)- 

FOLENGO,  THEOPHILO  (1492-1544), 
an  Italian  monk,  who  wrote,  under  the 
pseudonym  Merlin  Coccai,  a  long  burlesque- 
heroic  poem,  'Opus  Macaronicum*,  in  maca- 
ronic (q.v.)  verse.  Its  hero  is  Baldus,  who 


[292] 


FOLIO 

has  for  followers  the  giant  Fracassus  and  the 
cunning  Cingar.  Rabelais's  Panurge  (q.v.) 
is  partly  modelled  on  the  latter. 

Folio,  a  sheet  of  paper  folded  once  only,  or  a 
volume  made  up  of  sheets  so  folded  (conse- 
quently of  the  largest  size). 

Folio,  TOM,  a  pedantic  bibliophile,  the  sub- 
ject of  one  of  Addison's  essays. 

Folk- lore,  the  traditional  beliefs,  legends, 
and  customs,  current  among  the  common 
people ;  and  the  study  of  them.  The  term  was 
first  introduced  by  W.  J.  Thorns  in  the 
'Athenaeum'  (1846). 

Folliott,  THE  REV.  DOCTOR,  a  character  in 
Peacock's  'Crotchet  Castle'  (q.v.). 
Fomors,  THE,  the  sea-giants  of  Gaelic 
mythology.  They  are  represented  as  more 
ancient  than  the  gods  (the  Tuatha  D6 
Dananri),  and  as  having  been  ousted  by  them 
and  destroyed  at  the  battle  of  Moytura  (C. 
Squire,  'Mythology  of  the  British  Islands'). 
See  also  Balor. 

Fondlewife,  one  of  the  characters  in  Con- 
greve's  'The  Old  Bachelor'  (q.v.). 
Fontarabia,  now  FUENTEKRABIA,  in  Spain 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Bidassoa.  Milton 
appears  to  have  confused  it  with  Roncesvalles, 
some  forty  miles  away,  where  the  rout  of 
the  rearguard  of  Charlemagne's  army  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  occurred: 

When  Charlemagne  with  all  his  peerage 
fell 

By  Fontarabia. 

('Paradise  Lost',  i.  587.) 
Scott,  in  'Marmion',  vi.  33,  refers  to  'Font- 
arabian  echoes'  in  connexion  with  the  defeat 
at  Roncesvalles. 

Fonthill,  see  Beckford. 

Fool  of  Quality,  The,  a  novel  by  H.  Brooke 
(q.v.),  published  1766-72. 

The  'fool  of  quality*  is  Henry,  second  son 
of  an  earl  of  Moreland,  and  so  called  because 
he  appears  to  his  parents  of  less  intelligence 
than  his  elder  brother.  He  is  banished  from 
their  house  and  brought  up  by  his  foster- 
mother  and  subsequently  by  his  uncle,  and 
develops  not  only  great  physical  beauty^  and 
athletic  prowess,  but  a  high  degree  of  virtue 
and  generosity,  which  he  displays  in  the 
relief  of  the  poor,  sick,  and  oppressed.  The 
incidents  of  the  story  are  neither  very 
probable  nor  very  interesting,  but  they  are 
oddly  diversified  by  discourses  on  a  great 
variety  of  subjects  (in  the  latter  part  of  the 
book  on  the  mystical  aspects  of  Christianity), 
and  by  discussions  between  the  author  and 
a  'friend*  on  passages  in  the  book  itself. 
The  work  breathes  the  spirit  of  Rousseau, 
the  revolt  against  oppression  and  suffering, 
and  .anticipates  the  doctrines  of  Godwin  and 
Paine  (qq.v.).  It  was  highly  admired  by  John 
Wesley,  who  edited  it  for  Methodist  use,  and 
by  Charles  Kingsley  (q.v.),  who  contributed  a 
laudatory  preface  to  the  edition  of  1859. 


FORD 

FOOTE,  SAMUEL  (1720-77),  actor  and 
dramatist,  was  educated  at  Worcester 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  dissipated  a 
fortune.  As  an  actor  he  was  particularly 
successful  in  comic  mimicry;  acting  in  his 
own  plays,  he  caricatured  his  fellow-actors 
and  various  well-known  persons.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  short  dramatic  sketches  of  two  or 
three  acts,  depending  largely  for  their  success 
on  topical  allusions,  of  which  'Taste'  (1752) 
was  the  first.  'The  Minor'  (1760),  a  satire 
directed  against  the  Methodists,  in  which 
Foote  mimicked  George  Whitefield  ('Dr. 
Squintum'),  was  his  most  powerful  work. 
'The  Liar'  (1762)  is  a  lively  farce  in  which 
Young  Wilding  is  the  liar,  constantly  exposed, 
and  constantly  gay  and  unabashed.  'The 
Mayor  of  Garret'  (q.v.)  appeared  in  1764.  In 
'The  Maid  of  Bath'  (1771)  Foote  pilloried 
Squire  Long,  the  unscrupulous  sexagenarian 
lover  of  Miss  Elizabeth  Linley,  the  lady  who 
subsequently  married  Sheridan.  'The  Nabob* 
(1772)  was  aimed  at  the  directors  and  servants 
of  the  East  India  Company.  One  of  his 
plays,  *A  Trip  to  Calais*  (1776),  involved 
him  in  a  quarrel  with  the  duchess  of  King- 
ston, and  was  altered  to  'The  Capuchin'  (the 
offending  character  of  'Lady  Kitty  Crocodile' 
being  replaced  by  another).  Foote  had  a  leg 
amputated  in  1766,  but  this  did  not  quell  his 
spirit.  He  received  as  compensation  a  patent 
for  a  theatre,  and  built  the  new  Haymarket  in 
1767.  He  was  known  to  his  contemporaries  as 
the  English  Aristophanes,  counsel  in  a  libel 
action  having  likened  his  client  to  Socrates 
and  Foote  to  Aristophanes. 

Fopling  Flutter,  SIR,  a  character  in 
Etherege's  'The  Man  of  Mode'  (q.v.). 

Foppington,  LORD,  a  character  in  Van- 
brugh's  comedy  'The  Relapse'  (q.v.),  and 
Sheridan's  'A  Trip  to  Scarborough'  (q.v.); 
also  in  Coliey  Gibber's  'The  Careless 
Husband*  (q.v.). 

FORCELLINI,  EGIDIO  (i688ri768),  lexi- 
cographer; author,  with  J.  Facciolati,  of  the 
famous  'Totius  Latinitatis  Lexicon*  (i77*)> 
commonly  known  as  'Forcellini-Facciolati.* 

Ford  and  Mrs.  Ford,  characters  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Merry  Wives  of  Windsor*  (q.v.). 

FORD,  FORD  MADOX  (formerly  Ford 
Madox  Hueffer,  1873-  ),  author. 
Among  his  chief  works  are:  'The  Spirit 
of  the  People*  (1907),  'Mr.  Apollo'  (1908), 
'Ladies  Whose  Bright  Eyes'  (1911),  'The 
Marsden  Case*  (1923),  'Mr.  Bosphorus* 
(1923),  'Some  Do  Not'  (1924),  'No  More 
Parades'  (1925),  'A  Man  Could  Stand  Up* 
(1926),  'Last  Post*  (1928),  all  novels;  'Henry 
James'  (1913),  a  critical  study;  and  'Collected 
Poems'  (1914).  Also  books  on  the  English 
novel  and  on  Conrad;  he  collaborated  with 
Conrad  in  "The  Inheritors*  (1901)  and 
'Romance*  (1903). 

FORD,  JOHNC/L  1639),  was  born  in  Devon- 
shire, and  was  admitted  at  the  Middle 


[293] 


FORD 

Temple  in  1602.  He  probably  spent  his  last 
years  in  Devonshire.  Some  of  his  plays  have 
perished  (four  were  destroyed  by  Warburton's 
cook).  Of  those  which  have  survived  the 
chief  are  the  'Lover's  Melancholy'  (q.v., 
1629),  'Love's  Sacrifice*  (q.v.,  1633),  'Tis 
Pity  she's  a  Whore'  (q.v.,  1633),  'The 
Broken  Heart*  (q.v,,  1633),  £Perkin  Warbeck' 
(q.v.,  1634),  'The  Ladies  Trial!'  (1638).  He 
collaborated  with  Dekker  and  Rowley  in  'The 
Witch  of  Edmonton'  (q.v.).  The  best  edition 
of  his  collected  works  is  Dyce's  reissue  of 
GifFord's  edition  (1869).  The  principal 
characteristic  of  his  work  is  the  powerful 
depiction  of  melancholy,  sorrow,  and  despair. 
A  vivid  little  portrait  of  him  has  been  pre- 
served in  the  couplet,  from  the  'Time-Poets' 
('Choice  Drollery',  1656): 

Deep  in  a  dump  John  Ford  was  alone  got, 
With  folded  arms  and  melancholy  hat. 

FORD,  PAUL  LEICESTER  (1865-1902), 
an  American  author,  bom  in  Brooklyn,  is 
chiefly  known  for  his  novels,  'The  Honorable 
Peter  Stirling*  (1896)  and  'Janice  Meredith* 


FORD,  RICHARD  (1796-1858),  educated 
at  Winchester  and  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  a 
contributor  to  the  'Quarterly*,  'Edinburgh', 
and  'Westminster'  Reviews,  is  remembered 
as  the  author  of  the  'Handbook  for  Travellers 
in  Spain*  (1845),  a  work  agreeable  by  its 
charming  style  and  rendered  exceptionally 
interesting  by  the  author's  sympathetic 
knowledge  of  the  people  and  the  frequent 
references  to  incidents  of  the  Peninsular 
War*  His  'Gatherings  from  Spain*  (1846)  is  a 
no  less  agreeable  work.  His  'Letters*  have 
been  edited  (1905)  by  Lord  Ernie. 

Ford  Car,  an  efficient  inexpensive  American 
motor-car,  the  result  of  the  application  by 
Mr.  Henry  Ford  of  mass-production  methods 
to  motor  manufacture;  in  novels  the  typical 
cheap  car. 

Foresight,  the  foolish  old  astrologer  in  Con- 
greve*s  'Love  for  Love*  (q.v.). 

Forester,  SYI.VAN,  a  character  in  Peacock*s 
cMelincourt*  (q.v.). 

Forgers  and  Fabricators,  LITERARY,  and 
other  Impostors,  see  under  Apollonius  of 
Tyana,  Berosus,  Bertram  (Charles),  Ca- 
gliostro,  Chatterton,  Claude,  Clement  /,  Cor- 
tese,  Croyland  History,  Decretals,  Demetrius 
(Pseudo),  Dodd>  Guerret  Hermes  Trismegistus, 
Ireland,  Lauder,  Lucas  (V.),  Mandeville,  Mun- 
chauseny  Psalmanazar^  Pythagoras,  Rouge- 
mont,  Sanchoniathon,  Sanson,  Shapira, 
Smerdis,  Steevens,  Tichborne,  Timothy. 

There  is  a  remarkable  invocation  of  forgers 
and  impostors  in  ch.  xx  of  Anatole  France's 
'M.  Bergeret  a  Paris*. 

Fomarina,  LA,  'the  bakeress',  the  name 
given  to  the  picture  (in  the  Palazzo  Barberini, 
Rome)  of  a  woman,  whose  bracelet  bears  the 
name  'Raphael  Urbinas*.  It  is  supposed  to 
represent  the  mistress  of  Raphael,  the  painter, 


FORTESCUE 

said  to  have  been  one  Margherita,  daughter 

of  a  baker. 

Forrest,  The,  a  collection  of  miscellaneous 

short  poems,  odes,  epistles  and  songs,  by 

Jonson  (q.v.),  printed  in  the  folio  of  1616. 

It  includes  the  beautiful  songs :  'Drink  to  me 

only  with  thine  eyes*,  and  'Come,  my  Celia, 

let  us  prove*. 

Fors  Clavigera,  a  collection  of  letters  to  the 

workmen  and  labourers  of  Great  Britain,  by 

Ruskin  (q.v.),  published  in  1871-84. 

This  remarkable  collection  deals  with  a 
great  variety  of  subjects,  though  the  under- 
lying motive — the  redress  of  poverty  and 
misery — is  present  throughout.  'For  my 
own  part,'  he  writes,  *I  will  put  up  with  this 
state  of  things  not  an  hour  longer.  ...  I 
simply  cannot  paint,  nor  read,  nor  look  at 
minerals  nor  do  anything  else  that  I  like  . .  . 
because  of  the  misery  that  I  know  of,  and  see 
signs  of  where  I  know  it  not.'  He  sets  out  to 
show  the  causes  of  the  evil  and  the  means  of 
remedying  it.  His  practical  contribution  was 
the  founding  of  the  Guild  of  St.  George  (see 
under  Ruskin,  John).  The  title  of  the  work 
is  explained  by  the  author:  'Fors  Clavigera* 
is  fortune  bearing  a  club,  a  key,  and  a  nail, 
symbolizing  the  deed  of  Hercules,  the 
patience  of  Ulysses,  and  the  law  of  Lycurgus. 

FORSTER,  EDWARD  MORGAN  (1879- 
),  author,  whose  chief  works  are: 
*  Where  Angels  Fear  to  Tread*  (1905),  'The 
Longest  Journey*  (1907),  'A  Room  with  a 
View*  (1908),  'Howards  End*  (1910),  'The 
Celestial  Omnibus*  (1911),  'A  Passage  to 
India*  (1924),  'Aspects  of  the  Novel*  (1927). 
FORSTER,  JOHN  (1812-76),  educated  at 
Newcastle  Grammar  School  and  University 
College,  London,  contributed  to  Lardner's 
'Cyclopaedia*  'Lives  of  the  Statesmen  of  the 
Commonwealth*  (1836-9),  that  of  Sir  John 
Eliot  being  issued  separately  in  an  expanded 
form  in  1864.  He  edited  the  'Foreign 
Quarterly  Review*  in  1842-3,  the  'Daily 
News*  in  1846,  and  the  'Examiner*  in  1847- 
55^.  He  was  subsequently  a  lunacy  com- 
missioner. Forster  wrote  a  number  of 
biographical  works :  'Life  and  Adventures  of 
Oliver  Goldsmith*  (1848),  'Life  of  Walter 
Savage  Landor*  (1869),  'Life  of  Charles 
Dickens*  (1872-4),  and  the  first  volume  of  a 
'Life  of  Swift*  (1876).  His  other  works  in- 
clude 'Historical  and  Biographical  Essays* 
(1858),  'The  Arrest  of  the  Five  Members* 
and  'The  Debates  on  the  Grand  Remon- 
strance' (1860). 

Forsyte  Saga,  see  Galsworthy. 

FORTESCUE,  SIR  JOHN  (i394?-i476?), 
lord  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  under 
Henry  VI,  and  the  earliest  English  constitu- 
tional lawyer.  He  was  a  Lancastrian  during 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  but  having  been  cap- 
tured at  Tewkesbury  in  1471,  was  pardoned 
and  made  a  member  of  the  council  on 
recognizing  Edward  IV  (1471).  His  principal 
works  were  a  Latin  treatise  6De  Natura  Legis 


[294] 


FORTESCUE 

Naturae*  (1461-3),  distinguishing  absolute 
from  constitutional  monarchy;  an  English 
treatise  on  the  same  subject  ('Monarchia'  or 
*The  Difference  between  an  Absolute  and  a 
Limited  Monarchy');  a  Latin  treatise,  cDe 
Laudibus  Legum  Angliae*  (1471) ;  and  an  Eng- 
lish work  'On  the  Governance  of  England'. 
His  recantation  of  his  Lancastrian  views  is 
contained  in  'A  Declaration  upon  Certain 
Wrytinges'  (1471-3). 

FORTESCUE,  HON.  SIR  JOHN  (1859- 
),  librarian  of  Windsor  Castle,  1905-26, 
author  of  a  'History  of  the  British  Army* 
(1899-1929),  and  other  works  of  military 
history. 

Forties,  THE  HUNGRY,  a  term  applied  to  a 
period  of  acute  distress  among  the  poorer 
classes  of  England,  resulting  from  a  series 
of  bad  harvests  beginning  in  1837,  coupled 
with  the  taxation  of  imported  wheat.  This 
distress  culminated  in  1842,  and  was  marked 
by  the  Chartist  and  Anti-Corn-Lawagitations, 
and  a  good  deal  of  turbulence  and  intimida- 
tion. 

Forties,  THE  ROARING,  the  exceptionally 
rough  part  of  the  Ocean  between  40°  and  50° 
of  north  latitude;  also  occasionally  applied  to 
the  part  of  the  Ocean  between  40°  and  50° 
of  south  latitude. 

Fortnightly  Review,  The,  was  founded  in 
1865,  as  the  organ  of  advanced  liberalism, 
and  edited  successively  by  G.  H.  Lewes,  John 
Morley  (1867-83),  T.  H.  S.  Escott,  Frank 
Harris,  Oswald  Crawfurd,  and  W.  Li 
Courtney.  It  was  at  first,  as  its  name  implies, 
issued  fortnightly,  but  before  long  only  once 
a  month. 

Fortunate  Isles,  THE,  in  the  belief  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  lay  west  of  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
They  are  supposed  to  be  the  Canary  Islands. 
They  are  represented  as  the  seat  of  the 
blessed,  where  the  souls  of  the  virtuous  were 
placed  after  death. 

Fortunate  Mistress,  The,  see  Roxana. 
Fortunatus's    purse,    the    subject   of   a 
European  isth-cent.  romance,  translated  into 
many  languages  and  dramatized  by  Dekker. 
For  the  story  see  Old  Fortunatus* 

Fortune,  MR.  REGINALD,  in  H.  C.  Bailey's 
detective  stories,  the  adviser  of  the  C.I.D. 
*when  surgery,  medicine,  or  kindred  sciences 
can  elucidate  what  is  or  is  not  crime*. 

Fortunes  of  Nigel,  The,  a  novel  by  Sir  W. 
Scott  (q.v.),  published  in  1822. 

The  young  Nigel  Oliphaunt,  Lord  Glen- 
varloch,  threatened  with  the  loss  of  his  an- 
cestral estate  if  he  is  unable  promptly  to 
redeem  a  heavy  mortgage,  comes  to  London 
to  endeavour  to  recover  from  James  I  a  sum 
of  40,000  marks  advanced  to  the  latter  at  a 
crisis  in  his  fortunes  by  Nigel's  father.  The 
kingis  induced  to  sign  an  order  on  the  Scottish 
treasury  for  the  amount  in  favour  of  Nigel. 
But  the  estate  is  coveted  by  Prince  Charles 


FOUL  PLAY 

and  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  and  Nigel 
finds  great  difficulties  opposed  to  his  recovery 
of  the  money.  Lord  Dalgarno,  the  favourite 
of  Charles  and  Buckingham,  a  dissembling 
villain,  lures  Nigel  into  evil  ways,  keeps  him 
from  the  court,  and  spreads  false  rumours 
about  him.  Nigel,  discovering  his  treachery, 
challenges  him  in  St.  James's  Park,  and 
strikes  him,  an  offence  for  which  he  is  liable 
to  lose  his  right  hand.  He  takes  sanctuary  in 
Alsatia  (q.v.),  the  strange  and  lawless  society 
of  which  is  vividly  described.  He  is  subse- 
quently imprisoned  in  the  Tower.  Meanwhile 
Margaret  Ramsay,  the  pretty,  petulant 
daughter  of  an  old  clockmaker  in  the  City,  has 
fallen  deeply  in  love  with  Nigel.  She  takes 
secret  steps  to  effect  his  rescue,  and  more- 
over, in  the  disguise  of  a  page,  seeks  an  inter- 
view with  James  himself,  to  advance  the  cause 
of  the  man  she  loves  and  at  the  same  time  to 
secure  reparation  for  her  patroness,  Lady 
Hermione,  who  has  been  grievously  wronged 
by  her  husband  Lord  Dalgarno.  She  is  suc- 
cessful in  her  endeavours.  Nigel  is  released, 
and,  touched  by  the  devotion  of  Margaret, 
marries  her.  He  recovers  his  estate,  and  Lord 
Dalgarno  is  killed  by  robbers  as  he  proceeds 
to  Scotland  in  a  last  attempt  to  seize  the 
property. 

The  novel  contains  a  number  of  interesting 
characters,  including  the  pedantic  freakish 
James  I;  Richard  Moniplies,  Nigel's  con- 
ceited servant;  Dame  Ursula  Suddlechop, 
milliner  and  secret  agent;  the  miser  Trapbois 
and  his  austere  daughter;  the  rattling  Tem- 
plar, Lowestoffe;  and  the  treacherous  em- 
bittered courtier,  Sir  Mungo  Malagrowther. 

Forty  Thieves,  THE,  see  All  Baba. 
Forty  Years  On,  one  of  the  school  songs  of 
Harrow,  by  E.  E.  Bowen. 
Forty-five,  THE,  the  year  1745,  and  the 
Jacobite  rebellion  in  that  year. 
Forty-niner,  in  the  U.S.,  one  of  those  who 
crossed  the  American  continent  to  settle  in 
California  during  the  gold-fever,  c.  1849. 
Foscari,  The  Two,  see  Two  Foscari. 
Fosco,  COUNT,  a  character  in  Wilkie  Collins  *s 
'Woman  in  White*  (q.v.). 
Fosse  Way,  THE,  a  Roman  road  running 
across  England  from  Bath  to  Lincoln.    It 
intersects  Watling  Street  at  High  Cross,  some- 
times called  the  centre  of  England. 
Foster,  ANTHONY,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Kenilworth'  (q.v.). 

Fotheringay,  Miss,  the  stage  name  of  Emily 
Costigan,  a  character  in  Thackeray's  'Pen- 
dennis*  (q.v.). 

Foul  Play,  a  novel  by  Reade  (q.v.),  published 
in  1869. 

The  story  turns  on  the  scuttling  in  the 
Pacific  of  a  ship,  supposed  to  be  carrying  a 
large  consignment  of  gold,  by  the  design  of  the 
owner,  Arthur  Wardlaw,  in  order  to  defraud 
the  underwriters.  Unfortunately,  Arthur's 


[295] 


FOULIS 

sweetheart,  Helen  Rolleston,  is  on  board,  and 
also  Robert  Penfold,  who  has  been  trans- 
ported for  a  forgery  committed  by  Arthur. 
The  two  are  thrown  together  on  a  Pacific 
island,  and  the  story,  a  good  example  of 
Reade's  narrative  power,  ends  in  the 
exposure  of  the  villain  and  the  marriage  of 
Robert  and  Helen. 

Foulis,  ROBERT  (1707-76),  originally  named 
Faulls  and  a  barber's  apprentice  at  Glasgow. 
With  his  brother  Andrew  he  visited  Oxford 
and  France  in  1738-40  collecting  rare  books, 
and  started  as  bookseller  and  printer  at  Glas- 
gow. He  printed  for  the  university  their  first 
Greek  book  (1743)  and  the  'immaculate' 
Horace  (1744).  He  issued  a  number  of  other 
remarkable  books,  the  fine  folio  f  Iliad '  of 
1756,  'Odyssey'  (1758),  the  Olivet  Cicero 
(1749),  the  small  folio  Callimachus  (i755)> 
the  quarto  edition  of  Gray  (1768),  and  'Para- 
dise Lost*  (1770).  (See  James  MacLehose, 
'The  Glasgow  University  Press',  1931.) 

Fountain  of  Youth,  fan taine  dejouvence,  in 
the  'Roman  d'Alisandre*  (see  under  Alex- 
ander the  Great))  a  magic  fountain  (a  side- 
stream  of  the  Euphrates)  in  which  Alexander 
and  his  army  bathe,  and  are  thereby  restored 
to  the  prime  of  life. 

The  belief  in  a  fountain  possessing  this 
magical  property  was  widespread  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  After  the  discovery  of  America 
it  was  supposed  to  be  situated  in  the  Bahamas, 
and  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon  (a  companion  of 
Columbus  in  1493  and  the  discoverer  of 
Florida)  received  in  1512  authority  to  discover 
and  settle  JBimini,  a  mythical  island,  in  which 
the  Fountain  of  Youth  was  supposed  to  be. 

FOUQU&,  FRIEDRICH,  BARON  DE  LA 
MQTTE,  see  Undine* 

Four  Georges,  The,  a  series  of  lectures  on 
Kings  George  I-IV  and  their  times,  delivered 
by  Thackeray  (q.v.)  in  the  United  States  and 
London  in  1855-6.  They  were  printed  in  the 
'Comhill  Magazine*,  1860. 

Four  Horsemen  of  the  Apocalypse,  The,  a 
novel  by  B.  Ibanez  (q.v.) ;  it  was  the  basis  of 
one  of  the  earliest  spectacular  films. 

Four  Just  Men,  a  well-known  novel  by 
Edgar  Wallace  (q.v.).  The  Four  Just  Men 
undertake  a  crusade  for  the  destruction  of 
noxious  members  of  society. 

FourP's,  The,  see  Interludes. 
Four  Sons  ofAymon,  see  Aymon. 
Four  Zoos,  The,  see  Blake. 

Fourier-ism,  a  communistic  system  for  the 
reorganization  of  society  devised  by  Charles 
Fourier  (1772-1837)  of  Besancon,  a  French 
author.  Under  it  the  population  was  to  be 
grouped  in  phalansteries,  or  socialistic  groups 
of  about  i, 800  persons,  who  would  live  to- 
gether as  one  family  and  hold  property  in 
common. 

Fourteenth  of  July,  see  Bastille. 


FOX 

Fourth  Estate,  THE,  the  Press.  The  use  of 
the  expression  in  this  sense  is  attributed  by 
Carlyle  to  Burke,  but  not  traced  in  his 
speeches.  A  correspondent  of  *N.  and  Q.' 
(ist  Series,  ix.  452)  attributes  it  to  Brougham. 
Fourth  of  June,  an  Eton  College  celebration. 
Fourth  of  July,  *  Independence  Day*,  a 
national  holiday  in  the  United  States,  being 
tire  anniversary  of  the  day  on  which,  in  1776, 
was  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
by  which  the  original  thirteen  States  of  the 
union  broke  their  allegiance  to  the  British 
crown. 

FOWLER,  H.  W.  and^F.  G.,  lexicographers 
and  grammarians;  joint  authors  of  'The 
King's  English*  (1906),  'The  Concise  Oxford 
Dictionary*  (1911),  and  'The  Pocket  Oxford 
Dictionary*  (1924).  *A  Dictionary  of  Modern 
English  Usage*  (1926)  is  the  work  of  H.  W. 
Fowler.  F,  G.  Fowler  died  in  1918. 

FOWLER,  KATHERINE,  see  Philips  (K.). 

Fox,  CHARLES  JAMES  (1749-1 806),  third  son  of 
the  first  Lord  Holland  and  'our  first  great  states- 
man of  the  modern  school*  (Sir  G.  Trevelyan), 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Hertford  College, 
Oxford.  He  became  M.P.  for  Midhurst  in 
1768,  making  his  mark  by  his  speeches  against 
Wilkes  in  1769,  and  was  a  lord  of  the  Admir- 
alty under  Lord  North  in  1770;  but  his  in- 
dependent attitude  brought  him  into  disfavour 
with  the  king,  and  he  was  dismissed  from  the 
ministry  in  1774.  Fox  took  a  leading  part  in 
opposition  to  North's  American  policy,  in 
debates  on  economical  reform,  and  in  sup- 
port of  Roman  Catholic  relief.  In  spite  of  great 
pecuniary  distress  he  refused  to  be  bribed  by 
the  emoluments  of  office  and  continued  his 
attacks  on  the  government.  In  1782  he  was 
appointed  foreign  secretary  in  Lord  Rocking- 
ham's  ministry,  but  was  thwarted  by  Shel- 
burne  and  resigned  when  the  latter  became 
premier.  In  1783  he  formed  a  coalition  with 
North,  becoming  joint-secretary  of  state  with 
him  under  the  duke  of  Portland,  but  was  dis- 
missed in  the  same  year.  He  was  one  of  the 
managers  of  the  proceedings  against  Warren 
Hastings,  and  opened  the  Benares  charge  in 
a  speech  of  nearly  five  hours.  Fox  was  a  con- 
stant opponent  of  the  policy  of  Pitt  (during  the 
first  long  ministry  of  the  latter),  on  the  com- 
mercial treaties  with  Ireland  and  France,  on 
the  Eastern  question,  the  French  Revolution, 
&c.,  and  made  a  three  hours'  speech  in  favour 
of  peace  in  1803.  But  when  Napoleon  ob- 
viously threatened  invasion  and  stood  forth 
as  a  conqueror  unabashed,  Fox  saw  how 
dangerous  the  situation  was;  he  became  a 
patriot  and  was  willing  to  serve  with  Pitt  in 
the  1804  Ministry,  but  the  prejudice  of 
George  III  excluded  him.  After  Trafalgar 
he  held  that  the  danger  was  over,  and  was 
willing  to  receive  (as  foreign  secretary  under 
Grenville)  overtures  from  France.  But  he 
soon  found  out  Napoleon's  duplicity,  and 
his  last  act  was  to  knit  up  close  relations  with 
Russia  against  France.  Fox  was  a  man  of 


FOX 

great  personal  ^  charm,  noted  for  his  love  of 
letters  and  his  scholarship;  also  for  his 
passion  for  gambling  and  for  the  bad  influence 
he  exercised  over  the  Prince  of  Wales. 

For  the  'Early  History  of  Charles  James 
Fox*  see  under  Trevelyan  (Sir  George). 

FOX,  GEORGE  (1624-91),  son  of  a 
Leicestershire  weaver,  and  founder  of  the 
Society  of  Friends  (q.v.).  His  'Journal', 
revised  by  a  committee  under  William  Perm's 
superintendence  and  published  in  1694,  is  a 
narrative,  in  simple  and  direct  style,  of  his 
spiritual  experiences  and  of  the  troubles  to 
which  he  and  his  followers  were  exposed  by 
the  persecution  of  the  authorities.  A  'Col- 
lection of  ...  Epistles*  was  issued  in  1698 
and  his  'Gospel  Truth'  in  1706. 

FOX,  JOHN,  Jr.  (1862-1919),  American 
novelist,  whose  best  work  deals  with  the  life 
of  the  Kentucky  mountain  folk  among  whom 
he  was  bred.  His  chief  novels  are:  'The 
Little  Shepherd  of  Kingdom  Come'  (1903), 
and  'The  Trail  of  the  Lonesome  Pine'  (1908). 

FOXE,  JOHN  (1516-87),  the  martyrologist, 
was  born  at  Boston,  Lincolnshire,  and  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  became  a 
fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  but  resigned  his 
fellowship  in  1545,  being  unwilling  to  con- 
form to  the  statutes  in  religious  matters.  In 

1554  he  retired  to  the  Continent,  and  issued 
at  Strasburg  his  'Commentarii'  (the  earliest 
draft  of  his  'Actes  and  Monuments').   From 

1555  to  1559  he  was  employed  at  Basle  as 
reader  of  the  press  by  Oporinus  (Herbst), 
who  published  Foxe's  'Christus  Triumphans* 
in  1556,  his  appeal  to  the  English  nobility  on 
toleration  in  1557,  and  the  first  issue  of  his 
'Rerum  in  ecclesia  gestarum  .    .   .    Com- 
mentarii* in  1559.  On  his  return  to  England 
he  was  ordained  priest  by  Grindal  in  1560, 
and  in  1564  joined  John  Day,  the  printer, 
who  in  1563  had  issued  the  English  version  of 
the  *Rerum  in  ecclesia  gestarum  .  *  .  Com- 
mentarii' as  'Actes  and  Monuments*  (q.v.), 
popularly  known  as  the  'Book  of  Martyrs'. 
He  became  a  canon  of  Salisbury  in  1563,  but 
objected  to  the  use  of  the  surplice  and  to 
contributing  to  the  repairs  of  the  cathedral. 
He  preached  at  Paul's  Cross  a  famous  sermon 
'On  Christ  Crucified*  in  1570.    His  'Refor- 
matio  Legum*  appeared  in  1571.     He  was 
buried  in  St.  Giles's  Church,  Cripplegate. 
Four  editions  of  the  'Actes  and  Monuments' 
(1563,  1570,  1576,  and  1583)  appeared  in  the 
author's  lifetime;  of  the  posthumous  issues, 
that  of  1641   contains  a  memoir  of  Foxe, 
attributed    to    his    son,    but    of    doubtful 
authenticity. 

Fra  Angelico,  the  name  by  which  Guido  di 
Pietro  of  Fiesole  (1387-1455)  is  usually 
known,  a  monk  of  the  order  of  the  Predicants, 
and  a  celebrated  Italian  painter  of  religious 
subjects. 

Fra  Diavolo  ('Brother  Devil'),  the  popular 
name  of  an  Italian  brigand,  Michele  Pezza 
(1771-1806),  who  was  connected  with  the 


FRAMLEY  PARSONAGE 

political  movements  in  southern  Italy  for  the 
recovery  of  Naples  from  the  French  at  the 
beginning  of  the  i9th  cent.  He  was  leader  of 
a  troop  of  guerrillas,  and  was  arrested  and  shot. 
He  is  the  subject  of  the  famous  opera  by 
Auber  which  bears  his  name. 

Fra  Lippo  Lippi,  2.  poem  by  R.  Browning 
(q.v.),  included  in  'Men  and  Women', 
published  in  1855. 

The  painter  monk  (he  lived  in  fact 
!4i2?-69),  who  has  broken  out  of  Cosimo 
dei  Medici's  house  on  a  night  frolic, 
with  much  humour  narrates  his  life:  his 
entry  as  a  half-starved  child  into  a  Carmelite 
convent,  where  his  talent  for  painting  led  to 
his  employment  to  embellish  the  church;  the 
different  views  on  art  of  the  prior  and  him- 
self; and  his  present  mode  of  life,  painting 
under  the  influence  of  the  prior's  doctrine, 
but  breaking  bounds  at  times. 

Fra  Rupert,  see  Andrea  of  Hungary. 

Fradubio,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
I.  ii.  32  et  seq.,  'the  doubter',  the  lover  of 
Fraelissa;  he  doubts  whether  her  beauty  is 
equal  to  that  of  Duessa.  Duessa  transforms 
Fraelissa  into  a  tree,  obtains  Fradubio 's  love, 
and  when  he  discovers  her  deformity,  turns 
him  also  into  a  tree. 

Frail,  MRS.,  a  character  in  Congreve's  'Love 
for  Love'  (q.v.). 

Fram,  The,  the  specially  constructed 
steamer  in  which  Nansen  (q.v.)  attempted 
to  reach  the  North  Pole  in  1893-6. 

Framley  Parsonage,  a  novel  by  A.  Trollope 
(q.v.),  published  in  1861. 

This  was  the  fourth  of  the  Barsetshire 
series.  Mark  Robarts,  a  young  clergyman, 
the  close  friend  of  Lord  Lufton,  is  appointed 
to  the  living  of  Framley  by  the  widowed  Lady 
Lufton,  the  latter's  mother.  He  is  brought 
by  Lord  Lufton  into  relations  with  Mr. 
Sowerby,  an  unscrupulous  spendthrift,  and 
the  disreputable  duke  of  Omnium,  weakly 
consents  to  back  bills  for  Mr.  Sowerby, 
obtains  by  their  influence  a  prebendal  stall 
at  Barchester,  and  generally  conducts  himself 
so  as  to  incur  the  disapproval  of  his  patroness, 
Lady  Lufton.  Meanwhile  Lord  Lufton  falls 
in  love  with  Robarts's  sister  Lucy,  a  young 
lady  of  insignificant  appearance  but  endowed 
with  much  character  and  vivacity.  Lady 
Lufton  vigorously  opposes  the  match,  and 
Lucy  tells  her  lover  she  will  not  marry  him 
unless  asked  to  do  so  by  his  mother.  His 
pertinacity  and  Lucy's  self-sacrificing  charac- 
ter finally  win  over  Lady  Lufton,  and  she 
complies  with  Lucy's  condition.  Meanwhile 
Robarts  is  rescued  from  his  grave  embarrass- 
ments by  Lord  Lufton,  and  having  learnt  his 
lesson,  forswears  his  dangerous  courses. 
Sowerby,  whose  estates  are  heavily  mort- 
gaged to  the  duke  of  Omnium,  endeavours  to 
escape  from  ruin  by  proposing  to  the  rich 
Miss  Dunstable,  who  refuses  him  and 
marries  Dr.  Thome  (q.v.).  Bishop  and 
Mrs.  Proudie  again  appear,  and  also  Arch- 


[297] 


FRANCE 

deacon  and  Mrs.  Grantly,  whose  beautiful 
daughter  Griselda  is  married  to  Lord  Dum- 
bello,  the  heir  of  the  marquis  of  Hartletop. 
The  Rev.  Josiah  Crawley,  the  hero  of  the 
'Last  Chronicle  of  Barset'  (q.v.),  makes  his 
first  appearance. 

FRANCE,  ANATOLE,  the  pseudonym  of 
JACQUES  ANATOLE  THIBAULT  (1844-1924), 
French  man  o£  letters,  the  son  of  a  book- 
seller. His  first  book  of  stories  <J°caste  et 
Ie  Chat  maigre*  appeared  in  1879,  followed 
in  1 88 1  by  *Le  Crime  de  Sylyestre  Bonnard', 
which  established  his  reputation  as  a  novelist. 
He  thereafter  produced  a  long  series  of  witty, 
graceful s  and  satirical  tales,  of  which  the  best 
known  are  the  following:  'Le  Livre  de  Mon 
Ami*  (1885);  'Thais'  (an  historical  novel 
of  which  Alexandria  in  the  first  century 
is  the  scene,  1890);  'L'fitui  de  Nacre'  (1892); 
cLes  Opinions  de  Jer6me  Coignard*  (1893); 
*La  Rotisserie  de  la  Reine  P<§dauque'  (1893); 
*Sur  la  Pierre  Blanche*  (containing  the  story 
of  Gallic,  1905);  the  four  political  satires 
with  the  figure  of  M.  Bergeret  as  the  centre, 
'L'Orme  du  Mail*  (1897),  *Le  Mannequin 
d'Osier"  (1897),  'L'Anneau  d'Amdthyste* 
(1899),  *M.  Bergeret  k  Paris*  (1901);  'Crain- 
quebille  (1904);  'L'lle  des  Pingouins9  (1908); 
cLa  R6volte  des  Anges*  (1914);  '!«  Petit 
Pierre*  (1918). 

France,  ILE  DE,  (i)  a  region  of  old  France 
comprising  the  modern  departments  of  Aisne, 
Oise,  Seine,  Seine-et-Oise,  Seine-et-Marne, 
and  part  of  Somme,  with  Paris  as  its  capital, 
which  was  constituted  a  province  in  the 
1 5th  cent.;  (2)  the  name  given  by  the  French 
to  the  island  of  Mauritius,  when  they 
occupied  it  in  1 71 5.  The  island  was  taken  by 
the  English  in  1810,  and  the  old  name 
Mauritius,  given  to  it  by  its  discoverers,  the 
Dutch,  in  honour  of  their  stadtholder  Prince 
Maurice,  was  restored. 
Franeesca  da  Rimini,  see  Paolo  and  Fran- 
cesca. 

Francesdbtini,  COUNT  GUIDO,  a  character 
ia  Browning's  "Hie  Ring  and  the  Book* 
(q.v.). 

Francis,  SIR  PHILIP  (1740-1818),  the  son 
of  the  Philip   Francis  who  was   Gibbon's 
schoolmaster  at  Esher  and  tutor  of  Charles 
James  Fox,  was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  School 
with  Woodfall,  subsequently  the  publisher 
of  the  letters  of  Junius.   He  became  a  junior 
clerk  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  in 
1756,  and  clerk  or  amanuensis  to  General 
Edward  BHgh,  Lord  Kinnoul,  and  the  elder 
Pitt.  From  1763  to  1772  he  was  a  clerk  in  the 
War  Office,  but  retired  owing  to  some  dis- 
agreement with  Lord  Barrington,  secretary  at 
war.    On  the  latter's  recommendation,  how- 
ever^ he   became   one   of  the   four  newly 
appointed  councillors  of  the  governor-general 
of   India    in  1774.     He   opposed    Warren 
Hastings,  charging  him  with  corruption  in  the 
case  of  Nuncomar,  and  was  wounded  in  a  duel 
with  him.   He  left  India  in  1780,  became  a 


FRANKENSTEIN 

member  of  parliament,  and  assisted^  Burke  to 
prepare  the  charges  against  Hastings.  He 
quarrelled  with  Fox  for  refusing  to  appoint 
him  viceroy.  He  was  intimate  with  the  Prince 
Regent  and  was  created  a  K..C.B. 

There  is  strong  evidence,  but  falling 
short  of  certainty,  for  identifying  Francis 
with  the  author  of  the  letters  of  'Junius* 
(q.v.).  It  rests  upon  the  acquaintance  of 
Junius'  with  the  affairs  of  the  secretary  of 
state's  office  and  the  war  office,  his  displeasure 
at  the  removal  of  Francis  from  the  latter, 
coincidence  between  the  silences  of  Junius 
and  the  absences  from  London  of  Francis, 
private  letters  to  Woodfali  the  publisher, 
expert  evidence  on  handwriting,  and  moral 
resemblance.  Against  the  identification  are 
adduced  the  denial  of  Woodfall,  and  the 
malignity  of  'Junius'  towards  some  of 
Francis's  friends  and  benefactors. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  ST., GIOVANNI  FRANCESCO 
BERNARDONE  (n8i?-i226),  experienced _as  a 
young  man  a  spiritual  crisis  while  on  a  military 
expedition,  in  consequence  of  which  he  lived 
for  a  time  in  solitude  and  prayer  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  relief  of  the  poor,  the  sick,  and 
the  lepers.  He  was  joined  by  disciples,  the  first 
of  the  Franciscan  order,  for  whom  he  drew  up 
the  rule.  He  preached  in  Italy,  and  went  to 
the  Holy  Land  and  Spain.  The  special  note 
of  his  teaching  was  joyousness  and  love^  of 
nature  (St.  Francis  preaching  to  the  birds  is  a 
favourite  subject  in  art).  Two  years  before 
his  death,  after  a  period  of  fasting  on  Mt. 
Alverno,  he  is  said  to  have  discovered  on  his 
body  the  marks  of  Christ's  crucifixion  (the 
stigmata). 

The  'Fioretti  di  San  Francisco*  ('Little 
Flowers  of  St.  Francis')  is  a  i4th-cent.  ^Italian 
narrative,  partly  legendary,  of  the  doings  of 
St.  Francis  and  his  first  disciples. 

Franciscans,  an  order  of  friars  founded  by 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi  (q.v.)  about  1209.  Their 
rules  require  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedi- 
ence, and  special  stress  is  laid  on  preaching 
and  ministry  to  the  sick.  They  came  to  Eng- 
land about  1220,  where  they  were  known  as 
Minors,  Minorites,  or  Greyfriars  (from_the 
colour  of  their  dress).  See  also  Cordeliers, 
Observants,  Capuchins,  Recollects. 

Frank  Fahleigh,  a  novel  by  Smedley  (q.v.). 

Frankenstein,  or  the  Modem  Prometheus*  a 
tale  of  terror  by  Mary  W.  Shelley  (q.v.) 
published  in  1818.  The  preface  records  the 
circumstances  under  which  the  work  was  pro- 
duced. Byron  and  the  Shelleys  spent  part  of 
a  wet  summer  in  Switzerland  in  reading 
and  writing  ghost  stories.  'Frankenstein', 
developed  into  a  long  story  at  her  husband's 
suggestion,  was  Mrs.  Shelley's  contribution. 
t  Frankenstein,  a  Genevan  student  of 
natural  philosophy,  learns  the  secret  of  im- 
parting life  to  inanimate  matter.  Collecting 
bones  from  the  charnel-houses  he  constructs 
the  semblance  of  a  human  being  and  gives  it 
Hfe,  The  creature,  endowed  with  super- 


[2983 


FRANKIE  AND  JOHNNY 

natural  size  and  strength,  but  revolting  in 
appearance,  inspires  loathing  in  whoever  sees 
it.  Lonely  and  miserable,  it  is  filled  with 
hatred  for  its  creator,  and  murders  Franken- 
stein's brother  and  his  bride.  Frankenstein 
pursues  it  to  the  Arctic  regions  to  destroy  it, 
but  is  himself  murdered  by  the  monster, 
which  then  disappears. 

Frankie  and  Johnny,  or  FRANKIE  AND 
ALBERT,  the  most  popular  specimen  of 
modern  American  balladry.  It  is  of  Negro 
origin  and  is  known  to  exist  in  more  than 
two  hundred  variants.  The  refrain  is  of  the 
type: 

He  was  her  man,  but  he  done  her  wrong. 
Frankie  revenged  the  wrong  by  shooting 
her  lover. 

FRANKLIN,  BENJAMIN  (1706-90),  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  the  son  of  a  tallow-chandler 
and  largely  self-educated,  was  apprenticed 
when  twelve  to  his  brother,  a  printer,  and  when 
seventeen  managed  for  a  time  the  'New  Eng- 
land Courant*  newspaper.  He  subsequently 
acquired  the  'Pennsylvania  Gazette*,  ob- 
tained official  appointments,  and  was  sent  on 
a  political  mission  to  England  in  1757.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  his  long  diplomatic 
career  in  Europe  as  the  agent  of  the  American 
colonies,  in  the  course  of  which  he  at  first  strove 
to  avert  the  breach  between  them  and  Great 
Britain,  but  afterwards  negotiated  the  alliance 
between  them  and  France,  and  finally  ap- 
peared as  one  of  the  signatories  to  the  treaty 
of  peace  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain. 

He  wrote  voluminously,  on  political, 
economic,  and  scientific  subjects  (he  was  an 
experimenter  and  inventor).  He  was  a  man 
of  cool  calculating  reason  and  broad  human- 
ity in  politics,  rather  than  of  high  moral 
principle.  Several  editions  of  his  collected 
works  have  appeared  (the  edition  of  A.  H. 
Smyth,  New  York,  1905,  is  the  latest). 
Among  his  writings  mention  may  be  made  of 
his  ironical  'Edict  by  the  King  of  Prussia*  and 
'Rules  by  which  a  Great  Empire  may  be 
reduced  to  a  Small  One',  which  appeared  in 
the  'Gentleman's  Magazine*  in  1773;  and  of 
his  'Autobiography*  (published  in  English  in 
1818,  a  French  translation  of  part  of  it  having 
already  appeared).  See  also  Poor  Richard's 
Almanac. 

FRANKLIN,  SIR  JOHN  (1786-1847), 
Arctic  explorer,  was  author  of  two  remarkable 
'Narratives*  of  voyages  to  the  Polar  Sea,  pub- 
lished in  1823  and  1828.  Franklin  started  on 
his  last  voyage  of  discovery,  with  the  'Erebus* 
and  'Terror',  in  1845,  and  never  returned. 
Numerous  expeditions  to  search  for  his  ships 
were  organized,  and  Sir  Leopold  McClin- 
tock's  'Fox*  finally  solved  the  problem  (so 
far  as  it  could  be  solved)  and  proved  that 
Franklin  had  in  fact  discovered  the  *N.W. 
Passage*,  but  that  no  use  could  be  made  of  it. 

Franklin's  Tale,  The>  see  Canterbury  Tales. 


FREDERICK  THE  GREAT 

PHASER,  ALEXANDER  CAMPBELL 
(1819-1914),  a  pupil  of  Sir  William  Hamilton 
(q.v.)  at  Edinburgh  University,  succeeded 
him  as  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in 
1856,  a  position  that  he  held  until  1891,  His 
first  book,  'Essays  in  Philosophy*  (reprints  of 
contributions  to  the  'North  British  Review') 
appeared  in  1856.  He  is  remembered  chiefly 
as  the  editor  of  the  standard  edition  of 
Berkeley  (1871)  and  of  Locke's  Essay  (1894), 
and  as  the  author  of  monographs  on  these  two 
philosophers.  Holding  a  middle  position 
between  agnosticism  and  Hegelian  idealism, 
he  insisted  on  the  element  of  faith  which  must 
lie  at  the  basis  of  all  our  conclusions,  and  this 
is  the  standpoint  of  his  GifTord  lectures  on 
'The  Philosophy  of  Theism*  (1895-6).  In 
1898  he  published  a  monograph  on  Thomas 
Reid  (q.v.),  and  in  1904  'Biographia  Philo- 
spphica*,  an  interesting  retrospect  of  a  long 
life  and  a  restatement  of  his  philosophical 
conclusions. 

Fraser's  Magazine,  founded  in  1830  by 
Maginn  (q.v.)  and  Hugh  Fraser.  Among  the 
notable  early  contributors  to  it  were  Carlyle, 
Locldiart,  Theodore  Hook,  Hogg,  Coleridge, 
Harrison  Ainsworth,  Thackeray,  Southey, 
and  Barry  Cornwall.  It  was  taken  over  by 
Longmans  in  1863,  and  ceased  to  appear  in 
1882.  It  was  edited  by  J.  A.  Froude  (q.v.), 
1860-74,  and  by  W.  Allingham,  1874-9. 

Fraternitye  of  Vacabones,  a  tract  by  John 
Awdeley  (fl.  1559-77),  published  in  1561,  in 
two  parts,  the  first  dealing  with  thieves'  cant 
and  the  devices  of  beggars  to  excite  com- 
passion; the  second  with  the  methods 
employed  by  well-dressed  impostors, 

Fraunces'  Tavern,  New  York,  the  meeting- 
place  of  the  committee  which  issued  the  call 
for  a  congress  of  the  Colonies  in  1774.  It 
was  also  the  scene  of  Washington's  farewell 
to  his  officers  in  1783.  The  tavern  still  stands, 
only  the  ground  floor  being  now  used  as  a 
restaurant. 

FRAZER,  SIR  JAMES  GEORGE  (1854- 
),  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
held  tie  chair  of  social  anthropology  at  Liver- 
pool, 1907-22.  His  publications  include: 
'Totemism*  (1887),  'The  Golden  Bough' 
(q.v.),  of  which  the  first  volume  appeared  in 
1890  and  the  twelfth  and  last  in  1915;  a 
translation  with  commentary  of  Pausanias's 
'Description  of  Greece*  (1898),  Tausanias  and 
other  Greek  Sketches'  (1900),  'Letters  of 
William  Cowper*  (1912),  and  a  large  number 
of  other  works  on  anthropology  and  folk- 
lore. His  'Fasti  of  Ovid*  (with  translation 
and  commentary)  appeared  in  1929. 

Frea,  see  Freyja. 

Frederick,  the  usurping  duke  in  Shake- 
speare's 'As  You  Like  It*  (q.v.). 
Frederick  Barbarossa,  see  Barbarossa. 

Frederick  the  Great,  Friedrich  II  of 
Prussia  (1712-86),  son  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm  I 
and  Sophia  Dorothea,  daughter  of  George  I 


[299] 


FREEMAN 

of  England,  ascended  the  throne  in  1740.  He 
engaged  in  prolonged  wars  with  Austria, 
the  dominions  of  which  had  passed  to 
Maria  Theresa  by  virtue  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction;  and  was  supported  by  England, 
mainly  through  subsidies,  in  the  Seven  Years 
War  (q.v.,  1756).  By  his  military  talent  he 
raised  Prussia  to  the  position  of  a  powerful 
state,  while  his  intellectual  interests  were 
shown  by  his  long  intimacy  with  Voltaire 
(q.v.).  See  also  Carlyle  (T.). 
Freeman,  MRS.,  the  name  under  which  the 
duchess  of  Marlborough  corresponded  with 
Queen  Anne.  The  latter  called  herself  Mrs. 
Morley. 

FREEMAN,  EDWARD  AUGUSTUS 
(1823-92),  scholar  and  probationary  fellow  of 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and  Regius  pro- 
fessor of  modern  history  at  Oxford  _  from 
1884  to  1892,  was  a  regular  contributor 
to  the  *  Saturday  Review*  and  Bother 
periodicals,  and  an  historian  of  eminence 
(particularly  in  regard  to  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  of  English  history).  His 
principal  work  was  the  'History  of  the 
Norman  Conquest*  (1867-79),  in  which  he 
maintained  the  general  position  that  the 
Norman  Conquest  produced  no  fundamental 
change  either  in  the  character  of  the  popula- 
tion of  England  or  in  the  Germanic  type  of 
the  country's  institutions.  Freeman  also 
wrote  the  'History  and  Conquests  of  the 
Saracens*  (1856),  'Growth  of  the  English 
Constitution*  (1872),  'Historical  Geography 
of  Europe*  (1881-2),  'The  Reign  of  William 
Rufus  and  the  Accession  of  Henry  I*  (1882), 
'Methods  of  Historical  Study*  (1886),  'Chief 
Periods  of  European  History1  (1886),  a 
'History  of  Sicily  to  300  B.C.'  (1891-4),  and 
the  first  volume  of  a  'History  of  Federal 
Government'  (1863).  This  volume,  part  of  a 
much  larger  scheme,  dealt  with  the  history  of 
federalism  in  ancient  Greece.  Freeman,^ 
most  voluminous  writer,  also  published,  in 
collaboration  with  G.  W.  Cox,  'Poems, 
Legendary  and  Historical'  in  1 850,  and  was  the 
author  of  numerous  historical  and  archi- 
tectural essays  (of  which  four  series  were 
published  in  1871—92),  lectures,  and  sketches 
of  travel.  In  his  historical  works  Freeman 
relied  wholly  on  printed  chronicles  and  knew 
nothing  of  manuscripts.  Many  of  his  con- 
clusions have  in  consequence  been  upset. 
FREEMAN,  MARY  E.  WILKINS  (1862- 
1930),  American  author,  born  at  Randolph, 
Massachusetts,  distinguished  for  her  realistic 
stories  of  New  England  life.  Her  best-known 
books  are:  eA  Humble  Romance  and  Other 
Stories*  (1887),  and  *A  New  England  Nun 
and  Other  Stories*  (1891). 
Freemason,  originally  a  member  of  a  certain 
class  of  skilled  workers  in  stone  who  travelled 
from  place  to  place,  finding  employment 
wherever  important  buildings  were  being 
erected,  and  had  a  system  of  secret  signs  and 
passwords  by  which  they  could  be  recognized. 
The  term  first  occurs  in  the  I4th  cent.  Early 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION 

in  the  i7th  cent,  the  societies  of  freemasons 
began  to  admit  honorary  members,  known  as 
ACCEPTED  MASONS,  who  were  admitted  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  secret  signs  and  instructed 
in  the  legendary  history  of  the  craft.  In  1717, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  physicist,  J.  T. 
DesaguHers,  four  of  these  societies  or  'lodges' 
in  London  united  to  form  a  'grand  lodge', 
whose  object  was  mutual  help  and  the  pro- 
motion of  brotherly  feeling  among  its  mem- 
bers. The  London  'grand  lodge*  became  the 
parent  of  other  lodges  in  Great  Britain  and 
abroad,  and  there  are  now  powerful  bodies  of 
freemasons,  more  or  less  recognizing  each 
other,  in  most  countries  of  the  world.  [OED.] 

MASON'S  MARKS,  usually  called  'Banker 
Marks' — the  marks  cut  upon  the  various 
dressed  stones  of  a  masonry  building  to 
identify  the  stone-cutter  who  prepared  the 
stone,  so  called  from  the  'Banker*  or  stone 
bench  at  which  the  stone-cutter  works. 
Nearly  universal  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the 
1 6th  cent.,  when  others  besides  working 
masons  were  admitted  to  the  lodges  of  the 
masonic  guilds,  they  too  received  identifying 
banker  marks,  which  were  preserved  in  the 
register  of  the  lodge.  The  custom  is  now 
obsolete. 

Freiscinitz,  DER,  in  German  folk-lore,  a 
man  who  has  made  a  compact  with  the  Devil 
by  which  he  gains  possession  of  a  number  of 
bullets  which  unerringly  hit  whatever  they 
are  aimed  at.  But  the  Devil  retains  control  of 
one  of  them.  The  legend  is  the  subject  of 
Weber's  opera  of  this  name  (1821). 
French,  INSPECTOR,  the  detective  in  Free- 
man Wills  Croft*s  detective  stories,  a  member 
oftheCJ.D. 

French  Revolution,  THE,  is  generally  re- 
garded as  beginning  with  the  meeting  of  the 
States  General  in  May  1789.  The  Bastille 
was  stormed  on  14  July  1789,  and  the  royal 
family  was  removed  from  Versailles  to  Paris 
in  October  of  the  same  year.  The  king's 
attempted  flight  from  Paris  took  place  in 
June  1791.  The  Legislative  Assembly  sat 
from  October  1791  to  September  1792,  when, 
under  the  menace  of  the  allied  advance,  it 
was  replaced  by  the  National  Convention, 
and  the  Republic  was  proclaimed.  The  king 
was  brought  to  trial  in  December  1792,  and 
executed  21  Jan.  1793.  The  institution  of  the 
Committee  of  Public  Safety  and  of  the 
Revolutionary  Tribunal  immediately  fol- 
lowed. The  Reign  of  Terror  developed 
during  the  summer  of  1793  and  lasted  until 
the  fall  of  Robespierre,  27  July  (9  Thermidor) 
1794.  The  Convention  in  October  1795  gave 
place  to  the  Directory,  which  in  turn  gave 
place  to  the  Consulate  in  1799.  Napoleon 
became  emperor  in  May  1804. 
French  Revolution*  Reflections  on  the,  by 
Edmund  Burke,  see  Revolution  in  France. 
French  Revolution,  The,  A  History,  by 
T.  Carlyle,  published  in  1837. 

The  work  was  written  in  London.  The 
manuscript  of  the  first  volume,  while  in  the 


[300] 


FRENEAU 

keeping  of  John  Stuart  Mill,  was  accidentally 
destroyed,  but  the  author  courageously  set 
to  work  to  re-write  it.  The  history,  beginning 
with  the  death  of  Louis  XV  in  1774,  deals  with 
the  reign  of  Louis  XVI,  the  period  which 
included  the  assembly  of  the  States  General, 
the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  and  Constituent  and 
Legislative  Assemblies,  the  flight  of  the  king 
to  Varennes,  the  Convention,  the  trial  and 
execution  of  the  king  and  queen,  the  reign 
of  terror,  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  and  extends 
to  5  Oct.  1795,  when  Buonaparte  quelled  the 
insurrection  of  Vend&niaire.  The  work, 
said  to  be  a  very  partial  view  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, may  be  regarded  as  the  poetic  unrolling 
of  a  great  historical  drama,  illustrating  the 
nemesis  that  comes  upon  the  oppression  of 
the  poor.  It  offers  in  addition  a  gallery  of 
magnificent  portraits  (Mirabeau,  Lafayette, 
Danton,  Robespierre),  and  stamps  upon  the 
memory  such  episodes  as  the  march  to 
Versailles,  the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  and  the 
flight  to  Varennes. 

FRENEAU,  PHILIP  (1752-1 832),^  Ameri- 
can poet  and  pamphleteer,  born  in  New 
York  City.  He  was  a  founder,  with  Madison, 
of  the  American  Whig  Society,  and  editor  of 
'The  Freeman's  Journal*.  His  'Poems'  first 
appeared  in  1786. 

FRERE,  JOHN  HOOKHAM  (1769-1846), 
educated  at  Eton  and  Caius  College,  Cam- 
bridge, was  a  friend  of  Canning  and  British 
envoy  at  Lisbon  (i  800-2),  at  Madrid  (i  802-4), 
and  with  the  Junta  (1808-9).  While  at  Eton, 
Frere  wrote  a  translation  of  'Brunanburh* 
(q.v.).  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  *The 
Microcosm*  periodical  (1786-7),  and  con- 
tributed to  'The  Anti- Jacobin*  (q.v.)  most  of 
the  'Loves  of  the  Triangles'  and  parts  of  'The 
Friend  of  Humanity  and  the  Knife-grinder* 
and  'The  Rovers'.  He  collaborated  in  Ellis's 
'Specimens  of  the  Early  English  Poets'  (1801) 
and  in  Southey's  'Chronicle  of  the  Cid*  (1808), 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  'Quarterly 
Review*  (q.v.).  He  published  metrical  ver- 
sions of  Aristophanes's  'Frogs*  (1839)  and 
'Acharnians*,  'Knights',  and  'Birds'^  (1840); 
also  'Theognis  Restitutus'  (i  842).  His  mock- 
romantic  Arthurian  poem,  written  under  the 
pseudonym  'Whistlecraft*,  of  which  four 
cantos  appeared  in  1817-18,  provided  a  model 
for  Byron's  'Don  Juan*  and  'Beppo*  (qq.v.). 

Freud,  SIGMUND  (1856-  ),  born  at  Frei- 
berg in  Moravia,  of  a  Jewish  family,  is  known 
as  the  inventor  of  psycho-analysis.  He 
studied  under  the  great  neurologist  Charcot 
in  Paris,  and  undertook  with  Dr.  Breuer  the 
investigation  of  hysteria  from  a  psychological 
standpoint.  The  study  of  neurotic  ailments 
led  him  to  various  conclusions  relating  to 
the  normal  mind,  which  are  the  basis  of 
psycho-analysis,  such  as  the  existence  ^  of 
an  unconscious  element  in  the  mind  which 
influences  consciousness,  and  of  conflicts^  in 
it  between  various  sets  of  forces  (including 
repression);  also  the  importance  of  a  child's 


FRIAR  TUCK 

semi-consciousness  of  sex  as  a  factor  in 
mental  development. 

Prey  or  FREYR,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
one  of  the  Vanir  (q.v.)>  the  son  of  Niord,  and 
the  god  of  fertility  and  dispenser  of  rain  and 
sunshine.  He  is  the  husband  of  Gerda  (q.v.), 
the  frozen  earth,  and  king  of  the  Elves. 

Freya  or  FKEYJA,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
one  of  the  Vanir  (q.v.),  the  most  beautiful 
of  the  goddesses,  the  northern  Venus,  the 
goddess  of  love  and  of  the  night.  She  is  the 
sister  of  Frey  and  wife  of  Odhir,  from  whom, 
however,  she  is  separated.  She  is  sometimes 
indistinguishable  from  Frigga  (q.v.),  the  wife 
of  Odin. 

Friar  Bungay,  see  Bungay  (T.). 

Friar  Bacon  and  Friar  Bungay,  The  honor- 
able history  of,  a  comedy  in  verse  and  prose 
by  Greene  (q.v.),  acted  in  1594.  The  play  is 
based  on  a  prose  pamphlet  'The  famous 
history  of  Friar  Bacon',  embodying  legends 
relating  to  Roger  Bacon  and  Thomas  Bungay 
(qq.v.).  Bacon  with  the  help  of  Friar  Bungay 
makes  a  head  of  brass,  and,  conjuring  up  the 
Devil,  learns  how  to  give  it  speech.  It  is  to 
speak  within  a  month,  but  'if  they  heard  it 
not  before  it  had  donespeaking,  all  their  labour 
should  be  lost'.  After  watching  day  and 
night  for  three  weeks,  Bacon  hands  over  the 
duty  of  watching  to  his  servant  Miles  and 
falls  asleep.  The  head  speaks  two  words 
'Time  is'.  Miles,  thinking  his  master  would 
be  angry  if  waked  for  so  little,  lets  him  sleep. 
The  head  presently  speaks  again,  'Time  was' ; 
and  finally  'Time  is  past*,  when  it  falls  down 
and  breaks.  Bacon  awakes,  and  heaps  curses 
on  Miles *s  head.  The  above  is  diversified 
with  the  pleasant  story  of  the  loves  of  Edward 
Prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  Edward  I)  and 
Lord  Lacy  for  the  fair  Margaret,  the  keeper's 
daughter  of  Freshingfield,  and  the  prince's 
surrender  of  her  to  Lacy.  There  is  also  an 
amusing  scene  where  Bacon,  Bungay,  and  a 
German  rival  display  their  respective  powers 
before  the  German  emperor  and  the  kings  of 
England  and  Castile. 

Friar  John  (JEAN  DBS  ENTOMMEURES),  see 
Gargantua  and  Thelema. 
Friar  Rush,  the  Bruder  Rausch  of  German 
folk-lore,  a  devil  disguised  as  a  friar  who 
takes  service  in  a  monastery  to  lead  the  monks 
astray.  An  English  translation  of  the  legend 
was  published  in  1568  and  frequently  re- 
printed. The  story  is  given  in  W.  C.  Hazlitt's 
'Tales  and  Legends*.  Scott,  perhaps  misled 
by  Milton's  'L'Allegro*  ('by  Friar's  lantern 
led'),  confuses  Friar  Rush  with  the  Will-o'~ 
the- Wisp : 

Better  we  had  .  .  .  Been  lanthorn-led  by 
Friar  Rush. 

('Marmion*,  rv.  i.) 

Friar  Tuck,  one  of  the  principal  characters 
in  the  legend  of  Robin  Hood  (q.v.) ;  the  fat, 
jovial,  and  pugnacious  father-confessor  of 
the  outlaw  chief.  He  figures  in  Scott's 


FRIAR'S  TALE 

'Ivanhoe'  and  in  Peacock's  'Maid  Marian* 

(qq.v.). 

Friar's  or  Frere's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury 

Tales. 

Friars  Minor,  the  Franciscans  (q.v.). 
Friday,  MAN,  see  Robinson  Crusoe. 
Friends,  SOCIETY  OF,  a  religious  society 
founded  in  1648-50  by  George  Fox  (q.v.),  dis- 
tinguished by  peaceful  principles  and  plain- 
ness of  dress  and  manners.   See  Quakers. 
Frigga,   in   Scandinavian  mythology,   the 
wife  of  Odin  (q.v.),  the  goddess  of  married 
love   and  of  the  hearth.     Our   'Friday*  is 
named  from  her.    See  also  Freya. 
Friscobaldo,  ORLANDO,  see  Orlando  Frisco- 
baldo. 

Frith,  MARY,  see  Moll  Cutpurse. 
Frithiof,  the  hero  of  an  Icelandic  saga 
assigned  to  the  I4th  cent. 
FROISSARTJEAN(i337?-i4io)»aFrench 
chronicler,  of  Hainault,  who  spent  most  of  his 
life  at  the  courts  of  princes.  He  visited 
England  after  the  peace  of  Bretigny  (1360) 
and  was  received  at  the  court  of  Edward  III 
and  Queen  Philippa  his  countrywoman.  His 
travels,  in  which  he  untiringly  sought 
information  about  historical  events,  extended 
to  Scotland,  Italy,  and  Belgium.  His 
'Chroniques'  cover  the  period  1325-1400; 
they  deal  with  the  affairs  of  Flanders,  France, 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  England.  Three  editions 
of  them  were  issued  at  different  periods  of  his 
life.  They  are  the  work  of  a  literary  artist 
rather  than  a  trustworthy  historian  (he  was 
dependent  on  oral  testimony),  but  give  a 
faithful  picture  of  the  broad  features  of  his 
period,  and  are  instinct  with  the  spirit  of 
chivalry.  They  were  admirably  translated 
into  English  by  John  Bourchier,  Lord  Bemers 
(q.v.),  1523-5- 

Fronde,  THE,  the  name  given  to  the  party 
which  rose  in  rebellion  (1648-53)  in  France 
against  Mazarin  and  the  Court  during  the 
minority  of  Louis  XIV;  hence  a  malcontent 
party.  The  word  fronde  means  a  sling. 

FROST,  ROBERT  (1875-        ),  American 

poet;  born  in  San  Francisco;  moved  at  an 

early  age  to  New  England.  From  1912  to 
1915  he  lived  in  England,  where  his  first 
book  was  published.  Returning  to  the  States 
he  devoted  himself  to  poetry  and  teaching. 
His  works  include:  'A  Boy's  Will*  (1913), 
'North  of  Boston*  (1914),  'Mountain  Inter- 
val' (1916),  'New  Hampshire'  (1923),  'West- 
Running  Brook'  (1928). 

Froth,  LORD  and  LADY,  characters  in  Con- 
greve's  'The  Double  Dealer*  (q.v.). 

FROUDE,  JAMES  ANTHONY  (1818-94), 
was  educated  at  Westminster  and  Oriel  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  where,  like  his  brother,  R.  H. 
Froude  (q.v.),  he  took  part  in  the  Tractarian 
Movement  and  came  under  the  influence  of 
Newman;  but  on  the  latter's  secession  he 


FUDGE  FAMILY  IN  PARIS 

reacted  towards  scepticism.  He  became  a 
friend  of  C.  Kingsley,  and  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Carlyle  in  1849,  subsequently 
becoming  his  chief  disciple.  In  1856—70  he 
published  his  'History  of  England  from  the 
Fall  of  Wolsey  to  the  Defeat  of  the  Spanish 
Armada*,  which  has  been  criticized  on  the 
score  of  inaccuracy  and  prolixity.  Froude  was 
editor  of  'Eraser's  Magazine'  from  1860  to 
1874,  and  wrote  for  various  other  periodicals, 
some  of  his  best  essays  being  republished  in 
'Short  Studies  on  Great  Subjects'  (1867-83), 
dealing  with  matters  of  theology,  travel,  his- 
tory, and  including  some  good  fables.  In 
1872-4  he  published  'The  English  in  Ireland 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century',  which  met  with 
severe  criticism,  from  Lecky  among  others. 
In  1874-5  he  visited  South  Africa  on  a 
mission  from  the  government  to  ascertain  the 
obstacles  to  federation  among  the  South 
African  states.  From  1881  to  1884  he  was 
engaged,  as  Carlyle's  literary  executor,  in 
issuing  biographical  remains  of  Carlyle  and 
his  wife,  the  frankness  with  which  he  dis- 
charged this  task  provoking  much  indigna- 
tion. Froude  visited  Australia  in  1884—5,  &&& 
published  'Oceana,  or  England  and  her 
Colonies'  in  1886;  he  visited  the  West  Indies 
in  1886-7,  and  published  'The  English  in  the 
West  Indies*  in  1888.  He  was  appointed 
Regius  professor  of  modern  history  at  Oxford 
in  1892.  His  lectures  appeared  as  'The  Life 
and  Letters  of  Erasmus'  (1894),  'English 
Seamen  in  the  Sixteenth  Century'  (1895),  and 
'The  Council  of  Trent'  (1896). 
FROUDE,  RICHARD  HURRELL  (1803- 
36),  brother  of  J.  A.  Froude  (q.v.),  was  edu- 
cated at  Ottery,  Eton,  and  Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow.  He 
was  intimate  with  Newman,  with  whom  he 
wrote  the  poems  contained  in  'Lyra  Apos- 
toHca*  (1836),  and  greatly  influenced  the 
Tractarians,  contributing  three  of  the  'Tracts 
for  the  Times*  (see  under  Oxford  Movement), 
His  'Remains*  (1838-9),  including  strictures 
on  the  Reformation,  contributed  to  rouse 
public  hostility  against  the  Tractarian  move- 
ment. 

Frugal,  SIR  JOHN  and  LEEKE,  characters  in 
Massinger's  'The  City  Madam*  (q.v.). 
Fry,  MRS.  ELIZABETH  (1780-1845),  nee 
GURNET,  a  quaker  reformer  and  successful 
preacher,  celebrated  for  her  efforts  to  im- 
prove the  state  of  the  prisons,  the  condition 
of  convicts  on  their  voyage  to  Australia,  and 
the  lot  of  vagrants  in  London  and  Brighton. 
Fudge  Family  in  Paris,  The,  satirical  verses 
by  T.  Moore  (q.v.),  published  in  1818. 

These  light  verses  take  the  form  of  letters 
written  by  or  to  various  members  of  the 
Fudge  family  when  visiting  Paris  in  1817, 
shortly  after  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbon 
dynasty.  They  include  mock  letters  from 
and  to  Castlereagh.  In  them  the  author 
endeavoured  to  collect  the  'concentrated 
essence  of  the  various  forms  of  cockneyism 
and  nonsense  of  those  groups  of  ridiculous 


[302] 


FUGGER 

English  who  were  at  that  time  swarming  in 
all  directions  throughout  Paris'. 

Fugger ,  the  name  of  a  German  family  of 
merchants  and  bankers  famous  in  the  i6th 
cent,  for  their  wealth,  which  they  acquired 
by  trade  and  by  lending  money  to  the  em- 
perors and  other  sovereigns.  Johann  Fugger, 
the  founder  of  the  family,  was  a  master 
weaver  in  Augsburg  in  the  i4th  cent.  The 
Fuggers  played  an  important  part  in  the 
election  of  Charles  V  to  be  emperor. 

Fugger  News -letters,  a  collection  of 
letters,  consisting  of  about  36,000  pages  of 
manuscript,  collected  at  random  and  copied 
by  professional  clerks ;  they  were  sent  mostly 
to  Count  Philip  Edward  Fugger  (1546-1618), 
son  of  Count  George  Fugger  and  Ursula  von 
Leichtenstein,  and  a  member  of  the  family 
referred  to  in  the  previous  entry.  The  letters 
cover  the  period  1568-1605;  most  of  them 
are  in  German,  but  Italian  is  well  represented ; 
French  is  rarely  met  with,  and  Spanish  hardly 
at  all.  Latin  reports,  in  the  worst  church-  and 
dog-Latin,  are  more  frequent.  Two  series 
of  the  Letters  have  been  published  in  English : 
the  first  series  (1924)  being  translated  from  a 
Vienna  edition  by  P.  de  Chary,  the  second 
(1926),  never  before  published,  translated  by 
L.  S.  R.  Byrne. 

Fulgens  and  Lucrece,  a  i5th-cent.  secular 
play  by  Henry  Medwafi  (fl.  1486) ;  important 
in  dramatic  history  as  the  earliest  known 
English  secular  play.  It  was  edited  by  F.  S. 
Boas  and  A.  W.  Reed  in  1926. 

FULLER,  MARGARET  (1810-50),  Ameri- 
can author,  born  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  whose 
name  is  associated  with  the  New  England 
Transcendentalists,  and  with  the  movement 
for  'women's  rights*,  in  which  she  was  a 
pioneer.  Moving  to  Boston  in  1835  as  a 
teacher  of  languages,  she  became  interested 
in  the  Brook  Farm  experiment,  and  num- 
bered among  her  intimates  Emerson,  Haw- 
thorne, and  W.  H.  Channing.  With  Emerson 
and  George  Ripley  she  founded  the  Trans- 
cendental organ  of  opinion,  *The  Dial',  in 
1840,  which  she  edited  for  two  years.  Later 
she  moved  to  new  York  to  write  for  Horace 
Greeley's  'Tribune*,  published  a  volume  of 
critical  essays,  travelled  in  Europe,  and 
settled  in  Italy,  where  she  married  the  Mar- 
quis Ossoli  in  1847.  Sailing  from  Leghorn 
for  America  in  1850,  she  and  her  husband 
perished  when  their  ship  was  wrecked  just 
short  of  its  destination. 

FULLER,  THOMAS  (1608-61),  was  born 
at  AldwinMe  St.  Peter's  in  Northampton- 
shire (Dryden  was  born  at  Aldwinkle  All 
Saints,  the  other  division  of  the  village),  and 
was  educated  at  Queens'  College  and  Sidney 
Sussex,  Cambridge.  He  became  a  preben- 
dary of  Salisbury  in  1631,  and  rector  of 
Broadwindsor,  Dorset,  in  1634.  Shortly 
before  the  war  he  was  made  preacher  at  the 
Savoy,  and  followed  the  war  as  chaplain  to 
Sir  Ralph  Hopton.  He  was  a  moderate 


FURIES 

Royalist  and  an  Anglican,  but  after  his  return 
to  London,  on  the  surrender  of  Exeter,  was 
allowed  to  preach  on  sufferance.  After  the 
Restoration  he  resumed  his  canonry  and 
lectureship  at  the  Savoy  and  became  'chap- 
lain in  extraordinary*  to  the  king.  He  pub- 
lished his  'History  of  the  Holy  Warre*,  viz. 
the  crusades,  in  1643;  'The  Holy  State  and 
the  Profane  State'  (q.v.),  1642;  'A  Pisgah- 
sight  of  Palestine',  1650;  his  'Church  History 
of  Britain',  and  'History  of  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity', 1655.  'The  Worthies  of  England* 
(q.v.),  his  best-known  and  most  characteristic 
work,  appeared  after  his  death,  in  1662.  His 
'Good  Thoughts  in  Bad  Times'  (q.v.,  1645), 
followed  by  two  sequels,  contain  much 'sound, 
shrewd  good  sense,  and  freedom  of  intellect* 
(Coleridge).  His  writings,  which  were  highly 
approved  by  Southey,  Coleridge,  and  Lamb, 
are  marked  by  humour  and  a  quaint  wit, 
sometimes  a  little  incongruous  with  the  subject. 

Fum  or  FUNG,  a  fabulous  bird,  one  of  the  sym- 
bols of  the  imperial  dignity  in  China.  Moore 
wrote  a  poem  on  'Fum  and  Hum,  the  Two 
Birds  of  Royalty*,  and  Byron  in  'Don  Juan*, 
xi.  77,  refers  to  George  IV  as  'Fum  the  fourth.' 

Funeral 9  The,  or  Grief  d-la-Mode,  a  comedy 
by  R.  Steele  (q.v.),  produced  in  1701. 

Lord  Brumpton  has  disinherited  his  son, 
Lord  Hardy,  owing  to  the  misrepresentations 
of  his  wife,  the  young  man's  stepmother;  he 
has  left  her  all  his  property,  as  well  as  two 
wards,  the  ladies  Sharlot  and  Harriot.  When 
the  play  opens  Lord  Brumpton  has,  as  is 
generally  believed,  just  died.  He  has  in  fact, 
however,  recovered  from  a  'lethargic  slumber*, 
a  fact  known  only  to  himself  and  to  Trusty, 
his  steward.  At  Trusty's  instance,  he  re- 
mains in  concealment,  and  thus  discovers  his 
supposed  widow's  unseemly  rejoicing  at  her 
release,  her  machinations  against  her  stepson, 
and  her  unscrupulous  design  to  dispose 
profitably  of  Sharlot  and  Harriot.  The 
widow  is  exposed,  Lord  Hardy  reinstated, 
and  the  ladies  bestowed  on  their  true  lovers, 
Lord  Hardy  and  his  friend.  The  devices  by 
which  these  results  are  effected  are  somewhat 
clumsy ;  but  the  play  is  notable  as  marking  a 
change  of  moral  tone  in  the  drama  after  the 
licentiousness  of  the  Restoration  period. 

Funeral  Oration,  The,  of  Pericles,  at  the 
celebration  of  the  Athenians  who  had  fallen 
in  the  first  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  War 
(431  B.C.).  In  it  Pericles  reviews  the  Athen- 
ian character  and  policy.  It  is  given  in 
Thucydides,  ii.  35  et  seq. 

Fungoso,  a  character  in  Jonson's  'Every 
Man  out  of  his  Humour*  (q.v.). 

Furies,  or  EUMENIDES,  or  ERINYES,  THE, 
in  Greek  mythology,  the  avenging  deities, 
who  executed  the  curses  pronounced  upon 
criminals,  tortured  the  guilty  with  the  stings 
of  conscience,  or  inflicted  famines  and  pes- 
tilences. The  name  'Eumenides*,  'the  kindly 
ones',  is  a  euphemism  used  with  a  pro- 
pitiatory purpose. 


[303] 


FURNIVALL 

FURNIVALL,  FREDERICK  JAMES 
(1825-1910),  educated  at  University  College, 
London,  and  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  was 
a  member  of  the  Philological  Society  from 
1847  and  became  in  1861  editor  of  its  sug- 
gested English  Dictionary,  which  devel- 
oped into  the  '  Oxford  English  Dictionary* 
(q.v.).  He  was  founder  of  the  Early  English 
Text  Society,  the  Chaucer  Society,  the  Ballad 
and  New  Shakespere  Societies,  and  the 
Shelley,  Wiclif,  and  Browning  Societies.  He 
edited  Chaucer's  works  and  the  6  Percy 
Ballads'.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  oarsman, 
and  helped  to  found  the  Working  Men's 
College  in  London  (1854). 
Furred  Law- cats,  THE  (chats  fourres\  in 
Rabelais,  V.  xi  et  seq.,  the  magistrates,  so 
called  from  their  furred  gowns,  the  em- 
bodiment of  the  administration  of  the  crimi- 
nal law  in  France,  the  object  of  the  author's 
most  ferocious  satire. 

Pusbos,  a  character  in  Rhodes  *s  burlesque 
*Bombastes  Furioso'  (q.v.). 
Fust  or  FAUST,  JOHANN  (d.  1466),  a  German 


GAINSBOROUGH 

pioneer  of  printing.  He  advanced  money  to 
Gutenberg  (q.v.),  for  the  purpose  of  his  ex- 
periments in  printing,  and  subsequently  took 
over  his  press,  which  he  carried  on  with  Peter 
Schoffer.  He  printed  a  Psalter  in  1457.  R. 
Browning  wrote  a  dialogue,  'Fust  and  his 
Friends' (in  'Parleyings  with  certain  People'). 

Futhorc,  the  Runic  alphabet,  so  named 
from  its  first  six  letters  (th=f>;  cf.  'ye'  a 
survival  of  ']?e'). 

Futurism,  a  20th-cent.  movement  in  Italian 
art,  a  development  of  Cubism  (q.v.),  designed 
to  represent  nature  not  in  a  static  but  a  dy- 
namic state,  to  give  in  other  words  a  cine- 
matographic effect.  It  is  sought  to  produce 
this  in  the  case,  e.g.,  of  an  arm  in  motion,  by 
painting  a  number  of  arms  in  successive 
positions.  Se*ve"rin*s  'Bal  Tabarin*  (1912)  is 
regarded  as  a  good  illustration  of  the  method. 
The  Italian  publicist  Marinetti  has  done 
much  to  advertise  and  explain  Futurism.  The 
movement  was  so  named  as  being  a  glorifica- 
tion of  youth  and  the  future  as  against  the 
academic  past. 


G 


G.O.M.,  the  initial  letters  of  'Grand  Old 
Man',  a  current  journalistic  appellation  for 
W.  E.  Gladstone  from  1882,  said  to  have  been 
first  applied  to  him  by  Lord  Rosebery. 
Gabble- racket,  see  GabrieL 

Gabelle,  a  word  of  Teutonic  origin  (cf.  OE. 
gafol),  meaning  a  tax.  The  term  was  origin- 
ally applied  in  France  to  taxes  on  all  com- 
modities, but  was  gradually  limited  to  the 
tax  on  salt.  The  tax  was  first  imposed  in  1286 
and  gradually  became  one  of  the  most  hated 
and  grossly  unequal  of  taxes  in  the  country; 
it  was  not  abolished  until  1790. 

Gaberlunzie,  a  wandering  mendicant;  in 
Scotland  a  public  almsman  or  licensed 
beggar.  There  is  a  spirited  ballad  of  'The 
Gaberlunzie  Man*  in  Percy's  'Reliques', 
which  is  attributed  to  King  James  V.  It 
relates  the  adventure  of  a  Gaberlunzie  and  a 
country  lass. 

GABpRIAU,  gMILE  (1835-73),  French 
novelist,  a  pioneer  in  the  romance  of  crime 
and  its  detection,  and  the  creator  of  Monsieur 
Lecoq  and  Pere  Tabaret.  Has  best-known 
works  are:  'L'Affaire  Lerouge*  (1866),  *Le 
Dossier  No.  113'  (1867),  'Le  Crime  d'Orcival' 
U868),  'Monsieur  Lecoq*  (1869),  and  'Les 
Esclaves  de  Paris'  (1869). 

Gabriel,  the  name  of  one  of  the  archangels 
(Dan.  ix.  21  and  Luke  i.  19,  26).  Also  in  the 
Mohammedan  religion  one  of  the  four  princi- 
pal angels.  Milton  makes  him  'Chief  of  the 
angelic  guards'  ('Paradise  Lost',  iv.  550). 

GABRIEL-HOUNDS,  GABRIEL-RACKET,  GAB- 
BLE-RACHET,  a  name  applied  to  wild  geese, 
whose  cry  is  heard  as  they  fly  high  through 


the  air ;  hence,  perhaps,  the  technical  sporting 
term,  *a  gaggle  of  geese*  (for  a  flock). 
Gabriel  Lajeimesse,  a  character  in  Long- 
fellow's 'Evangeline'  (q.v.). 
Gadarene  Swine,  THE  MIRACLE  OF  THE, 
related  in  Mark  v,  was  the  subject  of  a  cele- 
brated controversy  between  Huxley  and 
Gladstone  (qq.v.),  in  the  'Nineteenth  Century* 
(1890-91),  echoed  in  Gladstone's  'Impreg- 
nable Rock  of  Holy  Scripture*  and  Huxley's 
'Science  and  Christian  Tradition*. 
Gadshill,  near  Rochester,  the  scene  of  Fal- 
staff's  famous  exploit  ('i  Henry  IV,  II.  ii), 
and  also  the  name  of  one  of  FalstafT's  com- 
panions. Gadshill  was  the  home  of  Dickens 
in  his  later  years. 

Gael,  from  old  Irish  Gaidel,  Goidel,  a  Scot- 
tish Highlander  or  Celt.   The  word  in  more 
recent  times  has  also  been  applied  to  the 
Irish  branch  of  the  Celtic  race. 
Gahagan,  MAJOR,  see  Major  Gahagan. 
Gaheris,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur', 
son  of  King  Lot  and  Morgause,  sister  of 
Arthur.   He  was  brother  of  Gawaine,  Agra- 
vaine,  and  Gareth;  and  was  by  mishap  slain 
by  Sir  Launcelot, 

Gai  saber,  provencal,  the  gay  science,  the 
poetry  of  the  troubadours. 
Gainsborough,  THOMAS  (1727-88),  a  great 
portrait  and  landscape  painter,  was  the 
youngest  son  of  a  Sudbury  (Suffolk)  wool 
manufacturer.  Among  his  best-known  works 
are  'The  Harvest  Waggon*  and  'The  Blue 
Boy*.  He  painted  portraits  of  Garrick,  Quin, 
Fpote,  Chatterton,  Richardson,  Sterne,  Mrs. 
Siddons,  and  the  duchess  of  Devonshire. 


[304] 


GAIRDNER 

GAIRDNER,  JAMES  (1828-1912),  an 
official  in  the  Public  Record  Office,  was 
associated  with  J.  S.  Brewer  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  voluminous  'Calendar  of  Letters 
and  Papers  of  the  Reign  of  King  Henry  VIII* 
for  the  Rolls  Series,  and  completed  the  work 
after  Brewer's  death.  He  published  the  stan- 
dard edition  of  the  Paston  Letters  (q.v.)  in 
1904,  and  lives  of  Richard  III  and  Henry  VII 
(1878  and  1889).  He  contributed  the  volume  on 
the  period  1509-59  to  Stephens *s  and  Hunt's 
'History  of  the  English  Church'  (1902),  and 
in  1908  began  to  publish  his  longest  work, 
'Lollardy  and  the  Reformation  in  England', 
of  which  vol.  iv  was  issued  after  his  death. 

GAIUS,  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist,  who 
flourished  in  the  reigns  of  Antoninus  Pius  and 
Marcus  AureHus  (c.  140-80  B.C.),  and  was 
author  of  numerous  works  on  Roman  Law, 
including  four  books  of  'Institutiones*. 

Galafron,  in  the  *  Orlando  Innamorato*  and 
'Orlando  Furioso'  (qq.v.),  the  king  of  Cathay 
and  father  of  Angelica. 

Galahad,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morfce  d'Arthur', 
is  (by  enchantment)  the  son  of  Launcelot  and 
Elaine,  daughter  of  King  Pelles.  He  is  pre- 
destined by  his  immaculate  purity  to  achieve 
the  quest  of  the  Holy  Grail  (see  Grail). 

Galahalt  or  GALAHAULT,  SIR,  described  in 
Malory's f Morte  d'Arthur*  as  the  *haut  prince* 
of  Surluse  and  the  Long  Isles,  is,  in  the  story 
of  the  early  loves  of  Launcelot  and  Guinevere, 
as  told  in  a  I3th-cent.  French  romance,  the 
knight  who  introduces  Launcelot  to  the  queen. 
He  is  the  Galeotto  of  Dante's  reference  to  this 
story  (c  Inferno*,  v.  137). 

Galaor,  brother  of  Amadis  of  Gaul  (q.v.),  a 
gay  knight,  light  of  love. 

Galapas,  in  Malory's  'Morte  ^  d'Arthur', 
v.  viii,  a  Roman  giant  slain  by  King  Arthur. 
*He  shorted  him  and  smote  off  both  his  legs 
by  the  knees,  saying,  Now  art  thou  of  a  better 
size  to  deal  with  than  thou  were,  and  after 
smote  off  his  head.' 
Galaphron,  see  Galafron. 

Galatea,  a  sea-nymph,  loved  by  the  Cyclops 
Polyphemus  (q.v.),  whom  she  treated  with 
disdain,  while  Acis,  a  Sicilian  shepherd,  en- 
joyed her  affection.  The  jealous  Cyclops 
crushed  his  rival  with  a  rock  while  in  the 
arms  of  Galatea;  and  she,  since  she  could  not 
restore  him  to  life,  changed  him  into  a  river 
at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Etna.  Also  the  name  given 
to  the  statue  wrought  by  Pygmalion  (q.v.) 
and  brought  to  life. 

Galathea,  a  play  by  Lyly  (q.v.). 
GALEN  or  GALENUS,  CLAUDIUS  (130- 
201),  a  celebrated  physician,  born  at  Per- 
gamus  in  Asia  Minor,  and  a  fnend  of  Marcus 
Aurelius.  He  is  said  to  have  written  no  fewer 
than  500  treatises.  Of  these  a  great  part  were 
burnt  in  the  temple  of  Peace  at  Rome  where 
they  were  deposited,  but  some  80  survived. 
Galen  confessed  himself  much  indebted  for 
3868 


GALSWORTHY 

his  medical  knowledge  to  the  writings  of 
Hippocrates  (q.v.).   He  wrote  in  Greek. 
Galeotti,  MARTIUS,  in  Scott's  'Quentin  Dur- 
ward'  (q.v.),  the  astrologer  of  Louis  XI. 
Galeotto,  see  Galahalt. 
Galerie  des  Glaces,  see  Versailles. 
Galignani,  GIOVANNI  ANTONIO  (d.  1821), 
founded    in    Paris    in     1814    'Galignani's 
messenger*,  which  had  a  wide   circulation 
among  English  residents  on  the  Continent. 
The  paper  was  carried  on  by  his  sons,  John 
Anthony  (1796-1873)  and  William  (1798- 
1882),  who  were  born  in  London.  As  pub- 
lishers   in    Paris    they    issued    reprints    of 
English  books. 

GALILEO  GALILEI  (1564-1642),  Italian 
astronomer  and  physicist,  was  born  at  Pisa  of 
a  Florentine  family.  He  made  important  dis- 
coveries (the  isochronism  of  the  pendulum, 
Jupiter's  satellites,  the  libration  of  the  moon) 
and  experiments,  proving,  e.g.,  that  unequal 
weights  drop  with  equal  velocity,  by  making 
the  experiment  from  the  leaning  tower  of  Pisa. 
His  observations  brought  him  into  conflict 
with  the  Inquisition,  and  in  1633  he  was 
compelled  to  repudiate  the  Copemican  theory 
('eppur  si  muove*,  he  is  said  to  have  muttered 
after  his  recantation,  'and  yet  it  [the  earth] 
moves'),  and  was  sent  to  prison.  His  principal 
works  were  a  dialogue  'Delle  nuove  Scienze' 
and  another  *Ai  Due  Massimi  Sistemi'. 
Gall,  FRANZ  JOSEPH  (1758-1828),  a  German 
physician,  the  founder,  with  his  disciple 
Kaspar  Spurzheim,  of  phrenology,  the  theory 
that  the  various  faculties  of  an  individual  have 
each  their  organ  and  location  in  a  definite 
region  of  the  surface  of  the  brain,  the  size  and 
development  of  which  is  commensurate  with 
the  degree  of  development  of  the  faculty  itself. 

GALLAGHER,  WILLIAM  DAVIS  (1808- 
94),  American  author,  born  in  Philadelphia. 
His  works  include:  'Erato*  (1835),  Toems* 
(1846),  'Miami  Woods,  A  Golden  Wedding, 
and  Other  Poems'  (1881). 
Galliambic,  the  metre  of  the  'Attis*  of 
Catullus,  imitated  by  Tennyson  in  his 
*Boadicea'  and  by  G.  Meredith  in  his  Thae- 
thon*.  It  is  so  called  from  the  belief  that  it 
was  the  metre  used  by  the  Galli  or  priests  of 
Cybele  in  their  songs. 

GalHj|antus,  a  giant  slain  by  Jack  the  Giant- 
killer  (q.v.). 

Gallio,  in  Acts  xviii,  the  proconsul  of 
Achaia  (and  brother  of  Seneca),  who, 
when  Paul  was  brought  before  him  by 
the  Jews,  dismissed  the  case  as  'a  question  of 
words  and  names,  and  of  your  law'.  Then  the 
Greeks  took  Sosthenes,  the  chief  ruler  of  the 
synagogue,  and  beat  him  before  the  judg- 
ment-seat, 'and  Gallio  cared  for  none  of  these 
things';  hence  'a  careless  Gallio*,  a  term  of 
reproach  in  the  Puritan  literature  of  the 
I7th  cent. 

GALSWORTHY,  JOHN  (1867-1933),  of  a 
Devonshire  family,  was  educated  at  Harrow 


GALT 

and  New  College,  Oxford.  His  purpose  as  a 
novelist  is  to  throw  light  on  the  dark  places, 
the  evils  and  abuses,  of  life,  for  the  guidance 
of  others ;  and  to  do  so  impartially,  showing 
the  good  at  the  same  time  as  the  bad  (see  *A 
Novelist's  Allegory*  in  'The  Inn  of  Tran- 
quillity* (1912),  and  the  discussion  of  this  in 
A.  C.  Ward,  'Twentieth-Century  Literature'). 
Mr.  Galsworthy's  most  important  work  is 
the  series  of  novels,  including  'The  Man  of 
Property*  (1906),  'In  Chancery'  (1920),  and 
'To  Let*  (1921),  collectively  entitled  ^The 
Forsyte  Saga',  of  which  the  main  theme  is  the 
possessive  instinct,  embodied  to  an  exag- 
gerated degree  in  Soames  Forsyte,  a  man  with 
a  passion  for  acquiring  all  things  desirable, 
and  for  exercising  his  proprietary  rights  to  the 
utmost,  even  over  his  reluctant  wife.  The 
record  of  the  Forsyte  family  extends  over  the 
later  Victorian  period,  and  is  resumed  in  *A 
Modem  Comedy'  (1929),  containing  'The 
White  Monkey*  (1924),  'The  Silver  Spoon* 
(1926),  and  'Swan  Song*  (1928).  In  these  the 
author  depicts  a  society  whose  foundations 
have  been  shattered  by  the  Great  War,  left 
without  faith  or  principles,  whose  only  pur- 
pose is  'to  have  a  good  time  because  we  don't 
believe  anything  can  last*,  but  in  which  the 
Victorianism  of  a  glum  Soames  Forsyte  here 
and  there  survives.  The  'Forsyte  Saga*  in- 
cludes two  'Interludes' :  'Indian  Summer  of  a 
Forsyte*  (1918)  and  'Awakening*  (1920);  and 
there  are  two  in  CA  Modem  Comedy',  'A 
Silent  Wooing*  (1927)  and  'Passers  By* 
(1927).  In  1930  appeared  a  collection  of 
'apocryphal  Forsyte  tales*  under  the  title  'On 
Forsyte-Change*.  Among  Galsworthy's  other 
best-known  novels  are  'The  Island  Pharisees' 
(1904),  'The  Country  House*  (1907),  'Fra- 
ternity* (1909),  'The  Patrician"  (1911). 

Of  Mr.  Galsworthy's  plays  the  most  notable 
are:  'The  Silver  Box',  1909;  'Strife9  (an  in- 
dustrial dispute  in  which  reconciliation  is 
occasioned  by  the  death  of  the  wife  of  the 
men's  leader),  1909;  'Justice*  (a  criticism  of 
the  existing  prison  system),  1910;  'The  Skin 
Game*  (a  conflict  between  a  parvenu  manu- 
facturer and  an  old-established  aristocrat), 
1920;  and  'Loyalties',  1922. 

GALT,  JOHN  (1779-1839),  born  at  Irvine 
in  Ayrshire,  was  employed  for  some  time 
in  the  custom-house  at  Greenock.  While 
travelling  on  the  Continent  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Byron  (of  whom  he  pub- 
lished a  life  in  1830),  and  subsequently  of 
Carlyle,  by  whom  he  was  favourably  noticed. 
In  1824  he  visited  Canada  as  secretary  of  a 
land  company,  which  obtained  no  immediate 
profit,  and  Gait  was  presently  superseded. 
Gait  did  a  great  amount  of  miscellaneous 
writing.  His  poems,  dramas,  historical  novels, 
and  travels  call  for  no  special  notice.  But  he 
also  wrote  three  admirable  studies  of  country 
life  in  Scotland,  by  which  he  deserves  to  be 
remembered :  'The  Ayrshire  Legatees'  (q.v., 
1821),  'Annals  of  the  Parish' (q.v.,  1821),  and 
'The  Entail*  (q.v.,  1823).  'The  Provost' 


GAMELYN 

(1822)  is  an  amusing  picture  of  life  and  char- 
acter in  a  Scottish  municipality. 
Galvani,  LUIGI  (1737-98),  of  Bologna,  the 
discoverer  of  electricity  produced  by  chemi- 
cal action.  It  is  said  that  his  wife  first  observed 
the  convulsive  movement  in  the  muscles  of 
frogs  when  brought  into  contact  with  two  dif- 
ferent metals.  Hence  'galvanic',  'galvanism'. 

Galway  Blazers,  a  celebrated  Irish  pack  of 

foxhounds. 

Gama,  KING,  in  Tennyson's  'The  Princess* 

(q.v.),  the  father  of  Princess  Ida. 

Gama,  VASCO  DA  (c.  1469-1524),  a  great 
Portuguese  navigator,  who  was  the  first  to 
double  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (1497)  and 
sailed  to  India,  the  hero  of  the  'Lusiads*  of 
Camoens  (q.v.).  He  died  at  Cochin  on 
Christmas  Day  1524. 

Gamaliel,  a  Pharisee,  'a  doctor  of  the  law, 
had  in  reputation  among  all  the  people*,  who 
dissuaded  the  Jews  from  slaying  the  Apostles. 
The  apostle  Paul  was  'brought  up  at  his  feet* 
(Acts  v.  34  and  xxii.  3).  He  was  president 
of  the  Sanhedrim. 

Game  and  Play  of  the  Chesse,  a  trans- 
lation by  Caxton  (q.v.)  from  two  French 
versions  of  the  'Liber  de  ludo  scacchorum* 
of  Jacobus  de  Cessolis,  and  probably  the 
second  book  printed  at  Caxton *s  press,  about 
1475. 

Game  of€hesset  A,  a  comedy  by  T.  Middle- 
ton  (q.v.),  produced  in  1624  and  chiefly 
interesting  in  its  political  connexion. 

It  deals  allegorically  with  the  rivalry  of 
England  and  Spain  (the  White  House  and 
the  Black  House),  and  the  project  of  the 
'Spanish  Marriage*  (1623).  It  places  on  the 
stage  the  sovereigns  of  the  two  countries, 
Charles  Prince  of  Wales,  Buckingham,  and  the 
Spanish  Ambassador  Gondomar,  and  repre- 
sents the  discomfiture  of  the  Black  House. 
The  play,  reflecting  the  popular  aversion 
to  the  Spanish  Match,  was  enthusiastically 
received,  but  gave  great  offence  to  the 
Spanish  Ambassador  and  to  King  James. 
Proceedings  were  taken  against  the  actors  and 
author,  and  the  performance  of  the  play  was 
prohibited. 

Gamelyn,  The  Tale  of,  a  verse  romance  of 
about  1350,  containing  some  900  lines. 
Gamelyn  is  the  youngest  of  three  sons  of 
Sir  John  de  Boundys,  who  leaves  his 

Eroperty  to  them  in  equal  shares.  The  eldest 
rother  maltreats  Gamelyn  and  robs  him  of 
his  property.  Gamelyn  asserts  his  rights  by 
force,  defeats  the  champion  wrestler,  and 
kills  the  porter  of  the  castle.  He  allows  him- 
self to  be  bound  to  a  post,  breaks  away,  and 
with  the  help  of  Adam  the  'spencer*,  be- 
labours the  clergy  who  are  at  a  feast  given  by 
his  brother  and  have  refused  to  help  him. 
The  sheriff  comes  to  arrest  him.  Gamelyn 
and  Adam  take  to  the  forest  and  Gamelyn 
becomes  lieutenant  and  subsequently  chief 
of  a  band  of  outlaws.  His  eldest  brother 


[306] 


GAMESTER 

becomes  sheriff.  Gamelyn  comes  to  the 
moot  hall  and  is  cast  in  prison.  Ote,  the 
second  brother,  goes  bail  for  him  till  next  gaol 
delivery.  Gamelyn  returns  to  the  forest  but 
promises  to  present  himself  for  trial.  At  the 
trial  Ote  appears  in  fetters.  The  hero  arrives, 
releases  him,  throws  the  justice  over  the  bar 
and  takes  his  place.  Justice,  Sheriff,  and 
jurors  are  hanged.  Gamelyn  and  Ote  make 
their  peace  with  the  king,  Ote  becomes  a 
justice,  and  Gamelyn  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Free  Forest. 

The  piece  is  interesting  because  apparently 
Chaucer  intended  to  make  it  his  'Cook's  Tale 
of  Gamelyn'  in  the  *  Canterbury  'Tales* 
(q.v.);  also  as  providing  materials  for 
Shakespeare's  'As  You  Like  It',  and  as  con- 
nected with  the  Robin  Hood  story. 

Gamester,  The,  a  comedy  by  James  Shirley 
(q.v.),  acted  in  1633,  printed  in  1637. 

The  main  plot,  somewhat  coarse  in  tone 
and  incident,  is  that  of  a  story  in  Margaret  of 
Navarre's  'Heptameron'.  Wilding  is  in  love 
with  Penelope,  his  ward  and  the  relative  of 
his  wife,  whom  he  does  not  scruple  to  inform 
of  this  illicit  affection.  By  the  contrivance 
of  Mrs.  Wilding,  Penelope  makes  an 
assignation  with  Wilding.  When  the  time 
comes,  Wilding,  deeply  engaged  in  a  gam- 
bling bout,  sends  his  friend  Hazard  in  his 
place,  secure  that  the  deception  will  not  be 
discovered  in  the  darkness.  He  learns  from 
his  wife  next  day  that  she  has  taken  Penelope's 
place.  To  escape  humiliation  he  persuades 
Hazard  to  marry  Penelope,  only  to  discover 
that  he  has  been  doubly  cheated  and  that  the 
meeting  between  Hazard  and  the  lady  never 
took  place.  There  is  a  romantic  underplot 
concerned  with  the  loves  of  Violante  and 
Leonore,  while  young  Barnacle,  who  aspires 
to  be  a  'roarer'  (see  Roaring  Boys),  provides 
some  amusing  scenes.  The  play  was  adapted 
by  Garrick  in  his  'Gamesters'. 

The  Gamester  is  also  the  title  of  a  play  by 
Mrs.  Centlivre  (q.v.),  and  of  a  tragedy  by 
Edward  Moore  (q.v.). 

Gammer  Gurtorfs  Needle,  the  second  Eng- 
lish comedy  in  verse  (the  first  being  'Ralph 
Roister  Doister',  q.v.),  was  published  in 
1575,  having  previously  been  acted,  in  1566, 
at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  Its  author- 
ship is  attributed  to  J.  Still  (q.v.)  on  incon- 
clusive evidence.  It  is  written  in  rhymed  long 
doggerel,  and  deals  farcically  with  the  losing 
and  finding  of  the  needle  used  to  mend  the 
garments  of  Hodge,  Gammer  Gurton's  man. 
The  other  characters,  besides  Hodge  and  the 
Gammer,  are  Tib  and  Cock,  their  maid  and 
boy;  Diccon  the  Bedlam;  Dame  Chat  and 
Doll,  her  maid ;  Master  Baily  and  his  servant, 
Spendthrift;  Doctor  Rat  the  curate;  and 
Gib  the  cat.  The  mischievous  Diccon 
persuades  the  Gammer  that  Dame  Chat  has 
taken  the  needle ;  a  quarrel  ensues  and  Doctor 
Rat  is  called  in,  but  gets  his  head  broken. 
Finally  Hodge  becomes  acutely  aware  that 


GARAMOND 

the  needle  is  in  the  seat  of  his  breeches.  The 
play  includes  the  famous  old  drinking-song 
with  the  refrain: 

Back  and  side  go  bare,  go  bare, 
Both  foot  and  hand  go  cold ; 
But  Belly,  God  send  thee  good  ale  enough, 
Whether  it  be  new  or  old  I 

Gamp,  SARAH,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Martin  Chuzzlewit*  (q.v.).  Her  large  cotton 
umbrella  has  given  rise  to  the  expression  'a 
gamp',  for  an  umbrella,  especially  an  untidy 
one;  also  for  a  midwife. 

Gandalin,  in  Amadis  of  Gaul  (q.v.),  the 
son  of  a  knight  of  Scotland  and  squire  of 
Amadis.  Don  Quixote  (i.  xx)  reminds  Sancho 
that  Gandalin  'always  spoke  to  his  master  cap 
in  hand,  his  head  inclined  and  his  body  bent, 
in  the  Turkish  fashion'. 

Gandercleu||3i,  the  imaginary  place  of 
residence  of  Jedediah  Cleishbotham  (q.v.)  in 
Scott's  'Tales  of  My  Landlord'. 

Gandersheim,  NUN  OF,  see  Hrotsvitha. 

Gandish's,  in  Thackeray's  'The  Newcomes* 
(q.v.),  Professor  Gandish's  'Academy  of 
Drawing*,  where  young  CHve  studies  art. 

Ganelon  or  GANG,  in  the  Charlemagne  ro- 
mances and  the  'Morgante  Maggiore*  of 
Pulci,  count  of  Mayence,  the  villain  and 
traitor  who  schemes  for  the  defeat  of  the 
rearguard  at  Roncesvalles.  He  figures  in 
Dante's  'Inferno'  (xxxii.  122)  and  Chaucer's 
'Nun's  Priest's  Tale*. 

Ganesh  or  GANESHA,  in  Hindu  mythology, 
the  god  of  wisdom  and  prudence,  who  is 
invoked  when  any  important  undertaking  or 
written  composition  is  begun.  He  is  the  son 
of  Siva,  and  is  represented  with  the  head  of 
an  elephant. 

Ganlesse,  in  Scott's  'Peveril  of  the  Peak* 
(q.v.),  a  name  taken  by  Edward  Christian. 

Ganymedes  or  GANYMEDE,  a  beautiful 
youth  of  Phrygia.  As  he  was  tending  his 
father's  flocks  on  Mt.  Ida  he  was  carried  up 
into  heaven  by  an  eagle  at  the  command  of 
Zeus,  and  became  cup-bearer  to  the  gods  in 
place  of  Hebe,  'Catamite*  is  a  corrupt  form 
of  his  name. 

Garamantes,  a  people  mentioned  by  Hero- 
dotus (iv.  183),  whose  capital  was  Garama  in 
Phazania  (probably  Fezzan  in  N.  Africa), 
whence  was  the  shortest  road  to  the  Loto- 
phagi  (Lotus-eaters).  In  the  country  of  the 
Garamantes  were  found  the  oxen  which  as 
they  graze  walk  backwards,  because  their 
horns  curve  outward  in  front  of  their  heads. 
Garamanta  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato" 
(q.v.)  is  a  country  in  Africa  whose  wizard  king 
prophesies  to  Agramant  the  destruction  of 
the  Saracen  host. 

Garamond,  CLAUDE  (d.  1561),  born  in 
Paris,  a  famous  type-founder,  who  first 
substituted  roman  for  gothic  characters  in 


[307] 


GARCIAS 

printing,  and  cut  admirable  roman  type.  He 
also  cut  the  type  of  which  R.  Estienne  (q.v.) 
made  use  for  his  Greek  editions. 
Garcias,  PEDRO:  in  the  preface  to  the  'Gil 
Bias*  (q.v.)  of  Le  Sage  there  is  a  story  of  two 
students  who,  on  their  way  to  Salamanca, 
observe  a  tombstone  on  which  is  inscribed: 
'Here  is  enclosed  the  soul  of  Pedro  Garcias'. 
One  of  the  students  laughs  at  the  absurdity 
and  goes  away.  The  other  lifts  the  stone  and 
finds  a  leather  purse  with  a  hundred  ducats 
and  the  direction,  'Be  my  heir,  thou  who  hast 
been  clever  enough  to  interpret  the  inscrip- 
tion, and  make  better  use  than  I  did  of  my 
money.*  The  reader  of  the  adventures  of  Gil 
Bias  is  like  one  or  other  of  the  students,  as  he 
perceives  or  not  their  moral  instruction. 

GARGILASSO  DE  LA  VEGA  (1503-36), 
Spanish  poet  and  friend  of  Boscan  (q.v.); 
the  names  of  the  two  poets  are  coupled  in 
Byron's  'Don  Juan*  (i.  95).  Witfy  Boscan 
he  brought  about  the  renaissance  of  poetry 
in  Spain,  writing  in  his  short  and  active 
life  (he  was  a  soldier  in  the  armies  of 
Charles  V  and  received  his  death  in  battle) 
sonnets,  eclogues,  and  odes,  which  won  the 
praise  of  Cervantes  ('Don  Quixote',  n.  Iviii). 

Garden ,  The,  a  poem  by  Marvell  (q.v.). 
Garden  of  Cyrus,  a  treatise  on  the  merits  of 
the  quincunx  (:*:),  by  Sir  Thomas  Browne 
(q.v.),  published  (with  *Urn  Burial',  q.v.)  in 
1658. 

This  is  a  lighter  work  than  its  companion 
piece,  treating  quaintly  of  the  Gardens  of 
Antiquity  and  in  particular  of  those  of 
Cyrus  as  described  by  Xenophon,  and  of  the 
garden  of  Paradise  (with  the  Tree  of  Know- 
ledge in  the  centre).  From  this  the  author 
passes  to  the  use  of  the  quincunx  in  a  multi- 
tude of  other  connexions,  such  as  architecture 
and  military  tactics,  returning  to  plantations 
and  certain  mysterious  properties  of  the 
number  five. 

Garden  State,  New  Jersey,  see  United 
States. 

Gardiner,  COLONEL  JAMES,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'Waverley*  (q.v.).  For  the  original  of 
the  character  see  under  Doddridge  (Philip). 
He  was  also  commemorated  in  a  song  by  Sir 
Gilbert  Elliot  (1722-77). 

GARDINER,  SAMUEL  RAWSON  (1829- 
1902),  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
of  which  he  became  student  in  1850.  He 
settled  in  London  to  study  the  history  of  the 
Puritan  revolution,  supporting  himself  mean- 
while by  teaching.  In  1872  he  became 
lecturer  and  subsequently  professor  of 
modem  history  at  King's  College,  London. 
Gardiner  was  offered  the  Regius  professor- 
ship of  history  in  succession  to  Froude,  but 
declined  it.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  All 
Souls  in  1884,  and  of  Merton  in  1892.  As 
Ford  lecturer  in  1896  he  lectured  on 
^Cromwell's  place  in  history'.  The  first 
instalment  of  his  great  'History*  of  the 


GARGANTUA 

first  Stuarts  and  Cromwell  appeared  in 
1863  as  the  'History  of  England  from  the 
Accession  of  James  I  to  the  Disgrace  of  Chief 
Justice  Coke'.  Successive  instalments  fol- 
lowed, and  in  1883—4  appeared  a  second 
edition  of  all  these,  entitled  a  'History  of 
England  from  the  Accession  of  James  I  to  the 
Outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  1603-42'.  The 
'History  of  the  Great  Civil  War*  (1886-91) 
and  the  'History  of  the  Commonwealth  and 
Protectorate*  (1894-1901)  carried  the  record 
down  to  the  year  1656  (an  additional  chapter 
was  published  posthumously).  Gardiner  pub- 
lished many  other  historical  works,  including 
'The  Thirty  Years  War*  (1874)  and  a  'Stu- 
dent's History  of  England*  (1890-1).  His 
historical  writing  shows  minute  accuracy  and 
impartiality,  but  is,  perhaps  necessarily, 
lacking  in  picturesque  quality.  He  was  very 
proud  of  his  descent  from  Bridget,  daughter 
of  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  wife  of  Henry 
Ireton. 

Gareth,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur*, 
nicknamed  'Beaumains*  by  Sir  Kay  the 
steward.  For  his  story  see  under  Gareth  and 
Lynette  below. 

Gareth  and  Lynette,  one  of  Tennyson's 
'Idylls  of  the  King*  (q.v.),  published  in  1872. 
This  idyll  shows  Arthur's  court  in  its  early 
days  of  innocence  and  promise.  Gareth,  son 
of  Lot,  king  of  Orkney,  and  Bellicent  his 
wife,  obtains  his  mother's  reluctant  per- 
mission to  go  to  tibe  court  on  the  condition 
that  he  will  hire  himself  for  a  year  there  as  a 
scullion.  He  presents  himself  in  disguise  and 
serves  as  a  kitchen  knave  under  Kay  the 
Seneschal,  until  released  from  his  vow  by  his 
mother.  Lynette  comes  to  the  court  to  ask 
that  Lancelot  may  release  her  sister  Lyonors, 
besieged  in  her  castle  by  four  knights.  The 
kitchen  knave  claims  the  adventure  and  to 
Lynette's  disgust  is  granted  it  by  the  king. 
On  the  way  she  bitterly  reviles  him,  but  is 
gradually  won  over  as  he  conquers  the  first 
three  knights.  Before  his  encounter  with  the 
fourth,  named  Death,  she  even  trembles  for 
his  safety,  and  would  have  Lancelot  take  his 
place.  But  Gareth  clings  to  his  task,  which, 
it  turns  out,  has  already  been  accomplished, 
for  the  fourth  knight  proves  a  mere  boy 
masquerading  in  hideous  armour. 

And  he  that  told  the  tale  in  older  times 
Says  that  Sir  Gareth  wedded  Lyonors, 
But  he,  that  told  it  later,  says  Lynette. 

Gargamelle,  in  Rabelais 's  'Gargantua* 
(q.v.),  the  wife  of  Grandgousier  and  mother 
of  Gargantua. 

Gargantua,  originally  the  name  of  a  bene- 
ficent giant  of  French  folk-lore,  connected 
with  the  Arthurian  cycle.  It  is  probably  to 
this  folk-lore  giant  that  Shakespeare  refers  in 
'As  You  Like  It*,  in.  ii.  239.  In  the  prologue  to 
his  'Pantagruel*  Rabelais  refers  to  a  chapbook 
(the  'Grandes  Cronicques')  embodying  the 
legends  about  him,  which  he  had  himself 
perhaps  written  or  edited.  This  probably 


[308] 


GARGERY 

suggested  to  him  his  own  story  of  'La  Vie 
tres  horrificque  du  Grand  Gargantua',  pub- 
lished in  1534,  as  a  preliminary  volume  to 
'Pantagruel'  (q.v.),  which  had  appeared  in 
1 5  32.  In  this,  Gargantua  is  presented  as  a  prince 
of  gigantic  stature  and  appetite,  the  son  of 
Grandgousier  and  Gargamelle.  His  educa- 
tion is  described  first  under  the  scholastic 
system,  and  when  this  proves  a  failure,  under 
a  reformed  system  advocated  by  Rabelais. 
Then  follows  the  war  between  Grandgousier 
and  Picrochole,  an  episode  suggested  by  a 
local  quarrel  in  Touraine  over  certain  water- 
rights,  in  which  Rabelais's  father  was  in- 
volved. Finally  comes  the  description  of 
the  Abbey  of  Theleme  (q.v.),  granted  to  Friar 
John  by  Grandgousier  to  reward  him  for  his 
prowess  in  the  above  war. 

So  far  as  the  book  had  a  serious  purpose,  it 
was  to  illustrate  the  trivial  causes  that  might 
give  rise  to  devastating  wars,  and  the  author's 
views  on  the  reform  of  education  and  of  the 
monastic  system.  Gargantua  himself  is  re- 
presented as  a  mighty  eater  and  drinker,  as 
befits  a  giant,  but  also  as  a  studious,  athletic, 
good-humoured,  and  peace-loving  prince. 

Gargery,  JOE,  a  character  in  Dickens 's  'Great 
Expectations'. 

Garibaldi,  GIUSEPPE  (1807-82),  the  cele- 
brated Italian  patriot  and  hero  of  the  Risorgi- 
mento  (q.v.).  Having  been  exiled  from  Italy 
for  political  reasons  he  spent  the  years  1836— 
48  in  S.America,  in  the  service  of  the  republics 
of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  and  Uruguay.  During 
1850-4  he  was  in  the  United  States,  and 
returned  in  the  latter  year  to  Italy.  He  com- 
manded a  volunteer  force  on  the  Sardinian 
side  in  the  campaign  of  1859  against  Austria. 
He  organized  expeditions  by  which  he  made 
himself  master  of  Sicily,  expelled  Francis  II 
from  Naples,  and  finally  marched  (unsuc- 
cessfully) against  Rome  (1860-2).  His  inde- 
pendent course  of  action  was  frequently 
embarrassing  to  Cavour,  but  he  was  devoted 
to  Victor  Emmanuel,  whose  orders  he  un- 
questioningly  obeyed.  He  was  enthusiasti- 
cally received  in  England  in  1 864.  Garibaldi's 
campaigns  have  been  narrated  by  G.  M. 
Trevelyan  (q.v.). 

Garland,  MR.  and  MRS.,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'The  Old  Curiosity  Shop'  (q.v.). 

GARLAND,  HAMLIN  (1860-  ^  ),  Ameri- 
can author,  best  known  for  his  realistic 
studies  of  the  Middle  West.  His  chief  works 
are:  'Rose  of  Dutcher's  Coolly' (1895),  'Main- 
Travelled  Roads'  (1891),  'Prairie  Folks' 
(1892),  'A  Son  of  the  Middle  Border*  (1917)* 
and  'A  Daughter  of  the  Middle  Border' 
(1921). 

Garm,  (i)  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
dog  that  guards  the  entrance  to  Helheim; 
(2)  a  bull-terrier,  the  subject  of  a  story  by 
Kipling  (q.v.,  'Actions  and  Reactions'). 

GARNETT,  RICHARD  (1835-1906), 
keeper  of  printed  books  in  the  British 


GARTER 

Museum,  published  in  1862  'Relics  of 
Shelley',  and  in  1888  'The  Twilight  of  the 
Gods'  (pleasant  apologues  in  Lucian's  vein). 
He  also  wrote  brief  biographies  of  Milton  and 
Carlyle  (1877),  Emerson  (1888),  Edward 
Gibbon  Wakefield  (1898),  Coleridge  (1904), 
and  a  'History  of  Italian  Literature*  (1897), 
as  well  as  several  volumes  of  original  and 
translated  verse. 

Garratt,  a  village  in  Surrey  near  Wands- 
worth,  of  which  the  villagers  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  1 8th  cent,  made  a  practice  of  electing 
a  'mayor'  when  a  general  election  took  place, 
in  reality  a  chairman  of  a  local  body  for  the 
defence  of  their  rights.  Samuel  Foote  wrote 
a  farce,  'The  Mayor  of  Garret',  produced  in 
1764,  in  which  Jerry  Sneak,  a  miserable 
henpecked  creature,  is  elected  mayor* 

Garraway's,  a  celebrated  coffee-house  in 
Change  Alley,  Cornhill,  founded  by  one 
Thomas  Garway,  a  tea,  coffee,  and  tobacco 
merchant  in  the  I7th  cent.  It  was  a  meeting- 
place  of  dealers  in  stocks  and  shares,  notably 
in  the  days  of  the  South  Sea  Bubble,  and 
contained  an  auction-room  (referred  to  in  the 
'Tatler'  No.  147). 

GARRICK,  DAVID  (1717-79),  was  S. 
Johnson's  pupil  at  Edial,  and  accompanied 
him  when  he  left  Lichfield  for  London.  His 
mythological  burlesque  'Lethe'  was  per- 
formed at  Drury  Lane  in  1740.  He  first  ap- 
peared as  an  actor  at  Ipswich  in  'Oroonoko'in 
1741,  and  in  the  same  year  made  his  reputation 
in  the  part  of  Richard  III.  He  subsequently 
proved  his  versatility  by  many  triumphs  in 
both  tragic  and  comic  parts.  In  1747  he 
joined  Lacy  in  the  management  of  Drury 
Lane,  where  he  produced  a  large  number  of 
Shakespeare's  dramas.  He  made  his  last 
appearance  in  1776  and  sold  a  moiety  of  his 
patent  to  Sheridan  and  two  others  for  £35,000. 
He  collaborated  with  Colman  in  writing  'The 
Clandestine  Marriage*  (q.v.),  and  also  wrote 
a  number  of  lively  farces,  including  'The 
Lying  Valet*  (1741),  'Miss  in  her  Teens' 
(1747),  'The  Irish  Widow5  (1772)*  and  'Bon 
Ton,  or  High  Life  above  Stairs'  (>775)-  He 
was  a  member  of  Johnson's  Literary  Club, 
and  his  portrait  was  painted  by  Reynolds, 
Hogarth,  and  Gainsborough.  He  married  in 
1749  the  dancer,  Eve  Marie  Violetti  (1724- 
1822).  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
His  interesting  correspondence  with  many 
of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  his  day  was 
published  in  1831-2. 

Garrick  Club,  THE,  founded  in  1831  as  a 
club  in  which  'actors  and  men  of  education 
and  refinement  might  meet  on  equal  terms*. 
Its  original  premises  were  at  35  King  Street. 
Barham,  Count  d'Orsay,  Samuel  Rogers 
(qq.v.),  were  among  its  first  members.  It 
was  much  frequented  by  Thackeray  v  and 
possesses  a  famous  collection  of  portraits  of 
actors  and  actresses. 

Garter,  ORDER  OF  THE,  the  highest  order  of 
English  knighthood.  The  institution  of  the 


[309] 


GARTER  KING  OF  ARMS 

order  is  attributed  on  the  authority  of  Frois- 
sart  to  Edward  III  about  the  year  1344.  By 
the  time  of  Selden  it  was  traditionally  asserted 
that  the  garter  was  that  of  the  countess  of 
Salisbury,  which  fell  off  while  she  danced 
with  the  king,  who  picked  it  up  and  tied  it  on 
his  own  leg,  saying  to  those  present  Honi  soit 
qui  mal  y  pense.  The  Garter  as  the  badge  of 
•file  order  is  a  ribbon  of  dark  blue  velvet, 
edged  and  buckled  with  gold  and  bearing  the 
above  words  embroidered  in  gold,  and  is 
worn  below  the  left  knee.  [OED.] 

Garter  King  of  Arms,  also  known  as 
GARTER,  the  principal  king  of  arms.  The  two 
provincial  kings  of  arms  are  Clarenceux  and 
Norroy  (qq.v).  See  Heralds'  College. 

GARTH,  SIR  SAMUEL  (1661-1719),  a 
physician,  and  a  member  of  the  Kit-Cat  Club 
(q.v.),  is  remembered  as  the  author  of  'The 
Dispensary*  (1699),  a  burlesque  poem  in 
which  he  ridiculed  the  opposition  of  the 
apothecaries  to  the  supply  of  medicines  to 
out-patients'  dispensaries.  Pope  described 
him  as  'the  best  good  Christian  without 
knowing  it". 

GARVICE,  CHARLES  (d.  1920),  novelist, 
dramatist,  and  journalist.  His  novels  in- 
clude 'Eve'  (1873),  'Her  Heart's  Desire' 
(1900),  'Just  a  GM'  (1902),  'Linked  by  Fate' 
(1905),  'Love  the  Tyrant'  (1905),  and  'The 
Waster'  (1919). 

GASCOIGNE,  GEORGE  (1525  ?-77),  a 
man  of  a  good  Bedfordshire  family,  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  entered 
Gray's  Inn  and  represented  Bedfordshire  in 
parliament.  His  'Supposes',  an  adaptation 
of  Ariosto's  'Suppositi',  our  earliest  extant 
comedy  in  prose,  was  acted  at  Gray's  Inn  in 
1566.  Gascoigne  saw  military  service  in 
Holland,  1572-5,  and  was  captured  by  the 
Spaniards.  An  unauthorized  book  of  poems 
by  him  was  published  in  his  absence,  and  in 
1575  he  issued  'The  Posies  of  G.  Gascoigne, 
corrected  and  completed',  containing  'Jo- 
casta'  (paraphrased  from  the  'Phoenissae*  of 
Euripides),  the  second  earliest  tragedy  in 
English  in  blank  verse.  The  book  also  con- 
tained 'Certain  Notes  of  Instruction  concern- 
ing the  making  of  verse',  the  earliest  English 
critical  essay.  He  published  his  'tragicall 
comedie",  the  'Glasse  of  Government',  a 
'prodigal  son'  play,  in  1575.  His  other  works 
include  'The  Steele  Glas'  (q.v.),  a  satire, 
published  in  1576,  'The  Droomme  of 
Doomesday',  and  the  posthumously  pub- 
lished 'Tale  of  Hemetes  the  heremyte'.  Gas- 
coigne is  chiefly  notable  as  a  pioneer  in  various 
branches  of  literature. 

Gascoigne,  SIR  WILLIAM  (i35o?-i4i9),  ap- 
pointed chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench  in 
1400,  figures  in  that  capacity  in  Shakespeare's 
2  Henry  IV.  The  story  taken  by  Hall  from 
Sir  T.  Elyot's  'Governour'  of  his  committing 
Henry  V  when  Prince  of  Wales  is  without 
foundation. 


GATES  OF  DREAMS 

Gasbford,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Barnaby 
Rudge'  (q.v.). 

GASKELL,  ELIZABETH  CLEGHORN 
(1810-65),  daughter  of  William  Stevenson, 
Unitarian  minister  and  keeper  of  the  Treasury 
records,  was  brought  up  by  her  aunt  at 
Knutsford  in  Cheshire,  which  is  the  original 
of  Cranford,  and  of  Hollingford  (in  'Wives 
and  Daughters').  In  1832  she  married 
William  Gaskell,  minister  at  the  Cross  Street 
Unitarian  chapel  in  Manchester,  with  whom 
her  life  was  one  of  calm  and  perfect  harmony. 
In  1848  she  published  'Mary  Barton'  (q.v.), 
her  first  novel,  based  on  the  industrial 
troubles  of  the  years  1842-3,  which  was 
severely  criticized  by  W.  R.  Greg  and  others 
as  hostile  to  the  employers,  but  was  highly 
popular.  It  brought  her  into  relations  with 
Dickens,  for  whose  'Household  Words'  and 
'All  the  Year  Round'  she  subsequently  wrote 
much.  To  the  former  of  these  (after  publish- 
ing 'The  Moorland  Cottage'  in  1850)  she  con- 
tributed in  1851-3  the  famous  series  of  papers 
subsequently  republished  under  the  title  of 
'Cranford'  (q.v.).  In  1853  appeared  'Ruth' 
(q.v.),  also  the  subject  of  some  controversy 
(on  ethical  grounds);  followed  by 'North  and 
South'  (q.v.),  in  1855,  which  reflects  the  easier 
industrial  conditions  that  then  prevailed. 
In  1857  Mrs.  Gaskell  produced  her  remark- 
able 'Life  of  Charlotte  Bronte',  some  of 
the  statements  in  which  gave  rise  to  com- 
plaint and  were  withdrawn.  'My  Lady  Lud- 
low'  appeared  in  'Household  Words'  in  1858 
and  was  republished  in  1859  in  the  'Round 
the  Sofa'  collection;  'Lois  the  Witch'  (q.v.)  in 
1859;  and  'Sylvia's  Lovers*  (q.v.)  followed  in 
1863-4.  'Wives  and  Daughters'  (q.v.),  like 
its  predecessor,  was  first  printed  in  the  'Corn- 
hill  Magazine',  appearing  in  1864-6,  but  Mrs. 
Gaskell  died  before  the  work  was  quite  com- 
pleted. The  Knutsford  edition  of  her  col- 
lected works  was  issued  in  1906. 

Caspar,  one  of  the  tfiree  Magi  (q.v.)  or 'Wise 
Men  of  the  East'.  He  is  represented  as  an 
Ethiopian,  king  of  Tarshish. 

GASSENDI,  PIERRE  (1592-1655),  French 
mathematician,  astronomer,  and  philosopher, 
a  friend  of  Galileo  and  Pascal.  He  was  an 
opponent  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle 
(against  whom  he  wrote  'Paradoxical  Exercita- 
tions*)  and  of  Descartes,  revived  that  of  Epi- 
curus, and  attempted  to  reconcile  the  theory 
of  atoms  with  Christianity.  He  wrote  lives  of 
Copernicus  and  Regiomontanus. 

Gastrolaters,  in  Rabelais,  rv.  Ivii,  a  people 
visited  by  Pantagruel,  whose  god  is  their 
belly.  They  represent  greedy  monks.  They 
have  a  ridiculous  idol  Manduce,  whose  eyes 
are  bigger  than  its  belly.  The  author  gives 
a  formidable  list  of  the  flesh  and  fowl,  and 
*on  the  interlarded  fish  days'  of  the  caviare, 
botargoes,  and  the  Hke,  that  'these  idle  lob- 
cocks  sacrifice  to  their  gorbellied  god'. 

Gates  of  Dreams,  see  Dreams. 


GAUDEN 

GAU0EN,  DR.  JOHN  (1605-62),  educated 
at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  became  bishop 
of  Worcester.  He  claimed  to  be  the  author  of 
'Eikon  Basilike*  (q.v.). 

Gauguin,  PAUL,  see  Post-Impressionism. 
Gautama,  see  Buddha. 

Gautier,  MARGUERITE,  the  heroine  of  'La 
Dame  aux  Camillas*  of  Alexandre  Dumas  fils 


GAUTIER,  PIERRE  JULES  THfiO- 
PHILE  (1811-72),  French  poet  and  novelist 
of  the  Romantic  movement,  whose  best 
poetry  is  contained  in  his  'Emaux  et  Canines' 
(1852).  As  a  novelist  he  is  remembered  by 
his  'Mademoiselle  de  Maupin*  (1835),  'Le 
Capitaine  Fracasse',  and  his  short  stories,  a 
kind  of  writing  in  which  (with  Me'rime'e,  q.v.) 
he  was  a  pioneer. 

Gavroche,  a  character  in  'Les  Mis^rables*  of 
Victor  Hugo  (q.v.),  whose  name  has  been 
adopted  as  typifying  the  Parisian  street-arab. 

Gawain  (WALWAIN),  is  associated  as  a  hero 
with  King  Arthur  in  the  earliest  of  the 
Arthurian  legends.  He  is  the  perfect  knight, 
courageous,  pure,  and  courteous.  In  the 
later  developments  of  the  story,  however,  his 
character  shows  deterioration.  Gawaine  is 
the  son  of  the  king's  sister  Morgause  (wife 
of  King  Lot  of  Orkney)  and  brother  of 
Agravain,  Gaheris,  and  Gareth.  In  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth's  narrative  he  is  Arthur's  am- 
bassador to  Rome  and  bears  himself  bravely 
in  the  ensuing  combat.  In  Malory's  'Morte 
d'Arthur'  he  becomes  the  bitter  enemy  of 
Launcelot  because  the  latter  has  killed  his 
three  brothers.  He  is  killed  when  Arthur 
lands  at  Dover  to  recover  his  kingdom  from 
Mordred.  It  is  noteworthy  that  Gawain's 
strength  increased  daily  until  noon  and  then 
declined  (Malory,  vin.  xviii),  the  characteris- 
tic of  a  solar  deity.  For  his  relation  to  Gwalch- 
mei,  the  sun-god  of  Welsh  mythology,  see 
Rhys,  'Arthurian  Legend'.  The  north  portal 
of  Modena  Cathedral  has  a  sculpture  said  to 
be  early  I2th-cent.,  on  which  are  mounted 
figures  of  Artus  de  Bretani,  Galvaginus  (i.e. 
Gawain)  and  others,  so  inscribed  (R.  S. 
Loomis,  'Celtic  Myth  and  Arthurian 
Romance').  The  principal  single  adventure  of 
Gawain  is  perhaps  that  described  in  'Gawain 
and  the  Green  Knight'  (q.v.).  See  also  Ywain 
and  Gawain. 

Gawain  and  the  Green  Knight ,  an  allitera- 
tive poem  of  2,500  lines  of  the  i4th  cent. 

On  New  Year's  Day  Arthur  and  his 
knights  sit  feasting  at  Camelot.  A  giant 
knight,  Bercilak  de  Hautdesert,  comes  in  clad 
in  green.  Gawain  accepts  his  challenge  to 
give  him  a  stroke  with  the  axe  and  take  one 
in  return.  Gawain  beheads  the  knight  at  one 
blow,  but  the  trunk  picks  up  the  head  and 
rides  off,  appointing  Gawain  to  meet  him  a 
year  hence  at  the  Green  Chapel  in  North 
Wales.  On  the  next  Christmas  Eve,  in  a 
dreary  forest,  Gawain  sees  a  great  castle  where 

[3 


GAY 

he  is  welcomed  by  the  lord  and  lady.  Gawain 
and  the  lord  agree  to  exchange  what  they  get 
by  hunting  or  otherwise.  The  lady  tempts 
Gawain  on  three  successive  nights,  but  he 
accepts  only  kisses  and  a  girdle  that  makes 
him  invulnerable.  Gawain  gives  the  lord  the 
kisses  but  not  the  girdle.  On  New  Year's 
Day  Gawain  goes  to  the  Green  Chapel  and 
meets  the  Green  Knight.  He  is  wounded, 
and  the  knight  reveals  that  he  is  lord  of  the 
castle  and  that  he  and  his  wife  had  agreed  to 
tempt  Gawain.  As  the  latter  has  emerged 
successfully  from  the  trial,  save  in  the  matter 
of  the  girdle,  he  has  saved  his  life  but  suffered 
a  wound.  Gawain  tells  his  story  to  the  court 
at  Camelot  and  all  the  knights  and  ladies 
agree  to  wear  like  girdles  of  green.  The 
poem  may  be  connected  with  the  creation 
of  the  order  of  the  garter  (q.v.).  The  same 
story,  in  a  later  version,  is  used  to  account 
for  the  foundation  of  the  order  of  the  bath. 

Gawry,  see  Peter  Wilkins* 

GAY,  JOHN  (1685-1732),  born  at  Barn- 
staple,  was  apprenticed  for  a  time  to  a  London 
mercer.  In  1708  he  published  an  indifferent 
poem  'Wine*,  denying  the  possibility  of 
successful  authorship  to  water-drinkers.  He 
was  secretary  to  the  duchess  of  Monmouth 
during  1712-14.  In  1713  he  issued  'Rural 
Sports*  on  the  model  of  Pope's  'Windsor', 
and  contributed  to  Steele's  'Guardian'.  His 
'Shepherd's  Week'  (q.v.),  the  first  work  that 
showed  his  real  ability,  appeared  in  1714. 
His  first  play,  'What  d'ye  Call  it',  a  satirical 
farce,  was  produced  in  1715,  and  his  'Trivia* 
(q.v.)  was  published  in  1716.  With  Pope  and 
Arbuthnot  he  wrote  'Three  Hours  after 
Marriage*,  a  comedy,  which  was  acted  in 
1717.  He  speculated  disastrously  in  South 
Sea  funds  with  the  proceeds  of  the  publica- 
tion of  his  poems,  and  his  hopes  of  advance- 
ment under  the  new  king  were  disappointed. 
He  became  an  inmate  of  the  household  of  the 
duke  and  duchess  of  Queensberry,  and  in 
1727  brought  out  the  first  series  of  his 
'Fables',  which  were  very  popular.  His 
'Beggar's  Opera*  (q.v.)  met  with  remarkable 
success  in  1728,  and  was  followed  by  the 
publication  of  its  sequel  'Polly'  (q.v.).  The 
production  of  the  latter  on  the  stage  was 
forbidden.  These  two  plays  contain  many  of 
Gay's  pleasant  ballads,  but  'Sweet  William's 
Farewell  to  Black-eyed  Susan*  was  published 
separately,  and  '  "Twas  when  the  seas  were 
roaring*  is  from  his  first  play.  Some  of  his 
'Eclogues*  and  the  'Epistles',  including  'Mr. 
Pope's  Welcome  from  Greece'  on  the  com- 
pletion of  Pope's  'Iliad',  deserve  notice.  He 
wrote  the  libretto  of  Handel's  *Acis  and 
Galatea'  in  1732,  and  'Achilles',  an  opera 
produced  at  Covent  Garden  in  1733.  The 
second  series  of  his  'Fables*  appeared  in 
1738  after  his  death.  He  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  and  on  his  monument  is 
inscribed  the  epitaph  written  by  himself: 

Life  is  a  jest,  and  all  things  show  it; 

I  thought  so  once,  and  now  I  know  it. 


GAY 

Gay,  WALTER,  a  character  in  Dickens  *s 
'Dombey  and  Son'  (q.v.). 
Gayferos,  DON,  in  Spanish  romance,  a  kins- 
man of  Roland  (q.v.)  and  husband  of  Meli- 
senda,  Charlemagne's  daughter.  The  latter 
was  carried  off  by  the  Moors  and  rescued  by 
Gayferos.  The  legend  is  referred  to  in  'Don 
Quixote*,  II.  xxvi,  where  it  is  the  subject  of  a 
puppet  play. 

Gaylord,  MAHCIA,  the  heroine  of  W.  D. 
Howells*  'A  Modern  Instance*  (q.v.),  and 
the  best  of  the  author's  female  characters. 
Gazette,  from  the  Italian  gazzetta,  ap- 
parently so  called  from  the  coin  of  that  name, 
which  may  have  been  the  surn  paid  either  for 
the  paper  itself  or  for  the  privilege  of  reading 
it.  [OED.]  The  gazzetta  was  a  news-sheet 
first  published  in  Venice  about  the  middle  of 
the  1  6th  cent.,  and  similar  news-sheets  (see 
Coranto}  appeared  in  England  in  the  iyth 
cent.,  giving  news  from  foreign  parts, 

The  OXFORD  GAZETTE  was  the  first  real 
newspaper,  other  than  a  newsletter,  to  be 
published  in  England.  It  appeared  in  Novem- 
ber 1665,  the  court  being  then  at  Oxford 
owing  to  the  great  plague,  and  was  started  by 
Henry  Muddiman  (q.v.)  under  the  direction 
of  Sir  Joseph  Williamson  (q.v.),  as  a  supple- 
ment to  Muddiman  Js  newsletters.  It  later 
became  the  *  London  Gazette*,  which  still 
survives.  The  'London  Gazette*  is  not  now 
a  newspaper,  but  a  record  of  official  appoint- 
ments, notices  of  bankruptcies,  &c.,  and  in 
war  time  it  is  the  official  register  of  casualties. 
Gazetteer,  a  geographical  index  or  diction- 
ary. A  work  of  this  kind  by  L.  Echard  (ed.  2, 
1693)  bore  the  title  *The  Gazetteer's  or  News- 
man's Interpreter;  Being  a  Geographical 
Index*,  intended  for  the  use  of  'gazetteers*  or 
journalists. 

Ge  or  GAEA,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  per- 
sonification of  the  earth,  a  divine  being,  the 
wife  of  Uranus  (q.v.),  and  mother  of  the 
Titans  (q.v.). 

GEBER,  an  Arabian,  thought  to  have  been 
born  at  Seville  at  the  end  of  the  8th  cent. 
Certain  Latin  works  on  alchemy  are  re- 
garded as  translations  from  his  Arabic  text. 
Whether  they  are  so,  or  who  their  Latin 
author  was,  and  what  were  his  relations  with 
the  Arabian  Geber,  is  uncertain.  Burton,  in 
the  Preface  to  the  'Anatomy  of  Melancholy*, 
speaks  of  him  as  fthat  first  inventor  of 
Algebra*,  which  implies  an  erroneous  deriva- 
tion of  the  latter  word. 


frf  an  epic  poem  by  W.  S.  Landor  (q.v.), 
published  in  1798. 

Gebir,  an  Iberian  prince,  invades  Egypt, 
but  his  conquest  is  arrested  by  his  love  for 
its  young  queen  Charoba.  By  the  treachery 
of  her  nurse,  Dalica,  he  is  slain  amid  the 
marriage  feast,  and  the  city  that  he  is  found- 
ing is  destroyed  by  magic.  Tamar,  his 
shepherd  brother,  whose  only  ambition  is 
to  win  the  love  of  a  sea-nymph,  is  carried 
away  by  her  beyond  the  world  of  mortals. 


GENESIS  AND  EXODUS 

Parts  of  the  poem  were  first  written  in 
Latin,  and  the  author  subsequently  published 
a  Latin  version,  'Gebirus'.  The  English 
poem  contains  the  often-quoted  passage  on 
a  shell:  Apply 

Its  polisht  lips  to  your  attentive  ear; 
And  it  remembers  its  august  abode, 
And  murmurs  as  the  ocean  murmurs  there. 
Geddes,    JENNY,  supposed    name   of   the 
woman  who  threw  a  stool  at  Bishop  Lindsay 
in  St.  Giles's,  Edinburgh,  when  the  new  ser- 
vice was  introduced,  temp.  Charles  I. 
Gehazi,  the  covetous  servant  of  Elisha,  who 
was   punished  with  leprosy  for  deceitfully 
obtaining,  in  his  master's  name,  a  present 
from  Naaman  (z  Kings  v*  20-7). 
Gehenna,  originally  a  place-name,  ge  ben 
hinnom,  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Hinnom,  near 
Jerusalem,  which  was  at  one  time  the  scene 
of  the  idolatrous  worship  of  a  god  named  in 
the  Hebrew  text  Molek.   This  worship  was 
abolished  in  the  religious  reforms  of  Jpsiah, 
and  the  valley  desecrated  (2  Kings  xxiii.  10). 
Thereafter  it  was  used  as  a  place  for  casting 
refuse,  and  the  dead  bodies  of  animals  and 
criminals.   Fires  were  kept  burning  there  to 
prevent  infection.  Hence  the  name  was  used 
figuratively  for  hell. 
Gelert,  see  Bethgelert. 
Gellatley,    DAVIE,    in    Scott's    'Waverley' 
(q.v.),  the  'innocent*  dependant  of  the  Baron 
Bradwardine,  in  whose  mouth  the  author 
places  some  of  his  finest  lyrics. 
GEIXIUS,  AULUS,  a  Latin  grammarian 
of  the  2nd  cent.  A.D.,  author  of  twenty  books 
of  'Noctes  Atticae',  so  named  because  they 
were  written  in  a  house  near  Athens   on 
winter  nights.  They  form  a  miscellany,  im- 
portant as  containing  extracts  from  many  lost 
authors,  on  many  topics,  literature,  history, 
philosophy,  philology,  and  natural  science. 
Gem,  The,  a  literary  annual,  edited  by  T. 
Hood  (q.v.),  1829-32. 
Gem  State,  Idaho,  see  United  States. 

Gemara,  the  later  of  the  two  portions  of  the 
Talmud  (q.v.),  consisting  of  a  commentary  on 
the  older  part  (the  Mishna). 

Gemini  ('the  twins'),  a  constellation,  other- 
wise known  as  *  Castor  (q.v.)  and  Pollux*;  also 
the  third  sign  of  the  zodiac  with  which  this 
constellation  was  anciently  identical. 

General,  MRS.,  in  Dickens's  'Little  Dorrit* 
(q.v.),  the  lady-companion  to  Mr,  Dorrit's 
daughters,  the  inventor  of  the  formula 
'prunes  and  prism*  (q.v.). 
Genesis,  meaning  origin,  creation,  is  the 
first  in  order  of  the  books  of  the  Bible,  con- 
taining the  account  of  the  creation  of  the 
world.  The  name  was  given  to  it  by  the  Greek 
translators.  For  the  OE.  poem  *  Genesis*  see 
under  Caedmon  and  Heliand. 
Genesis  and  Exodus,  poems  in  rhymed 
couplets,  written  about  the  middle  of  the  i3th 


GENEST 

cent.,  relating  scriptural  history  down  to  the 
death  of  Moses  in  popular  form,  based  not 
on  the  Bible,  but  mainly  on  the  'Historia 
Scholastica*  of  Petrus  Comestor;  and  impor- 
tant as  the  first  instance  in  English  of  the 
iambic  dimeter  frequently  used  by  later  poets, 
e.g.  by  Coleridge  in  'Christabel'. 

GENEST,  JOHN  (1764-1839),  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
author  of  'Some  Account  of  the  English 
Stage  from  the  Restoration  in  1660  to  1830* 
(1832),  an  exceptionally  trustworthy  book  of 
reference. 

Geneva,  in  Switzerland,  used  allusively  for 
the  League  of  Nations,  of  which  it  is  the  head- 
quarters. 

Geneva  or  GIN,  a  spirit  distilled  from  grain 
and  flavoured  with  the  juice  of  juniper 
(French  genievre)  berries,  whence  the  name. 
When  made  in  Holland,  it  is  known  as 
Hollands  or  Hollands  Geneva. 

Geneva  Bible,  see  Bible  (The  English}. 

Genevieve,  the  heroine  of  S.  T.  Coleridge's 
poem  'Love*,  first  published  in  the  'Morning 
Post*  (1799)  a^d  included  in  the  second 
edition  of  'Lyrical  Ballads'  (q.v.). 

Genevieve,  ST.  (c.  419-512),  the  patron 
saint  of  Paris,  was  born  at  Nanterre  and  went 
to  Paris,  where  she  lived  an  austere  life.  At 
the  time  of  Attila's  invasion  she  encouraged 
the  panic-stricken  inhabitants  and  urged 
them  to  repentance;  and  Attila  turned  away 
from  Paris  towards  Orleans. 

Genghis  Khan  (1162-1227),  the  great 
Mongol  conqueror,  whose  empire  at  his 
death  extended  from  the  shores  of  the  Pacific 
to  the  northern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea. 

Genius,  in  classical  pagan  belief,  the  tutelary 
god  or  attendant  spirit  allotted  to  every  per- 
son at  his  birth,  to  govern  his  fortunes  and 
determine  his  character;  also  the  tutelary 
spirit  similarly  connected  with  a  place  (whence 
the  expression  genius  loci),  an  institution,  &c. 
A  person's  good,  or  evil,  genius  are  the  two 
mutually  opposed  spirits  by  whom  every 
person  was  supposed  to  be  attended  through- 
out life.  [OED.] 

Genii,  the  plural,  is  also  used  as  a  rendering 
of  the  Arabic  jinn  (q.v.). 

Genre,  a  style  of  painting  in  which  scenes  and 
subjects  of  ordinary  life  are  depicted. 

GENTILIS,  ALBERICUS  (1552-1608),  an 
Italian,  the  most  learned  lawyer  of  his  time, 
and  D.C.L.  of  Perugia,  was  obliged  to  leave 
Italy  on  account  of  heretical  opinions.  He 
was  appointed  Regius  professor  of  civil  law  at 
Oxford  in  1587  and  practised  as  a  barrister 
in  England.  He  was  the  author  of  'De  Lega- 
tionibus*  (1584),  a  treatise  on  diplomatic 
privilege,  and  'De  Jure  Belli'  (1588-98). 
Gentilis  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
system  of  international  law,  and  Grotius  (q.v.) 
owed  much  to  him. 
Gentle  Art  of  Making  Enemies,  The,  a 


GENTLEMAN'S  MAGAZINE 

collection,  published  in  1890,  of  the  pungent 
letters  and  comments  of  J.  McN.  Whistler 
(q.v.)  on  criticisms  of  his  works.  The  first 
subject  dealt  with  is  Whistler's  libel  action 
against  Ruskin  in  respect  of  a  passage  in  'Fors 
Clavigera*. 

Gentle  Shepherd,  The,  see  under  Ramsay 
(A.). 

Gentleman  Dancing-Master,  The,  a  comedy 
by  Wycherley  (q.v.),  produced  in  1673. 

This  is  the  most  entertaining  of  Wycher- 
ley's  plays.  Hippolita,  daughter  of  Mr. 
Formal,  is  about  to  be  married  to  her  cousin, 
who  has  just  returned  from  France,  affects 
the  French  dress  and  language,  and  calls 
himself  Monsieur  de  Paris.  She  despises 
him,  but  has  been  kept  closely  pent  up  by 
her  aunt,  Mrs.  Caution,  and  knows  no  other 
man.  By  a  trick  she  induces  her  cousin  to 
send  Gerrard,  a  young  gentleman,  to  pay  her 
a  secret  visit,  and  they  fall  in  love  with  one 
another.  Her  father,  just  returned  from 
Spain,  who  affects  the  Spanish  dress  and 
punctilio,  and  calls  himself  Don  Diego, 
surprises  them  together,  whereupon  Hippo- 
lita passes  off  Gerrard  as  her  dancing-master. 
There  follow  a  number  of  diverting  scenes 
in  which  Gerrard  is  constantly  on  the  point 
of  being  betrayed  by  his  incompetence  as  a 
dancing-master,  but  is  saved  by  the  squabble 
between  Mrs.  Caution,  who  sees  through  the 
trick,  and  Don  Diego  who  cannot  conceive 
that  any  one  should  fool  him.  Finally  in  the 
turmoil  caused  by  Gerrard's  ultimate  ex- 
posure, the  lovers  avail  themselves  of  the 
services  of  the  parson  who  has  arrived  to 
marry  Hippolita  to  her  cousin. 

Gentleman  Usher,  The,  a  tragi-comedy,  by 
Chapman  (q.v.),  printed  in  1606,  and  prob- 
ably acted  about  1602. 

The  Duke  Alphonso  and  his  son  Vincentio 
are  both  in  love  with  Margaret,  daughter  of 
Earl  Lasso.  The  daughter  loves  Vincentio, 
who  is  ordered  into  exile.  Margaret  in  des- 
pair disfigures  herself  with  a  poisonous 
unguent.  The  duke,  remorseful,  surrenders 
Margaret,  who  on  account  of  her  disfigure- 
ment refuses  to  marry  Vincentio.  But  the 
doctor  provides  a  remedy  and  solves  the 
difficulty.  The  name  of  the  play  is  taken  from 
the  usher,  Bassiolo,  a  conceited  major-domo, 
somewhat  after  the  kind  of  Malvolio,  who 
acts  as  go-between  for  the  lovers  and  is 
fooled  and  made  ridiculous. 

Gentleman1  s  Journal,  a  periodical  edited  by 
Motteux  (q.v.)  from  1691  to  1694,  con- 
taining the  news  of  the  month  and  mis- 
cellaneous prose  and  poetry.  It  was  the 
germ  of  the  modern  magazine. 

Gentleman's  Magazine,  The,  a  periodical 
founded  in  1731  by  Cave  (q.v.),  under  ^the 
pseudonym  Sylvanus  Urban.  Its  original 
intention  was  to  reproduce  monthly  from  the 
journals  such  news,  essays,  or  other  matter 
as  appeared  most  interesting.  Hence  the  use 
for  the  first  time  of  the  word  'magazine* 


GEOFFREY  CRAYON 

in  this  sense.  By  January  1739  original 
matter  had  largely  replaced  such  extracts; 
the  magazine  assumed  a  more  serious  char- 
acter, and  included  parliamentary  reports, 
map§,  music,  and  a  record  of  publications. 
The  change  in  the  character  of  the  paper  was 
in  accordance  with  suggestions  made  to  the 
editor  by  Samuel  Johnson  (q.v.),  who  at  this 
time  became  a  regular  contributor  (until  1 744), 
with  considerable  influence  on  its  manage- 
ment. He  at  first  edited,  and  subsequently 
wrote,  the  parliamentary  reports.  The 
'Gentleman's  Magazine*  lasted  until  1914. 

GEOFFREY  CRAYON,  see  Crayon. 

GEOFFREY  OF  MONMOUTH,  Gaufri- 
dus  Monemutensis  (noo?-ii54),  probably 
a  Benedictine  monk  of  Monmouth,  studied  at 
Oxford,  and  was  attached  to  Robert,  earl  of 
Gloucester.  He  is  said  to  have  been  arch- 
deacon of  Llandaff,  and  he  was  appointed 
bishop  of  St.  Asaph  in  1152. 

In  his  'Historia  Regum  Britanniae*  he 
purports  to  give  an  account  of  'the  kings  who 
dwelt  in  Britain  before  the  incarnation  of 
Christ*  and  especially  of  'Arthur  and  the 
many  others  who  succeeded  him  after  the 
incarnation".  For  this  purpose  he  states  that 
he  drew  upon  a  'most  ancient  book  in  the 
British  tongue*  handed  to  him  by  Walter, 
archdeacon  of  Oxford,  also  known  as  Walter 
Calenius  (q.v.) ;  but  this  book  is  unknown  to 
any  chronicler  of  the  time.  There  is  reason 
to  suppose  that  this  alleged  work  was  in  the 
main  a  mystification;  his  contemporary, 
William  of  Newburgh  (q.v.),  condemns  it 
as  such  in  strong  terms.  Geoffrey's  veracity 
was  also  challenged  by  Ranulf  Higden 
('Polychronicon').  Geoffrey  drew  on  Bede 
and  Nennius,  on  British  traditions,  perhaps  on 
Welsh  documents  now  lost,  and  probably  for 
the  rest  on  a  romantic  imagination.  He  is  the 
creator  of  King  Arthur  as  a  romantic  hero.  His 
'Historia*  was  translated  into  Anglo-Norman 
by  Gaimar  and  Wace,  and  into  English  by 
Layamon  and  Robert  of  Gloucester;  it  was 
first  printed  in  1508  (Paris).  There  is  a  good 
modern  translation  (1903)  by  Sebastian 
Evans.  Geoffrey's  'Prophetia  AngKcana  Mer- 
lini  Ambrosii  BritannT  was  first  printed  in 
1603.  See  also  Edmund  Faral,  'La  Le*gende 
Arthurienne;  des  engines  a  Geoffrey  de 
Monmouth  . .  /,  3  vols.,  published  in  1929  by 
Champion. 

Geoffry  Hamlyn,  see,  Kingsley  (H.). 
George  I,  king  of  England,  1714-27. 
George  II,  king  of  England,  1727-60. 
George  III,  king  of  England,  1760-1820. 
George  IV,  king  of  England,  1820-30. 
George  V,  ascended  the  throne  as  king  of 
England  in  May  1910. 

George,  GUILD  OF  ST.,  see  Ruskin. 
GEORGE,  HENRY  (1839-97),  American 
writer  on  political  economy  and  sociology, 
author  of  'Progress  and  Poverty*  (1879),  'The 


GEORGE  BARNWELL 

Land  Question'  (1883),  'Social  Problems* 
(1884),  'Protection  or  Free  Trade'  (1886). 
George  was  an  advocate  of  the  nationalization 
of  land  and  of  the  'single  tax*  on  its  increment 
value. 

George,  ST.,  patron  saint  of  England, 
Portugal,  and  formerly  of  Aragon  and  the 
republic  of  Genoa,  is  said  to  have  been  a 
native  of  Cappadocia,  who,  according  to 
Metaphrastes,  the  Byzantine  hagiologist, 
rose  to  high  military  rank  under  Diocletian. 
He  was  arrested  on  account  of  his  Christian 
religion,  tortured,  and  executed  at  Nicomedia 
in  A.D.  303,  his  remains  being  subsequently 
transferred  to  Lydda.  The  legend  is  open  to 
criticism,  but  it  is  probable  that  there  was  an 
officer  of  his  name  in  the  Roman  army  who 
suffered  martyrdom  under  Diocletian.  Gib- 
bon adopted,  it  appears  wrongly,  the  view 
that  St.  George  was  identical  with  a  certain 
Arian  bishop  of  Alexandria,  a  man  of  dis- 
creditable antecedents  as  a  purveyor  of  pro- 
visions to  the  army  ('Decline  and  Fall',  xxiii). 
St.  George's  connexion  with  the  dragon  is 
of  much  later  date  and  its  origin  is  obscure. 
The  saint  is  perhaps  the  inheritor  of  some 
local  myth,  such  as  that  of  Perseus  (q.v.)  who 
slew  at  Joppa  (near  Lydda)  the  monster  that 
threatened  Andromeda.  Sir  Wallis  Budge 
(£ George  of  Lydda')  regards  the  dragon  as 
merely  symbolical  of  the  powers  of  evil. 
St.  George  has  been  recognized  as  the 
patron  saint  of  England  from  the  days  of 
Edward  III,  perhaps  because  of  having  been 
regarded  as  the  patron  of  the  order  of  the 
garter.  He  is  commemorated  on  23  April. 

George  and  Vulture,  THE,  a  hostelry  in 
George  Yard,  Lombard  Street.  It  was  the 
temporary  abode  of  Mr.  Pickwick  and  Sam 
Welter  when  the  action  of  Bardell  and  Pick- 
wick was  impending  ('Pickwick  Papers',  ch. 
xxvi,  xxxi,  &c.).  It  is  said  to  have  been 
previously  a  coffee-house,  frequented  by 
Swift,  Addison,  and  Steele,  and  at  a  later 
period  by  Hogarth  and  Wilkes. 

George  Barnwell,  The  History  of,  or  The 
London  Merchant,  a  domestic  tragedy  in 
prose  by  Lillo  (q.v.),  produced  in  1731. 

In  this  play,  for  the  first  time,  everyday 
commercial  life  is  made  the  theme  of  a 
tragedy.  The  play  was  a  great  success,  was 
translated  into  French,  German,  and  Dutch, 
and  was  highly  commended  by  Diderot  (q.v.), 
and  by  Lessing  (q.v.),  who  modelled  on  it  his 
*Miss  Sara  Sampson*.  The  story  was  parodied 
in  the  'George  Barnwell  Travestie'  of  the 
'Rejected  Addresses*  (q.v.),  and  caricatured 
by  Thackeray  in  'George  de  Barnwell'.  It 
is  based  on  an  old  ballad  of  'George  Barn- 
weir,  and  deals  with  the  seduction  of  an 
apprentice  by  the  heartless  courtesan  Mill- 
wood. He  becomes  so  infatuated  that  he  not 
only  robs  his  employer,  Thorowgood,  but  is 
even  induced  by  Millwood  to  murder  his 
uncle,  for  which  crime  he  and  Millwood  are 
brought  to  execution. 


GEORGE  PLAYS 

George  Plays,  ST.,  see  Mummers*  Play. 

George-a'-Green,  the  merry  pinner  or 
pinder  (pound-keeper)  of  Wakefield.  The 
story  is  given  in  W.  C.  Hazlitt's  'Tales  and 
Legends'.  George-a*-Green  wins  the  pinder- 
ship  by  defeating  all  competitors  at  quarter- 
staff,  defies  the  messenger  who  conies  from 
Prince  John  (during  Richard  I's  absence) 
demanding  a  contribution  from  Wakefield, 
and  elopes  with  Justice  Grymes's  daughter. 
Maid  Marian  provokes  Robin  Hood  to 
challenge  him,  but  George-a'- Green  defeats 
both  Robin  and  his  companions. 

He  is  the  subject  of  a  play  (licensed  for 
publication,  1595;  the  earliest  known  edition 
appears  to  be  that  of  1599,  in  the  Bodleian) 
probably  by  Robert  Greene  (q.v.). 

George's,  ST.,  HANOVER  SQUARE,  one  of  the 
fifty  new  churches  built  after  the  Fire  of 
London,  completed  in  1724,  frequently  re- 
ferred to  as  the  scene  of  fashionable  wed- 
dings, where  the  duke  of  Wellington  gave 
away  many  brides. 

Georgian  Poetry,  an  anthology  of  contem- 
porary verse  initiated  in  1912  by  a  group  con- 
sisting of  Rupert  Brooke,  John  Drinkwater, 
Harold  Monro,  Wilfrid  Wilson  Gibson, 
Arundel  del  Re",  and  Edward  Marsh,  of 
which  five  volumes  appeared  between  1912 
and  1 922,  containing  poems  by  Rupert  Brooke, 
William  H.  Davies,  W.  de  la  Mare,  John 
Drinkwater,  D.  H.  Lawrence,  John  Mase- 
field,  Robert  Graves,  James  Elroy  Flecker, 
and  others. 

Georgics,  The,  a  didactic  poem  by  Virgil 
(q.v.)  in  four  books  on  agriculture,  the  care 
of  domestic  animals,  and  the  keeping  of  bees. 

Gemini  and  Enid,  one  of  Tennyson's  'Idylls 
of  the  King',  originally  forming  with  "The 
Marriage  of  Geraint*  a  single  idyll,  'Enid*. 
The  story  is  taken  from  Lady  Charlotte 
Guest's  'Mabinogion*  (q.v.).  It  was  pub- 
lished in  1859. 

In  this  idyll  the  baneful  influence  of  the 
sin  of  Guinevere  is  first  indicated.  Geraint, 
one  of  Arthur's  knights  and  a  tributary 
prince  of  Devon,  the  husband  of  Enid, 
daughter  of  earl  Yniol,  fearing  the  contami- 
nating influence  of  Guinevere  upon  his  wife, 
withdraws  from  the  court  to  his  own  lands. 
A  word  spoken  by  Enid  (*Oh,  me !  I  fear  that 
I  am  no  true  wife*)  and  misunderstood  by 
him,  confirms  this  fear  and  provokes  him  to 
senseless  suspicion  of  her  fidelity.  He  now 
rides  out  into  bandit-haunted  lands,  making 
her  ride  before  and  forbidding  her  to  speak 
to  him.  Her  devotion  to  him  in  successive 
encounters,  in  meeting  the  dishonourable 
proposal  of  Earl  Limours,  and  in  the  hall  of 
Earl  Doorm  when  he  lies  wounded,  gradually 
convinces  him  of  her  innocence  and  wins  back 
his  love. 

Geraldine,  THE  FAIR,  see  Surrey. 
Gerard,  the  hero  of  Reade's  'The  Cloister 
and  the  Hearth'  (q.v.). 


GERTRUDE  OF  WYOMING 

GERARD,  JOHN  (1545-1612),  a  herbalist 
and  superintendent  of  Burghley's  gardens, 
was  author  of  the  celebrated  'Herbal!  or 
generall  Historic  of  Plantes'  (1597),  in  a  large 
measure  adapted  from  the  'Pemptades'  of 
Rembert  Dodoens.  A  revised  edition  of  the 
'Herball*  was  issued  by  Thomas  Johnson  in 
*653.  The  work  gives  a  description  of  each 
plant,  the  localities  in  which  it  is  found,  and 
its  medical  virtues  (correcting  superstitions, 
e.g.  about  the  mandrake) ;  discusses  nomen- 
clature; and  contains  a  large  number  of 
beautiful  woodcuts,  many  of  which  had 
appeared  in  an  earlier  work. 

Gerbert  of  Aquitaine,  Pope  Sylvester  II 
(999-1003),  the  greatest  figure  an  the  loth- 
nth  cents.,  reckoned  a  magician  for  his 
knowledge,  inventor,  mathematician,  scholar. 
He  was  archbishop  successively  of  Rheims 
and  Ravenna  before  his  election  to  the  papal 
see. 

Gerd  or  GERDA,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  frozen  earth,  whom  Frey  (q.v.)  marries. 

Germ,  The,  Thoughts  towards  Nature  in 
Poetry,  Literature,  and  Art,  a  periodical  of 
which  the  first  number  appeared  on  i  Jan. 
1850.  It  was  the  organ  of  the  'Pre-Raphaelite 
Brotherhood*  (q.v.).  The  title  was  changed 
in  the  third  number  to  'Art  and  Poetry,  being 
Thoughts  towards  Nature'.  Only  four  num- 
bers in  all  appeared. 

Gernutus,  the  Jew  of  Venice,  an  old  ballad 
included  in  Percy's  'Reliques*,  embodying  a 
story  (somewhat  resembling  that  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Merchant  of  Venice')  in  which  a 
Jew  wagers  a  pound  of  his  flesh  that  certain 
property  which  he  had  insured  has  not  been 
lost. 

G6ronte,  in  Mol&re's  comedies,  the  typical 
old  man  whose  absurdities  are  held  up  to 
ridicule.  In  *Les  Fourberies  de^  Scaping  he 
is  a  miser,  outwitted  by  Scapm.  In  £Le 
M£decin  malgre"  lui',  he  is  a  credulous  fool, 
imposed  upon  by  Sganarelle. 

Gerontius,  Dream  of,  see  Newman. 

Gerrymander,  so  to  arrange  election  dis- 
tricts that  a  particular  political  party  shall 
obtain  a  representation  out  of  proportion  to 
its  numerical  strength.  The  word  is  derived 
from  Elbridge  Gerry,  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, who  in  1812  so  arranged  the  boundaries 
of  the  constituencies  in  that  state  that  the 
map  of  Essex  county  presented  the  appear- 
ance, some  one  said,  of  a  salamander. 
'Gerry-mander',  exclaimed  Gerry,  and  the 
word  became  a  proverb.  [OEDJ 

Gertrude,  the  queen  of  Denmark  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Hamlet*  (q.v.). 
Gertrude  of  Wyoming,  a  poem  by  Campbell 
(q.v.),  in  the  Spenserian  stanza,  published  in 
1809. 

The  poem  centres  in  the  desolation  in 
1778  of  the  settlement  of  Wyoming,  in 
Pennsylvania,  by  a  force  of  Indians  under 


[315] 


GERUSALEMME  LIBERATA 

one  Brandt,  a  Mohawk,  and  the  destruction 
of  the  felicity  of  a  home  by  the  death  of 
Gertrude,  the  newly  married  wife  of  Henry 
Waldegrave,  and  of  her  father  Albert.  Camp- 
bell subsequently  withdrew  the  charge  of 
cruelty  against  Brandt. 

Gerusalemme  Liberata,  see  Jerusalem  De- 
livered. 

Geryon,  a  monster  with  three  bodies  and 
three  heads,  who  lived  in  the  island  of  Gades. 
He  owned  numerous  oxen,  guarded  by  the 
two-headed  dog  Orthrus  and  the  giant 
Eurytion.  All  three  were  destroyed  by 
Hercules  (q.v.),  who  carried  away  the  oxen. 

In  Dante's  'Inferno*  (xvii-xviii)  he  is  the 
symbol  of  Fraud  and  guardian  of  the  Eighth 
Circle  of  Hell,  the  place  of  punishment  of 
traitors.  He  has  the  face  of  a  just  man,  two 
hairy  arms,  and  a  forked  tail. 

Geryoneo,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
v.  x  and  xi,  a  giant  who  represents  Philip  II 
of  Spain,  the  Spanish  power  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  the  Inquisition. 

GESNER,  JOHANN  MATHIAS  (1691- 
1761),  a  German  pioneer  of  humanistic 
studies,  author  of  the  'Novus  Linguae  et 
Eruditionis  Romanae  Thesaurus*  (1749)  and 
editor  of  various  classics;  a  precursor  of 
Lessing  and  Goethe. 

Gessler,  see  Tell. 

Gesta  Fmncorwn,  a  chronicle  in  medieval 
Latin,  the  first  known  to  have  been  written 
by  a  layman.  It  gives  the  story  of  the  First 
Crusade.  Its  actual  author  is  unknown.  It 
has  been  edited  by  Hagenmayer  (1890),  and 
by  Miss  B.  Lees  for  the  Clarendon  Press 
(1924). 

Gesta  Romanorwn,  a  collection  of  tales  in 
Latin,  some  of  Eastern  origin,  romances  of 
chivalry,  and  legends  of  saints,  originally 
compiled  on  the  Continent  in  the  i4th  cent, 
and  first  printed  about  1472.  An  English 
translation  was  printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde 
(q.v.).  Though  Roman  emperors  are  men- 
tioned^  in  some  of  these,  they  are  not  true 
narratives  of  historical  events.  To  each  tale  a 
moral  is  attached.  They  provided  materials 
for  many  subsequent  authors. 
Gestas,  see  Dismas. 

Gettysburg,  in  southern  Pennsylvania,  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  in  1863  of  the  confederate 
army  under  Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee  by  the  Federals 
under  Gen.  Meade.  See  Lincoln  (A.). 

Ghebers,  see  Guebres. 
Ghost  of  Abel,  The,  see  Blake. 

Ghost- words,  a  term  used  by  Skeat  (q.v.) 
to  signify  words  which  have  no  real  existence, 
'coinages  due  to  the  blunders  of  printers  or 
scribes,  or  to  the  perfervid  imaginations  of 
ignorant  or  blundering  editors*  ('Trans 
Philol.  Soc.%  1885-7,  ii.  350). 
Giafar,  see.Jfcyar. 

[3 


GIBBON 

Giaffir,  in  Byron's  'The  Bride  of  Abydos* 
(q.v.),  the  father  of  Zuleika. 
Giant  Pope,  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's  Progress* 
(q.v.),  a  giant  by  whose  power  and  tyranny 
many  men  have  in  old  time  been  cruelly  put 
to  death,  but  who  is  grown  so  crazy  and 
stiff  in  his  joints  that  he  can  now  do  little 
more  than  sit  in  his  cave's  mouth,  grinning 
at  the  pilgrims  as  they  go  by,  and  biting  his 
nails  because  he  cannot  come  at  them. 

Giants  or  GIGANTES,  THE,  according  to  Greek 
mythology,  were  children  of  Ge  (q.v.),  of 
great  stature  and  strength ,  frequently  confused 
with  the  Titans  (q.v.).  They  are  said  to  have 
conspired  to  dethrone  Zeus,  and  heaped 
PeHon  on  Ossa  in  order  to  scale  the  walls  of 
heaven.  Zeus  called  in  the  aid  of  Hercules 
and  routed  them. 

Giaour,  The,  a  poem  by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.), 
published  in  1813.  Eight  editions  of  the  work 
appeared  in  the  last  seven  months  of  that  year, 
increasing  in  length  from  685  lines  to  1334. 
The  word  'giaour*  (pronounced  'dja-oor') 
is  a  term  of  reproach  applied  by  Turks  to  non- 
Moslems,  especially  Christians.  The  tale  is 
of  a  female  slave,  Leila,  who  is  unfaithful  to 
her  Turkish  lord,  Hassan,  and  is  in  con- 
sequence bound  and  thrown  into  the  sea. 
Her  lover,  the  Giaour,  avenges  her  by  killing 
Hassan.  The  story  is  told  in  fragments,  at  first 
by  a  Turkish  fisherman,  who  witnesses  some 
of  the  events,  and  finally  in  the  Giaour's 
confession  to  a  monk. 

Gibbie,  GUSE,  in  Scott's  'Old  Mortality* 
(q.v.),  a  half-witted  lad,  of  very  small  stature, 
who  kept  Lady  Bellenden's  poultry, 

GIBBON,  EDWARD  (1737-94),  born  at 
Putney-on-Thames,  of  a  good  family,  was 
educated  at  Westminster  and  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  but  derived  little  benefit 
from  either.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  became 
a  Roman  Catholic,  and  was  sent  by  his  father 
to  Lausanne,  where  he  was  reconverted  to 
Protestantism  and  read  widely.  Here  he 
became  attached  to  Susanne  Curchod  (after- 
wards Madame  Necker),  but  in  deference  to 
his  father  broke  off  the  engagement.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1758  and  published 
his  'Essai  sur  l*£tude  de  la  Literature*  in 
1761,  of  which  an  English  version  appeared 
in  1764.  From  1759  to  1763  he  served  in  the 
Hampshire  militia,  and  in  1764,  during  a  tour 
in  Italy,  while  'musing  amid  the  ruins  of  the 
Capitol',  formed  the  plan  of  bis  'History  of 
the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire* 
(q.v.).  The  death  of  his  father,  who  had 
wasted  his  wealth,  left  him  in  some  em- 
barrassment, but  enough  remained  from  the 
wreck  to  enable  him  to  settle  in  London  in 
1772  and  proceed  with  his  great  work. 

He  entered  parliament  in  1774,  voted 
steadily  for  Lord  North,  and  was  made  a 
commissioner  of  trade  and  plantations;  but 
his  parliamentary  career  added  nothing  to  his 
reputation,  though  he  regarded  it  as  *a  school 
of  civil  prudence*.  In  1776  appeared  the  first 

•16] 


GIBBONS 

volume  of  his  'History*,  which  was  very 
favourably  received ;  but  his  chapters  on  the 
growth  of  Christianity  provoked  criticisms,  of 
which  the  most  weighty  were  those  of  Lord 
Hailes  and  Person.  To  his  theological  critics 
Gibbon  replied  in  1779  in  'A  Vindication  of 
some  Passages  in  the  Fifteenth  and  Sixteenth 
Chapters'.  The  second  and  third  volumes 
appeared  in  1781,  but  were  less  warmly 
received.  He  retired  to  Lausanne  in  1783, 
where  he  completed  the  work,  of  which  the 
last  three  volumes  were  published  in  1788. 
Gibbon  returned  to  England  and  passed  most 
of  his  remaining  days  under  the  roof  of  his 
friend  the  earl  of  Sheffield  (John  Baker 
Holroyd).  He  died  in  London,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  Fletching  (Sussex). 
His  'Memoirs',  put  together  by  Lord  Shef- 
field from  various  fragments  by  Gibbon,  were 
published  in  1796,  together  with  his  'Mis- 
cellaneous Works'  (1796-1 81 5).  An  edition  of 
the  'Decline  and  Fall1  with  preface  and  notes 
by  H.  H.  Milman  was  published  in  1838-9; 
another  with  notes  by  Milman,  Guizot,  and 
William  Smith  in  1854;  and  a  standard 
edition  by  J.  B.  Bury,  in  1909-13. 

Gibbons,  GRINLING  (1648-1720),  wood- 
carver  and  statuary,  was  discovered  by 
Evelyn  (q.v.)  in  1671  working  at  Deptford 
on  his  carving  of  Tintoretto's  'Crucifixion', 
which  was  shown  to  Wren  and  Pepys.  He 
was  employed  by  Wren  to  carve  stalls  in 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral  and  various  new  London 
churches,  and  by  the  king  at  Windsor, 
Whitehall,  £c.  He  executed  statues  of 
Charles  II  at  the  Royal  Exchange  and  of 
James  II  at  Whitehall.  He  was  buried  in 
St.  Paul's,  Covent  Garden. 
Gibbons,  ORLANDO  (1583-1625),  composer, 
especially  of  madrigals. 

Gibraltar,  from  gebel-el-Tarikt  the  hill  of 
Tank,  a  Saracen  commander  who,  after 
probably  landing  there,  defeated  Roderick, 
king  of  the  Goths,  in  711.  It  was  known  to 
the  ancients  as  Calpe,  or,  with  Abyla  on  the 
opposite  coast,  as  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  It 
was  captured  by  the  British  under  Sir  George 
Rooke  in  1704,  besieged  in  1705-6,  assigned 
to  England  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  again 
besieged  in  1726,  and  gallantly  defended 
against  the  French  and  Spaniards  by  General 
Ehott  (Lord  Heathfield),  1779-83. 

Gibson,  DR.,  MRS.,  and  MOLLY,  characters 
in  Mrs.  Gaskell's  'Wives  and  Daughters' 
(q.v.). 

GIDE,  ANDR6(i86o-  ),  French  novelist, 
author  of  'L'Immoraliste*  (1903),  *Les  Caves 
du  Vatican"  (1914),  *Les  Faux  Monnayeurs" 
(1926),  'Si  le  grain  ne  meurt'(i92i,  autobio- 
graphy). 

GIFFORD,  WILLIAM  (1756-1826),  the 
son  of  a  glazier  at  Ashburton  and  a  shoe- 
maker's apprentice  (see  under  Apelles  and  the 
Cobbler),  was  sent  by  the  help  of  William 
Cookesley,  a  surgeon,  to  Exeter  College,  Ox- 
ford. He  published  in  1794  and  1795  two 


GILBERT 

satires,  'The  Baviad'  and  'The  Maeviad', 
against  the  Delia  Cruscan  (q.v.)  school  of 
poets  and  the  contemporary  drama.  He 
became  editor  of  'The  Anti-Jacobin*  (q.v.)  in 
1797,  and  in  1809  first  editor  of  the  'Quarterly 
Review'  (q.v.).  Gifford's  rigorous  adherence, 
as  a  literary  critic,  to  the  old  school  in 
literature  and  his  hatred  of  radicals  gave 
bitterness  to  his  judgements  of  the  rising 
authors.  He  probably  wrote  the  attack  on 
Keats 's  'Endymion*  in  1818.  He  translated 
Juvenal  (1802)  and  Persius  (1821),  and 
edited  some  of  the  older  English  dramatists. 
A  short  autobiography  is  prefixed  to  the 
translation  of  Juvenal. 

Gifford  Lectures,  on  natural  theology 
without  reference  to  creeds,  founded  in  the 
universities  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aber- 
deen, and  St.  Andrews  by  the  bequest  of 
£80,000  by  Adam,  Lord  Gifford  (1820-87), 
a  Scottish  Judge. 

Gigadibs,  MR.,  in  R.  Browning's  'Bishop 
Blougram's  Apology*  (q.v.),  the  bishop's 
interlocutor. 

Gil  Bias  of  Santilane,  The  Adventures  of,  a 
picaresque  romance  by  Le  Sage  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished 1715-35. 

Gil  Bias,  the  son  of  humble  parents,  at 
seventeen  is  sent  off  on  a  mule,  with  a  few 
ducats  in  his  pocket  and  little  in  the  way  of 
scruples  or  morality,  to  the  University  of 
Salamanca.  He  never  reaches  it,  but  falls  in 
with  robbers,  by  whom  he  is  detained.  This 
is  the  beginning  of  a  long  series  of  adven- 
tures, in  the  course  of  which  he  takes  service 
with  Dr.  Sangrado  (a  quack  physician)  and 
becomes  a  physician  himself,  with  the  arch- 
bishop of  Granada  (who  after  inviting  Gil 
Bias's  criticisms  of  his  sermons,  resents  it 
when  given),  and  a  great  variety  of  other 
persons.  He  finally  becomes  the  secretary 
and  confidant  of  Olivares,  the  prime  minister 
of  Spain,  and  attains  prosperity,  having 
acquired  worldly  wisdom,  and  even  some 
tincture  of  benevolence  and  morality,  from 
his  experiences.  The  work  gives  an  admir- 
able satiric  picture  of  Spanish  life  of  the 
period,  though  Le  Sage  never  saw  Spain. 
It  was  translated  into  English  (or  the  transla- 
tion was  revised)  by  Smollett  (q.v.)  in  1749. 

'Gil  Bias*  is  also  the  title  of  a  comedy  by 
E.  Moore  (q.v.). 

Gil  Morrice,  the  subject  of  an  old  Scottish 
ballad,  included  in  Percy's  'Reliques*.  He  is 
the  natural  son  of  an  earl  and  Lady  Bar- 
nard. A  message  he  sends  to  his  mother  leads 
Lord  Barnard  to  think  that  he  is  his  wife's 
lover,  and  to  fall  on  him  and  slay  him.  The 
ballad  is  the  same  as  that  of  'Child  Maurice* 
in  the  'Oxford  Book  of  Ballads',  where  'Lord 
Barnard'  is  'John  Steward*. 

GILBERT,  SIR  HUMPHREY  (1539  ?-83)» 
step-brother  of  Sir  Walter  Ralegh,  made  his 
first  voyage  of  discovery  with  the  latter  in 
1578.  In  1583  he  left  Plymouth  with  five 
ships  for  Newfoundland,  where  he  founded 


GILBERT 

the  first  British  colony  in  North  America. 
On  his  return  journey  his  ship  the  'Squirrel' 
was  lost  in  a  storm  off  the  Azores.  Hakluyt 
(q.v.)  gives  a  striking  narrative  of  his  end. 
Gilbert  was  the  authoj  of  a  'Discourse  of  a 
Discoverie  for  a  new  passage  to  Cataia*, 
published  in  1576,  urging  the  search  for  the 
North- West  Passage. 

GILBERT,  WILLIAM  (1540-1603),  physi- 
cian to  Queen  Elizabeth  and  James  I.  He 
declared  the  earth  to  be  a  magnet  in  his  *De 
Magnete'  (1600),  the  first  great  scientific  book 
to  be  published  in  England. 
GILBERT,  SIR  WILLIAM  SCHWENK 
(1836-191 1),  after  service  as  an  officer  in  the 
militia  and  as  a  clerk  in  the  Education 
Department,  began  his  literary  career  in  1861 
as  a  regular  contributor  to  'Fun*.  He  excelled 
as  a  writer  of  humorous  verse,  and  his  'Bab 
Ballads*  (q.v.),  originally  contributed  to  eFun* 
and  published  in  volume  formin  1 869-73 ,  were 
very  popular.  He  commenced  playwright 
with  'Dulcamara*,  a  successful  burlesque,  in 
1866.  He  wrote  a  blank-verse  fairy  comedy 
'The  Palace  of  Truth5  (1870),  'Pygmalion  and 
Galatea*  (1871),  and  various  serious  dramas 
in  verse.  His  very  successful  comedy  'The 
Happy  Land'  (1873)  was  written  in  collabora- 
tion with  Gilbert  Arthur  a  Beckett.  He 
collaborated  with  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan  for 
D'Oyly  Carte's  opera  company  in  a  long 
series  of  comic  operas  (see  Gilbert  and 
Sullivan).  Gilbert  collaborated  with  Alfred 
CelHer  in  'The  Mountebanks'  (1892)  and 
with  Edward  German  in  'Fallen  Fairies' 
(1909).  "The  Hooligans',  a  serious  sketch, 
appeared  in  1911. 

Gilbert  and  Sullivan  Operas,  comic 
operas,  including  much  social  and  topical 
satire,  written  in  collaboration  by  Sir  W.  S. 
Gilbert  and  Sir  A.  Sullivan  (qq.v.)  for 
Richard  D'Oyly  Carte  (1844-1901).  The 
operas  are:  'Trial  by  Jury*  (1875),  'The 
Sorcerer'  (1877),  'H.M.S.  Pinafore'  ^(1878), 
*The  Pirates  of  Penzance*  (produced  in  New 
York,  1879,  and  in  London,  1880),  'Patience* 
(1881),  'lolanthe'  (1883),  'Princess  Ida* 
(1884),  'The  Mikado'  (1885),  'Ruddigore' 
(1887),  'The  Yeomen  of  the  Guard'  (1888), 
'The  Gondoliers'  (1889),  'Utopia,  Limited' 
(1893),  and  'The  Grand  Duke'  (1896).  They 
are  known  as  the  'Savoy  Operas'  because 
from  'lolanthe*  onwards  they  were  produced 
at  the  Savoy  Theatre. 

Gilbert  Markham,  in  Anne  Bronte's  'Wild- 
fell  Hall'  (q.v.),  die  narrator  of  the  story,  and 
one  of  the  principal  characters. 

Gilbert  of  Sempringham,  ST.  (1083?- 

1189),  the  founder  of  the  Gilbertine  order 
(c.  1135),  with  head-quarters  at  Serapring- 
ham  in  Lincolnshire,  which  included  both 
monks  and  nuns,  numbered  thirteen  houses, 
and  did  good  educational  work.  He  was  held 
in  great  regard  by  Henry  II  and  Queen 
Eleanor,  lived  to  be  over  100,  and  was 
canonized  by  Innocent  III. 


GILES'S  FAIR 

Gilbertian,  a  word  derived  from  the  name 
of  Sir  W.  S.  Gilbert  (q.v.)  to  signify  the  kind 
of  humorous  absurdity  and  topsy-turvydom 
which  distinguishes  many  of  the  characters 
and  situations  in  the  librettos  of  the  Gilbert 
and  Sullivan  operas. 

Gnbertines,  see  Gilbert  of  Sempringham. 
GILGHRIST,  ALEXANDER  (1828-61), 
author  of  a  'Life  of  Etty3  (1855)  and  of  a 
'Life  of  Blake*.  The  latter  was  finished  by  his 
widow,  Anne  Gilchrist  (1828-85),  and  pub- 
lished in  1863.  She  also  published  a  'Life  of 
Mary  Lamb*  (1883)  and  essays  on  Walt 
Whitman's  poetry. 

GILD  AS,  a  British  historian,  who  lived  in 
the  west  of  England  and  wrote  in  Latin 
shortly  before  547  a  sketch  of  the  history  of 
Britain,  *De  Excidio  et  Cpnquestu  Britanniae', 
followed  by  a  castigation  of  the  degraded 
princes  and  clergy  of  his  day.  In  the  historical 
portion  he  says  nothing  of  Arthur,  but  refers 
to  the  victory  of  Mount  Badon  (q.v.). 

Gilderoy,  a  famous  Scottish  highwayman, 
whose  real  name  was  Patrick  Macgregor  (of 
the  same  clan  as  Rob  Roy),  who  carried  on 
depredations  in  Perthshire.  He  was  hanged 
in  1636  at  Edinburgh.  He  is  the  subject  of 
one  of  the  ballads  in  Percy's  'Reliques',  and 
of  a  ballad  by  T.  Campbell  (a  lament  for 
Gilderoy  by  his  wife). 

Gildippe,  in  Tasso's  e Jerusalem  Delivered* 
(q.v.,  x.  71  and  xx.  32),  a  female  warrior  in  the 
Christian  host. 

Giles,  BROTHER,  of  Assisi  (d.  c.  1261), 
convert  and  friend  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi 
(q.v.).  An  account  of  his  life  is  given  in 
'Blessed  Giles  of  Assisi',  by  W.  W.  Seton 
(1918),  and  (in  verse)  by  James  Rhoades  (in 
'Little  Flowers  of  St.  Francis  and  Brother 
Giles',  1925). 

Giles  (Aegidius),  ST.  (ft.  7th  cent.),  is  said  to 
have  been  of  Athenian  parentage  and  to  have 
gone  to  France,  where,  from  devotion  to 
spiritual  things, he  established  himself  in  the 
wilderness  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rhdne,  in  a 
dense  forest,  with  a  hind  for  sole  companion. 
After  a  time  he  received  disciples,  and  built 
a  monastery.  He  died  early  in  the  8th  cent, 
with  a  high  repute  for  sanctity,  and  came  to 
be  regarded  as  the  patron  of  cripples  and 
lepers.  His  festival  is  celebrated  on  I  Sept. 

Giles'  Bowl,  ST.:  at  St.  Giles*  Hospital  in 
Holborn,  the  prisoners  on  the  way  to  execu- 
tion at  Tyburn  were  presented  with  a  great 
bowl  of  ale,  'thereof  to  drink  at  their  pleasure, 
as  to  be  their  last  refreshing  in  this  life* 
(Stow). 

Giles's  Fair,  ST.,  at  Oxford,  is  held  on  the 
Monday  and  Tuesday  after  the  first  Sunday 
after  St.  Giles's  day  (i  Sept.)  in  Saint 
Giles*s  Street.  It  is  an  institution  of 
great  antiquity,  at  one  time  a  mart  for  the 
neighbouring  Midlands,  now  degenerated 
into  a  mere  pleasure  fair.  There  was  a 


GILFIL 

St.  Giles's  Fair  at  Winchester,  which  was 
originally  granted  by  William  the  Conqueror 
to  the  bishop  of  Winchester  and  endured 
until  the  igth  cent.  During  the  fair,  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  corporation  of  Winchester 
was  in  abeyance  and  was  replaced  by  that  of 
officials  appointed  by  the  bishop,  to  whom 
the  keys  of  the  city  were  surrendered.  [E.B.] 

Gilfil,  THE  REV.  MAYNARD,  see  Scenes  of 
Clerical  Life. 

Gilles  de  Retz  or  RAIS  (1404-40),  a  marshal 
of  France,  who  accompanied  Joan  of  Arc  to 
Orleans  and  fought  by  her  side.  Later  in 
life  he  engaged  in  necromancy,  kidnapped 
children  and  murdered  them,  was  arrested 
on  a  charge  of  heresy  and  murder,  confessed, 
and  was  absolved.  He  had  only  one  wife, 
Catherine  de  Thouars,  who  left  him.  His 
name  is  connected  with  Blue  Beard  (q.v.)  in 
the  local  traditions  of  Brittany,  where  he  had 
large  estates.  Probably  the  French  folk-lore 
tale  concerning  the  latter  has  come  to  be 
attached  to  the  name  of  Gilles  de  Retz  as  a 
perpetrator  of  atrocities. 

Gillray,  JAMES  (1757-1815),  caricaturist.  He 
is  said  to  have  etched  a  caricature  at  12.  He 
treated  at  first  anonymously  social  subjects, 
turning  to  politicalthem.es  after  1780.  Among 
the  fifteen  hundred  pieces  that  he  executed 
were  many  ridiculing  the  habits  of  the  royal 
family.  He  depicted  Pitt,  Fox,  Sheridan,  and 
Burke;  other  caricatures  dealt  with  Napoleon, 
Nelson,  and  the  Revolution.  His  serious  work 
included  two  portraits  of  Pitt  and  the  minia- 
ture of  himself  in  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery. 

Gills,  SOLOMON,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'Dombey  and  Son*  (q.v.). 

Gilpin,  JOHN,  see  John  Gilpin. 

GILPIN,  WILLIAM  (1724-1804),  educated 
at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  subsequently  a 
schoolmaster  and  vicar  of  Boldre,  is  remem- 
bered for  his  series  of  illustrated  picturesque 
tours  ('The  Wye  and  South  Wales',  1782; 
'The  Lakes',  1789;  'Forest  Scenery*,  1791; 
'The  West  of  England  and  the  Isle  of  Wight', 
1798;  'The  Highlands',  1800),  which  were 
parodied  by  William  Combe  (q.v.)  in  his 
'Dr.  Syntax'. 

Giltspur  Street,  London,  just  outside  the 
ancient  Newgate,  was,  according  to  Stow, 
'called  Giltspur  or  Knightriders  Street,  of 
knights  and  others  riding  that  way  to 
Smithfield'  (q.v.). 

Gines  de  Passamonte,  in  'Don  Quixote' 
(i.  xxii),  a  noted  cheat  and  robber  whom  Don 
Quixote  releases  as  he  is  being  conveyed  to 
the  galleys. 

Ginevra,  (i)  a  character  in  the  'Orlando 
Furioso'  (q.v.).  Her  story  is  that  of  Hero  in 
Shakespeare's  'Much  Ado  about  Nothing* 
(q.v.) ;  (2)  of  the  Orsini  family,  married  to 
Francesco  Doria,  who  on  her  wedding-day  in 
playful  mood  hid  herself  in  a  trunk,  of  which 


GIRALDUS  DE  BARRI 

the  lid  closed  with  a  spring  lock.  Fifty  years 
later  her  skeleton  was  discovered  there 
(Rogers,  'Italy').  Thomas  Haynes  Bayley 
treated  the  same  subject  in  his  ballad,  'The 
Mistletoe  Bough'. 

Ginn,  see  Jinn. 

Ginnungagap,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  chasm  or  void  between  Niflheim  and 
Muspellheim  (qq.v). 

Gioconda,  LA,  or  LA  JOCONDE,  names  given 
to  the  famous  portrait  of  Mona  Lisa  (q.v.)  by 
Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

Giotto's  O:  Giotto  (1266-1336),  the  shep- 
herd-boy painter,  while  studying  with  Cima- 
bue,  was  summoned  to  Rome  by  Boniface 
VIII.  When  the  Pope's  messenger  asked 
for  some  drawing  which  might  be  shown 
to  his  Holiness  as  proof  of  the  artist's  skill, 
Giotto  with  a  single  sweep  of  his  brush  drew 
a  perfect  circle  on  a  panel,  and  gave  this  as 
sufficient  testimony. 

Giovarma  of  Naples,  see  Andrea  of  Hungary. 
Giovanni,  DON,  Italian  for  Don  Juan  (q.v.). 

Gipsy,  a  corruption  of  'Egyptian*,  a  member 
of  a  wandering  race,  by  themselves  called 
ROMANY,  of  Hindu  origin,  which^  first 
appeared  in  England  about  the  beginning  of 
the  1 6th  cent,  and  was  then  believed  to  have 
come  from  Egypt.  Their  language  is  a 
greatly  corrupted  dialect  of  Hindi,  with  a 
large  admixture  of  words  from  various 
European  languages.  [OED.]  A  GITANO  is 
a  Spanish  gipsy,  a  TZIGANE  a  Hungarian 
gipsy. 

Giralda,  the  great  tower  of  the  cathedral  of 
Seville,  so  called  from  the  weather-vane 
(Sp.  Giralda)  in  the  form  of  a  statue  of 
Faith  on  its  summit.  See  Carrasco. 

GIRALDUS  DE  BARRI,  called  CAM- 
BRENSIS  (ii46?-i22o?),  a  native  of  Pem- 
brokeshire and  son  of  Nesta,  a  Welsh  princess. 
As  a  churchman  he  had  a  stormy  career.  He 
was  archdeacon  of  Brecon,  and  twice  (1176 
and  1198)  a  nominee  for  the  see  of  St, 
David's,  but  was  rejected,  as  a  Welshman, 
first  by  Henry  II,  then  by  Archbishop 
Hubert.  He  appealed  to  Rome,  sought  the 
support  of  the  Welsh,  was  outlawed,  fied 
abroad,  and  was  imprisoned  at  Cha"tillon. 
He  was  finally  reconciled  to  the  king  and 
archbishop,  and  was  buried  at  St.  David's. 
In  1184  he  accompanied  Prince  John  to 
Ireland.  From  1 1 92  to  1 1 98  he  led  a  student's 
life  at  Lincoln.  His  works  (edited  by  J.  S. 
Brewer  and  J.  F.  Dimock,  1861-77)  include 
'Topographia  Hibernica',  'Expugnatio  Hiber- 
nica',  'Itinerarium  Cambriae1,  'Gemma 
Ecclesiastica*,  'De  Rebus  a  se  gestis*,  and 
lives  of  St.  Hugh  of  Lincoln,  St.  David,  and 
others.  The  'Topographia*  is  an  account  of 
the  geography,  fauna,  marvels,  and  early 
history  of  Ireland;  the  'Expugnatio*, a  narra- 
tive of  the  partial  conquest  of  Ireland  (1169- 
85);  the  'Itinerarium'  (the  most  important 


[319] 


GIRAUDOUX 

of  his  works),  a  description  of  the  topography 
of  Wales ;  the  'Gemma',  a  charge  to  the  clergy 
of  his  district,  affording  interesting  informa- 
tion as  to  the  conditions  then  prevailing. 
See  also  Glastonbury. 

GIRAUDOUX,  JEAN  (1882-  ^ ),  French 
novelist  and  essayist,  author  of  'Siegfried  et 
le  Limousin',  'Bella*,  &c. 
Girondists,  the  moderate  republican  party 
in  the  French  Legislative  Assembly  of  1791-2 
and  the  Convention  of  1792-5,  whose  leaders 
were  the  deputies  from  the  Gironde  district. 
Girton  College,  a  college  for  women,  which 
owes  its  existence  mainly  to  the  energy  of 
Sarah  Emily  Davies  (1830-1921),  a  pioneer  in 
the  cause  of  the  higher  education  of  women. 
The  college  was  opened  at  Hitchin  in  1869 
and  transferred  to  Cambridge  in  1873, 
Gisborne,  MARIA  (1770-1836),  nee  James, 
a  friend  of  Shelley  (q.v.)-.  She  refused 
William  Godwin,  and  married  John  Gis- 
borne in  1800.  Shelley's  'Letter  to  Maria 
Gisborne*  was  written  in  1 820. 
Gismond  of  Salerne,  see  Tancred  and 
Gismund. 

GISSING,  GEORGE  ROBERT  (1857- 
1903),  was  educated  at  Owens  College, 
Manchester,  but  left  it,  owing  to  an  un- 
fortunate marriage  in  1875,  for  London  and 
subsequently  for  America,  where  he  ex- 
perienced the  extreme  poverty  and  misery 
reflected  in  many  of  his  novels.  After  a  short 

Eeriod  at  Jena,  where  he  studied  philosophy, 
e  returned  to  London,  and  in  1880  published 
his  first  novel  'Workers  in  the  Dawn',  making 
a  precarious  livelihood  by  private  tuition,  and 
finding  an  appreciative  employer  in  Mr. 
Frederic  Harrison.  He  published  'The 
Unclassed'  in  1884,  'Demos'  in  1886,  and 
other  novels  illustrating  the  degrading  effects 
of  poverty  on  character.  'A  Life's  Morning* 
appeared  in  1888,  'The  Nether  World*  in 
1889,  'The  Emancipated*  in  1890,  'New 
Grub  Street*  (q.v.)  in  1891,  'Born  in  Exile*  in 
1892,  and  'The  Odd  Women*  in  1893.  A  visit 
to  Italy  led  to  the  publication  in  I9oi<of 
impressions  and  experiences  under  the  title 
'By  the  Ionian  Sea',  and  the  preparation 
during  several  years  of  the  historical  novel 
'Veranilda'  (of  which  Italy  in  the  6th  cent,  is 
the  scene),  which  was  published  posthumously 
in  1904.  On  his  return  to  England  he  wrote 
*The  Town  Traveller'  (1898),  'The  Crown  of 
Life*  (1899),  'Our  Friend  the  Charlatan* 
(1901),  and  'Will  Warburton'  (1905).  Of  a 
different  character  was  'The  Private  Papers 
of  Henry  Ryecroft*  (1903),  the  imaginary 
journal  of  a  recluse,  who  enjoys  release  from 
poverty  and  worry,  amid  books,  memories, 
and  reflection;  it  represents  Gissing's  own 
aspirations.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of 
his  critical  study  of  'Charles  Dickens',  an 
author  by  whom  Gissing  had  been  deeply 
influenced,  published  in  1 898.  'Human  Odds 
and  Ends',  a  collection  of  short  stories, 
appeared  in  the  same  year,  and  a  second 


GLASGERION 

collection,  'The  House  of  Cobwebs',  post- 
humously in  1906. 
Gitano,  see  Gipsy. 

Giudeccaor  JUDECCA,  (i)  in  Dante's  'Inferno* 
(canto  xxxiv),  the  lowest  ring  in  the  ninth 
circle  of  Hell,  so -named  after  Judas  Iscariot, 
who  is  confined  there,  together  with  Satan 
himself;  (2)  an  island  at  Venice,  at  one  time 
the  Jewish  quarter. 

Gjallar,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
horn  of  Heimdal  (q.v.),  with  which  he  gives 
warning  of  any  one  approaching  the  bridge 
Bifrost  (q.v.),  and  summons  the  gods  to 
Ragnarok. 

Gladsheim,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  abode  of  Odin  (q.v.). 
GLADSTONE,  WILLIAM  EWART 
(1809-98),  the  great  Liberal  statesman,  is 
principally  remembered  in  literary  history  for 
his  'Studies  on  Homer  and  the  Homeric 
Age"  (1858),  a  subject  further  dealt  with  in 
his  'Juventus  Mundi'  (1869)  and  'Homeric 
Synchronism*  (1876).  'Translations'  by  him 
and  Lord  Lyttelton  appeared  in  1863.  His 
political  writings  include  'The  State  in  its 
Relations  with  the  Church*  (1838),  in  which 
he  defended  the  principle  of  a  single  state 
religion,  a  principle  that  he  was  later  to 
abandon;  'Letters  to  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen* 
on  the  Neapolitan  Government  (1851); 
'The  Vatican  Decrees  in  their  Bearing  on 
Civil  Allegiance*  (1874);  'Vaticanism*  (1875); 
'Bulgarian  Horrors  and  the  Question  of  the 
East*  (1876);  and  'Lessons  in  Massacre* 
(1877).  Gladstone's  minor  political  writings 
and  contributions  to  periodicals  were  re- 
published  as  'Gleanings  of  Past  Years* 
(7  vols.,  1879,  with  a  supplementary  volume, 
1890).  John  Morley's  'Life  of  Gladstone* 
was  published  in  1903.  There  is  an  interest- 
ing description  of  Gladstone  as  a  young  man 
by  Macaulay,  in  his  review  of  'The  State  . .  .*, 
in  the  'Edinburgh  Review',  April  1839. 
GLANVILL,  JOSEPH  (1636-80),  edu- 
cated at  Exeter  College  and  Lincoln  College, 
Oxford,  was  rector  of  the  Abbey  Church  at 
Bath,  and  held  other  benefices.  He  attacked 
the  scholastic  philosophy  in  'The  Vanity^of 
Dogmatizing*  (1661),  a  work  that  contains 
the  story  of  the  'Scholar  Gipsy'  (q.v.).  He 
defended  the  belief  in  the  pre-existence  of 
souls  in  'Lux  Orientalis'  (1662),  and  the  belief 
in  witchcraft  in  'Saducismus  Triumphatus* 
(1681). 

GLANVILLE,  RANULF  DE  (d.  1190), 
chief  justiciar  of  England.  The  authorship  of 
the  first  great  treatise  on  the  laws  of  England, 
'Tractatus  de  Legibus  et  Consuetudinibus 
Angliae',  has  been  doubtfully  ascribed  to  him 
on  the  evidence  of  Roger  of  Hoveden. 

Glasgerion,  an  old  English  ballad  of  a  king's 
son  who  is  a  harper  and  wins  the  favour  of 
the  king's  daughter  of  Normandy.  By  a 
trick  his  page  takes  his  place  at  an  assignation. 
When  the  lady  learns  the  deceit  she  takes  her 


[320] 


GLASGOW 

own  life,  and  Glasgerion  cuts  off  the  lad's 
head  and  kills  himself.  The  ballad  is  in- 
cluded in  Percy's  'Reliques*. 
GLASGOW,  ELLEN  (1874-  ),  Ameri- 
can novelist  prominently  identified  with  the 
modern  'Southern  School*.  Among  her  chief 
works  are  'The  Battle-Ground'  (1902),  'The 
Deliverance'  (1904),  'The  Builders*  (1919), 
'One  Man  in  His  Time  (1922),  'Barren 
Ground*  (1925),  'The  Romantic  Comedians* 
(1926). 

GLASSE,  HANNAH  (fl.  1747),  author  of 
'The  Art  of  Cookery  made  Plain  and  Easy* 
(1747),  'The  Compleat  Confectioner*  (1770), 
and  'The  Servant's  Directory  or  House- 
keeper's Companion*  (1770).  She  was  habit- 
maker  to  the  Prince  of  Wales.  The  author- 
ship of  'The  Art  of  Cookery*  has  been 
erroneously  attributed  to  Dr.  John  Hill. 
Glastonbury,  in  Somerset,  famous  as  the 
place  where,  according  to  legend,  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  founded  Glastonbury  Abbey,  and 
where,  according  to  Giraldus  Cambrensis 
(q.v.),  the  tomb  of  Arthur  and  Guinevere  was 
discovered  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  (A 
leaden  cross,  he  states,  was  found  in  it,  with 
an  inscription  relating  to  'inclitus  rex  Ar- 
thurus  cum  Wenneveria  uxore  sua  secunda'.) 
The  name  Glastonbury,  according  to 
William  of  Malmesbury,  is  derived  from  one 
Glasteing,  who,  searching  for  his  lost  sow, 
came  to  an  apple-tree  by  the  old  church,  and, 
liking  the  spot,  settled  there  with  his  family. 
William  does  not  connect  the  place  with 
Arthur.  But  Giraldus  Cambrensis  and  Ralph 
of  Coggeshall  (fl.  1207)  identify  Glaston- 
bury with  Avalon,  which  they  say  meant  the 
'isle  of  apples*.  (For  a  discussion  of  the  whole 
question  see  Sir  Edmund  Chambers,  'Arthur 
of  Britain'.) 

Glatisant,  in  Malory's   'Morte  d'Arthur* 
(q.v.),  the  name  of  the  'questing  beast*. 

Glance^  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  in.  ii. 
30,  &c.,  the  nurse  of  Britomart. 
Glaucus :  (i)  son  of  Sisyphus,  grandson  of 
Aeolus,  and  father  of  Bellerophon  (qq.v.), 
who  lived  at  Potniae  and  was  said  to  have 
been  torn  in  pieces  by  his  mares.  One  of 
the  lost  tragedies  of  Aeschylus  was  called 
'Glaucus  of  Potniae*.  (2)  A  fisherman  of 
Anthedon  in  Boeotia,  who,  by  eating  a  divine 
herb,  became  a  sea-god,  received  the  gift  of 
prophecy,  and  assisted  the  Argonauts.  He 
loved  the  maiden  Scylla  (q.v.),  but  Circe 
being  jealous  changed  her  into  a  monster. 
'Glaucus,or  The  Wonders  of  the  Shore*,is  the 
title  of  a  natural  history  work  by  C.  Kingsley 
(1855).  (3)  In  Homer's  'Iliad',  the  grandson 
of  Bellerophon,  an  ally  of  King  Priam.  He 
meets  Diomedes  in  battle,  who,  on  the  plea 
that  they  are  old  guest-friends,  exchanges  his 
bronze  armour  with  the  golden  armour  of 
Glaucus,  for  'Zeus  son  of  Cronos  took  from 
Glaucus  his  wits*. 

Glegg,  MR.   and  MRS.,    characters  in  G. 
Eliot's  'The  Mill  on  the  Floss'  (q.v.). 


GLOBE  THEATRE 

GLEIG,  GEORGE  ROBERT  (1796-1888), 
educated  at  Glasgow  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  became  Chaplain  General  of  the 
Forces.  He  served  with  the  85th  in  the 
Peninsula.  He  is  remembered  as  the  author 
of  'The  Subaltern',  written  for  'Blackwood* 
in  1826. 

Gleipnir,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 

chain  made  by  the  Dwarfs  to  bind  Fenrir 

(q.v.). 

Glenallan,  EARL  and  DOWAGER  COUNTESS 

OF,   characters  in  Scott's  'The  Antiquary' 

(q.v.). 

Glenarvon,  see  Lamb  (Lady  C.). 

Glencoe,  in  Argyllshire,  memorable  for  the 
massacre  of  the  inhabitants  (Macdonalds) 
in  1692,  under  the  orders  of  William  III, 
obtained  by  Sir  John  Dalrymple,  Master  of 
Stair,  their  enemy.  The  massacre  was 
carried  out  by  Campbell  of  Glen  Lyon  and 
1  20  soldiers,  after  these  had  lived  for  twelve 
days  on  friendly  terms  with  the  clansmen. 
The  ground  for  this  cruel  and  treacherous 
act  was  the  failure  of  Maclan,  chief  of  the 
clan,  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  by  the 
appointed  day. 

Scott  wrote  a  poem  on  the  subject,  pub- 
lished in  Thomson's  'Select  Melodies'  (1814), 
and  Talfourd  a  play  (1840),  and  there  is  an 
echo  of  it  in  Campbell's  'Pilgrim  of  Glencoe*. 
Aytoun*s  'Widow  of  Glencoe'  is  also  well 
known. 

Glendinning,  HALBERT,  EDWARD,  and  DAME 
ELSPETH,  characters  in  Scott's  'The  Monas- 
tery* and  'The  Abbot*  (qq.v.). 

Glendoveer  ,  one  of  a  race  of  beautiful  sprites 
in  Southey's  artificial  quasi-Hindu  mythology 
('Curse  of  Kehama*,  vi.  ii),  a  word  avowedly 
altered  from  Grandouver,  which  occurs  in 
Sonnerat,  'Voyage  aux  Indes*  (1782). 

Glendower,     OWEN     (i359?-i4i6?),    the 

leader     of    the     Welsh     rebellion     against 

Henry    IV,   who   figures   in   Shakespeare's 

'i  Henry  IV. 

Glenlivet,   a   famous    Scotch   whisky,    so 

named  from  the  place  of  its  manufacture  in 

Banffshire. 

Glenmire,  LADY,  a  character  in  Mrs.  Gas- 
kell's  'Cranford'  (q.v.). 
Glennaquoich,  the  seat  and  title  of  Fergus 
Mac-Ivor,  in  Scott's  'Waverley*  (q.v.). 
Glenvarloch,  LORD,  the  title  borne  by  Nigel 
Oliphaunt  in   Scott's   'Fortunes   of  Nigel* 


Globe  Theatre,  THE,  Richard  Burbage*s 
theatre  in  Southwark,  erected  in  1598,  when 
the  old  theatre  on  the  north  side  of  the  river 
had  to  be  abandoned.  It  was  an  octagonal 
building,  said  to  hold  1,200  spectators,  and 
thatched.  The  thatch  caught  fire  in  1613, 
owing  to  the  discharge  of  a  peal  of  ordnance, 
at  the  entry  of  the  king  in  'Henry  VIII*. 
Shakespeare  had  a  share  in  the  theatre  and 
acted  there. 


3068 


[321] 


GLORIA 

Gloria,  a  name  for  each  of  several  formulae 

in  Christian  liturgical  worship,   (a)  GLOKIA 

PATRI,  the  doxology  beginning  { Glory  be  to 

the  Father,    (b)  GLORIA  TIBI,  the  response 

*  Glory  be  to  thee,  O  Lord',  following  the 

announcement  of  the  Gospel,  (c)  GLORIA  IN 

EXCELSIS,  the  hymn  'Glory  be  to  God  on 

high'  in  the   communion  service  or  mass. 

[OED.] 

Gloriana,  one  of  the  names  under  which 

Queen  Elizabeth  is  indicated  in  Spenser's 

'Faerie  Queene'. 

Glorious  First  of  June,  THE,  see  First  of 

June. 

Glorious  John,  a  familiar  designation  of 
Dry  den  (q.v.). 

Glossin,  GILBERT,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Guy  Mannering'. 

Gloucester,  ROBERT,  EARL  OF,  see  Robert, 
Earl  of  Gloucester. 

Gloucester,  EARL  OF,  a  character  in  Shake- 
speare's 'King  Lear'  (q.v.). 
GLOVER,  RICHARD  (1712-85),  was  M.P. 
for  Weymouth,  1761-8,  and  an  opponent  of 
Walpole.  He  published  much  blank  verse: 
'Leonidas'^  (1737),  in  nine  books,  and  'The 
Athenaid'  in  thirty,  and  produced  two  plays, 
'Boadicea'  and  'Medea',  in  1753  and  1763 
respectively.  But  be  is  remembered  only  as 
the  author  of  'Hosier's  Ghost',  a  ballad  in- 
cluded in  Percy's  'Reliques*.  This  was  a 
party  song,  contrasting  the  fate  of  Admiral 
Hosier  (sent  in  1726  with  a  fleet  to  the 
Spanish  West  Indies  but  obliged  to  remain 
inactive  there  till  most  of  his  men  perished 
and  he  himself  died  of  a  broken  heart)  with 
the  successful  attack  of  Admiral  Vernon  in 
1739  coa  Porto  Bello. 

Glover,  SIMON  and  CATHARINE,  two  of  the 
principal  characters  in  Scott's  'Fair  Maid  of 
Perth'  (q.v.). 

Glowry,  CHRISTOPHER  and  SCYTHROP,  char- 
acters in  Peacock's  *  Nightmare  Abbey'  (q.v.). 
Glozel,  a  hamlet  near  Vichy,  in  the  centre  of 
France,  where  in  1924  the  son  of  a  local 
farmer,  by  name  Fradin,  discovered  the 
remains  of  an  old  glass  furnace,  and  in  1 925-6, 
in  association  with  Dr.  Morlet  of  Vichy,  a 
number  of  antique  tablets  inscribed  with 
alphabetical  signs,  and  other  objects  con- 
necting the  tablets  with  neolithic  culture. 
These  discoveries,  if  genuine,  involved  a 
reconsideration  of  current  theories  regarding 
neolithic  civilization.  But  their  genuineness 
was  contested  and  an  acrimonious  controversy 
arose  on  the  subject.  The  French  govern- 
ment, ^  it!  1927,  appointed  an  international 
commission  to  investigate  the  matter,  which 
reported  that  the  antiquity  of  the  objects 
discovered  at  Glozel  had  not  been  established. 
Glubbdubdrib,  in  'Gulliver's  Travels' 
(q.v.),  the  island  of  sorcerers,  where  Homer 
and  Aristotle,  Descartes  and  Gassendi,  and 
many  kings  and  generals  are  called  up  at 


GOBELIN  TAPESTRY 

Gulliver's  request,  and  he  learns  the  un- 
trustworthy character  of  history. 
Gluck,  CHRISTOPH  WILIBALD  (1714-87), 
a  famous  operatic  composer  born  in  Bavaria, 
was  the  son  of  a  gamekeeper.  He  spent 
ten  years  (1754-64)  in  Vienna  as  director 
of  the  court  opera,  subsequently  went  to 
Paris,  and  finally  retired  to  Vienna.  He 
visited  London  in  1745.  His  first  great  opera 
was  'Orfeo'  (1762),  which  was  followed 
by  *Alceste'  (1766),  'Iphige*nie  en  Aulide' 
(1774),  'Armide'  (i777)>  and  'Iphige"nie  en 
Tauride*  (1779).  A  celebrated  contention 
arose  in  Paris  in  1776  between  his  followers 
and  those  of  Piccini  (q.v.),  in  substance 
a  dispute  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  the 
German  and  Italian  schools  of  music. 
Glumdalclitch,  in  'Gulliver's  Travels* 
(q.v.),  the  farmer's  daughter  who  attended 
on  Gulliver  during  his  visit  to  Brobdingnag. 

Glums,  see  Peter  Wilkins. 

GLYN,  ELINOR  (Mrs.  Clayton  Glyn), 
authoress,  born  in  Toronto,  Canada.  Among 
her  novels  are:  *The  Visits  of  Elizabeth* 
(1900),  'Three  Weeks>  to0?)*  <Man  ^d 
Maid'  (1922),  'Six  Days'  (1924).  Some  of 
her  works  have  been  filmed. 

Gnome,  from  modern  Latin  gnomus,  used  by 
Paracelsus,  though  perhaps  not  invented  by 
him,  to  signify  beings  that  have  earth  for  their 
element,  through  which  they  move  as  fishes 
through  the  water.  The  word  as  generally 
used  means  one  of  a  race  of  diminutive 
spirits  fabled  to  inhabit  the  earth  and  to  be 
guardians  of  its  treasures.  Also  the  name  of 
an  early  type  of  aeroplane  engine. 

Gnomic,  from  Gr.  yv<5ju77,  consisting  of 
gnomes  or  general  maxims,  sententious. 

Gnostic,  from  Gr.  yv&ois  knowledge,  the 
designation  given  to  certain  heretical  sects 
among  the  early  Christians,  prominent  in  the 
2nd  cent.  A.D.,  who  claimed  special  knowledge, 
in  particular  as  to  how  the  divine  element  in 
man,  the  soul,  became  detached  from  the 
divine  world,  and  as  to  the  means  of  re- 
uniting it  to  its  proper  sphere.  Their  religion 
was  essentially  mystic  in  character.  It 
differentiated  between  the  initiated  and  the 
uninitiated,  observed  a  great  variety  of  sacra- 
ments, and  had  sacred  formulas  for  com- 
bating demons.  It  was  allied  to  Manichaeism 
(q.v.),  and  partook  of  its  oriental  dualism 
and  asceticism. 

Gobfoo,  LAUNCELOT,  the  clown  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Merchant  of  Venice'  (q.v.),  servant 
to  Shylock ;  OLD  GOBBO  is  his  father. 

Gobelin  Tapestry,  the  tapestry  made  at  the 
'Gobelins',  the  state  factory  of  tapestry  at 
Paris,  named  after  Jean  Gobelin  (d.  1467), 
head  of  a  family  of  dyers  who  settled  in  Paris 
about  1450,  and  made  a  great  reputation  by 
the  discovery  of  a  scarlet  dye.  In  the  i6th 
cent,  the  works  were  purchased  for  Louis  XIV, 
and  since  then  (with  a  short  break  during  the 


[333] 


GOBLIN 

Revolution)  have  been  run  as  a  State  concern 
for  the  manufacture  of  upholstery,  furniture, 
and  carpets. 

Goblin,  from  French  gobelin,  an  obsolete 
word  of  uncertain  derivation,  means  a  mis- 
chievous and  ugly  demon. 

Goblin  Market,  a  poem  by  C.  Rossetti  (q.v.), 
published  in  1862. 

The  poem  is  a  fairy  tale,  in  which  some  see 
an  allegory.  Laura  yields  to  the  allurements 
of  the  fruits  offered  for  sale  by  the  goblins 
(worldly  pleasures),  pines  for  more  of  them, 
which  the  goblins  refuse,  falls  sick,  and 
nearly  dies.  Her  sister  Lizzy,  for  Laura's 
sake,  braves  their  temptations  and  redeems 
her  sister. 

God  and  Mammon,  The  Triumph  of  Mam- 
mon, the  first  two  parts  of  a  blank  verse 
trilogy  (the  third  was  never  written)  by 
Davidson  (q.v.),  published  in  1907. 

The  eldest  son  of  Christian,  king  of  Thule, 
called    Mammon,    and    expelled   from  the 
kingdom  because  of  his  atheism  and  blas- 
phemy,   returns,    kills    the    king    and    his 
younger   brother,   appropriates   the   latter's 
bride,  and  triumphantly  ascends  the  throne. 
It  is  an  expression  of  materialistic  idealism. 
God   from   the   machine,   see    Deus   ex 
machina. 
God  save  the  King,  see  National  Anthem. 

Godiva,  the  wife  of  Leofric,  earl  of  Mercia, 
one  of  Edward  the  Confessor's  great  earls. 
According  to  legend,  her  husband  having 
imposed  a  tax  on  the  inhabitants  of  Coventry, 
she  importuned  him  to  remit  it,  which  he 
jestingly  promised  to  do  if  she  would  ride 
naked  through  the  streets  at  noonday.  She 
took  him  at  his  word,  directed  the  people  to 
keep  within  doors  and  shut  their  windows, 
and  complied  with  his  condition.  Peeping 
Tom,  who  looked  out,  was  struck  blind. 

The  story  is  told  by  Drayton  in  his  'Poly- 
olbion*  (q.v.),  xiii;  by  Leigh  Hunt;  and  by 
Tennyson  in  his  'Godiva*.  Lady  Gpdiva 
figures,  as  the  mother  of  Hereward,  in  C. 
Kmgsley's  'Hereward  the  Wake*  (q.v.),  and 
in  one  of  Landor's  'Imaginary  Conversa- 
tions* (q.v.). 

GODLEY,  ALFRED  DENIS  (1856-1925), 
classical  scholar  and  writer  of  light  verse, 
public  orator  at  the  University  of  Oxford, 
1910—25.  He  edited  Tacitus *s  Histories 
(1887,  1890),  translated  the  Odes  of  Horace 
(1898)  and  Herodotus  (Loeb  Series,  1921-3), 
and  was  joint  editor  of  the  *  Classical  Re- 
view*, 1910-20.  His  verse,  much  of  which 
deals  with  University  life,  appears  in  'Verses 
to  Order*  (1892),  'Lyra  Frivola*  (1899), 
'Second  Strings'  (1902),  'The  Casual  Ward* 
(1912),  'Echoes  from  the  Oxford  Magazine* 
(1896),  'Reliquiae  A.D.  Godley*  (1926). 
Godmer,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  n.  x. 
ii,  a  British  giant,  son  of  Albion,  slain  by 
Canutus. 
Godolphin,  a  novel  by  Bulwer  Lytton  (q.v.). 


GOETHE 

Godolphin  Barb,  one  of  the  Arab  stallions 
imported  about  1700  by  Mr.  Darley.  He  was 
the  ancestor  of  many  of  our  race-horses. 

GODWIN,  MRS.  MARY  WOLLSTONE- 
CRAFT  (i759~97)>  nee  Wollstonecraft,  kept 
ar  school  at  Newington  Green  with  her  sister 
Eliza,  and  subsequently  became  governess 
to  Lord  Kingsborough's  children.  After  this 
she  was  employed  for  five  years  by  Johnson,  a 
London  publisher.  In  Paris  she  formed  a 
connexion  with  Gilbert  Imlay  (1793—5),  an 
American,  by  whom  she  had  a  daughter, 
Fanny;  his  infidelity  drove  her  to  attempted 
suicide.  She  married  William  Godwin  in 
1797,  and  died  at  the  birth  of  her  daughter 
Mary,  the  future  Mrs.  Shelley.  Her  'Vindica- 
tion of  the  Rights  of  Woman*  (1792)  was  a 
courageous  attack  on  the  conventions  of  the 
day. 

GODWIN,  WILLIAM  (1756-1836),  edu- 
cated at  Hoxton  Academy,  was  at  first  a 
dissenting  minister,  but  became  an  atheist 
and  a  philosopher  of  anarchical  views.  He 
believed  that  men  acted  according  to  reason, 
that  it  was  impossible  to  be  rationally 
persuaded  and  not  act  accordingly,  that 
reason  taught  benevolence,  and  that  there- 
fore rational  creatures  could  live  in  harmony 
without  laws  and  institutions.  He  married 
Mary  Wollstonecraft  (seeGodwin,  Mrs.M.W.) 
in  1797,  who  died  at  the  birth  of  her  daughter, 
the  future  wife  of  Shelley.  Godwin  sub- 
sequently married  Mrs.  Claiimont,  whose 
daughter  by  her  first  marriage,  Clara  Mary 
Jane  Clairmont  (q.v.),bore  a  daughter, AUegra, 
to  Lord  Byron  (q.v.). 

Godwin  published  in  1793  his  'Enquiry 
concerning  Political  Justice'  in  which  he 
exposed  his  philosophical  and  political  views, 
in  1794  the  'Adventures  of  Caleb  Williams* 
(q.v.),  and  in  1799  'St.  Leon*,  novels 
designed  to  propagate  these  views.  This  last 
contains  a  portrait  of  Mary  Wollstonecraft, 
of  whom  he  also  wrote  a  remarkable  life 
('Memoirs  of  the  author  of  a  Vindication  of 
the  Rights  of  Woman',  1798).  Godwin  pro- 
duced a  'Life*  of  Chaucer  in  1803. 

Goemot,  the  name  under  which  Gogmagog 
(q.v.)  figures  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene* 
(n.  x.  10). 

Goes,  BENEDICT,  see  Cathay. 

GOETHE,  JOHANN  WOLFGANG  VON 
(1749-1832),  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
the  son  of  an  Imperial  Councillor,  was  trained 
for  the  law  against  his  inclination.  In  1775 
he  was  invited  by  the  duke  of  Weimar  to  his 
court,  and  thereafter  spent  the  greater  part  of 
his  life  in  Weimar,  occupying  positions  in  the 
government  of  increasing  importance  until 
1786.  In  1791  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  ducal  theatre,  a  post  which  he  retained 
for  twenty-two  years.  Throughout  his  life 
he  devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of 
painting,  for  which  he  had  only  a  mediocre 
gift.  Apart  from  this,  he  divided  his  energies 


[323] 


Y2 


GOETHE 

mainly  between  scientific  research  and  litera- 
ture. In  the  former  sphere  he  evolved  a  new 
theory  of  the  character  of  light,  which  he 
expounded  and  defended  at  length  in  the 
'Farbenlehre'  (1810);  this  he  considered  his 
greatest  work.  He  also  made  important  ^dis- 
coveries in  connexion  with  plant  and  animal 
life. 

In  the  sphere  of  literature,  apart  from  ms 
great  dramatic  poem  'Faust*  (q.v.),  nis 
principal  works  were  (i)  'Goetz  von  Ber- 
Kchingen*  (1771),  a  drama  dealing  with  the 
story  of  a  predatory  knight  of  the  German 
Empire  in  the  i6th  cent.  The  play  was  trans- 
lated by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  borrowed 
scenes  from  it  for  'Ivanhoe*  and  'Anne  of 
Geierstein',  (ii)  'The  Sorrows  of  Young 
Werther*  (first  published  1774,  altered  1787)* 
a  romance  in  epistolary  form,  based  on  two 
incidents  in  the  author's  life.  Werther  falls 
in  love  with  Charlotte,  who  is  betrothed 
to  Albert,  and  gives  himself  up  to  a  few  weeks' 
happiness,  while  Albert  is  absent.  Then  he 
tears  himself  away.  Albert  and  Charlotte  are 
married,  and  despair  gradually  comes  over 
Werther,  who  finally  takes  his  own  life.  The 
romance  was  translated  into  English  and 
French,  (iii)  'Egmont*,  a  play  dealing  with 
the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  against  the 
power  of  Spain,  (iv)  'Iphigenie  auf  Tauris* 
(1787),  a  drama  based  on  the  play  of  Euri- 
pides, (v)  'Hermann  und  Dorothea*  (i797)» 
a  poem  founded  on  the  expulsion  of  the 
Protestants  by  the  archbishop  of  Salzburg 
in  1732,  but  with  the  scene  shifted  to  France 
under  the  Revolution.  It  was  translated  by 
Thomas  Holcroft  and  others,  (vi)  'Wahlver- 
wandtschaften'  (1808),  a  romance  dealing 
with  the  'elective  affinities*  of  a  married  couple 
for  two  other  persons,  (vii)  'West-ostlicher 
Divan*  (1819),  a  collection  of  poems  record- 
ing passing  experiences  and  opinions  on 
philosophical  problems,  modelled  on  the 
'Divan'  of  the  Persian  poet  Hafiz.  (viii) 
'Dichtung  und  Wahrheit*  ('Poetry  and 
Truth*),  completed  in  183 1 ,  an  autobiography 
in  which  those  experiences  are  selected  which 
had  most  influenced  the  author's  develop- 
ment, (ix)  'Wilhelm  Meisters  Lehrjahre', 
written  at  intervals  between  1786  and  1830,  a 
romance  of  biographical  interest,  the  first 
six  books  of  which  tell  the  story  of  a  stage- 
struck  youth,  who  travels  about  the  country 
with  a  theatrical  company ;  amongits  members 
are  Mignon  and  the  Harper,  whose  songs, 
particularly  'Kennst  du  das  Land*,  are  well 
known.  To  the  'Lehrjahre'  Goethe  added  in 
the  last  years  of  his  life  the  'Wanderjahre*,  a 
miscellany  treating,  through  the  medium  of 
Meister's  travels,  with  educational  and 
sociological  questions.  (Part  of  this  was 
translated  by  Carlyle.)  Mention  should  also 
be  made  of  Goethe's  beautiful  lyrics,  ballads, 
and  love-songs. 

Goethe  and  Schiller  came  together  in  1794, 
and  were  much  associated  until  the  latter 's 
death  in  1805.  From  1803  to  the  end  of  his 
life  Goethe  was  attended  by  Johann  Ecker- 


GOIDELS 

mann,  whose  faithful  record  of  Goethe's  con- 
versations has  been  translated  into  English. 
In  1806  he  married  Christiane  Vulpius,  who 
had  been  his  mistress  since  1789,  and  who 
bore  him  four  children. 
Goetz  von  Berlichingen,  see  Goethe. 
Gog  and  Magog.  In  Gen.  x.  2,  Magog  is  a 
son  of  Japhet.  In  Ezek.  xxxviii  and  xxxix, 
Gog  is  the  chief  prince  of  Meshech  and 
Tubal,  who  shall  come  from  his  'place  out  of 
the  north  parts';  and  the  land  of  Magog  is 
also  referred  to  as  his  territory.  In  Rev.  xx. 
7-9,  Gog  and  Magog  represent  the  nations 
of  the  earth  that  are  deceived  by  Satan. 

In  the  cycle  of  legends  relating  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  Gog  and  Magog  were  allies  of 
the  Indian  king  Porus,  in  his  resistance  to 
that  conqueror.  They  were  shut  off  by  the 
great  wall  built  by  Alexander  in  the  Caucasus. 
They  were  presumably  Scythian  ^tribes. 
(There  is  a  reference  to  this  in  c.  xviii  of  the 
Koran.  Sale  in  his  notes  thereto  says  that 
Yajuj  and  Majuj  are  the  Arabian  names  of 
two  barbarous  tribes  descended  from  Japhet 
against  whom  Dhu'lkarnain  or  Alexander 
built  a  rampart.)  See  also  under  Gogmagog. 
Gogmagog  and  Corineus :  Gogmagog 
(called  Goemagot  by  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth 
and  Spenser,  'Faerie  Queene',  in.  ix.  50) 
was  the  chief  of  the  giants  of  Albion  whom 
Brute  (q.v.)  destroyed.  Corineus  was  one  of 
Brute's  companions.  He  wrestled  with  Gog- 
rnagog  and  threw  him  into  the  sea,  and  Corn- 
wall was  assigned  to  him  as  a  reward.  The 
statues  called  Gog  and  Magog  in  the  Guild- 
hall in  London  are  said  to  represent  Gog- 
magog and  Corineus.  The  original  statues 
were  destroyed  in  the  Great  Fire,  and  were 
replaced  by  new  ones  in  1709.  See  also  under 
Gog  and  Magog. 

Gogmagog  Hill,  a  hill  three  miles  SE.  of 
Cambridge.  It  is  referred  to  in  C.  Kingsley's 
'Hereward  the  Wake'  (q.v.). 
GOGOL,  NIKOLAI  VASILIEVICH 
(1809-52),  Russian  novelist,  is  best  known  in 
England  for  his  masterpiece  'Dead  Souls' 
(1837,  English  translation,  1887),  a  picaresque 
romance,  satirizing  the  provincial  Russian 
society  of  the  day.  Each  Russian  landlord 
paid  a  poll-tax  on  his  serfs,  a  census  of  whom 
was  made  every  ten  years,  and  continued  to 
pay  it  in  the  interval  though  the  serfs  might 
die.  Chichikov,  an  adventurer,  hits  on  the 
idea  of  acquiring  these  'dead  souls'  from 
their  owners,  and  depositing  the  title  to  them 
as  security  for  loans  from  a  bank  which 
believes  them  to  be  live  serfs.  Chichikov 
travels  about  the  country  on  his  mission,  and 
the  characters  he  meets  with  are  portrayed 
with  delightful  humour.  Gogol's  other  well- 
known  work,  'The  Inspector-General*  (1836, 
English  translation,  1892),  is  a  play  satirizing 
Russian  government  officials. 

G  oid  els,  according  to  legend,  the  first  Celtic 
invaders  of  Ireland.  The  name  is  used  to 
signify  the  Scoto-Irish,  or  Gaelic  branch  of 


[324] 


GOLAGROS  AND  GAWAIN 

the  Celtic  race,  as  distinguished  from  the 
Brythonic  branch,  the  Britons  of  Wales, 
Cornwall,  and  Brittany. 

Golagros  and  Gawain,  an  alliterative  poem  in 
Middle  English,  of  105  stanzas  of  thirteen 
lines,  contained  in  a  pamphlet  printed  in 
Scotland  in  1508.  It  deals  with  incidents  on 
a  pilgrimage  of  Arthur  and  his  knights  to  the 
Holy  Land.  Golagros  is  lord  of  a  castle  on  the 
Rhdne,  and  is  defeated  in  single  combat  by 
Gawain. 

Golconda,   the  old  name   of  Hyderabad, 
formerly    celebrated    for    its    diamonds,    a 
synonym  for  a  mine  of  wealth* 
Gold  of  Tolosa,  see  Tolosa. 
Golden  Age,  THE,  the  first  and  best  age  of 
the  world,  in  which,  according  to  the  Greek 
and  Roman  poets,  man  lived  in  a  state  of  ideal 
prosperity  and  happiness.   It  was  thought  to 
have  occurred  under  the  reign  of  Saturn  (q.v.) 
on  earth. 

Golden  Ass,  The,  a  satire  by  Apuleius  of 
Madaura  in  Africa  (b.  c.  A.D.  114).  It  takes 
the  form  of  the  supposed  autobiography  of  the 
author,  who  is  transformed  into  an  ass  by 
the  mistake  of  the  servant  of  an  enchantress. 
He  passes  from  master  to  master,  observing 
the  vices  and  follies  of  men,  and  finally 
recovers  human  form  by  the  intervention  of 
the  goddess  Isis.  The  story  includes  a 
number  of  episodes,  of  which  the  best  known 
is  the  beautiful  allegory  of '  Cupid  and  Psyche* 
(q.v.).  The  work  is  imitated  from  the 
AOVKIOS  r[  ovos  of  Lucian,  or  from  an  original 
common  to  both. 

Golden  Bough,  The,  a  comparative  study  of 
the  beliefs  and  institutions  of  mankind,  by 
Frazer  (q.v.),  in  n  volumes,  published  in 
1890-1915. 

This  work  began  with  a  treatise  on  the 
ancient  rule  of  the  priesthood  or  sacred  king- 
ship of  the  grove  of  Nemi  or  Aricia  near 
Rome,  by  which  a  candidate  for  the  priest- 
hood could  obtain  the  office  only  by  slaying 
the  priest,  and  held  it  until  he  was  himself 
slain.  The  grove  was  devoted  to  the  worship 
of  Diana  Nemorensis.  In  it  grew,  according 
to  legend,  a  tree  of  which  no  bough  might  be 
broken,  save  by  a  runaway  slave.  If  he 
succeeded,  he  might  fight  the  priest,  and  if 
he  slew  him,  take  over  his  office.  The 
*  Golden  Bough*  which  Aeneas  broke  off  at 
the  bidding  of  the  Sybil  before  venturing  to 
the  nether  world  (Virgil,  'Aeneid*,  vi.  136) 
was  believed  to  be  a  branch  of  this  tree.  The 
explanation  by  Frazer  of  the  priest  of  Aricia 
as  an  embodiment  of  the  tree-spirit,  slain  in 
his  character  of  incarnate  deity,  led  to  _  the 
discussion  of  a  vast  number  of  other  primi- 
tive customs  and  superstitions,  contained  in 
the  successive  volumes  of  this  monumental 
work. 

Golden  Bowl,  The,  a  novel  by  Henry  James 
(q.v.),  published  in  1904. 

Golden  Bull,  THE,  see  Bull 


GOLDONI 

Golden  Fleece,  THE,  the  name  of  an  order 
of  chivalry  instituted  by  Philip  the  Good, 
duke  of  Burgundy,  in  1429.  For  the  Golden 
Fleece  of  Greek  mythology  see  under 
Argonauts. 

Golden  Grove,  The,  see  Taylor  (Jeremy). 
Golden  Hind,  The,  originally  named  'The 
Pelican*,  a  ship  of  100  tons  in  which  Drake 
circumnavigated  the  globe. 

Golden  Horde,  a  Mongol  tribe  who 
possessed  the  khanate  of  Kiptchak,  and  ex- 
tended their  dominion  over  Eastern  Russia, 
and  Western  and  central  Asia,  from  the  I3th 
cent,  till  1480,  when  they  were  overthrown 
by  Ivan  III  of  Russia. 

Golden  Horn,  THE,  the  harbour  of  Con- 
stantinople, a  curved  arm  of  the  Bosphorus. 
The  name  dates  from  remote  antiquity.  The 
epithet  'golden*  *was  expressive  of  the  riches 
which  every  wind  wafted  from  the  most 
distant  countries  into  the  secure  and  capa- 
cious port*  (Gibbon). 

Golden  Legend,  The,  a  medieval  manual  of 
ecclesiastical  lore:  lives  of  saints,  com- 
mentary on  the  church  service,  homilies  for 
saints*  days,  &c.  A  version  of  this  compila- 
tion from  various  sources  was  published  by 
Caxton  (q.v.)  and  was  his  most  popular 
production.  One  of  its  sources  was  the 
'Legenda  Aurea*  of  Jacobus  a  Voragine 
(Jacopo  de*  Varazze,  1230-98),  archbishop 
of  Genoa. 

Golden  Legend,  The,  a  poem  by  Long- 
fellow (q.v.),  published  in  1852. 

Prince  Henry  of  Hoheneck  suffers  from  a 
leprosy,  from  which  he  can  be  cured  only  if 
a  maiden  will  give  her  life  as  the  price. 
Elsie,  a  farmer's  daughter,  decides  to  make 
the  sacrifice,  and  Prince  Henry  under  the 
advice  of  Lucifer  decides  reluctantly  to 
accept  it.  At  the  door  of  the  convent  of 
Salerno,  where  her  life  is  to  be  surrendered, 
Henry,  struck  with  remorse,  at  the  last 
moment  saves  her,  and  is  himself  cured  by 
the  relics  of  St.  Matthew.  The  story  is  taken 
from  *Der  arme  Heinrich*  of  Hartmann  von 
der  Aue,  a  German  minnesinger  of  the  i2th 
cent. 

Golden  State,  California,  see  United  States. 
Golden  Treasury  of  Songs  and  Lyrics, 
The,  see  Palgrave  (F.  T.). 

GOLDONI,  CARLO  (1707-93),  Italian 
writer  of  stage  comedies,  most  of  whose 
working  life  was  spent  in  Venice,  the  social 
background  of  which  gave  him  the  material 
of  his  plays.  His  significance  in  the  history 
of  Italian  literature  lies  in  the  new  impetus 
he  gave  to  stage  comedy,  which,  for  the 
generation  preceding  his  own,  had  been 
largely  the  monopoly  of  the  'Commedia 
dell*  Arte*,  that  loosely  conceived  form  of 
semi-spontaneous  playing  which,  starting 
with  the  fresh  impulses  and  inspirations  of 
its  popular  origins,  had  become  by  the  middle 
of  the  1 8th  cent,  a  worn  and  decadent  form. 


[325] 


GOLDSMITH 

In  later  life  Goldord  lived  in  France,  where, 
after  a  successful  career,  he  was  impoverished 
by  the  Revolution,  and  died  a  pauper.  His 
best-known  plays  are  *La  Bottega  di  Caffe', 
'La  Locandiera',  'La  Donna  di  Garbo',  'GK 
Innamorati*,  'La  Casa  Nova*. 

GOLDSMITH,  OLIVER  (i73°-74)»  the 
second  son  of  an  Irish  clergyman,  was  born 
probably  at  Pallasmore  in  the  county  of  Long- 
ford, or  perhaps  at  Elphin,  Roscommon.  He 
entered  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  as  a  sizar  in 
1744,  and  ran  away  to  Cork  in  consequence  of 
'personal  chastisement'  from  his  tutor,.  He  re- 
turned, however,  and  graduated  B.A.  in  1749- 
In  1751  he  presented  himself  for  ordination 
but  was  rejected.  He  then  studied  medicine 
at  Edinburgh  and  at  Leyden,  and  during 
1755-6  wandered  about  France,  Switzerland, 
and  Italy,  obtaining  it  is  said  a  medical  degree 
at  some  foreign  university.  He  reached  Lon- 
don in  destitution  in  1756,  and  supported 
himself  with  difficulty  as  a  physician  in 
Southwark,  an  usher  at  Peckham,  and  a 
hack-writer  on  Griffiths*  'Monthly  Review'. 
He  failed  in  1758  to  qualify  for  a  medical 
appointment  in  India,  and  in  the  same  year 
published,  under  the  pseudonym  'James 
Willington',  his  notable  translation  of  'The 
Memoirs  of  a  Protestant,  condemned  to  the 
Galleys  of  France  for  his  Religion3  (Jean 
Marteilhe  of  Bergerac,  a  victim  of  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes).  He  published  in 
1759  his  'Enquiry  into  the  present  State  of 
Polite  Learning*  (q.v.),  and  about  this  time 
became  acquainted  with  Thomas  Percy,  after- 
wards bishop  of  Dromore.  He  published 
during  October  and  November  1759  his  little 
periodical  'The  Bee',  including  the  'Elegy  on 
Mrs.  Mary  Blaize*,  'A  City  Night-Piece',  and 
'The  Fame  Machine*.  He  contributed  to 
various  magazines,  writing  'A  Reverie  in  the 
Boar's  Head  Tavern'  and  the  'Adventures  of 
a  Strolling  Player'  for  Smollett's  'British 
Magazine';  he  was  also  employed  by  John 
Newbery,  the  publisher,  in  whose  'Public 
Ledger'  Goldsmith's  'Chinese  Letters'  ap- 
peared, subsequently  republished  as  the 
'Citizen  of  the  World'  (q.v.),  in  1762. 

He  made  the  acquaintance  of  Samuel 
Johnson  (q.v.)  in  1761,  and  was  one  of  the 
original  members  of  'The  Club'.  The  manu- 
script of  his  'Vicar  of  Wakefield'  (q.v.)  was 
sold,  probably  in  1762,  by  Johnson  for  Gold- 
smith for  £60,  and  the  proceeds  saved  him 
from  arrest  for  debt.  His  poem  'The  Travel- 
ler* (q.v.)  appeared  in  1764  and  was  welcomed 
by  the  public.  It  introduced  him  to  his  only 
patron,  Lord  Clare.  In  the  same  year  ap- 
peared Ms  'History  of  England  in  a  Series  of 
Letters*.  Goldsmith  tried  once  more  in  1765 
to  set  up  as  a  physician,  with  no  success. 
The  'Vicar  of  Wakefield',  the  publication  of 
which  had  been  delayed  for  unexplained 
reasons,  appeared  in  1766.  About  this  time 
he  removed  from  Islington,  where  he  had 
been  living,  to  the  Temple,  first  to  Garden 
Court,  then  to  Brick  Court.  He  wrote  as 


GOLIAS 

hack-work  for  booksellers  a  life  of  Voltaire 
(1761),  a  good  memoir  of  Beau  Nash  (1762), 
a  'History  of  Rome'  (1769),  lives  of  Parnell 
and  Bolingbroke  (1770),  and  an  English 
history  (1771).  His  first  comedy  'The  Gopd- 
natur'd  Man'  (q.v.)  was  rejected  by  Garrick, 
but  produced  at  Covent  Garden  in  1768.  It 
was  a  moderate  success  and  brought  him 
£500.  His  second  comedy,  'She  Stoops  to 
Conquer'  (q.v.),  was  played  at  Covent  Garden 
in  1773  with  immense  success ;  in  this  year  he 
adapted  as  a  farce  Sedley's  adaptation  'The 
Grumbler*.  In  1770  appeared  'The  Deserted 
Village'  (q.v.),  and  in  1771  took  place  his 
altercation  with  Evans,  publisher  of  the 
'London  Packet',  in  which  was  published 
the  letter  of  'Tom  Tickle'  abusing  Goldsmith 
and  impertinently  alluding  to  his  friend,  Miss 
Horneck.  Goldsmith's  'Retaliation'  (q.v.),  his 
'History  of  Greece',  and  'Animated  Nature* 
(with  'tygers'  in  Canada),  were  his  last  works 
(published  in  1774).  The  pleasant  light  verses 
entitled  'The  Haunch  of  Venison'  appeared 
posthumously  in  1776.  Goldsmith  was  buried 
in  the  Temple  Church,  a  monument  at  the 
expense  of  'The  Club'  being  erected  to  him  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  His  Latin  epitaph  (by 
Johnson)  states  that  he  adorned  whatever  he 
touched.  Boswell's  'Life  of  Johnson*  contains 
many  anecdotes  about  Goldsmith,  which 
represent  him  as  a  ridiculous,  blundering, 
envious  and  vain  creature, but  tender-hearted, 
simple,  and  generous,  with  flashes  of  bril- 
liancy now  and  then  in  his  conversation. 
Johnson,  who  was  quite  awake  to  his  absurdi- 
ties, had  a  high  respect  for  his  worth  and 
literary  abilities. 

The  first  collected  edition  (1801)  of  Gold- 
smith's works  contains  the  life  by  Bishop 
Percy,  for  which  Goldsmith  had  supplied 
materials.  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
J.  W.  M.  Gibbs  (1885-6).  The  best  Lives 
are  Forster's  (1877)  and  Prior's  (1837). 
•There  is  a  recent  critical  edition  of  Gold- 
smith's Letters  by  K.  C.  Balderston  (1928). 

Golgotha,  the  hill  of  the  Crucifixion  near 
Jerusalem,  from  an  Aramaic  word  meaning 
'skull' ;  it  is  used  to  signify  a  place  of  inter- 
ment, and  in  i8th-cent.  university  slang,  a 
place  where  heads  of  colleges  and  halls 
assemble. 

Goliardic  verse,  from  GOLIARD,  one  of  the 
class  of  educated  jesters,  buffoons,  and 
authors  of  loose  or  satirical  Latin  verse,  who 
flourished  chiefly  in  the  I2th  and  i3th  cents, 
in  Germany,  France,  and  England.  In  the 
1 2th  and  I3th  cents,  the  Goliards  were  sup- 
posed to  take  their  name  from  a  certain 
Golias  (q.v.).  The  Old  French  word  'goliard* 
(from  L.  gula}  means  glutton.  [OED.] 
Golias,  a  person  dignified  with  the  names  of 
episcopus  and  arckipoeta  in  satirical  Latin 
poems  of  the  I2th  and  I3th  cents,  (see  Goli- 
ardic verse)  and  represented  as  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  vices  attributed  to  the  monks. 
According  to  Scherer,  'History  of  German 
Literature*,  I.  iv,  he  was  a  poet  of  unknown 


[326] 


GOLIATH 

name,  attached  to  the  court  of  the  Emperor 
Frederic  Barbarossa,  whose  praises  he  sang. 
The  * AppcalypseS  'Confession',  and  'Meta- 
morphosis* of  this  bishop  have  been  attri- 
buted to  Walter  Map  (q.v.).  In  the  'Con- 
fession* occur  the  lines,  placed  in  the 
bishop's  mouth  and  subsequently  converted 
to  the  uses  of  a  drinking-song: 

Meum  est  propositum  in  taberna  mori: 
Vinum  sit  appositum  morientis  ori, 
Ut  dicant  cum  venerint  angelorum  chori, 
eDeus  sit  propitius  huic  potatori'. 
See  also  Primas. 

Goliath,  the  Philistine  giant  slain  by  David, 
i  Sam.  xvii. 

Gomez,  DON  Ruy,  see  HernanL 
GONGOURT,  EDMOND  HUOT  DE 
(1822-96),  and  his  brother  JULES  (1830- 
70),  French  authors  and  collaborators,  wrote 
a  'History  of  French  Society  during  the 
Revolution',  a.  'History  of  Marie  Antoinette', 
novels  ('Germinie  Lacerteux',&c.)>and  plays. 
They  founded  ^  in  1896  a  literary  society, 
which  was  officially  recognized  in  1903,  com- 
posed of  ten  members  who  award  an  annual 
prize  of  fr.  5,000  to  the  best  imaginative  work 
in  prose  (known  as  the  Prix  Goncourt). 

Gondibert,  a  romantic  epic  by  D'Avenant 
(q.v.),  published  in  1651. 

This  work,  which  was  never  finished, 
consists  of  some  1,700  quatrains.  It  is  a  tale 
of  chivalry,  of  which  the  scene  is  Lombardy 
and  the  court  of  King  Aribert.  Duke 
Gondibert  loves  Birtha,  and  is  therefore  im- 
pervious to  the  love  of  Rhodalind,  the  king's 
daughter,  who  in.  turn  is  loved  by  Prince 
Oswald.  Oswald  attempts  to  destroy  Gondi- 
bert. But  before  any  issue  is  reached,  the 
author  frankly  declares  himself  bored  with 
his  poem. 

Gondomar,  DON  DIEGO  SARMIENTO  DE 
ACTJNA,  MARQUIS  DE,  the  Spanish  Ambas- 
sador in  the  reign  of  James  I.  He  was  the 
enemy  of  Sir  Wa^ter.  Ralegh*  and  caused 
Middleton  to  be  imprisoned  for  his  play,  'A 
Game  at  Chesse*  (q.v.). 
Gondwanaland,  the  name  given  by  the 
geologist  Eduard  Suess  (q.v.)  to  a  supposed 
ancient  continent  uniting  India,  Australia,  and 
Africa.  It  was  so  called  from  the  Gondwana 
geological  beds  in  India.  Gondwana  is  the 
historical  name  of  a  region  in  India  roughly 
corresponding  to  the  Central  Provinces,  the 
home  of  the  Gonds,  an  aboriginal  tribe  still 
inhabiting  it.  Cf .  Lemuria. 
Goneril  and  Regan,  in  Shakespeare's  *King 
Lear'  (q.v.),  the  elder  daughters  of  the  king. 

Gongorism,  an  affected  type  of  diction  and 
style  introduced  into  Spanish  literature  in  the 
1 6th  cent,  by  the  poet  Don  Luis  de  Gongora  y 
Argote  (i  561-1627),  a  style  akin  to  Euphuism 
(q.v.)  in  England  and  Marinism  (see  Marino) 
in  Italy.  But  Gongora  was  none  the  less  a 
poet  of  genius,  and  both  his  earlier  and  his 
latest  verses  were  simple  and  unaffected. 


GOOGE 

Good  Companions,  The,  a  novel  by  John 
Boynton  Priestley,  published  in  1929.  It  has 
been  dramatized. 

Goodfeliow,  ROBIN,  see  Robin  Goodfellow. 

Good-natured  Man,  The,  a  comedy  by 
Goldsmith  (q.v.),  produced  in  1768. 

Mr.  Honeywood  is  an  open-hearted  but 
foolishly  good-natured  and  credulous  young 
man,  who  gives  away  to  the  importunate 
what  he  owes  to  his  creditors.  His  uncle, 
Sir  William  Honeywood,  decides  to  teach 
him  a  lesson  by  having  him  arrested  for  debt 
and  letting  him  see  who  are  his  true  friends. 
Young  Honeywood  is  in  love  with  Miss 
Richland,  a  lady  of  fortune,  and  she  with  him, 
but  he  is  too  diffident  to  propose  to  her. 
He  even  recommends  to  her  -die  suit  of  Lofty, 
a  government  official  to  whom  he  believes 
himself  indebted  for  release  from  arrest.  In 
fact  it  is  Miss  Richland  who  has  secured  his 
release,  and  the  impostor  Lofty  is  amusingly 
exposed.  Honeywood,  being  cured  of  his 
folly  by  this  experience,  is  by  his  uncle's 
intervention  united  to  Miss  Richland.  The 
plot  is  completed  by  a  subordinate  love- 
affair.  Valentine,  the  son  of  Croaker,  Miss 
Richland's  doleful  guardian,  is  destined  by 
his  father  to  marry  Miss  Richland.  But 
Valentine,  having  been  sent  to  Lyons  to 
fetch  his  sister,  who  has  been  educated  there 
for  the  last  ten  years,  brings  back  instead 
Olivia,  a  young  lady  with  whom  he  has  fallen 
in  love,  and  who  personates  the  sister. 
Valentine,  to  prevent  suspicion,  proposes  to 
Miss  Richland,  expecting  to  be  refused.  But 
she,  knowing  the  truth  about  Olivia,  mis- 
chievously accepts  him.  Whereupon  Valen- 
tine and  Olivia  attempt  to  elope.  The 
attempt  is  defeated  by  Sir  William,  who 
however  obtains  old  Croaker's  consent  to  the 
match. 

Goody  Two-Shoes,  a  nursery  tale,  said  to 
have  been  written  by  Goldsmith  (q.v.), 
published  by  Newbery  (q.v.). 

Good  Thoughts  in  Bad  Times,  a  collection  of 
reflections  by  Fuller  (q.v.),  published  in 
1645  at  Exeter,  wjhere  Fuller  was  living  as 
chaplain  to  Sir  Ralph  Hop  ton .  It  was  followed 
in  1647  by  'Good  Thoughts  in  Worse  Times', 
and  in  1660,  at  the  Restoration,  by  'Mixt 
Contemplations  in  Better  Times'.  The  work 
consists  of  meditations  on  his  own  short- 
comings, observations  on  passages  of  scrip- 
ture, and  applications  of  historical  incidents 
and  anecdotes  to  current  events,  many  of 
them  whimsical  and  humorous,  and  most  of 
them  pithy  and  wise. 

GOOGE,  BARNABE  (1504-94),  a  member 
of  both  universities,  was  a  kinsman  of  Sir 
William  Cecil,  who  employed  him  in  Ireland, 
1574-85.  He  published  'Eglogs,  Epytaphes, 
and  Sonnetes',  1563  (reprinted,  1871),  and 
translations,  including  Heresbachius's  'Foure 
Bookes  of  Husbandrie',  1577.  His  eclogues 
are  of  interest  as  being,  with  those  of  Barclay 


[327] 


GOOSE 

(q.v.),  the  earliest  examples  of  pastorals  in 
English. 

Goose,  MOTHER,  see  Mother  Goose's  Tales. 

Gorboduc,  or  Ferrex  and  Porrex,  one  of  the 
earliest  of  English  tragedies,  of  which  the  first 
three  acts  are  by  Thomas  Norton  (1532-84) 
and  the  last  two  by  T.  Sackville  (q.v.).  It 
was  acted  in  the  Inner  Temple  Hall  in  1561. 
The  play  is  constructed  on  the  model  of  a 
Senecan  tragedy,  and  the  subject  is  taken 
from  the  legendary  chronicles  of  Britain. 
Gorboduc  and  Videna  are  king  and  queen, 
Ferrex  and  Porrex  are  their  two  sons,  and 
the  dukes  of  Cornwall,  Albany,  Logres,  and 
Cumberland  are  the  other  chief  characters. 
Ferrex  and  Porrex  quarrel  over  the  division 
of  the  kingdom.  Ferrex  is  killed  by  Porrex, 
and  Porrex  is  murdered  in  revenge  by  his 
mother.  The  duke  of  Albany  tries  to  seize 
the  kingdom  and  civil  war  breaks  out.  There 
is  no  action  on  the  stage,  the  events  being 
narrated  in  blank  verse. 

The  legend  of  Gorboduc  is  told  by 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  and  figures  in  Spen- 
ser's 'Faerie  Queene*  (n.  x.  34  and  35),  where 
Gorboduc  is  called  Gorbogud. 

Gordius,  the  father  of  Midas  (q.v.),  a 
Phrygian  peasant  who  became  king,  in  con- 
sequence of  an  oracle  which  told  the  Phry- 
gians, in  a  time  of  sedition,  that  their  troubles 
would  cease  if  they  appointed  king  the  first 
man  they  met  approaching  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  in  a  wagon.  Gordius  was  the  man 
thus  chosen.  He  dedicated  his  wagon  to 
Jupiter.  The  knot  with  which  the  yoke  was 
fastened  to  the  pole  was  so  artful  that  the 
legend  arose  that  whoever  could  untie  it 
would  gain  the  empire  of  Asia.  Alexander 
the  Great  cut  the  Gordian  knot  with  his  sword 
and  applied  the  legend  to  himself. 

GORDON,  ADAM  LINDSAY  (1833-70), 
Australian  poet,  went  to  Australia  in  1853, 
where  he  joined  the  mounted  police.  He 
spent  most  of  his  life  in  Australia  among 
horses,  and  this  is  reflected  in  much  of  his 
poetry,  for  instance  in  his  well-known  pieces, 
*The  Sick  Stockrider1,  'How  we  beat  the 
Favourite*,  'The  Ride  from  the  Wreck*,  and 
*  Wolf  and  Hound*.  Much  of  his  best  work  is 
collected  in  cSea  Spray  and  Smoke  Drift* 
(1867),  'Bush  Ballads  and  Galloping  Rhymes* 
(1870).  Gordon  committed  suicide. 

Gordon,  CHARLES  GEORGE  (1833-85),  'Chin- 
ese Gordon*,  an  officer  of  the  Royal  Engineers, 
who  commanded  the  Chinese  forces  against 
the  Taiping  rebels  in  1863-4  and  Pu*  down 
the  rebellion.  He  was  governor  of  the 
Egyptian  equatorial  provinces  of  Africa, 
1874-6,  and  governor-general  of  the  Soudan, 
1877-80,  where  he  put  down  the  slave  trade. 
He  was  sent  by  the  British  government  in 
1884  to  rescue  the  Egyptian  garrisons  in  the 
Soudan  previous  to  abandonment,  was 
hemmed  in  at  Khartoum,  and  there  killed, 
after  having  sustained  a  siege  of  317  days; 
he  was  the  only  Englishman  there  after  the 


GORKY 

murder  of  his  companions,  Colonel  Stewart 
and  Frank  Power.  His  Chinese  diaries, 
Khartoum  journals,  and  several  volumes  of 
his  letters,  have  been  published. 
Gordon  Riots,  THE,  in  1780,  led  by  Lord 
George  Gordon,  were  intended  to  compel 
parliament  to  repeal  the  Act  of  1778  for  the 
relief  of  Roman  Catholics.  They  resulted  in 
much  tumult  and  the  burning  of  a  number 
of  houses  in  London;  also  in  the  establish- 
ment of  a  regular  police  force.  They  figure 
in  Dickens *s  *Barnaby  Rudge*  (q.v.). 

GORE,  CHARLES  (1853-1932),  educated 
at  Harrow  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  bishop 
of  Oxford  from  1911  to  1919,  was  editor  of, 
and  contributor  to,  'Lux  Mundi*  (q.v.),  and 
published  a  number  of  works  on  religious 
subjects:  'Epistle  to  the  Ephesians*  (1898), 
'Epistle  to  the  Romans*  (1899),  'Epistle  of 
St.  John*  (1920),  'The  Old  Theology  and  the 
New  Religion*  (1908),  'The  Religion  of  the 
Church*  (1916),  &c. 

GORE,  MRS.  CATHERINE  GRACE 
FRANCES  (1799-1861),  n&e  Moody,  pub- 
lished about  seventy  works  between  1824  and 
1862,  including  the  novels  'Mrs.  Armytage* 
(1836)  and  'Mothers  and  Daughters*  (1831), 
which  are  her  best;  'Cecil,  or  the  Adventures 
of  a  Coxcomb*  (1841);  and  'The  Banker's 
Wife*  (1843).  Of  her  plays,  'The  School  for 
Coquettes'  was  acted  in  1831 ,  and  'Lords  and 
Commons*  and  'Quid  pro  Quo*  in  1844.  Her 
novels  were  parodied  by  Thackeray  in  'Lords 
and  Liveries*,  one  of  the  'Novels  by  Eminent 
Hands*. 

Gorges,  SIR  ARTHUR,  see  Alcyon. 

Gorgius  Midas,  SIR,  see  Midas  (Sir 
Gorgius). 

Gorgons,  THE,  three  sisters,  daughters  of 
Phorcys  and  Ceto,  whose  names  were  Stheno, 
Eur^ale,  and  Medusa.  Of  these  the  first  two 
were  immortal;  Medusa  (q.v.)  was  mortal 
and  is  the  most  celebrated.  According  to  the 
mythologists,  their  hair  was  entwined  with 
serpents,  their  hands  were  of  brass,  their  body 
covered  with  impenetrable  scales,  their  teeth 
like  a  wild  boar's  tusks,  and  they  turned  to 
stones  all  on  whom  they  fixed  their  eyes. 

Gorham  Case,  THE,  an  ecclesiastical  law- 
suit in  1848  arising  out  of  the  refusal  of  the 
bishop  of  Exeter  (Henry  Phillpptts)  to  insti- 
tute the  Rev.  Cornelius  Gorham  into  the  living 
of  Brampton-Speke,  on  the  ground  of  his 
alleged  unorthodoxy  in  the  matter  of  infant 
baptism.  The  Judicial  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council  decided  in  favour  of  Mr.  Gor- 
ham. 

GORKY,  MAXIM  (1869-  ),  the  pseu- 
donym of  Alexei  Maximovich  Peshkov,  the 
well-known  Russian  writer  and  revolutionary. 
He  was  obliged  to  begin  earning  his  bread  at 
nine  years  of  age,  and  educated  himself.  He 
first  became  famous  through  the  short 
realistic  stories  that  he  published  in  1895— 
1900,  dealing  principally  with  thieves  and 


[328] 


GORLOIS 

tramps  and  other  outcasts.  His  later  work, 
which  comprises  plays  and  novels,  is  specially 
notable  for  his  autobiography  in  three  parts, 
of  which  'My  Childhood'  (Eng.  transl.  1915) 
is  the  first.  The  second  part,  'In  the  World3, 
appeared  in  1918,  and  the  third,  'Reminis- 
cences of  my  Youth',  in  1924.  An  important 
volume  of  his  'Reminiscences  of  Tolstoy* 
appeared  in  1920. 

Gorlois,  in  the  Arthurian  legend,  duke  of 
Cornwall  and  husband  of  Igraine  (q.v.). 
GOSSE,_  SIR  EDMUND  (1849-1928),  the 
son  of  Philip  H.  Gosse,  an  eminent  zoologist 
and  a  Plymouth  Brother,  his  relations  with 
whom  are  described  in  his  'Father  and  Son* 
(first  published  anonymously  in  1907).  Gosse 
was  privately  educated  and  entered  the 
British  Museum  as  assistant  librarian  in  1867. 
In  1875  he  became  translator  to  the  board  of 
trade,  a  post  which  he  held  until  1904,  when 
he  became  librarian  to  the  House  of  Lords  till 
1914.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  the 
northern  languages,  and  published  'Ethical 
Conditions  of  Early  Scandinavian  Peoples'  in 
1875,  and  'Northern  Studies'  (essays  on 
Danish,  Swedish,  Norwegian,  and  Dutch 
poets)  in  1879.  He  wrote  an  admirable  life  of 
Ibsen  in  1908,  and  in  1911  published  a  de- 
scription of  'Two  Visits  to  Denmark*,  paid 
many  years  before.  Gosse  was  Clark  lecturer 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  from  1884  to 
1890,  and  his  inaugural  course  'From  Shake- 
speare to  Pope*  (1885)  gave  rise  to  some  con- 
troversy between  him  and  Churton  Collins. 
He  published  the  'Life  and  Letters  of  John 
Donne'  in  1899,  lives  of  Gray  (1882),  Jeremy 
Taylor  (1904), and  Sir  Thomas  Browne  (1905) 
for  the  English  Men  of  Letters  series;  also  lives 
of  Congreve(i888)and  Swinburne  (1917).  His 
collected  poems  appeared  in  1911,  and  his 
'Life  and  Letters',  by  the  Hon.  E.  Charteris, 
in  1931.  Gosse  had  known  almost  all  his 
literary  contemporaries,  and  was  a  specially 
close  friend  of  Swinburne  in  earlier  years,  of 
Stevenson,  and  of  Henry  James  (qq.v.). 

GOSSON,  STEPHEN  (1554-1624),  was 
educated  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford. 
His  plays  are  not  now  extant  but  were  ranked 
by  Meres  among  'the  best  for  pastoral!'.  He 
was  converted  by  Puritan  censures  and 
attacked  poets  and  players  in  his  'Schoole  of 
Abuse'  (1579),  defended  it  in  'Ephemerides 
of  Phialo*  (1579),  and  replied  to  Lodge  and 
'The  Play  of  Playes'  in  'Playes  confuted  in 
Fine  Actions*  (1582).  He  evoked,  by  his 
unauthorized  dedication  of  his  'Schoole  of 
Abuse*  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  Sidney's 
'Apologie  for  Poetrie'  (published  1595).  He 
was  rector  of  Great  Wigborough,  1591,  and 
St.  Botolph's,  Bishopsgate,  1600. 

Gotham,  and  Gothamite,  names  frequently 
applied  to  New  York  City  and  its  inhabitants. 

Gotham,  WISE  MEN  OF.  For  some  reason, 
which  is  not  clearly  established,  a  reputation 
for  folly  was  from  very  early  times  attributed 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Gotham,  a  village  in 


GOTHS 

Nottinghamshire.  There  is  reference  to  such 
a  tradition  in  the  Towneley  'Mysteries'  (q.v.). 
The  tradition  once  established,  it  seems  prob- 
able that  many  new  stories  of  folly  were 
fathered  on  the  village.  These  were  collected 
in  the  'Merry  Tales  of  Gotham  by  A.  B.' 
(perhaps  Andrew  Borde,  physician,  c.  1490- 
1549),  of  which  a  1630  edition  is  extant.  The 
first  of  these  deals  with  a  quarrel  between  two 
men  as  to  whether  the  sheep  which  one  of 
them  has  not  yet  bought  shall  be  brought 
over  a  certain  bridge  or  not. 

The  origin  of  the  tradition  is  perhaps  to 
be  found  in  certain  customary  law  tenures 
belonging  to  the  place  or  neighbourhood 
(Laird's  'Nottinghamshire').  According  to 
Stapleton  ('The  Merry  Tales  of  Gotham')  the 
explanation  most  widely  accepted  is  that 
recorded  by  Throsby  in  his  'History  of 
Nottinghamshire'  (1797) :  'King  John,  passing 
through  this  place  towards  Nottingham,  in- 
tending to  go  over  the  meadows  I  have  just 
described,  was  prevented  by  the  villagers, 
they  apprehending  that  the  ground  over 
which  a  king  passed  was  for  ever  after  to  be- 
come a  public  road.  The  king,  incensed  at 
their  proceedings,  sent  from  his  court  some 
of  his  servants  to  inquire  of  them  the  reason 
for  their  incivility,  that  he  might  punish 
them.  .  .  .  The  villagers,  hearing  of  the  ap- 
proach of  the  king's  servants,  thought  of  an 
expedient  to  turn  away  his  majesty's  dis- 
pleasure. When  the  messengers  arrived  at 
Gotham,  they  found  some  of  the  inhabitants 
engaged  in  endeavouring  to  drown  an  eel  in 
a  pool  of  water  .  .  .  and  some  in  hedging  in  a 
cuckoo  which  had  perched  upon  an  old  bush. 
In  short  they  were  all  employed  in  some 
foolish  way  or  other,  which  convinced  the 
king's  servants  that  it  was  a  village  of  fools.* 

Gothic,  a  style  of  architecture  prevalent  in 
Western  Europe  from  the  i2th  to  the  i6th 
cents.,  of  which  the  chief  characteristic  is  the 
pointed  arch.  The  name  appears  to  have 
been  taken  in  the  first  instance  from  the 
French,  and  employed  to  denote  any  style 
of  building  that  was  not  classical  (Greek 
or  Roman).  The  most  usual  names  for 
the  successive  periods  of  this  style  in  Eng- 
land are  EARLY  ENGLISH,  DECORATED,  and 
PERPENDICULAR.  [OED.] 

GOTHIC  or  BLACK-LETTER  TYPE  is  that  most 
commonly  used  for  printing  German.  It  is 
descended  from  the  Gothic  characters. 

Gothic  Revival,  the  reintroduction  in  Eng- 
land of  Gothic  architecture  towards  the 
middle  of  the  I9th  cent.  Its  origin  can  be 
traced  to  the  iSth  cent.,  when  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries  was  founded  and  Horace 
Walpole  was  building  at  Strawberry  Hill. 
'Theyear  [1840]  in  which  the  foundation-stone 
of  the  [new]  Parliament  Houses  was  laid  may 
be  taken  as  the  turning-point  in  the  History 
of  the  Revival5  [Eastlake]. 
Goths,  THE,  a  Germanic  tribe,  who,  in  the 
3rd,  4th,  and  5th  cents.,  invaded  both  the 
Eastern  and  the  Western  Empires.  The 


[329] 


GOTTERDAMMERUNG 

Ostrogoths  were  the  Eastern  division  of  the 
tribe,  which  founded  a  kingdom  in  Italy;  the 
Visigoths  were  the  western  division,  which 
founded  a  kingdom  in  Spain.  The  word 
'Goth'  is  applied  in  a  transferred  sense  to  one 
who  behaves  like  a  barbarian,  especially  in  the 
destruction  or  neglect  of  works  of  art. 

Gotterdammerung,  'Twilight  of  the  Gods', 
the  last  of  the  series  of  Wagner's  operas  in  the 
series  of  the  'Ring  des  Nibelungen'  (q.v.).  It 
follows  tiie  'Siegfried'  (q.v.). 

Siegfried  leaves  Brynhilde,  having  given 
her  the  Nibelung  ring,  and  comes  to  the  Hall 
of  the  Gibichungs.  Owing  to  a  magic  potion, 
he  forgets  Brynhilde  and  falls  in  love  with 
Gutrune.  In  order  to  obtain  her  he  under- 
takes to  win  Brynhilde  for  Gunther,  her 
brother.  This  he  does,  taking  Gunther's 
shape  with  the  help  of  the  tarn-helm,  and  takes 
from  Brynhilde  the  ring.  Later  she  sees  it 
on  his  finger,  when  she  comes,  as  Gunther's 
bride,  to  the  Gibichung  hall,  and  thus  dis- 
covers the  trick  that  has  been  played  upon 
her*  She  bitterly  upbraids  Siegfried,  and 
with  Hagen  and  Gunther  plots  Siegfried's 
death.  Siegfried  is  treacherously  slain  by 
Hagen,  who  hopes  to  get  the  ring.  But 
Brynhilde  places  it  on  her  finger  before  she 
throws  herself  on  Siegfried's  pyre.  The 
Rhine  rises,  envelopes  the  pyre,  and  the 
Rhine-maidens  recover  the  ring. 

Gotz  von  Berlichingen,  see  Goethe. 

GOULD,  NATHANIEL  (1857-1919), 
known  as  Nat  Gould,  journalist  and  novelist. 
His  first  book,  'The  Double  Event',  pub- 
lished when  he  was  working  as  a  journalist 
in  Australia,  achieved  immediate  success ;  he 
subsequently  wrote  about  130  novels,  all 
concerned  with  horse-racing.  He  also  wrote 
two  books  on  Australian  life,  'On  and  Off  the 
Turf  (1895)  and  'Town  and  Bush*  (1896), 
as  well  as  'The  Magic  of  Sport:  Mainly 
Autobiographical'  (1909). 

Gounod,  CHARLES  FRANCOIS  (1818-93), 
French  musical  composer.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  operas,  of  which  the  best  known 
are  'Faust'  (1859)  and  'Rom£o  et  Juliette* 
(1867),  church  music,  and  many  shorter 
pieces. 

Governour,  The,  a  treatise  on  politics  and 
education  by  Elyot  (q.v.). 

Gow,  HENRY,  or  Henry  Smith,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth'  (q.v.). 

GOWER,  JOHN  (I33o?-i4o8),  of  a  Kentish 
family  and  a  man  of  some  wealth,  probably 
lived  mostly  in  London  and  was  well  known 
at  court  in  his  later  years.  He  became  blind 
in  1400,  died  at  the  priory  of  St.  Mary 
Overies,  Southwark,  and  was  buried  in  the 
church  (now  St.  Saviour's),  where  he  is 
commemorated  by  a  fine  tomb  and  effigy. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Chaucer,  who  called  him 
'moral  Gower*.  Of  his  chief  works  the 
'Speculum  Meditantis'  (q.v.)  or  'Mirour  de 
TOmme'  is  written  in  French,  the  'Vox 


GRACECHURCH 

Clamantis'  (q.v.,  e.  1382?)  in  Latin,  and  the 
'Confessio  Amantis*  (q.v.,  1390)  in  English. 
His  later  works  include  a  series  of  ballades 
in  French  ('Cinkante  Ballades'),  an^English 
poem  'In  Praise  of  Peace',  and  a  Latin  poem 
in  leonine  hexameters,  'Cronica  Tripertita', 
relating  the  events  of  the  last  years  of  Richard 
IFs  reign,  including  his  deposition. 
Gower,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Henry  V  (q.v.). 

Gowkthrapple,  a  pulpit-drumming  Puritan 
preacher  in  Scott's  'Waverley*  (q.v.). 
Goya  y  Lucientes,  FRANCISCO  (1746-1828), 
Spanish  painter,  born  near  Saragossa.  He 
was  commissioned  to  paint  cartoons  for 
tapestries  for  the  Prado  palace  at  Madrid, 
and  was  appointed  court  painter  in  1786. 
He  painted  portraits  and  scenes  of  con- 
temporary life  with  a  brilliant  and  sometimes 
cynical  realism.  Among  his  portraits  are  two 
of  the  duke  of  Wellington. 
Graal,  HOLY,  see  Grail. 
Grace,  LADY,  a  character  in  Vanbrugh's  and 
Gibber's  'The  Provok'd  Husband'  (q.v.). 
Grace,  WILLIAM  GILBERT  (1848-1915),  the 
great  cricketer,  was  educated  for  the  medical 
profession  and  began  to  practise  as  a  surgeon 
in  Bristol  in  1879.  He  was  famous  chiefly  as  a 
batsman,  but  was  first-rate  both  as  a  bowler 
and  a  fieldsman.  His  first  great  scores  were 
madeini866  (224,notout,for  Englandagainst 
Surrey,  and  173,  not  out,  for  Gentlemen 
of  the  South  against  Players  of  the  South). 
In  1871  he  made  over  200  twice  and  over  100 
eight  times.  Before  his  day  a  score  of  50  on 
the  rough  wickets  of  the  time  was  noteworthy, 
and  a  century  a  rare  event.  After  1877  his 
supremacy  was  less  marked,  but  in  1895  and 
1896^6  showed  a  striking  return  to  the  form 
of  his  best  days.  He  was  a  big  heavy  man, 
bluff  and  downright  in  manner,  but  his 
genuine  kindness  of  heart  won  him  many 
friends.  His  brother,  Edward  Mills  Grace, 
also  attained  great  distinction  in  the  game. 
Grace  Abounding  to  the  Chief  of  Sinners,  or 
the  brief  Relation  of  the  exceeding  Mercy  of 
God  in  Christ  to  his  poor  Servant  John 
Bunyan,  a  homiletic  narrative  by  Bunyan 
(q.v.),  published  in  1666. 

^The  author  relates  his  spiritual  history, 
his  mean  birth,  wicked  childhood  and  youth, 
his  escapes  from  death  by  various  accidents 
and  the  perils  of  military  service,  and  his 
gradual  awakening  to  religion  as  a  result  of 
reading  two  works  of  devotion  owned  by  his 
wife.  He  tells  how  he  went  to  Bedford  and 
there  entered  a  small  religious  community, 
and  recounts  his  spiritual  experiences, 
temptations,  and  final  call  to  the  ministry. 
The  book  is  written  with  intense  fervour  and 
sincerity. 

Gracechurch,  London,  originally  Grass 
Church.  'Then  higher  in  Grasse  Streete  is 
the  parish  church  of  Saint  Bennet  called 
Grasse  Church,  of  the  Herbe  market  there 
kept'  (Stow). 


[330] 


GRACES 

Graces,  THE,  called  CHARITES  by  the  Greeks, 
daughters  of  Zeus;  Euphrosyne,  Aglaia,  and 
Thalia  by  name.  They  were  goddesses  of 
beauty  and  grace,  who  distributed  joy  and 
gentleness. 

Gracioso,  the  buffoon  of  Spanish  comedy. 

Gradasso,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato* 
(q.v.),  the  king  of  Sericane,  who  invades 
Spain,  overcomes  its  king  Marsilio,  and 
presses  Charlemagne  back  to  Paris.  His 
object  is  to  secure  Baiardo  and  Durindana 
(qq-v.)>  which  he  succeeds  in  doing,  but  not 
by  his  prowess.  He  is  killed  with  Agramant 
by  Orlando,  in  the  great  fight  at  Lipadusa. 

Gradgrind,  MR.,  LOUISA,  and  TOM,  leading 
characters  in  Dickens's  'Hard  Times*  (q.v.). 

Graeme  or  AVENEL,  ROLAND,  the  hero  of 
Scott's  'The  Abbot'  (q.v.). 

Graevius,  JOHANN  GEORG  (GREFFE)  (1632- 
1703),  Dutch  scholar  and  antiquary,  pro- 
fessor at  Utrecht,  the  foremost  Latinist  of 
his  day,  a  friend  of  Bentley. 

Graham  of  Claverhouse,  JOHN  (1649?- 
89),  first  Viscount  Dundee,  a  Royalist  officer 
employed  by  the  Scottish  Privy  Council  in 
executing  the  severities  of  the  government  in 
Scotland  during  the  reigns  of  Charles  II  and 
James  II.  In  1688,  when  James  'forsook  his 
own  cause*,  Dundee's  life  was  in  danger  even 
in^  Scotland,  and  he  determined  to  raise  the 
Highlands  for  James  (after  the  manner  of  his 
collateral,  Montrose,  in  1644)  and  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Killiecrankie.  He  figures 
prominently  in  Scott's  'Old  Mortality* 


GRAHAME,  KENNETH  (1859-1932), 
author  of  'The  Golden  Age*  (1895),  studies 
of  childhood  in  an  English  countryside 
setting,  which  proved  extremely  popular. 
'Dream  Days',  a  sequel,  followed  in  1898. 
Grahame  also  wrote  'The  Wind  in  the 
Willows'  (1908),  a  book  for  children  which 
many  of  their  elders  have  also  enjoyed. 

Graiae  or  PHORCIDS,  THE,  the  three  daugh- 
ters of  the  sea-god  Phorcus,  and  sisters  of  the 
Gorgons  (q.v.).  They  had  one  tooth  and  one 
eye  between  them. 

Grail,  THE  HOLY.  The  word  'Grail*  in 
medieval  legend  signified  the  vessel  used  by 
our  Saviour  at  the  Last  Supper,  in  which 
Joseph  of  Arimathea  received  the  Saviour's 
blood  at  the  Cross.  Its  etymology  is  com- 
monly referred  to  a  popular  Latin  form 
cratalis  from  L.  cratus  altered  from  L.  crater 
a  cup.  [OED.] 

The  Grail  cycle,  as  a  whole,  embodies  two 
distinct  legends:  (i)  that  of  the  quest  by 
Perceval  for  certain  talismans;  this  is 
probably  the  more  ancient  legend  and,  in  its 
original  form,  of  a  pagan  and  mythological 
character  (see  John  Rhys,  'Studies  in  the 
Arthurian  Legend').  (2)  The  early  history  of 
the  Holy  Grail  (see  Alfred  Nutt,  'The 
Legends  of  the  Holy  Grail'). 


GRAMMAR  OF  ASSENT 

In  the  earliest  English  poems  dealing  with 
the  latter  subject  ('Joseph  of  Arimathea*  of 
the  1 4th  cent,  and  the  'History  of  the  Holy 
Grail'  by  Henry  Lovelich  of  the  isth  cent.) 
based  on  the  French  prose  'Grand  Saint 
Graal*,  Joseph  of  Arimathea  goes  to  Sarras, 
carrying  the  dish  containing  Christ's  blood. 
He  tells  the  story  of  Christ  to  Evalak,  king  of 
Sarras.  Joseph  aids  him  to  defeat  Tholomer, 
king  of  Babylon,  by  means  of  prayer  to 
Christ,  before  a  shield  marked  with  a  red 
cross.  Evalak  and  his  brother-in-law  are 
baptized  by  the  names  of  Mordziens  and 
Naciens  (who  figures  in  later  narratives). 
Joseph  goes  on  a  missionary  journey,  leaving 
the  Grail  in  the  care  of  two  guarcUans,  and 
is  imprisoned  in  North  Wales.  (For  another 
version  of  the  legend  see  TitureL) 

This  narrative  is  in  part  reproduced  and 
continued  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Axthur'. 
Launcelot  is  brought  to  the  castle  of  King 
Pelles,  and  by  enchantment  has  intercourse 
with  the  king's  daughter  Elaine,  supposing 
her  to  be  Guinevere.  Their  son  is  brought 
by  an  old  man  on  the  feast  of  Pentecost  to  the 
knights  seated  at  the  Round  Table,  and  set  in 
the  vacant  'Siege  Perilous*  (see  Round  Table). 
The  knights  know  him  as  destined  to  achieve 
the  adventure  of  the  Grail.  In  a  burst  of 
thunder  and  light  the  Holy  Grail  enters  the 
hall,  but  none  may  see  it.  The  knights,  led 
by  Gawain,  vow  to  undertake  its  quest.  The 
hermit  Naciens  warns  them  that  none  can 
achieve  it  who  is  not  clean  of  his  sins.  Gala- 
had obtains  in  an  abbey  a  white  shield  with  a 
red  cross,  which  Joseph  of  Arimathea  had 
given  to  King  Evalak.  Then  follow  numerous 
adventures  by  various  knights  in  the  course 
of  their  quest.  Launcelot  has  several 
glimpses  of  the  Grail,  but  on  each  occasion 
is  warned  to  withdraw  because  of  his  sins, 
so  that  he  repents  (but  only  temporarily). 
Gawain  wearies  of  the  quest  and  gives  it  up. 
Finally  Galahad,  Perceval,  and  Bors,  all 
qualified  by  their  purity  for  the  adventure, 
come  to  the  castle  of  Carbonek,  see  a  mar- 
vellous vision  of  the  Saviour  and  partake  of 
his  body,  receive  the  Grail  from  his  hands, 
and  convey  it  to  Sarras.  Galahad  prays  that 
when  he  shall  ask  for  death  he  may  receive 
it,  and  the  request  is  granted  him.  Galahad 
becomes  king  of  Sarras,  and  after  a  year  dies. 
The  Grail  is  borne  up  to  heaven  and  never 
seen  more. 

For  Tennyson's  idyll  on  this  subject,  see 
Holy  Grail. 

Grainne,  in  the  legends  relating  to  the  Irish 
hero  Finn,  the  daughter  of  King  Corrnac. 
Finn,  though  a  great  warrior  and  hunter,  was 
unfortunate  in  love.  He  sought  to  marry 
Grainne,  but  she  fell  in  love  with  Finn's 
nephew  Diarmait  O'Duibhne  and  eloped 
with  him.  The  long  story  of  their  flight  and 
Finn's  unsuccessful  pursuit  ends  in  Finn's 
temporary  acceptance  of  the  situation;  but 
Finn  finally  caused  the  death  of  Diarmait. 

Grammar  of  Assent,  The,  a  philosophical 


[33i] 


GRAMMONT 

and  religious   treatise  by  Newman   (q.v.), 
published  in  1870. 

The  author  examines  in  this  work,  on 
lines  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  Coleridge's 
'Aids  to  Reflection'  (q.v.),  the  nature  of 
belief.  Assent  or  belief,  he  holds,  is  an  act 
of  apprehension,  subjective  in  character,  in- 
capable of  logical  proof,  though  rational. 
Logic  deals  with  what  is  enotional'  or  abstract, 
assent  with  what  is  real  and  concrete.  The 
real  universe  is  not  logical,  and  the  premisses 
of  logic  are  not  reaKties  but  assumptions. 
We  reach  certainties,  not  through  logic,  but 
by  intuitive  perception  (the  'illative'  sense), 
from  'the  cumulation  of  probabilities',  'proba- 
bilities too  fine  to  avail  separately,  too  subtle 
and  circuitous  to  be  convertible  into^  syllo- 
gisms'. It  is  the  'living  mind*  of  the  individual 
that  determines  the  process.  'It  follows  that 
what  to  one  intellect  is  a  proof  is  not  so^  to 
another,  and  that  the  certainty  of  a  proposition 
does  properly  consist  in  the  certitude  of  the 
mind  that  contemplates  it.* 
Grammont,  see  Gramont. 
Gramont,  Memoires  de  la  Vie  du  Comte  dey 
an  anonymous  work  published  at  Cologne  in 
1713,  written  by  Anthony  Hamilton  (1646?- 
1720),  third  son  of  Sir  George  Hamilton  and 
grandson  of  the  earl  of  Abercprn.  Anthony 
Hamilton  was  the  brother-in-law  of  the 
Comte  de  Gramont,  who  married  Elizabeth 
Hamilton  in  1663.  The  memoirs  were  edited 
(in  French)  by  Horace  Walpole  and  trans- 
lated into  English  (with  many  errors)  by 
Boyer  (q.v,)  in  1714;  and  this  translation, 
revised  and  annotated  by  Sir  W.  Scott,  was 
reissued  in  1811. 

The  first  part  of  the  memoirs,  dealing  with 
Gramont's  life  on  the  Continent  down  to  the 
time  of  his  banishment  from  the  French 
court,  was  probably  dictated  by  Gramont  to 
Hamilton.  The  second  part,  relating  to  the 
EngHsh  court,  appears  to  be  Hamilton's  own 
work.  It  is  an  important  source  of  informa- 
tion, but  its  trustworthiness  on  details  is 
doubtful. 

Granby,  JOHN  MANNERS,  Marquis  of  (1721- 
70),  commanded  the  Blues  at  the  battle  of 
Minden  (1759),  where  his  advance  was  stayed 
by  orders  of  Lord  George  Sackville.  He  was 
afterwards  commander-in-chief. 
Granby,  THE  MARQUIS  OF,  in  Dickens 's 
'Pickwick  Papers'  (q.v.),  the  inn  at  Dorking 
kept  by  the  second  Mrs.  Tony  Weller, 

GRAND,    SARAH    (pseudonym   of  Mrs. 
David   C.   M'Fall,    nee  Frances    Elizabeth 
Clarke),  novelist,  best  known  for  her  novel 
'The  Heavenly  Twins*  (1893).  She  has  been 
repeatedly  mayor  of  Bath. 
Grand  Cyrus,  Le,  see  Scudery. 
Grand  Monarque,  LE,  Louis  XIV. 
Grand  National,  THE,  a  steeplechase  held 
annually  at  Aintree,  near  Liverpool,  in  March. 
The  course  is  4  j-  miles  and  includes  30  jumps. 
Grand  Old  Man,  see  G.O.M. 


GRANTA 

Grand  Question  Debated,  The,  a  poem  by 
Swift  (q*v.),  published  in  1729. 

The  question  is  whether  a  building  be- 
longing to  Sir  A.  Acheson,  known  as  Hamil- 
ton's Bawn,  shall  be  turned  into  a  barracks  or 
a  malthouse.  Sir  Arthur  urges  the  profit  to 
be  derived  from  the  malthou»e,  his  wife  the 
advantage  of  military  society.  ^  Hannah,  her 
maid,  emphasizes  this  in  a  spirited  picture  of 
the  arrival  of  the  garrison,  with  drums  and 
trumpets  and  the  gold-laced  captain.  ^  The 
poem  is  largely  a  satire  on  the  military 
ignoramus. 

Grand  Remonstrance,  an  indictment 
drawn  up  by  the  House  of  Commons  in  the 
autumn  of  1641  of  the  unconstitutional  and 
unwise  acts  of  Charles  I  from  the  beginning 
of  his  reign,  and  a  demand  for  ministers 
responsible  to  parliament  and  for  the  settle- 
ment of  Church  matters  by  an  assembly  of 
divines  selected  by  parliament. 
Grand  Sl&cle,  LE,  the  age  of  Louis  XIV  of 
France,  whose  reign  extended  from  1643  to 
1715,  and  was  signalized  by  military  conquests 
(many  of  which,  however,  had  to  be  aban- 
doned, and  left  his  kingdom  exhausted)  and 
by  literary  and  artistic  splendour. 
Grand  gousier,  the  father  of  Gargantua 
(q.v.). 

Grandison,  CARDINAL,  a  character  in  Dis- 
raeli's 'Lothair'  (q.v.). 

Grandison,  SIR  CHARLES,  see  Sir  Charles 
Grandison. 

Granger,  EDITH,  in  Dickens's  'Dornbey  and 
Son'  (q.v.),  the  daughter  of  the  Hon.  Mrs. 
Skewton,  and  Dombey's  second  wife. 
Grangerize,  To,  to  illustrate  a  book  by  the 
addition  of  prints,  engravings,  &c.,  especially 
such  as  have  been  cut  out  of  other  books.  In 
1769  James  Granger  (1723-76)  published  a 
'Biographical  History  of  England',  with 
blank  pages  for  the  reception  of  engraved 
portraits  or  other  pictorial  illustrations  of  the 
text.  The  filling  up  of  the  'Granger'  became 
a  favourite  hobby,  and  afterwards  other 
books  were  treated  in  the  same  manner. 
[OED.] 

Granite  State,  New  Hampshire,  see  United 
States. 

Grania,  see  Grainne. 

GRANT,  JAMES  (1822-87),  served  for 
three  years  in  the  6and  Regiment.  Of  his 
numerous  novels  the  best  are  'The  Romance 
of  War'  (1845)  and  'Adventures  of  an  Aide- 
de-Camp*  (1848).  His  other  works  include 
memoirs  of  Kirkcaldy  of  Grange,  Sir  J. 
Hepburn,  and  Montrose;  'British  Battles  on 
Land  and  Sea'  (1873,  with  continuation, 
1884);  and  'Old  and  New  Edinburgh*  (1880). 

GRANT  DUFF,  JAMES,  see  Duff. 
Granta,  THE,  the  old  name  of  the  river  Cam, 
which  it  retains  above  Cambridge. 

Granta,  The,  a  Cambridge  University 
undergraduate  periodical  started  in  1889  by 


[332] 


GRANTLY 

Murray  Guthrie  to  replace  the  'Gadfly',  which 
carne  to  an  end  owing  to  an  article  of  a 
personal  character,  The  name  'Granta*  was 
appropriated  by  Guthrie  from  Oscar  Brown- 
ing, who  intended  it  for  a  paper  that  he  was 
about  to  edit.  Guthrie,  the  first  editor,  was 
succeeded  by  R.  C.  Lehmann,  and  the  last 
editor  before  the  War  was  John  Norman  of 
Emmanuel  College,  who  was  killed  at  the 
Dardanelles  in  1915.  Among  distinguished 
contributors  to  the  'Granta'  have  been  J.  K. 
Stephen,  Owen  Seaman,  Barry  Pain,  and 
'F.  Anstey'  (Thomas  Anstey  Guthrie). 
Grantly,  ARCHDEACON,  a  prominent  char- 
acter in  A.  Trollope's  'The  Warden*  (q.v.), 
'Barchester  Towers'  (q.v.)  and  other  novels 
of  the  Barsetshire  series.  Mrs.  Grantly  is 
the  elder  daughter  of  Mr.  Harding  (the 
Warden);  and  Griselda,  their  beautiful  but 
frigid  and  astute  daughter,  marries  Lord 
Dumbello. 

Grantorto,  in  Spenser's  *  Faerie  Queene*, 
v.  xii,  the  tyrant  from  whom  Sir  ArtegaH 
rescues  Irena  (Ireland).  He  probably  repre- 
sents the  spirit  of  rebellion. 
Gratiano,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Merchant  of  Venice'  (q.v.). 

Graustark,  a  romantic  novel  of  'love  behind 
the  throne*  in  the  imaginary  kingdom  of 
Graustark,  by  George  Barr  M'Cutcheon, 
published  in  1901.  The  novel  enjoyed  such 
popularity  that  a  sequel  was  demanded,  and 
provided  in  'Beverly  of  Graustark*  (1904). 
Grave  Poem,  a  fragment  of  24  lines  in  Old 
English,  probably  of  the  I2th  cent.,  de- 
scribing in  gloomy  and  poignant  terms  the 
fate  of  the  body  committed  to  the  grave,  and 
beginning : 

For  thee  was  a  house  built  ere  thou  wast 

born. 

The  translation  by  Longfellow,  is  widely 
known. 

For  another  poem  on  'The  Grave*  see 
Blair. 

Graveairs,  LADY,  a  character  in  Gibber's 
'The  Careless  Husband'  (q.v.). 
Graves,  a  district  of  France  in  the  Bordeaux 
region  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Garonne,  pro- 
ducing well-known  wines,  less  esteemed  than 
those  of  M6doc.  The  ordinary  Graves  is  a 
light  dry  white  wine. 

GRAVES,  ALFRED  PERCEVAL  (1846- 
1931),  born  in  Dublin,  an  inspector  of 
schools,  1875-1910,  published  many  volumes 
of  Irish  songs  and  ballads,  and  an  auto- 
biography, 'To  Return  to  All  That*  (1930)- 
He  composed  the  popular  'Father  O'Flyim*, 
written  in  1875,  first  published  in  the 
'Spectator*. 

GRAVES,  RICHARD  (1715-1804),  edu- 
cated at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  and  a 
fellow  of  All  Souls,  was  for  many  years  rector 
of  Claverton  near  Bath.  At  Pembroke  he 
was  contemporary  with  Whitefield,  whom 
he  satirizes  in  'The  Spiritual  Quixote*;  and 


GRAY'S  INN 

became  ^intimate  with  Shenstone,  whom  he 
depicts  in  the  same  work  and  in  'Columelia', 
and  of  whom  he  published  a  'Recollection*  in 
1788.  His  principal  novels  appeared  as 
follows:  'The  Spiritual  Quixote'  (q.v.,  1772); 
'Columella,  the  Distressed  Anchoret*  (1776) ; 
'Eugenius  or  Anecdotes  of  the  Golden  Vale* 
(1785);  'Plexippus  or  the  Aspiring  Plebeian' 
(1790);  interesting  less  for  their  plots  than 
for  the  picture  they  give  of  the  social  con- 
ditions of  the  time. 

Graveyard  School,  the  imitators  of  Robert 
Blair  and  Edward  Young  (qq.v.). 

Gray,  GIDEON,  the  surgeon  in  Scott's  'The 
Surgeon's  Daughter'  (q.v»).  His  daughter  is 
JANET. 

GRAY,  THOMAS  (1716-71),  was  born  in 
London,  and  educated  at  Eton  with  Horace 
Walpole,  and  at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge.  He 
accompanied  Horace  Walpole  on  a  tour  on  the 
Continent  in  1739-40,  but  they  quarrelled  in 
1741  and  returned  home  separately.  Their 
friendship  was  renewed  in  1744.  Gray  then 
resided  at  Cambridge,  removing  from  Peter- 
house  to  Pembroke  College  in  1756  in  conse- 
quence of  a  practical  joke  by  undergraduates. 
He  refused  the  laureateship  in  1757,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  history  and  modern 
languages  at  Cambridge  in  1768.  He  was 
buried  at  Stoke  Poges  in  Bucks,  a  village  with 
which  the  'Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard* 
was  perhaps  identified.  Here  some  of  his 
relations  lived  and  his  mother  was  buried. 

His  work  as  an  English  poet  began  in  1742, 
when  he  wrote  his  odes  'On  Spring',  'On  a 
Distant  Prospect  of  Eton  College',  and  'On 
Adversity*,  and  the  'Sonnet  on  the  Death  of 
West*  (his  friend  Richard  West,  to  whose 
memory  he  also  indited  some  fine  lines  in 
his  Latin  poem  'De  Principiis  Cogitandi*). 
About  the  same  year  he  began  the  'Elegy  in 
a  Country  Churchyard'  (q.v.),  which  was 
finished  in  1750.  The  'Ode  on  the  Death  of 
a  favourite  Cat*  (Walpole*s)  was  written 
about  1747.  In  1754  Gray  finished  his 
Pindaric  ode  on  'The  Progress  of  Poesy'  (q.v.) 
and  in  1757  a  second  Pindaric  ode  "The 
Bard'  (q.v.).  These  were  published  by 
Walpole  in  1757.  They  led  to  the  general 
recognition  of  Gray  as  the  foremost  poet  of 
the  day  and  to  the  offer  of  the  laureateship  on 
the  death  of  Colley  Gibber.  In  his  later  years 
he  devoted  attention  to  Icelandic  and  Celtic 
verse  and  in  imitation  of  this  wrote  the  lays 
'The  Fatal  Sisters'  and  £The  Descent  of 
Odin*  (1761).  Gray 's  poems  were  republished 
in  1768  by  Dodsley  and  by  Foulis.  In  1769 
he  wrote  his  fine  ode  on  the  installation  of  the 
duke  of  Graf  ton  as  chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Cambridge  and  took  a  journey  among  the 
English  Lakes,  which  is  commemorated  in  the 
'Journal'  published  in  1775,  his  most  finished 
prose  work.  His  letters  are  among  the  best 
in  the  language  (Paget  Toynbee,  1915);  they 
reveal  his  character  and  humorous  spirit. 

Gray's  Inn,  Holborn,  one  of  the  old  inns  of 


[333] 


GREAT  CAPTAIN 

court.    The  manor  on  which  it  stands  was 

granted  to  Reginald  de  Grey,  Justiciar  of 

Chester,  1294, wno  Iet  Part  °*  &  as  a  hospittum 

for   law   students  (G.  R.  Stirling  Taylor). 

In  its  hall  Shakespeare's  'Comedy  of  Errors' 

was    acted    in    Dec.    1594.     Laud,  Francis 

Bacon,  and  Southey  were  students  there,  and 

Tonson  (qq.v.)  lived  there. 

Great  Captain,  THE,  see  Cordova. 

Great  Cham,  see  Cham. 

Great  Commoner,  THE,  Pitt  (q.v.). 

Great  Duke  of  Florence,  The,  a  romantic 
comedy  by  Massinger  (q.v.),  acted  in  1627 
and  printed  in  1636;  one  of  Massinger Js  best 
plays. 

Giovanni,  nephew  of  the  widowed  duke  of 
Florence,  has  for  three  years  been  entrusted 
to  a  tutor,  Charomonte,  at  whose  house 
he  has  fallen  in  love  with  Charomonte's 
daughter,  L/idia,  when  he  is  recalled  to  his 
uncle's  court.  The  messenger  who  goes  to 
fetch  him  brings  to  the  duke  so  fervent  an 
account  of  Lidia's  beauty,  that  the  duke 
sends  his  favourite,  Sanazarro,  to  report  upon 
her,  with  the  idea  of  making  her  his  second 
wife.  Sanazarro  is  himself  so  struck  with 
Lidia's  beauty  that  for  his  own  ends  he  con- 
ceals it  from  the  Duke,  and  persuades 
Giovanni  also  to  dispraise  her.  Perplexed 
by  these  contradictory  reports,  the  duke  goes 
to  Charomonte's  house  to  see  for  himself. 
Giovanni  sends  warning  to  Lidia,  and  an 
attempt  is  made  to  keep  up  the  deception, 
Lidia's  maid  impersonating  her  before  the 
duke.  But  Charomonte  has  not  been  made  a 
party  to  the  scheme  and  unwittingly  reveals 
it.  However,  in  the  end,  the  duke  remembers 
his  vow  never  to  remarry,  and  Giovanni  and 
Lidia  obtain  their  pardon. 

Great  Eastern,  The,  a  steamship,  the  largest 
of  its  day,  designed  by  I.  K.  Brunei  (q.v.)  and 
launched  in  1858.  It  was  692  ft.  long  and 
had  a  displacement  of  27,000  tons.  It  was 
designed  for  the  Atlantic  passenger  service, 
but  was  mostly  employed  in  cable-laying  and 
was  broken  up  in  1886. 

Great  Elector,  THE,  Frederick  William, 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  (1620-88). 

Great  Expectations,  a  novel  by  Dickens 
(q.v.),  which  first  appeared  in  'All  the  Year 
Round*  in  1860-1,  and  was  published  in  book 
form  in  the  latter  year. 

It  is  the  story  of  the  development  of  the 
character  of  Philip  Pirip,  commonly  known  as 
Tip',  a  village  boy  brought  up  by  his 
termagant  sister,  the  wife  of  the  gentle, 
humorous,  kindly  blacksmith  Joe  Gargery. 
He  is  introduced  to  the  house  of  Miss 
Havisham,  a  lady  half-crazed  by  the  deser- 
tion of  her  lover  on  her  bridal  night,  who,  in  a 
Eirit  of  revenge,  has  brought  up  the  girl 
tella  to  use  her  beauty  as  a  means  of  tor- 
turing men.  Pip  falls  in  love  with  Estella,  and 
aspires  to  become  a  gentleman.  Money  and 
expectations  of  more  wealth  come  to  him 


[334] 


GREEK  FIRE 

from  a  mysterious  source,  which  he  believes 
to  be  Miss  Havisham.  He  goes  to  London, 
and  in  his  new  mode  of  life  meanly  abandons 
the  devoted  Joe  Gargery,  a  humble  connexion 
of  whom  he  is  now  ashamed.  Misfortunes 
come  upon  him.  His  unknown  benefactor 
proves  to  be  an  escaped  convict,  Abel 
Magwitch,  to  whom  he,  as  a  boy,  had  ren- 
dered a  service ;  his  great  expectations  fade 
away  and  he  is  penniless.  Estella  marries  his 
sulky  enemy,  Bentley  Drummle,  by  whom 
she  is  cruelly  ill-treated .  Taught  by  adversity, 
Pip  returns  to  Joe  Gargery  and  honest  labour, 
and  is  finally  reunited  to  Estella,  who  has  also 
learnt  her  lesson.  Other  notable  characters 
in  the  book  are  Pip's  uncle,  the  impudent 
old  impostor  Pumblechook;  Jaggers,  the 
skilful  Old  Bailey  lawyer,  and  his  good- 
hearted  clerk  Wemmick ;  and  Pip's  friend  in 
London,  the  'dear  boy*  Herbert  Pocket. 

It  appears  from  Forster's  'Life'  of  Dickens 
that  the  author  originally  devised  a  less  happy 
ending  to  the  story,  which  he  altered  in 
deference  to  the  advice  of  Lytton. 

Great  Go,  formerly  university  slang  used  for 
the  final  examination  for  the  degree  of  B.A. 
at  Oxford.  The  term  is  now  obsolete.  See 
Greats. 

Great  Harry,  The,  or  Henry  Grace  d  Dieu,  a 
great  ship  of  Henry  VIII's  navy,  of  1,000 
tons  burden.  Refitted  in  1515,  she  carried  a 
crew  of  700  men,  and  50  large  and  200  small 
guns.  She  was  burnt  in  1553. 

Great-heart,  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's  Pro- 
gress* (q.v.),  the  escort  of  Christiana  and  her 
children  on  their  pilgrimage. 

Great  Nassau,  William  III. 

Greats,  modern  university  slang  for  the 
final  examination  in  Literae  Humaniores  and 
Mathematics  at  Oxford. 

Greaves,  Sm  LAUNCELOT,  the  hero  of  a 
novel  of  that  name  by  Smollett  (q.v.). 

Grecian  Coffee-house,  THE,  stood  in 
Devereux  Court,  Essex  Street,  Strand,  and 
was  frequented  by  Addison,  Steele,  and 
Goldsmith.  It  was  announced  in  No.  i  of 
the  'Tatler*  that  all  learned  articles  would 
proceed  from  the  Grecian. 

Grecian  Fire,  see  Greek  Fire. 
Grecian  Urn,  Ode  on  a,  see  Keats. 
Greek  Calends,  a  humorous  expression  for 
'never',   for  the   Greeks  had   no    Calends, 
which  were  the  first  day  of  each  month  in  the 
Roman  calendar. 

Greek  Church,  THE,  see  Orthodox  Church. 
Greek  Fire,  a  combustible  composition  for 
setting  fire  to  an  enemy's  ships  or  works,  so 
called  from  being  first  used  by  the  Greeks 
of  Constantinople.  The  components  were 
naphtha,  nitre,  and  sulphur,  and  it  was 
discharged  through  tubes  or  carried  by 
means  of  arrows.  Bury  (Gibbon,  vi.  9,  10, 
and  540)  says  there  was  more  than  one  kind 


GREELEY 

of  mixture  and  that  it  was  propelled  through 
the  tubes  by  true  gunpowder:  if  the  Greeks 
had  used  this  powder  to  propel  solid  missiles 
they  would  have  revolutionized  warfare. 
But  the  secret  was  lost,  and  it  was  one  of  the 
three  things,  said  the  Emperor  Constantine 
Porphyrogenitus,  'that  must  never  be  given 
to  the  barbarians*. 

Greeiey,  HORACE  (1811-72),  founder  of  the 
'New^  York  Tribune'  (1841),  and  one  of  the 
prominent  figures^in  the  history  of  American 
journalism,  who  did  much  to  raise  its  political 
and  literary  standards. 

GREEN,  JOHN  RICHARD  (1837-83), 
educated  at  Magdalen  College  School  and 
Jesus  College,  ^Oxford,  was  a  frequent  con- 
tributor to  the  ' Saturday  Review*,  but  is  best 
known  by  his  'Short  History  of  the  English 
People*,  published  in  1874.  This  work  owed 
its  great  popularity  to  its  simple  style  and 
generous  outlook,  for  the  author  shows  his 
interest  in  the  life  of  the  humbler  classes  of 
the  population,  and  includes  in  the  scope  of 
his  work  all  the  aspects,  social,  political, 
economic,  and  intellectual,  of  the  national 
history.  It  was  enlarged  in  'The  History  of 
the  English  People*  (1877-80).  'The  Making 
of  Engknd*  and  'The  Conquest  of  England*, 
in  which  he  developed  more  fully  certain 
parts  of  the  'History*,  appeared  in  1881  and 
1883.  Some  of  Green's  contributions  to  the 
'Saturday  Review*  were  republished  as 
'Studies  from  England  and  Italy*  in  1876. 

GREEN,  MATTHEW  (1696-1737),  author 
of  'The  Spleen*,  a  poem  in  praise  of  the 
simple  contemplative  life,  as  a  cure  for  bore- 
dom, written  in  witty,  fluent,  octosyllabic 
verse. 

GREEN,  MRS.  MARY  ANNE  EVERETT 
(1818-95),  was  author  of  'Letters  of  Royal 
Ladies  of  Great  Britain*  (published  in  1846 
under  her  maiden  name  of  Wood),  'Lives  of 
Princesses  of  Great  Britain*  (1849-55),  and 
'Life  and  Letters  of  Henrietta  Maria*  (1857). 
She  edited  at  the  Public  Record  Office 
forty-one  volumes  of  Calendars  of  Domestic 
State  Papers. 

GREEN,  THOMAS  HILL  (1836-82),  edu- 
cated at  Rugby  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
was  appointed  White's  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  in  1878.  He  was  the  'Mr.  Gray* 
of  'Robert  Elsmere*  (q.v.).  Green's  philo- 
sophical publications  began  with  a  criticism 
of  Locke,  Hume,  and  Berkeley  in  the  form  of 
two  very  full  introductions  to  a  new  edition 
of  Hume's  'Treatise*  (1874).  His  philosophi- 
cal views  as  set  forth  in  his  'Prolegomena  to 
Ethics*  (1883)  and  in  his  collected  'Works' 
(1885-8)  show  a  qualified  acceptance  of  the 
doctrines  of  Hegel  (q.v.)  as  speculatively  true 
but  requiring  to  be  supplemented  for  practical 
purposes.  He  holds  that  Reality  as  known  is  a 
system  of  relations,  presupposing  the  syn- 
thetic activity  of  the  self.  'We  believe  that 
these  questions  cannot  be  worked  out  with- 
out leading  to  the  conclusion  that  the  real 


GREENE 

world  is  essentially  a  spiritual  world,  which 
forms  one  interrelated  whole  because  related 

throughout  to  a  single  subject But  when 

we  have  satisfied  ourselves  that  the  world  in 
its  truth  or  full  reality  is  spiritual ...  we  may 
still  have  to  confess  that  a  knowledge  of  it  in 
its  spiritual  reality  ...  is  impossible  to  us.' 
From  the  freedom  of  man  to  seek  his  satisfac- 
tion where  alone  he  can  find  it,  in  'a  complete 
realisation  of  what  he  has  it  in  him  to  be',  he 
deduces  the  existence  of  God  and  the  per- 
sonal immortality  of  man. 

Green,  VERDANT,  the  hero  of  a  novel  of  that 
name  by  E.  Bradley  (q.v.)  ('Cuthbert  Bede'). 
It  is  a  humorous  account  of  the  adventures 
of  an  innocent  undergraduate. 
Green  Knight,  see  Gawain  and  the  Green 
Knight. 

Green  Mountain  Boys,  THE,  an  irregular 
force  of  some  300  men,  led  by  Ethan  Allen 
(q.v.),  originally  organized  to  defend  the 
independence  of  the  'New  Hampshire  Grants* 
against  the  pretensions  of  New  York. 
Green  Mountain  State,  Vermont,  see 
United  States. 

GREENAWAY,  KATE  (1846-1901),  Eng- 
lish artist  and  book  illustrator.  Of  her  'Under 
the  Window*  (1879)  150,000  copies  are  said 
to  have  been  sold.  Her  'Birthday  Book*, 
'Mother  Goose',  'Little  Ann',  and  other 
books  for  children,  had  enormous  success 
and  are  now  highly  valued.  Her  use  of  the 
quaint  costume  of  the  beginning  of  the  igth 
cent,  lent  humour  to  her  fancy  and  so 
captured  the  public  taste  that  it  has  been 
said  that  'Kate  Greenaway  dressed  the  chil- 
dren of  two  continents*.  Although  she 
illustrated  the  'Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin*  and 
other  works,  the  artist  preferred  to  provide 
her  own  text;  the  numerous  verse  which 
were  found  among  her  papers  after  her 
death  show  real  talent.  There  is  a  life  of  her 
by  H.  M.  Spielmann  and  G.  S.  Layard 
(1905).  [E.B.] 

Green- sleeves,  the  name  of  an  inconstant 
lady-love,  who  is  the  subject  of  a  ballad  pub- 
lished in  1580.  This,  and  the  tune  to  which  it 
was  sung,  became  very  popular,  and  both  are 
mentioned  by  Shakespeare  ('Merry  Wives', 
ii.  i  and  v.  v).  The  ballad  is  included  in  the 
'Roxburghe  Ballads*. 

GREENE,  ROBERT  (i56o?~92),  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  College  and  Clare  Hall, 
Cambridge,  and  was  incorporated  at  Oxford 
in  1588.  He  appears  from  his  own  writings 
and  the  attacks  of  G.  Harvey  (q.v.)  to  have 
been  a  witty  Bohemian,  of  good  intentions 
but  poor  performance,  who  drifted  to  a 
miserable  end,  and  is  said  to  have  died  after 
an  illness  brought  on  by  a  surfeit  of  pickled 
herrings  and  Rhenish  wine.  He  was  assailed 
by  G.  Harvey  (q.v.)  in  'Foure  Letters'  as  'The 
Ape  of  Euphues*,  and  defended  by  Nashe 
(q.v.)  in  'Strange  Newes'.  He  probably  had 
some  share  in  the  authorship  of  the  original 
'Henry  VI*  plays,  which  Shakespeare  revised 


[335] 


GREENWICH  HOSPITAL 

or  re-wrote.  Among  his  thirty-eight  publica- 
tions were  pamphlets,  romances,  and  five 
(posthumous)  plays,  including  "The  Honor- 
able Historic  of  frier  Bacon  and  frier  Bongay" 
(q.v.),  acted  in  1594.  Of  the  romances, 
'Menaphon*  (q.v.,  1589)  reprinted  as 
'Greene's  Arcadia*  (i599,.&c-)>  'Pandosto, 
or  Dorastus  and  Fawnia*  (q.v.,  1588), 
'Philomela*  (q.v.,  1592),  and  'Perimedes  the 
Blacke-Smith*  (i  588),  contain  lyrical  passages 
of  great  charm.  One  of  the  best  known  of 
these  is  Sephestia's  song  in  'Menaphon', 
'Weepe  not,  my  wanton*.  His  numerous 
pamphlets  include  'Euphues,  his  Censure  of 
Philautus'  (a  continuation  of  Lyly's  work, 
1587),  cGreene*s  Mourning  Garment*  (1590), 
'Never  Too  Late*  (1590),  'Farewell  to  Folly* 
(i  59 1 ) ,  *  A  Quip  for  an  Upstart  Courtier*  ( 1 592 , 
an  account  of  a  dispute  between  a  spendthrift 
courtier  and  a  tradesman,  containing  an 
interesting  review  of  various  trades),  and 
the  autobiographical  'Groatsworth  of  Wit 
bought  with  a  Million  of  Repentance*  (q.v., 
1592),  in  which  occurs  the  attack  on  Shake- 
speare, His  autobiographical  sketches,  and 
his  tracts  on  'Conny-catching*  (1591  and 
1592),  in  which  he  describes  the  methods  of 
London  rogues  and  swindlers,  male  and 
female,  throw  light  on  the  low  life  of  the  times. 
His  plays  and  poems  were  edited  by  Dyce, 
1831,  his  complete  works  by  Grosart,  1881-6, 
and  his  plays  and  poems  by  Churton  Collins, 
1905. 

Greenwich  Hospital  stands  on  the  site  of  a 
royal  residence  erected  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward I,  where  Henry  VIII  and  his  daughters, 
Mary  and  Elizabeth,  were  born.  William  III 
and  Mary  converted  it  into  a  hospital  for 
disabled  seamen  and  new  buildings  designed 
by  Wren  were  then  erected.  The  patients 
of  the  old  'Dreadnought*  (q.v.)  Seamen's 
hospital  were  transferred  to  it  in  1870.  The 
life  in  Greenwich  Hospital  is  admirably 
depicted  in  Marryat's  'Poor  Jack*  (1840). 
The  Naval  Museum  is  also  housed  there. 

Greenwich.  Observatory  was  erected  by 
Charles  II  at  the  instance  of  Sir  Jonas  Moore, 
the  mathematician,  and  Sir  Christopher 
Wren,  and  here  John  Flamsteed,  the  first 
astronomer-royal,  took  up  his  residence  in 
1676.  The  meridian  of  Greenwich  was 
adopted  as  the  universal  meridian  at  an  inter- 
national conference  in  Washington  in  1884. 
GREENWICH  TIME  is  the  mean  time  of  the 
meridian  of  Greenwich. 

GREG,  WALTER  WILSON  (1875-  ), 
bibliographer,  general  editor  of  the  Malone 
Society's  publications  since  1906.  His 
writings  include,  besides  many  editions  of 
Shakespeare  and  other  Elizabethan  texts, 
'The  Calculus  of  Variants*  (1927),  'Principles 
of  Emendation  in  Shakespeare'  (1928),  and 
'Dramatic  Documents  from  the  Elizabethan 
Playhouses'  (1931)-  His  'English  Literary 
Autographs,  1550-1650'  is  in  course  of 
publication  (Pts.  I-III,  1925-32). 


GRENVILLE 

Gregorian  Calendar,  see  Calendar. 
Gregorian  chant,  music,  &c.,  the  ancient 
system  of  ritual  music,  otherwise  known  es 
plain-chant  or  plain-song  (where  'plain*  has 
the  sense  of  even,  level),  characterized  by  free 
rhythm  and  a  limited  scale.  It  is  founded  on 
the  Antiphonarium,  of  which  Pope  Gregory  I 
is  presumed  to  have  been  the  compiler. 

GREGORY  I,  ST.,  'The  Great*,  Pope 
590—604,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  early 
occupants  of  the  see,  a  zealous  propagator  of 
Christianity  and  reformer  of  clerical  and 
monastic  discipline  (see  also  Gregorian 
Chant).  It  was  he  who  sent  Augustine  (q.v.) 
to  England.  He  was  the  author  of  the  'Cura 
Pastoralis*  (see  Alfred),  'Dialogues*,  'Letters', 
homilies,  &c.  It  is  told  of  him  that,  seeing 
Anglo-Saxon  boys  offered  for  sale  in  the 
slave-market  at  Rome,  he  remarked:  'Not 
Angli  but  Angeli,  if  they  were  Christians.* 

Gregory  VII,  see  Hildebrand. 

GREGORY,  AUGUSTA,  LADY  (1852- 
1933),  nee  Persse,  married  in  1881  Sir  William 
Gregory,  formerly  M.P.  for  co.  Galway  and 
governor  of  Ceylon.  She  co-operated  with 
Mr.  W.  B.  Yeats  (q.v.)  in  the  creation  of  the 
Irish  National  Theatre,  for  which  she  wrote 
many  plays.  Her  publications  include: 
'Cuchulain  of  Muirthemne*  (1903);  'Gods 
and  Fighting  Men*  (1904);  'Seven  Short 
Plays' (1909,  'Spreading the  News',  'Hyacinth 
Halvey',  'The  Rising  of  the  Moon*,  'The 
Jackdaw',  'The  Workhouse  Ward',  'The 
Travelling  Man*,  'The  Gaol  Gate');  'The 
Kiltartan  History  Book*  (1909);  'Irish 
Folk  History  Plays'  (1912,  'Kincora*,  'The 
White  Cockade',  'Dervorgilla*,  'The  Cana- 
vans*,  'The  Deliverer*,  'Grania');  'New 
Comedies'  (1913,  'Coats',  'The  Full  Moon', 
'The  Bogie  Man',  'Darner's  Gold',  'McDon- 
ough's  Wife*);  'The  Kiltartan  Poetry  Book' 
(1919);  'Three  Wonder  Plays*  (1922); 
'The  Story  brought  by  Brigit'  (1924); 
'Three  Last  Plays'  (1928);  'My  First  Play* 
(1930);  'Coole*  (1931);  and  adaptations  of 
Moliere. 

Gregory  of  Tours  (c.  540-94),  bishop  of 
Tours,  our  chief  authority  for  the  early 
Merovingian  period  of  French  history  (trans- 
lation, O.  M.  Dalton,  1927). 

Grendel,  see  Beowulf. 

GRENFEIX,  JULIAN  HENRY  (1888- 
1915),  son  of  William  Henry  Grenfell,  after- 
wards first  baron  Desborough,  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  obtained 
a  commission  in  the  army  in  1910,  and  was 
killed  early  in  the  War.  He  is  the  author  of  the 
fine  poem  'Into  Battle*.  The  few  other  poems 
left  by  Grenfell  are  in  lighter  vein. 
Grenville,  SIR  RICHARD  (1541  ?-9i),  the 
naval  commander  who,  when  his  ship  the 
'Revenge*  was  isolated  off  Flores,  fought 
fifteen  Spanish  ships  for  fifteen  hours,  and 
was  mortally  wounded.  The  exploit  is  cele- 
brated in  Tennyson*s  poem  'The  Revenge*; 


[336] 


GRESHAM 

and  Grenville  figures  in  Kingsley's  'West- 
ward Ho!*  A  curiously  antagonistic  inter- 
pretation of  him  occurs  in  Stevenson's  essay, 
'The  English  Admirals'. 
Gresham,  FRANK,  one  of  the  principal 
characters  in  Trollope's  'Dr.  Thome'  (q.v.). 
Gresham,  SIR  THOMAS  (isigF-yg),  a  cele- 
brated financier  and  financial  agent  of  the 
Crown,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Cecil.  He 
was  the  son  of  Sir  Richard  Gresham  (1485?- 
1549),  lord  mayor  of  London,  who  initiated 
the  design  of  the  Royal  Exchange  (q.v.).  This 
was  built  at  the  expense  of  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham,  who  also  founded  Gresham  Col- 
lege. The  foolish  story  that  he  was  a  found- 
ling, and  adopted  his  well-known  crest 
because  his  life  was  saved  by  the  chirping  of 
a  grasshopper,  is  disproved  by  the  fact  that 
the  crest  was  used  by  his  ancestor,  James 
Gresham,  in  the  i5th  cent. 

Gresham's  Law,  that  in  a  bimetallic 
currency  the  dearer  metal  will  drive  out  the 
cheaper ;  where  dearer  metal  is  that  which  is 
undervalued  by  the  law  at  home,  but  in 
another  country  is  dearer  in  terms  of  the 
commodities  it  will  buy  there;  and  cheaper 
metal  is  the  converse;  in  other  words  'bad 
money  drives  out  good*.  The  law  is  attributed 
to  Sir  T.  Gresham  in  allusion  to  the  begin- 
ning of  his  letter  of  1558  to  Queen  Elizabeth 
'touching  the  fall  of  the  exchange*.  (See  Lord 
Aldenham's  c  Colloquy  on  Currency'.) 

Gretchen,  diminutive  in  German  of  Mar- 
garet, the  principal  female  character  in  Pt.  I 
of  Goethe's  'Faust*  (q.v.). 

Gretna  Green,  a  few  miles  NW.  of  Carlisle 
and  just  across  the  border,  a  spot  celebrated 
for  runaway  marriages;  for  under  Scottish 
law  a  declaration  by  the  parties  before  wit- 
nesses of  intention  to  marry  constitutes  a 
legal  marriage.  The  declarations  were  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  i8th  cent,  received  by  John 
Paisley,  a  blacksmith.  The  practice  was  in 
1856  made  illegal  unless  one  of  the  parties 
had  lived  in  Scotland  for  21  days. 

Grettla  Saga,  see  Saga. 
Greuze,     JEAN-BAPTISTE    (1725-1805),    a 
famous  French  genre  and  portrait  painter. 
Greve,  PLACE  DE  LA,  the  open  space  in  front 
of  the  present  H6tel  de  Ville  in  Paris,  where, 
in  the  Ancien  Regime,  executions  used  to 
take  place. 

GREVILLE,  CHARLES  CAVENDISH 
FULKE  (1794-1865),  was  clerk  to  the  council 
from  1821  to  i859,andintimatewithstatesmen 
of  both  political  parties,  especially  Welling- 
ton (to  whom  his  brother  Algernon  Frederick 
was  private  secretary,  1827—42)  and  Palmer- 
ston.  This,  and  his  remarkable  insight  into 
character,  give  exceptional  interest  to  the 
three  series  of  'Greville  Memoirs',  of  which 
the  first,  covering  the  reigns  of  George  IV 
and  William  IV,  was  published  in  1874.  The 
second,  dealing  with  the  years  1837-52,  and 
the  third  with  the  years  1852-60,  appeared, 


GRIFFIN 

with  some  suppressions  by  the  editor,  Henry 
Reeve,  in  1885  and  1887.  An  edition  with  the 
suppressed  passages  restored,  by  P.  W. 
Wilson,  appeared  in  1927.  Greville  published 
anonymously  in  1845  "The  Past  and  Present 
Policy  of  England  to  Ireland*,  advocating  a 
liberal  treatment  in  the  matter  of  religious 
endowments. 

GREVILLE,  SIR  FULKE,  first  Baron 
Brooke  (1554-1628),  educated  at  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge,  came  to  court  with  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,  and  became  a  favourite  of 
Elizabeth.  He  was  a  member  of  Gabriel 
Harvey's  'Areopagus',  a  member  of  parlia- 
ment, and  held  various  important  offices.  He 
was  created  a  peer  in  1621  and  granted*  War- 
wick Castle  and  Knowle  Park  by  James  I. 
He  befriended  Bacon,  Camden,  Coke, 
Daniel,  and  D'Avenant.  His  end  was  tragic, 
for  he  was  murdered  by  his  servant  Hay- 
wood,  who  thought  himself  omitted  from  his 
master's  will.  His  epitaph  reads :  'Servant  to 
Queen  Elizabeth,  Counceller  to  King  James, 
Frend  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  Trophaeum 
Peccati.' 

Except  the  tragedy  of  'Mustapha*  (1609) 
and  one  or  two  poems  in  'The  Phoenix  Nest* 
and  'England's  Helicon*,  Greville's  works  ap- 
peared only  after  his  death.  A  collection  of 
works  'written  in  his  youth*  was  printed  in 
1633,  his  'Life  of  Sidney*  in  1652,  and  his 
'Remains*  in  1670.  His  complete  works  were 
reprinted  by  Grosart  in  1870.  Of  these  the 
principal  are  the  tragedies  of  'Mustapha*  and 
'Alaharn*  (qq.v.),  which  Charles  Lamb 
described  as  'political  treatises,  not  plays*,  but 
which  contain  some  impressive  choruses  and 
striking  phrases;  and  'Caelica*,  a  collection  of 
'sonnets*  and  songs,  some  of  them  love 
poems,  others  of  a  religious  or  philosophical 
cast.  His  life  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney  gives  vivid 
portraits  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  William  of 
Orange,  and  Sidney.  The  latter's  pastoral, 
*Join,  mates,  in  mirth  with  me*,  is  addressed 
to  Greville  and  Sir  Edward  Dyer  (q.v.). 

Grewgious,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 

'Edwin  Drood*  (q.v.). 

GREY    OF    FALL'ODON,    EDWARD 

GREY,  Viscount  (1862-        ),  educated  at 

Winchester    and    Balliol    College,   Oxford, 

foreign    secretary,    1905—16;    chancellor   of 

Oxford   University   from    1928;   author  of 

'Fly-Fishing*  (1899),  'The  Charm  of  Birds' 

(1927). 

Grey  Friars,  Franciscans  (q.v.). 

Gride,  ARTHUR,  a  character  in  Dickens's 

'Nicholas  Nickleby*  (q.v.). 

Grieux,  CHEVALIER  DES,  the  hero  of  the 
Abbe"  Provost's  'Manon  Lescaut*  (q.v.). 

GRIFFIN,  GERALD  (1803-40),  Irish  dra- 
matist and  novelist,  remembered  for  his 
novel  'The  Collegians*  (q.v.,  1829),  which 
Boucicault  made  the  basis  of  his  play  'Colleen 
Bawn*  (q.v.).  Griffin's  play  'Gisippus*  was 
produced  at  Drury  Lane  in  1842. 


3868 


[337] 


GRIFFIN 

Griffin,  GRIFFON,  GRYPHON,  a  fabulous 
animal  usually  represented  with  the  head  and 
wings  of  an  eagle  and  the  body  and  hind- 
quarters of  a  lion.  By  the  Greeks  the  griffins 
were  believed  to  inhabit  Scythia  and  to  keep 
guard  over  the  gold  of  that  country  (see 
Arimaspians) . 

Griffith  Gaunt,  or  Jealousy,  a  novel  by  Reade 
(q,v.),  published  in  1866. 

The  story  is  set  in  the  i8th  cent.  Griffith 
Gaunt,  a  Cumberland  gentleman  of  no  fortune, 
marries  Kate  Peyton,  a  Roman  Catholic 
heiress,  a  woman  of  incalculable  pride  and 
temper.  The  harmony  of  the  household  is 
gradually  broken  by  Kate's  spiritual  director, 
Father  Leonard,  an  eloquent  young  priest 
who  falls  in  love  with  Kate.  Griffith, 
whose  suspicions  have  been  aroused  by  a 
designing  maid-servant,  finds  them  together 
under  equivocal  circumstances,  and  leaves 
his  wife  after  a  violent  scene  intending 
never  to  return.  He  is  nursed  through  a 
severe  illness  by  Mercy  Vint,  an  innkeeper's 
daughter,  and  bigamously  marries  her  under 
the  name  of  Thomas  Leicester,  his  illegiti- 
mate half-brother,  who  resembles  him  in 
appearance.  He  returns  to  his  old  home  to 
recover  a  sum  of  money,  accidentally  meets 
Kate,  is  reconciled  to  her,  and  determines  to 
break  off  with  Mercy  Vint.  Before  he  effects 
the  separation  his  crime  is  discovered  by  his 
wife,  who  furiously  upbraids  and  threatens 
him.  Griffith  leaves  the  house,  a  pistol-shot 
and  a  cry  of  murder  are  heard,  and  he 
disappears.  Some  days  later  a  disfigured 
body,  believed  to  be  his,  is  found  in  a  neigh- 
bouring mere.  Kate  is  tried  for  the  murder  of 
her  husband,  and  is  in  danger  of  conviction, 
when  Mercy  intervenes  and  proves  that  the 
body  is  that  of  Tom  Leicester.  Griffith  and 
Kate  are  once  more  reconciled,  and  Mercy 
marries  Sir  George  Neville,  a  former  suitor 
of  Kate.  The  work,  when  it  appeared,  was 
severely  criticized  as  immoral. 

Grim,  the  fisherman  in  the  story  of  'Havelok 
the  Dane'  (q.v.),  and  the  legendary  founder  of 
Grimsby. 

GRIMALD,  GRIMALDE,  or  GRIM- 
VALD,  NICHOLAS  (1519-63),  of  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge,  chaplain  to  Bishop 
Ridley,  contributed  to,  and  assisted  in  the 
compilation  of,  4TotteFs  Miscellany*  (see 
Tottel).  He  published  translations  from  Vir- 
gil and  Cicero,  and  two  Latin  dramas. 

Grirnaldi,  JOSEPH  (1779-1837),  a  celebrated 
clown  and  pantomimist,  who  first  appeared 
as  an  infant  dancer  at  Sadler's  Wells,  and 
acted  there  and  at  Drury  Lane  for  many 
years.  He  had  a  son  of  the  same  name  who 
succeeded  him  as  pantomimist  and  died  in 
1863.  Grimaldi's  'Memoirs*  were  edited  by 
Dickens  (2  vols.  1838). 

Grimalkin,  probably  from  grey  and  malkin, 
a  name  given  to  a  cat,  especially  an  old  she- 
cat,  and  contemptuously  applied  to  a  jealous 
or  imperious  old  woman. 


GRINGOLET 

Grimbald,  or  GRIMBOLD,  or  GRYMBOLD, 
ST.  (82o?~903),  a  native  of  Flanders  and  a 
monk  of  St.  Bertin's.  Alfred,  when  king,  sum- 
moned him  to  England  for  the  promotion  of 
learning,  and  appointed  him  abbot  of  the  New 
Minster  at  Winchester.  According  to  the  en- 
tirely mythical  history  of  Oxford,  Grimbald 
was  sent  there  to  direct  the  recently  established 
schools,  but  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  the 
masters,  was  obliged  to  withdraw.  He  is  com- 
memorated on  8  July. 

Grimbert  or  GRYMBERT,  the  badger  in 
'Reynard  the  Fox*  (q.v.). 

Grimes,  THOMAS,  chimney-sweep,  Tom's 
employer  in  C.  Kingsley's  'The  Water  Babies* 
(q.v.). 

Grimes,  PETER,  the  subject  of  Letter  xxii  in 
Crabbe's  *The  Borough*  (q.v.).  He  was  a 
villainous  fellow  who  *fish*d  by  water  and 
filch'd  by  land',  and  killed  his  apprentices  by 
ill-treatment,  until,  becoming  suspect  and  for- 
bidden to  keep  apprentices,  he  lived  in  soli- 
tude. Under  the  sting  of  guilty  conscience 
he  became  insane,  and  died  after  undergoing 
awful  terrors. 

GRIMM,  FRIEDRICH  MELCHIOR 
(1723-1807),  French  literary  critic,  author  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  cCorrespondance 
Litte"raire*  (1753-90),  letters  to  foreign  royal 
personages,  containing  a  survey  of  French 
literary  activity  during  that  period. 

GRIMM,  JACOB  LUDWIG  CARL  (1785- 
1863),  and  WILHELM  CARL  (1786-1859), 
brothers  and  Germans,  were  authors  of  works 
on  German  philology  and  German  folk-lore, 
and  are  chiefly  known  in  England  by  their 
fairy  tales  ('Kinder-  und  Hausmarchen*, 
1812-15),  of  which  an  English  translation, 
illustrated  by  George  Cruikshank,  was  pub- 
lished in  1823  under  the  title  'German  Popu- 
lar Stories*.  There  have  been  many  later 
editions  and  selections  in  this  country. 

Jacob  Grimm  in  his  'Deutsche  Grammatik' 
formulated  Grimm's  Law  of  the  mutations 
of  the  consonants  in  the  several  Aryan 
languages. 

GRIMMELSHAUSEN,  HANS  JACOB 
CHRISTOPH  VON  (i6a5?-76),  German 
writer,  author  of  'Simplicissiznus*  (q.v.). 

Grimwig,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens*s 
'Oliver  Twist*  (q.v.). 

Gringolet,  Gawain's  horse  (e.g.  in  the  story 
of  'Sir  Gawain  and  the  Green  Knight',  q.v.); 
French  Gringalet,  a  word  of  unknown  ety- 
mology, which  appears  in  the  i2th  cent., 
signifying  a  kind  of  horse  (Hatzfeld  and 
Darmsteter).  It  has  been  said  (by  Prof.  I. 
Gollancz)  that  the  name  belonged  originally 
to  the  boat  of  the  mythical  hero  Wade  (q.v.); 
but  it  is  found  some  centuries  earlier  as  the 
name  of  Gawain's  horse*  The  earliest 
authority  for  'Gringalet'  as  the  name  of 
Wade's  boat  is  Speght  (in  his  edition  of 
Chaucer,  1598). 


[338] 


GRIP 

Grip,  in  Dickens's  'Barnaby  Rudge'  (q.v.), 
Barnaby's  raven. 

Gripe,  one  of  the  chief  characters  in  Van- 
brugh's  'The  Confederacy*  (q.v.). 

Gripe,  SIR  FRANCIS,  a  character  in  Mrs. 
Centlivre's  'The  Busybody'  (q.v.). 

Grippy,  and  LEDDY  GRIPPY,  Claud  Walkin- 
shaw  and  his  wife,  characters  in  Gait's  'The 
Entail'  (q.v.). 

Griselda,  the  type  of  long-suffering  forti- 
tude ;  see  Patient  GrissiL 

Groat,  a  silver  coin  first  issued  in  England 
by  Edward  I,  and  more  permanently  by 
Edward  III,  worth  fourpence.  None  were 
struck  after  the  time  of  Charles  II,  until  the 
fourpenny  piece  was  revived  by  William  IV 
and  continued  to  be  issued  until  1856.  The 
word  is  taken  from  the  Dutch  groot,  meaning 
great,  in  the  sense  of  thick  (i.e.  a  thick  penny). 

Groatsettar,  THE  MISSES,  characters  in 
Scott's  'The  Pirate'  (q.v.). 

Groatsworth  of  Wit  bought  with  a  Million  of 
Repentance,  A,  an  autobiographical  prose 
tract  by  Greene  (q.v.),  published  in  1592.  It 
begins  with  the  death  of  the  miser  Gorinius, 
who  leaves  the  bulk  of  his  large  fortune  to  his 
elder  son,  and  only  'an  old  Groate*  to  the 
younger  Roberto  (i.e.  the  author)  'wherewith 
I  wish  him  to  buy  a  groatsworth  of  wit'. 
Roberto  conspires  with  a  courtesan  to  fleece 
his  brother,  Lucanio,  but  the  courtesan  be- 
trays him  to  the  latter,  subsequently  ruining 
Lucanio  for  her  sole  profit.  The  gradual 
degradation  of  Roberto  is  then  narrated,  and 
the  tract  ends  with  the  curious  'Address*  to 
his  fellow  playwrights,  Marlowe,  Lodge,  and 
Peele,  urging  them  to  spend  their  wits  to 
better  purpose  than  the  making  of  plays.  It 
contains  the  well-known  passage  about  the 
'Crow,  beautified  with  our  Feathers',  the 
'Johannes  Factotum*,  who  'is  in  his  owne 
conceit  the  only  Shake-scene  in  a  Countrey', 
probably  referring  to  Shakespeare,  whose 
earliest  plays  were  adaptations  of  works  by  his 
predecessors. 

Grobian  (German  Grobheit,  rudeness),  the 
name  of  an  imaginary  personage,  often  re- 
ferred to  by  writers  of  the  i$th  to  i6th  cents, 
in  Germany  as  a  type  of  boorishness. 
Sebastian  Brant  in  his  'NarrenschifF  (see 
Ship  of  Fools)  invented  St.  Grobianus  as 
typical  of  ill-mannered  and  indecent  be- 
haviour. In  1549  F.  Dedekind,  a  German 
student,  wrote  a  poem  in  Latin  elegiacs, 
'Grobianus,  De  Monim  Simplicitate*,  a 
burlesque  of  the  generally  uncivilized  social 
conditions  then  prevailing  in  Germany,  in 
the  form  of  ironical  advice  on  conduct  given 
to  a  gallant.  This  was  translated  into  German 
by  Kaspar  Scheidt,  and  into  English,  and 
suggested  to  Dekker  his  'Guls  Hornebooke* 
(q.v.). 

Grocyn,  WILLIAM  (1446?-!  5 19),  educated 
at  Winchester  and  New  College,  Oxford,  held 


GROTE 

various  ecclesiastical  preferments.  He  studied 
in  Italy  with  Linacre  (q.v.)  under  Poliziano 
and  Chalcondyles,  and  was  instrumental  in 
introducing  the  study  of  Greek  at  Oxford. 
Grongar  Hill,  see  Dyer. 

GRONOVIUS,  JOHANN  FRIEDRICH 
(1611-71),  a  Dutch  scholar  and  editor  of 
Greek  and  Roman  classics.  His  son,  JAKOB 
GRONOVIUS  (1645-1716),  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Leyden,  and,  like  his  father,  an 
editor  of  classical  authors. 

GROSART,   ALEXANDER   BALLOCH 

(1827-1899),  author  and  editor.  His  claim  to 
remembrance  rests  on  his  reprints  of  rare 
Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  literature.  Be- 
tween 1868  and  1886  he  edited  more  than 
130  volumes.  He  also  published  several 
original  devotional  works,  and  contributed  to 
literary  and  theological  periodicals. 

GROSE,  FRANCIS  (1731  ?~9i),  antiquary 
and  draughtsman,  author  of  a  'Classical 
Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue'  (1785),  re- 
issued as  'Lexicon  Balatronicum*  (1811). 

GROSSETESTE,  ROBERT  (d.  1253), 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  was  the  author  of  a  'Com- 
pendium Scientiarum',  a  classification  of  the 
knowledge  of  his  day ;  of  works  on  philosophy, 
theology,  and  husbandry ;  and  of  an  allegori- 
cal poem  on  the  Virgin  and  Son,  the  'Chtteau 
d'Amour',  in  French  (edited  by  R.  F.  Wey- 
mouth,  1864).  'He  gave  a  powerful  impulse 
to  almost  every  department  of  intellectual 
activity'  in  England  [F.  S.  Stevenson],  and 
earned  the  commendation  of  Roger  Bacon 
in  the  field  of  science,  of  Matthew  Paris,  of 
Wycliffe,  and  of  Gower.  Also  he  stood  up  to 
Popes  (especially  Innocent  IV)  against  then- 
encroachments  on  the  Church  of  England. 

Grosvenor   Gallery,   THE,    Bond    Street, 
London,  for  the  exhibition  of  pictures  of  the 
modern  school,  erected  by  Sir  Coutts  Lind- 
say  in    1876    (Haydn).     It    was    especially 
associated  for  a  time  with  the  'aesthetic'  (q.v.) 
movement.   Bunthorne  in  Gilbert  and  Sulli- 
van's 'Patience'  describes  himself  as: 
A  pallid  and  thin  young  man, 
A  haggard  and  lank  young  man, 
A  greenery-yallery,  Grosvenor  Gallery, 

Foot-in-the-grave  young  man. 
The  Gallery  is  now  closed. 

GROTE,  GEORGE  (1794-1871),  banker, 
educated  at  Charterhouse,  was  M.P.  for  the 
City  of  London  from  1832  to  1 841  and  took  an 
active  part  in  favour  of  the  reform  movement, 
publishing  a  pamphlet  on  the  subject  in  1820 
and  another  in  1831.  He  retired  from 
parliament  in  order  to  devote  himself  to 
historical  work.  His  famous  'History  of 
Greece'  in  eight  volumes,  on  which  he  had 
been  intermittently  at  work  since  1823,  was 
published  in  1846—56  and  achieved  immediate 
success.  It  has  been  translated  into  French 
and  German.  Grote  also  published  works  on 
the  philosophies  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  ('Plato 


[339] 


22 


GROTESQUE 

and  the  other  Companions  of  Socrates',  1865 ; 
'Aristotle',  1872),  and  'Fragments  on  Ethical 
Subjects*  (1876).  He  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

Grotesque,  from  Italian  grottesca,  appar- 
ently from  grotte,  grottoes,  the  popular  name 
in  Rome  for  the  chambers  of  ancient  buildings 
which  had  been  revealed  by  excavations  and 
which  contained  those  mural  paintings  which 
were  typical  examples  of  the  'grotesque* 
style ;  hence  a  kind  of  decorative  painting  or 
sculpture,  consisting  of  representations  of 
portions  of  human  and  animal  forms,  fan- 
tastically combined  and  interwoven  with 
foliage  and  flowers.  [OED.] 

GROTIUS,  HUGO  (i583~i645)»  Dutch 
statesman  and  jurist,  was  born  at  Delft, 
studied  law  at  Orleans  and  Leyden,  and 
became  the  leader  of  the  bar  at  The  Hague. 
He  wrote  in  1601  a  sacred  drama  in  Latin, 
'Adamus  ExsuT,  with  which  Milton  was 
probably  familiar  when  he  wrote  'Paradise 
Lost*.  Grotius  was  Dutch  ambassador  in 
London  in  1613,  but  his  intimacy  with 
Barneveld  (who  was  executed  in  1619  for 
conspiracy  against  the  State)  led  to  his 
condemnation  to  imprisonment  for  life. 
From  this  he  escaped  in  a  large  box 
in  which  books  were  sent  to  him^for  the 
purpose  of  study,  and  took  refuge  in  Paris. 
He  became  the  ambassador  of  Queen  Chris- 
tina of  Sweden  at  the  French  Court,  and 
died,  after  shipwreck,  in  her  service.  He 
wrote  a  large  number  of  works,  including  a 
Latin  history  of  the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands. 
But  his  principal  title  to  fame  is  his  great 
treatise  of  international  law,  the  'De  jure 
Belli  et  Pads',  published  in  1625.  In  the 
midst  of  the  Thirty' Years  War  (1618-48)  he 
asserted  in  this  work  the  principle  of  a  rule  of 
law  binding  upon  nations  in  their  relations 
with  one  another. 

GROVE,  SIR  GEORGE  (1820-1900),  a 
writer  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  is 
especially  notable  as  having  projected  and 
edited  the  'Dictionary  of  Music  and  Mu- 
sicians* (4  vols.  1878-89). 

Growth  of  Love,  The,  a  sonnet-sequence  by 
R.  Bridges  (q.v.). 

Grub  Street,  London,  according  to  Samuel 
Johnson  was  'originally  the  name  of  a  street 
near  Moorfields  in  London,  much  inhabited 
by  writers  of  small  histories,  dictionaries,  and 
temporary  poems,  whence  any  mean  pro- 
duction is  called  grubstreet*  ('Dictionary'). 
The  name  of  the  street  was  changed  in  the 
1 9th  cent,  to  Milton  Street  (Cripplegate). 
'Grub  Street"  is  current  in  modern  usage  as 
an  epithet  meaning  'of  the  nature  of  literary 
hack-work*. 

According  to  Stow  (1598),  Grub  Street  was 
'of  late  years  inhabited  for  the  most  part 
by  Bowyers,  Fletchers,  Bowstring  makers, 
and  such  like',  but  in  his  time  given  up 
to  bowling  alleys  and  dicing  houses.  Neanias, 


•    GUARINI 

in  Randolph's  'Hey  for  Honesty*  (iv.  iii) 
says  of  Anus : 

Her  eyes  are  Cupid's  Grub  Street:  the 
blind  archer  makes  his  love-arrows  there. 

Grub  Street  Journal,  The,  which  appeared 
during  1730-8,  vigorously  attacked  Pope's 
adversaries  in  the  'Dunciad*  controversy. 
Pope  probably  had  some  part  in  its  produc- 
tion. 

Grubbinol,  a  shepherd  in  Gay's  'Shepherd's 
Week*  (q.v.). 

Grueby,  JOHN,  a  character  in  Dickens  *s 
'Baraaby  Rudge*  (q.v.),  servant  to  Lord 
George  Gordon. 

Grtmdy,  MKS.,  the  symbol  of  conventional 
propriety.  For  the  origin  of  the  expression 
see  Speed  the  Plough. 

Gryll,  in  Spenser's  '  Faerie  Queene*,  n.xii.  86, 
the  hog  in  the  Bower  of  Acrasia  who  repined 
greatly  at  being  changed  back  into  a  man. 
The  incident  is  taken  from  a  dialogue  of 
Plutarch,  in  which  Gryllus  is  one  of  the 
Greeks  transformed  into  swine  by  Circe 
(see  also  Gryll  Grange). 
Gryll  Grange,  the  last  novel  of  Peacock  (q.v.), 
published  in  1860  or  early  in  1861. 

In  it  we  have  the  house  party  that  is  the 
usual  feature  of  most  of  his  books,  diversified 
by  the  addition  of  an  eccentric  young  gentle- 
man, Algernon  Falconer,  who  lives  in  a 
tower,  attended  by  seven  'Vestals',  as  beauti- 
ful and  accomplished  as  they  are  virtuous. 
Mr.  Gryll  of  Gryll  Grange  believes  himself 
descended  from  Circe's  Gryllus  (see  under 
Gryll),  though  he  finds  it  difficult  to  estab- 
lish the  pedigree.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Opimian,  'a 
man  of  purple  cheer,  A  rosy  man  right  plump 
to  see3,  an  agreeable  gourmet  who  combines 
much  learning  with  conservative  views,  is  the 
most  notable  of  the  characters.  These  dis- 
course on  many  subjects,  from,  the  Greek 
theatre  and  ancient  music  to  cooking  and 
card-playing,  with  much  display  of  curious 
learning  and  apt  quotation.  The  slender 
thread  of  the  plot,  concerned  with  the  love 
affairs  of  Mr.  Falconer  and  Lord  Curryfin, 
ends  in  a  prodigious  marriage,  at  which  nine 
brides  are  wedded  to  nine  bridegrooms. 
Gryphon,  see  Griffin. 
Guanliamara,  see  Guinevere, 

Guardian,  The,  a  periodical  started  by 
Steele  (q.v.)  in  March  1713.  It  professed  at 
*  the  outset  to  abstain  from  political  questions, 
and  Addison  contributed  fifty-one  papers  to 
it.  It  included  also  among  its  contributors 
Berkeley,  Pope,  and  Gay.  But  Steele  soon 
launched  into  political  controversy,  falling 
foul  of  the  Tory  'Examiner*  (q.v.).  Owing 
to  some  disagreement  with  Tonson,  the 
publisher,  the  'Guardian*  came  to  an  abrupt 
end  in  October  1713  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  'Englishman'. 

GUARINI,  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA(i537- 
1612),  an  Italian  poet,  born  at  Ferrara,  author 


[340] 


GUBBINS 

of  the  pastoral  drama,  'II  Pastor  Fido*  (1585), 
which  had  considerable  vogue  in  England  in 
the  jyth  cent.  It  was  repeatedly  translated 
into  English,  and  also  acted  in  a  Latin  version 
at  Cambridge. 

Gubbins  or  GUBBINGS,  a  contemptuous 
name  formerly  given  to  the  inhabitants  of  a 
district  near  Brent  Tor  on  the  edge  of  Dart- 
moor (described  as  'a  Scythia  within  Eng- 
land' by  Fuller),  who  are  said  to  have  been 
absolute  savages.  The  'King  of  the  Gub- 
bings'  appears  in  C.  Kingsley's  'Westward 
Ho!*  (q.v.). 

Gudrun,  (i)  the  subject  of  a  German 
national  epic  of  the  i3th  cent.,  composed  in 
Austria.  She  is  the  daughter  of  King  Hetel, 
and  betrothed  to  Herwig  of  Seeland.  She  is 
carried  off  by  Hartmut  of  Normandy,  and 
because  she  refuses  to  be  his  wife  is  set  to  do 
menial  work.  After  thirteen  years  she  is 
rescued,  and  marries  Herwig  [E.B.  nth  ed.]. 
(2)  In  the  'Volsunga  Saga*  and  in  W.  Morris's 
*  Sigurd  the  Volsung'  (q.v.),  the  daughter  of 
the  king  of  the  Niblungs;  (3)  the  heroine 
of  the  Laxdaela  Saga  (see  Gudrun,  The 
Lovers  of). 

Gudrun  f  The  Lovers  of,  one  of  the  wanderers' 
tales  in  W.  Morris's  'The  Earthly  Paradise 
(q.v.),  a  translation  of  the  Laxdaela  Saga  (see 
Saga). 

It  is  the  story  of  Gudrun,  daughter  of 
Oswif,  a  great  lord  in  Iceland,  and  of  the 
many  men  who  loved  her,  but  in  particular 
of  Kiartan  and  his  bosom  friend  and  cousin 
Bodli.  Gudrun  passionately  returns  the  love 
of  Kiartan,  who  excels  all  in  manly  deeds 
and  is  kindly  in  disposition,  but  Kiartan, 
before  he  will  marry  her,  goes  with  Bodli 
to  Norway  in  search  of  fame,  and  there 
spends  some  years  at  the  court  of  Olaf 
Trygyesson.  Bodli  returns  to  Iceland,  and, 
yielding  to  the  temptation  of  his  passion  for 
Gudrun,  tells  her  that  Kiartan  now  loves  Ingi- 
biorg,  the  sister  of  King  Olaf,  and  will  marry 
her.  Broken-hearted,  but  at  last  convinced 
of  Kiartan's  unfaithfulness,  Gudrun  marries 
Bodli.  Then  Kiartan  returns  to  claim  his  bride. 
Gudrun  curses  the  miserable  Bodli,  and  Kiar- 
tan, likewise  broken-hearted,  half  contemp- 
tuously spares  him.  Bodli,  driven  by  despair 
and  the  taunts  of  those  about  him,  joins  in  an 
ambush  prepared  by  Kiartan's  enemies,  and 
slays  his  friend,  to  be  slain  later  by  Kiartan's 
brothers.  Gudrun  later  marries  again. 

Guebres  (pron.  Ge'bers),  adherents  of  the 
ancient  Persian  religion,  fire-worshippers, 
Zoroastrians.  The  name  is  more  or  less 
obsolete. 

Guelphs  and  the  Ghibellines,  THE,  the 
two  great  parties  in  medieval  Italian  politics, 
supporting  respectively  the  popes  and  the 
emperors.  GUELPH  is  the  name  of  the  prince- 
ly family  represented  in  modern  times  by  the 
ducal  house  of  Brunswick,  and  WELF  is  said 
to  have  been  used  at  the  battle  of  Weinsberg 
in  1 140  as  a  war-cry  by  the  partisans  of  the 


GUILD  OF  ST.  GEORGE 

duke  of  Bavaria,  who  belonged  to  this  family 
and  fought  against  the  Emperor  Conrad  III. 
GHIBELLINE  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of 
Waiblinghi,  the  name  of  an  estate  belonging 
to  the  Hohenstaufen  family,  used  as  a  war- 
cry  by  the  partisans  of  the  emperor  at  the 
same  battle.  [OED.] 

Guendolen,  in  Scott's  'Bridal  of  Triermain' 
(q.v.),  a  fay  who  beguiles  King  Arthur  into 
loving  her,  and  becomes  the  mother  of 
Gyneth.  See  also  Gwendolen. 

Guerre,  MARTIN,  a  Gascon  gentleman  of  the 
1 6th  cent.,  who  after  ten  years  of  married  life 
disappeared  from  the  country.  Subsequently, 
a  certain  Arnaud  du  Thil,  bearing  a  close 
resemblance  to  Guerre,  presented  himself  as 
the  missing  man,  of  whose  circumstances  he 
had  made  a  careful  study.  He  was  recognized 
by  Martin  Guerre 's  wife  as  her  husband,  and 
lived  with  her  until  a  soldier  published  the 
fact  that  the  true  Martin  Guerre  was  living 
in  Flanders.  After  a  long  trial,  which  excited 
the  greatest  interest,  and  the  final  re- 
appearance of  Guerre  himself,  du  Thil  was 
sentenced  and  executed. 

Guest,  STEPHEN,  a  character  in  G.  Eliot's 
'The  Mill  on  the  Floss'  (q.v.). 

Gueux,  meaning  'beggars',  a  name  first 
given  in  contempt  to  the  Protestant  nobles 
who  opposed  Margaret  of  Parma  (Regent  of 
the  ^Netherlands,  on  behalf  of  Philip  II  of 
Spain),  and  afterwards  adopted  by  various 
bodies  of  Dutch  and  Flemish  partisans  in 
the  wars  with  the  Spaniards  in  the  i6th  cent. 

GTJICCIARDINI,  FRANCESCO  (1483- 
1540),  a  Florentine,  the  best  historian  of 
the  Renaissance  period  in  Italy. 

Guiderius,  in  Shakespeare's  'Cymbeline' 
(q.v.),  the  elder  son  of  the  king. 

GUIDO  DA  COLONNA,  or  DELLE  Co- 
LONNE,  a  isth-cent.  Sicilian  writer  of  Latin 
romances,  author  of  a  'Historia  Trojana* 
which  was  in  fact  a  prose  version  of  a  poem  of 
Benoit  de  Sainte-More  (q.v.),  though  Guido 
did  not  acknowledge  this.  His  romance  was 
translated  in  poems  attributed  to  Barbour 
and  Huchoun,  and  by  Lydgate  in  his  'Troy 
Book'.  The  story  of  'Troilus  and  Cressida*, 
taken  by  Guido  from  Benoit  de  Sainte-More, 
was  in  turn  developed  by  Boccaccio,  Chaucer, 
Henryson,  and  Shakespeare  (qq.v.). 

Guido  Franceschini,  COUNT,  one  of  the 
principal  characters  in  R.  Browning's  'The 
Ring  and  the  Book'  (q.v.). 

Guignol,  the  chief  character  in  the  popular 
French  puppet-show  of  that  name,  similar 
to  our  'Punch  and  Judy'.  The  word  is  also 
used  for  the  theatre  where  the  show  is  per- 
formed. GRAND  GUIGNOL  is  a  term  applied 
to  a  theatre  presenting  plays  of  a  gruesome 
character  (resembling  in  this  respect  the 
play  of  'Punch  and  Judy',  q.v.). 
Guild  of  St.  George,  see  Rtiskin. 


[34i] 


GUILDENSTERN 

Guildenstern,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 

'Hamlet'  (q.v.). 

GUILDFORB,  JOHN  OF,  and  NICHOLAS  OF, 

see  Owl  and  the  Nightingale. 

Guildhall,  THE,  the  town  hall  of  the  city  of 
London.  The  name  signifies  a  hall  where  a 
trade  guild  met,  but  from  its  use  as  a  meeting- 
place  for  the  corporation  was  often  synony- 
mous with  town  hall.  [OED.]  f  According  to 
another  view  the  name  is  derived  from  the 
peace  guilds  or  frith  guilds  of  Athelstane  (see 
Lethaby,  'London  before  the  Conquest5). 
The  present  Guildhall  was  built  early  in  the 
1 5th  cent.,  replacing  an  earlier  hall  in  Alder- 
manbury.  The  interior  of  the  hall  was  burnt 
out  in  the  Great  Fire  of  1666,  and  has  been 
restored. 

GUILLAUME  DE  LORRIS,  see  Roman 
de  la  Rose. 

GuiUotin,  JOSEPH  IGNACE  (1738-1814),  a 
French  physician,  member  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly,  who,  from  humanitarian  motives, 
proposed  to  decapitate  persons  condemned  to 
death  by  means  of  the  machine,  the  guillo- 
tine, to  which  his  name  was  given,  though 
he  did  not  invent  it  (Larive  et  Fleury). 

Guinea,  the  name  of  an  English  gold  coin. 
In  1663  the  newly  issued  'gold  2os.  piece 
commanded  a  premium,  and  was  ere  long 
generally  taken  for  2 is.  or  22$.  By  a  curious 
freak  of  chance  the  Guinea  gold  money, 
struck  from  the  intake  from  the^  African 
Company,  was  so  prevalent  at  this  time,  that 
the  coin  which  official  documents  still  called 
a  pound  was  usually  nicknamed  a  "guinea", 
and  the  name  stuck  to  it  till  1813',  when  the 
last  guineas  were  coined  (in  spite  of  the 
existence  of  paper  currency  in  Great  Britain) 
to  supply  Wellington's  army  in  the  Pyrenees. 
By  that  time  the  gold  guinea  was  worth  27$. 
in  bank  notes.  In  1816,  when  monometallism 
was  adopted,  the  gold  £1  was  substituted  for 
the  21$.  guinea.  (See  Oman,  'Coinage  of 
England*  (1931),  from  which  the  above 
quotation  is  taken.) 

Guinea,  Chrysal,  or  the  Adventures  of  a>  see 
Adventures  of  a  Guinea. 

Guinevere,  the  wife  of  King  Arthur  (q.v.)  in 

the  Arthurian  legend.     The  name  figures 

in  various  forms  in  the  early  romances.   In 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  she  is  Guanhamara, 

of  a  noble  Roman  family,  brought  up  in  the 

household  of  Cador,  duke  of  Cornwall.    In 

Layarnon's  'Brut*  she  is  Wenhaver,  a  relative 

of  Cador   of  Cornwall.     In   'Arthour  and 

Merlin'  (i3th  cent.)  she  is  Gvenour,  daughter 

of  Leodegran,  king  of  Carohaise.     For  her 

story  see  Arthur  and  Launcelot.     A  more 

subtle  and  favourable  view  of  her  character 

than  is  found  in  the  old  romances  is  given 

in  W.  Morris's  'Defence  of  Guenevere*(i858) 

and  in  Tennyson's  idyll  'Guinevere*  (1859, 

q.v.).    See   also    Awntyrs    of    Arthure    at 

the  Terne  Wathelyne. 


GULLIVER'S  TRAVELS 

Guinevere,  one  of  Tennyson's  'Idylls  of  the 
King*  (q.v.),  published  in  1859,- 

The  poem  describes  how  Guinevere,  under 
the  growing  stress  of  conscience  and  fear  of 
exposure,  bids  Lancelot  leave  her  and  with- 
draw to  his  own  lands.  They  meet  for  the 
last  time,  when  the  voice  of  the  spying 
Modred  is  heard.  Lancelot  rushes  out  and 
hurls  him  headlong;  then  bids  the  queen  fly 
with  him  to  'his  castle  overseas'.  But  she, 
declaring  that  she  is  shamed  for  ever,  betakes 
herself  to  the  nunnery  at  Almesbury.  There, 
after  a  period  of  sorrowful  meditation,  she 
is  visited  by  Arthur,  and  falls  prostrate  at  his 
feet.  He  denounces  the  evil  that  she  has 
wrought  in  the  wreck  of  his  high  hopes,  and 
finally  forgives  her  and  bids  her  farewell. 
Heart-broken  and  contrite,  she  remains  with 
the  nuns,  becomes  their  abbess,  and  after 
three  years  dies. 

GUINEY,  LOUISE  IMOGEN  (1886- 
1920),  American  writer  and  poet.  Her  works 
include  'The  White  Sail*  (1887),  'A  Roadside 
Harp*  (1893),  'England  and  Yesterday*  (1896) 
—verse;  'Little  English  Gallery*  (1894), 
Tatrins*  (1897) — prose.  An  account  of  her 
life  and  works  is  in  'Louise  Imogen  Guiney*, 
by  E.  M.  Tenison  (1923). 
Guinness,  a  celebrated  kind  of  stout  (a  dark 
brown  bitterish  beer  brewed  from  malt 
partly  charred  or  browned),  brewed  by  the 
firm  of  Guinness  of  Dublin. 
Gtdscardo,  see  Sigismonda. 
Guise,  the  name  of  a  branch  of  the  princely 
house  of  Lorraine,  of  which  the  best-known 
member  is  Henri  de  Guise,  le  Balafre  (q.v., 
1550-88),  one  of  the  authors  of  the  massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew  and  a  leader  of  the  Ligue 
which  attempted  to  depose  Henri  III.  He 
was  assassinated  by  the  latter 's  orders.  Mary 
of  Guise  was  the  queen  of  James  V  of  Scot- 
land and  mother  of  Mary  Stuart. 
GUIZOT,  FRANQOIS  (1787-1874),  French 
statesman  and  historian,  a  minister  under 
Louis  Philippe,  to  the  failure  of  whose  con- 
servative policy  is  attributed  the  revolution 
of  1848.  He  was  a  Protestant.  Among 
his  historical  works  were  the  'Histoire  de  la 
Revolution  d'Angleterre*,  'Histoire  de  la 
Civilisation  en  Europe',  'Histoire  de  la  Civili- 
sation francaise*,  'Essais  sur  THistoire  de 
France',  &c. 

Gulbeyaz,  in  Byron's  *Don  Juan*  (q.v.),  the 
sultana  to  whom  the  hero  is  sold  as  a  slave. 
Gulistan,  'the  rose  garden*,  the  name  of  the 
principal  poem  of  the  Persian  poet  Sadi  (q.v.), 
a  work  of  edification  in  which  moral  instruc- 
tion is  mingled  with  tales  and  other  lighter 
matter. 

Gulliver's  Travels,  a  satire  by  Swift  (q.v.)s 
published  in  1726. 

Swift  probably  got  the  idea  of  a  satire  in 
the  form  of  a  book  of  travels  at  the  meetings 
of  the  Scriblerus  Club  (q.v.),  and  intended  it 
to  form  part  of  the  'Memoirs  of  Scriblerus*, 
who  indeed  is  described  in  the  'Memoirs*  as 


[342] 


GULNARE 

visiting  the  same  countries  as  Gulliver.  Swift 
appears  to  have  worked  at  the  book  from  as 
early  as  1720. 

In  the  first  .part  Lemuel  Gulliver,  a  sur- 
geon on  a  merchant  ship,  relates  his  ship- 
wreck on  the  island  ofLilliput,  the  inhabitants 
of  which  are^  six  Cinches  high,  everything  on 
the  island  being  in  proportion  of  one  inch  to 
one  foot  as  compared  with  things  as  we 
know  them.  Owing  to  this  diminutive  scale, 
the  civil  feuds  of  the  inhabitants,  the  pomp 
of  the  emperor,  the  war  with  their  neighbours 
across  the  channel,  are  made  to  look  ridicu- 
lous. The  English  political  parties  and 
religious  dissensions  are  satirized  in  the  de- 
scription of  the  wearers  of  high  heels  and  low 
heels,  and  of  the  controversy  on  the  question 
whether  eggs  should  be  broken  at  the  big 
or  small  end. 

In  the  second  part  Gulliver  is  accidentally 
left  ashore  on  Brobdingnag,  where  the  in- 
habitants are  as  tall  as  steeples,  and  every- 
thing^  else  is  in  proportion.  Here  the  king, 
after  inquiring  into  the  manners,  government, 
and  learning  of  Europe,  sums  up  his  im- 
pression of  what  Gulliver  tells  him  as 
follows :  'By  what  I  have  gathered  from  your 
own  relation  ...  I  cannot  but  conclude  the 
bulk  of  your  natives  to  be  the  most  per- 
nicious race  of  little  odious  vermin  that 
nature  ever  suffered  to  crawl  upon  the 
surface  of  the  earth.* 

The  third  part  is  occupied  with  a  visit  to 
the  flying  island  of  Laputa,  and  its  neigh- 
bouring continent  and  capital  Lagado.  Here 
the  satire  is  directed  against  philosophers, 
men  of  science,  historians,  and  projectors, 
with  special  reference  to  the  South  Sea 
Bubble.  In  Laputa  he  finds  the  wise  men  so 
wrapped  up  in  their  speculations  as  to  be 
utter  dotards  in  practical  affairs.  At  Lagado 
"he  visits  the  Academy  of  Projectors,  where 
professors  are  engaged  in  extracting  sunshine 
from  cucumbers  and  similar  absurd  enter- 
prises. In  the  Island  of  Sorcerers  he  is 
enabled  to  call  up  the  great  men  of  old,  and 
discovers,  from  their  answers  to  his  questions, 
the  deceptions  of  history.  The  Struldbrugs,  a 
race  endowed  with  immortality,  so  far  from 
finding  this  a  boon,  turn  out  to  be  the  most 
miserable  of  mankind. 

The  bitterness  and  misanthropy  of  Swift, 
of  which  there  are  indications  in  the  second 
and  third  parts  of  the  'Travels',  are  accentu- 
ated in  the  fourth,  describing  the  country  of 
the  Houyhnhnms,  or  horses  endowed  with 
reason.  Here  the  simplicity  and  virtues  of 
the  horses  are  contrasted  with  the  disgusting 
brutality  of  the  Yahoos,  beasts  in  the  shape 
of  men. 

The  whole  work,  with  the  exception  of 
certain  passages,  has  the  rare  merit  of 
appealing  to  both  old  and  young,  as  a  power- 
ful satire  on  man  and  human  institutions,  and 
as  a  fascinating  tale  of  travels  in  wonderland. 


GURTH 

Guls  Hornebooke,  The,  a  satirical  book  of 
manners,  by  Dekker  (q.v.),  published  in 
1609.  It  is  an  attack  on  the  fops  and  gallants 
of  the  day  under  the  guise  of  ironical  in- 
structions how  they  may  make  themselves 
conspicuous  in  places  of  public  resort  by 
their  offensive  conduct.  The  occupations  of 
a  young  man  of  leisure  are  described;  his 
dressing,  his  walk  in  'Paul's'  (q.v.),  his  meal 
at  the  'ordinary*,  the  visit  to  the  playhouse, 
&c. 

Gummidge,  MRS.,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'David  Copperfield*  (q.v.),  a  'poor  lone 
widow*. 

Gunnar,  in  the  'Volsunga  Saga'  and  W. 
Morris's  'Sigurd  the  Volsung*  (q.v.),  the  king 
of  the  Niblungs  and  the  husband  of  Brynhild. 

Gunner's  Daughter,  the  gun  to  which 
seamen  were  lashed  to  be  flogged. 

Gunning,  MABIA  (1733-60)  and  ELIZABETH 
(1734-90),  daughters  of  James  Gunning  of 
Castlecoote,  Roscommon,  famous  beauties. 
Maria  became  countess  of  Coventry;  Eliza- 
beth, duchess  of  Hamilton  and  of  Argyll. 

GUNNING,  MRS.  SUSANNAH  (1740?- 
1800),  nee  Minifie,  of  Fairwater,  Somerset- 
shire, married  John  Gunning  (the  brother 
of  Maria  and  Elizabeth  Gunning,  q.v.), 
a  man  of  dissolute  life,  from  whom  she 
separated.  Before  her  marriage,  and  after 
her  separation,  she  wrote  a  number  of  novels 
of  a  harmless  description,  and  without  much 
plot.  These  include  'The  Histories  of  Lady 
Frances  S —  and  Lady  Caroline  S — '  (with 
her  sister  Margaret,  1763);  'Barford  Abbey* 
(1768);  the  'Count  de  Poland*  (1780); 
'Memoirs  of  Mary*  (1793),  &c. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  the  plot  of  a  few  Roman 
Catholics  to  blow  up  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment on  5  Nov.  1605,  while  king,  lords,  and 
commons  were  assembled  there.  The  plot 
was  devised  by  Robert  Catesby,  and  Guy 
Fawkes  was  chosen  to  put  it  into  execution. 
But  it  was  betrayed,  and  Fawkes  arrested  on 
4  Nov.  The  conspirators  who  were  taken 
alive  were  executed ;  Catesby  was  killed  while 
resisting  arrest. 

Gunther,  in  the  Nibelungenlied  (q.v.),  the 
brother  of  Kriemhild. 

Guppy,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Bleak 
House*  (q.v.). 

GTJRNEY,  THOMAS  (1705-70),  appointed 
shorthand-writer  at  the  Old  Bailey,  1737 
(?I748),  the  first  shorthand- writer  to  hold 
an  official  appointment.  His  'Brachygraphy* 
(1750),  originally  an  improvement  of  W. 
Mason's  'Shorthand',  has  been  frequently 
reissued  and  improved.  It  is  his  grandson, 
William  Brodie  Gurney,  shorthand-writer  to 
the  Houses  of  Parliament  (1813)  who  is 
referred  to  by  Byron  in  'Don  Juan*,  i.  189. 


Gulnare,  a  character  in  Byron's  'The  Cor- 
sair* (q.v.). 


Gurth,   the   Saxon 
'Ivanhoe*  (q.v.). 

[3433 


swineherd   in    Scott's 


GUSHTASP 

Gushtasp,  one  of  the  later  legendary  kings 
of  Persia  whose  story  is  told  in  the  Shah- 
nameh  of  Firdusi  (q.v.).  He  was  the  father 
of  Isfendiyar  (q.v.). 

Gustavus  Adolphus  (1594-1632),  king  of 
Sweden  (1611-32).  In  1630  he  invaded  Ger- 
many, and  carried  out  his  celebrated  cam- 
paign, in  which  he  defeated  Tilly  at  Breiten- 
feld  near  Leipzig  and  Wallenstein  at  Liitzen, 
but  fell  in  the  latter  battle. 
Gustavus  Vasa  liberated  the  Swedes  in 
1521  from  the  Danish  yoke  and  ascended  the 
throne  of  Sweden  in  1523.  A  tragedy  on  the 
subject  was  written  by  H.  Brooke  (q.v.). 
Guster,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Bleak 
House*  (q.v.). 

Gutenberg,  JOHANN  (c.  1398-1468),  one  of 
the  earliest  of  German  printers,  inventor 
of  movable  printing  types.  He  received 
pecuniary  help  from  Johann  Fust  (q.v.)  and 
started  printing  about  1454.  He  probably 
produced  the  Mazarin  (q.v.)  Vulgate  Bible  of 
1456. 

Guthlac,  ST.  (d.  714),  a  young  nobleman  of 
Mercia  who  became  a  hermit  at  Crowland 
or  Croyland  in  Lincolnshire.  JEthelbald, 
king  of  Mercia,  built  a  church  over  his  tomb, 
which  later  became  the  Abbey  of  Crowland. 
His  life  is  the  subject  of  an  Anglo-Saxon 
poem.  There  are  frequent  references  to  St. 
Guthlac  and  the  abbey  in  C.  Kingsley's 
*Hereward  the  Wake* 


GUTHBJE,  THOMAS  ANSTEY,  see  Ansiey. 

Gutter  Lane,  in  the  city  of  London,  for- 
merly Guthuron's  Lane  or  Gudrun's  Lane, 
was  probably  named  after  Guthrum  the 
Dane  (Lethaby),  who  defeated  Alfred,  and 
subsequently  ceded  London  to  him.  It 
was  the  street  of  the  goldsmiths  before 
Stow's  time,  when  they  were  for  the  most 
part  removed  to  the  Cheap.  Stow  speaks  of 
'fine  silver,  of  such  as  ...  was  commonly 
called  silver  of  Guthuron's  lane*. 
Guy,  THOMAS  (1645?-!  742),  the  founder 
of  Guy's  Hospital,  set  up  as  a  bookseller  in 
London  in  1668  and  was  one  of  the  Oxford 
University  printers,  1679-92.  He  greatly  in- 
creased his  fortune  by  selling  his  South  Sea 
stock.  He  lived  a  penurious  life  but  was 
liberal  in  benefactions,  erecting  the  hospital 
that  bears  his  name  at  a  cost  of  some  £18,000 
and  leaving  £200,000  for  its  endowment, 
besides  other  charitable  bequests. 

Guy  Fawkes,  see  Gunpowder  Plot. 

Guy  Livingstone,  or,  Thorough,  a  novel  by 
G.A.Lawrence  (q.v.),  published  in  1857. 

This  novel  shows  a  revolt  against  the 
.  moral  and  domestic  conventions  of  the 
period.  The  hero  is  an  officer  of  the  Life- 
guards, very  wealthy,  of  colossal  size  and 
strength,  and  a  great  sportsman,  who  beats 
prize-fighters  and  performs  other  exploits, 
but  whose  Jack  of  principle  involves  him  in 
amatory  difficulties.  He  becomes  engaged 


GUY  OF  GISBORNE 

to  Constance  Brandon,  but  is  discovered  by 
her  kissing  Flora  Bellasys,  and  Constance 
presently  dies  of  a  broken  heart.  Con- 
trasted with  Guy  is  Bruce,  who  doesn't 
hunt,  is  a  muff  with  a  gun,  and  is  generally 
despicable.  He  is  engaged  to  Guy's  cousin 
Isabel,  but  Guy's  friend  Forrester  elopes  with 
Isabel  a  month  before  the  intended  wedding, 
and  they  live  happily  until  Bruce  meets 
Forrester  and  kills  him,  to  be  subsequently 
tracked  down  by  Guy.  The  latter,  whose 
truculence  has  been  somewhat  softened  by 
his  experiences,  dies  from  a  fall  in  the 
hunting  field. 

This  crude  piece  of  melodrama  was  paro- 
died by  Bret  Harte  in  his  'Guy  Heavystone', 

Guy  Monnering,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott 
(q,v.),  published  in  1815. 

The  story,  laid  in  the  i8th  cent.,  centres 
in  the  fortunes  of  young  Harry  Bertram,  son 
of  the  laird  of  Ellangowan  in  the  county  of 
Dumfries,  who  is  kidnapped  by  smugglers 
when  a  child,  and  carried  to  Holland.  This 
is  done  at  the  instigation  of  a  rascally  lawyer, 
Glossin,  who  has  hopes  of  acquiring  on  easy 
terms  the  Ellangowan  estate,  in  default  of 
an  heir  male.  Bertram,  ignorant  of  his 
parentage,  and  bearing  the  name  of  Brown, 
goes  to  India,  joins  the  army,  and  serves  with 
distinction  under  Colonel  Guy  Mannering. 
Bertram  (or  Brown)  is  suspected  by  Man- 
nering of  paying  attentions  to  his  wife,  and  is 
wounded  by  him  in  a  duel  and  left  for  dead. 
In  reality  Bertram  is  in  love  with  Julia, 
Maimering's  daughter.  Recovering  from 
his  wound,  he  follows  her  to  England  and 
the  neighbourhood  of  Ellangowan.  Here 
Bertram  is  recognized  by  the  old  gipsy, 
Meg  Merrilies.  Meanwhile  Glossin  has  got 
possession  of  the  Ellangowan  property,  but 
the  return  of  Bertram,  and  the  possibility  that 
he  may  learn  the  secret  of  his  parentage, 
threaten  the  exposure  and  ruin  of  Glossin. 
This  discovery,  Meg  Merrilies,  devoted  to 
the  Ellangowan  family,  is  determined  to 
effect.  To  save  himself  Glossin  lays  a  des- 
perate plot  with  Dirk  Hatteraick,  the 
smuggler  captain  who  had  originally  kid- 
napped the  child,  to  carry  him  off  once  more 
and  make  away  with  him.  The  plot  is 
frustrated  by  Meg  Merrilies,  with  the  help  of 
Bertram's  good  friend,  the  sturdy  Lowland 
farmer,  Dandy  Dinmont.  Hatteraick  and 
Glossin  are  captured,  and  Hatteraick,  after 
murdering  Glossin  in  prison  as  the  author 
of  his  misfortunes,  takes  his  own  life. 
Bertram  is  acknowledged  and  restored  to  his 
property  and  to  Mannering's  favour,  and 
marries  Julia.  The  novel  includes  the  notable 
character  of  Dominie  Sampson,  the  uncouth 
simple-minded  tutor  of  the  little  Harry 
Bertram. 

Guy  of  Gisbome,  in  a  ballad  included  in 
Percy's  'ReKques*,  a  yeoman  sworn  to  take 
Robin  Hood.  He  meets  the  outlaw  in  the 
forest  and,  after  a  contest  in  archery,  is  slain 
by  him. 


[344] 


GUY  OF  WARWICK 

Guy  of  Warwick,  a  popular  verse  romance, 
containing  some  7,000  lines,  of  the  early  i4th 
cent.  Guy  is  the  son  of  Siward,  steward  of 
Rohand,  _earl  of  Warwick.  The  poem  re- 
counts his  exploits  undertaken  in  order  to 
win  the  hand  of  Felice,  daughter  of  the  earl. 
He  rescues  the  daughter  of  the  emperor  of 
Germany,  fights  against  the  Saracens,  and 
slays  the  Soldan.  Having  returned  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  is  honourably  received  by 
King  /Ethelstan,  he  marries  Felice,  but 
before  long  returns  to  the  Holy  Land  and 
performs  many  notable  exploits.  He  comes 
once  more  to  England,  where  he  encounters 
the  Danish  giant  Colbrand  (the  account  of 
this  combat  is  famous),  slays  the  dun  cow  of 
Dunsmore,  and  a  winged  dragon  in  Northum- 
berland. He  then  turns  hermit,  receiving  his 
bread  daily  from  Felice,  his  wife,  who  knows 
him  not,  until  at  the  point  of  death  he  sends 
his  ring  to  her. 

The  legend  was  accepted  as  authentic  by 
the  chroniclers  and  versified  by  Lydgate 
about  1450,  and  the  Beauchamp  earls  as- 
sumed descent  from  Guy.  The  story  of  the 
encounter  between  Guy  and  Colbrand  is  also 
told  in  Drayton's  £Polyolbion',xii.  130  etseq., 
and  other  feats  of  Guy  in  xiii.  327  et  seq. 
Guyon,  Sm,in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  the 
knight  of  Temperance.  His  various  exploits, 
the  conquest  of  Pyrochles,  the  visit  to  the  cave 
of  Mammon,  the  capture  of  Acrasia,  and  the 
destruction  of  her  Bower  of  Bliss,  are  related 
in  Bk.  II.  v-xii. 

Guzman  de  Alfarache,  a  Spanish  picaresque 
romance,  the  second  of  its  kind  (the  successor 
of  'Lazarillo  de  Tormes*,  q.v.),  by  Mateo 
Aleman  (1547-*:.  1614).  It  was  translated 
into  English  (as  *The  Rogue')  in  1622  and 
published  with  an  introductory  poem  by  Ben 
Jonson.  Guzman  is  by  turns  scullion,  thief, 
gentleman,  beggar,  soldier,  page  to  a  cardinal 
and  to  a  French  ambassador,  and  his  career 
gives  occasion  for  'sketches  of  character  and 
humorous  descriptions  to  which  it  would 
be  difficult  to  produce  anything  superior* 
(Hazlitt). 


HABSBURG 

Gwawl,  see  Mabinogion. 

Gwendolen  or  GUENDOLENE,  the  legendary 
wife  of  King  Locrine,  who  threw  Estrildis 
and  Sabrina  into  the  Severn  (see  Estrildis). 
See  also  Guendolen. 

Gwendolen  Harleth,  the  heroine  of  G. 
Eliot's  'Daniel  Deronda'  (q.v.). 

Gwyn,  ELEANOR  (1650-87),  generally  known 
as  Nell  Gwyn,  orange  girl,  actress,  and  mis- 
tress of  Charles  II.  One  of  her  sons  was 
created  duke  of  St.  Albans  in  1684.  She  was 
illiterate,  but  good  in  comedy,  prologues,  and 
epilogues.  There  is  a  story  that  she  induced 
King  Charles  to  found  Chelsea  Hospital. 
Charles's  dying  request  to  his  brother,  ac- 
cording to  Burnet  and  Evelyn,  was  'Don't  let 
poor  Nelly  starve'.  She  figures  in  Scott's 
Teveril  of  the  Peak'  (q.v.). 

Gwynedd  or  GWYNETH,  North  Wales. 

Gyges,  a  Lydian  shepherd,  who,  according  to 
Plato  ('Rep/  ii.  359),  descended  into  a  chasm 
of  the  earth,  where  he  found  a  brazen  horse. 
Opening  its  side  he  saw  within  it  the  body 
of  a  man  of  unusual  size.  From  his  finger 
Gyges  took  a  brazen  ring,  which,  when  he 
wore  it,  made  him  invisible.  By  means  of 
this  he  introduced  himself  to  the  queen,  mur- 
dered her  husband,  married  her,  and  usurped 
the  crown  of  Lydia. 

According  to  Herodotus  (i.  7  et  seq.),  the 
Jdng,  Candaules,  boasted  of  his  wife's  beauty 
to  Gyges,  and  allowed  him  to  see  her  un- 
veiled. She  thereupon  persuaded  Gyges  to 
murder  her  husband. 

Gymnosophists  (from  Gr.  yvpvos  naked),  a 
sect  of  ancient  Hindu  philosophers  of  ascetic 
habits  (known  to  the  Greeks  through  the 
reports  of  the  companions  of  Alexander) 
who  wore  little  or  no  clothing,  ate  no  flesh, 
and  gave  themselves  to  mystical  contempla- 
tion. 

Gyneth,  in  Scott's  'Bridal  of  Triermain' 
(q.v.),  the  daughter  of  King  Arthur  and 
Guendolen. 


H 


Habakkuk  Mucklewrath,  a  crazy  covenant- 
ing preacher  in  Scott's  'Old  Mortality'  (q.v.). 

Habeas  Corpus,  a  writ  requiring  the  pro- 
duction in  court  of  the  body  of  a  person  who 
has  been  imprisoned,  in  order  that  the  law- 
fulness of  the  imprisonment  may  be  in- 
vestigated. The  right  to  sue  for  such  a  writ 
was  an  old  common-law  right,  gradually 
built  up  by  lawyers,  who  professed  that  it 
was  based  on  Magna  Carta.  The  HABEAS 
CORPUS  ACT  is  the  name  commonly  given 
to  the  Act  of  1679  by  which  the  granting 
and  enforcement  of  this  writ  were  much 
facilitated. 


HABINGTON,  WILLIAM  _  (1605-64), 
educated  at  St.  Omer  and  Paris,  married 
Lucy  Herbert,  daughter  of  the  first  Baron 
Powis,  and  celebrated  her  in  'Castara',  a 
collection  of  love  poems,  first  published 
(anonymously)  in  1634.  A  later  edition  (163 5) 
contained  in  addition  some  elegies  on  a 
friend,  and  the  final  edition  of  1640  a  number 
of  sacred  poems.  In  the  latter  year  Habington 
also  published  a  tragi-comedy,  'The  Queene 
of  Arragon'. 

Habitant,    a    native    of    Canada   (also    of 
Louisiana)  of  French  descent. 
Habsburg,  see  Hapsburg. 


[3451 


HACKNEY 

Hackney,  the  London  suburb,  was  probably 
Hacon's  Ey,  the  island  of  Hacon,  a  Danish 
name.  The  Knights  Templars  had  an  estate 
there,  which,  at  the  dissolution,  was  granted  to 
the  6th  earl  of  Northumberland,  who  as  Lord 
Percy  was  to  have  married  Anne  Boleyn 
(Loftie). 

A  HACKNEY  horse  is  from  the  old  French 
kaquenee,  an  ambling  horse  or  mare.  The 
word  came  to  be  used  for  horses  kept  for  hire, 
whence  HACK,  HACKNEY-COACH,  &c. 

Hades  or  PLUTO,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
god  of  the  nether  world,  the  son  of  Cronos 
and  Rhea,  and  brother  of  Zeus  and  Poseidon. 
He  received,  as  his  share  of  his  father's  empire, 
the  kingdom  of  the  infernal  regions.  As  the 
place  of  his  residence  was  dark  and  gloomy, 
none  of  the  goddesses  consented  to  marry 
him.  Visiting  the  island  of  Sicily,  after  an 
earthquake,  he  beheld  Proserpine,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Demeter  (Ceres),  gathering  flowers  in 
the  plain  of  Enna,  and  becoming  enamoured 
of  her  carried  her  away  (see  Proserpine). 
Proserpine  accordingly  became  the  queen  of 
hell. 

The  name  'Hades*  was  transferred  to  his 
kingdom,  a  gloomy  sunless  abode,  where, 
according  to  Homer,  the  ghosts  of  the  dead 
flit  about  like  bats.  Its  approach  was  barred 
by  the  rivers  Styx,  Cocytus,  and  Acheron 
with  its  tributary  Phlegethon  (see  Styx). 
Tartarus  was  the  region  of  Hades  in 
which  the  most  impious  of  men  suffered 
retribution.  The  asphodel  meadows  were 
reserved  for  those  who  deserved  neither  bliss 
nor  extreme  punishment.  The  shades  of  the 
blessed  were  conveyed  elsewhere  (see  Ely- 
sium, Fortunate  Isles),  but  Virgil  places 
Elysium  in  Hades. 

Hadith,  in  the  Mohammedan  religion,  the 
tradition  relating  to  the  life  of  Mohammed, 
handed  down  by  the  companions  of  the 
prophet.  It  came  to  be  regarded  as  an  in- 
dependent revelation  comparable  for  sanctity 
with  the  Koran.  The  traditions  were  col- 
lected and  sifted  in  the  3rd  cent,  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan era. 

Hadrian  (PUBLIUS  AELIUS  HADRIANUS)  (A.D. 
76-138)  was  Roman  emperor  from  117  to 
138.  He  was  a  patron  of  art,  of  which  there 
was  a  revival  under  him.  He  visited  Britain 
and  caused  the  wall  to  be  built  between  the 
Solway  and  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne,  known  as 
HADRIAN'S  WALL. 

Haemony,  in  Milton's  cComus',  a  herb 
'more  medicinal  than  moly*  (q.v.)  and  potent 
against  'enchantments,  mildew,  blast,  or 
damp,  Or  ghastly  Furies1  apparition*. 

Haemus,  a  lofty  range  of  mountains  forming 
the  northern  boundary  of  Thrace,  the  true 
Balkan  range. 

Hafed,  the  hero  of  'The  Fire-  Worshippers', 
one  of  the  tales  in  Moore's  'Lalla  Rookh' 


HAFIZ,  SHAMS-ED-DIN  MUHAMMAD 


HAKLUYT 

(d.  c.  1390),  a  famous  Persian  poet  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Shiraz.  He  sang  of  love 
and  flowers  and  nightingales,  and  the  muta- 
bility of  life,  and  is  said  by  his  enemies  to 
have  been  given  to  dissipation.  His  tomb 
is  still  visited  by  pilgrims.  His  ^  prin- 
cipal work  is  the  'Diwan*,  a  collection  of 
short  pieces,  called  'ghazals',  of  anacreontic 
character,  in  which  some  commentators  see 
a  mystic  meaning.  Hafiz  and  Sadi  (q.v.)  were 
buried  near  one  another  at  Shiraz. 
Halnia,  in  imprints,  Copenhagen. 
Haga  Comitum,  in  imprints,  The  Hague. 

Hagarene,  a  reputed  descendant  of  Hagar, 
the  mother  of  Ishmael :  an  Arab,  a  Saracen. 

Hagen,  a  character  in  the  'Nibelungenlied* 

(q.v,). 

Hagenbach,  ARCHIBALD  OF,  a  character  in 

Scott's  'Anne  of  Geierstein'  (q.v.). 

Haggadah,  a  legend,  anecdote,  or  the  like, 
introduced  in  the  Talmud  (q.v.)  to  illustrate 
a  point  of  the  law;  hence  the  legendary 
element  of  the  Talmud,  as  distinguished 
from  the  HALACHAH,  the  legal  teaching. 

HAGGARD,  Sm  HENRY  RIDER  (1856- 

1925),  author  of  many  popular  romances, 

including  'King  Solomon's  Mines'  (1886), 

'She'    (1887),    'Allan    Quatermain'    (1887), 

'Ayesha,  or  the  Return  of  She'  (1905)-    He 

collaborated   with  Andrew  Lang   (q.v.)  in 

'The  World's  Desire*  (1891). 

Haid£e,  a  character  in  Byron's  *Don  Juan' 

(q.v.). 

Hailt  Columbia!,  an  American  patriotic  song 

written  in  1798  by  Joseph  Hopkinson  (1770- 

1842),  an  eminent  American  lawyer,  to  the 

tune  of  'The  President's  March',  for  the 

benefit  performance   of  an   actor,    Gilbert 

Fox. 

Haj  or  HAJJ,  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  im- 
posed as  a  moral  obligation  on  all  Moham- 
medans. HAJJI  is  a  title  conferred  on  those 
who  have  performed  the  pilgrimage. 

Hajji  Baba  of  Ispahan,  The  Adventures  of, 
see  Morier. 

H5.ki/m  in  Mohammedan  countries  and 
India,  means  a  physician;  whereas  HA'KIM 
(from  a  different  root)  means  a  judge,  ruler, 
or  governor.  In  Browning's  'Return  of  the 
Druses*  (q.v.),  Hakim  is  the  vanished  chief 
of  the  Druses. 

HAKLUYT,  RICHARD  (i552?-i6i6),  of 
a  Herefordshire  family,  was  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
He  was  chaplain  to  Sir  Edward  Stafford, 
ambassador  at  Paris,  1583-8.  Here  he  learnt 
much  of  the  maritime  enterprises  of  other 
nations,  and  found  that  the  English  were 
reputed  for  'their  sluggish  security*.  He 
accordingly  decided  to  devote  himself  to 
collecting  and  publishing  the  accounts  of 
English  explorations,  and  to  this  purpose  he 


[346] 


HALACHAH 

gave  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  had 
already  been  amassing  material,  for  in  1582 
he  published  *  Divers  Voyages  touching  the 
Discovery  of  America'.  In  15 87  he  published 
in  Paris  a  revised  edition  of  the  'De  Orbe 
Novo*  of  Peter  Martyr  of  Anghiera  (subse- 
quently translated  into  English  by  Michael 
Lok),  and  in  the  same  year  appeared  his 
*Notable  History,  containing  four  Voyages 
made  by  certain  French  Captains  into 
Florida'.  His  'Principall  Navigations,  Voi- 
ages,  and  Discoveries  of  the  English  Nation' 
was  issued  in  1589,  and,  much  enlarged,  in 
three  volumes,  1598-1600.  He  therein  gave 
to  the  world  some  account  of  the  voyages  of 
the  Cabots,  and  narratives  of  Sir  Hugh 
Willoughby's  voyage  to  the  N.E.  in  search  of 
Cathay,  Sir  John  Hawkins's  voyage  to  Guinea 
and  the  West  Indies,  Drake's  voyages  of 
1570—2  and  his  circumnavigation,  Sir  Hum- 
phrey Gilbert's  last  voyage  in  which  he 
perished,  Martin  Frobisher's  search  for  the 
N.W.  Passage,  John  Davys 's  Arctic  voyages, 
and  the  voyages  of  Ralegh,  James  Lancaster, 
and  others.  He  thus  brought  to  light  the 
hitherto  obscure  achievements  of  English 
navigators,  and  gave  a  great  impetus  to  dis- 
covery and  colonization.  Hakluyt  was 
rector  of  Wetheringsett  in  1590,  and  arch- 
deacon of  Westminster  in  1603.  He  is 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  He  left  un- 
published a  number  of  papers  which  came 
into  the  hands  of  Purchas  (q.v.). 
Halachah,  see  Haggadah. 
Halagaver  Court,  according  to  a  Cornish 
proverb  (quoted  by  W.  C.  Hazlitt  from  Ray's 
Collection'),  a  jocular  imaginary  court  for 
judging  people  who  go  slovenly  in  their  attire. 
Halcombe,  MARIAN,  a  character  in  Wilkie 
Collins's  'The  Woman  in  White'  (q.v.). 
Halcro,  CLAUD,  a  character  in  Scott's  'The 
Pirate*  (q.v.). 

Halcyone  or  ALCYONE,  a  daughter  of  Aeolus 
and  the  wife  of  Ceyx.  Her  husband  perished 
in  a  shipwreck.  Halcyone  was  warned  in  a 
dream  of  her  husband's  fate,  and  when  she 
found,  on  the  morrow,  his  body  on  the  shore, 
she  threw  herself  into  the  sea.  Halcyone  and 
Ceyx  were  changed  into  the  birds  that  bear 
her  name,  which  are  fabled  to  keep  the  waters 
calm  while  they  are  nesting.  Hence  the 
expression  'Halcyon  days*. 
HALDANE,  RICHARD  BURDON,  Vis- 
count (1856-1928),  educated  at  Edinburgh 
and  Gottingen  Universities ;  secretary  of  state 
for  war,  1905-12;  lord  chancellor,  1912-15 
and  1924;  author  of  a  'Life  of  Adrian  Smith* 
(1887),  'Pathway  to  Reality*  (Gifford  Lec- 
ture, 1903),  'Reign  of  Relativity*  (1921), 
'Philosophy  of  Humanism*  (1922),  'Human 
Experience'  (1926).  With  J.  Kemp  he  trans- 
lated Schopenhauer's  'World  as  Will  and 
Idea*  (1883-6). 

Hale,  MR.,  MRS.,  MARGARET,  and  FREDERICK, 
characters  in  Mrs.  Gaskell's  'North  and 
South'  (q.v.). 


HALL 

HALE,  SIR  MATTHEW  (1609-76),  edu- 
cated at  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  became  lord 
chief  justice,  and  was  a  voluminous  writer  on 
many  subjects;  but  much  of  his  best  work 
was  left  in  manuscript,  and  published  long 
after  his  death.  His  principal  legal  works 
were  a  'History  of  the  Common  Law  of 
England*  (1713)  and  a  'Historia  Placitorum 
Coronae*  (1736).  He  was  the  subject  of  a 
biography  by  Burnet  (q.v.). 

Hale,  NATHAN  (1755-76),  American  hero  of 
the  War  of  Independence,  who  was  hanged 
as  a  spy,  and  whose  dying  utterance — 'I 
regret  that  I  have  but  one  life  to  give  for  my 
country' — is  among  the  famous  'last  words* 
of  history. 

HALES,  ALEXANDER  OF,  see  Alexander 
of  Hales. 

HALIBURTON,  THOMAS  CHANDLER 
(1796-1865),  born  at  Windsor,  Nova  Scotia, 
became  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
province.  Of  the  shrewd  sayings  of  the 
Yankee  clock-maker  'Sam  Slick',  the  literary 
work  by  which  he  is  best  known,  the  first 
series  appeared  in  1837,  the  second  in  1838, 
and  the  third  in  1840,  subsequently  re- 
published  in  one  volume.  Under  its  humor- 
ous disguise,  the  work  is  in  reality  a  piece  of 
political  propaganda,  designed  to  stimulate 
reform  in  the  author's  native  province.  'The 
Attach^,  or  Sam  Slick  in  England*  was  pub- 
lished in  1843-4;  'The  Old  Judge,  or  Life  in 
a  Colony',  in  1849;  'Traits  of  American 
Humour',  in  1852;  'Sam  Slick's  Wise  Saws', 
in  1853 ;  and  'Nature  and  Human  Nature*  in 
1855- 

HALIFAX,  MARQUESS  OF,  see  Sarnie. 
Halkett,  COLONEL  and  CECILIA,  characters 
in  Meredith's  'Beauchamp's  Career*  (q.v.). 

HALL,  EDWARD  (d.  1547),  educated  at 
Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  was  the 
author  of  a  chronicle  entitled  "The  Union  of 
the  Noble  and  Illustre  Families  of  Lan- 
castre  and  York',  which  was  prohibited  by 
Queen  Mary,  and  which  is  interesting  for  the 
account  it  gives  of  the  times  of  Henry  VIII 
and  the  vivid  description  of  his  court  and  of 
the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold. 

HALL,  JOSEPH  (1574-1656),  was  educated 
at  Ashby-de-la-Zouch  and  Emmanuel  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  was  bishop  of  Exeter 
1627-41,  and  Norwich  1641-7.  He  was  im- 
peached in  1641  in  the  course  of  the  attack 
of  that  year  on  episcopacy,  and  imprisoned 
in  1642,  his  episcopal  revenues  were  seques- 
trated in  1643,  and  his  cathedral  desecrated. 
He  was  expelled  from  his  palace  about  1647. 
He  published  his  'Virgidemiarum  Sex  Libri* 
(q.v.),  vol.  i  in  1597,  and  vol.  ii  in  1598 
(W.  Grosart,  1879).  His  'Characters  of  Virtues 
and  Vices*  (1608)  are  sketches  on  the  model  of 
Theophrastus  (q.v.),  designed  with  an  educa- 
tive and  moral  purpose.  Besides  satires  and 
controversial  works  against  Brownists  and 
Presbyterians,  he  published  poems  (ed.  Singer, 


[347] 


HALLAM 

1824,  Grosart,  1879),  meditations,  devotional 
works,  and  autobiographical  tracts,  also 
'Observations  of  some  Specialities  of  Divine 
Providence',  'Hard  Measure*,  1647,  and  "The 
Shaking  of  the  Olive  Tree'  (posthumous, 
1660);  collective  editions  were  issued,  1808, 
1837,  and  1863.  Hall  claimed  to  be  the  first 
of  English  satirists,  and  although  Lodge  and 
Donne  may  in  some  respects  have  anticipated 
him,  he  certainly  introduced  the  Juvenalian 
satire  in  English. 

HALLAM,  ARTHUR  HENRY  (1811-33), 
educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, the  close  friend  of  Lord  Tennyson, 
died  suddenly  at  Vienna  at  an  early  age.  He  is 
chiefly  remembered  as  the  subject  of  Tenny- 
son's 'In  Memoriam*  (q.v.).  His  own  'Re- 
mains' (in  verse  and  prose)  appeared  in  1834. 
HALLAM,  HENRY  (1777-1859),  historian, 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  He  spent  some  ten  years  on  the 
preparation  of  his  first  published  work,  'A 
View  of  the  State  of  Europe  during  the  Middle 
Ages*  (1818),  a  survey  of  the  process  of  forma- 
tion of  the  principal  European  states.  Hal- 
lam's  best-known  work,  his  'Constitutional 
History  of  England*  to  the  death  of  George  II, 
appeared  in  1827.  It  is  essentially  the  story  of 
the  conflict  of  the  British  principles  of  law 
with  the  claims  of  royal  prerogative.  The  work 
was  subsequently  continued  by  Sir  T.  E.  May 
(q.v.).  HaUam's  last  great  work  was  an  'Intro- 
duction to  the  Literature  of  Europe  during  the 
Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Seventeenth  Cen- 
turies* (1837-9). 

Byron,  in  'English  Bards  and  Scotch  Re- 
viewers' (q.v.),  sneers  at  'classic  Hallam  much 
renowned  for  Greek".  A  note  explains  that 
Hallam  reviewed  Payne  Knight  in  the  'Edin- 
burgh Review*  and  condemned  certain  Greek 
verses,  not  knowing  that  they  were  by  Pindar. 
The  article  was  probably  not  by  Hallam. 

Hall  el,  a  hymn  of  praise,  consisting  of  Psalms 
cxm-crviii,  sung  at  the  Jewish  feasts  of  the 
Passover,  Pentecost,  Dedication  and  Taber- 
nacles, and  in  shortened  form  at  other  feasts. 
Hallelujah,  from  two  Hebrew  words  mean- 
ing 'praise  Jehovah*.  HALLELUJAH-LASS  was 
a  popular  name  for  a  female  member  of  the 
Salvation  Army. 

Halley,  EDMUND  (1656-1742),  the  astro- 
nomer, was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  School 
and  Queen's  College,  Oxford.  He  originated 
by  ^  his  suggestions  Newton's  'Principia*, 
which  he  introduced  to  the  Royal  Society  and 
published  at  his  own  expense.  Among  the 
great  mass  of  his  valuable  astronomical  work 
may  be  mentioned  his  accurate  prediction  of 
the  return  in  1758  of  the  comet  (named  after 
him)  of  1531,  1607,  and  1682.  He  became 
astronomer-royal  in  1721. 
HALLIWELL,  afterwards  HALLIWELL- 
PHILLIPPS,  JAMES  ORCHARD  (1820- 
89),  scholar  and  librarian  of  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  was  a  noted  Shakespearian 
scholar.  His  published  works  include :  'Life 


HAMILTON 

of     Shakespeare'     (1848),     'Shakespearean 
Forgeries    at    Bridgewater   House'    (1853), 
'Curiosities  of  Modern  Shakespearean  Criti- 
cism*   (1853),   'Dictionary  of  Old   English 
Plays'  (1860),  'Outlines  of  the  Life  of  Shake- 
speare' (1881;  7th  ed.,  1887),  and  numerous 
notes  on  the  separate  plays  and  on  Shake- 
speariana  in  general. 
Hallow-e'en,  see  All-Hallows'  Day. 
Hals,  FRANS  (c.  1580-1666),  a  celebrated 
Dutch  portrait-painter. 
Hamadryads,  see  Dryads. 

Hambledon  Club,  THE,  a  famous  cricket 
club  of  the   early  days  of  the   game.     It 
flourished  about  1750-91,  being  supported 
by  wealthy  patrons  of  cricket,  and  played 
its  matches  on  Broadhalfpenny  and  Wind- 
mill Downs   in   Hampshire.     Its   historian 
was  John  Nyren  (q.v.). 
Hamel,  the  cow  in  'Reynard  the  Fox'  (q.v.). 
Hamelm,  or  Hameln,  see  Pied  Piper  of  H. 
Hamet  Benengeli,  Cro,  see  Cid  Hamet. 
Hamilton,  ANTHONY,  see  Gramont. 

Hamilton,  EMMA,  LADY  (1761?-! 8 15),  nee 
Lyon,  went  to  London  in  1778,  probably  as 
nursemaid  to  the  family  of  Dr.  Richard  Budd, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  the  'Goddess  of 
Health*  in  the  'Temple  of  Health"  opened  by 
the  quack  doctor,  James  Graham,  in  the 
Adelphi  about  1780.  After  living,  as  Emily 
Hart,  under  the  protection  of  various  men, 
and  coming  under  the  refining  influence  of 
Romney,  who  painted  her  many  times,  she 
married  Sir  William  Hamilton  (1730-1803), 
British  ambassador  at  Naples,  in  1791.  She 
first  saw  Nelson  in  1793,  and  became  intimate 
with  him  in  1798.  She  gave  birth  to  her 
daughter  Horatia  in  1801.  She  claimed  to 
have  rendered  important  political  services  at 
Naples,  but  these  claims,  though  endorsed  by 
Nelson,  were  ignored  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment. Owing  to  her  extravagance,  she  died 
in  obscurity  and  poverty,  in  spite  of  legacies 
from  Nelson  and  Hamilton. 

HAMILTON,  WILLIAM,  OF  BAN- 
GOUR  (1704-54),  author  of  the  melodious 
£Braes  of  Yarrow*,  published  in  Ramsay's 
'Miscellany*  (1724-32),  and  of  the  Jacobite 
'Ode  to  the  Battle  of  Gladsmuir'.  He  made 
the  earliest  Homeric  translation  into  English 
blank  verse. 

HAMILTON,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1788-1856), 
the  philosopher,  was  educated  at  Glasgow  and 
Balliol  College,  Oxford.  His  philosophical 
reputation  was  made  by  a  number  of  articles 
which  appeared  in  the  'Edinburgh  Review* 
from  1829  to  1836  (republished  in  1852  as 
'Discussions  on  Philosophy  and  Literature, 
Education  and  University  Reform'),  of  which 
the  most  important  were  those  on  'the 
Philosophy  of  the  Unconditioned*,  'the 
Philosophy  of  Perception',  and  'Logic'.  He 
was  elected  to  the  chair  of  logic  and  meta- 
physics at  Edinburgh  in  1836.  His  'Lectures 


[348] 


HAMILTON 

on    Metaphysics    and   Logic*   appeared    in 
1859-60,  after  his  death. 

A  man  of  great  philosophical  erudition 
rather  than  a  great  philosophical  thinker, 
Hamilton  represents  the  influence  of  Kant 
upon  the  common-sense  philosophy  of  the 
Scottish  school  as  set  forth  by  Reid.  He 
maintained,  like  the  latter,  our  immediate 
consciousness  of  a  perceiving  subject  and  an 
external  reality,  and  distinguished  between 
the  primary  and  objectively  real  qualities,  and 
the  secondary  or  subjective  qualities ;  he  also 
expounded  the  doctrine  of  the  phenomenal 
and  relative  quality  of  all  knowledge,  accord- 
ing to  which  we  must  remain  ignorant  of 
ultimate  reality,  since  knowledge,  whether  of 
mind  or  matter,  must  be  conditioned  by  the 
knowing  mind  and  cannot  therefore  be  know- 
ledge of  the  thing-in-itself.  If  we  attempt  to 
know  the  unconditioned,  we  are  faced  by  two 
contradictory  propositions,  both  inconceiv- 
able, and  one  of  which  must  be  true :  the  un- 
conditioned is  either  the  Absolute  (i.e.  limited) 
or  the  Infinite.  We  cannot  conceive  time 
or  space,  for  instance,  as  either  limited  or 
infinite. 

In  Logic,  Hamilton  introduced  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  traditional  doctrine,  known  as  the 
*  Quantification  of  the  Predicate',  which  has 
been  further  elaborated  by  mathematicians. 
Hamilton's  philosophical  views  were  vigor- 
ously attacked  by  J.  S.  Mill  (q.v.)  in  his 
'Examination  of  Sir  W.  Hamilton's  Philo- 
sophy* (q.v.). 

HAMILTON,  WILLIAM  GERARD,  see 
Single-speech  Hamilton. 

HAMILTON,  SIR  WILLIAM  ROWAN 
(1805-65),  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, showed  extraordinary  precocity  of  mathe- 
matical genius,  detecting  at  1 6  an  error  in 
Laplace's  *Me*canique  Celeste*,  and  in  his 
undergraduate  days  predicting  conical  refrac- 
tion from  mathematical  analysis.  He  was 
appointed  Andrews  professor  of  astronomy 
in  1837,  and  royal  astronomer  of  Ireland.  His 
fame  rests  principally  on  his  discovery  of  the 
science  of  quaternions,  a  higher  branch  of  the 
calculus  ('Lectures  on  Quaternions',  1853; 
'Elements  of  Quaternions',  1866).  His  'Mathe- 
matical Papers',  edited  by  A.  W.  Conway 
and  J.  L.  Synge,  are  now  in  course  of  publica- 
tion. Hamilton  had  considerable  poetical 
gifts,  and  was  a  close  friend  of  Wordsworth. 
Hamlet,  a  tragedy  by  Shakespeare  (q.v.), 
probably  produced  before  1603-4,  published 
imperfectly  in  quarto  in  1603,  and  fully  in 
quarto  in  1604,  and  with  some  omissions  in 
the  first  folio.  The  story  is  in  Saxo  Gram- 
maticus  and  was  accessible  in  Belleforest's 
'Histoires  Tragiques'.  There  was  also  an 
earlier  play  on  the  subject,  not  now  extant. 
A  noble  king  of  Denmark  has  been  mur- 
dered by  his  brother  Claudius,  who  has 
supplanted  on  the  throne  the  dead  man's  son, 
Hamlet,  and  married  with  indecent  haste  the 
dead  man's  widow,  Gertrude.  Hamlet  meets 
the  ghost  of  his  dead  father,  who  relates  the 


HAND  OF  ETHELBERTA 

circumstances  of  the  murder  and  demands 
vengeance.  Hamlet  vows  obedience ;  but  his 
melancholy,  introspective,  and  scrupulous 
nature  makes  him  irresolute  and  dilatory  in 
action.  He  counterfeits  madness  to  escape 
the  suspicion  that  he  is  threatening  danger 
to  the  king.  His  behaviour  is  attributed  to 
love  for  Ophelia  (daughter  of  Polonius,  the 
lord  chamberlain),  whom  he  has  previously 
courted  but  now  treats  rudely.  He  tests  the 
ghost's  story  by  having  a  play  acted  before 
the  king  reproducing  the  circumstances  of 
the  murder,  and  the  king  betrays  himself. 
A  scene  follows  in  which  Hamlet  violently 
upbraids  the  queen.  Thinking  he  hears  the 
king  listening  behind  the  arras,  he  draws  his 
sword  and  kills  instead  Polonius.  The  king 
now  determines  to  destroy  Hamlet.  He  sends 
him  on  a  mission  to  England,  with  intent  to 
have  him  killed  there.  But  pirates  capture 
Hamlet  and  send  him  back  to  Denmark.  He 
arrives  to  find  that  Ophelia,  crazed  with  grief, 
has  perished  by  drowning.  Her  brother 
Laertes,  a  strong  contrast  to  the  character  of 
Hamlet,  has  hurried  home  to  take  vengeance 
for  the  death  of  his  father  Polonius.  The 
king  contrives  a  fencing  match  between 
Hamlet  and  Laertes,  in  which  the  latter  uses 
a  poisoned  sword,  and  kills  Hamlet ;  but  not 
before  Hamlet  has  mortally  wounded  Laertes 
and  stabbed  the  king;  while  Gertrude  has 
drunk  a  poisoned  cup  intended  for  her  son. 

Hamley,  MR.,  MRS.,  OSBORNE,  and  ROGER, 
characters  in  Mrs.  Gaskell's  'Wives  and 
Daughters*  (q.v.). 

Hampden,  JOHN  (1594-1643),  educated  at 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  M.P.  for 
Grampound,  Wendover,  and  subsequently 
Buckinghamshire,  is  famous  as  the  leader  of 
the  resistance  to  the  imposition  of  ship- 
money  (q.v.).  He  was  impeached  in  1642, 
but  escaped  the  king's  attempt  to  arrest  him. 
He  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  skirmish  at 
Chalgrove  Field,  near  Oxford. 

Hampton  Court,  on  the  Thames,  some 
twelve  miles  W.  of  the  centre  of  London, 
was  built  by  Cardinal  Wolsey  on  land  that  had 
formerly  belonged  to  the  knights  of  St.  John, 
and  was  ceded  by  him  to  Henry  VIII.  For 
two  centuries  it  was  a  favourite  residence  of 
the  English  sovereigns.  In  William  Ill's  reign 
part  of  it  was  rebuilt  by  Wren. 

Hampton  Court  Conference,  a  conference 
held  in  1 604  to  settle  points  of  dispute  between 
the  Church  party  and  the  Puritans,  out  of 
which  arose  the  preparation  of  the  Author- 
ized Version  of  the  Bible.  See  Bible,  The 
English. 

Hanaud,  the  detective  in  A.  E.  W.  Mason's 
stories,  'At  the  Villa  Rose*,  'The  House  of 
the  Arrow',  and  'The  Prisoner  in  the  Opal*. 

Hand  of  Ethelberta,  The,  a  novel  by  Hardy 
(q.v.),  published  in  1 876.  As  the  author  states 
in  the  preface,  this  is  a  'somewhat  frivolous 
narrative*  and  one  in  which  the  drawing-room 


[349] 


HANDEL 

is  'sketched  in  many  cases  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  servants'  hall*. 

Ethelberta  is  one  of  a  numerous  family, 
sons  and  daughters  of  a  butler,  Chickerel  by 
name.  An  ambitious  and  masterful  young 
woman,  she  marries  the  son  of  the  house 
where  she  is  a  governess,  and  is  soon  left  a 
widow  of  one-and-twenty.  The  story  is 
occupied  with  her  spirited  endeavour  to 
maintain  the  social  position  she  has  acquired, 
while  concealing  her  relationship  with  the 
butler,  and  yet  actively  helping  her  brothers 
and  sisters.  After  humiliating  experiences, 
she  finally  secures  a  wicked  old  peer  for  a 
husband,  and  rules  him  with  a  firm  hand. 
Christopher  Julian,  the  musician,  her  faithful 
admirer,  whom  she  has  alternately  en- 
couraged and  snubbed,  is  in  the  end  left  to 
marry  her  pink-cheeked  sister  Picotee. 

Handel,  properly  HAENDEL,  GEORGE 
FREDERICK  (1685-1759),  born  in  Saxony, 
came  to  England  in  1710,  after  composing 
some  of  his  operas  and  oratorios.  His  opera 
'Rinaldo*  was  produced  with  great  success  at 
the  Queen's  Theatre,  Haymarket,  in  1711.  He 
settled  permanently  in  England  in  1712. 
He  was  organist  for  the  duke  of  Chandos  at 
Canons  Whitchurch,  near  Edgware,  where  the 
shop  of  the  'Harmonious  Blacksmith*  is  asso- 
ciated with  his  name.  It  was  here  that  he 
composed  'Esther*,  his  first  English  oratorio 
(performed  1720),  and  *Acis  and  Galatea' 
(performed  1720  or  1721).  He  was  director 
of  the  Academy  of  Music,  1720-8.  About 
this  time  a  rivalry  sprang  up  between 
Handel  and  the  musician  Buononcini,  which 
divided  the  music-loving  public  and  occa- 
sioned the  epigram,  variously  attributed  to 
Pope,  Swift,  and  Byrom: 

Strange  all  this  difference  should  be 
'Twixt  Tweedledum  and  Tweedledee. 

Handel  was  appointed  court  composer  in 
1727  and  produced  a  number  of  operas  at 
Covent  Garden  and  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  also 
musical  settings  for  Dryden's  *Ode  on  St. 
Cecilia's  Day*  and  'Alexander's  Feast*.  His 
oratorio  e  Israel  in  Egypt*  was  composed  in 
1738;  'The  Messiah'  was  first  heard  (in 
Dublin)  in  1741 ;  his  last  oratorio  'Jephthah* 
was  produced  at  Covent  Garden  in  1752. 
Handel  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
He  carried  choral  music  to  its  highest  point, 
but  in  instrumental  did  not  advance  beyond 
his  contemporaries. 

Handling  Synne,  a  translation,  in  eight- 
syllabled  verse,  of  the  cManuel  des  Pechiez' 
of  William  of  Wadington,  by  Robert  Man- 
nyng  (1288-1338)  of  Brunne  (Bourne  in 
Lincolnshire),  a  Gilbertine  monk,  written 
between  1303  and  1338.  The  author  sets 
forth,  with  illustrative  stories,  first  the  ten 
commandments,  then  the  seven  deadly  sins, 
then  the  sin  of  sacrilege,  then  the  seven  sacra- 
ments, dealing  finally  with  shrift.  Mannyng 
is  a  good  story-teller,  and  his  work  throws 
much  light  on  the  manners  of  the  time, 


HANSOM 

notably  on  the  tyranny  and  rapacity  of  the 
lords  and  knights.  See  Colbek. 
Handy  Andy,  a  novel  by  Lover  (q.v.). 
Hanging  Garden  of  Babylon:  Diodorus 
Siculus  in  his  description  of  Babylon  (n.  i) 
relates  that  'there  was  likewise  a  hanging 
garden  near  the  Citadel,  not  built  by  Semi- 
ramis  but  by  a  later  Prince,  called  Cyrus,  for 
the  sake  of  a  courtesan  who  being  a  Persian 
and  coveting  meadows  on  mountain  tops, 
desired  the  King  by  an  artificial  plantation  to 
imitate  the  land  in  Persia.  This  garden  was 
four  hundred  foot  square,  and  the  ascent  up 
to  it  was  as  to  the  top  of  a  mountain  . . .  and 
the  highest  arch  upon  which  the  platform  of 
the  garden  was  laid  was  fifty  cubits  high,  and 
the  garden  itself  was  surrounded  with  battle- 
ments and  bulwarks'  (G.  Booth's  translation). 

Hans  Carvel,  a  fabliau  by  Matthew  Prior 
(q.v.).  The  subject  of  it,  a  coarse  jest  on  the 
method  of  retaining  a  wife's  fidelity,  has  been 
treated  in  the  Facetiae  of  Poggio,  by  Rabelais 
(in.  xxviii),  and  other  writers. 
Hansard,  the  official  report  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  collo- 
quially so  called  because  they  were  for  a  long 
period  compiled  by  Messrs.  Hansard.  Luke 
Hansard  (1752-1828)  commenced  printing 
the  'House  of  Commons*  Journals*  in 
1774.  'Hansard*  is  now  no  more  than  an 
established  familiar  title.  The  name  dis- 
appeared from  the  title-page  of  the  Reports 
from  1892  onwards;  the  Reports  were  pub- 
lished by  Reuter's  Telegram  Company  in 
1892,  Eyre  &  Spottiswoode,  1893-4,  and 
subsequently  by  a  number  of  other  firms  in 
succession;  they  are  now  a  regular  publica- 
tion of  His  Majesty's  Stationery  Office. 
Hanse,  THE,  from  a  MHG.  word  meaning 
association,  merchants*  guild,  was  the  name 
of  a  famous  political  and  commercial  league, 
also  called  the  HANSEATIC  LEAGUE,  of  Ger- 
manic towns,  signed  in  1241.  The  Hanse 
towns  and  their  confederates  numbered  about 
one  hundred  in  the  i4th  cent.,  their  com- 
mercial object  being  to  carry  on  trade  be- 
tween the  east  and  west  of  Northern  Europe. 
They  had  their  own  fleet  and  army,  and  waged 
war  with  Denmark.  But  their  strength  decayed 
during  the  Thirty  Years  War  (1618-48)  and 
finally  only  Liibeck,  Hamburg,  and  Bremen 
remained  in  the  league.  This  endured  until  the 
1 9th  cent.,  when  its  remaining  property  was 
sold  and  the  three  cities  entered  the  North 
German  Confederation.  The  Hanse  had  a 
house  in  London  (Guildhalla  Teutonicorum; 
see  also  Steelyard)  and  enjoyed  certain  privi- 
leges (withdrawn  in  1567),  together  with  the 
obligation  of  maintaining  Bishopsgate. 

The  word  'hanse*  was  also  used  in  English 
for  an  association  of  merchants  trading  with 
foreign  parts,  for  the  merchant  guild  of  a 
town,  and  for  the  monopolies  and  privileges 
possessed  by  it. 

Hansom,  JOSEPH  ALOYSIUS  (1803-82),  an 
architect  who  erected  the  Birmingham  town 


[350] 


HAPSBURG 

hall,  and  in  1834  registered  his  invention  of  a 
'Patent  Safety  Cab',  from  which  the  hansom 
cab,  although  differing  in  many  respects,  took 
its  name.  The  latter  is  a  low-hung  two- 
wheeled  cabriolet  holding  two  persons  inside, 
the  driver  being  mounted  on  a  dickey  behind 
and  the  reins  going  over  the  roof. 

Hapsbiirg  or  HABSBURG,  HOUSE  OF,  the 
family  to  which  the  Imperial  dynasty  of 
Austria  traced  its  descent.  Rodolph,  count  of 
Hapsburg,  was  chosen 'Holy  Roman*  emperor 
in  1273.  Charles  VI,  the  last  ruler  of  Austria 
of  the  male  Hapsburg  line,  died  in  1740.  His 
daughter  Maria  Theresa  became  queen  o£ 
Hungary,  and  from  her  and  her  husband, 
Francis,  duke  of  Lorraine,  the  modern  Haps- 
burgs  are  descended.  The  last  of  this  line, 
the  emperor  Charles  I,  abdicated  in  1918 
(when  Austria  and  Hungary  were  proclaimed 
separate  republics);  he  died  in  1922.  The 
Spanish  Hapsburgs  are  descended  from 
Philip  II  of  Spain  (d.  1598),  son  of  Charles 
V  of  Austria.  The  title  Hapsburg  is  derived 
from  the  castle  of  Habsburg,  near  Aarau  in 
Switzerland,  built  by  Werner,  bishop  of 
Strasburg,  in  the  nth  cent. 

Harapha,  in  Milton's  'Samson  Agonistes', 
the  giant  of  Gath  who  comes  to  mock  the 
blind  Samson  in  prison. 

Hard  Cash,  a  novel  by  Reade  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1863,  perhaps  the  best  known  of 
the  author's  propagandist  novels  and 
designed  to  expose  the  abuses  prevailing  in 
lunatic  asylums.  It  gave  rise  to  lively 
protests  in  certain  quarters. 

The  first  part  of  the  story  is  chiefly  occu- 
pied with  the  voyage  from  India  of  David 
Dodd,  a  sea-captain,  who  is  bringing  home 
the  'hard  cash',  the  accumulated  savings 
which  he  destines  for  his  family's  support. 
The  narrative  of  his  encounters  with  pirates, 
and  of  the  storm,  shipwrecks,  and  other  ad- 
ventures that  follow,  is  vividly  told.  Dodd 
entrusts  his  fortune  to  the  scoundrelly 
banker,  Alfred  Hardie,  in  ignorance  that  he  is 
bankrupt;  and  the  discovery  of  the  loss  of 
his  hard-earned  savings  deprives  him  of  his 
reason.  Hardie,  to  prevent  his  son  Alfred,  who 
is  engaged  to  Dodd's  daughter,  from  revealing 
his  appropriation  of  Dodd's  money,  has  Alfred 
confined  as  a  lunatic.  The  second  portion  of 
the  book  is  devoted  to  the  exposure  of  the 
horrors  of  the  private  asylum  in  which  Dodd 
and  young  Hardie  are  confined;  to  the 
subsequent  life  of  Dodd  as  an  ordinary  sea- 
man, after  his  escape  from  the  asylum;  and  to 
the  exposure  of  old  Hardie  and  the  recovery 
of  Dodd's  fortune. 

Hard  Times,  a  novel  by  Dickens  (q.v.), 
published  in  1854. 

Thomas  Gradgrind,  a  citizen  of  Coketown, 
an  industrial  centre,  is  an  'eminently 
practical  man',  who  believes  in  facts  and 
statistics,  and  nothing  else,  and  brings  up  his 
children,  Louisa  and  young  Tom,  accord- 
ingly, ruthlessly  repressing  the  imaginative 


HARDY 

and  spiritual  sides  of  their  nature.  He  marries 
Louisa  to  Josiah  Bounderby,  a  manufacturer, 
humbug,  and  curmudgeon,  thirty  years  older 
than  herself.  Louisa  consents  partly  from 
the  indifference  and  cynicism  engendered  by 
her  father's  treatment,  partly  from  a  desire 
to  help  her  brother,  who  is  employed  by 
Bounderby  and  who  is  the  only  person  she 
loves.  James  Harthouse,  a  young  politician, 
without  heart  or  principles,  comes  to  Coke- 
town,  is  thrown  into  contact  with  her,  and, 
taking  advantage  of  her  unhappy  life  with 
Bounderby,  attempts  to  seduce  her.  The 
better  side  of  her  nature  is  awakened  by  this 
experience,  and  at  the  crisis  she  flees  for  pro- 
tection to  her  father,  who  in  turn  is  awakened 
to  the  folly  of  his  system.  He  shelters  her 
from  Bounderby  and  the  couple  are  per- 
manently separated.  But  further  trouble  is 
in  store  for  Gradgrind.  His  son,  young  Tom, 
has  robbed  the  bank  of  his  employer,  and 
though  he  contrives  for  a  time  to  throw  the 
suspicion  on  a  blameless  artisan,  Stephen 
Blackpool,  is  finally  detected  and  hustled  out 
of  the  country.  Among  the  notable  minor 
characters  are  Sleary,  the  proprietor  of  a 
circus ;  Jupe,  a  performer  in  his  troupe ;  and 
Cissy,  the  latter's  daughter. 

Hardcastle,  SQUIRE,  MRS.,  and  Miss, 
characters  in  Goldsmith's  'She  Stoops  to 
Conquer'  (q.v.). 

HARDENBERG,  FRIEDRICH  LEO- 
POLD VON  (1772-1801),  German  romantic 
poet  and  novelist,  author  of  poems  religious, 
mystic,  and  secular,  including  'Hymns  of 
Night',  laments  on  the  death  of  his  lovely 
Sophie  von  Kiihn,  and  the  novels  'Heinrich 
von  Ofterdingen'  and  {Die  Lehrlinge  zu 
Sais'  ('The  Disciples  at  Sais*).  He  wrote 
under  the  pseudonym  'Novalis*. 

Hardicanute,  king  of  England,  1040-2,  son 
of  Cnut.  He  divided  the  kingdom  with 
Harold  I  on  Cnut's  death  in  1035,  but  did 
not  come  to  England  until  Harold's  death 
in  1040. 

Harding,  THE  REV.  SEPTIMUS,  the  principal 
character  in  A.  Trollope's  'The  Warden' 
(q.v.),  who  also  takes  a  prominent  part  in  its 
sequel  *Barchester  Towers'  (q.v.).  His  death 
occurs  in  'The  Last  Chronicle  of  Barset'. 

Hardy,  MR.  and  LETITIA,  characters  in  Mrs. 
Cowley's  'The  Belle's  Stratagem'  (q.v.). 

HARDY,  THOMAS  (1840-1928),  born  at 
Upper  Bockhampton,  near  Dorchester,  was 
the  son  of  a  builder.  In  early  life  he  practised 
architecture.  The  underlying  theme  of  much 
of  Hardy's  writing,  of  many  of  the  novels,  the 
short  poems,  and  the  great  epic-drama  'The 
Dynasts',  is  the  struggle  of  man  against  the 
force,  neutral  and  indifferent  to  his  sufferings 
as  he  conceives  it,  that  rules  the  world ;  or,  in 
another  aspect,  the  ironies  and  disappoint- 
ments of  life  and  love.  His  strong  sense  of 
humour  is  seen  principally  in  his  rustic 
characters.  Hardy's  novels,  according  to  his 


[351] 


HARDY 

own  classification,  divide  themselves  into 
three  groups;  the  chief  of  them  are  dealt 
with  separately  under  their  titles. 

L  Novels  of  Character  and  Environment — 
'Under  the  Greenwood  Tree*,  1872;  Tar 
from  the  Madding  Crowd*,  1874;  "The  Re- 
turn  of  the  Native',  1878;  'The  Mayor  of 
Casterbridge',  1886;  'The  Woodlanders', 
1887;  'Wessex  Tales',  1888;  'Tess  of  the 
D'Urbervilles*,  1891 ;  'Life's  Little  Ironies1, 
1894;  'Jude  the  Obscure',  1896  (in  the  edi- 
tion of  the  'Works*  of  that  year). 

II.  Romances  and  Fantasies — *A  Pair  of 
Blue  Eyes',    1873;   'The  Trumpet-Major*, 
1880;  'Two  on  a  Tower',  1882;    (A  Group 
of  Noble  Dames',  1891 ;  'The  Well-Beloved*, 
published  serially  in  1892,  revised  and  re- 
issued in  1897. 

III.  Novels  of  Ingenuity — 'Desperate  Reme- 
dies', 1871 ;  'The  Hand  of  Ethelberta',  1876; 
'A  Laodicean',  1881.  *A  Changed  Man,  The 
Waiting  Supper,  and  other  Tales'  (1913)  is  a 
reprint  of  'a  dozen  minor  novels*  belonging 
to  the  various  groups.   For  the  topography 
of  the  novels  see  Hermann  Lea's  'Thomas 
Hardy's  Wessex',  written  with  the  novelist's 
help. 

Hardy  published  a  number  of  volumes  of 
lyrics  which  appeared  as  follows:  'Wessex 
Poems',  1 898 ;  'Poems  of  the  Past  and  Present', 
1902;  'Time's  Laughingstocks',  1909;  'Satires 
of  Circumstance*,  1914;  'Song  of  the  Soldiers* 
(published  in  'The  Times',  1914,  and  ^  added 
to  the  1915  edition  of  'Satires  of  Circum- 
stance');  Winter  Words'  (1928,  post- 
humously). Hardy's  great  epic-drama  'The 
Dynasts'  (q.v.)  was  published  in  three  parts: 
Pt.  I,  1903,  Pt.  II,  1906,  Pt.  Ill,  1908.  His 
Arthurian  drama,  'The  Famous  Tragedy  of 
the  Queen  of  Cornwall'  (q.v.),  was  produced 
in  1923. 

Hardy,  SIR  THOMAS  MASTERMAK  (1769- 
1839),  Nelson's  flag-captain  in  various^  ships 
and  finally  in  the  'Victory'.  Nelson  died  in 
his  arms. 

HARE,  JULIUS  CHARLES  (1795-1855), 
educated  at  Charterhouse  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  was  rector  of  Hurstmon- 
ceux  and  subsequently  archdeacon  of  Lewes. 
He  was  joint  author  with  his  brother  Augus- 
tus of  'Guesses  at  Truth'  (1827),  a  collection 
of  observations  on  philosophy,  religion,  litera- 
ture, and  many  other  subjects,  supplemented 
in  the  edition  of  1837  by  longer  essays.  He 
also  collaborated  with  Connop  Thirlwall 
(q.v.)  in  a  translation  of  the  'Roman  History' 
of  Niebuhr  (q.v.),  published  in  1828-32.  The 
first  volume  having  been  attacked  in  the 
'Quarterly  Review',  the  translators  published 
in  1829  a  'Vindication  of  Niebuhr 's  History'. 
He  also  wrote  'The  Victory  of  Faith'  (1840), 
'The  Mission  of  the  Comforter'  (1846),  and 
'Miscellaneous  Pamphlets  on  Church  Ques- 
tions' (1855). 

Hare,  WILLIAM,  the  accomplice  of  the 
murderer  William  Burke  (q.v.).  He  was  set 
at  liberty  from  the  Tolbooth,  the  law  officers 


HARLEQUIN 

having  decided  that  he  could  not  legally  be 
put  on  his  trial. 

Haredale,  GEOFFREY  and  EMMA,  characters 
in  Dickens's  'Barnaby  Rudge'  (q.v.). 
Harington,  the  name  currently  given^to  the 
copper  farthing  when  first  issued  in  the 
reign  of  James  I,  a  patent  for  the  issue  having 
been  given  to  Lord  Harington  of  Exton. 
HARINGTON  or  HARRINGTON, 
JAMES  (1611-77),  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  was  for  some  time  in  the 
service  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  and  attended 
Charles  I  in  his  captivity  in  spite  of  his  re- 
publican principles.  He  published  in  1656 
'The  Commonwealth  of  Oceana'  (q.v.),  a 
political  romance,  and  several  tracts  in  de- 
fence of  it.  Harington  was  founder  of  the 
Rota  Club  (q.v.,  1659-60).  He  was  im- 
prisoned after  the  Restoration. 
HARINGTON,  SIR  JOHN  (1561-1612), 
godson  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  He 
translated  Ariosto's  'Orlando  Furiosp'  (q.v.), 
by  Queen  Elizabeth's  direction.  His  Rabe- 
laisian 'Metamorphosis  of  Ajax'  ('a  Jakes')  and 
other  satires  led  to  his  banishment  from  the 
court.  He  accompanied  Essex  to  Ireland,  and 
was  deputed  to  appease  the  queen's  anger 
against  him,  unsuccessfully.  His  collected 
'Epigrams'  were  published  in  1615-18,  his 
letters  and  miscellaneous  writings,  in  'Nugae 
Antiquae*,  not  until  1769. 
Harkness,  EDWARD  STEPHEN,  see  Pilgrim 
Trust. 

HARLAND,  HENRY  (1861-1905),  Ameri- 
can author,  born  in  St.  Petersburg,  Russia, 
educated  at  Harvard  University.  He  became 
editor  of  the  £Yellow  Book'  in  1894,  thereby 
figuring  prominently  in  the  literary  life  of 
London.  His  successful  novd,*The  Cardinal's 
Snuff-Box',  was  published  in^  1900,  after 
which  came  'Lady  Paramount'  in  1902. 

Harleian  MSS.,  THE,  were  collected  by 
Robert  and  Edward  Harley,  the  first  and 
second  earls  of  Oxford  (1661-1724,  1689- 
1741),  and  are  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
having  been  purchased  for  the  nation  under 
an  act  of  1754. 

Harleian  Miscellany,  a  reprint  of  a  selection 
of  tracts  from  the  library  of  Edward  Harley, 
2nd  earl  of  Oxford,  edited  by  William  Oldys, 
his  secretary,  and  Samuel  Johnson,  published 
in  1744-6  by  Thomas  Osborne. 
Harleian  Society,  THE,  was  founded  in 
1869  for  the  publication  of  heraldic  visita- 
tions, pedigrees,  &c. 

Harlequin,  from  the  Italian  arlecchino, 
originally  a  character  in  Italian  comedy,  a 
mixture  of  childlike  ignorance,  wit,  and  grace, 
always  in  love,  always  in  trouble,  easily 
despairing,  easily  consoled ;  in  English  panto- 
mime a  mute  character  supposed  to  be  in- 
visible to  the  clown  and  the  pantaloon,  the 


[353] 


HARLETH 

rival  of  the  clown  in  the  affections  of  Colum- 
bine. The  Italian  word  is  possibly  the  same 
as  the  old  French  Hellequin,  Hennequin,  one 
of  a  troop  of  demon  horsemen  riding  by  night. 
[OED.] 

Harleth,  GWENDOLEN,  the  heroine  of  G. 
Eliot's  'Daniel  Deronda*  (q.v.). 

Harley,  the  principal  character  in  'The 
Man  of  Feeling'  of  H.  Mackenzie  (q.v.). 

Harley,  ADRIAN,  in  Meredith's  'The  Ordeal 
of  Richard  FevereP  (q.v.),  the  cynical  *wise 
youth'  and  tutor  of  Richard,  drawn  from 
Meredith's  friend  Maurice  Fitz-Gerald. 

Harley  Street,  used  allusively  of  medical 
specialists,  from  the  fact  that  many  medical 
specialists  live  in  or  near  this  street,  which 
is  in  the  West  End  of  London, 

Harlowe,  CLARISSA,  see  Clarissa  Harlowe. 

Harmattan,  a  parching  land-wind,  which 
blows  from  the  NE.  during  December,  Janu- 
ary, and  February^  in  the  Sahara  and  W. 
Soudan,  very  occasionally  reaching  even  the 
Guinea  coast. 

Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton :  when  the 
brothers  Hippias  and  Hipparchus,  the  sons 
of  Peisistratus,  were  tyrants  of  Athens  (527- 
514  B.C.),  Hipparchus,  disappointed  in  a  dis- 
reputable love-affair,  avenged  himself  by  a 
public  insult  to  the  family  of  the  person  con- 
cerned, Harmodius.  The  latter,  his  friend 
Aristogeiton,  and  some  others,  joined  in  a 
conspiracy  to  slay  the  tyrants  at  the  festival 
of  the  Panathenaea.  Owing  to  an  error, 
Hipparchus  was  killed  before  Hippias  arrived, 
Harmodius  was  immediately  struck  down  by 
the  guards,  and  Aristogeiton  tortured  in  vain 
before  death  to  make  him  reveal  the  names 
of  the  conspirators.  Subsequently  Hippias 
was  expelled,  and  Harmodius  and  Aristogei- 
ton, though  they  had  been  engaged  in  an  act 
of  private  vengeance,  carne  to  be  highly 
honoured  as  patriots  and  liberators  of  the 
state. 

Harmon,  JOHN,  alias  JOHN  ROKESMITH, 
alias  JULIUS  HANDFORD,  the  hero  of  Dickens's 
'Our  Mutual  Friend'  (q.v.). 
Harmonia,  a  daughter  of  Ares  and  Aphro- 
dite, who  married  Cadmus  (q.v.).  Cadmus 
gave  her  the  famous  necklace  which  he  had 
received  from  Hephaestus  (or  from  Europa) 
and  which  became  fatal  to  all  who  possessed  it. 
Harmonious  Blacksmith,  The,  see  Handel. 
Harold f  an  historical  drama  by  A.  Tennyson 
(q.v.),  published  in  1876.  It  presents  in 
dramatic  form  the  events  dealt  with  in 
Bulwer  Lytton's  romance  of  the  same  name 
(see  below). 

Harold,  the  Last  of  the  Saxon  Kings,  an 
historical  romance  by  Bulwer  Lytton  (q.v.), 
published  in  1848. 

The  story  deals  with  the  latter  years  of  the 
reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor  and  the  short 
reign  of  Harold,  from  the  visit  of  Harold  to 


HARPOCRATES 

William,  duke  of  Normandy,  to  his  death  at 
Senlac.  With  this  is  woven  the  romance  of 
Harold's  love  for  Edith  the  Fair,  whom, 
owing  to  their  relationship,  he  is  forbidden 
by  the  Church  to  marry.  For  political  reasons, 
and  at  Edith's  behest,  he  marries  Aldyth, 
sister  of  the  northern  earls  Eadwine  and 
Morkere.  But  when  he  lies  dead  on  the  field 
of  Senlac,  Edith  seeks  him  out  and  dies 
beside  him,  thus  fulfilling  the  saying  of 
Hilda,  the  Saxon  prophetess,  that  they  should 
be  united. 

Harold,  Childe,  see  Childe  Harold. 

Harold  I,  son  of  Canute,  king  of  England, 
1035-1040. 

Harold  II,  son  of  Godwine,  king  of  England 
in  1066,  killed  in  that  year  at  the  battle  of 
Hastings  or  Senlac.  See  Harold,  the  Last  of 
the  Saxon  Kings. 

Harold  the  Dauntless,  a  poem  by  Sir  W. 
Scott,  published  in  1817.  Harold  is  the  son 
of  Witikind,  a  Danish  Viking,  converted  to 
Christianity  by  St.  Cuthbert  and  granted 
lands  between  the  Wear  and  the  Tyne. 
Harold,  like  his  father  a  fierce  warrior, 
comes  to  England  to  claim  these  lands,  which 
have  been  resumed  at  his  father's  death.  A 
probation  is  imposed  on  him,  that  he  shall 
spend  a  night  in  a  lonely  castle.  In  the  course 
of  this  he  sees  visions,  which  lead  to  his 
conversion. 

Haroun-al-Raschid  (763-809),  caliph  of 
Bagdad,  who  figures  in  many  tales  of  the 
'Arabian  Nights*  (q.v.),  together  with  Ja'far, 
his  Vizier,  and  Mesrour  his  executioner.  He 
was  the  most  powerful  and  vigorous  of  the 
Abbasid  Caliphs,  his  rule  extending  from 
India  to  Africa.  He  entertained  friendly 
relations  with  Charlemagne,  who  was  almost 
his  exact  contemporary. 

Harpagon,a  character  in  Moliere's  'L'Avare* 
(q.v.),  the  typical  miser,  whose  avarice  causes 
him  to  be  surrounded  by  persons  who  deceive 
him.  See  Euclio. 

Harper's  Monthly,  an  American  periodical, 
founded  in  1850  by  Messrs.  Harper  & 
Brothers  of  New  York,  originally  for  the 
avowed  purpose  of  reproducing  in  America 
the  work  of  distinguished  English  contribu- 
tors to  magazines  (such  as  Dickens  and 
Bulwer  Lytton).  It  subsequently  became 
truly  American  in  character. 

Harpier,  in  Shakespeare's  'Macbeth5,  IV.  i.  3 
('Harpier  cries,  'tis  time,  'tis  time'),  appar- 
ently an  error  for  Harpy.  [OED.] 

Harpocrates ,  the  Roman  equivalent  of  the 
Egyptian  Hprus  (q.v.),  who  was  called  'Harpe- 
cnrat"  in  his  character  of  the  youthful  sun, 
born  afresh  every  morning,  and  represented 
sitting  with  his  finger  in  his  mouth,  an  atti- 
tude symbolical  of  childhood.  From  a  mis- 
understanding of  this  attitude,  he  came  to  be 
regarded  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  the 
god  of  silence. 


3868 


[353] 


HARPUR 

HAJRPUR,  CHARLES  (1817-68),  Aus- 
tralian poet,  published  a  number  of  volumes 
of  verse  ('Thoughts:  a  series  of  sonnets', 
1845;  'A  Poet's  Home',  1862;  'The  Tower  of 
the  Dream',  1865,  Sec.),  many  of  which  give 
a  good  presentment  of  the  scenery  and  life 
of  the  Australian  bush.  His  best  poem  is  4The 
Creek  of  the  Four  Graves'.  A  collected 
edition  of  his  poems  was  issued  in  1883. 

Harpyiae  or  HARPIES,  THE,  ugly  winged 
monsters,  by  name  Aello,  Oc^pete,  and 
Celaeno,  who  were  supposed  to  carry  off 
persons  or  things.  They  plundered  Aeneas 
during  his  voyage  to  Italy.  See  also  under 
Pkmeus. 

Harriet  Byron,  the  heroine  of  Richardson's 
*Sir  Charles  Grandison*  (q.v.). 

Harriet  Smith,  a  character  in  Jane  Austen's 
"Emma'  (q.v.). 

Harrington,  see  Harington. 

Harris,  MRS.,  in  Dickens  *s  'Martin  Chuzzle- 
wit*  (q.v.),  the  mythical  friend  of  Mrs.  Gamp. 

HARRIS,  FRANK  (1856-1931),  succes- 
sively editor  of  the  eFortnightly  Review',  the 
'Saturday  Review%  and  '  Vanity  Fair'; 
founder  and  editor  of  the  'Candid  Friend*. 
His  books  include:  'The  Man  Shakespeare* 
(1909),  'The  Women  of  Shakespeare'  (1911), 
'Oscar  Wilde*  (1920);  his  plays  are:  'Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Daventry*  (1900),  'Shakespeare  and 
his  Love*  (1910),  'Women  of  Shakespeare* 


HARRY  RICHMOND 

enlarged  1894),  'Order  and  Progress*  (1875), 
'The  Choice  of  Books'  (1886),  'Oliver  Crom- 


HARRIS, JOEL  CHANDLER  (1848-1  908), 
American  author,  was  bom  at  Eatonton, 
Georgia,  and  devoted  from  childhood  to 
English  literature.  To  this  taste  he  added  an 
extraordinary  knowledge  of  negro  myth  and 
custom  and  of  negro  dialect  and  idiom, 
which  he  reproduced  in  his  famous  'Uncle 
Remus'  series.  These  contain  a  great  number 
of  folk-lore  tales,  relating  to  a  variety  of 
animals,  with  the  rabbit  as  hero  and  the  fox 
next  in  importance,  told  by  a  negro  to  a  little 
boy  and  interspersed  with  comments  on 
many  other  subjects.  The  principal  volumes 
of  this  series  were  'Uncle  Remus,  his  Songs 
and  Sayings*  (1880),  'Uncle  Remus  and  rus 
Friends*  (1892),  'Mr.  Rabbit  at  Home'  (1895), 
"The  Tar-Baby  Story*  (1904),  'Told  by  Uncle 
Remus*  (1905),  'Uncle  Remus  and  Brer 
Rabbit*  (1907),  'Uncle  Remus  and  the  Little 
Boy'  (1910). 

Harrison,  DR.,  a  character  in  Fielding's 
'Amelia'  (q.v.). 

HARRISON,  FREDERIC  (1831-1923), 
educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and 
Wadharn  College,  Oxford,  was  professor  of 
jurisprudence  and  international  law  to  the 
Inns  of  Court  from  1877  to  1889,  and  from 
1880  to  1905  president  of  the  English  Posi- 
tivist  Committee,  formed  to  represent  in  this 
country  the  philosophic  doctrines  of  Auguste 
Comte  (q.v.).  He  was  author  of  many  works, 
including:  'The  Meaning  of  History*  (1862, 


well'  (1888),  'Introduction  to  Comte 's  Posi- 
tive Philosophy'  (1896),  'Victorian  Literature* 
(1895),  'William  the  Silent'  (1897),  'Byzan- 
tine History  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages'  (1900), 
'Ruskin'  (1902),  'Chatham'  (1905),  'The 
Philosophy  of  Common  Sense'  (1907), 
'Among  my  Books*  (1912),  'The  Positive 
Evolution  of  Religion*  (1912). 

HARRISON,  WILLIAM  (1534-93),  born 
in  London  and  educated  at  Westminster 
School,  Cambridge,  and  Oxford,  was  rector 
of  Radwinter  and  canon  of  Windsor.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  admirable  'Description  of 
England*  included  in  the  'Chronicles*  of 
Holinshed  (q.v.),  and  translator  of  Bellenden's 
Scottish  version  of  Boece's  'Description  of 
Scotland*,  also  included  in  the  same. 

Harrow  School,  at  Harrow-on- the-Hill, 
Middlesex,  founded  and  endowed  by  John 
Lyon  (c.  1514-91),  of  Preston,  under  Letters 
Patent  and  a  Charter  granted  by  Queen 
Elizabeth.  Rodney  was  the  first  of  the  many 
great  men  educated  at  Harrow,  a  list  which 
includes  Samuel  Parr,  Bryan  Walter  Procter 
('Barry  Cornwall'),  Theodore  Hook,  James 
Mprier,  Lord  Byron  (qq.v.),  besides  several 
prime  ministers  (Perceval,  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
Lord  Aberdeen,  Lord  Palmerston,  and  Mr. 
Baldwin).  The  founder  made  special  pro- 
vision for  the  encouragement  of  archery  at  the 
school,  and  Sir  Gilbert  Talbot  in  1684  pre- 
sented a  silver  arrow  to  be  shot  for  annually. 
Arrow  shooting  was  regarded  as  peculiarly 
characteristic  of  the  school  (Sir  John  Fischer 
Williams,  'Harrow'). 

Harrowing  of  Hell,  The,  a  poem  of  some 
250  lines  in  octosyllabic  couplets  of  the  late 
1 3th  or  I4th  cent.  It  consists  of  a  narrative 
introduction,  followed  by  speeches,  as  in  a 
drama,  assigned  to  Christ,  Satan,  the  Door- 
Keeper,  and  persons  in  Hell  (Adam,  Eve, 
Abraham,  David,  John,  Moses).  Christ 
reproves  Satan  and  claims  Adam.  Satan 
retorts  with  a  threat  to  seduce  a  man  for  each 
soul  that  Christ  releases.  Christ  breaks  in  the 
door,  binds  Satan,  and  frees  his  servants. 

HARRY  THE  MINSTREL,  or  BLIND 

HARRY,  see  Henry  the  Minstrel 

Harry  Richmond,  The  Adventures  of,  a  novel 
by  G.  Meredith  (q.v.),  published  in  1871. 

The  father  of  Harry  Richmond  is  the  son 
of  an  actress  and  of  a  royal  personage. 
Obsessed  with  the  idea  of  the  royal  blood  in  his 
veins,  a  man  of  florid  imagination,  amusing 
gifts,  little  scruple,  and  a  lunatic's  cleverness 
in  ^  the  ^  pursuit  of  his  monomania,  his  one 
object  in  life  is  to  obtain  an  exalted  position 
for  his  son.  As  a  teacher  of  singing  he  has 
entered  the  house  of  the  wealthy  Squire 
Beltham,  has  fascinated  both  his  daughters, 
carried  off  and  married  one  of  them,  driven 
her  crazy  and  to  an  early  grave,  and  incurred 
the  deep  hatred  of  the  bluff  old  squire,  who 
strives  to  attach  his  grandson  to  himself 


[354] 


HARTE 

and  save  him  from  his  father.  The  conflict 
between  the  two  makes  the  comedy  of  the 
story.  The  dominating  influence  in  the  early 
life  of  Harry  Richmond  is  an  intense  love  for 
this  fascinating  buffoon,  which  develops,  as 
understanding  comes,  into  loyalty  and  com- 
passion. The  father  leads  a  life  of  semi- 
regal  splendour,  interrupted  by  periods  in 
a  debtor's  prison  and  by  wanderings  among 
the  courts  of  petty  German  princes,  to 
which  his  audacity  and  talents  gain  him  ad- 
mission. At  one  of  these  Harry  Richmond 
and  the  romantic  Princess  Ottilia,  daughter 
of  the  reigning  duke,  fall  in  love;  and  the 
masterly  if  unscrupulous  manoeuvres  of 
Harry's  father  to  overcome  the  obstacles  to 
so  absurd  a  match,  and  the  humiliations  to 
which  Harry  is  in  consequence  exposed, 
make  the  central  feature  of  the  story.  On  the 
other  side  we  have  the  squire's  attempts  to 
marry  his  grandson  to  the  typical  if  somewhat 
commonplace  English  girl,  Janet  Ilchester. 
Finally  the  father's  crazy  schemes  and 
illusions  are  shattered,  and  the  squire's 
designs,  after  his  death,  are  realized. 

HARTE,  FRANCIS  BRET  (1839-1902), 
born  at  Albany,  New  York,  was  taken  to 
California  when  15,  where  he  probably  saw 
something  of  mining  life.  But  he  was  of 
studious  and  literary  tastes  and  worked  on 
various  newspapers  and  periodicals  in  San 
Francisco,  to  which  he  contributed  the  short 
stories  which  made  him  famous.  Notable 
among  these  were  'The  Luck  of  Roaring 
Camp'  (1868),  and  'Tennessee's  Partner*  and 
'The  Outcasts  of  Poker  Flat'  (included  in  the 
1870  collection).  His  humorous-pathetic 
verse  includes :  'Jim*,  'Her  Letter',  and  'Plain 
Language  from  Truthful  James'.  Bret  Harte 
was  American  consul  at  Crefeld  in  Germany 
(1878-80)  and  at  Glasgow  (1880-5),  after 
which  he  lived  in  England. 

Hartford  Wits,  THE,  a  group  of  writers  who 
flourished  during  the  last  two  decades  of  the 
1 8th  cent,  at  Hartford  and  New  Haven, 
Connecticut,  U.S.A.,  now  chiefly  remem- 
bered for  their  vigorous  political  verse 
satires.  Chief  among  them  were  Timothy 
Dwight,  Joel  Barlow,  John  Trumbull,  David 
Humphreys,  Richard  Alsop,  Lemuel  Hop- 
kins, and  Theodore  Dwight.  They  were  all 
either  graduates  of  Yale  or  associated  with 
that  college. 
Harthacmit,  see  Hardicanute. 

Harthouse,  JAMES,  a  character  in  Dickens Js 
'Hard  Times'  (q.v.). 

Hartley,  ADAM,  a  character  in  Scott's  'The 
Surgeon's  Daughter'  (q.v.). 

HARTLEY,  DAVID  (1705-57),  philoso- 
pher, was  educated  at  Bradford  Grammar 
School  and  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  and 
practised  as  a  physician.  In  his  'Observa- 
tions on  Man,  his  Frame,  Duty,  and  Ex- 
pectations', published  in  1749,  he  repudiated 
the  view  of  Shaftesbury  and  Hutcheson  that 
the  'moral  sense'  is  instinctively  innate  in  us, 


HARVEY 

and  attributed  it  to  the  association  of  ideas, 
i.e.  the  tendency  of  ideas  which  have  oc- 
curred together,  or  in  immediate  succession, 
to  recall  one  another.  From  this  association 
of  the  ideas  of  pain  and  pleasure  with  certain 
actions,  he  traces  the  evolution  of  the  higher 
pleasures  out  of  the  lower,  until  the  mind  is 
carried  to  'the  pure  love  of  God,  as  our 
highest  and  ultimate  perfection'.  With  this 
psychological  doctrine  he  combined  a  physical 
theory  of  'vibrations'  or  'vibratiuncles*  in 
the  'medullary  substance'  of  the  brain. 

Harun-al-Rashid,  see  Haroun-al-RascUd. 
Harut  and  Marut,  in  the  Koran  (c.  ii),  two 
angels  sent  to  tempt  men  and  teach  them 
sorcery.  According  to  another  version  of  the 
legend  (Sale),  they  were  sent  to  administer 
justice  on  earth.  Zohara  (or  the  planet  Venus) 
came  before  them,  and  complained  of  her 
husband.  They  both  fell  in  love  with  her  and 
were  diverted  from  their  duty,  and  now 
suffer  punishment  in  Babel.  See  also  Loves 
of  the  Angels. 

Harvard,  JOHN  (1607-38),  of  humble  origin, 
M.A.  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
settled  in  Charlestown,  Massachusetts,  and 
bequeathed  half  his  estate  and  all  his  books 
for  a  new  college  at  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts, known  in  memory  of  him  as  HAR- 
VARD COLLEGE.  He  is  commemorated  also  by 
the  Harvard  Chapel  in  St.  Saviour's,  South- 
wark,  where  he  was  baptized. 

HARVEY,  GABRIEL  (i545?-i63o),  son  of 

a  rope-maker  at  Saffron  Walden,  was  edu- 
cated at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  As 
felLw  of  Pembroke  Hall  be  became  ac- 
quainted with  Spenser,  over  whom  he 
exercised  some  literary  influence,  not  always 
for  the  best.  He  published  satirical  verses  in 
1579  which  gave  offence  at  court;  attacked 
Robert  Greene  in  'Foure  Letters"  in  1592; 
wrote  'Pierce's  Supererogation*  and  the 
'Trimming  of  Thomas  Nashe'  (1593  and 
1597)  against  Nashe,  both  disputants  being 
sHenced  by  authority.  His  English  works  (he 
also  wrote  in  Latin  on  rhetoric),  including 
correspondence  with  Spenser,  were  edited  by 
Dr.  Grosart.  Harvey  tried,  with  others,  to 
introduce  the  classical  metres  into  English, 
and  claimed  to  be  the  father  of  the  English 
hexameter.  His  literary  judgement  may  be 
further  gauged  by  his  condemnation  of  the 
'Faerie  Queene*. 

HARVEY,  WILLIAM  (1578-1657),  edu- 
cated at  King's  School,  Canterbury,  Caius 
College,  Cambridge,  and  at  Padua,  expounded 
his  theory  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  to 
the  College  of  Physicians  in  1616.  But  his 
treatise  on  the  subject,  'Exercitatio  Ana- 
tomica  de  Motu  Cordis  et  Sanguinis  in 
Animalibus',  was  not  published  until  1628. 
His  second  great  work,  'Exercitatipnes  de 
Generatione  Animalium',  appeared  in  1651. 
His  collected  Latin  works  were  edited  by 
Dr.  Lawrence  in  1766.  An  English  edition 
(Sydenham  Society)  appeared  in  1 847.  Harvey 


[355] 


HASAN-I-SABBAH 

was  physician  to  Charles  I  and  was  present 
with  him  at  the  battle  of  Edgehill  (1642). 
Hasan-i-Sabbah,  the  Old  Man  of  the 
Mountain,  see  Assassins  and  Nizam-ul-Mulk. 
Hashim,  the  ancestor  of  Mohammed  (q.v.), 
whose  descendants  include  not  only  the 
prophet  and  his  family,  but  his  relatives  the 
Alids  and  Abbasids  (qq.v.).  The  contests  of 
the  HASHIMITES  with  the  Umayyads  (q.v.)  for 
the  caliphate  occupy  the  early  period  of 
Mohammedan  history. 
Hastings,  a  character  in  Goldsmith's  'She 
Stoops  to  Conquer'  (q.v.). 
Hastings,  WARREN  (1732-1818),  the  first 
governor-general  of  British  India,  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  School  and  went  to 
India  in  1750.  He  was  appointed  governor  of 
Bengal  in  1772,  and  in  1778  threw  himself 
energetically  into  the  struggle  with  the  Mah- 
rattas,  obtaining  money  for  the  purpose  by 
despotic  methods.  In  1780  he  wounded  in  a 
duel  Sir  P.  Francis  (q.v.),  his  chief  opponent  in 
the  council  ;  and  in  the  same  year  drove  Hyder 
All  from  the  Carnatic.  He  left  India  in  1785, 
was  impeached  on  the  ground  of  corruption 
and  cruelty  in  his  administration,  and  ac- 
quitted after  a  trial  of  145  days,  extending, 
with  long  intervals,  from  1788  to  1795.  Burke 
and  Fox  were  among  the  prosecutors. 

Hatchway,    LIEUTENANT,    a    character   in 
Smollett's  'Peregrine  Pickle*  (q.v.). 

Hathaway,  ANNE,  the  wife  of  Shakespeare 


Hatter,  THE  MAD,  in  Lewis  Carroll's  'Alice 
in  Wonderland*  (q.v.).  *In  that  direction*, 
the  Cheshire  Cat  said,  'lives  a  Hatter:  and 
in  that  direction  lives  a  March  Hare.  Visit 
either  you  like:  they  are  both  mad.J  The 
illustration  of  the  Mad  Hatter  is  said  (by 
those  who  remember  him)  to  have  been  taken 
from  an  upholsterer  in  Oxford  High  Street, 
by  name  Carter.  For  the  proverb,  'Mad  as 
a  hatter*,  the  earliest  quotation  given  in 
OED,  is  from  Haliburton's  'Clockmaker* 
(1837-40).  W.  C.HazHtt  ('English  Proverbs') 
refers  to  the  dedication  to  the  "Hospital  for 
Incurable  Fools'  (1600),  from  which  it 
appears  that  there  was  living  at  that  time  an 
eccentric  character,  known  as  John  Hodgson, 
alias  John  Hatter,  who  was  possibly  the  origin 
of  the  expression. 

Hatteraick,  DERK,  the  smuggler  captain  in 
Scott's  'Guy  Mannering'  (q.v.). 
Hatto,  see  Bishop  Hatto. 
HATTON,  SIR  CHRISTOPHER  (1540- 
91),  is  said  to  have  attracted  the  attention  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  by  his  graceful  dancing 
(alluded  to  by  Sheridan,  'The  Critic',  n.  i), 
became  her  favourite,  and  received  grants  of 
offices  and  estates  (including  Ely  Place,  see 
Holborn).  Hatton  was  lord  chancellor,  1587- 
91,  and  chancellor  of  Oxford,  1588.  He  was 
the  friend  and  patron  of  Spenser  and  Church- 
yard, and  wrote  Act  IV  of  'Tancred  and 
Gismund'  (q.v.). 


HAVELOK  THE  DANE 
Hatton  Garden,  see  Holborn. 
Haunch  of  Venison,  The,  a  poetical  epistle 
to  Lord  Clare,  by  Goldsmith  (q.v.),  written 
about  1770. 

Haunted  Man  and  the  Ghost's Bargain,  The, 
a  Christmas  book  by  Dickens  (q.v.)  pub- 
lished in  1848. 

Redlaw,  a  learned  man  in  chemistry,  is 
haunted  by  the  memories  of  a  life  blighted  by 
sorrow  and  wrong.  His  Evil  Genius  tempts 
him  to  think  that  these  memories  are  his 
curse,  and  makes  a  bargain  with  him  by 
which  he  shall  forget  them ;  but  on  condition 
that  he  communicates  this  power  of  oblivion 
to  all  with  whom  he  conies  in  contact.  He 
discovers  with  horror  that  with  remembrance 
of  the  past  he  blots  out  from  his  own  life  and 
the  lives  of  those  about  him  (in  particular 
the  delightful  Tetterbys),  gratitude,  re- 
pentance, compassion,  and  forbearance.  He 
prays  to  be  released  from  his  bargain,  which 
is  effected  by  the  influence  of  the  good  angel, 
Hilly  Swidger. 

HAUPTMANN,  GERHART  (1862-  ), 
German  dramatist.  His  chief  works  are: 
'Das  Friedensfest'(i89o),  'Die  Weber*  (1892), 
'Die  Versunkene  Glocke*  (1896),  cDer  Arme 
Heinrich*  (1901),  'Rose  Bernd'  (1903). 

Haussmann,  GEORGES  EUGENE,  BARON 
(1809-91),  French  administrator,  who  as 
prefect  of  the  Seine  in  1853  directed  the 
modernization  of  the  streets  of  Paris. 

Haut  Brion,  see  Claret. 

Haut-ton,  SIR  ORAN,  the  orang-outang  in 
Peacock's  'Melincourt'  (q.v.). 

Havelok  the  Dane>  The  Lay  of,  one  of  the 
oldest  verse  romances  in  English,  dating 
from  the  early  I4th  cent,  and  containing 
3,000  lines.  It  teUs  the  story  of  Havelok,  son 
of  Biskabeyne,  king  of  Denmark,  and  of 
Goldborough,  daughter  of  ^Ethelwold,  king 
of  England.  ^These  are  excluded  from  their 
rights  by  their  respective  guardians,  Godard 
and  Godrich.  Godard  hands  Havelok  over 
to  a  fisherman,  Grim,  to  drown;  but  the 
latter,  warned  by  a  mystic  light  about  the 
boy's  head,  escapes  with  him  to  England  and 
lands  at  the  future  Grimsby.  Havelok, 
taking  service  as  scullion  in  Earl  Godrich's 
household,  and  distinguishing  himself  by 
his  strength  and  athletic  skill,  is  chosen 
by  Godrich  as  husband  for  Goldborough, 
whom  Godrich  seeks  to  degrade.  The  mystic 
flame  reveals  to  her  the  identity  of  her  hus- 
band. Havelok  with  Grim  returns  to  Den- 
mark, where,  with  the  help  of  the  Earl  Ubbe, 
he  defeats  Godard  and  becomes  king. 
Godard  is  hanged  and  Godrich  burnt  at  the 
stake. 

The  name  Havelok  (Abloyc)  is  said  [E.B. 
nth  edj  to  correspond  in  Welsh  to  Anlaf  or 
Olaf,  and  Havelok  as  scullion  bore  the  name 
Cuaran.  The  historical  Anlaf  Curan  was  son 
of  a  Viking  chief  Sihtric,  king  of  Northum- 
bria  in  925.  Anlaf,  being  driven  into  exile, 


[356] 


HAVISHAM 

took  refuge  in  Scotland  and  married  the 
daughter  of  Constantine  II.  He  was  defeated 
with  Constantine  at  Brunanburh. 

Havisharn,  Miss,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Great  Expectations*  (q.v.). 

Hawcubites,  a  band  of  dissolute  young 
men  who  infested  the  streets  of  London  in  the 
beginning  of  the  i8th  cent.,  street-bullies. 
HAWES,  STEPHEN  (d.  1523?),  a  poet  of 
the  school  of  Chaucer  and  Lydgate,  was 
groom  of  the  chamber  to  Henry  VII.  His 
Tassetyme  of  Pleasure,  or  History  of  Graunde 
Amoure  and  la  Bel  PuceF  (q.v.)  was  first 
printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  1509.  His 
'Example  of  Virtue',  a  poem  in  the  seven-line 
Chaucerian  stanza,  an  allegory  of  life  spent 
in  the  pursuit  of  purity,  much  after  the 
manner  of  the  Tassetyme  of  Pleasure*,  was 
also  printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  in  1512. 
Hawk,  SIR  MULBERRY,  a  character  in 
Dickens's  'Nicholas  Nickleby'  (q.v.). 
HAWKER,  ROBERT  STEPHEN  (1803- 
75),  educated  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
was  vicar  of  Morwenstow  in  Cornwall.  As 
a  poet  he  is  remembered  principally  for  his 
'Song  of  the  Western  Men*  (with  the  refrain 
'And  shall  Trelawny  die?').  But  he  wrote 
other  fine  poems,  'Queen  Gwennyvar's 
Round*  and  'The  Silent  Tower  of  Bottreaux* 
among  them.  In  1 864  he  published  part  of  a 
long  poem,  'The  Quest  of  the  Sangraal*.  (See 
Baring-Gould's  'Vicar  of  Morwenstow'.) 

Hawkesworth,  JOHN,  see  Adventurer. 

Hawkeye,  the  name  under  which  Natty 
Bumppo  (q.v.)  appears  in  J.  F.  Cooper's 
'The  Last  of  the  Mohicans*  (q.v.). 

Hawkeye  State,  Iowa,  see  United  States. 

Hawkins,  MR.,  the  fighting  naval  chaplain  in 
Marryat's  'Mr.  Midshipman  Easy*  (q.v.). 

HAWKINS,  ANTHONY  HOPE  (1863-  ), 
author  (as  'Anthony  Hope')  of  'The  Prisoner 
of  Zenda*  (q.v.,  1894),  'Rupert  of  Hentzau* 
(1898),  'The  Dolly  Dialogues'  (q.v.,  1894), 
and  other  novels  and  plays. 

Hawkins,  JIM,  the  narrator  and  hero  of 
Stevenson's  'Treasure  Island*  (q.v.). 

Hawkwood,  SIR  JOHN  (d.  1394),  the  famous 
condottiere,  figures  in  Froissart  as  'Hac- 
coude*.  Machiavelli  calls  him  'Giovanni 
Acuto'.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  body  of 
English  mercenaries  known  as  the  White 
Company  and  fought  for  one  Italian  city  or 
another,  and  for  pope  or  prince,  from  1360 
to  1390.  He  was  finally  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Florentine  forces,  died  at  Florence, 
and  was  buried  in  the  Duomo  (his  body  was 
subsequently  removed  to  England).  He  is 
said  to  have  started  life  as  a  tailor's  apprentice. 
HAWTHORNE,  NATHANIEL  (1804-64), 
born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  was  a  de- 
scendant of  Major  William  Hathorne,  one 
of  the  Puritan  settlers  in  America,  the  'grave, 
bearded,  sable-cloaked  and  steeple-crowned 


HAYLEY 

progenitor5  whose  portrait  we  have  in  the 
Introduction  to  'The  Scarlet  Letter'.  He 
was^  educated  at  Bpwdoin  College  (Brunswick, 
Maine).  He  received  an  appointment  in  the 
custom  house  of  his  native  town  in  1846,  and 
in  1853  was  American  Consul  at  Liver- 
pool. He  subsequently  visited  Italy,  where 
he  wrote  the  romance  'Transformation*  or 
'The  Marble  Faun'  (q.v.,  1860).  But  he  is 
best  known  as  the  author  of  'The  Scarlet 
Letter'  (q.v.,  1850)  and  'The  House  of  the 
Seven  Gables  (q.v.,  1851).  His  other  prin- 
cipal works  were  'The  Blithedale  Romance' 
(1852),  and  several  volumes  of  short  stories, 
'Twice-Told  Tales*  (1837-45),  'Mosses  from 
an  Old  Manse*  (1846),  and  'The  Snow  Image' 
(1852). 

^Hawthorne  was  a  moralist,  much  occupied 
with  the  mystery  of  sin,  the  paradox  of  its 
occasionally  regenerative  power,  and  the 
compensation  for  unmerited  suffering  and 
for  crime.  The  optimistic  answers  of  Emer- 
son (q.v.)  to  these  problems  left  him  un- 
convinced. And  with  one  or  other  aspect  of 
them  he  deals  in  his  three  principal  romances, 
against  a  background  (except  in  'The  Marble 
Faun')  of  Puritan  New  England.  The  subject 
of  'The  Blithedale  Romance*  (a  satire  on  the 
Brook  Farm  experiment  of  the  New  England 
transcendentalists)  is  somewhat  different. 
It  illustrates  the  dangers  of  philanthropy 
adopted  as  a  profession;  for  Hollings worth, 
the  ardent  social  reformer,  in  the  pursuit  of 
his  ideal,  deadens  his  own  heart  and  ruins 
the  lives  of  those  near  him. 

Haydn,  FRANZ  JOSEF  (1732-1809),  the  com- 
poser, was  born  in  Austria,  the  son  of  a 
wheelwright  who  was  also  organist  of  his 
village  church.  In  1760  he  became  Capell- 
meister  to  Prince  Paul,  and  subsequently  to 
his  brother  Prince  Nicholas,  Esterhazy,  and 
thus  obtained  an  assured  position.  He  has 
been  described  as  'the  father  of  modern 
instrumental  music',  and  it  may  be  noted  that 
Beethoven  received  lessons  from  him.  He 
twice  visited  England,  and  received  an 
honorary  degree  at  Oxford.  He  composed 
three  oratorios,  a  number  of  masses,  cantatas, 
and  songs,  more  than  100  symphonies,  and 
many  concertos,  quartets,  &c. 

HAYDON,  BENJAMIN  ROBERT  (1786- 
1846),  an  historical  painter,  and  the  author  of 
'Lectures  on  Painting  and  Design*  (1844—6), 
is  principally  remembered  for  his  sincere  and 
delightful  autobiography,  edited  by  Tom 
Taylor  in  1853 ;  also  on  account  of  the  severe 
strictures  passed  on  him  by  Ruskin  in  'Mod- 
ern Painters',  and  as  the  object  of  Keats's 
youthful  enthusiasm.  There  is  a  sonnet  on 
him  by  Wordsworth.  He  was  one  of  the 
experts  who  gave  evidence  about  the  Elgin 
Marbles,  and  one  of  the  few  who  recognized 
that  they  were  of  first-class  merit  and  not  late 
inferior  works. 

HAYLEY,  WILLIAM  (1745-1820),  poet,  of 
Eton  and  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge ;  friend  of 


[357] 


HAYMARKET 

Cowper,  Blake,  Romney,  and  Southey; 
author  of  lives  of  Milton,  Cowper,  and 
Romney,  and  of  an  amusing  autobiography. 
Haymarket,  THE,  London,  so  called  from 
the  Hay  Market  established  there  in  1664, 
and  maintained  until  1830.  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,  Haymarket  (called  also  the  Opera 
House),  was  the  first  opera  house^in  London 
(1705).  The  first  performances  in  England 
of  Handel's  operas  were  given  there.  The 
present  His  Majesty's  Theatre  occupies  half 
the  original  site,  the  rest  of  the  site  being 
occupied  by  the  Carlton  Hotel.  The  Hay- 
market  Theatre,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
street,  was  also  built  at  the  beginning  of 
the  1 8th  cent.,  and  was  Foote's  theatre  from 
1747,  and  later  that  of  the  Bancrofts. 

Hayraddin,  the  Maugrabin  or  gipsy,  a 
character  in  Scott's  'Quentin  Durward'  (q.v.). 

Hayston,  FRANK,  the  laird  of  Bucklaw,  a 
character  in  Scott's  'The  Bride  of  Lammer- 
moor*  (q.v.). 

HAYWARD,  ABRAHAM  (1801-84),  is 
chiefly  remembered  as  the  author  of  'The 
Art  of  Dining*  (1852)  and  of  many  essays  and 
contributions  to  periodicals,  repubKshed  in 
three  series  of  '  Essays'  (1858,  1873,  1874), 
which  include  a  vigorous  attack  on  the  theory 
of  those  who  would  identify  'Junius*  with 
Sir  Philip  Francis.  He  was  a  focus  of  social- 
literary  intercourse  in  the  thirties,  forties,  and 
fifties  of  the  last  century  ['London  Mercury*, 
Jan.-Feb.  1932]. 

HAYWARD,  SIR  JOHN  (1564?-! 627), 
educated  at  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge, 
was  the  author  of  various  historical  works, 
in  which  he  emulated  the  style  of  the  great 
Roman  historians.  His  'First  Part  of  the  Life 
and  Raigne  of  Henrie  the  IIIF  (1599), 
dedicated  to  Essex,  gave  offence  to  Elizabeth 
and  led  to  his  imprisonment.  His  other  chief 
works  were  the  'Lives  of  the  III  Normans, 
Kings  of  England'  (1613),  the  'Life  and 
Raigne  of  King  Edward  the  Sixt*  (1630), 
and  'Beginning  of  the  Reign  of  Elizabeth* 
(1840),  the  last  two  printed  posthumously. 

HAYWOOD,  MRS.  ELIZA  (1693  3-1756), 
nie  Fowler,  after  writing  plays  and  libellous 
memoirs,  issued  in  1744—6  the  periodical 
'The  Female  Spectator*,  followed  by  the 
'Parrot*  (1747),  and  subsequently  produced 
two  lively  novels,  'The  History  of  Betsy 
Thoughtless'  (1751),  and  'The  History  of 
Jemmy  and  Jenny  Jessamy*  (1753). 
Hazard,  a  character  in  Shirley's  'The 
Gamester'  (q.v.). 

Hazard  of  New  Fortunes.  A.  a  novel  by 
W.D.Howells(q.v.). 

HAZLITT,  WILLIAM  (1778-1830),  born 
at  Maidstone,  the  son  of  a  Unitarian  minister 
of  strong  liberal  views,  spent  most  of  his 
youth  at  the  secluded  village  of  Wem  near 
Shrewsbury.  His  early  relations  with  S.  T. 
Coleridge  and  Wordsworth  are  described  in 
his  essay  'My  First  Acquaintance  with  Poets'. 


[358] 


HEADRIGG 

He  was  a  quarrelsome  and  unamiable  man,  of 
a  curiously  divided  nature,  almost  as  much  of 
an  artist  as  of  a  thinker  and  writer.  At  first 
he  showed  an  inclination  for  painting,  but  he 
soon  gave  this  up  for  literature.  In  London 
he  became  the  friend  of  Lamb  and  other 
literary  men,  and  in  1808  married  Sarah 
Stoddart,  a  friend  of  Mary  Lamb,  from  whom 
he  was  divorced  in  1822.  In  1824  he  married 
Mrs.  Bridgewater.  From  1812  onwards  he 
wrote  abundantly  for  various  periodicals, 
including  the  'Edinburgh  Review',  on  the 
Liberal  side.  His  chief  writings  divide  them- 
selves into  three  classes:  (i)  those  on  art  and 
the  drama,  including  the  pleasant  'Notes  on  a 
Journey  through  France  and  Italy*  (1826), 
written  after  his  second  marriage;  the  'Con- 
versations of  James  Northcote'  (1830, 
repubKshed  with  an  introductory  essay  by 
E.  Gosse  in  1894) ;  and  CA  View  of  the  English 
Stage*  (i 818-21).  (2)  The  essays  on  mis- 
cellaneous subjects,  which  contain  some  of 
his  best  work  (e.g.  'The  Feeling  of  Immor- 
tality in  Youth*,  'Going  a  Journey',  'Going  to 
a  Fight').  (3)  The  essays  in  literary  criticism, 
which  in  the  opinion  of  some  are  his  chief  title 
to  fame.  The  best  of  these  are  included  in 
his  'Characters  "of  Shakespeare's  Plays* 
(1817-18),  'Lectures  on  the  English  Poets* 
(1818-19),  'English  Comic  Writers'  (1819), 
'Dramatic  Literature  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth* 
(1820),  and  'Table  Talk,  or  Original  Essays 
on  Men  and  Manners*  (1821-2);  while  'The 
Spirit  of  the  Age*  (1825)  contains  inter- 
esting appreciations  of  his  contemporaries. 
Mention  should  be  made  of  the  posthumous 
'Winterslow*  and  'Sketches  and  Essays', 
which  contain  some  of  his  best  essays;  also 
of  his  'Characteristics*,  containing  some 
notable  aphorisms,  and  of  the  'Liber  Amoris* 
(1823),  the  record  of  a  miserable  love-affair. 
Of  his  ability  in  controversy  his  famous 
'Letter  to  William  GifTord*  (1819)  is  an 
example.  His  'Life  of  Napoleon*  and  a  philo- 
sophical work,  'The  Principles  of  Human 
Action*,  are  of  less  importance. 

HAZLITT,  WILLIAM  CAREW  (1834- 
I9i3)>  bibliographer,  grandson  of  William 
Hazlitt  (q.v.),  was  author  of  a  'Handbook  to 
the  Popular,  Political,  and  Dramatic  Litera- 
ture of  Great  Britain to  the  Restoration* 

(1867),  and  of  three  series  of  'Bibliographical 
Collections  and  Notes'  (1876-89).  His  'Con- 
fessions of  a  Collector*  appeared  in  1897. 

Headlong  Hall,  a  novel  by  Peacock  (q.v.), 

published  in  1816. 

It  contains  hardly  any  plot,  but  much  dis- 
course between  Mr.  Foster,  the  optimist, 
Mr.  Escot,  the  pessimist,  Mr.  Jenkinson,  the 
'statu-quo-ite*,  Dr.  Gaster,  a  gluttonous 
cleric,  and  other  characters,  enlivened  by 
burlesque  incident,  and  a  number  of  good 
songs. 

Headrigg,  CUDDIE  and  MAXJSE,  in  Scott's 
'Old  Mortality*  (q.v.),  ploughman  to  Lady 
Bellenden,  and  his  old  covenanting  mother. 


HEADSTONE 

Headstone,  BRADLEY,  a  character  in 
Dickens 's  'Our  Mutual  Friend'  (q.v.). 

HEARN,  LAFCADIO  (1856-1904),  was 
born  in  Santa  Maura  (otherwise  known  as 
Lefcas  or  Lefcada  or  Leucas),  one  of  the 
Ionian  Islands^his  father,  an  Irishman,  being 
surgeon  of  a  British  regiment  quartered  there, 
and  his  mother  a  Greek.  He  was  educated  at 
Ushaw  College.  He  worked  as  a  journalist  in 
America,  and  resided  for  a  time  at  St.  Pierre, 
Martinique,  an  experience  recorded  in  his 
'Two  Years  in  the  French  West  Indies' 
(1890).  In  1891  he  moved  to  Japan,  where  he 
married  a  Japanese  wife.  He  was  lecturer  on 
English  Literature  in  the  Imperial  Uni- 
versity, Tokyo,  1896-1903;  and  a  subject  of 
the  Japanese  Empire  under  the  name  of 
Yakumo  Koizumi.  His  power  of  com- 
municating impressions  is  shown  in  his 
remarkable  'Glimpses  of  Unfamiliar  Japan* 
(1894).  His  'Japan:  an  attempt  at  interpreta- 
tion' (1904)  was  less  successful.  'Karma', 
and  other  short  stories,  appeared  in  1931. 
Hearn  died  in  Japan. 

HEARNE,  THOMAS  (1678-1735),  his- 
torical antiquary,  author  of  'Reliquiae  Bod- 
leianae*  (1703),  and  editor  of  a  valuable 
collection  of  early  English  chronicles,  of 
Leland's  'Itinerary',  Camden's  'Annales', 
and  other  works.  He  was  the  'Wormms*  of 
Pope's  'Dunciad'.  He  might  have  held  high 
office  in  Oxford  University  but  for  his  staunch 
Jacobitism:  he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  George  I.  He  was  for  a  time 
second  librarian  of  the  Bodleian. 
Heart  of  Midlothian,  The,  a  novel  by  Sir  W. 
Scott  (q-v.),  published  in  1818,  in  the  second 
series  of  'Tales  of  My  Landlord*. 

The  novel  takes  its  name  from,  the  old 
Edinburgh  Tolbooth  or  prison,  known  as  the 
'heart  of  Midlothian',  and  opens  with  the 
story  of  the  Porteous  riot  of  1736.  Captain 
John  Porteous,  commander  of  the  City  Guard, 
had,  without  sufficient  justification,  caused 
the  death  of  a  number  of  citizens  by  ordering 
his  force  to  fire,  and  had  himself  fired,  on 
the  crowd,  on  the  occasion  of  the  hanging  of 
a  convicted  robber,  by  name  Wilson.  He 
had  been  sentenced  to  death  but  been 
reprieved;  whereupon  a  body  of  the  incensed 
citizens,  headed  by  one  Robertson,  the 
associate  of  Wilson,  broke  into  the  Tolbooth, 
carried  Porteous  out,  and  hanged  him.  With 
these  substantially  historical  events,  Scott 
links  the  story  of  Jeanie  and  Erne  Deans, 
which  also  has  some  basis  in  fact.  Robertson, 
whose  real  name  is  George  Staunton, 
a  reckless  young  man  of  good  family,  is 
the  lover  of  Effie  Deans,  who  is  imprisoned  in 
the  Tolbooth  on  a  charge  of  child-murder, 
and  the  attack  on  the  Tolbooth  is  partly 
designed  by  him  with  a  view  to  the  flight  of 
Effie.  But  Effie  refuses  to  escape.  She  is 
tried,  and  as  her  devoted  half-sister  Jeanie,  in 
a  poignant  scene,  refuses  to  give  the  false 
evidence  which  would  secure  her  acquittal, 
is  sentenced  to  death.  Thereupon  Jeanie 


HEAVEN  AND  EARTH 
sets  out  on  foot  for  London,  and  through  the 
influence  of  the  duke  of  Argyle,  obtains  an 
interview  with  Queen  Caroline,  and  by  her 
moving  and  dignified  pleading  obtains  her 
sister's  pardon.  By  the  duke's  favour,  she  is 
also  enabled  to  marry  her  lover,  the  Presby- 
terian minister  Reuben  Butler;  and  her  stern 
Cameronian  father,  'Douce  Davie  Deans',  is 
placed  on  a  comfortable  farm  on  the  duke's 
estate,  under  the  rule  of  the  duke's  agent, 
the  Captain  of  Knockdunder.  Effie  marries 
her  lover,  and  becomes  Lady  Staunton,  and 
it  comes  to  light  that  her  child,  whom  she 
was  accused  of  having  murdered,  is  in  fact 
alive.  He  had  been  carried  away  by  Madge 
Wildfire,  the  insane  daughter  of  Margaret 
Murdockson  (an  old  harridan  who  had  charge 
of  Effie  during  her  confinement),  and  made 
over  to  some  banditti.  Sir  George  Staunton, 
in  his  efforts  to  recover  his  son,  comes  upon 
the  banditti  unexpectedly,  and  is  killed  in  the 
affray  by  the  hand  of  his  own  son. 

Among  the  notable  minor  characters  of  the 
story  may  be  mentioned  the  officious  Bar- 
toline  Saddletree,  the  law-loving  harness- 
maker;  and  the  Laird  of  Dumbiedikes, 
Jeanie's  taciturn  suitor.  Reference  may  also 
be  made  to  the  beautiful  lyrics  placed  in  the 
mouth  of  Madge  Wildfire,  in  particular  to 
'Proud  Maisie*,  which  she  sings  on  her 
death-bed. 

Heartbreak  House,  a  play  by  G.  B.  Shaw 


Heartfree,  a  character  in  Vanbrugh's  'The 
Provok'd  Wife'  (q.v.). 

Heartwell,  the  'Old  Bachelor'  (q.v.)  in  Con- 
greve's  comedy  of  that  name. 

Heathcliff,  the  central  figure  in  Emily 
Bronte's  'Wuthering  Heights'  (q.v.). 

Heathen  Chinee,  THE,  in  Bret  Harte's 
humorous  poem,  'Plain  Language  from 
Truthful  James'  ('That  for  ways  that  are  dark, 
and  for  tricks  that  are  vain,  the  Heathen 
Chinee  is  peculiar'). 

Heaven,  THE  SEVENTH.  In  the  cosmo- 
graphies based  on  the  Ptolemaic  system,  the 
realms  of  space  round  the  earth  were  divided 
into  successive  spheres  or  heavens,  in  which 
the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  severally  revolved. 
Their  number  varied  in  different  computa- 
tions from  seven  to  eleven.  The  Jews  (at 
least  in  later  times)  recognized  seven  heavens, 
the  highest  being  the  abode  of  God  and  the 
most  exalted  angels.  According  to  the  Koran 
also  there  are  seven  heavens.  These  concep- 
tions have  given  rise  to  the  expression  in 
the  seventh  heaven,  signifying  'supremely 
happy'. 

Heaven  and  Earth,  a  drama  by  Lord  Byron, 
published  in  the  second  number  of  "The 
Liberal*  (1822).  It  deals  with  the  biblical 
legend  of  the  marriage  between  angels  and 
the  daughters  of  men.  The  principal  charac- 
ters are  the  seraph  Samiasa  and  Aholibamah, 
the  granddaughter  of  Cain. 


[359] 


HEAVENLY  TWINS 

Heavenly  Twins,  THE,  Castor  (q.v.)  and 
Pollux.  Also  the  title  of  a  novel  by  Sarah 
Grand  (q.v.). 

Hebe,  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  and 
the  goddess  of  youth.  She  attended  on  Hera 
and  filled  the  cups  of  the  gods. 
HEBER,  REGINALD  (1733-1826),  edu- 
cated at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  became 
incumbent  of  the  living  of  Hodnet  and  in 
1822  bishop  of  Calcutta.  He  wrote  some 
well-known  hymns  and  other  verses  and  a. 
pleasant  'Narrative  of  a  Journey*  in  India 
(1828,  1844). 

HEBER,  RICHARD  (1773-1833),  half- 
brother  of  Reginald  Heber  (q.v.),  travelled 
widely  to  collect  his  library  of  150,000 
volumes,  and  edited  Persius  and  other 
classical  authors.  He  is  the  'Atticus3  of 
'Bibliomania'  by  T.  F.  Dibdin  (q.v.),  and 
Sir  W.  Scott  in  the  introduction  to  the  6th 
canto  of  'Marmion*  exhorts  him,  at  Christmas 
time,  to 

Cease,  then,  my  friend!  a  moment  cease, 

And  leave  these  classic  tomes  in  peace. 

Hebrew  Melodies,  a  collection  of  short  poems 

by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.),  published  in  1815. 

They  were  written  in  the  autumn  of  1814, 

when  Byron  was  engaged  to  marry  Miss  Mil- 

banke,  and  were  set  by  I.  Nathan  to  favourite 

airs  sung  in  the  religious  services  of  the  Jews. 

Most  of  them  deal  with  scriptural  subjects, 

but  they  include  some  love-songs,  such  as 

She  walks  in  Beauty,  like  the  night 

Of  cloudless  climes  and  starry  skies. 

Hebrides,  The  Journal  of  a  Tour  to  the>  see 
Journal  of  a  Tour  to  the  Hebrides*  See  also 
Journey  to  the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland. 
HScate,  a  goddess  of  triple  form,  presented 
in  Greek  literature  as  the  deity  of  the  moon 
and  of  night,  as  the  deity  presiding  over 
childbirth,  and  as  the  deity  of  the  underworld 
and  magic.  Her  triple  character  may  be 
connected  with  the  three  phases  of  the  moon, 
crescent,  full,  and  waning. 

Hector,  a  son  of  Priam  (q.v.)  and  Hecuba, 
the  most  valiant  of  the  Trojans  who  fought 
against  the  Greeks.  He  married  Andromache 
(q.v.),  and  was  father  of  Astyanax.  He  was 
slain  by  Achilles  (q.v.),  in  revenge  for  the 
death  of  Patroclus,  whom  Hector  had  killed; 
and  his  body  was  tied  to  the  chariot  of 
Achilles  and  dragged  thrice  round  the  walls 
of  Troy.  In  medieval  romance  he  is  the  great 
hero  of  the  Trojan  War. 

Hector  de  Mares,  see  Ector  de  Moris, 

Hecuba,  the  wife  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  and 
mother  of  Hector,  Paris,  and  Cassandra 
(qq.v.)  among  other  children.  After  the  cap- 
ture of  Troy  she  fell  to  the  lot  of  Ulysses  and 
embarked  with  the  conquerors  for  Greece. 
At  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  where  they 
landed,  her  daughter  Polyxena  was  sacrificed 
at  the  instance  of  the  ghost  of  Achilles,  and 
Hecuba  had  the  further  grief  of  seeing  the 


HEGEL 

body  of  her  son  Polydorus  washed  up  by  the 
sea.  She  was  finally  metamorphosed  into  a 
dog,  and  threw  herself  into  the  sea.  She  is  the 
subject  of  a  play  by  Euripides. 

Hedonism,  from  the  Greek  word  meaning 
pleasure,  the  doctrine  of  ethics  in  which 
pleasure  is  regarded  as  the  chief  good,  or  the 
proper  end  of  action.  This  was,  in  a  certain 
sense,  the  doctrine  of  the  Cyrenaic  school 
(see  Aristippus). 

Heenan,  JOHN  C.,  the  American  pugilist, 
see  Benida  Boy. 

Heep,  URIAH,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'David  Copperfield'  (q.v.). 
HEGEL,  GEORG  WILHELM  FRIED- 
RICH  (1770-1831),  born  at  Stuttgart,  was 
rector  at  Nuremberg  gymnasium,  1 808-16, 
and  subsequently  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Heidelberg  and  at  Berlin.  His  first  important 
work  was  the  'Phaenomenology  of  Spirit', 
followed  by  his  'Logic'  (1812-16),  and  later 
by  the  'Philosophy  of  Right*  embodying  his 
political  views. 

Kant  (q.v.)  had  left  an  essential  dualism 
in  his  philosophy,  nature  opposed  to  spirit, 
object  opposed  to  subject,  the  outer  world 
composed  of  isolated  unrelated  substances 
whose  nature  is  beyond  the  reach  of  know- 
ledge. Hegel  endeavours  to  bridge  the  gulf, 
and  reduce  duality  to  unity.  He  shows  that 
all  difference  presupposes  a  unity,  that^  a 
definite  thought  cannot  be  separated  from  its 
opposite,  that  the  idea  of  fullness,  e.g.,  cannot 
be  separated  from  that  of  emptiness,  that  they 
are  identical  in  difference.  'The  whole 
thought  reached  in  this  way  has  again  its 
opposite  or  negative,  which  it  at  once  excludes 
and  involves,  and  the  process  may  be  re- 
peated in  regard  to  it,  with  the  result  of 
reaching  a  still  higher  unity  .  .  .  and  so  on 
through  ever-widening  sweep  of  differentia- 
tion and  integration/  'Reality — which  at 
first  is  present  to  us  as  the  Being  of  things 
which  are  regarded  as  standing  each  by  itself, 
determined  in  quantity  and  quality,  but  as 
having  no  necessary  relations  to  each  other — 
comes  in  process  of  thought  to  be  known  as 
an  endless  aggregate  of  essentially  related 
and  transitory  existences,  each  of  which 
exists  only  as  it  determines,  and  is  determined 
by,  the  others,  according  to  universal  laws, 
and  finally  is  discovered  to  lie  in  a  world  of 
objects,  each  and  all  of  which  exist  only  in  so 
far  as  they  exist  for  intelligence,  and  in  so  far 
as  intelligence  is  revealed  or  realized  in  them.* 
Duality  and  unity  are  thus  blended  in  con- 
sciousness :  'the  self  exists  as  one  self  only  as 
it  opposes  itself,  as  object,  to  itself,  as  sub- 
ject, and  immediately  denies  and  transcends 
that  opposition.*  This  doctrine  Hegel  recon- 
ciled with  the  essential  teaching  of  the 
Christian  religion,  that  man  must  'die  to  live*, 
that  self-realization  comes  through  self- 
abnegation.  The  natural  self  is  essentially 
related  to  the  world,  the  not-self,  opposed  to 
it.  But  there  is  a  higher  self  which  is  in  unity 


[360] 


HEGIRA 

with  the  not-self ;  and  realization  of  that  higher 
self  is  achieved  only  by  'renunciation  of  that 
natural  and  immediate  life  of  the  self  in 
which  it  is  opposed  to  the  not-self*.  Only  as 
this  natural  self  dies  can  the  higher  self  be 
developed. 

See  Prof.  Edward  Caird's  'Hegel*  (Black- 
wood,  1883),  on  which  the  above  brief  state- 
ment of  some  of  Hegel's  chief  positions  is 
based.  Other  notable  expositions  of  the 
Hegelian  philosophy  have  been  Prof.  W. 
Wallace's  translations,  with  Prolegomena,  of 
Hegel's  'Logic*  (1874)  and  'Philosophy  of 
Mind*  (1894). 

Hegira  or  HEJIRA  or  HIJRA,  the  flight  of 
Mohammed  from  Mecca  to  Medina  m  A.D. 
622,  from  which  the  Mohammedan  era  is 
reckoned. 

Heidelberg,  a  beautiful  town  of  romantic 
associations  in  southern  Germany.  Its 
university  (founded  in  1386)  is  a  famous 
resort  of  foreign  students. 

Heidelberg,  MRS.,  a  character  in  Colman 
and  Garrick's  'Clandestine  Marriage'  (q.v.). 
Her  illiteracy  and  mispronunciation  of  words 
bring  her  into  some  sort  of  kinship  with 
Mrs.  Malaprop  (q.v.). 

Heidsieck,  see  Champagne. 

Heimdal,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  one 
of  the  Vanir  (q.v.),  the  warder  of  the  gods, 
who  guards  the  bridge  Bifrost  (q.v.).  He  is 
described  as  the  son  of  nine  mothers.  He  and 
Loki  (q.v.)  slay  one  another. 

Heimskringla,  a  history  of  Norse  kings  from 
mythical  times  to  1177  by  Snorri  Sturlason 
(q.v.),  containing  graphic  pictures  of  the 
domestic  and  adventurous  life  of  the  Vikings, 
and  especially  of  King  Olaf,  of  whose  last 
fight  on  his  ship,  the  'Long  Serpent*,  and 
death,  there  is  a  memorable  account.  It  has 
a  bearing  on  English  history,  covering  as  it 
does  the  reigns  of  the  Danish  kings,  Sweyn, 
Canute,  Harold,  and  Hardicanute.  It 
describes  the  expedition  of  Olaf  in  aid  of 
JEthelred,  and  the  fight  at  London  Bridge. 
The  title  ('the  round  world')  is  taken  from 
the  first  words  in  the  manuscript. 

HEINE,  HEINRICH'(i797-i8s6),  the  Ger- 
man poet,  was  born  of  Jewish  parents  in 
Diisseldorf.  Disappointed  of  his  hopes  of  a 
Liberal  regime  in  Germany  as  a  sequence  to 
the  expulsion  of  Napoleon,  and  a  sufferer 
from  ill-health  which  culminated  in  almost 
complete  paralysis  during  the  last  eight  years 
of  his  life,  he  migrated  to  Paris  after  the 
revolution  of  1830  and  there  spent  his 
remaining  days.  He  was  baptized  a  Christian 
in  1825,  but  his  true  faith  must  be  sought  in 
his  writings.  His  political  works  show  him  a 
radical  and  a  cosmopolitan  (he  wrote  both  in 
German  and  French  and  many  of  his  prose 
works  exist  in  both  languages).  He  was  an 
acute  critic  of  philosophy.  But  he  was  most 
famous  as  a  lyrical  poet,  pre-eminent  in  wit 
and  raillery,  and  the  Romantic  movement  in 


HELEN 

Germany  did  not  survive  his  irony.  His 
chief  works  include  the  poems  in  the  'Buch 
der  Lieder*  (1827);  the  travel  sketches  in  his 
'Reisebilder*  (1826-31);  'Philosophic  und 
Literatur  in  Deutschland'  (1834)  and  'Die 
Romantische  Semite*  (1836);  and  among  his 
later  writings  'Neueste  Gedichte'  (1853-4), 
'Atta  Troll'  (1847),  and  'Rpmancero*  (1851). 
His  death-bed  remark  is  characteristic: 
'Dieu  me  pardonnera:  c*est  son  metier.' 
There  is  a  sketch  of  Heine  in  Zangwill's 
'Dreamers  of  the  Ghetto*.  There  is  also  an 
essay  on  him  by  M.  Arnold  ('Essays  in 
Criticism',  ist  Series). 

HEINSIUS,  DANIEL  (1580-1655),  Dutch 
scholar,  editor  of  Aristotle's  'Poetics*,  and 
author  of  a  Latin  work  on  tragedy.  His  son 
NICOLAS  HEINSIUS  (1620-81),  also  a  famous 
scholar,  published  critical  editions  of  Roman 
poets,  and  travelled  in  England;  his  Virgil 
is  most  famous. 

Heir-at-Law,  The,  a  comedy  by  G.  Colman, 
the  younger  (q.v.). 

Heir  of  Linne,  THE,  the  subject  of  a  ballad 
in  Percy's  'Reliques*,  a  spendthrift  who  sells 
his  estate  to  John  o*  Scales,  wastes  the  pro- 
ceeds, and  goes  to  hang  himself  in  a  lonesome 
lodge  which  he  has  reserved  by  his  father's 
direction.  But  the  ceiling  breaks  with  his 
weight,  and  reveals  three  chests  full  of 
treasure.  He  goes  to  John  o*  Scales,  who 
refuses  him  a  loan  of  forty  pence,  but  offers 
to  sell  him  back  his  estate  for  a  hundred 
marks  less  than  he  gave  for  it,  and  is  much 
disconcerted  at  being  taken  at  his  word. 

Heir  of  Redclyffe,  The,  a  novel  by  Miss 
Yonge  (q.v.),  published  in  1853. 

In  this  simple  romance,  Sir  Guy  Morville, 
the  generous  young  heir  of  Redclyffe,  falls  in 
love  with  Amy,  his  guardian's  daughter,  but 
is  suspected  of  gambling  by  his  malevolent 
and  conceited  cousin  Philip.  In  fact,  he  has 
paid  the  debts  of  a  disreputable  uncle,  but 
rather  than  betray  the  latter,  sacrifices  his 
own  character.  He  is  banished  from  his 
guardian's  household,  until  his  gallant 
rescue  of  some  shipwrecked  sailors,  and  his 
uncle's  intervention,  'rehabilitate  him.  Guy 
and  Amy  are  now  married,  and  on  their 
honeymoon  in  Italy  find  Philip  severely  ill 
with  fever.  Guy  forgives  the  injury  done 
him  by  Philip,  nurses  him  through  his 
illness,  catches  the  fever  himself,  and  dies; 
and  Philip,  reduced  to  contrition  by  his 
adversary's  generosity,  inherits  RedclyfTe. 

Heiress,  The,  a  comedy  by  Burgoyne  (q.v.). 
Hejira,  see  Hegira. 
Hel,  see  Hell. 

Helen,  according  to  Greek  legend,  the  most 
beautiful  woman  of  her  age,  was  daughter  of 
Zeus  and  Leda  (q.v.).  She  selected  Menelaus 
(q.v.),  king  of  Sparta,  for  her  husband,  after 
her  many  suitors  had  bound  themselves  by 
an  oath  to  defend  her.  She  was  subsequently 
seduced  by  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy, 


[361] 


HELEN  HUNTINGDON 

and  carried  off  to  Troy.  To  get  her  back, 
Menelaus  assembled  the  Greek  princes  who 
had  been  her  suitors,  and  these  resolved  to 
make  war  on  Troy  for  her  recovery.  After 
the  death  of  Paris,  she  is  said  to  have  married 
Deiphobus,  another  son  of  Priam,  and  at  the 
fall  of  Troy  to  have  betrayed  him  to  Menelaus, 
to  whom  she  was  reunited.  There  is  also  a 
legend  that  she  and  Paris  spent  some  time 
in  Egypt. 

Helen  Huntingdon,  or  GRAHAM,  the 
heroine  of  A.  Bronte's  'The  Tenant  of  Wild- 
fell  HalT  (q.v.). 

Helen  of  Kirkconnell,  the  subject  of  an 
old  ballad  (included  in  Scott's  'Border  Min- 
strelsy* and  the  'Golden  Treasury'),  who 
throws  herself  before  her  lover  when  his 
rival  fires  at  him,  and  dies  to  save  him.  The 
story  is  also  the  subject  of  Wordsworth's 
'Ellen  Irwin'. 

Helena,  (i)  the  heroine  of  Shakespeare's 
'All's  Well  that  Ends  Well*  (q.v.);  (2)  a 
character  in  his  'Midsummer  Night's  Dream* 
(q.v.);  (3)  Helen  of  Troy  in  Goethe's  'Faust* 
(q.v.). 

Helena,  ST.,  the  mother  of  the  Emperor 
Constantine,  converted  to  Christianity  by  her 
son.  The  legend  that  she  was  British  has  no 
contemporary  authority.  It  is  said  that  she 
discovered  the  True  Cross,  having  instituted 
a  search  for  it  in  consequence  of  the  Emperor 
Constantine's  vision  of  the  sign  of  a  cross  in  the 
sky,  with  the  inscription  *  In  hoc  signo  vinces'. 
This  is  the  Invention  of  the  Cross,  com- 
memorated on  3  May.  St.  Helena  is  the 
*Elene*  of  Cynewulf  (q.v.). 

The  ISLAND  OF  SAINT  HELENA  in  the  S. 
Atlantic  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese 
on  St.  Helena's  day,  21  May  1502.  It  was 
the  place  of  Napoleon's  captivity  from  1815 
until  his  death  in  1821, 

Helenore,  see  Ross  (A.). 

Helemis,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  a 
soothsayer,  who  revealed  to  the  Greeks  that 
they  could  not  capture  Troy  while  it  retained 
possession  of  the  palladium  (q.v.).  After  the 
capture  of  Troy  he  fell  to  the  lot  of  Neopto- 
lemus,  and,  having  been  the  means  of  saving 
his  life,  received  from  him  Andromache,  the 
widow  of  his  brother  Hector.  Aeneas  found 
him  ruling  Epirus  and  was  hospitably  re- 
ceived by  him. 

HeHctnd,  The,  an  Old  Saxon  paraphrase  of 
the  N.T.,  dating  from  the  gth  cent.   Frag- 
ments also  survive  of  a  paraphrase  of  the 
O.T.  by  the  author  of  the  'Heliand'. 
Hellas,  see  Knight  of  the  Swan. 

Helicon,  a  mountain  of  Boeotia  sacred  to 
the  Muses,  who  had  a  temple  there.  The 
fountains  Hippocrene  and  Aganippe  flowed 
from  this  mountain. 

Helinore,  see  Hellenore. 
HEMODORUS,  see  Aethiopica. 


HELOT 

Heliogafoalus,  see  Elagdbalus. 
Helios,  the  Greek  name  of  the  sun-god,  the 
son  of  (and  sometimes  identified  with) 
Hyperion,  and  father  of  Phaethon  (qq.v.). 
Hell,  a  word  derived  from  Old  Norse  Hel, 
'the  coverer  up  or  hider',  the  Proserpine  of 
northern  mythology,  the  goddess  of  the  in- 
fernal regions.  Hel  was  the  daughter  of 
Loki  (q.v.)  and  was  cast  by  the  Father  of  the 
Gods,  who  feared  her  evil  influence,  into 
Niflheim  (q.v.),  and  given  power  over  nine 
worlds,  among  which  she  distributed  the 
dead.  The  word  Hell  is  used  in  the  authorized 
version  of  the  N.T.  as  a  rendering  of  the 
Greek  words  Hades,  Gehenna,  and  Tartarus 
(qq.v.).  In  modern  use  the  word  has  the 
sense  of  (i)  the  abode  of  the  dead;  (2)  the 
place  or  state  of  punishment  of  the  wicked 
after  death;  (3)  something  resembling  hell, 
e.g.  a  place  or  state  of  wickedness  or  suffering; 
(4)  a  gaming-house. 

For  Dante's  'Hell*  see  Divina  Commedia. 

Hell-fire  Clubs,  associations  of  reckless  and 
profligate  young  ruffians  who  were  a  nuisance 
to  London  chiefly  in  the  early  i8th  cent. 
There  is  information  about  them  in  Charles 
Johnstone's  'Adventures  of  a  Guinea*  (q.v.). 
Hellas,  the  name  used  by  the  Greeks  to 
signify  the  abode  of  the  HELLENES,  which  the 
Romans  called  GRAECIA,  and  we  call  Greece. 
Hellas  was  originally  a  small  district  in 
Thessaly.  The  name  was  attributed  to  a 
mythical  ancestor  HELLEN,  son  of  Deucalion 
and  Pyrrha  (qq.v.),  and  father  of  Aeolus  and 
Donis,  from  whom  the  Aeolians  and  Dorians 
were  descended. 

Hellas,  a  lyrical  drama  by  P.  B.  Shelley  (q.v.) 
composed  at  Pisa  in  1821  and  published  in 
1822.  It  was  inspired  by  the  Greek  pro- 
clamation of  independence,  followed  by  the 
war  of  liberation  from  the  Turkish  yoke.  In 
form  it  follows  the  Tersae*  of  Aeschylus. 
The  principal  character  is  the  Sultan 
Mahmud,  who  learns  from  successive 
messengers  of  the  revolt  in  various  parts  of 
his  dominions,  and  to  whom  the  old  Jew 
Ahasuerus  calls  up  a  vision  of  the  fall  of 
Stamboul.  The  poet  puts  some  of  his  finest 
lyrics  in  the  mouths  of  the  chorus  of  Greek 
captive  women. 
Hellen,  HELLENES,  see  Hellas. 

Hellenistic,  a  term  applied  to  the  civilization, 
language,  and  literature,  Greek  in  its  general 
character,  but  pervading  people  not  ex- 
clusively Greek,current  in  Asia  Minor , Egypt, 
Syria,  and  other  countries  after  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great. 

Hellenore,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
in.  x,  the  wife  of  Malbecco,  who  elopes  with 
Paridel  (qq.v.). 

Hellespont,  see  Argonauts. 
HeloXse,  see  Abelard. 

Helot,  a  class  of  serf  in  ancient  Sparta.  The 
expression  DRUNKEN  HELOT  is  an  allusion  to 


[362] 


HELPS 

a  statement  by  Plutarch  that  Helots  were,  on 
certain  occasions,  compelled  to  appear  in  a 
state  of  intoxication,  in  order  to  excite  in  the 
Spartan  youth  repugnance  to  drunken  habits. 
HELPS,  SIR  ARTHUR  (1813-75),  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, became  clerk  of  the  privy  council  in 
1860.  Besides  revising  (at  Queen  Victoria's 
request)  Prince  Albert's  Speeches,  published 
in  1862,  and  preparing  for  the  press  the 
Queen's  'Leaves  from  the  Journal  of  Our 
Life  in  the  Highlands'  (1868),  he  acquired 
popularity  by  his  'Friends  in  Council*  (four 
series,  1847-59),  dialogues  on  ethical  and 
aesthetic  questions.  His  'Conquerors  of  the 
New  World'  appeared  in  1848,  and  'The 
Spanish  Conquest  in  America*  in  1855-61. 
Helps  also  wrote  dramas,  'Realmah*  (a  novel, 
1868),  and  'Brevia*  (short  essays,  1871). 

Helvetia,  Switzerland,  the  country  formerly 
of  the  HELVETII,  a  people  of  the  ancient 
Gallia  Lugdunensis. 

HELVfiTIUS,  CLAUDE  ARIEN  (1715- 
71),  see  Pkilosophes. 

HEMANS,  MRS.  FELICIA  DOROTHEA 
(1793-1835),  n£e,  Browne,  married  Captain 
Alfred  Hemans  in  1812,  but  separated  from 
him  in  1818.  Her  writings  were  highly 
popular  in  America,  and  she  was  the  'Egeria' 
of  Maria  Jane  Jewsbury's  'Three  Histories'. 
Her  collected  works  (issued  in  1839)  include 
'Translations  from  Camoens  and  other  Poets*, 
'Lays  of  Many  Lands*,  'The  Forest  Sanc- 
tuary*, and  'Songs  of  the  Affections'.  She  is 
perhaps  chiefly  remembered  as  the  author  of 
'Casabianca*  ('The  boy  stood  on  the  burning 
deck'),  'The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers', 
'England's  Dead',  and  'The  Better  Land*. 

Heming  or  HEMINGES,  JOHN  (d.  1630)  and 
Condell,  HENRY  (d.  1627),  fellow  actors  of 
Shakespeare,  who  jointly  edited  the  first 
folio  of  his  plays  (1623).  Heming  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  actor  of  FalstafF. 
HEMINGWAY,  ^  ERNEST,  American 
novelist,  born  in  Illinois  in  1898.  His  most 
important  books  are  'Fiesta'  (called  in  the 
U.S.  'The  Sun  also  Rises',  1926),  'Men 
without  Women'  (1927),  'Farewell  to  Arms' 
(1929).  He  is  considered  typical  of  a  certain 
side  of  modern  American  writing.  That  is  to 
say  he  is  sophisticated,  conscientiously  un- 
sentimental, and  largely  concerned  with 
members  of  the  various  American  colonies 
in  Europe,  especially  in  Paris. 
Hemistich,  half  of  a  line  of  verse. 

Henchard,  MICHAEL,  the  principal  charac- 
ter in  Hardy's  'The  Mayor  of  Casterbridge' 
(q.v.). 

Hendecasyllabic,  a  verse  of  eleven  syllables, 
a  metre  used  by  Catullus  and  imitated  by 
Tennyson : 

O  you  chorus  of  indolent  reviewers. 
Hendiadys,  from  the  Greek  words  meaning 
'one  by  means  of  two*,  a  figure  of  speech  by 


HENRIETTA  TEMPLE 

which  a  single  ^complex  idea  is  expressed  by 
two  words  joined  by  a  conjunction,  e.g. 
'Such  as  sit  in  darkness  and  in  the  shadow  of 
death,  being  fast  bound  in  misery  and  iron* 
(Ps.  cvii.  10). 

Hengist  and  Horsa,  the  traditional  leaders 
of  the  Jutes  who  landed  at  Ebbsneet  in  or 
about  449,  and  were  given  by  Vortigern  the 
Isle  of  Thanet  for  a  dwelling-^lace.  The 
names  signify  'horse*  and  'mare',  and  may  be 
those  of  real  warriors. 

HENLEY,  JOHN  (1692-1756),  generally 
known  as  'Orator  Henley*,  educated  at 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  a  con- 
tributor to  the  'Spectator*  as  'Dr.  Quir', 
claimed  to  be  a  restorer  of  church  oratory. 
He  published  works  on  oratory,  theology,  and 
grammar.  He  was  caricatured  by  Hogarth 
and  ridiculed  by  Pope : 

Still  break  the  benches,  Henley,  with  thy 

strain, 
While  Sherlock,  Hare,  and  Gibson  preach 

in  vain. 

('Dunciad*,  iii.  203.) 

HENLEY,  WILLIAM  ERNEST  (1849- 
*9°3)»  born  at  Gloucester  and  a  pupil  there  of 
T.  E.  Brown  (q.v.),  was  a  cripple  from  boy- 
hood. He  did  a  great  deal  of  miscellaneous 
literary  work,  as  editor  at  various  times  of  the 
'Magazine  of  Art',  the  'National  Observer', 
the  'New  Review',  &c.  He  was  a  friend  of 
R.  L.  Stevenson  (q.v.),  with  whom  he 
collaborated  in  the  plays  'Deacon  Brodie', 
'Beau  Austin*,  'Admiral  Guinea*,  and 
'Macaire*  (1892).  He  compiled  'Lyra 
Heroica'  (1891),  a  book  of  verse  for  boys,  and 
was  joint  compiler  of  the  'Slang  Dictionary* 
(1894-1904).  His  poetical  work  includes  the 
'Book  of  Verses'  (1888),  'The  Song  of  the 
Sword*  (1892,  revised  1893),  'London 
Voluntaries'  (1893),  'Hawthorn  and  Laven- 
der* (1899),  and  the  remarkable  volume  en- 
titled 'In  Hospital*  (1903),  written  in  an 
Edinburgh  infirmary.  His  collected  works 
were  published  in  1908.  Among  his  best- 
known  pieces  are  'Invictus*  ('Out  of  the 
night  that  covers  me'),  the  ballad  with  the 
refrain 

I  was  a  king  in  Babylon 
And  you  were  a  Christian  slave, 
and    'England,   my    England'.     Henley   is 
portrayed  as  'Burly'  in  R.  L.  Stevenson's 
essay,  'Talk  and  Talkers*. 

Henriade,  La,  a  poem  in  ten  cantos  by 
Voltaire  (q.v.),  exalting  Henri  IV,  published 
in  1723. 

Henrietta  Temple,  a  novel  by  Disraeli  (q.v.), 
published  in  1837. 

Ferdinand  Armine,  the  son  of  noble  but 
impoverished  parents,  a  brilliant  and  im- 
petuous youth,  enters  the  army,  gets  into 
debt,  and  being  disappointed  of  his  grand- 
father's heritage,  which  was  counted  on  to 
redress  the  family  fortunes,  proposes  to  his 
wealthy  cousin,  Katherine  Grandison,  and 


[363] 


HENRI  IV 

is  accepted.  But  his  own  heart  is  not  engaged, 
and,  the  wedding  being  postponed  until  a 
year  after  his  grandfather's  recent  ^death, 
Ferdinand  falls  desperately  in  Jove  with  the 
beautiful  but  penniless  Henrietta  Temple, 
and,  carried  away  by  his  passion,  becomes 
engaged  to  her  also.  When  his  previous 
entanglement  is  revealed,  Henrietta,  shocked 
by  his  perfidy,  falls  seriously  ill  and  leaves  the 
country,  while  Ferdinand  nearly  succumbs  to 
brain  fever.  Henrietta  meets  in  Italy  the 
admirable  Lord  Montf ort,  and  under  pressure 
from  her  father  consents  to  marry  him.  Be- 
fore the  wedding  is  celebrated,  she  again 
meets  Ferdinand,  is  touched  by  his  sufferings, 
and  discovers  that  her  heart  is  still  his. 
Katherine,  who  has  forgiven  and  released 
Ferdinand,  and  the  tatter's  resourceful  friend 
Count  Mirabel,  set  to  work  to  straighten  out 
the  imbroglio,  with  the  result  that  Lord 
Montfort  renounces  Henrietta,  ^who  has 
unexpectedly  become  a  rich  heiress,  and 
marries  Katherine ;  while  Ferdinand,  released 
from  the  sponging-house  to  which  his  debts 
have  brought  him,  marries  Henrietta. 
Henri  IV,  king  of  France,  1589-1610.  He 
had  been  king  of  Navarre  since  1570  and  had 
married  Marguerite  de  Valois,  sister  of 
Charles  IX.  He  figures  in  Macaulay's  lay, 
'Ivry'. 

Henry  I,  king  of  England,  1100-35. 
Henry  II,  king  of  England,  1154-89.  This 
was  a  period  of  (Latin)  literary  eminence :  see 
Glanville,  Dialogus  de  Scaccario,  Map,  Giral- 
dus  Cambrensis* 

Henry  III,  king  of  England,  1216-72. 
Henry  IV,  king  of  England,  1399-1413' 
Henry  IV,  King,  Parts  I  and  17,  an  historical 
drama  by  Shakespeare  (q.v.),  produced  about 
1597,  and  printed  in  quarto,  Pt.  I  in  1598, 
andPt.  II  in  1600. 

The  subject  of  Pt.  I  is  the  rebellion  of  the 
Percys,  assisted  by  Douglas,  and  in  concert 
with  Mortimer  and  Glendower ;  and  its  defeat 
by  the  king  and  the  Prince  of  Wales  at 
Shrewsbury  (1403).  Falstaff  (q.v.)  first 
appears  in  this  play.  The  Prince  of  Wales 
associates  with  him  and  his  boon  com- 
panions, Poins,  Bardolph,  and  Peto,  in  their 
riotous  life.  Poins  and  the  prince  contrive 
that  the  others  shall  set  on  some  travellers  at 
Gadshill  and  rob  them,  and  be  robbed  in 
their  turn  by  themselves.  The  plot  succeeds, 
and  leads  to  FalstafPs  well-known  fabrica- 
tion to  explain  the  loss  of  the  booty,  and  his 
exposure.  At  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury, 
Falstaff  finds  the  body  of  the  lately  slain 
Hotspur,  and  pretends  to  have  killed  him. 

Pt.  II  deals  with  the  rebellion  of  Arch- 
bishop Scroop,  Mowbray,  and  Hastings; 
while  in  the  comic  under-plot,  the  story  of 
FalstafFs  doing:s  is  continued,  with  those  of 
the  prince,  Pistol  (q.v.),  Poins,  Mistress 
Quickly  (q.v.),  and  Doll  Tearsheet.  FalstafT, 
summoned  to  the  army  for  the  repression  of 
the  rebellion,  falls  in  with  Justices  Shallow 


HENRY  VI 

and  Silence  (qq.v.)  in  the  course  of  his 
recruiting,  makes  a  butt  of  them,  and  ex- 
tracts a  thousand  pounds  from  the  former. 
Henry  IV  dies,  and  Falstaff  conceives  that  the 
Prince's  accession  to  the  throne  will  make 
himself  all-powerful.  He  is  rudely  disabused 
when  he  encounters  the  new  king,  is  banished 
from  his  presence,  and  thrown  into  prison. 

The  play  is  notable,  among  other  things, 
for  the  memories  of  Shakespeare's  early  life  in 
Warwickshire  interwoven  in  the  story. 
Henry  V,  king  of  England,  1413-22. 

Henry  V,  King,  an  historical  drama  by 
Shakespeare  (q.v.),  performed  in  1599,  an 
imperfect  draft  being  printed  in  1600,  the  cor- 
rected text  appearing  in  the  first  folio  (1623). 
The  play  deals  with  the  arrest  of  Lord 
Scroop,  Sir  Thomas  Grey,  and  the  earl  of 
Cambridge  for  treason;  the  invasion  of 
France  and  siege  and  capture  of  Harfleur; 
the  battle  of  Agincourt  (1415);  and  Henry's 
wooing  of  Katharine  of  France.  The  knaves 
Nym  and  Bardolph  and  the  braggart  Pistol, 
who  is  made  to  eat  the  leek  by  the  choleric 
Welshman  Fluellen,  provide  relief  from  the 
more  serious  theme.  The  death  of  Falstaff  is 
related  by  Mistress  Quickly  (n.iii). 

Henry  VI,  king  of  England,  1422-61,  re- 
stored for  six  months,  1470-1,  and  then  mur- 
dered in  the  Tower  of  London  in  1471. 

Henry  VI,  King,  Parts  I,  II,  and  III,  an 

historical  drama  ascribed  to  Shakespeare 
(q.v.).  The  extent  to  which  it  was  actually 
written  or  revised  by  him  is  uncertain. 
The  three  parts  were  acted  about  1592; 
the  first  part  was  published  in  1623,  the 
second  part  anonymously  in  1594  as  *The 
first  part  of  the  contention  betwixt  the  two 
famous  houses  of  Yorke  and  Lancaster',  and 
the  third  part  in  1595,  as  'The  True  Tragedie 
of  Richard,  Duke  of  Yorke,  and  the  death  of 
good  KingHenrie  the  Sixt'.  The  second  and 
third  parts  (with  modifications  of  the  text) 
appeared,  together  with  the  first  part,  in  the 
folio  of  1623.  Various  commentators  have 
found  the  hands  of  Marlowe,  Kyd,  Peele, 
Greene,  Lodge,  and  Nash,  as  well  as  Shake- 
speare, in  different  passages  of  the  play,  but 
the  question  of  authorship  remains  undecided. 
The  play  probably  evoked  Greene's  famous 
censure  of  Shakespeare  in  his  'Groatsworth 
of  Wit*  (q.v.). 

Pt.  I  deals  with  the  wars  in  France  during 
the  early  years  of  Henry  VI,  the  relief  of 
Orleans  by  the  French  and  the  gradual 
expulsion  of  the  English  from  a  large  part  of 
France.  The  French  are  guided  and  inspired 
by  Joan  of  Arc,  who  in  accordance  with  the 
ideas  of  the  time,  is  represented  as  a  'minister 
of  hell*  and  a  wanton.  On  the  English  side, 
the  commanding  figure  of  Talbot,  until  his 
death  near  Bordeaux,  throws  the  other 
leaders  into  the  shade.  At  home,  the  play 
deals  with  the  dissensions  between  the  nobles, 
and  the  beginning  of  the  strife  of  York  and 
Lancaster. 


[364] 


HENRY  VII 

Pt.  II  presents  the  marriage  of  Henry  to 
Margaret  of  Anjou,  the  intrigues  of  the 
Yorkist  faction,  and  the  other  chief  historical 
events,  including  Jack  Cade's  rebellion,  down 
to  the  battle  of  St.  Albans  (1455)  and  the 
death  of  Somerset. 

Pt.  Ill  takes  us  from  Henry's  surrender 
of  the  succession  to  the  crown  to  the  duke 
of  York,  and  Queen  Margaret's  revolt  against 
the  disinheriting  of  her  son,  to  the  battle  of 
Tewkesbury  in  1471,  concluding  with  the 
murder  of  Henry  VI  by  Richard,  duke  of 
Gloucester,  whose  ambitious  and  un- 
scrupulous character  (as  subsequently  de- 
veloped in  'King  Richard  III')  is  here  first 
indicated. 

Henry  VII,  king  of  England,  1485-1509. 
His  life  was  written  by  Francis  Bacon  (q.v.). 
Henry  VIII,  king  of  England,  1509-47.  His 
life  was  written  by  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury 
(q.v.).  His  book,  *A  defence  of  the  Seven 
Sacraments',  directed  against  Luther's  teach- 
ing, was  printed  in  1521  and  presented  to 
Leo  X,  who  thereupon  conferred  on  Henry 
the  title  'Defender  of  the  Faith'. 

Henry  VIII \  an  historical  drama  by  Shake- 
speare (q.v.),  with  parts  perhaps  written  by  a 
collaborator,  probably  Fletcher.  It  was  acted 
in  1613  and  included  in  the  folio  of  1623. 

It  deals  with  the  accusation  and  execution 
of  the  duke  of  Buckingham ;  the  question  of 
the  royal  divorce  (vividly  depicting  the  dig- 
nity and  resignation  of  Queen  Katharine); 
the  pride  and  fall  of  Cardinal  Wolsey  and  his 
death;  the  advancement  and  coronation  of 
Anne  Boleyn;  the  triumph  of  Cranmer  over 
his  enemies;  and  the  christening  of  the 
Princess  Elizabeth.  The  firing  of  the  can- 
non at  the  end  of  Act  I  caused  the  burning  of 
the  Globe  Theatre  in  1613. 

For  another  Elizabethan  play  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Henry  VIII,  see  Rowley  (£.). 

Henry  and  Emma,  see  Prior. 
Henry  Grace  a  Dieu,  The,  see  Great  Harry. 
Henry  of  Hoheneck,  PRINCE,  the  subject 
of  the  story  of  Longfellow's  'Golden  Legend* 
(q.v.). 

HENRY  OF  HUNTINGDON  (1084?- 
1155),  archdeacon  of  Huntingdon,  compiled 
at  the  request  of  Bishop  Alexander  of  Lincoln 
a  'Historia  Anglorum*,  which  in  its  latest 
form  extends*  to  1154. 

HENRY  THE  MINSTREL,  or  BLIND 
HARRY  or  HARY  (fl.  1470792),  Scottish 
poet ;  probably  a  native  of  Lothian^  He  wrote 
a  spirited  poem,  on  the  life  of  Sir  William 
Wallace,  containing  some  12,000  lines  in 
heroic  couplets,  which  purports  to  be  based 
on  a  work  by  John  Blair,  Wallace's  chaplain. 
It  is  inspired  by  violent  animosity  against  the 
English.  Its  chronology  and  general  ac- 
curacy have  been  questioned,  but  in  some 
instances  corroborated.  The  best  printed 
editions  are  those  of  Jamieson  (1820)  and 
Moir  (Scottish  TextSociety,  1884-9);  William 


HEPTARCHY 

Hamilton  of  Gilbertfield's  modern  version 
(1722)  became  more  familiar  than  the  original. 
HENRYSON  or  HENDERSON,  ROBERT 
(1430?-!  506),  a  Scottish  poet  of  the  school  of 
Chaucer.  He  was  probably  a  clerical  school- 
master attached  to  Dunferinline  Abbey.  His 
'Tale  of  Orpheus*  was  first  printed  in  1508. 
His  'Testament  of  Cresseid'  (q.v.)  was 
attributed  to  Chaucer  till  1721,  though 
printed  as  his  own  in  1593.  His  'Morall 
Fables  of  Esope  the  Phrygian'  were  printed 
in  1621.  'The  Poems  of  Robert  Henryson* 
were  edited  by  G.  Gregory  Smith  for  the 
Scottish  Text  Society,  3  vols.,  1906-14. 

Henslowe,  PHILIP  (d.  1616),  a  theatrical 
manager  who  rebuilt  and  managed  till  1603 
the  Rose  playhouse  on  Bankside,  and  subse- 
quently managed  other  theatres.  He  em- 
ployed a  number  of  the  minor  Elizabethan 
dramatists,  including  Munday,  Chettle,  Day, 
Samuel  Rowley,  and  Drayton,  and  his  diary 
contains  valuable  information  as  to  their 
works. 

HENTY,  GEORGE  ALFRED  (1832-1902), 
writer  for  boys,  who  also  published  some 
twelve  orthodox  novels,  including  *Dr. 
Thorndyke's  Secret'  (1898). 

Heorot,  in  'Beowulf  (q.v.),  the  palace  of 
Hrothgar. 

Hepburn,  PHILIP,  a  character  in  Mrs.  Gas- 
kell's  'Sylvia's  Lovers'  (q.v.). 

Hephaestus,  the  Greek  god  of  fire,  called 
by  the  Romans  Vulcan  (q.v.). 

Hepplewhite,  GEORGE  (d.  1786),  a  famous 
cabinet-maker,  of  whom  little  is  known  ex- 
cept that  he  carried  on  his  business  in  St. 
Giles,  Cripplegate.  His  work  is  distinguished 
by  a  delicacy  and  grace  that  replaced  the 
greater  massiyeness  of  Chippendale.  He 
excelled  especially  in  the  designs  of  chairs, 
and  made  considerable  use  of  painting  and 
inlay. 

Heptameron,  The,  a  collection  of  love  stories, 
resembling  Italian  novelle,  linked  by  the 
fiction  that  the  narrators  are  travellers 
detained  in  an  inn  by  a  flood,  and  composed, 
according  to  the  explicit  statement  of 
Brantdme,  by  Marguerite,  sister  of  Francois 
I  and  queen  of  Navarre  (1492-1549).  The 
name  'Heptameron',  meaning  'seven  days* 
(on  the  analogy  of  Boccaccio's  'Decameron'), 
was  given  by  a  later  editor  to  what  were 
originally  called  the  *Contes  de  la  Reine  de 
Navarre*. 

Heptarchy,  THE,  the  seven  kingdoms 
reckoned  to  have  been  established  in  Britain 
by  the  Angles  and  Saxons  (sth-gth  cents.). 
The  term  appears  to  have  been  introduced 
by  i6th-cent.  historians,  in  accordance  with 
their  notion  that  there  were  seven  Angle  and 
Saxon  kingdoms  so  related  that  one  of  their 
rulers  had  always  the  supreme  position.  The 
correctness  of  the  designation  has  often  been 
called  in  question.  [OED.] 


[365] 


HERA 

Hera,  known  as  JUNO  by  the  Romans,  was 
the  daughter  of  Cronos  and  Rhea  and  the 
sister  and  wife  of  Zeus  or  Jupiter,  She  is 
represented  in  mythology  as  pursuing  with 
inexorable  jealousy  the  mistresses  of  Zeus 
and  their  children,  Ino,  Semele,  Hercules,  &c. 
She  was  mother  of  Ares  (Mars),  Hebe,  and 
Hephaestus  (Vulcan).  She  was  worshipped 
as  the  queen  of  the  heavens,  the  goddess  of  all 
power  and  empire,  and  of  riches.  The  pea- 
cock among  birds  was  specially  sacred  to  her. 
Her  worship  was  widespread,  but  par- 
ticularly developed  at  Argos,  and  later  at 
Rome,  where  she  was  regarded  as  specially 
patronizing  the  virtuous  and  faithful  of  her 
sex. 
Heracles,  see  Hercules. 

HERACLEITUS,  of  Ephesus,  a  philosopher 
who  wrote,  about  513  B.C.,  a  work  'Concern- 
ing Nature'  (rrepl  <j>va€a}$),  in  which  he 
maintained  that  all  things  were  in  a  state^  of 
flux,  coming  into  existence  and  passing 
away,  and  that  fire,  the  type  of  this  constant 
change,  was  their  origin.  From  the  passing 
impressions  of  experience,  the  mind  derives, 
according  to  Heracleitus,  a  false  idea  of  the 
permanence  of  the  external  world,  which  is 
really  in  a  harmonious  process  of  constant 
change.  The  melancholy  view  of  Heracleitus 
as  to  the  changing  and  fleeting  character  of 
life  led  to  his  being  known  as  the  'weeping 
philosopher'. 

Heralds'  College  or  COLLEGE  OF  ARMS,  a 
royal  corporation,  founded  m  1483,  exercis- 
ing jurisdiction  in  matters  armorial,  and  now 
recording  proved  pedigrees,  and  granting 
armorial  bearings.  The  members  of  this  cor- 
poration are  i  Garter  principal  king-of-arms, 
Clarenceux  king-of-arms  south  of  the  Trent, 
Norroy  king-of-arms  north  of  the  Trent; 
heralds:  Windsor,  Chester,  Richmond, 
Somerset,  York,  and  Lancaster;  pursuivants 
Rouge  Croix,  Bluemantle,  Rouge  Dragon, 
Portcullis.  Another  king-of-arms,  not  a 
member  of  this  corporation,  has  been  at- 
tached to  the  order  of  the  Bath  since  the 
reign  of  George  I;  and  an  officer-of-arms, 
without  a  title,  attends  the  order  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George.  There  is  no  college 
or  corporation  of  heralds  in  Scotland  or 
Ireland.  In  Scotland  'Lyon  king-of-arms'  is 
the  head  of  the  office  of  arms;  in  Ireland 
'Ulster  king-of-arms*. 

Herbal!  or  general  historie  ofPlantes.  see 
Gerard  (J.). 

HERBERT,  EDWARD,  first  Baron  Her- 
bert of  Cherbury  (1583-1648),  philosopher, 
historian,  poet,  and  diplomatist,  was  the 
elder  brother  of  the  poet,  G.  Herbert  (q.v.). 
He  was  educated  at  University  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  had  a  career  full  of  incident  as  a 
diplomatist  (he  was  ambassador  to  France, 
1619-24),  traveller,  and  soldier  (on  the  Royal- 
ist side,  until  he  submitted  to  parliament  and 
received  a  pension).  His  'Autobiography* 
(which  extends  only  to  1624)  was  first  printed 


HERCULES 

by  Horace  Walpole  in  1764  and  edited  by 
Sir  Sidney  Lee  in  1886.  His  *De  Veritate*  in 
Latin  (published  in  Paris  in  1624,  in  London 
1625),  the  chief  of  his  philosophical  works,  is 
the  first  purely  metaphysical  work  by  an 
Englishman,  and  important  as  advancing  a 
theory  of  knowledge  substantially  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Cambridge  Platonists  (see 
Cudworth).  He  is  known  as  the  'Father  of 
Deism*,  for  he  maintained  that  among  the 
'common  notions*  apprehended  by  instinct 
are  the  existence  of  God,  the  duty  of  worship 
and  repentance,  and  future  rewards  and 
punishment.  This  'natural  religion',  he  held, 
has  been  vitiated  by  superstition  and  dogma. 
His  'Life  of  Henry  VIII'  was  published  in 
1649.  His  poems,  which  show  grace  and 
freshness,  were  edited  by  Churton  Collins  in 
1 88 1 .  They  are  noteworthy  for  his  use  of  the 
metre  subsequently  adopted  by  Tennyson  in 
his  'In  Memoriam*. 

HERBERT,  GEORGE  (1593-1633),  was 
younger  brother  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury 
(q.y.),  and  was  educated  at  Westminster  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was 
public  orator  from  1619  to  1627.  He  took 
orders  and  accepted  in  1630  the  living  of 
Bemerton,  where  he  died.  His  verse  is  almost 
entirely  included  in  'The  Temple*,  a  collec- 
tion of  1 60  poems  of  a  religious  character, 
marked  by  quaint  and  ingenious  imagery 
rather  than  exaltation,  and  occasionally  marred 
by  extravagant  conceits  and  bathos.  This 
work  was  published  in  1633.  His  chief  prose 
work  *A  Priest  to  the  Temple*,  described  by 
Izaak  Walton  as  containing  'plain,  prudent, 
useful  rules  for  the  country  parson*,  set  forth 
with  fervent  piety,  was  first  printed  in  his 
'Remains',  1652.  His  complete  works  were 
edited  by  Dr.  Grosart,  1 874.  I.  Walton  (q.v.) 
wrote  a  life  of  George  Herbert,  which  ap- 
peared in  1670. 

Herbert,  MARY,  see  Pembroke. 
Hercules,  or  in  Greek  HERACLES,  was  the 
son  of  Zeus  and  Alcmena  (see  Amphitryon). 
Hera's  jealousy  of  Alcmena  extended  to  her 
son.  ^  She  sought  to  destroy  the  infant  by 
sending  two  serpents  to  devour  him,  but  he 
seized  and  crushed  them  in  his  hands.  He 
was  instructed  in  the  various  arts  of  war  and 
music,  and  became  the  most  valiant  and 
accomplished  of  men.  In  his  youth  occurred 
the  incident  of  the  *  CHOICE  OF  HERCULES'.  He 
sat  in  a  lonely  place  in  doubt  which  course 
of  life  to  follow.  Virtue  and  Pleasure  appeared 
to  him,  and  offered  him,  one  a  life  of  toil  and 
glory,  the  other  a  life  of  ease  and  enjoyment. 
Hercules  chose  the  former.  After  various 
exploits  he  married  Megara,  the  daughter  of 
Creon,  but  being  driven  mad  by  Hera,  killed 
his  children.  By  direction  of  an  oracle  he 
submitted  himself  to  the  authority  of  Eurys- 
theus,  king  of  Argos  and  Mycenae,  and  at  the 
order  of  the  latter  undertook  a  number  of 
enterprises,  known  as  the  twelve  'LABOURS  OF 
HERCULES*.  These  were  as  follows:  (i)  the 
destruction  of  the  lion  of  Nemea,  which 


[366] 


HERCULES 

Hercules  strangled,  and  whose  skin  he  after- 
wards wore;  (2)  the  destruction  of  the 
Lernaean  hydra,  a  creature  with  many  heads, 
each  of  which  when  cut  off  gave  place  to 
two  new  ones ;  (3)  the  capture  of  an  incredibly 
swift  stag;  (4)  the  capture  of  a  destructive 
wild  boar;  (5)  the  cleansing  of  the  stables  of 
Augeas  (q.v.);  (6)  the  destruction  of  the 
carnivorous  birds  near  lake  Stymphalus;  (7) 
the  capture  of  the  Cretan  wild  bull ;  (8)  the 
capture  of  the  mares  of  Diomedes,  which  fed 
on  human  flesh;  (9)  the  obtaining  of  the 
girdle  of  the  queen  of  the  Amazons;  (10)  the 
destruction  of  the  monster  Geryon,  king  of 
Gades,  and  the  capture  of  his  flocks;  (n)  the 
obtaining  of  apples  from  the  garden  of  the 
Hesperides  (q.v.) ;  (12)  the  bringing  from  hell 
of  the  three-headed  dog,  Cerberus  (q.v.). 
Many  other  achievements  are  credited  to  him. 
He  was  again  the  victim  of  an  attack  of  in- 
sanity, killed  his  friend  Iphitus,  and  was  sold 
as  a  slave  to  Omphale  (q.v.).  For  his  destruc- 
tion by  the  cloak  of  Nessus,  see  under 
Deianira.  After  his  death  he  obtained  divine 
honours,  having  devoted  the  labours  of  his 
life  to  the  benefit  of  mankind.  See  Esc  pede 
Herculem. 

Hercules,  PILLARS  or  COLUMNS  OF,  a  name 
given  to  two  mountains  opposite  one  another 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Mediterranean,  called 
Calpe  (Gibraltar)  and  Abyla,  supposed  to 
have  been  parted  by  the  arm  of  Hercules. 

Hercynian  Forest,  a  Roman  name  for  what 
is  now  the  Black  Forest,  that  district  in 
Germany  which  lies  between  the  Swiss 
frontier  at  Basle  and  Stuttgart. 

HERDER,  JOHANN  GOTTFRIED  (1744- 
1803),  German  poet  and  critic,  a  leader  of 
German  thought  towards  the  romantic  re- 
vival, a  contemporary  of,  and  fellow-spirit  to, 
Lessing  (q.v.).  He  was  an  ardent  Hellenist 
and  a  student  of  German  folk-lore  and  of  the 
philosophy  of  history. 

Hereward  the  Wake  (fl.  1070),  an  outlaw, 
a  legendary  account  of  whose  wanderings  is 
given  by  the  I5th-cent.  forger  who  called 
himself  Ingulf  of  Croyland  in  his  'Gesta 
Herewardi'.  He  headed  a  rising  of  English 
against  William  the  Conqueror  at  Ely  in  1070, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  the  Danish  fleet 
plundered  Peterborough  in  the  same  year. 
He  was  joined  by  Morcar  and  other  refugees, 
and  escaped  when  his  allies  surrendered  to 
William.  He  is  said  to  have  subsequently 
been  pardoned  by  William,  and,  according 
to  Geoffrey  Gaimar,  to  have  been  slain  by 
Normans  in  Maine. 

The  last  of  the  completed  novels  of 
C.  Kingsley  (q.v.)  bears  this  name,  and  was 
published  in  1865.  It  is  based  on  the  legends 
of  Hereward's  exploits  and  extraordinary 
strength.  The  earlier  and  more  attractive  part 
of  the  book  deals  with  his  youth  (Kingsley 
makes  him  the  son  of  Leofric  of  Mercia  and 
the  Lady  Godiva),  his  outlawry  for  robbing  a 
monastery,  his  numerous  exploits  in  England 


HERMES 

and  Flanders,  and  his  marriage  with  the 
learned  and  noble-hearted  Torfrida.  Then 
comes  the  Conquest,  and  Hereward's  gallant 
efforts  to  save  England  from  the  Normans, 
but  the  story  becomes  involved  in  the  political 
details  of  the  subjugation  of  the  country.  The 
love  of  Hereward  for  the  faithful  Torfrida 
gives  way  to  the  wiles  and  attractions  of  a  rival, 
and  hero  and  heroine  end  their  lives  in  sorrow. 
See  also  Swallow. 

HERGESHEIMER,  JOSEPH  (1880-        ), 

American  writer,  born  at  Philadelphia.  His 
best-known  books  are  'The  Three  Black 
Pennys*  (1917)*  'Java  Head*  (1919),  'Linda 
Condon*  (1919),  'Cytherea*  (1922),  'The 
Bright  Shawl*  (1922),  'Tampico*  (1926),  'The 
Party  Dress*  (1929). 

Hergest,  RED  BOOK  OF,  a  Welsh  manuscript 
of  the  I4th-i5th  cents,  containing  the 
'Mabinogion*  (q.v.),  the  'Triads*  (q.v.), 
Welsh  translations  of  British  chronicles,  &c. 

Hermae,  statues  composed  of  a  head, 
usually  that  of  the  god  Hermes,  set  on  a 
quadrangular  pillar.  These  were  extremely 
numerous  in  ancient  Athens,  where  they 
served  as  boundary-marks,  milestones,  &c. 
Just  before  the  sailing  of  the  Sicilian  ex- 
pedition (415  B.C.)  Athens  was  thrown  into 
perturbation  by  the  mutilation  in  a  single 
night  of  all  the  Hermae  in  the  city.  The 
outrage  was  attributed  by  public  opinion  to 
Alcibiades,  but  was  more  probably  com- 
mitted by  his  enemies. 

Hermandad,  a  Spanish  word  meaning 
'brotherhood*,  originally  the  name  in  Spain 
of  popular  combinations  formed  chiefly  to 
resist  the  exactions  of  the  nobles,  to  which 
were  subsequently  given  general  police 
functions.  Isabella  of  Castile  in  1476  con- 
verted this  popular  institution  into  an 
organized  constabulary,  the  SANTA  HER- 
MANDAD,  the  *Holy  Brotherhood*  in  English 
translations  of  'Don  Quixote*. 

Hermann  und  Dorothea,  see  Goethe, 

HermaphrSditus,  a  son  of  Hermes  and 
Aphrodite,  was  beloved  by  Salmacis,  the 
nymph  of  a  fountain  in  which  he  bathed.  As 
he  continued  deaf  to  her  entreaties,  she 
closely  embraced  him  and  prayed  the  gods  to 
make  the  twain  one  body,  which  they  did. 
Hence  'Hermaphrodite*,  a  name  for  a  being 
combining  both  sexes  in  a  single  body. 

Hermegyld,  in  Chaucer's  'Man  of  Lawes 
Tale*  (see  Canterbury  Tales},  the  wife  of  the 
constable  of  Northumberland,  to  whose  coast 
Constance  is  borne  when  set  adrift  on  the  sea. 

Hermensul,  see  IrminsuL 

Hermes,  called  MERCURY  by  the  Romans, 
was  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Maia,  the  inventor 
of  the  lyre  (he  placed  strings  across  the 
shell  of  a  tortoise),  and  the  messenger  and 
herald  of  the  gods.  He  was  regarded  as  the 
patron  of  travellers  and  merchants,  and  of 
thieves,  pickpockets,  and  all  dishonest  persons. 


[367] 


HERMES  TRISMEGISTUS 

It  was  he  who  conducted  the  souls  of  the 
dead  to  the  infernal  regions.  He  was  himself 
crafty  and  dishonest,  and  proved  his  cunning 
by  stealing  the  oxen  of  Admetus  tended  by 
Apollo,  the  girdle  of  Venus,  and  so  forth. 
He  is  generally  represented  as  equipped  with 
the  caduceus,  a  winged  rod  entwined  by  two 
serpents,  the  petdsus  or  winged  cap,  and 
taldria  or  winged  sandals. 
Hermes  Trismegistus,  the  £ thrice  great 
Hermes*  of  Milton's  'II  Penseroso',  the  name 
given  by  the  Neo-platonists  and  the  devotees 
of  mysticism  and  alchemy  to  the  Egyptian 
god  THOTH,  regarded  as  more  or  less  identical 
with  the  Grecian  Hermes,  and  as  the  author 
of  all  mystical  doctrines.  From  the  3rd  cent, 
onwards  the  name  was  applied  to  the  author 
of  various  Neo-platonic  writings,  some  of 
which  have  survived,  notably  the  Uoi^avSp-^s1 
(the  'Divine  Intelligence'),  according  to 
which  God  is  a  sphere.  Hence  HERMETIC 
PHILOSOPHY,  alchemy;  HERMETIC  BOOKS, 
the  philosophical,  theosophical,  and  other 
writings  ascribed  to  Hermes  Trismegistus. 

Hermia,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream*  (q.v.). 

Hermione,  (i)  daughter  of  Menelaus  and 
Helen,  and  the  wife,  first  of  Neoptolemus, 
then  of  Orestes;  (2)  in  Shakespeare's  'The 
Winter's  Tale'  (q.v.),  the  wife  of  Lepntes. 
For  the  Hermipne  mentioned  in  Milton's 
'Paradise  Lost',  ix.  506,  see  Harmonia. 

Hermit,  The,  a  poem  by  T.  Parnell  (q.v.). 

Hermit,  The,  or  Edwin  and  Angelina,  a 
ballad  by  Goldsmith  (q.v.),  written  in  1764, 
and  included  in  the  'Vicar  of  Wakefield'  (q.v.). 
Angelina,  benighted  in  the  wilderness,  and 
sorrowing  for  her  lost  Edwin,  whom  she 
believes  dead,  is  welcomed  to  the  Hermit's  cell 
and  in  answer  to  his  questions  reveals  the 
cause  of  her  sorrow.  Whereupon  the  Hermit 
acknowledges  himself  to  be  Edwin. 

Hermit  of  Hampole,  THE,  Richard  Roile 
(q.v.). 

Hermitage,  a  celebrated  wine  produced  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhdne  near  Valence.  There 
are  red,  white,  and  straw-coloured  varieties. 
According  to  tradition  it  was  first  grown  by  a 
hermit  who  built  his  cell  (the  ruins  of  which 
may  still  be  seen)  on  the  hill  where  the  wine  is 
now  produced.  Red  Hermitage  is  said  to  be 
made  from  a  grape  originally  brought  from 
Shiraz  in  Persia. 

Hermitage,  THE,  a  museum  in  Leningrad 
containing  a  splendid  gallery  of  paintings, 
and  collections  of  ancient  sculpture  and  other 
antiquities. 

Hermod  or  HERMODR,  in  Scandinavian 
mythology,  one  of  the  JEsir  (q.v.),  a  son  of 
Odin.  It  is  he  who  undertakes  the  voyage  to 
hell  to  bring  back  the  dead  Balder  to  the 
upper  world  (see  Balder  Dead). 

Hermsprong,  or  Man  as  he  is  not,  see  3 age. 
Hernani,  a  tragedy  by  V.  Hugo  (q.v.),  in 


HER6DIAS 

which  Count  Hernani,  in  love  with  Elvira 
and  about  to  marry  her,  takes  his  own  life  at 
the  blast  of  a  horn  sounded  by  his  enemy, 
Don  Ruy  Gomez,  to  fulfil  the  pledge  that  he 
has  given  to  do  so.  Verdi's  opera  'Ernani' 
is  founded  on  Hugo's  drama. 

Herae  the  Hunter,  a  spectral  hunter  of 
medieval  legend,  said  to  have  been  originally 
a  keeper  in  Windsor  Forest,  who  figures  in 
Shakespeare's  'Merry  Wives',  iv.  iv,  and  in 
Harrison  Ainsworth's  'Windsor  Castle'. 

Hero,  (i)  a  beautiful  priestess  of  Aphrodite 
at  Sestos  on  the  European  shore  of  the 
Hellespont,  beloved  61  Leander,  a  youth  of 
Abydos  on  the  opposite  shore.  Leander  at 
night  was  used  to  swim  across  to  Hero,  who 
directed  his  course  by  holding  up  a  lighted 
torch.  One  tempestuous  night  Leander  was 
drowned,  and  Hero  in  despair  threw  herself 
into  the  sea.  (2)  The  heroine  of  Shakespeare's 
'Much  Ado  about  Nothing'  (q.v.). 

Hero  and  Leander,  see  above  under  Hero 
(i).  The  story  has  been  made  the  subject  of 
poems  by  Marlowe  and  T.  Hood  (qq.v.),  and 
of  a  burlesque  by  T.  Nashe  (q.v.)  in  his 
'Prayse  of  Red  Herring*. 

Herod,  To  OUT-HEROD,  to  outdo  Herod 
(represented  in  the  old  miracle  plays  as  a 
blustering  tyrant)  in  violence ;  to  outdo  in  any 
excess  of  evil  or  extravagance — a  Shake- 
spearian expression  ('Hamlet',  in.  ii)  which 
has  come  into  current  use. 

Herod  Agrippa  I  (d.  A.D.  44),  grandson  of 
Herod  the  Great  (q.v.),  ruler  of  the  tetrarchles 
of  north-eastern  Palestine.  He  persecuted  the 
Christians  and  died  a  horrible  death  (Acts 
xii). 

Herod  Agrippa  II  (c.  A.D.  27-100),  son  of 
Herod  Agrippa  I,  and  king  of  Chalcis  (48). 
He  sided  with  the  Romans  in  the  Jewish  war. 
It  was  before  him  that  Paul  was  brought 
(Acts  xxv ;  the  Bernice  there  referred  to  was 
his  sister). 

Herod  the  Great,  of  Idumean  origin,  king 
of  Judaea,^4o~4  B.C.  His  father  Antipater  had 
been  appointed  by  Julius  Caesar  procurator  of 
Judaea  in  47  B.C.,  and  Herod  himself  had  been 
governor  of  Galilee.  In  40  Herod  was  named 
by  the  Roman  senate  king  of  Judaea.  His  rule 
was  a  cruel  despotism.  In  a  fit  of  jealousy  he 
put  to  death  his  wife  Mariamne  and  his  sons 
by  her,  Alexander  and  Aristobulus,  and  other 
murders  are  attributed  to  him.  According  to 
Matt,  ii,  he  ordered  the  slaughter  of  all  the 
children  in  Bethelehem,  in  order  that  the 
infant  Jesus  should  be  destroyed. 

HERODAS,  a  Greek  writer  of  mimes  (q.v.) 
of  the  3rd  cent.  B.C.  Seven  of  these  were 
published  by  Dr.  Kenyon  in  1891  (there  is  an 
edition  by  W.  Headlam,  1922). 

Herodias,  the  sister  of  Herod  Agrippa  I, 
granddaughter  of  Herod  the  Great,  the  wife 
of  Herod  Philip  and  afterwards  of  his  half- 
brother  Herod  Antipas,  whom  she  caused  to 


[368] 


HERODOTUS 

imprison  and  execute  John  the  Baptist.  She 
was  the  mother  of  Salome  (q.v.). 

HERODOTUS  (484-424?  B.C.),  a  Greek 
historian,  born  at  Halicarnassus,  at  that  time 
a  city  under  Persian  rule.  He  is  known  as  the 
father  of  history,  for  he  was  the  first  to 
collect  his  materials  systematically,  test  their 
accuracy  so  far  as  he  was  able,  and  arrange 
them  agreeably.  His  work  is  entitled  'His- 
tories' and  divided  into  nine  books,  each 
called  after  one  of  the  Muses.  He  several 
times  quotes  Hecataeus  of  Miletus,  whose 
lost  work  is  believed  to  be  one  of  his 
authorities.  He  travelled  widely  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa.  The  main  theme  of 
his  work  is  the  enmity  between  Asia  and 
Europe.  He  traces  it  from  mythical  times, 
through  the  reign  of  Croesus  in  Lydia,  the 
rise  of  the  Persian  monarchy,  the  expedition 
of  Cambyses  into  Egypt  (with  details  of 
Egyptian  history),  that  of  Darius  against  the 
Scythians,  the  Ionian  revolt,  and  the  struggle 
between  Persia  and  Greece. 

Heroes  and  Hero-Worship ,  see  Carlyle(T.}. 
Heroic  poetry,  the  same  as  Epic  (q.v.). 

Heroic  verse,  that  used  in  epic  poetry:  in 
Greek  and  Latin  poetry,  the  hexameter;  in 
English,  the  iambic  of  five  feet  or  ten  syllables ; 
in  French,  the  Alexandrine  of  twelve  syl- 
lables. 

Herostratus,  an  Ephesian  who  set  the 
temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus  on  fire  in 
356  B.C.,  according  to  his  own  confession  in 
order  to  immortalize  himself.  On  the  night 
that  he  did  this  Alexander  the  Great  was  born. 

HERRIGK,  ROBERT  (1591-1674),  was 
born  in  London,  and  was  apprenticed  for 
ten  years  to  his  uncle,  a  goldsmith.  He  then 
went  to  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  but 
graduated  from  Trinity  Hall  in  1617.  He 
was  incumbent  of  Dean  Prior,  in  Devonshire, 
from  1629  to  1647,  when  he  was  ejected; 
after  which  he  lived  in  Westminster,  until 
restored  to  his  living  in  1662.  He  was^  a 
devoted  admirer  of  Ben  Jonson.  His  chief 
work  is  the  'Hesperides'  (1648),  a  collection 
of  some  1,200  poems,  mostly  written  in 
Devonshire,  as  the  title  suggests,  the  best  of 
which  are  aptly  described  in  his  own  lines : 

I  sing  of  brooks,  of  blossoms,  birds,  and 
bowers, 

Of  April,  May,  of  June,  and  July  flowers ; 

I  sing  of  maypoles,  hock-carts,  wassails, 
wakes, 

Of  bridegrooms,  brides,  and  of  their 
bridal-cakes. 

His  'Noble  Numbers'  (published  in  one  book 
with  fHesperides',  but  bearing  on  its  separate 
title-page  the  date -1647)  is  a  collection  of 
short  poems  dealing  with  sacred  subjects. 
His  poems  show  great  diversity  of  form, 
from  imitations  of  Horace  and  Catullus, 
epistles,  eclogues,  and  epigrams,  to  love- 
poetry  and  simple  folk-songs.  Complete 
editions  have  been  published  by  T.  Maitland 


HERV£  KIEL 

(1823),  E.  Walford  (1859),  W.  C.  Hazlitt 
(1869),  and  Dr.  Grosart  (1876).  The  most 
recent  complete  edition  is  in  the  Oxford 
English  Texts,  edited  by  F.  W.  Moorman. 
Several  of  his  pieces  were  set  to  music  by 
Henry  Lawes  and  others. 

HERRICK,  ROBERT  (1868-  ),  Ameri- 
can author,  born  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and 
educated  at  Harvard.  His  interest  in  social 
science  is  reflected  in  his  best  novels.  Among 
his  principal  works  are :  'The  Common  Lot* 
(1904),  'The  Memoirs  of  an  American 
Citizen'  (1905),  'Together'  (1908),  and  'The 
Master  of  the  Inn*  (1908). 

Herschel,  SIR  JOHN  FREDERICK  WILLIAM 
(1792-1871),  astronomer,  son  of  Sir  W. 
Herschel  (q.v.).  He  was  senior  wrangler,  and 
subsequently  fellow  of  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge.  He  was  secretary  to  the  Royal 
Society,  1824-7,  president  of  the  Astronomi- 
cal Society,  1827-32,  and  master  of  the  Mint, 
1850-5.  He  discovered  a  great  number  of 
double  stars  and  nebulae,  and  did  a  vast 
amount  of  work  in  connexion  with  these  and 
other  branches  of  astronomical  science. 
Herschel,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1738-1822), 
astronomer,  born  at  Hanover,  was  sent  to 
England  by  his  parents  in  1757  and  became 
organist  at  Halifax,  and  subsequently  at  the 
Octagon  Chapel,  Bath.  He  began  to  con- 
struct optical  instruments  in  1773  and  to 
observe  stars.  He  discovered  Uranus  in  1781, 
and  in  1782  exhibited  his  telescope  to  George 
III,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  court 
astronomer.  His  great  forty-foot  reflector 
was  begun  in  1785  and  finished  in  1811.  He 
discovered  many  stars  and  nebulae,  and 
contributed  greatly  to  the  knowledge  of 
astronomy.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the 
Astronomical  Society. 

Hertha  or  NERTHUS,  according  to  Tacitus,  a 
goddess  of  the  ancient  Germans,  representing 
the  earth  or  fertility. 

'Hertha'  is  the  title  of  one  of  Swinburne's 
'Songs  before  Sunrise'  (q.v.);  the  author 
rated  it  'highest  as  a  single  piece,  finding 
in  it  the  most  of  lyric  force  and  music  com- 
bined with  the  most  of  condensed  and  clarified 
thought'.  In  it  he  gives  voice  to  his  religious 
unorthodoxy,  and  sings  of  the  emancipation 
of  the  soul  under  the  influence  of  Hertha, 
the  earth-goddess,  the  spirit  of  life. 

Hertzian  Waves,  named  after  Heinrich 
Hertz  (1857-94),  a  German  physicist,  who 
confirmed  experimentally  Maxwell's  theory 
of  electro-magnetic  waves,  and  showed  how 
they  could  be  detected  and  that  they  were 
capable  of  reflection,  refraction,  and  polariza- 
tion, like  the  waves  of  light  and  heat.  These 
waves  are  the  basis  of  Marconi's  system  of 
wireless  telegraphy. 

Herv£  Kiel,  the  subject  of  a  poem  by  R. 
Browning  (q.v.),  a  Breton  sailor  who  piloted 
a  French  squadron  to  safety  in  St.  Malo 
harbour  after  the  defeat  of  the  fleet  at  La 
Hogue  in  1692.  As  a  reward  he  asked  for  a 


3868 


[369] 


Bb 


HERVEY 

whole  day's  holiday,  nothing  more.  (In  fact, 
he  appears  to  have  asked  for  an  absolute 
discharge — Nicoll  and  Wise,  'Literary  Anec- 
dotes'.) 

HERVEY,  JAMES  (1714-58),  educated  at 
Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  was  rector  of 
Collingtree  and  Weston  Favell  in  Northamp- 
tonshire, and  was  prominent  in  the  early 
Methodist  movement.  His  'Meditations 
among  the  Tombs',  'Reflections  in  a  Flower 
Garden',  and  'Contemplations  on  the  Night', 
published  in  1746-7,  were  extremely  popular, 
but  are  marked  by  a  pompous  and  affected 
style. 

HERVEY,  JOHN,  Baron  Hervey  of  Ick- 
worth  (1696-1743),  as  vice-chamberlain  exer- 
cised great  influence  over  Queen  Caroline. 
He  was  a  close  friend  of  Lady  Mary  Wortley 
Montagu  (q.v.)  and  engaged  in  controversy 
with  Pope,  by  whom  he  was  attacked  in  'The 
Dunciad'  and  'Bathos'  as  'Lord  Fanny',  and 
as  the  'Sporus'  of  the  'Epistle  to  Arbuthnot'. 
His  'Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  III' 
give  a  vivid  satirical  picture  of  the  court. 
They  were  edited  by  J.  W.  Croker  in  1848. 
A  new  edition  in  3  vols.,  by  R.  Sedgwick, 
was  published  in  1931. 

HESIOD  (c.  735  B.C.),  one  of  the  earliest  of 
Greek  poets,  was  born  at  Ascra  in  Boeotia, 
where  he  tended  his  father's  sheep  on  the 
slopes  of  Mt.  Helicon.  He  was  author  of 
'Works  and  Days',  a  poem  addressed  to  his 
brother  Perses,  urging  him  to  toil,  and 
descriptive  of  agricultural  life  in  Boeotia ;  of 
a  'Theogony*,  containing  a  mythical  account 
of  the  origin  of  the  world  and  the  genealogy 
of  the  gods,  differing  in  many  details 'from 
that  of  Homer;  and  of  a  'Catalogue  of 
Women*,  who,  being  beloved  by  the  gods,  had 
become  mothers  of  heroes.  This  last  work  is 
not  extant.  Legend  says  that  Hesiod  was 
murdered  at  Oenoe  in  Locris. 

HesISne,  daughter  of  Laomedon,  king  of 
Troy,  and  sister  of  Priam.  She  was  chained 
by  her  father  on  a  rock  to  be  devoured  by  a 
monster  in  order  to  appease  the  anger  of 
Apollo  and  Poseidon.  Hercules  promised  to 
deliver  her,  for  a  reward  of  six  horses,  and 
killed  the  monster.  But  Laomedon  then 
refused  to  surrender  the  horses.  Hercules, 
incensed  at  his  treachery,  besieged  Troy, 
slew  Laomedon,  and  gave  Hesione  to  his 
friend  Telamon,  by  whom  she  became  the 
mother  of  Teucer.  The  removal  of  Hesione 
to  Greece  and  the  refusal  to  send  her  back 
on  the  demand  of  her  brother  Priam  con- 
tributed to  bring  about  the  Trojan  War. 

Hesperia,  the  western  land,  for  the  Greek 
poets  was  Italy.  The  Roman  poets  similarly 
gave  the  name  to  Spain,  as  lying  west  of 
Italy. 

HespSrides,  nymphs  appointed  to  guard  the 
golden  apples  that  Ge  gave  to  Hera  on  the 
day  of  her  nuptials  with  Zeus.  They  grew  in 


HEXAMETER 

a  garden  beyond  the  sea  protected  by  a  fearful 
dragon.  One  of  the  labours  of  Hercules  was 
to  secure  these  apples,  which  he  did  after 
slaying  the  dragon;  or,  according  to  another 
account,  with 'the  help  of  Atlas,  whom  he 
for  the  purpose  relieved  of  the  burden  of  the 
heavens. 

Hesperides,  the  title  of  the  collection  of 
secular  poems  written  by  Herrick  (q.v.). 

Hesperus,  the  Evening  Star,  the  planet 
Venus. 

Hessel,  PHOEBE  (1713-1821),  a  female  sol- 
dier and  centenarian.  When  15  years  of  age 
she  fell  in  love  with  one  Golding,  a  private  in 
'Kirke's  Lambs*,  and  donning  the  dress  of  a 
man  enlisted  in  the  5th  Regiment  of  Foot  and 
followed  her  lover  to  the  West  Indies.  She 
served  at  Fontenoy  and  received  a  bayonet 
wound  in  the  arm.  After  Golding's  death  she 
married  a  fisherman  of  Brighton  named  Hes- 
sel, became  a  'character'  in  Brighton  of  the 
Regency,  and  was  a  favourite  of  the  Prince 
Regent.  She  died  an  inmate  of  Brighton 
Workhouse  at  the  age  of  108.  (Letter  to 
'The  Times'  from  the  editor  of  the  'Sussex 
County  Magazine',  Sept.  193°-) 

Hester  Rose,  a  character  in  Mrs.  GaskelPs 
'Sylvia's  Lovers'  (q.v.). 

Hestia,  the  Greek  goddess  of  the  hearth, 
daughter  of  Cronos  and  Rhea,  akin  to  the 
Roman  Vesta  (q.v.). 

Hetty  Sorrel,  a  character  in  George  Eliot's 
'Adam  Bede'  (q.v.). 

HEWLETT,  MAURICE  (1861-1933), 
novelist,  poet,  and  essayist,  became  known 
by  his  romantic  novel  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
'The  Forest  Lovers*  (1898).  He  subsequently 
wrote  historical  novels  ('The  Life  and  Death 
of  Richard  Yea-and-Nay' — i.e.  Richard 
Cceur  de  Lion — 1900,  'The  Queen's  Quair', 
q.v.,  1904,  &c.);  three  books,  'Halfway 
House*  (1908),  'The  Open  Country*  (1909), 
'Rest  Harrow'  (1910),  of  which  the  imaginary 
gipsy-scholar,  John  Maxwell  Senhouse, 
is  the  central  figure;  'Song  of  "the  Plow* 
(1916),  a  long  poem  in  which  the  history 
of  the  'governed  race'  in  England  and, 
particularly  of  Hodge,  the  agricultural 
labourer,  from  the  Norman  Conquest,  is 
made  the  subject  of  pungent  comments; 
some  volumes  of  essays  written  in  the 
retirement  of  a  Wiltshire  village  ('In  a 
Green  Shade*  (1920),  'Wiltshire  Essays* 
(1921),  'Extemporary  Essays*  (1922),  'Last 
Essays'  (1924));  and  a  number  of  other 
volumes  of  fiction,  poetry,  and  essays. 

Hexameter  (see  Metre),  a  verse  of  six  metri- 
cal feet,  which  in  the  typical  form  consists  of 
five  dactyls  and  a  trochee  or  spondee ;  for  any 
of  the  dactyls  a  spondee  may  be  substituted. 
The  hexameter  is  the  Greek  and  Latin 
heroic  metre.  Longfellow's  'Evangeline* 
and  plough's  'Bothie'  are  examples  of 
English  hexameter  poems. 


[370] 


HEXAPLA 

Hexapla,  see  Bible. 

Hexenhammer,  see  Malleus  Maleficarum. 

Hey  for  Honesty,  Down  with  Knavery,  a 
comedy  by  T.  Randolph  (q.v.),  printed  in 
1651. 

'Chremylus,  an  honest  decayed  gentleman, 
willing  to  become  rich,  repaireth  to  the  oracle 
of  Apollo,  to  enquire  how  he  might  compass 
his  design.  The  oracle  enjoineth  him  to 
follow  that  man  whom  he  first  met  with,  and 
never  part  from  his  company.  The  man 
whom  he  met  is  the  old  blind  God  of  Wealth 
disguised.  After  this  Chremylus  calleth  his 
poor  (but  honest)  neighbours  to  partake  of 
his  happiness.  The  honest  party  rejoice  at 
the  news;  rascals  only  and  vicious  persons 
are  discontented.  Plutus  is  led  to  the 
temple  of  Esculapius  and  recovers  his 
eyesight.  At  this  knaves  are  even  mad,  they 
murmur  and  complain  exceedingly.  Nay  the 
Pope  himself  is  even  starved.  Lastly  to  vex 
them  more,  the  God  of  Wealth  is  introduced, 
married  to  Honesty*  (Argument  prefixed  to 
the  play).  The  play  is  a  free  adaptation  of 
Aristophanes*  'Plutus*,  and  contains  interest- 
ing allusions  to  current  events  and  recent  plays, 
including  mentions  of  Falstaff,  Hamlet's 
ghost,  and  Shakespeare  himself. 

HEYLYN,  PETER  (1600-62),  educated  at 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  was  a  notable 
controversial  writer,  chiefly  on  ecclesiastical 
history.  His  chief  works  were  'Ecclesia 
Restaurata,  or  History  of  the  Reformation* 
(1661),  'Cyprianus  Anglicus'  (i.e.  Archbishop 
Laud)  (1668),  and  'Aerius  Redivivus,  or 
History  of  Presbyterianism*  (1670).  He  was 
also  author  of  'Microcosmus :  a  little  De- 
scription of  the  Great  World*,  reissued  in  an 
enlarged  form  in  1652  as  'Cosmographie',  a 
compilation  of  descriptions  of  the  various 
countries  of  the  world. 

Heythrop  (pron.  'Heethrop')*  THE,  a  cele- 
brated pack  of  foxhounds  whose  country  lies 
on  the  Cotswolds  and  towards  Oxford. 

HEYWOOD,  JOHN  (1497?-! 580?),  was 
probably  born  in  London.  He  married 
Elizabeth  Rastell,  niece  of  Sir  T.  More. 
Under  Henry  VIII  he  was  a  singer  and  player 
on  the  virginals.  He  was  much  favoured  by 
Queen  Mary,  and  on  her  death  withdrew 
to  Malines,  and  afterwards  to  Antwerp  and 
Louvain.  He  published  interludes,  sub- 
stituting the  human  comedy  of  contemporary 
types  for  the  allegory  and  instructive  purpose 
of  the  morality ;  but  he  did  this  in  the  form  of 
narrative  and  debate  rather  than  of  plot  and 
action.  His  principal  works  were  'The  Four 
PV  (see  Interludes),  first  printed  in  1569,  the 
'Play  of  the  Wether'  (1533),  in  which  Jupiter 
takes  the  conflicting  opinions  of  various 
persons  regarding  the  kind  of  weather  to  be 
supplied,  and  'A  Play  of  Love*  (1534).^  He 
may  also  have  been  the  author  of  'The 
Pardoner  and  the  Frere*  and  'Johan  the 
husbande  Johan  Tyb  the  wife  &  syr  Jhan  the 
preest*,  comedies  of  a  wider  scope.  Heywood 


HIEROGLYPHICS 

also  wrote  *A  Dialogue  concerning  Witty  and 
Witless',  and  collections  of  proverbs  and 
epigrams. 

HEYWOOD,  THOMAS  (d.  1650?),  dra- 
matist^ a  Lincolnshire  man,  a  student  at 
Cambridge,  and  perhaps  a  fellow  of  Peter- 
house.  He  was  a  member  of  the  lord  ad- 
miral's company  in  1598,  and  later  one  of  the 
queen's  players,  and  a  retainer  of  the  earl  of 
Southampton  and  the  earl  of  Worcester.  He 
wrote  a  large  number  of  plays,  many  of 
which  are  lost;  his  chief  strength  lay  in  the 
domestic  drama.  His  best  plays  are  'A 
Woman  Kilde  with  Kindnesse'  (q.v.,  acted 
1603,  printed  1607),  'The  Fair  Maid  of  the 
West*  (q.v.,  printed  1631),  and  'The  English 
Traveller*  (q.v.,  printed  1633).  His  other 
chief  plays  were  'The  Four  Prentices  of 
London*  (produced  c.  1600,  published  1615), 
ridiculed  in  Fletcher's  'Knight  of  the  Burn- 
ing Pestle*;  'Edward  IV'  (two  parts,  1600, 
1605);  'The  Royal  King  and  the  Loyal 
Subject'(i637);'TheRapeofLucrece'Ci6o8); 
'The  Captives'  (1624);  and  perhaps  'The 
Fayre  Mayde  of  the  Exchange'  (printed 
1607)  and  'The  Wise  Woman  of  Hogsdon' 
(1638),  though  the  attribution  of  these  has 
been  questioned.  He  also  published  'An 
Apology  for  Actors*  (1612),  and  poems  (in- 
cluding 'Hierarchy  of  the  Blessed  Angels', 
1635),  translations,  and  compilations. 

Hiawatha,  dPpoem  in  trochaic  tetrameters  by 
H.  W.  Longfellow  (q.v.),  published  in  1855, 
reproducing  American  Indian  stories  which 
centre  in  the  life  and  death  of  Hiawatha,  son 
of  the  beautiful  Wenonah  and  the  West  Wind, 
who  marries  Minnehaha  ('laughing  water'), 
the  Dacota  maiden. 

The  original  legendary  Hiawatha  (Haion 
*hwa  *tha)  was  a  Mohawk  chief,  statesman, 
and  reformer,  the  advocate  of  a  League  of 
Nations  among  the  Indians. 

Hibernia,  one  of  the  Latin  name?  for  Ire- 
land, Ptolemy's  Touepwa,  a  corruption  of 
Iverna,  the  equivalent  of  an  old  Celtic  word, 
whence  'Erin*  is  derived.  Claudian  used  the 
form  'lerne'. 
Hickathrift,  TOM,  see  Tom  Hickathrift. 

HICKEY,  WILLIAM  (i749?-i8so),  son  of 
the  Joseph  Hickey  who  figures  in  Goldsmith's 
'Retaliation*,  was  the  author  of  entertaining 
'Memoirs',  1749-1809  (first  published  1913- 
25),  in  which  he  describes  his  numerous 
voyages  to  India  and  other  parts  of  the 
world,  his  chequered  career  as  an  attorney, 
and,  with  great  frankness,  his  weaknesses  for 
women  and  claret. 

HIEROGLES,  a  Platonic  philosopher,  who 
taught  at  Alexandria  c.  A.D.  485,  and  wrote 
various  works,  including  facetious  moral 
verses.  A  translation  of  his  jests  is  absurdly 
attributed  to  Dr.  Johnson. 

Hieroglyphics,  the  characters  used  ^in 
writing  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  consisting 
of  figures  of  objects  representing  (directly  or 


HIERONIMO 

figuratively)  words  or  parts  of  words.  They® 
were  first  interpreted  by  Champollion  (q.y.). 
The  term  is  also  used  of  the  picture-writing 
of  other  peoples. 

Hieronimo,  the  principal  character  in  Kyd's 
'Spanish  Tragedy*  (q.v.). 
Higden,  MRS.  BETTY,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'Our  Mutual  Friend*  (q.v.). 
HIGDEN,  RANULF  (d.  1364),  a  Benedic- 
tine of  St.  Werburg's,  Chester.  He  wrote  the 
'Polychronicon*,  a  universal  history  down  to 
his  own  days,  in  Latin  prose.  A  translation 
of  this  by  John  Trevisa  (q.v.),  dated  1387, 
was  printed  by  Caxton,  1482,  Wynkyn  de 
Worde,  1495,  and  Peter  Treveris,  1527. 
Another  translation  was  made  in  the  i$th 
cent.;  the  original  Latin  was  issued  in  the 
Rolls  Series,  with  both  English  versions  and 
continuation. 

HIGGINS,  MATTHEW  JAMES  (1810- 
68),  known  as  'Jacob  Omnium*  from  the 
title  of  his  first  published  article,  a  prominent 
journalist  and  contributor  to  'The  Times', 
'Punch*,  the  'Cornhill  Magazine',  &c.  His 
'Essays  on  Social  Subjects*  was  edited  in 
1875- 

High  Heels  and  Low  Heels,  in  Swift's 
'Gulliver's  Travels*  (q.v.),  the  name  of  two 
political  parties  in  Lilliput. 

High  Life  above  Stairs,  the  sub-title  of 
'Bon  Ton*,  a  farce  by  Garrick  (q.v.). 

High  Life  below  Stairs,  a  comedy  by  the 
Rev.  James  Townley  (1714-78),  produced  in 

1759- 

Loyel,  a  rich  young  West  Indian,  receives 
warning  that  he  is  being  outrageously  robbed 
by  his  servants.  He  pretends  to  go  to  Devon- 
shire, but  returns,  assumes  the  character  of  a 
country  lad  who  seeks  to  be  trained  as  a  ser- 
vant, and  obtains  employment  under  his  own 
butler.  We  are  presented  with  the  gay 
doings  below  stairs,  in  which  the  servants 
ape  the  vices  and  follies  of  their  masters, 
until,  the  iniquities  of  most  of  his  staff  having 
been  revealed  to  him,  Lovel  discovers  him- 
self and  packs  them  off. 

Highland  Widow ,  The,  a  short  tragic  tale,  by 
Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.),  the  first  of  the  'Chronicles 
of  the  Canongate',  published  in  1827. 

The  story,  which  purports  to  be  com- 
municated by  Mrs.  Bethune  Baliol  to 
Chrystal  Croftangry,  is  that  of  the  widow  of 
MacTavish  Mhor,  one  of  the  last  of  the 
Highland  caterans,  killed  by  'red  soldiers' 
after  the  '45.  She  lives  a  lonely  life  in  the 
mountains  with  her  infant  son,  and  when  he 
grows  to  manhood,  being  quite  unconscious  of 
the  change  in  the  times,  expects  to  see  him 
revive  the  feats  and  mode  of  life  of  his  cateran 
father.  The  son,  who  adds  common  sense 
and  some  knowledge  of  the  world  to  a  brave 
•  heart,  enlists  instead  for  active  service  in 
a  regiment  going  to  America.  At  first  in- 
credulous, then  indignant  at  what  she  con- 
siders a  base  surrender,  the  widow  contrives 


HIND  AND  THE  PANTHER 

by  a  sleeping  potion  to  make  him  outstay 
his  leave,  and  then  goads  him  by  taunts  into 
killing  the  Cameron  sergeant  who  comes  to 
arrest  him.  He  is  shot  as  a  deserter  and  a  mur- 
derer, and  the  mother,  a  melancholy  survival 
of  a  departed  age,  spends  her  remaining  years 
in  misery  and  remorse,  and  disappears  to  die, 
like  a  wild  beast,  where  none  may  see  her. 

Highlands,  THE,  of  Scotland,  the  moun- 
tainous district  lying  north  and  west  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde  through 
Crieff  to  Blairgowrie  and  thence  to  Nairn 
on  the  Moray  Firth. 

Hildebrand  (c.  1020-85),  Pope  Gregory  VII, 
Benedictine  monk  of  obscure  'Lombard- 
Tuscan*  origin,  became  archdeacon  of  Rome 
in  1059  and  from  that  time  exercised  great 
influence  on  the  policy  of  the  Papal  see, 
whose  temporal  power  he  endeavoured  con- 
sistently to  magnify.  He  was  elected  pope  in 
1073,  and  in  1076  summoned  the  Emperor 
Henry  IV  to  Rome  to  answer  various  charges. 
A.S  a  result  of  the  conflict  that  ensued,  Henry 
did  penance  at  Canossa.  But  the  struggle  was 
resumed ;  the  pope  was  besieged  in  the  castle 
of  Sant*  Angelo,  and  died  in  exile. 
Hildebrandslied,  a  fragment  of  an  allitera- 
tive German  poem  of  about  the  year  800, 
containing  a  dialogue  between  Hildebrand,  a 
follower  of  King  Theodoric,  who  is  returning 
home  after  many  years'  absence,  and  a  young 
knight,  who  challenges  him.  Hildebrand 
tries  to  avert  the  fight  but  fails.  The  knight 
turns  out  to  be  his  own  son  Hadubrand.  At 
this  point  the  fragment  breaks  off. 
Hildesheim,  a  town  of  Hanover.  According 
to  legend  a  monk  of  Hildesheim,  reading 
St.  Augustine's  statement  that  to  God  a 
thousand  years  could  be  as  one  day,  said,  'I 
believe,  O  God,  what  I  read,  but  I  do  not 
understand/  He  thereupon  heard  a  white 
bird  singing,  and  listened  to  its  song  with 
delight.  On  returning  to  his  convent,  he  found 
that  a  hundred  years  had  passed.  Long- 
fellow introduces  the  story  in  his  'Golden 
Legend'  (q.v.),  calling  the  monk  Felix. 

HILL,  AARON  (1685-1750),  dramatist, 
satirized  by  Pope,  whom  he  attacked  in  his 
'Progress  of  Wit'  (1730).  -He  wrote  the 
words  of  Handel's  'Rinaldo*  (1711). 

HILL,  GEORGE  (1796-1871),  American 
poet,  born  at  Guilford,  Connecticut,  author 
of  'The  Ruins  of  Athens'  (1831),  and  'Ti- 
tania's  Banquet'  (1839). 

HILL,  GEORGE  BIRKBECK  NORMAN 
(1835-1903),  educated  at  Pembroke  College, 
Oxford,  editor  of  Boswell's  'Life  of  Johnson' 
(6  vols.,  1887)  and  other  Johnsoniana. 
Hill,  SIR  ROWLAND  (1795-1879),  originator  of 
penny  postage  and  other  postal  reforms. 
Hind  and  the  Panther,    The,   a  poem  by 
Dryden  (q.v.),  published  in  1687. 

^  Dryden  was  converted  to  Roman  Catholi- 
cism in  1685,  and  this  poem  is  an  outcome  of 
his  change  of  view.  It  is  divided  into  three 


[372] 


HINDA 

parts.  The  first  is  occupied  with  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  various  religious  sects  under  the 
guise  of  the  different  beasts,  and  particularly 
the  church  of  Rome  (the  'milk-white  Hind, 
immortal  and  unchanged')  and  the  church  of 
England  (the  fierce  and  inexorable  Panther). 
The  second  part  is  occupied  with  the  argu- 
ments between  the  two  churches.  The  third 
passes  from  theological  controversy  to  a 
satirical  discussion  of  temporal  and  political 
matters.  It  contains  the  well-known  fable  of 
the  swallows  refusing  to  cross  the  sea,  told  by 
the  Panther;  and  the  retort  of  the  Hind, 
in  the  fable  of  the  doves,  in  which  Gilbert 
Burnet  (q.v.)  is  caricatured  as  the  buzzard* 

Hinda,  a  character  in  Moore's  £The  Fire- 
Worshippers*  (see  Lalla  Rookh). 

Hindenburg  Line,  known  to  the  Germans 
as  the  SIEGFRIED  LINE,  the  line  to  which,  in 
the  Great  War,  the  German  forces  retreated 
in  Feb.-Mar.  1917,  the  line  of  the  Somme 
having  proved  hardly  tenable  in  the  fighting 
of  the  previous  Sept.  The  new  German  posi- 
tion extended  from  the  Vimy  Ridge  to  the 
Chernin  des  Dames,  passing  through  or  near 
Cambrai,  St.  Quentin,  and  La  Fere.  The 
name  'Siegfried  Line*  properly  applied  only 
to  the  section  between  Cambrai  and  La  Fere. 

Hindi,  the  great  Aryan  vernacular  language 
of  Northern  India. 

Hindustani,  see  Urdu. 

Hinemoa,  the  subject  of  a  Maori  legend,  a 
beautiful  maiden,  the  daughter  of  a  chieftain 
of  Rotorua  in  New  Zealand,  who  fell  in  love 
with  Tutanekai,  the  illegitimate  son  of 
Rangi-Uru,  the  wife  of  another  chief,  and 
preferred  him  to  his  three  half-brothers. 
Guided  by  the  sound  of  the  music  that  he 
played  in  the  night,  she  swam  across  the 
lake  of  Rotorua  and  joined  him,  and  became 
his  wife.  (Sir  G.  Grey,  'Polynesian  Mytho- 
logy'.) 

Hippo,  THE  BISHOP  OF,  St.  Augustine  (q.v.). 

Hippocampus,  a  sea-horse  having  two  fore- 
feet and  a  dolphin's  tail,  represented  as 
drawing  the  car  of  Neptune.  The  name  is 
given  to  a  genus  of  small  sea-fishes,  having 
heads  something  like  that  of  a  horse. 

Hippocleides,  the  subject  of  an  amusing 
anecdote  in  Herodotus  (vi.  128).  He  was  the 
chosen  suitor  for  the  hand  of  the  daughter  of 
the  great  tyrant  Cleisthenes.  At  the  wedding- 
feast  he  ordered  the  flute-player  to  play  a 
dance,  and  che  danced,  probably,  so  as  to 
please  himself,  and  wound  up  by  standing 
on  his  head  and  gesticulating  with  his  legs, 
to  the  grave  displeasure  of  his  intended 
father-in-law,  who  remarked,  'Son  of  Tisan- 
der,  you  have  danced  away  your  marriage. 
'No  matter  to  Hippocleides,'  was  the  re- 
joinder. 

Hippocras,  a  cordial  drink  made  of  wine 
flavoured  with  spices,  so  called  because  it 
was  filtered  through  'Hippocrates*  sleeve*  or 


HIREN 

'bag',  a  conical  bag  of  flannel,  linen,  or  cotton, 
named  after  Hippocrates  (q.v.)» 

HIPPOCRATES  (c.  460-357  B.C.),  born 
in  the  island  of  Cos,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  the 
most  celebrated  physician  of  antiquity.  Of 
the  'Corpus  Hippocraticum*  or  collection  of 
Greek  medical  works  of  various  dates  which 
have  come  down  to  us,  only  a  small  portion 
can  be  attributed  to  Hippocrates  himself. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  parts  of  it  is  the 
so-called  'Hippocratic  Oath',  expressing  the 
ethical  doctrine  of  the  medical  profession. 
(It  is  given  on  p.  213  of  'The  Legacy  of 
Greece*,  Clarendon  Press,  1922). 

Hippocrene,  a  fountain  on  Mt.  Helicon  in 
Boeotia,  sacred  to  the  Muses.  It  rose  from 
the  ground  when  struck  by  the  hoof  of  the 
horse  Pegasus  (q.v.). 

Hippod£mia,  (i)  the  wife  of  Peirithous  (see 
Centaurs);  (2)  the  daughter  of  Oenomaus 
(see  Pelops). 

Hippogriif,  a  fabulous  animal,  the  front 
part  like  a  winged  griffin,  the  hind  part  like  a 
horse ;  not,  according  to  Ariosto,  the  product 
of  magic,  but  a  natural  creature,  though  un- 
common, found  in  mountainous  regions  of 
the  north.  It  is  on  a  beast  of  this  kind  that 
Rogero  rescues  Angelica  from  the  Ore,  and 
that  Astolpho  visits  the  moon  (see  Orlando 
Furioso). 

Hippolyta,  a  queen  of  the  Amazons  (q.v.), 
given  in  marriage  to  Theseus  (q.v.)  by  Her- 
cules, who  had  conquered  her  and  taken  away  _ 
her  girdle,  the  achievement  being  one  of  his " 
twelve  labours.  She  had  a  son  by  Theseus 
called  Hippolytus  (q.v.).  According  to 
another  version  she  was  slain  by  Hercules, 
and  it  was  her  sister  Antiope  that  was  the 
wife  of  Theseus.  She  figures  as  one  of  the 
characters  in  Shakespeare's  *A  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream*  (q.v.). 

HippSlytus,  a  son  of  Theseus  and  Hip- 
polyta (qq.v.),  famous  for  his  virtue  and 
misfortunes.  His  stepmother  Phaedra  fell 
in  love  with  him,  and,  when  he  repulsed  her 
advances,  accused  him  to  her  husband 
Theseus  of  having  offered  her  violence. 
Hippolytus  fled  from  his  father's  resentment, 
and  as  he  went  along  the  sea-shore,  his  horses 
took  fright  at  a  sea-monster  sent  there  by 
Poseidon  at  the  prayer  of  Zeus,  so  that  they 
ran  away,  the  chariot  was  broken  among  the 
rocks,  and  Hippolytus  was  killed.  He  is  the 
subject  of  a  play  by  Euripides.  (See  also 
Browning's  'Artemis  Prologizes'.) 
Hippomenes,  see  Atalanta. 
HippStSdes,  Aeolus  (q.v.),  the  son  of  Hip- 
potes,  and  ruler  of  the  winds. 
Hiren,  a  corruption  of  Irene,  the  name  of  a 
female  character  ux  Peele's  lost  play  'The 
Turkish  Mahamet  and  Hyren  the  fair  Greek* 
(c.  1594),  used  allusively  by  Shakespeare 
(C2  Henry  IV,  II.  iv)  and  early  lyth-cent. 
writers  as  meaning  a  seductive  woman,  a 
harlot.  [OED.] 


[373] 


HISPALIS 

Hispalis,  in  imprints,  Seville. 

Historic.  Brittonum,  see  Nennius. 

Historia  Ecdesiastica  Gentis  Anglorum,  by 
Bede  (q.v.),  was  completed  in  731. 

It  is  a  Latin  history  of  the  English  people, 
in  five  books,  from  the  invasion  of  Julius 
Caesar  to  the  year  731,  beginning  with  a 
description  of  Britain  and  ending  with  an 
account  of  the  state  of  the  country  in  731. 
The  author  draws  on  Pliny  and  other  Latin 
authors,  and  on  Gildas  (q.v.)  and  probably  the 
'Historia  Brittonum'  of  Nennius  (q.v.)  .  In  the 
second  book,  in  connexion  with  the  consulta- 
tion between  Edwin  of  Northumbria  and  his 
nobles  whether  they  shall  accept  the  gospel 
as  preached  by  Paulinus,  occurs  the  famous 
simile  of  the  sparrow  flying  out  of  the  night 
into  the  lighted  hall,  and  out  again  into  the 
night.  There  is  a  version  of  this  in  Words- 
worth's 'Ecclesiastical  Sonnets',  entitled  'Per- 
suasion'. 

Historic  Doubts  on  ,  .  .  Richard  III,  see 
Wdpole  (Horace). 

Historical  Society,  THE  ROYAL,  was 
founded  towards  the  end  of  the  year  1868, 
to  deal  with  biographical  and  chronological 
investigations  of  historical  subjects,  such  as 
do  not  fall  within  the  province  of  archaeologi- 
cal societies,  and  yet  present  difficulties  for 
private  inquirers. 
Hfstrio-mastix,  see  Prynne. 
Hitopadesa,  the  name  of  one  version  of  the 
famous  collection  of  Hindu  tales,  known  in  its 
earliest  form  as  the  Panchatantra  (q,v.),  and 
in  a  later  form  as  the  'Fables  of  Bidpai'  (q.v.) 
or  'Pilpay*.  It  dates  from  about  the  i3th 
cent.,  and  was  translated  by  Sir  W.  Jones 


*Ho  Bryen',  see  Claret. 

HOADLY,  DR.  BENJAMIN  (1706-57), 
son  of  Benjamin  Hoadly  (q.v.).  He  was  a 
physician  and  (with  his  brother)  the  author  of 
one  comedy,  'The  Suspicious  Husband'  (q.v.). 
Hoadly,  BENJAMIN  (1676-1761),  bishop 
successively  of  Bangor,  Hereford,  Salisbury, 
and  Winchester,  famous  as  the  initiator  of 
the  'Bangorian  Controversy'  (q.v.).  He  was 
high  in  the  favour  of  Queen  Caroline. 
Hobbema,  MEINDERT  (1638-1709),  Dutch 
landscape-painter,  best  known  in  England 
by  his  picture  in  the  National  Gallery,  "The 
Avenue,  Middelharnis'. 

'Hobbema,  my  dear  Hobbema,  how  I  have 
loved  you':  the  dying  words  of  Crome  (q.v.). 
HOBBES,  JOHN  OLIVER,  pseudonym  of 
Mrs.  P.  M.  T.  Craigie  (1867-1906),  novelist 
and  playwright.  Among  her  novels  were  The 
Sinner's  Comedy*  (1892),  'The  Serious  Woo- 
ing' (1901),  'Robert  Orange'  (1902);  and 

am?IJ?  her  plays»  tThe  Ambassador'  (1892) 
and  'A  Repentance'  (1899). 

HOBBES,  THOMAS  (1588-1679),  philo- 
sopher, was  born  at  Malmesbury  and  edu- 
cated at  Magdalen  HaH,  Oxford.  For  a  great 


HOBBIDIDANCE 

part  of  his  life  he  was  in  the  service  of  the 
Cavendish  family,  and  in  1647^ was  appointed 
mathematical  tutor  to  the  Prince  of  Wales. 
At  some  time  (probably  between  1621  and 
1626)  he  was  in  relation  with  Bacon,  trans- 
lated some  of  his  essays  into  Latin  and  took 
down  his  thoughts  from  his  dictation.  On 
three  occasions  he  travelled  on  the  Continent 
with  a  pupil,  and  met  Galileo,  Gassendi, 
Descartes,  and  Mersenne  (the  French  mathe- 
matician). On  his  return  to  England  in  1652 
he  submitted  to  the  Council  of  State,  and 
was  pensioned  after  the  Restoration.  He 
was  intimate  with  Harvey,  Ben  Jonson,  Cow- 
ley,  and  Sidney  Godolphin. 

As  a  philosopher  Hobbes  resembles  Bacon 
in  the  practical  or  utilitarian  importance  that 
he  attaches  to  knowledge.  Nature  and  man 
are  the  objects  of  his  inquiry.  With  the  super- 
natural world  he  is  little  concerned.  But  he 
does  not  share  Bacon's  enthusiasm  for  the 
inductive  method;  he  regards  science  as 
essentially  deductive,  and  the  geometrical 
method  of  demonstration  as  the  true  scien- 
tific method.  Hobbes  has  been  generally 
described  as  a  nominalist,  owing  to  the  im- 
portance that  he  attaches  to  the  definition  of 
the  meaning  of  terms.  But  he  does  not  deny 
the  reality  of  the  common  element  entitling 
things  to  the  same  name  (Seth,  'English  Philo- 
sophers'). The  basis  of  all  knowledge,  accord- 
ing to  him,  is  sensation,  and  the  causes  of  all 
sensations  are  the  'several  motions  of  matter, 
by  which  it  presseth  on  our  organs  diversely'. 
Motion  is  the  one  universal  cause,  and  our 
appetites  are  our  reactions,  in  the  direction  of 
self-preservation,  to  external  motions.  Ac- 
cordingly man  is  essentially  a  selfish  unit. 
Upon  this  theory  Hobbes  bases  the  political 
philosophy  which  is  expounded  in  his 
'Leviathan'  (q.v.),  published  in  1651.  This 
brought  him  into  general  disfavour  both  on 
political  and  religious  grounds;  and,  indeed, 
the  Royalists  had  some  reason  to  regard  it  as 
designed  to  induce  Oliver  to  take  the  crown. 

Hobbes 's  philosophical  works,  founded  on 
a  comprehensive  plan  in  which  matter, 
human  nature,  and  society  were  successively 
to  be  dealt  with,  further  include  the  'De 
Cive'  (Latin  text  1642,  English,  1651), 
'Human  Nature'  (1650),  'De  Corpore 
Politico'  (originally  'Elements  of  Law'  and 
subsequently  worked  up  in  the  'Leviathan'), 
*De  Corppre'  (Latin  text  1655,  English  1656), 
'De  Homine'  (1658).  He  published  a  transla- 
tion of  Thucydides  in  1629,  an<i  °f  Homer  in 
quatrains  (1674-5);  also  a  sketch  of  the 
Civil  Wars,  'Behemoth,  or  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment' (1680),  which  was  suppressed.  His 
complete  works  were  edited  by  Sir  William 
Molesworth  (1839-45).  Hobbes  was  a  master 
of  English  prose.  Without  Bacon's  profusion 
of  imagery,  his  style,  by  its  economy  and  in- 
variable choice  of  the  right  and  striking  word, 
is  most  vivid  and  effective. 

Hobbididance,  the  name  of  a  malevolent 
sprite  or  fiend,  one  of  those  introduced  into 


[374] 


HOBBINOL 

the  morris-dance,  and  one  of  the  five  fiends 
that  pestered  Poor  Tom  in  Shakespeare's 
'King  Lear',  rv.  i. 

Hobbinol,  in  Edmund  Spenser's  writings, 
was  the  poet's  friend  G.  Harvey  (q.v.). 
Hobgoblin,  a  mischievous  tricksy  imp  or 
sprite,  another  name  for  Puck  or  Robin 
Goodfellow.  Figuratively,  an  object  that 
inspires  superstitious  dread. 
Hobson,  a  Cambridge  carrier,  who  'sickened 
in  the  time  of  his  vacancy,  being  forbidden 
to  go  to  London  by  reason  of  the  plague*. 
He  died  in  Jan.  1630-1.  Milton  wrote  two 
epitaphs  on  him,  and  his  name  survives  in 
'Hobson's  Choice*,  which  refers  to  his  cus- 
tom of  letting  out  his  horses  in  rotation,  and 
not  allowing  his  customers  to  choose  among 
them.  (See  'Spectator',  No.  509.) 
Hobson-Jobspn,  the  well-known  dictionary 
of  Anglo-Indian  colloquial  words  and  phrases 
by  Sir  H.  Yule  (q.v.)  and  Arthur  Coke 
Burnell,  first  published  in  1886.  The  title 
'Hobson- Jobson*  is  an  Anglo-Indian  ver- 
nacular term  for  a  native  festal  excitement, 
and  was  chosen  by  the  authors  as  an  alterna- 
tive characterisitic  title. 

HOBY,  Sm  THOMAS  (1530-66),  re- 
membered as  the  translator  of  the  'Corte- 
giano'  of  Castiglione  (q.v.). 
HOCCLEVE,  see  Occleve. 
Hock,  the  wine  called  in  German  Hock- 
heimer,  produced  at  Hochhekn  on  the  Main; 
a  name  extended  to  other  German  white 
wines.  There  is  a  reference  to  hock  as  early 
as  Fletcher's  'The  Chances',  y.  iii  (1620). 
There  are  red  hocks,  which  Saintsbury  says 
are  specifics  for  insomnia. 

HOCKLEY,  WILLIAM  BROWNE  (1792- 
1860),  was  author  of  some  good  Anglo- 
Indian  stories,  of  which  the  best  known  is 
'Tales  of  the  Zenana,  or  a  Nawab's  Leisure 
Hours'  (1827).  He  also  wrote  'Pandurang 
Hari,  or  Memoirs  of  a  Hindoo'  (1826),  £The 
Vizier's  Son'  (1831),  'Memoirs  of  a  Brahmin* 
(1843),  &c. 

Hockley  in  the  Hole,  the  birthplace  of 
Jonathan  Wild  (q.v.),  adjoined  Clerkenwell. 
The  'Hole'  was  the  hollow  in  which  the 
Hole-bourne  (Holborn)  flowed,  and  a  place 
of  more  or  less  disreputable  gatherings. 
Hocktide,  Hock  Monday  and  Tuesday,  the 
second  Monday  and  Tuesday  after  Easter,  on 
which,  in  pre-Reformation  times,  money  was 
collected  for  church  and  parish  expenses, 
with  various  festive  and  sportive  customs. 

Hock-Tuesday  Play,  an  early  English 
mimetic  performance,  perhaps  of  ritual 
origin,  representing  the  defeat  of  the  Danes 
by  the  English.  It  was  revived  during  the 
festival  given  to  Queen  Elizabeth  at  Kenil- 
worth,  and  our  knowledge  of  it  is  chiefly 
based  on  descriptions  of  this.  See  Hocktide. 

Hocus-pocus,  originally,  it  appears,  the 
assumed  name  of  a  i7th-cent.  conjurer, 


HOFFMANN 

derived  from  the  sham  Latin  formula  em- 
ployed by  him.  The  notion  that  this  is  a 
corruption  of  hoc  est  corpus ,  the  words  used 
in  the  Eucharist,  rests  merely  on  a  conjecture 
thrown  out  by  Tillotson.  [OED.] 
Hodge,  a  familiar  adaptation  of  Roger,  used 
as  a  typical  name  for  the  English  rustic.  Also 
the  name  of  Dr.  Johnson's  cat. 
HODGSON,  RALPH,  contemporary  poet, 
whose  chief  works  are  'The  Bull*.  'A  Song 
of  Honour',  'Eve'. 

HODGSON,  SHAD  WORTH  HOLLWAY 
(1832-1912),  educated  at  Rugby  and  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford,  devoted  his  life, 
after  the  death  of  his  wife  and  child  in  1858, 
to  the  study  of  philosophy.  He  was  the  first 
president  and  leading  spirit  of  the  Aristo- 
telian Society,  whose  proceedings  contain 
many  addresses  by  him. 

Hodgson  ^regarded  himself  as  continuing 
and  improving  on  the  work  of  Hume  and 
Kant.  He  refused  to  accept  the  distinction 
of  subject  and  object,  the  analysis  of  expe- 
rience showing  the  true  distinction  to  be 
between  consciousness  and  its  content.  But 
while  he  rejects  the  traditional  assumption  of 
mind  and  matter,  analysis  leads  to  the  con- 
clusion that  this  distinction  is  necessary. 
Hodgson's  chief  publications  were  'Time 
and  Space:  a  Metaphysical  Essay'  (1865), 
'The  Theory  of  Practice*  (1870),  'The 
Philosophy  of  Reflection*  (1878),  and  'The 
Metaphysic  of  Experience'  (1898),  the  last  of 
which  contained  a  full  exposition  of  his 
philosophy. 

Hodur  or  H5DR,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
one  of  the  JEsir  (q.v.),  a  son  of  Odin,  a  blind 
god,  who  by  the  machination  of  Loki  (q.v.), 
kills  his  twin  brother  Balder  (q.v.).  He  is 
the  god  of  night. 

HOEL,  see  Howell 

Hofer,  ANDREAS  (1767-1810),  the  son  of  a 
Tyrolese  innkeeper,  was  a  leader  of  the  in- 
surrection of  Ms  compatriots  against  Bava- 
rian rule,  when  by  the  Treaty  of  Pressburg 
in  1805  the  Tyrol  was  transferred  from 
Austria  to  Bavaria.  Encouraged  by  the 
emperor  of  Austria,  he  twice  liberated  the 
Tyrol,  but  was  each  time  deserted  by  Austria 
and  the  country  ceded  afresh  to  Bavaria.  A 
further  attempt  to  renew  the  revolt  led  to  the 
capture  of  Hofer  by  Italian  troops.  He  was 
executed  at  Mantua  in  1810,  it  was  said  by 
Napoleon's  order,  but  Napoleon  denied  this. 

HOFFMANN,  ERNST  THEODOR 
AMADEUS  (originally  Wilhelm^  (1776- 
1822),  German  romance  writer.  His  works 
include:  'Phantasiestiicke*  (1814-15),  'Elixire 
des  Teufels*  (1815-16),  'Serapionsbriider* 
(1819-21),  'Kater  Murr'  (1821-2).  He  will 
be  remembered  by  musicians  as  having  pro- 
vided the  inspiration  for  Offenbach's  *Les 
Contes  d'Hofrmann*. 

HOFFMANN,  HEINRICH  (1809-74), 
German  physician,  author  of  the  immortal 


[375] 


HOFMANNSTHAL 

'  Struwwelpeter *  ('Shock  -  headed  Peter ', 
1847),  written  for  the  amusement  of  his 
children,  and  translated  into  several  languages. 

HOFMANNSTHAL,  HUGO  VON  (1874- 
1929),  Austrian  poet  and  dramatist,  a  pioneer 
of  the  new  romantic  movement  in  German 
drama.  Among  his  plays  are  'Gestern*  (1891), 
'Der  Tod  des  Tizian'  (1892),  'Oedipus  und 
die  Sphinx*  (1906);  also  the  libretti  to 
Strauss's  operas  'Der  Rosenkavalier*  (1911), 
'Ariadne  auf  Naxos'  (1912),  &c. 

HOGARTH,  DAVID  GEORGE  (1862- 
1927),  archaeologist  and  authority  on  Near 
Eastern  affairs.  His  publications  include: 
'A  Wandering  Scholar  in  the  Levant*  (1896), 
'The  Penetration  of  Arabia'  (1904),  'Acci- 
dents of  an  Antiquary's  Life*  (1910),  'The 
Life  of  C.  M.  Doughty'  (1928). 

Hogarth,  WILLIAM  (1697-1764),  though  a 
great  painter,  is  better  known  as  an  engraver 
of  social  and  political  caricature.  He  estab- 
lished his  reputation  t>y  the  illustrations 
which  he  engraved  for  Butler's  'Hudibras* 
(1726).  Most  of  his  engravings  were  preceded 
by  oil-paintings  of  the  same  subjects,  includ- 
ing the  four  famous  series  of  'The  Rake's 
Progress',  'The  Harlot's  Progress',  'Marriage 
&  la  Mode',  and  'The  Election'.  'Calais  Gate' 
and 'The  March  to  Finchley' are  othersubjects 
which  he  both  painted  and  engraved,  while 
the*Apprentice'series,'England'}and'France* 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  painted.  Hogarth 
was  instrumental  in  obtaining  the  passage  of 
'Hogarth's  Act'  (1735)  protecting  the  copy- 
right of  engravers.  He  was  the  author  of 
'The  Analysis  of  Beauty'  (1753). 

Hogen  Mogen,  a  popular  corruption  of  the 
Dutch  Hoogmogendheiden  'High  Mighti- 
nesses', the  title  of  the  States  General,  used 
contemptuously  for  the  Dutch  or  a  Dutch- 
man, or  for  any  grandee  or  high  and  mighty 
person.  [OEDJ 

HOGG,  JAMES  (1770-1835),  the  'Ettrick 
Shepherd',  was  born  in  Ettrick  Forest,  and 
early  became  a  shepherd.   His  poetical  gift 
was  discovered  by  Scott,  to  whom  he  fur- 
nished material  for  the  'Border  Minstrelsy'. 
His  early  ballads  were  published  by  Con- 
stable as  'The  Mountain  Bard*  in  1807,  but 
he  lost  in  farming  the  money  that  he  received 
from  this  publication.    He  came  to  Edin- 
burgh in  1 8 10  and  obtained  poetical  reputa- 
tion ^  by  'The  Queen's  Wake'  (q.v.,   1813), 
making  the  acquaintance  of  Byron,  Words- 
worth,   Southey,   Prof.   John   Wilson,   and 
John  Murray.    The  duke  of  Buccleuch,  in 
1816,  granted  him  the  farm  of  Altrive  in 
Yarrow   at   a    nominal   rent,  and   here   he 
mainly  ^  resided    for    the    rest    of   his    life, 
combining   agriculture   with   literary  work. 
He  published  the  'Forest  Minstrel'  in  1810, 
pilgrims  of  the  Sun*  in  1815,  'Queen  Hynde' 
in  1826,  but  is  remembered  as  a  poet  chiefly 
on  account  of  'The  Queen's  Wake*  and  par- 
ticularly the  verse  tale  of  'Kilmeny*  included 
therein;  also  for  a  few  of  his  songs  and  'The 


HOLBEIN 

Jacobite  Relics  of  Scotland*  (with  music), 
published  in  1819.  His  prose  works  include 
'The  Three  Perils  of  Man'  (1822),  'The 
Confessions  of  a  Justified  Sinner'  (1824),  and 
'Recollections  of  Sir  Walter  Scott*  (1834). 
With  William  Motherwell  he  published  an 
edition  of  Burns  in  1834-5.  Hogg  was  a 
contributor  to  *Blackwood's  Magazine*  (q.v.), 
and  is  impersonated  as  the  'Ettrick  Shepherd* 
in  its  *Noctes  Ambrosianae*  (q.v.). 

HOGG,  THOMAS  JEFFERSON  (1792- 
1862),  educated  at  University  College,  Ox- 
ford, with  Shelley  (q.v.),  and  sent  down  on 
the  publication  of  the  latter's  'Necessity  of 
Atheism'.  He  was  the  friend  and  biographer 
of  the  poet,  publishing  two  volumes  of  his 
life  in  1858.  He  had  in  1832  contributed 
reminiscences  of  Shelley  at  Oxford  to 
Bulwer's  'New  Monthly  Magazine*. 

Hoggarty  Diamond,  The  Great,  a  novel  by 
Thackeray  (q.v.),  publishedin'Fraser'in  1 841 . 
It  is  the  story  of  the  struggles  and  mis- 
fortunes of  Mr.  Samuel  Titmarsh.  The 
Hoggarty  Diamond  given  him  by  his  stingy 
old  aunt  is  the  means  of  bringing  him  tem- 
porary prosperity.  But  he  falls  into  thelhands 
of  the  swindling  Mr.  Brough  and  the  West 
Diddlesex  Association.  The  unfortunate 
career  of  this  Association  as  an  insurance 
office  brings  Samuel  to  prison,  whence  he  is 
rescued  by  the  efforts  of  his  excellent  young 
wife. 

Hoggins,  MR.,  a  character  in  Mrs.  Gaskell's 
'Cranford*  (q.v.). 

Hogmanay,  the  name  given  in  Scotland  and 
some  parts  of  the  N.  of  England  to  the  last 
day  of  the  year,  also  called  'Cake-Day*;  also 
to  the  gift  of  an  oatmeal  cake  or  the  like, 
which  children  expect,  and  in  some  parts 
systematically  solicit  on  that  day.  The  word 
corresponds  exactly  in  sense  and  use  to 
the  Old  French  aguillanneuf  (Norman  form, 
hoguinane),  from  which  it  is  no  doubt  de- 
rived. The  origin  of  the  French  word  is 
obscure.  Cotgrave's  explanation  cAu  gui 
Fan  neuf*  ('to  the  mistletoe  the  new  year')  is 
now  rejected.  The  Spanish  word  *aguilando', 
a  handsel,  Christmas-box,  is  found  before 
1600.  [OED.] 

Hohenlinden,  in  Bavaria,  the  scene  of  a 
great  battle  in  1800,  in  which  the  French 
revolutionary  general,  Moreau,  defeated  the 
Austrians;  celebrated  by  T.  Campbell  (q.v.) 
in  his  'Battle  of  Hohenlinden*. 

HOLBACH,   PAUL   HENRI,    Baron    d' 

(1723-89),  see  Philosophes. 

Holbein,  HANS,  THE  YOUNGER  (1497-1543), 
a  great  German  painter,  who  came  to  Eng- 
land in  1526,  was  received  in  the  house  of 
Sir  Thomas  More,  and  became  court- 
painter  to  Henry  VIII  in  1534.  He  painted 
portraits  of  many  notable  personages  in 
England  and  abroad,  including  that  of  Anne 
of  Cleves,  whom  Henry  VIII  found  so  much 
less  attractive  than  her  picture. 


[376] 


HOLBORN 

Holborn,  a  district  of  London  whose  name 
is  derived  from  the  Holeburne,  'the  burn  in 
the  hollow*.  This  was  probably  the  stream 
known  in  its  lower  course  as  the  Fleet  (see 
Fleet  Street).  In  this  district  the  bishops  of 
Ely  had  from  the  i3th  cent,  a  splendid 
palace  (Ely^  Place)  with  a  great  garden, 
referred  to  in  Shakespeare's  'King  Richard 
III',  in.  iv: 

My  lord  of  Ely,  when  I  was  last  in  Holborn, 
I  saw  good  strawberries  in  your  garden 
there. 

The  garden  was  made  over  to  Sir  Christopher 
Hatton,  the  favourite  of  Elizabeth,  during  a 
vacancy  in  the  see  (1581),  and  its  site  now 
bears  his  name  (Hatton  Garden).  Matthew 
Wren,  the  uncle  of  Sir  Christopher  and 
bishop  of  Ely,  made  prolonged  efforts,  but 
without  success,  to  recover  it  from  Hatton*s 
widow,  who  married  Sir  Edward  Coke. 
Hatton  Garden  is  now  the  centre  of  the  dia- 
mond trade. 

HOLCROFT,  THOMAS  (1745-1809),  suc- 
cessively stable-boy,  shoemaker,  tutor,  actor, 
and  author,  and  a  friend  and  associate  of 
Thomas  Paine  and  William  Godwin  (qq.v.), 
wrote  an  entertaining  autobiography  ('Mem- 
oirs', edited  and  completed  by  Hazlitt,  after 
his  death,  1816),  and  a  number  of  senti- 
mental plays,  of  which  the  best-known  is 
*The  Road  to  Ruin*  (1792).  In  this,  Harry 
Dornton,  whose  spendthrift  habits  have  im- 
perilled his  father's  bank,  is  prepared  to 
sacrifice  himself  by  marrying  the  odious 
rich  widow  Mrs.  Warren  in  place  of  the  girl 
he  loves,  a  sacrifice  rendered  unnecessary  by 
the  fidelity  of  the  bank's  head  clerk,  the 
grim  old  Mr.  Sulky.  Holcroft  also  wrote 
some  novels,  including  'Alwyn,  or  the 
Gentleman  Comedian'  (1780),  based  on  his 
own  odd  experiences,  'Anna  St.  Ives'  (1792), 
and  'Hugh  Trevor'  (1794),  written  in  the 
spirit  of  Godwin's  'Caleb  Williams*  in 
defence  of  revolutionary  ideas.  He  also  trans- 
lated Goethe's  'Hermann  und  Dorothea* 
(1801)  and  other  works. 

HOLE,  SAMUEL  REYNOLDS  (1819- 
1904),  educated  at  Brasenose  College,  Ox- 
ford, became  dean  of  Rochester  in  1887.  He 
was  an  enthusiastic  huntsman,  sportsman, 
and  gardener,  and  a  close  friend  of  John 
Leech,  who  introduced  him  to  Thackeray. 
He  was  an  early  contributor  to  'Punch'.  His 
'Book  about  Roses'  (1869)  helped  to  popular- 
ize horticulture.  He  published  'Hints  to 
Freshmen'  in  1847,  *A  Little  Tour  in  Ire- 
land' (illustrated  by  Leech)  in  1859,  'The 
Six  of  Spades*  (a  gardeners'  club)  in  1872; 
'Memories*  in  1892,  'More  Memories'  in 
1894,  and  'Then  and  Now*  in  1901.  His 
humorous  and  charming  'Letters'  were 
edited  with  a  memoir  by  G.  A.  B.  Dewar  in 
1907. 

Holger  Danske,  the  tutelary  hero  of  Den-  • 
mark,  who  is  supposed  to  be  sleeping  under 
the  Kronenborg  at  Elsinore,  his  long  beard 


HOLLAND  HOUSE 

grown  into  the  table,  waiting  to  arise  in  the 
hour  of  Denmark's  peril.  He  is  the  subject 
of  one  of  Hans  Andersen's  Tales.  See 
Ogier  the  Dane, 

Holiday  House,  a  very  popular  story  for 
children,  by  Catherine  Sinclair,  published  in 
1839. 

HOLINSHED,  RAPHAEL  (d.  1580?),  was 
of  a  Cheshire  family  and  is  said  by  Anthony 
a  Wood  to  have  been  a  'minister  of  God's 
word*.  He  came  to  London  early  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  was  employed  as  a 
translator  by  Reginald  Wolfe,  the  printer 
and  publisher.  While  in  his  employ  he 
planned  the  'Chronicles*  (1577)  which  are 
known  by  his  name  and  are  by  several  hands. 
The  'Historic  of  England*  was  written  by 
Holinshed  himself.  The  'Description  of 
England',  a  vivid  account  not  devoid  of 
humour,  of  English  towns,  villages,  crops, 
customs,  &c.,  of  the  day,  was  written  by 
William  Harrison  (q.v.).  The  'History  and 
Description  of  Scotland*  and  the  'History  of 
Ireland'  were  translations  or  adaptations, 
and  the  'Description  of  Ireland'  was  written 
by  Richard  Stanyhurst  and  Edward  Cam- 
pion. A  few  passages  in  the  history  of  Ire- 
land offended  the  Queen  and  her  ministers, 
and  were  expunged.  A  copy  containing  the 
expunged  passages  is  in  the  Grenville 
collection  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
'Chronicle*  was  reissued,  with  continuation, 
edited  by  John  Hooker,  alias  Voweil,  in 
1586,  and  politically  offensive  passages  again 
taken  out;  it  was  utilized  by  Shakespeare  and 
other  dramatists. 

HOLLAND,  PHILEMON  (1552-1637), 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
a  doctor  of  medicine,  was  master  of  the  free 
school  at  Coventry  from  1628,  and  received 
a  pension  from  that  city  in  1632.  He  is 
celebrated  for  his  translations  of  Livy  (1600), 
Pliny's  'Natural  History'  (1601),  Plutarch's 
'Moralia'  (1603),  Suetonius  (1606),  Ammia- 
nus  Marcellinus  (1609),  Camden's  'Britannia* 
(1610),  and  Xenophon's  'Cyropaedia*  (1632). 
His  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin  was 
accurate  and  profound,  and  his  renderings 
are  made  in  a  vivid,  familiar,  and  somewhat 
ornamented  English. 

Holland  House,  Kensington,  built  at  the 
beginning  of  the  i7th  cent,  for  Sir  Walter 
Cope,  passed  by  marriage  into  the  possession 
of  Henry  Rich  (son  of  Penelope ^  Rich,  q.v.), 
ist  earl  of  Holland,  who  took  his  title  from 
the  'parts  of  Holland*  in  Lincolnshire,  and 
was  executed  in  1649.  In  1767  it  was  ac- 
quired by  Henry  Fox,  ist  baron  Holland, 
who  entertained  Horace  Walpole  and  George 
Selwyn  there.  In  the  time  of  his  grandson, 
the  3rd  baron  Holland  (1773-1840),  Holland 
House  became  a  great  political,  literary,  and 
artistic  centre,  and  many  eminent  authors, 
such  as  Sheridan,  Moore,  Thomas  Campbell, 
Macaulay,  Grote,  and  Dickens,  were  among 
the  guests  received  there.  Joseph  Addison, 


[377] 


HOLLANDS 

who  had  married  the  widow  of  one  of  the 
earls  of  Warwick  and  Holland,  died  at 
Holland  House  in  1719. 

Hollands,  more  fully  HOLLANDS  GIN  or 
HOLLANDS  GENEVA,  a  grain  spirit  produced 
in  Holland.  See  Geneva. 

Hollywood,  a  suburb  of  Los  Angeles, 
California,  which,  owing  to  its  constant  sun- 
shine, has  become  one  of  the  principal  centres 
of  the  cinematograph  industry. 

HOLMES,  OLIVER  WENDELL  (1809- 
94),  born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  was 
professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at 
Harvard  University  from  1874  to  1882. 
His  'Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table'  ap- 
peared in  the  'Atlantic  Monthly*  in  1857-8, 
'The  Professor  at  the  Breakfast-Table*  in 
1859,  'The  Poet  at  the  Breakfast-Table'  in 
1872,  and  'Over  the  Tea-Cups'  in  1890.  He 
also  wrote  novels,  'Elsie  Venner*  (1861)  and 
'The  Guardian  AngeP  (1867),  some  volumes 
of  poems  and  essays,  and  memoirs  of  R.  W. 
Emerson  and  J.  L.  Motley.  His  essays  in 
the  'Breakfast-Table'  series  are  notable  for 
their  kindly  humour  and  general  sagacity  5 
they  take  the  form  of  discourses  by  the 
author,  the  other  characters  being  listeners, 
who  interpose  occasional  remarks.  His  poems 
include  a  few  good  lyrics  and  familiar  verses, 
such  as  'The  Chambered  Nautilus',  'Home- 
sick in  Heaven',  'The  Last  Leaf,  'Dorothy  Q', 
and  *The  Deacon's  Masterpiece;  or  The 
Wonderful  One-Hoss  Shay*. 

Holmes,  SHERLOCK,  the  famous  private 
detective  who  figures  in  a  number  of  works  by 
Conan  Doyle  (q.v.).  The  character  was  in 
part  suggested  by  an  eminent  Edinburgh 
surgeon,  Dr.  Joseph  Bell  (1837-1911),  under 
whom  Doyle  studied  medicine.  Sherlock 
Holmes  was  familiarized  to  the  public  by 
his  eccentricities  and  mannerisms,  his  non- 
chalance alternatingwith  energy,  his  dressing- 
gown  and  hypodermic  syringe,  as  well  as 
his  amazing  mental  powers.  His  assistant 
and  foil  is  Dr.  Watson  (q.v.),  his  great  enemy 
Prof.  Moriarty. 

Holofemes,  (i)  Nebuchadnezzar's  general, 
who  was  killed  by  Judith  (Judith,  iv.  I,  &c.); 
(2)  the  great  doctor  in  theology  (Thubal 
Holoferne)  who  instructed  the  youthful 
Gargantua  (Rabelais,  I,  xiv);  (3)  the  pedantic 
schoolmaster  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's  Lab- 
our *s  Lost'.  This  character  has  been  thought 
to  Represent ^  John  Florio  (q.v.),  'Holofernes' 
being  a  partial  anagram  of  his  name. 

Holt,  FATHER,  in  Thackeray's  'Esmond' 
(q.v.),  a  Jesuit  priest  and  Jacobite  intriguer. 

Holy  Alliance,  THE,  an  alliance  formed  in 
1815,  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  between  the 
sovereigns  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia, 
with  the  professed  object  of  uniting  their 
governments  in  a  Christian  brotherhood. 


breat  Britain  refused  to  be  a  party;  and 
Castlereagh   called  it  <a   piece  of  sublime 


HOLY  STATE  AND  PROFANE  STATE 

mysticism  and  nonsense*.  It  virtually  came 
to  an  end  in  1822,  and  entirely  in  1825. 

Holy  Bottle,  THE  ORACLE  OF  THE,  see 
PantagrueL 

Holy  Cross  Day,  the  festival  of  the  exalta- 
tion of  the  Cross,  14  Sept.,  on  which  the  Jews 
in  Rome  were  obliged  formerly  to  go  to 
church  and  hear  a  sermon.  It  is  the  subject 
of  a  satirical  poem  by  R.  Browning,  in  which 
the  Rabbi  Ben  Ezra  on  his  death-bed  in  a 
prayer  to  Christ  sets  forth  the  degradation  of 
the  Jews  and  appeals  against  Christ's  so- 
called  followers. 

Holy  Grail,  THE,  see  Grail 

Holy  Grail,  The,  one  of  Tennyson's  'Idylls 
of  the  King*  (q.v.),  published  in  1869. 

Sir  Percivale,  having  left  the  court  of 
Arthur  for  the  cowl,  recounts  to  a  fellow 
monk  the  story  of  the  quest  of  the  Holy 
Grail  (q.v.)  and  the  success  of  Sir  Galahad. 
Percivale  has  not,  like  Galahad,  'lost  himself 
to  save  himself*  and,  though  approaching 
near  the  sacred  vessel,  fails.  The  honest 
Bors  has  the  vision  of  the  Grail,  but  no  more. 
Gawain  fails  utterly.  Lancelot,  after  a  fierce 
struggle  to  pluck  asunder  the  noble  elements 
from  the  one  sin  in  his  soul,  fails  also. 

Holy  Living  and  Holy  Dying  f  see  Taylor 
(Jeremy). 

Holy  Mountain,  see  Atkos. 
Holy  Office,  THE,  see  Inquisition. 

Holy  Roman  Empire,  the  name  given  to 
the  realm  of  the  sovereign  who  claimed  to  in- 
herit the  authority  of  the  ancient  Roman  em- 
perors in  the  West.  It  comprised,  in  general, 
the  German-speakingstates  of  Central  Europe. 
Its  creation  may  be  traced  to  the  need  felt 
by  the  popes  in  the  8th  cent,  for  temporal 
support,  which  led  Leo  III  to  invoke  the 
aid  of  Charlemagne  and  finally  to  crown 
him  emperor  on  Christmas  Day,  800.  The 
empire  degenerated  under  his  successors, 
but  was  revived  by  Otto  the  Great  in  962. 
After  the  successive  falls  of  the  Saxon,  SaHan, 
and  Swabian  dynasties,  and  an  interregnum 
of  nineteen  years,  it  passed  by  election  to  the 
Hapsburgs.  These  cameinto  prominence  with 
Maximilian  I  in  1 493,  and  their  line  was  all  but 
continuous  until  the  abdication  of  Francis  II 
in  1806.  The  epithet  'Holy',  adopted  by 
Frederic  Barbarossa,  was  significative  of  the 
supposed  divine  institution  of  the  empire 
and  of  its  union  with  the  Church.  The  em- 
peror was  elected  by  seven  electors,  the 
archbishops  of  Treves,  Mayence,  and  Cologne, 
the  king  of  Bohemia,  the  count  Palatine  of 
the  Rhine,  the  duke  of  Saxony,  and  the 
margrave  of  Brandenburg.  Bavaria  was 
added  to  the  electorate  in  1648  and  Hanover 
in  1699.  For  the  classic  work  on  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  see  under  Bryce  (James). 

Holy  State  and  Profane  State,  The,  a  series 
of  characters  and  essays,  by  Fuller  (q.v.), 
published  in  1642. 


[378] 


HOLY  WAR 

This  is  one  of  Fuller's  most  popular  works. 
The  author  describes  with  much  good  sense 
and  humour  a  number  of  good  and  evil 
characters,  such  as  'The  Good  Widow',  'The 
Good  Merchant',  'The  True  Gentleman', 
'The  Liar';  and  adds  essays  on  various 
subjects,  among  the  best  of  which  are  those 
'Of  Building'  and  'Of  Recreations*. 

Holy  War,  The,  an  allegory  by  Bunyan  (q.v.), 
published  in  1682. 

The  author  narrates  how  Diabolus  gets 
possession  by  his  wiles  of  the  city  Mansoul 
(i.e.  soul  of  man),  the  metropolis  of  the 
universe.  Thereupon  King  Shaddai,  the 
builder  of  the  city,  sends  Boanerges  and  three 
other  captains  to  recover  it,  and  finally  his 
own  son  Emmanuel  to  lead  the  besieging 
army.  The  vicissitudes  of  the  siege  are  re- 
counted with  much  spirit.  The  city  falls  to 
the  assault  conducted  by  Emmanuel,  after 
much  parley  between  the  defenders  ('Diabo- 
lonians')  and  the  besiegers.  But  when  the 
power  of  the  king  has  been  re-established, 
the  city  presently  relapses  into  evil  ways. 
Diabolus  recaptures  the  city  but  cannot  take 
the  citadel,  and  is  presently  defeated  by  Em- 
manuel. Bunyan  in  this  allegory  evidently 
drew  upon  his  experience  as  a  soldier  in  the 
parliamentary  war. " 

Holy  Willies  Prayer,  a  poem  by  Burns 
(q.v.). 

Holywell  Street,  London,  a  street  that  ran 
parallel  to  the  Strand  between  the  churches 
of  St.  Clement  Danes  and  St.  Dunstan, 
where  second-hand  booksellers  congregated. 
It  was  demolished  towards  the  end  of  the 
i  gth  cent.  Holywell  is  mentioned  by 
William  Fitzstephen  (q.v.)  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  his  life  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  among  'the 
excellent  springs  in  the  outskirts  [of  London], 
with  sweet  wholesome  and  clear  water  that 
flows  rippling  over  the  bright  stones* 
(quoted  by  G.  R.  Stirling  Taylor,  'Historical 
Guide  to  London'). 

HOME,  DANIEL  DUNGLAS  (1833-86),  a 
spiritualistic  medium,  whose  seances  in  Eng- 
land in  1855  and  subsequent  years  were  at- 
tended by  well-known  people,  many  of  whom, 
including  Sir  William  Crookes,  were  con- 
vinced of  the  genuineness  of  the  phenomena. 
Browning,  who  witnessed  them,  remained 
sceptical(seeHs'Mr.Sludge"TheMedium'*'). 
Home  was  expelled  from  Rome  in  1864  as  a 
sorcerer.  He  published  'Incidents  of  my 
Life*  (1863  and  1872). 

HOME,  HENRY,  LORD  KAMES  (1696- 
1782),  a  Scottish  judge  and  psychologist. 
His  'Introduction  to  the  Art  of  Thinking* 
(1761)  and  'Elements  of  Criticism'  (1762) 
were  widely  read  in  his  day. 

HOME,  JOHN  (1722-1808),^  a  Scottish 
minister  and,  after  his  resignation  from  the 
ministry,  secretary  to  Lord  Bute  and  tutor 
to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  a  friend  of  Hume, 


HONE 

Robertson,  and  Collins.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  tragedy  'Douglas'  (q.v.),  produced  in 
1756,  which  enjoyed  much  popularity.  He 
subsequently  wrote  other  tragedies  which 
were  less  successful.  Home  was  a  friend  of 
Macpherson  (q.v.)  and  a  firm  believer  in 
'Ossian*. 

Home  Rule,  the  name  given  to  the  move- 
ment, begun  about  1870,  to  obtain  for  Ire- 
land self-government  through  the  agency  of  a 
national  parliament.  The  phrase  'Home  Rule' 
had  been  used  incidentally  in  1860.  But  at 
the  meeting  for  the  local  autonomy  of  Ireland 
held  on  19  May  1870,  the  phrase  'Home 
Government*  was  adopted,  though  'Home 
Rule'  is  said  to  have  been  suggested  and 
became  immediately  popular.  [OED.] 

Home,  Sweet  Home,  a  song  by  John 
Howard  Payne  (q.v.),  an  American  dramatist 
and  song-writer.  It  formed  part  originally 
of  the  opera  'Clari'.  The  music  is  by  Sir 
Henry  Rowley  Bishop  (1786-1855),  musical 
composer. 

HOMER,  the  great  Greek  epic  poet,  who 
was  regarded  by  the  ancients  (though  the 
belief  has  in  modern  times  been  contested) 
as  the  author  of  the  'Iliad*  and  the  'Odyssey* 
(qq.v.).  There  is  doubt  as  to  both  his  birth- 
place and  his  date,  the  latter  being  variously 
placed  between  1050  and  850  B.C.  The  seven 
cities  that  claimed  to  be  his  birthplace  were 
'Smyrna,  Rhodus,  Colophon,  Salamis,  Chips, 
Argos,  Athenae*.  Tradition  represents  him 
as  blind  and  poor  in  his  old  age.  The  origin 
of  the  epics,  whether  by  the  enlargement  and 
remodefling  of  earlier  material  by  one  or 
more  hands  or  as  a  direct  composition  from 
traditional  material,  is  disputed.  Recent 
scholarship  tends  to  recur  to  the  view  of  'One 
Homer*. 

The  origin  and  date  of  the  'HOMERIC 
HYMNS'  are  also  uncertain.  The  Hymns  are 
preludes  to  epic  poems,  addressed  to  various 
deities,  and  recounting  legends  relating  to 
them. 

Homilies,  BOOKS  OF,  a  title  applied  in  the 
Church  of  England  to  two  books  of  Homilies, 
published  in  1547  and  1563,  appointed  to  be 
read  in  the  Churches.  The  second  Book  of 
Homilies  is  mentioned  in  Article  35  of  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  in  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer. 

Homonym,  the  same  name  or  word  used 
to  denote  different  things;  or  a  person  or 
thing  having  the  same  name  as  another,  a 
namesake.  Cf.  Synonym, 

Homophone,  a  word  having  the  same  sound 
as  another,  but  a  different  meaning.  Cf. 
Synonym. 

HONE,  WILLIAM  (1780-1842),  author  and 
bookseller,  who  published  political  satires  on 
the  government  illustrated  by  Cruikshank 
and  was  prosecuted  for  his  'Political  Litany* 
(1817).  He  published  his  'Every-Day  Book' 
(dedicated  to  Lamb  and  praised  by  Scott  and 


[379] 


HONORABLE  PETER  STIRLING 

Southey)  in  1826-7,  and  his  'Table-Book* 

in  1827-8. 

Honorable  Peter  Stirling,  The,  see  Ford 

(P.  L.). 

Honest  Whore,  The,  a  play  by  Dekker  (q.v.) 

in  two  parts,  of  which  the  first  was  printed  in 

1604  and  the  second  in  1630.  It  appears  from 

Henslowe's  diary  that  Middleton  collaborated 

in  writing  the  first  part. 

In  Pt.  I  Count  Hippolito,  making  the 
acquaintance  of  Bellafront,  and  discovering 
that  she  is  a  harlot,  upbraids  her  bitterly  for 
her  mode  of  life  and  converts  her  to  honesty. 
She  falls  in  love  with  Hippolito,  who  repels 
her  and  marries  Infelice,  daughter  of  the  duke 
of  Milan.  Bellafront  is  married  to  Matheo, 
who  had  caused  her  downfall. 

In  Pt.  II  we  find  the  converted  Bellafront 
as  the  devoted  wife  of  the  worthless  Matheo, 
who,  to  get  money  for  his  vices,  is  prepared 
to  see  her  return  to  her  old  way  of  life. 
Hippolito,  now  falling  in  love  with  her,  tries 
to  seduce  her.  She  stoutly  resists  temptation, 
and  is  finally  rescued  from  misery  by  her 
father,  Orlando  Friscobaldo.  The  painful 
character  of  the  play,  one  of  the  great  dramas 
of  the  age,  heightened  by  Dekker's  powerful 
treatment  and  by  scenes  in  Bedlam  and 
Bridewell,  is  somewhat  alleviated  by  the 
admirable  character,  Orlando  Friscobaldo, 
and  by  the  comic  underplot,  dealing  with  the 
eccentricities  of  the  patient  husband,  Can- 
dido  the  linen-draper. 

Honeycomb,  WILL,  in  Addison's  'Spectator* 
(q.v.),  one  of  the  members  of  the  club  by 
which  that  periodical  is  described  as  being 
conducted. 

Honeyman,  CHARLES,  in  Thackeray's  'The 
Newcomes*  (q.v.),  brother-in-law  of  Colonel 
Newcome,  a  self-indulgent  clergyman,  in- 
cumbent of  Lady  WTiittlesea's  fashionable 
chapel.  His  worthy  sister,  MARTHA  HONEY- 
MAN,  keeps  lodgings  at  Brighton. 

Honeythunder,  LUKE,  a  character  in 
Dickens's  'Edwin  Drood*  (q.v.). 

Honey-wood,  MR.  and  SIR  WILLIAM,  charac- 
ters in  Goldsmith's  'The  Good-Natur'd  Man* 


Honi  soit  qcl  mal  y  pense,  see  Garter. 
Honoria,  see  Theodore  and  Honoria. 

Honorificabilitudinitatibus,  the  long  word 
in  Shakespeare's  'Love's  Labour's  Lost'  (v.  i), 
in  which  Baconians  see  a  cryptogram  in- 
dicating that  Bacon  was  the  author  of  the 
works  attributed  to  Shakespeare. 
Hood,  ROBIN,  see  RoUn  Hood. 

HOOD,  THOMAS  (1799-1845),  born  in 
.London,  the  son  of  a  bookseller,  became 
sub-editor  of  the  'London  Magazine', 
1821-3,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  Lamb, 
Hazlitt,  and  De  Quincey.  He  edited  various 
periodicals  at  different  times:  the  cGem' 
(1829),  in  which  his  'Eugene  Aram*  ap- 


HOOKER 

peared ;  the  'Comic  Annual*  (1830) ;  the  'New 
Monthly  Magazine'  (1841-3);  and  'Hood's 
Magazine'  (1843).  In  addition  to  the  humor- 
ous work  for  which  he  is  perhaps  chiefly 
remembered  (including  'Miss  Kilmansegg', 
q.v.,  which  appeared  in  the  'New  Monthly 
Magazine')*  Hood  wrote  a  number  of  serious 
poems :  the  popular  'Song  of  the  Shirt*  (pub- 
lished anonymously  in  'Punch'  in  1843) 
and  'The  Bridge  of  Sighs',  'The  Haunted 
House',  'The  Elm  Tree',  'The  Plea  of  the 
Midsummer  Fairies',  and  shorter  pieces 
such  as  the  'Time  of  Roses*  and  'The  Death- 
bed'. Among  his  prose  writings  may  be 
mentioned  a  humorous  comedy  called  'York 
and  Lancaster',  and  the  'Literary  Reminis- 
cences* in  'Hood's  Own*  (1839),  which  include 
the  notable  account  of  an  assembly  at  Charles 
Lamb's.  Hood  received  a  civil  list  pension 
not  long  before  his  death. 

Hoodlum,  the  American  equivalent  of  the 
hooligan,  a  street  rough.  The  name  arose  in 
San  Francisco  about  1870-2,  but  its  origin 
is  lost. 

Hoodoo,  see  Voodoo. 

Hook,  CAPTAIN,  the  pirate  captain  in  Barrie's 
'Peter  Pan*  (q.v.). 

HOOK,  THEODORE  EDWARD  (1788- 
1841),  is  remembered  as  a  wit,  a  writer  of 
light  verses,  and  a  successful  editor  (chiefly 
of  the  Tory  'John  Bull')  and  a  novelist.  But 
his  novels,  'Sayings  and  Doings'  (1826-9), 
'Maxwell*  (1830),  'Gilbert  Gurney*  (1836), 
'Jack  Brag*  (1837),  'Gurney  Married*  (1838), 
&c.,  full  of  the  crude  fun  of  the  period  and 
popular  as  they  once  were,  have  now  lost 
their  interest.  He  went  to  Mauritius  as 
accountant  general  in  1813,  but  was  recalled 
owing  to  a  deficiency  of  £12,000  in  his 
accounts— or,  as  he  put  it,  'on  account  of  a 
disorder  in  his  chest*. 

HOOKER,  RICHARD  (i554?-i6oo),  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Exeter  of  poor  parents, 
and  by  Bishop  Jewel's  patronage  sent  to 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
remained  till  1579,  becoming  a  fellow  and 
deputy  professor  of  Hebrew.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  living  of  Drayton-Beauchamp 
in  1584,  master  of  the  Temple  1585,  rector 
of  Boscombe  in  Wiltshire,  and  of  Bishops- 
bourne  in  Kent,  where  he  died  and  where 
the  inscription  on  his  monument  first  called 
him  'Judicious'.  Of  his  great  prose  classic, 
the  defence  of  the  Church  of  England 
as  established  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign, 
entitled  'Of  the  Laws  of  Ecclesiastical 
Politic*  (q.v.),  four  books  appeared  in  1594, 
the  fifth  in  1597.  Other  works  by  Hooker 
were  issued  at  Oxford  in  1613.  A  pleasant 
biography  of  Hooker  was  written  by  Izaak 
Walton  and  published  with  the  1665  edition 
of  his  'Ecclesiastical  Politic'.  There  is  some 
reason  to  credit  Hooker  with  the  first  steps 
towards  making  known  in  England  the  theory 
of 'original  contract*  as  a  basis  of  sovereignty; 
it  was  already  popular  in  France. 


[380] 


HOOKER 

HOOKER,  SIR  WILLIAM  JACKSON 
(1785-1865),  botanist  and  traveller,  and  friend 
and  helper  of  Darwin.  He  greatly  extended 
and  threw  open  to  the  public  Kew  Gardens, 
of  which  he  was  director,  and  founded  there 
a  museum  of  economic  botany.  He  pub- 
lished several  botanical  works. 

Hookey  Walker,  see  Walker. 
Hooligan,  a  member  of  a  gang  of  street 
roughs.  'The  original  Hooligans  were  a 
spirited  Irish  family  of  that  name  whose 
proceedings  enlivened  the  drab  monotony  of 
life  in  Southwark  towards  the  end  of  the 
igth  cent.'  (Ernest  Weekley,  'Romance  of 
Words'). 

Hoosier  School-Master,  The,  see  Eggleston 
(E.). 

Hoosier  State,  Indiana,  see  United  States. 
Hop-o'-my-thumb,  a  name  applied  generi- 
cally  to  a  dwarf  or  pygmy,  occurring  as  early 
as  the  1 6th  cent.  See  also  below. 

Hop  o>  my  Thumb,  Little  Thumb,  a  fairy  tale, 
from  the  French  of  Perrault  (q.v.),translated 
by  Robert  Samber  (1729?). 

Hop  o*  my  Thumb  (petit  Poucet)  is  the 
youngest  of  seven  children  of  a  woodman  and 
his  wife,  who  are  forced  by  poverty  to  rid 
themselves  of  the  children  by  losing  them  in 
the  forest.  Hop  o*  my  Thumb,  having  over- 
heard this  decision,  fills  his  pocket  with 
white  pebbles,  which  he  drops  along  the  way, 
and  by  means  of  these  leads  his  brothers 
home  again.  The  parents  once  more  lose 
them,  Hop  o*  my  Thumb  this  time  using 
bread-crumbs  to  mark  the  way.  But  the  birds 
eat  up  the  bread-crumbs,  and  the  children 
arrive  at  the  house  of  an  ogre,  who  is  deluded 
by  Hop  o'  my  Thumb  into  killing  his  own 
children  instead  of  the  woodman's.  Hop  o* 
my  Thumb  moreover  steals  his  seven-league 
boots,  and  with  the  help  of  these  obtains 
enough  wealth  to  set  his  parents  at  ease. 
Andrew  Lang  in  his  'Perrault's  Popular 
Tales'  discusses  the  origins  of  this  story. 

HOPE,  ANTHONY,  see  Hawkins. 

HOPE,  THOMAS  (i77o?-i83i),  a  man 
of  great  wealth,  a  traveller,  and  a  virtuoso, 
was  the  author  of  the  once  popular  novel 
'Anastasius*  (q.v.),  published  in  1819. 

Hope  Theatre,  THE,  on  Bankside,  South- 
wark, built  in  1613  by  Henslowe  (q.v.)  as  a 
bear-garden,  with  a  movable  stage  on  which 
plays  could  be  performed.  Jonson's  'Bar- 
tholomew Fair*  was  acted  there  in  1614. 

HOPKINS,  GERARD  ^MANLEY  (1844- 
89),  was  educated  at  Highgate  School  and 
Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  was  the  pupil 
of  Jowett  and  Pater,  numbered  Bridges  and 
Dolben  (and  later  in  life  Coventry  Patmore) 
among  his  friends,  and  was  a  disciple  of 
Pusey  and  Liddon,  and,  after' his  conversion 
in  1866  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  of  Newman. 
He, entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  in  1868,  and 
in  1884  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Greek 


HORMAN 

at  Dublin  University.  He  was  a  poet  of 
much  originality  and  a  skilful  innovator  in 
rhythm.  He  wrote  a  number  of  short  poems, 
none  of  them  published  in  his  lifetime,  but 
collected  by  Robert  Bridges,  who  published 
a  small  selection  from  them  in  Miles's 
*Poets  and  Poetry  of  the  Century'  and  a 
practically  complete  edition  in  1918  (reissued 
with  some  additions  in  1930).  Among  his 
most  characteristic  pieces  are  'The  Wreck  of 
the  Deutschland*  and  'The  Windhover3. 

HOPKINS,  MATTHEW  (d.  1647),  the 
witch-finder,  said  to  have  been  a  lawyer  at 
Ipswich  and  Manningtree.  He  made  jour- 
neys for  the  discovery  of  witches  in  the 
eastern  counties  in  1644-7,  and  procured  a 
special  judicial  commission  under  which 
sixty  women  were  hanged  in  Essex  in  one 
year,  and  many  in  Norfolk  and  Hunting- 
donshire. He  published  his  'Discovery  of 
Witches*  in  1647.  He  was  exposed  and 
hanged  as  a  sorcerer.  He  is  referred  to  in 
Butler's  'Hudibras'. 

HOPKINSON,  JOSEPH  (1770-1842), 
American  poet,  born  at  Philadelphia,  Penn- 
sylvania, who  is  remembered  as  author  of  the 
national  hymn,  'Hail,  Columbia!*. 

HORACE,  (QUINTUS  HORATIUS 
FLACCUS,  65-8  B.C.),  the  Roman  poet, 
was  born  at  Venusia  in  Apulia,  educated  at 
the  school  of  Orbilius  (q.v.)>  and  at  Athens. 
He  was  present  on  the  losing  side  at  the  battle 
of  Philippi,  but  obtained  his  pardon  and 
returned  to  Rome;  here  he  became  the  friend 
of  Maecenas  (q.v.),  who  bestowed  on  him  a 
Sabine  farm.  His  poems  include  the  'Satires', 
'Odes'  and  'Epodes',  'Epistles',  and  the  'Ars 
Poetica*. 

Horae,  in  classical  mythology,  originally  the 
goddesses  of  the  seasons,  probably  three  in 
number.  According  to  Homer  they  control 
the  weather  and  grant  the  rain.  According  to 
Hesiod  they  are  daughters  of  Zeus  and 
Themis,  and  give  laws,  justice,  and  peace. 
The  'Dance  of  the  Horae'  symbolized  the 
orderly  succession  of  the  seasons. 

Horatii  and  the  Cnrlatii,  THE,  three 
Roman  brothers  and  three  Alban  brothers,  a 
battle  between  whom,  according  to  legend, 
led  to  the  subjection  of  Alba  to  Rome.  This 
story,  and  the  love  of  one  of  the  Curiatii  for 
the  sister  of  the  Horatii,  form  the  subject  of 
William  Whitehead's  successful  play  'The 
Roman  Father*  (1750). 

Horatius  Codes,  see  Codes. 

Horatio,  in  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet*  (q.v.), 
the  friend  of  Hamlet. 

HORMAN,  WILLIAM  (d.  1535),  fellow  of 
New  College,  Oxford,  and  vice-provost  of 
Eton,  author  of  'Vulgaria*  or  'Vulgaria 
Puerorum*,  Latin  aphorisms  for  boys  to 
learn.  It  was  printed  by  Pynson  (1519), 
Wynkyn  de  Worde  (1540),  and  for  the  Rox- 
burghe  Club  (edited  by  M.  R.  James,  1926); 
a  most  remarkable  book. 


HORN 

Horn,  CAPE,  the  southernmost  point  f  of 
America,  on  the  last  island  of  the  Ftiegian 
archipelago,  was  discovered  by  the  Dutch 
navigator  Schouten  in  1616,  and  named  after 
Hoorn,  his  birthplace. 
Horn,  King)  see  King  Horn. 

Horn  Childe,  a  verse  romance  of  the  early 
part  of  the  I4th  cent.,  containing  some  1,100 
lines.  The  general  plot  is  similar  to  that^  of 
'King  Horn'  (q.v.),  but  is  different  in  details. 
Horn  is  the  son  of  Hatheolf  of  the  North  of 
England.  Arlaund,  the  instructor  of  Horn 
and  his  eight  companions,  flees  with  them  to 
Honlac,  a  king  in  the  South  of  England, 
whose  daughter  Rimnild  falls  in  love  with 
Horn.  Arlaund  substitutes  Hatherof,  one  of 
the  companions,  for  Horn  when  Rimnild 
summons  him  to  her  chamber.  Two  of 
Horn's  companions,  Wiard  and  Wikel, 
betray  Horn  and  Rimnild  to  the  king.  Horn 
goes  to  Wales,  taking  Rimnild's  magic  ring 
and  promising  seven  years*  fidelity,  and  ^  to 
Ireland,  where  he  drives  out  the  pagan  in- 
vaders of  King  Finlac's  realm.  He  returns 
to  England  and  in  a  tournament  overcomes 
the  suitor  of  Rimnild,  slays  Wiard,  blinds 
Wikel,  and  marries  Rimnild.  The  poem  is 
inferior  to  'King  Horn',  and  is  one  of  those 
referred  to  by  Chaucer  in  his  'Tale  of  Sir 
Thopas*,  see  Canterbury  Tales  (19). 

Horn-book,  a  leaf  of  paper  containing:  the 
alphabet  (often  with  the  addition  of  the  ten 
digits,  some  elements  of  spelling,  and  the 
Lord's  Prayer)  protected  by  a  thin  plate  of 
translucent  horn,  and  mounted  on  a  tablet 
of  wood  with  a  projecting  piece  for  a  handle, 
used  for  teaching  children  to  read.  A  simpler 
and  later  form  of  this,  consisting  of  the  tablet 
without  the  horn  covering,  or  a  piece  of  stiff 
cardboard  varnished,  was  also  called  a  battle- 
dore. For  an  exhaustive  account  see  A.  W. 
Tuer,  'History  of  the  Hornbook'  (1896). 
Hornbook,  DR.,  see  Death  and  Dr.  Hornbook. 
HORNE,  JOHN,  see  Tooke. 

HORNE,  RICHARD  HENRY  or  HEN- 
GIST  ^(1803-84),   educated  at   Sandhurst, 
served  in  the  Mexican  navy  in  the  Mexican 
war  of  independence,  and  led  an  adventurous 
life  until  he  was  thirty,  when  he  took  up 
literature.   He  is  remembered  chiefly  as  the 
author  of  the  epic  'Orion'  (q.v.),  which  he 
published  in  1843  at  a  farthing  'to  mark  the 
public  contempt  into  which  epic  poetry  had 
fallen5.     He  published  'Cosmo  de'  Medici* 
and  'The  Death  of  Marlowe1  in  1837,  and 
other    tragedies    ('Gregory   VII5    in    1840, 
'Judas     Iscariot'    in     1848);    also     'Ballad 
Romances'  in  1846  and  'The  Poor  Artist*  in 
1850.    Then,  abandoning  poetry,  he  went  to 
Australia  from  1852  to  1869,  where  he  was  a 
commissioner  for  crown  lands,  commanded 
the  gold  escort  from  Ballarat  to  Melbourne, 
taught  gymnastics  and  swimming,  &c.    He 
published  in  1859  his  entertaining  'Australian 
Facts  ^and  Prospects',  with  his  'Australian 
Autobiography*  as  preface,  in  which  he  gives 


[382] 


HOSPITALLERS  OF  ST.  JOHN 

a  stirring  account  of  his  experiences.  Home 
was  granted  a  civil  list  pension  ^in  1874. 
He  had  much  correspondence  with  E.  B. 
Browning,  and  published  two  volumes  of 
her  letters  to  him.  She  collaborated  with 
him  in  his  'A  New  Spirit  of  the  Age'  (1844). 

Homer,  a  character  in  Wycheriey's  'The 
Country  Wife*  (q.v.). 
Homer,  JACK,  see  Jack  Homer. 
Homknan,  ANNIE  ELIZABETH  FREDERICKS 
(1860-  ),  a  pioneer  supporter  of  the 
modern  English  drama,  founder  of  'Miss 
Horniman's  Company*  of  actors,  and  of  the 
Manchester  Repertory  Theatre,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  which  she  acquired  the  Gaiety 
Theatre  in  that  town  in  1908.  By  her  gene- 
rous assistance,  the  Irish  National  Theatre 
Society  was  provided  with  a  permanent 
home  in  the  Abbey  Theatre,  Dublin  (1904). 

Horse,  THE  TROJAN  or  WOODEN,  the  artifice 
by  which  the  Greeks  got  possession  of  Troy. 
They  constructed  a  large  wooden  horse  and 
filled  it  with  armed  men,  and  then  withdrew 
their  forces  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Troy  as  if  to  return  home.  Sinon,  son  of 
Sisyphus  (q.v.),  allowed  himself  to  be  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Trojans,  pretending  to  have 
been  maltreated  by  the  Greeks,  and  per- 
suaded Priam  to  have  the  horse  drawn  into 
the  city,  on  the  ground  that  it  had  been  con- 
structed in  atonement  for  the  removal  of  the 
palladium  (q.v.)  from  Troy.  When  the  horse 
was  within  the  walls,  Sinon  at  dead  of  night 
released  the  armed  men,  who  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  city. 
Horse,  THE  WHITE,  see  White  Horse. 

Horsel,  the  Horselberg  in  Thuringia,  see 
Tannhauser.  The  legend  is  the  subject  of 
Swinburne's  'Laus  Veneris*, 

Horses,  FAMOUS,  see  Black  Bess,  Borak, 
Bucephalus,  Carbine,  Cid  (for  Bdbiecd), 
Copenhagen,  Darley  Arabian^  Eclipse,  Fa- 
vonius,  Flying  Childers,  Flying  Fox,  Godol~ 
phin  Barb,  Gringolet,  Hrimfaxi,  Ladas> 
Sleipnir,  Swallow,  White  Surrey,  Xanthus. 

HORT,  FENTON  JOHN  ANTHONY 
(1828-92),  theological  scholar,  famous  for  his 
recension,  jointly  with  B.  F.  Westcott,  of 
the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament  (1871). 
His  Hulsean  lectures  of  1871  were  published 
in  1893  under  the  title,  'The  Way,  The  Truth, 
The  Life*. 

Hortensio,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'The  Taming  of  the  Shrew'  (q.v.). 

Horus,  the  Egyptian  god  of  light,  the  son 
of  Osiris  and  Isis  (qq.v.),  who  avenges  the 
death  of  Osiris  by  defeating  the  evil  deity 
Typhon  and  wages  war  with  the  powers  of 
darkness.  He  was  regarded  as  the  rising  sun, 
born  afresh  daily,  the  symbol  of  renewed 
life.    See  also  Harpocrates. 
Hosier's  Ghost,  Admiral,  see  Glover  (R.). 
Hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem, 
KNIGHTS,  also  called  KNIGHTS  OF  ST.  JOHN, 


HOTSPUR 

KNIGHTS  OF  RHODES,  and  KNIGHTS  OF  MALTA, 
a  military  religious  order,  originally  an 
association  that  provided  a  hostel  at  Jerusa- 
lem for  the  reception  of  pilgrims.  The 
military  order  was  founded  about  1099  on  the 
earlier  (1070)  foundation  of  a  hospital  for 
sick  pilgrims  by  a  citizen  of  Amalfi.  A 
branch  was  established  in  England  in  the 
1 2th  cent.,  and  had  its  house  at  Clerkenwell, 
where  their  church  of  St.  John,  much  rebuilt, 
still  exists.  Their  badge  was  a  white  cross  of 
eight  points  on  a  black  ground.  The  Knights 
of  St.  John  defended  Acre  in  1290,  took 
Rhodes  in  1310  and  defended  it  against  the 
Saracens  until  1525;  then  retired  to  Candia 
and  Sicily,  and  finally  in  1530  were  given 
Malta  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  This  they 
were  obliged  to  surrender  to  Buonaparte  in 
1798 ;  it  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1800  and 
ceded  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  of  1814. 

The  original  order  survives  on  the  Conti- 
nent. It  was  suppressed  in  England  in  the 
1 6th  cent.  The  modern  British  order  was 
formed  in  the  igth  cent.,  receiving  a  charter 
of  incorporation  in  1888,  for  the  purpose  of 
ambulance  and  other  charitable  work. 
Hotspur,  SIR  HENRY  PERCY  (1364-1403), 
called  'Hotspur',  eldest  son  of  the  first  earl  of 
Northumberland,  figures  in  Shakespeare's 
'King  Henry  IV  (q.v.),  a  gallant  fiery 
character. 

HOUGHTON,  LORD,  see  Milnes. 
HOUGHTON,  WILLIAM  STANLEY 
(1881-1913),  the  son  of  a  Manchester  mer- 
chant, devoted  from  early  life  to  the  drama. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  plays  of  Lancashire 
life,  strongly  influenced  by  the  Ibsen  tradi- 
tion. The  first  of  these  was  'The  Dear  De- 
parted*, produced  in  1908  by  the  Manchester 
Repertory  Theatre ;  followed  by  'Independent 
Means'  in  1909,  'The  Younger  Generation* 
and  *The  Master  of  the  House*  in  1910, 
'Fancy-Free*  in  1911,  and  'Hindle  Wakes', 
his  most  successful  work,  in  1912.  In  1913 
Houghton  migrated  to  Paris,  but  died  within 
a  few  months. 

Hound  of  Heaven ,  The,  see  Thompson. 
Houndsditch,  a  district  in  London,  largely 
inhabited  by  poor  Jewish  shopkeepers,  origin- 
ally part  of  the  ditch  outside  the  city  walls. 
Hours,  see  Horae. 

Hours ,  Book  of,  a  book  containing  the  prayers 
or  offices  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  be 
said  at  the  seven  times  of  the  day  appointed 
for  prayer. 

Hous  of  Famef  The,  a  poem  by  Chaucer  of 
i, 080  lines  composed  probably  between  1372 
and  1386.  In  a  dream  the  poet  visits  the 
Temple  of  Venus,  where  he  sees  graven  the 
story  of  the  flight  of  Aeneas  after  the  fall  of 
Troy,  and  of  his  reception  by,  and  betrayal  of, 
Dido.  He  is  then  carried  by  an  eagle  to  the 
House  of  Fame,  full  of  a  great  company  of 
aspirants  for  renown  and  adorned  with  the 
statues  of  historians  and  poets ;  and  sees  the 
queen,  Fame,  distributing  fame  and  slander. 


HOUSE  OF  USHER 

He  is  then  taken  to  the  House  of  Rumour, 
crowded  with  shipmen,  pilgrims,  and  par- 
doners, and  other  bearers  of  false  tidings. 
The  poem  is  unfinished. 

House,  ASTROLOGICAL,  a  twelfth  part  of  the 
heavens  as  divided  by  great  circles  through 
the  north  and  south  points  of  the  horizon. 
A  special  signification  was  attached  to  each 
house.  They  were  numbered  eastwards  be- 
ginning with  the  HOUSE  OF  THE  ASCENDANT. 
THE  ASCENDANT  was  the  degree  of  the  zodiac 
which  at  any  moment,  e.g.  that  of  the  birth  of 
a  child,  is  rising  above  the  eastern  horizon. 
The  'house  of  the  ascendant*  included  five 
degrees  of  the  zodiac  above  this  point  and 
twenty-five  degrees  below  it.  The  LORD  OF 
THE  ASCENDANT  was  any  planet  within  the 
house  of  the  ascendant.  The  ascendant  and 
its  lord  were  supposed  to  exercise  a  special 
influence  on  the  life  of  a  child  born  at  the 
moment. 

House,  THE,  a  familiar  name  for  (i)  the 
House  of  Commons ;  (2)  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford; (3)  the  Stock  Exchange;  (4)  the  work- 
house. 

House  of  Life,  The,  a  sonnet-sequence  by 
D.  G.  Rossetti  (q.v.),  published  partly  in 
1870,  partly  in  1 88 1 .  The  sonnets  are  records 
of  the  poet's  spiritual  experiences,  inspired 
by  love  of  his  wife  and  sorrow  for  her  death, 
and  permeated  with  mysticism. 

House  of  the  Seven  Gables,  The,  a  novel  by 
Hawthorne  (q.v.),  published  in  1851. 

In  this  tale  the  author  presents  the  prob- 
lem of  unmerited  misfortune  and  prosperous 
and  unrequited  crime.  Hepzibah  Pyncheon 
is  a  poor  grotesque  old  spinster,  inhabiting 
the  paternal  mansion  of  a  decayed  New 
England  family,  which  has  suffered  from 
generation  to  generation  the  curse  of  old 
Maule,  the  dispossessed  owner  of  the 
property*  Under  stress  of  poverty  she  is 
obliged  to  do  violence  to  her  family  pride  by 
opening  a  small  shop.  At  this  moment,  to 
add  to  Hepzibah's  perplexities,  her  brother 
Clifford  Pyncheon,  an  amiable  Epicurean 
bachelor  of  enfeebled  intellect,  who  has  spent 
long  years  in  prison  for  a  crime  of  which  he 
has  been  unjustly  convicted  by  the  machina- 
tions of  his  cousin  Judge  Pyncheon,  returns 
to  his  home.  On  the  other  hand,  a  fresh 
little  country  cousin,  Phoebe  Pyncheon, 
arrives  to  lighten  the  gloom  of  the  old  house. 
Judge  Pyncheon,  the  bland  prosperous 
hypocrite,  diffusing  a  'sultry'^  benevolence, 
continues  his  persecution  of  Clifford ;  but  this 
is  arrested  by  the  Judge's  sudden  death,  and 
with  the  help  of  Holgrave,  a  young  daguerreo- 
typist  and  descendant  of  old  Maule,  a  typical 
modern  American,  independent  and  self- 
reliant,  Clifford  is  rehabilitated,  and  a  be- 
lated happiness  brightens  the  declining  years 
of  the  poor  old  brother  and  sister. 
House  of  Usher ,  The  Fall  of  the{  one  of  the 
'Tales  of  Mystery  and  Imagination*  of  Poe 
(q.v.). 


[383] 


HOUSE  THAT  JACK  BUILT 

House  that  Jack  Built,  The,  a  nursery 
accumulative  tale  of  great  antiquity,  probably 
based  on  an  old  Hebrew  original,  a  hymn 
in  Sepher  Haggadah,  beginning  'A  kid  my 
father  bought  for  two  pieces  of  money'; 
'then  came  the  cat  and  ate  the  kid,  &c.'; 
'then  came  the  dog  and  bit  the  cat,  &c.'; 
ending  with  the  Angel  of  Death  who  killed 
the  butcher  who  slew  the  ox,  &c;  and  the 
Holy  One  who  slew  the  Angel  of  Death. 
That  the  English  version  is  an  early  one  is 
indicated  by  the  reference  to  the  'priest,  all 
shaven  and  shorn*.  There  is  also  a  Danish 
version  (Halliwell). 

House  with  the  Green  Shutters,  a  novel  by 
George  Douglas  (George  Douglas  Brown, 
1869-1902),  published  in  1901. 
Household  Words,  a  weekly  periodical 
started  in  1849  by  Dickens  (q.v.),  from  which 
politics  were  ostensibly  excluded  and  which 
was  adapted  to  a  more  popular  standard  of 
taste  than  such  magazines  as  'Blackwood*.  It 
received  contributions  from  such  noted 
writers  (besides  Dickens  himself)  as  Bulwer 
Lytton,  Lever,  Wilkie  Collins,  and  Mrs. 
Gaskell. 

HOUSMAN,  ALFRED  EDWARD  (1859- 
),  one  of  the  greatest  of  living  classical 
scholars,  professor  of  Latin  at  Cambridge 
University,  is  the  author  of  two  volumes  of 
lyrics,  remarkable  for  economy  of  words 
and  simplicity,  'The  Shropshire  Lad'  (1896) 
and  'Last  Poems*  (1932). 

HOUSMAN,  LAURENCE  (1865-  ), 
brother  of  the  above,  author  and  artist.  His 
best-known  works  are:  'Prunella*  (1906), 
'Angels  and  Ministers'  (1921),  'Little  Plays 
of  St.  Francis*  (1922),  'Palace  Plays'  (1930); 
also  satirical  novels,  'The  Duke  of  Flam- 
borough*  (1928),  'Trimblerigg*  (1924).  He 
was  the  author  of  'An  Englishwoman's  Love- 
letters',  published  anonymously  in  1900. 
Houyhnhnms,  the  talking  horses  in  'Gulli- 
ver's Travels*  (q.v.). 

HOVEDEN  or  HOWDEN,  ROGER  (d. 
1 20 1  ?),  a  Yorkshireman  and  a  chronicler  who 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  His  'Cronica* 
were  first  printed  in  1596,  and  edited  by 
Bishop  Stubbs  in  1868-71. 

How  they  brought  the  Good  News  from 
Ghent  to  Aixf  a  poem  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.), 
included  in  'Dramatic  Romances',  published 
in  'Bells  and  Pomegranates*  (1842-5). 

This,  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the 
author's  poems,  is  a  vivid  imaginary  tale  of 
three  horsemen  galloping  to  save  their  town, 
one  horse  falling  dead  on  the  way,  the  second 
within  sight  of  the  town,  the  third  reaching  the 
market-place,  where  the  town's  last  measure 
of  wine  is  poured  down  its  throat. 
Howard,  HENRY,  see  Surrey. 
HOWE,  EDGAR  WATSON  (1854-  ), 
American  author,  printer,  and  publisher, 
born  in  Indiana  but  afterwards  identified 
with  Kansas.  His  first  and  most  famous 


HOYDEN 

book,  'The  Story  of  a  Country  Town*  (1883), 
was  an  important  contribution  to  realistic 
fiction,  and  has  been  called  'the  grimmest  of 
American  novels*. 

HOWE,  JULIA  WARD,  see  Battle  Hymn 
of  the  Republic. 

Howe,  Miss,  a  character  in  Richardson's 
'Clarissa  Harlowe*  (q.v.). 
Howell  or  HOEL,  in  the  Arthurian  legend, 
duke  of  Brittany  and  cousin  of  King  Arthur. 
HOWELL,  JAMES  (i594?~i666),  educated 
at  Jesus  College,  Oxford,  held  diplomatic  and 
administrative  posts  under  Charles  II,  and 
was  imprisoned  in  the  Fleet  as  a  Royalist  from 
1643  to  1651.  He  wrote  a  number  of  his- 
torical and  political  pamphlets,  but  is  chiefly 
remembered  for  his  'Epistolae  Ho-elianae: 
Familiar  Letters',  mostly  written  in  the  Fleet 
and  generally  to  imaginary  correspondents 
(collected  in  1650,  and  edited  by  Joseph 
Jacobs  in  1890-2).  Some  of  these  are 
political  or  historical  and  deal  with  various 
countries,  others  are  essays  on  literary  and 
social  topics.  In  1649  he  wrote  his  satirical 
'Perfect  Description  of  the  Country  of  Scot- 
land', which  was  reprinted  by  Wilkes  in 
No.  31  of  the  'North  Briton*.  In  1642  he 
issued  his  entertaining  'Instructions  for 
Forreine  Travel*  (enlarged  in  1650),  and  in 
1657  his  'Londinopolis ;  an  Historical  Dis- 
course or  Perlustration  of  the  City  of  London*. 

HOWELLS,  WILLIAM  DEAN  (1837- 
1920),  American  novelist,  was  born  at 
Martin's  Ferry,  Ohio,  and  began  life  as  a 
printer  and  journalist.  He  was  American 
consul  at  Venice,  1861  to  1865, an  experience 
reflected  in  his  'Venetian  Life*  (1866)  and 
'Italian  Journeys'  (1867).  He  was  appointed 
editor  of  the  'Atlantic  Monthly*  in  1 872,  and 
was  associate  editor  of  'Harper's  Magazine* 
1886—91,  to  which  periodicals  he  contributed 
many  articles  on  literary  subjects.  His 
numerous  romances  include  'Their  Wedding 
Journey*  (1871),  'A  Chance  Acquaintance* 
(1873),  'A  Foregone  Conclusion*  (1875),  'The 
Lady  of  the  Aroostook*  (1879),  'The  Undis- 
covered Country*  (1880),  'A  Fearful  Responsi- 
bility* (1881),  'A  Modern  Instance*  (1882), 
'The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham*  (his  greatest  work, 
1884),  'Indian  Summer*  (another  charming 
book,  1887),  'A  Hazard  of  New  Fortunes* 
(1889),  in  which  he  took  up  again  the  char- 
acters of  'Their  Wedding  Journey*,  'The 
Quality  of  Mercy*  (1892),  'The  Landlord  at 
Lion's  Head*  (1897),  'Miss  Bellard's  Inspira- 
tion* (1905).  His  works  of  criticism  and 
reminiscence  include  'Criticism  and  Fiction* 
(1891),  'My  Literary  Passions*  (1895), 
'Literary  Friends  and  Acquaintances*  (1900), 
'Heroines  of  Fiction*  (1901),  'Literature  and 
Life*  (1902).  Howells  also  wrote  some 
comedies. 

Howleglass,  see  Eulenspiegel 
Hoyden,  Miss,  a  character  in  Vanbrugh's 
'The  Relapse'  (q.v.),  and  in  Sheridan's  'A 
Trip  to  Scarborough*  (q.v.). 


[384] 


HOYLE 

HOYLE,  EDMOND  (1673-1769),  author 
of  a  'Short  Treatise  on  Whist*  (1743  and  later 
editions).  Hoyle's  'Laws'  of  1760  ruled  Whist 
till  1864. 

Hrimfaxi  ('dewy-mane'),  in  Scandinavian. 

mythology,  the  horse  of  Night. 

Hrothgar,  the  Danish  king  in  'Beowulf' 

(q.v.). 

Hrotsvitlia  or  ROSWITEA,  a  Benedictine 
abbess,  in  the  loth  cent.,  of  Gandersheim  in 
Saxony,  who  adapted  the  comedies  of  Terence 
for  the  use  of  her  convent,  an  example  of  the 
survival  of  classical  influence  in  the  Middle 
Ages, 

Hubbard,  MOTHER,  see  Mother  Hubbard 
and  Mother  Hubberd's  Tale. 

Hubert,  ST.,  the  patron  saint  of  the  chase,  is 
said  to  have  been  son  of  Bertrand ,  duke  of  Aqui- 
taine,  and  to  have  lived  in  the  7th  cent.  He  was 
passionately  devoted  to  hunting,  for  which  he 
neglected  his  religious  duties.  One  day  a 
stag  appeared  before  him,  with  a  crucifix 
between  his  horns,  and  threatened  him  with 
eternal  punishment  if  he  did  not  repent  of 
his  sins.  He  thereupon  took  holy  orders  and 
later  became  bishop  of  Lie"ge  and  Maestricht. 

HUGHOUN  (fl.  i4th  cent.),  Scottish  author 
of  romances  in  alliterative  verse.  Among 
the  poems  attributed  to  him,  with  various 
degrees  of  probability,  are  the  alliterative 
'Morte  Arthure',  'The  Awntyrs  of  Arthure', 
'Gawain  and  the  Green  Knight',  'The  Pistyl 
of  Susan',  'Patience',  'The  Pearl',  and  'Clean- 
ness* (qq.v.).  He  is  perhaps  to  be  identified 
with  Sir  Hugh  of  Eglintoun,  a  statesman  of 
the  reigns  of  David  II  and  Robert  II. 

Huckleberry  Finn,  see  Clemens. 

Hudibras  or  HUDDIBRAS,  in  Spenser's 
'Faerie  Queene',  n.  ii.  17,  the  lover  of  Elissa, 

An  hardy  man, 

Yet  not  so  good  of  deeds  as  great  of  name 
Which  he  by  many  rash  adventures  wan. 

Another  Huddibras  in  II.  x.  25  of  the  same 
poem  is  a  legendary  king  of  Britain. 

Hudibras,  a  satire  in  octosyllabic  couplets, 
and  in  three  parts,  each  containing  three 
cantos,  by  S.  Butler  (i6is~8o,  q.v.),  pub- 
lished, Pt.  I  in  1663,  Pt.  II  in  1664,  and 
Pt.  Ill  in  1678. 

The  satire  takes  the  form  of  a  mock-heroic 
poem,  in  which  the  hypocrisy  and  self-seek- 
ing of  the  Presbyterians  and  Independents 
are  held  up  to  ridicule.  It  is  externally 
modelled  on  'Don  Quixote',  while  there  are 
Rabelaisian  touches,  and  the  influence  of 
Scarron  on  the  style  has  been  pointed  out. 
The  name  'Hudibras'  is  taken  from  the 
'Faerie  Queene'  (see  above).  The  character 
has  been  thought  to  represent  the  Puritan 
Sir  S.  Luke.  He  is  pictured  as  a  pedantic 
Presbyterian,  setting  forth  'a-colonelling',  a 
grotesque  figure  on  a  miserable  horse,  with 
rusty  arms  but  ample  provisions.  He  is 
accompanied  by  his  squire  Ralpho,  an 


HUDSON 

Independent,  and  the  satire  is  largely 
occupied  with  their  sectarian  squabbles.  The 
pair  light  upon  a  crowd  intent  on  bear- 
baiting,  a  popular  sport  vigorously  con- 
demned by  the  Puritans.  A  battle  ensues  in 
which  the  bear-baiters  are  at  first  defeated,  and 
their  leader,  the  one-legged  fiddler  Crowdero, 
is  put  in  the  stocks.  But  the  bear-baiters  rally 
their  forces,  Hudibras  and  Ralpho  replace 
Crowdero  in  the  stocks,  and  there  they 
resume  their  sectarian  disputes. 

In  Pt.  II  a  widow,  with  whose  'jointure- 
land'  Hudibras  is  in  love,  visits  him  in  the 
stocks,  exposes  his  self-seeking  and  requires 
him  (after  the  model  of  'Don  Quixote1)  to 
submit  to  a  whipping  in  order  to  win  her 
favour.  This  gives  an  opportunity  of  ex- 
posing the  casuistry  of  the  Puritans;  for 
Hudibras  wishes  to  escape  from  his  promise, 
and  his  squire  suggests  a  whipping  by  proxy. 
To  this  Hudibras  readily  assents  and  orders 
Ralpho  to  be  the  substitute,  whence  a  furious 
quarrel.  They  then  consult  Sidrophel  (q.v.), 
an  astrologer,  on  Hudibras's  prospects  with 
the  widow.  The  astrologer  is  discovered  to 
be  a  humbug,  is  beaten  and  left  for  dead  by 
Hudibras,  who  escapes  (after  emptying  the 
astrologer's  pockets),  intending  that  Ralpho 
shall  bear  the  charge  of  murder. 

In  Pt.  Ill  Hudibras  goes  alone  to  the 
widow  and  gives  her  an  account  of  his  pre- 
tended sufferings  on  her  behalf;  but  he  has 
been  forestalled  by  Ralpho,  and  is  accordingly 
exposed.  His  cowardice  is  revealed  when 
fierce  knocking  is  heard  at  the  gate.  He 
attributes  this  to  the  astrologer's  supernatural 
agents,  hides  under  a  table,  is  drawn  out  and 
cudgelled,  and  confesses  his  iniquities.  He 
next  consults  a  lawyer,  who  counsels  him  to 
write  love-letters  to  the  widow,  in  order  to 
inveigle  her  in  her  replies.  The  second  Canto 
of  Pt.  Ill  has  no  connexion  with  the  adven- 
tures of  Hudibras,  but  is  an  account  of  the 
principles  and  proceedings  of  the  republi- 
cans prior  to  the  Restoration  (it  includes  an 
admirable  character  of  Anthony  Ashley 
Cooper). 

It  is  probable  that  Butler  intended  to 
complete  the  story  in  a  fourth  part. 

Hudibrastlc,  in  the  metre  or  after  the 
manner  of  Butler's  'Hudibras'  (q.v.),  bur- 
lesque-heroic. 

Hudson,  JEFFERY  or  GEOFFREY  (1619-82),  a 
dwarf  who  was  served  up  in  a  pie  to  Charles  I 
and  entered  the  service  of  Queen  Henrietta 
Maria.  He  was  a  captain  of  horse  in  the  civil 
wars,  was  captured  by  pirates  while  on  his 
way  to  France  and  carried  to  Barbary, 
escaped  and  returned  to  England,  and  was 
imprisoned  for  supposed  complicity  in  the 
'Popish  Plot'.  He  figures  in  Scott's  'Peveril 
of  the  Peak'  (q.v.). 

Hudson,  RODERICK,  hero  of  Henry  James's 
novel  of  that  name  (q.v.). 

HUDSON,  WILLIAM  HENRY  (1841- 
1922),  born  of  American  parents  near  Buenos 


3368 


[385] 


cc 


HUDSON'S  BAY  COMPANY 

Aires,  came  to  England  in  1869,  where  he  at 
first,  and  indeed  till  nearly  the  end  of  his 
life,  suffered  much  from  poverty  and  loneli- 
ness. He  was  naturalized  a  British  subject  in 
1900.  He  has  left  an  admirable  picture  of  his 
early  life  in  the  Argentine  in  'Far  Away  and 
Long  Ago*  (1918).  From  his  youngest  days 
he  was  an  intense  observer  of  nature,  and  a 
large  proportion  of  his  writings  was  devoted 
to  birds  (e.g.  'The  Naturalist  in  La  Plata*, 
1892;  'Birds  in  London',  1898;  'Birds 
and  Man*,  1901;  'Adventures  among  Birds', 


downs,  their  dogs,  their  sheep,  and  the  wild 
life  of  the  region,  with  Caleb  Bawcombe,  a 
shepherd,  as  the  central  figure.  He  also 
wrote  a  striking  romance  of  the  S,  American 
forest,  'Green  Mansions5  (1904),  of  which  the 
central  figure  'Rima*,  the  semi-human  em- 
bodiment of  the  spirit  of  the  forest,  has  been 
made  familiar  by  Epstein's  sculpture.  His 
other  writings  include:  'The  Purple  Land' 
(1885),  'Nature  in  Downland*  (1900),  'El 
Ombu"  (1902),  'Hampshire  Days'  (1903),  *A 
Crystal  Age*  (1906),  'Afoot  in  England' 
(1909),  'A  Traveller  in  Little  Things'  (1921), 
*A  Hind  in  Richmond  Park*  (1922). 

Hudson's  Bay  Company:  the  'governor 
and  company  of  adventurers  of  England 
trading  into  Hudson's  Bay'  received  a  charter 
from  Charles  II  in  1670,  for  trade  and  'to 
discover  a  passage  leading  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean'.  Prince  Rupert  was  the  company's 
first  governor.  On  the  expiration  of  the  char- 
ter in  1869,  the  bulk  of  their  territories  was 
transferred,  against  compensation,  to  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  Hudson  Bay  is 
named  after  Henry  Hudson,  the  explorer, 
who  was  turned  adrift  there  with  his  son  and 
some  companions  by  a  mutinous  crew,  and 
perished  in  1611. 

Hugh,  in  Dickens's  'Barnaby  Rudge*  (q.v.), 
the  ostler  of  the  Maypole  Inn. 

Hugh  of  Lincoln,  ST.  (11246-55),  a  child 
supposed  to  have  been  crucified  by  a  Jew 
named  Copin  or  Joppin  at  Lincoln,  after 
having  been  starved  and  tortured.  The  body 
is  said  to  have  been  discovered  in  a  well  and 
buried  near  that  of  Grosseteste  in  the  cathe- 
dral, and  to  have  been  the  cause  of  several 
miracles.  The  story,  a  frequent  theme  for 
poets,  is  referred  to  by  Chaucer  ('Prioress's 
Tale')  and  by  Marlowe  in  the  'Jew  of  Malta'. 
See  also  the  ballad  of  'The  Jew's  Daughter' 
in  Percy's  'Reliques'.  Cf.  William  of  Norwich. 

HUGHES,  THOMAS  (1822-96),  educated 
at  Rugby  and  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  was  a 
follower  of  Frederick  Denison  Maurice  (q.v.). 
He  published  in  1857,  over  the  signature  'An 
Old  Boy3,  his  chief  work,  'Tom  Brown's 
Schooldays',  the  story  of  an  ordinary 
schoolboy  at  Rugby  under  Dr.  Arnold's 
head  mastership.  In  this  he  depicted,  with 
a  didactic  purpose,  schoolboy  cruelties  and 


HUMAN  NATURE 

loyalties,  and  considerably  influenced  Eng- 
lish ideas  on  public  schools.  The  sequel, 
'Tom  Brown  at  Oxford*  (1861)  has  less  merit. 
Hughes  also  published  'The  Scouring  of  the 
White  Horse'  (1859),  a  'Memoir  of  a  Brother" 
(his  brother  George,  1873,  containing  George 
Hughes's  fine  poem  on  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  boat-race  of  1868),  and  various 
biographies. 
Hugin  and  Munin,  see  Odin. 

HUGO,  VICTOR- MARIE  (1802-85), 
French  poet  and  novelist,  the  leader  of  the 
French  Romantic  movement.  He  entered 
political  life  after  the  Revolution  of  1848  and 
showed  himself  an  eloquent  defender  of 
liberty.  He  spent  the  years  1851-70  in  exile. 
His  poetical  creed  was  expounded  in  the 
preface  to  his  long  drama  'Cromwell*  (1827), 
while  the  production  of  his  'Hernani'  (q.v.) 
on  the  stage  in  1830  was  one  of  the  principal 
events  of  the  literary  revolution.  Hugo  intro- 
duced flexibility,  sonority,  and  melody  into 
the  rigid  verse  that  had  prevailed  during  many 
generations.  His  other  important  plays  were : 
'Marion  Delorme*  (1831),  'Le  Roi  s'amuse* 
(1832),  and  'Ruy  Bias'  (1838).  His  lyric  verse 
includes  the  earlier  'Odes*  (1822),  'Odes  et 
Ballades'  (1826),  'Les  Orientates*  (1828), 
'Feuilles  d'Automne*  (1831),  'Chants  du 
Cre*puscule*  (1835),  'Voix  int&rieures*  (1837), 
*Les  Rayons  et  les  Ombres'  (1840),  followed 
after  a  long  interval  by  'Les  CMtiments* 
(1852,  a  violent  satire  against  Louis  Napoleon, 
written  in  exile),  *La  Le"gende  des  Siecles* 
(Pt.  I,  his  finest  work,  1859;  Pt.  II,  1867), 
'Chansons  des  Mers  et  des  Bois*  (1865),  'Les 
Quatre  Vents  de  1'Esprit*  (1882).  His  most 
famous  novels  are  'Notre  Dame  de  Paris* 
(1831),  'Les  Miserables'  (1862),  'Les  Tra- 
vailleurs  de  la  Mer'  (1866),  and  'Quatre- 
vingt-treize'  (1879). 

Huguenot,  a  member  of  the  Reformed  or 
Calvinistic  communion  of  France  in  the  i6th 
and  1 7th  cents.  The  name,  according  to  Hatz- 
feldt  and  Darmsteter,  is  a  corruption,  under 
the  influence  of  the  proper  name  Hugues,  of 
the  German  Eidgenossen,  confederates. 

Huitzilopochtli,  the  supreme  deity  and 
war-god  of  the  ancient  Mexicans,  regarded 
as  a  bloodthirsty  deity,  to  whom  vast 
numbers  of  human  beings  were  sacrificed. 
He  was  also  known  as  MextlL 

Hulde,  in  Teutonic  mythology,  the  goddess 
of  marriage. 

Hulse,  JOHN  (1708-90),  educated  at  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  bequeathed  his 
estates  to  the  University  of  Cambridge  for 
the  advancement  of  religious  learning,  by 
the  payment  of  a  lecturer  and  the  institution 
of  a  Christian  advocate.  The  HULSEAN  PRO- 
FESSOR of  divinity  was  substituted  for  the 
latter  in  1860.  The  HULSEAN  LECTURES  are 
delivered  annually. 

Human  Nature,  Treatise  of,  see  Treatise  of 
Human  Nature. 


[386] 


HUMBER 

Humfoer,  according  to  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth,  a  king  of  the  Huns  who  invaded 
Britain  in  the  reign  of  Locrine,  and  was  de- 
feated by  the  river  Abus.  He  was  driven  into 
the  river,  which  thereafter  was  named  after 
him.  (See  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  n.  x.  15 
and  1 6.) 

HUMBOLDT  (FRIEDRICH  HEINRICH) 
ALEXANDER  VON  (1769-1859),  German 
traveller  and  scientist,  published  a  series  of 
works  embodying  the  results  of  a  scientific 
expedition  to  South  America  and  Mexico, 
which  were  translated  into  English  (1814-21). 
His  greatest  work  was  the t  Kosmos  *  (published 
in  German,  1845-58),  a  physical  description 
of  the  universe,  passing  from  celestial  pheno- 
mena to  the  earth  and  its  atmosphere,  and 
finally  to  organic  life. 

HUME,  DAVID  (1711-76),  born  of  Ber- 
wickshire parents  at  Edinburgh,  developed 
early  in  life  a  passion  for  philosophy.  He 
spent  three  years  (1734-7)  with  the  Jesuits 
at  La  Fleche,  and  in  1739  published  anony- 
mously his  'Treatise  of  Human  Nature*  (q.v.) 
in  two  volumes,  a  third  volume  appearing  in 
1740.  The  work  aroused  little  interest,  but 
his  'Essays  Moral  and  Political*  (1741-2) 
were  more  successful.  He  accompanied 
General  St.  Clair  as  judge-advocate  in  the 
expedition  to  Port  L'Orient  in  1747  and  on  a 
mission  to  Vienna  and  Turin  in  1748.  His 
'Enquiry  concerning  Human  Understanding* 
(originally  entitled  'Philosophical  Essays') 
appeared  in  1748  and  his  'Enquiry  concerning 
the  Principles  of  Morals*  in  1751  (for  these 
two  works  see  Treatise  of  Human  Nature). 
In  1752  he  published  his  'Political  Dis- 
courses*, which  was  translated  into  French 
and  made  Hume  famous  on  the  Continent. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  keeper  of 
the  Advocates*  Library  in  Edinburgh.  In 
1754  appeared  the  first  volume  of  'History  of 
Great  Britain*  (see  below),  followed  by 
further  volumes  in  1757,  1759,  and  1761. 
The  first  two  volumes  were  translated  into 
French.  From  1763  to  1765  Hume  was 
secretary  to  the  Embassy  in  Paris,  where  he 
was  well  received  by  the  court  and  by  literary 
society.  He  brought  back  Rousseau  to  Eng- 
land and  befriended  him,  but  Rousseau's 
suspicious  nature  presently  led  to  a  quarrel. 
Hume  was  under-secretary  of  state  in  1767-8, 
and  after  this  finally  settled  in  Edinburgh. 
After  his  death,  his  friend  Adam  Smith 
(q.v.)  published  his  autobiography  (i777)* 
Hume's  'Dialogues  concerning  Natural 
Religion*  (q.v.)  were  published  in  1779  by 
his  nephew.  A  complete  edition  of  Hume's 
Letters,  edited  by  J.  Y.  T.  Greig,  appeared 
in  1932. 

Hume's  philosophical  works  are  dealt  with 
under  the  heading  'Treatise  of  Human 
Nature*.  His  views  on  religion  are  contained, 
(a)  in  the  essay  'Of  Miracles*  (included  in  the 
'Enquiry  concerning  HumanUnderslanding'), 
in  which  he  argues  that  the  evidence  for 
miracles  is  necessarily  inferior  to  the  evidence 


HUME'S  HISTORY 

for  the  *laws  of  nature*  established  by  uni- 
form experience  of  which  they  are  a  violation ; 
(b)  in  the  dissertation  entitled  "The  Natural 
History  of  Religion'  (included  in  'Four  Dis- 
sertations', 1757),  in  which  he  investigates 
its  origin  in  human  nature,  attributing  it  to  a 
'concern  with  regard  to  the  events  of  life',  to 
the  'incessant  hopes  and  fears  which  actuate 
the  human  mind*,  and  traces  its  development 
from  polytheism  to  monotheism  and  its 
inevitable  degeneration;  (c)  in  the  'Dialogues 
concerning  Natural  Religion'  (q.v.),  of  which 
the  conclusion  is  thatthere  is  evidence  of  design 
in  the  universe,  but  that  while  it  is  possible  to 
infer  from  design  the  intelligence  of  God,  it  is 
impossible  to  infer  his  goodness.  We  thus 
have  an  'attenuated  theism*  (Prof.  Campbell 
Fraser),  the  view  'that  the  cause  or  causes  of 
order  in  the  universe  probably  bear  some  re- 
mote analogy  to  human  intelligence'. 

Hume's  political  opinions  as  expressed  in  his 
various  writings  show  a  process  of  develop- 
ment. He  appears  to  have  abandoned  the  view 
that  men  are  naturally  equal  and  that  society  is 
established  by  contract.  He  finally  seems  to 
have  regarded  political  society  as  evolved  from 
the  family  and  existing  for  the  purpose  of  ad- 
ministering justice  ('Of  the  Origin  of  Govern- 
ment*, 1777) ;  and  in  contrast  to  his  Tory  atti- 
tude in  the  'History'  (q.v.),  in  his  later  essays 
he  regards  liberty  as  an  ideal  limiting  the 
sphere  of  authority  of  government. 

As  a  political  economist  Hume  attacked  the 
mercantile  system,  and  in  general  anticipated 
the  views  of  later  economists  (including 
Adam  Smith).  He  insisted  on  the  distinction 
between  money  and  wealth;  he  held  that  a 
low  rate  of  interest  does  not  result  from  an 
abundance  of  money  but  from  the  increase 
in  the  industry  and  frugality  of  the  people; 
he  thought  that  the  best  taxes  were  those  on 
consumption  and  denied  that  all  taxes  ulti- 
mately fall  on  land. 

Hume's  Enquiry  concerning  Human  Under- 
standing, see  Treatise  of  Human  Nature. 

Hume's  History  of  Great  Britain  (see  Hume), 
containing  the  reigns  of  the  Stuarts,  was 
published  in  1754-7.  Two  further  volumes 
on  the  Tudor  reigns  appeared  in  1759,  and 
two  on  the  period  from  Julius  Caesar  to 
Henry  VII  in  1761. 

Hume's  object  was  to  trace  the  steps  by 
which  the  nation  had  arrived  at  its  present 
system  of  government,  and  he  started  with  the 
reign  of  James  I  as  the  period  in  which  the 
revolt  against  the  prerogative  of  the  crown 
commenced.  The  work  is  criticized  as 
superficial  and  as  containing  many  misstate- 
ments,  and  the  author  is  said  to  show  Tory 
prejudice.  But  it  was  the  first  great  English 
history,  and,  however  imperfect,  a  fine  con- 
ception. It  was  not  a  mere  chronicle  of 
political  events,  but  includes  periodical 
reviews  of  the  material  and  intellectual  state 
of  the  nation.  The  first  volume  was  coldly 
received,  but  the  work  subsequently  became 


[387] 


HUMGUDGEON 

popular,   and  for  long  was  regarded  as  a 
standard  history. 

Humgudgeon,  CORPORAL  GRACE-BE-HERE, 
a  character  in  Scott's  'Woodstock*. 
Humorous  Lieutenant,  The,  a  comedy  by 
J.  Fletcher  (q.v.),  produced  about  1620.  ^ 

Prince  Demetrius  is  in  love  with  Celia,  a 
captive.  His  father,  Antigonus,  king  of  Syria, 
also  falls  in  love  with  her,  and  during  his  son  s 
absence  at  the  wars,  tries  to  inveigle  Celia, 
but  she  remains  faithful  to  her  younger 
lover.  On  Demetrius 's  return  from  victory, 
Antigonus  informs  him  that  Celia  is  dead, 
and  while  Demetrius  shuts  himself  up  in 
despair,  tries  to  obtain  her  affection  by  a 
love-philtre.  But  the  plot  miscarries,  and 
finally  Celia's  virtue  and  loyalty  prevail  on  the 
king  to  surrender  her  to  his  son. 

The  name  of  the  play  is  ^  taken  from 
an  eccentric  lieutenant,  sufjering  from  an 
infirmity  which  stimulates  him  to  wonderful 
deeds  of  courage  in  war.  When  cured,  his 
courage  fails  him;  and  it  comes  again  when 
he  is  deluded  into  thinking  himself  sick 
once  more.  By  accident  he  drinks  the  love- 
philtre  intended  for  Celia,  and  in  consequence 
falls  grotesquely  in  love  with  the  king. 
Humours,  COMEDY  OF,  a  term  applied 
especially  to  the  type  of  comic  drama  written 
by  Ben  Jonson  (q.v.),  where  a  'humour'  is  a 
personification  of  some  individual  passion  or 
propensity. 

Humphrey,  DUKE  OF  GLOUCESTER  (1391- 
1447),  youngest  son  of  Henry  IV,  'the  Good 
Duke  Humphrey*,  was  perhaps  educated  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  was  appointed 
Protector  on  the  death  of  Henry  V,  He  owed 
the  epithet  'Good3  only  to  his  patronage  of 
men  of  letters  (including  Lydgate  and  Cap- 
grave).  He  read  Latin  and  Italian  literature, 
collected  books  from,  his  youth,  and  gave  the 
first  books  for  a  library  at  Oxford.  His 
original  library,  built  in  the  1 5th  cent.,  forms 
the  oldest  part  of  the  Bodleian.  He  was  the 
husband  of  Eleanor  Cobham,  who  was  im- 
prisoned for  witchcraft. 
Humphrey,  To  DINE  WITH  DUKE,  to  go 
dinnerless.  The  origin  of  the  phrase  is  not 
clear.  In  the  lyth  cent,  it  was  associated  with 
old  St.  Paul's,  London,  and  said  of  those  who, 
while  others  were  dining,  passed  their  time 
walking  in  that  place.  According  to  Stow,  the 
monument  of  Sir  John  Beaucharnp  there  was 
*by  ignorant  people  misnamed  to  be*  that  of 
Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester,  son  of 
Henry  IV  (who  was  really  buried  at  St. 
Albans).  Nares  says  an  (adjacent)  part  of  the 
church  was  termed  'Duke  Humphrey's  Walk*. 
The  equivalent  expression  in  Edinburgh 
appears  to  have  been  fto  dine  with  St.  Giles 
and  the  Earl  of  Murray*  (who  was  buried  in 
St.  Giles's).  [OEDJ 

Humphrey's    Clock)    Master^    see   Master 
Humphrey's  Clock. 

Humphry  Clinker,    The   Expedition   of,  a 
novel  by  SmoHett  (q.v,),  published  in  1771. 


HUNS 

This  is  the  last  and  the  pleasantest  of 
Smollett's  novels.  It  relates,  in  the  form  of 
letters,  the  adventures  of  Mr.  Matthew 
Bramble's  family  party  as  they  travel  through 
England  and  Scotland.  The  party  consists  of 
Bramble  himself,  an  outwardly  misanthropi- 
cal but  really  kind-hearted  old  valetudinarian 
bachelor ;  his  sister  Tabitha,  a  virago  bent  on 
matrimony;  his  nephew  Jery,  an<  amiable 
young  spark,  and  his  sister  Lydia;  Mrs. 
Winifred  Jenkins,  the  maid;  and  Humphry 
Clinker,  a  ragged  ostler  whom  they  pick  up 
en  route  as  postilion,  and  who  turns  out  a 
creature  of  much  resource  and  devotion. 
Their  wanderings,  which  take  them  to  Bath, 
London,  Harrogate,  Edinburgh,  and  the 
Highlands,  are  made  the  occasion  for  many 
amusing  adventures  and  episodes^  for  con- 
veying much  interesting  information  about 
contemporary  manners,  and  for  many  dis- 
cussions on  matters  political  and  other  .^  The 
thread  of  narrative  is  slender.  There  is  the 
love-affair  of  Lydia  with  a  good-looking 
young  actor,  who  turns  out  to  be  a  gentle- 
man of  good  family.  Humphry  becomes  a 
Methodist  and  suffers  a  short  imprisonment 
on  a  false  charge  of  robbery.  At  Durham  the 
party  is  joined  by  an  eccentric  Scottish 
soldier,  Lieutenant  Obadiah  Lismahago,  no 
less  proud  than  he  is  needy.  He  wins  the 
heart  and  hand  of  Miss  Tabitha.  Finally 
Humphry  himself  turns  out  to  be  the  natural 
son  of  Matthew  Bramble,  and  is  united  to 
Winifred  Jenkins. 

Humpty-Dumpty,  a  short  dumpy,  hump- 
shouldered  person.  In  the  well-known 
nursery  rhyme  or  riddle  the  name  is  com- 
monly explained  as  signifying  an  egg.  The 
riddle  is  found  in  one  form  or  another  in 
many  parts  of  Europe  (Halliwell).  The  name 
is  thence  allusively  applied  to  any  thing  or 
person  which  when  shattered  cannot  be 
restored.  'Humpty-Dumpty'  occurs  in  1698 
as  the  name  of  a  liquor ;  according  to  Disraeli 
('Venetia'),  ale  boiled  with  brandy.  [OED.] 
Huncamunca,  in  Fielding's  cTom  Thumb 
the  Great'  (q.v.),  the  daughter  of  King 
Arthur  and  the  wife  of  Tom  Thumb. 
Hundred  Days,  THE,  the  period  in  1815 
between  Napoleon's  arrival  in  Paris  after  his 
escape  from  Elba  and  the  restoration  of 
Louis  XVIII  after  Waterloo. 
Hundreth  good  pointes  of  husbandrie,  see 
Tusser. 

Hungarian  Brothers,  The,  a  novel  by  A.  M. 
Porter  (q.v.). 

Hungry  Forties,  see  Forties. 
Huniades,  see  HunyadL 
Huns,  an  Asiatic  race  of  warlike  nomads 
who  invaded  Europe  c.  A.D.  375.  They  per- 
haps also  invaded  Hindostan :  the  Rajputs  are 
believed  to  be  of  Hun  stock.  In  the  middle 
of  the  sth  cent,  under  their  king,  Attila 
(q.v.),   they  overran   and    ravaged    a    great 
part  of  Europe.    The  name  is  believed  to 
represent  the  .  native  name  of  the  people, 


[388] 


HUNT 

who  were  known  to  the  Chinese  as  Hiong-nu 
and  also  Han.  [OED.]  It  is  used  in  a  trans- 
ferred sense  (like  'Vandal')  of  uncultured 
devastators,  and  was  currently  appHed  to  the 
Germans  during  the  Great  War. 

HUNT,  JAMES  HENRY  LEIGH  (1784- 
1859),  was  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital.  He 
began  to  edit  the  'Examiner'  in  1808  and  the 
'Reflector'  in  1810,  and  was  sentenced  with 
his  brother  to  a  fine  and  two  years'  imprison- 
ment in  1813  for  reflections  in  the  former 
paper  on  the  Prince  Regent.  He  continued 
editing  the  'Examiner'  while  in  gaol,  where 
he  was  visited  by  Byron,  Moore,  Bentham, 
and  Lamb.  Subsequently  he  brought  about 
the  meeting  of  Keats  and  Shelley,  and  intro- 
duced the  two  poets  to  the  public  in  the 
'Examiner'.  He  published  his  chief  poetical 
work  'The  Story  of  Rimini'  (based  on  the 
story  of  Paolo  and  Francesca,  q.v.)  in  1816  (it 
was  subsequently  revised),  and  'Hero  and 
Leander*  in  1819.  He  joined  Byron  at  Pisa 
in  1822  and  there  for  a  time  carried  on  with 
him  'The  Liberal'  magazine  (see  under 
Byron).  In  1847  he  received  a  civil  list  pen- 
sion. His  poetical  work,  which  was  far  less 
extensive  than  his  prose  writings,  includes, 
besides  the  two  poems  mentioned  above, 
'Captain  Sword  and  Captain  Pen*  (1835, 
depicting  the  horrors  of  war  and  foretelling 
the  ultimate  discomfiture  of  military  power), 
the  lines  entitled  'Abou  Ben  Adhem',  and 
'Jenny  kissed  me',  the  apologue  'The  Fish, 
the  Man,  and  the  Spirit*,  and  a  translation 
of  Redi's  'Bacchus  in  Tuscany'  (1825).  His 
play  'A  Legend  of  Florence*  was  success- 
fully produced  at  Co  vent  Garden  in  1840. 
In  addition  to  the  two  periodicals  already 
mentioned,  Leigh  Hunt  at  various  times  con- 
ducted and  largely  wrote  the  'Indicator* 
(1819-21),  the  'Companion'  (1828),  a  new 
'Tatler*  (1830-2),  and  'Leigh  Hunt's  London 
Journal*  (1834-5).  Other  works  of  his  are 
'Imagination  and  Fancy'  (1844),  'Wit  and 
Humour'  and  'Stories  from  Italian  Poets* 
(1846),  'Men,  Women,  and  Books*  (1847), 
*A  Jar  of  Honey  from  Mount  Hybla*  (1848), 
'The  Town*  (1848),  an  'Autobiography* 
(1850,  enlarged  edition  1860),  'Table  Talk* 
(1851),  'The  Old  Court  Suburb*  (1855),  and 
an  edition  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  in  the 
same  year. 

The  importance  of  Leigh  Hunt  lies  chiefly 
in  his  development  of  the  light  miscellaneous 
essay,  in  his  recognition  of  the  genius  of 
Shelley  and  Keats,  and  in  the  wide  range 
of  his  critical  work.  He  was  depicted  by 
Dickens  as  Skimpole  (in  'Bleak  House',  q.v.), 
at  any  rate  as  regards  'the  light  externals  of 
character*,  that  is  to  say  a  certain  vagueness 
and  irresponsibility. 

Hunt,  THE  REV.  TUFTON,  the  blackmailing 
parson  in  Thackeray's  'The  Adventures  of 
Philip*  (q.v.).  He  had  previously  figured  in 
his  *A  Shabby  Genteel  Story*. 
HUNT,  VIOLET,  contemporary  novelist, 
whose  chief  works  are:  'Unkist,  Unkind* 


HUON  OF  BORDEAUX 

(1897),  *The  Wife  of  Altamont*  (1910),  *The 
House  of  Many  Mirrors'  (1915),  'Their 
Lives'  (1916),  all  novels;  'Tales  of  the  Un- 
easy* (1910),  'More  Tales  of  the  Uneasy* 
(1925),  short  stories. 

HUNTER,  JOHN  (1728-93),  surgeon  and 
anatomist,  contributed  very  greatly  by  his 
writings,  discoveries,  and  collections  to  the 
advance  of  surgical  science.  His  MUSEUM 
was  bought  by  the  nation  and  transferred 
to  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  He  is 
commemorated  in  the  annual  HUNTERIAN 
ORATION. 

Hunter,  WILLIAM  (1718-83),  elder  brother 
of  John  Hunter  (above),  was,  like  him,  a  dis- 
tinguished anatomist,  and  first  professor  of 
anatomy  at  the  Royal  Academy.  His  museum 
was  acquired  by  Glasgow  University. 

HUNTER,    SIR    WILLIAM    WILSON 

(1840-1900),  a  distinguished  Indian  civilian 

and  a  man  of  wide  culture,  was  appointed  by 

Lord  Mayo  to  compile  a  statistical  survey  of 

the  Indian  Empire,  which  he  condensed  in 

'The  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India*  (1881). 

He  published  'Annals  of  Rural  Bengal*  in 

1868,  'Orissa*  in  1872,  'A  brief  History  of  the 

IndianPeoples*in  1882,  a'Lifeof  BrianHough- 

ton  Hodgson*  in  1896,  and  two  charming 

lighter  works,  'The  Old  Missionary*  (1890) 

and  'The  Thackerays  in  India*  (1897).  Of  his 

'History  of  British  India*  (1899)  only  two 

volumes  had  been  completed  at  his  death. 

He  was  editor  of  the  series  of  'Rulers  of 

India*. 

Hunting  of  the  Snark,  The,  a  mock-heroic 

nonsense    poem    by    Lewis    Carroll    (see 

Dodgson)  published  in  1876.   The  Snark  is 

an  imaginary  animal  of  elusive  character.  On 

this  occasion,  it  turns  out  to  be  a  Boojum, 

a  highly  dangerous  variety. 

Hunting  the  Fox,  see  Willoughby  de  Broke. 

Huntingdon,  ARTHUR  and  HELEN,  leading 

characters  in  Anne  Bronte's  'The  Tenant  of 

Wildfell  Hall'  (q.v.). 

Huntingdon's  Connection,  The  Countess 

of,  see  Whitefield. 

Huntingdon,    HENRY   OF,    see   Henry   of 

Huntingdon. 

Huntingdon,  ROBERT,  EARL  OF,  see  Robin 

Hood. 

Huntinglen,  EARL  OF,  a  character  in  Scott's 

'The  Fortunes  of  Nigel*  (q.v.). 

Hunyadi  or  HUNIADES,  JANOS  (1387-1456),  a 

great  Hungarian  captain,  who  served  under 

Ladislaus,    king  of  Hungary  and   Poland. 

Owing  to  his  military  sMU  and  valour  the 

invading  Turks  suffered  two  signal  defeats  in 

1443  and  were  obliged  to  make  peace.  *He 

was  regent  of  Hungary  after  the  death  of 

Ladislaus  I  in  1444,  and  father  of  Mathias 

Corvinus,  the  great  king  of  Hungary. 

Huon  of  Bordeaux,  the  hero  of  a  French 
1 3 th-cent.  chanson  de  geste.  Huon  is  the  son  of 
Seguin  of  Bordeaux.  He  has  the  misfortune 


[389] 


HURLOTHRUMBO 

to  kill  Chariot,  son  of  the  Emperor  Char- 
lemagne, in  an  affray,  not  knowing  who  his 
assailant  is.  He  is  thereupon  condemned 
to  death  by  the  emperor,  but  reprieved  on 
condition  that  he  will  go  to  the  court  of 
Gandisse,  amir  of  Babylon,  bring  back  a 
handful  of  his  hair  and  four  of  his  teeth,  kill 
his  doughtiest  knight,  and  kiss  Esclarmonde 
his  daughter.  By  the  help  of  the  fairy 
Oberon,  Huon  achieves  the  adventure.  The 
work  was  translated  by  Lord  Berners  (q.v.) 
and  printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  1534- 
Huon's  adventure  is  the  theme  of  Gluck's 
opera  'Oberon*. 

Hurlotlirumbo,  a  popular  burlesque  (1729) 
by  Samuel  Johnson  (1691-1773),  a  Man- 
chester dancing-master. 

HURST,  FANNY  (1889-  ),  American 
novelist,  born  at  St.  Louis.  Her  chief 
books  are:  'Just  around  the  Corner*  (1914), 
'Humoresque'  (1918),  'Lummox*  (1923),  A. 
President  is  Born'  (1927). 

Husbandrie,  (Five)  Hundreth  good  pointes  of, 
see  Tusser. 

Husband's  Message,  The,  an  OE.  poem  in- 
cluded in  the  'Exeter  Book*  (q.v.).  It  takes  the 
form  of  a  message  to  a  woman  from  her 
husband,  who  has  had  to  leave  his  home 
owing  to  a  vendetta,  telling  her  that  he  has 
obtained  wealth  and  position  in  another  land, 
and  asking  her  to  sail  and  join  him  when 
spring  comes. 

Hussars,  from  a  Hungarian  word  meaning 
originally  'free-boomer'  (Latin  cursarius^  a 
pirate),  the  name  in  the  i5th  cent,  of  an 
organized  body  of  light  horsemen  in  the 
Hungarian  army  and  extended  to  similar 
bodies  of  light  cavalry  in  other  armies. 

The  BLACK  HUSSARS  were  the  'Black 
Brunswickers'  (a  force  raised  by  the  duke  of 
Brunswick  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  so 
called  from  the  colour  of  their  uniform),  who 
neither  gave  nor  received  quarter.  Scott  in  a 
letter  to  Ballantyne  wrote,  'I  belong  to  the 
Black  Hussars  of  Literature,  who  neither  give 
nor  receive  criticism/  The  letter  and  the 
incident  which  occasioned  it  are  interesting 
(Lockhart,  c.  xxxvii). 

Hussites,  followers  of  John  Huss  (1373- 
1415),  the  Bohemian  preacher  of  the  Refor- 
mation, who  was  convicted  of  heresy  by  the 
Council  of  Constance  (1414-18)  and  burnt 
alive.  The  Hussites  after  his  death  took  up 
arms  under  Zisca  (q.v.),  and  inflicted  many 
defeats  on  the  Imperialists. 

HUTCHESON^  FRANCIS  (1694-1746),  a 
Scotsman  bom  in  Ulster  and  educated  at 
Glasgow  University,  was  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  Glasgow  from  1729  until  his 
death.  Before  this  he  had  published  two 
volumes,  eAn  Inquiry  into  the  Original  of  our 
Ideas  of  Beauty  and  Virtue'  (1725)  and  'An 
Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Conduct  of  the 
Passions  and  Affections'  (1726).  These  were 
followed  by  text-books  on  philosophical  sub- 


HUTTON 

^ f  and  in  1755,  after  his  death,  was  pub- 
lished his  ' System  of  Moral  Philosophy*. 

Hutcheson,  in  his  ethical  system,  de- 
veloped the  ideas  of  Shaftesbury  (q.v.).  He 
elaborated  the  theory  of  the  moral  sense, 
giving  it  greater  prominence  than  did  his 
predecessor.  While  Shaftesbury  made  virtue 
reasonable  as  well  as  beautiful,  Hutcheson 
sees  it  solely  in  its  aesthetic  aspect.  The 
Author  of  Nature  has  'made  Virtue  a  lovely 
Form,  that  we  might  easily  distinguish  it 
from  its  contrary  and  be  made  happy  in 
pursuit  of  it'.  We  have  a  'moral  sense  of 
beauty  in  actions  and  affections'.  At  the 
same  time  he  identifies  virtue  with  general 
benevolence,  and  finds  that  action  best  which 
procures  the  greatest  general  happiness,  in 
this  respect  anticipating  the  utilitarians. 
Hutchlnson,  JOHN  ( 1 6 1 5-64),  of  Peterhouse, 
Cambridge,  and  Lincoln's  Inn,  held  Notting- 
ham for  parliament  as  governor,  signed  the 
king's  death-warrant,  and  was  member  of 
the  first  two  councils  of  state,  but  retired  in 
1653.  He  was  saved  from  death  and  confisca- 
tion at  the  Restoration  by  the  influence  of 
kinsmen,  but  was  imprisoned.  See  Hutchin- 
son  (Mrs.  L.). 

HUTCHINSON,  MRS.  LUCY  (b.  1620), 
daughter  of  Sir  Allen  Apsley,  and  wife  of 
John  Hutchinson  (q.v.).  She  was  author  of 
'The  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Colonel  Hutchin- 
son', her  husband,  published  in  1806,  and  of 
a  fragment  of  a  'Life*  of  herself.  The  'Me- 
moirs' give  an  interesting  picture,  from  the 
Puritan  standpoint,  of  the  state  of  the  country 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  and  of  the 
conflict  in  the  vicinity  of  Nottingham. 

Hutchinsonians,  followers  of  Mrs.  Anne 
Hutchinson  (1590?-!  643),  nee  Marbury,  who 
followed  John  Cotton  to  Massachusetts,  and 
there  founded  an  antinomian  sect.  She  was 
murdered  by  Indians  at  Hell  Gate,  New  York 
county. 

HUTH,  HENRY  (1815-78),  merchant-ban- 
ker and  bibliophile.  He  collected  narratives 
of  voyages,  Shakespearian  and  early  English 
literature,  and  early  Spanish  and  German 
books.  He  printed  'Ancient  Ballads  and 
Broadsides',  1867;  *Inedited  Poetical  Mis- 
ceHanies' (1584-1700),  1870;  'Prefaces,  Dedi- 
cations, and  Epistles*  (1540-1701),  1874; 
'Fugitive  Tracts*  (1493-1700),  1875. 

HUTTEN,  ULRICH  VON,  see  Epistolae 
Obscurorum  Virorum. 

HUTTON,  RICHARD  HOLT  (1826-97), 
educated  at  University  College  School,  and 
University  College,  London,  studied  at 
Heidelberg  and  Berlin  and  prepared  at  Man- 
chester New  College  for  the  Unitarian 
ministry.  He  was  principal  of  University 
Hall,  London,  and  edited  the  Unitarian  maga- 
zine 'The  Enquirer*  from  1851  to  1853.  With 
Walter  Bagehot  (q.v.)  he  was  joint-editor  of 
the  'National  Review*  from  1855  to  1864. 
He  was  also  assistant  editor  of  the  'Economist' 
(1858-60),  and  joint-editor  of  the  'Spectator* 


[390] 


HUXLEY 

(1861-97).  His  works,  mainly  of  literary  and 
theological  criticism,  include,  besides  a 
volume  on  Cardinal  Newman,  *  Essays,  Theo- 
logical and  Literary1  (1871;  revised,  1877), 
*  Essays  on  some  Modern  Guides  of  English 
Thought*  (1887),  'Criticisms  on  Contempor- 
ary Thought  and  Thinkers*  (1894),  and  *  As- 
pects of  Religious  and  Scientific  Thought* 
(1899). 

HUXLEY,  ALDOUS  (1894-  ),  novelist 
and  essayist,  educated  at  Eton  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.  His  best-known  books  are : 
'Crome  Yellow*  (1921),  'Antic  Hay*  (1923), 
'Those  Barren  Leaves*  (1925),  'Point  Counter 
Point*  (1928),  'Brave  New  World*  (1932),  all 
novels.  Also  'Leda*  (1920),  a  poem;  and  'On 
the  Margin*  (1923),  'Jesting  Pilate*  (1926), 
essays. 

HUXLEY,  THOMAS  HENRY  (1825-95), 
studied  at  Charing  Cross  Hospital  and  from 
1846  to  1850  was  assistant  surgeon  on  H.M.S. 
'Rattlesnake*.  Apart  from  a  large  number  of 
papers  on  technical  subjects,  he  influenced 
English  thought  by  many  addresses  and 
publications  on  philosophical  and  religious 
subjects.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
'Man's  Place  in  Nature*  (1863),  'The  Physical 
Basis  of  Life*  (1868),  'Lay  Sermons,  Ad- 
dresses and  Reviews'  (1870),  'Critiques  and 
Addresses'  (1873),  a  monograph  on  Hume 
(1879),  'Science  and  Morals*  (1886),  in  which 
he  defines  the  relation  of  science  to  philoso- 
phical and  religious  speculation,  'Essays  upon 
some  Controverted  Questions*  (1892),  and  his 
Romanes  Lecture,  'Ethics  and  Evolution* 
(1893).  In  this  last  he  refuses  to  see  in  the 
struggle  of  evolution  a  basis  for  morality,  of 
which  the  criterion  is  to  be  sought  elsewhere. 
Huxley  coined  the  word  'agnostic*  to  express 
his  own  philosophical  attitude.  Huxley's 
'Collected  Essays*  were  published  in  1894, 
and  his  'Scientific  Memoirs*  in  1898-1901. 
His  'Life  and  Letters'  were  edited  by  his  son 
(1900).  He  was  a  powerful  but  discriminating 
supporter  of  Darwinism,  and  a  vigorous 
disputant.  A  controversy  between  him  and 
Gladstone,  carried  on  in  the  magazines,  on  the 
subject  of  the  Gadarene  swine,  is  celebrated. 
Hvergelmir,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
spring  in  Niflheim  (q.v.)  from  which  twelve 
rivers  issued,  the  largest  of  which  was  Eliva- 
gar  (the  cold  stormy  waters). 
Hyacinthus,  a  son  of  Amyclas,  a  king  of 
Sparta,  beloved  by  Apollo  and  Zephyrus.  He 
returned  the  love  of  the  former,  and  Zephy- 
rus, incensed  at  his  preference  of  his  rival, 
resolved  to  punish  him.  As  Apollo  was  play- 
ing at  quoits  with  Hyacinthus,  Zephyrus  blew 
the  quoit  thrown  by  Apollo  so  that  it  struck 
the  boy  and  killed  him.  Apollo  changed  his 
blood  into  the  flower  that  bears  his  name. 
Hyacinthus  de  Archangelis,  DOMINUS,  in 
R.  Browning's  'The  Ring  and  the  Book'  (q.v.) 
Count  Guide's  counsel. 
Hyades,  daughters  of  Atlas  (q.v.),  who  were 
so  disconsolate  at  the  death  of  their  brother 


HYKSOS 

Hyas,  killed  by  a  wild  boar,  that  they  pined 
away  and  died,  and  were  placed  among  the 
stars  (cf.  Pleiades).  Their  names  were  Am- 
brosia, Eudora,  Pedile,  Coronis,  Polyxo, 
Phyto,  and  Dione.  The  rising  cf  the  group 
of  stars  simultaneously  with  the  sun  was  sup- 
posed to  indicate  rainy  weather,  whence 
probably  its  name  (from  vetv,  to  rain). 

Hybla,  a  town  in  Sicily,  on  the  slope  of  Mt. 
Etna,  where  thyme  and  odoriferous  herbs 
grew  in  abundance,  famous  for  its  honey. 

HYDE,  DOUGLAS,  contemporary  Irish 
writer,  'An  Craoibhin'  according  to  his 
Gaelic  designation,  is  a  pioneer  of  the  move- 
ment for  the  revival  of  the  Irish  language  and 
literature.  He  is  author  of  a  'Literary  History 
of  Ireland'  (1899),  and  of  the  'Love  Songs  of 
Connacht'  (1894),  among  many  publications. 

Hyde  Park,  London,  the  ancient  manor  of 
Hyde,  part  of  the  property  of  the  old  Abbey 
of  Westminster,  passed  into  the  possession 
of  the  Crown  at  the  dissolution  of  the 
monasteries.  Races  were  held  there  in  Stuart 
times  (see  below).  The  Serpentine  lake  was 
formed  in  1733,  by  Queen  Caroline's  direc- 
tion, from  the  waters  of  the  Westboume 
stream.  The  corner  near  the  Marble  Arch  is 
the  favourite  pitch  of  HYDE  PAHK  ORATORS, 
popular  exponents  of  various  causes,  social, 
political,  and  religious. 

Hyde  Park,  a  comedy  by  Shirley  (q.v.), 
acted  in  1632  on  the  occasion  of  the  opening 
of  Hyde  Park  to  the  public.  It  was  printed  in 
1637.  Several  of  the  scenes  are  in  the  park, 
and  in  the  fourth  act  races  take  place;  when 
Pepys  saw  the  play,  horses  were  led  across  the 
stage,  causing  much  excitement.  The  plot  is 
very  slight,  and  the  chief  interest  is  in  the 
representation  of  contemporary  manners. 

Hydra,  a  many-headed  monster  that  in- 
fested the  neighbourhood  of  the  lake  Lerna  in 
the  Peloponnese.  It  was  one  of  the  labours  of 
Hercules  to  destroy  it,  but  as  soon  as  one 
head  was  struck  off,  two  arose  in  its  place. 
This  difficulty  was  overcome  with  the  help  of 
lolaus,  who  applied  a  burning  iron  to  the 
wound  as  each  head  fell.  Hercules  dipped  his 
arrows  in  the  Hydra's  blood,  so  that  the 
wounds  they  gave  were  incurable. 

Hydriotaphia,  see  Urn  Burial, 

Hye  Way  to  the  Spyttel  House,  The,  a  tract 
printed  and  probably  composed  by  Robert 
Copland  (fl.  1508-47),  describing  the  beggars 
and  other  types  of  the  poorer  classes  who  visit 
the  hospital,  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between 
the  author  and  the  porter  of  the  hospital.  It 
throws  a  vivid  light  on  the  poverty  prevailing 
in  the  early  i6th  cent. 

Hygiea,  the  goddess  of  health,  and  daughter 
of  Aesculapius  (q.v.). 

Hyksos,  THE,  or  Shepherd  Kings  of  Egypt, 
foreign  rulers  who  conquered  Egypt  in  the 
second  millennium  B.C.,  and  ruled  it,  accord- 
ing to  Manetho,  for  510  years.  But  his  figures 


[39i] 


HYLAS 

are  untrustworthy.  The  word  'Hyksos*  is  the 
Egyptian  hek-$hasuf  echief  of  the  Bedouins*  or 
'shepherds'. 

Hylas,  a  beautiful  youth,  stolen  away  by 
Hercules  and  carried  on  board  the  ship  'Argo' 
to  Colchis  On  the  Asiatic  coast,  the  Argo- 
nauts (q.v.)  landed  to  take  a  fresh  supply  of 
water,  when  Hylas  fell  into  the  fountain  and 
was  drowned,  or  according  to  the  poets  was 
carried  away  by  the  nymphs  for  love  of  his 
beauty.  Hercules,  (disconsolate,  abandoned 
the  Argonautic  expedition. 

Hyleg,  in  astrology,  the  ruling  planet  of  a 
nativity*  See  House  (Astrological). 

Hymen,  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythology, 
the  god  of  marriage,  represented  as  a  young 
man  carrying  a  torch  and  veil, 

Hymettus,  a  mountain  in  Attica  celebrated 
for  its  honey  and  for  its  marble. 

Hymn  to  the  Naiads,  a  poem  by  Akenside 
(q.v.),  written  in  1746  and  published  in  1758 
in  Dodsley's  'Collection  of  Poems'. 

The  poet  traces  the  mythological  origin 
of  the  Naiads,  and  considers  them  successively 
as  producing  the  brooks  and  breezes, 
nourishing  verdure,  yielding  health,  and  so 
forth.  Finally  he  treats  of  their  union  with 
the  Muses  and  the  true  inspiration  that 
temperance  alone  can  give. 

Hymir,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  one  of 
the  sea-giants.  He  was  destroyed  by  the  gods 
under  Woden,  and  from  his  body  the  earth 
was  made. 

Hymns  Ancient  and  Modern,  a  collection 
promoted  and  edited  by  the  Rev.  Sir  Henry 
Williams  Baker  (1821-77),  vicar  of  Monk- 
land,  near  Leominster,  who  contributed  to  it 
many  original  hymns  and  translations  from 
the  Latin.  The  collection  first  appeared  in 
1861.  Supplements  were  added  in  1889  and 
1916,  edited  respectively  by  C.  SteggaU  and 
S.  H.  Nicholson. 

Hypatia,  or  New  Foes  with  an  Old  Face,  an 
historical  novel  by  C.  Kingsley  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  'Eraser's  Magazine'  in  1851  and  in 
book  form  in  1853. 

The  time  of  the  story  is  the  5th  cent., 
when  the  Western  Empire  was  rapidly 
succumbing  before  the  Teutonic  advance. 
The  scene  is  Alexandria,  and  the  book 
presents  a  striking  and  crowded  picture  of 
the  turbulent  city,  scarcely  controlled  by  the 
shifty  prefect  Orestes  and  his  legionaries ;  the 
vigorous  aggressive  church  under  the  patri- 
arch Cyril ;  the  lawless  intruding  Goths ;  and 
the  subtle  influence  of  the  ancient  Greek 
philosophy,  in  the  person  of  the  beautiful 
Hypatia,  its  noble  expounder.  Philammon,  a 
young  Christian  monk  from  the  Egyptian 
desert,  comes  to  Alexandria,  and  in  the 
turmoil  of  sensations  awakened  by  his  first 
experience  of  the  city  is  swept  from  his 
ancient  faith.  He  is  fascinated  by  Hypatia 
and  the  temperance  and  sanity  of  her 


HYPOCORISM 

doctrine;  he  is  repelled  by  the  violence  and 
fanaticism  of  the  Alexandrian  monks.  He 
sees  Hypatia  torn  to  pieces  by  a  mob  of  in- 
furiated Christians.  And  finally  he  returns 
to  the  solitude  of  the  desert  cliffs,  having 
learnt  tolerance  to  all  men. 

The  historical  Hypatia  was  daughter  of  the 
Alexandrian  mathematician  Theon;  she  was 
a  Neoplatonic  philosopher,  and  perished  as 
described  in  the  novel. 

Hyperbole,  the  use  of  exaggerated  terms  not 
in  order  to  deceive  but  to  emphasize  the  im- 
portance or  extent  of  something.  Cf.  Meiosis. 

Hyperboreans,  THE,  in  Greek  legends  con- 
nected with  the  worship  of  Apollo,  a  happy 
and  peaceful  people,  worshippers  of  that  god, 
who  lived  in  a  land  of  perpetual  sunshine  and 
plenty.  This  came  to  be  conceived  as  lying 
in  the  extreme  north,  *beyond  the  influence 
of  the  north  wind',  perhaps  from  the  deriva- 
tion of  their  name,  now  generally  rejected, 
from  vTTtp  Bopeas  (Smith's  'Classical  Dic- 
tionary'). 

Hyperion,  a  son  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  one  of 
the  Titans.  He  married  Thea,  by  whom  he 
was  father  of  Aurora,  the  Sun,  and  the  Moon. 
Hyperion  is  often  taken  by  the  poets  for  the 
Sun  itself.  In  Greek  the  word  was  pro- 
nounced Hyperion,  but  ^  Shakespeare  and 
most  English  poets  accent  it  Hyperion.  The 
phrase  'Hyperion  to  a  satyr'  is  in  'Hamlet', 
I.  ii. 

Hyperion,  a  poem  by  Keats  (q.v.),  written  in 
1818-19. 

Keats  wrote  two  versions  of  the  poem  and 
each  remains  an  uncompleted  fragment.  In 
the  first  the  story  of  Hyperion  is  told  in 
simple  narrative ;  in  the  other  in  the  form  of 
an  allegorical  vision  granted  to  the  poet.  In 
the  former,  Saturn  is  presented  mourning  his 
fallen  realm,  and  debating  with  the  Titans 
how  he  may  recover  it.  They  look  in  vain  to 
Hyperion,  the  sun-god,  who  is  still  un- 
deposed,  to  help  them.  Then  the  young 
Apollo  is  introduced,  the  god  of  music, 
poetry,  and  knowledge.  At  this  point  the 
fragment  ends. 

In  the  other  form  of  the  poem,  the  poet  in 
a  dream  passes  through  a  garden  towards  a 
shrine,  of  which  the  approach  is  granted  to 
none 

But  those  to  whom  the  miseries  of  the 

world 
Are  misery,  and  will  not  let  them  rest. 

Then  the  fate  of  Hyperion,  the  last  of  the 
Titans,  who  is  dethroned  by  Apollo,  is 
revealed  to  him  by  Moneta,  the  mournful 
goddess  of  the  Vither'd  race'  of  Saturn;  but 
the  tale  is  uncompleted. 

Hyperion,  a  prose  romance  by  Longfellow 
(q.v.). 

Hypermnestra,  see  Danaides. 

Hypocorism,  a  childish  or  pet  name,  used 
endearingly  or  euphemistically. 


[398] 


HYPSlPYLE 

Hypslp^le,  daughter  of  Thoas,  king  of  Lem~ 
nos.  When  the  women  of  the  island  killed 
ail  the  men,  she  saved  her  father.  She  became 
queen  of  ^Lemnos,  and  when  the  Argonauts 

$3.v.)  visited  the  island,  bore  twin  sons  to 
ason.  The  Lemnian  women  discovered  that 
she  had  saved  Thoas,  and  drove  her  from,  the 
island. 

Hyrcania,  a  region  of  the  ancient  Persian 
Empire  adjoining  the  Caspian  or  Hyrcanian 
sea.  It  was  reputed  to  abound  in  wild  beasts, 
serpents,  &c. 


IBSEN 

Hyrcanian  Sea,  an  ancient  name  for  the 
Caspian. 

Hysteron  Proteron,  in  grammar  and  rhe- 
toric, a  figure  of  speech  in  which  the  word  or 
phrase  that  should  properly  come  last  is  put 
first;  in  general,  'putting  the  cart  before  the 
horse*. 

Hythloday,  RAPHAEL,  in  More's  'Utopia' 
(q.  v.),  the  traveller  in  whose  mouth  the  author 
places  the  criticisms  of  English  institutions, 
and  the  description  of  the  'wise  and  godly 
ordinances'  of  the  Utopians. 


i 


IHS,  representing  the  Greek  IHS,  an  ab- 
breviation of  IH(SQY)St  Jesus.  The  Ro- 
manized form  of  the  abbreviation  would  be 
IES,  but  from  the  retention  of  the  Greek 
form  in  Latin  manuscripts  and  subsequent 
forgetfulness  of  its  origin,  it  has  often  been 
looked  upon  as  a  Latin  abbreviation  or  con- 
traction, and  explained  as  meaning  lesus 
Hominum  Salvator,  Jesus  Saviour  of  men,  or 
In  Hoc  Signo[vinces],  in  this  sign  (thou  shalt 
conquer),  or  In  Hac  Salus,  in  this  (cross)  is 
salvation.  [OED.] 

I.N.R.I.,  lesus  Nazarenus  "Rex  ludaeorum, 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  king  of  the  Jews ;  the  title 
on  the  Cross. 

lachimo,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Cym- 
beline*  (q.v.). 

lago,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Othello* 
(q.v.)- 

Iambic,  verse  consisting  of,  or  based  on, 
iambuses,  that  is  feet  consisting  of  a  short 
followed  by  a  long  syllable  (see  Metre).  The 
IAMBIC  TRIMETER  is  a  verse  of  six  iambuses, 
the  first,  third,  and  fifth  of  which  may  be 
replaced  by  a  tribrach  or  a  spondee  or  a  dactyl. 
This  was  the  principal  metre  of  the  Greek 
drama.  In  modern  use,  an  iambic  verse  of  six 
feet  is  known  as  an  Alexandrine  (q.v.). 

lambllchus  (d.  c.  A.D.  330),  born  at  Calchis 
in  Coele-Syria,  a  neo-Platonic  philosopher, 
who  wrote  a  life  of  Pythagoras,  and  an  'Ex- 
hortation to  Philosophy',  besides  other  works 
which  have  not  survived. 

lanthe,  (i)  the  heroine  of  D'Avenant's  'The 
Siege  of  Rhodes*  (q.v.);  (2)  the  young  lady 
to  whom  Byron  dedicated  his  'Childe  Harold's 
Pilgrimage5,  Lady  Charlotte  Mary  Harley 
(i  801-80),  who  married  Captain  Anthony 
Bacon ;  (3)  the  lady  whom  Landor  addressed 
in  a  series  of  poems,  Sophia  Jane  Swifte,  an 
Irishwoman,  who  became  Countess  de  Mo- 
lande";  (4)  the  name  of  the  daughter  of 
Shelley  and  his  wife  Harriet;  also  in  Shelley's 
'Queen  Mab*  (q.v.),  the  maiden  to  whom  the 
fairy  grants  a  vision  of  the  world. 
lapStus,  one  of  the  Titans  (q.v.)  and  the 
father  of  Adas,  Prometheus,  Epimetheus, 


and  Menoetius,  and  the  grandfather  of  Deu- 
calion (q.v.).  He  was  thus  regarded  by  the 
ancient  Greeks  as  the  progenitor  of  the 
human  race. 

IBA&EZ,  VICENTE  BLASCO  (1867- 
1928),  Spanish  novelist,  whose  best-known 
works  (translated  into  English)  are:  *La 
Catedral*  (1903,  'The  Shadow  of  the  Cathe- 
dral'), 'Sangre  y  Arena*  (1908,  'Blood  and 
Sand'),  'Los  Cuatros  Jinetes  del  Apocalipsis' 
(1916,  'The  Four  Horsemen  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse'), 'Mare  Nostrum'  (1918,  'Our  Sea'). 

Iberia,  a  Greek  and  Latin  name  for  Spain, 
from  the  river  Iberus,  the  Ebro. 

Iberians,  a  name  applied  to  the  neolithic 
inhabitants  of  Britain. 

Iblis,  see  Eblis. 

Ibn  Batuta,  see  Cat/iay. 

IBSEN,  HENRIK  (1828-1906),  Norwegian 
dramatist,  whose  satirical  problem-plays, 
directed  to  social  reforms,  obtained  wide 
fame  and  exerted  a  powerful  influence. 
Ibsen's  early  work  consisted  of  historical 
romantic  dramas,  *Fru  Inger  at  Osterrad', 
'The  Banquet  at  Solhaug',  'The  Warriors  at 
Helgeland',  and  'Kongsemnerne*  ('Royal 
Candidates',  1862).  These  were  followed  by 
'Love's  Comedy'  (1863),  the  first  of  his 
satirical  dramas,  of  which  the  theme  is  the 
destructive  effect  on  love  of  the  prosaic  and 
official  aspects  of  courtship  and  matrimony. 
Sooner  than  see  their  love  thus  blighted,  Falk 
and  Swanhild  decide  to  part  while  it  is  still  in 
its  perfect  bloom. 

Then,  in  a  moment  of  pecuniary  distress, 
and  embittered  by  disappointment  at  the 
attitude  taken  by  his  country  in  the  Dano- 
German  war,  Ibsen  gave  vent  to  his  des- 
pondency in  his  two  great  lyrical  dramas 
'Brand'  and  'Peer  Gynt'  (qq.v.,  1866  and 
1867).  After  these  came  'The  Young  Men's 
League* (1869),  a  satire  on  Norwegian  politics, 
and  'Emperor  and  Galilean*  (1873),  a  double 
play  on  Julian  the  apostate  and  his  relations 
with  Christianity  and  Paganism.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  series  of  problem  plays,  of  which 
the  general  subject  is  the  relation  of  the 


[393] 


HYLAS 

are  untrustworthy.  The  word  'Hyksos*  is  the 
Egyptian  hek-shasu,  'chief  of  the  Bedouins'  or 
'shepherds*. 

Hylas,  a  beautiful  youth,  stolen  away  by 
Hercules  and  carried  on  board  the  ship  *Argo' 
to  Colchis  On  the  Asiatic  coast,  the  Argo- 
nauts (q.v.)  landed  to  take  a  fresh  supply  of 
water,  when  Hylas  fell  into  the  fountain  and 
was  drowned,  or  according  to  the  poets  was 
carried  away  by  the  nymphs  for  love  of  his 
beauty.  Hercules,  disconsolate,  abandoned 
the  Argonautic  expedition. 

Hyleg,  in  astrology,  the  ruling  planet  of  a 
nativity.  See  House  (Astrological). 

Hymen,  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythology, 
the  god  of  marriage,  represented  as  a  young 
man  carrying  a  torch  and  veil. 

Hymettus,  a  mountain  in  Attica  celebrated 
for  its  honey  and  for  its  marble. 

Hymn  to  the  Naiads,  a  poem  by  Akenside 
(q.v.),  written  in  1746  and  published  in  1758 
in  Dodsley's  'Collection  of  Poems'. 

The  poet  traces  the  mythological  origin 
of  the  Naiads,  and  considers  them  successively 
as  producing  the  brooks  and  breezes, 
nourishing  verdure,  yielding  health,  and  so 
forth.  Finally  he  treats  of  their  union  with 
the  Muses  and  the  true  inspiration  that 
temperance  alone  can  give. 

Hymlr,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  one  of 
the  sea-giants.  He  was  destroyed  by  the  gods 
under  Woden,  and  from  his  body  the  earth 
was  made. 

Hymns  Ancient  and  Modern,  a  collection 
promoted  and  edited  by  the  Rev.  Sir  Henry 
Williams  Baker  (1821-77),  vicar  of  Monk- 
land,  near  Leominster,  who  contributed  to  it 
many  original  hymns  and  translations  from 
the  Latin.  The  collection  first  appeared  in 
1 86 1.  Supplements  were  added  in  1889  and 
1916,  edited  respectively  by  C.  SteggaU  and 
S.  H.  Nicholson. 

Hypatia,  or  New  Foes  with  an  Old  Face,  an 
historical  novel  by  C.  Kingsley  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  'Eraser's  Magazine*  in  1851  and  in 
book  form  in  1853. 

The  time  of  the  story  is  the  sth  cent., 
when  the  Western  Empire  was  rapidly 
succumbing  before  the  Teutonic  advance. 
The  scene  is  Alexandria,  and  the  book 
presents  a  striking  and  crowded  picture  of 
the  turbulent  city,  scarcely  controlled  by  the 
shifty  prefect  Orestes  and  his  legionaries;  the 
vigorous  aggressive  church  under  the  patri- 
arch Cyril ;  the  lawless  intruding  Goths ;  and 
the  subtle  influence  of  the  ancient  Greek 
philosophy,  in  the  person  of  the  beautiful 
Hypatia,  its  noble  expounder.  Philammon,  a 
young  Christian  monk  from  the  Egyptian 
desert,  comes  to  Alexandria,  and  in  the 
turmoil  of  sensations  awakened  by  his  first 
experience  of  the  city  is  swept  from  his 
ancient  faith.  He  is  fascinated  by  Hypatia 
and  the  temperance  and  sanity  of  her 


HYPOCORISM 

doctrine;  he  is  repelled  by  the  violence  and 
fanaticism  of  the  Alexandrian  monks.  He 
sees  Hypatia  torn  to  pieces  by  a  mob  of  in- 
furiated Christians.  And  finally  he  returns 
to  the  solitude  of  the  desert  cliffs,  having 
learnt  tolerance  to  all  men. 

The  historical  Hypatia  was  daughter  of  the 
Alexandrian  mathematician  Theon;  she  was 
a  Neoplatonic  philosopher,  and  perished  as 
described  in  the  novel. 

Hyperbole,  the  use  of  exaggerated  terms  not 
in  order  to  deceive  but  to  emphasize  the  im- 
portance or  extent  of  something.  Cf  .  Meiosis. 

Hyperboreans,  THE,  in  Greek  legends  con- 
nected with  the  worship  of  Apollo,  a  happy 
and  peaceful  people,  worshippers  of  that  god, 
who  lived  in  a  land  of  perpetual  sunshine  and 
plenty.  This  came  to  be  conceived  as  lying 
in  the  extreme  north,  'beyond  the  influence 
of  the  north  wind',  perhaps  from  the  deriva- 
tion of  their  name,  now  generally  rejected, 
from  virep  Bopeas  (Smith's  'Classical  Dic- 
tionary'). 

Hyperion,  a  son  of  Uranus  and  Ge,  one  of 

the  Titans.  He  married  Thea,  by  whom  he 
was  father  of  Aurora,  the  Sun,  and  the  Moon. 
Hyperion  is  often  taken  by  the  poets  for  the 
Sun  itself.  In  Greek  the  word  was  pro- 
nounced Hyperion,  but  Shakespeare  and 
most  English  poets  accent  it  Hyperion.  The 
phrase  'Hyperion  to  a  satyr*  is  in  'Hamlet*, 
I.  ii. 

Hyperion,  a  poem  by  Keats  (q.v.),  written  in 
1818-19. 

Keats  wrote  two  versions  of  the  poem  and 
each  remains  an  uncompleted  fragment.  In 
the  first  the  story  of  Hyperion  is  told  in 
simple  narrative ;  in  the  other  in  the  form  of 
an  allegorical  vision  granted  to  the  poet.  In 
the  former,  Saturn  is  presented  mourning  his 
fallen  realm,  and  debating  with  the  Titans 
how  he  may  recover  it.  They  look  in  vain  to 
Hyperion,  the  sun-god,  who  is  still  un- 
deposed,  to  help  them.  Then  the  young 
Apollo  is  introduced,  the  god  of  music, 
poetry,  and  knowledge.  At  this  point  the 
fragment  ends. 

In  the  other  form  of  the  poem,  the  poet  in 
a  dream  passes  through  a  garden  towards  a 
shrine,  of  which  the  approach  is  granted  to 
none 

But  those  to  whom  the  miseries  of  the 

world 
Are  misery,  and  will  not  let  them  rest. 

Then  the  fate  of  Hyperion,  the  last  of  the 
Titans,  who  is  dethroned  by  Apollo,  is 
revealed  to  him  by  Moneta,  the  mournful 
goddess  of  the  Vither'd  race'  of  Saturn;  but 
the  tale  is  uncompleted. 

Hyperion,  a  prose  romance  by  Longfellow 
(q.v.). 

Hyperrnnestra,  see  Danaides. 

Hypocorism,  a  childish  or  pet  name,  used 
endearingly  or  euphemistically. 


[392] 


HYPSlPYLl 

Hypslp^le,  daughter  of  Thoas,  king  of  Lem- 
nos.  When  the  women  of  the  island  killed 
all  the  men,  she  saved  her  father.  She  became 
queen  of  Lemnos,  and  when  the  Argonauts 
(q.v.)  visited  the  island,  bore  twin  sons  to 
Jason.  The  Lemnian  women  discovered  that 
she  had  saved  Thoas,  and  drove  her  from  the 
island. 

Hyrcania,  a  region  of  the  ancient  Persian 
Empire  adjoining  the  Caspian  or  Hyrcanian 
sea.  It  was  reputed  to  abound  in  wild  beasts, 
serpents,  £c. 


IBSEN 

Hyrcanian  Sea,  an  ancient  name  for  the 
Caspian. 

Hysteron  Proteron,  in  grammar  and  rhe- 
toric, a  figure  of  speech  in  which  the  word  or 
phrase  that  should  properly  come  last  is  put 
first ;  in  general,  'putting  the  cart  before  the 
horse'. 

Hythloday,  RAPHAEL,  in  More's  'Utopia* 
(q.v.),  the  traveller  in  whose  mouth  the  author 
places  the  criticisms  of  English  institutions, 
and  the  description  of  the  'wise  and  godly 
ordinances'  of  the  Utopians. 


i 


IHS,  representing  the  Greek  2H27,  an  ab- 
breviation of  IH(SOY)S,  Jesus.  The  Ro- 
manized form  of  the  abbreviation  would  be 
IBS,  but  from  the  retention  of  the  Greek 
form  in  Latin  manuscripts  and  subsequent 
forgetfulness  of  its  origin,  it  has  often  been 
looked  upon  as  a  Latin  abbreviation  or  con- 
traction, and  explained  as  meaning  lesus 
Jriominum  Salvator,  Jesus  Saviour  of  men,  or 
In  Hoc  Signo[vince$],  in  this  sign  (thou  shalt 
conquer),  or  In  Hac  Salus,  in  this  (cross)  is 
salvation.  [OED.] 

I.N.R.I.,  lesus  Nazarenus  "Rex  ludaeorum, 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  king  of  the  Jews ;  the  title 
on  the  Cross. 

lacMmo,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Cym- 
beline*  (q.v.). 

lago,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Othello* 
(q.v.). 

Iambic,  verse  consisting  of,  or  based  on, 
iambuses,  that  is  feet  consisting  of  a  short 
followed  by  a  long  syllable  (see  Metre).  The 
IAMBIC  TRIMETER  is  a  verse  of  six  iambuses, 
the  first,  third,  and  fifth  of  which  may  be 
replaced  by  a  tribrach  or  a  spondee  or  a  dactyl. 
This  was  the  principal  metre  of  the  Greek 
drama.  In  modern  use,  an  iambic  verse  of  six 
feet  is  known  as  an  Alexandrine  (q.v.). 

lambiichus  (d.  c.  A.D.  330),  born  at  Calchis 
in  Coele- Syria,  a  nee-Platonic  philosopher, 
who  wrote  a  life  of  Pythagoras,  and  an  'Ex- 
hortation to  Philosophy',  besides  other  works 
which  have  not  survived. 

lanthe,  (i)  the  heroine  of  D'Avenant's  'The 
Siege  of  Rhodes*  (q.v.);  (2)  the  young  lady 
to  whom  Byron  dedicated  his  'Childe  Harold's 
Pilgrimage',  Lady  Charlotte  Mary  Harley 
(1801-80),  who  married  Captain  Anthony 
Bacon ;  (3)  the  lady  whom  Landor  addressed 
in  a  series  of  poems,  Sophia  Jane  Swifte,  an 
Irishwoman,  who  became  Countess  de  Mo- 
lande*;  (4)  the  name  of  the  daughter  of 
Shelley  and  his  wife  Harriet;  also  in  Shelley's 
*Queen  Mab*  (q.v.),  the  maiden  to  whom  the 
fairy  grants  a  vision  of  the  world. 

lapStus,  one  of  the  Titans  (q.v.)  and  the 
father  of  Atlas,  Prometheus,  Epimetheus, 


and  Menoetius,  and  the  grandfather  of  Deu- 
calion (q.v.).  He  was  thus  regarded  by  the 
ancient  Greeks  as  the  progenitor  of  the 
human  race. 


VICENTE  BLASCO  (1867- 
1928),  Spanish  novelist,  whose  best-known 
works  (translated  into  English)  are:  'La 
Catedral'  (1903,  'The  Shadow  of  the  Cathe- 
dral'), 'Sangre  y  Arena*  (1908,  'Blood  and 
Sand'),  'Los  Cuatros  Jinetes  del  Apocalipsis' 
(1916,  'The  Four  Horsemen  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse'), 'Mare  Nostrum'  (1918,  'Our  Sea'). 

Iberia,  a  Greek  and  Latin  name  for  Spain, 
from  the  river  Iberus,  the  Ebro. 

Iberians,  a  name  applied  to  the  neolithic 

inhabitants  of  Britain. 

Iblis,  see  Eblis. 

Ibn  Batuta,  see  Cathay. 

IBSEN,  HENRIK  (1828-1906),  Norwegian 
dramatist,  whose  satirical  problem-plays, 
directed  to  social  reforms,  obtained  wide 
fame  and  exerted  a  powerful  influence. 
Ibsen's  early  work  consisted  of  historical 
romantic  dramas,  *Fru  Inger  at  Osterrad', 
'The  Banquet  at  Solhaug',  'The  Warriors  at 
Helgeland*,  and  'Kongsemnerne*  ('Royal 
Candidates',  1862).  These  were  followed  by 
'Love's  Comedy*  (1863),  the  first  of  his 
satirical  dramas,  of  which  the  theme  is  the 
destructive  effect  on  love  of  the  prosaic  and 
official  aspects  of  courtship  and  matrimony. 
Sooner  than  see  their  love  thus  blighted,  Falk 
and  Swanhild  decide  to  part  while  it  is  still  in 
its  perfect  bloom. 

Then,  in  a  moment  of  pecuniary  distress, 
and  embittered  by  disappointment  at  the 
attitude  taken  by  his  country  in  the  Dano- 
German  war,  Ibsen  gave  vent  to  his  des- 
pondency in  his  two  great  lyrical  dramas 
'Brand*  and  'Peer  Gynt'  (qq.v.,  1866  and 
1867).  After  these  came  'The  Young  Men's 
League'  (1869),  a  satire  on  Norwegian  politics, 
and  'Emperor  and  Galilean'  (1873),  a  double 
play  on  Julian  the  apostate  and  his  relations 
with  Christianity  and  Paganism.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  series  of  problem  plays,  of  which 
the  general  subject  is  the  relation  of  the 


[393] 


ICARIUS 

individual  to  his  social  environment,  the 
shams  and  conventions  that  hinder  his  self- 
expression,  and  especially  the  case  of  woman 
in  the  state  of  marriage.  These  plays  were: 
'Pillars  of  Society'  (1877),  'A  Doll's  House' 
(1879),  'Ghosts'  (1881),  'An  Enemy  of  the 
People'  (1882),  'The  Wild  Duck'  (1884),  'Ros- 
mershoim'  (1886),  'The  Lady  from  the  Sea' 
(1888),  'Hedda  Gabler'  (1890),  'The  Master 
Builder'  (1892),  'Little  EyoIP  (1894),  'John 
Gabriel  Borkman*  ( 1 896) ,  and  'When  we  Dead 
awake'  (1900).  These  have  been  very  differ- 
ently judged.  Mr.  G.  Saintsbury  goes  so  far 
as  to  call  Ibsen  parochial,  and  attributes  his 
success  (apart  from  the  measure  of  genius  that 
he  allows  to  the  author)  to  the  prevailing  lack 
of  sense  of  humour  and  the  revolt  against  the 
classical  and  conventional.  But  other  com- 
petent judges,  supported  by  the  wide  in- 
fluence of  Ibsen's  work,  profoundly  disagree. 

Icarius,  an  Athenian  who,  having  hospitably 
received  Dionysus  when  he  came  to  Attica, 
was  taught  by  him  the  cultivation  of  the  vine. 
He  gave  wine  to  some  peasants  who  became 
intoxicated,  slew  Icarius  and  threw  his  body 
into  a  well.  His  daughter  Erigone  discovered 
it  by  the  help  of  her  dog  Moira.  Erigone  in 
despair  hung  herself,  and  was  changed  into 
the  constellation  Virgo,  and  hex  father  into 
the  star  Bootes. 
Icarus,  see  Daedalus. 

Icelus,  in  classical  mythology,  the  son  of 
Somnus  (sleep)  and  brother ^of  Morpheus,  a 
god  who  took  the  form  of  birds,  beasts,  and 
serpents  in  the  dreams  of  men.  But  men, 
says  Ovid  (Met.  xi.  640),  call  this  god  P/zo- 
betor  ('the  terrifier*). 

Ichabod,  'inglorious*,  the  name  that  the  wife 
of  Phinehas  gave  to  her  child,  saying,  'The 
glory  is  departed  from  Israel',  because  of  the 
tidings  that  the  ark  of  God  was  taken,  the 
sons  of  Eli  (Hophni  and  Phinehas)  slain  by 
the  Philistines,  and  Eli  himself  dead  at  the 
news,  (i  Sam.  iv.  21.) 
Ichor,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  ethereal 
fluid  supposed  to  flow  like  blood  in  the  veins 
of  the  gods. 

Iciithys,  the  Greek  word  for  'fish',  used  in 
early  Christian  times  as  a  symbol  of  Christ, 
as  being  composed  of  the  initials  of  the  words 
/esous  C£Tzistos  THeou  Uios  Soter,  Jesus 
Christ,  son  of  God,  Saviour. 

Icknield  Way,  an  ancient  road  dating  prob- 
ably from  pre-Roman  times,  crossing  England 
in  a  wide  curve  from  Norfolk  (the  country  of 
the^Iceni,  from  whom  the  name  is  perhaps 
derived)  to  Cornwall. 

Icon  Basilike,  see  Eikon  Basilike. 

Ictus,  Latin  'beat',  the  stress  on  particular 
syllables  that  marks  the  rhythm  of  a  verse. 

Ida,  the  name  of  a  mountain  in  Phrygia  near 
Troy,  where  the  Simois  and  Scamander  had 
their  sources.  From  its  summit  the  gods 
watched  the  Trojan  War.  It  was  the  scene  of 


ID6MENEUS 

the  rape  of  Ganymede  (q.v.)  and  the  home  of 
Paris  and  Oenone  (qq.v.).  There  was  another 
Mt.  Ida  in  Crete;  in  a  cave  on  this  mountain 
Zeus  (q.v.)  was  said  to  have  been  brought  up. 
A  cave  on  the  Cretan  Mt.  Ida  has  been  ex- 
cavated and  has  yielded  a  great  quantity  of 
votive  offerings  of  the  classical  Greek  period. 
The  IDAEAN  MOTHER  was  Cybele  (q.v.), 
whose  worship  was  universal  in  Phrygia  and 
who  was  particularly  connected  with  Mt.  Ida 
in  Crete  and  the  Phrygian  Ida  (Smith,  'Class. 
Diet.')- 

Ida,  PRINCESS,  the  heroine  of  Tennyson's 
'The  Princess'  (q.v.),  which  is  the  basis  of  the 
Gilbert  and  Sullivan  opera  'Princess  Ida'. 
Idalia,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  Venus, 
from  IdaKum,  a  mountain-city  in  Cyprus, 
sacred  to  her  worship. 

Idea,  the  Shepheards  Garland,  nine  pastorals 
by  M.  Drayton  (q.v.),  issued,  ist  ed.  1593* 
3rd  revision  (entitled  'Pastorals')  1619. 

Ideal  of  a  Christian  Church,  The,  see  Ward 
(W.  G.)  and  Oxford  Movement. 

Idealism,  in  philosophy,  any  system  of 
thought  in  which  the  object  of  external  per- 
ception is  held  to  consist,  either  in  itself,  or  as 
perceived,  of  ideas,  whether  of  the  perceiving 
mind  or  of  the  universal  mind;  or  in  "which 
no  independent  reality  is  held  to  underlie  our 
ideas  of  external  objects.  ^The  principal  ex- 
ponents of  idealistic  philosophies  include 
Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel  (qq.v.). 
In  common  use  the  word  means  the  repre- 
sentation of  things  in  an  ideal  form,  or  as  they 
might  be;  the  imaginative  treatment  of  a 
subject  in  art  or  literature. 
Iden,  ALEXANDER,  in  Shakespeare's  '2  Henry 
VI',  a  Kentish  gentleman,  who  slew  Jack 
Cade. 

Ides,  in  the  ancient  Roman  calendar,  the 
1 5th  of  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  and 
the  1 3th  of  all  the  other  months.  The  Ides  of 
March  was  the  day  on  which  Julius  Caesar 
was  assassinated.  See  Shakespeare,  'Julius 
Caesar*,  i.  ii  and  in.  i. 

Idler,  The,  a  series  of  papers  contributed  by 
S.  Johnson  (q.v.)  to  the  'Universal  Chronicle, 
or  Weekly  Gazette9,  between  15  April  1758 
and  5  April  1760.  These  papers  are  shorter 
and  lighter  than  those  of  the  'Rambler'  (q.v.), 
but  their  general  character  is  the  same. 
They  include  the  well-known  sketches  of 
Dick  Minim,  the  critic,  of  Mr.  Sober  (the 
author  himself),  Jack  Whirler,  and  Tom 
Restless. 

Also  the  title  of  a  monthly  journal  edited 
by  Jerome  K.  Jerome  and  Robert  Barr, 
1892-1911. 

Idols  of  the  Tribe,  &c.,  see  Novum 
Organum. 

IdSmeneus,  king  of  Crete,  an  ally  of  the 
Greeks  in  the  Trojan  War.  While  returning, 
he  vowed,  if  saved  from  a  tempest  that 
threatened  his  ship,  to  sacrifice  to  Poseidon 


[394] 


IDUN 

whatever  he  first  met  on  his  arrival.  This 
proved  to  be  his  own  son,  whom  Idomeneus 
accordingly  sacrificed.  For  his  inhumanity 
the  Cretans  expelled  him  from  his  kingdom. 

Idun  or  IDUNA,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  goddess  who  had  in  her  keeping  in  Asgard 
the  apples  that  restored  the  youth  of  the  gods. 
She  was  the  wife  of  Bragi  (q.v.),  and  appears 
to  personify  the  fruitful  season  of  the  year. 

Idyll,  from  a  Greek  word  meaning  a  little 
picture,  a  short  poem,  descriptive  of  some 
picturesque  scene  or  incident,  chiefly  in 
rustic  life;  e.g.  the  'Idylls'  of  Theocritus 
(q.v.). 

Idylls  of  the  King,  The,  a  series  of  connected 
poems  by  A.  Tennyson  (q.v.),  of  which  the 
first  fragment,  'The  Morte  d 'Arthur',  subse- 
quently incorporated  in  'The  Passing  of 
Arthur*,  was  published  in  1842.  In  1859 
appeared  'Enid',  'Vivien3,  'Elaine',  and 
'Guinevere'.  In  1869  were  added  'The 
Coming  of  Arthur',  'The  Holy  Grail',  Telleas 
and  Ettarre',  and  'The  Passing  of  Arthur'. 
'The  Last  Tournament'  appeared  in  1871, 
'Gareth  and  Lynette'  in  1872,  'Balin  and 
Balan'  in  1885 ;  and  finally  'Enid'  was  divided 
into  two  parts,  'The  Marriage  of  Geraint'  and 
'Geraint  and  Enid'. 

These  poems  form  parts  in  a  general  pre- 
sentment of  the  story  of  Arthur,  of  his  noble 
design  of  the  Round  Table,  and  of  its  failure 
under  the  ever-widening  influence  of  evil, 
in  the  shape  of  the  sin  of  Lancelot  and 
Guinevere.  It  is  a  story  of  bright  hope  (in 
'The  Coming  of  Arthur'  and  'Gareth  and 
Lynette'),  followed  by  growing  disillusion- 
ment, of  which  the  protagonists  are  the 
melancholy  characters  of  Arthur  and  Guine- 
vere, Lancelot  and  Elaine.  The  chief  criti- 
cism passed  on  it  relates  to  the  shadowy  and 
unreal,  almost  symbolical,  character  of  Aithur 
himself.  The  summaries  of  the  several  parts 
are  given  under  their  respective  titles. 

lerae,  IVERNA,  HIBERNIA,  equivalents  of 
Ptolemy's  lovepvta,  ancient  names  of  Ireland, 
from  an  old  Celtic  word  whence  'Erin'  is 
derived. 

Igdrasil,  see  Yggdrasil 
Igeme,  see  Igraine. 

IGNATIUS,  ST.  (c.  50-^107  or  116),  bishop 
of  Antioch,  said  to  have  been  appointed  to  his 
see  by  St.  Peter,  and  martyred  under  the 
Emperor  Trajan.  He  is  the  author  of  famous 
epistles  from  which  we  derive  the  little  that 
is  known  about  him.  He  was  called  Theo- 
phorus,  whence  has  arisen  the  romantic  tradi- 
tion that  he  was  the  child  whom  Christ  took 
in  his  arms,  as  described  in  Mark  ix.  35. 

Ignatius  Loyola,  see  Loyola. 

Ignis  Fatuus,  meaning  'foolish  fire*,  is  a 
phosphorescent  light  seen  hovering  or  flitting 
over  marshy  ground,  and  supposed  to  be  due 
to  the  spontaneous  combustion  of  an  in- 
flammable gas  derived  from  decaying  vege- 


ILLUMINATI 

table  matter,  popularly  called  Will-o'-the- 
wisp,  Jack-o'-lantern,  &c.  It  seems  to  have 
been  formerly  a  common  phenomenon. 
When  approached,  the  ignis  fatuus  appeared 
to  recede  and  finally  to  vanish,  sometimes  re- 
appearing in  another  direction.  This  led  to 
the  notion  that  it  was  the  work  of  a  mis- 
chievous sprite,  intentionally  leading  be- 
nighted travellers  astray.  Hence  the  term  is 
often  used  allusively  for  any  delusive  hope, 
aim,  &c.  [OED.] 

IgnogS  (three  syllables),  according  to  Geof- 
frey of  Monmouth,  a  Greek  princess,  the  wife 
of  Brute  (q.v.),  and  the  mother  of  Locrine, 
Albanact,  and  Camber.  Spenser  calls  her 
Inogene  of  Italy  ('Faerie  Queene',  II.  x.  13). 

Ignoramus ,  a  famous  university  farcical  play 
by  George  Ruggle  (1575-1622),  a  fellow  ol 
Clare  College,  Cambridge,  produced  in  1615 
before  James  I,  an  adaptation  of  an  Italian 
comedy  by  Delia  Porta.  The  title  part  is  a 
burlesque  of  the  recorder  of  Cambridge, 
Brackyn,  who  is  subjected  to  various  humilia- 
tions ;  he  falls  in  love  with  •  the  heroine 
Rosabella,  but  is  fobbed  off  with  the  virago 
Polla,  belaboured,  thought  to  be  possessed  by 
evil  spirits,  subjected  to  exorcism,  and  finally 
carried  oft  to  a  monastery  for  treatment. 
Brackyn  had  already  been  held  up  to  ridicule 
in  the  last  part  of  the  'Parnassus'  plays  (q.v.). 

Ignoratio  elenchi,  a  logical  fallacy  which 
consists  in  apparently  refuting  an  opponent 
while  actually  disproving  some  statement 
other  than  that  advanced  by  him. 

Igraine,  or  IGERNE,  or  YGERNE,  in  the 
Arthurian  legend,  the  wife  of  Gorlois  of 
Cornwall,  whom  Uther  Pendragon,  assuming 
the  likeness  of  her  husband  by  the  help  of 
Merlin's  magic,  won  for  his  wife.  Of  their 
union  Arthur  (q.v.)  was  born. 

n  Penseroso,  see  Penseroso. 

Ilchester ,  JANET,  one  of  the  principal  charac- 
ters in  Meredith's  'Harry  Richmond*  (q.v.). 

Iliad,  The,  a  Greek  epic  poem  attributed  to 
Homer  (q.v.),  describing  the  war  waged  by 
Achaean  princes  against  Troy  for  the  pur- 
pose of  recovering  Helen,  wife  of  Mene- 
laus,  whom  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy, 
had  carried  away.  In  particular  it  deals 
with  the  wrath  of  Achilles,  the  special  hero 
of  the  poem,  at  the  slight  put  upon  him  by 
Agamemnon,  leader  of  the  host,  and  his 
final  return  to  the  field  and  slaying  of  Hector. 
See  Achilles. 

llissus,  a  river  of  Attica,  flowing  east  of 
Athens  and  joining  the  Cephissus. 

Ilium,  see  Troy. 

Ilk,  in  Scottish,  means  'same',  of  that  ilk,  of 
the  same  place,  designation,  or  name;  e.g. 
Guthrie  of  that  ilk,  Guthrie  of  Guthrie. 

Illuminati,  aname  applied  to,  or  assumed  by, 
various  societies  or  sects  because  of  their 


[395] 


ILMARINEN 

claim  to  special  enlightenment  in  religious  or 
intellectual  matters.  It  is  used  also  to  render 
the  German  Illuminaten,  the  name  of  a  cele- 
brated secret  society  founded  at  Ingolstadt  in 
Bavaria  in  1776  by  Prol  Adam  Weishaupt, 
holding  deistic  and  republican  principles,  and 
having  an  organization  akin  to  freemasonry. 
It  obtained  Goethe  and  Herder  among  its 
recruits.  It  was  attacked  by  the  Rosicrucians, 
and  became  an  object  of  political  suspicion  jto 
the  Bavarian  government,  and  its  activities 
were  prohibited  in  1785.  The  Jacobins  of  the 
French  Revolution  were  supposed  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  Illuminati.  The  name  is  also 
applied  generally,  often  in  a  satirical  sense,  to 
persons  claiming  special  knowledge  on  any 
subject, 

Ilmarinen,  one  of  the  principal  heroes  of  the 
*Kalevala'  (q.v,),  the  metal-worker  who  makes 
the  magic  mill,  the  Sampo  (q.v.). 
Imaginary  Conversations,  by  Landor  (q.v.), 
published  1824-9,  followed  by  'Imaginary 
Conversations  of  Greeks  and  Romans',  pub- 
lished in  1853. 

These  represent,  particularly  if  'Pericles 
and  Aspasia'  (q.v.)  and  'The  Pentameron' 
(q.v.)  are  included,  the  bulk  of  Lander's 
prose  work.  The  conversations  are  between 
characters  of  all  the  ages,  from  classical  to 
recent  times ;  they  are,  some  dramatic,  some 
idyllic,  some  satirical,  while  others  treat  of 
political,  social,  or  literary  questions ;  action 
and  incidents  are  occasionally  interposed, 
which  add  to  their  variety.  There  are  some 
150  of  these  dialogues.  Their  form  is 
admirable,  but  the  matter  is  unequal;  for 
Landor  made  use  of  them  to  express  his 
personal  views,  which  were  sometimes  ill- 
judged,  on  a  multitude  of  subjects.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  best  known: 
'Dante  and  Beatrice1,  *  Princess  Mary  and 
Princess  Elizabeth',  'Louis  XIV  and  P&re 
La  Chaise*,  'Aesop  and  Rhodope',  'Romilly 
and  Wilberforce',  *Fra  Filippo  Lippi  and 
Pope  Eugenius  IV,  and  'Calvin  and 
Melanchthon*. 

Imaus,  a  great  mountain  range  of  Asia, 
mentioned  by  the  ancient  geographers. 

Imitation  of  Christ,  or  de  Indtatione  Christiy 
see  Thomas  &  Kempis. 

Imitations  of  Horace,  see  Pope  (A.). 
Imlac,  a  character  in  Johnson's  'Rasselas' 
(q.v.). 

Immortals ,  THE  (LES  IMMORTELS),  the  forty 
members  of  the  French  Academy,  so  called 
because  the  place  of  each  member  is  filled  as 
soon  as  he  dies.  The  name  was  also  given  in 
ancient  times  to  a  body  of  10,000  Persian 
infantry,  the  flower  of  the  army,  whose  number 
was  kept  constantly  full. 

Imogen,     in     Shakespeare's     'Cymbeline' 
(q.v.),  the  wife  of  Posthumus. 
Imoinda,    a    character    in    Mrs.    Behn's 
'Oroonoko'  (q.v.)  and  Southerae's  tragedy  of 
the  same  name. 


IN  PETTO 

Imp,  originally  a  young  shoot  of  a  plant  or 
tree;  hence  a  scion,  especially  of  a  noble 
house  (e.g.  in  the  epitaph  of  Lord  Denbigh  in 
the  Beauchamp  Chapel  at  Warwick,  'Heere 
resteth  the  body  of  the  noble  Impe  Robert  of 
Dudley').  It  came  to  be  used  specifically  of  a 
child  of  the  devil;  a  little  devil,  an  evil  spirit; 
a  mischievous  child,  a  young  urchin. 
Impertinent,  The  Curious,  see  Curious 
Impertinent. 

Imposture,  The,  a  comedy  by  James 
Shirley  (q.v.),  produced  in  1640.. 

Flaviano,  the  favourite  of  the  duke  of  Man- 
tua, hopes  to  win  the  hand  of  the  duke's 
daughter,  Fioretta.  The  prince  of  Ferrara 
comes  to  proffer  his  suit  for  her.  The  'im- 
posture' consists  in  the  passing  off,  for  the 
young  duchess,  of  the  favourite's  cast-off 
mistress,  Juliana,  and  is  for  a  time  successful; 
but  all  is  put  right  in  the  end. 

Imprimatur,  meaning  'let  it  be  printed', 
the  formula  signed  by  an  official  licenser 
authorizing  the  printing  of  a  book. 
In  commendam,  from  the  Latin  dare  in 
commendam,  to  give  in  trust,  used  of  the 
tenure  of  a  benefice  given  in  charge  to  some 
person  until  a  proper  incumbent  was  found 
for  it,  especially  used  of  a  benefice  which  a 
bishop  or  other  dignitary  was  allowed  to 
hold  along  with  his  own  preferment  (abolished 
in  England  by  statute  in  1836). 

InHemoriamA.H.H.,  a  poem  by  A.Tenny- 
son (q.v.)  written  between  1833  and  1850,  and 
published  in  the  latter  year.  The  poem  was 
written  in  memory  of  Arthur  H.  Hallam,  the 
son  of  Henry  Hallam,  the  historian,  a  young 
man  of  extraordinary  promise  and  an  intimate 
friend  of  Tennyson,  who  died  in  1833  at 
Vienna  when  22  years  old.  It  is  written^  in 
stanzas  of  four  octosyllabic  lines  rhyming 
abba. 

'In  Memoriam*  is  not  so  much  a  single 
elegy  as  a  series  of  poems  written  at  different 
times,  inspired  by  the  changing  moods  of  the 
author's  regret  for  his  dead  friend.  The 
series  describes,  broadly  speaking,  the  'Way 
of  the  Soul',  as  Tennyson  sometimes  called 
it,  in  presence  of  a  great  loss,  the  gradual 
transformation  of  the  regret  felt  by  the  living 
for  the  dead  and  of  the  longing  for  his  bodily 
presence,  into  a  sense  of  spiritual  contact 
and  possession  and  a  wider  love  of  God  and 
humanity.  (See  A.  C.  Bradley,  'A  Com- 
mentary on  Tennyson's  "In  Memoriam"  '.) 

The  epilogue  is  a  marriage-song  on  the 
occasion  of  the  wedding  of  the  poet's  sister, 
Cecilia  (who  had  been  engaged  to  marry 
Arthur  Hallam),  to  Edward  Lushington,  and 
gives  a  cheerful  ending  to  the  whole  work. 

In  petto,  Italian,  in  one's  own  breast  or 
private  intention,  in  contemplation,  un- 
disclosed; used,  in  the  phraseology  of  the 
Roman  Curia,  for  the  nomination  of  a 
cardinal,  which  nomination  is  not  yet  to  be 
"  disclosed. 


[3963 


IN  PRINCIPIO 

In  principle,  Latin,  in  the  beginning;  the 
first  words  of  Genesis  and  of  St.  John's 
Gospel  in  the  Vulgate.  Hence,  the  short 
name  for  the  first  fourteen  verses  of  St.  John, 
which  were  supposed  to  have  extraordinary 
virtues.  Chaucer  says  of  the  Friar  in  the 
'Canterbury  Tales'  (q.v.): 

He  was  the  beste  begger  in  al  his  house, 
For  though  a  widdewe  hadde  but  oo  schoo, 
So  plesaunt  was  his  In  prindpio, 
Yet  wolde  he  have  a  ferthing  or  he  wente. 
('Prologue',  252.) 

In  the  Midst  of  Life,  a  collection  of  short 
stories  by  Ambrose  Bierce  (q.v.),  originally 
entitled  'Tales  of  Soldiers  and  Civilians'. 
Inca,  the  title  of  the  emperor  or  king  of  Peru 
before  its  conquest  by  the  Spaniards;  also  one 
of  the  royal  race  of  Peru,  descended  from 
Manco  Capac  (q.v.)  and  Mama  OcoUo. 

INGHBALD,  MRS.  ELIZABETH  (1753- 
1821),  n&e  Simpson,  was  a  novelist,  dramatist, 
and  actress.  She  is  chiefly  remembered  for 
her  two  prose  romances  'A  Simple  Story* 
(1791)  and  'Nature  and  Art*  (1796),  qq.v. 
Her  most  successful  comedy  was  'I'll  tell  you 
what*,  produced  in  1785.  She  edited  'The 
British  Theatre*,  a  collection  of  old  plays,  in 
1806-9. 

Inchcape  Rock,  THE,  a  rock  in  the  North 
Sea,  off  the  Firth  of  Tay,  dangerous  to 
mariners,  near  which  the  abbot  of  Arbroath 
or  Aberbrothock  fixed  a  warning  bell  on  a 
float.  In  Southey's  ballad  on  the  subject,  Sir 
Ralph  the  Rover,  to  plague  the  abbot,  cuts 
the  bell  from  the  float,  and  later,  on  his  home- 
ward way,  is  wrecked  on  the  rock. 

Incunabula,  a  Latin  word  meaning 
swaddling-clothes,  is  used  to  signify  books 
produced  in  the  infancy  of  the  art  of  printing, 
especially  those  printed  before  1500. 

Indamora,  a  character  in  Dry  den's  'Aureng- 
Zebe'  (q.v.). 

Independence  Day,  4  July,  -kept  as  a 
national  holiday  in  the  United  States,  as  the 
anniversary  of  the  signature  in  1776  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence. 
Index  Expiirgatorius,  strictly,  an  authori- 
tative specification  of  the  passages  to  be  ex- 
punged or  altered  in  works  otherwise  per- 
mitted to  be  read  by  Roman  Catholics.  The 
term  is  frequently  used  in  England  to  cover 
the  'Index  Hbrorum  prohibitorum*,  or  list  of 
forbidden  books  (not  authors,  as  sometimes 
thought).  Rules  for  the  formation  of  this 
list  and  of  the  'Index  Expurgatorius*  were 
drawn  up  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  and 
successive  editions  of  the  former  have  been 
published  from  time  to  time  until  to-day. 
[OEDJ 

Indian  Summer,  the  name  given  to  a  period 
of  the  autumn  in  the  United  States  when  the 
atmosphere  is  dry  and  hazy,  the  sky  cloud- 
less, and  the  temperature  mild.  It  corre- 
sponds to  what  is  known  in  England  as  St. 
Luke's  Summer. 


INGRES 

Indian  Summer,  a  novel  by  W.  D.  Howelis 
(q.v.),  published  in  1885. 

Indicator,  The,  a  periodical  conducted  by 
Leigh  Hunt  (q.v.),  1819-21. 
Indo-European,  the  name  applied  to  the 
great  family  of  cognate  languages  (also  called 
Indo-Germanic  and  Aryan)  spoken  over  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  and  extending  into 
Asia  as  far  as  northern  India ;  also  applied  to 
the  race,  or  its  divisions,  using  one  or  other 
of  these  languages.  [OEDJ 

Indra,  in  Vedic  theology,  the  chief  god  of 
the  air,  the  rain-giver,  the  type  of  beneficent 
heroic  power,  struggling  against  evil  demons ; 
later  subordinated  to  the  triad  Brahma, 
Vishnu,  and  Shiva. 

Inez,  DONNA,  in  Byron*s  'Don  Juan*  (q.v.), 
the  mother  of  the  hero. 
Inez  de  Castro,  the  daughter  of  a  Cas- 
tilian  nobleman,  attached  to  the  court  of 
Alphpnso  IV  of  Portugal.  Prince  Pedro 
married  her  secretly,  and  lived  with  her  in 
happy  seclusion.  When  the  marriage  was 
discovered,  the  king  authorized  the  murder  of 
Inez.  On  the  accession  (1357)  of  Pedro,  who 
had  been  reduced  to  despair  by  the  death  of 
his  wife,  his  first  measure  was  to  take  ven- 
geance on  her  murderers.  The  subject  has 
been  treated  by  various  poets,  including 
Camoens ;  Landor  wrote  a  short  drama  on  it. 

Infangthlef  (Infangenetheof)  and  Outtang- 
thief,  the  ancient  right  of  the  lord  of  the 
manor  to  hang,  respectively,  his  own  man 
(one  of  Ms  feudal  tenants  or  serfs)  if  caught 
in  the  act  of  crime,  and  someone  else's  man, 
if  caught  in  the  act  of  crime  within  his 
jurisdiction.  The  two  stone  balls  that 
decorate  the  gateways  of  many  old  manor- 
houses  are  said  to  have  originally  represented 
the  heads  of  two  malefactors,  symbols  of  the 
lord's  jurisdiction. 

Inferno,  The,  of  Dante,  see  Divina  Corn- 
media. 
Iniralapsarian,  see  Sublapsarian, 

INGE,  VERY  REV.  WILLIAM  RALPH 
(1860-  ),  dean  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
London,  since  1911,  He  has  published  many 
works  of  a  philosophical  character.  On  ac- 
count of  his  outlook  on  modern  life  he  has 
jocularly  been  termed  'The  Gloomy  Dean*. 

INGELOW,  JEAN  (1820-97),  poetess,  born 
at  Boston  in  Lincolnshire.  Her  works  include 
three  series  of  poems  (1871,  1876,  and  1885), 
and  stories  for  children.  Her  most  remarkable 
poems  are  'Divided*  and  'The  High  Tide  on 
the  Coast  of  Lincolnshire,  1571*  (1863),  and 
'A  Story  of  Doom*  (1867). 

Ingoldsby  Legends,  The,  see  Barham. 
Ingres,  JEAN  AUGUSTE  DOMINIQUE  (1781- 
1867),  a  celebrated  French  painter^  mainly  of 
historical  pieces,  a  pupil  of  David.  He  is 
noted  rather  for  his  drawing  than  his  colour. 
Among  his  smaller  works  is  the  well-known 
piece,  *La  Source*,  in  the  Louvre. 


[397] 


INGRES 

Ingres,  VIOLIN  OF  (Violon  &  Ingres):  Ingres 
(see  previous  entry),  besides  being  a  great 
painter,  was  a  moderate  performer  on  the 
violin.  It  is  said  that  he  was  less  flattered  by 
compliments  on  his  painting  (in  which  he 
knew  himself  a  master)  than  by  compliments 
on  his  fiddling.  The  expression  is  used  of  a 
secondary  occupation  or  hobby,  a  subject  of 
pride  or  vanity  to  the  person  concerned. 

Ingulf,  see  Croyland  History. 

Inheritance,  The,  a  novel  by  S.  E.  Ferrier 
(q.v.),  published  in  1824. 

It  deals  with  the  fortunes  of  Gertrude 
St.  Clair,  granddaughter  of  the  earl  of  Ross- 
ville  and  heiress  presumptive  of  his  estate. 
On  the  death  of  her  father,  who  had  been 
repudiated  by  the  earl  as  having  married 
beneath  him,  she  and  her  mother  are  ad- 
mitted to  Rossville  Castle  and  the  counte- 
nance of  the  earl,  a  pompous  self -conceited 
tyrant.  Contrary  to  his  wishes,  Gertrude  falls 
in  love  with  her  fascinating  profligate  cousin, 
Colonel  Delmour,  and  after  the  earl's  death 
becomes  engaged  to  him,  to  the  despair 
of  those  who  know  his  real  character.  Among 
these  is  another  cousin,  Edward  Lyndsay, 
who  loves  Gertrude  with  self-effacing 
humility.  A  low-bred  American  now  comes 
forward  and  claims  to  be  Gertrude's  father. 
It  comes  to  light  that  the  ambitious  Mrs.  St. 
Clair,  despairing  of  issue,  has  adopted  the 
daughter  of  a  servant  and  passed  her  off  as 
her  own  child.  The  reaction  of  the  two 
cousins  to  this  catastrophe  is  characteristic. 
Gertrude  having  lost  title  and  fortune  is 
abandoned  by  Colonel  Delmour,  while 
Edward  Lyndsay  is  faithful  to  her  and 
gradually  wins  her  love.  Miss  Pratt,  the 
garrulous  and  eccentric  spinster,  is  an 
amusing  character  in  the  story. 

Inkle  and  Yaricot  a  romantic  comedy  by 
G.  Colman  (q.v.)  the  younger,  performed 
in  1787,  in  which  the  young  Londoner 
Inkle,  saved  from  death  on  a  voyage  to 
Barbados  by  the  beautiful  savage  Yarico, 
has  to  decide  between  fidelity  to  her  and  a 
wealthy  marriage  to  Narcissa,  the  governor's 
daughter;  he  chooses  the  latter,  and  is  punished 
for  his  ingratitude.  The  story  occurs  in 
Addison's  'Spectator*  (No.  n),  and  is  taken 
from  Ligon's  'History  of  Barbadoes*. 

Inn  Album,  The,  a  poem  by  R.  Browning 
(q.v.),  published  in  1875. 

The  poem  is  a  tragedy,  in  eight  scenic  divi- 
sions, of  amotherless  girl  seduced  by  an  elderly 
adventurer,  driven  to  marry  an  old,  poor,  and 
narrow-minded  clergyman,  and  finally  to 
suicide  by  the  threat  of  her  seducer  to  reveal 
her  secret  to  her  husband.  The  'inn-album' 
is  used  as  the  means  of  conveying  this  threat 
to  her.  A  young  man,  who  had  honourably 
loved  the  woman  and  had  come  under  the 
pernicious  influence  of  the  adventurer,  not 
knowing  that  he  was  the  woman's  seducer, 
reappears  at  the  crisis  of  the  story,  and,  learn- 
ing the  elder  man's  infamy,  strangles  him. 


INQUISITION 

The  story  in  its  main  outlines  was  founded 
on  fact.  (See  Nicoll  and  Wise,  'Literary 
Anecdotes',  i.  533.) 

Innes,  FRANK,  a  character  in  R.  L.  Steven- 
son's 'Weir  of  Hermiston'  (q.v.). 

Innisfail,  a  poetical  name  for  Ireland. 

Inns  of  Court  and  of  Chancery  were  the 
earliest  settled  places  of  residence,  resembling 
colleges,  of  associations  of  law  students  in 
London,  and  date  from  the  I3th  and  I4th 
cents.  The  Inns  of  Chancery,  such  as  Staple's 
Inn  and  Barnard's  Inn,  now  perform  no  legal 
function,  though  several  still  exist  as  societies 
possessing  corporate  property.  The  Inns  of 
Court  are  the  four  sets  of  buildings  belonging 
to  the  four  legal  societies  that  have  the  ex- 
clusive right  of  admitting  persons  to  practice 
at  the  bar.  They  are:  Lincoln's  Inn,  Inner 
Temple,  Middle  Temple,  and  Gray's  Inn. 
Each  of  the  societies  comprises  benchers, 
barristers,  and  students.  The  first  are  the 
senior  members  and  managers  of  the  society. 
The  Inns  were  the  frequent  scene  of  masques 
and  revels  in  the  i6th  and  i7th  cents. 

Innocents  Abroad,  The,  one  of  Mark 
Twain's  (q.v.)  most  successful  books,  pub- 
lished in  1869.  It  is  a  rollicking  tale  of  a  tour 
of  Europe  and  the  East,  made  by  a  group  of 
liberty-loving  Americans,  on  board  the 
paddle-wheel  steamer  'Quaker  City' .  Neither 
famous  names  nor  historic  associations  im- 
press the  tourists,  and  each  place  in  turn  is 
compared,  on  its  merits,  with  their  native 
land, 

Ino,  a  daughter  of  Cadmus  and  Harmonia 
(qq.v.)  and  wife  of  Athamas,  king  of  Thebes. 
Athamas  had  previously,  by  order  of  Hera, 
married  Nephele,  and  by  her  had  become 
father  of  Phrixus  and  Helle.  Ino  conceived 
a  bitter  hatred  of  her  step-children,  who 
escaped  from  her  on  a  golden  ram  (see 
under  Argonauts).  Ino's  own  children  were 
Learchus  and  MeHcertes.  Hera,  angered  with 
Ino,  drove  Athamas  mad,  so  that  he  killed 
Learchus.  Ino  fled  from  him  and  threw 
herself  into  the  sea  with  MeHcertes  in  her 
arms.  They  became  deities  of  the  sea,  under 
the  names  Leucothea  and  Palaemon.  It  was 
Ino  who  saved  Odysseus  when  his  raft  was 
wrecked,  lending  him  her  scarf  to  buoy 
him  up. 

Inogene,  see  Ignoge. 

Inquisition,  THE,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  an  ecclesiastical  tribunal  (officially 
styled  the  Holy  OfBce)  directed  to  the  sup- 
pression of  heresy  and  punishment  of  heretics. 
At^first  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Dominican 
Friars,  and  early  in  the  I3th  cent,  was  en- 
trusted by  Innocent  III  with  the  extirpation 
of  heresy  in  southern  France.  Soon  there 
grew  up  a  central  governing  body  at  Rome 
called  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  OfBce, 
whose  activities  were  gradually  extended  over 
France,  the  Netherlands,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 


[398] 


INSTAURATIO  MAGNA 

the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  colonies.  It  was 
abolished  in  France  in  1772,  and  finally  in 
Spain  in  1 834.  The  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
Office  still  exists,  but  is  chiefly  concerned 
with  heretical  literature. 
Instauratio  Magna,  the  title  of  Francis 
Bacon's  (q.v.)  great  projected  work,  of  which 
his  'Novum  Organum*  is  the  second  part. 

Institutes  of  Justinian,  The,  an  elementary 
treatise  on  Roman  Law  compiled  by  order  of 
the  Emperor  Justinian  in  A.D.  533,  and 
intended  as  an  introduction  to  the  Pandects 
(q.v.)- 

Instructions  to  a  Painter,  Last,  see  Marvell. 
'Instructions  to  a  Painter*  or  'Advice  to  a 
Painter'  was  the  title  adopted  (with  minor 
modifications)  for  a  number  of  political 
satires  (by  Denharn  and  others)  published  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  I7th  cent.  The  original 
'Instructions*  were  those  of  Waller  for  the 
celebration  of  the  duke  of  York's  victories 
over  the  Dutch. 

Intelligencer,  The,  see  UEstrange. 
Interim  of  Augsburg,  see  Augsburg. 
Three  'Interims',  or  provisional  arrange- 
ments for  the  adjustment  of  religious  differ- 
ences between  the  German  Protestants  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  were  promul- 
gated, that  of  Ratisbon  in  1541,  which  proved 
ineffective,  and  those  of  Augsburg  and  Leipzig 
in  1548.  The  Protestants  finally  obtained 
toleration  in  1552  as  a  result  of  the  Peace  of 
Passau  between  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  the 
emperor  Charles  V. 

Interludes  were  plays  performed  at  Court, 
in  the  halls  of  the  nobles,  at  the  Inns  of 
Court,  and  in  colleges,  generally  but  not 
exclusively  by  professional  actors,  dealing 
with  a  short  episode  and  involving  a  limited 
number  of  characters.  That  interludes  were 
sometimes  performed  by  villagers  we  know 
from  'Pyramus  and  Thisbe'  in  the  'Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream*  (q.v.).  Their  vogue 
was  chiefly  in  the  isth  and  i6th  cents.  They 
succeeded  'moralities'  (q.v.)  in  the  history  of 
the  drama,  and  are  not  always  clearly  dis- 
tinguishable from  them.  The  characters  are 
still  frequently  allegorical,  but  the  comic  or 
farcical  element  is  more  prevalent.  The 
versification  tends  to  doggerel,  and  they  are 
shorter  than  the  moralities.  A  notable  pro- 
ducer of  interludes  was  J.  Heywood  (q.v.), 
author  of  'The  Four  P  V,  in  which  a  Palmer, 
a  Pardoner,  and  a  'Pothecary  contend  as  to 
the  merits  of  their  respective  callings.  ^  A 
Pedlar  comes  in  and  offers  to  decide  which 
shows  the  greatest  capacity  as  a  liar,  and  the 
Palmer  wins  the  prize  by  asserting  that  'he 
never  saw  or  never  knew  Any  woman  out  of 
patience*.  This  follows  a  humorous  descrip- 
tion by  the  Pardoner  of  his  visit  to  hell  to 
rescue  the  soul  of  the  shrewish  Margery 
Coorson.  'Thersites',  another  interlude  (c. 
I537)»  perhaps  by  Heywood,  is  a  farcical 
treatment  of  boasting,  in  which  the  braggart 
Thersites,  having  had  arms  made  for  him  by 


IONIC  DIALECT 

Mulciber,  successfully  encounters  a  snail,  but 
runs  away  behind  his  mother  when  threatened 
by  Miles,  a  knight. 

The  origin  of  the  name  is  obscure.  The 
OED.  speaks  of  interludes  as  'commonly 
introduced  between  the  acts  of  long  mystery- 
plays  or  moralities' ;  Ward  finds  the  probable 
origin  in  the  fact  that  interludes  were 
'occasionally  performed  in  the  intervals  of 
banquets  and  entertainments'.  E.  K.  Cham- 
bers gives  reasons  for  questioning  both  these 
explanations.  He  is  inclined  to  interpret 
interludium  not  as  a  Indus  in  the  intervals  of 
something  else,  but  as  a  Indus  carried  on 
between  two  or  more  performers,  and  as 
primarily  applicable  to  any  kind  of  dramatic 
performance. 

International  Episode,  An,  a  short  novel  by 
Henry  James  (q.v.,  1878-9),  the  action  of  which 
is  provided  by  the  clash  between  an  American 
girl  and  an  English  duchess. 

Invalides ,  HdTEL  DES,  an  institution  founded 
in  Paris  by  Louis  XIV  in  1670  for  super- 
annuated or  disabled  soldiers.  The  tomb  of 
Napoleon  I  is  in  its  church. 

Invention  of  the  Cross,  THE,  see  Helena 

(St.). 

Invincible  Doctor,  THE,  Ockham  (q.v.). 

lo,  a  daughter  of  Inachus,  king  of  Argos,  who 
was  loved  by  Zeus.  To  escape  the  jealousy 
of  Hera,  Zeus  changed  his  mistress  into  a 
beautiful  heifer.  Hera,  who  discovered  the 
fraud,  obtained  the  animal  from  her  husband 
and  set  Argos  (q.v.)  to  watch  it.  Zeus  caused 
Hermes  to  destroy  Argos  and  set  lo  at 
liberty.  Hera  then  sent  a  gadfly  to  torment  lo, 
so  that  she  wandered  over  the  face  of  the 
earth,  swirriming  the  Bosporus  (i.e.  passage  of 
the  ox),  and  reaching  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 
where  she  recovered  her  human  shape  and 
bore  a  son,  named  Epaphus.  According  to 
Herodotus,  lo  was  carried  off  by  Phoenician 
merchants,  who  wished  to  make  reprisals  for 
the  theft  of  Europa  (q.v.). 
lolaus,  the  friend  of  Hercules  (q.v.).  He 
helped  Hercules  to  destroy  the  Hydra,  and 
aided  the  sons  of  Hercules,  after  their 
father's  death,  against  Eurystheus. 

lona  or  ICOLMKILL,  an  island  of  the  Inner 
Hebrides,  where  St.  Columba  (q.v.)  founded 
a  monastery  about  563,  an  important  centre 
of  Celtic  missions.  Adarnnan,  in  his  life  of 
St.  Columba,  wrote  the  name  loua,  which 
has  been  erroneously  converged  into  lona. 
Shakespeare,  in  'Macbeth',  II.  iv,  calls  it 
'Colmekill*.  'I-colm-kill"  means  'island  of 
St.  Columb's  chapel*. 

Ionian  Mode,  (i)  one  of  the  modes  of 
ancient  Greek  music,  characterized  as  soft 
and  effeminate;  (2)  the  last  of  the  'authentic* 
ecclesiastical  modes  corresponding  to  the 
modern  major  diatonic  scale.  [OED.] 

Ionic  Dialect,  the  most  important  branch 
of  ancient  Greek,  the  language  of  that  part 


[399] 


IONIC  ORDER 

of  the  Hellenic  race  which  occupied  Attica 
and  the  northern  coast  of  the  Peloponnese, 
and  founded  colonies  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
especially  Asia  Minor.  Attic  was  a  develop- 
ment of  Ionic. 

Ionic  Order,  one  of  the  three  orders^of 
Grecian  architecture  (Doric,  Ionic,  Corin- 
thian),  characterized  by  the  two  lateral 
volutes  of  the  capital. 

lonica,  see  Cory. 

IphlgSnla,  a  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and 
Clytemnestra  (qq.v.).  When  the  Greeks  on 
their  way  to  the  Trojan  War  were  detained 
by  contrary  winds  at  Aulis,  they  were  told 
that  Iphigenia  must  be  sacrificed  to  appease 
the  wrath  of  Diana,  whose  stag  Agamemnon 
had  killed.  Agamemnon  reluctantly  con- 
sented, but,  as  the  priest  was  about  to  strike 
the  fatal  blow,  Iphigenia  disappeared  and  a 
goat  was  found  in  her  place.  The  goddess, 
moved  by  Iphigenia's  innocence,  had  borne 
her  away  to  Tauris  and  entrusted  her  with 
the  care  of  her  temple.  Here  Iphigenia  was 
obliged  to  sacrifice  all  strangers  who  came 
to  the  country.  When  Orestes  (q.v.)  and 
Pylades  came  to  Tauris,  Iphigenia  discovered 
that  one  of  the  strangers  she  was  about  to 
immolate  was  her  brother.  Thereupon  she 
conspired  with  them  to  escape  and  to  carry 
away  the  statue  of  the  goddess,  as  the  oracle 
had  directed;  and  this  they  accomplished. 

The  story  of  Iphigenia  was  made  the  sub- 
ject of  plays  by  Aeschylus,  Sophocles,  and 
notably  by  Euripides;  also  in  modern  times 
by  Racine  and  Goethe. 

Iphigenle  auf  Tauris,  see  Goethe. 

Ipomedon  f  a  romance  of  the  Middle  English 
period,  taken  from  the  French  of  Hue  de 
Rotelande.  There  are  versions  both  in  rhyme 
and  prose. 

Ipomedon,  prince  of  Apulia,  having  by 
knightly  exploits  won  the  favour  of  the 
queen  of  Calabria  without  revealing  who  he  is, 
leaves  her;  but  returns  on  hearing  that  a 
tournament  is  to  be  held  at  which  her  hand 
will  be  the  prize.  He  disclaims  the  intention 
of  competing  and  sets  out  hunting,  but  re- 
turns disguised  on  the  successive  days  in 
different  coloured  armour  and  defeats  the 
other  suitors.  Other  adventures  follow 
before  the  lovers  are  united.  Ipomedon,  who 
appears  to  have  a  passion  for  disguises,  to 
the  confusion  of  his  mistress,  assumes  that  of 
a  fool,  and  finally  slays  a  hideous  Indian, 
Lyoline,  who  is  besieging  her, 

Iran,  the  Persian  name  for  Persia.  IRANIAN 
in  Comparative  Philology  is  used  to  desig- 
nate one  of  the  two  Asiatic  families  of  Indo- 
European  languages,  comprising  Zend  and 
Old  Persian  and  their  modern  descendants  or 
cognates.  IRAN  is  opposed  to  TURAN,  the  name 
used  by  Firdusi  (q.v.)  for  the  realm  beyond 
the  Oxus;  and  TURANIAN  is  applied  to  lan- 
guages of  Asiatic  origin  that  are  neither 
Aryan  nor  Semitic. 


IRON  MASK 

Iras,  in  Shakespeare's  'Antony  and  Cleo- 
patra* (q.v.),  one  of  Cleopatra's  attendants. 
Her  name  is  in  Plutarch's  'Life  of  Antony'. 
Ireland,  JOHN  (1761-1842),  the  son  of  an 
Ashburton  butcher,  bible-clerk  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  became  dean  of  Westmin- 
ster, and  founded  a  professorship  of  exegesis 
and  the  IRELAND  SCHOLARSHIP  for  classics  at 
Oxford. 

Ireland,  WILLIAM  HENRY  (1777-1835),  son 
of  Samuel  Ireland  the  engraver,  is  remem- 
bered as  a  forger  of  Shakespeare  manuscripts. 
He  had  access  to  Elizabethan  parchments  in 
the  lawyer's  chambers  where  he  was  em- 
ployed, and  in  1794-5  forged  deeds  and 
signatures  of,  or  relating  to,  Shakespeare.  He 
also  fabricated  in  forged  handwriting  the 
pseudo-Shakespearian  plays  'Vprtigern  and 
Rowena*  and  'Henry  II',  which  deceived 
many  experts  and  men  of  letters.  The 
former  was  produced  unsuccessfully  by 
Sheridan  at  Drury  Lane  in  1796.  Ireland 
subsequently  made  an  avowal  of  his  fraud. 

Ireland  Scholarship,  THE,  see  Ireland  (.?.). 

Irena,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene'  (Bk.  v), 
personifies  Ireland,  oppressed  by  Grantorto 
(q.v,),  and  righted  by  Sir  Artegall  (q.v.). 

Irenaeus,  ST.,  a  Greek  Father  of  the  Church, 
of  the  2nd  cent.,  born  in  Asia  Minor,  who 
became  bishop  of  Lyons.  He  suffered 
martyrdom  about  AJD.  200.  A  Latin  trans- 
lation ('Contra  Hereticos')  survives  of  a  Greek 
work  by  him. 

Irene,  a  tragedy  by  S.  Johnson  (q.v.). 

Irene  Iddesleigh,  title  of  a-  novel  by 
Amanda  M'Kittrick  Ros,  published  in  1897. 

Iris,  according  to  mythology,  the  messenger 
of  the  gods,  and  particularly  of  Zeus  and 
Hera.  The  rainbow  was  the  path  by  which  she 
travelled  between  the  gods  and  men. 

Irish  National  Theatre,  see  Yeats. 

Irish  R.M.,  Experiences  of  an,  see  Somervitte 
(E.  (£.). 

Irrninsul  or  ERMENSUL,  in  the  ancient 
Saxon  religion,  a  mysterious  tree  or  wooden 
pillar,  venerated  as  the  support  of  the  world. 
Frankish  annals  relate  that  Charlemagne  in 
772  destroyed  near  Eresburg  (Stadtberg)  a 
centre  of  this  worship  called  'Errnensul*. 

Iron  Crown,  THE,  of  the  Lombard  kingdom, 
generally  assumed  by  the  'Holy  Roman' 
emperors,  was  kept  at  Pavia.  Napoleon  as- 
sumed it  when  he  crowned  himself  king  of 
Italy  in  1805.  See  also  Luke1 *s  Iron  Crown. 

Iron  Duke,  a  popular  name  for  the  duke  of 
Wellington  (1769-1852). 

Iron  Mask,  THE  MAN  nsr  THE,  a  state 
prisoner  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  confined 
at  Pigneroi,  in  the  island  of  St.  Marguerite, 
and  finally  in  the  Bastille,  whose  name  was 
concealed  and  who  wore  a  mask  covered  with 
black  velvet.  He  was  probably  Count  Mat- 


IRON 

tioli,  an  Italian  agent,  but  his  identity  has 
never  been  established,  and  various  other  sug- 
gestions have  been  made,  such  as  that  the 
prisoner  was  a  son  of  Louis  XIV  and  Mile 
de  la  Valliere,  an  elder  brother  of  Louis  XIV, 
&c. 

IRON,    RALPH,    pseudonym    of    OLIVE 

SCHREINER  (q.V.). 

Ironside,  IRONSIDES,  a  name  given,  in 
allusion  to  their  hardihood  or  bravery,  to 
Edmund,  king  of  England  (1016),  and  Oliver 
Cromwell.  In  the  case  of  the  latter,  the 
appellation  was  a  nickname  of  Royalist 
origin.  'Ironsides'  was  also  applied  to  Crom- 
well's troopers  in  the  Civil  War,  perhaps 
originally  as  a  possessive,  Ironside's  Men. 

Iroquois,  a  confederacy  of  North  American 
Indians,  known  in  English  as  the  'Five 
Nations'  (q.v.).  They  sided  with  the  English 
against  the  French,  and  subsequently  against 
the  American  colonists. 

Irredentist,  from  (Italia)  irredenta,  un- 
redeemed, in  Italian  politics  (from  1878)  a 
member  of  the  party  that  advocated  the 
recovery  and  union  to  Italy  of  Italian- 
speaking  districts  still  subject  to  other 
countries.  Hence  the  general  application. 

Irrefragable  Doctor,  THE,  Alexander  of 
Hales  (q.v.). 

Irus,  in  Homer's  'Odyssey',  a  beggar  who 
executed  commissions  for  Penelope's  suitors. 
On  Ulysses*  return,  Irus  tried  to  drive  him 
from  the  house,  and,  a  boxing  match  between 
them  having  been  arranged,  Irus  was  struck 
down  and  thrown  out  by  the  hero. 

Irving,  EDWARD,  see  Irvingites. 

Irving,  SIR  HENRY  (1838-1905),  whose 
original  name  was  JOHN  HENRY  BRODRIBB, 
first  appeared  as  an  actor  as  Gaston  in  Bulwer 
Lytton's  'Richelieu'  at  Sunderland  in  1856. 
His  first  Shakespearian  character  was  Ham- 
let, in  1864.  He  became  famous  by  his  acting 
in  the  melodrama  'The  Bells*  (1871-2),  and 
afterwards  scored  successes  in  a  large  number 
of  Shakespearian  and  other  parts,  his  im- 
personation of  Tennyson's  'Becket'  being  one 
of  his  chief  triumphs.  His  managership  of 
the  Lyceum  Theatre  in  association  with  Miss 
Ellen  Terry  from  1878  to  1902  was  a  notable 
incident  in  the  history  of  the  English  theatre. 
Irving  revived  popular  interest  in  Shake- 
speare. He  was  pre-eminently  a  romantic 
actor,  highly  intellectual,  of  magnetic  per- 
sonality and  originality  of  conception,  but  of 
mannered  elocution  and  gait. 

IRVING,  WASHINGTON  (1783-1859), 
born  at  New  York,  the  son  of  an  Englishman, 
first  came  into  literary  repute  by  his  humor- 
ous 'History  of  New  York  to  the  end  of 
the  Dutch  Dynasty,  by  Diedrich  Knicker- 
bocker' (1809).  He  was  attached  to  the 
American  Legation  in  Spain  in  1826,  was 
secretary  of  legation  in  London  in  1829,  and 
minister  in  Spain  in  1842,  His  writings 


ISABELLA 

include  'The  Sketch-Book*  (1820),  'Brace- 
bridge  Hall'  (1822),  'Tales  of  a  Traveller' 
(1824),  'Life  and  Voyages  of  Christopher 
Columbus'  (1828),  'The  Companions  of 
Columbus'  (1831),  'The  Conquest  of  Grana- 
da' (1829),  'Legends  of  the  Alhambra'  (1832), 
'Oliver  Goldsmith'  (1849),  and  'Life  of 
George  Washington'  (1855-9).  This  last  is 
his  greatest  work;  but  he  is  perhaps  best 
known  by  his  pleasant  collections  of  essays 
and  tales,  'The  Sketch-Book'  (which  includes 
'Rip  van  Winkle'  (q.v.)  and  'The  Legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow'),  and  the  later  volume  'Brace- 
bridge  Hall',  in  which  figures  Squire  Brace- 
bridge,  a  sort  of  I9th-cent.  Sir  Roger  de 
Coverley.  Irving  has  left  in  his  'Abbotsford' 
a  pleasant  account  of  his  visit  to  Sir  Walter 
Scott  in  1817,  and  a  picture  of  his  household 
at  Abbotsford. 

Irvingites,  a  religious  body  founded  about 
1835  on  the  basis  of  principles  promulgated 
by  Edward  Irving  (1792—1834),  a  minister 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  excommunicated 
in  1833.  Ritualism,  symbolism,  and  mystery 
are  prominent  features  in  its  worship.  The 
name  is  not  accepted  by  the  body  itself, 
which  assumes  the  title  Catholic  Apostolic 
Church.  Edward  Irving,  the  son  of  a  tanner 
of  Annan,  was  a  friend  and  encourager  of 
Carlyle;  both  Carlyle  and  Hazlitt  have  left  us 
descriptions  of  him. 

Irwine,  THE  REV.  ADOLPHUS,  the  rector  in 
George  Eliot's  'Adam  Bede'  (q.v.). 

Isaac,  a  character  in  Sheridan's  'The 
Duenna*  (q.v.). 

Isaac  ComnenuS)  a  novel  by  Sir  Henry 
Taylor  (q.v.). 

Isaac  of  York,  in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe'  (q.v.), 
the  father  of  Rebecca. 

Isabella,  in  the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (q.v.), 
daughter  of  a  Saracen  king  of  Spain,  with 
whom  the  Scottish  prince  Zerbino  (q.v.)  fell 
in  love.  After  his  death,  while  on  her  way, 
broken-hearted,  with  a  hermit  to  a  convent 
near  Marseilles,  she  fell  into  the  power 
of  Rodomont,  and  to  protect  her  honour 
caused  him  by  guile  to  slay  her. 

Isabella,  a  character  in  (i)  Kyd's  'The 
Spanish  Tragedy'  (q.v,);  (2)  Shakespeare's 
'Measure  for  Measure'  (q.v.) ;  (3)  Southerne's 
'The  Fatal  Marriage'  (q.v.). 

Isabella,  or  the  Pot  of  Basil,  a  poem  by 
Keats  (q.v.),  published  in  'Lamia  .  .  .  and 
other  Poems'  in  1820. 

The  poem  is  based  on  Boccaccio's 
'Decameron*,  rv.  v.  The  proud  brothers  of 
Isabella,  a  Florentine  lady,  having  discovered 
the  love  of  Lorenzo  and  their  sister,  decoy 
Lorenzo  away,  murder  him,  and  bury  his 
body  in  a  forest.  Isabella,  apprised  by  a 
vision,  finds  his  body,  places  the  head  in^a 
flower-pot,  and  sets  a  plant  of  basil  over  it. 
Her  brothers,  observing  how  she  cherishes 
the  basil,  steal  the  pot,  discover  the  head,  and 


[401] 


Dd 


ISABELLA  VERE 

fly  conscience-stricken;  and  Isabella  pines 

and  dies.  See  Basil. 

Isabella  Vere,  a  character  in  Scott's  'The 

Black  Dwarf'  (q.v.). 

Isaiah,  the  greatest  of  the  prophets  of  the 

CKT.    He  prophesied  in  Judah  during  the 

reigns  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Heze- 

kiah  (the  latter  part  of  the  8th  cent.  B.C.). 

The  chapters  of  the  Book  of  Isaiah  from  xl 

•onwards  appear  to  be  by  other  hands  and  of 

much  later  date.  The  author  of  xl-lv  is  an 

exile  in  Babylon. 

Isegrym  or  ISENGRIN,  the  wolf  in  'Reynard 

the  Fox*  (q.v.). 

Isenbras,  Sir,  see  Isumbras. 

Iseult  (IsouD,   YSOLDE,   or  YSOUDE),    LA 

BEALE,  in  the  Arthurian  legend,  is  the  sister  or 

daughter  of  the  king  of  Ireland.    For  her 

story  see  Tristram. 

Iseult  (IsouD,  YSOLDE,  or  YSOUDE),   LA 

BLANCHE  MAINS,  in  the  Arthurian  legend,  is 

the  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Brittany  and 

the  wife  of  Tristram  (q.v.). 

Isfendiyar  or  ASFANDIYAR,  after  Rustem 

(q.v.)  the  principal  hero  of  the  'Shahnameh'  of 

Firdusi  (q.v.).   He  is  the  son  of  Gushtasp, 

king  of  Persia,  achieves  great  conquests  and 

spreads    the    Zoroastrian    faith.     But    his 

father's  mind  is  poisoned  against  him  and  he 

is  thrown  into  prison.  Later,  under  stress  of 

the  victorious  advance  of  his  enemy  Arjasp, 

Gushtasp    releases    Isfendiyar,    who,    like 

Rustem,  performs  seven  superhuman  feats, 

rescues  his  sisters  who  have  been  captured 

by  Arjasp,  and  kills  the  latter.    His  father, 

still  suspicious  of  him,  orders  Isfendiyar  to 

bring  Rustem  to  him  in  fetters.    Isfendiyar 

forces  Rustem  to  fight  with  him,  and  after 

the  first  day's  inconclusive  fighting,  is  killed 

by  Rustem  with  a  magic  arrow  that  pierces 

his  eyes. 

Ishmael,  the  son  of  Abraham  by  Hagar, 

hence  allusively  an  outcast,  one  'whose  hand 

is  against  every  man,  and  every  man's  hand 

against  him*  (Gen.  xvi.  12).    ISBMAELITE  is 

used  in  the  same  sense. 

Ishtar,  see  Astarte. 

ISIDORE  OF  SEVILLE  (c.  560-636), 
bishop  of  Seville,  an  encyclopaedic  writer 
esteemed  in  the  Middle  Ages,  author  of 
eOriginum  seu  Etymologiarum  libri  xx*,  &c- 
Isidorian  Decretals,  see  Decretals. 

Isis,  one  of  the  great  Egyptian  deities,  the 
sister  and  wife  of  Osiris  (q.v.),  and  mother  of 
Horus  (q.v.).    She  came  to  be  looked  upon 
as  the  great  nature-goddess,  and  her  worship 
spread  to  Western  Asia  and  Southern  Europe 
(including  Rome),  where  she  was  identified 
with  various  local  deities. 
Isis,  the  river:  see  Thames. 
Iskanderbeg,  see  Scanderbeg. 

Islam,  an  ^  Arabic  word  meaning  'resigna- 
tion',   signifies    the    religious    system    of 


IT  IS  NEVER  TOO  LATE  TO  MEND 

Mohammed  (q.v.),  or  the  body  of  Moham- 
medans, the  Mohammedan  world. 
Island,  The,  a  poem  by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.), 
published  in  1823. 

The  poem  is  based  on  the  narrative  of  the 
mutiny  on  H.M.S.  'Bounty'  (q.v.),  and  the 
life  of  the  mutineers  on  Tahiti,  with  which  a 
pleasant  love-idyll  is  interwoven. 
Isle  of  Saints,  a  medieval  name  for  Ireland, 
from  the  welcome  it  gave  to  Christianity. 
Ismene,  the  sister  of  Antigone  (q.v.),  who, 
when  the  latter  was  ordered  to  be  buried 
alive,  demanded  to  share  her  punishment. 
Isocrates  (436-338  B.C.),  an  Attic  orator  and 
teacher  of  rhetoric,  who  took  his  own  life 
when  he  learnt  of  the  defeat  of  the  Greeks  by 
Philip  of  Macedon  at  the  battle  of  Chaeronea. 
He  is  'that  old  man  eloquent*  referred  to  by 
Milton  in  the  sonnet  to  the  Lady  Margaret 
Ley. 

Israfel,  in  the  Mohammedan  religion,  the 
angel  of  music,  who  is  to  sound  the  trumpet 
at  the  day  of  resurrection.  Poe  (q.v.)  wrote 
his  poem  'Israfel'  on  the  text,  'the  angel 
Israfel,  whose  heartstrings  are  a  lute  and 
who  has  the  sweetest  voice  of  all  God's 
creatures*. 

Istakhar,  the  capital  of  the  Persian  Empire 
under  the  Sasanian  dynasty,  and  the  centre  of 
priestly  learning.  It  adjoined  Persepolis,  the 
earlier  capital. 

Isthmian  Games,  one  of  the  four  great 
national  festivals  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  held 
in  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  It  included  all 
sorts  of  athletic  contests,  horse  and  chariot 
races,  and  musical  and  poetical  competitions. 
Victory  at  these  games  was  celebrated  in 
odes,  of  which  Pindar  has  left  some  examples. 
Isumbras,  or  Isenbras,  Sir,  a  popular  verse 
tale  of  the  i4th  cent.  Isumbras  is  strong, 
handsome,  and  prosperous,  but  proud  and 
arrogant.  A  bird  sent  by  God  gives  him  the 
choice  between  suffering  in  youth  or  in  old 
age.  He  chooses  the  former.  Extreme  mis- 
fortunes befall  him,  which  he  bears  patiently. 
He  loses  wife,  children,  and  possessions,  and 
for  21  years  suffers  among  the  Saracens, 
doing  deeds  of  prowess ;  after  which  an  angel 
announces  that  his  sins  are  forgiven,  and  he 
is  restored  to  his  family  and  happiness. 

Millais's  picture  'Sir  Isumbras  at  the  Ford1 
was  painted  in  1857. 

It  is  Never  too  Late  to  Mend,  a  novel  by 
Reade  (q.v.),  published  in  1856.  Reade  had 
previously  written  a  play,  'Gold  I*  on  the 
same  subject. 

The  novel  combines,  rather  loosely,  two 
distinct  stories:  first,  that  of  a  young  farmer 
who  emigrates  to  Australia  to  earn  the 
£1,000  necessary  to  win  the  father's  consent 
to  marry  his  sweetheart,  a  purpose  which  he 
achieves  in  spite  of  the  machinations  of  the 
money-lending  villain  Meadows.  This  gives 
an  opportunity  for  a  description  of  the  perils 
of  an  Australian  miner's  life  during  the  gold 


[402] 


JACK-PUDDING 

Jack- pudding,  a  clown  or  buffoon.  *A 
set  of  merry  Drolls  .  .  .  whom  every  nation 
calls  by  the  name  of  that  Dish  of  Meat  which 
it  loves  best.  In  Holland  they  are  termed 
Pickled  Herrings;  in  France,  Jean  Pottages; 
in  Italy,  Maccaronies ;  and  in  Great  Britain, 
Jack  Puddings.'  (Addison,  'Spectator', 
No.  47.) 

Jack  Robinson,  'before  one  can  say  Jack 
Robinson',  i.e.  very  quickly,  a  phrase  whose 
origin  is  unknown.  The  earliest  quotation 
given  for  it  in  the  OED.  is  from  Miss 
Burney's  'Evelina'  (n.  xxxvii). 

Jack  Sprat,  of  the  nursery  rhyme,  who 
'would  eat  no  fat',  figures  in  a  rhyme  given 
by  James  Howell,  in  the  collection  of 
proverbs  annexed  to  his  'Tetraglotton* 
(1659),  as  'Archdeacon  Pratt',  who  had  the 
same  aversion: 

Archdeacon  Pratt  would  eat  no  fatt, 

His  wife  would  eat  no  lean. 

Twixt  Archdeacon  Pratt  and  Joan  his  wife, 

The  meat  was  eat  up  clean. 

Jack  Straw,  the  leader  of  a  party  of  insur- 
gents from  Essex  in  the  Peasants'  Rising  of 
1381.  There  have  been  inns  called  'Jack 
Straw's  Castle'  at  Islington,  Highbury,  and 
Hampstead  Heath,  but  there  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  any  historical  connexion  between 
them  and  the  above. 

Jack  the  Giant-killer,  a  nursery  tale  of 
Northern  origin,  known  in  England  from 
very  early  times. 

^  Jack  was  the  son  of  a  Cornish  farmer,  and 
lived  in  the  days  of  King  Arthur.  His  first 
achievement  was  the  destruction  of  the  giant 
of  Mount  Cornwall,  which  he  effected  by 
digging  a  pit,  covering  it  with  branches  and 
earth,  and  luring  the  giant  into  it.  He  subse- 
quently acquired  from  another  giant  by  his 
ingenuity  a  coat  that  made  him  invisible, 
shoes  that  gave  him  extraordinary  speed, 
and  a  sword  of  magic  potency.  With  the 
help  of  these,  he  destroyed  all  the  giants  in 
the  land. 

Jack  the  Ripper,  the  name  assumed  by  an 
unknown  man  who  claimed  to  be  the  per- 
petrator of  a  series  of  murders,  characterized 
by  the  same  revolting  features,  in  the  East  end 
of  London  in  1888-9. 

Jackanapes,  a  word  which,  so  far  as  yet 
found,  first  appears  as  an  opprobrious  nick- 
name of  William  de  la  Pole,  duke  of  Suffolk 
(murdered  1450),  whose  badge  was  a  clog  and 
chain,  such  as  was  attached  to  a  tame  ape. 
Hence  he  is  referred  to  as  Jack  Napes,  this 
being  inf  erentially  already  a  quasi-proper  name 
for  a  tame  ape.  But  of  Jack  Napes  and  its 
relation  to  an  ape  or  apes,  no  certain  explana- 
tion can  be  offered.  The,  word  is  used  to 
signify  a  tame  ape  or  monkey,  or  one  who  is 
like  a  monkey  in  tricks,  air,  or  behaviour, 
[OED.] 

Jackanapes,  a  story  by  Juliana  Horatia 
Ewing  (1841-85);  author  of  'Daddy  Darwin's 


JACOB'S  STAFF 

Dovecot*,  'Flatiron  for  a  Farthing*,  'Story 
of  a  Short  Life',  and  other  stories. 

Jackdaw  of  Rheims,  The,  one  of  the  best 
known  of  Barham's  'Ingoidsby  Legends' 
(see  Bar  ham)  which  tells  how  a  jackdaw  stole 
the  ring  of  the  cardinal-archbishop  of 
Rheims.  The  archbishop's  terrible  curse  on 
the  thief  reduced  the  jackdaw  to  a  pitiable 
state.  He  showed  where  he  had  hidden  the 
ring,  the  curse  was  removed,  the  bird 
recovered  his  sleekness,  became  devout,  and 
on  his  death  was  canonized  by  the  name  of 
Jim  Crow. 

Jacke  Wilton,  The  Life  of,  see  Unfortunate 
Traveller. 

JACKSON,  HELEN  HUNT  (1831-85),  an 
American  novelist  whose  chief  works  were 
*A  Century  of  Dishonor"  and  'Ramona'. 

Jacob  and  Esau,  the  twin  sons  of  Isaac  and 
Rebecca.  Esau,  the  elder,  was  a  hunter, 
Jacob  a  dweller  in  tents.  Esau,  coming  in 
faint  from  the  field,  sold  his  birthright  to 
Jacob  for  a  mess  of  pottage  (Gen.  xxv). 
Jacob,  personating  Esau,  obtained  Isaac's 
death-bed  blessing  (Gen.  xxvii).  The  name 
Jacob  means  'supplanter*. 

Jacob  Faithful,  a  novel  by  Marryat  (q.v.)» 
published  in  1837. 

Jacob  Faithful  is  born  on  a  Thames 
lighter  and  spends  his  early  years  there,  until 
his  mother,  a  heavy  drinker  of  gin,  dies  of 
spontaneous  combustion,  and  his  father, 
scared  out  of  his  wits,  jumps  overboard  and 
is  drowned.  Jacob  fortunately  finds  kind 
friends,  gets  a  good  education,  and  shows 
natural  talent  fitting  him  for  a  much  higher 
station.  But  he  has  a  mistaken  notion  of  the 
value  of  'independence*,  and  a  pride  that 
makes  him  vindictively  resent  an  injury 
unwittingly  done  him  by  the  protector  who 
is  trying  to  further  his  career.  So  he  sticks 
to  the  river  as  lighterman  and  wherryman, 
and  meets  with  various  adventures  and  enter- 
taining characters,  until  he  is  pressed^on  a 
frigate  and  carried  to  sea.  From  this  life  he 
is  soon  rescued  by  the  inheritance  of  a  fortune 
from  an  old  gentleman  who  has  befriended 
him  and  whom  he  has  saved  from  drowning. 

Among  the  amusing  characters  in  the  book 
are  honest  Domine  Dobbs,  Jacob's  school- 
master, old  Tom  Beazley,  -die  loss  of  whose 
legs  has  not  impaired  his  cheeriness,  and  his 
mischievous  son,  young  Tom. 
Jacob  Omnium,  see  Higgins. 

Jacob's  Ladder,  the  ladder  that  Jacob  saw 
in  a  dream,  at  the  place  that  he  named  Bethel, 
set  up  on  earth  and  reaching  to  heaven,  with 
the  angels  of  God  ascending  and  descending 
on  it  (Gen.  xxviii.  12).  The  name  is  given  to 
the  garden  plant  Polemonium  caeruleum  and 
also  popularly  or  locally  to  the  plant  Solo- 
mon's Seal. 

Jacob's  Staff,  a  pilgrim's  staff,  derived 
from  St.  James  (Jacobus),  whose  symbols  in 
religious  art  are  a  staff  and  a  scallop  shell 


[4051 


JACOBIN 

(see  Spenser,  'Faerie  Queene*,  I.  vi);  perhaps 
also  derived  from  Gen.  xxxii.  10,  'with  my 
staff  I  passed  over  this  Jordan". 
Jacobin,  originally  a  name  of  the  French 
friars  of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic,  so  called 
because  the  church  of  St.  Jacques  in  Paris 
was  given  to  them  and  they  built  their  first 
convent  near  it.  From  them  the  name  was 
transferred  to  the  members  of  a  French 
political  club  established  in  1789,  ^  Paris>  \n 
the  old  convent  of  the  Jacobins,  to  maintain 
the  principles  of  extreme  democracy  and 
absolute  equality.  It  was  applied  in  a  trans- 
ferred sense  to  sympathizers  with  their 
principles,  and  about  1800  was  a  nickname 
for  any  political  reformer. 
Jacobite,  a  partisan  of  the  Stuarts  after  the 
revolution  of  1688,  from  Jacobus,  Latin  for 
James* 
JACOBS,  WILLIAM  WYMARK  (1863- 


of  Craft*  (1900),  'Night  Watches'  (1914); 
was  joint  author  of  the  plays  ' Beauty  and  the 
Barge'  and  'The  Monkey's  Paw*. 
Jacdbus,  the  unofficial  name  of  a  gold  coin 
struck  in  the  reign  of  James  I,  worth  20-245. 
Jacobus  a  Voragine,  see  Golden  Legend. 

Jacquard,  JOSEPH  MARIE  (i752"IS34)>  °f 
Lyons,  the  inventor  of  an  apparatus  for 
facilitating  the  weaving  of  figured  textiles 
in  the  loom. 

Jacquerie,  LA,  a  bloody  insurrection  of  the 
peasantry  of  northern  France  in  13 57.  The 
nickname  JACQUES  BONHOMME  was  given 
derisively  to  the  peasants  at  this  time. 

Jaffar  tlie  Barmecide  (Ja'far  al  Barmeki), 
in  the  'Arabian  Nights'  (q.v.),  the  vizier  of 
Haroun-al-Raschid,  who,  with  the  execu- 
tioner Mesrour,  accompanied  him  when, 
disguised  as  a  merchant,  he  walked  at  night 
about  the  streets  of  Bagdad.  See  Barmecide. 
Jaffier,  one  of  the  principal  characters  in 
Otway's  'Venice  Preserved*  (q.v.). 

Jaegers,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Great  Expectations*  (q.v.). 

JAGO,  RICHARD  (1715-81),  born  in 
Warwickshire  and  the  holder  of  three  livings 
in  that  county,  was  the  author  of  'Edge-Hill', 
a  poem  in  four  books  describing,  with  many 
moral  and  other  digressions,  the  views  seen 
at  morning,  noon,  afternoon,  and  evening,  as 
he  looks  from  that  famous  spot  over  his 
favourite  county. 

Jaliangir,  or  JEHANGIR  the  son  of  Akbar, 
reigned  as  Mogul  Emperor,  1605-27. 
JaSivistic,  see  Elohim. 

JaMn,  BOB,  a  character  in  G.  Eliot's  'The 
Mill  on  the  Floss*  (q.v.). 

JAMES  I  (1394-1437),  king  of  Scotland,  was 
captured  while  on  his  way  to  France  by  an 


JAMES 

English  ship,  probably  in  1406.  He  was 
detained  in  England  for  nineteen  years  and 
well  educated.  While  in  England  he  com- 
posed his  poem,  'The  Kingis  Quair'  (q.v.). 
In  1424  he  married  Lady  Jane  Beaufort, 
daughter  of  the  earl  of  Somerset  and  grand- 
daughter of  John  of  Gaunt,  the  heroine  of 
the  above  poem.  James  I  was  assassinated 
at  Perth.  One  or  two  other  poems,  'The 
Ballad  of  Good  Counsel',  'Christ's  Kirk  on 
the  Green',  have  been  doubtfully  attributed 
to  him.  He  is  the  subject  of  D.  G.  Rossetti's 
'The  King's  Tragedy'  (included  in  'Sonnets 
and  Ballads',  1881). 

JAMES  I  (James  VI  of  Scotland),  king  of 
England,  1603-25.  He  is  reputed  the  author 
of  'True  Law  of  Free  Monarchies'  (1603),  a 
reply  to  the  argument  of  G.  Buchanan  (q.v.) 
in  his  'De  Jure  Regni'  that  the  king  is 
elected  by,  and  is  responsible  to,  the  people. 
He  also  wrote  'Basilikon  Doron'  (i599» 
precepts  on  the  art  of  government);  fiA 
Counterblaste  to  Tobacco'  (1604),  in  which 
the  alleged  virtues  of  the  plant  are  refuted; 
and  a  good  many  mainly  theological  works. 
James  I  figures  in  Scott's  'The  Fortunes 
of  Nigel'  (q.v.). 

James  II,  king  of  England,  1685-8.  In  1688 
he  was  driven  out  by  an  aristocratic  revolu- 
tion and  threw  the  Great  Seal  into  the 
Thames.  He  was  succeeded  in  1689  by 
William  and  Mary,  the  throne  being  declared 
vacant.  He  lived  until  1701. 
JAMES,  GEORGE  PAYNE  RAINSFORD 
(1799-1860),  wrote,  besides  historical  novels 
('Richelieu',  1829,  'Philip  Augustus',  1831, 
and  others),  'Memoirs  of  the  Great  Com- 
manders' (1832),  'Life  of  the  Black  Prince* 
(1836),  and  other  popular  historical  works 
and  poems.  The  style  of  his  romances  was 
parodied  by  Thackeray  in  'Novels  by 
Eminent  Hands'  ('Barbazure'). 

JAMES,  HENRY  (1843-1916),  was  born  in 
New  York  of  ancestry  originally  both  Irish 
and  Scottish.  His  father,  Henry  James,  sen., 
was  a  remarkable  writer  on  questions  of 
theology  and  a  follower  of  Swedenborg.  His 
elder  brother,  William  James  (q.v.),  was  a 
distinguished  philosopher.  After  a  desultory 
education  in  New  York,  London,  Paris,  and 
Geneva,  Henry  James  entered  the  law  school 
at  Harvard  in  1862.  He  settled  in  Europe  in 
1875.  From  1865  he  was  a  regular  contribu- 
tor of  reviews  and  short  stories  to  American 
periodicals,  and  owed  much  to  his  friendship 
with  the  novelist  Howells  (q.v.).  His  first 
considerable  piece  of  fiction,  'Watch  and 
Ward',  appeared  serially  in  1871,  followed  by 
'Transatlantic  Sketches'  and  'A  Passionate 
Pilgrim*  (q.v.)  in  1875,  and  his  first  important 
novel  'Roderick  Hudson*  (q.v.)  in  1876  (in  the 
'Atlantic  Monthly',  1875).  For  more  than 
twenty  years  he  lived  in  London,  and  in 
1898  moved  to  Lamb  House,  Rye,  where 
his  later  novels  were  written.  He  at  first 
chiefly  concerned  himself  with  the  impact 


[406] 


JAMES 

of  the  older  civilization  of  Europe  upon 
American  life,  and  to  this  period  belong  his 
more  popular  novels:  'Roderick  Hudson* 
(1875),  'The  American'  (1877),  'Daisy  Miller' 
(1879),  and  the  exquisite  'Portrait  of  a  Lady' 
(q.v.,  1881).  He  next  turned  to  a  more  ex- 
clusively English  stage  in  'The  Tragic  Muse* 
(1890),  'The  Spoils  of  Poynton'  (1897),  and 
'The  Awkward  Age'  (1899),  in  which  he 
analysed  English  character  with  extreme 
subtlety,  verging  at  times  on  obscurity.  'What 
Maisie  Knew'  appeared  in  1897.  In  his  last 
three  great  novels,  'The  Wings  of  the  Dove' 
(1902),  'The  Ambassadors'  (q.v.,  1903), 
and  The  Golden  Bowl*  (1904),  he  returned 
to  the  'international'  theme  of  the  contrast 
of  American  and  European  character.  In 
1914  he  began  work  on  two  novels,  'The 
Ivory  Tower'  and  'The  Sense  of  the  Past', 
which  remained  unfinished  at  his  death 
and  were  published  as  fragments  in  1917. 
For  the  revised  collection  of  his  fiction,  of 
which  the  issue  began  in  1907,  James  wrote 
a  series  of  critical  prefaces  of  high  interest. 

Besides  nearly  a  hundred  short  stories  (in- 
cluding the  well-known  ghost-story,  "The 
Turn  of  the  Screw*,  1898),  James  wrote  several 
volumes  of  sketches  of  travel  ('Portraits  of 
Places',  1883;  *A  Little  Tour  in  France', 
1884)  and  literary  criticism;  a  number  of 
plays,  of  which  the  few  that  were  acted 
were  not  successful;  a  life  of  Nathaniel 
Hawthorne  for  the  English  Men  of  Letters 
series;  and,  in  'The  American  Scene'  (1906), 
a  record  of  the  impressions  produced  on  him 
by  a  visit  to  America  after  an  absence  of 
nearly  twenty  years.  'A  Small  Boy  and  Others* 

(1913)  and  'Notes  of  a  Son  and  a  Brother* 

(1914)  are  evocations  of  his  early  days  in 
New  York  and  Europe.  A  short  story  called 
'The  Middle  Years'  appeared  in  the  volume 
'Terminations*    in     1895.      The     autobio- 
graphical work  of  the  same  title  is  a  frag- 
ment   (published    posthumously    in    1917) 
'representing  all  that  James  lived  to  write  of 
a  volume  of  autobiographical  reminiscences 
to  which  he  had  given  the  name  of  one  of 
his  own  short  stories*  (from  the  prefatory 
note  to  the  autobiographical  fragment).  Two 
volumes  of  his  letters  were  published  in 
1920.    Under  the  influence  of  an   ardent 
sympathy  for  the  British  cause  in  the  War, 
Henry   James   was   in    1915   naturalized   a 
British  subject.  His  portrait  by  J.  S.  Sargent 
is  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

In  addition  to  the  works  referred  to  above, 
the  following  maybe  mentioned :  'Madonna  of 
the  Future*  (q.v.,  1879),  'Washington  Square* 
(1881),  'The  Siege  of  London*  (1883),  'The 
Bostonians*  (1886),  'The  Princess  Casamas- 
sima*  (1886),  'The  Reverberator*  (1888),  'The 
Aspern  Papers'  (1888),  'The  Real  Thing* 
(1893),  'Embarrassments*  (1896),  'The  Other 
House*  (1896),  'In  the  Cage*  (i 898),  'The  Two 
Magics*  (1898),  'The  Better  Sort*  (1903). 

JAMES,  MONTAGUE  RHODES  (1862- 
),  medievalist,  provost  of  Eton  since 


JAMESON  RAID 

1918.  As  well  as  editing  a  great  number  of 
bibliographical  and  palaeographical  works  he 
edited  and  translated  'The  Apocryphal  New 
Testament*  (1924).  His  ghost  stories  are 
well  known  and  have  been  collected  in  one 
volume  (1931)  which  includes  'Ghost  Stories 
of  an  Antiquary*. 

JAMES,  WILLIAM  (1842-1910),  Ameri- 
can philosopher,  the  son  of  Henry  James, 
sen.  (a  Swedenborgian  philosopher),  and 
elder  brother  of  Henry  James  (q.v.),  was  at 
first  a  student  of  art  and  then  a  teacher  of 
physiology,  but  turned  his  attention  to 
psychology.  His  views  are  embodied  in  his 
'Principles  of  Psychology*  (1890),  and  show 
a  tendency  to  subordinate  logical  proof  to 
intuitional  conviction.  He  was  a  vigorous 
antagonist  of  the  idealistic  school  of  Kant  and 
Hegel,  and  an  empiricist  who  made  em- 
piricism more  radical  by  treating  pure  ex- 
perience as  the  very  substance  of  the  world. 
Yet  he  was  not  a  monist  but  a  pluralist, 
'willing  to  believe  that  there  may  ultimately 
never  be  an  all-form  at  all,  that  the  substance 
of  reality  may  never  get  totally  collected  .  .  . 
and  that  a  distributive  form  of  reality,  the 
each-form,  is  as  acceptable  as  the  all-form* 
('Pluralistic  Universe',  p.  34).  Pragmatism 
was  his  method  of  approach  to  metaphysics : 
abstract  ideas  are  true  if  'they  work*,  if  they 
harmonize  with  our  other  experience  and 
accepted  ideas.  James's  principal  works  were, 
besides  the  'Principles  of  Psychology*  above- 
mentioned,  'Varieties  of  Religious  Experi- 
ence* (1902),  'Pragmatism'  (1907),  "The 
Meaning  of  Truth*  (1909),  'A  Pluralistic 
Universe*  (1909),  'Essays  in  Radical  Em- 
piricism* (1912).  The  conclusions  of  his 
'Varieties  of  Religious  Experience*  are 
notable :  'the  visible  world  is  part  of  a  more 
spiritual  universe  from  which  it  draws  its 
chief  significance;  union  with  the  higher 
universe  is  our  true  end;  spiritual  energy 
flows  in  and  produces  effects  within  the 
phenomenal  world*. 

Jameson  Raid:  the  discontent  of  the 
'Uitlander*  (mainly  British)  population  of  the 
Transvaal  with  the  government  of  the  South 
African  Republic  became  acute  in  1895,  and 
a  'reform  committee*  in  Johannesburg  in  the 
autumn  of  that  year  was  making  plans  for  its 
forcible  overthrow.  It  was  supported  by 
Cecil  Rhodes,  and  to  Leander  Starr  Jameson 
(1853—1917),  administrator  of  what  is  now 
Southern  Rhodesia,  was  allotted  the  task  of 
raising  a  mounted  force  in  Rhodesia  and  of 
holding  it  in  readiness  on  the  border  of  the 
Transvaal,  to  be  used  if  events  in  Johannes- 
burg should  make  it  necessary.  Jameson 
decided  to  take  the  initiative,  and  on  29  Dec., 
in  spite  of  messages  calling  upon  him  to  stay 
his  hand,  he  marched  his  force,  under  the 
military  command  of  Sir  John  Willoughby, 
across  the  Transvaal  frontier.  The  force 
which  Jameson  expected  to  be  sent  from 
Johannesburg  to  meet  him  was  not  sent,  he 
was  surrounded  by  the  Boers,  and  his  little 


JAMIESON 

band  was  forced  to  surrender  to  P.  A.  Cronje, 
the  Boer  commandant,  on  2  Jan.  1896. 

JAMIESON,  JOHN  (1759-1838),  anti- 
quary and  philologist,  a  friend  of  Scott.  His 
'Etymological  Dictionary  of  the  Scottish 
Language*  first  appeared  in  1808. 
Jamieson,  THE  HON.  MRS.,  a  character  in 
Mrs.  GaskelFs  'Cranford'  (q.v.). 
JAMMES ,  FRANCIS  (i  868-  ),  French 
poet  and  prose  writer,  author  of  £Le  Deuil  des 
Primeveres'  (1901),  eLes  Ge"orgiques  Chre*- 
tiennes'  (1911),  'CEuvres'  (2  vols.,  1925)*  &<=• 
Jamshid  or  JEMSHID,  an  early  legendary 
king  of  Persia,  celebrated  in  the  'Shah- 
nameh'  of  Firdusi  (q.v.).  He  was  the 
reputed  inventor  of  the  arts  of  medicine, 
weaving,  iron-working,  navigation,  &c.  His 
reign  was  a  period  of  prosperity  and  magnifi- 
cence. But  Jamshid  waxed  arrogant  and, 
incurring  the  wrath  of  heaven,  was  reduced 
to  utter  wretchedness  and  degradation, 
became  a  wanderer  and  was  put  to  a  miser- 
able death  by  Zohak  (Dahak),  the  usurper  of 
his  throne.  He  is  mentioned  in  the  'Rubaiyat* 
of  Omar  Khayyam  (q.v.),  *The  Courts  where 
Jamshyd  gloried  and  drank  deep*. 
Jane,  a  small  silver  coin  of  Genoa  (Fr.  G£ne$) 
introduced  into  England  towards  the  end  of 
the  1 4th  cent.  The  word  is  used  by  Chaucer 
('Sir  Thopas')  and  Spenser  ('Faerie  Queene', 
in.  vii). 

fane  Eyre,  a  novel  by  C.  Bronte  (q.v.),  pub- 
Hshed  in  1847. 

The  heroine,  a  penniless  orphan,  has  been 
left  to  the  care  of  her  aunt,  Mrs.  Reed. 
Harsh  and  unsympathetic  treatment  rouses 
the  spirit  of  the  child,  and  a  passionate  out- 
break leads  to  her  consignment  to  Lo- 
wood  Asylum,  a  charitable  institution,  where 
after  some  miserable  years  she  becomes  a 
teacher.  Thence  she  passes  to  be  a  governess 
at  Thornfield  Hall  to  a  little  girl,  the  natural 
daughter  of  Mr.  Rochester,  a  man  of  grim 
aspect  and  sardonic  temper.  In~  spite  of  Jane 
Eyre's  plainness,  Rochester  is  fascinated  by 
her  elfish  wit  and  courageous  spirit,  and  falls 
in  love  with  her,  and  she  with  him.  Their 
marriage  is  prevented  at  the  last  moment  by 
the  revelation  that  he  has  a  wife  living,  a 
raving  lunatic,  kept  in  seclusion  at  Thornfield 
Hall.  Jane  flees  from  the  Hall,  and  after 
nearly  perishing  on  the  moors  is  taken  in  and 
cared  for  by  the  Rev.  St.  John  Rivers  and 
his  sisters.  Under  the  influence  of  the  strong 
personality  of  Rivers,  she  nearly  consents 
(in  spite  of  her  undiminished  love  for 
Rochester)  to  marry  him  and  accompany  him 
to  India.  She  is  prevented  by  a  telepathic 
appeal  from  Rochester,  and  sets  out  for 
Thornfield  Hall,  to  learn  that  the  place  has 
been  burnt  down,  and  that  Rochester,  in 
vainly  trying  to  save  his  wife  from  the 
flames,  has  _been  blinded  and  maimed.  She 
finds  him  in  utter  dejection,  becomes  his 
wife,  and  restores  him  to  happiness. 

In  Lowood  Asylum  Miss  BrontS  depicted 


JANUS 

the  school  at  Cowan  Bridge  where  she  spent 
some  unhappy  years,  and  where  her  sisters 
Maria  (portrayed  in  Helen  Burns)  and 
Elizabeth  contracted  the  consumption  of 
which  they  died. 

Jane  Shore,  see  Shore. 

Janet's  Repentance,  see  Scenes  of  Clerical 

Life. 

Janice  Meredith,  novel  by  P.  L.  Ford  (q.v.). 

Janissaries  or  JANIZARIES,  a  body  of  Turkish 
infantry,  first  organized  in  the  I4th  cent.,  and 
constituting  the  sultan's  guard.  It  was  re- 
cruited mainly  from  the  children  of  rayahs 
or  Christian  subjects  of  the  Turks.  The  force 
became  powerful  and  turbulent,  and  after  a 
revolt  deliberately  provoked  by  the  Sultan 
Mahmud  II,  many  thousands  of  Janissaries 
were  massacred,  and  the  organization 
abolished  (1826). 

Jansenism,  the  doctrine  of  a  school  that 
developed  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
holding  the  doctrines  of  Cornelius  Jansen 
(1585-1638),  bishop  of  Ypres  in  Flanders,  who 
maintained  after  St.  Augustine  the  perverse- 
ness  and  inability  for  good  of  the  natural 
human  will.  The  capacity  for  the  love  of 
God,  he  held,  could  be  obtained  only  by  'con- 
version", and  God  converts  whom  He  pleases. 
His  doctrine  thus  approximated  to  that  of 
predestination  and  was  closely  analogous  to 
Calvinism.  But  Jansen  repudiated  justifica- 
tion by  faith  and  maintained  that  the  personal 
relation  of  the  human  soul  with  God  was 
possible  only  through  the  Roman  Church. 
His  doctrine  was  developed  in  France  by 
Antoine  Arnauld.  The  Jansemsts  were  a 
powerful  body  in  the  i7th  cent.,  but  were 
strongly  opposed  by  the  Jesuits,  and  their 
doctrines  were  condemned  by  several  popes, 
especially  by  Clement  X  in  his  Bull  Umgenitus. 
The  head-quarters  of  Jansenism  was  Port- 
Royal  (q.v.).  There  is  said  to  be  still  a 
Jansenist  Church  in  Holland.  See  also 
Pascal. 

Januarius,  ST.,  a  bishop  of  Benevento,  who 
was  martyred  under  Diocletian.  His  head 
and  some  of  his  blood  are  preserved  as  relics 
at  Naples;  the  blood  is  said  to  have  the 
miraculous  power  of  liquefying  on  certain 
days  in  each  year. 

January  and  May,  the  title  of  a  version  by 
Pope  of  Chaucer's  'Merchant's  Tale'  (see 
Canterbury  Tales). 

Janus,  an  ancient  Italian  deity,  the  god  of 
the  doorway  (janua).  He  was  guardian  both 
of  private  doors  and  of  the  city  gates,  and 
presided  over  the  year,  his  own  special 
month  being  named  January.  He  is  most 
famous  as  the  guardian  of  the  state  during 
war,  when  the  gates  of  his  temple  were 
left  open  (being  closed  in  peace  time).  He  is 
represented  in  statues  with  two  heads,  facing 
opposite  ways,  and  sometimes  with  four 
heads. 


[408] 


JAPHETIC 

Japhetic,  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  the 
Indo-European  family,  as  supposed  to  be 
descended  from  Japhet,  one  of  the  sons  of 
Noah. 

Jaquenetta,  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's  La- 
bour's Lost',  a  country  maid  with  whom 
Armado  is  in  love. 

Jaques,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'As 
You  Like  It'  (q.v.). 

Jarley,  MRS.,  in  Dickens's  'Old  Curiosity 
Shop*  (q.v.).  the  proprietor  of  a  travelling 
wax- work  show. 

Jarnac,  COUP  DE:  in  a  duel  fought  in  1547 
before  Henri  II  and  the  French  court  by  two 
young  nobles,  Jarnac  and  La  Cha"taigneraie, 
Jarnac  by  an  unexpected  blow  hamstrung 
his  opponent.  The  coup  de  Jarnac  became 
proverbial  for  an  unforeseen  and  decisive 
stroke. 

Jarndyce,  JOHN,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Bleak  House'  (q.v.). 

Jaryey,  a  hackney-coachman,  a  by-form  of 
Jarvis  or  Jervis,  personal  name ;  according  to 
Serjeant  Ballantine,  'a  compliment  paid  to  the 
class  in  consequence  of  one  of  them  named 
Jarvis  having  been  hanged'. 

Jarvie,  BAILIE  NICOL,  a  character  in  Scott's 
*Rob  Roy'  (q.v.). 

Jason,  a  celebrated  hero  of  antiquity,  son  of 
Aeson,  king  of  lolchos.  When  his  father's 
kingdom  was  usurped  by  his  uncle  Pelias,  he 
was  entrusted  to  the  care  of  Cheiron  the 
centaur  (q.v.),  by  whom  he  was  educated. 
Returning  to  lolchos  by  the  direction  of  the 
oracle,  he  boldly  demanded  from  Pelias  the 
restoration  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  obtain  it 
undertook  the  expedition  to  Colchis  to 
recover  the  Golden  Fleece  (see  under  Argo- 
nauts). This  he  accomplished  successfully 
with  the  help  of  Medea  (q.v.),  whom  he  mar- 
ried, but  subsequently  divorced  in  order  to 
marry  Glauce  or  Creusa. 

Jason,  The  Life  and  Death  of,  a  poem  in 
heroic  couplets  by  W.  Morris  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1867. 

The  story  is  that  of  Jason  and  Medea,  the 
Argonauts  and  the  Golden  Fleece  (see  under 
Jason,  supra),  permeated  with  a  spirit  of 
romance  and  pathos,  and  ending  on  a  melan- 
choly note,  as  Jason  dies  'of  love,  of  honour, 
and  of  joy  bereft'. 

Jasper  Packlemerton,  'of  atrocious 
memory*,  a  notable  figure  in  Mrs.  Jarley's 
wax-works  (see  Old  Curiosity  Shop),  who  had 
murdered  fourteen  wives. 

Javan,  according  to  Gen.  x.  2,  a  son  of 
Japhet;  mentioned  also  in  Ezekiel  xxvii.  13 
as  trading  with  the  Tyrians,  and  here  signi- 
fying the  lonians  of  Asia  Minor,  in  which 
sense  Milton  uses  the  expressions,  'Javan's 
issue*,  in  'Paradise  Lost',  i.  508,  and  'bound 
for  the  isles  of  Javan  and  Gadire'  in  'Samson 
Agonistes*,  716. 


JEFFERIES 

Jeames  de  la  Pluche,  The  Diary  of,  a  short 
story  by  Thackeray  (q.v.),  published  in 
'Punch'  in  1845-6,  reprinted  in  'Miscellanies', 
1856. 

James  Plush,  a  footman,  makes  a  fortune 
by  railway  speculation,  changes  his  name, 
and  takes  up  his  abode  in  the  Albany.  Lord 
Bareacres  proposes  to  marry  his  daughter, 
Lady  Angelina,  to  Jeames.  But  the  latter 
wakes  up  one  day  to  find  that  Lady  Angelina 
has  eloped  with  some  one  else,  and  that  his 
fortune  has  likewise  disappeared  with  a 
collapse  of  the  market.  He  takes  a  public- 
house  and  marries  Mary  Ann  Hoggins.  See 
also  Yellowplush. 

JEAN  DE  MEUN(G),  see  Roman  de  la  Rose. 

Jean  Jacques,  a  current  abbreviation  of  the 
name  of  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  (q.v.). 

Jean  Paul,  a  frequent  abbreviation  of  the 
name  of  J.  P.  F.  Richter  (q.v.). 

JEANS,  Sm  JAMES  HOPWOOD  (1877- 
),  astronomer  and  writer  on  the  universe. 
His  work  'The  Universe  Around  Us*  ap- 
peared in  1929, 

JEBB,  SIR  RICHARD  CLAVERHOUSE 
(1841-1905),  educated  at  Charterhouse  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Glasgow  in  1875,  and  at  Cambridge 
in  1889.  He  was  M.P.  for  the  University 
during  the  later  years  of  his  life.  He  is 
remembered  for  his  critical  editions  and 
translations  of  Sophocles  (1883-96)  and 
Bacchylides  (1905),  his  translation  of  Theo- 
phrastus  (1870),  'The  Attic  Orators  from 
Antiphon  to  Isaeus*  (1876-80),  and  other 
works  on  classical  subjects.  He  also  wrote 
a  life  of  Bentley  for  the  English  Men  of 
Letters  series  (1882). 

Jebusites,  in  Dryden's  'Absalom  and  Achi- 
tophel'  (q.v.),  and  generally  in  the  I7th  cent., 
the  Roman  Catholics. 

Jedburgh,  the  capital  of  Roxburghshire, 
Scotland,  famous  in  the  annals  of  Border 
warfare.  JEDBURGH,  JEDWOOD,  or  JEDDART 
JUSTICE  was  proverbial  for  its  summary 
character,  the  suspected  culprit  being  hanged 
first  and  tried  afterwards. 

Jeeves,  in  many  of  P.  G.  Wodehouse's 
stories,  the  omniscient  and  resourceful  valet. 

JEFFERIES,  RICHARD  (1848-87),  Ae 
son  of  a  Wiltshire  farmer,  and  a  writer  with 
a  remarkable  power  of  observing  nature  and 
representing  it  in  combination  with  a  strain 
of  poetry  and  philosophy.  He  first  attracted 
notice  by  his  'Gamekeeper  at  Home*  (1878), 
reprinted  from  the  'Pall  Mall  Gazette'. 
There  followed  'Wild  Life  in  a  Southern 
Country'  (1879),  'Hodge  and  his  Master* 
(1880),  'Round  about  a  Great  Estate*  (1880), 
'Wood  Magic'  (1881),  'Bevis*  (1882),  'The 
Life  of  the  Fields'  (1884);  also  his  remark- 
able spiritual  autobiography,  'The  Story  of 
my  Heart*  (1883).  His  novels  were  less 
successful. 


[409] 


JEFFREY 

JEFFREY,  FRANCIS,  Lord  Jeffrey  (1773- 
1850),  educated  at  Edinburgh  High  School 
and  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh  Universities, 
became  a  Scottish  judge.  He  is  principally 
remembered  as  the  founder,  with  Sydney 
Smith,  of  the  'Edinburgh  Review'  (q.v.)^  as 
its  editor  until  1829,  and  for  his  unsparing 
criticism  of  the  authors  (notably  the  Lake 
school)  of  whom  he  disapproved.  His  article 
on  Wordsworth's  Excursion*  (1814),  be- 
ginning with  'This  will  never  do',  contains 
his  chief  objections.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
would  have  made  appreciation  of  Keats  the 
touchstone  of  aptitude  for  poetry. 
Jeffreys,  GEORGE,  first  Baron  Jeffreys  (1644- 
89),  educated  at  St.  Paul's  School,  at  West- 
minster, and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
was  lord  chief  justice,  1682.  He  presided  at 
the  trial  of  Titus  Oates,  and  is  chiefly 
notorious  for  his  brutality  and  as  the  judge 
who  held  the  'Bloody  Assizes'  (q.v.).  He  was 
arrested  in  1688  and  died  in  the  Tower  after 
petitioning  for  a  pardon. 
Jehovah,  the  English  representation  of  the 
Hebrew  principal  and  personal  name  of  God 
in  the  O.T.,  which  was  considered  by  the 
Jews  too  sacred  for  utterance.  It  is  now  held 
that  the  original  name  was  YAHWEH,  generally 
understood  to  mean  'he  that  exists',  'the  self- 
existent*. 
Jehovistic,  see  Elokim. 

Jehu,  a  fast  and  furious  driver;  a  coachman; 
in  humorous  allusion  to  2  Kings  ix.  20. 

Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde,  The  Strange  Case  of 
Dr.,  a  novel  by  R.  L.  Stevenson  published  in 
1886. 

Dr.  Jekyll,  a  physician  conscious  of  the 
duality,  the  mixed  good  and  evil,  in  his  own 
nature,  and  fascinated  by  the  idea  of  the 
advantage  that  would  arise  if  these  two  ele- 
ments could  be  clothed  in  different  pp.*. 
sonalities,  discovers  a  drug  by  means  of  which 
he  can  create  for  himself  a  separate  personality 
that  absorbs  all  his  evil  instincts.  This 
personality,  repulsive  in  appearance,  he 
assumes  from  time  to  time  and  calls  Mr. 
Hyde,  and  in  it  he  gives  rein  to  his  evil 
impulses.  The  personality  of  Hyde  is  pure 
evil.  It  gradually  gains  a  greater  ascendancy, 
and  Hyde  commits  a  horrible  murder. 
Jekyll  now  finds  himself  from  time  to  time 
involuntarily  transformed  into  Hyde,  while 
the  drug  loses  its  efficacy  in  restoring  his 
original  form  and  character.  On  the  point  of 
discovery  and  arrest,  he  takes  his  own  life. 

JeHyby,  MRS.,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Bleak  House'  (q.v.). 

Jemmy  Dawson,  see  Dawson. 
Jemmy  Twitcher,  see  Tzvitcker. 
Jemshid,  seejamshid. 
Jenghis  Khan,  see  Genghis  Khan. 
Jenkins,    HENRY    (d.     1670),    called    the 
'Modern    Methuselah',    was    a    native    of 
Eilerton-upon-  Swale     in     Yorkshire.      He 


JEPHTHAH'S  DAUGHTER 

claimed  to  have  been  born  about  1501,  and 
when  10-12  years  old  to  have  been  sent  at 
the  time  of  the  battle  of  Flodden  with  a 
horse-load  of  arrows  for  the  army  at  North- 
allerton;  also  to  have  been  butler  to  Lord 
Conyers,  abbot  of  Fountains,  and  to  have 
witnessed  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries. 
He  was  buried  at  Bolton,  where  he  is  com- 
memorated by  an  obelisk,  but  his  extreme 
old  age  rests  only  on  his  own  statements, 
which  are  in  some  respects  contradictory. 

Jenkins,  MRS.  WINIFRED,  a  character  in 
Smollett's  'Humphry  Clinker'  (q.v.). 

Jenkins's  Ear,  an  allusion  to  a  political 
incident  of  1738,  which  precipitated  the 
war  with  Spain  of  1739.  Robert  Jenkins,  a 
master  mariner,  produced  to  a  committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons  what  he  declared  to 
be  his  ear,  cut  off  by  the  Spanish  captain 
Frandino  at  Havana  in  the  exercise  of  the 
right  of  search  which  the  Spaniards  claimed 
in  order  to  prevent  English  trade  with 
Spanish  America.  There  was  some  truth  in 
the  story;  but  it  was  a  pirate  captain  who  had 
cut  off  the  ear,  and  the  Spanish  governor 
had  punished  the  pirate. 

Jenkinson,  EPHRAIM,  in  Goldsmith's  'Vicar 
of  Wakefield'  (q.v.),  an  old  swindler  who  im- 
posed on  Dr.  Primrose  and  his  son  Moses. 

Jenkinson,  MRS.  MOUNTSTUART,  a  character 
in  Meredith's  'The  Egoist'  (q.v.). 

Jenkyns,  DEBORAH,  MATILDA,  and  PETER, 
characters  in  Mrs.  GaskelTs  'Cranford'  (q.v.). 

JENNER,  EDWARD  (1749-1823),  the 
pioneer  of  vaccination.  He  first  vaccinated 
from  cow-pox  in  1796,  and  his  'Complete 
Statement  of  Facts  and  Observations'  was 
published  in  1800.  He  received  grants  from 
parliament  of  £10,000  and  £20,000  in  1802 
and  1806.  Vaccination  was  made  compulsory 
in  England  in  1853. 

Jennings,  MRS.,  (i)  a  character  in  Jane 
Austen's  'Sense  and  Sensibility'  (q.v.);  (2) 
the  mother  of  John  Keats  (q.v.),  as  she  be- 
came by  her  second  marriage. 

Jenny  Wren,  see  Wren. 

JENYNS,  SOAME  (1704-87),  educated  at 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  was  M.P. 
for  Cambridgeshire  and  for  Dunwich, 
1742-80,  and  author  of  'Poems*  (1752)  and  . 
of  a  'Free  Enquiry  into  the  Nature  and 
Origin  of  Evil'  ^  (1757).  The  latter  was 
vigorously  criticized  by  Johnson  in  the 
'Literary  Magazine'.  Jenyns  also  wrote  a 
'View  of  the  Internal  Evidence  of  the  Christian 
Religion'  (1776),  which  had  considerable 
vogue. 

Jephthah's  daughter,  see  Judges  xi.  30  et 
seq.  When  Jephthah  went  out  against  the 
Ammonites  he  vowed  to  sacrifice,  if  vic- 
torious, whatever  came  forth  from  his  house 


to  meet  him.  This  proved  to  be  his  daughter, 
and    he    'did    with    her    according   to    his 


according    to    his 
vow*.  She  figures  in  Tennyson's  'Legend  of 


[4io] 


JEREMIAD 

Fair  Women*.  (Cf.  the  story  of  Idome* 
neus.) 

The  ballad  in  Percy's  'Reliques*  entitled 
'Jephthah  Judge  of  Israel'  is  that  which 
Hamlet  quotes  in  Shakespeare's  play  (11.  ii), 

Jeremiad,  a  doleful  complaint  in  allusion  to 
the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  in  the  O.T. 

Jeremy,  a  character  in  Congreve's  'Love  for 
Love'  (q.v.). 

Jeremy  Diddler,  see  Diddler. 

Jeroboam,  a  very  large  wine  bottle,  equiva- 
lent to  six  standard  bottles  (Saintsbury),  so 
called  in  allusion  to  Jeroboam,  'a  mighty  man 
of  valour*  (i  Kings  ad.  28)  'who  made  Israel 
to  sin*  (xiv.  16)  by  setting  up  other  sanctuaries 
besides  the  Temple. 

JEROME,  ST.  (HIERONYMUS)  (c.  340- 
420),  was  born  at  Stride,  on  the  borders  of 
Dalmatia,  of  Christian  parents,  educated  at 
Rome,  and  baptized  in  360.  He  visited  Gaul 
and  Asia  Minor,  and  after  a  serious  illness 
devoted  himself  to  the  Scriptures.  He  lived 
as  a  hermit  near  Chalcis  (SE.  of  Antioch), 
embarked  on  controversial  work  in  connexion 
with  the  Meletian  schism,  and  wrote  trans- 
lations from  Eusebius  and  Origen.  He  subse- 
quently resided  at  Rome  and  then  visited 
Palestine  and  Egypt,  and  spent  some  of  his 
later  years  at  Bethlehem,  much  engaged  in 
theological  controversy.  His  great  work,  the 
Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures,  known  as  the 
Vulgate,  was  completed  in  405. 

Jeronimo  or  HIERONIMO,  the  chief  character 
in  Kyd's  'The  Spanish  Tragedy*  (q.v.). 

JERROLD,  DOUGLAS  WILLIAM  (1803- 
57),  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  contributor 
to  'Punch'  of  'Mrs.  Caudle's  Curtain  Lec- 
tures* (q.v.),  which  added  greatly  to  that 
periodical's  popularity  and  appeared  in  book 
form  in  1846.  He  was  also  author  of  the 
successful  plays  'Black-ey'd  Susan*  (1829) 
and  'The  Bride  of  Ludgate*  (1831).  Other 
amusing  comedies  by  Jerrold  were  'The 
Prisoner  of  War*  (1842),  'Time  works 
Wonders'  (1845),  and  'The  Catspaw'  (1850). 
He  wrote  in  'Punch',  over  the  signature  'Q', 
a  number  of  social  and  political  satires  of  a 
liberal  tendency.  He  published  'The  Story 
of  a  Feather*  in  1844  and  several  novels. 
From  1852  till  his  death  he  edited  'Lloyd's 
Weekly  Newspaper'. 

Jerry  Cruncher,  see  Cruncher. 

Jerry  Hawthorn,  a  character  in  Pierce 
Egan's  'Life  in  London'  (see  Egari). 

Jerrymander,  see  Gerrymander. 

Jerusalemf  for  the  poem  of  that  name  by 
William  Blake,  see  Blake. 

Jerusalem  Chamber,  THE,  the  old  abbot's 
parlour  in  the  monastic  buildings  of  West- 
minster Abbey,  the  scene  of  the  conspiracy 
against  Henry  IV  and  of  his  death.  Its  name 
was  probably  derived  from  tapestries  repre- 


JEW 

senting  the  history  of  Jerusalem.  It  became 
the  chapter-house  of  the  abbey  at  an  un- 
certain date,  probably  as  early  as  the  i6th 
cent. 

Jerusalem  Delivered  (GerusalemmeLiberata), 
a  poem  by  Tasso  (q.v.),  published  in  three 
forms,  in  1576  (unauthorized),  in  1581 
(authorized),  and  in  1593  (after  Tasso's  libera- 
tion from  confinement:). 

The  poem  is  the  epic  of  a  crusade,  with  the 
addition  of  romantic  and  fabulous  elements. 
By  the  side  of  Godefroi  de  Bouillon,  the 
leader  of  the  Christian  host  besieging  Jeru- 
salem, and  other  historical  characters,  we 
have  the  romantic  figures  of  Sophronia  and 
her  lover  Olindo,  who  are  prepared  to  face 
martyrdom  to  save  the  Christians  in  the 
beleaguered  city ;  the  Amazon  Clorinda  who 
is  beloved  by  Tancred  the  Norman,  and 
killed  by  him  unwittingly;  and  Armida,  the 
niece  of  the  wizard  king  of  Damascus,  who 
lures  away  the  Christian  knights  to  her  en- 
chanted gardens.  Rinaldo,  prince  of  Este 
(supposed  to  be  present  by  an  anachronism, 
for  he  was  not  born  till  1175),  rescues  the 
prisoners  of  Armida,  and  Armida  falls  in  love 
with  him.  By  her  enchantments  they  live 
happily  together  till  Rinaldo  is  summoned 
away  to  help  the  army.  He  takes  the  chief 
part  in  the  capture  of  Jerusalem. 

The  poem  was  translated  into  English  in 
1594  by  R.  Carew,  and  by  Edward  Fairfax 
in  1600  (under  the  title  *  Godfrey  of  Bul- 
loigne*).  Spenser's  description  of  Acrasia's 
Bower  of  Bliss  ('Faerie  Queene',  n.  xii)  was 
modelled  on  the  gardens  of  Armida, 

Jerusalem,  THE  NEW,  the  celestial  city 
(Rev.  xxi.  2). 

Jessamy  Bride,  THE,  the  name  given  by 
Goldsmith  (q.v.)  to  the  younger  Miss 
Horneck,  with  whom  he  is  supposed  to  have 
been  in  love. 

Jesse,  a  genealogical  tree  representing  the 
genealogy  of  Christ  from  'the  root  of  Jesse* 
(the  father  of  David,  i  Sam.  xvi;  cf.  Isa. 
xi.  i),  used  in  churches  in  the  Middle 
Ages  as  a  decoration  of  windows,  walls,  &c., 
or  in  the  form  of  a  large  branched  candlestick. 
Sometimes  the  tree  is  represented  as  rising 
from  the  body  of  Jesse,  who  is  shown 
recumbent. 

Jessica,  Shylock's  daughter  in  Shakespeare's 
'Merchant  of  Venice*  (q.v.). 

Jessica's  First  Prayer,  a  story  of  a  girl 
waif's  awakening  to  the  meaning  of  religion ; 
written  by  Hesba  Stretton  (i.e.  Sarah  Smith, 
1832-1911);  first  published  in  1866,  in  'The 
Sunday  at  Home*,  issued  in  book  form  in 
1897.  The  work  had  a  sale  of  over  one  and  a 
half  million  copies,  and  has  been  translated 
into  every  European  language,  and  into  most 
Asiatic  and  African  tongues. 

Jesuits,  see  Loyola. 

Jew,  THE  WANDERING,  see  Wandering  Jew. 


JEW  OF  MALTA 

Jew  of  Malta,  The,  a  drama  in  blank  verse 
by  Marlowe  (q.v.),  produced  about  1592 
but  not  published  until  1633. 

The  Grand  Seignior  of  Turkey  having  de- 
manded the  tribute  of  Malta,  the  governor 
of  Malta  decides  that  it  shall  be  paid  by  the 
Jews  of  the  island.  Barabas,  a  rich  Jew,  who 
resists  the  edict,  has  all  his  wealth  impounded 
and  his  house  turned  into  a  nunnery.  In 
revenge  he  indulges  in  an  orgy  of  slaughter, 
procuring  the  death  of  his  daughter  Abigail's 
lover  among  others,  and  poisoning  Abigail 
herself.  Malta  being  besieged  by  the  Turks, 
he  betrays  the  fortress  to  them,  and,  as  a  re- 
ward, is  made  its  governor.  He  now  plots  the 
destruction  of  the  Turkish  commander  and 
his  force  at  a  banquet  by  means  of  a  collap- 
sible floor;  but  is  himself  betrayed  and  hurled 
through  this  same  floor  into  a  cauldron, 
where  he  dies. 

JEWETT,  SARAH  ORNE  (1849-1909), 
American  author,  born  at  South  Berwick, 
Maine,  known  for  her  stories  of  New  Eng- 
land life,  and  particularly  for  'The  Country 
of  the  Pointed  Firs',  which  Edward  Garnert 
has  described  as  consisting  of  'thirty  little 
masterpieces'.  Among  her  other  books  are: 
'Deephaven*  (1877),  'Play-Days'  (1878),  'Old 
Friends  and  New'  (1879),  'Country  Byways' 
(1880),  'The  Tory  Lover'  (1901). 

JBWSBURY,  GERALDINE  ENDSOR 
(1812-80),  novelist,  author  of  'Zoe'  (1845), 
*The  Half-Sisters'  (1848),  'Marian  Withers' 
(1851),  and  'Right  or  Wrong*  (1859).  Her 
sister  MARIA  JANE  JEWSBURY  (afterwards  Mrs. 
Fletcher)  published  'Phantasmagoria*  (1824), 
*The  Three  Histories'  (1830),  and  other 
works. 

Jezebel,  the  proud  and  infamous  wife  of 
Ahab,  king  of  Israel  (i  Kings  xvi.  31,  xix,  and 
2  Kings  ix),  hence  used  allusively  of  a  wicked, 
impudent,  or  abandoned  woman;  also  of  a 
painted  woman  (2  Kings  ix.  30). 

Jihad  or  JEHAD,  a  religious  war  of  Moham- 
medans against  unbelievers  in  Islam,  incul- 
cated as  a  duty  by  the  Koran  and  by  tradi- 
tions. 

Jim  Crow,  a  generic  name  for  a  negro,  from 
the  refrain  of  a  popular  negro  melody,  'Wheel 
about  and  turn  about,  and  jump  Jim  Crow*. 
'Jim  Crow  cars'  is  a  term  applied  to  the 
special  railway  coaches  for  negroes  in  the 
south  of  the  U.S. 

Jingle,  ALFRED,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Pickwick  Papers*  (q.v.). 

Jingo.  The  word  appears  first  about  1670  as 
a  piece  of  conjurer's  gibberish,  usually  hey 
or  high  jingo!,  probably  a  mere  piece  of 
sonorous  nonsense.  In  1694  by  jingo  occurs 
in  Motteux's  translation  of  Rabelais,  where 
the  French  has  'par  Dieu*.  This  may  be 
presumed  (though  not  proved)  to  be  the 
same  as  the  conjurer's  word,  substituted  for 
a  sacred  name  (cf.  by  Gosh,  &c,).  A  recent 


JOAN 

conjecture  that  jingo  is  from  the  Basque 
word  for  God  (Jinko,  Jainko),  caught  up  from 
Basque  sailors,  is  not  impossible,  but  is  as 
yet  unsupported  by  evidence. 

The  word  was  adopted  as  a  nickname  for 
those  who  supported  the  policy  of  Lord 
Beaconsfield  in  sending  a  British  fleet  into 
Turkish  waters  to  resist  the  advance  of 
Russia  in  1878,  from  the  refrain  of  a  music- 
hall  song  of  the  period  ('We  don't  want  to 
fight,  but  by  Jingo  if  we  do').  It  is  extended  to 
advocates  in  general  of  bellicose  nationalism 
in  dealing  with  foreign  powers.  [OED.] 

Jiniwin,  MRS.,  in  Dickens's  'Old  Curiosity 
Shop'  (q.v.),  the  mother  of  Mrs.  Quilp. 

Jinn  or  E)JINN,  in  Mohammedan  demono- 
logy,  an  intermediate  order  of  beings  between 
angels  and  men,  created  out  of  fire,  said  to 
have  the  power  of  assuming  human  or  animal 
forms,  and  to  have  a  supernatural  influence 
over  men.  There  are  good  and  evil  jinn. 

Jo,  the  crossing-sweeper  in  Dickens's  'Bleak 
House'  (q.v.). 

Joan  of  Arc,  ST.  (1412-31),  JEANNE  D'ARC, 
or  more  correctly  JEANNE  DARC,  as  it  was  spelt 
in  all  contemporary  documents  (Littre"),  the 
daughter  of  Jacques  Dare,  an  agriculturist  of 
Dpmremy  in  the  valley  of  the  Meuse,  an 
illiterate  girl  who  contributed  powerfully  to 
liberate  France  from  the  English  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  VII.  Her  mission  was  a  double 
one,  (i)  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans;  (2)  to 
conduct  Charles  to  his  coronation  at  Rheims. 
She  accomplished  both  these  tasks  and  then 
wished  to  return  home;  but  she  yielded  to  the 
demands  of  the  French  patriots  and  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Burgundians,  who 
handed  her  over  to  the  English.  But  it  was 
a  French  court  of  ecclesiastics  (with  the  help 
of  the  Inquisition)  who  sentenced  her  as  a 
witch,  and  the  English  who  burned  her  at 
Rouen.  She  was  at  last  canonized  in  1920. 
She  is  the  subject  of  Voltaire*s  'La  Pucelle*, 
of  a  tragedy  by  Schiller,  of  a  poem  by  Southey, 
and  of  a  drama  by  G.  B.  Shaw. 

Joan,  POPE,  a  mythical  female  pope,  sup- 
posed to  have  intervened  as  John  VIII 
between  Leo  IV  and  Benedict  III  in  the 
9th  cent.  She  was  described  as  of  English 
descent,  though  born  in  Germany.  After 
fleeing,  disguised  as  a  man,  to  Greece  with 
her  lover,  a  Benedictine  monk,  she  was  said 
to  have  removed  to  Rome  and  there  risen  to 
be  a  cardinal  and  ultimately  to  the  papacy, 
and  to  have  died  in  childbirth  during  a  pro- 
cession. From  a  simple  mention  (probably  a 
later  interpolation)  in  the  chronicle  of  the 
contemporary  Anastasius  Bibliothecarius  that 
Joanna,  a  woman,  succeeded  Leo  as  pope  in 
854,  the  story  was  developed  by  the  addition 
of  the  above  details.  Its  truth  has  repeatedly 
been  contested,  and  it  was  finally  shown  to 
be  unfounded  by  Dollinger  ('Papstfabeln  des 
Mittelalters',  Engl.  tr.  1872).  The  name  of 
the  Pope- Joan  card  game  is  perhaps  a  corrup- 
tion ofnainjaune,  its  name  in  French. 


[412] 


JOB 

Job,  the  hero  of  the  O.T.  book  that  bears  his 
name,  a  wealthy  and  prosperous  man  sud- 
denly ^  overtaken  by  dire  calamities.  These 
give  rise  to  discussions  between  Job  and  the 
friends  who  come  to  visit  him  (Job's  com- 
forters) as  to  the  connexion  between  suffering 
and  sin,  the  friends  assuming  that  Job's  mis- 
fortunes are  a  punishment,  while  Job  main- 
tains his  innocence.  Job  is  the  typical  ex- 
ample of  patience  under  misfortune. 

Job  Thornberry,  see  John  Bull. 

Job  Trotter,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Pick- 
wick Papers'  (q.v.). 

JoblilUes,  see  Panjandrum. 
Jocasta,  see  Oedipus. 

Jocasta,  a  tragedy  in  blank  verse,  translated 
from  an  Italian  adaptation  of  the  'Phoenissae* 
of  Euripides,  by  George  Gascoigne  (q.v.)  and 
F.  Kinwelmarshe,  included  in  Gascoigne's 
Posies',  published  in  1575. 
JOGELIN  DE  BRAKELOND  (fl.  1200),  a 
monk  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  whose  chronicle 
of  his  abbey  (1173-1202)  inspired  Carlyle's 
Tast  and  Present*. 

Jocelyn,  ROSE,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'Evan  Harrington*  (q.v.). 

Jock  o*  Hazeldean,  a  ballad,  of  which  one 
stanza  is  ancient,  the  rest  by  Sir  W.  Scott. 
The  lady  is  to  marry  young  Frank,  chief  of 
Errington,  but  she  weeps  for  Jock.  On  her 
wedding-day  she  is  found  to  have  eloped 
with  him  over  the  Border. 

Jockey  Club,  THE,  founded  in  1750  or  1751 
to  administer  racing  at  Newmarket,  now 
controls  racing  throughout  England,  grants 
licences  to  jockeys,  settles  disputes,  &c. 

Jockey  of  Norfolk,  in  the  lines : 
Jockey  of  Norfolk,  be  not  so  bold, 
For  Dickon  thy  master  is  bought  and  sold 
(Shakespeare,  Richard  III,  v.  iii.  305-6.) 
was  Sir  John  Howard,  first  duke  of  Norfolk, 
who  commanded  Richard's  vanguard  at  the 
battle  of  Bosworth,  and  was  slain. 

Joe,  'the  fat  boy*  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick 
Papers*  (q.v.). 

Joe  Gargery,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Great  Expectations*  (q.v.). 
Joe  Manton,  'a  name  given  to  fowling- 
pieces  made  by  Joseph  Manton,  a  celebrated 
London  gunsmith'  (i766?-i835)  (Farmer, 
'Slang'). 

Joe  Miller's  Jests,  a  jest-book  by  John 
Mottley  (q.v.),  published  in  1739.  The  name 
is  taken  from  Joseph  Miller  (1684-1738),  an 
actor  in  the  Drury  Lane  company  and  reputed 
humorist.  A  'Joe  Miller*  is  a  stale  jest. 

Johannes  Factotum,  'John  Do-everything', 
a  Jack  of  all  trades,  a  would-be  universal 
genius.  The  phrase,  as  also  Dominus  Fac- 
totum* Magister  Factotum,  and  the  corre- 
sponding Italian  fa  il  tutto,  is  found  in  the 
1 6th  cent.  It  occurs  in  Greene's  famous 


JOHN  BUNGLE 

attack  on  Shakespeare  in  the  'Groats worth  of 
Wit'  (q.v.): 

'Being  an  absolute  Johannes  fac  totum, 
is  in  his  own  conceite  the  only  Shake-scene 
in  a  countrey.* 

John,  king  of  England,  1199-1216. 

John,  DON,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 

'Much  Ado  about  Nothing'  (q.v.). 

John,  FRIAR,  Frere  Jean  des  Entommeures, 
see  Gargantua  and  Thelema. 

John,  LITTLE,  one  of  the  companions  of 
Robin  Hood  (q.v.). 

John,  PRESTER,  see  Pr ester  John. 

John  Anderson,  my  Jo,  a  lyric  by  Burns 
(q.v.),  suggested  to  him  by  an  older  song. 

John  Barleycorn,  see  Barleycorn. 

John  Bull,  The  History  of,  a  collection  of 
pamphlets  by  Arbuthnot  (q.v.),  issued  in 
1712,  and  rearranged  and  republished  in 
Pope  and  Swift's  'Miscellanies'  of  1727. 

The  pamphlets,  of  which  the  first  appeared 
on  6  Mar.  1712,  were  designed  to  advocate, 
in  the  form  of  humorous  allegories,  the 
cessation  of  the  war  with  France,  the  various 
parties  concerned  being  designated  under  the 
names  of  John  Bull,  Nicholas  Frog  (the 
Dutch),  Lord  Stratt  (Philip  of  Spain),  Lewis 
Baboon  (the  French  king).  Bull  and  Frog 
are  engaged  in  a  law-suit  with  Baboon,  and 
their  case  is  put  in  the  hands  of  Humphrey 
Hocus,  an  attorney  (the  duke  of  Marl- 
borough),  and  won.  John  Bull,  however, 
discovers  an  intrigue  between  Hocus  and 
Mrs.  Bull,  his  first  wife  (the  Whig  parlia- 
ment), and  trouble  follows.  Mrs.  Bull  dies  and 
John  marries  again  (the  Tory  parliament),  but 
is  much  disturbed  at  the  cost  of  the  litigation. 
The  second  and  subsequent  pamphlets  are 
conceived  on  the  same  lines,  satirizing  the 
Whigs,  and  dealing  with  various  current 
political  topics. 

John  Bull  himself  is  described  as  'an  honest 
plain-dealing  fellow,  choleric,  bold,  and  of  a 
very  inconstant  temper  .  .  .  very  apt  to 
quarrel  with  his  best  friends,  especially  if 
they  pretended  to  govern  him.  .  .  .  John's 
temper  depended  very  much  upon  the  air; 
his  spirits  rose  and  fell  with  the  weather- 
glass. John  was  quick  and  understood  his 
business  very  well  ...  a  boon  companion, 
loving  his  bottle  and  his  diversion*. 

'John  Bull'  is  also  the  title  of  a  play  by 
George  Colman  the  younger,  acted  in  1803, 
and  containing  the  well-known  character, 
Job  Thornberry,  an  honest  tradesman, 
generous  and  kindhearted,  but  irascible 
under  a  sense  of  injustice,  supposed  to 
typify  the  national  character. 

John  Buncle,  Esq.,  The  Life  of,  a  work  of 
fiction  by  Arnory  (q.v.),  published  in  four 
volumes  in  1756-66. 

This  strange  book  takes  the  form  of  an 
autobiography,  and  the  hero,  in  the  words  of 
the  'illustrious  Miss  Noel*,  his  first  love,  is 


JOHN  COMPANY 

can  odd  compound  of  a  man'.  Like  the  author 
himself,  he  is  a  Unitarian,  a  man  of  learning 
and  serious  tastes,  amorous  but  virtuous  in  a 
way.  He  marries  seven  wives  in  succession, 
each  of  them  dying  within  a  couple  of  years, 
and  each  of  them  surpassingly  beautiful  and 
clever.  Statia's  'bright  victorious  eyes  flash 
celestial  fire',  and  she  says  'two  or  three  good 
things  on  the  beauty  of  the  morning'.  Miss 
Spence  has  'the  head  of  Aristotle,  the  heart 
of  a  primitive  Christian,  and  the  form  of 
Venus  de  Medicis*,  and  discusses  the 
differential  calculus  after  supper.  Miss 
Turner  dies  with  a  Latin  quotation  on  her 
lips.  After  the  death  of  each — he  is  not  a 
believer  in  a  long  period  of  mourning-— he 
sets  out  to  see  if  he  can  find  'another  good 
country  girl  for  a  wife  and  get  a  little  more 
money'.  The  story  of  his  matrimonial 
ventures  is  varied  with  digressions  on 
religious,  literary,  and  scientific  subjects, 
descriptions  of  scenery,  algebra  and  trigo- 
nometry, and  a  good  deal  of  eating  and 
drinking. 

John  Company,  see  East  India  Company. 

John  de  Reeve,  the  subject  of  an  old  ballad, 
containing  a  comic  element.  He  is  a  sturdy 
independent  Villein5,  who  rides  to  court  with 
pitchfork  and  sword,  and  is  knighted. 

John  Doe  and  Richard  Roe,  legal  fictions 
in  old  actions  of  ejectment,  adopted  to 
simplify  the  old  procedure  under  which  a 
number  of  irrelevant  matters  had  to  be 
proved.  The  fictitious  John  Doe  was  stated 
to  have  entered  under  a  lease  granted  by  the 
plaintiff,  and  to  have  been  ejected  by  the 
fictitious  Richard  Roe,  who  made  no  defence 
and  was  allowed  to  be  replaced  by  the  true 
defendant,  the  tenant  in  possession.  All  that 
was  thus  left  to  the  court  to  decide  was  the 
real  point  at  issue,  whether  the  plaintiff  or 
defendant  had  the  better  title.  (See  Holds- 
worth,  'History  of  English  Law*.)  All  this 
was  swept  away  by  the  Common  Law 
Procedure  Act,  1852. 

John  Gilpin,  The  Diverting  History  of,  a 
poem  by  Cowper  (q.v.),  first  published 
anonymously  in  the  'Public  Advertiser', 
reprinted  in  chapbook  form,  and  included  in 
the  same  volume  as  fThe  Task*  in  1785. 
The  story  of  John  Gilpin  was  told  to  Cow- 
per by  Lady  Austen  to  divert  him  from 
melancholy.  He  laughed  over  it  during  the 
night  and  next  day  had  turned  it  into  a  ballad. 
John  Gilpin,  a  linen-draper  bold1  of 
Cheapside^and  his  wife,  decide  to  celebrate 
their  twentieth  wedding-day  by  a  trip  to  the 
Bell  at  Edmonton,  he  on  a  borrowed  horse, 
she,  her  sister,  and  the  children  In  a  chaise 
and  pair.  But  when  John's  horse  begins 
to  trot  John  loses  control;  and  the  poem 
describes  his  headlong  career  to  Edmonton, 
and  ten  miles  beyond  it  to  Ware,  and  then 
back  again, 

Nor  stopped  till  where  he  had  got  up 
He  did  again  get  down. 


JOHN  O>  GROAT'S  HOUSE 

John  Halifax,  Gentleman,  a  novel  by  Dinah 
Mulock  (q.v.),  published  in  1857. 

This  is  the  plain  domestic  tale  of  a  poor 
but  honest  and  hard-working  boy,  left  an 
orphan  in  childhood,  who  by  his  own  exer- 
tions and  with  the  help  of  Phineas 
Fletcher,  the  son  of  one  of  his  employers, 
improves  his  education,  achieves  a  good 
position,  and  marries  the  heroine,  Ursula 
March.  The  story  is  intended  to  illustrate 
the  doctrine  that  the  character  of  a  true 
gentleman  resides  in  integrity  and  nobility 
of  purpose,  rather  than  in  birth  and  wealth. 

John  Inglesantj  an  historical  novel  by  Short- 
house  (q.v.),  published  in  1881  (privately 
printed  in  1880). 

The  story  is  set  In  the  time  of  Charles  I 
and  the  Commonwealth.  John  Inglesant,  a 
high-souled  gentleman,  of  a  serious  and 
mystical  cast  of  mind,  is  brought  in  his 
early  years  under  the  influence  of  a  Jesuit 
emissary  and  becomes  the  tool  of  the  Jesuit 
body  in  the  political  intrigues  that  attended 
the  latter  years  of  Charles  I.  He  comes  into 
close  contact  with  the  community  of  Little 
Gidding  (see  under  Ferrar,  Nicholas),  and 
falls  in  love  with  Mary  Collet,  a  member 
of  the  community.  He  joins  the  court  of 
Charles  I  and  is  employed  by  him  in  the 
dangerous  negotiations  for  bringing  an  Irish 
army  into  England.  When  these  are  dis- 
covered, he  is  repudiated  by  the  king,  and 
his  loyal  refusal  to  betray  his  master  nearly 
costs  him  his  head.  After  the  death  of 
Charles  I  he  passes  to  Italy,  partly  for  the 
purpose  of  discovering  and  taking  vengeance 
on  an  Italian  ruffian  who  has  murdered  his 
brother.  The  story  presents  a  picture  of  the 
Italian  life  of  the  period,  arid  of  the  religious 
factions  and  political  intrigues,  culminating 
in  the  long-drawn-out  election  of  a  pope 
on  the  death  of  Innocent  X.  The  reaction 
of  the  hero's  character  to  various  temp- 
tations and  influences  (including  that  of 
Molinos,  the  founder  of  the  Quietists,  q.v.) 
is  described,  the  climax  being  reached  when 
his  brother's  murderer  finally  falls  into  his 
power,  and  he  renounces  his  own  vengeance 
and  leaves  him  to  that  of  God.  The  style 
of  the  1 7th  cent,  is  admirably  imitated.  But 
It  has  recently  been  discovered  that  Short- 
house  'lifted*  long  passages  from  i7th-cent. 
books  without  acknowledgement. 
John  of  Austria,  DON  (1547-78),  illegiti- 
mate son  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  a 
Spanish  commander,  famous,  among  other 
achievements,  for  his  naval  victory  over  the 
Turks  at  Lepanto  (1571).  He  was  governor 
of  the  Netherlands  from  1576  till  his  death. 
John  o*  Groat's  House,  at  the  extreme  NE. 
point  of  the  Scottish  mainland,  is  the  reputed 
site  of  an  octagonal  house  said  to  have  been 
built  in  the  i6th  cent,  by  a  Dutchman,  John 
Groot,  who  migrated  thither  and  was  followed 
by  other  members  of  the  Groot  family.  Dis- 
putes arose  among  them  as  to  precedence  at 
the  annual  feasts,  and  to  settle  these  John 


JOHN  OF  SALISBURY 

Groot  built  his  house  with  eight  doors,  so 
that  each  claimant  could  enter  by  his  own 
door  and  sit  at  his  own  table. 

JOHN  OF  SALISBURY  (d.  1180)  was 
born  at  Salisbury  and  studied  at  Paris  under 
Abeiard  (q.v.)  and  at  Chartres.  He  returned 
to  England  about  1150,  residing  mainly  at 
Canterbury,  where  he  was  secretary  to 
Archbishop  Theobald  and  was  sent  on 
missions  to  Rome.  He  fell  into  disfavour  with 
Henry  II  and  retired  to  Rheims,  where  he 
composed  his  'Historia  Pontificalis'.  He 
was  present  in  Canterbury  Cathedral  when 
Becket  was  murdered,  wrote  his  life  and 
urged  his  canonization.  He  also  wrote  a  life 
of  Ansekn  with  a  view  to  his  canonization. 
He  became  bishop  of  Chartres  in  1176.  He 
was  not  only  an  able  politician  and  ecclesi- 
astic but  the  most  learned  classical  writer  of 
his  time;  he  may  be  called  the  fine  flower  of 
the  first  (primitive)  Renaissance,  and  it  is  an 
interesting  question  whether  or  no  he  knew 
any  Greek.  His  works  include  the  'PoKcra- 
ticus'  or ' De  Nugis  Curialium',  on  the  vanities 
of  the  court  and  miscellaneous  questions  of 
philosophy  and  learning;  the  'Metalogicus', 
a  treatise  on  logic  and  an  account  of  Aristotle's 
treatment  of  the  subject ;  and  the  'Entheticus', 
an  elegiac  poem  in  praise  of  Becket.  There  is 
a  Life  of  John  of  Salisbury  (1932)  by  C.  C.  J. 
Webb,  who  has  also  edited  some  of  the  works. 

John  o'  Scales,  see  Heir  of  Linne.  ^ 

John  of  the  Cross,  ST.  (1549-91),  a  Spanish 
mystical  poet  and  a  friar  of  the  Carmelite 
order.  He  was  canonized  in  1726. 

John  Silence,  a  novel  by  Algernon  Black- 
wood,  published  in  1908.  John  Silence  is  a 
'psychic  doctor*  and  the  book  is  a  collection 
of  narratives  of  uncanny  psychic  experiences. 

John  Thomson's  man  or  JOHN  TAMSON'S 
MAN,  a  Scottish  proverbial  appellation  for  a 
man  who  is  governed  by  his  wife  (Scott,  'Old 
Mortality',  xxxviii).  The  origin  of  the  ex- 
pression is  unknown.  W.  C.  Hazlitt  states 
that  it  occurs  in  the  works  of  Dunbar  (q.v.). 

John-a-Nokes,  a  fictitious  name  for  one  of 
the  parties  in  a  legal  action,  usually  coupled 
with  JOHN- A- STILES  as  the  name  of  the  other. 

Johnson,  Anecdotes  of  the  late  Samuel,  by 
Mrs.  Piozzi  (see  Thrale),  published  in  1786. 

Johnson,  ESTHER,  Swift's  'Stella*,  see  Swift. 

JOHNSON,    LIONEL    PIGOT    (1867- 

1902),  educated  at  Winchester  and  New 
College,  Oxford,  a  scholar-poet  and  critic. 
He  became  a  Roman  Catholic.  His  chief 
works  are  'Postliminium'  (essays  and  critical 
papers,  1912),  'The  Art  of  Thomas  Hardy' 
(1896),  and  two  books  of  verse,  'Poems' 
(1895)  and  'Ireland'  (1897).  He  contributed 
to  the  'Spectator*,  'Academy*,  'Athenaeum', 
'Daily  Chronicle',  &c. 

JOHNSON,  RICHARD  (1573-1659?),  was 
a  freeman  of  London,  and  author  of  the 
'Famous  Historic  of  the  Seaven  Champions 


JOHNSON 

of  Christendom9  (q.v.,  c.  1597),  'The  Nine 
Worthies  of  London*  (1592),  'The  Crowne 
Garland  of  Golden  Roses'  (1612,  reprinted 
by  the  Percy  Society),  and  'Pleasant  Conceites 
of  Old  Hobson'  (1607,  reprinted  1843). 

Johnson,  THE  REV.  SAMUEL  (1649-1703),  a 
Whig  divine  who  was  imprisoned,  pilloried; 
fined,  and  whipped  for  his  Protestant 
pamphlets.  He  received  a  pension  and 
bounty  from  William  III.  He  figures  in 
'Absalom  and  AchitopheP  (q.v.)  as  'Ben- 
Jochanan'. 

JOHNSON,  SAMUEL  (1709-84),  born  at 
Lichfield,  the  son  of  a  bookseller  of  that  town. 
When  3  years  old  he  was  brought  to  London 
to  be  touched  for  the  king's  evil  by  Queen 
Anne.  He  was  educated  at  Lichfield  Gram- 
mar School  and  at  Pembroke  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  spent  fourteen  months  in 
1728-9,  but  took  no  degree.  His  father  died  in 
173 1  and  left  his  family  in  poverty,  and  John- 
son's career  for  a  time  is  not  clearly  known. 
He  worked  as  an  usher  at  Market  Bosworth  and 
lived  for  a  time  at  Birmingham,  where  he  con- 
tributed essays  to  the  'Birmingham  Journal'. 
In  1735  he  published  anonymously  a  con- 
densed translation  of  a  French  version  of 
Father  Lobo's  'Voyage  to  Abyssinia'.  In  the 
same  year  he  married  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Porter, 
a  widow  considerably  older  than  himself,  and 
started  a  private  school  at  Edial,  near  Lich- 
field. This  was  not  successful,  and  in  1737, 
accompanied  by  one  of  his  pupils,  David 
Garrick  (q.v.),  he  set  out  for  London,  which7 
was  henceforth  to  be  his  home.  He  entered  the 
service  of  Edward  Cave,  the  printer  (1691— 
1754),  wno  nac*  founded  'The  Gentleman's 
Magazine'  (q.v.)  in  1731.  To  this  he  con- 
tributed essays,  poems  (notably  'Friendship, 
an  Ode'),  Latin  verses,  biographies,  and  re- 
ports of  parliamentary  debates.  The  latter 
were  in  reality  discussions  in  Johnson's  own 
language  of  the  current  political  questions,  for 
which  the  speeches  actually  made  in  parlia- 
ment furnished  merely  a  basis.  In  1738  he 
published  his  poem  'London*  (q.v.).  In  1744 
appeared  his  notable  'Life  of  Mr.  Richard 
Savage'  (q.v.),  subsequently  included  in  the 
'Lives  of  the  Poets',  the  affectionate  record  of 
a  friend  with  whom  he  had  shared  extreme 
poverty  (see  under  Savage,  Richard).  In  1747 
he  issued  the  'Plan'  of  his  'Dictionary*  (see 
Johnson's  Dictionary),  addressed  to  Lord  Ches- 
terfield, with  results  referred  to  under  the  name 
of  that  nobleman.  In  1 749  he  published  'The 
Vanity  of  Human  Wishes'  (qlv.),  his  longest 
and  best  poem,  and  in  the  same  year  Garrick 
produced  his  tragedy  'Irene*,  which  Johnson 
had  written  in  1736  at  Edial,  and  which  is  little 
but  a  series  of  dialogues  on  moral  themes 
between  Mahomet,  emperor  of  the  Turks, 
his  attendants,  and  various  Greek  captives. 
By  this  act  of  kindness  of  Garrick's,  Johnson 
made  nearly  £300.  In  1750  he  started  the 
'Rambler*  (q.v.),  a  periodical  written  almost 
entirely  by  himself,  which  ran  until  1753 
(when  his  wife  died),  appearing  twice  a  week. 


JOHNSON 

From  March  1753  to  March  1754  Johnson 
contributed  regularly  to  Hawkesworth's 
'Adventurer*.  His  lives  of  Cheynel  and  Cave 
were  contributed,  the  first  to  'The  Student' 
in  1751,  the  second  to  'The  Gentleman's 
Magazine*  in  1754.  The  'Dictionary*  was 
published  in  1755,  and  an  abridgement  in 
1756.  In  the  same  year  he  contributed  to 
Smart's  'Universal  Visiter'  and  during  this 
year  and  the  next  edited  the  'Literary  Maga- 
zine*, which  published  a  number  ^of  his 
political  articles  and  reviews,  including  his 
essay  on  tea,  and  his  criticism  of  Soame 
Jenyns's  'Free  Enquiry  into  the  Nature  and 
Origin  of  Evil*.  In  1757  he  also  contributed 
the  introduction  to  the  'Morning  Chronicle*. 
He  wrote  the  life  of  Sir  T.  Browne  which  is 
prefixed  to  his  edition  of  that  author's 
'Christian  Morals*  (1756),  and  the  life  of 
Ascham  in  J.  Bennet*s  edition  of  his  Works 
(1761).  During  1758-60  he  contributed  the 
'Idler*  (q.v.)  series  of  papers  to  the  'Universal 
Chronicle*.  In  1759  appeared  his  'Rasselas, 
Prince  of  Abyssinia5  (q.v.).  In  1762  Johnson 
received,  on  Wedderburn's  application,  a 
pension  of  £300  a  year  from  Lord  Bute,  and 
in  1763  made  the  acquaintance  of  James 
Boswell  (q.v.),  his  biographer.  It  was  in  the 
same  or  next  year  that  'The  Club*,  later 
known  as  the  'Literary  Club',  was  founded, 
including  among  its  original  members,  be- 
sides Johnson,  Reynolds,  Burke,  and  Gold- 
smith, to  whom  Garrick,  C.  J.  Fox,  and  Bos- 
well  were  shortly  added.  The  Club  held  its 
meetings  at  the  Turk's  Head  in  Gerrard 
Street.  Besides  a  number  of  writings  of 
minor  importance,  including  an  exposure  of 
the  Cock  Lane  ghost,  he  worked  at  his  edition 
of  Shakespeare,  which  after  much  delay  was 
published  in  1765;  although  superseded  by 
later  scholarship,  it  contained  valuable  notes 
and  some  emendations  that  have  been  main- 
tained. He  was  introduced  to  the  Thrales  (q.v.) 
in  1764,  in  whose  town  and  country  houses  he 
was  hospitably  received.  In  1773  Johnson 
undertook  a  journey  with  Boswell  to  the 
Scottish  Highlands  and  Hebrides,  recorded 
in  his  'Journey  to  the  Western  Islands  of 
Scotland*  (1775)  and  in  BoswelTs  'Journal  of 
a  Tour  to  the  Hebrides'  (1785).  Johnson's 
diary  of  his  tour  with  the  Thrales  in  1774  to 
north  Wales  was  printed  in  1816.  In  1777  he 
undertook,  at  the  request  of  a  number  of  book- 
sellers, to  write  the  'Lives  of  the  Poets*  (q.v.), 
published  in  1779-81.  In  1783  the  death  of 
his  faithful  old  dependant,  Robert  Levett, 
elicited  his  beautiful  little  elegy,  'His  virtues 
walked  their  narrow  round',  and  in  1784,  after 
two  melancholy  years,  further  saddened  by 
the  death  of  his  friend  Thrale  and  his  quarrel 
with  Mrs.  Thrale,  he  died  at  his  house  in 
Bolt  Court  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  ^A  monument  was  erected  to  him  in 
St.  Paul's.  Johnson's  literary  output  bears  no 
proportion  to  his  reputation.  The  latter  is  due 
in  great  measure  to  the  fortunate  accident  by 
which  an  ideal  biographer  was  found  in 
Boswell  to  record  for  us  the  humour,  wit,  and 


JOHNSON 

sturdy  common  sense  of  his  conversation,  and 
a  kindness  of  heart  sometimes  concealed 
under  a  gruff  exterior. 

Apart  from  Boswell's  'Life',  much  infor- 
mation about  Johnson  is  to  be  found  in 
Mrs.  Piozzi's  (Mrs.  Thrale's)  'Anecdotes  of 
the  late  Samuel  Johnson*  (1786)  and  in  his 
'Life*  by  Sir  John  Hawkins  (1787).  Besides 
those  of  Johnson's  works  above  referred  to, 
mention  may  be  made  of  the  following: 
translation  into  Latin  verse  of  Pope's  'Mes- 
siah' (1731),  written  while  Johnson  was  at 
college,  and  commended  by  Pope  himself; 
'Marmor  Norfolciense  :  or  an  Essay  on  an 
ancient  Prophetical  Inscription*  (1739),  a 
political  pamphlet  in  ironical  disguise;  *A 
Compleat  Vindication  of  the  Licensers  of  the 
Stage*  (1739),  an  ironical  attack  on  them  for 
refusing  Brooke  *s  'Gustavus  Vasa';  the  'Pro- 
posals* for  printing  the  catalogue  of  the 
Harleian  Library,  and  the  'Account*  of  it 
(1742-4);  the  'Proposals'  for,  and  the  intro- 
duction to,  the  'Harleian  Miscellany*  (q.v.), 
published  in  1744,  an(^  the  latter  reprinted 
separately  as  an  'Essay  on  the  Origin  ^and 
Importance  of  Small  Tracts  and  Fugitive 
Pieces';  'Miscellaneous  Observations  on  the 
Tragedy  of  Macbeth'  (1745),  an  anticipation 
of  the  edition  of  Shakespeare  ;  an  apologue  of 
human  life  entitled  'The  Vision  of  Theodore, 
the  Hermit  of  TenerifTe*,  contributed  in 
1748  to  'The  Preceptor*  (a  work  on  education 
published  by  Dodsley),  which  Johnson  de- 
scribed to  Percy  as  the  best  thing  he  ever 
wrote  ;  dedications  to  Mrs.  Lennox*s  'Female 
Quixote*  (1753)  and  'Shakespeare  Illustrated* 
(1754),  and  many  other  dedications,  pro- 
logues, &c.  ;  'An  Account  of  an  Attempt  to 
ascertain  the  Longitude  at  Sea'  (i755)> 
written  for  Zachariah  Williams  ;  three  letters 
in  the  'Gazetteer*  on  the  plans  for  Blackfriars 
bridge  (1759)  ;  reviews  in  the  'Critical  Review' 
of  Goldsmith's  'Traveller*  and  of  two  other 
works  (1763—4);  'Considerations  on  the  Com 
Laws'  written  in  1766  for  'single  speech' 
Hamilton,  and  printed  in  Hamilton's  'Par- 
liamentary Logick*  (1808);  four  political 
pamphlets,  'The  False  Alarm*  (1770), 
'Thoughts  .  .  .  respecting  Falkland's  Islands* 
(1771),  'The  Patriot'  (1774),  and  'Taxation 
no  Tyranny'  (1775);  'Occasional  Papers  by 
the  late  William  Dodd,  D.D.*  (by  Johnson, 
except  Dodd's  'Account  of  Himself*,  sup- 
pressed but  published  in  1785).  Johnson's 
remarkable  'Prayers  and  Meditations'  were 
published  posthumously  in  1785,  also  two 
volumes  of  sermons  (1788-9).  A  collection 
of  his  letters  was  edited  by  G.  B.  Hill  in 
('Additional  Letters*  in  1897). 


Johnson,  The  Life  of  Samuel,  by  Boswell 
(q.v.),  published  in  1791. 

Boswell  informed  Johnson  in  1772  of  his 
intention  to  write  his  life,  and  had  collected 
materials  for  the  purpose  ever  since  he  first 
met  him  in  1763.  After  Johnson's  death  in 
1784  he  set  to  work  arranging  and  adding  to 
the  'prodigious  multiplicity  of  materials',  a 


JOHNSON'S  DICTIONARY 

task  which,  he  writes  in  1789,  involved  him 
in  great  labour,  perplexity,  and  vexation. 
The  final  edition,  after  Boswell's  death,  was 
revised  by  Edmund  Malone.  The  standard 
edition  is  that  of  G.  B.  Hill,  1887. 
Johnson's  Dictionary,  A  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language,  by  S.  Johnson  (q.v.), 
published  in  1755. 

The  prospectus  of  the  Dictionary  was 
issued  in  1747  (for  the  incident  with  Lord 
Chesterfield  to  which  it  gave  rise  see  under 
Chesterfield,  earl  of).  Johnson's  object  was 
to  produce  'a  dictionary  by  which  the  pro- 
nunciation of  our  language  may  be  fixed,  and 
its  attainment  facilitated ;  by  which  its  purity 
may  be  preserved,  its  use  ascertained,  and  its 
duration  lengthened*.  In  his  collection  of 
words  he  does  not  go  back  further  than  the 
works  of  Sidney,  holding  that  'from  the 
authors  which  rose  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  a 
speech  might  be  formed  adequate  to  all  the 
purposes  of  use  or  elegance'.  As  regards 
words  imported  from  other  languages  he 
'warned  others  against  the  folly  of  naturalizing 
useless  foreigners  to  the  injury  of  the  natives*. 
His  derivations  suffer  from  the  scantiness  of 
etymological  knowledge  in  his  day.  But  the 
dictionary  is  principally  remarkable  for  the 
definitions  of  the  meanings  of  words,  and 
for  the  quotations  in  illustration  of  their  use. 
Five  editions  of  the  Dictionary  were  pub- 
lished in  Johnson's  lifetime. 

Johnson's  'Dixonary'  was  Miss  Pinkerton's 
invariable  present  to  departing  scholars. 
Becky  Sharp  threw  her  copy  into  the  garden 
as  the  coach  drove  off  ('Vanity  Fair*,  ch.  i). 

Johnson,  WILLIAM  EUGENE  (1862-  ), 
American  prohibition  propagandist,  known 
as  'Pussyfoot',  'because  of  his  catlike  policies 
in  pursuing  lawbreakers  in  the  Indian 
Territory'  ('Who  's  Who  in  America').  He 
was  chief  special  officer  in  the  U.S.  Indian 
Service  1908-11,  during  which  he  secured 
4,400  convictions.  He  became  well  known  as 
a  temperance  organizer  and  came  to  England 
in  1919  in  support  of  the  cause.  He  lost  an 
eye  at  a  prohibition  meeting  at  Essex  Hall, 
London,  by  a  missile  thrown  by  one  of  the 
crowd. 

JOHNSTON,  MARY  (1870-  t  ^Ameri- 
can author,  born  at  Buchanan,  Virginia,  best 
known  for  her  romantic  novel  of  colonial 
Virginian  life,  'To  Have  and  to  Hold*  (1899). 

JOHNSTONS,  CHARLES,  see  Adventures 
of  a  Guinea. 

JOINVILLE,  JEAN  DE  (1224-1319), 
seneschal  of  Champagne,  and  a  witness  of  the 
events  of  the  disastrous  crusade  of  Louis  IX, 
wrote  an  account  of  the  latter  in  his  'Histoire 
de  Saint  Louis'. 

Jolly  Beggars,  The,  a  cantata  by  Bums  (q.v.), 
written  in  1785. 

A  company  of  vagrants  meet^  and  carouse 
in  a  hedge  ale-house.  There  is  a  maimed 
soldier,  a  fiddler,  a  strolling  player,  a  ballad- 
singer,  with  their  female  companions.  Each 


JONES 

sings  a  song  in  character,  and  the  songs  are 
connected  by  vivid  descriptions  of  the 
various  rogues. 

Jolly  Roger,  the  pirates*  black  flag. 
Jonah,  A,  a  bearer  of  ill-luck,  an  allusion  to 
the  O.T.  story.  When  Jonah  was  ordered  to 
prophesy  against  Nineveh,  he  sailed  instead 
for  Tarshish.  A  tempest  arising,  the  sailors 
threw  lots  to  know  for  whose  cause  it  was 
sent,  and  the  lot  fell  upon  Jonah,  whom  they 
accordingly  cast  into  the  sea.  He  was 
swallowed  by  *a  great  fish*  and  thrown  up 
again  upon  the  land. 

Jonathan,  BROTHER,  see  Brother  Jonathan. 

Jonathan  Wild  the  Great,  The  Life  of,  a 
satirical  romance  by  H.  Fielding  (q.v.) 
published  in  his  'Miscellanies'  in  1743.  For 
the  facts  relating  to  the  historical  Jonathan 
Wild,  see  Wild. 

The  author's  purpose  is  to  expose  the  true 
meaning  and  reward  of  'greatness'  as  distinct 
from  'goodness',  when  the  'greatness*  is  not 
obscured  by  worldly  eminence.  He  relates 
the  career  of  a  consummate  rogue,  from  his 
birth  and  his  baptism  by  Titus  Oates,  to  his 
arrival  at  the  'tree  of  glory*,  the  gallows.  The 
hero,  having  shown  at  school  his  disposition 
for  iniquity,  enters  on  his  career  of  crime 
under  the  auspices  of  Mr.  Snap,  keeper  of 
a  sponging-house,  and  shows  dexterity  as  a 
pickpocket.  He  becomes  the  chief  of  a  gang 
of  robbers,  contriving  their  exploits,  taking 
the  largest  share  of  the  booty,  keeping  himself 
out  of  the  clutches  of  the  law,  and  main- 
taining discipline  by  denouncing  any  of 
the  gang  who  contest  his  authority.  He 
marries  Snap's  daughter,  Letitia,  who  is  as 
worthless  as  himself,  and  whose  assumption 
of  virtue  provides  some  amusing  scenes. 
His  principal  undertaking  is  his  attempt  to 
ruin  the  fortunes  and  domestic  happiness  of 
his  old  schoolfellow,  the  virtuous  jeweller 
Heartfree.  He  robs  him  and  gets  him  locked 
up  as  a  bankrupt,  induces  Heartfree's  wife 
by  a  trick  to  leave  England,  accuses  Heartfree 
of  having  made  away  with  her,  and  brings  him 
within  an  ace  of  execution.  But  his  trickery 
is  fortunately  exposed,  and  he  meets  his  end 
with  the  'greatness'  that  has  distinguished 
him  throughout. 

Jonathan's,  a  coffee-house  in  Change 
Alley,  Cornhill,  referred  to  in  the  'Tatler' 
(No.  38)  and  the  'Spectator'  (No.  i)  as  a 
mart  for  stockjobbers. 

JONES,  HENRY  ARTHUR  (1851-1929), 
dramatist,  of  a  Welsh  dissenting  family,  was 
for  a  time  a  shop  assistant.  Among  his  suc- 
cessful plays  were :  'A  Clerical  Error*  (i  879,  a 
one-act  comedy  in  which  the  author  himself 
acted),  'The  Silver  King'  (1882,  in  which 
Henry  Herman  in  a  small  degree  collaborated, 
and  which  enjoyed  great  popularity),  'Saints 
and  Sinners'  (1884),  'The  Middleman' (1889), 
'The  Dancing  Girl'  (1891).  In  'The  Cru- 
saders* (1891),  'The  Masqueraders*  (1894), 
'The  Case  of  Rebellious  Susan'  (1894),  'The 


3863 


[417] 


Ee 


JONES 

Triumph  of  the  Philistines5  (1895),  and  'Dolly 
Reforming  Herself  (1908),  Jones  showed  an 
increased  command  of  the  art  of  comedy,  and 
reached  his  masterpiece  in  1897  in  'The 
Liars',  acted  by  Charles  Wyndham  and  Mary 
Moore.  'Michael  and  his  Lost  Angel*,  which 
Jones  believed  his  best  play,  proved  a 
failure  on  the  stage  in  1896.  Jones  wrote  in 
all  some  sixty  plays,  and  also  'The  Renas- 
cence of  the  English  Drama*  (1896)  and 
'Foundations  of  a  National  Drama  (1913)- 
His  'Life*  by  his  daughter  appeared  in  1930- 

Jones,  INIGO  (1573-1652),  architect,  was 
the  son  of  a  Roman  Catholic  clothworker  of 
London.  In  his  youth  he  travelled  on  the 
Continent  at  the  expense  of  the  third  Earl 
of  Pembroke.  He  designed  many  buildings 
in  London,  including  the  Banqueting  House 
in  Whitehall,  and  St.  Paul's  Church  and  the 
piazza  in  Covent  Garden.  He  added  an 
Ionic  facade  to  old  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  He 
also  designed  shifting  scenes,  machines,  and 
dresses  for  many  masques  by  Ben  Jonson, 
Daniel,  Heywood,  D*Avenant,  and  others.  He 
quarrelled  with  Ben  Jonson  and  was  satirized 
by  him  as  'In-and-in  Medlay*  in  his  'Tale  of 
a  Tub*  (q.v.). 

Jones,  JOHN  PAUL  (1747-92),  naval  adven- 
turer, was  the  son  of  a  Kircudbrightshire 
gardener  named  Paul.  After  some  years 
spent  in  the  slave  trade,  smuggling,  and  trad- 
ing to  the  W.  Indies,  he  entered  the  American 
navy  in  1775.  While  in  command  of  the 
'Ranger'  he  took  the  fort  at  Whitehaven  and 
captured  the  'Drake*  off  Carrickfergus  (1778), 
and  in  the  following  year  in  the  'Bonhomme 
Richard',  accompanied  by  three  French  ships 
and  one  American,  threatened  Edinburgh 
and  captured  the '  Serapis* .  Jones  afterwards 
served  in  the  French  navy. 

JONES,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1746-94),  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  at  University  College, 
Oxford,  a  distinguished  orientalist  and 
jurist,  was  judge  of  the  high  court  at  Cal- 
cutta from  1783  till  his  death.  He  published 
his  'Essay  on  Bailments*  in  1881,  but  is  best 
known  for  his  works  on  oriental  languages: 
'Poeseos  Asiaticae  Commentariorurn  Libri 
Sex'  (1774),  his  version  of  the  Arabic  'Moal- 
lakat*  (1783),  his  translations  of  the  *Hito- 
padesa*  and  *Sakuntala*,  and  his  'Persian 
Grammar*  (1771).  He  also  began  'The 
Institutes  of  Hindu  Law,  or  Ordinances  of 
Manu*.  Jones  mastered  Sanskrit  and  was  a 
pioneer  in  the  science  of  comparative  philo- 
logy. His  collected  works  were  edited  by 
Lord  Teignmouth  (1799). 

JONSON,  BENJAMIN  (1572-1637)  ('Ben 
Jonson'),  was  of  Border  descent,  but  born 
probably  in  Westminster.  He  was  educated 
at  Westminster  School  under  William  Cam- 
den,  and  was  for  a  time  in  the  business  of  his 
step-father,  a  bricklayer.  His  occupation  from 
1591/2  to  1597  Is  uncertain,  but  included 
some  voluntary  military  service  in  Flanders. 
In  1597  he  began  to  work  for  Henslowe's 


JONSON 

company  as  player  and  playwright.  He  killed 
a  fellow-actor  in  a  duel,  but  escaped  death  by 
benefit  of  clergy,  1598;  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  during  imprisonment,  but  abjured 
twelve  years  later.  His  'Every  Man  in  his 
Humour '(q.v.),  with  Shakespeare  in  the  cast, 
was  performed  by  the  lord  chamberlain's 
company  at  the  Curtain,  1598,  and  'Every 
Man  out  of  his  Humour*  (q.v.)  at  the  Globe, 
1599;  his  'Cynthia's  Revels'  (q.v.),  1600, 
and  'The  Poetaster*  (q.v.,  attacking  Dekker 
and  Marston),  1601,  were  performed  by  the 
children  of  the  Queen's  Chapel.  In  1600-1 
he  was  writing  additions  to  Kyd*s  'Spanish 
Tragedy*  (q.v.).  His  first  extant  tragedy, 
'Sejanus*  (q.v.),  was  given  at  the  Globe  by 
Shakespeare's  company,  1603;  his  first  court 
masque  *of  Blacknesse*  (with  scenery  by  Inigo 
Jones)  was  given  on  Twelfth  Night,  1605. 
He  was  temporarily  imprisoned  for  his  share 
in  'Eastward  Ho*  (q.v.),  a  play  reflecting  on 
the  Scots.  His  'Volpone*  (q.v.)  was  acted 
both  at  the  Globe  and  the  two  universities  in 
1606.  'Epicoene,  or  the  Silent  Woman*  (q.v.) 
followed  in  1609;  'The  Alchemist*  (q.v.) 
in  1 6 10 ;  'Bartholomew  Fayre*  (q.v.)  in  1614; 
and  'The  Devil  is  an  Ass*  (q.v.)  in  1616. 
Though  not  formally  appointed  the  first  poet 
laureate,  the  essentials  of  the  position  were 
conferred  on  him  in  1616,  when  a  pension  was 
granted  to  him  by  James  I.  In  1618  he  went 
to  Scotland,  where  he  was  entertained  by 
Drumrnond  of  Hawthornden  (q.v.),  who  re- 
corded their  conversation.  He  produced  'The 
Staple  of  News*  (q.v.),  his  last  great  play,  in 
1625.  He  was  elected  chronologer  of  London 
in  1628.  'The  New  Inn',  a  comedy,  which 
shows  decline  in  his  powers,  and  proved  a 
failure,  was  produced  in  1629.  From  1605 
onwards  he  was  constantly  producing 
masques  (q.v.)  for  the  court,  a  form  of  enter- 
tainment that  reached  its  highest  elaboration 
in  Jonson's  hands.  He  introduced  into  it  the 
'antimasque*,  sometimes  a  foil  to  the  princi- 
pal masque,  sometimes  a  dramatic  scene, 
frequently  of  Aristophanic  comedy.  We  have 
instances  of  this  in  the  'Masque  of  Queens* 
(1609),  'Love  Restored*  (1612),  'Mercury 
vindicated  from  the  Alchemists*  (1615), 
'Pleasure  reconciled  to  Vertue*  (1618,  which 
gave  Milton  his  idea  for  'Comus'),  and 
'Newes  from  the  New  World*  (1621).  Jonson 
quarrelled  with  Inigo  Jones  (q.v.)  after  pro- 
duction of  the  masque  'Chloridia*,  1630,  and 
lost  court  patronage.  He  produced  'The 
Magnetic  Lady',  1632,  and  'Tale  of  a  Tub* 
(comedies,  q.v.),  1633 ;  his  last  masques  were 
produced  in  1633-4.  He  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey  and  celebrated  in  a  collec- 
tion of  elegies  entitled  'Jonsonus  Virbius* 
(1637-8).  His  friends  included  Bacon,  Selden, 
Chapman,  Beaumont,  Fletcher,  Donne,  and 
Shakespeare,  and  of  the  younger  writers  (his 
'sons')  Herrick,  Suckling,  Sir  Kenelm  Digby, 
and  Lord  Falkland.  Among  his  patrons  were 
the  Sidneys,  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  and  the 
duke  and  duchess  of  Newcastle.  His  poems 
include  'Epigrammes*  (containing  the  epitaph 


JONSONUS  VIRBIUS 

on  Salathiel  Pavy,  the  boy  actor)  and  'The 
Forrest"  (q.v.),  printed  in  the  folio  of  1616, 
'Underwoods'  (q.v.),  printed  in  1640,  and 
translations,.  His  chief  prose  work  is  'Timber ; 
or  Discoveries  made  upon  Men  and  Matter* 
(q.v.),  1640.  His  works  have  been  edited  by 
William  Gifford  (1816)  and  Colonel  Cun- 
ningham (1875);  a  splendid  edition  by  C.H. 
Herford  and  P.  Simpson  (Clarendon  Press) 
is  in  progress. 

As  a  man  Jonson  was  arrogant  and  quarrel- 
some, but  fearless,  warm-hearted,  and  in- 
tellectually honest.  The  estimate  of  him 
formed  by  his  contemporaries  is  summed  up 
in  the  inscription  of  one  of  these  upon  his 
tomb,  'O  rare  Ben  Jonson',  which  has  been 
adopted  as  his  epitaph. 

Jonsonus  Virblus,  see  Jonson. 

Jordan,DoROTHEAorDoROTHY(i762-i8i6), 
actress,  nee  Bland,  appeared  at  Dublin  as 
Phebe  in  'As  You  Like  It'  in  1777,  ran  away 
to  Leeds,  and  under  the  name  of  Mrs.  Jordan 
played  Calista  and  other  parts  on  the  York 
circuit.  She  made  her  de"but  at  Drury  Lane 
as  Peggy  in  'The  Country  Girl*  in  1785,  and 
took  many  parts  there,  at  the  Haymarket,  and 
at  Covent  Garden,  her  last  part  being  Lady 
Teazle  (1814).  She  was  much  praised  by  Haz- 
litt,  Lamb,  Leigh  Hunt,  &c.  She  was  for  long 
mistress  of  the  duke  of  Clarence  (William  IV), 
and  bore  him  many  children.  She  went  to 
France  in  1815  and  died  at  St.  Cloud. 

Jorkins,  see  Spenlow  and  Jorkins. 
Jormiingander,  in  Scandinavian  mythology 
a  monstrous  serpent,  the  offspring  of  Loki 
(q.v.).  Odin  threw  it  into  the  ocean,  where 
it  grew  till  it  encircled  the  whole  earth,  finally 
swallowing  its  own  tail.  It  was  also  known 
as  the  Midgard  Serpent. 

Jorrocks,  JOHN,  'a  great  city  grocer  of  the 
old  school*  and  a  natural  born  sportsman 
whose  lot  was  cast  behind  the  counter  in- 
stead of  in  the  country,  is,  with  Mr.  Sponge 
and  Mr.  Facey  Romford,  among  the  cele- 
brated characters  of  the  novels  of  R.  S. 
Surtees  (q.v.).  He  first  appears  in  'Jorrocks' 
Jaunts  and  Jollities'  (published  in  periodical 
form  in  1831-4,  and  as  a  book  in  1838),  and 
later  in  'Handley  Cross*,  &c.,  becoming  master 
of  the  Handley  Cross  foxhounds. 
Josaphatf  see  Barlaam  andjosaphat. 
Jos£,  DON,  the  father  of  the  hero  in  Byron's 
'Don  Juan'  (q.v.). 

Joseph,  a  long  cloak,  buttoned  down  the 

front,  with  a  small  cape,  worn  chiefly  by 

women  in  the  i8th  cent,  when  riding,  so 

called  in  allusion  to  the  upper  coat  which 

Joseph  left  behind  him  (Genesis  xxxix). 

A  pea-green  Joseph  was  her  favourite  dress. 

(Crabbe,  'Parish  Register*,  in.) 

Joseph  and  his  brethren,  an  allusion  to 
the  story,  in  Gen.  xxxvii  et  seq.,  of  Joseph 
the  son  of  Jacob,  the  jealousy  of  his  brethren, 
his  sale  to  Ishmaelites  who  took  him  to  Egypt 
and  sold  him  to  Potiphar,  and  his  reception 


JOSEPH  OF  ARIMATHEA 

of  his  brethren,  when  he  had  been  advanced 
to  be  ruler  over  Egypt  and  they  came  there 
to  buy  corn  at  a  time  of  a  famine.  'Joseph 
and  his  Brethren*  is  the  title  of  a  drama  by 
Charles  Jeremiah  Wells  (1799?-!  879),  pub- 
lished under  a  pseudonym  in  1823-4. 

Joseph  Andrews  and  his  Friend  Mr.  Abra- 
ham AdamSy  The  History  of  the  Adventures 
of,  a  novel  by  H.  Fielding  (q.v.),  published 
in  1742. 

This  was  the  first  of  Fielding's  novels  and 
was  begun  as  a  skit  on  Richardson's  'Pamela* 
(q.v.).  As  the  latter  had  related  the  efforts  of 
Pamela  Andrews,  the  serving-maid,  to  escape 
the  attentions  of  her  master,  so  here  her 
brother  Joseph,  also  in  service,  is  exposed  to 
attacks  on  his  virtue.  Mr.  B.  of  'Pamela* 
becomes  young  Squire  Booby,  and  mild  fun 
is  made  of  Pamela  herself.  But  presently  the 
satire  is  in  the  main  dropped,  Joseph  sinks 
rather  into  the  background,  and  the  real  hero 
of  the  remainder  of  the  novel  is  Parson 
Adams,  the  simple,  good-hearted,  slightly 
ridiculous  but  lovable  curate  in  Sir  Thomas 
Booby's  family. 

Joseph  Andrews  having  been  dismissed 
from  service  in  that  family  for  repelling  the 
advances  of  Lady  Booby  and  her  amorous 
attendant,  Mrs.  Slipslop,  sets  out  on  foot  for 
the  village,  where  his  sweetheart,  Fanny, 
lives.  He  is  knocked  down  and  stripped  by 
robbers  and  carried  to  an  inn,  where  he  is 
found  by  Parson  Adams.  After  this  the 
pair  travel  together  and  meet  with  many 
ridiculous  adventures,  until  the  story  brings 
Joseph  and  Fanny,  Parson  Adams,  Lady 
Booby,  and  Mrs.  Slipslop  all  together  in  the 
parish  of  Lady  Booby's  country  seat.  Lady 
Booby's  malevolence  pursues  the  un- 
fortunate Joseph,  but  the  timely  arrival  of 
young  Squire  Booby,  who  has  now  married 
Pamela,  effects  his  brother-in-law's  rescue 
from  her  persecution.  Joseph  presently  turns 
out  to  be  not  Pamela's  brother  at  all,  but  the 
son  of  persons  of  much  greater  consequence, 
and  the  story  ends  with  his  marriage  to  Fanny. 
Among  the  other  amusing  characters  in  this 
comedy  are  Mrs.  Tow-wouse,  the  shrewish 
hostess  of  the  inn,  Peter  Pounce,  the  rascally 
steward,  and  Trulliber,  the  boorish  farmer- 
parson.  The  character  of  Parson  Adams  was 
drawn  from  William  Young,  wMi  whom 
Fielding  collaborated  in  the  translation  of  the 
'Plutus*  of  Aristophanes. 

Joseph  of  Arimathea.  For  the  legend  of 
Joseph  and  the  Holy  Grail,  see  Grail.  Ac- 
cording to  fable,  St.  Philip  sent  twelve  dis- 
ciples into  Britain  to  preach  Christianity,  of 
whom  Joseph  of  Arimathea  was  the  leader. 
They  founded  at  Glastonbury  the  first  pri- 
mitive church,  which  subsequently  was 
developed  into  Glastonbury  Abbey.  Here 
Joseph  was  buried.  His  staff,  planted  in  the 
ground,  became  the  famous  Glastonbury 
Thorn,  which  flowered  at  Christmas  (William 
of  Malmesbury,'De  Antiquitate  Glastoniensis 
Ecclesiae'). 


[419] 


EC2 


JOSEPH  VANCE 

Joseph  Vance,  a  novel  by  De  Morgan  (q.v.), 
published  in  1906, 

JOSEPHUS,  FLAVIUS  (A.D.  37-*  9?),  a 
celebrated  Jew,  who  proved  his  military 
abilities  by  supporting  against  Vespasian  a 
siege  of  forty-seven  days  in  a  small  town  of 
Judaea.  He  obtained  the  esteem  of  Vespasian 
by  foretelling  that  he  would  one  day  become 
ruler  of  the  Roman  Empire.  He  was  present 
at  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  and  re- 
ceived from  die  conqueror  tie  gift  of  certain 
sacred  books  that  it  contained,  besides  an 
estate  in  Judaea.  He  came  to  Rome  with 
Titus,  was  honoured  with  Roman  citizenship, 
and  devoted  himself  to  study.  He  wrote  in 
Greek  a  'History  of  the  Jewish  War',  and 
'Jewish  Antiquities',  which  is  a  history  of 
the  Jews  down  to  A.D.  66. 

JOSH  BILLINGS,  pseudonym  of  Henry 
Wheeler  Shaw  (1818-85),  American  humor- 
ist, born  at  Lanesborough,  Massachusetts. 

Josian,  the  wife  of  Bevis  of  Hampton  (q.v.). 

JStun,  the  giants  of  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  enemies  of  the  IBsix  (q.v.)  or  gods.  Their 
abode  was  called  Jotunheim. 
Joule,  JAMES  PRESCOTT  (1818-89),  a  cele- 
brated physicist  and  predecessor  of  Clerk- 
Maxwell  (q.v.).  Besides  the  determination 
of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  and  the 
discovery  of  the  conservation  of  energy,  he 
investigated  the  thermodynamic  properties 
of  solids,  and  suggested  improvements  in  the 
apparatus  for  measuring  electric  currents. 

Jourdain,  MONSIEUR,  in  Moliere's  'Le  Bour- 
geois Gentilhomrne',  a  wealthy  bourgeois 
obsessed  with  the  desire  to  pass  for  a  perfect 
gentleman.  He  apes  people  of  quality,  and  is 
exploited  in  consequence.  ^  His  surprise  at 
learning,  in  the  course  of  his  education,  that 
he  has  been  talking  prose  all  his  life  is 
proverbial. 

Journal  of  a  Tour  to  the  Hebrides,  The^  by 
Boswell  (q.v.),  published  in  1785.  It  is  a 
narrative  of  the  journey  taken  by  Boswell  and 
Dr.  Johnson  in  Scotland  and  the  Hebrides 
in  1773.  Boswell's  manuscript,  which  John- 
son and  others  read,  has  lately  been  recovered; 
it  is  longer  by  about  a  third  than  the  pub- 
lished 'Tour'. 

Journal  of  the  Plague  Year,  A,  see  Plague 
Year. 

Journey  from  this  World  to  the  Next,  A,  a 
Lucianic  (see  Lutian)  narrative  by  H. 
Fielding,  included  in  his  'Miscellanies'  pub- 
lished in  1743. 

After  a  lively  satirical  account  by  the  author 
of  his  spirit's  journey  in  a  stage-coach,  in 
company  with  the  spirits  of  other  recently 
dead  persons,  to  Elysium,  and  of  the  judge- 
ment by  Minos  of  the  spirits  seeking  admit- 
tance there,  we  have  a  long  discourse  by  the 
spirit  of  Julian  the  Apostate,  describing  its 
adventures  in  its  successive  embodiments. 
This  is  followed  by  a  fragment  containing  a 
similar  narrative  by  the  spirit  of  Anne  Boleyn. 


JOYCE 

Journey  to  London,  The,  see  Provok'd  Hus- 
band. 

Journey  to  the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland, 

A,  by  S.  Johnson  (q.v.),  published  in  1775. 
It  is  a  narrative  of  the  tour  undertaken  by 
Johnson  and  Boswell  in  1773  in  Scotland  and 
the  Hebrides. 

Jove,  a  poetical  equivalent  of  Jupiter  (q.v.), 

Joviall  Crew,  A,  or  The  Merry  Beggars, 
a  romantic  comedy  by  Brome  (q.v.)  produced 
in  1641. 

Oldrents,  a  rich  and  kindly  country  squire, 
has  been  thrown  into  melancholy  by  a  gipsy's 
prediction  that  his  two  daughters  must  be 
beggars.  Springlove,  an  honest  vagabond, 
whom  Oldrents  has  tried  to  reclaim  to  a 
settled  life  by  making  him  his  steward,  is 
seized  each  spring  with  a  desire  to  return  to 
his  wandering  life,  and  rejoins  a  party  of 
beggars,  whom  Oldrents  from  kindness  of 
heart  entertains  in  his  barn.  Oldrents 's 
daughters,  wearied  with  their  father's 
melancholy,  decide  to  join  the  beggars  for  a 
frolic,  with  their  two  lovers.  They  thus  give 
effect  to  the  gipsy's  prediction,  but  their 
begging  exposes  them  to  unforeseen  dangers. 
Meanwhile  Justice  Clack's  niece  has  run 
away  with  the  Justice's  clerk,  and  they  too 
fall  in  with  the  beggars.  The  search  for  the 
runaways,  and  the  apprehension  of  the 
beggars,  give  occasion  for  amusing  scenes,  and 
all  ends  well. 

The  play,  Brome's  masterpiece,  is  highly 
original  in  more  than  one  respect,  notably  in 
the  picture  of  Oldrents 's  compassion  for  the 
poor,  and  of  Springlove's  love  of  vagabondage 
and  response  to  the  call  of  the  spring. 

JOWETT,  BENJAMIN  (1817-93),  edu- 
cated at  St.  Paul's  School  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  became  fellow  of  Balliol  in  1838, 
Regius  professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford  in  1855, 
and  master  of  Balliol  in  1870.  He  con- 
tributed to  'Essays  and  Reviews*  (q.v.)  an 
essay  on  'The  Interpretation  of  Scripture' 
(1860),  and  published  translations  of  Plato 
(1871),  Thucydides  (1881),  and  Aristotle's 
'Polities'  (1885).  He  also  published  in  1855 
a  commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the 
Thessalonians,  Galatians,  and  Romans, 
notable  for  the  freedom  and  freshness  of  its 
treatment,  the  orthodoxy  of  which  was 
criticized.  Jowett  was  an  Oxford  figure  and 
the  subject  of  innumerable  stories. 

JOYCE,  JAMES  (1882-  ),  Irishnovelist, 
principally  known  for  his  novel  'Ulysses', 
published  in  1925  (Paris).  It  gives  a  striking 
picture  of  a  single  day's  life,  microscopically 
revealed,  of  two  middle-class  Irishmen, 
Stephen  Dedalus  and  Leopold  Blum,  resi- 
dents in  Dublin.  The  work  is  marked  in 
parts  by  eccentricities  of  form  (economy  of 
punctuation,  ellipses  of  words,  &c.),  an  utter 
frankness  of  language,  and  a  realism  that 
spares  the  reader  neither  the  sordid  nor  the 
obscene.  It  has,  however,  been  regarded  by 


[420] 


JOYCE 

some  intellectuals  as  the  most  important 
novel  of  modern  times. 

Joyce's  other  principal  works  are:  'Dub- 
liners'  (short  stories),  'Portrait  of  the  Artist 
as  a  Young  Man',  'Anna  Livia  Plurabelle* 
and  'Haveth  Childers  Everywhere1  (frag- 
ments from  a  work  in  progress),  all  novels; 
'Chamber  Music'  (poems). 

JOYCE,  PATRICK  WESTON  (1827- 
1914),  was  author  of 'Irish  Names  of  Places' 
(1869)  and  a  'Grammar  of  Irish'  (1881),  and 
contributed  Irish  folk-songs  to  Petrie's 
'Ancient  Music  of  Ireland'.  He  also  wrote 
a  'Social  History  of  Ireland*  (1903),  and  his 
'Old  Celtic  Romances'  was  the  source  from 
which  Tennyson  drew  the  subject  of  his 
'Voyage  of  Mgeldune'. 

Joyous  Gard,  Launcelot's  castle  in  the 
Arthurian  legend.  Malory  says  that  'some 
men  say  it  was  Anwick,  and  some  men  say  it 
was  Bamborow'.  The  latter  is  near  Berwick- 
on-Tweed. 

Juan,  DON,  see  Don  Juan. 

Juan  Fernandez,  an  island  off  the  coast 
of  Chile,  discovered  by  Juan  Fernandez,  a 
Spaniard,  about  1565.  See  Robinson  Crusoe. 
Juba,  a  character  in  Addison's  'Cato'  (q.v.). 
Jubal,  a  son  of  Lamech  and  Adah,  and  the 
'father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and 
organ'  (Gen.  iv.  19-21).  He  is  the  subject  of  a 
poem  by  G.  Eliot  (1874). 

Judas  Iscariot  (i.e.  'man  of  Kerioth*  in 
Judaea),  the  disciple  who  betrayed  Christ 
(Matt.  xxvi.  14-15)  for  thirty  pieces  of 
silver.  He  repented,  brought  back  the  thirty 
pieces,  and  hanged  himself  (Matt,  xxvii.  3). 
The  legend  that  he  is  once  a  year,  on  Christ- 
mas eve,  allowed  to  cool  himself  for  a  day  on 
an  iceberg  is  treated  by  M.  Arnold  (q.v.)  in 
his  'Saint  Brandan',  and  by  Sebastian  Evans 
(q.v.)  in  his  'Judas  Iscariot's  Paradise'. 

Judas  Maccabaeus  (d.  160  B.C.),  the  third 
son  of  Mattathias  the  Hasmonean,  and  after 
the  death  of  his  father,  leader  of  the  Jews  in 
their  revolt  against  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(see  Maccabees). 

Jude  the  Obscure,  a  novel  by  Hardy  (q.v.), 
reprinted  in  revised  form  from  'Harper's 
Magazine'  in  the  1895  edition  of  his  'Works'. 
It  is  a  story,  in  the  author's  words,  'of  a 
deadly  war  waged  with  old  Apostolic  despera- 
tion between  flesh  and  spirit',  and  tells  how 
the  intellectual  aspirations  of  Jude  Fawley, 
a  South  Wessex  villager,  are  thwarted  by  a 
sensuous  temperament,  lack  of  character,  and 
the  play  of  circumstances.  Early  in  life, 
while  he  is  supporting  his  passion  for 
learning  by  work  as  a  stonemason,  he  is 
entangled  in  a  love-affair  with  Arabella  Donn, 
a  'mere  female  animal',  and  entrapped  into 
marrying  her.  She  presently  deserts  him  and 
he  resumes  his  studies,  and  aims  at  becoming 
a  priest.  But  he  falls  in  love  with  his  cousin, 
Sue  Bridehead,  a  vivacious  intelligent  young 
school-teacher.  She  marries  an  elderly 


JULIAN  AND  MADDALO 

schoolmaster,  Phillotson.  Though  Jude  tries 
to  suppress  his  passion  for  Sue,  he  hovers 
about  her,  and  presently  Sue,  driven  by 
physical  repulsion,  leaves  Phillotson  and  flies 
to  Jude,  and  their  guilty  connexion  debars 
Jude  from  hope  of  the  priesthood.  Though 
they  become  free  to  marry  as  a  result  of 
divorce  from  their  respective  spouses,  Sue 
shrinks  from  this  step.  Social  disapproval 
makes  itself  felt,  and  the  couple  go  downhill. 
Their  children  perish  by  a  tragic  fate,  and  Sue 
in  an  agony  of  remorse  and  self-abasement 
returns  to  Phillotson.  Jude  takes  to  drink, 
is  inveigled  back  by  Arabella,  and  dies 
miserably.  The  horrors  of  his  own  creation 
in  this,  the  last  of  his  stories,  perhaps  turned 
Hardy  away  from  novel-writing  to  poetry. 
Judecca,  see  Giudecca. 

Judith,  the  heroine  of  the  book  of  the 
Apocrypha  that  bears  her  name,  a  widow 
of  Bethulia  who,  when  the  army  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar was  threatening  her  town,  ad- 
ventured herself  in  the  camp  and  tent  of 
Holofemes,  the  enemy  general,  and  cut  off 
his  head.  She  figures  in  Lascelles  Aber- 
crombie's  (q.v.)  'Emblems  of  Love'.  The 
story  was  dramatized  by  E.  A.  Bennett  (q.v.). 

Judith,  a  fragment  of  350  lines  of  a  poem  in 
Old  English.  It  relates  the  deeds  of  Judith 
of  the  Apocrypha.  The  extant  cantos,  x, 
xi,  and  xii,  describe  the  banquet  in  the 
Assyrian  camp,  the  bringing  of  Judith  to 
Holof ernes 's  tent,  the  slaying  of  Holofemes, 
the  escape  of  Judith,  the  attack  on  the 
Assyrians,  ar\d  their  flight. 
Judy,  a  familiar  pet-form  of  the  name 
JUDITH,  the  name  of  the  wife  of  Punch  in  the 
puppet-show  'Punch  and  Judy'  (q.v.). 

Juggernaut  or  JAGANNATH,  in  Hindu 
mythology,  a  title  of  Krishna,  the  eighth 
avatar,  of  Vishnu;  also  specifically  the  un- 
couth idol  of  this  deity  at  Purl  in  Orissa, 
annually  dragged  in  procession  on  an  enor- 
mous car,  under  the  wheels  of  which  many 
devotees  are  said  formerly  to  have  thrown 
themselves  to  be  crushed.  Hence  JUGGER- 
NAUT CAR  is  used  of  practices,  institutions, 
£c.,  to  which  persons  blindly  sacrifice  them- 
selves. [OED.] 

Julia,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Two 
Gentlemen  of  Verona*  (q.v.). 

Julia  de  Roubigne,  see  Mackenzie  (H.). 
Julia,  DONNA,  in  Byron's  'Don  Juan'  (q.v.), 
a  lady  of  Seville,  whose  love  for  the  hero  is 
the  first  incident  in  his  career. 

Julia  Melville,  a  character  in  Sheridan's 
'The  Rivals'  (q.v.). 

Julian,  COUNT,  a  character  in  Southey's 
'Roderick'  (q.v.). 

Julian  and  Maddalo,  A  Conversation,  a 
poem  by  P.  B.  Shelley  (q.v.),  written  on  the 
occasion  of  his  visit  to  Venice  in  1818. 

The  poem  takes  the  form  of  a  conversation 
between  Julian  (the  author)  and  Maddalo 


JULIAN  THE  APOSTATE 

(Lord  Byron)  on  the  power  of  man  over  his 
mind,  followed  by  a  visit  to  a  Venetian  mad- 
house, where  a  maniac,  whose  mind  has  been 
unhinged  by  unfortunate  love,  recounts  his 
story. 

Julian  tlie  Apostate,  Roman  emperor 
A.D.  361-3,  was  brought  up  compulsorily 
as  a  Christian,  and  on  attaining  the  throne 
proclaimed  himself  a  pagan.  He  made  a  great 
effort  to  revive  the  worship  of  the  old  gods. 
He  was  killed  in  a  valiant  attack  on  the  Per- 
sians near  the  Tigris.  The  story  that  he  was 
murdered  by  a  Christian  and  died  exclaiming 
'Vicisti,  Galilaee'  ('Galilean,  you  have  con- 
quered5) is  unfounded. 

JULIANA  OF  NORWICH  (1343-1443), 
anchoret;   she  wrote  'XVI   Revelations  of 
Divine   Love',   two   manuscript   copies   of 
which  are  in  the  British  Museum. 
Julie,  the  heroine  of  the  'Nouvelle  Heloise' 
of  Rousseau  (q.v.),  loved  by  Saint-Preux. 
Julie  de  Mortemar,  the  heroine  of  Bulwer 
Lytton's  'Richelieu'  (q.v.). 

Juliet,  the  heroine  of  Shakespeare's  'Romeo 
and  Juliet'  (q.v.). 

Julius  Caesar,  a  Roman  tragedy  by  Shake- 
speare (q.v.),  probably  produced  in  IS99» 
and  printed  in  the  1623  folio.  The  plot  is 
taken  from  North's  translation  of  Plutarch's 
Lives,  and  deals  with  the  events  of  the  year 
44  B.C.,  after  Caesar,  already  endowed  with 
the  dictatorship,  had  returned  to  Rome  from 
a  successful  campaign  in  Spain. 

Distrust  of  Caesar's  ambition  gives  rise  to 
a  conspiracy  against  him  among  Roman 
lovers  of  freedom,  notably  Cassius  and 
Casca;  they  win  over  to  their  cause  Brutus, 
who  reluctantly  joins  them  from  a  sense  of 
duty  to  the  republic.  Caesar  is  slain  by  the 
conspirators  in  the  Senate-house.  Antony, 
Caesar's  friend,  stirs  the  people  to  fury 
against  the  conspirators  by  a  skilful  speech 
at  Caesar's  funeral.  Octavius,  nephew 
of  Julius  Caesar,  Antony,  and  Lepidus, 
united  as  triumvirs,  oppose  the  forces  raised 
by  Brutus  and  Cassius.  The  quarrel  and 
reconciliation  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  with  the 
news  of  the  death  of  Portia,  wife  of  Brutus, 
provide  one  of  the  finest  scenes  in  the  play. 
Brutus  and  Cassius  are  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Philippi  (42  B.c.)>  and  kill  them- 
selves, 

Jumping  Frog  of  Calaveras  County,  The 
Celebrated,  one  of  Mark  Twain's  (q.v.)  most 
famous  humorous  stories. 

Jungle f  The,  a  novel  by  Upton  Sinclair 
(q.v.),  which  exposed  the  life  and  evil  prac- 
tices of  the  Chicago  stockyards,  published 
in  1906.  Its  effect  was  so  great  that  many 
Americans  refused  for  a  time  to  eat  meat 
from  Chicago,  and  an  investigation  of  the 
yards  was  instituted  by  the  U.S.  government. 

Jungle  Book,  The,  and  The  Second  Jungle 
Book,  stories  by  Kipling  (q.v.),  published 


JUSTINIAN  I 

in  1894  and  1895  respectively,  which  tell  how 
the  child  Mowgli  was  brought  up  by  wolves 
and  was  taught  by  them  and  by  Bagheera, 
the  black  panther,  the  law  and  business  of 
the  jungle. 

JUNTOS,  the  pseudonym  of  the  author  of  a 
series  of  letters  that  appeared  in  the  'Public 
Advertiser'  (q.v.)  from  1769  to  1771,  attack- 
ing with  bitter  scorn  and  invective,  among 
others,  the  duke  of  Grafton,  the  duke  of 
Bedford,  Lord  North,  and  Lord  Mansfield 
in  his  judicial  capacity,  while  George  III  is 
not  spared  the  irony  of  the  writer.  Junius 
also  takes  an  active  part  on  behalf  of  Wilkes. 
Both  before  1769  and  after  1771  political 
letters  under  other  pseudonyms,  which  have 
been  traced  to  the  same  hand,  appeared  in 
the  public  press.  In  the  former  the  writer 
attacks  the  ministry  of  Lord  Chatham ;  in  the 
latter  he  violently  abuses  Lord  Barrington, 
secretary  at  war.  Though  personal  invective 
is  the  chief  weapon  of  Junius,  his  political 
arguments,  written  from  the  Whig  stand- 
point, are  shrewd  and  lucidly  expressed. 
The  identity  of  Junius,  which  he  concealed 
with  great  skill,  has  never  been  definitely 
established ;  but  there  are  strong  reasons  for 
attributing  the  letters  to  Sir  Philip  Francis 
(q.v,).  Lord  Temple  has  also  been  claimed 
as  the  author.  An  authorized  edition  of  the 
'Letters  of  Junius'  appeared  in  1772. 

JUNIUS,  FRANCIS,  or  DU  JON,  FRAN- 
QOIS  (1589-1677),  philologist  and  antiquary, 
bom  at  Heidelberg.  He  was  librarian  to 
Thomas  Howard,  second  earl  of  Arundel,  and 
tutor  to  his  son,  and  a  friend  of  Milton.  He 
presented  Anglo-Saxon  manuscripts  and  phi- 
lological collections  to  the  Bodleian  Library, 
and  published  *De  Pictura  Veterum'  in  1637, 
an  edition  of  Casdmon  in  1655,  and  other 
works.  His  *Etymologicum  Anglicanum'  (first 
printed  in  1743)  was  largely  used  by  Dr.  John- 
son. He  took  an  active  interest  in  the  Oxford 
University  Press  (q.v.)  and  presented  it  with 
materials  for  Gothic,  Runic,  Anglo-Saxon, 
and  Roman  printing. 

Juno,  see  Hera. 

Jupe,  and  his  daughter  CISSY,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'Hard  Times'  (q.v.). 

Jupiter,  originally  the  elemental  god  of  the 
Romans,  came  to  be  identified  with  the  Greek 
Zeus  (q.v.),  the  myths  concerning  whom  were 
transferred  to  Jupiter.  The  name  signifies 
'father  of  the  bright  heaven'. 

Justified  Sinner f  Confessions  of  a,  see  Hogg 
(James). 

Justinian  I,  emperor  of  Constantinople 
527-65,  famous  for  his  successful  wars 
(Belisarius,  q.v.,  and  Narses  were  his 
generals),  and  for  the  code  of  Roman  law  that 
he  caused  to  be  drawn  up,  known  as  the 
Corpus  Juris  Civilisy  and  consisting  of  (i)  the 
Digesta  or  Pandects  (opinions  of  jurists); 
(2)  the  Codex  Justinianus;  (3)  the  Institu- 
tiones;  and  (4)  the  Novellae  (collection  of 


142*] 


JUTES 

ordinances).  Famous  also  for  building  St. 
Sophia  at  Constantinople. 

Jutes,  a  Low  German  tribe  that  invaded 
Great  Britain  (according  to  tradition  under 
Hengist  and  Horsa,  at  the  invitation  of  the 
Britons  to  help  them  against  the  Picts)  in  the 
5th  cent.  Their  connexion  with  Jutland  is 
disputed. 

Jutland,  BATTLE  OF,  a  naval  engagement 
between  the  British  Grand  Fleet  under 
Admiral  Sir  J.  R.  Jellicoe  and  the  German 
High  Seas  Fleet  under  Admiral  Reinhard 
Scheer,  fought  in  the  North  Sea  on  31  May 
1916.  Admiral  Scheer  had  sent  out  Admiral 
Hipper  with  a  scouting  force  with  the  idea 
of  luring  out  the  British  Fleet,  and  himself 
followed  with  the  High  Seas  Fleet.  The 
British  Fleet,  which  had  received  warning  of 
extensive  German  operations,  had  put  to  sea 
on  the  evening  of  the  soth.  The  battle  began 
with  an  engagement  between  the  British 
battle-cruisers  under  Admiral  Beatty  and 


KALIDASA 

Hipper's  force,  in  which  the  British  ships 
suffered  heavily.  The  main  engagement 
followed,  but  the  evening  was  so  still  and 
misty  that  the  biggest  ships  were  within  (long- 
distance) range  of  each  other  for  barely  half 
an  hour.  Scheer  avoided  envelopment  by 
the  British  fleet,  refusing  action,  and 
manoeuvring  so  as  to  return  safely  to  his  base. 
The  British  lost  3  battle-cruisers,  3  cruisers, 
and  8  torpedo  craft;  the  Germans  i  battleship, 
i  battle-cruiser,  4  light  cruisers,  and  5  tor- 
pedo craft.  After  this  engagement  the  High 
Seas  Fleet  did  not  again  put  out  to  sea. 

JUVENAL,  Decimus  Junius  Juvenalis  (c. 
A.D.  6o-c.  130),  the  great  Roman  satirical 
poet,  born  probably  at  Aquinum.  His  extant 
works  consist  of  sixteen  satires,  depicting 
contemporary  society  and  denouncing  its 
vices,  which  have  served  as  models  to  many 
English  poets. 

'The  English  Juvenal*  referred  to  by  Scott 
('Waverley')  is  Oldham  (q.v.). 


K 


Kaaba,  THE,  in  the  ancient  temple  enclosure 
at  Mecca,  the  'Holy  of  Holies'  of  Islam,  a 
roughly  cubical,  windowless,  stone  structure, 
30-40  ft.  in  length,  height,  and  breadth,  said 
to  have  been  erected  by  Abraham  and  Ish- 
mael.  In  its  SE.  corner  is  the  celebrated 
black  stone,  of  which  legend  tells  that  it  fell 
from  Paradise  with  Adam  and  was  given  by 
the  angel  Gabriel  to  Abraham  when  he  was 
building  the  Kaaba.  It  was  originally  white 
but  became  black  from  the  kisses  of  sinful 
but  believing  lips. 

Kabbalah,  THE,  see  Cabbala. 

Kabir,  an  Indian  mystic,  who  lived  at 
Benares  in  the  isth  cent.,  and  taught  a 
monotheistic  religion  designed  apparently  to 
reconcile  Hindus  and  Moslems. 

Kaf  or  KAFF,  in  Mohammedan  mythology,  a 
mountain  which  encircles  the  earth,  the  abode 
of  the  Jinn  (q.v.).  A  name  also  used  to  signify 
the  Caucasus. 
Kaikhosru,  see  Khusrau  I. 

Kaikobad,  known  to  history  as  Qubad  I, 
the  father  of  Khusrau  I  (q.v.),  figures  in  the 
'Shahnameh*  of  Firdusi  (q.v.)  as  one  of  the 
descendants  of  Feridun,  and  king  of  Iran, 
who  carries  on  the  war  with  Afrasiab,  king  of 
Turan.  He  is  celebrated  in  the  'Rubaiyat* 
of  Omar  Khayyam  (q.v.). 

Kailyal,  a  character  in  Southey's  'Curse  of 
Kehama'  (q.v.). 

Kailyard  School,  from  'Kail-yard',  a  cab- 
bage patch  such  as  is  commonly  attached  to  a 
small  cottage,  a  term  applied  to  writers  of  a 
recent  class  of  fiction  describing,  with  much 
use  of  the  vernacular,  common  life  in  Scot- 


land, e.g.  J.  M.  Barrie,  *Ian  Maclaren*,  and 
S.  R.  Crockett. 

KAISER,  GEORG  (1878-  ),  German 
dramatist,  author  of 'Von  Morgen  bis  Mitter- 
nacht',  among  many  plays. 

Kalends,  see  Calends. 

Kalevala  ('Land  of  Heroes'),  the  national 
epic  poem  of  Finland,  compiled  from  popular 
lays  transmitted  orally  until  the  iQth  cent., 
when  a  collection  was  published  by  Zacharias 
Topelius  (1822).  They  were  arranged  in  a 
connected  form  by  EHas  Lonnrott,  who  in 
1835  published  a  version  of  12,000  lines,  and 
in  1849  a  longer  version  of  23,000  lines,  in 
alliterative  eight-syllabled  trochaic  verse  (the 
metre  of  'Hiawatha*).  The  poem  is  concerned 
with  the  myths  of  Finland,  centring  in 
Wainamoinen,  the  god  of  music  and  poetry, 
his  brother  Ilmarinen  the  smith,  who  makes 
the  magic  mill  (the  Sampo),  and  the  conflicts 
of  the  Finns  with  the  Lapps.  The  myths  are 
of  great  antiquity,  perhaps  dating,  according 
to  internal  evidence,  from  the  time  when 
Finns  and  Hungarians  were  still  one  people. 
The  poem  was  translated  into  English  by 
W.  M.  Crawford  in  1887. 

Kali,  in  Hindu  mythology,  a  form  of  Durga, 
the  bloodthirsty  wife  of  Shiva,  represented  in 
idols  with  a  black  body,  a  necklace  of  human 
heads,  and  a  protruding  blood-stained  tongue. 
She  is  worshipped  in  particular  at  Kalighat, 
near  Calcutta,  with  bloody  sacrifices. 

KALIDASA,  a  great  Indian  poet  and  dra- 
matist, best  known  by  his  play  'Sakuntala' 
(q.v.),  of  which  we  have  a  translation  by^  Sir 
W.  Jones  (q.v.).  Monier-Williams  thinks 
that  he  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  3rd  cent. 


KALMUCKS 

A.D.,  but  there  is  diversity  of  opinion,  on.  the 

point. 

Kalmucks ,  a  race  of  Mongol  nomads,  ranging 

from  parts  of  China  to  south-eastern  Russia, 

whose  religion  is  a  form  of  Buddhism. 

Kalpa,  in  Hindu  cosmology,  a  great  age  of  the 
world,  a  thousand  yugas  (q.v.),  4,320,000,000 
years,  a  day  of  Brahma. 
Kama  or  KAMADEVA,  in  Hindu  mythology, 
the  god  of  love,  the  Indian  Cupid,  represented 
as  riding  on  a  sparrow  and  armed  with  bow 
and  arrows.  His  wife  is  Rati  (pleasure). 

KAMES,  LORD,  see  Home  (H.). 

Kanaka,  a  word  meaning  'man',  a  native 
of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  especially  one 
employed  in  Queensland  on  the  sugar 
plantations. 

KANT,  IMMANUEL  (1724-1804),  second 
son  of  a  leather-worker  of  Konigsberg  in 
Prussia  (of  Scottish  descent),  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  that  town ,  and  supported  him- 
self as  a  tutor.  He  published  his  first  consider- 
able work,  'A  General  Natural  History  and 
Theory  of  the  Heavens',  in  1755,  and  in  that 
year  became  a  lecturer  at  Konigsberg,  an  un- 
salaried  post  in  which  he  remained  for  fifteen 
years,  during  which  he  published  a  number  of 
minor  philosophical  treatises.  In  1770  he  be- 
came professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  at 
Konigsberg,  retaining  the  appointment  until 
his  death.  He  remained  unmarried.  His  'Cri- 
tique of  Pure  Reason'  appeared  in  1781,  'Pro- 
legomena to  every  future  Metaphysic  of  Ethic* 
in  1783,  'Foundation  for  the  Metaphysic  of 
Ethic'  in  1785,  'Metaphysical  Rudiments  of 
Natural  Philosophy'  in  1786,  the  second 
edition  of  the  'Critique  of  Pure  Reason*  in 

1787,  the  'Critique  of  Practical  Reason'  in 

1788,  and  the  'Critique  of  Judgement'  in  1790. 
His  'Religion  within  the  Boundaries  of  Pure 
Reason'  (1793)  called  down  on  him  the  cen- 
sure of  the  government. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  leading  ideas 
of  Kant's  philosophy.  Knowledge  is  the  out- 
come of  two  factors,  the  senses  and  the  under- 
standing. Sensations  are  the  starting-point 
of  knowledge.  Space  and  time  are  essential 
conditions  of  our  sensuous  perception,  the 
forms  under  which  our  sensations  are  trans- 
lated into  consciousness.  Therefore  know- 
ledge has  space  and  time  for  its  essential 
conditions.  Nor  have  space  and  time  any 
existence  except  as  forms  of  our  conscious- 
ness. These  forms,  continuous  and  infinite, 
provide  the  possibility  of  unifying  our 
individual  perceptions,  and  the  unification  is 
effected  by  the  understanding.  This  act  of 
synthesis  Kant  analyses  into  twelve  principles 
or  'categories',  or  laws  of  thought.  The 
categories  are  to  the  understanding  very  much 
what  time  and  space  are  to  the  consciousness. 
They  include  such  notions  as  quality,  quan- 
tity, and,  notably,  causation.  The  external 
world  is  thus  the  product  of  sensations  con- 
ditioned by  the  forms  of  consciousness  and 
linked  by  thought  according  to  its  own  laws. 


KATE  BARLASS 

It  consists  of  appearances,  'phenomena';  but 
the  causes  of  these  appearances,  'noumena', 
things  in  themselves,  lie  beyond  the  limits  of 
knowledge,  nor  can  we,  by  the  aid  of  reason 
alone,  apart  from  appearances,  arrive  at 
absolute  truth,  for  reason  leads  to  certain 
insoluble  contradictions,  or  'antinomies',  such 
as  the  impossibility  of  conceiving  either 
limited  or  unlimited  space. 

But  where  metaphysics  fail  us,  practical 
reason  comes  to  our  aid.  The  moral  con- 
sciousness assents  to  certain  'categorical  im- 
peratives', such  as  'do  not  lie'.  From  this 
follow  the  conviction  that  man  is  in  a  certain 
sense  free,  the  belief  in  immortality  (because 
self-realization  within  any  finite  period  is 
impossible),  and  the  belief  in  God.  We  are 
driven  by  the  nature  of  our  minds  to  see 
design  in  nature,  and  man  as  the  centre  of 
that  design;  and  a  'good  will',  *a  habitual 
controlling  consciousness  of  membership  in 
an  ideal  community  of  rational  beings' 
[Wallace],  is  that  alone  by  which  man's  exis- 
tence can  have  an  absolute  value.  Though 
the  advantages  resulting  from  the  obedience 
to  particular  moral  laws  can  be  shown,  the 
moral  obligation  itself  is  a  categorical  im- 
perative, something  that  we  feel  but  cannot 
explain.  Interpreted  as  a  practical  rule  of 
conduct,  the  moral  law  bids  you  'act  as  if  the 
principle  by  which  you  act  were  about  to  be 
turned  into  a  universal  law  of  nature',  and 
do  all  in  your  power  to  promote  the  highest 
good  of  all  human  beings.  This  highest  good 
is  not  realizable  unless  the  course  of  the 
world  is  itself  guided  by  moral  law,  that  is  to 
say  by  a  moral  Master  of  the  universe,  whose 
existence  we  are  driven  to  assume.  But 
metaphysics  places  religion  and  morality  out- 
side the  province  of  knowledge,  and  in  the 
region  of  faith. 

Kant's  philosophy  was  developed  and 
profoundly  modified  by  Fichte,  Schelling, 
and  Hegel  (q.v.).  The  above  summary  is 
based,  in  the  main,  on  Prof.  W.  Wallace's 
little  book  on  'Kant'  (Blackwood,  1882). 
Other  notable  expositions  of  Kant's  philo- 
sophy have  been  Prof.  Edward  Caird's 
'Philosophy  of  Kant'  (1868)  and  'The  Criti- 
cal Philosophy  of  Immanuel  Kant*  (1889). 

Karma,  in  Buddhism,  the  sum  of  a  person's 
actions  in  one  of  his  successive  states  of 
existence,  regarded  as  determining  his  fate 
in  the  next;  hence  necessary  fate  or  destiny. 
[OEDJ 

Karmathians,  a  Shia  sect  of  Mohammedans 
in  Eastern  Arabia  founded  in  the  9th  cent., 
'pantheistic  in  theory  and  socialist  in  prac- 
tice' [E.BJ,  called  after  Karmat,  their 
founder. 

Karttikeya,  see  Skanda. 

Kastril,  one  of  the  characters  in  Jonson's 
'The  Alchemist'  (q.v.). 

Kate,  CRAZY,  see  Crazy  Kate. 
Kate  Barlass,  see  King's  Tragedy. 


[424] 


KATHARINA 

Katharina,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'The  Taming  of  the  Shrew'  (q.v.). 

Katharine  of  Aragon,  QUEEN,  the  wife  of 
Henry  VIII,  whose  divorce  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal incidents  in  Shakespeare's  'Henry  VIII'. 

Katharine,  (i)  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Love's  Labour's  Lost'(q.v.);  (2)  in  his 'Henry 
V  (q.v.),  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  France. 

Katinka,  in  Byron's  'Don  Juan'  (canto  vi), 
one  of  the  beauties  of  the  harem. 

Katmer,  KRATIM,  or  KRATIMER,  the  dog  of 
the  Seven  Sleepers  (q.v.),  in  the  Mohamme- 
dan version  of  the  tale.  Sale  says  that  the 
Mohammedans  have  great  respect  for  this 
dog,  allow  him  a  place  in  Paradise,  and  write 
his  name  on  their  letters  which  go  far  or  cross 
the  sea,  as  a  kind  of  talisman  to  prevent  them 
from  miscarriage. 

Katterfelto,  GUSTAVUS,  a  quack,  notorious  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  i8th  cent.  He  appeared 
in  London  during  the  influenzaN  epidemic  of 
1782,  exhibiting  'philosophical  apparatus'  in 
Spring  Gardens,  and  giving  microscopic  and 
magnetic  demonstrations.  He  was  the  sub- 
ject of  a  novel  by  Whyte- Melville  (q.v.,  1875). 

KAVANAGH,  JULIA  (1824-77),  author  of 
a  number  of  tales  of  French  life,  notable  for 
their  faithful  rendering  of  French  character. 
Her  'Natalie'  appeared  in  1851,  'Adele'  in 
1858,  'French  Women  of  Letters'  in  1861, 
'English  Women  of  Letters'  in  1862. 

Kay,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur* 
(q.v.),  King  Arthur's  seneschal,  a  brave  but 
disagreeable,  spiteful  knight.  He  was  son  of 
Sir  Ector  (q.v.).  He  figures  in  the  Modena 
sculpture  (see  Gawairi). 

Kean,  CHARLES  JOHN  (i8n?-68),  actor, 
second  son  of  Edmund  Kean  (q.v.),  educated 
at  Eton,  appeared  in  1827  as  Young  Norval, 
in  'Douglas',  and  subsequently  sustained 
many  parts,  but  excelled  only  as  Hamlet  and 
Louis  XI. 

Kean,  EDMUND  (1787-1833),  the  son  of  an 
itinerant  actress,  deserted  by  his  mother,  was 
an  unrivalled  tragic  actor.  After  an  adventur- 
ous boyhood  and  the  performance  of  sub- 
ordinate parts,  he  made  a  triumphant 
appearance  in  1 8 14  as  Shylock.  His  numerous 
successes  included  Richard  III,  Hamlet, 
Othello,  lago,  Macbeth,  and  Lear. 

Kearney,  CAPTAIN,  a  character  in  Marryat's 
'Peter  Simple'  (q.v.). 

KEATS,  JOHN  (1795-1821),  the  son  of  a 
livery-stable  keeper  in  Moorfields,  London, 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  Latin  and  history, 
and  some  French,  but  no  Greek.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  an  apothecary,  but  his  inden- 
tures were  cancelled  that  he  might  qualify 
for  a  surgeon.  He  passed  his  examinations, 
but  abandoned  surgery  owing  to  his  passion 
for  literature.  He  became  intimate  with  Haz- 
litt  and  Leigh  Hunt,  who  printed  a  sonnet  for 
him  in  the  'Examiner*  in  May  1816,  and  in 


KEDAR 

whose  house  he  met  Shelley.  His  sonnet  on 
Chapman's  'Homer'  was  printed  in  the 
'Examiner'  in  December  1816.  With  the 
help  of  Shelley  he  published  in  1817  'Poems 
by  John  Keats '>  which  were  financially  a 
failure.  They  include  'Sleep  and  Poetry*,  an 
expression  of  the  author's  own  poetic  aspira- 
tions. In  the  course  of  1818  Keats  wrote 
'Endymion*  (q.v.),  which  was  savagely 
criticized  in  'Blackwood's  Magazine'  and  the 
'Quarterly';  and  commenced  'Hyperion' 
(q.v.).  In  the  same  year  he  nursed  his 
brother  Tom  until  his  death.  He  began  'The 
Eve  of  St.  Agnes'  (q.v.)  early  in  1819,  and 
wrote  *La  Belle  Dame  sans  Merci'  (q.v.)  and 
the  unfinished  'Eve  of  St.  Mark',  another 
poem  on  a  young  girl  and  the  legend  of  a 
saint's  day.  About  the  same  time  he  wrote 
his  great  odes  'On  a  Grecian  Urn',  'To  a 
Nightingale',  and  'To  Autumn*;  and  those 
'On  Melancholy',  'On  Indolence*,  and  'To 
Psyche*.  His  dramatic  experiments,  'Otho 
the  Great*  and  'King  Stephen',  also  belong 
to  1819,  and  a  little  after  them  the  bur- 
lesque poem  'Cap  and  Bells'.  He  had  mean- 
while fallen  deeply  in  love  with  Fanny  Brawne. 
His  'Lamia  (q.v.)  and  other  Poems',  includ- 
ing 'The  Eve  of  St.  Agnes*  and  'Isabella, 
or  the  Pot  of  Basil*  (q.v.),  appeared  in  1820 
and  was  praised  by  Jeffrey  (q.v.)  in  the 
'Edinburgh  Review*.  Keats  was  by  now 
seriously  ill  with  consumption.  He  sailed  for 
Italy  in  September  1820,  reached  Rome  in 
November,  and  died  there,  desiring  that  there 
should  be  engraved  on  his  tomb  the  words, 
'Here  lies  one  whose  name  was  writ  in 
water*.  He  was  lamented  by  Shelley  in 
'Adonais*  (q.v.).  Of  Keats's  letters,  which 
throw  a  valuable  light  on  his  poetical  de- 
velopment, there  have  been  several  editions ; 
the  most  complete  is  that  of  M.  B.  Forman, 
1931- 

KEBLE,  JOHN  (1792-1866),  educated  at 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  became 
fellow  and  tutor  of  Oriel  College  (where 
Newman  and  Pusey  were  also  fellows),  and 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford.  By  his  ser- 
mon on  national  apostasy  in  1833  he  initiated 
the  Oxford  Movement  (q.v.),  which  he  also 
supported  by  seven  of  the  'Tracts  for  the 
Times'  (q.v.),  by  his  translation  of  Irenaeus, 
and  by  his  'Life'  and  'Works'  of  Bishop 
Thomas  Wilson.  He  also  edited  Hooker's 
works  (1836)  and  helped  Newman  with 
R.  H.  Froude's  'Remains'.  Keble  was 
eminent  as  a  writer  of  sacred  verse.  His 
poetical  work  is  contained  in  'The  Christian 
Year*  (1827),  which  obtained  immense 
popularity,  'Lyra  Innocentium'  (1846),  and 
'Miscellaneous  Poems*  (1869).  His  Latin 
'Preelections'  as  professor  of  poetry,  *De 
Poeticae  Vi  Medic&*  (1844),  nave  Deen  trans- 
lated by  E.  K.  Francis  (1912). 

Keble  College,  Oxford,  was  founded  in 
1870  as  a  memorial  to  John  Keble. 

Kedar,  a  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  13), 
whose  reputed  descendants  were  a  tribe  of 


KEHAMA 

nomadic  Arabs.    'Woe  is  me,  that  I  am  con- 

strained  ...  to  have  my  habitation  among  the 

tents  of  Kedar*  is  in  Ps.  cxx.  4  (Prayer-Book 

Version). 

Kehama,  The  Curse  of,  see  Curse  o/Kehama. 

Kells,  Book  of,  an  illuminated  manuscript  of 
the  four  gospels  (together  with  local  records), 
traditionally  ascribed  to  Columba's  (q.v.) 
own  hand,  but  probably  dating  from  the  8th 
cent.,  the  finest  specimen  in  existence  of  Irish 
illuminated  art.  Itwas  discovered,  after  having 
for  long  been  lost,  by  James  Ussher  (q.v.),  and 
bequeathed  by  him  to  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  Kells,  in  County  Meath,  was  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric  founded  in  the  9th  cent., 
succeeding,  according  to  tradition,  an  earlier 
monastery  founded  by  Columba;  it  became 
a  noted  home  of  learning. 
Kelly  ,  a  name  applied  to  the  series  ^  of 
directories  published  by  Kelly's  Directories, 
Ltd.,  and  including  Kelly's  Post  Office  Lon- 
don Directory,  the  county,  town,  and  trades 
directories,  and  the  Handbook  to  the  titled, 
landed,  and  official  classes.  The  Post  Office 
directory  was  first  published  in  1799. 

KELLY,  HUGH  (i739-?7)>  an  Irishman 
who  came  to  London  in  1760,  edited  the 
'  Court  Magazine*  and  the  'Ladies5  Museum", 
and  afterwards  the  'Public  Ledger*.  He 
wrote  three  comedies,  'False  Delicacy*  (pro- 
duced by  Garrick  in  1768),  CA  Word  for  the 
Wise*  (1770),  and  'The  School  for  Wives' 


Kelpie  or  KELPY,  the  Lowland  Scottish 
name  of  a  fabled  water-spirit  or  demon 
assuming  various  shapes,  but  usually  that  of  a 
horse;  it  is  reputed  to  haunt  lakes  and  rivers 
and  to  delight  in,  or  even  to  bring  about,  the 
drowning  of  travellers  and  others.  [OED.] 

Kelmscott  Press,  see  Morris  (W.). 
KELVIN,  LORD,  see  Thomson  (Sir  W.}. 

Kemfole,  CHAHLES  (1775-1854),  an  actor  of 
great  range  and  pre-eminent  in  comic  parts, 
younger  brother  of  John  Philip  Kemble  and 
Mrs.  Siddons(qq.v.).  Among  the  characters  he 
impersonated  were  Charles  Surface,  Falstaff, 
Mercutio,  Macbeth,  and  Romeo.  He  was 
the  father  of  Fanny  Kemble  (q.v.). 

KEMBLE,  FRANCES  ANNE,  afterwards 
MRS.  BUTLER,  generally  known  as  FANNY 
KEMBLE  (1809-93),  daughter  of  Charles 
Kemble  (q.v.)s  an  actress  who  appeared  with 
great  success  as  Juliet  to  her  father's  Mercutio, 
and  subsequently  as  Lady  Macbeth,  Portia, 
Beatrice,  Queen  Katharine,  and  in  many  other 
parts.  She  published  a  volume  of  '  Poems*  in 
1844,  and  'Records  of  Later  Life*  (1882). 
She  gave  Shakespearian  readings  on  which 
Longfellow  wrote  a  sonnet.  An  appreciation 
of  her  may  be  found  in  Henry  James's 
'Essays  in  London". 

Kemble,  JOHN  PHILIP  (1757-1823),  an  emi- 
nent actor,  elder  brother  of  Charles  Kemble 


KENELM  CHILLINGLY 

and  Mrs.  Siddons  (q.v.),  played  with  great 
success  a  large  number  of  parts,  beginning 
with  Hamlet,  and  including  lago,  Romeo, 
Prospero,  Petruchio,  and  Wolsey. 
Kemp,  WILLIAM  (fl.  1600),  a  comic  actor  and 
dancer,  who  acted  in  plays  by  Shakespeare 
and  Jonson.  He  danced  a  morris-dance 
from  London  to  Norwich,  of  which  an 
account,  'Kemps  Nine  Daies  Wonder*, 
written  by  himself  (1600),  has  been  twice 
reprinted. 

Kemp  Qwyne,  an  old  ballad  in  Child's 
collection,  from  an  Icelandic  source.  Isabel, 
who  has  been  transformed  into  a  monster  by 
a  wicked  stepmother,  is  released  from  the 
enchantment  by  three  kisses  of  her  lover, 
Kemp  Owyne.  In  modern  versions  of  the 
ballad  he  is  'Kempion*. 
Kempenfelt,  RICHARD  (1718-82),  the  son  of 
a  Swede  in  the  service  of  James  II,  served  as 
naval  officer,  and  was  present  at  a  number  of 
actions  in  the  West  and  East  Indies,  rising  to 
be  rear-admiral.  He  was  flying  his  flag  on  the 
Royal  George  when  this  ship  went  down  at 
Spithead,  as  commemorated  in  Cowper's 
poem. 

KEMPIS,  THOMAS  A,  see  Thomas  d 
Kempis. 

KEN,  THOMAS  (1637-1711),  fellow  of 
Winchester  and  New  College,  Oxford,  be- 
came bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells.  He  was  a 
writer  of  devotional  prose  and  verse;  his 
works  include  a  'Manual  of  Prayers  for 
Winchester  College*  (1695),  the  'Practice  of 
Divine  Love*  (1685-6),  'Ichabod*  (1663),  and 
some  well-known  hymns.  His  works  were 
collected  by  W.  Hawkins  in  1721. 

KENDALL,  HENRY  CLARENCE  (1841- 
82),  Australian  poet,  published  several 
volumes  of  verse,  of  which  the  most  notable 
are;  'Poems  and  Songs'  (1862),  'Leaves  from 
Australian  Forests*  (1869),  and  'Songs  from 
the  Mountains*  (1880). 

Kenelm  Chillingly,  a  novel  by  Bulwer 
Lytton  (q.v.),  published  in  1873. 

The  work  contains,  in  the  opinions  and 
doings  of  the  hero,  a  good  deal  of  the  author's 
criticism  on  contemporary  society.  Kenelm 
Chillingly,  a  young  man  of  good  family, 
generous  and  high-minded,  but  cynical  and 
disgusted  with  the  shams  by  which  he  feels 
himself  surrounded,  and  in  his  own  estima- 
tion a  woman-hater,  goes  out  into  the  world, 
a  sort  of  knight-errant  in  humble  garb,  to 
seek  adventures.  By  his  strength  and  pugi- 
listic skill  he  knocks  out  the  ferocious  farrier 
Tom  Bowles,  who  is  pressing  distasteful 
attentions  on  a  village  maiden;  unites  the 
latter  to  her  cripple  lover;  and  awakens  the 
latent  nobility  in  Tom  Bowles's  character.  In 
accordance  with  his  views  on  women,  he 
refuses  to  be  led  into  a  marriage  with  the 
amiable  Cecilia  Travers,  but  presently  finds 
himself  desperately  in  love,  with  Lily,  a  young 
girl  of  natural  charm,  but  uneducated  and  the 


KILHWCH  AND  OLWEN 

voyage  Alan  Breck  is  picked  up  from  a 
sinking  boat.  He  is  'one  of  those  honest 
gentlemen  that  were  in  trouble  about  the 
years  forty-five  and  six',  a  Jacobite  who 
'wearies  for  the  heather  and  the  deer*. 
The  ship  is  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Mull, 
and  David  and  Alan  journey  together. 
They  are  witnesses  of  the  murder  of  Colin 
Campbell,  and  suspicion  falls  on  them. 
After  a  perilous  journey  across  the  High- 
lands, they  escape  across  the  Forth,  and 
the  first  novel  ends  with  the  discomfiture 
of  Ebenezer  and  David's  recovery  of  his 
rights. 

'Catriona*  is  principally  occupied  with  the 
unsuccessful  attempt  of  David  Balfour  to 
secure,  at  the  risk  of  his  own  life  and  freedom, 
the  acquittal  of  James  Stewart  of  the  Glens, 
who  is  falsely  accused,  from  political  motives, 
of  the  murder  of  Colin  Campbell;  with  the 
escape  of  Alan  Breck  to  the  Continent;  and 
with  David's  love-affair  with  Catriona 
Drummond,  the  daughter  of  the  renegade 
James  More. 

Kilhwch  (or  Kulhwch)  and  Qlwen,  one  of 
the  stories  included  in  Lady  C.  Guest's  trans- 
lation of  the  'Mabinogion'  (q.v.).  Besides 
being  an  excellent  fairy-tale,  the  work  is  im- 
portant for  its  reference  to  King  Arthur  (q.v.). 
Lady  C.  Guest's  translation  is  from  the  text 
in  the  'Red  Book  of  Hergest'  (q.v.);  but  the 
story  is  assigned  to  the  loth  cent.  And  its 
author,  as  Matthew  Arnold  pointed  out,  is 
dealing  with  materials  taken  from  a  far 
older  architecture. 

Kilhwch  (pron.  'Keelhookh')  is  doomed  to 
have  no  wife  at  all  unless  he  can  secure 
Olwen,  daughter  of  Hawthorn,  chief  of  the 
giants  (Yspaddadeu  Penkawr).  He  goes  to 
Arthur,  who  is  his  cousin,  for  assistance  in 
his  attempt  to  secure  the  lady.  Arthur  orders 
Kay  and  Bediyere  and  Gawain  (Gwalchmei), 
and  other  knights  to  attend  him,  and  they 
visit  Hawthorn,  who  demands  an  exorbitant 
bride-price  for  his  daughter,  in  the  shape  of 
thirteen  'treasures'  involving  almost  im- 
possible quests.  These  are  successfully 
achieved  by  the  various  members  of  the 
party.  There  is  a  great  catalogue  of  the 
members  of  Arthur's  court,  interlarded  with 
amusing  notes  on  their  peculiarities. 

Kilkenny  Cats,  To  FIGHT  LIKE.  According 
to  *N.  and  Q/,  in  Series,  v.  433,  the  origin  of 
the  allusion  is  as  follows :  During  the  rebellion 
of  1798  (or  it  may  be  of  1803)  Kilkenny  was 
garrisoned  by  a  regiment  of  Hessian  soldiers 
whose  custom  it  was  to  tie  together  two  cats 
by  their  tails  and  throw  them  across  a 
clothes-line.  The  cats  naturally  fought  until 
one  or  both  died.  The  officers,  apprised  of 
these  acts  of  cruelty,  resolved  to  stop  them 
and  made  inspections  for  the  purpose.  On 
one  occasion  an  officer  was  heard  approaching 
while  a  pair  of  cats  were  fighting.  One  of  the 
troopers  with  a  sword  cut  their  tails  and  the 
cats  escaped.  The  presence  of  the  cats'  tails 
on  the  line  was  explained  to  the  officer  by  the 


KILMENY 

statement  that  two  cats  had  been  fighting  so 
desperately  that  they  had  devoured  each 
other,  with  the  exception  of  their  tails. 

KILLIGREW,  HENRY  (1613-1700), 
brother  of  T.  Killigrew  (q.v.),  the  elder, 
educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  master 
of  the  Savoy  in  1663,  was  the  author  of  one 
play,  'The  Conspiracy',  published  in  1638, 
and  re-written  as  'Pallantus  and  Eudora'  in 
1653.  He  was  the  father  of  Anne  Killigrew 
(1660-85;  see  Dry  den). 

Killigrew  f  Mrs.  Anne,  Ode  to  the  Memory  of, 
see  Dryden. 

KILLIGREW,  THOMAS,  the  elder  (1612- 
83),  was  page  to  Charles  I,  and  groom  of  the 
bedchamber  and  a  favourite  companion  of 
Charles  II.  He  built  a  playhouse  on  the  site 
of  the  present  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  London, 
in  1663,  and  was  master  of  the  revels  in  1679. 
His  most  popular  play,  'The  Parson's 
Wedding*,  a  comedy  whose  coarseness  is  not 
redeemed  by  any  notable  wit  or  humour,  was 
played  between  1637  and  1642,  and  printed 
in  1664.  Among  his  other  plays  are  'The 
Prisoners',  'Claracilla*,  and  'The  Princess*, 
romantic  tragi-comedies,  acted  before  the 
closing  of  the  theatres.  His  'Cecilia  and 
Clorinda*,  a  tragi-comedy,  the  subject  of 
which  is  partly  taken  from  'Le  Grand  Cyrus*, 
is  of  later  date. 

KILLIGREW,  THOMAS,  the  younger 
(1657-1719),  son  of  T.  Killigrew  the  elder 
(q.v.),  and  gentleman  of  the  bedchamber  to 
George  II  when  Prince  of  Wales.  He  was 
author  of  'Chit  Chat*,  a  comedy,  acted  in 
1719- 

KILLIGREW,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1606?- 
1695),  brother  of  T.  Killigrew  the  elder 
(q.v.),  and  author  of 'Selindra',  'Ormasdes,  or 
Love  and  Friendship',  tragi-comedies,  and 
'Pandora*,  a  comedy,  published  in  1664;  and 
of  'The  Siege  of  Urbin',  a  tragi-comedy,  said 
to  be  a  pleasant  play,  published  in  1666. 
'Pandora*  and  'Selindra'  were  acted,  and 
there  is  reason  to  think  [T.L.S.  18  Oct.  1928] 
that  'The  Siege  of  Urbin'  was  also  acted. 

Killing  No  Murder,  a  pamphlet  advocating 
the  assassination  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  printed 
in  Holland  in  1657,  when  it  was  believed 
that  Cromwell  would  accept  the  crown.  It 
was  written  by  Edward  Sexby  (d.  1658),  who 
had  been  one  of  Cromwell's  troopers,  and 
revised  by  Capt.  Silas  Titus.  The  name  on 
the  title-page,  however,  is  that  of  William 
Allen,  who  had  also  been  one  of  Cromwell's 
Ironsides. 

Killingworfh,  Birds  <?/,  one  of  Longfellow's 
(q.v.)  'Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn*. 
Kilmansegg,  see  Miss  Kilmansegg  and  her 
predous  Leg. 

Kilmeny ,  the  subject  of  the  thirteenth  bard's 
song  in  'The  Queen's  Wake*  of  James  Hogg 


KIM 

and  to  pluck  berries,  does  not  return,  and  is 
mourned  for  dead.  At  last  she  comes  back.  She 
has  been  carried  away  from  the  snares  of  men  to 
the  land  of  spirits,  of  glory  and  light,  whence 
she  has  had  a  vision  of  the  world  below,  and 
of  war  and  sin.  She  has  asked  to  return  to 
tell  her  friends  what  she  has  seen,  and  comes 
transformed  and  sanctified,  with  a  mysterious 
influence  on  all  about  her ;  but  after  a  month 
disappears  and  passes  again  to  the  land  of 
thought. 

Kim,  a  novel  by  Kipling  (q.v.),  published  in 
1901. 

Kim,  by  his  proper  name  Kimball  O'Hara, 
the  orphaned  son  of  a  sergeant  in  an  Irish 
regiment,  spends  his  childhood  as  a  vagabond 
in  Lahore,  until  he  meets  an  old  lama  from 
Tibet,  and  accompanies  him  in  his  travels. 
He  falls  into  the  hands  of  his  father's  old 
regiment,  is  adopted,  and  sent^  to  school, 
resuming  his  wanderings  in  his  holidays. 
The  colonel  remarks  his  aptitude  for  secret 
service,  and  on  this  he  embarks  under  the 
direction  of  the  native  agent,  Hurree  Babu. 
While  still  a  lad  he  distinguishes  himself  Jby 
capturing  the  papers  of  a  couple  of  Russian 
spies  in  the  Himalayas.  The  book  presents 
a  vivid  picture  of  India,  its  teeming  popula- 
tion, religions  and  superstitions,  and  the  life 
of  the  bazaars  and  the  road. 
Kinde  Hart's  Dream,  a  pamphlet  by 
Chettle  (q.v.),  licensed  in  1592,  noteworthy 
for  its  allusion  to  Shakespeare. 

King,  see  Catholic  king,  Christian  king, 
Defender  of  the  Faith. 

King,  EDWARD  (1612-37),  friend  of  Milton 
(q.v.);  commemorated  in  'Lycidas'  (q.v.)* 
KING,  HENRY  (1592-1669),  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
became  bishop  of  Chichester  and  was  the 
friend  of  Izaak  Walton,  Donne,  and  Jonson. 
He  published  verses  sacred  and  profane,  in- 
cluding the  pleasant  piece,  'Tell  me  no  more 
how  fair  she  is*. 

KING,  WILLIAM  (1650-1729),  archbishop 
of  Dublin,  author  of  'State  of  the  Protestants 
in  Ireland  under  the  late  King  James's 
Government*  (1691)  and  *De  Origine  Mali* 
(1702). 

KING,  WILLIAM  (1663-1712),  educated 
at  Westminster  School  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  an  advocate  at  Doctors'  Commons, 
the  holder  of  various  minor  posts  in  England 
and  Ireland,  and  a  clever  and  amusing  writer. 
His  'Dialogue  concerning  the  way  to  Modem 
Preferment*  was  published  in  1690,  and  his 
'Dialogues  of  the  Dead',  in  which  (with 
Charles  Boyle)  he  joined  in  the  attack  on 
Bentley  (see  Battle  of  the  Books),  in  1699.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  other  burlesques  and  light 
pieces,  some  of  the  best  of  which  are  in- 
cluded in  'Miscellanies  in  Prose  and  Verse*, 
dedicated  to  the  members  of  the  Beef- 
Steak  Club  (q.v.),  1709,  and  'Useful  Mis- 
cellanies* (1712).  His  'Art  of  Cookery,  in 


KING  HORN 

imitation  of  Horace's  Art  of  Poetry*  was  pub- 
lished in  1708,  and  his  'Useful  Transactions 
in  Philosophy',  a  skit  on  Sloane's  'Philosophi- 
cal Transactions',  in  1709. 
King  Alisaunder,  see  Alexander  the  Great. 

King  and  no  King,  A>  a  romantic  drama  by 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher  (see  Fletcher,  J.), 
acted  in  1611,  printed  1619. 

Arbaces,  king  of  Iberia,  defeats  Tigranes, 
king  of  Armenia,  in  single  combat,  thus 
bringing  to  an  end  a  long  war.  _  Arbaces 
offers  his  prisoner  freedom  if  he  will  marry 
his  sister  Panthea,  who  has  grown  up  to 
womanhood  during  his  long  absence. 
Tigranes  loves  Spaconia,  an  Armenian  lady, 
declines  the  offer,  and  sends  Spaconia  to 
engage  Panthea  to  oppose  the  match.  But 
when  Tigranes,  Arbaces,  and  Panthea  meet, 
not  only  is  Tigranes  shaken  in  his  fidelity  by 
the  sight  of  Panthea's  beauty,  but  Arbaces  is 
smitten  with  a  guilty  passion  for  her,  which  he 
in  vain  endeavours  to  check.  An  interview 
with  Panthea  reveals  that  she  shares  his  love. 
Gobrias,  who  has  been  Lord  Protector  of  the 
kingdom  since  the  late  king's  death,  now 
confesses  that  Arbaces  is  his  son,  adopted 
secretly  by  the  queen-mother  and  passed  off 
as  her  son  when  she  despaired  of  issue, 
Panthea  being  born  six  years  later.  Panthea 
is  thus  queen  of  Iberia,  Arbaces  is  unrelated 
to  her,  and  the  lovers  can  be  united.  Tigranes, 
repenting  his  infidelity,  takes  Spaconia  as  his 
queen,  and  is  released  from  captivity.  Bessus, 
a  cowardly  braggart  captain  in  Arbaces' 
army,  provides  comic  relief. 

King  Charles's  Head,  in  Mr.  Dick's 
memorial,  see  David  Copperfield. 

King  Horn,  the  earliest  of  the  extant  English 
verse  romances,  dating  from  the  late  i3th 
cent,  and  containing  some  1,500  lines.  Horn 
is  a  beautiful  child,  the  son  of  King  Murray 
and  Queen  Godhild  of  Suddene  (Isle  of  Man). 
A  host  of  invading  Saracens  slay  the  inhabi- 
tants, including  the  king.  Horn's  beauty 
saves  him  from  the  sword,  and  he  is  turned 
adrift  in  a  boat  with  his  companions,  Athulf 
and  Fikenhild.  They  reach  the  coast  of 
Westernesse,  where  King  Almair's  daughter, 
Rymenhild,  falls  in  love  with  Horn.  The 
steward  Athelbrus  brings  Athulf  ^  to  her 
chamber  in  place  of  Horn,  to  the  indignation 
of  the  princess  when  she  discovers  the  trick. 
Fikenhild  betrays  the  lovers  to  the  king. 
Horn  is  banished  and  goes  to  Ireland,  and 
enters  the  service  of  the  king  under  the  name 
of  Cutberd.  He  slays  the  champion  of  the 
Saracens,  who  are  attacking  the  country.  The 
king  offers  his  realm  and  daughter  to  Horn, 
who  postpones  acceptance.  Meanwhile 
Rymenhild  sends  word  that  she  is  sought  in 
marriage  by  a  powerful  suitor.  Horn  arrives 
disguised  as  a  palmer  and  makes  himself 
known  to  Rymenhild  by  means  of  the  ring 
she  had  given  him.  With  the  help  of  Athulf 
he  slays  the  rival  suitor.  He  now  reveals  his 
birth  to  the  king,  and  returns  to  Suddene  to 


[430] 


KING  JOHN 

recover  his  kingdom,  leaving  Rymenhild 
with  her  father.  He  presently  learns  that 
Rymenhild  is  wedded  to  Fikenhild.  Dis- 
guised as  a  harper  he  makes  his  way  into  the 
castle  and  slays  Fikenhild,  thereafter  living 
happily  with  Rymenhild  in  Suddene. 
See  also  Horn  Childe. 

King  John,  an  historical  play  by  Shakespeare 
(q.v.),  adapted  by  him  before  1598  from  an 
earlier  work,  'The  Troublesome  Raigne  of 
King  John',  and  not  printed  until  the  folio 
of  1623. 

The  play,  with  some  departures  from  his- 
torical accuracy,  deals  with  various  events  in 
King  John's  reign,  and  principally  with  the 
tragedy  of  young  Arthur.  It  ends  with  the 
death  of  John  at  Swinstead  abbey.  It  is  re- 
markable that  no  mention  of  Magna  Carta 
appears  in  it.  The  tragic  quality  of  the  play, 
the  poignant  grief  of  Constance,  Arthur's 
mother,  and  the  political  complications  de- 
picted, are  relieved  by  the  wit,  humour, 
and  gallantry  of  the  Bastard  of  Faulconbridge. 
King  John,  an  historical  drama  (c.  1547)  by 
Bale  (q.v.). 

King  Lear,  a  tragedy  by  Shakespeare  (q.v.), 
was  performed  in  1606  and  two  slightly  differ- 
ent versions  of  it  were  printed  in  1608.  For 
the  origin  of  the"name  'Lear'  see  Llyr.  The 
story  of  Lear  and  his  daughters  is  given  by 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  and  by  Holinshed. 
'King  Lear'  resembles  in  certain  respects  an 
older  play  'Leir*,  which  had  been  'lately 
acted*  in  1605. 

Lear,  king  of  Britain,  a  petulant  and  un- 
wise old  man,  has  three  daughters :  Goneril, 
wife  of  the  duke  of  Albany;  Regan,  wife  of 
the  duke  of  Cornwall;,  and  Cordelia,  for 
whom  the  king  of  France  and  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy are  suitors.  Intending  to  divide  his 
kingdom  among  his  daughters  according  to 
their  affection  for  him,  he  bids  them  say 
which  loves  him  most.  Goneril  and  Regan 
make  profession  of  extreme  affection,  and 
each  receives  one-third  of  the  kingdom. 
Cordelia,  self-willed,  and  disgusted  with  their 
hollow  flattery,  says  she  loves  him  according 
to  her  duty,  not  more  nor  less.  Infuriated 
with  this  reply,  Lear  divides  her  portion 
between  his  other  daughters,  with  the  con- 
dition that  himself  with  a  hundred  knights 
shall  be  maintained  by  each  daughter  in 
turn.  Burgundy  withdraws  his  suit  for 
Cordelia,  and  the  king  of  France  accepts  her 
without  dowry.  The  earl  of  Kent,  taking 
her  part,  is  banished.  Goneril  and  Regan 
reveal  their  heartless  character  by  grudging 
their  father  the  maintenance  that  he  had 
stipulated  for,  and  finally  turning  him  out  of 
doors  in  a  storm.  The  earl  of  ^  Gloucester 
shows  pity  for  the  old  king,  and  is  suspected 
of  complicity  with  the  French,  who  have 
landed  in  England.  His  eyes  are  put  out  by 
Cornwall,  who  receives  a  death-wound  in  the 
affray.  Gloucester's  son  Edgar,  who  has  been 
traduced  to  his  father  by  his  bastard  brother 
Edmund,  takes  the  disguise  of  a  lunatic 


KING'S  BENCH 

beggar,  and  tends  his  father  till  the  latter's 
death.  Lear  whom  rage  and  ill-treatment  have 
deprived  of  his  wits,  is  conveyed  to  Dover 
by  the  faithful  Kent  in  disguise,  where 
Cordelia  receives  him.  Meanwhile  Goneril 
and  Regan  have  both  turned  their  affection^ 
to  Edmund.  Embittered  by  this  rivalry, 
Goneril  poisons  Regan,  and  takes  her  own 
life.  The  English  forces  under  Edmund  and 
Albany  defeat  the  French,  and  Lear  and 
Cordelia  are  imprisoned ;  by  Edmund's  order 
Cordelia  is  hanged,  and  Lear  dies  from  grief. 
The  treachery  of  Edmund  is  proved  on  him 
by  his  brother  Edgar.  Albany,  who  has  not 
abetted  Goneril  in  her  cruel  treatment  of 
Lear,  takes  over  the  kingdom. 

King  Log  and  King  Stork,  in  the  fable  of 
the  frogs  who  asked  for  a  king.  Jupiter  sent 
them  a  log,  and  they  complained  of  its 
inertness.  He  then  sent  them  a  stork,  which 
devoured  them. 

King  of  Bath,  R.  Nash  (q.v.). 
King  of  Misrule,  see  Misrule. 
King  of  the  Bean,  see  Twelfth  Day. 
King  Philip's  War,  the  conflict  (1675-6) 
between  New  England  colonists  and  Philip, 
chief  of  the  Wampanoag  Indians. 

Kingis  Quair,  The,  a  poem  of  some  200 
stanzas,  in  rhyme-royal,  by  James  I  of 
Scotland  (q.v.),  written  in  1423  and  1424 
while  he  was  a  prisoner  in  England  and 
about  the  time  of  his  marriage  with  Lady 
Jane  Beaufort,  the  heroine  of  the  poem. 
It  was  discovered  and  printed  by  Lord 
Woodhouselee  in  1783.  The  poem  shows 
the  influence  of  Chaucer.  The  royal  prisoner, 
lamenting  his  fortune,  sees  a  beautiful  lady 
walking  in  the  garden  below,  and  is  smitten 
with  love.  He  visits  the  Empire  of  Venus  and 
the  Palace  of  Minerva,  goddess  of  Wisdom, 
has  speech  with  the  goddess  of  Fortune, 
and  finally  receives  a  message  from  Venus 
promising  the  success  of  his  suit.  Rossetti 
quotes  from  the  poem  in  'The  King's  Tra- 
gedy* (q.v.). 

The  word  f  Quair'  means  'quire'  or  'book*. 

KINGLAKE,  ALEXANDER  WILLIAM 
(1809-91),  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  published  in  1844 
'Eothen',  a  charming  narrative  of  his  travels 
in  the  Near  East.  Having  followed  the  British 
expedition  to  the  Crimea,  Kinglake  under- 
took, at  the  request  of  Lady  Raglan,  the  his- 
tory of  the  Crimean  War  to  the  death  of  Lord 
Raglan.  The  first  two  volumes  of  this  long 
and  exhaustive  work  appeared  in  1863,  and 
the  remaining  six  volumes  at  intervals  down 
to  1887. 

King- maker,  THE,  Richard  Neville,  earl  of 
Warwick  (1428-71),  so  named  for  his  in- 
fluence on  the  fortunes  of  Henry  VI  and 
Edward  IV. 

King's  Bench,  THE,  the  King's  Bench 
division  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice.  'Bench* 


[43i] 


KING'S  BENCH  PRISON 

in  this  expression  is  the  seat  where  judges  sit 
in  court;  hence  the  place  where  justice  is 
administered.  The  COURT  OF  KING'S  BENCH 
was  originally  that  in  which  the  sovereign 
presided,  and  which  followed  him  in  Ms 
movements. 

King's  Bench  Prison,  a  gaol  in  Southwark 
which  was  appropriated  to  debtors  and 
criminals  confined  by  order  of  the  supreme 
courts.  It  is  mentioned  by  Stow  as  of  un- 
known antiquity.  The  RULES  OF  THE  KING'S 
BENCH  were  a  defined  area  outside  the  prison 
within  which  certain  prisoners,  especially 
debtors,  could  live  on  giving  security. 

King's  College,  Cambridge,  founded  in 
1441  by  Henry  VI  and  completed  by 
Henry  VII  and  Henry  VIII.  Its  great 
Chapel  is  famous  as  a  fine  example  of  ornate 
Perpendicular.  Giles  Fletcher,  Sir  W. 
Temple,  E.  Waller,  and  Horace  Walpole 
(qq.v.)  were  educated  at  this  college. 

King's  Evil,  or  THE  EVIL,  scrofula,  which 
the  king  was  popularly  supposed  to  be  able 
to  cure  by  touching  the  diseased  person. 
Anne  was  the  last  sovereign  who  'touched* 
for  it. 

King's  Friends ,  THE,  the  so-called  'corrupt* 
members  of  parliament  who  under  the  ad- 
ministrations of  Lord  Bute  and  Lord  North 
voted  subserviently  as  George  III  required, 
in  expectation  of  offices,  pensions,  and 
honours.  So  named  in  allusion  to  i  Macca- 
bees ii.  1 8. 

King's  Printer,  the  printer  of  royal  pro- 
clamations, &c.,  appointed  under  royal  patent. 
The  earliest  known  patent  was  granted  to 
Thomas  Berthelet  (or  Bartlet)  in  1530.  At 
the  present  day  the  controller  of  the  Stationery 
Office  (under  Letters  Patent)  is  the  King's 
Printer  of  Acts  of  Parliament,  and  in  him  is 
vested  the  copyright  in  all  government 
publications.  Messrs.  Eyre  &  Spottiswoode 
are  also  termed  the  King's  Printers;  their 
privilege  is  the  printing  of  the  Bible  and 
Prayer  Book,  a  privilege  shared  with  the 
University  Presses  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 

King's  Tragedy,  The,  a  poem  by  D.  G. 
Rossetti  (q.v.),  included  in  'Ballads  and 
Sonnets',  published  in  1881. 

It  is  the  story,  which  purports  to  be  told 
by  Catherine  Douglas  ('Kate  Barlass'),  of  the 
ominous  incidents  which  preceded  the  attack 
on  the  life  of  King  James  I  of  Scotland,  and  of 
her  attempt  to  save  him  by  barring  the  door 
with  her  arm  against  his  murderers. 

longs  of  Cologne,  THE  THREE,  see  Cologne. 

KINGSLEY,  CHARLES  (1819-75),  born  at 
Holne  in  Devonshire,  where  his  father  was 
vicar,  was  educated  at  King's  College,  London, 
and  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge.  He  be- 
came curate  and  subsequently,  in  1844,  rector 
of  Eversley  in  Hampshire  and  held  the  living 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  modern  history  at  Cambridge  from 


KINGSLEY 

1860  to  1869,  and  after  this  held  canonries  at 
Chester  and  Westminster.  He  came  much 
under  the  influence  of  F.  D.  Maurice  and  the 
writings  of  Carlyle,  and  took  a  vigorous 
interest  in  the  movement  for  social  reform  of 
the  middle  of  the  century,  though  disapprov- 
ing of  the  violent  policy  of  the  Chartists.  He 
contributed,  over  the  signature  'Parson  Lot*, 
to  the  'Politics  of  the  People'  in  1848,  and 
to  the  'Christian  Socialist'  in  1 850-1.  His 
literary  activities  were  large  and  varied.  In 
'The  Heroes'  (1856)  he  tells  for  young 
readers  the  stories  of  Perseus,  Theseus,  and 
the  Argonauts.  His  poetry  included  the 
'Saint's  Tragedy'  (1848),  a  drama  concerning 
St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  the  wife  of  Lewis, 
Landgrave  of  Thuringia,  torn  between  her 
natural  affections  and  her  religious  duties  as 
enforced  by  a  domineering  monk;  'Andro- 
meda* (1859),  dealing  with  the  classical  myth ; 
and  many  pleasant  songs  and  ballads.  His 
principal  novels  were  'Yeast'  (q.v.),  published 
in  'Eraser's  Magazine*  in  1848  and  separately 
in  1850,  and  'Alton  Locke'  (q.v.,  1850), 
showing  his  sympathy  with  the  sufferings 
of  the  working  classes ;  'Hypatia'  (q.v.,  1853) ; 
'Westward  Hoi'  (q.v.,  1855);  'Two  Years 
Ago'  (q.v.,  1857) ;  'Water  Babies'  (q.v.,  1863) ; 
and  'Hereward  the  Wake'  (q.v.,  1865).  His 
enthusiasm  for  natural  history  was  shown  by 
'Glaucus;  or  the  Wonders  of  the  Shore* 
(1855).  In  cMacmillan's  Magazine',  Jan. 
1864,  he  published  a  review  of  Froude's 
'History  of  England',  vols.  vii  and  viii,  which 
led  him  into  the  controversy  with  J.  H.  New- 
man and  furnished  the  occasion  for  the 
latter's  'Apologia'  (q.v.).  In  the  same  year  he 
published  a  course  of  lectures  entitled  'The 
Roman  and  the  Teuton'.  'At  Last*  (1871)  is 
the  record  of  a  long-desired  visit  to  the  West 
Indies.  His  beautiful  'Prose  Idylls'  (1873) 
are  among  his  last  works.  Kingsley  published 
several  volumes  of  sermons,  many  of  them 
remarkable  for  their  style,  their  interesting 
subjects,  and  the  broad  spirit  of  humanity 
they  display. 

KINGSLEY,  HENRY  (1830-76),  younger 
brother  of  C.  Kingsley  (q.v.),  was  educated  at 
King's  College  School  and  Worcester  College, 
Oxford.  At  the  latter  his  exuberance  led  him 
into  some  sort  of  trouble,  as  a  result  of  which 
he  went,  without  a  degree,  to  Australia, 
where  he  spent  five  years  (1853-8),  and  was 
for  a  time  a  trooper  in  the  Sydney  mounted 
police.  His  experiences  with  bushrangers 
while  in  this  force  are  reflected  in  some  of  his 
novels.  On  his  return  he  published  'Geoffry 
Hamlyn*  (1859),  a  somewhat  melodramatic 
story  of  the  life  of  early  settlers  in  Australia, 
in  which  bush-fires,  attacks  of  bushrangers, 
&c.,  provide  exciting  incidents.  This  was 
followed  by  'Ravenshoe' (q.v.,  1862);  'Austin 
Elliott'  (1863) ;  'The  Hillyars  and  the  Burtons* 
(1865),  a  second  Australian  story;  'Leighton 
Court'  (1866);  'Silcote  of  Silcotes'  (1867), 
and  a  number  of  less  known  novels.  During 
the  Franco-Prussian  war  Henry  Kingsley  was 


[432] 


KINMONT  WILLIE 

a  newspaper  correspondent  with  the  German 
army. 

Kinmont  Willie,  see  Armstrong  (W.\ 
Kinraid,    CHARLEY,    a   character   in   Mrs. 
GaskelPs  'Sylvia's  Lovers'  (q.v.). 
Kiomi,  the  gipsy  girl  in  Meredith's  'The 
Adventures  of  Harry  Richmond*  (q.v.). 

KIPLING,  RUDYARD  (1865-  ),  son 
of  John  Lockwood  Kipling,  the  illustrator 
of  'Beast  and  Man  in  India*,  was  born  in 
Bombay  and  educated  at  the  United  Services 
College,  Westward  Ho !  He  was  engaged  in 
journalistic  work  in  India  from  1882  to  1889. 
His  fame  rests  principally  on  his  short  stories, 
dealing  with  India,  the  sea,  the  jungle  and  its 
beasts,  the  army,  the  navy,  and  a  multitude 
of  other  subjects ;  and  in  a  less  degree  on  his 
verse,  which  is  variously  judged,  and  as 
diversified  in  subject  as  his  tales.  His  publi- 
cations include:  'Departmental  Ditties* 
(1886) ;  'Plain  Tales  from  the  Hills*,  'Soldiers 
Three*  (1888);  'In  Black  and  White',  'The 
Story  of  the  Gadsbys',  'Under  the  Deodars', 
'The  Phantom  'Rickshaw',- 'Wee  Willie 
Winkie*  (1889);  'The  City  of  Dreadful 
Night',  'The  Light  that  Failed*  (1890); 
'Life's  Hlnclicap*,  'Letters  of  Marque',  'The 
Smith  Administration*  (iS^FT);  'Barrack- 
Room  Ballads',  'The  Naulahka*  (1892); 
'Many  Inventions'  (1893) ;  'The  Jungle  Book* 
(q.v.,  1894);  'The  Second  Jungle  Book*  (1895); 
'The  Seven  Seas'  (1896^)*  ^Captains  Coura- 
geous* (1897);  'QThe  Day's ^WorX'  (1898); 
'Stalky  &  Co.*  (1899]?  ''&ua'  (q.v.,  1901); 
'Just  So  Stcjrjes*J^Qj02) ;  'The  Five  Nations' 
(I903);O^ffiSZ^dDiscov|5^  (1904); 
'Puck  ofFook's  HflFT^owT  'Actions  and 
Reactions*  (1909);  'Rewards  and  Fairies* 
(1910);  'The  New  Army  in  Training'  (1914); 
'France  at  War',  'The  Fringes  of  the  Fleet* 
(1915);  'Sea  Warfare*  (1916);  'A  Diversity 
of  Creatures*  (1917);  'The  Years  Between* 
(1919) ;  'Letters  of  Travel,  1892-1913*  (1920) ; 
'Land  and  Sea  Tales  for  Scouts  and  Guides' 
(1923);  T  ebits  and  Credits'  (1926);  *A  Book 
of  Words'  (1928);  'Thy  Servant  a  Dog* 
(1930).  Kipling  edited  'The  Irish  Guards 
in  the  Great  War'  (1923)- 
Kipps,  a  novel  by  H.  G.  Wells  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1905. 

Arthur  Kipps  is  a  little,  vulgar,  uneducated 
draper's  assistant  at  Folkestone,  who  un- 
expectedly inherits  twelve  hundred  a  year. 
After  the  first  days  of  delirious  joy,  he  finds 
his  troubles  begin.  He  becomes  engaged  to 
a  young  lady  of  the  superior  classes,  but 
impecunious,  who  had  previously  been  a 
distant  star  in  his  firmament.  She  has  am- 
bitions of  her  own,  and  sets  firmly  about 
Kipps's  social  education.  The  problems  of 
correct  eating  and  dressing,  and  generally  of 
living  up  to  his  new  position  and  his  future 
bride,  prove  top  much  for  Kipps's  fortitude, 
and  at  last,  driven  desperate,  he  bolts,  and 
hastily  marries  Ann,  his  boyhood's  love, 
now  in  domestic  service.  But  even  then  he  is 


KITTREDGE 

not  out  of  his  troubles ;  for  his  wealth,  with 
its  trail  of  social  obligations,  follows  him  into 
married  life,  and  threatens  his  happiness. 
So  that  the  loss  of  nearly  the  whole  of  it — by 
the  embezzlement  of  a  solicitor — comes  soon 
to  be  felt  as  a  positive  relief,  and  real  happi- 
ness begins  only  when  he  starts  life  again  as  a 
shopkeeper.  The  description  of  Kipps's  early 
life  as  a  draper's  apprentice  is  interesting  for 
its  autobiographical  character. 

Kirk,  SIR  JOHN  (1832-1922),  chief  officer  on 
Dr.  Livingstone's  government  expedition  to 
Africa,  1853-64.  He  was  a  pioneer  in  photo- 
graphic work  and  took  many  interesting 
photographs  in  Africa  during  the  course  of 
the  expedition. 

KIRKE,  EDWARD  (1553-1613),  a  friend  of 
Edmund  Spenser,  educated  at  Pembroke 
Hall  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.  He 
wrote  the  preface,  the  arguments,  and  a  ver- 
bal commentary  to  Spenser *s  'Shepheards 
Calender*,  under  the  initials  'E.  K.',  1579. 
Modern  critics  have,  on  insufficient  grounds, 
endeavoured  to  prove  that  'E.  K.*  was 
Spenser  himself. 

Kirke,  PERCY  (1646  ?-^9i),  colonel  of  KIRKE'S 
LAMBS,  the  old  Tangier  regiment,  the  badge 
of  which  was  a  Paschal  Lamb.  He  was 
present  at  Sedgemoor  in  1685  and  notorious 
for  his  cruelty  to  the  rebels. 

Kirkrapine,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*, 
I.  iii,  'a  stout  and  sturdy  thief  of  the  church, 
who  destroyed  Una's  lion. 

Kirstie  Elliott,  a  character  in  R.  L. 
Stevenson's  'Weir  of  Hermiston'  (q.v.). 

Kismet,    a   Turkish   word   meaning   fate, 

destiny. 

Kit  Nubbles,  a  character  in  Dickens Js  'Old 

Curiosity  Shop'  (q.v.). 

Kit- Cat  Club,  founded  in  the  early  part  of 
the  1 8th  cent,  by  leading  Whigs,  including 
(according  to  Pope)  Steele,  Adaison,  Con- 
greve,  Garth,  and  Vanbrugh  (qq.v.).  Jacob 
Tonson  (q.v.),  the  publisher,  was  for  many 
years  its  secretary.  It  met  at  the  house  of 
Christopher  Cat,  a  pastry-cook,  in  Shire  Lane 
(which  ran  north  from  Temple  Bar).  Cat's 
mutton-pies  were  called  Kit-cats,  hence  the 
name  of  the  club  ('Spectator',  No.  ix).  The 
club  subsequently  met  at  Tonson 's  house  at 
Barn  Elms.  The  portraits  of  the  members 
(painted  by  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller)  had  to  be 
less  than  half-length  because  the  dining-room 
was  too  low  for  half-size  portraits.  The  word 
'kit-cat*  is  in  consequence  still  used  for  por- 
traits of  this  size. 

Elite,  SERGEANT,  one  of  the  chief  characters 
in  Farquhar's  'The  Recruiting  Officer*  (q.v.). 
One  of  his  songs  is  the  well-known  'Over 
the  hills  and  far  away*. 

Kitely,  a  character  in  Jonson's  'Every  Man 
in  his  Humour*  (q.v.). 

KITTREDGE,  GEORGE  LYMAN  (1860- 
),   professor    of  English   literature   in 


[433] 


KLABOTERMAN 

Harvard  University.  His  works  include: 
'Observations  on  the  Language  of  Troilus' 
(1891),  'The  Date  of  Chaucer's  Troilus  and 
other  Matters'  (1905),  £A  Study  of  Gawain 
and  the  Green  Knight*  (1916),  (  Chaucer  and 
his  Poetry'  (1914). 
Klaboterman,  see  Carmilhan. 


Klephts  (M.Gk.  jc^nyy,  thief),  the  Greeks 
who  refused  to  submit  to  the  Turks  after  the 
conquest  of  Greece  in  the  isth  cent.,  and 
maintained  their  independence  in  the  moun- 
tains, After  the  war  of  independence  (1821-8) 
those  who  continued  this  existence  became 
mere  brigands.  Hence  the  word  is  used  for 
brigands,  bandits. 

Klingsor,  in  the  version  of  the  legend  of  the 
Grail  (q.v.)  adopted  by  Wagner  in  his  opera 
'Parsifal*,  the  magician  who,  with  the  help 
of  the  enchantress,  Kundry,  and  the  flower 
maidens,  strives  to  lure  away  the  knights  of 
Titurel  (q.v.),  until  overcome  by  Parsifal. 
KLOPSTOGK,  FRIEDRICH  GOTT- 
LICH  (1724-1803),  German  poet,  famous 
for  his  patriotic  odes  and  his  great  religious 
epic  'Messias*  ('The  Messiah*),  inspired  by 
Milton's  'Paradise  Lost*,  of  which  the  first 
three  cantos  were  published  in  1748  and  the 
last  in  1773- 

Knag,  Miss,  in  Dickens  Js  'Nicholas  Nickle- 
byj  (q.v,),  Mme  Mantalini's  forewoman. 

KNICKERBOCKER,  DIEDRICH,  the 
pseudonym  under  which  W.  Irving  (q.v.) 
wrote  his  'History  of  New  York*,  and  *Rip 
van  Winkle*  and  'The  Legend  of  Sleepy 
Hollow'  (in  'The  Sketch-Book').  The  name 
£  Knickerbocker*  signified  a  descendant  of  the 
original  Dutch  settlers  of  the  New  Nether- 
lands in  America.  The  word  as  used  for 
loose-fitting  breeches  is  said  to  have  been 
given  to  these  because  of  their  resemblance 
to  the  knee-breeches  of  the  Dutchmen  in 
Cruikshank's  illustrations  to  W.  living's 
'History  of  New  York'.  [OED.] 

The  KNICKERBOCKER  CLUB  is  one  of  the 
oldest  clubs  in  New  York,  founded  in  1871. 

Knickerbocker  Magazine,  The,  founded  in 
New  York  City,  i  Jan.  1833,  under  the 
editorship  of  Charles  Fenno  Hoffman.  From 
that  date  until  it  was  discontinued  in  1859, 
the  Knickerbocker  numbered  many  of  the 
foremost  American  writers  among  its  con- 
tributors, including  Washington  Irving, 
H.  W.  Longfellow,  W.  C.  Bryant,  O.  W. 
Holmes,  J.  R.  Lowell,  Horace  Greeley,  and 
J.  F.  Cooper. 

KNIGHT,  CHARLES  (1791-1873),  editor 
and  publisher,  produced  the  Tenny  Maga- 
zine' (1832-45),  the  Tenny  Cyclopaedia' 
(1833-44),  a**d  other  cheap  series  designed  to 
popularize  knowledge. 

Knight  HospitaHer,  see  Hospitallers  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem. 

Knight  of  the  Burning  Pestle,  The,  a  comedy 
by  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  (see  Fletcher,  J.), 


KNIGHTSBRIDGE 

printed  in  1613.  It  is  probably  in  the  main 
the  work  of  Beaumont. 

The  play  is  at  once  a  burlesque  of  knight- 
errantry  and  of  T.  Heywood's  (q.v.)  'The  Four 
Prentices  of  London' — and  thus  the  first  of 
English  parody  plays — and  a  comedy  of 
manners.  The  plot  is  very  slight.  A  grocer 
and  his  wife  in  the  audience  insist  that  their 
apprentice,  Ralph,  shall  have  a  part  in  the 
play.  He  therefore  becomes  a  Grocer  Er- 
rant, with  a  Burning  Pestle  portrayed  on  his 
shield,  and  undertakes  various  absurd  ad- 
ventures, including  the  release  of  the  patients 
held  captive  by  a  barber  (Barbaroso).  These 
are  interspersed  in  the  real  plot,  in  which  Jas- 
per, a  merchant's  apprentice,  is  in  love  with  his 
master's  daughter  Luce.  He  carries  her  off 
when  she  is  about  to  be  married  to  his  rival, 
Humphrey,  who  is  favoured  by  her  father. 
The  father  and  Humphrey  recover  her,  and 
she  is  locked  up.  Jasper,  feigning  death,  has 
himself  conveyed  to  her  in  a  coffin;  frightens 
her  father  by  assuming  the  character  of  his 
own  ghost,  and  finally  obtains  his  consent  to 
the  match. 

Knight  of  the  Leopard,  Sir  Kenneth  of 
Scotland,  the  earl  of  Huntingdon,  hero  of 
Scott's  'The  Talisman'  (q.v.). 

Knight  of  the  Rueful  Countenance,  Don 

Quixote  (q.v.). 

Knight  of  the  Swan,  THE,  Lohengrin 
(q.v.).  In  early  forms  of  the  legend  he  is 
called  HELIAS.  There  is  an  Icelandic  saga  in 
which  Helis,  Knight  of  the  Swan,  is  repre- 
sented as  a  son  of  Julius  Caesar.  See  also 
Rudiger,  a  ballad  by  R.  Southey. 

Knight's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 
Knights  of  Malta,  see  Hospitallers  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem. 

Knights  of  Rhodes,  see  Hospitallers  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem. 

Knights  of  the  Bath,  see  Bath  (Order  of  the). 
Knights  of  the  Garter,  see  Garter. 

Knights  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  see  Golden 
Fleece. 

Knights  of  the  Post,  notorious  perjurers, 
who  got  their  living  by  giving  false  evidence ; 
perhaps  for  'knights  of  the  whipping-post' 
or  pillory.  [OED.] 

Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  see  Round 
Table. 

Knights   of  Windsor,   a   small   body  of 
military   officers    who   have    pensions    and 
apartments  in  Windsor  Castle. 
Knights  Templar,  see  Templars. 
Knightley,  GEORGE,  the  bachelor  owner  of 
Donwell   Abbey,    and   JOHN,   his    brother, 
characters  in  Jane  Austen's  'Emma'  (q.v.). 
Knightrider  Street,  see  Giltspur  Street. 
Knightshridge,  in  the  West  End  of  London, 
at  the  end  of  the  i7th  cent,  was  a  place  of 
some  notoriety,  with  two  taverns  of  question- 


[434] 


KNIPPERDOLLING 

able  reputation,  the  Swan  and  the  World's 
End,  referred  to  in  Congreve's  'Love  for 
Love*  (q.v.). 

Knipperdollingj  an  adherent  of  Bernhard 
Knipperdolling,  a  leader  of  the  Minister 
Anabaptists  (q.v.)  in  1533-5*  an  Anabaptist; 
hence  a  religious  fanatic. 

Knockdunder,  THE  CAPTAIN  OF,  in  Scott's 
'The  Heart  of  Midlothian'  (q.v.),  the  duke  of 
Argyle's  agent. 

KNOLLES,  RICHARD  (iS5o?-i6io), 
author  of  a  'General  Historic  of  the  Turkes* 
(1603),  not  only  valuable  as  a  contribution 
to  contemporary  knowledge  of  the  East,  but 
interesting  for  the  influence  which  Byron 
acknowledges  that  it  had  upon  himself. 

Knossos,  see  under  Minoan. 

Knowell,  a  character  in  Jonson's  'Every  Man 
in  his  Humour'  (q.v.). 

KNOWLES,  JAMES  SHERIDAN  (1784- 
1862),  after  trying  the  army,  medicine,  the 
stage,  and  teaching,  as  professions,  became 
an  author.  His  best  plays  were  the  tragedies 
of  'Caius  Gracchus'  (produced  1815),  'Vir- 
ginius'  (produced  1820),  'William  Tell* 
(1825),  and  'The  Wife'  (1833) ;  and  his  come- 
dies, 'The  Beggar's  Daughter  of  Bethnal 
Green'  (1828),  'The  Hunchback*  (1832),  and 
'The  Love  Chase*  (1837). 

Knowles,  SIR  JAMES  THOMAS  (1831-1908), 
editor  of  the  'Contemporary  Review*,  1870-7, 
and  founder  of  the  'Nineteenth  Century*  and 
the  Metaphysical  Society  (qq.v.). 

Knox,  FLURRY,  the  M.F.H.  in  the  'Ex- 
periences of  an  Irish  R.M.'  by  E.  CE.  Somer- 
ville  (q.v.)  and  Martin  Ross. 

KNOX,  JOHN  (1505-72),  was  educated  at 
Haddington  School  and  Glasgow  University. 
He  was  called  to  the  ministry  and  began 
preaching  for  the  reformed  religion  in  1547. 
He  went  abroad  at  the  accession  of  Mary 
Tudor,  wrote  his  'Epistle  on  Justification  by 
Faith*  in  1548,  met  Calvin  at  Geneva  in  1554, 
was  pastor  of  the  English  congregation  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1554-5,  and  from 
1556  to  1558  lived  at  Geneva.  Thence  he 
addressed  epistles  to  his  brethren  in  England 
suffering  under  the  rule  of  Mary  Tudor,  and 
in  Scotland  under  the  regency  of  Mary  of 
.  Lorraine.  It  was  this  situation  which  led  to 
the  publication  of  his  'First  Blast  of  the 
Trumpet  against  the  Monstrous  Regiment 
of  Women' (1558),  of  which  the  title,  Saints- 
bury  remarks,  was  the  best  part.  In  1559 
appeared  the  'First  Book  of  Discipline*,  of 
which  Knox  was  part-author,  advocating  a 
national  system  of  education  ranging  from  a 
school  in  every  parish  to  the  three  universi- 
ties. His  'Treatise  on  Predestination*  was  pub- 
lished in  1560.  In  1572  he  was  appointed 
minister  at  Edinburgh,  where  he  died.  His 
'History  of  the  Reformation  of  Religion  within 
the  realme  of  Scotland*  was  first  printed  in 


KORAYSH 

1584  (the  best  edition  of  this  is  in  the  first  two 
vols.  of  Laing's  edition  of  Knox's  'Works', 
1846-8).  It  contains,  in  its  fourth  book,  the 
notable  account  of  the  return  of  Mary  Stuart 
to  Scotland,  of  Knox's  interviews  with  her, 
and  his  fierce  denunciations  from  the  pulpit 
of  St.  Giles. 

KNOX,  VICESIMUS  (1752-1821),  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  is  re- 
membered as  the  compiler  of  'Elegant  Ex- 
tracts' (1789).  He  was  author  of  'Essays 
Moral  and  Literary*  (1778). 

KNYVETT,  SIR  HENRY  (d.  1598),  of 
Charlton,  near  Malmesbury,  a  valiant  soldier 
in  Elizabeth's  wars,  wrote  'The  Defence  of 
the  Realme'  (1596);  it  was  published  in  the 
*Tudor  and  Stuart  Library'  in  1906.  It  advo- 
cates universal  training  for  military  service. 

Knyvett,  THOMAS  (1596-1658),  born  at 
Ashwellthorpe  in  Norfolk,  and  educated  at 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  was  a  land- 
owner in  the  eastern  counties,  and  a  Royalist 
in  sympathy  during  the  Civil  War.  His 
letters  to  his  wife,  which  have  been  preserved, 
throw  an  interesting  light  on  the  life  of  the 
period.  (From  'The  Times',  2  Feb.  1931.) 

Kobold,  in  German  folk-lore,  a  familiar 
spirit,  haunting  houses  and  rendering  services 
to  the  inmates,  but  often  of  a  tricksy  dis- 
position; also  an  underground  spirit  haunting 
mines  and  caves. 

Koh-i-noor,  an  Indian  diamond,  famous  for 
its  size  and  history,  extending,  it  is  said,  to 
2,000  years,  which  became  one  of  the  British 
crown  jewels  on  the  annexation  of  the  Pun- 
jab in  1849.  It  belonged  in  the  past  to 
Aurungzebe,  and  subsequently  to  Nadir 
Shah  and  to  Runjeet  Singh. 

Konigsberg,  a  seaport  on  the  Baltic,  the 
capital  of  East  Prussia,  a  town  associated  with 
the  life  of  Kant  (q.v.).  'Konigsberg'  was  also 
the  name  of  a  German  light  cruiser,  engaged 
in  commerce  destruction  in  the  early  part  of 
the  Great  War,  blockaded  in  the  Rufiji  river 
in  Nov.  1914,  and  destroyed  in  July  1915. 

Koppenberg,  see  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin. 

Koran  or  QURAN,  THE,  from  the  Arabic  verb 
signifying  cto  read*,  the  sacred  book  of  the  Mo- 
hammedans, consisting  of  revelations  orally 
delivered  from  time  to  time  by  Mohammed, 
some  at  Mecca,  others  at  Medina,  taken  down 
by  scribes,  and  collected  and  put  in  order  after 
his  death  by  Abu  Bekr  (q.v.).  The  Koran 
teaches  the  unity  of  God,  which  it  attests  by 
examples  of  the  punishments  inflicted  on 
those  who  maltreated  his  messengers,  and 
supplements  with  directions  and  admonitions. 
The  four  chief  duties  that  it  enjoins  are 
prayer  (to  be  preceded  by  ablution),  the 
giving  of  alms,  fasting,  and  the  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca.  The  Koran  is  written  in  a  very 
pure  Arabic,  the  standard  language. 

Koraysh  or  QURAYSH,  the  Arabian  tribe  to 
which  Mohammed  belonged.  It  included 


[435] 


Ffa 


KOSCIUSKO 

the  rival  families  of  the  Hashimites  and  the 
Umayyads  (qq.v.). 

Kosciusko,  TADEUS  (1746-1817),  Polish 
patriot  and  general,  who  led  the  Polish  in- 
surrection of  1794. 

Kottabos,  a  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
magazine  started  by  R.  Y.  Tyrrell,  an  emi- 
nent classical  scholar,  translator,  and  con- 
versationalist, in  1 868 .  It  ran  for  some  twenty 
years  in  all,  in  two  periods,  and  excelled  in 
light  verse  and  parodies.  Its  contributors 
included  Edward  Dowden,  Oscar  Wilde, 
Standish  O'Grady,  and  John  Todhunter. 
(/corrajSosr  was  a  game  introduced  into  Greece 
from  Sicily,  which  depended  on  skill  in 
throwing  wine  from  a  goblet,  at  a  certain 
distance,  into  a  metal  basin.) 

KOTZEBUE,  AUGUST  VON  (1761- 
1819),  a  German  dramatist,  author  of  a  large 
number  of  sentimental  plays  which  had  con- 
siderable vogue  in  their  day  and  influenced 
the  English  stage.  His  'Menschenhass  und 
Reue*  enjoyed  great  popularity  here  as  'The 
Stranger',  brought  out  by  Sheridan  in  1798, 
the  story  of  a  wife  duped  and  erring,  her 
husband  in  consequence  turned  misan- 
thropical, the  wife's  repentance,  the  recon- 
ciliation, and  the  husband's  return  to  sanity. 
'Lovers'  Vows'  (q.v.),  made  famous  by  Jane 
Austen's  'Mansfield  Park',  was  adapted  from 
Kotzebue's  'Das  Kind  der  Liebe'.  Sheridan 
adapted  Kotzebue's  'Die  Spanier  in  Peru'  in 
his  'Pizarro'. 

Kraken,  a  mythical  sea-monster  of  enormous 
size,  said  to  have  been  seen  at  times  off  the 
coast  of  Norway.  The  name  was  first 
brought  to  general  notice  by  the  description 
(1752)  of  Pontoppidan  (q.v.).  Tennyson 
wrote  a  short  poem  about  the  Kraken. 

Kratim  or  KRATIMER,  see  Katmir. 

Kreutzer  Sonata,  The,  a  famous  sonata  for 
piano  and  violin  by  Beethoven  (q.v.), 
dedicated  by  him  to  Rodolphe  Kreutzer 
(1766-1831),  a  French  violinist  and  com- 
poser. Also  the  title  of  a  work  by  Tolstoy 
(q.v.). 

Kriemhild,  see  Nibelungenlied. 
Krishna,  a  great  deity  or  deified  hero  of  later 
Hinduism,  worshipped  as  an  incarnation  of 
Vishnu  (q.v.),  the  god  of  fire,  lightning,  and 
storm ;  in  the  myths  a  brave,  crafty,  invincible 
hero,  the  destroyer  of  the  tyrannical  King 
Kansa,  and  the  lover  of  Radha. 

Kronos,  see  Cronos. 

Krook,  a  character  in  Dickens 's  'Bleak 
House'  (q.v.). 

Kshatriya,  the  second  of  the  great  Hindu 
castes,  the  military  caste. 

Ku-KIux-KIan,  a  widespread  secret  society, 
which  arose  in  the  Southern  States  of  North 
America  after  the  civil  war  of  1861-5,  be- 
ginning^with  an  effort  to  overawe  the  negro 
population  by  whipping  and  arson,  and  de- 


KYWERT 

veloping  into  a  system  of  political  outrage 
and  murder.  Though  suppressed  in  1871  by 
an  act  of  Congress,  it  still  survives. 

Ktibla  Khan,  a  Vision  in  a  Dream,  a  poem  by 
S.  T.  Coleridge  (q.v.),  published  in  1816. 

The  poet,  in  1797,  living  at  a  lonely  farm- 
house on  the  confines  of  Somerset  and  Devon, 
fell  asleep  in  his  chair  when  reading  a  passage 
in  Turchas  his  Pilgrimage'  relating  to  the 
Khan  Kubla  and  the  palace  that  he  com- 
manded to  be  built.  On  awaking  he  was 
conscious  of  having  composed  in  his  sleep 
two  or  three  hundred  lines  on  this  theme,  and 
immediately  set  down  the  lines  that  form  this 
fragment.  He  was  then  unfortunately 
interrupted,  and,  on  returning  to  his  task  an 
hour  later,  found  that  the  remainder  of  the 
poem  had  passed  from  his  memory.  All  that 
remains  to  us  is  the  vision  of  the  scene  amid 
which  Kubla's  palace  was  built.  See  Xanadu. 

Kufic,  see  Cufic. 

Kulhwch  and  Olwen>  see  Kilhwch  and 
Olwen. 

Kulturkampf,  the  struggle  between  Bis- 
marck and  the  Vatican,  which  began  in  1873, 
on  the  subject  of  the  relations  of  Church  and 
State. 

Kundry,  see  Klingsor. 
Kvasir,  see  Odhcsrir. 

KYI)  or  KID,  THOMAS  (1557  ?-95?),  dra- 
matist, was  educated  at  Merchant  Taylors' 
School,  London,  and  was  by  profession  a 
scrivener.  His  'Spanish  Tragedy'  (q.v.)  was 
printed  in  1594,  and  'Pompey  the  Great,  his 
faire  Corneliaes  Tragedy'  (q.v.)  in  1 595.  'The 
First  Part  of  leronimo',  published  in  1605,  a 
fore-piece  to  the  'Spanish  Tragedy*,  is  fre- 
quently attributed  to  Kyd,  but  was  probably 
not  by  him,  though  some  other  such  fore- 
piece  by  him  probably  at  one  time  existed. 
It  is  also  uncertain  whether  he  was  the  author 
of  'The  Tragedy  of  Solyman  and  Perseda* 
(printed  in  1599).  He  was  perhaps  the  author 
of  a  pre-Shakespearian  play  (now  lost)  on  the 
subject  of  Hamlet.  He  was  one  of  the  best- 
known  tragic  poets  of  his  time,  and  his  work 
shows  an  advance  in  the  construction  of  plot 
and  development  of  character. 

Kyrie  Eleison,  Greek  words  meaning  'Lord, 
have  mercy',  a  short  petition  used  in  various 
offices  of  the  Eastern  and  Roman  churches ; 
also  a  musical  setting  of  these  words.  An 
English  version  is  part  of  the.  Communion 
service. 

Kyrle,  JOHN,  the  MAN  OP  Ross  (1637-1724), 
educated  at  Ross  Grammar  School  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  lived  very  simply  on  his 
estates  at  Ross  and  devoted  his  surplus  in- 
come to  works  of  charity .  He  was  celebrated  by 
Pope  in  the  'Moral  Essays'  (q.v.),  Epistle  in, 
and  the  Kyrle  Society  (for  brightening  the  lot 
and  improving  the  taste  of  the  poorer  classes) 
was  inaugurated  in  1877  as  a  memorial  of  him. 
Kywert,  see  Cuwaert. 


[436] 


E.  L. 


LADAS 


L.  E.  L.,  see  Landon  (L.  E.). 

La  Balue,  CARDINAL  (1421-91),  a  minister 
of  Louis  XI,  who  was  for  many  years  im- 
prisoned in  an  iron  cage  for  treason.  He 
figures  in  Scott's  'Quentin  DurwarcT  (q.v.). 

La  Belle  Dame  sans  Merd,  see  Belle 
Dame  sans  MercL 

La  Belle  Sauvage,  see  Belle  Sauvage  Inn. 
LA  BO&TIE,  gTIENNE  DE  (1530-63), 
French  writer  and  humanist,  the  intimate 
friend  of  Montaigne  (q.v.).  His  most  famous 
work  was  the ' Discours  sur  la  servitude  volon- 
taire*  or  'Contr'un*. 

LA  BRUY&RE,  JEAN  DE  (1645-96), 
French  ethical  writer,  author  of  'Caracteres* 
on  the  model  of  Theophrastus. 

LA  CALPREN&DE,  GAUTHIER  DE 
COSTES  DE  (1614-63),  a  Gascon  by  birth, 
author  of  several  very  popular  and  very- 
lengthy  heroic  romances,  of  which  the  chief 
was  *Cle*opatre*  (1646).  In  this  are  combined 
the  stories  of  the  love  of  the  queen  of  Ethiopia 
for  Caesarion,  son  of  Cleopatra  and  Julius 
Caesar;  of  Cleopatra,  daughter  of  the 
Egyptian  queen,  and  Coriolanus,  prince  of 
Mauritania;  and  of  Elisa,  daughter  of 
Phraates,  king  of  Persia,  and  the  proud  and 
warlike  Artaban,  son  of  the"  great  Pompey. 
La  Calpren&de  also  wrote  'Cassandre* 
(1642-5),  which  deals  with  more  or  less 
imaginary  events  in  the  campaigns  of 
Alexander  the  Great  (Cassandra  being  Statira, 
queen  of  Persia),  and  'Pharamond'  (1661-3), 
of  which  the  subject  is  the  love  of  the  first  of 
the  French  kings  for  Rosemonde,  daughter 
of  the  king  of  the  Cimbrians.  All  these  ro- 
mances were  translated  into  English. 

La  Chaise,  PERE,  see  Pere  La  Chaise. 

La  Greevy,  Miss,  the  cheerful  little  minia- 
ture-painter in  Dickens's  'Nicholas  Nickleby* 
(q.v.). 

LA  FAYETTE,  MME  DE  (1634-92), 
French  writer,  author  of  *La  Princesse  de 
Cleves*  (q.v.). 

LA  FONTAINE,  JEAN  DE  (1621-95),  a 
French  poet  of  great  versatility,  who  wrote 
dramas,  satires,  and  light  verse,  but  is  chiefly 
famous  for  his  'Contes  et  Nouvelles*  (1665), 
a  collection  of  verse-tales  in  which  he  recast 
the  popular  fabliaux  of  Europe;  and  still 
more  for  his  'Fables'  (1668,  1678-9,  and 
1694).  These  were  taken  from  Eastern, 
Greek,  Roman,  and  modern  sources,  and 
while  in  their  more  serious  aspect  presenting 
a  somewhat  hard  and  sceptical  view  of  life, 
are  told  with  an  inimitable  naivete*  and  a  semi- 
pagan  sentiment  for  nature  that  make  La 
Fontaine  the  greatest  fabulist  of  the  world. 

La  Mancha,  an  ancient  province  of  Spain, 
from  which  Don  Quixote  (q.v.)  took  his  title. 


La  Palisse  (more  correctly  LA  PALICE), 
JACQUES  DE  CHABANNES,  Seigneur  de  (c.  1470- 
1525),  Marshal  of  France  under  Charles  VIII 
-Francis  I,  killed  at  the  battle  of  Pavia.  He 
was  unjustly  ridiculed  in  a  famous  song 
written  in  the  i8th  cent.,  embodying  a  num- 
ber of  incontestable  truths,  known  as  've"rite"s 
de  La  Palisse',  e.g. 

II  mourut  le  vendredi, 

Le  dernier  jour  de  son  Sge, 
S'il  fut  mort  le  samedi, 

II  eut  ve*cu  davantage. 

LA  ROCHEFOUCAULD,  FRANQOIS 
DE  MARSILLAC,  Due  de  (1613-80),  author 
of  interesting  'M&noires*,  but  chiefly  famous 
for  his  'Reflexions,  Sentences,  et  Maximes 
Morales'  (1665),  pithy  maxims  of  extreme 
concision  and  finish,  embodying  a  somewhat 
cynical  philosophy  that  finds  in  self-love  the 
prime  motive  of  all  action. 

La  SaiszaZf  a  poem  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.), 
written  in  1877  under  the  influence  of  the 
sudden  death  of  a  friend  who  had  been 
spending  the  summer  of  that  year  with 
Browning  and  his  sister  at  the  villa  'La 
Saisiaz*  near  Geneva.  In  it  the  poet 
examines  afresh  the  basis  of  his  faith  in 
a  future  life. 

Labarum,  the  imperial  standard  adopted  by 
Constantine  the  Great  (q.v.),  being  the 
Roman  military  standard  of  the  late  empire 
modified  by  the  addition  of  Christian  sym- 
bols. 

Labour  and  Life  of  the  People  in  London, 
see  Booth  (C.). 

Labyrinth  of  Crete,  THE,  a  maze  con- 
structed by  Daedalus  (q.v.)  for  Minos  (q.v.) 
king  of  Crete.  In  it  the  Minotaur  (q.v.)  and 
Daedalus  himself  were  confined.  The  word 
'labyrinth*  is  of  uncertain  origin,  perhaps 
from  AajSpus,  a  Lydian  or  Carian  word 
meaning  double-headed  axe,  a  symbol  of 
religious  signification,  such  as  is  found  fre- 
quently incised  on  stones  and  pillars  in 
Cretan  excavations  of  the  Minoan  period. 

Lachesis,  see  Parcae. 

LAGHMANN,  KARL  KONRAD  FRIED- 
RICH  WILHELM  (1793-1851),  a  German 
philologist,  distinguished  both  in  the  German 
and  classical  spheres.  By  a  careful  study  of 
Old  German  and  Middle  High  German 
literature  he  determined  its  metrical  prin- 
ciples. He  published  editions  of  Lucretius, 
Propertius,  and  Tibullus ;  and  critical  works 
on  Homer,  &c.  His  'Lucretius*  was  his 
greatest  work,  and  a  landmark  in  the  history 
of  textual  criticism. 

Ladas,  a  celebrated  courier  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  who  won  a  crown  at  Olympia. 
Ladas  was  the  name  of  Lord  Rosebery's 
Derby  winner  in  1894. 


[437] 


LADISLAW 

Ladislaw,  WILL,  a  character  in  G.  Eliot's 

'Middlemarch*  (q.v.). 

La  don,  the  dragon  that  guarded  the  apples 

of  the  Hesperides  (q.v.),  and  was  slain  by 

Hercules. 

Ladrones  (Spanish,  'robbers'),  a  chain  of 

fifteen  islands  in  the  North  Pacific,  discovered 

by  Magellan  and  occupied  by  Spain  in  the 

1 7th  cent. ;  so  called  by  Magellan  because  the 

islanders  stole  some  of  his  goods. 

Ladurlad,  a  character  in  Southey's  'Curse 
of  Kehama'  (q.v,). 

Lady  Bountiful,  in  Farquhar's  'The  Beaux' 
Stratagem'  (q.v.)  a  'country  gentlewoman, 
that  cures  all  her  neighbours  of  their  dis- 
tempers* and  lays  out  half  her  income  in 
charitable  uses. 

Lady  Day,  a  day  kept  in  celebration  of  some 
event  in  the  life  of  the  Virgin  Mary ;  now  used 
only  of  25  March,  the  Feast  of  the  Annuncia- 
tion; formerly  also  8  Dec.  (the  Conception 
of  the  Virgin),  8  Sept.  (the  Nativity),  and 
15  Aug.  (the  Assumption). 
Lady  Margaret  foundations  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  were  instituted  by  Margaret 
Beaufort,  daughter  of  John  duke  of  Somerset, 
wife  of  Edmund  Tudor,  and  mother  of 
Henry  VII .  She  was  an  early  patron  of 
Caxton  and  Wynkyn  de  Worde. 

Lady  of  Clirist's,  Milton's  nickname  at 
Cambridge. 

Lady  of  Lyons,  The,  or  Love  and  Pride,  a 
romantic  comedy  by  Bulwer  Lytton  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1838. 

The  time  of  the  play  is  1795-8.  Pauline 
Deschapelles,  the  proud  daughter  of  a 
merchant  of  Lyons,  rejects  various  suitors, 
including  a  ci-devant  marquis,  Beause*ant. 
Young  Claude  Mekiotte,  son  of  the  Des- 
chapelles' old  gardener,  self-educated  and 
accomplished,  loves  her  humbly.  Beause*ant, 
in  order  to  be  avenged  on  Pauline,  persuades 
Claude  to  personate  a  foreign  prince  and  to 
court  her  in  that  disguise.  The  fraud  is  com- 
pletely successful,  the  pair  are  married,  and 
Claude  carries  his  wife  off  to  his  mother's 
humble  cottage.  Then  he  is  filled  with 
remorse  and  seeks  to  make  atonement  by 
restoring  Pauline  to  her  father  and  facilitating 
the  annulment  of  the  marriage.  Pauline's 
heart  is  won  by  this  proof  of  his  real  love. 
Claude  joins  the  army  of  Buonaparte,  greatly 
distinguishes  himself  under  an  assumed 
name,  and  returns  to  Lyons  two  years  later, 
rich  and  a  colonel,  to  find  that  Pauline  is  on 
the  point  of  marrying  Beauseant  to  save  her 
father  from  bankruptcy.  Pauline  not  recog- 
nizing him,  but  believing  him  to  be  the  friend 
of  Claude,  sends  to  her  former  husband  a 
final  message  of  her  undying  love  for  him. 
Claude  reveals  himself,  is  rapturously  re- 
ceived, and  Beause'ant  departs,  raving  at  his 
discomfiture. 

Lady  ofShalott,  The,  a  poem  by  A.  Tenny- 
son (q.v.),  published  in  1853,  of  which  the 


LADY  OF  THE  LAKE 

story  finds  fuller  development  in  the  author's 
'Lancelot  and  Elaine*  (q.v.),  one  of  the 
'Idylls  of  the  King'. 

Lady  of  the  Aroosfookf  The,  a  novel  by 
W.  D.  Howells  (q.v.),  published  in  1879, 
which  relates  the  fortunes  of  Lydia  Blood,  a 
young  New  England  school-teacher  who  finds 
herself  set  down  in  the  midst  of  fashionable 
and  sophisticated  Venice. 

Lady  of  the  Idle  Lake,  see  Phaedria. 

Lady  of  the  Lake,  THE,  in  the  Arthurian 
legends,  a  somewhat  indistinct  supernatural 
character.  In  Malory's  'Morte  d' Arthur*, 
she  first  appears  as  giving  Arthur  the  sword 
Excalibur,  and  when  she  comes  to  claim 
Balin's  head  as  her  reward,  is  killed  by  Balin 
(u.  iii).  But  Nimue  (q.v.)  is  spoken  of  later 
in  the  same  work  as  the  Lady  of  the  Lake. 
Nimue  befriends  Arthur  and  rescues  him  in 
peril,  and  marries  Pelleas.  Merlin  falls  into 
a  dotage  on  her,  and  Nimue,  to  get  rid  of  him, 
inveigles  him  under  a  rock  and  buries  him 
under  a  great  stone.  She  is  one  of  the  three 
queens  in  the  ship  in  which  Arthur  is  borne 
away  to  be  healed  of  his  wounds.  These,  as 
Professor  Rhys  points  out  ('Arthurian 
Legend'),  'may  all  be  taken  as  different  as- 
pects of  one  mythic  figure,  the  lake  lady 
Morgen',  who  appears  also  as  Morgan  le 
Fay  (q.v.),  at  one  time  a  benevolent,  at 
another  a  malicious  being.  He  traces  her  to 
the  Rhiannon  of  British  mythology,  the  wife 
of  PwyH  (see  under  Mabinogiori),  the  names 
'Nimue'  and  'Vivien*  arising  from  mis- 
copyings  by  successive  scribes. 

Lady  of  the  Lake,  The,  a  poem  in  six  cantos 
by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.),  published  in  1810. 

A  knight,  who  gives  his  name  as  James 
Fitz-James,  receives  hospitality  in  the  home 
of  Roderick  Dhu,  the  fierce  Border  chieftain, 
on  Loch  Katrine,  where  he  falls  in  love  with 
Ellen,  daughter  of  the  outlawed  Lord  James 
of  Douglas.  Roderick  himself  and  the  young 
Malcolm  Graeme  are  also  suitors  for  her 
hand,  and  Ellen  loves  the  latter.  Under 
threat  of  an  attack  by  the  royal  forces, 
Roderick  summons  his  clans.  Douglas  re- 
garding himself  as  the  cause  of  the  attack,  sets 
out  for  Stirling  to  surrender  himself  to  the 
king.  Meanwhile  James  Fitz-James  returns 
and  proposes  to  carry  Ellen  off  to  safety.  She 
refuses,  confessing  her  love  for  another. 
Fitz-James  generously  withdraws,  giving  her 
a  signet-ring  which  will  enable  her  to  obtain 
from  the  king  any  boon  she  may  ask.  On  his 
way  back  to  Stirling  he  falls  in  with  Roderick. 
A  fierce  quarrel  springs  up  between  them  and 
they  fight.  Fitz-James's  skill  prevails,  and 
the  wounded  Roderick  is  carried  prisoner  to 
Stirling.  Ellen  appears  at  the  king's  court, 
presents  her  signet-ring,  asks  for  her  father's 
pardon,  and  discovers  that  Fitz-James  is  the 
king  himself.  The  king  and  Douglas  are 
reconciled,  Roderick  dies  of  his  wounds, 
and  Ellen  marries  Malcolm  Graeme.  The 
poem  includes  the  beautiful  coronach  'He  is 


LADY  OF  THE  LAMP 

gone  on  the  mountain',  and  Ellen's  song 
'Soldier,  rest,  thy  warfare  o'er9.  The  king 
is  as  much  drawn  from  James  V  as  from 
any  one. 

Lady  of  the  Lamp,  THE,  a  name  given  to 
Florence  Nightingale  (q.v.)  in  allusion  to  her 
visits  at  night  to  the  hospital  wards  during 
the  Crimean  War. 

Lady  or  the  Tiger,  The,  a  famous  short  story 
by  Frank  Stockton  (q.v.),  published  in  1882. 

Laelaps,  see  Cephalus. 

Laertes,  (i)  the  father  of  Ulysses  (q.v.);  (2) 
in  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet'  (q.v.)  the  brother 
of  Ophelia. 

Laestrygones,in  Homer's  'Odyssey' (Bk.  x), 
a  race  of  giants  who  inhabited  Sicily  and  fed 
on  human  flesh.  They  sank  eleven  of  the 
twelve  ships  of  Ulysses  and  devoured  his 
companions. 

Lafeu,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'All's 
Well  that  Ends  Well*  (q.v.). 

Lafite,  CHATEAU,  see  Claret. 
Lagado,  see  Gulliver's  Travels. 

Lai's,  a  celebrated  Greek  courtesan,  a  Sicilian, 
carried  to  Greece  at  the  time  of  the  Athenian 
expedition  to  Sicily.  She  lived  at  Corinth, 
where  she  is  said  to  have  attracted  many 
persons  of  eminence  by  her  charms,  and  to 
have  set  an  extravagant  price  on  her  favours. 
Lake  Poets,  LAKE  SCHOOL,  THE,  terms 
applied  to  the  three  poets  Coleridge,  Southey, 
and  Wordsworth,  who  resided  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  English  Lakes.  'Lake 
School*  first  appears  in  this  sense  in  the 
'Edinburgh  Review',  August  1817. 

Lake  Regillus,  near  Rome,  memorable  for 
the  victory  of  the  Romans  over  the  Latins  and 
Tarquin  in  498  B.C.,  celebrated  by  T.  B. 
Macaulay  (q.v.)  in  his  lay,  'The  Battle  of 
Lake  Regillus'. 

Lakshmi  or  SRI,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the 
wife  of  Vishnu  (q.v.),  the  goddess  of  pros- 
perity. She  is  represented  inthe'Ramayana* 
(q.v.)  as  produced  from  the  foam  of  the  sea, 
when  the  gods  and  the  demons  churned  the 
ocean  in  order  to  obtain  the  Amrita  (q.v.)  or 
water  of  life. 

Latta  Rookh,  a  series  of  oriental  tales  in 
verse,  connected  together  by  a  story  in  prose, 
by  T.  Moore  (q.v.),  published  in  1817. 

The  prose  story  relates  the  journey  of 
Lalla  Rookh,  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Aurungzebe,  from  Delhi  to  Cashmere,  to  be 
married  to  the  young  king  of  Bucharia.  On 
the  way,  she  and  her  train  are  diverted  by 
four  tales  told  by  Feramorz,  a  young  Cash- 
merian  poet,  with  whom  she  falls  in  love,  and 
who  turns  out,  on  her  arrival  at  her  destina- 
tion, to  be  the  king  of  Bucharia  himself.  An 
element  of  humour  is  introduced  by  the  self- 
important  chamberlain,  Fadladeen.  A  series 
of  accidents  on  the  way  has  thrown  him  into 
a  bad  temper,  which  he  vents  in  pungent 


LAMA 

criticisms  on  the  young  man's  verses  (in  the 
style  of  the  'Edinburgh*  reviewers),  and  he  is 
correspondingly  discomfited  on  (discovering 
the  latter's  identity.  The  four  tales  are  as 
follows. 

The  Veiled  Prophet  of  Khorassan.  The 
beautiful  Zelica,  half  demented  by  the  loss  of 
Azim,  her  lover,  supposed  dead,  is  lured  into 
the  haram  of  Mokanna,  a  repulsive  impostor 
who  poses  as  a  prophet,  on  the  promise  of 
admission  to  Paradise.  Azim,  returning  from 
the  wars,  finds  Zelica  wedded  to  Mokanna, 
and  joins  the  army  of  the  Caliph,  on  its  way 
to  punish  the  blasphemy  of  Mokanna.  The 
latter  is  defeated,  throws  himself  into  a  vat 
of  corrosive  poison,  and  dies.  Zelica,  seeking 
death,  puts  on  his  veil,  and  being  mistaken 
for  the  prophet,  is  killed  by  Azim  and  dies  in 
his  arms. 

Paradise  and  the  Peri,  A  Peri,  one  of  'those 
beautiful  spirits  of  the  air  who  live  on  per- 
fumes', offspring  of  fallen  angels,  is  promised 
admission  to  Paradise  if  she  will  bring  to  the 
gate  the  gift  that  is  most  dear  to  Heaven. 
She  brings  first  a  drop  of  the  blood  of  a 
youthful  warrior  who  dies  to  free  India  from 
the  tyrant  Mahmoud  of  Gazna,  but  it  fails  to 
open  the  gate.  Then  the  expiring  sigh  of  an 
Egyptian  maiden  who  dies  from  grief  at  the 
loss  of  her  plague-stricken  lover;  this  is 
equally  unavailing.  Lastly,  the  repentant 
tear  wrung  from  a  criminal  by  his  child's 
prayer  to  God,  and  this  opens  the  gate. 

The  Fire-Worshippers,  a  tale  of  the  Ghebers 
or  Persians  of  the  old  religion,  who  main- 
tained their  resistance  against  the  conquering 
Moslems.  Hafed,  a  young  Gheber,  falls  in 
love  with  Hinda,  daughter  of  the  Emir  Al 
Hassan,  who  has  been  sent  from  Arabia  to 
quell  this  resistance.  Hafed  scales  the  rocks 
on  which  her  bower  stands,  and  wins  her  love. 
Presently  Hinda  is  captured  by  the  Ghebers 
and  discovers  that  her  lover  is  their  chief. 
The  Ghebers  are  betrayed  to  Al  Hassan,  and 
Hafed  throws  himself  on  a  funeral  pyre. 
Hinda  leaps  from  the  boat  on  which  she  is 
being  carried  back  to  her  father  and  is 
drowned. 

The  Light  of  the  Haram,  a  story  of  Nour- 
mahal,  the  beloved  wife  of  Selim,  son  of  the 
Great  Akbar.  The  Feast  of  Roses  is  being 
celebrated  in  the  Vale  of  Cashmere,  but 
Nourmahal  has  quarrelled  with  her  husband. 
Namouna,  the  enchantress,  teaches  her  a 
magic  song,  which  Nourmahal  sings,  masked, 
at  Selim's  banquet,  and  thus  wins  back  his 
love. 

The  first  of  the  tales  is  written  in  heroic 
couplets,  the  others  in  stanzas  of  varied 
metre,  mostly  octosyllabic.  Lady  Holland 
said  to  Moore  at  her  own  table,  'Mr.  Moore, 
I  have  not  read  your  Larry  O'Rourke;  I  don't 
like  Irish  stories.* 

V Allegro,  see  Allegro. 

Lama,  the  title  given  to  the  Buddhist  priests 
of  Tibet  and  Mongolia.  The  two  chief  lamas 
of  Tibet  are  called  respectively  the  Dalai 


[439] 


LAMACHUS 

Lama  and  Tashi  Lama ;  the  former  is  higher 
in  dignity  and  is  known  to  Europeans  as  the 
Grand  Lama.  He  lives  in  the  strictest  seclu- 
sion, and  is  worshipped  with  almost  divine 
honours.  When  he  dies,  the  lamas  search 
for  a  child  who  gives  evidence  that  the  soul 
of  the  deceased  pontiff  has  entered  into  him ; 
when  found,  the  child  succeeds  to  the  office. 

Lamachus,  an  Athenian  general,  colleague 
of  Alcibiades  and  Nicias  in  the  Sicilian 
expedition  of  415  B.C.  His  plan  for  the  cap- 
ture of  Syracuse,  a'n  immediate  attack,  was 
the  boldest,  but  he  was  overborne  by  his 
colleagues. 

LAMARCK,  JEAN  BAPTISTE,  Chevalier 
de  (1744-1829),  French  biologist  and  botanist. 
He  advanced  the  view  that  species  were  not 
unalterable,  and  that  the  higher  and  more 
complex  forms  of  life  were  derived  from  lower 
and  simpler  forms;  that  environment  and 
new  needs  created  new  organs,  and  that  these 
were  transmitted  to  descendants.  Darwin 
adopted  from  Lamarck  the  theory  of  the 
transmissibility  of  acquired  characteristics, 
but  in  other  respects  their  views  were  not  in 
harmony. 

LAMARTINE,  ALPHONSE  DE  (1790- 
1869),  French  poet  and  politician,  best  known 
for  his  'Meditations  poe*tiques'  (1820),  medi- 
tative poems  of  a  religious  and  mystical  cast, 
followed  by  'Nouvelles  Meditations  poe*ti- 
ques'  in  1823,  and  'Harmonies  poe"tiques  et 
religieuses*  in  1830.  He  subsequently  turned 
to  politics,  and  for  a  brief  period  was  in  1848 
head  of  the  provisional  government.  He  pub- 
lished in  1847  his  'Histoire  des  Girondins*, 
which  contributed  powerfully  to  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1848.  After  his  retirement  he  pub- 
lished two  series  of  'Confidences'  (1849—51),, 
and  some  novels  and  further  poems. 

LAMB,  LADY  CAROLINE  (1785-1828), 
daughter  of  the  third  earl  of  Bessborough, 
married  William  Lamb,  afterwards  second 
Viscount  Melbourne.  She  became  passion- 
ately infatuated  with  Byron.  Her  first  novel 
'Glenarvon',  published  anonymously  in  1816, 
after  his  rupture  with  her  (republished  as 
'The  Fatal  Passion*,  1865),  contained  a 
caricature  portrait  of  him.  She  published 
'Graham  Hamilton*  in  1822,  and  'Ada  Reis,  a 
Tale'  in  1823.  Her  accidental  meeting  with 
Byron's  funeral  procession  on  its  way  to 
Newstead  in  1824  permanently  affected  her 
mind. 

LAMB,  CHARLES  (1775-1834),  was  born  in 
London.  His  father,  the  Lovel  of  the  'Essays 
of  Elia*  ('The  Old  Benchers  of  the  Inner 
Temple'),  was  the  clerk  and  confidential  atten- 
dant of  Samuel  Salt,  a  lawyer,  whose  house  in 
Crown  Office  Row  was  Lamb's  birthplace 
and  Ms  home  during  his  youth.  His  grand- 
mother, Mrs.  Field,  was  housekeeper  at 
Blakesware  (near  Ware),  described  in  the 
'Blakesmoor*  essay  and  in  'Mrs.  Leicester's 
School'.  Lamb  was  educated  at  Christ's 
Hospital,  where  he  formed  an  enduring 


LAMB 

friendship  with  S.  T.  Coleridge.  After  a  few 
months'  employment  at  the  South  Sea  House, 
he  obtained  at  17  an  appointment  in  the 
East  India  House,  where  he  remained  from 
1792  to  1825.  In  1796  his  mother  was  killed 
by  his  sister  Mary  in  a  fit  of  insanity.  Lamb 
undertook  the  charge  of  his  sister,  who  re- 
mained subject  to  periodic  seizures,  and  she 
repaid  him  with  her  sympathy  and  affection. 
He  himself  was  for  a  short  time  (1795-6) 
mentally  deranged,  and  the  curse  of  madness 
acted  as  a  shadow  on  his  life.  A  volume  of 
poems  by  S.  T.  Coleridge  published  in  1796 
contains  four  sonnets  by  Lamb,  and  in  1798 
appeared  'Blank  Verse*  by  Charles  Lloyd  and 
Charles  Lamb,  which  includes  'The  Old 
Familiar  Faces'.  In  the  same  year  appeared 
'The  Tale  of  Rosamund  Gray  and  Old  Blind 
Margaret',  a  simple  tragic  tale  of  a  young  girl, 
the  victim  of  an  undeserved  misfortune.  In 
1802  Lamb  published  'John  Woodvil'  (first 
called  'Pride's  Cure'),  a  tragedy  in  the  Eliza- 
bethan style;  in  1806  his  farce  'Mr.  H * 

proved  a  failure  at  Drury  Lane.  With  his 
sister  he  wrote  'Tales  from  Shakespear* 
(1807),  designed  to  make  Shakespeare 
familiar  to  the  young;  also  'Mrs.  Leicester's 
School'  (1809),  a  collection  of  ten  stories, 
reminiscences  of  childhood  supposed  to  be 
told  by  the  pupils  at  a  Hertfordshire  school, 
containing  autobiographic  details  of  the 
authors.  'The  Adventures  of  Ulysses*  (1808) 
is  a  successful  attempt  by  Lamb  to  do  for  the 
'Odyssey*  what  with  his-  sister  he  had  done 
for  Shakespeare.  In  1808  he  also  published 
his  'Specimens  of  English  Dramatic  Poets 
contemporary  with  Shakespeare,  with  Notes'. 
Between  1810  and  1820  his  literary  output 
was  small.  It  includes  the  essays  on  "The 
Tragedies  of  Shakespeare*  and  'On  the 
Genius  and  Character  of  Hogarth*  (1811). 
He  wrote  for  Leigh  Hunt's  'Reflector*  and 
for  the  'Examiner*,  and  in  1814  contributed 
to  the  'Quarterly  Review*  an  article  (much 
altered  editorially)  on  Wordsworth's  'Excur- 
sion*. A  collection  of  his  miscellaneous  writ- 
ings in  prose  and  verse  appeared  in  1818. 
From  1820  to  1823  Lamb  was  a  regular 
contributor  to  the  'London  Magazine',  in 
which  appeared  the  first  series  of  miscel- 
laneous essays  known  as  the  'Essays  of  Elia* 
(q.v.),  published  in  a  separate  volume  in 
1823.  The  second  series  was  published  in 
1833.  His  correspondence  was  first  published 
by  Sir  Thomas  Talfourd  in  1834 ;  an  enlarged 
collection  was  issued  by  Canon  Ainger  in 
1899-1900.  Of  his  poems  the  best  known  are 
the  'Old  Familiar  Faces*  (referred  to  above), 
the  lyrical  ballad  'Hester*  (1803),  and  the 
elegy  (On  an  Infant  dying  as  soon  as  born* 
(1827);  but  'Album  Verses',  published  in 
1830,  also  includes  many  charming  lyrics  and 
sonnets.  From  1797  to  1823  Lamb  lived  with 
his  sister  in  London  (at  Pentonville,  South- 
ampton Buildings,  The  Temple,  and  Co  vent 
Garden) ;  in  1823  they  moved  to  Islington,  in 
1827  to  Enfield,  and  thence  in  1833  to  Ed- 
monton, where  Lamb  died  and  was  buried. 


[440] 


LAMB 

His  sister  survived  him  for  thirteen  years. 
The  standard  life  of  Lamb  was  written,  and 
the  most  complete  collection  of  his  letters 
edited,  by  E.  V.  Lucas  (1905,  5th  ed.  1921). 
LAMB,  MARY  ANN  (1764-1847),  the 
sister  of  Charles  Lamb  (q.v.),  under  whose 
name  the  chief  facts  of  her  life  will  be  found. 
Besides  "The  Tales  from  Shakespear'  there 
referred  to  (her  share  in  which  was  the 
comedies),  she  wrote  the  greater  part  of 
'Mrs.  Leicester's  School*  (1809),  to  which 
her  brother  contributed  three  tales. 
Lambert,  GENERAL,  MRS.,  THEO,  and 
HETTY,  characters  in  Thackeray's  'The 
Virginians*  (q.v.). 

Lambeth,  from  very  early  times  the  pro- 
perty of  the  see  of  Rochester,  was  in  1197 
acquired  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Of  the  palace  an  important  part  was  built 
by  Hubert  Walter,  who  was  archbishop  in 
1193-1205,  and  other  parts  were  added  at 
various  times.  The  Lollard's  Tower  (i5th 
cent.)  was  used,  during  the  Interregnum,  as  a 
prison  for  Royalists,  as  it  had  been  for  Lol- 
lards 250  years  before.  The  archbishops, 
notably  Bancroft,  collected  a  great  library  at 
Lambeth.  This  was  saved  with  difficulty  at  the 
Great  Rebellion.  It  was  transferred  to  the 
University  of  Cambridge  under  a  provision  of 
Bancroft's  will.  Many  books  were  lost,  but  a 
good  proportion  returned  to  Lambeth,  being 
claimed  by  Archbishop  Juxon  at  the  restora- 
tion, and  are  there  still,  in  the  fine  hall  that 
Juxon  built.  The  palace  is  on  the  Thames, 
i  £  miles  south-west  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
London. 

Lamela,  AMBROSE,  see  Don  Raphael 
Lamia,  a  poem  by  Keats  (q.v.),  written  in 
1819. 

The  story  was  taken  by  Keats  from  Burton 
('Anatomy  of  Melancholy*,  in.  ii.  i.  i),  who 
quotes  it  from  Philostratus  (*De  Vita  Apol- 
lonii').  Lamia,  a  witch,  is  transformed  by 
Hermes  from  a  serpent  into  a  beautiful 
maiden.  She  loves  the  young  Corinthian 
Lycius,  and  he,  spellbound  by  her  beauty, 
takes  her  secretly  to  his  house.  Not  content 
with  his  happiness,  he  makes  a  bridal  feast 
and  summons  his  friends.  Among  them 
comes  the  sage  Apollonius,  who  pierces 
through  Lamia's  disguise,  and  calls  her  by 
her  name,  whereupon  with  a  frightful 
scream  she  vanishes. 

'Lamia*  was  the  Latin  name  for  a  witch 
who  was  supposed  to  suck  children's  blood, 
a  sorceress. 

Lammas,  from  OE.  hlafm&sse,  loaf-mass, 
i  Aug.,  in  the  early  English  church  observed 
as  a  harvest  festival,  at  which  loaves  of  bread 
were  consecrated,  made  from  the  first  ripe 
corn.   In  Scotland  one  of  the  quarter-days. 
Lammle,     ALFRED    and     SOPHRONIA,    in 
Dickens's  'Our  Mutual  Friend'  (q.v.),  un- 
scrupulous social  adventurers. 
Lamorak  de   Galis,  SIR,  in  the  'Morte 
d'Arthur*  (q.v.),  son  of  Sir  Pellinore  and 


LANCELOT  DU  LAKE 

brother  of  Sir  Percival,  'the  biggest  knight 
that  ever  I  met  withal,  but  if  it  were  Sir 
Launcelot',  said  Sir  Tristram.  He  was  slain 
by  Gawaine,  Agrayaine,  Gaheris,  and  Mor- 
dred,  Mordred  giving  him  his  death-wound 
treacherously  at  his  back.  This  they  did 
because  of  Sir  Lamorak's  adultery  with  their 
mother,  King  Lot's  wife. 

Lamourette,  ADRIEN  (1742-94),  bishop  of 
Lyons  and  member  of  the  Legislative 
Assembly  (in  the  French  Revolution),  where 
he  brought  about  a  temporary  reconciliation 
between  the  parties  which  was  soon  forgotten. 
Whence  a  baiser  Lamourette  or  'Lamourette 
kiss*  signifies  an  ephemeral  reconciliation. 

Lamplighter,  The,  a  novel  by  Maria  Susanna 
Cummins,  published  in  1854. 

LAMPMAN,  ARCHIBALD  (1861-99), 
Canadian  poet,  published  two  volumes  of 
verse,  'Among  the  Millet*  (1888)  and  'Lyrics 
of  Earth*  (1896).  A  third  volume  'Alcyone* 
was  in  preparation  when  he  died.  It  con- 
tained one  of  his  finest  works  'The  City  of  the 
End  of  Things',  a  sombre  allegory  of  human 
life.  But  Lampman's  strength  lay  in  his 
observation  and  description  of  nature,  and 
he  has  given  many  vivid  pictures  of  the 
Canadian  landscape. 

Lampoon,  a  virulent  or  scurrilous  satire, 
according  to  French  etymologists  derived 
from  lamponsy  let  us  drink,  a  drunken  song. 

LANCASTER,  JOSEPH  (1778-1838),  the 
founder  of  a  system  of  education,  based  'on 
general  Christian  principles'  (i.e.  unde- 
nominational), in  schools  organized  'on  the 
monitorial  or  mutual  system',  described  in 
'Improvements  in  Education*  (1803).  The 
proposal  gave  rise  to  heated  controversy,  of 
which  the  outcome  was  the  'voluntary 
system*  of  elementary  schools  that  endured 
until  1870. 

LANCASTER,   WILLIAM,    see    Warren 

C7.B.L.). 

Lancelot,  see  Launcelot  of  the  Lake. 

Lancelot  and  Elaine t  one  of  A.  Tennyson's 
'Idylls  of  the  King'  (q.v.),  published  in  1859. 
In  this  idyll  we  see  the  beginning  of  the 
retribution  for  the  sin  of  Lancelot  and 
Guinevere.  Lancelot,  the  guilty  lover  of 
the  queen,  leaves  the  court  so  as  to  attend  the 
'diamond  jousts'  unknown,  and  goes  to  the 
castle  of  Astolat.  The  events  that  follow, 
ending  with  the  death  of  Elaine,  'the  lily 
maid  of  Astolat*,  and  Lancelot's  remorse, 
are  given  under  Launcelot  of  the  Lake. 

Lancelot  Bogle,  The  Rhyme  of  Sir,  see  Bon 
Gaultier  Ballads. 

Lancelot  du  Lake,  Sir,  a  ballad  included  in 
Percy's  'Reliques*,  recounting  the  adventure 
of  Lancelot  with  Tarquin,  who  had  in  prison 
threescore  of  Arthur's  knights.  Lancelot 
kills  him  and  liberates  the  knights.  Falstafr* 
sings  a  snatch  from  this  ballad  in  Shake- 
speare's '2  Henry  IV,  n.  iv. 


LAND  LEAGUE 

Land  League,  an  association  of  Irish  tenant 
farmers  and  others  organized  in  1879  by 
Charles  Stewart  Parnell  and  suppressed  by  the 
government  in  1881,  having  primarily  for  its 
object  the  reduction  of  rent  and  ultimately 
the  substitution  of  peasant  proprietors  for 
landlords. 

Land  of  GaJkes,  THE,  i.e.  the  land  of  oaten- 
bread  or  oat-cake,  Scotland. 
Land  o'  the  Leal,  THE,  the  land  of  the 
blessed  departed,  the  title  of  a  song  by  Lady 
Nairne  (q.v.). 

Landless,  NEVILLE  and  HELENA,  characters 
in  Dickens *s  'Edwin  Drood'  (q.v.). 
Landlord  at  lion's  Head,  The,  a  novel  by 
W.  D.  Howells  (q.v.),  published  in  1897. 

LANDON,  LETITIA  ELIZABETH (1802- 
38),  afterwards  Mrs.  Maclean,  wrote  under 
the  initials  L.  E.  L.  She  published  a  number 
of  poems  between  1824  and  her  death, 
collected  editions  of  which  appeared  in  1850 
and  1873.  She  also  wrote  novels,  of  which 
the  best  is  "Ethel  Churchill*,  published  in 
1837.  She  died  mysteriously,  probably  from 
an  accidental  overdose  of  prussic  acid,  in 
West  Africa  shortly  after  her  marriage. 

LANDOR,  ROBERT  EYRES  (1781-1869), 
youngest  brother  of  Walter  Savage  Landor 
(q.v.),  was  author  of  a  tragedy,  'The  Count 
of  Axezzi*  (1823),  which  was  attributed  to 
Byron,  of  a  poem  'The  Impious  Feast'  (of 
Belshazzar,  1828),  of  a  fantastic  prose  story 
*The  Fawn  of  Sertorius'  (1846),  and  of  'The 
Fountain  of  Arethusa*  (1848),  dialogues 
between  a  certain  Antony  Lugwardine  and 
Aristotle,  Cicero  and  other  famous  men  of 
ancient  times. 

LANDOR,  WALTER  SAVAGE  (1775- 
1864),  of  a  Warwickshire  family,  was  educated 
at  Rugby  and  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
whence  he  was  rusticated,  an  intractable 
temper  frequently  involving  him  in  trouble 
throughout  his  life.  He  married  in  1811 
Julia  Thuillier,  with  whom  he  quarrelled 
in  1835,  lived  in  Italy  (Como,  Pisa,  and 
Florence)  from  1815  to  1835,  at  Bath  from 
1838  to  1858,  and  the  last  part  of  his  life  in 
Florence.  His  principal  prose  work  took  the 
form  of  'Imaginary  Conversations*  (q.v.), 
published  1824-9.  The  'Citation  and  Exami- 
nation of  William  Shakespeare  touching 
deer-stealing'  appeared  in  1834,  his  'Pericles 
and  Aspasia*  (q.v.)  in  1836,  and  "The 
Pentameron'  in  1837.  These  show  an  elabor- 
ate and  finished  style  of  great  charm.  Lan- 
dor's  verse  was  spread  over  most  of  his  life, 
and  includes  'Gebir'  (q.v.), published  in  1798 ; 
'Count  Julian'  (q.v.),  a  tragedy  (1812); 
'Andrea  of  Hungary'  (q.v.),  'Giovanna  of 
Naples',  and  'Fra  Rupert',  an  historical  trilogy 
(1839);  'The  Hellenics'  (1846-7),  short 
tales  or  dialogues  in  verse  on  Greek  mythi- 
cal or  idyllic  subjects;  and  among  shorter 
pieces  the  various  verses  addressed  to 
'lanthe'  (q.v.),  the  beautiful  'Dirce',  'Rose 


LANG 

Aylmer'  (q.v.),  and  'The  Three  Roses', 
Boythorn,  in  Dickens's  'Bleak  House*  (q.v»), 
is  a  genial  caricature  of  some  peculiarities  of 
Landor. 

Landseer,  SIR  EDWIN  HENRY  (1802-73), 
animal-painter,  youngest  son  of  John  Land- 
seer  (1769-1852),  who  was  also  an  artist.  He 
visited  Sir  W.  Scott  at  Abbotsford  in  1824 
and  drew  the  poet  and  his  dogs.  His  most 
famous  pictures  were  painted  between  1842 
and  1850.  He  completed  the  lions  for  the 
Nelson  monument  in  Trafalgar  Square  in 
1866.  Landseer  struck  out  a  new  line  by 
treating  pictorially  the  analogy  between  the 
characters  of  animals  and  men.  He  enjoyed 
the  favour  of  Queen  Victoria  and  the  Prince 
Consort. 

LANE,  EDWARD  WILLIAM  (1801-76), 
Arabic  scholar,  published  in  1836  his  'Ac- 
count of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the 
Modern  Egyptians',  and  in  1838-41  a  trans- 
lation of  the  'Thousand  and  One  Nights'. 
He  compiled  an  exhaustive  thesaurus  of  the 
Arabic  language  from  native  lexicons,  which 
was  published  at  intervals  during  1863—92. 

Lanfranc  (1005  ?-89),  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury frpm  1070,  a  man  educated  in  the 
secular  learning  of  the  time  and  in  Greek, 
reputed  as  a  teacher,  prior  of  Bee  in  Nor- 
mandy,  1045.  As  archbishop  he  worked  in 
accord  with  William  the  Conqueror.  He 
rebuilt  Canterbury  Cathedral  after  the  fire  of 
1067. 

LANG,  ANDREW  (1844-1912),  born  at 
Selkirk,  was  educated  at  Selkirk  Grammar 
School,  Edinburgh  Academy,  St.  Andrews 
University,  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and 
became  a  fellow  of  Merton.  In  1875  he 
settled  down  in  London  to  a  life  of  journalism 
and  letters. 

Lang's  first  book  was  of  verse,  'Ballads  and 
Lyrics  of  Old  France'  (1872);  followed  by 
'Ballades  in  Blue  China*  (1880  and  1881); 
'Helen  of  Troy*  (1882),  a  more  ambitious 
narrative  poem  in  six  books;  'Rhymes  &  la 
Mode'  (1884),  'Grass  of  Parnassus*  (1892), 
'Ban  and  Arriere  Ban*  (1894),  an<^  'New 
Collected  Rhymes*  (1905).  Many  of  his 
poems  were  written  in  the  old  French  forms 
of  ballade,  rondeau,  triolet,  virelai,  &c. 
Among  the  best  of  them  are  the  sonnets,  'The 
Odyssey*  and  'Colonel  Burnaby'.  His 
'Collected  Poems*  were  published  in  1923. 

Lang  valued  himself  most  as  an  anthropo- 
logist. His  first  book  on  folk-lore,  'Custom 
and  Myth',  did  not  appear  until  1884,  but 
contained  papers  written  and  printed  much 
earlier.  'Myth,  Ritual,  and  Religion*,  dealing 
chiefly  with  totemism,  was  published  in 
1887,  and  'The  Making  of  Religion'  in  1898, 
the  second  edition  of  'Myth,  Ritual,  and 
Religion'  in  1899  being  drastically  rehandled 
to  harmonize  with  his  more  developed  views. 
These  books  involved  him  in  much  contro- 
versy, but  he  'conferred*,  in  the  words  of 
M.  Salomon  Reinach,  *a  benefit  on  the  world 


[442] 


LANGLAND 

of  learning'  in  proving  that  folk-lore  is  not 
the  debris  of  a  higher  or  literary  mythology, 
but  the  foundation  on  which  that  mythology 
rests.  Mention  should  be  made  in  this  con- 
nexion of  Lang's  'Perrault's  Popular  Tales' 
(1888,  see  Perrault),  in  which  he  discusses  the 
origins  of  many  of  our  nursery  tales. 

Lang,  as  a  Greek  scholar,  devoted  himself 
to  Homer.  He  was  one  of  the  joint  authors 
(with  S.  H.  Butcher)  of  the  admirable  prose 
versions  of  the  'Odyssey*  (preceded  by  his 
best  sonnet,  1879)  and  (with  W.  Leaf  and  E. 
Myers)  of  the  'Iliad'  (1883),  and  also  pub- 
lished translations  of  Theocritus  (1880),  the 
'Homeric  Hymns'  (1899),  and  three  books  on 
the  Homeric  question,  'Homer  and  the  Epic* 
(1893),  'Homer  and  his  Age'  (1906),  and  'The 
World  of  Homer'  (1910). 

His  chief  work  as  an  historian  is  the  'History 
of  Scotland  from  the  Roman  Occupation  to 
the  Suppression  of  the  last  Jacobite  Rising* 
(1900-7).  He  also  wrote  a  number  of  his- 
torical monographs,  'Pickle  the  Spy'  (1897) 
and  'The  Companions  of  Pickle'  (1898),  on 
the  identity  of  the  Jacobite  spy  hinted  at  in 
the  Introduction  to  Scott's  'Redgauntlet'; 
'Prince  Charles  Edward'  (1900);  'The  Mys- 
tery of  Mary  Stuart'  (1901);  'James  VI  and 
the  Cowrie  Conspiracy'  (1902);  'John  Knox 
and  the  Reformation*  (1905);  the  'Life  of 
Sir  George  Mackenzie*  (1909);  and  'The 
Maid  of  France'  (1908),  on  Joan  of  Arc. 
His  last  published  work  was  a  'History  of 
English  Literature'  (1912).  He  also  wrote 
biographies  of  Sir  Stafford  Northcote  (1890) 
and  J.  G.  Lockhart  (1896),  the  latter  one  of 
the  best  works  of  this  kind  of  the  century. 

Lang's  novels,  with  the  exception  of  'The 
Mark  of  Cain'  (1886)  and  'The  Disentanglers* 
(1902),  were  less  remarkable.  In  his  'Shake- 
speare, Bacon,  and  the  Great  Unknown* 
(1912)  he  took  part,  in  defence  of  Shake- 
spearian authorship,  in  the  Shakespeare-. 
Bacon  controversy.  Mention  should  be  made 
of  his  two  pleasant  bibliographical  works, 
'The  Library'  (1881)  and  'Books  and  Book- 
men' (1887);  and  of  his  preface  to  his  trans- 
lation of  Theocritus,  his  'Letters  to  Dead 
Authors'  (1886),  'In  the  Wrong  Paradise', 
'Old  Friends',  and  'Essays  in  Little',  as  some 
of  his  most  delightful  works.  He  collaborated 
with  H.  R.  Haggard  (q.v.)  in  'The  World's 
Desire*  (1891),  and  with  A.  E.  W.  Mason  in 
'Parson  Kelly*  (1899).  His  collections  of 
Fairy  Tales,  each  volume  named  after  a 
different  colour,  are  well  known. 

LANGLAND,  WILLIAM  (i33o?-i4oo?), 
poet,  details  of  whose  life  are  chiefly  supplied 
from  the  work  generally  attributed  to  him, 
'The  Vision  concerning  Piers  the  Plowman* 
(q.v.).  He  was  a  native  of  the  western  Mid- 
lands, was  probably  educated  at  the  monastery 
of  Great  Malvern,  went  to  London,  and  was 
engaged  on  his  great  work,  which  appeared  in 
three  versions  (in  1362, 1377,  and  1392).  But 
recent  critical  discussion  of  these  three  ver- 
sions has  left  the  question  of  their  authorship 


LAODICEAN 

undecided.  Langland  was  possibly  the  author 
of  'Richard  the  Redeless',  a  poem  written 
to  remonstrate  with  Richard  II. 
Langtry,  MRS.  EMILY  CHARLOTTE  (1852- 
1929),  a  famous  beauty,  'the  Jersey  Lily*, 
daughter  of  the  Very  Rev.  W.  C.  le  Breton, 
Dean  of  Jersey.  She  married  Edward  Lang- 
try  in  1874,  and  after  his  death  Sir  Hugo  de 
Bathe. 

Languish,  LYDIA,  the  heroine  of  Sheridan's 
'The  Rivals*  (q.v.). 

LANIER,  SIDNEY  (1842-81),  American 
poet  and  critic,  born  at  Macon,  Georgia. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  served  in  the  Con- 
federate Army.  Among  his  books  are: 
'Florida'  (1875),  'Poems'  (1876),  'The  Science 
of  English  Verse'  (1880),  'The  English  Novel 
and  its  Development*  (1883),  'Complete 
Poems'  (1884). 

Lantern- land,  in  Rabelais's  'PantagrueP,  v. 
xxxiii,  the  country  of  learning,  visited  by 
Pantagruel  and  his  companions  on  their 
way  to  the  oracle  of  Bacbuc.  The  lanterns 
are  the  philosophers  and  poets. 
Laocoon,  according  to  legend  a  Trojan 
priest  of  Apollo,  who,  when  he  was  offering 
a  sacrifice  to  Poseidon,  saw  two  serpents 
issue  from  the  sea  and  attack  his  sons.  He 
rushed  to  their  defence,  but  the  serpents 
wreathed  themselves  about  him  and  crushed 
him.  This  was  said  to  be  a  punishment  for 
his  temerity  in  dissuading  the  Trojans  from 
admitting  the  wooden  horse  into  Troy. 

For  Lessing's  essay  see  Laokoon. 
Laodamia,  the  wife  of  Prote"silaus,  who  was 
slain  by  Hector  before  Troy.  Visited  by  the 
spectre  of  her  dead  husband,  she  could  not 
bear  to  part  with  it,  and  followed  it  to  the 
shades.   Wordsworth  wrote  a  poem  on  her. 
Laodicean,  one  who  has  the  fault  for  which 
the   Church  of  Laodicea  is   reproached  in 
Rev.  iii.   15,   16;  lukewarm,  indifferent  in 
religion  or  politics. 

Laodicean,  A,  a  novel  by  Hardy  (q.v.)» 
published  in  1881. 

The  Laodicean  is  Miss  Paula  Power,  the 
daughter  of  a  successful  railway  contractor,  a 
vacillating  lukewarm  character.  She  is  first 
presented  in  a  striking  scene,  faced  with  the 
ordeal  of  being  baptized  according  to  the 
rites  of  the  Baptist  persuasion  to  which  her 
father  belonged,  and  unable  to  take  the 
plunge.  We  then  see  her  vacillating  between 
her  love  for  George  Somerset,  a  young  archi- 
tect of  no  particular  position,  and  the  offer  of 
marriage  of  Captain  De  Stancy ,  the  heir  of  an 
ancient  family  which  once  owned  the  castle 
in  which  she  now  lives.  Her  romantic 
inclinations  make  her  accept  the  latter,  but 
she  is  arrested  at  the  eleventh  hour  by  the 
discovery  of  a  plot  hatched  by  Willy  Dare,  an 
odious  little  villain,  De  Stancy's  illegitimate 
son,  to  blacken  George  Somerset's  character 
in  her  eyes.  She  marries  her  prosaic  lover, 
her  romantic  castle  is  burnt  to  the  ground, 
but  she  remains  a  Laodicean  to  the  end. 


[443] 


LAOKOON 

Laokoon,  an  essay  in  literary  and  ^  artistic 
criticism  by  Lessing  (q.v.),  published  in  1766. 
It  takes  its  title  from  the  celebrated  group  of 
statuary  disinterred  at  Rome  in  the  i6th  cent, 
representing  Laocoon  (q.v.)  and  his  sons 
in  the  coils  of  a  serpent.  Adopting  this 
group  and  the  Horatian  formula  *ut  pictura 
poesis'  ('poetry  resembles  painting')  as^the 
initial  subject  of  discussion,  Lessing  examines 
the  grounds  for  the  divergence  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  scene  by  the  artist  and  by  Virgil 
who  described  it,  and  develops  the  essential 
differences  between  the  art  of  poetry  and  the 
plastic  arts.  The  work  was  left  unfinished. 

LaSm€don,  see  Hesione. 

Laon  and  Cythna,  see  Revolt  of  Islam. 

Lao-tsze  (cthe  Venerable  Philosopher'),  the 
great  Chinese  teacher,  and  reputed  founder 
of  TAOISM,  lived  in  the  6th  cent.  B.C.  and 
was  a  contemporary  of  Confucius  (q.v.),  who 
visited  him  at  least  once.  He  appears  to  have 
been  a  librarian  and  historiographer  at  a 
royal  court  in  what  is  now  the  province  of 
Ho-nan. 

The  TAo  TEH  KING,  which  is  attributed  to 
him  (the  word  Tao  is  generally  translated 
'the  way*),  is  a  short  and  obscure  work, 
putting  forth  the  doctrine  of  simple,  spon- 
taneous, childlike,  unselfish  action,  in  the 
individual  and  in  the  government,  as  the 
foundation  of  general  happiness.  Its  teach- 
ing is  benevolent  and  humane,  though  not 
always  practical.  It  recognizes  the  existence 
of  a  Supreme  Being  or  Deity,  and  has  been 
thought  to  be  in  some  measure  in  harmony 
with  Christianity.  In  later  centuries  Taoism 
developed  into  a  far  different  polytheistic 
religion,  borrowing  elements  from  Buddhism, 
and  assimilating  many  superstitions. 

Lapham,  SILAS,  hero  of  W.  D.  Howells1 
(q.v.)  novel,  'The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham*. 

Laplthae,  a  race  inhabiting  Thessaly, 
chiefly  famous  in  mythology  for  their  fight 
with  the  Centaurs  (q.v.)  on  the  occasion  of  the 
marriage  of  PeirithSus,  king  of  the  Lapithae, 
with  Hippodamla. 

Laputa,  see  Gulliver's  Travels. 

Lara,  a  poem  in  heroic  couplets  by  Lord 
Byron  (q.v.),  published  in  1814. 

'The  Reader*,  says  the  publisher's  ad- 
vertisement, *may  probably  regard  ["Lara"] 
as  a  sequel  to  the  "Corsair"  '  (q.v.).  Lara  is 
in  fact  Conrad,  the  pirate  chief,  returned  to  his 
domains  in  Spain,  accompanied  by  his  page, 
Kaled,  who  is  Gulnare  in  disguise.  He  lives 
aloof  and  a  mystery  hangs  over  him.  He  is 
recognized,  and  involved  in  a  feud  in  which 
he  is  finally  killed,  dying  in  the  arms  of  Kaled. 
But  the  interest  of  the  poem  lies  not  in  the 
story  but  in  the  character  of  Lara,  in  which 
one  may  see  the  author's  conception  of 
himself. 

LARBAUD,  VALfiRY,  contemporary 
French  author,  among  whose  works  are 


LAST  CHRONICLE  OF  BARSET 

'Enfantines'  (short  stories,  1918),  'Fermina 
Marquez'  (1920),  'Jaune,  bleu,  blanc*  (1927). 

Lares,  Roman  tutelary  deities  of  the  home. 
They  are  generally  linked  in  Latin  litera- 
ture with  the  Penates,  from  whom  they  are 
scarcely  distinguishable.  Besides  these  pri- 
vate gods,  there  were  Lares  Compitales  or 
Viales,  worshipped  by  the  community. 
Similarly  there  were  both  private  and  public 
Penates. 

LAROUSSE,  PIERRE  ATHANASE 
(1817-75)  French  lexicographer,  compiler  of 
the  'Grand  Dictionnaire  Universel  du  xixe 
siecle',  a  vast  encyclopaedia  (1866-76).  The 
present  series  of  'Dictionnaires  Larousse*  are 
independent  works  and  are  produced  under 
the  direction  of  Claude  Auge*. 

Larrikin,  the  Australian  equivalent  of  the 
hooligan,  or  street  rough.  The  name  arose  in 
Melbourne  not  long  before  1870,  but  its 
origin  is  uncertain;  perhaps  from  Larry,  the 
nickname  for  Lawrence. 

Lars,  a  praenomen  of  Etruscan  origin,  in 
Etruscan  usually  the  prefix  of  the  first-born, 
while  a  younger  son  was  called  Aruns;  an 
honorary  appellation,  equivalent  to  the 
English  'lord*  (Lewis  and  Short).  Thus, 
'Lars  Porsena*,  in  Macaulay's  lay  of  'Hora- 
tius'. 

Larynx,  THE  REV.  MR.,  a  character  in 
Peacock's  'Nightmare  Abbey*  (q.v.). 

LAS  CASAS,  BARTOLOME  DE  (1474?- 

1566),  Spanish  historian  and  bishop  of 
Chiapa  (Mexico)  ,f  amous  for  his  protest  against 
the  ill-treatment  by  his  countrymen  of  the 
Indians  of  America,  in  his  'Very  Brief 
Account  of  the  Ruin  of  the  Indies'  (i  542).  He 
also  wrote  in  his  old  age  a  general  'History  of 
the  Indies'. 

LassaUe,  FERDINAND,  see  Tragic  Comedians. 

Last  Chronicle  of  Barset,  The,  a  novel  by 
A.  Trollope  (q.v.),  published  in  1866-7. 

This  is  the  last  of  the  Barsetshire  series  and 
the  principal  characters  had  already  appeared 
in  earlier  works.  It  is  chiefly  occupied  with  the 
tribulations  of  the  Rev.  Josiah  Crawley,  the 
cross-grained  perpetual  curate  of  Hogglestock. 
Mr.  Soames,  agent  to  Lord  Lufton,  has  lost 
a  pocket-book  containing  a  cheque  for  £20, 
and  believes  that  he  dropped  it  in  Mr.  Craw- 
ley's  house.  Subsequently  Mr.  Crawley  has 
cashed  this  cheque  and  applied  the  proceeds 
to  pay  his  bills.  Called  upon  to  explain 
whence  he  got  it,  he  first  states  erroneously 
that  he  received  it  from  Soames  in  payment 
of  his  stipend ;  then  that  it  was  part  of  a  gift 
from  Dean  Arabin,  which  the  latter  (who  is 
on  a  journey  to  Jerusalem)  denies.  Brought 
before  the  magistrates,  Mr.  Crawley  is  com- 
mitted for  trial  but  allowed  bail.  Then 
follows  a  period  of  persecution,  principally 
instigated  by  Mrs.  Proudie,  wife  of  the 
bishop,  which  finally  leads  to  Mr.  Crawley's 
surrender  of  his  incumbency.  Meanwhile 


[444] 


LAST  DAYS  OF  POMPEII 

Major  Grantly,  son  of  the  archdeacon,  who 
is  in  love  with  Grace,  Mr.  Crawley's  daughter, 
has  insisted  on  engaging  himself  to  her,  there- 
by bringing  about  a  breach  with  his  father. 
When  matters  reach  a  crisis,  the  mystery  of 
the  origin  of  the  cheque  finds  a  simple  ex- 
planation. It  had  been  given  to  Crawley  by 
Mrs.  Arabin,  being  slipped  into  the  envelope 
containing  the  dean's  gift  without  the  latter's 
knowledge.  The  cheque  had  been  previously 
stolen  from  Soames  by  a  servant  and  paid  to 
Mrs.  Arabin  as  money  due  to  her.  Mr.  Craw- 
ley's  innocence  having  been  established,  he  is 
appointed  to  the  living  of  St.  Ewold's,  vacant 
by  the  death  of  old  Mr.  Harding,  and  Grace 
is  married  to  Major  Grantly. 

Of  other  characters  in  the  Barsetshire 
drama  we  hear  a  good  deal.  John  Eames 
continues  unavailingly  his  suit  of  Lily  Dale 
and  becomes  entangled  in  a  dangerous 
flirtation  with  the  intriguing  Madalina  Demo- 
lines;  Mrs.  Proudie  dies,  too  soon  to  wit- 
ness the  rehabilitation  of  Mr.  Crawley;  and 
Lady  Lufton,  Mr.  Robarts,  the  Greshams, 
and  the  Thornes  also  figure  in  the  story. 

Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  The,  a  novel  by 
Bulwer  Lytton  (q.v.),  published  in  1834. 

The  scene  is  laid  at  Pompeii,  shortly  before 
its  destruction^  and  deals  with  the  love  of 
two  young  Greeks,  Glaucus  and  lone,  and 
the  villainous  designs  of  Arbaces,  the  girl's 
guardian,  who  is  enamoured  of  his  ward. 
When  the  city  is  overwhelmed,  the  blind  girl 
Nydia,  who  cherishes  a  hopeless  passion  for 
Glaucus,  saves  the  lovers  by  leading  them 
through  the  darkness  to  the  sea.  The  work 
gives  an  interesting  picture  of  Roman  life  at 
the  time  of  the  catastrophe  (A.D.  79). 

Last  Man,  The,  the  title  of  poems  by  Camp- 
bell and  by  Hood  (qq.v.). 

Last  of  the  Barons,  The,  an  historical  novel 
by  Bulwer  Lytton  (q.v.),  published  in  1843. 
The  'Last  of  the  Barons'  is  Warwick  the 
king-maker,  and  the  historical  events  de- 
scribed in  the  novel  occurred  between  1467 
and  the  death  of  Warwick  at  the  battle  of 
Barnet  in  1471,  that  is  to  say  in  the  last  years 
of  the  feudal  period.  These  events  include 
the  quarrel  between  Warwick  and  Edward  IV 
over  the  marriage  of  Edward's  sister,  Mar- 
garet;  their  reconciliation  and  final  dissension, 
this  last  attributed  by  the  author  to  an  attempt 
by  Edward  on  the  honour  of  Warwick's 
daughter  Anne ;  the  short-lived  restoration  of 
Henry  VI,  and  the  battle  of  Tewkesbury,  fatal 
to  Warwick  and  the  Lancastrians.  With 
these  historical  events  is  woven  the  tragic 
story  of  a  poor  philosopher  and  mechanical 
inventor,  Adam  Warner,  and  his  beautiful 
daughter,  Sibyll,  beloved  but  deserted  by  the 
great  Lord  Hastings.  After  many  vicissitudes, 
they  meet  their  death  as  the  result  of  popular 
prejudice  and  superstition,  personified  in  the 
character  of  the  astrologer,  Friar  Bungey. 

Last  of  the  Mohicans  9  The,  a  novel  by  J.  F. 
Cooper  (q,v.)» 


LATIMER 
Last  of  the  Tribunes,  The,  see  Rienzt. 

Last  Ride  Together,  The,  a  short  poem  by 
R.  Browning  (q.v.),  included  in  'Dramatic 
Romances',  published  in  'Men  and  Women* 
in  1855. 

Last  Tournament,  The,  one  of  A.  Tennyson's 
'Idylls  of  the  King*  (q.v.),  privately  printed 
in  1871,  and  included  in  the  published 
volume  of  1889. 

At  the  last  tournament  held  at  Arthur's 
court,  the  'Tournament  of  the  Dead  Inno- 
cence', held  on  a  wet  and  windy  day,  and 
presided  over  by  the  weary  and  disillusioned 
Lancelot,  Tristram,  late  returned  from 
Brittany,  wins  the  prize,  a  carcanet  (necklace) 
of  rubies.  Disloyal  to  his  wife,  Iseult  of 
Brittany,  he  carries  this  to  his  paramour, 
fseult,  the  wife  of  Mark.  He  finds  her  alone 
at""Tintagel,  and,  as  he  clasps  it  round  her 
neck, 

Behind  him  rose  a  shadow  and  a  shriek  — 
'Mark's  way,'  said  Mark,  and  clove  him 
through  the  brain. 

Arthur  returns  'in  the  death-dumb  autumn- 
dripping  gloom*  to  find  his  home  empty  and 
Guinevere  fled.  A  notable  feature  in  the 
idyll  is  the  moral  uprightness  of  Dagonet  the 
jester,  who  does  not  spare  Tristram  his 
scarcely  veiled  reproaches. 

Latchfords,  a  name  applied  to  spurs,  from 
a  well-known  maker. 

Lateran,  a  locality  in  Rome,  originally  the 
site  of  the  palace  of  the  family  of  the  Plautii 
Laterani,  afterwards  of  the  palace  of  the 
popes  and  the  cathedral  church  known  as 
St.  John  Lateran.  The  LATERAN  COUNCILS 
were  five  general  councils  of  the  Western 
Church  held  in  the  church  of  St.  John 
Lateran  (1123,  1139,  H79>  *2I5»  1512-17). 


LATHAM,  SIMON  (fl.  1618),  the  chief 
I7th-cent.  authority  on  falconry,  published 
'Latham's  Falconry'  in  1615-18. 

Latimer,  DARSIE,  in  Scott's  'Redgauntlet' 
(q.v.),  the  name  borne  by  the  hero,  Sir  Arthur 
Darsie  Redgauntlet. 

LATIMER,  HUGH  (1485  ?-i555),  was  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge,  took  priest's  orders,  and 
became  known  as  a  preacher.  He  was 
accused  of  heresy,  brought  before  convoca- 
tion, and  absolved  on  making  a  complete 
submission,  in  1532.  He  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Worcester  in  1535,  but  resigned 
his  bishopric  and  was  kept  in  custody  for  a 
year,  because  he  could  not  support  the  Act  of 
the  Six  Articles  (q.v.,  1539).  His  famous  ser- 
mon 'of  the  plough*  was  preached  in  1548. 
Latiraer  was  committed  to  the  Tower  on 
Mary's  accession,  1553;  was  sent  to  Oxford 
with  Ridley  and  Cranmer  to  defend  his  views 
before  the  leading  divines  of  the  University, 
1554;  and  was  condemned  as  a  heretic  and 
burnt  at  Oxford  with  Ridley  on  16  Oct.  1555. 
His  extant  writings  were  edited  for  the  Parker 
Society  in  1844-5.  They  are  notable  for  a 


[445] 


LATIN  QUARTER 

simple  and  vernacular  style  and  for  their 
graphic  and  vivid  illustrations, 

Latin  Quarter,  in  Paris,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Seine,  the  quarter  where  students  live 
and  the  principal  university  buildings  are 
situated. 

Latinus,  the  legendary  king  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Latium,  who,  after  at  first 
opposing  Aeneas  when  he  landed,  was 
reconciled  with  him  and  gave  him  his 
daughter  Lavinia  in  marriage. 
Latitudinarians,  a  name  applied  to  those 
divines  of  the  English  Church  in  the  i7th 
cent,  who,  while  attached  to  episcopal 
government  and  forms  of  worship,  regarded 
them  as  things  indifferent.  Hence  applied  to 
those  who,  though  not  sceptics,  are  indifferent 
to  particular  creeds  and  forms  of  worship, 

Latona,  known  to  the  Greeks  as  LETO,  was 
the  daughter  of  a  Titan,  and  beloved  by  Zeus. 
Hera,  jealous  of  her,  sent  the  serpent  Python 
to  persecute  her  during  her  pregnancy.  She 
wandered  about  the  earth,  unable  to  find  a 
place  to  rest,  until  Zeus  fastened  the  floating 
island  of  Delos  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  as  a 
resting-place  for  her,  where  she  gave  birth 
to  Apollo  and  Artemis. 

Latour,  CHATEAU,  see  Claret. 
Latter-Day  Pamphlets,  see  CarlyU  (T.}, 
Latter-day  Saints,  see  Mormons. 

LAUD,  WILLIAM  (1573-1645),  educated 
at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  became  pre- 
dominant in  the  Church  of  England  at  Charles 
Fs  accession,  being  at  the  time  bishop  of 
St.  David's.  He  was  promoted  successively  to 
the  sees  of  Bath  and  Wells  and  London,  and 
became  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (i  633).  He 
supported  the  king  in  his  struggle  with  the 
Commons  and  adopted  the  policy  of  en- 
forcing uniformity  on  the  part  of  churchmen. 
He  was  impeached  of  high  treason  by  the 
Long  Parliament  in  1640,  committed  to  the 
Tower  in  1641  ,  tried  in  1644,  condemned  and 
beheaded  in  1645.  A  few  of  his  sermons 
were  published  in  1651,  and  a  collected 
edition  of  his  works  in  1695-1700.  In  these 
he  shows  himself  a  sturdy  defender  of  the 
Anglican  Church  as  a  national  institution, 
resisting  the  claim  of  the  Church  of  Rome  to 
universality  arid  infallibility,  and  equally  re- 
sisting the  claims  of  Piiiitanism.  Laud  gave 
some  1,300  manuscripts  in  eighteen  different 
languages,  and  his  collection  of  coins,  to  the 
Bodleian  Library. 

Lander,  WILLIAM  (d.  1771),  literary  forger, 
a  good  classical  scholar,  was  proved  to  have 
interpolated  in  the  works  of  Masenius  and 
Staphorstius  (i7th-cent.  Latin  poets)  extracts 
frorn  a  Latin  verse  rendering  of  'Paradise 
Lost*.  Incidentally  he  proved  that  Milton 
had^  deeply  studied  the  works  of  modern 
Latin  poets. 

PMlosopher,  THE,  see  Demo- 


cntus. 


LAUNCELOT  OF  THE  LAKE 

I/atmce,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Two 
Gentlemen  of  Verona'  (q.v.). 

Launcelot  Gobbo,  in  Shakespeare's  'Mer- 
chant of  Venice'  (q.v.),  a  clown,  servant  to 
Shylock. 

Launcelot  of  the  Lakef  appears  only  late  in 
the  series  of  English  Arthurian  romances, 
though  he  is  the  subject  of  a  great  French 
prose- work,  'Lancelot',  of  the  isth  cent.  He 
is  the  son  of  King  Ban  of  Brittany,  stolen  in 
childhood  by  Vivienne,  the  Lady  of  the  Lake, 
and  brought  by  her,  when  he  reached  man- 
hood, to  Arthur's  court.  His  story  is  first 
dealt  with  at  length  in  English  in  the  i4th- 
cent.  poem  *Le  Morte  Arthur'  (not  Malory's). 
In  this,  Launcelot,  a  knight  of  the  Round 
Table,  is  the  lover  of  Queen  Guinevere.  King 
Arthur  having  proclaimed  a  tournament  at 
Winchester,  Launcelot  goes  secretly  to  the 
jousts.  He  is  welcomed  by  the  lord  of 
Ascolot  (Astolat,  Guildford  in  Surrey).  The 
daughter  of  the  lord,  Elaine  the  Fair  Maid  of 
Astolat,  falls  in  love  with  him;  though  re- 
maining faithful  to  the  queen,  he  consents  to 
wear  the  maid's  sleeve  at  the  tournament. 
There  he  takes  the  weaker  side  and  is 
wounded  by  his  kinsman,  Sir  Ector  de  Maris. 
He  is  carried  to  Ascolot  and  gives  his  own 
armour  as  a  keepsake  to  Elaine.  Gawain 
comes  to  Ascolot  and  the  maid  tells  him  that 
she  is  Launcelot's  love,  which  Gawain  reports 
to  Arthur  and  his  court,  to  Guinevere's 
distress.  Launcelot  returns,  and  being  re- 
proached by  the  queen,  leaves  the  court  in 
anger.  The  Maid  of  Ascolot  is  brought  dead 
in  a  barge  to  Arthur's  palace,  a  letter  in  her 
purse  declaring  that  she  has  died  for  love  of 
Launcelot.  Launcelot  and  the  queen  are 
reconciled.  Agravain  (brother  of  Gawain) 
betrays  them  to  the  king,  and  with  twelve 
knights  surprises  the  lovers.  Launcelot  slays 
all  except  Modred  (q.v.),  escapes  and  carries 
off  the  queen,  who  is  sentenced  to  the  stake. 
Arthur  and  Gawain  besiege  Launcelot  and 
the  Queen  in  Launcelot's  castle  Joyous  Gard 
(q.v.).  Launcelot  restores  the  queen  to 
Arthur  and  retires  to  Brittany,  where  Arthur 
and  Gawain  pursue  him.  Launcelot  wounds 
Gawain.  Modred  seizes  Arthur's  kingdom, 
and  tries  to  get  possession  of  Guinevere. 
Arthur  returning  lands  at  Dover,  where 
Gawain  is  slain.  After  several  battles, 
Modred  retreats  to  Cornwall.  In  the  final 
battle  all  the  knights  are  slain  except  Arthur, 
Modred,  and  two  others.  Arthur  and  Modred 
mortally  wound  each  other,  the  sword  Excali- 
bur  is  thrown  into  the  river,  and  Arthur  is 
borne  off  to  Avalon.  Launcelot  arrives  to  aid 
Arthur,  and,  finding  him  dead,  seeks  the 
queen,  but  finds  that  she  has  taken  the  veil. 
Launcelot  becomes  a  priest  and  helps  to 
guard  Arthur's  grave.  On  his  death  he  is 
carried  to  Joyous  Gard,  and  visions  indicate 
that  he  has  been  received  into  heaven.  The 
queen  is  buried  with  Arthur,  and  the  abbey 
of  Glastonbury  rises  over  their  graves. 
The  story  as  told  in  Malory's  'Morte 


[446] 


LAUNFAL 

d'Arthur'  is  substantially  similar,  but  fuller, 
and  more  exploits  are  attributed  to  Launce- 
lot. He  is  the  first  of  the  knights  of  the 
Round  Table  and  takes  part  in  the  quest  of 
the  Holy  Grail,  of  which  he  has  glimpses  but 
no  more,  being  hindered  by  his  sins.  He  is 
the  father  of  Galahad  by  Elaine,  daughter  of 
King  Pelleas.  Gawain  becomes  Launcelot's 
bitter  enemy,  because  Launcelot  has  slain  his 
brothers,  Agravain,  Gaheris,  and  Gareth. 
He  prevents  Arthur  from  making  peace  with 
Launcelot,  when  Arthur  pursues  the  latter  to 
Brittany. 

Launfal,  Sir,  a  poem  by  Thomas  Chestre 
(fl.  1430).  Sir  Launfal,  a  Knight  of  the  Round 
Table  (q.v.),  leaves  the  court,  offended  by 
the  reputed  misconduct  of  Queen  Guinevere. 
He  lives  in  poverty  at  Caerleon.  Tryamour, 
the  daughter  of  the  fairy  king  of  Olyroun, 
declares  her  love  for  him,  gives  him  wealth,  a 
horse,  and  a  page,  and  promises  to  come  to 
him  unseen  when  he  summons  her,  on  con- 
dition that  he  does  not  reveal  their  love.  He 
returns  to  Arthur's  court,  where  Guinevere 
declares  her  love  for  him.  He  rejects  her 
advances,  saying  that  he  loves  a  lady  whose 
very  maids  are  more  beautiful  than  the  queen. 
In  consequence  of  this  indiscreet  speech, 
Launfal 's  horse  and  page  and  wealth  dis- 
appear; the  queen  accuses  him  of  trying  to 
seduce  her.  At  the  trial  he  is  required  to 
produce  within  a  certain  period  the  lady  of 
whose  beauty  he  has  boasted.  After  the  ex- 
piration of  the  period  Tryamour  appears,  jus- 
tifies the  knight,  and  breathing  on  the  queen's 
eyes,  blinds  her.  Tryamour  and  Launfal 
thereafter  live  in  the  Isle  of  Olyroun. 

The  story  occurs  in  the  lais  of  Marie  de 
France  (i2th  or  I3th  cents.).  J.  R.  Lowell 
(q.v.)  in  his  'Vision  of  Sir  Launfal'  makes 
him  one  of  those  who  sought  the  Holy  Grail. 

Laura,  (i)  see  Petrarch;  (2)  the  wife  of 
Beppo,  in  Byron's  poem  'Beppo'  (q.v.). 

Laura  Bell,  the  heroine  of  Thackeray's 
Tendennis*  (q.v.). 

Laurence,  FRIAR,  a  character  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Romeo  and  Juliet'  (q.v.). 

Laurence,  ST.,  an  early  Christian  martyr, 
roasted  alive  at  Rome  in  the  3rd  cent. 

Laurentian  Library,  THE,  had  its  origin  in 
the  private  collections  of  Cosimo  and  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici  (q.v.)  in  the  isth  cent.  On  the 
expulsion  of  the  Medici  from  Florence,  the 
collection  passed  to  the  monks  of  S.  Marco  in 
Florence  and  was  subsequently  purchased 
from  them  by  Leo  X  (q.v.),  taken  to  Rome, 
and  enlarged  by  him,  with  the  intention  that 
it  should  ultimately  be  returned  to  Florence. 
This  intention  was  carried  out  by  Clement  VII 
(also  a  Medici). 

Laurie,  ANNIE  (1682-1764),  the  subject  of 
the  famous  Scottish  song  that  bears  her  name. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Robert  Laurie  of 
Maxwelton,  Dumfriesshire,  and  married 
Alexander  Ferguson.  The  song  was  written 


LAW 

by  her  rejected  lover,  William  Douglas.  It 
was  revised  and  set  to  music  by  Lady  John 
Scott  in  1835. 

Laus  Veneris,  see  Swinburne  (A.  C.)  and 
Tannhduser. 

LAVATER,  JOHANN  KASPAR  (1741- 
1801),  a  Swiss  divine  and  poet,  chiefly  re- 
membered as  the  inventor  of  the  so-called 
science  of  phrenology  (or  physiognomy,  as 
he  called  it). 

Layengro,  the  Scholar — the  Gypsy — the 
Priest>  a  novel  by  Borrow  (q.v.),  published  in 
1851.  *Lavengro',  in  gipsy  language,  means 
'philologist'.  The  name  was  applied  to 
Borrow  in  his  youth  by  Ambrose  Smith,  the 
Norfolk  gipsy,  who  figures  in  this  work  as 
Jasper  Petulengro. 

Ln  this  book,  as  in  'The  Romany  Rye*  and 
*The  Bible  in  Spain*,  autobiography  is  in- 
extricably mingled  with  fiction.  It  put  ports 
to  be  the  story,  told  by  himself,  of  the  son  of 
a  military  officer,  a  wanderer  from  his  birth, 
at  first  accompanying  his  father  from  station 
to  station,  and  later  under  the  impulse  of  his 
own  restless  spirit.  In  the  course  of  his 
wanderings  he  makes  the  acquaintance  of  a 
family  of  gipsies,  with  whom  he  becomes 
intimate,  and  of  many  other  strange  charac- 
ters, an  Armenian,  an  old  apple-woman,  a 
tinker  (the  Flaming  Tinman  with  whom  he 
has  a  memorable  fight),  pickpockets  and 
sharpers,  and  the  like.  In  London  he  ex- 
periences the  hardships  of  the  life  of  a  literary 
hack.  He  is  much  given  to  the  comparative 
study  of  languages,  of  which  the  reader  is  told 
a  good  deal,  and  he  shows  his  aversion  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  book  closes  in 
the  midst  of  the  romantic  episode  of  Belle 
Berners,  the  sturdy  wandering  lass,  which  is  re- 
sumed in  the  sequel,  'The  Romany  Rye'  (q.v.). 

Lavinia,  (i)  the  daughter  of  King  Latinus 
(q.v.),  who,  though  betrothed  to  Turnus,  was 
given  in  marriage  to  Aeneas  ;  (2)  a  character  in 
Shakespeare's  'Titus  Andronicus'  (q.v.). 

Lavinia  and  Palemon,  characters  in  an 
episode,  resembling  the  story  of  Ruth  and 
Boaz,  in  Thomson's  'Seasons'  ('Autumn'). 

Law,  JOHN  (1671-1729),  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh, escaped  from  prison  after  being 
sentenced  to  death  for  killing  'Beau'  Wilson 
in  a  duel,  and  fled  to  Fran'ce.  There  he 
established  in  1716  the  'Banque  G&xerale* 
and  initiated  his  Mississippi  scheme,  by 
which  in  return  for  the  exclusive  right  of 
trading  with  Louisiana  he  undertook  to  pay 
off  the  French  national  debt.  He  was 
appointed  controller-general  of  French  fin- 
ances in  1720.  On  the  failure  of  his  company, 
involving  widespread  ruin,  he  fled  from 
France  and  died  at  Venice. 

LAW,  WILLIAM  (1686-1761),  bom  at 
King's  Cliffe  near  Stamford,  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
but,  declining  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  George  I,  lost  his  fellowship.  Edward 


[447] 


LAW  IS  A  BOTTOMLESS  PIT 

Gibbon  made  him  the  tutor  of  his  son,  the 
father  of  the  historian,  in  1728,  and  he  re- 
mained as  the  honoured  friend  and  spiritual 
director  of  the  family  until  1740,  when  he 
returned  to  King's  Clrffe  and  became  the 
centre  of  a  small  spiritual  community. 

Law's  earlier  writings  are  of  a  controversial 
character;  he  replied  to  bishop  Benjamin 
Hoadly's  latitudinarian  doctrine  in  his  'Three 
Letters  to  the  Bishop  of  Bangor*,  17 17-19 
(see  Bangorian  Controversy);  he  wrote  his 
'Remarks  on  the  Fable  of  the  Bees'  in  1723  in 
answer  to  Mandeville's  satire  of  that  name 
(q.v.);  and  to  the  deists  he  replied  in  'The 
Case  for  Reason*  (1731).  But  Ins  chief  claim 
to  be  remembered  rests  on  his  treatises  of 
practical  morality,  *A  Practical  Treatise  on 
Christian  Perfection'  (1726),  and  more 
particularly  his  'Serious  Call  to  a  Devout  and 
Holy  Life',  1729,  of  which  Wesley  admitted 
that  it  sowed  the  seed  of  Methodism  and  said 
that  it  'will  hardly  be  excelled,  if  it  be 
equalled,  in  the  English  tongue,  either  for 
beauty  of  expression  or  for  justice  and  depth 
of  thought'.  Dr.  Johnson  attributed  to  his 
reading  of  it  his  first  earnest  attention  to 
religion.  The  work  contains  admirable 
portraits  of  typical  characters,  such  as  the 
man  of  affairs  and  the  woman  of  fashion. 

In  his  later  life  Law's  writing  assumed  a 
mystical  character.  He  was  strongly  in- 
fluenced by  Jacob  Boehme  (q.v.),  and  his 
treatises,  'An  Appeal  to  all  that  Doubt* 
(1740)  and  'The  Way  to  Divine  Know- 
ledge* (1752),  are  in  harmony  with  Boehme 's 
teaching.  See  also  Byrom. 

Law  is  a  Bottomless  Pit,  see  Arbuthnot. 

LAWLESS,  EMILY  (d.  1913),  daughter  of 
Lord  Cloncurry,  was  author  of  the  successful 
Irish  novels  'Hurrish'  (1886)  and  'Crania* 
(1892).  Among  her  other  works  may  be 
mentioned  'With  Essex  in  Ireland*  (1890) 
and  'With  the  Wild  Geese'  (poems,  1902). 
The  'Wild  Geese*  are  the  exiles  who  left 
Ireland  after  the  surrender  of  Limerick  in 
1691. 

LAWRENCE,  DAVID  HERBERT  (1885- 
1930),  poet  and  novelist,  was  author  of  some 
remarkable  novels,  among  which  the  best 
known  are  perhaps  'Sons  and  Lovers*  (1913), 
'Aaron's  Rod*  (1922),  'Kangaroo*  (1923), 
'The  Plumed  Serpent*  (1926),  'The  White 
Peacock',  'The  Rainbow',  and  'The  Prussian 
Officer*  (1929),  and  'Lady  Chatterley's  Lover* 
(1928 ;  expurgated  edition,  1932).  His  essay, 
'Fantasia  of  the  Unconscious',  appeared  in 
1922.  Lawrence  published  several  volumes 
of  poems,  of  which  a  collected  edition  ap- 
peared in  1928. 

LAWRENCE,  GEORGE  ALFRED  (1827- 
76),  educated  at  Rugby  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  was  the  author  of  'Guy  Livingstone* 
(q.v.,  1857),  a  novel  that  enjoyed  great 
popularity,  but  was  denounced  in  some 
quarters  for  its  exaltation  of  the  muscular 
blackguard.  His  other  novels  included 


LAXDAELA  SAGA 

*  Sword  and  Gown*  (1859),  'Barren  Honour', 
*Sans  Merci',  &c. 

Lawrence,  SIR  THOMAS  (1769-1830),  the 
son  of  an  innkeeper  at  Devizes,  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Academy  and  principal 
portrait-painter  in  ordinary  to  George  III. 
His  works,  which  include  portraits  of  Cowper 
and  of  John  Kemble  as  Hamlet,  are  distin- 
guished for  their  courtliness  and  social 
elegance. 

LAWRENCE,  THOMAS  EDWARD 
(1888-  ),  was  educated  at  Jesus  College, 
Oxford,  became  an  archaeologist,  and 
travelled  and  excavated  in  Syria.  In  the  war 
of  1914-18  he  was  one  of  the  British  officers 
sent  from  Egypt  to  help  the  Sherif  of  Mecca 
In  his  revolt  against  the  Turks.  He  gained  a 
position  of  great  influence  with  the  Arabs, 
performed  many  daring  exploits,  and  en- 
tered Damascus  in  1918  with  the  leading 
Arab  forces.  His  narrative  of  these  ex- 
periences, 'The  Seven  Pillars  of  Wisdom*, 
was  printed  for  private  circulation  in  a 
limited  edition  in  1926;  a  shortened  version, 
'Revolt  in  the  Desert*,  was  published  in 
1927.  After  the  War  he  joined  the  Royal 
Air  Force  as  an  aircraftsman,  changing  his 
name  to  Shaw  by  deed-poll  in  1927. 
Laws  of  Ecclesiastical  Pplttie,  Of  the,  by 
Hooker  (q.v.),  a  philosophical  and  theological 
treatise  of  which  four  books  appeared  in 
1594,  the  fifth  in  1597.  The  last  three  books, 
as  we  have  them,  were  not  published  until 
after  Hooker's  death,  and  do  not  represent 
work  prepared  by  him  for  the  press.  The 
sixth  and  eighth  appeared  in  1648,  the 
seventh  was  first  included  in  Gauden's 
edition  of  1662.  The  whole  was  reissued  with 
a  life  of  Hooker  by  Izaak  Walton  in  1666. 

The  work  is  a  defence,  written  in  a  digni- 
fied and  harmonious  prose,  of  the  position  of 
the  Anglican  Church  against  the  attacks  of 
the  Puritans.  The  first  book  is  a  philosophical 
discussion  of  the  origin  and  nature  of  law  in 
general,  as  governing  the  universe  and  human 
society,  and  of  the  distinction  between  laws 
of  a  permanent  and  of  a  temporary  character. 
The  second,  third,  and  fourth  books  deal 
with  the  assertion  of  the  Puritan  party  that 
Scripture  is  the  sole  guide  in  determining  the 
actions  of  a  Christian  and  the  form  of  Church 
polity,  and  that  the  Anglican  Church  is  cor- 
rupted with  popish  rites  and  ceremonies. 
The  fifth  book  is  a  defence  of  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer.  According  to  Hooker's 
scheme,  the  last  three  books  were  to  deal  with 
Church  discipline,  the  power  of  jurisdiction 
(whether  of  the  bishops,  or  lay  elders),  and 
the  nature  of  the  king's  supreme  authority. 
The  principal  characteristics  of  the  work  are 
its  breadth  of  outlook  and  tolerant  spirit,  and 
its  advocacy  of  intellectual  liberty  against  the 
dogmatism  of  Calvin  and  the  ecclesiastical 
despotism  recommended  in  the  'Admonition 
to  Parliament*,  a  statement  of  the  Puritan 
case  by  John  Field  and  Thomas  Wilcox(i572). 
Laxdaeia  Saga,  see  Saga. 


[448] 


LAY 

Lay,  a  short  lyric  or  narrative  poem  intended 
to  be  sung;  originally  applied  specifically  to 
the  poems,  usually  dealing  with  matter  of 
history  or  romantic  adventure,  which  were 
sung  by  minstrels. 

Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  The,  a  poem  in  six 
cantos  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.),  published  in 
1805.  It  is  in  irregular  stanzas  of  lines  of 
four  accents  and  seven  to  twelve  syllables. 
This  was  Scott's  first  important  original 
work.  It  is  a  metrical  romance,  put  in  the 
mouth  of  an  ancient  minstrel,  the  last  of  his 
race.  It  is  based  on  an  old  border  legend  of 
the  Goblin  Gilpin  Homer.  The  period  of  the 
tale  is  the  middle  of  the  i6th  cent. 

The  lady  of  Branksome  Hall,  the  seat  of 
the  Buccleuchs,  has  lost  her  husband  in  an 
affray  in  which  Lord  Cranstoun  was  one  of 
his  opponents.  Lord  Cranstoun  and  Mar- 
garet, the  lady's  daughter*  are  in  love,  but 
the  feud  renders  their  passion  hopeless.  The 
lady  commissions  Sir  William  Deloraine  to 
recover  from  the  tomb  of  the  wizard  Michael 
Scott  in  Melrose  Abbey  the  magic  book  which 
is  to  help  her  in  her  vengeance.  As  Deloraine 
returns,  he  encounters  Lord  Cranstoun  and 
is  wounded  by  him.  At  Lord  Cranstoun's 
bidding,  his  elfin  page  carries  the  wounded 
man  to  Branksome  Hall,  and,  impelled  by  the 
spirit  of  mischief,  lures  away  the  lady's  little 
son,  the  heir  of  the  house,  who  falls  into  the 
hands  of  her  English  enemy,  Lord  Dacre. 
The  latter,  with  Lord  William  Howard,  in- 
tends to  storm  Branksome,  alleging  Delor- 
aine's  misdeeds  as  a  Border  thief.  The  Scots 
army  is  on  its  way  to  relieve  Branksome.  A 
single  combat  is  suggested  between  Sir 
Wittiam  Deloraine,  now  lying  wounded,  and 
Sir  Richard  Musgrave,  whose  lands  Deloraine 
has  harried;  the  lady's  little  son  to  be  the 
prize.  The  challenge  is  accepted  and  Mus- 
grave defeated .  It  is  discovered  that  the  victor 
is  Lord  Cranstoun,  who  with  his  page's  assis- 
tance has  assumed  the  form  and  arms  of 
Deloraine.  This  service  rendered  to  the  house 
of  Buccleuch  heals  the  feud,  and  Lord  Cran- 
stoun marries  Margaret. 

The  poem  includes  some  notable  ballads, 
such  as  that  of  Albert  Graeme  and  the 
touching  'Rosabelle';  also  a  version  of  the 
Latin  hymn  'Dies  Irae*. 

LAYAMON  or  LAWEMON  (meaning 
Lawman)  (fl.  1200),  according  to  his  own 
statement  a  priest  of  Ernley  (Arley  Regis, 
Worcester),  author  of  a  'Brut'  or  history  of 
England  from  the  arrival  of  the  legendary 
Brutus  to  Cadwalader  (A.D.  689),  based 
directly  or  indirectly  on  Wace's  French  ver- 
sion of  the  'Historia  Regum  Britanniae'  of 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (q.v.),  with  additions 
from  Breton  or  Norman  sources.  It  is  espe- 
cially interesting  as  giving  for  the  first  time 
in  English  not  only  the  story  of  Arthur,  but 
also  that  of  Lear  and  Cymbeline  and  other 
personages  dealt  with  in  later  English 
literature.  It  is  the  first  considerable  work  in 
Middle  English  and  is  said  to  show  no  little 


LE  FANU 

literary  power.  It  is  written  in  the  Old 
English  alliterative  line  of  two  short  sections, 
but  the  alliteration  is  frequently  abandoned 
and  rhyme  is  occasionally  introduced.  The 
standard  text  is  that  of  Sir  F.  Madden,  1847. 

LAYARD,  SIR  AUSTEN  HENRY  (1817- 
94),  the  excavator  of  Nineveh,  and  in  later 
life  under-secretary  for  foreign  affairs  and 
British  minister  successively  at  Madrid  and 
Constantinople.  He  published  his  'Nineveh 
and  its  Remains'  in  1848-9,  his  'Popular 
Account  of  Discoveries  at  Nineveh*  in  1851, 
'Nineveh  and  Babylon'  in  1853,  and  'Early 
Adventures  in  Persia,  Susiana,  and  Baby- 
lonia' in  1887. 

Lays  of  Ancient  Rome,  by  Macaulay  (q.v.), 
published  in  1842. 

These  are  attempts  to  reconstruct,  in 
English  form,  the  lost  ballad-poetry  of  Rome 
out  of  which  its  traditional  history  grew.  The 
lays  are :  'Horatius*,  dealing  with  the  valiant 
defence  by  Horatius  Codes  of  the  bridge 
leading  to  Rome  against  the  Tuscan  bands; 
'The  Battle  of  Lake  Regillus',  in  which  the 
Romans,  aided  by  the  gods  Castor  and  Pollux, 
defeated  the  Latins;  'Virginia',  the  story  of 
the  slaying  of  a  young  Roman  maiden  by 
her  father  Virginius,  to  save  her  from  the  lust 
of  the  patrician,  Appius  Claudius ;  and  'The 
Prophecy  of  Capys'  the  blind  seer,  who  fore- 
tells to  Romulus  the  great  future  of  the 
Roman  race. 

In  the  edition  of  1848  there  were  added: 
'Ivry',  a  ballad  of  the  victory  of  the  Hugue- 
nots under  Henry  of  Navarre  at  that  place 
in  1590;  and  the  fragment  'The  Armada', 
describing  the  scenes  in  England  on  the 
arrival  of  the  news  that  the  Spanish  fleet  was 
coming. 

Lays  of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers,  a  collection 
of  ballads  by  Aytoun  (q.v.),  of  which  the  first, 
the  'Burial  March  of  Dundee',  appeared  in 
'Blackwood's  Magazine'  in  April  1843,  and 
the  whole  were  published  in  1849. 

They  are  ballad-romances,  in  the  style  of 
those  of  Scott,  dealing  with  such  subjects 
as  the  pilgrimage  of  Sir  James  Douglas  to  the 
Holy  Land  to  bury  there  the  heart  of  Bruce, 
and — the  best  of  them — 'The  Island  of  the 
Scots',  an  exploit  of  the  company  of  old 
officers  of  Dundee's  army  serving  the  French 
king  against  the  Germans. 

Lazarillo  de  Tormes,  the  first  of  the  Spanish 
picaresque  (q.v.)  romances,  of  uncertain 
authorship,  printed  in  1553.  It  is  the  auto- 
biography of  the  son  of  a  miller,  who  lived  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tormes,  near  Salamanca. 
The  boy  Begins  his  career  of  wit  and  fraud  as 
a  blind  man's  guide,  whose  money  and  victuals 
he  steals.  He  passes  into  the  service  of  various 
poverty-stricken  or  rascally  employers,  and 
ultimately  reaches  the  position  of  town-crier 
of  Toledo.  His  career  provides  occasion  for 
many  satirical  portraits  of  Spanish  types. 
LE  FANU,  JOSEPH  SHERIDAN  (18x4- 
73),  great-grand-nephew  of  R.  B.  Sheridan 


3868 


[449] 


Gg 


LE  FEVRE 

(q.v.)»  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  His  principal  novels  and  stories,  in 
which  he  successfully  introduced  the  element 
of  the  mysterious  and  the  terrible,  include 
'Uncle  Silas'  (q.v.,  1864),  'The  House  by  the 
Churchyard'  (1863),  and  'In  a  Glass  Darkly' 
(1872,  containing  'The  Watcher',  'The  Room 
in  the  Dragon  Volant',  &c.).  Le  Fanu  also 
wrote  a  drama  'Beatrice5,  and  some  good 
Irish  ballads  ('Shamus  O'Brien',  1837,  is  the 
best  known)  and  other  poems. 

Le  Fevre,  the  hero  of  an  episode  in  Sterne's 
'Tristram  Shandy'  (q.v.,  vol.  vi). 

LE  SAGE,  ALAIN  RENfi  (1668-1747),  a 
French  novelist  and  dramatist,  whose  nrst 
important  work  was  'Le  Diable  Boiteux*  (q.v., 
1707),  followed  in  1709  by  'Turcaret',  a 
comedy  satirizing  the  plutocratic  basis  of 
society;  and  in  1715-35  by  the  famous 
picaresque  romance  'Gil  Bias'  (q.v.),  which 
gives  a  wonderful  picture  of  Spanish  life, 
though  the  author's  knowledge  of  Spain  was 
solely  derived  from  Spanish  writers. 

Leabhar  Gabhala.,  'Book  of  Invasions',  a 
Celtic  record  of  legendary  invasions  of  Ire- 
land. The  earliest  copy  of  it  is  in  the  'Book 
of  Leinster*,  a  i2th-cent.  manuscript. 

LEACOCK,  STEPHEN  BUTLER  (1869- 
),  political  economist,  but  better  known 
as  a  writer  of  humorous  stories,  among 
which  are  'Nonsense  Novels'  (1911),  'Fren- 
zied Fiction*  (1917),  'Winsome  Winnie' 
(1920). 

Leadenkall  Market,  London,  which  takes 
its  name  from  the  hall  with  lead  roof  which 
stood  at  the  comer  of  Gracechurch  Street, 
lies  at  the  crossing  of  the  two  main  thorough- 
fares, north  and  south,  and  east  and  west, 
which  traversed  the  Roman  city.  Remains  of 
an  important  Roman  building  have  been 
found  there,  and  the  spot  has  probably  been 
devoted  to  public  service  ever  since. 

LeadeniiaH  Street,  a  street  in  the  City  of 
London  in  which  stood  the  offices  of  the  old 
East  India  Company.  The  name  was  fre- 
quently used  to  designate  the  Company. 

Leader,  The,  a  weekly  periodical  started  in 
1849  by  Lewes  (q.v.)  and  Thornton  Leigh 
Hunt,  with  a  staff  that  included  Spencer  (q.v.) 
and  Kinglake  (q.v.). 

League  of  Nations,  a  league  of  the  principal 
nations  of  the  world  (exclusive  of  the  United 
States)  and  many  of  the  smaller  nations  *to 
promote  international  co-operation  and  to 
achieve  international  peace  and  security*, 
formed  under  a  Covenant  which  forms  the 
first  26  articles  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  of 
1919.  The  League  works  through  an  assembly 
and  a  council,  with  a  permanent  secretariat, 
and  has  its  head-quarters  at  Geneva. 
Leander,  see  Hero. 

Leander  Club,  THE,  the  oldest  of  the  Eng- 
lish open  rowing  clubs,  dating  from  early 
in  the  ipth  cent.  It  was  originally  a  club  of 


LECOQ 

London  oarsmen,  but  was  reorganized  and 
made  an  open  club  in   1862,   and  is  now 
mainly  composed  of  university  men. 
LEAR,   EDWARD   (1812-88),    artist   and 
traveller,  as  well  as  author,  wrote  'The  Book 
of  Nonsense*  (1846)  for  the  grandchildren  of 
his  patron,  the  earl  of  Derby,  which  did 
much  to  popularize  the  'Limerick'  (q.v.); 
'Nonsense  Songs,  Stories, and  Botany'(i87o) ; 
and  accounts  (illustrated  by  his  own  drawings) 
of  his  travels  in  Greece  and  southern  Italy. 
The  last  drew  from  Tennyson  the  poem  to 
'B.  L.',  'Illyrian  woodlands,  echoing  falls'. 
Lear,  KING,  see  King  Lear  and  Llyr. 
Learoyd,  JOHN,  with  Terence  Mulvaney  and 
Stanley    Ortheris,    the    three    privates    in 
Rudyard  Kipling's  'Soldiers  Three'. 
Leasowes,  see  Shenstone. 
Leatherstocking,    a   nickname    of   Natty 
Bumppo,  the  hero  of  some  of  the  novels  of 
J.  F.  Cooper  (q.v.),  which  are  in  consequence 
called  the  'Leatherstocking'  novels. 
Leatherwood  God,  The,  a  novel  by  W.  D. 
Howells  (q.v.),  published  in  1916,  concerned 
with  a  charlatan  who  proclaims  himself  a  god. 
LECKY,  WILLIAM  EDWARD  HART- 
POLE  (1838-1903),  educated  at  Cheltenham 
and    Trinity    College,    Dublin,    published 
anonymously  in  1860  'The  Religious  Ten- 
dencies of  the  Age',  and  in  1862  'Leaders  of 
Public  Opinion  in  Ireland',  which  at  the  time 
met  with  little  success.    After  travelling  in 
Spain  and  Italy  he  published  an  essay  on  'The 
Declining  Sense  of  the  Miraculous'  (1863), 
which  subsequently  formed  the  first  two 
chapters    of  his    'History   of  Rationalism' 
(i  865).  In  this  he  traced  the  cause  of  progress 
to  the  spirit  of  rationalism  and  tolerance  as 
opposed  to  theological  dogmatism.  The  work 
first  brought  him  into  fame.    In  1869  he 
published  his  'History  of  European  Morals 
from  Augustus  to  Charlemagne*,  describing 
man's    changing    estimate    of   the    various 
virtues  and  its  effect  on  happiness.    Lecky 
next  set  himself  to  collect  materials  for  his 
'History    of    England    in    the    Eighteenth 
Century*,  of  which  the  first  two  volumes 
appeared  in  1878,  and  the  others  at  various 
dates  to  1890.  It  is  concerned  primarily  with 
the  history  of  political  ideas  and  institutions, 
and    social    and    economic    history;    while 
biographical,  party,  and  military  matters  are 
accorded  less  space.    The  last  volumes  are 
devoted  to  the  history  of  Ireland  and  de- 
signed  to   refute   Froude's    misstatements. 
Lecky's     later    works    were:    'Democracy 
and  Liberty',  a  study  of  social  and  political 
questions  in  England,  France,  Germany,  and 
America  (1896 ;  a  revised  edition  of  1899  gave 
an  admirable  estimate  of  Gladstone's  work 
and  character);  'The  Map  of  Life*  (1899), 
and  'Historical  and  Political  Essays*  (1908). 
Lecky  was  M.P.  for  Dublin  University  from 
1895  to  1902. 

Lecoq,  the  professional   detective  in   Ga- 
boriau*s  stories  of  crime.  See  Tabaret* 


LEDA 

Leda,  a  daughter  of  Thestius,  and  wife  of 
Tyndarus,  king  of  Sparta.  She  was  seen 
bathing  in  the  river  Eurotas  by  Zeus,  who 
became  enamoured  of  her  and  took  the  form 
of  a  swan  in  order  to  approach  her.  Of  their 
union  were  born  Castor  (q.v.)  and  Pollux,  and 
Helen  (q.v.). 

LEE,  NATHANIEL  (1653  P-gz),  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  School  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  He  failed  as  an  actor  and 
became  a  playwright,  producing  'Nero*  in 
1675,  and  'Gloriana'  and  'Sophonisba',  in 
heroics,  in  1676.  His  best-known  tragedy 
'The  Rival  Queens'  (q.v.),  in  blank  verse, 
appeared  in  1677,  'Mithridates'  in  1678, 
'Theodosius',  which  enjoyed  a  long  popu- 
larity, in  1680,  and  'Lucius  Junius  Brutus* 
in  1 68 1.  He  collaborated  with  Dryden  in 
'Oedipus'  (1679)  and  'The  Duke  of  Guise' 
(1682).  He  lost  his  reason  and  was  confined 
in  Bedlam  from  1684  to  1689.  He  produced 
'The  Massacre  of  Paris'  in  1690,  and  went 
mad  once  more,  escaped  from  his  keepers, 
and  perished.  His  plays,  which  are  marked 
by  rant  and  extravagance,  were  long  popular. 

Lee,  SIR  HENRY,  COLONEL  ALBERT,  and 
ALICE,  characters  in  Scott's  'Woodstock' 
(q.v.). 

LEE,  SIR  SIDNEY  (1859-1926),  educated 
at  City  of  London  School  and  BalKol  College, 
Oxford,  a  member  of  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
'D.N.B.*  from  the  beginning,  joint  editor  in 
1890,  and  sole  editor  from  1891.  His  pub- 
lications include  'Stratford-on-Avon  from 
the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Death  of  Shake- 
speare* (1885,  new  edition  1906),  'Life  of 
William  Shakespeare'  (1898,  revised  edition, 
1915),  'Life  of  Queen  Victoria'  (1902), 
'Great  Englishmen  of  the  i6th  Century' 
(1904),  'Elizabethan  Sonnets'  (1904),  'Shake- 
speare and  the  Modern  Stage'  (1906),  'The 
French  Renaissance  in  England*  (1910), 
'Principles  of  Biography*  (1911),  'Shake- 
speare and  the  Italian  Renaissance*  (1915), 
'Life  of  King  Edward  VII'  (1925-7). 

LEE,  VERNON,  pseudonym  of  VIOLET 
PAGET  (1856-  ),  English  essayist  and 
novelist. 

Leech,  JOHN  (1817-64),  the  son  of  a  coffee- 
house keeper  on  Ludgate  Hill,  was  educated 
at  Charterhouse.  He  contributed  drawings 
to  'Punch*  from  1841  till  his  death,  among 
them  600  cartoons.  The  drawings  give  a 
delightful  picture  of  the  social  life  of  the  age, 
with  its  crinolines  and  whiskers,  and  the 
humours  of  sport.  Leech's  first  popular  hit 
was  a  caricature  of  Mulready's  design  for  a 
universal  envelope  (1840). 

LEFROY,  EDWARD  CRACROFT  (1855- 
91),  author  of  some  remarkable  sonnets, 
'Echoes  from  Theocritus,  and  other  Sonnets', 
published  in  1885. 

Legend,  SIR  SAMPSON,  a  character  in  Con- 
greve's  'Love  for  Love*  (q.v.). 


LEGEND  OF  MONTROSE 

Legend  of  Good  Women,  The,  written  by 
Chaucer  (q.v.)  probably  between  1372  and 
1386,  was  his  first  experiment  in  the  heroic 
couplet. 

The  poem  begins  with  an  allegorical  pro- 
logue (of  which  there  are  two  versions  ex- 
tant) in  which  the  god  of  love  rebukes  the 
poet  for  the  reflections  on  the  fidelity  of 
women  contained  in  the  'Romaunt  of  the 
Rose'  and  'Troylus  and  Cryseyde'.  Alceste, 
his  queen,  defends  the  poet,  but  directs  that 
he  shall  write  henceforth  in  praise  of  women. 
The  poet  accordingly  narrates  nine  stories  of 
good  women,  classical  heroines:  Cleopatra, 
Thisbe,  Dido,  Hypsipyle  and  Medea, 
Lucrece,  Ariadne,  Philomela,  Phyllis,  and 
Hypermnestra.  The  matter  is  taken  from  the 
Heroides  of  Ovid,  and  various  authors. 

Tennyson  refers  to  the  poem  in  'A  Dream 
of  Fair  Women* : 

'The  Legend  of  Good  Women*,  long  ago 
Sung  by  the  morning  star  of  song,  who 

made 
His  music  heard  below. 

Legend  of  Montrose,  A,  a  novel  by  Sir  W. 
Scott  (q.v.),  published  in  1819,  the  last  of  the 
'Tales  of  My  Landlord*. 

It  is  the  story  of  the  campaign  of  1644,  in 
which  the  Highland  clans,  having  risen  in 
favour  of  Charles  I  and  against  the  Cove- 
nanters of  their  own  country,  inflicted  a 
succession  of  defeats  on  their  opponents, 
thanks  in  great  measure  to  the  skilful  general- 
ship of  their  great  commander,  the  earl  of 
Montrose,  whose  character  the  author 
strongly  contrasts  with  that  of  his  rival,  the 
marquess  of  Argyle. 

With  this  for  historical  background,  the 
author  tells  the  tale,  which  also  has  some 
basis  of  fact,  of  a  barbarous  murder  committed 
by  a  small  clan  of  Highland  bandits,  the 
Children  of  the  Mist,  and  of  the  tragic  events 
following  thereon.  Allan  M'Aulay,  the 
nephew  of  the  murdered  man,  obsessed  with 
the  thirst  for  vengeance,  grows  up  moody  and 
violent,  and  passionately  loves  Annot  Lyle, 
a  young  girl  whom  in  one  of  his  forays  against 
his  uncle's  murderers  he  has  rescued  from 
them.  She,  however,  returns  the  love  of  the 
gallant  young  earl  of  Menteith.  Both  Allan 
and  Menteith  are  prevented  from  pressing 
their  suit  by  the  obscurity  in  which  the  birth 
of  Annot  Lyle  is  involved.  When  the  leader 
of  the  caterans  reveals  on  his  death-bed  that 
Annot  is  the  daughter  of  Sir  Duncan  Camp- 
bell, her  marriage  with  Menteith  becomes 
possible,  but  is  interrupted  by  Allan,  who 
furiously  attacks  and  stabs  his  rival,  and  then 
disappears. 

The  gloom  of  the  story  is  relieved  by  the 
character  of  Captain  Dugald  Dalgetty,  a 
mixture  of  the  loquacious  pedant,  who  makes 
great  show  of  the  knowledge  gained  at  the 
Marischal  College  of  Aberdeen,  and  the 
brave  but  self-seeking  soldier  of  fortune;  he 
has  served  indifferently  under  Gustavus  and 
WaUenstein,  and  is  prepared  to  do  so  under 

Gg2 


LEGENDA  AUREA 

King  Charles  or  the  Covenanters  according 
to  the  prospects  offered  by  each. 
Legenda  Aurea,  see  Golden  Legend. 

Legion  of  Honour,  an  order  instituted  in 
1802  by  Buonaparte,  when  First  Consul,  to 
reward  civil  and  military  services. 
Legouis,    EMILE    (1861-        ),    a    leading 
French  critic  of  English  literature. 

LEIBNIZ,  GOTTFRIED  WILHELM 
(1646—1716),  German  philosopher  and 
mathematician,  born  at  Leipzig,  was  the 
founder  of  the  Society  (later  Academy)  of 
Sciences  at  Berlin.  He  discovered  the^in- 
finitesimal  calculus  at  about  the  same  time 
as  Newton,  but  by  a  different  method.  As  a 
philosopher  he  was  inspired  by  Descartes, 
Spinoza,  and  Hobbes  (qq.y.),  but  broke  away 
from  Descartes  *s  mechanical  conception  of 
the  universe.  Matter  he  regarded  as  a 
multitude  of  monads,  each  a  nucleus  of  force 
and  a  microcosm  or  concentration  of  the 
universe.  Admitting  that  the  interaction  of 
spirit  and  matter  is  inexplicable,  he  assumed 
a  'pre-established  harmony'  between  them: 
the  spirit  is  modified  by  final  causes,  bodies 
by  efficient  causes ;  the  two  series  are  brought 
together,  like  two  clocks  ticking  in  unison 
(the  simile  is  Voltaire's),  by  a  harmony 
established  from  all  time  by  God,  the  supreme 
monad  and  perfect  exemplar  of  the  human 
soul.  His  system  is  embodied  in  his  'Theo- 
diceV  (1710)  and  'Monadologie'  (1714), 
written  in  French.  Leibniz  was  one  of  the 
chief  forces  in  the  *Auf  klarung*  ('Enlighten- 
ment') movement,  the  German  renascence 
that  followed  the  Thirty  Years  War. 

Leicester,  ROBERT  DUDLEY,  EAEL  OF,  the 
favourite  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  figures  in 
Scott's  'Kenilworth*  (q.v.)  as  the  husband 
of  the  unfortunate  Amy  Robsart. 

Leicester  Fields,  now  Leicester  Square, 
London,  was  so  named  from  a  residence  built 
there  early  in  the  I7th  cent,  by  the  earl  of 
Leicester  (the  nephew  of  Robert  Dudley, 
Elizabeth^  favourite).  Many  eminent  per- 
sons lived  there  at  various  times,  among  others 
Swift,  Hogarth,  Reynolds,  and  Mrs.  Inchbald. 

Leif  Eriksson,  Icelandic  discoverer  of 
America,  c.  A.D.  1000.  See  Vinland. 

Leigh,  AMYAS,  the  hero  of  C.  Kirjgsley's 
'Westward  Ho!*  (q.v.). 

Leigh,  AUGUSTA,  half-sister  of  Lord  Byron 
(q.v.),  being  the  daughter  of  his  father  by  the 
latter's  earlier  marriage  with  Lady  Conyers. 
Her  relations  with  Lord  Byron  were  the 
object  of  Lady  Byron's  jealousy  and  occa- 
sioned their  separation. 

Leila,  (i)  in  Byron's  'Don  Juan'  (q.v.),  the 
Mohammedan  child  whom  Juan  rescues  at 
the  siege  of  Ismail;  (2)  in  Byron's  'The 
Giaour'  (q.v.),  the  unfortunate  heroine. 
Leinster,  Book  of,  an  Irish  MS.  of  the  lath 
cent.,  containing  stories  of  Gaelic  mythology, 
in  particular  the  feats  of  Cuchulain  (q.v,). 


LEMURIA 

LELAND,  CHARLES  GODFREY  (1824- 
1903),  a  native  of  Philadelphia,  U.S.,  re- 
membered as  the  author  of  'Hans  Breit- 
mann's  Ballads',  which  appeared  in  1856, 
followed  by  other  Breitmann  volumes  at 
various  dates.  These  collections  of  humorous 
verses  have  for  their  theme  the  demoralizing 
effect  of  the  American  social  environment  on 
a  German  gentleman,  the  product  of  the  old 
world  civilization.  Leland  was  an  authority 
on  the  gipsies,  and  translated  all  Heine's 
prose  works  into  English. 

LELAND  or  LEYLAND,  JOHN  (1506?- 
52),  the  earliest  of  modern  English  anti- 
quaries, was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  School, 
London,  and  Christ's  College,  Cambridge. 
He  studied  at  Paris,  took  holy  orders,  became 
library-keeper  to  Henry  VIII  before  1530, 
and  king's  antiquary,  1533.  He  made  an 
antiquarian  tour  through  England,  1534-43, 
intending  his  researches  to  be  the  basis  of  a 
great  work  on  the  'History  and  Antiquities  of 
this  Nation*,  but  he  left  in  fact  merely  a  mass 
of  undigested  notes.  In  'A  New  Year's  Gift* 
(1545)  he  described  to  the  king  the  manner 
and  aims  of  his  researches.  He  became  in- 
sane in  1550.  'Leland's  Itinerary*  was  first 
published  at  Oxford  in  nine  volumes  (1710), 
and  his  'Collectanea*  in  six  (1715).  Leland 
claimed  to  have  'conserved  many  good 
authors,  the  which  otherwise  had  been  like  to 
have  perished*,  in  the  dissolution  of  the 
religious  houses.  There  is  a  good  edition  of 
'Itinerary*  by  Lucy  Toulrnin  Smith  (1906-7). 

Lemnos,  one  of  the  largest  islands  in  the 
Aegean.  Hephaestus  (Vulcan)  is  said  to  have 
fallen  there  when  hurled  from  Olympus  by 
Zeus.  The  Argonauts  (q.v.)  visited  it  and 
found  it  peopled  by  women,  who  had  killed 
their  husbands  and  made  Hypsipyle  their 
queen.  By  the  Lemnian  women  the  Argo- 
nauts became  fathers  of  the  Minyae,  the  later 
inhabitants  of  the  island,  who  subsequently 
were  expelled  by  the  Pelasgians.  See  also 
Terra  Sigillata. 

LEMON,  MARK  (1809-70),  is  remembered 
as  one  of  the  founders  and  first  joint-editors, 
and  subsequently  sole  editor,  of  'Punch* 
(q.v.).  He  also  published  farces,  melodramas, 
and  operas,  and  besides  contributing  to 
'Household  Words*  and  other  periodicals, 
was  editor  of  the  'Family  Herald*  and  'Once 
a  Week*. 

LEMPRlfiRE,  JOHN  (d.  1824),  classical 
scholar;  author  of  'Bibliotheca  Classica* 
(Classical  Dictionary),  1788,  which  has  be- 
come a  standard  work  of  reference  and  has 
been  revised  and  enlarged  from  time  to  time. 

Lemftres,  the  name  given  by  the  Romans 
to  the  restless  spirits  of  the  wicked  dead,  who 
were  supposed  to  rove  at  night,  haunting 
houses  and  frightening  the  occupants.  The 
LEMURALIA  was  a  festival  designed  to  pro- 
pitiate them. 

Lemuria,   the  name  proposed   by   Philip 


LENCLOS 

Lutley  Sclater,  the  zoologist,  for  the  supposed 
lost  continent  between  Madagascar  and 
Malaya,  which  would  account  for  the  pecu- 
liar geographical  distribution  of  the  lemur,  a 
smafl  mammal  akin  to  the  monkey  (cf. 
Gondwana). 

Lenclos,  ANNE,  known  as  NINON  DE  L'EN- 
CLOS  (1620-1705),  a  Frenchwoman  noted  for 
her  beauty  and  wit,  which  she  retained  to  a 
very  advanced  age,  depicted  by  Mile  Scude"ry 
as  'Clarisse'  in  her  'Clelie'.  She  had  many 
celebrities  for  her  lovers,  and  her  salon  was 
frequented  by  St.  fivremond,  MoHere,  the 
youthful  Voltaire,  &c. 

LENNOX,  CHARLOTTE  (1720-1804), 
daughter  of  Colonel  James  Ramsay,  lieuten- 
ant-governor of  New  York,  where  she  was 
born,  was  author  of  a  novel,  'The  Female 
Quixote*  (1752)  and  a  'Shakespeare  Illus- 
trated', to  both  of  which  Dr.  Johnson  wrote 
dedications.  She  also  wrote  a  comedy,  'The 
Sister*,  acted  in  1769. 

Lenore,  the  heroine  of  a  celebrated  ballad 
by  Gottfried  August  _  Burger  (1747-94),  a 
German  poet.  Lenore  is  carried  off  on  horse- 
back by  the  spectre  of  her  lover  after  his 
death  and  married  to  him  at  the  grave's  side. 
Sir  W.  Scott's  translation  or  imitation  of  the 
ballad  was  one  of  his  first  poetical  works ;  it 
appeared  as  'William  and  Helen*  in  'The 
Chase  and  William  and  Helen*,  published 
anonymously  in  1796. 

Leo,  the  sth  sign  of  the  zodiac;  also  a  con- 
stellation, which,  according  to  mythology, 
was  originally  the  Nemean  lion  killed  by 
Hercules  (q.v.). 

Leo  Hunter,  MRS.,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
Tickwick  Papers*  (q.v.). 

LEO,  JOHANNES,  generally  known  as  LEO 
APRICANUS  (c.  1494-1552),  a  Moor  born  in 
Spain,  who  travelled  widely  in  Africa  (the 
Sudan,  the  Sahara,  the  Niger  basin,  Egypt). 
He  was  captured  by  pirates  while  returning 
by  sea  from  Egypt,  and  given  as  a  slave  to 
Leo  X,  who  induced  him  ^  to  become  a 
Christian,  and  gave  him  his  own  names 
Johannes  and  Leo.  Leo  Africanus  was 
author  of  a  'Description  of  Africa',  of  which 
the  Italian  text  survives  (1526). 
Leo  the  Isaurian  or  Iconoclast,  Byzantine 
emperor,  718-41,  famous  for  his  edict  pro- 
scribing the  veneration  of  images,  which  was 
repudiated  by  Pope  Gregory  II  (726-31). 
Leodegrance,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur', 
king  of  Cameliard,  and  father  of  Guinevere. 

LEON,  FRAY  LUIS  PONCE  DE(c.  1528- 
91),  a  Spanish  Augustinian  monk,  celebrated 
as  a  mystic  poet.  A  life  of  him  ^by  James 
Fitzmaurice-Kelly  was  published  in  1921. 

Leonarda,  DAME,  in  Le  Sage's  'Gil  Bias' 
(q.v.),  the  old  cook  in  the  robber's  cave. 

LEONARDO  DA  VINCI  (1452-1 5 19),  the 
•  great  Italian  painter,  sculptor,  and  engineer. 


LEOPARDI 

He  was  a  pupil  of  Verrochio,  and  worked  for  a 
time  at  Florence,  but  subsequently  entered 
the  service  of  the  Duke  Ludovico  Sfprza  at 
Milan,  where  he  carried  out  one  of  his  most 
famous  works,  the  fresco  of  the  'Last  Supper' 
in  the  refectory  of  Sta  Maria  delle  Grazie. 
He  subsequently  went  to  Rome  and  finally 
accepted  employment  under  Fran?ois  I  of 
France.  He  died  at  the  Chateau  de  Cloux, 
near  Amboise,  which  had  been  assigned  to 
him  as  a  residence.  His  extant  paintings  are 
not  numerous ;  they  include  the  famous  *La 
Gioconda*  ('La  Joconde'),  or  portrait  of  Mona 
Lisa  (q.v.),  in  the  Louvre.  He  was  author  of 
many  treatises  on  art  and  science,  including 
the  celebrated  'Trattato  della  Pittura*. 
Leonato,in  Shakespeare's  'Much  Ado*  (q.v.), 
the  father  of  Hero  and  uncle  of  Beatrice. 
Leonidas,  king  of  Sparta  (491-480  B.C.), 
the  hero  of  the  defence  of  the  pass  of 
Thermopylae  in  480  B.C.  against  the  invading 
army  of  Xerxes. 

Leonine  City,  the  part  of  Rome  in  which  the 
Vatican  stands,  walled  and  fortified  by  Leo  IV 
because  of  the  Saracen  invasions. 
Leonine  verse,  a  kind  of  Latin  verse  much 
used  in  the  Middle  Ages,  consisting  of  hexa- 
meters, or  alternate  hexameters  and  penta- 
meters, in  which  the  last  word  rhymes  with 
that  preceding  the  caesura;  for  instance: 
His  replicans  clare  tres  causas  explico  quare 
More  Leonino  dicere  metra  sino. 

The  term  is  applied  to  English  verse  of 
which  the  middle  and  last  syllables  rhyme.  It 
is  derived,  according  to  Du  Cange,  from  the 
name  of  a  certain  poet  Leo,  who  lived  about 
the  time  of  Louis  VII  of  France  (i  137-8°)  or 
his  successor  PhiHppe-Auguste  (1180-1223). 
Leonora,  (i)  'the  unfortunate  jilt*,  an  episode 
in  Fielding's  *  Joseph  Andrews1  (q.v.);  (2)  the 
original  name  of  Beethoven's  one  opera,  based 
on  a  libretto  by  Bouilly,  and  produced  as 
'Fidelio*  in  1805.  Fidelio  is  the  name  as- 
sumed by  Leonora  when,  disguised  as  a  boy, 
she  rescues  from  captivity  her  husband 
Florestan,  a  state  prisoner;  (3)  Burger's 
ballad,  see  Lenore. 

Leonora  d'Este,  sister  of  Alfonso  II,  duke 
of  Ferrara,  with  whom  (according  to  a  story 
now  declared  untrue)  the  poet  Torquato 
Tasso  (q.v.)  fell  in  love,  and  was  in  conse- 
quence imprisoned  in  a  madhouse.  The 
legend  is  the  foundation  of  Byron's  'The 
Lament  of  Tasso'. 

Leontes,  in  Shakespeare's  'The  Winter's 
Tale*  (q.v.),  the  husband  of  Hermione. 
Leontius,  a  character  in  Fletcher's  'The 
Humorous  Lieutenant*  (q.v.). 
LEOPARDI,     GIACOMO     (1798-1837), 
Italian  poet  and  scholar,  an  invalid  from  his 
youth,  the  author  of  some  of  the  finest  poetry 
in  modern  Italian  literature,  classic  in  form 
and  imbued  with  melancholy  and  pessimism. 
His   works,    small   in  total   bulk,   include 


[453] 


LEPORELLO 

patriotic  odes  ("To  Italy*, ' On  the  Monument 
of  Dante*,  1819,  are  among  the  finest)  and  a 
score  or  two  of  short  poems,  and  essays,  dia- 
logues,   &c.,    in    prose,    showing    a    wide 
scholarship  ('Operette  Morali',  1827). 
Leporello,  the  valet  of  Don  Giovanni  in 
Mozart's  opera  of  that  name,  and  of  Don 
Juan   in   ShadwelFs   'The   Libertine*.    (In 
Moliere's  comedy  eLe  Festin  de  Pierre',  Don 
Juan's  valet  is  Sganarelle.) 
Leprechaun,  a  fabulous  creature  of  Irish 
folk-lore,  who  makes  shoes  for  the  fairies  and 
knows  where  treasures  lie  hidden. 
L£r,  see  Lir. 

Lesfoia,  the  name  under  which  the  poet 
Catullus  celebrated  the  lady  whom  he  loved. 
She  was  probably  the  beautiful  but  in- 
famous Clodia,  sister  of  Publius  Clodius, 
and  wife  of  Metellus  Celer. 

Lesbos,  an  island  in  the  Aegean,  famous,  in 
a  literary  connexion,  as  the  birthplace  of 
Terpander,  Alcaeus,  Sappho,  and  Arion 
(qq.v.).  Hence  'Lesbian'  is  sometimes  used 
to  signify  pertaining  to  or  resembling  Sappho 
in  the  perverted  character  attributed  to  her. 

Lesly,  LUDOVIC,  'le  Balafre1',  a  character  in 
Scott's  'Quentin  Durward*  (q.v.). 

LESSING,  GOTTHOLD  EPHRAIM 
(1729-81),  German  critic  and  dramatist.  He 
was  educated  at  Leipzig  University,  was 
director  of  the  National  Theatre  at  Hamburg 
(1765-9),  and  in  1770  became  librarian  to  the 
duke  of  Brunswick,  living  for  the  remainder 
of  his  life  at  Wolfenbiittel.  As  a  dramatist 
his  principal  works  were :  the  serious  comedy 
'Minna  von  Barnhelm*  (1763);  'Emilia  Ga- 
Iotti'(i772),  a  tragedy  on  a  social  theme;  and 
'Nathan  the  Wise*  (1779),  a  plea  for  religious 
tolerance.  Lessing  was,  in  the  words  of 
Macaulay,  'beyond  all  dispute,  the  first  critic 
in  Europe*,  who  emancipated  German  litera- 
ture from  the  narrow  conventions  of  the 
French  classical  school,  and  one  of  the  princi- 
pal figures  of  the  'Aufklarung5  or  Enlighten- 
ment*. His  chief  critical  works  were  the 
'Litteraturbriefe*  (1759-65),  the  'Laokoon* 
(q.v. ,  1 766)  on  the  limits  of  the  several  arts,  and 
the  'Hamburgische  Dramaturgic'  (1767-9). 

Lesson  of  the  Master,  The,  a  story  by 
Henry  James  (q.v.),  published  in  1892, 
which  conveys  the  message  that  art  is  a 
jealous  and  exacting  mistress. 

Lester,  MADELINE,  the  heroine  of  Bulwer 
Lytton's  'Eugene  Aram*  (q.v.). 

L 'ESTRANGE,  SIR  ROGER  (1616-1704), 
of  a  good  Norfolk  family,  probably  studied  at 
Cambridge  and  was  one  of  the  earliest  of 
English  journalists  and  writers  of  political 
pamphlets.  He  was  an  active  Royalist  and  was 
obliged  to  flee  the  country  during  the  par- 
liamentary wars.  He  wrote  a  number  of  pam- 
phlets in  favour  of  the  monarchy  and  against 
the  army  leaders  and  Presbyterians.  After 
the  Restoration,  in  1663,  he  was  appointed 


LETTER  TO  SIR  W.  WYNDHAM 

surveyor  of  printing  presses  and  licenser  of 
the  press.  He  issued  the  'Intelligencer* 
and  'The  News'  during  1663-6,  but  these 
were  ousted  by  the  'London  Gazette*  of 
Henry  Muddiman  (q.v.).  He  also  perhaps 
projected  the  'City  Mercury*  in  1675.  His 
political  activities  in  connexion  with  the 
Popish  Plot  again  obliged  him  to  leave  the 
country  for  a  while  in  1680.  In  his  periodical 
'The  Observator*  (1681-7)  he  attacked  the 
Whigs,  Titus  Oates,  and  the  dissenters.  He 
was  knighted  in  1685.  At  the  revolution  he 
was  deprived  of  his  office  and  repeatedly  im- 
prisoned. He  was  an  accomplished  linguist 
and  produced  many  translations,  notably  of 
the  'Colloquies  of  Erasmus'  (1680  and  1689), 
of  Aesop's  'Fables'  (1692  and  1699),  of  the 
'Visions'  of  Quevedo  (1668),  and  of  the  works 
of  Josephus  (1702). 

Lestrigonians,  see  Laestrigones. 

Lethe,  a  Greek  word  meaning  'oblivion',  the 
name  of  one  of  the  rivers  of  hell,  of  which  the 
souls  of  the  dead  were  supposed  to  drink 
after  they  had  been  for  a  certain  time  con- 
fined in  Tartarus.  It  had  the  power  of 
making  them  forget  their  past  lives. 

Letitia  Hardy,  the  heroine  of  Mrs.  Cowley's 
'The  Belle's  Stratagem'  (q.v.). 

Leto,  see  Latona. 

Letter  to  a  Noble  Lord  on  the  attacks  made 
upon  him  and  his  pension  in  the  House  of  Lords 
by  the  Duke  of  Bedford  and  the  Earl  of 
Lauderdale,  by  E.  Burke  (q.v.),  published  in 
1796. 

Burke  retired  from  Parliament  in  1794  and 
received  a  pension  from  the  government  of 
Pitt.  This  grant  was  criticized  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  principally  by  the  peers  above 
named,  as  excessive  in  amount  and  incon- 
sistent with  Burke's  own  principles  of 
economical  reform.  Burke  replied  in  one  of 
the  greatest  masterpieces  of  irony  and  feeling 
in  the  English  language,  comparing  his  own 
services  to  the  state  with  those  rendered  by 
the  duke  of  Bedford  and  his  house,  which  had 
been  the  recipient  of  enormous  grants  from 
the  Crown. 

Letter  to  Sir  William  Wyndham,  A,  written 
in  1717  by  Viscount  Bolingbroke  (q.v.)  while 
in  exile,  was  his  first  important  contribution 
to  political  literature.  It  was  not  published 
until  1753.  It  is  intended  to  vindicate  his 
conduct  during  the  period  1710-15,  and  to 
persuade  the  Tories  to  renounce  all  idea  of  a 
Jacobite  restoration.  To  that  end  he  recounts 
his  relations  with  Harley  and  the  Tories,  his 
fall  from  power  and  attainder,  his  relations 
with  the  Pretender,  and  in  particular  detail 
the  disastrous  failure  of  the  Jacobite  rising  of 
1715  and  his  own  dismissal  by  the  Pretender. 
The  facts  are  misrepresented,  but  the  'Letter' 
is  a  brilliant  and  effective  piece  of  writing, 
notably  in  the  invective  against  Harley  and 
the  sarcastic  description  of  the  Pretender's 
court  in  1715. 


[454] 


LETTER  TO  SHERIFFS  OF  BRISTOL 

Letter  to  the  Sheriffs  of  Bristol,  A,  by  E. 
Burke  (q.v.),  published  in  1777. 

The  American  War  had  at  this  time 
followed  its  disastrous  course  for  two  years. 
The  letter  begins  with  a  protest  against  cer- 
tain acts  of  parliament  subjecting  the  rebels 
to  exceptional  legal  disabilities,  treating  them 
in  fact  as  traitors,  and  passes  to  a  review  of 
the  present  humiliating  situation.  Burke  goes 
on  to  defend  the  course  that  he  has  taken. 
Asserting  his  zeal  for  the  supremacy  of 
Parliament,  he  defines  the  problem  which  the 
exercise  of  this  supremacy  involves :  'to  con- 
form our  government  to  the  character  and 
circumstances  of  the  several  people  who  com- 
pose this  mighty  and  strangely  diversified' 
empire.  The  scheme  of  taxing  America  is 
incompatible  with  this  conception  of  imperial 
policy,  and  Burke  has  consequently  voted  for 
the  pacification  of  1766,  and  even  for  the 
surrender  of  the  whole  right  of  taxation. 

Letters  on  a  Regicide  Peace,  see  Regicide 
Peace. 

Letters  to  Archdeacon  Singleton,  by  Sydney 
Smith  (q.v.),  published  in  1837. 

In  these  three  letters  the  author  argues 
against  the  attempts  of  the  Reformed 
Government  (through  the  Ecclesiastical 
Commission)  to  interfere  with  the  incomes 
of  the  clergy. 

Leucadia ,  an  island  in  the  Ionian  Sea.(Leucas, 
Santa  Maura),  on  the  southern  promontory 
of  which  stood  a  temple  of  Apollo.  At  the 
annual  festival  of  the  god,  it  was  the  custom 
to  throw  a  criminal  into  the  sea,  as  an  ex- 
piatory rite.  This  gave  rise  to  the  story  that 
unhappy  lovers  threw  themselves  from  'Leu- 
cadia's  Rock'  (Byron,  'Don  Juan',  ii.  205), 
and  that  Sappho  leapt  from  it  in  despair  at  her 
unrequited  love  for  Phaon. 
Leuc6thea,  the  name  of  the  sea-goddess  into 
whom  Ino  (q.v.)  was  changed. 

LEVER,  CHARLES  JAMES  (1806-72), 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
practised  medicine.  He  contributed  much 
of  his  early  work  to  the  'Dublin  University 
Magazine*,  which  he  edited  during  1842-5. 
His  'Harry  Lorrequer'  appeared  there  in 
1837,  'Charles  O'Malley'  in  1840,  'Jack 
Hinton  the  Guardsman'  in  1843,  'Tom  Burke 
of  Ours'  and  'Arthur  O'Leary'  in  1844,  'The 
O'Donoghue'  in  1845,  and  'The  Knight  of 
Gwynne'  in  1847.  He  then  settled  at 
Florence,  where  he  wrote  'Con  Cregan' 
(1849),  'Roland  Cashel'  (1850),  'Maurice 
Tiernay*  (1852),  and  'The  Dodd  Family 
Abroad*  (1853-4).  His  last  works  included 
'A  Day's  Ride*  (1863),  'Cornelius  O'Dowd' 
(1864),  Luttrell  of  Arran*  (1865),  and  'Lord 
Kilgobbin*  (1872).  His  vivid  rollicking  pic- 
tures of  military  life  and  of  the  hard-drinking 
fox-hunting  Irish  society  of  his  days  were  very 
popular.  There  is  an  amusing  parody  of  Lever 
in  Thackeray's  'Novels  by  Eminent  Hands*. 
Leviathan,  a  Hebrew  word  of  uncertain 
origin,  the  name  of  some  aquatic  animal  (real 


LEVIATHAN 

or  imaginary)  frequently  mentioned  in  He- 
brew poetry.  It  is  used  in  English  in  this  and 
various  figurative  senses,  e.g.  a  ship  of  great 
size,  a  man  of  formidable  power,  &c. 

Leviathan,  The,  or  the  Matter,  Form,  and 
Power  of  a  Commonwealth,  Ecclesiastical  and 
Civil,  a  treatise  of  political  philosophy  by 
Hobbes  (q.v.),  published  in  1651. 

By  'The  Leviathan*,  the  author  signified 
sovereign  power.  The  basis  of  his  political 
philosophy  is  that  man  is  not,  as  Aristotle 
held,  naturally  a  social  being,  recognizing  the 
claims  of  the  community  upon  him  and 
sharing  in  its  prosperity,  but  a  purely  selfish 
creature,  seeking  only  his  own  advantage  and 
resisting  the  competing  claims  of  others. 
The  result  is  'contention,  enmity,  and  war*. 
The  'state  of  nature'  is  one  of  general  war, 
and  'the  notions  of  right  and  wrong,  justice 
and  injustice,  have  there  no  place*.  There  is 
'continual  fear;  and  the  life  of  man  is  solitary, 
poor,  nasty,  brutish  and  short*.  To  escape 
from  these  intolerable  conditions  man  has 
adopted  certain  'articles  of  peace',  those 
'Laws  of  Nature'  'by  which  a  man  is  for- 
bidden to  do  that  which  is  destructive  of  his 
life*  and  of  which  the  science  is  'true  moral 
philosophy'.  Virtue  is  'the  means  of  peace- 
able, sociable,  comfortable  living'.  The  first 
law  of  nature  is  'that  every  man  ought  to 
endeavour  peace*.  The  second  is  'that  a  man 
be  willing,  when  others  are  so  too,  to  lay  down 
his  right  to  all  things ;  and  be  contented  with 
so  much  liberty  against  other  men,  as  he 
would  allow  other  men  against  himself*.  The 
third  is  'that  men  perform  their  covenants 
made'. 

To  enforce  these  covenants  it  is  necessary 
to  establish  an  external  power,  which  shall 
punish  their  infraction;  accordingly  all  in- 
dividuals must  enter  into  a  contract  'to  con- 
fer all  their  power  and  strength  upon  one 
man,  or  upon  an  assembly  of  men'.  'This 
done,  the  multitude  so  united  in  one  person, 
is  called  a  commonwealth/  This  representa- 
tive person  is  sovereign,  and  his  power  is 
inalienable.  The  contract  is  not  between  the 
subjects  and  the  sovereign,  but  only  between 
the  subjects.  The  sovereign  power  is  in- 
divisible; it  cannot  for  instance  be  divided 
between  king  and  parliament.  Hobbes  is  care- 
ful to  repudiate  the  rival  claim  of  the  Church 
to  control  over  the  citizen,  which  involves 
either  a  division  of  sovereign  power,  or  the 
absorption  of  the  State  in  the  Church.  He 
accordingly  makes  the  Church  subordinate  to 
the  State. 

The  absolute  power  thus  given  to  the 
sovereign  is  however  subject  to  certain 
limits.  There  is  liberty  to  refuse  obedience  if 
the  command  of  the  sovereign  frustrates  the 
end  for  which  the  sovereignty  was  ordained, 
i.e.  the  preservation  of  the  life  of  the  in- 
dividual. Moreover,  the  obligation  of  subjects 
to  the  sovereign  is  understood  to  last  as  long 
as,  and  no  longer  than,  'the  power  lasteth,  by 
which  he  is  able  to  protect  them*.  The 


[4551 


LEVIN 

sovereign  finally  is  responsible  to  God,  if  not 
to  his  subjects,  for  the  proper  discharge  of 
his  office. 

Levin,  CONSTANTINE,  a  character  in  Tolstoy's 
*Anna  Karenina'. 

LEWES,  GEORGE  HENRY  (1817-78),  a 
versatile  writer,  was  the  author  of  a  popular 
'Biographical  History  of  Philosophy '(1845-6), 
a  'Life  of  Goethe'  (1855),  'Seaside  Studies* 
(1858),  'Physiology  of  Common  Life'  (1859), 
'Studies  of  Animal  Life'  (1862),  and  'Prob- 
lems of  Life  and  Mind*  (1873-9),  this  last 
a  philosophical  work  of  considerable  impor- 
tance. Lewes  collaborated  with  Thornton 
Leigh  Hunt  in  the  'Leader'  in  1850  and 
edited  the  'Fortnightly  Review'  in  1865-6. 
He  made  the  acquaintance  in  1851  of  Mary 
Ann  Evans  ('George  Eliot')  and  in  1854 
formed  a  lifelong  union  with  her. 
Lewesdon  Hill)  a  descriptive  poem,  some- 
what in  the  style  of  Thomson  and  Cowper, 
by  William  Crowe  (1745-1829),  of  Win- 
chester and  New  College,  Oxford,  at  one 
time  public  orator  at  Oxford,  published  in 
1788. 

LEWIS,  SIR  GEORGE  CORNEWALL 
(1806-63),  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  was  editor  of  the  'Edin- 
burgh Review',  1852-5.  He  wrote  an  essay 
'On  the  Influence  of  Authority  in  Matters  of 
Opinion*  (1849),  an  'Enquiry  into  the  Credi- 
bility of  Ancient  Roman  History'  (1855),  *The 
Astronomy  of  the  Ancients'  (1862),  and  trans- 
lated Boeckh's  'Public  Economy  of  Athens* 
(1828).  He  also  wrote  treatises  on  'The 
Government  of  Dependencies*  and  cThe 
Best  Form  of  Government'.  He  was  M.P.  for 
Radnor  Burghs,  and  was  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  (1855-8),  home  secretary  (1859- 
61),  and  secretary  for  war  (1861-3). 
Lewis,  SIR  GEORGE  HENRY  (1833-1911),  an 
eminent  solicitor,  unrivalled  in  knowledge  of 
criminals  and  thoroughness  of  investigation. 
He  obtained  a  monopoly  of  'society*  cases. 
He  acted  for  the  incriminated  Nationalists 
before  the  Parnell  Commission  in  1888-9. 
LEWIS,  MATTHEW  GREGORY  (1775- 
1818),  educated  at  Westminster  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  is  remembered  as  the  author 
of  the  novel  'The  Monk'  (q.v.,  1796).  He 
wrote  numerous  dramas,  and  his  verses  (of 
which  'Alonzo  the  Brave  and  the  Fair  Imo- 
gine'  is  perhaps  the  best)  had  a  considerable 
influence  on  Scott's  earlier  poetry. 

LEWIS,  SINCLAIR  (1885-  ),  Ameri- 
can novelist  and  journalist,  bom  at  Sauk 
Center,  Minnesota.  His  chief  works  are: 
'Main  Street'  (q.v.,  1920),  'Babbitt*  (q.v., 
1922),  'Martin  Arrowsmith*  (1925),  'Elmer 
Gantry*  (1927),  'Dodsworth*  (1929). 

Lewis  is  probably  the  best-known  Ameri- 
can novelist  to  readers  outside  America.  He 
satirizes  American  middle-west  life,  and  a 
great  number  of  Europeans  see  America 
through  his  eyes.  He  was  awarded  the  Nobel 
Prize  in  1930. 


LIBERTY 

Lewis  and  Short,  the  well-known  Latin- 
English  dictionary,  the  work  of  Charlton  T. 
Lewis  and  Charles  Short,  published  in  1879. 

Lewis  Baboon,  in  Arbuthnot's  'The  His- 
tory of  John  Bull',  represents  Louis  XIV  of 
France. 

Lewknor's  Lane,  now  Charles  Street, 
Drury  Lane,  so  named  after  Sir  Lewis  Lewk- 
nor,  of  the  time  of  James  I,  who  resided  in 
Drury  Lane,  is  frequently  mentioned  in 
1 7th-  and  i8th-cent.  literature  as  a  dis- 
reputable haunt. 

LEYDEN,  JOHN  (1775-1811),  physician, 
poet,  and  orientalist,  assisted  Scott  (q.v.)  in 
the  preparation  of  the  earlier  volumes  of  the 
'Border  Minstrelsy*,  published  an  essay  on 
the  Indo-Persian,  &c.,  languages  (1807),  and 
translated  the  'Malay  Annals'  (1831)  and 
the  'Commentaries  of  Baber'  (1826). 

Li  Beaus  Desconus  (=  le  bel  inconmi)y  a 
I4th-cent.  verse  romance  attributed  to 
Thomas  Chestre,  the  author  of  'Sir  LaunfaT 
(q.v.).  Gingelein,  the  bastard  son  of  Gawain, 
demands  knighthood  of  Arthur.  ALS  his  name 
is  unknown,  he  is  knighted  as  Li  Beaus 
Desconus.  The  poem  recounts  his  adventures 
in  rescuing  the  imprisoned  lady  of  Sinadoune. 
This  is  one  of  the  romances  referred  to  by 
Chaucer  in  'Sir  Thopas'  (see  under  Canter" 
bury  Tales  (19)). 

Libel  of  English  Policy,  The,  a  political  poem 
written  c.  1436,  in  which  the  author  exhorts 
his  countrymen  to  regard  the  sea  as  the 
source  of  the  national  strength,  discusses 
commercial  relations  with  other  countries, 
and  urges  the  importance  of  retaining  Calais, 
Ireland,  and  Wales.  The  poem  was  included 
by  Hakluyt,  and  is  in  Political  Poems  II, 
Rolls  Series.  It  is  perhaps  the  work  of  Adam 
Moleyns  or  Molyneux,  clerk  of  the  king's 
council.  See  the  Introduction  by  Sir  F.  G. 
Warner  (Oxford,  1926).  'Libel'  in  the  title 
means  *a  little  book*. 

Liber  Albus,  see  Carpenter. 

Liber  Amoris,  see  Hazlitt. 

Liberal,  The,  magazine,  see  Byron  (Lord). 

Liberty  or  LIBERTIES  of  a  city,  the  district 
extending  beyond  the  bounds  of  a  city, 
which  Is  subject  to  the  control  of  the  munici- 
pal authority.  The  'Liberties*  of  a  prison 
(especially  the  Fleet  and  the  Marshalsea) 
were  the  limits,  outside  the  prison,  within 
which  prisoners  were  sometimes  permitted 
to  reside. 

Liberty,  On,  an  essay  by  J.  S.  Mill  (q.v.), 
published  in  1859. 

In  this  work  Mill  examines  from  the  stand- 
point of  Utilitarian  philosophy  the  proper 
relations  of  society  to  the  individual,  and 
criticizes  the  tyranny  of  the  custom-ridden 
majority  that  is  concealed  under  such  ex- 
pressions as  'self-government'  and  'the  power 
of  the  people  over  themselves*.  In  his  view 
'the  sole  end  for  which  mankind  are  war- 


[456] 


LIBERTY  HALL 

ranted,  individually  or  collectively,  in  inter- 
fering with  the  liberty  of  action  of  any  of 
their  number,  is  self-protection*.  The  only 
part  of  the  conduct  of  any  one,  for  which  he 
is  amenable  to  society,  is  that  which  concerns 
others.  A  man's  own  good,  either  physical  or 
moral,  is  not  a  sufficient  warrant  for  the  inter- 
ference of  society.  ^Mankind  are  greater 
gainers  by  suffering  each  other  to  live  as  seems 
good  to  themselves,  than  by  compelling  each 
to  live  as  seems  good  to  the  rest.'  But  Mill  is 
careful  to  point  out  that  this  doctrine  is 
reconcilable  with  the  State's  interference  in 
trade  and  industry. 

Liberty  Hall,  a  place  where  one  may  do  as 
one  likes.  'This  is  Liberty  Hall,  gentlemen/ 
says  Squire  Hardcastle  (in  'She  Stoops  to 
Conquer')  to  Marlow  and  Hastings,  who 
have  mistaken  his  house  for  an  inn. 

Liberty  of  Prophesying,  see  Taylor  (Jeremy). 

Libitina,  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  origin- 
ally, it  appears,  a  goddess  of  the  earth,  who 
came  to  be  regarded  as  goddess  of  the  dead, 
and  is  sometimes  identified  with  Proserpine. 

Libra  or  THE  BALANCE,  one  of  the  zodiacal 
constellations;  also  the  seventh  sign  of  the 
zodiac  into  which  the  sun  enters  at  the 
autumnal  equinox.  (The  sign  and  constella- 
tion owing  to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes 
no  longer  correspond.) 

Library,  The,  a  magazine  of  bibliography 
and  literature,  published  from  1889  to  1898 
as  the  organ  of  the  Library  Association,  and 
from  1899  to  1918  as  an  independent  journal. 
In  1920  it  was  merged  with  the  'Transac- 
tions* of  the  Bibliographical  Society  (q.v.), 
though  retaining  its  original  title. 

Libri,  THE  BOOK  THIEF,  whose  full 
name  was  Guglielmus  Brutus  Icilius  Ti- 
moleon,  Count  Libri-Carucci  dalla  Somaja 
(1803-69),  belonged  to  an  old  Florentine 
family  and  was  a  distinguished  mathema- 
tician, and  author  of  a  number  of  learned 
works,  especially  a  history  of  the  mathe- 
matical sciences  in  Italy  (1837-41).  Being 
implicated  in  a  conspiracy,  he  migrated  to 
France  in  1830,  where  he  obtained  pro- 
fessorial posts,  was  highly  esteemed  by 
Guizot,  and  was  appointed  to  inspect 
libraries  and  archives.  His  visits  to  these  were 
found  to  be  followed  by  the  disappearance  of 
valuable  books  and  manuscripts,  but  the 
police  reports  on  the  subject  were  suppressed 
by  his  friend  Guizot,  the  prime  minister.  On 
the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe,  Libri,  receiving 
anonymous  warning,  fled  to  England,  where 
he  protested  his  innocence,  but  sold  books 
purloined  from  French  and  Italian  libraries, 
and  acquired  thereby  a  fortune.  Many  of 
these  books  were  unwittingly  bought  by  Lord 
Ashburnham,  and  some  were  repurchased 
by  the  French  government. 

Libya,  the  ancient  Greek  name  for  the 
continent  of  Africa. 


LIGHTFOOT 

Lichas,  the  servant  of  Hercules  (q.v.)  who 
brought  him  the  poisoned  cloak  of  Nessus. 
Hercules  hurled  him  into  the  sea,  where  the 
gods  turned  him  into  a  rock. 

Licia>  or  Poemes  of  Love,  see  Fletcher  (G.,  the 
elder). 

Lick  Observatory,  an  observatory  on  the 
summit  of  Mt.  Hamilton  in  California, 
founded  by  James  Lick  (1796-1876),  a  rich 
Californian,  and  given  by  him.  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  California.  He  provided  funds  for 
the  construction  of  an  equatorial  telescope  of 
36-inch  aperture. 

LIDDELL,  HENRY  GEORGE  (1811-98), 
educated  at  Charterhouse  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  was  head  master  of  Westminster 
School  1846-55,  and  dean  of  Christ  Church, 
1855-91.  He  is  remembered  as  the  author, 
with  Robert  Scott  (1811-87),  of  the  famous 
'Greek-English  Lexicon*. 

It  was  for  Alice  Liddell  (afterwards  Mrs. 
Reginald  Hargreaves),  daughter  of  Dean 
Liddell,  that  Dodgson  (q.v.)  wrote  'Alice  in 
Wonderland'. 

LIDDON,    HENRY    PARRY    (1829-90), 

educated  at  King*s  College  School,  London, 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  a  disciple  of 
Pusey  and  Keble,  became  canon  of  St.  Paul's 
(1870),  where  his  sermons  for  twenty  years 
were  an  important  factor  in  London  life. 
His  Bampton  Lectures  of  1866  on  'The 
Divinity  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ*  were  published  in  1867.  Many 
volumes  of  his  sermons  were  published,  and 
he  left  at  his  death  a  'Life  of  Pusey'  ready  for 
publication  (1893-7). 

Lido,  THE,  near  Venice,  a  sandbank  separat- 
ing the  lagoons  from  the  Adriatic,  of  late 
years  a  fashionable  sea-bathing  resort. 

Lien  Chi  Altangi,  in  Goldsmith's  'Citizen 
of  the  World*  (q.v.),  the  Chinaman  who 
studies  English  customs. 

Life  and  Death  of  Jason,  The,  see  Jason 
(Life  and  Death  of). 
Life  in  London,  see  Egan* 

Life  on  the  Mississippi,  by  Mark  Twain 
(q.v.),  published  in  1883,  an  autobio- 
graphical account  of  the  author's  early  years 
as  a  river  pilot. 

Ligea,  one  of  the  Nereids  (q.v.),  mentioned 
by  Milton  in  'Comus'  (1.  880). 

Light  of  Asia,  or  The  Great  Renunciation,  a 
poem  in  eight  books  of  blank  verse,  by  Sir  E. 
Arnold  (q.v.),  published  in  1879. 

In  it  the  author,  to  use  his  own  words, 
seeks  'by  the  medium  of  an  imaginary 
Buddhist  votary  to  depict  the  life  and  charac- 
ter and  indicate  the  philosophy  of  that  noble 
hero  and  reformer,  Prince  Gautama  of  India, 
founder  of  Buddhism*. 

Light  of  the  Haram,  The,  see  Lalla  Rookh. 

LIGHTFOOT,  JOSEPH  BARBER  (1828- 
89),  bishop  of  Durham,  published  many 


[457] 


LIGURIAN  REPUBLIC 

valuable  works  on  "biblical  criticism  and  early 
Christian  history  and  literature,  notably  com- 
mentaries on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  (1865,  1868, 


Ligurian  Republic,  THE,  the  republic  of 
Genoa  formed  in  1797  after  Napoleon's  vic- 
torious Italian  campaign.  It  was  annexed  to 
France  in  1805  and  subsequently  merged 
in  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
Lilburne,  JOHN  (1614  ?-S7),  known  as  'Free- 
born  John',  a  political  agitator  and  pam- 
phleteer, supporter  of  the  parliament,  re- 
peatedly imprisoned,  proverbial  for  his 
quarrelsome  disposition. 
Lili,  celebrated  by  Goethe  (q.v.)  in  his  lyrics, 
was  Anne  Elizabeth  Schonemann,  to  whom 
Goethe  was  for  a  time  engaged.  She  married 
the  Baron  von  Turkheim. 

Lilith,  an  Assyrian  demon,  associated  with 
the  night,  a  vampire.  The  name  occurs  in 
Isa.  xxxiv.  14,  where  it  is  translated  'screech- 
owl*  (Revised  Version,  'night-monster  ').  In 
Rabbinical  literature  Lilith  was  the  first  wife 
of  Adam,  arid  was  dispossessed  by  Eve. 
D.  G.  Rossetti,  in  his  'Eden  Bower',  tells  of 
Lilith's  vengeance  on  Adam  and  Eve.  Lilith 
also  makes  a  brief  appearance  in  the  Wal- 
purgis-night scene  of  Goethe's  'Faust*. 

Lrilli-Burlero  BuUen-a-Ia!  These  'are  said 
to  have  been  the  words  of  distinction  used 
among  the  Irish  Papists  at  the  time  of  their 
massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  1641*  (Percy). 
They  were  made  the  refrain  of  a  song,  written 
by  Lord  Wharton,  satirizing  the  earl  of 
Tyrconnel  on  the  occasion  of  his  going  to 
Ireland  in  Jan.  1686-7  as  James  IPs  papist 
lieutenant.  The  song  is  given  in  Percy's 
'Reliques*.  Burnet  (q.v.)  wrote  as  follows 
regarding  it: 

'A  foolish  ballad  was  made  at  the  time, 
treating  the  Papists,  and  chiefly  the  Irish,  in  a 
very  ridiculous  manner,  which  had  a  burden 
said  to  be  Irish  words,  "Lero,  lero,  lilli- 
burlero'*,  that  made  an  impression  on  the 
army,  that  cannot  be  imagined  by  those  that 
saw  it  not.  The  whole  army,  and  at  last  the 
people,  both  in  city  and  country,  were  singing 
it  perpetually.  And  perhaps  never  had  so 
slight  a  thing  so  great  an  effect.* 

According  to  Chappell's  'Popular  Music  of 
the  Olden  Time',  the  tune  of  'Lilliburlero* 
was  included,  in  1689,  in  the  second  part  of 
'Music's  Handmaid'  as  ca  new  Irish  Tune*  by 
'Mr.  Purcell',  but  it  occurs  in  'The  Delightful 
Companion'  of  1686. 

LHHput,  see  Gulliver's  Travels. 

Littiput  Levee,  a  book  of  verse  for  children, 
with  illustrations  by  J.  E.  Millais  and  G.  J. 
Pinweil,  by  W.  B.  Rands  (q.v.),  published  in 
1864.  The  same  author  published  'Lilliput 
Lectures'  (mostly  prose)  in  1871,  and  'Lilli- 
put  Legends'  in  1872.  All  three  appeared 
anonymously. 

LILLO,  GEORGE  (1693-1739),  was  the 
author  of  the  famous  prose  domestic  tragedy 


LINACRE 

'The  London  Merchant,  or  the  History  of 
George  Barnwell'  (q.v.),  produced  in  1731. 
Very  little  is  known  about  him.  He  was  very 
possibly  the  descendant  of  Flemish  refugees, 
and  is  said  to  have  carried  on  the  trade  of 
jeweller  in  London.  His  other  plays  include 
'The  Christian  Hero'  produced  in  i73S> 
'Fatal  Curiosity*  (q.v.),  1736,  and  'Eknerick, 
or  Justice  Triumphant',  produced  in  1740 
after  his  death.  He  also  wrote  a  tragedy  on 
the  subject  of  'Arden  of  Feversham*,  pub- 
lished posthumously.  Lillo  is  important  as  a 
pioneer,  and  his  introduction  of  domestic 
tragedy  had  an  influence  which  extended 
beyond  English  literature. 
LILLY,  WILLIAM  (1602-81),  a  noted 
astrologer,  who  published  almanacs  yearly 
from  1644  until  his  death,  and  pamphlets  of 
prophecy.  While  ostensibly  serving  the 
parliament,  he  endeavoured  to  aid  Charles  I. 
He  published  also  a  'True  History  of  King 
James  I  and  King  Charles  I'  (1651). 

LiHyvick,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'Nicholas  Nickleby'  (q.v.). 
LILY,  WILLIAM  (i468?-i522),  was  the 
first  high-master  of  St.  Paul's  School.  He 
contributed  a  short  Latin  syntax,  with  the 
rules  in  English,  under  the  title  'Grammatices 
Rudimenta*,  to  Colet's  '^ditio'  (1527). 

Limbo  (from  Latin  Embus,  an  edge),  a  region 
supposed  to  exist  on  the  border  of  hell  as  the 
abode  of  the  just  who  died  before  Christ's 
coming,  and  of  unbaptized  infants.  Also 
referred  to  as  limbo  patrum  and  limbo 
infantum.  (See  also  Paradise  of  Fools.)  The 
word  came  to  be  used  to  mean  prison,  con- 
finement; and  later  for  a  place  of  rubbish  and 
forgetfulness. 

Limehouse,  used  of  virulent  political  abuse, 
in  allusion  to  a  celebrated  speech  at  Lime- 
house,  London,  by  Mr.  Lloyd  George 
(30  July  1909),  directed  against  territorial 
and  financial  magnates. 

Limerick,  a  form  of  facetious  jingle,  of 
which  the  first  instances  occur  in  'Anecdotes 
and  Adventures  of  Fifteen  Young  Ladies*  and 
the  'History  of  Sixteen  Wonderful  Old 
Women*  (1820),  subsequently  popularized  by 
Edward  Lear  (q.v.)  in  his  'Book  of  Nonsense'. 
(The  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  a 
custom  at  convivial  parties,  according  to 
which  each  member  sang  an  extemporized 
'nonsense-verse*,  which  was  followed  by  a 
chorus  containing  the  words  'Will  you  come 
up  to  Limerick?*  [OED.].)  Limericks  have 
been  composed  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects, 
even  to  express  philosophic  doctrines.  The 
following,  for  instance,  ridicules  English 
pronunciation  of  French : 

There  was  an  old  man  of  Boolong, 
Who  frightened  the  birds  with  his  song. 
It  wasn't  the  words 
That  frightened  the  birds, 
But  the  horrible  dooble  ong-tong. 

LINACRE,  THOMAS  (1460  ?-i  524),  physi- 


[458] 


LINCOLN 

cian  and  classical  scholar,  was  educated  at 
Oxford  and  was  a  fellow  of  All  Souls  College. 
He  was  M.D.  of  Padua,  and  became  one  of 
Henry  VII I 's  physicians.  Later  he  was  Latin 
tutor  to  the  Princess  Mary,  for  whom  he 
composed  a  Latin  grammar,  'Rudimenta 
Grammatices'.  He  was  mainly  instrumental 
in  founding  the  College  of  Physicians  in  1518. 
He  wrote  grammatical  and  medical  works, 
and  translated  from  the  Greek,  mainly  from 
Galen. 

LINCOLN,  ABRAHAM  (1809-65),  was 
president  of  the  United  States,  1860-5,  and 
political  leader  of  the  Northern  States  in  the 
American  Civil  War.  He  was  assassinated  in 
1865.  In  a  literary  connexion  he  is  remark- 
able as  an  interpreter  of  the  American  theory 
of  democracy  and  as  a  framer  of  political 
aphorisms.  His  great  inaugural  and  other 
orations  show  a  direct  pregnant  non- 
rhetorical  style,  and  a  strong  sense  of 
rhythm.  Notable  among  these  was  his 
'Gettysburg  Address',  given  in  Nov.  1863  at 
the  dedication  of  the  national  cemetery  of 
Gettysburg,  soon  after  the  battle  at  that  place. 
John  Drinkwater  (q.v.)  made  Abraham 
Lincoln  the  subject  of  a  successful  drama. 

Lincoln  Green,  a  bright  green  stuff  made  at 
Lincoln,  used  for  woodmen's  jackets  and  the 
like. 

Lincoln 's  Inn,  named  after  Henry  de  Lacy, 
third  earl  of  Lincoln,  who  had  a  mansion  there 
in  Edward  Fs  reign.  It  became  an  Inn  of 
Court  in  1310.  LINCOLN'S  INN  FIELDS  were 
laid  out  by  Inigo  Jones,  who  designed  Lind- 
say House  (Nos.  57-60).  The  house  of 
Mr.  Tulkinghorn  in  Dickens's  'Bleak  House' 
(q.v.)  is  No.  58. 

Lind ,  JOHANNA  MARIA,  known  as  JENNY  LIND 
(1820-87),  the  'Swedish  Nightingale',  born  at 
Stockholm,  was  remarkable  for  die  combina- 
tion of  the  histrionic  gift  with  a  magnificent 
voice  and  great  musical  talent.  She  first  ap- 
peared in  England  in  1847  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre  with  immense  success.  She  gave  up 
the  stage  in  1849  and  thereafter  confined  her- 
self to  singing  in  concerts  and  oratorios.  In 
Sept.  1850  she  began  an  American  tour  under 
the  management  of  Barnum.  She  married 
Otto  Goldschmidt  (her  conductor  during  the 
second  year  of  her  American  tour)  in  1 852  and 
during  the  latter  part  of  her  life  settled  in 
England. 

Linda'brides,  the  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Alicandro  in  the  'Mirror  of  Knighthood',  a 
romance  of  Spanish  origin  translated  into 
English  by  Richard  Percival  at  the  end  of  the 
1 6th  cent.  The  name  is  used  (e.g.  in  Scott's 
'Kenilworth')  to  signify  a  lady-love,  a 
mistress. 

Lindbergh,  CHARLES  AUGUSTUS  (1902-  ), 
born  at  Detroit,  Michigan,  the  aviator  who 
made  the  first  'solo'  flight  across  the  Atlantic, 
20-1  May  1927. 

Lindisfarne,  Holy  Isle,  off  the  coast  of 
Northumberland.  See  CuMert. 


LINET 

Lindisfarne  Gospels,  a  manuscript  of  the 
four  gospels,  beautifully  illuminated  at  the 
beginning  of  each  gospel,  in  the  Vulgate  text, 
with  an  Old  English  paraphrase  of  later  date 
interlined.  The  author  of  the  paraphrase  states 
that  the  Latin  text  was  written  by  Eadfrith 
(d.  721),  bishop  of  Lindisfarne,  in  honour  of 
St.  Cuthbert  (q.v.),  and  names  the  binder,  the 
author  of  the  ornamentation  on  the  cover, 
and  himself  the  translator.  The  manuscript 
forms  part  of  the  Cottonian  collection  in  the 
British  Museum. 

Llndor,  a  conventional  poetical  name  for  a 
shepherd-lover. 

LINDSAY,  LADY  ANNE  (1750-1825), 
daughter  of  the  fifth  earl  of  Balcarres,  wrote 
in  1771  the  popular  ballad  'Auld  Robin  Gray'. 
She  became  by  marriage  Lady  Anne  Barnard, 
and  accompanied  her  husband  to  S.  Africa. 
'Lady  Anne  Barnard  at  the  Cape,  1797-1802', 
edited  by  Miss  D .  Fairbridge  (Oxford,  1 924),  is 
an  important  authority  for  the  events  during 
the  first  British  occupation  of  Capetown. 
LINDSAY  or  LYNDSAY,  SIR  DAVID 
(1490-1555),  Scottish  poet  and  Lyon  king-of- 
arms;  usher  to  Prince  James  (afterwards 
James  V).  His  first  poem,  'The  Dreme*, 
written  in  1528,  but  not  printed  till  after  his 
death,  is  an  allegorical  lament  on  the  mis- 
government  of  the  realm,  followed  by  a  vigor- 
ous exhortation  to  the  king.  In  1 529  he  wrote 
the  'Complaynt  to  the  Kong',  in  octosyllabic 
couplets,  commenting  on  the  improved  social 
condition  of  the  realm  except  as  regards  the 
Church,  lamenting  that  others  have  been  pre- 
ferred before  him  at  court,  and  requesting  the 
king  that  'thy  Grace  will  uther  geve,  or  lend 
me'  'of  gold  ane  thousand  pound,  or  tway'. 
The  'Testament  and  Complaynt  of  our  Soye- 
rane  Lordis  Papyngo'  (1530)  combines  advice 
to  the  king,  put  in  the  mouth  of  his  parrot,  with 
a  warning  to  courtiers  drawn  from  the  exam- 
ples of  Scottish  history,  and  with  a  satire  on 
ecclesiastics  in  the  form  of ^  a  conference 
between  the  dying  parrot  and  its  'holy  execu- 
tors'. Lindsay's  principal  poem, 'Ane  Pleasant 
Satyre  of  the  Three  Estaits'  (q.v.),  a  morality, 
was  produced  in  1540  before  the  king^and 
court.  Other  poems  by  Lindsay  include  ^'The 
Monarchic  (Ane  dialog  betwix  Experience 
and  ane  Courtier  of  the  miserabill  estait  of 
the  World)'  (1552),  and  the  'History  of  Squire 
Meldrum'  (c.  1549)  is  a  spirited  verse  rom- 
ance on  the  career  and  exploits  of  a  Scottish 
laird. 

LINDSAY,  ROBERT  (i5oo?-6$?),  of  Pits- 
cottie,  author  of  'The  Historic  and  Cronicles  of 
Scotland'  from  the  reign  of  James  II,  one  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  principal  sources  for  the  period. 
LINDSAY,  VACHEL  (NICHOLAS  VACHEL 
LINDSAY)  (1879-1931),  American  poet. 
Among  his  best-known  poems  are  General 
William  Booth  enters  the  Kingdom  of 
Heaven*  (1913)  and  'The  Congo"  (1914)- 
Linet,  in  the  'Morte  d'Arthur*,  the  sister  of 
dame  Liones  (q.v.).  She  marries  Sir  Gaheris. 
See  also  Gareth  and  Lynette. 


[459] 


LINGARD 

LINGAKD,  JOHN  (1771-1851),  educated 
at  Douai,  and  ordained  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  was  the  author  of  a  'History  of  Eng- 
land* (published  1819-30)  which  remains  a 
principal  authority  from  the  point  of  view  of 
enlightened  Roman  Catholicism.  Lingard 
also  wrote  "The  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Church',  published  in  1806. 

Lingua,  see  Tomkis. 

Lingua  franca,  a  mixed  language  or  jargon 
used  in  the  Levant,  consisting  largely  of 
Italian  words  deprived  of  their  inflexions. 
The  term  is  extended  to  any  mixed  jargon 
formed  as  a  medium  of  intercourse  between 
people  speaking  different  languages. 
Linkinwater,  TIM,  in  Dickens's  'Nich- 
olas Nickleby'  (q.v.),  clerk  to  the  brothers 
Cheeryble. 

Linne,  THE  HEIR  OF,  see  Heir  ofLinne. 
Linnean  Society,  THE,  was  founded  in 
1788  by  Sir  James  Edward  Smith,  in  honour 
of  Linnaeus  (Carl  von  Linne",  1707-78)  the 
great  Swedish  naturalist  and  founder  of 
modern  botany,  whose  collections  Smith 
purchased.  The  Linnean  Society  publishes 
journals  and  transactions  on  matters  of 
natural  history. 

Linton,  EDGAR,  ISABELLA,  and  CATHERINE, 
characters  in  E.  Bronte's  'Wuthering  Heights" 
(q.v.). 

Lintot,  BARNABY  BERNARD  (1675-1736),  pub- 
lished many  poems  and  plays  by  Pope,  Gay, 
Farquhar,  Steele,  and  Rowe.  His  uncouth 
appearance  was  compared  by  Pope,  in  the 
'Dunciad*,  ii.  63,  to  that  of  a  dabchick. 

Linus,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  hero  whose 
untimely  death  was  celebrated  in  a  dirge,  the 
*Song  of  Linus',  sung  annually,  from 
Homeric  days,  at  harvest  time.  He  was  per- 
haps originally  a  harvest  deity.  But  according 
to  Sayce  the  name  arose  from  a  misunder- 
standing of  the  Phoenician  *ail£nu',  a  cry  of 
lamentation  for  the  death  of  Adonis  (q.v.). 

Lion,  THE  BRITISH,  the  lion  as  the  national 
emblem  of  Great  Britain,  used  figuratively 
for  the  British  nation,  perhaps  derived  from 
the  royal  arms.  The  first  mention  of  the 
British  Lion  quoted  by  the  OED.  is  in 
Dryden's  'The  Hind  and  the  Panther'  (1687). 

Lion  of  Gotswold,  a  sheep. 

Lion  of  the  North,  Gustavus  Adolphus 
(q.v.). 

Liones ,  in  the  'Morte  d'Arthur'  (q.v.),  Linet's 
sister , whom  Beaumains  (Gareth)  rescued  from 
the  castle  where  she  was  imprisoned,  and 
married. 

Lionesse,  see  Lyonesse. 
Lipsia,  in  imprints,  Leipzig. 

LIPSIUS,  JUSTUS,  or  JOEST  LIPS 
(1547-1606),  a  Flemish  humanist,  who 
adopted  the  Protestant  faith  and  was  pro- 
fessor at  Jena  and  subsequently  at  the 


LITTLE  BILLEE 

University  of  Leyden,  where  he  was  succeeded 
by  Scaliger.  His  principal  work  was  a 
learned  edition  of  Tacitus. 

Lir  or  LER,  in  Gaelic  mythology,  the  sea-god, 
one  of  the  Tuatha  D&  Danann  (q.v.) ;  perhaps 
to  be  identified  with  Llyr  (q.v.)  the  British 
sea-god.  He  was  the  father  of  Manannan 
(q.v.). 

According  to  the  story  of  'The  Children  of 
Lir',  one  of  the  "three  sorrowful  tales  of 
Erin',  Lir  had  one  daughter,  Fionnuala  (q.v.), 
and  three  sons.  These  were  changed  into 
swans  by  their  jealous  step-mother  Aeife,  and 
condemned  to  spend  900  years  on  the  seas 
and  lakes  of  Ireland.  Before  the  end  of  this 
period,  St.  Patrick  arrived,  the  old  gods  were 
swept  away,  and  the  swans  were  able  to 
return  to  their  home.  They  were  converted 
to  Christianity  and  restored  to  human  shape ; 
but  were  now  old  people  and  soon  died. 

Lismahago,    LIEUTENANT    OBADIAH,    see 

Humphry  Clinker. 

Lister,  JOSEPH,  first  Baron  Lister  (1827- 

1912),  the  founder  of  modern  surgery  by  his 

discovery   of   the    antiseptic   treatment    of 

wounds. 

Lisuarte,  see  Amadis  de  Gaula. 

Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury, see  Nichols. 
Literary  Club,  THE,  see  Johnson  (S.). 

Literary  Magazine,  The,  or  Universal  Re- 
view, a  periodical  started  in  1756  and  edited 
in  1756—7  by  Samuel  Johnson  (q.v.),  to  which 
he  contributed  many  articles,  notably  his 
Essay  on  Tea,  and  his  review  of  Soame 
Jenyns's  (q.v.)  'Free  Enquiry  into  the  Nature 
and  Origin  of  Evil'. 

Literature,  THE  ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF,  was 
founded  in  1823  at  the  suggestion  of  Thomas 
Burgess,  bishop  of  St.  David's,  and  under 
the  patronage  of  George  IV,  who  assigned 
the  sum  of  1,100  guineas  to  be  applied  in 
pensions  of  100  guineas  to  each  of  ten 
Royal  Associates,  and  in  a  premium  of  100 
guineas  for  a  prize  dissertation.  The  Asso- 
ciates were  elected  by  the  council  of  the 
Society  (Malthus  and  S.  T.  Coleridge  were 
among  the  first  ten).  The  Society  has  pub- 
lished Transactions  and  a  certain  number  of 
separate  works. 

Litotes,  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  an 
affirmative  is  expressed  by  the  negative  of  the 
contrary,  e.g.,  'a  citizen  of  no  mean  city';  an 
ironical  under-statement. 

Littimer,  in  Dickens's  'David  Copperfield* 
(q.v.),  the  hypocritical  valet  of  James  Steer- 
forth. 

LITTLE,  THOMAS,  see  Moore  (T.). 

Little  Bttlee,  a  humorous  ballad  of  three 
sailors  of  Bristol,  of  whom  Little  Billee  is  the 
youngest.  When  provisions  fail  he  narrowly 
escapes  being  eaten  by  the  other  two. 
Thackeray  wrote  a  version  of  the  ballad.  Du 


[460] 


LITTLE  BRITAIN 

Maurier  uses  'Little  Billee*  as  the  nickname 
of  the  hero  of  'Trilby'  (q.v.). 

Little  Britain,  near  Aldersgate  Street,  in  the 
City  of  London.  It  was  formerly  known  as 
Britten  or  Briton  Street,  from  the  dukes  of 
Brittany  who  are  supposed  to  have  had  a 
mansion  in  it.  Many  bookstalls  were  located 
there  in  the  iyth  cent. 

Little  Dorrit)  a  novel  by  Dickens  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  monthly  parts,  1857-8. 

William  Dorrit  has  been  so  long  in  the 
Marshalsea  prison  for  debtors  that  he  has 
become  the  'Father  of  the  Marshalsea*.  He 
has  had  the  misfortune  to  be  responsible  for 
an  uncompleted  contract  with  the  Circum- 
locution Office  (a  satirical  presentment  of  the 
government  departments  of  the  day,  with 
their  incompetent  and  obstructive  officials, 
typified  in  the  Barnacles).  His  lot  is  alleviated 
by  the  devotion  of  Amy,  his  youngest 
daughter,  'Little  Dorrit',  whose  diminutive 
stature  is  compensated  by  the  greatness  of 
her  heart.  Amy  has  a  snobbish  sister  Fanny, 
a  theatrical  dancer,  and  a  scapegrace  brother, 
Tip.  Old  Dorrit  and  Amy  are  befriended  by 
Arthur  Clennam,  the  middle-aged  hero,  for 
whom  Little  Dorrit  conceives  a  deep  passion, 
at  first  unrequited.  The  unexpected  dis- 
covery that  William  Dorrit  is  heir  to  a  fortune 
raises  the  family  to  affluence.  Except  Little 
Dorrit,  they  become  arrogant  and  purse- 
proud.  Clennam,  on  the  other  hand,  owing 
to  an  unfortunate  speculation,  is  brought  in 
turn  to  the  debtors*  prison,  and  is  found  in 
the  Marshalsea,  sick  and  despairing,  by 
Little  Dorrit,  who  tenderly  nurses  and  con- 
soles him.  He  has  meanwhile  learnt  the  value 
of  her  love,  but  her  fortune  stands  in  the  way  of 
his  asking  her  hand*  The  loss  of  this  makes 
their  union  possible,  on  Clennam's  release. 

With  this  main  theme  is  wound  the  thread 
of  an  elaborate  mystery.  Clennam  has  long 
suspected  that  his  mother,  a  grim  old  puri- 
tanical paralysed  woman,  living  in  a  gloomy 
house  with  a  former  attendant  and  present 
partner,  Flintwinch,  has  done  some  wrong 
to  Little  Dorrit.  Through  the  agency  of  a 
stagy  villain,  Rigaud  alias  Blandois,  this  is 
brought  to  light,  and  it  appears  that  Mrs. 
Clennam  is  not  Arthur's  mother,  and  that 
her  religious  principles  have  not  prevented 
her  from  suppressing  a  codicil  in  a  will  that 
benefited  the  Dorrit  family. 

There  are  a  host  of  minor  characters  in  the 
work,  of  whom  the  most  notable  are  the  worthy 
Pancks,  rent-collector  to  the  humbug  Casby; 
Casby's  voluble  daughter  Flora,  the  early 
love  of  Arthur  Clennam;  her  eccentric 
relative  'Mr.  F's  Aunt*;  Merdle,  the  swind- 
ling financier,  and  Mrs.  Merdle,  who  'piques 
herself  on  being  society';  AfTery,  the  villain 
Flintwinch's  wife;  'Young  John*  Chivery, 
the  son  of  the  Marshalsea  warder;  and  the 
Meagles  and  Gowan  households.  The 
Marshalsea  scenes  have  more  reality  than 
the  rest  of  the  story,  for  Dickens's  father 
i&d  been  immured  in  that  prison. 


LITTLE  RHODY 

Little-endians,  see  Gulliver's  Travels.  The 
Little-endians  were  the  orthodox  party  on 
the  question  at  which  end  an  egg  should  be 
broken. 

Little  Englander,  one  who  desires  to 
restrict  the  dimensions  and  responsibilities 
of  the  Empire.  It  was  a  current  term  of 
opprobrium  during  the  Boer  War  of  1899- 
1901. 

Little  French  Lawyer,  The,  a  comedy 
probably  by  J.  Fletcher  (q.v.)  and  Massinger 
(q.v.),  though  Dyce  attributed  it  to  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher.  It  was  produced  between 
1619  and  1622. 

Lamira  marries  Champernel,  a  lame  but 
gallant  old  gentleman,  throwing  over  Dinant, 
who  conceived  himself  the  favoured  suitor. 
Dinant  and  his  friend  Cleremont  insult  the 
bride  and  bridegroom  as  they  return  from 
church.  The  play  deals  with  the  befooling  of 
Dinant  and  Cleremont  by  Lamira,  the  re- 
venge taken  by  them  upon  her,  and  the 
humiliation  of  La- Writ,  the  brawling  little 
French  lawyer. 

Little  Gidding  Community  and  Little 
Gidding  Story  Books,  see  Ferrar. 

Little-go,  the  popular  name  (current  now 
only  at  Cambridge)  for  the  first  examination 
for  the  degree  of  B.A. 

Little  John,  one  of  the  companions  of  Robin 
Hood  in  the  legends  relating  to  that  outlaw. 
He  was  a  sturdy  yeoman,  and  a  skilled  archer, 
originally  called  John  Little.  He  figures  in 
Sir  W.  Scott's  'Ivanhoe'  (q.v.). 

*LittieJonn%  HUGH,  John  Hugh  Lockhart, 
the  grandson  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  to  whom 
the  'Tales  of  a  Grandfather'  are  dedicated. 

LitfLe  LordFauntleroy,  see  Burnett  (F.  E.  H.) . 

Little  Musgrave  and  Lady  Barnard,  an 
ancient  ballad,  given  in  Percy's  'Reliques* 
(in.  i.  n),  which  tells  how  Lady  Barnard, 
loving  Little  Musgrave,  invited  him  to  pass 
the  night  with  her  in  her  bower  at  Buckles- 
ford-Bury.  A  little  foot-page  overhears  the 
assignation,  and  tells  Lord  Barnard.  He  finds 
the  lovers  together,  fights  with  Musgrave 
and  kills  him,  then  k2ls  his  wife,  and  is 
afterwards  filled  with  remorse. 

Musgrave  is  referred  to  in  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  'The  Knight  of  the  Burning 
Pestle'  (q.v.)  Act  v,  and  in  D'Avenant's 
'The  Wits',  in.  iii. 

Little  Nell  (TRENT),  the  heroine  of  Dickens's 
'Old  Curiosity  Shop'  (q.v.). 

Littlepage  Manuscripts,  a  trilogy  by  J.  F. 
Cooper  (q.v.),  consisting  of  'Satanstoe* 
(1845),  'The  Chainbearer'  (1845),  'The  Red- 
skins' (1846). 

Little  Red  Ridinghood,  see  Red  Riding- 
hood, 

Little  Rhody,  Rhode  Island,  see  United 
States. 


LITTLE  SHEPHERD 

Little  Shepherd  of  Kingdom  Come,  The, 
a  novel  of  the  Kentucky  mountaineers,  by 
John  Fox,  published  in  1903. 
Little  Women,  one  of  the  most  popular 
juvenile  books  ever  written,  by  L.  M.  Alcott 
(q.v.),  published  in  1868.  The  story  is  con- 
cerned with  the  daily  lives  of  four  girls — 
Jo,  Meg,  Beth,  and  Atny — in  a  New  England 
family  of  the  mid-nineteenth  century.  For 
her  portrayal  of  the  March  family,  the  author 
drew  upon  her  own  memories  of  home. 

LITTLETON,  SIR  THOMAS  (1422-81), 
judge  and  legal  author.  His  fame  rests  on  his 
treatise  on  'Tenures',  written  in  law- French; 
and  his  text,  with  Sir  Edward  Coke's  com- 
ments, long  remained  the  principal  authority 
on  English  real  property  law.  The  editio 
princeps  was  published  in  London  without 
date  or  title. 

LITTR&,  MAXIMILIEN  PAUL  £MILE 
(1801-81),  French  scholar,  philosopher,  and 
lexicographer,  began  his  great  dictionary 
of  the  French  language  in  1844,  but  did  not 
seriously  pursue  the  task  until  1863.  It  was 
completed  in  1873.  He  was  a  supporter  of 
the  philosophy  of  Comte  (q.v.),  on  whom  he 
published  in  1863  'Auguste  Comte  et  la 
philosophic  positive'.  He  also  published 
editions  of  the  works  of  Hippocrates  and 
Pliny. 

Litferses,  son  of  Midas,  king  of  Phrygia. 
It  was  said  that  he  required  all  who  passed  his 
fields  to  help  in  the  harvest,  and  if  they  did 
not  surpass  his  activity  in  reaping  the  corn, 
put  them  to  death.  Daphnis  (q.v.),  the 
Sicilian  shepherd,  according  to  one  legend, 
followed  to  Phrygia  his  mistress  Piplea,  who 
had  been  carried  off  by  robbers,  and  found 
her  in  the  power  of  Lityerses.  He  undertook 
the  reaping  contest,  but  Hercules  arrived  and 
took  his  place,  and  overcoming  Lityerses  slew 
him. 

LIUTPRAND  (d.  972)  of  Cremona,  perhaps 
the  most  picturesque  chronicler  of  the  Dark 
Ages,  and  distinguished  for  having  written 
worse  Latin  than  any  one  else ;  a  good  illus- 
tration of  the  darkness  of  the  loth  cent. 
Livery  Companies,  the  London  City  com- 
panies, descended  from  the  old  City  Guilds, 
so  called  because  they  formerly  had  dis- 
tinctive costumes  for  special  occasions.  A 
LIVERY-MAN  is  a.  freeman  of  the  City  of 
London  who  is  entitled  to  wear  the  'livery'  of 
the  company  to  which  he  belongs.  The  word 
'livery*  is  derived  (through  French)  from  the 
Latin  liberare,  and  meant  originally  the  dis- 
pensing of  food  or  clothing  to  retainers  or 
servants,  or  the  food  or  clothing  so  dispensed. 

Lives  of  the  Poets,  The,  a  biographical  and 
critical  work  by  S.  Johnson  (q.v.),  published 
in  1770-81. 

^  Johnson  was  invited  in  1777  by  a  deputa- 
tion of  London  booksellers  to  undertake  the 
preparation  of  biographical  notices  for  an 
edition  of  the  English  poets  that  they  were 
contemplating.  When  the  work  was  com- 


LLUDD 

pleted,  these  notices  were  issued  without  the 
texts,  under  the  above  title.  It  had  originally 
been  intended  to  include  all  important  poets 
from  Chaucer  onwards,  but  the  scheme  was 
curtailed  and  Cowley  was  taken  as  the  point 
of  departure.  Fifty-two  poets  were  included 
and  it  is  significant  of  the  taste  of  the  age  that 
Herrick  and  Maryell  are  not  among  them. 
The  facts  of  each  life  are  given  and  the  charac- 
ter of  the  man  brought  out ;  and  then  Johnson 
passes  to  an  estimate  of  his  poems.  In  this 
respect  the  work  is  now  considered  unequal. 
The  severe  strictures,  for  instance,  on  Mil- 
ton's 'Lycidas'  and  Gray's  'Odes'  would  not 
be  endorsed  at  the  present  day.  There  is  a 
good  edition  of  the  'Lives'  by  G.  Birkbeck 
Hill  (Oxford,  1905). 

LIVINGSTONE,  DAVID  (1813-73),  the 
great  African  missionary  and  explorer.  He 
educated  himself  while  working  at  a  cotton 
factory  near  Glasgow,  and  embarked  for  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1840.  He  made  a 
number  of  journeys  into  the  interior  in  the 
following  years,  discovered  Lake  Ngami  in 
1849,  and  the  Zambesi  in  the  interior  of  the 
continent  in  1851.  Livingstone  published 
'Missionary  Travels  in  S.  Africa'  in  1857,  and 
'The  Zambesi  and  its  Tributaries'  in  1865. 
In  that  year  he  started  on  an  expedition  to 
discover  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  returned 
almost  dying  to  Ujiji,  where  he  was  rescued  by 
H.M.  Stanley  (q.v.),  resumed  his  explorations, 
and  finally  died  at  a  village  in  the  country  of 
Ilala.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
Livingstone's  'Last  Journals  in  Central 
Africa,  1865  to  his  death'  were  published 
posthumously  (1874). 

LIVY  (TITUS  LIVIUS)  (59  B.C.-A.D.  17), 
the  Roman  historian,  born  at  Patavium 
(Padua).  He  was  a  friend  of  the  Emperor 
Augustus  and  held  a  position  at  the  Roman 
court.  His  great  work  was  the  history  of 
Rome  ('Annales')  from  the  foundation  of  the 
city  to  the  death  of  Drusus  (9  B.C.).  Of  the 
142  books  in  which  it  was  contained  we  have 
35,  and  epitomes  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
rest.  See  Patavimty. 

Lizzie  Hexam,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Our 
Mutual  Friend'  (q.v.). 

Lieu  Llaw  Gyffes,  in  British  mythology,  a 
sun-god,  son  of  Gwydion  and  Arianrod.  See 
Mabinogton, 

Lloyd's,  an  association  in  London  of  ship- 
owners, merchants,  and  underwriters,  which 
had  its  origin  in  a  coffee-house  kept  by 
Edward  Lloyd  in  Lombard  Street  early  in 
the  1 8th  cent.  It  subsequently  moved  to 
rooms  in  the  new  Royal  Exchange  and  in 
1928  to  a  new  building  in  Leadenhall  Street. 
It  is  principally  concerned  with  marine  in- 
surance and  the  collection  of  shipping 
intelligence. 

Lludd  or  NUDD,  one  of  the  chief  gods  of  the 
ancient  Britons,  who  survived  in  later  times 
as  the  mythical  King  Lud,  and  perhaps  as  the 


[462] 


LLYR 

Arthurian  King  Lot.  See  C.  Squire,  'Mytho- 
logy of  the  British  Islands'. 

Llyr,  the  sea-god  of  the  ancient  Britons, 
perhaps  to  be  identified  with  the  Lir  (q.v.) 
of  Gaelic  mythology.  He  figures  in  the 
'Mabinogion*  (q.v.)  and  his  name  survived  as 
that  of  a  British  king  in  Shakespeare's  'King 
Lear*.  The  town  of  Leicester  is  said  to  have 
been  originally  Llyr-cestre  (C.  Squire, 
'Mythology  of  the  British  Islands'). 
Lob's  Pound,  also  COB'S  POUND,  HOB'S 
POUND,  a  gaol  or  lock-up.  'Lob*  means  a 
country  bumpkin,  a  clown;  also  a  fairy  of  the 
Puck  variety. 

Lodbdel,  the  title  of  the  chief  of  the  clan 
Cameron.  Campbell  (q.v.)  wrote  a  poem 
called  'Lochiel's  Warning*. 

LocMnvar,  the  hero  of  a  ballad  included  in 
the  fifth  canto  of  Scott's  'Marmion*.  His  fair 
Ellen  is  about  to-  be  married  to  'a  laggard  in 
love  and  a  dastard  in  war*,  when  the  brave 
Lochinvar  arrives  at  the  bridal  feast,  claims  a 
dance  with  her,  and  as  they  reach  the  hall 
door,  swings  the  lady  on  to  his  horse,  and 
rides  off  with  her. 

LOCKE,  JOHN  (1632-1704),  born  at 
Wringtpn  in  Somerset,  was  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He 
held  various  academic  posts  at  that  University, 
and  became  physician  to  Anthony  Ashley 
Cooper  (first  earl  of  Shaftesbury)  and  settled 
in  his  house  in  1 667.  He  held  official  positions 
and  subsequently  resided  at  Oxford  until 
expelled  for  supposed  complicity  in  Shaftes- 
bury's  plots  in  1684.  He  then  lived  in 
Holland,  where  he  became  known  to  the 
Prince  of  Orange.  He  was  commissioner  of 
appeals  and  member  of  the  council  of  trade 
under  William  III.  He  died  and  was  buried 
at  High  Laver,  Essex.  His  portrait  was 
painted  by  Kneller. 

His  principal  philosophical  work  is  the 
'Essay  concerning  Human  Understanding' 
(q.v.),  published  in  1690,  which  led  John 
Stuart  Mill  to  call  him  the  'unquestioned 
founder  of  the  analytic  philosophy  of  mind'. 
He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  religious  liberty. 
He  wrote  a  'Letter  concerning  Toleration'  in 
1689,  a  second  letter  on  Toleration  in  1690, 
and  a  third  in  1692;  a  fourth  was  left  un- 
published at  his  death.  He  published  an  essay 
on  the  'Reasonableness  of  Christianity'  in 
1695,  maintaining  that,  as  our  understanding 
is  not  commensurate  with  reality,  knowledge 
must  be  supplemented  by  religious  faith. 

Locke  published  in  1690  two  'Treatises  of 
Government*  designed  to  combat  the  theory 
of  the  divine  right  of  kings  and  to  justify  the 
Revolution.  He  finds  the  origin  of  the  civil 
state  in  a  contract.  The  'legislative',  or  govern- 
ment, 'being  only  a  fiduciary  power  to  act  for 
certain  ends,  there  remains  still  in  the  people 
the  supreme  power  to  remove  or  alter  the 
legislative  when  they  find  the  legislative  act 
contrary  to  the  trust  reposed  in  them*. 
Throughout,  Locke  in  his  theory  of  the 


LOCKIT 

'Original  Contract'  is  the  opponent  of 
Hobbes's  'Leviathan'  (q.v. ;  though  he  seems 
to  be  more  actively  criticizing  Sir  Robert 
Filmer's  'Patriarcha'  than  Hobbes).  He 
published  treatises  'On  Education'  in  1693, 
and  on^the  rate  of  interest  and  the  value  of 
money  in  1691  and  1695.  The  first  edition  of 
his  collected  works  appeared  in  1714. 

LOCKE,  WILLIAM  JOHN  (1863-1930), 
bom  in  Barbados,  educated  at  Queen's 
Royal  College,  Trinidad,  and  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  and  from  1897  to  1907 
secretary  to  the  Royal  Institute  of  British 
Architects,  was  a  successful  writer  of  fiction. 
His  'Morals  of  Marcus  Ordeyne'  (1905),  and 
still  more  'The  Beloved  Vagabond'  (1906), 
enjoyed  a  very  wide  popularity.  Locke  also 
wrote  a  few  plays. 

Locke  on  the  Human  Understanding,  see 
Essay  concerning  Human  Understanding. 

LOCKER,  FREDERICK  (1821-95),  who 
took  the  name  of  LOCKER-LAMPSON  in  1885, 
was  a  clerk  in  Somerset  House  and  the 
Admiralty,  but  left  the  government  service 
c.  1850.  He  published  in  1857  a  volume  of 
light  verse  entitled  'London  Lyrics',  followed 
in  1867  by  'Lyra  Elegantiarum*,  an  anthology 
of  verse  of  the  same  character,  and  in  1879 
'Patchwork',  a  miscellany  of  verse  and  prose. 
'My  Confidences',  in  prose,  appeared  post- 
humously in  1896. 

Locket,  LUCY,  see  Lucy  Locket. 

Locket's,  a  fashionable  ordinary  or  tavern  in 
Charing  Cross,  frequently  alluded  to  in  the 
drama  of  the  I7th-i8th  cents.,  so  named 
from  Adam  Locket,  the  landlord. 

LOGKHART,  JOHN  GIBSON  (1794- 
1854),  born  at  Cambusnethan,  was  educated 
at  the  high  school  and  University  of  Glasgow, 
and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  was  called 
to  the  Scottish  bar,  and  became  one  of  the 
chief  contributors  to  'Blackwood's  Magazine* 
(q.v.)  in  1817.  His  fierceness  as  a  critic 
earned  him  the  nickname  of  'The  Scorpion*. 
In  1820  he  married  Sir  W.  Scott's  elder 
daughter  Sophia,  and  from  1825  to  1853 
was  editor  of  the  'Quarterly  Review'  (q.v.). 
He  published  his  'Life  of  Burns'  in  1828, 
and  his  famous  'Life  of  Scott'  in  1838.  He 
wrote  several  novels,  of  which  the  most 
notable  is  'Some  Passages  in  the  Life  of 
Adam  Blair*  (1822),  the  tragic  story  of  the 
sin  of  a  Scottish  minister,  and  its  expiation. 
His  'Valerius'  (1821)  is  a  romance  of  the 
period  of  the  Roman  occupation  of  Britain. 
His  'Peter's  Letters  to  his  Kinsfolk',  con- 
taining lively  sketches  of  the  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow  of  the  day,  appeared  in  1819.  His 
poetry  is  seen  at  its  best  in  his  adaptations  of 
'Ancient  Spanish  Ballads'  (1823).  Lockhart, 
it  may  be  noted,  was  an  early  admirer  of 
Wordsworth  and  Coleridge,  though  he  con- 
demned Keats  and  Shelley. 

Lockit,  and  his  daughter  LUCY,  characters  in 
Gay's  'Beggar's  Opera'  (q.v.). 


[463] 


LOCKSLEY 

Locksley,  the  name  under  which  Robin 
Hood  figures  in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe'  (q.v.). 
Ritson  (q.v.)  states  that  Robin  Hood  was 
born  at  Locksley  in  Nottinghamshire. 

Locksley  Hall,  a  poem  by  A.  Tennyson 
(q.v.),  published  in  1842. 

It  takes  the  form  of  a  monologue,  in  which 
the  speaker,  revisiting  Locksley  Hall,  the 
home  of  his  youth,  recalls  his  love  for  his 
cousin  Amy,  'shallow-hearted*,  who  aban- 
doned him  in  deference  to  her  parents  for  a 
worldly  marriage.  This  leads  him  to  conjure 
up  again  his  youthful  vision  of  the  progress 
of  the  world,  in  which  he  finally  expresses 
his  confidence. 

Asequel,  'Locksley  Hall  Sixty  Years  After', 
appeared  in  1886. 

Locrine  or  LOGRIN,  according  to  the  legend 
told  by  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  and  repro- 
duced by  Spenser  ('Faerie  Queene',  II.  x),  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Brute  (q.v.),  and  succeeded 
him  as  king  of  L/oegria  or  England.  He  was 
the  father  of  Sabrina  (see  Estrildis). 

Locrine >  The  Lamentable  Tragedie  of,  a  play 
published  in  1595,  and  included  in  the  third 
Shakespeare  fofio.  The  authorship  is  un- 
known; modern  opinion  is  inclined  to  attri- 
bute it  to  Peele  (q.v.).  The  play  deals 
with  the  legend  of  Locrine,  king  of  England, 
his  queen,  Gwendolen,  and  Estrildis  (see 
EstrUdis). 

Swinburne  wrote  a  play  on  the  subject 
CLocrine*,  1887). 

Locusta  or  LUCUSTA,  a  skilful  poisoner  em- 
ployed by  Agrippina  to  poison  Claudius,  and 
by  Nero  to  poison  Britannicus. '  She  was 
executed  in  the  reign  of  Galba. 

Lodbrog,  or  LODBROK,  RAGNAR,  see  Ragnar 
Lodbrog. 

LODGE,  SIR  OLIVER  (1851-  ),  physi- 
cist. In  addition  to  numerous  scientific 
papers  he  wrote :  'Conductors  and  Lightning 
Guards*,  'Signalling  without  Wires',  and 
'The  Ether  of  Space*;  'Relativity'  (1925), 
'Ether  and  Reality'  (1925).  After  1910  he 
became  known  as  a  leader  in  psychic  re- 
search, and  among  his  writings  dealing  with 
this  subject  are:  'The  Survival  of  Man' 
(1909),  'Reason  and  Belief  (3rd  ed.,  1911), 
'Raymond,  or  Life  and  Death'  (1916),  and 
'The  ReaHty  of  a  Spiritual  World'  (1930). 

LODGE,  THOMAS  (i558?-i62s),  was  son 
of  Sir  Thomas  Lodge,  lord  mayor  of  London ; 
born  in  Lincolnshire  and  educated  at  Mer- 
chant Taylors'  School,  London,  and  Trinity 
College,  Oxford.  He  was  a  student  of  Lin- 
coln's Inn  in  1578.  He  abandoned  law  for 
literature,  and  published  'A  Defence  of 
Plays',  a  reply  to  the  'School  of  Abuse'  of 
S.  Gosson  (q.v.),  in  1580;  and  in  1584  'An 
Alarum  against  Usurers',  depicting  the 
dangers  that  money-lenders  present  for 
young  spendthrifts. 

His  first  romance,  'The  Delectable  His- 
toric of  Forbonius  and  Priscilla'  appeared  in 


LOGIC 

1584,  and  'Scillaes  Metamorphosis*  in  1589 
(reissued  in  1610  as  'Glaucus  and  Scilla*). 
This  work  is  interesting  as  the  first  romantic 
treatment  in  verse  of  a  classical  subject,  the 
prototype  of  Shakespeare's  'Venus  and 
Adonis'.  Lodge  sailed  on  a  freebooting 
expedition  to  the  islands  of  Terceras  and  the 
Canaries  in  1588,  and  to  South  America  in 
1591.  In  the  course  of  the  former  voyage  he 
wrote  his  second  and  best-known  romance, 
'Rosalynde.  Euphues  Golden  Legacie'  (q.v.), 
which  appeared  in  1590.  His  chief  volume  of 
verse,  'Phillis',  a  cycle  of  amorous  sonnets, 
largely  translations  or  imitations  of  French 
and  Italian  poems,  with  songs  and  lyrics, 
was  issued  in  1593.  He  published  'A  Fig  for 
Momus',  containing  satires  and  epistles  in 
verse  on  the  Horatian  model,  in  1595. 
During  his  voyage  to  South  America,  amid 
the  winter  storms  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan, 
he  wrote  *A  Margarite  of  America*,  a  romance 
dealing  with  the  tragical  love  of  Arsadachas, 
son  of  the  emperor  of  Cusco,  for  Margarita, 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Muscovy,  which  ap- 
peared in  1596;  as  did  also  his  'Wits  Miserie 
and  Worlds  Madnesse'.  He  was  converted  to 
Roman  Catholicism  and  studied  medicine, 
becoming  M.D.  at  Oxford,  1603.  He  pub- 
lished a  laborious  volume,  'The  Famous  and 
Memorable  Workes  of  Josephus'  (1602),  'A 
Treatise  of  the  Plague'  (1603),  and  'The 
Workes,  both  Morrall  and  Natural,  of  Lucius 
Annaeus  Seneca*  (1614).  His  last  literary 
undertaking,  'A  learned  Summary  upon  the 
famous  Poeme  of  William  of  Saluste,  lord  of 
Bartas,  translated  out  of  the  French*,  was 
published  in  1625.  Lodge  excelled  as  a  lyric 
poet  and  was  the  best  of  the  imitators  of  the 
style  of  Euphues. 

Loeb,  JAMES  (1867—  ),  an  American  ban- 
ker, educated  at  Harvard,  a  member  until 
1900  of  the  firm  of  Kuhn,  Loeb  &  Co.  He 
founded  in  1912  thewell-known  Loeb  Classical 
Library  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  which 
gives  the  original  text  and  the  translation  on 
opposite  pages. 

Loegria,  according  to  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth, the  part  of  Britain  assigned  to  King 
Locrine  (q.v.);  England.  Spenser  calls  it 
Logris  ('Faerie  Queene',  n.  x.  14). 

LOGGAN,  DAVID  (1635-1700?),  artist 
and  engraver,  born  at  Danzig,  came  to  Eng- 
land before  1653.  He  was  engraver  to 
Oxford  University  and  later  to  Cambridge 
University.  He  published  'Oxonia  Illus- 
trata*  (1675),  'Cantabrigia  Illustrata'  (1676- 
90). 

Logic,  A  System  of,  ratiocinative  and  in- 
ductive, a  treatise  by  J.  S.  Mill  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1843,  revised  and  enlarged  in  the 
editions  of  1850  and  1872. 

The  importance  of  Mill's  'Logic'  lies  in 
the  fact  that  it  supplied,  to  use  the  author's 
own  words  ('Autobiography'),  'a  text-book 
of  the  opposite  doctrine  [to  the  a  priori 
view  of  human  knowledge  put  forward  by 


[464] 


LOGISTILLA 

the  German  school] — that  which  derives  all 
knowledge  from  experience,  and  all  moral 
and  intellectual  qualities  principally  from  the 
direction  given  to  the  associations*.  In  this 
work  Mill  formulated  the  inductive  proce- 
dure of  modern  science,  while,  unlike  Bacon, 
giving  its' proper  share  to  deduction.  He  lays 
down  methods  for  investigating  the  causal 
relations  of  phenomena,  assuming  the  causal 
principle,  in  defence  of  which  he  can  only 
say  that  'the  belief  we  entertain  in  the 
universality,  throughout  nature,  of  the  law  of 
cause  and  effect,  is  itself  an  instance  of  in- 
duction', constantly  verified  by  experience, 
and  to  which,  if  there  were  an  exception,  we 
should  probably  have  discovered  it. 

In  attributing  to  experience  and  association 
our  belief  in  mathematical  and  physical  laws, 
he  came  into  conflict  with  the  intuitional 
philosophers,  ^and  gave  his  own  explanation 
'of  that  peculiar  character  of  what  are  called 
necessary  truths,  which  is  adduced  as  proof 
that  their  evidence  must  come  from  a  deeper 
source  than  experience*.  This  peculiar  cer- 
tainty, he  holds,  is  'an  illusion,  in  order  to 
sustain  which  it  is  necessary  to  suppose  that 
those  truths  relate  to,  and  express  the 
properties  of  purely  imaginary  objects',  as  in 
the  laws  of  geometry,  which  are  only  ap- 
proximately true  in  the  real  world.  Geometry 
being  built  on  hypotheses,  'it  owes  to  this 
alone  the  peculiar  certainty  supposed  to 
distinguish  it*.  This  conflict  with  the  in- 
tuitional school  is  further  developed  in  Mill's 
'Examination  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's 
Philosophy*  (q.v.). 

Logistilla,  in  the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (q.v.),  a 
beneficent  witch,  who  defends  Rogero  against 
Alcina  (qq.v.)  and  gives  Astolfo  (q.v.)  his 
magic  horn  and  book. 

Logrin9  see  Locrine. 

Logris,  or  LOGRES,  see  Loegria. 

Lohengrin,  the  son  of  Percival  (q.v.),  first 
mentioned,  as  Loherangrin,  in  the  'Parzival* 
of  Wolfram  of  Eschenbach  (q.v.).  According 
to  legend  he  is  summoned  from  the  temple 
of  the  Grail  at  Montsalvatch  (identified  with 
Montserrat  in  Catalonia)  and  borne  in  a 
swan-boat  to  Antwerp,  where  he  defends  the 
Princess  Elsa  of  Brabant  against  Frederick 
of  Telramund,  who  claims  to  marry  her.  He 
overcomes  Frederick  and  consents  to  marry 
Elsa  on  condition  that  she  shall  not  ask  his 
race.  But  she  fails  to  abide  by  this  condition, 
and  the  swan-boat  conies  and  carries  Lohen- 
grin back  to  the  castle  of  the  Grail.  Lohen- 
grin is  mentioned  in  'Titurel'  (q.v.),  and  the 
legend  is  repeated  in  other  early  poems.  It 
forms  the  subject  of  Wagner's  music-drama 
'Lohengrin*,  produced  in  1850. 

A  similar  tale  is  told  of  Helias,  the  legendary 
grandfather  of  Godfrey  de  Bouillon  (see 
Baring-Gould,  'Curious  Myths'). 

Lois  the  Witch,  a  novel  by  Mrs.  Gaskell 
(q.v.),  published  in  1859,  telling  how  the 
fanatical  frenzy  of  the  people  of  New  England 


LONDON 

caused  an  innocent  English  girl  to  be  hanged 
as  a  witch. 

Loki,  in  Norse  mythology,  one  of  the  lEsir 
(q.v.),  the  spirit  of  evil  and  mischief,  the 
father  of  Hel,  Jormungander,  and  the  Fenris- 
wolf  (qq.v.).  It  is  he  who  contrives  the  death 
of  Balder  (q.v.). 

Lokman  or  LUQM^N,  a  mythical  person  to 
whom  has  been  attributed  a  collection  of 
fables  in  Arabic,  in  consequence  of  a  passage 
in  the  sist  Surah  of  the  Koran,  which  says, 
'We  gave  to  LuqmSn  wisdom'.  The  fables, 
which  are  drawn  from  various  sources,  some 
of  them  Greek,  date,  in  the  form  in  which  we 
have  them,  from  the  i3th  cent.  They  are  not 
mentioned  by  Arabic  writers. 

Lola  Montez,  the  stage  name  of  Marie 
Dolores  Eliza  Rosanna  Gilbert  (1818-61),  an 
adventuress,  the  daughter  of  a  military  officer, 
who  appeared  in  London  as  a  dancer  in 
1843,  and  was  highly  successful  on  the  Conti- 
nent. She  became  the  mistress  of  Ludwig  I 
of  Bavaria  and  exercised  full  control  over  the 
government  of  that  country,  until  banished 
by  Austrian  and  Jesuit  influence.  She  died 
in  New  York. 

Lolah,  one  of  the  beauties  of  the  harem  in 
Byron's  'Don  Juan'  (q.v.),  vi. 

Lollards,  from  a  Dutch  word  meaning 
'mumbler',  a  name  of  contempt  given  in  the 
I4th  cent,  to  certain  heretics,  who  were  either 
followers  of  WyclifTe  (q.v.)  or  held  opinions 
similar  to  his.  Their  activities  were  the  occa- 
sion of  the  statute  'De  haeretico  combur- 
endo'  (1401).  See  also  Oldcastle. 

LOLLIUS,  an  unknown  author  mentioned 
by  Chaucer  twice  in  'Troylus  and  Cryseyde* 
(i.  394  and  vi.  1667),  and  once  in  the  'House 
of  Fame*  (iii.  378).  The  problem  of  his 
identity  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  first 
mention  in  'Troylus  and  Cryseyde'  relates  to 
the  love-song  of  Troilus,  which  is  a  transla- 
tion from  Petrarch ;  while  the  second  points, 
from  its  context,  to  Boccaccio.  In  the  'House 
of  Fame*  he  is  one  of  six  authors  of  the  story 
of  Troy,  the  others  being  Homer,  Dares, 
Tytus  (?  Dictys),  Guido  da  Colonna,  and 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth. 

LOMBARD,  PETER,  see  Peter  Lombard. 

Lombard  Street,  London,  'so  called  of  the 
Longobards  and  other  Merchants,  strangers 
of  divers  nations,  assembling  there  twice  a 
day*  (Stow),  a  financial  centre  of  the  city,  as 
indicated  in  the  expression,  'All  Lombard 
Street  to  a  China  orange*.  Lombard  mer- 
chants came  to  England  as  early  as  the  I3th 
cent.,  and  were  employed  to  help  in  collect- 
ing the  dues  payable  to  the  popes,  notably 
Gregory  IX,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  Our 
word  'lumber*  is  derived  from  the  pawn- 
broking  establishments  of  the  Lombards. 

London :  the  name  Landimum  is  first  men- 
tioned by  Tacitus  ('Annals',  14,  33,  A.D.  61)  as 
that  of  a  place  notable  for  its  concourse  of 


3368 


[465] 


Hh 


LONDON 

merchants;  but  the  earlier  existence  of  the 
town  is  proved  by  coins  (of  Cunobelin)  and 
other  Celtic  objects  found  on  the  site.  The 
origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain.  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth  connects  it  with  King  Lud  who 
built  walls  round  the  city  founded  by ^  Brute 
and  enlarged  by  Belinus,  and  called  it  Cser 
Lud.  According  to  Loftie,  it  is  from  the 
Celtic  Llyn-din,  the  lake  fort,  a  name  that 
would  be  explained  by  the  much  wider 
spread  in  ancient  times  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Thames,  with  its  creeks  and  tributaries, 
round  the  original  settlement.  After  evacua- 
tion by  the  Romans,  conquest  by  the  Saxons, 
and  plundering  by  the  Danes  in  the  9th  cent., 
London  was  resettled  by  Alfred  in  886. 

LONDON,  JACK  (1876-1916),  an  American 
novelist  who  began  life  as  a  common  sailor. 
Besides  his  autobiographical  'Martin  Eden* 
(1909)  and  (John  Barleycorn'  (1913),  London 
Is  remembered  for  his  novels  'The  Sea- Wolf 
(1904)  and  'The  Call  of  the  Wild'  (1903),  the 
story  of  a  dog  who  escapes  from  the  servitude 
of  drawing  a  sledge  in  Alaska  to  be  the  leader 
of  a  pack  of  wolves.  London  also  wrote  sen- 
sational short  stories,  dealing  with  the  South 
Sea  Islands  and  other  remote  parts  of  the 
world  and  strange  corners  of  human  society. 

London,  Survey  of,  see  Stow. 

London,  a  poem  by  S.  Johnson  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1738,  in  imitation  of  the  Third 
Satire  of  Juvenal. 

Thales  (perhaps  Richard  Savage,  q.v.), 
disgusted  with  London  and  its  vices,  leaves 
it  for  the  fields  of  Wales,  and  as  he  does 
so  utters  his  indignant  reflections  on  the 
degeneracy  of  the  times,  the  oppression  of  the 
poor  and  the  arrogance  of  wealth,  the  preva- 
lence of  French  fashions  (the  'supple  Gaul* 
takes  the  place  of  the  'Graeculus  esuriens'  of 
Juvenal),  and  the  dangers  to  which  the 
Londoner  is  exposed  from  roisterers  and 
criminals. 

London  Bridge.  There  is  evidence  in  Dion 
Cassius  of  the  existence  of  a  bridge  at  London, 
in  A.D.  43,  confirmed  by  the  finds  of  Roman 
coins  and  the  iron  shoes  of  oaken  piles  in  the 
bed  of  the  river.  No  further  mention  of  a 
bridge  is  found  until  the  loth  cent.  One  was 
certainly  in  existence  in  the  reign  of  JEthelred 
(979-1016)  when  Cnut  found  it  an  obstruc- 
tion to  the  advance  of  his  ships  up  the  river. 
The  'Heimskringla*  (q.v.)  gives  a  spirited 
description  of  an  attack  on  it  by  Olaf's  fleet 
in  the  last  year  of  Sweyn.  The  wooden 
bridge  that  existed  in  1136  was  burnt  down 
in  that  year.  The  great  medieval  stone 
bridge  was  begun  in  1 176  by  Peter  the  Bridge 
Master  and  curate  of  St.  Mary  Colechurch 
(d.  1205)  K&d  finished  in  1209.  It  consisted 
of  twenty  openings  about  28  ft  wide,  and 
twenty  piers  about  20  ft.  wide.  One  great 
pier^near  the  centre  was  over  34  ft.  wide  and 
carried  a  two-story  chapel  dedicated  to  St. 
Thomas  of  Canterbury.  The  bridge  itself 
was  20  ft.  wide,  with  a  12  ft.  roadway,  and 


LONDON  STONE 

houses  on  either  side,  projecting  over  the 
river,  supported  by  struts.  The  seventh 
opening  from  the  Southwark  end  was  spanned 
by  a  drawbridge.  A  gate  stood  just  north  of 
this;  and  another  gate  stood  nearer  the 
Southwark  shore.  On  the  first  of  these  the 
heads  of  traitors  were  exposed  until  its 
demolition;  after  1577  they  were  exposed  on 
the  Southwark  Gate.  The  confinement  of  the 
river  by  the  massive  piers  caused  a  danger- 
ously violent  current  (with  a  fall  at  times  of  as 
much  as  5  ft.)  through  the  arches,  and  acci- 
dents were  frequent,  although  'shooting  the 
Bridge*  was  a  well-known  pastime  in  the  I7th 
cent.  The  houses  on  the  bridge  were  de- 
molished in  1758-62,  and  the  old  bridge  itself 
was  taken  down  in  1 83 1 .  See  Gordon  Home, 
'Old  London  Bridge*.  There  is  a  good 
description  of  the  bridge  in  its  last  phase  in 
cLavengro',  c.  xxxi. 

London  Cuckolds,  The,  a  rollicking  farce  by 
Edward  Ravenscroft(jfl.  1671-97),  which  was 
produced  in  1682  and  anually  revived  on  lord 
mayor's  day  for  nearly  a  century. 

London  Gazette,  see  Gazette. 
London  Library,  THE,  was  founded  in 
1840,  largely  at  the  instance  of  T.  Carlyle 
(q.v.),  and  opened  in  1841  (in  two  rooms  of  a 
house  in  49  Pall  Mall).  It  was  moved  to  its 
present  premises  in  St.  James's  Square  in 
1866.  Its  present  membership  exceeds  4,000. 

London  Lickpenny>  see  Lydgate. 

London  Magazine,  The,  a  periodical  which 
ran  from  1732  to  1785,  founded  in  opposition 
to  the  'Gentleman's  Magazine*  (q.v.). 

A  magazine  bearing  the  same  name  had  a 
distinguished  career  from  1820  to  1829,  in 
opposition  to  'Blackwood's*  (q.v.),  with 
Lamb,  Hazlitt,  De  Quincey,  Hood,  and  Miss 
Mitford  on  its  staff.  It  published  Lamb's 
dissertation  on  Roast  Pig*  and  De  Quincey's 
'Opium  Eater*.  The  tragic  outcome  of  the 
hostility  between  the  'London  Magazine*  and 
'BlackwoodV  was  a  duel,  in  which  John 
Scott,  first  editor  of  the  'London',  was  killed. 

London  Merchant,  The,  or  The  History  of 
George  Barnwell,  see  George  Barnwell. 

London  Prodigal,  The,  a  comedy  published 
in  1605,  attributed  to  Shakespeare  in  the  title 
of  the  quarto  of  that  year  and  included  in  the 
3rd  and  4th  folios,  but  undoubtedly  by  some 
other  hand. 

The  play  is  a  comedy  of  London  manners, 
and  deals  with  the  reclaiming  of  the  prodigal 
young  Flowerdale  by  the  fidelity  of  his  wSe. 

London  Spy,  The,  see  Ward  (E.). 

London  Stone,  of  which  a  fragment  survives 
(now  in  the  wall  of  St.  Swithin's  Church,  near 
its  original  site),  was  perhaps  a  milliary  or 
Roman  milestone,  but  was  thought  by  Wren 
'by  reason  of  the  large  foundation'  to  be 
'rather  some  more  considerable  monument* 
(Tarentalia*,  quoted  by  Lethaby).  Later  it 
became  associated  with  the  house  of  the  first 


[466] 


LONE  STAR  STATE 

mayor  of  London  (Fitz  Alwin,  1191),  and 
appears  to  have  had  some  institutional 
character.  It  was  against  this  stone  that  Jack 
Cade  is  said  to  have  struck  his  sword  and 
said,  'Now  is  Mortimer  lord  of  this  city* 
(Shakespeare,  '2  Henry  VF,  iv.  vi). 

Lone  Star  State,  Texas,  see  United  States. 

Long  John  Silver,  a  character  in  Steven- 
son's 'Treasure  Island*  (q.v.). 

Long  Meg,  see  Meg  of  Westminster. 

Long  Melford,  in  Borrow's  'Lavengro' 
(q.v.),  the  expression  that  Belle  Berners  uses 
for  Lavengro 's  long  right  arm  (Belle  was  born 
in  the  workhouse  at  Long  Melford).  It  was 
with  a  blow  from  'Long  Melford'  that  Laven- 
gro  knocked  out  the  Flaming  Tinman. 

Long  Parliament,  THE,  the  second  of  the 
two  parliaments  summoned  by  Charles  I  in 
1640.  It  passed  a  Triennial  Bill,  impeached 
Stratford,  and  adopted  a  number  of  constitu- 
tional reforms  by  which  the  personal  govern- 
ment of  the  sovereign  was  terminated.  In 
1642  hostilities  broke  out  between  this  parlia- 
ment and  the  king.  In  1648  those  members 
who  were  favourable  to  the  latter  were  ex- 
pelled by  a  body  of  soldiers  under  Colonel 
Pride,  an  act  of  violence  known  as  Pride's 
Purge.  The  Long  Parliament  was  dissolved 
by  Cromwell  in  1653.  In  1659  forty-two 
members  of  the  Rump — as  the  portion  which 
had  continued  to  sit  until  1653  was  called — 
returned  to  Westminster;  and  when  the  sur- 
vivors of  those  excluded  in  1648  returned, 
early  in  1660,  the  Rump,  .under  pressure  from 
Monk,  voted  its  own  dissolution. 

Longaville,  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's  La- 
bour *s  Lost*  (q.v.),  one  of  the  three  lords 
attending  on  the  king  of  Navarre. 

LONGFELLOW,  HENRY  WADS- 
WORTH  ( 1 807-82),  born  at  Portland,  U. S. A. , 
and  educated  at  Bowdoin  (where  he  was  the 
class-mate  of  Hawthorne,  q.v.),  and  at  Har- 
vard, became  professor  of  modern  languages 
at  Bowdoin  and  in  1836  at  Harvard.  From 
that  time  Cambridge  (U.S.A.)  became  his 
home.  He  travelled  in  France,  Spain,  Italy, 
and  Germany  after  leaving  Harvard,  and 
again  went  to  Europe  (Sweden,  Denmark, 
and  Holland)  before  taking  up  his  professor- 
ship at  Harvard.  Longfellow  was  twice 
married,  his  first  wife  dying  while  he  was  in 
Holland,  and  the  second  being  burnt  to 
death  in  1861. 

Longfellow's  prose  romance,  'Hyperion*, 
appeared  in  1839,  a  product  of  his  first 
bereavement,  the  tale  of  a  young  man  who 
seeks  to  forget  sorrow  in  travel,  a  thread  on 
which  are  hung  philosophical  discourses 
poems,  and  legends.  In  the  same  year  was 
published  'Voices  of  the  Night*,  including 
his  didactic  pieces,  'The  Psalm  of  Life', 
'Footsteps  of  the  Angels',  and  'The  Reaper 
and  the  Flowers*.  In  1841  appeared  cBallads 
and  other  Poems',  containing  'The  Wreck  of 
the  Hesperus',  'Excelsior',  and  'The  Village 


LORD  OF  THE  ASCENDANT 

Blacksmith'.  Longfellow  visited  London  in 
1842,  and  was  the  guest  of  Dickens.  On  the 
return  voyage  he  wrote  his  'Poems  on 
Slavery'.  In  1846  appeared  'The  Belfry  of 
Bruges  and  other  Poems5;  in  1847,  'Evange- 
line*  (q.v.);  in  1849,  'Kavanagh*.  a  tale  in 
prose;  in  1850,  'The  Seaside  and  the  Fire- 
side', containing  'The  Building  of  the  Ship* 
and  'Resignation'; in  1855, 'Hiawatha' (q.v.); 
in  1858,  'The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish' 
(q.v.);  in  1863,  the  first  series  of  'Tales  of  a 
Wayside  Inn',  including  'Paul  Revere *s  Ride' 
and  'The  Saga  of  King  Olaf ;  in  1867,  his 
translation  of  Dante's  'Divine  Comedy'.  In 
1872  appeared  his  'Christus',  a  trilogy  which 
Longfellow  regarded  as  his  greatest  achieve- 
ment. The  three  parts  of  it  had  ap- 
peared earlier:  (i)  'The  Divine  Tragedy',  in 
1871;  (2)  'The  Golden  Legend*  (q.v.),  in 
185* ;  (3)  'New  England  Tragedies',  in  1868. 
In  1872  he  also  published  'Three  Books  of 
Song',  including  further  'Tales  of  a  Wayside 
Inn',  the  third  instalment  of  these  appearing 
in  'Aftermath'  (1873).  The  'Masque  of  Pan- 
dora' (1875)  includes  the  fine  ode  'Morituri 
Salutamus',  and  some  notable  sonnets.  Long- 
fellow's last  volumes  were  'Ultima  Thule* 
(1880)  and  'In  the  Harbor',  published  in  1882, 
after  his  death. 

LONGINUS,  DIONYSIUS  CASSIUS,  a 
Greek  philosopher  and  critic  of  the  3rd  cent. 
A.D.,  the  instructor  and  counsellor  of  Zenobia; 
to  him  is  ascribed,  perhaps  erroneously,  the 
remarkable  treatise  of  literary  criticism,  'On 
the  Sublime'. 

Longinus  or  LONGIUS,  the  traditional  name 
of  the  Roman  soldier  who  pierced  with  his 
spear  the  side  of  our  Lord  at  the  crucifixion. 
His  spear  figures  in  certain  versions  of  the 
Grail  legend,  and  is  mentioned  in  Malory's 
'Morte  d'Arthur',  n.  xvi.  It  was  dug  up  in  a 
church  at  Antioch  during  the  First  Crusade, 
and  enabled  the  Crusaders  to  overcome  a  vast 
host  of  Moslem. 

Longomontanus,  CHRISTIAN  SEVEREST 
(1562-1647),  of  Longberg  (of  which  Longo- 
montanus  is  the  latinized  form),  a  Danish 
astronomer,  assistant  of  Tycho  Brahe  (q.v.). 

LONGUS,  the  reputed  author  of  'Daphnis 
and  Chloe'  (q.v.),  of  whom  nothing  is  known. 

Looking  Backward,  a  Utopian  novel  by 
Edward  Bellamy,  published  in  1888. 

LOPE  DE  VEGA,  see  Vega. 

Lorbmlgmd,  in  'Gulliver's  Travels*  (q.v.), 
the  capital  of  Brobdingnag. 

Lord  ofBurlefgh,  The,  a  poem  by  A.  Tenny- 
son (q.v.),  of  which  the  story  (of  a  country  girl 
who  marries  a  landscape-painter  and  discovers 
that  he  is  a  wealthy  noble)  is  founded  on  the 
marriage  of  Henry,  marquess  of  Exeter  (1754- 
1804),  in  1791,  with  Sarah  Hoggins  of  Bolas  in 
Shropshire. 

Lord  of  the  Ascendant,  see  House  (Astro- 
logical). 


[467] 


LORD  OF  THE  ISLES 

Lord  of  the  Isles,  The,  a  poem  in  six  cantos 
by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.),  published  in  1815. 

The  poem,  founded  on  the  chronicles  of 
the  Bruce,  deals  with  the  return  of  Robert 
Bruce  in  1307  to  Scotland,  whence  he  had 
been  driven  after  the  murder  of  the  Red 
Comyn,  and  the  period  of  his  subsequent 
struggle  against  the  English,  culminating  in 
the  battle  of  Bannockburn.  With  this  is 
woven  the  story  of  the  love  of  Edith  of  Lorn 
for  Lord  Ronald,  the  Lord  of  the  Isles.  She 
is  his  affianced  bride,  but  his  heart  is  given 
to  Isabel,  Bruce's  sister.  His  marriage  to 
Edith  is  prevented  by  the  return  of  Bruce. 
Edith,  in  the  disguise  of  a  mute  page,  follows 
Bruce  and  Ronald,  and,  at  the  risk  of  her  life, 
saves  them  from  destruction.  Her  devotion 
finally  wins  Lord  Ronald's  heart. 

Lord  Ormont  and  his  Aminta  t  a  novel  by  G. 
Meredith  (q.v.),  published  in  1894. 

Major-general  the  earl  of  Ormont,  a 
distinguished  cavalry  commander,  who  has 
retired  from  the  service  with  a  grievance 
against  the  East  India  Company  and  the 
British  public,  has  met  the  young  and  beauti- 
ful Aminta  Farrell  on  a  trip  to  Spain,  and,  in 
spite  of  her  inferior  birth  and  her  dreadful 
aunt,  Mrs.  Pagnell,  and  his  own  sixty  years, 
has  married  her  at  the  embassy  at  Madrid. 
On  her  side  Aminta  has  been  led  to  the  step 
by  intense  hero-worship.  Lord  Ormont  con- 
templates a  life  of  travel  on  the  Continent, 
and  when  Aminta  tires  of  this  and  they  return 
to  London,  he  does  not  introduce  her  to 
society  or  publicly  recognize  her  as  his  wife, 
but  leaves  her  in  an  equivocal  position  and  to 
the  companionship  of  a  shady  and  highly 
emancipated  set.  Matthew  (Matie)  Wey- 
burn,  another  young  admirer  of  Lord 
Ormont's  military  prowess,  is  appointed  his 
secretary,  and  discovers  in  the  countess 
the  'Browny'  of  his  schooldays  and  the 
object  of  a  boyish  passion.  In  spite  of 
honourable  restraint  on  both  sides,  cir- 
cumstances revive  their  mutual  affection. 
Lord  Ormont's  treatment  and  Mrs.  PagnelTs 
mischievous  interference  expose  Aminta  to 
the  persecution  of  the  profligate  Morsfield, 
from  which  Weybum  helps  to  rescue  her. 
Lord  Ormont  finally  repents  of  his  course 
and  prepares  to  give  Aminta  her  proper  posi- 
tion. But  it  is  too  late,  and  Aminta  leaves  him 
for  ever.  Matie  and  Brpwny,  both  great 
swimmers,  meet  one  morning  in  the  sea,  and 
the  meeting  decides  their  fate.  They  defy 
conventions  and  go  off  together  to  keep  a 
school  in  Switzerland.  Some  years  later, 
before  Lord  Ormont's  death,  they  receive 
his  forgiveness. 

Lord  Strutt,  in  Arbuthnot's  'History  of 
John  Bull'  (q.v.),  represents  King  Philip  of 
Spain. 

Lord  UlUrfs  Daughter,  a  ballad  by  Campbell 
(q.v.). 

Lord's  cricket  ground,  London,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Marylebone  Cricket  Club,  so 


LOST  LEADER 

named  from  Thomas  Lord,  who  at  the  end 
of  the  1 8th  cent,  removed  here  from  a  cricket 
ground  that  he  had  previously  opened  near 
Regent's  Park.  Lord  is  said  to  have  been  a 
Scot  and  a  Jacobite. 

Lords  and  Liveries,  in  Thackeray's  'Novels 
by  Eminent  Hands',  is  a  parody  of  the 
novels  of  Mrs.  C.  G.  F.  Gore  (q.v.). 

Lorel,  the  swineherd  in  Jonson's  'The  Sad 
Shepherd*  (q.v.). 

Lorelei,  a  cliff  on  the  Rhine,  where,  accord- 
ing to  German  legend,  dwelt  a  siren  of  the 
same  name,  who  lured  boatmen  to  destruc- 
tion by  her  song.  It  is  the  subject  of  a  poem 
by  Heine. 

Lorenzo,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'The 
Merchant  of  Venice*  (q.v.). 
Loretto  or  LORETO,  a  small  town  near 
Ancona  in  Italy,  where  in  a  church  stands  the 
SANTA  CASA  ('Holy  House'),  reputed  to  be  the 
veritable  house  of  the  Holy  Family  miracu- 
lously transported  there  from  Nazareth  in 
1294. 

Lorna  Doone,  a  novel  by  R.  D.  Blackmore 
(q.v.),  published  in  1869.  The  story  is  set  in 
the  times  of  Charles  II  and  James  II,  and  has 
a  slight  historical  background,  for  Mon- 
mouth's  rebellion  and  Judge  Jeffreys  figure  in 
it,  and  John  Ridd  and  the  highwayman  Tom 
Faggus  have  some  traditional  foundation. 

John  Ridd  is  a  young  Exmoor  yeoman  of 
herculean  strength  and  stature.  His  father 
has  been  killed  by  the  Dopnes,  a  clan  of 
robbers  and  murderers  who  inhabit  a  neigh- 
bouring valley.  The  vengeance  which  John 
and  his  neighbours  finally  exact  from  the 
Doones  for  their  numerous  crimes,  compli- 
cated by  John's  love  for  Lorna  Doone,  pro- 
vides the  main  theme  of  the  book  and  the 
occasion  for  many  thrilling  and  romantic 
adventures.  John  rescues  Lorna  from  her 
villainous  associates,  and  the  chief  impedi- 
ment to  their  marriage  is  the  fact  that  her 
reputed  father  was  the  murderer  of  John's 
father.  It  turns  out  that  Lorna  is  really  the 
daughter  of  a  Scottish  noble,  stolen  from 
her  parents  by  the  Doones,  and  the  difficulty 
now  lies  in  the  disparity  in  the  social  positions 
of  Lorna  and  John.  But  this  is  overcome  by 
Lorna's  fidelity  and  by  the  services  that  John 
renders  to  an  old  kinsman  of  Lorna  and  to  the 
king. 

Lorraine,  MRS.,  a  character  in  Disraeli's 
'Vivian  Grey*  (q.v.). 

LORE1S,  GUILLAUME  DE,  see  Roman 
de  la  Rose. 

Lorry,  JARVTS,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'A 
Tale  of  Two  Cities'  (q.v.). 

Los,  a  character  in  the  mystical  books  of 
Blake  (q.v.). 

Lost  Leader,  The,  a  poem  by  R.  Browning 
(q.v.),  a  lament  on  the  desertion  by  a  poet 
(Wordsworth?)  of  the  cause  of  liberty  and 
progress. 


LOT 

Lot  or  LOTH,  in  the  Arthurian  legend,  is 
king  of  Orkney  and  the  husband  of  Arthur's 
sister,  Margawse  or  Morgause,  and  the  father 
of  Gawain  and,  in  the  earlier  version,  of 
Modred.  He  is  perhaps,  in  origin,  the  Lludd 
of  British  mythology. 

LOT,  PARSON,  the  pseudonym  of  C. 
Kingsley  (q.v.). 

Lothair,  a  novelty  Disraeli  (q.v.),  published 
in  1870.  This  is  one  of  Disraeli's  last  two 
novels,  written  while  out  of  office,  and,  though 
containing  many  references  to  politics,  has  no 
political  purpose. 

Lothair  is  a  young  nobleman  of  immense 
wealth,  an  orphan  left  to  the  guardianship  of 
Lord  Culloden,  a  Scottish  noble,  and  of  a 
clergyman  of  shining  ^talent,  who,  after  his 
appointment  as  guardian,  enters  the  church 
of  Rome  and  becomes  Cardinal  Grandison. 
Lothair,  after  a  strictly  Protestant  education 
in  Scotland,  comes  of  age  about  the  time 
(1866)  when  the  Garibaldian  forces  were 
threatening  the  papal  government.  The  plot 
of  the  novel  consists  principally  of  the  efforts 
of  Cardinal  Grandison,  assisted  by  his  atten- 
dant Monsignor  Catesby,  and  supported  by 
the  ascendancy  of  the  beautiful  and  devout 
Catholic,  Clare  Arundel,  to  secure  for  the 
Roman  Church  the  influence  and  wealth  of 
Lothair.  The  forces  opposed  to  his  con- 
version are  Lord  Culloden,  Lady  Corisande 
(whom  from  his  Oxford  days  Lothair  has 
wished  to  marry),  and  the  heroic  Theodora, 
the  enthusiastic  supporter  of  Italian  liberty. 
Lothair  joins  in  the  campaign  against  the 
papal  forces,  in  the  course  of  which  Theo- 
dora is  killed,  obtaining  from  Lothair  on 
her  death-bed  a  promise  that  he  will  never 
enter  the  Roman  Church.  Lothair  himself  is 
wounded  at  Mentana,  and  the  struggle  to 
secure  him  is  renewed  by  the  Roman 
ecclesiastics.  Their  efforts  are  related  with 
genial  humour,  and  there  is  a  capital  passage 
where  the  cardinal  blandly  attempts  to  per- 
suade Lothair  that  his  belief  that  he  fought  at 
Mentana  is  a  delusion  comparable  to  that  of 
George  IV  that  he  commanded  at  Waterloo. 
Lothair  with  difficulty  escapes  from  the 
cardinal's  vigilance,  and  finally  returns  to 
England  to  marry  Lady  Corisande.  Among 
the  delightful  characters  in  the  book  is  that 
of  Lord  St.  Aldegonde,  the  red  republican 
opposed  to  all  privileges,  except  those  of 
dukes,  and  in  favour  of  the  equal  division  of 
all  property,  except  land. 
Lothario,  (i)  the  heartless  libertine  (pro- 
verbial as  'the  Gay  Lothario')  in  Nicholas 
Rowe's  "The  Fair  Penitent*  (q.v.);  (2)  a  char- 
acter in  the  episode  of  *The  Curious  Im- 
pertinent' (q.v.)  in  'Don  Quixote';  (3)  a  char- 
acter in  Goethe's  'Wilhelm  Meister'. 
LOTI,  PIERRE,  pseudonym  of  JTJLIEN 
VIAUD  (1850-1923),  French  naval  officer 
and  author.  Loti  was  an  impressionist  writer, 
with  a  remarkable  gift  for  depicting  exotic 
scenery  and  the  melancholy  aspects  of  nature, 
especially  of  the  sea.  He  is  seen  at  his  best 


LOUVRE 

in  some  of  his  earlier  works,  such  as  *Mon 
Frere  Yves',  'P6cheur  d'Islande',  and  'Le 
Mariage  de  Loti'. 

Lotophagl  or  LOTUS-EATERS,  according  to 
the  *  Odyssey',  a  people  inhabiting  a  coast 
visited  by  Ulysses,  who  fed  on  a  fruit  called 
the  lotus.  Those  who  ate  it  lost  all  desire  to 
return  to  their  native  country.  'The  Lotus- 
Eaters'  i&  the  s^jbject  of  one  of  Tennyson's 
best-known  poems,  in  Spenserian  stanzas 
founded  on  the  Homeric  story,  followed  by 
a  choric  ode  of  the  sailors. 

I/otte,  the  heroine  of  Goethe's  'The  Sorrows 
of  Werther'  (see  Goethe).  Lotte  was  drawn 
from  Lotte  Buff,  with  whom  Goethe  fell  in 
love  at  Wetzlar,  and  who  married  Goethe's 
friend,  Kestner. 

Lotus-eaters,  see  LotophagL 

Louis  XI,  king  of  France  (1461-83),  figures 
in  Scott's  'Quentin  Durward'  and  'Anne  of 
Geierstein'  (qq.v.). 

Louisa,  the  heroine  of  Sheridan's  'The 
Duenna*  (q.v.). 

Louisiana  Purchase,  THE,  the  transaction, 
completed  in  1803,  whereby  the  United  States 
purchased  from  Napoleon,  for  $15,000,000, 
a  vast  tract  of  land  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
containing  1,171,931  square  miles,  or  an 
area  greater  than  that  of  all  the  thirteen 
original  states.  'The  bargain  was  a  great  one 
for  America.  It  not  only  precluded  all 
possibility  of  a  foreign  power  getting  a  foot- 
hold on  the  lower  Mississippi;  it  also  secured 
control  of  the  great  river. . . .*  [H.  W,  Elson.] 

Lourdes ,  a  town  on  the  Gave  de  Pau  in  the 
Hautes-Pyrenees,  France,  one  of  the  chief 
centres  of  Roman  Catholic  pilgrimage.  The 
principal  object  visited  is  a  grotto  in  which 
the  Virgin  is  said  to  have  appeared  in  1858 
and  revealed  the  miraculous  properties  of  a 
local  spring.  Lourdes  is  the  subject  of  Zola's 
(q.v.)  novel  of  that  name  (i  894). 

Lousfadf  The,  a  mock-heroic  poem  by  Wol- 
cot  (q.v.),  published  in  1785. 

Its  subject  is  the  appearance  of  a  louse  in 
a  dish  of  peas  served  to  George  III,  which  led 
to  an  order  that  all  the  servants  in  the  king's 
kitchen  should  have  their  heads  shaved. 

Louvre,  THE,  the  ancient  palace  of  the 
kings  of  France  in  Paris,  dating  according  to 
tradition  from  King  Dagobert  (628-38),  who 
is  said  to  have  had  a  hunting-seat  there 
(Louvre  is  from  the  late  Latin  lupara,  which 
appears  to  mean  a  place  or  equipment  for 
hunting  wolves).  It  was  entirely  rebuilt  in 
the  reign  of  Philip  II,  and  enlarged  by 
Francois  I  and  his  successors  down  to  Napo- 
leon III.  See  also  Louvre  (MusJe  du). 
Louvre,  MUS&E  DU,  housed  in  the  former 
royal  palace  (see  above),  the  principal  art 
museum  in  France, "containing  a  number  of 
collections,  of  which  the  most  important  are 
those  of  pictures  and  of  sculpture.  The  pri- 
vate collections  of  the  kings  of  France 


[469] 


LOVE  A  LA  MODE 

form  the  nucleus  of  the  former,  which  dates 
from  the  Renaissance,  and  particularly  from 
Francois  I,  who  brought  Italian  artists,  such  as 
Leonardo  and  Andrea  del  Sarto,  to  France. 
Louis  XIV  added  largely  to  it,  and  it  was  im- 
mensely increased  by  the  spoils  of  conquest 
during  the  wars  of  the  Revolution  and  the 
Empire  (after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  Allies 
caused  5,000  works  of  art  to  be  restored  to 
their  former  owners).  Since  then  it  has  been 
added  to  by  purchase.  The  sculptures,  like 
the  pictures,  come  in  part  from  royal  collec- 
tions, in  part  from  the  spoils  of  conquest. 
Many  are  the  fruit  of  archaeological  missions. 

Love  a  la  Mode,  a  comedy  by  Macklin  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1759. 

Four  suitors,  an  Englishman,  an  Irishman, 
a  Scot,  and  a  Jew,  are  rivals  for  the  hand  of 
the  heroine.  Their  quality  is  tested  by  the 
pretence  that  she  has  lost  her  fortune.  The 
play  is  famous  for  the  characters  of  Sir  Archy 
MacSarcasm  and  Sir  Callaghan  O'BraUa- 
ghan. 

Love  for  Love,  a  comedy  by  Congreve  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1695. 

Valentine  has  fallen  under  the  displeasure 
of  his  father  by  his  extravagance,  and  is  be- 
sieged by  duns.  His  father,  Sir  Sampson 
Legend,  offers  him  £4,000  (only  enough  to 
pay  his  debts)  if  he  will  sign  a  bond  engaging 
to  make  over  his  right  to  his  inheritance  to 
his  younger  brother  Ben.  Valentine,  to  escape 
from  his  embarrassment,  signs  the  bond. 
He  is  in  love  with  Angelica,  who  possesses 
a  fortune  of  her  own,  but  she  has  hitherto 
not  yielded  to  his  suit.  Sir  Sampson  has 
arranged  a  match  between  Ben,  who  is  at  sea, 
and  Miss  Prue,  an  awkward  country  girl, 
the  daughter  of  Foresight,  a  superstitious 
old  fool  who  claims  to  be  an  astrologer. 
Valentine,  realizing  the  ruin  entailed  by  the 
signature  of  the  bond,  tries  to  move  his  father 
by  submission,  and  fails;  then  pretends  to 
be  mad  and  unable  to  sign  the  final  deed  of 
conveyance  to  his  brother.  Finally  Angelica 
intervenes.  She  induces  Sir  Sampson  to 
propose  marriage  to  her,  pretends  to  accept, 
and  gets  possession  of  Valentine's  bond. 
When  Valentine  in  despair  at  finding  that 
Angelica  is  about  to  marry  his  father,  declares 
himself  ready  to  sign  the  conveyance,  she 
reveals  the  plot,  tears  up  the  bond,  and 
declares  her  love  for  Valentine. 

The  comedy  is  enlivened  by  its  witty  dialogue 
and  its  humorous  characters.  Among  these 
are  Jeremy,  Valentine's  resourceful  servant; 
Sir  Sampson,  with  his  cblunt  vivacity' ;  Ben, 
the  rough  young  sea-dog,  who  intends  to 
marry  whom  he  chooses ;  Miss  Prue,  only  too 
ready  to  learn  the  lessons  in  love  given  her 
by  Tattle,  the  vain,  half-witted  beau,  who 
finds  himself  married  to  Mrs.  Frail,  the  lady 
of  easy  virtue,  when  he  thinks  he  has  captured 
Angelica;  and  Foresight,  the  gullible  old 
astrologer. 

Love  in  a  Tub,  see  Comical  Revenge. 


LOVEL  THE  WIDOWER 
Love  Rune,  see  Luve  Ron. 

Love's  Cruelty,  a  tragedy  by  James  Shirley 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1631,  printed  in  1640. 

Hippolito  refuses  to  meet  Clariana,  the 
wife  of  his  friend  Bellamente,  for  fear  that 
her  beauty  may  tempt  him  to  disloyalty  to 
her  husband.  Clariana,  piqued  at  his  refusal, 
visits  Hippolito,  concealing  her  identity,  with 
consequences  disastrous  to  all  three. 

Lovers  Labour  Js  Lost,  a  comedy  by  Shake- 
speare (q.v.),  on  internal  evidence  one  of  his 
earliest  works,  probably  produced  about 
1595,  printed  in  quarto  in  1598. 

The  king  of  Navarre  and  three  of  his  lords 
have  sworn  for  three  years  to  keep  from  the 
sight  of  woman  and  to  live  studying  and 
fasting.  The  arrival  of  the  princess  of  France 
on  an  embassy,  with  her  attendant  ladies, 
obliges  them  'of  mere  necessity*  to  disregard 
their  vows.  The  king  is  soon  in  love  with  the 
princess,  his  lords  with  her  ladies,  and  the 
courting  proceeds  amidst  disguises  and  merri- 
ment, to  which  the  other  characters  con- 
tribute, viz.  Don  Adriano  de  Armado,  the 
Spaniard,  a  master  of  extravagant  language, 
Holofernes  the  schoolmaster,  Dull  the  con- 
stable, Sir  Nathaniel  the  curate,  and  Costard 
the  clown.  News  of  the  death  of  the  princess's 
father  interrupts  the  wooing,  and  the  ladies 
impose  a  year's  ordeal  on  their  lovers.  The 
play  ends  with  the  beautiful  owl  and  cuckoo- 
song,  "When  icicles  hang  by  the  wall'. 

Love's  Sacrifice,  a  tragedy  by  J.  Ford  (q.v.), 
printed  in  1633. 

Fernando,  favourite  of  the  duke  of  Pavia, 
falls  in  love  with  Bianca,  the  duchess.  He 
declares  his  love,  but  is  repulsed.  Presently, 
however,  the  duchess,  in  whom  he  has 
awakened  a  strong  passion,  cornes  to  his  room 
and  offers  herself  to  him,  but  warns  him  that 
she  will  not  survive  her  shame,  but  take  her 
own  life  before  morning.  Fernando  masters 
his  passion  and  determines  to  remain  her 
distant  lover.  Fiormonda,  the  duke's  sister, 
who  has  vainly  importuned  Fernando  with 
her  love  for  him,  discovers  his  affection  for 
Bianca,  and  pursues  her  vengeance.  With 
the  help  of  D'Avolos,  the  duke's  base 
secretary,  she  stirs  up  the  duke's  jealousy, 
and  a  trap  is  laid  for  Fernando  and  Bianca. 
The  duke  finds  them  together,  and  kills 
Bianca.  Convinced  too  late,  by  Fernando  *s 
declarations  and  Bianca's  manner  of  meeting 
her  death,  of  her  innocence,  he  stabs  himself, 
and  Fernando  takes  poison  in  Bianca's  tomb. 

Loveday,  JOHN  and  BOB,  the  sons  of  Miller 
Loveday,  in  Hardy's  'The  Trumpet-Major* 


[470] 


Level,  (i)  the  name  assumed  by  the  hero  in 
Scott's  'The  Antiquary'  (q.v,)  ;  (2)  the  princi- 
pal character  in  Townley's  'High  Life  below 
Stairs'  (q.v.). 

Lovel  the  dog,  see  Rat,  the  Cat,  &c. 

Lovel  the  Widower,  a  short  story  by 
Thackeray  (q.v.),  published  in  1860  in  the 


LOVELACE 

'CornhUl  Magazine'.  The  principal  charac- 
ters are  Lovel,  the  well-to-do  widower;  his 
odious  mother-in-law  Lady  Baker,  who 
makes  his  home  intolerable;  and  Miss  Prior, 
the  governess  in  his  family,  a  young  woman 
who  has  learnt  diplomacy  in  the  school  of 
adversity.  It  comes  to  light  that  she  once 
danced  at  a  theatre,  and  Lady  Baker  in- 
dignantly orders  her  to  leave.  But  Lovel  asks 
her  to  remain,  as  his  wife,  and  Lady  Baker  is 
routed. 

LOVELACE,  RICHARD  (1618-58),  edu- 
cated at  Charterhouse  School  and  Gloucester 
Hall,  Oxford,  was  the  heir  to  great  estates  in 
Kent.  Wealthy,  handsome,  and  of  graceful 
manners,  he  had  a  romantic  career.  He  was 
a  courtier  and  served  in  the  Scottish  expedi- 
tions of  1639.  Having  presented  a  'Kentish 
Petition*  to  the  House  of  Commons  in  1642, 
he  was  thrown  into  the  Gatehouse  prison, 
where  he  wrote  the  song,  'To  Althea*.  He 
rejoined  Charles  I  in  1645  and  served  with 
the  French  king  in  1646.  It  being  reported 
that  he  was  killed,  his  betrothed  Lucy 
Sacheverell  —  'Lucasta*  —  married  another 
man.  He  was  again  imprisoned  in  1648,  and 
in  prison  prepared  for  the  press  his  'Lucasta; 
Epodes,  Odes,  Sonnets,  Songs,  &c.*,  which 
includes  the  beautiful  lyric  'On  going  to  the 
wars'.  He  died  in  extreme  want.  After  his 
death  his  brother  published  his  remaining 
verses  ('Lucasta:  Posthume  Poems')-  He 
wrote  two  plays,  which  have  perished,  and  is 
remembered  only  by  his  lyrics,  which  are  of 
unequal  quality.  His  works  have  been  edited 
by  C.  H.  Wilkinson  (z  vols.,  Oxford,  1925). 

Lovelace,  ROBERT,  a  character  in  Richard- 
son's 'Clarissa  Harlowe'  (q.v.). 
Loveless,  a  character  in  Vanbrugh's  'The 
Relapse*  and  Sheridan's  *A  Trip  to  Scar- 
borough* (qq.v.). 

Lovell,  LORD,  a  character  in  Massinger's 
'A  New  Way  to  pay  Old  Debts*  (q.v.). 

LOVER,  SAMUEL  (1797-1868),  Irish 
novelist  and  song-writer,  is  remembered  for 
his  ballad,  and  the  novel  developed  out  of  it, 
'Rory  O'More*  (1836),  which  deal  with  the 
tragic  events  in  Ireland  in  1798 ;  also  for  his 
novel  'Handy  Andy'  (1842),  in  which  he  de- 
picts the  whimsical  aspects  of  Irish  character. 
Andy  Rooney,  known  as  'Handy  Andy',  is 
the  servant  of  Squire  Egan,  and  has  an  un- 
rivalled faculty  of  'doing  everything  the 
wrong  way'.  The  rivalry  of  Squire  Egan  and 
Squire  O'Grady  and  the  blunders  of  Andy 
give  rise  to  many  amusing  incidents,  ending 
in  the  discovery  that  Andy  is  an  Irish  peer, 
Lord  Scatterbrain.  Lover  published  his 
'Songs  and  Ballads*  in  1839. 
Lover's  Melancholy,  The,  a  romantic 
comedy  by  J.  Ford  (q.v.),  acted  in  1628. 

Palador,  prince  of  Cyprus,  has  been  be- 
trothed to  Eroclea,  daughter  of  Meleander,  an 
old  lord;  but,  to  escape  the  evil  designs  of 
Palador's  father,  she  has  been  conveyed  away 
to  Greece,  where  she  has  remained  disguised 


LOVES  OF  THE  ANGELS 

as  a  boy.  Meleander  has  been  accused  of 
treason,  imprisoned,  and  driven  to  madness. 
Palador,  .after  his  father's  death,  is  left  in  a 
state  of  hopeless  melancholy.  Eroclea  returns 
to  Cyprus  as  the  page  of  Menaphon.  Tham- 
asta,  cousin  of  the  prince,  falls  in  love  with 
her  in  this  disguise,  and  to  escape  her 
attentions  Eroclea  is  obliged  to  reveal  her 
identity.  She  is  then  restored  to  Palador; 
Meleander  is  released  and  cured;  Thamasta 
marries  Menaphon;  and  all  ends  happily. 
The  play  contains  a  version  of  Strada's 
contest  of  the  lute-player  and  the  nightingale, 
which  is  also  dealt  with  by  Crashaw  (q.v.). 

Lovers  of  Gudrun,  The,  see  Gudrun  (The 
Lovers  of). 

Lovers9  Progress,  The,  a  romantic  drama  by 
J.  Fletcher  (q.v.),  revised  by  Massinger  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1623  and  printed  in  1647. 

Lidian  and  Clarange,  devoted  friends,  are 
both  in  love  with  Olinda.  Clarange  lets  it  be 
believed  that  he  is  dead,  and  finally  turns 
friar,  in  order  to  surrender  Olinda  to  Lidian. 
The  plot  is  complicated  with  another  illustra- 
tion of  the  conflict  of  love  and  friendship. 
Lisander  loves  the  virtuous  Calista,  wife  of 
his  friend  Cleander.  Cleander  is  killed  by  a 
servant.  The  imprudent  but  not  criminal 
conduct  of  Lisander  and  Calista  throws  grave 
suspicion  on  them,  and  they  narrowly  escape 
condemnation  for  the  murder. 

Lovers9  Vows,  a  play  by  Mrs.  Inchbald, 
adapted  from  'Das  Kind  der  Liebe'  of 
Kotzebue  (q.v.),  acted  in  1798. 

Baron  Wildenhaim  has  in  his  youth 
seduced  and  deserted  Agatha  Friburg,  a 
chambermaid,  and  married  another  woman. 
Agatha,  when  the  play  opens,  is  reduced  to 
destitution,  in  which  state  she  is  found  by  her 
son,  Frederic,  a  young  soldier,  who  now  for 
the  first  time  learns  the  story  of  his  birth.  To 
relieve  his  mother's  needs,  he  goes  out  to  beg, 
and  chances  upon  his  unknown  father,  and 
attempts  to  rob  him.  He  is  arrested,  dis- 
covers who  the  baron  is,  reveals  his  own 
identity  and  his  mother's,  and  finally  per- 
suades, with  the  aid  of  the  good  pastor 
Anhalt,  the  baron  to  marry  Agatha.  The 
baron  consents  also  to  the  marriage  of  his 
daughter  Amelia  with  Anhalt,  abandoning 
the  projected  marriage  with  Count  Cassell 
which  he  had  at  heart. 

The  play  would  be  of  little  interest  but  for 
the  place  it  occupies  in  the  story  of  Jane 
Austen's  'Mansfield  Park*  (q.v.). 

Loves  of  the  Angels,  The,  a  poem  by  T. 
Moore,  published  in  1 823 .  This  was  Moore's 
last  long  poem,  and  it  had  a  very  wide  vogue. 
It  was  translated  into  several  languages. 

The  poem  recounts  the  loves  of  three  fallen 
angels  for  mortal  women,  being  founded  on 
the  eastern  tale  of  'Harut  and  Marut*  (q.v.) 
and  certain  rabbinical  fictions.  In  the  poet's 
intention  it  represents  emblematically  the 
decline  of  the  soul  from  purity.  The  first 
angel  loved  Lea,  and  taught  her  the  spell- 


[47i] 


LOVES  OF  THE  PLANTS 

word  which  opens  the  gate  of  heaven.  At 
once  she  uttered  it  and  rose  to  the  stars  .^  The 
second  loved  Lilis ;  he  came  to  her  in  his  full 
celestial  glory,  and  she  was  burnt  to  death. 
The  third,  Zaraph,  loved  Nama;  they  were 
condemned  to  live  in  imperfect  happiness 
among  mortals,  but  would  ultimately  be 
admitted  to  immortality. 
Loves  of  the  Plants,  The,  see  Darwin  (E.). 

Loves  of  the  Triangles,  The,  a  parody  by 
Canning  and  J.  H.  Frere  in  the  'Anti- 
Jacobin'  (q.v.)  of  E.  Darwin's  (q.v.)  'The 
Loves  of  the  Plants'.  The  authors  claim  to 
have  enlightened  by  illustration  'the  arid 
truths  of  Euclid  and  Algebra',  and,  'as  it 
were,  to  have  strewed  the  Asses'  Bridge  with 
flowers'. 

Lovewell,  one  of  the  principal  characters 
in  Colman  and  Garrick's  'The  Clandestine 
Marriage*  (q.v.). 

LOWELL,  JAMES  RUSSELL  (1819-91), 
born  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  and  edu- 
cated at  Harvard,  succeeded  Longfellow  as 
professor  of  belles-lettres  at  Harvard  in  1855, 
and  was  American  minister  in  Spain,  1877- 
80,  and  in  England,  1880-5.  He  was  editor 
of  the  'Atlantic  Monthly'  magazine  in  1857, 
and  subsequently  (1863)  with  C.  E.^  Norton 
of  the  'North  American  Review'.  His  works 
include  several  volumes  of  verse,  the  satirical 
'Biglow  Papers"  (1848  and  1862),  and  me- 
morial odes  after  the  Civil  War;  and  prose 
essays,  'Conversations  on  some  of  the  old 
Poets*  (1845),  'Fireside  Travels'  (1864), 
'Among  my  Books'  (1870  and  1876),  'My 
Study  Windows'  (1871),  'Democracy'  (1886), 
and  'Political  Essays'  (1888).  His  'Letters', 
edited  by  C.  E.  Norton,  appeared  in  1894. 

Lowell,  PEKCIVAL  (1855-1916),  an  American 
astronomer  who,  under  the  influence  of 
Schiaparelli's  discovery  of  the  canals  in  Mars, 
devoted  his  fortune  to  founding  the^great 
LOWELL  OBSERVATORY  at  Flagstaff,  Arizona. 

LOWES,  JOHN  LIVINGSTON  (1867- 
),  professor  of  English  at  Harvard 
University  and  writer.  His  principal  work  is 
'The  Road  to  Xanadu'  (1927),  a  remarkable 
study  of  Coleridge's  'Kubla  Khan*. 

Low-heels  and  High-heels,  in  'Gulliver's 
Travels'  (q.v.),  two  factions  in  Lilliput. 

LOWNDES,  WILLIAM  THOMAS  (d. 
1843),  author  of  'The  Bibliographer's  Manual 
of  English  Literature*  (1834)  and  'The 
British  Librarian'  (1839),  early  bibliographi- 
cal works  of  importance.  The  former  was 
i  e vised  and  enlarged  (1857-8)  by  H.  G.  Bohn 
(q.v.) 

Loyal  Subject t  The,  a  drama  by  J.  Fletcher 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1618. 

The  subject  is  the  jealousy  shown  by  the 
duke  of  Muscovy  of  his  late  father's  loyal 
general,  Arenas,  whom  he  dismisses  and 
replaces  by  an  incompetent  flatterer  Boroskie. 
The  young  Arenas,  son  of  the  general,  dis- 


LUBBOCK 

guised  as  a  girl  (Alinda)  is  placed  in  the 
service  of  Olympia,  the  duke's  sister,  wins 
her  affection,  and  attracts  the  duke's  love. 
On  an  invasion  of  the  Tartars,  Boroskie 
feigns  sickness,  Archas  is  recalled  and  con- 
quers. But  Boroskie  inflames  the  duke's 
suspicion  of  Archas.  On  signs  of  the 
disaffection  of  the  troops,  who  are  devoted 
to  Archas,  Archas  is  carried  off  to  torture. 
The  infuriated  troops  attack  the  palace,  and 
then  march  away  to  join  the  Tartars,  but  are 
brought  back  to  submission  by  Archas,  fresh 
from  the  rack.  The  repentant  duke  marries 
Honora,  daughter  of  Archas.  The  identity  of 
Alinda,  who  has  been  dismissed  by  Olympia 
on  suspicion  of  yielding  to  the  duke's 
advances,  is  now  declared^  and  the  young 
Archas  is  married  to  Olympia. 
Loyola,  ST.  IGNATIUS  (1491-1556),  a  page  to 
Ferdinand  V  of  Aragon,  and  subsequently  an 
officer  in  the  Spanish  army,  was  wounded  in 
both  legs  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna  (1521), 
and  thereafter  devoted  himself  to  religion. 
He  constituted  himself  the  Knight  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Holy  Land,  and  on  his  return  in  15  34  founded 
in  Paris  the  society  of  the  Jesuits,t  bound  by 
vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  obedience,  and 
submission  to  the  holy  see,  and  authorized  by 
papal  bull  in  1540.  Its  principal  activities 
were  preaching,  instruction,  and  confession, 
and  it  formed  a  spiritual  army  bound 
to  obedience.  The  object  of  the  society 
was  to  support  the  Roman  church  in  its 
conflict  with  the  i6th-cent.  reformers  and 
to  propagate  its  faith  among  the  heathen. 
Francis  Xavier  and  other  missionaries  carried 
on  the  latter  work  in  the  most  distant  parts 
of  the  world.  The  secret  power  of  the  organi- 
zation Drought  it  into  collision  with  the  civil 
authorities  even  in  Roman  Catholic  countries, 
whence  its  members  have  at  times  been  ex- 
pelled. Loyola's  'Exercitia'  ('Spiritual  Exer- 
cises'), a  manual  of  devotion  and  of  rules  for 
meditation  and  prayer,  was  finished  in  1548. 
Luath,  in  the  Ossianic  poems  of  Macpherson 
(q.v.),  Cuthullin's  dog.  The  name  was 
adopted  by  Burns  for  the  ploughman's  collie 
in  his  poem  'The  Twa  Dogs'  (q.v.). 
LUBBOCK,  SIR  JOHN,  first  Baron  Ave- 
bury  (1834-1913),  educated  at  Eton,  and  head 
of  the  banking  house  of  Robarts,  Lubbock, 
&  Co.,  was  elected  M.P.  for  Maidstone  in 
1870  and  subsequently  sat  for  London  Uni- 
versity; in  1871  he  secured  the  passing  of  the 
Bank  Holidays  Act,  and  in  1882  the  Act  for 
the  Preservation  of  Ancient  Monuments. 
From  early  days  he  devoted  his  leisure  to 
natural  science  and  was  a  pioneer  in  the  study 
of  the  life  histories  of  insects.  His  scientific 
works  include  the  following:  'Prehistoric 
Times'  (1865),  'The  Origin  of  Civilization* 
(1870),  'On  the  Origin  and  Metamorphoses 
of  Insects'  (1874),  'Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps* 
(1882),  'On  the  Senses,  Instincts,  and  In- 
telligence of  Animals'  (1888),  'A  Contribu- 
tion to  our  Knowledge  of  Seedlings*  (1892), 


[473] 


LUCAN 

*The  Scenery  of  Switzerland'  (1896),  'On 
Buds  and  Stipules'  (1899),  and  'Marriage, 
Totemism,  and  Religion*  (1911).  Rewrote 
other  works  which  enjoyed  much  popularity : 
the  list  of  the  'Hundred  Best  Books',  "The 
Pleasures  of  Life*  (1887-9),  'The  Beauties 
of  Nature*  (1892),  'The  Use  of  Life'  (1894), 
and  'Peace  and  Happiness*  (1909). 

LUCAN,  Marcus  Annaeus  Lucanus  (A.D.  39- 
65),  a  Roman  poet  born  at  Corduba  (Cordova) 
in  Spain.  His  success  as  a  poet  aroused  the 
jealousy  of  Nero,  who  forbade  him  to  recite 
in  public.  In  consequence  Lucan  joined  in 
the  conspiracy  of  Piso,  and  was  compelled 
to  take  his  own  life.  His  chief  work  is  the 
'Pharsalia',  a  heroic  poem  describing  the 
struggle  between  Caesar  and  Pompey. 

LUCAS,  EDWARD  VERRALL  (1868-  ), 
educated  at  London  University,  an  essayist  of 
remarkable  charm,  at  one  time  assistant  editor 
of  'Punch*,  has  published,  among  numerous 
works,  a  standard  life  of  Charles  Lamb  (1905, 
5th  ed.,  1921),  an  edition  of  the  works  and 
letters  of  Charles  and  Mary  Lamb  (1903-5), 
and  two  pleasant  anthologies,  'The  Open 
Road' (1899,  revised  1905),  and  'The  Friendly 
Town*  (1905).  Among  the  best  of  his  dis- 
cursive 'entertainments',  a  blend  of  the  novel 
and  the  essay,  are  'Over  Bemerton's*  (1908) 
and  'Listener's  Lure*  (1911). 
Lucas,  Vrain-  (b.  c.  1818?),  French  forger, 
born  at  ChSteaudun.  His  forgeries  consisted 
of  over  27,000  letters  alleged  to  be  from 
historical  personages,  among  them  being 
Abdtard,  Alcuin,  Alexander  the  Great,  Attila, 
Julius  Caesar,  Cervantes,  Cicero,  Cleopatra, 
Galileo,  Herod,  Joan  of  Arc,  Judas  Iscariot, 
Pascal,  Pontius  Pilate,  Vercingetorix.  The 
letters  were  written  in  French  (except  Gali- 
leo's, which  was  in  Italian),  and  were  on  con- 
temporary paper.  They  were  sold  over  a 
period  of  about  nine  years  (1861-9)  to 
Michel  Chasles  (1793-1880),  the  eminent 
French  geometrician  and  member  of  the 
Acad&nie  des  Sciences.  Chasles  being  an 
old  man  and  a  fellow  countryman  of  Lucas, 
seems  to  have  entirely  believed  in  him,  and 
to  have  had  no  suspicion  of  imposture,  not- 
withstanding the  remarkable  range  of  the 
letters,  and,  as  afterwards  appeared,  the 
glaring  errors  of  chronology.  Over  140,000  frs. 
were  paid  by  him  for  the  various  letters. 
Lucas  represented  that  the  letters  had  come 
from  a  collection  made  by  the  Comte  de 
Boisjardin,  who,  he  alleged,  had  emigrated 
to  America  in  1791,  was  shipwrecked  and 
drowned.  The  letters,  however,  were  saved, 
a  few  pieces  being  damaged  by  water. 

In  1867  Chasles  gave  various  letters  to  the 
Acade*mie,  including  some  from  Pascal  to 
Boyle  and  Newton.  These  were  designed  to 
show  that  Pascal  had  preceded  Newton  in 
establishing  the  law  of  gravitation,  but  it 
was  later  shown  that  at  the  date  of  the 
alleged  letters  Newton  was  only  ioj  years 
old.  The  publication  of  these  letters  imme- 
diately raised  doubts  of  their  authenticity. 


LUCIUS 

They  were  exposed  in  1868  by  P.  Faugere  in 
his  'Defense  de  B.  Pascal,  et  accessoire- 
ment^  de  Newton,  GalileV,  £c.,  which 
contains  facsimiles  of  some  of  the  forged  ' 
documents  as  well  as  genuine  letters.  Vrain- 
Lucas  was  tried  in  1870,  and  was  sentenced 
to  a  heavy  fine  and  two  years'  imprisonment. 
On  his  release  he  again  tried  to  pass  off 
further  forgeries  and  was  sentenced  to  a 
further  three  years*  imprisonment. 
Lucasta,  see  Lovelace. 

Lucca,  THE  HOLY  FACE  (Volto  Santo)  or 
SACRED  COUNTENANCE  OF,  is  a  crucifix  of 
cedar-wood  in  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Martin 
at  Lucca,  reputed  to  have  been  carved  by 
Nicodemus  and  to  give  a  true  likeness  of 
the  Saviour.  Alban  Butler  in  his  'Lives  of 
the  Saints'  (s.v.  'Anselm')  states  that  'by  the 
holy  face  of  Lucca'  was  the  'usual  oath*  of 
William  Rufus. 

Lucentio,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'The 
Taming  of  the  Shrew'  (q.v.). 

Lticia,  a  character  in  Addison's  'Cato'  (q.v.). 

LUCIAN  (b.  c.  A.D.  120),  a  Greek  writer  born 
at  Samosata  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates, 
author  of  'Dialogues  of  the  Gods*  and  'Dia- 
logues of  the  Dead'  in  which  mythology, 
philosophers,  and  the  society  of  the  time  are 
satirized  with  much  humour  and  vivacity 
(though  some  of  the  dialogues  are  melancholy, 
or  despairing  under  a  veil  of  cynical  levity). 
The  'Dialogues'  have  been  translated  by 
H.  W.  and  F.  G.  Fowler  (1905).  In  his 
'Auction  of  Philosophers',  Socrates,  Aris- 
totle, and  other  great  thinkers  are  offered 
by  the  gods  to  the  highest  bidder.  His 
'Veracious  History'  is  a  narrative  of  imaginary 
travels,  the  prototype  of  Gulliver.  His  ro- 
mance 'Lucius,  or  the  Ass'  is  perhaps  the 
foundation  of  the  'Golden  Ass'  (q.v.)  of 
Apuleius. 

Lucifer,  the  morning  star;  the  Phosphorus 
of  the  Greeks,  the  planet  Venus  when  it  ap- 
pears in  the  sky  before  sunrise.  The  applica- 
tion of  the  name  to  Satan,  the  rebel  archangel 
who  was  hurled  from  heaven,  arises  from  a 
mistaken  interpretation  of  Isa.  xiv.  12,  'How 
art  thou  fallen  from  heaven,  O  Lucifer,  son 
of  the  morning*. 

Lucifera,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  I.  iv. 
12,  the  symbol  of  baseless  pride  and  world- 
liness. 

Lucilius  (148—103  B.C.),  Roman  satirist. 

Lucina,  'She  who  brings  to  light*,  the 
Roman  goddess  who  presided  over  childbirth. 
She  was  identified  with  both  Diana  and  Juno. 

Lucina,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato*  and 
'Orlando  Furioso*  (qq.  v.),  a  lady  in  the  power 
of  a  cruel  monster  called  an  ore,  released  by 
Mandricardo  and  Gradasso. 

Lucinda,  see  Car  demo. 

Lucius,  (i)  a  mythical  king  of  Britain,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  first  to  receive 


[473] 


LUCK  OF  EDEN  HALL 

Christianity.  See  Spenser,  Taerie  Queene', 
II.  x.  53;  (2)  in  the  legend  of  Arthur  (q.v.) 
Lucius  is  the  Roman  emperor  against  whom 
Arthur  wages  war;  (3)  Brutus Js  page  in 
Shakespeare's  f Julius  Caesar*  (q.v.);  (4)  a 
character  in  his  'Timon  of  Athens*  (q.v.); 
(5)  a  character  in  his  'Titus  Andronicus* 
(q.v.);  (6)  in  his  'Cymbeline*  (q.v.),  Caius 
Lucius  is  'General  of  the  Roman  Forces'. 

Luck  of  Eden  Hall,  a  goblet  of  enamelled 
glass  long  kept  at  Eden  Hall  in  Cumberland. 
The  luck  of  the  Musgrave  family  was  tra- 
ditionally held  to  depend  on  its  safe  preserva- 
tion. It  is  the  subject  of  a  ballad  by  Uhland, 
translated  by  Longfellow. 

Luck  of  Roaring  Camp,  The,  one  of  the  best 
known  of  Bret  Harte's  short  stories,  pub- 
lished in  1868. 

Lucrece  or  LUCRETIA,  a  celebrated  Roman 
lady,  daughter  of  Lucretius,  and  wife  of 
Tarquinius  Collatinus,  whose  beauty  in- 
flamed the  passion  of  Sextus  (son  of  Tar- 
quin,  king  of  Rome),  which  he  used  threats 
and  violence  to  satisfy.  Lucretia,  after 
informing  her  father  and  husband  of  what 
had  passed,  and  entreating  them  to  avenge 
her  indignities,  took  her  own  life.  The  out- 
rage committed  by  Sextus,  coupled  with  the 
oppression  of  the  king,  led  to  the  expulsion  of 
the  Tarquins  from  Rome,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  Consular  government. 

Lucrece,  The  Play  of,  see  Fulgens  and  Lucrece. 

Lucrece  f  The  Rape  of,  a  poem  in  seven-lined 
stanzas  by  Shakespeare  (q.v.),  published  in 
1594  and  dedicated  to  Henry  Wriothesley, 
earl  of  Southampton.  For  the  subject  of  the 
poem  see  Lucrecet  above. 

LUCRETIUS,  Titus  Lucretius  Carus,  the 
Roman  poet,  lived  during  the  ist  cent.  B.C., 
probably  c.  99-55  B.C.  It  is  said  that  he  was 
driven  mad  by  a  love  potion  administered  by 
his  wife  Lucilia,  and  that  he  took  his  own  life 
in  his  44th  year.  His  chief  work  is  a  philo- 
sophical poem  in  hexameters,  in  six  books, 
*De  Rerum  Natura0.  He  adopts  the  atomic 
theory  of  the  universe  of  Epicurus  (q.v.),  and 
seeks  to  show  that  the  course  of  the  world  can 
be  explained  without  resorting  to  divine  inter- 
vention, his  object  being  to  free  mankind  from 
terror  of  the  gods.  The  work  is  marked  by 
passages  of  great  poetical  beauty. 

Lucretius,  a  dramatic  monologue  by  A. 
Tennyson  (q.v.),  published  in  1868. 

This,  perhaps  the  greatest  of  Tennyson's 
poems  on  classical  subjects,  presents  the 
philosopher,  his  mind  distraught,  and  his 
'settled,  sweet,  Epicurean  life'  deranged,  by 
the  love  potion  that  Lucilia  has  administered, 
mingling  visions  of  atoms  and  of  gods, 
lamenting  his  subjugation  to  'some  unseen 
monster*,  and  finally  taking  his  own  life. 

Lucrezia  Borgia,  see  Borgia  (I,.). 

Lucullns,  Lucius  LICINIUS  (b.  c.  no  B.C.), 
Sulla's  quaestor  and  subsequently  consul, 


LUGGNAGG 

who  for  eight  years  (74-67)  carried  on  the  war 
with  Mithridates.  After  his  return  to  Rome, 
having  amassed  much  wealth,  he  became 
famous  for  his  magnificence  and  luxury, 
spending  vast  sums  on  a  single  dinner.  He 
was  also  a  patron  of  literature. 

Lucy,  in  the  episode  of  Amidas  and  Bracidas 
in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  v.  iv,  the  dower- 
less  maid  abandoned  by  Amidas  and  married 
by  Bracidas. 

Lucy,  the  subject  of  several  poems  by  Words- 
worth (q.v.)  written  about  1799,  has  been 
taken  for  a  real  person  and  was  made  the 
heroine  of  a  story  by  the  Baroness  von  Stock- 
hausen.  But  nothing  is  known  to  suggest 
that  she  really  existed.  Coleridge  surmised 
that  one  of  the  poems,  *A  slumber  did  my 
spirit  steal',  referred  to  Dorothy  Wordsworth. 
See,  however,  H.  W.  Garrod,  'Words- 
worth's Lucy'  in  his  'Profession  of  Poetry* 
(1929). 

Lucy  Locket  and  Kitty  Fisher  (in  the 
nursery  rhyme  about  Lucy  Locket  losing  her 
pocket)  were,  according  to  Halliwell,  cele- 
brated courtesans  in  the  time  of  Charles  II. 
A  Kitty  Fisher  (d.  1767),  described  under  the 
name  of  Kitty  Willis  in  Mrs*  Cowley's 
'Belle's  Stratagem',  was  several  times  painted 
by  Sir  J.  Reynolds. 
For  LUCY  LOCKIT  see  Beggar's  Opera. 

Lud,  a  mythical  king  of  Britain,  originally 
a  god  of  the  ancient  Britons.  Accoro5ng  to 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (q.v.),  he  built  walls 
round  the  city  founded  by  Brute,  which  sub- 
sequently was  known  as  London,  and  called  it 
Ccer  Lud.  See  also  Ludgate. 

Luddites,  English  mechanics,  who,  under 
the  pressure  of  the  economic  disturbance 
caused  by  the  introduction  of  machinery  to 
replace  handicraft  in  the  period  1811-16,  set 
themselves  to  destroy  machinery  in  the  Mid- 
lands and  north  of  England.  Their  name  is 
said  to  be  taken  from  one  Ned  Ludd,  a  person 
of  weak  intellect,  who  lived  in  a  Leicestershire 
village  about  1779,  and  in  a  fit  of  insane  fury 
broke  up  two  frames  in  a  stockinger's  house. 
The  Luddites  figure  in  C.  Bronte's  'Shirley*. 
Byron's  'Song  for  the  Luddites*  was  written 
in  1816  and  published  in  1830. 
Ludgate,  the  name  of  one  of  the  ancient 
gates  of  London,  traditionally  connected  with 
King  Lud,  but  now  believed  to  be  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Old  English  ludgeat,  a  postern. 
The  gatehouse  became  a  prison  for  debtors 
of  the  better  sort  (others  being  sent  to  the 
Fleet). 

I/UDLOW,  EDMUND  (1617  ?~92),  Puritan 
general    and    regicide,    author    of    famous 
'Memoirs',  first  printed  in  1698-9. 
Lngdunum,  in  imprints,  Lyons. 
Lugdumim    Batavorum,     in    imprints, 
Leyden. 

I/uggnagg,  a  kingdom  visited  by  Gulliver  in 
his  third  voyage  (see  Gulliver's  Travels).  It 
was  here  that  the  Struldbrugs  (q.v.)  lived. 


[474] 


LUGH 

Lugh,  see  Tuatha  De  Danann. 

Luke,4  ST.,  the  evangelist,  by  tradition  a 
physician  (Col.  iv.  14)  and  a  painter,  and  the 
patron  saint  of  these  crafts.  His  festival  is 
kept  on  1 8  Oct.,  whence  a  period  of  fine 
weather  about  that  day  is  called  'St.  Luke's 
Summer*. 

Luke 's  iron  crown,  in  the  well-known  lines 
in  Goldsmith's  'The  Traveller',  is  an  allusion 
to  the  Hungarian  peasant  revolt  in  1514 
against  the  oppressive  Magyar  rule,  led  by 
Gyorgy  Dosza.  Dosza  was  finally  routed  at 
Temesvar  and  condemned  to  sit  on  a  red-hot 
iron  throne,  with  a  red-hot  crown  on  his  head. 
Goldsmith  wrote  *Luke'  in  error  for  George. 
Lulli  or  LULLY,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  (1633-87), 
French  composer  and  director  of  the  opera  in 
Paris  under  Louis  XIV;  the  founder  of  the 
French  grand  opera. 

LULLY,  RAYMOND  (Raimon  Lull)  (c. 
1235-1315),  a  Catalan  born  in  Majorca, 
who,  after  visions  of  Christ  crucified,  became 
a  Franciscan,  a  mystic,  a  philosopher,  a 
missionary  to  the  Arabs,  an  author  of  contro- 
versial treatises,  and  a  poet.  He  urged  on  the 
Council  of  Vienne  (1311)  the  establishment 
of  schools  for  missionary  languages  and 
obtained  a  decree  for  the  foundation  of 
chairs  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  Chaldee,  and 
Arabic  at  various  universities  (including  Ox- 
ford; Rashdall,  ii.  459).  He  died  of  wounds 
received  in  a  missionary  crusade  in  North 
Africa,  undertaken  in  his  8oth  year,  after  he 
had  been  twice  expelled  from  Barbary. 

Lumpkin,  Tony,  a  character  in  Goldsmith's 
'She  Stoops  to  Conquer*  (q.v.). 

Lunsford,  SIR  THOMAS  (i6io?-53?),  a 
royalist  colonel  and  a  man  of  violent  temper, 
who  was  removed  from  the  lieutenancy  of  the 
Tower  on  the  petition  of  the  Commons.  He 
is  referred  to  in  Butler's  'Hudibras',  iii.  2, 
mi. 

Lupercal,  a  cave  on  the  Palatine  hill  in 
ancient  Rome,  sacred  to  LUPERCUS,  or 
Faunus  in  the  form  of  a  wolf-deity.  The 
story  of  Romulus  and  Remus  having  been 
suckled  by  a  wolf  is  connected  with  this  deity. 
The  'Lupercalia*  was  the  annual  festival  of 
Lupercus,  when  the  priests  (Luperci)  ran 
about  the  city  striking  the  women  whom  they 
met,  a  ceremony  supposed  to  make  them 
fruitful  (Lewis  and  Short). 

Lupin,  ARSENE,  the  hero  of  Maurice  Le- 
blanc's  novels  of  crime,  at  once  a  criminal 
and  a  detective.  In  some  of  Leblanc's  short 
stories  he  is  brought  amusingly  into  conflict 
with  Sherlock  Holmes. 
Luqman,  see  Lokman. 

Luria,  a  poetical  drama  by  R.  Browning 
(q.v.),  published  in  1846. 

The  play  deals  with  an  episode  of  the 
struggle  between  Florence  and  Pisa  in  the 
1 5th  cent.  Luria  is  an  heroic  Moor,  the  hired 
commander  of  the  Florentine  forces,  whom, 


LUX  MUNDI 

however,  the  Signoria  distrust  and  plot  to 
overthrow  when  he  shall  have  achieved 
victory.  Braccio  is  set  to  watch  him  and  to 
gather  materials  for  his  trial.  The  Pisan 
general  Tiburzio  brings  to  Luria  an  inter- 
cepted letter  from  Braccio  to  the  Signoria,  but 
the  loyal  Luria  refuses  to  read  it.  After  the 
battle  he  learns  with  indignation  what  is 
being  contrived  against  him.  He  has  Florence 
and  Pisa  at  his  mercy,  but  refuses  to  avail 
himself  of  his  power,  takes  poison,  and  dies. 
Lusiads,  The,  see  Camoens. 
Lusitania,  (i)  the  Roman  name  of  Portugal 
and  western  Spain;  (2)  the  name  of  the 
Cunard  liner  that  was  sunk  by  a  German  sub- 
marine in  the  Atlantic  on  7  May  1915,  with  the 
loss  of  over  a  thousand  lives. 

Lntetia  or  LUTETIA  PARISIORTJM,  the  modern 
Paris,  on  an  island  in  the  Sequana  (Seine), 
was  the  capital  of  the  Parisii,  a  Gallic  tribe. 
Two  wooden  bridges  connected  it  with  the 
banks  of  the  river,  and  it  became  a  place  of 
importance  during  the  Roman  Empire. 

'Lutetia',  in  imprints,  stands  for  Paris. 
LUTHER,  MARTIN  (1483-1546),  the 
leader  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  was 
born  of  humble  parents  at  Eisleben,  and 
entered  the  Augustinian  order.  As  a  monk  he 
visited  Rome,  and  his  experience  of  the  cor- 
ruption in  high  ecclesiastical  places  influenced 
his  future  career.  He  attacked  the  principle 
of  papal  indulgences  by  nailing  his  famous 
Theses  to  the  door  of  the  church  at  Witten- 
berg, and  as  a  consequence  the  papal  ban  was 
pronounced  on  him  (1521)  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms.  He  left  the  monastic  order  and 
married,  and  devoted  himself  to  forming  the 
League  of  Protestantism.  His  chief  literary- 
work,  apart  from  polemical  treatises,  was  his 
translation  into  German  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  known  as  the  Lutheran  Bible 
(I534;  portions  had  appeared  earlier).  He 
also  composed  'Hymns'  of  great  popularity  in 
Germany,  notably  £Ein*  feste  Burg*. 

Luther's  power  lay  an  these  hymns  of  joy 
and  strength  and  in  his  revival  of  the  doctrine 
of  justification  by  the  faith  of  the  individual, 
implying  religious  liberty  and  attacking  the 
scandal  of  indulgences. 
LUTTRELL,HENRY(i765?-i85i),  author 
of  an  admirable  light  verse  poem,  'Advice  to 
Julia'  (1820). 

LUTTRELL,  NARCISSUS  (1657-1732)* 
annalist  and  bibliographer,  compiled  *A 
Brief  Historicall  Relation  of  State  Affairs, 
1678-1714'  (Oxford,  1857). 
Luve  Ron,  or  Love  Runet  a  mystic  love-poem 
by  Thomas  de  Hales,  written  probably  be- 
tween 1216  and  1240,  in  eight-lined  stanzas. 
It  deals  with  the  theme  of  the  love  of  Christ 
and  of  the  joy  of  mystic  union  with  Him. 
Lux  Mundi,  a  collection  of  essays  on  the 
Christian  faith,  by  various  hands,  edited  by 
C.  Gore  (q.v.),  at  that  time  principal  of  Pusey 
House,  published  in  1889. 


[475] 


LXX 

The  collection  is  an  attempt  to  present  the 
central  ideas  and  principles  of  the  Catholic 
faith  in  the  light  of  contemporary  thought  and 
current  problems.  It  was  written  by  a  group 
of  Oxford  men  engaged  in  university  tuition. 
The  several  essays  and  their  contributors 
were  as  follows:  '  Faith*  (Rev.  Henry  Scott 
Holland);  'The  Christian  Doctrine  of  God* 
(Rev.  Aubrey  Moore);  'The  Problem  of 
Pain'  and  'The  Incarnation  in  Relation  to 
Development9  (Rev.  J.  R.  Illingworth) ;  'The 
Preparation  in  History  for  Christ*  (Rev.  E.  S. 
Talbot);  'The  Incarnation  as  the  Basis  of 
Dogma*  (Rev.  R.  C  Moberly) ;  'The  Atone- 
ment' (Rev.  and  Hon.  Arthur  Lyttelton); 
'The  Holy  Spirit  and  Inspiration*  (Rev.  C. 
Gore);  'The  Church'  (Rev.  W.  Lock); 
'Sacraments*  (Rev.  F.  Paget);  'Christianity 
and  Polities'  (Rev.  W.  J.  H.  Campion); 
'Christian  Ethics*  (Rev.  R.  L.  Ottley). 
LXX,  the  Septuagint  (q.v.). 

LYAIX,  EDNA,  the  pseudonym  of  Ada 
Ellen  Bayly  (1857-1903),  novelist  and  ardent 
supporter  of  women's  emancipation  and  of 
all  political  liberal  movements.  Her  best- 
known  novels  were  'Donovan*  (1882,  ad- 
mired by  Gladstone),  its  sequel  'We  Two' 
(1884),  and  'In  the  Golden  Days'  (1885). 

LYALL,  SIR  ALFRED  COMYN  (1835- 
1911),  educated  at  Eton  and  Haileybury, 
joined  the  Indian  Civil  Service  in  1856,  and 
served  actively  in  the  mutiny.  He  had  a  dis- 
tinguished career,  becoming  lieutenant-gover- 
nor of  the  North-West  Provinces  and  member 
of  the  India  Council  in  London.  He  was 
author  of  'Asiatic  Studies*  (1882;  second 
series,  1899),  treating  principally  of  the  Hindu 
religion;  'The  Rise  and  Expansion  of  the 
British  Dominion  in  India*  (1893);  lives  of 
Warren  Hastings  (1889),  Tennyson  (1902), 
and  Lord  Dufferin  (1905);  and  'Studies  in 
Literature  and  History*  (1915).  He  also 
published  a  volume  of  remarkable  'Verses 
written  in  India*  (1889),  including  the  beauti- 
ful piece  'The  Land  of  Regrets*,  'Siva,  or 
Mors  Janua  Vitae',  'The  Old  Pindaree',  'Re- 
trospection*, and  'Theology  in  Extremis*  (the 
imaginary  soliloquy  of  an  Englishman  in  the 
mutiny  who  is  offered  his  life  if  he  will  pro- 
fess Mohammedanism).  His  biography  was 
written  by  Sir  H.  M.  Durand  (1913). 

Lybius,  SIR,  see  Li  Beaus  Desconus. 

Lycaon,  an  impious  king  of  Arcadia,  to 
punish  whom  Zeus  visited  the  earth.  To  test 
the  divinity  of  Zeus,  Lycaon  set  before  him  a 
dish  of  human  flesh,  which  the  god  rejected, 
and  slew  Lycaon  and  his  wicked  sons,  or 
turned  them  into  wolves.  Lycaon  was  the 
father  also  of  CalUsto  (q.v.).  See  Werewolf. 
I/yceum,  THE,  a  gymnasium  outside  the  city 
of  Athens,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ilissus,  sacred 
to  ^  Apollo  Lyceus,  where  Aristotle  taught 
philosophy. 

Lyceum  Theatre,  THE,  in  London,  at  first 
known  as  the  English  Opera  House,  was 


LYDGATE 

originally  built  in  1794,  and  rebuilt,  after 
being  destroyed  by  fire,  in  1834.  It  is  espe- 
cially associated  with  the  name  of  Sir 
Henry  Irving,  who  was  lessee  and  manager 
for  many  years  from  1878. 

Lycidas,  a  poem  by  Milton  (q.v.),  written  in 
1637,  while  at  Horton. 

It  is  an  elegy,  in  pastoral  form,  on  the 
death  of  Edward  King,  a  fellow  of  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge,  who  had  been  a 
student  there  at  the  same  time  as  Milton. 
King  was  drowned  while  crossing  from 
Chester  Bay  to  Dublin,  his  ship  having  struck 
a  rock  and  foundered  in  calm  weather* 

LYCOPHRON  (285-247  B.C.),  a  Greek 
tragic  poet,  native  of  Euboea,  who  lived  at 
Alexandria.  His  only  extant  poem  is  the 
'Alexandra',  in  which  Cassandra  prophesies 
the  fall  of  Troy. 

Lycurgus,  the  great  law-giver  of  Sparta. 
Little  is  known  about  him,  but  he  probably 
lived  at  the  end  of  the  9th  cent.  B.C.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition  he  was  the  son  of  Eunomus, 
king  of  Sparta.  After  travelling  in  Crete 
and  eastern  lands,  he  returned  to  his  country, 
then  in  a  state  of  anarchy,  and  was  acclaimed 
by  all  parties.  He  remodelled  the  constitu- 
tion and  obtained  from  the  people  a  promise 
that  they  would  not  alter  his  laws  until  his 
return.  He  then  went  into  voluntary  exile, 
that  the  people's  oath  might  be  binding  on 
them  for  ever,  and  nothing  further  of  him  is 
known. 

Lydford  law,  like  'Jedburgh  justice*  (q.v.), 
execution  first,  trial  afterwards.  Lydford  is  a 
town  in  Devon  where  a  Stannaries  court  was 
formerly  held. 

LYDGATE,  JOHN  (1370  ?-i45i  ?),probably 
of  the  Suffolk  village  of  which  he  bears  the 
name,  and  a  monk  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds.  He 
enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Duke  Humphrey  of 
Gloucester  (q.v.).  He  was  a  most  voluminous 
writer  of  verse.  His  chief  poems  are :  'Troy 
Book*  (q.v.),  written  between  1412  and  1420, 
first  printed  in  1513 ;  'The  Story  of  Thebes*, 
written  c.  1420,  first  printed  c.  1500;  'Falls  of 
Princes*,  founded  on  Boccaccio's  'De  Casibus 
Virorum  Illustrium*,  some  36,000  lines  in 
rhyme-royal,  written  between  1430  and  1438, 
first  printed  in  1494;  'The  Pilgrimage  of 
Man*,  a  very  prolix  'Pilgrim's  Progress', 
translated  from  Guillaume  de  Deguileville. 
A  minor  poem,  'London  Lickpenny'  (edited 
for  .the  Percy  Society  by  Halliwell),  gives  a 
vivid  description  of  contemporary  manners 
in  London  and  Westminster  (Howell  says, 
'Some  call  London  a  Lickpenny,  as  Paris  is 
called  a  pick-purse,  because  of  feastings  and 
other  occasions  of  expense*).  Lydgate  wrote 
also  devotional,  philosophical,  scientific,  his- 
torical, and  occasional  poems,  besides  alle- 
gories, fables,  and  moral  romances.  One 
prose  work,  "The  Damage  and  Destruccyon 
in  Realmes*,  written  in  1400,  is  assigned 
to  him. 


[476] 


LYDIA 

Lydia,  a  part  of  Asia  Minor,  adjoining  the 
Aegean  Sea.  The  first  historic  kings  of  Lydia 
were  the  Mermnadae  dynasty  (716-546  B.C.), 
which  included  Gyges  and  Croesus  (qq.v.), 
and  was  overthrown  by  Cyrus  of  Persia. 
Previously  an  Active  and  industrious  people, 
the  Lydians  gained  under  the  Persian  rule  a 
reputation  for  effeminate  luxury. 

Lydian  mode,  one  of  the  three  principal 
modes  of  ancient  Greek  music,  a  minor  scale 
appropriate  to  soft  pathos. 

LYELL,  SIR  CHARLES  (1797-1875),  geo- 
logist, was  a  pupil  of  William  Buckland  (author 
of  'Reliquiae  Diluvianae',  1823).  He  travelled 
extensively  studying  geology,  and  published 
his  famous  works  'The  Principles  of  Geology* 
in  1830-3,  'The  Elements  of  Geology*  in 
1838,  and  (after  the  appearance  of  Darwin's 
'Origin  of  Species')  'The  Antiquity  of  Man* 
in  1863.  A  record  of  his  'Travels  in  North 
America*  appeared  in  1845,  and  of  a  'Second 
Visit*  in  1849.  Lyell  was  professor  of  geology 
at  King's  College,  London,  1831-3,  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Geological  Society  1835-6  and 
1849-50.  He  completely  revolutionized  the 
prevailing  ideas  of  the  age  of  the  earth,  and 
substituted  for  the  old  conception  of  'cata- 
strophic' change  the  gradual  process  of  natural 
laws. 

Lyle,  ANNOT,  a  character  in  Scott's  *A  Legend 
of  Montrose*  (q.v.). 

LYLY,  JOHN  (1554?-! 606),  was  educated  at 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  studied  also 
at  Cambridge.  He  was  M.P.  successively  for 
Hindon,  Aylesbury,  and  Appleby  (1589- 
1601),  and  supported  the  cause  of  the  bishops 
in  the  Martin  Marprelate  controversy  in  a 
worthless  pamphlet,  'Pappe  with  an  Hatchet*, 
in  1589.  The  first  part  of  his  'Euphues*  (q.v.), 
'The  Anatomy  of  Wit',  appeared  in  1579,  and 
the  second  part,  'Euphues  and  his  England*, 
in  1580.  Its  peculiar  style  (see  Euphues)  re- 
ceived the  name  'Euphuism*.  Lyly's  best 
plays  are  'Alexander  and  Campaspe*  (1584, 
see  Campaspe),  'Midas'  (q.v.,  1592),  'The 
Woman  in  the  Moone'  (q.v.,  159?),  and 
'Endimion'  (q.v.,  1591).  For  his  'Mother 
Bombie'  see  Bumby.  His  'Sapho  and  Phao' 
was  acted  in  1584;  'Endimion*  in  1591.  The 
plays  contain  attractive  lyrics,  which  were 
first  printed  in  Blount's  collected  edition 
of  the  plays  (1632).  Lyly  as  a  dramatist  is 
important  as  the  first  English  writer  of  what 
is  essentially  high  comedy,  and  as  having 
adopted  prose  as  the  medium  for  its  expression. 

Lynceus,  (i)  one  of  the  Argonauts  (q.v.), 
noted,  like  the  lynx,  for  his  keen  sight.  He 
was  killed  by  Pollux;  (2)  the  husband  of 
Hypermnestra  (see  Danaides). 

Lynch  law,  the  practice  of  inflicting  summary 
punishment  on  an  offender,  irrespective  of  trial 
by  a  properly  constituted  court.  The  origin  of 
•die  term  is  uncertain.  It  is  often  asserted  to 
have  arisen  from  the  proceedings  of  Charles 
Lynch,  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  Virginia,  who 


LYRICAL  BALLADS 

in  1782  was  indemnified  by  an  act  of  the 
Virginia  Assembly  for  having  illegally  fined 
and  imprisoned  certain  Tories  in  1780.  Some 
have  conjectured  that  the  term  is  derived 
from  Lynch's  creek  in  South  Carolina,  a 
meeting-place  in  1768  of  the  'Regulators",  a 
band  of  men  who  professed  to  supply  the 
want  of  a  regular  administration  of  criminal 
justice  in  the  Carolinas.  [OEDJ 

LYNDSAY,  SIR  DAVID,  see  Lindsay 
(Sir  D.).  y 

Lynette,  see  Gareth  and  Lynette. 
Lyon  King-of-Arms,  the  title  of  the  chief 
herald  in  Scotland,  so  named  from  the  lion 
on  the  royal  shield. 

Lyones,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur*,  the 
lady  of  the  castle  Perilous,  whom  Sir  Gareth 
rescues  and  marries. 

Lyonesse    or    LIONES,    in    the   Arthurian 
legends,  the  country  of  Tristram's  birth,  is 
supposed  to  be  a  tract  between  the  Land's 
End  and  the  Scilly  Isles,  now  submerged. 
Lyonors,  see  Gareth  and  Lynette. 

Lyons  Mail,  The,  originally  'The  Courier  of 
Lyons*,  a  melodrama  by  Reade  and  T.  Taylor 
(qq.v.),  produced  in  1851.  It  kept  the  stage 
and  furnished  one  of  Sir  H.  Irving*s  success- 
ful parts. 

Lyra  Apostolica,  a  collection  of  sacred  poems 
contributed  originally  to  the  'British  Maga- 
zine' by  Keble,  Newman,  R.  H.  Froude, 
Wilberforce,  and  I.  Williams  (qq.v.),  and 
reprinted  in  a  separate  volume  in  1836. 

Lyrical  Ballads,  a  collection  of  poems  by 
Wordsworth  and  S.  T.  Coleridge  (qq.v.),  of 
which  the  first  edition  appeared  in  1798,  the 
second  in  1800,  the  third  in  1802. 

Coleridge  in  his  'Biographia  Literaria* 
(q.v.),  c.  xiv,  describes  how  Wordsworth  and 
he  decided  to  divide  the  field  between  them : 
'it  was  agreed  that  my  endeavours  should  be 
directed  to  persons  and  characters  super- 
natural or  at  least  romantic.  .  .  .  Mr.  Words- 
worth, on  the  other  hand,  was  to  propose  to 
himself  as  his  object,  to  give  the  charm  of 
novelty  to  things  of  every  day. . . .'  Coleridge's 
contributions  to  the  first  edition  were  three, 
increased  in  the  second  to  five  ('The  Ancient 
Mariner',  'The  Foster-Mother's  Tale*,  'The 
Nightingale*,  'The  Dungeon5,  and  'Love'). 
Wordsworth  contributed  such  simple  tales  as 
'Goody  Blake  and  Harry  Gill*  and  'Simon 
Lee  the  Old  Huntsman'.  His  fine  meditative 
poem  'Lines  composed  above  Tintem  Abbey' 
was  also  included. 

The  'Lyrical  Ballads',  with  their  sudden 
revolt  from  the  artificial  literature  of  the  day 
to  the  utmost  simplicity  of  subject  and 
diction,  were  unfavourably  received ;  and  the 
hostility  of  the  critics  was  even  increased  by 
the  appearance  in  the  second  edition  of  a 
preface  in  which  Wordsworth  expounded  his 
poetical  principles,  and  by  his  additional 
essay  on  'Poetical  Diction** 


[4773 


LYSANDER 

Lysander,  (i)  a  famous  Spartan  commander, 
who  captured  the  Athenian  fleet  off  Aegospo- 
tami  in  405  B.C.,  and  fell  at  the  battle  of 
Haliartus,  395  B.C.  ;  (2)  a  character  in  Shake- 
speare's 'A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream* 
(q.v.). 

Lysias  (c.  459-378  B.C.),  Greek  rhetorician 
and  pleader,  a  native  of  Syracuse,  who  lived 
at  Athens. 

LYTTELTON,  GEORGE,  first  Baron 
Lyttelton  (1709-73),  educated  at  Eton  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  a  political  opponent 
of  Walpole  and  for  a  short  time  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer  (1756),  was  a  friend^  of  Pope 
and  Fielding  and  a  liberal  patron  of  literature. 
It  is  he  whom  James  Thomson  addresses  in 
"The  Seasons'  and  who  procured  the  poet  a 
pension.  He  published,  among  numerous 
works,  'Dialogues  of  the  Dead*  (1760)  and 
'The  History  of  the  Life  of  Henry  the  Second* 
(176  7-71).  Of  the  'Dialogues*,  Mrs.  Montagu 
(q.v.)  was  the  author  of  the  last  three. 

LYTTON,  EDWARD  GEORGE  EARLE 
LY1TON  BULWER-,  first  Baron  Lytton 
(1803-73),  son  of  General  Bulwer,  educated 
at  Trinity  College  and  Trinity  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, became  M.P.  for  St.  Ives  and  later 
for  Lincoln,  supporting  himself  by  literary- 
labour.  He  was  secretary  for  the  colonies  in 
1858-9,  and  was  created  Baron  Lytton  of 
Knebworth  in  1866.  The  principal  novels  of 
this  versatile  writer  were  published  at  the 
following  dates:  'Falkland'  (1827),  'Pelham* 
(q.v.,  1828),  'The  Disowned'  (q.v.)  and 
'Devereux*  (1829),  'Paul  Clifford*  (q.v.,  1830), 
'Eugene  Aram*  (q.v.,  1832),  'Godolphin* 


MABINOGION 

(1833),  'The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii  (q.v., 
1834),  'Rienzi*  (q.v.,  1835),  'Ernest  Mal- 
travers*  (q.v.,  1837),  'Zanoni'  (1842),  'The 
Last  of  the  Barons' (q.v.,  1843),  'Harold*  (q.v., 
1848),  'The  Caxtons'(q-v.,  1849),  'My  Novel* 
(q.v.,  1 8 53), 'What  will  he  do  with  it?'  (1858), 
'The  Coming  Race*  (q.v.,  1871),  'Kenelm 
Chillingly*  (q.v.)  and  'The  Parisians'  (q.v., 
reprinted  from  'Blackwood',  1873).  In  ad- 
dition Lytton  produced  three  plays,  'The 
Lady  of  Lyons'  and  'Richelieu*  (qq.v., 
1838),  and  'Money*  (q.v.,  1840).  Among 
notable  shorter  stories  were  his  'The  Haunted 
and  the  Haunters'  (1859),  and  *A  Strange 
Story*  (1862),  in  which  he  successfully  intro- 
duces occult  powers.  His  poem  "The  New 
Timon*  (1846)  contained  an  incidental 
sarcasm  on  Tennyson,  to  which  the  latter 
replied  in  verse.  Lytton's  poem  'King 
Arthur*  appeared  in  1849  (revised,  1870). 

LYTTON,  EDWARD  ROBERT  BUL- 
WER, first  earl  of  Lytton  (1831-91),  son  of 
Edward  Bulwer-Lytton,  first  Baron  Lytton 
(q.v.),  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Bonn, 
and  after  a  career  in  the  diplomatic  service 
became  viceroy  of  India  (1876-80),  where  his 
'Forward*  policy  was  the  subject  of  much 
opposition.  He  published  a  number  of 
volumes  of  verse,  at  first  under  the  pseu- 
donym *Owen  Meredith*.  His  poetry  in 
general  is  marred  by  prolixity,  but  some  good 
lyrics  are  included  in  the  'Wanderer*  (1857) 
and  'Marah*  (1892),  while  the  fantastic  epic 
*King  Poppy*  (1892)  is  generally  considered 
his  best  work.  'Lucile*(i86o)  and  'Glenaveril* 
(1885)  are  long  verse-romances. 


M 


Mab,  QUEEN,  see  Queen  Mob. 

MABBE,  JAMES  (1572-1642?),  educated 
at,  and  fellow  of,  Magdalen  College,  Oxford, 
became  a  lay  prebendary  of  Wells.  He  is  re- 
membered for  his  translations  of  Fernando  de 
Rojas's  'Celestina*  (q.v.)  and  of  'The  Spanish 
Ladye*,  one  of  Cervantes's  'Exemplary 
Novels9. 

MABILLON,  JEAN  (1632-1707),  a  Bene- 
dictine monk  of  St.  Maur  (see  Maurists),  who 
worked  at  St.  Germain-des-Pr^s.  He  was 
author  of  'De  re  diplomatica*  (1681,  with 
supplement  1704),  in  which  he  created  the 
science  of  Latin  palaeography  and  laid  down 
the  principles  for  the  critical  study  of  medi- 
eval archives.  He  also  wrote  in  1691  a  'Trait<5 
des  Etudes  Monastiques',  and  was  author  or 
editor  of  many  Maurist  publications. 

Mabinogion,  The,  a  collection  of  Welsh  tales 
(mabinogi  =  instruction  for  young  bards). 
Four  'Mabinogi'  are  contained  in  the  'Red 
Book  of  Hergest*,  compiled  in  the  i4th  and 
1 5th  cents.  They  deal  with  old  Celtic  legends 
and  mythology,  in  which  the  supernatural  and 


magical  play  the  chief  part.  They  are,  said 
Matthew  Arnold,  the  detritus  of  something 
far  older*.  The  four  Mabinogi  are  concerned 
respectively  with :  (i)  Pwyll,  prince  of  Dyved ; 
(2)  Branwen,  daughter  of  Llyr;  (3)  Mana- 
wyddan,  son  of  Llyr;  and  (4)  Math,  son  of 
Mathonwy;  and  they  are  to  some  extent 
interconnected. 

The  first  tells  how  Pwyll,  prince  of  Dyved 
(Pembrokeshire),  temporarily  exchanged 
shapes  with  the  king  of  Annwyn  (Hades), 
became  known  as  Pen  Annwyn  or  'Head 
of  Hades',  and  got  Rhiannon  to  wife  though 
she  was  promised  to  Gwawl  (whose  name, 
meaning  'light',  suggests  that  he  was  a 
sun-god).  He  did  this  by  luring  Gwawl  into 
a  bag  and  releasing  him  only  on  condition 
that  he  gave  up  all  claim  to  Rhiannon.  The 
son  of  Pwyll  and  Rhiannon  was  Pryderi,  who 
mysteriously  vanished  soon  after  his  birth 
(Rhiannon  was  accused  of  having  devoured 
him)  and  was  restored  some  years  later. 

In  the  second  tale,  Matholwch,  king  of  Ire- 
land, comes  to  Wales  and  is  married  to 
Branwen,  sister  of  Bran,  and  daughter  of 


[478] 


MACABRE 

Llyr  (q.v.,  the  sea-god  of  British  mythology). 
During  his  visit  a  gross  insult  is  put  upon 
him  by  the  mischief -making  Evnissyen;  and 
although  Bran  offers  compensation,  Branwen 
is  in  consequence  ill-treated  at  her  husband's 
court,  war  ensues,  the  Irish  force  and  almost 
all  the  British  are  destroyed,  and  Bran  him- 
self is  wounded  in  the  foot  with  a  poisoned 
arrow.  In  his  agony  he  orders  his  head  to  be 
cut  off,  carried  to  the  White  Mount  in  Lon- 
don, and  buried  there  with  the  face  towards 
France.  Branwen  dies  of  grief  and  is  buried 
in  Anglesey.  (The  White  Mount  is  explained 
to  mean  the  Tower  of  London.  The  head 
was  a  kind  of  palladium,  and,  so  long  as  it 
remained  interred,  no  invasion  of  England 
could  take  place.  See  Lethaby,  'London  be- 
fore the  Conquest'.) 

The  third  tale  tells  of  the  association  of 
Manawyddan,  the  last  surviving  child  of 
Llyr,  with  Pryderi,  and  of  the  evils  that  came 
upon  them  in  vengeance  for  the  outrageous 
treatment  of  Gwawl,  as  told  in  the  first  tale. 

The  fourth  tells  how  Gilvaethwy,  son  of 
Don,  and  Gwydion  his  brother,  nephews 
of  Math,  the  wizard,  tricked  Pryderi,  son  of 
Pwyll  and  Rhiannon,  out  of  the  pigs  sent  him 
by  the  Arawn,  the  king  of  Hades,  by  giving 
in  exchange  some  attractive-looking  horses, 
greyhounds,  and  shields,  in  reality  made  of 
fungus ;  and  how  war  ensued  in  which  Pryderi 
was  killed;  also  of  the  birth  of  Llew  Llaw 
Gyffes,  and  of  his  marriage  with  Blodenwedd, 
a  maiden  composed  of  the  blossoms  of  the 
oak,  the  broom,  and  the  meadowsweet ;  of  her 
treachery  to  her  husband,  and  of  her  trans- 
formation into  an  owl. 

For  the  position  of  these  various  characters 
in  the  ancient  British  pantheon,  see  J.  Rhys, 
'Hibbert  Lectures',  and  C.  Squire,  'Mythology 
of  the  British  Islands'.  Lady  Charlotte  Guest 
published  in  1838-49  a  collection  of  eleven 
Welsh  tales,  with  translation  and  notes,  in- 
cluding the  above  Mabinogi,  under  the  title 
of  'Mabinogion'.  The  above  abstract  is  based 
upon  her  book. 

There  is  no  mention  of  Arthur  in  the  four 
Mabinogi,  but  among  Lady  Charlotte  Guest's 
other  seven  Welsh  tales  from  the  'Red  Book 
of  Hergest*  there  are  five  that  deal  with  him. 
Three  of  them  are  drawn  from  French 
originals  ('The  Lady  of  the  Fountain', 
'Geraint,  Son  of  Erbin',  and  'Peredur,  Son  of 
Evrawc').  Two  are  of  British  origin,  'Kil- 
hwch  and  Olwen*  (q.v.)  and  'The  Dream  of 
Rhonabwy'.  In  the  first  and  more  important 
of  these  two  Arthur  is  represented,  not  as  a 
hero  of  chivalry,  but  as  a  fairy  king,  sur- 
rounded by  superhuman  warriors,  and  able 
by  his  magic  powers  to  overcome  monsters. 
Macabre,  DANCE,  see  Dance  of  Death. 
McAdam,  JOHN  LOUDON  (1756-1836),  the 
'macadamizer'  of  roads. 
Macaire,  ROBERT,  a  character  in  'L'Auberge 
des  Adrets',  a  French  comedy  of  1823,  the 
type  of  clever  and  audacious  rogue. 
Macaroni,  an  exquisite  of  a  class  which 


MACAULAY'S  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND 

arose  in  England  about  1760  and  consisted  of 
young  men  who  had  travelled  and  affected 
the  tastes  and  fashions  prevalent  in  conti- 
nental society.  [OED.]  Horace  Walpole 
refers  to  the  Macaroni  Club,  'which  is  com- 
posed of  all  the  travelled  young  men  who 
wear  long  curls  and  spying-glasses'. 
Macaronic  verse,  a  term  used  to  designate 
a  burlesque  form  of  verse  in  which  vernacular 
words  are  introduced  into  a  Latin  context 
with  Latin  terminations  and  in  Latin  con- 
structions . . .  and  loosely  to  any  form  of  verse 
in  which  two  or  more  languages  are  mingled 
together.  [OED.]  The  chief  writer  of  maca- 
ronic verse  was  the  Italian,  Folengo  (q.v.). 

M'Aulay,  ANGUS  and  ALLAN,  characters  in 
Scott's  'Legend  of  Montrose'  (q.v.). 

MACAULAY,  ROSE,  contemporary  author, 
among  whose  chief  works  are:  'Potterism* 
(1920),  'Dangerous  Ages'  (1921),  'Told  by  an 
Idiot'  (1923),  'Orphan  Island*  (1924),  'Keep- 
ing up  Appearances'  (1928),  all  novels;  also 
two  volumes  of  verse. 

MACAULAY,  THOMAS  BABINGTON, 
first  Baron  Macaulay  (1800-59),  son  of 
Zachary  Macaulay,  the  philanthropist,  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  His 
first  article  (on  Milton)  was  published  in  1825 
in  the  'Edinburgh  Review',  of  which  he  be- 
came a  mainstay.  He  became  Liberal  M.P.  for 
Calne  in  1830  and  for  Leeds  in  1831,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  supreme  council  of  India 
from  1834  to  1838.  There  he  exerted  his 
influence  in  favour  of  the  choice  of  an  Eng- 
lish, instead  of  an  oriental,  type  of  education 
in  India.  He  returned  to  London  and 
engaged  in  literature  and  politics,  being 
M.P.  for  Edinburgh  in  1839-47  and  1852-6; 
he  was  secretary  of  war  in  1839-41,  and  pay- 
master of  the  forces  in  1846-7.  He  published 
his  'Lays  of  Ancient  Rome'  (q.v.)  in  1842, 
and  a  collection  of  his  'Essays*  (q.v.)  in  1843 
(enlarged  in  later  editions).  Volumes  i  and  ii 
of  his  'History  of  England'  (q.v.)  appeared  in 
1848,  iii  and  iv  in  1855.  He  also  contributed 
to  the  'Encyclopaedia  Britannica*  a  remark- 
able series  of  articles  on  Atterbury,  Bunyan, 
Goldsmith,  Johnson,  and  the  younger  Pitt. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  A  life 
of  Macaulay  by  his  nephew,  Sir  George  Tre- 
velyan,  appeared  in  1876. 

Macaulay *s  History  of  England  from  the 
Accession  of  James  II,  by  T.  B.  Macaulay 
(q.v.),  in  five  volumes,  published  in  1849- 
6 1  (vol.  v  was  posthumous;  edited  by  his 
sister,  Lady  Trevelyan,  in  1861). 

Macaulay  had  hoped  to  write  the  history 
of  England  from  the  reign  of  James  II  to  the 
time  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole;  but  the  work 
does  not  go  beyond  the  death  of  William  III, 
and,  as  regards  the  reign  of  the  latter  king,  is 
incomplete.  The  'History*  is  written  on  a 
vast  scale,  involving  immense  research,  and 
presents  a  detailed  and  vivid  picture  of  the 
age.  The  hero  is  William  III,  and  the  work, 
written  from  a  Whig  and  Protestant  point 


[479] 


MACAULAY'S  NEW  ZEALANDER 

of  view,  is  criticized  as  showing  partiality. 
Nevertheless,  it  was,  and  remains,  extremely 
popular,  and  is  one  of  the  great  literary 
works  of  the  iQth  cent. 

Macautlay's  New  Zealander,  whom  the 
author  imagines,  in  the  distant  future,  visiting 
London  when  it  is  a  ruined  city  (Essay  on  Von 
Ranke's  'History  of  the  Popes'  and  elsewhere). 

Macaulay *s  Schoolboy :  Macaulay  was  apt 
to  attribute  to  schoolboys  a  range  of  historical 
and  literary  knowledge  not  usually  found 
among  them.  Taking  exception,  for  instance, 
to  a  statement  on  a  more  or  less  abstruse  his- 
torical point  in  a  book  under  review,  he 
would  assert  that  'any  schoolboy  of  fourteen* 
knew  better.  (See  e.g.  the  essays  on  Croker's 
'Boswell*  and  on  Sir  William  Temple.) 

Macbeth,  a  tragedy  by  Shakespeare  (q.v.)» 
founded  on  Holinshed's  'Chronicle  of  Scot- 
tish History*,  and  probably  finished  in  1606; 
it  was  no  doubt  designed  as  a  tribute  to  King 
James  I.  First  printed  in  the  folio  of  1623. 

Macbeth  and  Banquo,  generals  of  Duncan, 
king  of  Scotland,  returning  from  a  victorious 
campaign  against  rebels,  encounter  the  three 
weird  sisters,  or  witches,  upon  a  heath,  who 
prophesy  that  Macbeth  shall  be  thane  of 
Cawdor,  and  king  hereafter,  and  that  Banquo 
shall  beget  kings  though  he  be  none.  Immedi- 
ately after  comes  the  news  that  the  king  has 
created  Macbeth  thane  of  Cawdor.  Stimu- 
lated by  the  prophecy,  and  spurred  on  by  Lady 
Macbeth,  Macbeth  murders  Duncan  while 
on  a  visit  to  his  castle.  Duncan's  sons,  Mal- 
colm and  Donalbain,  escape,  and  Macbeth 
assumes  the  crown.  To  defeat  the  prophecy 
of  the  witches  regarding  Banquo,  he  con- 
trives the  murder  of  Banquo  and  his  son 
Fleance,  but  the  latter  escapes.  Haunted  by 
the  ghost  of  Banquo,  Macbeth  consults  the 
weird  sisters,  and  is  told  to  beware  of  Mac- 
duff,  the  thane  of  Fife;  that  none  born  of 
woman  has  power  to  harm  Macbeth;  and 
that  he  never  wiU  be  vanquished  till  Bimam 
Wood  shall  come  to  Dunsinane.  Learning 
that  MacdufT  has  joined  Malcolm,  who  is 
gathering  an  army  in  England,  he  surprises 
the  castle  of  MacdufT  and  causes  Lady  Mac- 
duff  and  her  children  to  be  slaughtered. 
Lady  Macbeth  loses  her  reason  and  dies. 
The  army  of  Malcolm  and  Macduff  attacks 
Macbeth;  passing  through  Birnam  Wood 
every  man  cuts  a  bough  and  under  this  'leavy 
screen*  marches  on  Dunsinane.  MacdufF, 
who  was  'from  his  mother's  womb  untimely 
ripped*,  kills  Macbeth.  Malcolm  is  nailed 
king  of  Scotland. 

Maccabaeus,  JUDAS,  see  Judas  Maccabaeus. 

Maccabees,  THE,  originally  known  as  the 
Hasmoneans,  a  family  of  Jews,  consisting  of 
Mattathias  and  his  five  sons,  Jochanan, 
Simon,  Judas,  Eleazar,  and  Jonathan,  who 
led  the  revolt  of  their  compatriots  against  the 
oppression  of  the  Syrian  king,  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (175-164  B.C.).  They  afterwards 
established  a  dynasty  of  priest-kings  who 


McGILL  UNIVERSITY 

ruled  until  the  time  of  Herod  (40  B.C.).  Two 
'Books  of  the  Maccabees'  are  included  in  the 
'Apocrypha'.  The  first  deals  mainly  with  the 
struggle  of  the  Jews  for  independence  during 
the  period  168-135  B.C.  The  second  is  not  a 
continuation  of  the  first,  but  covers  a  some- 
what longer  period,  beginning  about  185  B.C. 

Mac  Callum,  or  MAC  CALAIN,  More,  the 
Gaelic  title  of  the  earls,  marquises,  and  dukes 
of  Argyll,  chiefs  of  the  clan  of  Campbell  (q.v.). 

McClure,  SIR  ROBERT  JOHN  LE  MESURIER 
(1807—73),  commander  in  the  search  for  Sir 
John  Franklin,  1850—4.  He  found  the  North- 
West  Passage,  but  had  to  abandon  his  ship. 

M'CA-RTHY,  JUSTIN  (1830-1912),  Irish 
politician,  historian,  and  novelist,  author  of 
the  'History  of  Our  Own  Times'  (1877).  His 
best-known  novels  are:  'Dear  Lady  Dis- 
dain* (1875)  and  'Miss  Misanthrope'  (1878). 

Macdonald,  FLORA  (1722-90),  a  Jacobite 
heroine,  daughter  of  a  farmer  at  South  Uist 
(Hebrides),  who  helped  Prince  Charles  Ed- 
ward to  escape  after  Culloden  (q.v.)  by  dis- 
guising him  as  her  female  servant.  She  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  and  released  under 
the  Act  of  Indemnity  (1747). 

MACDONALD,  GEORGE  (182471905), 
poet  and  novelist,  author  of  'Within  and 
Without*  (1855,  narrative  poem  admired  by 
Tennyson);  'David  Elginbrod*  (1863),  'Alec 
Forbes*  (1865),  and  'Robert  Falconer*,  prose 
fiction,  the  first  mystical  in  character,  the 
others  descriptive  of  Scottish  humble  life, 

Macduff  and  Lady  Macduff ,  characters  in 
Shakespeare's  'Macbeth'  (q.v.). 

Mac  Flecknoe,  or  A  Satyr  upon  ike  True- 
Blew-Protestant  Poet,  T.S.,  a  satire  directed 
against  Shadwell  (q.v.)  by  Dryden  (q.v.), 
published  in  1682. 

Shadwell  had  replied  to  Dryden's  'Medal* 
(q.v.)  by  the  'Medal  of  John  Bayes',  and 
moreover  had  called  Dryden  an  atheist.  Dry- 
den  thereupon  dealt  with  the  political  charac- 
ter of  Shadwell  in  the  second  part  of  'Absa- 
lom and  Achitophel'  (q.v.),  and  with  his 
literary  character  in  this  work.  Flecknoe, 
an  Irish  writer  of  verse  (some  of  it  fine),  is 
represented  as  passing  on  to  Shadwell  his 
pre-eminence  in  the  realm  of  dullness  (it  is 
not  clear  why  Dryden  thus  pilloried  Flecknoe). 
Shadwell  is  accordingly  crowned  in  the  Bar- 
bican suburb,  and  his  claims  to  distinction  on 
the  score  of  stupidity  are  enumerated. 

The  rest  to  some  faint  meaning  make  pre- 
tence, 

But  Shadwell  never  deviates  into  sense. 

McGill  University,  THE,  in  Canada,  com- 
memorates James  McGill  (1744-1813),  who 
left  £30,000  for  the  foundation  of  a  university. 
A  charter  was  granted  in  1821,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  middle  of  the  century  that  the  in- 
stitution became  prosperous.  It  has  its  head- 
quarters at  Montreal,  with  affiliated  colleges 
in  certain  other  centres. 


[480] 


MACGREGOR 

Macgregor,  ROB  ROY  and  HELEN,  see  Rob 
Roy. 

Macham,  ROBERT,  see  Machin. 
Machaon,  a  son  of  Asclepius  (Aesculapius, 
q.v.),  and  one  of  the  two  surgeons  of  the 
Greek  army  in  the  Trojan  War  (Podaleirius, 
his  brother,  was  the  other). 
MACHAtJT  or  MACHAULT,  GUIL- 
LAUME  DE  (c.  1284-^.  1370),  of  Machaut 
near  Rethel  in  Champagne,  French  poet.  He 
was  secretary  to  the  king  of  Bohemia  killed 
at  Cre'cy,  and  afterwards  at  the  court  of  John 
the  Good,  who  became  king  of  France. 
He  was  author  of  ballades  and  of  several 
long  poems,  of  interest  because  of  their 
influence,  which  has  been  variously  estimated , 
on  Chaucer,  notably  in  his  'Death  of  Blanche* 
(see  T.  R.  Lounsbury,  'Studies  in  Chaucer*, 
ii.  212  et  seq.). 

Macheath,  CAPTAIN,  the  hero  of  Gay's 
'Beggar's  Opera'  (q.v.). 
MACHEN,  ARTHUR  (1863-  ),  a 
writer  of  tales,  mystical,  romantic,  and 
macabre.  His  chief  works  are :  'The  House 
of  Souls'  (1906),  'Hieroglyphics'  (1902),  'The 
Great  Return*  (1915),  'Things  Near  and  Far* 
(1923),  'The  Shining  Pyramid*  (1924).  A  col- 
lected edition  was  published  in  1923. 
MAGHIAVELLI,  NICCOLO  DI  BER- 
NARDO DEI  (1469-1527),  a  Florentine 
statesman  and  political  philosopher.  After 
holding  high  office  in  the  restored  Florentine 
'republic 'and  discharging  important  missions 
abroad,  he  was  exiled  on  suspicion  of  con- 
spiracy against  the  Medici,  but  was  subse- 
Siently  restored  to  some  degree  of  favour, 
e  then  turned  his  experience  to  profit  in 
his  writings  on  history  and  philosophy.  He 
wrote  his  'Art  of  War'  (translated  into  English 
in  1560)  and  his  'Florentine  History*  (trans- 
lated in  1598).  But  his  best-known  work  was 
the  'Prince*  (written  in  1513),  a  treatise  on 
statecraft  by  a  great  political  thinker  with 
a  clear  knowledge  of  the  facts.  It  was  directed 
to  the  attainment  of  a  united  Italy,  by  means 
that  included  cruelty  and  bad  faith.  The 
work  was  not  translated  into  English  until 
1640.  It  is  none  the  less  repeatedly  referred  to 
in  the  Elizabethan  drama,  and  influenced  the 
policy  of  Thomas  Cromwell,  Cecil,  and 
Leicester.  Selected  maxims  from  the  'Prince* 
were  translated  into  French,  and  attacked  by 
Gentillet,  the  French  Huguenot,  in  1576; 
and  this  treatise  in  turn  was  translated  into 
English  in  1602.  It  is  from  Gentillet's  work 
that  the  Elizabethans  derived  their  idea  of, 
and  hostility  to,  Machiavelli.  There  is  a 
careful  sketch  of  his  character  in  George 
Eliot's  'Romola'  (q.v.).  *The  New  Machia- 
velli' is  a  novel  (1911)  by  H.  G.  Wells  (q.v.). 

Machin  or  MACHAM,  ROBERT  (fl.  1344),  the 
legendary  discoverer  of  the  island  of  Madeira. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  fled  from  England 
with  Anna  Dorset,  daughter  of  an  English 
noble,  and  landed  on  an  island  at  a  port 
which  he  called  Machico.  His  ship  was  driven 

3868  IA$ 


MACKINTOSH 

out  to  sea  while  he  was  ashore,  and  Anne  died 
of  grief  on  board.  He  and  his  companions 
made  their  way  to  the  mainland  and  home  to 
England.  Madeira  was  discovered  by  Genoese 
sailors  in  the  Portuguese  service  prior  to  the 
date  of  Machin  *s  voyage. 

M'lan,  IAN  EACHIN,  otherwise  CONACHAR, 
in  Scott's  'The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth*  (q.v.), 
Simon  Glover's  Highland  apprentice. 
M'Intyre,  CAPTAIN  HECTOR  and  MARIA,  in 
Scott's  'The  Antiquary'  (q.v.),  nephew  and 
niece  of  Jonathan  Oldbuck. 

Mac- Ivor,  FERGUS,  of  Glennaquoich,  other- 
wise known  as  VICH  IAN  VOHR,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'Waverley*  (q.v.). 

MACKAIL,  DENIS  (1892-  ),  novelist, 
author  of  'The  Flower  Show*  (1927), 
'Greenery  Street*  (1928),  'The  Square  Circle* 
(1930),  &c. 

MACKENZIE,  COMPTON  (1883-  ), 
educated  at  St.  Paul's  School  and  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  author.  Among  his  chief 
works  are:  'Carnival*  (1912),  'Sinister  Street* 
(two  volumes,  1913-14),  'Guy  and  Pauline" 
(1915),  'Vestal  Fire*  (1927),  'Extraordinary 
Women*  (1928),  'Our  Street*  (1931),  all 
novels;  'Gallipoli  Memories*  (1929),  'First 
Athenian  Memories*  (1931),  autobiography. 

MACKENZIE,  HENRY  (1745-1831),  who 
held  the  position  of  comptroller  of  the  taxes 
for  Scotland,  was  the  author  of  'The  Man  of 
Feeling*  (1771),  in  which  the  hero  is  pre- 
sented in  a  series  of  sentimental  sketches 
loosely  woven  together,  somewhat  after  the 
manner  of  Addison's  Sir  Roger.  This  book 
was  one  of  Burns's  'bosom  favourites*.  It 
was  followed  in  1773  by  'The  Man  of  the 
World',  in  which  the  hero,  this  time,  is  a 
villain  and  a  seducer;  and  in  1777  by  'Julia 
de  Roubigne"',  a  novel  after  the  manner  of 
Richardson's  'Clarissa*  (q.v.).  Mackenzie 
also  wrotea  play,  'The  Prince  of  Tunis*  (1773), 
was  chairman  of  the  committee  that  inves- 
tigated Macpherson's  (q.v.)  *Ossian%  and 
edited  two  forgotten  periodicals,  the  'Mirror* 
and  the  'Lounger*.  He  was  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  the  'Addison  of  the  North*. 

Mackenzie,  MRS.  and  ROSEY,  characters  in 
Thackeray's  'The  Newcomes*  (q.v.). 

McKERROW,  RONALD  BRUNLEES 
(1872-  ),  bibliographer  and  Elizabethan 
scholar.  Joint  secretary  of  the  Bibliographi- 
cal Society  (q.v.);  editor  of  the  'Review  of 
English  Studies*.  His  standard  'Introduc- 
tion to  Bibliography  for  Students'  was  pub- 
lished in  1927. 

MACKINTOSH,  SIR  JAMES  (1765-1832), 
educated  at  Aberdeen  University,  and  sub- 
sequently a  student  of  medicine,  was  the 
author  of  'Vindiciae  Gallicae*  (1791),  a 
reasoned  defence  of  the  French  Revolution 
and  an  answer  to  Burke's  'Reflections  on  the 
French  Revolution*.  Mackintosh  subse- 
quently recanted,  and  finally  summed  up  in 


MACKLIN 

1815  in  his  'On  the  State  of  France*.  He 
published  in  1 8  3  o  a  much-discussed c  Disserta- 
tion on  the  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy', 
which  provoked  James  Mill's  *  Fragment  on 
Mackintosh'.  He  also  wrote  the  first  three 
volumes  of  a  'History  of  England'  (1830—1) 
for  Lardner's  *  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia',  and  an 
unfinished  'History  of  the  Revolution  in 
England  in  1688'  (1834),  the  subject  of  one 
of  Macaulay's  'Essays'  (q.v,). 

MACKLIN,  CHARLES  (i697?-i797)>.an 
actor  who  made  his  reputation  by  his  im- 
personation of  Shylock.  He  was  author  of  the 
excellent  comedy  'The  Man  of  the  World* 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1781,  and  of  'Love  a  la 
Mode*  (q.v.),  produced  in  1759. 

Macmillan's  Magazine  was  started  by  David 
Masson  (q.v.)  in  1859,  and  edited  by  him 
till  1867.  Among  notable  early  contributors 
were  Henry  and  Charles  Kingsley,  and  Mat- 
thew Arnold.  It  came  to  an  end  in  1907. 

Macmorris,  CAPTAIN,  in  Shakespeare's 
'Henry  V  (q.v.),  the  only  Irishman  presented 
in  Shakespeare's  plays. 

Macmurray,  JOHN,  see  Murray  (John). 

MACPHERSON,  JAMES  (1736-96),  born 
near  Kingussie,  the  son  of  a  farmer,  was 
educated  at  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versities. He  was  a  man  of  considerable 
literary  ability,  with  some  knowledge  of 
Gaelic  poetry,  which  was  popular  in  the  dis- 
trict of  his  birth.  In  1 760  he  published  'Frag- 
ments of  Ancient  Poetry  collected  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  translated  from 
the  Gaelic  or  Erse  language'.  Then  with 
the  assistance  of  'several  gentlemen  in  the 
Highlands*  he  produced  in  1762  'Fingal,  an 
ancient  epic  poem  in  six  books'  (see  under 
FingaF),  and  in  1763  'Temora'  (q.v.),  another 
epic,  in  eight  books,  purporting  to  be  trans- 
lations from  the  Gaelic  of  a  poet  called 
Ossian  (q.v.).  They  were  much  admired 
(by  Goethe  among  others)  for  their  romantic 
spirit  and  rhythm,  but  their  authenticity  was 
challenged,  notably  by  Dr.  Johnson.  Called 
upon  to  produce  his  originals,  Macpherson 
was  obliged  to  fabricate  them.  A  committee 
appointed  after  his  death  to  investigate  the 
Ossianic  poems,  reported  that  Macpherson 
had  liberally  edited  traditional  Gaelic  poems 
and  inserted  passages  of  his  own,  and  sub- 
sequent investigation  supports  this  view. 
Macpherson  published  in  1775  a  'History  of 
Great  Britain  from  the  Restoration  till  the 
Accession  of  George  I',  and  was  M.P.  for 
Camelford  from  1780  to  1786.  He  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  by  his  own  desire. 

Macready,  WILLIAM  CHARLES  (1793-1873), 
educated  at  Rugby,  first  achieved  eminence  as 
an  actor  by  his  impersonation  of  Richard  III 
(1819),  and  subsequently  of  King  Lear.  He 
was  manager  of  Covent  Garden  Theatre  in 
1837-9,  and  of  Drury  Lane  in  1841-3. 
Tennyson  wrote  a  sonnet  on  his  retirement 
from  the  stage  in  1851. 


MADVIG 

MacSarcasm,  SIR  ARCHY,  a  character  in 
Macklin's  'Love  a  la  Mode*  (q.v.). 

MacStinger,  MRS.,  in  Dickens *s  'Dombey 
and  Son'  (q.v.),  Captain  Cuttle's  termagant 
landlady. 

MacSycopfaant,  SIR  PERTINAX,  a  character 
in  Macklin's  'The  Man  of  the  World'  (q.v.). 

MacTurk,  CAPTAIN,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'St.  Ronan's  Well'  (q.v.). 
Macwheeble,  BAILIE  DUNCAN,  a  character 
in  Scott's  'Waverley*  (q.v.). 

Mad  Hatter,  THE,  see  Alice's  Adventures  in 
Wonderland. 

Madame  Bovary,  the  chief  work  of  Gustave 

Flaubert  (q.v.). 

Madame  Tussaud's,  see  Tussaud. 

MADDEN,  DODGSON  HAMILTON 
(1840-1928),  judge  of  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  of  Ireland,  attorney-general  for  Ire- 
land, 1889-92.  He  was  author  of  'The  Diary 
of  William  Silence;  a  Study  of  Shakespeare 
and  Elizabethan  Sport'  (1897). 

Madeira,  an  island  belonging  to  Portugal, 
off  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  producing  a  deep 
amber-tinted  wine,  of  full  body  and  some 
sweetness,  resembling  a  well-matured  full- 
bodied  brown  sherry.  EAST  INDIAN  MADEIRA 
was  Madeira  which  had  been  sent  on  a  sea- 
voyage  to  the  East  Indies  to  improve  its 
quality. 

Madge  Wildfire,  see  Wildfire. 

Madoc,  a  poem  by  Southey  (q.v.),  published 
in  1805. 

Madoc  is  the  youngest  son  of  Owen 
Gwyneth,  king  of  Wales  (d.  1169).  He  has 
left  Wales  and  sailed  to  a  western  land  across 
the  ocean  where  he  has  founded  a  settlement 
and  defeated  the  Aztecas.  He  returns  to 
Wales  for  a  fresh  supply  of  adventurers,  and 
tells  his  tale.  After  arriving  once  more  at  the 
settlement  in  Aztlan,  war  breaks  out  again 
with  the  Aztecas.  Madoc  is  ambushed  and 
captured,  chained  by  the  foot  to  the  stone  of 
human  sacrifice,  and  required  to  fight  in 
succession  six  Azteca  champions.  He  slays 
the  first,  Ocellopan,  and  engages  Tlalala  'the 
Tiger'*  Then  Cadwallon  comes  to  the  rescue, 
and  after  much  fighting  the  Aztecas  are 
finally  defeated  and  migrate  to  another 
country.  Among  the  Aztecas  figures  Coatel, 
the  daughter  of  Aculhua,  a  priest;  she  assists 
the  white  men,  and  thus  brings  herself,  her 
husband,  and  her  father  to  a  tragic  end. 

Madonna  of  the  Future,  The,  by  Henry 
James  (q.v.),  published  in  1879,  is  the  story 
of  a  painter  who  plans  for  twenty  years  to 
paint  a  perfect  Madonna;  but  his  hand  loses 
its  cunning,  and  his  chosen  model  her  beauty, 
and  the  end  is  frustration. 

MADVIG,  JOHANN  NICOLAI  (1804-86), 
Danish  scholar  and  philologist,  professor 
at  Copenhagen  of  Latin,  and  later  of  classical 


[482] 


MAEANDER 

philology,  and  author  of  a  celebrated  Latin 
grammar  (1841). 

Maeander,  a  river  of  Phrygia,  remarkable 
for  its  numerous  windings ;  the  origin  of  our 
verb  'to  meander*. 

Maecenas,  CAIUS  CILNIUS  (c.  70-8  B.C.),  a 
Roman  knight  who  became  celebrated  for  his 
patronage  of  learning  and  letters  in  the  time 
of  Augustus,  of  whom  he  was  the  friend  and 
adviser.  He  was  the  protector  and  bene- 
factor of  Virgil  and  Horace. 

Maeldune  or  MAILDUN,  the  hero  of  an 
ancient  Irish  legend,  who  sets  out  in  a  ship  to 
avenge  his  father,  slain  by  plunderers  shortly 
before  his  birth.  He  disregards  a  wizard's 
advice  to  take  only  seventeen  companions, 
for  he  also  takes  his  three  foster-brothers,  and 
it  is  only  after  the  loss  or  death  of  these,  and 
visiting  many  lands,  that  he  is  persuaded  by  a 
holy  man  to  forgive  his  enemy,  as  God  has 
forgiven  him.  Maildun  finds  his  enemy  and 
they  are  reconciled.  The  legend  was  trans- 
lated by  P.  W.  Joyce  (q.v.)  in  his  'Old  Celtic 
Romances',  and  forms  the  subject  of  Tenny- 
son's 'The  Voyage  of  Maeldune'. 

Maelstrom,  from  Dutch  words  meaning 
'whirling  stream',  a  famous  whirlpool  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean  off  the  west  coast  of  Norway, 
formerly  supposed  to  suck  in  and  destroy 
vessels  within  a  long  radius.  Poe  (q.v.)  wrote 
an  imaginative  description  of  'A  Descent  into 
the  Maelstrom'. 

Maenads,  a  name  of  the  Bacchantes  (q.v.)  or 
priestesses  of  Bacchus. 
Maeonia,  an  early  name  for  Lydia  (q.v.). 
The  epithet  Maeonian  and  the  name  Maeon- 
ides  are  sometimes  applied  to  Homer,  who 
was  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  this  region. 

He  [Aristotle]  steered  securely,  and  dis- 
covered far, 

Led  by  the  light  of  the  Maeonian  star. 

(Pope,  'Essay  on  Criticism*,  1.  648.) 

Maeotis,  the  ancient  name  of  the  sea  of 
Azov. 

MAETERLINCK,  MAURICE  (1862-  m  ), 
Belgian  poet  and  dramatist.  His  works  in- 
clude: 'La  Princesse  Maleine*  (1889),  'Les 
Aveugles'  (1890),  'Pelleas  et  M61isande' 
(1892),  'Alladine  et  Palonides*  and  'La  Mort 
de  Tintagiles'  (1894),  'Le  Tresor  des  Hum- 
bles* (1896),  'Aglavaine  et  Selysette'  (1896), 
*La  Vie  des  Abeilles'  (1901),  'Monna  Vanna* 
(1902),  'Le  Double  Jardin*  (1904),  'L'ln- 
telligence  des  Fleurs*  (1907),  'L'Oiseau  bleu' 
(1909),  and  'La  Mort'  (1912).  He  received 
the  Nobel  Prize  for  literature  in  1911.  His 
early  works,  in  which  death  and  love  are  dark 
mysteries  governing  men's  lives,  show  a 
sombre  imagination.  His  later  works,  dating 
from  'Le  Tremor  des  Humbles',  show  a  hap- 
pier, less  mystical,  more  realist  philosophy. 

Maeviad,  The,  see  Gifford. 
Maffick,  To,  to  indulge  in  extravagant  de- 
monstrations of  exultation  on  occasions  of 


MAGELLAN 

national  rejoicing.  A  word  originally  used  to 
designate  the  behaviour  of  the  crowds  in 
London  and  other  towns  on  the  occasion  of 
the  relief  of  Maf eking  (17  May  1900). 
Mafia,  in  Sicily,  the  spirit  of  hostility  to  the 
law  and  its  ministers  prevailing  among  a  part 
of  the  population;  also  the  body  of  those  who 
share  in  this  spirit;  not,  as  often  supposed,  an 
organized  secret  society. 

Maga,  see  Blackwood's  Edinburgh  Magazine. 
Magazine,  originally  a  place  where  goods 
are  laid  up,  has  come  also  to  mean  a  periodical 
publication  containing  articles  by  different 
authors.  Thus  the  'Gentleman's  Magazine' 
in  the  introduction  to  its  first  number  (1731) 
described  itself  as  'a  Monthly  Collection  to 
store  up,  as  in  a  Magazine,  the  most  remark- 
able Pieces  on  the  Subjects  above-mentioned'. 
But  the  word  had  been  used  before  this  for  a 
storehouse  of  information. 
Magdalen,  MAGDALENE  (pron.  'Maudlen'  in 
the  names  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and 
Magdalene  College,  Cambridge),  the  appella- 
tion (signifying  a  woman  of  Magdala)  of 
a  disciple  of  Christ  named  Mary,  'out 
of  whom  went  seven  devils'  (Luke  viii.  2). 
She  has  commonly  been  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  the  unnamed  'sinner'  of  Luke 
vii.  37,  and  therefore  appears  in  western 
hagiology  as  a  harlot  restored  to  purity  and 
transmuted  to  sanctity  by  repentance  and 
faith.  The  word  is  used  to  signify  one  whose 
history  resembles  that  of  the  Magdalene ;  also 
as  short  for  MAGDALEN  HOSPITAL,  a  home 
for  refuge  and  reformation  of  prostitutes. 
[OED.] 

Magdalen  (pron.  'Maudlen')  College,  Ox- 
ford, was  founded  in  1458  by  William  Wayn- 
flete  (1395-1486),  provost  of  Eton,  bishop  of 
Winchester,  and  lord  chancellor  of  England. 
Among  famous  members  of  the  college  have 
been  Cardinal  Wolsey,  Prince  Rupert,  Henry, 
Prince  of  Wales,  son  of  James  I,  and  the 
present  Prince  of  Wales.  Its  beautiful  tower 
is  celebrated.  On  the  morning  of  i  May  at 
5  a.m.  (6  a.m.  Summer  Time)  the  Magdalen 
choristers  sing  a  hymn  on  the  top  of  this 
tower.  See  also  Oxford  University. 
Magdalenian,  the  name  given  to  a  culture 
(of  the  palaeolithic  age)  that  followed  the 
Aurignacian  (see  Aurignac),  so  called  from 
the  rock-shelter  of  La  Madeleine  in  the 
Dordogne,  France.  The  Magdalenian  in- 
dustry is  characterized  by  weapons  and  tools 
of  horn  and  bone,  which  reached  a  high 
quality  before  the  close  of  the  period  (Peake 
and  Fleure,  'Hunters  and  Artists'). 
Magdeburg,  CENTURIATORS  OF,  a  number  of 
Protestant  divines  who  in  the  i6th  cent,  com- 
piled a  Church  History  ia  thirteen  volumes, 
one  for  each  century  (called  the  Centuries  of 
Magdeburg). 

Magellan,  the  English  form  of  the  name  of 
the  Portuguese  navigator  Fernao  de  Magal- 
haes  (?  1470-1 521),  the  first  European  to  pass 
through  the  straits  that  bear  his  name. 


[483] 


MAGGIE 

Maggie,  a  short  novel  by  Stephen  Crane, 
written  in  1893  but  not  published  until  1896. 

Maggie,  the  mare  to  which  Burns 's  "The 
Auld  Farmer's  New  Year  Salutation'  is 
addressed. 

Maggie  Lander,  the  subject  of  an  old 
Scottish  song  doubtfully  attributed  to  Francis 
Sernple  of  Beltrees,  who  is  said  to  have 
written  it  in  1642.  Also  the  heroine  o£ 
'Anster  Fair*  by  W.  Tennant  (q.v.). 

Magi,  the  ancient  Persian  priestly  caste,  the 
priests  of  Zoroastrianism.  Hence,  in  a  wider 
sense,  persons  skilled  in  oriental  magic  and 
astrology,  ancient  magicians  or  sorcerers. 

THE  (THREE)  MAGI,  the  three  wise  men  who 
came  from  the  East,  bearing  offerings  to  the 
infant  Christ,  named  according  to  tradition, 
Gaspar,  Melchior,  and  Balthazar.  They  are 
also  known  as  the  'Three  Kings  of  Cologne' 
(see  Cologne). 

Magic  Flute,  The,  'Die  Zauberflote',  a 
famous  opera  by  Mozart  (q.v.);  also  a  book 
by  C.  Lowes  Dickinson  (1920). 

MAGINN,  WILLIAM  (1793-1842),  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  was  one  of 
the  principal  early  contributors  to  *  Black- 
wood's  Magazine'  (q.v.)  under  the  pseudo- 
nym of  Ensign  O'Doherty,  and  was  perhaps 
the  originator  of  the  *Noctes  Ambrosianae" 
(q.v.).  He  settled  in  London  in  1823,  wrote 
for  various  periodicals  and  established 
*  Eraser's  Magazine*  (q.v,),  in  which  he  pub- 
lished his  'Homeric  Ballads*  and  his  'Illus- 
trious Literary  Characters'.  But  his  best 
work  is  contained  in  his  shorter  stories  and 
verses,  which  are  marked  by  humour,  wit,  and 
pathos.  He  was  the  original  of  Captain 
Shandon  in  Thackeray's  'Pendennis'  (q.v.). 

Magliabechl,  ANTONIO  (1633-1714),  a 
Florentine  bibliophile,  librarian  to  Cosimo 
III,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  and  noted  for  his 
great  and  varied  learning.  He  bequeathed  to 
the  grand  duke  his  large  collection  of  books 
and  manuscripts,  which  is  now  included  in 
the  Biblioteca  Nazionale. 

Magna  Carta,  the  Great  Charter  of  the 
liberties  of  England,  granted  by  John  under 
pressure  from  the  Barons,  at  Runnymede  in 
Surrey,  on  15  June  1215.  Its  chief  provisions 
were  that  no  freeman  should  be  imprisoned, 
banished,  or  in  any  way  destroyed  except  by  the 
law  of  the  land ;  and  that  supplies  (except  aids 
imposed  on  tenants-in-chief  on  certain  speci- 
fied occasions)  should  not  be  demanded 
without  the  consent  of  the  Common  Council 
of  the  realm. 

Magnano,  in  Butler's  'Hudibras*  (q.v.),  one 
of  the  characters  in  the  bear-baiting  episode, 
is  Simon  Wait  (manana  is  Spanish  for  to- 
morrow, by  and  by),  a  tinker  and  a  noted 
Independent  preacher. 

Magnetic  Lady»  The,  or  Humours  Reconciled, 

a  comedy  by  Jonson  (q.v.),  produced  in  1632. 

Lady  Loadstone,  the  'Magnetic  Lady', 


MAHONY 

who  'draws  unto  her  guests  of  all  sorts',  has 
a  niece  Placentia,  of  age  to  be  married,  whose 
dower  is  detained  by  her  uncle,  Sir  Moth 
Interest.  The  bride  and  dowry  are  the  ob- 
ject of  various  intrigues,  until  it  is  found,  first 
that  Placentia  is  already  with  child,  and 
secondly  that  she  is  not  the  true  niece  but  a 
changeling. 

Magnolia  State,  Mississippi,  see  United 
States. 

Magnus,  MR.  PETER,  a  character  in  Dickens  *s 
'Pickwick  Papers'  (q.v.). 
Magog,  see  Gog. 

Magog  Wrath  and  Bully  Blnck,  in  Dis- 
raeli's 'Coningsby'  (q.v.),  the  hired  leaders  of 
the  two  political  parties  in  the  Darlford 
constituency. 

Magwitch,  ABEL,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'Great  Expectations*  (q.v.). 

Mahabharata,  The,  one  of  the  two  great 
epics  (the  other  being  the  'Ramayana')  of  the 
Hindus.  They  are  believed  to  have  been 
composed  before  500  B.C.,  but  in  the  form  in 
which  we  have  it,  the  'Mahabharata'  probably 
dates  from  200  B.c* 

MAHAFFY,  SIR  JOHN  PENTLAND 
(1839-1919),  provost  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  author  of  numerous  works  on 
Greek  literature  and  history. 

Mahatma,  Sanskrit  mahatman,  meaning 
'great-souled' ;  in  'esoteric  Buddhism',  one  of 
a  class  of  persons  with  preternatural  powers 
imagined  to  exist  in  India  and  Tibet.  [OED.] 
The  word  is  also  used  by  Theosophists. 

Mahdi,  a  spiritual  and  temporal  leader  ex- 
pected by  the  Mohammedans.  The  title  has 
been  claimed  by  various  insurrectionary 
leaders  in  the  Soudan,  but  is  especially 
applied  to  Mohammed  Ahmed  (1843-85), 
who  destroyed  General  Hicks 's  army  in 
1883,  besieged  Gordon  (q.v.)  in  Khartoum, 
and  overthrew  the  Egyptian  power  in  the 
Soudan. 

Mahmud  of  Ghazni  or  THE  GREAT,  son  of 
Sabuktegin,  and  Turkish  ruler  of  the  Persian 
Empire,  998-1030.  He  was  a  great  conqueror, 
who  extended  his  dominions  from  the  Tigris 
to  the  Ganges  and  the  Oxus,  and  made 
Ghazni  in  Afghanistan  his  capital.  He  be- 
sieged and  captured  Somnath  in  Gujerat, 
obtaining  there  an  immense  treasure  and 
carrying  off  its  gates.  (These,  or  others  mis- 
taken for  them,  were  restored  to  India  in 
1842.)  Mahmud^  was  a  patron  of  Persian 
literature.  For  his  treatment  of  Firdusi  see 
under  the  latter. 

Mahomet,  see  Mohammed.  'Mahomet*  Is 
the  title  of  a  drama  by  Voltaire  (q.v.). 

MAHONY,  FRANCIS  SYLVESTER 
(1804-66),  best  known  by  his  pseudonym  of 
FATHER  PHOUT,  a  Jesuit  (dismissed  from  the 
order  in  1830)  and  author  of  many  enter- 
taining papers  and  poems  contributed  to 


[484] 


MAHOUND 

'Fraser's  Magazine'  and  'Bentley's  Mis- 
cellany*. These  included  translations  from 
Horace,  BeYanger,  Victor  Hugo,  &c.,  and, 
interspersed  among  them,  mystifications  in 
the  shape  of  invented  'originals*  in  French, 
Latin,  and  Greek  for  some  of  Moore's  songs, 
&c.  The  contributions  to  *Fraser*  were 
collected  in  1836  as  'The  Reliques  of  Father 
Prout*.  He  is  best  remembered  for  his  'Bells 
of  Shandon'. 

Mahound,  the  'false  prophet5  Mohammed; 
in  the  Middle  Ages  often  vaguely  imagined 
to  be  worshipped  as  a  god. 

Mann,  the  fiend  of  stealing,  one  of  the  five 
that  pestered  'poor  Tom*  in  Shakespeare's 
'King  Lear'  (iv.  i). 

Maia,  a  daughter  of  Atlas,  one  of  the 
Pleiades,  and  the  mother  by  Zeus  of  Hermes. 
There  was  also  an  old  Italian  goddess  of  the 
same  name,  also  known  as  BONA  DEA. 

Maid  Marian,  a  female  personage  in  the 
May-game  and  Morris-dance.  In  the  later 
forms  of  the  story  of  Robin  Hood  she 
appears  as  the  companion  of  the  outlaw,  the 
association  having  probably  been  suggested 
by  the  fact  that  the  two  were  both  represented 
in  the  May-day  pageants.  [OED.]  According 
to  one  version  of  the  legend  she  was  Matilda, 
the  daughter  of  Lord  Fitzwater. 

Mead  Marian,  a  novel  ^  by  Peacock  (q.v.), 
published  in  1822.  It  is  a  gay  parody  of 
medieval  romance,  based  on  the  story  of 
Robin  Hood,  adopting  the  version  that  the 
outlaw  was  Robert,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  and 
Maid  Marian  was  Matilda  Fitzwater.  It 
contains  some  excellent  songs. 
Maid  of  Athens,  THE,  in  Byron's  poem  is 
said  to  have  been  the  daughter  of  Theodore 
Macri,  who  was  a  consul  at  Athens. 

Maid  of  Bath,  The,  see  Foote. 

Maid  of  Honour,  The,  a  romantic  drama,  by 

Massinger  (q.v.),  published  in  1632. 

Bertoldo,  natural  brother  of  the  king  of 
Sicily  and  a  knight  of  Malta,  is  in  love  with 
Camiola.  Departing  on  an  expedition  to  aid 
the  duke  of  Urbino  against  the  duchess  of 
Sienna,  he  asks  for  her  hand,  but  she  refuses 
on  the  ground  of  the  disparity  of  their 
station  and  his  oath  as  a  knight  of  Malta  not 
to  marry.  Bertoldo  is  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Siennese,  cast  into  prison  and  held  to  ransom 
for  a  large  sum,  which  the  king  of  _  Sicily, 
being  incensed  against  Bertoldo,  forbids  any 
one  to  pay.  Camiola  directs  her  follower 
Adorni,  who  is  passionately  devoted^to  her,  to 
carry  the  ransom  (which  she  provides  from 
her  own  estate)  to  Bertoldo,  and  to  require  of 
him  a  contract  to  marry  her.  Adorni,  though 
it  means  the  defeat  of  his  own  hopes,  faith- 
fully discharges  his  mission;  Bertoldo  is 
released  and  signs  the  contract.  But  the 
duchess  of  Sienna  falls  in  love  with  him,  and 
he  yields  to  her  wooing.  They  are  on  the 
point  of  being  married  when  Camiola  inter- 
poses and  pleads  her  cause  with  spirit,  so 


MAIMONIDES 

that  all,  including  the  duchess,  condemn  the 
ingratitude  of  Bertoldo,  and  the  marriage  is 
broken  off.  Camiola,  'the  Maid  of  Honour*, 
takes  the  veil,  and  the  humiliated  and  re- 
pentant Bertoldo  resumes  his  vocation  as  a 
knight  of  Malta.  Camiola  is  Massinger  Js  best 
female  character,  and  the  play  contains  some 
of  his  finest  scenes. 

Maid  of  Kent,  see  Barton  (Elizabeth). 

Maid  of  Norway,  Margaret  (b.  1283),  daugh- 
ter of  King  Erik  of  Norway  and  grand- 
daughter of  Alexander  III  of  Scotland, 
recognized  as  queen  of  Scotland  on  the 
latter 's  death  in  1285.  She  was  betrothed  to 
Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  but  died  on  her  way 
to  Scotland  in  1290. 

Maid  of  Orleans,  Joan  of  Arc  (q.v.). 

Maid  of  Saragoza,  THE,  Agustina,  whose 
bravery  in  the  defence  of  Saragossa  (a  town 
on  the  Ebro  in  Spain)  against  the  French  in 
1808-9  was  celebrated  by  Byron  in  his 
'Childe  Harold'  (i.  liv-lvi). 

Maid*$  Tragedy,  The,  a  tragedy  by  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher  (see  Fletcher,  J.)  published 
1619,  generally  accounted  the  best  of  their 
dramas. 

Amintor,  a  gentleman  of  Rhodes,  engaged 
to  marry  Aspatia,  daughter  of  Calianax,  the 
lord  chamberlain,  at  the  order  of  the  Icing 
breaks  off  the  match  and  marries  Evadne, 
sister  of  his  friend  Melantius.  Evadne  on  the 
wedding  night  declares  herself  the  king's 
mistress  and  denies  Amintor  her  bed.  Amin- 
tor's  loyalty  makes  him  conceal  the  position, 
but  Melantius  learns  the  cause  of  his  melan- 
choly, terrifies  Evadne  into  murdering  the 
king,  and  obtains  from  Calianax  possession 
of  the  citadel.  Meanwhile  Aspatia,  broken- 
hearted, disguising  herself  as  her  brother, 
forces  Amintor  to  fight  a  duel  with  her  and 
kill  her.  Evadne  comes  to  Amintor  after  the 
murder  of  the  king,  expecting  ^  now  to  be 
pardoned  by  him,  and  being  rejected^  com- 
mits suicide.  Melantius,  holding  the  citadel, 
secures  pardon  for  himself  and  his  associates. 

The  last  act  of  the  play  was  re-written  by 
Edmund  Waller  (q.v,).  The  king  is  not  mur- 
dered, but  Evadne  is  got  out  of  the  way, 
Melantius  is  pardoned,  Aspatia  is  prevented 
from  committing  suicide  and  married  to 
Amintor. 

Maiden,  THE,  the  instrument,  similar  to  the 
guillotine,  formerly  used  in  Scotland  for 
beheading  criminals ;  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced by  the  regent  Morton  and  to  have  been 
used  for  his  execution. 

Maildun,  see  Maeldune, 

MAIMONIDES  (1135-1204),  a  Jew  of  Cor- 
dova, who,  on  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from 
Spain,  went  to  Fez  and  Cairo.  He  was  a. 
rationalist  and  anti-mystic  philosopher.  His 
chief  work  was  'The  Guide  for  the  Per- 
plexed', of  which  there  are  English,  French, 
and  German  translations. 


[485] 


MAIN  STREET 

Main  Street  t  a  novel  by  S.  Lewis  (q.v.), 
published  in  1920 ;  a  picture  drawn  in  minute 
detail  of  life  in  the  depressing  atmosphere  of 
a  small  prairie  town  in  the  American  middle- 
west.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  used  the  same 
name  for  an  account  of  Harlem. 

MAINE,  SIR  HENRY  JAMES  SUMNER 
(1822-88),  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital, 
London,  and  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge, 
became  fellow  of  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge, 
of  which  he  died  master.  He  was  appointed 
Regius  professor  of  civil  law  in  1847,  but  ex- 
changed this  post  for  a  readership  at  the  Inns 
of  Court.  He  was  legal  member  of  the  council 
of  India,  1862-9,  an<^  Corpus  professor  of 
jurisprudence  at  Oxford,  1869-78.  Besides 
reviews,  Maine  wrote  many  works  on  the 
philosophy  of  law,  history,  and  politics, 
marked  by  scholarship  and  a  fine  style,  the 
best  known  of  which  are  his  'Ancient  Law' 
(1861),  'Village  Communities'  (1871),  'Early 
History  of  Institutions*  (1875),  and  'Disserta- 
tions on  Early  Law  and  Custom'  (1883).  He 
also  wrote  a  criticism  of  democratic  institu- 
tions entitled  'Popular  Government'  (1885). 

Mainotes,  inhabitants  of  Maina,  a  moun- 
tainous district  in  the  southern  Morea,  a 
sturdy  and  independent  people  who  were 
never  subdued  by  the  Turks. 

Maintenon,  FRAN<?OISE  D'AUBIGN£,  MAR- 
QUISE DE  (1635-1719),  the  wife  of  the  French 
burlesque  poet  Scarron  (q.v.).  After  her 
husband's  death  she  was  charged  with  the 
education  of  the  children  of  Louis  XIV  and 
Mme  de  Montespan.  She  obtained  a  great 
ascendancy  over  the  king,  who  secretly 
married  her  in  1684. 

Main-Travelled  Roads f  stories  of  the  Ameri- 
can Middle  West,  by  H.  Garland  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1891. 

Maisie  Fax-range,  the  heroine  of  Henry 
James's  (q.v.)  novel,  'What  Maisie  Knew' 
(1897)- 

MAITLAND,  FREDERIC  WILLIAM 
(1850-1906),  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1876  and  after  eight  years*  practice  became 
reader  in  English  law  at  Cambridge  and, 
from  1 888  until  his  death,  Downing  professor. 
In  1887  he  founded  the  Selden  Society  for 
encouraging  the  study  of  English  law,  and 
edited  several  of  its  publications.  His  first 
important  work  was  'Bracton's  Note-Book' 
(1887),  followed  by  the  'History  of  English 
Law  before  the  time  of  Edward  F  (1895),  the 
standard  authority  on  the  subject,  which  he 
wrote  in  collaboration  with  Sir  Frederick 
Pollock.  He  traced  Roman  influence  on 
English  law  in  the  i3th  cent,  in  his  'Bracton 
and  Azo'  (the  famous  doctor  of  canon  law  of 
Bologna,  d.  1200),  which  appeared  in  1895, 
and  in  'Roman  Canon  Law  in  the  Church  of 
England'  (1898).  His  Essays  on  'Domesday 
Book  and  Beyond'  (1897),  his  Ford  lectures 
on  'Township  and  Borough'  (1898),  his  Rede 


MALAPROP 

lecture  on  'English  Law  and  the  Renaissance' 
(1901),  were  other  notable  productions.  The 
lectures  delivered  by  him  in  1887  on  'The 
Constitutional  History  of  England'  from  the 
death  of  Edward  I  to  the  present  time  were 
posthumously  published  under  that  title  in 
1908.  His  'Year  Books  of  Edward  II'  (text 
and  translation)  for  1307-10  were  published 
in  1903-5.  His  collected  papers  were  edited 
in  191 1  by  H.  A.  L.  Fisher,  by  whom  and  also 
by  A.  L.  Smith  memoirs  of  Maitland  were 
published  (1910  and  1908). 
Maitland  Club,  a  club  founded  at  Glasgow 
in  1828  for  the  publication  of  works  on  the 
literature  and  antiquities  of  Scotland. 

MAJOR  or  MAIR,  JOHN  (1469-1550), 
born  in  Haddingtonshire,  has  been  called  'the 
last  of  the  schoolmen'.  He  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge and  Paris,  where  he  became  doctor  of 
theology.  He  lectured  on  scholastic  logic  and 
theology  at  Glasgow  and  St.  Andrews  from 
1518  to  1525,  and  then  returned  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  regarded  as  the  most  eminent 
exponent  of  medieval  learning.  He  published 
between  1509  and  1517  a  Latin  'Commentary 
on  the  Sentences  of  Peter  Lombard*,  and  in 
1521  a  Latin  'History  of  Greater  Britain,  both 
England  and  Scotland'  in  which  he  showed 
himself  in  advance  of  his  times  by  advocating 
the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms. 

According  to  Rabelais  (n.  vii),  among  the 
books  found  by  Pantagruel  in  the  library  of 
St.  Victor  was  a  treatise  by  Major  *de  modo 
faciendi  boudinos'  ('On  the  art  of  making 
black-puddings') . 


by  Thackeray  (q.v.),  published  in  the  *New 
Monthly  Magazine*  in  1838-9.  Major 
Goliah  O'Grady  Gahagan,  of  the  Indian 
Irregular  Horse,  relates  his  Munchausen-like 
military  adventures  in  India  and  Spain. 

Majuscule,  in  palaeography,  a  large  letter  or 
script,  uncial  (q.v.)  or  capital. 
Malagigi,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato* 
(q.v.),  a  cousin  of  Rinaldo,  possessed  of  magic 
lore,  who  detects  the  wiles  of  Angelica  and 
attempts  to  slay  her,  but  is  taken  prisoner  and 
carried  to  Cathay.  He  is  released  on  con- 
dition that  he  shall  lure  Rinaldo  to  her. 

MALAGROWTHER,  MALACHI,  the 
pseudonym  under  which  Sir  W.  Scott  ad- 
dressed three  letters  in  1826,  on  the  question 
of  the  Scottish  paper  currency,  to  the  'Edin- 
burgh Weekly  Journal*. 

Malagrowther,  Sm  MUNGO,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'Fortunes  of  Nigel*  (q.v.). 

Malambnino,  in  'Don  Quixote',  n.  xxxix, 
the  giant  necromancer  who  transforms  An- 
tonomasia  into  a  monkey  of  brass  and  Don 
Clavijo  into  a  metal  crocodile,  and  is  ap- 
peased by  Don  Quixote. 

Malaprop,  MRS.,  in  Sheridan's  'The  Rivals' 
(q.v.),  the  aunt  and  guardian  of  Lydia  Lan- 


[486] 


MALBECCO 

guish,  noted  for  her  aptitude  for  misapplying 
long  words,  e.g.  'as  headstrong  as  an  allegory 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile*. 

Malfoecco,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene' 
(in.  ix,  x),  a  'cancred  crabbed  carle',  jealous 
and  avaricious,  married  to  the  lovely  Helle- 
nore.  Paridell  elopes  with  her,  and  Malbecco, 
unable  to  escape  from  his  jealous  thoughts, 
throws  himself  from  a  rock.  But  his  'aery 
spright'  lives  for  ever,  under  the  name  of 
Jealousy. 

Malbrouk  s'en  va-t-en  guerre,  the  first  line  of 
an  old  French  song,  perhaps,  but  not  very 
probably,  referring  to  the  campaigns  of  the 
duke  of  Marlborough.  Malbrook  goes  off  to 
war;  he  may  return  at  Easter  or  at  the 
Trinity.  His  lady  mounts  to  the  top  of  the 
tower,  sees  his  page  returning,  and  learns 
that  her  lord  is  dead.  The  song  was  sung  as  a 
lullaby  by  a  nurse  to  one  of  Marie  Antoinette's 
children,  took  the  queen's  fancy,  and  became 
popular.  Beaumarchais  introduced  it  into 
his  'Mariage  de  Figaro'.  The  tune  resembles 
that  of  'We  won't  go  home  till  morning'. 


f  Battle  of,  a  poem  in  Old  English, 
perhaps  of  the  loth  century,  dealing  with  the 
raid  of  the  Northmen  under  Anlaf,  at  Maldon 
in  Essex,  in  991.  The  Northmen  are  drawn 
up  on  the  shore  of  the  Blackwater.  The 
ealdorman  Byrhtnoth,  the  friend  of  /Elfric, 
exhorts  his  men  to  stand  firm.  An  offer  by 
the  herald  of  the  Northmen  that  their  attack 
shall  be  bought  off  by  payment  of  tribute  is 
scornfully  rejected.  The  fight  is  delayed  by 
the  rising  tide  which  separates  the  two  armies. 
Then  Byrhtnoth  is  slain  with  a  poisoned 
spear  and  some  of  his  men  flee.  A  fresh 
attack  is  led  by  ^Ifwine,  son  of  JElfric. 
Godric  falls.  The  end  of  the  poem  is  lost. 

Maldon,  JACK,  in  Dickens's  'David  Copper- 
field',  the  scapegrace  cousin  of  Mrs.  Strong. 

Male  or  MASCULINE  Rhymes,  see  Rhymes. 
Male  Regie  f  La,  see  Occleve. 

Malebolge,  the  name  given  by  Dante  to  his 
eighth  circle  in  Hell,  consisting  of  ten  cir- 
cular trenches,  designated  bolge.  The  word 
is  chiefly  used  in  English  in  allusion  to  the 
pool  of  filth  in  the  second  bolgia,  or  to  the 
boiling  pitch  in  the  fifth  bolgia  ('Inferno', 
xviii  and  xxi). 

Malecasta,  'unchaste',  in  Spenser's  'Faerie 
Queene*,  in.  i,  the  lady  of  Castle  Joyeous. 

Maleger,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  n.  xi, 
the  captain  of  twelve  troops,  the  seven  deadly 
sins  and  the  evil  passions  that  assail  the  five 
senses.  He  is  lean  and  ghostlike,  and  Prince 
Arthur's  sword  has  no  effect  on  him.  Finally, 
remembering  that  earth  is  his  mother  and 
that  he  draws  his  strength  from  her,  Arthur 
lifts  him  up  and  squeezes  the  life  out  of  him. 
(Cf.  the  legend  of  Antaeus.) 

Malengin,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  v. 
ix,  the  personification  of  guile.  Sought  out 
by  Sir  Arthur  and  Artegall,  he  runs  away 


MALMSEY 

assuming  various  disguises,  but  is  destroyed 
by  Talus. 

Malibran,  MME  MARIA  FELICITA  GARCIA 
(1808-36),  a  famous  opera  singer,  born  in 
Paris  .^  She  had  a  contralto  voice  and  sang 
with  increasing  success  in  Paris,  London,  and 
other  cities  until  her  early  death.  De 
Musset's  'Stances  a  la  Malibran'  are  famous. 


mall'  (q.v.)  was  played.  It  was  a  fashionable 
promenade  in  the  zyth-iSth  cents. 

MALLARMfi,  fiTIENNE  (STEPHANE) 
(1842-98),  French  poet,  author  of  'L'Apres- 
midi  d'un  Faune'. 

MALLET  (or  MALLOCH),  DAVID 
(1705  ?-6s),  author  of  the  well-known 
ballad  of  'William  and  Margaret'  (q.v.).  He 
collaborated  with  J.  Thomson  (1700-48, 
q.v.)  in  the  masque  of  'Alfred',  which  con- 
tains 'Rule,  Britannia';  but  that  song  is 
generally  attributed  to  Thomson.  Mallet  was 
the  literary  executor  of  Bolingbroke  (q.v.). 

Malleus  Maleficarum,  or  Hexenhammer,  the 
'Hammer  of  Witches',  published  in  1484  by 
Jakob  Sprenger,  the  Dominican  inquisitor  of 
Cologne,  and  Heinrich  Kramer,  Prior  of 
Cologne.  It  was  the  text-book  of  the  day  on 
witchcraft,  setting  forth  how  it  may  be  dis- 
covered and  how  it  should  be  punished. 

MALLOCH,  DAVID,  see  Mallet. 

MALLOCK,  WILLIAM  HURRELL 
(1849-1923),  educated  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  is  best  known  as  author  of  'The  New 
Republic'  (1877),  a  lively  satire  on  English 
society  and  ideas,  in  which  Ruskin  figures  as 
Mr.  Herbert,  and  Jowett,  Matthew  Arnold, 
Pater,  Huxley,  Tyndall,  &c.,  figure  under 
thin  disguises  among  the  other  characters. 
Mallock's  other  works  include  'The  New  Paul 
and  Virginia*  (1878),  'Memoirs  of  Life  and 
Literature'  (1920),  and  various  studies  of 
social  and  economic  science  directed  against 
the  doctrines  of  socialism. 

Malmesbury,  THE  SAGE  OF,  Hobbes  (q.v.). 

Malmesbury,  WILLIAM  OF,  see  William  of 
Malmesbury. 

Malmsey,  a  strong  sweet  wine,  originally  the 
produce  of  Monemvasia  (Napoli  di  Malvasia) 
in  the  Morea,  but  now  obtained  from  Spain, 
the  Azores,  Madeira,  and  the  Canaries,  as 
well  as  Greece.  The  vines  from  Monemvasia 
are  said  to  have  been  transplanted  to  Candia, 
and  thence  to  Spain  and  Portugal.  Malmsey 
is  referred  to  in  England  as  early  as  the  isth 
cent.,  and  George,  duke  of  Clarence  is  said  to 
have  been  drowned  in  a  butt  of  this  wine  in  the 
Tower  in  1478.  An  act  of  Henry  VIII  lays 
down  that  it  shall  not  be  retailed  above  i2d.  a 
gallon. 

MALVOISIE  is  a  parallel  corruption  through 
Malvasia. 


[487] 


MALONE 

MALONE,EDMOND  (1741-1 8 12),  literary 
critic  and  Shakespearian  scholar.  He  pub- 
lished in  1778  his  'Attempt  to  ascertain  the 
Order  in  which  the  Plays  of  Shakespeare  were 
written*,  and  an  edition  of  the  works  in  1790; 
the  revised  edition,  1821,  was  the  best  to  that 
date.  A  member  of  The  Club  and  a  friend 
of  Boswell,  he  supervised  the  "Tour  to  the 
Hebrides',  1785,  and  gave  great  assistance 
with  'The  Life  of  Johnson',  1791,  of  which 
he  edited  the  third  to  sixth  editions. 
Malone  Society,  THE,  was  founded  in  1907 
for  the  purpose  of  making  accessible  materials 
for  the  study  of  early  English  drama,  by 
printing  dramatic  texts  and  documents.  Its 
name  is  taken  from  Edmond  Malone  (q.v.). 
MALORY,  Sm  THOMAS  (fl.  1470),  author 
of  the  'Morte  d'Arthur*  (q.v.).  Nothing 
certain  is  known  about  him.  The  name  is 
spelt  'Maleore*  in  the  second  edition.  He 
has  been  claimed  for  Yorkshire,  Leicester- 
shire, and  also  for  Wales.  Recently  he  has 
been  conjecturally  identified  with  a  Sir 
Thomas  Malory,  knight,  of  Newbold  Revel, 
near  Monks  Karby  in  Warwickshire.  This 
knight  was  a  retainer  of  Richard  Beauchamp, 
earl  of  Warwick,  and  saw  military  service  in 
France.  In  1451  he  was  accused  of  various 
turbulent  and  criminal  acts,  found  guilty, 
and  apparently  imprisoned  during  the  re- 
mainder of  his  days.  If  he  was  the  author  of 
the  'Morte  d'Arthur',  he  must  have  written  it 
during  imprisonment.  See  *Maiory'  by  E. 
Vinaver  (1929). 

Malperdy  (Malpertuis),  the  castle  of  'Rey- 
nard the  Fox*  (q.v.). 

Malta,  KNIGHTS  OF,  see  Hospitallers  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem. 

MALTHUS,  THOMAS  ROBERT  (1766- 
1834),  educated  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge, 
became  curate  of  Albury  in  Surrey  in  1798. 
In^that  year  he  published  'An  Essay  on  the 
Principle  of  Population*,  in  which  he  argued 
that  population  would  soon  increase  beyond 
the  means  of  subsistence  and  that  checks  on 
this  increase  are  necessary.  The  'Essay'  was 
recast  in  the  second  edition  (1803);  in  this 
the  author  somewhat  modifies  his  conclusions, 
recognizing  a  slackening  in  the  pressure  of 
population,  and  the  influence  of  morality 
among  the  checks  on  its  increase.  The  work 
aroused  a  storm  of  controversy  and  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  on  social  thought  in  the 
1 9th  cent.  The  economic  writings  of  Malthus 
included  'An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and 
Progress  of  Rent*  (1815)  and  a  treatise  on  the 
'Principles  of  Political  Economy'  (1820). 
Malvina,  in  Macpherson's  (q.v.)  Ossianic 
poems,  a  daughter  of  Toscar,  betrothed  to 
Oscar  the  son  of  Ossian.  Oscar  is  killed  by 
Cairbar  (q.v.)  Just  before  their  intended 
marriage.  Ossian  addresses  several  of  his 
poems  to  her. 
Malvoisie,  see  Malmsey. 
Malvolio,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Twelfth  Night'  (q.v.). 


MAN  IN  THE  MOON 

Mamamouchi,  the  mock-Turkish  title  pre- 
tended to  have  been  conferred  by  the  Sultan 
upon  M.  Jourdain  (q.v.),  in  Moliere's  'Le 
Bourgeois  Gentilhomme'. 

Mambrino,  in  the  'Orlando  Furioso'  (q.v.) 
a  pagan  king  whose  magic  helmet  is  ac- 
quired by  Punaldo.  In  'Don  Quixote*  (q.v., 
Part  I)  there  is  frequent  mention  of  Mam- 
brino's  helmet.  Don  Quixote,  seeing  a  barber 
riding  with  his  brass  basin  upon  his  head, 
takes  this  for  the  golden  helmet  of  Mambrino, 
and  gets  possession  of  it. 

Mamelukes,  a  military  body,  originally 
composed  of  Caucasian  slaves  of  the  Sultan 
of  Egypt.  They  seized  the  government  of 
Egypt  in  1254  and  made  one  of  their  number 
sultan.  The  Mameluke  sultans  reigned  from 
1254  to  1517,  when  the  Ottoman  sultan  Selim 
I  assumed  the  sovereignty.  Subsequently 
Egypt  was  governed,  under  the  nominal  rule 
of  a  Turkish  viceroy,  by  twenty-four  Mame- 
luke beys.  In  181 1  the  remaining  Mamelukes 
were  massacred  by  Mohammed  AH,  pasha  of 
Egypt. 

Mamraet  or  MAUMET,  a  corruption  of  Ma- 
homet, a  false  god,  an  idol,  a  doll. 

Mammon,  the  Aramaic  word  for  'riches', 
occurring  in  the  Greek  text  of  Matt.  vi.  24, 
and  Luke  xvi.  9-13.  Owing  to  the  quasi- 
personification  in  these  passages,  the  name 
was  taken  by  medieval  writers  as  the  proper 
name  of  the  devil  of  covetousness.  This  use 
was  revived  by  Milton  in  'Paradise  Lost',  i. 
678  and  ii.  228. 

Mammon)  The  Triumph  of,  see  God  and 
Mammon* 

Mammon,  THE  CAVE  OF,  described  in  Spen- 
ser's 'Faerie  Queene',  II.  vii,  is  the  treasure- 
house  of  the  god  of  wealth,  visited  by  Sir 
Guyon. 

Mammon,  SIR  EPICURE,  in  Jonson's  'The 
Alchemist*  (q.v.),  an  arrogant,  avaricious, 
voluptuous  knight.  Charles  Lamb  in  his 
'Specimens*  says  of  him:  'It  is  just  such  a 
swaggerer  as  contemporaries  have  described 
old  Ben  to  be*. 

Man  and  Superman,  a  comedy  by  G.  B. 
Shaw  (q.v.),  published  in  1903 ;  'a  stage  pro- 
jection of  the  tragi-comic  love  chase  of  the 
man  by  the  woman',  in  which  'Don  Juan  is 
the  quarry  instead  of  the  huntsman'  (Author's 
Epistle  Dedicatory). 

Man  in  Black,  THE,  (i)  a  character  in  Gold- 
smith's 'Citizen  of  the  World'  (q.v.),  a 
humorist,  a  man  generous  to  profusion,  who 
wishes  to  be  thought  a  prodigy  of  parsimony ; 
(2)  the  Jesuit  priest  in  Sorrow's  'Romany 
Rye'  (q.v.). 

Man  in  tlie  Iron  Mask,  THE,  see  Iron 
Mask. 

Man  in  the  Moon,  THE,  a  fancied  figure, 
with  a  bundle  of  sticks  on  his  back,  made  by 
the  shadows  on  the  moon.  The  nursery  tale 
is  that  he  is  a  man  banished  to  the  moon  for 


[488] 


MAN  IN  THE  STREET 

gathering  sticks  on  the  Sabbath  (an  allusion 
to  Num.  xv.  32^  et  seq.).  The  myth  that  the 
moon  is  inhabited  by  a  sabbath-breaker  is 
found  with  variations  in  several  countries.  In 
England  it  is  at  least  as  old  as  Henryson,  who 
refers  to  it  in  the  'Testament  of  Cresseid* 
(1.  260),  and  there  are  references  to  it  in 
Shakespeare's  'Midsummer  Night's  Dream* 
(in.  i)  and  'The  Tempest*  (n.  ii).  In  Dante, 
'Inf.*  xx.  126  and  'Par.*  ii.  49-51,  'the  old 
popular  belief  that  the  Man  in  the  Moon  was 
Cain  with  a  bundle  of  thorns  (probably  with 
reference  to  his  unacceptable  offering)',  is 
alluded  to  (Toynbee). 

Man  in  the  Street,  THE,  the  ordinary  man, 
as  distinguished  from  the  expert  or  the  man 
who  has  special  opportunities  of  knowledge. 
The  earliest  use  of  the  expression  quoted  by 
OED.  is  1831,  when  Greville  ('Memoirs', 
22  Mar.)  writes,  'knowing,  as  "the  man  in  the 
street*'  (as  we  call  him  at  Newmarket)  always 
does,  the  greatest  secrets  of  kings'. 

Man  of  Blood,  THE,  Charles  I,  so  called  by 
the  Puritans. 

Man  of  Brass,  see  Talus. 

Man  of  December,  THE,  Napoleon  III, 

with  reference  to  his  coup  d'etat  in  Dec.  1851. 

Man  of  Destiny,  Napoleon  I. 

Man  of  Feeling,  THE,  see  Mackenzie. 

Man  of  Lowes  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury 

Tales. 

Man  of  Mode,  The,  or  Sir  Fopling  Flutter, 
a  comedy  by  Etherege  (q.v.),  produced  in 
1676.  The  play  has  no  plot.  It  is  a  picture 
of  a  society  living  exclusively  for  pleasure, 
a  slight  web  of  love-affairs  providing  the 
occasion  for  brilliant  dialogue  and  character- 
drawing.  We  have  Dorimant,  a  portrait  of 
Lord  Rochester;  Sir  Fopling  Flutter,  the 
prince  of  fops,  the  perfect  product  of  Parisian 
taste  of  the  day ;  Young  Bellair,  the  portrait 
of  the  poet;  and  so  on. 
Man  of  Ross,  see  Kyrle. 
Man  of  Sin,  THE,  see  Antichrist. 
Man  of  Straw,  (a)  a  person  or  thing  com- 
pared to  a  straw  image,  a  dummy;  (b)  an 
imaginary  adversary  or  invented  adverse 
argument,  adduced  in  order  to  be  defeated ; 

(c)  a  person  of  no  substance,  especially  one 
who  undertakes   a  pecuniary  responsibility 
without  having  the  means  to  discharge  it; 

(d)  a  fictitious  or  irresponsible  person  fraudu- 
lently put  forward  as  a  surety  or  as  a  party 
in  an  action.   [OED.] 

Man  of  the  World,  The,  a  novel  by  H. 
Mackenzie  (q.v.). 

Man  of  the  World,  The,  a  comedy  by  Mack- 
lin  (q.v.),  produced  in  1781. 

This  amusing  play  satirizes  the  peculiarities 
of  a  Scottish  politician,  Sir  Pertinax  Mac- 
Sycophant,  who,  having  started  life  as  a 
'beggarly  clerk  in  Sawney  Gordon's  compting 
house*,  has,  by  the  judicious  application  _of 
his  doctrine  of  pliability,  risen  to  parlia- 


MANCO  CAPAC 

mentary  eminence.  In  order  to  gain  the 
control  of  three  parliamentary  boroughs,  he 
proposes  to  marry  his  eldest  son,  Egerton,  to 
the  daughter,  Lady  Rpdolpha,  of  another 
servile  but  needy  politician,  Lord  Lamber- 
court,  who  gets  some  hard  cash  by  the 
arrangement.  Unfortunately  Egerton  is 
devoted  to  his  father's  poor  ward  Constantia, 
and  Lady  Rodolpha  to  Egerton's  younger 
brother.  The  parents  dictatorial!/  insist,  and 
the  young  people  are  summarily  set  to  their 
courting,  in  view  of  a  marriage  the  next  day. 
There  follows  an  amusing  scene,  in  which 
Lady  Rodolpha,  finding  her  proposed  lover 
speechless  from  embarrassment,  dutifully 
makes  the  first  advances  in  broad  Scotch. 
Each,  however,  presently  discovers  that  the 
other's  affections  are  already  otherwise  en- 
gaged and  they  combine  to  defeat  their 
parents'  purposes.  Egerton  secretly  marries 
Constantia,  and  Sir  Pertinax,  momentarily 
defeated,  recovers  the  lost  ground  by  pro- 
posing a  marriage  between  Lady  Rodolpha 
and  his  second  son,  on  the  same  financial 
terms.  This  of  course  is  welcome  to  the  lady, 
while  her  father  doesn't  'care  a  pinch  of  snuff 
if  she  concorporates  with  the  Cham  of  Tar- 
tary*,  provided  he  gets  his  cash. 
Man  of  Wrath,  THE,  the  husband  in  'Eliz- 
abeth and  her  German  Garden*  (q.v.). 
Man  that  Corrupted  Hadleyburff,  The,  a 
story  by  Mark  Twain  (q.v.),  published  in 
1899,  which  displays  the  destructive  effects 
of  greed  within  the  circle  of  a  small  town. 
Mananndn,  the  son  of  Lir  (q.v.),  a  highly 
popular  god  of  the  old  Gaelic  pantheon,  the 
subject  of  many  legends  and  the  patron  of 
sailors  and  merchants.  The  Isle  of  Man  was 
his  favourite  abode,  and  is  said  to  take  its 
name  from  him.  There  he  has  degenerated 
into  a  traditionary  giant,  with  three  legs  (seen 
revolving  in  the  coat  of  arms  of  the  island). 
Manas s eh,  the  firstborn  son  of  Joseph,  to 
whom  Jacob,  in  his  death-bed  blessing,  pre- 
ferred Manasseh's  younger  brother  Ephraim 
(Gen.  xlviii.  19). 

Manawyddan,  in  British  mythology,  a  son 
of  Llyr  (q.v.)  and  a  king  of  the  netherworld. 
See  Mabinogion. 

Manchester  Guardian,  The,  founded  in 
1821  as  a  weekly,  and  in  1855  as  a  daily, 
paper;  the  principal  liberal  organ  outside 
London,  edited  1872-99  by  Charles  Prest- 
wich  Scott  (1846-1932). 
Manchester  Massacre,  THE,  see  Peterloo. 
Manchester  School,  the  name  first  applied 
by  Disraeli  to  the  political  party,  led  by 
Cobden  and  Bright,  who  advocated  the 
principles  of  free  trade.  It  was  afterwards 
extended  to  the  party  who  supported  those 
leaders  on  other  questions  of  policy.  'Man- 
chester policy*  was  used  derisively  to  signify 
a  policy  of  laissez-faire  and  self-interest. 
Manco  Gapac,  the  legendary  founder  of  the 
Inca  monarchy  of  Peru.  He  is  represented  as 
a  child  of  the  sun,  sent  to  civilize  the  Indians, 


[489] 


MANCUS 

but  was  probably  a  real  person,  the  chief  of 
an  Indian  tribe  in  the  i3th  cent. 

Mancus,  an  old  English  money  of  account 
worth  thirty  pence  [OED.].  Off  a,  king  of 
Mercia  in  the  8th  cent.,  struck  a  gold  coin 
closely  imitated  from  an  Arabic  gold  dinar  of 
the  Caliph  Al  Mansur,  of  which  a  single 
specimen,  found  near  Rome,  survives.  This 
coin  may  have  been  one  of  the  365  gold 
'mancuses*  of  which  Offa  had  promised  an 
annual  gift  to  Pope  Adrian  I  (Oman,  'Coinage 
of  England',  1931).  See  Peter's  Pence. 
Mandaeans,  known  also  as  NASORAEANS  or 
SABIANS,  or  (owing  to  misunderstanding) 
CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  JOHN,  a  body  of  Pagan 
gnostics  of  whom  a  small  community  sur- 
vives in  Lower  Mesopotamia.  They  date 
perhaps  from  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  Their  sacred  writings  (in  a 
special  form  of  Aramaic)  survive.  The  name 
'Mandaean'  means  'Gnostic*  (q.v.).  Their 
doctrines  appear  to  have  been  formed  from 
contact  with  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mani- 
chaeans,  and  have  developed  into  a  mono- 
theistic worship  of  the  'Light  King',  while 
cManda  d'Hayye',  'Knowledge  of  Life' 
personified,  plays  in  their  religion  the  part  of 
an  incarnate  Saviour.  They  revere  John  the 
Baptist,  and  practise  frequent  baptism,  but 
are  hostile  to  Christianity.  [E.B.] 

Mandane,  the  daughter  of  Astyages,  king  of 
Persia.  She  was  married  to  Cambyses,  a  man 
of  humble  birth,  because  it  had  been  foretold 
to  Astyages  that  his  daughter's  son  would 
dethrone  him.  Her  son  Cyrus  was  exposed  as 
soon  as  born,  but  was  saved  by  a  shepherdess 
and  survived  to  carry  out  the  prophecy. 

MANDEVILLE,  BERNARD  DE  (1670- 
1733),  born  in  Holland,  settled  in  London 
and  became  a  physician.  He  was  author  of 
a  satire  in  octosyllabic  verse,  entitled  'The 
Grumbling  Hive,  or  Knaves  turned  Honest* 
(1705),  reissued  with  a  prose  commentary  as 
'The  Fable  of  the  Bees,  or  Private  Vices, 
Public  Benefits'  (1714),  designed  to  illustrate 
the  essential  vileness  of  human  nature. 
Society,  like  a  hive  of  bees,  thrives  on  a 
system  of  mutual  rapacities.  The  parados 
was  widely  controverted,  among  others  by 
W.  Law  (q.v.),  and  by  Berkeley  in  his 
*Alciphron'  (q.v.).  He  figures  inR.  Browning's 
Tarleyings  with  some  Persons  of  Importance'. 

MANDEVILLE,  SIR  JOHN,  was  the  os- 
tensible author  of  a  book  of  travels  bearing 
his  name,  composed  soon  after  the  middle  of 
the  1 4th  cent.,  purporting  to  be  an  account 
of  his  own  journeys  in  the  East,  but  really 
a  mere  compilation,  especially  from  William 
of  Boldensele  and  Friar  Odoric  of  Pordenone, 
and  from  the  'Speculum'  of  Vincent  de 
Beauvais.  The  work  was  written  originally 
in  French,  from  which  English,  Latin,  Ger- 
man, and  other  translations  were  made. 

The  writer  of  this  remarkable  literary 
forgery  remains  unknown,  but  probability 
points  to  a  certain  Jean  d'Outremeuse,  a 


MANICHAEISM 

writer  of  histories  and  fables,  who  lived  at 
Li6ge  at  the  time  in  question.  According  to 
him,  Sir  John  Mandeville,  who  had  assumed 
the  name  of  Jehan  de  Bourgogne,  or  Jean  a  la 
Barbe,  died  in  1372  and  was  buried  in  the 
church  of  the  Guillemins  at  Liege. 

The  'Voiage  of  Sir  John  Maundevile*  pur- 
ports to  be  a  guide  to  pilgrims  to  the  Holy 
Land,  but  carries  the  reader  a  good  deal 
further,  to  Turkey,  Tartary,  Persia,  Egypt, 
and  India.  It  is  an  entertaining  work  com- 
bining geography  and  natural  history  with 
romance  and  marvels,  such  as  the  fountain 
of  youth  and  ant-hills  of  gold  dust. 

Mandricardo,  in  the  'Orlando  Furioso' 
(q.v.),  the  son  of  Agrican,  king  of  Tartary.  He 
wears  the  armour  of  Hector,  and  comes  to 
Europe  to  secure  Hector's  sword,  Durindana, 
now  in  the  possession  of  Orlando,  and  to 
avenge  his  father's  death.  He  carries  off 
Doralis,  who  is  betrothed  to  Rodomont, 
meets  Orlando  and  fights  with  him  (but  the 
fight  is  broken  off),  gets  Durindana  after 
Orlando  in  his  madness  has  thrown  it  away, 
and  is  finally  killed  by  Rogero. 
Manduce,  see  Gastrolaters. 

Manes  (Latin,  the  good  beings),  the  deified 
souls  of  the  departed,  the  ghosts  or  shades 
of  the  dead,  whom  the  ancient  Romans 
thought  it  desirable  to  propitiate. 

MANETHO,  an  Egyptian  priest  who  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (285-247 
B.C.)  and  wrote  chronicles  of  his  country,  of 
which  only  fragments  survive. 

Manette,  DR.  and  LUCIE,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'A  Tale  of  Two  Cities'  (q.v.). 

Manfred,  a  dramatic  poem  by  Lord  Byron 
(q.v.),  published  in  1817. 

Manfred,  guilty  of  some  inexpiable  and 
mysterious  crime,  living  among  the  Alps  an 
outcast  from  society,  is  tortured  by  remorse. 
He  calls  up  the  spirits  of  the  universe;  they 
offer  him  everything  but  the  one  thing  he 
seeks — oblivion.  In  vain  he  tries  to  throw 
himself  from  a  high  peak,  and  invokes  the 
Witch  of  the  Alps.  He  visits  the  Hall  of 
Arimanes  (Ahriman),  resolutely  refuses  sub- 
mission to  the  spirits  of  evil,  bids  them  call 
up  the  dead,  and  has  a  vision  of  Astarte,  the 
woman  whom  he  has  loved.  In  answer  to  his 
invocation,  she  foretells  his  death  on  the 
morrow,  but  will  say  no  more.  At  the  ap- 
pointed time,  demons  appear  to  summon 
him.  He  denies  their  power  over  him;  they 
disappear,  and  Manfred  expires. 

Mani,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
Moon. 

Mani  or  MANES,  see  Manichaeism. 

ManlcSiaeism,  a  religious  system  widely 
accepted  from  the  3rd  to  the  5th  cent.  Like 
Mithraism,  which  it  replaced,  it  was  of 
Iranian  origin,  and  was  composed  of  Gnostic, 
Christian,  Mazdean,  and  pagan  elements.  It 
was  founded  by  Mani  (Manes  or  Manichaeus), 


[490] 


MAR'S  YEAR 

(q.v.)  have  been^doubtfully  attributed  to  him; 
also  a  lost  Latin  original  of  the  prose  ro- 
mance of  'Lancelot  du  Lac*  (see  the  volume 
of  'Poems  attributed  to  Walter  Mapes*,  Cam- 
den  Society). 

Mar's  Year,  1715,  so  called  from  the  earl 
of  Mar,  who  in  that  year  led  the  rebellion  in 
favour  of  the  Old  Pretender. 

Maramoiine,  see  Miramolin. 

MARANA,  GIOVANNI  PAOLO,  see 
Turkish  Spy. 

Maranatlia,  an  Aramaic  phrase  occurring 
in  i  Cor.  xvi.  22,  meaning  'Our  Lord  has 
come*  or  CO  our  Lord,  come  thou!*,  often 
erroneously  regarded  as  forming,  with  the 
word  'anathema*  which  precedes  it,  a 
formula  of  imprecation. 

Maraschino,  a  liqueur  distilled  from  the 
Marasca  cherry,  a  small  black  cherry  (from 
amarasca,  bitter),  grown  in  Dalmatia,  and 
especially  about  Zara. 

Marathon,  a  plain  near  the  east  coast  of 
Attica,  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  Persian 
army  by  Miltiades  in  490  B.C. 
Marathon  Race,  see  Pheidippides. 

Maravedi,  from  Almoravides^the  hermits'), 
the  name  of  a  Moorish  dynasty  which  reigned 
at  Cordova  1087-1147,  a  former  Spanish 
copper  coin  valued  at  about  J  of  a  penny. 

Marble  Faun,  The,  a  novel  by  Hawthorne 
(q.v.),  published  in  1860  (under  the  title  in 
England  of  *  Transformation'). 

The  scene  is  laid  in  Rome,  and  the  title  is 
taken  from  the  resemblance  of  one  of  the 
principal  characters,  Count  Donatello,  to  the 
Marble  Faun  of  Praxiteles.  The  story  is 
mainly  concerned  with  the  development  of 
the  innocent,  morally  unconscious,  character 
of  Donatello  under  the  pressure  of  a  great 
tragedy.  Donatello  loves  the  art  student 
Miriam,  who  is  dogged  and  persecuted  by 
another  man.  Roused  to  sudden  fury,  on 
encountering  him  when  with  her  on  a  moon- 
light expedition,  Donatello  kills  the  intruder. 
From  a  faunlike  creature,  Donatello  becomes 
a  conscious  remorseful  man,  and  finally  sur- 
renders himself  to  justice. 

Marcelia,  the  heroine  of  Massinger's  'The 
Duke  of  Milan'  (q.v.). 

Marchioness,  THE,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'The  Old  Curiosity  Shop5  (q.v.). 

Marcia,  a  character  in  Addison's  'Cato* 
(q.v.). 

MARCIAN,  see  Martianus  Capella. 

Marcionites,  a  sect  founded  at  Rome  in  the 
2nd  cent,  by  Marcion  of  Sinope.  He  accepted 
as  sacred  a  garbled  form  of  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Luke  and  ten  of  St.  PauPs  Epistles,  but  re- 
garded the  creation  of  the  material  world  and 
the  revelation  of  the  O.T.  as^the  work  of  an 
imperfect  god,  whose  authority  is  abrogated 
by  the  manifestation  of  the  supreme  god  in 


MARGARET'S  GHOST 

Jesus  Christ.  He  inculcated  a  rigorous 
asceticism.  [OED.] 

MARCO  POLO,  see  Polo. 
Marconi,  GUGLIELMO  (1874-  ),  born  at 
Bologna,  the  son  of  an  Italian  father  and 
Irish  mother,  is  famous  for  establishing  wire- 
less telegraphy  on  a  commercial  basis,  by 
means  of  electro-magnetic  waves,  the  exis- 
tence of  which  had  been  foreseen  by  Clerk 
Maxwell  in  1864.  Marconi  began  to  experi- 
ment in  1895.  His  first  patent  was  taken  out 
in  1896,  and  the  system  was  soon  after  tested 
between  Penarth  and  Weston  and  installed 
between  the  East  Goodwin  lightship  and  the 
South  Foreland  lighthouse.  Communication 
across  the  English  Channel  was  established 
in  1899,  and  across  the  Atlantic  in  1902. 

MARCONIGRAM,  for  a  message  transmitted 
by  this  system,  is  derived  from  his  name. 

MARCUS  AURELIUS  ANTONINUS 
(A.D.  1 2 i-i  80),  Roman  emperor,  A.D.  161-180, 
and  religious  philosopher,  was  author  of  twelve 
books  of  'Meditations*  in  Greek,  imbued  with 
a  Stoic  philosophy.  Man's  duty  is  to  obey 
the  divine  law  that  resides  in  his  reason, 
superior  to  pains  and  pleasures;  to  forgive 
injuries  and  regard  all  men  as  brothers;  to 
await  death  with  equanimity.  The  'Medita- 
tions' were  first  printed  in  1550  from  a  manu- 
script now  lost. 

Mardi,  a  fantastic  South  Sea  romance  by 
Herman  Melville,  published  in  1849. 
Marfisa,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato*  and 
the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (qq.v.),  the  sister  of 
Rogerp  (q.v.).  Brought  up  by  an  African 
magician,  she  becomes  queen  of  India,  and 
leads  an  army  to  the  relief  of  Angelica  (q.v.) 
besieged  in  Albracca.  Later,  discovering  her 
own  Christian  parentage,  Marfisa  joins 
Charlemagne  and  is  baptized.  She  falls  in 
love  with  Rogero  before  discovering  that  he 
is  her  brother. 
Marforio,  see  PasquiL 
Margaret,  (i)  in  Shakespeare's  'Much  Ado 
about  Nothing*  (q.v.),  the  gentlewoman 
attending  on  Hero;  (2)  in  Goethe's  'Faust* 
(q.v.),  the  principal  female  character  ('Gret- 
chen')  of  Pt.  I,  a  girl  of  humble  station,  simple, 
confiding,  and  affectionate. 
Margaret,  LADY,  see  Lady  Margaret. 
Margaret,  Queen  and  Saint  of  Scotland  (d. 
1093).  She  was  a  granddaughter  of  Edmund 
Ironside,  and  brought  the  West  Saxon  blood 
back  to  the  Royal  (Norman)  House  of  Eng- 
land by  the  marriage  of  her  daughter  with 
Henry  I. 

Margaret  of  Anjou  (1430-82),  'the  she- 
wolf  of  Anjou',  queen  consort  of  Henry  VI 
of  England;  she  played  a  prominent  part  in 
the   Wars   of  the   Roses.    She  figures   in 
Shakespeare's  'Henry  VI'. 
Margaret  of  Navarre,  see  Heptameron. 
Margaret's  Ghost,  see  William  and  Mar- 
garet. 


[493] 


MARGARITA 

Margarita,  the  Heroine  of  Fletcher's  'Rule 
a  Wife  and  Have  a  Wife'  (q.v.). 
Margaux,  CHATEAU,  see  Claret. 

Margites,  'The  Booby',  the  name  of  a  lost 
Greek  comic  poem,  perhaps  of  about  700  B.C., 
regarded  by  Aristotle  as  the  germ  of  comedy. 
It  dealt  with  a  foolish  jack-of-all- trades  cwho 
knew  many  things,  but  knew  them  all  badly* 
(Jebb). 

Marguerite  of  Navarre,  see  Heptameron. 
Margutte,  a  character  in  Pulci's  'Morgante 
Maggiore'  (q.v.),  a  cunning  companion  of 
Morgante.    Rabelais 's  Panurge  (q.v.)  is  in 
part  modelled  on  him. 
Maria,   (i)    a   character   in   Shakespeare's 
'Twelfth  Night'  (q.v.);  (2)  a  character  in 
Sterne's  'Tristram  Shandy*  (vol.  vii)  and  'A 
Sentimental  Journey'  (qq.v.);  (3)  a  character 
in  Sheridan's  'School  for  Scandal'  (q.v.). 

Mariamne,  the  wife  of  Herod  the  Great, 
executed  by  him  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  the  sub- 
ject  of  tragedies   by   Voltaire    and   other 
authors. 
Marian,  MAID,  see  Maid  Marian. 

Mariana,  in  Shakespeare's  'Measure  for 
Measure'  (q.v.),  the  lady  betrothed  to  Angelo 
and  cast  off  by  him,  who  lives  'dejected,  at  the 
moated  grange'. 

Mariana  and  Mariana  in  the  South,  two 
poems  by  A.  Tennyson,  suggested  by  the 
Mariana  of  'the  moated  grange'  (see  preceding 
entry)  of  Shakespeare's  'Measure  for 
Measure*. 

MARIANA,  JUAN  DE  (1532-1624),  born 
at  Talavera,  a  Jesuit,  who  taught  theology  at 
Rome  and  Paris,  and  then  settled  at  Toledo, 
and  wrote  a  long  and  remarkable  history  of 
Spain.  He  also  wrote  a  notable  Latin 
treatise  *de  Rege  et  Regis  Institutione'  (To- 
ledo, 1598),  in  which  he  spoke  with  approval 
of  the  assassination  of  Henri  III  of  France  by 
Jacques  Cl&nent  and  defined  the  circum- 
stances in  which  it  was  legitimate  to  get  rid, 
even  by  violence,  of  a  tyrannical  prince. 
This  book  was  condemned  in  Paris  to  be 
burnt  by  the  public  executioner  immediately 
after  the  assassination  of  Henri  IV  by  Ra- 
vaillac  in  1610.  See  Marianne. 

Marianne,  a  familiar  name  given  to  the 
government  of  the  French  Republic.  A 
secret  society  formed  about  1852,  with  the 
object  of  establishing  the  Republic  and 
effecting  other  reforms,  had  taken  the  name 
of  Marianne.  Some  of  its  members  were 
prosecuted  in  1854  and  sentenced  to  im- 
prisonment. The  name  of  Marianne  was  then 
transferred  from  the  society  to  its  republican 
ideal,  and  in  the  language  of  the  partisans  of 
the  Empire,  Marianne  was  used  to  designate 
the  Republic.  For  a  Frenchman,  Marianne  still 
signifies  the  republican  form  of  government, 
and  not  France.  By  foreigners,  it  is  used 
more  and  more  as  a  name  for  France,  as  John 
BuU  for  England. 


MARISCHAL  COLLEGE 

The  I.D.C.  contains  many  inquiries  and 
notes  as  to  the  ulterior  origin  of  the  sym- 
bolical use  of  the  name  'Marianne'.  They  are 
inconclusive.  They  only  show  that  'Marianne* 
figured  in  the  sign  and  countersign  of  the 
secret  society  of  1852,  and  that  the  name  was 
a  symbol  of  republican  institutions  probably 
as  early  as  the  first  Revolution.  The  most 
interesting  suggestion  (unsupported  by  evi- 
dence) connects  it  with  Juan  de  Mariana 
(q-v.). 
Marie  Celeste,  see  Mary  Celeste. 

Marie  Roget,  The  Mystery  of,  a  detective 
story  by  Poe  (q.v.). 

Maries,  THE  QUEEN'S,  see  Queen9 s  Maries. 

Marina,  (i)  in  Shakespeare's  'Pericles'  (q.v.), 

the  daughter  of  Pericles ;  (2)  in  Byron's  'The 

Two    Foscari'   (q.v.),   the   wife   of  Jacopo 

Foscari. 

Marine!!,  see  FlorimelL 

Mariners  Mirror,  The,  the  quarterly 
journal  of  the  Society  for  Nautical  Research, 
founded  in  1910.  The  name  is  taken  from  an 
old  Elizabethan  book. 

MARINO,  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA(i56o- 
1625),  Neapolitan  poet,  the  type  of  the  seicen- 
to  school  of  Italian  literature,  notable  for  its 
flamboyance  and  bad  taste.  He  was  the 
author  of  an  extremely  long  poem  entitled 
'Adone'  (1623). 

Marino  Faliero,  Doge  of  Venice,  an  historical 
tragedy  by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.)  published  in 
1821,  and  produced  in  the  same  year  at 
Drury  Lane  (against  Byron's  wish). 

Marino  Faliero  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice 
in  1354.  Michele  Steno,  a  gentleman  of  poor 
estate,  having  been  affronted  by  the  doge,  a 
haughty  and  choleric  man,  wrote  on  the  latter's 
chair  of  state  a  gross  lampoon  on  the  doge  and 
his  wife.  He  was  tried  by  the  Council  of 
Forty  and  sentenced  to  a  punishment  which 
the  doge  considered  utterly  inadequate.  The 
doge  thereupon  entered  into  a  conspiracy 
with  a  number  of  discontented  men  to  over- 
turn the  Venetian  constitution  and  take 
vengeance  on  the  senators.  The  plot  was 
revealed  and  defeated,  and  Faliero  decapi- 
tated. 

The  conspiracy  of  the  doge  was  likewise 
the^subject  of  a  tragedy,  'Marino  Faliero*,  by 
Swinburne  (q.v.),  published  in  1885. 

Mariolatry,  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  attributed  by  opponents  to 
Roman  Catholics.  [OEDJ 

Marion,  FRANCIS  (1732-95;,  American  sol- 
dier; his  band  of  'Guerrilla3  volunteers,  fear- 
less riders  and  good  marksmen,  were  known 
as  'Marion's  Brigade*  and  became  famous 
for  successful  exploits  against  the  British. 

Marischal  College,  ABERDEEN,  was  founded 
*&  I593  by  George  Keith,  fifth  Earl  Maris- 
chal  (i553?-i623),  a  Scottish  statesman  who 
took  an  active  part  in  affairs  under  James  VI. 


[494] 


MARITORNES 

Maritornes,  the  chambermaid  at  the  inn 
that  Don  Quixote  (q.v.)  took  for  a  castle. 

Marius  among  the  ruins  of  Carthage,  an 
allusion  to  an  incident  in  the  life  of  Cams 
Marius,  the  great  Roman  general  (157-863.0.), 
who  had  conquered  Jugurtha  in  Africa  and 
destroyed  the  Cimbri.  Overcome  by  his  rival 
Sulla,  he  fled  in  88  to  Africa  and  landed  at 
Carthage.  The  Roman  governor  sent  to  bid 
him  leave  the  country.  His  only  reply  was, 
'Tell  the  praetor  you  have  seen  C.  Marius  a 
fugitive  sitting  among  the  ruins  of  Carthage/ 

Marius  the  Epicurean,  a  philosophical 
romance  by  Pater  (q.v.),  published  in  1885. 
This  is  the  story  of  the  life,  in  the  time  of 
the  Antonines,  of  a  grave  young  Roman,  his 
childhood  on  his  family's  Etruscan  farm,  his 
education  at  Pisa,  and  his  maturer  years  in 
Rome.  Against  a  background  of  the  customs 
and  modes  of  thought  of  that  fortunate 
period,  the  author  traces  the  reactions  of 
Marius  to  the  various  spiritual  influences  to 
which  he  is  from  time  to  time  subjected,  from 
his  first  reading  of  the  'Golden  Book'  of 
Apuleius  and  the  philosophies  of  Heraclitus 
and  Aristippus  the  Cyrenaic,  to  the  stoicism  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  the  beauties  of  the  ancient 
Roman  religion,  and  the  horrors  of  the 
Roman  amphitheatre.  Finally  the  quiet 
courage  and  enthusiasm  of  the  young 
Christian  community  make  a  growing  im- 
pression on  his  receptive  mind,  and  his  end 
comes  as  a  result  of  an  act  of  self -sacrifice 
undertaken  in  order  to  save  a  Christian  friend. 
One  of  the  pleasantest  passages  of  the  book 
is  the  version  of  the  fable  of  '  Cupid  and 
Psyche*  (q.v.)  from  Apuleius. 

MARIVAUX,  PIERRE  CARLET  DE 
CHAMBLAIN  DE  (1688-1763),  French 
author  of  prose  comedies  and  romances, 
marked  by  an  elaborate  analysis  of  sentiment; 
a  style  which  has  given  rise  to  the  term 
Marivaudage. 

Mark,  a  money  of  account,  originally  repre- 
senting the  value  of  a  mark  weight  (usually 
regarded  as  equivalent  to  8  oz.)  of  silver.  In 
England,  after  the  Conquest,  the  ratio  of 
twenty  sterling  pennies  to  the  ounce  was  the 
basis  of  computation ;  hence  the  value  of  the 
mark  became  fixed  at  160  pence  =  135".  4$.  or 
f  of  the  £  sterling.  In  Scotland  the  value  of 
the  mark  was  lowered  proportionately  with 
that  of  the  shilling  and  the  penny,  so  that  it 
represented  135.  ^d.  Scots  =  13^.  English. 

Mark,  KING,  in  the  Arthurian  legend  king  of 
Cornwall,  and  husband  of  La  Beale  Isoud 
(see  Tristram).  He  is  held  up  to  ridicule  as  a 
treacherous  coward.  According  to  Rhys('Hib- 
bert  Lectures')  his  origin  is  perhaps  to  be 
found  in  a  deformed  deity  of  the  underworld 
common  to  Gaelic  and  British  mythology. 

Mark,  ST.,  the  evangelist,  represented  in  art 
accompanied  by  a  winged  Hon,  and  ^com- 
memorated  on  25  Apr.  Keats  left,  unfinished, 


MARLBOROUGH  HOUSE 

a  poem  on  the  Eve  of  St.  Mark,  with  which 
day  certain  superstitions  were  connected. 

MARK  RUTHERFORD,  see  White 
(W.  H.). 

Mark  Tapley ,  in  Dickens's  'Martin  Chuzzle- 
wit'  (q.v.),  servant  at  the  Dragon  Inn,  who 
leaves  it  to  find  some  position  in  which  it  will 
be  a  credit  to  show  his  indomitable  good 
humour.  He  becomes  the  devoted  attendant 
of  Martin  during  his  American  tour,  and 
finally  marries  the  hostess  of  the  Dragon. 

MARK  TWAIN,  see  Clemens. 

Mark's,  ST.  a  famous  Byzantine  basilica 
built  in  830  at  Venice  to  receive  the  relics  of 
the  evangelist,  which  were  brought  from 
Alexandria.  The  church  was  rebuilt  in  976 
and  1052. 

MARKHAM,  MRS.,  pseudonym  of  Mrs. 
Elizabeth  Penrose  (1780-1837),  nee  Cart- 
wright,  who  wrote  well-known  school  his- 
tories of  England  (1823)  and  France  (1828). 

MARKHAM,  GERVASE  (1568-1 637),  after 
a  military  career  of  some  years  in  the  Nether- 
lands, became  a  writer  on  country  pursuits,  on 
the  art  of  war,  but  especially  on  horseman- 
ship and  the  veterinary  art.  He  also  wrote 
plays  and  poems.  His  principal  works  on 
horses  are  'A  Discource  of  Horsemanshippe' 
(i593X  fCavelarice,  or  the  English  Horseman', 
1607  (in  which  there  is  mention  of  'Bankes  his 
Curtail',  the  wonderful  performing  horse 
Marocco,  referred  to  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's 
Labour's  Lost'),  cMarkham*s  Method,  or 
Epitome'  (i  6 1 6),  'The  Faithful  Farrier'  (1635). 
His  chief  work  on  country  occupations  has 
the  title  'A  Way  to  get  Wealth'  (1631-8),  con- 
taining treatises  on  *  Cheap  and  Good  Hus- 
bandry' (the  management  of  domestic 
animals) ;  *  Country  Contentments'  (hunting, 
hawking,  fishing),  with  a  section  on  the 
'English  Huswife'  (cookery,  dairying,  physic) ; 
and  agriculture  and  horticulture.  (These 
treatises  had  been  separately  published  at 
earlier  dates.)  His  other  principaj.  works 
were  'The  most  Honorable  Tragedie  of  Sir 
Richard  Grinvile,  Knight'  (1595),  'The  Eng- 
lish Arcadia'  (1607),  'The  Soldier's  Acci- 
dence' (1625).  Markham  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  import  an  Arab  horse  into 
England. 

Markleham,  MRS.,  in  Dickens 's  *David 
Copperfield*  (q.v.),  familiarly  known  as  the 
'Old  Soldier',  was  the  mother-in-law  of 
Copperfield's  old  schoolmaster  at  Canter- 
bury, Dr.  Strong.  Her  nickname  was  due  to 
the  'skill  with  which  she  marshalled  great 
forces  of  relations  against  the  Doctor*. 

Marlborough  House,  was  built  by  Wren 
for  the  great  duke  of  Marlborough  (an  ad- 
ditional story  has  since  been  added).  It  was 
acquired  by  the  Crown  early  in  the  ipth  cent, 
as  a  residence  for  members  of  the  royal 
family. 


[4951 


MARLEY 

Marley,  in  Dickens's  *A  Christmas  Carol' 
(q.v.),  Scrooge's  late  partner,  whose  ghost 
appears. 

Maiiow,  SIR  CHARLES,  and  his  son,  charac- 
ters in  Goldsmith's  'She  Stoops  to  Conquer* 
(q.v.). 

MARLOWE,  CHRISTOPHER  (1564-93), 
son  of  a  Canterbury  shoemaker,  was  educated 
at  King's  School,  Canterbury,  and  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Cambridge.  He  attached 
himself  to  the  earl  of  Nottingham's  theatrical 
company,  which  produced  most  of  his  plays. 
He  was  acquainted  with  the  leading  men  of 
letters,  including  Ralegh.  He  wrote  not  later 
than  1587  'Tamburlaine'  (q.v.),  which  was 
published  in  1590  and  gave  a  new  develop- 
ment to  blank  verse.  His  'Tragedy  of  Dr. 
Faustus*  (q.v.)  was  first  entered  on  the 
'Stationers'  Register'  in  1601,  but  not  ap- 
parently published  till  1604.  At  some  date 
after  1588  he  wrote  'The  Jew  of  Malta' (q.v.), 
which  was  first  published  in  1633  ;  and  about 
1593  his  best  play,  'Edward  II*  (q.v.,  first 
published  in  1594);  also  two  inferior  pieces, 
the  'Massacre  at  Paris'  (probably  published 
in  1600)  and  'Tragedy  of  Dido '(joint  work  of 
Marlowe  and  Nash),  published  in  1594.  It 
has  been  suggested  from  internal  evidence 
that  he  was  part  author  of  Shakespeare's 
'Titus  Andronicus*.  He  perhaps  also  wrote 
parts  of  'Henry  VF,  which  Shakespeare 
revised  and  completed,  and  of  'Edward  III' 
(qq.v.).  He  translated  Ovid's  *Amores'  (pub- 
lished with  Sir  John  Davies's  'Epigrammes 
and  Elegies',  c.  1597);  paraphrased  part  of 
Musaeus's  'Hero  and  Leander'  (completed 
by  George  Chapman  and  published  1598); 
translated  'The  First  Book  of  Lucan['s 
Pharsalia]'  (published  1600);  and  wrote 
the  song  *Come  Hve  with  me  and  be  my 
love*  (published  in  'The  Passionate  Pilgrim', 
1599,  and  in  'England's  Helicon5).  Marlowe 
held  and  propagated  atheistical  opinions,  and 
a  warrant  was  issued  for  his  arrest  in  1593, 
but  later  researches  have  suggested  that  he 
was  a  government  agent,  and  that  his  murder 
had  a  political  complexion.  He  was  killed, 
as  Dr.  Leslie  Hotson  has  shown,  by  one 
Ingram  Frisar,  at  a  tavern  in  Deptford  where 
the  pair  had  supped,  and,  according  to  the 
inquiry  held  at  the  time,  as  the  result  of  a 
quarrel  about  the  score.  Marlowe  was  spoken 
of  with  affection  by  Edward  Blount,  Nashe, 
and  Chapman,  and  Jonson  referred  to  his 
'mighty  line*.  He  was  quoted  and  apostro- 
phized by  Shakespeare  in  'As  You  Like  It',  and 
praised  by  Drayton  ('To  Henery  Reynolds, 
Esq.,  of  Poets  and  Poems')  in  the  fine  lines 
beginning  : 

Next  Marlow,  bathed  in  the  Thespian 

Springs, 

Had  in  him  those  brave  translunary  things 
That  the  poets  had. 

Marmion,  A  Tale  ofFlodden  Field,  a  poem  in 
six  cantos  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.),  published  in 
1808. 
The  story  relates  to  the  year  1513.  Lord 


MARNE 

Marmion,  a  fictitious  character,  a  favourite 
of  King  Henry  VIII  and  a  compound  of 
villainy  and  noble  qualities,  having  tired  of 
Constance  de  Beverley,  a  perjured  nun  who 
has  followed  him  disguised  as  a  page,  seeks 
to  marry  the  wealthy  Lady  Clare,  who  is 
affianced  to  Sir  Ralph  de  Wilton.  To  effect 
his  purpose  he  accuses  de  Wilton  of  treason, 
and  proves  it  by  a  forged  letter.  In  this  he  is 
assisted  by  Constance,  who  hopes  to  recover 
her  hold  over  Marmion  by  her  knowledge 
of  his  perfidy.  She  is,  however,  betrayed  to  her 
convent  and  walled  up  alive.  Meanwhile, 
Marmion  and  de  Wilton  have  fought  in  the 
lists,  and  the  latter  has  been  defeated  and 
left  for  dead.  The  Lady  Clare  betakes  herself 
to  a  convent  to  escape  Marmion.  Marmion 
in  the  course  of  an  embassy  to  Scotland  is  un- 
knowingly thrown  into  contact  with  de  Wilton, 
who  has  survived  and  is  now  disguised  as 
a  Palmer;  while  de  Wilton  meets  with  the 
Abbess  of  St.  Hilda,  who  has  received  from 
Constance  the  proofs  of  Marmion 's  crime, 
and  with  Clare  in  attendance  on  the  Abbess. 
The  Abbess  entrusts  these  proofs  to  the  Pal- 
mer, who  reveals  himself  to  Clare  and  escapes 
to  the  English  camp,  where  he  is  rehabilitated. 
Marmion,  with  Clare  in  his  train,  joins  the 
English  forces  at  the  battle  of  Flodden, 
where  he  is  killed.  De  Wilton  and  Clare  are 
finally  united.  The  poem  contains  the  two 
well-known  songs,  'Where  shall  the  lover 
rest',  and  'Lochinvar*,  and  beautiful  intro- 
ductions to  each  canto. 

MARMION,  SHACKERLEY  (1603-39), 
educated  at  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  was 
the  author  of  several  plays,  of  which  the  best 
is  'The  Antiquary'  (published  in  1641),  and 
of  a  poem  in  heroic  couplets  'Cupid  and 
Psyche'  (q.v.).  He  contributed  verse  to  the 
<Annalia  Dubrensia*  (see  Cotswold  Games). 

Marne,  BATTLE  OF  THE,  in  September  1914, 
one  of  the  decisive  battles  of  the  Great  War. 
On  4  Sept.  the  advance  of  Von  Kluck  and  the 
German  First  Army  was  diverted  from  the 
direction  of  Paris  towards  the  south-east.  He 
had  then  reached  the  line  of  the  Ourcq,  and 
at  this  point  on  the  5th  the  retirement  of  the 
French  and  British  forces  ceased.  On  the 
6th  the  battle  of  the  Marne  opened  with  a 
general  offensive  of  the  Allies.  Von  Kluck's 
plan  was  to  march  across  the  front  of 
Maunoury's  6th  Army  and  of  the  British,  in 
order  to  attack  D'EspeYey's  5th  Army.  He 
under-estimated  the  resilience  of  the  forces 
he  had  been  driving  before  him.  By  the  9th 
the  British  and  D'EspeYey  had  reached  the 
Marne,  while  Maunoury  had  carried  the 
Ourcq.  On  the  loth  the  Germans  retreated 
farther,  and  took  up  a  line  on  the  northern 
bank  of  the  Aisne  from  near  Compiegne  to- 
wards the  Meuse. 

The  SECOND  BATTLE  OF  THE  MARISIE  (July- 
August  1918)  was  the  turning-point  of  the 
last  year  of  the  War.  The  last  German 
offensive  near  Rheims  was  checked  on  July  15, 
and  followed  by  a  counter-offensive  of  the 


[496] 


MARO 

reserve  group  of  armies,  the  reoccupation  of 
the  south  bank  of  the  Marne  by  the  centre 
group,  the  advance  of  both  groups,  leading 
to  the  battle  of  Tardenois,  the  recapture  of 
Soissons,  and  the  German  retirement  to  the 
Vesle.  The  allied  movement  was  under 
Pe"tain's  direction. 

Maro,  the  family  name  of  the  Roman  poet 
Virgil  (q.v.). 

Marocco,  the  wonderful  performing  horse 
trained  by  Bankes,  the  Scottish  showman 
(fl.  1588-1637).  Its  power  of  counting  is 
referred  to  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's  Labour's 
Lost'  (i.  ii),  and  by  other  authors  of  the  day. 
See  also  Markham  (G.). 
Maronites,  a  sect  of  Syrian  Christians,  in- 
habiting Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  named 
after  their  founder  Maron,  who  lived  prob- 
ably in  the  4th  cent. 

MAROT ,  CL£MENT(i497-i  544),  aFrench 
Protestant  poet,  whose  sonnets  and  pastorals 
and  translations  of  the  Psalms  had  consider- 
able influence  on  the  contemporary  school  of 
English  poetry.  He  figures  in  R.  Browning's 
poem,  'The  Glove'. 

Marplot,  a  character  in  Mrs.  Centlivre's 
'The  Busybody'  (q.v.). 
Marprelate  Controversy,  see  Martin  Mar- 
prelate. 

Marquis  of  Granby,  THE,  in  Dickens's 
'Pickwick  Papers'  (q.v.),  the  inn  at  Dorking 
kept  by  the  second  Mrs.  Tony  Weller. 
Marriage ,  a  novel  by  S.  E.  Ferrier  (q.v.), 
published  in  1818. 

Lady  Juliana,  the  daughter  of  the  earl  of 
Courtland,  from  romantic  notions  elopes 
with  the  penniless  young  officer  Henry  Doug- 
las, who  takes  her  to  his  Highland  home,  a 
gaunt,  lonely  house  where  she  is  greeted  by 
'three  long-chinn'd  spinsters'  and  'five  awk- 
ward purple  girls'.  The  dismay  of  the  worldly 
Lady  Juliana  at  her  new  surroundings,  and 
the  characters  of  the  members  of  the  house- 
hold and  of  the  neighbouring  gentry,  are 
excellently  depicted.  Lady  Juliana  gives 
birth  to  twin  daughters,  the  climax  of  her 
misfortunes.  The  couple  move  to  London 
and  get  into  debt.  Henry  is  imprisoned ;  on 
his  release  he  joins  a  regiment  in  India,  and  is 
permanently  separated  from  his  wife.  Of  the 
children,  one  is  brought  up  in  Scotland,  and 
grows  up  plain  and  virtuous ;  the  other  accom- 
panies her  mother  to  Lord  Courtland's  house, 
and  grows  up  beautiful  and  heartless.  Their 
story  is  told  as  far  as  their  respectively  happy 
and  unhappy  marriages. 
Marriage-a-la-Mode ,  a  comedy  by  Dryden 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1672. 

The  theme  of  the  principal  plot  is  expressed 
in  the  first  lines  of  the  lyric  with  which  the 
play  opens : 

Why  should  a  foolish  marriage  vow, 

Which  long  ago  was  made, 
Oblige  us  to  each  other  now, 

When  passion  is  decayed  ? 


MARS 

This  is  the  view  of  Rhodophil  and  his  wife, 
Doralia,  who,  having  been  married  two 
years,  find  that  the  first  glamour  of  marriage 
has  worn  off.  RhodopmTs  friend,  Palamede, 
returns  from  his  travels,  having  been  ordered 
by  his  father  on  pam  of  disinheritance  to 
marry  Melantha,  whose  delight  is  in  the 
latest  fashions  and  in  newly  imported  French 
words  .^  But  Palamede  has  seen  and  fallen  in 
love  with  Doralia,  not  knowing  her  to  be  his 
friend's  wife,  and  views  Melantha's  affecta- 
tions with  disgust.  And  Rhodophil  has  begun 
to  court  Melantha,  not  knowing  that  she  is 
the  destined  bride  of  Palamede.  The  two 
amorous  intrigues  go  on,  with  amusing  in- 
cidents, until  the  friends,  each  discovering 
that  the  other  is  in  love  with  the  woman  on 
whom  he  himself  has  a  claim,  conclude  that 
there  must  be  some  undiscovered  charm  in 
her,  become  jealous,  quarrel,  and  finally 
decide  not  to  trespass  on  each  other's  pro- 
perty. 

Marrow  of  Modern  Divinity,  The,  the  title 
of  a  book  advocating  Calvinistic  views, 
written  by  E.  F.  (Edward  Fisher)  in  1645, 
the  condemnation  of  which  (in  1718)  by 
the  general  assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land led  to  a  prolonged  controversy,  known 
as  the  MARROW  CONTROVERSY. 
MARRYAT,  FREDERICK  (1792-1848),  a 
captain  in  the  Royal  Navy,  in  which  he  served 
with  distinction,  was  the  author  of  a  series  of 
novels  of  sea-life,  of  which  the  best  known 
are  'Frank  Mildmay'  (1829),  'Peter  Simple* 
(q.v.,  1834),  'Jacob  Faithful*  (q.v.,  1834),  and 
'Mr.  Midshipman  Easy'  (q.v.,  1836).  'Japhet 
in  Search  of  a  Father*  (1836),  another  of  his 
most  successful  books,  is  not  a  story  of  the 
sea,  but  the  autobiography  of  a  foundling, 
who  reaches  fortune  after  a  multitude  of 
escapades.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of 
'Snarleyyow*  (1837),  the  story  of  a  mysterious 
and  indestructible  cur,  'The  Pacha  of  Many 
Tales*  (1836),  'The  Phantom  Ship'  (1839), 
and  'Poor  Jack*  (1840).  'Masterman  Ready* 
(1841),  'The  Settlers  in  Canada'  (1844),  and 
others,  were  specially  intended  by  the  author 
for  boys. 

Mars,  the  god  of  war  of  the  ancient  Romans, 
identified  by  them  with  the  Ares  (q.v.)  of  the 
Greeks. 

Mars  is  the  name  of  the  fourth  planet  in 
the  order  of  distance  from  the  sun,  revolving 
in  an  orbit  lying  between  that  of  the  earth  and 
Jupiter.  Its  proximity  to  the  earth  has  enabled 
its  surface  to  be  carefully  mapped,  and  the 
existence  on  it  of  what  appear  to  be  canals 
(discovered  by  SchiaparelH)  and  cultivated 
areas  has  given  rise  to  conjectures  that  Mars 
is  inhabited  by  intelligent  beings  (for  a  fanci- 
ful account  of  these,  see  Martians). 
Mars,  MLLE,  stage  name  of  Anne  Boutet 
(1779— 1847),  a  famous  French  actress.  '  "Did 
you  ever  see  the  Mars,  Miss  Fotheringay?" 
"There  was  two  Mahers  in  Crow  Street,'* 
remarked  Miss  Emily,  "Fanny  was  well 
enough,  but  Biddy  was  no  great  things.*' 


[497] 


Kk 


MARSALA 

"Sure,  the  Major  means  the  god  of  war," 
interposed  the  parent,*  (Thackeray,  *Pen- 
dennis',  c.  xi.) 

Marsala,  a  class  of  white  wines  resembling 
Sherry  or  Madeira,  exported  from  Marsala 
on  the  West  coast  of  Sicily. 
Marseillaise,  The,  the  French  national 
anthem,  was  composed  by  a  young  French 
engineer  officer,  Rouget  de  Lisle,  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1792,  on  the  declaration  of  war 
against  Austria.  It  was  shortly  afterwards 
sung  at  a  banquet  at  Marseilles,  and  adopted 
by  a  Marseilles  battalion  that  was  starting  for 
Paris.  There  it  became  popular,  being  known 
as  the  'Chant  des  MarseHlais'.  It  was  sup- 
pressed by  Napoleon  and  at  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons. 

Marshalsea,  a  prison  in  Southwark,  under 
the  control  of  the  knight-marshal,  abolished 
in  1842. 

MARSTON,  JOHN  (1575  M634),  the  dra- 
matist, was  bom  probably  at  Coventry, 
where  he  was  educated,  subsequently  going 
to  Brasenose  College,  Oxford.  His  mother 
was  Italian.  He  renounced  the  drama  in  1607 
and  took  orders ;  he  was  incumbent  of  Christ- 
church,  Hampshire,  from  1616  to  1631.  He 
figures  as  'Kinsayder*  in  'The  Return  from 
Pernassus*,  seQParnassus Plays).  He  quarrelled 
with  Ben  Jonson,  who  attacked  him  in ' Every 
Man  out  of  his  Humour*,  'Cynthia's  Revels', 
and  "The  Poetaster*,  where  he  is  presented  as 
Crispinus.  But  the  pair  made  friends  again. 
Marston  published  'The  Metamorphosis  of 
Pigmalion's  Image*  (an  erotic  poem)  'and 
certain  Satyres*  in  1598,  and  further  satires 
under  the  title  'The  Scourge  of  Villanie*  in 
the  same  year.  Some  of  these  were  studies  in 
social  vices  and  others  were  directed  against 
literary  rivals,  including  Bishop  Hall  (q.v.). 
His  dramatic  works  were  printed  as  follows: 
the  'History  of  Antonio  and  Mellida*  (q.v.),  a 
tragedy,  in  1602  ('Antonios  Revenge*  is  the 
second  part  of  this  play) ;  'The  Malcontent*,  a 
comedy,  with  additions  by  Webster,  in  1604; 
'Eastward  Ho*  (q.v.),  a  comedy,  written  with 
Jonson  and  Chapman,  for  which  they  were 
imprisoned  in  1605 ;  "The  Dutch  Courtezan* 
(q.v.),  in  the  same  year;  'The  Parasitaster* 
(a  comedy),  in  1606 ;  'Sophonisba*  (a  tragedy) 
in  the  same  year;  'What  you  Will',  a  comedy, 
ia  1607;  and  'The  Insatiate  Countess',  a 
tragedy,  in  1613 — the  last  is  sometimes  as- 
signed to  William  Barksteed.  The  works  of 
Marston  were  edited  by  J.  O.  Halliwell  in 
1856,  and  by  A.  H.  Bullen  in  1887. 

MARSTON,  JOHN  WESTLAND  (1819- 
90),  was  author  of  some  notable  dramas :  'The 
Patrician's  Daughter*  (1842),  'Strathmore* 
(1849),  'Marie  de  Meranie*  (1850),  'A  Life's 
Ransom*  (1857),  and  'Life  for  Life'  (1869). 
His  most  successful  comedy  was  'The 
Favourite  of  Fortune*  (1866). 

MARSTON,  PHILIP  BOURKE  (1850-87), 
son  of  John  Westland  Marston  (q.v.),  a  blind 
poet,  author  of  some  beautiful  sonnets.  He 


MARTIANUS  CAPELLA 

published  'Song-Tide  and  other  Poems* 
(1871),  'All  in  All*  (1875),  and  'Wind  Voices' 
(1883).  Three  volumes  appeared  posthu- 
mously: 'For  a  Song's  Sake'  (short  stories, 
1887),  'Garden  Secrets'  (1887),  and  *A  Last 
Harvest*  (1891). 

Marsyas,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  celebrated 
player  on  the  pipe,  of  Celaena  in  Phrygia, 
who  had  the  imprudence  to  challenge  Apollo 
to  a  musical  contest,  it  being  agreed  that  the 
victor  should  treat  the  loser  as  he  wished. 
The  victory  having  with  difficulty  been 
adjudged  to  Apollo  by  the  Muses,  Apollo  tied 
Marsyas  to  a  tree  and  flayed  him  alive.  It  is 
said  by  some  that  Marsyas  had  picked  up  the 
flute  of  Athene,  which  the  goddess  had  thrown 
away  after  observing  the  distortion  of  the 
face  of  the  person  who  played  on  it;  she  had 
invoked  a  melancholy  death  on  him  who 
found  it. 

Martello  Tower,  a  small  circular  fort  with 
massive  walls.  The  name  is  a  corruption  of 
Cape  MurteUa  in  Corsica,  where  there  was  a 
tower  of  this  kind  which  the  English  fleet 
captured  in  1794.  Many  Martello  towers 
were  erected  on  the  south  and  east  coasts  of 
England  as  a  defensive  measure  about  1804. 

Martext,  SIR  OLIVER,  the  vicar  in  Shake- 
speare's *As  You  Like  It'  (q.v.). 

MARTIAL,  Marcus  Valerius  Martialis,  born 
A.D.  43  at  Bilbilis  in  Spain.  He  came  to  Rome 
in  66,  and  lived  there  for  thirty-five  years  and 
then  returned  to  Spain.  He  left  a  collection 
of  short  poems  or  epigrams,  1,500  in  number, 
witty  but  frequently  coarse,  which  throw  a 
valuable  light  on  Roman  Hfe  and  manners. 

Martians,  in  H.  G.  Wells's  'The  War  of  the 
Worlds',  inhabitants  of  Mars,  who,  driven  by 
the  progressive  cooling  of  their  planet  to  seek 
a  warmer  world,  invade  the  earth.  They  are 
described  as  round  bodies,  about  4  ft.  in 
diameter,  each  body  containing  a  huge  brain, 
and  having  in  front  of  it  a  face,  with  very  large 
dark  eyes,  a  kind  of  fleshy  beak,  sixteen 
slender  tentacles,  no  nostrils,  and  an  oily 
brown  skin.  They  live  by  the  injection  into 
themselves  of  the  fresh  living  blood  of  other 
creatures,  mostly  human  beings.  They  rely 
on  highly  developed  machinery  for  locomo- 
tion, warfare,  &c.  They  devastate  England  by 
means  of  a  terrible  heat-ray  and  an  asphyxiat- 
ing gas;  but  soon  fall  victims  to  diseases 
caused  by  the  bacteria  against  which  they 
have  no  power  of  resistance. 
MARTIANUS  CAPELLA,  or  MAR- 
CLAN,  a  N.  African  writer  celebrated  in  the 
Middle  Ages  who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  5th  cent.  He  was  author  of  *De  Nuptiis 
Philologiae  et  Mercurii*  in  prose  and  verse,  in 
nine  books,  of  which  the  first  two  deal  with 
the  wooing  of  Philology  (in  a  wide  sense)  by 
Mercury,  while  the  last  seven  are  an  alle- 
gorical encyclopaedia  of  the  arts  of  the 
trivium  and  quadrivium.  In  one  of  these  he 
anticipates  the  doctrine  that  the  planets  do 
not  revolve  about  the  earth,  Marcian  is  re- 


[493] 


MARTIN 

ferred  to  by  Chaucer  in  the  'Merchant's  Tale', 
11.  488  et  seq.,  and  in  the  'House  of  Fame', 
1.  985- 

Martin,  in  'Reynard  the  Fox'  (q.v.),  the  ape. 
His  wife  is  Dame  Rukenawe. 

Martin,  in  Dryden's  'The  Hind  and  the 
Panther*  (q.v.),  symbolizes  the  Lutheran 
party;  and  in  Swift's  'A  Tale  of  a  Tub'  (q.v.) 
the  Anglican  Church,  the  allusion  being  to 
Martin  Luther. 

Martin,  ST.,  bishop  of  Tours  about  371,  the 
patron  saint  of  tavern-keepers.  Legend 
represents^  him  as  a  Roman  soldier  who  once 
divided  his  cloak  in  two  to  clothe  a  beggar. 
He  is  commemorated  on  n  Nov.,  known 
as  MARTINMAS  or  MARTLEMAS,  which  was 
formerly  the  usual  time  in  England  for  hiring 
servants  and  for  slaughtering  cattle  to  be 
salted  for  winter  provision.  ST.  MARTIN'S 
SUMMER  is  a  period  of  fine  mild  weather 
sometimes  occurring  about  this  date. 

MARTIN,  SIR  THEODORE  (1816-1909), 
educated  at  Edinburgh  High  School  and 
University,  practised  as  a  solicitor  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  migrated  to  London  in  1846.  He 
contributed,  under  the  pseudonym  fBon 
Gaultier*  (q.v.),  humorous  pieces  to  'Tait's* 
and  'Eraser's'  magazines,  some  of  which 
attracted  the  attention  of  W.  E.  Aytoun(q.v.). 
Martin  and  Aytoun  formed  'a  kind  of  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher  partnership'  until  1844, 
and  collaborated  in  the  'Bon  Gaultier  Ballads* 
(published  1845),  parodying  verse  of  the  day. 
Martin  was  also  a  translator  of  Danish  and 
German  dramas,  and  of  Horace.  His  'Faust* 
appeared,  Pt.  I  in  1865,  and  Pt.  II  in  1886, 
and  'Heine's  Poems*  in  1878.  His  'Biography 
of  the  Prince  Consort'  was  published  in 
1875-80;  his  'Life  of  Lord  Lyndhurst*  in 
1883. 

Martin  Chuzzlewit,  The  Life  and  Adventures 
of,  a  novel  by  Dickens  (q.v.),  published  in 
1843-4. 

Martin,  the  hero,  is  the  grandson  of  old 
Martin  Chuzzlewit,  a  wealthy  gentleman  who 
has  been  rendered  misanthropical  by  the 
greed  of  the  members  of  his  family.  The  old 
man  has  bred  up  Mary  Graham,  a  young 
orphan,  to  tend  him,  and  regards  her  as  his 
daughter.  Young  Chuzzlewit  is  in  love  with 
Mary;  but  the  grandfather,  distrusting  his 
selfish  character,  repudiates  him  and  gets  him 
dismissed  from  his  position  as  pupil  to  his 
cousin,  Mr.  Pecksniff,  an  architect  and  an 
arch-hypocrite.  Thrown  nearly  penniless  on 
the  world,  young  Martin,  accompanied  by 
the  indomitably  cheerful  Mark  Tapley  as  his 
servant,  sails  for  America  to  try  his  fortunes. 
He  goes  as  an  architect  to  the  settlement  of 
the  Eden  Land  Corporation,  a  fraudulent 
affair,  where  he  loses  his  money  and  nearly 
dies  of  fever.  (This  part  gave  great  offence  in 
the  United  States.)  Martin  then  returns  to 
England,  purged  by  his  experiences  of  his 
earlier  selfishness.  Meanwhile  his  grand- 
father has  established  himself  and  Mary  in 


MARTINEAU 

Pecksniff's  household,  and  pretends  to  place 
himself  under  the  latter's  direction.  By  this 
means  he  becomes  satisfied  of  Pecksniff's 
meanness  and  treachery  (Pecksniff  tries  to 
inveigle  and  bully  Mary  into  marrying  him), 
exposes  the  hypocrite,  restores  his  grandson 
to  favour,  and  gives  him  the  hand  of  Mary. 

A  second  plot  runs  through  the  book,  con- 
cerned with  the  doings  of  Jonas  Chuzzlewit, 
the  son  of  Anthony,  old  Martin's  brother,  a 
character  of  almost  incredible  villainy.  He 
murders  his  father  (in  intention  if  not  in 
fact);  marries  Mercy,  one  of  Pecksniff's 
daughters,  and  treats  her  with  the  utmost 
brutality;  murders  the  director  of  a  bogus  in- 
surance company,  by  whom  he  has  been 
inveigled  and  blackmailed;  is  detected;  and 
finally  poisons  himself. 

Besides  the  finished  portraits  of  Pecksniff 
and  Mark  Tapley,  the  book  contains  many 
pleasant  characters:  Tom  Pinch,  Pecksniff's 
gentle  loyal  assistant,  and  his  sister  Ruth; 
Charity  and  Mercy  (Cherry  and  Merry), 
Pecksniff's  daughters;  and  Mrs.  Gamp,  the 
disreputable  old  nurse;  while  in  'Todgers's', 
the  author  depicts  the  humours  of  a  London 
boarding-house. 

MARTIN  DU  GARD,  ROGER  (1881-  ), 
French  novelist,  author  of  'Jean  Barois* 
(1913),  'Les  Thibault'  (1922). 

MARTIN  MARPRELATE,  the  name  as- 
sumed by  the  author  of  a  number  of  anony- 
mous pamphlets  (seven  are  extant)  issued  in 
1588-9  from  a  secret  press,  containing  attacks 
in  a  railing  rollicking  style  on  the  bishops  and 
defending  the  Presbyterian  system  of  disci- 
pline. They  were  occasioned  by  the  decree 
issued  in  1586  by  Archbishop  Whitgift  and 
the  Star  Chamber,  with  the  object  of  checking 
the  flow  of  Puritan  pamphlets,  requiring  the 
previous  approval  of  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties to  every  publication. 

The  importance  of  the  Marprelate  tracts 
lies  in  the  fact  that  they  are  the  best  prose 
satires  of  the  Elizabethan  age.  Their  titles 
(in  their  abbreviated  form)  are :  'The  Epistle*, 
'The  Epitome',  'The  Minerall  Conclusions', 
'Hay  any  work  for  Cooper'  (a  familiar  street- 
cry  with  allusion  to  tie  name  of  Thomas 
Cooper,  bishop  of  Winchester),  'Martin 
Junior*,  'Martin  Senior',  and  'The  Protesta- 
tion'. They  called  forth  replies  from  such 
noted  writers  as  Lyly  and  Nash,  and  Gabriel 
and  Richard  Harvey  were  presently  involved 
in  the  controversy.  But  the  replies  show  less 
literary  ability  than  the  original  tracts. 

The  suspected  authors  of  these,  a  Welsh- 
man named  Penry  and  a  clergyman  named 
Udall,  were  arrested.  The  latter  died  in 
prison,  the  former  was  executed.  Their 
collaborator,  Job  Throckmorton,  probably 
the  real  author,  denied  his  complicity  at  the 
trial  of  Penry,  and  escaped  punishment. 

MARTINEAU,  HARRIET  (1802-76),  the 
daughter  of  a  Norwich  manufacturer,  and 
sister  of  J.  Martineau  (q.v.).  She  was  a  Uni- 
tarian, and  began  her  literary  career  as  a 


[499] 


MARTINEAU 

writer  on  religious  subjects.  But  she  was 
chiefly  successful  in  stories  designed  to  popu- 
larize economic  subjects,  which  show  her  as 
an  ardent  advocate  of  social  reform :  *  Illustra- 
tions of  Political  Economy*  (1832-4),  'Poor 
Law  and  Paupers  Illustrated*  (1833),  and 
'Illustrations  of  Taxation'  (i  834).  She  visited 
America  and  wrote  'Society  in  America* 
(1837)  and  'Retrospect  of  Western  Travel* 
(1838).  She  published  a  novel,  'Deerbrook*, 
in  1839 ;  an  historical  romance,  *The  Hour  and 
the  Man*,  in  1841 ;  also  a  series  of  stories  for 
young  people,  'The  Playfellow*  (including 
'The  Settlers  at  Home*  and  'Feats  on  the 
Fiord*),  in  1841.  She  was  also  an  active 
journalist,  contributing  to  the  'Daily  News' 
and  'Edinburgh  Review*.  Her  later  writings 
display  anti-theological  views.  She  issued  a 
condensed  translation  of  Comte's  'Philoso- 
phic Positive'  in  1853.  Her  'History  of  the 
Thirty  Years  Peace,  1815-45*,  prejudiced  on 
the  Whig  side,  but  otherwise  sound,  was  pub- 
lished in  1849.  Miss  Martineau  wrote  an 
'Autobiographical  Memoir',  published  post- 
humously, which  contains  interesting  com- 
ments on  the  great  literary  figures  of  her  day. 

MARTINEAU,  JAMES  (1805-1900),  Uni- 
tarian divine  and  brother  of  Harriet  Mar- 
tineau (q.v.),  was  professor  of  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  at  Manchester  New  Col- 
lege for  many  years.  His  philosophical  works, 
published  very  late  in  his  life,  show  a 
religious  and  conservatively  spiritual  attitude 
and  hostility  to  materialism  and  naturalism. 
They  include  'Ideal  Substitutes  for  God* 
(1879),  'Study  of  Spinoza*  (1882),  'Types  of 
Ethical  Theory*  (1885),  'A  Study  of  Religion* 
(1888),  'The  Seat  of  Authority  in  Religion* 
(1890).  Martineau  contributed  much  to  the 
'National  Review*,  and  was  joint-editor  of  the 
'Prospective  Review*  (1845-54). 
Martinus  Scriblerus  f  Memoirs  of,  a  satirical 
work,  directed  against  'false  tastes  in  learn- 
ing', initiated  by  the  Scriblerus  Club  (q.v.)» 
and  written  mainly  if  not  entirely  by  Arbuth- 
not  (q.v.).  It  was  printed  in  the  second 
volume  of  Pope's  prose  works  in  1741, 
Martinus  is  the  son  of  Cornelius,  an  anti- 
quary of  Munster  in  Germany.  His  birth, 
christening,  and  education  are  described,  all 
conducted  in  the  light  of  the  teaching  of  the 
ancients.  He  becomes  a  critic,  a  physician, 
and  a  philosopher,  and  sets  out  on  travels, 
the  sketch  of  which  corresponds  with  the 
travels  of  Gulliver.  The  work  is  incomplete, 
and  we  have  only  the  first  book  of  it. 

The  name  'Martinus  Scriblerus*  was 
occasionally  used  by  Pope  as  a  pseudonym; 
and  under  it  George  Crabbe  wrote  somfe  of 
his  earlier  poems. 

MARTYN,  EDWARD  (1859-1924),  born  in 
co.  Galway,  and  educated  at  Beaumont  Col- 
lege, Windsor,  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Irish  Literary 
Theatre  (see  Yeats).  He  also  founded  the 
Palestrina  Choir  in  Dublin  for  the  reform  of 
liturgical  music,  and  was  the  promoter  of 


MARX 

various  movements  for  the  improvement  of 
education  in  Ireland.  His  best-known  plays 
are  'The  Heather  Field*  and  'Maeve*.  He  is 
one  of  the  central  figures  in  G.  Moore*s  (q.v.) 
'Hail  and  Farewell*. 

MARTYR,  PETER,  see  Peter  Martyr. 

MARVELL,  ANDREW  (1621-78),  was 
born  at  Winestead  near  Hull,  and  educated  at 
Hull  Grammar  School  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  He  spent  four  years  on  the 
Continent,  part  of  the  time  at  Rome,  and  in 
1650  became  tutor  to  the  daughter  of  Lord 
Fairfax,  at  Nun  Appieton  in  Yorkshire.  Here 
he  wrote  poems  in  praise  of  gardens  and 
country  life,  including  'The  Hifl.  and  Grove 
at  Billborow*  and  'Appieton  House*.  These 
tastes  are  again  shown  in  his  well-known 
poem  'The  Garden*.  Another  poem  of  this 
period,  'The  Bermudas',  is  a  beautiful  song 
of  praise  and  thanksgiving  by  a  party  of  exiles 
on  approaching  those  islands.  In  1653  he 
became  tutor  to  Cromwell's  ward,  William 
Dutton,  and  in  1657  Milton's  assistant  in  the 
Latin  secretaryship  to  the  council.  He  wrote 
several  poems  in  the  Protector's  honour,  in- 
cluding the  'Horatian  Ode  upon  Cromwell's 
Return  from  Ireland*  (1650),  and  the  elegy 
upon  his  death.  After  the  Restoration  he 
entered  parliament  and  became  a  violent 
politician  and  wrote  satires  and  pamphlets, 
attacking  first  the  ministers,  but  afterwards 
Charles  II  himself.  His  principal  verse  satire 
is  'The  last  Instructions  to  a  Painter*  (q.v.), 
on  the  subject  of  the  Dutch  War.  The 
painter  is  to  represent  the  corruption  of  the 
court,  the  state  without  a  fleet,  'our  ships 
unrigg'd,  our  forts  unmanned*,  contrasting 
with  the  activity  of  the  Dutch.  Marvell 
vigorously  defended  Milton,  and  wrote  lines 
in  praise  of  'Paradise  Lost*,  which  were  in- 
cluded with  the  second  edition  of  that  poem. 
From  1660  to  1678  he  wrote  a  series  of  news- 
letters to  his  constituents  at  Hull,  which  are 
of  historical  importance.  The  bulk  of  his 
poems  were  not  published  until  1681,  the 
satires  not  until  1689,  after  the  revolution. 
Marvellous  Boy,  THE,  a  name  given  by 
Wordsworth  to  Chatterton  (q.v.). 

Marwood,  MES.,  a  character  in  Congreve*s 
'The  Way  of  the  World*  (q.v.). 

MARX,  KARL  (1818-83),  born  in  Rhenish 
Prussia,  of  Jewish  descent,  was  editor  of  the 
'Rheinische  Zeitung*  at  Cologne  in  1842. 
His  extreme  radical  views  led  to  the  sup- 
pression of  the  paper,  and  Marx  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  came  into  touch  with  Fried- 
rich  Engels  and  collaborated  with  him  in 
works  of  political  philosophy.  He  was  ex- 
pelled from  Paris,  moved  to  Brussels,  and 
at  the  time  of  the  revolutionary  movement  of 
1848  returned  to  Cologne,  where,  with  Engels, 
he  again  conducted  a  newspaper,  the  'Neue 
Rheinische  Zeitung'.  His  revolutionary  and 
communistic  views  caused  him  to  be  once 
more  expelled,  and  he  finally  settled  in  Lon- 
don. In  1867  appeared  the  first  volume  of  his 


[5oo] 


treatise  'Das  Kapital',  in  which  he  pro- 
pounded his  theory  of  political  economy. 
This  was  completed  by  Engels  after  the 
death  of  Marx  from  his  papers.  It  is  a 
criticism  of  the  capitalistic  system  under 
which,  according  to  Marx,  a  diminishing 
number  of  capitalists  appropriate  the  benefits 
of  improved  industrial  methods,  while  the 
labouring  class  are  left  in  increasing  depen- 
dency and  misery.  Marx  holds  the  view  that 
the  price  of  a  commodity  should  be  the  re- 
muneration of  the  labour  required  to  pro- 
duce it,  and  that  it  fails  to  be  this  because 
capital  exacts  a  share  of  the  price,  while  com- 
petition among  the  workers  obliges  them  to 
accept  less  than  their  proper  due.  The 
remedy  for  this  state  of  things  Marx  finds  in 
the  total  abolition  of  private  property,  to  be 
effected  by  the  class  war.  When  the  com- 
munity has  acquired  possession  of  all  pro- 
perty and  the  means  of  production,  it  will 
distribute  work  to  each  individual  and  pro- 
vide him  with  the  means  of  sustenance. 

Marx  was  the  principal  creator  of  the  First 
International  Working  Men's  Council. 

Mary,  in  Dickens 's  'Pickwick  Papers'  (q.v.), 
Mr.  Nupkins's  pretty  housemaid,  who  marries 
Sam  Weller. 

Mary  I,  queen  of  England,  1553-9.  She 
married  Philip  of  Spain  in  1554.  Tennyson 
made  her  the  subject  of  a  drama* 

Mary  II,  eldest  child  of  James  II,  queen  of 
England,  1689-94,  and  consort  of  William  III, 
whom  she  married  in  1677.  Her  little  known 
'Memoirs'  were  edited  by  R.  Doebner  in 
1886. 

Mary  Barton,  a  Tale  of  Manchester  Life,  a 
novel  by  Mrs.  Gaskell  (q.v.),  published  in 
1848.  It  was  written  soon  after,  and  under 
the  influence  of,  the  death  of  her  infant  son. 
The  background  of  the  story  is  Manchester 
in  tiie  'hungry  forties'  of  the  last  century,  a 
period  of  acute  distress  in  the  industrial 
districts.  John  Barton,  a  steady,  thoughtful 
workman,  is  one  of  the  sufferers,  and  various 
circumstances  have  rendered  him  an  active 
and  embittered  trade  unionist.  A  group  of 
workmen,  driven  to  desperation,  decide  to  kill 
one  of  the  employers,  young  Henry  Carson,  as 
a  warning  to  the  class,  and  the  lot  falls  on 
Barton  to  do  the  deed.  Meanwhile  Barton's 
daughter,  Mary,  has  attracted  the  admiration 
of  Henry  Carson;  she  has  been  flattered  by 
his  attentions  and  the  hope  of  a  grand  mar- 
riage, and  has  repulsed  in  his  favour  her  lover 
in  her  own  ckss,  a  brave  young  engineer,  Jem 
Wilson.  But  she  has  come  to  her  senses,  dis- 
covered that  her  real  love  is  for  the  latter,  and 
endeavoured  to  break  with  Carson.  At  this 
moment  Carson  is  shot  dead  by  some  person 
unknown,  and  circumstances  point  strongly  to 
Jem  Wilson,  his  rival,  as  the  murderer,  while 
Mary  discovers  that  in  fact  it  is  her  father  who 
has  done  the  deed.  Jem  is  tried  for  his  life  and 
is  saved  by  Mary's  desperate  and  finally  suc- 
cessful efforts  to  prove  his  innocence,  while 


MAS  JOHN 

not  betraying  her  father.  The  latter,  brought 
by  mental  anguish  to  the  verge  of  death,  finally 
confesses  his  crime  to  the  fiercely  vindictive 
old  father  of  Henry  Carson,  and  wins  his  for- 
giveness as  he  dies. 

The  author's  emphasis  on  the  lack  of 
sympathy  shown  by  the  employers  for  their 
workers  provoked  much  criticism  as  being  un- 
just, but  the  literary  merits  of  the  work  were 
fully  recognized. 

Mary  Celeste ,  The,  an  American  brig  bound 
from  New  York  to  Genoa,  picked  up  in  the 
North  Atlantic  by  a  British  barque  on  5  Dec, 
1872,  derelict  but  in  perfect  condition.  The 
ship's  boats  were  missing  and  the  fate  of  the 
crew  is  unknown;  it  is  one  of  the  unsolved 
'mysteries  of  the  sea*. 

Mary  Graham,  a  character  in  Dickens's 

'Martin  Chuzzlewit'  (q.v.). 

Mary  Magdalene,  ST.,  see  Magdalen. 

Mary  Morison,  of  Bums's  song,  was  pos- 
sibly Alison  Begbie,  an  early  love  of  the  poet. 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (MARY  STUART) 
(1542-87),  daughter  of  James  V  of  Scotland, 
married  to  Francois  II  of  France  (1558),  to 
Lord  Darnley  (1565),  and  to  Bothwell  (1567). 
She  was  imprisoned  by  Elizabeth  and  finally 
beheaded  on  a  charge  of  conspiring  against 
the  latter's  life.  She  figures  in  Scott's  *The 
Abbot'  (q.v.),  and  is  the  subject  of  a  tragedy 
by  Schiller  (q.v.),  of  a  trilogy  of  plays  by 
Swinburne  (q.v.),  and  of  the  novel  'The 
Queen's  Quair*  (q.v.),  by  Maurice  Hewlett; 
she  also  figures  in  Maurice  Baring's  'In  My 
End  is  My  Beginning'  (1931). 

Maryland,  American  State,  named  after 
Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of  Charles  I  (1632). 

Marylebone,  a  district  of  London,  north  of 
Oxford  Street.  The  old  church  of  St.  John's, 
Tyburn  (q.v.),  stood  in  a  lonely  spot  on  the 
Tyburn  Road,  now  Oxford  Street,  and  was  in 
the  1 5th  cent,  replaced  by  the  church  of  St. 
Mary,  nearer  Tyburn  village.  This  village 
thenceforth  took  the  name  of  St.  Mary  le 
Bourne.  The  greater  part  of  the  old  manor 
was  acquired  by  the  duke  of  Newcastle;  it 
passed  by  marriage  to  the  second  earl  of 
Oxford,  from  whom  Oxford  Street  (q.v.)  is 
named. 

Marylebone  Cricket  Club,  THE,   better 
known  as  the  M.C.C.,  the  legislative  authority 
of  cricket,  came  into  existence  at  the  end  of 
the  1 8th  cent.,  when  it  succeeded  the  White 
Conduit  Club.  It  acquired  the  lease  of  Lord's 
ground  (q.v.)  early  in  the  I9th  cent.    The 
pavilion,  with  many  early  cricket  records,  was  4 
burnt  in  1825. 
Marys,  THE  QUEEN'S,  see  Queen's  Manes. 

Marys,  THE  THREE,  AT  THE  CROSS,  were 
Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus,  Mary  the  wife  of 
Cleophas  (a  disciple),  and  Mary  Magdalene 
(John  six.  25). 

Mas  John  or  MESS  JOHN,  a  term  applied 
jocularly  or  contemptuously  to  a  Scottish 


[50i] 


MASANIELLO 

Presbyterian  clergyman  (shortened  from 
Master  John). 

Masaniello  (TOMMASO  ANIELLO),  a  Neapoli- 
tan fisherman,  who  in  1647  led  a  revolt  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Naples  against  their  Spanish 
rulers.  He  was  assassinated  after  the  tem- 
porary success  of  the  revolt.  He  is  the  sub- 
ject of  an  opera  by  Auber. 

Mascarille,  an  ingenious  and  impudent 
valet,  who  figures  in  three  of  Moliere's 
comedies,  'L'Etourdi*,  *Le  Depit  amoureux*, 
and  *Les  Pre*cieuses  ridicules'.  In  this  last  it 
is  he  who,  in  the  character  of  a  marquis  and  in 
the  clothes  of  his  master,  makes  love  to  the 
predeuses,  in  order  to  render  them  ridiculous. 

MASEFIELD,  JOHN  (1874-  .  )>  ran 
away  to  sea  early  in  life  (an  experience  of 
which  there  are  reminiscences  in  his  narra- 
tive-poem 'Dauber',  1913),  went  to  America, 
where  he  undertook  various  humble  occupa- 
tions, and  on  his  return  to  England  became  a 
journalist  on  the  staff  of  the  'Manchester 
Guardian'.  He  then  settled  in  London  and 
during  the  first  ten  years  of  this  century  wrote 
poems  ('Salt- Water  Ballads',  1902,  containing 
the  well-known  'I  must  go  down  to  the  sea 
again*,  'Ballads  and  Poems',  1910);  collec- 
tions of  short  stories  ('A  Mainsail  Haul*, 
1905;  'A  Tarpaulin  Muster',  1907);  plays 
("The  Tragedy  of  Nan',  1909;  *The  Tragedy 
of  Pompey  the  Great*,  1910);  and  essays. 
In  1911  appeared  his  remarkable  poem 
*The  Everlasting  Mercy',  the  realistic  story 
of  the  conversion  of  the  ruffianly  Saul  Kane, 
followed  by  'The  Widow  in  the  Bye  Street* 
(1912),  'The  Daffodil  Fields'  (1913),  and 
'Reynard  the  Fox'  (1919).  His  later  plays 
include  'The  Faithful*  (1915)  and  'Good 
Friday*  (1916).  Among  his  other  works  may 
be  mentioned  the  novels,  'Captain  Margaret' 
(1908),  'Multitude  and  Solitude*  (1909),  'The 
Hawbucks'  (1929);  the  poems,  'Lollingdon 
Downs'  (1917);  and  his  edition  of  the 
'Chronicles  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers'  (1910); 
also  his  nativity  play,  'The  Corning  of  Christ* 
(1928).  He  was  appointed  poet  laureate  on 
the  death  of  Dr.  Bridges  in  1930. 

Masks    or   MASQUES,    dramatic   entertain- 
ments, involving  dances  and  disguises,  in 
which  the  spectacular  and  musical  elements 
predominated  over  plot  and  character.  They 
were  acted  by  amateurs,  and  were  popular  at 
court  and  among  the  nobility.    They  were 
perhaps  of  Italian  origin,  but  assumed  a  dis- 
tinctive character  in  England  in  the  i6th  and 
1 7th    cents.    Many  of  the  great  dramatic 
writers,    Beaumont,    Middleton,    Chapman, 
wrote  masques,  and  they  reached  their  high- 
est degree  of  elaboration  in  the  hands  of  Ben 
Jonson   (q.v.),    who    introduced   the    'anti- 
masque*   and   an   element  of  Aristophanic 
comedy.    The  great  architect,   Inigo  Jones 
(q.v.),  designed  the  machinery  and  decora- 
tions for  some  of  them.    Ben  Jonson 's  'The 
Sad  Shepherd*  (q.v.),  Fletcher's  'The  Faith- 
ful Shepherdess*  (q.v.),  Randolph's  eAmyn- 


MASSINGER 

tas'(q.v.),  and  Milton's  'Comus*  (q.v.),  though 
sometimes  described  as  masques,  are  strictly 
pastoral  dramas. 
Masks  and  Faces 9  see  Peg  Woffington. 

Maskwell,  the  'Double  Dealer'  in  Con- 
greve's  comedy  of  that  name  (q.v.),  'a  sedate, 
thinking  villain,  whose  black  blood  runs 
temperately  bad'. 

MASON,  ALFRED  EDWARD  WOOD- 
LEY  (1865-  ),  author  of  many  novels,  in- 
cluding 'At  the  Villa  Rose',  'The  House  of 
the  AJTOW',  'No  other  Tiger*,  'Running 
Waters'. 

Mason  and  DixonLine,  THE,  the  boundary 
established  in  1763-7  between  Virginia  and 
Pennsylvania  by  Charles  Mason  and  Jere- 
miah Dixon,  English  astronomers,  employed 
by  William  Penn  and  Lord  Baltimore  for  the 
purpose.   The  line  was  of  special  interest  at 
a  later  date  as  separating  the  slave  states  from 
the  free  states  (see  also  Dixie). 
Mason  and  Slidell,  see  Trent  Case. 
Masons'  Marks,  see  Freemasons. 

Masorafh]  or  MASSORA[H],  the  body  of  tra- 
ditional information  relating  to  the  text  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  compiled  by  Jewish  scholars 
in  the  tenth  and  preceding  centuries;  or  the 
collection  of  critical  notes  in  which  this  in- 
formation is  preserved.  Also  occasionally 
used  as  a  collective  name  for  the  scholars 
(Masoretes)  whose  opinions  are  embodied  in 
the  Masora,  and  to  whom  is  ascribed  the 
constitution  of  the  present  Hebrew  text  and 
the  addition  of  the  vowel  points,  &c. 

Masques,  see  Masks. 

Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  see  Bar- 
tholomew (Massacre  of  St.). 

Massey,  BARTLE,  a  character  in  George 
Eliot's  'Adam  Bede'  (q.v.). 

Massillon,  JEAN  BAPTISTS  (1663-1742),  a 
celebrated  French  divine  and  court  preacher 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 

MASSINGER,  PHILIP  (1583-1640),  was 
born  at  Salisbury,  and  educated  at  St.  Alban 
Hall,  Oxford.  His  father  had  been  in  the 
service  of  the  Herbert  family,  to  members  of 
which  the  poet  addressed  various  dedications 
and  other  pieces.  He  soon  became  a  famous 
playwright,  collaborating  frequently  with 
Fletcher,  and  also  with  Nathan  Field, 
Daborne  and  Dekker.  He  was  buried  at  St. 
Saviour's,  Southwark. 

The  principal  surviving  plays  entirely 
written  by  him  are  'The  Duke  of  Milan' 
(q.v.,  1623),  'The  Unnatural  Combat'  (1639), 
'The  Bondman'  (1624),  'The  Renegade' 
(1630),  'The  Parliament  of  Love'  (licensed, 
1624),  'A  New  Way  to  pay  Old  Debts*  (q.v., 
1633),  'The  Roman  Actor*  (q.v.,  1629),  'The 
Maid  of  Honour*  (q.v.,  1632),  'The  Picture' 
(1630),  'The  Great  Duke  of  Florence'  (q.v., 
1636),  'The  Emperor  of  the  East'  (1632),  'Be- 
lieve as  you  list'  ('Stationers'  Register*, 


[502] 


MASSON 

1653),  "The  City  Madam'  (q.v.,  1658),  'The 
Guardian*  (1655),  and  'The  Bashful  Lover, 
(1655).  In  collaboration  with  Fletcher  he 
wrote  eThe  False  One',  'The  Elder  Brother', 
and  'The  Custom  of  the  Country*.  Some 
see  his  hand  also  in  portions  of  'Henry  VIII' 
and  of  'Two  Noble  Kinsmen*  (q.v.,  1634), 
in  both  of  which  a  share  is  attributed  to 
Shakespeare.  In  collaboration  with  Dekker 
he  wrote  'The  Virgin  Martyr*  (q.v.,  1622); 
and  with  Field  'The  Fatal  Dowry'  (q.v., 
1632).  His  principal  field  was  the  romantic 
drama,  of  which  his  best  examples  are 
perhaps  'The  Duke  of  Milan',  'The  Great 
Duke  of  Florence',  and  'The  Fatal  Dowry' 
(qq.v.).  His  best-known  work  is  the  fine 
comedy  *A  New  Way  to  pay  Old  Debts' 
(q.v.).  His  political  views  in  favour  of  the 
popular  party,  and  his  religious  views  in 
sympathy  with  the  Church  of  Rome,  are 
freely  indicated  in  his  plays;  in  'The  Bond- 
man' he  denounced  Buckingham  under  the 
guise  of  Gisco. 

MASSON,  DAVID  (1822-1907),  educated 
at  Aberdeen  University,  was  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  English  literature  at  Edinburgh 
University,  1865-95.  His  most  important 
published  work  was  his  standard  'Life  of 
Milton*  (1859-80).  He  started  'Macmillan's 
Magazine'  in  1859  and  edited  it  till  1867. 
His  voluminous  writings  include  biographies 
of  Drummond  of  Hawthornden  (1873)  and 
De  Quincey  (1878),  and  editions  of  Milton, 
Goldsmith,  and  De  Quincey. 

Massorah,  MASSORETE,  see  Masorah. 

Master  Humphrey's  Clock,  the  frame- 
work, soon  abandoned,  in  which  Dickens  set 
his  novels  'The  Old  Curiosity  Shop'  and 
'Barnaby  Rudge*  (qq.v.). 

Master  ofBattantrae,  The,  a  novel  by  R.  L. 
Stevenson  (q.v.),  published  in  1889. 

It  is  the  story  of  the  lifelong  feud  between 
the  Master  of  Ballantrae,  violent  and  un- 
scrupulous, and  his  younger  brother  Henry, 
at  the  outset  a  quiet,  honest  fellow.  The  Master 
joins  Prince  Charles  Edward  in  the  '45, 
disappears  after  Culloden,  and  is  believed 
dead.  After  many  adventures  the  Master 
returns,  with  a  price  on  his  head,  to  find 
that  Henry  has  succeeded  to  his  place  and  to 
the  woman  whom  he  was  to  have  married. 
Embittered  by  misfortune,  he  enters  on  a 
course  of  persecution,  first  in  Scotland,  then 
America,  which  finally  drives  Henry  mad, 
and  brings  both  brothers  to  an  untimely  grave. 

Master  of  the  Sentences,  Peter  Lombard 
(q.v.). 

MASTERS,  EDGAR  LEE  (1869-  ), 
American  poet  and  novelist.  His  best- 
known  work,  'The  Spoon  River  Anthology* 
(1916),  a  series  of  confessions  and  revelations 
from  beyond  the  grave  by  the  former  in- 
habitants of  a  Middle  Western  village. 

Matamoro  (Spanish,  'slayer  of  Moors1),  the 
Bobadil  of  Spanish  comedy. 


MAUD 

Matchless  Orinda,  THE,  see  Philips  (£".). 
Materialism,  in  philosophy,  the  opinion 
that  nothing  exists  except  matter  and  its 
movements  and  modifications;  also,  in  a 
more  limited  sense,  the  opinion  that  the 
phenomena  of  consciousness  and  will  are 
wholly  due  to  the  operation  of  material 
agencies. 

MATHER,  COTTON(i663-i728),  Presby- 
terian divine  of  Boston,  America,  a  narrow, 
self-righteous  minister  and  voluminous  writer, 
one  of  the  best-known  examples  of  the 
tyranny  exercised  in  his  time  by  the  Puritan 
ministers  of  New  England. 

Mathias,  the  chief  character  in  'The  Bells* 
(a  dramatization  of  Ware's  'The  Polish  Jew'), 
a  respected  burgomaster  haunted  by  the 
consciousness  of  a  murder  that  he  has  com- 
mitted ;  one  of  Sir  H.  Irving's  most  success- 
ful parts. 

MATHIAS,  THOMAS  JAMES  (1754?- 
1835),  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
became  librarian  at  Buckingham  Palace.  In 
1794  he  published  his  'Pursuits  of  Literature', 
a  vigorous  satire  on  contemporary  authors, 
which  went  through  sixteen  editions  and 
provoked  many  replies. 

Matisse,  HENRI,  see  Post-Impressionism. 

Matsya,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the  incarna- 
tion of  Vishnu  (q.v.)  as  a  fish. 

MATTHEW  PARIS,  see  Paris  (M.). 
Matthew's  Bible,  see  Bible  (The  English). 

Matthews,  Miss,  a  character  in  Fielding's 
'Amelia'  (q.v.). 

Matty  Jenkyns,  Miss,  the  principal  charac- 
ter in  Mrs.  Gaskell's  'Cranford'  (q.v.). 

MATURIN,  CHARLES  ROBERT  (1782- 
1824), f  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
took  orders  and  for  a  time  kept  a  school. 
With  Mrs.  Radcliffe  and  M.  G.  Lewis  (q.v.) 
he  formed  the  group  of  principal  writers  of 
terror  or  mystery  novels  of  the  early  igth 
cent.  He  published  'The  Fatal  Revenge,  or 
the  Family  of  Montorio'  in  1807,  'The  Wild 
Irish  Boy'  in  1808,  and  'The  Milesian  Chief 
in  1811.  In  1816  his  tragedy  'Bertram*  was 
produced  by  Kean  at  Drury  Lane,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Scott  and  Byron,  with 
great  success.  He  then  returned  to  novels, 
publishing  'Women,  or  Pour  et  Contre*  (a 
powerful  story,  turning  on  the  rivalry  of  a 
mother  and  daughter  for  the  love  of  the  same 
man)  in  1818,  and  his  masterpiece,  'Melmoth 
the  Wanderer'  (q.v.),  in  1820,  His  last  novel, 
'The  Albigenses',  was  published  in  1824. 
Maturin's  other  tragedies,  'Manuel*  (1817) 
and  'Fredolfo'  (1819),  were  failures. 
Maud,  a  poem  by  A.  Tennyson  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1855. 

The  poem  is  a  monodrama  in  sections  of 
different  metres,  in  which  the  narrator,  a  man 
of  morbid  and  unbalanced  temperament, 
gives  voice  to  his  feelings  at  various  stages 


[503] 


MAUGHAM 

of  the  story:  first  lamenting  the  mysterious 
death  of  his  father,  and  his  family's  ruin  by  the 
contrivance  of  the  old  lord  of  the  Hall ;  then 
expressing  the  gradual  development  of  his 
love  for  Maud,  the  old  lord's  daughter,  in 
spite  of  the  scorn  of  her  brother  and  the 
rivalry  of  a  'new-made  lord',  'first  of  his  noble 
line5;  his  triumph  at  winning  the  love  of 
Maud;  the  fatal  encounter  with  the  brother; 
his  own  flight  abroad  and  the  madness  that 
follows  the  blighting  of  his  hopes;  and  his 
final  reawakening  to  life  in  the  service  of 
his  country.  The  poem  contains  several  of 
Tennyson's  best  love-lyrics  ('I  have  led  her 
home*,  'Come  into  the  garden,  Maud',  &c.) ; 
but  some  of  the  opinions  expressed  or  implied 
in  it,  notably  the  approval  of  war  in  certain 
circumstances,  were  distasteful  to  many. 

MAUGHAM,  WILLIAM  SOMERSET 
(1874-  ),  author,  among  whose  chief 
works  are:  'Liza  of  Lambeth'  (1897),  'Of 
Human  Bondage*  (1916),  'The  Moon  and 
Sixpence*  (1919),  'Cakes  and  Ale'  (1930),  all 
novels;  'A  Man  of  Honour'  (1904),  'Lady 
Frederick'  (1907),  'Home  and  Beauty*  (1909), 
'Our  Betters'  (1923),  'The  Circle'  (1921), 
'East  of  Suez*  (1923),  plays;  'On  a  Chinese 
Screen3  (1923),  'The  Trembling  of  a  Leaf 
(1921),  'Ashenden'  (1928),  short  stories. 
Several  of  his  short  stories  have  been 
dramatized. 

Maugis,  a  hero  of  the  Charlemagne  ro- 
mances, the  French  equivalent  of  Malagigi 
(q.v.),  a  wizard  who  aids  the  emperor's 
cause. 

Maugrabin,  HAYRADDIN,  .a  character  in 
Scott's  'Quentin  Durward' (q.v.).  Maugrabin 
is  an  Arabic  word  meaning  'man  of  the  West', 
an  African  Moor. 

Maul,  in  Pt.  II  of  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's  Pro- 
gress* (q»v.),  a  giant  slain  by  Mr.  Great- 
heart. 

Maule,  MATTHEW,  a  character  in  Haw- 
thorne's 'House  of  the  Seven.  Gables'  (q.v.). 
Matraiet,  see  Mammet. 

Maundy,  from  Latin  mandatum,  a  command- 
ment, the  ceremony  of  washing  the  feet  of  a 
number  of  poor  people,  performed  by  royal 
or  other  eminent  persons,  or  ecclesiastics,  on 
the  Thursday  before  Easter,  and  commonly 
followed  by  the  distribution  of  clothing,  food, 
or  money.  It  was  instituted  in  commemora- 
tion of  Christ's  washing  the  Apostles*  feet 
at  the  Last  Supper* 

MAUPASSAKT,  GUY  DE  (1850-93), 
French  novelist  of  the  naturalistic  school, 
a  master  of  the  short  story,  and  a  disciple 
of  Gustave  Flaubert  (q.v.).  His  most  remark- 
able work  is  the  short  story  'Boule  de  Suif , 
an  audacious  tale  of  an  episode  in  the 
Franco-German  war.  His  <Une  Vie*  (1883), 
'Bel  Ami'  (1885),  'Pierre  et  Jean'  (1888),  are 
notable  works,  marred  by  a  certain  morbidity* 
Mauretania,  in  ancient  geography,  the 
western  part  of  North  Africa,  having  Nu- 


MAUSOLUS 

midia  on  the  east,  and  Gaetulia  on  the  south ; 
the  country  of  the  Mauri  or  Moors.  It  be- 
came a  Roman  province  in  A.D.  40. 

MAURICE,  JOHN  FREDERICK  DENI- 
SON  (1805-72),  the  son  of  a  Unitarian 
minister,  and  educated  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge. He  took  orders  in  the  Church  of 
England  and  felt  himself  called  to  the  pur- 
suit of  religious  unity.  The  basis  of  his 
theological  belief  was  the  infinite  love  of  God 
for  all  his  creatures,  and  he  attacked  any 
theological  doctrines  that  appeared  to  him  to 
conflict  with  this.  He  declared  himself  a 
Christian  socialist,  believing  that  'a  true 
socialism  is  the  necessary  result  of  a  sound 
Christianity*.  He  was  chaplain  at  Guy's 
Hospital,  London,  1836-46,  and  subsequently 
held  other  incumbencies.  He  was  professor 
of  English  literature  and  history  at  King's 
College,  London,  1840-53,  and  was  dis- 
missed in  the  latter  year  ^  because  of  his 
unorthodosy  on  the  subject  of  Eternal 
Punishment.  He  was  appointed  professor 
of  moral  philosophy  at  Cambridge  in  1866. 
His  religious  views  are  principally  contained 
in  his  'The  Religions  of  the  World*  (1847) 
and  'Theological  Essays'  (1853).  A  treatise 
by  him  on  'Moral  and  Metaphysical  Philo- 
sophy*, in  the  main  an  historical  account  of 
early  thought,  appeared  in  1847  in  the  'En- 
cyclopaedia Metropolitana'.  One  of  his  most 
popular  works,  'The  Kingdom  of  Christ',  a 
plea  for  religious  unity,  appeared  in  1838. 
Tennyson's  lyric  to  him  is  well  known* 

Maurists,  a  congregation  of  French  Bene- 
dictine monks,  named  after  St.  Maurus,  the 
legendary  founder  of  the  Benedictine  rule  in 
France.  The  Maurist  congregation  was 
established  in  1618  with  a  view  to  the  reform 
of  the  Benedictine  order.  But  it  became 
famous  for  the  learning  and  literary  industry 
of  its  members  even  more  than  for  their 
monastic  zeal.  Under  the  impulse  of  its  first 
superior-general,  Dom  Tarisse,  it  carried  put 
an  immense  amount  of  historical  and  critical 
work,  in  connexion  with  patristic  and  biblical 
literature,  monastic  and  ecclesiastical  history, 
collections  of  documents,  palaeography,  and 
other  branches  of  technical  erudition.  Its 
chief  house  was  at  St.  Germain-des-Pres  near 
Paris. 

MAUROIS,  ANDR£  (1885-  ),  French 
novelist,  biographer,  and  essayist,  author  of 
*Les  Silences  du  Colonel  Bramble'  (1918); 
'Ariel'  (Shelley,  1923) ;  'La  Vie  de  Disraeli' 
(1927);  'CHmats'  (novel),  'Barren*  (1930), 
'Lyautey'  (193 1) ;  'LePeseurdes  Ames'  (193 1). 

MAURRAS,  CHARLES  (1868-  ), 
French  journalist,  critic,  and  polemical 
writer;  a  Catholic  Royalist. 

Mause  Headrigg,  in  Scott's  'Old  Mortality* 
(q.v.),  the  zealous  covenanting  mother  of 
Cuddie,  the  ploughman. 

Mausplus,  a  king  of  Caria  and  husband  of 
Artemisia  (q.v.),  who  erected  to  his  memory 


MAWWORM 

a  magnificent  monument  called  the  MAUSO- 
LEUM, which  was  accounted  one  of  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  world. 
Mawworm,  see  Bicker  staff e. 
MAX  MtJLLBR,  FRIEDRICH  (1823- 
1900),  son  of  the  German  poet  Wilhelm 
Miiller,  was  born  at  Dessau  and  educated  at 
Leipzig.  He  was  naturalized  a  British  sub- 
ject under  the  name  of  Frederick  Max- 
Miiller.  He  came  to  England  in  1846  and 
was  commissioned  by  the  directors  of  the  East 
India  Company  to  bring  out  an  edition  of  the 
Sanskrit  'Rigveda'  (see  Veda),  which  was 
published  in  1 849-73  •  He  settled  at  Oxford  in 
1848  and  was  Taylorian  professor  of  modern 
European  languages  from  1854  to  1868,  and 
one  of  the  curators  of  the  Bodleian  Library, 
1856-63  and  1881-94.  Max  Miiller  delivered 
two  remarkable  courses  of  lectures  on  'The 
Science  of  Languages'  at  the  Royal  Institution 
in  1861-4,  and  was  professor  of  comparative 
philology  at  Oxford  from  1868  till  his  death, 
though  he  retired  from  the  active  duties  of 
the  chair  in  1875.  He  devoted  much  atten- 
tion to  comparative  mythology  and  the  com- 
parative study  of  religions.  He  edited,  from 
1875,  the  'Sacred  Books  of  the  East',  a  series 
of  English  translations  of  the  oriental  religious 
classics.  A  collected  edition  of  Max  MuHer's 
essays,  entitled  'Chips  from  a  German  Work- 
shop', appeared  in  1867-75.  A  full  edition  of 
his  works,  which  dealt  with  the  great  variety 
of  subjects  indicated  above,  and  others,  began 
to  appear  in  1898. 

Maximin,  a  character  in  Dryden's  'Tyrannic 
Love*  (q.v.). 

MAXWELL,  JAMES  CLERK-,  see  Clerk- 
Maxwell. 

MAXWELL,  WILLIAM  BABINGTON 
^1876-  ),  novelist,  whose  chief  works 
are:  'The  Ragged  Messenger'  (1904),  'Vivien* 
(iQ05)>  'The  Guarded  Flame*  (1906),  'In 
Cotton  Wool'  (1912),  'We  Forget  because  we 
Must'  (1928). 

MAY,  THOMAS  (1595-1650),  educated  at 
Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  adopted 
the  parliamentary  cause  and  was  secretary  for 
the  parliament  (1646).  He  was  author  of  two 
narrative  poems  on  the  reigns  of  Edward  III 
and  Henry  II,  and  of  a  'History  of  the  Long 
Parliament*  (i  647).  He  also  wrote  translations 
of  the  'Georgics'  and  of  Lucan's  'Pharsalia 
(which  were  praised  by  Ben  Jonson),  two 
comedies,  'The  Heir*  and  'The  Old  Couple* 
(c.  1620),  and  tragedies  on  classical  subjects 
('Antigone';  'Cleopatra*,  1626;  'Julia  Agrip- 
pina*,  1628).  Marvell  speaks  of  his  'most  ser- 
vile wit  and  mercenary  pen*. 
MAY,  SIR  THOMAS  ERSKINE,  first 
Baron  Farnborough  (1815-86),  clerk  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  1871-86,  was  author  of 
the  standard  work,  'The  Rules,  Orders  and 
Proceedings  of  the  House  of  Commons' 
(1854),  and  of  'The  Constitutional  History  of 
England  since  the  accession  of  George  III* 
(1861-3),  a  continuation  of  Hallam's  treatise. 


MAYOR  OF  GARRATT 
Maya,  the  name  of  an  ancient  race  of  Mexi- 
can and  Central  American  Indians,  noted  for 
their  architecture,  stone-carving,  pottery,  and 
textiles.  A  feature  of  their  architecture  was 
the  stepped  pyramidal  mound ;  the  arch  was 
unknown  to  them.  The  Maya  had  picto- 
graphic  records-  of  their  history.  Their  art, 
which  is  of  uncertain  date,  came  to  an  end 
with  the  Spanish  conquest. 

May  Day ,  the  i  st  of  May,  celebrated  with  gar- 
lands and  dancing,  the  choice  of  a  queen  of  the 
May  (gaily  dressed  and  crowned  with  flowers), 
the  erection  of  a  May-pole  (painted  with  spiral 
stripes  and  decked  with  flowers)  to  dance 
round,  and  so  forth.  Perhaps  derived  from 
the  Roman  Floralia.  The  MAY-GAME  was  a 
set  performance  in  the  May-day  festivities,  in 
which  Robin  Hood  and  Maid  Marian  figured. 
May  Day  was  adopted  in  1889  as  the  inter- 
national Labour  holiday. 
Mayfair,  a  district  north  of  Piccadilly,  Lon- 
don, so  called  from  an  annual  fair  held  there 
in  the  month  of  May  from  Stuart  times  until 
the  reign  of  George  III  (temporarily  sup- 
pressed in  1708).  Mayfair  was,  from  about 
1800  to  1914,  the  'smart'  quarter  of  London. 
It  is  now  losing  its  exclusive  character,  and 
business  premises  begin  to  appear  in  its 
greatest  squares. 

Mayflower,  The,  the  ship  in  which  the  Pil- 
grim Fathers  sailed  from  Southampton  in 
1620  to  Cape  Cod,  Massachusetts,  where 
they  founded  New  Plymouth. 
May- game,  see  May  Day. 
Maylie,  MRS.   and   HARRY,   characters  in 
Dickens's  'Oliver  Twist'  (q.v.). 

Mayor  of  Casterbridge,   The,  a  novel  by 
Hardy  (q.v.),  published  in  1886. 

Michael  Henchard,  a  hay-tresser,  when 
drunk  at  a  fair,  sells  his  wife  and  child  for  five 
guineas  to  a  sailor,  Newson.  Returning  to 
his  senses  he  takes  a  solemn  vow  not  to  touch 
intoxicants  for  twenty  years.  By  his  energy 
he  becomes  rich,  respected,  and  the  mayor  of 
Casterbridge  (Dorchester).  After  eighteen 
years  his  wife  returns,  Newson  being  then 
supposed  dead,  and  is  reunited  to  her  hus- 
band; she  brings  with  her  her  daughter, 
Elizabeth-Jane,  and  Henchard  is  led  to 
believe  that  Elizabeth- Jane  is  his  child, 
whereas  she  is  Newson's.  Trouble  soon 
comes,  owing  to  the  wrong-headedness  of 
Henchard.  He  quarrels  with  his  capable 
assistant  in  his  corn  business,  Donald  Farfrae. 
Mrs.  Henchard  dies,  and  Henchard  learns 
the  truth  about  the  girl.  Farfrae  becomes 
Henchard *s  successful  rival  in  business  and  in 
love,  and  marries  the  woman  that  Henchard 
had  hoped  to  win.  Henchard  is  ruined,  the 
story  of  the  sale  of  his  wife  is  revealed,  and  he 
takes  to  drink.  His  stepdaughter  is  his  only 
comfort,  and  Newson  returns  and  claims  her. 
Henchard  becomes  lonelier  and  more  deso- 
late, and  dies  wretchedly  in  a  hut  on  Egdon 
Heath. 
Mayor  of  Garratt,  see  Ganratt. 


[505] 


MAYOR  OF  LONDON 

Mayor  of  London,  LORD  :  the  first  mayor  of 
London  on  record  is  Henry  FitzAylwin 
(1189),  the  appointment  replacing  that  of 
sheriff  or  portreeve,  whom  Henry  I  had 
allowed  the  citizens  to  elect.  But  the  mayor 
was  still  occasionally  appointed  by  the  king, 
for  instance  Richard  Whittington  by  Richard 
II.  The  title  of  'Lord  Mayor'  became  current 
in  Richard  Ill's  reign  (Loftie). 

Mayor  of  the  Palace,  the  title  borne  by  the 
steward  of  the  royal  household  and  principal 
political  agent  of  the  Merovingian  (q.v.) 
kings  of  France.  The  mayors  of  the  palace 
gradually  became  the  real  rulers  of  the  coun- 
try, and  finally,  in  the  person  of  Pepin  the 
Short,  ascended  the  throne. 
Maypole  in  the  Strand,  THE,  stood  near 
the  present  church  of  St.  Mary  le  Strand. 
Aubrey  says  that  at  the  restoration  maypoles 
were  set  up  at  every  crossway,  cthe  most  pro- 
digious one  for  height*  'at  the  Strand  near 
Drury  Lane*.  It  was  broken  by  a  high  wind 
in  1673.  Strype  says  it  was  taken  down  and 
removed  to  Wansted  in  Essex,  where  it  served 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Pound  for  raising  a  telescope. 

Mazarin,  JULES  (1602-61),  of  an  ancient 
Sicilian  family,  was  sent  as  papal  legate  to 
Paris  in  1 634,  attracted  the  notice  of  Richelieu, 
entered  the  French  service,  and  was  made  a 
cardinal  in  1641.  He  succeeded  Richelieu  as 
prime  minister,  was  retained  in  that  office  by 
the  queen  regent  (Anne  of  Austria)  on  the 
death  of  Louis  XIII,  and  governed  France 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  His  in- 
ternal administration  provoked  the  civil  wars 
of  the  Fronde  (q.v.).  He  founded  a  splendid 
library  in  Paris,  the  BibKoMque  Mazarine. 
Mazarin  Bible,  THE,  the  first  printed  bible, 
and  the  first  important  book  to  be  printed 
with  movable  type.  It  was  printed  not  later 
than  1456,  and  is  generally  attributed  to 
Gutenberg  (q.v.) — whence  it  is  often  spoken 
of  as  the  Gutenberg  Bible — or  to  his  succes- 
sors, Fust  (q.v.)  and  Schoffer.  It  is  called  the 
'Mazarin  Bible*  because  the  first  known  copy 
was  discovered  in  the  Mazarine  Library  (see 
preceding  entry)  in^  Paris.  It  is  also  known 
as  the  'Forty-two  Line  Bible*  from  the  num- 
ber of  lines  it  contains  to  the  column, 
Mazdeism  or  MAZDAISM,  the  ancient  Per- 
sian religion  as  taught  in  the  Avesta;  Zoro- 
astrianism  (q.v.). 

Mazeppa,  a  poem  by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.), 
published  in  1819. 

The  poem  is  founded  on  a  passage  in 
Voltaire's  'Charles  XII*.  Ivan  Stepanovich 
Mazeppa,  a  Polish  nobleman,  born  about 
1645,  became  in  later  life  hetman  (military 
commander)  of  the  Eastern  Ukraine.  He 
abandoned  his  allegiance  to  Peter  the  Great 
and  fought  on  the  side  of  Charles  XII  of 
Sweden  at  the  battle  of  Pultowa  (1709). 
While  the  king  and  his  band  rest  under  an 
oak  after  their  defeat,  Mazeppa  tells  a  tale  of 
his  early  life,  when  he  was  a  page  to  Casimir 
V,  king  of  Poland.  Being  detected  in  an 


MEASURE  FOR  MEASURE 

intrigue  with  the  wife  of  a  local  magnate,  he 
had  been  bound  naked  on  the  back  of  a  wild 
horse  of  the  Ukraine,  which  was  then  loosed 
and  lashed  into  madness.  The  horse  galloped 
off,  through  forest  and  river,  carrying  his  torn 
and  fainting  rider,  never  stopping  till  he 
reached  the  plains  of  the  Ukraine,  where  he 
fell  dead.  Mazeppa,  himself  at  the  point  of 
death,  was  rescued  by  peasants. 

Mazzini,  GIUSEPPE  (i8o5?~72),  Italian 
patriot  and  revolutionary  agitator,  born  at 
Genoa,  was  imprisoned  in  1830  on  a  charge 
of  political  conspiracy,  and  subsequently 
resided  in  France  and  later  in  London,  where 
he  actively  plotted  for  the  liberation  of  Italy 
and  its  union  under  a  republican  government. 
He  returned  to  Rome  during  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  in  1848,  but  was  once 
more  driven  into  exile.  He  fomented  risings 
in  Italian  cities,  but  his  activities  impeded 
rather  than  assisted  the  policy  of  Cavour 
(q.v.)  and  contributed  little  directly  to  the 
liberation.  Mazzini  remained  a  republican 
and  refused  allegiance  to  Victor  Emmanuel. 
M.B.  Waistcoat,  THE:  '[the  undivided 
clerical  waistcoat]  was  deemed  so  distinctly 
Popish,  that  it  acquired  the  nickname  of  cThe 
Mark  of  the  Beast*  and  . . .  among  the  tailors 
. .  .  was  familiarly  known  as  "the  M.B.  waist- 
coat** '  (W.  E.  Gladstone  in  'Contemporary 
Review',  Oct.  1874). 

Meagles,  MR.,  MRS.,  and  their  daughter 
PET,  characters  in  Dickens's  'Little  Dorrit* 
(q.v.). 

Meal-tub  Plot,  THE,  the  pretended  con- 
spiracy of  the  duke  of  Monmouth  in  1679, 
the  papers  of  which  were  said  to  be  kept  in  a 
meal-tub. 

Meander,  see  Maeander. 

Measure  for  Measure,  a  comedy  by  Shake- 
speare (q.v.),  probably  first  acted  in  1640,  but 
not  printed  till  the  folio  of  1623.  The  plot  is 
taken  from  Cinthio  (translated  by  Whetstone). 
The  duke  of  Vienna,  on  the  pretext  of  a 
journey  to  Poland,  hands  over  the  govern- 
ment to  Angelo,  that  he  may  escape  the 
odium  of  enforcing  laws  against  unchastity 
that  have  long  been  disregarded.  Angelo  at 
once  sentences  to  death  Claudio  as  guilty  of 
seduction.  Claudio  sends  word  of  his  position 
to  his  sister  Isabella,  a  novice,  and  begs  her 
to  intercede  with  Angelo.  Isabella's  prayers 
fail  to  win  her  brother's  pardon,  but  her 
beauty  awakens  Angelo's  passion,  and,  at  a 
second  interview,  he  offers  her  her  brother's 
life  if  she  will  sacrifice  to  him  her  honour. 
Isabella  indignantly  refuses ;  and  there  follows 
the  famous  scene  in  the  prison,  when  Isabella 
tells  her  brother  of  Angelo's  offer,  and  he, 
momentarily  weakening,  pleads  with  her  for 
his  life.  Meanwhile  the  duke,  who  has  not  left 
Vienna,  but  assumed  the  disguise  of  a  friar, 
and  thus  learnt  the  infamous  conduct  of 
Angelo,  contrives  the  saving  of  Claudio  as 
follows.  He  bids  Isabella  consent  to  go  to 
Angelo's  house  at  midnight,  and  obtains  that 


[506] 


MEAUX 

Mariana,  who  had  been  betrothed  to  Angelo 
and  loves  him,  but  had  been  cast  off  by  him, 
shall  go  there  in  Isabella's  place.  The  ruse  is 
successful;  but  none  the  less  Angelo  orders 
Claudio's  execution  at  dawn.  The  pro- 
vost of  the  prison  disobeys.  The  duke, 
laying  aside  his  friar's  robes  and  simulating 
an  unexpected  return  to  Vienna,  hears  the 
complaint  of  Isabella  and  the  suit  of  Mariana, 
and  confutes  Angelo,  who  denies  their 
stories.  Angelo  is  pardoned  at  the  instance 
of  Mariana  and  Isabella,  and  married  to  the 
former;  and  the  duke  reveals  his  love  for 
Isabella.  The  play  contains  the  beautiful 
song,  'Take,  O  take  those  lips  away'. 

Meaux,  THE  BISHOP  OF,  Bossuet  (q.v.). 
Mecca,  in  Arabia,  the  birthplace  of  Mo- 
hammed (q.v.),  and  the  chief  place  of  pil- 
grimage of  the  Moslems. 

Mechitarists,  see  Mekhitarists. 

Medal,  The,  a  satirical  poem  by  Dryden 
(q.v.),  published  in  1682. 

The  grand  jury  of  Middlesex  having 
thrown  out  the  bill  for  high  treason  against 
the  earl  of  Shaftesbury  in  1681,  the  triumph 
of  the  Whigs  was  celebrated  by  the  striking 
of  a  medal  with  the  legend  'Laetamur', 
Thereupon  Dryden  wrote  this  poem.  It  is  a 
bitter  attack  on  Shaftesbury,  but  contains 
none  of  the  scurrilities  to  be  found  in 
'Absalom  and  AchitopheP  (q.v.).  Instead  it 
ridicules  the  policy  of  demagogic  appeal  to 
the  people.  It  was  prefaced  by  a  prose 
'Epistle  to  the  Whigs'. 

These  attacks  called  forth  a  number  of 
replies,  including  the  'Medal  of  John  Bayes* 
by  Shadwell  (q.v.),  and  'The  Medal  Revers'd' 
by  Samuel  Pordage. 

Medea,  a  celebrated  magician,  daughter  of 
Aeetes,  king  of  Colchis.  When  Jason  (q.v.) 
came  to  Colchis  in  quest  of  the  golden  fleece, 
he  and  Medea  fell  in  love  and  were  be- 
trothed. After  Jason  had  with  her  help 
overcome  all  the  difficulties  placed  by  Aeetes 
in  his  way,  Jason  and  Medea  embarked  to 
return  to  Greece ;  and  to  stop  the  pursuit  of 
her  father,  Medea  tore  to  pieces  her  brother 
Absyrtus  and  left  his  mangled  limbs  on  the 
way  that  Aeetes  would  pass.  On  their  arrival 
at  lolchos,  Medea  restored  Jason's  father 
Aeson  to  youth  by  her  magic.  The  daughters 
of  Pelias,  king  of  lolchos,  were  also  desirous 
to  see  their  father  rejuvenated,  and  en- 
couraged by  Medea,  who  wished  to  revenge 
the  injuries  that  her  husband's  family  had 
suffered  from  Pelias,  they  killed  Pelias  and 
boiled  his  flesh  in  a  cauldron;  but  Medea  re- 
fused to  restore  him.  Driven  in  consequence 
from  lolchos,  Jason  and  Medea  fled  to  Corinth, 
where  Jason  deserted  her  for  Glauce,  the 
daughter  of  the  king.  Medea  avenged  herself 
by  killing  the  two  children  she  had  had  by 
Jason  and  destroying  Glauce.  She  then 
married  Aegeus,  the  father  of  Theseus, 
plotted  to  poison  the  latter  for  fear  of  his  in- 
fluence, and  finally  escaped  to  Asia.  One  of 


MEG  MERRILIES 

the  tragedies  of  Euripides  has  Medea  for 
its  subject. 

Medes,  THE,  the  earliest  Iranian  inhabitants 
of  Persia.  The  Law  of  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians is  proverbially  immutable  (Dan.  vi.  8). 
Medici,  THE,  the  family  that  were  rulers  of 
Florence  from  1434  and  grand  dukes  of 
Tuscany  from  1569  to  1737.  The  earlier 
Medici  were  great  patrons  of  art  and  litera- 
ture, chief  among  them  Cosimo  (1389-1464) 
and  Lorenzo  'The  Magnificent'  (c.  1449-92), 
founders  of  the  Medicean  or  Laurentian 
Library  (q.v.).  The  latter,  himself  a  poet, 
was  father  of  Pope  Leo  X  (Giovanni  de* 
Medici),  a  learned  patron  of  letters,  whose 
interests  were  secular  rather  than  spiritual. 
Clement  VII  also  belonged  to  this  family. 
Catarina  de'  Medici  became  queen  of  France 
as  consort  of  Henri  II)  in  1547. 
Medina,  in  Arabia,  the  second  great  city  of 
the  Moslems,  to  which  Mohammed  went  at 
the  Flight  or  Hegira  (q.v.),  and  where  he  died 
and  was  buried. 

Medina,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  n.  ii, 
represents  the  golden  mean,  her  sisters  Elissa 
and  Perissa  representing  the  extremes  of 
sensibility. 

Mediolanum,  in  imprints,  Milan. 
Medmenham  Abbey,  a  ruined  Cistercian 
abbey  on  the  bank  of  the  Thames  near  Marlow, 
rebuilt  as  a  residence  and  notorious  in  the 
1 8th  cent,  as  the  meeting-place  of  a  convivial 
club  known  as  the  Franciscans  or  the  Hell- 
fire  Club.  This  was  founded  by  Sir  Francis 
Dashwood,  and  Wilkes  and  Bubb  Dodington 
were  among  its  members.  Its  motto  'Fay  ce 
que  voudras*  was  adopted  from  that  of 
Rabelais 's  Abbey  of  Thelema.  There  is  a  good 
deal  about  it  in  Johnstone's  'Chrysal,  or  the 
Adventures  of  a  Guinea'  (HI.  ii,  c.  17  et  seq.). 
M£doc,  see  Claret. 

Medora,  a  character  in  Byron's  'The  Cor- 
sair' (q.v.). 

Medoro,  in  the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (q.v.),  a 
young  Moor  of  humble  birth,  with  whom 
Angelica  (q.v.)  falls  in  love  and  whom  she 
marries,  thereby  causing  the  despair  and  mad- 
ness of  Orlando. 

Medusa,  one  of  the  three  Gorgons(q.v.),  and 
the  only  one  that  was  mortal.  According  to 
Ovid,  she  incurred  the  resentment  of  Athene 
by  granting  her  favours  to  Poseidon  in  the 
temple  of  the  goddess,  who  changed  the  locks 
that  Poseidon  admired  into  serpents.  For  her 
destruction  by  Perseus,  see  under  the  name  of 
the  latter. 

MEDWALL,  HENRY,  see  Fulgens  and 
Lucrece. 

Meg  Dods,  in  Scott's  'St.  Ronan's  Well' 
(q.v.),  the  landlady  of  the  old  inn  at  St. 
Ronan's. 

Meg  Merrilies,  the  old  gipsy  woman  in 
Scott's  'Guy  Mannering'  (q.v.).  She  is  the 
subject  of  a  poem  by  Keats,  'Old  Meg  she 
was  a  gipsy*. 


[507] 


MEG  MURDOCKSON 

Meg  Murdockson,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'The  Heart  of  Midlothian'  (q.v.). 
Meg  of  Westminster,  LONG,  the  subject  of 
ballads  and  pamphlets  that  appeared  in  1582, 
1590,  and  1594,  and  referred  to  in  Middleton 
and  Dekker's  'Roaring  Girl'  (q.v.),  and  by 
Nash,  Harvey,  and  other  authors  of  the 
period.  Her  biography  appeared  in  163 5.  She 
was  a  Lancashire  girl  who  came  to  London, 
served  in  an  alehouse,  included  among  her 
acquaintance  Will  Sommers,  Henry  VIIFs 
fool,  and  Skelton,  assumed  man's  clothes  and 
went  to  the  wars,  married  a  soldier  and  set  up 
a  public  house  at  Islington. 
Megaera,  one  of  the  Furies  (q.v,). 
Megaric,  the  name  of  a  school  of  philosophy 
founded  about  400  B.C.  by  Eucleides  of 
Megara,  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  noted  for  its 
study  of  dialectics  and  its  invention  of  logical 
fallacies  or  puzzles  (Jebb). 
Megatherium,  THE,  a  club  mentioned  in 
several  of  Thackeray's  novels,  e.g.  'The  New- 
comes'  (v),  'Philip'  (v,  ix),  &c. 

MEINHOLD,  JOHANN  WILHELM 
(1797-1851),  German  theologian  and  writer, 
a  pastor  in  various  parishes  of  Pornerania, 
author  of  'Maria  Schweidler  die  Bernstein- 
hexe*  (1843),  translated  into  English  by  Lady 
Duff  Gordon  as  'The  Amber  Witch' ;  and  of 
'Sidonia  von  Bork,  die  Klosterhexe*,  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Lady  Wilde  as  'Sidonia 
the  Sorceress*. 

Meiosis,  an  under-staternent,  sometimes 
ironical  or  humorous  and  intended  to 
emphasize  the  size,  importance,  &c.,  of 
what  is  belittled.  Except  in  litotes  (q.v.), 
which  is  a  form  of  meiosis,  this  use  of 
meiosis  is  chiefly  colloquial;  e.g.  the  use  of 
'rather*  as  a  strong  affirmative,  'I  should 
rather  think  so*. 

Meissonier,  JEAN  Louis  ERNEST  (1811-91), 
a  celebrated  French  painter  of  genre,  military, 
and  historical  pictures. 

Meistersinger,  a  title  taken  in  the  isth 
cent,  by  certain  professional  German  poets  of 
high  skill  and  culture,  to  distinguish  them- 
selves from  the  wandering  gleemen.  They 
were  often  craftsmen  in  their  ordinary  avoca- 
tions— smiths,  weavers,  and  the  like.  They 
represent  a  phase  of  the  development  of 
German  verse  from  the  minnesong  (see 
Minnesingers}.  The  Meistersong  and  singer 
were  governed  by  an  elaborate  set  of  rules 
and  organization,  which  are  depicted  in 
Wagner's  opera  on  the  subject,  *Die  Meister- 
singer von  Niirnberg*,  produced  in  1868. 
MekMtarists,  a  congregation  of  Armenian 
monks  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  origin- 
ally founded  at  Constantinople  in  1701  by 
Mekhitar,  an  Armenian,  and  by  him  finally 
established  in  1717  in  the  island  of  San 
Lazzaro,  south  of  Venice.  They  have  de- 
voted themselves  to  literary  work  and  pub- 
lished ancient  manuscripts  relating  to  the 
Armenians. 


MfeLfiAGER 
Mel,  THE  GREAT,  see  Evan  Harrington. 

Melampus,  the  son  of  Amythaon,  was  re- 
garded by  the  ancients  as  the  first  mortal  to 
receive  prophetic  powers  and  to  practise  medi- 
cine, and  as  the  founder  of  the  worship  of 
Dionysius  in  Greece.  He  took  care  of  some 
young  serpents  whose  parents  had  been  killed 
by  his  servants,  and  these  one  day  licked  his 
ears  as  he  was  sleeping.  On  awaking  he  found 
that  he  understood  the  language  of  birds  and 
could  predict  the  future.  His  brother  Bias 
sought  the  hand  of  Pero,  daughter  of  Neleus, 
but  the  latter  would  give  her  only  to  the  man 
who  brought  him  the  oxen  of  Iphiclus. 
Melampus  obtained  them  for  Bias,  by  the 
services  he  rendered  to  Iphiclus  through  his 
prophetic  powers.  He  cured  the  women  of 
Argos  of  an  epidemic  of  frenzy,  and  obtained 
in  consequence  a  share  of  that  kingdom. 

Melampus  is  the  subject  of  a  poem  by  G. 
Meredith  (q.v.). 

Melanchthon,  the  grecized  name  of  PHILIP 
SCHWARTZERD  (1497-1560),  German  human- 
ist who  was  professor  of  Greek  at  Wittenberg 
University;  one  of  the  principal  advocates  of 
the  Reformation. 

Melanttus,  a  character  in  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  'The  Maid's  Tragedy*  (q.v.). 

Melba,  DAME  NELLIE,  the  great  singer, 
whose  original  name  was  Helen  Porter 
Mitchell  (1859-1931),  was  born  near  Mel- 
bourne of  Scottish  parents  settled  in  Austra- 
lia. Her  first  appearance  on  the  operatic  stage 
took  place  in  1887  at  Brussels  in  the  part  of 
Gilda  in  'Rigoletto*.  In  England  she  first  ap- 
peared in  1888  in  'Lucia  di  Lammermoor', 
The  wonderful  purity  of  her  voice  and  her 
engaging  personality  won  her  immense  fame 
and  popularity. 

Melbtiry,  GRACE,  a  character  in  Thomas 
Hardy's  'The  Woodlanders*  (q.v.). 
MelcMor,  one  of  the  three  Magi  (q.v.)  or 
'Wise  men  of  the  East*.  He  is  represented  as 
a  king  of  Nubia. 

Melchizedek,  in  Gen.  xiv.  18,  long  of  Salem 
and  the  priest  of  the  most  high  God,  who 
blessed  Abraham  and  to  whom  Abraham 
gave  tithes  of  all.  He  is  sometimes  quoted 
as  the  type  of  self-originating  power,  with 
reference  to  the  words  concerning  him  in 
Heb.  vii.  3-4:  'Without  father,  without 
mother,  without  descent,  having  neither 
beginning  of  days  nor  end  of  life. . . .  Now  con- 
sider how  great  this  man  was,  unto  whom  even 
the  patriarch  Abraham  gave  a  tenth  of  the 
spoils.* 

Meleager,  son  of  Oeneus,  king  of  Aetolia, 
and  Althaea.  The  Parcae  were  present  at  his 
birth:  Clotho  said  that  he  would  be  courage- 
ous, Lachesis  that  he  would  be  strong, 
Atropos  that  he  would  live  as  long  as  the 
brand  that  was  on  the  fire  was  not  consumed. 
Althaea  snatched  the  brand  from  the  fire  and 
kept  it  with  jealous  care.  Meleager  took  part 
in  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts  (q.v.)  and 


[508] 


MELESlGfiNES 

subsequently  in  the  hunt  of  the  Calydonian 
boar  that  was  ravaging  his  father's  country. 
He  slew  the  boar  and  gave  the  head  to  Ata- 
lanta  (q.v.),  who  had  first  wounded  it.  This 
partiality  angered  the  brothers  of  Althaea 
and  they  endeavoured  to  rob  Atalanta  of  the 
prize.  Meleager  defended  her  and  slew  his 
uncles.  As  Althaea  was  going  to  the  temple 
to  give  thanks  for  her  son's  victory  over  the 
boar,  she  learnt  that  he  had  killed  her 
brothers,  and  in  the  moment  of  resentment 
threw  into  the  fire  the  fatal  brand,  and  as 
soon  as  it  was  consumed  Meleager  died. 
Meleslggnes,  an  ancient  epithet  of  Homer, 
indicating  that  he  was  born  near  the  Meles, 
the  name  of  a  stream  that  flowed  through 
Smyrna,  and  bearing  out  the  view  that  con- 
nects him  with  that  city. 
Meliadus,  see  Meliodas. 
Meliagraunce,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morte 
d'Arthur*  (xix.  ii),  the  knight  who  captures 
Queen  Guinevere  and  carries  her  off  to  his 
castle.  He  is  perhaps  to  be  identified  with 
Melwas,  a  god  of  the  darkness  in  British 
mythology  (Rhys,  'Arthurian  Legend'). 
Melian  Dialogue,  THE,  in  Thucydides,  v. 
84  et  seq.,  the  discussion  between  the  Athen- 
ian envoys  and  the  magistrates  of  Melos,  an 
island  colonized  by  the  Lacedaemonians 
which  had  refused  to  surrender  to  Athens  and 
which  consequently  the  Athenians  were  pro- 
posing to  subdue  (416  B.C.).  It  is  an  exposi- 
tion of  the  realpolitik  and  Jingoism  of  Athens. 
Melibeus,  The  Tale  of,  see  Canterbury  Tales 
(19). 

Meliboea,  an  ancient  town  on  the  coast  of 
Thessaly,  celebrated  for  its  purple  dye. 
Melicertes,  see  Ino. 

Melincourtf  or  Sir  Oran  Haut-ton,  a  novel 
by  Peacock  (q.v.),  published  in  1817. 

The  plot  is,  as  usual  in  Peacock's  novels, 
slight  and  unimportant,  and  is  concerned 
with  the  attempts  of  various  suitors  to  win 
the  hand  of  the  rich  Anthelia  Melincourt, 
attempts  which  bring  together  the  usual 
collection  of  odd  characters  and  give  occasion 
for  much  discussion  of  slavery  in  the  West 
Indies,  rotten  boroughs,  the  Lake  poets,  &c. 
A  prominent  feature  in  the  story  is  Sir  Oran 
Haut-ton  (see  under  Monboddo,  Lord),  an 
orang-outang  whom  Mr.  Sylvan  Forester,  a 
rich  young  philosopher,  has  educated  to 
everything  except  speech,  and  for  whom  he 
has  bought  a  baronetcy  and  a  seat  in  par- 
liament. He  is  an  amiable  and  chivalrous 
gentleman,  and  plays  delightfully  on  the  flute. 
The  book  includes  a  virulent  and  unjustified 
attack  on  Southey  (Mr.  Feathernest),  while 
Gifford  (Mr.  Vamp),  Coleridge  (Mr.  Mystic) 
and  Wordsworth  (Mr.  Paperstamp)  come  in 
for  a  share  of  the  author's  satire.  Mr.  Simon 
Sarcastic  appears  to  represent  the  author 
himself.  The  book  contains  long  discussions 
on  social  and  economic  questions  between 
Mr.  Forester  and  Mr.  Fax  (in  whom  some 
have  seen  a  caricature  of  Malthus). 


MELTON  MOWBRAY 

Meliodas  or  MELIADUS,  in  Malory's  'Morte 
d 'Arthur*  (q.v.),  king  of  Lyonesse  and  father 
of  Tristram. 

Melisande  or  MELISINDA,  a  name  some- 
times apparently  confused  with  Melusine 
(q.v.).  The  historical  Melisinda  was  daughter 
of  Baldwin  II,  king  of  Jerusalem,  and  wife 
of  Fulk,  who  succeeded  him.  In  Spanish 
romance,  Melisenda  or  Melisendra  is  the 
daughter  of  Charlemagne  (see  under  Gayferos) . 
Tellers  et  Melisande'  is  one  of  the  earlier 
plays  of  Maeterlinck  (q.v.). 

Melisendra,  see  preceding  entry. 

Melissa,  in  the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (q.v.),  the 
beneficent  witch  who  released  Rogero  from 
the  power  of  Alcina  (qq.v.). 

Melita,  the  ancient  name  of  Malta. 

Mell,  MR.,  in  Dickens's  'David  Copperfield* 

(q.v.),  the  poor  usher  at  Creakle's  school. 

Mellefont,  a  character  in  Congreve's  'The 
Double  Dealer'  (q.v.). 

Mellifluous  Doctor,  THE,  St.  Bernard. 

Melmoth  the  Wanderer,  a  novel  by  Maturin 
(q.v.),  published  in  1820. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the 
tales  of  mystery  and  terror  of  which  a  number 
were  produced  in  the  early  part  of  the  igth 
cent.  The  theme  is  the  sale  of  a  soul  to  the 
devil  in  return  for  prolonged  life,  the  bargain 
being  transferable  if  any  one  else  can  be  per- 
suaded to  take  it  over.  The  original  trans- 
action in  the  story  took  place  in  the  iyth  cent,, 
and  Melmoth  the  Wanderer  is  still  alive. 
The  novel  is  a  succession  of  different  tales, 
the  chief  character  in  each  of  which,  at  the 
climax  of  his  or  her  sufferings,  is  offered  by 
Melmoth  relief  from  distress  on  the  con- 
dition indicated.  But  they  all — Stanton  im- 
prisoned in  a  lunatic's  cell,  Moncada  in  the 
grip  of  the  Inquisition,  Walberg,  who  sees 
his  children  perishing  from  hunger,  Elinor 
Mortimer,  and  Isidora,  Melmoth's  wife — 
reject  the  proposed  compact. 

About  1898  Oscar  Wilde  (q.v.)  adopted  the 
name  Sebastian  Melmoth — Melmoth  from 
the  romance  of  Maturin,  a  connexion  of  his 
mother,  Lady  Wilde;  Sebastian  suggested 
by  the  arrows  on  his  prison  dress.  He  had 
contributed  some  information  to  the  1892 
edition  of  *Melmoth  the  Wanderer*. 

Melnotte,  CLAUDE,  a  character  in  Bulwer 
Lytton's  'The  Lady  of  Lyons'  (q.v.). 

Melodrama,  in  early  i9th-cent.  use,  a  stage 
play  (usually  romantic  and  sensational  in 
plot  and  incident)  in  which  songs  and  music 
were  interspersed.  In  later  use  the  musical 
element  gradually  ceased  to  be  an  essential 
feature,  and  the  name  now  denotes  a 
dramatic  piece  characterized  by  sensational 
incident  and  violent  appeals  to  the  emotions, 
but  with  a  happy  ending.  [OED.] 
MelpomSne,  the  Muse  (q.v.)  of  tragedy. 
Melton  Mowforay,  in  Leicestershire,  the 


[509] 


MELUSINA 

centre  of  a  celebrated  hunting  district,  and 
famous  for  its  pies, 

Melusina,  a  fairy  of  French  folk-lore,  the 
water-sprite  of  the  fountain  of  Lusignan  in 
Poitou,  and  the  legendary  ancestress  and 
tutelary  spirit  of  the  house  of  that  name.  She 
consented  to  marry  Raymond  of  Poitiers  on 
condition  that  he  should  never  see  her  on  a 
Saturday,  on  which  day  she  reverted  to  her 
mermaid-like  condition.  Her  husband  broke 
the  compact,  whereupon  she  fled.  She  was 
supposed  to  give  warning  by  shrieks  when 
misfortune  menaced  a  member  of  the  family. 
The  story  was  written  by  Jean  d'Arras  in  his 
'Chronique  de  la  Princesse'  (1387),  trans- 
lated by  A.  K.  Donald  for  the  E.E.T.S.^  It 
resembles  in  certain  features  those  of  Undine 
and  Lohengrin  (qq.v.)  and  the  legend  of  the 
Banshee.  Baring- Gould  ('Curious  Myths') 
traces  the  origin  of  Melusina  to  the  oriental 
goddess  Mylitta. 

Melvil,  SIR  JOHN,  a  character  in  Colman  and 
Garrick's  'The  Clandestine  Marriage*  (q.v.). 

MELVILLE,  HERMAN  (1819-91),  born  in 
New  York  City,  shipped  as  a  sailor  before  the 
mast  in  1837.  In  1841  he  sailed  round  Cape 
Horn  in  the  whaler  'Dolly*,  and  the  following 
year,  owing  to  harsh  treatment  by  the  captain, 
left  the  ship  with  a  comrade  at  Nukahura  in 
the  Marquesas.  The  fugitives  intended  to  go 
to  the  friendly  Happar  tribe,  but  instead 
found  themselves  in  the  adjoining  valley  of 
the  cannibal  Typees.  Here  they  were  held  in 
captivity  for  some  months  and  finally  rescued. 
The  record  of  this  adventure  is  contained  in 
Melville's  romance  'Typee,  a  Peep  at  Poly- 
nesian Life'  (1846).  Melville's  other  best- 
known  works  are  'Omoo,  a  narrative  of 
Adventures  in  the  South  Seas*  (q.v.,  1847), 
'Mardi,  and  a  Voyage  Thither*  (a  philosophical 
romance,  1849),  and,  above  all,  'Moby  Dick* 
(q.v.,  1851).  Another  work  by  Melville  that 
has  attracted  attention  is  his  'Pierre,  or,  The 
Ambiguities*  (q.v.,  1852). 
Memling,  HANS  (d.  1495),  a  celebrated 
Flemish  painter.  His  most  famous  work  is 
the  'Reliquary  of  St.  Ursula*  in  the  Hospital 
of  St.  John  at  Bruges* 

Memnon,  the  son  of  Tithonus  (q.v.)  and 
Eos  (Aurora),  He  is  referred  to  in  the  'Odys- 
sey' as  the  handsomest  of  mortals.    In  the 
post-Homeric  legends  he  was  a  prince  of  the 
Ethiopians  who  carne  to  the  Trojan  War  in 
support  of  his  uncle  Priam  and  was  slain  by 
Achilles.   According  to  tradition,  a  colossal 
statue  near  Thebes  (in  reality  that  of  Ameno- 
phis)  was  supposed  to  represent  Memnon.  It 
gave  forth  a  musical  note  when  struck  by  the 
rays  of  the  rising  sun,  explained  in  modern 
times  as  due  to  currents  of  air  created  in  the 
fissures  of  the  statue  by  the  change  of  tem- 
perature.    The    reference    in    Milton's    'II 
Penseroso*  to   'Prince  Memnon's  sister*  is 
obscure;   there    is    a   reference   to   such   a 
character  in  the  History  of  the  Trojan  War  of 
Dictys  Cretensis. 


MENAECHMI 

Memoirs  of  a  Cavalier,  an  historical  romance 
attributed  with  good  reason  to  Defoe  (q.v.), 
published  in  1724. 

The  pretended  author,  'CoL  Andrew 
Newport',  a  young  English  gentleman  born 
in  1608,  travels  on  the  Continent,  starting  in 
1630,  goes  to  Vienna  and  accompanies  the 
army  of  the  emperor,  being  present  at  the 
siege  and  sack  of  Magdeburg,  which  is 
vividly  presented.  He  then  joins  the  army  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  remaining  with  it  until 
the  death  of  that  king,  and  taking  part  in  a 
number  of  engagements  which  he  describes  in 
detail.  After  his  return  to  England  he  joins 
the  king's  army,  first  against  the  Scots,  then 
against  the  forces  of  parliament,  being  present 
at  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  which  he  fully 
describes,  the  relief  of  York,  and  the  battle  of 
Naseby. 

Memoirs  of  Captain  Carleton,  a  narrative 
published  in  1728,  whose  authorship  has  been 
contested,  and  attributed  by  some  to  Defoe 
fq.v.),  by  others  to  Swift  (q.v.).  Captain 
Carleton,  who  unquestionably  existed,  is  the 
subject  of  an  attractive  story  of  soldierly 
adventure. 

Carleton  volunteers  on  board  the  'London' 
on  the  declaration  of  war  with  the  Dutch 
in  1672.  In  1674  he  enters  the  service  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  remaining  there 
until  the  peace  of  Nimuegen.  Returning  to 
England,  he  receives  a  commission  from 
James  II  and  serves  in  Scotland,  and 
then  in  Flanders  until  the  peace  of 
Ryswick.  The  most  interesting  part  of 
the  memoirs  follows.  Carleton  embarks 
with  Lord  Peterborough  for  Spain  in 
1705,  and  gives  a  stirring  narrative  of 
the  siege  and  capture,  and  subsequent 
relief,  of  Barcelona,  and  of  the  campaign 
by  which  Peterborough,  with  scanty  re- 
sources, temporarily  placed  the  Archduke 
Charles  on  the  throne  of  Spain.  This  is 
followed  by  some  account  of  various  parts  of 
Spain  visited  by  the  author  as  a  prisoner 
of  war. 

Memoirs  of  Several  Ladies  of  Great  Britain, 

see  Amory. 

Men  and  Women,  a  collection  of  poems  by 
R.  Browning  (q.v.),  published  in  1855.  These 
were  redistributed  in  the  collection  of  1868, 
and  only  thirteen  (most  of  them  dramatic 
monologues)  of  the  original  fifty  pieces  were 
retained  under  the  heading  of  'Men  and 
Women*.  The  original  issue  contained  many 
of  Browning's  finest  love-poems,  e.g.  'Love 
among  the  Ruins*,  'A  Woman's  Last  Word*, 
'Any  Wife  to  Any  Husband',  and  'One  Word 
More*.  It  also  included  'Bishop  Blougram's 
Apology*  (q.v.),  £Fra  Lippo  Lippi*  (q.v.), 
'Cleon*,  and  'Andrea  del  Sarto*  (q.v.). 

Menaechmi,  a  celebrated  comedy  of  Plautus 
(q.v.),  turning  on  the  mistakes  that  result 
from  the  resemblance  of  twin  brothers.  It 
probably  suggested  Shakespeare's  'Comedy  of 
Errors*. 


MANAGE 

MANAGE,  GILLES  DE  (1613-92),  French 
philologist,  author  of  the  four  volumes  of 
'Menagiana',  containing  some  interesting 
literary  anecdotes.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
circle  of  the  H6tel  de  Rambouillet  (q.v.). 

MENANDER  (342-291  B.C.),  an  Athenian 
poet,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  new  school 
of  comedy.  He  was  drowned  while  swimming 
in  the  harbour  of  Piraeus.  His  plays,  of 
which  portions  survive,  were  largely  trans- 
lated or  imitated  by  Plautus  and  Terence 
(qq.v.). 

Menaphon,  a  prose  romance,  with  interludes 
of  verse,  written  by  Greene  (q.v.)  and  pub- 
lished in  1589;  it  was  reprinted  as  'Greene's 
Arcadia'  in  1599.  It  tells  the  adventures  of 
the  Princess  Sephestia,  shipwrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Arcadia,  where  the  shepherd  Mena- 
phon falls  in  love  with  her ;  and  of  her  restora- 
tion to  her  husband  and  son.  Among  other 
pleasant  lyrics,  it  contains  the  charming 
cradle-song,  'Weepe  not,  my  wanton,  smile 
upon  my  knee*. 

MENCKEN,  HENRY  LEWIS  (1880-  ), 
American  journalist,  born  at  Baltimore.  He 
is  known  as  a  satirist  of  the  'cruder*  mani- 
festations of  American  civilization,  and  as  a 
writer  holding  strong  views  about  European 
'patronage*  of  America.  His  chief  works  are: 
'George  Bernard  Shaw — His  Plays'  (1905), 
*In  Defense  of  Women*  (1917),  'Prejudices*, 
ist  Series  (1919),  2nd  Series  (1920),  3rd 
Series  (1922),  4th  Series  (1924),  5th  Series 
(1926),  6th  Series  (1927),  'Notes  on  Demo- 
cracy' (1927)- 

Mendelism,  the  law  or  theory  of  heredity 
worked  out  by  Gregor  Johann  Mendel  (1822— 
84),  abbot  of  Brunn,  from  his  experiments 
on  the  cross-fertilization  of  sweet  peas. 
Mendelssohn- Bartholdy,  FELIX  (1809- 
47)  the  composer,  was  born  at  Hamburg, 
the  son  of  a  Jewish  banker,  and  the  grand- 
son of  a  philosopher.  Besides  being  a  com- 
poser he  was  an  eminent  pianist,  organist, 
and  conductor.  His  works  include  ora- 
torios and  cantatas,  the  music  to  'A  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream*  and  other  dramas, 
four  symphonies,  a  quantity  of  chamber  and 
pianoforte  music,  &c. 

Mendoza  Codex,  an  Aztec  manuscript 
setting  forth  in  pictures  the  history  of  the 
Mexican  people  from  1324  to  1502,  with  a 
description  of  the  customs  of  the  country.  An 
explanation  in  the  Mexican  language  is  added 
and  a  translation  into  Spanish.  It  was  ob- 
tained by  the  Spanish  Governor  of  Mexico, 
Mendoza,  and  sent  to  Charles  V,  but  was 
captured  by  a  French  man-of-war,  together 
with  the  ship  that  carried  it.  Hakluyt  bought 
it  from  AndrS  Thevet,  the  French  king's 
geographer,  and  it  passed  to  Purchas,  who 
published  it  in  the  'Pilgrimages*  (Hi.  1066  of 
the  folio).  The  manuscript  is  now  in  the 
Bodleian. 

Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  according  to 
Homer,  son,  but  according  to  Hesiod  and 


MERCHANT  ADVENTURERS 
others,  grandson,  of  Atreus  (q.v.),  and  brother 
of  Agamemnon  (q.v.).  He  was  the  successful 
suitor  of  Helen  (q.v.),  but  was  robbed  of  her 
by  Paris,  the  son  of  Priam.  Thereupon  he 
assembled  the  princes  who  had  been  suitors 
of  Helen  and  had  bound  themselves  to  defend 
her,  and  the  expedition  against  Troy  was 
undertaken.  During  the  war  Menelaus  be- 
haved with  spirit  and  would  have  slain  Paris 
but  for  the  interposition  of  Venus  to  protect 
her  favourite.  After  the  fall  of  Troy  he  was 
reunited  to  Helen. 

Memppee,  Satire,  see  Satire  Menippee. 

Menteith,  EARL  OF,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Legend  of  Montrose'  (q.v.). 

Mentor,  a  faithful  friend  of  Ulysses,  whose 
form  Athene  assumes  when  she  accompanies 
Telemachus  (q.v.)  as  guide  and  adviser  in  his 
search  for  his  father.  Hence  ea  mentor*  is 
frequently  used  for  'an  adviser*. 

Mephistopneles,  a  word  of  unknown  origin, 
which  appears  first  in  the  German  'Faust- 
buch'  of  1587  as  'Mephostophiles'.  It  is  the 
name  of  the  evil  spirit  to  whom  Faust  (q.v.) 
was  said  in  the  German  legend  to  have  sold 
his  soul.  Shakespeare  in  'The  Merry  Wives' 
(i.  i)  mentions  'Mephostophilus'. 

Mercantile  System,  DOCTRINE,  or  THEORY, 
a  term  used  by  Adam  Smith  (q.v.)  and  later 
political  economists  for  the  system  of 
economic  doctrine  and  legislative  policy 
based  on  the  principle  that  money  alone 
constituted  wealth. 

Mercator,  GERARDUS,  the  latinized  form  of 
the  name  of  Gerhard  Kremer  (1512-94), 
a  Flemish  geographer  who  devised  the  form 
of  map  known  as  'MERCATOR'S  PROJECTION', 
in  which  the  meridians  of  longitude  are  at 
right  angles  to  the  parallels  of  latitude. 

Mercator,  a  trade  journal  edited  by  Defoe 
(q.v.).  It  succeeded  the  'Review*  (q.v.)  in 
1713  and  continued  till  the  following  year. 
Merchant  Adventurers,  THE,  originally 
merchants  engaged  independently  in  oversea 
trade,  who  combined  in  gilds  in  different 
areas  (Germany,  the  Netherlands,  Scandi- 
navia) in  the  I5th  cent.  They  are  first  heard 
of  as  infringing  the  privileges  in  the  Baltic 
trade  of  the  Hanseatic  League  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  IV;  and  they  also  to  some  extent 
infringed  those  of  the  'Merchants  of  the 
Staple*  (English  wool  exporters).  Henry  VII 
gave  their  first  official  'patent*,  but  not  a 
regular  charter.  Then  they  were  incorporated 
as  a  single  company  in  1564.  Throughout 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  this  enjoyed  a  monopoly 
of  the  trade  carried  on  by  English  subjects 
with  the  Low  Countries  and  Germany,  con- 
trolling not  only  the  importation  of  most  of 
the  articles  of  foreign  manufacture  used  in 
England,  but  also  the  exportation  of  the 
leading  manufactures  of  England,  especially 
its  woollen  cloth.  It  furnished  the  main 
agency  for  the  taxation  of  foreign  trade,  and 
at  certain  periods  it  advanced  money  to  the 


IS"] 


MERCHANT  OF  VENICE 

government  on  the  security  of  that  taxation; 
it  also  served  as  the  machinery  for  the  dis- 
charge of  international  debts.  It  thus  became 
the  greatest  financial  power  in  the  country. 
It  attacked  the  Hanse  (q.v.)  and  finally  drove 
it  from  England,  and  invaded  the  territory  of 
the  Hanse  itself,  contributing  largely  to  its 
ultimate  dissolution.  Its  head-quarters  on 
the  Continent  at  various  times  were  Antwerp, 
Eraden,  and  Hamburg.  (See  G.  Unwin, 
'Studies  in  Economic  History'.) 

Merchant  of  Venice,  The,  a  comedy  by 
Shakespeare  (q.v.),  probably  written  about 
1596,  printed  in  quarto  in  1600.  It  is  based 
on  material  in  Giovanni  Florentine's  collec- 
tion of  Italian  novels,  CI1  Pecorone',  and  the 
*Gesta  Romanorum',  and  perhaps  on  works  in 
which  this  material  was  rehandled. 

Bassanio,  a  noble  but  poor  Venetian,  asks 
Antonio,  his  friend,  a  rich  merchant,  for 
three  thousand  ducats  to  enable  him  to 
prosecute  fittingly  his  suit  of  the  rich  heiress 
Portia.  Antonio,  whose  money  is  all  em- 
ployed in  foreign  ventures,  undertakes  to 
borrow  the  sum  from  Shylock,  a  Jewish 
usurer,  whom  he  has  been  wont  to  upbraid 
for  his  extortions.  Shylock  consents  to  lend 
the  money  against  a  bond  by  which,  in  case 
the  sura  is  not  repaid  at  the  appointed  day, 
Antonio  shall  forfeit  a  pound  of  flesh.  Bassa- 
nio prospers  in  his  suit.  By  her  father's  will 
Portia  is  to  marry  that  suitor  who  selects  of 
three  caskets  (one  of  gold,  one  of  silver,  one  of 
lead)  that  which  contains  her  portrait.  He 
makes  the  right  choice — the  leaden  casket — 
and  is  wedded  to  Portia,  and  his  friend 
Gratiano  to  her  maid  Nerissa,  News  comes 
that  Antonio's  ships  have  been  wrecked,  that 
the  debt  has  not  been  repaid  when  due,  and 
that  Shylock  claims  his  pound  of  flesh.  The 
matter  is  brought  before  the  duke.  Portia 
disguises  herself  as  an  advocate,  and  Nerissa 
as  her  clerk,  and  they  come  to  the  court  to 
defend  Antonio,  unknown  to  their  husbands. 
Failing  in  her  appeal  to  Shylock  for  mercy, 
Portia  admits  the  validity  of  his  claim,  but 
warns  him  that  his  life  is  forfeit  if  he  spills  one 
drop  of  blood,  since  his  bond  gives  him  right 
to  nothing  beyond  the  flesh.  Pursuing  her 
advantage,  she  argues  that  Shylock's  fife  is 
forfeit  for  having  conspired  against  the  Hfe  of 
a  Venetian  citizen.  The  duke  grants  Shylock 
his  life,  but  gives  half  his  wealth  to  Antonio, 
half  to  the  State.  Antonio  surrenders  his 
claim  if  Shylock  will  turn  Christian  and 
make  over  his  property  on  his  death  to  his 
daughter,  Jessica,  who  has  run  away  and 
married  a  Christian  and  been  disinherited ;  to 
which  Shylock  agrees.  Portia  and  Nerissa 
ask  as  rewards  from  Bassanio  and  Gratiano 
the  rings  that  their  wives  have  given  them, 
which  they  have  promised  never  to  part  with. 
Reluctantly  they  give  them  up,  and  are  taken 
to  task  accordingly  on  their  return  home. 
The  play  ends  with  news  of  the  safe  arrival  of 
Antonio's  ships. 

Merchants  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 


MEREDITH 

Mercia,  a  kingdom  founded  in  the  6th  cent. 
by  the  Anglian  invaders  known  as  Mercians 
(i.e.  men  of  the  mark  or  borderland),  between 
Wessex,  Northurnbria,  and  Wales.  At  the 
treaty  of  Wedmore  (878)  the  eastern  half  be- 
came part  of  the  Danelaw,  Alfred  retaining 
the  western.  Under  Canute  and  his  suc- 
cessors until  the  Norman  Conquest,  Mercia 
was  an  earldom. 

Mercia,  LADY  OF,  see  JEthelflad. 

Mercilla,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  v. 
viii,  'a  mayden  Queene  of  high  renowne' 
(Queen  Elizabeth),  whose  crown  the  Soldan 
seeks  to  subvert. 

Mercurius  Librarius,  or  a  Faithful  Account 
of  all  Books  and  Pamphlets,  the  first  English 
literary  periodical,  published  in  1680.  It  was 
a  weekly  or  fortnightly  catalogue  of  books 
issued. 

Mercury,  see  Hermes. 

Mercutio,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
*Romeo  and  Juliet*  (q.v.). 

Mercy,  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's  Progress* 
(q.v.),  a  comDanion  of  Christiana. 

Merdle  and  Mrs.  Merdle,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'Little  Dorrit*  (q.v.). 

MEREDITH,  GEORGE  (1828-1909),  was 
grandson  of  Melchizedek  Meredith,  a  pros- 
perous tailor  and  naval  outfitter  of  Ports- 
mouth (a  circumstance  reflected  in  his  novel 
'Evan  Harrington').  He  was  privately  edu- 
cated at  Portsmouth  and  Southsea  and  at  the 
Moravian  school  at  Neuwied.  In  London, 
after  being  articled  to  a  solicitor,  he  turned 
to  journalism,  contributing  to  'Household 
Words'  and  'Chambers 's  Journal',  and  in  1849 
married  Mary  Ellen  Nicolls,  a  widowed 
daughter  of  Thomas  Love  Peacock  (q.v.). 
In  1858  he  was  deserted  by  his  wife,  who  had 
borne  him  a  son  and  who  died  in  1861. 
Meanwhile  he  had  published  'Poems'  (dedi- 
cated to  Peacock)  in  1851,  and  the  burlesque 
fantasies  'The  Shaving  of  Shagpat:  an  Ara- 
bian Entertainment'  (q.v.,  1856)  and  'Farina, 
a  Legend  of  Cologne*  (1857).  His  first  great 
novel,  'The  Ordeal  of  Richard  Feverel'  (q.v.) 
appeared  in  1859,  and  he  became  acquainted 
with  Swinburne,  Rossetti  and  the  Pre- 
Raphaelite  group,  and  other  notable  people. 
But  his  book  did  not  sell  well  and  for  long  his 
means  were  scanty  and  precarious.  He  con- 
tributed to  periodicals,  and  more  especially  to 
the  'Fortnightly  Review',  in  which  much  of  his 
later  work  was  first  published.  'Evan  Har- 
rington' (q.v.)  appeared  serially  during  1860. 
During  1861-2  he  lodged  for  a  time  with 
Swinburne  and  Rossetti  in  Chelsea,  and  in 
the  latter  year  published  his  chief  tragic 
poem  'Modern  Love'  (q.v.).  At  the  same  time 
he  became  reader  for  Messrs.  Chapman  & 
Hall,  a  position  that  he  retained  until  1894. 
In  1864  appeared  'Emilia  in  England'  (subse- 
quently renamed  'Sandra  Belloni',  q.v.).  He 
married  in  Sept.  1864  bis  second  wife,  Marie 
Vulliamy,  who  died  in  1889.  With  her  he 


MEREDITH 

settled  for  life  at  Flint  Cottage,  facing  Bos 
HiU,  in  1867.  He  published  'Rhoda  Fleming9 
(q.v.)  in  1865,  'Vittoria'  (q.v.)  in  1866,  'The 
Adventures  of  Harry  Richmond'  (q.v.,  in  the 
'Cornhill*  in  1870,  separately  in  1871),  'Beau- 
champ's  Career'  (q.v.,  in  the  'Fortnightly*  in 
1875,  separately  in  1876),  and  'The  Tale  of 
Chloe*  and  'The  Egoist*  (qq.v.)  in  1879.  He 
delivered  in  1877  a  characteristic  lecture  on 
*The  Idea  of  Comedy  and  the  Uses  of  the 
Comic  Spirit*  (separately  published  in  1897). 
He  published  'The  Tragic  Comedians*  (q.v.), 
embodying  the  love-story  of  Ferdinand  Las- 
salle,  the  German  socialist,  in  1880,  and 
'Poems  and  Lyrics  of  the  Joy  of  Earth*  in 
1883.  Meredith  obtained  general  popularity 
for  his  work  for  the  first  time  by  'Diana  of  the 
Crossways*  (q.v.,  1885).  This  was  followed 
by  'Ballads  and  Poems  of  Tragic  Life'  (1887), 
containing  the  ode  'France,  December  1870*; 
<A  Reading  of  Earth'  (1888),  including  'A 
Faith  on  Trial';  'Odes  in  Contribution  to  the 
Song  of  French  History*  (1898),  and  'A 
Reading  of  ^  Life*  (1901);  some  of  his  most 
characteristic  volumes  of  verse.  His  last 
three  novels  were,  'One  of  our  Conquerors* 
(q.v.,  1891),  'Lord  Ormont  and  his  Aminta* 
(q.v.,  1894),  and  'The  Amazing  Marriage* 
(q.v.,  1895).  'Celt  and  Saxon*,  an  unfinished 
story,  appeared  in  1910  after  his  death,  and 
*Last  Poems*  in  the  same  year.  'The  Senti- 
mentalists', a  conversational  comedy,  was 
produced  also  in  the  same  year.  An  edition 
de  luxe  of  his  collected  works  appeared  in 
1 896-1 911  and  a  memorial  edition  in  1 909-1 1 . 
There  is  a  portrait  of  Meredith  by  Watts  in 
the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

MEREDITH,  OWEN,  the  pseudonym 
under  which  E.  R.  B.  Lytton  (q.v.),  first  earl 
of  Lytton,  published  some  of  his  earlier 
works. 

MERES,  FRANCIS  (1565-1647),  educated 
at  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  and  rector 
and  schoolmaster  at  Wing,  was  author  of 
'Palladis  Tamia,  Wit's  Treasury',  containing 
quotations  and  maxims  from  various  writers. 
In  this,  Meres  reviewed  all  literary  effort 
from  the  time  of  Chaucer  to  his  own  day, 
contrasting  each  English  author  with  a  writer 
of  like  character  in  Latin,  Greek,  or  Italian. 
He  thus  commemorates  125  Englishmen; 
and  his  list  of  Shakespeare's  works  with  his 
commendation  of  the  dramatist's  'fine  filed 
phrase",  and  his  account  of  Marlowe's  death, 
are  notable  elements  in  English  literary 
history. 

M3SRIM&E,  PROSPER  (1803-70),  French 
novelist  and  dramatist,  a  member  of  the 
court  of  Napoleon  III,  was  the  author  of 
admirable  short  stories  ('Carmen',  'Colomba*, 
&c.),  of  plays  ('Theatre  de  Clara  Gazul'), 
and  of  the  historical  volumes  *La  Jacquerie* 
and  'Chronique  de  Charles  IX*.  His  well- 
known  'Lettres  a  une  Inconnue*  display  his 
ironic  and  critical  temperament.  He  was  a 
strong  supporter  of  the  innocence  of  'Libri 
the  book-thief*  (q.v.). 


MERLIN 

Merlon,  DIANA,  the  heroine  of  Meredith's 
'Diana  of  the  Crossways'  (q.v.). 
MERIVALE,  CHARLES  (1808-93),  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, became  dean  of  Ely,  and  published  his 
'History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire*  in 
1850-64,  his  'Conversion  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire' in  1864,  and  'Conversion  of  the  Nor- 
thern Nations*  in  1866.  'The  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Republic*,  an  epitome  by  him  of  the 
early  part  of  the  first  of 'the  above  works, 
appeared  in  1853. 

MERIVALE,  HERMAN  (1806-74),  brother 
of  Charles  Merivale  (q.v.),  educated  at 
Harrow  and  Oxford,  became  undersecretary 
for  India,  and  published  works  on  historical, 
colonial,  and  Indian  subjects. 

MERIVALE,  HERMAN  CHARLES  (i  839- 
1906),  son  of  Herman  Merivale  (q.v.),  edu- 
cated at  Harrow  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
was  a  skilful  playwright.  He  collaborated  in 
'All  for  Her'  (1875)  and  'Forget  me  not' 
(1879),  successful  plays,  and  wrote  *The 
White  Pilgrim*  (1883),  a  poetic  drama, 
and  'Florien',  a  tragedy  (1884).  His  farces 
and  burlesques  include  'The  Butler'  (1886) 
and  'The  Don*  (1888).  He  published  a 
novel,  'Faucit  of  Balliol*  in  1882,  and  a  chil- 
dren's fairy  tale  'Binko's  Blues*  in  1884.  He 
wrote  some  pleasant  lyrics  and  sonnets,  in- 
cluding 'Thaisa's  Dirge*.  He  collaborated 
with  F.  T.  Marzials  in  a  short  life  of 
Thackeray  (1891). 

Merle,  MADAME,  a  character  in  Henry 
James's  'Portrait  of  a  Lady*  (q.v.). 

Merlin.  The  germ  of  the  story  of  Merlin 
is  found  in  Nennius's  'Historia  Britonum'. 
The  British  king,  Vortigern,  is  building  a 
citadel  against  Hengist  and  the  Saxons,  but 
the  foundations  are  swallowed  up  as  they  are 
laid.  Ambrosius,  a  boy  without  mortal  sire, 
explains  that  beneath  the  site  of  the  citadel 
there  live  two  dragons,  one  red  and  one  white. 
The  dragons  are  found,  they  fight,  and  the 
white  dragon  is  defeated.  The  boy  interprets 
this  as  an  omen  that  the  Saxons  will  be  ex- 
pelled by  the  Britons. 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  identifies  this  Am- 
brosius with  Merlin  and  recounts  the  same 
story.  He  makes  Merlin  assist  Uther  in  the 
deceit  by  which  he  becomes  the  husband  of 
Igraine  and  father  of  Arthur  (q.v.),  and  it  is 
by  Merlin's  help  that  the  great  stones  are 
brought  to  Stonehenge  from  Naas  in  Ireland. 
In  'Arthour  and  Merlin',  a  poem  of  the  late 
1 3th  cent.,  the  story  is  developed.  Merlin's 
birth  is  narrated  (the  devil  is  his  father)  and 
he  aids  Arthur  to  defeat  his  foes  by  his  coun- 
sel and  magic.  Reference  is  made  to  the  be- 
guiling of  Merlin  by  Nimiane  (Nimue  or 
Vivien,  see  Nimue).  According  to  Spenser's 
'Faerie  Queene*  (in.  iii)  his  mother  was  a  nun, 
Matilda,  daughter  of  Pubidius,  king  of 
Mathraval.  In  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur*  it 
is  Merlin  who  makes  the  Round  Table  for 
Uther  Pendragon.  He  dotes  upon  Nimue, 


3868 


[513] 


Li 


MERLIN  AND  VIVIEN 

who,  to  get  rid  of  him,  inveigles  him  under 
a  great  stone.  Tennyson  in  his  *  Idylls*  makes 
Vivien  induce  Merlin  to  take  refuge  from  a 
storm  in  an  old  oak-tree  and  leave  him  there 
spell-bound. 

In  Welsh  vernacular  Hterature  there  is  a 
group  of  poems  of  a  patriotic  character  attri- 
buted to  a  bard  Merlin  (Myrddhin),  alluded 
to  in  Shakespeare  (£i  Henry  IV,  m.  i.  150* 
and  'King  Lear',  m.  ii.  95.)»  and  the  Welsh 
'Dialogue  between  Merlin  and  Tahes- 
sin*  (a  brother  bard,  who  lived  about  ^  550) 
may  have  some  basis  in  genuine  tradition. 
There  is  perhaps  some  connexion  between 
this  bard  and  the  Merlin  of  the  Arthurian 
legend.  The  bard,  in  turn,  was  perhaps 
originally  a  god  of  British  mythology,  espe- 
cially worshipped  at  Stonehenge  (Rhys,  'Bfib- 
bert  Lectures'). 

A  French  'Roman  de  Merlin*  was  printed 
in  Paris  in  1498,  and  is  generally  attributed 
to  Robert  de  Borron  (isth  cent.). 
Merlin  and  Vivien,  one  of  Tennyson's  'Idylls 
of  the  King*  (q.v.),  published  in  1859. 

Vivien,  the  wily  and  malignant  daughter  of 
a  man  killed  fighting  against  King  Arthur, 
filled  with  hatred  for  the  king,  leaves  the 
court  of  Mark  to  go  to  that  of  Arthur  and 
there  sow  suspicion.  She  sets  herself  to  win 
the  aged  enchanter  Merlin,  accompanies  him 
to  Broceliande,  and  there  extracts  from  him  the 
knowledge  of  a  charm,  which  she  immediately 
uses  to  leave  him  shut  up  for  ever  in  an  old 
oak. 

Mermaid  Tavern,  THE,  a  tavern  that  stood 
in  Bread  Street  (with  an  entrance  in  Friday 
Street),  London.  One  of  the  earliest  of  Eng- 
lish clubs,  the  Friday  Street  Club,  started 
by  Sir  Walter  Ralegh,  met  there,  and  was 
frequented  by  Shakespeare,  Selden,  Donne, 
Beaumont,  and  Fletcher.  It  is  celebrated 
by  Beaumont  in  the  fine  lines  ('Master 
Francis  Beaumont  to  Ben  Jonson') : 
What  things  have  we  seen 

Done  at  the  Mermaid  1  heard  words  that 
have  been 

So  nimble,  and  so  full  of  subtle  flame, 

As  if  that  every  one  from  whence  they  came 

Had  meant  to  put  his  whole  wit  in  a  jest, 

And  had  resolved  to  live  a  fool  the  rest 

Of  his  dull  life. 

Keats  also  wrote  'Lines  on  the  Mermaid 
Tavern*  beginning:  'Souls  of  poets  dead  and 
gone*. 

Merope,  (i)  one  of  the  daughters  of  Atlas, 
the  wife  of  Sisyphus  (q.v.),  and  one  of  the 
Pleiades  (q.v.) ;  (2)  the  daughter  of  Cypselus, 
wife  of  Cresphontes  and  mother  of  Aepytus. 

Matthew  Arnold's  tragedy  'Merope'  is 
concerned  with  the  latter.  It  deals  with  the 
revenge  of  Aepytus  on  Polyphonies,  who  has 
killed  Cresphontes,  king  of  Messenia,  the 
father  of  Aepytus,  and  has  taken  Merope,  the 
widowed  mother  of  Aepytus,  to  be  his  wife 
against  her  will. 

Merovingian,  the  name  of  the  first  dynasty 


MERRY  WIVES  OF  WINDSOR 

of  Frankish  kings,  derived  from  Merwig  or 
Merovaeus,  its  legendary  founder  in  the  5th 
cent.  It  rose  to  importance  under  Clovis 
(481-51 1),  but  declined  owing  to  family  feuds 
and  the  growing  power  of  the  Mayors  of  the 
Palace  (q.v.),  until  the  Merovingians  were 
finally  ousted  by  Pepin  the  Short  in  75 2,. 
Merrilies,  MEG,  the  old  gipsy  woman  in 
Scott's  'Guy  Mannering*  (q.v.). 

MERRIMAN,  HENRY  SETON,  pseu- 
donym of  Hugh  Stowell  Scott  (1862-1903), 
novelist,  author  of  'Young  Mistley*  (published 
anonymously,  1888),  'The  Slave  of  the  Lamp* 
(1892),  'With  Edged  Tools'  (1894),  'The 
Sowers'  (1896),  'In  Kedar's  Tents5  (1897), 
&c. 

Merry,  ROBERT,  see  Delia  Crusca. 
Merry  Devil  of  Edmonton,  The,  a  romantic 
comedy  published  in  1608,  whose  authorship 
is  unknown,  Charles  Lamb,  who  praised  it 
highly,  suggested  Drayton  as  the  possible 
author.  It  was  included  in  a  volume  in 
Charles  IPs  library  entitled  *Shakespeare% 
but  there  is  no  evidence  in  support  of  this 
attribution. 

The  prologue  presents  Peter  Fabel  of  Ed- 
monton, a  magician,  who  has  made  a  compact 
with  the  devil.  The  period  of  it  has  run  out, 
and  the  fiend  comes  to  claim  Fabel.  He  is 
however  tricked  into  sitting  down  in  a, 
necromantic  chair,  where  he  is  held  fast  and  is 
obliged  to  give  a  respite.  The  play  itself,  in 
which  -die  magical  element  is  practically 
absent,  deals  with  the  attempt  of  Sir  Arthur 
Clare  and  his  wife  to  break  off  the  match 
between  their  daughter  Millicent  and  Ray- 
mond Mounchensey,  and  its  defeat  by  the 
elopement  of  the  young  couple,  aided  by  the 
kindly  magician  Fabel. 

Merry  Monarch,  THE,  Charles  II. 

Merry  Mount,  the  name  given  by  Thomas 
Morton,  a  lawyer  of  Clifford's  Inn,  to  his 
settlement  near  Plymouth,  Mass.,  which  was 
established  about  1625.  After  many  en- 
counters with  the  Plymouth  settlers,  Morton 
was  captured  and  sent  to  England  in  1628 
and  the  settlement  suppressed.  He  returned 
to  Plymouth  in  the  following  year  and  made 
an  abortive  attempt  to  re-establish  his  colony. 

Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  The,  a  comedy  by 
Shakespeare  (q.v.),  probably  of  1600-1.  An 
imperfect  test  was  printed  in  1602,  the 
corrected  text  in  the  folio  of  1623.  It  is  said 
by  Dennis  to  have  been  written  by  command 
of  Queen  Elizabeth  to  show  Sir  John  Falstaff 
in  love. 

FalstafT  (q.v.),  who  is  cout  at  heels',  deter- 
mines to  make  love  to  the  wives  of  Ford  and 
Page,  two  gentlemen  dwelling  at  Windsor, 
because  they  have  the  rule  of  their  husband's 
purses.  Nym  and  Pistol,  the  discarded  fol- 
lowers of  Falstaff,  warn  the  husbands.  Fal- 
staff sends  identical  love-letters  to  Mrs.  Ford 
and  Mrs.  Page,  who  contrive  the  discomfiture 
of  the  knight.  At  a  first  assignation  at  Ford's 


MERRY-ANDREW 

house,  on  the  arrival  of  the  husband,  they  hide 
him  in  a  basket,  cover  him  with  foul  linen, 
and  have  him  tipped  into  a  muddy  ditch.  At 
a  second  assignation,  they  disguise  him  as  the 
'fat  woman  of  Brentford',  in  which  character 
he  is  soundly  beaten  by  Ford.  The  jealous 
husband  having  also  been  twice  befooled,  the 
plot  is  now  revealed  to  him,  and  a  final  as- 
signation is  given  to  Falstaff  in  Windsor 
Forest,  where  he  is  beset  and  pinched  by 
mock  fairies  and  finally  seized  and  exposed 
by  Ford  and  Page. 

The  underplot  is  concerned  with  the  wooing 
of  Anne,  the  daughter  of  Page,  by  three 
suitors,  Doctor  Caius,  a  French  physician, 
Slender,  the  foolish  cousin  of  Justice  Shallow, 
and  Fenton,  a  wild  young  gentleman,  whom 
Anne  loves.  Mistress  Quickly,  servant  to  Dr. 
Caius,  acts  as  go-between  for  all  three  suitors, 
and  encourages  them  all  impartially.  Sir 
Hugh  Evans,  a  Welsh  parson,  interferes  on 
behalf  of  Slender  and  incurs  the  enmity  of, 
and  receives  a  challenge  from,  the  irascible 
Dr.  Caius,  but  hostilities  are  confined  to  the 
'hacking*  of  the  English  tongue.  At  the  final 
assignation  with  Falstaff  in  the  forest,  Page, 
who  favours  Slender,  arranges  that  the  latter 
shall  carry  off  his  daughter,  who  is  to  be 
dressed  in  white;  while  Mrs.  Page,  who 
favours  Dr.  Caius,  arranges  that  he  shall 
carry  her  off  dressed  in  green.  In  the  event 
both  of  these  find  themselves  fobbed  off  with 
a  boy  in  disguise,  while  Fenton  has  run  away 
with  and  married  the  true  Anne. 
Merry- Andrew,  one  who  entertains  people 
by  antics  and  buffoonery,  a  clown.  The  OED. 
observes  that  Hearne's  statement,  in  the  pre- 
face to  his  edition  of  Benedictus  Abbas  (1735), 
that  'Merry  Andrew'  was  originally  applied 
to  Dr.  Andrew  Borde  (d.  1549)  has  neither 
evidence  nor  intrinsic  probability,  though 
Borde  had  a  reputation  for  buffoonery. 

Merton  College,  Oxford,  was  founded  in 
1264  by  Walter  de  Merton,  chancellor  of 
England  and  bishop  of  Rochester  (d.  1277). 
It  is  generally  regarded  as  the  first  society 
on  the  present  collegiate  model.  Roger 
Bacon,  Duns  Scotus,  and  Wycliffe  are  tra- 
ditionally connected  with  it.  Anthony  Wood 
(q.v.)  was  educated  there. 

Mertoun,  BASIL  and  MORDAUNT,  characters 
in  Scott's  'The  Pirate'  (q.v.). 

Mery greek,  MATTHEW,  a  character  in 
Udall's  'Ralph  Roister  Doister*  (q.v.). 

Mesmer,  FRIEDRICH  ANTON  (1733-1815),  an 
Austrian  physician,  who  popularized  the 
doctrine  or  system  known  as  Mesmerism, 
according  to  which  a  hypnotic  state  can  be 
induced  by  an  influence  exercised  by  the 
operator  over  the  will  and  nervous  system  of 
the  patient. 

Mesopotamia,  THAT  BLESSED  WORD  :  a  con- 
tributor to  «N.  and  Q.>  (Xlth  Ser.,  i.  45$) 
connects  the  phrase  with  the  famous  Metho- 
dist preacher  George  WhitefieM,  as  the  $  ex- 
planation 'commonly  current  in  religious 


METAPHYSICAL  SOCIETY 

circles *.  He  says,  'The  genesis  of  the  story 
was  indicated  several  years  ago  by  Mr.  Fran- 
cis Jacox.  Garrick,  who  greatly  admired 
Whitefield's  preaching,  was  it  seems  respon- 
sible for  its  introduction  in  religious  literature. 
Whitefield's  voice  was  so  wonderfully  modu- 
lated that  Garrick  said  "he  could  make  men 
either  laugh  or  cry  by  pronouncing  the  word 
Mesopotamia".'  No  reference  is  given  to 
Garrick's  writings. 

According  to  Brewer,  the  allusion  is  to  the 

story  of  an  old  woman  who  told  her  pastor 

that  she  'found  great  support  in  that  blessed 

word  Mesopotamia'.   Cf.  Cowper's  'Selkirk', 

Religion,  what  treasure  untold 

Resides  in  that  heavenly  word! 

Mesrour,  in  the  'Arabian  Nights*  (q.v.),  the 
executioner  of  the  Caliph  Haroun-al-Rashid, 
who  with  the  vizier  JafFar  used  to  accompany 
him  when  he  walked  at  night  disguised  about 
the  streets  of  Bagdad. 

Mess  John,  see  Mas  John. 

Messalina,  the  wife  of  the  Roman  emperor 
Claudius,  proverbial  for  her  profligacy.  She 
was  put  to  death  in  A.D.  48. 

Messiah,  the  Hebrew  title  (meaning 
'anointed5)  applied  in  the  O.T.  prophetic 
writings  to  a  promised  deliverer  of  the  Jewish 
nation,  and  hence  applied  to  Jesus  of  Naza- 
reth as  the  fulfilment  of  that  promise.  Hence, 
in  a  transferred  sense,  an  expected  liberator 
of  an  oppressed  people  or  country.  [OED.] 

Messiah,  The,  (i)  a  sacred  eclogue  by  Pope 
(q.v.),  published  in  'The  Spectator*  in  May 
1712,  embodying  in  verse  the  Messianic 
prophecies  of  Isaiah;  (2)  a  famous  oratorio  by 
Handel  (q.v.) ;  (3)  a  religious  epic  ('Messias') 
by  Klopstock  (q.v.). 

Mesty,  a  character  in  Marryat's  'Midship- 
man Easy'  (q.v.). 

Metalogicus,  see  John  of  Salisbury. 

Metamorphoses,  The,  a  series  of  mythologi- 
cal tales  in  verse  by  the  Roman  poet  Ovid 
(q.v.),  parts  of  which  have  been  translated  by 
various  English  poets,  and  which  provide  the 
material  for  many  literary  allusions, 

Metaphor,  the  transfer  of  a  name  or  descrip- 
tive term  to  an  object  different  from,  but 
analogous  to,  that  to  which  it  is  properly 
applicable,  e.g.  'abysmal  ignorance',  MIXED 
METAPHOR  is  the  application  of  two  incon- 
sistent metaphors  to  one  object. 

Metaphysical  Poets,  a  term  adopted  by 
Johnson  as  the  designation  of  certain  iyth- 
cent.  poets  (chief  of  whom  were  Donne  and 
Cowley)  addicted  to  'witty  conceits'  and  far- 
fetched imagery  (Johnson,  'Lives  of  the 
Poets',  'Cowley').  But  modern  opinion  does 
not  endorse  Johnson's  condemnation  of  these 
poets. 

Metaphysical  Society,  THE,  was  founded 
in  1869  by  Sir  J.  T.  Knowles  (q.v.).  It  lasted 
until  1 88 1  and  brought  together  most  of  the 


[515] 


Ll2 


METASTASIO 

leaders  of  English  thought  of  the  period,  of  all 
shades  of  opinion. 

METASTASIO ,  or  according  to  his  original 
name,  PIETRO  BONAVENTURA  TRAPASSI 
(1698-1782),  Italian  poet,  who  applied  his 
literary  gifts  and  dramatic  powers  to  the 
writing  of  operas,  of  which  the  best  were 
'Didone  Abbandonata'  (1724),  'Artaserse' 
(i73o),  the  'Olimpiade'  (1733),  and  'Achille 
in  Sciro*  (1736). 

Metathesis,  the  transposition  of  letters  or 
sounds  in  a  word.  When  the  transposition  is 
between  the  letters  or  sounds  of  two  words ,  it  is 
popularly  known  as  a  'Spoonerism',  of  which 
a  well-known  specimen  (attributed  to  the  late 
Rev.  W.  A.  Spooner,  Warden  of  New  College, 
Oxford)  is  'Kinquering  congs  their  titles  take*. 

Methodism,  a  movement  of  reaction  against 
the  apathy  of  the  Church  of  England  that  pre- 
vailed in  the  early  part  of  the  i8th  cent.  Its 
leaders  were  J.  and  C.  Wesley  and  Whitefield 
(qq.v.).  John  Wesley  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Moravians,  while  Whitefield 
adopted  Calvinistic  views;  their  followers 
consequently  separated,  those  of  Whitefield 
becoming  Calvinistic  Methodists,  sometimes 
called  Lady  Huntingdon's  Connection. 

The  name  'Methodist'  was  originally  ap- 
plied to  the  members  of  a  religious  society 
established  at  Oxford  in  1729  by  the  Wesleys 
and  other  members  of  the  University,  having 
for  its  object  the  promotion  of  piety  and 
morality.  It  was  subsequently  extended  to 
those  who  took  part  in  or  sympathized  with 
the  movement  above  described. 
Methuselah,  proverbial  for  the  extremely 
long  life  attributed  to  him  in  Gen.  v.  27. 
Metre,  from  Gk.  jterpov  measure,  any  specific 
form  of  poetic  rhythm,  determined  by  the 
number  and  character  of  the  feet  which  it 
contains .  In  the  compounds  DIMETER,  TRI- 
METER, &c.,  it  is  the  unit  which  is  repeated  a 
certain  number  of  times  in  a  line  of  verse. 
This  unit  consists  of  two  iambuses,  trochees, 
or  anapaests,  or  of  one  dactyl  (qq.v.).  Thus 
an  iambic  dimeter  consists  of  four  iambuses, 
a  hexameter  (q.v.)  of  six  dactyls  (or  equiva- 
lents). In  English  (accentual)  verse  stressed 
syllables  replace  the  long  syllables,  and  un- 
stressed syllables  the  short  syllables,  of  Greek 
and  Latin  (quantitative)  verse. 

Meudon,  CUR&  DE  (curate  of),  a  title  by 
which  Rabelais  (q.v.)  is  sometimes  designated. 
MEUN(G),  JEAN  DE,  see  Roman  de  la 
Rose. 

Mews  ?  THE  (meaning  originally  cages  for 
hawks  while  mewing  or  moulting),  stood  on 
the  site  of  Trafalgar  Square;  the  king's  fal- 
cons were  kept  there.   They  were  converted 
into  stables  for  the  royal  horses  in  the  reigns 
of  Edward  VI  and  Mary  (Stow). 
Mextli  or  Mexitl,  see  Huitzilopochtli. 
Meyerbeer,    GIACOMO   (originally   JAKOB) 
(1791-1864),     born    in    Berlin    of    Jewish 
descent,  a   famous  composer  of  operas,  of 

15 


MICHAL 

which  the  most  successful  were:  'Robert 
le  Diable'  (1831),  'Les  Huguenots*  (1836), 
'Le  Prophete'  (1842),  'L'Africaine'  (1865). 

MEYNELL,  ALICE  (1850-1923),  poet, 
essayist,  and  critic.  Her  rare  gifts,  both  in 
prose  and  poetry,  may  be  seen  in  her  volumes 
of  essays:  'The  Rhythm  of  Life'  (1893),  'The 
Colour  of  Life'  (1896),  'The  Children*  (1896), 
'The  Spirit  of  Peace'  (1898),  'Ceres'  Runa- 
way' (1910),  'The  Second  Person  Singular" 
{1921);  and  in  her  early  volume  of  'Preludes* 
(1875),  'Poems'  (1893),  'Later  Poems'  (1901), 
'A  Father  of  Women'  (1918),  and '  Last  Poems  * 
(1923).  A  complete  edition  of  her  poems  was 
published  in  1923. 

Micawber,  WILKINS  and  MRS.,  characters 
in  Dickens's  'David  Copperfield'  (q.v.). 
Michael,  a  pastoral  poem  by  W.  Words- 
worth (1800). 

Michael,  ST.,  the  archangel,  mentioned  as 
the  leader  of  the  angels  against  the  dragon 
and  his  host  in  Rev.  xii.  7,  and  described  by 
Milton  ('Paradise  Lost',  vi.  44)  as  *of  celestial 
armies  prince'.  He  is  one  of  the  four  princi- 
pal angels  enumerated  in  the  Koran,  the 
champion  of  the  faith.  His  feast  is  celebrated 
on  29  Sept.,  known  as  MICHAELMAS  (q.v.). 

MICHAEL  ANGELO   BUONARROTI, 

see  Michelangelo  Buonarroti. 
MICHAEL  ANGELO  TITMARSH,  the 
pseudonym  adopted  by  Thackeray  (q.v.)  in 
'The  Paris  Sketch-Book',  'The  Great  Hog- 
garty  Diamond*  (q.v.),  *The  Irish  Sketch- 
Book*,  'Bluebeard's  Ghost*,  'A  Legend  of  the 
Rhine*,  'Rebecca  and  Rowena',  'Mrs.  Perkins's 
Ball',  &c. 

Michael's  Mount,  ST.,  on  the  coast  of 
Cornwall.  See  Namancos. 
Michaelmas,  the  feast  of  St.  Michael  (q.v.), 
29  Sept.,  one  of  the  four  quarter-days  of  the 
English  business  year,  a  date  on  which 
servants  used  to  be  hired,  and  from  which 
leases  frequently  run,  &c.  There  is  an  old 
proverb  that  'Who  eats  goose  on  Michael's 
day,  Shan't  money  lack  his  debts  to  pay' 
('British  Apollo',  ed.  3,  1726,  n.  648). 

Michaelmas  Term,  a  comedy  by  T.  Middle- 
ton  (q.v.),  printed  in  1607. 

Quomodo,  a  usurer,  with  his  attendants, 
Shortyard  and  Falselight,  as  confederates, 
tries  to  effect  the  ruin  of  Easy,  a  simple 
country  gentleman.  He  succeeds  in  getting 
from  him  bonds  for  his  estate  in  Essex  and  is 
overjoyed  at  becoming  a  landed  proprietor. 
Wishing  to  see  how  his  wife  and  son  will  con- 
duct themselves  in  their  new  dignity,  he 
feigns  death.  He  is  dismayed  to  find  that  his 
wife  promptly  marries  Easy,  with  whom  she 
is  in  love,  and  that  his  son  shows  no  particular 
respect  for  his  late  father.  He  is  then  tricked 
into  signing  a  document  releasing  Easy  from 
his  obligations. 

Michal,  in  Dryden's  'Absalom  and  Achito- 
phel'  (q.v.),  is  the  queen  of  Charles  II, 
Catharine  of  Portugal,  accused  by  Oates  of 

16] 


MICHELANGELO 

conspiracy  against  the  king's  life.    For  the 
biblical  Michal  see  i  Sam.  xviii.  20. 

MICHELANGELO  BUONARROTI 
(1475-1564),  the  great  Italian  sculptor, 
painter,  and  poet,  was  born  at  Caprese  of  a 
Florentine  family,  was  apprenticed  to  Ghir- 
landajo,  and  enjoyed,  in  his  study  of  art,  the 
patronage  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici.  Of  his 
principal  works,  the  statue  of  David  was 
begun  in  1501.  The  great  fresco  for  the  Sala 
Grande  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  representing 
Florentine  soldiers  surprised  while  bathing 
by  English  troopers  under  Sir  John  Hawk- 
hurst  (q.v.,  the  battle  of  Cascina,  1364),  was 
painted  in  1505,  but  unfortunately  perished, 
and  the  cartoon  for  it  has  also  disappeared. 
The  mausoleum  for  Pope  Julius  II  occupied 
him  at  intervals  during  his  life,  but  he  was 
constantly  thwarted  in  its  execution,  and  only 
the  statue  of  Moses  and  the  two  figures  of  the 
Captives  in  the  Louvre  survive.  The  ceiling 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel  at  Rome  was  painted  in 
1508-12.  The  monuments  of  Giuliano  and 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  in  the  church  of  San 
Lorenzo  at  Florence  were  executed  in  1520, 
and  the  great  fresco  of  the  'Last  Judge- 
ment' on  the  east  wall  of  the  Sistine  Chapel 
was  painted  for  Paul  III  during  1535-41. 
In  1529,  when  Florence  was  threatened  by 
the  Imperial  forces,  Michelangelo  was  ap- 
pointed procurator-general  over  the  fortifica- 
tion of  the  city.  In  a  moment  of  panic  he 
deserted  his  post,  but  returned  when  the 
enemy  had  approached  the  city,  and  appears 
to  have  resumed  his  duties.  Florence  capi- 
tulated in  August  1530.  Michelangelo  suc- 
ceeded Sangallo  in  1546  as  architect  of 
St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  but  only  the  dome 
represents,  in  a  measure,  his  design.  As  a 
poet  Michelangelo  has  left  a  number  of 
remarkable  sonnets  and  madrigals,  some  of 
them  addressed  to  his  friend  Vittoria  Colonna 
(q.v.).  He  is  the  only  artist  of  supreme 
excellence  both  as  a  painter  and  a  sculptor. 
*He  belongs  to  the  genus  of  deep,  violent, 
colossal,  passionately  striving  natures;  not, 
like  Raffaello,  to  the  smooth,  serene,  broad, 
exquisitely  finished,  calmly  perfect  tribe1 
(J.  A.  Symonds). 

MICHELET,  JULES  (1798-1874),  French 
historian,  whose  principal  work,  the  'Histoire 
de  France'  (1833-67),  is  remarkable  for  its 
luminous  and  eloquent  style  and  for  the  part 
that  the  author  attributes  to  physical  cir- 
cumstances, such  as  the  health  or  heredity  of 
the  principal  actors,  in  determining  political 
events.  Michelet  wrote  a  number  of  mono- 
graphs, *Des  J&mites',  'Du  Pr£tre',  'La  Sor- 
ciere*,  &c.,  on  subjects  allied  to  history  in  his 
broad  conception  of  it. 
Miching  malicho,  a  phrase  of  uncertain 
meaning  occurring  in  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet', 
in.  ii.  148.  'Miching*  is  probably  the  participle 
of  the  Old  English  verb  'to  miche'  (surviving 
in  'to  mike*),  meaning  to  pilfer,  skulk,  play 
truant.  'Malicho*  perhaps  represents  the 
Spanish  malhecho,  misdeed.  This  yields  a 


MIDDLE  ENGLISH 
fairly  satisfactory  sense,  but  there  is  no 
evidence  that  the  Spanish  word  was  familiar 
in  English.  [OED.]  Lord  Miching  Malicho 
in  Peacock's  'Gryll  Grange*  (q.v.)  represents 
Lord  John  Russell. 

Micomicona,  the  princess  whom  Don 
Quixote  (q.v.)  thinks  that  he  is  rescuing  when 
he  attacks  the  wine-bags. 

Microcosm  of  London,  The>  a  well-known 
archaeological  and  topographical  work,  the 
text  by  William  Combe,  the  figures  drawn 
by  Rowlandson,  and  the  architecture  by 
Augustus  Charles  Pugin,  published  in  1808. 

Microcosmographie,  a  collection  of  character 
sketches  on  the  model  of  Theophrastus  (q.v.), 
chiefly  by  John  Earle  (1601  ?-6s),  bishop  of 
Salisbury,  published  in  1628.  The  author 
analyses  inconspicuous  types,  such  as  the 
plain  country  fellow,  a  modest  man,  and  a 
poor  man;  interesting  in  the  evolution  to- 
wards the  English  essay. 

Micromegas,  a  philosophical  romance  written 
by  Voltaire  (q.v.)  in  imitation  of  'Gulliver's 
Travels'. 

Midas ,  a  king  of  Phrygia,  who,  having  hospit- 
ably entertained  Silenus,  the  tutor  of  Bacchus, 
when  he  had  lost  his  way,  was  permitted  by 
the  god  to  choose  his  recompense.  He  asked 
that  whatever  he  touched  might  be  turned  to 
gold.  His  prayer  was  granted,  but  when  he 
found  that  the  very  meat  he  attempted  to  eat 
became  gold  in  his  mouth,  he  entreated 
Bacchus  to  relieve  him  of  the  gift.  He  was 
ordered  to  wash  himself  in  the  river  Pactolus, 
whose  sands  were  turned  into  gold  by  the 
touch  of  Midas.  On  another  occasion  Midas 
had  the  imprudence  to  declare  that  Pan  was  a 
superior  flute-player  to  Apollo,  whereupon 
the  offended  god  changed  his  ears  to  those  of 
an  ass,  to  indicate  his  stupidity.  This  Midas 
attempted  to  conceal;  but  one  of  his  servants 
saw  the  length  of  his  ears,  and  unable  to  keep 
the  secret,  and  afraid  to  reveal  it,  whispered 
the  fact  to  some  reeds,  and  these,  whenever 
agitated  by  the  wind,  repeated  to  the  world 
that  Midas  had  the  ears  of  an  ass. 

Midas,  a  prose  play  by  Lyly  (q.y.)>  published 
in  1592,  on  the  legend  of  Midas,  king  of 
Phrygia  (see  above). 

Midas,  SIR  GORGIUS  and  LADY,  types  of 
ostentatious  wealth,  depicted  in  some  of  Du 
Maurier's  (q.v.)  drawings  in  'Punch*. 

Middle  Ages,  THE,  the  period  of  time  from 
the  Roman  decadence  (5th  cent.  A.D.)  to  the 
Renaissance  (about  1500).  The  notion  is  that 
of  an  interval  between  two  periods  of  ad- 
vancing knowledge  (cf.  Bacon,  'Novum 
Organum'  I,  §  78).  The  earliest  use  of  Middle 
Age>  in  this  sense,  yet  discovered  is  in  one 
of  Donne's  sermons  (1621),  but  the  corre- 
sponding Latin  terms,  media  aetas,  medium 
aevum,  &c.,  are  found  at  various  dates  in  the 
1 6th  cent.  (See  an  article  on  this  subject  by 
George  Gordon  in  S.P.E.  Tract  XIX.) 

Middle  English,  see  English. 


[517] 


MIDDLE  YEARS 

Middle  Years,  The*  the  title  of  a  short 
story,  and  also  of  an  autobiographical  frag- 
ment, by  Henry  James  (q.v.). 
Middlemarch,  a  Study  of  Provincial  Life,  a 
novel  by  G.  Eliot  (q.v.),  published  in  1871-2. 
The  scene  is  laid  in  the  provincial  town  of 
Middlemarch  in  the  first  half  of  the  igth. 
cent.  The  story  is  concerned  principally  with 
Dorothea  Brooke,  a  St.  Theresa,  ardent, 
puritanical,  with  a  high  ideal  of  life.  She 
marries  the  elderly  pedant  Mr-  Casaubon, 
possessed  of  an  archangelical  manner,  for 
whom  she  feels  'the  reverence  of  a^neophyte 
entering  on  a  higher  grade  of  initiation*.  The 
marriage  is  intensely  unhappy.  Mr.  Casau- 
bon spends  the  honeymoon  in  research  into 
what  his  cousin,  young  Will  Ladislaw, 
irreverently  calls  his  'mouldy  futilities',  and 
alienates  Dorothea  by  his  lack  of  sympathy. 
There  supervenes  a  suspicion  in  his  mind  of 
his  wife's  preference  for  the  said  Will  Ladis- 
law, and  before  he  dies,  which  he  shortly 
does,  he  adds  with  characteristic  meanness,  a 
codicil  to  his  will  by  which  Dorothea  forfeits 
her  fortune  if  she  marries  Ladislaw.  Never- 
theless, in  the  end,  Dorothea  and  Ladislaw  are 
brought  together.  Parallel  with  this  plot  runs 
the  story  of  the  unhappy  marriage  of  Tertius 
Lydgate,  an  ambitious  young  doctor,  animated 
by  hopes  of  scientific  discoveries  and  medical 
reform,  with  the  beautiful  but  commonplace 
Rosamond  Vincy,  whose  materialism  brings 
about  the  failure  of  his  hopes. 

The  canvas  is  a  broad  one,  and  contains 
many  good  characters,  including  the  humor- 
ous Mrs.  Cadwallader,  the  rector's  wife;  the 
conventional  English  gentleman,  Sir  James 
Chettam;  Dorothea's  uncle,  Mr.  Brooke,  a 
man  *of  acquiescent  temper,  miscellaneous 
opinions,  and  uncertain  vote' ;  and  Mr.  Bui- 
strode,  the  religious  humbug. 
Middlemas,  RICHARD,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'The  Surgeon's  Daughter'  (q.v.). 

Mi<Jdleton,  CLAHA  and  DR.,  characters  in 
Meredith's  'The  Egoist'  (q.v.). 

MIDDLETON,  CONYERS  (1683-1750), 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
subsequently  fellow  of  the  college,  was  in- 
volved in  the  disputes  with  Bentley,  the 
master.  He  was  protobibliothecarius  of  the 
university  library  (1721).  His  chief  works 
were  his  'Life  of  Cicero*  (1741)  and  a  latitu- 
dinarian  'Free  Inquiry  into  Miracles'  (1748). 
His  conclusion  as  to  the  unreality  of  post- 
apostolic  miracles  aroused  much  criticism. 

Middleton,  SIR  HUGH,  see  Myddelton. 

MIBJ>LETON,  THOMAS  (is7o?-i6*7), 

dramatist,  was  the  son  of  parents  settled  in 
London.  He  wrote  satirical  comedies  of  con- 
temporary manners,  and  later,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  W.  Rowley,  romantic  comedies. 
Much  of  his  work  was  done  in  collaboration 
with  Dekker,  Rowley,  Monday,  and  others. 
He  also  wrote  pageants  and  masques  for  city 
ceremonials,  and  was  appointed  city  chrono- 
loger  in  1620.  In  1624  he  wrote  a  political 


MIDSUMMER  NIGHT'S  DREAM 

drama  'A  Game  at  Chesse*  (q.v.),  for  which 
he  and  the  actors  were  summoned  before  the 
Privy  Council.  His  other  plays  (which  were 
very  popular)  include  'The  Mayor  of  Quin- 
borough*  (1651)  and  possibly  'The  Old  Law* 
(1656,  in  collaboration  with  Massinger  and 
Rowley),  'Michaelmas  Terme  (q.v.,  1607), 
'A  Trick  to  catch  the  Old-One'  (1608),  'The 
Familie  of  Love'  (1608),  'A  Mad  World,  my 
Masters'  (1608),  'The  Roaring  Girle'  (q.v., 
i6n,with  Dekker), 'A  Faire  Quarrell' (q.v., 
1617,  with  Rowley),  'The  Changeling'  (q.v., 
1623,  with  Rowley),  'The  Spanish  Gipsy* 
(q.v.,  1623,  with  Rowley),  'More  Dis- 
semblers besides  Women'  (1657),  *A  Chast 
Mayd  in  Cheape-side*  (1630),  'No  Wit,  no 
Help  like  a  Woman's'  (1657),  *  Women  beware 
Women'  (q.v.,  1657),  'The  Witch'  (q.v.,  not 
published  until  1778),  'Anything  for  a  Quiet 
Life'  (1662),  'The  Widdow'  (1652,  with  Ben 
Jonson  and  Fletcher).  His  pageants  and 
masques  include  *The  Triumphs  of  Truth* 
(1613),  'Civitatis  Amor'  (1616),  'The 
Triumphs  of  Honor  and  Industry'  (1617), 
'The  Inner  Temple  Masque*  (1619),  'The 
Triumphs  of  Love  and  Antiquity*  (1619), 
'The  World  Tost  at  Tennis' ^  (1620),  'The 
Triumphs  of  Honor  and  Virtue*  (1622), 
'The  Triumphs  of  Integrity*  (1623),  "The 
Triumphs  of  Health  and  Prosperity'  (1626). 
He  is  supposed  to  have  also  written  some 
miscellaneous  verse  and  prose. 
Middletown,  by  R.S.and  H.M.Lynd  (1929), 
a  study  of  a  typical  present-day  American 
city. 

Midgard,   in   early   Scandinavian   cosmo- 
graphy, the  region,  encircled  by  the  sea,  in 
which  men  live,  the  earth. 
Midgard  Serpent,  THE,  see  Jormungander. 

Midshipman  Easy,  Mr.,  a  novel  by  Marryat 
(q.v.),  published  in  1836. 

Jack  Easy  is  the  son  of  Mr.  Nicodemus 
Easy,  a  rich  country  gentleman  with  a  bee  in 
his  bonnet,  who  believes  all  men  are  equal, 
and  instils  these  ideas  into  his  son.  When 
Jack  Easy  goes  to  sea  as  a  midshipman  his  in- 
sistence on  these  ideas,  and  his  argumentative 
disposition,  bring  him  into  conflict  with  naval 
discipline.  But  as  he  has  the  good  fortune  to 
meet  with  a  kindly  and  sensible  captain,  and 
is  moreover  a  plucky  and  straightforward 
youth,  and  heir  to  eight  thousand  a  year,  he 
gets  well  out  of  his  scrapes.  His  adventurous 
disposition  leads  him  into  a  number  of  ex- 
citing incidents;  their  fortunate  outcome  is 
largely  due  to  the  devotion  of  the  resourceful 
Ashantee,  Mesty,  and  of  his  fellow  midship- 
man, Edward  Gascoigne.  Among  the  many 
amusing  naval  characters  in  the  book  may  be 
mentioned  the  bellicose  chaplain,  Hawkins, 
Mr.  Biggs,  the  boatswain  ('Duty  before 
decency'),  and  Mr.  Pottyfar,  the  lieutenant 
who  kills  himself  with  his  own  universal 
medicine. 

Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  A,  a  comedy  by 
Shakespeare  (q.v.),  probably  written  in  1595 
or  1596,  and  printed  in  1600. 


MILLAMANT 

Moated   Grange*  (1851),  'Ophelia'  (1852), 
'Sir  Isumbras  at  the  Ford*  (1857),  'The  Black 
Brunswicker*  (1860),  'Chill  October*  (1871), 
'The  Princes  in  the  Tower*  (1878),  &c. 
MiUamant,  the  heroine  of  Congreve's  'The 
Way  of  the  World*  (q.v.),  a  witty  coquette,  a 
Beatrice  who  is  at  the  same  time  a  lady  of 
fashion,  the  author's  most  vivid  creation. 
MILLAY,  EDNA  ST.  VINCENT  (1892- 
),  American  author.  Her  works  include  'The 
Buck  in  the  Snow*  (1928)  and  'The  Princess 
Marries  the  Page*  (1932);  'Poems*  (1929). 
Millbank,  MR.,  OSWALD,  and  EDITH,  char- 
acters in  Disraeli's  'Coningsby*  (q.v.). 

MILLER,  HUGH  (1802-56),  by  trade  a 
stonemason,  was  author  of  geological  and 
other  works,  including  'The  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone* (contributed  to  the  'Witness*,  the 
organ  of  the  non-intrusionists  (q.v.),  of  which 
Miller  was  the  editor,  1841);  'Footprints  of 
the  Creator*  (1847);  the  pleasant  auto- 
biography, 'My  Schools  and  Schoolmasters* 
(1854);  and  'The  Testimony  of  the  Rocks' 
(1857). 

MILLER,  JOAQUIN  (CINCINNATUS  HEINE) 
(1841-1913),  American  poet,  author  of 'Songs 
of  the  Sierras*  (1871),  'Songs  of  the  Sun 
Lands'  (1872),  &c. 

Miller,  JOE,  see  Joe  Miller's  Jests. 
Miller  of  Mansfield,  THE,  the  subject  of  a 
ballad  included  in  Percy's  'Reliques*,  who 
entertains  Henry  II  unawares  and  is  knighted 
by  him. 

Miller  of  the  Bee,  the  subject  of  a  song  in 
the  comic  opera  'Love  in  a  Village*  by 
BickerstafTe  (q.v.). 

Miller  of  Trumpington,  THE,  the  miller  in 
the  'Reeve's  Tale*  in  Chaucer's  'Canterbury 
Tales'  (q.v.). 

Miller's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 

Mills,  Miss,  in  Dickens *s  'David  Copper- 
field*  (q.v.),  Dora's  friend. 

Millwood,  see  George  Barnwell. 

Milly  Swidger,  the  good  angel  in  Dickens's 
'The  Haunted  Man*  (q.v.). 

MILMAN,  HENRY  HART  (1791-1868), 
educated  at  Eton  and  Brasenose  College, 
Oxford,  became  incumbent  of  St.  Mary's, 
Reading,  then  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford 
(1821-31),  and  dean  of  St.  Paul's  (1849).  He 
wrote  a  number  of  dramas,  of  which  'Fazio* 
(1815),  a  tragedy  placed  in  Italy,  proved  suc- 
cessful on  the  stage.  But  Milman  is  chiefly 
remembered  for  his  historical  writings:  his 
'History  of  the  Jews*  (1830),  'History  of 
Christianity  from  the  Birth  of  Christ  .  .  .* 
(1840),  and  his  principal  work,  'The  History 
of  Latin  Christianity*  (1854—5),  which  gave 
him  high  fame  as  an  historian.  His  'Annals  of 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral*  were  published  in  1868. 
MILNES,  RICHARD  MONCKTON 
.  (1809-85),  first  Baron  Houghton,  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 


MILTON 

was  intimate  with  Tennyson,  HaUam,  and 
Thackeray.  He  became  an  active  politician. 
Of  his  songs  and  other  poems  ('Poetical 
Works*,  1876),  those  best  known  are  'The 
Brookside*  and  'Strangers  Yet'.  He  also 
wrote  on  political  and  critical  subjects  ('Mono- 
graphs', 1873),  and  edited  and  wrote  a  Life 
of  Keats  (1848);  in  fact  he  was  the  first  open 
champion  of  Keats  as  a  poet  of  the  first  rank. 
Milo,  a  celebrated  athlete  of  Crotona  in 
Italy,  who  attained  immense  strength.  He 
was  one  of  the  disciples  of  Pythagoras,  who 
owed  his  life  to  the  strength  of  his  pupil.  For 
one  day  the  pillar  which  supported  the  roof 
of  his  school  gave  way ;  but  Milo  supported 
the  building  and  gave  the  philosopher  and  his 
audience  time  to  escape.  In  attempting  to 
tear  down  a  tree  in  his  old  age,  Milo's  hands 
were  caught  in  a  cleft  in  the  wood ;  being  un- 
able to  escape,  he  was  eaten  up  by  wild  beasts. 

Milton,  for  the  poem  of  that  name  by  Blake, 
see  Blake. 

MILTON,  JOHN  (1608-74),  was  bom  in 
Bread  Street,  Cheapside,  at  the  Sign  of  the 
Spread  Eagle,  the  house  of  his  father,  John 
Milton  the  elder,  a  scrivener  and  composer  of 
music.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  School 
and  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  becoming 
B.A.  in  1629  and  M.A.  in  1632.  While  at 
Cambridge  he  wrote  the  poems  'On  the 
Death  of  a  Fair  Infant*  and  'At  a  Vacation 
Exercise*,  in  his  i7th  and  iQth  year  respec- 
tively, and  some  Latin  elegies  and  epigrams; 
but  he  first  struck  a  distinctive  note  in  the 
stately  ode  'On  the  morning  of  Christ's 
Nativity*  (1629),  the  fragmentary  'Passion*, 
and  the  sonnet  to  Shakespeare  (1630).  The 
two  pieces  on  Hobson,  the  university  carrier, 
belong  to  the  same  period,  and  also  the 
'Epitaph  on  the  Marchioness  of  Winchester*. 
After  leaving  Cambridge,  Milton  took  up  no 
profession,  but  lived  at  Horton  in  Bucks  with 
his  father,  reading  the  classics  and  preparing 
himself  for  his  vocation  as  a  poet,  from  1632 
to  1637.  Here  he  composed  'L'Allegrp*  and 
*I1  Penseroso*(qq.v.)  in  1 632,  and  atthe  invita- 
tion of  Henry  Lawes  (who  wrote  the  music  for 
them)  the  'Arcades*  (part  of  a  masque, 
1633  ?)  and  the  masque  'Comus*  (q.v.,  1634, 
published  1637).  In  1637  he  wrote  'Lycidas* 
(q.v.).  During  the  twenty  years  that  elapsed 
between  this  and  his  composition  of  'Paradise 
Lost',  Milton  wrote  no  poetry  but  the  sonnets 
and  some  Italian  pieces.  Of  the  former  the 
most  notable  are  those  'On  the  late  Massacre 
in  Piedmont*,  on  his  blindness,  on  his 
deceased  wife,  the  addresses  to  Cromwell, 
Fairfax,  and  Vane,  and  those  to  Lawrence, 
Lawes,  and  Cyriack  Skinner.  From  1637  to 
1639  Milton  travelled  abroad,  chiefly  in  Italy, 
and  visited  Grotius  and  Galileo  (the  latter  in 
prison).  On  his  return  he  became  tutor  to  his 
nephews,  Edward  and  John  Philips,  and  other 
pupils.  In  1641  he  published  a  series  of 
pamphlets  against  episcopacy,  engaging  in 
controversy  with  Bishop  Hall.  These  were 
followed  in  1642  by  his  'Apology  against  a 


bail 


MILTON 

pamphlet  «  .  .  against  Smectymnuus*  (see 
Smectymnuus))  containing  some  interesting 
autobiographical  details.  Milton  married 
Mary  Powell,  daughter  of  Royalist  parents, 
probably  in  June  1642  (not  1643  as  has  been 
generally  supposed:  see  B.  A.  Wright  in 
'Modern  Language  Review5,  Oct.  1931  and 
Jan.  1 932).  Within  six  weeks  he  consented  to 
her  going  home  to  her  parents  on  condition 
that  she  returned  by  Michaelmas.  She  did 
not  do  so,  perhaps  for  reasons  connected  with 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  Milton  pub- 
lished in  1643  his  pamphlet  on  the  'doctrine 
and  discipline  of  divorce*  which  made  him 
notorious.  In  1644-5  ^e  published  three 
further  pamphlets  on  divorce  (including 
'Tetrachordon',  q.v.),  his  'Tractate  of  Educa- 
tion*, and  the  'Areopagitica*  (q.v.)  on  the 
liberty  of  the  press.  His  wife  rejoined  him  in 
1645,  and  in  1647  he  gave  up  teaching  pupils, 
his  circumstances  having  become  easier  on  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1646.  After  the  execution 
of  Charles  I  he  published  the  'Tenure  of  Kings 
and  Magistrates*  (1649),  and  was  appointed 
Latin  secretary  to  the  newly  formed  Council 
of  State.  He  replied  officially  to  'Eikon 
Basilike*  (q.v.)  in  'Eikonoclastes*  the  Image- 
breaker  (1649),  and  to  Salmasius  (q.v.)  in 
'Pro  populo  Anglicano  Defensio*  (1650),  and 
also  to  Du  Moulin's  'Clamor'  (which  he  at- 
tributed to  Morus,  or  More)  in  *Defensio 
Secunda*  (1654),  which  contains  autobio- 
graphical passages  (the  two  'Defensiones* 
were  in  Latin).  Having  become  blind,  he 
was  assisted  in  his  secretarial  duties  suc- 
cessively by  G.  R.  Weckherlin,  Philip  Mea- 
dows, and  Marvell  (q.v.).  His  first  wife  died 
in  1652,  leaving  three  daughters,  and  in  1656 
he  married  Catharine  Woodcock,  who  died  in 
1658.  He  retained  his  post  as  Latin  secretary 
until  the  Restoration,  having  lived  while 
holding  it  chiefly  in  a  house  in  Petty  France, 
Westminster.  At  the  Restoration  he  was 
arrested  and  fined,  but  released;  he  lost  the 
greater  part  of  his  fortune.  On  the  discom- 
fiture of  his  principles  and  aspirations,  he 
returned  to  poetry  and  set  about  the  com- 
position of  'Paradise  Lost*  (q.v.),  the  first 
sketch  of  which  can  be  dated  as  early  as  1642. 
He  married  his  third  wife,  Elizabeth  Min- 
shull  (who  survived  him),  in  1662,  and  moved 
to  what  is  now  Bunhill  Row,  where  he  spent 
the  remaining  years  of  his  life.  The  'Paradise 
Lost*  is  said  by  Aubrey  to  have  been  finished 
in  1663,  but  the  agreement  for  his  copyright 
was  not  signed  till  1667.  His  last  poems, 
'Paradise  Regained*  (q,v.),  and  'Samson 
Agonistes'  (q.v.),  were  published  together  in 
1671.  He  published  his  Latin  grammar  and 
'History  of  Britain*  (from  legendary  times  to 
the  Norman  Conquest)  in  1669  and  1670 
respectively;  a  compendium  of  Ramus's 
'Logic*,  1672;  a  tract  on  'True  Religion', 
1673;  'Familiar  Letters*,  1674;  and  'College 
Exercises',  1674.  His 'Brief  History  of  Mos- 
covia',  containing  a  curious  account  of  the 
country,  drawn  from  the  Hakluyt  and  Pur- 
chas  collections,  appeared  in  1682. 


MINERVA 

Of  Milton's  Latin  poems,  the  finest  is  the 
*Epitaphium  Damonis',  written  in  1639,  on 
the  death  of  his  friend  Charles  Diodati  (q.v.) ; 
while  the  epistle  'Ad  Patrem*  and  the  address 
to  'Mansus*  (Giovanni  Battista  Manso,  the 
intimate  friend  of  Tasso  and  Marini)  have 
great  interest. 

The  'State  Papers'  that  he  wrote  as  Latin 
secretary  are  mostly  concerned  with  the 
routine  work  of  diplomacy,  but  include  an 
interesting  series  of  dispatches,  from  1655 
to  1658,  on  the  subject  of  the  expulsion  and 
massacre  of  the  Protestant  Vaudois  by  the 
orders  of  the  Prince  of  Savoy,  which  breathe 
the  same  indignation  that  found  more  un- 
restrained expression  in  his  sonnet  'Avenge, 
O  Lord,  thy  slaughtered  saints*.  The  Latin 
prose  writings  include  his  *De  Doctrina 
Christiana*,  printed  in  1825,  which  served  as 
the  occasion  for  Macaulay's  essay  on  Milton. 

Milton  died  from  'gout  struck  in*,  and  was 
buried  beside  his  father,  in  St.  Giles', 
Cripplegate,  London.  His  most  important 
biography  is  David  Masson's  'Life  of  Milton, 
narrated  in  connection  with  the  Political, 
Ecclesiastical,  and  Literary  History  of  his 
Time*  (1859-80). 

Milward,  RICHARD  (1609-80),  amanuensis 
to  Selden  (q.v.),  whose  'Table  Talk*  he 
compiled. 

Mime,  a  kind  of  simple  farcical  drama  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  characterized  by 
mimicry  and  the  ludicrous  representation  of 
familiar  types  of  character;  or  a  dialogue 
written  for  recital  in  a  performance  of  this 
kind.  The  form  is  also  occasionally  applied 
to  similar  performances  or  compositions  in 
modern  times.  [OEDJ  But  in  the  modem 
usage  the  word  generally  means  dumb  acting. 

Miming,  in  northern  mythology,  a  magical 
sword  forged  by  Volundr  (Wieland,  see 
Wayland  the  Smith).  This  sword,  in  the 
hands  of  Hc>dur,  was,  according  to  one  form 
of  the  legend,  the  means  of  slaying  Balder 
(q.v.). 

Mimir  or  MIMER,  in  Scandinavian  mytho- 
logy, a  giant  water-demon  who  dwelt  at  the 
root  of  Yggdrasil  (q.v.)  guarding  the  waters 
of  the  well  of  wisdom. 

Mincing  Lane,  in  the  City  of  London, 
originally,  according  to  Stow,  Mincheon  Lane, 
from  mincken,  a  nun,  so  called  from  the  nuns 
of  the  priory  of  St.  Helen's  in  Bishopsgate, 
which  owned  the  lane.  It  is  now  the  chief 
centre  of  the  trade  in  tea,  sugar,  and  other 
colonial  produce.  In  Stow's  day  it  was 
occupied  by  'galley-men*  from  Genoa,  who 
brought  up  wines  and  other  merchandize, 
which  they  landed  in  Thames  Street. 
Mind,  the  philosophical  periodical,  see  Bain. 
Minerva,  the  Roman  goddess  of  wisdom 
and  of  arts  and  trades,  subsequently  identified 
with  the  Greek  Athene  (q.v.),  which  led  to 


her  being  regarded  also  as  the  goddess  of  war. 
She  was  further  held  1 


I  to  have  invented  musical 


instruments. 


[532] 


MINERVA 

Minerva,  jfahrbuch  des  Gelehrten  Welt,  a 
reference  book  of  the  universities,  colleges, 
libraries,  museums,  learned  societies,  scienti- 
fic institutions,  &c.,  of  the  whole  world,  pub- 
lished by  Walter  de  Gruyter  &  Co.,  Berlin 
and  Leipzig. 

Minerva  Press,  a  printing  press  formerly 
existing  in  Leadenhall  Street,  London;  hence 
the  series  of  ultra-sentimental  novels  issued 
with  the  imprint  of  this  press  about  1800. 

Ming,  the  dynasty  that  ruled  in  China  from 
1368  until  ousted  by  the  Manchu  (Tsing) 
dynasty  in  1 643 .  The  porcelain  of  this  period 
is  highly  esteemed. 

Minifie,  SUSANNAH,  see  Gunning. 

Minim,  a  friar  belonging  to  the  mendicant 
order  (Or do  Minimorum  Eremitarum)  founded 
by  St.  Francis  of  Paola(c.  1416-1507). 

Minim,  DICK,  a  character  sketched  in 
Johnson's  *  Idler'  (q.v.).  Inheriting  a  fortune, 
he  turns  man  of  wit  and  humour  and  sets  up 
as  a  critic.  He  has  his  own  seat  in  a  coffee- 
house and  heads  a  party  in  the  pit,  where  he 
prudently  spares  the  authors  whose  reputation 
is  well  established  and  censures  those  who  are 
unknown. 

Minnehaha,  see  Hiawatha. 

Minnesingers,  German  lyrical  poets  and 
singers  of  the  i2th,  i3th,  and  i4th  cents.,  so 
called  because  love  (minne)  was  the  chief 
theme  of  their  songs.  They  corresponded  to 
the  French  troubadours.  The  best-known 
name  among  these  poets  of  the  old  chivalry 
is  that  of  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide  (fl. 
1200). 

Minoan,  the  name  given  by  Sir  A.  Evans 
(q.v.)  to  the  civilization  revealed  by  his  ex- 
cavations at  the  Palace  of  Minos  at  Knossos  in 
Crete,  so  called  after  the  legendary  King 
Minos  (q.v.).  Of  this  civilization  (represented 
by  products  of  arts  and  crafts,  with  hazy  poli- 
tical inferences  therefrom)  he  has  recognized 
three  main  phases,  Early,  Middle,  and  Late 
Minoan,  and  he  has  subdivided  each  phase 
into  three  sub-periods,  of  advance,  acme,  and 
decline,  I,  II,  and  III.  The  earliest  Minoan 
dates  from  the  last  part  of  the  Neolithic  Age. 
It  has  been  found  possible  to  relate  this 
civilization  to  the  history  of  Egypt,  Early 
Minoan  being  roughly  synchronous  with  the 
first  ten  Egyptian  dynasties  (3400-2400  B.C.), 
Middle  Minoan  with  the  nth-iyth  Egyptian 
dynasties  (2400-1600  B.C.),  and  Late  Minoan 
with  the  1 8th  and  iQth  Egyptian  dynasties 
(1600-1200  B.C.)  Knossos  was,  in  classical 
tradition,  the  seat  of  King  Minos  and  the 
home  of  the  Minotaur. 

Minories,  a  street  leading  from  Aldgate  to 
the  Tower  of  London,  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  Minoresses,  nuns  of  the  second  order 
of  St.  Francis,  known  as  Poor  Clares,  whose 
house  stood  outside  Aldgate. 

Minorites,  Franciscan  friars. 

Minos  9  a  legendary  king  of  Crete,  son  of 


MIRACLE  PLAYS 

Zeus  and  Europa  (q.v.),  who  gave  laws  to  his 
subjects  and  displayed  so  much  justice  and 
moderation  that  he  was  rewarded  after  death 
by  being  made  supreme  judge  in  the  infernal 
regions.  According  to  another  legend,  his 
namesake  and  grandson,  Minos,  after  con- 
quering the  Athenians,  caused  a  yearly 
tribute  of  seven  youths  and  seven  maidens 
to  be  brought  to  Crete  to  be  devoured  by 
the  Minotaur  (q.v.).  He  caused  Daedalus 
(q.v.)  to  be  confined  in  the  labyrinth  which 
he  had  constructed,  and  when  Daedalus 
escaped,  pursued  him  to  Sicily,  and  was  there 
slain  by  Cocalus,  the  king. 

MINOT,  LAURENCE,  probably  a  soldier, 
the  author,  about  1352,  of  war-songs  in 
various  metres,  on  Halidon  Hill,  the  Capture 
of  Berwick,  the  battle  of  Cr£cy,  the  siege 
of  Calais,  and  similar  historical  subjects. 
Though  not  of  a  high  poetical  order,  the 
songs  are  spirited,  giving  a  vivid  idea  of 
medieval  warfare,  and  marked  by  keen 
patriotism  and  loyalty  to  the  king, 

Minotaur,  THE,  a  Cretan  monster.  Minos 
(q.v.)  refused  to  sacrifice  to  Neptune  a  white 
bull  which  the  god  had  given  him  for  that 
purpose.  The  god  to  punish  him  caused  his 
wife  Pasiphae  to  become  enamoured  of  the 
bull,  and  she  gave  birth  to  this  monster. 
Minos  confined  it  in  the  labyrinth  made  by 
Daedalus  (q.v.),  where  it  consumed  the 
youths  and  maidens  paid  by  the  conquered 
Athenians  as  a  tribute,  until  Theseus  (q.v.) 
delivered  his  country  and  destroyed  the 
monster.  Representations  of  a  sport  of  bull- 
leaping  or  baiting  (perhaps  ritual  or  cere- 
monial) are  frequent  in  Cretan  art  of  the 
Minoan  period. 

Minstrel,  The,  see  Beattie. 

Minuscule,  in  palaeography,  a  small  letter 
or  script,  distinguished  from  majuscule  (q.v.) 
by  being  smaller  and  having  one  letter  joined 
to  the  next. 

Miolnir  or  MjSLNiR,  in  Scandinavian 
mythology,  the  hammer  of  Thor  (q.v.). 

Mirabeau,  VICTOR  DE  RIQUETTI,  Marquis  dey 
see  Physiocrats. 

Mirabell,  (i)  the  hero  of  J.  Fletcher's  'Wild 
Goose  Chase*  (q.v.) ;  (2)  in  Congreve's  *The 
Way  of  the  World'  (q.v.),  the  lover  of  Milla- 
mant. 

Mirabilia  Urbis  Romae,  a  medieval  guide- 
book to  Rome.  Its  first  form  probably  dates 
from  the  I2th  cent.,  and  it  was  perhaps 
'kept  up  to  date*  till  the  isth.  There  is  a 
translation  by  F.  Nichols  (1889). 

Miracle  Plays,  medieval  dramatic  repre- 
sentations based  on  sacred  history  or  on 
legends  of  the  saints.  Whether  they  were 
evolved  from  alternating  songs  sung  in 
church  (e.g.  at  the  service  on  Easter  Eve,  be- 
tween the  three  women  approaching  the 
grave  and  the  Angel  who  guards  it),  or  were 
spontaneous  expressions  of  the  dramatic 


[5*3] 


MIRAMOLIN 

instinct,  is  a  point  on  which  the  authorities 
are  not  agreed.  What  is  perhaps  the  earliest 
English  miracle  play,  'The  Harrowing  of 
Hell'  (q.v.),  is  of  the  late  I3th  or  i4th  cent., 
though  such  plays  existed  in  France  much 
earlier.  They  reached  their  fullest  develop- 
ment in  the  i5th  and  i6th  cents.  The  four 
great  collections  of  extant  English  'miracles' 
or  'mysteries'  are  known  by  the  names  of  the 
towns  where  they  were,  or  are  supposed  to 
have  been,  performed,  York,  Chester,  Coven- 
try, and  Wakefield  (the  last  being  also  known 
as  the  'Towneley*  plays).  Their  performance 
was  supervised  by  the  corporation  of  the 
town,  the  several  episodes  being  generally 
distributed  among  the  guilds  of  handicrafts, 
and  acted  on  wheeled  stages  moved  pro- 
cessionally  from  one  open  place  to  another, 
or  only  in  one  place.  The  scenes  varied  in 
length  from  180  to  800  lines,  and  were 
written  in  different  metres,  sometimes 
rhymed,  sometimes  alliterative,  sometimes 
both.  They  were  played  principally  on 
festivals,  Corpus  Christi  day,  Christmas, 
Whitsuntide,  Easter. 

Not  only  is  there  no  dearth  of  humour  in 
these  plays,  but  they  are  notable  in  the 
history  of  the  drama  for  the  introduction  of 
comic  by-play  and  episode.  A  good  instance 
of  this  is  afforded  by  the  'Second  Shepherd's 
Play'  in  the  Towneley  cycle.  The  shepherds 
are  watching  their  sheep  by  night,  when  Mak 
the  sheep-stealer  makes  his  appearance.  He 
succeeds  in  stealing  a  sheep  and  takes  it  to  his 
home,  where  he  and  his  wife  put  it  in  a  cradle. 
When  the  shepherds  search  his  house,  Mak 
pretends  that  there  is  a  new-born  baby  in  the 
cradle ;  but  the  fraud  is  discovered  and  gives 
rise  to  much  hilarity.  They  toss  Mak  in  a 
blanket  till  they  are  tired ;  then  lie  down  and 
sleep.  They  are  awakened  by  an  angel  who 
tells  them  that  the  Redeemer  is  born  and 
they  must  go  to  Bethlehem. 

Sir  E.  K.  Chambers's  'The  Mediaeval  Stage' 
is  the  classic  work  on  this  subject. 

Miramolin  (written  Maramoline  by  R. 
Browning  in  'Sordello'),  a  Spanish  word, 
corruption  of  the  Arabic  Amir  ul  Muminin, 
'Commander  of  the  Faithful*,  the  European 
designation  in  the  Middle  Ages  of  the  emperor 
of  Morocco. 

Miranda,  in  Shakespeare's  'The  Tempest* 
(q.v.),  the  daughter  of  Prospero. 

Mirobolant,  MONSIEUR,  in  Thackeray's 
'Pendennis*  (q.v.),  the  French  cook  at 
Clavering  Park. 

Minor  for  Magistrates,  A,  a  work  planned 
by  George  Ferrers,  Master  of  the  King's 
Pastimes  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,  and 
William  Baldwin  of  Oxford,  in  which  divers 
imistnous  men,  most  of  them  characters  in 
English  history,  recount  in  verse  their  down- 
fell,  after  the  manner  of  Lydgate's  version  of 
Boccaccio  VFall  of  Princes'.  It  was  licensed 
tor  publication  in  1559,  and  contained  twenty 
tragedies  by  various  authors.  Thomas  Sack- 


[524] 


MISS  KILMANSEGG 

ville  contributed  the  'Induction*  (in  which 
Sorrow  leads  the  poet  to  the  realms  of  the 
dead)  and  'The  Complaint  of  Buckingham' 
(q.v.)  to  the  enlarged  edition  of  1563. 
Further  editions  were  published  in  1574, 
1578,  1587,  and  1610.  Sackville's  contribu- 
tion is  the  only  part  having  literary  merit. 

Mirror  of  Fools,  'Speculum  Stultorum9,  see 

Wireker. 

Mirvan,    CAPTAIN,    a    character    in    Miss 

Burney's  'Evelina'  (q.v.). 

Mirza,  The  Vision  of,  see  Vision  of  Mirza. 

Misanthrope,  Le,  one  of  the  greatest  come- 
dies of  Moliere  (q.v.),  produced  in  1666,  in 
which  he  represents  the  conflict  between  the 
noble  but  cross-grained  Alceste  and  the 
worldly  coquettish  Celimene  whom  he  loves. 

Miserrimus,  the  sole  inscription  on  a  tomb- 
stone in  the  cloisters  of  Worcester  Cathedral. 
The  tomb  is  said  to  be  that  of  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Morris,  a  minor  canon,  who  refused 
to  take  the  oaths  to  William  III,  was  deprived 
of  his  preferment,  and  died  destitute.  Words- 
worth takes  a  more  mysterious  view  in  his 
sonnet  on  'A  Gravestone',  beginning : 
'Miserrtmus')  and  neither  name  nor  date. 

'Miserrimus,  a  Tale',  by  Frederic  Mansel 
Reynolds  (d.  1850),  was  published  in  1833. 

Misfortunes  of  Elphin,  The,  a  novel  by 
Peacock  (q.v.),  published  in  1829. 

It  is  an  entertaining  parody  of  the  Arthur- 
ian legends.  Elphin  is  king  of  Caredigion  in 
southern  Wales,  but  the  bulk  of  his  territory 
has  been  engulfed  by  the  sea,  owing  to  the 
drunkenness  of  Prince  Seithenyn,  who  was 
charged  with  the  duty  of  maintaining  the  em- 
bankment to  keep  out  the  waves.  Elphin  him- 
self, during  the  greater  part  of  the  story,  is  im- 
prisoned by  a  more  powerful  neighbour  for 
refusing  to  recognize  that  the  latter's  wife  is 
more  chaste  and  beautiful  than  his  own.  The 
young  bard  Taliesin  effects  his  rescue  by  en- 
listing the  aid  of  King  Arthur.  This  he  ob- 
tains by  restoring  to  him  Guinevere,  who  has 
been  abducted  by  King  Melvas.  The  book 
includes  the  celebrated  'War-Song  of  Dinas 
Vawr'. 

Mishnah,  the  collection  of  binding  precepts 
or  halakhoth  (see  'Halachah'  under  Haggadah) 
which  forms  the  basis  of  the  Talmud  (q.v.) 
and  embodies  the  contents  of  the  oral  law 
of  the  Jews. 

Misrule,  KING,  LORD,  or  ABBOT  OF,  at  the 
end  of  the  15th  and  beginning  of  the  i6th 
cents.,  an  officer  appointed  at  court  to  super- 
intend the  Christmas  revels.  At  the  Scottish 
court  he  was  called  the  'Abbot  of  Unreason'. 
Lords  of  Misrule  were  also  appointed  in  some 
of  the  university  colleges  and  Inns  of  Court. 

Miss  Kilmansegg  and  her  precious  Leg,  A 
Golden  Legend,  a  tragi-comic  poem  by  T. 
Hood  (q.v.),  published  in  the  'New  Monthly 
Magazine'  (1841-3). 
Miss  Kiimansegg,  the  daughter  of  the 


MISSISSIPPI  BUBBLE 

wealthy  Sir  Jacob,  is  born  and  brought  up  in 
the  midst  of  gold.  Her  horse  runs  away  with 
her  and  falls,  and  she  has  to  lose  her  leg.  It  is 
replaced  by  one  made  of  gold,  and  becomes 
famous.  The  heiress  has  many  suitors,  but 
marries  a  sinister  foreign  count,  who  breaks 
her  heart,  and  finally  her  head,  this  last  with 
the  golden  leg  itself,  and  the  jury  bring  in  a 
'  verdict  offelo  de  set  'Because  her  own  leg  had 
killed  her'. 

Mississippi  Bubble,  see  Law  (J.). 
Mr.  Clutterbuck's  Election,  a  novel  by  H. 
Belloc  (q.v.). 

'Mr.  F's  Aunt',  an  eccentric  character  in 
Dickens's  'Little  Dorrit'  (q.v.). 
Mr.  ^  GilfiVs   Love- Story,    see    Scenes    of 
Clerical  Life. 

Mr.  Potty,  The  History  of,  a  novel  by  Wells 
(q.v.),  published  in  1910. 

Alfred  Polly,  when  the  story  opens,  is  a 
dyspeptic  inefficient  shopkeeper  with  a 
literary  turn,  who  after  a  career  as  salesman 
to^  various  employers,  a  small  legacy,  and  an 
injudicious  marriage,  has  bought  an  un- 
profitable little  shop  in  a  small  seaside  town. 
After  fifteen  years  of  passive  endurance  he 
finds  bankruptcy  approaching  and  prepares 
for  suicide.  Instead,  he  sets  his  shop  on  fire 
and  bolts.  He  chances  upon  a  perfect  situa- 
tion as  man  of  all  work  at  the  Potwell  Inn — 
perfect  but  for  the  landlady's  ferocious 
nephew,  who  terrorizes  and  persecutes  his 
aunt  and  threatens  destruction  to  Polly  if 
he  doesn't  clear  out.  Polly,  nobly  conquering 
his  innate  timidity,  in  three  murderous  en- 
counters defeats  and  finally  ousts  the  villain, 
and  is  left  completely  happy,  having  in  the 
course  of  the  story  completely  gained  the 
reader's  affection. 

Mr.  Sludge,  the  'Medium',  a  poem^by  R. 
Browning  (q.v.)  included  in  'Dramatis  Per- 
sonae',  published  in  1864. 

The  poet  puts  into  the  mouth  of  Sludge, 
the  detected  cheat,  a  confession  and  defence 
of  his  profession  of  fraudulent  medium. 
Browning  distrusted  mediums,  and  was 
strongly  antagonistic  to  the  American 
spiritualist,  Daniel  D.  Home.  But  here  he 
allows  Sludge  to  make  the  best  of  his  case 
and  to  place  a  fair  share  of  the  blame  on  the 
folly  of  his  audiences. 

Mistletoe  (from  old  English  mistel,  (i)  basil 
(q.v.)  or  (2)  mistletoe,  and  tan,  twig),  a  para- 
sitic plant  growing  on  various  trees.  The 
mistletoe  of  the  oak  was  regarded  by  the 
Druids  as  a  sacred  plant.  The  cutting  of  it 
by  the  Druids  with  a  golden  sickle  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year  and  with  attendant 
sacrifice  is  described  by  Pliny  (xvi.  44).  A 
trace  of  this  practice  is  to  be  found  in  our 
use  of  mistletoe  in  Christmas  decorations. 
Shakespeare  ('Titus  Andronicus',  n.  iii) 
speaks  of  it  as  the  'baleful  mistletoe*.  Ac- 
cording to  Scandinavian  mythology,  Balder 
(q.v.)  was  slain  with  a  sprig  of  mistletoe,  the 
only  thing  that  could  harm  him. 


MITFORD 

Mistletoe  Bough,  The,  see  Ginevra. 
MISTRAL,  FRfiDfiRIC  (1830-1914),  a 
French  poet  of  Provence,  who  revived  the 
glory  of  Provensal  literature.  His  best-known 
works  are  the  pastoral  epic  'Mireio'  CiSso) 
'Calendar  (1866),  'Lis  Iselo  d'Or'  (1876), 
'La  Reino  Jano*,  and  'Nerto'  (1886). 

Mrs.  Caudle's  Curtain  Lectures,  by  Jerrold 
(q.v.),  appeared  in  'Punch'  during  the  year 
1845,  and  greatly  added  to  that  periodical's 
popularity. 

Mr.  Caudle  is  a  'toyman  and  doll-merchant* 
and  his  wife  is  a  voluble  and  jealous  scold. 
The  lectures,  addressed  to  him  when  he 
wants  to  go  to  sleep,  are  reproofs  for  his  mildly 
convivial  habits,  exhortations  to  take  the 
family  to  the  ^  seaside,  or  disquisitions  on 
similar  domestic  subjects. 

Mrs.  Lirriper's  Lodgings,  and  Mrs.  Lirri- 
per's  Legacy,  Christmas  stories  by  Dickens 
(q.v.),  which  appeared  in  'All  the  Year 
Round*,  1863  and  1864.  Mrs.  Lirriper  lets 
lodgings  in  Norfolk  Street,  Strand,  and  her 
lodgers  and  past  lodgers  tell  their  stories. 

Mistress  of  Phil9 Arete,  Fair  Virtue,  the,  a 
pastoral  poem  by  Wither  (q.v.,  1622). 

Mrs.  Perkins's  Ball,  one  of  Thackeray's 
'Christmas  Books*  (1847). 

Mrs.  Warrerfs  Profession,  a  play  by  G.  B. 
Shaw  (q.v.),  included  in  'Plays  Pleasant  and 
Unpleasant'  (q.v.). 

MITCHEL,  JOHN  (1818-75),  an  Irish 
nationalist,  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  a  solicitor.  He  wrote  for,  and 
was  editor  of,  the  'Nation*,  and  was  tried  for 
sedition  and  transported  to  serve  a  sentence 
of  fourteen  years  in  1848.  He  has  left  in  his 
'Jail  Journal,  or  Five  Years  in  British  Prisons* 
(1856)  a  vivid  account  of  his  experiences.  He 
escaped  to  America,  where  he  engaged  in 
journalistic  work.  His  writings  also  include  a 
'Life  of  Aodh  O'Neill',  earl  of  Tyrone  (1845), 
and  a  'History  of  Ireland'  (1869). 

MITCHELL,  S.  WEIR  (1829-1913),  Ameri- 
can author,  born  in  Philadelphia,  whose  ex- 
periences as  a  specialist  in  nervous  diseases 
bore  fruit  in  psychological  and  pathological 
fiction :  'The  Case  of  George  Dedlow'  (1880), 
'Roland  Blake'  (1886),  'The  Autobiography 
of  a  Quack*  (1900),  'Constance  Trescott* 
(1905).  He  also  wrote  historical  romances, 
among  them:  'Hephzibah  Guiness*,  'West- 
ways',  'Hugh  Wynne',  'The  Red  City*,  and 
'The  Adventures  of  Francois*. 

MITFORD,  MARY  RUSSELL  (1787- 
1855),  is  remembered  for  her  charming  col- 
lection of  essays,  'Our  Village,  sketches  of 
rural  life,  character,  and  scenery',  begun  in 
'The  Lady's  Magazine'  (1819)  and  published 
separately,  1824-32.  The  scene  of  these  is 
Three  Mile  Cross,  near  Reading.  She  also 
published  'Belford  Regis,  sketches  of  a  coun- 
try town*  (Reading)  in  1835,  'Country 
Stories*  in  1837,  a  novel,  'Atherton*,  in 


MITFORD 

1854,  various  plays,  and  'Recollections  of  a 
Literary  Life*  (1852),  which  is  of  value  for  its 
chapters  on  some  of  her  contemporaries. 

MITFORD,  WILLIAM  (1744-1827),  edu- 
cated at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  was  the 
author  of  a  'History  of  Greece'  (1785-1810), 
down  to  the  death  of  Alexander,  written  at 
the  suggestion  of  Gibbon,  which  enjoyed 
great  popularity.  It  was  the  work  of_  a 
pioneer  and  was  superseded  by  the  histories 
of  Grote  and  Thirlwall. 
Mithraism,  the  religion  of  the  worshippers 
of  Mithras,  one  of  the  chief  gods  of  the 
ancient  Persians,  in  later  times^  often  identi- 
fied with  the  sun.  His  worship  was  intro- 
duced among  the  Romans  under  the  empire, 
and  spread  over  most  of  northern  and  western 
Europe  during  the  first  three  centuries  A.D., 
the  principal  rival  of  Christianity. 

Mithridate,  a  composition  of  many  in- 
gredients in  the  form  of  an  electuary  (a  paste 
made  with  honey  or  syrup)  regarded  as  a 
universal  antidote  against  poison  and  infec- 
tious disease,  so  called  from  Mithridates  VI, 
king  of  Pontus  (131-63  B.C.),  who  was  said  to 
have  rendered  himself  proof  against  poisons 
by  the  constant  use  of  poisons  as  antidotes. 

Mitre  Tavern,  THE,  frequented  by  Dr. 
Johnson,  stood  in  Mitre  Court,  Fleet  Street, 
over  against  Fetter  Lane,  not  to  be  confused 
with  the  Mitre  in  Fleet  Street  of  the  days  of 
Shakespeare  and  Jonson,  which  stood  farther 
west  (Wheatley  and  Cunningham,  'London 
Past  and  Present'). 

MnemSsyne,  the  mother,  by  Zeus,  of  the 
nine  Muses  (q.v.).  The  name  signifies 
'Memory*. 

Moabite  Stone,  THE,  a  monument  erected 
by  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  about  850  B.C., 
which  furnishes  the  earliest-known  inscription 
in  the  Phoenician  alphabet.  It  is  now  in  the 
Louvre  in  Paris,  restored  after  having  been 
broken  in  pieces  by  Arabs. 

Moby  Dick,  a  romance  of  the  sea,  by  Melville 
(q.v.),  published  in  1851. 

Moby  Dick  is  the  name  of  a  particularly 
cunning  and  ferocious  whale,  known  to  many 
whalers  by  the  peculiarities  of  its  appearance, 
which  has  been  the  cause  of  so  many  disasters 
to  its  pursuers  that  it  has  become  an  object 
of  fear  and  superstition.  It  has  bereft  Captain 
Ahab  of  his  leg,  and  he  has  vowed  revenge, 
and  the  story  is  that  of  the  voyage  of  the  ship 
'Pequod*  in  pursuit  of  it.   The  author  gives  a 
mass  of  detailed  information  concerning  the 
varieties  of  whales,  their  habits,  anatomy,  and 
commercial  value,  and  the  methods  of  killing 
them.   He  also  paints  a  vivid  gallery  of  pic- 
tures of  the  strange  characters  aboard  of  the 
Tequod',  and,  strangest  of  all,  of  the  mono- 
maniac Ahab.  From  a  story  of  whale-fishing, 
the  work  becomes  the  epic  of  Allah's  at- 
tempted vengeance  on  his  personal  enemy. 
After  a  search  round  three-quarters  of  the 
globe,  Moby  Dick  is  found,  and  a  thrilling 


MODERN  PAINTERS 

contest,  drawn  out  through  three  days,  ends 
in  its  triumphant  victory.  It  breaks  Ahab's 
neck,  crunches  up  or  swamps  all  the  boats,  and 
finally  sinks  the  'Pequod'  herself,  with  all  hands, 
save  one  survivor. 

Mocha  Dick,  a  whale  legendary  among 
whalers,  which  served  as  the  model  of  Mel- 
ville's white  whale,  Moby  Dick  (q.v.). 

Modern  Instance,  A,  one  of  W.  D.  Howells's 
(q.v.)  best-known  novels,  published  in  1881. 

Modern  Love,  a  series  of  fifty  connected 
poems,  each  of  sixteen  lines,  by  G.  Meredith 
(q.v.),  published  in  1862.  It  is  the  tragic  tale, 
somewhat  obscurely  indicated  in  mono- 
dramatic  form,  of  passionate  married  love 
giving  place  to  discord,  jealousy,  and  intense 
unhappiness,  and  ending  in  the  separation 
and  ruin  of  two  ill-mated  lives,  and  the  death 
by  poison  of  the  wife. 

Modern  Painters,  a  treatise  by  Ruskin  (q.v.), 
of  which  vol.  i  was  published  in  1843,  vol.  ii 
in  1846,  vols.  iii  and  iv  in  1856,  and  vol.  v 
in  1860. 

The  first  volume,  written  when  the  author 
was  only  four-and-twenty,  was  conceived  in  a 
mood  of  indignation  at  the  artistic  ignorance 
of  England,  and  written  in  particular  to  de- 
fend Turner  against  the  attacks  on  his  paint- 
ings*  It  expounds  the  author's  views  of  the 
principles  of  true  art,  points  out  the  faults  of 
such  painters  as  Claude,  Gaspar  Poussin,  and 
Salvator  Rosa,  and  explains  the  merits  of 
Turner's  work. 

Vol.  ii,  in  the  author's  words,  'expresses 
the  first  and  fundamental  law  respecting 
human  contemplation  of  the  natural  pheno- 
mena under  whose  influence  we  exist — that 
they  can  only  be  seen  with  their  properly 
belonging  joy  andinterpreted  up  to  themeasure 
of  proper  human  intelligence,  when  they  are 
accepted  as  the  work  and  the  gift  of  a  Living 
Spirit  greater  than  our  own'.  The  latter  part 
is  chiefly  concerned  with  the  function  of 
imagination  in  art.  This  volume  expresses  the 
author's  admiration  for  Tintoretto. 

The  third  volume,  after  an  essay  on  the 
Grand  Style  and  a  discussion  of  Idealism, 
passes  to  a  history  of  the  appreciation  of 
landscape  through  the  ages,  from  Homer  on- 
wards. It  winds  up,  oddly,  with  an  excursus 
on  the  Crimean  War. 

The  fourth  volume  contains  the  famous 
passage  on  the  tower  of  Calais  church,  and 
chapters  on  colour  and  illumination ;  followed, 
in  this  and  the  last  volume,  by  a  study  of 
natural  landscape  in  its  various  details,  such 
as  leaves  and  clouds.  There  is  a  notable 
digression  (part  v,  ch.  xix)  on  the  peasantry 
of  the  Valais  mountains. 

The  fifth  volume  proceeds  to  discuss  the 
four  orders  of  landscape  painters — Heroic 
(Titian),  Classical  (Poussin),  Pastoral  (Cuyp), 
Contemplative  (Turner) ;  Diirer  and  Salvator 
Rosa;  Wouvermans  and  Angelico.  In  the 
chapter  on  'The  Two  Boyhoods',  Ruskin 
describes  the  Venice  of  Giorgione  and  the 


[526] 


MODEST  PROPOSAL 

London  of  Turner,  and  the  work  closes  with 
a  final  passionate  lament  for  the  latter 
painter. 

Modest  Proposal,  A,  see  Swift. 

Modish,  LADY  BETTY,  the  coquette  in  Colley 
Gibber's  'The  Careless  Husband'  (q.v.). 

Modo,  in  Shakespeare's  'King  Lear',  rv.  i, 
the  fiend  of  murder,  one  of  the  five  that 
possess  'poor  Tom*. 

Modred  or  MOKDKED,  in  the  earliest 
Arthurian  legends  is  the  nephew  of  King 
Arthur,  being  the  son  of  Lot,  king  of  Norway, 
and  Arthur's  sister.  In  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth  he  is  the  son  of  Arthur  and  his  sister 
Morgawse.  He  traitorously  seized  the  king- 
dom and  Guinevere  during  Arthur's  absence, 
and  was  killed  by  Arthur  in  the  final  battle  in 
Cornwall.  Modred  may  be  identified  with 
the  Medrawt  of  British  mythology,  a  god  of 
darkness  (see  Rhys,  'Arthurian  Legend*). 

Moeliades,  in  the  pastoral  elegy,  'Tears  on 
the  death  of  Moeliades',  by  Drummond  of 
Hawthornden  (q.v.),  was  Prince  Henry,  son 
of  James  I. 

Meet  et  Chandon,  see  Champagne. 

Mogul,  from  the  Persian  and  Arabic  Mughal, 
a  mispronunciation  of  the  native  name 
Mongol,  is  the  name  applied  to  the  Moham- 
medan Mongol  empire  in  Hindustan.  This 
was  founded  by  Baber  (a  descendant  of 
Tamerlane)  in  1526.  It  reached  its  height 
under  Akbar,  Jehangir,  Shah  Jehan,  and 
Aurungzebe,  was  broken  up  after  the  death  of 
the  last  named,  and  finally  disappeared  in 
1857.  The  GREAT  MOGUL  was  the  common 
designation  among  Europeans  of  the  Mogul 
emperor. 

'Moguls',  in  the  middle  of  the  igth  cent., 
was  the  name  given  to  the  best  quality  of 
playing-cards,  from  a  fancy  picture  of  the 
Great  Mogul  on  the  wrapper. 

Moguntia  or  MOGUNTIACUM,  in  imprints, 

Mainz. 

Mohammed  or  MAHOMET,  the  name  of  the 

founder  of  the  Moslem   religion,  born   at 

Mecca  about  A.D.  570,  died  in  632. 

After  marrying  his  first  wife,  Khadijah,  he 
declared  himself  a  prophet  about  611,  and 
sought  to  turn  his  fellow  countrymen  from 
their  idolatry  and  to  restore  the  ancient  mono- 
theistic religion  of  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham, 
£c.  He  fled  to  Medina  (the  Hegira)  in  622. 
He  made  known  from  time  to  time  to  his 
disciples  the  revelations  that  he  claimed  to 
receive,  known  as  the  Koran.  His  favourite 
wife  was  Ayesha  (q.v.),  his  favourite  daughter 
Fatima. 

Legend  records  that  Mohammed,  invited 
to  show  his  miraculous  powers,  summoned 
Mt.  Safa  to  come  to  him.  He  attributed  its 
failure  to  do  so  to  the  mercy  of  Allah,  for  if  it 
had  come  it  would  have  overwhelmed  him 
and  the  bystanders.  Therefore,  said  Moham- 
med, he  must  go  to  the  mountain,  a  prover- 
bial example  of  bowing  to  the  inevitable. 


MOLI&RE 

Another  legend  tells  of  his  miraculous  con- 
veyance on  the  horse  Al  Borak  from  Mecca 
to  Jerusalem,  and  of  his  journey  thence  with 
the  angel  Gabriel  through  the  seven  heavens, 
to  within  two  bow-shots  of  the  throne.  He 
was  touched  by  the  hand  of  God,  returned 
to  Jerusalem,  and  was  carried  back  to  Mecca. 
The  story  that  Mohammed's  iron  coffin 
floated  in  mid-air  at  Mecca  attracted  by 
loadstones  is  said  by  Gibbon  to  have  been 
invented  by  Greeks  and  Latins.  Mohammed 
was  buried  at  Medina  and  his  tomb  has  been 
a  regular  object  of  pilgrimage. 

See  also  under  Abbasids,  AH,  Ayesha, 
Borak,  Fatimids,  Hashim,  Khadijah,  Koran, 
Shi'ites,  Simmies,  Umayyads. 

Mohican  (pron.  Mohecan),  the  name  of  a 
warlike  tribe  of  North  American  Indians  of 
the  Algonquin  stock,  formerly  occupying 
both  banks  of  the  Upper  Hudson  River, 
nearly  as  far  as  Lake  Champlain,  and  extend- 
ing into  Massachusetts. 

For  'The  Last  of  the  Mohicans*  see 
Cooper  (J.  F.). 

Mohock,  one  of  a  class  of  aristocratic 
ruffians  who  infested  the  streets  of  London  at 
night  in  the  early  years  of  the  i8th  cent.  The 
word  is  taken  from  Mohawk,  the  name  of  a 
North  American  Indian  tribe,  formerly  sup- 
posed to  be  cannibals.  There  are  references 
to  the  Mohocks  in  Swift's  'Journal  to  Stella* 
(8  Mar.  1711/12),  in  Gay's  'Trivia*  (iii.  326), 
and  in  the  'Spectator*  (No.  324). 

Mohun  (Moon),  CHARLES,  fifth  Baron  (i  675  ?- 
1712),  was  a  noted  duellist.  He  fought  his 
first  recorded  duel  in  1692,  and  was  tried  in 
the  following  year  for  being  concerned  in  the 
death  of  WilHam  Mountfbrt,  a  player,  but 
acquitted.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
army,  and,  after  another  duel,  engaged  in  a 
dispute  with  the  4th  duke  of  Hamilton.  In 
the  encounter  that  followed,  both  combatants 
were  mortally  wounded.  Lord  Mohun  figures 
prominently  in  Thackeray's  'Esmond*  (q.v.). 

Moidore,  a  gold  coin  of  Portugal  current  in 
England  in  the  first  half  of  the  i8th  cent., 
from  moeda  d'ouro,  money  of  gold.  It  was 
worth  about  zjs.  6d.  In  later  use  the  word 
survived  as  a  name  for  the  sum  of  275. 

MOIR,  DAVID  MACBETH  (1798-1851), 
physician,  wrote  for  'Blackwood's*  'The  Life 
of  Mansie  Wauch,  Tailor  in  Dalkeith*  (re- 
printed 1828),  an  amusing  study  of  life  and 
character  in  a  small  Scottish  town,  as  seen 
through  the  eyes  of  the  simple  tailor,  and 
depicted  in  racy  language  and  with  much 
humour.  He  used  the  pseudonym  'Delta*. 

Mokanna,  the  'Veiled  Prophet  of  Khoras- 
san*  in  Moore's  'Lalla  Rookh*  (q.v.). 
MOLlfiRE,  the  name  assumed  by  JEAN 
BAPTISTS  POQUELIN  (1622-73),  French 
comic  dramatist,  the  son  of  an  upholsterer 
attached  to  the  court.  He  began  his  career  as 
groom-upholsterer  to  the  king,  but  soon 
turned  to  the  stage,  became  an  actor  and 


[527] 


MOLINA 

subsequently  manager  of  a  perambulating 
company,  for  which  he  composed  some  of  his 
minor  comedies  and  farces  (L'litourdi'(i653), 
*Le  De"pit  amoureux'  (1654)).  His  real  genius 
is  first  shown  in  *Les  Pr£cieuses  ridicules', 
acted  in  Paris  in  1659.  In  this,  abandon- 
ing imitations  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  he 
introduced  the  ridicule  of  actual  French 
society,  with  its  various  types  of  folly,  oddity, 
pedantry,  or  vice,  as  the  subject  of  French 
comedy.  His  most  famous  plays  were,  besides 
that  above  mentioned:  'Sganarelle'  (1660), 
'L'ficole  des  Maris*  (1661),  'L'ficole  des 
femmes*  (1662),  'Tartuffe'  (1664),  'Le  Festin 
de  Pierre*  (Don  Juan)  (1665),  £Le  Misan- 
thrope' (1666),  'Le  Me"decin  malgre"  lui' 
(1666),  'Georges  Dandin'  (1668),  'L'Avare* 
(q.v.,  1668),  *Le  Bourgeois  gentilhomme' 
(1670),  eLes  Femmes  savantes'  (1672),  and 
'Le  Malade  imaginaire'  (1673). 

Molina,  Luis  (1535-1600),  a  Spanish  Jesuit 
who  propounded  the  doctrine  that  the  effi- 
cacy of  grace  depends  simply  on  the  will 
which  freely  accepts  it.  The  term  MOLINISM 
is  applied  both  to  this  doctrine  and  to  the 
Quietism  of  Miguel  Molinos  (q.v.). 

MOLINA,  TIRSO  DA,  see  Tellez. 

MOLINOS,  MIGUEL (1640-96),  a  Spanish 
priest,  founder  of  the  Quietist  (q.v.)  sect. 
His  work,  'The  Spiritual  Guide*,  was  pub- 
lished in  1675. 

Moll  Cutpurse,  Mary  Frith,  a  notorious 
thief,  fortune-teller,  and  forger,  who  lived 
about  1584-1659.  She  did  penance  at  St. 
Paul's  Cross  in  1612.  She  is  the  heroine  of 
Middleton  and  Dekker's  'The  Roaring 
Girle'  (q.v.). 

Moll  Flanders,  The  Fortunes  and  Misfortunes 
of  the  famous,  a  romance  by  Defoe  (q.v.), 
published  in  1722. 

This  purports  to  be  the  autobiography  of 
the  daughter  of  a  woman  who  had  been  trans- 
ported to  Virginia  for  theft  soon  after  her 
child's  birth.  The  child,  abandoned  in  Eng- 
land, is  brought  up  in  the  house  of  the  com- 
passionate mayor  of  Colchester.  The  story 
relates  her  seduction,  her  subsequent  mar- 
riages and  liaisons,  and  her  visit  to  Virginia, 
where  she  finds  her  mother  and  discovers 
that  she  has  unwittingly  married  her  own 
brother.  After  leaving  him  and  returning  to 
England,  she  is  presently  reduced  to  destitu- 
tion. She  becomes  an  extremely  successful 
pickpocket  and  thief,  but  is  presently  de- 
tected and  transported  to  Virginia,  in  com- 
pany with  one  of  her  former  husbands,  a 
highwayman.  With  the  funds  that  each  has 
amassed,  they  set  up  as  planters,  and  Moll 
moreover  finds  that  she  has  inherited  a 
plantation  from  her  mother.  She  and  her 
husband  spend  their  declining  years  in  an 
atmosphere  of  penitence  and  prosperity. 

Molly  Sawn,  or  The  Shooting  of  his  Dear, 
a  traditional  ballad  (in  Jamieson's  'Popular 
Ballads',  1806,  Child's  collection,  &c.). 


MONASTERY 

Molly  Maguires?  members  of  a  secret 
society  formed  in  Ireland  in  1843  for  the 
purpose  of  resisting  the  payment  of  rent. 
They  'were  generally  stout  active  young  men, 
dressed  up  in  women's  clothes'  (W.  S. 
Trench,  'Realities  of  Irish  Life'). 
Molly  Mog,  or  the  Fair  Maid  of  the  Inn,  a 
ballad  probably  by  John  Gay,  and  it  has  been 
suggested  that  Pope  and  Swift  were  part 
authors.  It  first  appeared  in  'Mist's  Weekly 
Journal',  with  a  note  to  the  effect  that  'it  was 
writ  by  two  or  three  men  of  wit,  upon  the 
occasion  of  their  lying  at  a  certain  Inn  at 
Ockingham,  where  the  daughter  of  the 
House  was  remarkably  pretty,  and  whose 
name  was  Molly  Mog*. 
Moloch  or  MOLECH,  the  name  of  a  Canaanite 
idol,  to  whom  children  were  sacrificed  as 
burnt-offerings  (Lev.  xviii.  21  and  2  Kings 
sxiii.  10),  represented  by  Milton  ('Paradise 
Lost',  i.  392)  as  one  of  the  chief  of  the  fallen 
angels.  Hence  applied  to  an  object  to  which 
horrible  sacrifices  are  made. 
Moly,  a  fsfbulous  herb  endowed  with  magic 
properties,  said  by  Homer  to  have  been  given 
by  Hermes  to  Odysseus  as  a  charm  against 
the  sorceries  of  Circe  ('Odyssey',  x). 
MOMMSEN,  THEODOR  (1817-1903),  a 
great  German  historian  and  archaeologist, 
was  from  1857  professor  of  ancient  history 
at  Berlin.  He  published  his  celebrated 
'Roman  History*  in  1854—6,  and  other 
treatises  and  articles  relating  to  Roman 
chronology,  coins,  law,  &c.  He  edited 
Cassiodorus  and  was  also  editor  of  the  great 
'Corpus  Inscriptionum  Latinarum*  for  the 
Berlin  Academy.  Mommsen  took  an  active 
part  in  politics  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Prussian  House  of  Delegates. 
Momus,  the  god  of  mockery  among  the 
ancients,  who  turned  to  ridicule  whatever 
the  gods  did.  For  instance  he  blamed  Vulcan 
because  in  the  human  form  that  he  had  made 
of  clay,  he  had  not  placed  a  window  in  the 
breast  by  which  its  secret  thoughts  might  be 
brought  to  light.  He  was  expelled  from 
heaven  for  his  criticisms. 

Mona,  an  island  between  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, anciently  inhabited  by  Druids,  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  Anglesey,  by  others  the 
Isle  of  Man. 

Mona  Lisa,  known  in  France  also  as  cLa 
Joconde'  and  in  Italy  as  'La  Gioconda', 
the  wife  of  Francesco  del  Giocondo,  painted 
by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful and  finished  portraits  in  the  world,  noted 
for  the  strange  smile  that  it  depicts.  The 
picture  was  brought  to  France  by  Fran?ois  I, 
and  is  now  in  the  Louvre. 
Monastery,  The,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott 
(q.v.),  published  in  1820. 

The  story  centres  in  the  monastery  of 
Kennaquhair,  of  which  the  prototype  is  Mel- 
rose  Abbey  on  the  Tweed,  and  the  period 
chosen  is  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  when  the 
reformed  doctrines  were  first  making  their 


[538] 


MONASTICON  ANGLICANUM 

way  in  Scotland  and  raising  up  troubles  for 
the  religious  community  that  gives  its  title  to 
the  work.  The  plot  is  slight.  Halbert  and 
Edward,  sons  of  a  tenant  of  the  monastery, 
Simon  Glendinning,  are  brought  up  with 
Mary  Avenel,  orphan  daughter  of  a  noble 
house,  whose  misfortunes  have  brought  her 
to  the  hospitable  roof  of  the  Glendinnings. 
Both  lads  fall  in  love  with  Mary,  on  whose 
affections  the  gallant  Halbert  gains  a  stronger 
hold  than  the  more  studious  and  contempla- 
tive Edward.  An  English  knight,  Sir  Piercie 
Shafton,  takes  refuge  in  Scotland  from  the 
pursuit  to  which  his  intrigues  in  the  Catholic 
interest  have  exposed  him,  and  is  lodged  by 
the  abbot^of  Kennaquhair  at  the  home  of  the 
Glendinnings.  His  arrogance,  vanity,  and 
ridiculous  euphuistic  manner  of  speech  in- 
cense Halbert,  and  a  duel  ensues  in  which  the 
knight  is  left  for  dead.  Halbert  flees,  enters 
the  service  of  the  earl  of  Murray,  whose 
favour  he  wins  by  his  gallant  demeanour, 
and  who  finally  bestows  on  him  the  hand  of 
Mary  Avenel.  Edward,  disappointed  of  Mary, 
becomes  a  monk. 

The  author  makes  use  in  this  novel  of 
supernatural  machinery,  in  the  form  of  the 
White  Lady  of  Avenel,  a  spirit  or  sylph, 
to  restore  Sir  Piercie  Shafton  to  life  after 
being  mortally  wounded,  and  to  work  other 
marvels.  More  interesting  are  the  characters 
of  the  easy-going  abbot  Boniface;  of  his 
energetic  subprior,  Father  -Eustace;  and  of 
the  stern  reformer,  Henry  Warden. 

Monasticon  Anglicanum,  see  Dugdale. 

MONBODDO,  JAMES  BURNETT, 
LORD  (1714-99),  a  Scottish  judge  and  a 
pioneer  in  anthropology,  who  published  'Of 
the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Language*  (1773— 
92)  and  'Antient  Metaphysics*  (1779-99). 
He  is  perhaps  chiefly  remembered  for  his 
orang-outang,  who  figures  in  both  these  works 
as  an  example  of  'the  infantine  state  of  our 
species*,  who  could  play  the  flute  but  'never 
learned  to  speak*,  and  suggested  to  Peacock 
the  character  of  Sir  Oran  Haut-ton  in  his 
'Melincourt*  (q.v.). 

Monpada,  a  character  in  Maturin's  'Mel- 
moth  the  Wanderer*  (q.v.). 

Moneta,  JUNO,  'Juno  the  admonisher*,  a 
goddess  in  whose  temple  at  Rome  money  was 
coined ;  the  origin  of  our  word  'money*. 

Money,  a  comedy  by  Bulwer  Lytton  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1840. 

Alfred  Evelyn,  private  secretary  to  the 
worldly-wise  Sir  John  Vesey,  loves  Clara 
Douglas,  as  poor  as  himself.  She  refuses  him, 
not  wishing  to  involve  him  in  her  own  poverty. 
Evelyn  comes  into  a  large  fortune,  and,  stung 
by  Clara's  refusal,  which  he  attributes  to 
the  wrong  motive,  proposes  to  the  worldly 
Georgina,  daughter  of  Sir  John;  but  soon  has 
reason  to  regret  the  step.  To  test  her  affection 
and  her  father's  loyalty,  he  pretends  to  be 
ruined  by  gambling  and  the  breaking  of  a 
bank.  Thereupon  Georgina  promptly  trans- 


MONOPHYSITES 

fers  the  promise  of  her  hand  to  a  rival  suitor, 
while  Clara  comes  forward  to  help  Evelyn. 
Thus  released,  and  earlier  misconceptions 
removed,  Evelyn  marries  Clara. 

Monica,  ST.  (332-87),  the  mother  of  St. 
Augustine  (q.v.). 

Monimia,  (i)  the  heroine  of  Otway's  *The 
Orphan*  (q.v.);  (2)  a  character  in  Smollett's 
'Ferdinand  Count  Fathom*  (q.v.). 

Moniplies,  RICHIE,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Fortunes  of  Nigel'  (q.v.). 

Monism,  in  philosophy,  a  general  name  for 
those  theories  which  deny  the  duality  (i.e.  the 
existence  as  two  ultimate  kinds  of  substance) 
of  matter  and  mind ;  opposed  to  dualism  or 
pluralism. 

Monitor,  The,  a  weekly  political  paper 
founded  in  1755  by  Richard  Beckford,  a 
London  merchant,  and  edited  by  John  Entick, 
in  the  Whig  interest.  Wilkes  contributed  to  it, 
and  it  was  prosecuted  for  its  attacks  on  Lord 
Bute's  government. 

Monk,  The,  a  novel  by  M.  G.  Lewis  (q.v.), 
published  in  1796. 

Ambrosio,  the  saintly  superior  of  the 
Capuchins  of  Madrid,  falls  to  the  temptations 
of  Matilda  de  Villanegas,  a  fiend-inspired 
wanton,  who,  disguised  as  a  boy,  has  entered 
his  monastery  as  a  novice.  Now  utterly  de- 
praved, he  becomes  enamoured  of  one  of  his 
penitents,  pursues  his  object  with  the  help  of 
magic  and  murder,  and  finally  kills  the  girl 
herself  in  an  attempt  to  escape  detection.  He 
is  discovered,  tortured  by  the  Inquisition,  and 
sentenced  to  death,  finally  compounding  with 
the  Devil  for  escape  from  the  auto-da-fe,  only 
to  be  hurled  by  him  to  destruction  in  another 
form. 

The  mixture  of  the  supernatural,  the 
horrible,  and  the  indecent  makes  the  book 
unreadable  to-day.  But  it  has  power,  con- 
tains some  notable  verses  ('Alonzo  the  Brave 
and  the  Fair  Imogene'),  and  attained  a  con- 
siderable vogue. 

Monk  Lewis,  M.  G.  Lewis  (q.v.),  author  of 
'The  Monk'  (q.v.). 

Monks,  a  character  in  Dickens 's  'Oliver 
Twist*  (q.v.). 

Monk's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 
Monkbarns,  LAIRD  OF,  Jonathan  Oldbuck, 
the  principal  character  in  Sir  W.   Scott's 
'The  Antiquary*  (q.v.). 

Monmouth  Street,  named  after  the  duke  of 
Monmouth,  the  son  of  Charles  II,  now  forms 
part  of  Shaftesbury  Avenue.  It  was  at  one 
time  noted  for  its  numerous  old-clothes  shops. 

Monomotapa,  an  ancient  African  kingdom 
on  the  Zambesi,  celebrated  by  old  Portuguese 
writers  for  its  gold  mines. 

Monophysites,  Christians  who  believe  that 
there  is  only  one  nature  in  the  person  of  Jesus 
Christ.  They  include  at  the  present  day  the 
Coptic,  Armenian,  Abyssinian,  and  Jacobite 


3868 


[529] 


Mm 


MONOTHEISTS 

churches.  The  dispute  as  to  the  single  or  dual 
nature  of  Christ  began  before  the  middle  of 
the  5th  cent,  and  lasted  for  more  than  200 
years ;  it  did  much  towards  the  separation  of 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches.  The 
intellectuals  in  the  East  were  on  the  whole 
Monophysites ;  the  mob  in  the  East  and 
nearly  every  one  in  the  West  were  for  the  'two 
Natures'.  The  dispute  finally  merged  in  that 
whether  Christ  had  two  'wills*  or  one 
(Monothelite  heresy). 

Monotheists,  those  who  believe  that  there 
is  only  one  God. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  a  political  doctrine  de- 
rived from  the  annual  message  of  the  Presi- 
dent (in  this  instance  President  Monroe) 
to  the  United  States  Congress  in  1823, 
when  interference  in  Spanish  America  by 
the  powers  of  the  Holy  Alliance  was  an- 
ticipated. The  President  stated  that  inter- 
position by  any  European  power  in  the  affairs 
of  the  Spanish- American  republics  would  be 
regarded  as  an  act  unfriendly  to  the  United 
States,  and  that  the  American  continents  were 
no  longer  open  to  European  colonial  settle- 
ment. 

Mons  Meg,  a  great  i5th-cent.  gun  in  Edin- 
burgh Castle,  so  called  perhaps  from  having 
been  cast  at  Mons  in  Flanders ;  but  Maitland 
('History  of  Edinburgh')  calls  it  'Mounts- 
Megg'.  It  was  removed  to  the  Tower  of 
London  after  the  campaign  of  1745,  and 
restored  to  Edinburgh  (at  Sir  W.  Scott's 
instance)  in  1829. 

Monsieur  Beaucairet  a  novel  of  iSth-cent. 
Bath,  by  Booth  Tarkington,  published  in 
1900,  concerned  with  the  adventures  of 
Philippe  de  Valois,  cousin  of  Louis  XV, 
who  masquerades  as  a  barber  in  the  suite  of 
the  Marquis  de  Mirepois. 

Monsieur  D'Olive,  a  comedy  by  Chapman 
(q.v.),  published  in  1606  and  acted  a  few 
years  before.  The  plot  is  of  little  interest, 
but  the  play  is  enlivened  by  the  remark- 
able character,  D 'Olive,  'the  perfect  model  of 
an  impudent  upstart*,  fluent,  self-confident, 
good-humoured,  witty,  *a  mongrel  of  a  gull 
and  a  villain'. 

MONTAGU,  BASIL  (1770-1851),  legal 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  educated  at  Char- 
terhouse and  Christ's  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  was  intimate  with  Coleridge  and 
Wordsworth.  He  published  'Essays'  and 
edited  Bacon  (1825-37). 

MONTAGU,  MRS.  ELIZABETH  (1720- 
1800),  nee  Robinson,  married  Edward 
Montagu,  grandson  of  the  first  earl  of  Sand- 
wich, and  became  well  known  as  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Blue  Stocking  (q.v.)  circles. 
She  combined  beauty  with  wit  and  learning, 
and  her  conversation  was  highly  praised  by 
Dr.  Johnson.  She  was  author  of  the  last 
three  of  the  dialogues  included  in  Lord 
Lyttelton's  'Dialogues  of  the  Dead'  (1760), 
and  of  an  'Essay  on  the  Writings  and  Genius 


MONTE  CARLO 

of  Shakespeare*  (1769),  in  which  she  defended 
the  poet  against  the  strictures  of  Voltaire, 
MONTAGU,  LADY  MARY  WORTLEY 
(1689-1762),  daughter  of  the  fifth  earl  and 
the  first  duke  of  Kingston,  and  wife  of 
Edward  Wortley  Montagu,  ambassador  to 
Constantinople  in  1716.  She  wrote  from 
there  some  charming  'Turkish  Letters'  (pub- 
lished in  1763  after  her  death),  and  introduced 
into  England  the  practice  of  inoculation 
against  the  small-pox.  In  1716  Curll  pirati- 
cally  published  some  of  her  'Town  Eclogues* 
and  'Court  Poems  by  a  Lady  of  Quality*. 
The  'Eclogues'  were  republished  in  1747. 
They  are  lively  pictures  of  contemporary 
manners.  In  1743  she  settled  on  the  Lago 
d'Iseo,  and  during  her  residence  there  wrote 
many  letters,  most  of  them  to  her  daughter, 
Lady  Bute,  published  in  1763-7.  She  is  also 
remembered  for  her  quarrels  with  Pope,  who 
attacked  her  outrageously  in  his  verse.  The 
standard  edition  of  her  'Letters  and  Works'  is 
by  Lord  Wharnclifle  (1837,  enlarged  in  1861 
and  1893). 

Montagues,  THE,  in  Shakespeare's  'Romeo 
and  Juliet*  (q.v.),  the  Montecchi,  a  noble 
house  of  Verona,  to  which  Romeo  belongs, 
enemies  of  the  Capulets  (Cappelletti). 
MONTAIGNE,  MICHEL  EYQUEM  DE 
(1533-92),  born  in  P6rigord,  and  educated  at 
Bordeaux,  where  he  had  among  other  teachers 
George  Buchanan  (q.v.),  was  the  author  of 
the  famous  'Essais',  of  which  Bks.  I  and  II 
appeared  in  1580,  and  a  definitive  edition^  in 
1 595-  They  were  first  translated  into  English 
by  John  Florio  (q.v.,  1603)  and  again  by 
Charles  Cotton  (q.v.,  1685).  They  have  been 
recently  translated  by  E.  J.  Trechmann 
(1927).  The  essays  reveal  the  author  ^  as  a 
man  of  insatiable  intellectual  curiosity,  kindly 
and  sagacious,  condemning  pedantry  and 
lying,  but  tolerant  of  an  easy  morality.  After 
the  premature  death  of  his  old  friend  La 
Boe'tie,  he  is  much  preoccupied  with  the  sub- 
ject of  death.  The  general  conclusion  of  the 
essays,  embodied  in  his  famous  question,  *Que 
sais-je?',  is  the  recognition  of  the  fallibility 
of  the  human  reason  and  the  relativity  of 
human  science. 

Montalban,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato', 
the  home  of  Rinaldo  (q.v.),  and  the  scene  of  a 
great  battle,  in  which  the  Christians  under 
Charlemagne  are  driven  back  by  the  Saracens 
under  Marsilio. 

Montargis,  DOG  OF:  Aubry  de  Montdidier, 
a  courtier  of  Charles  V  of  France,  was  mur- 
dered in  1371  in  the  forest  of  Montargis  (in 
the  Loiret)  by  Richard  de  Macaire.  The  mur- 
derer was  discovered  by  the  persistency  with 
which  Aubry's  dog  showed  its  enmity  to 
Richard.  The  king  ordered  a  judicial  combat 
between  dog  and  man.  The  latter  was  pulled 
down  by  the  dog  and  confessed  his  crime. 

Monte  Carlo,  one  of  the  three  communes  of 
Monaco,  a  principality  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast  of  France,  under  the  protection  (since 


1530] 


MONTE  CRISTO 

1861)  of  France.  Monte  Carlo  is  a  fashion- 
able pleasure  resort.  The  gambling  tables 
there  were  made  a  popular  attraction  by 
Francois  Blanc  of  Homburg,  who  obtained  in 
1 86 1  a  fifty-year  concession,  since  transferred 
to  a  company  and  extended. 

Monte  Cristo,  Count  of,  a  novel  by  Dumas 
(q.v.)  the  elder,  published  in  1841-5.  Ed- 
mond  Dantes,  falsely  denounced  by  a  per- 
sonal enemy  as  a  Bonapartist  conspirator  in 
1815,  is  imprisoned  in  the  Chateau  d'lf  for 
many  months,  escapes,  recovers  a  concealed 
treasure  in  the  Island  of  Monte  Cristo,  and 
devotes  years  to  the  pursuit  of  his  revenge 
under  various  names,  including  that  of 
Count  of  Monte  Cristo. 

Montem,  from  the  Latin  ad  montemy  'to 
the  hill',  a  festival  formerly  celebrated  every 
third  year  on  Whit-Tuesday  by  the  scholars 
of  Eton,  who  in  fancy  costumes  went  in 
procession  to  'Salt  Hill",  a  mound  near 
Slough,  and  there  collected  money  from  the 
bystanders.  The  money  collected  (known  as 
'salt')  was  applied  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
the  senior  colleger  (the  'Captain  of  Montem') 
at  King's  College,  Cambridge.  The  last  cele- 
bration was  in  1844.  [OEDJ  There  is  a 
description  of  Montem  in  Disraeli's  'Conings- 
by'  (q.v.). 

MONTEMAYOR,  JORGE  DE  (c.  152*1- 
61),  a  Portuguese  poet,  who  wrote  in  Spanish. 
His  chief  work  is  his  prose  pastoral,  inter- 
spersed with  verses,  the  'Diana  Enarnorada*, 
in  which  he  transferred  Arcadia  to  the  heart 
of  Spain.  It  was  extremely  popular  and  was 
translated  into  English,  German,  and  French. 
The  English  translation  was  made  by  Bar- 
tholomew Young  (1598),  and  was  perhaps 
used  by  Shakespeare  in  his  'Two  Gentlemen 
of  Verona*.  The  scene  is  laid  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountains  of  Leon  and  the  pastoral  is 
occupied  with  the  misfortunes  of  Sereno  and 
Sylvanus,  two  shepherd  lovers  of  the  fair 
Diana,  a  shepherdess;  and  the  loves,  trans- 
ferences of  affection,  and  disguises  of  various 
other  shepherds  and  shepherdesses.  Happi- 
ness is  finally  restored  by  the  agency  of  en- 
chanted potions.  (This  was  one  of  the  few 
books  spared  from  the  holocaust  of  Don 
Quixote's  library,  but  parts  of  it  were  ex- 
punged.) 

Montesinos,  a  character  of  medieval  ro- 
mance, who  retired  to  a  cave  in  La  Mancha 
and  lived  there.  Don  Quixote  visited  the 
cave,  and  had  a  vision  of  Montesinos  and 
other  heroes  (n.  xxii,  xxiii). 

MONTESQUIEU,  CHARLES  LOUIS 
DE  SECONDAT  DE  (1689-1755),  French 
political  philosopher,  best  known  for  his 
'Lettres  Persanes*  (1721),  in  which  through 
the  medium  of  an  imaginary  Persian  visitor, 
the  author  criticizes  French  legal  and  political 
institutions ;  and  his  greatest  work,  'De  FEs- 
prit  des  Lois*  (1748),  in  which  he  analysed  the 
various  kinds  of  political  constitutions,  de- 
nounced the  abuses  of  the  French  monarchi- 


MONTMARTRE 

cal  system,  and  advocated  a  liberal  and  bene- 
ficent (yet  monarchical)  type  of  government. 
Mcratez,  LOLA,  see  Lola  Montez. 

Montezuma  (1466-1520),  the  ruler  of  Mexi- 
co at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest.  He 
was  seized  by  Cortes  and  held  as  a  hostage. 
The  Aztecs  rose  and  attacked  the  Spaniards* 
quarters,  and  Montezuma,  who  at  the  request 
of  Cortes  attempted  to  dissuade  them,  was 
mortally  wounded.  W.  H.  Prescott's  'Con- 
quest of  Mexico'  may  be  consulted.  Dryden's 
play  'The  Indian  Emperor'  has  Montezuma 
for  its  subject. 

MONTFAUCON,  BERNARD  DE  (1655- 
1741),  served  as  a  soldier  under  Turenne  in 
Germany,  and  subsequently  entered  the 
Maurist  (q.v.)  community  of  Benedictines, 
working  in  various  abbeys  and  at  Rome  on 
the  study  of  manuscripts.  His  chief  publica- 
tion is  'Palaeographia  Graeca'  (1708),  which 
did  for  the  science  of  Greek  palaeography 
what  the  'De  re  diplomatics*  of  Mabillon 
(q.v.)  had  done  for  Latin  palaeography.  His 
other  writings  include  editions  of  Athanasius 
(1698)  and  Chrysostom  (1738),  *L'Antiquit6 
explique*e  et  represented  en  figures'  (1719), 
and  'Les  Monuments  de  la  Monarchic  Fran- 
caise*  (unfinished,  1729-33). 

MONTGOMERIE,  ALEXANDER 
(i556?-i6io?),  a  Scottish  poet,  who  held 
office  in  the  Scottish  court  in  1577  and  be- 
came laureate  of  the  court,  but  got  into  trouble 
and  was  dismissed.  His  principal  work  is 
'The  Cherry  and  the  Slae*,  a  long  allegorical 
poem  in  quatorzains,  on  the  contrast  between 
the  cherry  growing  high  up  and  valued,  and 
the  sloe  growing  close  at  hand  and  despised, 
in  which  Hope,  Experience,  Cupid,  &c.  take 
part  in  the  conversation.  This  was  published 
in  1597.  He  also  wrote  a  'Flyting  betwixt 
Montgomery  and  Polwart',  published  in 
1621,  and  sonnets  and  miscellaneous  poems. 

MONTGOMERY,  ROBERT  (1807-55), 
poetaster,  author  of  religious  poems  ("The 
Omnipresence  of  the  Deity*,  1828,  and 
'Satan*,  1830)  which  were  extravagantly 
praised  in  the  press,  and  severely  criticized 
by  Macaulay  in  the  'Edinburgh  Review*, 
1830. 

Monthly  "Review,  The,  founded  in  1749  by 
the  bookseller  Ralph  Griffiths.  Oliver  Gold- 
smith contributed  to  it  articles  of  literary 
criticism  in  1757.  It  was  conducted  by 
Griffiths  until  1803,  by  his  son  until  1825, 
and  expired  in  1845.  It  was  a  rival  to  the 
'Critical  Review*  (q.v.). 

Mont- Joie-  Saint-Denis » the  medieval  war- 
cry  of  the  French.  Saint-Denis  (q.v.)  is  the 
patron  saint  of  France. 

Montmartre,  a  district  in  tlie  north  of 
Paris,  a  centre  of  literary  and  artistic  cabarets. 
The  name  is  perhaps  derived  from  Mow 
Martyrum,  the  hill  where  St.  Denis  (q.v.)  and 
his  companions  suffered  martyrdom. 


[53iJ 


MONTRACHET 
Montrachet,  see  Burgundy. 

Montrose,  JAMES  GRAHAM,  first  marquess 
and  fifth  earl  of  (1612-50),  the  great  general 
and  rival  of  the  marquess  of  Argyle,  took  a 
prominent  part  in  Scottish  history  in  the 
period  immediately  preceding  the  downfall 
of  Charles  I.  He  is  the  principal  figure  in 
Scott's  ' A  Legend  of  Montrose'  (q.v.).  f  Mr. 
John  Buchan  published  an  admirable  'Life  of 
Montrose1  (1913),  revised  and  enlarged  1928. 
Mont- Saint- Jean,  a  hamlet  near  Waterloo, 
whose  name  is  sometimes  used  to  signify  the 
battle  of  Waterloo. 

Monument,  THE,  London,  was  erected  by 
Wren  in  1671—7  to  commemorate  the  Fire  of 
London,  which  broke  out  in  Pudding  Lane, 
near  by.  On  its  plinth  there  was  formerly  an 
inscription  attributing  the  fire  to  the  Roman 
Catholics.  To  this  Pope  refers  in  the  lines : 

Where  London's  column,  pointing  to  the 
skies, 

Like  a  tall  bully,  lifts  its  head,  and  lies. 

Monumenta  Germanfae  Historica,  a  great 
series  of  the  medieval  texts  bearing  on  the 
history  of  Germany,  begun  in  1816  and  still 
continuing.  Its  editors  have  included  many 
famous  scholars,  such  as  G.  H.  Pertz,  G. 
Waitz,  T.  Mommsen  (q.v,),  and  L.  Traube 
(q.v.).  There  is  a  full  history  of  the  enter- 
prise by  H.  Bresslau,  Hanover,  1921. 

Momimentum  Ancyramim,  a  famous  in- 
scription in  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  temple 
of  Augustus  at  Ancyra  (modern  Angora),  a 
copy  of  the  record  of  the  chief  events  of  the 
life  of  Augustus,  written  by  the  emperor  to  be 
engraved  on  bronze  tablets  for  his  mausoleum 
in  Rome. 

Moody  and  Sankey,  D wight  Lyman 
Moody  (1837-99)  and  Ira  David  Sankey 
(1840—1908),  American  evangelists.  After 
undergoing  'conversion'  as  a  young  man, 
Moody  began  his  evangelizing  activities  by 
starting  a  Sunday-school  in  Chicago.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  missionary  work  there  and 
among  soldiers  during  the  American  Civil 
War.  He  was  joined  by  Sankey  in  the  com- 
position of  their  well-known  Gospel  Hymns, 
and  together  they  carried  on  a  revival  cam- 
paign in  America  and  England. 

Moon,  MAN  IN  THE,  see  Man  in  the  Moon. 

Moonraker,  a  native  of  Wiltshire,  so  called 
according  to  Grose  (1787)-  because  'some 
Wiltshire  rustics  seeing  the  figure  of  the 
moon  in  a  pond  attempted  to  rake  it  out'.  In 
Wiltshire  it  is  said  that  they  were  raking  a 
pond  for  kegs  of  smuggled  brandy,  and  put 
off  the  revenue  men  by  pretending  folly. 

Moonstone,  The^  a  novel  by  Wilkie  Collins 
•  (q.v.),  published  in  1868. 

The  Moonstone  is  an  enormous  diamond 
that  had  once  been  set  in  the  forehead  of  an 
image  of  the  Indian  moon-god.  At  the  siege  of 
Seringapatam  it  had  come  into  the  possession 
of  an  English  officer  John  Herncastie,  who 


MOORE 

had  killed   its   three  Brahmin  guards.     It 

§  roved  a  dangerous  acquisition,  for  other 
rahmins  set  to  work,  with  the  utmost 
determination,  to  recover  it.  The  moonstone 
is  handed  to  Miss  Verinder,  in  accordance 
with  a  testamentary  disposition,  on  her 
twenty-first  birthday,  and  mysteriously  dis- 
appears the  same  night.  Suspicion  falls  on 
three  Indian  jugglers  who  have  been  seen  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  house.  It  has  in 
fact  been  taken  from  Miss  Verinder's  cabinet, 
unconsciously,  by  her  lover  Franklin  Blake, 
while  under  the  influence  of  opium,  and  he 
has  been  seen  to  take  it  by  Miss  Verinder, 
who  consequently  breaks  off  relations  with 
him,  though  determined  to  screen  him  from 
detection.  From  Franklin  Blake,  while  still 
unconscious,  the  villain  Godfrey  Ablewhite, 
Franklin's  rival  for  the  hand  of  Miss  Verinder, 
has  obtained  it;  and  the  story  is  occupied 
with  the  contest  of  cunning  between  Godfrey 
and  the  three  Indians,  ending  in  the  murder 
of  the  former,  the  recovery  of  the  diamond  by 
the  latter,  and  the  revelation  of  the  mystery. 
Sergeant  Cuff,  the  first  detective  in  English 
fiction,  figures  in  the  story. 

MOORE,  EDWARD  (1712-57),  author  of 
the  lively  comedy  of  intrigue  'Gil  Bias'  (1751), 
and  of  the  tragedy  'The  Gamester'  (1753),  an 
exposure  of  the  vice  of  gambling,  through 
which  the  weak  creature  Beverley  is  lured  to 
ruin  and  death  by  the  villain  Stukeley. 

The  plot  of  the  former  play  is  taken  from 
*Gil  Bias',  rv.  iii  et  seq..,  where  a  lady  mas- 
querades as  a  student  in  order  to  get  ac- 
quainted with  a  young  man  who  has  taken  her 
fancy,  maintains  by  a  series  of  quick  changes 
the  dual  role  of  the  lady  and  the  student,  and 
achieves  her  object  of  winning  the  young 
man's  heart. 

MOORE,  GEORGE  (1852-1933),  author, 
among  whose  chief  works  are:  *A  Modern 
Lover'  (1883),  'A  Mummer's  Wife'  (1885), 
'A  Drama  in  Muslin'  (1886),  'Esther  Waters' 
(q.v.,  1894),  'Evelyn  Innes'  (1898)  and  its 
sequel  'Sister  Teresa'  (1901),  'The  Brook 
Kerith'  (1916),  'Helo'ise  and  Abelard'  (1921), 
all  novels;  'Celibates'  (1895),  'The  Untilled 
Field'  (1903),  short  stories;  'Confessions  of  a 
Young  Man'  (1888),  'Memoirs  of  my  Dead 
Life'  (1906),  'Hail  and  Farewell5  ('Ave',  191 1, 
'Salve',  1912,  'Vale',  1914),  all  autobiographi- 
cal. 

MOORE,  DR.  JOHN  (1729-1802),  studied 
medicine  at  Glasgow,  and  accompanied  the 
young  duke  of  Hamilton  in  his  travels  abroad 
from  1773  to  1778.  He  published  'A  View  of 
Society  and  Manners  in  France,  Switzerland, 
and  Germany'  in  1779,  with  a  continuation 
relating  to  Italy  two  years  later.  His  most 
popular  novel,  'Zeluco'  (q.v.),  appeared  in 
1786,  'Edward'  in  1796,  and  'Mordaunt'  in 
1800.  He  went  with  Lord  Lauderdale  to 
France  in  1792,  and  his  'Journal  during  a 
Residence  in  France'  was  published  during 
the  next  two  years.  He  was  father  of  General 
Sir  John  Moore  (q.v.). 


[532] 


MOORE 

Moore,  Sm  JOHN  (1761-1809),  lieutenant- 
general,  son  of  the  above,  became  com- 
mander-in-chief  in  the  Peninsula  on  the 
recall  of  Sir  Harry  Burrard  (1808).  He  led  the 
historic  retreat  to  Cortina  during  the  winter 
of  1808-9  and  began  the  embarkation  of  the 
British  force  on  13  Jan.  The  French,  who 
now  appeared,  were  repulsed,  but  Moore  was 
mortally  wounded,  and  buried  at  midnight 
of  1 6  Jan.  1809,  in  the  citadel  of  Coruna.  For 
the  poem  on  this  subject  see  Wolfe. 

Moore,  JOHN,  the  'author  of  the  cele- 
brated worm  powder',  an  apothecary  to  whom 
Pope  addressed  the  'Lines  to  Mr.  John 
Moore',  ending: 

O  learned  friend  of  Abchurch  Lane 
Who  sett'st  our  entrails  free, 
Vain  is  thy  art,  thy  powder  vain, 
Since  worms  shall  eat  ev'n  thee. 

MOORE,  THOMAS  (1779-1852),  born  in 
Dublin,  the  son  of  a  grocer,  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  entered  at  the 
Middle  Temple.  In  1801  he  issued  a  volume 
of  'Poetical  Works'  under  the  pseudonym  of 
"Thomas  Little',  by  which  Byron  refers  to 
him  in  'English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers'. 
In  1803  he  received  the  appointment  of 
admiralty  registrar  at  Bermuda,  which  he 
transferred  to  a  deputy.  He  became  the 
national  lyrist  of  Ireland  (Moore  was  a 
musician  as  well  as  a  poet)  by  the  publication 
of  his  'Irish  Melodies'  (1807-35).  In  ^iS  he 
issued  'The  Twopenny  Post  Bag',  a  collec- 
tion of  satires  directed  against  the  Regent.  He 
acquired  a  European  reputation  by  his  'Lalla 
Rookh'  (q.v.),  published  in  1817.  Owing  to 
the  defalcation  of  his  deputy  in  Bermuda  he 
became  responsible  for  a  debt  of  £6,000,  and 
left  England,  returning  in  1822,  when  the 
debt  had  been  paid.  His  'Loves  of  the  Angels' 
(q.v.),  published  in  1823,  excited  much  repro- 
bation. He  received  in  1835  a  literary  pen- 
sion, to  which  a  civil  list  pension  was  added  in 
1850.  Among  his  other  works  may  be  men- 
tioned his  novel,  'The  Epicurean*  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1827 ;  his  'History  of  Ireland*,  which 
was  not  a  success  (1846) ;  'The  Fudge  Family 
in  Paris'  (q.v.),  1818;  'The  Fudges  in  Eng- 
land', 1835,  and  his  lives  of  Sheridan  (1825), 
Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  (1831),  and  Lord 
Byron  (1830).  Of  the  last  Moore  was  an  in- 
timate friend  and  Byron  left  him  his  memoirs 
(these  were  destroyed  by  Moore).  Moore's 
own  'Memoirs*  were  edited  by  Lord  John 
Russell,  1853-6. 

Moorfields,  see  Moorgate. 

Moorgate,  one  of  the  gates  in  the  old  walls 
of  the  City  of  London,  opening  on  Moorfields, 
*the  great  fen  or  moor'  on  the  north  side  of 
the  city,  caused  perhaps  by  the  damming  up, 
by  the  walls,  of  the  streams  flowing  towards 
the  Thames.  Stow  relates  the  attempts  re- 
peatedly made  to  drain  this  marshy  area. 

Mopsa,  a  character  in  Sidney's  'Arcadia' 


MORALITIES 

Mora!  and  Political  Philosophy,  Principles 
oft  by  Paley  (q.v.),  published  in  1785. 

This  exposition  of  theological  utilitarian- 
ism is  largely  based  on  the  doctrine  of  Abra- 
ham Tucker  (q.v.),  to  which  it  gives  method 
and  clarity.  The  happiness  of  the  individual 
is  always  the  motive  of  his  conduct.  It  is 
brought  into  conformity  with  the  general 
happiness  by  the  incentives  and  sanctions 
provided  by  the  Christian  religion.  The 
virtuous  or  vicious  character  of  our  actions, 
their  conformity  to  or  variance  from  God's 
will  (which  is  for  the  general  happiness  of  his 
creatures),  can  be  determined  by  their  con- 
sequences on  mankind.  An  act  of  prudence 
is  distinguished  from  an  act  of  virtue  in  that 
'in  the  one  case,  we  consider  what  we  shall 
gain  or  lose  in  the  present  world ;  in  the  other 
case,  we  consider  also  what  we  shall  gain  or 
lose  in  the  world  to  come*.  In  other  words, 
posthumous  rewards  and  penalties  are  an 
essential  part  of  Paley *s  ethical  system;  and 
the  evidence  for  these  is  marshalled  in  his 
later  works. 

Moral  Essays,  four  ethical  poems  by  Pope 
(q.v.),  published  1731-5. 

They  were  inspired  by  Lord  Bolingbroke 
(q.v.)  and  take  the  form  of  four  Epistles. 
Epistle  I,  addressed  to  Sir  William  Temple, 
deals  with  the  knowledge  and  characters  of 
men ;  it  sets  forth  the  difficulties  in  judging  a 
man's  character  and  finds  their  solution  in 
the  discovery  of  the  ruling  passion,  which 
eclue  once  found  unravels  all  the  rest*. 
Epistle  II,  addressed  to  Martha  Blount, 
deals  with  the  characters  of  women,  the 
most  interesting  of  these  being  Atossa,  in- 
tended for  Sarah,  duchess  of  Marlborough, 
Chloe  for  Lady  Suffolk,  Philomede  for 
Henrietta,  duchess  of  Marlborough.  It  was 
said,  but  never  proved,  that  Pope  received 
£1,000  for  suppressing  the  character  of 
Atossa.  These  three  characters  were  withheld 
until  Warburton's  edition  of  1751.  Epistle 
III,  to  Lord  Bathurst,  deals  with  the  use  of 
riches,  which  is  understood  by  few,  neither 
the  avaricious  nor  the  prodigal  deriving 
happiness  from  them.  The  Epistle  contains 
the  famous  characters  of  the  'Man  of  Ross* 
and  'Sir  Balaam'  (qq.v.).  Epistle  IV,  to 
Lord  Burlington,  treats  of  the  same  subject 
as  Epistle  III,  giving  instances  of  the  tasteless 
use  of  wealth,  particularly  in  architecture  and 
gardening,  where  nature  should  be  followed. 
The  epistle  ends  with  indications  as  to  the 
proper  use  of  wealth, 

Moral  Ode,  see  Poema  Morale. 

Moral  Sentiments,  Theory  of,  see  Theory  of 
Moral  Sentiments. 

Moralities,  medieval  dramatic  pieces  in 
verse,  in  which  the  biblical  personages  of  the 
Miracle  Plays  (q.v.)  gave  place  to  personified 
abstractions,  such  as  the  vices  and  virtues. 
The  action  was  simple  and  the  purpose  edi- 
fying. They  belong  mainly  to  the  isth  cent., 
developing  alongside  of  the  'Miracles*.  They 


[533] 


MORAND 

perhaps  reached  their  greatest  elaboration  in 
Sir  David  Lindsay's  'Ane  Pleasant  Satyre  of 
the  Three  Estaits*  (q.v.).  Other  well-known 
moralities  were  'Everyman*  (q.v.),  'Lusty 
Juventus*  (the  punishment  of  extravagance 
and  debauchery),  'The  Cradle  of  Security* 
(on  the  vices  of  kings),  and  'Magnificence* 
(this  last  by  Skelton). 

MORAND,  PAUL  (1888-  ),  French 
diplomatist,  novelist,  and  travel  writer, 
author  of  'Ouvert  la  Nuit*  (1922),  'Ferm6  la 
Nuit*  (1923),  'L'Europe  Galante'  (1925), 
*RienquelaTerre'(i926),'NewYork'(i93i). 

Morat,  in  the  canton  of  Fribourg,  Switzer- 
land, the  scene  of  the  famous  victory  of  the 
Swiss  over  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy  in 
1476. 

Moravians,  the  'Unity  of  Moravian  breth- 
ren*, a  Protestant  sect  founded  early  in  the 
1 8th  cent,  in  Saxony  by  emigrants  from 
Moravia,  and  continuing  the  tradition  of  the 
Unitas  Fratrum,  a  body  holding  Hussite  doc- 
trines. Its  virtual  founder  was  Count 
Zinzendorf,  and  it  obtained  many  adherents 
in  England  and  the  American  colonies .  They 
strongly  influenced  John  Wesley  (q.v.). 

Morddure,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
ii.  viii.  20-1,  the  name  of  the  sword  made  by 
Merlin  for  Prince  Arthur.  Its  more  general 
name  is  'Excalibur*. 

Mordecai,  in  the  book  of  Esther,  a  Jew  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  the  foster  father  of  Esther, 
who,  when  Ahasuerus  (really,  Xerxes)  made 
Esther  his  queen,  sat  in  the  king's  gate  and 
frustrated  the  design  of  the  chamberlains  to 
lay  hands  on  the  king,  and  also  the  machina- 
tions of  Haman.  Hence  'A  Mordecai  at  the 
gate*. 

Mordrains  or  MORDRIENS,  in  the  legend  of 
the  Grail  (q.v.),  the  name  under  which  King 
Evalak  was  baptized. 

Mordred,  see  Modred. 
Mordure,  see  Morddure. 

MORE,  HANNAH  (1745-1833),  was  edu- 
cated at  her  sisters*  boarding-school  at  Bristol, 
where  she  acquired   Italian,  Spanish,  and 
Latin,    In  1773  she  published  'The  Search 
after  Happiness*,  a  pastoral  play  for  schools. 
She  was  engaged  to  a  Mr.  Turner,  but  the 
match  was  broken  off.  She  came  to  London 
in  1774,  where  she  became  intimate  with 
Garrick  and  his  wife,  and  obtained  the  friend- 
ship of  Burke,  Horace  Walpole,  Reynolds, 
Dr.  Johnson,  Mrs.  Montagu,  and  the  other 
ladies  of  the  Blue  Stocking  (q.v.)  coterie.  Her 
tragedy  'Percy*  was  successfully  produced  by 
Garrick  in  1777.  It  deals,  in  the  light  of  iSth- 
cent.  social  ethics,  with  the  conflict,  supposed 
to  occur  in  the  i2th  cent.,  between  a  woman's 
passion  for  her  lover  and  her  duty  to  the  hus- 
band whom  she  has  been  forced  to  marry. 
This  was  followed  by  another  tragedy,  'The 
Fatal  Falsehood',  in  1779.    After  Garrick's 
death,  Hannah  More  turned  her  attention  to 
other  subjects,  and  published  tracts  for  the 


MORE 

reformation  of  the  poor,  'Village  Politics*  and 
'Repository  Tracts',  which  proved  very 
successful  and  led  to  the  foundation  of  the 
Religious  Tract  Society.  The  best  known  of 
these  was  the  'Shepherd  of  Salisbury  Plain'. 
Her  'Thoughts  on  the  Importance  of  the 
Manners  of  the  Great*  (1788)  also  met  wirh 
great  success.  In  1 809  she  published  a  popular 
novel,  'Ccelebs  in  Search  of  a  Wife*  (q.v.). 
The  later  part  of  her  life  was  devoted  to 
philanthropic  objects.  She  was  an  excellent 
letter-writer,  and  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
intellectual  world  which  she  frequented. 
Samuel  Wilberforce  and  Zachary  Macaulay 
were  among  her  later  correspondents.  Her 
letters  were  published  in  1834. 

MORE,  HENRY  (1614-87),  educated  at 
Eton  and  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  and  a 
fellow  of  his  college,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Platonist  movement  at  Cambridge.  He 
received  holy  orders  but  refused  all  prefer- 
ment, including  two  bishoprics.  His  volumi- 
nous works  include  '^PuxcoSta  Platonica,  or  a 
Platonical  Song  of  the  Soul*  (1642),  reprinted 
in  'Philosophicall  Poems'  (1647),  'An  Antidote 
against  Atheism*  (1653),  'Conjectura  Cabba* 
listica'  (1653),  'Enthusiasmus  Triumphatus3 
(1656,  an  exposure  of  the  prevalent  claim  to 
inspiration  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures), 'The  Immortality  of  the  Soul*  (1659), 
*An  Explanation  of  the  Grand  Mystery  of 
Godliness*  (1660),  'The  Mystery  of  Iniquity* 
(1664),  'Enchiridion  Ethicum*  (1667),  and 
'Divine  Dialogues'  (1668),  his  best-known 
work.  In  his  earlier  writings  More's  object 
was  to  combat  scepticism  by  calling  pagan 
philosophy  and  contemporary  science  to  the 
support  of  Christianity,  though  later  (in  his 
'Enchiridion  Metaphysicum*  (1668))  he  re- 
nounced Cartesianism. 

For  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  philo- 
sophy of  the  Cambridge  Platonists,  see  Cud- 
worth. 

MORE,  SIR  THOMAS  (1478-1535),  son  of 
Sir  John  More,  a  judge,  was  educated  at 
St.  Anthony's  School,  Threadneedle  Street, 
London,  and  at  Canterbury  Hall,  Oxford, 
where  he  was  the  pupil  of  Linacre  and 
Grocyn.  He  was  for  a  time  in  youth  in  the 
household  of  Cardinal  Morton,  and  it  was 
probably  from  Morton*s  information  that  he 
derived  his  knowledge  of  Richard  Ill's  mur- 
der of  the  Princes,  &c.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar,  where  he  was  brilliantly  successful.  He 
devoted  his  leisure  to  literature,  becoming 
intimate  (1497)  with  Colet,  Lily,  and  Eras- 
mus, who  afterwards  stayed  frequently  at 
his  house.  He  entered  parliament  in  1504. 
During  an  absence  as  envoy  to  Flanders 
he  sketched  his  description  (in  Latin)  of  the 
imaginary  island  of  'Utopia*  (q.v.),  which  he 
completed  and  published  in  1 5 1 6.  He  became 
master  of  requests  and  privy  councillor  in 
1518,  being  treated  by  Henry  VIII  with  ex- 
ceptional courtesy  during  his  residence  at 
court.  He  was  present  at  the  Field  of  the  Cloth 
of  Gold,  1520,  where  he  met  William  Bude", 


[534] 


MORE 

or  Budaeus,  the  greatest  Greek  scholar  of  the 
age.  He  completed  his  'Dialogue',  his  first 
controversial  book  in  English  (directed  mainly 
against  Tyndale's  writings),  in  1528.  He  suc- 
ceeded Wolsey  as  lord  chancellor  in  1529,  but 
resigned  the  post  in  1532  and  lived  for  some 
time  in  retirement,  mainly  engaged  in  con- 
troversy with  Tyndale  and  Frith. 

Although  willing  to  swear  fidelity  to  the 
new  Act  of  Succession,  More  refused  to  take 
any  oath  that  should  impugn  the  pope's 
authority,  or  assume  the  justice  of  the  king's 
divorce  from  Queen  Catharine,  1534;  he  was 
therefore  committed  to  the  Tower  of  London 
with  John  Fisher  (q.y.),  bishop  of  Rochester, 
who  had  assumed  a  like  attitude.  During  the 
first  days  of  his  imprisonment  he  prepared  a 
*  Dialogue  of  Comfort  against  Tribulation' 
and  treatises  on  Christ's  passion.  He  was  in- 
dicted of  high  treason,  found  guilty,  and 
beheaded  in  1535.  His  body  was  buried  in 
St.  Peter's  in  the  Tower  and  his  head  ex- 
hibited on  London  Bridge.  See  also  Roper. 

More  was  a  critic  and  a  patron  of  art,  and 
Holbein  is  said  to  have  stayed  three  years  in 
his  house  at  Chelsea,  and  painted  portraits 
of  More  and  his  family.  More's  other  chief 
English  works  are  his  'Life  of  John  Picus, 
Earl  of  Mirandula'  (printed  by  Wynkyn  de 
Worde,  1510),  his  'History  of  Richard  III' 
(printed  imperfectly  in  Grafton's  'Chronicle', 
I543>  used  by  Hall,  and  printed  fully  by 
Rastell  in  1557),  'Supplycacyon  of  Soulys' 
(1529),  'Confutacyon  of  Tyndale's  Answere* 
(1532),  and  'An  Apologye  of  Syr  Thomas 
More*  (1533).  His  English  works  were  col- 
lected in  1557.  His  Latin  publications  (col- 
lected 1563,  &c.)  included,  besides  the 
'Utopia',  two  dialogues  of  Lucian,  epigrams, 
and  controversial  tracts  in  divinity.  There  is 
a  pleasant  description  of  More  in  his  Chelsea 
home  in  the  epistle  of  Erasmus  to  Ulrich 
Hutten,  23  July  1519  (No.  999  in  P.  S.  and 
H.  M.  Allen's  edition,  translation  in  Froude's 
'Erasmus'). 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  a  play  of  unknown  author- 
ship, which  remained  in  manuscript  until 
1844.  Parts  of  it  have,  on  internal  evidence 
and  from  handwriting,  been  attributed  to 
Shakespeare. 

It  is  based  on  some  of  the  chief  events  in 
the  life  of  More,  as  recorded  in  Hall's 
Chronicle:  his  rise  to  favour  as  a  result^of  his 
successful  handling  of  an  insurrectionary 
movement  in  London,  his  friendship  with 
Erasmus,  his  refusal  to  support  Henry  VIIFs 
policy,  and  consequent  imprisonment  and 
execution.  There  are  pleasant  scenes  where 
More  is  shown  among  his  family,  and  giving 
a  dinner  to  the  Lord  Mayor;  and  also  an  in- 
teresting fragment  of  a  'morality*.  The  play 
contains  some  fine  poetry  and  is  one  of  the 
best  of  the  Shakespeare  apocrypha. 
More  of  More  Hall,  see  Dragon  of  Wantley. 
MOR&RI,  LOUIS  (1643-80),  a  French 
priest,  author  of  a  'Grand  Dictionnaire  His- 
torique'  (1674),  a  pioneer  work  of  its  kind. 


MORGANTE  MAGGIORE 

Moresque,  the  Moorish  Arabesque  style  of 
decoration  (see  Arabesque). 

MORGAN,  LADY  (1783  ?-i 859),  nee  Syd- 
ney Owenson,  the  wife  of  Sir  Thomas  Charles 
Morgan,  made  her  reputation  as  a  writer  by 
her  romance  of  Irish  life,  'The  Wild  Irish 
Girl'  (1806).  Her  best  works  were  'O'Donnef 
(1814)  and  'The  O'Briens  and  the  O'Fla- 
hertys*  (1827),  in  which  the  English  and 
Irish  races  in  Ireland  are  contrasted.  A  book 
on  'France'  (1817),  depicting  French  society 
of  the  day,  was  popular,  and  was  followed  by 
a  similar  book  on  'Italy'  in  1821. 
MORGAN,  WILLIAM  DE,  see  De  Morgan. 
Morgan,  in  Thackeray's  'Pendennis'  (q.v.), 
Major  Pendennis }s  valet. 
Morgan,  MR.,  a  character  in  Smollett's 
'Roderick  Random*  (q.v.). 
Morgan  le  Fay,  one  of  King  Arthur's  sisters, 
possessing  magic  powers,  who  married  King 
Uriens.  According  to  one  version  of  the 
legend,  she  reveals  to  Arthur  the  intrigue  of 
Launcelot  and  Guinevere.  In  the  'Morte 
d 'Arthur*  of  Malory  she  endeavours  to  kill 
Arthur,  by  means  of  Sir  Accolon,  her  para- 
mour, to  whom  she  sends  Arthur's  sword 
Excalibur ;  and  also  tries  to  kill  her  husband, 
but  the  latter  is  saved  by  Sir  Uwaine,  her  son. 
She  is  one  of  the  three  queens  in  the  ship  in 
which  Arthur  is  carried  off  to  be  healed  of  his 
wounds.  See  also  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

As  MORGANA  she  figures  in  the  'Orlando 
Innamorato*  and  in  the  'Orlando  Furioso* 
(q.v.).  She  lives  at  the  bottom  of  a  lake  and 
dispenses  the  treasures  of  the  earth.  Orlando 
penetrates  to  her  residence  and  forces  her,  in 
the  name  of  Demogorgon  her  master,  to 
release  the  knights  whom  she  detains.  The 
term  Fata  Morgana  is  given  in  Sicily  to  a 
mirage  occasionally  seen  at  sea  on  the  Cala- 
brian  coast  (there  are  various  legends  about 
Arthur  in  Sicily,  perhaps  imported  by  Nor- 
man conquerors ;  see  E.  K.  Chambers,  'Ar- 
thur of  Britain'). 

In  the  romance  of  Ogier  the  Dane  (q.v.) 
the  fairy  Morgana  rejuvenates  Ogier,  when 
more  than  a  hundred  years  old,  and  marries 
him. 

Morgana  and  Fata  Morgana,  see  Morgan 
le  Fay. 

MORGANN,  MAURICE  (1726-1802), 
secretary  to  the  embassy  for  peace  witii 
America  in  1782,  is  remembered  as  the 
author  of  an  'Essay  on  the  Dramatic  Charac- 
ter of  Sir  John  FalstafF,  a  vindication  of 
FalstafFs  courage  (1777). 
Morgante  Maggiore,  a  poem  by  Pulci  (q.v.), 
a  recasting,  with  a  burlesque  element,  of  the 
popular  story  of  the  giant  Morgante,  welded 
with  that  of  Roland  and  Roncesvalles.  The 
real  hero  of  the  poem  is  Roland  (Orlando), 
who,  driven  from  the  court  of  Charlemagne, 
encounters  three  giants,  of  whom  he  slays 
two  and  subdues  the  third,  Morgante,  con- 
verts him,  and  makes  him  his  brother  in 
arms.  Byron  translated  a  portion  of  the  poem* 


[535] 


MORGAWSE 

Morgawse  or  MABGAWSE,  in  Malory's 
'Morte  d'Arthur',  sister  of  King  Arthur,  wife 
of  King  Lot,  and  mother  of  Mordred, 
Gawaine,  Agravaine,  Gaheris,  and  Gareth. 
She  is  called  Anna  by  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth. 

Morgiana,  a  character  in  the  story  of  'All 
Baba  and  the  Forty  Thieves'  (q.v.). 
Morglay,  the  name  of  the  sword  of  Bevis 
of  Hampton  (q.v.).    It  is  sometimes  used 
allusively  for  a  sword  in  general. 

Morgue,  the  name  of  a  building  in  Paris 
where  the  bodies  of  persons  found  dead  are 
exposed  for  purposes  of  identification.  The 
origin  of  the  word  is  unknown. 

MORIER,  JAMES  JUSTINIAN  (1780?- 
1849),  born  at  Smyrna,  entered  the  diplo- 
matic service  in  1807,  being  attached  to  Sir 
Harford  Jones's  mission  to  Persia,  and  be- 
came secretary  of  embassy.  He  published  two 
books  of  travel,  'A  Journey  through* Persia . . . 
in  1808  and  1809*  (1812)  and  £A  Second 
Journey  through  Persia'  (1818),  which  pro- 
vided valuable  information  about  a  country 
then  little  known.  He  also  published  a  num- 
ber of  oriental  romances,  of  which  the  best  is 
"The  Adventures  of  Hajji  Baba  of  Ispahan* 
(1824),  which,  in  the  form  of  a  picaresque 
story  (the  hero,  successively  barber,  doctor, 
assistant-executioner,  and  rogue  generally, 
undergoes  amusing  vicissitudes),  gives 
an  accurate  picture  of  Persian  life  and 
manners,  and  is  said  to  have  provoked  a 
remonstrance  from  the  Persian  minister  in 
London.  This  was  printed  in  Morier's  intro- 
duction to  the  sequel,  a  book  in  which  Hajji 
Baba  is  transferred  to  England,  whose  cus- 
toms are  seen  through  the  astonished  eyes 
of  the  Persian. 

Morland,  CATHERINE,  the  heroine  of  Jane 
Austen's  'Northanger  Abbey'  (q.v.). 

Morland,  GEORGE  (1763-1804),  son  of 
Henry  Robert  Morland,  a  portrait-painter, 
and  grandson  of  George  Henry  Morland,  a 
genre  painter,  was  himself  a  painter  of  re- 
markable precocity,  who  exhibited  when  ten 
years  old  at  the  Royal  Academy.  He  was  a 
master  of  landscape,  genre,  and  animal  paint- 
ing, and  his  most  characteristic  pictures  are 
faithful  reflections  of  lowly  life  in  England. 
He  early  developed  a  taste  for  dissipation,  and 
died  in  a  sponging-house,  his  own  epitaph  on 
himself  being  'Here  lies  a  drunken  dog*. 

MORLEY,  CHRISTOPHER  (1890-  ), 
American  novelist  and  journalist,  born  in 
Pennsylvania.  His  chief  works  are:  *  Where 
the  Blue  Begins'  (1922),  'Parsons'  Pleasure* 
(1923),  'Thunder  on  the  Left'  (1925),  'Sea- 
coast  of  Bohemia'  (1929). 

MORLEY,  JOHN,  first  Viscount  Morley  of 
Blackburn  (1838-1923),  educated  at  Chelten- 
ham College  and  Lincoln  College,  Oxford, 
was  twice  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  (1886 
and  1892—5),  secretary  of  state  for  India 
(1905-10),  and  Lord  President  of  the  Council 
(1910-14).  His  chief  publications  were: 


MORNING  HERALD 

'Edmund  Burke;  an  historical  Study*  (1867), 
'Critical  Miscellanies'  (1871,  second  series, 
1877),  'Voltaire'  (1872),  'Rousseau'  (1873), 
'The  Struggle  for  National  Education*  (1873), 
'On  Compromise*  (1874),  'Diderot  and  the 
Encyclopaedists'  (1878),  'Burke*  (biography) 
(1879), 'The  Life  of  Richard  Cobden*  (1881), 
'Studies  in  Literature'  (1891),  'Oliver  Crom- 
well* (1900),  'Life  of  Gladstone'  (1903), 
'Politics  and  History*  (1914),  'Recollections' 
(1917).  He  chose ' Machiavelli '  for  the  subj ect 
of  his  Romanes  Lecture  of  1 897.  Morley  was 
editor  of  the  'Fortnightly  Review'  from  1867 
to  1882,  and  of  the  'Pall  Mall  Gazette*  from 
1 88 1  to  1883.  He  was  also  editor  of  the 
English  Men  of  Letters  series. 

Morley,  MRS.,  the  name  under  which  Queen 
Anne  corresponded  with  the  duchess  of 
Marlborough  (Mrs.  Freeman). 

Mormons,  a  religious  community  in  the 
United  States, which  styles  itself  'The  Church 
of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-day  Saints',  founded 
in  1830  by  Joseph  Smith,  of  Sharon,  Ver- 
mont. The  'Book  of  Mormon',  it  is  claimed, 
was  revealed  to  him  in  1827  as  a  'parallel 
volume*  to  the  Bible.  Its  doctrines  are  in 
general  harmony  with  those  of  the  Bible.  An 
additional  revelation  in  favour  of  polygamy, 
which  Smith  claimed  to  have  received  in 
1843,  aroused  general  hostility  to  the  sect. 
Under  the  leadership  of  Brigharn  Young 
(q.v.),  who  succeeded  Smith  as  president  of 
the  Mormon  church  in  1844,  they  made  a 
remarkable  pilgrimage  to  Utah,  where  they 
founded  Salt  Lake  City  in  1847.  The 
'Book  of  Mormon'1  establishes  government 
of  the  community  by  a  complicated  hierarchy, 
including  a  president,  two  counsellors,  a 
patriarch  and  twelve  apostles,  elders,  priests, 
deacons,  &c.  Polygamy  was  prohibited  by 
the  constitution  of  Utah  in  1896. 

Morning  Advertiser,  The,  one  of  the  oldest 
of  London  newspapers  with  a  continuous 
history,  having  been  founded  in  1794.  It 
was  devoted  primarily  to  the  defence  of  trade 
interests,  having  been  founded  by  the  Society 
of  Licensed  Victuallers  of  London,  whose 
organ  it  remains. 

Morning  Chronicle,  The,  a  Whig  journal 
founded  by  William  Woodfall  (1746-1803), 
the  printer,  in  1769,  and  successfully  con- 
ducted by  him  for  twenty  years.  It  rose  to 
importance  when  James  Perry  became  chief 
.proprietor  and  editor  in  1789.  Its  staff  then 
included  Sheridan,  C.  Lamb,  Thomas 
Campbell,  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  Henry 
Brougham,  Thomas  Moore,  and  David 
Ricardo.  Perry  was  followed  by  John  Black 
in  1821,  a  most  successful  editor.  Among  his 
contributors  were  James  and  John  Stuart 
Mill;  Charles  Dickens  was  among  his  re- 
porters, and  Thackeray  his  art  critic.  The 
'Morning  Chronicle*  came  to  an  end  in  1862. 

Morning  Herald,  The,  a  London  newspaper 
that  ran  from  1780  to  1869,  having  at  one 
time  a  very  large  circulation.  One  of  its 


[536] 


MORNING  POST 

special  features  for  a  time  was  a  selection  of 
reports  of  police  cases,  illustrated  by  George 
Cruikshank . 

Morning  Post,  The,  the  oldest  of  existing 
London  daily  newspapers,  was  founded  in 
1 772 .  Under  the  management  of  Stuart  (q.v.), 
Sir  J,  Mackintosh  and  S.  T.  Coleridge  were 
enlisted  in  its  service  at  the  end  of  the  i8th 
cent.,  and  Southey,  Wordsworth,  and  Arthur 
Young  also  wrote  for  it.  It  fell  on  evil  days 
about  1850,  but  recovered  its  position  under 
the  direction  of  Peter  Borthwick  and  his  son 
Algernon  Borthwick  (Lord  Glenesk,  1830- 
1908) 

Morning  Star  of  the  Reformation,  THE, 
Wydiffe  (q.v.),  so  named  by  Daniel  Neal  in 
his  'History  of  the  Puritans*  (1732). 

Morocco,  for  Bankes's  famous  performing 
horse  see  Morocco. 

Morose,  the  principal  character  in  Jonson's 
*Epiccene*  (q.v.). 

Morpheus,  the  son  of  the  god  of  sleep,  and 
himself  the  god  of  dreams. 

Morrice,  GIL,  see  Gil  Morrice. 

Morris,  DINAH,  a  character  in  G.  Eliot's 
*Adam  Bede*  (q.v.). 

MORRIS,  SIR  LEWIS  (1833-1907),  born 
at  Carmarthen  and  educated  at  Jesus  College, 
Oxford,  contributed  actively  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  University  of  Wales.  His  prin- 
cipal poetical  works  were  the  'Songs  of  Two 
Worlds'  (1871)  and  the  'Epic  of  Hades1 
(q.v.,  1876-7).  His  simplicity  of  expression, 
melodious  verse,  cheerful  optimism,  and  oc- 
casional exaltation  made  his  work  extremely 
popular,  in  spite  of  its  poetic  mediocrity. 
Morris  wrote  many  later  poems  ('Gwen,  a 
Drama  in  Monologue*  (1879),  'Songs  Un- 
sung' (1883),  'Gycia,  a  tragedy*  (1886),  'A 
Vision  of  Saints'  (1890)),  of  which  a  collection 
was  published  in  1 907.  *A  Vision  of  Saints* 
is  a  Christian  counterpart  of  the  'Epic  of 
Hades',  in  which  eminent  Christian  characters 
(including  Elizabeth  Fry  and  Father  Damien) 
take  the  place  of  the  figures  of  Greek  myth- 
ology. Morris  also  published  a  volume  of 
essays,  *The  New  Rambler*  (1905). 

MORRIS,  WILLIAM  (1834-96),  educated 
at  Marlborough  School  and  Exeter,  College, 
Oxford,  was  distinguished  not  only  as  a  poet 
and  artist,  but  also  as  a  decorator,  manu- 
facturer and  printer,  and  as  a  socialist.  He 
was  the  lifelong  friend  of  Edward  Burne- 
Jones.  After  being  articled  to  an  architect, 
he  followed  from  1857  to  1862  the  profession 
of  painter.  He  was  one  of  the  originators  of 
the  'Oxford  and  Cambridge  Magazine',  to 
which  he  contributed  poems,  essays,  and 
tales.  In  1858  he  published  his  'Defence  of 
Guenevere,  and  other  Poems',  He  helped 
to  found,  in  1861,  the  manufacturing  and 
decorating  firm  of  Morris,  Marshall,  Faulk- 
ner &  Co.,  in  which  Rossetti,  Burne- Jones, 
Madox  Brown,  and  Philip  Webb  were  also 


MORTE  ARTHUR 

partners ;  and  by  his  activities  in  this  direction 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life  he  brought 
about  a  complete  revolution  in  the  taste  of 
the  English  public.  In  1867  he  published  the 
'Life  and  Death  of  Jason'  (q.v.),  and  in  1 868-70 
the  'Earthly  Paradise'  (q.v.).  'Love  is  enough* 
(a  morality)  appeared  in  1872,  a  verse  transla- 
tion of  the  'Aeneids  of  Virgil5  in  1875,  'Three 
Northern  Love  Songs'  in  the  same  year,  and 
the  epic  'Sigurd  the  Volsung'  (q.v.),  perhaps 
his  finest  work,  in  1876.  He  founded  in  1877 
the   Society  for  the  Protection  of  Ancient 
Buildings,  and  in  1883  joined  the  Social  De- 
mocratic Federation,  the  doctrine  of  which, 
largely  under  his  leadership,  developed  into 
socialism.   On  its  disruption  in  1884  he  be- 
came head  of  the  seceders,  who  organized 
themselves  as  the  socialist  league.  The  verse 
tale,  'The  Pilgrims  of  Hope*,  appeared  in  the 
magazine  'The  Commonweal'  in  1885.    In 
1887  he  published  a  verse  translation  of  the 
'Odyssey*.   His  later  works,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  'Poems  by  the  Way'  (ballads  and 
lyrics),  published  in  1891,  were  mainly  in 
prose.   Two  of  them,  'The  Dream  of  John 
Ball*  (mixed  prose  and  verse,  1888)  and  'News 
from  Nowhere*  (1891)  were   romances   of 
socialist  propaganda.    The  others  were  pure 
romances,   of  which    'The   House  of    the 
Wolfings*  (1889),  'The  Roots  of  the  Moun- 
tains' (1890),  and  'The  Story  of  the  Glittering 
Plain'  (1890)  have  their  scene  in  the  remote 
northern  regions  of  Europe.     These  were 
followed  by  'The  Wood  beyond  the  World* 
(1894),  'Child  Christopher*  (1895),  "The  Well 
at  the  World's  End'  (1896),  'The  Water  of  the 
Wondrous    Isles'   (postitiumous,   1897),  an<^ 
eThe  Story  of  the  Sundering  Flood'  (1898). 
Morris  started  in   1890,  at  Hammersmith, 
the  Kelmscott  Press,  for  which  he  designed 
founts  of  type  and  ornamental  letters  and 
borders,  and  from  which  were  issued  fifty- 
three  books,  comprising  (i)  Morris's  own 
works,  (2)  reprints  of  English  classics,  and 
(3)  various  smaller  books,  originals  or  transla- 
tions. 

Morris  twice  visited  Iceland,  and  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Sagas  (many  of  which  he  trans- 
lated in  collaboration  with  Magnusspn) ,  as  well 
as  that  of  Chaucer,  is  apparent  in  his  writings. 
Morris  car,  the  generic  name  for  various 
models  of  English  motor-car,  the  products  of 
the  Morris  factories  near  Oxford ;  a  type  of 
the  English  family  car.  Sir  William  Morris 
was  the  first  to  apply  mass-production 
methods  to  the  manufacture  of  English 
motor-cars. 

Morris- dance,  a  grotesque  dance  per- 
formed by  persons  in  fancy  costume,  usually 
representing  characters  in  the  Robin  Hood 
legend,  especially  Maid  Marian  and  Friar 
Tuck.  Maid  Marian  sometimes  appears  as 
Queen  of  May.  The  Morris-dance  is  referred 
to  as  early  as  the  isth  cent.  See  also  Revesby 
Play, 

Morte  Arthur,  Let  a  late  i4th-cent.  poem  of 
3,800  lines,  in  eight-lined  rhyming  stanzas, 


[537] 


MORTE  ARTHURS 

dealing  with  the  loves  of  Launcelot  and  the 
Maid  of  Astolat,  with  Launcelot's  love  for 
Queen  Guinevere,  and  with  the  last  battles 
of  Arthur  and  his  bearing  away  to  Avalon. 
See  Arthur  and  Launcelot. 

Morte  Arthur  ef  a  i4th-cent.  poem  of  4,300 
alliterative  lines,  dealing  with  the  later  history 
of  King  Arthur,  and  similar  in  essentials  to 
the  narrative  given  in  the  'Historia*  of  Geof- 
frey of  Monmouth  and  Layamon's  'Brut*  (see 
Arthur)>  but  with  some  details^from  other 
sources  or  the  poet's  own  imagination,  and 
with  allusions  to  contemporary  history.  The 
poem  was  written  in  northern  England  or 
southern  Scotland,  and  has  been  attributed 
by  some  to  the  Scottish  poet  Huchoun  (q.v.). 
It  shows  pathos  and  humour,  and  includes 
vivid  scenes,  such  as  the  description  of  the 
sea-fight  between  Arthur  and  Modred. 

Morte  d'Arfhur,  a  prose  translation  made 
from  the  French  by  Malory  (q.v.),  'a  most 
pleasant  jumble  and  summary  of  the  legends 
about  Arthur",  in  twenty-one  books,  and 
finished  between  Mar.  1469  and  Mar.  1470. 
It  was  printed  by  Caxton  in  1485.  The  work 
is  a  skilful  selection  and  blending  of  materials 
taken  from  the  mass  of  Arthurian  legends. 
The  central  story  consists  of  two  main  ele- 
ments: the  reign  of  King  Arthur  ending  in 
catastrophe  and  the  dissolution  of  the  Round 
Table;  and  the  quest  of  the  Holy  Grail,  ID. 
which  Launcelot  fails  by  reason  of  his  sin, 
and  Galahad  succeeds.  See  under  Grail,  and 
the  names  of  the  various  characters  in  the 
book. 

Morte  d* Arthur,  The,  a  poem  by  A.  Tenny- 
son (q.v.),  published  in  1842  and  subse- 
quently incorporated  in  'The  Passing  of 
Arthur*  (q.v.),  one  of  the  cldylls  of  the  King' 

Morton,  HENRY,  OF  MILNWOOD,  the  hero  of 
Scott's  'Old  Mortality*  (q.v.). 

MORTON  JOHN  MADDISON(i8n-9i), 
son  of  the  dramatist  Thomas  Morton,  edu- 
cated in  France,  wrote  farces  and  showed  a 
special  gift  for  adaptations  from  the  French. 
His  most  successful  piece  was  'Box  and  Cox* 
(q.v.,  1847);  'Done  on  both  Sides*  appeared 
in  the  same  year. 

MORTON,  THOMAS  (i764?-i83S),  who 
entered  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1784,  was  the  author 
of  the  successful  comedies,  'The  Way  to  get 
Married5  (1796),  'A  Cure  for  Heartache* 
(1797),  and  'Speed  the  Plough*  (1798,  q.v.), 
which  contain  some  humorous  situations. 
The  last  of  these  introduced  the  name  of 
'Mrs.  Grandy*  into  England. 

Morton's  Fork,  the  dilemma  that  Cardinal 
Morton,  Henry  VI  Fs  chancellor,  proposed 
to  merchants  and  others  whom  he  invited  to 
contribute  to  benevolences.  Either  their 
handsome  way  of  life  manifested  their  opu- 
lence; or  if  their  course  of  living  was  less 
sumptuous,  they  must  have  grown  rich  by 
their  economy. 


MOTHERWELL 

Morven,  in  the  Ossianic  poems  of  Mac- 
pherson,  the  kingdom  of  Fingal,  situated  in 
the  north-west  of  Scotland. 
Mosca,  a  character  in  Jonson's  'Volpone* 
(q.v.). 

MOSCHUS  (fl.  c.  250  B.C.),  a  pastoral  poet 
of  Syracuse,  a  pupil  of  Bion,  for  whose  un- 
timely death  he  wrote  a  pathetic  lament. 

Moselle,  the  name  given  to  certain  good 
beverage  wines,  grown  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Moselle,  less  potent  than  those  of  the 
Rhine.  See  Ausonius. 

Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse ,  published  in 
1854,  is  a  collection  of  tales  and  sketches  by 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne  (q.v.).  The  Old  Manse 
itself  is  the  author's  Concord  home,  and  best 
known  among  the  book's  contents  are: 
'Roger  Malvin's  Burial',  'The  Birth-Mark* 
and  'The  Artist  of  the  Beautiful*. 

Moth,  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's  Labour's 
Lost*  (q.v.),  Armado's  page,  connected  by 
Sir  S.  Lee  with  La  Mothe,  the  French 
ambassador  long  popular  in  London. 

Mother  Bumby,  Mother  Bunch,  Mother 
Shipton,  see  under  those  names. 

Mother  Goose's  Tales,  and  Mother  Goose's 
Melody,  nursery  tales  and  verses  published  by 
Newbery  (q.v.).  The  name  is  taken  from  the 
'Contes  de  ma  mere  1'Oye*  by  Perrault  (q.v.), 
though  'Mother  Goose*  probably  had  a 
traditional  existence  much  earlier.  Lockhart 
(Ixxxii)  mentions  that  Scott  thought  he  had 
traced  her,  if  not  to  her  origin  at  Naples,  at 
least  to  a  period  of  remote  antiquity  in  Italy. 

Mother  Hubbard,  the  subject  of  a  nursery 
rhyme.  She  goes  to  the  cupboard  to  find  her 
dog  a  bone,  but  finds  none;  and  then  sets 
about  other  errands  for  his  comfort.  The 
rhyme  ends  with  an  interchange  of  civilities 
between  Mother  Hubbard  and  the  dog. 

Mother  Hubberd's  Tale,  or  Prosopopoza,  a 
satire  in  rhymed  couplets,  by  Spenser  (q.v.), 
included  in  the  volume  of  'Complaints*  pub- 
lished in  1590.  The  ape  and  the  fox,  'dis- 
liking of  their  hard  estate',  determine  to  seek 
their  fortunes  abroad,  and  assume  the  dis- 
guises first  of  an  old  soldier  and  his  dog,  then 
of  a  parish  priest  and  his  clerk,  then  of  a 
courtier  and  his  groom;  their  knaveries  in 
these  characters  are  recounted.  Finally  they 
steal  the  lion's  crown  and  sceptre  and  abuse 
the  regal  power,  until  Jove  intervenes  and 
exposes  them.  The  poem  is  a  vigorous  satire 
on  the  abuses  of  the  church  and  the  evils  of 
the  court. 

Mothering  Sunday,  Mid-Lent  Sunday,  so 
called  from  an  old  custom  of  visiting  parents 
on  that  day  and  giving  or  receiving  presents. 

MOTHERWELL,  WILLIAM  (1797-1 835), 
a  native  of  Glasgow,  became  editor  of  the 
'Paisley  Advertiser'  and  'Glasgow  Courier*. 
In  1827  he  published  his  'Minstrelsy, 
Ancient  and  Modern*,  a  collection  of  ballads, 
and  in  1832  his  *Poems,  Narrative  and 


[538] 


MOTION 

Lyrical',  of  ^which  the  best  known  and  least 
characteristic  is  'Jeanie  Morrison*.  With 
Hogg  (q.v.)  he  published  an  edition  of 
Burns 's  works  in  1834-5. 

Motion,  the  name  given  to  puppet-plays  in 
the  1 6th  and  I7th  cents.  These  dealt  originally 
with  scriptural  subjects,  but  their  scope  was 
afterwards  extended.  Shakespeare  in  the 
'Winter's  Tale'  (iv.  ii)  refers  to  a  'motion  of 
the  Prodigal  Son',  and  we  have  references  to 
'motions'  in  Jonson's  'Bartholomew  Fair', 
'Tale  of  a  Tub',  and  'Every  Man  out  of  his 
Humour*. 

MOTLEY,  JOHN  LOTHROP  (1814-77), 
was  born  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  and 
educated  at  Harvard,  Gottingen,  and  Berlin 
(where  he  formed  a  life-long  friendship  with 
Count  Bismarck).  He  was  American  minister 
to  Austria,  1861-7,  and  to  Great  Britain, 
1869-70,  and  from  that  time  until  his  death 
lived  in  England.  His  principal  works  are 
'The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic'  (1856), 
'History  of  the  United  Netherlands'  (1860-8), 
and  'The  Life  and  Death  of  John  Barneveld' 
(1874). 

MOTTEUX,  PETER  ANTHONY  (1660- 
1718),  was  born  at  Rouen  and  came  to  Eng- 
land in  1685.  He  edited  the  'Gentleman's 
Journal'  (q.v.),  and  completed  Sir  T.  Urqu- 
hart's  translation  of  Rabelais  (1708).  He 
published  a  free  translation  of  'Don  Quixote' 
in  1712. 

MOTTLEY,  JOHN  (1692-1750),  author  of 
two  dull  pseudo-classical  tragedies,  a  few 
comedies,  and  lives  of  Peter  the  Great  and 
Catharine  I,  is  remembered  as  having  pub- 
lished 'Joe  Miller's  Jest-book'  in  1739. 

Mouldy,  RALPH,  in  Shakespeare's  '2  Henry 
IV,  III.  ii,  one  of  FalstafFs  recruits. 
Mount  Zion  or  SIGN,  the  hill  on  which 
Jerusalem  was  built,  used  sometimes  figura- 
tively for  the  Christian  Church,  or  (e.g.  in 
the  'Pilgrim's  Progress')  for  heaven.  The 
name  has  often  been  given  to  dissenting 
chapels,  as  in  R.  Browning's  'Christmas  Eve*. 

Mountain,  THE,  the  extreme  democratic 
party  led  at  first  by  Danton  and  afterwards 
by  Robespierre  in  the  first  French  Revolu- 
tion, so  called  from  the  fact  that  it  occupied 
the  highest  benches  in  the  hall  of  National 
Convention. 

Mountain,  THE  OLD  MAN  OF  THE,  see 
Assassins. 

Mourning  Bride,  The,  a  tragedy  by  Congreve 
(<l-v.),  produced  in  1697.  This  was  the 
author's  only  attempt  at  tragedy,  and  was 
received  with  enthusiasm. 

Almeria,  daughter  of  Manuel,  king  of 
Granada,  has  been  secretly  married  to  Al- 
phonso, prince  of  the  enemy  state  of  Valencia. 
Circumstances  place  him  a  captive  in  the 
power  of  Manuel.  The  discovery  of  his 
marriage  to  Almeria  infuriates  the  long,  who 
orders  the  immediate  murder  of  Alphonso, 
and  further  to  punish  his  daughter  deter- 


MUCEDORUS 

mines  to  personate  the  captive  in  his  cell,  so 
that  when  she  comes  to  save  him,  he  may 
mock  her  disappointment.  As  a  result  he  is 
by  mistake  killed  instead,  and  decapitated. 
Zara,  a  Moorish  queen,  a  fellow  captive  in 
love  with  Alphonso,  but  repulsed  by  him, 
finding  the  headless  body  of,  as  she  supposes, 
Alphonso,  takes  poison  in  despair.  A  revolt 
against  Manuel  releases  the  true  Alphonso, 
and  he  and  Almeria  are  reunited. 

The  play  contains  lines  that  are  widely 
known,  such  as  the  first  in  the  play: 

Music  has  charms  to  soothe  a  savage  breast, 
and  those  which  close  the  third  act: 

Heaven  has  no  rage,  like  love  to  hatred 
turned, 

Nor  hell  a  fury,  like  a  woman  scorned. 
Mouse  Tower,  see  Bishop  Hatto. 

Mousterian,  a  name  applied  by  archaeolo- 
gists to  an  early  form  of  palaeolithic  industry, 
in  which  flints  were  mainly  worked  on  one 
side  only.  It  is  associated  with  Neanderthal 
(q.v.)  man.  The  name  is  derived  from  Le 
Moustier,  a  rock  shelter  near  Les  Eyzies,  in 
the  Dordogne,  France. 

Mouton  Rothschild,  see  Claret. 

Mowbray,  CLARA  and  MR.,  characters  in 
Scott's  'St.  Ronan's  Well'  (q.v.). 

Mowcher,  Miss,  in  Dickens's  'David 
Copperfield'  (q.v.),  a  humorous  and  good- 
hearted  dwarf,  a  hairdresser  and  manicure. 

Mowgli,  the  child  in  Rudyard  Kipling's 
'The  Jungle  Book*  (q.v.). 

MOXON,  EDWARD  (1801-58),  publisher 
and  verse-writer,  came  to  London  from  Wake- 
field  in  1817  and  entered  the  service  of 
Messrs.  Longman.  He  set  up  as  a  publisher 
in  1830,  his  first  publication  being  Lamb's 
'Album  Verses*.  He  married  Lamb's  adopted 
daughter  Emma  Isola.  He  published  for 
Southey,  Wordsworth,  Tennyson,  Browning, 
Landor,  and  other  well-known  authors. 
Moxon  published  two  volumes  of  his  own 
sonnets,  1836  and  1837. 
Mozart,  WOLFGANG  AMADEUS  (1756-91), 
was  born  at  Salzburg,  and  showed  extra- 
ordinary precocity  as  a  musician  and  com- 
poser. He  composed  his  first  oratorio  in 
1767  (when  eleven  years  old),  and  his  first 
opera  was  produced  in  1769.  His  work  met 
with  great  success,  but  he  was  improvident, 
experienced  much  poverty  during  his  brief 
life,  and  died  in  destitution.  His  principal 
operas  were  'Le  Nozze  di  Figaro*,  'Don 
Giovanni*,  'Cos!  fan  tutte*,and  'Die  Zauber- 
flote'.  Besides  these,  he  wrote  church  music, 
songs,  forty-one  symphonies,  concertos, 
pianoforte  sonatas,  and  much  chamber  music. 
Mucedorus,  The  Comedie  of,  a  play,  pub- 
lished in  1598,  of  uncertain  authorship  in- 
cluded in  a  volume  with  the  title  of  'Shake- 
speare' in  Charles  IPs  library  (but  not  by 
Shakespeare). 

Mucedorus,  prince  of  Valencia,  in  order  to 


[539] 


MUCH 

discover  the  virtues  of  Amadine,  the  daughter 
of  the  king  of  Arragon,  assumes  the  disguise 
of  a  shepherd,  saves  her  from  a  bear,  and 
falls  in  love  with  her.  Banished  from  her 
father's  court,  he  next  appears  as  a  hermit, 
saves  Arnadine  from  a  'wild  man",  reveals 
his  identity  to  her  father,  and  is  now  success- 
ful in  his  suit. 

Much,  in  the  Robin  Hood  legend,  a  miller's 
son,  one  of  the  outlaw's  companions.  He 
figures  in  'A  Lytell  Geste  of  Robyn  Hode* 
(Ritson's  collection  of  ballads). 

Much  Ado  about  Nothing,  a  comedy  by 
Shakespeare  (q.v.),  probably  produced  in 
the  winter  of  1598-9,  and  printed  in  1600. 
The  trick  played  by  Borachio  is  in  Bandello 
and  Ariosto. 

The  Prince  of  Arragon,  with  Claudio  and 
Benedick  in  his  suite,  visits  Leonato,  duke 
of  Messina,  father  of  Hero,  and  uncle  of 
Beatrice.  Claudio  falls  in  love  with  Hero 
and  their  marriage  is  arranged.  Beatrice,  a 
mirthful,  teasing  creature,  and  the  wild 
and  witty  Benedick,  are  ever  engaged  in 
wordy  warfare.  A  plot  is  devised  to  make 
them  fall  in  love.  It  is  contrived  that  Bene- 
dick shall  overhear  the  Prince  and  Claudio 
speak  of  the  secret  love  of  Beatrice  for  him; 
and  Beatrice  is  made  to  overhear  a  like  ac- 
count of  Benedick's  love  for  her.  The  scheme 
is  successful  and  they  are  brought  to  a 
mutual  liking. 

Don  John,  the  soured  and  malignant 
brother  of  the  prince,  in  order  to  wreck 
Claudio's  marriage,  contrives  with  a  follower, 
Borachio,  that  Claudio  shall  be  brought  to 
doubt  of  Hero's  honour.  Borachio  converses 
at  midnight  with  Margaret,  Hero's  maid, 
dressed  as  Hero,  at  Hero's  window,  and  the 
prince  and  Claudio,  who  have  been  posted 
near,  are  deceived  by  the  trick. 

At  the  wedding  ceremony,  Claudio  and 
the  prince  denounce  Hero,  who  falls  in  a 
swoon.  By  the  advice  of  the  Friar,  who  is 
sure  of  Hero's  innocence,  Leonato  gives  out 
that  she  is  dead.  Benedick,  at  the  instance  of 
Beatrice,  challenges  Claudio  for  slandering 
her  cousin.  At  this  moment  Borachio,  over- 
heard boasting  of  his  exploit,  is  arrested  and 
confesses.  Claudio  offers  to  make  Leonato 
any  amends  in  his  power,  and  is  required  to 
marry  a  cousin  of  Hero  in  her  place.  This 
lady  when  unmasked  turns  out  to  be  Hero 
herself.  Benedick  asks  to  be  married  at  the 
same  time,  and  Beatrice  'on  great  persuasion, 
and  partly  to  save  your  life,  because  I  was 
told  you  were  in  a  consumption',  consents. 
Mucklebackit,  ELSPETH,  STEENIE,  &c., 
characters  in  Scott's  'The  Antiquary'  (q.v.). 
Muckle  wrath,  HABAKKUK,  a  fanatical 
preacher  in  Scott's  'Old  Mortality'  (q.v.). 

MUDDIMAN,  HENRY  (b.  1629),  a  pen- 
sioner at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  was 
authorized  as  a  journalist  by  the  Rump  Par- 
liament at  the  request  of  General  Monck,  in 
1659,  in  which  year  he  started  'The  Par- 


MttLLER 

liamentary  Intelligencer*  and  'Mercurius 
Publicus'.  He  became  the  most  famous  of 
I7th-cent.  journalists,  and  his  newsletters  in 
manuscript,  sent  twice  a  week  to  subscribers 
all  over  the  kingdom,  were  an  important 
political  feature  of  the  day.  One  of  his  prin- 
cipal rivals  was  L'Estrange  (q.v.),  whose 
papers  however  he  drove  from  the  field.  In 
1665,  under  the  direction  of  his  patron,  Sir  J. 
Williamson  (q.v.),  he  started  the  *  Oxford 
Gazette*  (the  predecessor  of  the  'London 
Gazette'),  the  court  being  then  at  Oxford  on 
account  of  the  Great  Plague. 

Mug,  MATTHEW,  a  character  in  Foote's 
'Mayor  of  Garret*,  said  to  be  a  caricature  of 
the  duke  of  Newcastle. 

Muggleton  v.  Dingley  Dell,  the  cricket- 
match  in  c.  vii  of  the  'Pickwick  Papers'  (q.v.). 

Muggletonians,  a  sect  founded  about  1651 
by  Lodowicke  Muggleton  and  John  Reeve. 
The  belief  of  the  sect  rested  on  the  personal 
inspiration  of  the  founders,  who  claimed  to  be 
the  'two  witnesses*  of  Rev.  xi.  3-6.  Muggle- 
ton (1609-98)  was  a  journeyman  tailor,  and 
was  imprisoned  and  fined  for  blasphemy. 
Reeve  and  Muggleton's  'Transcendent  Spiri- 
tuall  Treatise*  was  published  in  1652. 

Mugwump,  from  an  American  Indian  word 
meaning  'great  chief,  the  name  applied  in  the 
United  States  in  1884  to  the  Republicans  who 
refused  to  support  the  nominee  (Blame)  of 
their  party  for  the  presidency.  It  is  used  to 
signify  one  who  stands  aloof  from  party 
politics,  professing  disinterested  and  superior 
views.  [OED.] 

Muhajirs,  the  companions  of  Mohammed 
in  his  migration  from  Mecca  to  Medina  (the 
Hegira,  622). 

MULCASTER,  RICHARD  (i53o?-i6n), 
educated  at  Eton  and  Christchurch,  was 
headmaster  of  Merchant  Taylors*  School  and 
high-master  of  St.  Paul's  School.  He  was 
author  of  two  books  on  the  education  of 
children  of  the  middle  classes,  'The  Positions* 
and  'The  Elementarie*,  published  in  1581  and 
1582. 

Mulciber,  a  surname  of  Vulcan  (q.v.). 
MULGRAVE,  EARL  OF,  see  Sheffield. 

Mulla,  ^frequently  referred  to  in  Spenser's 
poems,  is  the  river  Mulla  or  Awbeg,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Blackwater  in  Ireland,  near  which 
stood  Kilcolman  Castle,  his  residence  when 
he  composed  the  'Faerie  Queene*. 

Mullah,  THE  MAD,  a  fanatical  Moslem 
teacher,  of  Surat  on  the  Indian  frontier,  who 
incited  risings  in  1897-8.  A  'Mad  Mullah* 
also  led  risings  in  Somaliland  in  1899—1910. 
'Mullah*  is  a  corrupt  pronunciation  of  an 
Arabic  word  meaning  one  learned  in  the 
sacred  law. 

MtJLLER,  FRIEDRICH  MAX,  see  Max 
Mutter. 


[540] 


MULLINER 

Mulliner,  MR.,  (i)  in  Mrs.  Gaskell's  'Cran- 
ford'  (q.v.),  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Jamieson's  butler; 
(2)  the  teller  of  some  of  the  stories  by  P.  G. 
Wodehouse  (q.v.), 

MULOCK,  DINAH  MARIA  (Mrs.  Craik) 
(1824-87),  author  of  'John  Halifax,  Gentle- 
man* (q.v.). 

Mulready,  WILLIAM  (1786-1863),  a  genre 
painter,  is  remembered  as  the  designer  of  the 
MULREADY  ENVELOPE,  the  penny  postage 
envelope  issued  by  Rowland  Hill  in  1840. 
It  was  caricatured  by  Leech  in  'Punch*. 
Mulvaney,  TERENCE,  with  Stanley  Ortheris 
and  John  Learoyd,  the  three  privates  in 
Rudyard  Kipling's  'Soldiers  Three'. 

Mum,  Sothsegger,  'Hush,  Truthteller',  the 
title  of  an  alliterative  poem  of  the  time  of 
'Piers  Plowman'  (q.v.).  The  title  has  long 
been  known.  The  identification  of  the  poem 
with  a  fragment  which  occurs  in  one  of  the 
manuscripts  of  the  B-text  of  Tiers  Plowman', 
named  'Richard  the  Redeless'  by  Skeat,  has 
been  rendered  possible  by  the  discovery  of  a 
manuscript  not  yet  published. 

Mumbo  Jumbo,  a  grotesque  idol  said  to 
have  been  worshipped  by  certain  negro  tribes 
in  Africa.  According  to  the  descriptions  given 
by  Moore  and  Mungo  Park,  it  was  a  bugbear 
used  by  husbands  to  terrify  their  wives  and 
keep  them  in  order.  The  term  is  used  in  Eng- 
lish to  signify  an  object  of  unintelligent 
veneration  and  the  ceremonies  connected 
with  it. 

Mumm,  see  Champagne. 

Mummers'  Play,  THE,  or  ST.  GEORGE 
PLAY,  a  folk-play  evolved  from  the  sword- 
dance  (q.v.),  widely  spread  through  England, 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales.  The  play,  in 
its  characters  and  detailed  action,  varies  in 
different  localities,  but  the  main  lines  are  as 
follows.  The  principal  characters  are  St. 
George  (Sir  George,  King  George,  Prince 
George),  the  Turkish  knight,  Captain  Slasher, 
and  the  Doctor.  By  the  side  of  these  are  minor 
personages,  bearing,  according  to  the  differ- 
ent versions,  a  great  variety  of  names.  After 
a  brief  prologue,  the  several  fighting  charac- 
ters advance  and  introduce  themselves,  or  are 
introduced,  in  vaunting  rhymes.  A  duel  or 
several  duels  follow,  and  one  or  other  of  the 
combatants  is  killed.  The  Doctor  then  enters, 
boasts  his  skill,  and  resuscitates  the  slain. 
Supernumerary  grotesque  characters  are 
then  presented,  and  a  collection  is  made. 
The  central  incident  of  the  play  is  doubtless 
connected  with  the  celebration  of  the  death 
of  the  year  and  its  resurrection  in  the  spring. 
The  subject  is  treated  in  R.  J.  Tiddy,  'The 
Mummers"  Play*  (1923). 
Mumpslmus,  used  as  a  vague  term  of  con- 
tempt, an  'old  fogey* ;  also  a  traditional  cus- 
tom or  notion  obstinately  adhered  to,  however 
unreasonable  it  is  shown  to  be.  The  term 
originates  from  the  story  (in  R.  Pace,  'De 
j',  1517)  of  an  illiterate  English  priest, 


MUNERA  PULVERIS 

who  when  corrected  for  reading  'quod  in  ore 
mumpsimus'  in  the  Mass,  replied,  £I  will  not 
change  my  old  mumpsimus  for  your  new 
sumpsimus*.  [OED.] 

MUNBY,  ARTHUR  JOSEPH  (1828-1910), 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
published  various  poems:  'Benoni*  (1852), 
'Verses  New  and  Old'  (1865),  and  'Dorothy' 
(1880).  His  later  works  include  'Poems, 
Chiefly  Lyric  and  Elegiac'  (1901)  and 
'Relicta*  (1909).  Munby  was  secretly  and 
happily  married  to  his  servant,  who  refused 
to  quit  her^  station.  The  fact  explains  some 
of  the  allusions  in  his  poems. 

Munchausen,  Baron,  Narrative  of  his  Mar- 
vellous Travels,  by  Rudolph  Erich  Raspe, 
published  in  1785. 

The  original  Baron  Miinchhausen  is  said  to 
have  lived  in  1720-97,  to  have  served  in  the 
Russian  army  against  the  Turks,  and  to  have 
been  in  the  habit  of  grossly  exaggerating  his 
experiences.  Raspe  was  a  German  adven- 
turer who  fled  to  England  to  escape  the 
consequences  of  a  theft,  and  added  to  his 
resources  by  publishing  in  English  a  version 
of  the  Baron's  narratives.  They  include  such 
stories  as  that  of  the  horse  who  was  cut  in 
two,  drank  of  a  fountain,  and  was  sewn  up 
again ;  of  the  stag  that  the  Baron  shot  with  a 
cherry-stone,  and  afterwards  found  with  a 
cherry-tree  growing  out  of  his  forehead ;  and 
so  forth. 

MUNDAY,  ANTHONY(i553-i6o3),  wrote 
or  collaborated  in  a  number  of  plays,  and  was 
ridiculed  by  Ben  Jonson  as  Antonio  Balladino 
in  'The  Case  is  altered'  (q.v.).  Among  his 
plays  are  'John  a  Kent  and  John  a  Cumber* 
(1595,  dealing  with  a  conflict  between  two 
wizards  of  those  names)  and  'The  Downfall 
of  Robert,  Earle  of  Huntmgton*  (1599),  fol- 
lowed by  'The  Death*  of  the  same,  of  which 
the  subject  is  the  legend  of  Robin  Hood,  with 
whom  the  earl  is  identified.  Munday  wrote 
ballads,  which  are  lost,  unless  the  charming 
'Beauty  sat  by  a  spring*  in  'England's  Heli- 
con* (q.v.)  is  his,  as  it  appears  to  be.  He 
also  translated  popular  romances,  including 
Talladino  of  England*  (1588)  and  £Amadis  de 
Gaule*  (q.v.,  1589-95),  and  wrote  City 
pageants. 

Mundungus  (from  Spanish  mondongo> 
tripe,  black-pudding),  bad-smelling  tobacco. 
Under  the  name  of  Mundungus,  Sterne,  in 
the  'Sentimental  Journey*  (q.v.),  satirized 
Dr.  S.  Sharp,  author  of  'Letters  from  Italy* 
(1766). 

Munera,  THE  LADY,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie 
Queene*,  v.  ii,  the  daughter  of  the  Saracen 
Pollente,  the  personification  of  ill-gotten 
wealth,  whom  Sir  Artegall  besieges  and 
Talus  drowns  in  the  moat  of  her  castle  after 
chopping  off  her  golden  hands  and  feet. 
Munera  Pulveris,  chapters  by  Ruskin 
(q.v.)  of  an  unfinished  treatise  on  political 
economy  contributed  to  'Eraser's  Magazine* 
in  1862-3,  tke  remainder  of  which  was 


MUNGO 

suppressed  by  popular  clamour.  The  work 
was  published  in  book  form  in  1872. 

It  purports  to  be  an  'accurate  analysis  of 
the  laws  of  Political  Economy5,  and  begins 
with  a  series  of  definitions,  of  which  the  most 
important,  being  the  key  to  the  subsequent 
treatment  of  the  subject,  is  that  of  Wealth. 
Wealth  consists  of  things  essentially  valuable, 
intrinsic  value  being  the  life-giving  power  of 
anything.  A  cluster  of  flowers,  for  instance, 
has  a  fixed  power  of  enlivening  or  animating 
the  senses  and  heart.  This  intrinsic  value  is 
not  affected  by  men's  contempt  for  it,  and  is 
thus  distinguished  from  exchange  value. 
Mungo,  ST.,  see  Kentigern* 
Munin,  see  Odin. 

MUNRO,  HECTOR  HUGH  (1870-1916), 
writer  of  fiction,  began  his  literary  career  as 
a  political  satirist  for  the  'Westminster 
Gazette*,  and  during  1902-8  was  correspon- 
dent in  Russia  and  subsequently  in  Paris  to 
the  'Morning  Post'.  'Reginald',  his  first 
characteristic  collection  of  short  stories,  was 
published  under  the  pseudonym  'Saki*  in 
1904,  and  was  followed  by  'Reginald  in 
Russia*  (1910),  eThe  Chronicles  of  Clovis* 
(1911),  and  'Beasts  and  Superbeasts'  (1914). 
(The  Unbearable  Blessington*,  a  novel,  ap- 
peared in  1912. 

MUNRO,  HUGH  ANDREW  JOHN- 
STONE  (1819-85),  educated  at  Shrewsbury 
School  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  one 
of  the  foremost  of  English  latinists,  produced 
a  famous  critical  edition  of  Lucretius,  with  a 
translation  into  English  prose,  in  1864.  His 
'Criticisms  and  Elucidations  of  Catullus*  ap- 
peared in  1878.  His  'Translations  into  Latin 
and  Greek  Verse'  were  privately  printed  in 
1884. 

Murdstone,  EDWARD  and  JANE,  characters 
in  Dickens's  'David  Copperfield'  (q.v.). 

MURGER,  HENRI  (1822-61),  French 
novelist,  author  of  the  'Scenes  de  la  Vie  de 
Bph&ne*  (1848),  a  vivid  and  entertaining 
picture  of  Bohemian  life  in  Paris. 
Murillo,  BARTOLOM£  ESTEBAN  (1617-82),  the 
celebrated  Spanish  painter,  born  at  Seville. 
He  painted  principally  religious  pictures,  the 
Virgin  of  the  Assumption  being  one  of  his 
favourite  subjects.  He  also  painted  Seville 
street-arab  types.  His  death  was  due  to  a  fall 
from  a  scaffold  while  painting  in  a  church  at 
Seville. 

MURPHY,  ARTHUR  (1727-1805),  a  play- 
wright of  the  Garrick  era,  of  more  industry 
than  originality.  He  wrote  comedies,  some  of 
them  adapted  from  Moliere,  tragedies  ('The 
Grecian  Daughter'  and  'Zenobia'),  and  farces, 
which  met  with  some  success.  Among  his 
best  comedies  are  'Three  Weeks  after  Mar- 
riage* (q.v.),  produced  in  1764;  and  'The 
Way  to  Keep  him'  (1760),  on  the  duty  of  wives 
to  be  bright  and  amiable,  and  of  husbands  to 
be  faithful. 

MURRAY,  GEORGE  GILBERT  AIM£ 


MUSE'S  LOOKING-GLASS 

(1866-  ),  classical  scholar,  became  Regius 
professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford  in  1908.  A 
distinguished  interpreter  of  Greek  ideas, 
both  by  his  editions  and  translations  of  the 
Greek  dramatists,  and  special  studies  like 
'The  Rise  of  the  Greek  Epic'  (1907). 

MURRAY,  SIR  JAMES  AUGUSTUS 
HENRY  (1837-1915),  the  son  of  a  clothier  of 
Hawick,  was  educated  at  Cavers  School,  the 
parish  school  of  his  native  village.  He  became 
a  schoolmaster  and  showed  great  activity  in 
the  acquirement  of  languages  and  in  the  study 
of  antiquities.  In  1879  he  ^was  appointed 
editor  of  the  'Oxford  English  Dictionary* 
(q.v.),  of  which  work  he  laid  down  the  lines 
and  with  which  his  name  is  principally  asso- 
ciated. He  had  previously  to  this  established 
his  reputation  as  a  philologist  by  his  article  on 
the  English  language  in  the  'Encyclopaedia 
Britannica*.  He  was  also  author  of  a  treatise 
on  the  'Dialect  of  the  Southern  Counties  of 
Scotland'  (1873),  and  sent  many  contribu- 
tions to  the  'Athenaeum*. 

MURRAY,  JOHN  (i745~93)>  the  first  of  the 
famous  publishing  house  of  that  name, 
changed  his  name  to  Murray  from  Mac- 
murray.  In  1768  he  bought  the  publishing 
business  of  William  Sandby  in  London.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  JOHN  MURRAY  (1778- 
1843),  who  started  the  'Quarterly  Review* 
(q.v.)  in  1809.  The  latter  moved  to  Albemarle 
Street  in  1812  and  became  acquainted  with 
Byron,  whose  works  he  published.  He  also 
published  for  Jane  Austen,  Crabbe,  Borrow, 
and  many  others.  In  1820  he  published  Mrs. 
Mariana  Starke's  'Guide  for  Travellers  on  the 
Continent*,which  led  to  the  seriesof  Murray's 
guide-books,  several  of  these  being  written 
by  his  son  JOHN  MURRAY  (i  808-92),  who  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  business.  Among 
the  third  John  Murray's  publications  were 
works  of  Layard,  Grote,  Milman,  Darwin, 
and  Dean  Stanley. 

MURRAY,  LINDLEY  (1745-1826),  gram- 
marian, born  in  Pennsylvania,  settled  in  Eng- 
land in  1784.  He  published  an  'English 
Grammar*  (1795),  'Reader*  (1799),  and 
'Spelling  Book*  (1804),  which  were  used  in 
schools  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  The 
'father  of  English  grammar*. 

MUSAEUS,  a  Greek  poet,  who  perhaps 
lived  about  A.D.  500,  the  author  of  a  poem  on 
the  story  of  Hero  and  Leander  (q.v.),  of 
which  340  lines  survive. 

Muse's  Looking-Glass,  The,  a  defence  of  the 
drama,  in  the  form  of  a  play,  by  Randolph 
(q.v.),  printed  in  1638. 

^'The  scene  lies  in  the  play-house  at  Black- 
friars.  Bird  and  Mistress  Flowerdew,  two 
Puritans,  who  serve  the  theatre  with  feathers 
and  other  small  wares,  enter;  they  express 
their  abhorrence  of  play-houses;  Roscius 
joins  them;  he  prevails  on  them  to  see  the 
representation  of  the  play;  Roscius  explains 
the  drift  of  it  to  them  as  it  proceeds.  This 
play  has  no  plot;  the  object  of  it  is  to  show; 


[542] 


MUSES 

that  all  virtues,  and  every  commendable 
passion,  proceed  from  mediocrity  or  a  just 
medium  between  two  extremes.  At  the  con- 
clusion [Bird  and  Mistress  Flowerdew]  agree 
that  a  play  may  be  productive  of  moral  good9 
(Genest).  Dodsley  remarks  of  'The  Muse's 
Looking- Glass*  that  'it  has  always  been 
esteemed  an  excellent  commonplace  book  for 
authors,  to  instruct  them  in  the  art  of  drawing 
characters'.  The  scenes  between  the  per- 
sonages representing  the  extremes,  e.g.  Colax, 
the  flatterer,  and  Dyscolus,  the  churl,  are 
spirited  and  entertaining. 

Muses,  THE,  the  nine  daughters  of  Zeus  and 
Mnemosyne,  born  in  Pieria  at  the  foot  of  Mt. 
Olympus,  who  presided  over  the  various 
kinds  of  poetry,  arts,  and  sciences.  Their 
names  were  Clio,  Euterpe,  Thalia,  Mel- 
pSmgne,  TerpsichSre,  firato,  Pdtyhymnia, 
Urania,  and  Calliope  (qq.v.).  Helicon  was 
sacred  to  them,  and  Parnassus,  with  its 
Castalian  spring,  was  one  of  their  chief  seats. 

Musgrave,  LITTLE,  see  Little  Musgrave  and 
Lady  Barnard. 

Musgrave,  SIR  RICHARD,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel'  (q.v.). 

Mus  grove,  CHARLES,  HENRIETTA,  and 
LOUISE,  characters  in  J.Austen's  'Persuasion* 
(q.v.). 

Musidora,  see  Damon  and  Musidora. 

Musidorus,  a  character  in  Sidney's  'Arca- 
dia* (q.v.). 

Musophilus,  or  Defence  of  all  Learning,  a 
poem  in  six-  and  eight-lined  stanzas  by  S. 
Daniel  (q.v.),  published  in  1599.  It  takes  the 
form  of  a  discussion  between  Musophilus  and 
Philpcosmus,  in  which  the  former  defends  the 
merits  of  knowledge  and  virtue  against  the 
more  worldly  unlettered  arts,  and  it  shows 
Daniel's  gift  for  moral  reflection  at  its  best. 
It  contains  the  notable  prophetic  lines : 
And  who,  in  time,  knowes  whither  we  may 

vent 
The  treasure  of  our  tongue,  to  what  strange 

shores 

The  gaine  of  our  best  glory  shall  be  sent, 
T'inrich    unknowing    Nations    with    our 

stores  ? 

What  worlds  in  th'yet  unformed  Occident 
May  come  refin'd  with  th'accents  that  are 
ours? 

Muspellheim,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  home  of  Muspell  or  elemental  fire,  a 
region  separated  from  Nifiheim  (q.v.)  by  the 
chasm  Ginnungagap  (q.v.).  It  is  the  sons  of 
Muspell  who,  under  Surtur  their  leader, 
destroy  the  world  at  Ragnarok  (q.v.). 

MUSSET,  ALFRED  DE  (1810-57),  French 
poet  of  the  romantic  school,  who  wrote 
some  sparkling  comedies,  in  particular  'On 
ne  badine  pas  avec  1'amour*;  tragedies, 
'Lorenzaccio*,  'Andrea  del  Sarto';  a  prose 
romance,  'La  Confession  d'un  Enfant  du 
Sfecle*  (1836);  and  much  passionate  lyrical 


MYERS 

verse,  included  in  the  meditations  entitled 
'Nuils'  (1835-7),  'Rolla',  &c.  The  episode  of 
his  journey  to  Italy  with  George  Sand  in 
1833-4  and  their  rupture,  with  its  literary 
reverberations,  had  considerable  notoriety. 
Mustapha,  a  tragedy  by  Sir  F.  Greville  (q.v.), 
published  in  1609.  Rossa,  the  wife  of  the 
Turkish  Emperor  Solyman,  persuades  her 
husband  that  Mustapha,  his  son  by  a  former 
marriage,  seeks  his  life;  she  endeavours 
thereby  to  advance  the  prospects  of  her  own 
children.  Camena,  the  virtuous  daughter  of 
Rossa,  defends  the  innocence  of  Mustapha,  in 
vain.  Mustapha  refuses  to  seek  safety  in  the 
destruction  of  Rossa  and  her  faction,  and  is 
presently  executed. 

Mustapha,  a  heroic  play  (1665)  by  R.  Boyle 
(q.v.),  based  on  the  'Ibrahim'  of  G.  de  Scu- 
de"ry. 

My  Mind  to  me  a  Kingdom  is,  the  first  line 
of  a  philosophical  song  which  appears  to  have 
been  popular  in  the  i6th  cent.  It  is  referred 
to  by  Jonson  in  his  'Every  Man  out  of  his 
Humour*,  I.  i.  The  text  is  given  in  Percy's 
'Reliques*.  Bartlett  ('Familiar  Quotations') 
attributes  it  to  Edward  Dyer  (q.v.),  with 
alternative  versions  by  other  authors, 

My  Novel,  or  Varieties  in  English  Life,  a 
novel  by  Bulwer  Lytton  (q.v.),  published  in 

1853- 

The  main  story  is  that  of  the  career  of 
Leonard  Fairfield,  a  self-taught  poet,  who 
spends  his  infancy  in  a  peasant  household, 
suffers  poverty  and  hardship,  and  turns  out 
to  be  the  son  of  Audley  Egerton,  a  dis- 
tinguished politician.  With  this  is  woven  the 
tale  of  Dr.  Riccabocca,  an  Italian  refugee, 
who  ultimately  recovers  his  rights  as  duke  of 
Salerno;  of  Harley,  Lord  L'Estrange,  who 
has  been  ousted  by  his  friend,  Audley  Eger- 
ton, from  the  affections  of  Nora  Avenel, 
Leonard  Fairfield's  mother;  and  of  the  com- 
plicated intrigue  by  which  the  villains  of  the 
plot,  the  ambitious  young  Randal  Leslie  and 
Levy  the  money-lender,  endeavour  to  effect 
the  ruin  of  Audley  Egerton,  Frank  Hazeldean 
(the  squire's  son),  and  Violante,  the  daughter 
of  the  Italian  exile. 

Myddelton  or  MIDDLETON,  SIR  HUGH 
(i 560  ?— 163 i),  a  banker,  goldsmith,  and  cloth- 
maker,  remembered  as  having  carried  out  the 
New  River  scheme,  whereby  a  supply  of  pure 
water  from  the  Chadswell  Springs  in  Hert- 
fordshire was  brought  to  London  by  a  canal 
forty  miles  long.  He  is  mentioned  in  Lamb's 
'Amicus  Redivivus*. 

MYERS,  FREDERIC  WILLIAM  HENRY 
(1843-1901),  educated  at  Cheltenham  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  became  an  in- 
spector under  the  education  department.  He 
published  several  volumes  of  poems,  in- 
cluding 'St.  Paul'  (1867),  and  'Essays 
Classical  and  Modern*  (1883).  He  wrote  a 
monograph  on  Wordsworth  (1881)  for  the 
English  Men  of  Letters  series,  and  also  on 
Shelley  for  Ward's  'English  Poets'.  He  gave 


[543] 


MYRMIDONS 

much  attention  to  phenomena  of  mesmerism 
and  spiritualism  and  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research.  He 
was  joint-author  of  'Phantasms  of  the  Living' 
(1886),  which  embodied  the  first  considerable 
results  of  the  society's  labours. 
Myrmidons,  the  name  borne  by  a  people  on 
the  southern  borders  of  Thessaly  who  accom- 
panied Achilles  to  the  Trojan  War,  and  were 
named  after  their  king,  Myrmidon,  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Eurymedusa.  According  to 
another  legend,  a  pestilence  having  destroyed 
all  the  subjects  of  Aeacus,  king  of  Aegina,  he 
entreated  Zeus  to  repeople  his  kingdom.  In 
consequence  all  the  ants  that  were  in  an  old 
oak  were  changed  into  men  and  called  by 
Aeacus  myrmidons  from  pvpix.1]^  an  ant. 

Myrrha,  the  daughter  of  Cinyras,  king  of 
Cyprus,  who  became  by  him  mother  of 
Adonis  (q.v.).  When  apprised  of  the  incest 
that  he  had  committed  he  attempted  to  stab 
her,  and  she,  fleeing  into  Arabia,  was  changed 
into  the  plant  called  myrrh.  The  true  form  of 
her  name  according  to  Sayce  was  Myrina  or 
Smyrna,  an  Amazonirn  queen. 

'Myrrha7  is  also  the  name  of  a  character  in 
Byron's  'Sardanapalus*  (q.v.). 

Mysie  Happer,  the  miller's  daughter  in 
Scott's  "The  Monastery'  (q.v.),  who  marries 
Sir  Piercie  Shafton. 

Mysteries,  a  term  used  by  modern  writers 
as  a  name  for  'Miracle  Plays'  (q.v.).  A.  W. 
Ward  in  'English  Dramatic  Literature*,  i.  23, 
draws  a  distinction  between  'Mysteries*  as 
dealing  with  Gospel  events  only,  and  'Miracle 
Plays'  as  concerned  with  legends  of  the 
saints.  But  this  is  not  generally  accepted. 
[OED.] 


NAIADS 

Mysteries  of  Udolpho,  The,  a  novel  by 
Mrs.  Radcliffe  (q.v.),  published  in  i?94, 
which  attained  a  wide  fame. 

The  period  of  the  story  is  the  end  of  the 
1 6th  cent.  Emily  de  St.  Aubert,  the  beautiful 
daughter  of  a  Gascon  family,  loses  her  mother 
and  her  father,  and  comes  under  the  despotic 
guardianship  of  an  aunt,  Madame  Cheron. 
An  affection  has  sprung  up  between  Emily 
and  Valancourt,  a  young  man  of  good  family 
but  moderate  means.  The  aunt,  who  has 
more  ambitious  views,  and  has  herself 
married  a  sinister  Italian,  Signor  Montoni, 
carries  off  Emily  to  the  sombre  castle  of 
Udolpho  in  the  Apennines,  the  home  of 
Montoni.  Here,  with  all  the  apparatus  of 
sliding  panels,  secret  passages,  abductions, 
and  a  suggestion  of  the  supernatural,  dark 
dealings  are  carried  on.  Emily  escapes,  re- 
turns to  Languedoc,  meets  Valancourt  again, 
and  after  further  vicissitudes,  is  finally  united 
to  him.  Montoni,  who  proves  to  be  the  chief 
of  a  robber  band,  is  captured  and  suffers  the 
penalty  of  his  crimes. 

Mysterious  Mother,  The,  a  tragedy  by  H. 
Walpole  (q.v.),  published  in  1768. 

It  deals  with  the  remorse  of  a  mother  (the 
countess  of  Narbonne)  for  an  act  of  incest 
committed  many  years  before.  Under  the 
calamity  of  the  marriage  of  her  son,  who  had 
been  the  unwitting  participant  in  her  crime, 
with  the  girl  born  of  their  union,  she  takes  her 
own  life. 

Mysterious  Stranger, The,  written  by  Mark 
Twain  (q.v.)  in  1898,  and  posthumously  pub- 
lished in  1916. 

Mystic,  MR.,  a  character  in  Peacock's 
'Melincourt',  a  caricature  of  Coleridge. 


N 


N.E.D.,  the  'New  English  Dictionary',  more 
generally  known  now  as  the  'Oxford  English 
Dictionary'  (q.v.). 

N  or  M,  the  first  answer  in  the  Catechism 
of  the  English  Church.  The  most  probable 
explanation  is  that  N  stood  for  nomen  (name), 
and  that  nomen  vel  nomina  (name  or  names) 
was  expressed  by  if)  vel  iftift,  the  double  N 
being  afterwards  corrupted  into  ^1R  (J.  H. 
Blunt,  'Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer', 
1890). 

Nabob,  The,  a  play  by  Foote  (q.v.),  produced 
in  1772, 

Nabonassar,  ERA  OF,  an  era  used  in  the 
chronology  of  the  Chaldeans  and  other  an- 
cient writers,  reckoned  from  the  accession  of 
Nabonassar,  king  of  Babylonia,  747  B.C. 
Nabotfa's  Vineyard,  the  vineyard  of 
Naboth  the  Jezreelite,  coveted  by  Ahab. 
Jezebel  caused  Naboth  to  be  put  to  death 
that  Ahab  might  have  it  (i  Kings  xxi). 


Naciens,  in  the  legend  of  the  Grail  (q.v.),  the 
brother-in-law  of  King  Evalak  of  Sarras.  In 
the  'Morte  d'Arthur',  NACIEN  is  the  hermit 
who  tells  how  the  quest  of  the  Grail  should  be 
made. 

Nagifar,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
ship  that  the  giants  will  embark  in'  at 
Ragnarok  (q.v.). 

Nag's  Head  Tavern,  a  tavern  that  stood  in 
Friday  Street,  Cheapside.  It  was  alleged  by 
unscrupulous  controversialists  at  the  end  of 
the  1 6th  cent,  that  Archbishop  Parker  and 
others^had,  in  1559,  after  the  Reformation, 
been  irregularly  and  irreverently  admitted 
bishops  in  this  tavern,  by  Scory  (formerly 
bishop  of  Chichester).  As  a  matter  of  fact 
Parker  was  regularly  consecrated  by  four 
bishops  in  the  chapel  of  Lambeth. 
Naiads,  see  Nymphs. 

Naiads,  HYMN  TO  THE,  see  Hymn  to  the 
Naiads. 


[544] 


NAIRNE 

NAIRNE,  CAROLINA,  BARONESS,  n£e 
Oliphant  (1766-1845),  was  the  author  of 
some  spirited  Jacobite  songs,  of  which  the 
best  known  are  *  Will  ye  no  come  back  again  ?', 
'Charlie  is  my  Darling',  and  'He's  o'er  the 
Hills  that  I  lo'e  weel';  also  of  humorous  and 
pathetic  ballads,  such  as  'The  Laird  of  Cock- 
pen'  (suggested  by  an  older  song)  and 
'Land  o*  the  Leal'.  Her  poems,  anonymous 
in  her  lifetime,  were  collected  and  published 
as  'Lays  from  Strathearn'  in  1846. 
Nala  and  Damayanti,  one  of  the  'Indian 
Idylls*  of  Sir  E.  Arnold  (q.v.),  taken  from  the 
'Mahabharata'  (q.v.).  Prince  Nala  and  Dama- 
yanti,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Vidarbha,  fall 
in  love.  The  four  gods,  Indra,  Varuna,  Yama, 
and  Agni,  hearing  of  her  beauty,  send  Nala  to 
her  to  bid  her  choose  one  of  them  for  her  hus- 
band. She  rejects  them  all  and  adheres  to  her 
choice  of  Nala,  and  wins  their  approval  of  her 
action.  They  confer  gifts  on  Nala,  but  later 
he  loses  his  kingdom  and  all  he  has  by  gam- 
bling, and  the  pair  are  separated,  to  be  re- 
united after  many  adventures. 

Namancos,  in  Milton's  'Lycidas*,  'Where 
the  great  vision  of  the  guarded  mount  Looks 
toward  Namancos  and  Bayona's  hold',  is  a 
place  in  Galicia,  near  Cape  Finisterre,  shown 
in  Mercator's  Atlas  of  1623.  The  Castle  of 
Bayona  is  shown  near  it.  A  line  from  the 
'guarded  mount*  (Gt.  Michael's  Mount  in 
Cornwall)  to  Finisterre  passes  clear  of 
Ushant. 
Namby-Painby,  see  Philips  (A.). 

Nancy,  in  Dickens's  'Oliver  Twist'  (q.v.X 
the  companion  of  Bill  Sikes. 

Nancy  Lammeter,  a  character  in  G.  Eliot's 
'Silas  Marner'  (q.v.). 

Nandy,  JOHN  EDWARD,  in  Dickens's  'Little 
Dorrit'  (q.v.),  the  father  of  Mrs.  Plornish. 
Nanna,    in    Scandinavian   mythology,    the 
wife  of  Balder  (q.v.).  After  his  death  she  died 
of  grief  and  was  burnt  on  his  funeral  pyre. 

Nannetae,  in  imprints,  Nantes. 
NANSEN,  FRIDTJOF  (1861-1930),  Nor- 
wegian explorer  and  statesman.  His  *The 
First  Crossing  of  Greenland*  appeared  in 
1893.  He  sailed  in  the  'Fram*  in  1893  with 
Johansen  for  the  Arctic  regions  and  reached 
on  foot  86°  14'  N.,  a  voyage  recorded  in  his 
'Farthest  North'  (1897). 
Nantes,  EDICT  OF,  see  Edict  of  Nantes. 
NAPIER  or  NEPER,  JOHN  (1550-1617), 
laird  of  Merchiston,  near  Edinburgh,  was 
educated  at  St.  Andrews.  He  devoted  him- 
self for  a  time  to  the  invention  of  instru- 
ments of  warfare  (including  a  prototype  of  the 
modern  'tank')  and  of  a  hydraulic  screw  for 
pumping  out  coal-pits.  He  then  set  himself 
to  facilitate  arithmetical  operations,  and  de- 
vised logarithms,  the  nature  of  which  he  ex- 
plained in  his  'Mirifici  Logarithmorum 
Canonis  Descriptio*,  published  in  1614  (the 
'Constructio*  followed  in  1619).  His  'Rab- 


NAPOLEON  III 

dologia',  published  in  1615,  explains  the  use 
of  numerating  rods,  commonly  called 
'Napier's  bones',  and  metal  plates  for  effect- 
ing multiplications  and  divisions — the  earliest 
form  of  calculating  machine.  He  also  in- 
vented the  present  notation  of  decimal 
fractions. 

NAPIER,  SIR  WILLIAM  FRANCIS 
PATRICK  (1785-1860),  served  in  Sir  John 
Moore's  campaign  in  Spain  (1808),  and  in 
the  subsequent  war  in  -die  Peninsula.  He 
published  in  1828-40  his  'History  of  the 
Peninsular  War',  recounting  events  of  which 
he  had  been  in  part  an  eye-witness.  It  earned 
a  handsome  commendation  from  the  duke  of 
Wellington  in  spite  of  the  author's  Radical 
outlook,  and  placed  him  high  among  his- 
torical writers;  it  was  translated  into  many 
languages.  He  subsequently  (1844-6)  pub- 
lished a  history  of  the  'Conquest  of  Scinde' 
(a  defence  of  his  brother  Charles).  He  was 
promoted  to  Major- General  in  1841  and  to 
General  in  1859. 

Napoleon  I,  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE  (BUONA- 
PARTE) (1769-1821),  of  a  Corsican  family,  first 
came  into  prominence  as  an  artillery  officer  at 
the  recapture  of  Toulon  from  the  English  in 
1793.  He  was  general-in-chief  of  the  French 
army  of  Italy  1 796-7,  and  was  then  sent  to  con- 
quer Egypt,  whence  he  returned  in  1799.  By 
a  coup  d'etat  at  the  end  of  that  year  he  became 
master  of  the  government  and  was  named 
First  Consul.  Then  followed  the  series  of 
his  European  conquests.  In  1804  he  pro- 
claimed himself  emperor.  The  tide  turned 
against  him  with  the  disastrous  Russian 
campaign  of  1812,  followed  by  the  defeat  at 
Leipzigandby  Wellington's  victories.  In  1814 
Napoleon  abdicated  and  was  sent  to  Elba. 
He  returned  in  1815  and  was  in  that  year 
finally  defeated  at  Waterloo.  He  died  at  St, 
Helena.  He  married  in  1795  Josephine, 
widow  of  the  Cornte  de  Beauharnais,  divorced 
her,  and  married  in  1810  Marie  Louise, 
daughter  of  the  Austrian  Emperor  Francis  II, 
by  whom  he  had  a  son,  the  duke  of  Reich- 
stadt  (d.  1832). 

Napoleon  III,  (CHARLES)  Louis  NAPOLEON 
BONAPARTE  (1808-73),  was  the  nephew  of 
Napoleon  I  (q.v.).  In  1836  and  1840,  while 
living  in  exile,  he  made  two  unsuccessful 
attempts,  at  Strasbourg  and  Boulogne,  to  stir 
up  Bonapartist  risings.  After  the  second  of 
these  he  was  imprisoned  at  Ham  in  France, 
whence  he  escaped  in  1846.  In  December 
1848,  after  the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe,  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  French  Republic, 
became,  as  a  result  of  a  coup  d'etat,  president 
for  ten  years  in  1851,  and  was  proclaimed 
emperor  in  1852.  Under  him,  France  was 
Britain's  ally  in  the  Crimean  War,  and  played 
an  important  part  in  the  liberation  of  Italy  by 
fighting  with  Sardinia  against  Austria  in 
1859.  In  the  Franco-Prussian  War  of  1870-1 
he  was  taken  prisoner  at  Sedan  in  ^September 
1870,  and,  after  a  period  of  captivity,  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life  at  Chiselhurst.  He 


3868 


[5451 


NARCISSA 

married  in  1853  Euge*nie  de  Montijo  (the 
Empress  Eugenie). 

Narcissa,  in  Pope's  'Moral  Essays',  is  Anne 
Oldfield  (q.v.).  For  the  'Narcissa'  of  Young's 
'Night  Thoughts',  see  under  the  name  of  that 
poem. 

Narcissus,  a  beautiful  youth,  son  of  the 
river  god  Cephissus  and  the  nymph  Liriope. 
He  saw  his  image  reflected  in  a  fountain  and 
became  enamoured  of  it,  thinking  it  to  be  the 
nymph  of  the  place.  His  fruitless  attempts  to 
approach  this  beautiful  object  drove^him  to 
despair  and  death.  He  was  changed  into  the 
flower  which  bears  his  name. 

Nanen-Schiff,  see  Skip  of  Fools. 

Nash,  JOHN  (1752-1835),  architect,  planned 
Regent  Street  and  laid  out  Regent's  Park. 
He  enlarged  Buckingham  House,  from  which 
his  large  entrance  gateway,  known  as  the 
Marble  Arch,  was  removed  to  Cumberland 
Gate,  Hyde  Park,  in  1851. 

Nash,  RICHARD,  'Beau  Nash'  (1674-1762), 
born  at  Swansea,  was  educated  at  Carmarthen 
Grammar  School  and  for  a  time  at  Jesus 
College,  Oxford.  He  supported  himself  in 
London  as  a  gamester,  and  went  to  Bath  in 
^oS*  where  he  established  the  Assembly 
Rooms,  drew  up  a  code  of  etiquette  and  dress, 
and  became  unquestioned  autocrat  of  society. 
He  assisted  in  founding  the  mineral-water 
hospital  for  poor  patients.  The  gambling  laws 
of  1 740-5  deprived  him  of  his  source  of  income, 
and  his  popularity  waned  after  1745.  In  1758 
he  was  allowed  £10  a  month  by  the  corpora- 
tion of  Bath.  A  biography  of  Nash  was  written 
by  Oliver  Goldsmith. 

NASH  or  NASHE,  THOMAS  (1567-1601), 
was  a  sizar  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
He  made  a  hasty  tour  through  France  and 
Italy,  and  before  1588  settled  in  London.  His 
first  publication  was  an  acrid  review  of  recent 
literature  (prefixed  to  Greene's  'Menaphon', 
1589),  which  he  discussed  at  greater  length 
in  the  'Anatomie  of  Absurdities*  (1589).  He 
was  attracted  to  the  Martin  Marprelate  con- 
troversy (q.v.)  by  his  hatred  of  Puritanism. 
Under  the  pseudonym  of  'PasquiP  he  wrote 
(A  Countercuffe  given  to  Martin  Junior* 
(1598),  'The  Returne  of  the  renouned 
Cavaliero  Pasquil  of  England'  (i  589),  and  'The 
First  Parte  of  Pasquils  Apologie'  (1590).  He 
was  possibly  the  author  of  other  attacks  on 
the  Martinists.  Nash  repHed  in  1591  to  the 
savage  denunciations  of  Richard  Harvey,  the 
astrologer  and  brother  of  G,  Harvey  (q.v.), 
with  'A  wonderful,  strange,  and  miraculous 
Astrologicall  Prognostication',  and  in  1592 
wrote  'Pierce  Pennilesse  his  Supplication  to 
the  Divell'  (q.v.).  This  was  translated  into 
French,  and  the  second  edition  was  called 
'The  Apologie  of  Pierce  Pennilesse'.  Nash 
avenged  Gabriel  Harvey's  attack  on  Greene 
(q.v.)  with  'Strange  Newes  of  the  Intercepting 
certaine  Letters*  (1593).  Being  subsequently 
troubled  with  religious  doubts,  he  published 
his  repentant  reflections  under  the  title 


NATIONAL  ANTHEM 

'Christes  Teares  over  Jerusalem*  (q.v.)  in 

1593.  'The  Terrors  of  the  Night',  notable 
for  the  praise  of  Daniel's  'Delia',  appeared  in 

1594,  and  in  the  same  year  the  'Unfortunate 
Traveller,  or  the  Life  of  Jacke  Wilton*  (q.v.), 
a    spirited    romance    of    adventure.     Nash 
further  satirized  Harvey  in  'Haue  with  you  to 
Saffron- Walden'  (1596),  to  which  Harvey  re- 
plied, the  government  subsequently  ordering 
the  two  authors  to  desist.    He  attacked  so 
many  current  abuses  in  the  state  in  his  lost 
comedy  'The  Isle  of  Dogs'  (i  597),  that  he  was 
sent  to  the  Fleet  prison  for  some  months. 
He  published  in   1599   'Lenten   StufTe*,   a 
burlesque    panegyric    of   the    red    herring, 
written  to  repay  hospitality  enjoyed  at  Yar- 
mouth,  and  a  comedy  still  extant,   called 
'Summers  Last  Will',  1600.  Nash's  original 
personality   gives   him   a   unique   place   in 
Elizabethan  literature,  and  his  writings  have 
something  of  the  fascination  of  Rabelais.  His 
romance  of  'Jacke  Wilton*  inaugurated  the 
novel  of  adventure  in  England. 

NASO,  see  Ovid.  The  word  means  enose',  to 
which  Holofernes  alludes  in  Shakespeare's 
*Love*s  Labour 's  Lost',  rv.  ii. 

Nasr-ed-Din,  KHOJA,  a  Turk  born  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  i4th  cent.,  the  author  of 
a  celebrated  collection  of  humorous  and 
satirical  tales. 

Nastrond,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  a 
place  of  torment  for  the  wicked  in  hell. 

NATHAN,  GEORGE  JEAN  (1882-  ), 
American  essayist  and  critic,  born  in  Indiana, 
co-founder  with  H.  L.  Mencken  (q.v.)  of 
'The  American  Mercury*,  which  was  edited 
by  these  two  journalists  from  1924  to  1925. 
Its  publication  is  of  importance  in  the  literary 
history  of  America,  for  it  has  been  the 
mouthpiece  of  the  sophisticated  attitude  of 
the  American  city  towards  the  middle- 
western  and  western  elements  in  the  country, 
and  of  the  aggressive  'hands-off*  position 
which  certain  American  authors  have  taken 
up  in  regard  to  Europe.  His  chief  published 
works  are:  'The  Popular  Theatre*  (1918), 
'The  American  Credo'  (with  H.  L.  Mencken) 
(1920),  'The  Critic  and  the  Drama'  (1922), 
'The  Autbbiography  of  an  Attitude*  (1925). 

Nathan  the  Wise,  see  Lessing. 

Nathaniel,  SIR,  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's 
Labour  *s  Lost'  (q.v.),  a  curate. 

National  Anthem,  THE,  'God  save  the 
King'.  The  author  of  the  words  is  not  known. 
They  have  been  attributed  to  Carey  (q.v.). 
The  earliest  version  known  was  printed  in 
*Harmonia  Anglicana'  (1742),  and  the  three 
stanzas  usually  sung  appeared  in  the  'Gentle- 
man's Magazine*  for  Oct.  1745.  These  begin 
*God  save  great  George  our  King' ;  and  in  the 
'Oxford  Book  of  i8th-cent.  Verse*  (p.  302) 
there  is  a  fourth  stanza,  beginning: 

Lord  grant  that  Marshal  Wade 

May  by  thy  mighty  aid 
The  Victory  bring. 


[546] 


NATIONAL  BIOGRAPHY 

The  anthem  became  popular  during  the  Jaco- 
bite troubles  of  1745.  Carey  is  said  to  have 
been  heard  to  sing  it  in  1740  (f  Gentleman's 
Magazine',  1796,  ii.  1075).  It  very  possibly 
originated  in  some  form  in  the  I7th  cent.  As 
to  the  source  of  the  tune,  W.  Chappell  in  'Old 
English  Popular  Music'  supports  the  'claim 
put  forward  by  Mr.  R.  Clark,  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  in  favour  of  a  galliard  which  he  dis- 
covered in  a  manuscript  collection  of  virginal 
music  by  Dr.  J.  Bull  (q.v.),  transcribed  about 
1622*. 

For  the  national  anthem  of  the  United 
States,  see  Star-spangled  Banner  (The). 

National  Biography,  Dictionary  of,  designed 
and  published  by  George  Smith  (q.v.), 
was  begun  in  1882  with  Sir  Leslie  Stephen 
(q.v.)  as  editor.  It  included  in  its  original 
form  biographies  of  all  national  notabilities 
from  earliest  times  to  1900.  Supplements 
have  been  issued  carrying  the  work  down  to 
1921,  and  decennial  supplements  are  pro- 
jected. The  'Concise  D.N.B.*  is  an  epitome 
of  the  whole  work.  Sir  Leslie  Stephen  was 
succeeded  in  the  editorship  by  Sir  Sidney 
Lee.  Their  names  appear  jointly  on  the  title- 
pages  of  vols.  xxii-xxvi  (1890),  and  Lee's 
name  appeared  alone  from  vol.  xxvii  till  1913. 
In  1917  the  Dictionary  was  transferred  to 
the  Oxford  University  Press.  The  1912-21 
volume  appeared  under  the  joint  editorship 
of  H.  W.  C.  Davis  and  J.  R.  H.  Weaver. 

National  Library  of  Scotland,  see  Advo- 
cates9 Library. 

Nationalist,  an  advocate  of  national  rights, 
a  term  used  specifically  of  one  who  advocated 
the  claims  of  Ireland  to  be  an  independent 
nation.  The  earliest  quotation  given  by  the 
OED.  for  the  use  of  the  word  in  the  latter 
connexion  is  from  the  'Daily  News*  of  20 
May  1869. 

Natty  Bumppo,  the.  hero  of  the  'Leather- 
stocking*  novels  of  J.  F.  Cooper  (q.v.). 

Natural  Religion,  Dialogues  on,  see  Dialogues 
on  Natural  Religion. 

Nature  3  a  periodical  founded  in  1869,  with 
Norman  Lockyer  as  editor,  for  the  purpose  of 
providing  the  public  with  information  on 
scientific  matters.  Charles  Darwin,  Huxley, 
Tyndall,  and  Lubbock  were  among  its  dis- 
tinguished early  supporters, 

Nature  and  Art,  a  romance  by  Mrs.  Inch- 
bald  (q.v.),  published  in  1796.  It  is  the  story 
of  two  contrasted  brothers,  William  and 
Henry,  and  their  sons.  William,  worldly  and 
ambitious,  becomes  a  dean.  His  son,  a 
capable  villain,  becomes  a  judge,  and  hangs 
the  victim  of  his  own  seduction.  Henry,  the 
good  brother,  a  fiddler,  marries  beneath  him, 
loses  his  wife,  and  goes  to  Africa.  He  is 
wrecked  on  Socotra  with  his  infant  son,  and 
some  years  later  sends  home  this  boy,  the 
younger  Henry,  to  be  educated  by  his  uncle 
William.  Young  Henry,  who  Jias  lived  far 
from  the  conventions  of  the  civilized  world 


NEANDERTHAL 

and  retained  his  natural  simplicity,  makes 
pungent  comments  on  what  he  sees  in  Eng- 
land, meets  with  various  misfortunes,  but 
eventually  attains  happiness,  while  the 
younger  William  becomes  the  prey  of  re- 
morse and  ends  wretchedly. 

Nausicaa,  in  Homer's  'Odyssey',  the  daugh- 
ter of  Alcinous,  king  of  Phaeacia.  She  finds 
Ulysses  (q.v.)  shipwrecked  on  the  coast,  feeds 
and  clothes  him,  and  brings  him  to  her  father's 
court.  Samuel  ('Erewhon')  Butler  (q.v.) 
argues  that  she  was  herself  the  authoress  of 
the  'Odyssey*. 

Navarino,  a  bay  in  the  south- west  of  the 
Peloponnese  where  in  1827  the  British  fleet 
under  Admiral  Codrington,  with  the  French 
and  Russian  squadrons,  defeated  the  com- 
bined Turkish  and  Egyptian  fleets  and  ren- 
dered possible  the  liberation  of  Greece  from 
the  Turkish  dominion. 

In  the  same  bay,  then  known  as  the  Bay  of 
Pylos,  the  Athenian  fleet  had  in  425  B.C.  de- 
feated that  of  Sparta  and  cut  off  the  Spartan 
hoplites  on  the  island  of  Sphacteria. 

Nazarene,  (i)  a  native  of  Nazareth;  (2)  a 
follower  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  a  Christian 
(so  called  especially  by  Jews  and  Moham- 
medans); (3)  in  the  plural,  an  early  Jewish 
Christian  sect,  who  accepted  the  divinity  of 
Christ  while  conforming  to  the  Mosaic  law, 

Nazarites,  the  name  given  among  the 
Hebrews  to  such  as  had  taken  certain  vows 
of  abstinence  (see  Num.  vi). 

Nfiaera,  a  conventional  name  among  the 
Roman  poets  for  a  lady-love,  and  referred  to 
as  such  in  Milton's  'Lycidas*  (q.v.). 

NEAL,  JOHN  (1793-1876),  American 
author  of  Quaker  stock,  born  at  Portland, 
Maine,  whose  contributions  to  'Blackwood's* 
(written  as  though  the  author  were  an  English- 
man) were  among  the  first  estimates  of 
American  culture  to  appear  in  England.  His 
autobiography,  'Wandering  Recollections  of 
a  Somewhat  Busy  Life',  appeared  in  1869. 

NEALE,  JOHN  MASON  (1818-66),  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  a  man 
of  much  versatility,  was  the  founder  of  the 
Cambridge  Camden  Society  (q.v.).  He  was 
author  of  a  'History  of  the  Holy  Eastern 
Church*  (1847-50),  and  of  many  well-known 
hymns,  including  'Jerusalem  the  Golden*, 
'The  day  is  past  and  over',  'Art  thou  weary, 
art  thou  languid*,  'Brief  life  is  here  our 
portion*,  several  of  them  translated  from  the 
'Rhythm*  of  Bernard  de  Morlaix  (q.v.),  others 
from  hymns  of  the  Eastern  Church.  He  also 
wrote  an  historical  novel,  'Theodora  Phranza*, 
on  the  subject  of  the  fall  of  Constantinople, 
reprinted  in  1857  from  the  'Churchman's 
Companion*  of  1853-4. 
Neanderthal,  near  Bonn  in  Germany,  gives 
its  name  to  an  early  type  of  the  human  race, 
from  a  skull-cap  and  certain  other  bones  found 
there  in  deposits  of  the  Middle  Pleistocene 
period.  Neanderthal  man,  who  is  associated 


[547] 


NEBUCHADNEZZAR 

with  what  is  known  as  the  Mousterian  (q.v.) 
industry,  is  believed  to  have  arrived  in  Europe 
from  the  East,  probably  from  northern  Asia. 
He  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  but 
died  out,  and  modern  man  is  not  descended 
from  him*  He  was  succeeded  by  Aurignacian 
man  (see  Aurignac).  (Peake  and  Fleure,  'Apes 
and  Men',  'Hunters  and  Artists'.) 
Nebuchadnezzar,  the  king  of  Babylonia 
605-562  B.C.,  who  built  the  walls  of  Babylon, 
and  perhaps  the  famous  'Hanging  Gardens' 
(q.v.),  which  are  also  attributed  to  Cyrus. 
His  insanity  is  related  in  Dan.  iv. 
Necker,  MADAME  (SUSANNE  CURCHOD) 
(1739-94),  a  Swiss  woman,  at  one  time  en- 
gaged to  Gibbon  the  historian  (q.v.);  she 
became  the  wife  of  Jacques  Necker,  the 
French  financier  and  statesman.  She  was 
prominent  in  French  literary  circles  of  the 
revolutionary  period.  Her  daughter  was  the 
celebrated  Mme  de  Stael  (q.v.). 
Neckett ,  MR.,  the  sheriff's  officer  in  Dickens's 
'Bleak  House*  (q.v.),  generally  referred  to  as 
COAVINSES,  the  name  of  the  sponging-house 
which  he  keeps.  He  has  three  children,  Tom, 
Emma,  and  Charlotte  (known  as  'Charley', 
who  becomes  Esther  Summerson's  maid). 

Nectabanus,  the  dwarf  in  Scott's  'The 
Talisman'  (q.v.). 

Nectanabus,  in  the  fabulous  history  ^  of 
Alexander  the  Great  (q.v.),  is  an  Egyptian 
king  and  magician,  who  goes  to  Macedonia, 
falls  in  love  with  Olympias,  and  becomes  by 
her  father  of  Alexander  (not,  however,  in  the 
great  'Roman  d'Alixandre'),  supervises  Alex- 
ander's education,  and  is  ultimately  killed  by 
him. 

Ned  Bratts,  the  subject  and  title  of  one  of 
the  'Dramatic  Idyls'  of  R.  Browning  (q.v.). 

The  poem  is  an  adaptation  of  the  episode 
of  'old  Tod'  in  Bunyan's  'Mr.  Badman'  (q.v.), 
the  'veriest  rogue  that  breathes  upon  earth*, 
who  is  converted,  confesses  his  felonies,  and 
is  hanged. 

Needy  Knife-grinder,  The,  see  Anti-Jacobin, 
Negus,  (i)  the  title  of  the  ruler  of  Abyssinia. 
(2)  A  mixture  of  wine,  hot  water,  and  sugar 
called  Negus,  so  named  after  its  inventor, 
Colonel  Francis  Negus  (d.  1732). 
Nekayah,  in  Johnson's  'Rasselas*  (q.v.),  the 
sister  of  the  hero. 

Nell  Trent,  'Little  Nell',  heroine  of 
Dickens's  'The  Old  Curiosity  Shop*  (q.v.). 
Nelson,  HORATIO,  VISCOUNT  (1758-1805), 
entered  the  navy  in  1770.  He  lost  his  right 
eye  at  Calvi  in  Corsica  in  1794,  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Cape  St. 
Vincent  in  1797,  and  lost  his  right  arm  at 
Santa  Cruz  in  the  same  year.  In  1798  he 
destroyed  the  French  fleet  in  Abukir  Bay 
(Battle  of  the  Nile).  He  commanded  the 
attack  on  Copenhagen  in  1801,  and  was  killed 
at  Trafalgar  in  1805.  He  was  made  duke  of 
Bronte1  (in  Sicily).  See  also  Hamilton  (Emma> 
Lady). 


NEPOMUK 

Nelson's  last  words,  'Thank  God,  I  have 
done  my  duty',  or,  according  to  another 
account,  *Kiss  me,  Hardy5. 

Ne'me'a,  a  town  in  Argolis,  the  neighbour- 
hood of  which  was  infested  by  the  famous 
Nemean  lion,  killed  by  Hercules  (q.v.).  The 
scene  also  of  great  periodical  games. 
Nemesis,  in  classical  mythology,  one  of  the 
infernal  deities,  daughter  of  Night  and  the 
goddess  of  Vengeance,  who  measures  out 
happiness  to  men  and  punishes  the  arrogant. 

Nemo,  the  law-writer  in  Dickens's  'Bleak 
House*  (q.v.). 

Nemo,  CAPTAIN,  the  hero  of  Jules  Verne's 
'Twenty  Thousand  Leagues  under  the  Sea', 
in  which  the  author  anticipated  the  develop- 
ment of  the  submarine. 

NENNIUS  (ft.  796),  the  traditional  author, 
but  probably  only  the  reviser,  of  the  'Historia 
Britonum',  lived  on  the  borders  of  Mercia,  in 
Brecknock  or  Radnor,  and  was  a  pupil  of 
Elbod,  bishop  of  Bangor  (d.  c.  811).  There 
are  several  versions  of  the  'Historia*,  the 
North- Welsh,  the  South-Welsh,  the  Irish, 
and  the  English.  It  is  a  collection  of  notes, 
drawn  from  various  sources,  on  the  history 
and  geography  of  Britain,  and  is  chiefly 
interesting  for  the  account  it  purports  to  give 
of  the  historical  Arthur,  who,  as  dux  bellorum, 
led  the  Britons  against  the  Saxons  after 
Hengist's  death  in  twelve  battles,  which  Nen- 
nius  enumerates  (including  Mount  Badon). 

It  is  one  of  the  sources  on  which  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth  (q.v.)  drew  for  his  'Historia 
Regura  Britanniae'.  The  'Historia  Britonum' 
was  first  printed  by  Gall,  1691,  in  'Scriptores 
Quindecim'. 

Neoplatonism,  a  philosophical  and  religi- 
ous system,  combining  Platonic  ideas  with 
oriental  mysticism,  which  originated  at  Alex- 
andria in  the  3rd  cent.,  and  is  especially 
represented  in  the  writings  of  Plotinus, 
Porphyry,  and  Proclus.  The  works  of  St. 
Augustine  show  its  influence.  One  of  the 
best-known  exponents  of  Neoplatonism  was 
Hypatia  (murdered  by  the  Alexandrian  mob 
in  A.D.  415),  whose  noble  figure  is  depicted  in 
C.  Kingsley's  novel  called  by  her  name. 

NeoptSl&nus,  the  son  of  Achilles  (q.v.), 
also  called  PYRRHUS  on  account  of  his  yellow 
hair.  When  the  Trojan  captives  were  dis- 
tributed, Andromache  fell  to  his  portion.  He 
subsequently  married  Hermione,  daughter  of 
Menelaus,  and  was  slain  by  Orestes,  to  whom 
Hermione  had  been  betrothed. 

Nepenthe,  a  drug  supposed  to  bring  forget- 
fulness.  (See  Thone.)  'Nepenthe*  is  the  title 
of  a  beautiful  poem  by  G.  Darley  (q.v.). 

Nephelococcygia,  'cloud-cuckoo-land',  in 
the  'Birds'  of  Aristophanes,  an  imaginary  city 
built  in  the  clouds  by  the  cuckoos. 

Nepomuk,  ST.  JOHN,  the  patron  saint  of 
Bohemia,  born  at  Pomuk  in  that  country,  an 
ecclesiastic  whom  King  Wenceslaus  in  1393 


[548] 


NEPOS 

caused  to  be  drowned  in  the  river  Moldau  at 
Prague. 

NEPOS,  CORNELIUS  (ist  cent.  B.C.), 
Roman  historian,  a  friend  of  Cicero,  Atticus, 
and  Catullus.  His  chief  work  was  *De  Viris 
Illustrious',  of  which  part  survives. 
Neptune,  the  Roman  god  of  the  sea,  identi- 
fied with  the  Poseidon  (q.v.)  of  the  Greeks. 

The  planet  NEPTUNE  was  discovered  in 
1846,  as  a  result  of  the  mathematical  calcu- 
lations of  J.  C.  Adams  in  England  and  Lever- 
rier  in  France. 

Nereids,  THE,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
daughters  of  Nereus,  a  deity  of  the  sea; 
the  nymphs  (q.v.)  of  the  Mediterranean. 
Neri,  see  Bianchi  and  Neri. 
Nerissa,  in  Shakespeare's  'The  Merchant  of 
Venice'  (q.v.),  Portia's  waiting-maid. 
Nero,  a  Roman  emperor  (A.D.  54-68),  the 
last  of  the  Juiio-Claudian  dynasty,  proverbial 
for  his  tyranny  and  brutality.    He  was  an 
artist  and  actor  of  some  merit,  and  started 
well  under  the  tuition  of  Seneca  and  Burrus. 
Some  ancient  authors  assert  that  the  burning  of 
Rome  in  64  was  due  to  his  order  and  that  he 
fiddled  while  it  burnt.  His  subjects  revolted 
against  his  oppression  in  68,  and  Nero  took 
his  own  life.  'Qualis  artifex  pereo  1 '  ('What  an 
artist  dies  with  me  I')  are  said  to  have  been 
his  dying  words. 
Nertlms,  see  Hertha. 
Nessus ,  seev Deianira. 

Nestor,  king  of  Pylos  and  Messema,  and  a 
grandson  of  Poseidon,  led  his  subjects  to  the 
Trojan  War,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
among  the  Grecian  chiefs,  in  his  extreme  old 
age,  by  his  wisdom,  justice,  and  eloquence. 
Nestorians,  followers  of  Nestorius,  some- 
time a  disciple  of  St.  Chrysostom  and  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  in  A.D.  428,  who  held 
that  Christ  had  distinct  human  and  divine 
persons  (the  doctrine  opposite  to  that  of  the 
Monophysites,  q.v.).  Nestorius  was  con- 
demned by  the  Councils  of  Ephesus  in  431 
and  Chalcedon  in  451,  his  fiercest  opponent 
being  Cyril  of  Alexandria.  The  missionaries 
of  the  sect  penetrated  to  Central  Asia.  A 
remnant  of  Nestorian  Christians  survives  in 
the  mountains  of  E.  Anatolia  and  Kurdistan 
(driven  into  Iraq  during  the  Great  War). 
See  Prester  John. 

Neville,  Miss,  a  character  in  Goldsmith's 
'She  Stoops  to  Conquer'  (q.v.). 

New  Atalantis,  see  Manley* 
New  Atlantis,    The,  a  treatise  of  political 
philosophy  in  the  form  of  a  fable,  by  Francis 
Bacon  (q.v.).  The  work,  which  was  left  un- 
finished, was  published  in  1626. 

It  is  an  account  of  a  visit  to  an  imaginary 
island  of  Bensalem  in  the  Pacific  and  of  the 
social  conditions*  prevailing  there;  and  also 
of  'Solomon's  House',  a  college  of  natural 
philosophy  'dedicated  to  the  study  of  the 
works  and  creatures  of  God'. 


NEW  MODEL  ARMY 
New  Bath  Guide,  see  Anstey  (C.). 

New  England  Nun  and  Other  Stories, 
A,  by  Mary  E.  Wilkins  Freeman. 

New  English  Dictionary,  The,  more  gener- 
ally known  now  as  the  'Oxford  English 
Dictionary'  (q.v.). 

New  Grub  Street,  a  novel  by  Gissing  (q.v.), 
published  in  1891. 

In^this  work  Gissing  depicts  the  struggle 
for  life,  the  jealousies  and  intrigues  of  the 
literary  world  of  his  time,  and  the  blighting 
effect  of  poverty  on  artistic  endeavour.  The 
main  theme  is  the  contrast  of  the  career  of 
Jasper  MnVain,  the  facile,  clever,  selfish,  and 
unscrupulous  writer  of  reviews  (who  accepts 
the  materialistic  conditions  of  literary  success), 
with  those  of  more  artistic  temperaments. 
Among  these  are  Edwin  Reardon,  the  author 
of  two  fine  works,  who  is  hampered  by 
poverty  and  by  the  lack  of  sympathy  of 
his  worldly-minded  wife,  and  the  generous 
Harold  BirTen,  a  poor  scholar,  the  author 
of  a  work  of  'absolute  realism  in  the  sphere 
of  the  ignobly  decent'.  The  literary  world 
is  presented  in  a  multitude  of  characters, 
of  which  one  of  the  best  is  the  learned 
pedant  Alfred  Yule,  rendered  rancorous  and 
sardonic  by  constant  disappointment.  Jasper 
is  attracted  to  Yule's  daughter  and  assistant, 
Marian,  who  passionately  loves  him ;  but  he 
proposes  to  her  only  when  she  inherits  a 
legacy  of  £5,000.  When  this  legacy  proves 
not  to  be  forthcoming,  he  shabbily  with- 
draws, and  marries  Amy  Reardon,  the  young 
widow  of  Edwin,  whom  failure  and  his 
wife's  desertion  have  driven  to  an  early 
grave.  The  sombre  story  ends  with  Jasper's 
success,  the  triumph  of  self-advertisement 
over  artistic  conscience. 

New  Holland,  a  former  name  of  Australia. 
The  Dutch  were  among  the  first  dis- 
coverers of  the  continent  (1606),  and  their 
navigators  surveyed  some  part  of  its  coasts 
between  1618  and  1627.  The  West  coast  was 
probably  known  to  the  Portuguese  earlier. 

New  Inne,  The,  a  comedy  by  Jonson  (q.v.), 
first  acted  in  1629,  when  it  was  a  complete 
failure,  not  being  heard  to  the  conclusion. 

Frances,  the  young  Lady  Frampul,  invites 
some  lords  and  gentlemen  to  make  merry  at 
the  New  Inn  at  Barnet.  One  of  the  guests, 
Lord  Beaufort,  falls  in  love  with,  and  is 
promptly  married  to,  the  son  of  the  innkeeper, 
who  has  been  dressed  up  as  a  lady,  while 
Frances  falls  in  love  with  Lovel,  a  melancholy 
gentleman  staying  at  the  inn.  Finally  the  host 
turns  out  to  be  the  lost  father  of  Frances,  and 
his  son  to  be  not  a  boy,  but  Laetitia,  sister  of 
Frances. 

New  Model  Army,  THE,  was  organized  by 
the  parliament  in  1645,  after  the  passing  of 
'The  Self-denying  Ordinance*,  the  dispersal  of 
Waller's  army,  and  the  indecisive  second  battle 
of  Newbury.  It  was  composed  solely  with 
a  view  to  military  efficiency,  was  regularly 


[549] 


NEW  MONTHLY  MAGAZINE 

paid,  and  was  composed  largely  of  Puritans, 
the  officers  being  mostly  Independents.  Sir 
Thomas  Fairfax  was  its  general. 

New  Monthly  Magazine,  Thet  a  periodical 
founded  in  1814,  and  continued,  with  various 
changes  in  its  sub-title,  until  1871,  when  it 
was  continued  without  sub-title  till  1881,  and 
then  until  1884  as  'The  New  Monthly'.  It 
had  as  editors,  at  various  periods,  Thomas 
Campbell,  Bulwer  Lytton,  Theodore  Hook, 
Thomas  Hood,  and  W.  H.  Ainsworth. 

New  Republic,  The,  see  Mallock. 

New  Timon,  The,  a  satirical  poem  by  Bulwer 
Lytton  (q.v.),  published  in  1846,  in  which  he 
sketches  various  celebrities  of  the  day. 

New  Way  to  pay  Old  Debts,  A,  a  comedy  by 
Massinger  (q.v.),  published  in  1633,  perhaps 
the  best  known  of  his  works. 

The  play  deals  with  the  discomfiture  of 
Sir  Giles  Overreach,  a  character  modelled  on 
the  notorious  extortioner,  Sir  Giles  Mom- 
pesson  (1584—1651?),  who  was  fined  and 
imprisoned  for  his  proceedings.  The  cruel 
and  rapacious  Overreach,  having  got  posses- 
sion of  the  property  of  his  prodigal  nephew 
Frank  Wellborn,  who  is  reduced  to  utter 
poverty,  treats  him  with  contumely.  Lady 
Allworth,  a  rich  widow,  to  whose  husband 
Wellborn  had  rendered  important  services, 
consents  to  help  him  by  giving  ground  for  the 
belief  that  she  is  about  to  marry  him.  Over- 
reach, deceived,  changes  his  attitude,  and 
gives  Wellborn  assistance.  Tom  Allworth, 
Lady  Allworth's  stepson,  and  page  to  Lord 
Lovell,  is  in  love  with  Overreach's  daughter 
Margaret,  who  returns  his  love.  Overreach  is 
consumed  with  a  desire  that  his  daughter 
shall  marry  Lord  Lovell  and  become  'right 
honourable*.  Lord  Lovell  consents  to  help 
Allworth  to  win  Margaret,  and  a  trick  is 
played  on  Overreach  by  which  he  facilitates 
the  marriage,  thinking  that  Lord  Lovell  is  to 
be  the  bridegroom.  Overreach  becomes  crazy 
on  discovering  the  deceit  and  on  finding  that, 
by  the  device  of  one  of  his  satellites,  his  claim 
to  Wellborn's  property  cannot  be  maintained ; 
he  is  sent  to  Bedlam.  Wellborn  receives  a 
company  in  Lord  Lovell's  regiment,  and 
Lord  Lovell  marries  Lady  Allworth. 

Newbery,  JOHN  (1713-67),  a  publisher 
and  bookseller,  who  established  himself  in 
1744  £&  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  London,  and 
originated  the  publication  of  children's 
books.  Goldsmith  (q.v.)  was  among  those 
who  worked  for  him,  probably  writing  *  Goody 
Two  Shoes*.  Newbery  figures  in  'The  Vicar 
of  Wakefield'  (q.v.). 

NEWCASTLE,  MARGARET,  DUCHESS  OF 
(i624?~74),  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Lucas, 
was  the  second  wife  of  William  Cavendish, 
duke  of  Newcastle.  She  wrote  a  multitude  of 
verses,  essays,  and  plays  (1653-68),  and  a 
biography  of  her  husband.  She  Is  principally 
remembered  for  Pepys's  condemnation  of  her 
as  ca  mad,  conceited,  ridiculous  woman*,  and 


NEWDIGATE 

on  the  other  hand  for  Charles  Lamb's 
encomium  of  her,  'that  princely  woman,  the 
thrice  noble  Margaret  of  Newcastle*. 

Newcomen,  THOMAS  (1663-1729),  an  iron- 
monger or  blacksmith  of  Dartmouth,  in- 
ventor of  the  atmospheric  steam-engine.  He 
entered  into  partnership  in  1698  with  Thomas 
Savery,  who  had  taken  out  a  patent  for 
raising  water  from  mines,  embodying  a 
practical  application  of  steam-power.  He  so 
greatly  improved  Savery's  patent,  which  had 
hitherto  been  unsuccessful,  that  it  furnished 
the  model  for  pumping-engines  for  three- 
quarters  of  a  century. 

Newcomes,  The,  a  novel  by  Thackeray  (q.v.), 
published  serially  in  1853—5. 

The  story,  which  purports  to  be  told  by 
Pendennis  (q.v.),  centres  round  the  career  of 
young  Clive  Newcome,  a  youth  of  generous 
instincts  and  human  failings,  the  son  of 
Colonel  Thomas  Newcome,  an  officer  of  the 
Indian  army,  in  whom  Thackeray  has  drawn 
an  admirable  portrait  of  a  simple-minded 
gentleman,  guided  through  life  solely  by  the 
sentiments  of  duty  and  honour.  Clive  New- 
come  falls  in  love  with  his  cousin,  Ethel  New- 
come,  daughter  of  the  wealthy  banker  Sir 
Brian  Newcome.  But  she  is  destined  for  a 
more  exalted  match  by  her  grandmother,  the 
countess  of  Kew,  a  worldly,  cynical  old 
woman,  and  by  her  other  relatives.  The  most 
vigorous  opponent  of  dive's  suit  is  Ethel's 
brother,  Barnes  Newcome,  a  mean,  venomous 
little  snob,  in  whom  Thackeray  has  almost 
overdrawn  the  character  of  a  villain.  Ethel,  a 
fine  and  honourable  girl,  though  capricious 
and  at  times  influenced  by  ambition  and  her 
worldly  surroundings,  yields  to  these  so  far 
as  to  engage  herself  first  to  her  cousin,  Lord 
Kew,  and  then  to  a  worthless  puppy,  Lord 
Farintosh;  but  both  these  matches  she  breaks 
off.  Meanwhile  Clive,  despairing  of  Ethel, 
allows  jhimself  to  be  married  to  a  pretty 
nonentity,  Rosey  Mackenzie,  the  daughter  of 
a  scheming  widow.  The  marriage  turns 
out  miserably.  Moreover,  Colonel  Newcome 
loses  his  fortune ;  and  his  household,  including 
Clive  and  his  wife  and  Mrs.  Mackenzie,  the 
'campaigner*,  are  reduced  to  dire  poverty. 
This  brings  out  the  worst  qualities  of  Mrs. 
Mackenzie.  A  virago  and  a  harpy,  she  sub- 
jects the  Colonel  to  a  long  martyrdom  by 
her  taunts  and  reproaches,  until  he  takes 
refuge  in  the  Greyfriars  [Charterhouse] 
almshouses.  The  pathos  of  the  story  reaches 
its  climax  with  the  scene  of  the  Colonel's 
death-bed,  where  che,  whose  heart  was  as  that 
of  a  little  child,  had  answered  to  his  name, 
and  stood  in  the  presence  of  The  Master*. 
Rosey  having  meanwhile  died,  we  are  left  to 
infer  that  Clive  and  Ethel  are  finally  united. 
Newdigate,  SIR  ROGER  (1719-1806),  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  School  and  University 
College,  Oxford,  MJP.  successively  for  Mid- 
dlesex and  Oxford  University,  was  founder 
of  the  NEWDIGATE  PRIZE  at  Oxford  for  English 
verse  (1805). 


NEWGATE 

Newgate,  the  principal  west  gate  of  the 
ancient  city  of  London,  so  called  probably 
because  it  was  the  reconstruction-  of  an  earlier 
gate  dating  from  Roman  times,  at  the  point 
where  Watling  Street  (q.v.)  reached  London 
(roughly  along  the  line  of  Oxford  Street  and 
Holborn).  Its  gate-house  was  a  prison  from 
the  1 2th  cent.  This  prison  was  enlarged,  re- 
constructed, and  improved  out  of  funds  left 
by  Sir  Richard  Whittington.  Attention  was 
drawn  to  its  insanitary  condition  by  John 
Howard,  the  prison  reformer  (1726-90)  (two 
Lord  Mayors  died  of  gaol  fever  caught  at 
the  sessions),  and  in  1780  it  was  burnt  down 
by  the  Gordon  rioters.  It  was  then  rebuilt, 
and  finally  demolished  in  1902,  when  the 
Central  Criminal  Court  was  built  on  its  site. 

Newgate  Calendar,  The,  or  Malefactors' 
Bloody  Register,  was  published  (the  original 
series)  about  1774,  and  dealt  with  notorious 
crimes  from  1700  to  that  date.  Later  series 
('The  Newgate  Calendar,  comprising  in- 
teresting memoirs  of  the  most  notorious 
characters*  and  'The  New  Newgate  Calen- 
dar') were  issued  about  1826  by  Andrew 
Knapp  and  William  Baldwin. 

Sorrow's  'Lavengro*  (q.v.)  compiled  the 
'Chronicles  of  Newgate*  (c.  xxxvi). 
Newland,  ABRAHAM  (1730-1807),  chief 
cashier  of  the  Bank  of  England  from  1782. 
Bank-notes  were  long  known  as  'Abraham 
Newlands'  from  bearing  his  signature.  See 
Abraham-man. 

NEWMAN,  JOHN  HENRY  (1801-9?), 
educated  privately  at  Baling  and  at  Trinity- 
College,  Oxford,  became  a  fellow  of  Oriel, 
where  he  came  in  contact  with  his  brother- 
fellows  Keble  and  Pusey,  and  later  with 
R.  H.  Froude  (qq.v.).  In  1828  he  was  pre- 
sented to  the  vicarage  of  St.  Mary's,  Oxford. 
In  1832  he  went  to  the  south  of  Europe  with 
R.  H.  Froude,  and  with  him  wrote  in  Rome 
much  of  the  'Lyra  Apostolica*  (1836),  sacred 
poems  contributed  in  the  first  instance  to  'The 
British  Magazine'.  In  1833  he  composed  the 
hymn  'Lead,  kindly  Light',  during  a  passage 
from  Palermo  to  Marseilles.  In  the  same  year 
he  resolved  with  William  Palmer  ,R.H.Froude, 
and  A.  P.  Perceval  to  fight  for  the  doctrine  of 
apostolical  succession  and  the  integrity  of 
the  Prayer-book,  and  began  'Tracts  for  the 
Times'  (see  Oxford  Movement),  in  which  he 
found  a  supporter  in  Dr.  Pusey  (q.v.).  ^  In 
1837-8  he  published  a  number  of  treatises 
in  defence  of  the  Anglo- Catholic  view,  in- 
cluding the  'Lectures  on  the  Prophetical 
Office  of  the  Church',  and  in  1841  his  famous 
Tract  XC,  on  the  compatibility  of  the  Articles 
with  Catholic  theology;  this  tract  brought  the 
Tractarians  under  the  official  ban.  He  retired 
to  Littlemore  in  1842,  wrote  his  'Essay  on 
Miracles*  in  that  year,  resigned  the  living  of 
St.  Mary's  in  1843,  and  joined  the  Church  of 
Rome  in  1845.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1846, 
where  he  was  ordained  priest  and  created 
D.D.,  and  became  an  Oratorian.  He  re- 
turned to  England  in  1847  and  established 


NEWS 

the  Oratory  at  Birmingham.  His  'Essay 
on  the  Development  of  Christian  Doctrine' 
was  written  at  the  time  of  his  transition 
and  published  in  1845.  In  1851  appeared 
his  'Lectures  on  the  Present  Position  of 
the  Roman  Catholics',  a  fiercely  con- 
temptuous reply  to  the  No-Popery  agitation 
of  the  moment.  In  1854  he  was  appointed 
rector  of  the  new  Catholic  University  of 
Dublin,  and  in  1852,  previous  to  his  formal 
appointment,  delivered  his  lectures  on  'The 
Scope  and  Nature  of  University  Education*. 
'Lectures  on  Universities'  appeared  in  1859. 
The  third  edition  (1873)  of  'The  Idea  of  a 
University  Defined'  contains  both  series  of 
lectures.  In  these  Newman,  opposing  the 
popular  doctrines  of  the  day,  maintained  that 
the  duty  of  a  university  is  instruction  rather 
than  research,  and  to  train  the  mind  rather 
than  to  diffuse  useful  knowledge;  and  de- 
fended theological  teaching  and  tutorial 
supervision  as  parts  of  the  university  system. 
Newman  found  the  Irish  clergy  and  the 
'New  Catholic  University'  quite  intractable 
and  soon  gave  up  his  appointment. 

In  1864  appeared  his  'Apologia  pro  Vita 
sua*,  in  answer  to  Charles  Kingsley,  who 
in  'Macmillan's  Magazine*,  misrepresenting 
Newman,  had  remarked  that  Newman  did 
not  consider  truth  as  a  necessary  virtue.  The 
'Apologia*  came  out  serially,  and  when  it  was 
published  as  a  book  much  of  the  controversial 
matter  was  omitted.  It  is  an  exposition, 
written  with  the  utmost  simplicity  and 
sincerity,  and  in  a  style  of  limpid  clearness, 
of  his  spiritual  history,  and  has  obtained 
recognition  as  a  literary  masterpiece.  In 
1866  appeared  his  poem,  'The  Dream  of 
Gerontius',  a  dramatic  monologue  of  a  just 
soul  leaving  the  body  at  death,  which  made 
a  wide  appeal  to  religious  minds.  In  1868 
was  published  his  'Verses  on  Various  Oc- 
casions', containing  many  poems  of  tender 
beauty.  In  1870  Newman  published  'The 
Grammar  of  Assent'  (q.v.),  and  at  various 
times  volumes  of  sermons  preached  at  St. 
Mary's,  Oxford,  and  elsewhere.  Mention 
should  also  be  made  of  his  religious  novels, 
'Loss  and  Gain*  (1848),  containing  a  cele- 
brated account  of  an  Oxford  tutor's  breakfast 
party,  and  'Callista'  (1856).  In  1877  he  was 
made  an  honorary  fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  and  in  1879  was  created  Cardinal 
of  St.  George  in  Velabro. 

Newnes,  GEORGE  (1851-1910),  publisher 
and  magazine  proprietor.  He  founded  ^  in 
particular  'The  Strand  Magazine'  (in  which 
Conan  Doyle's  'Adventures  of  Sherlock 
Holmes*  first  appeared)  and  'Tit-Bits'. 

Newnham  College,  a  college  for  women  at 
Cambridge,  opened  in  1876,  developed  from 
an  earlier  house  of  residence  for  women 
students,  of  which  Sidgwick  (q.v.)  was  one 
of  the  chief  promoters,  and  Anne  Jemima 
Clough  (1820-92)  the  first  principal. 

News,  The,  see  L'Estrange. 


NEWSBOOKS 

Newsbooks,  or  DIURNALLS,  the  successors 
of  the  'Corantos'  (q.v.)  in  the  evolution  of  the 
newspaper.  Newsbooks,  consisting  of  one 
printed  sheet  (8  pages)  or  later  of  two  printed 
sheets  (16  pages),  and.  containing  domestic 
intelligence  and  the  principal  features  of  the 
modern  newspaper,  were  issued,  by  various 
journalists  and  under  various  titles,  during 
the  period  1641-65.  They  then  gave  place 
to  the  'Oxford'  (later  'London')  'Gazette* 
(see  Gazette). 

Newsletters,  a  term  specially  applied  to  the 
manuscript  records  of  parliamentary  ^  and 
court  news,  sent  twice  a  week  to  subscribers 
from  the  London  office  of  Muddiman  (q.v.)  in 
the  second  half  of  the  iyth  cent.  A  survival  of 
these  may  be  seen  in  the  'London  Letter'  which 
still  appears  in  many  provincial  journals. 

Newsome,  MRS.  and  CHAD,  leading  charac- 
ters in  H.  James's  'The  Ambassadors'  (q.v.). 

NEWTON,  Sni  ISAAC  (1642-1727),  the 
philosopher,  was  born  at  Woolsthorpe  near 
Grantham,  and  educated  at  Grantham  Gram- 
mar School  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
He  made  his  first  communication  to  the 
Royal  Society  on  his  theory  of  light  and 
colours  in  1672.  His  researches  on  this 
subject  were  summed  up  in  his  'Optics', 
published  in  1704,  to  which  was  appended 
his  'Method  of  Fluxions',  his  great  mathe- 
matical discovery,  and  the  source  of  a  bitter 
quarrel  with  Leibniz  as  to  the  priority  of  the 
invention.  The  first  book  of  his  Thiloso- 
phiae  Naturalis  Principia  Mathematical  em- 
bodying his  laws  of  motion  and  the  idea  of 
universal  gravitation,  was  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Society  in  1686,  and  the  whole  pub- 
lished in  1687.  Newton  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society  in  1703,  and  was 
annually  re-elected  for  25  years.  He  was 
knighted  in  1705,  became  master  of  the  Mint 
in  1699,  and  presented  reports  on  the  coinage 
in  1717  and  1718.  He  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  But  it  is  his  statue  in  the 
ante-chapel  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
that  is  his  best-known  memorial,  perhaps 
because  of  Wordsworth's  glorious  lines  on  it 
(in 'The  Prelude'): 
The  marble  index  of  a  mind  for  ever 
Voyaging  through  strange  seas  of  Thought 
alone. 

Newton's  works  (incomplete)  were  edited  by 
Samuel  Horsley  in  1779-85. 
Niamh,  in  the  second  or  southern  cycle  of 
Irish  mythology,  the  daughter  of  Manannan, 
the  sea-god.  She  fell  in  love  with  Ossian,  the 
son  of  Finn  (q.v.),  carried  him  off  over  the 
sea,  and  kept  him  with  her  for  three  hundred 
years.  She  then  let  him  return  to  his  own 
country,  mounted  on  a  magic  steed,  but  on 
condition  that  he  should  not  set  foot  on  earth. 
Ossian  disregarded  the  caution,  immediately 
lost  his  youth,  and  became  a  blind,  decrepit 
old  man. 

Nibelung  (NIBLUNG,  NEEBELUNG),  in  the 
Norse  sagas  and  German  'Nibelungenlied', 


NICHOLAS'S  CLERK 

a  mythical  king  of  a  race  of  dwarfs,  the 
Nibelungs,  who  dwelt  in  Norway.  The 
Nibelung  kings  and  people  figure  in  the 
'Nibelungenlied'  (q.v.)  and  in  W.  Morris's 
'Sigurd  the  Volsung'  (q.v.). 

Nibelungen,  Ring  des,  see  Ring  des  Nibelun- 
gen. 


Nibelungenlied  9  a  German  poem  of  the 
cent,  embodying  a  story  found  in  primitive 
form  in  the  prose  Edda  (q.v.).  In  the  latter 
the  story  is  substantially  as  told  by  William 
Morris  in  his  'Sigurd  the  Volsung'  (q.v.), 
Sigurd  being  the  Siegfried  of  the  later  poem. 

In  the  'Nibelungenlied'  the  story  is  some- 
what different.  Siegfried,  son  of  Siegmund 
and  Sieglind,  king  and  queen  of  the  Nether- 
lands, having  got  possession  of  the  Nibelung 
hoard  guarded  by  Alberich,  rides  to  woo 
Kriemhild,  a  Burgundian  princess,  sister  of 
Gunther,  Gernot,  and  Giselher.  Hagen, 
their  grim  retainer,  warns  them  against  Sieg- 
fried, but  the  match  is  arranged,  and  the  hoard 
is  given  to  Kriemhild  as  marriage  portion. 
Siegfried  undertakes  to  help  Gunther  to  win 
Brunhild,  queen  of  Issland,  by  defeating  her 
in  trials  of  skill  and  strength,  which  he  suc- 
ceeds in  doing.  The  double  marriage  takes 
place,  but  Brunhild  remains  suspicious  and 
ill-humoured,  and  Siegfried,  called  in  by 
Gunther  to  subdue  her,  does  so  in  Gunther's 
semblance  and  takes  away  her  ring  and  girdle, 
which  he  gives  to  Kriemhild.  The  two  queens 
quarrel,  and  Kriemhild  reveals  to  Brunhild 
the  trick  that  has  been  played  on  her.  Hagen, 
who  thinks  his  master's  honour  injured  by 
Siegfried,  causes  the  latter  to  be  treacherously 
killed  at  a  hunt. 

Kriemhild  later  marries  Etzel  (Attila), 
king  of  the  Huns,  and  in  order  to  avenge  her 
husband  and  secure  the  hoard,  which  her 
brothers  have  seized  and  sunk  in  the  Rhine, 
persuades  them  to  visit  Etzel's  court.  There 
they  are  set  upon  and  overcome,  but  refuse 
to  betray  the  hiding-place  of  the  hoard,  and 
are  slain.  Hagen,  the  last  survivor  of  the 
party  who  knows  the  secret,  is  killed  by 
Kriemhild  with  Siegfried's  sword;  and 
Kriemhild  herself  is  slain  by  Hildebrand,  a 
knight  of  Dietrich  of  Bern. 

Nice,  SIR  COURTLY,  see  Sir  Courtly  Nice. 

Nice  Valour,  The,  or  The  Passionate  Mad- 
man,  see  Fletcher  (3^.)- 

Nicholas,  ST.,  said  to  have  been  bishop  of 
Myra  in  Asia  Minor  about  A.D.  300,  is  the 
patron  saint  of  Russia,  and  of  children, 
scholars,  sailors,  virgins,  and  thieves,  in  con- 
sequenceof  various  legends  relating  tobenefits 
conferred  by  him  on  these.  His  festival  is 
6  Dec.  See  also  Santa  Clous  and  Nicholas's 
Clerk. 

Nicholas's  Clerk,  ST.,  a  highwayman, 
thief.  So  used  in  Shakespeare's  'i  Henry  IV% 
II.  i,  and  in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe'.  It  was  also 
used  to  signify  a  poor  scholar,  St.  Nicholas 
being  the  patron  saint  of  scholars. 


NICHOLAS  NICKLEBY 

Nicholas  Nickleby,  a  novel  by  Dickens  (q.v.), 
published  in  1838-9. 

t  Nicholas,  a  generous,  high-spirited  lad  of 
nineteen,  his  mother,  and  his  gentle  sister 
Kate,  are  left  penniless  on  the  death  of  his 
father.  They  appeal  for  assistance  to  his 
uncle,  Ralph  Nickleby,  a  griping  usurer,  of 
whom  Nicholas  at  once  makes  an  enemy  by 
his  independent  bearing.  He  is  sent  as  usher 
to  Dotheboys  Hall,  where  Wackford  Squeers 
starves  and  maltreats  forty  urchins  under 
pretence  of  education.  His  special  cruelty  is 
expended  on  Smike,  a  half-witted  lad  left  on 
his  hands  and  employed  as  a  drudge.  Nicho- 
las, infuriated  by  what  he  witnesses,  thrashes 
Squeers  and  escapes  with  Smike,  who  be- 
comes his  devoted  friend.  For  a  time  he 
supports  himself  and  Smike  as  an  actor  in  the 
provincial  company  of  Vincent  Crummies; 
he  then  enters  the  service  of  the  brothers 
Cheeryble,  whose  benevolence  and  good 
humour  spread  happiness  around  them. 
Meanwhile  Kate,  apprenticed  to  Madame 
Mantalini,  dressmaker,  is  by  her  uncle's 
designs  exposed  to  the  gross  insults  of  Sir 
Mulberry  Hawk,  one  of  his  associates.  From 
this  persecution  she  is  released  by  Nicholas, 
who  breaks  Sir  Mulberry's  head  and  makes  a 
home  for  his  mother  and  sister.  Nicholas 
himself  falls  in  love  with  Madeline  Bray,  the 
support  of  a  selfish  father,  and  the  object  of  a 
conspiracy  of  Ralph  Nickleby  and  another 
revolting  old  usurer,  Gride,  to  marry  her  to 
the  latter.  Ralph,  whose  hatred  for  Nicholas 
has  been  intensified  by  the  failure  of  his 
plans,  knowing  Nicholas's  affection  for 
Smike,  conspires  to  remove  the  latter  from 
him;  but  Smike  succumbs  to  failing  health 
and  terror  of  his  enemies.  All  Ralph's  plots 
are  baffled  by  the  help  of  Newman  Noggs, 
his  eccentric  clerk.  Confronted  with  ruin  and 
exposure,  and  finally  shattered  by  the  dis- 
covery that  Smike  was  his  own  son,  Ralph 
hangs  himself.  Nicholas,  befriended  by  the 
Cheerybles,  marries  Madeline,  and  Kate 
marries  the  Cheerybles*  nephew,  Frank. 
Squeers  is  transported,  and  Gride  is  mur- 
dered. 

NICHOLS,  JOHN  (1745-1826),  printer  and 
author,  apprenticed  to  William  Bowyer  the 
younger  (1699-1777,  'the  learned  printer*), 
joined  David  Henry  in  the  management 
of  the  'Gentleman's  Magazine*  (q.v.)  in 
1778,  and  was  sole  manager  from  1792  to 
1836.  He  published  his  'Royal  Wills'  in 
1780,  a  'Collection  of  Miscellaneous  Poems* 

51780-2),  his  'Bibliotheca  Topographlca* 
1780-90),  and  'Biographical  Anecdotes  of 
Hogarth*  (1781).  His  most  important  work, 
'The  History  and  Antiquities  of  Leicester*, 
appeared  between  1795  and  1815,  and  in 
1801  his  edition  of  Swift's  works  (19  vols.). 
In  1812-15  appeared  the  'Literary  Anecdotes 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century*^  an  invaluable 
bibliographical  and  biographical  storehouse 
of  information  in  nine  volumes ;  six  volumes 
of  a  supplementary  work,  'Illustrations  of  the 


NIETZSCHE 

Literary  History  of  the  Eighteenth  Century', 
appeared  between  1817  and  1831,  two  being 
published  posthumously,  and  John  Bowyer 
Nichols  (his  son,  1779-1863)  added  two  more 
volumes  in  1848  and  1858. 

Ntcias,  an  Athenian  general  during  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  a  man  of  upright  char- 
acter, and  an  advocate  of  peace.  He  was  in 
command  (with  Alcibiades  and  Lamachus, 
and  later  with  Demosthenes)  of  the  disastrous 
Syracusan  expedition,  and  on  the  surrender 
of  the  Athenian  force  was  put  to  death  by  the 
Syracusans  (413  B.C.). 

Nick,  OLD,  see  Old  Nick. 

Nick  of  the  Woods,  by  Robert  Mont- 
gomery Bird,  published  in  1837,  was  an 
attempt  to  counterbalance  Cooper's  senti- 
mental depiction  of  the  American  Indian.  In 
the  view  of  Bird,  and  his  hero,  the  Indian  is 
not  a  romantic  figure,  but  a  cruel,  crafty, 
filthy  savage  who  deserves  to  be  hunted 
down  and  exterminated  without  mercy. 

Nicolette,  see  Aucassin  and  Nicolette. 

Nidhoggr,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  a 
monstrous  serpent  which  gnaws  at  the  root  of 
Yggdrasil  (q.v.), 

Niebelung,  see  Nibelung. 

NIEBUHR,  BARTHOLD  GEORG  (1766- 
1831),  the  son  of  a  distinguished  German 
traveller,  was  educated  at  Kiel,  and  studied 
physical  science  at  Edinburgh  in  1798,  His 
great  'History  of  Rome',  which  originally 
took  the  form  of  lectures  delivered  at  Berlin 
in  1 8 1  o-i  2 ,  appeared  in  1 827-8.  Niebuhr  was 
the  first  historian  to  deal  with  the  subject 
in  a  scientific  spirit,  discussing  critically  the 
early  Roman  legends  and  paying  more  at- 
tention to  the  development  of  institutions 
and  to  social  characteristics  than  to  individuals 
and  incidents.  The  'History*  was  translated 
into  English  by  J.  C.  Hare  and  Bishop  Thirl- 
wall  in  1828-42. 

NIETZSCHE,  FRIEDRICH  WILHELM 
(1844-1900),  a  brilliant  and  paradoxical 
German  ethical  writer,  of  Polish  descent, 
whose  lack  of  balance  developed  into  lunacy 
in  1889.  The  principal  features  of  his  doc- 
trine are:  contempt  for  Christianity  with  its 
compassion  for  the  weak,  hostility  to  the 
ascetism  preached  by  Schopenhauer,  exalta- 
tion of  the  'will  to  dominate*  and  of  the 
'superman*,  an  unscrupulous  pitiless  demi- 
god, superior  to  ordinary  morality,  who 
tramples  on  the  feeble;  this  superman  will 
replace  the  Christian  ideal.  Nietzsche's 
works  include  'Unzeitgemasse  Betrachtungen* 
('Thoughts  out  of  Season*,  1876)  on  Schopen- 
hauer and  Wagner,  whom  he  regarded  as  his 
first  masters,  'Morgenrothe*  (Dawn*,  1881), 
'Die  frohliche  Wissenschaft*  ('The  Joyful 
Wisdom5,  1882),  and  'Also  sprach  Zarathus- 
tra*  ('Thus  spake  Zarathustra*,  1883-91, 
perhaps  the  best  known  in  England  of  his 
writings). 


[5531 


NIFLHEIM 

Niflheim,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  an 
underworld  of  cold  and  darkness,  the  abode 
of  the  dead,  who  were  distributed  among  its 
nine  regions.  It  was  ruled  over  by  Hel  (see 
Hell).  It  was  separated  by  Ginnungagap 
(q.v.)  from  Muspellheim  (q.v.),  and  Yggdra- 
sil  (q.v.)  had  its  roots  there. 
Night  Thoughts  on  Life,  Death,  and  Im- 
mortality, The  Complaint  or,  a  didactic 
poem  of  some  10,000  lines  of  blank  verse,  in 
nine  books,  by  E.  Young  (q.v.),  published 
in  1742-5. 

The  first  book  is  occupied,  as  the  title 
suggests,  with  the  poet's  reflections  during 
the  sleepless  watches  of  the  night  on  the 
vicissitudes  of  life,  death,  and  immortality. 
The  next  seven  form  a.  soliloquy,  partly 
argumentative,  partly  reflective,  addressed  to 
a  certain  worldly  infidel,  named  Lorenzo, 
who  is  exhorted  to  turn  to  faith  and  virtue. 
The  ninth  book,  entitled  'The  Consolation', 
contains  a  vision  of  the  last  day  and  of 
eternity,  a  survey  of  the  wonders  of  the 
firmament  at  night,  a  final  exhortation  to 
Lorenzo,  and  an  invocation  to  the  Deity. 

The  poem  for  a  time  enjoyed  great  popu- 
larity. It  contains  a  few  autobiographical  allu- 
sions, such  as  the  complaints  in  the  fourth  book 
of  the  neglect  of  which  he  is  the  object.  Nar- 
cissa  and  Philander  have  not  been  identified, 
but  may  have  been  his  stepdaughter  and  her 
husband,  Mr. Temple.  Mrs.  Temple  died  of 
consumption  at  Lyons  in  1736.  But  she  was 
not  buried  surreptitiously,  as  told  in  the 
poem. 

Nightingale,  Ode  to  a,  see  Keats. 
Nightingale  and  the  Lute-player,  The,  see 
Lover's  Melancholy  and  Crashaw. 
Nightman  Abbey,  a  novel  by  Peacock  (q.v.), 
published  in  1818. 

The  book  is  an  entertaining  satire_  on 
Byronism,  Coleridgian  transcendentalism, 
and  pessimism  in  general.  There  is,  as  usual 
in  Peacock's  novels,  little  plot,  but  the  house- 
party  of  amusing  characters  brings  together 
Mr.  Glowry,  his  son  Scythrop,  and  Mr.  Too- 
bad,  pessimists  of  various  shades ;  Mr.  Flosky, 
a  caricature  of  Coleridge,  and  Mr.  Cypress, 
of  Byron;  Mr.  Larynx,  the  versatile  and 
accommodating  clergyman;  and  Mr.  Hilary, 
*a  very  cheerful  and  elastic  gentleman*. 
Scythrop,  in  his  inability  to  fix  his  affections 
on  one  or  other  of  two  charmers,  resembles 
Shelley.  It  is  characteristic  of  Shelley's 
sweetness  of  temper  that  he  did  not  in  the 
least  resent  his  friend's  caricature  of  him. 

Nihilism  (Latin  nihil,  nothing),  originally  a 
movement  in  Russia  repudiating  the  cus- 
tomary social  institutions,  such  as  marriage 
and  parental  authority.  The  term  was 
introduced  by  the  novelist  TurgeniefF  (q.v.). 
It  was  subsequently  extended  to  a  secret 
revolutionary  movement,  both  social  and 
political,  which  developed  in  the  middle  of 
the  i  pth  cent. 

Nile,  BATTLE  OF  THE,  fought  on  i  Aug.  1798, 


NIRVANA 

in  which  Nelson  destroyed  in  Abukir  Bay  the 
French  fleet  that  had  conveyed  Buonaparte 
to  Egypt,  and  by  cutting  off  the  latter's 
army  from  France,  defeated  his  project  of 
creating  a  French  empire  in  the  East. 
Nimrod,  'the  mighty  hunter  before  the 
Lord'  (Gen.  x.  9),  of  whom  Milton  says 
(basing  himself  on  the  Targum)  'and  men 
not  beasts  shall  be  his  game*  ('Paradise  Lost', 
xxi.  30).  He  is  represented  in  Genesis  as  the 
ruler  of  Shinar  (Sumeria)  and  builder  of 
Nineveh,  but  the  monuments  of  Assyria  and 
Babylonia  are  silent  about  him. 
Nimrod,  see  Apperley. 
Nimue,  NIMIANE,  or  VIVIEN,  see  Lady  of  the 
Lake,  and  Merlin  and  Vivien. 
Nine  Worthies,  The,  see  Worthies. 
Nineteenth  Century,  The,  a  monthly  review 
founded  in  1877  by  Sir  J.  T.  Knowles  (q.v.), 
who  was  its  first  editor.  It  was  more  im- 
partial in  its  attitude  than  the  'Fortnightly3 
(q.v.),  bringing  together  in  its  pages  the  most 
eminent  advocates  of  conflicting  views. 
When  the  said  century  ended,  the  Review 
added  to  its  old  title  'And  After'. 
Ninian,  ST.  (d.  432?),  a  native  of  Britain, 
who  in  youth  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  and 
was  educated  there.  He  was  sent  on  a  mission 
to  convert  the  pagans  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Britain.  Ninian  was  consecrated  bishop  and 
his  see  was  established  in  Galloway  at  Whit- 
horn,  where  he  built  a  stone  church,  known 
as  Candida  Casa,  dedicated  to  St.  Martin  of 
Tours.  He  evangelized  the  Southern  Picts. 
St.  Ninian  is  commemorated  on  16  Sept. 
He  is  also  called  St.  Ringan  (see,  e.g.,  Scott's 
'The  Pirate'),  and  is  frequently  invoked  as 
St.  Treignan  in  Rabelais. 
Ninon  de  Lenclos,  see  Lenclos. 
Ninus,  see  Semiramis. 
Niobe,  a  daughter  of  Tantalus  (q.v.),  and 
wife  of  Amphion.  She  was  the  mother  of  six 
sons  and  six  daughters,  and  this  so  increased 
her  pride,  that  she  boasted  herself  superior 
to  Latona,  the  mother  of  Apollo  and  ^Ar- 
temis.  For  this  arrogance  the  sons  of  Niobe 
were  immediately  slain  by  the  darts  of 
Apollo,  and  the  daughters  (except  one, 
Chloris)  by  Artemis ;  and  Niobe  herself  was 
changed  into  a  stone,  and  still  wept  for  her 
children  in  streams  that  trickled  down  the 
rock ;  so  that  the  group  was  a  favourite  one 
for  a  fountain.  Hence  also  'Niobe  all  tears' 
(Shakespeare,  'Hamlet1,  I.  ii.  149). 
Niord,  or  NJORDHR,  in  Scandinavian 
mythology,  one  of  the  Vanir  (q.v.),  a  god  of 
the  waters,  the  father  of  Frey  and  Freya. 

Niphates,  a  mountain-chain  in  Armenia. 
Milton  makes  Satan  light  on  it  when  he  first 
comes  to  the  earth  ('Paradise  Lost*,  iii.  742). 

Nipper,  SUSAN,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Dombey  and  Son'  (q.v.). 
Nirvana,   in  Buddhist  theology,   the   ex- 
tinction   of   individual    existence    and    the 


[554] 


NISROCH 

absorption  of  the  soul  in  the  supreme  spirit, 
or  the  extinction  of  all  desires  and  passions 
and  the  attainment  of  perfect  beatitude. 
[OED.] 

Nisroch,  an  Assyrian  deity,  in  whose  temple 
at  Nineveh  Sennacherib  was  slain  (2  Kings 
xix.  37).  Milton  calls  him  'of  Principalities 
the  prime'  in  the  council  of  Satan  ('Paradise 
Lost*,  vi.  446). 

NSsus,  a  Trojan,  who  accompanied  Aeneas 
to  Italy,  and  signalized  himself  by  his  valour 
against  the  Rutulians.  He  was  united  in 
closest  friendship  to  Euryalus,  another 
Trojan,  and  together  at  night  they  pene- 
trated the  enemy's  camp.  After  slaying  many 
of  the  Rutulians,  they  were  returning,  when 
Euryalus  fell  into  the  enemies*  hands.  Nisus 
in  endeavouring  to  rescue  his  friend  perished 
with  him,  and  their  great  friendship  has  be- 
come proverbial. 

Nitouche,  SAINTE,  a  French  term  for  a 
person  who  affects  an  air  of  excessive  inno- 
cence, a  facetious  adaptation  of  'n'y  touche*. 

Nixie,  a  female  water-elf  (from  German  and 
Scandinavian  folk-lore). 

Nizam-ul- Mulk,  the  vizier  of  Alp  Arslan 
the  son,  and  of  Malik  Shah  the  grandson,  of 
Toghrul  Beg  (the  founder  of  the  Seljuk 
dynasty).  Fitzgerald  in  his  introduction  to  the 
'Rubdiyat*  of  Omar  Khayyam  (q.v.)  quotes 
Nizam-ul-Mulk's  story  (difficult  to  reconcile 
with  the  dates)  of  his  studying  at  Naishapur 
under  a  doctor  of  law  with  Omar  Khayyam 
and  Hasan-ben-Sabbah  (the  'Old  Man  of 
the  Mountain* — see  under  Assassins),  and  of 
the  pledge  of  the  three  friends  to  help  each 
other  in  after-life.  Nizam-ul-Mulk,  when  he 
became  vizier,  granted  Omar  a  pension.  He 
was  himself  ultimately  murdered  by  the  order 
of  Hasan-ben-Sabbah. 

Njala  Saga,  see  Saga. 
Njordkr,  see  Niordr. 

No  Cross,  No  Crown,  a  dissertation  by  Penn 
(q.v.,  1669). 

Nobel  Prizes,  THE,  were  established  under 
the  will  of  Alfred  Bernhard  Nobel  (1833-96), 
a  Swedish  chemist  distinguished  in  the  de- 
velopment of  explosives,  by  which  the  in- 
terest on  the  greater  part  of  his  large  fortune 
is  distributed  in  annual  prizes  for  the  most 
important  discoveries  in  physics,  chemistry, 
and  physiology  respectively,  to  the  author 
of  the  most  important  literary  work  of  an 
idealist  tendency,  and  to  the  person^  who 
shall  have  most  promoted  the  fraternity  of 
nations. 

Noble,  in  'Reynard  the  Fox*  (q.v.),  the  name 
of  the  lion. 

Noble,  a  former  English  gold  coin,  first 
minted  by  Edward  III,  issued  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  6s.  8J.  silver.  It  was  a  handsome 
coin,  showing  on  the  obverse  the  king  in 
armour  in  a  ship,  and  bearing  the  inscription : 
IHC  :  TRANSIENS  I  PER  :  MEDIUM  :  ILLOKUM: 


NOH  PLAYS 

IBAT:  from  Luke  iv.  30,  perhaps  used  as  a 
charm  against  theft. 

The  ANGEL,  called  more  fully  at  first  the 
ANGEL-NOBLE,  being  originally  a  new  issue 
of  the  Noble,  had  as  its  device  the  arch- 
angel Michael  standing  upon,  and  piercing 
the  dragon.  It  was  first  coined  by  Edward  IV 
in  1465,  when  its  value  was  6s.  8d.  Under 
Edward  VI  it  was  los.  It  was  last  coined  by 
Charles  I.  This  was  the  coin  always  pre- 
sented to  a  patient  'touched*  for  the  king's 
evil.  When  it  ceased  to  be  coined,  small 
medals  having  the  same  device  were  sub- 
stituted for  it. 

The  ROSE-NOBLE  or  RYAL  was  a  gold  coin 
first  issued  by  Edward  IV,  as  the  equivalent 
of  i os.  silver.  The  general  design  of  the  king 
in  his  ship  was  retained,  but  a  very  large 
Yorkist  rose  covered  part  of  the  hull  of  the 
ship* 

Noble  Numbers,  the  title  of  the  collection  of 
religious  poems  written  by  Herrick  (q.v.). 

Nobs,  Dr.  Dove's  horse  in  Southey*s  'The 
Doctor*  (q.v.). 

Noctes  Ambroszanae,  a  series  of  papers  that 
appeared  in  'Blackwood's  Magazine*  (q.v.) 
from  1822  to  1835.  They  were  by  several 
hands,  Prof.  John  Wilson's,  Lockhart's, 
Hogg*s,  and  Maginn*s  (qq.v.);  but  of  the  71, 
41  were  by  the  first  of  these,  Wilson  (' Chris- 
topher North'),  and  have  been  reprinted  in 
his  works.  The  'Noctes'  take  the  form  of 
imaginary  conversations,  of  a  boisterous, 
convivial  kind,  at  Ambrose's  (q.v.),  between 
the  Ettrick  Shepherd,  Christopher  North, 
and  a  few  others,  on  a  great  variety  of  topics, 
from  literary  and  political  criticism  to  the 
rearing  of  poultry.  The  impersonation  of 
the  Ettrick  Shepherd  (Hogg)  is  particularly 
brilliant,  and  the  novelty,  wit,  and  humour 
of  the  conversations  added  greatly  to  the 
popularity  of  the  magazine. 
NOEL,  RODEN  BERKELEY  WRIO- 
THESLEY  (1834-94),  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  was  author  of  several 
volumes  of  verse,  including  'Livingstone  in 
Africa*  (1874),  'A  Little  Child's  Monument' 
(1881),  and  'Songs  of  the  Heights  and  Deeps' 
(1885).  A  selection  of  his  poems  was  edited 
by  P.  Addleshaw  in  1897,  and  his  collected 
works  were  issued  in  1902. 
Noetics,  THE,  a  group  of  fellows  of  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  who  in  the  first  quarter  of 
the  1 9th  cent,  were  noted  for  their  free 
criticism  of  current  theology.  Chief  among 
them  was  Whately  (q.v.).  The  name  is 
derived  from  Gr.  voyais,  intelligence. 
Noggs,  NEWMAN,  in  Dickens's  'Nicholas 
Nickleby*  (q.v.),  Ralph  Nickleby's  clerk,  who 
has  seen  better  days. 

Noh  or  No  Plays,  THE,  a  form  of  traditional, 
ceremonial,  or  ritualistic  drama  peculiar  to 
Japan,  symbolical  and  spiritual  in  character. 
It  was  evolved  from  religious  rites  of  Shinto 
worship,  was  perfected  in  the  15th  cent,  and 
flourished  during  the  Tokugawa  period  (i  652- 


[555] 


NOLI  ME  TANGERE 
1868).  It  has  since  been  revived.  The  plays 
are  short  (one  or  two  acts),  in  prose  and  verse, 
aad  a  chorus  contributes  poetical  comments. 
They  were  formerly  acted  as  a  rule  only  at  the 
Shogun's  court,  five  or  six  in  succession, 
presenting  a  complete  life  drama,  beginning 
with  a  play  of  the  divine  age,  then  a  battle 
piece,  a  'play  of  women',  a  psychological 
piece  (dealing  with  the  sins  and  struggles  of 
mortals),  a  morality,  and  finally  a  congratula- 
tory piece,  praising  the  lords  and  the  reign. 
The  text  was  helped  out  by  symbolic  gestures 
and  chanting.  About  two  hundred  Noh 
Plays  are  extant.  Of  these  the  most  interesting 
are  the  psychological  pieces,  in  which  some 
type  of  human  character  or  some  intense 
emotion  is  taken  as  the  subject.  In  various 
respects  the  Noh  Plays  are  comparable  with 
the  early  Greek  drama  (see  'Noh,  or  Accom- 
plishment*, by  Ernest  Fenollosa  and  Ezra 
Pound). 

Noli  me  tangere,  Latin,  'touch  me  not',  a 
phrase  occurring  in  the  Vulgate,  John  xx.  17, 
applied  to  paintings  representing  the  ap- 
pearance of  Christ  to  the  Magdalen  at  the 
sepulchre;  also  used  generally  as  a  warning 
against  interference. 

Noll  or  OLD  NOLL,  a  nickname  of  Oliver 
Cromwell. 

NomentSnus,  L.  CASSTOS,  frequently  men- 
tioned by  Horace  in  the  satires,  and  pro- 
verbial for  riotous  living. 

Nominalism,  the  view  of  those  schoolmen 
and  later  philosophers  who  regard  universals 
or  abstract  conceptions  as  mere  names  with- 
out corresponding  reality.  See  Ockham,  the 
father  of  this  school. 

Nonce-word,  a  term  employed  in  the  OED. 
to  describe  a  word  which  is  apparently  used 
only  for  the  nonce,  coined  for  the  occasion, 

Nones,  in  the  ancient  Roman  calendar,  the 
7th  of  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  and 
the  5th  of  all  the  other  months. 

Non-Intmsionists,  in  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land, those  who,  in  the  igth  cent.,  resisted 
the  intrusion  by  patrons  of  unacceptable 
ministers  upon  resisting  congregations  (see 
Miller,  H.). 

Nonjurors,  the  beneficed  clergy  who  re- 
fused in  1689  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
William  and  Mary. 

Nore,  THE,  a  sandbank  in  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames  off  Sheerness.  A  mutiny  broke  out 
in  1797  i11  the  fleet  stationed  there,  occa- 
sioned by  the  inadequate  pay  and  bad  food 
of  the  sailors.  Its  leader,  Parker,  was  hanged. 
Norimberga,  in  imprints,  Nuremberg. 

Norman,  the  name  of  a  style  of  Romanesque 
architecture  developed  by  the  Normans  and 
employed  in  England  after  the  Conquest.  It 
is  characterized  by  the  use  of  the  round  arch, 
the  use  of  geometrical  ornament,  such  as 
zigzags,  and  a  great  development  in  the  plan 


NORTH 

of  the  churches,  due  to  the  energy  of  the 
Norman  bishops. 

Norna  of  the  Fitful-head,  Ulla  Troil,  a 
character  in  Scott's  'The  Pirate'  (q.v.). 
Noras,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
three  fates,  Urd,  Verdandi,  and  Skuld,  who 
live  at  the  summit  of  the  rainbow  (Bifrost), 
under  the  branches  of  Yggdrasil  (q.v.),  by  the 
fountain  Urda. 

NORRIS,  FRANK  (1870-1902),  an  Ameri- 
can novelist  whose  early  death  interrupted  a 
promising  career,  is  chieny  remembered  as 
the  author  of  'The  Octopus*  (1901)  and  'The 
Pit*  (1903),  parts  of  an  unfinished  trilogy,  an 
cEpic  of  the  Wheat'. 

NORRIS,  JOHN  (1657-1711),  educated  at 
Winchester  College  and  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  and  a  fellow  of  All  Souls,  became 
rector  of  Bemerton.  He  is  chieny  remarkable 
for  his  'Essay  towards  the  Theory  of  an  Ideal 
and  Intelligible  World'  (1701-4),  in  which  he 
shows  himself  a  supporter  of  Malebranche's 
spiritual  development  of  Cartesianism  (q.v.). 
He  held  that  our  perception  of  the  external 
world  is  a  perception  of  ideas,  and  that  these 
ideas  are  the  Divine  ideas,  an  element  in 
the  Divine  nature. 

Norroy,  the  title  of  the  third  king-of-arms, 
whose  jurisdiction  lies  north  of  the  Trent.  See 
Clarenceux. 

North  American  Review  t  The,  was  founded 
in  1815  in  the  U.S.  as  a  quarterly  review  of 
the  old  solid  type.  It  is  now  a  monthly  semi- 
popular  periodical. 

North,  CHKISTOPHER,  a  pseudonym  used  by 
J.  Wilson  (1785-1854,  q.v.). 

NORTH,  ROGER  (1653-1734),  educated  at 
Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  and  a  lawyer,  was 
the  author  of  interesting  biographies,  pub- 
lished in  1742-4,  of  his  brothers,  Francis 
North,  Lord  Guilford,  Keeper  of  the  Great 
Seal ;  Dudley  North,  the  great  Turkey  mer- 
chant; and  John  North,  master  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  His  own  'Autobiogra- 
phy* was  published  in  1887.  -His  'Discourse 
of  Fish  and  Fish  Ponds'  appeared  in  1683,  and 
in  1740  his  'Examen*  or  criticism  of  Kennett's 
volume  of  the  'Compleat  History  of  England* 
(1706). 

NORTH,  Sm  THOMAS  (i535?-i6oi?), 
son  of  Edward  North,  first  baron  North,  per- 
haps studied  at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge.  He 
entered  Lincoln's  Inn,  was  knighted  in  1591, 
and  pensioned  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1601. 
He  is  famous  for  his  translations,  which  in- 
clude the  'Diall  of  Princes'  (15 57)  from 
Guevara's  'El  Relox  de  Principes',  'The 
Morall  Philosophic  of  Doni',  from  Italian 
(1570),  and  Plutarch's  'Lives'  from  the  French 
of  Amyot  (1579),  to  which  he  made  additions 
from  other  authors  (1595).  His  Plutarch, 
written  in  a  noble  and  vivid  English,  formed 
Shakespeare's  chief  storehouse  of  classical 
learning,  and  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on 
Elizabethan  prose. 


[5561 


NORTH  AND  SOUTH 

North  and  South,  a  novel  by  Mrs.  Gaskeli 
(q.v.),  published  in  'Household  Words'  in 
* 854-5.  The  book,  as  its  title  suggests,  is  a 
study  in  the  contrast  between  the  inhabitants 
of  the  North  and  of  the  South  of  England.  It 
is  also  a  study  of  the  relations  of  employers 
and  men  in  industry. 

Circumstances  bring  Margaret  Hale  from 
a  luxurious  life  in  London  and  a  quiet  par- 
sonage^  in  the  New  Forest,  imbued  with 
prejudices  against  trade  of  every  sort,  to  a 
humble  home  in  a  murky,  cotton-spinning 
town.  Here  she  is  brought  into  contact  with 
the  workers  and  with  the  employers,  at  a  time 
of  conflict  between  them,  and  particularly 
with  John  Thornton,  a  stubborn,  hard-headed 
leader  of  the  masters.  In  spite  of  her  un- 
palatable advocacy  of  a  more  sympathetic 
attitude  towards  the  men,  he  is  fascinated  by 
her  beauty  and  proud  bearing.  The  courage 
with  which  she  exposes  herself  to  protect  him 
from  a  dangerous  mob  of  strikers  leads  him, 
from  a  misunderstanding  of  her  motives,  to 
propose  to  her,  and  he  is  deeply  hurt  by  her 
contemptuous  rejection.  An  incident  occurs 
to  increase  the  estrangement.  Thornton  sees 
Margaret  under  equivocal  circumstances 
with  an  unknown  man  (in  fact  her  brother), 
and  her  denial  (for  the  purpose  of  screening 
her  brother,  who  is  in  danger  of  arrest)  in- 
tensifies Thornton's  suspicions.  Margaret 
now  discovers,  from  her  unhappiness  at  being 
degraded  in  Thornton's  estimation,  that  she 
loves  him.  It  is  only  after  much  suffering  on 
both  sides,  when  misfortunes  have  come  on 
Thornton  and  he  has  learnt  the  need  of  more 
humane  relations  between  masters  and  men, 
that  the  misunderstanding  is  cleared  up,  and 
the  two  are  brought  together. 

North  Briton,  The,  a  weekly  political  periodi- 
cal founded  in  1762  by  Wilkes  (q.v.),  in 
opposition  to  'The  Briton*,  which  Smollett 
was  conducting  in  the  interests  of  Lord  Bute. 
In  this  venture  Wilkes  was  assisted  by 
Charles  Churchill  (q.v.),  the  author  of  the 
'Rosciad'.  The  'North  Briton*  purports 
ironically  to  be  edited  by  a  Scotsman,  who 
rejoices  in  Lord  Bute's  success  and  the 
ousting  of  the  English  from  power.  Wilkes's 
attacks  on  the  government  grew  bolder,  and  in 
No.  45  of  'The  North  Briton',  in  an  article  on 
the  speech  from  the  throne,  he  exposed  him- 
self to  prosecution  for  libel.  Though  Wilkes 
was  discharged  on  the  ground  of  privilege, 
'The  North  Briton*  was  suppressed.  It  was 
revived  later,  but  was  no  longer  of  importance. 

North  Star  State,  Minnesota,  see  United 
States. 

Northanger  Abbey,  a  novel  by  J.  Austen 
(q.v.),  begun  in  1798,  prepared  for  the  press 
in  1803,  but  not  published  until  1818,  when 
it  appeared  with  'Persuasion'.  The  origin  of 
the  story  is  the  desire  to  ridicule  tales  of 
romance  and  terror  such  as  Mrs.  Radcliffe's 
'Mysteries  of  Udolpho*  and  to  contrast  with 
these  life  as  it  really  is. 

Catherine  Morland,  the  daughter  of  a  well- 


NORTHERN  FARMER 

to-do  clergyman,  is  taken  to  Bath  for  the  sea- 
son by  her  friends,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Allen.  Here 
she  makes  the  acquaintance  of  Henry  Tilney, 
the  son  of  the  eccentric  General  Tilney,  and 
his  pleasant  sister  Eleanor.  Catherine  falls  in 
love  with  Henry,  and  has  the  good  fortune  to 
obtain  his  father's  approval,  founded  upon  an 
exaggerated  report  of  her  parents*  wealth 
given  him  by  the  crazy  young  fop,  John 
Thorpe,  brother  of  Catherine's  friend,  Isa- 
bella. Catherine  is  invited  to  Northanger 
Abbey,  the  medieval  seat  of  the  Tilney s. 
Somewhat  unbalanced  by  assiduous  reading 
of  Mrs.  Radcliffe's  novels,  Catherine  here 
conjures  up  a  gruesome  mystery  in  which 
she  persuades  ^  herself  that  General  Tilney 
is  criminally  involved,  and  suffers  severe 
humiliation  when  her  suspicions  are  dis- 
covered. Presently  General  Tilney,  having 
received  from  John  Thorpe  a  report  as  mis- 
leading as  the  first,  representing  Catherine's 
parents  as  in  an  extremely  humble  situation, 
packs  her  off  back  to  her  family,  and  for- 
bids Henry  to  have  any  further  thought  of 
her.  Henry,  disobeying  his  father,  follows 
Catherine  to  her  home,  proposes,  and  is 
accepted.  General  Tilney's  consent  is  before 
long  obtained,  when  he  discovers  the  true 
situation  of  Catherine's  family  and  is  put  in 
good  humour  by  the  marriage  of  his  own 
daughter  to  a  peer. 

The  main  plot  is  complicated  by  a  flirta- 
tion between  Captain  Tilney,  Henry's  elder 
brother,  and  the  vulgar  Isabella  Thorpe,  who 
is  engaged  to  marry  Catherine's  brother;  the 
consequent  rupture  of  the  engagement  and  of 
the  friendship  between  Catherine  and  Isa- 
bella; and  the  latter's  failure  to  secure  Cap- 
tain Tilney,  who  has  formed  a  just  estimate 
of  Isabella's  character,  and  pays  his  attentions 
in  a  spirit  of  mischief. 

NORTHGLIFFE,  ALFRED  CHARLES 
WILLIAM  HARMSWORTH,VISCOUNT 
(1865-1922),  born  in  Dublin,  his  father 
belonging  to  a  Hampshire  family,  laid  the 
foundation  of  his  career  as  a  newspaper 
proprietor  by  starting  in  1888  'Answers 
to  Correspondents',  which,  as  'Answers', 
and  with  other  weekly  periodicals  owned 
by  him  and  his  brother  Harold  (now 
Lord  Rothermere),  became  extremely  popu- 
lar. In  1894  the  brothers  acquired  the 
'Evening  News',  and  in  1896  Alfred  started 
the  'Daily  Mail',  a  halfpenny  morning  paper, 
the  pioneer  of  a  new  phase  of  journalism, 
which  was  followed  in  1903  by  the  illustrated 
'Daily  Mirror*.  In  1905  Alfred  Harmsworth 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  and  in  1908  ac- 
quired the  control  of  "The  Times',  which 
he  retained  for  some  years.  Through  the 
influence  which  his  newspapers  exerted, 
Northcliffe  t<?ok  an  important  part  in  the 
Great  War ;  and  in  1 9 1 8  was  appointed  to  have 
charge  of  propaganda  in  foreign  countries. 

Northern  Farmer,  The  ('Old  Style*  and  'New 
Style'),  two  poems  in  Lincolnshire  dialect  by 
A.  Tennyson  (q.v.). 


[5-57] 


NORTHERN  LASSE 

Northern  Lasse,  The,  a  comedy  by  Brome 
(q.v.),  printed  in  1632. 

This  is  the  earliest  of  Brome's  extant  plays, 
and  was  very  popular.  Sir  Philip  Luckless  is 
about  to  marry  the  rich  city  widow,  Fitchow, 
when  he  receives  a  letter  from  Constance,  the 
'northern  lass',  reminding  him  of  her  love  for 
him.  Mistaking  the  writer  for  another  Con- 
stance of  a  less  reputable  character,  he  disre- 
gards the  letter  and  marries  the  widow,  only 
to  discover  his  mistake  too  late.  The  play  is 
occupied  with  the  devices  by  which  the 
widow  is  induced  to  agree  to  a  divorce,  while 
her  foolish  brother,  whom  she  tries  to  marry 
to  Constance,  is  fobbed  off  with  an  inferior 
substitute,  and  Luckless  and  the  true  Con- 
stance are  united. 

Northward  Hoe,  a  comedy  by  Webster  and 
Dekker  (qq.v.),  printed  in  1607. 

Greenshield,  having  failed  to  seduce 
Mayberry's  wife,  but  having  obtained  by 
force  her  ring,  to  avenge  himself  produces 
the  ring  to  her  husband  as  evidence  of  her 
infidelity.  The  husband,  assisted  by  the  little 
old  poet  Bellamont,  a  genial  caricature  of 
Chapman,  becomes  convinced  of  her  inno- 
cence, and  obtains  an  appropriate  revenge  on 
Greenshield  and  his  confederate  Featherstone. 

The  play  was  a  good-humoured  retort  to 
the  'Eastward  Hoe'  (q.v.)  of  Chapman, 
Jonson,  and  Marston.  Like  'Westward  Hoe* 
(q.v.)  it  presents  a  curious  picture  of  the 
manners  of  the  day. 

Noith-West  Passage,  a  passage  for  ships 
round  the  north  coast  of  the  American 
continent  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
which  it  was  long  the  object  of  Arctic  ex- 
plorers to  discover.  When  found,  as  the 
result  of  the  explorations  of  Franklin,  Parry, 
and  McClure,  it  proved  of  no  practical  utility. 
Norton,  CHARLES  ELIOT  (1827-1908),  pro- 
fessor of  Fine  Arts  at  Harvard  University, 
made  only  small  contributions  to  literature, 
but  was  an  intellectual  leader  of  great  in- 
fluence in  America.  His  aim  was,  in  his  own 
words,  to  arouse  in  his  countrymen  'the  sense 
of  connection  with  the  past  and  gratitude  for 
the  effort  and  labours  of  other  nations  and 
former  generations*.  Norton  was  joint-editor 
of  the  'North  American  Review',  1864-8. 
Norumbega,  a  region  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  North  America,  variously  shown  in  i6th- 
and  I7th-cent.  maps.  It  is  mentioned,  with 
'the  Samoed  shore',  by  Milton,  'Paradise 
Lost*,  x.  696. 

Norvai,  see  Douglas  (the  tragedy). 
Norway,  MAID  OF,  see  Maid  of  Norway. 
Nosey,  a  nickname  applied  to  Oliver  Crom- 
well, the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  others. 
Nosey  Parker,  a  nickname  for  one  who  is 
excessively  inquisitive  about  other  people's 
business. 

Nostradamus  (1503-66),  a  Provencal  astro- 
loger, whose  prophecies,  published  under 
the  name  of  'Centuries',  had  an  extensive 


NOVUM  ORGANUM 

vogue.  Catherine  de  Me*dicis  brought  him  to 
her  court,  and  he  was  physician  to  Charles  IX. 
There  is  an  allusion  to  him  in  the  opening 
scene  of  Goethe's  'Faust'. 

Notes  and  Queries,  a  periodical  founded  in 
1849  by  Thorns  (q.v.),  designed  to  furnish  a 
means  for  the  interchange  of  thought  and 
information  among  those  engaged  in  litera- 
ture, art,  and  science,  and  a  medium  of 
communication  with  each  other.  Its  motto 
was  (until  1923)  Captain's  Cuttle's  cWhen 
found,  make  a  note  of. 

Notions  of  the  Americans,  by  J.  F. 
Cooper  (q.v.),  published  in  1828,  was  an 
attempt  upon  the  author's  part  to  explain 
his  countrymen  to  Europeans. 

Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  the  cathedral  church 
of  Paris.  Also  the  title  of  a  romance  by 
Victor  Hugo,  in  which  he  depicts  the  Paris 
of  the  time  of  Louis  XL 

Notre  Dame  des  Amours,  a  name  given  by 
Horace  Walpole  to  Ninon  de  Lenclos  (see 
Lenclos). 

Notus,  the  classic  name  for  the  south  wind, 
synonymous  with  Auster. 

Nonreddin,  see  Nur-ed-Din. 
Nourjahad,  the  subject  of  a  romance  by 
Mrs.  F.  Sheridan  (q.v.),  a  sleeper  who  awakes 
every  fifty  years. 

Nourmahal,  (i)  the  empress  in  Dryden's 
'Aureng-Zebe'  (q.v.);  (2)  the  wife  of  the 
emperor  Selim,  in  'The  Light  of  the  Harem', 
one  of  the  tales  in  Moore's  'Lalla  Rookh9 
(q.v.). 

Nouronihar,  a  character  in  Beckford's 
'Vathek'  (q.v.). 

Nous    avons    change"    tout    cela,    see 

Sganarelle. 

Nouvelle  Heloise,  La,  see  Rousseau. 
Nova  Scotia,  see  Acadia. 

Nova  Solyma,  the  ideal  city;  or,  Jerusalem 
Regained',  an  anonymous  Latin  romance 
written  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.  It  contains 
a  notable  scheme  of  education,  and  has  been 
attributed  to  Milton,  but  is  probably  by 
Samuel  Gott. 

NOVALIS,  pseudonym  of  Hardenberg 
(q.v.). 

Novels    by   Eminent   Hands,    see    Prize 

Novelists. 

Novum  Organum,  a  philosophical  treatise  in 
Latin  by  Francis  Bacon  (q.v.),  published  in 
1620. 

The  ambition  of  Bacon  was  to  extend  to  the 
utmost  the  dominion  of  man  over  nature 
by  means  of  knowledge.  The  *Novum  Or- 
ganum'  describes,  in  a  series  of  aphorisms,  the 
method  by  which  knowledge  was  to  be  uni- 
versalized. It  may  be  very  briefly  summar- 
ized as  follows. 

Experience  is  the  source,  and  induction  is 


[558] 


NOYAU 

the  method,  of  knowledge.  The  syllogism, 
the  instrument  of  the  deductive  method, 
based  on  abstractions  which  may  be  hasty  or 
confused,  'is  no  match  for  the  subtlety  of 
nature'.  The  rational  processes  of  the  mind 
must  be  applied  to  the  fruits  of  experience  by 
the  method  of  induction.  But  the  mind  is 
subject  to  defects,  which  Bacon  picturesquely 
classifies  under  four  heads  or  'Idols*,  that  is 
false  images  of  the  mind,  which  vitiate  know- 
ledge, (i)  Idols  of  the^  Tribe  (Idola  tribus), 
which  have  their  origin  in  human  nature 
itself,  e.g.  the  tendency  to  observe  instances 
favourable  to  a  preconceived  opinion.  (2) 
Idols  of  the^  Cave  (Idola  specus),  originating 
in  the  peculiar  constitution  and  circumstances 
of  the  individual.  (3)  Idols  of  the  Market- 
place (Idola  /on),  verbal  fictions  and  con- 
fusions which  have  crept  into  the  understand- 
ing as  a  result  of  the  association  of  men  with 
one  another.  (4)  Idols  of  the  Theatre  (Idola 
theatri)t  received  into  the  mind  from 
philosophical  systems,  which  like  so  many 
stage-plays  represent  worlds  of  their  own 
creation  after  an  unreal  and  scenic  fashion. 
This  analysis  of  the  sources  of  error  leads  to 
the  'just  and  methodical  process'  of  inter- 
preting nature  by  three  inductive  methods, 
which  correspond,  in  some  sort,  to  Mill's 
methods  of  Agreement,  of  Difference,  and  of 
Concomitant  Variations. 

This  procedure  of  investigation  is  to  be 
applied  to  the  facts^ of  nature.  Bacon  claimed 
only  to  have  provided  the  'machine*.  Like 
an  image  at  a  cross-roads  'he  points  the  way 
but  cannot  go  it*.  But  although  his  method 
was  defective  owing  to  his  neglect  of  hypo- 
thesis and  rejection  of  the  deductive  method, 
and  in  practice  useless  for  purposes  of  scientific 
discovery,  his  principles  of  investigation  were 
correct,  and  gave  a  great  impulse  to  experi- 
mental science. 

An  important  part  in  Bacon's  system  is 
played  by  his  doctrine  of  'Forms*.  'Of  a 
given  nature  to  discover  the  form  ...  is  the 
work  and  aim  of  human  knowledge.*  The 
'form*  is  what  differentiates  one  thing  from 
another,  its  essential  being,  the  very  thing 
itself,  differing  from  it  only  as  the  real  differs 
from  the  apparent.  These  'forms*  constitute 
the  'alphabet  of  nature',  out  of  the  manifold 
combinations  of  whose  letters  all  the  variety 
of  its  phenomena  may  be  explained.  Bacon 
here  shows  how  incompletely  he  had  broken 
with  Scholasticism.  'The  position  of  Bacon*, 
Fowler  remarks,  is  'midway  between  Scho- 
lasticism, on  the  one  side,  and  Modern 
Philosophy  and  Science,  on  the  other.* 

The  title  'Novum  Organum*,  meaning 
'new  instrument*,  is  taken  from  the  Greek 
word  'organon*,  which  was  applied  to  the 
logical  treatises  of  Aristotle. 

Noyau,  a  liqueur  made  of  brandy  flavoured 
with  the  kernel  of  certain  fruits. 

This  cherry-bounce,  this  loved  Noyau, 
My  drink  for  ever  be. 

(Canning,  'The  Rovers'.) 


NYMPHIDIA 

Nubbles,  MRS.  and  KIT,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'The  Old  Curiosity  Shop*  (q.v.). 
Numa,  the  legendary  second  king  of  Rome, 
successor  to  Romulus,  and  revered  as  the 
founder  of  the  Roman  religious  system.  See 
also  Egeria* 

Nun  of  Gander sfieim,  see  Hrotsvitha. 

Nun  of  Kent,  see  Barton. 

Nun's  Priest's  Tale,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 

Nupkins,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
Tickwick  Papers'  (q.v.). 

Nur-ed-Din  and  Shems-ed-Din,  in  the 
'Arabian  Nights*  (q.v.)  were  two  brothers, 
sons  of  a  vizier  of  the  sultan  of  Cairo.  The 
son  of  Nur-ed-Din,  Hasan  Bedr-ed-Din,  was, 
by  the  interposition  of  a  jinn,  married  to  Sitt- 
el-Hosn,  the  daughter  of  Shems-ed-Din,  in 
place  of  an  ugly  hunchback,  her  destined 
bridegroom,  and  then  miraculously  borne 
away  to  Damascus,  where  he  was  ultimately 
found  plying  the  trade  of  pastry-cook,  and 
restored  to  his  bride.  He  was  discovered 
owing  to  his  skill  in  making  a  confection  of 
pomegranate  grains  (or  according  to  another 
version  cream-tarts  without  pepper  in  them). 
There  was  a  real  Nur-ed-Din,  sultan  of 
Aleppo  and  later  of  Damascus  (1154),  the 
most  politic  and  dangerous  enemy  of  the 
Christian  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  before  Sala- 
din.  He  died  in  1174. 

Nut-Brown  Maid,  The,  a  i5th-cent.  poem, 
in  praise  of  woman's  fidelity.  The  lover,  to 
prove  the  Maid,  tells  her  that  he  must  to  the 
greenwood  go,  'alone,  a  banyshed  man'  and 
live  the  life  of  an  outlaw.  She  declares  her 
intention  of  accompanying  him,  nor  can  be 
dissuaded  by  the  prospect  of  hardships  and 
humiliations.  The  lover  finally  reveals  his 
deceit  and  that  he  is  an  earFs  son  'and  not  a 
banyshed  man*.  The  poem  is  included  in 
Percy's  'Reliques*.  It  is  the  foundation  of 
Prior's  'Henry  and  Emma*  (see  Prior). 

Nutmeg  State,  Connecticut,  see  United 
States. 

Nym,  in  Shakespeare's  'Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor*  and  'Henry  V  (qq.v.),  a  follower 
of  Falstaff,  a  corporal  and  an  amusing  rogue 
and  thief. 

Nymphidia,  a  fairy  poem  by  Drayton  (q.v.), 
which  appeared  in  1627. 

Nymphidia,  a  fairy  attendant  on  Queen 
Mab,  reports  to  the  poet  the  doings  at  the 
fairy  court.  It  appears  that  Pigwiggin  has 
fallen  in  love  with  Mab  and  made  an  assigna- 
tion to  meet  her  in  a  cowslip.  The  queen  in 
her  snail-shell  coach,  and  the  maids  of  honour 
hurrying  after  her  on  a  grasshopper  and 
shrouded  with  a  spider's  web,  set  off  for  the 
cowslip.  King  Oberon,  roused  to  frenzy  by 
the  loss  of  his  queen,  and  armed  with  an 
acorn  cup,  goes  in  pursuit,  belabouring 
whomsoever  he  finds,  and  meeting  with 
mortifying  adventures.  He  comes  upon  the 
faithful  Puck  (or  Hobgoblin)  and  sends  him 


[5593 


NYMPHS 

to  continue  the  search.  Meanwhile  Pigwiggin 
sends  a  challenge  to  Oberon,  and  a  combat 
ensues  between  the  two,  mounted  on  earwigs. 
Proserpina,  goddess  of  fairyland,  intervenes, 
with  mist  and  Lethe  water,  and  restores 
harmony. 

Nymphs,  minor  female  deities  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  who  saw  some  divine 
agent  in  mountains,  springs,  rivers,  and  trees. 
The  water  nymphs  were  the  OCEANIDES  (the 
daughters  of  Oceanus,  nymphs  of  the  Ocean), 
NEREIDS  (nymphs  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea), 
and  NAIADS  (nymphs  of  lakes,  rivers,  and 
fountains).  The  OREADS  were  nymphs  of  the 
mountains.  The  DRYADS  and  HAMADRYADS 


OBERMANN 

were  nymphs  of  trees.  They  had  no  temples, 
but  were  honoured  with  gifts  of  milk,  honey, 
fruit,  &c.,  and  sometimes  the  sacrifice  of  a 
goat. 

NYREN,  JOHN  (1764-1837),  a  famous  early 
cricketer  and  cricket  chronicler.  He  belonged 
to  the  Hambledon.  Club  (q.v.),  and  was  a  left- 
handed  batsman  of  average  ability  and  a  fine 
field  at  point  and  mid-wicket.  His  recol- 
lections were  published  in  'The  Young 
Cricketer's  Tutor*  (edited  by  Charles  Cowden 
Clark,  1833,  and  E.  V.  Lucas,  1907).  Andrew 
Lang  (in  the  'Badminton  Library*)  described 
him  as  the  'delightful  Herodotus  of  the  Early 
Historic  Period  of  cricket*. 


o 


O,  GIOTTO'S,  see  Giotto's  O. 
O.  HENRY,  pseudonym  of  William  Sydney 
Porter  (1862-1910),  an  American  writer  of 
southern  origin  and  small  education,  who  had 
a  chequered  career,  including  a  period  of 
enforced  leisure  in  prison.    During  this  he 
applied  himself  to  writing  short  stories,  be- 
ginning with  'Whistling  Dick's   Christmas 
Stocking*  (1899),  which  enjoyed  great  popu- 
larity on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 
O.P.,  'opposite  the  prompter's  side'  of  the 
stage  in  a  theatre ;  that  is,  the  right-hand  side 
(when  facing  the  auditorium). 
O.P.  Club,  'Old  Playgoers'  Club'. 
O.P.  ('old  prices')  Riots,  the  demonstra- 
tions at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  London, 
in  1809,  against  the  proposed  new  tariff  of 
prices. 
o.p.,  in  booksellers'  catalogues,  eout  of  print'. 

O  *s  of  Advent,  the  seven  Advent  anthems 
sung  on  the  days  next  preceding  Christmas 
Eve,  each  containing  a  separate  invocation 
to  Christ  beginning  with  O. 

Oak,  GABRIEL,  a  character  in  Thomas 
Hardy's  'Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd* 
(q.v.). 

Oak-apple  Day,  29  May,  the  anniversary 
of  the  restoration  of  Charles  II,  when  oak- 
apples  or  oak-leaves  are  worn  in  memory  of 
his  hiding  in  the  oak  at  Boscobel  (q.v.)  on 
6  Sept.  1651. 

Oaks,  THE,  a  race  for  three-year-old  fillies, 
run  at  Epsom  on  the  Friday  after  the  Derby, 
founded  in  1779  by  the  earl  of  Derby. 

Oannes,  in  Babylonian  mythology,  a  god 
with  the  head  of  a  man  and  the  body  of  a 
fish,  who  appeared  from  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
gave  the  Babylonians  their  civilization. 
Oates,  TITUS  (1649-1705),  the  fabricator  of 
the  Popish  Plot  (1678),  figures  in  Scott's 
'Peveril  of  the  Peak*  (q.v.).  He  is  the  'Corah* 
of  Dryden's  'Absalom  and  Achitophel*  (q.v.). 


Obadiah,  in  the  O.T.  is  (i)  the  minister  of 
Ahab  who  protected  the  prophets  of  the  Lord 
(i  Kings  scviii),  and  (2)  the  author  of  the 
prophetic  book  which  bears  his  name ;  (3)  in 
Sterne's  'Tristram  Shandy'  (q.v.),  a  servant 
of  Mr.  Walter  Shandy. 

Obadiah  Prim,  a  character  in  Mrs.  Cent- 
livre's  'A  Bold  Stroke  for  a  Wife'  (q.v.).  The 
word  Obadiah  is  sometimes  used  as  slang  for 
a  Quaker. 

Obeah  or  OBI,  a  pretended  sorcery  practised 
by  the  negroes  in  Africa  and  formerly  in  the 
West  Indies.  The  word  is  West  African  and 
signifies  a  thing  put  into  the  ground  to  act  as 
a  charm,  producing  sickness  or  death. 

Obelisk  or  OBELUS,  a  straight  horizontal 
stroke,  either  simple  or  with  a  dot  above  and 
below,  used  in  ancient  manuscripts  to  indi- 
cate a  spurious  or  corrupt  word  or  passage. 
Hence  to  obelize.  In  modern  use  the  word 
obelisk  is  applied  to  the  mark  f  used  in 
printing  for  reference  to  footnotes,  &c.  It  is 
derived  from  the  diminutive  of  Gr.  ojSeAos-, 
a  spit,  and  is  used  also  of  the  tapering  shafts 
of  stone  which  are  a  characteristic  monument 
of  ancient  Egypt. 

Oberammergau,  a  village  in  Upper  Ba- 
varia, noted  for  the  performances  there, 
every  tenth  year,  of  the  Passion  Play.  These 
performances  are  said  to  have  had  their  origin 
in  a  vow  taken  by  the  villagers  in  1633  in 
order  to  stay  an  epidemic  of  the  plague.  The 
text  of  the  play  was  probably  written  by 
the  monks  of  the  neighbouring  monastery 
ofEttal. 

Obermannt  a  psychological  romance  by 
Etienne  Pivert  de  S£nancour  (1770-1846), 
French  novelist,  describing  the  sentimental 
speculations  and  aspirations  of  a  melancholy 
egoist.  Matthew  Arnold  (q.v.),  in  his  'Stan- 
zas in  Memory*  of  its  author,  compares  its 
message  with  that  of  Wordsworth  and 
Goethe.  See  also  M.  Arnold's  'Obermann 
once  more*  the  last  of  his  published  poems. 


[56o] 


OBERON 

OberoB,    in    Sliatespeare's     'Midsummer 
Night's  Dream3  (q.v.),  the  king  of  the  Fairies 
and  husband  of  Titania;  also  the  hero  of 
Gluck's  opera  of  that  name. 
Obi,  see  Obeah. 

Obidicut,  in  Shakespeare's  'King  Lear',  v.  i, 
the  fiend  of  lust,  one  of  the  five  that  harassed 
*poor  Tom'. 

Obol,  OBOLUS,  a  small  coin  of  ancient  Greece, 
worth  about  i%d.  (see  Charon).  In  the  Middle 
Ages  there  were  c&oli  of  gold,   silver,  and 
copper,  current  in,  Europe.    (For  'Belisarius 
asking  for  an  obol',  see  Belisarius.) 
O'Brallaghan,  SIR  CALLAGHAN,  a  character 
in  'Love  a  la  Mode*  by  Macklin  (q.v.). 
O'Brien,  TERENCE,  a  character  in  Marryat's 
'Peter  Simple*  (q.v.). 

Obscuromm  Virorum,  Epistolae,  see  Episto- 
lae  Obscurorum  Virorum. 
Observants  or  OBSERVANTINES,  Franciscan 
friars  of  the  strict  rule,  as  restored  at  the 
beginning  of  the  i^th  cent. 
Observations  on  Man,  his  Frame,  Duty,  and 
Expectations,  see  Hartley. 
Observations  on  the  Present  State  of  the 
Nation,  see  Present  State  of  the  Nation. 
Observator,  The,  see  UEstrange.  The  title 
was  also  adopted  in  1702  by  John  Tutchin 
for  his  Whig  periodical. 
Observer,  The,  a  Sunday  paper  founded  in 
1792  by  William  Clement.   It  added  greatly 
to  its  popularity  1>y  the  early  adoption  of 
wood  engraving  to  illustrate  sensational  in- 
cidents. A  Londoa  paper,  still  in  existence. 
OCCAM,  and  OCCAM'S  RAZOR,  see  Ockham. 

OCCLEVE  01  HOCCLEVE,  THOMAS 
(i37o?-i45o?),  was  for  many  years  a  clerk  in 
the  office  of  the  Privy  Seal.  His  principal 
work,  *De  Regimine  Principum*,  written 
c.  1411-12,  edited  by  Thomas  Wright,  1860, 
is  an  English  version  in  rhyme-royal  of  a 
Latin  treatise  by  Aegidius  (a  disciple  of  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas)  on  the  duty  of  a  ruler, 
addressed  to  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales.  The 
proem  of  2,000  lines  contains  a  eulogy  of 
Chaucer  and  other  interesting  material.  In 
1406  he  wrote  a  curious  autobiographical 
poem  'La  Male  Regie',  in  which  he  petitions 
for  payment  of  his  salary,  and  confesses 
to  various  mean  vices.  He  also  wrote  two 
verse-stories  from  the  'Gesta  Romanorum*, 
a  manly  'Ars  Sciendi  Mori*,  a  'Complaint* 
and  a  'Dialogue'  containing  autobiographical 
matter,  and  some  shorter  poems. 
Oceana,  see  Froude  (J.  A.). 
Oceana,  The  Commonwealth  of,  a  political 
romance  by  James  Harington  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1656. 

The  work  depicts  the  author's  conception 
of  an  ideal  government,  'Oceana'  being  Eng- 
land. At  the  head  of  the  state  is  a  prince  or 
Archon,  elected  like  all  the  other  magistrates 
by  the  people,  who  live  in  a  state  of  freedom 
and  equality,  and  detestation  of  war.  Pro- 

3868  [56 


OCTAVO 

perry  in  land  is  limited,  'so  that  no  one  man 
or  number  of  men  . . .  can  come  to  overpower 
the  whole  people'.  The  senate  debate  and 
propose,  the  people  resolve,  the  magistracy 
execute.  None  the  less  there  is  room  for  a 
prince  as  leader,  and  for  a  gentry.  The 
scheme  is  in  contrast  to  that  of  Hobbes's 
'Leviathan*,  published  a  few  years  previously. 
Oceanus,  according  to  the  oldest  Greek 
legends,  the  god  of  the  ocean  that  was  sup- 
posed to  encircle  the  earth.  Homer  makes 
him  the  father  of  the  gods  and  the  origin  of 
the  universe;  Hesiod  makes  him  the  son  of 
Heaven  and  Earth,  the  husband  of  Tethys, 
and  the  father  of  the  rivers  and  water-nymphs. 

Ocbiltree,  EDIE,  a  character  in  Scott's  'The 
Antiquary'  (q.v.). 

OCKHAM  or  OCCAM,  WILLIAM  (d. 
1349?),  'Doctor  invincibilis*,  studied  at  Ox- 
ford, became  a  Franciscan,  and  graduated 
in  Paris.  He  entered  into  the  Franciscan 
controversy  concerning  poverty,  and  defended 
against  Pope  John  XXII  the  doctrine  of 
'Evangelical  poverty'.  He  was  imprisoned 
at  Avignon  on  a  charge  of  heresy  (1328),  but 
escaped  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  at 
the  Franciscan  house  at  Munich,  where  he 
died  and  was  buried. 

His  principal  importance  lies  in  his  philo- 
sophical work.  He  condemned  the  doctrine 
of  Realism  without  accepting  the  extrava- 
gances of  Nominalism.  The  real  is  always 
individual,  not  universal.  The  realists  had 
abstracted  the  common  or  universal  element 
from  individual  things,  and  attributed  to  it  a 
higher  degree  of  reality  than  to  those  individual 
things.  But  this  universal  is  quoddam  fictum, 
a  'term*  or  'sign*,  not  a  'thing*,  and  'entities 
must  not  be  unnecessarily  multiplied*  (a 
principle  known  as  Occam's  razor).  This 
concept  nevertheless  has  importance,  and  the 
duty  of  science  is  to  investigate  the  real 
likenesses  between  individual  things.  He 
thus  approaches  the  point  of  view  of  Roger 
Bacon.  Instead  of  reasoning  from  universal 
premisses,  received  from  authority,  we  must 
generalize  from  experience  of  the  natural 
order,  the  doctrine  which  we  find  advocated 
later  by  F.  Bacon,  Hobbes,  and  Berkeley. 
Ocnus,  in  Roman  fable,  a  man  remarkable 
for  his  industry,  who  had  a  wife  remarkable 
for  her  prodigality.  He  is  represented  as 
twisting  a  rope,  which  an  ass  standing  by 
eats  up  as  fast  as  he  makes  it;  whence  the 
CORD  OF  OCNUS,  proverbial  for  wasted  labour. 
O'CONNOR,  RT.  HON.  THOMAS  POWER 
(1848-1929),  M.P.  and  founder  and  first 
editor  of  'The  Star',  'The  Sun*,  &c.;  author 
of  a  life  of  Beaconsfield,  &c. 
Octavia,  (Octavianus)  Caesar's  half-sister 
and  Mark  Antony*s  wife,  figures  in 
Shakespeare's  'Antony  and  Cleopatra*  and 
Dryden's  'All  for  Love*  (qq.v.). 
Octavo,  the  size  of  a  book  in  which  the 
sheets  are  so  folded  that  each  leaf  is  one- 
eighth  of  a  whole  sheet. 

i]  oo 


OCTOBER  CLUB 

October  Club,  THE,  a  club  of  Tory  mem- 
bers of  parliament  of  Queen  Anne's  time, 
who  met  at  the  Bell  (afterwards  the  Crown) 
in  King  Street,  Westminster,  to  drink  October 
ale,  'consult  affairs  and  drive  things  on  to 
extremes  against  the  Whigs*  (Swift,  Letter 
of  10  Feb.  1710-11). 

Octopus,  The,  a  novel  by  F.  Norris  (q.v.). 
Octosyllabic,  consisting  of  eight  syllables, 
usually  applied  to  the  eight-syllabled  rhym- 
ing iambic  metre  of,  e.g.,  'The  Lady  of  the 
Lake'. 

Od  or  ODYL,  a  hypothetical  force,  held  by 
Baron  von  Reichenbach  (1788-1869)  to  per- 
vade all  nature,  manifesting  itself  in  certain 
persons  of  sensitive  temperament  (streaming 
from  their  finger-tips)  and  exhibited  especi- 
ally by  magnets,  heat,  light,  &c.  It  has  been 
held  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  mesmerism 
and  animal  magnetism.  [OED.] 

Ode,  in  ancient  literature,  a  poem  intended 
or  adapted  to  be  sung;  in  modem  use,  a 
rhymed  (rarely  unrhymed)  lyric,  often  in  the 
form  of  an  address,  generally  dignified  or 
exalted  in  subject,  feeling  and  style,  but 
sometimes  (in  earlier  use)  simple  and 
familiar  (though  less  so  than  a  song).  [OED.] 

Ode  on  a  Grecian  Urn,  see  Keats. 
Ode  to  Evening,  see  Collins  (William), 
Ode  to  the  West  Wind,  see  Shelley. 
Odhaerir  or  ODHROERIR,  in  Scandinavian 
mythology,    a    golden    mead,    symbolizing 
poetry,  a  gift  of  Odin  to  gods  and  men,  made 
from  the  blood  of  Kvasir,  a  wise  man  killed 
by  the  dwarfs. 

Odin,  the  Norse  form  of  the  Old  English 
Woden  (whence  our  'Wednesday'),  in 
northern  mythology  the  supreme  god  and 
creator ;  also  the  god  of  the  atmosphere,  of  the 
infernal  regions,  of  wisdom,  and  of  eloquence. 
He  is  the  son  of  Bor,  the  husband  of  Frigg, 
and  the  father  of  Thor,  Balder,  and  H5dr 
(qq.v.).  He  obtained  wisdom  by  drinking 
from  the  well  of  Mimer  (q.v.),  sacrificing  an 
eye  for  the  purpose.  He  has  a  horse  called 
SLEIPNIR,  a  magic  ring  called  DRAUPNIR,  his 
abode  is  GLADSHEIM,  and  he  is  attended  by 
two  black  ravens  HUGIN  and  MUNIN  (thought 
and  memory).  See  the  first  of  Carlyle's  'Lec- 
tures on  Heroes*,  'The  Hero  as  Divinity*. 
Odoric,  FRIAR,  see  Cathay. 

O'Dowd,   MAJOR,   MRS.,   and   GLORVINA, 
characters  in  Thackeray's  'Vanity  Fair'  (q.v.). 
Odyl,  see  Od. 
Odysseus,  see  Ulysses. 
Odyssey,  The,  a  Greek  epic  poem  attributed 
to  Homer  (q.v.),  describing  the  adventures  of 
Odysseus  in  the  course  of  his  return  from  the 
Trojan  War  to  his  kingdom  of  Ithaca  (see 
Ulysses). 

Oedipus,  son  of  Laius,  king  of  Thebes,  and 
Jocasta,  daughter  of  Creon,  king  of  Corinth. 


OFFENBACH 

His  father  was  informed  by  an  oracle  that  he 
must  perish  at  his  son's  hands,  and  conse- 
quently ordered  the  destruction  of  the  child. 
Oedipus  was  exposed,  hung  to  a  tree  by  a 
twig  passed  through  his  feet  (whence  his 
name,  'swollen-foot'),  but  was  rescued  by  a 
shepherd.  In  ignorance  of  his  parentage, 
Oedipus  later  slew  Laius  his  father,  and 
having  solved  the  riddle  of  the  Sphinx  (q.v.), 
obtained  Jocasta,  his  mother,  for  his  wife,  by 
whom  he  had  two  sons,  Polyneices  and 
Eteocles,  and  two  daughters,  Ismene  and 
Antigone.  Having  discovered  the  facts  of  his 
parentage,  Oedipus,  in  horror  at  his  crimes, 
put  out  his  own  eyes,  while  Jocasta  hanged 
herself.  He  retired,  led  by  his  daughter 
Antigone,  to  Colonos  in  Attica,  where  he 
died.  The  story  of  Oedipus  is  the  theme 
of  tragedies  by  Sophocles  (q.v.).  For  'Davus 
sum,  non  Oedipus'  see  Davus. 
Oedipus  complex,  in  the  psycho-analysis 
of  Freud  (q.v.),  a  manifestation  of  infantile 
sexuality  in  the  relations  of  the  child  to  its 
parents. 

(Eil-de~bceuf  (bull's-eye),  an  octagonal 
antechamber  in  the  palace  of  Versailles, 
lighted  by  a  small  round  window,  where  the 
courtiers  assembled  before  entering  the  royal 
presence. 

Oenomaus,  see  Pelops. 
Oen5ne,  a  nymph  of  Mt.  Ida,  who  became 
enamoured  of  the  youthful  shepherd,  Paris 
(q.v.),  before  he  was  known  to  be  the  son 
of  Priam,  and  lived  with  him  in  great 
happiness.  Having  the  gift  of  prophecy,  she 
foretold  to  him  the  disasters  which  would 
ensue  from  his  voyage  into  Greece,  and  that 
he  should  have  recourse  to  her  knowledge  of 
medicine  at  the  hour  of  death.  When  Paris 
had  received  his  fatal  wound,  he  had  himself 
carried  to  Oenone,  but  too  late  for  her  to  cure 
him.  Oenone  in  despair  took  her  own  life. 
The  story  of  Oenone  is  the  theme  of  'The 
Death  of  Paris*  in  Morris's  'The  Earthly 
Paradise*  (q.v.),  and  of  two  poems  by  A. 
Tennyson,  'Oenone'  and  'The  Death  of 
Oenone'. 

Oeta,  MT.,  a  branch  of  Mt.  Pindus  in 
Thessaly,  on  which  Hercules  erected  his  own 
funeral  pyre.  Spenser  calls  Hercules  'that 
great  CEtean  knight'  ('Faerie  Queene', 
vm.  ii.  4). 

Oexmelin,  see  Esquemeling. 
Offa's  Dyke,  an  entrenchment  running  from 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Wye  to  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Dee,  built  (or  repaired)  by  Offa,  king 
of  Mercia  (757-95),  for  defence  against  the 
Welsh.  This  line  is  still  roughly  the  border 
line  between  England  and  Wales. 
Offenbach,  JACQUES  (1819-80),  bom  at 
Cologne,  the  son  of  a  Jew,  the  'creator  of 
French  burlesque  opera*,  a  composer  of 
sprightly  humorous  music  which  has  en- 
joyed great  popularity.  His  best-known 
operas  are  'Orphe*e  aux  Enfers*  and  'The 
Tales  of  Hoffmann*. 


[562] 


OFFICE 

Office,  THE  HOLY,  see  Inquisition. 
Og,  in  Dryden's  'Absalom  and  Achitophel' 
(q.v.),  represents  Thomas  Shadwell  (q.v,),  in 
allusion  to  his  stoutness  (Deut.  iii.  n). 
Ogham  or  OGAM,  an  alphabet  of  twenty 
characters  used  ^  by  the  ancient  British  and 
Irish,  and  consisting  of  strokes  upright  or 
sloping,  and  dots,  in  various  numbers; 
adapted  to,  and  only  used  for  inscriptions  on 
stone  or  wood.  The  alphabet  is  traditionally 
attributed  to  a  mythical  inventor  OGMA. 
There  was  a  Gaulish  deity  OGMIOS,  who 
presided  over  language  and  eloquence. 
Ogier  the  Dane,  a  hero  of  the  Charlemagne 
cycle  of  legends,  identified  with  a  Frankish 
warrior  Autgarius  who  fought  against  Charle- 
magne and  then  submitted  to  him.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Charlemagne  romances  he  is 
hostage  for  his  father  Gaufrey  of  'Danne- 
march*  at  Charlemagne's  court.  He  gains  the 
emperor's  favour  by  his  exploits  in  Italy.  His 
son  having  been  killed  by  the  son  of  Charle- 
magne in  a  quarrel,  Ogier  in  a  fury  kills  the 
queen's  nephew,  and  would  have  killed  the 
king  himself  but  for  the  intervention  of  his 
knights.  Ogier  flies  and  is  besieged,  and  at 
last  imprisoned.  He  is  released  to  fight  the 
Saracen  chiefs,  and  recovers  favour  by  his 
success.  He  marries  an  English  princess 
and  receives  from  Charlemagne  the  fiefs  of 
Hainaut  and  Brabant.  When  over  a  hundred 
years  old,  according  to  another  legend,  he 
was  rejuvenated  by  the  fairy  Morgana,  who 
retained  him  in  her  palace  of  oblivion  for  two 
hundred  years,  after  which  he  reappeared  for 
a  time  at  the  court  of  France ;  but,  when  on  the 
point  of  marrying  the  widowed  queen  of  that 
country,  was  snatched  away  again  by  Mor- 
gana. Ogier  is  included  in  some  of  the  lists  of 
Charlemagne's  paladins  (q.v.).  It  is  doubtful 
whether  he  had  anything  to  do  with  Den- 
mark, 'Dannemarch*  signifying  perhaps  the 
marches  of  the  Ardennes.  None  the  less,  as 
Holger  Danske,  he  became  the  subject  of 
Danish  folk-song  and  a  Danish  national  hero, 
who  fought  with  the  German  Dietrich  of 
Bern  (q.v.). 

OGILBY,  JOHN  (i  600-76),  ^  author  >  and 
printer,  published  verse  translations  of  Virgil, 
'Aesop's  Fables',  and  Homer,  with  plates  by 
Hollar;  and  'Road  Books  of  England  and 
Wales',  constantly  re-edited  till  they  faded 
into  Mogg's  'Road  Books'. 
Ogre,  a  man-eating  monster  of  fairy-tale, 
usually  represented  as  a  hideous  giant.  The 
origin  of  the  word  is  unknown.  It  is  said 
[OED.]  to  be  first  used  by  Perrault  (q.v.)  in 
his  'Contes',  but  Hatzfeld  and  Darmesteter 
give  a* quotation  of  1527  containing  the  word. 

Og^gla,  the  mythical  island  of  Calypso. 
Odysseus  ('Od.*  vii)  sailed  seventeen  days 
eastward  from  it,  with  a  favouring  breeze, 
before  he  came  to  Scheria,  which  was  at  the 
extreme  western  part  of  the  earth;  so  that 
Ogygia  must  be  conceived  as  being  far  out  in 
the  Atlantic,  like  the  Fortunate  Isles  (q.v.). 


OLD  BACHELOR 

Oisin,  the  legendary  Gaelic  warrior,  son  of 
Finn,  also  known  as  Ossian  (q.v.).  His 
wanderings  are  the  subject  of  a  poem  by 
Yeats  (q.v.). 

Okba,  the  magician  in  Southey's  'Thalaba* 
(q.v.). 

O'KEEFE  or  O'KEEFFE,  JOHN  (1747- 
1833),  actor  and  dramatist,  produced  his 
'Tony  Lumpkin  in  Town*  in  1778,  after  which 
he  wrote  some  fifty  comic  and  musical  pieces. 
Of  these  the  best  known  are  'Wild  Oats* 
(1791)  and  'The  Castle  of  Andalusia'  (1782). 
He  was  the  author  of  the  famous  song  *I  am 
a  Friar  of  Orders  Grey*  (in  his  opera  'Merry 
Sherwood'). 

Olaf,  ST.,  son  of  King  Harald  Grenske, 
was  king  of  Norway,  1015—28.  In  his  youth 
he  is  said  to  have  gone  to  England  as  an  ally 
of  ^thelred.  The  'Heimsknngla*  (q.v.)  re- 
lates how  his  fleet,  sailing  up  the  Thames, 
was  stopped  by  a  bridge,  between  London  and 
Southwark,  which  the  Norsemen  attacked 
and  pulled  down.  Like  his  cousin  and  pre- 
decessor, Olaf  Trygvesson,  St.  Olaf  was  active 
in  the  diffusion  of  Christianity  in  his  kingdom. 
He  was  expelled  from  Norway  by  Canute  in 
1028,  and,  returning  in  1030,  met  the  rebels 
at  Stiklestad,  where  he  fell  mortally  wounded. 
Among  the  churches  in  London  dedicated  to 
St.  Olave,  that  in  Tooley  Street,  Southwark, 
is  probably  a  survival  of  a  Danish  settlement 
(G.  R,  Stirling  Taylor).  Tooley  Street  itself 
preserves,  in  a  corrupt  form,  Olaf  s  name. 

Olaf  Trygvesson,  king  of  Norway,  995- 
1000,  not  to  be  confused  with  Olaf  Haraldson 
(St.  Olaf,  q.v.).  He  invaded  England,  and 
with  Svend  (or  Sweyn)  of  Denmark  attacked 
London  in  994.  According  to  the  'Heims- 
kringla*  (q.v.)  he  harried  the  coast  from 
Northumberland  to  Scilly,  where  he  was  con- 
verted to  Christianity.  He  deposed  Hakon  the 
Bad  and  became  king  of  Norway  in  his  stead 
in  995,  and  introduced  Christianity  into  his 
realm  by  forcible  methods.  He  was  defeated 
and  killed  in  1000  by  the  kings  of  Denmark 
and  Sweden,  aided  by  his  disaffected  sub- 
jects. The  story  of  his  last  great  sea-fight,  of 
the  capture  of  his  ship  the  'Long  Worm',  and 
of  his  leap  to  death  in  the  sea,  makes  one  of 
the  most  stirring  narratives  in  the  'Heims- 
kringla*.  He  is  described  as  a  man  of  sur- 
passing strength  and  nimbleness,  who  could 
walk  outboard  along  the  oars  of  the  'Worm* 
while  his  men  were  rowing. 

OLAUS  MAGNUS  (1490-1558),  Swedish 
ecclesiastic  and  historian,  was  archbishop  of 
Upsala.  After  the  triumph  of  the  Reformed 
Faith  in  Sweden,  he  settled  at  Rome  in  1527, 
where  he  lived  most  of  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  His  'Historia  de  Gentibus  Septentriona- 
libus*  (1555)  contains  interesting  information 
on  the  early  Norsemen. 
Olcott,  COLONEL  H.  S.,  see  Tkeosophy. 

Old  Bachelor,  The,  the  first  comedy  of  Con- 
greve,  produced  in  1693. 


[563] 


OO  2 


OLD  BUCCANEER 

The  'Old  Bachelor*  is  Heartwell,  'a  surly 
old  pretended  woman-hater*,  who  falls  in  love 
with  Silvia,  not  knowing  her  to  be  the  for- 
saken mistress  of  Vainlove,  and  is  inveigled 
into  marrying  her,  only  discovering  her  true 
character  afterwards,  from  the  gibes  of  his 
acquaintances.  The  parson  who  has  been 
brought  in  to  marry  them,  however,  is  in  fact 
Vainlove's  friend  Belmour,  who  has  assumed 
the  disguise  for  the  purpose  of  an  intrigue 
with  Laetitia,  the  young  wife  of  an  uxorious 
old  banker,  Fondlewife;  and  Heartwell  is 
relieved  to  discover  that  the  marriage  was  a 
pretence.  The  comedy  includes  the  amusing 
characters  of  Sir  Joseph  Wittol,  a  foolish 
knight,  who  allows  himself  to  be  really 
married  to  Silvia,  under  the  impression  that 
she  is  the  wealthy  Araminta;  andjbds  com- 
panion, the  cowardly  bully,  Captain  BlufTe, 
who  under  the  same  delusion  is  married  to 
Silvia's  maid.  The  success  of  the  play  was  in 
part  due  to  the  acting  of  Betterton  (q.v.)  and 
Mrs.  Bracegirdle  (q.v.). 
Old  Buccaneer,  THE,  Captain  John  Peter 
Kirby,  a  character  in  Meredith's  'The 
Amazing  Marriage*  (q.v.). 

Old  Cloak,  The,  an  anonymous  poem 
('Oxford  Book  of  Sixteenth- Century  Verse', 
No.  99). 

Old  Curiosity  Shop,  The,  a  novel  by  Dickens 
(q.v.),  published  as  a  separate  volume  in  1841. 
It  was  originally  intended  to  be  fitted  into  the 
framework  of  'Master  Humphrey's  Clock' 
( 1 840-1),  and  Master  Humphrey  is,  in  fact,  the 
narrator  of  the  first  few  chapters.  But  this 
idea  was  soon  abandoned. 

Little  Nell  (Trent)  lives  in  the  gloomy  at- 
mosphere of  lie  old  curiosity  shop  kept  by 
her  grandfather,  whom  she  tends  with  devo- 
tion. Reduced  to  poverty  by  a  spendthrift 
son-in-law,  and  his  remaining  means  drained 
by  Nell's  profligate  brother  Fred,  he  has 
borrowed  money  from  Daniel  Quilp,  a 
hideous  dwarf  and  a  monster  of  iniquity,  and 
this  money  he  secretly  expends  in  gambling, 
in  tibe  vain  hope  of  retrieving  his  fortunes,  for 
Little  Nell's  sake.  Quilp,  who  believes  him  a 
rich  miser,  at  last  discovers  where  the  bor- 
rowed money  has  gone,  and  seizes  the  shop. 
The  old  man  and  the  child  flee  and  wander 
about  the  country,  suffering  great  hardships, 
and  haunted  by  the  fear  of  being  discovered 
by  Quilp,  who  pursues  them  with  unremitting 
hatred.  They  at  last  find  a  haven  in  a  cottage 
by  a  country  church,  which  they  are  appointed 
to  look  after.  The  grandfather's  brother,  re- 
turning from  abroad,  and  anxious  to  relieve 
their  needs,  has  great  difficulty  in  tracing 
them.^  At  last  he  finds  them,  but  Nell,  worn 
out  with  her  troubles,  has  just  died,  and  the 
grandfather  soon  follows  her. 

The  novel  contains  a  number  of  well- 
known  characters.  Besides  the  loathsome  and 
grotesque  Quilp  (who  is  drowned  when  on 
the  point  of  being  arrested  for  felony),  there 
are  his  associates,  the  attorney  Sampson  Brass 
and  his  grim  sister  Sally;  the  honest  lad  Kit 


OLD  MORTALITY 

Nubbles,  devoted  to  Little  Nell,  who  incurs 
the  hatred  of  Quilp,  and  is  nearly  transported 
through  his  machinations;  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Garland,  the  kindly  old  couple  who  befriend 
Kit;  Dick  Swiveller,  the  disreputable  facetious 
friend  of  Fred  Trent,  placed  by  Quilp  for  his 
own  purposes  as  clerk  to  Brass;  cthe  Mar- 
chioness', the  half- starved  drudge  in  the  Brass 
household  (she  marries  Dick  in  the  end); 
Codlin  and  Short,  the  Punch  and  Judy  men, 
whom  Little  Nell  and  her  grandfather  accom- 
pany for  a  time  in  their  wanderings ;  and  Mrs. 
Jarley,  of  the  wax- works. 
Old  Dominion,  Virginia,  see  United  States. 
Old  English,  see  English. 
Old  English  Baron,  The,  see  Reeve. 

Old  Fortunatus t  a  comedy  by  Dekker  (q.v.), 
published  in  1600,  based  on  a  story  contained 
in  the  German  'Volksbuch*  of  1509  and 
dramatized  by  Hans  Sachs  in  1553. 

The  beggar  Fortunatus,  encountering 
Fortune,  is  offered  the  choice  between  wis- 
dom, strength,  health,  beauty,  long  life,  and 
riches,  and  chooses  the  last.  He  receives  a 
purse  from  which  he  can  at  any  time  draw 
ten  pieces  of  gold.  He  goes  on  his  travels,  in 
the  course  of  which  he  secures  the  marvellous 
bat  of  the  Soldan  of  Turkey,  which  trans- 
ports the  wearer  wherever  he  wishes  to  go. 
But  at  the  height  of  his  success  Fortune  steps 
in  and  puts  an  end  to  his  life.  His  son 
Andelocia,  refusing  to  take  warning  by  his 
father's  fate,  and  equipped  with  the  purse  and 
hat,  goes  through  a  series  of  adventures  at  the 
court  of  Athelstane,  is  finally  deprived  of 
his  talismans  and  meets  a  miserable  death. 

The  character  of  Orleans,  the  'frantic 
lover*  of  Athelstane's  daughter,  has  been 
much  praised  by  Charles  Lamb. 

Old  Glory,  the  flag  of  the  United  States. 
Old  Hickory,  a  nickname  of  Andrew  John- 
son, President  of  the  United  States  1829-37, 
from  his  toughness  of  character. 
Old  Lady  of  Threadneedle  Street,  THE, 
see  Threadneedle  Street. 
Old   Line   State,   Maryland,    see    United 
States. 

Old  Man  Eloquent,  THAT,  Socrates  (q.v.), 
so  called  by  Milton  in  his  sonnet  to  the  Lady 
Margaret  Ley. 

Old  Man  of  the  Mountains,  see  Assassin. 
Old  Man  of  the  Sea,  see  Sindbad. 
OLD  MOORE,  Francis  Moore  (1657-1715), 
physician,  astrologer,  and  schoolmaster,  who 
in   1699  published  an   almanac  containing 
weather  predictions  in  order  to  promote  the 
sale  of  his  pills.    In  1700  appeared  his  'Vox 
Stellarum,  an  Almanac  for  1701  with  Astro- 
logical Observations'.  There  are  now  several 
almanacs  called  *Old  Moore',  and  the  pre- 
dictions range  far  beyond  the  weather. 
Old  Mortality,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.), 
published  in  1816  (first  series  of  the  'Tales  of 
My  Landlord'). 


[564] 


OLD  NICK 

The  title  is  taken  from  the  nickname  of  a 
certain  Robert  Paterson,  who  towards  the  end 
of  the  1 8th  cent,  wandered  about  Scotland 
cleaning  and  repairing  the  tombs  of  the 
Cameronians,  a  sect  of  strict  Covenanters 
who  took  up  arms  for  their  religious  opinions 
in  the  reign  of  James  II.  The  story  is  based 
on  the  anecdotes  told  by  this  supporter  of 
their  cause,  and  covers  the  period  from  the 
military  operations  undertaken  against  them 
in  1679,  under  the  command  of  John 
Grahame  of  Claverhouse,  to  the  more  peace- 
ful days  of  religious  toleration  introduced  by 
William  III.  It  is  particularly  concerned 
with  the  fortunes  of  Henry  Morton  of  Miln- 
wood,  a  young  man  of  courage  and  high 
character,  and  a  moderate  Presbyterian,  who, 
at  the  outset  of  the  tale,  is  arrested  by  the 
dragoons  of  Claverhouse  for  having  harboured 
an  old  friend  of  his  father,  the  fanatical 
Covenanter,  JohnBalfour  of  Burley,  not  know- 
ing that  this  man  had  just  taken  part  in  the 
assassination  of  the  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews. 
Morton  narrowly  escapes  immediate  execu- 
tion, and  this  act  of  oppression,  coupled  with 
a  sense  of  his  countrymen's  sufferings,  in- 
duces him  to  throw  in  his  lot  with  the 
Covenanters,  who  have  taken  up  arms  for  the 
cause  of  religious  freedom,  little  as  he  shares 
their  extreme  religious  opinions.  He  ac- 
cordingly becomes  one  of  their  leaders.  This 
brings  him  into  violent  antagonism  with  Lady 
Margaret  Bellenden,  the  Royalist  owner  of 
Tillietudlem  Castle,  with  whose  grand- 
daughter Edith  he  is  in  love.  It  is  to  the 
latter's  intervention  with  Lord  Evandale,  one 
of  Claverhouse's  officers  and  Morton's  rival 
for  the  hand  of  Edith,  that  Morton  owes  his 
life  when  first  brought  before  Claverhouse. 
This  act  of  generosity  on  Evandale's  part  is 
repaid  by  Morton  at  the  skirmish  of  Drum- 
clog,  and  again  when  the  rebel  forces  under 
Burley  have  almost  reduced  Tillietudlem  to 
surrender  andhave  captured  EvandaleJiimself . 
Morton  thus  retains  his  place  in  Edith's  heart. 
But  the  final  defeat  of  the  Covenanters  at 
Bothwell  Bridge,  and  his  own  capture  and 
banishment,  sever  him  for  years  from  Edith, 
who  believes  him  dead;  and  she  is  on  the 
point  of  yielding  to  the  patient  suit  of  Evan- 
dale,  when  Morton,  after  the  accession  of 
William  III,  returns  to  England,  and  his 
arrival  puts  an  end  to  the  preparations  for 
Edith's  marriage.  Evandale,  in  spite  of  the 
efforts  of  Morton  to  save  him,  is  killed  in 
a  skirmish  with  a  few  fanatics,  and  Morton 
marries  Edith.  The  story  includes  an  interest- 
ing study  of  the  character  of  Claverhouse 
and  a  vivid  picture  of  the  follies  to  which 
religious  enthusiasm  carried  the  Covenanters. 

Old  Nick,  the  Devil,  where  Nick  is  probably 
the  familiar  abbreviation  of  Nicholas,  though 
the  reason  for  the  appellation  is  obscure. 
The  earliest  occurrence  of  the  expression 
quoted  in  the  OED.  is  1643.  Brewer  suggests 
as  origin  Nickel,  the  German  mischievous 
demon  of  the  mines. 


OLD  WIVES1  TALE 

Old  Parr,  see  Parr  (T.\ 

Old  Pretender,  THE,  James  Francis  Ed- 
ward Stuart  (1688-1766),  son  of  James  II 
and  Mary  of  Modena.  He  was  popularly,  but 
erroneously,  believed  to  be  a  supposititious 
child.  He  served  with  the  French  army  and 
distinguished  himself  at  Oudenarde  (1708) 
and  Malplaquet  (1709).  He  took  a  part  in 
the  unsuccessful  rising  in  Scotland  of  1715, 
and  gave  money  for  the  rising  of  1745. 
He  is  buried  in  St.  Peter's,  Rome. 

Old  Q,  the  nickname  of  William  Douglas, 
third  earl  of  March  and  fourth  duke  of 
Queensberry  (1724-1810),  a  friend  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales,,  notorious  for  his  escapades 
and  dissolute  life,  much  interested  in  horse- 
racing.  He  was  satirized  by  Burns,  and  is  the 
'degenerate  Douglas*  of  Wordsworth's  sonnet. 

Old  Rowley,  see  Rowley  (Old). 

Old  Style,  see  Calendar. 

Old  Uncle  Tom  Cobbleigh,   and   all, 

see  Widdicorribe  Fair, 

Old  Vic,  THE,  a  theatre  in  the  Waterloo 
Bridge  Road,  London,  opened  in  1818  as  the 
*Royal  Coburg*,  shortly  after  the  building  of 
Waterloo  Bridge.  The  foundation-stone  was 
laid  by  the  Prince  of  Saxe- Coburg,  the  hus- 
band of  Princess  Charlotte,  daughter  of  the 
Regent.  It  was  renamed,  the  'Victoria'  in 
1833.  Before  long  it  declined  into  a  music- 
hall  with  a  promenade.  It  was  started  afresh 
in  1880  on  more  respectable  lines.  Miss 
Lilian  Baylis  became  manager  in  1912,  and 
made  it  famous  by  her  notable  productions  of 
Shakespeare  plays. 

Old  Wives*  Tale,  The,  a  play  in  prose  by 
Peele  (q.v.),  published  in  1595. 

The  play  is  a  satire  on  the  romantic  dramas 
of  the  time,  the  first  English  work  of  this 
kind.  Two  brothers  are  searching  for  their 
sister  Delia,  who  is  held  captive  by  the 
magician  Sacrapant.  The  brothers  also  fall 
into  his  hands.  They  are  all  rescued  by  the 
knight  Eumenides  aided  by  Jack's  Ghost,  who 
is  impelled  by  motives  of  gratitude,  because 
the  knight  had  borne  the  expense  of  Jack's 
funeral. 

Old  Wives'  Tale,  The,  a  novel  by  E.  A. 
Bennett  (q.v.),  published  in  1908. 

It  is  the  long  chronicle  of  the  lives  of 
two  sisters,  Constance  and  Sophia  Baines, 
daughters  of  a  draper  of  Bursley  (Burslem, 
one  of  the  'Five  Towns',  q.v.),  from  their 
ardent  girlhood,  through  disillusionment, 
to  death.  The  drab  life  of  the  draper's 
shop,  its  trivial  incidents,  are  made  inter- 
esting and  important.  Constance,  a  staid 
and  sensible  young  woman,  marries  the  esti- 
mable and  superficially  insignificant  Samuel 
Povey,  the  chief  assistant  in  the  shop, 
and  spends  all  her  life  in  Bursley.  The 
more  passionate  and  imaginative  Sophia 
elopes  with  the  fascinating  Gerald  Scales,  a 
commercial  traveller  who  has  come  into  a 
fortune.  He  is  an  unprincipled  blackguard. 


[565] 


OLDBUCK 

has  to  be  forced  to  marry  her,  carries  her  to 
Paris,  where  she  is  exposed  to  indignities,  and 
finally  deserts  her.  She  struggles  to  success 
as  a  lodging-house  keeper  in  Paris,  where  she 
lives  through  the  siege  of  1870.  The  sisters 
are  reunited,  and  spend  their  last  years 
together  in  Bursley. 

Oldbuck,  JONATHAN,  Laird  of  Monkbarns* 
the  principal  character  in  Sir  W.  Scott's  'The 
Antiquary*  (q.v.).  Miss  GRISELDA  ('GRIZZY') 
OLDBUCK  is  his  sister. 

Oldcastle,  The  First  Part  of  Sir  John,  a  play 
published  in  1600,  of  unknown  authorship, 
included  in  the  3rd  and  4th  Shakespeare 
folios,  but  certainly  not  by  him.. 

It  deals  with  the  proceedings  in  Henry  V's 
reign  against  Sir  John  Oldcastle  (q.v.),  as  the 
chief  supporter  of  the  Lollards* 

Oldcastle,  SIR  JOHN  (d.  1417),  Lord  Cob- 
ham  in  right  of  his  wife,  a  leader  of  the 
Lollards  (q.v.),  after  heterodox  declarations 
of  faith,  was  declared  a  heretic  in  1414  and 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower.  He  escaped,  was 
outlawed,  captured  near  Welshpool,  and 
*hung  and  burnt  hanging'  in  St.  Giles's 
Fields. 

Oldfield,  ANNE  (1683-1730),  an  actress  who 
excelled  both  in  tragedy  and  comedy.  She 
first  made  her  mark  as  Lady  Betty  Modish 
in  Colley  Gibber's  'The  Careless  Husband* 
(q.v.),  but  her  best  parts  are  said  to  have  been 
Cleopatra,  Calista  (in  Rowe's  'Fair  Penitent', 
q.v.),  and  Lady  Townly  (in  Gibber's  'The 
Provok'd  Husband',  q.v.).  She  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  beneath  Congreve's 
monument.  She  is  the  cNarcissa'  of  Pope's 
'Moral  Essays*. 

OLDHAM,  JOHN  (1653-83),  educated  at 
St.  Edmund's  Hall,  Oxford,  published 
several  Pindaric  odes,  but  is  chiefly  remem- 
bered for  his  ironical  'Satire  against  Virtue* 
and  'Satires  against  the  Jesuits*  (1681).  He 
also  wrote  imitations  of  Horace,  Bion,  Mos- 
chus,  and  Boileau.  His  'Poems  and  Transla- 
tions' were  collected  in  1683.  Scott  ('Waver- 
ley')  speaks  of  him  as  'the  English  Juvenal*. 
Dryden  addressed  some  beautiful  lines  to  his 
memory. 

OLDMIXON,  JOHN  (1673-1742),  a  Whig 
historian  and  pamphleteer,  published  *The 
British  Empire  in  America*  (1708),  *The 
Secret  History  of  Europe*  (1713-15),  and 
histories  of  England  during  the  Stuart  reigns 
(1729)  and  those  of  William  III,  Anne,  and 
George  I  (1735-9).  By  his  'Essay  on  Criti- 
cism*, prefixed  to  the  third  edition  (i  737)  of  his 
'Critical  History  of  England*  (1724-6),  he 
incurred  the  hostility  of  Pope,  who  pilloried 
him  in  the  'Dunciad'  and  the  'Art  of  Sinking 
in  Poetry*. 

OLDYS,  WILLIAM  (1696-1761),  antiquary, 
and  editor  of  the  'Harleian  Miscellany*  (q.v.). 
He  wrote  a  'Life  of  Sir  Walter  Ralegh*  and 
contributed  many  biographies  to  the  'Bio- 
graphia  Britannica*.  He  was  also  author  of 
one  well-known  poem,  'Busy,  curious, 


OLIPHANT 

thirsty  fly!'  ('Oxford  Book  of  English  Verse', 

No.  438).  He  was  relieved  from  poverty  and 

the  Fleet  prison  by  being  appointed  Norroy 

king-of-arms. 

Olindo,  the  lover  of  Sophronia  in  Tasso's 

'Jerusalem  Delivered'  (q.v.). 

OLIPHANT,  LAURENCE  (1829-88),  was 
born  at  Capetown  of  Scottish  descent,  and 
after  a  desultory  education  and  extensive 
travels  with  his  parents,  became  a  barrister  in 
Ceylon,  where  his  father  was  chief  justice.  He 
published  a  'Journey  to  Khatmandu*  (in 
Nepal)  in  1852,  and  'The  Russian  Shores  of 
the  Black  Sea'  in  1853.  In  1853-4  he  was 
secretary  to  Lord  Elgin  at  Washington  and  in 
Canada,  and  then  accompanied  Lord  Strat- 
ford de  Redcliffe  to  the  Crimea.  He  acted 
as  correspondent  to  'The  Times'  in  Circassia 
during  the  war.  He  next  accompanied  Lord 
Elgin  to  China  as  private  secretary,  and  in 
1859  published  a  'Narrative  of  a  Mission  to 
China  in  1857-8-9'.  He  is  then  heard  of  as 
plotting  with  Garibaldi  in  Italy,  as  secretary 
of  legation  in  Japan,  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  He  was  'Times'  correspondent  during 
the  Franco-German  War.  His  satirical  novel, 
'Piccadilly',  which  had  appeared  in  'Black- 
wood*  in  1865,  was  republished  in  1870.  In 
1867  he  had  come  under  the  subjection  of  the 
American  'prophet*,  Thomas  Lake  Harris,  to 
whom  he  surrendered  his  property  at  Broc- 
ton,  and  by  whom  he  was  commercially 
employed  in  America,  an  experience  which 
led  to  the  publication,  in  1876,  of  'The  Auto- 
biography of  a  Joint- Stock  Company',  ex- 
posing the  methods  of  American  financiers. 
Oliphant  had  married  Miss  L'Estrange  in 
1872,  and  with  her  wrote  the  strange 
*Syrnpneumata*  (1885),  a  work  which  they 
believed  to  have  been  dictated  by  a  spirit.  He 
wrote  his  novel  'Altiora  Peto'^iSSs)  and 
several  mystical  works  at  Haifa  in  Palestine, 
where,  with  his  second  wife,  he  founded  a 
community  of  Jewish  immigrants.  His  many 
experiences  provided  materials  for  'Episodes 
of  a  Life  of  Adventure*  which  appeared  in 
1887,  not  long  before  his  death.  His  'Life* 
was  written  by  Margaret  Oliphant  (q.v.). 

OLIPHANT,  MARGARET  OLIPHANT 
(1838-97),  nee  Wilson,  married  her  cousin, 
Francis  William  Oliphant,  a  painter  and 
designer  of  stained  glass.  She  published 
many  novels,  of  which  the  best  known  are 
the  'Chronicles  of  Carlingford*,  issued  anony- 
mously between  1863  and  1876,  including 
'Salem  Chapel',  'The  Perpetual  Curate',  'The 
Rector*,  'Miss  Marjoribanks',  and  'Phoebe 
Junior*.  Of  these  the  best  are  'Salem  Chapel' 
(which  depicts  the  narrow  and  intolerant  piety 
of  a  dissenting  community)  and  'Miss  Mar- 
joribanks* (the  story  of  the  social  ambitions 
of  a  young  lady,  told  with  genial  humour). 
In  'A  Beleaguered  City*  (1880)  and  *A  Little 
Pilgrim  of  the  Unseen'  (1882),  Mrs.  Oliphant 
introduces  a  supernatural  element.  She 
wrote  a  number  of  stories  of  which  Scotland 
is  the  scene,  beginning  with  'Passages  in  the 


[566] 


OLIVANT 

Life  of  Mrs.  Maitland'  (1849),  and  including 
*Kirsteen'  (1890).  She  also  published  lives  of 
Edward  Irving  (1862)  and  Laurence  Oliphant 
(1892),  'Makers  of  Florence'  (1888)  and 
'Makers  of  Venice'  (1889).  Her  'Annals  of  a 
Publishing  House:  William  Blackwood  and 
his  Sons'  appeared  in  1897.  Her  *  Auto- 
biography '_  (1899)  describes  her  efforts,  by 
her  voluminous  writings,  to  provide  for  the 
maintenance  and  education  of  her  own  and 
her  brother's  children. 

Olivant,  the  magic  horn  of  Orlando. 
Oliver,  in  the  Charlemagne  cycle  of  legends, 
is  the  son  of  Renier,  duke  of  Genoa.  He  is 
one  of  Charlemagne's  paladins  (q.v.),  the 
close  friend  of  Roland,  with  whom  he  has  a 
prolonged  and  undecided  single  combat  (the 
origin  of  their  comradeship,  see  Roland  for  an 
Oliver),  and  his  equal  in  bravery,  but  more 
prudent.  At  the  battle  of  Roncevaux  (see 
Roland)  he  urges  Roland  to  summon  help  by 
sounding  his  horn,  but  Roland  postpones 
doing  so  till  too  late.  His  sister,  Aude,  is 
betrothed  to  Roland. 

Oliver,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'As  You 
Like  It'  (q.v.). 

Oliver  Dain  (OLIVIER  LE  DAIN),  barber  and 
counsellor  of  Louis  XI ;  he  figures  in  Scott's 
'Quentin  Durward'  (q.v.). 

Oliver  Twist,  a  novel  by  Dickens  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1837-8. 

Oliver  Twist  is  the  name  given  to  a  child  of 
unknown  parentage  born  in  a  workhouse  and 
brought  up  under  the  cruel  conditions  to 
which  pauper  children  were  formerly  exposed, 
the  tyrant  at  whose  hands  he  especially  suffers 
being  Bumble,  the  parish  beadle.  After  ex- 
perience of  an  unhappy  apprenticeship,  he 
runs  away,  reaches  London,  and  falls  into  the 
hands  of  a  gang  of  thieves,  at  the  head  of 
which  is  the  old  Jew  Fagin,  and  whose  other 
chief  members  are  the  burglar,  IlilLSike,s,  his 
companion^  Nancy,  and  'the  Artful  Dodger*, 
arrimpudent  young  pickpocket.  Every  effort 
is  made  to  convert  Oliver  into  a  thief.  He  is 
temporarily  rescued  by  the  benevolent  Mr. 
Brownlow,  but  kidnapped  by  the  gang,  whose 
interest  in  his  retention  has  been  increased  by 
the  offers  of  a  sinister  person  named  Monks, 
who  has  a  special  interest,  presently  disclosed, 
in  Oliver's  perversion.  Oliver  is  now  made  to 
accompany  Bill  Sikes  on  a  burgling  expedi- 
tion, in  the  course  of  which  he  receives  a  gun- 
shot wound,  and  comes  into  the  hands  of 
Mrs.  Maylie  and  her  prote'ge'e  Rose,  by  whom 
he  is  kindly  treated  and  brought  up.  After  a 
time,  Nancy,  who  develops  some  redeeming 
traits,  reveals  to  Rose  that  Monks  is  aware  of 
Oliver's  parentage,  and  wishes  all  proof  of  it 
destroyed ;  also  that  there  is  some  relationship 
between  Oliver  and  Rose  herself.  Inquiry  is 
set  on  foot.  In  the  course  of  it  Nancy's 
action  is  discovered  by  the  gang,  and  she  is 
brutally  murdered  by  Bill  Sikes.  A  hue  and 
cry  is  raised;  Sikes,  trying  to  escape,  acci- 
dentally hangs  himself,  and  the  rest  of  the 


OLYMPUS 

gang  are  secured  and  Fagin  executed.  Monks, 
found  and  threatened  with  exposure,  con- 
fesses what  remains  unknown.  He  is  the  half- 
brother  of  Oliver,  and  has  pursued  his  ruin, 
animated  by  hatred  and  the  desire  to  retain 
the  whole  of  his  father's  property.  Rose  is  the 
sister  of  Oliver's  unfortunate  mother.  Oliver 
is  adopted  by  Mr.  Brownlow.  Monks 
emigrates  and  dies  in  prison.  Bumble  ends 
his  career  in  the  workhouse  over  which  he 
formerly  ruled. 

Olivia,  (i)  one  of  the  principal  characters  in 
Shakespeare's  'Twelfth  Night*  (q.v.);  (2)  a 
character  in  Wycherley's  'The  Plain  Dealer* 
(q.v.) ;  (3)  the  elder  daughter  of  Dr.  Primrose, 
in  Goldsmith's  'The  Vicar  of  WakenekT  (q.v.). 
Olney  Hymns,  see  Cowper. 

Olor  Iscanus,  a  collection  of  poems  by 
Vaughan  (q.v.),  published  in  1651,  but 
written  some  years  earlier.  The  poem  which 
gives  its  title  to  the  book  is  in  praise  of  the 
river  Usk. 

Olympia,  a  small  plain  in  Elis  in  the  north- 
west of  the  Peloponnese,  where  the  Olympic 
Games  (q.v.)  were  celebrated.  It  contained 
a  precinct  sacred  to  Zeus,  in  which  were 
temples  of  Zeus  and  Hera.  Here  stood  the 
famous  statue  of  the  Olympian  Zeus  by 
Pheidias  (see  under  Zeus),  and  here  was 
found  the  statue  of  Hermes  by  Praxiteles, 
now  in  the  museum  of  Olympia. 

Olympiad,  see  Olympic  Games. 

Olympian  Odes,  THE,of  Pindar  were  written 
to  celebrate  victories  at  the  Olympic  Games 
(q.v.),  while  the  Pythian  Odes  were  written 
in  honour  of  victories  at  the  Pythian  Games 
held  at  Delphi.  The  other  two  books  of 
Pindar's  odes  were  the  Nemeans  and  the 
Isthmians,  for  "die  Nemean  Games  (at  Nemea) 
and  the  Isthmian  Games  (at  the  Isthmus  of 
Corinth).  Tney  were  written  to  the  order 
of  any  victor  who  would  pay  for  them.  The 
four  groups  of  odes  are  known  together  as  the 
'Epinicia'. 
Olympian  Zeus,  THE  STATUE  OF,  see  Zeus* 

Olympic  Games,  THE,  were  held  every 
fourth  year  at  Olympia  in  Elis  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnese. Their  origin  is  lost  in  antiquity, 
but  legend  attributes  it  to  Hercules.  The 
intervals  of  four  years  between  the  successive 
celebrations  were  known  as  Olympiads  and 
were  reckoned  in  Greek  chronology  from  the 
year  776  B.C.,  when  Coroebus  won  the  foot- 
race. The  games  included  foot-races, 
wrestling,  boxing,  the  pancratium  (a  mixture 
of  boxing  and  wrestling),  the  chariot-race, 
and  the  horse-race.  The  Olympic  Games 
were  revived  in  1896,  on  an  international 
basis,  at  the  suggestion  of  Baron  Pierre  de 
Coubertin. 

Other  important  periodic  games  were  the 
Pythian  Games  of  the  Boeotians,  the  Nemaean 
Games   of  the  Argives,  and   the  Isthmian 
Games  of  the  Corinthians. 
Olympus,  a  lofty  mountain  standing  at  the 


[567] 


OLYSSIPO 

eastern  extremity  of  the  range  that  divided 
Greece  from  Macedonia,  on  the  Thermaic 
Gulf.  It  was  regarded  in  Greek  mythology 
as  the  home  of  the  gods,  who  met  in  conclave 
on  the  summit. 

The  MYSIAN  OLYMPUS  was  a  lofty  chain 
of  mountains  in  the  north-west  of  Asia 
Minor. 

Olyssipo,  in  imprints,  Lisbon. 
Om,  a  mystic  and  holy  word  in  Hindu 
religious  literature,  regarded  as  summing  up 
all  truth.  It  is  also  the  first  word  in  the 
Buddhist  formula  om  mani  padme  hum,  re- 
garded as  of  special  sanctity  and  potency,  and 
variously  translated. 

Omai,  a  native  of  Tahiti  (Otaheite)  who  was 
brought  to  England  by  Captain  Cook,  and 
returned  with  him  on  the  latter's  last  voyage. 
Omar,  the  second  caliph,  who  succeeded 
Abu-Bekr  in  634. 

Omar,  MOSQUE  OF,  or  'Dome  of  the  Rock', 
a  famous  mosque  on  the  platform^  of  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem.  It  was  originally  a 
Byzantine  church  (much  altered)  and  con- 
tains the  rock  on  which,  according  to  legend, 
Abraham  prepared  to  sacrifice  Isaac. 
Omar  Khayyam,  The  Rubdiydt  of,  a  transla- 
tion of  the  rubais  or  quatrains  of  the  Persian 
poet  of  that  name,  by  Edward  Fitzgerald 
(q.v.),  first  published  anonymously  in  1859 
(75  quatrains),  remodelled  and  enlarged  (no 
quatrains)  in  1868,  and  further  modified  and 
reduced  (101  quatrains)  in  1872  and  1879. 

Omar  Khayyam  ('Khayyam*  means  'tent- 
maker'),  an  astronomer  and  poet,  was  born  at 
Naishapur  in  Khorassan  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  nth  cent,  and  died  in  1123.  For  the 
story  of  his  relations  with  Nizam-ul-Mulk  and 
Hasan-i-Sabbah  (the  'Old  Man  of  the 
Mountain*),  see  Nizam-ul-Mulk.  The  origi- 
nal 'rubdiyat*  or  quatrains  are  independent 
stanzas,  of  which  the  form  is  reproduced  in 
the  translation ;  but  the  translator  has  woven 
them  together  in  a  connected  train  of  thought. 
The  stanzas  contain  the  poet's  meditations 
and  speculations  on  the  mysteries  of  exist- 
ence, and  his  counsel  to  drink  and  make 
merry  while  life  lasts. 

Ombre  (from  Spanish  hombre,  man),  a  card 
game  played  by  three  persons  with  forty  cards, 
the  combre'  being  the  player  who  undertakes 
to  win  the  pool.  The  game  was  very  popular 
in  the  I7th  and  iSth  cents.,  until  superseded 
by  quadrille.  It  figures  prominently  in  Pope's 
'The  Rape  of  the  Lock'  (q.v.). 
Ommiades,  see  Umayyads. 
Omnium,  DUKE  OF,  a  character  in  A.  Trol- 
lope's  *Dr.  Thome*  and  'Framley  Parsonage* 
(q.v.).  His  successor  in  the  title,  Plantagenet 
Palliser,  figures  in  the  'Phineas  Finn*  (q.v.) 
series  of  Trollope's  novels. 
OMNIUM,  JACOB,  see  Higgins. 
OmoOf  a  Narrative  of  Adventures  in  the 
South  Seas,  a  romance  by  Melville  (q,v.), 
published  in  1847. 


ONEIDA  COMMUNITY 

*Omoo*  is  a  continuation  of  the  adventures 
begun  in  'Typee*  (see  under  Melville).  The 
narrator  is  taken  off  (from  the  island  of 
Nukahura)  by  a  whaler,  the  crew  mostly 
desperadoes,  and  the  conditions  on  board 
abominable.  At  Papeetee  in  Tahiti  he  and 
some  other  malcontents  are  put  ashore 
and  sent  to  the  'calabooza',  where  they 
spend  some  weeks  in  the  custody  of  an  old 
native,  *  Cap  tain  Bob'.  The  narrator  and  a 
humorous  companion,  'Doctor  Long  Ghost', 
escape  and  live  a  wandering  life,  the  story  of 
their  experiences  furnishing  vivid  pictures  of 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  superficially 
converted  Polynesians,  and  including  a  visit 
to  the  court  of  Queen  Pomaree. 

Omphale,  a  queen  of  Lydia.  When  Her- 
cules (q.v.)  became  insane  after  the  murder  of 
Iphitus,  the  oracle  declared  that  he  would  be 
restored  to  health  if  he  served  as  a  slave  for 
three  years.  He  was  accordingly  sold,  and 
Omphale  bought  him.  Hercules  became 
enamoured  of  his  mistress  and  is  represented 
as  spinning  by  her  side  among  her  women, 
while  Omphale  wears  his  lion's  skin. 

On,  the  Hebrew  name  of  Heliopolis  in 
Egypt,  the  chief  seat  of  the  Egyptian  worship 
of  the  sun. 

One  of  our  Conquerors,  a  novel  by  G.  Mere- 
dith (q.v.),  published  in  1891. 

Victor  Radnor  has,  as  a  young  man, 
married  a  rich  elderly  widow  and  then  fallen 
in  love  with  her  young  companion  Natalia 
Dreightpn.  Victor  and  Natalia  have  defied 
convention  and  united  their  lives.  They  have 
a  daughter,  Nesta  Victoria,  attractive  and 
courageous,  who  presently  becomes  aware  of 
the  stain  on  her  birth.  The  novel  is  a  study 
of  the  resulting  situation :  Victor's  wife  pro- 
longing her  life  interminably;  a  constant 
threat  of  social  exposure  to  the  young  couple; 
Victor  optimistic,  energetic,  and  financially 
prosperous;  Natalia  timid  and  shrinking 
under  the  cloud  and  anxiety ;  Nesta  growing 
up,  with  several  suitors  around  her,  the  most 
eligible  being  the  Hon.  Dudley  Sowerby, 
heir  to  an  earldom.  The  discovery  of  the 
fact  of  Nesta's  illegitimate  birth  damps  his 
ardour  for  a  time.  Her  determined  be- 
friending of  Mrs.  Marsett,  the  frail  and 
notorious  but  not  depraved  mistress  of  a 
young  officer,  is  the  final  blow  to  their  pro- 
jected union,  as  it  is  the  source  of  deep 
affliction  to  her  mother.  Harassed  by  her 
anxieties  and  cares,  Natalia  at  this  crisis  dies, 
Victor's  wife  surviving  her  by  a  few  hours. 
Victor,  driven  insane  by  grief,  lives  a  few 
years  longer.  Nesta  marries  Dartrey  Fenel- 
lan,  a  man  with  a  juster  perception  than 
Sowerby  of  the  girl's  noble  qualities.  Daniel 
Skepsey,  Victor's  pugilistic  little  clerk,  is  an 
amusing  figure  in  the  story. 

Oneida  Community,  a  religious  society  also 
called  PERFECTIONISTS,  founded  in  1847  by 
John  H.  Noyes,  at  Oneida  Creek,  New  York 
State.  Its  principles  were  thoroughly  com- 


[568] 


O'NEILL 

munis  tic  ^  until,  in  1879,  in  deference  to 
public  opinion,  marriage  was  introduced. 
O'NEILL,  EUGENE  GLADSTONE 
(1888-  ),  American  dramatist.  His  works 
include  'Moon  of  the  Caribees'  (1919),  'The 
Emperor  Jones*  (1921),  'Anna  Christie* 
(1922),  and  'Strange  Interlude'  (1927). 

Oneiza,  in  Southey's  'Thalaba*  (q.v.),  the 

wife  of  Thalaba. 

Onesti,  NASTAGIO  DEGLI,  see  Theodore  and 

Honoria. 

Only  Way,  The,  a  play  adapted  by  F.  Wills 
from  Dickens's  'A  Tale  of  Two  Cities'  (1890). 
Onomatopoeia,  the  formation  of  a  word  by 
an  imitation  of  the  sound  associated  with  the 
object  or  action  designated;  as  'hurlyburly'. 

Open,  Sesame !  the  magic  formula  in  'AH 
Baba  and  the  Forty  Thieves'  (q.v.). 
Opera,  a  dramatic  performance  in  which 
music  forms  an  essential  part,  consisting  of 
recitatives,  arias,  and  choruses,  with  orches- 
tral accompaniment  and  scenery.  [OED.] 
It  was  first  adopted  in  Italy.  The  first 
English  work  that  may  be  called  an  opera 
was  D'Avenant's  'Siege  of  Rhodes'  (q.v.). 
Opera  Bouffe,  comic  opera,  especially  of  a 
farcical  character. 

Ophelia,  in  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet*  (q.v.). 
Ophir,  in  O.T.  geography,  the  place  from 
which  the  ships  of  King  Solomon  brought 
gold  and  precious  stones  (i  Kings  x.  n). 
It  has  been  variously  identified,  and  was 
probably  in  south-eastern  Arabia,  where  the 
tribes  trace  their  descent  to  Joktan  (cf.  Gen. 
x.  29 ;  Sayce,  'Races  of  the  O.T.*,  c.  iii) ;  per- 
haps Dhufar  (see  B.  Thomas,  'Aiabia  Felix*, 
1932). 

Ophiuchus,  cthe  Serpent-bearer',  a  northern 
constellation  in  ancient  astronomy. 

OPIE,  MBS.  AMELIA  (1769-1853),  ne'e 
Alderson,  wife  of  John  Opie  the  painter.  She 
was  a  novelist  and  poet,  and  intimate  with 
Sydney  Smith,  Sheridan,  and  Mme  de  Stael. 
Her  writings  include:  'Adeline  Mowbray' 
(suggested  by  the  story  of  Mary  Wollstone- 
craft,  1804),  'Simple  Tales'  (1806),  'Lays  for 
the  Dead'  (1833).  She  wrote  a  memoir  of  her 
husband  (1809). 

Opimian,  THE  REV.  DR.  THEOPHILUS,  a 
character  in  Peacock's  *Gryll  Grange*  (q.v.). 
(Opimianum  was  a  celebrated  wine  of  the  vin- 
tage of  A.U.C.  633=6.0.  lai,  when  Opimius 
was  consul.  Lewis  and  Short.) 
Opium  Eater,  Confessions  of  an  English,  see 
Confessions  of  an  English  Opium  Eater. 

Oppidan,  from  the  Latin  oppidum,  a  town; 
at  Eton  College,  a  student  not  on  the  founda- 
tion (who  boards  in  the  town  or  at  one  of 
the  assistant  masters*  houses),  distinguished 
from  a  Colleger.  Formerly  also  at  other  great 
schools. 

Ops,  a  Roman  goddess  of  fertility  and 
agriculture,  regarded  as  the  wife  of  Saturnus. 


ORCUS 

Oran  Haut-ton,  Sm,  the  amiable  orang- 
outang, a  character  in  Peacock's  'Melincourt* 
(q.v.). 

Orange,  a  name  applied  to  the  ultra- 
Protestant  party  in  Ireland,  in  reference  to  the 
secret  Association  of  Orangemen  formed  in 
1 795 .  The  exact  origin  of  this  use  of '  Orange* 
is  somewhat  obscure,  but  it  is  supposed  to  be 
due  to  the  fact  that  two  members  (by  name 
Cope)  of  the  'Orange  Lodge*  of  Freemasons 
existing  in  Belfast  in  1795  were  active  in 
organizing  the  Protestant  party,  who  were 
in  consequence  styled  'Orange  boys*.  The 
name  of  this  'Orange  Lodge*  probably  had 
reference  to  William  of  Orange,  or  to  the  use 
of  orange  badges  at  the  anniversaries  at 
which  his  memory  was  celebrated.  William 
of  Orange  derived  his  tide  from  the  small 
town  and  principality  of  that  name  on  the 
Rh6ne,  which  passed  to  the  House  of  Nassau 
in  1530.  The  name  of  this  town  is  derived 
from  its  ancient  Latin  name  Arausio,  and  has 
no  connexion  with  the  name  of  the  fruit, 
which  comes  through  Spanish  from  the 
Arabic  naranj.  [OED.] 

Oranges  and  Lemons,  what  the  bells  of 
St.  Clement's  say,  in  the  old  rhyme  that 
accompanies  a  nursery  game.  The  rhyme 
begins: 

Gay  go  up  and  gay  go  down 
To  ring  the  bells  of  London  town, 
and  a  couplet  follows  for  each  church,  St. 
Clement's,   St.  Martin's,  £c.,  ending  witiht 
'the  great  bell  at  Bow*.    The  text  is  in  HalH- 
well,  'Nursery  Rhymes*. 
Orator  Henley,  see  Henley  (J.\ 

Orator  Hunt,  HENRY  HUNT  (1773-1835), 
an  active  radical  politician  and  agitator,  who 
presided  at  the  meeting  in  St.  Peter's  Fields, 
Manchester  (the  'Peterloo  Massacre*) ;  a  vio- 
lent and  stentorian  but  impressive  speaker. 
He  published  memoirs  in  1820. 

Oratorians,  an  order  founded  at  Florence 
by  St.  Philip  Neri  (Filippo  de*  Neri,  1515- 
95),  an  Italian  priest.  Its  members  are 
priests  under  no  vows.  Newman  (q.v.)  at- 
tached himself  to  the  order  and  founded  the 
Oratory  at  Birmingham  in  1847  and  in 
London  in  1850. 

Orbaneja,  the  painter  of  Ubeda  referred  to 
in  *Don  Quixote'  (11.  i.  3),  who,  when  asked 
what  he  was  painting,  replied  'As  it  may 
turn  out'. 

Orbilius,  the  schoolmaster  of  Horace,  a 
flogger: 

Delendaque  rarmina   Livi,  .  *  .  memini 

quae  plagosum  mihi.  parvo  Orbilium  dictare. 

(Horace,  Ep.  n.  i.  69.) 

Ore,  in  the  mystical  poems  of  Blake  (q.v.), 
the  symbol  of  rebellious  anarchy,  the  oppo- 
nent of  Urizen. 

Orcades,  the  Orkney  Islands. 
Orcus,  a  Roman  name  for  the  Lower  World, 
the  abode  of  the  dead. 


[569] 


ORDEAL  OF  RICHARD  FEVEREL 

Ordeal  of  Richard  Fever  el,  The,  a  novel  by 
G.  Meredith  (q.v.),  published  in  1859. 

Richard  is  the  son  of  Sir  Austin  Feverel,  a 
wealthy  baronet,  who  has  been  deserted  by 
his  wife  and  left  with  the  boy  to  bring  up.  Sir 
Austin  prides  himself  on  his  wisdom,  which 
is  less  than  he  supposes,  and  has  a  'system'  of 
education,  which  consists  in  keeping  him  at 
home,  for  he  thinks  schools  corrupt,  and  in 
trusting  to  parental  vigilance.  The  break- 
down of  the  system  at  adolescence  is  the 
underlying  theme  of  the  book.  Richard,  a 
spirited  youth,  and  Lucy  Desbprough  a 
neighbouring  farmer's  niece,  fall  in  love  at 
first  sight.  An  idyllic  courtship  ends  in  their 
discovery.  She  has  every  charm  that  nature 
can  give,  but  not  the  birth  that  Sir  Austin  de- 
mands for  his  son's  bride.  Attempts  to  break 
the  attachment  result  in  their  secret  marriage 
and  the  anger  of  Sir  Austin,  who  cruelly 
secures  the  separation  of  the  young  couple  by 
working  on  his  son's  love  for  him.  Richard, 
ordered  to  await  his  father's  pleasure  ^  in 
London,  sets  aboutthe  redemption  of  an  erring 
beautiful  woman,  and  falls  instead  momen- 
tarily a  victim  to  her  lures.  These  have  been 
spread  at  the  instance  of  Lord  Mountfalcon, 
who  has  designs  on  the  innocent  Lucy.  Over- 
whelmed with  shame  at  his  infidelity  to  his 
wife,  Richard  prolongs  his  absence  from  her 
until  he  learns  that  he  is  a  father  and  that 
Lucy  and  Sir  Austin  are  reconciled.  At  the 
moment  of  returning  to  her,  when  the  way  to 
happiness  seems  at  last  open,  he  leams  of  the 
designs  of  Lord  Mountfalcon,  challenges  him 
to  a  duel,  and  is  seriously  wounded.  The 
shock  is  too  severe  for  Lucy,  who  becomes 
crazy  and  dies. 

Order,  in  classical  architecture,  a  mode  of 
architectural  treatment  founded  upon  the 
proportions  of  columns  and  the  form  of  their 
capitals,  with  the  relative  proportions  and 
amount  of  decoration  used  in  their  entabla- 
tures. [OED.] 

The  FIVE  ORDERS  OF  CLASSICAL  ARCHITEC- 
TURE are  the  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian  (qq.v.), 
Tuscan,  and  Composite,  of  which  the  first 
three  are  the  original  Greek  orders,  the 
other  two  Roman  varieties. 

An  ATTIC  ORDER  has  a  square  column  of 
any  of  the  five  above  orders. 

An  ATTIC  is  originally  a  decorative  struc- 
ture consisting  of  a  small  order  placed  above 
another  order  of  much  greater  height  con- 
stituting the  main  fa9ade.  This  was  usually 
an  Attic  order,  whence  the  name.  From  this 
the  term  is  applied  to  the  top  story  of  the 
building,  under  the  beams  of  the  roof,  when 
there  are  more  than  two  stories  above 
ground. 

ORDERICUS  VITAXIS  (1075-1143?),  a 
Norman  born  in  England,  and  a  monk  of  St. 
Evroul  in  Normandy.  He  wrote  an  'Ecclesi- 
astical History*  in  Latin  extending  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era  down  to  1141, 
one  of  the  standard  authorities  for  the  Nor- 
man period. 


ORFEO 

Orders  in  Council,  THE,  of  1807,  declared 
the  ports  of  France  and  her  allies  in  a  state  of 
blockade,  and  all  neutral  ships  that  attempted 
to  enter  them  liable  to  seizure  unless  they  had 
first  called  at  a  British  port.  These  Orders  in 
Council  were  provoked  by  Napoleon's  Berlin 
Decree  excluding  British  commerce  from 
European  ports  and  declaring  the  blockade 
of  British  ports.  They  were  answered  by 
Napoleon's  Milan  Decree  making  neutral 
vessels  liable  to  seizure  if  they  called  at  a 
British  port.  They  resulted  in  the  war  of 
1812-14  with  the  United  States. 
Orders,  MONASTIC,  see  Benedictines,  Capu- 
chins, Cordeliers,  Dominicans,  Franciscans, 
Observants,  Oratorians,  Recollects,  &c. 
Oreads,  nymphs  (q.v.)  of  the  mountains. 

Oregon  Trail,  The,  'Sketches  of  the  Prairie 
and  Rocky-Mountain  Life*,  by  Francis 
Parkman,  published  in  the  *  Knickerbocker 
Magazine'  in  1847,  and  in  book  form  in  1849. 
Orellana,  an  early  name  for  the  river 
Amazon,  from  Francisco  de  Orellana  (fl. 
1540),  who  served  with  Pizarro  and  first 
explored  it.  In  the  course  of  his  voyage  he 
heard  from  Indians  of  the  existence  of  a 
tribe  of  Amazons  or  female  warriors,  and 
asserted  that  he  had  encountered  them. 
Hence  the  present  name  of  the  river. 

Orestes,  a  son  of  Agamemnon  and  Clytem- 
nestra  (qq.v.).  When  his  father  was  mur- 
dered by  Clytemnestra  and  Aegisthus,  young 
Orestes  was  saved  from  his  mother's  dagger 
by  his  sister  Electra  and  educated  by  his 
uncle  Strophius  with  his  son  Pylades.  Be- 
tween Orestes  and  Pylades  the  closest  friend- 
ship sprang  up.  When  Orestes  reached 
manhood,  he,  with  the  assistance  of  Pylades, 
avenged  his  father's  death  by  assassinating 
Aegisthus  and  Clytemnestra.  To  obtain 
purification  from  this  murder  Orestes  was 
directed  by  the  oracle  at  Delphi  to  bring  to 
Greece  a  statue  of  Artemis  from  the  Tauric 
Chersonnese.  Orestes  and  Pylades  undertook 
the  enterprise,  and,  having  reached  the 
Chersonnese,  were  brought  before  Thoas,  the 
king  of  the  place,  and  ordered  to  be  sacrificed. 
Iphigenia  (q.v.)  was  then  priestess  of  the 
temple  of  Artemis  and  it  was  her  office  to 
immolate  these  strangers.  Having  discovered 
that  one  of  them  was  her  brother,  she  resolved 
to  fly  with  them  from  the  Chersonnese, 
carrying  away  the  statue  of  Artemis.  This 
they  accomplished  after  murdering  Thoas. 
Orestes  became  king  of  Argos,  gave  his  sister 
Electra  to  Pylades,  and  himself  married 
Hermione,  daughter  of  Menelaus. 

Orfeo,  Sir,  a  metrical  romance  of  the  Middle 
English  period,  in  which  the  classical  story  of 
Orpheus  and  Eurydice  (see  Orpheus)  is  re- 
produced in  Celtic  guise.  Queen  Heurodys 
is  carried  off  to  fairyland,  and  pursued  by 
King  Orfeo,  as  a  minstrel,  whose  melodious 
lays  succeed  in  bringing  her  back  to  the  world 
of  men.  On  this  was  founded  the  ballad 
'King  Orfeo*  (in  Child's  collection). 


[570] 


ORGILUS 

Orgilus,  a  character  in  Ford's  'The  Broken 
Heart*  (q.v.). 

Orgoglio  (ItaL,  signifying  haughtiness),  in 
Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  I.  vii.  9  and  10, 
captures  the  Red  Cross  Knight,  and  is  slain 
by  Prince  Arthur. 

Orgon,  the  credulous  dupe  in  Moliere's 
'TartufTe*  (q.v.). 

Oriana,  see  under  Amadis  de  Gaule.  Oriana 
is  (i)  a  name  frequently  applied  by  the 
Elizabethan  poets  to  Queen  Elizabeth;  (2)  the 
heroine  of  Fletcher's  'The  Wild- Goose  Chase* 
(q.v.) ;  (3)  the  subject  of  a  ballad  by  Tennyson. 

Orifiatnme,  said  to  be  derived  from  aurea 
flamma,  'golden  flame*,  a  small  silk  three- 
pointed  banner  of  the  abbots  of  Saint-Denis, 
which,  when  the  abbey  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  kings  of  France,  became  the  French 
royal  banner.  The  French  armies  fought 
under  it  from  1124 to  I4i5-  The  kings  'took 
it*  from  the  altar  of  Saint-Denis  before  each 
campaign. 

ORIGEN  (c.  i8s-c.  253),  the  second  great 
Christian  thinker  and  scholar  of  the  Alexan- 
drian school  (Clement  was  the  first).  He 
combined  with  his  orthodox  Christianity 
personal  theories  as  to  reincarnation  which 
were  rejected  by  the  Church.  He  was  author 
of  many  theological  works,  and  compiler  of 
the  famous  Hexapla  versions  of  the  Old 
Testament  (see  Bible). 

Origin  of  Species ,  The,  the  great  work  of 
C.  Darwin  (q.v.),  of  which  the  full  title  was 
'On  the  Origin  of  Species  by  means  of 
Natural  Selection,  or  the  Preservation  of 
Favoured  Races  in  the  Struggle  for  Life',  was 
published  in  1859. 

Original,  The,  a  weekly  publication  by 
Thomas  Walker  (1784-1836),  a  collection  of 
his  thoughts  on  many  subjects,  but  especially 
remembered  for  his  admirable  papers  on 
health  and  gastronomy. 

Original  Poems  for  Infant  Minds,  see 
Taylor  (Jane  and  Anne). 

Orinda,  THE  MATCHLESS,  see  Philips  (iC.). 

Orion,  a  giant  and  hunter  of  Boeotia,  the 
subject  of  various  legends,  according  to  which 
he  was  deprived  of  sight  by  Dionysus,  or 
killed  by  Artemis,  or  died  of  the  sting  of  a 
scorpion,  after  boasting  that  he  would  clear 
the  earth  of  all  wild  beasts.  After  his  death 
he  was  placed  among  the  stars.  His  constel- 
lation used  to  set  about  November,  whence 
it  was  associated  with  storms  and  rain. 

Orion,  an  allegorical  poem  by  R.  H.  Home 
(q.v.),  published  in  1843  at  one  farthing,  as  a 
satirical  comment  on  the  current  estimation 
of  poetry. 

The  poem  is  based  on  the  myth  of  Orion 
(q.v.  above),  and  is  'an  attempt  to  re-establish 
the  union  which  had  existed  in  ancient  times 
between  philosophy  and  poetry*  (Gosse). 

[57 


ORLANDO  FURIOSO 

Orion  here  is  'the  worker,  the  buiider-up  of 
things  and  of  himself,  'a  type  of  the  struggle 
of  man  with  himself,  the  contest  between  the 
intellect  and  the  senses'.  He  is  taken  into  the 
train  of  the  goddess  Artemis,  *the  Queen  of 
maiden  immortality',  who  guides  him  in  his 
duties  and  instils  knowledge  into  his  mind. 
But  presently  Orion  is  led  astray  by  love  of 
the  beautiful  Merope  and  loses  his  sight.  He 
devotes  himself  to  the  service  of  mankind, 
and  strives  to  admit  the  light  of  dawn  to  the 
temple  of  Artemis,  by  hewing  down  the  trees 
and  destroying  the  poisonous  Harpies  that 
obstruct  it.  But  Artemis  slays  him.  Orion  is 
contrasted  with  Akinetos,  his  brother  giant, 
the  'Great  Unmoved*  or  Apathy,  who  dis- 
courages all  effort  as  useless  and  fatal  to  the 
agent.  Nevertheless  Orion,  after  his  death,  is 
raised  to  the  sky  to  continue  his  beneficent  and 
stimulating  work. 

Orlando,  (i)  the  Italian  form  of  Roland 
(q.v.),  a  hero  of  the  Charlemagne  romances 
(see  also  Orlando  Furioso  and  Orlando  Inna~> 
morato);  (2)  in  Shakespeare's  *As  You  Like 
It*  (q.v.),  the  lover  of  Rosalind;  (3)  the  title 
of  a  novel  by  V.  Woolf  (q.v.). 
Orlando  Friscobaldo,  in  Dekker*s  'The 
Honest  Whore*  (q.v.),  the  father  of  BeUafront. 

Orlando  Furioso,  a  poem  by  Ariosto  (q.v.), 
published  in  its  complete  form  in  1532,  de- 
signed to  exalt  the  house  of  Este  and  its 
legendary  ancestor  Rogero  (Ruggiero)  and  to 
continue  the  story  of  Orlando  *s  love  for 
Angelica  begun  by  Boiardo  in  the  *  Orlando 
Innamorato*  (q.v.). 

The  main  theme  of  the  poem  is  this: 
Saracens  and  Christians,  in  the  days  of 
Charlemagne,  are  at  war  for  the  possession  of 
Europe.  The  Saracens  under  Agramante,  king 
of  Africa,  are  besieging  Charlemagne  in  Paris 
with  the  help  of  Marsilio,  the  Moorish 
king  of  Spain,  and  two  mighty  warriors, 
Rodomont  and  Manricardo.  Christendom 
is  imperilled.  Angelica,  who  at  the  end  of 
Boiardo's  poem  had  been  consigned  by 
Charlemagne  to  the  care  of  Namo,  escapes. 
Orlando,  chief  of  the  paladins,  a  ^perfect 
knight,  invincible  and  invulnerable,  is  lured 
by  her  beauty  to  forget  his  duty  and  pursue 
her.  Angelica  meets  with  various  adventures, 
finally  coming  upon  the  wounded  Moorish 
youth  Medoro,  whom  she  tends,  falls 
in  love  with,  and  marries.  A  charming 
description  follows  of  their  honeymoon  in  the 
woods.  Orlando,  arriving  there  by  chance, 
and  learning  their  story,  is  seized  with  a 
furious  and  grotesque  madness,  runs  naked 
through  the  country,  destroying  everything  in 
his  path,  and  at  last  returns  to  Charlemagne's 
camp,  where  he  is  finally  cured  of  his  madness 
and  his  love,  and  in  a  great  final  battle  kills 
Agramante. 

Although  the  madness  of  Orlando  gives  the 
poem  its  name,  a  not  less  important  theme  in 
it  is  the  love  of  Rogero  (q.v.)  for  Bradamant,  a 
maiden  warrior,  sister  of  Rinaldo^q.v.),  and 
the  many  adventures  and  vicissitudes  that 


ORLANDO  INNAMORATO 

Interrupt  the  course  of  true  love.  Other 
notable  episodes  in  the  work  are  the 
voyage  of  Astolfo  (q.v.)  on  the  hippogriff  to 
the  moon,  whence  he  brings  back  the  lost 
wits  of  Orlando ;  and  the  self-martyrdom  of 
Isabella,  the  widow  of  the  Scottish  prince 
Zerbino,  to  escape  the  attentions  of  the 
pagan,  king,  Rodomont  (q.v.).  Orlando's 
horse  is  Brigliadoro ;  his  sword  Durindana. 

The  best  translation  of  the  'Orlando 
Furioso'  into  English  is  that  of  Sir  John 
Harington  {q.v.).  Unfortunately  the  book  is 
rare.  That  of  Hoole  is  more  accessible,  but 
less  inspired.  There  are  some  well-told 
'Tales  from  Ariosto'  by  J.  Shield  Nicholson. 

Orlando  Innamoratof  a  poem  by  Boiardo 
(q.v.),  on  the  subject  of  the  falling  in  love  of 
Orlando  (the  Roland  of  the  Charlemagne 
cycle)  with  Angelica,  daughter  of  Galafron, 
the  king  of  Cathay.  She  arrives  at  the  court 
of  Charlemagne,  with  her  brother  Argalia, 
under  false  pretences,  to  carry  off  the 
Christian  knights  to  her  father's  country. 
Several  knights  attempt  to  win  her,  the  chief 
of  them  being  Astolfo;  Ferragus,  Rinaldo, 
and  Orlando  (qq.v.).  Argalia  is  slain  and 
Angelica  flees,  but,  drinking  of  an  enchanted 
fountain,  falls  in  love  with  Rinaldo,  who, 
drinking  of  another  enchanted  fountain,  con- 
ceives a  violent  aversion  to  her.  He  runs 
away  pursued  by  her,  and  they  reach  her 
father's  country,  where  she  is  besieged  in  the 
capital,  Albracca,  by  Agrican,  king  of  Tartary, 
to  whom  her  hand  had  been  promised  (an 
incident  referred  to  in  Milton,  'Paradise 
Regained',  iii.  337-43).  Orlando  comes  ^to 
Angelica's  rescue,  slays  Agrican,  and  carries 
off  Angelica  to  France,  whither  he  has  been 
summoned  to  assist  Charlemagne  against 
Agramante,  king  of  the  Moors.  Owing  once 
more  to  enchanted  waters,  Rinaldo  again 
falls  in  love  with  Angelica,  and  Angelica  into 
hatred  of  him.  A  fierce  combat  ensues 
between  Orlando  and  Rinaldo,  suppressed 
by  Charlemagne,  who  entrusts  Angelica  to 
Namo,  duke  of  Bavaria. 

The  poem,  which  was  left  unfinished,  was 
refashioned  by  Berni,  but  its  true  sequel  is  in 
the  'Orlando  Furioso'  (q.v.)  of  Ariosto. 

Orley  Farm,  a  novel  by  A.  Trollope  (q.v.), 
published  in  1862. 

Sir  Joseph  Mason,  having  remarried  late  in 
life^  is  found  on  his  death  to  have  left  by 
codicil  Orley  Farm,  an  estate  forming  part  of 
his  property,  to  his  baby  son  Lucius.  The 
validity  of  the  codicil  is  disputed  by  the  eldest 
son,  but  affirmed  after  a  trial,  and  the  widow 
and  Lucius  remain  in  possession  for  twenty 
years.  Then  Mr.  Dockwrath,  an  attorney  of 
questionable  character,  a  tenant  of  part  of 
Orley  Farm,  is  given  notice  to  quit,  and, 
exasperated  by  what  he  considers  unjust 
treatment,  seeks  vengeance  in  a  revival  of  the 
question  of  the  codicil.  He  discovers  that 
there  is  another  document  that  purports  to 
have  been  signed  by  Sir  Joseph  on  the  same 
day  as  the  codicil  and  witnessed  by  the  same 


ORMUZ 

witnesses,  whereas  the  witnesses  declare  that 
they  attested  only  one  document.  The  in- 
ference is  that  the  codicil  with  its  signatures 
is  a  forgery.  The  story  deals  with  the  gradual 
growth  of  the  belief  that  Lady  Mason  has 
forged  the  codicil,  her  increasing  anguish  and 
final  confession  of  the  fact  to  Sir  Peregrine 
Orme,  her  aged  lover,  her  trial  and  acquittal, 
thanks  to  the  dialectical  skill  of  Mr.  Chaffan- 
brass  (see  'The  Three  Clerks'),  her  surrender 
of  the  property,  and  the  influence  of  these 
events  on  the  love-affairs  and  fortunes  of  the 
various  minor  characters  in  the  novel. 

Ormandine,  in  R.  Johnson's  'The  Seven 
Champions  of  Christendom'  (q.v.),  the  necro- 
mancer in  whose  enchanted  garden  St.  David 
slept  for  seven  years,  being  at  last  released  by 
St.  George. 

Ormazd  or  ORMUZD  (AHURA  MAZDA),  in  the 
Avesta  or  Zoroastrian  religion,  the  god  of 
goodness  and  light,  in  perpetual  conflict  with 
Ahriman,  the  spirit  of  evil. 

ORME,  ROBERT  (1728-1801),  born  in 
India  and  a  successful  Anglo-Indian  official, 
was  author  of  the  important  'History  of  the 
Military  Transactions  of  the  British  Nation  in 
Indostan'  (1763-78),  and  of  'Historical  Frag- 
ments of  the  Mogul  Empire'  (1782). 

Ormondt  a  novel  by  M.  Edgeworth  (q.v.), 
published  in  1817. 

This  is  a  tale  of  life  in  Ireland,  and  in  a 
minor  degree  in  fashionable  Paris  society  in 
the  1 8th  cent.  The  principal  characters  are 
Harry  Ormond,  an  orphan;  his  fascinating 
but  unprincipled  and  designing  guardian, 
Sir  Ulick  O 'Shane;  the  land-hearted  eccen- 
tric Cornelius  O'Shane,  the  'king  of  the  Black 
Islands';  and  his  daughter  Dora,  who  has 
been  plighted,  before  her  birth,  to  one  or 
other  of  the  twin  sons  of  Cornelius's  boon 
companion,  Connal,  with  disastrous  results. 

Ormulum,  The,  a  poem  of  some  10,000  lines 
in  the  vernacular,  written  in  the  first  half  of 
the  1 3th  cent.,  by  one  Orm  or  Ormin,  an 
Augustinian  monk  who  probably  lived  in  the 
east  of  England.  It  consists  of  paraphrases  of 
the  gospels  for  the  year  as  arranged  in  the 
mass  book,  supplemented  by  a  homily  on 
each;  but  the  scheme  was  not  completed.  It 
is  orthodox  and  conservative  in  matter.  It  is 
composed  of  lines  of  fifteen  syllables  with- 
out rhyme  or  alliteration.  The  author  has  his 
own  system  of  spelling  and  his  work  is 
important  for  the  light  it  throws  on  the 
evolution  of  the  English  language  and  literary 
form. 

Ormuz  or  HORMUZ,  an  ancient  city  on  an 
island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  an 
important  centre  of  commerce  in  the  Middle 
Ages;  referred  to  by  Milton,  'Paradise  Lost', 
ii.  2,.  The  Portuguese  were  the  first  Euro- 
peans to  take  it.  In  1622  the  Persian  'Sultan* 
invoked  the  aid  of  the  East  India  Company, 
and  captured  it  (after  a  gallant  resistance)  with 
English  vessels. 


[57*] 


OROONOKO 

Oroonoko,  or  the  Royal  Slave,  a  novel  by 
Aphra  Behn  (q.v.),  published  about  1678. 
(For  the  tragedy  by  Southerne,  see  below.) 

Oroonoko,  grandson  and  heir  of  an  African 
king,  obtains  the  love  of  the  beautiful  Imoin- 
da,  daughter  of  the  king's  general,  of  whom 
the  king  himself  is  enamoured.  Infuriated  at 
learning  this,the  king  orders  Imoinda  to  be  sold 
out  of  the  country  as  a  slave.  Oroonoko  him- 
self is  presently  entrapped  by  the  captain  of  an 
English  slave-trading  ship,  and  carried  off  to 
Surinam,  an  English  colony  in  the  West 
Indies.  There  he  discovers  Imoinda  and  is  re- 
united to  her.  He  presently  stirs  up  the  other 
slaves  to  escape  from  their  miserable  condi- 
tion. They  are  pursued  and  induced  to  sur- 
render on  promise  from  the  deputy-governor, 
Byam,  of  a  pardon.  Nevertheless,  Oroonoko, 
when  once  in  the  governor's  hands,  is  cruelly 
whipped.  Oroonoko,  determined  to  avenge 
himself  on  Byam,  but  not  expecting  to  sur- 
vive the  attempt,  and  fearing  to  leave  Imoinda 
a  prey  to  the  enraged  slave-drivers,  decides  to 
kill  her.  Imoinda  welcomes  her  fate  and 
meets  death  smiling.  Oroonoko  is  found  near 
her  dead  body,  attempts  to  take  his  own  life, 
but  is  prevented  and  cruelly  executed. 

The  novel  is  remarkable  as  the  first  ex- 
pression in  English  literature  of  sympathy  for 
the  oppressed  negroes.  It  no  doubt  reflects 
the  authoress's  memories  of  her  early  days 
in  Surinam.  It  was  made  the  subject  of  a 
tragedy  by  Southerne  (q.v.),  'Oroonoko:  A 
Tragedy*,  which  was  produced  in  1695, 
and  kept  the  stage  for  a  considerable  time. 
The  play  follows  the  broad  lines  of  the 
novel,  except  that  the  deputy-governor's 
passion  for  Imoinda  is  one  of  the  chief  motives 
of  action.  The  play  is  further  enlivened  by 
a  comic  underplot. 

OROSIUS,  a  priest  of  Tarragona  in  Spain, 
fl.  A.D.  500,  disciple  of  St.  Augustine  and 
friend  of  St.  Jerome,  author  of  the  'Historia 
adversus  Paganos',  a  universal  history  and 
geography,  which  King  Alfred  translated. 

Orphan,  The,  a  tragedy  in  blank  verse  by 
Otway  (q.v.),  produced  in  1680. 

Castalio  and  Polydore  are  the  twin  sons  of 
Acasto.  Monimia,  the  orphan  daughter  of  a 
friend  of  Acasto's,  has  been  brought  up  with 
them.  Castalio  and  Polydore,  loyally  devoted 
to  one  another,  have  both  fallen  in  love  with 
Monimia,  who  returns  the  love  of  Castalio. 
But  the  latter,  out  of  mistaken  consideration 
for  his  brother,  feigns  indifference  for 
Monimia.  Chamont,  an  honest  but  rough  and 
tactless  soldier,  brother  of  Monimia,  comes 
as  a  guest  to  Acasto's  house ;  he  suspects  that 
Monimia  has  been  wronged  by  one  of  the 
young  men,  and  annoys  her  with  his  ques- 
tions. Castalio  and  Monimia  thereupon  are 
secretly  married.  Polydore,  ignorant  of  this, 
and  overhearing  them  arranging  for  a 
meeting  in  the  night,  takes  Castalio's  place  in 
the  darkness,  and  is  not  detected.  Castalio 
coming  later,  is  shut  out,  and  curses  his  wife 
for  what  he  supposes  to  be  her  heartless  and 


ORPHICISM 

rebellious  conduct.  The  truth  being  dis- 
covered through  Chamont,  the  brothers  fall 
into  despair.  Both  kill  themselves,  and 
Monimia  takes  poison. 

The  play  proved  a  great  success,  and  was 
frequently  revived.  Monimia  was  one  of 
Mrs.  Barry's  (q.v.)  most  celebrated  parts. 

Orpheus,  a  son  of  the  muse  Calliope,  re- 
ceived from  Apollo  a  lyre  on  which  he  played 
with  such  skill  that  the  wild  beasts,  and  also 
rocks  and  trees,  came  to  listen  to  his  song. 
He  assisted  the  Argonauts  (q.v.)  in  their 
expedition  and  his  lyre  was  the  means  of 
saving  their  ship  from  the  Symplegades  and 
the  Sirens  (qq.v.)  and  of  taming  the  dragon 
that  guarded  the  Golden  Fleece.  He  passion- 
ately loved  his  wife  Eurydice,  and,  when  she 
died  of  the  bite  of  a  serpent,  determined  to 
recover  her.  He  entered  the  infernal  regions 
and  charmed  Pluto  and  Persephone  with  his 
music.  They  consented  to  restore  Eurydice 
to  him  on  condition  that  he  forbore  to  look 
behind  him  until  he  had  emerged  from  hell. 
Orpheus  was  already  in  sight  of  the  upper 
regions  when  he  forgot  the  condition  and 
turned  back  to  look  at  Eurydice.  She  instantly 
vanished  from  his  sight,  and  his  attempts  to  re- 
join her  were  vain.  He  now  separated  himself 
from  the  society  of  mankind,  and  theThracian 
women,  whom  he  had  offended  by  his  cold- 
ness, tore  him  in  pieces  and  threw  his  head, 
which  still  uttered  the  name  'Eurydice*,  into 
the  river  Hebrus.  Poems  ascribed  to  Orpheus 
were  current  in  Greece  in  the  6th  and  5th 
cents.  B.C.  and  were  known  to  Plato.  They 
embodied  the  doctrines  of  the  mystical  re- 
ligion known  as  Orphicism  (q.v.).  The  poems 
now  extant  that  bear  the  name  of  Orpheus 
are  neo-Platonist  forgeries.  Orpheus,  in  the 
eyes  of  the  ancients,  was  the  founder  of 
religious  mysteries,  'sacer  interpresque  deo- 
rum*  in  the  words  of  Horace. 

OrpMcism,  a  mystic  religion  of  ancient 
Greece,  of  which  Orpheus  (q.v.)  was  the 
centre.  Its  origins  are  obscure,  but  it  ap- 
pears to  have  developed  in  the  6th  cent.  B.C., 
when  there  was  an  abundant  Orphic  litera- 
ture, little  of  which  has  survived.  ^It  sank  to 
the  level  of  a  sectarian  superstition  in  the 
5th  cent.,  but  the  profound  thoughts  which 
underlay  it  affected  Pindar  and  Plato.  In  the 
Orphic  doctrine,  the  abstract  principle  Time 
stood  at  the  origin  of  all  things.  Time  formed 
an  egg,  from  which  the  gods  proceeded.  Zeus 
and  Persephone  had  a  son,  Dionysos-Zagreus, 
who  was  torn  in  pieces  by  the  Titans.  They 
ate  his  limbs,  but  his  heart  was  saved  by 
Athena  and  brought  to  Zeus,  and  from  it  was 
afterwards  born  the  new  Dionysos.  The 
Titans  were  reduced  to  ashes  by  the  lightning 
of  Zeus,  and  from  those  ashes  man  was 
formed.  He  thus  contains  something  of  the 
divine,  derived  from  Zeus,  and  something  of 
his  enemies,  the  Titans.  The  Orphics  taught 
the  transmigration  of  souls,  retribution  in  a 
future  life,  and  final  liberation  from  man's 
Titanic  inheritance  by  the  observation  of 


[573] 


ORSINO 

strict  purity  (M.  P.  Nilsson,  'A  History  of 
Greek  Religion*,  1925). 
Orsino,  in  Shakespeare's  'Twelfth  Night* 
(q.v.),  the  duke  of  Illyria. 
Ortelius,  ABRAHAM  (1527-98),  a  geographer 
of  Antwerp,  who  came  to  England  and  be- 
came familiar  with  Camden  (q.v.).  He  pub- 
lished his  atlas,  'Theatrum  Orbis  Terrarum*, 
in  1570. 

Ortheris,  STANLEY,  with  Terence  Mulvaney 
and  John  Learoyd,  the  three  privates  in 
Rudyard  Kipling's  *  Soldiers  Three*. 

Orthodox  Clrarch  or  GREEK  CHURCH,  THE, 
the  Eastern  Church  which  recognizes  the 
headship  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
together  with  the  national  churches  of 
Russia,  Rumania,  &c.,  which  hold  the  same 
'orthodox*  creed.  It  repudiates  the  papal 
claim  to  supremacy  and  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy,  and  holds  the  doctrine  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father  through 
the  Son.  It  rejects  the  flioque  clause  of  the 
Nicene  Creed  as  being  unauthorized  by  the 
Universal  Church.  In  most  other  respects  it 
agrees  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
epithet  'orthodox*  was  originally  assumed  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  various  divisions  of 
the  Eastern  Church  (e.g.  the  Monophysite, 
Nestorian,  &c.),  which  separated  on  points 
of  doctrine  and  have  not  accepted  all  the 
decrees  of  successive  general  councils.  [OEDJ 
The  final  severance  of  the  Orthodox  Church 
from  the  Roman  Church  occurred  in  1054, 
when  Pope  and  Patriarch  mutually  ex- 
communicated each  other's  churches.  Owing 
to  the  non-acceptance  by  the  Orthodox 
Church  of  the  Gregorian  calendar  ^(q.v.), 
Easter  Day  (q.v.)  falls  to  be  observed  in  that 
Church,  in  most  years,  on  a  later  date  than 
in  the  other  churches. 

Orson,  see  Valentine  and  Orson. 

Orthrus,  see  Geryon. 

Orton,  ARTHUR,  see  Tichborne  Case. 

Orville,  LORD,  the  hero  of  Miss  Burney's 
'Evelina*  (q.v.). 

Osbaldeston,  GEORGE  (1787-1866),  a  fa- 
mous sportsman,  who  was  master  of  hounds 
while  at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford.  He  was 
master  of  the  Quorn  hounds,  1817—21  and 
1823-8,  and  afterwards  of  the  Pytchley.  In 
1831  he  rode  200  miles  in  less  than  nine 
consecutive  hours. 

Osbaldlstone,  MR.  FRANCIS,  RASHLEIGH, 
and  SIR  HILDEBRAND,  characters  in  Scott's 
'Rob  Roy*  (q.v.). 

Osborne,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  at  one  time 
a  royal  residence,  purchased  by  Queen 
Victoria,  who  died  there.  It  was  given  to  the 
nation  by  Edward  VII,  and  a  Royal  Naval 
College  was  opened  there  in  1903  (closed  in 
1921). 

Osborne,  DOROTHY  (1627-95),  married  Sir 
W.  Temple  (q.v.)  in  1655.  Her  letters  to  him 


OSLER 

during  the  period  1652-4  were  published  in 
1888.  A  new  edition  by  G.  C.  Moore  Smith 
appeared  in  1928. 

Osborne,  MR.,  GEORGE,  his  son,  and  MARIA 
and  JANE,  his  daughters,  characters  in 
Thackeray's  'Vanity  Fair*  (q.v.). 
Osborne,  THOMAS  (d.  1767),  bookseller, 
remembered  as  having  issued  Richardson's 
Tamela*  (q.v.),  published  the  'Harleian 
Miscellany*  (q.v.).  He  was  beaten  by  Dr. 
Johnson  for  impertinence  and  ridiculed  by 
Pope. 

Oscan  Fables,  see  Atellan  Fables* 
Oscar,  the  son  of  Ossian  (q.v.),  figures  in 
many  of  the  Ossianic  poems  of  Macpherson. 
Oscar  ofAlva,  a  poem  by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.), 
included  in  'Hours  of  Idleness*  (1807). 

The  poem  shows  the  influence  of  the  ballad 
poets  and  of  Macpherson's  *  Ossian*.  Oscar 
the  heroic,  and  Allan  the  smooth-tongued, 
are  two  brothers  of  the  Alva  clan.  Oscar  is 
to  marry  Mora,  but  disappears  on  the  wed- 
ding-day and  is  not  heard  of  for  three  years. 
Then  Allan  is  to  marry  Mora  in  his  stead. 
At  the  wedding  feast,  Oscar*s  wraith  appears 
in  the  guise  of  a  stranger  chief  and  bids 
the  assembled  guests  drink  to  the  memory 
of  the  lost  Oscar.  Allan  betrays  himself 
by  his  terror,  and  is  declared  by  the  appari- 
tion his  brother's  murderer. 
O'Shane,  SIR  ULICK  and  CORNELIUS,  char- 
actors  in  Miss  Edgeworth*s  'Ormond*  (q.v.). 
Osiris,  a  great  deity  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
As  king  of  Egypt  he  civilized  and  educated 
his  people.  He  then  resolved  to  spread 
civilization  to  other  regions  of  the  earth,  and 
left  the  kingdom  in  the  charge  of  his  wife 
Isis.  On  his  return  he  found  his  subjects  dis- 
turbed by  the  sedition  of  his  brother  Typhon, 
and  was  by  him  murdered  and  his  body  cut 
into  pieces.  Isis,  with  her  son  Horns,  de- 
feated Typhon  and  his  partisans,  and  re- 
venged her  husband's  death.  She  recovered 
the  mangled  remains  of  his  body,  and  had 
statues  of  him  distributed  over  Egypt  and 
divine  honours  paid  to  him.  Osiris  is  some- 
times identified  with  the  sun  and  Isis  with 
the  moon;  and  the  ox  was  taken  as  the  symbol 
of  the  former,  the  cow  of  the  latter.  Osiris 
was  regarded  as  the  god  of  the  dead,  and  his 
son  Horus  as  the  god  of  renewed  life.  By  the 
Greeks  Osiris  was  identified  with  Apollo. 
OSLER,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1849-1919),  born 
in  Canada,  a  great  physician,  Regius  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 
His  valuable  medical  library  is  now  at  McGill 
University,  Montreal.  His  great  'Principles 
and  Practice  of  Medicine*  appeared  in  1891 ; 
his  essays  and  addresses  have  been  collected 
in,  e.g.,  'Aequanimitas*  (1904),  'An  Alabama 
Student*  (1908),  and  'A  Way  of  Life*  (1913). 
He  edited  Sir  T.  Browne's  'Religio  Medici* 
and  William  MacMichaeFs  'The  Gold- 
headed  Cane*  (biographies  of  five  iSth-cent. 
physicians).  'Too  old  at  forty*  has  been 
attributed  to  him. 


[574] 


OSNEY 

Osney,  a  wealthy  priory  (afterwards  abbey) 
founded  in  1129  by  Robert  d'Oilgi  II  (a 
Norman  baron)  on  a  branch  of  the  Thames 
near  Oxford,  where  his  wife  had  noticed  the 
noise  of  'chattering  pyes*,  explained  by  her 
confessor  as  complaints  of  souls  in  purgatory. 
It  no  longer  exists. 

Osorius,  JEROME  (d.  1580),  a  Portuguese, 
an  associate  of  Loyola  (q.v.),  noted  for  his 
knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  theology,  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Coimbra,  and  a  bishop. 
In  1562  he  wrote  an  attack  on  the  English 
Reformation,  which  was  answered  by  Haddon, 
Master  of  Requests  to  Elizabeth,  and  by  John 
Foxe  (1577,  English  translation  1581).  His 
library  was  seized  on  the  occasion  of  Essex's 
expedition  of  1596  and  subsequently  given  to 
the  newly  founded  Bodleian. 
Ossa,  a  lofty  mountain  in  Thessaly,  which 
the  Giants  (q.v.)  heaped  on  Pelion  in  their 
endeavour  to  reach  heaven. 
Ossian,  the  name  commonly  given  to  Oisin, 
a  legendary  Gaelic  warrior  and  bard,  the  son 
of  Finn  (Fingal),  supposed  to  have  lived  in 
the  3rd  cent.  For  the  poems  attributed  to 
him,  see  under  Macpherson.  They  deal  with 
tales  of  Finn  (q.v.)  and  his  fellow  warriors, 
which  (according  to  Alfred  Nutt)  are  Gaelic 
variants  of  legends  common  to  the  Celtic  and 
other  Aryan  races.  Both  Ireland  and  Scotland, 
as  inhabited  by  Gaels,  have  claim  to  them. 
So  far  as  historical  facts  are  embodied  in 
them  t  against  a  mythical  background,  those 
facts  are  Irish.  See  also  Finn  and  Niamh. 

Oswald,  ST.  (d.  992),  was  nephew  of 
Archbishop  Odo  (d.  959).  He  became  a 
Benedictine  monk  in  the  abbey  of  Fleury,  and 
accompanied  Oskitel,  archbishop  of  York,  to 
Rome.  On  St.  Dunstan*s  initiative  he  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Worcester  in  961,  and 
co-operated  with  him  and  with  St.  Ethelwold 
(q.v.)  in  the  revival  of  religion  and  learning 
in  the  land,  bringing  scholars  from  the  Conti- 
nent, among  them  the  distinguished  Abbo  of 
Fleury.  He  founded  monasteries  at  West- 
bury,  Worcester,  Winchcombe,  and  in  the  Isle 
of  Ramsey.  In  972  he  was  promoted  arch- 
bishop of  York,  but  retained  the  government 
of  the  see  of  Worcester,  for  which  he  had  a 
special  affection.  St.  Oswald  was  buried  in 
the  church  of  St.  Mary  at  Worcester.  He  is 
commemorated  on  28  February. 

Othello,  The  Moor  of  Venice,  a  tragedy  by 
Shakespeare  (q.v.),  acted  in  1604,  printed  in 
quarto  in  1622.  The  story  is  drawn  from 
Cinthio. 

Desdemona,  daughter  of  the  Venetian 
senator,  Brabantio,  has  secretly  married  the 
Moor,  Othello,  a  gallant  general  in  the  service 
of  the  Venetian  state,  who  has  won  her  love 
by  the  tale  of  his  adventures  and  encounters. 
Haled  before  the  duke,  Othello  is  accused 
by  Brabantio  of  carrying  off  his  daughter; 
simultaneously  comes  news  of  an  im- 
pending attack  on  Cyprus  by  the  Turks, 
against  whom  Othello  is  needed  to  lead  the 


OTWAY 

Venetian  lorces.  Othello  explains  by  what 
simple  means  he  has  won  Desdemona,  who 
confirms  his  story.  Brabantio  reluctantly 
hands  his  daughter  over  to  the  Moor,  who  at 
once  sets  out  with  Desdemona  for  Cyprus. 

Othello  had  lately  promoted  to  the  lieu- 
tenancy Cassio,  a  young  Florentine  whom 
he  trusted.  By  this  promotion  he  had  deeply 
offended  lago,  an  older  soldier  who  thought 
he  had  a  better  claim,  and  who  now  plots  his 
revenge.  By  a  device  he  first  discredits  Cassio, 
as  a  soldier,  with  Othello,  so  that  Cassio  is 
deprived  of  his  lieutenancy.  He  instigates 
the  latter  to  ask  Desdemona  to  plead  in  his 
favour  with  Othello,  which  Desdemona 
warmly  does.  At  the  same  time  he  craftily 
instils  in  Othello's  mind  suspicion  of  his 
wife's  fidelity,  and  jealousy  of  Cassio. 
Finally  by  a  trick  he  arranges  that  a  hand- 
kerchief given  by  Othello  to  Desdemona  shall 
be  found  on  Cassio.  He  stirs  Othello  to  such 
a  frenzy  of  jealousy  that  the  Moor  smothers 
Desdemona  in  her  bed.  Shortly  afterwards 
Cassio,  whom  lago  had  set  Roderigo,  one  of 
his  associates  and  dupes,  to  assassinate,  is 
brought  in  wounded.  But  Roderigo  has 
failed  in  his  purpose,  and  has  been  kitted  by 
lago  to  prevent  discovery  of  the  plot;  on  him 
are  found  letters  revealing  the  guilt  of  lago 
and  the  innocence  of  Cassio.  Othello, 
thunderstruck  by  the  discovery  that  he  had 
murdered  Desdemona  without  cause,  kills 
himself  from  remorse. 

O'Trigger,  SIR  Lucius,  a  character  in 
Sheridan's  'The  Rivals*  (q.v.). 

Ottava  rima,  an  Italian  stanza  of  eight 
eleven-syllabled  lines,  rhyming  abababcc, 
employed  by  Tasso,  Ariosto,  &c.  The  English 
adaptation,  as  used  by  Byron,  has  English 
heroic  lines  of  ten  syllables. 

Otter,  CAPTAIN,  a  character  in  Jonson's 
*Epiccene*  (q.v.). 

Otterbourne,  The  Battle  of,  one  of  the  earliest 
of  English  ballads,  included  in  Percy's 
*ReliquesJ. 

The  Scots  in  1388,  returning  from  a  raid 
into  England,  attacked  the  castle  of  Otter- 
burn  in  Nortiiumberland,  and  after  an  un- 
successful assault  were  surprised  in  their 
camp  by  Henry  Hotspur,  Lord  Percy.  In  the 
ensuing  engagement  James,  earl  of  Douglas, 
commanding  the  Scottish  force,  was  killed, 
and  Percy  taken  prisoner.  These  events  are 
the  subject  of  the  ballad. 
Ottilia,  PRINCESS  OFEPPENWELZEN-SARKELD, 
a  character  in  Meredith's  'Harry  Richmond* 
(q.v.). 

Ottoman  Empire,  the  Turkish  Empire,  so 
called  from  its  founder  Othman  or  Osman 
(whence  Osmanli),  who  flourished  c.  1300. 
Otuel,  SIR,  a  pagan  knight,  miraculously 
converted,  who  became  one  of  Charlemagne's 
paladins. 

OTWAY,  THOMAS  (1652-85),  born  at  Mil- 
land  near  Trotton  in  Sussex,  was  educated 


[575] 


OUIDA 

at  Winchester  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
He  appeared  unsuccessfully  on  the  stage, 
being  given  a  part  by  the  kindness  of  Mrs. 
Aphra  Behn  (q.v.).  He  for  many  years 
cherished  an  unrequited  passion  for  Mrs. 
Barry  (q.v.),  the  actress.  In  1678  he  enlisted 
in  the  army  in  Holland,  and  received  a  com- 
mission, but  soon  returned.  He  died  in  desti- 
tution at  the  early  age  of  33. 

Of  his  three  great  tragedies,  'Don  Carlos* 
(q.v.),  in  rhymed  verse,  was  produced  in  1676 ; 
'The  Orphan*  (q.v.),  in  blank  verse,  in  1680; 
'Venice  Preserved'  (q.v.),  also  in  blank  verse, 
in  1683.  Of  his  other  plays,  'Alcibiades',  a 
tragedy,  was  produced  in  1675  (and  provided 
Mrs.  Barry  with  her  first  successful  part); 
'Titus  and  Berenice*,  adapted  from  a  tragedy 
by  Racine,  and  'The  Cheats  of  Scapin*  from 
a  comedy  by  Moliere,  in  1677 ;  'Friendship  in 
Fashion',  a  comedy,  in  1678;  'The  Soldier's 
Fortune*,  a  comedy,  in  1681 ;  'The  Atheist', 
a  comedy,  in  1684.  He  also  wrote  prologues, 
epilogues,  and  a  few  poems.  The  complete 
works  of  Otway,  edited  by  J.  C.  Ghosh,  were 
published  in  1932. 

OUIDA  (MARIE  LOUISE  DE  LA 
RAMfiE)  (1839-1908),  was  born  at  Bury  St. 
Edmunds,  the  daughter  of  Louis  Rame",  a 
teacher  of  French.  Her  pseudonym,  'Ouida*, 
was  a  childish  mispronunciation  of  her  name 
Louise.  She  first  became  known  by  the 
publication  in  'Bentley's  Miscellany*  in 
1859-60  of  a  number  of  short  tales.  Her 
forty-five  novels  deal  chiefly  with  fashion- 
able life  and  show  a  spirit  of  rebellion 
against  the  moral  ideals  reflected  in  much  of 
the  fiction  of  the  time.  She  incurred  a  good 
deal  of  ridicule  on  account  of  the  languid 
guardsmen,  miracles  of  strength,  courage, 
and  beauty,  whom  she  frequently  presented 
as  her  heroes,  and  of  her  amusing  mistakes  in 
matters  of  men's  sports  and  occupations. 
But  these  faults  were  redeemed  by  her  gift  for 
stirring  narrative  and  other  merits.  Her 
novels  include  'Under  Two  Flags*  (1867), 
'Tricotrin'  (1869),  Tuck'  (1870),  'Folle 
Farine'  (1871),  'Two  Little  Wooden  Shoes' 
(1874),  'Moths'  (1880),  'In  Marernma'  (1882), 
and  'Bimbi,  Stories  for  Children'  (1882). 
She  wrote  some  good  animal  stories,  of  which 
*A  Dog  of  Flanders*  (1872)  is  the  best.  Her 
novel  'A  Village  Commune*  (1881)  was 
highly  praised  by  Ruskin  as  a  faithful  picture 
of  peasant  life. 

Oulton,  THE  OLD  MAN  OF,  Borrow  (q.v.). 

Our  Mutual  Friend,  a  novel  by  Dickens 

(q.v.),  published  in  monthly  parts  between 

May  1864  and  Nov.  1865. 
John  Harmon  returns  from  the  exile  to 

which  he  has  been  sent  by  a  harsh  father,  a 
rich  dust- contractor ;  he  expects  to  receive  the 
inheritance  to  which  his  father  has  attached 
the  condition  that  he  shall  marry  a  certain  girl, 
Bella  Wilfer.  Bella  is  unknown  to  him,  and  he 
confides  to  a  mate  of  the  ship  which  is  bring- 
ing him  home  his  intention  of  concealing  his 
identity  until  he  has  formed  some  judgement 


OVERBURY 

o£  his  allotted  wife.  The  mate  lures  him  to  a 
riverside  haunt,  attempts  to  murder  him,  and 
is  in  turn  murdered.  The  two  bodies  are 
thrown  into  the  river.  Harmon  recovers  and 
escapes ;  the  mate's  body  is  found  after  some 
days,  and,  owing  to  Harmon's  papers  found 
upon  him,  it  is  taken  to  be  that  of  Harmon. 
Harmon's  intention  of  remaining  unknown  is 
thus  facilitated,  and  he  assumes  the  name  of 
John  Rokesmith,  and  becomes  the  secretary  of 
the  kindly,  disinterested  Mr.  Boffin,  old  Har- 
mon's foreman,  who,  in  default  of  young 
Harmon,  inherits  the  property.  He  is  thrown 
into  close  contact  with  Bella,  a  flighty  minx, 
who  is  adopted  by  Boffin,  and  who  is  turned  by 
her  first  taste  of  wealth  into  an  arrogant  mer- 
cenary jade.  Rokesmith  nevertheless  falls  in 
love  with  her  and  is  contemptuously  rejected. 
Harmon's  identity  is  now  discovered  by  the 
amiable  Mrs.  Boffin,  and  the  Boffins,  de- 
voted to  their  old  master's  son  and  convinced 
of  Bella's  soundness  of  heart,  contrive  a  plot 
to  prove  her.  Boffin  pretends  to  be  trans- 
formed by  his  wealth  into  a  hard  and  griping 
miser,  and  heaps  indignities  on  Harmon, 
who  is  finally  dismissed  with  contumely. 
Bella,  awakened  to  the  evils  of  wealth  and 
to  the  merits  of  Rokesmith,  flies  from  the 
Boffins  and  marries  her  suitor.  His  identity 
presently  comes  to  light,  and  with  his 
assistance  the  scheme  of  the  one-legged  old 
villain,  Silas  Wegg,  to  blackmail  Boffin  is 
exposed. 

Concurrently  with  this  main  theme  we 
have  the  story  of  the  love  of  Eugene  Wray- 
burn,  a  careless  insolent  young  barrister,  for 
Lizzy  Hexam,  daughter  of  a  disreputable 
boatman.  His  rival  for  her  affections,  Bradley 
Headstone,  a  schoolmaster,  attempts  to 
murder  Wrayburn.  The  latter  is  saved  by 
Lizzy  and  marries  her.  Among  the  notable 
characters  in  the  book  are  the  Veneerings, 
types  of  social  parvenus ;  the  good  Jew  Riah ; 
the  blackmailing  waterside  villain,  Rogue 
Riderhood;  Jenny  Wren,  the  dolls'  dress- 
maker; Bella  Wilfer *s  grotesque  father, 
mother,  and  sister;  and  the  spirited  Betty 
Higden,  an  old  woman  with  a  haunting  dread 
of  the  workhouse. 

Oval,  THE  KENNINGTON,  the  cricket  ground 
of  the  Surrey  County  Club,  in  south  London. 
It  was  laid  out  in  1845,  having  previously 
been  a  market-garden,  and  was  at  first  in  the 
occupation  of  the  Montpelier  Club,  which 
was  finally  merged  in  the  county  club. 

OVERBURY,  Sm  THOMAS  (1581-1613), 
of  a  Warwickshire  family,  was  educated  at 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  went  to  the 
Middle  Temple.  He  opposed  the  marriage 
of  his  patron,  Robert  Carr  (afterwards  earl 
of  Somerset),  with  the  divorced  countess  of 
Essex,  and  on  the  pretext  of  his  refusal  of 
diplomatic  employment  was  sent  to  the 
Tower,  where  he  was  slowly  poisoned  by 
agents  of  Lady  Essex.  Four  of  these  were 
hanged;  Somerset  and  his  wife  were  con- 
victed and  pardoned.  The  prosecution  was 


[576] 


OVERDO 

Conducted  by  F.  Bacon  (q.v.).  The  whole 
Business  is  an  historical  mystery.  Over- 
oury's  poem  'A  Wife*  was  published  in 
[614.  But  he  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his 
'  Characters',  on  the  model  of  those  of  Theo- 
;3hrastus  (q.v.) — not  all  of  which,  however, 
were  written  by  Overbury  himself — includ- 
such  types  as  'The  fayre  and  happy 
id',  'The  Mere  Fellow  of  a  College', 
c.  The  first  edition  of  these  appeared  in 
£614.  His  'Miscellaneous  Works  in  Verse 
and  Prose'  were  edited  by  E.  F.  Rimbault 
in  1856. 

pverdo9  JUSTICE,  a  character  in  Jonson's 
'Bartholomew  Fayre'  (q.v.). 

Overreach,  SIR  GILES,  a  character  in 
Massinger's  (A  New  Way  to  pay  Old  Debts' 
(jq.v.). 

OVID  (Publius  Ovidius  Naso)  (43  B.C.-A.D. 
jS?),  the  Roman  poet,  was  banished  from 
Rome  by  Augustus  in  A.D.  I  to  Tomi 
(Kustendje)  near  the  mouths  of  the  Danube 
for  reasons  connected  with  his ' Ars  Amatoria' 
and  some  scandal  affecting  the  imperial 
family,  and  there  died.  His  'Tristia*  and 
'Epistulae  ex  Ponto'  contain  a  pathetic  ac- 
count of  his  sufferings  in  exile.  His  works 
include  (in  rough  chronological  order)  the 
Amores,  Ars  Amatoria,  Remedia  Amoris, 
Medicamina  Formae*  Metamorphoses,  Fasti, 
Tristia,  Ibis,  and  Epistulae  ex  Ponto.  Ovid 
wrote  in  elegiacs  (q.v.),  and  was  the  favourite 
Latin  poet  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Owain,  SIR,  see  Patrick's  Purgatory. 

OWEN,  JOHN  (i563?-i622),  educated  at 
Winchester  College  and  New  College,  Oxford, 
was  the  author  of  several  volumes  of  Latin 
epigrams,  mostly  elegiac  couplets,  marked 
by  great  neatness  and  wit,  which  have  been 
compared  to  those  of  Martial.  They  deal 
with  a  wide  range  of  subjects,  institutions 
such  as  Oxford  University,  literary  works, 
imaginary  personages,  and  familiar  types. 
They  were  translated  into  several  languages 
and  frequently  reprinted  down  to  the  I9th 
cent. 

OWEN,  SIR  RICHARD  (1804-92),  edu- 
cated at  Lancaster  School  with  Whewell 
q.v.),  became  conservator  of  the  Hunterian 
;nuseum,  and  first  Hunterian  professor  of 
i  :omparative  anatomy  and  physiology.  ^  He 
lid  much  to  advance  the  science  of  animal 
structure.  His  great  feat  was  to  reconstruct 
the  extinct  New  Zealand  moa,  a  giant  wing- 
less bird,  from  its  femur  (1839).  His  chief 
works  include  'Lectures  on  the  Comparative 
Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Invertebrate 
Animals'  (1843-6),  'A  History  of  British 
Fossil  Mammals  and  Birds'  (1846),  'A  History 
of  British  Fossil  Reptiles1  (1849-84),  'Geology 
and  Inhabitants  of  the  Ancient  World 
'1854),  &c.  He  opposed  Darwin's  views  on 
ivolution  and  was  a  very  fierce  contro- 
versialist. 
OWEN,  ROBERT  (1771-1858),  socialist  and 


OXFORD  ENGLISH  DICTIONARY 

philanthropist,  was  a  successful  owner  of 
cotton-spinning  mills  in  Manchester.  He 
became  famous  for  his  'institution  for  the 
formation  of  character'  (New  Lanark),  in- 
cluding infant  schools  and  schools  of  two 
other  grades  (opened  in  1816),  and  for  other 
proposals  of  social  reform.  His  example  was 
largely  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the 
Factory  Act  of  1819.  Owen  was  the  pioneer 
of  co-operation  in  industry.  His  head  was 
perhaps  a  little  turned  by  the  adulation  he 
received,  and  at  last  he  became  mainly  a 
dreamer  of  noble  (but  unpractical)  dreams. 
He  published  'A  New  View  of  Society'  in 
1813,  'Revolution  in  Mind  and  Practice'  in 
1849,  and  his  autobiography  in  1857-8. 

Owl  and  the  Nightingale,  The,f  a  poem  of 
some  2,000  lines,  in  octosyllabic  couplets, 
probably  of  the  middle  of  the  isth  cent.  It  is 
a  debate  between  the  grave  Owl  and  the  gay 
Nightingale  as  to  the  benefits  they  confer  on 
man,  symbolizing  perhaps  ^respectively  the 
poet  of  love  and  the  religious  poet.  It  is 
marked  by  a  sense  of  the  charm  of  nature  in 
its  milder  aspects,  the  coming  of  spring  and 
the  golden  autumn.  The  poem  is  attributed 
to  one  Nicholas  de  Guildford  (fl.  1250),  who 
is  stated  in  the  poem  to  have  lived  atPortisharn 
in  Dorset;  but  John  of  Guildford  (probably 
fl.  1225),  who  is  known  to  have  written  verse 
about  this  time,  is  also  possibly  the  author. 

Owlglass,  see  Eulenspiegel. 
Ox,  THE  DUMB,  see  Aquinas. 

Oxford  and  Cambridge  Magazine,  The,  a 
periodical  of  the  year  1856,  of  which  twelve 
monthly  numbers  appeared,  financed  mainly 
by  William  Morris  (q.v.).  Among  its  con- 
tributors were  Morris  and  Bume-Jones  (of 
Oxford),  Lushington  (of  Cambridge),  and  by 
invitation  D.  G.  Rossetti,  whose  'Burden  of 
Nineveh'  appeared  in  its  pages. 

Oxford,  JOHN,  EARL  OF,  figuring  as  the 
merchant  Philipson,  a  character  in  Scott's 
*Anne  of  Geierstein5  (q.v.). 

Oxford  English  Dictionary.  The  scheme  of 
*a  completely  new  English  Dictionary'  was 
conceived  in  1858,  and  Herbert  Coleridge 
(1830-61),  succeeded  by  Dr.  F.  J.  Furnivall 
(1825-1910),  were  the  first  editors.  Their 
work,  which  covered  twenty  years,  consisted 
only  in  the  collection  of  materials,  and  it  was 
not  until  Dr.  J.  A.  H.  Murray  (q.v.)  took  the 
matter  up  in  1878  that  the  preparation  of  the 
Dictionary  began  to  take  active  form.  The 
first  part  was  published  in  1 884,  at  which  time 
Dr.  Murray  estimated  that  the  whole  might 
be  completed  in  another  twelve  years.  It  was 
not  in  fact  finished  until  1928,  seventy  years 
from  the  inception  of  the  undertaking. 
Dr.  (afterwards  Sir  James)  Murray,  who  laid 
down  the  lines  of  the  work,  did  not  live  to  see  it 
completed,  but  more  than  half  was  produced 
tinder  his  personal  editorship.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Dr.  H.  Bradley  (q.v.),  Dr.  (now  Sir 
William)  Alexander  Craigie  (b.  1867),  and 


3868, 


[577] 


OXFORD  GAZETTE 

Dr.  Charles  Talbut  Onions  (b.  1873).  The 
essential  feature  of  the  Dictionary  is  its  his- 
torical method,  by  which  the  meaning  and 
form  of  the  words  are  traced  from  their  earliest 
appearance  on  the  basis  of  an  immense  num- 
ber of  quotations,  collected  by  more  than  800 
voluntary  workers.  The  Dictionary  contains 
a  record  of  414,825  words,  whose  history  is 
illustrated  by  i ,827,306  quotations.  The  bulk 
of  the  work,  apart  from  the  printing  (which 
was  carried  out  by  the  Clarendon  Press),  was 
done  in  the  Old  Ashmolean  building  at 
Oxford. 

Oxford  Gazette,  The,  see  Gazette. 
Oxford  Movement  or  TRACTARIAN  MOVE- 
MENT, THE,  a  movement  initiated  in  1833  in 
revival  of  a  higher  conception  than  was 
generally  prevalent  of  the  position  and 
functions  of  the  Church,  as  'more  than  a 
merely  human  institution*  and  as  possessing 
'privileges,  sacraments,  a  ministry,  ordained 
by  Christ3.  The  movement  began  with  a 
sermon  preached  in  July  1833  at  Oxford  by 
Keble  (q.v.)  before  the  judges  of  assize^  on 
national  apostasy,  directed  against  the  Latitu- 
dinarian  and  Erastian  tendencies  of  the  day. 
This  was  followed  by  concerted  action  among 
the  men  who  shared  his  views,  and  in  Sep- 
tember of  the  same  year  appeared  the  first 
of  the  'Tracts  for  the  Times*  (q.v.).  The 
principal  leaders  of  the  movement  were, 
besides  Keble,  Newman  (q.v.),  R.  H.  Froude 
(q.v.),  and  Pusey  (q.v.).  It  was  Pusey,  already 
Regius  professor  of  Hebrew,  and  a  man  of 
real  learning  (he  joined  the  party  in  1835), 
who  first  gave  the  movement  cohesion,  fame, 
and  a  name;  its  adherents  soon  came  to  be 
called  Tuseyites'.  Other  leaders  were  J.  W. 
Bowden,  W.  Palmer,  A.  P.  Perceval,  and 
Isaac  Williams.  In  course  of  time,  with 
new  recruits,  including  W.  G.  Ward  (q.v.), 
new  forces  came  into  play,  which  had  a  dis- 
ruptive effect  on  the  movement,  while  public 
feeling  was  roused  against  it  by  the  issue  of 
the  first  volumes  of  the  'Literary  Remains 
of  Richard  Hurrell  Froude*  (1838),  with  its 
strictures  on  the  Reformation.  Newman's 
famous  Tract  XC  on  the  compatibility  of  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  with  Roman  Catholic 
theology  intensified  the  general  hostility. 
Newman's  own  confidence  in  his  position 
was  presently  shaken  by  an  article  by  Dr. 
Wiseman.  In  1843  he  resigned  his  living  and 
in  1 845  he  joined  the  Church  of  Rome.  In  the 
latter  year  W.  G.  Ward's  book,  'The  Ideal 
of  the  Christian  Church',  was  condemned  by 
Oxford  Convocation.  From  this  time  the 
movement  in  its  original  form  was  broken  up. 
A  remarkable  history  of  the  Oxford  Move- 
ment was  written  by  Dean  Church  (1891), 
while  much  light  is  also  thrown  on  it  by  the 
'Autobiography'  of  I.  Williams  (q.v.)  and 
Newman's  'Apologia*. 
Oxford  Sausage,  The,  see  Warton  (T.). 
Oxford  Street  took  its  name  early  in  the 
1 8th  cent,  from  Edward  Harley,  2nd  earl  of 
Oxford,  the  collector  of  the  Harleian  MSS., 


OXONIAN 

who  obtained  by  marriage  the  Marylebone 
estate  of  John  Holies,  duke  of  Newcastle.  It 
was  the  old  Tyburn  (q.v.)  Road.  This,  in 
turn,  probably  followed  approximately  the 
line  of  the  ancient  Roman  road  from  east  to 
west,  the  Here  Street,  which  crossed  Watling 
Street  where  the  Marble  Arch  now  stands. 
Oxford  University  was  organized  as  a 
studium  generale  soon  after  1167,  perhaps  as 
a  result  of  a  migration  of  students  from  Paris. 
A  Legatine  Ordinance  of  1214  mentions  its 
Chancellor.  Roger  Bacon  and  Duns  Scotus 
testify  to  its  importance  in  the  i3th  cent. 
University  College,  the  first  of  its  colleges, 
was  founded  in  1249,  Balliol  about  1263, 
Merton  in  1264.  Oxford  was  the  home  of 
Wycliffism  in  the  i4th  cent.  Erasmus  lectured 
there,  and  Grocyn,  Colet,  and  More  (qq.v.) 
were  among  its  famous  scholars  in  the  I5th- 
i6th  cents.  The  University  was  incorporated 
by  Act  of  1571 .  It  sided  with  the  king  in  the 
Civil  War.  Under  James  II  it  opposed  the 
king's  attempt  to  open  the  University  to 
Roman  Catholics,  a  quarrel  which  culminated 
in  the  king's  endeavour  to  impose  his 
nominee  as  president  of  Magdalen  (1687). 
See  also  Oxford  Movement,  All  Souls, 
Balliol,  Christ  Church,  Magdalen,  Merton. 
Oxford  University  Press,  THE,  or  the 
CLARENDON  PRESS.  Printing  was  carried  on 
at  Oxford  with  the  permission  of  the  Uni- 
versity from  Caxton's  time  (the  famous  St. 
Jerome  is  ascribed  to  the  year  1478).  But  the 
beginning  of  the  University  Press,  that  is 
of  printing  financed  and  controlled  by  the 
University,  dates  from  1585,  when  Joseph 
Barnes  started  work  with  a  loan  from  the 
University,  a  committee  De  Libris  Imprimen- 
dis  having  been  set  up.  The  venture  was 
recognized  by  an  ordinance  of  the  Star  Cham- 
ber of  1586,  and  was  patronized  by  Laud. 

It  was  Fell  (q.v.),  dean  of  Christ  Church 
and  bishop  of  Oxford,  who  first  gave  the 
University  Press  its  great  development,  ob- 
taining for  it  from  abroad  the  type  and 
matrixes  that  bear  his  name,  encouraging  the 
printing  of  learned  works,  and  with  three 
other  University  men  undertaking  the  finan- 
cial responsibility  of  the  printing  which  had 
hitherto  been  leased  to  craft  printers.  The 
next  impulse  came  with  the  printing  (in 
1702)  of  Clarendon's  great  history,  from 
the  profits  of  which  the  new  Clarendon 
printing-house  in  Broad  Street  was  erected. 
Early  in  the  I9th  cent,  the  Press  moved  to  its 
present  buildings,  'near  a  place  called  Jericho* 
in  what  is  now  Walton  Street,  Oxford. 
During  that  century  it  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Bartholomew  Price  (1818-98), 
Master  of  Pembroke,  who  was  secretary  from 
1868  to  1884,  and  a  delegate  of  the  Press  for 
even  longer,  and  who  greatly  improved  its 
organization.  A  further  rapid  development 
was  made  under  the  secretaryship  of  Charles 
Carman  (d.  1930). 

Oxonian,  of  or  belonging  to  the  University 
of  Oxford. 


[578] 


OXYMORON 

Oxymoron,  from  two  Greek  words  meaning 
'sharp',  'dull',  a  rhetorical  figure  by  which 
two  incongruous  or  contradictory  terms  are 
united  in  an  expression  so  as  to  give  it 
point;  e.g.  'Faith  unfaithful  kept  him  falsely 
true*. 

Oyer  and  terminer,  COMMISSION  OF,  a 


PAIN 

commission  ( to  hear  and  determine*,  granted 
to  judges  on  circuit,  directing  them  to  hold 
courts  for  the  trial  of  offences. 

Qzymandias  of  Egypt,  a  poem  by  P.  B. 
Shelley  (q.v.).  The  Ramesseum  (of  Rameses 
II)  at  Thebes  is  called  by  Diodorus  Siculus 
(i.  47  et  seq.)  the  tomb  of  Ozymandias. 


Pacha  of  Many  Tales,  The,  a  novel  (1835)  by 

Marryat  (q.v.). 

Pacific  Ocean,  THE,  said  to  have  been  so 

named  by  the  Portuguese  explorer  Magellan, 

who  was  the  first  to  navigate  it  (1520),  on 

account  of  the  calm  weather  he  experienced 

there. 

Pacolet,  in  the  tale  of  'Valentine  and  Orson' 
(q.v.),  a  dwarf  in  the  service  of  the  Lady 
Clerknond.  He  possessed  a  winged  horse, 
who  bore  off  Valentine,  Orson,  and  Cleri- 
mond  from  the  castle  of  the  giant  Ferragus. 
'Pacolet'  is  the  name  of  Mr.  BickerstafFs 
'familiar*  in  Steele's  'The  Tatler*(No.  15),  and 
of  Norna's  dwarf  in  Scott's  'The  Pirate*  (q.v.). 
Pactotus,  a  river  in  Lydia,  rising  in  Mt* 
Imolus,  and  falling  into  the  Hermus  after 
watering  the  city  of  Sardes.  It  was  in  this 
river  that  Midas  (q.v.)  washed  himself  when 
his  touch  converted  everything  to  gold.  Its 
sands  were  in  consequence  turned  to  gold. 

PAGUVIUS,  Roman  tragic  poet,  ft.  c.  220 
B.C. 

Padishah,  a  Persian  title,  meaning  'lord 
King*,  equivalent  to  'Great  King*  or  'Em- 
peror*, applied  in  Persia  to  the  Shah,  in 
Europe,  in  former  days,  usually  to  the  Sultan 
of  Turkey,  in  India  to  the  Great  Mogul. 

Padlock,  The,  a  comic  opera  by  Bickerstaffe 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1768  and  very  successful. 
The  elderly  Don  Diego  is  the  temporary 
guardian  of  the  young  Leonora  and  is  about 
to  make  her  his  wife.  But,  in  spite  of  a  large 
padlock  on  the  door,  Leander,  a  young  lover, 
presents  himself  during  Diego's  absence, 
cajoles  the  duenna  and  Mungo,  the  negro 
servant,  and  gains  admission  to  the  lady. 
Diego  returns  unexpectedly,  but  sensibly 
accepts  the  situation,  and  handsomely  endows 
Leonora.  The  story  is  taken  from  one  of 
Cervantes's  novels. 

Prior  (q.v.)  wrote  a  short  poem  called  f  An 
English  Padlock*,  containing  advice  to  the 
jealous  husband  of  a  young  wife.  It  contains 
the  well-known  lines: 

Be  to  her  virtues  very  kind ; 

Be  to  her  faults  a  little  blind; 

Let  all  her  ways  be  unconfin'd, 

And  clasp  a  padlock  on  her  mind. 
Paean,  in  Greek  antiquity  a  hymn  of  thanks- 
giving addressed  to  Apollo  invoked  under 
the  name  Paean  (which  was  originally  the 


Homeric  name  of  the  physician  of  the  gods), 
or  to  Artemis ;  especially  a  song  of  triumph 
after  victory.  The  word  is  now  used  for  a 
song  of  praise  or  thanksgiving,  or  a  shout  or 
song  of  triumph. 

Paeon,  a  metrical  foot  of  four  syllables,  one 
long  and  three  short,  named,  according  to  the 
position  of  the  long  syllable,  a  first,  second, 
third,  or  fourth  paeon. 

Paeonia,  the  ancient  name  of  a  country  lying 
north  of  Macedonia  and  east  of  IHyria,  on  the 
upper  course  of  what  is  now  the  Vardar. 

Paetus,  CAECINA,  was  sentenced  to  death  in 
A.D.  42  on  a  charge  of  conspiring  against  the 
emperor  Claudius.  When  he  hesitated  to  take 
his  own  life  in  accordance  with  the  sentence, 
his  wife  Arria  stabbed  herself  and  handed 
him  the  dagger,  saying,  'Paetus,  it  does  not 
hurt  me'  (Plin.  Ep.  iii.  16). 

PAGAN,  ISOBEL  (Tibby)  (d.  1821),  hostess 
of  an  Ayrshire  inn,  the  reputed  author  of  the 
songs  'Ca*  the  Yowes  to  the  Knowes*  and  the 
'Crook  and  Plaid',  in  which  there  is  an 
anticipation  of  the  genius  of  Burns. 

Paganini,  NICOLO  (1782-1840),  a  famous 
Italian  violinist,  whose  playing  produced  an 
extraordinary  effect  on  his  hearers.  'With 
the  first  notes  his  audience  was  spell-bound; 
there  was  certainly  in  him  ...  a  daemonic 
element  which  irresistibly  took  hold  of  those 
that  came  within  his  sphere*  (Grove). 

Page,  MRS.  PAGE,  and  ANNE  PAGE,  their 
daughter,  characters  in  Shakespeare's  'Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor'  (q.v.). 

Pagett,  M.P.,  the  subject  of  one  of  Kipling's 
'Departmental  Ditties*,  an  arrogant  M.P. 
who  goes  to  India  on  a  short  visit  to  'study  the 
East*,  but  is  cured  of  his  arrogance  by  a  taste 
of  Indian  hot  weather,  and  flies  from  the 
country  before  his  time  is  up. 

Pahlavi  or  PEHLEVI,  the  name  given  by  the 
followers  of  Zoroaster  to  the  character  in 
which  are  written  the  ancient  translations  of 
their  sacred  books ;  also  the  name  for  Middle 
Persian  speech  (the  language  transitional 
from  Old  Persian  to  Modern  Persian)  written 
in  Aramaic  script.  The  word  is  used  in  this 
sense  in  Fitzgerald's  translation  of  Omar 
Khayyam. 

PAIN,  BARRYERICODELL(i864-i928), 
British  novelist,  author  of  *The  One  Before' 


[579] 


ppz 


PAINE 

(1902),  'Eliza*  (1900),  'Eliza  Getting  On' 
(1911),  'Exit  Eliza'  (1912),  'Eliza's  Son* 
(1913),  &c. 

PAINE,  THOMAS  (1737-1809),  son  of  a 
staymaker  and  small  farmer  of  Thetfprd. 
After  following  various  humble  avocations 
he  became  an  excise  officer,  but  was  dis- 
missed from  the  service  in  1772  in  connexion 
with  an  agitation  for  an  increase  of  excise- 
men's pay.  He  sailed  for  America,  where  he 
published  in  1776  his  pamphlet,  'Common 
Sense',  a  history  of  the  transactions  that 
had  led  to  the  war  with  England,  and  in 
1776-83  a  series  of  pamphlets,  cThe  Crisis', 
encouraging  resistance  to  England.  He  held 
various  posts  under  the  American  govern- 
ment until  1787,  when  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land. In  1791  he  published  the  first  part  of 
his  'Rights  of  Man'  (q.v.)  in  reply^to  Burke 's 
'Reflections  on  the  Revolution  in  France* 
(q.v.),  and  the  second  part  in  1792.  He  fled 
to  France  to  avoid  prosecution,  and  was 
there  warmly  received  and  elected  a  member 
of  the  Convention.  He  opposed  the  execution 
of  Louis  XVI  and  narrowly  escaped  the 
guillotine.  He  published  in  1793  the  ' Age  of 
Reason',  a  defence  of  Deism  against  Chris- 
tianity and  Atheism,  written  in  a  tone  of 
arrogance  and  coarse  violence.  This  work 
increased  the  odium  in  which  he  was  held  in 
England.  He  returned  to  America  in  1802, 
where  his  'Age  of  Reason'  and  his  opposition 
to  Washington  and  the  federalists  made  him 
unpopular.  He  died  at  New  York.  His 
connexion  with  the  American  struggle  and 
afterwards  with  the  French  Revolution  gave 
him  a  unique  position,  and  his  writings,  which 
show  him  a  shrewd  political  thinker,  became 
a  sort  of  text-book  for  the  extreme  radical 
party  in  England. 

PAINTER,    WILLIAM,    see    Palace    of 

Pleasure. 

Pair  of  Slue  Eyes,  At  a  novel  by  Hardy 

(q.v.),  published  in  1873. 

The  scene  of  the  story  is  the  northern 
coast  of  Cornwall.  Stephen  Smith,  a  young 
architect,  having  come  to  Endelstow  to  restore 
a  church  tower,  falls  in  love  with  Elfride 
Swancourt,  the  blue-eyed  daughter  of  the 
vicar.  It  comes  to  light  that  he  is  the  son  of 
humble  parents,  and  the  vicar  is  highly  in- 
censed at  the  idea  of  his  daughter  marrying 
him.  Stephen  and  Elfride  run  away  together 
to  be  married,  but  the  project  is  frustrated  by 
the  girl's  vacillation,  and  Stephen,  hoping  for 
better  luck  when  he  has  made  a  fortune, 
accepts  a  post  in  India.  While  he  is  there,  his 
place  as  Elfride's  wooer  is  taken  by  Henry 
Knight,  a  man  of  letters,  formerly  Stephen's 
friend  and  patron.  Elfride  saves  his  life  on  a 
cliff,  and  they  are  engaged.  But  Knight  is 
rather  a  stern  character.  He  has  never  kissed 
a  woman  in  his  life,  and  expects  the  same 
inexperience  in  his  bride.  Elfride's  escapade 
with  Stephen  has  been  witnessed  by  a  woman 
who,  having  a  motive  for  revenge  on  Elfride, 
reveals  what  she  knows  to  Knight,  putting 


PALAMEDgS 

the  worst  aspect  on  the  matter.  Knight 
harshly  breaks  off  the  engagement  and  leaves 
Elfride  heart-stricken.  After  a  time  he  and 
Stephen  meet;  Stephen  learns  that  Elfride  is 
still  unmarried,  Knight  learns  the  true  facts 
of  her  escapade.  They  both  rush  down  to 
Cornwall,  only  to  find  that  the  train  which 
carries  them  also  carries  her  corpse. 

There  is,  incidentally,  some  admirable 
Shakespearian  dialogue  among  the  workmen 
preparing  the  vault  of  the  Luxellian  family 
for  a  burial. 

Palace  of  Pleasure ,  a  collection  of  transla- 
tions into  English  of  "pleasant  histories  and 
excellent  novels'  'out  of  divers  good  and 
commendable  authors',  made  by  William 
Painter  (i54o?~94),  master  of  Sevenoaks 
school  in  Kent,  published  in  1566  and  1567. 
It  served  as  a  storehouse  from  which  the 
Elizabethan  dramatists  drew  many  of  their 
plots.  Many  of  the  translations  are  from 
Boccaccio  and  Bandello,  but  the  compiler 
draws  also  on  Herodotus  and  Livy. 
Palace  of  Westminster,  see  Westminster 
Palace. 

Paladins,  THE,  in  the  cycle  of  Charlemagne 
legends,  were  the  twelve  peers  who  accom- 
panied the  king.  The  origin  of  the  concep- 
tion is  seen  in  the  'Chanson  de  Roland*  (see 
Roland),  where  the  twelve  peers  are  merely 
an  association  of  particularly  brave  warriors, 
under  the  leadership  of  Roland  and  Oliver, 
who  all  perish  at  Roncevaux.  From  the 
Spanish  war  the  idea  was  transported  by  later 
writers  to  other  parts  of  the  cycle,  and 
Charlemagne  is  found  always  surrounded  by 
twelve  peers.  In  England  the  word  'douce- 
per'  (q.v.)  in  the  singular  was  even  adopted  to 
signify  a  paladin.  The  names  of  the  twelve 
are  differently  stated  by  different  authors, 
most  of  the  original  names  given  by  the 
'Chanson  de  Roland*  being  forgotten  by  them ; 
but  Roland  and  Oliver  figure  in  all  the 
enumerations.  Among  the  best  known  are 
Fierabras  or  Ferumbras  and  Ogier  the  Dane. 
In  the  early  I3th  (and  probably  in  the  late 
I2th)  cents,  there  were  in  fact  "Twelve  Peers 
of  France',  forming  a  'Court  of  Peers',  six 
ecclesiastical  and  six  lay. 

Paladis  Tamia,  see  Meres. 
Palaemon,  see  Ino. 

PalaeologI,  a  Byzantine  dynasty  which 
furnished  rulers  of  the  Eastern  empire  from 
1261  (Michael  Palaeologus)  to  the  fall  of 
Constantinople  (1453). 

Palafox,  in  Wordsworth's  sonnet  ('Sonnets 
to  Liberty*,  1810),  was  Jose1  de  Palafox  y 
Melzi,  a  Spanish  general,  who  defended 
Saragossa  against  the  French  in  1808. 

PMamedes,  a  Grecian  chief,  son  of  Nauplius, 
king  of  Euboea,  sent  by  the  Greek  princes  to 
oblige  Ulysses  to  join  the  expedition  to  Troy. 
Ulysses,  reluctant  to  leave  his  wife  Penelope, 
feigned  madness,  but  Palamedes  exposed  the 
deceit.  Ulysses  in  consequence  conceived  a 


[580] 


PALAMIDES 

bitter  enmity  against  him,  and  forged  a  letter  - 
supposed  to  be  written  by  King  Priam  to 
Palamedes  treating  of  the  delivery  of  the 
Greek  army  into  Trojan  hands.  He  also  had 
a  large  sum  of  money  concealed  in  a  hole  in 
Palamedes'  tent,  and  by  these  means  caused 
him  to  be  convicted  of  treason  and  stoned  to 
death.  Palamedes  is  credited  with  much 
learning  and  ingenuity,  the  addition  of  cer- 
tain letters  to  the  alphabet  of  Cadmus,, the 
invention  of  dice  and  backgammon,  "the 
scientific  ordering  of  a  line  of  battle,  &c. 
Palamides,  SIR,  in  the  Arthurian  legend,  a 
Saracen.  He  falls  in  love  with  La  Beale  Isoud 
in  Ireland,  and  comes  into  conflict  with 
Tristram  (q.v.),  who  defeats  him  and  makes 
him  be  baptized.  His  constant  occupation 
is  the  pursuit  of  the  'Questing  Beast'. 
Palamon  and  Arcite,  the  subject  of  the 
'Knight's  Tale'  in  Chaucer's  'Canterbury 
Tales*  (q.v.).  This  tale  was  paraphrased  in 
heroic  couplets  by  John  Dryden  (q.v.)  under 
the  title  'Palarnon  and  Arcite'.  It  is  also  the 
subject  of  Fletcher's  £The  Two  Noble  Kins- 
men' (q.v.),  and  of  a  play,  no  longer  extant, 
but  praised  by  Meres,  by  Richard  Edwards 
(q.v.). 

Palatine,  see  County  Palatine,  Elector 
Palatine. 

Pale,  THE  ENGLISH,  also  simply  THE  PALE, 
in  Ireland,  that  part  of  Ireland  (varying  in 
extent  at  different  times)  over  which  English 
jurisdiction  was  established.  The  term  ap- 
pears to  have  been  first  used  (in  respect  of 
Ireland)  in  a  statute  of  Edward  IV,  which 
orders  it  to  be  fortified  with  a  double  ditch 
and  palisade.  The  Statute  of  Kilkenny  (1367) 
had  recognized  some  such  condition,  viz. 
that  the  inhabitants  of  that  part  of  Ireland 
where  the  king's  writ  ran  were  not  to  have 
intercourse  with  the  wild  Irishry  outside  it. 
The  term  was  also  applied  to  the  territory 
of  Calais. 
Palemon,  see  Lavinia  and  Palemon. 

Pales,  an  Italian  goddess  of  pastoral  life, 
protectress  of  shepherds  and  their  flocks. 

Palestrina,  GIOVANNI  PIERLUIGI  DA  (1524?- 
1594),  born  at  Palestrina  near  Rome,  the  great 
composer  of  sacred  music  for  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  He  composed  a  large 
number  of  masses,  litanies,  hymns,  and 
chants,  and  was  hailed  as  the  'saviour  of- 
music'  on  account  of  his  'Missa  papae  Mar- 
celli'  (of  which  the  story  is  told  in  'N.  &  Q.', 
HI.  vi.  84).  His  'Improperia'  are  still  sung 
every  Good  Friday  in  the  Sistine  Chapel. 

PALEY,  WILLIAM  (1743-1805),  educated 
at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he 
became  fellow.  He  was  senior  wrangler  in 
1763.  Paley  was  one  of  the  principal  expo- 
nents of  theological  utilitarianism,  of  which 
his  'Moral  and  Political  Philosophy'  (q.v.), 
published  in  1785,  is  the  text-book.  In  his 
'Horae  Paulinae*  (1790),  'Evidences  of 
Christianity'  (1794),  and  'Natural  Theology* 


PALINODE 

(1802),  he  finds  proof  of  the  existence  of  God 
in  the  design  apparent  in  natural  phenomena, 
and  particularly  in  the  human  body,  and 
controverts  the  theory  of  the  adaptation  of 
the  organism  to  its  circumstances  by  use, 
taking  up  a  position  that  has  been  weakened 
by  subsequent  evolutionary  discoveries.  For 
his  utilitarian  theory  of  morality  see  Moral 
and  Political  Philosophy. 

PALGRAVE,  SIR  FRANCIS  (1788-1861), 
the  son  of  Meyer  Cohen,  a  Jew,  was  the 
author  of  'The  Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
English  Commonwealth'  (1832)  and  of  'The 
History  of  Normandy  and  England'  (1851- 
64);  also  of  an  'Essay  on  the  Original 
Authority  of  the  King's  Council*  (1834)  and 
of  'Truth  and  Fictions  of  the  Middle  Ages  : 
the  Merchant  and  the  Friar*  (1837).  He  was 
deputy-keeper  of  the  records,  1838-61,  and 
rendered  great  service  in  promoting  the 
critical  study  in  England  of  medieval  history. 

PALGRAVE,  FRANCIS  TURNER  (1824- 
97),  son  of  Sir  Francis  Palgrave  (q.v.),  was 
educated  at  Charterhouse  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  and  was  a  close  friend  of  Tennyson. 
He  was  an  official  in  the  education  depart- 
ment from  1855  to  1884.  From  1885  to  1895 
he  was  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford.  He  is 
chiefly  remembered  for  his  anthology,  'The 
Golden  Treasury  of  Songs  and  Lyrics*  (1861  ; 
second  series,  1896),  but  was  also  himself  a 
poet,  and  published  several  volumes  of  lyrics, 
&c.  'The  Visions  of  England'  (1881)  is  per- 
haps his  best  work. 

PALGRAVE,  WILLIAM  GIFFORD 
(1826-88),  son  of  Sir  F.  Palgrave  (q.v.),  edu- 
cated at  Charterhouse  School  and^  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  became  a  Jesuit  missionary 
in  Syria  and  Arabia.  He  published  in  1865 
his  'Narrative  of  a  Year's  Journey  through 
Central  and  Eastern  Arabia*.  Some  doubt 
has  been  cast  on  the  accuracy  of  his  remi- 
niscences. He  "severed  his  connexion  with 
the  Jesuits  in  1865  and  entered  the  diplo- 
matic service.  His  pleasant  romance  'Her- 
mann Agha*,  somewhat  after  the  style  of 
Hope's  'Anastasius'  (q.v.),  appeared  in  1872. 

Palimpsest,  from  vraXiv  again,  and  i/f^aro? 
rubbed  smooth,  a  manuscript  in  which  a  later 
writing  is  written  over  an  effaced  earlier 
writing.  Of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  early 
Middle  Ages  because  of  the  cost  of  parch- 
ment. 


Palindrome,    from    •jraAtvSpo/zos',    running 
back  again,  a  word,  verse,  or  sentence  that 
reads  the  same  forwards  or  backwards,  e.g.: 
Lewd  did  I  live  &  evil  I  did  dwel 

(Phillips,  1706), 

and  the  Latin  line  descriptive  of  moths  : 
In  girum  irnus  noctes  et  consumimur  igni. 

Palinode,  from  TroAwpSm,  singing  over  again, 
a  recantation.  'Palinode'  is  the  name  of  the 
Catholic  shepherd  in  the  fifth  eclogue  of 
Spenser's  'Shepheards  Calender*  (q.v.). 


PALINURUS 

Paliirariis,  the  pilot  of  Aeneas,  who  'nodded 
at  the  helm*,  fell  into  the  sea,  and  after 
reaching  the  shore,  was  murdered  by  the  in- 
habitants of  the  place. 

Palisse,  LA,  see  La  Palisse. 

Palissy,  BERNARD  (1510-89),  a  celebrated 
French  potter,  who  discovered  the  secret  of 
Italian  enamels.  He  was  a  ^  Huguenot  and 
died  in  the  Bastille  for  his  faith. 

Pall  Mall,  London,  from  the  obsolete  French 
pallemaille^  literally  'ball-mallet*,  the  name  of 
a  game  introduced  into  England  in  the  zyth 
cent.,  in  which  a  wooden  ball  was  driven 
through  an  iron  ring  suspended  at  some 
height  above  the  ground  in  a  long  alley. 
[OED.]  The  present  street  was  developed 
from  one  of  these  alleys.  Nell  Gwyn  lived 
there  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  cent.,  and 
a  century  later  Gainsborough  and  Cosway. 

Pall  Mall  Gazette,  The,  was  founded  in  1865 
by  Frederick  Greenwood  (1830-1909),  to 
combine  the  features  of  a  newspaper  with  the 
literary  features  of  the  'Spectator*  and  'Sat- 
urday Review*.  Its  name  was  taken  from 
Thackeray's  *Pendennis'(q.v.),  where  Captain 
Shandon  in  the  Marshalsea  prepares  the 
prospectus  of  'The  Pall  Mall  Gazette', 
'written  by  gentlemen  for  gentlemen'.  Its 
early  contributors  included  Sir  Henry  Maine, 
Anthony  Trollope,  and  Sir  James  Fitzjames 
Stephen.  In  1880,  the  'Pall  Mall  Gazette* 
having  been  bought  by  a  Radical,  Greenwood 
was  superseded  by  John  Morley  as  editor, 
with  W.  T.  Stead  as  his  lieutenant;  and 
Greenwood  produced  instead  the  newly 
founded  Conservative  'St.  James's  Gazette*. 

Palladio,  ANDREA  (1518-80),  an  Italian 
architect,  who  imitated  the  ancient  Roman 
style  without  regard  to  classical  principles, 
and  gave  his  name  to  the  PALLADIAN  school 
or  style  of  architecture.  He  designed  many 
edifices  at  Vicenza,  Venice,  Padua,  &c. 

Palladium,  a  statue  of  Pallas  Athene,  which 
was  supposed  to  confer  security  on  the  town 
that  contained  it  and  was  accordingly  kept 
hidden.  The  most  celebrated  statue  of  this 
kind  was  that  supposed  to  have  fallen  from 
heaven  when  Ilus  was  building  Troy,  where 
it  was  retained  until  carried  off  by  Odysseus 
and  Diomedes,  or,  according  to  another 
version,  by  Aeneas. 

Pallas,  a  name  of  Athene  (q.v.). 

Palliser,  PLANTAGENET,  and  his  wife  LADY 
GLENCORA,  characters  appearing  in  several  of 
A.  Trollope's  (q.v.)  novels  ('The  Small  House 
at  Allington',  'Can  you  forgive  her?*,  'Phi- 
neas  Finn*,  'The  Prime  Minister*,  and  'The 
Duke's  Children*).  He  is  the  nephew  and 
heir  of  the  duke  of  Omnium  and  becomes 
prime  minister,  *a  very  noble  gentleman — • 
such  a  one  as  justifies  to  the  nation  the 
seeming  anomaly  of  an  hereditary  peerage 
and  of  primogeniture*,  wrote  the  author 
himself.  He  looked  upon  his  presentation 


PAMELA 

of  Palliser  and  his  wife  in  these  novels  as 
the  best  work  of  his  life. 
Palm  Sunday,  the  Sunday  next  before 
Easter  Day,  observed,  in  commemoration  of 
Jesus  Christ's  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem, 
by  processions  in  which  branches  of  palm^or, 
in  northern  regions,  of  other  trees,  are  carried. 

Palmerin  of  England  (Palmeirim  de  Ingla- 
terra),  a  chivalric  romance  of  uncertain 
authorship,  attributed  to  the  Portuguese 
Francisco  de  Moraes  (c.  1500-72)  or  the 
Spaniard,  Luis  Hurtado  (i53°-79?)- 

The  'Palmerines*  consist  of  eight  books 
dealing  with  exploits  and  loves  of  Palmerin  de 
Oliva,  emperor  of  Constantinople,  and  his 
various  descendants,  of  which  Palmerin  of 
England  is  the  subject  of  the  sixth.  The 
daughter  of  Palmerin  de  Oliva,  Flerida  by 
name,  married  Don  Duardos,  son  of  Fad- 
rique,  king  of  Great  Britain,  and  became  the 
mother  of  Palmerin  of  England  and  his 
brother,  Floriano  of  the  Desert.  Duardos 
having  been  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  the 
giant  Dramusiando  by  Eutropa,  a  magician,  a 
savage  carries  off  the  young  children  (Pal- 
merin and  Floriano)  intending  them  as  food 
for  his  hunting  lions,  but  his  wife  insists  on 
bringing  them  up.  Palmerin  is  taken  to 
Constantinople  and  appointed  to  wait  on  his 
cousin  Polinarda,  with  whom  he  falls  in  love ; 
while  Floriano  is  taken  to  London  and 
appointed  to  wait  on  Flerida.  Palmerin  and 
Floriano  undertake  the  quest  of  Don  Duar- 
dos, and  the  former  is  successful.  Thereafter 
the  identity  of  the  brothers  is  revealed  and 
Palmerin  marries  Polinarda .  Then  the  Soldan 
advances  against  the  Christians  and  demands 
the  surrender  of  Polinarda  as  a  condition  of 
peace.  Finally  the  Turks  attack  Constanti- 
nople; all  the  Turks  and  most  of  the 
Christians  perish,  but  Palmerin  survives. 
Southey  (q.v.)  published  a  revised  transla- 
tion of  this  romance  (1807). 

'Palmerin  of  England*  and  'Amadis  of 
Gaul*  were  two  romances  of  chivalry  specially 
excepted  from  the  holocaust  of  such  works 
carried  out  by  the  curate  and  the  barber  in 
'Don  Quixote'  (q.v.). 

Palmetto  State,  South  Carolina,  see  United 
States. 

Palmyra  or  TADMOR,  the  capital  of  a  coun- 
try situated  east  of  Syria,  once  the  seat  of  the 
famous  Zenobia  (q.v.),  now  in  ruins. 

PALTOCK,  ROBERT  (1697-1767),  author 
of  'Peter  Wilkins'  (q.v.).  He  was  an  attorney 
of  Clement's  Inn. 

Pam,  (i)  a  familiar  abbreviation  of  Palmer- 
ston  (Henry  John  Temple,  third  Viscount 
Palmerston,  1784-1865,  the  statesman);  (2) 
the  knave  of  clubs,  ranking  as  the  highest 
trump  in  'five-card  loo',  apparently  an  ab- 
breviation of  French  pampkzle,  the  name  of  a 
card  game,  and  of  the  knave  of  clubs  in  it. 

Pamela,  a  character  in  Sidney's  'Arcadia* 
(q.v.). 


PAM'ELA 

Pam'ela,  or  Virtue  Rewarded,  a  novel  by 
Richardson  (q.v.),  published  in  1740. 

This  was  the  author's  first  work  of  fiction, 
and  the  first  example  of  what  may  be  called 
the  modern  English  novel  of  character.  The 
story  is  told  in  a  series  of  letters  from  the 
heroine,  Pamela  Andrews,  a  young  maid- 
servant, whose  mistress  has  just  died  when 
the  story  opens.  The  lady's  son,  Mr.  B., 
becomes  enamoured  of  Pamela,  and,  taking  a 
dishonourable  advantage  of  her  position, 
pursues  her  with  his  advances.  She  in- 
dignantly repels  them,  leaves  the  house,  is 
pursued  by  B.,  and  shows  considerable 
astuteness  in  defending  herself.  Finally  B., 
being  much  in  love  with  her,  comes  to  terms 
and  decides  to  marry  her. 

The  second  part  of  the  book  (published  in 
1741),  which  is  less  interesting,  presents 
Pamela  married,  suffering  with  dignity  and 
sweetness  the  burden  of  a  profligate  hus- 
band. 

The  novel  was  translated  into  French  and 
Dutch  and  made  the  object  of  several  skits. 
The  most  famous  of  these  were  cAn  Apology 
for  the  Life  ^  of  Mrs.  Shamela  Andrews' 
(1741),  of  which  the  authorship  is  uncertain 
(it  was  perhaps  by  Fielding),  and  Fielding's 
'Joseph  Andrews'  (q.v.). 

Pamphlet,  a  small  unbound  treatise, 
especially  on  a  subject  of  current  interest. 
The  word  is  apparently  a  generalized  use  of 
Pamphilet,  a  familiar  name  of  the  12th- 
century  Latin  amatory  poem  or  comedy  called 
'Pamphilus,  seu  de  Amore',  a  highly  popular 
opuscule  in  the  I3th  cent.  [OEDJ 

Pan,  the  god  of  shepherds  and  huntsmen, 
represented  as  a  monster,  with  two  small 
horns  on  his  head,  flat  nose,  ruddy  com- 
plexion, and  the  legs  and  feet  of  a  goat.  He  is 
said  by  some  authors  to  have  been  the  son  of 
Hermes  and  to  have  been  carried  to  heaven 
by  his  father,*  where  the  oddity  of  his  appear- 
ance greatly  delighted  the  gods,  and  in  par- 
ticular Bacchus.  Pan  invented  the  flute  with 
seven  reeds,  which  he  called  syrinx  in  honour 
of  the  beautiful  nymph  of  that  name.  His 
worship  was  widespread  and  particularly 
established  in  Arcadia.  Plutarch  mentions 
that  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  a  ship  with 
passengers  was  driven  near  the  coast  of  the 
Isles  of  Paxi.  A  loud  voice  was  heard  calling 
to  one  Thamus  that  the  great  god  Pan  was 
dead.  The  emperor  ordered  an  inquiry,  but 
the  astrologers  were  unable  to  explain  the 
meaning  of  this  supernatural  announcement. 
The  incident  in  Christian  legend  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  birth  of  Christ.  According 
to  M.  Salomon  Reinach  the  explanation  may 
be  found  in  the  lament  of  the  worshippers  of 
the  god  Thamuz  (q.v.),  '®aju/iou£  o  Trdfj.fj.ey as 
T€9vi]K€9,  overheard  and  misunderstood  by 
the  passengers  of  a  ship  while  his  annual 
obsequies  were  being  celebrated. 

PANIC  FEAR  is  the  fear  that  seizes  people 
without  obvious  cause:  Pan  was  thought 
responsible  for  the  alarms  felt  by  people, 


PANDOSTO 

especially  travellers  in  remote  and  desolate 
places. 

Panchafantra,  a  Sanskrit  collection  of  fables, 
from  which  are  derived  the  'Fables  of  Bidpai' 
(q.v.)  and  many  more  or  less  direct  European 
versions. 

Pancks,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Little 
Dorrit'  (q.v.). 

Pandarus,  a  son  of  Lycaon,  who  assisted 
the  Trojans  in  their  war  with  the  Greeks. 
The  part  which  he  played  in  the  tale  of 
Troilus  and  Cressida  (q.v.)  has  no  founda- 
tion in  classical  antiquity. 

Pandams,  in  Chaucer's  'Troylus  and  Cry- 
seyde'  and  in  Shakespeare's  'Troilus  and 
Cressida'  (q.v.),  the  uncle  of  Cressida  and  the 
go-between  in  her  relations  with  Troilus. 

Pandects,  The,  or  Digests,  of  Justinian,  a 
compendium  in  fifty  books  of  Roman  civil 
law,  made  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Justinian 
in  the  sixth  cent.,  systematizing  opinions  of 
eminent  jurists,  to  which  the  emperor  gave 
the  force  of  law. 

Pandemonium,  the  abode  of  all  the  demons ; 
a  place  represented  by  Milton  ('Paradise 
Lost*,  i.  756)  as  the  capital  of  Hell,  containing 
the  council-chamber  of  the  Evil  Spirits. 

Pandemus,  meaning  'common  to  all  the 
people',  a  surname  of  the  goddess  Aphrodite 
(see  Venus)  in  her  character  of  Worldly  or 
Profane  Love,  as  distinguished  from  the 
Uranian  Aphrodite,  Heavenly  or  Sacred  Love. 

Pandion,  the  father  of  Philomela  (q.v.)  and 
Procne. 

Pand5ra,  according  to  Hesiod,  the  first 
woman  that  ever  lived.  She  was  made  of  clay 
by  Hephaestus  at  the  request  of  Zeus,  who 
wished  to  be  revenged  on  Prometheus  for  his 
theft  of  fire  from  heaven.  When  this  woman 
of  clay  had  received  life,  she  was  endowed  by 
the  gods  with  every  gift,  and  Zeus  gave  her  a 
box,  which  she  was  directed  to  present  to  the 
man  who  married  her.  Hermes  then  con- 
ducted her  to  Prometheus,  but  the  sagacious 
mortal,  distrustful  of  Zeus,  sent  her  away. 
His  brother,  Epimetheus,  less  prudent,  mar- 
ried her  and  opened  the  box,  whereupon 
there  issued  from  it  all  the  evils  and  dis- 
tempers that  have  since  afflicted  the  human 
race.  Hope  alone  remained  at  the  bottom  of 
the  box  to  assuage  the  lot  of  man.  The  fable 
is  charmingly  turned  (to  the  advantage  of 
Epimetheus)  in  Kingsley's  'Water  Babies*. 
PandostOf  or  Dorastus  and  Fawnia,  ^a  prose 
romance  by  Greene  (q.v.)  published  in  1588, 
is  chiefly  memorable  as  the  basis  of  Shake- 
speare's 'The  Winter's  Tale'  (q.v.).  In^cer- 
tain  details  the  story  is  treated  less  effectively 
by  Greene.  In  'Pandosto'  for  instance  the 
queen  Bellaria  (Shakespeare's  Hermione) 
actually  dies  on  hearing  of  the  death  of  her 
son,  so  that  her  final  restoration  to  her  hus- 
band does  not  occur.  The  escape  of  Dorastus 
and  Fawnia  (Florizel  and  Perdita),  and  the 


[583] 


PANDOURS 

final  identification  of  the  latter,  are  less 
pleasantly  contrived  by  Greene  than  by 
Shakespeare.  Characters  corresponding  to 
Antigonus,  Paulina,  Autolycus,  and  the  Clown 
are  not  found  in  Greene's  version. 

Pandours,  the  name  borne  by  a  local  force 
organized  in  1741  by  Baron  Trenck  on  his 
estates  in  Croatia,  to  clear  the  country  near 
the  Turkish  frontier  of  bands  of  robbers.  The 
Pandours  were  subsequently  enrolled  as  a. 
regiment  in  the  Austrian  army,  where  their 
rapacity  and  brutality  caused  them  to  be 
dreaded  over  Germany,  and  made  Pandour 
synonymous  in  Western  Europe  with  'brutal 
Croatian  soldier*.  The  word  is  derived  from 
medieval  Latin  banderiusy  originally  *a  fol- 
lower of  a  standard  or  banner*. 
Panem  et  circenses,  'bread  doles  and 
circus-shows',  the  only  things  that,  according 
to  Juvenal  (x.  78-81),  the  degenerate  Roman 
populace  cared  about: 

nam  qui  dabat  olim 

Imperium  fasces  legiones  omnia,  mine  se 
Continet  atque  duas  tantum  res  anxius 

optat, 

Panem  et  circenses. 

And  those  who  once,  with  unresisted  sway, 
Gave  armies,  empires,  every  thing  away, 
For  two  poor  claims  have  long  renounced 

the  whole, 

And  only  ask — the  Circus  and  the  Dole. 
(Gifford's  translation.) 

Pangloss,  DR.,  in  the  ( Candide*  of  Voltaire 
(q.v.),  an  optimistic  philosopher  who  holds 
that  all  is  for  the  best  in  the  best  of  all 
possible  worlds,  in  spite  of  a  series  of  most 
distressing  adventures  (including  unsuccess- 
ful hanging  by  the  Inquisition  and  subse- 
quent dissection).  He  is  brought  however  to 
recognize  that,  to  be  happy,  man  must  work 
and  must  'cultivate  his  garden*.  The  in- 
tended object  of  the  satire  was  Leibniz  (q.v.). 

Pangloss,  DR.,  in  'The  Heir-at-Law"  of 
Colman  (q.v.)  the  younger,  a  pompous  avari- 
cious pedant. 

Panhandle  State,  West  Virginia,  see 
United  States. 

Panjandrum :  'and  there  were  present  the 
Picmnnies,  and  the  Joblillies,  and  the 
Garyulies,  and  the  Grand  Panjandrum  him- 
self, with  the  little  round  button  at  top*,  part 
of  the  farrago  of  nonsense  composed  by 
Foote  to  test  the  memory  of  Macklin  (qq.v.), 
who  asserted  that  he  could  repeat  anything 
after  once  hearing  it.  Hence  'Panjandrum*  is 
used  as  a  mock  title  for  an  imaginary  per- 
sonage of  much  power,  or  a  personage  of 
great  pretensions.  [OED.] 

Panope,  one  of  the  Nereids  (q.v.),  whom 
mariners  invoked  in  a  storm. 

Pantagruel,  the  second  book  (in  chronological 
order  of  the  narrative)  of  Rabelais's  great 
work,  but  the  first  to  be  written  and  published 
The  name  had  been  given  in  I5th- 


[584] 


PANTALOON 

cent.  French  mysteries  to  a  demon  who  pro- 
voked thirst,  and  its  primitive  sense  appears 
to  have  been  'suffocation*.  Rabelais  uses  it 
to  mean  'the  all- thirsty  one*.  Pantagruel  is 
presented  as  the  son  of  Gargantua  (q.v.)  and 
Badebec,  daughter  of  the  king  of  the  Amau- 
rotes  of  Utopia  (a  reference  to  Sir  Thomas 
More*s  work).  The  book  tells  of  his  birth  and 
education,  satirizing  the  ancient  learning  and 
mingling  serious  and  pious  advice  with 
burlesque.  It  then  introduces  Panurge  (q.v.), 
and  describes  the  ridiculous  dispute  by  signs 
between  Panurge  and  the  English  philo- 
sopher Thaumast.  A  war  with  the  invading 
Dipsodes  ('Thirsty  People*)  follows,  in- 
volving the  interesting  voyage  to  Utopia 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the 
notable  account  of  Epistemon's  visit  to  the 
nether  world.  In  the  Third,  Fourth,  and 
Fifth  Books  (for  their  dates  and  the  question 
of  the  authenticity  of  the  Fifth  Book,  see 
Rabelais),  Panurge  becomes  the  principal 
figure,  Pantagruel  retires  into  the  background 
as  a  kindly,  serious,  courteous  prince,  and  the 
fantastic  giant  element  disappears.  The  ques- 
tion whether  Panurge  shall  marry  becomes 
the  chief  theme.  The  question  is  debated 
with  the  help  of  an  old  poet  (Raminagrobis), 
an  astrologer  (Trippa),  a  physician  (Rondi- 
bilis),  a  philosopher  (Trouillogan),  and  the 
fool  (Triboulet).  The  episode  of  Justice 
Bridlegoose  (who  decides  all  cases  by  throw 
of  dice)  is  here  introduced.  No  conclusion 
being  reached,  Panurge,  Pantagruel,  and  the 
rest  of  the  party  set  out  on  a  voyage  to  Cathay 
to  consult  the  oracle  of  the  Bottle  (Bacbuc). 
On  the  account  of  this  voyage,  in  the  course 
of  which  they  visit  a  number  of  different 
countries,  recent  researches  have  thrown  an 
interesting  light.  It  is  evidently  based  on 
the^  narratives  of  contemporary  explorers  in 
their  search  for  the  North- West  Passage. 
The  travellers  finally  reach  the  oracle,  whose 
advice  is  summed  up  in  the  one  word  'Trinch* 
(drink).  Whether  this  was  intended  by 
Rabelais  as  the  conclusion  of  the  whole 
story,  or  indeed  was  written  by  him,  is 
doubtful.  At  the  end  of  the  Second  Book 
Rabelais  had  promised  to  tell  how  Panurge 
was  married  and  what  came  of  it,  and  how 
Pantagruel  married  the  daughter  of  Prester 
John.  The  narrative  provides  occasion  for 
abundant  satire  directed  against  monks  and 
schoolmen,  the  Papacy  (especially  in  the 
episode  of  the  Papimanes  and  Bishop 
Homenas),  and  the  magistrature  (in  the 
ferocious  description  of  the  Chats  Fourre*s  or 
Furred  Law-cats). 

Pantagruelion,  THE  HERB,  in  Rabelais, 
in.  xlix  et  seq.,  is  hemp. 

Pantagruelism,  defined  by  Rabelais  in  the 
prologue  to  his  Fourth  Book  as  'a  certain 
gaiety  of  spirit  steeped  in  disregard  of  things 
fortuitous*. 

Pantaloon,  adapted  from  the  Italian  panta- 
lone,  *a  kind  of  mask  on  the  Italian  stage, 
representing  the  Venetian',  of  whom  Panta- 


PANTHEA 

lone  was  a  nickname,  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  San  Pantaleone,  formerly  a  favourite 
saint  of  the  Venetians.  The  Venetian  charac- 
ter in  Italian  comedy  was  represented  as  a 
lean  and  foolish  old  man,  wearing  slippers, 
pantaloons,  and  spectacles.  In  modern  pan- 
tomime or  harlequinade  he  is  represented 
as  a  foolish  and  vicious  old  man,  the  butt  of 
the  clown's  jokes,  and  his  abettor  in  his  tricks. 
[OEDJ 

Pamthea,  the  wife  of  Abradatas,  king  of 
Susa.  She  was  taken  prisoner  by  Cyrus,  who 
refused  to  visit  her,  lest  he  should  be  en- 
snared by  her  charms.  She  killed  herself  on 
the  body  of  her  husband,  who  had  been  slain 
in  battle.  Panthea  is  also  the  name  of  the 
heroine  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  'A  King 
and  no  King'  (q.v.). 

Pantheism,  (i)  the  doctrine  that  God  and 
the  universe  are  identical,  that  God  is  every 
thing,  and  every  thing  is  God  (implying  a 
denial  of  the  personality  and  transcendence 
of  God);  (2)  the  heathen  worship  of  all  the 
gods. 

Pantheon,  originally  a  temple  dedicated  to 
all  the  gods,  especially  that  at  Rome  built  by 
Agrippa  c.  25  B.C.,  and  transformed  in  A.D. 
609  into  a  Christian  church.  The  name  is 
now  used  of  a  building  serving  to  honour  the 
illustrious  dead  of  a  nation.  The  Pantheon  at 
Paris,  which  is  devoted  to  this  purpose,  was 
formerly  the  church  of  St.  Genevieve,  and 
was  named  the  Pantheon  at  the  Revolution. 
Pantheon,  THE,  Oxford  Street,  London, 
originally  a  theatre  and  public  promenade, 
with  a  rotunda  like  that  at  Ranelagh  (but 
Johnson  and  Boswell  thought  it  inferior  to 
the  latter).  There  are  references  to  it  in  Wai- 
pole's  letters  and  in  Goldsmith's  'She  Stoops 
to  Conquer*.  It  was  famous  for  its  mas- 
querades, to  which  Gibbon  at  one  time  sub- 
scribed (letter  to  Holroyd,  1774).  The  Pan- 
theon was  burnt  down  in  1792  and  rebuilt, 
but  never  recovered  its  former  glory  (Wheat- 
ley  and  Cunningham). 
Pantisocracy,  see  Coleridge  (S.  T.). 
Pantomime,  (i)  originally  a  Roman  actor, 
who  performed  in  dumb  show,  representing 
by  mimicry  various  characters  and  scenes ;  (2) 
an  English  dramatic  performance,  originally 
consisting  of  action  without  speech,  but  in  its 
further  development  consisting  of  a  drama- 
tized tale,  the  denouement  of  which  is  a 
transformation  scene  followed  by  the  broad 
comedy  of  clown  and  pantaloon  and  the 
dancing  of  harlequin  and  columbine. 
Panurge,  one  of  the  principal  characters  in 
Rabelais's  'PantagrueF  (q.v.),  a  cunning, 
voluble,  witty,  and  in  the  later  books  cowardly 
buffoon,  'and  a  very  dissolute  and  debauched 
fellow,  if  there  were  any  in  Paris:  other- 
wise and  in  all  matters  else,  the  best  and 
most  virtuous  man  in  the  world ;  and  he  was 
still  contriving  some  plot,  and  devising  mis- 
chief against  the  Serjeants  and  the  watch'. 
Panza,  SANCHO,  see  Don  Quixote. 


PARACELSUS 

Paolo  and  Prancesca :  Francesca,  daughter 
of  Giovanni  da  Polenta,  count  of  Ravenna, 
was  given  in  marriage  by  him  to  Giovanni 
(Sciancato,  the  Lame)  Malatesta,  of  Rimini, 
an  ill-favoured  man,  in  return  for  his  military 
services.  She  fell  in  love  with  Paolo,  her 
husband's  handsome  brother,  and,  their  rela- 
tions being  discovered,  the  two  lovers  were 
put  to  death  in  1289.  Dante,  at  the  end  of  the 
fifth  canto  of  his  *  Inferno',  relates  his  con- 
versation with  Francesca,  who  told  him  how 
her  fall  was  occasioned  by  the  reading  of  the 
tale  of  Launcelot  and  Guinevere.  The  Gale- 
otto  mentioned  by  Dante  is  Galahault,  the 
prince  who,  in  the  story  of  the  early  loves  of 
Launcelot  and  Guinevere,  not  included  in 
Malory,  introduces  Launcelot  to  the  queen. 
The  story  of  Paolo  and  Francesca  was  made 
by  Leigh  Hunt  (q.v.)  the  subject  of  his  poem 
"The  Story  of  Rimini'  j  it  was  also  the  subject 
of  a  play  that  had  a  temporary  vogue,  by 
Stephen  Phillips  (1866-1915). 

Paolo  Veronese,  the  name  usually  given  to 
PAOLO  CAGLIARI  (1528-88),  of  Verona,  the 
celebrated  painter.  From  1555  he  lived  prin- 
cipally at  Venice,  where  most  of  his  chief 
works  were  executed.  He  was  remarkable 
for  the  spaciousness  and  splendour  of  his 
paintings,  many  of  them  designed  to  decorate 
large  expanses  of  wall  in  the  Doge's  Palace 
and  other  buildings,  and  for  his  skiU  in 
grouping  numerous  figures. 
Paperstamp,  MR.,  in  Peacock's  *Melin- 
court*  (q.v.),  a  caricature  of  Wordsworth. 

Paphos,  a  city  of  Cyprus  sacred  to  Aphro- 
dite. Hence  PAPHIAN,  a  courtesan. 
Papimany,  in  Rabelais's  TantagrueF,  iv. 
xlviii  et  seq.,  an  island  visited  by  Pantagruel 
and  his  companions.  Its  inhabitants,  the 
Papimanes,  carry  their  blind  zeal  for  the  pope 
and  the  Decretals  (q.v.)  to  the  point  of  ab- 
surdity. Their  bishop  was  Homenas.  When 
this  satire  was  written  Henri  II  was  in  acute 
conflict  with  Pope  Julius  III. 
Pappe  with  an  hatchet,  the  title  of  a  tract 
contributed  in  1589  by  Lyly  (q.v.)  to  the 
Marprelate  controversy  (see  Martin  Mar- 
prelate)  on  the  side  of  the  bishops.  The  sense 
of  the  expression  appears  to  be  *the  ad- 
ministration of  punishment  under  the  ironical 
style  of  a  kindness  or  benefit'  [OEDJ. 
Lyly's  pamphlet  is  a  worthless  mixture  of 
abuse  and  ribaldry. 
Paracelsus,  PHILIPPUS  AUKEOLTJS  THEO- 

PHRASTUS  BOMBASTUS  AB  HOHENHEIM  (l493~" 

1541),  born  at  Einsiedeln  near  Zurich  in 
Switzerland,  the  son  of  a  doctor  of  medicine. 
He  wandered  from  country  to  country, 
practising  magic,  alchemy,  and  astrology,  and 
visiting  the  universities  of  Germany,  France, 
and  Italy.  He  returned  to  Germany,  effected 
there  many  remarkable  cures,  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  chair  of  physic  and  surgery  at 
Basel.  He  publicly  burnt  the  works  of  Galen 
and  Avicenna,  boasting  himself  their  superior. 
He  was,  however,  presently  pronounced  a 


[585] 


"PARACELSUS 

quack,  fled  from  Basel,  resumed  his  wander- 
ing life,  and  died  at  Salzburg  in  the  Hospital 
of  St.  Sebastian. 

Paracelsus,  a  dramatic  poem  by  R.  Browning 
(q.v.),  published  in  1835. 

It  is  based  on  the  actual  life  of  Paracelsus, 
summarized  above.  Paracelsus  is  presented 
as  a  man  possessed  from  childhood  with  an 
aspiration  to  discover  the  secret  of  the  world, 
and  a  conviction  that  he  is  chosen  to  conquer 
that  knowledge.  He  sets  out  to  seek  it  in 
strange  places,  in  spite  of  the  dissuasion  of 
his  common-sense  friend,  Festus,  and  the 
gentle,  loving  Michal.  Pt.  II  shows  him  at 
Constantinople,  having  learnt  much,  but 
despondent,  for  the  ultimate  secret  has  es- 
caped him.  He  meets  Aprile  the  poet,  who 
unconsciously  reveals  to  him  the  error  he  has 
made  in  pursuing  knowledge  to  the  exclusion 
of  love — 'the  worth  of  love  in  man's  estate 
and  what  proportion  love  should  hold  with 
power*.  We  next  find  Paracelsus  at  Basel,  at 
first  admired,  then  dismissed  as  a  charlatan; 
and  finally  dying  at  Salzburg,  where  he  makes 
the  last  proclamation  of  his  faith.  He  has 
failed  because,  in  spite  of  his  learning,  he  has 
lacked  sympathy  with  mankind;  has  failed  to 
appreciate 

their  half-reasons,  faint  aspirings,  dim 

Struggles  for  truth,  their  poorest  fallacies, 

Their  prejudice  and  fears  and  cares  and 
doubts ; 

All  with  a  touch  of  nobleness,  upward 

tending. 

Meanwhile  he  has  *done  well,  though  not  all 
well*,  and  will  Demerge  one  day5. 

Paraclete,  THE,  from  a  Greek  word  meaning 
advocate,  intercessor,  a  title  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  used  frequently  in  the  sense  of  'the 
Comforter'  (John  xiv.  16,  &c.). 

Paradise,  derived  from  an  Old  Persian 
word  meaning  enclosure  or  park,  was  used  in 
its  Greek  form  by  the  Septuagint  translators 
for  the  Garden  of  Eden ;  and  in  the  N.T.  for 
the  abode  of  the  blessed,  which  is  the  earliest 
sense  recorded  in  English  [OED .].  It  is  now 
used  (i)  in  the  sense  of  the  Garden  of  Eden; 
(2)  by  some  theologians,  as  used  in  Luke  xxiii. 
43,  in  the  sense  of  an  intermediate  state  or 
place  where  the  souls  of  the  righteous  await 
the  Last  Judgement;  (3)  in  that  of  Heaven, 
the  final  abode  of  the  righteous ;  and  (4)  also 
figuratively  as  a  place  of  surpassing  delight  or 
bUss.  It  was  also  used  for  a  pleasure-garden 
in  general,  e.g.  the  ^garden  of  a  convent,  in 
which  sense  it  sometimes  survives  in  the  street 
nomenclature  of  old  towns  (e.g.  'Paradise 
Square',  Oxford).  In  slang  it  was  used  for 
the  gallery  of  a  theatre,  where  the  'gods' 
sit.  See  also  Paradise  of  Fools. 

Paradise,  THE  EARTHLY:  the  belief  in  the 
existence  of  a  terrestrial  paradise  was  wide- 
spread in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  references  to 
it  are  found  in  manuscripts  and  maps  of  the 
time,  e.g.  in  the  legend  of  the  navigation  of 
St.  Brendan  (q.v.).  It  is  sometimes  regarded 


PARADISE  LOST 

as  the  old  Garden  of  Eden,  in  the  extreme 
east  of  the  world. 

For  W.  Morris's  poem  of  this  name  see 
Earthly  Paradise  (The). 

Paradise  and  the  Peri,  see  Lalla  Rookh. 

Paradise  Lost,  an  epic  poem  by  Milton  (q.v.) 
originally  in  ten  books,  subsequently  re- 
arranged in  twelve,  first  printed  in  1667. 

Milton  formed  the  intention  of  writing  a 
great  epic  poem,  as  he  tells  us,  as  early  as  1639. 
A  list  of  possible  subjects,  some  of  them  scrip- 
tural, some  from  British  history,  written  in 
his  own  hand  about  1640-1,  still  exists,  with 
drafts  of  the  scheme  of  a  poem  on  Paradise 
Lost.  The  work  was  not,  however,  begun 
in  earnest  until  1658,  and  it  was  finished, 
according  to  Aubrey,  in  1 663 .  It  was  licensed 
for  publication  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Tomkyns, 
chaplain  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Milton  entered  into  an  agreement  for  the 
copyright  with  Samuel  Simmons  by  which  he 
received  £5  down,  and  a  further  £5  when  the 
first  impression  of  i  ,300  copies  was  exhausted. 
His  widow  subsequently  parted  with  all 
further  claims  for  the  sum  of  £8. 

Book  I.  The  general  subject  is  briefly 
stated :  man's  disobedience  and  the  loss  there- 
upon of  Paradise,  with  its  prime  cause,  Satan, 
who,  having  revolted  from  God,  has  been 
driven  out  of  heaven.  Satan  is  presented, 
with  his  angels,  lying  on  the  burning  lake  of 
hell.  He  awakens  his  legions,  comforts  them, 
and  summons  a  council.  Pandemonium,  the 
palace  of  Satan,  is  built. 

Book  II.  The  council  debates  whether 
another  battle  for  the  recovery  of  Heaven  shall 
be  hazarded,  but  decides  to  examine  the 
report  that  a  new  world,  with  new  creatures 
in  it,  has  been  created.  Satan  undertakes 
alone  the  search.  He  passes  through  Hell- 
gates,  guarded  by  Sin  and  Death,  and  passes 
upward  through  the  realm  of  Chaos. 

Book  III.  God  sees  Satan  flying  towards  our 
world,  and  foretells  his  success  and  the  fall 
and  punishment  of  Man.  The  Son  of  God 
offers  himself  a  ransom  for  Man,  is  accepted, 
and  exalted.  Satan  alights  on  the  outer  con- 
vex of  our  universe,  the  future  Paradise  of 
Fools  (q.v.).  He  finds  the  stairs  leading  up  to 
Heaven,  descends  to  the  Sun,  and  is  directed 
by  Uriel  to  this  Earth,  alighting  on  Mount 
Niphates. 

Book  IV.  The  Garden  of  Eden  is  de- 
scribed, where  Satan  first  sees  Adam  and  Eve, 
and  overhears  their  discourse  regarding  the 
Tree  of  Knowledge,  of  which  they  are  for- 
bidden to  eat  the  fruit.  He  decides  to  found 
his  enterprise  upon  this,  and  proceeds  to 
tempt  Eve  in  a  dream;  but  is  discovered  by 
Gabriel  and  Ithuriel,  and  ejected  from  the 
garden. 

Book  V.  Eve  relates  her  disquieting  dream 
to  Adam.  Raphael,  sent  by  God,  comes  to 
Paradise,  warns  Adam  of  his  enemy,  and 
enjoins  obedience.  At  Adam's  request  he 
relates  how  and  why  Satan  incited  his  legions 
to  revolt. 


[586] 


PARADISE  OF  DAINTY  DEVICES 

Book  VI.  Raphael  continues  his  narrative, 
how  Michael  and  Gabriel  were  sent  to  fight 
against  Satan.  After  indecisive  battles  the  Son 
of  God  himself,  causing  his  legions  to  stand 
still,  alone  attacked  the  hosts  of  Satan,  and, 
driving  them  to  the  edge  of  Heaven,  forced 
them  to  leap ydown  into  the  deep. 

Book  VI/.  Raphael  relates  how  thereafter 
God  decio^d  on  the  creation  of  another  world 
with  new^  creatures  to  dwell  therein,  and  sent 
his  son  to  perform  the  creation  in  six  days. 

Book  VIII.  Adam  inquires  concerning  the 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  is 
answered  ambiguously.  [The  controversy 
regarding  the  Ptolemaic  and  Copernican 
systems  was  at  its  height  when  the  'Paradise 
Lost*  was  written,  and  Milton  was  unable  to 
decide  between  them,  as  seen  in  Bk.X,  668  et 
seq.]  Adam  relates  what  he  remembers  since 
his  own  creation,  and  discourses  with  the 
angel  regarding  the  relations  of  man  with 
woman.  Raphael  departs. 

Book  IX.  Satan  enters  into  the  serpent, 
and  in  this  form  finds  Eve  alone.  He  per- 
suades her  to  eat  of  the  Tree  of  Knowledge. 
Eve  relates  to  Adam  what  has  passed  and 
brings  him  of  the  fruit.  Adam,  perceiving  that 
she  is  lost,  from  extreme  love  for  her,  resolves 
to  perish  with  her,  and  eats  of  the  fruit.  The 
effects  upon  them:  they  cover  their  naked- 
ness, and  fall  to  recriminations. 

Book  X.  God  sends  his  Son  to  judge  the 
transgressors.  He  passes  sentence  on  the  man 
and  on  the  woman.  Sin  and  Death  resolve  to 
corne  to  this  world  and  make  a  broad  high- 
way thither  from  Hell.  Satan  returns  to  Hell 
and  relates  his  success ;  he  and  his  angels  are 
temporarily  transformed  into  serpents.  Adam 
and  Eve  confer  how  to  evade  the  curse  upon 
their  offspring,  and  finally  approach  the  Son 
of  God  with  repentance  and  supplication. 

Book  XI.  The  Son  of  God  intercedes  for 
Adam  and  Eve.  God  decides  on  their  expul- 
sion from  Paradise.  Michael  comes  down  to 
carry  out  the  decree.  Eve  laments,  Adam 
pleads  but  submits.  The  angel  leads  him  to 
a  high  hill  and  shows  him  in  a  series  of 
visions  the  future  misery  of  man  and  what 
shall  happen  till  the  Flood. 

Book  XII.  Michael  relates  what  shall 
follow,  and  explains  the  future  coming  of  the 
Messiah,  his  incarnation,  death,  resurrection, 
and  ascension,  and  foretells  the  corrupt  state 
of  the  Church  till  his  second  coming.  Adam, 
and  Eve,  submissive,  are  led  out  of  Paradise. 

Paradise  of  Dainty  Devices,  see  Parody se  of 
Daynty  Devises. 

Paradise  of  Fools:  Milton  in  'Paradise 
Lost*,  in.  448  et  seq.,  describes,  on  the  outer 
edge  of  our  universe,  a  'Limbo  large  and 
broad,  since  called  The  Paradise  of  Fools*,  to 
which  are  consigned  'all  who  in  vain  things 
Built  their  fond  hopes  of  glory  or  lasting 
fame*  (see  Limbo). 

Paradise  Regained,  an  epic  poem  in  four 
books  by  Milton  (q.v.),  published  in  1671. 
See  Ellwood. 


PARADYSE  OF  DAYNTY  DEVISES 

It  is  a  sequel  to  'Paradise  Lost*,  and  deals 
exclusively  with  the  temptation  of  Christ  in 
the  wilderness.  According  to  the  poet's  con- 
ception, whereas  Paradise  was  lost  by  the 
yielding  of  Adam  and  Eve  to  Satan's  tempta- 
tion, so  it  was  regained  by  the  resistance  of  the 
Son  of  God  to  the  temptation  of  the  same 
spirit.  Saten  is  here  represented  not  in  the 
majestic  lineaments  that  we  find  in  the 
'Paradise  Lost',  but  as  a  cunning,  smooth,  and 
dissembling  creature,  a  'Spirit  unfortunate', 
as  he  describes  himself.  There  is  a  compar- 
ative scarcity  of  similes  and  ornament,  and 
only  a  vivid  and  ingenious  expansion  of 
the  Biblical  texts. 

Book  I  relates  the  baptism  of  Christ  by 
John  at  Bethabara,  and  the  proclamation  from 
Heaven  that  he  is  the  Son  of  God.  Satan, 
alarmed,  summons  a  council  of  his  peers,  and 
undertakes  his  temptation.  Christ  is  led  into 
the  wilderness,  where,  after  forty  days,  Satan 
in  the  guise  of  *an  aged  man  in  rural  weeds', 
approaches  him  and  suggests  that  he,  being 
now  hungered,  should  prove  his  divine 
character  by  tiirning  the  stones  around  him 
into  bread.  Christ,  seeing  through  his  guile, 
sternly  replies.  Night  falls  on  the  desert. 

Books  II  and  III.  Meanwhile  Andrew  and 
Simon  seek  Christ,  and  Mary  is  troubled  at 
his  absence.  Satan  confers  again  with  his 
council.  He  once  more  tries  the  hunger 
temptation,  placing  before  the  eyes  of  Christ 
a  'table  richly  spread',  which  is  contemp- 
tuously rejected.  He  then  makes  appeal  to 
the  higher  appetites  of  wealth  and  power,  and 
a  disputation  follows  as  to  the  real  value  of 
earthly  glory.  Satan,  confuted,  next  reminds 
Christ  that  the  kingdom  of  David  is  now 
under  the  Roman  yoke,  and  suggests  that^he 
should  free  it.  He  takes  Christ  to  a  high 
mountain  and  shows  him  the  kingdoms  of  the 
earth.  A  description  follows  (iii.  251—346)  of 
the  contemporary  state  of  the  eastern  world, 
divided  between  the  powers  of  Rome  and  of 
the  Parthians,  as  seen  in  this  vision.  Satan 
offers  an  alliance  with,  or  conquest  of,  the 
Parthians,  and  the  liberation  of  the  Jews  then 
in  captivity. 

Book  IV.  Christ  remaining  unmoved  by 
Satan's  'politic  maxims',  the  tempter,  turning 
to  the  western  side,  draws  his  attention  to 
Rome  and  proposes  the  expulsion  of  the 
wicked  emperor  Tiberius ;  and  finally,  point- 
ing out  Athens,  urges  the  attractions  of  her 
poets,  orators,  and  philosophers.  All  these 
failing,  Satan  brings  Christ  back  to  the 
wilderness,  and  the  second  night  falls.  On 
the  third  morning,  confessing  Christ  proof 
against  all  temptation,  Satan  carries  him  to 
the  highest  pinnacle  of  the  temple  and  bids 
him  cast  himself  down,  'to  know  what  more 
he  is  than  man*,  only  to  receive  the  well-known 
answer.  Satan  falls  dismayed,  and  angels 
bear  Christ  away. 
Paradiso9 1/,  of  Dante,  see  Diuina  Commedia. 

Paradyse  of  Daynty  Devises,  The,  a  collec- 
tion of  works  by  poets  of  the  second  rank  who 


[587] 


PARASITASTER 

wrote  in  the  early  part  of  trie  i6th  cent.  (Lord 
Vaux,  Lord  Oxford,  Kinwelmersh,  Hunnis). 
It  was  compiled  by  Richard  Edwards  (q.v.) 
and  published  after  his  death,  in  1576. 

Parasitaster ,  The,  or  The  Pawn,  a  comedy  by 
J.  Marston  (q.v.),  published  in  1606. 

Hercules,  the  widowed  duke  of  Ferrara, 
wishes  his  son  Tiberio  to  marry  Dulcimel, 
daughter  of  a  neighbouring  prince,  and,  in 
order  to  defeat  his  unwillingness,  declares 
that  he  will  marry  Dulcimel  himself,  and 
sends  Tiberio  to  negotiate  the  marriage. 
Hercules,  under  the  name  of  Faunus,  follows 
in  disguise  to  watch  the  issue.  Dulcimel  falls 
in  love  with  Tiberio,  and,  being  a  woman  of 
wit  and  resource,  manages  to  win  him. 

Parcae  or  FATES,  THE,  the  MOERAE  of  the 
Greeks,  goddesses  who  presided  over  the 
birth  and  life  of  men.  They  were  sisters,  three 
in  number,  Clotho,  Lachesis,  and  Atropos. 
Clotho,  the  youngest,  presided  over  the 
moment  of  man's  birth  and  held  a  distaff  in 
her  hands.  Lachesis  with  her  spindle  spun 
out  the  events  and  actions  of  his  life.  Atropos, 
the  eldest,  cut  the  thread  of  human  life  with 
her  shears.  They  were  held  to  be  inexorable, 
and  the  gods  could  not  alter  their  decrees. 

Pardiggle,  MRS.,  in  Dickens's  'Bleak  House' 
(q.v.),  a  lady  'distinguished  for  rapacious 
benevolence5. 

Pardoner's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 
Parian  Chronicle,  THE,  included  in  the 
Arundel  Marbles  (q.v.),  a  marble  inscription 
in  which  are  recorded  the  chief  events  of 
Greek  history  from  the  reign  of  the  mythical 
Cecrops  to  354  B.C. 

Paridell,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  a 
false  and  libertine  knight  (Bk.  in.  viii,  ix, 
and  x,  and  iv.  i)  who  consorts  with  Duessa 
(q.v.),  and  elopes  with  Hellenore,  the  wife  of 
Malbecco  (q.v.). 

Paris,  also  known  as  ALEXANDER,  was  a  son 
of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  and  of  Hecuba.  His 
mother,  during  her  pregnancy,  dreamed  that 
she  should  bring  forth  a  torch  which  would 
set  fire  to  her  palace,  and  the  soothsayers  fore- 
told the  calamities,  culminating  in  the  de- 
struction of  Troy,  that  her  son  would  bring 
upon  his  country.  Priam  accordingly  ordered 
his  destruction;  but  the  slave  who  received 
the  command  exposed  the  child  on  Mt.  Ida, 
where  the  shepherds  brought  him  up  as  their 
own  son.  He  won  the  favour  of  the  nymph 
Oenone,  with  whom  he  lived  happily  until 
appointed  by  the  gods  to  adjudge  the  prize 
of  beauty  among  the  three  goddesses,  Hera, 
Aphrodite,  and  Athene.  Each  tried  by 
promises  to  influence  his  judgement;  Aphro- 
dite offered  him  the  fairest  woman  in  the  world 
for  wife,  and  to  her  he  awarded  the  prize.  At 
an  athletic  contest  held  at  Priam's  court, 
Paris  was  recognized  as  Priam's  son,  and  soon 
after  visited  Sparta,  where  he  persuaded 
Helen,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  the  fairest 
;voman  of  her  age,  to  elope  with  him.  This 


PARISH  REGISTER 

brought  about  the  expedition  of  the  Greek 
princes  against  Troy.  In  the  course  of  the 
ensuing  war  Paris  was  mortally  wounded  by 
an  arrow  shot  by  Philoctetes,  and  had  himself 
carried  to  Oenone,  whom  he  had  scurvily 
abandoned,  and  who  had  foretold  that  he 
would  seek  her  help  in  his  dying  moments. 
But  it  was  too  late  for  Oenone  to  cure  him, 
and  in  her  grief  she  took  her  own  life. 
Paris,  COUNT,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Romeo  and  Juliet*  (q.v.). 

PARIS,  MATTHEW  (d.  1259),  historian 
and  monk,  entered  the  monastery  of  St. 
Albans  in  1217,  and  became  an  expert  in 
writing,  in  drawing  and  painting,  and  in 
working  gold  and  silver.  He  succeeded  Roger 
of  Wendover  in  his  office  of  chronicler  to  the 
monastery,  1236,  and  carried  on  the  'Chronica 
Majora*  from  the  summer  of  1235.  He  ex- 
panded the  scope  of  the  chronicle,  introducing 
narratives  and  accounts  of  events  in  foreign 
countries  as  well  as  in  England,  which  he  ob- 
tained from  kings  and  all  manner  of  great 
persons  who  came  to  St.  Albans.  He  was  a 
favourite  with  Henry  III,  and  visited  Norway 
in  1248  on  a  mission  from  Innocent  IV.  He 
carried  his  greater  chronicle  down  to  May 
1259,  where  he  ends  abruptly,  and  certainly 
died  about  that  time.  In  vigour  and  bright- 
ness of  expression  he  stands  before  every 
other  English  chronicler;  and  his  writing 
possesses  peculiar  historic  value.  Besides  the 
great  chronicle  he  wrote  a  summary  of  the 
chief  events  between  1200  and  1250,  which  is 
known  as  the  'Historia  Minor*,  or  *Historia 
Anglorum*.  The  Cotton  manuscripts  include 
*Vitae  duae  Offarum*,  which  are  attributed  to 
Matthew  Paris,  though  probably  spurious. 
These  lives  are  followed  by  'Vitae  Abbatum 
S.  Albani',  being  the  lives  of  the  first  twenty- 
three  abbots  to  1255,  °f  which  all  were  cer- 
tainly compiled,  and  the  last  two  or  three 
composed,  by  him.  They  were  incorporated, 
with  some  alterations,  by  Thomas  Walsing- 
ham  in  his  £Gesta  Abbatum*,  The  whole  of 
his  writings  are  discussed  by  Luard  in  the 
prefaces  to  his  edition  of  the  £Chronica 
Majora*.  Paris  describes  himself  in  the 
manuscripts  as  'Matheus  Parisiensis' ;  whether 
from  birth  or  residence  in  Paris,  or  because 
Paris  was  his  family  name,  is  uncertain. 
Leland  and  Pits  favour  the  latter  view,  which 
is  borne  out  by  the  numerous  instances  of 
persons  of  that  name  living  in  England 
(particularly  in  Lincolnshire)  in  the  i3th 
cent.  On  the  other  hand  he  perhaps  spent 
some  time  in  Paris,  for  he  knew  French 
(Madden). 

Paris  Garden,  a  place  for  bull-  and  bear- 
baiting  on  Bankside,  Southwark,  referred  to 
in  Shakespeare's  cHenry  VIII',  v.  iv. 

Paris  Sketch  Book,  The,  a  collection  of  six 
short  stories,  with  essays  and  criticisms,  by 
Thackeray  (q.v.),  published  in  1840. 

Parish  Register,  The,  a  poem  by  Crabbe 
(q.v.),  published  in  1807. 


[588] 


PARISIAN  MASSACRE 

A  country  parson  relates  the  memories 
awakened  in  him  as  he  looks  through  the 
entries  in  his  registers  of  births,  marriages,  and 
deaths.  It  includes  the  well-known  pathetic 
tale  of  Phoebe  Dawson,  which  pleased  Fox 
and  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Parisian  Massacre  or  WEDDING,  THE,  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  in  Paris  (1572), 
when  many  Huguenots  were  slain  during  the 
festivities  in  celebration  of  the  marriage  of 
Henri  of  Navarre  with  Margaret  of  France. 

Parisians,  The,  a  novel  (unfinished)  by  Bul- 
wer  Lytton  (q.v.),  published  in  1873. 

Lytton  here  depicts  the  corrupt  Parisian 
society  of  the  last  days  of  the  second  Empire, 
and  the  revolutionary  forces  that  sprang  up  to 
overthrow  it.  The  main  elements  in  the  story 
are  two.  Graham  Vane,  an  Englishman  of 
good  family,  has  been  left  a  fortune  by  his 
uncle,  Richard  King,  with  the  request  that  he 
shall  seek  out  the  daughter  of  the  wife  who 
many  years  before  deserted  King  and  dis- 
appeared, and,  if  she  survives,  bestow  the 
bulk  of  the  fortune  upon  her  or  marry  her. 
The  search  brings  him  in  contact  with  various 
circles  of  French  society.  The  second  is  the 
story  of  the  efforts  of  a  ruined  French  noble- 
man, Alain  de  Rochebriant,  to  rehabilitate  his 
fortunes,  efforts  which  make  him  the  pawn  of 
rival  financiers  and  moneylenders. 

Parisina,  a  poem  by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1816. 

The  poem  is  founded  on  the  following 
passage  in  Gibbon's  'Antiquities  of  the  House 
of  Brunswick*  ('Miscellaneous  Works',  iii. 
470):  'Under  the  reign  of  Nicholas  III 
[A.D.  1425]  Ferrara  was  polluted  by  a 
domestic  tragedy.  By  the  testimony  of  a 
maid,  and  his  own  observation,  the  marquis 
of  Este  discovered  the  incestuous  loves  of  his 
wife  Parisina  and  Hugo  his  bastard  son,  a 
beautiful  and  valiant  youth.  They  were  be- 
headed in  the  castle  by  the  sentence  of  a 
father  and  husband,  who  published  his 
shame,  and  survived  their  execution/ 

PARK,  MUNGO  (1771-1806),  born  near 
Selkirk,  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity and  became  a  surgeon  in  the  mercantile 
marine.  He  explored  the  course  of  the  Niger 
and  became  famous  by  his  'Travels  in  the  In- 
terior of  Africa',  published  in  1799.  He  re- 
turned to  the  Niger  in  1805,  and  perished  at 
Boussa  in  a  conflict  with  the  natives.  He  was 
a  friend  of  Sir  W.  Scott. 

PARKER,  MATTHEW  (1504-75),  edu- 
cated at  St.  Mary's  Hostel,  Cambridge,  and 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  was 
licensed  to  preach  by  Cranmer  in  1533?  and 
in.  * 535  appointed  chaplain  to  Anne  Boleyn 
and  dean  of  Stoke-by-Clare,  where  he 
spent  much  of  the  next  ten  years.  He  was  in 
1544  elected  Master  of  Corpus  Christi  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  reformed  the 
library.  He  subsequently  bequeathed  to  the 
college  his  fine  collection  of  manuscripts. 
He  was  made  dean  of  Lincoln  in  1552, 


PARLIAMENT  OF  BEES 

espoused  the  cause  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  was 
deprived  of  his  preferments  by  Queen  Mary, 
and  fled  to  Frankfort-on-the-Main  during  the 
persecution.  He  reluctantly  accepted  the 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury  on  Elizabeth's 
accession  and  was  consecrated  at  Lambeth 
(seeNag'sHead  Tavern)  in  1 559.  He  identified 
himself  with  the  party  (afterwards  known  as 
the  Anglican  party)  which  sought  to  establish 
a  via  media  between  Romanism  and  Puritan- 
ism. From  1563  to  1568  he  was  occupied 
with  the  production  of  the  'Bishops*  Bible' 
(see  Bible,  the  English) ,  his  most  distinguished 
service  to  the  theological  studies  of  the  day. 
With  respect  to  this  he  informed  Cecil  that  he 
contemplated  undertaking,  besides  the  pre- 
faces, Genesis,  Exodus,  Matthew,  Mark,  and 
the  Pauline  Epistles,  except  Romans  and 
i  Corinthians.  In  his  later  years  he  retired 
more  and  more  from  society,  being  conscious 
of  the  strength  of  the  opposing  current, 
headed  by  Leicester.  He  was  buried  in  his 
private  chapel  at  Lambeth.  In  1648  his  re- 
mains were  disinterred  and  buried  under  a 
dunghill,  but  after  the  Restoration  they  were 
restored  to  their  original  resting-place.  He 
was  a  great  benefactor  to  his  college  and  to 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  where  he  con- 
structed a  handsome  new  street,  which  he 
named  University  Street,  leading  from  the 
schools  to  Great  St.  Mary's.  To  his  efforts 
we  are  indebted  for  the  earliest  editions  of 
Gildas,  Asser,  ^Elfric,the  'Flores  Historiarum', 
Matthew  Paris,  and  other  important  early 
chroniclers.  In  spite  of  Queen  Elizabeth's 
dislike  of  clerical  matrimony,  he  was  married, 
and  left  one  son.  His  'De  Antiquitate  Eccle- 
siae  et  Privileges  Ecclesiae  Cantuariensis  cum 
Archiepiscopis  ejusdem  70*  (1572)  is  said  to 
be  the  first  book  privately  printed  in  England. 

PARKINSON,  JOHN  (1567-1650),  king's 
herbarist,  author  of  'Paradisi  in  sole  Para- 
disus  terrestris,  or  a  garden  of  all  sorts  of 
pleasant  flowers  which  our  English  ayre  wiH 
permitt  to  be  noursed  up  .  .  .'  (1629),  with 
woodcuts ;  also  of  a  great  herbal,  'Theatrum 
botariicum'  (1640). 

Parlement  of  Briddes,  see  Parliament  of 
Fowls. 

Parliament,  HOUSES  OF:  before  the  erection 
of  the  present  Houses  of  Parliament,  the 
House  of  Commons  sat  in  the  chapel  of  St. 
Stephen,  and  the  House  of  Lords  in  the 
Painted  Chamber,  in  the  ancient  palace  of 
Westminster,  originally  built  by  Edward  the 
Confessor,  and  rebuilt  by  Henry  III.  These 
were  destroyed  by  fire  in  1834.  The  present 
houses  were  built  from  the  designs  of  Sir 
Charles  Barry. 

Parliament  of  Bees,  The,  a  dramatic  allegory 
or  masque  by  J.  Day  (jL.  1606,  q.v.),  pub- 
lished, it  appears,  in  1607,  though  the  earliest 
extant  copy  is  of  the  year  1641. 

It  consists  first  of  the  opening  of -the  par- 
liament, with  the  viceroy's,  *Mr.  Bee's',  open- 
ing address;  then  of  a  series  of  'characters* 


[589] 


PARLIAMENT  OF  FOWLS 

of  different  bees  with  their  virtues  and 
vices:  the  hospitable  bee,  the  reveller,  the 
neglected  soldier,  the  neglected  poet,  the 
eusuring'  bee,  the  quacksalver,  the  thrifty  bee, 
the  passionate  bee.  Finally  we  have  Oberon's 
Star-chamber,  with  the  pronouncement  of 
penalties  on  offenders,  the  wasp,  the  drone, 
and  the  humble-bee. 

Parliament  of  Fowls,  The,  or  The  Parliament 
of  Briddes,  a  poem  of  700  lines  in  rhyme- 
royal  by  Chaucer,  probably  written  between 
1372  and  1386.  In  a  vision  the  poet  sees  the 
Court  of  Nature  on  St.  Valentine's  day,  'when 
every  fowl  cometh  there  to  choose  his  mate*. 
Three  tiercel  eagles  advance  their  claims  to  a 
beautiful  'former  (female),  and  a  debate  of  the 
fowls  follows.  Nature  decides  that  the  formel 
shall  make  election,  and  the  formel  asks  for 
a  year's  respite  'to  advise*  her.  The  poem 
probably  refers  to  some  lady  sought  by  royal 
lovers,  perhaps  Anne  of  Bohemia,  and  is  note- 
worthy, inter  alia,  for  its  fine  opening  lines : 
The  lyf  so  short,  the  crafte  so  long  to  lerne, 
Thassay  so  harde,  so  sharpe  the  con- 

querynge, 

and  its  descriptive  catalogues  of  trees  and 
birds. 

ParmSnides  (b.  c.  513  B.C.),  of  Elea  in  Italy, 
the  founder  of  the  Eleatic  school  of  philo- 
sophy. He  rejected  utterly  the  views  of  Hera- 
clitus  (q.v.),  and  regarded  the  universe  as  a 
sphere,  continuous,  unchanging,  indivisible, 
and  in  equilibrium. 

Pannenides,  MY  FATHER:  in  Plato's  dia- 
logue 'The  Sophist1,  the  Eleatic  Stranger 
speaks  of  laying  hands  on  his  father  Par- 
menides  (q.v.)  in  the  sense  of  criticizing  the 
doctrines  in  which  he  has  been  brought  up. 

Parm6nion,one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander 
the  Great  (q.v.).  When  Darius,  king  of  Per- 
sia, offered  Alexander  his  daughter  Statira  in 
marriage,  with  the  territories  west  of  the 
Euphrates  and  a  large  sum  of  money,  Par- 
menion  observed  that  he  would  accept  the 
offer  if  he  were  Alexander.  To  which  Alex- 
ander replied,  {So  would  I,  if  I  were  Par- 
menion*. 

Parnassian  School,  THE,  the  name  given 
to  a  group  of  French  romantic  poets  of  the 
latter  half  of  the  ipth  cent.,  from  the  title, 
'Le  Parnasse  Contemporain',  of  three  collec- 
tions of  their  poems  published  in  1866-76, 
They  include  Catulle  Mendes,  Mallarme', 
Verlaine,  Sully  Prudhomme,  &c. 

Parnassus,  a  mountain  in  Greece,  a  few 
miles  north  of  Delphi,  sacred  to  the  Muses. 
One  of  its  peaks  was  sacred  to  Apollo;  the 
other,  as  Mr.  George  Saintsbury  reminds  us, 
to  Dionysus. 

Parnassus  Plays,  The,  the  name  given  to  a 
trilogy,  produced  about  the  year  1600  by  the 
students  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
consisting  of  'The  Pilgrimage  to  Pernassus* 
and  'The  Returne  from  Pernassus*,  the  latter 
in  two  parts,  with  'The  Scourge  for  Simony* 


PARNELL 

as  sub-title  of  the  second.  They  have  been 
attributed  to  J.  Day  (fl.  1606,  q.v.),  but  their 
authorship  is  doubtful. 

The  'Pilgrimage'  deals  allegorically  with 
the  journey  of  Philomusus  and  his  cousin 
Studioso  to  Parnassus  by  way  of  the  Trivium, 
and  the  regions  of  Rhetoric  and  Philosophy ; 
and  their  encounters  with  Madido,  the  votary 
of  wine,  Amoretto,  the  voluptuary,  and  In- 
genioso,  who  has  given  up  the  voyage  and 
burnt  his  books.  But  the  travellers  resist  their 
counsels  and  struggle  on  to  their  goal. 

In  the  'Return',  where  the  tone  becomes 
satirical,  the  students  are  seen  on  their  way 
back  to  London,  learning  how  to  catch  a 
patron  or  cheat  a  tradesman;  and  following 
menial  occupations,  as  sexton  and  private 
tutor,  as  fiddlers,  and  so  forth ;  and  finally,  in 
utter  discouragement,  as  simple  shepherds. 

The  second  part  of  the  'Return*  contains 
an  interesting  review  of  the  merits  of  certain 
contemporary  poets,  including  Shakespeare 
and  Jonson;  and  introduces  Kemp  and  Bur- 
bage.  Some  of  the  scenes  deal  with  the  feud 
between  town  and  gown  at  Cambridge,  and 
hold  up  to  obloquy  Brackyn,  the  recorder  of 
Cambridge,  who  figures  again  in  'Ignoramus* 
(q.v.). 

Parnell,  CHARLES  STEWART  (1846-91),  born 
at  Avondale,  co.  Wicklow,  and  educated  at 
Magdalene  College,  Cambridge.  He  entered 
parliament  as  M.P.  for  Meath  in  1875  and  by 
his  extreme  attitude  won  the  confidence  of 
the  Fenians  and  obtained  an  alliance  with  the 
Clan-na-Gael  or  new  Fenians,  who  had 
hitherto  despised  parliamentary  agitation. 
He  was  elected  chairman  of  the  Home  Rule 
party  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  1880  and, 
in  spite  of  his  being  a  Protestant,  exerted 
an  extraordinary  sway  over  his  supporters 
and  enormous  influence  outside  the  house. 
He  was  arrested  for  his  incendiary  speeches 
in  1 88 1  and  imprisoned  in  Kilmainham  gaol, 
gaining  thereby  great  popularity  and  the 
appellation  of  'the  uncrowned  king  of  Ire- 
land*. With  the  help  of  the  Liberal  party  he 
overthrew  the  Tory  government  in  1886,  and 
converted  Gladstone  to  his  home-rule  scheme. 
He  vindicated  himself  in  1888-9  of  the  charge 
of  connivance  with  outrage  and  crime  brought 
in  the  articles  on  'Parnellism  and  Crime* 
which  were  published  in  'The  Times*  in  1887. 
His  career  was  ruined  by  his  appearance  as 
co-respondent  in  a  suit  for  divorce  by  Capt. 
O'Shea  against  his  wife  in  1890.  His  influence 
may  be  estimated  by  the  fact  that  within 
eleven  years  of  his  entering  public  life  he  had 
induced  a  majority  of  one  of  the  great  English 
political  parties  to  regard  home  rule  for  Ire- 
land, hitherto  viewed  as  an  impracticable 
drearn,  as  an  urgent  necessity. 

PARNELL,  THOMAS  (1679-1718),  born 
in  Dublin  and  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  was  archdeacon  of  Clogher  and  a 
friend  of  Swift  and  Pope  (to  whose  'Iliad' 
he  contributed  an  introductory  essay).  His 
works,  which  were  published  posthumously 


PAROLLES 

by  Pope,  include  'The  Night  Piece  on  Death', 
'The  Hymn  to  Contentment',  and  "The  Her- 
mit', the  two  first  being  octosyllabic  odes  of 
great  fluency,  and  the  last  a  narrative  poem  in 
heroic  couplets.  ParnelPs  life  was  written  by 
Goldsmith  and  Johnson.  His  'Elegy  to  an  old 
Beauty'  includes  the  couplet: 

And  all  that  *s  madly  wild,  or  oddly  gay 
We  call  it  only  pretty  Fanny's  way. 
'Pretty  Fanny's  way'  has  become  proverbial 
for  some  perverse  or  annoying  habit  regarded 
with  toleration  by  the  friends  of  the  person 
guilty  of  it.   Parnell's  'Homer's  Battle  of  the 
Frogs  and  Mice  with  the  Remarks  of  Zoilus', 
satirizing  Theobald  and  Dennis,  was  pub- 
lished in  1717. 

Parolles,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'All 's 
Well  that  Ends  Well'  (q.v.). 

Paronomasia,  a  play  on  words,  a  pun: 
As  we  curtail  the  already  cur-tailed  cur 
(You    catch   the   paronomasia,   play   'po' 
words  ?). 

Calverley,  'The  Cock  and  the  Bull' 
(parody  of  Browning). 

PARR,  SAMUEL  (1747-1825),  educated  at 
Harrow  and  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
was  head  master  of  three  schools,  and  then 
settled  at  Hatton  in  Warwickshire  as  perpetual 
curate,  where  he  built  up  a  library  containing 
10,000  volumes.  He  engaged  in  political  con- 
troversy as  a  strong  Whig,  and  in  numerous 
literary  quarrels.  He  was  a  fine  Latin  scholar, 
and  excelled  as  a  writer  of  Latin  epitaphs  (he 
wrote  that  on  Samuel  Johnson  in  St.  Paul's). 
He  was  regarded  as  the  Whig  Johnson,  but 
his  conversation  was  apparently  far  inferior 
to  that  of  his  model.  His  works,  which  con- 
tain little  of  permanent  value,  and  are  marked 
by  verbosity  and  mannerism,  were  collected 
in  eight  volumes  in  1828.  His  reputation  was 
severely  handled  by  De  Quincey  in  an  essay, 
'Dr.  Samuel  Parr,  or  Whiggism  in  relation  to 
Literature'. 

Parr,  THOMAS  (i483?-i63s),  OLD  PAER,  a 
native  of  Alderbury,  near  Shrewsbury,  whose 
longevity  was  celebrated  by  Taylor,  the  water- 
poet.  He  was  sent  to  court  in  1635  by  tne 
earl  of  Arundel,  where  the  change  in  his  mode 
of  life  killed  him.  Sir  G.  Cornewall  Lewis  and 
W.  J.  Thorns  regard  the  story  of  his  extra- 
ordinary age  as  unsupported  by  any  trust- 
worthy evidence. 

Parrhasius  (fl.  c.  400  B.C.),  a  native  of 
Ephesus,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  painters 
of  antiquity.  For  his  contest  of  skill  with 
Zeuxis,  see  Zeuxis. 

PARRY,  SIR  WILLIAM  EDWARD  (1790- 
1855),  Arctic  explorer,  was  author  of  four 
narratives  of  voyages  to  the  Polar  Sea,  pub- 
lished in  1821-4,  1824,  1826,  and  1828. 

Parsees,  descendants  of  those  Persians  who 
fled  to  India  in  the  7th  and  8th  cents,  to  escape 
Mohammedan  persecution,  and  who  still 
retain  their  religion  (Zoroastrianism,  q.v.). 


PARTRIDGE 

They  are  also  known  as  Guebres.   They  are 
fairly  numerous  in  the  Bombay  Presidency. 
Parsifal,  the  title  of  a  music-drama  by  R. 
Wagner  (q.v.).   See  Parzival  and  Perceval. 
PARSON  LOT,  see  Kingsley  (C.). 
Parson's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 
Parthemssa,  see  Boyle  (J?.). 

Parthenon,  THE,  a  temple  at  Athens  sacred 
to  Athene.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Persians 
and  rebuilt  in  a  more  splendid  manner  by 
Pericles.  The  statue  in  it  of  the  goddess, 
made  of  gold  and  ivory,  passed  for  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  Pheidias.  It  was  turned  into 
a  Christian  church  probably  in  the  reign  of 
Justinian  I,  into  a  mosque  soon  after  1453, 
and  almost  destroyed  in  1687  by  an  explosion 
of  gunpowder  during  the  siege  of  Athens  by 
the  Venetians. 

Parthenopean  Republic,  the  short-lived 
republic  established  by  the  French  at  Naples 
in  1799.  Parthenope  was  the  name  of  a  Greek 
settlement  from  Cumae  on  the  site  where 
Naples  now  stands,  derived  from  the  associa- 
tion of  the  locality  with  the  siren  of  that  name. 

Parthenophil  and  Parthenope,  a  collection 
of  sonnets  by  B.  Barnes  (q.v.),  issued  in  1593, 
notable  as  one  of  the  first  of  such  collec- 
tions to  appear  after  Sidney's  *Astrophel  and 
Stella'. 

Parthians,  THE,  a  people  of  Scythian 
origin  who  lived  SE.  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and 
came  into  conflict  with  the  Romans.  They 
were  celebrated  as  mounted  archers,  who 
spread  round  the  enemy,  poured  in  a  shower 
of  arrows,  and  then  fled,  avoiding  close  con- 
tact, and  still  shooting  their  arrows  as  they 
retreated.  Whence  the  expression  *a  Par- 
thian shaft'. 

Particularism,  in  theology,  the  dogma  that 
Divine  Grace  is  provided  for  or  offered  to  a 
selected  part,  not  the  whole,  of  the  human 
race. 

Partington,  MRS.,  referred  to  by  Sydney 
Smith  (q.v.)  in  his  speech  at  Taunton  in  Oct. 
1831  on  the  rejection  of  the  Reform  Bill.  He 
compares  the  attempts  of  the  House  of  Lords 
to  stop  the  progress  of  reform  to  the  efforts 
of  Mrs.  Partington,  who  lived  close  to  the 
beach  at  Sidmouth,  to  keep  out  the  Atlantic 
with  a  mop  when  a  great  storm  in  1824  caused 
a  flood  in  that  town. 

Benjamin  Penhallow  Shillaber  (1814-90), 
American  humorist,  published  in  1854  the 
*Life  and  Sayings  of  Mrs.  Partington',  a 
benevolent  village  gossip,  an  American 
variety  of  Mrs.  Malaprop. 
Partlet  or  DAME  PARTLET,  the  hen  in  *Rey- 
nard  the  Fox*  (q.v.)  and  in  Chaucer's  'Nun's 
Priest's  Tale'  (see  Canterbury  Tales).  'Sister 
Partlet  with  her  hooded  head*  in  Dryden's 
4The  Hind  and  the  Panther*  (q.v.)  stands  for 
the  Roman  Catholic  nuns. 
Partridge,  a  character  in  Fielding's  'Torn 
Jones*  (q.v.). 


PARTRIDGE 

Partridge,  JOHN,  the  victim  of  a  mystifi- 
cation by  Swift.  See  Bickerstaff. 
Parzival,  an  epic  by  Wolfram  von  Eschen- 
bach  (q.v.),  composed  early  in  the  i$th  cent, 
on  the  subject  of  the  legend  of  Perceval  (q.v.) 
and  the  Holy  Grail.  See  also  Titurel. 
PASCAL,  BLAISE  (1623-62),  French 
mathematician,  physicist,  and  moralist,  came 
early  under  the  influence  of  Jansenism  (q.v.). 
His  first  important  ethical  work  was  the 
'Lettres  &  un  Provincial'  (1656-7),  polemical 
letters  directed  against  the  casuistry  of  the 
Jesuits.  His  famous  'Pense'es'  (issued  post- 
humously in  1670)  were  fragments  of  an  un- 
completed Defence  of  the  Christian  Religion, 
directed  principally  against  the  free-thinkers. 
A  contemporary  of  Descartes  (q.v.),  he 
contested  that  philosopher's  view  of  the 
supremacy  of  human  reason,  and  showed  its 
Inability  to  deal  with  ultimate  metaphysical 
problems.  He  finds  room  in  his  own 
philosophy  for  the  teaching  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  for  intuition  alongside  of  reason.  Pascal 
showed  his  mathematical  and  scientific 
aptitudes  by  a  juvenile  treatise  on  conic 
sections,  by  inventing  a  calculating  machine, 
and  by  proving  experimentally  the  weight  of 
the  air. 

Pasha,  a  title  borne  in  Turkey  by  officers  of 
high  rank,  e.g.  military  commanders  and 
governors  of  provinces.  There  were  three 
grades  of  pashas,  distinguished  by  the  num- 
ber of  horse-tails  displayed  as  a  symbol  in 
war;  the  highest  grade  (of  three  tails)  corre- 
sponding to  a  commanding  general,  admiral, 
or  governor  of  equivalent  rank. 

Pasht,  a  cat-headed  goddess  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  especially  worshipped  at  Bubastis. 

Pasiphae,  see  Minotaur. 

Pasquil,  PASQUIN:  Pasquino  or  Pasquitto  was 
the  name  popularly  given  to  a  mutilated 
statue  disinterred  at  Rome  in  1501 ,  and  set  up 
by  Cardinal  Caraffa  at  the  corner  of  his  palace 
near  the  Piazza  Navona.  It  became  the  cus- 
tom to  salute  Pasquin  on  St.  Mark's  day  in 
Latin  verses.  In  process  of  time  these 
pasquinate  or  pasquinades  tended  to  become 
satirical,  and  the  term  began  to  be  applied, 
not  only  in  Rome,  but  in  other  countries,  to 
satirical  compositions  and  lampoons,  politi- 
cal, ecclesiastical,  or  personal.  According  to 
Mazocchi,  the  name  Pasquino  originated  in 
that  of  a  schoolmaster  who  lived  opposite  the 
spot  where  the  statue  was  found;  a  later 
tradition  made  Pasquino  a  caustic  tailor  or 
shoemaker;  another  calls  him  a  barber. 
[OED.]  Replies  to  the  pasquinades  used  to 
be  attached  to  the  Marforio,  an  ancient  statue 
of  a  river-god,  thought  to  be  of  Mars. 

Passetyme  of  Pleasure,  or  the  Historie  of 
Graunde  Amoure  and  La  Belle  Pucel,  an 
allegorical  poem  in  rhyme-royal  and  deca- 
syllabic couplets  by  Hawes  (q.v.),  written 
about  1506  and  first  printed  by  Wynkyn  de 
Worde  in  1509  (edited  by  Southey,  1831,  and 


PASSOVER 

by  Wright  for  the  Percy  Society,  1845).  It 
describes  the  education  of  a  certain  Graunde 
Amour  in  the  accomplishments  required  to 
make  a  knight  perfect  and  worthy  of  the  love 
of  La  Belle  Pucel,  and  narrates  his  encounters 
with  giants  (representing  the  vices),  his  mar- 
riage, and  his  death ;  the  whole  constituting  an 
allegory  of  life  in  the  form  of  a  romance  of 
chivalry.  It  contains  a  well-known  couplet  in 
perhaps  its  original  form : 

For  though  the  day  be  never  so  longe, 
At  last  the  belles  ringeth  to  evensonge. 

Passing  of  Arthur,  The,  one  of  Tennyson's 
'Idylls  of  the  King'  (q.v.),  published  in  1869* 

Sir  Bedivere,  the  last  surviving  of  Arthur's 
knights,  relates  the  final  scenes  of  the  king's 
life,  the  coming  of  the  ghost  of  Gawain  with 
its  warning  of  the  impending  end ;  the  pressing 
back  of  Modred's  forces  to  the  western  bound 
of  Lyonesse;  the  great 'battle  when  all  but 
Arthur,  Bedivere,  and  Modred  are  killed;  the 
slaying  of  Modred  by  Arthur  and  his  own 
mortal  wound;  the  throwing  of  Excalibur 
into  the  mere ;  and  the  coming  of  the  black 
barge  with  the  three  queens,  who  bear  off 
Arthur. 

The  poem  incorporates  the  'Morte  d'Ar- 
thur',  the  earlier  fragment  published  in  1842. 

Passion,  THE,  the  sufferings  of  Jesus  Christ 
on  the  Cross  (also  often  including  the  Agony 
in  Gethsemane).  A  CROSS  OF  THE  PASSION  is 
a  term  of  Heraldry,  used  of  a  cross,  not 
crossed  in  the  middle  but  somewhat  below 
the  top.  PASSION  WEEK  is  the  week  im- 
mediately before  Easter,  also  called  Holy 
Week. 

Passion  Play,  a  miracle  play  (q.v.)  repre- 
senting the  Passion  of  Christ.  See  also 
Oberammergau* 

Passionate  Pilgrim,  A,  a  story  by  H.  James 
(q.v.),  his  earliest  work,  written  in  1870  and 
published  in  1875. 

It  is  the  tragic  tale  of  an  American  out  of 
sympathy  with  his  own  country  and  broken 
by  misfortune,  who  comes  to  England,  where 
he  has  some  sort  of  claim  to  the  home  of  his 
English  forefathers.  The  hope  that  the  claim 
will  prove  valid  proves  unfounded,  and  he  is 
reduced  to  utter  despair.  Nevertheless,  he 
is  prevailed  on  to  visit  this  ancestral  home. 
Here,  in  its  congenial  atmosphere,  his  des- 
pondent spirit  suddenly  blazes  out  into  a 
passionate  ardour.  Events  unexpectedly 
bring  the  possession  of  the  home  and  a  be- 
lated happiness  within  his  reach,  but  too  late, 
and  he  dies. 

Passionate  Pilgrim,  The,  an  unauthorized 
anthology  of  poems  by  various  authors,  pub- 
lished by  William  Jaggard  in  1599,  and 
attributed  on  the  title-page  to  William 
Shakespeare. 

Passover,  THE,  the  name  of  a  Jewish  feast, 
held  on  the  evening  of  the  i4th  day  of" 
the  month  Nisan,  commemorative  of  the 
'passing  over*  of  the  houses  of  the  Israelites 


[592] 


PASTEUR 

whose  doorposts  were  marked  with  the  blood 
of  the  lamb,  when  the  Egyptians  were  smitten 
with  the  death  of  their  first-born  (Exod.  xii). 
It  is  extended  to  include  the  seven  following 
days. 

Pasteur,  Louis  (1822-95),  a  famous  French 
chemist  and  biologist,  the  founder  of  the 
science  of  bacteriology,  the  author  of  many 
works  on  bacteria  and  the  preventive  treat- 
ment of  disease,  and  the  discoverer  of  the 
method  of  inoculation  for  hydrophobia. 

Pastiche,  a  literary  composition  made  up 
from  various  authors  or  sources,  or  in  imita- 
tion of  the  style  of  another  author ;  or  a  pic- 
ture made  up  of  fragments  pieced  together  or 
copied  with  modification  from  an  original,  or 
in  professed  imitation  of  the  style  of  another 
artist. 

Paston  Letters,  a  collection  of  letters  pre- 
served by  the  Pastons,  a  well-to-do  Norfolk 
family,  written  between  1440  and  1486. 

They  concern  three  generations  of  the 
family  and  were  written  under  three  reigns, 
Henry  VI,  Edward  IV,  and  Richard  III. 
They  are  unique  as  materials  for  history,  and 
interesting  as  showing  the  violence  and 
anarchy  that  prevailed  in  the  land,  and  the 
domestic  conditions  in  which  a  family  of  this 
class  lived.  The  history  of  the  manuscripts  is 
curious.  The  second  earl  of  Yarmouth  (1652- 
1732),  the  head  of  the  Paston  family,  sold 
some  of  his  family  papers  to  Peter  Le  Neve, 
the  antiquary.  They  passed  through  various 
hands  into  those  of  John  Fenn,  who  pub- 
lished two  volumes  of  selected  letters  in  1787. 
These  attracted  the  interest  of  the  king,  and 
Fenn  presented  to  the  Royal  Library  the 
manuscript  of  the  letters  which  he  had  pub- 
lished, and  was  knighted  in  acknowledge- 
ment. Two  further  volumes  of  letters  were 
published  in  1789,  and  a  fifth  in  1825.  The 
originals  of  these  volumes  were  all  for  a  time 
lost.  Those  of  the  fifth  volume  were  found  in 
1865,  those  of  the  third  and  fourth  in  1875; 
but  it  was  not  until  1889  that  the  originals  of 
the  first  two  volumes  were  discovered  in  the 
library  of  Orwell  Hall,  where  they  had  come 
with  the  papers  of  Bishop  Tomline.  The 
whole  collection,  with  many  additional  docu- 
ments, has  since  been  re-edited  by  Dr.  J. 
Gairdner. 

Pastor  FidOf  II,  see  GuarinL 

Pastoral  poetry  was,  in  its  origin,  distinc- 
tively Dorian  and  especially  Sicilian.  Theo- 
critus (q.v.)  was  its  principal  Greek  repre- 
sentative. Pastoral  romances  and  plays  were 
developed  in  England  in  the  i6th  and  i7th 
cents,  from  Italian  and  Spanish  works,  notably 
from  the  'Diana'  of  Jorge  de  Montemayor 
(printed  c.  1560,  and  translated  into  English 
by  Bartholomew  Young,  1598),  which  in- 
spired Sidney's  'Arcadia'  (q.v.);  also  from 
Tasso's  'Aminta*  (1581)  and  'II  Pastor  Fido* 
of  Guarini  (1590),  translated  in  1596  and 
1602  respectively,  the  latter  of  which  served  as 
a  model  for  Fletcher's  'Faithful  Shepherdess' 


PATERNOSTER 

(q.v.).  The  essence  of  the  pastoral  is  sim- 
plicity of  thought  and  action  in  a  rustic 
setting.  The  most  important  examples  of 
this  kind  of  composition  in  English  include, 
besides  the  two  works  above  mentioned, 
Lodge's  'Rosalynde*  (q.v.),  Shakespeare's  £As 
You  Like  It'  (q.v.),  Jonson's  'Sad  Shepherd' 
(q.v.),  and  Milton's  'Comus'  (q.v.). 

Pastorella,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
VI.  ix-xii,  a  shepherdess,  loved  by  Coridon 
the  shepherd  and  by  Sir  Calidore,  believed  to 
be  the  daughter  of  Meliboe.  She  is  carried 
off  by  brigands,  rescued  by  Sir  Calidore,  and 
discovered  to  be  the  daughter  of  Sir  Bella- 
moure  and  the  Lady  Claribell. 

Patavinity,  .provincialism  in  style.  The 
word  originally  means  the  dialectal  pecu- 
liarities of  Patavium  (Padua),  as  shown  in  the 
writings  of  Livy  (q.v.) ;  hence  provincialism 
in  style. 

Patavium,  in  imprints,  Padua. 

Patch,  originally  the  name  or  nickname  of 
Cardinal  Wolsey's  domestic  fool  (perhaps  an 
anglicized  form  of  the  Italian  pazzo,  fool), 
hence  a  synonym  for  fool  (whence  'cross- 
patch'). 

Patelin,  see  Patkelin. 

PATER,  WALTER  HORATIO  (183 9-94), 
educated  at  King's  School,  Canterbury,  and 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  a  fellow  of 
Brasenose,  became  associated  with  the  Pre- 
Raphaelites,  particularly  with  Swinburne, 
whom  perhaps  he  never  met,  and  began 
his  literary  career  by  contributing  in  1867 
to  the  'Westminster  Review*  an  essay  on 
*Winckelmann'r  subsequently  embodied  in 
his  volume  of  'Studies  in  the  History  of 
the  Renaissance'  (1873).  This  work  first  made 
Pater's  fame.  It  was  followed  in  1885  by 
*Marius  the  Epicurean*  (q.v.),  a  philosophic 
romance;  'Imaginary  Portraits'  (1887),  'Ap- 
preciations' (1889)  containing  his  judgements 
of  Shakespeare,  Wordsworth,  and  other 
English  writers ;  'Plato  and  Platonism'  (1893), 
and  'The  Child  in  the  House'  (1894).  'Greek 
Studies*  (1895)  and  'Gaston  de  Latour* 
(1896)  were  published  posthumously.  'Gas- 
ton',  which  remained  unfinished,  is  a  story 
of  the  France  of  Charles  IX,  containing  a 
portrait  of  Montaigne,  and  introducing  Ron- 
sard  and  Giordano  Bruno. 

PATERCULUS,  CAIUS  VELLEIUS  (c. 
19  B.C.— A.D.  31),  Roman  historian,  who  served 
in  Germany  under  Tiberius;  author  of  a 
succinct  universal  history  from  the  coloniza- 
tion of  Magna  Graecia  to  his  own  time. 

Paternoster,  from  the  L.  pater  noster,  'Our 
Father',  the  first  two  words  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  Latin,  used  to  signify  that  prayer, 
especially  in  the  Latin  version.  It  is  some- 
times extended  to  any  form  of  words  re- 
peated or  muttered  by  way  of  prayer,  impre- 
cation, or  charm,  e.g.  Devil's  Paternoster,  a 
muttered  imprecation;  also  to  a  special  bead 


3868 


[593] 


PATERNOSTER  ROW 

in  a  rosary  indicating  that  a  paternoster  is  to 
be  said  ;  and  to  the  whole  rosary. 
Paternoster  Row,  London,  adjoining  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  was  perhaps  so  called  from 
the  makers  of  rosaries  or  paternosters.  Stow 
records  that  'Pater  noster  makers  of  olde 
time,  or  beade  makers,  and  text  writers  are 
gone  out  of  Pater  noster  Rowe*.  Or  it  may 
have  been  here  that  processions  going  to 
St.  Paul's  began  their  pater  noster  (cf.  Amen 
Corner,  Ave  Maria  Lane,  &c.,  in  the  vicinity). 

Path  to  Rome,  The,  see  Belloc. 
Pathelin  or  Patelin,  Maitre  Pierre,  the  most 
famous  of  early  French  farces,  probably  of 
the  1  5th  cent.,  of  unknown  authorship. 

Pathelin,  the  lawyer,  tricks  the  close-fisted 
Joceaume,  the  draper,  out  of  a  piece  of  cloth. 
Joceaume  presently  discovers  that  he  is  being 
defrauded  by  his  shepherd  Aignelet,  whom 
he  hales  before  the  judge.  Aignelet  consults 
Pathelin  as  to  his  defence.  Joceaume,  con- 
fused at  seeing  the  rascal  Pathelin  in  court, 
mixes  up  his  two  complaints,  against  the 
lawyer  and  against  the  shepherd,  and  is  re- 
called to  the  business  of  the  moment  by  the 
judge  in  the  famous  phrase,  'Revenons  a  ces 
moutons*.  Aignelet,  who  to  every  question 
replies,  in  accordance  with  Pathelin's  advice, 
by  merely  bleating,  is  discharged  as  an  idiot. 
But  the  tables  are  turned  on  Pathelin  when,  in 
reply  to  his  demand  for  his  promised  fee, 
Aignelet  merely  bleats. 

There  is  an  edition  of  this  amusing  piece, 
with  the  language  slightly  modernized  so  as 
to  be  easily  understandable,  by  Edouard 
Fournier,  1872. 

Pathfinder  ,  The,  one  of  the  'Leatherstocking* 
novels  of  J.  F.  Cooper  (q.v.),  and  a  nickname 
of  the  hero,  Natty  Bumppo. 

Patience,  an  alliterative  poem  of  500  lines,  of 
the  later  I4th  cent.,  of  which  the  story  of 
Jonah  is  the  subject.  It  is  attributed  to  the 
same  author  as  'The  Pearl'  and  'Cleanness' 


Patience,  an  opera  by  Gilbert  and  Sullivan 
(q.v,),  produced  in  1881,  ridiculing  the 
aesthetic  movement  (q.v.). 

Patient  Grissil,  a  comedy  by  Dekker  (q.v.) 
in  collaboration  with  Chettle  and  Haughton, 
printed  in  1603. 

The  marquess  of  Saluzzo,  smitten  with 
the  beauty  of  Grissil,  the  virtuous  daughter  of 
a  poor  basket-maker,  makes  her  his  bride. 
Wishing  to  try  her  patience,  he  subjects  her 
to  a  series  of  humiliations  and  cruelties, 
robbing  her  of  her  children  and  making  her 
believe  them  dead,  and  finally  pretending  to 
take  another  wife,  and  making  her  attend  upon 
the  new  bride.  All  these  trials  she  bears  sub- 
missively. The  new  bride  is  revealed  to  be 
Grissil's  daughter,  and  Grissil  is  restored  to 
honour.  The  play  contains  the  beautiful 
song:  'Art  thou  poor,  yet  hast  thou  golden 
slumbers,  Oh  sweet  content*. 

The  same  subject  is  treated  in  Chaucer's 


PATRICK'S  PURGATORY 

'Clerkes  Tale*  (see  Canterbury  Tales).  It  was 
taken  originally  from  the  'Decameron*  (x.  x). 
PATMORE,  COVENTRY  KERSEY 
DIGHTON  (1823-96),  was  an  assistant  in 
the  printed  book  department  of  the  British 
Museum.  He  was  a  friend  of  Tennyson 
and  Ruskin,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of 
the  Pre-Raphaelite  (q.v.)  group,  to  whose 
organ,  'The  Germ',  he  contributed.  In 
1854  he  issued  'The  Betrothal' ;  in  1856  'The 
Espousals';  in  1860  'Faithful  for  Ever';  and 
in  1862  'The  Victories  of  Love' — four  poems 
forming  part  of  'The  Angel  in  the  House^ 
a  long  work  designed  to  be  the  apotheosis 
of  married  love.  Felix  courts  and  weds 
Honoria,  a  dean's  daughter,  and  the  poet 
traces  the  progress  of  a  deep  pure  love  amid 
the  incidents  of  a  commonplace  life,  giving 
the  subject  in  the  end  a  mystical  turn.  Pat- 
more  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in  1864. 
In  1877  he  published  'The  Unknown  Eros', 
odes  on  high  themes  very  different  from 
the  domesticity  of  his  previous  poems; 
and  'Amelia'  in  1878.  His  collected  poetical 
works  were  published,  with  an  appendix 
on  English  metrical  law,  in  1886.  Articles 
contributed  mostly  to  the  'St.  James's 
Gazette'  were  subsequently  issued  under  the 
titles  of  'Principle  in  Art'  (1889)  and  'Religio 
Poetae'  (1893).  His  'Rod,  Root,  and  Flower*, 
chiefly  meditations  on  religious  subjects, 
appeared  in  1895. 

Patmos,  the  island  in  the  Aegean  Sea,  one 
of  the  Sporades,  where,  according  to  legend, 
St.  John  saw  the  visions  of  the  Apocalypse. 

Patrick,  ST.  '  (373  P-463  ?),  the  patron 
saint  of  Ireland,  originally  named  Sucat,  and 
apparently  of  mixed  Roman  and  British 
parentage,  was  born  probably  in  Ailclyde 
(now  Dumbarton).  He  was  captured  in  a  raid 
of  Picts  and  Scots  in  389  and  sold  to  Miliuc, 
a  chieftain  of  Antrim.  After  six  years  of 
bondage,  he  went  to  Gaul  and  studied  under 
Martin  of  Tours.  He  then  returned  to  Britain 
and,  feeling  a  supernatural  call  to  preach  to 
the  heathen  Irish,  landed  in  Wicklow  in  405 
(432?),  proceeding  thence  to  Strangford 
Lough,  where  he  converted  all  the  Ulstermen. 
He  subsequently  journeyed  through  Ireland 
and  founded  his  first  mission  settlement  near 
Armagh,  where,  according  to  St.  Bernard,  he 
was  buried.  Some  'epistles'  of  St.  Patrick, 
believed  to  be  genuine,  are  extant.  His 
festival  is  on  17  Mar.  His  life  has  been  written 
by  J.  B.  Bury  (1905). 

Patrick's,  THE  DEAN  OF  ST.,  Swift  (q.v.). 
Patrick's  Purgatory,  ST.,  a  cave  on  an 
island  on  Lough  Derg  in  the  west  of  Ireland, 
where,  according  to  legend,  an  entrance  to 
purgatory  was  revealed  to  St.  Patrick,  that  he 
might  overcome  the  obstinacy  of  those  whom 
he  was  trying  to  convert.  Henry  of  Saltrey 
(fl.  1150),  a  Cistercian  of  Saltrey  in  Hunting- 
donshire, who  had  the  story  from  Gilbert  of 
Louth,  wrote  an  account  of  the  visit  of  Sir 
Owain,  a  knight  of  King  Stephen,  to  St. 


[594] 


PATRICK  SPENS 

Patrick's  Purgatory,  undertaken  by  way  of 
penance  for  his  sins.  This  was  translated  into 
other  languages,  and  pilgrimages  to  the  cave 
were  frequent,  until  it  was  closed  in  1497  by 
order  of  the  pope.  Calderdn  (q.v.)t  the 
Spanish  dramatist,  has  a  play  on  this  subject, 
translated  (1853,  and  again  1873)  by  D.  F. 
MacCarthy. 

Patrick  Spens,  Sir,  an  early  Scottish  ballad. 
According  to  Andrew  Lang  eit  is  a  confused 
echo  of  the  Scotch  expedition  which  should 
have  brought  the  Maid  of  Norway  to  Scot- 
land, about  1285'.  Sir  Patrick's  ship  is 
wrecked  off  Aberdour  (in  Aberdeenshire)  on 
the  return  journey  with  the  king's  daughter 
aboard.  The  ballad  is  included  in  Percy's 
'Reliques'. 

Patriot  King,  The  Idea  of  a,  a  political  treatise 
by  Viscount  Bplingbroke  (q.v.),  written  in 
1738,  and  published  in  1749. 

The  institution  of  monarchy,  the  author 
declares,  has  been  degraded  by  the  spirit  of 
tyranny,  ambition,  and  vanity,  aided  by  the 
adulation  of  interested  men.  Monarchy 
should  be  limited  so  far  as  to  preserve  liberty. 
Liberty  without  government  becomes  licence ; 
government  without  liberty  becomes  tyranny. 
The  role  of  the  patriot  king  is  to  maintain  the 
constitution.  Only  he  can  save  a  country 
whose  ruin  is  so  far  advanced  as  that  of 
England.  He  must  begin  to  govern  as  soon  as 
he  begins  to  reign,  and  call  into  the  adminis- 
tration such  men  as  will  serve  on  the  same 
principles  as  he  intends  to  follow,  dismissing 
the  adventurers  previously  in  power.  He  will 
espouse  no  party,  but  govern  like  the  common 
father  of  the  people,  aiming  to  subdue 
faction.  The  proper  personal  conduct  of  the 
patriot  king  is  illustrated  from  the  example  of 
Elizabeth  and  of  various  rulers  of  antiquity. 

This  treatise  is  generally  accounted  ^  the 
best,  as  it  was  practically  the  last,  of  Boling- 
broke's  political  writings. 

Patroclus,  one  of  the  Grecian  warriors 
during  the  Trojan  War,  and  the  close  friend  of 
Achilles  (q.v.).  When  the  latter  retired  to  his 
tent,  Patroclus  followed  his  example,  until 
Nestor,  in  consequence  of  the  many  defeats 
of  the  Greeks,  prevailed  upon  him  to  return 
to  the  field.  To  this  Achilles  consented,  and 
lent  Patroclus  his  armour.  In  the  ensuing 
battle  Patroclus  was  slain  by  Hector  with  the 
aid  of  Apollo.  Achilles  now  left  his  seclusion 
and  set  about  avenging  the  death  of  his  friend. 
He  slew  Hector,  who  had  increased  his  wrath 
by  appearing  in  the  armour  taken  from  the 
body  of  Patroclus. 
Patrologia,  see  Migne. 
Patterne,  SIR  WILLOUGHBY,  ELEANOR 
and  ISABEL,  LIEUTENANT,  and  CROSSJAY, 
characters  in  Meredith's  'The  Egoist'  (q.v.). 
Patti,  ADELINA  (1843-1919),  a  ^famous 
soprano  opera-singer,  born  at  Madrid,  who 
first  appeared  at  New  York  in  1859  and  in 
London  in  1861,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
popular  singers  of  her  time. 


PAUL  EMANUEL 

Pattieson,  PETER,  a  schoolmaster,  the 
imaginary  author  of  the  'Tales  of  My  Land- 
lord' of  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.). 

PATTISON,  MARK  (1813-84),  educated 
at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  a  fellow  and 
tutor  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  was  for  a 
time  an  ardent  follower  of  Newman,  but 
when  the  latter  entered  the  Roman  Church, 
gradually  separated  himself  from  the  high 
church  party,  and  contributed  to  'Essays  and 
Reviews*  (q.v.)  a  valuable  paper  on  the 
'Tendencies  of  Religious  Thought  in  Eng- 
land, 1688  to  1750*.  In  1851  he  failed  to  be 
elected  rector  of  Lincoln  College,  a  disappoint- 
ment that  seems  to  have  permanently  em- 
bittered him.  He  threw  up  his  tutorship  in 
1855  and  wrote  principally  on  educational 
subjects.  In  1861  he  became  rector  of  Lin- 
coln College,  continuing  his  literary  activity 
in  a  wider  field.  He  wrote  a  life  of  Isaac 
Casaubon  (1875),  and  for  the  English  Men  of 
Letters  series  a  life  of  Milton  (1879);  con- 
tributed to  the  E.B.  articles  on  Erasmus, 
More,  and  Grotius,  and  edited  certain  works 
of  Milton  and  Pope.  He  also  collected 
materials  for  a  life  of  Joseph  Scaliger  (q.v.). 
He  dictated  in  1883  his  interesting  'Memoirs* 
to  the  year  1860  (published  posthumously). 
His  collected  'Essays'  appeared  in  1889. 

Paul  Clifford,  a  novel  by  Bulwer  Lytton  (q.v.), 
published  in  1830.  The  work  was  written 
with  the  object  of  securing  an  improvement 
of  English  penal  discipline  and  penal  law, 
a  cause  in  which  Romilly,  Mackintosh,  and 
others  were  working.  It  is  interesting  as  one 
of  the  first  novels  of  philanthropic  purpose. 
Paul  Clifford,  whose  parents  are  unknown, 
is  brought  up  by  an  innkeeper  among  un- 
desirable companions,  is  arrested  for  a  theft 
of  which  he  is  guiltless,  and  is  imprisoned 
among  hardened  criminals.  Escaping,  he  be- 
comes the  leader  of  a  band  of  highwaymen. 
While  residing  at  Bath  under  the  name  of 
Captain  Clifford,  he  falls  in  love  with,  and 
wins  the  affection  of,  Lucy  Brandon,  an 
heiress  and  niece  of  Sir  William  Brandon,  an 
ambitious  and  hard-hearted  judge.  Realizing 
the  impossibility  of  their  marriage,  he  takes 
leave  of  her,  hinting  at  the  nature  of  the 
obstacle  in  its  way.  He  presently  rescues  two 
of  his  associates  who  have  been  captured  in 
the  course  of  a  robbery,  but  is  himself 
wounded  and  taken  prisoner.  Sir  William 
Brandon  is  the  judge  before  whom  he  is  tried. 
Just  as  Brandon  is  about  to  pronounce  sen- 
tence of  death  on  Clifford,  a  piece  of  paper 
reaches  him  intimating  that  the  prisoner  is 
his  son,  stolen  from  him  in  infancy.  Brandon 
nevertheless  pronounces  sentence,  but  is 
shortly  after  found  dead  in  his  carriage.  The 
paper  on  him  reveals  the  facts,  and  Clifford's 
sentence  is  commuted  to  transportation, 
Clifford  escapes,  with  Lucy,  to  America, 
where  his  remaining  days  are  devoted  to 
philanthropic  work. 

Paul  Emamiel,  MONSIEUR,  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal characters  in  C.  Bronte's  '  Viliette'  (q.v.). 


[595] 


PAUL  ET  VIRGINIE 

Paul  et  Virginie,  a  romance  by  Bernardin  de 
St.  Pierre  (q.v.),  published  in  1786. 

It  is  a  simple  tale  of  a  boy  and  a  girl, 
children  of  two  mothers  who  have  sought 
refuge  from  their  troubles  in  the  lie  de  France 
(Mauritius).  Brought  up  together  far  from 
the  civilization  and  conventions  of  Europe, 
they  fall  deeply  in  love.  Virginie  is  sum- 
moned to  France  for  a  few  years  by  a  rich 
relative  and  her  return  is  awaited  by  Paul 
with  intense  longing.  The  ship  arrives,  but  is 
wrecked  by  a  hurricane  within  sight  ^of  the 
shore,  and  Paul's  efforts  to  reach  it  fail. 
Virginie  is  seen  on  the  poop.  A  naked  sailor 
approaches  and  entreats  her  to  take  off  her 
clothes  and  allow  herself  to  be  saved,  but  she 
refuses  and  perishes — an  excess  of  delicacy 
which  probably  appeared  less  singular  when 
the  book  was  written  than  it  may  to-day. 
Paul  shortly  after  dies  of  grief. 

Paul  F  err  oil,  a  novel  by  Mrs.  Clive  (q.v.), 
published  in  1855. 

Paul  Ferroll,  a  man  of  wealth,  culture,  and 
ability,  murders  his  wife,  a  woman  of  violent 
and  domineering  character,  who  by  a  strata- 
gem has  prevented  him  from  marrying  the 
woman  that  he  loved.  He  escapes  suspicion, 
but  will  not  allow  any  innocent  person  to 
suffer  from  his  crime,  even  though  this 
attitude,  after  eighteen  years  of  happy  life 
with  his  second  wife,  the  woman  of  his  heart, 
entails  his  voluntary  confession,  the  death 
from  shock  of  his  wife,  and  the  ruin  of  his 
daughter. 

This  remarkable  novel  was  followed  by  a 
less  powerful  sequel,  'Why  Paul  Ferroll 
killed  his  Wife'. 

Paul  Pry,  the  title  of  a  farce  by  Poole  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1825. 

Paul  Pry  is  an  inquisitive,  meddlesome 
fellow,  said  to  be  drawn  from  one  Thomas 
Hill,  who  turned  his  inquisitiveness  to 
account  by  writing  for  the  press. 

PAUL  THE  DEACON  (PAULUS  DIACONUS), 
a  Lombard  of  the  8th  cent.,  and  at  one  time 
inmate  of  the  Benedictine  house  at  Monte 
Cassino,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Charlemagne;  one  of  the  best  chroniclers 
of  the  Dark  Ages,  author  of  the  'Historia 
Longobardorum*  included  in  the  cMonu- 
menta  Germaniae  Historica*. 

PAUL  THE  SILENTIARY  (PAULUS 
SILENTIARIUS),  one  of  the  silentiarii  or  secre- 
taries of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  was  a  Greek 
elegiac  poet,  author  of  a  description  of  the 
church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople. 
Paul's,  CHILDREN  OF,  a  company  of  boy 
actors  (recently  revived),  recruited  from  the 
choristers  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  whose 
performances  enjoyed  great  popularity  at  the 
end  of  the  i6th  and  beginning  of  the  zyth 
cents.  The  CHILDREN  OF  THE  CHAPEL, 
recruited  from  the  choristers  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  was  another  company  enjoying  popular 
favour  at  the  same  time.  Their  rivalry  with 
men  actors  is  alluded  to  in  'Hamlet',  n.  ii. 


PAUL'S  LETTERS  TO  HIS  KINSFOLK 

Paul's,  ST.,  Covent  Garden,  built  about 
1635  by  Inigo  Jones,  and  after  destruction  by 
fire  in  1795  rebuilt  according  to  the  original 
design.  It  contains  the  burial-places  of 
Samuel  Butler  (the  author  of  'Hudibras'), 
Wycherley,  Mrs.  Centlivre,  Dr.  Arne,  and 
Grinling  Gibbons  (qq.v.). 

Paul's  Cathedral,  ST.,  was  founded  early 
in  the  7th  cent,  by  Mellitus  (or  according  to 
Bede  by  King  ^Ethelbert  for  Mellitus),  who 
was  sent  to  England  from  Rome  in  60 1  and 
consecrated  bishop  of  London  by  St.  Augus- 
tine in  604.  Erkenwald,  son  of  Offa,  was  a 
notable  early  successor  (675-93)  of  Mellitus. 
Miracles  were  associated  with  him,  and  his 
shrine,  says  Lethaby  ('London  before  the 
Conquest'),  was  the  palladium  of  the  city 
until  the  Reformation.  The  cathedral  that 
preceded  the  present  edifice,  now  spoken  of 
as  old  St.  Paul's,  was  begun  in  the  nth  cent, 
after  the  great  fire  of  1087,  and  not  finished 
until  1314.  It  had  a  tall  wooden  spire  (de- 
stroyed by  lightning  in  1561),  and  Inigo  Jones 
added  an  Ionic  facade  to  it.  It  lost  much  of 
its  sacred  character.  As  early  as  the  days  of 
Bishop  Braybrook  (end  of  the  i4th  cent.)  we 
hear  of  its  being  used  as  a  market.  There  are 
frequent  references  in  the  1 6th  and  1 7th  cents, 
to  the  secular  uses  to  which  it  was  put.  Its 
central  aisle,  known  as  'Paul's  Walk*,  is  men- 
tioned as  a  promenade,  place  of  business  and 
assignation,  and  an  exchange  of  gossip. 
Whence  the  term  'Paul's  man'.  Thus  the 
scene  of  Jonspn's  'Every  Man  out  of  his 
Humour',  in.  i,  is  laid  there.  It  was  a  place 
where  servants  were  hired:  FalstarT  says  of 
Bardolph,  'I  bought  him  in  Paul's  and  hell 
buy  me  a  horse  in  Smithfield'  ('2  Henry  IV,  I. 
ii).  Earle,  in  his  'Microcosmographie'  (q.v.), 
gives  a  full  account  of  'Paul's  Walk'  (c.  52). 
In  the  course  of  this  he  says :  'The  principal 
inhabitants  and  possessors  are  stall  knights, 
captains  out  of  service,  men  of  long  rapiers 
and  breeches,  which  after  all  turn  merchants 
here,  and  traffic  for  news.'  (Cf.  A.  J.  C.  Hare, 
'Walks  in  London',  i.  in  (ed.  1894),  and 
Milman, 'Annals  of  St.  Paul's',  pp.  284  et  seq.) 
Old  St.  Paul's  was  destroyed  in  the  Fire  of 
London  (1666),  and  the  cathedral  as  we 
know  it  was  built  by  Sir  C.  Wren  (q.v.). 
Besides  the  tombs  of  naval  and  military 
heroes,  it  contains  those  of  Wren  himself, 
Reynolds,  and  Turner,  and  a  monument  to 
Dr.  Johnson.  Among  the  eminent  persons 
buried  in  old  St.  Paul's  may  be  mentioned 
Sir  P.  Sidney,  Colet,  and  Donne  (qq.v.). 
Paul's  Cross,  ST.:  'about  the  middest  of 
this  Churchyard  (St.  Paul's)  is  a  Pulpit 
Crosse  of  timber,  mounted  upon  steppes  of 
stone,  and  covered  with  leade,  in  which  are 
sermons  preached  by  learned  Divines  every 
Sundaye  in  the  fornoone'  (Stow).  The  Cross 
was  demolished  in  1643.  Another  cross  now 
occupies  its  place. 

PauVs  Letters  to  his  Kinsfolk,  a  series  of 
letters  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.),  published  in 
1816,  describing  a  visit  by  the  author  to 


[596] 


PAUL'S  MAN 

Brussels,  Waterloo,  and  Paris  a  few  weeks 
after  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  The  account  of 
the  battle  is  interesting  for  the  details  it  con- 
tains, some  of  them  obtained  from  Napoleon's 
Belgian  guide. 

Paul's  Man,  see  Paul's  Cathedral. 

Paul's  School,  ST.,  was  founded  in  1512 
by  Colet  (q.v.).  Lily  (q.v.)  was  its  first  master. 
The  school  was  removed  from  Paul's  Church- 
yard to  Hammersmith  in  1884.  Among  its 
many  distinguished  scholars  may  be  men- 
tioned Milton,  Samuel  Pepys,  and  Sir  Philip 
Francis  (qq.v.). 

Paul's  Walk,  see  Paul's  Cathedral. 

Paulicians,  a  religious  sect  that  arose  in 
Armenia  about  the  7th  cent.,  holding  modi- 
fied Manichaean  opinions.  They  asserted 
that  all  matter  is  evil  and  that  Christ's  body 
was  ethereal,  and  rejected  the  authority  of  the 
O.T.  They  probably  derive  their  name  from 
Paul  of  Samosata,  patriarch  of  Antioch,  260- 
72.  They  spread  to  Europe  and  Syria,  be- 
coming very  numerous  by  the  time  of  the 
Crusades. 

Paulina,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  "Win- 
ter's Tale'  (q.v.). 

Pauline,  the  first  published  poem  of  R. 
Browning  (q.v.).  It  appeared  anonymously 
in  1833,  when  the  author  was  only  twenty, 
and  was  subsequently  an  object  of  aversion  to 
him.  It  is  an  obscure  and  incoherent  con- 
fession of  the  young  poet's  sentiments,  largely 
it  would  seem  of  admiration  for  Shelley,  made 
to  a  very  shadowy  Pauline. 

Pauline  Deschappelles,  the  heroine  of 
Bulwer  Lytton*s  'Lady  of  Lyons'  (q.v.). 

PAUSANIAS,  traveller  and  geographer, 
perhaps  a  native  of  Lydia,  wrote  in  the  reign 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  his  'Periegesis'  (Itinerary) 
of  Greece,  in  which  he  describes  the  legends 
and  objects  of  antiquity  connected  with  the 
places  that  he  visited.  A  very  important 
writer,  for  he  saw  the  monuments  of  ancient 
Greece  before  any  serious  destruction  had 
taken  place.  The  first  Renaissance  edition  of 
him  was  printed  at  Venice  in  1510. 

Pavia,  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  the  old  capital 
of  the  Lombard  kingdom;  the  Iron  Crown 
(q.v.)  was  kept  there.  Under  its  walls  was 
fought  in  1525  the  battle  in  which  Fran£ois  I 
of  France  was  defeated  and  captured  by  the 
army  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 

Paxarete  or  PAXARETTE,  a  Spanish  wine 
made  at  an  old  monastery  near  Xeres,  a  rather 
rich  sweet  sherry. 

Paxarett,  SIR  TELEGRAPH,  a  character  in 
Peacock's  'Melincourt*  (q.v.). 

PAYN,  JAMES  (1830-98),  went  as  a  boy  to 
Eton,  Woolwich  Academy  (for  a  year),  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  but  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  been  educated  there,  for, 
according  to  Leslie  Stephen's  memoir,  he  re- 


PEACOCK 

fused  to  be  moulded  by  them  and  developed 
unconventionally.  He  began  early  in  life  to 
contribute  to  'Household  Words'  (he  had  a 
strong  admiration  for  its  editor,  Dickens)  and 
to  'Chambers's  Journal*,  of  which  he  became 
co-editor  in  1858  and  sole  editor  from 

1859  to  1874.    From  1883  to  1896  he  was 
editor  of  the  'Cornhill  Magazine'.   He  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  'Poems*  in  1853,  'Some 
Private    Views'    in    1882,    'Some    Literary 
Recollections'    in    1884,    and    'Gleams    of 
Memory'  in  1894.   'The  Backwater  of  Life* 
and  other  essays  appeared  posthumously  in 
1899.  Payn  was  the  author  of  a  large  number 
of  novels,  including  'Lost  Sir  Massingberd* 
(1864),  'By  Proxy'  (1878),  'The  Luck  of  the 
Darrells'  (1885). 

PAYNE,  JOHN  HOWARD  (179^1852), 
American  actor  and  playwright,  born  in  New 
York  City,  famous  as  author  of  the  popular 
song,  'Home,  Sweet  Home'  (q.v.). 

Peace  with  honour:  the  gain  that  Lord 
Beaconsfield,  in  his  speech  of  16  July  1878, 
claimed  to  have  brought  back  from  the 
Congress  of  Berlin.  The  expression  occurs 
in  Shakespeare's  'Coriolanus*,  in.  ii. 

PEAGHAM,  HENRY  (i576?-i643?),  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  an 
author  and  a  man  of  very  varied  talents.  He 
published  in  1606  'Graphice*,  a  practical 
treatise  on  art,  issued  in  many  subsequent 
editions  under  the  title  'The  Gentleman's 
Exercise*.  He  published  'The  Compleat 
Gentleman*,  the  work  by  which  he  is  best 
known,  in  1622.  From  the  last  edition  of 
this  (1661)  Johnson  drew  all  the  heraldic 
definitions  in  his  dictionary. 

Peachum,  and  his  daughter  POLLY,  charac- 
ters in  Gay's  'Beggar's  Opera*  (q.v.). 

PEACOCK,  THOMAS  LOVE  (1785-1 866), 
novelist  and  poet,  was  the  son  of  a  London 
merchant.  He  found  mercantile  occupation 
uncongenial, and  for  a  time  lived  on  his  private 
means,  producing  some  verse,  and  his  satirical 
romances,  'Headlong  Hall'  (1816),  'Melin- 
court* (1817),  and  'Nightmare  Abbey'  (1818). 
He  entered  the  East  India  Company's  service 
in  1819,  published  another  satirical  novel, 
'Crotchet  Castle*,  in  1831,  and  late  in  life,  in 

1860  or  1 861 ,  the  last  of  these,  'Gryll  Grange*. 
The    above    works    (noticed    under    their 
respective  titles)  are  a  curious  mixture  of  satire 
(personal,  social,  and  political)  and  romance, 
and  are  written  in  a  piquant  and  attractive 
style.   They  are  diversified  by  some  capital 
songs.  The  general  scheme  is  the  same  in  all  of 
them,  the  gathering  of  a  miscellaneous  party  of 
odd  characters  in  a  country  house,  followed  by 
diverting  dialogue  and  absurd  incidents.   In 
Peacock's  other  novels,  'Maid  Marian*  (q.v., 
1822)  and  'The  Misfortunes  of  Elphin*  (q.v., 
1829),  the  satire  is  veiled  under  a  more 
simply  romantic  form.    Peacock  also  pub- 
lished two  or  three  volumes  of  verse,  which 
are  of  less  interest.   Peacock  married  Jane 


[597] 


PEARL 

Gryfrydh,  the  'White  Snowdonian  antelope* 
of  Shelley's  'Letter  to  Maria  Gisborne',  and 
was  the  father  of  George  Meredith's  first 
wife.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Shelley, 
and  his  executor.  His  'Memorials  of  Shelley' 
were  edited  by  H.  Brett  Smith  (1909).  There 
is  a  Life  of  Peacock  by  Carl  van  Doren  (1911). 
Pearl,  an  alliterative  poem  in  twelve-lined 
octosyllabic  stanzas,  of  the  period  1350-80. 
The  author  is  unknown.  The  two  poems, 
'Patience'  and  'Cleanness*  (qq.v.)  are  attri- 
buted to  the  same  author,  and  also  'Gawain 
and  the  Green  Knight*  (q.v.). 

Pearl  is  the  author's  daughter,  an  only 
child,  whom  he  has  lost  when  she  was  less 
than  two  years  old.  Wandering  disconsolate 
in  the  garden  where  she  is  buried,  he  has  a 
vision  of  a  river  beyond  which  lies  Paradise. 
Here  he  sees  a  maiden  seated,  in  whom  ^  he 
recognizes  his  daughter  grown  to  maturity. 
She  upbraids  him  for  his  excessive  grief,  and 
explains  her  blessed  state.  He  strives  to  join 
her  and  plunges  into  the  river,  and  awakes 
from  his  trance,  comforted  and  resigned  to 
his  lot. 

PEARSON,  JOHN  (1613-86),  a  fellow  of 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  a  Royalist  chap- 
lain during  the  Civil  War,  and  after  the 
Restoration  Master  of  Jesus  College,  and 
subsequently  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
He  became  bishop  of  Chester  in  1673.  In 
1654  he  preached  at  St.  Clement's,  Eastcheap, 
London,  the  series  of  sermons  which  he  pub- 
lished in  1659  as  an  'Exposition  of  the  Creed'. 
This  work,  on  which  his  reputation  still 
mainly  rests,  has  long  been  a  standard  book 
in  English  divinity.  The  notes  of  the  'Ex- 
position'— a  rich  mine  of  patristic  and  general 
learning — are  at  least  as  remarkable  as  the 
text,  and  form  a  complete  catena  of  the  best 
authorities  upon  doctrinal  points.  He  was 
probably  the  ablest  scholar  and  best  syste- 
matic theologian  among  Englishmen  of  the 
1 7th  cent. 

Peau  de  Chagrin,  La,  the  title  of  a  novel 
by  Balzac  (q.v.).  The  'peau  de  chagrin' 
(shagreen  or  ass's  skin)  has  the  magic  pro- 
perty of  giving  its  owner  his  every  wish,  but 
shrinks  with  every  wish  thus  gratified,  till  it 
entirely  disappears,  and  the  owner  dies. 

Pecksniff,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Martin  Chuzzlewit'  (q.v.). 

PECOCK,  REGINALD  (i395?-i4&>?),  a 

Welshman  by  birth  and  bishop  successively 
of^St.  Asaph  and  Chichester.  He  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  writings  against  the 
Lollards,  notably  by  his  'Represser  of  over 
much  Blaming  of  the  Clergy*  (1455),  a  monu- 
ment of  i5th-cent.  English,  clear  and  pointed 
in  style.  His  'Book  of  Faith*,  also  in  English, 
was  issued  in  1456.  In  his  'Provoker*,  not 
extant,  he  denied  the  authenticity  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed.  He  alienated  by  his  writings 
every  section  of  theological  opinion  in  Eng- 
land, was  cited  before  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  obliged  to  resign  his  bishop- 


PEELERS 

ric  and  make  public  abjuration  (1458).  He 
was  sent  to  Thorney  Abbey,  where  he  prob- 
ably lived  in  seclusion.  His  'Represser'  and 
'Book  of  Faith'  have  been  printed,  and  a 
collection  of  excerpts  from  his  works  in- 
cluded in  Foxe's  'Commentarii  Rerum  in 
Ecclesia  Gestarum'  (1554).  His  work  is  im- 
portant from  a  literary  standpoint  for  its 
development  of  the  English  vocabulary,  and 
from  a  theological  standpoint  for  his  advo- 
cacy of  converting  the  Lollards  by  argument 
instead  of  by  burning  them. 

Peculiar  People,  a  name  applied  to  the  Jews 
as  God's  chosen  people;  also  to  a  religious 
sect  founded  in  1838  and  most  numerous 
about  London,  who  have  no  preachers,  creed, 
or  church  organization,  and  rely  on  prayer 
for  the  cure  of  disease,  rejecting  medical  aid. 
[OEDJ 

Pecunia,  LADY,  an  allegorical  character  in 
Jonson's  'The  Staple  of  News'  (q.v.). 

Pedro,  DON,  the  Prince  of  Aragon  in 
Shakespeare's  'Much  Ado  about  Nothing' 
(q.v.). 

Peebles,  PETER,  a  character  in  Scott's  'Red- 
gauntlet'  (q.v.). 

Peel,  JOHN,  the  hero  of  the  well-known 
hunting  song,  'D'ye  ken  John  Peel',  was  born 
at  Caldbeck,  Cumberland,  in  1776,  and  for 
over  40  years  ran  the  famous  pack  of  hounds 
that  bore  his  name.  He  died  in  1854.  The 
words  of  the  song  were  composed  by  his 
friend  John  Woodcock  Graves.  The  tune  is 
based  on  that  of  an  old  rant  called  'Bonnie 
Annie',  and  is  the  regimental  march  of  the 
Border  Regiment.  ('The  Times',  19  Oct. 
1929.) 

PEELE,  GEORGE  (1558  ?~97?),  son  of  a 
London  citizen  and  salter,  was  educated  at 
Christ's  Hospital,  London,  and  Broadgates 
Hall  (Pembroke  College)  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  He  led  a  dissipated  life,  and  in  1579 
was  turned  out  of  his  father's  dwelling,  within 
the  precincts  of  Christ's  Hospital,  by  the 
governors  of  the  institution.  He  was  almost 
certainly  a  successful  player  as  well  as  play- 
wright, and  his  lyrics  were  popular  in  literary 
circles.  His  works,  which  are  very  numerous, 
fall  under  three  heads,  plays,  pageants,  and 
'gratulatory'  and  miscellaneous  verse.  Among 
his  plays  may  be  mentioned  'The  Arraign- 
ment of  Paris'  (q.v.,  c.  1581),  'The  Battle  of 
Alcazar'  (q.v.,  printed  in  1594),  'The  Old 
Wives*  Tale'  (q.v.,  1595),  and  'David  and 
Bethsabe'  (q.v.,  1599).  Among  his  mis- 
cellaneous verse  were  'Polyhymnia*  (q.v., 
1590)  and  'The  Honour  of  the  Garter*  (1593), 
a  gratulatory  poem  to  the  earl  of  Northumber- 
land on  his  being  created  a  knight  of  that 
order.  The  lyrics  in  Peele's  plays  are  par- 
ticularly attractive. 

Peelers,  a  nickname  first  given  to  the  Irish 
constabulary  instituted  in  1814  by  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  and  extended  to  the  police  in  England 
(cf.  Bobby). 


[598] 


PEEP  OF  DAY  BOYS 

Peep  of  Day  Boys,  a  Protestant  organiza- 
tion in  the  north  of  Ireland  (c.  1784-95), 
whose  members  visited  the  houses  of  their 
Roman  Catholic  opponents  at  daybreak  in 
search  of  arms. 
Peeping  Tom,  see  Godiva* 

Peer  Gynt,  a  lyrical  drama  by  Ibsen  (q.v.), 
published  in  1867.  Peer  Gynt  was  intended 
by  the  author  as  the  embodiment  of  certain 
aspects  in  the  character  of  his  countrymen  at 
the  end  of  the  romantic  period,  and  the  work 
is  an  indictment  of  the  half-heartedness,  lack 
of  character^ and  egoism  that  Ibsen  reproved. 
The^  hero  is  a  Norwegian  peasant,  indolent 
and  dissipated,  a  dreamer  and  a  braggart, 
though^  possessed  of  fascination  and  plentiful 
capacities  for  good.  His  good  angel  is  the 
virtuous  maiden,  Solvejg,  but  effort  and 
perseverance  are  required  to  win  her,  and  to 
the  difficulties  involved  Peer  Gynt  is  unequal. 
Instead  he  carries  off  Ingrid,  the  destined 
bride  of  another,  and  becomes  an  outlaw.  The 
poem  presents  through  a  multitude  of  epi- 
sodes his  gradual  degradation,  his  association 
with  the  trolls,  Solvejg's  fruitless  efforts  to 
reclaim  him,  and  the  wonderful  scene  of  the 
death  of  his  mother,  Aase.  In  the  4th  and  5th 
acts,  we  see  him  a  selfish  worldling  who  has 
made  a  fortune  dealing  in  negro  slaves,  posing 
as  a  prophet  in  Africa,  flirting  with  the  Arab 
damsel  Anitra,  and  finally  returning,  an 
old  disillusioned  man,  to  Norway,  to  find 
the  button-moulder  waiting  to  melt  him  up, 
as  waste,  into  raw  material.  But  he  finds  re- 
demption in  the  pure  love  of  Solvejg,  who  has 
waited  faithfully  for  him  during  many  years. 
Peery bingle,  JOHN  and  DOT,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth'  (q.v.). 

Peg  Woffington,  a  novel  by  Reade  (q.v.), 
published  in  1853  and  based  on  the  success- 
ful play  'Masks  and  Faces*  (1852),  composed 
by  him  jointly  with  Tom  Taylor. 

It  deals  with  an  episode  in  the  life  of  the 
famous  Irish  actress,  Margaret  WofEngton 
(q.v.),  who  makes  a  conquest  of  a  wealthy 
gentleman,  Ernest  Vane,notknowing  him  to  be 
recently  married.  She  cuts  out  the  face  from  a 
portrait  of  herself  by  a  poor  scene-painter  and 
substitutes  her  own,  to  fool  a  party  of  critics 
who  have  come  to  abuse  the  portrait.  She  then 
plays  the  same  trick  on  Mabel  Vane,  with  the 
result  that  she  hears  the  young  wife's  touching 
prayer,  that  the  actress  shall  not  steal  her 
husband's  heart.  Peg  is  moved  by  the 
prayer  and  a  tear  on  her  face  reveals  the 
deception.  She  effects  the  reconciliation  of 
the  young  couple,  and  the  story  ends  with  her 
retirement  to  a  life  of  piety  and  good  deeds. 

Peg-a-Ramsey,  the  heroine  of  an  old  song 
popular  in  Shakespeare's  day.  He  refers  to 
her  in  'Twelfth  Nignt',  n.  iii. 

Pegasus,  a  winged  horse  sprung  from  the 
blood  of  Medusa,  when  Perseus  cut  off  her 
head.  By  striking  Mt.  Helicon  with  his  foot, 
Pegasus  gave  rise  to  the  fountain  Hippocrene. 
He  became  the  favourite  of  the  Muses,  and, 


PELEUS 

being  tamed  by  Neptune  or  Minerva,  was 
given  to  Bellerophon  (q.v.)  to  enable  him  to 
conquer  the  Chlmaera.  Some  authors  have 
supposed  that  Bellerophon  attempted  to  fly 
to  heaven  upon  Pegasus,  and  that  this  act  of 
temerity  was  punished  by  Jupiter,  who  sent 
an  insect  to  torment  Pegasus  and  caused  the 
fall  of  the  rider.  Perseus  (q.v.),  according  to 
Ovid,  was  mounted  on  Pegasus  when  he 
destroyed  the  monster  that  threatened  An- 
dromeda. 

Peggotty,  DANIEL,  CLARA,  and  HAM,  char- 
acters in  Dickens's  'David  CopperfiekT 
(q.v.). 

Pegler,  MRS.,  in  Dickens's  'Hard  Times* 
(q.v.),  Bounderby's  mother. 

Pehlevi,  see  PahlevL 

Peirene,  a  fountain  at  Corinth,  where 
Bellerophon,  according  to  one  form  of  his 
legend,  is  supposed  to  have  caught  the  horse 
Pegasus  (qq.v.). 

PeirithSus,  see  Theseus  and  Centaurs. 
Peisistratus  (d.  527  B.C.)  became  Tyrant  of 
Athens  in  560  B.C.,  was  twice  expelled,  but 
returned  to  power.  He  endowed  Athens 
with  many  splendid  buildings,  including  the 
temple  of  the  Olympian  Zeus,  which  was  not 
completed  until  the  days  of  the  Emperor 
Hadrian.  He  also  encouraged  literature.  It 
was  probably  under  his  auspices  that  dramatic 
contests  were  introduced  at  Athens,  and  he  is 
said  to  have  commissioned  some  learned  men, 
among  them  the  poet  Onomacritus,  to  collect 
the  poems  of  Homer. 

Pelagian,  derived  from  Pelagius,  the 
latinized  form  of  the  name  of  a  British  monk, 
Morgan,  of  the  4th  and  5th  cents.,  whose 
doctrines  were  fiercely  combated  by  Ger- 
manus,  bishop  of  Auxerre,  and  by  St. 
Augustine,  and  condemned  by  Pope  Zosimus 
in  418.  The  Pelagians,  his  followers,  denied 
the  Catholic  doctrine  of  original  sin,  asserting 
that  Adam's  fall  did  not  involve  his  posterity, 
and  maintained  that  the  human  will  is  of 
itself  capable  of  good  without  the  assistance 
of  divine  grace.  They  did  not  admit  the 
doctrine  of  the  eternal  punishment  of  un- 
baptized  infants. 

Pelayo,  a  character  in  Southey's  'Roderick* 
(q.v.). 

Peleus,  son  of  Aeacus,  was  a  king  of  Thessaly 
who  courted  Thetis,  a  Nereid  (q.v.).  The 
goddess  fled  from  him  and  assumed  the  shape 
of  various  animals  to  escape  him.  Peleus 
consulted  Proteus  (q.v.),  who  informed  him 
that  to  obtain  Thetis  he  must  surprise  her 
asleep  in  the  grotto  near  the  shores  of 
Thessaly.  This  Peleus  did,  and  Thetis, 
unable  to  escape  from  him,  at  last  consented 
to  marry  him.  Of  their  union  was  born 
Achilles  (q.v.).  All  the  goddesses  were  in- 
vited to  the  nuptials,  except  Eris  or  Discord, 
who  to  avenge  herself  threw  among  the 
guests  an  apple  inscribed  'To  the  fairest*  (see 
Paris). 


PELHAM 

Pelham,  or  The  Adventures  of  a  Gentleman,  a 
novel  by  Bulwer  Lytton  (q.v.),  published  in 
1828. 

This  was  Lytton's  second  novel,  and  is 
generally  considered  his  best.  Henry  Pelham, 
a  young  dandy,  wit,  and  zealous  politician, 
falls  in  love  with  the  accomplished  Ellen, 
sister  of  his  old  friend  Sir  Reginald  Glanville. 
The  latter  is  suspected  of  the  murder  of  Sir 
John  Tirrell,  against  whom  he  has  had  grave 
cause  of  complaint,  and  the  circumstantial 
evidence  against  him  appears  overwhelming. 
Glanville  tells  his  story  to  Pelham  and  asserts 
his  innocence.  With  the  assistance  of  the  dis- 
reputable Job  Jonson,  Pelham  unearths  the 
real  murderer,  Thornton,  who  is  convicted  on 
the  testimony  of  a  confederate.  The  character 
of  Thornton  was  drawn  from  the  well-known 
murderer,  Thurtell.  The  story  is  enlivened 
with  amusing  scenes  of  social  and  political  life. 
Thackeray  made  some  of  his  best  fun  of 
Bulwer  Lytton  about  this  novel  in  his  'Diary 
of  Jeames  de  la  Pluche'. 

Pelias,    a    king    of    lolchos,    whom    his 

daughters  put  to  death  and  boiled  at  the 

instigation  of  Medea  (q.v.),  in  order  to  restore 

him  to  youth.  Alcestis  (q.v.)  was  one  of  his 

daughters. 

Pelican,  The,  see  Golden  Hind. 

Pelican     State,    Louisiana,     see     United 

States. 

Pelican's  Piety,  more  correctly  Pelican  in 
her  Piety,  a  heraldic  term  signifying  a  pelican 
represented  as  vulning  (i.e.  wounding)  her 
breast  in  order  to  feed  her  young  with  her 
blood. 

Pelion,  a  mountain  in  Thessaly,  on  which 
the  Giants  (q.v.)  in  their  war  with  the  gods 
heaped  Mt.  Ossa,  in  order  to  scale  the 
heights  of  heaven.  The  spear  of  Achilles 
(q.v.)  was  made  from  a  tree  cut  on  this 
mountain. 

Pell,  SOLOMON,  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick 
Papers',  an  attorney  in  the  Insolvent  Court. 

Pella,  in  Macedonia,  the  birthplace  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  a  station  on  the  Via 
Egnatia ;  no  real  trace  of  it  now  remains.  It 
was  on  a  lake  through  which  flowed  a  little 
river,  Lydias,  to  the  sea,  a  little  SW.  of  the 
Axius  (Vardar). 

Pelleas,  SIR,  in  the  Arthurian  legend,  the 
lover  of  Ettard  or  Ettarre  (see  below,  Pelleas 
and  Ettarre).  He  may,  like  Pelles  (q.v.),  have 
been  developed  from  the  Pwyll  of  British 
mythology.  It  is  noteworthy  that  after 
Ettard  *s  death  he  marries  (Malory,  rv.  xxiii) 
the  damsel  of  the  lake,  Nimue,  who  is  thought 
to  be  identical  with  Rhiannon,  the  wife  of 
Pwyll  (see  Rhys,  'Arthurian  Legend'). 

Pelleas  and  Ettarre,  one  of  Tennyson's 
'Idylls  of  the  King3  (q.v.),  published  in  1869. 
^  The  youth  Pelleas,  strong  and  guileless,  on 
his  way  to  Arthur's  court  to  seek  knighthood, 
falls  in  with  the  vain  and  heartless  Ettarre,  and 


PEMBROKE 

is  smitten  with  love  for  her.  She,  thinking 
that  Pelleas  may  win  the  prize  at  the  forth- 
coming tournament,  encourages  his  love. 
Pelleas  wins  the  prize  and  gives  it  to  her.  Her 
object  gained,  she  now  becomes  ungracious 
to  him.  He  follows  her  to  her  castle,  from 
which  he  is  excluded,  and  day  by  day  sits  on 
his  horse  outside  it.  She  sends  her  three 
knights  to  kill  him,  but  he  defeats  them. 
Finally  Gawain,  the  'light-of-love',  appears, 
and,  on  the  pretext  of  furthering  the  suit  of 
Pelleas,  borrows  his  armour,  claims  to  have 
killed  him,  and  gains  admission  to  the  castle. 
Pelleas,  distrustful,  presently  follows,  and 
discovers  Gawain 's  perfidy.  Riding  away 
distraught,  he  comes  upon  Percivale,  and 
learns  from  him  that  not  Gawain  alone  is 
faithless,  but  Lancelot  and  Guinevere,  and 
the  knights  generally.  He  presently  meets 
Lancelot,  declares  himself  *a  scourge  to  lash 
the  treasons  of  the  Table  Round',  fights  with 
him,  and  is  defeated ;  but  his  life  is  spared,  and 
the  two  knights  return  to  the  hall.  Then  fear 
falls  upon  the  queen  and  her  lover,  and  each 
foresees  'the  dolorous  day  to  be'.  The  poem 
closes  under  the  shadow  of  impending 
calamity. 

Pelles,  KING,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d 'Arthur', 
'cousin  nigh  unto  Joseph  of  Arimathie',  and 
intimately  connected  with  the  story  of  the 
Holy  Grail.  He  was  father  of  Elaine,  who 
becomes  the  mother  of  Galahad  by  Sir 
Launcelot.  He  is  thought  by  Prof.  Riiys 
('Arthurian  Legend')  to  have  had  his  origin 
in  the  Pwyll  of  British  mythology  (see 
Mabinogion  and  Pelleas). 
Pellinore,  KING,  in  Malory's  'Morte 
d'Arthur',  the  father  of  Sir  Lamorak,  Sir 
Percival,  and  Sir  Tor. 

Peloponnesian  War,  THE,  between  Athens 
and  Sparta  and  their  respective  allies,  431- 
404  B.C.  It  ended  in  the  surrender  of  Athens 
and  the  brief  transfer  of  the  leadership  of 
Greece  to  Sparta. 

Pelops,  the  son  of  Tantalus  (q.v.)  and 
founder  of  the  Pelopid  dynasty  from  which 
the  Peloponnese  took  its  name.  According  to 
legend  his  father,  having  invited  the  gods  to  a 
repast,  killed  his  son  and  set  the  flesh  before 
them  to  eat.  But  they  knew  what  it  was  and 
ordered  Hermes  to  restore  Pelops  to  life. 
Demeter,  however,  distracted  by  grief  for 
the  loss  of  Persephone,  had  consumed  the 
shoulder,  and  its  place  was  supplied  by  one 
made  of  ivory.  Pelops  won  Hippodamia, 
daughter  of  King  Oenomaus,  for  his  wife 
"by  defeating  her  father  in  a  chariot  race.  To 
effect  this  he  bribed  Myrtilus,  the  charioteer 
of  Oenomaus,  and  subsequently  threw  him 
into  the  sea  when  he  claimed  his  reward. 
By  Hippodamia  Pelops  was  father  of  Atreus 
(q.v)  and  Thyestes. 

Pelorus,  the  north-east  point  of  Sicily, 
Capo  del  Faro. 

Pembroke,  MARY  HERBERT,  COUNTESS  OF 
(1561-1621),  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  sister.  She 


[600] 


PENATES 

is  referred  to  as  'Sidney's  sister,  Pembroke's 
mother'  in  her  epitaph  by  W.  Browne  (q.v.). 
She  suggested  the  composition  of  her  brother's 
'Arcadia'  (q.v.),  which  she  revised  and  added 
to.  She  was  a  patron  of  Samuel  Daniel, 
Nicholas  Breton,  Jonson,  and  other  poets. 

Penates,  see  Lares. 

Pendennis,  The  History  of,  a  novel  by 
Thackeray  (q.v.),  published  serially  in  1848- 
50. 

Arthur  is  the  son  of  John  Pendennis,  a 
gentleman  of  old  family,  formerly  an  apothe- 
cary and  surgeon,  and  Helen  his  wife,  a 
woman  of  saintly  character.  Leaving  school 
at  1 6  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Arthur  falls  in 
love  with  an  actress,  Emily  Costigan  (Miss 
Fotheringay),  the  daughter  of  Captain  Costi- 
gan, a  wild  tipsy  Irishman,  who  persuades 
himself  that  Arthur  is  the  heir  to  a  fine  estate, 
and  when  undeceived  by  Major  Pendennis, 
Arthur's  tactful  uncle,  is  very  angry  and 
breaks  off  the  engagement.  Arthur,  afrank  but 
selfish  and  conceited  young  fellow,  goes  to 
the  university,  where  he  is  idle  and  extrava- 
gant, and  involves  himself  and  his  mother  in 
financial  difficulties  from  which  they  are 
rescued  by  Laura  Bell,  an  amiable  girl,  the 
daughter  of  a  former  unfortunate  lover  of 
Helen,  whom  she  has  adopted.  Laura  also 
enables  Arthur  to  start  on  a  literary  career  in 
London.  Here  he  shares  chambers  with 
George  Warrington  (a  descendant  of  the 
Warringtons  of  'The  Virginians',  q.v.),  a  fine 
character,  one  of  the  good  influences  in  Ar- 
thur's life.  Helen's  hope  is  that  Arthur  shall 
marry  Laura,  but  their  relations  are  those  of 
affectionate  brother  and  sister,  and  when 
Arthur  in  deference  to  his  mother's  wish 
proposes  half-heartedly  to  Laura,  not  con- 
cealing his  motive  for  doing  so,  she  indignantly 
refuses  him.  Arthur's  second  entanglement 
is  with  Blanche  Amory,  daughter  of  Lady 
Clavering  by  her  first  husband.  Blanche, 
though  outwardly  pretty  and  accomplished, 
is  in  reality  a  selfish  little  shrew.  Old  Major 
Pendennis,  Arthur's  uncle,  is  so  actuated  by 
worldly  ambition  on  his  nephew's  behalf  as  to 
lose  all  sense  of  rectitude,  and  strongly  favours 
the  match,  although  aware  that  Blanche's 
father,  an  escaped  convict,  is,  unknown  to 
Lady  Clavering,  still  alive.  The  story  is 
much  concerned  with  the  doings  of  this  con- 
vict, who  masquerades  as  Col.  Altamont,  and 
blackmails  Sir  Francis  Clavering,  a  despicable 
creature. 

After  a  flirtation  with  Fanny  Bolton,  the 
porter's  daughter  of  Shepherd's  Inn,  and  a 
period  during  which  Laura  is  in  love  with 
Warrington  (who  in  fact  has  had  his  life 
ruined  by  an  imprudent  early  marriage), 
Laura  and  Arthur  are  finally  united.  But  this 
occurs  only  after  the  latter  has  narrowly 
escaped  from  marriage  with  Blanche  Amory. 
For,  under  the  influence  of  his  uncle's  advice 
and  his  own  cynicism,  he  accepts  a  loveless 
match  with  her  for  the  sake  of  the  wealth  and 
position  it  promises.  At  this  point  comes  the 


PENN 

exposure  of  the  whole  affair  of  Blanche's  con- 
vict father.  Arthur  feels  it  his  duty  to  be 
faithful  to  Blanche  in  her  troubles  and  goes  to 
tell  her  so,  but  finds  himself  supplanted  by 
his  friend  Harry  Foker,  who  has  just  inherited 
the  great  fortune  of  his  father,  proprietor  of 
'Foker's  Entire'. 

Among  the  many  amusing  characters  in  the 
story  may  be  mentioned  Captain  Shandon, 
the  first  editor  of  the  Tall  Mall  Gazette*,  of 
which  he  drafts  the  prospectus  in  the  Fleet; 
the  rival  publishers  Bungay  and  Bacon;  the 
jovial  adventurer  Capt.  Strong,  Clavering's 
factotum;  the  vulgar  but  amiable  'Begum', 
Lady  Clavering;  and  Morgan,  the  Major's 
blackmailing  servant. 

Pendragon,  a  title  given  to  an  ancient 
British  or  Welsh  chief  holding  or  claiming 
supreme  power.  In  English  chiefly  known 
as  the  title  of  Uther  Pendragon,  father  of 
Arthur.  The  word  means  'chief  dragon*,  the 
dragon  being  the  war  standard. 

Pendrell  or  PENDEREL,  the  name  of  the  five 
brothers,  tenants  on  the  demesnes  of  Bos- 
cobel  (q.v.)  and  White  Ladies,  who  helped  to 
conceal  Charles  II  after  the  battle  of  Wor- 
cester (1651).  By  patent  dated  24  July  1676, 
certain  fee  farm  rents  were  settled  on  them 
and  their  heirs  for  ever,  with  benefit  of 
survivorship  to  the  others  on  failure  of  heirs 
of  any  one  of  the  beneficiaries.  ('Boscobel 
Tracts',  edited  by  J.  Hughes.)  It  was  re- 
cently stated  ('The  Times',  26  Nov.  1931) 
that  'the  Penderell  Pension  is  now  drawn  by 
Mr.  George  Penderell,  of  Brooklyn,  U.S.A.', 
a  retired  laundryman. 

Penelope,  daughter  of  Icarius,  wife  of 
Ulysses,  and  mother  of  Telemachus.  When, 
at  the  close  of  the  Trojan  War,  her  husband 
did  not  return  to  Ithaca,  and  she  received  no 
news  of  him,  she  was  beset  by  importunate 
suitors.  She  received  their  addresses  coldly; 
but,  being  without  power  to  get  rid  of  them, 
she  flattered  them  with  hopes  and  declared 
that  she  would  make  choice  of  one  of  them 
when  she  had  completed  the  piece  of  tapestry 
on  which  she  was  engaged.  To  prolong  the 
period  she  undid  at  night  the  work  that  she 
had  done  during  the  day,  whence  the  proverb 
of  Penelope's  web  for  a  labour  that  is  never 
ended.  The  return  of  Ulysses  after  twenty 
years  delivered  her  from  the  suitors. 

Penelophon,  the  name  of  the  beggar  maid 
loved  by  King  Cophetua,  in  the  ballad  in- 
cluded in  Percy's  'Reliques'.  Shakespeare 
('Love's  Labour's  Lost*,  rv.  i)  gives  it  as 
'Zenelophon'. 

Penfeather,  LADY  PENELOPE,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'St.  Ronan's  Well'  (q.v.). 
Penia,    poverty;    according   to    Motteux's 
translation  of  Rabelais,  iv.  Ivii,  the  mother 
of  'the  ninety-nine  Muses'. 
Peninsular    State,    Florida,    see    United 
States. 
PENN,  WILLIAM  (1644-1718),  son  of  Sir 


[601] 


PENNANT 

William  Penn,  the  admiral,  a  Quaker  and  the 
founder  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  committed 
to  the  Tower  of  London  in  1 668  for  publishing 
his  once  celebrated  'The  Sandy  Foundation 
Shaken5  (an  attack  on  the  Athanasian  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  the  Anselrnian  theory  of  the 
atonement,  and  the  Calvinistic  theory  of 
justification),  and  there  wrote  'No  Cross,  no 
Crown*  (1669),  an  eloquent  and  learned  dis- 
sertation on  the  Christian  duty  of  self- 
sacrifice.  He  suffered  frequent  persecutions 
and  imprisonments,  and  turned  his  thoughts 
to  America  as  a  refuge  for  his  co-religionists. 
In  1682  he  obtained  grants  of  East  New- 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  and  framed,  ^  in. 
concert  with  Algernon  Sydney,  a  constitution 
for  the  colony,  by  which  religious  toleration 
was  secured.  In  the  same  year  he  sailed  for 
America.  He  returned  to  England  in  1684, 
hoping  much  from  the  accession  of  James  II, 
whom  he  believed  to  be  a  sincere  advocate  of 
toleration.  Penn  obtained  in  1693  a  formal 
expression  of  William  Ill's  goodwill  towards 
him,  and  was  in  Pennsylvania  again,  1699- 
1701,  but  spent  the  remaining  years  of  his 
life  in  England.  His  cSome  Fruits  of  Soli- 
tude*, a  collection  of  aphorisms  praised  by 
R.  L.  Stevenson,  was  published  anonymously 
in  1693. 

PENNANT,  THOMAS  (1726-98),  natural- 
ist, antiquarian,  and  traveller,  published  his 
*Tour  in  Scotland'  in  1771,  'A  Tour  in  Wales' 
in  1778-81,  'A  Tour  in  Scotland  and  Voyage 
to  the  Hebrides'  in  1774-6,  and  'The  Journey 
from  Chester  to  London*  in  1782.  He  also 
wrote  'British  Zoology*  (1768-70),  and  a 
'History  of  Quadrupeds'  (1781),  which  long 
remained  classical  works.  He  figures  in  Gil- 
bert White's  'Selborne*  as  one  of  the  author's 
correspondents. 

Penseroso,  II,  a  poem  by  Milton  (q.v.), 
written  at  Horton  in  1632  with  its  companion 
piece  'L'Ailegro'  (q.v.). 

The  title  suggests,  as  Dean  Church  pointed 
out,  that  Milton  at  this  time  had  not  attained 
full  proficiency  in  the  Italian  tongue;  the 
word,  which  is  intended  to  mean  'contempla- 
tive', should  be  'pensieroso'.  The  poem  is 
an  invocation  to  the  goddess  Melancholy, 
bidding  her  bring  Peace  and  Quiet,  and  Lei- 
sure and  Contemplation.  It  describes  the 
pleasures  of  the  studious,  meditative  life,  of 
tragedy,  epic  poetry,  and  music. 

Pentameron,  The,  one  of  the  longer  prose 
works  of  Landor  (q.v.)»  published  in  1837. 
'The  Pentameron*  is  an  expression  of 
Lander's  enthusiastic  admiration  of  Boccac- 
cio (q.v.),  and  was  written  at  the  Villa 
Gherardesca,  at  Fiesole,  near  Florence,  where 
Boccaccio  had  in  part  kid  the  scene  of  his 
'Decameron*. 

It  consists  of  imaginary  conversations  be- 
tween Petrarch  and  Boccaccio,  the  latter 
lying  ill  at  his  villa  near  Certaldo,  and  Pe- 
trarch being  supposed  to  visit  him  on  five 
successive  days  (whence  the  name  of  the 
work).  They  discourse  mainly  of  Dante's 


[602] 


PEPYS 

'Divina  Commedia',  but  also  of  other  matters. 
In  particular  Petrarch  reproves  Boccaccio  for 
the  licentious  character  of  some  of  his  tales. 
Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  criticisms 
of  Dante  that  the  author  puts  into  the  mouth 
of  the  interlocutors,  there  can  be  nothing  but 
praise  for  the  form  of  the  dialogue,  the 
pleasant  picture  of  the  two  old  friends,  the 
humorous  scene  of  the  dignified  canonico 
struggling  to  saddle  his  palfrey,  the  little 
maid  Assuntina,  and  Ser  Biagio,  the  village 
priest. 

Pentameter,  in  Greek  and  Latin  prosody,  a 
form  of  dactylic  verse  of  which  each  half  con- 
sists of  two  feet  and  a  long  syllable.  In  Eng- 
lish literature,  a  line  of  verse  of  five  feet,  e.g. 
the  English  'heroic'  or  iambic  verse  of  ten 
syllables,  as  used  for  instance  in  'Paradise 
Lost',  or  in  the  rhymed  couplets  of  Dryden 
(an  exception  to  the  rule  given  under  Metre, 
q.v.). 

Pentapolin,  see  Alifanfaron. 
Pentateuch,  THE  (Greek  m=W  five,  rettyos 
implement  or  vessel),  the  first  five  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  (Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviti- 
cus, Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy)  taken  to- 
gether as  a  connected  group,  and  traditionally 
ascribed  to  Moses. 

Pentecost,  from  the  Greek  word  meaning 
fiftieth  [day],  a  name  for  the  Jewish  harvest 
festival  observed  on  the  fiftieth  day  of  the 
Omer,  i.e.  at  the  conclusion  of  seven  weeks 
from  the  offering  of  the  wave-sheaf,  on  the 
second  day  of  Passover  (q.v.).  Also  a 
festival  of  the  Christian  Church,  observed 
on  the  seventh  Sunday  after  Easter,  Whit- 
Sunday,  in  commemoration  of  the  descent  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  upon  the  disciples  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost. 

Penthea,  a  character  in  Ford's  'The  Broken 
Heart'  (q.v.). 

Penthe"sHea,  a  daughter  of  Ares  and  queen 
of  the  Amazons.  She  came  to  the  aid  of  the 
Trojans  after  the  death  of  Hector,  and  was 
slain  by  Achilles,  who,  moved  by  her  youth 
and  beauty,  mourned  over  her.  Thersites 
(q.v.)  mocked  at  the  grief  of  Achilles  and  was 
thereupon  slain  by  him. 

Pentheus,  a  king  of  Thebes,  who  resisted 
the  introduction  of  the  worship  of  Dionysus 
into  his  kingdom.  He  was  driven  mad  by  the 
god,  his  palace  destroyed,  and  himself  torn  to 
pieces  by  the  Bacchanals,  among  whom  were 
his  mother  and  two  sisters. 

Pentonville,  the  name  applied  originally  to 
the  houses  built  about  1773  on  the  land  in 
Clerkenwell  of  one  Henry  Penton  (d.  1812). 
The  Pentonville  Prison,  in  Caledonian  Road, 
Islington,  is  at  some  distance  from  Pentonville. 
It  was  built  in  1840-2  as  part  of  the  scheme 
for  abolishing  the  system  of  transportation* 
PEPYS,  SAMUEL  (1633-1703)  (pron. 
Peeps  or  Pep^s),  son  of  John  Pepys,  a 
London  tailor,  was  educated  at  St.  Paul's 
School,  London,  and  at  Trinity  Hall  and 


PERCEFOREST 

Magdalene  College,  Cambridge.  In  1655, 
when  22,  he  married  Elizabeth  St.  Michel, 
a  girl  of  15,  the  daughter  of  a  French  father 
and  English  mother.  He  entered  the  house- 
hold of  Sir  Edward  Montagu  (afterwards 
first  earl  of  Sandwich),  his  father's  first 
cousin,  in  1676;  and  his  subsequent  success- 
ful career  was  largely  due  to  Montagu's 
patronage.  His  famous  'Diary*  opens  on 
i  Jan.  1660,  when  Pepys  was  living  in  Axe 
Yard,  Westminster,  and  was  very  poor.  Soon 
after  this  he  was  appointed  *  clerk  of  the 
King's  ships'  and  clerk  of  the  privy  seal,  with 
a  salary  of  £350.  In  1665  he  became  surveyor- 
general  of  the  victualling  office,  in  which 
capacity  he  showed  himself  an  energetic 
official  and  a  zealous  reformer  of  abuses. 
Owing  to  failing  eyesight  he  closed  his  diary 
on  3 1  May  1669,  and  in  the  same  year  his  wife 
died.  In  1672  he  was  appointed  secretary  to 
the  Admiralty.  He  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  on  a  charge  of  complicity  in  the 
'Popish  Plot'  in  1679  and  deprived  of  his 
office,  but  was  soon  set  free.  In  1683  he  was 
sent  to  Tangier  with  Lord  Dartmouth  and 
wrote  an  interesting  diary  while  there.  In 
1684  he  was  reappointed  secretary  to  the 
Admiralty,  a  post  which  he  held  until 
the  revolution,  labouring  hard  to  provide  the 
country  with  an  efficient  fleet.  At  the 
revolution  he  was  deprived  of  his  appointment 
and  afterwards  lived  in  retirement,  principally 
at  Clapham.  His  'Diary*  remained  in  cipher 
(and  in  a  system  of  shorthand)  at  Magdalene 
College,  Cambridge,  until  1825,  when  it  was 
deciphered  by  John  Smith  and  edited  by  Lord 
Braybrooke.  An  enlarged  edition  by  Mynors 
Bright  appeared  in  1875-9,  and  the  whole, 
except  a  few  passages,  was  published  by 
Henry  B.  Wheatley  in  1893-6.  It  is  a  docu- 
ment of  extraordinary  interest,  on  account 
both  of  the  light  that  its  sincere  narrative 
throws  on  the  author's  own  lovable  character, 
and  of  the  vivid  picture  that  it  gives  of  con- 
temporary everyday  life,  of  the  administration 
of  the  navy,  and  of  the  ways  of  the  court. 
Pepys 's  'Memoirs  of  the  Navy,  1690*  was 
edited  by  J.  R.  Tanner,  1906,  who  also 
published  'Mr.  Pepys:  an  Introduction  to 
the  Diary*  in  1925. 

Perceforestf  a  medieval  French  historical 
romance,  and  incidentally  an  encyclopaedia  of 
the  institutions  of  chivalry,  containing  a  myth- 
ical history  of  Britain  prior  to  King  Arthur. 

Perceval.  The  legend  of  Perceval,  of  great 
antiquity  as  a  folk- tale,  is  first  found  in  poetical 
form  in  the  French  'Perceval*  of  Chretien  de 
Troyes  (q.v.)  and  in  the  German  'Parzivar  of 
Wolfram  von  Eschenbach  (q.v.).  In  English 
it  was  treated  in  'Sir  Percyvelle  of  Galles'  and 
by  Malory.  The  former,  a  I4th-cent.  verse 
romance,  is  a  narrative  of  the  childhood  of 
Perceval  and  the  adventures  that  led  to  his 
being  knighted  by  King  Arthur;  it  contains 
no  mention  of  the  Holy  Grail.  Malory's 
*Morte  d'Arthur*  makes  Percivale  a  son  of 
King  Pellinore,  and  narrates  his  adventures 


PERDITA 

in  the  course  of  his  quest  of  the  Grail,  and 
his  final  admission,  with  Galahad  and  Bors, 
to  its  presence.  He  may  be  identified  with  the 
Peredur  of  Welsh  mythology,  the  hero  of  the 
tale  of  'Peredur,  Son  of  Evrawc'  in  Lady  C. 
Guest's  translation  of  the  'Mabinogion* 
(q.v.),  the  earliest  Grail  story  we  have. 
PERCY,  THOMAS  (1729-1811),  educated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  became  bishop  of 
Dromore  in  1782.  He  published  in  1765  his 
'Reliques  of  Ancient  English  Poetry*  (see 
Percy's  Reliques).  This  work  did  much  to 
promote  the  revival  of  interest  in  the  older 
English  poetry.  In  1763,  stimulated  by  the 
success  of  the  Ossianic  publications,  Percy 
issued  'Five  Pieces  of  Runic  Poetry',  from 
the  Icelandic,  including  the  'Incantation  of 
Hervor*  and  the  'Death-Song  of  Ragnar 
Lodbrog*. 

Percy,  a  tragedy  by  H.  More  (q.v.). 
Percy  Folio,  THE,  a  manuscript  in  mid- 
I7th-cent.  handwriting,  which  belonged  to 
Humphrey  Pitt  of  Shifnal,  the  most  im- 
portant source  of  our  ballad  literature  and  the 
basis  of  Child's  collection.  From  it  T.  Percy 
(q.v.)  drew  the  ballads  included  in  Percy's 
'Reliques*  (q.v.).  It  also  contains  the  i4th- 
cent.  alliterative  allegorical  poems  'Death  and 
Liffe'  (modelled  on  'Piers  the  Plowman')  and 
'Scottish  Feilde'  (mainly  on  the  battle  of 
Flodden).  The  Percy  Folio  was  printed  in 
its  entirety  by  Hales  and  Furnivall  in  1867-8. 
It  is  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Percy  Society,  THE,  was  founded  in  1840  by 
Thomas  Wright,  Thomas  Crofton  Croker, 
Alexander  Dyce,  J.  O.  Halliwell(-Phillipps), 
and  John  Payne  Collier,  for  the  purpose  of 
publishing  old  English  lyrics  and  ballads.  It 
was  so  named  in  honour  of  T.  Percy  (q.v.). 
Percy's  'Reliques'  of  Ancient  English  Poetry, 
a  collection  of  ballads,  sonnets,  historical 
songs,  and  metrical  romances,  published  in 
1765  by  T.  Percy  (q.v.).  The  majority  of 
them  were  extracted  from  the  Percy  Folio 
(q.v.)  and  were  edited  and  'restored*  by 
Percy.  They  were  of  very  different  periods, 
some  of  great  antiquity,  others  as  recent  as 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.  Ancient  poems 
drawn  from  other  sources  and  a  few  of  more 
modern  date  were  added  by  the  editor.  The 
editions  of  1767,  1775,  and  1794  each  con- 
tained new  matter. 

Perdiccas,  a  favourite  general  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  who  received  the  ring  of  Alexander 
from  the  hand  of  the  dying  monarch.  On  this 
he  based  his  claim  to  succeed  him;  but  his 
ambitious  schemes  were  opposed  by  Anti- 
pater,  Craterus,  and  Ptolemy.  His  troops 
mutinied  and  put  him  to  death. 
Perdita,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'The 
Winter's  Tale'  (q.v.).  'Perdita'  was  a  name 
given  to  the  actress  Mary  Robinson  (1758- 
1800),  who  took  the  part.  She  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  (after- 
wards George  IV)  and  became  his  mistress 
for  a  short  time. 


P&RE  GORIOT 

Pere  Goriot,  Le,  the  title  of  one  of  the  greatest 
of  Balzac's  (q.v.)  novels. 
Pere  la  Chaise,  the  most  important  ceme- 
tery of  Paris,  named  after  the  Jesuit  confessor 
of  Louis  XIV,  who  figures  in  one  of  Lander's 
'Imaginary  Conversations'  (q.v.).  The  ceme- 
tery was  established  on  the  site  of  a  house 
belonging  to  his  order,  where  he  frequently 
resided. 

Peredur,  the  Welsh  name  of  one  of  the 
chief  heroes  of  Arthur's  court,  and  the  subject 
of  the  tale  of  'Peredur  and  Owain'  in  the 
'Mabinogion'  (q.v.).  He  is  identifiable  in 
some  respects  with  the  Perceval,  and  in 
others  with  the  Launcelot,  of  later  legend. 
Peregrine  Pickle,  The  Adventures  of,  a  novel 
by  Smollett  (q.v.),  published  in  1751. 

The  hero  is  a  scoundrel  and  a  swash- 
buckler, with  little  to  his  credit  except  wit  and 
courage;  and  the  book  is  mainly  occupied 
with  his  adventures  in  England  and  on  the 
Continent,  many  of  them  of  an  amatory 
character.  In  the  course  of  these  he  visits 
Paris,  fights  a  duel  with  a  mpusquetaire,  is 
imprisoned  in  the  Bastille,  visits  the  Nether- 
lands, hoaxes  the  physicians  of  Bath,  sets  up 
as  a  magician,  endeavours  to  enter  parliament, 
is  confined  in  the  Fleet  and  released  on 
inheriting  his  father's  property,  finally 
marrying  Emily  Gauntlet,  a  young  lady 
whom  he  has,  from  the  outset  of  the  story, 
intermittently  pursued  with  his  attentions 
(even  attempting  to  achieve  his  ends  by 
drugging  her). 

The  principal  attraction  of  the  work  lies 
in  the  amusing  characters  that  it  includes-: 
Peregrine's  father,  the  phlegmatic  Gamaliel, 
and  his  aunt  Grizzle ;  and  chief  of  all,  the  old 
sea-dog  Commodore  Hawser  Trunnion,  the 
ferocity  of  whose  language  is  equalled  only  by 
the  kindness  of  his  heart.  His  house  is  called 
'the  garrison',  and  is  run  like  a  fortress,  with 
the  assistance  of  Lieut.  Hatchway,  *a  very 
brave  man  and  a  great  joker*,  who  has  had 
one  leg  shot  away;  and  the  boatswain,  Torn 
Pipes,  who  becomes  the  devoted  companion 
of  Peregine  Pickle  on  his  foreign  travels.  A 
famous  ^  episode  in  the  story  is  the  ridiculous 
dinner  in  the  manner  of  the  ancients ;  and  the 
last  part  of  the  book  contains  much  satire  on 
the  social,  literary,  and  political  conditions  of 
the  day.  The  course  of  the  narrative  is  inter- 
rupted by  the  long  and  offensive  'Memoirs  of 
a  Lady  of  Quality'  (contributed  by  Viscoun- 
tess Vane,  1713-88,  a  woman  notorious  for 
gambling  and  profligacy). 
Perfectibilism,  the  doctrine  that  man,  in- 
dividual and  social,  is  capable  of  progressing 
indefinitely  towards  physical,  mental,  and 
moral  perfection.  Mr.  Foster  in  Peacock's 
'Headlong  Hall'  (q.v.)  was  a  'perfectibilian*. 
Perfectionists,  see  Oneida  Community. 
Peri,  in  Persian  mythology,  one  of  a  class  of 
superhuman  beings,  originally  represented 
as  of  malevolent  character,  but  subsequently 
as  good  genii  or  fairies,  endowed  with  grace 
and  beauty.  According  to  the  Koran,  they 


PERICLES 

were  under  the  sway  of  Eblis,  and  Moham- 
med undertook  their  conversion.  For  'Para- 
dise and  the  Peri'  see  Lalla  Rookh. 
Periander,  son  of  Cypselus  and  tyrant  ^of 
Corinth.  The  first  years  of  his  rule  were  mild 
and  popular  until  he  consulted  Thrasybulus, 
the  tyrant  of  Miletus,  as  to  the  best  means 
of  securing  himself  on  the  throne.  The  latter 
returned  no  answer  to  the  messenger,  but 
walked  about  a  field  of  corn,  plucking  the 
ears  that  seemed  to  tower  above  the  rest. 
Periander  understood  what  was  signified  and 
put  to  death  the  richest  and  most  powerful 
citizens  of  Corinth.  (Cf.  the  story  of  Tar- 
quinius  Superbus,  under  Tar  quins.)  Though 
cruel,  Periander  was  a  patron  of  learning 
and  the  arts. 

Peri-Banou,  THE  FAIRY,  see  Ahmed. 
Pericles,  the  great  Athenian  statesman  and 
military  commander,  who  controlled  the 
affairs  of  the  state  from  460  B.C.  until  his 
death  in  429  B.C.,  including  the  earlier  period 
of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  During  his  ad- 
ministration Athens  reached  the  summit  of 
her  power,  and  the  Parthenon  and  Propylaea 
were  built.  See  also  Aspasia,  Pericles  and 
Aspasia,  and  Funeral  Oration. 
Pericles,  MR.,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'Sandra  Belloni'  and  'Vittoria*  (qq.v.). 
Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre,  a  romantic  drama 
by  Shakespeare  (q.v.),  produced  probably 
about  1608,  and  first  printed  (in  a  mangled 
form)  in  1609,  and  in  the  third  folio  of  1664; 
Internal  evidence  suggests  that  the  play  was 
not  written  entirely  by  Shakespeare.  The 
story  is  drawn  from  the  'Apollonius  of  Tyre* 
in  Gower's  'Confessio Amantis'  (q.v.).  Gower 
himself  appears  as  Chorus. 

Pericles,  prince  of  Tyre,  having  guessed 
the  secret  infamy  of  Antiochus,  emperor  of 
Greece,  and  his  life  being  threatened  in 
consequence,  leaves  his  government  in  the 
hands  of  his  honest  minister,  Helicanus,  and 
sails  from  Tyre.  His  ship  is  wrecked  on  the 
coast  of  Pentapolis,  Pericles  alone  being 
saved.  Here  he  defeats  in  the  lists  the  other 
suitors  for  the  hand  of  Thaisa,  daughter  of 
King  Simonides,  whom  he  weds.  Shortly 
after,  Helicanus  makes  known  to  him  that 
Antiochus  is  dead  and  the  people  are 
clamouring  to  make  him  (Helicanus)  king. 
Pericles  and  Thaisa  set  off  for  Tyre,  but  a 
storm  arising,  Thaisa  falls  in  travail  with  fear, 
and  gives  birth  to  a  daughter.  A  deep  swoon 
gives  tlie  impression  that  Thaisa  is  dead,  and 
she  is  committed  to  the  waves  in  a  chest.  The 
chest  is  cast  ashore  near  Ephesus,  where 
Cerimon,  a  physician,  opens  it  and  restores 
Thaisa  to  life.  She,  thinking  her  husband 
drowned,  becomes  a  priestess  in  the  temple  of 
Diana.  Pericles  carries  his  daughter  Marina 
to  Tarsus,  where  he  leaves  her  with  Cleon, 
the  governor,  and  his  wife,  Dionyza.  When 
the  child  grows  up,  Dionyza,  jealous  of 
her  superior  accomplishments,  designs  to 
kill  her ;  but  Marina  is  carried  off  by  pirates 
and  sold  in  Mitylene  into  a  brothel,  where 


PERICLES  AND  ASPASIA 

her  purity  and  piety  win  the  admiration  of 
Lysimachus,  the  governor  of  Mitylene,  and 
the  respect  of  even  the  brothel-keeper's 
brutal  servant,  and  secure  her  release. 
Pericles,  mourning  the  supposed  death  of  his 
daughter,  comes  to  Mitylene,  where  he  dis- 
covers her,  to  his  intense  joy.  A  dream  directs 
him  to  go  to  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus 
and  there  recount  the  story  of  his  life.  This 
he  does,  with  the  result  that  the  priestess 
Thaisa,  his  lost  wife,  recognizes  him,  and  is 
reunited  to  her  husband  and  daughter. 
Marina  is  married  to  Lysimachus.  Cleon  and 
Dionyza  are  burnt  as  a  penalty  for  their  in- 
tended crime. 

Pericles  and  Aspasia,  one  of  the  longer  prose 
works  of  Landor  (q.v.),  published  in  1836. 

It  consists  of  imaginary  letters  relating  to 
the  period  of  the  union  of  Pericles  and 
Aspasia  (q.v.).  The  majority  of  them  are  from 
Aspasia  to  the  friend  Cleone  whom  she  has 
left  at  Miletus,  and  Cleone's  replies.  Others 
are  addressed  by  Pericles  to  Aspasia,  or  by 
her  to  him ;  while  others  again  are  from  or 
to  noted  personages  of  the  time,  such  as 
Ajiaxagoras  and  Alcibiades.  They  include 
discussions  of  artistic,  literary,religious,  philo- 
sophical, and  political  subjects,  and  contain 
passages  of  great  beauty.  The  letters  ter- 
minate with  the  death  of  Pericles. 

P&rignon,  DOM  PIERRE  (1638-1715),  often 
spoken  of  as  the  inventor  of  sparkling  Cham- 
pagne wine.  He  was  procurator  of  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  near  iSpernay,  and  was 
charged  with  the  care  of  its  vines.  He  was  a 
man  of  very  delicate  palate,  and  greatly  im- 
proved the  taste  and  sparkling  quality  of  the 
wine  by  attention  to  its  manufacture. 

Perigot,  a  character  in  Fletcher's  'The 
Faithful  Shepherdess*  (q.v.). 

Perillus,  see  Phalaris.  - 

Perilous  Chair,  THE,  the  'Siege  Perilous* 
at  the  Round  Table  (q.v.). 
Peripatetics,  see  Aristotle. 

Perissa,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  see 

^  Medina. 

Periphrasis,  a  roundabout  form  of  state- 
ment, a  circumlocution. 

Perker,  MR.,  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick  Papers* 
(q.v.),  Mr.  Pickwick's  attorney. 

Perkin  Warbeck,  an  historical  play  by  J. 
Ford  (q.v.),  published  in  1634. 

The  play  deals  with  the  arrival  of  Warbeck 
at  the  court  of  King  James  IV  of  Scotland, 
and  his  marriage  at  the  king's  instance  and 
against  her  father's  wish  to  Lady  Katherine 
Gordon;  the  treason  of  Sir  William  Stanley 
and  his  execution ;  the  expedition  of  James  IV 
with  Warbeck  into  England;  the  desertion 
of  Warbeck's  cause  by  James;  Warbeck's 
landing  in  Cornwall,  his  defeat,  capture,  and 
execution.  The  portrait  of  Warbeck  is  a 
sympathetic  one,  and  the  devotion  of  Lady 
Katherine  to  him  is  touchingly  drawn.  The 


PERSEUS 

play  is  entirely  unlike  Ford's  other  work,  and 
is  a  good  historical  drama. 

^  For  the  facts  and  dates  of  Perkin  Warbeck's 
history,  see  Warbeck. 

PERRAULT,  CHARLES  (1628-1703),  a 
French  poet,  critic,  and  member  of  the 
Academy,  chiefly  known  in  England  for  the 
fajry  tales  alleged  to  have  been  repeated  to 
him  by  his  little  son  and  published  by  him 
under  the  title  'Histoires  et  Contes  du  Terns 
Passe*'  (1697)  with  the  legend  on  the  frontis- 
piece, 'Contes  de  Ma  Mere  1'Oye'  ('Mother 
Goose's  Tales').  They  were  translated  into 
English  by  Robert  Samber  (1729  ?),  and  were 
doubtless  French  popular  tales  told  to  the 
child  by  his  nurse.  Andrew  Lang,  in  his 
'Perrault's  Popular  Tales'  (1888),  discusses 
their  origins  and  analogies  in  the  fables 
current  in  different  times  and  among  different 
peoples.  The  tales  are  the  following:  La 
Belle  au  Bois  Dormant  ('Sleeping  Beauty*, 
q.v.),  Le  Petit  Chaperon  Rouge  ('Red  Riding 
Hood',  q.v.).  La  Barbe  Bleue  ('Blue  Beard*, 
q.v.),  Le  Maistre  Chat,  ou  le  Chat  Botte('Puss 
in  Boots',  q.v.),  Les  Fees  ('The  Fairy'), 
Cendrillon  ou  la  petite  pantoufle  de  verre 
('Cinderella',  q.v.),  Riquet  a  la  Houppe 
('Riquet  with  the  Tuft',  q.v.),  Petit  Poucet 
('Hop  o'  My  Thumb,  Little  Thumb',  q.v.). 

To  each  story  is  attached  a  moral ;  though, 
as  Lang  points  out,  it  is  not  very  obvious  in 
the  story  of  the  success  of  that  'unscrupulous 
adventurer*,  Puss  in  Boots. 

Perrette,  in  the  fables  of  La  Fontaine  (q.v.), 
the  milkmaid  who,  carried  away  by  dreams 
of  the  profits  to  be  made  from  the  milk  she  is 
carrying  on  her  head,  lets  it  drop.  Cf. 
Alnaschar. 

Perrier- Jouet,  see  Champagne. 

Persant  of  Inde,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morte 
d*Arthur",  one  of  the  knights  who  kept  the 
approach  to  Castle  Perilous,  overthrown  by 
Sir  Gareth  (see  Gareth  and  Lynette). 

PersS'phdne,  see  Proserpine. 

PersSpolis ,  the  capital  of  the  Persian  empire, 
not  far  from  the  modern  Shiraz,  laid  in 
ruins  by  Alexander  after  the  conquest  of 
Darius,  some  say  at  the  instigation  of  the 
courtesan  Thais,  after  a  bout  of  drinking. 

Perseus,  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Danae.  His 
early  story  will  be  found  under  Danae.  Poly- 
dectes,  having  received  the  mother  and  child, 
became  enamoured  of  Danae.  Wishing  to 
get  rid  of  Perseus,  Polydectes  sent  him  to 
fetch  the  head  of  the  Medusa  (q.v.),  thinking 
that  he  would  be  destroyed.  But  the  gods 
favoured  Perseus.  Pluto  lent  him  a  helmet 
that  would  make  him  invisible,  Athene  a 
buckler  resplendent  as  a  mirror  (so  that  he 
did  not  need  to  look  directly  at  the  Medusa), 
and  Hermes  -the  talaria  or  wings  for  the  feet. 
He  was  thus  enabled  to  escape  the  eyes  of  the 
Gorgons  (which  turned  what  they  gazed  on  to 
stone),  and  cut  off  the  Medusa's  head.  Con- 
tinuing his  flight,  he  came  to  the  palace  of 


[605] 


PERSIUS 

Atlas  (q.v.),  who,  recollecting  an  oracle  that 
his  gardens  would  be  robbed  of  their  fruit  by 
a  son  of  Zeus,  violently  repelled  him.  There- 
upon Perseus  showed  him  the  Medusa's  head, 
and  Atlas  was  immediately  changed  into  a 
mountain.  In  his  further  course,  Perseus  dis- 
covered Andromeda  (q.v.)  exposed  on  a  rock 
to  a  dragon  that  was  about  to  devour  her. 
Having  obtained  from  Cepheus,  her  father, 
the  promise  of  her  hand,  Perseus  slew  the 
dragon.  But  Phineus,  Andromeda's  uncle, 
attempted  to  carry  away  the  bride,  and,  with 
his  attendants,  was  changed  into  stones  by 
the  Medusa's  head.  Perseus  then  returned  to 
Seriphos,  just  in  time  to  save  Danae  from  the 
violence  of  Polydectes,  whom  he  likewise 
destroyed.  Perseus  now  restored  to  the  gods 
the  arms  that  they  had  lent  him  and  placed 
the  Medusa's  head  on  the  aegis  of  Athene, 
where  it  is  usually  represented.  He  subse- 
quently embarked  to  return  to  his  native 
country.  At  Larissa  he  took  part  in  some 
funeral  games  that  were  proceeding,  and 
when  throwing  the  quoit,  had  the  mis- 
fortune to  kill  a  man  in  the  throng,  who 
turned  out  to  be  Acrisius,  his  grandfather, 
thus  fulfilling  the  prophecy  concerning 
Danae's  son.  He  refused  to  ascend  the  throne 
of  Argos  to  which  he  became  heir  by  this 
calamity,  but  exchanged  this  kingdom  for 
another  and  founded  the  new  city  of  My- 
cenae. 

PERSIUS  (AULUS  PERSIUS  FLAC- 
CUS)  (A.D.  34-62),  Roman  satirist,  author 
of  six  satires,  which  show  the  influence  of 
Horace.  His  early  death  interrupted  the  full 
development  of  his  powers. 

Persuasion,  a  novel  by  J.  Austen  (q.v.), 
finished  in  1816  and  published  in  1818. 

Sir  Walter  Elliot,  a  foolish  spendthrift 
baronet  and  a  widower,  with  an  overweening 
sense  of  social  importance  and  personal 
elegance,  is  obliged  to  retrench,  and  lets  his 
seat,  Kellynch  Hall,  to  Admiral  and  Mrs 
Croft.  His  eldest  daughter  Elizabeth, 
haughty  and  unmarried,  is  now  29;  the 
second,  Anne,  ^pretty,  intelligent,  and  of  an 
amiable  disposition,  had  some  years  before 
been  engaged  to  a  young  naval  officer,  Fred- 
erick Wentworth,  the  brother  of  Mrs.  Croft, 
but  had  been  persuaded  by  her  trusted  friend, 
Lady  RusseU,  to  break  off  the  engagement, 
on  the  ground  of  his  lack  of  fortune  and  from 
a  misunderstanding  of  his  sanguine  temper. 
The  breach  had  produced  deep  unhappiness 
in  Anne  and  intense  indignation  in  Went- 
worth. Anne  is  now  27  and  the  bloom  of 
her  beauty  gone.  The  youngest  daughter 
of  Sir  Walter,  Mary,  is  married  to  Charles 
Musgrove,  the  heir  of  a  neighbouring  landed 
proprietor.  Capt.  Wentworth,  who  has  had 
a  successful  career  and  is  become  rich,  is 
now  thrown  again  into  Anne's  society  by  the 
letting  of  Kellynch  to  the  Crofts;  and  the 
story  is  concerned  with  the  gradual  revival  of 
Wentworth  >s  ^passion  for  Anne.  The  course 
of  the  reconciliation  is,  however,  hindered  by 


[606] 


PETER  AD  VINCULA 

various  impediments.  Charles  Musgrove  has 
two  sisters,  Louisa  and  Henrietta.  Went- 
worth at  first  is  attracted  by  them  both,  and 
presently  becomes  entangled  with  Louisa, 
though  no  explicit  declaration  passes.  A 
crisis  arrives  during  a  visit  of  the  party  to 
Lyme  Regis,  when  Louisa  being  'jumped 
down'  from  the  Cobb  by  Capt.  Wentworth, 
falls  to  the  ground  and  is  dangerously  injured. 
Wentworth's  partial  responsibility  for  the 
accident  makes  him  feel  an  increased  obliga- 
tion to  Louisa  at  the  very  time  that  his  heart 
is  being  drawn  back  to  Anne.  Fortunately, 
during  her  convalescence  and  Wentworth's 
absence,  Louisa  becomes  engaged  to  Capt. 
Benwick,  a  brother  naval  officer  of  Went- 
worth's, and  the  latter  is  free  to  proceed  with 
his  courtship.  He  goes  accordingly  to  Bath, 
where  Sir  Walter  is  now  established  with  his 
two  elder  daughters  and  Elizabeth's  com- 
panion, Mrs.  Clay,  an  artful  woman  with 
matrimonial  designs  on  Sir  Walter.  But  at 
Bath  Wentworth  finds  the  field  occupied  by 
another  suitor  for  Anne's  hand,  in  her  cousin 
William  Elliot,  the  heir  presumptive  to  the 
Kellynch  estate,  who  is  paying  assiduous 
attention  to  Axajjf  and  at  the  same  time  carry- 
ing on  an  intrigue  with  Mrs.  Clay,  so  as  to 
detach  her  from  Sir  Walter.  Anne,  however, 
becomes  enlightened  as  to  the  duplicity  and 
cunning  of  Mr.  Elliot,  and  indeed  her  affec- 
tion for  Wentworth  has  remained  unshaken. 
Being  accidentally  made  aware  of  Anne's 
constancy,  Wentworth  takes  courage  to  re- 
new his  offer  of  marriage  and  is  accepted. 

In  this,  Miss  Austen's  last  work,  satire  and 
ridicule  take  a  milder  form,  the  tone  is  graver 
and  tenderer,  and  the  interest  lies  in  a  more 
subtle  interplay  of  the  characters :  indeed,  it 
is  a  matter  of  tradition  that  a  love-story  of 
Jane's  own  life  is  reflected  in  Anne^ Elliot's. 

Pertelote,  the  hen  in  Chaucer's  'Nun's 
Priest's  Tale'  (see  Canterbury  Tales);  also  the 
wife  of  Reynard  the  Fox  (q.v.).  The  word  in 
Old  French  was  a  female  proper  name.  Its 
later  equivalent,  used  as  the  proper  name  of  a 
hen,  is  Partlet. 

Perugino,  PIETRO  VANNUCCI  (1446-1524), 
called  IL  PERUGINO  because  of  his  residence 
in  Perugia,  a  famous  Italian  painter,  and  the 
master  of  Raphael. 

Pervigilmm  Veneris,  the  name  of  a  short 
Latin  poem  by  an  unknown  author,  perhaps 
of  the  2nd  cent.  A.D.  It  exists  in  two  very 
corrupt  manuscripts,  and  is  often  attributed 
to  Tiberius. 

Pet  Marjorie,  see  Fleming. 

P£taud,  KING,  the  king  formerly  elected  by 
the  community  of  beggars  in  France,  so 
named  facetiously  from  the  Latin  peto,  I  beg. 
His  authority  over  his  subjects  was  slight, 
and  the  "court  of  King  Pe*taud*  is  proverbial 
for  an  assembly  where  every  one  wishes  to 
command  or  speak  at  once. 

Peter  ad  Vincula,  ST.,  see  Tower  of  London. 


PETER  BELL 

Peter  Bell,  a  poem  by  W°rdsworth  (<l*v-)» 
published  in  1819  with  dedication  to  Southey, 
but  written  long  before  at  Alfoxden,  in  1798, 
the  year  of  the  'Lyrical  Ballads'. 

Peter  Bell  is  a  potter,  a  lawless  man  in- 
sensible to  the  beauties  of  nature.  Coming  to 
the  edge  of  the  Swale,  he  espies  a  solitary  ass 
and  thinks  to  steal  it.  The  ass  is  gazing  into 
the  water  at  something,  which  turns  out  to  be 
the  dead  body  of  its  owner.  Peter  mounts  the 
ass  to  seek  the  cottage  of  the  drowned  man 
and  tell  his  widow.  His  spiritual  experiences 
on  this  ride  make  him  a  reformed  man. 

The  ludicrous  character  of  parts  of  the 
poem  diverted  attention  from  its  merits,  and 
it  was  received  with  much  hilarity  and  made 
the  subject  of  many  parodies  (among  others 
one  by  Shelley).  A  stanza  that  occurred  in 
the  first  two  editions  but  was  subsequently 
suppressed  was  the  following  (Peter  Bell  is 
staring  at  the  object  floating  in  the  river) : 

Is  it  a  party  in  a  parlour  ? 

Cramm'd  just  as  they  on  earth  are  cramm'd — 

Some  sipping  punch,  some  sipping  tea, 

But  as  you  by  their  faces  see, 

All  silent  and  all  damn'd ! 

PETER  LOMBARD  (c.  noo-c.  1160), 
Magister  Sententiarum,  or  master  of  the  sen- 
tences, born  of  an  obscure  family  at  Novara, 
and  educated  at  Bologna.  He  came  to  France 
and  became  professor  of  theology,  and  subse- 
quently in  1159  bishop  of  Paris.  He  wrote 
his  'Sententiae'  between  1 145  and  1 150.  They 
are  a  collection  of  opinions  of  the  Fathers, 
dealing  with  God,  the  creature,  redemption, 
and  (their  most  important  feature)  the  nature 
of  the  sacraments.  The  work  was  very  popu- 
lar and  became  a  theological  text-book.  It 
was  the  subject  of  many  commentaries  both 
abroad  and  in  England. 

Peter  Martyr,  PIETRO  VERMIGLI  (1500-62), 
born  in  Florence,  an  Augustinian  monk,  who 
accepted  the  Reformed  faith,  fled  from  Italy 
in  1542  to  Switzerland,  and  subsequently 
to  England,  and  became  Regius  professor  of 
divinity  at  Oxford  (1548).  He  helped  Cran- 
mer  in  the  preparation  of  the  second  Prayer 
Book.  In  1553  he  escaped  to  Strasburg  and 
died  at  Zurich.  His  wife  is  buried  in  Christ 
Church  Cathedral,  Oxford. 

PETER  MARTYR  of  Anghiera  in  the  state 
of  Milan  (fl.  1510),  the  author  of  a  history  of 
the  early  Spanish  explorations,  entitled  'De 
Orbe  Novo',  of  which  the  first  'Decade*  ap- 
peared in  1 5 1 1 .  The  work  was  translated  into 
English  by  Richard  Eden  ('The  Decades  of 
the  Newe  Worlde  or  West  India*,  1555)  an<i 
re-edited  by  Hakluyt  in  1587.  It  helped  to 
stimulate  the  Elizabethan  explorers  and  con- 
tributed to  their  knowledge  of  the  science  of 
navigation. 

Peter  Pan,  or  the  Boy  who  wouldn't  grow  up,  a 
dramatic  fantasy  by  Barrie  (q.v.),  produced 
in  1904.  The  story  of  the  play  was  published 
in  1911  under  the  title  'Peter  and  Wendy'. 
It  is  a  story  of  the  three  children  of  Mr.  and 


PETER  THE  HERMIT 

Mrs.  Darling,  Wendy,  John,  and  Michael, 
the  nurse  Nana  (who  is  a  Newfoundland 
dog),  and  the  motherless  Peter  Pan,  who, 
with  the  fairy  Tinker  Bell,  takes  the  children 
off  to  Never-Never  Land,  where  they 
encounter  Redskins  and  pirates,  including 
the  notable  Capt.  Hook  and  the  agreeable 
Smee. 

There  is  a  statue  representing  Peter  Pan, 
by  Sir  George  Frampton,  in  Kensington 
Gardens.  It  was  placed  there  because  of  the 
association  of  Peter  Pan  with  the  gardens  as 
told  in  'The  Little  White  Bird'  (1902), 
*.  .  .he  escaped  from  being  a  human  when 
he  was  seven  days  old;  he  escaped  by  the 
window  and  flew  back  to  the  Kensington 
Gardens';  though  no  doubt  the  popularity 
of  the  play  and  of  Teter  and  Wendy1 
prompted  the  idea  of  the  statue. 

PETER  PARLEY,  the  pseudonym  of 
Samuel  Griswold  Goodrich  (1793-1860),  an 
American  author,  who  produced  a  series  of 
books  for  the  young  which  enjoyed  much 
popularity.  The  name  was  appropriated  by 
various  publishers  for  works  by  other  authors. 

Peter  Peebles,  a  character  in  Scott's  'Red- 
gauntlet'  (q.v.). 

PETER  PINDAR,  see  Wolcot. 
Peter  Plymley,  Letters  of,  see  Plymley. 
PETER  PORCUPINE,  see  Cobbett. 

Peter  Simple,  a  novel  by  Marryat  (q.v.), 
published  in  1834,  generally  considered  his 
masterpiece. 

The  hero  is  sent  to  sea  as  the  efool  of  the 
family',  and  his  simplicity  at  first  exposes 
him  to  several  ludicrous  adventures.  But  he 
soon  shows  himself  a  gallant  and  capable 
officer,  sees  many  exciting  naval  actions,  is 
taken  prisoner  and  escapes,  rises  in  the 
service,  and  wins  a  charming  wife.  Of  the 
many  entertaining  characters  in  the  book, 
the  best  is  Chucks  the  boatswain,  who  aspires 
to  be  a  gentleman  and  emerges  in  the  end  as 
the  Danish  Count  Shucksen;  he  begins  his 
reproofs  with  an  elegant  courtesy,  but  winds 
them  up  with  a  volley  of  expletives.  Men- 
tion may  also  be  made  of  Swinburne,  the 
quartermaster;  Terence  O'Brien,  the  plucky 
and  very  human  Irishman;  Capt.  Kearney, 
the  incorrigible  liar;  and  that  fine  seaman, 
Capt.  Savage. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  PETER  OF  AMIENS  (1050- 
1115),  a  gentleman  of  Picardy,  who  first 
followed  the  career  of  arms  and  then  became 
a  monk.  He  preached  the  first  crusade,  and 
led  a  multitude  of  followers  into  Asia  Minor 
(1096).  Nearly  all  these  died  or  were  killed 
by  the  Turkish  garrison  of  Nicaea  before  the 
real  'Crusaders'  arrived.  Peter,  however, 
survived  and  accompanied  these  Crusaders 
eastwards  in  1097.  He  was  certainly  present 
at  the  siege  and  counter-siege  of  Antioch  in 
1098,  but  there  were  other  'holy  men'  called 
Peter  among  the  Crusaders,  and  his  later 
history  is  uncertain. 


[607] 


PETER  WILKINS 

Peter  Wilkins,  The  Life  and  Adventures  of,  a 
romance  by  Paltock  (q.v.),  published  in  1751. 

This  is  a  tale  after  the  manner  of 'Robinson 
Crusoe*,  but  not  written  with  the  convincing 
touch  of  Defoe.  Wilkins  is  shipwrecked  in 
the  Antarctic  region  and  reaches  a  land  in- 
habited by  a  strange  winged  race  of  'glums* 
and  'gawries',  enveloped  in  an  outer  silk-like 
skin  which  can  be  spread  and  enables  them  to 
fly.  One  of  these,  the  beautiful  Youwarkee, 
falls  by  accident  outside  his  hut.  He  takes 
her  up,  tends  her,  and  marries  her,  and 
presently  becomes  a  person  of  importance  in 
the  kingdom. 

Southey's  'Glendoveers'  in  his  'Curse  of 
Kehama'  (q.v.)  were  suggested  by  the 
*Gawries'. 

Peter's,  ST.,  Eaton  Square,  a  church  built 
in  1824-6,  frequently  mentioned  in  con- 
nexion with  fashionable  ceremonies. 

Peter's,  ST.,  Rome,  the  metropolitan  church 
of  the  Roman  see,  near  the  site  of  the  old 
basilica  of  St.  Peter  and  the  traditional  place 
of  crucifixion  of  the  saint.  The  erection  of 
the  present  church  was  begun  by  Pope 
Julius  II  in  1506  from  designs  by  Bramante 
(d.  1514).  It  involved  the  demolition  of  the 
old  basilica,  the  most  venerable  church  in 
Christendom,  adorned  with  splendid  mosaics 
and  interesting  monuments,  an  object  of 
pilgrimage  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  The 
work  of  construction  was  carried  on  by 
Michelangelo  from  1547  until  his  death  in 
1563,  under  Paul  III  and  Julius  III. 
Michelangelo's  modifications  of  Bramante's 
plans  were  subsequently  much  altered,  but 
the  dome,  which  is  the  work  of  Giacomo  della 
Porta,  in  the  main  carries  out  the  idea  of 
Michelangelo.  The  church  was  dedicated  in 
1626,  the  colonnade  leading  to  it  being  added 
in  1667  by  Bernini. 

Peter's  Letters  to  his  Kinsfolk,  see  Lockhart. 

Peter's  Pence,  an  annual  tax  or  tribute  of  a 
penny  from  each  householder  having  land  of 
a  certain  value,  paid  before  the  Reformation 
to  the  papal  see  at  Rome.  It  is  traditionally 
ascribed  to  Offa  (see  Mancus)  and  was  called 
in  Anglo-Saxon  times  the  Romescot.  The 
term  Peter's  Pence  is  now  used  of  voluntary 
contributions  by  Roman  Catholics  to  the 
papal  treasury. 

Peterloo,  the  name  (a  burlesque  adaptation 
of  Waterloo)  given  to  a  charge  of  cavalry  and 
yeomanry  on  the  Manchester  reform  meeting 
held  in  St.  Peter's  Field,  Manchester,  on 
1 6  Aug.  1819,  as  a  result  of  which  u  persons 
are  said  (the  figures  are  doubtful)  to  have 
been  killed  and  about  600  injured. 

Peter-  see-me,  a  kind  of  Spanish  wine, 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  I7th  cent.;  a 
corruption  of  Pedro  Ximenes,  the  name  of  a 
celebrated  Spanish  grape,  so  called  after  its 
introducer. 

Petition  of  Right,  a  demand  put  forward 
by  the  Commons  in  1628  that  there  should 


PETRONIUS 

be  no  imprisonment  without  cause  shown,  no 
forced  loans  or  taxes  imposed  without  par- 
liamentary grant,  no  martial  law  or  enforced 
billeting.  The  Petition  was  reluctantly  ac- 
cepted by  Charles  I  and  became  law.  The 
point  of  proceeding  by  the  method  of  a 
'Petition  of  Right'  instead  of  a  ^BilP  was 
that  the  Crown  had  to  give  an  immediate 
answer  instead  of  waiting  for  the  end  of  the 
session. 

Peto,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  ei  and  z 
Henry  IV  (q.v.). 

Petowker,  HENRIETTA,  a  character  ^in 
Dickens's  '  Nicholas  Nickleby*.  She  marries 
Mr.  Lillyvick. 

PETRARCH      (FRANCESCO     PETRARCA) 

(1304-74),  Italian  poet  and  humanist,  was 
born  at  Arezzo,  the  son  of  a  notary,  by  name 
Petracco,  who  was  expelled  from  Florence  (in 
the  same  year  as  Dante)  by  the  Guelf  party 
and  migrated  to  Avignon  in  1313.  Here  in 
1327  Petrarch  first  saw  Laura,  according  to 
tradition  the  daughter  of  Audibert  de  Noves, 
and  the  wife  of  Count  Hugues  de  Sade,  who 
died  in  1348  after  bearing  eleven  children  to 
her  husband.  It  was  she  who  inspired  the 
long  series  of  love-poems  for  which  Petrarch 
is  to-day  perhaps  most  famous,  and  which 
bear  the  title  of  *Rime  in  Vita  e  Morte  di 
Madonna  Laura'  or  'Canzoniere'.  But  to  his 
contemporaries  and  the  generations  that  im- 
mediately succeeded  him,  Petrarch  was  best 
known  as  a  humanist  and  a  patriot.  Whether 
in  his  retreat  at  Vaucluse  near  Avignon,  or  at 
Arqua  in  the  Euganean  hills,  Petrarch  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  classical  antiquity, 
particularly  Cicero  and  Virgil,  and  wrote 
much  in  Latin.  In  1341  he  was  crowned 
poet  laureate  at  Rome.  In  spite  of  his  zeal 
for  Italian  liberties  (he  supported  the  re- 
publican movement  of  Rienzi),  he  was  a 
welcome  guest  in  the  palaces  of  the  Italian 
princes  and  despots,  and  was  much  occupied 
with  political  and  diplomatic  affairs.  His 
famous  'Ode  to  Italy*  reveals  his  ardent 
patriotism.  He  died  at  Arqua.  His  works, 
besides  the  Laura  poems,  include  a  large 
number  of  letters  and  treatises  in  Latin, 
among  others  an  £Epistle  to  Posterity*  and  a 
Latin  epic,  'Africa',  on  the  contest  between 
Rome  and  Carthage. 

Petrarch  was  the  earliest  of  the  humanists, 
and  his  life  marks  the  dawn  of  the  Renaissance 
in  Italy.  He  awakened  the  interest  of  his 
countrymen  in  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman 
world,  encouraged  education  and  culture,  and 
sought  to  reconcile  the  pagan  and  Christian 
ideals. 

PETRONIUS,  CAIUS,  one  of  the  emperor 
Nero's  companions,  and  director  of  the 
pleasures  of  the  imperial  court  (arbiter 
elegantiae).  He  had  been  proconsul  in 
Bithynia.  He  was  the  author  of  'Petronii 
Arbitri  Satyricon*,  a  prose  satirical  romance 
interspersed  with  verse,  which  has  survived 
in  a  fragmentary  state.  The  'Cena  Trimal- 


[608] 


FETRUCHIO 

chionis',  the  most  important  episode  in  this, 
describes  the  sumptuous  dinner  at  which  the 
rich,  vulgar  upstart  Trimalchio  entertains 
Encolpius,  the  hero  of  the  romance.  Tacitus 
mentions  that  Petronius  committed  suicide 
(about  A.D.  66)  to  avoid  being  killed  by  Nero. 
Petruchio,  in  Shakespeare's  'Taming  of 
the  Shrew*  (q.v.),  the  husband  of  the  terma- 
gant Katharina. 

PETTY,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1623-87),  politi- 
cal economist,  studied  on  the  Continent  and 
became  the  friend  of  Hobbes.  He  executed 
for  the  Commonwealth  the  'Down  Survey' 
of  forfeited  lands  in  Ireland,  the  first  attempt 
on  a  large  scale  at  carrying  out  a  survey 
scientifically.  Petty  acquiesced  in  the  Restora- 
tion, and  was  knighted  and  made  an  original 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1662.  He 
published  economic  treatises,  the  principal 
of  which  was  entitled  'Political  Arithmetic1, 
1 690,  a  term  signifying  that  which  we  now  call 
statistics.  In  this  he  examined,  by  the 
quantitative  method,  the  current  allegations 
of  national  decay.  He  rejected  the  old  'pro- 
hibitory' system,  and  showed  the  error  of  the 
supporters  of  the  'mercantile'  system  in 
regarding  the  abundance  of  the  precious 
metals  as  the  standard  of  prosperity.  He 
traced  the  sources  of  wealth  to  labour  and 
land. 

Petulengro,  JASPER,  the  principal  gipsy 
character  in  Borrow's  'Lavengro'  and  "The 
Romany  Rye*  (qq.v.),  founded  upon  the 
Norfolk  gipsy,  Ambrose  Smith,  with  whom 
Borrow  was  acquainted  in  his  youth.  'Petul- 
engro'  means  'shoeing  smith*. 

Peutinger,  KONRAD  (1465-1547),  a  German 
antiquary,  who  has  given  his  name  to  an 
ancient  map  of  the  roads  of  the  Roman 
empire  which  he  discovered.  This  is  one  of 
our  few  sources  of  knowledge  of  the  road- 
system  of  the  Roman  Empire.  It  is  said  to 
be  a  i2th-cent.  copy  of  a  set  of  maps  dating 
from  about  A.D.  365-6  when  Theodosius 
the  elder  was  fighting  on  the  frontiers.  The 
best  edition  is  that  of  Desjardins,  Paris,  1869. 

Peveril  of  the  Peak,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott 
(q.v.),  published  in  1822. 

The  story,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
laboured  that  Scott  wrote  and  shows  signs  of 
the  author's  ill-health,  is  in  the  main  con- 
cerned with  the  times  of  the  pretended 
Popish  Plot  (1678),  though  it  is  only  in  the 
I4th  chapter  that  the  principal  theme  is 
reached.  Sir  Geoffrey  Peveril,  an  old  Cava- 
lier, and  Major  Bridgenorth,  a  fanatical 
Puritan,  are  neighbouring  landowners  in 
Derbyshire,  and  though  of  widely  different 
opinions  and  modes  of  life,  have  been  con- 
nected by  ties  of  reciprocal  kindness  in  the 
days  of  the  Civil  War.  Julian,  son  of  Sir 
Geoffrey,  and  Alice,  the  daughter  of  Bridge- 
north,  are  deeply  in  love.  The  recrudescence 
of  bitter  political  feeling  during  the  period  of 
the  'Popish  Plot*  brings  the  parents  into  acute 
conflict.  Julian,  who  has  spent  some  years  in 


PHAEDRA 

the  household  of  the  countess  of  Derby,  the 
queen  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  goes  to  England 
on  her  service.  He  arrives  at  the  moment 
when  popular  suspicion  of  the  Catholics  has 
reached  its  greatest  intensity,  finds  his  father 
under  arrest  by  Bridgenorth  as  a  suspected 
Papist,  attempts  to  liberate  him,  is  himself 
arrested,  is  rescued  by  Derbyshire  miners, 
and  finally  reaches  London.  Meanwhile  the 
fate  of  Alice  Bridgenorth  is  gravely  imperilled. 
Edward  Christian,  Bridgenorth's  brother-in- 
law,  to  whom  Alice  has  been  entrusted  by  her 
father,  contrives  with  Chiffinch,  the  minister 
of  Charles  IPs  pleasures,  to  bring  her  to  the 
king's  notice,  with  a  view  to  her  becoming  his 
mistress.  In  order  to  revenge  his  brother,  the 
victim  of  a  judicial  murder  carried  out  in  the 
Isle  of  Man  under  Lady  Derby's  authority, 
he  has,  moreover,  placed  in  her  service 
Fenella,  his  daughter  by  a  Moorish  woman. 
This  creature,  gifted  with  strange  beauty  and 
grace,  has  maintained  for  years  the  character 
of  a  deaf-mute,  in  order  to  worm  herself  into 
her  employer's  secrets.  In  the  events  that 
ensue  she  plays  an  important  part.  Alice 
Bridgenorth  falls  into  the  hands  of  the 
licentious  Buckingham,  and  is  rescued  by 
Fenella's  agency.  Julian  Peveril,  with  whom 
Fenella  has  fallen  in  love,  is  by  her  action 
brought  to  the  notice  of  the  king  and 
Buckingham,  incurs  the  hostility  of  the  latter, 
and  is  imprisoned  and  involved,  with  his 
father,  in  an  accusation  of  participation  in  the 
'Plot*.  They  are  acquitted  on  trial,  thanks  to 
the  intervention  of  the  king,  who  shows  some 
sense  of  obligation  to  the  old  Cavalier;  and  all 
ends  well. 

The  author  draws  elaborate  portraits  of 
Charles  II  and  Buckingham,  and  gives 
glimpses  of  such  historical  characters  as 
Titus  Gates,  Colonel  Blood  (the  impudent 
revolutionary  who  tried  to  steal  the  crown 
jewels  from  the  Tower),  and  Sir  Geoffrey 
Hudson  (Henrietta  Maria's  dwarf). 

Pew,  the  blind  beggar  in  Stevenson's 
'Treasure  Island'  (q.v.). 

Pfefferkorn,  an  apostate  Jew,  the  associ- 
ate of  the  Dominicans  in  their  controversy 
with  Reuchlin  (q.v.)  regarding  the  proposed 
destruction  of  works  of  Jewish  literature  and 
philosophy.  See  Epistolae  Obscurorum  Vi- 
rorum. 

Phaeacians,  THE,  in  the  'Odyssey',  the  in- 
habitants of  the  island  Scheriay  in  the  ex- 
treme western  part  of  the  earth,  ^  where 
Odysseus  landed  after  leaving  Ogygia,  the 
island  of  Calypso.  They  were  famous  sailors. 
Alcinous  was  king  of  the  Phaeacians,  and 
Nausicaa  was  his  daughter. 

Phaedra,  a  daughter  of  Minos  (q.v.)  and 
Pasiphae,  and  wife  of  Theseus  (q.v.).  She 
became  enamoured  of  Hippolytus  (q.v.),  the 
son  of  Theseus  by  the  amazon  Hippolyta. 
Her  advances  being  rejected,  she  accused 
Hippolytus  to  Theseus  of  attempts  upon  her 
virtue  and  caused  his  death.  This  story  is  the 


3868 


[609] 


PHAEDRIA 

subject  of  tragedies  by  Euripides,  Seneca,  and 
Racine. 

Phaedria,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  n. 
yi,  the  Lady  of  the  Idle  Lake,  symbolizing 
immodest  mirth. 

PHAEDRUS,  a  Latin  fabulist,  apparently  a 
freedman  of  Augustus.  He  translated  into 
Latin  the  Greek  version  by  Babrius  of  the 
fables  attributed  to  Aesop  (q.v.). 
Phaeton  or  PHAETHON,  a  son  of  Phoebus,  the 
sun,  by  Clymene,  wife  of  Merops,  king  of^the 
Ethiopians.  He  became  proud  and  aspiring, 
and  begged  his  father  to  allow  him  to  drive  the 
chariot  of  the  sun.  He  soon  betrayed  his  in- 
capacity and  the  horses  departed  from  their 
usual  course,  threatening  the  earth  t  with  a 
conflagration.  Zeus,  perceiving  the  disorder, 
hurled  a  thunderbolt  and  struck  Phaeton, 
who  fell  into  the  river  Eridanus  (Po). 
Thaethon'  is  the  title  of  a  poem  by  G.  Mere- 
dith (q.v.),  written  in  galliambics. 

The  name  Phaeton  is  given  to  a  four- 
wheeled  open  carriage  of  light  construction, 
usually  drawn  by  a  pair  of  horses,  with  one  or 
two  seats  facing  forward ;  but  applied  to  car- 
riages variously  modified  and  distinguished 
as  Stanhope,  Mail,  Park,  Sec. 

Phaistos  Disk,  a  clay  disk  inscribed  on  both 
sides  with  uninterpreted  hieroglyphic  char- 
acters arranged  spirally;  thought  not  to  be 
Cretan  but  possibly  of  SW.  Asia  Minor. 
Important  for  its  singularity,  but  not 
artistically  of  any  importance.  It  was 
found  by  Italian  archaeologists  in  the  excava- 
tion of  Phaistos,  Crete. 

Phalaris,  a  tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  who 
punished  his  subjects  with  excruciating  tor- 
tures on  slight  suspicion.  Perillus  made  him 
a  brazen  bull,  in  which  criminals  were  put  to 
death  by  a  fire  lit  under  the  beast's  belly,  so 
that  their  cries  were  like  the  bellowing  of  a 
bull.  Phalaris  made  the  first  experiment  of  it 
on  the  person  of  its  inventor.  The  people  of 
Agrigentum  revolted  c.  554  B.C.  and  put 
Phalaris  to  death  by  means  of  the  same 
brazen  bull. 

For  the  Thalaris  controversy'  see  Phalaris 
(Epistles  of). 

Phalaris,  Epistles  of,  certain  letters  attributed 
to  Phalaris  (q.v.),  which  were  praised  by  Sir 
William  Temple  (q.v.)  and  cited  by  Charles 
Boyle  (q.v.)  in  1695.  Richard  Bentley  (q.v.) 
was  able  to  show  that  they  were  spurious,  for 
towns  were  mentioned  in  them  that  did  not 
exist  in  the  days  of  Phalaris,  the  dialect  was  of 
a  later  period,  &c.  There  is  an  echo  of  the 
controversy  in  Swift's  'Battle  of  the  Books' 
(q.v.). 

Phantasmion,  see  Coleridge  (Sard). 
Phantom  Ship,  THE,  see  Flying  Dutchman. 

Phapn,  a  boatman  of  Mitylene  in  Lesbos.  It 
is  said  that,  when  old  and  ugly,  he  carried 
Venus,  who  presented  herself  in  the  guise  of 
an  old  woman,  over  to  Asia  without  accepting 


PHEIDIAS 

payment,  and  the  goddess  in  consequence 
bestowed  on  him  youth  and  beauty.  Sappho, 
the  poetess,  fell  in  love  with  him,  and  when 
he  received  her  advances  coldly,  threw  her- 
self into  the  sea.  Lyly  (q.v.)  wrote  a  play  on 
the  subject,  *Sapho  and  Phao'. 

PHAON,  in  Spenser's  *  Faerie  Queene',  n.  iv, 
is  the  unfortunate  squire  who,  deceived  by 
Philemon  and  under  the  influence  of  Furor 
(mad  rage),  slays  Claribel  and  poisons 
Philemon. 

Pharamond,  the  legendary  (  first  king  of 
France,  the  subject  of  an  heroic  novel  by  La 
Calprenede  (q.v.).  Pharamond  is  also  the 
name  of  a  character  in  (i)  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  'Philaster'  (q.v.),  and  (2)  W. 
Morris's  'Love  is  Enough'. 
Pharaoh,  from  an  Egyptian  word  meaning 
'great  house',  the  generic  appellation  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  kings,  especially  used  of 
those  of  the  time  of  Joseph  and  the  Exodus. 
Rameses  II,  the  great  builder  of  temples, 
may  have  been  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Op- 
pression; his  son  Meneptah,  the  Pharaoh  of 
the  Exodus.  In  Dryden's  'Absalom  and 
AchitopheP  Tharaoh'  stands  for  the  king  of 
France. 

Pharisees,  from  a  Hebrew  word  meaning 
separated,  an  ancient  Jewish  sect  distin- 
guished for  their  strict  observance  of  the  law, 
and  by  their  pretensions  to  superior  sanctity. 
The  word  is  applied  to  self-righteous  or 
hypocritical  persons. 

Pharonnida,  see  Chamberlayne. 

Pharos,  a  small  island  in  the  bay  of  Alexan- 
dria, which  was  joined  to  the  Egyptian  shore 
by  a  causeway  built  by  order  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  On  it  was  erected  a  celebrated 
tower  of  white  marble  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus.  This  tower  was  accounted  one 
of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world,  and  on 
the  top  of  it  fires  were  kept  burning  to  direct 
sailors.  Hence  the  word  is  often  used  as  a 
synonym  for  a  lighthouse  (pharos,  faro, 
phare). 

Pharsalia,  the  epic  poem  of  Lucan  (q.v.)  on 
the  civil  war  between  Pompey  and  Caesar;  so 
named  from  the  battle  of  Pharsalus  (48  B.C.), 
in  which  the  latter  was  victorious. 

Phebe,  a  shepherdess  in  Shakespeare's  *As 
You  Like  It' (q.v.). 

Pheidias,  a  celebrated  statuary  of  Athens, 
who  died  432  B.C.  Under  the  administration 
of  Pericles  (q.v.)  he  supervised  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Propylaea  and  the  Parthenon,  and 
made  a  statue  of  Pallas  Athene,  of  ivory  and 
gold,  which  was  placed  in  the  Parthenon.  He 
also  made  the  great  statue  of  the  Olympian 
Zeus  at  Olympia.  He  fell  a  victim  to  the 
enemies  of  his  patron,  Pericles,  was  accused 
of  appropriating  some  of  the  gold  intended 
for  the  statue  of  Athene  (which  he  disproved), 
was  thrown  into  prison,  and  died  there.  He 
was  eminent  for  the  dignity  and  breadth  of 
his  style. 


[610] 


PHEIDIPPIDES 

Pheidippides,  the  best  runner  in  Greece, 
was  sent  from  Athens  to  Sparta  to  announce 
the  arrival  of  the  invading  Persians  in  490  B.C. 
and  beg  for  help.  He  covered  the  distance 
between  the  two  cities,  150  miles,  in  two 
days.  But  the  Spartans  were  unwilling  to 
send  help  until  the  time  of  the  full  moon.  On 
his  return  journey,  Pheidippides  had  a  vision 
of  the  god  Pan,  who  spoke  words  of  en- 
couragement for  the  Athenian  cause.  Pheidip- 
pides fought  at  Marathon,  and  though  now 
released  from  service  as  a  messenger,  ran 
once  more  to  Athens  (a  distance  of  22  miles) 
to  announce  the  victory,  and  fell  dead  after 
doing  so.  The  story  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
Browning's  'Dramatic  Idyls*. 

The  exploit  of  Pheidippides  has  in  recent 
times  been  commemorated  in  the  'Marathon 
Race'  of  the  modern  Olympic  Games. 

Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society,  the  name  of  the 
first  of  a  number  of  college  fraternities 
established  in  American  colleges.  It  was 
founded  at  the  William  and  Mary  College, 
Williamsburg,  Virginia,  in  1776;  and  the 
name  is  said  to  be  taken  from  the  initial 
letters  of  its  motto,  faXoacxfria.  ftiov  KvfiepviJTTjs, 
'Philosophy  the  guide  of  life'  (Chambers).  A 
large  number  of  similar  fraternities  have 
since  been  founded,  most  of  them  named 
from  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  It  was 
before  the  P.B.K.  Society  of  Harvard  that 
Emerson  delivered  his  famous  oration,  'The 
American  Scholar*  (1837). 

Phigalia,  an  ancient  Greek  town  in  the 
south-west  of  Arcadia,  famous  for  the  temple 
to  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Bassae  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood, built  by  Ictinus  (one  of  the  archi- 
tects of  the  Parthenon)  and  described  by 
Pausanias  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the 
Peloponnese.  The  frieze  of  the  inner  cella, 
representing  the  combat  of  the  Centaurs  and 
the  Lapithae,  was  acquired  for  the  British 
Museum  in  1814. 

Philander,  To,  to  play  the  Philander  or 
trifling  and  even  promiscuous  lover.  Philan- 
der, in  an  old  ballad,  was  the  lover  of  Phillis; 
and  in  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  'Laws  of 
Candy*,  the  lover  of  Erota. 

Philaster  f  or  Love  lies  a-Ueeding,  a  romantic 
drama  by  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  (see 
Fletcher,  jK)»  produced  in  1611  and  printed 
in  1620. 

The  king  of  Calabria  has  usurped  the 
crown  of  Sicily.  The  rightful  heir,  Philaster, 
loves,  and  is  loved  by,  Arethusa  daughter  of 
the  usurper,  but  the  latter  designs  to  marry 
her  to  Pharamond,  prince  of  Spain.  To 
secure  communication  with  her,  Philaster 
places  his  page,  Bellario,  in  her  service.  Are- 
thusa reveals  to  the  king  an  amour  between 
Pharamond  and  Megra,  a  lady  of  the  court, 
who  in  revenge  accuses  Arethusa  ^  of  mis- 
conduct with  Bellario.  Philaster  bids  fare- 
well to  the  princess,  being  assured  that  the 
accusation  is  true,  and  dismisses  Bellario. 
The  events  that  follow  lead  to  the  discovery 


PHILIP  DRUNK  TO  PHILIP  SOBER 

that  Bellario  is  the  daughter  of  a  Sicilian  lord, 
who,  having  fallen  in  love  with  Philaster,  has 
assumed  the  disguise  of  a  page  in  order  to 
serve  him. 

Philemon  and  Baucis,  an  aged  couple  who 
lived  in  a  poor  cottage  in  Phrygia  when  Zeus 
and  Hermes  travelled  in  disguise  over  Asia. 
They  entertained  the  gods  hospitably,  and 
Zeus  transformed  their  dwelling  into  a 
splendid  temple,  of  which  the  old  couple  were 
made  the  priest  and  priestess.  Having  Hved 
to  extreme  old  age,  they  died  in  the  same 
hour,  according  to  their  request,  and  were 
changed  into  trees,  whose  boughs  intertwined. 
They  are  the  subject  of  a  poem  by  Swift  (q.v.). 

Philip,  The  Adventures  of,  the  last  complete 
novel  of  Thackeray  (q.v.),  published  in  the 
'CornhilF  in  1861-2. 

The  story  is  told  by  Arthur  Pendennis 
(q.v.),  who,  with  his  wife  Laura,  figures 
slightly  in  the  incidents.  Philip  is  the  son 
of  Dr.  George  Firmin,  a  fashionable  and 
prosperous  London  physician,  but  under 
the  surface  an  unprincipled  and  heartless 
scoundrel.  As  told  in  *A  Shabby  Genteel 
Story*  (contributed  by  Thackeray  to  *Fraser* 
in  1840),  Dr.  Firmin,  when  a  young  man, 
has,  under  the  name  of  Brandon,  gone 
through  a  form  of  marriage  with  the  daughter, 
Caroline,  of  a  Margate  lodging-house  keeper, 
has  then  cruelly  deserted  her,  and  has 
married  Philip's  mother  while  Caroline 
was  alive.  The  parson  who  performed  the 
ceremony,  a  disreputable  villain  named  Hunt, 
uses  his  knowledge  of  the  incident  to  black- 
mail Dr.  Firmin;  and  when  the  latter  revolts 
and  confesses  the  story  to  his  son,  endeavours 
to  ruin  them  by  revealing  the  marriage,  which 
he  declares  a  genuine  one,  to  Twysden, 
Dr.  Firmin's  brother-in-law,  who  will  benefit 
largely  if  Philip  is  proved  illegitimate.  But 
Caroline  has  a  heart  of  gold  and  refuses 
the  testimony  required  to  prove  the  case.  She 
has  become  a  skk-nurse  (the  'Little  Sister'), 
has  nursed  Philip  through  scarlet  fever,  has 
become  devoted  to  him,  and  will  do  nothing 
to  injure  him.  But,  though  this  plot  is  de- 
feated, misfortune  awaits  Philip,  for  his 
father  presently  bolts  to  America,  ruined  by 
speculations  which  have  engulfed  not  only 
his  own  means  but  Philip's  fortune,  care- 
lessly entrusted  to  Dr.  Firmin  by  his  co- 
trustee  General  Baynes.  Philip  forgoes  his 
claim  on  Baynes,  and  becomes  a  struggling 
journalist.  He  falls  in  love  with  and  marries 
Baynes's  daughter,  Charlotte,  in  spite  of  her 
virago  of  a  mother;  and,  as  Dr.  Firmin  con- 
tinues to  sponge  on  him,  barely  keeps  his 
head  above  water.  He  is  saved  in  the  end  by 
a  deus  ex  machina  device,  the  'machine*  in  this 
case  being  an  old  post  chariot  of  Lord  Ring- 
wood,  Philip's  great-uncle,  in  the^  pocket  of 
which  is  found  a  will  leaving  Philip  a  hand- 
some legacy. 

Philip  drunk  to  Philip  sober,  APPEAL 
FROM  :  Valerius  Maximus  (vi.  2)  relates  that  a 
foreign  woman  undeservedly  condemned  by 


[611] 


Era 


PHILIP  QUARLL 

Philip  of  Macedon  (who  reigned  359-336 
B.C.,  father  of  Alexander  the  Great)  in  his 
cups,  declared  that  she  would  appeal  to 
Philip,  'sed  sobrium*,  'but  when  he  was 
sober'* 

Philip  Quarll,  Adventures  of,  the  story  of  a 
pseudo-Robinson  Crusoe,  attributed  to  one 
Edward  Dorrington,  published  in  1727,  and 
frequently  adapted  for  children. 

Philip  van  Artevelde,  an  historical  drama  in 
two  parts,  in  blank  verse,  by  Sir  H.  Taylor 
(q.v.),  published  in  1834. 

The  historical  events  described  in  the  play 
occurred  in  1381-2.  In  Pt.  I  the  Flemish 
town  of  Ghent  is  in  rebellion  against  the  count 
of  Flanders  and  at  enmity  with  his  capital 
Bruges.  Ghent  is  torn  with  dissension  be- 
tween the  war  party  and  the  peace  party  of 
its  citizens.  Its  only  hope  of  salvation  is  to 
appoint  a  leader  whom  all  will  accept,  and 
the  choice  falls  on  the  hitherto  peaceful, 
meditative  Philip  van  Artevelde,  who  is 
recommended  by  the  memory  of  his  great 
father,  Jacques  van  Artevelde  (the  'Brewer  of 
Ghent*,  president  of  Flanders  about  1337, 
ally  of  Edward  III).  As  soon  as  elected, 
Philip  develops  unexpected  qualities  of 
determination  and  valour,  quells  sedition  with 
a  stern  hand,  defeats  the  count  of  Flanders, 
captures  Bruges,  and  becomes  Regent  of 
Flanders. 

In  Pt.  II  of  the  play  Philip  is  seen  de- 
clining from  the  zenith  of  his  power,  and  at 
war  with  the  French  and  the  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, the  heir  presumptive  of  the  count  of 
Flanders.  The  drama  closes  with  the  defeat 
of  the  Flemish  forces  at  Rosebecque  and  the 
death  of  van  Artevelde  at  the  hands  of  the 
perfidious  Sir  Fleure'ant  of  Heurle*e. 

With  these  historical  events  is  woven  the 
story,  in  the  first  part,  of  the  love  of  van 
Artevelde  for  Adriana  van  Merestyn,  whom 
he  marries ;  and  in  the  second  part,  after  the 
death  of  his  wife,  of  his  less  hallowed  union 
with  the  Italian  Elena  della  Torre. 

Philip  Sparrow,  see  Phylyp  Sparowe. 

Philip  Wakem,  a  character  in  G.  Eliot's 
'The  Mill  on  the  Floss*  (q.v.), 

Philippi,  a  town  in  Macedonia  founded  by 
Philip  of  Macedon,  famous  as  the  site  of  the 
battle  in  42  B.C.  in  which  Octavianus  and 
Antony  defeated  Brutus  and  Cassius.  This 
defeat  figures  in  Shakespeare's  'Julius  Caesar* 
(q.-v.). 

Philippics,  see  Demosthenes  and  Cicero. 

PHILIPS,  AMBROSE  (i675?-i749),  poet, 
and  fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
is  principally  remembered  on  account  of  a 
quarrel  between  him  and  Pope  about  the 
relative  merits  of  their  pastorals.  Pope  drew, 
in  the  'Guardian',  'a  comparison  of  Philips's 
performance  with  his  own,  in  which,  with  an 
unexampled  and  unequalled  artifice  of  irony, 
though  he  has  himself  always  the  advantage, 
he  gives  the  preference  to  Philips'  (Johnson, 


PHILLIPPS  LIBRARY 

'Lives  of  the  Poets').  Philips's  adulatory 
verses,  in  a  seven-syllabled  measure,  ad- 
dressed 'to  all  ages  and  characters,  from 
Walpole  steerer  of  the  realm,  to  miss  Pulteney 
in  the  nursery',  earned  him  the  nickname  of 
'Namby-Pamby*,  though,  as  Johnson  says, 
they  are  his  pleasantest  pieces. 

PHILIPS,  JOHN  (1676-1709),  educated  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  author  of  *The 
Splendid  Shilling'  (q.v.),  published  in  1705, 
and  'Cyder'  (q.v.),  published  in  1708.  He  was 
employed  by  Harley  and  St.  John  to  write 
verses  on  the  battle  of  Blenheim  as  a  Tory 
counterpart  to  Addison's  'Campaign*. 

PHILIPS,  KATHERINE  (1631-64),  the 
'Matchless  Orinda',  was  daughter  of  John 
Fowler,  a  London  merchant.  She  married 
in  1647  James  Philips  of  Cardigan  and  in- 
stituted a  'Society  of  Friendship*,  a  literary 
salon  for  the  discussion  of  poetry,  religion, 
and  similar  topics,  in  which  she  assumed  the 
pseudonym  'Orinda',  to  which  her  contem- 
poraries added  the  epithet  'Matchless'.  Her 
earliest  verses  were  prefixed  (1651)  to  the 
'Poems'  of  Henry  Vaughan  (q.v.).  Her  trans- 
lation of  Corneille's  'PompeV  was  acted  in 
Dublin  with  great  success.  Her  collected 
verses  appeared  in  1667.  Jeremy  Taylor  (q.v.) 
dedicated  to  her  his  'Discourse  on  the  Nature 
of  Friendship',  and  Cowley  (q.v.)  mourned 
her  death  in  an  elegy. 

PMlipson,  in  Scott's  'Anne  of  Geierstein* 
(q.v.),  the  name  under  which  the  earl  of 
Oxford  and  his  son,  Arthur  de  Vere,  visit 
the  court  of  Charles  the  Bold. 

Philistine,  the  name  of  an  alien  warlike 
people,  of  uncertain  origin,  who  occupied  the 
southern  sea-coast  of  Palestine,  and  in  early 
times  constantly  harassed  the  Israelites.  The 
name  is  applied,  (i)  humorously  or  otherwise, 
to  persons  regarded  as  'the  enemy*  into 
whose  hands  one  may  fall,  bailiffs,  literary 
critics,  &c.;  (2)  to  persons  deficient  in 
liberal  culture  and  enlightenment,  from 
pkilister,  the  term  applied  by  German 
students  to  one  who  is  not  a  student  at  the 
university,  a  townsman.  In  sense  (2)  the 
word  was  introduced  into  English  by 
Matthew  Arnold  ('Essays  in  Criticism', 
*Heine').  Philister  is  said  to  have  originated 
at  Jena  in  1693  in  a  sermon  preached  at  the 
funeral  of  a  student  killed  in  a  'town  and 
gown*  quarrel,  from  the  text  'The  Philistines 
be  upon  thee,  Samson!'  [OED.] 

PhiUipps  Library,  THE,  a  collection  of 
manuscripts  and  books  made  by  Sir  Thomas 
Phillipps,  first  baronet  (1792-1872,  educated 
at  Rugby  and  University  College,  Oxford). 
The  collection  was  rich  in  old  Welsh  poetry 
°"^  in  oriental  manuscripts.  Phillipps 


and 


established  a  private  printing-press  at  his 
residence  at  Broadway,  Worcestershire,  where 
he  printed  visitations,  extracts  from  registers, 
cartularies,  &c.  Much  of  the  collection  has 
been  sold,  but  part  remains  with  the  family. 


PHILLIPS 

PHILLIPS,  EDWARD  (1630-96?),  elder 
nephew  of  Milton,  by  whom  he  was  edu- 
cated. He  was  a  hack-writer  in  London,  and 
tutor  (1663)  to  the  son  of  John  Evelyn  (q.v.) 
and  (1665)  to  Philip  Herbert,  afterwards 
seventh  earl  of  Pembroke.  His  'New  World 
of  Words'  (1658),  a  philological  dictionary, 
was  very  popular. 

PHILLIPS,  JOHN  (1631-1706),  younger 
nephew  of  Milton,  by  whom  he  was  brought 
up,  wrote  a  scathing  attack  on  Puritanism  in 
1655  in  his  'Satyr  against  Hypocrites'.  He 
was  employed  as  a  translator  and  hack-writer. 
He  translated  La  Calprenede's  'Pharamond' 
and  Madeleine  de  Scude"ry's  'Almahide*,  and 
wrote  a  travesty  of  'Don  Quixote'.  He  also 
wrote  in  support  of  Titus  Gates  and  edited 
a  serious  periodical,  'The  Present  State  of 
Europe',  from  1690  till  his  death. 

Philoclea,  a  character  in  Sidney's  'Arcadia' 
(q.v.). 

PMloctetes,  one  of  the  Greek  heroes  of  the 
Trojan  War,  a  great  archer.  He  brought 
warriors  from  Methpne  and  other  places  to 
the  war  in  seven  ships,  but  was  left  by  his 
companions  in  the  island  of  Thasos,  at  the 
instance  of  Odysseus,  owing  to  a  noisome 
wound  in  his  foot.  But  in  the  tenth  year  of 
the  war,  owing  to  an  oracle  which  said  that 
only  with  the  bow  of  Philoctetes  could  Troy 
be  taken,  Odysseus  and  Diomedes  came  to 
fetch  him  to  Troy,  where  he  slew  Paris.  He 
was  the  subject  of  a  play  by  Sophocles. 

Philomela,  a  daughter  of  Pandion,  king  of 
Athens.  Her  sister  Procne,  having  married 
Tereus,  king  of  Thrace,  pined  for  the  com- 
pany of  Philomela.  Tereus  obtained  Pan- 
dlon's  permission  to  conduct  Philomela  to  her 
sister,  but  became  enamoured  of  her,  and 
after  having  offered  violence  to  her,  cut  off 
her  tongue  that  she  might  not  be  able  to 
discover  his  ill-usage,  and  hid  her  in  a 
lonely  place.  He  then  told  Procne  that  her 
sister  was  dead.  But  Philomela  during  her 
captivity  depicted  her  misfortunes  on  a  piece 
of  tapestry  and  privately  conveyed  this  to 
Procne,  who  delivered  her  and  concerted 
with  her  how  they  should  be  avenged  on 
Tereus.  Procne  accordingly  murdered  her 
son  Itys  and  served  up  his  flesh  to  Tereus. 
Tereus  drew  his  sword  to  punish  Procne  and 
Philomela,  but  at  that  moment  he  was 
changed  into  a  hoopoe,  Philomela  into  a 
nightingale,  Procne  into  a  swallow,  and  Itys 
into  a  pheasant. 

Philosophes,  LES,  a  name  given  to  a  group 
of  i8th-cent.  authors,  most  of  them  French, 
sceptical  in  religion,  materialists  in  philo- 
sophy, and  hedonists  in  ethics,  of  whom 
the  principal  were  Diderot,  D'Alembert,  the 
Baron  d'Holbach,  Helv<§tius,  and  Condorcet. 
The  'Encyclopedic'  (q.v.)  embodied  their 
ideas. 

Philosophical  Enquiry  into  the  Origin  of  our 
Ideas  of  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,  A,  see 
Sublime  and  Beautiful* 


PHINEUS 

Philosophical  Essays  concerning  Human 
Understanding,  see  Hume. 

Philotas,  a  Senecan  tragedy  in  blank  verse  by 
Samuel  Daniel  (q.v.),  published  in  1605. 
^  Philotas,  a  gallant  and  bountiful  soldier,  held 
in  high  estimation  among  the  Macedonians, 
incurs  the  suspicion  of  Alexander  by  his 
boasts,  and,  having  concealed  his  knowledge 
of  a  conspiracy  against  the  king,  is  accused 
and  tortured,  and,  having  confessed,  is  stoned 
to  death. 

The  author  had  subsequently^  to  defend 
himself  against  the  charge  of  covertly  de- 
fending, by  this  play,  the  rebellion  of  Essex. 

Philotime,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*, 
II.  vii.  48,  49,  the  daughter  of  Mammon, 
symbolizes  ambition. 

PMltra,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  v.  iv, 
a  self-seeking  damsel  in  the  episode  of 
Amidas  and  Bracidas. 

Phineas  Finn,  Phineas  Redux,  The  Prime 
Minister,  and  The  Duke's  Children,  novels  of 
parliamentary  life  by  A.  Trollope  (q.v.), 
published  respectively  in  1869,  1873,  1875, 
and  1880. 

These  novels  form  a  series.  The  first 
presents  Phineas,  an  irresistible  but  penniless, 
young  Irishman,  who  enters  parliament  and 
comes  to  London,  leaving  behind  him  an  Irish 
sweetheart,  Mary  Flood-Jones.  In  London 
he  falls  more  or  less  in  love  with  Violet 
Emngham,  Lady  Laura  Standish,  and  the 
wealthy  widow,  Madame  Max  Goesler.  He 
becomes  under-secretary  for  the  colonies, 
but  quarrels  with  the  government,  resigns, 
bids  adieu  to  his  ladyloves,  and  returns  to 
marry  Miss  Flood- Jones  and  accept  a  modest 
post  at  Cork. 

Phineas  Redux  comes  back,  a  widower,  to 
London  and  parliamentary  life,  almost  gets 
a  seat  in  the  cabinet,  again  receives  the  love  or 
friendship  of  ladies  of  position,  is  accused  of 
the  murder  of  a  political  enemy,  narrowly 
escapes  the  gallows,  and  marries  Madame 
Goesler,  who  has  been  instrumental  in  saving 
him. 

The  'Prime  Minister'  and  'The  Duke's 
Children*  are  principally  occupied  with  the 
affairs,  domestic  and  political,  of  Plantagenet 
Palliser  and  Lady  Glencora  (now  duke  and 
duchess  of  Omnium),  who  have  figured  in 
the  earlier  novels.  Phineas  Finn  occasionally 
reappears. 

The  series  contains  some  capital  par- 
liamentary and  hunting  scenes,  and  good 
characters:  Phineas  himself,  somewhat  of  a 
philanderer,  weak,  but  on  the  whole  honest 
and  attractive;  the  high-spirited  Violet 
Effingham;  while  Trollope  himself  regarded 
the  characters  of  Plantagenet  Palliser  (q.v.) 
and  Lady  Glencora  as  his  chief  titles  to  fame. 

Phineus,  son  of  Agenor  and  king  of  Thrace, 
a  soothsayer  blinded  by  the  gods  on  account 
of  his  cruelty  to  his  sons,  whose  eyes  he  had 
put  out  on  a  false  accusation  by  their  step- 
mother. He  was  constantly  harassed  by  the 


PHIZ 

Harpies,  who  carried  off  the  food  that  was 
put  before  him.  When  the  Argonauts  (q.v.) 
visited  Thrace,  he  was  delivered  from  these 
pests  by  Zetes  and  Calais,  the  brothers  of 
his  first  wife,  and  in  return  instructed  them 
regarding  their  way  to  Colchis. 

PHIZ,  see  Browne  (H.  K.). 
Phlegethon  or  PYRIPHLEGETHON,  a  river  of 
Hades,  whose  waters  were  flames.  The  name 
means  'blazing'.   See  Styx. 
Phlegraean  Plain,  the  volcanic  region  on 
the  coast  of  Italy  between  Cumae  and  Capua. 
It  was  fabled  that  the  giants  had  been  buried 
beneath  it  by  the  gods. 
Phobetor,  see  Icelus. 

Phocaeam,  an  epithet  sometimes  applied  to 
Marseilles,  in  accordance  with  a  legend  that 
this  town  was  founded  by  emigrants^  from 
Phocaea,  an  Athenian  colony  in  Ionia  be- 
tween Smyrna  and  Cyme.  Landor  has  a  long 
blank  verse  poem  called  'The  Phocaeans'. 

Phoebe  and  Phoebus,  names  given  re- 
spectively to  Diana  (the  moon)  and  Apollo 
(the  sun),  signifying  bright,  radiant. 

Phoebe  Dawson,  the  heroine  of  one  of  the 

tales  in  Crabbe's  'The  Parish  Register',  n 

(q.v.). 

Phoebus,   MR.,   a  character  in  Disraeli's 

'Lothair*  (q.v.),  the  most  successful  painter 

of  his  age,  gallant,  brilliant,  and  boastful. 

Phoenix,  a  fabulous  bird,  of  golden  and  red 
plumage,  which,  according  to  a  tale  reported 
by  Herodotus  (ii.  73),  came  to  Heliopolis 
every  500  years,  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
and  there  buried  his  body  in  the  temple  of 
the  sun.  According  to  another  version,  the 
phoenix,  after  living  500  years,  built  himself 
a  funeral  pile  and  died  upon  it.  From  his 
remains  a  fresh  phoenix  arose. 

'The  Phoenix  and  the  Turtle',  a  poem 
attributed  to  Shakespeare,  was  included  in 
1 60 1  in  Robert  Chester's  'Love's  Martyr'. 

Phoenix,  THE,  a  theatre  that  stood  in  the 
parish  of  St.  Giles-in-the-Fields,  London, 
in  the  i6th  and  xyth  cents.  It  was  adapted 
from  a  cockpit. 

Phoenix  Nest,  The,  a  poetical  miscellany 
published  in  1593,  containing,  amongst 
others,  poems  by  Lodge  and  Breton  (qq.v.). 

Phonetic  Spelling,  a  system  of  spelling  in 
which  each  letter  represents  invariably  the 
same  spoken  sound,  e.g.  the  system  proposed 
for  the  reform  of  English  spelling,  as  op- 
posed to  the  traditional  (historical  or  ety- 
mological) system, 

Phorcids,  THE,  see  Graiae. 

Phorcus,  a  sea  deity,  father  of  the  Gorgons 

and  the  Graiae  (qq.v.),  and  other  monsters. 

Phosphorus,  'the  Kght-bringer',  the  morn- 
ing star  of  the  Greeks,  corresponding  to  the 
Lucifer  of  the  Romans.  It  is  the  planet  Venus, 
which  also  figures  as  Hesperus,  the  evening 


PICCINI 

star.  'Sweet  Hesper-Phosphor,  double  name* 
occurs  in  Tennyson's  'In  Memoriam'. 
Phrygian  bonnet,  see  Cap  of  Liberty. 

Phrygian  mode,  one  of  the  three  modes  of 
ancient  Greek  music,  a  minor  scale  appro- 
priate to  passion  (Jebb). 
Phryne,  a  celebrated  Greek  courtesan,  said 
to  have  been  the  model  of  the  Cnidian  Venus 
of  Praxiteles  and  of  the  Venus  Anadyomene 
of  Apelles. 

Phunky  ,  MR.,  in  Dickens  's  'Pickwick  Papers' 
(q.v.),  Serjeant  Snubbin's  junior  in  the  case  of 
,  Bardell  v.  Pickwick. 


Sparowe,  a  poem  by  Skelton  (q.v.). 
Physiocrat,  one  of  a  school  of  political 
economists  founded  by  Frangois  Quesnay 
(1694-1774)  in  France  in  the  i8th  cent.  They 
maintained  that  society  should  be  governed 
according  to  an  inherent  natural  order,  that 
the  soil  is  the  sole  source  of  wealth,  and  the 
only  proper  object  of  taxation,  and  that 
security  of  property  and  freedom  of  industry 
and  exchange  are  essential.  [OEDJ  The 
other  principal  exponents  of  the  physiocrat 
doctrines  were  Anne  Robert  Jacques  Turgot 
(1727-81),  an  able  financier,  whose  dismissal 
in  1776  from  the  post  of  controller-general 
was  the  prelude  of  the  French  national 
bankruptcy;  and  Victor  de  Riquetti,  Marquis 
de  Mirabeau  (1715-89),  the  author  of  'L'Arni 
des  Homines'  and  father  of  the  revolutionary 
statesman.  Adam  Smith,  though  no  physio- 
crat in  the  technical  sense  of  the  word,  was 
strongly  influenced  by  the  sounder  doctrines 
of  the  school. 
Physiologi,  see  Bestiaries. 

Piastre,  from  the  Italian  piastra,  short  for 
piastra  d'argento,  'plate  of  silver',  a  name 
applied  to  the  Spanish  peso,  or  piece  of  eight 
or  dollar  (q.v.)  ;  in  modern  usage,  the  small 
Turkish  coin,  ^§5-  of  a  Turkish  pound. 

Picardil,  a  stiff  collar  attached  to  the  coat, 
worn  in  the  early  i7th  cent.,  'generally  under- 
stood to  be  the  origin  of  the  name  Pickadilly 
Hall,  given  before  1622  to  a  house  in  the 
parish  of  St.  Martin's  in  the  Fields,  London, 
and  now  perpetuated  in  the  street  called 
Piccadilly'.  [OEDJ 

Picaresque,  from  the  Spanish  picaro>  a 
rogue,  a  term  applied  to  a  class  of  romances 
that  deal  with  rogues  and  knaves,  of  which 
the  earliest  important  examples,  such  as 
'Lazarillo  de  Tonnes*  and  the  'Guzman  de 
Alfarache'  (qq.v.),  were  written  in  Spanish. 
'Gil  Bias'  (q.v.)  is  the  most  famous  picaresque 
story  in  French. 

Picasso,  PABLO,  see  Cubism. 
Piccadilly,  see  Picardil. 

Piccadilly  Weepers  were  a  fashion  of 
dropping  whiskers  affected  by  men  in  the 
sixties  of  the  last  century. 

Piccini  or  PICCINNI,  NICOLO  (1728-1800), 
an  Italian  composer  of  opera.  He  went  to 


PICKERING 

Paris  in  1776  and  became  the  subject  of  a 
celebrated  dispute  between  his  followers  and 
those  of  Gluck  (q.v.). 

Pickering ,  WILLIAM  (1796-1 854),  publisher, 
commenced  business  in  London  in  1820,  and 
did  much  to  raise  the  standard  of  design 
in  printing.  He  published  the  'Diamond 
Classics'  1821-31,  and  in  1830  adopted  the 
trade-mark  of  the  Aldine  press  (see  Aldus 
Manutius).  He  increased  his  reputation  by 
his  Aldine  edition  of  the  English  poets  in 
fifty-three  volumes. 

PickletheSpy,ALASTAIRRUADHMACDONELL 

(i725?-6i),  chief  of  Glengarry.  He  was 
employed  by  the  Highland  chiefs  on  a  secret 
mission  to  Prince  Charles  Edward  in  1745, 
was  captured  by  the  English,  and  imprisoned 
in  the  Tower.  He  acted  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Tickle'  as  a  spy  on  Prince  Charles  Ed- 
ward, 1749-54.  He  is  the  subject  of  a  book 
by  A.  Lang  (q.v.). 

Pickle-herring,  a  clown  or  buffoon.  This 
application  of  the  term  originated  in  Ger- 
many, where  it  was  the  name  of  a  humorous 
character  in  an  early  I7th-cent.  play,  and  of  the 
chief  actor  in  a  series  of  Tickelharingsspiele'. 

Pickwick  Papers,  The,  (The  Posthumous 
Papers  of  the  Pickwick  Club),  a  novel  by 
Dickens  (q.v.),  first  issued  in  twenty  monthly 
parts  from  April  1836  to  Nov.  1837,  and  as  a 
volume  in  1837  (when  Dickens  was  only 
25  years  old). 

Mr.  Samuel  Pickwick,  general  chairman  of 
the  Pickwick  Club  which  he  has  founded, 
Messrs.  Tracy  Tupman,  Augustus  Snodgrass, 
and  Nathaniel  Winkle,  members  of  the  club, 
are  constituted  a  Corresponding  Society  of  the 
Club  to  report  to  it  their  journeys  and  adven- 
tures, and  observations  of  character  and 
manners.  This  is  the  basis  on  which  the 
novel  is  constructed,  and  the  Club  serves  as  a 
connecting  link  for  a  series  of  detached  in- 
cidents and  changing  characters,  without 
elaborate  plot.  The  entertaining  adventures 
with  which  Mr.  Pickwick  and  his  associates 
meet  are  interspersed  with  incidental  tales 
contributed  by  various  characters.  The 
principal  elements  in  the  story  are:  (i)  the 
visit  of  Pickwick  and  his  friends  to  Rochester, 
where  they  fall  in  with  the  specious  rascal, 
Jingle,  who  gets  Winkle  involved  in  the 
prospect  of  a  duel  (fortunately  averted).  (2) 
The  visit  to  Dingley  Dell,  the  home  of  the 
hospitable  Mr.  Wardle;  the  elopement  of 
Jingle  with  Wardle's  sister,  their  pursuit  by 
Wardle  and  Pickwick,  and  the  recovery  of  the 
lady;  followed  by  the  engagement  of  Sam 
Weller  as  Pickwick's  servant.  (3)  The  visit 
to  Eatanswill,  where  a  parliamentary  election 
is  in  progress,  and  Mr.  Pickwick  makes  the 
acquaintance  of  Potts,  editor  of  a  political 
newspaper,  and  Mrs.  Leo  Hunter.  (4)  The 
visit  to  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  where  Mr.  Pick- 
wick and  Sam  Weller  are  fooled  by  Jingle  and 
his  servant,  Job  Trotter.  (5)  The  pursuit  of 
Jingle  to  Ipswich,  where  Mr.  Pickwick  in- 


PICT-HATCH 

advertently  enters  the  bedroom  of  a  middle- 
aged  lady  at  night;  is  in  consequence  involved 
in  a  quarrel  with  Mr.  Peter  Magnus,  her 
admirer;  is  brought  before  Mr.Nupkins,  the 
magistrate,  on  a  charge  of  intending  to  fight 
a  duel;  and  obtains  his  release  on  exposing 
the  nefarious  designs  of  Jingle  on  Nupkins's 
daughter.  (6)  The  Christmas  festivities  at 
Dingley  Dell.  (7)  The  misapprehension  of 
Mrs.  Bardell,  Mr.  Pickwick's  landlady,  re- 
garding her  lodger's  intentions,  which  leads 
to  the  famous  action  of  Bardell  v.  Pickwick 
for  breach  of  promise  of  marriage,  in  which 
judgement  is  given  for  the  plaintiff,  with 
damages  £750.  (8)  The  visit  to  Bath,  in 
which  Winkle  figures  prominently,  first  in 
the  adventure  with  the  blustering  Dowler, 
and  secondly  in  his  courtship  of  Arabella 
Allen.  (9)  The  period  of  Mr.  Pickwick's  im- 
prisonment in  the  Fleet  in  consequence  of 
his  refusal  to  pay  the  damages  and  costs  of 
his  action ;  and  the  discovery  of  Jingle  and  Job 
Trotter  in  that  prison,  and  their  relief  by 
Mr.  Pickwick.  (10)  The  affairs  of  Tony  Weller 
(Sam's  father)  and  the  second  Mrs.  Weller, 
ending  in  the  death  of  the  latter  and  the  dis- 
comfiture of  the  pious  humbug  and  greedy 
drunkard  Stiggins,  deputy  shepherd  in  the 
Ebenezer  Temperance  Association,  (i  i)  The 
affairs  of  Bob  Sawyer  and  Benjamin  Allen, 
medical  students  and  subsequently  struggling 
practitioners.  The  novel  ends  with  the  happy 
marriage  of  Allen's  sister,  Arabella,  to  Winkle. 

Pickwickian  sense,  IN  A,  applied  to  un- 
complimentary language  which  in  the  cir- 
cumstances is  not  to  be  interpreted  in  its 
strictly  literal  meaning;  from  the  scene  in 
ch.i  of 'Pickwick  Papers',  where  the  Chairman 
calls  upon  Mr.  Blotton  to  say  whether  he  had 
used  the  word  'humbug'  of  Mr.  Pickwick  in 
a  common  sense.  Mr.  Blotton  'had  no  hesi- 
tation in  saying  that  he  had  not — he  had  used 
the  word  in  its  Pickwickian  sense". 

PICO  DELLA  MIRANDOLA,  GIO- 
VANNI (1463—94),  an  Italian  humanist  and 
neo-platonist  philosopher,  born  at  Mirandola, 
of  which  his  family  were  the  lords,  a  man,  it 
appears,  of  exceptional  charm  and  beauty,  as 
well  as  intellectual  daring.  He  spent  part  of 
his  short  life  at  Florence,  and  was  obliged  to 
withdraw  for  some  years  to  Spain  on  account 
of  philosophical  propositions  published  by 
him,  some  of  which  were  condemned  by  the 
pope  (in  1486  he  offered  to  maintain  at 
Rome  900  theses  de  omni  scibili).  He  was  a 
pioneer  in  the  study  of  Hebrew  philosophy 
and  the  Cabbala,  and  in  this  direction  in- 
fluenced Reuchlin  (q.v.).  His  life  ('Life  of 
John  Picus,  Erie  of  Myrandula,  Create  Lprde 
of  Italy'),  and  also  some  of  his  pious  writings, 
were  translated  by  Sir  Thomas  More  into 
English. 

Picrochole,  see  Gargantua. 

Pict-hatch,  a  notorious  resort  of  disreput- 
able characters  in  Clerkenwell,  frequently  re- 
ferred to  by  the  Elizabethan  dramatists. 


PICUMNUS 

Picimnras  and  Pilumiras,  two  Roman 
divinities,  regarded  as  brothers  who  presided 
respectively  over  the  fertilization  of  the  fields 
and  over  the  pounding  of  the  grain  with  a 
pestle  (pilum).  Whence  they  were  looked  upon 
as  the  patrons  of  growing  children,  and 
Pilumnus  was  also  invoked  as  the  god  of 
millers  and  bakers. 

Pidgin,  a  Chinese  corruption  of  the  English 
word  'business'.  Hence  PIDGIN-ENGLISH, 
the  jargon,  consisting  chiefly  of  English 
words,  often  corrupted  in  pronunciation,  and 
arranged  according  to  Chinese  idiom,  used 
for  intercommunication  between  Chinese  and 
Europeans  in  China,  the  Straits  Settlements, 
&c.  [OED.] 
Piece  of  Eight,  see  Dollar. 

Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,  The,  A  CMld's 
Story,  a  poem  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.),  in- 
cluded in  'Dramatic  Romances',  published 
in  1845,  based  on  an  old  legend. 

The  town  of  Harnelin  in  Brunswick  is  over- 
run by  rats,  and  the  mayor  and  corporation 
are  at  their  wits'  end.  The  Pied  Piper  offers 
to  get  rid  of  the  pest  by  a  secret  charm,  and  is 
promised  a  thousand  guilders  if  he  does  so. 
He  goes  along  the  street  playing  on  his  pipe, 
and  all  the  rats  come  out  and  follow  him  down 
to  the  river  Weser,  where  they  are  drowned. 
The  Piper  claims  his  reward,  which  the 
mayor  and  corporation  refuse.  Thereupon 
the  Piper  again  walks  down  the  street  piping, 
and  all  the  children  run  out  and  follow  him 
to  a  hill  called  the  Koppenberg,  where  fa 
wondrous  portal  opens  wide*,  and  the  Piper 
and  the  children  enter,  and  the  door  shuts 
fast.  The  last  words  of  the  poem  indicate 
that  the  children  emerged  in  Transylvania, 
where  their  descendants  are  still  to  be  found. 
Another  version  had  been  written  by 
Browning's  father. 

The  event  was  long  regarded  as  historical 
and  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  in  1284. 
The  piper's  name  was  Bunting.  Baring- 
Gould  ('Curious  Myths')  discusses  the  origin 
of  the  legend,  which  is  told,  with  variations,  of 
other  places.  The  story  is  commonly  referred 
to  the  'Children's  Crusade'  of  1212,  when,  at 
a  moment  of  crusading  enthusiasm,  a  child 
named  Nicolas,  of  Cologne,  is  said  to  have 
gathered  20,000  young  crusaders,  many  of 
whom  perished. 

Piepowder  Court,  from  French  pieds  pou- 
dreux('  dusty  feet'),  a  court  of  justice  formerly 
held  at  fairs  to  determine  disputes  between 
persons  resorting  to  them.  There  is  a  refer- 
ence to  these  courts  in  Ben  Jonson's  'Bar- 
tholomew Fair*,  n.  i. 

Pierce  Pennilesse,  His  Supplication  to  the 
Divell,  a  fantastic  prose  satire  by  T.  Nash 
(q.v.),  published  in  1592.  The  author,  in  the 
form  of  a  humorous  complaint  to  the  Devil, 
discourses  on  the  vices  of  the  day,  throwing 
interesting  light  on  the  customs  of  his  time. 
One  of  the  best  passages  is  that  relating  to 
the  recently  developed  practice  of  excessive 


PIERS  PLOWMAN 

drinking,  ca  sinne,  that  ever  since  we  have 
mixt  ourselves  with  the  Low-Countries,  is 
counted  honourable*,  and  containing  a 
description  of  the  various  types  of  drunkards, 
drawn  with  a  coarse  Rabelaisian  humour  and 
vigour.  The  work  is  directed  in  part  against 
Richard  Harvey  the  astrologer  (brother  of 
Gabriel  Harvey)  and  the  Martinists  (see 
Martin  Marprelate).  It  ends  with  a  discus- 
sion of  the  nature  of  spirits. 

Pierian,  PIERIDES,  names  applied  to  the 
Muses  (q.v.),  from  Pieria  near  Mt.  Olympus, 
where  they  were  worshipped. 

Pierides  is  also  a  name  of  the  nine  daughters 
of  Pierus,  king  of  Emathia,  who  challenged 
the  Muses  in  a  contest  of  song,  and,  being 
defeated,  were  changed  into  magpies. 

Pierre,  a  character  in  Otway's  'Venice  Pre- 
served* (q.v.). 

Pierre,  or  the  Ambiguities,  by  H.  Melville 
(q.v.),  published  in  1852,  a  strange  novel  of 
morbid  psychology  and  incestuous  passion, 
which  bewildered  and  did  much  to  alienate 
the  public  that  the  author  had  won  for  him- 
self with  his  earlier  books. 

Pierrot,  a  typical  character  in  French 
pantomime;  now,  in  English,  applied  to  a 
buffoon  or  itinerant  minstrel,  having,  like  the 
stage  Pierrot,  a  whitened  face  and  loose  white 
fancy  dress. 

Piers  Plowman,  The  Vision  concerning,  the 
most  important  work  in  Middle  English  with 
the  exception  of  Chaucer's  'Canterbury 
Tales',  is  an  alliterative  poem  of  which  the 
three  versions,  of  very  different  length 
(2,500  to  7,300  lines),  are  attributed  to 
William  Langland,  'Long  Will'  as  he  calls 
himself.  He  seems  to  have  been  an  educated 
man,  and  to  have  lived  near  Malvem,  and  in 
later  life  in  London.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  written  them  between  1360  and  1399. 
But  recent  critical  discussion  has  left  the 
question  of  the  authorship  of  the  three  ver- 
sions (known  as  the  A,  the  B,  and  the  C  texts), 
and  of  the  component  parts  of  the  A  text, 
undecided.  As  to  the  details  regarding  the 
life  of  the  author,  drawn  from  the  poem  itself, 
modern  criticism  has  thrown  doubt  on  their 
validity,  and  the  whole  subject  remains  in- 
volved in  obscurity. 

Talcing  first  the  A  text,  the  work  may  be 
very  briefly  summarized  as  follows: 

Wandering  on  the  Malvern  Hills,  the  poet 
sees  a  vision  of  a  high  tower  (Truth),  a  deep 
dungeon  (Wrong),  and  a  'fair  field  full  of 
folk*  (the  earth)  between,  with  the  people 
going  about  their  various  avocations,  beggars, 
friars,  priests,  lawyers,  labourers  idle  or  hard- 
working, hermits  and  nuns,  cooks  crying  'hot 
pies,  hot',  and  taverners,  'White  wine  of  Osey'. 
There  follows  a  vision  in  which  Lady  Meed 
(reward,  but  more  particularly  in  a  bad  sense, 
bribery),  Reason,  Conscience,  and  other 
abstractions  are  confronted.  Then  we  have 
Conscience  preaching  to  the  people,  and 
[616] 


PIERSTON 

Repentance  moving  their  hearts,  the  con- 
fession of  the  seven  deadly  sins  (which  in- 
cludes a  vivid  description  of  a  tavern  scene), 
and  'a  thousand  of  men*  moved  to  seek  St. 
Truth.  ^  But  the  way  is  difficult  to  find,  and 
here  Piers  Plowman  makes  his  appearance, 
and  offers  to  guide  the  pilgrims  if  they  will 
help  him  plough  his  half-acre.  Some  help 
him,  but  some  are  shirkers.  Then  follows  a 
discussion  of  the  labour  problem  of  the  day. 
Able-bodied  beggars  must  be  severely  dealt 
with.  Labourers  must  not  be  dainty  in  their 
food  and  extravagant  in  their  demands. 

This  takes  us  to  the  end  of  passus  VIII. 
With  passus  IX  (where  according  to  some 
authorities  the  work  of  a  continuator  begins) 
the  poem  passes  to  a  search  for  'Do-well',  'Do- 
bet',  and  'Do-best*,  who  are  vainly  looked  for 
among  the  friars,  the  priests,  and  in  Scripture, 
with  the  help  of  Thought,  Wit,  and  Study. 

The  additions  contained  in  the  B  and  C 
texts,  though  characterized  by  sincerity  and 
power  of  impression,  are  too  incoherent  to  be 
easily  summarized.  Their  author  is  specially 
concerned  with  the  corruption  in  the  Church, 
with  the  merits  of  poverty,  and  the  supreme 
virtue  of  love.  The  seven  new  visions  include 
a  long  disquisition  by  'YmaginatiP  on  wealth 
and  learning;  a  theological  discussion  be- 
tween Reason,  Conscience,  Clergy,  and  a 
doctor  of  divinity;  a  conversation  between 
Patience  and  £Activa-Vita',  the  humble  worker, 
who  receives  his  reward  hereafter ;  narratives 
of  Christ's  life  in  which  Christ  and  Piers 
Plowman  blend  one.  into  the  other;  and 
finally  the  attack  of  Antichrist  and  Pride  upon 
the  house  'Unity',  and  of  Death  upon  Man- 
kind. 

Pierston,  JOCELYN,  the  lover  in  Hardy's 
'The  Well-Beloved*  (q.v.). 

Pigwiggen,  a  character  in  Drayton's  £Nym- 
phidia*  (q.v.). 

Pilate's  Question,  'What  is  truth?'  (John 
xviii.  38). 

Pilatus,  MT.,  a  mountain  south-west  of 
Lucerne  in  Switzerland,  so  named  from  a 
tradition  that  the  corpse  of  Pontius  PilatS 
found  its  final  resting-place  there  (or  that 
Pilate  was  banished,  or  committed  suicide, 
there).  The  name  is  perhaps  a  corruption  of 
corruption  of  'pileatus',  i.e.  'capped'  with 
clouds. 

Pilgarlic,  originally  applied  to  a  'peeled*  or 
bald  head,  ludicrously  likened  to  a  peeled 
head  of  garlic;  then  to  a  bald-headed  man; 
and  from  the  ijth  cent,  used  in  a  ludicrously 
contemptuous  or  mock-pitiful  way,  a  'poor 
creature*.  [OED.] 

Pilgrim  Fathers,  THE,  the  English  Puri- 
tans who  in  1620  set  out  from  Delft  Haven 
and  Plymouth  in  the  'Mayflower',  and  founded 
the  colony  of  Plymouth  in  New  England. 

Governor  Bradford  in  1630  wrote  of  his 
company  as  'pilgrims*  in  the  spiritual  sense. 
The  same  phraseology  was  repeated  by 
Cotton  Mather,  and  others,  and  became 


PILGRIMAGE  OF  GRACE 

familiar  in  New  England.  Later,  anniversary 
feasts  were  held  of  the  'Sons'  or  'Heirs*  of  the 
'Pilgrims',  and  thus  the  expression  'Pilgrim 
Fathers'  naturally  arose,  first  as  a  rhetorical 
phrase,  and  finally  as  an  historical  designation. 
[OED.]  Mention  may  be  made  of  the  poems 
by  Mrs.  .Hemans,  'The  Landing  of  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers',  and  by  O.  W.  Holmes, 
'The  Pilgrim's  Vision*. 
Pilgrim  Trust,  THE,  a  sum  of  some 
£2,000,000  placed  in  September  1930  by  Mr. 
Edward  Stephen  Harkness,  the  American 
railway  magnate  and  philanthropist,  in  the 
hands  of  trustees  to  be  spent  for  the  benefit 
of  Great  Britain.  Mr.  Harkness,  who  was 
born  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  1874  and  edu- 
cated at  Yale,  has  made  other  generous  gifts 
for  British  purposes,  as  has  also  his  mother, 
Mrs.  Stephen  Harkness. 

Pilgrim's  Progress,  The,  from  this  World  to 
that  which  is  to  come>  an  allegory  by  Bunyan 
(q.v.),  published  in  1678  (a  second  edition 
with  additions  appeared  in  the  same  year,  and 
a  third  in  1679). 

The  allegory  takes  the  form  of  a  dream  by 
the  author.  In  this  he  sees  Christian,  with  a 
burden  on  his  back,  and  reading  in  a  book, 
from  which  he  learns  that  the  city  in  which 
he  and  his  family  dwell  will  be  burned  with 
fire.  On  the  advice  of  Evangelist,  Christian 
flees  from  the  City  of  Destruction.  Pt.  I 
describes  his  pilgrimage  through  the  Slough 
of  Despond,  the  Valley  of  Humiliation,  the 
Valley  of  the  Shadow  of  Death,  Vanity  Fair, 
the  Delectable  Mountains,  the  House  Beauti- 
ful, the  country  of  Beulah,  to  the  Celestial 
City.  On  the  way  he  encounters  various 
allegorical  personages,  among  them  Mr. 
Worldly  Wiseman»  Faithful  (who  accom- 
panies Christian  on  his  way  but  is  put  to 
death  in  Vanity  Fair),  Hopeful  (who  next 
joins  Christian),  Giant  Despair,  the  foul  fiend 
Apollyon,  and  many  others. 

Pt.  II  relates  how  Christian's  wife, 
Christiana,  moved  by  a  vision,  sets  out  with 
her  children  on  the  same  pilgrimage,  accom- 
panied by  her  neighbour  Mercy,  despite  the 
objections  of  Mrs.  Timorous  and  others. 
They  are  escorted  by  Great-heart,  who 
overcomes  Giant  Despair  and  other  monsters, 
and  brings  them  to  their  destination. 

The  work  is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and 
simplicity  of  its  language  (Bunyan  was  per- 
meated with  the  English  of  the  Bible),  the 
vividness  and  reality  of  the  impersonations, 
and  the  author's  sense  of  humour  and  feeling 
for  the  world  of  nature.  The  extraordinary 
appeal  which  it  makes  to  the  human  mind  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  it  has  been  translated 
into  no  fewer  than  one  hundred  and  eight 
different  languages  and  dialects  [C.HJE.LJ. 
Pilgrimage  of  Grace,  THE,  a  rising  in 
Yorkshire  in  1536  in  protest  against  the 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries.  It  was  at  the 
same  time  North  versus  South,  the  old 
nobility  against  th«  new.  The  insur- 
gents, headed  by  Robert  Aske,  and  carrying 


[6i7l 


PILGRIMAGE  OF  MAN 

a  banner  on  which  were  depicted  the  five 
•wounds  of  Christ,  adopted  this  name,  and 
became  so  numerous  that  the  duke  of  Nor- 
folk, sent  to  disperse  them,  made  terms. 
These  were  not  kept,  and  the  leaders  were 
seized  and  executed.  The  Pilgrimage  of 
Grace  is  the  subject  of  Wordsworth's  poem, 
'The  White  Doe  of  Rylstone*. 
Pilgrimage  of  Man,  The,  see  Lydgate. 
Pilgrimage  toPernassus,  see  Parnassus  Plays. 
Pillars  of  Hercules ,  see  Hercules  (Pillars  of). 
Pilot  that  weathered  the  storm.,  THE, 
William  Pitt,  in  a  song  by  George  Canning 
(q.v.). 

For  'Dropping  the  Pilot',  see  Tenniel. 

Pilpay,  see  Bidpai. 

Piltdown,  near  Lewes,  in  Sussex,  gives  its 
name  to  the  skull  of  a  very  early  type  of  the 
human  race,  of  which  fragments  were  found 
early  in  this  century,  in  association  with  a  bone 
implement  made  of  the  femur  of  some  ancient 
species  of  elephant. 
PHumnus,  see  Picumnus. 

PimlycOf  or  Runne  Red- Cap,  a  satirical 
pamphlet,  published  in  1609,  of  unknown 
authorship,  in  which  the  poet  describes  a 
crowd  of  persons  of  all  classes  of  society,  from 
courtiers  to  'greasie  lownes',  pressing  towards 
Hogsden  to  drink  Pimlico  ale. 

The  origin  of  the  name  'Pimlico*  is  obscure, 
and  has  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion 
in  'N.  and  Q.*,  especially  series  XI  and  XII. 
The  name  first  appears  in  a  tract,  'News  from 
Hogsdon',  of  1598,  where  'Ben  Pimlico's  nut- 
browne*  is  referred  to.  The  derivations  are 
discussed  also  in  E.  Walford,  'Old  and  New 
London*  (1892,  v.  39),  in  which  Hogsdon's 
Pimlico  is  referred  to  Hoxton,  where  there  is 
still  a  Pimlico  Walk.  It  appears  that  *pim- 
lico*  is  the  natives*  name  for  a  wading  bird  in 
the  West  Indies,  and  that  some  of  the  West 
Indian  islets  are  named  after  them.  The 
word,  as  the  name  of  a  bird,  first  appears  in 
1614.  How  it  came  to  be  applied  to  a  district 
in  the  SW.  of  London  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained. 

Pinch,  a  schoolmaster  in  Shakespeare's  'A 
Comedy  of  Errors*  (q.v.). 

Pinch,  TOM  and  RUTH,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'Martin  Chuzzlewit'  (q.v.). 

Pinchbeck,  CHRISTOPHER  (£  1732),  a  watch- 
and  toy-maker  in  Fleet  Street,  inventor  of  an 
alloy  of  five  parts  of  copper  with  one  of  zinc, 
resembling  gold,  used  in  cheap  jewellery  and 
named  after  him. 

Pinchwife,  a  character  in  Wycherley's  'The 
Country  Wife'  (q.v.). 

PINDAR  (c.  523-442  B.C.),  the  great  Greek 
lyric  ^poet,  was  born  at  or  near  Thebes.  He 
acquired  fame  at  an  early  age  and  was  em- 
ployed by  many  Hellenic  states  to  write  odes 
for  special  occasions.  The  only  complete 
poems  of  his  that  are  extant  are  his  'Epinicia' 


PIPE  ROLLS 

or  triumphal  odes  (see  Olympian  Odes) ;  but 
he  wrote  many  kinds  of  verse,  hymns,  paeans, 
processional  odes,  &c.,  enumerated  by  Horace 
in  Od.  iv.  2,  and  fragments  of  these  survive. 
He  exercised  a  great  influence  on  Latin 
poetry  (especially  Horace).  The  English  Ode 
(e.g.  Dryden's  'Alexander's  Feast')  is  written 
in  imitation  of  the  odes  of  Pindar.  It  is 
characterized  by  theirregularityin  the  number 
of  feet  in  the  different  lines  and  the  arbitrary 
disposition  of  the  rhymes. 

PINDAR,  PETER,  see  Wolcot. 

Pindus,  a  range  of  mountains  in  northern 
Greece,  separating  Thessaly  from  Epirus. 

Pine  Tree  State,  Maine,  see  United  States. 

PINERO,  Sm  ARTHUR  WING  (1855- 

),  the  son  of  a  solicitor  and  intended  for 
his  father's  profession,  took  to  the  stage  at  19, 
but  in  1882  gave  this  up  for  dramatic  writing. 
His  first  notable  play,  'The  Money  Spinner', 
was  produced  in  1881,  and  was  followed  by 
three  successful  farces,  'The  Magistrate" 
(1885),  'The  Schoolmistress*  (1886),  and 
'Dandy  Dick*  (1887).  He  then  turned  to 
more  serious  dramatic  works,  of  which  the 
most  important  were '  Sweet  Lavender*  (1888), 
'The  Second  Mrs,  Tanqueray*  (1893),  and 
'Trelawny  of  the  Wells*  (i  898).  His  numerous 
other  plays  include:  'Lady  Bountiful*  (1891), 
'The  Cabinet  Minister*  (1892),  'The  Weaker 
Sex*  (1894),  'The  Amazons'  (1895),  'The 
Notorious  Mrs.  Ebbsmith'  (1895),  'The  Prin- 
cess and  the  Butterfly'  (i  898),  'The  Gay  Lord 
Quex*  (1899),  'Iris*  (1901),  'His  House  in 
Order'  (1906),  'The  Thunderbolt*  (1908), 
'Mid-Channel*  (1909),  'The  Widow  of  Was- 
dale  Head*  (1912),  'Playgoers'  (1913). 

Pinkerton,  THE  MISSES,  managers  of  an 
academy  for  young  ladies,  on  Chiswick  Mall, 
in  Thackeray's  'Vanity  Fair'  (q.v.). 

PINKNEY,  EDWARD  COOTE  (1802-28), 
American  poet,  born  in  London,  England, 
while  his  father,  William  Pinkney  of  Mary- 
land, was  serving  as  U.S.  commissioner  to 
Great  Britain.  His  'Poems'  appeared  in 
1825. 

Pinner  of  Wakefield,  THE,  see  George-a'- 
Green. 

PINTO,  FERNAO  MENDES  (1509  ?-8s), 
a  Portuguese  traveller  in  the  East,  who  left 
a  narrative  of  his  voyages  ('Peregrinapao*, 
1614),  marked  by  a  vivid  imagination.  Cer- 
vantes calls  him  the  'Prince  of  Liars*  and 
Congreve  in  'Love  for  Love*  cites  him  as  a 
typical  liar. 

Piozzi,  MRS.,  see  Thrale. 

Pip,  in  Dickens's  'Great  Expectations'  (q.v.)., 
the  name  by  which  the  hero,  Philip  Pirrip,  is 
commonly  known. 

Pipchin,  MRS.,  in  Dickens's  'Dombey  and 
Son'  (q.v.),  a  boarding-house  keeper  at 
Brighton. 

Pipe  Rolls,  see  RoBs. 


[618] 


PIPER 

Piper,  TOM,  see  Peregrine  Pickle. 
Pippa  Passes,  a  dramatic  poem  by  R.  Brown- 
ing (q.v.),  published  in  1841  (the  first  of  the 
series  entitled  'Bells  and  Pomegranates'). 

It  is  Pippa's  yearly  holiday,  and  she  wanders 
through  the  town  singing  and  wondering 
which  of  four  happy  and  beloved  persons  she 
would  rather  be,  Ottima,  Phene,  Luigi,  or  the 
Bishop.  She  decides  for  the  last,  because  he 
has  God's  love. 

Now,  Ottima  and  her  lover  Sebald  have 
just  murdered  Ottima's  husband.  Pippa's 
song  ('God 's  in  His  heaven')  as  she  passes 
fills  Sebald  with  remorse. 

Phene  is  the  newly  married  bride  of  Jules, 
the  French  sculptor.  Jules  finds  that  he  has 
been  tricked  off  with  an  ignorant  girl,  and 
is  about  to  dismiss  her.  Pippa's  song  ('Give 
her  but  a  least  excuse  to  love  me')  awakens 
better  feelings  in  him,  and  he  decides  to  retain 
and  save  Phene. 

Luigi,  the  patriot,  has  resolved  to  kill  the 
Austrian  emperor.  His  loving  mother  almost 
succeeds  in  dissuading  him.  Pippa's  song 
('A  King  lived  long  ago')  rouses  him  to  action, 
and  he  rushes  away,  thereby  escaping  the 
pursuit  of  the  police. 

The  Bishop  is  planning  with  his  intendant 
the  destruction  of  Pippa  herself;  for  she  is  the 
daughter  of  the  Bishop's  murdered  brother, 
whose  riches  he  has  appropriated.  Pippa's 
song  ('Suddenly  God  took  rne')  awakens  his 
conscience.  Pippa  goes  home  at  sunset,  all 
unconscious  of  what  her  songs  have  effected. 
PIRANDELLO,  LUIGI  (1867-  ),  Italian 
dramatist  and  novelist.  His  best-known 
works  are :  cSei  personaggi  in  cerca  di  autore* 
('Six  Characters  in  Search  of  an  Author') 
(1921),  'Enrico  IV  (1922),  *Cosl  e  (se  vi 
pare)',  (1925,  plays);  'II  fu  Mattia  Pascal' 
(1904,  novel).  His  plays  are  all  built  upon 
a  pseudo-metaphysical  presupposition  that 
existence  is  relative. 

Pirate,  The,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.), 
published  in  1822.  Lockhart  refers  to  'the 
wild  freshness'  of  its  atmosphere.  Scott 
absorbed  the  'local  colour*  on  a  voyage  of  the 
Scottish  Lighthouse  Commissioners  (on 
which  he  was  an  invited  guest)  with  R.  L. 
Stevenson's  grandfather. 

The  scene  is  laid  principally  in  Zetland  (or 
Shetland)  in  the  i7th  cent.  In  a  remote  part 
of  the  island  live  a  misanthropical  recluse, 
Basil  Mertoun,  of  whose  antecedents  nothing 
is  known,  and  his  son,  Mordaunt,  a  gallant 
attractive  youth.  Mertoun  is  tenant  of  Magnus 
Troil,  a  rich  Zetlander  of  noble  Norse  an- 
cestry, the  father  of  two  daughters,  Minna, 
high-minded  and  imaginative,  and  Brenda,  of 
a  cheerful  and  more  homely  temperament. 
Mordaunt  is  their  constant  guest,  and  friend 
of  the  girls .  Their  pleasant  relations  are  inter- 
rupted by  the  arrival  of  Clement  Cleveland,  a 
buccaneer  captain,  shipwrecked  on  the  coast, 
and  rescued  from  the  sea  by  Mordaunt.  Be- 
tween these  two  a  bitter  enmity  springs  up. 
Minna,  ignorant  of  the  true  character  of  a 


PISTOLE 

pirate's  life,  falls  in  love  with  Cleveland  and  he 
with  her  ^  Mordaunt,  on  the  other  hand,  finds 
himself  excluded  from  the  friendship  of  the 
Troils,  owing  to  false  reports  about  him  which 
have  reached  Magnus,  but  Brenda  remains 
faithful  to  him  and  attracts  thereby  his  love. 
The  story  is  largely  occupied  with  the  doings 
of  the  pirates,  who  capture  Magnus  and  his 
daughters,  and  after  various  lively  incidents 
are  engaged  by  the  'Halcyon*  frigate  and  taken 
prisoners;  Cleveland  and  Minna  are  parted 
for  ever,  Brenda  and  Mordaunt  are  united. 

A  connecting  link  in  the  story  is  a  half- 
cra2ed  relative  of  Magnus,  Ulla  Troil,  known 
as  Norna  of  the  Fitful-head,  a  woman  who  is 
credited  with,  and  believes  herself  possessed 
of,  supernatural  powers,  especially  control  of 
the  winds,  who  helps  to  shape  the  destinies  of 
the  various  characters.  She  turns  out  to  be  an 
early  love  of  Basil  Mertoun  (himself  in  his 
youth  a  buccaneer),  and  mother  of  Cleveland, 
Mordaunt  being  Mertoun's  son  by  a  later 
marriage. 

There  are  some  entertaining  minor  charac- 
ters, in  the  persons  of  Triptolemus  Yellowley, 
a  Yorkshire  factor,  sent  to  introduce  an  im- 
proved agriculture  among  the  backward 
islanders,  and  his  shrewish  sister,  Barbara; 
Claud  Halcro,  poet  and  bard,  and  worshipper 
of  John  Dryden ;  Bryce  Snailsfoot,  the  pedlar ; 
and  Jack  Bunce,  the  actor-pirate. 

Pirene,  see  Peirene. 
Pirithous,  see  Peirithous. 

Pisa,  THE  LEANING  TOWER  OF,  the  campanile 
of  the  Cathedral  of  Pisa,  in  northern  Italy, 
built  at  the  end  of  the  isth  cent.  It  is  circu- 
lar, in  eight  stories,  each  story  surrounded 
with  small  columned  arcades.  It  is  181  feet 
high  and  leans  some  14  feet  from  the  perpen- 
dicular, part  of  this  inclination  dating  from 
its  construction. 

Pisistratus,  see  Peisistratus.  Pisistratus 
Caxton  is  a  character  in  B.  Lytton's  'The 
Caxtons*  (q.v.). 

Piso's  Justice :  Seneca  ('Dial*,  ni.  18)  re- 
lates this  story  of  Cnaeus  Piso,  a  man  who 
took  obstinacy  for  firmness.  He  had  sen- 
tenced a  soldier  to  death  for  murder,  but 
when  the  execution  was  about  to  take  place 
the  man  supposed  to  have  been  murdered 
appeared.  The  centurion  stopped  the  execu- 
tion and  reported  the  matter  to  Piso.  Piso 
thereupon  condemned  all  three  to  death,  the 
first  as  having  already  been  sentenced,  the 
centurion  for  disobeying  orders,  and  the  man 
who  was  supposed  to  have  been  murdered 
for  being  the  cause  of  the  death  of  the  other 
two. 

Pistol,  ANCIENT,  in  Shakespeare's  '2  Henry 
IV,  'Henry  V,  and  'The  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor*  (qq.v.),  one  of  FalstafFs  associates, 
a  braggart  with  a  fine  command  of  bombas- 
tic language. 

Pistole,  a  name  applied  specifically  from  c. 
1600  to  a  Spanish  gold  coin  equivalent  to  four 


PISTYL  OF  SUSAN 

silver  pieces  of  eight  (see  Dollar)  and  worth 
from  1 6s.  6d.  to  18$.;  also  applied  (after  the 
French)  to  the  louis  d'or  of  Louis  XIII  issued 
in  1640.  The  name,  apparently  shortened 
from  pistolet,  is  ultimately  derived  from  Pis- 
toia,  a  town  in  Tuscany,  still  having  manu- 
factures of  iron  and  steel,  and  especially 
gun-making.  But  the  history  of  the  word, 
and  the  connexion  of  the  coin  with  the 
weapon,  are  obscure. 

Pistyl  of  Susan,  The,  an  alliterative  poem 
of  the  i4th  cent.,  which  relates  the  story  of 
Susannah  and  Daniel.  It  is  attributed  by 
some  to  Huchoun  (q.v.).  *Pistyl'=Epistle. 
Pit,  The,  a  novel  by  Frank  Norris  (q.v.). 
Pities,  THE,  see  Dynasts. 
PITMAN,  SIR  ISAAC  (1813-97),  the  in- 
ventor of  phonography.  He  published  at 
fourpence  in  1837  'Stenographic  Sound- 
Hand*,  substituting  phonographic  for  the 
mainly  orthographic  methods  adopted  by 
former  shorthand  authors.  A  penny  plate 
entitled  'Phonography*  was  published  by 
him  in  1840,  and  fuller  explanations  of  the 
system  followed  in  that  and  subsequent 
years.  His  system,  which  has  been  adapted 
to  several  foreign  languages,  has,  to  a  large 
extent,  superseded  all  others. 

Pitt  Diamond,  see  Pitt  (T.). 

Pitt,  THOMAS,  known  as  DIAMOND  PITT 
(1653—1726),  East  India  merchant  and  gover- 
nor of  Madras,  who  obtained  the  great  Pitt 
diamond  from  an  Indian  merchant.  He  sold 
it  to  the  French  regent  for  £135,000  and  it 
is  still  among  the  State  jewels  of  France. 
Thomas  Pitt  was  grandfather  of  the  earl  of 
Chatham. 

Pitt,  WILLIAM,  first  earl  of  Chatham  (1708- 
78),  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  a  great  Whig  statesman  and  orator. 
He  entered  parliament  in   1735,  was   ad- 
mitted to  office  in  Pelham's  administration, 
and  was  dismissed  in   1755  owing  to  his 
attacks  on  Sir  Thomas  Robinson  (leader  of 
the  House  of  Commons)  and  even  Newcastle 
the  premier.  ^He  was  secretary  of  state  in 
1756-7,  but  his  fame  as  a  great  administrator 
rests  chiefly  on  the  period  that  immediately 
followed,  when  Pitt  and  Newcastle  were  the 
chief  ministers  in  coalition  and  when,  thanks 
to  Pitt's  choice  of  able  commanders  for  the 
prosecution  of  the  Seven  Years  War  and  the 
new  spirit  and  courage  that  he  breathed  into 
the    services,    'the    wind,    from    whatever 
quarter  it  blew,  carried  to  England  tidings  of 
battles  won,  fortresses  taken,  provinces  added 
to  the  empire'  (Macaulay).   Pitt  resigned  in 
1761,  having  failed  to  convince  the  cabinet  of 
the  necessity  of  war  with  Spain.  He  formed 
an  administration  in  1766  and  accepted  an 
earldom,  but  ill-health  forced  his  resignation 
in  1768.  He  strenuously  opposed  from  1774 
onwards  the  harsh  measures  taken  against 
the   American   colonies,    though   unwilling 
to     recognize     their     independence.      His 
speeches   were  marked   by  lofty  and  im- 


[620] 


PLAGUE  YEAR 

passioned  eloquence,  and,  judged  by  their 
effect  on  their  hearers,  place  him  among  the 
greatest  orators.  But  only  fragments  have 
survived. 

Pitt,  WILLIAM  (1759-1806),  second  son  of 
the  first  earl  of  Chatham,  educated  at  Pem- 
broke Hall,  Cambridge.  He  became  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  in  his  twenty-second, 
and  prime  minister  in  1783  in  his  twenty-fifth 
year,  and  retained  the  position  until  1801, 
during  the  troubled  years  which  followed  the 
outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution,  forming 
the  great  European  coalitions  that  opposed 
French  military  aggression.  He  returned  to 
office  in  1804,  formed  the  third  coalition, 
and  died  in  January  1806,  shortly  after  the 
battle  of  Austerlitz,  his  last  words  being, 
*Oh,my  country!  How  I  leave  my  country F 

Pittacus  (c.  652-569  B.C.),  of  Mitylene, 
where  he  was  chosen  to  be  ruler,  was  one  of 
the  so-called  'Seven  Sages  of  Greece'  (q.v.). 
Two  maxims  were  attributed  to  him :  XaXenov 
eaOXov  eppavai  (eminence  is  difficult),  and 
Kaipov  yv&Bi,  (know  the  opportunity). 
Pius  II,  see  Aeneas  Silvius. 

Pizarro,  a  tragedy  by  Sheridan  (q.v.).  FRAN- 
CISCO PIZARRO,  the  Spanish  conqueror  of  Peru, 
was  born  about  1471  and  died  in  1541. 

Place-Name  Society,  THE,  see  English 
Place-Name  Society, 

Placebo,  Latin,  *I  shall  be  pleasing*,  oc- 
curring in  Ps.  cxiv.  9  (Placebo  Domino  in 
regione  vivorum),  is  used  allusively  in  such 
phrases  as  'sing  placebo*  to  signify  'play  the 
sycophant*.  Chaucer  uses  Placebo  in  'The 
Merchant's  Tale'  as  a  proper  name  for  a 
flatterer,  one  of  the  brothers  of  old  January. 

Placidas,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  see 
Poeana* 

Plagiary,  SIR  FRETFUL,  a  character  in 
Sheridan's  'The  Critic*  (q.v.),  a  caricature  of 
Richard  Cumberland  (q.v.). 

Plague  of  London,  THE  GREAT,  the  epi- 
demic of  bubonic  plague  that  visited  London 
in  1665. 

Plague  Year,  A  Journal  of  the,  an  historical 
fiction  by  Defoe  (q.v.),  published  in  1722. 

It  purports  to  be  the  narrative  of  a  resident 
in  London  during  1664-5,  the  year  of  the 
Great  Plague.  It  describes  the  gradual  spread 
of  the  plague,  and  the  growing  terror  of  the 
inhabitants.  It  relates  the  public  measures 
taken  by  the  authorities,  such  as  the  seques- 
tration of  the  sick,  the  closing  of  infected 
houses,  and  the  prohibition  of  assemblies, 
with  their  effect  on  the  minds  of  the  people. 
The  symptoms  of  the  disease,  the  circulation 
of  the  dead-carts,  the  burials  in  great  pits,  and 
the  lamentable  scenes  witnessed  by  the  sup- 
posed narrator  are  described  with  extra- 
ordinary vividness.  The  general  effects  of  the 
epidemic,  notably  in  the  cessation  of  many 
trades,  and  the  exodus  from  the  city,  are  also 
set  forth,  and  an  estimate  made  of  the  total 
number  of  deaths  from  the  disease. 


PLAIN 

The  '  Journal*  no  doubt  embodies  much  in- 
formation that  Defoe  received  from  one  source 
or  another,  including  official  documents. 
Some  scenes,  it  has  been  pointed  out,  appear 
to  be  borrowed  from  Dekker's  'Wonderful 
Year  1603'.  Sir  Walter  Scott  observes  that 
even  ^  if  Defoe  had  not  been  the  author  of 
'Robinson  Crusoe',  he  would  have  deserved 
immortality  for  the  genius  displayed  in  this 
work. 

Plain,  THE,  the  name  applied  to  the  more 
moderate  (or  perhaps  the  more  timid) 
parry  in  the  French  national  convention  at 
the  time  of  the  Revolution,  from  the  fact  that 
they  sat  on  the  floor  of  the  hall.  (Cf. 
Mountain.)  They  were  also  called  the 
'Marais*  or  'crapauds  du  Marais'.  It  was 
their  junction  with  the  rump  of  the  Danton- 
ists  that  overthrew  Robespierre  (q.v.)  on  the 
9th  Thermidor. 

Plain  Dealer,  The,  a  comedy  by  Wycherley 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1677. 

This,  perhaps  the  best  of  Wycherley's 
plays,  a  remote  adaptation  of  Moliere's  'Le 
Misanthrope',  shows  the  author  at  his  fiercest 
as  a  satirist.  The  'plain  dealer'  is  Manly, 
an  honest  misanthropic  sea-captain,  who  has 
lost  confidence  in  every  one  save  his  one 
trusty  friend  Vernish,  and  his  love,  Olivia,  to 
whom  he  has  confided  his  money.  The  plot 
turns  on  the  perfidy  of  Vernish  and  Olivia.  On 
his  return  from  fighting  the  Dutch,  Manly 
finds  that  Olivia  scorns  him,  has  married 
another,  and  makes  pretexts  for  not  return- 
ing his  money.  Fidelia,  a  young  lady  who 
cherishes  a  secret  passion  for  Manly  and  has 
followed  him  to  sea  in  man's  clothes,  con- 
tinues to  attend  him  in  spite  of  his  rebuffs, 
and  her  disguise  is  not  suspected.  Manly, 
still  hoping  to  win  Olivia's  favour,  sends 
Fidelia  to  plead  for  him.  Olivia  becomes 
enamoured  of  the  disguised  Fidelia,  who,  by 
Manly's  direction,  makes  an  assignation  with 
Olivia,  to  which  Manly,  under  cover  of  dark- 
ness, also  comes,  intending  to  expose  Olivia's 
perfidy.  Olivia's  husband,  who  has  helped  to 
appropriate  Manly's  money,  and  who  now 
turns  out  to  be  the  trusted  Vernish,  finds 
Olivia  with  Manly  and  Fidelia,  and  rushes  at 
the  former  to  kill  him.  Fidelia  saves  Manly 
and  is  herself  wounded  in  the  scufHe;  her  dis- 
guise is  discovered.  Manly,  cured  of  his  in- 
fatuation for  Olivia,  and  touched  by  Fidelia's 
devotion,  gives  her  his  heart. 

Among  other  amusing  characters  is  the 
widow  Blackacre,  a  litigious  creature  tho- 
roughly at  home  in  the  courts  and  in  legal 
jargon,  who  trains  up  her  son  to  follow  in  her 
footsteps,  and  thereby  overreaches  herself. 
The  son,  Jerry  Blackacre,  is  the  literary  an- 
cestor of  Tony  Lumpkin. 
Plan  of  Campaign,  THE,  a  method  of  con- 
ducting operations  against  landlords  in  Ire- 
land who  refused  to  reduce  rents,  entered 
upon  in  1886-7.  The  tenants  in  a  body  were 
to  pay  what  they  considered  the  fair  rent 
into  the  hands  of  a  political  leader,  charged 


PLATONIC  YEAR 

to  retain  it  until  the  landlord  should  accept 
the^surn  offered,  less  any  amount  expended  in 
maintaining  the  struggle.  [OED.] 

Plancus,  L.,  Roman  consul  in  42  B.C.:  *in 
the  consulship  of  Plancus',  'when  I  was 
young' ;  from  Horace,  'Odes',  in.  xvi. 

PLATO  (428-347  B.C.),  the  great  Greek 
philosopher,  was  born  at  Athens,  or,  according 
to  some,  at  Aegina.  He  became  a  pupil  and 
devoted  admirer  of  Socrates,  and  after  his 
death  in  399  retired  to  Megara,  and  sub- 
sequently resided  for  a  time  in  Sicily.  It  is 
said  that  he  incurred  the  disfavour  of  Diony- 
sius,  the  tyrant,  and  by  his  order  was  sold 
into  slavery  at  Aegina,  and  afterwards  freed. 
He  returned  to  Athens  about  386  and  began 
to  teach  in  the  Academy  and  in  his  garden  at 
Colonus.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was 
mainly  occupied  with  instruction  and  the 
composition  of  the  Dialogues  in  which  he 
embodied  his  views,  and  in  which  Socrates 
figures  as  conducting  the  discussions.  All 
these  Dialogues  are  extant.  They  are  based 
on  the  teaching  of  Socrates  (q.v.)  and  the 
doctrines  of  the  Pythagoreans  (q.v.),  but  are 
not  altogether  self-consistent,  and  indicate 
an  evolution  of  Plato's  thought. 

The  central  conception  is  the  existence  of 
a  world  of  ideas,  divine  types,  or  forms  of 
material  objects,  which  ideas  are  alone  real 
and  permanent,  while  individual  material 
things  are  but  their  ephemeral  and  imperfect 
imitations.  Of  this  ideal  world  the  Form  of 
Good  is  the  highest  and  brightest  point. 
Perfect  virtue  consists  in  wisdom  and  science 
— knowledge,  that  is,  of  the  Good,  which 
implies  the  effort  to  realize  it.  This  perfect 
virtue  is  given  to  very  few.  Ordinary  practical 
virtue  consists  in  conduct  in  accordance  with 
man's  true  nature,  developed  by  education, 
which  represents  the  constraint  of  the  State's 
laws. 

Plato's  principal  dialogues  were  the  'Pro- 
tagoras', 'Gorgias',  'Phaedo',  'Symposium*, 
'Republic',  'Phaedrus',  'Parmenides*,  'The- 
aetetus*,  'Sophist',  'Philebus*,  'Timaeus*, 
'Laws',  and  the  'Apology*.  Jowett's  (q.v.) 
classical  translation  of  the  dialogues  appeared 
in  1871. 

Platonic  love,  love  of  a  purely  spiritual 
character,  free  from  sensual  desire.  Amor 
Platonicuswas  used  by  the  Florentine  Marsilio 
Ficino  (1433-99),  synonymously  with  Amor 
Socraticus,  to  denote  the  kind  of  interest  in 
young  men  which  was  imputed  to  Socrates; 
cf.  the  last  few  pages  of  Plato's  'Symposium*. 
As  thus  originally  used  it  had  no  reference  to 
women.  [OED.] 

Platonic  year,  a  cycle  imagined  by  some 
ancient  astronomers,  in  which  the  heavenly 
bodies  were  to  return  to  their  original  relative 
positions  (after  which,  according  to  some,  all 
events  would  recur  in  the  same  order  ^  as 
before) ;  sometimes  identified  with  the  period 
of  the  revolution  of  the  equinoxes  (about 
25,800  years). 


[62!] 


PLATONISTS 

Platonists,  THE  CAMBRIDGE,  a  group  of 
philosophers,  whose  head-quarters  were 
Cambridge  University,  and  who  nourished 
in  the  middle  of  the  i7th  cent.  For  the  chief 
features  of  their  philosophy  see  Cudworth. 
The  principal  members  of  the  group,  besides 
Cudworth,  were  Henry  More,  John  Smith 
(1618-53),  and  Culverwel  (qq.v.). 

PLANCHfi,  JAMES  ROBINSON  (1796- 
1880),  a  versatile  writer,  chiefly  remembered 
for  his  'History  of  British  Costumes'  (1834). 
He  also  published  an  edition  of  Strutt's 
'Regal  and  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  of  Eng- 
land* (1842). 

Plantin,  CHRISTOPHE  (1514-89),  a  cele- 
brated French  printer,  bom  at  Tours,  who 
settled  at  Antwerp.  His  house  at  Antwerp  is 
still  preserved  as  the  Plantin  Museum. 

PLAUTUS,  TITUS  MACCIUS  (c.  254- 
184  B.C.),  the  celebrated  Roman  comic  poet, 
was  born  in  a  village  of  Umbria.  He  was  poor 
when  he  came  to  Rome  and  accepted  humble 
employments,  at  one  time  turning  a  hand- 
mill  for  a  baker.  We  possess  twenty  of  his 
comedies,  some  of  them  imitations  of  Menan- 
der's  plays:  Amphitruo,  Asinaria,  Aulularia, 
Bacchidesy  Captivi,  Casina,  Cistellaria, 
Curculio,  Epidicus,  Menaechmiy  Mercator, 
Miles,  Mostellaria,  Persa,  Poenulus,  Pseudolus, 
Rudens,  Stichus,  Trinummus,  Truculentus. 
Several  of  his  plays  have  been  imitated  by 
Moliere,  Shakespeare,  and  other  modern 
writers. 

Playboy  of  the  Western  World,  The,  a 
comedy  by  Synge  (q.v.),  published  in  1907. 

Christy  Mahon,  'a  slight  young  man,  very 
tired  and  frightened*,  arrives  at  a  village  in 
Mayo.  He  gives  out  that  he  is  a  fugitive  from 
justice,  who  in  a  quarrel  has  killed  his  bullying 
father,  splitting  him  to  the  chine  with  a  single 
blow.  He  is  hospitably  entertained,  and  his 
character  as  a  dare-devil  gives  him  a  great 
advantage  with  the  women  over  the  milder 
spirited  lads  of  the  place.  But  admiration 
gives  place  to  angry  contempt  when  the  father 
himself  arrives  in  pursuit  of  the  fugitive,  who 
has  merely  given  him  a  crack  on  the  head  and 
run  away. 

Plays  for  Puritans,  a  collection  of  three 
plays  by  G.  B.  Shaw  (q.v.),  published  in 
1901.  The  plays  are  'The  Devil's  Disciple', 
'Caesar  and  Cleopatra*,  and  'Captain  Brass- 
bound's  Conversion*. 

Plays,  Pleasant  and  Unpleasant,  a  collection 
of  seven  plays  (in  two  volumes)  by  G.  B. 
Shaw  (q.v.),  published  in  1898.  The  plays 
are  (pleasant):  'Arms  and  the  Man*,  'Can- 
dida*, 'The  Man  of  Destiny',  and  'You  Never 
Can  Tell* ;  (unpleasant) :  'Widowers*  Houses', 
'The  Philanderer',  'Mrs.Warren*s  Profession', 

Pleasant  Safyre  of  the  Thrie  Estaitis  in 
Cpmmendatioun  of  Vertew  and  Vitupera- 
tioun  ofVyce,  Ane,  a  morality  play  by  Sir  D. 
Lindsay  (q.v.),  produced  in  1540. 
Pt  I  represents  the  temptation  of  Rex 


PLEASURES  OF  IMAGINATION 

Humanitas  by  Sensuality,  Wantonness, 
Solace,  and  other  evil  companions,  while 
Good  Counsel  is  hustled  away,  Verity  put  in 
the  stocks,  and  Chastity  is  warned  off.  An 
interlude  follows  in  which  are  described  the 
adventures  of  Chastity  among  humbler  folks, 
a  tailor,  a  soutar,  and  their  wives.  Then 
Chastity  is  put  in  the  stocks.  But  the  arrival 
of  Correction  alters  the  situation.  Verity, 
Good  Counsel,  and  Chastity  are  admitted  to 
the  king,  and  Sensuality  is  banished. 

After  an  interlude  in  which  an  im- 
poverished farmer  exposes  his  sufferings  at 
the  hands  of  the  ecclesiastics,  and  a  pardoner  *s 
trade  is  ridiculed,  Pt.  II  presents  the  Three 
Estates  summoned  before  the  king,  and  their 
misdeeds  denounced  by  John  the  Common 
Weal.  The  Lords  and  Commons  repent,  but 
the  clergy  remain  impenitent,  are  exposed, 
and  the  malefactors  brought  to  the  scaffold. 

The  play,  which  is  extremely  long,  is 
written  in  various  metres,  eight  and  six-lined 
stanzas  and  couplets.  It  is,  as  a  dramatic 
representation,  in  advance  of  all  contempo- 
rary English  plays,  and  gives  an  interesting 
picture  of  the  Scottish  life  of  the  time. 

Pleasures  of  Hope,  The,  a  poem  by  Camp- 
bell (q.v.),  published  in  1799. 

In  Pt.  I  the  poet  considers  the  consolation 
and  inspiration  of  Hope  in  various  circum- 
stances, its  effects  on  the  individual  and  on 
the  community,  and  by  contrast  the  hard 
fate  of  a  people  deprived  of  it  (the  well- 
known  passage  on  the  downfall  of  Poland). 
In  Pt.  II  he  passes  to  the  consideration  of 
Love  in  combination  with  Hope,  and  to  the 
blessings  of  the  belief  in  a  future  life.  The 
poem  contains  single  lines  that  have  become 
proverbial,  such  as 

'Tis  distance  lends  enchantment  to  the  view, 
and 

Like  angel- visits,  few  and  far  between. 

Pleasures  of  Imagination,  a  didactic  poem  by 
Akenside  (q.v.),  published  in  1744;  it  was 
completely  re-written  and  issued  as  'Pleasures 
of  the  Imagination*  in  1757. 

The  object  of  the  poet,  in  his  own  words,  is 

To  pierce  divine  Philosophy's  retreats, 
And  teach  the  Muse  her  lore. 

He  examines  the  pleasures  of  imagination, 
dividing  them  into  (#)  primary  pleasures 
connected  with  the  sublime,  the  wonderful, 
and  the  beautiful,  whose  connexion  with  the 
moral  faculties  he  traces;  and  (b)  secondary 
pleasures,  such  as  those  of  sense  and  all  the 
passions  of  men's  hearts,  finding  delight  even 
in  'ennobling  sorrows*.  In  the  third  of  the 
three  books  composing  the  poem,  he  con- 
siders the  origin  of  vice,  the  nature  of  ridicule, 
the  pleasures  of  memory  and  association  of 
ideas,  and  the  nature  of  taste. 

Akenside  is  indebted  to  Addison,  Shaftes- 
bury,  and  Hutcheson  for  the  philosophical 
groundwork  of  his  poem. 


[622} 


PLEASURES  OF  MEMORY 
Pleasures  of  Memory,  see  Rogers  (£.). 

P16iade,  LA,  a  group  of  French  poets  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  i6th  cent.,  consisting  of 
Pierre  de  Ronsard  (q.v.),  Joachim  du  Bellay, 
Pontus  de  Thiard,  Jodelle,  Belleau,  Baif,  and 
Dorat  (or,  according  to  other  authorities, 
Peletier),  animated  by  a  common  veneration 
for  the  writers  of  antiquity,  and  a  desire  to 
improve  the  quality  of  French  verse.  Their 
inauguration  in  France  of  the  sonnet 
stimulated  the  interest  in  England  in  this 
form  of  verse.  The  title  was  taken  ultimately 
from  the  Pleiades  (q.v.),  and  was  first  given 
to  a  group  of  seven  Hellenist  poets  of  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  including 
Theocritus,  Lycophron,  and  Aratus. 
Pleiades,  seven  daughters  of  Atlas,  who 
after  their  death  were  placed  in  heaven  and 
form  a  group  of  stars.  Their  names  were 
Alcyone,  M£r6pe,  Maia,  Electra,  Taygete, 
StSrSpe,  and  Celaeno.  Of  these  Merope 
married  Sisyphus  (q.v.),  the  others  had  gods 
for  their  lovers.  Hence  Merope  is  dimmer 
than  her  sister  stars.  The  rising  of  the  con- 
stellation was  in  May  and  its  setting  in 
November.  Hence  the  connexion  of  the 
Pleiades  with  the  beneficent  showers  of 
spring,  the  autumn  seed-time,  and  autumn 
storms. 

Pleydell,  MR.  COUNSELLOR  PAULUS,  a 
character  in  Scott's  'Guy  Mannering'  (q.v.). 

Pliable,  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's  Progress* 
(q.v.),  one  of  Christian's  companions,  who 
turns  back  at  the  Slough  of  Despond. 
Pliant,  SIR  PAUL,  see  Plyant. 
PLINY  THE  ELDER,  CAIUS  PLINIUS 
SECUNDUS  (A.D.  23-79),  the  author  of  the 
'Historia  Naturalis',  and  the  intimate  friend 
of  Vespasian.    He  perished  in  the  eruption  of 
Vesuvius  that  destroyed  Herculaneurn  and 
Pompeii. 

PLINY  THE  YOUNGER,  CAIUS 
PLINIUS  CAECILIUS  SECUNDUS  (b. 
A.D.  61),  nephew  of  the  above,  an  advocate 
who  held  many  public  offices,  was  author  of 
a  'Panegyricus'  of  Trajan,  and  of  a  number 
of  delightful  letters  ('Epistolae')  throwing 
much  light  on  Pliny's  time  and  contempo- 
raries. As  proconsul  in  Bithynia  he  gives  (in 
one  of  his  letters  to  Trajan)  one  of  the 
earliest  authentic  references  to  the  sect  of 
'Christians'. 

Plornish,  MR.  and  MRS.,  in  Dickens's  'Little 
Dorrit'  (q.v.),  a  plasterer  and  his  wife  who 
lived  in  Bleeding  Heart  Yard.  Mrs.  Plornish 
was  a  notable  interpreter  of  the  Italian 
language. 

PLOTINUS  (c.  A.D.  203-62),  born  at 
Lycopolis  in  Egypt,  was  the  founder  of  the 
neo-Platonic  philosophy.  After  studying  at 
Alexandria,  he  opened  his  school  at  Rome. 
He  is  generally  described  as  a  'mystic',  who 
developed  Plato's  teaching,  and  appears^  to 
have  had  some  knowledge  of  oriental  philo- 
sophies. His  aim  was  the  conversion  of  his 


PLUTARCH 

disciples  to  the  highest  and  most  spiritual 
mode  of  life.  The  'Enneads'  are  the  six 
divisions  of  Porphyry's  collections  of  Plo- 
tinus's  works,  each  of  which  contains  nine 
books. 

Plough-Monday,  the  first  Monday  after 
Epiphany,  on  which,  especially  in  the  north 
and  east  of  England,  the  commencement  of 
the  ploughing  season  was  celebrated  by  a 
procession  of  disguised  ploughmen  and  boys 
drawing  a  plough  from  door  to  door.  See 
Plough  Monday  Play. 

Plough  Monday  Play,  a  folk-drama  of  the 
East  Midlands.  In  the  version  from  Crop- 
well  in  Nottinghamshire  the  characters  are 
Tom  the  Fool,  a  Recruiting  Sergeant,  a 
Ribboner  or  Recruit,  three  farm-servants, 
a  Doctor,  and  Beelzebub ;  and  two  women,  a 
Young  Lady  and  old  Dame  Jane.  The  Rib- 
boner's  suit  is  rejected  by  the  Young  Lady 
and  he  enlists ;  Tom  Fool  consoles  the  Lady. 
The  farm-servants  describe  their  several 
occupations.  Dame  Jane  claims  Tom  Fool 
as  father  of  her  child.  Beelzebub  strikes  her 
with  his  club  and  kills  her.  The  Doctor, 
after  vaunting  his  abilities,  declares  that  she 
is  only  in  a  trance  and  revives  her.  The  play 
concludes  with  dance  and  songs  and  a  collec- 
tion. The  other  extant  version,  from  Lincoln- 
shire, is  in  its  main  features  similar.  Like  the 
St.  George  play,  the  Plough  Monday  play 
probably  symbolizes,  in  its  central  incident, 
the  death  and  resurrection  of  the  year.  The 
subject  is  treated  in  E.  K.  Chambers,  'The 
Mediaeval  Stage',  on  which  the  above  is 
based.  (For  the  Cropwell  version,  Chambers 
refers  to  Mrs.  Chaworth  Musters,  'A  Cavalier 
Stronghold'.) 

Plumdamas,  PETER,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Heart  of  Midlothian'  (q.v.). 

Plume,  CAPTAIN,  a  character  in  Farquhar's 
'The  Recruiting  Officer'  (q.v.). 

Plumian  Professorship,  THE,  of  Astro- 
nomy and  Experimental  Philosophy  at  Cam- 
bridge, owes  its  name  to  Thomas  Plume 
(1630-1704),  of  Christ's  College,  Cambridge, 
archdeacon  of  Rochester,  who  left  sums  of 
money  for  the  erection  of  an  observatory  and 
the  maintenance  of  this  professorship. 

Plummer,  CALEB  and  BERTHA,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth'  (q.v.). 

PLUTARCH,  the  biographer,  was  bom  at 
Chaeronea  in  Boeotia;  the  date  of  his  birth 
is  unknown,  but  according  to  his  own  state- 
ment he  was  studying  philosophy  in  A.D.  66. 
His  great  work  is  the  'Parallel  Lives'  of 
twenty-three  Greeks  and  twenty-three  R.O- 
mans,  arranged  in  pairs.  These  biographies 
are  the  source  of  the  plots  of  many  of  our 
dramas,  including  some  of  Shakespeare's. 

Sir  Thomas  North's  version  of  them  (1579) 
is  a  translation  not  of  the  original  Greek, 
but  of  the  French  rendering  of  Jacques 
Amyot.  It  is  not  a  strictly  accurate  version, 
but  is  embellished  by  North's  vivid  English. 


[623] 


PLUTO 

Another  Important  translation  of  the  'Lives'  is 
that  of  John  and  William  Langhorne  (1770). 
Plutarch  also  wrote  lives  of  Artaxerxes  II, 
Aratus,  Galba,  and  Otho,  and  a  collection  of 
Essays  known  as  'Moralia',  some  of  them 
ethical,  some  on  historical  subjects. 

Pluto,  another  name  of  the  god  Hades  (q.v.). 

Plutus,  the  son  of  Demeter  (q.v.),  and  the 
god  of  wealth.  The  Greeks  represented  him 
as  blind,  because  he  distributed  ^  riches  in- 
discriminately; as  lame,  because  riches  come 
slowly;  and  with  wings,  because  riches  dis- 
appear more  quickly  than  they  come. 
Plyant,  SIR  PAUL,  in  Congreve's  'The 
Double  Dealer'  (q.v.),  'an  uxorious  foolish 
old  knight'. 

Plymley,  Peter,  Letters  of,  by  S.  Smith  (q.v.), 
published  in  1807-8. 

The  letters  purport  to  be  written  by  one 
Peter  Plymley  to  his  brother  in  the  country, 
the  Rev.  Abraham  Plyrnley,  in  favour  of 
Catholic  Emancipation.  The  supposed  argu- 
ments of  the  Rev.  Abraham  for  maintaining 
the  disabilities  of  the  Roman  Catholics  are 
taken  one  by  one,  and  demolished  with  an 
abundance  of  good  sense,  wit,  and  humour; 
while  at  the  same  time  the  author  ridicules 
what  he  calls  the  'nonsense*  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion. 

Plymouth  Brethren,  a  religious  body  that 
arose  at  Plymouth,  c.  1830.  They  have  no 
formal  creed  (though  believing  in  Christ)  or 
official  order  of  ministers. 
Pocahontas  or  MATOAKA  (1595-1617),  an 
American-Indian  princess,  the  daughter  of 
Powhattan,  an  Indian  chief  in  Virginia. 
According  to  the  untrustworthy  account  of 
Capt.  John  Smith  (q.v.),  one  of  the  Virginia 
colonists  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Indians,  he  was  rescued  by  her  when  her 
father  was  about  to  slay  him  in  1607  (she  was 
then  only  12).  In  1612  she  was  seized  as  a 
hostage  by  the  Colonists  for  the  good  be- 
haviour of  the  Indian  tribes  (or  for  the 
restitution  of  English  captives),  became  a 
Christian,  was  named  Rebecca,  and  married 
a  colonist,  John  Rolfe.  She  was  brought  to 
England  in  1616,  where  she  at  first  attracted 
considerable  attention,  but  died  neglected 
and  in  poverty  in  1617.  Those  who  claim 
descent  from  her  are  legion.  She  is  intro- 
duced by  Ben  Jonson  in  his  'The  Staple  of 
News*  (q.v.),  n.  i.  George  Warrington,  in 
Thackeray's  'The  Virginians',  composes  a 
tragedy  on  her. 

Pocket,  HERBERT,  a  character  in  Dickens's 

'Great  Expectations*  (q.v.). 

Pocock,  MRS.  SARAH  and  JIM,  characters 

in  H.  James's  'The  Ambassadors'  (q.v.). 

Podsnap,   MR.,   a  character  in  Dickens's 

'Our  Mutual  Friend*  (q.v.),  a  type  of  self- 

satisfaction  and  self-importance. 

POE,  EDGAR  ALLAN  (1809-49),  born  at 

Boston,  Mass.,  of  actor-parents,  became  an 

orphan  in  early  childhood,  and  was  brought 


POET  LAUREATE 

up  and  protected  by  John  Allan,  a  tobacco 
exporter  of  Richmond,  who  appears  to  have 
reaped  little  satisfaction  or  gratitude  from  Poe 
for  his  kindness.  Poe  was  brought  to  England 
and  sent  to  school  at  Stoke  Newington  (see  his 
'William  Wilson'),  and  was  subsequently  at 
the  university  of  Virginia  .Jfor  a  year.  His 
first  publication,  'Tamerlane,  and  other 
'  Poems*,  belongs  to  the  year  1827.  In  1828 
he  enlisted  in  the  U.S.  army.  His  discharge 
was  procured  and  he  entered  the  Military 
Academy  at  West  Point,  but  was  dismissed 
in  1831.  Meanwhile  his  poems  had  met  with 
no  success  and  he  turned  to  journalism.  He 
became  editor  of  various  periodicals,  includ- 
ing the  'Southern  Literary  Messenger',  in 
which  he  published  some  of  his  best  ^stories. 
His  'Tales  of  the  Grotesque  and  Arabesque* 
appeared  in  1839;  'The  Gold  Bug*,  dealing 
with  the  solution  of  a  cryptogram,  in  1841; 
'The  Murders  in  the  Rue  Morgue'  in  1841 ; 
'The  Raven',  the  first  poem  that  brought  him 
wide  popularity,  in  1845.  But  he  had  already 
written  some  notable  verse,  'To  Helen*, 
'Israfel*,  'The  City  in  the  Sea*,  'The  Haunted 
Palace',  and  'Dream  Land',  between  1831  and 
1844.  His  'Ulalume*  appeared  in  1847;  'For 
Annie',  'Annabel  Lee*,  and  'The  Bells',  in 
1849.  Among  his  other  remarkable  tales  may 
be  mentioned  'The  House  of  Usher',  1839; 
*A  Descent  into  the  Maelstrom',  1841 ;  'The 
Masque  of  the  Red  Death*  and  'The  Mystery 
of  Marie  Roget',  1842;  and  'The  Cask  of 
Amontillado*,  1846.  Poe  also  wrote  much 
literary  criticism. 

Poeana,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  iv. 
viii.  49  et  seq.,  the  daughter  of  the  giant 
Corflambo  (q.v.).  She  falls  in  love  with 
Amyas,  the  'Squire  of  low  degree',  whom  her 
father  has  taken  prisoner.  But  Arnyas  loves 
Aemylia.  His  friend  Placidas,  who  closely 
resembles  him,  goes  to  him  in  his  captivity 
and  is  mistaken  for  him  by  Poeana,  but  escapes 
from  her.  Amyas  is  released  by  Prince 
Arthur. 

Poema  Morale,  or  Moral  Ode,  a  poem  in 
English  of  the  period  1200-50,  chiefly 
interesting  for  its  metrical  form,  rhymed 
couplets  of  fourteen  syllables.  It  is  a 
disquisition  on  the  shortness  of  life,  on  the 
failure  of  wisdom  to  increase  with  age,  on 
the  coming  of  Judgement,  and  the  joys  of 
Heaven. 

Poems  and  Ballads,  see  Swinburne  (A.  C.). 

Poet  Laureate,  the  title  given  to  a  poet  who 
receives  a  stipend  as  an  officer  of  the  Royal 
Household,  his  duty  (no  longer  enforced)  being 
to  write  court-odes,  &c.  The  title  formerly  was 
sometimes  conferred  by  certain  universities. 
The  first  poet  laureate  in  the  modern  sense 
was  Ben  Jonson,  but  the  title  seems  to 
have  been  first  officially  given  to  Dryden. 
The  other  laureates  in  chronological  order 
are  as  follows:  Shadwell,  Tate,  Rowe, 
Eusden,  Cibber,  Whitehead,  T.  Warton, 
Pye,  Southey,  Wordsworth,  A.  Tennyson, 


[624] 


POETS'  CORNER 

A.  Austin,  Bridges,  Masefield  (qq.v.).  See 
E.  K.  Broadus,  'The  Laureateship'  (1921)0 
Poets'  Corner,  part  of  the  south  transept 
of  Westminster  Abbey  containing  the  tombs 
or  monuments  of  Chaucer,  Spenser,  Shake- 
speare, Ben  Jonson,  Milton,  Drayton,  Samuel 
Butler,  and  many  later  distinguished  poets 
and  authors.  It  is  called  in  the  'Spectator* 
(1711)  'the  poetical  Quarter*. 

Poetaster,  The,  a  satirical  comedy  by  Jonson 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1601.  The  scene  is  the 
court  of  Caesar  Augustus,  but  the  play  deals 
with  the  quarrels  and  rivalries  of  the  poets  of 
Jonson's  own  day,  though  many  of  the  in- 
cidents alluded  to  are  now  lost  to  us.  The 
principal  characters,  besides  the  emperor,  are 
Horace,  representing  Jonson  himself,  Virgil, 
perhaps  representing  Shakespeare,  Crispinus, 
who  stands  for  Marston,  and  Demetrius,  who 
is  described  as  'a  dresser  of  plays  about  the 
town*,  for  Dekker.  Another  notable  character 
is  Tucca,  a  foul-mouthed  bully  and  coward, 
copied  from  a  certain  Capt.  Hannam,  a 
notorious  parasite  of  the  day.  The  plot,  so 
far  as  there  is  one,  consists  in  a  conspiracy 
of  Crispinus  and  Demetrius,  instigated  by 
Tucca,  to  defame  Horace.  The  matter  is 
tried  before  Caesar.  The  arraignments,  in 
ridiculous  verse,  are  read,  Horace  is  acquitted, 
and  a  'light  vomit*  is  administered  to  Crispi- 
nus to  rid  him  of  his  long  words.  The  inci- 
dent of  Ovid's  banishment  by  Augustus  is 
also  introduced. 

To  the  attack  on  Marston  and  Dekker  the 
latter  replied  in  'Satiromastix*  (q.v.). 

Poetical  Rapsody,  A,  a  collection  of  Eliza- 
bethan verse,  published  by  F.  Davison  (q.v.) 
and  his  brother  Walter  in  1603,  and  edited  by 
Bullen  in  Arber's  'English  Scholar's  Library*. 
It  includes  'The  Lie*,  attributed  to  Sir 
Walter  Ralegh;  the  song  'In  praise  of  a  Beg- 
gar's Life',  quoted  by  Izaak  Walton  in  'The 
Compleat  Ajngler';  and  poems  by  Greene, 
Wotton,  Sidney,  Spenser,  Donne,  and  others. 

POGGIO  BRACCIOLINI,  GIAN  FRAN- 
CESCO (1380-1459),  Italian  humanist,  who 
recovered  many  lost  works  of  Roman  litera- 
ture. 

Poilu  (French  'hairy'),  a  familiar  name^for 
the  French  private  soldier,  which  came  into 
use  in  the  Great  War. 

Poins,  in  Shakespeare's  *i  and  2  Henry  IV* 
(q.v.),  one  of  FalstafFs  companions. 
Poirot,   HERCULE,   the   detective   in   Mrs. 
Agatha  Christie's  stories  of  crime. 
Polack,  an  obsolete  name  for  a  Pole,  used  by 
Shakespeare  in  'Hamlet',  I.  i,  and  four  times 
in  other  places  in  the  same  play. 
Pole,  WILFRID,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'Sandra  Belloni*  and  'Vittoria'  (qq.v.). 

Policraticus,  see  John  of  Salisbury. 
Polinarda,    a    character   in   'Palmerin   of 
England'  (q.v.). 


POLLY 

Polite  Learningt  An  Enquiry  into  the  Present 
State  of,  see  Enquiry  into  the  Present  State  of 
Polite  Learning. 

POLITIAN,  see  Poliziano. 
Political  Arithmetic,  see  Petty. 
Political  Eclogues,  see  Rolliad. 
Political  Register,  The,  a  weekly  newspaper 
founded  in  1802  by  Cobbett  (q.v.),  which  he 
continued  to  issue  even  when  in  prison.  It  ob- 
tained a  large  circulation  and  gave  Cobbett  a 
strong  hold  on  public  opinion.    It  survived 
until  1835. 

Politick  Would-be,  SIR  and  LADY,  charac- 
ters in  Jonson's  'Volpone'  (q.v.). 
Polixenes,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'The  Winter's  Tale*  (q.v.). 
POLIZIANO,  ANGELO  (1454-94),  known 
in  English  as  POLITIAN,  so  named  from  his 
birthplace,  Monte  Pulciano,  Italian  humanist 
and  friend  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  (see 
Medici),  wrote  Latin  poems  on  the  classical 
authors,  translated  into  Latin  part  of  the 
*Iliad*,  and  wrote  a  number  of  poems  in  the 
vernacular,  notably  'La  Giostra*  and  £La 
Favola  di  Orfeo'. 

POLLARD,  ALFRED  WILLIAM  (1859- 
),  bibliographer  and  scholar,  joint- 
secretary  of  the  Bibliographical  Society  (q.v.) 
and  fellow  of  the  British  Academy  (q.v.). 
He  has  written  many  bibliographical  works, 
was  editor  of  the  'Globe*  Chaucer,  and  made 
important  contributions  to  Shakespearian 
scholarships. 

PoUente,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  v. 
ii,  the  'cruel  sarazin'  who  holds  a  bridge  and 
despoils  those  who  pass  over  it,  the  father  of 
Munera  (q.v.).  He  is  slain  by  Sir  ArtegaU. 
PoUexfen,  SIR  HARGRAVE,  the  villain  in 
Richardson's  'Sir  Charles  Grandison'  (q.v.). 
POLLOCK,  SIR  FREDERICK  (1845-  ), 
educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, was  professor  of  jurisprudence  at 
Oxford,  1883—1903.  His  numerous^  publica- 


'History  of  English  Law  before  the  time  of 
Edward  I'  (with  F.  W.  Maitland,  1895),  'The 
Expansion  of  the  Common  Law'  (1904).  He 
also  wrote  'Spinoza,  his  Life  and  Philosophy' 
(1880,  1899,  1912)  and  with  E.  F.  Maitland 
published  'The  Etchingham  Letters'  in  1899. 
Pollux,  see  Castor. 

Polly,  a  musical  play  by  J.  Gay  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1729.  Its  production  on  the  stage 
was  prohibited  by  the  lord  chamberlain.  The 
play  is  a  sequel  to  'The  Beggar's  Opera'  (q.v.). 
The  principal  characters  are  the  Macheath 
and  Polly  Peachum  of  the  earlier  play.  Mac- 
heath  has  been  transported  to  the  West 
Indies,  has  run  away  from  the  plantation,  and 
is  thought  dead,  but  is  in  fact  disguised  as 
Morano,  chief  of  the  pirates.  Polly  comes  to 
the  West  Indies  to  seek  him,  is  entrapped  into 


[625] 


ss 


POLO 

the  household  of  Ducat,  a  planter,  from  whose 
amorous  intentions  she  escapes  owing  to  an 
attack  of  the  pirates  on  the  settlement.  Dis- 
guised as  a  man  she  joins  the  loyal  Indians, 
helps  to  beat  off  the  attack,  takes  Morano 
prisoner,  learns  his  identity  too  late  to  save 
him  from  execution,  and  marries  an  Indian 
prince. 

Thanks  to  the  advertisement  which  the 
play  received  by  its  prohibition,  it  brought  in 
£1,200  to  the  author. 
Potty,  The  History  of  Mr.,  see  Mr.  Polly. 
POLO,  MARCO  (1254-1324),  a  member  of 
a  patrician  family  of  Venice,  accompanied  his 
father  and  uncle  in  1271  on  an  embassy  from 
the  Pope  to  Kublai,  Grand  Khan  of  Tartary. 
They  travelled  through  Armenia,  Iraq,  Kho- 
rasan,  and  the  Pamir,  to  Kashgar;  thence  to 
Khoten,  across  the  desert  of  Lop  and  into 
Chinese  territory,  where  they  were  well  re- 
ceived by  the  emperor  and  where  Marco  was 
employed  on  services  of  importance.  After 
seventeen  years  in  the  territories  of  the  Grand 
Khan,  the  Polos  obtained  permission  to  re- 
turn home,  which  they  did  by  sea  to  the 
Persian  Gulf,  eventually  reaching  Venice 
after  an  absence  of  twenty-four  years.  Marco 
Polo's  account  of  his  travels  was  written 
while  imprisoned  by  the  Genoese,  by  whom 
he  had  been  captured  in  a  sea-fight  with  the 
Venetians.  The  original  text  appears  to  have 
been  in  French.  The  existence  of  other  and 
wilder  romances  of  Eastern  travel  (such  as 
Mandeville,  £c.)  tended  to  make  Polo  'sus- 
pect*, at  least  in  places;  but  there  is  no  reason 
for  any  such  suspicion.  The  work  became 
very  popular  and  was  translated  into  many 
languages.  It  was  Englished  by  John  Framp- 
ton  in  1579;  but  the  first  serious  English 
translation  was  by  W.  Marsden  early  in  the 
1 9th  cent.  The  classical  one  is  by  Sir  Henry 
Yule  with  full  notes,  which  first  appeared 
in  1871  (there  are  subsequent  editions).  A 
standard  edition  of  the  Italian  text,  with  new 
materials,  by  L.  F.  Benedetto  was  published 
in  Florence  in  1928. 

Polonius,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Hamlet*  (q.v.). 

Poltergeist  (from  the  German  polter,  noise, 
geist,  spirit),  a  spirit  that  makes  its  presence 
known  by  noises. 

Polton,  in.  the  detective  stories  of  Austin 
Freeman,  the  laboratory  assistant  of  Dr. 
Thorndyke  (q.v.). 

POLYBIUS  (c.  204-122  B.C.),  born  at 
Megalopolis  in  Arcadia,  became  the  friend  of 
P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus  Minor  and 
accompanied  him  in  his  military  expeditions. 
He  was  enabled  through  his  patronage  to  ob- 
tain access  to  materials  for  his  great  historical 
work  (written  in  Greek).  This  consisted  of 
forty  books,  of  which  five,  besides  passages 
from  the  others,  are  extant.  It  begins  at 
264  B.C.  with  the  Punic  Wars,  and  extends  to 
146  B.C.  There  is  a  good  translation  by  E.  S. 
Shuckburgh  (z  vols.,  1889). 


POLY-OLBION 
Potychronicon,  The,  see  Higden. 
Polycletus  or  POLYCLEITUS  of  Sicyon  (c. 
452-412  B.C.),  a  celebrated  sculptor  who  paid 
special  attention  to  embodying  in  his  statues 
the  most  perfect  proportions  of  the  human 
form.  His  statue  of  the  DORYPHOROS  or 
Spear-bearer  was  known  as  'The  Canon*  or 
rule,  as  being  an  ideal  representation  of  a 
man's  figure.  There  is  a  replica  of  this 
statue  at  Naples. 

Polycrates,  a  tyrant  of  Samps,  who  acquired 
great  riches  by  his  piratical  enterprises. 
Amasis,  king  of  Egypt  (572-528  B.C.),  his  ally, 
alarmed,  according  to  Herodotus,  by  the  un- 
failing good  fortune  of  Polycrates,  advised 
him  to  throw  away  something  that  he  valued 
highly,  so  as  to  avert  the  disaster  that  must 
sooner  or  later  overtake  him.  Polycrates 
thereupon  threw  into  the  sea  a  ring  of  extra- 
ordinary beauty.  But  shortly  after,  the  ring 
was  found  in  the  belly  of  a  fish  that  a  fisher- 
man had  presented  to  Polycrates.  Polycrates 
was  finally  captured  by  Oroetes,  satrap  of 
Sardis,  and  crucified. 

Polydore,  (i)  in  Shakespeare's  'Cymbeline' 
(q.v.),  the  name  borne  by  Guiderius  while  in 
the  Welsh  forest;  (2)  a  character  in  Otway's 
'The  Orphan'  (q.v.);  (3)  a  character  in 
Fletcher's  'The  Mad  Lover'. 

POLYDORE  VERGIL,  see  Vergil  (P.). 

Polyglot  Bible,  THE,  edited  in  1654-7  by 
Brian  Walton  (1600  ?-6i),  bishop  of  Chester, 
with  the  help  of  many  scholars.  It  contains 
various  oriental  texts  of  the  Bible  with  Latin 
translations,  and  a  critical  apparatus. 

Polyhymnia  or  POLYMNIA,  the  Muse  (q.v.) 
of  sacred  song. 

Polyhymnia,  a  poem  by  Peele  (q.v.)  written 
in  1590,  commemorating  the  retirement  of 
Sir  Henry  Lee  from  the  office  of  queen's 
champion,  and  describing  the  ceremonies 
that  took  place  on  this  occasion.  It  contains 
at  the  end  the  beautiful  song  'His  golden 
locks  time  hath  to  silver  turned  .  .  /  made 
widely  known  by  Thackeray's  quotation  of  it 
in  'The  Newcomes'. 

Polyneices,  see  Eteocles. 

Poly-Olbion,  The  (this  is  the  spelling  of 
the  ist  edition),  the  principal  work  of 
Drayton  (q.v.).  It  was  written  between  1613 
and  1622  and  consists  of  thirty  'Songs'  each 
of  300-500  lines,  in  hexameter  couplets,  in 
which  the  author  endeavours  to  awaken  his 
readers  to  the  beauties  and  glories  of  their 
country.  Travelling  from  the  SW.  to  Chester, 
down  through  the  Midlands  to  London,  up 
the  eastern  counties  to  Lincoln,  and  then 
through  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  to  North- 
umberland and  Westmorland,  he  describes, 
or  at  least  enumerates,  the  principal  topo- 
graphical features  of  the  country,  but  chiefly 
the  rivers  and  rivulets,  interspersing  in 
the  appropriate  places,  legends,  fragments  of 
history,  catalogues  of  British  saints  and  her- 


[626] 


POLYPHEMUS 

mits,  of  great  discoverers,  of  birds,  fishes,  and 
plants  with  their  properties.  The  first 
eighteen  songs  were  annotated  by  John 
Selden  (q.v.).  The  word  'poly-olbion*  (from 
the  Greek)  means  'having  many  blessings'. 

Polyphemus,  one  of  the  Cyclopes  (q.v.), 
a  son  of  Poseidon  (q.v.).  He  kept  his  flocks 
on  the  coast  of  Sicily  when  Ulysses,  returning 
from  the  Trojan  War,  was  driven  there. 
Ulysses  and  twelve  companions  were  seized 
by  Polyphemus,  who  confined  them  in  his 
cave,  blocked  the  entrance  with  a  huge  stone, 
and  daily  devoured  two  of  them.  Ulysses 
would  have  shared  this  fate,  had  he  not  in- 
toxicated the  Cyclops,  put  out  his  eye  with  a 
firebrand  while  he  slept,  and  escaped  from 
the  cave  by  concealing  himself  in  the  wool 
tinder  the  belly  of  one  of  the  rams  of  Poly- 
phemus as  they  were  let  out  to  feed.  Poly- 
phemus loved  the  nymph  Galatea  (q.v.)  and 
crushed  his  rival  Acis  with  a  rock. 

PolyxSna,  a  daughter  of  Priam  (q.v.)  and 
Hecuba,  who  was  loved  by  Achilles.  When 
the  Greeks  were  returning  from  the  siege  of 
Troy,  the  ghost  of  Achilles  appeared  to  them 
and  demanded  her.  Polyxena  was  accordingly 
sacrificed  by  Neoptolemus  on  the  tomb  of 
Achilles. 

Pomare  (pron.  Po-ma-re),  the  name  of  a 
succession  of  native  rulers  of  Tahiti  (Otaheite), 
one  of  the  Society  Islands  in  the  Pacific.  The 
best  known  is  Queen  Pomare  IV,  who 
reigned  from  1827  to  1877.  She  figures  in 
Herman  Melville's  'Omoo*  (q.v.). 

POMFRET,    JOHN   (1667-1702),    chiefly 
remembered  as  the  author  of  a  poem,  'The 
Choice*  (1700),  which  for  a  time  enjoyed  great 
popularity  and  secured  for  Pomfret  inclusion 
in  Johnson's  'Lives  of  the  Poets'.  It  describes 
the  kind  of  life  and  modest  competence  that 
the  author  would  choose. 
Pommard,  see  Burgundy. 
Pommery,  see  Champagne. 

P5mona,  an  Italian  goddess  of  gardens  and 
fruit-trees.  She  was  loved  by  Vertumnus 
(q.v.). 

Pompadour,  MARQUISE  DE  (1721-64),  mis- 
tress of  Louis  XV  of  France,  who  was  (per- 
haps wrongly)  believed  to  have  exercised 
a  great  influence  on  French  politics  and 
foreign  policy.  The  name  'pompadour'  is 
applied  to  fashions,  colours,  &c.,  popular  in 
her  day. 

Pompeii,  The  Last  Days  of,  see  Last  Days  of 
Pompeii. 

Pompey,  naval  slang  for  Portsmouth. 
Pompey  (CNEIUS  POMPEIUS)  (106-48  B.C.), 
surnamed  'The  Great',  a  famous  Roman 
general,  who  joined  forces  with  Sulla  and 
showed  great  military  ability  in  the  cam- 
paigns against  the  Marians.  He  aided  in 
finishing  the  Servile  War  in  71,  cleared  the 
western  Mediterranean  of  pirates  in  67,  and 
brought  to  an  end  the  war  with  Mithridates. 


POOLE 

He  formed  with  Julius  Caesar  and  Crassus 
the  first  triumvirate  in  60;  but  Caesar's  in- 
creasing power  in  the  ensuing  years  made  a 
struggle  between  him  and  Pompey  inevitable, 
and  the  death  of  Pompey 's  wife  Julia  (Caesar's 
daughter)  in  54  severed  one  of  the  links 
between  them.  Pompey  became  the  leader 
of  the  aristocracy  and  conservative  party,  and 
began  the  civil  war  with  Caesar  in  49.  He 
was  defeated  at  Pharsalus  in  48,  and  sailed 
for  Egypt.  While  landing  from  a  small  boat, 
he  was  stabbed  in  the  back  and  killed  by 
Septimius,  formerly  one  of  his  centurions. 

Pompey  the  Great,  his  faire  Corneliaes 
Tragedy ',  a  Senecan  tragedy  in  blank  verse  by 
Kyd  (q.v.),  published  in  1595.  An  anony- 
mous text  entitled  'Cornelia'  had  appeared  in 
the  preceding  year.  The  work  is  a  translation 
from  the  French  of  Gamier,  and  deals  with 
the  story  of  Cornelia,  daughter  of  Metellus 
Scipio,  and  wife  of  Pompey  the  Great.  The 
latter,  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalus,  is  killed  on 
the  way  to  Egypt.  Scipio,  Cornelia's  father, 
then  assembles  new  forces,  but  is  defeated  by 
Caesar  at  Thapsus  in  Africa,  and  ultimately 
takes  his  own  life.  The  play  consists,  in  great 
part,  of  Cornelia's  lamentations  for  her  mis- 
fortunes. 

'The  Tragedy  of  Pompey  the  Great*  is  the 
title  of  a  play  by  Masefield  (q.v.). 

Pompey  the  Little9  The  History  of,  see 
Coventry  (P.). 

Pompey 's  Pillar,  a  Corinthian  column  of 
red  granite,  erected  at  Alexandria  in  A.D.  302 
in  honour  of  the  Emperor  Diocletian.  It  has 
no  connexion  with  Pompey. 

Pompilia,  in  R.  Browning's  'The  Ring  and 
the  Book*  (q.v.),  the  murdered  wife  of  Count 
Guido  Franceschini. 

Pomponius  Ego,  the  sporting  journalist 
in  'Handley  Cross',  by  R.  S.  Surtees  (q.v.). 

Pons  Asinonim  (Latin,  the  bridge  of  asses), 
a  name  humorously  given  to  the  fifth  pro- 
position of  the  first  book  of  Euclid,  owing  to 
the  difficulty  that  beginners  or  dull-witted 
persons  find  in  'getting  over*  it. 

Pontet  Canet,  see  Claret. 

PONTOPPIDAN,  ERIK  (1698-1764),  a 
Danish  author  and  bishop  of  Bergen  in 
Norway.  His  principal  works  are  the  'Gesta 
et  vestigia  Danorum  extra  Daniam*  (1740), 
and  a  'Natural  History  of  Norway*  (1755), 
frequently  mentioned  on  account  of  its 
description  of  the  kraken  or  sea-serpent. 

Pooh-Bah,  a  character  in  Gilbert  and  Sulli- 
van's opera,  'The  Mikado*,  who  has  been  de- 
scribed as  'the  essence  of  cultivated  diplomacy 
behind  which  lurks  the  basest  of  motives*. 

POOLE,  JOHN  (i786?-i872),  dramatist, 
remembered  chiefly  as  the  author  of  the  suc- 
cessful farces  'Paul  Pry'  (1825),  "Twixt  the 
Cup  and  the  Lip'  (1827),  and  'Lodgings  for 
Single  Gentlemen*  (1829). 


[627] 


SS2 


POOR  RICHARD'S  ALMANACK 

PoorRichardPs Almanack-,  a  series  of  almanacs, 
with  maxims,  issued  by  B,  Franklin  (q.v.), 
1732-57.  They  contain  much  proverbial 
philosophy  and  some  good  fooling,  in  ridicule 
of  the  prophecies  of  almanac-makers.  They 
attained  remarkable  popularity  and  were 
translated  into  many  languages. 

Poor  Robin,  the  name  of  a  facetious  almanac, 
first  published  in  1 66 1  or  1662. 

Poor  Tom,  a  name  assumed  by  an  'Abra- 
ham man'  (q.v.),  who  feigns  madness,  in  the 
'Fraternitye  of  Vacabones*  (q.v.);  also  by 
Edgar  in  Shakespeare's  'King  Lear',  in.  iv. 

Footer,  CHARLES,  see  Diary  of  a  Nobody. 

POPE,  ALEXANDER  (1688-1744),  was 
the  son  of  a  Roman  Catholic  linen-draper  of 
London.  His  health  was  ruined  and  his 
figure  distorted  by  a  severe  illness  at  the  age 
of  12,  brought  on  by  'perpetual  application*. 
He  lived  with  his  parents  at  Binfield  in  Wind- 
sor Forest  and  was  largely  self-educated.  He 
showed  his  precocious  metrical  skill  in  his 
'Pastorals',  written,  according  to  himself, 
when  he  was  16,  and  published  in  Tonson's 
'Miscellany*  (vol.  vi)  in  1709.  (For  Pope's 
quarrel  with  Ambrose  Philips  on  this  subject 
see  under  Philips,  A.)  He  became  intimate 
with  Wycherley,  who  introduced  him  to 
London  life.  His  'Essay  on  Criticism'  (q.v.), 
171 1, made  him  known  to  Addison's  circle, 
and  his  'Messiah*  (q.v.)  was  published  in  the 
'Spectator'  in  1712.  His  'Rape  of  the  Lock* 
*  (q.v.)  appeared  in  Lintot's  'Miscellanies*  in 
the  same  year  and  was  republished,  enlarged, 
in  1714.  His  'Ode  for  Music  on  St.  Cecilia's 
Day*  published  in  1713,  one  of  his  rare 
attempts  at  lyric,  shows  that  his  gifts  did  not 
lie  in  this  direction.  In  1713  he  also  published 
'Windsor  Forest'  (q.v.),  which  appealed  to 
the  Tories  by  its  references  to  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht,  and  won  him  the  friendship  of 
Swift  (q.v.).  He  drifted  away  from  Addison's 
'Little  Senate*  and  became  a  member  of  the 
*Scriblerus  Club',  an  association  that  in- 
cluded Swift,  Gay,  Arbuthnot,  Atterbury, 
and  others.  He  issued  in  1715  the  first 
volume  of  his  translation  in  heroic  couplets 
of  Homer's  'Iliad'.  This  work,  completed  in 
1720,  though  not  an  accurate  version  of  the 
original,  is  one  of  the  great  poems  of  the  age. 
It  was  supplemented  in  1725-6  by  a  transla- 
tion of  the  'Odyssey',  in  which  he  was  assisted 
by  William  Broome  and  Elijah  Fenton.  The 
two  translations  added  considerably  to  his 
fortune.  He  bought  in  1719  the  lease  of  a 
house  at  Twickenham,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life. 

In  1717  had  appeared  a  collection  of  his 
works  including  two  poems  of  importance, 
not  only  on  account  of  some  beautiful 
passages,  but  also  as  dealing,  alone  among  his 
writings,  with  the  passion  of  love.  They  are 
the  ' Verses^to  the  Memory  of  an  Unfortunate 
Lady*,  an  impassioned  elegy  on  a  lady  who 
has  taken  her  life  to  escape  the  torture  of 
hopeless  love,  and  'Eloisa  to  Abelard',  a 


POPE 

longer  poem  expressing  the  conflict  in  the 
soul  of  a  woman  who  loves  and  has  renounced 
love  for  the  service  of  God.  About  this  time 
he  became  strongly  attached  to  Martha 
Blount,  with  whom  his  intimacy  continued 
throughout  his  life,  and  to  Lady  Mary 
Wortley  Montagu,  whom  in  later  years  he 
assailed  with  bitterness. 

Pope  assisted  Gay  in  writing  the  comedy 
'Three  Hours  after  Marriage*  (1717),  but 
made  no  other  attempt  at  drama.    In  1723, 
four  years  after  Addison's  death,  appeared 
(in  a  miscellany  called  'Cytherea')  Pope's 
portrait  of  Atticus,   a   satire  on   Addison, 
probably  written  some  years  earlier.  An  ex- 
tended version  of  this  appeared  as  *A  Frag- 
ment of  a  Satire*  in  a  1727  volume  of  the 
'Miscellanies'  (by  Pope,  Swift,  Arbuthnot, 
and  Gay),  and  it  took  its  final  form  in  'An 
Epistle  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot*  (1735).  In  the  same 
'Miscellanies'  volume  Pope  published  his'Mar- 
tinus  Scriblerus  IIEPI  BA&OY2,  or  the  Art 
of  Sinking  in  Poetry'  ridiculing  among  others 
Ambrose  Philips,  Theobald,  and  J.  Dennis 
(qq.v.).    In  1725  Pope  published  an  edition 
of  Shakespeare,  the  errors  in  which  were 
pointed  out  in  a  pamphlet  by  Theobald 
(q.v.).  This  led  to  the  selection  of  Theobald 
by  Pope  as  the  hero  of  his  'Dunciad'  (q.v.),  a 
satire  on  Dullness,  in  three  books,  on  which 
he  had  been  at  work  for  some  time  and  of 
which  the  first  edition  appeared  anonymously 
in   1728.    A  further  enlarged  edition  was 
published  in  1729.  An  additional  book,  'The 
New  Dunciad',  was  published  in  1742,  per- 
haps at  the  suggestion  of  his  friend  William 
Warburton;    and   the    complete    'Dunciad' 
(q.v.)  in  four  books  appeared  in  1743.  In  this 
Cibber  replaces  Theobald  as  the  hero.    In- 
fluenced by  the  philosophy  of  his  friend 
Bolingbroke,  he  published  a  series  of  moral 
and  philosophical  poems,  'An  Essay  on  Man* 
(q.v.),  1733-4,  consisting  of  four  Epistles; 
and  'Moral  Essays*  (q.v.),  four  in  number,  'Of 
the  Knowledge  and  Characters  of  Men',  'Of 
the  Characters  of  Women*,  and  two  on  the 
subject  'Of  the  Use  of  Riches'  (1731-5).   A 
fifth  epistle  was  added,  addressed  to  Addison, 
occasioned  by  his  dialogue  on  Medals.  This 
was  originally  written  in  Addison's  lifetime 
in  1715.    In  1733  Pope  published  the  first 
of  his  miscellaneous  satires,  'Imitations  of 
Horace*,   entitled  'Satire    I',   a  paraphrase 
of  the  first  satire  of  the  second  book  of 
Horace,  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between 
the  poet  and  William  Fortescue,  the  lawyer. 
In   it   Pope    defends    himself   against   the 
charge  of  malignity,   and  professes  to  be 
inspired  only  by  love  of  virtue.    He  inserts, 
however,    a    gross    attack    on    his    former 
friend  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu.     He 
followed   this   up  with  his  'Imitations*  of 
Horace's  Satires  II,  ii  and  I,  ii  ('Sober  Advice 
from  Horace')  in  1734,  and  of  Epistles   I, 
vi;  II,  ii;  II,  i,  and  I,  i,  in  1737.    Horace's 
Epistle  I,  vii  and  the  latter  part  of  II,  vi, 
'imitated  in  the  manner  of  Dr.  Swift',  ap- 
peared in  1738.    The  year  1735   saw  the 


[628] 


POPE 

appearance  of  the  'Epistle  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot* 
(above  referred  to),  the  prologue  to  the  above 
Satires,  one  of  Pope's  most  brilliant  pieces 
of  irony  and  invective,  mingled  with  auto- 
biography. It  contains  the  famous  portraits  of 
Addison  (11. 193-214)  and  Lord  Hervey  (q.v.), 
and  lashes  his  minor  critics,  Dennis,  Colley 
Gibber,  Curll,  Theobald,  &c.  In  1738  ap- 
peared 'One  Thousand  Seven  Hundred  and 
Thirty  Eight',  two  satirical  dialogues.  These 
satires,  and  the  'Satires  (II  and  IV)  of  Dr. 
Donne  Versified'  (1735),  with  the  'New 
Dunciad*,  previously  mentioned,  closed  his 
literary  career. 

He  was  partly  occupied  during  his  later 
years  with  the  publication  of  his  earlier  cor- 
respondence, which  he  edited  and  amended 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  misrepresent  the 
literary  history  of  the  time.  He  also  em- 
ployed discreditable  artifices  to  make  it  ap- 
pear that  it  was  published  against  his  wish. 
Thus  he  procured  the  publication  by  Curll 
of  his  'Literary  Correspondence*  in  1735,  and 
then  endeavoured  to  disavow  him.  He 
appears  to  have  taken  advantage  of  Swift's 
failing  powers  to  saddle  him  with  the 
responsibility  for  a  similar  publication  in 
1741. 

Minor  works  by  Pope  that  deserve  mention 
are: 

Verse:  the  Epistles  'To  a  Young  Lady 
[Miss  Blount]  with  the  works  of  Voiture* 
(1712),  to  the  same  'On  her  leaving  the 
town  after  the  Coronation*  (1717),  'To  Mr. 
Jervas  with  Dryden's  translation  of  Fresnoy's 
Art  of  Painting'  (1716),  and  'To  Robert,  Earl 
of  Oxford  and  Earl  Mortimer'  (1721);  *Ver- 
tumnus  and  Pomona',  'Sappho  to  Phaon* 
and  'The  Fable  of  Dryope',  translations  from 
Ovid  (1712);  'January  and  May',  'The  Wife 
of  Bath,  her  Prologue*,  and  'The  Temple  of 
Fame*,  from  Chaucer  (1709,  1714,  1715). 

Prose:  'The  Narrative  of  Dr.  Robert 
Norris'  (1713,  a  satirical  attack  on  J.  Dennis, 
q.v.) ;  'A  full  and  true  Account  of  a  horrid  and 
barbarous  Revenge  by  poison,  on  ...  Mr. 
Edmund  Curll'  (1716),  an  attack  on  Curll 
(q.v.),  the  publisher. 

Pope  was  buried  in  Twickenham  Church. 
The  first  collective  edition  of  his  'Works' 
appeared  in  1751.  The  standard  edition  is 
that  edited  by  Whitwell  Elwin  and  W.  J. 
Courthope,  and  published  between  1871  and 
1889. 

Pope,  GIANT,  see  Giant  Pope. 

Pope- figs,  in  Rabelais,  IV.  xlv,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  an  island  visited  by  Pantagruel,  repre- 
senting the  Calvinists  or  Lutherans,  so  named 
because  they  said,  'a  fig  for  the  pope's  image'. 

Pope  Joan,  see  Joan  (Pope). 

Popish  Plot,  THE,  a  plot  fabricated  in  1678 
by  Titus  Oates.  He  deposed  before  the 
Middlesex  magistrate  Sir  Edmond  Berry 
Godfrey  that  it  was  intended  to  murder 
Charles  II,  place  James  on  the  throne,  and 
suppress  Protestantism.  Godfrey  was  found 


PORSON 

murdered  the  next  morning.  The  existence 
of  the  plot  was  widely  believed  and  great 
excitement  prevailed.  Many  persons  were 
falsely  accused  and  executed.  J.  Pollock 
('The  Popish  Plot*,  1903)  has  written  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  story.  He  inclines  to  think 
that  the  Jesuits  had  some  plot  afoot,  not 
necessarily  anything  so  extensive  as  Oates 
pretended,  but  not  stopping  short  of  assassi- 
nation if  necessary. 

Porch,  THE,  a  name  given  to  the  Stoic 
school  of  Greek  philosophy  (see  Stoics). 

PORDAGE,  SAMUEL  (1633-91?),  author 
of  'Azaria  and  Hushai*  (1682),  a  feeble  reply 
to  Dryden's  'Absalom  and  Achitophel^q.v.), 
and  of  'The  Medal  Revers'd*  (1682). 

Porphyrion,  in  Greek  mythology,  one  of 
the  giants  who  made  war  against  the  gods. 
He  was  overcome  by  Zeus  and  Hercules. 

PORPHYRIUS  (233-c.  306),  a  neo-Platonic 
philosopher  and  opponent  of  Christianity, 
author  of  the  PORPHYRIAN  TREE,  a  kind  of 
genealogical  table  or  tree,  furnishing  a  defini- 
tion of  man.  It  starts  with  the  summum  genus 
'substance',  and  arrives  at  man  by  a  process 
of  dichotomy. 

Porphyrogenite,  originally  one  born  of  the 
imperial  family  at  Constantinople,  and  (as 
is  said)  in  a  chamber  called  the  Porphyra 
(purple).  Hence,  a  child  born  after  his 
father's  accession  to  the  throne;  and,  in  a 
more  general  sense,  one  'born  in  the  purple*. 
Constantino  VII  (911-59)  called  himself  or 
was  called  Torphyrogenitus*.  He  was  a  man 
of  letters  and  wrote  a  book  about  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Empire. 

Porrex,  see  Gorboduc. 
Porsenna  or  PORSENA,  LARS,  a  king  of 
Etruria,  who  according  to  legend  declared 
war  against  the  Romans  because  they  refused 
to  restore  Tarquin  (q.v.)  to  the  throne.  He 
would  have  entered  Rome  but  for  the  bravery 
of  Horatius  Codes  (q.v.)  at  the  bridge.  This 
legend  conceals  an  invasion  of  Rome  by  the 
Etruscans  for  purpose  of  conquest,  and  Rome 
was  taken  by  Porsenna. 
PORSON,  RICHARD  (1759-1808),  son  of 
the  parish  clerk  at  East  Ruston,  near  North 
Walsham,  showed  extraordinary  memory 
when  a  boy,  and  by  the  help  of  various  pro- 
tectors was  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  elected  Regius 
professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge.  He  edited 
four  plays  of  Euripides,  the  'Hecuba'  in  1797, 
'Orestes*  in  1798,  'Phoenissae*  in  1799,  and 
'Medea*  in  1801.  'His  finest  single  piece  of 
criticism*  (Jebb)  was  his  supplement  to  the 
preface  to  his  'Hecuba*,  in  which  he  states 
and  illustrates  certain  rules  of  iambic  and 
trochaic  verse,  in  opposition  to  the  views  of 
Hermann.  Some  of  his  best  English  writing 
is  to  be  seen  in  his  'Letters  to  Archdeacon 
Travis*  (1788-9)  on  the  authenticity  of  the 
text  of  i  John  v.  7  ('For  there  are  three  that 
bear  record  in  heaven*) ;  the  letters  also  show 


[629] 


PORT  WINE 

his  spirit  of  mischievous  humour.  His  literary 
remains  were  published  after  his  death,  be- 
tween 1812  and  1834.  His  correspondence 
appeared  in  1867.  He  advanced  Greek 
scholarship  by  his  elucidation  of  Greek  idiom 
and  usage,  by  his  knowledge  of  Greek 
prosody,  and  by  his  emendation  of  texts.  He 
was  also  famous  as  a  lover  of  wine. 
Port  Wine,  from  Oporto,  the  chief  place  of 
shipment  in  Portugal  of  the  wines  of  that 
country,  a  well-known  strong  dark-red  wine, 
often  fortified  with  brandy.  Its  consumption 
in  this  country  was  stimulated  by  the  Methuen 
treaty  of  1703,  under  which  the  duty  on 
Portuguese  wine  was  lowered,  to  the  dis- 
advantage of  French  wines. 

The  references  to  port  in  English  litera- 
ture are  innumerable.  Perhaps  the  story  in 
which  it  exercises  the  most  potent  influence 
on  the  course  of  events  is  Meredith's  'The 
Egoist*  (q.v.,  *An  aged  and  a  great  wine'). 
Saintsbury  in  'Notes  on  a  Cellar-Book'  ob- 
serves that  'there  is  something  about  it 
which  must  have  been  created  in  pre- 
established  harmony  with  the  best  English 
character*.  But  its  excessive  consumption  in 
the  1 8th  and  ipth  cents,  undoubtedly  did 
great  harm  to  England. 
Porte,  THE  SUBLIME,  a  translation  of  the 
Turkish  bab-i-ali,  the  high  or  sublime 
gate,  the  official  title  of  the  central  office  of 
the  Ottoman  government  under  the  rule 
of  the  Sultans.  'Gate'  is  supposed  to  refer 
to  the  ancient  place  of  audience,  &c.,  at  the 
gate  of  the  tent  or  the  king's  gate.  The 
attribute  'high'  is  not  literal  but  honorific. 
Porteous,  CAPTAIN  JOHN,  see  Heart  of 
Midlothian. 

PORTER,  ANNA  MARIA  (1780-1832), 
sister  of  J.  Porter  (q.v.),  and  authoress  of  'The 
Hungarian  Brothers'  (1807),  a  tale  of  the 
French  revolutionary  war,  and  other  novels. 
Porter,  ENDYMION  (1587-1649),  was  brought 
up  in  Spain,  and  on  his  return  obtained  a 
place  in  Buckingham's  household .  He  became 
groom  of  the  bed-chamber  to  Prince  Charles 
and  accompanied  him  and  Buckingham  on 
the  visit  to  Spain  in  1623.  He  was  the  friend 
and  patron  of  poets,  including  Jonson,  Her- 
rick,  D'Avenant,  and  Dekker,  and  the  sub- 
ject of  their  encomiums.  He  sat  in  the 
Long  Parliament,  but  was  expelled,  lived 
abroad  in  poverty,  and  compounded  in  1649. 

PORTER,  JANE  (1776-1850),  authoress  of 
two  successful  novels,  'Thaddeus  of  Warsaw* 
(q.v.),  published  in  1803,  and  'The  Scottish 
Chiefs'  (q.v.),  published  in  1810.  The  latter 
was  translated  into  German  and  Russian. 
She  attempted  plays  with  less  success.   She 
was  sister  of  A.  M.  Porter  (q.v.). 
Porter,  WILLIAM  SYDNEY,  see  O.  Henry. 
Porthos,  see  Three  Musketeers* 
Portia,  (i)   the  heroine  of  Shakespeare's 
The  Merchant  of  Venice'  (q.v.);  (2)  in  his 
'Julius  Caesar',  the  wife  of  Brutus. 


POSITIVIST  PHILOSOPHY 

Portland  Club,  THE,  a  London  card-playing 
club,  the  recognized  authority  on  the  game  of 
bridge,  as  formerly  on  whist. 
Portland  Vase,  also  known  as  the  BARBERINI 
VASE,  a  celebrated  urn  found  in  a  sarcophagus 
near  Rome,  and  purchased  by  Sir  William 
Hamilton  in  1770,  from  whom  it  passed  into 
the  possession  of  the  Portland  family.  It  is 
of  dark  blue  transparent  glass  ornamented 
with  cameos  of  opaque  white  glass,  represent- 
ing probably  scenes  from  the  legend  of  Peleus 
and  Thetis.  It  was  broken  to  pieces  by  a 
lunatic  in  1845,  and  mended. 
Portpipe,  MR.,  a  convivial  cleric  in  Pea- 
cock's 'Melincourt'  (q.v.). 
Portrait  of  a  Lady,  The,  a  novel  by  H.  James 
(q.v.)>  published  in  1881. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  of  James's  early 
works,  in  which  he  presents  various  types 
of  American  character  transplanted  into  a 
European  environment.  The  story  centres 
in  Isabel  Archer,  the  'Lady',  an  attractive 
American  girl,  whom  circumstances  have 
brought  to  Europe.  Around  her  we  have  the 
placid  old  American  banker,  Mr.  Touchett; 
his  hard  repellent  wife;  his  ugly,  invalid, 
witty,  charming  son  Ralph,  whom  England 
has  thoroughly  assimilated;  and  the  crude, 
brilliant,  indomitably  American  Henrietta 
Stackpole,  the  journalist.  Isabel  refuses  the 
offer  of  marriage  of  a  typical  English  peer, 
the  excellent  Lord  Warburton,  and  of  a 
bulldog-like  New  Englander,  Caspar  Good- 
wood, to  fall  a  victim,  under  the  influence  of 
the  slightly  sinister  Madame  Merle  (another 
cosmopolitan  American),  to  a  worthless  and 
spiteful  dilettante,  Gilbert  Osmond,  who 
marries  her  for  her  fortune,  and  ruins  her 
life ;  but  to  whom  she  remains  loyal  in  spite 
of  her  realization  of  his  vileness. 
Port-Royal,  originally  a  Cistercian  nunnery- 
near  Chevreuse  (Seine-et-Oise,  France),  be- 
came in  1636  a  place  of  retreat  for  pious  and 
learned  men  holding  the  Jansenist  (q.v.) 
doctrine,  where  they  devoted  themselves  to 
prayer,  study,  and  manual  employments.  It 
became  the  head-quarters  of  Jansenism  and 
the  centre  of  a  system  of  education,  and 
exercised  a  wide  influence,  notably  on  Pascal 
and  Racine.  The  institution  was  persecuted 
by  the  Jesuits,  and  finally  destroyed  by 
Louis  XIV  in  1710.  A  history  of  Port-Royal 
was  published  by  Sainte-Beuve  (q.v.)  in 
1837. 

Poseidon,  called  NEPTUNE  by  the  Romans, 
was  according  to  Greek  mythology  a  son  of 
Cronos  and  Rhea,  and  brother  of  Zeus  and 
Hades.  He  shared  with  them  his  father's 
empire,  receiving  as  his  portion  the  kingdom 
of  the  sea.  He  was  the  husband  of  Amphi- 
trite,  the  builder  (with  Apollo)  of  the  walls 
of  Troy  for  Laomedon,  and  the  implacable 
enemy  of  the  Trojans  because  Laomedon 
refused  to  give  the  gods  the  reward  stipu- 
lated for  this  service. 
Positivist  Philosophy,  see  Comte. 


[630] 


POSTHUMUS  LEONATUS 

Posthumus  Leonatus,  a  character  in 
Shakespeare's  'Cymbeline'  (q.v.). 

Post- Impressionism,  a  term  invented  by 
Mr.  Roger  Fry  to  cover  various  movements 
in  modern  art,  directed  to  the  expression  of 
the  inner  truths  of  structure,  as  opposed  to 
the  surface  effects  of  light  pursued  by  the 
impressionists.  The  principal  names  as- 
sociated with  the  movement  are  those  of  the 
French  painters  Paul  Ce*zanne  (q.v.),  Paul 
Gauguin  (1848-1903),  Henri  Matisse  (b. 
1869),  and  the  Dutch  painter  Vincent  van 
Gogh  (1853-1890). 

Postumus,  a  friend  of  Horace,  to  whom  the 
poet  addressed  his  Ode,  n.  xiv,  'Eheu  fu- 
gaces,  Postume,  Postume'. 

Pot  of  Basil,  The,  see  Isabella,  or  the  Pot  of 
Basil. 

Potiphar's  Wife,  who  tempted  Joseph 
(Gen.  xxxix),  'some  call  her  Rail,  but  the 
name  by  which  she  is  best  known  is  Zoleikha' 
(Sale's  notes  to  the  Koran). 

Poto'mac,  THE  ARMY  OF  THE,  the  principal 
federal  (Northern)  army  in  the  American 
Civil  War. 

Pott,  MR.,  in  Dickens  *s  'Pickwick  Papers' 
(q.v.),  the  editor  of  the  'Eatanswill  Gazette'. 

Potter,  PAUL  (1625-54),  a  famous  Dutch 
painter,  who  excelled  in  depicting  animals. 

Pottyfar,  MR.,  a  character  in  Marryat's 
'Midshipman  Easy'  (q.v.). 

Potwalloper,  a  popular  alteration  of  pot- 
waller,  i.e.  pot-boiler,  the  term  applied  in 
some  English  boroughs,  before  the  Reform 
Act  of  1832,  to  a  man  qualified  for  the  parlia- 
mentary vote  as  a  householder,  the  test  of 
which  was  his  having  a  separate  fireplace,  on 
which  his  own  pot  was  boiled. 

Poulter's  measure,  a  fanciful  name  for  a 
metre  consisting  of  lines  of  12  and  14 
syllables  alternately.  Poulter=poulterer. 

'Poulter's  measure,  which  giveth  xii  for  one 
dozen,  and  xiiij  for  another.* 

(Gascoigne,  'Steele  Glas'.) 

Pounce,  PETER,  a  character  in  Fielding's 
'Joseph  Andrews'  (q.v.). 
Poundtext,  REV.   PETER,  in  Scott's  'Old 
Mortality',  a  Presbyterian  divine,  the  'in- 
dulged' pastor  of  Milnwood's  parish. 
Povey,  SAMUEL,  a  character  in  Bennett's 
'The  Old  Wives'  Tale*  (q.v.). 

Powis,  MERTHYR,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'Sandra  Belloni'  and  'Vittoria'  (qq.v.). 

POWYS,  THEODORE  FRANCIS,  con- 
temporary English  novelist.  Among  his 
works  are  'Black  Bryony'  (1923)*  'Innocent 
Birds'  (1926),  'Mr.  Weston's  Good  Wine* 
(1928),  'The  White  Paternoster*  (1930), 
'Unclay*  (1931). 

Poyser,  MARTIN  and  MRS.,  characters  in  G. 
Eliot's  'Adam  Bede'  (q.v.). 


PRAJAPATI 

PRAEB,  WINTHROP  MACKWORTH 
(1802-39),  was  educated  at  Eton,  where  he 
founded  the  'Etonian',  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  He  went  to  the  bar  and  then 
into  parliament,  and  was  appointed  secretary 
to  the  Board  of  Control  in  1834.  He  is  re- 
membered principally  as  a  humorous  poet, 
though  like  Hood,  with  whom  he  is  naturally 
compared,  he  sometimes  uses  humour  to 
clothe  a  grim  subject,  as  in  'The  Red  Fisher- 
man'. Of  his  lighter  verse,  social  and  political, 
'The  County  Ball',  'The  Letter  of  Advice', 
'Goodnight  to  the  Season',  'Stanzas  on  seeing 
the  Speaker  asleep',  'Molly  Mog',  'The 
Vicar',  'Twenty-Eight  and  Twenty-Nine', 
are  among  the  best  examples.  In  purely 
serious  poetry,  Praed  fell  far  short  of  Hood  at 
his  best;  in  this  kind,  'Time's  Song*  and 
'Arminius*  are  perhaps  Praed's  most  notable 
works. 

Praeterita,  Outlines  of  scenes  and  thoughts 
perhaps  worthy  of  memory  in  my  past  life,  an 
uncompleted  autobiography  by  Ruskin  (q.v.), 
published  at  intervals  during  1885-9. 

It  tells  of  the  influence  on  Ruskin  of 
Copley  Fielding  and  Turner,  of  his  child- 
hood, of  his  first  visit  to  the  'Gates  of  the 
Hills'  (the  Alps),  of  his  travels  in  France  and 
Italy,  and  of  his  friends,  Dr.  John  Brown 
and  Charles  Eliot  Norton. 

Praetorian  Guard,  THE,  at  Rome,  origin- 
ally the  praetoria  cohors  or  select  troops  which 
attended  the  person  of  the  praetor  or  general 
of  the  army ;  subsequently  the  imperial  body- 
guard instituted  by  Augustus.  Their  number 
was  increased  in  the  reign  of  Vitellius  to 
16,000  men,  and  they  acquired  great  political 
power,  often,  especially  in  the  3rd  cent.,  de- 
posing and  elevating  emperors. 

Pragmatic  sanction,  a  rendering  of  the 
late  juridical  Latin  pragmatica  sanctiot  'an 
imperial  decree  relating  to  the  affairs  of  a 
community*,  the  technical  name  given  to 
some  imperial  and  royal  ordinances  issued  as 
fundamental  laws.  It  was  applied  first  to 
edicts  of  the  Eastern  emperors ;  subsequently 
to  certain  decrees  of  Western  sovereigns,  as 
the  Pragmatic  sanction  attributed  to  _  St. 
Louis  of  France,  1268,  containing  articles 
directed  against  the  assumptions  of  the 
papacy.  In  more  recent  history  it  is  applied 
particularly  to  the  ordinance  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI  in  1724,  settling  the  succession 
to  the  territories  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg. 
[OEDJ 

Pragmatism,  in  philosophy,  the  doctrine 
that  the  test  of  the  value  of  any  assertion  lies 
in  its  practical  consequences,  i.e.  in  its 
practical  bearing  upon  Human  interests  and 
purposes.  See  James  (W.). 

Prairie  State,  Illinois,  see  United  States. 

Prajapati  ('lord  of  creatures'),  in  Hindu 
theology  of  the  Vedic  period,  a  name  applied 
to  various  gods  in  their  character  of  protec- 
tors of  the  human  race.  In  later  speculation 


PRASUTAGUS 

the  Prajapatis  are  the  offspring  of  Manu  (q.v.) 
and  progenitors  of  living  creatures. 
Prasutagus,  king  of  the  Iceni,  husband  of 
Boadicea,  died  A.D.  62. 
Pratt,  Miss,  a  character  in  Miss  Ferrier's 
"The  Inheritance*  (q.v.). 
Praxiteles  (b.  c.  390  B.C.),  a  great  Greek 
sculptor  and  a  citizen  of  Athens,  one  of  the 
leaders  of  a  school  which  succeeded  that  of 
Pheidias  (q.v.).  He  excelled  in  the  represen- 
tation of  beauty  of  form.  Among  his  finest 
works  were  his  statue  of  Aphrodite,  pur- 
chased by  the  Cnidians  (of  which  there  is  a 
copy  at  Munich),  and  his  statue  of  Hermes 
bearing  the  infant  Dionysus,  discovered  at 
Olympia. 

Prayer,  THE  Boos  OF  COMMON,  see  Com- 
mon Prayer. 

Pre-adamite,  an  appellation  given  by  Isaac 
de  la  Peyrere  in  his  Trae-adamitae*,  1655,  to 
a  race  of  men,  the  progenitors  of  the  Gentile 
peoples,  supposed  by  him  to  have  existed 
long  before  Adam,  whom  he  held  to  be  the 
first  parent  of  the  Jews  only. 

For  the  PRE-ADAMITE  SULTANS  see  Vathek. 

Pre"cieuse,  the  French  equivalent  of  our 
Blue  Stocking  (q.v.).  See  Rambouillet* 

Prelude,  The,  an  autobiographical  poem,  in 
fourteen  books,  by  Wordsworth  (q.v.),  com- 
menced in  1799  and  completed  in  1805,  but 
not  published  until  1850,  after  the  author's 
death. 

In  his  preface  to  the  Excursion',  Words- 
worth explains  that,  having  retired  to  his 
native  mountains  with  the  hope  of  writing  a 
literary  work  that  might  live,  he  thought  it 
reasonable  to  take  a  review  of  his  own  mind, 
and  record  in  verse  the  origin  and  progress  of 
his  own  powers.  This  record  we  have  in  the 
'Prelude*.  It  is  addressed  to  his  friend  Cole- 
ridge. Wordsworth  successively  recalls  his 
childhood,  schooldays,  his  years  at  Cam- 
bridge, his  first  impressions  of  London,  his 
first  visit  to  France  and  the  Alps,  his  resi- 
dence in  France  during  the  Revolution  (but 
not  his  connexion  with  Annette),  and  his 
reaction  to  those  various  experiences ;  show- 
ing the  development  of  his  love  for  human- 
kind and  for 

the  unassuming  things  that  hold 

A  silent  station  in  this  beauteous  world. 

The  full  text,  showing  the  work  of  Words- 
worth on  it  in  his  later  years,  was  recently 
published  by  E.  de  Selincourt  (Oxford,  1926). 
The  early  versions  (1805-6  and  1817—19), 
which  were  much  altered  in  the  1850  stan- 
dard text,  are  there  printed  for  the  first  time. 
Premium,  MR.,  the  name  taken  by  Sir 
Oliver  Surface  in  Sheridan's  'School  for 
Scandal*  (q.v.),  when  he  assumes  the  charac- 
ter of  a  money-lender. 

Premonstratensians,  a  Roman  Catholic 
order  of  regular  canons  founded  early  in  the 
I2th  cent,  by  St.  Norbert  at  Pr&nontre",  near 


PRESENT  DISCONTENTS 

Laon  in  France,  so  called  because  the  site 
of  their  original  house  is  said  to  have  been 
prophetically  pointed  out  to  St.  Norbert. 
They  were  known  in  England,  where  they 
had  many  monasteries  (and  still  have  one  at 
Storrington,  Sussex)  as  The  White  Canons. 
Pre-Raphaelite  Brotherhood,  a  group  of 
young  artists  and  men  of  letters  who,  about 
the  year  1850,  united  to  resist  existing  con- 
ventions in  art  and  literature  by  a  return  to 
art  forms  as  they  supposed  them  to  exist  in 
European  art  before  the  time  of  Raphael. 
They  published  their  doctrines  in  'The 
Germ*  (q.v.).  The  group  was  composed  of 
William  Holman  Hunt,  John  Everett  Millais, 
Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  William  Michael 
Rossetti,  Thomas  Woolner,  Frederick  George 
Stephens,  and  James  Collinson. 
Presbyterianistn,  a  system  of  church 
government  (the  National  Church  of  Scot- 
land) in  which  no  higher  order  than  that  of 
presbyter  or  elder  is  recognized,  and  all 
elders  are  ecclesiastically  of  equal  rank. 
Each  congregation  is  governed  by  its  session 
of  elders;  these  are  subordinate  to  provincial 
Presbyteries,  and  these  again  are  subordinate 
to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church. 
PRESCOTT,  WILLIAM  HICKLING 
(1796-1859),  born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts, 
and  educated  at  Harvard,  had  his  sight 
affected  by  an  accident  while  at  college,  but 
nevertheless  devoted  himself,  with  the  help  of 
a  reader,  to  the  study  of  ancient  and  modern 
literatures.  His  first  work,  'The  History  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella',  appeared  in  1838. 
It  was  followed  by  the  'History  of  the  Con- 
quest of  Mexico*  (1843),  and  the  'History  of 
the  Conquest  of  Peru*  (1847).  The  first  two 
volumes  of  his  unfinished  'History  of  Philip  II, 
King  of  Spain*,  appeared  in  1855,  the  third 
in  1858. 

Present  Discontents,  Thoughts  on  the  cause 
of  the,  a  political  treatise  by  E.  Burke  (q.v.), 
published  in  1770. 

The  occasion  of  this  work  was  the  turbu- 
lence that  had  attended  and  followed  the  ex- 
pulsion of  Wilkes  from  parliament  after  his 
election  for  Middlesex,  and  in  it  Burke  ex- 
pounds for  the  first  time  his  constitutional 
creed.  He  attributes  the  convulsions  in  the 
country  to  the  control  of  parliament  by  the 
cabal  known  as  the  'King's  friends*,  a  system 
of  favouritism  essentially  at  variance  with  the 
constitution.  Burke  considers  in  detail  the 
Wilkes  case,  of  which  the  importance  lies  in 
its  being  a  test  whether  the  favour  of  the 
people  or  of  the  court  is  the  surer  road  to 
positions  of  trust.  He  dismisses  various 
remedies  that  have  been  proposed,  as  en- 
dangering the  constitution,  which  'stands  on  a 
nice  equipoise*.  He  thinks  the  first  require- 
ment is  the  restoration  of  the  right  of  free 
election,  and  looks  for  further  safeguards  in 
the  'interposition  of  the  body  of  the  people 
itself*  to  secure  decent  attention  to  public 
interests,  and  in  the  restoration  of  party 
government. 


[632] 


PRESENT  STATE  OF  EUROPE 

Present  State  of  Europe,  The,  see  Phillips 
<?•)• 

Present  State  of  the  Nation,  Observations  on 
a  late  publication  intituled  thet  a  political 
treatise  by  E.  Burke  (q.v.),  published  in  1769. 
This  was  Burke's  first  controversial  pub- 
lication on  political  matters.  It  is  a  reply  to 
an  anonymous  pamphlet  attributed  to  George 
Grenville,  in  which  the  decision  of  the  Gren- 
ville  administration  to  tax  America  was  de- 
fended on  the  ground  that  the  charges  left 
by  the  war  had  made  this  course  necessary. 
Burke  reviews  the  economic  condition  of 
England  and  France,  and  defends  the  repeal 
of  the  Stamp  Act  by  the  Rockingham  ad- 
ministration for  the  reason  that  'politics 
should  be  adjusted,  not  to  human  reasonings, 
but  to  human  nature',  and  that  'people  must 
be  governed  in  a  manner  agreeable  to  their 
temper  and  disposition*. 
Prester  John,  i.e.  Triest  John',  the  name 
given  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  an  alleged 
Christian  priest  and  king,  originally  supposed 
to  reign  in  the  extreme  Orient,  beyond 
Persia  and  Armenia,  but  from  the  isth  cent, 
generally  identified  with  the  king  of  Ethiopia 
or  Abyssinia.  Baring-Gould  ('Curious  Myths') 
thinks  it  probable  that  the  origin  of  the  legend 
lies  in  the  reports  which  reached  Europe  of 
the  success  of  the  Nestorian  (q.v.)  religion 
in  the  East.  Marco  Polo  identifies  Prester 
John  with  a  certain  Un-Khan,  an  historical 
person  (d.  1203),  who  received  tribute  from 
the  Tartars  and  was  overcome  and  slain  by 
Genghis  Khan. 

PRESTON,  GEORGE  F.,  see  Warren 
(J.  B.  L.). 

PRESTON,  THOMAS  (1537-98),  dra- 
matist. He  was  a  fellow  of  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  master  of  Trinity  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, 1584-98,  and  vice-chancellor  of  Cam- 
bridge University,  1589-90.  He  wrote_  'A 
Lamentable  Tragedy  mixed  full  of  Mirth 
conteyning  the  Life  of  Cambises,  King  of 
Percia'  (1569),  which  illustrates  the  transition 
from  the  morality  play  to  historical  drama. 
The  bombastic  grandiloquence  of  the  piece 
became  proverbial. 

Pretenders:  THE  OLD,  James  Francis  Ed- 
ward Stuart  (1688-1766),  son  of  James  II; 
THE  YOUNG,  Charles  Edward  Stuart  (1720- 
88),  son  of  the  Old  Pretender.  'Pretender' 
here  means  one  who  makes  pretensions,  a 
claimant. 

Pretenders,  The,  an  early  play  by  Ibsen  (q.v.). 
Pretty  Fanny's  Way,  see  Parnell  (T.). 
Pretty-man,  PRINCE,  in  Buckingham's  'The 
Rehearsal*  (q.v.),  'sometimes  a  fisher's  son, 
sometimes  a  prince',  falls  asleep  while  making 
love  to  Cloris,  his  mistress. 
PROVOST,  MARCEL  (1862-  ),  French 
novelist,  author  of  'Les  Demi-Vierges'  (1893), 
*Le  Jardin  secret'  (1895),  *Fr£d£rique*,  'Con- 
fession d'un  Amant',  'Monsieur  et  Madame 
Moloch'  (1906),  &c. 


PRIDE  AND  PREJUDICE 

PRfiVOST  D'EXILES,  ANTOINE 
FRANCOIS  (1697-1763),  generally  known 
as  the  ABB&  PROVOST,  at  one  time  a  soldier, 
later  a  Benedictine  monk,  was  an  industrious 
writer  principally  remembered  for  his  novel, 
'L'Histoire  du  Chevalier  des  Grieux  et  de 
Manon  Lescaut'  (q.v.,  1731).  Among  Pre"- 
vost's  translations  from  the  English  are  those 
of  Richardson's  three  novels. 

Priam,  the  last  king  of  Troy,  was  son  of 
Laomedon,  husband  of  Hecuba,  and  father  of 
many  sons  (fifty  according  to  Homer)  and 
daughters,  of  whom  the  most  famous  were 
Hector,  Paris,  and  Cassandra  (qq.v.).  In  order 
to  recover  his  sister,  Hesione,  whom  Hercules 
had  carried  into  Greece  and  married  to  his 
friend  Telamon,  Priam  manned  a  fleet  and 
gave  the  command  to  Paris.  The  latter 
neglected  Hs  father's  injunctions,  and, 
instead,  carried  off  Helen  and  brought  her  to 
Troy ;  thus  occasioning  the  Trojan  War,  the 
fall  and  destruction  of  his  father's  capital, 
and  the  death  of  most  of  his  sons.  Priam  was 
slain  by  Neoptolemus,  the  son  of  Achilles, 
after  the  fall  of  Troy. 

Priapus,  the  son  of  Bacchus  and  Venus.  He 
was  so  deformed  that  the  goddess,  ashamed  of 
giving  birth  to  such  a  monster,  ordered  the 
infant  to  be  exposed.  He  was  preserved  by 
shepherds  and  was  revered  by  the  Romans 
as  the  god  of  orchards  and  gardens,  and  of 
licentiousness. 

PRICE,  RICHARD  (1723-91),  a  native  of 
Glamorgan,  was  a  Unitarian  minister  in  Lon- 
don. He  published  in  1756  his  best-known 
work,  a  'Review  of  the  Principal  Questions  in 
Morals',  directed  against  Hutcheson's  doc- 
trine of  the  'moral  sense'  and  Hume's  de- 
velopment thereof.  He  agrees  with  the  views 
of  J.  Butler  (q.v.)  as  regards  conscience,  self- 
love,  and  benevolence,  and  regards  right  and 
wrong  as  self-evident  ideas,  belonging  to  the 
nature  of  things,  incapable  of  proof,  but 
apprehended  by  the  understanding.  Price 
subsequently  became  known  as  a  writer  on 
financial  and  political  questions,  advocating 
the  reduction  of  the  national  debt,  1771,  and 
attacking  the  justice  and  policy  of  the  Ameri- 
can War,  1776.  He  was  the  intimate  friend  of 
Franklin,  and  in  1778  was  invited  by  Congress 
to  transfer  himself  to  America.  He  was  de- 
nounced by  Burke  for  his  approbation  of  the 
French  Revolution. 

Pride  and  Prejudice,  a  novel  by  J.^  Austen 
(q.v.).  It  was  begun  in  1796,  and  in  its  early 
form  entitled  'First  Impressions'.  It  was 
offered  to  Cadell,  the  publisher,  in  1797  and 
refused.  In  its  revised  form  it  was  published 
in  1813. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bennet  live  with  their  five 
daughters  at  Longbourne  in  Hertfordshire. 
In  the  absence  of  a  male  heir,  the  property 
will  pass  by  entail  to  a  cousin,  William  Collins 
(q.v.),  who,  by  the  patronage  of  the  haughty 
and  insolent  Lady  Catherine  de  Bourgh,  has 
been  presented  to  a  rectory  in  the  immediate 


[633] 


PRIDE'S  PURGE 

vicinity  of  her  seat,  Rosings,  near  Westerham 
in  Kent.  Charles  Bingley,  a  rich  bachelor, 
takes  Netherfield,  a  house  near  Longbourne, 
and  brings  there  his  two  sisters  and  his  friend, 
FitzwUliam  Darcy,  nephew  of  Lady  Cather- 
ine. Bingley  and  Jane,  the  eldest  Bennet  girl, 
fall  mutually  in  love.  Darcy,  though  attracted 
to  her  next  sister,  the  lively  Elizabeth,  offends 
her  by  his  insolent  behaviour  at  a  ball.  The 
dislike  is  increased  by  the  (false)  account  given 
to  her  by  George  Wickham,  a  young  militia 
officer,  and  son  of  the  late  steward  of  the 
Darcy  property,  of  the  unjust  treatment  he  has 
met  with  at  Darcy's  hands.  The  aversion  is 
still  further  intensified  when  Darcy  and  Bing- 
ley's  sisters,  disgusted  with  the  impropriety 
of  Mrs,  Bennet  and  her  younger  daughters, 
effect  the  separation  of  Bingley  and  Jane. 

Meanwhile  Mr.  Collins,  urged  to  marry  by 
Lady  Catherine,  for  whom  he  shows  the 
most  obsequious  respect,  and  thinking  to 
remedy  in  part  the  hardship  caused  to  the 
Bennet  girls  by  the  entail,  proposes  to  Eliza- 
beth and  is  rejected.  He  promptly  transfers 
his  affections  to  Charlotte  Lucas,  a  friend  of 
the  latter,  who  accepts  him.  Staying  with 
the  newly  married  couple  at  the  parsonage, 
Elizabeth  is  again  thrown  into  contact  with 
Darcy,  who  is  nephew  to  Lady  Catherine. 
Strongly  attracted  to  her  in  spite  of  himself, 
Darcy  proposes  to  her  in  terms  that  do  not 
conceal  the  violence  that  the  proposal  does  to 
his  pride.  Elizabeth  indignantly  rejects  him, 
adducing  as  reasons  the  part  he  has  played  in 
separating  Jane  from  Bingley,  and  his  alleged 
treatment  of  Wickham,  Much  mortified, 
Darcy  in  a  letter  justifies  the  former  action 
and  proves  the  baselessness  of  the  latter 
charge,  Wickham  being  in  fact  an  un- 
principled adventurer, 

On  a  trip  to  the  north  of  England  with  her 
uncle  and  aunt,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Gardiner, 
Elizabeth  visits  Pemberley,  Darcy's  place  in 
Derbyshire,  1&inking  Darcy  himself  absent. 
Darcy  appears  on  the  scene,  welcomes  the 
visitors,  and  introduces  them  to  his  sister, 
showing  greatly  improved  manners.  At  this 
point  news  reaches  Elizabeth  that  her  sister 
Lydia  has  eloped  with  Wickham.  By  Darcy's 
help  the  fugitives  are  traced,  their  marriage  is 
brought  about,  and  they  are  suitably  provided 
for.  The  attachment  between  Bingley  and 
Jane  is  renewed  and  leads  to  their  engage- 
ment.^ In  spite,  and  indeed  in  consequence, 
of  the  insolent  intervention  of  Lady  Catherine, 
Darcy  and  Elizabeth  also  become  engaged. 
The  story  ends  with  the  marriages  of  Jane  and 
Elizabeth,  an  indication  of  their  subsequent 
happiness,  and  the  eventual  reconciliation  of 
Lady  Catherine. 

Pride's  Purge,  see  Long  Parliament. 
PRIESTLEY,  JOHN  BOYNTON  (1894- 
TT  „  "  n°velist  and  critic;  educated  at  Trinity 
Hall,  Cambridge.  His  best-known  novel  is 
ihe  Good  Companions'  (1929)-  He  con- 
tributed a  Life  of  George  Meredith  to  the 
Jingush  Men  of  Letters  series  in  1926. 


PRIMROSE 

PRIESTLEY,  JOSEPH  (1733-1804),  the 
son  of  a  Yorkshire  cloth-dresser,  was  edu- 
cated at  Batley  Grammar  School  and  Heck~ 
mondwike,  and  at  Daventry  academy.  He 
became  Presbyterian  (Unitarian)  minister  at 
Nantwich  and  other  places.  He  published  in 
1768  his  'Essay  on  the  First  Principles  of 
Government',  advocating  the  view  that  the 
happiness  of  the  majority  is  'the  great  stan- 
dard by  which  everything  relating  to*  social 
Kfe  'must  finally  be  determined*,  the  theory 
taken  up  and  developed  by  Bentham.  His 
celebration  of  the  fall  of  the  Bastille  led  to  a 
riot  in  which  his  house  was  wrecked.  As  a 
psychologist,  he  was  a  materialist,  but  was 
influenced  by  Hartley  (q.v.),  of  whose  work 
he  published  a  simplification,  omitting  the 
theory  of  vibrations.  In  1774  he  published 
his  'Examination  of  Scottish  Philosophy'. 

Priestley  was  also  a  chemist.  He  was  the 
discoverer  of  oxygen  ('dephlogisticated  air'), 
and  author  of  'The  History  and  present  State 
of  Electricity'  (1767)  and  of  other  works 
recording  valuable  investigations.  Finding 
life  in  England  uncomfortable,  owing  to  his 
opinions,  he  emigrated  in  1794  to  America, 
where  he  died. 

Prig,  BETSEY,  a  character  in  Dickens *s 
'Martin  Chuzzlewit'  (q.v.),  who  nurses  in 
partnership  with  Mrs.  Gamp,  until  her  re- 
mark concerning  the  apocryphal  Mrs.  Harris, 
*I  don't  believe  there  's  no  sich  person1, 
causes  a  difference  between  them. 

Primas,  a  dericus  vagus  or  wandering 
scholar,  a  I2th-cent.  cleric  of  Orleans,  mighty 
drinker  and  light-minded  poet,  one  of  the 
names  associated  with  the  arch-poet  Golias 
(q.v.).  There  was  also  a  i3th-cent.  Primas, 
canon  of  Cologne. 

Prime  Minister,  The,  a  novel  by  A.  Trollope, 
see  Phineas  Finn* 

Primer,  originally  a  name  for  prayer  books- 
or  devotional  manuals  for  the  use  of  the  laity, 
used  in  England  before,  and  for  some  time 
after,  the  Reformation.  The  medieval  Primer 
was  mainly  a  copy  or  translation  of  different 
parts  of  the  Breviary  and  Manual.  The  name 
was  also  given  in  the  i6th  cent,  to  books 
similar  in  character,  partly  based  upon  the 
Sarum  Horae*,  whether  put  out  by  private 
persons  or  by  royal  authority  (the  'King's 
Primer*  of  1545  and  successive  recensions 
issued  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII,  Edward 
VI,  and  EKzabeth).  After  the  Reformation, 
primer  was  also  applied  to  books  in  which  the 
offices  for  daily  prayers  were  based  upon  the 
orders  contained  in  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.  Later  forms  of  this  appeared  at 
various  times  down  to  1783.  [OEDJ  From 
-this  sense  was  gradually  developed  that 
of  an  elementary  school-book.  Johnson 
defines  Primer  as  *a  small  prayer-book  in 
which  children  are  taught  to  read'. 
Primrose  DR.,  the  hero  of  Goldsmith's 
'Vicar  of  Wakefield'  (q.v.).  The  other  princi- 
pal members  of  the  family  are:  DEBORAH  his 


PRIMROSE  LEAGUE 

wife ;  GEORGE  their  eldest  son,  who  wanders 
about  the  Continent,  much  as  Goldsmith 
himself  did,  seeking  his  fortune,  then  returns 
home,  becomes  a  captain,  and  finally  marries 
Miss  Wilmot,  an  heiress ;  MOSES,  the  second 
son,  a  simpleton  and  a  pedant,  who,  when 
sent  to  the  fair  to  sell  a  horse,  comes  home 
with  a  gross  of  green  spectacles  in  exchange ; 
OLIVIA,  the  elder  daughter,  sprightly  and 
commanding,  who  wished  for  many  lovers; 
and  SOPHIA,  her  sister,  'soft,  modest,  and 
alluring',  who  wished  to  secure  one.  All  four 
children  were  *  equally  generous,  credulous, 
simple,  and  inoffensive*. 

Primrose  League,  THE,  was  formed  in 
1883,  in  memory  of  Lord  Beaconsfield  (whose 
favourite  flower  is  said  to  have  been  the 
primrose),  for  the  maintenance  of  Conserva- 
tive principles.  It  is  said  to  have  included 
at  one  time  over  1,000,000  members,  and 
is  still  active.  The  anniversary  of  Lord 
Beaconsfield's  death  (igth  April)  is  cele- 
brated as  'Primrose  Day*. 

Primrose  path,  way  to  destruction;  prob- 
ably from  two  phrases  of  Shakespeare: 
'primrose  path  of  dalliance*,  'Hamlet*,  I.  iii. 
47,  and  'primrose  way  to  the  everlasting 
bonfire*,  'Macbeth*,  11.  iii.  22. 

PrimumMob!le(Latin/firstmovingthingJ), 
the  supposed  outermost  sphere  (at  first 
reckoned  the  ninth,  later  the  tenth),  added 
in  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  Ptolemaic  system 
of  astronomy,  and  supposed  to  revolve  round 
the  earth  from  east  to  west  in  twenty-four 
hours,  carrying  with  it  the  contained  spheres. 
Hence,  a  prime  source  of  motion  or  action. 
[OEDJ 

Prince  Hohenstiel-Schwangau,  a  poem  by 
R.  Browning  (q.v.),  published  in  1871. 

It  takes  the  form  of  a  monologue  by  Louis 
Napoleon,  emperor  of  the  French,  under  the 
above  pseudonym;  in  which  he  defends  the 
policy  of  expediency,  of  making  the  best  of 
things  as  they  are  instead  of  endeavouring  to 
reform  them ;  and  in  particular  his  course  of 
action  in  some  of  the  principal  conjunctures 
of  his  career. 

Prince  Imperial,  THE,  Napoleon  Eugene 
Louis  Jean  Joseph  (1856-79),  son  of  Na- 
poleon III,  educated  at  the  Military  Academy, 
Woolwich.  He  asked  permission  to  join  the 
British  forces  in  the  Zulu  War  of  1879,  ^and 
was  allowed  to  go  as  a  guest.  He  was  killed 
on  a  reconnoitring  party  on  I  June  1879. 

Prince  of  the  Peace,  Manuel  de  Godoy 
(Marquis  of  Alcudia)  (1767-1851),  who  as 
prime  minister  of  Spain  negotiated  peace 
between  that  country  and  France  in  1795* 
He  was  the  queen's  paramour,  incurred 
popular  hatred,  and  in  1808  was  obliged  to 
fly  from  the  country.  His  'Memoirs*  were 
translated  by  J.  B.  D'Esm&iard  in  1836. 
Prince  of  the  Powers  of  the  Air,  Satan 
(Eph.  ii.  2). 
Princes  in  the  Tower,  THE,  Edward  V  and 


PRINCESSE  DE  CL&VES 

Richard,  duke  of  York,  his  brother.  They 
were  lodged  in  the  Tower  in  1483  and  were 
there  secretly  murdered  in  the  same  year,  by 
order  of  their  uncle,  Richard  III,  Edward 
being  then  13  years  old.  The  story  is  told  by 
Sir  Thomas  More  in  his  'History  of  King 
Richard  IIP.  The  discovery  of  two  skeletons 
buried  at  the  foot  of  a  staircase  in  the  Tower 
(being  those  of  boys  of  the  age  of  the  two 
princes)  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II  makes 
More's  story  almost  a  certainty. 
Prince's  Progress,  The,  an  allegorical  poem 
by  C.  Rossetti  (q.v.),  published  in  1866. 

The  princess  waits  in  her  tower  for  her 
appointed  bridegroom.  The  prince  sets  out, 
strong  and  light-hearted,  to  seek  his  waiting 
bride.  But  the  way  is  long  and  arduous,  and 
the  prince  tarries,  yielding  first  to  one  allure- 
ment, then  another.  When  at  last  he  arrives 
he  is  too  late,  and  his  bride  is  dead. 

Princess,  The,  A  Medley,  a  poem  by  A. 
Tennyson  (q.v.),  published  in  1847.  The 
beautiful  lyrics  enshrined  in  it  were  added 
in  the  third  edition,  1853.  The  poem  pur- 
ports to  be  a  tale  of  fancy  composed  by 
some  young  people  on  a  summer's  day, 
based  on  a  text  in  an  old  chronicle. 

A  prince  has  been  betrothed  in  childhood 
to  the  Princess  Ida,  daughter  of  the  neigh- 
bouring King  Gama.  But  the  princess  be- 
comes a  devotee  of  the  rights  of  women, 
abjures  marriage,  and  founds  a  university  to 
promote  her  ideal.  The  prince  and  two 
companions,  Cyril  and  Florian,  gain  ad- 
mission to  the  university  in  the  disguise  of 
girl  students.  They  are  detected  by  the^two 
tutors,  the  amiable  Lady  Psyche,  Florian's 
sister,  and  the  sour  duenna,  Lady  Blanche, 
who  from  different  motives  are  induced 
temporarily  to  conceal  their  knowledge.  The 
deceit  is,  however,  presently  detected  by 
Princess  Ida,  but  not  before  the  prince  has 
had  occasion  to  save  her  from  drowning. 
This,  however,  does  not  avail  to  shake  her 
determination,  and  the  three  comrades  are  in 
peril  of  their  lives,  when  the  arrival  of  the 
prince's  father  with  his  army  is  announced. 
To  decide  the  matter,  a  combat  is  arranged 
between  fifty  warriors  led  by  the  prince,  and 
fifty  led  by  King  Gama's  mighty  son  Arak. 
The  latter  are  victorious,  and  the  three  com- 
rades are  laid  wounded  on  the  field.  What 
neither  force  nor  wooing  could  effect  is  now 
achieved  by  womanly  pity.  The  university 
is  turned  into  a  hospital,  the  wounded  are 
kindly  tended,  and  the  princess's  heart  is  won. 

Prmcesse  de  Cleves,  La,  a  French  romance 
by  Mme  de  La  Fayette  (1633-93),  published 
in  1678.  It  initiated  a  new  era  in  the  history 
of  the  romance,  and  may  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  first  examples  of  the  novel  properly  so 
called.  The  scene  is  laid  at  the  court  of 
Henri  II  of  France  and  the  story  is  that  of 
the  passion  of  the  Due  de  Nemours  for  the 
virtuous  wife  of  the  Prince  de  Cleves,  and  of 
her  fidelity  to  her  husband,  even  after  his 
death,  in  spite  of  her  affection  for  the  duke. 


[635] 


PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY 

Princeton  University,  founded  as  a 
college  for  the  middle  American  colonies, 
corresponding  to  Harvard  and  Yale  for  New 
England,  under  a  charter  of  1746,  first  at 
Elizabeth,  N.J.,  transferred  to  Princeton  in 
1754- 

Principall  Navigations,  Voiages  and  Dis- 
coveries of  the  English  Nation,  The,  see 
Hakluyt. 

Principia  Mafhematica,  Philosophiae  Natu- 
ralis,  see  Newton. 

Principles  ofMoralan  dPoliticalPhilosophy, 
by  Paley,  see  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy. 
Principles  of  Morals ,  Enquiry  into  the,  by 
Hume,  see  Treatise  of  Human  Nature. 
Principles  of  Morals  and  Legislation,  An 
Introduction  to  the,  see  Bentham* 
PRINGLE,  THOMAS  ( 178 9-1 834),  ^  born 
near  Kelso,  the  son  of  a  farmer,  studied  at 
Edinburgh  University,  made  a  friend  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  and  became  editor  of  the 
'Edinburgh  Monthly  Magazine'.  In  1819, 
the  year  in  which  his  first  volume  of  poems 
was  published,  he  emigrated  to  South  Africa, 
and  is  remembered  chiefly  as  a  poet  of  that 
country.  His  'Ephemerides*  (1828)  and 
f African  Sketches*  (1834)  contain  many 
striking  pieces  revealing  his  interest  in  the 
native  races  and  wild  life  of  Africa.  In  1835, 
after  Pringle's  death,  appeared  his  prose 
*  Narrative  of  a  Residence  in  South  Africa*. 
Printing  House  Square,  London,  now  the 
ofEce  of  'The  Times*  newspaper,  is  so  named 
as  the  place  where  formerly  the  King's 
Printers  had  their  premises. 
PRIOR,  MATTHEW  (1664-1721),  the  son 
of  a  joiner  of  Wimborne,  Dorset,  was  sent  to 
Westminster  School  under  the  patronage  of 
Lord  Dorset,  and  went  thence  to  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  ambassador  at  The  Hague 
and  employed  in  the  negotiations  for  the 
treaty  of  Rys wick.  He  joined  the  Tories  and 
in  1711  was  sent  to  Paris  as  a  secret  agent 
at  the  time  of  the  peace  negotiations,  the 
subsequent  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713)  being 
popularly  known  as  *Matt's  Peace*.  He  was 
recalled  on  Queen  Anne's  death  and  im- 
prisoned for  two  years.  A  folio  edition  of 
his  poems  was  brought  out  by  his  admirers 
after  his  release,  by  which  he  gained  four 
thousand  guineas,  and  Lord  Harley  gave  him 
£4,000  for  the  purchase  of  Ejown  Hall  in 
Essex.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
He  was  one  of  the  neatest  of  English  epi- 
grammatists, and  in  occasional  pieces  and 
familiar  verse  he  had  no  rival  in  English. 
Among  his  longer  poems  may  be  mentioned 
'Henry  and  Emma*,  a  paraphrase  (or  travesty) 
in  classical  style  of  the  old  ballad  fThe  Nut- 
Brown  Maid*  (q.v.) ;  'Alma  or  the  Progress  of 
the  Mind*,  a  dialogue,  in  three  cantos,  in  the 
metre  and  manner  of 'Hudibras',  nominally  on 
the  progress  of  the  soul  upwards  from  the  legs 
in  childhood  to  the  head  in  maturity,  in  fact 
on  the  vanity  of  worldly  concerns;  'Solomon 


PRISONER  OF  ZENDA 

on  the  Vanity  of  the  World*  (1718),  a  long 
soliloquy,  in  three  books,  in  heroic  couplets, 
on  the  same  theme;  'Down-Hall,  a  Ballad* 
(1723),  the  lively  account  of  a  trip  to  Essex; 
*  Carmen  Saeculare*  (1700),  celebrating  the 
arrival  of  William  III  from  Holland ;  and  cThe 
Secretary',  a  pleasant  piece  of  reminiscence 
of  his  early  diplomatic  days.  He  joined  with 
Charles  Montagu  (Halifax)  in  writing  'The 
Hind  and  the  Panther  Transvers'd  to  the 
Story  of  the  Country  and  City  Mouse*  (1687), 
a  satire,  after  the  manner  of  Buckingham's 
'The  Rehearsal'  (q.v.),  on  Dryden's  'The 
Hind  and  the  Panther'  (q.v.).  His  more  im- 
portant prose  works  include  an  *  Essay  upon 
Learning*,  an  'Essay  upon  Opinion*  and  'Four 
Dialogues  of  the  Dead*  (q.v.). 

Prioress's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 
Priscian,  a   Roman   grammarian,  born  at 
Caesarea  in  Mauretania,  who  lived  in  the 
6th  cent.  A.D.,  and  taught  at  Constantinople. 
He  was  the  favourite  grammarian  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  To  BREAK  PRISCIAN'S  HEAD  is 
to  violate  the  rules  of  grammar. 
Priscilla,  the  heroine  of  Longfellow's  'The 
Courtship    of   Miles    Standish*   (see   Miles 
Standish). 

Priscillian,  a  Spanish  heretic  executed  in 
A.D.  385,  to  whom  is  attributed  the  corn- 
position  of  the  verse  i  John  v.  7,  'For  there 
are  three  that  bear  witness  in  heaven*. 
Prisoner  of  Chillon,  The,  a  poem  by  Lord 
Byron  (q.v.),  published  in  1816. 

The  poem  deals  with  the  imprisonment  of 
Bonnivard  in  the  castle  of  Chillon,  on  the 
Lake  of  Geneva.  Francois  de  Bonnivard  was 
bom  in  1496,  became  prior  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Victor  near  Geneva,  and  conspired 
with  a  band  of  ardent  patriots  of  that  city  to 
throw  off  the  yoke  of  the  duke  of  Savoy  and 
establish  a  free  republic.  For  this  he  was 
twice  imprisoned  by  the  duke;  his  second 
imprisonment  was  in  the  castle  of  Chillon  and 
lasted  from  1530-6,  at  which  date  he  was 
released  by  the  Bernese.  He  lived  a  long  time 
after  this,  received  a  house  and  pension  in 
Geneva,  and  was  married  no  less  than  four 
times.  He  is  said  to  have  died  in  1570. 
Prisoner  of  Zenda,  The,  and  its  sequel, 
'Rupert  of  Hentzau*,  successful  novels  by 
Anthony  Hope  (see  Hawkins),  published  in 
1894  and  1898. 

They  deal  with  the  perilous  and  romantic 
adventures  of  Rudolf  Rassendyl,  an  English 
gentleman,  in  Ruritania,  where,  by  personat- 
ing the  king  at  his  coronation,  he  defeats  a 
plot  to  oust  him  from  the  throne.  He  falls  in 
love  with  the  Princess  Flavia  and  she  with 
him,  releases  the  imprisoned  king,  and  sur- 
renders Flavia  to  him.  In  the  sequel  he 
defeats  a  plot  of  the  villain  Rupert  of  Hentzau 
against  Flavia,  now  the  unhappy  wife  of 
the  king,  and  has  another  chance  of  taking 
the  throne,  this  time  permanently,  and  of 
marrying  Flavia.  But  he  is  assassinated  be- 
fore his  decision  is  known. 


[636] 


PRIZE  NOVELISTS 

Prize  Novelists  9  Mr.  Punch's,  by  Thackeray 
(q.v.),  published  in  'Punch*  in  1847,  and  re- 
issued as  'Novels  by  Eminent  Hands*  in 
'Miscellanies'  (1856),  are  parodies  of  Dis- 
raeli, Lever,  Lytton,  Mrs.  Gore,  G.  P.  R. 
James,  and  Fenimore  Cooper. 

Probationary  Odes  for  the  laureateship.  see 
Rolliad. 

Procne,  see  Philomela. 
Procris,  see  Cephalus. 

Procrustes,  meaning  *the  Stretcher',  the 
surname  of  Polypemon  or  Damastes,  a 
famous  robber  of  Attica,  who  was  killed  by 
Theseus.  He  tied  travellers  on  a  bed,  and  if 
their  length  exceeded  that  of  the  bed,  he  cut 
short  their  limbs;  but  if  the  bed  proved 
longer,  he  stretched  them  to  make  their 
length  equal  to  it. 

PROCTER,  ADELAIDE  ANNE  (1825- 
64),  daughter  of  B.  W.  Procter  (q.v.),  was 
author  of  'Legends  and  Lyrics*  (including 
'A  Lost  Chord',  1858-61),  'A  Chaplet  of 
Verses*  (1862),  and  'The  Message*  (1892). 
Her  complete  works  were  issued  in  1905. 

PROCTER,  BRYAN  WALLER  (1787- 
1874),  was  educated  at  Harrow,  practised  as  a 
solicitor  in  London,  and  was  made  a  com- 
missioner in  lunacy.  He  was  intimate  with 
Leigh  Hunt,  Charles  Lamb,  Hazlitt,  and 
Dickens,  and  had  a  considerable  reputation 
as  a  writer,  under  the  pseudonym  of  'Barry 
Cornwall*,  of  pretty  songs,  of  which,  how- 
ever, not  many  are  remembered  to-day.  In 
1821  he  produced  a  successful  tragedy, 
'Mirandola*,  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre. 
His  'Dramatic  Scenes'  (1819)  were  praised 
by  Charles  Lamb,  of  whom,  as  well  as  of 
Edmund  Kean,  Procter  wrote  a  biography. 

Prodigal  Son,  THE,  the  general  subject  of  a 
group  of  plays  written  about  1540-75,  show- 
ing the  influence  of  the  continental  neo- 
classic  writers  of  the  period  on  the  early 
Tudor  dramatists.  The  chief  of  these  are 
'Misogonus*,  written  about  1560  (author  un- 
known), and  Gascoigne's  'Glasse  of  Govern- 
ment* (1575).  The  parable  of  the  Prodigal 
Son  is  in  Luke  xv.  1 1-32. 

Prodigious!  the  favourite  exclamation  of 
Dominie  Sampson,  sometimes  followed  by 
'Very  fa-ce-ti-ous',  in  Scott's  'Guy  Manner- 
ing'  (q.v.). 

Professort  The,  a  novel  by  C.  Bronte  (q.v.), 
written  in  1846  (before  *Jane  Eyre*  and 
'Shirley'),  but  not  published  until  1857. 

The  story,  based  on  the  authoress's  ex- 
periences in  Brussels,  is  in  subject  the  same 
as  that  more  successfully  told  in  'Villette* 
(q.v.),  with  the  two  principal  characters  trans- 
posed. Instead  of  a  girl,  we  have  a  young 
man,  William  Crimsworth,  going  to  seek  his 
fortune  as  a  schoolmaster  in  Brussels.  At  the 
girls'  school  where  he  teaches  English  he  falls 
in  love  with  an  Anglo- Swiss  pupil-teacher, 
over  whom  he  exercises  the  same  sort  of  in- 


PROMETHEUS  UNBOUND 

fluence  that  M.  Paul  Emanuel  exercised  over 
the  heroine  of  'Villette'. 

Progress  of  Poetry,  a  Pindaric  ode  by  Gray 
(q.v.),  written  in  1754  and  published  in  1759. 
The  poet  describes  the  sources  of  poetry 
and  its  progress,  now  smooth  and  majestic, 
now  headlong  and  impetuous.  It  can  calm 
the  frantic  passions  of  the  soul  or  give  grace- 
ful motion  to  the  body.  It  can  charm,  away 
the  ills  of  life,  and  has  power  over  the  most 
uncivilized  nations.  It  came  from  Greece 
to  Italy  and  England,  where  Shakespeare, 
Milton,  and  Dryden  have  been  great  poets, 
but  no  one  equals  them  to-day. 

Projectors,  The,  see  Wilson  (J.,  1627-96). 

Prometheus,  a  son  of  Impetus  by  Clymene 
(one  of  the  Oceanides),  and  brother  of  Atlas 
and  Epimetheus  (qq.v.).  He  surpassed  all 
mankind  in  cunning  and  deceived  even  Zeus, 
who,  to  avenge  himself,  took  fire  away  from 
the  earth.  But  Prometheus  outwitted  him, 
climbed  the  heavens,  and  stole  fire  from  the 
chariot  of  the  sun.  To  punish  men  Zeus  sent 
Pandora  (q.v.)  and  her  box  to  earth,  and 
Epimetheus  (q.v.),  in  spite  of  the  warning  of 
Prometheus,  married  her.  Zeus,  moreover, 
caused  Prometheus  to  be  chained  to  a  rock  on 
Mt.  Caucasus,  where  during  the  daytime  a 
vulture  fed  on  his  liver,  which  was  restored 
each  succeeding  night.  From  this  torture 
Prometheus  was  delivered  by  Hercules.  To 
Prometheus  mankind  was  believed  to  be  in- 
debted for  many  useful  arts,  and  the  use  of 
fire,  plants,  and  domestic  animals. 

The  name  PROMETHEAN  was  given  to  a 
contrivance  used,  before  the  introduction  of 
lucifer  matches,  for  obtaining  fire;  it  con- 
sisted in  bringing  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
into  contact  with  an  inflammable  mixture. 

PROMETHEAN  FIRE,  the  divine  spark  ;  often 
so  used  in  literature;  as  where  Berowne  in 
'Love's  Labour  's  Lost',  iv.  iii,  says  : 

From  women's  eyes  this  doctrine  I  derive  : 

They   are    the   ground,    the   books,   the 
academes, 

From  whence  doth  spring  the  true  Pro- 

methean fire. 

But  cf.  Shakespeare's  use  of  'Promethean 
heat*  in  'Othello',  v.  ii.  12. 
Prometheus  Bound,  a  tragedy  by  Aeschylus, 
translated  by  E.  B.  Browning  (q.v.). 

Prometheus  the  Firegiver,  a  poem  by  Bridges 


Prometheus  Unbound,  a  lyrical  drama  in 
four  acts,  by  P.  B.  Shelley  (q.v.),  published  in 
1820. 

Prometheus,  the  champion  of  mankind,  is 
chained  to  a  rock  and  subjected  to  perpetual 
torture.  Characterized  by  'courage,  majesty, 
and  a  firm  and  patient  opposition  to  omni- 
potent force,  and  exempt  from  the  taints  of 
ambition,  envy,  and  revenge*,  instinct  also 
with  the  spirit  of  love,  he  remains  unyielding 
to  the  threats  of  Jupiter  (Zeus),  the  spirit  of 
evil  and  hate.  He  is  supported  by  Earth,  his 


[637] 


PROMOS  AND  CASSANDRA 

mother,  and  the  thought  of  Asia,  his  bride, 
the  spirit  of  Nature.  At  the  appointed  hour, 
Demogorgpn,  the  Primal  Power  of  the  world, 
drives  Jupiter  from  his  throne,  and  Prome- 
theus is  released  by  Hercules,  typifying 
strength.  The  reign  of  love  follows,  when 
'Thrones,  altars,  judgement-seats,  and 
prisons*  are  things  of  the  past  and  'Man 
remains 

Sceptreless,  free,  uncircumscribed,  but 
man 

Equal,  unclassed,  tribeless,  and  nationless, 

Exempt  from  awe,  worship,  degree,  the 
king 

Over  himself;  just,  gentle,  wise,  but  man*. 

Promos  and  Cassandra,  see  Whetstone. 
Propaganda,  THE,  the  Congregatio  de  pro- 
paganda fide »  a  committee  of  cardinals  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  having  the  care  and 
oversight  of  foreign  missions,  founded  in 
1622  by  Pope  Gregory  XV.  Hence  any  asso- 
ciation, scheme,  or  concerted  movement  for 
the  propagation  of  a  doctrine  or  practice. 

PROPERTIUS,  SEXTUS  (6.  c.  51  B.C.), 
Roman  elegiac  poet,  whose  four  extant  books 
are  concerned  mainly  with  the  successive 
phases  of  ecstasy,  disenchantment,  weariness, 
and  disgust  of  the  poet's  irregular  union  with 
a  certain  'Cynthia',  identified,  according  to 
tradition,  with  Hostia,  a  lady  of  good  position. 

Prophecy  of  Famine,  The,  see  Churchill  (C.). 
Proserpine,  or,  according  to  her  Greek 
name,  PERSEPHONE,  was  a  daughter  of  Zeus 
(Jupiter)  and  Demeter  (Ceres).  She  was 
carried  off  by  Hades  (Pluto)  while  gathering 
flowers  in  the  vale  of  Enna  in  Sicily,  and  made 
queen  of  Hell.  Demeter  wandered  over  the 
earth  seeking  her,  and  at  her  prayer  Zeus 
consented  to  the  return  of  Persephone  on  con- 
dition that  she  had  eaten  nothing  in  the 
infernal  regions.  But  Ascalaphus  revealed 
that,  while  walking  in  the  Elysian  fields,  she 
had  plucked  and  eaten  a  pomegranate  (he 
was  turned  into  an  owl  in  consequence). 
Finally  to  appease  the  resentment  of  Demeter, 
Zeus  allowed  Persephone  to  spend  six  months 
of  the  year  on  earth  and  the  remainder  with 
Pluto,  a  myth  symbolical  of  the  burying  of 
the  seed  in  the  ground  and  the  growth  of  the 
corn.  Swinburne's  'Hymn  to  Proserpine*  is 
included  in  'Poems  and  Ballads*. 

Prosopopoia,   the    sub-title    of    Spenser's 

'Mother  Hubberd's  Tale'  (q.v.). 

Prospero,  in  Shakespeare's  'Tempest* (q.v.), 

the  duke  of  Milan  and  father  of  Miranda. 

Proteus,  an  old  man  of  the  sea,  who  tended 

the  flocks  of  Poseidon.   He  had  received  the 

gift  of  prophecy  from  the  god,  but  those  who 

wished  to  consult  him  found  him  difficult  of 

access.  For  he,  on  being  questioned,  assumed 

different   shapes,   and   eluded   their   grasp. 

Among  his   daughters  was  Eidothea,  who 

taught  Ulysses  how  to  obtain  the  information 

ne  desired  from  her  father.  Homer  places  the 

residence  of  Proteus  in  the  island  of  Pharos, 


[638] 


PROVOK'D  HUSBAND 

off  the  Egyptian  coast,  Virgil  in  Carpathos, 
between  Crete  and  Rhodes,  whence  Milton 
('Comus')  speaks  of  him  as  the  'Carpathian 
wizard*. 

Proteus,  one  of  the  *Two  Gentlemen  of 
Verona'  (q.v.)  in  Shakespeare's  play  of  that 
name. 

Prothalamion,  a  'spousal  verse*  written  by 
Spenser  (q.v.),  published  in  1596,  in  celebra- 
tion of  the  double  marriage  of  the  Lady  Eliza- 
beth and  the  Lady  Katherine  Somerset, 
daughters  of  the  earl  of  Worcester.  The 
name  was  invented  by  Spenser  on  the  model 
of  'Epithalamion'  (q.v.). 

Protomartyr,  the  first  (Christian)  martyr, 
St.  Stephen. 

Proudfute,  OLIVER,  the  bonnet-maker  in 
Scott's  'The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth*  (q.v.). 
Proudie,  DR.  and  ^  MRS.,  characters  in  A. 
Trollope's  Barsetshire  series  of  novels  (see 
in  particular  Barchester  Towers). 

PROUST,  MARCEL  (1871-1922),  French 
novelist,  author  of  the  series  of  volumes 
grouped  under  the  title  'A  la  Recherche  du 
Temps  perdu*,  remarkable  for  their  ex- 
pression of  a  particular  metaphysical  attitude, 
i.e.  the  conception  of  the  unreality  and  re- 
versibility of  time,  the  power  of  sensation 
rather  than  intellectual  memory  to  recover 
'the  past',  and  the  subject's  consequent  power 
to  cheat  time  and  death;  for  their  minute 
psychological  analysis;  and  for  their  objec- 
tive presentation  of  a  wonderful  gallery  of 
portraits.  But  many  readers  may  be  repelled 
by  the  studies  of  homo-sexuality  in  which 
the  work  abounds.  It  has  been  translated 
into  English  by  C.  K.  Scott  Moncrieff. 
Prout,  FATHER,  see  Mahony. 
Proverbial  Philosophy,  see  Tupper. 

Proverbs  of  Alfred t  a  poem  dating,  in  the 
form  which  has  reached  us,  from  the  I3th 
cent.,  though  much  older  in  substance.  It 
begins  by  giving  some  account  of  King 
Alfred,  and  proceeds  to  a  number  of  stanzas 
each  ^  beginning  'Thus  quad  Alfred*,  and 
containing  instruction  of  various  kinds,  pre- 
cepts as  to^  conduct,  shrewd  proverbs  of 
popular  origin,  and  religious  teaching.  The 
connexion  of  the  proverbs  with  King  Alfred 
is  more  than  doubtful. 

Provok'd  Husband,  The,  or  a  Journey  to 
London,  a  comedy  written  by  Vanbrugh  (q.v.) 
and  finished  by  Gibber  (q.v.),  produced  in 
1728. 

The  'provok'd  husband*  is  Lord  Townly,  a 
man  of  regular  life,  who  is  driven  to  despera- 
tion by  the  extravagance  and  dissipation  of 
his  wife,  and  decides  to  separate  from  her  and 
let  the  cause  be  known.  This  sentence  (ac- 
cording to  Gibber's  ending)  brings  Lady 
Townly  to  her  senses  and  contrition,  and  a 
reconciliation  follows,  promoted  by  Manly, 
Lord  Townly's  sensible  friend,  the  success- 
ful suitor  of  Lady  Grace,. Lord  Townly's 


PROVOK'D  WIFE 

exemplary  sister.  A  second  element  in  the 
plot  is  the  visit  to  London  of  Sir  Francis 
Wronghead,  a  simple  country  gentleman, 
with  his  wife,  a  foolish  woman  who  wants  to 
be  a  fine  lady  and  seeks  to  achieve  her  end  by 
extravagance,  and  their  son  and  daughter. 
They  are  the  intended  prey  of  Count  Basset, 
an  unprincipled  gamester,  who,  under  cover 
of  making  love  to  Lady  Wronghead,  designs 
to  entice  her  daughter  into  a  secret  marriage, 
and  to  effect  a  match  between  her  son  and  his 
own  cast-off  mistress.  The  plot  nearly  suc- 
ceeds, but  is  discovered  and  frustrated  by 
Manly. 

Provok'd  Wife,  The,  a  comedy  by  Vanbrugh 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1697. 

Sir  John  Brute,  a  churlish  man  of  quality, 
ill-uses  his  wife,  and  is  a  coward  to  boot.  She 
is  courted  by  Constant,  but  has  remained 
faithful  to  her  husband.  Constant's  friend, 
Heartfree,  who  prides  himself  on  his  cynical 
indifference  to  women,  falls  in  love  with  her 
niece  Belinda.  The  two  ladies,  for  a  frolic, 
invite  Constant  and  Heartfree  to  meet  them 
in  Spring  Garden.  Here  Lady  Brute's  virtue 
is  on  the  point  of  yielding  to  the  ardent 
addresses  of  Constant,  when  they  are  inter- 
rupted by  the  jealous  Lady  Fancyfull.  The 
two  couples  return  to  Lady  Brute's  house  and 
sit  down  to  cards,  confident  that  Sir  John 
will  not  return  from  a  drinking-bout  for  some 
hours.  Sir  John,  however,  having  been 
arrested  by  the  watch  for  brawling  in  the 
streets  disguised  in  a  parson's  gown,  has  been 
dismissed  by  the  magistrate  after  an  amusing 
scene.  He  comes  home  unexpectedly  early, 
finds  the  two  men  concealed  in  a  closet, 
but  has  no  stomach  for  the  duel  offered  him 
by  Constant.  The  presence  of  the  men  is 
attributed  to  the  proposed  marriage  of  Heart- 
free  and  Belinda,  and,  in  spite  of  the  attempts 
of  Lady  Fancyfull  to  make  mischief,  all  ends 
happily. 

Prue :  'dear  Prue*  was  Steele's  (q.v.)  familiar 
name  for  his  second  wife,  Mary  Scurlock  (see 
Steele's  *  Correspondence'). 

Prue,  Miss,  a  character  in  Congreve's  'Love 
for  Love*  (q.v.). 

Prunes  and  prism:  'Father  is  rather 
vulgar  . . .  Papa  . . .  gives  a  pretty  form  to  the 
lips.  Papa,  potatoes,  poultry,  prunes,  and 
prism,  are  all  very  good  for  the  lips, 
especially  prunes  and  prism*.  (Dickens's 
'Little  Dorrit*,  n.  v  and  vii.) 

Prussian  Blue,  a  deep  blue  pigment  of 
great  body,  so  called  from  being  accidentally 
discovered  by  Diesbach,  a  colour-maker  in 
Berlin,  in  1704.  In  Dickens  (where  Sam 
Weller  calls  his  father  'My  Prooshan  Blue') 
probably  a  variant  or  intensive  of  'true  blue* 
[OED.],  or  with  reference  to  a  public-house 
sign  common  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  the 
'King  of  Prussia*  in  a  blue  uniform. 

Prussianism,  the  national  spirit  or  politi- 
cal system  of  Prussia,  with  reference  to  the 


PSALMANAZAR 

arrogant  and  overbearing  character  attri- 
buted to  the  former,  and  to  the  militarism 
of  the  latter. 

Pryderi,  see  Mdbinogion. 

Prynne,  HESTER,  the  heroine  of  Hawthorne's 
'The  Scarlet  Letter'  (q.v.). 

PRYNNE,  WILLIAM  (1600-69),  Puritan 
pamphleteer,  was  educated  at  Bath  grammar 
school  and  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  was  a 
barrister  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  wrote  against 
Arminianism  from  1627,  and  endeavoured  to 
reform  the  manners  of  his  age.  He  published 
'Histriomastix*,  an  enormous  work  directed 
against  stage-plays,  in  1632.  For  a  supposed 
aspersion  on  Charles  I  and  his  queen  in 
'Histriomastix*  he  was  sentenced  by  the  Star 
Chamber,  in  1634,  to  be  imprisoned  during 
life,  to  be  fined  £5,000,  and  to  lose  both  his 
ears  in  the  pillory.  He  continued  to  write  in 
the  Tower  of  London,  and  (1637)  was  again 
fined  £5,000,  deprived  of  the  remainder  of 
his  ears,  and  branded  on  the  cheeks  with  the 
letters  S.  L.  (seditious  libeller)  which  Prynne, 
with  humour,  asserted  to  mean  'Stigmata 
Laudis'  (i.e.  of  Archbishop  Laud).  He  was 
released  by  the  Long  Parliament,  and  his 
sentences  declared  illegal  in  November  1640. 
He  continued  an  active  paper  warfare,  attack- 
ing Laud,  then  the  independents,  then  the 
army  (1647),  then,  after  being  arrested  by 
Pride,  the  government.  In  1660  he  asserted 
the  rights  of  Charles  II,  and  was  thanked  by 
him.  He  was  M.P.  for  Bath  in  the  Convention 
Parliament  and  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
records  in  the  Tower  of  London.  He  pub- 
lished his  most  valuable  work,  'Brevia  Parlia- 
mentaria  Rediviva',  in  1662.  He  published 
altogether  about  two  hundred  books  and 
pamphlets. 

PSALMANAZAR,      GEORGE     (1679?- 

1763),  a  literary  impostor,  was  a  native  of  the 
south  of  France.  His  real  name  is  unknown, 
his  usual  designation  being  fashioned  by  him- 
self from  the  biblical  character,  Shalmaneser. 
He  was  educated  at  a  Dominican  convent  and 
commenced  life  as  a  mendicant  in  the  charac- 
ter of  a  native  Japanese  Christian,  but  after- 
wards represented  himself  as  still  a  pagan, 
living  on  raw  flesh,  roots,  and  herbs,  and 
invented  an  elaborate  alphabet  and  grammar 
and  a  worship  of  his  own.  He  enlisted  in  a 
regiment  of  the  duke  of  Mecklenburg,  and 
attracted  the  attention  of  William  Innes, 
chaplain  to  the  Scottish  regiment  at  Sluys, 
who  became  a  confederate  in  the  imposture, 
baptized  Psalmanazar  as  a  Protestant  convert, 
and  for  security  persuaded  him  to  remove  his 
birthplace  to  the  obscurity  of  Formosa.  He 
came  to  London  at  the  end  of  1703  and  became 
a  centre  of  interest,  presenting  Bishop  Comp- 
ton  with  the  catechism  in  'Formosan*  (Ms 
invented  language),  and  talking  volubly  in 
Latin  to  Archbishop  Tillotson.  He  published 
in  1704  a  'Description*  of  Formosa,  with 
an  introductory  autobiography.  After  the 
withdrawal  of  his  mentor  Innes,  who  was 


[639] 


PSALMS 

rewarded  for  his  zeal  in  converting  Psalmana- 
zar  by  being  appointed  chaplain-general 
to  the  forces  in  Portugal  (c.  1707),  he  was 
unable  to  sustain  the  imposture  unaided,  and 
passed  from  ridicule  to  obscurity,  although  he 
still  found  patrons.  He  renounced  his  past 
life  after  a  serious  illness  in  1728,  became  an 
accomplished  hebraist,  wrote  'A  General 
History  of  Printing*,  and  contributed  to  the 
'Universal  History'.  Psalmanazar  was  re- 
garded with  veneration  by  Dr.  Johnson,  who 
used  to  sit  with  him  at  an  alehouse  in  Old 
Street,  London.  In  1764  appeared  post- 
humously his  autobiographical  'Memoirs', 
containing  an  account  of  the  imposture. 

Psalms,  The,  the  Book  of  Psalms,  one  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  forming  the 
hymn-book  of  the  Jewish  Church,  often  called 
the  PsalTns  of  David,  in  accordance  with  the 
belief  that  they,  or  part  of  them,  were  com- 
posed by  David,  king  of  Israel.  (In  2,  Sam. 
xxii,  Psalm  xviii  is  attributed  to  David.)  The 
Psalms  were  the  basis  of  the  medieval  church 
services,  probably  the  only  book  in  the  Bible 
on  the  use  of  which,  by  the  laity,  the 
medieval  church  imposed  no  veto  at  all. 
For  our  own  Prayer  Book  version  of  them, 
one  of  the  greatest  inheritances  of  our  race, 
see  Coverdale.  A  Metrical  Version  of  the 
Psalms  was  begun  by  Sternhold  (q.v.)  and 
Hopkins  (2nd  ed.,  1551),  and  continued  at 
Geneva  during  Mary's  reign  by  Protestant 
refugees.  The  complete  Old  Version  (metri- 
cal) was  published  in  1562.  The  New  Ver~ 
sion  by  Dr.  Nicholas  Brady  and  Nahum  Tate 
(q.v.)  appeared  in  1696.  The  word  psalm  is 
from  the  Greek  ^oAAetv,  to  twitch  (the  strings 
of  the  harp). 

Psapho  's  birds :  Psapho  was  a  Libyan  who 
kept  a  number  of  birds  in  captivity  and  taught 
them  to  say  'Psapho  is  a  god*.  He  then 
liberated  them.  The  Africans  in  consequence 
paid  divine  honours  to  Psapho.  The  story 
is  attributed  in  Lempriere  to  Aelian.  Other 
dictionaries  give  no  reference.  It  is  given  by 
Erasmus  ('Adagia*,  I.  ii.  99),  who  merely 
says,  'Narrant  in  Lybia  fuisse  quendam 
Psaphonem*,  &c. 

Pseudodoxia  Epzdemica,  see  Vulgar 
Errors. 

Psyche,  see  Cupid  and  Psyche. 

Ptah,  the  Vulcan  of  Egyptian  mythology,  the 
deity  regarded  as  a  creative  force,  the  builder 
of  the  world  and  vivifying  power.  He  was 
worshipped  in  particular  at  Memphis. 

PTOLEMY  (CLAUDIUS  PTOLEMAE- 
US),  who  lived  at  Alexandria  in  the  2nd  cent. 
A..D.,  was  a  celebrated  mathematician,  astrono- 
mer, and  geographer.  He  devised  the  system 
of  astronomy  (according  to  which  the  sun, 
planets,  and  stars  revolved  round  the  earth) 
which  was  generally  accepted  until  displaced 
by  that  of  Copernicus.  His  work  on  this  sub- 
ject is  generally  known  by  its  Arabic  name  of 
Almagest'.  His  great  geographical  treatise 


PUGILISTICA 

remained  a  text-book  until  superseded  by  the 
discoveries  of  the  I5th  cent.  Ptolemy  com- 
piled a  map  of  the  world  in  which  both  the 
parallels  and  meridians  are  curved.  Though 
defective  in  details,  it  had  a  great  influence  on 
map-making  in  the  15th  cent.  His  under- 
estimate of  the  circumference  of  the  earth  is 
said  to  have  encouraged  Columbus  to  under- 
take his  voyage  to  the  west. 

Ptolemy  Philadelphia  (285-247  B.C.),  king 
of  Egypt,  the  son  of  Ptolemy  I,  is  important 
in  a  literary  connexion  as  a  patron  of  learning. 
In  his  reign  Alexandria  was  the  resort  of  the 
most  distinguished  men  of  letters  of  the  time, 
and  the  celebrated  Alexandrian  Library, 
begun  by  his  father,  was  increased.  Manetho 
(q.v.)  wrote  during  his  reign,  and  according 
to  tradition  the  Septuagint  (q.v.)  version  of 
the  Scriptures  was  made  at  his  request. 

Public  Advertiser,  The,  originally  'The 
London  Daily  Post  and  General  Advertiser*, 
was  started  in  1752  and  expired  in  1798,  being 
then  amalgamated  with  the  ^Public  Ledger* 
(q.v.).  From  1758  to  1793  it  was  edited  by 
Henry  Sampson  Woodfall,  and  published  the 
famous  'Letters*  of  'Junius*  (q.v.).  It  con- 
tained home  and  foreign  intelligence,  and 
correspondence,  mainly  political,  from  writers 
of  all  shades  of  opinion.  Wilkes  and  Tooke 
(qq.v.)  carried  on  a  dispute  in  its  columns. 
The  notable  pamphlets  of  'Candor*  against 
Lord  Mansfield  (1764)  also  appeared  origin- 
ally as  letters  to  the  'Public  Advertiser*.  The 
author  of  these  is  unknown. 

Public  Ledger 9  The,  a  commercial  periodical 
founded  in  1759  by  Newbery  (q.v.),  to  which 
Goldsmith  (q.v.)  contributed  his  'Chinese 
Letters'.  It  absorbed  the  'Public  Advertiser* 
(q.v.)  in  1798. 

Puccini,  GIACOMO  (1858-1924),  a  popular 
opera  composer,  born  at  Lucca.  His  most 
successful  works  were  'Manon  Lescaut* 
(1893),  'LaBoheme'(i896),  'LaTosca*(i899), 
cMadama  Butterfly*  (1904),  'La  Fanciulla 
del  West*  (1910). 

Pucette,  La  ('The  Maid*,  i.e.  Joan  of  Arc),  a 
burlesque  epic  by  Voltaire  (q.v.)  on  the 
subject  of  Joan  of  Arc  (q.v.),  published  in 
1762.  Joan  is  called  'la  Pucelle*  in  Shake- 
speare's *i  King  Henry  VI*. 

Puck,  originally  an  evil  or  malicious  spirit  or 
demon  of  popular  superstition;  from  the  i6th 
cent,  the  name  of  a  fancied  mischievous  or 
tricksy  goblin  or  sprite,  called  also  Robin 
Goodfellow  and  Hobgoblin.  In  this  charac- 
ter he  figures  in  Shakespeare's  'Midsummer 
Night's  Dream*  (n.  i.  40)  and  Drayton's 
'Nymphidia*  (xxxvi),  qq.v. 

Puddingfield,  a  character  in  'The  Rovers' 
(see  Anti- -Jacobin). 

Puff,  a  character  in  Sheridan's  'The  Critic* 
(q.v.). 

Pugilisticci,  a  work  on  British  boxing  by 
Henry  Downes  Miles,  published  in  1006.  It 


[640] 


PULCI 

carries  on  the  story  of  the  prize-ring  begun  in 
the  'Boxiana'  of  Egan  (q.v.). 

PULCI,  LUIGI  (1432-84),  Florentine  poet 
and  humanist,  is  celebrated  as  the  founder  of 
the  romantic  epic  in  Italy,  of  which  he  left 
the  prototype  in  his  'Morgante  Maggiore' 
(q.v.). 

Pulitzer,  JOSEPH  (1847-1911),  a  Hungarian 
by  birth,  who  settled  in  America,  was  one  of 
the  chief  founders  of  American  sensational 
journalism,  first  in  the  'St.  Louis  Post-Des- 
patch' which  he  acquired  in  1878,  and  then 
in  the  'New  York  World5  which  he  took  over 
in  1883.  His  object  was  the  remedy  of  abuses 
and  the  reform  of  social  and  economic  in- 
equalities by  the  exposure  of  striking  in- 
stances and  by  the  vigorous  expression  of 
democratic  opinion.  The  success  of  this 
appeal  to  the  emotions  found  many  imitators 
among  journalists  not  actuated  by  the  same 
creditable  motives. 

Pulitzer  Prizes,  annual  prizes  established 
under  the  will  of  Joseph  Pulitzer  (q.v.).  The 
prizes,  which  are  confined  to  American 
citizens,  are  offered  in  the  interest  of  letters 
(American  history  and  biography,  poetry, 
drama,  and  novel-writing),  music,  and  good 
newspaper  work.  The  amount  of  the  prizes 
is  about  $14,500.  (Don  C.  Seitz,  'Joseph 
Pulitzer*,  1926.) 

PULLEN,  THE  REV.  HENRY  WILLIAM 
(1836-1903),  remembered  as  the  author  of 
the  allegorical  pamphlet, 'The  Fight  in  Dame 
Europa's  School'  (1870),  accusing  England 
of  cowardice  in  observing  neutrality  in  the 
Franco-Prussian  War. 

Pullet,  MR.  and  MRS.,  characters  in  G. 
Eliot's  'The  Mill  on  the  Floss'  (q.v.). 

Pumblechook,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Great  Expectations'  (q.v.). 

Pumpernickel,  the  name  under  which 
Thackeray  genially  satirizes  the  minor  Ger- 
man principalities,  particularly  in  'Vanity 
Fair',  where  the  description  of  Pumpernickel 
is  based  on  his  recollections  of  Weimar  in 
1831.  The  word  in  German  means  a  kind  of 
dark  brown  bread  made  from  coarsely  ground 
unbolted  rye. 

Punch,  probably  short  for  Punchinello,  ap- 
parently adapted  from  Neapolitan  dialectal 
polecenella,  equivalent  to  Italian  pulcinella. 
The  latter  word  is  the  diminutive  of  pulcina 
chicken;  and  polecenella  is  diminutive  of 
polecena,  the  young  of  the  turkey-cock,  to  the 
hooked  bill  of  which  the  nose  of  Punch's 
mask  bears  a  resemblance.  [OED.]  See 
further  under  Punch  and  Judy. 

Punch  and  Judy,  a  puppet-show  drama 
probably  introduced  into  England  from  the 
Continent  towards  the  end  of  the  i7th  cent. 
The  character  of  Pulcinella  (see  Punch)  ^  is 
stated  by  Italian  authors  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  Silvio  Fiorillo,  a  comedian,  about 
the  year  1600,  for  the  Neapolitan  impromptu 


PUNIC  FAITH 

comedies,  to  imitate  the  peasants  of  Acerra,  a 
town  near  Naples. 

The  plot  of  the  drama  and  the  dialogue 
have  varied  in  different  presentations,  but 
the  main  outline  is  as  follows.  Punch  is  a 
hump-backedjong-nosedcreaturejdissipated, 
violent,  and  cunning.  In  a  fit  of  anger  he 
kills  his  child.  His  wife  Judy,  discovering  the 
murder,  attacks  him  with  a  bludgeon,  but  he 
wrests  the  weapon  from  her  and  kills  her. 
The  dog  Toby  seizes  him  by  the  nose,  and  he 
kills  it.  He  is  visited  by  a  doctor  when  ill, 
kicks  him,  and  when  the  doctor  retaliates, 
bludgeons  him  to  death.  He  is  arrested  and 
sentenced  to  death.  He  beguiles  the  hang- 
man into  putting  his  own  head  in  the  noose 
and  promptly  hangs  him.  Finally  he  is 
visited  by  the  devil,  whom  he  likewise 
vanquishes.  (Much  information  is  contained 
in  J.  Payne  Collier's  'Punch  and  Judy*,  1870. 
The  character  of  Punch  may  be  in  part 
derived  from  the  Vice  of  the  old  Moralities.) 

Punch»  or  the  London  Charivari,  an  illustrated 
weekly  comic  periodical,  founded  in  1841; 
at  first  a  rather  strongly  Radical  paper,  but 
gradually  coming  round  to  its  present  attitude. 
The  circumstances  of  the  birth  of  this 
famous  paper  have  been  variously  stated.  One 
or  two  illustrated  comic  papers  had  already 
appeared  in  London,  notably  Gilbert  Ab- 
bott &  Beckett's  'Figaro  in  London'  (1831) 
and  'Punchinello'  (1832)  illustrated  by 
Cruikshank.  It  appears  that  the  idea  of 
starting  in  London  a  comic  paper  somewhat 
on  the  lines  of  PhiKppon's  Paris  'Charivari' 
first  occurred  to  Ebenezer  Landells,  draughts- 
man and  wood-engraver,  who  submitted  it 
to  the  humorist  Henry  Mayhew  (1812-87). 
Mayhew  took  up  the  proposal,  and  enlisted 
the  support  of  Lemon  (q.v.)  and  Joseph 
Stirling  Coyne  (1803-68),  these  three  being 
the  first  joint-editors.  The  first  number  was 
issued  on  17  June  1841.  Joseph  Last  was  the 
first  printer,  and  Landells  the  first  engraver. 
A  Beckett  (q.v.)  and  Jerrold  (q.v.)  were  among 
the  original  staff,  soon  joined  by  Thackeray, 
Hood,  Leech,  and  Tenniel  (qq.v.),  among 
others.  Shirley  Brooks  (1816-74)  became 
editor  in  1870,  Tom  Taylor  (q.v.)  in  1874, 
and  Burnand  (q.v.)  in  1880.  Sir  Owen 
Seaman  was  editor  from  1906  to  1932.  Among 
other  famous  draughtsmen  may  be  men- 
tioned Charles  Keene  (1823-91),  whose 
first  drawing  in  'Punch'  appeared  in  1851  and 
who  joined  the  staff  in  1860 ;  and  Du  Maurier 
(q.v.),  who  contributed  drawings  from  1860 
and  joined  the  staff  in  1864.  The  design  for 
the  wrapper,  as  we  have  it  now,  the  sixth  that 
appeared,  was  drawn  by  Richard  Doyle 
(q.v.)  and  adopted  in  1849. 

Punch's  Prize  Novelists,  Mr.,  see  Prize 
Novelists. 

Punic  Faith,  faithlessness.  The  Cartha- 
ginians were  proverbial  among  the  Romans 
for  perfidy;  as,  no  doubt,  the  Romans  were 
among  the  Carthaginians  (for  the  derivation 
of  Punic,  see  under  Carthage). 


[641] 


Tt 


PUNTARVOLO 

Puntarvolo,  in  Jonson's  'Every  Man  out  of 
his  Humour*  (q.v.),  a  vainglorious  knight. 
Puppet-play,  see  Motion. 
Puranas,  THE,  sacred  mythological  works 
in  Sanskrit  containing  the  mythology  of  the 
Hindus.  They  are  of  comparatively  recent 
date,  none  of  them  being  thought  to  be  more 
ancient  than  the  8th  cent.  A.D.  They  divide 
themselves  into  three  groups,  relating  res- 
pectively to  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva. 
Purcell,  HENRY  (i658?-95),  one  of  the 
greatest  of  English  composers.  His  father 
and  uncle  were  both  musicians,  the  former 
being  master  of  the  choristers  of  West- 
minster Abbey.  Purcell  became,  when  six 
years  old,  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal, 
and  in  1680,  when  22,  was  appointed  organist 
of  Westminster  Abbey.  In  that  year  he 

Educed  the  music  of  'Dido  and  Aeneas' 
ihum  Tate  composing  the  words),  his 
t-known  work,  including  the  great  song, 
'When  I  am  laid  in  earth'.    He  wrote  the 
incidental  music  for  many  plays  and  much 
church  music.    He  is  buried  beneath  the 
organ  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

PURGHAS,  SAMUEL  (i575?-i6s6),  was 
born  at  Thaxted  in  Essex,  and  educated  at 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  was 
rector  of  St.  Martin's,  Ludgate,  London, 
1614-26.  In  1613  he  published  'Purchas  his 
Pilgrimage,  or  Relations  of  the  World  and  the 
Religions  observed  in  all  Ages';  in  1619 
Turchas  his  Pilgrim,  Microcosrnus  or  the 
Histories  of  Man';  and  in  162.5  'Hakluytus 
Posthumus,  or  Purchas  his  Pilgrimes,  con- 
tayning  a  History  of  the  World  in  Sea  Voyages 
and  Land  Travell  by  Englishmen  and  others'. 
This  last  is  in  part  based  on  manuscripts  left 
by  Hakluyt  (q.v.)  and  is  a  continuation  of 
the  latter's  work  (Purchas  appears  to  have 
assisted  Hakluyt  to  arrange  papers  which  were 
unpublished  at  the  latter 's  death).  It  consists 
of  two  divisions,  each  of  ten  books.  In  the 
first  division,  after  an  introductory  book, 
are  set  forth  narratives  of  voyages  to  India, 
China,  Japan,  Africa,  and  the  Mediterranean. 
The  second  division  deals  with  attempts 
to  discover  the  North-West  Passage,  the 
Muscovy  expeditions,  and  explorations  of  the 
West  Indies  and  Florida.  Among  the  best 
narratives  are  Williani  Adams's  description 
of  his  voyage  to  Japan  and  residence  there, 
and  William  Hawkins's  account  of  his  visit  to 
the  court  of  the  Great  Mogul  at  Agra.  The 
works  of  Purchas  were  not  reprinted  until  the 
Glasgow  edition  of  1905-7. 

Pure,  SIMON,  see  Simon  Pure. 

Purgatorio,  The,  of  Dante,  see  Divina  Corn- 
media. 

Purgatory,  ST.  PATRICK'S,  see  Patrick's 
Purgatory. 

Puritan,  a  member  of  that  party  of  English 
Protestants  who  regarded  the  reformation  of 
the  Church  under  Elizabeth  as  incomplete, 
and  called  for  its  further  'purification*  from 


PUSHKIN 

what  they  considered  to  be  unscriptural  and 
corrupt  forms  and  ceremonies  retained  from 
the  unreformed  Church.  The  term  appears 
in  early  use  as  one  of  reproach  by  opponents, 
and  was  applied  to  the  Presbyterians,  In- 
dependents, or  Baptists,  and  consequently 
to  the  typical c Roundheads'  of  the  Common- 
wealth period,  whose  Puritanism  was  some- 
times little  more  than  political.  In  later 
times  the  term  has  become  historical,  without 
opprobrious  connotation;  but  is  also  often 
used  of  one  who  affects  extreme  strictness  in 
morals. 

Puritan,  The,  or  the  Widow  of  Watling- 
Streety  a  comedy  published  in  1607  as *  written 
by  W.S.*  and  included  in  the  3rd  and  4th 
Shakespeare  folios,  but  certainly  by  some 
other  hand,  perhaps  Marston. 

The  play  is  a  farcical  comedy  of  London 
manners,  and  sets  forth  the  tricks  played  on 
•die  widow  and  her  daughter  by  Capt.  Idle 
and  George  Pye-boord  in  order  to  win  their 
hands,  with  scenes  in  the  Marshalsea. 
Puritans,  Plays  for,  see  Plays  for  Puritans. 
Purley,  The  Diversions  of,  see  Tooke. 

Purple  Island,  The,  a  philosophical  poem  on 
the  body  by  Phineas  Fletcher  (q.v.). 

Pursuits  of  Literature,  see  Mathias. 

PUSEY,  EDWARD  BOUVERIE  (1800- 
82),  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  was  elected  in  1822  a  fellow  of  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  was  brought  into 
intimacy  with  his  brother-fellows,  Keble  and 
Newman  (q.v.).  In  1828  he  was  appointed 
Regius  professor  of  Hebrew.  Becoming 
alarmed  by  the  spread  of  rationalism  in  the 
Church  of  England  and  convinced  that  it 
could  only  be  checked  by  a  wider  sense  of  her 
divine  institution,  he  joined  Newman  and 
Keble  in  the  production  of  'Tracts  for  the 
Times*  (1833,  see  Oxford  Movement),  con- 
tributing Tracts  on  baptism  (1835)  and  the 
holy  eucharist  (1837).  He  supported  New- 
man's explanation  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles 
in  the  famous  'Tract  XC',  and  in  1843  was 
suspended  from  the  office  of  university 
preacher  for  heresy.  He  continued  to  main- 
tain high  Anglican  views,  publishing  in  1856 
his  learned  'Doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence', 
while  endeavouring  to  hinder  secessions  to 
the  Church  of  Rome  among  his  supporters. 
Later  he  attempted  to  bring  about  the  union 
of  the  English  and  Roman  churches,  and  of 
the  English  Church  with  the  Wesleyans  and 
Eastern  Church.  PUSEY  HOUSE  at  Oxford, 
founded  in  memory  of  him,  was  opened  in 
1884.  A  'Life  of  Pusey*  by  Liddon  (q.v.) 
was  published  in  1893-7. 

PUSHKIN,  ALEXANDER  SERGIVICH 
(1799-1837),  the  first  national  poet  of  Russia, 
a  liberal  and  a  disciple  of  Byron.  His  first 
considerable  poem,  *Ruslan  and  Liudmila*, 
was  published  in  1820.  'Eugene  Onegin', 
a  Byronic  verse-romance  of  contemporary 
life,  was  completed  in  1831,  and  has  been 


[643] 


PUSS  IN  BOOTS 

translated  into  English  by  Lt.-Col.  Spalding 
(1881).  His  historical  tragedy  on  the  Shake- 
spearian model,  'Boris  Godunov',  appeared 
in  1825.  His  other  best-known  works  include 
'The  Prisoner  of  the  Caucasus'  (1821),  £The 
Tzigani*  (1827),  'Poltava*  (the  story  of 
Mazeppa,  1829),  besides  lyrics  and  fairy- 
tales. Some  of  these  have  been  translated 
by  C.E.  Turner  (1899). 

Puss  in  Boots,  a  popular  tale,  from  the 
French  of  Perrault  (q.v.),  translated  by 
Robert  Samber  (1729?). 

A  miller  bequeathes  to  his  three  sons 
respectively,  his  mill,  his  ass,  and  his  cat. 
The  youngest,  who  inherits  the  cat,  laments 
his  ill-fortune.  But  the  resourceful  cat,  by  a 
series  of  unscrupulous  -  ruses,  in  which  he 
represents  his  ^  master  to  the  king  as  the 
wealthy  marquis  of  Carabas,  secures  for  him 
the  hand  of  the  king's  daughter. 

Andrew  Lang,  in  his  'Perrault's  Popular 
Tales',  discusses  the  origin  of  the  story,  which 
is  found,  in  various  forms,  in  several  countries. 

Pussyfoot,  see  Johnson  (W.  £".). 
PUTTENHAM,  RICHARD  (1520?- 
1601  ?),  author  of  the  'Arte  of  English  Poesie', 
a  critical  discussion  of  English  poetry, 
chiefly  in  its  formal  aspect,  published 
anonymously  in  1589.  The  work  is  some- 
times assigned  to  his  brother  George. 

Pwyll,  in  British  mythology,  prince  of  Dyfed 
and  'Head  of  Hades';  see  Mabinogion.  The 
stories  of  Pelles  and  of  Pelleas  in  the  'Morte 
d'Arthur*  are  perhaps  connected  with  his 
myth  (see  Rhys,  'Arthurian  Legend'). 

Pyannet  Sneakup,  MRS.,  a  character  in 
Brome's  'The  City  Witt'  (q.v.). 

PYE,  HENRY  JAMES  (1745-1813),  be- 
came poet  laureate  in  1790,  and  was  the 
constant  butt  of  contemporary  ridicule. 

Pygmalion,  a  king  of  Cyprus  and  a  sculptor. 
He  became  enamoured  of  a  beautiful  statue 
that  he  had  made  of  a  woman,  and  at  his 
request  Aphrodite  gave  it  life.  The  story  is 
told  in  Ovid's  'Metamorphoses',  in  Marston's 
exotic  poem,  'The  Metamorphoses  of  Pygma- 
lion's Image*  (1598),  in  William  Morris's 
'Earthly  Paradise'  (q.v.),  and  is  the  subject  of 
a  comedy  by  W.  S.  Gilbert  ('Pygmalion  and 
Galatea').  'Pygmalion*  is  also  the  title  of  a 
play  by  G.  B.  Shaw  (q.v.). 
Pygmies,  a  race  of  men  of  very  small  size, 
mentioned  in  ancient  history  and  tradition  as 
inhabiting  parts  of  Ethiopia  and  India.  In 
the  last  quarter  of  the  I9th  cent,  dwarf  races 
were  ascertained  to  exist  in  equatorial  Africa, 
who  may  be  the  'pygmies*  of  Homer  and 
Herodotus.  According  to  ancient  fable,  the 
cranes  came  annually  from  Scythia  and  made 
war  on  them. 

Pyke  and  Pluck,  in  Dickens's  'Nicholas 
Nickleby'  (q.v.),  the  toadies  of  Sir  Mulberry 
Hawk. 
Pylades,  see  Orestes. 


PYRRHIC 

Pyncheon,  HEPHZIBAH,  a  character  in  N. 
Hawthorne's  'The  House  of  the  Seven 
Gables'  (q.v.). 

Pynson,  RICHARD  (d.  1530),  a  Norman  by 
birth  and  a  printer  in  London,  the  successor, 
with  Wynkyn  de  Worde  (q.v.),  of  Caxton. 
He  was  appointed  King's  Printer  on  the 
accession  of  Henry  VIII,  and  introduced 
Roman  type  into  England.  He  issued  an 
edition  of  Chaucer  in  1526  and  of  Barclay's 
'Ship  of  Fools'  (q.v.). 
Pyracmon,  see  Cyclopes. 
Pyramid,  a  word  of  uncertain  derivation, 
perhaps  of  Egyptian  origin,  the  name  of  a 
number  of  ancient  monumental  structures 
still  existing  in  Egypt,  of  which  the  largest 
and  best  known  are  three  at  Gizeh,  near 
Cairo,  those  of  Cheops,  Chephren,  and  Men- 
kaura,  kings  of  the  4th  dynasty  (c.  2900—2800 
B.C.).  There  was  a  legend  that  the  last  was 
built  by  Rhodope  (q.v.). 

Pyramus,  a  youth  of  Babylon,  who  became 
enamoured  of  Thisbe.  The  two  lovers,  whom 
their  parents  forbade  to  marry,  exchanged 
their  vows  through  a  chink  in  the  wall  which 
separated  their  two  houses.  They  agreed  to 
meet  at  the  tomb  of  Ninus,  outside  tie  walls 
of  Babylon,  under  a  white  mulberry  tree. 
Thisbe  came  first  to  the  appointed  place,  but 
being  frightened  by  a  lioness  fled  into  a  cave, 
dropping  her  veil,  which  the  lioness  covered 
with  blood.  Pyramus,  arriving,  found  the 
bloody  veil,  and,  concluding  that  Thisbe  had 
been  devoured,  stabbed  himself  with  his 
sword.  Thisbe,  emerging  from  the  cave,  dis- 
traught at  the  sight  of  the  dying  Pyramus, 
fell  upon  his  sword.  This  tragic  scene  oc- 
curred under  the  mulberry  tree,  which  there- 
after bore  only  red  fruit.  The  story  is  the 
subject  of  the  'tedious  brief  scene'  played  by 
Bottom  and  his  friends  in  'A  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream'  (q.v.). 

Pyrgopolinices,  a  braggart,  the  hero  of  the 
'Miles    Gloriosus*   of  Plautus   (q,v.).     The 
name  means  'tower-town-conqueror'. 
Pyriphlegethon,  see  Pklegetkon. 
Pyrochles,  in   Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*, 
symbolizes  rage.    He  is  the  brother  of  Cy- 
mochles  (q.v.),  the  son  of  'old  Aerates  and 
Despight*  (n.  iv.  41).    On  his  shield  is  a 
flaming  fire,  with  the  words  'Burnt  I  do  burn*. 
He  is  overcome  by  Sir  Guyon  (n.  v),  and  tries 
to  drown  himself  in  a  lake  to  quench  his 
flames.   He  is  rescued  and  healed  by  Archi- 
mago  (n.  vi.  42-51),  and  finally  killed  by 
Prince  Arthur  (u.  viii). 
Pyrocles,  one  of  the  chief  characters  in 
Sidney's  'Arcadia'  (q.v.). 
Pyrrha,  the  daughter  of  Epimetheus  and 
Pandora,  and  wife  of  Deucalion  (qq.v.). 

Pyrrhic,  in  ancient  Greek  and  Latin  verse, 
a  foot  consisting  of  two  short  syllables.  In 
modern  accentual  verse,  the  term  is  some- 
times applied  to  a  group  of  two  unstressed 
syllables. 


[643] 


Tt2 


PYRRHIC  DANCE 

Pyrrhic  dance,  the  war-dance  of  the  ancient 
Greeks,  in  which,  the  motions  of  warfare  were 
gone  through  in  armour,  to  a  musical  ac- 
companiment. It  is  said  to  have  been  so 
named  from  Pyrrhicus,  the  inventor. 

Pyrrhic  victory,  a  victory  gained  at  too 
great  a  cost;  in  allusion  to  the  exclamation 
attributed  to  Pyrrhus  (q.v.)  after  the  battle  of 
Asculum  (in  which  he  routed  the  Romans 
but  with  the  loss  of  the  flower  of  his  army), 
*One  more  such  victory  and  we  are  lost.' 

Pyrrho,  a  native  of  Elis  in  the  Peloponnese, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great 
and  joined  his  expedition.  He  was  the  foun- 
der of  the  Sceptical  or  PYRRHONIAN  school 
of  philosophy,  and  maintained  that  certain 
knowledge  on  any  matter  was  unattainable, 
and  that  suspension  of  judgement  was  true 
wisdom  and  the  source  of  happiness. 

Pyrrhus,  (i)  see  Neoptolemus;  (2)  king  of 
Epirus  (318-272  B.C.),  a  great  military  ad- 
venturer, who  carried  on  a  series  of  cam- 
paigns against  Rome,  280-275. 

Pytchley  (Ty*  pronounced  as  *pie3),  THE, 
a  famous  pack  of  fox-hounds,  whose  country 
lies  between  Rugby  and  Northampton.  It  was 
much  associated  with  the  Spencer  family  in 
the  1 8th  cent.  The  name  is  said  to  be  derived 
from  that  of  an  Elizabethan  house,  now  de- 
molished. But  Charles  Clarke  is  quoted,  in 
the  Badminton  Library  volume  on  'Hunting', 
as  having  traced  it  back  to  one  William  of 
Pightesley  who  hunted  Volves,  foxes,  and 
other  vermin'  in  Henry  Ill's  reign. 

Pythagoras,  the  Greek  philosopher,  a  native 
of  Samos,  lived  in  the  6th  cent.  B.C.  He 
settled  at  Crotona  in  Italy,  where  he  founded 
a  brotherhood  who  followed  his  doctrine  of 
temperance  and  purity,  including  Vege- 
tarianism*. The  brotherhood  incurred  po- 
litical suspicion,  and  were  attacked  in 
their  place  of  assembly,  which  was  set  on 
fire,  so  that  many  of  them  perished.  The 
Pythagoreans  continued,  nevertheless,  to 
exist  as  a  philosophical  school.  Pythagoras 


QUADRILLE 

assigned  a  mathematical  basis  to  the  universe, 
and  musical  principles  were  also  prominent 
in  his  system.  The  heavenly  bodies  he  sup* 
posed  to  be  divided  by  intervals  according  to 
the  law  of  musical  harmony,  whence  arose 
the  idea  of  the  harmony  of  the  spheres.  He 
discovered  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  own 
axis,  and  found  in  this  the  cause  of  day  and 
night.  He  adopted  the  Orphic  doctrine  of 
metempsychosis  or  the  transmigration  of 
souls  from  man  to  man,  or  man  to  animal,  or 
animal  to  man,  in  a  process  of  purification 
or  punishment.  He  himself,  it  is  said, 
claimed  to  remember  having  assisted  the 
Greeks  in  the  Trojan  War  in  the  character 
of  Euphorbus.  There  are  references  to  this 
Pythagorean  doctrine  in  the  dialogue  be- 
tween Feste  and  Malvolio  ('Twelfth  Night*, 
iv.  ii),  in  'The  Merchant  of  Venice5,  iv.  i, 
and  in  *As  You  Like  It',  iii.  2. 

As  a  mathematician  Pythagoras  is  credited 
with  the  discovery  of  the  proof  of  the  47th 
proposition  of  the  ist  book  of  Euclid,  that 
the  square  on  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the 
squares  on  the  other  two  sides,  hence  called 
the  PYTHAGOREAN  THEOREM.  The  PYTHA- 
GOREAN LETTER  is  the  Greek  Yt  used  by  Pytha- 
goras as  a  symbol  of  the  divergent  paths  of 
vice  and  virtue.  Various  doctrines  and  writ- 
ings have  been  falsely  attributed  to  Pythagoras. 
The  'Golden  Verses'  of  Pythagoras  were  per- 
haps the  work  of  Lysis,  the  Pythagorean 
teacher  of  Epaminondas. 

Pythia,  the  priestess  of  Apollo  at  Delphi 
(q.v.). 

Pythian  Games,  see  Python  and  Delphi. 
Pythias,  see  Damon  and  Pythias. 

Python,  a  serpent  that  rose  from  the  mud 
left  by  the  deluge  of  Deucalion.  It  lived  in 
a  cave  on  Mt.  Parnassus  and  was  slain  by 
Apollo,  who  established  the  Pythian  Games  to 
celebrate  the  event. 

Pythoness,  the  priestess  of  Apollo  at  Delphi 
(q.v.). 


Q 


0 » the  initial  of  German  Quelle,  'source*,  is  the 
symbol  used,  in  the  comparative  study  of  the 
synoptic  Gospels,  to  designate  a  supposed 
Greek  translation  of  a  collection  attributed  to 
Matthew  of  the  logia  of  Christ,  from  which 
the  parts  common  to  the  Gospels  of  Matthew 
and  Luke,  but  omitted  from  Mark,  are  de- 
rived. It  is  supposed  to  have  contained  cer- 
tain narrative  parts,  but  not  the  Passion. 
*Q ',  see  Jerrold  and  Quitter-Couch*  See  also 

Quackleben,  DR.,  a  character  in  Scott's  'St. 
Ronan's  Well'  (q.v.). 


Quadrilateral,  THE,  the  region  lying  be- 
tween, and  defended  by,  the  four  fortresses  of 
Mantua,  Verona,  Peschiera,  and  Legnano.  It 
was  of  special  importance  in  the  wars  of  the 
Risorgimento  in  Italy. 

Quadrille,  a  card  game  played  by  four 
persons  with  forty  cards  (the  eights,  nines, 
and  tens  being  discarded).  It  replaced  ombre 
(q.v.)  as  the  fashionable  game  about  1726, 
and  was  in  turn  superseded  by  whist.  The 
square  dance  called  quadrille  is  of  French 
origin.  The  first  mention  of  it  quoted  in  the 
OED.  is  dated  1773. 


[644] 


QUADRIVIUM 

Quadrivinm,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
higher  division  of  the  seven  liberal  arts,  com- 
prising the  mathematical  sciences  (arithme- 
tic, geometry,  astronomy,  and  music);  see 
Trivium. 

Quai  d'Orsay,  sometimes  used  as  a 
synonym  for  the  French  Ministry  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  which  stands  on  this  quay  (on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Seine  in  the  centre  of  Paris). 
Quakers,  members  of  the  religious  society 
(the  Society  of  Friends,  q.v.)  founded  by 
George  Fox  in  1648-50.  According  to  Fox, 
the  name  was  first  given  to  himself  and  his 
followers  by  Justice  Bennet  at  Derby  in  1650 
'because  I  bid  them,  Tremble  at  the  word  of 
the  Lord*.  It  appears,  however,  that  the 
name  had  previously  been  applied  to  some 
foreign  religious  sect.  [OED.] 

QUARITCH,  BERNARD  (1819-99),  book- 
seller ^  and  author  of  the  valuable  biblio- 
graphical work,  'A  General  Catalogue  of  Old 
Books  and  MSS.'  (1887-9;  index,  1892); 
he  was  the  leading  second-hand  bookseller  in 
London. 

QUARLES,  FRANCIS  (1592-1644),  born 
near  Romford  in  Essex,  was  educated  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  and  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn.  He  went  abroad  in  the  suite  of  the 
Princess  Elizabeth  on  her  marriage  with  the 
Elector  Palatine.  He  wrote  pamphlets  in  de- 
fence of  Charles  I,  which  led  to  the  sequestra- 
tion of  his  property  and  the  destruction  of 
his  manuscripts.  He  published  in  1620  his 
'Feast  of  Wormes',  a  paraphrase  of  the  book 
of  Jonah ;  but  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his 
'Emblems'  (q.v.),  published  in  1635.  He  was 
appointed  chronologer  to  the  City  of  London 
in  1639.  A  complete  collection  of  his  works 
was  edited  by  Grosart  in  1874  for  the  'Chert- 
sey  Worthies  Library*. 

Suarll,    Adventures   of  Philip,    see   Philip 
uarlL 

Quarterly  Review,  The,  was  founded  in 
Feb.  1809  by  J.  Murray  (q.v.),  as  a  Tory  rival 
to  the  'Edinburgh  Review*  (q.v.).  The  liberal, 
conciliatory,  and  impartial  lines  on  which 
it  should  be  run  were  indicated  by  Sir  W. 
Scott,  an  ardent  promoter  of  the  venture,  in 
a  letter  to  GifTord  (q.v.),  the  first  editor. 
GifTord  was  succeeded  by  Sir  J.  T.  Coleridge 
(nephew  of  the  poet)  and  Lockhart  (q.v.). 
Among  famous  contributors  to  it  have  been 
Sir  W.  Scott,  Canning,  Southey,  Rogers, 
Lord  Salisbury,  and  Gladstone.  Sir  J.  Bar- 
row (q.v.)  was  a  pillar  of  the  Review  during 
the  years  1809-48.  Special  interest  attaches 
to  Scott's  favourable  review  in  it  of  Jane 
Austen's  'Emma',  in  which  he  speaks  of  the 
'spirit  and  originality  of  her  sketches',  the 
first  encouragement  from  high  quarters 
i-eceived  by  the  young  writer;  and  to 
Scott's  review  (Jan.  1817)  of  his  own  'Tales 
of  My  Landlord',  written  to  defend  himself 
against  Dr.  McCrie's  suggestion  ^ of  an  anti- 
covenanting  bias  in  'Old  Mortality '  and  for 
fun  (the  review  criticized  the  'flimsiness 


QUEEN  MOTHER 

and  incoherent  texture*  of  the  narrative,  and 
the  insipidity  of  the  heroes) ;  also  to  Croker's 
article  (in  1818)  on  Keats's  'Endymion*, 
which  was  supposed  to  have  hastened  the 
poet's  death  in  1821. 

Who  killed  John  Keats? 

'I*  says  the  Quarterly, 

So  cruel  and  Tartarly, 

*  'Twas  one  of  my  feats.' 

(Byron.) 

Quarto,  the  size  of  a  volume  in  which  the 
sheets  are  folded  twice,  so  that  each  leaf  is  a 
quarter  of  the  sheet.  Twenty  of  the  plays  of 
Shakespeare  were  printed  separately  in  quarto 
during  his  lifetime  or  before  the  Restoration. 

Quasimodo  Sunday,  the  first  Sunday  after 
Easter,  so  called  from  the  first  two  words  of 
the  Introit  of  the  mass  of  that  day. 

QUASIMODO  is  the  name  of  the  deformed 
bell-ringer  of  Notre  Dame  in  Victor  Hugo's 
'Notre  Dame  de  Paris*. 

Queen  Anne's  Bounty,  a  fund  formed  out 
of  the  first-fruits  and  tenths  of  clerical  livings, 
payable  before  the  Reformation  to  the  papal 
see,  transferred  to  the  Crown  by  Henry  VIII, 
and  vested  by  Queen  Anne  in  trustees  for  the 
augmentation  of  poor  livings. 

Queen  Mab,  in  Shakespeare's  'Romeo  and 
Juliet',  I.  iv,  'the  fairies*  midwife*,  who  brings 
to  birth  men's  secret  hopes  in  the  form  of 
dreams,  by  driving  'athwart  their  noses*  in 
her  chariot  as  they  lie  asleep.  In  Drayton's 
'Nymphidia'  (q.v.)  she  is  Oberon's  wife  and 
queen  of  the  fairies.  For  Shelley's  poem 
c Queen  Mab*,  see  below.  'Mab'  is  perhaps 
from  the  Irish  'Medb',  a  legendary  queen  of 
Connaught,  or  from  the  Welsh  'Mab',  a  child. 

Queen  Mab,  a  poem  by  P.  B.  Shelley  (q.v.), 
surreptitiously  published  in  1813. 

This  poem  was  written  by  Shelley  when 
he  was  eighteen,  and,  whatever  promise  it 
may  show,  is  a  crude  and  juvenile  production. 
The  fairy  Queen  Mab  carries  off  in  her 
celestial  chariot  the  spirit  of  the  maiden 
lanthe,  and  shows  her  the  past  history  of  the 
world  and  expounds  to  her  the  causes  of  its 
miserable  state.  The  poet  inveighs  through 
her  mouth  against  'kings,  priests,  and  states- 
men', human  institutions  such  as  marriage 
and  commerce,  and  the  Christian  religion. 
The  fairy  finally  reveals  the  future  state  of  a 
regenerate  world  when  *all  things  are  re- 
created, and  the  flame  of  consentaneous  love 
inspires  all  life*. 

Queen  Mary,  an  historical  drama  by  A. 
Tennyson  (q.v.),  published  in  1875. 

The  play  presents  the  principal  events  of 
the  reign  of  Mary  Tudor,  Wyatt's  rebellion, 
the  marriage  with  Philip,  the  submission  of 
England  to  Cardinal  Pole  as  the  Pope's 
legate,  the  death  of  Cranmer  at  the  stake,  the 
loss  of  Calais,  and  the  death  of  the  unhappy 
and  disappointed  Mary. 
Queen  Mother,  The,  a  play  on  Catherine 
de'  Medici  (1861),  by  A.  C.  Swinburne  (q.v.). 


[645] 


QUEEN  OF  CORNWALL 
Queen  of  Cornwall,  The  Famous  Tragedy  of 
the,  a  drama  by  Hardy  (q.v.)  on  the  story  of 
King  Mark,  the  two  Iseults,  and  Tristram, 
produced  in  1923. 

Queen  of  Hearts,  THE,  figures  prominently 
in  Lewis  Carroll's  'Alice's  Adventures  in 
Wonderland'  (q.v.)  ;  also  an  endearing  name 
for  Elizabeth  (1596-1662),  eldest  daughter  of  t 
James  I,  wife  of  Frederick,  Elector  Palatine 
and  king  of  Bohemia  in  1619-20.,  She  was 
mother  of  Prince  Rupert  and  of  Sophia  (the 
mother  of  George  I). 
Queen  of  the  May,  see  May  Day. 
Queen's  Maries  or  MARYS,  THE,  the  four 
ladies  named  Mary,  attendant  on  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  The  list  is  variously  given, 
including:  Mary  Seton,  Mary  Beaton,  Mary 
Livingstone,  Mary  Fleming,  Mary  Hamilton, 
and  Mary  Carmichael.  They  are  frequently 
mentioned  in  Scottish  ballads. 
Queen's  Quair,  The,  an  historical  romance 
by  Hewlett  (q.v.),  published  in  1904.  It  deals 
with  the  life  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  from 
the  time  of  the  death  of  her  first  husband, 
Frangois  II  of  France,  to  her  marriage  with 
Bothwell  and  his  flight.  (Quair  =  quire, 
little  book.) 

Queen's  Wake,  The,  a  poem  by  Hogg  (q.v.), 
published  in  1813, 

Queen  Mary  of  Scotland  holds  her  *wake' 
at  Holyrood,  during  which  seventeen  bards, 
including  Rizzio,  sing  their  songs  in  com- 
petition. These  are  a  number  of  verse-tales 
in  various  styles,  martial,  comic,  horrible,  or 
mystical.  The  best  of  these,  according  to 
modern  opinion,  is  the  beautiful  tale  of 
'Kilmeny'  (q.v.).  But  'The  Witch  of  Fife'  is 
also  a  fine  work,  humorous  and  fantastic. 


e,  previously,  according  to  Stow, 
called  Edredshithe,  one  of  the  early  quays 
pertaining  to  the  city  of  London.  The  queen 
commemorated  in  the  name  is,  according  to 
Lethaby,  Matilda,  wife  of  Henry  I.  There 
was  a  drawbridge  in  old  London  Bridge 
which  allowed  ships  to  pass  through  to 
Qaeenhithe. 

Queensberry  Rules,  THE,  for  boxing,  were 
drawn  up  in  1867  under  the  supervision  of 
Sir  John  Sholto-Douglas,  8th  marquess  of 
Queensberry  (1844-1900). 

Quentin  Durward,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott 
(q.v.),  published  in  1823. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  the  I5th  cent,  and  the 
principal  character  is  Louis  XI  of  France, 
crafty,  cruel,  and  superstitious,  yet  prudent 
and  capable.  With  him  is  contrasted  his 
vassal  and  enemy,  the  violent  and  im- 
petuous Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy.  The 
story  is  concerned  with  the  intrigues  by 
which  Louis  attempts  to  procure,  with  the 
assistance  of  William  de  la  Marck,  the  Wild 
Boar  of  the  Ardennes,  the  revolt  of  Li<%e 
against  Charles;  with  the  murder  of  the 
bishop  of  Li6ge  ;  and  with  the  famous  visit  of 
Louis  to  Charles  at  Peronne  and  their  tem- 


QUILLER-COUCH 

porary  reconciliation.  The  romance  of  Quen- 
tin Durward  is  subordinate  to  these.  He  is  a 
young  Scot  of  good  family  who  engages  him- 
self in  the  corps  of  the  Scottish  Archers  of  the 
Guard  of  Louis.  He  is  sent  to  conduct  the 
young  Countess  Isabelle  de  Croye,  a  Bur- 
gundian  heiress  who  has  fled  from  a  threatened 
marriage  with  the  odious  Campo-Basso,  to 
lie  protection  of  the  bishop  of  Lie"ge;  saves 
her  from  many  perils ;  and  finally  wins  her 
hand  by  compassing  the  destruction  of  William 
de  la  Marck.  Among  the  interesting  second- 
ary characters  may  be  mentioned,  Tristan 
PHermite,  Louis's  Provost  Marshal;  Oliver 
le  Dain,  his  counsellor  and  whilom  barber; 
and  Martius  Galeotti,  his  astrologer;  the 
Cardinal  La  Balue  (q.v.),  and  Philip  de 
Commines  (q.v.).  The  well-known  lyric 
'County  Guy'  occurs  in  ch.  iv. 
Querno,  in  Pope's  'Dunciad',  ii,  15  ('Rome 
in  her  capitol  saw  Querno  sit'),  was  an 
Apulian  poet  to  whom  the  author  compares 
Cibber.  According  to  Paulus  Jovius  (quoted 
in  Elwin  and  Courthope's  notes  on  the  eDun- 
ciad'),  Quemo,  hearing  that  Pope  Leo  X 
patronized  literature,  set  put  for  Rome,  where 
he  recited  some  20,000  lines  of  his  'Alexias', 
and  was  made  poet  laureate  as  a  joke.  He  was 
introduced  to  the  pope  as  a  buffoon,  and 
frequented  his  table. 

Questing  Beast,  THE,  in  Malory's  'Morte 
d'Arthur"  (q.v.),  pursued  by  Palamedes  the 
Saracen. 

QUEVEDO,  FRANCISCO  GOMEZ  DE 
(1580-1645),  Spanish  writer,  author  of  the 
picaresque  romance  'Pablo  de  Segovia*  (the 
'Great  Sharper'),  and  of  'Visions'  of  various 
vicious  and  rascally  types,  which  last  were 
translated  into  English  by  L'Estrange  (q.v.) ; 
also  of  much  satirical  poetry. 

Quickly,  MISTBESS  NELL,  in  Shakespeare's 
C2  Henry  IV  and  'Henry  V*  (qq.v.),  hostess 
of  the  Boar's  Head  Tavern  in  Eastcheap. 

Quickly,  MISTRESS,  in  Shakespeare's  'Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor'  (q.v.),  the  servant  of  Dr0 
Caius. 

Quietism,  a  form  of  religious  mysticism 
(originated  prior  to  1675  by  Molinos,  q.v., 
a  Spanish  priest),  consisting  in  passive  de- 
votional contemplation,  with  extinction  of 
the  will  and  withdrawal  from  all  things  of 
the  senses.  [OED.]  One  of  the  best-known 
exponents  of  Quietist  doctrines  was  Fe"nelon 
(q.v.),  archbishop  of  Cambrai,whose*]V[aximes 
des  Saints',  embodying  his  opinions,  was 
condemned  by  Rome.  Another  noted 
Quietist  was  Mme  de  Guyon  (1648-1717). 
There  is  a  good  deal  about  the  Quietists  in 
Shorthouse's  novel,  *John  Inglesant'  (q.v.). 

Qui-hi,  in  Urdu,  *Is  any  one  there?',  a  call 
used  in  India  to  summon  a  servant,  a  nick- 
name for  an  Anglo-Indian. 
QUILLER-COUCH,  SIR  ARTHUR 
THOMAS  (1863-  ),  a  Cornishman,  edu- 
cated at  Newton  Abbot  College,  Clifton 


[646] 


QUILP 

College,  and  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  be- 
came professor  of  English  literature  at 
Cambridge  in  1912.  His  publications  (most 
of  them  under  the  pseudonym  'Q')  include: 
'Dead  Man's  Rock'  (1887),  'Troy  Town' 
(1888),  'The  Splendid  Spur'  (1889),  'Noughts 
and  Crosses'  (1891),  'The  Ship  of  Stars' 
(1899),  'The  Oxford  Book  of  English  Verse' 
(1900),  'The  Oxford  Book  of  Ballads'  (1910), 
'The  Oxford  Book  of  Victorian  Verse'  (1912), 
'On  the  Art  of  Writing'  (1916),  'Studies  in 
Literature'  (1918, 1922),  'On  the  Art  of  Read- 
ing' (1920),  'The  Oxford  Book  of  English 
Prose'  (1925).  He  wrote  the  conclusion  of 
Stevenson's  unfinished  'St.  Ives'  (chs.  31  to 
the  end)  in  1899. 

Quilp,  DANIEL  and  MRS.,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'Old  Curiosity  Shop'  (q.v.). 
Quin,  JAMES  (1693-1766),  an  actor  who  first 
came  into  note  by  his  impersonation  of 
Bajazet  in  Rowe's  'Tamerlane*  (q.v.).  He 
took  leading  parts  in  tragedy  at  Drury  Lane, 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  and  Covent  Garden. 
He  was  the  last  of  the  old  school  of  actors, 
which  gave  place  to  that  of  Garrick.  Smollett 
introduces  him  in  'Humphry  Clinker*. 
Quinapalus,  a  character  invented  by  the 
clown  in  Shakespeare's  'Twelfth  Night'  (r,  v), 
as  authority  for  a  saying  of  his  own. 

Quince,  PETER,  in  Shakespeare's  'Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream'  (q.v.),  a  carpenter, 
the  stage-manager  of  the  interlude  'Pyramus 
and  Thisbe'. 

QUINTILIAN  (MARCUS  FABIUS 
QUINTILIANUS)  (A. p.  4o~c.  100),  a  great 
Roman  rhetorican.  Pliny  the  younger  was 
among  his  pupils,  and  he  was  given  the  title 
of  consul  by  Dornitian.  His  great  work  was 
the  'De  Institutione  Oratoria*,  the  tenth  book 
of  which  contains  a  history  of  Greek  and 
Roman  literature.  Milton  in  one  of  his  sonnets 
refers  to  'Those  rugged  names  . . .  that  would 
have  made  Quintilian  stare  and  gasp'. 

Quinze  Joyes  de  Manage,  Lest  a  famous 


RABELAIS 

I5th-cent.  French  satire  on  women,  probably 
by  Antoine  de  la  Salle  (c.  1390-1464),  trans- 
lated into  English  as  the  'Fifteen  Comforts  of 
Matrimony'  (1682). 

Quirinus,  the  name  under  which  Mars  was 
worshipped  by  the  Sabines  who  inhabited  the 
Quirinal  hill.  Later,  Quirinus  became  the 
title  of  Romulus,  the  founder  of  Rome  and 
son  of  Mars.  The  derivation  from  Cures, 
the  name  of  a  Sabine  town  (Lewis  and  Short), 
is  now  questioned. 

Quirk,  Gammon,  and  Snap,  a  firm  of 
scoundrelly  solicitors  in  Warren's  'Ten 
Thousand  a  Year'  (see  Warren,  S.). 

Quiteria,  see  Camacho. 
Quixote,  see  Don  Quixote. 

Quorn,  THE,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
English  packs  of  fox-hounds,  came  into 
prominence  in  1753,  when  the  famous  Mr. 
Meynell  began  his  long  mastership  of  nearly 
half  a  century.  It  takes  its  name  from 
Quorndon  Hall,  where  the  kennels  now  are. 
Melton  Mowbray  in  Leicestershire  is  the 
most  important  point  in  the  Quorn  country. 
Among  other  famous  masters  of  this  pack 
were  Thomas  Assheton  Smith  (i 806-16) 
and  George  Osbaldestone  (q.v.,  1817—21 
and  1823-8). 

Quorum  (Latin,  'of  whom*),  originally  cer- 
tain justices  of  the  peace,  usually  of  eminent 
learning  or  ability,  whose  presence  was 
necessary  to  constitute  a  bench.  'Justice  of 
the  peace  and  coram*,  Slender  calls  Shallow  in 
Shakespeare's  'Merry  Wives  of  Windsor' 
(i.  i).  Hence  a  fixed  number  of  any  body 
whose  presence  is  necessary  for  the  valid 
transaction  of  business. 

Quos  ego — ,  from  Virgil's  'Aeneid',  i.  139, 
where  Neptune  is  threatening  the  rebellious 
winds  with  punishment,  but  breaks  off  at  the 
words  'Whom  I — ',  in  an  eloquent  aposio- 
pesis.  The  words  are  proverbial  for  a  threat 
of  punishment. 


R 


Ra,  in  Egyptian  mythology,  the  sun-god  and 
supreme  deity,  often  identified  with  Horus, 
and  generally  represented  as  a  hawk.  The 
ancient  kings  of  Egypt,  at  least  from  the  time 
of  the  5th  dynasty  (c.  2750  B.C.),  were  re- 
garded as  his  sons.  His  cult  was  in  a  measure 
superseded  by  that  of  Ammon,  under  the 
Theban  Pharaohs,  to  be  temporarily  restored  to 
supremacy  under  Amenhotep  IV  (Akhnaton). 

Rob  and  his  Friends,  see  Brown  (Dr.  J.). 

Rabbi  Ben  Ezra,  a  poem  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.) 
included  in  'Dramatis  Personae'  (q.v.).  It 
is  an  exposition  of  the  author's  religious 
philosophy  through  the  mouth  of  a  learned 
Jew.  The  soul  is  immortal;  life  is  but  the 
fashioning  of  the  pot  for  the  Master's  hand. 


RABELAIS,    FRANCOIS    (i494?-i553), 

the  French  humanist,  satirist,  and  physician, 
was  born  near  Chinon  in  Touraine,  where  his 
father  was  a  well-to-do  lawyer.  He  was  a 
Franciscan  friar  at  Fontenay-le-Cpmte  in 
Poitou  in  1520  and  probably  earlier,  but, 
being  persecuted  there  for  his  addiction  to  the 
study  of  Greek,  became  a  monk  at  the  Bene- 
dictine abbey  of  MaiUezais,  also  in  Poitou. 
This  he  left,  visited  various  provincial 
universities,  and  studied  medicine  at  Paris, 
giving  up  the  Benedictine  dress.  He  took  his 
medical  degrees  at  Montpellier,  and  practised 
and  lectured  on  medicine  at  Lyons,  at  that 
time  a  great  intellectual  centre.  He  thrice 
visited  Rome  as  physician  to  his  friend  and 
protector,  Cardinal  Jean  du  Bellay  (iS34> 


[647] 


RACHEL 

1535-6,  and  1548-50),  and  was  at  Turin  in 
1540-1  with  the  cardinal's  brother,  ^j-uil- 
laume.  In  the  course  of  his  second  visit  to 
Rome  he  obtained  from  Paul  III  absolution 
for  his  'apostasy9.  In  1550  he  was  appointed 
to  two  livings,  Meudon  near  Paris  and  Jam- 
bet  near  Le  Mans,  but  appears  to  have  dis- 


1545,  part  of  the  'Fourth  Book*  in  1548,  and 
the  whole  in  1552.  The  authenticity  of  the 
*  Fifth  Book*  is  questionable;  it  certainly 
contains  work  by  other  hands  and  is  not 
in  a  form  which  Rabelais  intended  for 
publication.  The  first  sixteen  chapters  of 
it,  under  the  title  of  'L'Isle  sonnante', 
appeared  in  1562,  after  his  death;  the  whole 
book  in  1564. 

Rabelais  was  held  in  high  regard  in  his 
own  day  as  an  eminent  physician,  as  a  pioneer 
of  humanism  and  enlightenment,  and  as  the 
author  of  an  entertaining  book.  His  courage- 
ous attacks  on  obscurantism  brought  on  him 
the  enmity  of  the  Sorbonne  and  the  Paris 
Parliament,  and,  in  spite  of  the  protection  of 
Frangois  I,  he  was  obliged  repeatedly  to  with- 
draw from  France  (to  Rome,  as  stated  above, 
and  in  1546-7  to  Metz). 

The  first  three  books  of  his  chief  work 
were  translated  into  English  by  Urquhart 
(q.v.,  two  being  published  in  1653,  the  third 
in  1693);  the  last  two  by  Motteux  (q.v.) 
in  1708.  There  is  a  modern  translation 
with  useful  notes  by  W.  F.  Smith,  1893.  The 
whole  five  books  are  generally  numbered 
consecutively,  'Gargantua'  being  reckoned 
the  first,  'Pantagruel5  the  second. 

Rachel  (£LISA  FELIX)  (1821-58),  a  cele- 
brated French  actress,  of  Jewish  descent, 
whose  finest  parts  were  in  the  tragedies  of 
Racine  and  Corneille.  There  is  a  poem  by 
M.  Arnold  (q.v.)  on  her  last  illness. 

RAGINE,JEAN  (1639-99),  French  dramatic 
poet,  spent  some  years  of  his  youth 
among  the  Jansenists  of  Port  Royal,  to  which 
he  returned  in  his  later  years ;  then  was  intro- 
duced to  the  fashionable  world  of  the  Paris 
of  Louis  XIV,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Moliere,  La  Fontaine,  and  Boileau.  As  a 
tragedian,  he  presented  his  characters  in 
a  more  human  and  natural  form  than  did 
Corneille;  they  are  governed  more  by  their 
passions,  less  by  their  wills.  He  gave  them 
classical  names,  but  what  he  depicted  were 
the  loves,  the  failings,  and  the  intrigues  of  the 
society  around  him.  His  tragedies  divide 
themselves  into  three  groups,  those  whose 
subjects  are  taken  from  Euripides:  'Andro- 
maque*  (1667),  'Iphigenie'  (1674),  and 
'Phedre*  (1677);  from  history:  'Britannicus' 
(1669),  <B^r6nice'(i67o),  'Mithridate'(i673); 
from  the  Scriptures:  'Esther1  (1689)  and 
'Athalie'  (1690).  'Phedre'  and  'Athalie*  were 
his  greatest  works,  Racine  also  wrote  one 
comedy,  eLes  Plaideurs'  (1668). 
Radcliffe,  JOHN  (1650-1714),  physician,  who 


RAGES 

attended  William  III,  Queen  Mary,  and 
Queen  Anne.  He  left  property  from  which  the 
RadclirTe  Library,  Infirmary,  and  Observatory 
at  Oxford  were  built. 

RADCLIFFB,  MRS.  ANN  (1764-1823), 
nee  Ward,  a  novelist  whose  fame  rests  on 
her  "Romance  of  the  Forest'  (1791),  'The 
Mysteries  of  Udolpho'  (q.v.,  I794)>  and 
(The  Italian*  (i797,  a  romance  of  the 
Inquisition).  She  also  wrote  'A  Sicilian 
Romance'  (1790)  and  'An  Italian  Romance' 
(1791).  Mrs.  RadclifFe's  method,  which 
found  a  number  of  imitators,  was  to  arouse 
terror  and  curiosity  by  events  apparently 
supernatural,  but  afterwards  explained  by 
natural  means. 

'Radical  Jack*,  the  first  earl  of  Durham 
(1792-1840).  See  Durham  Report. 

Radigund,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
V.  iv-vii,  a  queen  of  the  Amazons,  who  sub- 
dues Artegall,  and  forces  him  to  spin  flax  and 
tow  until  he  is  rescued  by  Britomart. 

Radnor,  VICTOR,  NATALY,  and  NESTA  VIC- 
TORIA, characters  in  Meredith's  'One  of  our 
Conquerors'  (q.v.). 

Raebura,  SIR  HENRY(i756-i8s3),  a  Scottish 
portrait  -  painter,  sometimes  called  the 
'Scottish  Reynolds',  who  settled  in  Edinburgh 
in  1787  and  during  thirty  years  painted  por- 
traits of  a  large  number  of  his  contemporaries. 
In  the  estimation  of  many  good  critics, 
the  greatest  portrait-painter  Britain  ever 
produced. 

RafFaello  Sanzio  or  SANTI  (1483-1520),  of 
Urbino,  commonly  known  as  RAPHAEL,  the 
great  Italian  painter.  After  studying  under 
Perugino  and  spending  four  years  at  Florence, 
he  went  in  1 509  to  Rome,  where  he  became  the 
favourite  painter  of  Pope  Julius  II  and  was 
entrusted  with  the  decoration  of  the  Stanze 
in  the  Vatican.  He  was  no  less  favoured  by 
Leo  X,  who  appointed  Raphael  to  succeed 
Bramante  as  architect  of  St.  Peter's.  For  him 
Raphael  executed  the  cartoons  for  the 
tapestries  intended  for  the  Sistine  Chapel. 
Seven  of  these  came  into  the  possession  of 
Charles.  I  of  England  and  are  now  in  the 
South  Kensington  Museum.  In  his  short 
life  Raphael  painted,  besides  these  works,  a 
large  number  of  magnificent  pictures,  the 
majority  of  them  Madonnas. 

Rag  Fair,  see  Rosemary  Lane. 

Rages,  RAGAE,  or  RHAGAE,  a  great  city  of 
Media,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  moun- 
tains bordering  the  southern  shore  of 
the  Caspian  Sea  (modern  Rayy).  It 
was  more  than  once  destroyed,  first  by  earth- 
quake, then  in  the  Parthian  wars,  and  finally 
by  the  Tartars  (1221).  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
Book  of  Tobit  (q.v.).  RHAGES  POTTERY  is  fine 
glazed  Persian  pottery  of  the  ioth-i2th  cents., 
datable  by  the  occurrence  of  examples  in 
the  ruins  of  Rhages. 


[648] 


RAGMAN  ROLL 
Ragman  Roll,  see  Roll. 

Ragnar  Lodbrog,  The  Death-Song  of,  an  old 
Icelandic  poem  translated  by  T.  Percy  (q.v.), 
in  his  'Five  Pieces  of  Runic  Poetry*.  Its 
publication  exerted  a  great  literary  influence 
and  stimulated  the  study  in  England  of 
ancient  Norse  writings.  The  hero  was  a 
Norse  viking  who,  according  to  legend,  in- 
vaded England  in  the  8th  cent. 

RagnarSk,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
day  of  the  great  battle  between  the  gods  and 
the  powers  of  evil,  when  both  are  destroyed 
and  the  old  order  and  most  of  the  old  gods 
disappear,  to  be  replaced  by  another  and  a 
happier  scheme  of  things.  Vidar  and  Vali 
survive,  and  Balder  and  Hodr  return  from 
the  nether  world. 

Ragnel,  a  devil  in  medieval  mystery  plays. 

Rahere  (d.  1144),  born  in  the  reign  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  followed  a  church 
career  and  became  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's 
in  mi.  Legend  attributes  to  him  the  posi- 
tion of  king's  jester  to  Henry  I,  before  his 
conversion  to  clerical  life.  He  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  Rome,  where,  while  convalescent 
from  a  fever,  he  made  a  vow  to  build  a  hospital 
and  church  in  honour  of  St.  Bartholomew.  He 
began  to  build  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  in 
London  in  1123  on  land  granted  for  the 
purpose  by  Henry  I.  He  is  also  said  to  have 
founded  St.  Bartholomew's  Church,  Smith- 
field,  in  which  a  fine  monument  to  him  is  still 
to  be  seen. 

Ratm,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the  demon  who 
pursues  the  sun  and  moon,  occasionally 
catches  them,  and  causes  their  eclipses. 

Raikes,  JACK,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
*Evan  Harrington*  (q.v.). 

Rakslias  or  RAKSHASAS,  in  Hindu  belief,  evil 
demons,  who  in  hideous  shape  haunt  ceme- 
teries and  devour  men,  or  ensnare  them  by 
assuming  beautiful  forms. 

RALEGH,  SIR  WALTER  (iS52?-i6i8), 
son  of  a  Devonshire  gentleman,  was  born  at 
Hayes  Barton  in  South  Devon,  and  educated 
at  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  He  served  in  the 
Huguenot  army  at  Jarnac  and  Moncontour 
(1569),  and  was  engaged  in  various  voyages  of 
discovery  and  expeditions  to  the  American 
continent,  and  in  the  plantation  of  Munster. 
He  obtained  the  favour  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
but  forfeited  it  and  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  (1592)  on  account  of  his  relations  with 
Elizabeth  Throgmorton,  whom  he  subse- 
quently married.  After  a  most  unfair  trial 
he  was  condemned  to  death,  respited,  and 
again  sent  to  the  Tower  in  1603  on  a  charge  of 
conspiring  against  James  I.  He  lived  there 
with  his  wife  and  son  until  1616,  when  he  was 
permitted  to  undertake  an  expedition  to  the 
Orinoco  in  search  of  gold,  in  the  course  of 
which  the  Spanish  settlement  of  San  Tomas 
was  burnt.  On  the  failure  of  the  expedition, 
and  at  the  demand  of  the  Spanish  ambassador, 
Ralegh  was  arrested,  and  executed  at  West- 


RALPH  ROISTER  DOISTER 

minster  on  29  Oct.  1618;  his  remains  were 
buried  in  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster.  Much 
of  his  poetry  is  lost.  About  thirty  short  pieces 
survive,  the  principal  of  which  is  a  fragment 
of  a  long  elegy  entitled  'Cynthia,  the  Lady  of 
the  Sea',  expressing  devotion  to  Elizabeth. 
Another  notable  poem  is  his  introductory 
sonnet  to  the  'Faerie  Queene' — 'Methought  I 
saw  the  grave  where  Laura  lay*.  The  well- 
known  short  pieces,  'The  Lie'  and  'The 
Pilgrimage'  were  probably  written  during  his 
imprisonments,  and  the  lines  found  in  his 
Bible  in  the  Gate-house  at  Westminster, 
beginning  'Even  such  is  time',  on  the  night 
before  his  execution.  In  prose  he  published 
'A  Report  of  the  Truth  of  the  Fight  about  the 
Isles  of  the  Azores'  (1591),  which  contains  a 
narrative  of  the  famous  encounter  of  Sir 
Richard  Grenville  with  the  Spanish  fleet;  and 
'The  Discovery  of  the  Empyre  of  Guiana' 
(1596),  giving  an  account  of  his  first  expedi- 
tion to  those  parts  in  1595.  His  'History 
of  the  World'  (1614)  was  designed  for  Prince 
Henry,  who  showed  sympathy  with  Ralegh 
and  visited  him  in  the  Tower.  One  passage 
from  it  is  famous  as  a  specimen  of  English 
prose  ('Oxford  Book  of  English  Prose', 
No.  88).  The  first  volume,  which  alone 
was  completed,  deals  with  the  history  of 
the  Jews,  early  Egyptian  history  and  Greek 
mythology,  and  with  Greek  and  Roman  times 
down  to  1 30  B.C.  His  object,  according  to  his 
preface,  is  to  show  God's  judgement  on  the 
wicked.  In  addition  he  wrote  many  essays  on 
political  subjects,  some  of  which  were  pub- 
lished after  his  death.  Though  Ralegh  spelt  his 
name  in  several  different  ways,  he  never  used 
the  common  modern  form  'Raleigh'.  After 
1 584  he  used  only  the  form  'Ralegh*.  His  pro- 
nunciation of  the  name  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  in  early  life  he  often  wrote  it  'Rauley*. 
[C.H.E.L.]  Ralegh  figures  as  the  'Shepheard 
of  the  Sea*  in  Spenser's  *  Colin  Clouts  come 
home  againe'  (q.v.).  He  is  introduced  in 
Scott's  'Kenilworth'  (q.v.),  where  is  told 
the  story  of  his  laying  down  his  cloak  in  a 
muddy  spot  at  Greenwich  for  the  queen  to 
step  on. 

RALEIGH,  SIR  WALTER  (1861-1922), 
professor  of  English  literature  at  Oxford 
from  1904.  Among  his  critical  works  are 
lives  of  Milton  (1900),  Wordsworth  (1903)* 
Shakespeare  (1907);  'Six  Essays  on  Johnson* 
(1910),  'Some  Authors'  (posthumous,  1923), 
and  the  first  volume  of  the  official  'War  in 
the  Air'  (1922). 

Ralph  Roister  DoisteT,  the  earliest  known 
English  comedy,  by  Udall  (q.v.),  probably 
written  about  1553  and  printed  about 
1567,  and  perhaps  played  by  Westminster 
boys  while  Udall  was  head  master  of  that 
school.  The  play,  in  short  rhymed  doggerel, 
represents  the  courting  of  the  widow 
Christian  Custance,  who  is  betrothed  to 
Gawin  Goodluck,  an  absent  merchant,  by 
Roister,  a  swaggering  simpleton,  instigated 
thereto  by  the  mischievous  Matthew  Mery- 


[649] 


RALPH  THE  ROVER 

greek.  Roister  is  repulsed  and  beaten  by 
Custance  and  her  maids ;  and  Goodluck,  after 
being  deceived  by  false  reports,  is  reconciled 
to  her.  The  play  shows  similarity  to  the 
comedies  of  Plautus  and  Terence. 

Ralph  the  Rover,  see  Inchcape  Rock. 
Ralpho,  the  squire  in  Butler's  'Hudibras' 

(q.v.). 

Ram,  THE,  or  ARIES,  one  of  the  zodiacal 
constellations,  and  the  zodiacal  sign  entered 
by  the  sun  on  21  March.  According  to 
mythology  the  constellation  represents  the 
ram  which  carried  Phrixus  and  Helle  on  its 
back  and  whose  golden  fleece  was  carried  off 
by  the  Argonauts  (q.v.)  from  Colchis. 

Ram  Alley,  now  Mitre  Court,  Fleet  Street 
(Wheatley  and  Cunningham),  was  noted  for 
its  cooks*  shops  and  public-houses,  and  'a 
place  of  no  great  reputation'  (Strype).  Its 
cooks*  shops  are  referred  to  in  Massinger's 
'A  New  Way  to  pay  Old  Debts',  Ben  Jonson's 
'Staple  of  News',  &c. 

Rama,  see  Rdmayana. 

Ramadan,  one  of  the  months  of  the  Arabian 
year,  during  which  Mohammedans,  accord- 
ing to  the  precept  of  the  Koran,  fast  from 
sunrise  to  sunset. 

Ramayana,  The,  one  of  the  two  great  Hindu 
epic  poems,  the  other  being  the  'Mahabharata* 
(q.v.),  originally  composed,  it  is  thought,  not 
later  than  500  B.C.  The  'Ramayana*  as  we 
have  it  dated  probably  from  about  300  B.C. 
Its  main  subject  is  the  war  waged  by  Rama, 
the  son  of  King  Dasaratha  of  Ayodha  and  an 
impersonation  of  Vishnu  (q.v.),  against  the 
Giant  Ravan,  the  fierce  king  of  Lanka  or  Cey- 
lon and  the  dread  enemy  of  gods  and  men, 
who  carries  off  Rarna's  wife,  Sita,  and  whom 
Rama  slays. 

Rambler,  The,  a  periodical  in  208  numbers 
issued  by  S.  Johnson  (q.v.)  from  20  Mar. 
1749/50  to  14  Mar.  1751/52. 

The  contents  are  essays  on  all  kinds  of 
subjects,  character-studies,  allegories,  criti- 
cism, &c.,  and  were,  with  the  exception  of  five, 
all  written  by  Johnson  himself.  Their  object 
was  the  instruction  of  his  readers  in  wisdom 
or  piety,  and  at  the  same  time  the  refinement 
of  the  English  language.  The  contributors  of 
the  remaining  numbers  were  Richardson 
(q.v.),  Elizabeth  Carter  (q.v.),  Mrs.  Chapone 
(q.v.),  and  Catherine  Talbot  (1720-70). 

'The  Rambler*  was  also  the  name  of  a  iQth- 
cent.  periodical  directed  successively  by  J.  H. 
Newman  and  Lord  Acton  (qq.v.),  and  con- 
verted under  the  latter's  management  into 
'The  Home  and  Foreign  Review*  (see  Acton). 

Rarnbouiliet,  CATHERINE  DE  VIVONNE- 
PISANI,  Marquise  de  (1588-1665),  a  distin- 
guished Frenchwoman  who  endeavoured  to 
reform  the  taste  of  French  society  by  found- 
ing in  her  house,  the  H6tel  de  Rarnbouillet, 
near  the  Louvre,  the  salon  in  which  the  most 
distinguished  persons  of  her  day  met  and 


RANDOLPH 

conversed.  Among  these  were  Bossuet,  La 
Rochefoucauld,  Descartes,  Corneille,  and 
Mme  de  Se"vigne\  A  spirit  of  pedantry  and 
affectation  developed  in  this  and  similar 
assemblies,  which  was  ridiculed  by  Moliere 
in  *Les  Precieuses  ridicules'  and  'Les  Femmes 
savantes'.  Nevertheless,  the  Hdtel  de  Rarn- 
bouillet helped  to  purify  the  language  and 
introduce  greater  refinement  in  manners. 
The  origin  of  the  French  Academy  is  traced 
to  it. 

Ramillie  or  RAMILLIES  Wig,  a  wig  having  a 
long  plait  behind  with  a  bow  at  top  and 
bottom,  from  Ramillies  in  Belgium,  the 
scene  of  Marlborough's  victory  in  1706. 

Raminagrobis,  a  name  familiarly  given  in 
France  to  the  cat.  Rabelais  applied  it  satiri- 
cally to  an  ancient  French  poet,  probably 
Jean  le  Maire  de  Beiges  (isth  cent.),  whom 
Panurge  consults  on  the  subject  of  his  pro- 
posed marriage.  La  Fontaine  uses  it  ('Fables', 
vii.  1 6)  as  the  name  of  the  cat  who,  being 
chosen  as  an  umpire  between  the  rabbit  and 
the  weasel,  eats  them  both. 
Ramona,  a  novel  by  H.  H.  Jackson  (q.v.), 
published  in  1884,  which,  in  the  guise  of  a 
romantic  and  tragic  love-story,  sought  to  do 
for  the  American  Indian  what  'Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin*  did  for  the  American  Negro. 

Ramorny,  SIR  JOHN,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth*  (q.v.). 

RAMSAY,  ALLAN  (1686-1758),  a  Scottish 
poet,  and  an  Edinburgh  wig-maker  and 
subsequently  bookseller  by  trade.  He  wrote 
elegies,  partly  pathetic,  partly  humorous,  and 
satires,  and  published  a  collection  of  these  in 
1721.  In  1724-32  he  issued  the  'Tea-table 
Miscellany*,  and  in  1724  'The  Evergreen', 
collections  of  old  Scottish  and  English  songs, 
with  some  by  himself  and  contemporary 
poets,  important  as  contributing  to  the 
revival  of  vernacular  Scottish  poetry.  Ram- 
say's pastoral  drama,  'The  Gentle  Shepherd*, 
his  principal  work,  appeared  in  1725.  He  also 
composed  two  additional  cantos  to  'Christis 
Kirk  on  the  Green'  (q.v.). 

Ramsay,  MARGARET,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'The  Fortunes  of  Nigel'  (q.v.). 

RAMUS,  PETRUS,  latinized  form  of 
Pierre  la  Rame'e  (1515-72),  professor  of 
philosophy  at  the  College  de  France  in  1543, 
was  famous  as  an  opponent  of  the  Aristotelian 
doctrine.  The  Ramist  philosophy,  as  ex- 
pounded in  his  'Dialectica',  was  introduced 
into  England  in  the  latter  part  of  the  i6th  cent, 
by  Andrew  Melville  and  William  Temple,  and 
obtained  a  wide  currency  in  the  universities, 
notably  at  Cambridge.  Ramus  fell  a  victim 
to  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

Ran,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  wife  of 
Aegir,  the  cruel  goddess  of  the  sea,  the  cause 
of  shipwrecks  and  the  dread  of  mariners. 

Randolph,  LORD,  a  character  in  Home's 
'Douglas'  (q.v.). 


[650] 


RANDOLPH 

RANDOLPH,  THOMAS  (1605-35),  was 
educated  at  Westminster  School  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  a  fellow  of  Trinity. 
He  made  the  acquaintance  of  Ben  Jonson  and, 
after  becoming  famous  in  Cambridge  as  a 
writer  of  English  and  Latin  verse,  went  to 
London  in  1632.  His  'Aristippus,  or  the 
Joviall  ^Philosopher',  an  early  dramatic 
sketch,  is  an  amusing  dispute  on  the  rival 
merits  of  ale  and  sack  (printed  in  1630).  His 
principal  plays  are  'Amyntas',  a  pastoral 
comedy,  and  'The  Muses'  Looking- Glasse' 
(q.v.),  printed  in  1638 ;  and  'Hey  for  Honesty* 
(q.v.),  printed  in  1651.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  a  pleasant  eclogue  included  in 
'Annalia  Dubrensia',  verses  in  celebration  of 
Captain  Dover's  'Cotswold  Games'  (q.v.). 
His  plays  and  poems  were  edited  by  W.  C. 
Hazlitt  in  1875. 

RANDS,  WILLIAM  BRIGHTY  (1823- 
82),  'the  laureate  of  the  nursery',  who  wrote 
sometimes  under  the  pseudonyms  Henry 
Holbeach  and  Matthew  Browne.  After  much 
struggle  with  poverty  he  became  a  reporter 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  He  was  especially 
esteemed  for  his  poems  and  fairy  tales  for 
children.  See  Lilliput  Levee. 

Ranelagh  Gardens,  Chelsea,  a  place  of 
public  amusement,  opened  in  1742  in  the 
grounds  of  the  earl  of  Ranelagh.  It  had  a 
famous  Rotunda,  150  feet  in  diameter,  with 
an  orchestra  in  the  centre,  and  boxes  round 
it,  where  people  promenaded.  The  gardens 
were  closed  in  1804.  They  now  form  part  of 
Chelsea  Hospital  Gardens,  between  Church 
Row  and  the  river,  to  the  east  of  the  hospital 
(Wheatley  and  Cunningham).  The  modern 
'Ranelagh'  is  at  Barn  Elms,  a  club  where 
polo  and  other  games  are  played. 

Ranger,  (i)  a  rakish  man  of  fashion  in  'Love 
in  a  Wood'  by  Wycherley  (q.v.);  (2)  a 
character  in  Hoadly's  'The  Suspicious  Hus- 
band* (q.v.). 

Ranjitsinhji,  KUMAR  SHRI,  now  the  Jam 
Sahib  of  Nawanagar  (1872-  ),  a  Rajput, 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
a  famous  cricketer.  He  played  for  Sussex  and 
England  in  1900,  making  over  3,000  runs 
with  an  average  of  87.  With  Fry  he  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  modern  batting,  by  his 
development  of  backplay  and  the  leg-glide. 
RANKE,  LEOPOLD  VpN  (1795-1886),  a 
celebrated  German  historian.  His  history  of 
'The  Popes  of  Rome*  (1834-7)  is,  among  his 
numerous  works,  that  best  known  in  England. 
He  began  writing  a  'History  of  the  World' 
when  he  was  over  80  and  got  down  to  the 
I2th  cent.  A.D.  before  his  death. 
Ranks  of  Tuscany,  in  Macaulay's  'Lays  of 
Ancient  Rome'  ('Horatius*,  be),  the  opposing 
side  moved  to  applause: 

And  even  the  ranks  of  Tuscany 
Could  scarce  forbear  to  cheer. 
Ranz-des-vaches,  the  melodies  peculiar  to 
Swiss  herdsmen,  usually  played  on  an  Alpine 


RASSELAS 

horn.  The  origin  and  meaning  of  the  word 
ranz  (Swiss  dialect  of  Fribourg)  is  uncertain. 
Rape  of  the  Lock,  The,  a  poem  by  Pope 
(q.v.),  in  two  cantos,  published  in  Lintot's 
'Miscellany'  in  1712;  subsequently  enlarged 
to  five  cantos  and  thus  published  in  1714. 

Lord  Petre  having  forcibly  cut  off  a  lock  of 
Miss  Arabella  Ferrnor's  hair,  the  incident 
gave  rise  to  a  quarrel  between  the  families. 
With  the  idea  of  allaying  this,  Pope  treated 
the  subject  in  a  playful  mock-heroic  poem, 
on  the  model  of  Boileau's  'Le  Lutrin*.  He 
presents  Belinda  at  her  toilet,  a  game  of 
ombre,  the  snipping  of  the  lock  while  Belinda 
sips  her  coffee,  the  wrath  of  Belinda  and  her 
demand  that  the  lock  be  restored,  the  final 
wafting  of  the  lock,  as  a  new  star,  to  adorn 
the  skies.  The  poem  was  published  in  its 
original  form  with  Miss  Fermor's  permission. 
Pope  then  expanded  the  sketch  by  introducing 
the  machinery  of  sylphs  and  gnomes,  and  its 
renewed  publication  gave  offence  to  the  lady, 
who  thought  that  her  affairs  had  been  suffi- 
ciently brought  before  the  public. 

Raphael,  DON,  see  Don  Raphael  and  Am- 
brose Lamela. 

Raphael,  one  of  the  archangels  (see  Angel). 
In  the  'Book  of  Tobit'  (q.v.)  he  accompanies 
and  instructs  Tobias  on  his  journey.  Milton 
makes  him  the  seraph,  'the  sociable  Spirit', 
also  (alas  I)  'the  affable  Archangel',  sent  to 
Paradise  to  converse  with  Adam  ('Paradise 
Lost',  v.  221,  vi.  41). 

Raphael,  the  Italian  painter,  see  Raffaetto 
Sanzio. 

RASHDAXL,  VERY  REV.  HASTINGS 
(1858-1924),  philosopher,  theologian,  and 
historian,  educated  at  Harrow  and  New 
College,  Oxford.  His  philosophical  works 
include:  'The  Theory  of  Good  and  Evil' 
(1907)  and  'The  Idea  of  Atonement  in 
Christian  Theology'  (1919)-  'The  Universi- 
ties of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages'  (1895) 
is  a  standard  work. 

Raspe,  RUDOLPH  ERICH,  see  Munchausen. 

Rasselas,  Prince  of  Abyssinia,  The  History  of, 
a  didactic  romance  by  S.  Johnson  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1759. 

It  was  composed  in  the  evenings  of  a  week 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  funeral  of 
Johnson's  mother  and  to  pay  her  debts,  ^  It 
is  an  essay  on  the  'choice  of  life*  and  consists 
mainly  of  dissertations  strung  on  a  thin 
thread  of  story.  Rasselas,  a  son  of  the  em- 
peror of  Abyssinia,  weary  of  the  joys  of  the 
'happy  valley',  where  the  inhabitants  know 
only  'the  soft  vicissitudes  of  pleasure  and 
repose*,  escapes  to  Egypt,  accompanied  by 
his  sister  Nekayah  and  the  much-travelled 
old  philosopher  Irnlac.  Here  they  study  the 
various  conditions  of  men's  lives,  and,  after  a 
few  incidents  of  no  great  interest,  return  to 
Abyssinia.  The  charm  of  the  work  lies  in  the 
wisdom,  humanity,  and  melancholy  of  the 
episodes  and  disquisitions,  enlivened  with  a 


RASTIGNAC 

few  gleams  of  humour.  Rasselas  thinks  that 
'surely  happiness  is  somewhere  to  be  found' ; 
but  he  finds  it  nowhere.  The  teachers  of 
philosophy  are  unable  to  support  their  own 
misfortunes;  the  hermit  admits  that  the 
solitary  life  will  be  certainly  miserable,  but 
not  certainly  devout.  The  prosperous  man 
lives  in  terror  of  the  Bashaw,  and  the  Bashaw 
of  the  Sultan.  The  Sultan  is  subject  to  the 
torments  of  suspicion.  Virtue  can  afford  only 
quietness  of  conscience  and  a  steady  prospect 
of  a  happier  state.  The  monks  of  St.  Anthony 
alone  support  without  complaint  a  life,  not  of 
uniform  delight,  but  of  uniform  hardship. 
Rastignac,  one  of  the  principal  characters 
drawn  by  Balzac  (q.v.).  He  figures  inter- 
mittently throughout  the  series  of  the 
'Scenes  de  la  Vie  Parisienne',  but  is  especially 
analysed  in  'Le  Pere  Goriot'.  He  starts  as 
a  humble  student,  and  with  the  help  of  his 
female  admirers  achieves  success  in  the 
corrupt  society  of  the  Paris  of  the  day. 

Rasputin  (GREGORY  EFIMOVICH)  (1871- 
1916),  the  son  of  a  Russian  peasant  (to  whom 
the  nickname  'Rasputin',  meaning  'dissolute*, 
was  given),  and  an  uneducated  monk,  a  man 
of  ^great  physical  strength  and  magnetic  per- 
sonality. He  claimed  that  he  could  save  souls 
by  virtue  of  some  divine  attribute  in  his 
nature.  He  was  introduced  at  the  Russian 
court,  where  he  acquired  great  influence  over 
the  Empress.  His  name  became  associated 
with  court  scandals,  and  a  plot  to  kill  him  was 
formed  by  persons  of  high  social  position,  as 
a  result  of  which  he  was  assassinated. 

Rat,  the  Gat,  and  Level  the  dog,  THE,  in 

the  political  rhyme  : 

The  Rat,  the  Cat,  and  Lovel  the  dog 
Rule  all  England  under  the  Hog, 
refers  to  three  adherents  of  Richard  III :  Sir 
Richard  Ratcliffe  (killed  at  Bosworth,  1485), 
Sir  John  Catesby  (d.  1486),  and  Francis,  first 
Viscount  Lovell  (1454-88  ? ;  his  skeleton  was 
found  in  a  vault,  where  he  had  evidently 
starved  to  death).   The  Hog  is  a  reference  to 
the  boar  that  figured  as  one  of  the  supporters 
of  the  royal  arms. 

Ratcliffe,  JAMES,  a  character  in  Scott's  'The 
Heart  of  Midlothian'  (q.v.) ;  a  notorious  thief 
who  ingratiates  himself  with  the  magistrates 
and  becomes  a  warder  in  the  Tolbooth. 
Ratcliffe  Highway,  see  Wapping. 
Ratsey,    GAMALIEL,    a    Northamptonshire 
highwayman,  hanged  at  Bedford  in  1605,  and 
frequently  mentioned  in  lyth-cent.  literature. 
Rattlin,  JACK,  a    character   in    Smollett's 
'Roderick  Random9. 

Rattlin  the  Reefer,  a  novel  of  the  sea  by 
Edward  Howard  (d.  1841) — according  to 
Prof.  Elton  (/Survey5)  the  Hon.  Edward 
George  Greville  Howard — a  shipmate  of 
Capt.  Marryat,  published  in  1836.  The 
book  was  announced  as  edited  by  the  author 
of  'Peter  Simple*  and  was  in  consequence 
wrongly  attributed  to  Marryat. 


RAWLINSON 

The  story  resembles  the  sea-yarns  of 
Marryat,  but  without  his  high  spirits.  We 
have  the  bullying  captain;  the  adventures, 
hoaxes,  and  horse-play;  and  some  good 
fighting  in  the  West  Indies.  But  the  general 
atmosphere  is  more  serious. 
RaufCoilyear,  a  rhymed  poem  of  the  Charle- 
magne cycle,  in  stanzas  of  thirteen  lines,  of 
which  a  copy  survives,  printed  in  Scotland  in 
1572. 

The  poem,  which  is  quaint  and  humorous, 
recounts  how  Charles,  lost  and  benighted, 
takes  refuge  in  the  hut  of  Rauf,  a  plain- 
spoken  and  self-willed  charcoal-burner,  who 
treats  him  hospitably  but  with  excessive  free- 
dom. 

Ravaillac,  FRANCOIS  (c.  1578-1610),  the 
assassin  of  Henri  IV  of  France. 

Ravel,  MAURICE  (1875-        ),  one  of  the 

most  prominent  French  composers  of  the 

day. 

The  Raven,  a  poem  by  Poe  (q.v.). 

Ravenshoe,  a  novel  by  H.  Kingsley  (q.v.), 
published  in  1861. 

The  Ravenshoes  are  a  wealthy  Roman 
Catholic  family,  but  Charles,  the  second  son 
of  Densil  Ravenshoe  and  a  Protestant  mother, 
is  brought  up  in  his  mother's  religion.  On 
DensiPs  death,  Father  Mackworth,  the  con- 
fessor of  the  family,  produces  evidence  that 
Charles  is  not  Densil's  son,  as  had  been  sup- 
posed, but  son  of  Densil's  illegitimate  half- 
brother,  the  keeper,  the  children  having  been 
exchanged  when  babies .  But  the  Jesuit  keeps 
back  what  he  also  knows,  that  this  half-brother 
was  not  illegitimate  and  that  Charles  is  the  true 
heir  of  the  estate.  Other  blows  fall  on  Charles ; 
for  his  old  school-friend,  Lord  Welter,  runs 
off  with  the  woman  whom  Charles  loves ;  and 
it  is  discovered  that  Welter  has  also  seduced 
Ellen,  the  keeper's  daughter,  Charles's  sister. 
Disinherited,  disgraced,  and  broken-hearted, 
Charles  hides  himself  from  the  world  and 
enlists.  One  of  the  few  survivors  of  Balaclava, 
he  returns  to  England,  shattered  in  mind  and 
body,  and  is  on  the  point  of  suicide  when  he 
is  discovered  by  his  friends.  The  true  facts 
have  now  come  to  light,  the  death  of  Charles's 
elder  brother  solves  the  difficulties  of  the 
succession,  and  Charles  is  tardily  restored  to 
his  rightful  position. 

Ravenswood,  EDGAR,  MASTER  OF,  the  hero 
of  Scott's  'The  Bride  of  Larnrnermoor*  (q.v.). 

RAWLINSON,  GEORGE  (1812-1902), 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and  a 
fellow  of  Exeter  College,  was  Camden  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  history,  1861-89.  He  was 
author  of  'The  History  of  Herodotus'  (1858- 
60),  a  translation  accompanied  by  valuable 
historical  and  ethnological  notes,  for  which 
the  discoveries  of  his  brother,  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson,  the  Assyriolpgist,  provided  much 
material.  He  also  published  histories  of  the 
seven  great  monarchies  of  the  Eastern  world 
(1862-76),  and  other  kindred  works.  He 


[653] 


RAWLINSON 

wrote  a  life  of  his  brother,  which  appeared  in 
1908. 

Rawlinson,  SIR^HENRY  CEESWICKE  (1810- 
95),  who  held  various  important  positions  in 
the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  is 
remembered  chiefly  as  an  Assyriologist.  He 
deciphered  the  great  Behistun  (q.v.)  inscrip- 
tion in  1846. 

Rawlinson,  THOMAS  (1681-1725),  educated 
at  Eton  and  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  a 
book-collector,  whose  manuscripts  are  in  the 
Bodleian  Library.  He  was  satirized  by 
Addison  in  the  'Tatler'  (No.  158)  as  'Torn 
Folio'. 

Raymond,  HENRY  JARVIS  (1820-69),  founder 
of  the  'New  York  Times'(iS5i)  and  one  of  the 
outstanding  figures  in  the  history  of  Ameri- 
can journalism,  which  he  did  much  to  refine 
and  improve. 

READE,  CHARLES  (1814-84),  born  at 
Ipsden  in  Oxfordshire,  was  a  demy1  and 
subsequently  a  fellow  of  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  and  entered  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  was 
an  ardent  reformer  of  abuses,  but  appears 
to  have  been  cantankerous  and  perverse. 
He  began  his  literary  career  as  a  dramatist, 
his  most  successful  play  'Masks  and  Faces* 
appearing  at  the  Haymarket  in  1852.  This 
he  turned  into  a  novel  with  the  title  Teg 
Woffington'  (q.v.),  published  in  1853.  The 
pleasant  romance  'Christie  Johnstone*  and 
the  propagandist  novel c  It  is  Never  too  Late  to 
Mend'  (qq.v.)  appeared  also  in  1853,  and  were 
followed  by  'The  Course  of  True  Love  never 
did  run  Smooth'  (1857),  'The  Autobiography 
of  a  Thief  and  'Jack  of  all  Trades'  (1858), 
stories  of  strange  avocations,  in  the  manner  of 
Defoe;  'Love  me  Little,  Love  me  Long* 
(1859),  'The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth'  (q.v., 
1861),  Reade's  greatest  work;  'Hard  Cash* 
(q.v.,  1863),  'Griffith  Gaunt'  (q.v.,  1866), 
'Foul  Play*  (q.v.,  1869),  Tut  Yourself  in  his 
Place*  (1870),  dealing  with  the  form  of 
terrorism  organized  by  trade  unions  known  as 
'rattening';  'A  Terrible  Temptation*  (q.v., 
1871),  'The  Wandering  Heir',  suggested  by 
the  Tichborne  trial  (published  in  'The 
Graphic',  1872),  'A  Hero  and  a  Martyr' 
(1874),  *A  Woman  Hater'  (1874).  Reade  also 
wrote  'The  Courier  of  Lyons*  (1854),  tke 
well-known  melodrama  frequently  produced 
by  Sir  H.  Irving  under  the  name  of  'The 
Lyons  Mail*.  His  play  'Drink'  (1879)  was 
based  on  Zola's  'L'Assommoir'. 

Reade  was  an  admirable  story-teller.  He 
relied  greatly  on  documentary  information, 
which  he  accumulated  in  great  ledgers  in  his 
well-known  house  in  Albert  Terrace  (im- 
mediately opposite  Sloane  Street).  There  is 
a  description  of  his  methods  in  *A  Terrible 
Temptation*. 

Ready-  to-Halt,  MR.,  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's 
Progress*,  a  pilgrim  who  follows  Mr.  Great- 

1  Demy,  a  foundation  scholar  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  so  caUed  because  a  demy's  allowance  or 
*  commons'  was  formerly  half  that  of  a  fellow. 


RECLUSE 

heart,  though  upon  cratches.  When  he 
comes  to  the  land  of  Beulah  and  is  about  to 
cross  the  river,  he  bequeathes  his  crutches  to 
his  son,  for  he  sees  chariots  and  horses  ready 
to  carry  him  into  the  City. 

Realism,  in  scholastic  philosophy,  the  doc- 
trine that  attributes  objective  or  absolute 
existence  to  universals,  of  which  Thomas 
Aquinas  (q.v.)  was  the  chief  exponent.  Duns 
(q.v.)  Scotus  also  maintained  realism  in  an 
extreme  form.  Also  in  the  arts  a  loosely  used 
term  meaning  truth  to  the  observed  facts  of 
life  (especially  when  they  are  gloomy). 

Reason,  GODDESS  OF,,  a  divinity  invented  by 
the  National  Convention  during  the  French 
Revolution,  personated  by  Mile  Candeille  of 
the  Opera,  who  was  borne  in  procession  to 
Notre  Dame  and  there  made  the  object  of 
a  mock- worship  (1793).  There  were  other 
'Goddesses  of  Reason*  (including  Mme 
Momoro)  and  the  worship  was  conducted 
at  several  churches. 

Reasonableness  of  Christianity,  see  Essay 
concerning  Human  Understanding. 

Rebecca,  (i)  the  name  given  (in  allusion  to 
Gen.  xxiv.  60)  to  the  leader,  in  woman's 
attire,  of  the  rioters  who  demolished  toll- 
gates  in  S.  Wales  in  1843-4;  (?)  a  character 
in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe*  (q.v.). 

Rebecca  and  Rowena,  a  Romance  upon 
Romance,  by  Mr.  Michael  Angela  Titmarsh,  a 
humorous  sequel  to  Scott's  *  Ivanhoe*  (q.v.), 
by  Thackeray  (q.v.),  published  in  1850. 

Ivanhoe  soon  wearies  of  life  with  his  wife, 
the  Lady  Rowena,  who  rules  the  roost  and 
bores  everybody  with  stories  of  Edward  the 
Confessor;  and  goes  off  to  join  King  Richard 
in  France.  He  is  present  when  the  latter  is 
killed  at  the  siege  of  Chalus,  and  is  himself 
left  for  dead  on  the  field.  Waznba  rather 
precipitately  carries  home  the  news  to  Row- 
ena, who  promptly  marries  Athelstane,  in 
whom  she  finds  a  congenial  mate.  Ivanhoe 
recovers,  returns  to  find  Rowena  besieged  in 
her  castle,  and  Athelstane  dead  in  the  siege. 
Rowena  dies,  making  Ivanhoe  promise  he 
will  'never  marry  a  Jewess*.  After  many 
adventures  Ivanhoe  rescues  Rebecca,  who 
has  turned  Christian  and  been  imprisoned 
by  old  Isaac,  and  marries  her. 

R^camier,  MME  (1777-1849),  a  ^French- 
woman  famous  for  her  beauty  and  wit,  whose 
salon  during  the  Restoration  was  frequented 
by  the  most  brilliant  society  of  the  day,  in- 
cluding Chateaubriand. 

Rechafoite,  one  of  a  Jewish  family  descended 
from  Jonadab,  son  of  Rechab,  who  refused 
to  drink  wine  or  live  in  houses  (see  Jer.  xxxy). 
Hence  one  who  abstains  from  intoxicating 
liquors,  and  specifically  a  member  of  the 
Independent  Order  of  Rechabites,  a  benefit 
society  founded  in  1835 ;  or  a  dweller  in  tents. 
[OED.] 

Recluse»  The*  see  Excursion. 


[653] 


RECOLLECT 

Recollect  or  RECOLLET,  a  member  of  the 
Observantine  (q.v.)  branch  of  the  Franciscan 
(q.v.)  order,  which  originated  in  Spain  in  the 
end  of  the  I5th  cent,  and  was  so  named  'from 
the  detachment  from  creatures  and  recollec- 
tion in  God  which  the  founders  aimed  at* 
(Catholic  Dictionary). 

Record  Office,  PUBLIC:  before  the  con- 
struction of  the  present  office  in  Fetter  Lane, 
the  national  records  were  kept  in  the  Tower 
of  London  and  Rolls  House  (q.v.).  Among 
important  keepers  of  the  records  may  be 
mentioned  Selden  and  Prynne  (qq.v.), 
Samuel  Lysons  the  antiquary  (1803),  and 
Sir  F.  Palgrave  (q.v.). 
Recovery,  see  Feet  of  Fines. 

Recruiting  Officer,  The,  a  comedy  by  Far- 
quhar  (q.v.),  produced  in  1706. 

It  deals  with  the  humours  of  recruiting  in 
a  country  town,  with  a  vividness  suggesting 
that  the  author  drew  on  his  own  experience. 
The  plot  is  slender;  it  presents  Capt.  Plume 
making  love  to  the  women  in  order  to  secure 
their  followers  as  recruits ;  Kite,  his  resource- 
ful sergeant,  employing  his  wiles  and  as- 
suming the  character  of  an  astrologer,  for  the 
same  purpose;  while  Sylvia,  daughter  of 
Justice  Ballance,  who  is  in  love  with  Plume, 
but  has  promised  not  to  marry  him  without 
her  father's  consent,  runs  away  from  home 
disguised  as  a  man,  gets  herself  arrested  for 
scandalous  conduct,  is  brought  before  her 
father,  and  by  him  delivered  over  to  Capt. 
Plume,  as  a  recruit.  Capt.  Brazen,  a  rival 
recruiting  officer,  who  boasts  of  battles  and 
friends  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  en- 
deavours to  marry  the  rich  Melinda,  but  finds 
himself  fobbed  off  with  her  maid. 

Red  Badge  of  Courage,  The,  by  Stephen 
Crane  (q.v.),  published  in  1895,  is  the 
author's  best-known  work  and  won  him 
immediate  recognition  in  England  as  well  as 
America.  It  is  a  study  of  an  inexperienced 
soldier's  reactions  to  the  ordeal  of  battle 
during  the  American  Civil  War.  Deter- 
mined to  be  a  hero,  he  suddenly  turns  coward ; 
then  recovers  himself  and  behaves  as  the 
fighter  he  had  wished  to  be. 
Red  Book  of  Hergest,  a  Welsh  manuscript 
of  the  end  of  the  I4th  cent.,  containing  the 
'Mabinogion*  (q.v.),  chronicles,  and  poems. 

Red  Cotton  Night-Cap  Country,  or,  Turf  and 
Towers,  a  poem  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1873. 

The  poem  is  based  on  a  series  of  dramatic 
incidents  that  occurred  in  France  shortly 
before  the  poem  was  written  (see  Nicoll  and 
Wise,  'Literary  Anecdotes1,  i.  516),  and 
describes  the  spiritual  experiences  of  Leonce 
Miranda,  a  wealthy  Spaniard  resident  in 
France  and  devotedly  united  to  Clara  Mul- 
hausen,  the  wife  of  another  man.  He  makes 
repeated  attempts  at  suicide  under  the  in- 
fluence of  his  conscience,  provoked  succes- 
sively by  his  mother's  rebuke,  by  her  death, 
and  by  the  desire  to  test  the  miraculous 


REDGAUNTLET 

powers  of  Christianity.  For  this  last  purpose 
he  throws  himself  from  a  tower  and  is  killed. 

The  title  of  the  book  arose  out  of  a  meeting 
with  Miss  Annie  Thackeray,  to  whom  it  is 
dedicated,  at  St.  Aubin,  which  she  had  nick- 
named 'White  Cotton  Night-Cap  Country* 
from  its  sleepy  appearance  and  the  white 
caps  of  the  women.  The  change  to  'Red 
Cotton  Night-Cap'  is  symbolical  of  the  con- 
trast of  this  with  the  tale  of  blood, 
Red  Cross,  THE,  the  badge  (adapted  from 
the  Swiss  national  flag  under  the  Geneva 
Convention  of  1864)  of  military  ambulance 
and  hospital  services. 

A  red  cross  was  the  mark  made  on  the  doors 
of  infected  houses  during  the  London  plagues 
of  the  1 7th  cent. 

Red  Cross  Knight,  THE,  in  Bk.  I  of 
Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene'  is  Saint  George,the 
patron  saint  of  England.  He  is  the  'patron*  or 
champion  of  Holiness,  and  represents  the 
Anglican  Church.  He  is  separated  from  Una 
(the  true  religion)  by  the  wiles  of  Archimago 
(hypocrisy),  and  is  led  away  by  Duessa  (the 
Roman  Catholic  religion)  to  the  House  of 
Pride.  He  drinks  of  an  enchanted  stream, 
loses  his  strength,  and  is  made  captive  by  the 
giant  Orgoglio  (pride).  Orgoglio  is  slain  by 
Prince  Arthur,  and  Una  leads  her  knight  to 
the  House  of  Holiness,  to  learn  repentance 
and  be  healed.  The  Knight  and  Una  are 
finally  united. 

Red  Riding  Hood,  Little,  a  popular  tale,  trans- 
lated from  the  French  of  Perrault  (q.v.)  by 
Robert  Samber  (1729?). 

Little  Red  Riding  Hood  is  sent  by  her 
mother  to  take  a  cake  and  a  pot  of  butter  to 
her  sick  grandmother.  She  loiters  on  the  way, 
and  gets  into  conversation  with  a  wolf,  who 
learns  her  errand.  He  hurries  on,  eats  up  the 
grandmother,  takes  her  place  in  the  bed,  and 
personates  her  when  Red  Riding  Hood 
arrives,  finally  devouring  the  child.  In  the 
German  variant  the  child  is  resuscitated. 
Andrew  Lang,  in  his  'Perrault's  Popular 
Tales*,  discusses  the  analogies  of  the  story  in 
other  legends. 

Redbreasts,  according  to  Dickens  ('Letters', 
1 8  Apr.  1862),  a  nickname  for  the  old  Bow 
Street  'runners'  or  police  officers,  because 
they  wore  red  waistcoats. 
Redburn,  by  H.  Melville  (q.v.),  published  in 
1849,  a  largely  autobiographical  narrative,, 
dealing  with  the  period  of  the  author's 
voyage  to  Liverpool  in  1837. 

Redgauntlet,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.), 
published  in  1824. 

The  story  centres  round  an  apocryphal 
return  of  Prince  Charles  Edward  to  England 
some  years  after  1745,  to  try  once  more  his 
fortunes,  an  attempt  that  meets  with  in- 
glorious failure.  Mr.  Redgauntlet,  otherwise 
known  as  Henries  of  Birrenswork,  a  fanatical 
Jacobite,  is  the  leader  of  the  movement,  and, 
to  promote  its  success,  kidnaps  his  young 
nephew,  Darsie  Latimer  (whose  true  name 


[654] 


REDI 

is  Sir  Arthur  Darsie  Redgauntlet),  the  head 
of  his  house,  in  order  that  he  may  get  the 
support  of  his  followers.  Darsie's  expe- 
riences, and  those  of  his  young  friend  Alan 
Fairford,  who  sets  out  to  rescue  him,  make 
up  the  substance  of  the  novel;  which  also 
contains  the  notable  characters  of  Joshua 
Geddes,  the  Quaker,  the  hypocrite  Thomas 
Trumbull,  Nanty  Ewart  the  sea-captain,  and 
the  blind  fiddler  'Wandering  Willie' ;  together 
with  some  amusing  pictures  of  old  legal 
Edinburgh  (including  the  grotesque-pathetic 
figure  of  Peter  Peebles,  the  crazy  litigant). 
Though  not  generally  accounted  one  of  the 
three  or  four  greatest  Waverley  novels,  'Red- 
gauntlet'  (written  in  the  last  years  of  Scott's 
prosperity)  contains  some  of  his  finest  writing, 
notably  in  *  Wandering  Willie's  Tale',  a  perfect 
example  of  the  short  story. 

REDI,  FRANCESCO  (1626-98),  physician 
to  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  and  author  of  a 
spirited  dithyrambic  poem,  'Bacco  in  Tos- 
cana*  ('Bacchus  in  Tuscany'),  which  Leigh 
Hunt  (q.v.)  translated.  It  may  have  helped 
to  inspire  Dry  den's  *  Alexander's  Feast'. 
Redlaw,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'The 
Haunted  Man'  (q.v.). 

Redmond  O'Neale,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Rokeby'  (q.v.). 

Redworth,  THOMAS,  a  character  in  G.  Mere- 
dith's 'Diana  of  the  Crossways'  (q.v.). 

REEVE,  CLARA  (1729-1807),  a  disciple  of 
Horace  Walpole  as  a  novelist,  published  'The 
Champion  of  Virtue,  a  Gothic  Story',  her 
best-known  work,  in  1777.  The  title  was 
changed  to  "The  Old  English  Baron'  in 
the  second  edition.  It  is  a  romance  of  the 
1 5th  cent,  in  which  a  slight  element  of  the 
supernatural  is  introduced,  in  the  shape  of 
the  ghost  of  a  murdered  baron.  Clara  Reeve 
also  wrote  'The  Progress  of  Romance  through 
Times,  Centuries,  and  Manners'  (1785). 

Reeve's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 

Reflections  on  the  Revolution  in  France,  see 
Revolution  in  France. 

Reform  Bill,  a  bill  for  widening  the  parlia- 
mentary franchise  and  removing  inequalities 
and  abuses  in  the  system  of  representation, 
introduced  by  Lord  John  Russell  (a  member 
of  Lord  Grey's  government)  in  1831  and 
carried  after  an  acute  struggle  in  1832.  The 
second  Reform  Bill,  giving  a  more  democratic 
representation,  was  carried  in  1867;  the  third 
in  1884.  Several  more  were  needed  to  pro- 
duce the  present  state  of  things. 

Reformation,  THE,  the  great  religious  move- 
ment of  the  1 6th  cent.,  having  for  its  object 
the  reform  of  the  doctrines  and  practices  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  and  ending  in  the 
establishment  of  the  various  Reformed  or 
Protestant  churches  of  central  and  north- 
western Europe.  Its  principal  leaders  were 
Luther  in  Germany,  Calvin  in  France  and 
Geneva,  Zwingli  in  Switzerland,  and  Knox  in 
Scotland.  The  principal  points  contended  for 


REGIOMONTANUS 

by  the  reformers  were  the  general  use  and 
authority  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  need  of 
justification  by  faith;  while  they  repudiated 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  the  worship 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  the  supremacy  of  the 
Pope. 

Reformation,  History  of  the,  see  Knox  (J.). 
Regan,  in  Shakespeare's  'King  Lear*  (q.v.), 
the  second  of  Lear's  daughters. 
Regency,   THE,   in    English    history,   the 
period  (181 1-20)  during  which  George,  Prince 
of  Wales,  acted  as  Regent,  owing  to  the  in- 
sanity of  George  III;  in  French  history,  the 
period  (1715-23)  during  which  Philip,  duke 
of  Orleans,  acted   as   Regent,  owing  to  the 
minority  of  Louis  XV. 

Regent  Street,  London,  designed  and 
carried  out  by  John  Nash  (q.v.)  to  connect 
the  Regent's  residence,  Carlton  House,  with 
Regent's  Park,  as  authorized  by  an  Act  of 
1813.  It  was  completely  rebuilt  in  1922-6. 

Regent's  Park  was  laid  out,  on  royal 
property,  in  1814  by  John  Nash,  and  named 
in  honour  of  the  Prince  Regent.  It  contains 
the  Zoological  Gardens  (q.v.),  and  until 
recently  contained  the  gardens  of  the  Royal 
Botanic  Society. 

Regicide  Peace,  Letters  on  at  by  E.  Burke 
(q.v.),  the  first  two  published  in  1796,  the 
third  in  1797,  the  fourth  posthumously  in  the 
collected  works. 

By  the  end  of  1796  France  had  reached  a 
dominating  position  on  the  Continent.  Her 
only  serious  enemies  during  that  year  had 
been  England,  Austria,  and  Sardinia,  and  the 
Austrian  and  Sardinian  armies  had  been 
defeated  by  Buonaparte  in  Italy.  In  Oct.  1796 
Pitt  sent  Lord  Malmesbury  to  Paris  to  nego- 
tiate a  peace,  but  his  proposals  were  scorn- 
fully rejected.  It  was  in  these  circumstances 
that  Burke  wrote  these  letters,  which  purport 
to  be  addressed  to  a  member  of  parliament. 
Their  theme  is  the  necessity  for  stamping  out 
the  Jacobin  government  of  France,  that  'vast 
tremendous  unformed  spectre' ;  the  futile  and 
humiliating  character  of  the  negotiations 
undertaken ;  and  the  ability  of  England  from 
an  economic  standpoint  to  carry  on  the 
struggle.  Burke  defines  Jacobinism  as  the 
revolt  of  the  enterprising  talents  of  a  country 
against  its  property,  and  their  association  for 
the  destruction  of  its  pre-existing  laws  and 
institutions. 

Regillus,  Lake,  see  Lake  Regillus. 
Regiomontium,  in  imprints,  Konigsberg. 

Regiomontanus,  JOHANN  MILLER  (1436- 
76),  of  Konigsberg,  from  which  place  he 
took  his  Latin  name,  a  German  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  and  bishop  of 
Ratisbon.  He  was  the  author  of  'Ephe- 
merides',  a  navigators1  almanac,  published 
in  1474,  and  calculated  for  the  years  1474- 
1506.  His  alleged  prediction  of  political 
convulsions  in  1588  (the  year  of  the  Armada) 
is  referred  to  by  Bacon  in  Essay  xxxv. 


[655] 


REGIUS  PROFESSORSHIPS 

Begins  professorships  were  first  founded 
by  Henry  VIII  in  1540  at  Cambridge 
(divinity,  civil  law,  physic,  Hebrew,  and 
Greek).  In  1 546  five  further  Regius  professor- 
ships were  founded  at  Oxford  (divinity, 
medicine,  civil  law,  Hebrew,  and  _  Greek). 
Regius  professorships  of  modern  history  at 
Cambridge,  and  of  ecclesiastical  history, 
modern  history,  and  moral  and  pastoral 
theology  at  Oxford,  have  since  been  added. 

Regulus ,  MARCUS  ATILIUS,  Roman  consul  in 
367  and  256  B.C.  He  is  quoted  as  an  instance 
of  heroic  constancy  in  misfortune.  It  is  re- 
lated that,  having  been  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Carthaginians,  and  kept  in  captivity  for  five 
years,  he  was  allowed  to  accompany  an 
embassy  to  Rome  on  condition  that  he  should 
return  if  /the  Carthaginian  proposals  were  not 
accepted".  He  advised  the  senate  not  to  con- 
sent to  peace,  and  when,  through  his  in- 
fluence, the  terms  proposed  were  refused,  he 
returned  to  Carthage  and  was  put  to  death 
with  torture.  (See  Horace,  'Odes',  in.  v, 
'Atqui  sciebat  quae  sibi  barbarus  Tortor 
pararet'.) 

Regulus,  CAIUS  ATILIUS,  surnamed  SER- 
RANUS  (from  Saranum,  an  Umbrian  city), 
was  taken  from  the  plough  (like  Cincinnatus, 
q.v.)  to  be  consul  at  Rome  in  257  B.C.,  when 
he  defeated  the  Carthaginian  fleet  off  the 
Liparean  islands. 

Rehearsal,  The,  a  farcical  comedy  attributed 
to  George  Villiers,  2nd  duke  of  Buckingham, 
but  probably  written  by  him  in  collaboration 
with  others,  among  whom  are  mentioned 
S.  Butler  (q.v.)  and  Martin  Clifford,  Master 
of  the  Charterhouse.  It  was  printed  in  1672. 
The  play  is  designed  to  satirize  the  heroic 
tragedies  of  the  day,  and  consists  of  a  series 
of  parodies  of  passages  from  these,  strung  to- 
gether in  an  absurd  heroic  plot.  The  author 
of  the  mock  play  is  evidently  a  laureate  (hence 
his  name  'Bayes*),  and  D'Avenant  was  prob- 
ably intended;  but  there  are  also  hits  at 
Dryden  (particularly  his  'Conquest  of  Gra- 
nada5) and  his  brothers-in-law,  Edward  and 
Robert  Howard.  Bayes  takes  two  friends, 
Smith  and  Johnson,  to  see  the  rehearsal  of  his 
play,  and  the  absurdity  of  this  work  (which 
includes  the  two  kings  of  Brentford,  entering 
hand  in  hand),  coupled  with  the  comments  of 
Bayes  and  his  instructions  to  the  actors,  and 
the  remarks  of  Smith  and  Johnson,  makes 
excellent  reading.  Prince  Prettyman  and 
Prince  Volscius  are  among  the  characters. 

Rehoboam,  a  name  given  to  a  wine-bottle 
of  the  largest  size,  equivalent  to  eight  stan- 
dard bottles  (Saintsbury). 

REID,  THOMAS  (1710-96),  was  educated 
at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  where  he 
became  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in 
1751.  He  was  appointed  to  a  similar  post  at 
Glasgow  University  in  1764.  He  published 
his  'Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind*  in  1764, 
his  essay  on  the  'Intellectual  Powers*  in  1785, 
and  that  on  the  'Active  Powers*  in  1788.  He 


RELAPSE 

is  the  leading  representative  of  the  school  of 
common  sense,  by  which  phrase  he  meant  not 
vulgar  opinion,  but  the  beliefs  common  to 
rational  beings  as  such.  His  most  important 
doctrine  was  that  belief  in  an  external  world 
is  intuitive  or  immediate.  He  contested  the 
view  of  Locke,  Berkeley,  and  Hume  (qq.v.) 
that  the  objects  of  knowledge  are  'ideas', 
maintaining  that  the  object  of  perception,  not 
the  unrelated  idea,  is  that  which  exists. 

REID,  THOMAS  MAYNE  (1818-83), 
novelist ;  author  of  'The  Rifle  Rangers'  (i  850), 
'The  Scalp-Hunters'  (1851),  'The  Headless 
Horseman'  (1866),  &c. 
Reign  of  Terror,  THE,  or  THE  TERROR,  that 
period  of  the  first  French  Revolution  from 
March  (or  according  to  another  view  June) 
1793  to  July  1794,  when  the  ruling  faction 
ruthlessly  executed  persons  of  both  sexes 
and  all  ages  and  conditions  whom  they  re- 
garded as  obnoxious.  It  was  terminated  by 
the  fall  of  Robespierre.  The  RED  TERROR  is 
the  term  applied  to  the  last  six  weeks  before 
27  July  1794,  when  1,366  people  were 
guillotined  in  Paris  alone. 

Reim-kennar,  one  skilled  in  magic  rhymes, 
a  name  apparently  invented  by  Scott  in  his 
'The  Pirate'  (q.v.). 

REINACH,  SALOMON  (1858-1932), 
French  scholar  and  archaeologist,  curator  of 
the  national  museum  of  Saint-Gerrnain-en- 
Laye,  author  of  a  number  of  learned  works. 

Rejected  Addresses,  a  collection  of  parodies 
by  James  and  Horace  Smith  (q.v.),  published 
in  1812. 

On  the  occasion  of  the  opening  of  the 
present  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  which  replaced 
Sheridan's  building  destroyed  by  fire,  the 
committee  in  charge  advertised  for  a  suit- 
able address  to  be  spoken  at  the  opening.  The 
addresses  submitted  proved  unsatisfactory, 
and  the  task  of  preparing  a  prologue  was 
finally  entrusted  to  Byron.  It  was  suggested 
to  the  two  Smiths  that  they  should  avail 
themselves  of  this  opportunity,  which  they 
did  by  composing  the  imaginary  addresses 
submitted  by  a  number  of  the  popular  poets 
of  the  day,  parodying  their  style.  These  in- 
clude Wordsworth,  Byron,  Moore,  Southey, 
Coleridge,  Crabbe,  and  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
Not  least  is  the  parody  in  prose  of  Cobbett 
called  'The  Hampshire  Farmer's  Address'. 
The  remarkable  appositeness  and  humour  of 
the  parodies  made  them  extremely  popular. 

Relapse,  The,  or  Virtue  in  Danger,  a  comedy 
by  Vanbrugh  (q.v.),  produced  in  1696. 

This  was  Vanbrugh's  first  play  and  was 
very  well  received*  It  is  an  avowed  continua- 
tion of  'Love's  Last  Shift'  by  Colley  Gibber 
(q.v.),  the  characters  being  retained,  though 
more  effectively  presented.  It  contains  two 
plots,  very  slenderly  related  to  each  other. 
Loveless,  a  reformed  libertine,  living  in  the 
country  in  mutual  affection  with  his  wife, 
Amanda,  is  obliged  to  go  with  her  to  London, 
where  he  suffers  a  relapse  under  the  tempta- 


[656] 


RELATIONS 

tion  of  the  beautiful  Berinthia,  an  unscrup- 
ulous young  widow.  Worthy,  a  former  lover  of 
Berinthia,  prevails  on  her  to  favour  Loveless's 
suit  and  to  persuade  Amanda  of  the  infidelity 
of  her  husband,  in  order  to  promote  his  own 
chances  of  seducing  Amanda.  But  Amanda, 
though  bitterly  resenting  her  husband's 
faithlessness,  remains  firm  in  her  virtue. 

The  second  plot  is  more  entertaining. 
Sir  Novelty  Fashion,  the  perfect  beau,  who 
has  just  become  (by  purchase)  Lord  Fopping- 
ton,  is  about  to  marry  Miss  Hoyden,  daughter 
of  Sir  Tunbelly  Clumsey,  a  country  squire, 
neither  father  nor  daughter  having  yet  seen 
him.  ^  Foppington's  younger  brother,  Young 
Fashion,  having  outrun  his  allowance,  appeals 
to  Foppington  for  assistance,  but  is  repulsed 
with  contumely.  To  revenge  himself  and 
rehabilitate  his  fortunes,  he  decides  to  go 
down  to  Sir  Tunbelly's  house,  personate  his 
brother,  and  marry  the  heiress.  The  plot  is 
at  first  quite  successful.  Sir  Tunbelly  wel- 
comes him  unsuspectingly,  and  Miss  Hoyden 
is  only  too  ready  to  marry  him  next  morning; 
but  Sir  Tunbelly  will  not  hear  of  the  marriage 
for  a  week.  In  view  of  the  danger  of  delay, 
Fashion  bribes  the  nurse  and  parson,  and  a 
secret  marriage  is  at  once  celebrated.  No 
sooner  is  this  done  than  Foppington  arrives, 
is  treated  as  an  impostor,  and  subjected  to 
indignities,  until  a  neighbour  vouches  for  his 
identity.  Meanwhile  young  Fashion  escapes. 
Hoyden,  the  parson,  and  the  nurse  decide  to 
say  nothing  of  the  former  marriage,  and 
Hoyden  is  now  married  to  Foppington,  who 
immediately  brings  his  wife  to  London.  Here 
young  Fashion  claims  his  bride,  the  nurse 
and  parson  are  bullied  and  cajoled  into  ad- 
mitting the  earlier  marriage,  and  Hoyden  is 
reconciled  to  her  lot  on  learning  that  Fashion 
is  Lord  Foppington's  brother. 

The  play  was  adapted  by  Sheridan  and 
produced  as  'A  Trip  to  Scarborough*. 
Relations,  a  name  applied  to  printed  news- 
pamphlets  of  the  early  part  of  the  lyth  cent., 
recording  domestic  events. 
Relativity,  a  theory  of  the  physical  universe 
evolved  by  Prof.  Einstein  (q.v.). 
Religio  Laid,  a  poem  by  Dryden  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1682. 

The  poet  argues  for  the  credibility  of  the 
Christian  religion  and  against  Deism,  and 
(perhaps  with  less  conviction)  for  the  Angli- 
can Church  against  that  of  Rome.  See  Hind 
and  the  Panther  (The). 

Religio  Medici,  a  work  by  Sir  T.  Browne 
(q.v.),  first  printed  without  his  sanction  in 
1642,  reissued  with  his  approval  in  1643.  It 
was  written  about  1635,  at  Shipden  Hall, 
near  Halifax,  before  the  author  settled  at 
Norwich.  He  states,  in  the  1643  edition,  that 
it  was  not  intended  for  publication  but^was 
'composed  at  leisurable  hours  for  his  private 
exercise  and  satisfaction',  but,  having  been 
printed  without  his  knowledge  and  consent, 
he  felt  bound  to  issue  a  cruD.  and  intended 
copy'. 


RENAN 

It  is  a  confession  of  Christian  faith  (quali- 
fied by  an  eclectic  and  generally  sceptical 
attitude),  and  a  collection  of  opinions  on  a 
vast  number  of  subjects  more  or  less  con- 
nected with  religion,  expressed  with  a  wealth 
of  fancy  and  wide  erudition.  The  headings  of 
a  few  of  the  sections  will  suggest  the  variety 
of  matters  dealt  with :  'Nature  doeth  nothing 
in  vain',  cof  miracles',  *of  witchcraft',  'of 
guardian  and  attendant  spirits',  'of  marriage 
and  harmony*,  *of  sleep',  'avarice  a  ridiculous 
vice'.  The  work  contains  two  beautiful 
prayers  in  verse. 

Reliques  of  Ancient  Poetry ,  see  Percy  (T.). 

REMARQUE,  ERICH  MARIA,  pseu- 
donym of  Erich  Maria  Cramer  (1898-  ), 
German  novelist,  author  of '  Im  Westen  nichts 
Neues'  ('All  Quiet  on  the  Western  Front', 
1929)  and  'Der  Weg  zuriick*  ('The  Road 
Back',  193*)- 

Rembrandt  Harmenszoon  Van  Rijn 
(Rembrandt  the  son  of  Harmen,  of  the  Rhine) 
(1607-69),  bom  at  Leyden,  the  son  of  a 
wealthy  miller,  was  the  greatest  painter  of 
the  Dutch  school,  and  also  a  great  etcher.  He 
has  been  called  the  'King  of  Shadows',  from 
his  practice  of  painting  pictures  illuminated 
by  a  clear  but  limited  light,  emerging  in  the 
midst  of  masses  of  shadow.  He  also  de- 
lighted in  portraying  the  wrinkled  faces  of 
old  people,  while  his  landscapes  show  a  pro- 
found feeling  for  nature. 

Remora,  the  sucking-fish  (Echeneis  remora), 
believed  by  the  ancients  to  have  the  power  of 
staying  the  course  of  any  ship  to  which  it 
attached  itself.  It  attaches  itself  to  the  belly 
of  the  shark  or  other  large  fish. 

Remorse,  a  blank  verse  tragedy  by  S.  T. 
Coleridge  (q.v.),  produced  at  Drury  Lane  in 
1813. 

Renaissance,  THE,  the  great  revival  of  art 
and  letters,  under  the  influence  of  classical 
models,  which  began  in  Italy  in  the  I4th  cent, 
and  continued  during  the  isth  and  i6th. 
Among  English  writers  who  have  dealt  with 
the  subject  may  be  mentioned  Symonds, 
Ruskin,  and  Pater  (qq.v.). 

RENAN,  ERNEST  (1823-92),  a  Breton  by 
birth,  and  a  learned  French  writer,  philologist, 
and  historian.  The  result  of  his  studies  of 
Christianity  is  embodied  in  the  famous 
'Origines  du  Christianisme*,  in  which  he 
applied  the  method  of  the  historian  to  the 
Biblical  narrative:  'Vie  de  Jesus'  (1863), 
'Les  Ap6tres*  (1866),  'St.  Paul'  (1869), 
'L'Ante^christ'  (1873),  'Les  fivangiles*  (1877), 
'L'EgHse  chre"tienne'  (1879),  'Marc  Aurele* 
(1881).  His  other  best-known  works,  all  of 
them  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  style, 
were  his  'Histoire  du  Peuple  d'IsraeT  (1888- 
94),  'Drames  philosophiques'  (1878—86),  and 
the  autobiographical  'Souvenirs  d'Enfance  et 
de  Jeunesse*  (1883).  Renan  also  wrote  an 
important  'Histoire  des  Langues  Semitiques* 
(1845),  a  life  of  Averroes  (1853),  and  studies 


[657] 


RENAUD 

of  the  'Book  of  Job*  (1859)  and  the  'Song  of 
Solomon'  (1860). 

Renaud,  one  of  the  paladins  of  Charlemagne, 
better  known  under  the  Italian  name  of 
Rinaldo  (q.v.). 

Renault,  a  character  in  Otway's  'Venice 
Preserved'  (q.v.). 

Rene",  the  title  of  a  romance  by  Chateau- 
briand (q.v,). 

Ren6  of  Provence  (1408-80),  known  as  'le 
bon  Roi  Rene"',  son  of  Louis  II,  duke  of 
Anjou,  was  titular  king  of  Naples,  the  two 
Sicilies,  and  Jerusalem,  'whose  large  style 
agrees  not  with  the  leanness  of  his  purse' 
(Shakespeare,  '2  Henry  VI',  I.  i).  His  daugh- 
ter, Margaret  of  Anjou,  was  wife  of  Henry 
VI.  As  Count  of  Provence,  he  gave  free  play 
to  his  love  of  music  and  poetry,  tilting  and 
hunting,  minstrels  and  knight-errants,  and 
showed  indifference  to  political  affairs.  There 
is  a  picture  of  his  court  in  Scott's  'Anne  of 
Geierstein*  (q.v.).  He  figures  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Henry  VI'  as  'Reignier*.  He  left 
some  prose  and  verse  romances,  pastorals, 
and  allegories. 

Ren£e  de  Groisnel,  afterwards  Marquise  de 
Rouaillout,  a  character  in  Meredith's  'Beau- 
champ's  Career*  (q.v.). 

Represser  of  over  much  Blaming  of  the 
Clergy,  see  Pecock. 

Republic,  The,  one  of  the  dialogues  of  Plato 
(q.v.),  in  which  Socrates  is  represented  as 
eliciting,  in  the  course  of  a  discussion  on 
justice,  the  ideal  type  of  state.  In  this  the 
perfect  forms  of  goodness,  truth,  and  beauty 
are  cultivated,  and  everything  repugnant  to 
them  excluded.  The  famous  apologue  of  the 
men  who  live  bound  in  a  cavern,  so  that  they 
can  see  only  the  shadows  of  real  objects  pro- 
jected by  a  bright  fire  on  its  inner  wall,  occurs 
in  Bk.  vii. 

Representative  Men,  by  Emerson  (q.v.),  a 
series  of  studies  of  Plato,  Swedenborg,  Mon- 
taigne, Napoleon,  Goethe  (1850). 

Republic  of  Letters,  THE,  the  collective 
body  of  those  engaged  in  literary  pursuits. 
The  expression  occurs  first  in  Addison's  'Dia- 
logues upon  Ancient  Medals',  i.  19. 

RERESBY,  SIR  JOHN  (1634-89),  travelled 
during  the  Commonwealth  in  France,  Italy, 
Germany,  and  the  Netherlands.  His  interest- 
ing 'Memoirs*  were  published  in  1734,  and 
his  'Travels  and  Memoirs'  in  1813. 

Restoration,  THE,  the  re-establishment  of 
monarchy  in  England  with  the  return  of 
Charles  II  (1660);  also  the  period  marked  by 
this  event,  of  which  the  chief  literary  figures 
are  Dryden,  Etherege,  Wycherley,  Congreve, 
Vanbrugh,  Farquhar,  Rochester,  Bunyan, 
Pepys,  and  Locke  (qq.v.). 

Resurrection  man,  or  RESURRECTIONIST, 
one  who  made  a  trade  of  eshurning  bodies 
in  order  to  sell  them  to  anatomists  (as  did 


RETURN  OF  THE  NATIVE 

Jerry  Cruncher  in  Dickens's  'Tale  of  Two 
Cities',  q.v.).  The  term  came  into  use  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  iSth  cent. 
Retaliations  an  unfinished  poem  by  Gold- 
smith (q.v,),  published  in  1774,  consisting  of 
a  string  of  humorous  and  critical  epitaphs  on 
David  Garrick,  Reynolds,  Burke,  and  other 
friends,  in  reply  to  their  similar  efforts 
directed  against  himself.  Of  the  latter  Gar- 
rick's  is  the  best  known : 

Here  lies  Nolly  Goldsmith,  for  shortness 
called  Noll, 

Who  wrote  like  an  angel,  but  talked  like 

poor  Poll. 

Retort  courteous,  THE,  the  first  of  Touch- 
stone's seven  causes  of  quarrel  (Shakespeare's 
'As  You  Like  It',«v.  iv) ;  followed  by  the  'quip 
modest',  the  'reply  churlish',  the  'reproof 
valiant',  the  'countercheck  quarrelsome*,  the 
'lie  circumstantial',  and  the  'lie  direct5. 

Returne  from  Pernassus,  The,  see  Parnassus 
Plays. 

Return  of  the  Druses,  The,  a  tragedy  in 
blank  verse  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.),  published 
in  1843. 

The  Druses  (q.v.)  are  living  in  exile  on  a 
small  island  in  the  Aegean,  the  victims  of  the 
tyranny  of  the  prefect  of  the  Knights  of 
Rhodes.  Djabal,  the  son  of  the  last  Emir,  who 
has  taken  refuge  in  Europe,  plans  to  return 
and  murder  the  oppressor.  On  his  return  he 
falls  in  love  with  Anael,  a  Druse  girl,  who  will 
marry  none  but  the  deliverer  of  her  race.  He 
now  determines  to  assume  the  character  of 
an  incarnation  of  the  Hakeem,  the  divine 
founder  of  the  religion.  But  presently  con- 
science is  too  strong  for  him,  and  he  resolves 
on  flight  after  he  shall  have  killed  the  tyrant. 
In  this  assassination  Anael  anticipates  him; 
whereupon  Djabal  confesses  his  imposture. 
Anael  falls  dead,  and  Djabal  kills  himself  on 
her  body. 

Return  of  the  Native,  The,  a  novel  by  Hardy 
(q.v.),  published  in  1878. 

The  scene  is  the  sombre  Egdon  Heath, 
typical  of  the  country  near  Wareham  and 
Poole  in  Dorset.  Damon  Wildeve,  engineer 
turned  publican,  after  playing  fast  and  loose 
with  two  women  by  whom  he  is  loved — 
the  gentle,  unselfish  Thomasin  Yeobright, 
and  the  selfish,  capricious  Eustacia  Vye — 
marries  the  former  to  spite  the  latter;  while 
Thomasin  rejects  her  humble  adorer,  the 
reddleman,  Diggory  Venn.  Her  cousin, 
Clym  Yeobright,  a  diamond  merchant  in 
Paris,  disgusted  with  the  vanity  and  useless- 
ness  of  his  occupation,  returns  to  Egdon 
with  the  intention  of  becoming  a  school- 
master in  his  native  county.  He  falls  in  love 
with  Eustacia,  and  she  in  a  brief  infatuation 
marries  him,  in  the  hope  of  inducing  him  to 
return  to  Paris.  His  sight  fails  and  he  becomes 
a  furze-cutter  on  the  heath,  to  Eustacia's 
despair.  She  is  the  cause  of  estrangement 
between  Clym  and  his  mother,  and  un- 
intentionally of  her  death.  This,  and  the 


[658] 


REUCHLIN 

discovery  that  Eustacia's  relations  with 
Wildeve  have  not  ceased,  lead  to  a  violent 
scene  between  husband  and  wife,  and  ulti- 
mately to  Eustacia's  flight  with  Wildeve,  in 
the  course  of  which  both  are  drowned.  Clym, 
attributing  to  himself  some  responsibility 
for  the  death  of  his  mother  and  his  wife, 
becomes  an  itinerant  preacher.  Thomasin 
marries  Diggory  Venn. 

REUCHLIN,  JOHANN  (1455-1522),  born 
at  Pforzheim,  a  celebrated  humanist  and  the 
foremost  oriental  scholar  of  his  day.  Braving 
the  powerful  Dominicans,  he  published  in 
1494  his  'De  Verbo  Mirifico',  defending 
Jewish  literature  and  philosophy,  and  became 
the  centre  of  an  acute  controversy  in  which  he 
was  opposed  by  Pfefferkorn  (q.v.)  and  which 
was^  the  occasion  of  the  publication  of  the 
'Epistolae  Obscurorum  Virorurn'  (q.v.). 
Reuchlin  was  author  of  the  first  Hebrew 
grammar. 

Revels,  MASTER  OF,  an  officer  appointed  to 
superintend  masques  and  other  entertain- 
ments at  court.  He  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  The  first  permanent 
Master  of  the  Revels  was  Sir  Thomas 
Cawarden,  appointed  in  1545. 

Revenge,  The,  (i)  the  name  of  Sir  R. 
Grenville's  (q.v.)  ship;  (2)  the  title  and 
subject  of  a  ballad  by  A.  Tennyson  (q.v.); 
(3)  a  tragedy  by  E.  Young  (q.v.),  of  which 
the  plot  is  akin  to  that  of  Shakespeare's 
'Othello*.  Zanga,  the  captive  of  Don  Alonzo, 
devises  a  revenge  on  the  conqueror  who  has 
humiliated  him.  He  throws  suspicion  on 
Leonora,  Alonzo's  wife,  and  Don  Carlos, 
Alonzo's  friend,  and  succeeds  in  bringing 
all  three  to  an  untimely  end. 

Revenge  of  Bussy  D'Ambois,  The,  see 
Bussy  d'Ambois  (The  Revenge  of). 

Revenger's  Tragedy,  The,  see  Tourneur. 

Revere,  PAUL  (1735-1818),  American  en- 
graver and  patriot;  remembered  for  his 
famous  midnight  ride  from  Charlestown  to 
Lexington  (18-19  April  1885)  to  give  warn- 
ing of  the  approach  of  British  troops  from 
Boston. 

Revesby  Play,  THE,  a  folk-drama  acted  by 
morris-dancers  at  Revesby  in  Lincolnshire  at 
the  end  of  the  i8th  cent.  The  characters  are 
the  Fool  and  his  sons — Pickle  Herring, 
Blue  Breeches,  Pepper  Breeches,  Ginger 
Breeches — and  Mr.  Allspice  and  Cicely.  The 
Fool  fights  with  a  hobby-horse  and  a  dragon. 
The  sons  decide  to  kill  the  Fool;  he  kneels 
down,  the  swords  of  the  dancers  are  locked 
around  his  neck,  and  he  is  slain.  He  revives 
when  Pickle  Herring  stamps  his  foot.  Sword- 
dances  and  the  wooing  of  Cicely  by  the  Fool 
and  his  sons  conclude  the  play.  The  central 
incident  no  doubt  symbolizes  the  death  of 
the  year  and  its  resuscitation  in  the  spring. 
The  text  is  given  by  T.  F.  Ordish  in  the 
'Folk-Lore  Journal*,  vii.  338.  See  also  E.  K. 
Chambers,  'The  Mediaeval  Stage*. 


REVOLUTION  IN  FRANCE 

Review,  The,  a  periodical  started  by  Defoe 
(q.v.)  in  1704,  under  the  title,  originally,  of 
'A  Review  of  the  Affairs  of  France :  and  of  all 
Europe'.  It  continued  until  1713,  as  a  non- 
partisan  paper,  an  organ  of  the  commercial 
interests  of  the  nation.  It  appeared  thrice 
a  week  and  was  written,  practically  in  its 
entirety,  by  Defoe  himself,  who  expressed  in 
it  his  opinion  on  all  current  political  topics, 
thus  initiating  the  political  leading  article. 
'The  Review*  contains  much  valuable  in- 
formation on  home  and  foreign  affairs  of  the 
period. 

Revised  Version,  THE,  see  Bible  (The 
English). 

Revival  of  Letters,  THE,  the  Renaissance 
(q.v.)  in  its  literary  aspect. 

Revolt  of  Islam,  The,  originally  entitled 
Laon  and  Cythna  t  a  poem  by  P.  B.  Shelley 
(q.v.)  in  Spenserian  stanzas,  published  in 
1818. 

This  poem  was  written  in  1817,  at  a  time 
when  the  reaction  that  followed  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  had  brought  much  misery  among 
the  poorer  classes,  and  had  stirred  Shelley's 
revolutionary  instincts.  It  is  a  symbolic  tale, 
in  some  respects  obscure,  'illustrating*,  in 
Shelley's  own  words,  'the  growth  and  pro- 
gress of  individual  mind  aspiring  after 
excellence  and  devoted  to  the  love  of  man- 
kind', and  'its  impatience  at  all  the  oppressions 
that  are  done  under  the  sun'.  Cythna,  a 
heroic  maiden  devoted  to  the  liberation  of  her 
sex,  united  with  Laon  in  a  common  ideal, 
rouses  the  spirit  of  revolt  among  the  people  of 
Islam  against  their  tyrants.  The  revolt  is 
temporarily  successful,  but  the  tyrants  return 
with  increased  forces,  and  in  revenge  lay  the 
land  desolate.  Famine  and  plague  descend 
upon  it.  To  avert  these  Laon  and  Cythna 
are  burnt  at  the  stake,  at  the  instigation  of  a 
priest.  But  the  poem  closes  with  an  indica- 
tion of  the  'transient  nature  of  error'  and  of 
'the  eternity  of  genius  and  virtue*. 

Revolution  in  France,  Reflections  on  the)  by 
Burke  (q.v.),  published  in  1790. 

This  treatise  was  provoked  by  a  sermon 
preached  by  Dr.  Riphard  Price,  a  non- 
conformist minister,  in  Nov.  1789,  in  which 
he  exulted  in  the  French  Revolution  and 
asserted  that  the  king  of  England  owes  his 
throne  to  the  choice  of  the  people,  who  are  at 
liberty  to  cashier  him  for  misconduct.  Burke 
repudiates  this  constitutional  doctrine,  show- 
ing that  under  the  Declaration  of  Right  the 
system  of  hereditary  succession  was  carefully 
asserted,  and  that  nothing  done  at  the 
Revolution  of  1689  gives  countenance  to 
Price's  doctrine.  He  contrasts  the  inherited 
rights  of  which  the  English  are  tenacious 
with  the  'rights  of  man'  of  the  French  revolu- 
tionaries, based  on  'extravagant  and  pre- 
sumptuous speculations',  inconsistent  with 
an  ordered  society  and  leading  to  poverty 
and  chaos.  He  examines  the  character  of  the 
men  who  made  the  French  Revolution,  and 


£659] 


UU2 


REYNARD  THE  FOX 

the  proceedings  of  their  National  Assembly, 
a  'profane  burlesque  of  that  sacred  institute'. 
The  well-known  eloquent  passage  on  the 
downfall  of  Marie  Antoinette  leads  to  the 
lament  that  'the  age  of  chivalry  is  gone  .  .  . 
All  the  decent  drapery  of  life  is  to  be  rudely 
torn  off'  in  deference  to  'the  new  con- 
quering empire  of  light  and  reason'.  His 
general  conclusion  is  that  the  defective  in- 
stitutions of  the  old  regime  should  have  been 
reformed,  not  destroyed.  No  doubt  the 
work  led  to  the  subsequent  breach  between 
Burke  and  Fox  and  the  splitting  of  the  Whig 
party. 

Reynard  the  Fox,  the  hero  of  various  popu- 
lar satirical  fables  or  'bestiaries'  (q.v.)  which 
were  collected  in  France  under  the  title  of 
'Roman  de  Renart*.  The  first  part  of  this 
was  written  about  1200  and  was  followed  by 
other  parts  during  the  isth  cent.  There  is  a 
Latin  text  ('Isengrimus')  of  the  i2th  cent., 
and  German  texts  of  somewhat  later  date, 
and  a  version  of  about  1250  by  a  Fleming 
named  Willem.  It  is  probable  that  the 
development  of  the  legend  is  due  to  many  un- 
known authors.  A  Flemish  version  no  longer 
extant  was  translated  and  printed  by  Caxton  in 
1481.  Goethe  wrote  a  free  translation,  called 
'Reinecke  Fuchs'  in  1794.  The  fox  in  these 
fables  is  used  to  symbolize  the  man  who,  under 
various  characters,  preys  upon  and  deludes 
society,  is  brought  to  judgement,  but  escapes 
by  his  cunning.  We  have  an  example  of  this 
type  of  fable  in  Chaucer's  'Nun's  Priest's  Tale* 
(see  Canterbury  Tales,  21).  But  it  was 
principally  developed  in  France. 

The  principal  characters  in  Caxton's 
version  are,  besides  Reynard,  King  Noble  the 
lion,  Isegrym  the  wolf,  Courtoys  the  hound, 
Bruin  the  bear,  Tybert  the  cat,  Grymbert  the 
badger,  Coart  or  Cuwaert  the  hare,  Bellyn 
the  ram,  Martin  and  Dame  Rukenawe  the 
apes,  Chanticleer  the  cock,  and  Partlet  the 
hen.  Hermeline  is  Reynard's  wife,  and 
Malperdy  (Malpertuis)  his  castle.  The  word 
'Reynard'  is  from  the  OHG.  eregin-hart*, 
strong  in  counsel. 

REYNOLDS,  SIR  JOSHUA  (1723-92),  the 
great  portrait-painter,  the  first  president  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts,  and  the  friend  of 
Johnson,  Burke,  and  Goldsmith,  was  the 
author  of  'Discourses*  delivered  to  the 
students  of  the  Royal  Academy  between 
1769  and  1790,  on  the  principles  of  art.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  'The  Club*  (see 
Johnson,  Samuel).  The  'Discourses*  were  re- 
edited  by  J.  Burnet  in  1842.  'The  Life  and 
Times  of  Sir  J,  Reynolds',  by  C.  R.  Leslie 
and  Tom  Taylor,  appeared  in  1865. 

R&adamantims,  a  son  of  Zeus  and  Europa, 
and  brother  of  Minos,  king  of  Crete.  He 
showed  so  much  justice  and  wisdom  in  his 
lifetime  that  he  became  after  death  one  of  the 
judges  in  the  infernal  regions. 

Rhampsinitus,  Rameses  III,  king  of  Egypt. 
Herodotus  tells  a  romantic  st9ry*(ii,  *2i)  of 


RHODA  FLEMING 

two  brothers,  whose  father,  architect  of  the 
king's  treasury,  left  a  movable  stone  in  the 
wall  thereof.  The  sons,  by  means  of  this, 
were  able  to  purloin  a  great  quantity  of 
treasure.  The  king,  finding  the  seals  un- 
broken but  the  treasure  diminished,  set  a 
man-trap,  in  which  one  of  the  brothers  was 
caught.  He  immediately  called  to  his  brother 
and  bade  him  cut  off  his  head,  to  avoid  de- 
tection, which  was  done.  A  similar  story  is 
told  of  Agamedes  and  Trophonius  (q.v.). 

Rhapsody,  originally  an  epic  poem  or  part 
of  one,  sung  by  a  'rhapsode'  or  'rhapsodist' 
(meaning  a  stitcher  together  of  song).  It  is 
applied  also  to  an  exalted  or  exaggeratedly 
enthusiastic  expression  of  sentiment,  or  a 
speech,  letter,  or  poem  marked  by  extrava- 
gance of  idea  and  expression.  [OED.] 

RHASIS  or  RHAZES  (Asu  BAKR  MUHAM- 
MAD IBN  ZAKARIAEL  RAZI),  a  Persian  physician 
of  the  loth  cent.,  who  practised  at  Bagdad 
and  wrote  encyclopaedic  treatises  on  medicine. 

Rhea,    an   ancient  ^  Greek   nature-goddess, 

known  also  as  CYBELE,  the  wife  of  Cronos 

(Saturn)  and  the  mother  of  Zeus,  Poseidon 

(Neptune),  Pluto,  Demeter  (Ceres),  Hera, 

&c. 

Rheims,   The  Jackdaw  of,  see  Jackdaw  of 

Rheims. 

Rhiannon,  in  British  mythology,  the  wife  of 

Pwyll  (q.v.)>   and   subsequently  of  Mana- 

wyddan.    (See  Mabinogion.)    She  had  three 

birds,  who  could  sing  the  dead  to  life,  and 

the  living  to  death. 

RMneGold,  THE,  the  hoard  of  the  Nibelungs 
(see  under  Nibelungenlied)  of  which  Siegfried 
got  possession  and  which,  after  Siegfried's 
death,  the  brothers  of  Kriemhild  concealed 
by  sinking  it  in  the  Rhine.  It  is  the  subject, 
though  the  story  is  differently  dealt  with,  of 
Wagner's  opera,  'Das  Rheingold'  in  the  'Ring* 
series.  In  this  opera  Alberich,  the  king  of  the 
Nibelungs,  steals  the  gold  of  the  Rhine 
Maidens  and  forges  from  it  the  magic  ring 
that  is  to  make  him  master  of  the  world.  This 
ring  Wptan,  with  the  help  of  Loge,  takes 
from  him  by  force;  but  Alberich  sets  his 
curse  upon  it.  Wotan  is  in  turn  forced  to 
surrender  it  to  the  giant  Fafner  as  a  ransom 
for  Freia,  whom  he  has  promised  to  give  to 
the  giants  as  a  reward  for  the  building  of 
Walhalla.  For  the  continuation  see  Valkyrie. 

Rhoda  Fleming,  a  novel  by  G.  Meredith 
(q.v.),  published  in  1865. 

Rhoda  and  Dahlia  Fleming  are  daughters 
of  a  Kentish  yeoman  farmer.  Robert  Eccles, 
his  assistant,  ex-soldier,  reformed  drunkard, 
a  strong,  determined,  good-hearted  fellow,  is 
also  of  the  yeoman  class.  The  gentle  Dahlia 
is  seduced  by  Edward  Blancove,  the  cynical 
bookish  son  of  a  rich  banker.  After  a  few 
months  Edward  shabbily  deserts  her;  and 
Robert,  who  loves  the  proud  and  untamed 
Rhoda,  sets  out  to  see  her  sister  righted.  At 
first  he  tries  violence,  but  in  this  he  is  worsted 


RHODES 

by  Edward,  who  hires  a  scoundrel,  Sedgett, 
to  waylay  Robert  and  knock  him  on  the  head. 
Robert  at  last  succeeds  in  discovering  Dah- 
lia's hiding-place.  But  Edward  has  mean- 
while been  base  enough  to  bribe  Sedgett  to 
marry  her,  and  the  sick  and  broken-hearted 
Dahlia  has  consented,  for  her  family's  sake, 
to  be  made  in  this  way  'an  honest  woman'. 
Robert  is  too  late  to  prevent  the  ceremony, 
but  Dahlia  is  carried  off  from  her  husband  at 
the  church  door,  and  Robert  succeeds  in 
keeping  him  away  by  main  force  long  enough 
to  permit  of  the  discovery  that  Sedgett  is 
already  married  to  another  wife.  Edward  has 
by  now  repented  and  seeks  to  atone  for  his 
crime.  But  Dahlia,  terrified  at  the  thought  of 
falling  into  Sedgett's  hands,  has  taken  poison, 
and,  though  her  life  is  saved,  she  is  changed 
by  the  trial  through  which  she  has  passed, 
and  marriage  with  Edward  is  now  for  her 
impossible.  Rhoda,  tamed  at  last  by  trouble, 
marries  Robert. 

Rhodes,  CECIL  JOHN  (1853-1902),  was  edu- 
cated at  Bishop  Stortford  Grammar  School, 
and,  owing  to  failure  of  health,  went  to  S. 
Africa  and  worked  a  moderately  prosperous 
claim  in  the  newly  discovered  diamond  fields 
of  the  Orange  Free  State.  Meanwhile  he 
matriculated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford  (1873), 
and  revisited  Oxford  at  intervals  until  he 
succeeded  in  graduating  as  a  passman  B.A.  in 
1 88 1.  During  this  period  he  increased  his 
holdings  in  the  Kjmberley  diamond  fields, 
and  subsequently  succeeded  in  amalgamating 
them  under  his  own  control.  He  formed  the 
aspiration  of  federating  South  Africa  under 
British  rule  with  the  assent  of  the  Cape 
Dutch ;  and  towards  this  end  he  worked  in 
the  Cape  legislature,  to  which  he  was  elected 
in  1880.  He  helped  to  secure  a  great  part 
of  Bechuanaland  for  the  Cape  government. 
The  British  South  Africa  Company  was 
incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  1889  to 
administer  the  territory  north  of  Bechuana- 
land, and  this  territory  was  named  Rhodesia 
after  the  projector  of  the  scheme.  Rhodes 
directed  the  war  with  the  Matabeles  in  1893-4, 
whereby  he  greatly  extended  the  territory  of 
Rhodesia,  of  which  Dr.  L.  S.  Jameson  had 
become  administrator  in  1890.  From  1890  to 
1896  Rhodes  was  also  prime  minister  at  the 
Cape.  In  1 895  he  secretly  encouraged  the  Uit- 
lander  population  of  the  Transvaal  to  look  to 
an  armed  insurrection  for  the  redress  of  their 
grievances,  and,  after  the  catastrophe  of  the 
JamesonRaid(q.v.),  he  was  pronounced  (as  the 
result  of  inquiries  by  the  Cape  parliament 
and  British  House  of  Commons)  guilty  of 
grave  breaches  of  duty.  Thereupon  he 
resigned  the  office  of  premier  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  development  of  Rhodesia. 
During  the  S.  African  War  he  was  besieged 
in  Kimberley.  He  died  after  long  suffering 
from  heart  disease  and  was  buried  in  the 
Matoppo  Hills.  By  his  will  he  left  about 
£6,000,000  to  the  public  service,  endowing 
some  170  scholarships  at  Oxford  for  students 


RIALTO 

from  various  parts  of  the  Empire,  from  the 
United  States,  and  from  Germany;  £100,000 
was  left  to  his  old  college,  Oriel. 
Rhodes,  COLOSSUS  OF,  see  Colossus. 

Rhodes,  KNIGHTS  OF,  see  Hospitallers  of  St. 
John  of  Jerusalem. 

Rhodes  Scholars,  see  Rhodes  (C.  $.). 

Rhodolinda,  the  heroine  of  D'Avenant's 
tragedy  'Albovine*  (q.v.). 

Rhodope  or  RHODOPIS,  a  Greek  courtesan, 
said  to  have  been  a  fellow-slave  of  Aesop 
(q.v.).  She  was  carried  to  Naucratis  in  Egypt, 
where  Charaxus,  brother  of  the  poetess 
Sappho,  fell  in  love  with  her,  redeemed  her, 
and  married  her.  She  was  attacked  by  Sappho 
in  a  poem  under  the  name  of  Doricha.  Aelian 
relates  that  one  day  while  Rhodope  was 
bathing,  an  eagle  carried  off  her  sandal  and 
dropped  it  near  Psammetichus,  king  of  Egypt. 
The  king  was  struck  with  the  beauty  of  the 
sandal,  had  search  made  for  the  owner,  and, 
when  discovered,  married  her — a  curious 
parallel  to  the  story  of  Cinderella.  There  was 
a  story  (rejected  by  Herodotus)  that  she  built 
the  third  pyramid;  to  this  Tennyson  alludes 
in  'The  Princess',  ii: 

The  Rhodope  that  built  the  pyramid. 
Rhopalic  verse  (from  the  Greek  ffaafov,  a 
cudgel  thicker  towards  one  end),  verse  of 
which  each  word  contains  one  more  syllable 
than  the  last,  e.g. : 

Spes  Deus  aeternae  stationis  conciliator. 

(Ausonius.) 

Rhyme:  MALE  or  MASCULINE  rhymes  or 
endings  are  those  having  a  final  accented 
syllable,  as  distinguished  from  FEMALE  or 
FEMININE  rhymes  or  endings  in  which  the 
last  syllable  is  unaccented. 

Rhyme- royal,  the  seven-lined  decasyllabic 
stanza,  rhymed  a  b  a  b  b  c  c.  Its  first  appear- 
ance in  English  is  in  Chaucer's  'Complaint 
unto  Pity*.  Its  name  is  due  to  its  adoption  by 
James  I  in  'The  Kingis  Quair'  (q.v.).  It  was 
used  by  Shakespeare  in  'Lucrece*. 

Rhymer,  THOMAS  THE,  see  Erceldoune. 

Rhyming  Poem,  The,  included  in  the 
*Exeter  Book'  (q.v.)  and  therefore  of  not 
later  date  than  the  xoth  cent.,  is  important 
as  being  arranged  in  rhymed  couplets,  with 
rhymes  in  the  verses.  It  is  a  disquisition  on 
the  vicissitudes  of  life,  contrasting  the  mis- 
fortunes of  a  fallen  king  with  the  days  of  his 
past  glory.  It  has  been  suggested  that  it  is  a 
paraphrase  of  Job  xxix  and  xxx. 
Kiah,  the  Jew  in  Dickens's  *Our  Mutual 
Friend'  (q,v.). 

Rialto,  THE  (the  'Ponte  di  Rivo  Alto'  or 
bridge  of  the  'deep  stream*,  on  which  Venice 
was  founded),  a  beautiful  single-span  marble 
bridge  across  the  Grand  Canal  in  Venice, 
built  at  the  end  of  the  i6th  cent.  It  was  in 
the  centre  of  the  mercantile  quarter  of  old 
Venice,  and  it  is  to  this  that  Shylock  refers 


[66x] 


RIBBON  SOCIETY 

as  the  Rialto  in  Shakespeare's  'Merchant  of 
Venice',  I.  iii. 

Ribbon  Society,  a  Roman  Catholic  secret 
society  formed  in  the  north  and  north-west 
of  Ireland  early  in  the  iQth  cent,  to  counter- 
act the  Protestant  influence,  and  associated 
•with  agrarian  disorders.  The  doings  of  the 
Ribbonmen  figure  in  some  of  the  'Traits  and 
Stories  of  the  Irish  Peasantry'  by  William 
Carleton  (q.v.),  and  in  his  'Fardorougha  the 
Miser1  (q.v.). 

RICARDO,  DAVID  (1772-1823),  the  son 
of  a  Dutch  Jew,  who  made  a  fortune  on  the 
London  Stock  Exchange,  and  then  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  economics.  En- 
couraged by  James  Mill  (q.v.),  he  published 
in  1817  his  chief  work,  'Principles  of  Political 
Economy  and  Taxation',  which  is  ^  mainly 
occupied  with  the  causes  determining  the 
distribution  of  wealth.  In  this  his  famous 
theory  of  rent  played  an  important  part. 
Riccabocca,  DR.,  a  character  in  Bulwer 
Lytton's  'My  Novel'  (q.v.). 

RICE,  ELMER,  American  dramatist,  born 
in  New  York  in  1892.  His  chief  works  are: 
'The  Adding  Machine'  (1923),  'Street  Scene' 
(1929),  *See  Naples  and  Die*  (1931).  He 
has  also  written  a  prose  satire  on  the  Ameri- 
can 'movies'  entitled  *A  Voyage  to  Purilia' 


RICE,  JAMES  (1843-82),  educated  at 
Queens*  College,  Cambridge,  is  remembered 
for  his  collaboration  in  a  number  of  novels 
with  Besant  (q.v.). 

RICH,  BARNABE  (iS4O?-i6i7),  fought  in 
Queen  Mary's  war  with  France  (i  557-8)  andin 
the  Low  Countries,  rose  to  the  rank  of  Captain, 
and  from  1574  onwards  devoted  himself  to 
the  production  of  romances  in  the  style  of 
Lyly's  cEuphues'  (q.v.),  pamphlets,  and  remi- 
niscences. Notable  among  these  are  his 
'Farewell  to  the  Military  Profession'  (1581, 
which  includes  'Apolonius  and  Silla',  the 
source  of  the  plot  of  Shakespeare's  'Twelfth 
Night'),  and  'The  Honesty  of  this  Age*. 

RICH,  JOHN  (i682?-i76i),  theatrical  pro- 
ducer. He  opened  the  New  Theatre  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn  Fields  in  1714,  and  the  theatre  at 
Covent  Garden  in  1732.  In  1728  he  pro- 
duced Gay's  'Beggar's  Opera'  with  such 
success  that  the  play  was  said  popularly  to 
have  'made  Rich  gay  and  Gay  rich*.  See  also 
Beef  Steaks. 

Rich,  PENELOPE  (is62?-i6o7),  daughter  of 
Walter  Devereux,  the  first  earl  of  Essex.  Her 
charms  were  celebrated  by  Sir  P.  Sidney  (q.v.) 
in  his  'Astrophel  and  Stella*  sonnets.  She 
married  Lord  Rich,  was  divorced  by  him, 
and  married  Lord  Mountjoy,  with  whom  she 
had  lived,  and  who  had  now  become  earl  of 
Devonshire. 

Richard  I,  cCceur  de  Lion',  king  of  Eng- 
land, 1189-99.  He  is  introduced  in  two  of 
Scott's  novels,  'The  Talisman'  and  'Ivanhoe' 


RICHARD  THE  THIRDE 

(qq.v.);  and  is  also  the  hero  of  Hewlett's 
(q.v.)  'Richard  Yea-and-Nay'. 

Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  a  spirited  verse 
romance  of  the  I4th  cent.  The  author  is 
unknown.  It  is  a  patriotic  tale  exalting  the 
haughty  valorous  Richard,  and  pouring  con- 
tempt on  Philip  and  the  French.  The  course 
of  the  crusade  is  related,  with  the  discomfiture 
of  the  Saracens,  until  a  truce  is  arranged  for 
three  years,  at  which  point  the  poem  ends- 
Quotations  from  it  are  to  be  found  in  the  notes 
to  Sir  W.  Scott's  'Talisman',  referring  to  the 
cooking  and  eating  of  the  Saracen's  head,  and 
of  the  heads  served  to  the  Paynim  ambassa- 
dors,. 

Richard  II,  king  of  England,  i377~99- 

Richard  II,  King,  an  historical  tragedy  by 
Shakespeare  (q.v.),  produced  probably  about 
1595,  printed  in  1597,  and^ based  on  Holin- 
shed.  The  play  shows  the  influence  of  Mar- 
lowe, and  is  comparable  with  the  latter's 
'Edward  IF  (q.v.). 

It  deals  with  the  arbitrary  exile  of  Henry 
Bolingbroke  and  the  duke  of  Norfolk  by 
King  Richard;  the  death  of  John  of  Gaunt 
and  the  confiscation  of  his  property  by  the 
king;  the  invasion  of  England  by  Bolingbroke 
during  the  king's  absence  in  Ireland;  the 
king's  return  and  withdrawal  to  Flint  Castle; 
his  surrender  to  Bolingbroke;  the  latter's 
triumphal  progress  through  London  with 
Richard  in  his  train;  Richard's  removal  to 
Pomfret  and  his  murder.  The  contrast  of  the 
characters  of  Richard  and  Bolingbroke  is  a 
notable  feature.  The  play  contains  practically 
no  comic  element. 

Richard  III,  king  of  England,  1483-5. 

Richard  III,  an  historical  tragedy  by  Shake- 
speare (q.v.),  produced  probably  in  1594, 
printed  in  1597,  and  based  on  Holinshed. 
Shakespeareperhaps  had  before  him  an  earlier 
play,  'The  True  Tragedie  of  Richard  IIP. 

The  play  centres  in  the  character  of 
Richard  of  Gloucester,  afterwards  King 
Richard  III,  ambitious  and  sanguinary,  bold 
and  subtle,  treacherous,  yet  brave  in  battle,  a 
murderer  and  usurper  of  the  crown.  The 
principal  incidents  of  the  play  are  the  im- 
prisonment: and  murder  of  Clarence  pro- 
cured by  his  brother  Richard ;  the  wooing  of 
Anne,  widow  of  Edward  Prince  of  Wales,  by 
Richard  as  she  accompanies  the  bier  of  her 
dead  husband ;  the  death  of  Edward  IV  and 
the  machinations  of  Richard  to  get  the  crown; 
the  execution  of  Hastings,  Rivers,  and  Grey; 
the  accession  of  Richard ;  the  murder  of  the 
princes  in  the  Tower;  Richard's  project  of 
marrying  his  niece,  Elizabeth  of  York; 
Buckingham's  rebellion  in  support  of  the 
earl  of  Richmond,  his  capture  and  execution; 
Richmond's  invasion,  and  the  defeat  and 
death  of  Richard  at  Bosworth  (1485). 

Richard  the  Thirde,  The  History  of,  a  work 
first  printed  in  1534  and  questionably  attri- 
buted to  Sir  T.  More  and  to  Cardinal 


[662] 


RICHARD  DE  BURY 

Morton.    It  is    distinguished  from   earlier 
English  chronicles  by  its  unity  of  scheme 
and  dramatic  effectiveness. 
RICHARD  DE  BURY,  see  Bury. 
Richard  Feverel,  see  Ordeal  of  Richard 
FevereL 

Richard  Roe,  see  John  Doe. 
RICHARDSON,  SAMUEL  (1689-1761), 
the  son  of  a  joiner,  received  little  education, 
and  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer.  He  set  up 
a  printing  business,  first  in  Fleet  Street, 
London,  then  in  Salisbury  Court,  London, 
where  he  lived  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  was 
employed  as  printer  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. At  the  request  of  two  other  printers 
he  prepared  'a  little  volume  of  letters,  in  a 
common  style,  on  such  subjects  as  might  be 
of  use  to  country  readers  who  are  unable  to 
indite  for  themselves*.  This  appeared  in  1741 
and  provided,  in  addition,  directions  'how 
to  think  and  act  justly  and  prudently  in  the 
common  Concerns  of  Human  Life*.  Out  of 
the  preparation  of  this  book  arose  Richard- 
son's first  novel,  'Pamela'  (q.v.),  of  which  two 
volumes  appeared  in  1740  and  two  in  1741. 
This  was  followed  by  'Clarissa  Harlowe* 
(q.v.,  1747-8),  which  surpassed  the  success 
of  'Pamela',  and  won  Richardson  European 
fame.  His  'Sir  Charles  Grandison'  (q.v.), 
which  appeared  in  1753-4,  though  it  never 
held  so  high  a  position  as  'Clarissa',  was 
received  also  with  enthusiasm.  The  three 
works  had  a  marked  influence  on  subsequent 
writers  of  fiction,  both  in  England  and  abroad. 

Richebourg,  see  Burgundy. 

Richelieu,  ARMAND  JEAN  DU  PLESSIS,  Car- 
dinal and  Due  de  (1585-1642),  one  of  the 
greatest  of  French  statesmen,  was  bishop  of 
Lucon  in  1607,  and  became  prime  minister 
of  Louis  XIII  in  1 624.  He  reduced  the  nobles 
to  discipline  by  a  series  of  executions,  des- 
troyed the  political  importance  of  the  Pro- 
testants by  the  siege  and  capture  of  La 
Rochelle  (1628),  and  intervened  successfully 
in  the  Thirty  Years  War.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  French  Academy,  and  built  the  Palais 
Royal  in  Paris  (originally  called  Palais- 
Cardinal).  He  figures  in  'The  Three 
Musketeers'  of  Dumas  (q.v.). 
"Richelieu,  or  The  Conspiracy,  an  historical 
play  in  blank  verse  by  Bulwer  Lytton  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1839. 

The  play  deals  with  the  attempts  made  in 
France  during  the  period  1630-42  by  the 
Due  d'Or!6ans,  the  Due  de  Bouillon,  Cinq- 
Mars,  and  others,  to  overthrow  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  the  events  being  adapted  to 
dramatic  purposes.  The  cardinal,  by  his 
adroitness,  courage,  and  skilful  use  of  spies, 
defeats  the  attempts  to  assassinate  him  and  to 
effect  an  alliance  with  Spain,  and  triumphs 
over  the  conspirators.  A  love  element  is 
introduced  in  the  person  of  Julie  de  Morte- 
mar,  the  cardinal's  ward,  who  is  honourably 
loved  by  the  Chevalier  de  Mauprat,  and  dis- 
honourably pursued  by  the  king. 


RIDOLFI 

Richiand,  Miss,  the  heroine  of  Goldsmith's 
'The  Good-Natured  Man*  (q.v.). 

Richmond,  'another  Richmond  in  the  field* 

(Henry,     earl     of    Richmond,     afterwards 

Henry  VII),  i.e.  a  fresh  adversary,  in  allusion 

to  Shakespeare's  'King  Richard  III',  v.  iv: 

I  think  there  be  six  Richmonds  in  the  field: 

Five  have  I  slain  to-day  instead  of  him. 

RICHMOND,  BRUCE,  educated  at  Win- 
Chester  and  New  College,  Oxford,  editor  of 
the^  'Times  Literary  Supplement'  (q.v.), 
which  owes  to  him  its  present  position  as 
England's  best  literary  journal. 

RICHMOND,  LEGH,  see  Dairyman's 
Daughter. 

RICHTER,  JOHANN  PAUL  FRIED- 
RICH  (1763-1825),  German  romantic  novel- 
ist, who  wrote  under  the  name  'Jean  Paul*. 
Reared  in  humble  village  surroundings,  he 
was  at  his  best  in  idyllic  representations  of 
the  life  he  knew.  He  had  also  a  certain  gift 
of  humour,  which  earned  the  enthusiastic 
praise  of  Carlyle.  His  best-known  works 
are:  'Hesperus*  (1792-4),  'Quintus  Fixlein* 
(1796),  'Siebenkas*  (1796),  'Titan*  (1800-3), 
'Flegeljahre'  (1802-5),  and  'Die  Vorschule 
der  ^Ssthetik'  (1804). 

Ridd,  JOHN,  see  Lorna  Doone. 

Riddle  of  the  Sands,  The,  a  novel  by 
Erskine  Childers,  published  in  1903.  It 
deals  with  the  discovery  of  a  threatened  in- 
vasion of  England  by  a  continental  power. 

Riderhood,  ROGUE,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Our  Mutual  Friend*  (q.v.). 

RIDLEY,  NICHOLAS  (i5oo?-55),  suc- 
cessively bishop  of  Rochester  and  London, 
was  a  fellow  of  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge. 
He  became  one  of  Crammer's  chaplains  and 
began  gradually  to  reject  many  Roman 
doctrines.  If  any  hand  beside  that  of  Cran- 
mer  can  be  detected  in  the  two  Prayer  Books 
of  Edward  VI,  it  is  believed  to  be  Rid- 
ley's. As  bishop  of  London  he  exerted  him- 
self to  propagate  reformed  opinions.  On 
Edward  VI  *s  death  he  denounced  Queen 
Mary  and  Elizabeth  as  illegitimate  at  St. 
Paul's  Cross,  London.  He  was  sent  to  the 
Tower  in  June  1553  and  deprived  of  his 
bishopric.  In  September  1555  he  was  con- 
demned on  the  capital  charge  of  heresy  and 
burnt  alive  with  Latimer  (q.v.)  at  Oxford. 
He  wrote  several  theological  treatises,  which 
appeared  after  this  death.  In  1841  the  'Works 
of  Nicholas  Ridley*  were  edited  for  the  Parker 
Society  by  Henry  Christmas. 

Ridolfi  or  RIDOLFO,  ROBERTO  01(1531-1612), 
a  Florentine  banker  who  settled  in  London 
in  Mary's  reign.  In  Elizabeth's  reign  he  in- 
trigued with  the  French  and  Spanish  am- 
bassadors, was  privy  to  the  Northern  rebellion 
of  1569,  and  was  arrested  but  not  proved 
guilty.  In  1570  he  engaged  in  a  fresh  con- 
spiracy, in  which  Norfolk  was  implicated,  to 


[663] 


RIDOTTO 

overthrow  the  government  of  Elizabeth  with 
the  aid  of  a  Spanish  army.  His  confederates 
were  arrested,  and  Ridolfi  himself,  who  was 
absent  at  Brussels,  retired  to  Italy.  This 
latter  was  the  real  'Ridolfi  Plot*. 
Ridotto,  an  Italian  word,  meant  originally, 
like  the  French  reduit,  a  retreat  or  withdraw- 
ing place.  Florio  defines  it  as  'a  home  or 
retiring  place.  Also  a  gaming  house,  an 
ordinary  or  tabling  house  or  other  place 
where  good  company  doth  meet.'  It  was 
used  in  English  to  mean  an  entertainment 
or  social  assembly  consisting  of  music  and 
dancing;  introduced  into  England  'in  the 
year  1722,  at  the  Opera  House  in  the  Hay- 
market'  (Busby,  'Dictionary  of  Music')  and 
a  marked  feature  of  London  social  life  during 
the  i8th  cent.  [OED.] 
Rience,  see  Ryence. 

Rienzi,  or  The  Last  of  the  Tribunes,  a  novel 
by  Bulwer  Lytton  (q.v.),  published  in  1835. 

The  story  is  based  on  the  career  of  Cola 
di  Rienzi,  tribune  of  the  people  at  Rome, 
who  in  1347  established  a  republic,  and  after 
seven  months  was  excommunicated  and 
obliged  to  abdicate.  For  seven  years  he  was 
in  exile,  then  returned  in  1354,  was  made  a 
senator,  but  was  assassinated  a  few  months 
later.  The  novel  follows  closely  the  historical 
facts,  and  depicts  not  only  the  political 
situation  and  the  mode  of  living  of  the  times, 
but  also  the  consummate  ability  of  Rienzi 
himself,  marred  by  arrogance  and  love  of 
display.  The  other  chief  characters  are  his 
gentle  sister  Irene,  loved  by  the  enlightened 
Adrian  Colonna;  his  ambitious  wife  Nina; 
the  unscrupulous  but  heroic  condottiere 
Walter  de  Montreal;  and  the  stout  smith 
Cecco  del  Vecchio. 

Rigadoon,  a  lively  and  somewhat  compli- 
cated dance  for  two  persons,  formerly  in 
vogue.  The  word  is  adapted  from  the  French 
rigaudon,  of  doubtful  origin.  Rousseau  states 
(*Dict.  de  la  Musique')  that  he  has  heard  a 
dancing-master  attribute  it  to  the  name  of  its 
inventor  Rigaud ;  and  Mistral  says  that  Rigaud 
was  a  celebrated  dancing-master  at  Marseilles. 

Rigaud,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Little 
Dorrit*  (q.v.). 

Rigby*  MR.,  a  character  in  Disraeli's 
'Coningsby'  (q.v.). 

Rigdum-Funnidos,  see  Chrononhotontho- 
logos. 

Rights,  BILL  OF,  a  measure  adopted  by  the 
Convention  Parliament  of  1689  condemning 
the  interference  by  the  Crown  with  civil 
liberty  and  the  execution  of  the  law,  and 
restoring  the  monarchy  to  its  constitutional 
position. 

Rights  of  Man,  The,  a  political  treatise  by 
Paine  (q.v.),  in  two  parts,  published  in  1791 
and  1792. 

Pt.  I  _  is  in  the  main  a  reply  to  Burke's 
'Reflections  on  the  Revolution  in  France' 
(q.v.).  Condemning  its  unhistorical  and  un- 


RINALDO 

balanced  violence,  Paine  repudiates  Burke's 
doctrine  of  prescription  and  denies  that  one 
generation  can  bind  another  as  regards  the 
form  of  government.  The  constitution  of  a 
country  is  an  act  of  the  people  constituting 
the  government,  and  in  the  absence  of  such  a 
written  constitution,  government  is  tyranny. 
Thus  Paine  justifies  the  French  Revolution, 
of  which  he  traces  the  incidents  to  the 
adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of 
Man  by  the  National  Assembly0 

In  Pt.  II  Paine  touches  on  Burke's 
'Appeal  from  the  New  to  the  Old  Whigs', 
but  soon  passes  to  a  comparison  of  the 
principles  of  the  new  French  and  American 
constitutions  with  those  of  British  institu- 
tions, to  the  disadvantage  of  the  latter.  The 
most  interesting  part  of  the  work,  however, 
consists  in  Paine's  constructive  proposals  for 
'improving  the  condition  of  Europe'  and 
particularly  of  England.  Notable  among  these 
are:  a  large  reduction  of  administrative  ex- 
penditure and  taxation;  provision  for  the 
aged  poor ;  family  allowances ;  allowances  for 
the  education  of  the  poor ;  maternity  grants ; 
funeral  grants;  a  graduated  income  tax;  and 
limitation  of  armaments  by  international 
agreement. 

Rights  of  Woman,  see  Vindication  of  the 
Rights  of  Woman. 
Rig-Veda  9  see  Veda. 

Rimini,    FRANCESCA    DA,    see    Paolo    and 

Francesca. 

Rimini,  The  Story  of,  see  Hunt  (J.  H.  L.). 

Rimmon,  an  Assyrian  divinity,  mentioned 
in  2  Kings  v.  18.  Milton  makes  Rimmon  one 
of  the  fallen  angels  (c Paradise  Lost',  i.  467). 

Rinaldo  or  RENAUD,  first  figures  under  the 
latter  name  in  the  Charlemagne  cycle  of 
legends,  as  the  eldest  of  the  four  sons  of 
Aymon,  count  of  Dordogne,  against  whom 
the  emperor  makes  war  for  their  insubordina- 
tion. They  are  beleaguered  in  Montfort,  and 
when  driven  thence,  in  Montauban,  a  fortress 
that  they  build  near  the  confluence  of  the 
Dordogne  and  Gironde.  They  carry  on  the 
war  until  Charlemagne  is  prevailed  on  by  his 
paladins  to  make  terms,  under  which  the  sons 
of  Aymon  are  pardoned  on  condition  that 
Renaud  goes  to  Palestine  to  fight  against  the 
Saracens  and  surrenders  his  famous  steed 
Bayard.  Bayard,  however,  refuses  to  allow 
any  one  to  mount  him,  and,  when  thrown  by 
the  emperor's  orders  into  the  river,  weighted 
with  stones,  disengages  himself  and  escapes. 
Renaud  goes  to  Palestine,  where  he  performs 
further  ^  exploits  and  becomes  a  hermit. 

As  Rinaldo,  the  hero  figures  in  the  'Orlando 
Innamorato'  and  'Orlando  Furioso'  (qq.v.). 
There  he  is  the  cousin  of  Orlando,  the  lord  of 
Montalban,  and  one  of  the  suitors  for  the 
hand  of  Angelica.  But,  drinking  of  the  foun- 
tain of  hate,  his  love  for  her  is  turned  to 
aversion,  while  she,  drinking  of  the  fountain 
of  love,  becomes  enamoured  of  him.  Later 
their  dispositions  to  one  another  are  reversed, 


[664] 


RING  AND  THE  BOOK 

again  by  the  magic  fountains.  He  is  the 
brother  of  Bradamante  (q.v.). 

In  the  'Jerusalem  Delivered*  (q.v.),  Rinaldo 
is  the  Prince  of  Este  and  the  lover  of  Armida, 
and  in  the  final  battle  for  Jerusalem  his 
prowess  decides  the  day. 

Ring  and  the  Book,  The,  a  poem  by  R. 
Browning  (q.v.),  published  in  1872. 

The  poem  is  based  on  the  story  of  a 
Roman  murder-case  related  in  an  old  parch- 
ment-covered volume  that  Browning  picked 
up  one  day  in  a  Florentine  market  stall.  This 
is  the  'Book1  of  the  title.  As  the  goldsmith, 
to  make  a  ring  from  pure  gold,  mixes  alloy 
with  it,  moulds  the  ring,  then  disengages  the 
alloy;  so  the  author  to  the  pure  gold  of 
this  old  volume,  has  added  something  of 
himself,  and  so  arrived  at  the  absolute 
elusive  truth.  Hence  the  'Ring*  of  the 
title.  The  book  contained  the  pleadings  and 
depositions  of  the  case,  the  'Definitive 
Verdict*  and  some  manuscript  letters.  These 
provided  the  raw  material  of  the  story,  which 
is  briefly  as  follows. 

Count  Guido  Franceschini,  an  impover- 
ished nobleman  of  Arezzo,  marries  Pompilia 
Comparini,  a  young  girl  of  obscure  family, 
but  possessed  of  some  slight  wealth,  of  which 
he  has  received  an  exaggerated  estimate. 
Disaster  follows.  Violante  Cornparini,  Pom- 
pilia's  supposed  mother,  confesses  that 
Pompilia  is  not  really  her  daughter,  but  a 
supposititious  child  procured  to  defraud  the 
Comparini's  rightful  heirs.  Guido  thereupon 
determines  to  get  rid  of  his  base-born  wife, 
accuses  her  of  infidelity  with  a  certain  Canon 
Giuseppe  Caponsacchi,  and  so  harasses  her 
that  she  persuades  the  Canon  to  carry  her 
off  from  her  husband's  house  at  Arezzo  to 
her  old  home.  Guido  pursues  them  and  has 
them  arrested.  Pompilia  is  tried  for  adultery, 
which  she  denies,  and  is  sent  to  a  convent; 
Caponsacchi  is  banished  for  three  years. 
Pompilia,  being  about  to  become  a  mother, 
is  moved  from  the  convent  to  her  old  home, 
where,  after  giving  birth  to  a  son,  she  is  one 
night  murdered,  together  with  her  putative 
parents,  by  her  husband,  assisted  by  four 
ruffians.  Guido  is  arrested,  tried,  and  on  the 
Pope's  final  decision,  executed. 

The  poem,  after  the  preface,  is  occupied 
first  with  the  opinion  on  the  case  of  'Half- 
Rome',  then  with  the  opinion  of  'The  Other 
Half-Rome',  and  then  of  'Tertium  Quid', 
who  takes  an  impartial  attitude.  Count 
Guido  next  tells  his  story,  which  is  followed 
by  that  of  Caponsacchi;  then  come  the 
pleadings  of  the  advocates  on  the  question 
of  the  justifiability  of  Guide's  crime.  After 
these  we  have  the  Pope's  reflections  as  he 
considers  his  sentence,  and  Guide's  scornful 
and  ferocious  defiance,  collapsing  into  abject 
cowardice  when  he  finally  knows  his  fate. 
The  last  section  of  the  poem  completes 
the  story  with  an  account  of  the  execu- 


tion, the  attempt  of  the  convent  to  appro- 
priate Pompilia's  property,  and  its  defeat  by 


RISORGIMENTO 

the  Pope's  'Instrument'  pronouncing  her 
innocence. 

Ring  des  Nibelungen,  the  series  of  four 
musical  dramas  by  Richard  Wagner  (q.v.), 
'Das  Rheingold',  'Die  Walkiire5,  'Siegfried', 
and  'Gotterdammerung',  based  on  the  Norse 
legends  of  the  Nibelungs  (see  Nibelungenlied), 
and  composed  in  1853-70  (produced  1869- 
76). 

Ringan,  ST.,  see  Nirdan. 

Rintherout,  JENNY,  in  Scott's  'The  Anti- 
quary' (q.v.),  servant  to  Jonathan  Oldbuck. 

Rip  Van  Winkle,  a  story  by  W.  Irving  (q.v.), 
attributed  to  'Diedrich  Knickerbocker'  (q.v.), 
and  included  in  'The  Sketch  Book'  (1820). 

Rip  Van  Winkle,  taking  refuge  from  a 
termagant  wife  in  a  solitary  ramble  in  the 
Kaatskill  mountains,  falls  asleep,  and  awakens 
after  twenty  years,  to  find  his  wife  dead,  his 
house  in  ruins,  and  the  world  completely 
changed. 

Riquet  with  the  Tuft,  one  of  the  fairy  tales  of 
Perrault  (q.v.),  'Riquet  a  la  houppe'.  He 
was  an  ugly  prince  who  had  the  power  of  con- 
ferring wit  on  the  person  he  loved  best.  He 
married  a  beautiful  but  stupid  princess,  who 
had  the  corresponding  power  of  conferring 
beauty. 

Rise  of  Silas  Lapham,  The,  the  best  known 
of  W.  D.  Howells's  (q.v.)  novels,  published 
in  1884.  Lapham,  who  has  risen  from  a 
Vermont  farm  to  fortune,  is  typical  of  the 
self-made  New  Englander;  and  the  story  is 
mainly  occupied  with  his,  and  his  family's, 
adjustments  to  the  Boston  society  in  which 
they  find  themselves. 

Risingham,  BERTRAM,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Rokeby'  (q.v.). 

Kisorgimento,  an  Italian  word  meaning 
'resurrection*,  a  name  given  to  the  movement 
for  the  union  and  liberation  of  Italy  which 
took  place  in  the  middle  of  the  i  gth  cent.  The 
principal  names  associated  with  it  are  those  of 
Mazzini,  Cavour,  Victor  Emmanuel  (king  of 
Sardinia),  and  Garibaldi.  In  1847  Cavour 
founded  a  newspaper  called  'Risorgimento*. 
An  insurrection  in  Lombardy  and  Venice, 
in  1848,  supported  by  the  king  of  Sardinia 
(Charles  Albert,  Victor  Emmanuel's  father), 
was  suppressed  by  Austria  in  1849,  the  king 
being  defeated  at  Novara  and  abdicating  in 
favour  of  his  son.  The  movement  gathered 
way  in  1859,  in  which  year  Napoleon  III 
in  alliance  with  the  Italians  defeated  the 
Austrians  at  Magenta.  Victor  Emmanuel 
was  declared  king  of  Italy  in  1860,  and  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  with  Florence  as  its  first 
capital,  was  recognized  by  foreign  states  in 
1861.  Venetia  was  ceded  to  Victor  Emmanuel 
in  1866,  and  the  union  of  Italy  was  completed 
when  Italian  troops  entered  Rome  in  1870 
and  the  temporal  power  of  the  papacy^came 
to  an  end.  See  also  Cavour,  Garibaldi, 
MazzinL 


[665] 


RISTORI 

Ristori,  ADELAIDE  (1821-1906),  a  famous 
Italian  tragic  actress. 

RITCHIE,  ANNE  ISABELLA  THACK- 
ERAY, Lady  (1837-1919),  elder  daughter  of 
Thackeray  (q.v.),  author  of  a  number  of 
novels,  of  which  the  best  known  are  'The 
Village  on  the  Cliff'  (1867)  and  'Old  Ken- 
sington* (1873);  and  of  some  volumes  of 
essays,  including  'The  Blackstick  Papers' 
(1908)  and  'From  the  Porch'  (1913)-  She 
contributed  the  life  of  Elizabeth  Barrett 
Browning  to  the  D.N.B. 
Ritho,  see  Ryence. 

RITSON,  JOSEPH  (1752-1803),  literary 
antiquary,  a  zealous  student  of  English 
literature,  attacked  (1782)  the  'History  of 
English  Poetry5  of  Thomas  Warton  (q.v.), 
and  also  Johnson  and  Steevens's  edition  of 
Shakespeare.  In  1783  he  published  a  'Select 
Collection  of  English  Songs'  containing 
strictures  on  Percy's  'Reliques*.  He  detected 
the  forgeries  in  Pinkerton's  'Select  Scottish 
Ballads'  (1784),  and  the  Ireland  (q.v.) 
forgeries  in  1795.  He  produced  in  1802  a 
useful  'Bibliographia  Poetica',  a  catalogue  of 
English  poets  from  the  i2th  to  the  i6th  cents. 

Rival  Queens,  The,  a  tragedy  by  N.  Lee 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1677,  and  founded  on  the 
'Cassandre'  of  La  Calprenede  (q.v.). 

Statira,  daughter  of  Darius  and  married 
to  Alexander  the  Great,  learning  that  Alex- 
ander in  the  course  of  his  campaign  has 
again  fallen  a  victim  to  the  charms  of  Roxana, 
daughter  of  Oxyartes,  his  first  wife,  whom  he 
had  promised  Statira  to  discard,  vows  never 
to  see  him  more.  Alexander  returning,  and 
passionately  loving  Statira,  is  deeply  dis- 
turbed by  her  decision.  Roxana,  meeting 
Statira,  taunts  her  and  goads  her  to  fury,  so 
that  Statira  revokes  her  vow  and  pardons 
Alexander,  who  banishes  Roxana.  Roxana 
obtains  admission  to  Statira Js  chamber  and 
stabs  her  to  death.  Alexander  is  poisoned  by 
the  conspirator  Cassander. 

Rivals,  The,  a  comedy  by  R.  B.  Sheridan 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1775.  This  was  the  first 
of  Sheridan's  plays,  and  he  was  only  twenty- 
two  when  he  wrote  it.  The  play  was  not 
a  success  on  the  first  night,  owing  to  the 
indifferent  performance  of  the  part  of  Sir 
Lucius  O 'Trigger. 

Captain  Absolute,  son  of  Sir  Anthony 
Absolute,  a  warm-hearted  but  choleric  old 
gentleman  who  requires  absolute  docility  from 
his  son,  is  in  love  with  Lydia  Languish,  the 
niece  of  Mrs.  Malaprop  (q.v.).  As  the 
romantic  ^Lydia  prefers  a  half-pay  lieutenant 
to  the  heir  of  a  baronet  of  three  thousand  a 
year,  he  has  assumed  at  Bath  (the  scene  of  the 
play)  the  character  of  Ensign  Beverley,  in 
order  to  pay  his  court,  which  has  been  favour- 
ably received .  But  Lydia  loses  half  her  fortune 
if  she  marries  without  her  aunt's  consent,  and 
Mrs.  Malaprop  will  have  nothing  to  say  to  a 
beggarly  ensign. 

Sir  Anthony  arrives  at  Bath,  ignorant  of 


ROARING  GIRLE 

his  son's  proceedings,  to  propose  a  match 
between  the  said  son  and  Lydia  Languish,  a 
proposal  welcomed  by  Mrs.  Malaprop.  An 
amusing  situation  results,  for  Capt.  Absolute 
is  afraid  of  revealing  his  deception  to  Lydia; 
while  he  has  a  rival  in  Bob  Acres,  who  has 
heard  of  Ensign  Beverley's  courtship,  and  at 
the  instigation  of  the  fire-eating  Sir  Lucius 
O 'Trigger,  asks  Capt.  Absolute^  to  carry  a 
challenge  to  Beverley.  Sir  Lucius  himself, 
who  has  been  deluded  into  thinking  that  some 
amatory  letters  received  by  him  from  Mrs. 
Malaprop  are  from  Lydia,  likewise  finds  Capt. 
Absolute  in  his  way  and  challenges  him.  But 
when  Acres  finds  that  Beverley  is  his  friend 
Absolute  (his  courage  had  already  been 
'oozing  out  at  the  palms  of  his  hands')  he 
declines  to  fight  and  resigns  all  claim  to  Lydia. 
Sir  Lucius  is  disabused  by  the  arrival  of 
Mrs.  Malaprop,  and  Lydia,  after  a  pretty 
quarrel  with  her  lover  for  shattering  her 
hopes  of  an  elopement,  finally  forgives  him. 
A  subsidiary  element  in  the  play  is  the  love- 
affair  of  the  perverse  and  jealous  Faulkland 
and  Lydia's  friend,  Julia  Melville. 

Rizpah,  a  poem  by  A.  Tennyson  (q.v.),  in- 
cluded in  'Ballads  and  other  Poems'  (1880). 

The  poem,  which  is  founded  on  fact,  is  the 
monologue  of  the  mother  of  a  lad  who  had 
been  hanged  for  mail-robbing.  Night  after 
night  she  visits  the  gallows  and  collects  his 
bones  as  they  fall,  to  bury  them  in  conse- 
crated ground.  The  title  is  an  allusion  to 
2  Sam.  xxi.  8-10. 

Road- Books,  see  Ogilby. 
Road  to  Ruinf  The,  see  Holcroft. 

Roaring  Boys,  a  cant  term  used  in  the 
1 6th  to  1 8th  cents,  for  riotous,  quarrelsome 
blades,  who  abounded  in  London  and  took 
pleasure  in  annoying  its  quieter  inhabitants. 

Roaring  Forties,  see  Forties. 

Roaring  Girle,  The,  or  Moll  Cut-Purse,  a 
comedy  by  T.  Middleton  (q.v.)  and  Dekker 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1611. 

In  ^  this  play  Moll  Cutpurse  (q.v.),  a 
notorious  thief  in  real  life,  takes  on  for  the 
nonce  the  character  of  an  honest  girl,  who 
helps  lovers  in  distress  and  defends  her 
virtue  with  her  sword.  Sebastian  Wentgrave 
is  in  love  with  and  betrothed  to  Mary  Fitz- 
allard,  but  his  covetous  father  forbids  the 
match.  To  bring  him  to  terms,  Sebastian 
now  pretends  to  have  fallen  desperately  in 
love  with  Moll  Cutpurse,  and  to  be  about  to 
marry  her;  and  Moll  good-naturedly  lends 
herself  to  the  deception.  Old  Wentgrave, 
distracted  at  the  prospect,  is  only  too  glad  to 
give  his  blessing  when  the  real  bride  turns 
out  to  be  Mary  Fitz-allard.  There  are  some 
pleasant  bustling  scenes  in  which  the  life  of 
the  London  streets  is  vividly  presented, 
shopkeepers  selling  tobacco  and  feathers, 
their  wives  intriguing  with  gallants,  and 
Moll  talking  thieves*  cant  and  discomfiting 
overbold  admirers. 


[666] 


ROB  ROY 

Rob  Roy,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.), 
published  in  1817. 

The  period  of  the  story  is  that  immediately 
preceding  the  Jacobite  rising  of  1715. 
Francis  Osbaldistone,  the  son  of  a  rich 
London  merchant,  on  refusing  to  adopt  his 
father's  profession,  is  banished  by  the  latter 
to  Osbaldistone  Hall  in  the  north  of  England, 
the  home  of  his  fox-hunting,  hard-drinking 
uncle,  Sir  Hildebrand  Osbaldistone.  Here 
he  is  brought  into  contact  with  Sir  Hilde- 
brand's  five  boorish  sons,  a  sixth  son,  Rash- 
leigh (a  malignant  plotter  who  has  been 
selected  to  occupy  the  place  of  Francis  in  the 
London  counting-house),  and  Sir  Hilde- 
brand's  niece,  the  high-spirited  Diana  Ver- 
non.  Rashleigh  is  deeply  involved  in  Jacobite 
intrigues,  has  evil  designs  on  Diana,  and  be- 
comes the  bitter  enemy  of  Francis,  who  falls 
in  love  with  Diana  and  is  received  by  her 
with  favour.  The  story  is  occupied  with  the 
attempts  of  Rashleigh  to  destroy  Francis,  and 
to  rob  and  ruin  Francis's  father,  attempts 
that  are  defeated  partly  by  Diana,  and  partly 
by  the  singular  Scotsman,  Rob  Roy  Mac- 
gregor,  from  wfiom  the  novel  takes  its  title. 
This  historical  character,  a  member  of  a 
proscribed  clan,  was  once  an  honest  drover; 
but  misfortune  and  injustice  have  embittered 
him  and  he  is  now  a  powerful  and  dangerous 
outlaw,  the  ruthless  and  cunning  opponent 
of  the  government's  agents,  but  capable  of 
acts  of  justice  and  even  generosity.  At  the 
instance  of  Diana,  he  supports  the  cause  of 
Francis  against  Rashleigh.  To  avert  the 
ruin  which  threatens  his  father  as  a  result  of 
Rashleigh's  machinations,  Francis,  accom- 
panied by  a  delightful  character,  Bailie  Nicpl 
Jarvie  of  Glasgow,  goes  to  seek  Rob  Roy  in 
the  Highlands,  and  is  the  unwilling  witness 
of  an  encounter  between  the  clansmen  and 
the  royal  troops,  and  of  the  extraordinary 
escape  of  Rob  Roy  himself  from  their  hands. 
In  the  outcome,  Rashleigh  is  forced  to  sur- 
render the  funds  that  he  has  misappro- 
priated, and  is  ultimately  killed  by  Rob  Roy 
after  having  betrayed  his  Jacobite  associates 
to  the  government.  Francis  is  restored  to 
his  father's  favour,  becomes  the  owner  of 
Osbaldistone  Hall,  and  marries  Diana.  His 
rascally  servant,  Andrew  Fairservice  (q.v.), 
is  one  of  Scott's  greatest  characters. 

Robarts,    THE    REV.    MARK   and    LUCY, 
characters  in  Trollope's  'Framley  Parsonage' 

Robbery  under  Arms,  a  novel  by  R.  Boldre- 

wood;  see  Browne  (T.  A.). 

Robert,  Earl  of  Gloucester  (d.  1147)7  a 

natural  son  of  Henry  I,  and  the  chief  supporter 

of  Matilda  against  Stephen.  He  was  a  patron  of 

literature,  in  particular  of  William  of  Malmes- 

bury,  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  and  Geoffrey  of 

Monmouth  (qq.v.).    Geoffrey's  'History'  is 

dedicated  to  him. 

Robert  Blsmere,  see  Ward(M.  A.). 

Robert  Macaire,  see  Macaire. 


ROBERTSON 

ROBERT  OF  GLOUCESTER  (fl.  1260- 
1300)^  the  reputed  author  of  a  metrical 
chronicle  from  earliest  times  down  to  1272, 
illustrated  in  the  later  years  by  personal 
reminiscences,  and  written  in  long  lines, 
running  to  fourteen  syllables  and  more. 
It  is  not  the  work  of  a  single  hand,  though 
probably  the  whole  was  composed  in  the 
abbey  of  Gloucester.  It  contains  among 
passages  of  special  interest  the  account  of  a 
town  and  gown  riot  at  Oxford  in  1263,  and  a 
famous  description  of  the  death  of  Simon  de 
Montfort  at  the  battle  of  Evesham. 

Robert  the  Devil,  sixth  duke  of  Normandy, 
and  father  of  William  the  Conqueror,  a 
personage  about  whom  many  legends 
gathered,  in  consequence  of  his  violence  and 
cruelty.  In  the  verse-tale  of  'The  Life  of 
Robert  the  Devil',  Robert  is  represented  as 
having  been  devoted  soul  and  body  to  Satan 
by  his  mother,  who  had  long  been  childless 
and  prayed  to  the  Devil  to  give  her  a  son; 
but  as  finally  repenting  of  his  misdeeds  and 
marrying  the  emperor's  daughter  (and,  as  a 
fact,  he  died  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine). 
This  verse-tale  is  a  translation  from  the 
French  of  1496  and  was  printed  by  Wynkyn 
de  Worde.  Thomas  Lodge  (q.v.)  wrote  a 
drama  on  the  same  subject. 

ROBERTSON,  FREDERICK  WILLIAM 
(1816—53),  educated  at  Edinburgh  University 
and  Balfiol  College,  Oxford.  He  became  in- 
cumbent of  Trinity  Chapel,  Brighton,  in  1847, 
and  died  six  years  later.  He  acquired  during 
his  short  life  great  influence  among  all  ecclesi- 
astical parties,  and  his  sermons  (five  series), 
published  at  various  dates,  posthumously,  have 
had  a  wide  circle  of  readers.  His  'Life  and 
Letters*  by  A.  Stopford  Brooke  appeared  in 
1865. 

ROBERTSON,  THOMAS  WILLIAM 
(1829-71),  began  life  as  an  actor,  but  retired 
from  the  stage  and  became  a  dramatist.  His 
plays,  'Society'  (1865),  'Ours*  (1866),  'Caste* 
(1867),  'Play*  (1868),  'School9  (1869),  and 
'M.P.*  (1870),  introduced  a  new  and  more 
natural  type  of  comedy  to  the  English  stage 
than  had  been  seen  during  the  first  half  of  the 
century.  His  earlier  drama,  'David  Garrick* 
(1864),  was  also  well  received  and  is  still 
popular.  Marie  Wilton  (Lady  Bancroft)  was 
the  great  exponent  of  Robertson's  best 
female  characters. 

ROBERTSON,  WILLIAM(i7ai-93),l)om 

in  Midlothian  and  educated  at  Edinburgh 
University,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  came 
into  fame  by  the  publication  in  *759  of  his 
'History  of  Scotland  during  the  Reigns  of 
Queen  Mary  and  of  James  VF.  This  was 
followed  in  1769  by  his  'History  of  Charles  V, 
which  brought  him  the  large  sum  of  £4j5°° 
and  European  reputation,  and  was  translated 
into  French.  His  'History  of  America*  was 
published  in  1777  (the  third  volume,  un- 
completed, in  1796),  and  his  'Disquisition 
concerning  the  Knowledge  which  the 


[667] 


ROBESPIERRE 

Ancients  had  of  India*  in  1791.  Robertson 
was  appointed  principal  of  Edinburgh.  Uni- 
versity in  1762,  moderator  of  the  General 
Assembly  and  historiographer  of  Scotland  in 
1763.  His  work,  in  style  and  method,  shows 
a  resemblance  to  that  of  Hume  (q.v.),  but  is 
somewhat  more  animated  and  popular,  and 
is  based  on  more  careful  investigation. 
Robespierre,  ISIDORE  MAXIMILIEN  DE 
(1758-94),  one  of  the  most  prominent  figures 
in  the  French  Revolution,  a  leader  of  the 
'Mountain*  or  extreme  party.  He  was  among 
the  promoters  of  the  reign  of  Terror  and 
finally  exercised  a  kind  of  dictatorship,  but  was 
overthrown  in  July  1794  and  executed.  See 
also  Sea-green  Incorruptible. 
Robin  and  Makyne  f  an  old  Scottish  pastoral 
by  Henryson  (q.v.),  included  in  Percy's 
'Reliques*.  Robin  is  a  shepherd,  and  Makyne 
(a  form  of  'Malkin')  loves  him,  but  Robin 
rejects  her  advances,  and  Makyne  goes  sadly 
home.  Then  Robin's  heart  is  touched,  and 
he  in  turn  pleads  with  her.  But  her  reply  is 

Robin,  thou  hast  heard  sung  and  say, 
In  gests  and  storys  auld, 

The  man  that  will  not  when  he  may, 
Sail  have  nocht  when  he  wald. 

Robin  Goodfellow,  a  'shrewd  and  knavish 
sprite*  (Shakespeare,  'Midsummer  Night's 
Dream*,  n.  i),  a  Puck  or  hobgoblin,  at  times 
a  domestic  spirit  who  renders  services  to  the 
family  (as  in  Milton's  'L'Allegro',  11. 105-10), 
at  others  a  mischievous  elf. 

Robin  Gray,  AULD,  see  Lindsay  (Lady  A.). 
Robin  Hood,  a  legendary  outlaw.  The 
name  is  part  of  the  designation  of  places  and 
plants  in  every  part  of  England.  His  historical 
authenticity  is  ill-supported.  He  is  mentioned 
in  Tiers  Plowman*  (q.v.).  As  an  historical 
character  Robin  Hood  appears  in  Wyntoun's 
'Chronicle  of  Scotland'^.  1420),  andis  referred 
to  as  a  ballad  hero  by  Bower,  Major,  and  Stow. 
The  first  detailed  history,  'Lytell  Geste  of 
Robyn  Hoode*  (printed,  c.  1495),  locates  him 
in  south-west  Yorkshire ;  later  writers  place 
him  in  Sherwood  and  Plumpton  Park  (Cum- 
berland), and  finally  make  him  earl  of 
Huntingdon.  Ritson,  who  collected  all  the 
ancient  songs  and  ballads  about  Robin  Hood, 
says  definitely  that  he  was  born  at  Locksley  in 
Nottinghamshire,  about  1160,  that  his  true 
name  was  Robert  Fitz-Ooth,  and  that  he  was 
commonly  reputed  to  have  been  earl  of 
Huntingdon.  There  is  a  pleasant  account 
of  the  activities  of  his  band  in  Drayton's 
'Polyolbion*,  song  26.  According  to  Stow, 
there  were  about  the  year  1190  many 
robbers  and  outlaws,  among  whom  were 
Robin  Hood  and  Little  John,  who  abode  in 
the  woods,  robbing  the  rich,  but  killing  none 
but  such  as  would  invade  them,  suffering 
no  woman  to  be  molested,  and  sparing  poor 
men's  goods.  A  date  for  his  death  (18  Nov. 
1247)  was  given  by  Martin  Parker  ('True 
Tale',  c.  1632)  and  by  Thoresby,  and  his 
pedigree  was  supplied  by  Stukeley.  Legend 


ROBINSON 

says  that  he  was  bled  to  death  by  a  treacherous 
nun  at  Kirklees  in  Yorkshire.  According  to 
Joseph  Hunter  (antiquary,  1783-1861)  he 
was  a  contemporary  of  Edward  II  and  ad- 
herent of  Thomas  of  Lancaster.  He  is  the 
centre  of  a  whole  cycle  of  ballads,  one  of  the 
best  of  which  is  'Robin  Hood  and  Guy  of 
Gisborne'  (q.v.),  printed  in  Percy's  'Reliques', 
and  his  legend  shows  affinity  with  Chaucer*s 
'Cook's  Tale  of  Gamelyn*  (see  Canterbury 
Tales)  and  with  the  tales  of  other  legendary 
outlaws  such  as  Clym  of  the  Clough  and 
Adam  Bell  (q.v.).  Popular  plays  embodying 
the  legend  appear  to  have  been  developed  out 
of  the  village  May  game,  the  king  and  queen 
of  the  May  giving  place  to  Robin  and  Maid 
Marian.  Plays  dealing  with  the  same  theme 
were  written  by  Munday,  Chettle,  Tennyson, 
and  others.  The  'True  Tale  of  Robin  Hood* 
(verse)  was  published  in  1632,  'Robin  Hood's 
Garland*  in  1670,  and  a  prose  narrative  in 
1678.  He  figures  in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe*  (q.v.) 
as  Locksley. 

Robin  Hood,  A  Tale  of,  sub-title  of  Jonson's 
'The  Sad  Shepherd*  (q.v.). 

Robiri  Hood  and  Guy  of  Gisborne,  one  of 

the  best  known  of  the  ballads  of  the  Robin 
Hood  cycle.  Robin  Hood  and  Little  John 
having  gone  on  their  separate  ways  in  the 
forest,  the  latter  is  arrested  by  the  sheriff  of 
Nottingham  and  tied  to  a  tree.  Meanwhile 
Robin  Hood  meets  with  Guy  of  Gisborne, 
who  has  sworn  to  take  Robin ;  they  fight  and 
Guy  is  slain.  Robin  puts  on  the  horse-hide 
with  which  Guy  was  clad,  takes  his  arms,  and 
blows  a  blast  on  his  horn.  The  sheriff  mis- 
takes him  for  Guy,  thinks  he  has  killed 
Robin,  and  gives  him  permission,  as  a  reward, 
to  loll  Little  John.  Robin  releases  Little 
John,  gives  him  Guy's  bow,  and  the  sheriff 
and  his  company  take  to  their  heels. 

Robin  Oig  McCombich,  the  Highland 
drover  in  Scott's  'The  Two  Drovers*  (q.v.). 

ROBINSON,  EDWIN  ARLINGTON 
(1869-  ),  American  poet,  born  at  Head 
Tide,  Maine.  The  following  are  among  his 
worts:  'The  Torrent  and  the  Night  Before* 
(1896),  'The  Children  of  the  Night*  (1897), 
'Captain  Craig*  (1902),  'The  Town  Down 
the  River*  (1910),  'The  Man  Against  the 
Sky*  (1916),  'Merlin*  (1917),  'The  Three 
Taverns'  (1920),  'Lancelot*  (1920),  'Avon's 
Harvest'  (1921),  'Collected  Poems'  (1921), 
'Roman  Bartholow'  (1923),  'The  Man  Who 
Died  Twice*  (1924),  'Tristram'  (1927), 
'Cavender's  House*  (1929),  'The  Glory  of 
the  Nightingales'  (1930),  'Matthias  at  the 
Door*  (I931)-  Traditional  in  spirit,  and  con- 
tent to  find  expression  in  conventional  forms, 
Robinson  has  three  times  been  awarded  the 
Pulitzer  prize  for  poetry  (1922,  1925,  1928), 
and  by  many  competent  critics  is  considered 
the  most  important  of  contemporary  Ameri- 
can poets. 

ROBINSON,  HENRY  CRABB  (1775- 
1867),  after  spending  some  years  in  a  solici- 


[668] 


ROBINSON  CRUSOE 

tor's  office  in  London,  travelled  in  Germany, 
where  he  met  Goethe  and  Schiller,  and 
studied  at  Jena  University.  He  became  a 
foreign  correspondent  (in  1807,  one  of  the 
first  of  the  class),  and  subsequently  foreign 
editor,  of  'The  Times',  and  its  special 
correspondent  in  the  Peninsula  in  1808-9. 
He  was  subsequently  a  barrister.  He  was 
acquainted  with  many  notable  people  of  his 
day  and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Athenaeum  Club  and  of  University  College, 
London.  Part  of  his  famous  diary  and  corre- 
spondence, throwing  light  on  many  literary 
characters,  such  as  Wordsworth,  Coleridge, 
Lamb,  and  Hazlitt,  was  published  in  1869; 
more,  and  a  more  accurate  text  of  part  of  the 
correspondence,  were  issued  in  1927. 

Robinson  Crusoe,  The  Life  and  strange 
surprising  Adventures  of,  a  romance  by 
Defoe  (q.v.),  published  in  1719. 

In  1704,  Alexander  Selkirk  (q.v.),  son  of  a 
shoemaker  of  Largo,  who  had  run  away  to  sea 
and  joined  a  privateering  expedition  under 
Capt.  William  Dampier,  was,  at  his  own 
request,  put  ashore  on  the  uninhabited  island 
of  Juan  Fernandez.  He  was  rescued  in  1709 
by  Woodes  Rogers  (q.v.).  Defoe  embellished 
the  narrative  of  his  residence  on  the  island 
with  many  incidents  of  his  imagination  and 
presented  it  as  a  true  story.  The  extra- 
ordinarily convincing  account  of  the  ship- 
wrecked Crusoe's  successful  efforts  to  make 
himself  a  tolerable  existence  in  his  solitude 
first  revealed  Defoe's  genius  for  vivid  fiction. 
Defoe  was  nearly  sixty  when  he  wrote  it. 

The  author  tells  in  minute  detail  the 
methods  by  which,  with  the  help  of  a  few 
stores  and  utensils  saved  from  the  wreck  and 
the  exercise  of  infinite  ingenuity,  Crusoe 
built  himself  a  house,  domesticated  goats, 
and  made  himself  a  boat.  He  describes  the 
perturbation  of  his  mind  caused  by  the  visit 
of  cannibal  savages  to  his  island,  and  his 
rescue  of  the  poor  savage  Friday  from  death; 
and  finally  the  coming  of  an  English  ship, 
whose  crew  are  in  a  state  of  mutiny,  the 
subduing  of  the  mutineers,  and  Crusoe's 
rescue. 

The  book  had  immediate  and  permanent 
success,  was  translated  into  many  languages, 
and  inspired  many  imitations.  It  was  fol- 
lowed, also  in  1719,  by  Defoe's  'The 
Farther  Adventures  of  Robinson  Crusoe',  in 
which,  with  Friday,  he  revisits  his  island,  is 
attacked  by  a  fleet  of  canoes  on  his  departure, 
and  loses  Friday  in  the  encounter.  'The 
Serious  Reflections  ...  of  Robinson  Crusoe', 
'with  his  vision  of  the  Angelick  World*,  ap- 
peared in  1720. 

Robot,  derived  from  a  Czech  word  meaning 
'work*,  well  known  in  i8th-cent.  Austria- 
Hungary,  where  it  was  applied  to  servile 
labour.  Both  Maria  Theresa  and  Joseph  II 
granted  robot-patente,  limiting  the  amount  of 
work  that  the  feudal  lords  might  exact  from 
their  serfs .  It  was  adopted  about  1 923  to  desig- 
nate certain  mechanical  contrivances  so  in- 


ROCKEFELLER 

genious  as  to  resemble  human  beings  in  their 
ability  to  perform  particular  actions,  reply  to 
questions,  &c.  It  was  popularized  by  a  play 
*R.U.R.'  (Rossum's  Universal  Robots)  written 
by  the  Czechoslovak  dramatist,  Karel  Capek, 
in  which  society  is  represented  as  dependent 
on  these  mechanical  men.  The  latter  revolt 
against  their  employers  and  destroy  them. 
Robsart,  AMY,  daughter  of  Sir  John  Rob- 
sart,  married  to  Robert  Dudley,  earl  of 
Leicester  in  1550;  she  figures  in  Scott's 
'Kenilworth'  (q.v.). 

Robson,  DANIEL,  MRS.,  and  SYLVIA,  char- 
acters in  Mrs.  GaskelTs  'Sylvia's  Lovers' 
(q.v.). 

Robyne  and  Makyne,  see  Robin  andMakyne. 
Roc,  a  mythical  bird  of  Eastern  legend, 
imagined  as  being  of  enormous  size  and 
strength.  In  the  'Arabian  Nights'  story  of 
Sindbad  the  Sailor,  the  Roc  carries  Sindbad 
out  of  the  valley  of  diamonds. 

Roche,  SIR  BOYLE  (1743-1807),  a  baronet 
and  Irish  M.P.,  celebrated  as  a  perpetrator  of 
'bulls*.  That  attributed  to  him  about  being 
in  two  places  at  once  'like  a  bird*  is  said  by 
J.  H.  Burton  (q.v.,  in  'The  Book-hunter*)  to 
occur,  much  earlier,  in  the  letters  of  the 
Jacobite,  Robertson  of  Struan. 

ROCHESTER,  JOHN  WILMOT,  second 
earl  of  (1648-80),  born  at  Ditchley,  near 
Woodstock,  and  educated  at  Wadham  College, 
Oxford,  a  poet  of  genius  and  a  notorious 
libertine.  He  fought  at  sea  in  the  Dutch 
War,  and  showed  conspicuous  gallantry. 
Rochester  was  attractive  in  person  and  man- 
ners and  a  favourite  of  Charles  II,  who 
frequently  banished  him  from  the  court  and 
as  frequently  pardoned  him.  He  was  a 
patron  of  Elizabeth  Barry  (q.v.)  and  tem- 
porarily of  several  poets,  including  Dryden, 
whom,  however,  he  caused  to  be  waylaid  and 
beaten  on  account  of  a  passage  in  Mulgrave's 
anonymous  'Essay  on  Satire*,  which  he 
attributed  to  Dryden.  His  repentant  death- 
bed scene  was  described  by  G.  Burnet  (q.v.) 
in  a  pamphlet  which  became  extremely 
popular.  His  best  literary  work  was  satirical, 
notably  in  *A  Satire  against  Mankind*  (1675), 
and  among  his  amorous  lyrics  there  are  some 
marked  with  sincerity  and  feeling.  But  the 
wit  and  finish  of  his  writing  are  frequently 
marred  by  obscenity. 

Rochester,  the  hero  of  Charlotte  Bronte's 
'Jane  Eyre'  (q.v.). 

Rock  day,  the  day  after  Twelfth  Day,  so 
called  because  on  that  day  women  resumed 
their  spinning  (cf.  Plough  Monday).  *Rock* 
here  means  a  distaff. 

Rockefeller,  JOHN  DAVISON  (1839-  ), 
started  life  as  an  accountant,  and,  having  saved 
a  little  capital,  went  into  partnership  in  an 
oil-refining  business.  He  organized  the 
Standard  Oil  Co.  in  1870,  substituting  com- 
bination for  the  previous  competition  among 


[669] 


ROCOCO 

the  American  oil  companies,  and  became 
immensely  rich.  From  1890  he  undertook 
the  philanthropic  distribution  of  his  fortune, 
and  by  the  end  of  1927  is  said  to  have 
bestowed  some  £100,000,000  on  such  pur- 
poses. The  principal  institutions  that  he^set 
up  were  the  'Rockefeller  Institute  for  Medical 
Research*;  the  'Rockefeller  Foundation'  for 
medical  education  and  the  control  of  certain 
diseases;  and  the  'General  Education  Board' 
and  'International  Education  Board*  for  the 
development  of  teaching  and  research  in  the 
U.SJL  and  the  rest  of  the  world  respectively. 
His  son  (b.  1874),  who  bears  the  same  names, 
has  continued  to  give  large  sums  for  educa- 
tion, research,  and  kindred  purposes,  in- 
cluding $2,000,000  for  an  Archaeological 
Museum  in  Palestine.  [E.B.] 
Rococo,  apparently  a  fanciful  formation  on 
the  stem  of  rocaille,  shell-  or  pebble-work,  is 
applied  to  a  style  of  furniture  or  architecture 
having  the  characteristics  of  Louis  Quatorze 
or  Louis  Quinze  workmanship,  such  as  con- 
ventional shell-  and  scroll-work  and  meaning- 
less decoration;  excessively  or  tastelessly 
florid  or  ornate.  [OED.]  The  style  originated 
in  France  and  reached  its  culmination  in 
Germany;  it  flourished  about  the  middle  of 
the  1 8th  cent.  Its  essential  feature  is  freedom 
both  from  classical  restraint  and  from  utili- 
tarian purpose. 

Roderick,  the  last  of  the  Goths,  a  poem  by 
Southey  (q.v.),  published  in  1814. 

Roderick,  the  last  king  of  the  Visigoths, 
has  dishonoured  Florinda,  daughter  of 
Count  Julian.  The  latter,  in  revenge,  calls 
fhe  Moors  into  Spain,  and  Roderick  is  driven 
from  his  throne.  In  penitence  for  his  crime, 
Roderick  consecrates  his  life  to  God  and 
assumes  the  garb  of  a  monk.  A  spark  of 
revolt  against  the  Moors  is  kindled  in  the 
devastated  country,  and  Roderick,  under  the 
name  of  Father  Maccabee,  goes  to  the  Moor- 
ish camp,  where  Pelayo,  his  cousin,  is  held  as 
a  hostage.  He  persuades  Pelayo  to  escape 
and  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Christian 
forces.  Pelayo  is  acclaimed  king,  and  leads 
his  army  against  the  Moors  at  the  battle  of 
Covadonga.  In  the  heat  of  the  battle, 
Roderick,  who,  unrecognized  as  a  monk,  has 
received  the  confession  of  Florinda  (which 
partly  absolves  him)  and  has  made  his  peace 
with  his  mother  and  Count  Julian,  leaps  on 
his  old  war-horse,  reveals  himself  to  the 
Christian  army,  and  leads  it  to  victory.  He 
then  disappears,  and  it  is  only  generations 
later  that,  in  a  hermitage,  a  tomb  bearing  his 
name  is  discovered.  Pelayo  becomes  the 
founder  of  the  Spanish  royal  line. 

The  subject  is  also  treated  by  W.  S. 
Landor  in  his  'Count  Julian*. 

Roderick,  Vision  of  Don,  a  poem  by  Sir  W. 
Scott  (q.v.),  published  in  1811. 

Roderick,  the  last  Gothic  king  of  Spain,  in 
order  to  learn  the  future,  has  the  temerity  to 
enter  a  magic  vault,  which  has  been  de- 
nounced as  fatal  to  the  Spanish  monarchy. 


RODERIGO 

He  there  sees  a  vision  of  his  own  defeat  by 
the  Moors  and  their  occupation  of  the 
country;  next,  of  the  peninsula  when  the 
conquests  of  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  have 
raised  it  to  the  height  of  its  power,  sullied, 
however,  by  superstition ;  lastly,  of  the  usurpa- 
tion of  the  Spanish  crown  by  Buonaparte, 
and  the  arrival  of  British  succour. 

Roderick  Dhu,  a  character  in  Sir  W.  Scott's 
'Lady  of  the  Lake'  (q.v.). 

Roderick  Hudson,  the  first  novel  of  H. 
James  (q.v.),  published  in  book  form  in  1876. 
It  is  the  story  of  a  young  man  transplanted 
from  a  lawyer's  office  in  a  Massachusetts 
town  to  a  sculptor's  studio  in  Rome.  In- 
capable of  adjustment  to  his  environment,  he 
fails  both  in  art  and  love,  and  meets  a  tragic 
end  in  Switzerland. 

Roderick  Random,  The  Adventures  of,  a 
picaresque  novel  by  Smollett  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1748. 

This  was  the  first  important  work  by 
Smollett.  It  is  modelled  on  Le  Sage's  'Gil 
Bias',  and  is  a  series  of  episodes,  told  with 
infinite  vigour  and  vividness,  strung  together 
on  the  life  of  the  selfish  and  unprincipled 
hero,  who  relates  them.  Its  chief  interest 
is  in  the  picture  that  it  gives,  drawn  from 
personal  experience,  of  the  British  navy  and 
the  British  sailor  of  the  day.  But  much  of  the 
story  is  repulsive. 

Roderick,  left  penniless  by  his  grandfather 
(his  father  has  been  disinherited  and  has  left 
the  country),  is  befriended  by  his  uncle, 
Lieut.  Tom  Bowling  of  the  navy.  Accom- 
panied by  an  old  schoolfellow,  Strap,  he  goes 
to  London,  meets  with  many  adventures  at 
the  hands  of  rogues  of  various  kinds,  and 
qualifies  as  a  surgeon's  mate  in  the  navy. 
He  is  pressed  as  a  common  sailor  on  board 
the  man-of-war  'Thunder',  becomes  mate  to 
the  Welsh  surgeon,  Morgan,  is  present  at  the 
siege  of  Cartagena  (1741),  and  after  suffering 
much  misery  and  ill-treatment  returns  to 
England.  Here  he  meets  with  further  ad- 
ventures, falls  in  love  with  Narcissa,  and  is 
carried  by  smugglers  to  France,  where  he 
finds  and  relieves  his  uncle  Tom  Bowling. 
He  joins  the  French  army  and  fights  at 
Dettingen.  His  fortunes  are  rehabilitated  by 
his  generous  friend  Strap,  who  even  under- 
takes to  serve  Roderick  as  his  valet,  and  he 
sets  out  to  marry  a  lady  of  fortune.  He  makes 
love  to  Miss  Melinda  Goosetrap,  but  does 
not  impose  upon  her  mother;  and  other 
matrimonial  enterprises  are  not  more  success- 
ful. Having  lost  all  his  money  at  play,  he 
embarks  as  surgeon  on  a  ship  commanded  by 
Tom  Bowling,  and  in  the  course  of  the 
voyage  meets  Don  Roderigo,  a  wealthy 
trader,  who  turns  out  to  be  Roderick's 
father.  They  return  to  England,  Roderick  is 
married  to  Narcissa,  and  Strap  to  her  maid. 
Miss  Williams* 

Roderigo,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's 
'Othello'  (q.v.). 


[670] 


RODIN 

Rodin,  AUGUSTE  (1840-1917),  a  famous 
French  sculptor,  best  known  in  England  by 
his  'John  the  Baptist',  and  by  his  group  of 
the  Burghers  of  Calais  surrendering  them- 
selves to  Edward  III,  which  stands  near  the 
Houses  of  Parliament. 

Rodney  Stone,  a  novel  by  Sir  A.  Conan 
Doyle  (q.v.). 

Rodomont,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato' 
and  the  'Orlando  Furioso'  (qq.v.),  the  king  of 
Sarza,  arrogant  and  valiant,  the  doughtiest 
of  the  followers  of  Agramant  (q.v.).  His 
boastfulness  gave  rise  to  the  word  rodomon- 
tade. He  leads  the  first  Saracen  invasion  into 
France.  Doralis,  princess  of  Granada,  is 
betrothed  to  him,  but  falls  into  the  power  of 
Mandricardo  (q.v.).  After  an  indecisive  duel 
between  the  two  Saracen  heroes,  the  conflict 
is  referred  to  the  princess  herself,  who,  to 
Rodomont's  surprise,  expresses  her  prefer- 
ence for  Mandricardo.  Rodomont  retires  in 
disgust  to  the  south  of  France.  Here  Isabella 
(q.v.)  falls  into  his  power  and,  preferring 
death,  by  guile  causes  him  to  slay  her.  In 
remorse,  in  order  to  commemorate  her,  he 
builds  a  bridge  and  takes  toll  of  all  who  pass 
that  way.  Orlando,  coming  in  his  madness 
to  the  bridge,  throws  Rodomont  into  the 
river.  Rodomont  is  also  defeated  by  Brada- 
mant  (q.v.).  Thus  humiliated  he  temporarily 
retires  from  arms,  emerges  once  more,  and  is 
finally  killed  by  Rogero  (q.v.). 
Roederer,  see  Champagne. 
Roger,  THE  JOLLY,  the  pirates'  black  flag. 
Roger,  the  name  of  the  Cook  in  Chaucer's 
'Canterbury  Tales'  (q.v.). 
Roger  Bontemps,  see  Bontemps. 
Roger  de  Coverley,  SIR,  see  Cover  ley. 
Rogero  or  RUGGIERO,  the  legendary  ancestor 
of  the  house  of  Este,  extolled  in  the  'Orlando 
Furioso'  (q.v.).  He  is  the  son  of  a  Christian 
knight  and  a  Saracen  lady  of  royal  birth, 
brought  up  in  Africa,  and  taken  by  Agra- 
mant (q.v.)  on  the  expedition  against  Charle- 
magne, where  he  falls  in  love  with  the  warrior 
maiden  Bradamant  (q.v.)  and  she  with  him. 
He  falls  into  the  power  of  Alcina  (q.v.)  and  is 
released  by  Melissa  (q.v.).  He  then,  mounted 
on  the  hippogriff,  rescues  Angelica  from  the 
Ore.  Bradamant  has  also  an  active  rival  in 
Marfisa,  a  lady  fighting  on  the  Moorish  side, 
who  is  smitten  with  love  for  Rogero,  but 
eventually  turns  out  to  be  his  sister.  Finally, 
after  the  retreat  of  Agramant,  Rogero  joins 
Charlemagne  and  is  baptized.  He  now  hopes 
to  marry  Bradamant,  but  her  ambitious 
parents  vigorously  oppose  the  match.  Brada- 
mant, to  secure  her  lover  without  openly 
opposing  her  parents,  declares,  with  Charle- 
magne's approval,  that  she  will  marry  no  one 
who  has  not  withstood  her  in  battle  for  a 
whole  day.  This  Rogero  alone  does,  ^and 
after  many  vicissitudes  the  lovers  are  united. 
In  a  final  duel  Rogero  slays  Rodomont  (q.v.). 
Rogero,  SONG  BY,  a  song  in  'The  Rovers' 
(see  Anti- Jacobin). 


ROIS  FAINEANTS 

Rogers,  BRUCE  (1870-  ),  born  in  the 
United  States,  an  eminent  designer  of  books, 
printing  adviser  to  the  Cambridge  University 
Press,  1918-19,  and  subsequently  to  the 
Harvard  University  Press. 

ROGERS,  JAMES  EDWIN  THOROLD 
(1823-90),  educated  at  King's  College,  Lon- 
don, and  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  was  pro- 
fessor of  political  economy  at  Oxford  in 
1862-7  and  again  in  1888.  He  had  been  a 
strong  Tractarian  till  about  1860,  but  put  off 
his  orders  and  swung  right  round,  being  the 
first  clergyman  to  take  advantage  of  the  Act 
of  1 870.  He  was  Radical  M.P.  for  Southwark, 
1 880-6.  His  best-known  works  are  the 
'History  of  Agriculture  and  Prices  in  Eng- 
land from  1259  to  1793'  (1866-87)  and  'Six 
Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages'  (1884  and 
1886).  He  wrote  a  number  of  other  treatises 
of  political  and  economic  history,  including 
"A  Complete  Collection  of  the  Protests  of  the 
Lords'  (1875),  and  edited  Adam  Smith's 
'Wealth  of  Nations'  (1869). 

ROGERS,  SAMUEL  (1763-1855),  born  at 
Stoke  Newington,  the  son  of  a  banker  and  a 
man  of  wealth,  published  in  1792  his  'Pleasures 
of  Memory',  a  piece  of  pleasant  verse,  which 
achieved  popularity.  He  attained  a  high 
position  among  men  of  letters,  at  a  time  when 
the  poetical  standard  was  not  high,  and  in 
1810  published  a  fragmentary  epic,  'Colum- 
bus', in  1814  'Jacqueline',  and  in  1822-8 
'Italy*,  a  collection  of  verse  tales,  which  also 
obtained  a  certain  degree  of  fame.  He  was 
offered,  but  declined,  the  laureateship  in 
1850.  His  'Recollections',  dealing  with  a 
long  life  and  a  wide  acquaintance,  were  pub- 
lished in  1859.  'Recollections  of  the  Table 
Talk  of  Samuel  Rogers'  (ed.  Dyce)  was 
issued  in  1856. 

ROGERS,  WOODES  (d.  1732),  commander 
of  a  privateering  expedition  (1708-11)  in 
which  William  Dampier  (q.v.)  was  pilot,  and 
in  the  course  of  which  Alexander  Selkirk  was 
discovered  on  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez 
and  rescued,  the  town  of  Guayaquil  was  taken 
and  held  to  ransom,  and  a  Manila  ship  cap- 
tured. These  incidents  are  described  in 
Rogers's  entertaining  journal,  *A  Cruizing 
Voyage  round  the  World'  (1712).  He  was 
twice  (1718-21  and  1729-32)  governor  of  the 
Bahamas,  and  most  successful  in  putting 
down  piracy. 

Roi  d J  Yvetot,  the  subject  and  title  of  a  song 
by  Be*ranger  (q.v,),  the  type  of  easy-going, 
pleasure-loving  monarch,  the  ruler  of  a  very 
small  but  peaceful  and  contented  territory. 
The  song  appeared  in  1813  when  France  was 
wearying  of  the  sacrifices  entailed  by  Napo- 
leon's campaigns.  There  is  an  excellent 
rendering  by  Thackeray. 

Rois  Faineants,  LES,  the 'do-nothing kings', 
a  name  given  to  the  later  Merovingian  kings 
of  France,  who  were  mere  figureheads,  under 
the  domination  of  the  Mayors  of  the  Palace 
(q.v.).  . 


[671] 


ROJAS 

ROJAS,  FERNANDO  DE  (151*1  cent.),  a 
Spanish  author  of  whom  little  is  known,  but 
who  is  believed  to  have  been  a  bachelor 
of  laws  of  Montalban  in  the  province  of 
Toledo,  Spain.  He  is  remembered  for  his 
masterpiece,  'Celestina'  (q.v.). 

Rokeby,  a  poem  in  six  cantos  by  Sir  W, 
Scott  (q.v.),  published  in  1813. 

The  scene  is  laid  chiefly  at  Rokeby  near 
Greta  Bridge  in  Yorkshire,  and  the  time  is 
immediately  after  the  battle  of  Marston 
Moor  (1644).  The  complicated  plot  is  con- 
cerned with  the  conspiracy  of  Oswald 
WyclifTe,  lord  of  Barnard  Castle,  with  the 
sturdy  ruffian,  Bertram  Risingham,  to  murder 
the  latter's  patron,  Philip  of  Mortham,  in 
order  to  obtain  his  lands  and  the  treasure 
which  had  been  obtained  by  him  on  the 
Spanish  main.  Mortham  is  shot  and  left  for 
dead,  but  recovers.  An  attack  on  Rokeby 
Castle  to  secure  the  treasure  is  defeated,  largely 
by  the  prowess  of  young  Redmond  O'Neale, 
Lord  Rokeby 's  page.  Meanwhile  Oswald,  to 
whom  Lord  Rokeby  has  been  entrusted  as  a 
prisoner  after  Marston  Moor,  threatens  to 
execute  his  prisoner  unless  Rokeby 's  daughter, 
Matilda,  consents  to  marry  Oswald's  son, 
Wilfrid,  a  gentle  poetic  youth,  who  refuses  to 
avail  himself  of  Matilda's  reluctant  consent. 
Just  as  Lord  Rokeby  is  about  to  be  executed, 
Bertram,  struck  with  remorse,  rides  in  and 
kills  Oswald,  and  is  himself  slain.  Redmond 
O'Neale  is  discovered  to  be  the  lost  son  of 
Mortham,  and  marries  Matilda. 

The  poem  includes  the  beautiful  songs,  CA 
weary  lot  is  thine,  fair  maid',  and  'Brignall 
Banks'.  It  is  interesting  for  the  fact  that 
Scott  (in  spite  of  the  good  first  reception  of 
the  poem)  recognized  his  own  comparative 
failure  as  a  poet,  and  thereupon  turned  to  his 
true  vocation  as  a  romantic  novelist. 

Rokesmith,  JOHN,  in  Dickens *s  'Our  Mutual 
Friend3  (q.v.),  the  name  assumed  by  John 
Harmon. 

Roland,  the  most  famous  of  the  paladins 
(q.v.)  of  Charlemagne.    According  to  the 
chronicler   Eginhard,    his   legend    has    the 
following  basis  of  fact.   In  August  778  the 
rear-guard  of  the  French  army  of  Charle- 
magne was  returning  through  the  Pyrenees 
from  a  successful  expedition  in  the  north  of 
Spain,  when  it  was  surprised  in  the  valley  of 
Roncevaux  by  the  Basque  inhabitants  of  the 
mountains;  the  baggage  was  looted  and  all 
the  rear-guard  killed,  including  Hrodland, 
count  of  the  Breton  marches.    The  story  of 
this  disaster  was  developed  by  the  imagination 
of  numerous  poets.    For  the  Basques  were 
substituted  the  Saracens.    Roland  becomes 
the  commander  of  the  rear-guard,  appointed 
to  the  post  at  the  instance  of  the  traitor 
Ganelon,  who  is  in  league  with  the  Saracen 
king,  Marsile.  Oliver  is  introduced,  Roland's 
companion  in  arms,  the  brother  of  Aude, 
Roland's    betrothed.     Oliver    thrice    urges 
Roland   to   summon   aid   by  sounding  his 
horn,  but  Roland  from  excess  of  pride  defers 


ROLLE  OF  HAMPOLE 

doing  so  till  too  late.  Charlemagne  returns 
and  destroys  the  pagan  army.  Ganelon  is 
tried  and  executed. 

The  legend  has  been  handed  down  in 
three  principal  forms :  in  the  Latin  work  of 
the  Archbishop  Turpin  of  the  I2th  cent. ;  in 
the  'Carmen  de  proditione  Guenonis'of  the 
same  epoch ;  and  in  the  'Chanson  de  Roland', 
in  medieval  French,  also  of  the  I2th  cent. 
It  is  a  well-known  tradition  that  Taillefer,  a 
jongleur  in  the  army  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, sang  a  poem  on  Roncevaux  at  the 
battle  of  Hastings  (1066),  possibly  an  earlier 
version  of  the  extant  'Chanson'. 

Roland,  as  Orlando,  is  the  hero  of  Boiardo's 
'Orlando  Innamorato*  and  Ariosto's  'Orlando 
Furioso'  (qq.v.).  Roland's  sword  was  called 
'DurandaF  or  'Durindana',  and  his  horn 
'Olivant*.  See  also  Oliver. 
Roland  for  an  Oliver,  A,  tit  for  tat,  with 
reference  to  the  evenly  matched  combat  be- 
tween Roland  and  Oliver.  See  Oliver. 
Roland,  Childe,  see  Childe  Roland. 
Roland,  MADAME  JEANNE  (1754-93),  the 
daughter  of  Gatien  Phlipon,  an  engraver,  and 
wife  of  Jean  Marie  Roland  de  la  Platiere, 
French  economist  and  politician,  was  the 
Egeria  (and  a  most  unfortunate  and  dangerous 
one)  of  the  Girondists  (q.v.)  in  the  French 
Revolution  and  was  executed  in  1793.  When 
mounting  the  scaffold  she  uttered  the  famous 
words,  'O  liberte"!  que  de  crimes  on  commet 
en  ton  nom*.  Her  husband  killed  himself 
on  learning  her  fate. 

Roland  de  Vaux,  (i)  the  baron  of  Trier- 
main,  in  Scott's  'Bridal  of  Triermain*  (q.v.) ; 
(2)  also  in  Coleridge's  'Christabel'  (q.v.),  the 
name  of  the  estranged  friend  of  Christabers 
father. 

Roll,  RAGMAN,  a  set  of  rolls  in  the  Public 
Record  Office,  in  which  are  recorded  the 
instruments  of  homage  made  to  Edward  I  by 
the  Scottish  king  (Balliol),  nobles,  £c.,  at  the 
Parliament  of  Berwick  in  1296;  so  called 
apparently  from  the  pendent  seals  attached. 

HOLLAND,  ROMAIN  (1866-  ),  French 
essayist,  novelist,  biographer,  and  polemical 
writer;  author  of  'Jean  Christophe'  (1905-12, 
novel  in  ten  volumes),  'Beethoven*  (1903, 
biography),  'Michel  Ange'  (1907,  biography). 

ROLLE  OF  HAMPOLE,  RICHARD  (c. 

1300-49),  born  at  Thornton  in  the  North 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  is  said  to  have  left 
Oxford  in  his  i9th  year  and  to  have  become 
a  hermit.  He  lived  at  various  places  in  York- 
shire, finally  at  Hampole,  where  he  died,  near 
a  Cistercian  nunnery  in  which  he  had  dis- 
ciples. Among  these  was  Margaret  Kirkeby, 
who^  became  an  anchoress  and  was  enclosed 
in  his  neighbourhood.  Rolle  wrote  a  number 
of  scriptural  commentaries,  meditations, 
and  other  religious  works,  in  Latin  and 
English.  Their  bibliography  and  the  ma- 
terials relating  to  the  life  of  Rolle  are  discussed 
by  H.  E.  Allen  in  'Writings  ascribed  to 
Richard  Rolle'  (1927). 


[672] 


ROLLIAD 

Rolliad  f  Criticisms  on  the,  a  collection  of  Whig 
political  satires  directed  against  William  Pitt 
and  his  followers  after  their  success  at  the 
election  of  1784,  first  published  in  the 
'Morning  Herald'  and  'Daily  Advertiser' 
during  that  year.  The  authors,  members  of 
the  'Esto  Perpetua'  club  (q.v.),  are  not  known 
with  certainty,  but  among  them  were  Dr. 
French  Laurence,  who  became  Regius  profes- 
sor of  civil  law  at  Oxford;  George  Ellis,  the 
antiquary;  General  Richard  Fitzpatrick;  and 
Lord  John  Townshend.  The  satires  origin- 
ally took  the  form  of  reviews  of  an  imaginary 
epic,  'The  Rolliad*,  which  took  its  name  from 
John  Rolle,  M.P.,  one  of  Pitt's  supporters, 
and  dealt  with  the  adventures  of  a  mythical 
Norman  duke,  Rollo,  his  ancestor.  These 
were  followed  by  'Political  Eclogues',  'Proba- 
tionary Odes'  for  the  vacant  laureateship,  and 
'Political  Miscellanies',  all  directed  to  the 
same  purpose,  the  ridicule  of  the  Tories.  A 
complete  collection  was  published  in  1791. 

RoIIright  Stones,  THE,  a  circle  of  stones 
perhaps  of  pre-Celtic  origin,  near  Chipping 
Norton,  on  the  confines  of  Oxfordshire  and 
Warwickshire.  Drayton  (Tolyolbion*,  xiii. 
414)  alludes  to  a  legend  that  they  are  a 
witness  of  a  victory  over  Rollo  and  the 
Danes. 

Rolls,  CLOSE,  the  rolls  in  which  close- writs 
(grants  given  to  private  persons  under  the 
great  seal),  private  indentures,  and  recog- 
nizances, are  recorded. 

Rolls,  PIPE,  the  Great  Rolls  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, comprising  the  various  'pipes',  or 
enrolled  accounts,  of  sheriffs  and  others  for  a 
financial  year.  The  origin  of  this  use  of  'pipe' 
is  doubtful;  some  would  explain  it  from  the 
pipe-like  form  of  a  thin  roll  or  (?)  from  its 
being  transmitted  in  a  cylindrical  case. 
Bacon  saw  in  it  a  metaphor,  'because  the 
whole  receipt  is  finally  conveyed  into  it  [the 
Exchequer]  by  means  of  divers  small  pipes 
or  quills*.  The  complete  series  of  Pipe  Rolls 
dates  from  the  reign  of  Henry  II,  but  there  is 
an  isolated  one  (of  the  highest  importance)  of 
the  year  1130. 

Rolls  House  in  Chancery  Lane,  formerly  a 
house  of  maintenance  for  converted  Jews, 
founded  by  Henry  III,  was  annexed  by 
Edward  III  to  the  office  of  the  Master  of  the 
Rolls,  who  had  his  official  residence  there. 
The  rolls  and  records  of  the  Court  of  Chan- 
cery were  kept  there  until  the  erection  of  the 
Record  Office  in  Fetter  Lane.  The  chapel, 
greatly  altered  and  disfigured,  survives 
(Wheatley  and  Cunningham). 

Rolls  Series,  otherwise  'Chronicles  and 
Memorials  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  from 
the  Invasion  of  the  Romans  to  the  Reign  of 
Henry  VII F.  Their  publication  was  author- 
ized by  government  in  1857  on  the  suggestion 
of  Joseph  Stevenson,  the  archivist,  and  the 
recommendation  of  Sir  John  RomiHy,  master 
of  the  rolls.  Before  1914,  ninety-nine 
chronicles,  &c.,  had  appeared  in  the  series, 


ROMAN  WALL 

most  of  them  edited  by  the  greatest  historical 
scholars  of  the  time. 

Rolls-Royce,  an  expensive  and  luxurious 
make  of  motor-car,  a  symbol  of  superlative 
excellence,  and  usually  associated  in  fiction 
with  abundant  wealth  in  the  owner. 

Romaic,  the  modern  Greek  language. 

Roman  Actor,  The,  a  tragedy  by  Massinger 
(q.v.),  printed  in  1629.  The  play  is  based  on 
the  life  of  the  Emperor  Domitian  as  told  by 
Suetonius  and  Dio  Cassius. 

The  cruel  and  licentious  emperor  forcibly 
takes  from  Aelius  Lamia,  a  Roman  senator, 
his  wife  Domitia,  makes  her  empress,  and 
dotes  on  her.  Domitia  falls  in  love  with 
Paris  the  actor.  So  well  does  he  act  before 
her  a  scene  in  which,  as  Iphis  scorned  by 
Anaxarete,  he  threatens  to  take  his  life,  that 
she  betrays  herself.  The  emperor,  Ms  sus- 
picions inflamed  by  enemies  of  Domitia,  finds 
her  and  Paris  together,  kills  Paris  with  his 
own  hand  (making  him  act  the  part  of  a  false 
servant  and  himself  taking  the  part  of  the 
injured  lord),  but  cannot  find  heart  to  punish 
Domitia.  She,  incensed  at  the  death  of  Paris 
and  presuming  on  her  power  over  the  em- 
peror, rails  at  and  taunts  him.  Unable  to 
kill  her  with  his  own  hand,  he  writes  down 
her  name  in  the  list  of  those  condemned  to 
death.  This  list  Domitia  finds  while  he 
sleeps.  Hastily  conspiring  with  others  whose 
names  are  in  the  list,  they  lure  him  away 
from  his  guards  and  kill  him. 

Roman  d'Alixandre,  see  Alexander  the  Great. 

Roman  de  la  Rose>  a  French  verse  romance, 
of  which  the  first  4,000  lines  were  written 
about  the  middle  of  the  isth  cent,  by 
Guillaume  de  Lorris,  and  the  remainder 
(some  16,000  lines)  about  forty  years  later  by 
Jean  de  Meung.  The  first  part  is  an  alle- 
gorical love  poem,  of  which  the  contents  are 
substantially  as  in  the  version  attributed  to 
Chaucer  (see  Romaunt  of  the  Rose).  In  the 
second  part,  which  is  of  a  more  satirical 
character,  after  a  vast  amount  of  talk  and 
much  display  of  the  author's  learning,  the 
lover  obtains  his  Rose,  with  the  intervention 
of  Venus  herself. 

Roman  de  Renart,  see  Reynard  the  Fox. 

Roman  Empire,  THE  HOLY,  see  Holy 
Roman  Empire. 

Roman  Father,  THE,  see  Horatii  and  the 
CuriatiL 

Roman  Question,  THE,  the  dispute  be- 
tween the  papacy  and  the  Italian  monarchy 
since  1870  on  the  territorial  claims  of  the 
pope. 

Roman  type,  the  characters,  in  ordinary 
use  in  western  Europe,  most  directly  repre- 
senting those  used  in  ancient  Roman  in- 
scriptions and  manuscripts,  especially  in 
contrast  to  Gothic  (or  Black  Letter)  and 
Italic  (qq.v.). 
Roman  Wall,  THE,  see  Hadrian  and  Severus* 


[673] 


ROMANCE 

Romance  languages,  generally  used  as  the 
collective  name  for  the  group  of  languages 
descended  from  Latin,  the  chief  of  which  are 
French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Provencal. 
Romanee,  see  Burgundy. 
Romanes  Lectures,  lectures  founded  at 
Oxford  in  1891  by  George  John  Romanes 
(1848-94),  a  scientist  born  at  Kingston, 
Canada,  author  of  'Darwin  and  after  Darwin5 
(1892).  He  was  educated  at  Gonville  and 
Caius  College,  Cambridge,  was  a  friend  of 
Darwin  and  a  professor  at  Edinburgh  and 
at  the  Royal  Institution,  and  was  noted  for 
his  studies  in  physiology  and  zoology.  The 
lectures  are  on  subjects  approved  by  the  vice- 
chancellor,  relating  to  science,,  art,  or 
literature. 

Romanesque,  the  style  of  architecture  dis- 
tinctive of  the  buildings  erected  in  Romanized 
Europe  between  the  close  of  the  classical 
period  and  the  rise  of  Gothic  architecture 
(very  roughly  A.D.  600-1200).  Norman  (q.v.) 
is  the  form  of  Romanesque  that  prevailed  in 
England. 

Romantic,  a  word  for  which,  in  connexion 
with  literature,  there  is  no  generally  accepted 
definition.  The  OED.  says  'Characterized . . . 
by,  invested  . . .  with,  romance  or  imaginative 
appeal*,  where  romance  appears  to  mean 
'redolence  or  suggestion  of,  association  with, 
the  adventurous  and  chivalrous',  something 
remote  from  the  scene  and  incidents  of 
ordinary  life. 

Romantic  Revival,  THE,  a  name  given^to 
a  movement  in  European  literature  which 
marked  the  last  quarter  of  the  i8th  cent.  The 
old  narrow  intellectual  attitude  gave  place  to 
a  wider  outlook,  which  recognized  the  claims 
of  passion  and  emotion  and  the  ^sense  of 
mystery  in  life,  and  in  which  the  critical  was 
replaced  by  the  creative  spirit,  and  wit  by 
humour  and  pathos. 

Romany  or  ROMMANY,  a  gipsy  (q.v.)  word 
meaning  a  gipsy,  or  the  gipsy  language. 

Romany  Rye,  The,  a  novel  by  Borrow  (q.v.), 
published  in  1857.  'Romany  Rye*,  in  gipsy 
(q.v,)  language,  means  'Gipsy  Gentleman*, 
a  name  applied  to  Borrow  in  his  youth  by 
Ambrose  Smith,  the  Norfolk  gipsy.  This 
book  is  a  sequel  to  'Lavengro*  (q.v.),  and 
continues  in  the  same  style  the  story  of  the 
author's  wanderings  and  adventures. 

Romqunt  of  the  Rose,  The,  a  poem  of  7,700 
lines  in  short  couplets,  attributed  to  Chaucer, 
but  of  which  part  only  was  probably  written 
by  him.  It  is  a  translation,  with  amplifica- 
tions, of  so  much  of  the  French  'Roman  de  la 
Rose*  (q.v.)  as  was  written  by  Guillaume  de 
Lorris,  and  of  parts  of  the  continuation  by 
Jean  de  Meting.  The  story  is  put  into  the 
form  of  a  dream  in  which  the  poet  visits  the 
Garden  of  Mirth,  being  invited  to  enter  by 
Idleness.  Here  he  sees  various  allegorical 
personages,  the  God  of  Love,  Gladness, 
Courtesy,  and  so  on,  disporting  themselves. 


ROMEO  AND  JULIET 

In  the  water  of  the  fountain  of  Narcissus  he 
sees  mirrored  a  rose-tree  and  falls  in  love 
with  a  rose-bud.  His  attempts  to  cull  this 
are  aided  or  obstructed  by  various  allegorical 
personages,  Bialacoil  (Bel-Accueil,  Welcome), 
Danger,  False-Semblant,  Reason,  Shame, 
Jealousy.  The  God  of  Love  shoots  arrows  at 
the  poet  and  makes  him  yield  himself  his 
servant.  He  lays  his  commands  upon  him, 
and  instructs  him  in  the  means  by  which  the 
lover  achieves  his  ends  (not  omitting  largesse 
to  the  maid).  Finally  Jealousy  builds  a  castle 
about  the  rose.  The  latter  part  of  the  poem, 
which  is  fragmentary,  contains  a  version  of 
about  one-sixth  of  Jean  de  Meung's^  con- 
tinuation; it  is  a  vigorous  satire  on  religion, 
women,  and  the  social  order. 

Rome,  KING  OF,  the  title  given  to  the  son  of 
Napoleon  Buonaparte  and  the  Empress  Marie 
Louise,  at  his  birth  in  181 1 .  The  title  was  a 
deliberate  parallel  to,  or  imitation  of,  the 
medieval  title  of  'King  of  the  Romans', 
which  was  commonly  given  to  the  destined 
successor  of  the  'Holy  Roman  Emperor'. 

Romeo  and  Juliet,  the  first  romantic  tragedy 
of  Shakespeare  (q.v.),  based  on  an  Italian 
romance  by  Bandello,  frequently  translated 
into  English.  Shakespeare's  play  was  prob- 
ably written  in  1595,  first  printed  in  corrupt 
form  in  1597  (authentic  second  quarto, 
1599). 

The  Montagues  and  the  Capulets,  the  two 
chief  families  of  Verona,  are  at  bitter  enmity. 
Romeo,  son  of  old  Lord  Montague,  attends, 
disguised  by  a  mask,  a  feast  given  by  old  Lord 
Capulet.  He  sees  and  falls  in  love  with 
Juliet,  daughter  of  Capulet,  and  she  with 
him.  After  the  feast  he  overhears,  under  her 
window,  Juliet's  confession  of  her  love  for 
him,  and  wins  her  consent  to  a  secret  mar- 
riage. With  the  help  of  Friar  Laurence,  they 
are  wedded  next  day.  Mercutio,  a  friend 
of  Romeo,  meets  Tybalt,  of  the  Capulet 
family,  who  is  infuriated  by  lois  discovery 
of  Romeo's  presence  at  the  feast,  and  they 
quarrel.  Romeo  comes  on  the  scene,  and 
attempts  to  reason  with  Tybalt,  but  Tybalt 
and  Mercutio  fight,  and  Mercutio  falls. 
Then  Romeo  draws  and  Tybalt  is  killed. 
The  duke  with  Montague  and  Capulet  come 
up,  and  Romeo  is  sentenced  to  banishment. 
Early  next  day,  after  passing  the  night  with 
Juliet,  he  leaves  Verona  for  Mantua,  coun- 
selled by  the  friar,  who  intends  to  publish 
Romeo's  marriage  at  an  opportune  moment. 
Capulet  proposes  to  marry  Juliet  to  Count 
Paris,  and  when  she  seeks  excuses  to  avoid 
this,  peremptorily  insists,  Juliet  consults  the 
friar,  who  bids  her  consent  to  the  match,  but  on 
the  night  before  the  wedding  drink  a  potion 
which  will  render  her  apparently  lifeless  for  40 
hours.  He  will  "warn  Romeo,  who  will  rescue 
her  from  the  vault  on  her  awakening  and 
carry  her  to  Mantua.  Juliet  does  his  bidding. 
The  friar's  message  to  Romeo  miscarries,  and 
Romeo  hears  that  Julietis  dead.  Buyingpoison, 
he  comes  to  the  vault  to  have  a  last  sight  of 


[674] 


ROMFORD 

Juliet.  He  chances  upon  Count  Paris  outside 
the  vault;  they  fight  and  Paris  is  killed. 
Then  Romeo,  after  a  last  kiss  on  Juliet's 
lips,  drinks  the  poison  and  dies.  Juliet 
awakes  and  finds  Romeo  dead  by  her  side, 
and  the  cup  still  in  his  hand.  Guessing 
what  has  happened,  she  stabs  herself  and 
dies.  The  story  is  unfolded  by  the  friar  and 
Count  Paris  Js  page,  and  Montague  and 
Capulet,  faced  by  the  tragic  results  of  their 
enmity,  are  reconciled. 

Romford,  MR.  FACEY,  see  Surtees  (R.  S.). 

Romfrey,  THE  HON.  EVERARD,  afterwards 
earl  of,  a  character  in  Meredith's  *Beau- 
champ's  Career'  (q.v.). 

Romney,  GEORGE  (1734-1802),  one  of  the 
great  British  portrait-painters,  was  the  son  of 
a  builder  and  cabinet-maker  of  Dalton-in- 
Furness.  His  numerous  portraits  of  Emma 
Hart,  afterwards  Lady  Hamilton,  are  well 
known.  Romney  is  the  subject  of  Tenny- 
son's poem  'Romney's  Remorse*. 

Romola,  a  novel  by  G.  Eliot  (q.v.),  published 
in  1863. 

The  background  of  the  novel  is  Florence 
at  the  end  of  the  15th  cent.,  the  troubled 
period,  following  the  expulsion  of  the  Medici, 
of  the  expedition  of  Charles  VIII,  of  dis- 
tracted counsels  in  the  city,  of  the  excitement 
caused  by  the  preaching  of  Savonarola,  and 
of  acute  division  between  the  popular  party 
and  the  supporters  of  the  Medici.  The 
various  historical  figures,  including  Charles 
VIII,  Machiavelli,  and  Savonarola  himself,  are 
drawn  with  great  care,  as  well  as  the  whole 
picturesque  complexion  of  the  city.  The 
story  is  that  of  the  purification  by  trials  of  the 
noble-natured  Romola,  devoted  daughter  of 
an  old  blind  scholar.  Into  their  lives  comes 
the  clever,  adaptable  young  Greek,  Tito 
Melema,  whose  self-indulgence  develops 
into  utter  perfidy.  He  robs,  and  abandons  in 
imprisonment  the  benefactor  of  his  child- 
hood, Baldassare.  He  cruelly  goes  through  a 
mock  marriage  ceremony  with  the  innocent 
little  contadina  Tessa.  After  marrying 
Romola  he  wounds  her  deepest  feelings  by 
betraying  her  father's  solemn  trust.  He 
plays  a  double  game  in  the  political  intrigues 
of  the  day.  Nemesis  pursues  and  at  last  over- 
takes him  in  the  person  of  old  Baldassare, 
who  escapes  from  imprisonment  crazed  with 
sorrow  and  suffering.  Romola,  with  her  love 
for  her  husband  turned  to  contempt,  and  her 
trust  in  Savonarola  destroyed  by  his  falling 
away  from  his  high  prophetic  mission,  is  left 
in  utter  isolation,  from  which  she  is  rescued 
by  the  discovery  of  her  duty  in  self-sacrifice. 
Concurrently  with  this  termination  the 
author  relates  the  undermining  of  Savona- 
rola's influence  over  the  city,  his  trial,  con- 
demnation, and  execution. 
Romulus,  the  legendary  founder  of  Rome, 
a  son  of  Mars  and  Ilia,  the  daughter  of 
Numitor,  king  of  Alba.  Remus  was  his 
twin-brother.  These  two  children  were 


ROPER 

thrown  into  the  Tiber,  by  order  of  Amulius, 
who  had  usurped  the  throne  of  his  brother 
Numitor.  But  they  were  preserved  and 
suckled  by  a  she-wolf.  In  due  course  they 
put  Amulius  to  death  and  restored  Numitor 
to  the  throne.  They  afterwards  undertook  to 
build  a  city,  the  future  Rome,  and  the  omens 
having  given  the  preference  to  Romulus,  he 
began  to  lay  the  foundations.  But  Remus, 
in  ridicule,  leapt  over  them.  This  angered 
Romulus,  who  slew  his  brother.  He 
gathered  fugitives  and  criminals  in  his  city, 
and  conquered  the  Sabines,  who  then  came 
to  live  in  Rome;  and  their  king,  Tatius, 
shared  the  sovereignty  with  Romulus.  The 
latter  was  deified  and  identified  with  Quirinus 
(q.v.). 

Roncesvalles  or  RONCEVAUX,  a  valley  in  the 
western  Pyrenees,  celebrated  as  the  scene  of 
the  defeat  of  the  rear-guard  of  Charlemagne's 
army  and  the  death  of  Roland  (q.v.)  in  778 
(see  also  Fontardbia). 

Rondeau,  a  poem  consisting  of  ten  (or  in 
stricter  sense,  of  thirteen)  lines,  having  only 
two  rhymes  throughout,  and  with  the  opening 
words  used  twice  as  a  refrain. 

Rondel,  a  RONDEAU  (q.v.),  or  a  special  form 
of  this. 

RondibiHs,  in  Rabelais,  in.  xxxi  et  seq.,  the 
physician  whom  Panurge  consults  on  the 
subject  of  his  marriage. 

RONSARD,  PIERRE  DE(i524-85),  French 
lyric  poet,  the  principal  figure  in  the  Tlelade* 
(q.v.).  A  page  at  the  court  of  France,  he  was 
transferred  to  that  of  James  V  of  Scotland, 
where  he  remained  till  the  latter's  marriage 
with  Marie  de  Guise,  the  mother  of  Queen 
Mary  Stuart,  to  whom  he  later  addressed 
some  of  his  poems.  He  was  subsequently  in 
the  service  of  Charles  IX  of  France.  As  a 
poet  he  was  regarded  by  his  contemporaries 
with  intense  admiration.  He  contributed 
powerfully  to  the  reform  of  French  literature, 
creating  a  new  poetic  language,  and  exercised 
considerable  influence  on  the  English  sonnet- 
writers  of  the  1 6th  cent.  He  is  seen  at  his  best 
and  most  original  in  his  lighter  verse. 
Rdntgen  Rays  or  X-RAYS,  electro-magnetic 
waves  of  shorter  length  than  the  ultra-violet, 
possessing  the  power  of  passing  through 
certain  opaque  substances.  They  were  dis- 
covered by  Prof.  Wilhelm  Konrad  Rpntgen 
(1845—1923),  a  German  physicist,  in  the 
course  of  experiments  in  electric  discharge 
through  rarefied  gas.  Being  uncertain  as  to 
their  nature,  he  called  them  X-rays. 
Root-and-Brancli,  the  name  given  to  a  bill 
supported  by  a  majority  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1641  for  the  abolition  of  episco- 
pacy and  the  transfer  of  the  bishops*  powers 
to  committees  of  laymen  in  each  diocese.  It 
was  rejected  by  the  Lords,  and  not  reintro- 
duced  until  the  summer  of  1643. 
Roper,  MARGARET  (1505-44),  daughter  of 
Sir  T.  More  (q.v.).  According  to  Stapleton 


[675] 


XS2 


ROSA  BUD 

(1535-98)  she  purchased  the  head  of  her  dead 
father  a  month  after  it  had  been  exposed  on 
London  Bridge  and  preserved  it  in  spices  till 
her  death.  It  is  believed  that  it  was  buried 
with  her.  Tennyson  alludes  to  this : 

Her,  who  clasped  in  her  last  trance 

Her  murdered  father's  head. 

('A  Dream  of  Fair  Women.') 

Rosa  Bud,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Edwin 
Drood*  (q.v.). 

Rosa  Bunion,  see  Bumon. 

Rosa    Dartle,    a    character    in    Dickens 's 

'David  Copperfield5  (q.v.). 

Rosalind,  (i)  in  Spenser's  'Shepheards 
Calender'  (q.v.  'January')*  represents  Rosa 
Daniel,  the  sister  of  Samuel  Daniel,  and  the 
wife  of  John  Florio,  Spenser's  'love  and  mis- 
tresse*;  (2)  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'As 
You  Like  It' (q.v.). 

Rosaline,  (i)  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's  La- 
bour 's  Lost'  (q.v.),  a  lady  attendant  on  the 
Princess  of  France;  (2)  in  Shakespeare's 
'Romeo  and  Juliet'  (q.v.),  a  Capulet,  with 
whom  Romeo  was  in  love  before  he  first  saw 
Juliet. 

Rosalynde.  Euphues  Golden  Legade,  a 
pastoral  romance  in  the  style  of  Lyly's 
'Euphues*  (q.v.),  diversified  with  sonnets 
and  eclogues,  written  by  Lodge  (q.v.) 
during  his  voyage  to  the  Canaries  ('every 
line  wet  with  a  surge*),  and  published  in 
1590.  The  story  is  borrowed  in  part  from 
'The  Tale  of  Gamelyn'  (q.v.)  and  was 
dramatized  with  little  alteration  by  Shake- 
speare in  his  'As  You  Like  It*  (q.v.).  Lodge's 
Rosader  is  Shakespeare's  Orlando;  Saladyne 
is  Oliver;  Alinda,  Celia;  and  Rosalind  is  com- 
mon to  both.  The  ill-treatment  of  Rosader 
(Orlando)  by  his  elder  brother  is  more  de- 
veloped by  Lodge,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
rightful  duke  to  his  dukedom  is  effected  by 
arms  instead  of  persuasion.  The  characters 
of  Jaques  and  Touchstone,  and  the  humour 
that  enriches  'As  You  Like  It*,  are  found  only 
in  Shakespeare's  work.  Lodge's  romance  in- 
cludes the  pleasant  and  well-known  madrigal, 

Love  in  my  bosome  like  a  Bee 

Doth  suck  his  sweet. 

Rosamond,  FAIR,  Rosamond  Clifford  (d. 
1176?),  daughter  of  Walter  de  Clifford, 
probably  acknowledged  as  mistress  of 
Henry  II  in  1174.  She  was  buried  in  the 
choir  of  Godstow  Abbey,  but  her  remains 
were  removed  to  the  Chapter  House,  c.  ngi. 
These  are  the  known  facts  on  which  the 
popular  legend  was  based.  As  told  by  Stow 
(q.v.)  following  Higden  (q.v.)  the  legend 
related  that  'Rosamond  the  fayre  daughter  of 
Walter  Lord  Clifford,  concubine  to  Henry  II 
(poisoned  by  Queen  Elianor  as  some  thought) 
dyed  at  Woodstocke  where  King  Henry  had 
made  for  her  a  house  of  wonderful  working, 
so  that  no  man  or  woman  might  come  to  her 
but  he  that  was  instructed  by  the  King.  This 


ROSE  AYLMER 

house  after  some  was  named  Labyrinthus,  or 
Dedalus  worke,  wrought  like  unto  a  knot  in  a 
garden,  called  a  maze ;  but  it  was  commonly 
said  that  lastly  the  queene  came  to  her  by  a 
clue  of  thridde  or  silke,  and  so  dealt  with 
her  that  she  lived  not  long  after:  but  when 
she  was  dead,  she  was  buried  at  Godstow  in 
an  house  of  nunnes,  beside  Oxford,  with 
these  verses  upon  her  tombe : 

Hie  jacet  in  tumba  Rosa  mundi,  non  rosa 

munda: 
Non   redolet,   sed   olet,   quae  redolere 

solet.* 

The  story  is  told  in  a  ballad  by  Deloney 
(q.v.)  included  in  Percy's  'Reliques' ;  and  S. 
Daniel  (q.v.)  published  in  1592  'The  Com- 
plaint of  Rosamond',  a  poem  in  rhyme-royal ; 
Addison  wrote  an  opera  'Rosamond'  (1707). 

Rosamond  Vincy,  a  character  in  G.  Eliot's 
'Middlemarch'  (q.v.). 

Rosamund,  Queen  of  the  Lombards,  a  play  by 
Swinburne  (q.v.),  published  in  1861. 
Rosdad,  The,  see  Churchill  (C.). 

Roscius,  whose  full  name  was  QUINTUS 
Roscius  GALLUS  (d.  62,  B.C.),  the  most  cele- 
brated of  Roman  comic  actors.  Cicero's  ora- 
tion Tro  Q.Roscio  Comoedo* relates  to  a  claim 
against  him  for  50,000  sesterces. 

Rosdus,  The  Young,  see  Betty  (W.  H.  W.). 

ROSCOE,  WILLIAM  (1753-1831),  author 
of  a  successful  'Life  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici' 
(1795),  and  of  the  'Life  and  Pontificate  of 
Leo  the  Tenth'  (1805).  He  also  wrote  some 
volumes  of  verse,  including  'The  Butterfly's 
Ball  and  the  Grasshopper's  Feast*  (1807), 
now  a  children's  classic. 

ROSCOMMON,  EARL  OF,  see  Dillon. 

Rose,  Romaunt  of  the,  see  Romaunt  of  the 
Rose  and  Roman  de  la  Rose. 

Rose  Alley  Ambuscade,  see  Dryden. 

Rose  and  the  Ring,  The,  a  humorous  fairy- 
tale by  Thackeray  (q.v.),  published  in  1855. 
It  turns  on  the  possession  of  a  magic  rose 
and  a  magic  ring,  which  have  the  property  of 
making  their  owners  appear  beautiful,  and 
deals  with  the  adventures  of  Prince  Giglio, 
who  has  been  ousted  from  the  throne 
by  his  uncle ;  his  rivalry  for  the  hand,  first  of 
the  princess  Angelica,  then  of  her  maid 
Betsinda  (who  turns  out  to  be  the  princess 
Rosalba),  with  the  ridiculous  Prince  Bulbo, 
and  the  misfortunes  of  the  latter;  and  his 
entanglement  with  Countess  GruffanufT, 
Angelica's  ugly  governess.  Gruffanuff's  hus- 
band has  been  head  footman  at  the  palace, 
and  for  his  rudeness  has  been  turned  into  a 
door-knocker  by  the  fairy  Blackstick.  He  is 
restored  to  life  by  the  fairy  just  in  time  to 
prevent  Giglio  from  having  to  marry  his 
supposed  widow.  Giglio  marries  Rosalba, 
and  Bulbo  marries  Angelica. 

Rose  Aylmer,  an  elegy  by  W.  S.  Landor 
(q.v.)  on  the  daughter  of  Lord  Aylmer.  She 


[676] 


ROSE  FLEMING 

was  an  early  love  of  Landor's,  but  on  her 
mother's  second  marriage  was  sent  out  to 
her  aunt  at  Calcutta,  where  she  died,  aged 
twenty. 

Rose  Fleming,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'Oliver  Twist*  (q.v.). 

Rose  Jocelyn,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'Evan  Harrington'  (q.v.). 

Rose  Mackenzie,  a  character  in  Thackeray's 
'The  Newcomes*  (q.v.). 

Rose  Mary,  a  poem  by  D.  G.  Rossetti  (q.v.), 
included  in  'Ballads  and  Sonnets',  published 
in  1881. 

Rose  Mary,  looking  into  a  magic  beryl,  in 
which  only  the  pure  can  see  the  truth,  sees, 
as  she  thinks,  the  peril  to  which  her  lover  is 
exposed,  and  he  is  warned.  But  Rose  Mary 
has  sinned  and  her  sin  has  admitted  into 
the  beryl  evil  spirits,  who  have  concealed  the 
truth  from  her.  Her  lover  is  faithless  and 
is  killed.  She  takes  her  father's  sword  and 
breaks  the  beryl,  thus  releasing  her  soul  from 
destruction. 

Rosemary  Lane,  Whitechapel,  now  called 
Royal  Mint  Street,  formerly  noted  for  its 
old  clothes'  market,  known  as  'Rag  Fair' 
(mentioned  by  Pope  in  'The  Dunciad').  A 
sort  of  'Rag  Fair'  still  survives  in  the  street. 

Rose  Noble,  see  Noble. 
Rose  Tavern,  THE,  in  Russell  Street, 
Covent  Garden,  was  a  favourite  place  of 
resort  in  the  latter  part  of  the  i7th  and  early 
1 8th  cents.  It  is  frequently  referred  to  in  the 
literature  of  the  period,  e.g.  by  Pepys 
(18  May  1668),  and  by  Farquhar  ('The  Re- 
cruiting Officer'). 

Rose  Theatre,  THE,  on  Bankside,  South- 
wark,  opened  in  1592,  was  managed  by  P. 
Henslowe  (q.v.)  and  Shakespeare  acted  there. 

ROSEBERY,  ARCHIBALD  PHILIP 
PRIMROSE,  fifth  earl  of  (1847-1929), 
foreign  secretary  in  the  Gladstone  govern- 
ments of  1886  and  1892,  prime  minister  in 
1894-5,  an  eloquent  and  witty  speaker.  He 
was  author  of  works  on  'Pitt'  (1891),  'Sir 
Robert  Peel*  (1899),  'Napoleon— the  Last 
Phase*  (1900),  'Cromwell'  (1900).  He  three 
times  won  the  Derby,  with  Ladas  in  1894, 
Sir  Visto  in  1895,  and  Cicero  in  1905. 
'Rose-red  city — half  as  old  as  time*,  in 
Dean  J.  W.  Burgon's  poem,  Tetra*,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Arabia  Petraea,  now  in 
ruins,  discovered  by  Burckhardt  in  1812. 
Rosencrantz  and  Guildenstern,  characters 
in  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet'  (q.v.). 

Rosetta  Stone,  a  piece  of  black  basalt  found 
by  Napoleon's  soldiers  near  the  Rosetta 
mouth  of  the  Nile,  bearing  an  inscription  in 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  demotic  characters, 
and  Greek,  which  proved  to  be  the  key  to 
the  interpretation  of  hieroglyphics.  It  is  now 
in  the  British  Museum. 
Rosicrucian,  a  member  of  a  supposed 


ROSSETTI 

society  or  order,  reputedly  founded  by  one 
Christian  Rosenkreuz  in  1484,  but  first 
mentioned  in  1614,  whose  members  were 
said  to  claim  various  forms  of  secret  and 
magic  knowledge,  such  as  the  transmutation 
of  metals,  the  prolongation  of  life,  and  power 
over  the  elements  and  elemental  spirits. 
[OEDJ  No  Rosicrucian  society  appears  to 
have  actually  existed.  The  Rosicrucians  of 
the  early  i?th  cent,  seem  to  have  been 
moral  and  religious  reformers,  who  covered 
their  views  under  a  cloak  of  mysticism  and 
alchemy.  There  is  a  good  deal  on  the  subject 
in  Shorthouse's  'John  Inglesant'  (q.v.). 

Rosinante  or  ROZINANTE,  the  horse  of  Don 
Quixote  (q.v.). 

ROSS,  ALEXANDER  (1699-1784),  edu- 
cated at  Aberdeen  University,  and  a  Forfar- 
shire  schoolmaster,  was  the  author  of  the  long 
pastoral  narrative  'Helenore,  or  the  Fortu- 
nate Shepherdess',  and  of  a  number  of  witty 
and  spirited  songs,  including  'Woo'd  and 
Married  and  a'  '„ 

ROSS,  SIR  JAMES  CLARK  (1800-62), 
Arctic  and  Antarctic  explorer,  was  author  of 'A 
Voyage  in  the  Southern  and  Antarctic  Regions 
(1839-43)',  published  in  1847.  Ross  com- 
manded the  first  expedition  for  the  relief  of  Sir 
J.  Franklin  (q.v.)  in  1848—9. 
ROSS,  SIR  JpHN  (1777-1856),  uncle  of 
the  above,  Arctic  explorer,  was  author  of  two 
narratives  of  voyages  in  search  of  the  North- 
West  Passage,  published  in  1819  and  1835. 

Ross,  THE  MAN  OF,  see  Kyrle+ 

Ross,  MARTIN,  see  under  Somerville  (E.  CE.). 

Ross,  MOTHER,  see  Davies  (€.). 

ROSSETTI,  CHRISTINA  GEORGINA 
(1830-94),  the  sister  of  D.  G.  Rossetti  (q.v.), 
contributed  to  'The  Germ'  (q.v.)  under  the 
pseudonym  'Ellen  Alleyne*,  and  published 
her  first  work  in  book  form,  'Goblin  Market 
(q.v.)  and  other  Poems',  in  1862.  'The 
Prince's  Progress'  (q.v.)  appeared  in  1866, 
'Sing-Song'  in  1872,  and  'A  Pageant  and 
other  Poems*  in  1881.  Notable  among  her 
contributions  to  'The  Germ'  is  the  lyric 
entitled  'The  Dream'.  A  volume  of  *New 
Poems'  appeared  in  1896  after  her  death. 
'Time  Flies,  a  Reading  Diary5,  with  some 
poem  or  thought  for  each  day,  was  published 
in  1883.  Her  work  ranged  from  poems  of 
fantasy  and  verses  for  the  young  to  religious 
poetry,  which  constituted  the  greater  part  of 
her  writings.  They  are  in  general  pervaded 
by  a  spiritual  and  melancholy  cast,  and 
marked  by  a  high  degree  of  technical  perfec- 
tion. Her  'Monna  Innominata'  is  a  series  of 
sonnets  of  unhappy  love. 
ROSSETTI,  DANTE  GABRIEL  (1828- 
82),  whose  full  Christian  name  was  Gabriel 
Charles  Dante  (but  the  form  which  he  gave 
it  has  become  inveterate),  the  son  of  Gabriele 
Rossetti,  an  Italian  patriot  who  came  to 
England  in  1824,  was  educated  at  Kings 


[677] 


ROSSETTI 

College,  London,  but  soon  devoted  himself 
to  art.  He  formed  with  Holman  Hunt,  John 
Everett  Millais,  and  others,  part  of  the 
Pre-Raphaelite  Brotherhood  (q.v.).  ,  For 
many  years  he  was  known  only  as  a  painter, 
though  he  began  to  write  poetry  very 
early  (from  1847).  'The  Blessed  Damo- 
zel*  (q.v.),  one  of  his  earliest  works,  subse- 
quently more  than  once  revised,  appeared  in 
'The  Germ'  (q.v.).  In  1860  he  married  Miss 
Eleanor  Siddal,  and  in  1 86 1  he  published  his 
first  volume,  'The  Early  Italian ^  Poets',  a 
collection  of  scrupulous  translations  from 
Dante  (including  the  'Vita  Nuova'  and  the 
sonnets)  and  his  predecessors  and  contem- 
poraries. His  wife  died  in  1862  and  a  manu- 
script containing  a  number  of  his  poems  was 
buried  with  her.  These  were  subsequently 
disinterred  and  published  in  'Poems  by  D.  G. 
Rossetti*  in  1870.  They  include  'Sister 
Helen',  'Eden  Bower*  (qq.v.),  'The  Stream's 
Secret',  and  'Love's  Nocturn'.  'Ballads  and 
Sonnets*  appeared  in  1881,  completing  the 
sequence  of  love-sonnets  called  "The  House 
of  Life',  of  which  part  had  appeared  in  the 
earlier  volume,  and  including  such  notable 
poems  as  'Rose  Mary'  (q.v.),  'The  Wnite 
Ship' (q.v.),  and  'The  King's  Tragedy'  (q.v.). 
Mention  should  be  made  of  Rossetti's  trans- 
lations, not  only  from  the  Italian,  but  also 
from  the  French  and  German,  and  particu- 
larly from  Villon.  Many  of  his  poems  were 
written  as  commentaries  on  his  pictures. 

In  1871  Rossetti  was  attacked  by  Robert 
Buchanan  under  the  pseudonym  '  Thomas 
Maitland*  in  an  article  entitled  'The  Fleshly 
School',  to  which  Rossetti  published  a  con- 
vincing reply. 

ROSSETTI,  WILLIAM  MICHAEL 
(1829-1919),  brother  of  D.  G.  Rossetti  (q.v.), 
educated  at  King's  College  School,  London, 
was  a  man  of  letters  and  art-critic,  and  an 
official  in  the  Inland  Revenue  Department. 
He  was  one  of  the  seven  Pre-Raphaelite 
'brothers',  edited  'The  Germ'  (q.v.),  and 
wrote  the  sonnet  that  was  printed  on  its 
cover.  He  wrote  art-criticisms  for  the 
'Spectator*,  republished  under  the  title  'Fine 
Art,  chiefly  contemporary'  (1867).  His  other 
works  include  a  blank-verse  translation  of 
Dante's  'Inferno'  (1865),  'Lives  of  some 
famous  Poets'  (1878),  a  'Life  of  Keats'  (1887), 
a  'Memoir,  with  Family  Letters*  of  his 
brother  (1895),  a  'Memoir'  (1904)  and 
'Family  Letters' (1904)  of  his  sister  Christina, 
and  a  study  of 'Dante  and  his  Convito'  (1910). 

Rossini,  GIOACHINO  ANTONIO  (1792-1868), 
Italian  operatic  composer.  He  visited 
London  in  1823  and  then  Paris,  where  he 
was  for  a  time  director  of  the  Theatre 
Italien.  His  best-known  operas  are  'The 
Barber  of  Seville*  (1816)  and  'William  Tell' 
(his  greatest  work,  1829). 

Rossville,  LORD,  a  character  in  Miss  Ferrier's 
'The  Inheritance*  (q.v.). 

ROSTAND,      EDMOND      (1868-1918), 


ROUND  TABLE 

French  dramatist,  whose  best-known  works 
axe  'Cyrano  de  Bergerac'  (1898,  see  Bergerac\ 
'L'Aigion*  (1900),  and  'Chantecler'  (1910). 
Roswitha9  see  Hrotsvitha. 
Rota,  THE,  (i)  a  political  club  founded  in 
1659    by    James    Harington   (q.v.),    which 
advocated  rotation  in  the  offices  of  govern- 
ment, and  other  republican  ideas ;  (2)  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  supreme  court 
for  ecclesiastical  and  secular  cases. 
Rotfeomagus,  in  imprints,  Rouen. 
Rotfasay,  DUKE  OF,  eldest  son  of  Robert  III 
of  Scotland,  figures  in   Scott's   'The   Fair 
Maid  of  Perth'  (q.v.). 

Rothschild,  the  name  of  a  famous  Jewish 
banking-house  founded  at  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  cent,  by 
Mayer  Anselm  Rothschild.  It  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  the  sign  of  the  house,  'zum 
rothen  Schilde',  eat  the  red  shield'.  It  is  also 
said  that  the  fortune  of  the  house  was  in 
part  founded  on  the  securing  of  early  news 
about  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
Rotten  Row,  a  road  in  Hyde  Park,  extend- 
ing from  Apsley  Gate  to  Kensington  Gardens, 
a  fashionable  resort  for  riders.  The  name 
was  formerly  applied  to  various  streets  in 
different  towns,  and  its  origin  is  obscure. 
The  OED.  does  not  recognize  the  popular 
derivation  from  route  du  roi,  and  remarks 
that  the  older  form  in  the  north  of  England 
and  Scotland,  ralton  raw,  is  apparently  of 
different  origin.  The  obvious  derivation  is 
probably  the  right  one,  a  row  or  road  of 
rotten  earth,  suitable  material  for  a  riding 
track. 

Rouge  Croix,  Rouge  Dragon,  two  of  the 
pursuivants  of  the  English  College  of  Arms, 
so  called  from  their  badges  (see  Heralds9 
College). 

ROUGEMONT,  LOUIS  DE,  the  name 
assumed  by  an  adventurer,  Grin,  a  Swiss  by 
birth,  and  at  one  time  servant  to  Fanny 
Kemble,  who,  after  spending  many  years  in 
Australia,  contributed  in  1898  to  the  'World 
Wide  Magazine*  articles  relating  a  number 
of  fantastic  adventures,  mostly  imaginary, 
among  the  Australian  aborigines  (see  Sitwell 
and  Barton,  'Sober  Truth').  He  is  said  to 
have  betrayed  himself  by  writing  of  a  'flight 
of  wombats*. 

ROUGET  DE  L'ISLE,  CLAUDE 
JOSEPH  (1760-1836),  an  engineer  officer  in 
the  French  army,  who  in  1792  composed  the 
'Marseillaise'  (words  and  music),  the  French 
national  hymn.  M.  Loth  in  *Le  Chant  de  la 
Marseillaise'  (Paris,  1886)  suggests  that 
Rouget  got  the  air  from  a  march  in  an 
oratorio  called  'Esther*  by  one  Grisons, 
choirmaster  at  Saint-Omer,  1787. 

Round  Table,  THE,  in  the  Arthurian  legend, 
was  made  (according  to  one  version  by  Merlin) 
for  IJther  Pendragon  and  given  by  him 
to  King  Leodegrance  of  Cameliard.  The 


[673] 


ROUND  TABLE 

latter  gave  it  as  a  wedding  gift,  with  100 
knights,  to  Arthur  when  he  married  Guine- 
vere, his  daughter.  It  would  seat  150 
knights,  and  all  places  round  it  were  equal. 
The  'Siege  Perilous*  was  reserved  for  the 
knight  who  should  achieve  the  quest  of  the 
Grail  (q.v.).  In  Layamon's  'Brut*,  however, 
the  table  was  made  for  Arthur  by  a  crafty 
workman.  It  is  first  mentioned  by  Wace 


Round  Table,  The,  a  quarterly  magazine 
founded  in  1910  and,  until  1916,  under  the 
editorship  of  the  present  Lord  Lothian.  It 
is  published  by  Macmillan. 

Roundabout  Papers,  The,  a  series  of  dis- 
cursive essays  by  W.  M.  Thackeray  (q.v.), 
published  in  the  'Cornhill  Magazine',  1860-3. 

Roundheads,  members  or  adherents  of  the 
parliamentary  party  in  the  Civil  War  of  the 
1 7th  cent.,  so  called  from  the  Puritan  custom 
of  wearing  the  hair  cut  close,  while  the 
Cavaliers  usually  wore  theirs  in  long  locks. 
The  name  appears  to  have  arisen  towards 
the  end  of  the  year  1641.  [OED.]  There  is  a 
pamphlet  called  'The  unloveliness  of  love- 
locks' somewhat  earlier  than  this. 

ROUSSEAU,  JEAN-JACQUES  (1712-78), 
was  born  at  Geneva,  son  of  a  watchmaker. 
Lacking  in  stability  of  character  and  moral 
principle,  he  led  a  wretched  erratic  life, 
sometimes  taken  up  and  protected  by  bene- 
factors whose  kindness  he  ill  repaid,  some- 
times occupying  humble  situations,  as  foot- 
man or  music-master,  living  for  twenty-five 
years  with  a  kitchen  maid,  The"reseLeVasseur, 
and  depositing  their  five  babies  at  the  Found- 
ling Hospital.  This  life  he  has  described  in 
his  masterpiece,  the  'Confessions'  (published 
after  his  death). 

He  came  early  into  notice  by  the  works  in 
which  he  expounded  his  revolt  against  the 
existing  social  order.  The  first  of  these  was 
a  'Discourse  on  the  Influence  of  Learning  and 
Art'  (1750),  followed  by  a  'Discourse  on  the 
Origin  of  Inequality'  (1754)-  'La  Nouvelle 
H&o'ise',  a  novel  in  which  the  question  of  the 
return  to  nature  was  discussed  in  its  relation 
to  the  sexes  and  the  family,  appeared  in  1761. 
'Du  Contrat  social',  setting  forth  his  poli- 
tical philosophy,  was  published  in  1762, 
and  'Emile',  his  views  on  education,  in  the 
same  year.  The  'Contrat  Social*  had  a  pro- 
found influence  on  French  thought  and 
prepared  the  way  (if  indeed  it  did  not  largely 
cause)  the  Revolution,  After  the  appearance  of 
c£mile*  Rousseau  was  the  object  of  persecu- 
tion, and  went  into  exile,  first  to  Geneva  and 
then  to  England,  until  1767- 

Rousseau  attributed  evil,  not  to  sin,  but  to 
society,  as  a  departure  from  the  natural  state, 
in  which  man  is  both  good  and  happy.  To 
revert  to  these  desirable  conditions,  we  must 
banish  from  life  its  artificial  elements.  In- 
stead of  attending  to  the  doctrines  of  the 
philosophers,  we  should  listen  to  _ our  own 
intuitions,  which  tell  us  that  there  is  a  bene- 


ROWLAND 

volent  divine  spirit,  who  rewards  virtue  and 
punishes  crime,  and  that  the  human  soul  is 
free  and  immortal.  In  political  philosophy 
Rousseau  held  the  view  that  society  is 
founded  on  a  contract,  and  that  the  head 
of  the  state  is  the  people's  mandatary,  not 
their  master.  In  education  he  developed 
the  useful  theory  that  instruction  should 
proceed  by  an  appeal  to  the  child's  curiosity, 
by  stimulating  his  intelligence,  rather  than 
by  imposing  cut-and-dried  notions  upon  it. 

ROUTH,  MARTIN  JOSEPH  (1755-1854), 
president  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  for 
sixty-three  years,  edited  the  'Gorgias*  and 
'Euthydemus'  of  Plato,  and 'Reliquiae  Sacrae* 
(1814-43),  a  collection  of  writings  of  ecclesi- 
astical authors  of  the  and  and  3rd  cents. 
Routh  was  a  man  of  immense  learning,  and 
a  strong,  old-fashioned  'High  Churchman*. 
He  was  also,  perhaps,  the  last  man  in  Eng- 
land who  always  wore  a  wig.  His  long 
life  (he  died  in  his  hundredth  year)  and 
literary  experience  lend  weight  to  his  famous 
utterance :  'I  think,  Sir,  you  will  find  it  a  very 
good  practice  always  to  verify  your  references.9 

Rover,  The,  or  the  Banished  Cavaliers,  see 
Behn. 

Rovers,  The,  see  Anti-Jacobin. 

ROWE,  NICHOLAS  (1674-1718),  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  School,  and  became  a 
barrister  of  the  Middle  Temple;  but  aban- 
doned the  legal  profession  for  that  of  play- 
wright, and  made  the  acquaintance  of  Pope 
and  Addison.  He  produced  at  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields  his  tragedies,  'The  Ambitious  Step- 
mother* (1700),  'Tamerlane*  (q.v.,  1702),  and 
'The  Fair  Penitent*  (q.v.,  adapted  from 
Massinger*s  'Fatal  Dowry*,  1703)-  His 
'Ulysses*  was  staged  in  1706,  his  'Royal  Con- 
vert* at  the  Haymarket  in  1707,  and  'Jane 
Shore'  and  'Lady  Jane  Grey*  in  17 14  and  1715 
respectively,  at  Drury  Lane.  He  produced  an 
unsuccessful  comedy,  'The  Biter*,  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn  Fields,  in  1704.  The  moral  tone 
of  his  plays  is  in  strong  contrast  to  the 
licentiousness  of  the  drama  of  the  preceding 
fifty  years.  His  'Fair  Penitent*  and  'Jane 
Shore*  provided  two  of  Mrs.  Siddons's  most 
successful  parts.  Rowe  became  poet  laureate 
in  1715,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  His  portrait  was  twice  painted  by 
Kneller.  His  poetical  works  include  a  famous 
translation  of  Lucan  (1718),  *one  of  the 
greatest  productions  of  English  poetry*,  said 
Johnson.  His  collected  works  appeared  in. 
1727.  Rowe  did  some  useful  work  as  editor 
of  Shakespeare's  plays  (1709),  dividing  them 
into  acts  and  scenes,  supplying  stage  direc- 
tions, and  generally  making  the  text  more 
intelligible. 

Rowena,  (i)  the  legendary  daughter  of 
Hengist,  who  married  the  British  chief 
Vortigern  (see  Vortigern  and  Rowena);  (2)  a 
character  in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe*  (q.v.;  see  also 
Rebecca  and  Rowena). 
Rowland,  Childe*  see  CUlde  Roland. 


[679] 


ROWLANDS 

ROWLANDS,  SAMUEL  (157?  2-1630?),  a 
writer  mainly  of  satirical  tracts  in  prose  and 
verse.  He  began  his  literary  career  with  a 
religious  poem,  'The  Betraying  of  Christ* 
(1598),  followed  by  a  satire  on  the  manners  of 
Londoners,  eThe  Letting  of  Humours  Blood 
in  the  Head-Vaine'  (1600).  In  1602  appeared 
his  *Tis  Merrie  when  Gossips  meete'^a  vivid 
and  dramatic  character-sketch  of  a  widow,  a 
wife,  and  a  maid  who  meet  in  a  tavern  and 
converse.  His  *  Greene's  Ghost',  on  the  sub- 
ject of  'coney-catchers'  (cheats,  swindlers), 
belongs  to  the  same  year.  He  published 
'Hell  >s  Broke  Loose'  (1605),  'Democritus,  or 
Doctor  Merryman  his  Medicines  against 
Melancholy  Humors'  (1607),  'Humors  Look- 
ing Glasse'  (1608),  'Martin  Mark-all'  (an 
account  of  the  habits  and  language  of  thieves, 
1610),  and  'The  Melancholic  Knight3  (1615). 

Rowlandson,  THOMAS  (1756-1827),  artist 
and  caricaturist,  is  especially  remembered,  in 
a  literary  connexion,  for  the  plates  that  he 
supplied  for  the  adventures  of  'Dr.  Syntax* 
(see  Combe).  He  also  drew  the  plates  for 
'The  Military  Adventures  of  Johnny  New- 
come' (1815)  and  'The  Adventures  of  Johnny 
Newcome  in  the  Navy'  (1818),  and  some  of 
those  included  in  Ackermann's  publications, 
'The  World  in  Miniature'  (1821-6)  and  'The 
Microcosm  of  London'  (1808).  Only  of  recent 
years  has  Rowlandson  been  recognized  as  a 
great  artist,  and  not  only  as  a  caricaturist.  His 
sense  of  design  was  highly  developed,  and 
his  best  work  stands  comparison  with  that  of 
any  water  colourist. 

Rowley,  in  Sheridan's  'School  for  Scandal' 
(q.v.),  the  old  servant  of  the  Surfaces. 

Rowley,  OLD,  a  nickname  of  Charles  II, 
derived  from  the  name  of  a  horse  in  the  royal 
stud,  renowned  for  the  number  and  beauty 
of  its  offspring  (notes  in  John  Hayward's 
edition  of  the  works  of  Rochester). 
ROWLEY,  SAMUEL  (d.  1 633  ?),  an  actor  in 
the  Admiral's  company  and  a  playwright 
employed  by  Henslowe  (q.v.).  His  principal 
extant  play  is,  'When  you  see  me,  You  know 
me.  Or  the  famous  Chronicle  Historie  of 
King  Henry  VIII',  acted  in  1603. 

ROWLEY,  WILLIAM  (1585  ?-i642?),  dra- 
matist and  actor.  He  played  in  Queen  Aime's 
company  before  1610,  and  under  Henslowe's 
management  at  the  'Hope*.  His  best  drama- 
tic work  was  done  in  collaboration  with  T. 
Middleton  (q.v.).  He  wrote,  unassisted,  *A 
New  Wonder'  (1632),  'All 's  Lost  by  Lust' 
(q.v.,  1633),  'A  Match  at  Midnight'  (1633), 
and  *A  Shoomaker  a  Gentleman*  (1638).  He 
collaborated  in  'A  Fair  Quarrel'  (q.v.,  1617), 
*The  Changeling*  (q.v.,  performed  1621), 
and  other  plays,  with  Middleton ;  in  'Fortune 
by  Land  and  Sea*  (printed  1655)  with  Hey- 
wood;  in  'The  Thracian  Wonder'  (printed 
1661)  with  Webster ;  and  in  other  pieces  with 
Ford,  Massinger,  and  Dekker.  He  was 
probably  author  or  reviser  of  'The  Birth  of 
Merlin'  (printed  1662). 


ROXBURGHE 
Rowley  Poems,  see  Chatterton, 
Rowley  Powley,  THE  REV.,  in  Byron's  'Don 
Juan',  xi.  57,  was  Croly  (q.v.). 
Rowton  Houses,  named  after  Montague 
William  Lowry-Corry,  Baron  Rowton  (1838- 
1903)1  who  studied  working-class  conditions 
and  designed  a  'poor  man's  hotel'  with  better 
conditions  than  those  offered  by  the  common 
lodging-houses.  The  first  Rowton  House  was 
opened  in  Vauxhall  in  1892.  It  proved  very 
successful,  and  a  company  was  formed  in 
1894  to  extend  their  use. 
Roxana,  the  daughter  of  a  Persian  satrap, 
who  was  taken  captive  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  became  his  wife.  Later,  Alexan- 
der took  a  second  wife,  Barslne,  daughter  of 
Darius  and  Statira.  On  this  has  been  based 
the  story  of  the  jealousy  of  Roxana  and  her 
vengeance  on  her  rival.  It  forms  the  basis  of 
Nathaniel  Lee's  tragedy,  "The  Rival  Queens' 
(q.v.),  where  the  second  wife  is  called  Statira. 

Roxana ,  or  the  Fortunate  Mistress,  a  romance 
by  Defoe  (q.v.),  published  in  1724. 

This  purports  to  be  the  autobiography  of 
Mile  Beleau,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  French 
Protestant  refugees,  brought  up  in  England, 
and  married  to  a  London  brewer,  who,  having 
wasted  his  property,  deserts  her  and  her  five 
children.  She  enters  upon  a  career  of  pros- 
perous wickedness,  passing  from  one  pro- 
tector to  another  in  England,  France,  and 
Holland,  amassing  much  wealth,  and  re- 
ceiving the  name  Roxana  by  accident,  in 
consequence  of  a  dance  that  she  performs. 
She  is  accompanied  in  her  adventures  by  a 
faithful  maid,  Amy,  a  very  human  figure. 
She  finally  marries  a  Dutch  merchant  and 
lives  as  a  person  of  consequence  in  Holland, 
until  he  discovers  the  deceit  that  has  been 
put  upon  him.  He  shortly  afterwards  dies, 
leaving  her  only  a  small  sum  of  money.  She 
is  imprisoned  for  debt,  and  dies  in  a  state  of 
penitence. 
Roxburghe  Club,  see  Roxburgke  (J.  K.). 

Roxburgh©,  JOHN  KER,  third  duke  o/(i74o- 
1804),  an  ardent  bibliophile,  who  secured  an 
unrivalled  collection  of  books  from  Caxton's 
press.  His  splendid  library,  housed  in  St. 
James's  Square,  was  dispersed  in  1812. 
Valdarfer*s  edition  of  Boccaccio  (1471),  for 
which  the  second  duke  of  Roxburghe  had 
paid  one  hundred  guineas,  was  then  sold  to  the 
marquis  of  Blandford  for  £3,260.  To  cele- 
brate this  event  the  chief  bibliophiles  of  the 
day  dined  together  in  the  evening  at  St. 
Alban's  Tavern,  St.  Alban's  Street,  under 
the  presidency  of  Lord  Spencer,  and  there 
inaugurated  the  ROXBURGHE  CLUB,  the  first 
of  the  book-clubs,  consisting  of  twenty-four 
members,  with  T.  F.  Dibdin  as  its  first 
Secretary.  The  Club,  at  first  rather  convivial 
in  character,  began  its  valuable  literary  work 
with  the  printing  of  the  metrical  romance  of 
Havelok  the  Dane  (1828).  Each  member  is 
expected  once  in  his  career  to  present  (and 
pay  for  a  limited  edition  of)  a  volume  of 


[680] 


ROYAL  ACADEMY 

some  rarity.  In  1926  there  were  thirty-eight 
members. 

Royal  Academy,  THE,  see  Academy. 

Royal  Exchange,  THE,  see  Exchange  (The 
Royal). 

Royal  Historical  Society,  see  Historical 
Society. 

Royal  Martyr,  THE,  (i)  Charles  I;  (2)  see 
Tyrannic  Love. 

Royal  Society,  THE,  originated  in  the 
Philosophical  Society,  which  was  founded  in 
1645.  The  operations  of  the  latter  were  in 
great  measure  interrupted  by  the  Civil  War. 
Its  meetings  in  London  were  resumed  at  the 
Restoration,  and  it  received  its  charter  as  the 
Royal  Society  in  1662.  Among  its  principal 
projectors  were  Abraham  Cowley  (q.v.)  and 
Robert  Boyle  the  chemist  (see  under  Boyle 
Lectures).  Its  'Philosophical  Transactions' 
were  first  issued  in  1665.  The  remarkable 
feature  of  the  Royal  Society  among  scientific 
academies  was  that  it  took  the  whole  field  of 
knowledge  for  its  province  and  included  among 
its  early  members  such  men  of  letters  as 
Dry  den,  Waller,  Evelyn,  and  Aubrey.  Its  first 
historian  was  Bishop  Sprat  (q.v.),  who  de- 
scribes its  aims.  Among  these  was  the  im- 
provement of  English  prose.  It  exacted 
from  all  its  members  ca  close,  naked,  natural 
way  of  speaking;  positive  expressions;  clear 
senses ;  a  native  easiness'. 

Royal  Society  of  Literature,  see  Literature. 
Rozinante,  see  Rosinante. 

Rubdiydt  of  Omar  Khayyam,  The,  see 
Omar  Kliayydm. 

Rubens,  PETER  PAUL  (1577-1640),  a  great 
painter  of  the  Flemish  school,  whose  works 
include  historical  paintings,  landscapes,  and 
genre  pictures.  He  was  the  son  of  a  physician, 
who  on  suspicion  of  Protestant  views  was 
obliged  to  flee  from  Antwerp  to  Cologne, 
where  Rubens  spent  the  early  part  of  his  life. 
Rubens  was  an  enormously  prolific  and  vital 
painter,  robust  and  rich  (some  think  coarse  and 
soulless),  who  brought  into  Flemish  parts 
some  of  the  hot  colour  of  the  late  Venetians. 
He  visited  Italy  and  Spain,  and  then  settled 
in  Antwerp,  where  he  was  appointed  court- 
painter  to  the  archduke.  Later  he  was  invited 
to  Paris  to  decorate  galleries  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg for  Marie  de*  Medici.  He  came  to  Eng- 
land in  1629  on  a  mission  to  Charles  I,  by 
whom  he  was  knighted.  He  had  spent  part 
of  the  previous  year  at  Madrid,  where  a  close 
friendship  sprang  up  between  him  and 
Velasquez  (q.v.).  He  married  first  Isabella 
Brandt,  and  after  her  death  Helene  Four- 
ment;  portraits  of  both  are  among  his  finest 
works. 

Rubicon,  a  small  river  rising  in  the  Apen- 
nines and  flowing  into  the  Adriatic;  it 
separated  Italy  from  Cisalpine  Gaul.  By 
crossing  it  with  an  army  and  thus  overstep- 
ping the  boundaries  of  his  province,  Julius 


RUINED  COTTAGE 

Caesar  committed  himself  to  war  against  the 
Senate  and  Pompey  (49  B.C.). 

Rudafcan,  in  the  'Shahnameh*  of  Firdusi 
(q.v.),  the  wife  of  Zal  and  mother  of 
Rustem  (q.v.).  The  story  of  the  love  of  Zal 
for  Rudabah  is  one  of  the  most  romantic 
portions  of  the  work. 

Riidiger,  a  character  in  the  'Nibelungenlied' 
(q.v.).  He  is  a  follower  of  Etzel,  who,  when 
Gunther  and  his  brothers  visit  Etzel's  court 
after  the  death  Of  Siegfried  and  Kriemhild's 
marriage  to  Etzel,  entertains  them  hospitably. 
In  the  affray  between  the  Huns  and  the 
Burgundians,  Riidiger  and  Gernot,  Gunther Js 
brother,  slay  one  another. 

Rudiger,  a  ballad  by  R.  Southey  (q.v.),  of  a 
stranger  knight  borne  to  Waldhurst  on  the 
Rhine  in  a  boat  drawn  by  a  swan.  Later  the 
boat  returns  and  carries  away  Rudiger,  his 
wife  Margaret,  and  their  child.  They  come 
to  a  cavern  where  two  giant  arms  emerge, 
seize  Rudiger,  and  draw  him  into  the  earth. 

RudolpMne  Tables,  a  series  of  astronomi- 
cal calculations  published  by  Kepler  in  1627, 
and  named  after  his  patron,  the  emperor 
Rudolph  II. 

Rudra,  in  Vedic  mythology,  the  storm-god. 
His  arrows  carry  destruction,  but  he  is  also 
the  giver  of  remedial  herbs. 

Ruff's  Guide  to  the  Turf,  an  annual 
publication  devoted  to  horse-racing;  origin- 
ated in  1842  by  William  Ruff  (1801-56). 

Rugby,  JACK,  in  Shakespeare's  'Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor'  (q.v.),  servant  to  Dr.  Caius. 

Rugby  Chapel,  a  poem  by  M.  Arnold  (q.v.). 

Rugby  School,  founded  by  Laurence 
Sheriff  in  1567.  T.  Arnold  (q.v.)  was  its  head 
master  from  1828  to  1842.  A  vivid  picture  of 
school-life  at  Rugby  in  his  days  is  given  in 
'Torn  Brown's  Schooldays'  by  Hughes  (q.v.). 
Here  originated  the  game  of  Rugby  foot- 
ball; a  tablet  in  Rugby  School  close  com- 
memorates William  Webb  Ellis  'who,  with  a 
fine  disregard  of  the  rules  of  football  as  played 
in  his  time,  first  took  the  ball  in  his  arms  and 
ran  with  it*  in  1823. 
Ruggiero,  see  Roger o. 
Ruggle,  GEORGE,  see  Ignoramus. 

Ruin,  The,  an  Old  English  poem  of  some 
thirty-five  lines  included  in  the  'Exeter  Book* 
(q.v.),  describing  the  result  of  the  devastation 
by  the  Saxons  of  a  Roman  settlement  (perhaps 
Bath),  and  showing,  with  deep  feeling,  the 
contrast  of  past  splendour  with  present 
desolation. 

Ruined  Cottage,  The,  or  The  Story  of 
Margaret,  a  poem  by  Wordsworth  (q.v.), 
written  in  1797,  and  subsequently  embodied 
in  Bk.  I  of  'The  Excursion'  (q.v.). 

It  is  a  harrowing  tale  of  misfortune  be- 
falling a  cottager  and  his  wife.  The  husband 
leaves  his  home  and  joins  a  troop  of  soldiers 
going  to  a  distant  land.  The  wife  stays  on, 


[681] 


RUINES  OF  TIME 

pining  for  his  return,  in  increasing  wretched- 
ness, till  she  dies  and  the  cottage  falls  into 
ruin. 

Ruines  of  Time,  The,  a  poem  by  Spenser 
(q.v.),  included  in  the  'Complaints'  published 
in  1591.  It  is  an  allegorical  elegy  on  the 
death  of  Sir  P.  Sidney  (q.v.),  which  had  also 
been  the  occasion  of  his  earlier  elegy  *Astro- 
phel'  (q.v.)«  The  poet  passes  to  a  lament  on 
the  neglect  of  letters,  with  allusion  to  his  own 
case.  The  poem  is  dedicated  to  the  countess 
of  Pembroke,  Sidney's  sister. 
Rukenaw,  DAME,  the  ape's  wife  in  'Reynard 
the  Fox*  (q.v.). 

Rule  a  Wife  and  Have  a  Wife,  a  comedy  by 
J.  Fletcher  (q.v.),  produced  in  1624. 

Margarita,  a  rich  heiress  of  Seville,  desires 
to  marry,  but  only  to  obtain  liberty  for  her 
amorous  proclivities;  she  must  therefore 
marry  a  fool.  Altea,  her  companion,  plots  to 
win  her  for  her  brother  Leon,  who  assumes 
a  character  of  utter  simplicity,  promises  sub- 
servience, and  is  accepted  by  Margarita. 
After  the  marriage,  Margarita  prepares^  to 
receive  her  admirers ;  Leon  now  reveals  him- 
self in  his  true  colours,  and  asserts  his 
authority  over  his  wife  in  presence  of  her 
guests,  notably  the  Duke  of  Medina.  The 
duke  and  Margarita  attempt  various  strata- 
gems, but  Leon  defeats  them,  and  Margarita 
is  finally  won  over  to  his  side,  and  joins  him 
in  fooling  the  duke,  who  at  last  is  reconciled 
to  Leon. 

In  the  under-plot,  Estefania,  Margarita  s 
servant,  beguiles  the  conceited  copper- 
captain,  Michael  Perez,  into  marrying  her  by 
posing  as  the  owner  of  the  absent  Margarita's 
house.  On  Margarita's  return,  Estefania 
pretends  that  Margarita  wants  to  borrow  the 
house  in  order  to  play  the  same  trick  that  she 
has  played  on  Perez.  When,  her  deceit^  is 
finally  discovered,  she  braves  it  out,  and  wins 
Perez's  forgiveness  by  cheating  the  vile 
Cacafogo  out  of  a  thousand  ducats. 

Rule,  Britannia'  for  the  words  see  Thomson 
(James,  1700-48);  the  air  was  composed 
by  Thomas  Augustine  Arne  (1710-78)  for 
Thomson  and  Mallet's  mask,  'Alfred'. 

Rules,  see  King's  Bench  Prison.  There  were 
Rules  also  outside  the  Fleet  prison. 

Rumpelstiltzkin,  the  subject  of  one  of 
Grimm's  fairy  tales,  a  little  manikin  who 
taught  the  miller's  daughter  how  to  spin 
straw  into  gold,  so  that  she  became  the  king's 
wife.  She  was  required  to  guess  the  goblin's 
name,  and  overheard  him  say  it.  When  he 
found  that  she  had  discovered  it,  in  a  fury 
he  stamped  his  foot  into  the  ground  up  to  his 
waist,  and  then  tore  himself  in  two. 

Rum  wold,  ST.  (c.  650),  the  son  of  one  of 
the  kings  of  Northurnbria  (perhaps  Alchfrid, 
son  of  Oswy),  honoured  as  a  saint  on  account 
of  the  following  prodigy.  It  is  related  that 
immediately  after  his  baptism  in  infancy  he 
began  to  speak  and  professed  the  Christian 


RURITANIA 

faith  by  a  recital  of  the  creed.  He  is  com- 
memorated on  28  August. 
Rune,  a  letter  or  character  of  the  earliest 
Teutonic  alphabet,  which  was  most  ex- 
tensively used  (in  various  forms)  by  the 
Scandinavians  and  Anglo-Saxons  (cf.  the 
story  by  M.  R.  James,  'The  Passing  of  the 
Runes').  Also  a  similar  character  or  mark 
having  magical  or  mysterious  powers  attri- 
buted to  it.  The  earliest  runic  alphabet  dates 
from  at  least  the  and  or  3rd  cent.,  and  was 
formed  by  modifying  the  letters  of  the  Roman 
or  Greek  alphabet  so  as  to  facilitate  cutting 
them  upon  wood  or  stone.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  a  Finnish  poem  or  division  of  a 
poem,  especially  to  one  of  the  separate  songs 
of  the  'Kalevala'  (q.v.).  The  word  runic  is 
used  of  such  poetry  as  might  be  written  in 
runes;  belonging  to  the  people  or  the  age 
which  made  use  of  runes;  also  of  ancient 
Scottish  poetry.  Also  of  ornament  of  the 
interlacing  type,  characteristic  of  rune- 
bearing  monuments.  [OED,] 
Rumaymede,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Thames  in  Surrey,  where  on  15  June  1215, 
the  barons  forced  John  to  confirm  Magna 
Carta  (q.v.). 

Rupert  of  debate,  THE,  Edward  Stanley, 
fourteenth  earl  of  Derby  (1799-1869),  states- 
man and  brilliant  parliamentary  speaker,  so 
named  by  Lord  Lytton  in  the  'New  Timon% 
in  allusion  to  Prince  Rupert,  the  celebrated 
cavalry  leader  in  the  Civil  War.  In  Mony- 
penny  and  Buckle's  Life  of  Lord  Beacons- 
field  (ii.  237)  the  nickname  is  mentioned  ^ as 
having  been  given  by  Disraeli  in  1844  with 
these  words,  £in  his  charge  he  is  resistless, 
but  when  he  returns  from  the  pursuit  he 
always  finds  his  camp  in  the  possession  of  the 
enemy'. 

Rupert's  drops,  PRINCE,  pear-shaped 
pieces  of  glass,  made  by  dropping  molten 
glass  into  water,  which  burst  into  fragments 
if  the  slender  tail  is  broken.  They  were 
introduced  into  England  from  Germany  by 
Prince  Rupert. 

Rupert  of  Hentzau,  a  novel  by  Anthony 
Hope,  a  sequel  to  his ' The  Prisoner  of  Zenda' 
(q.v.). 

Rural  Rides,  by  Cobbett  (q.v.),  collected  in 
1830,  descriptive  of  various  parts  of  England, 
with  agricultural  and  political  comments.  A 
committee  in  1821  had  proposed  certain 
remedies  for  the  agricultural  distress  that 
followed  the  war.  Cobbett  disapproved  of 
these  and  'made  up  his  mind  to  see  for  him- 
self, and  to  enforce  by  actual  observation  of 
rural  conditions,  the  statements  he  had  made 
in  answer  to  the  arguments  of  the  landlords 
before  the  Agricultural  Committee*.  There 
is  a  new  edition  by  Pitt  Cobbett  (2  vols., 
1908). 

Ruritania,  an  imaginary  kingdom  in  central 
Europe,  the  scene  of  Anthony  Hope's 
'Prisoner  of  Zenda*  (q.v.)  and  its  sequel. 


[68*] 


RUSH 

'Rupert  of  Hentzau*.  The  name  connotes 
more  generally  make-believe  romance,  chi- 
valry, intrigue,  at  a  royal  court  in  a  modern 
European  setting. 

Rush,  FRIAR,  see  Friar  Rush. 

RUSKIN,  JOHN  (1819-1900),  the  son  of 
John  James  Ruskin,  a  partner  in  a  wine 
business,  who  while  sending  his  son  to  no 
school  gave  him  plentiful  opportunities  of 
early  travel.  John  Ruskin  went  to  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  in  1836,  won  the  Newdi- 
gate  prize  in  1839,  and  in  1843  published 
anonymously  the  first  volume  of  the  famous 
'Modern  Painters'  (q.v.),  of  which  five 
volumes  in  all  were  issued  over  a  period 
of  seventeen  years  (his  name  first  appeared  on 
the  title-page  of  the  edition  of  1851).  His 
first  published  writings,  however,  were 
articles  in  Loudon's  'Magazine  of  Natural 
History*  (1834)  and  verses  contributed  to 
'Friendship's  Offering'.  The  early  prose 
pieces  were  reprinted  in  1892  under  the 
title  'The  Poetry  of  Architecture',  and  em- 
body ^  principles  subsequently  developed  in 
Ruskin's  later  works.  He  made  the  acquain- 
tance of  Turner  in  1840  and  of  Millais  in 
1851.  In  1849  he  published  his  'Seven 
Lamps  of  Architecture'  (q.v.),  and  'Stones  of 
Venice'(q.v.)  in  1 851-3.  As  'Modern  Painters' 
was  begun  in  defence  of  Turner,  so  in  1851  he 
wrote^  letters  to  'The  Times'  and  pamphlets 
conscientiously  defending  the  Pre-Raphaelites 
(q.v.).  From  1855  to  1859  he  issued  annual 
'Notes  on  the  Royal  Academy',  and  treatises 
on  drawing  and  perspective.  His  lectures  'On 
Architecture  and  Painting'  were  delivered  at 
Edinburgh  in  1853,  those  on  "The  Political 
Economy  of  Art*  at  Manchester  in  1857.  His 
'Two  Paths',  lectures  on  the  part  that  organic 
nature  should  play  as  a  guide  to  art,  appeared 
in  1859.  His  mind  was  now  turning  to 
economics,  and  some  essays  which  he  pub- 
lished on  this  subject  in  the  'Cornhill  Maga- 
zine* in  1860  and  in  'Eraser's  Magazine*  in 
1862-3  aroused  strong  opposition  by  their 
heterodoxy.  They  were  subsequently  re- 
published  as  'Unto  this  Last'  (q.v.,  1862)  and 
'Munera  Pulveris*  (q.v.,  1872).  These  and 
other  treatises  and  pamphlets  advocated  a 
system  of  national  education,  the  organiza- 
tion of  labour,  and  other  social  reforms.  He 
attacked  the  policy  of  non-interference  by  the 
State,  and  the  validity  of  a  science  of  political 
economy  based  on  the  conception  of  the 
'economic  man*,  actuated  by  no  motive  other 
than  profit.  Wealth,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  term,  he  never  ceased  to  insist,  is  not  the 
only  thing  worth  having.  His  interest  in 
social  reform  is  again  shown  in  his  most 
popular  work  'Sesame  and  Lilies*  (q.v.,  1865), 
and  in  'The  Crown  of  Wild  Olive'  (q.v.,  1866). 
'The  Ethics  of  the  Dust*  (elementary  lectures 
on  crystallography)  appeared  in  1866,  and 
further  letters  on  social  subjects  in  'Time  and 
Tide,  by  Weare  and  Tyne*  (q.v.)  in  1867.  In 
1871  he  settled  at  Coniston,  and  in  that  year 
began  his  monthly  letters  in  'Fors  Clavigera* 


RUSSELL 

(q.v.),  'to  the  workmen  and  labourers  of 
Great  Britain*.  In  the  same  year  he  founded 
the  guild  of  St.  George  on  the  principles  that 
'food  can  only  be  got  out  of  the  ground  and 
happiness  out  of  honesty*,  and  that  'the 
highest  wisdom  and  the  highest  treasure  need 
not  be  costly  or  exclusive*.  The  members  of 
the  guild  were  to  give  a  tithe  of  their  fortunes 
to  philanthropic  purposes,  and  to  these 
Ruskin  contributed  generously  from  his  own 
purse.  He  also  engaged  in  several  industrial 
experiments,  including  the  revival  of  the 
hand-made  linen  industry  in  Langdale.  He 
was  Slade  professor  of  art  at  Oxford  in 
1870-9  and  1883-4,  and  published  eight 
volumes  of  lectures.  His  'Praeterita*  (q.v.), 
an  autobiography  which  was  never  completed, 
was  published  at  intervals  during  1885-9. 
Ruskin  was  buried  at  Coniston.  He  inherited 
from  his  father  a  large  fortune,  all  of  which 
was  dispersed,  chiefly  on  philanthropic  ob- 
ects,  before  his  death.  There  is  a  life  of 
Ruskin  by  Alice  Meynell  in  the  'Modern 
English  Writers*  series,  on  which  the  notices 
herein  of  his  separate  works  are  in  part  based. 

RUSSELL,  GEORGE  WILLIAM  (1867- 
),  an  Irish  poet  and  artist,  widely  known 
under  his  pseudonym  'A.  E.'.  He  was  educated 
at  Rathmines  School  and  about  1899  was 
appointed  organizer  to  Sir  Horace  Plunkett's 
'Agricultural  Association*.  His  poems,  the 
work  of  a  mystic,  are  'the  most  delicate  and 
subtle  that  any  Irishman  of  our  time  has 
written*  (W.  B.  Yeats).  The  production  of 
his  drama  'Deirdre'  by  an  amateur  company 
in  1902  was  one  of  the  early  steps  towards  the 
formation  of  the  Irish  National  Theatre. 
Russell  was  editor  of  'The  Irish  Statesman* 
from  1923  to  1930.  His  other  works  include: 
'The  Divine  Vision'  (1904),  'New  Poems* 
(1904),  'By  Still  Waters'  (1906),  'The  Hero  in 
Man'  (1909),  'The  Renewal  of  Youth*  (1911), 
'Gods  of  War*  (1915),  'Imaginations  and 
Reveries*  (1915),  'The  Candle  of  Vision* 
(1919),  'The  Interpreters*  (1922),  'Mid- 
summer Eve*  (1928),  'Enchantment,  and 
other  poems*  (1930). 

RUSSELL,  LORD  JOHN,  first  Earl 
Russell  (1792-1878),  third  son  of  the  sixth 
duke  of  Bedford,  was  educated  at  Westmin- 
ster and  Edinburgh  University.  He  entered 
parliament  in  1813,  and  was  a  strenuous 
advocate  of  parliamentary  reform  until  the 
adoption  in  1832  of  the  Reform  Bill  intro- 
duced by  him.  He  supported  the  repeal  of 
the  Corn  Laws  by  Peel  in  1845  and  was  prime 
minister  1846-52.  He  was  foreign  secretary 
in  Aberdeen's  ministry  in  1852-3,  and  again 
under  Palmerston,  1859-65,  and^  in  that 
capacity  advocated  'Italy  for  the  Italians*.  On 
the  death  of  Palmerston,  Russell  once  more 
became  prime  minister,  1865-6.  He  pub- 
lished a  'Life  of  William,  Lord  Russell* 
(1819),  'Memoirs  of  Affairs  of  Europe* 
(1824-9),  'Memoirs  of  Thomas  Moore* 
(1853-6),  'Life  and  Times  of  Charles  James 
Fox*  (1859-60),  and  other  works.  He  was  a 


[683] 


RUSSELL 

very  small  and  somewhat  quaint  figure, 
which  made  him  a  godsend  to  the  cartoonists 
of  'Punch'. 

RUSSELL,  WILLIAM  CLARK  (1844- 
1911),  was  in  the  British  merchant  service 
from  1858  to  1866.  He  wrote  some  sixty 
tales  of  nautical  adventure,  of  which  the 
chief  are  'John  Holdsworth,  Chief  Mate1 
(1875)  and  'The  Wreck  of  the  Grosvenor' 
(1877).  Some  of  his  contributions  to  the 
'Daily  Telegraph'  on  sea  topics  were  re- 
published  in  'My  Watch  Below'  (1882)  and 
'Round  the  Galley  Fire'  (1883).  His  writings 
led  to  improved  conditions  in  the  merchant 
service.  Russell  also  wrote  lives  of  Dampier 
(1889),  Nelson  (1890),  and  Collingwood 
(1891). 

RUSSELL,  SIR  WILLIAM  HOWARD 
(1820-1907),  the  distinguished  war  corre- 
spondent, served  in  that  capacity  in  the  Cri- 
mea (where  he  applied  the  famous  phrase  ethe 
thin  red  line"  to  the  British  Infantry  at 
Balaclava,  called  attention  to  the  sufferings  of 
the  troops,  and  inspired  the  work  of  Florence 
Nightingale);  in  the  Indian  Mutiny,  1858; 
in  the  American  Civil  War,  1861-2;  at  the 
battle  of  Koniggratz  in  1866;  in  the  Franco- 
German  War  of  1870;  and  in  the  Zulu  War 
of  1879.  Russell  also  published  accounts  of 
his  travels  in  Canada  (1863-5)  and  the 
United  States  (1882). 

Russell,  LADY,  a  character  in  J.  Austen's 
'Persuasion'  (q.v.). 

Russell  Square,  London,  was  built  in  the 
early  iQth  cent,  on  land  of  the  dukes  of  Bed- 
ford. It  figures  as  the  residence  of  wealthy 
citizens  in  the  novels  of  Thackeray,  e.g.  of  the 
Osbornes  in  'Vanity  Fair'  (q.v.). 

Rustem  or  RUSTUM,  the  principal  figure  in 
the  'Shahnameh'  of  Firdusi  (q.v.)>  is  the 
great  Persian  national  hero,  the  son  of  Zal. 
He  is  represented  as  living  during  several 
centuries,  a  constant  conqueror  until  killed  by 
treachery  in  the  reign  of  Gushtasp.  A  cele- 
brated incident  is  his  fight  with  Isfendiyar 
(q.v.),  the  son  of  Gushtasp,  which  lasts  for 
two  days,  and  ends  in  the  death  of  Isfendiyar. 
He  also  fights  with  and  defeats  Afrasiab,  the 
Turanian  hero,  overcomes  dragons  and 
demons,  and  unwittingly  fights  with.  and  kills 
his  son  Sohrab.  This  last  episode  is  the  sub- 
ject of  M.  Arnold's  cSohrab  and  Rustum' 


Ruth,  the  principal  character  of  the  Book 
of  Ruth  of  the  O.T.  Ruth  was  a  Moabitess, 
the  widowed  daughter-in-law  of  Naomi  of 
Bethlehem,  who  gleaned  in  the  fields  of  the 
wealthy  Boaz,  and  became  his  wife  and  the 
ancestress  of  King  David. 

Ruth,  a  novel  by  Mrs.  Gaskell  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1853. 

Ruth  Hilton,  an  orphan  and  a  dress- 
maker's assistant,  is  seduced  and  heartlessly 
deserted  by  Henry  Bellingham.  In  her 
distress  she  is  taken  by  Thurstan  Benson,  a 


RYMENHILD 

dissenting  minister,  and  his  sister,  into  their 
home.  The  story  sets  forth  the  redemption 
of  Ruth  by  her  love  for  her  child,  and  the 
gradual  elevation  of  her  character,  until  she 
succumbs  to  a  fever  caught  while  nursing  her 
worthless  lover.  Their  story  is  complicated 
by  the  treatment  of  another  ethical  problem. 
Benson,  at  his  sister's  instance,  and  in  order 
to  lighten  Ruth's  burden,  advises  her  to  pass 
as  a  widow,  and  in  that  character  obtains  for 
her  employment  as  a  governess  in  the  house 
of  the  pharisaical  and  tyrannical  Mr.  Brad- 
shaw.  The  deceit  brings  grievous  punish- 
ment. For  when  Bradshaw  learns  Ruth's 
past  history  he  brutally  dismisses  her,  pub- 
lishes the  facts  abroad,  and  renders  miserable 
the  lives  of  Ruth  and  her  son. 

RUTHERFORD,  MARK,  see  White 
(W.  H.}. 

Ruthweli  Cross,  a  stone  monument  in 
Dumfriesshire,  dating  perhaps  from  the  8th 
cent.,  on  which  are  inscribed,  in  runes,  ex- 
tracts from  'The  Dream  of  the  Rood*  (q.v.). 
It  was  thrown  down  by  the  Presbyterians  in 
1642  and  the  inscriptions  partly  effaced.  It 
is  now  safely  housed  in  the  parish  church  of 
Dalton,  near  Ecclefechan,  Dumfriesshire. 

Ruy  Diaz,  see  Cid. 

RUY  LOPEZ  DE  SEGURA,  a  Spanish 
writer  on  chess  (1561),  at  the  time  when  the 
game  took  its  final  development  by  the 
introduction  of  castling. 

Rye  House  Plot,  THE,  a  conspiracy  in  1683 
among  some  of  the  more  violent  followers 
of  Shaftesbury  to  seize  Charles  II  and  his 
brother  on  their  return  from  Newmarket  at 
the  Rye  House  in  Hertfordshire.  The  plot 
failed,  but  its  discovery  brought  to  light  a 
combination  of  parliamentary  Whigs,  who, 
while  perhaps  intending  no  personal  vio- 
lence against  the  king,  contemplated  com- 
pelling him  to  summon  a  parliament.  Lord 
William  Russell  and  Algernon  Sidney  were 
implicated  in  this,  and  were  executed. 

Ryence,  RIENCE,  or  RYONS,  KING,  in 
Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur',  a  king  of  north 
Wales,  who  sent  a  message  to  King  Arthur 
that  he  had  overcome  eleven  kings  and 
trimmed  his  mantle  with  their  beards,  and 
that  he  lacked  one  beard  and  demanded  that 
of  King  Arthur;  to  which  Arthur  made  a 
suitable  reply.  Ryence  was  overcome  and 
taken  prisoner  by  Balin  and  Balan.  The  story- 
is  the  subject  of  a  ballad  in  Percy's  'Reliques', 
which  was  sung  before  Queen  Elizabeth  at 
the  great  entertainment  at  Kenilworth  in 
1575.  Ryence  is  perhaps  to  be  identified  with 
Urien,  a  British  god  of  the  underworld  (Rhys, 
'Arthurian  Legend*). 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (x.  3)  has  a  story 
of  the  giant  Ritho,  upon  Mount  Aravius,  who 
challenged  Arthur  to  fight,  and  demanded 
the  king's  beard  to  trim  his  mantle. 

Rymenhild,  see  King  Horn. 


RYMER 

RYMER,  THOMAS  (1641-1713),  educated 
at  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  is 
chiefly  remembered  for  his  valuable  collec- 
tion of  historical  records,  'Foedera'  (q.v., 
1704-35)-  He  wrote  a  play  in  rhymed  verse, 
'Edgar,  or  the  English  Monarch*  (1678),  but 
is  better  known  for  his  'Tragedies  of  the  last 
age  considered'  (1678),  in  which  he  discussed 
some  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  plays,  and 
for  his  'Short  View  of  Tragedy'  (1692),  in 
which  he  condemned  'Othello'. 


SABRINA 

Ryswick,  THE  TREATY  OF,  brought  to  an  end 
in  1697  the  war  between  the  Grand  Alliance 
(England,  Holland,  Austria,  and  Spain)  and 
France,  which  had  lasted  since  1689.  Louis 
XIV  abandoned  the  Stuart  cause,  recognized 
William  III  as  king  of  England,  and  restored 
his  conquests,  except  in  Alsace.  It  was  no 
more  than  a  truce,  for  the  question  of  the 
Spanish  succession  loomed  very  near,  and 
both  sides  were  aware  of  the  danger  involved 
therein;  both  therefore  had  to  take  breath. 


S.P.C.K.,  the  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge,  was  founded  in  1698. 
One  of  its  primary  objects  was  the  setting  up 
of  charitable  schools  for  the  instruction  of 
poor  children  in  reading,  writing,  and  the 
catechism,  with  the  addition  of  arithmetic  for 
boys  and  sewing  for  girls.  The  Society  was 
also  a  publishing  agency  for  the  dissemina- 
tion of  works  of  a  Christian  character. 

S.P.E.,  the  Society  for  Pure  English  (q.v.). 

S. P. Q.R., initial  letters  ofSenatusPopulusque 
jRomanus9  'the  Senate  and  People  of  Rome*. 

SS,  COLLAR  OF,  an  ornamental  chain  con- 
sisting of  a  series  of  S's,  originally  worn  as  a 
badge  by  adherents  of  the  House  of  Lancas- 
ter. It  still  forms  part  of  the  official  dress 
of  certain  officers.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
Order  of  the  Coronation  in  Shakespeare's 
'Henry  VHP  (iv.  i).  OED.  quotes  (1407), 
*A  collar  of  gold  worked  with  the  motto 
Soveignez  ['Remember']  and  the  letter  S.* 

Sabaeans,  the  ancient  name  of  the  people  of 
Yemen,  in  south-western  Arabia;  from  L. 
Sabaei  for  Hebrew  Shaba,  used  in  Job  i.  15  of 
Arabian  marauders. 

Sabaoth,  a  Hebrew  word  meaning  'armies', 
'hosts',  left  untranslated  in  the  English  N.T. 
in  the  phrase  'the  Lord  of  Sabaoth',  which 
means  'Lord  of  Hosts*. 
Sabbath,  from  the  Hebrew  Skdbath,  to  rest; 
in  the  original  use  the  seventh  day  of  the 
week  (Saturday)  considered  as  the  day  of 
religious  rest  enjoined  on  the  Israelites  by  the 
4th  Commandment.  Since  the  Reformation 
it  is  often  applied  to  'the  Lord's  day*,  i.e.  the 
first  day  of  the  week  (Sunday),  observed  by 
Christians  in  commemoration  of  the  resur- 
rection of  Christ. 

Sabbath,  WITCHES',  a  midnight  meeting  of 
demons,  sorcerers,  and  witches,  presided 
over  by  the  Devil,  supposed  in  medieval 
times  to  have  been  held  annually  as  an  orgy 
or  festival. 

Sabbath  day's  journey,  the  distance  (2,000 
ammdth~i,i2$  yards)  which  (according ^  to 
Rabbinical  prescription  in  the  time  of  Christ) 
was  the  utmost  limit  of  permitted  travel  on 
the  gabbath, 


Sabbatical  river,  THE,  an  imaginary  river, 
celebrated  in  Jewish  legend,  which  was  said 
to  observe  the  Sabbath,  resting  (or,  according 
to  another  version,  flowing  only)  on  that  day. 

Sabbatical  Year,  the  seventh  year,  which 
according  to  Mosaic  law  was  to  be  observed 
as  a  'Sabbath'  (q.v.),  the  land  remaining  tm- 
tiiled,  and  all  debtors  and  Israelitish  slaves 
being  released. 

SabeHianism,  the  doctrine  concerning  the 
coequality  and  consubstantiality  of  the 
Trinity  held  by  the  followers  of  Sabellius,  a 
heresiarch  of  Ptolemais  who  lived  in  the  3rd 
cent.  His  chief  tenet  was  that  the  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Spirit  are  one  person,  in  three 
manifestations.  Sabellianism  came  to  be 
used  as  a  term  covering  such  of  the  Unitarian 
doctrines  as  recognize  the  divinity  of  Christ. 

Sabians,  see  Mandaeans. 

Sabines,  THE,  an  ancient  people  of  Italy, 
whose  lands  were  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Rome.  They  are  celebrated  in  legend  as 
having  taken  up  arms  against  the  Romans,  to 
avenge  the  carrying  off  of  their  women  by  the 
latter  at  a  spectacle  to  which  they  had  been 
invited.  Subsequently  they  are  said  to  have 
made  peace  and  migrated  to  Rome,  where 
they  settled  with  their  new  allies. 
Sabra,  in  Richard  Johnson's  'The  Seven 
Champions  of  Christendom'  (q.v.),  the 
daughter  of  a  king  of  Egypt,  whom  St.  George 
rescued  from  the  dragon  and  married. 

Sabreur,  LE  BEAU,  Joachim  Murat  (1767- 
1815),  the  son  of  an  inn-keeper  and  a  great 
cavalry  commander,  who  became  one  of 
Napoleon's  marshals  and  king  of  Naples, 
and  married  Napoleon's  sister,  Caroline 
Buonaparte. 

Sabrina,  a  poetic  name  for  the  river  Severn 
(see  under  Estrildis).  In  Milton's  'Comus* 
(q.v.),  which  was  presented  at  Ludlow  Castle, 
Sabrina  is  the  nymph  of  the  Severn. 

Miss  SABRINA  is  the  new  schoolmistress  in 
Gait's  'Annals  of  the  Parish*  (q.v.).  'Old 
Mr.  Hookie,  her  father,  had,  from  the  time  he 
read  his  Virgil,  maintained  a  sort  of  intro- 
mission with  the  Nine  Muses,  by  which  he 
was  led  to  baptize  her  Sabrina,  after  a  name 


[685] 


SACHARISSA 

mentioned  by  John  Milton  in  one  of  his 
works.* 

Sacharissa,  see  Waller. 

SACHS,  HANS  (1494-1576),  shoemaker  of 
Nuremberg,  and  author  of  a  vast  quantity  of 
verse,  including  meistersongs  and  some  200 
plays.  He  figures  in  Wagner's  opera  *Die 
Meistersinger  von  Niirnberg'. 

Sack,  adapted  from  the  French  vin  sec,  'dry 
wine*,  i.e.  wine  'free  from  sweetness  and 
fruity  flavour*.  This  derivation,  however,  in- 
volves some  difficulty,  for  sack  was  often 
described  as  a  sweet  wine.  'It  is  possible  that 
before  the  recorded  history  of  the  name 
begins  it  had  already  been  extended  from  the 
"dry"  wines  of  a  certain  class  to  the  whole 
class'.  [OED.]  The  word  was  used  as  a 
general  name  for  a  class  of  white  wines  im- 
ported from  Spain  and  the  Canaries.  It  is 
sometimes  coupled  with  a  name  indicating 
the  place  of  production,  e.g.  Sherry-sack, 
(or  Sherris-sack),  Canary-sack.  Sack  was  the 
favourite  drink  of  Falstaff  (Shakespeare, 
'2  Henry  IV,  iv.  iii). 

Sackerson,  a  famous  bear  kept  at  Paris 
Garden  (q.v.)  in  Shakespeare's  time.  Slender 
tells  Anne  Page  that  he  has  seen  him  loose 
twenty  times,  and  taken  him  by  the  chain 
('Merry  Wives',  I.  i). 

SACKVIIXE,  CHARLES,  Lord  Buckhurst, 
and  later  sixth  earl  of  Dorset  (1638-1706),  a 
man  dissipated  in  his  youth  but  successful  in 
public  affairs  in  his  maturity,  was  a  friend  and 
patron  of  poets,  and  was  himself  eulogized 
as  a  poet  by  Dryden  and  Prior.  His  poems 
include  some  pleasant  songs  (the  best  known 
is  the  ballad  'To  all  you  Ladies  now  at  Land') 
and  mordant  satires.  They  appeared  with 
Sedley's  (q.v.)  in  1701. 

SACKVILLE,  THOMAS,  first  earl  of  Dor- 
set and  Baron  Buckhurst  (1536-1608),  was 
son  of  Sir  Richard  Sackviile.  He  was  perhaps 
educated  at  Hart  Hall,  Oxford,  and  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  a  barrister  of 
the  Inner  Temple.  He  entered  parliament  in 
zSS^j  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1567,  and 
held  a  number  of  high  official  positions,  in- 
cluding those  of  lord  treasurer  and  chancellor 
of  Oxford  University.  He  wrote  the  'Induc- 
tion' and  the  'Complaint  of  Buckingham'  for 
the  'Mirror  for  Magistrates*  (q.v.),  and  col- 
laborated (probably  writing  only  the  last  two 
acts)  with  Thomas  Norton  in  the  'Tragedy  of 
Gorboduc'  (q.v.).  His  poetical  works  were 
collected  in  1859. 

Sacred  Band,  THE,  a  force  of  300  young 
Theban  nobles,  formed  to  fight  against 
Sparta  in  the  wars  that  followed  the  rising  of 
379  B.C.  It  was  specially  prominent  at  the 
battle  of  Leuctra,  371  B.C. 

Sacred  College,  the  college  of  Cardinals, 
who  form  the  pope's  council,  and  elect  to  the 
papacy  from  their  own  number. 

Sacred  Nine,  THE,  the  Muses  (q.v.). 


SADLER'S  WELLS 

Sacred  Wars,  THE,  in  Greek  history,  two 
wars  undertaken  by  the  Ampnictyonic 
Council  (q.v.)  against  Phocis,  in  punishment 
for  alleged  sacrilege  (595  and  355-346  B.C.). 
On  the  first  occasion  the  Phocians  had 
molested  pilgrims  on  the  way  to  the  oracle  of 
Delphi ;  on  the  second,  they  had  seized  Delphi 
itself  with  its  treasures. 
Sacripant,  in  the  'Orlando  Innamorato'  and 
the  'Orlando  Furioso'  (qq.v.),  the  king  of 
Circassia  and  a  lover  of  Angelica.  He  catches 
Rinaldo's  horse,  Baiardo,  and  rides  away  on 
it,  and  Rinaldo  calls  him  a  horse-thief.  In 
Tasso's  'Secchia  Rapita'  ('The  Rape  of  the 
Bucket'),  he  is  a  hectoring  braggart.  SACRA- 
PANT  figures  as  a  magician  in  Peele's  'The 
Old  Wives'  Tale'  (q.v.).  In  modern  French 
sacripant  is  a  rascal  or  blackguard. 
Sad  Shepherd,  The,  or,  A  Tale  of  Robin 
Hood,  the  last  and  unfinished  play  of  Jonson 
(q.v.),  a  pastoral  drama,  first  published  in  the 
folio  of  1 641. 

Robin  Hood  invites  the  shepherds  and 
shepherdesses  of  the  Vale  of  Belvoir  to  a  feast 
in  the  forest  of  Sherwood,  but  the  feast  is 
marred  by  the  arts  of  the  witch  Maudlin. 
.SEglamour,  the  Sad  Shepherd,  relates  the  loss 
of  his  beloved  Earine,  whom  he  believes 
drowned  in  the  Trent.  In  reality  Maudlin 
has  stripped  her  of  her  garments  to  adorn  her 
daughter,  and  shut  her  up  in  a  tree  as  a  prey 
for  her  son,  the  uncouth  swineherd  Lorel. 
The  witch  assumes  the  form  of  Maid  Marian, 
sends  away  the  venison  prepared  for  the 
feast,  abuses  Robin  Hood,  and  throws  the 
guests  into  confusion.  Lorel  tries  to  win 
Earine  but  fails.  The  wiles  of  Maudlin  are 
detected,  and  the  huntsmen  pursue  her. 

Saddletree,  BARTOLINE,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'The  Heart  of  Midlothian'  (q.v.). 

Sadducees,  one  of  the  three  sects  (the  others 
being  the  Pharisees  and  the  Essenes,  qq.v.) 
into  which  the  Jews  were  divided  in  the  time 
of  Christ.  According  to  the  N.T.  and 
Josephus,  they  denied  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  the  existence  of  angels,  and  the  obliga- 
tion of  the  traditional  unwritten  law.  The 
name  is  apparently  derived  from  Zadok,  the 
high-priest  of  David's  time. 

SADE,  DONATIEN  ALPHONSE,  Count 
(generally  known  as  Marquis)  de  (1740— 
1814),  a  French  author  whose  licentious 
writings  have  given  his  name  to  SADISM,  a 
form  of  sexual  perversion  marked  by  a  love 
of  cruelty. 

SADI,  a  celebrated  Persian  poet,  born  at 
Shiraz,  said  to  have  lived  c.  1200,  whose  real 
name  was  Mu§liliu-'d-Din.  He  was  a  devout 
Moslem  and  is  honoured  as  a  saint.  His 
principal  works  were  the  collections  of  verse 
known  as  the  Gulistan  or  'Rose-Garden',  and 
the  Bustan  or  'Tree-Garden*. 

Sadler's  Wells,  in  north  London,  originally 
a  hydropathic  establishment  at  a  mineral 
spring,  developed  by  a  Mr.  Sadler  in  1683. 


[686] 


SJEHRIMNIR 

A  place  of  entertainment  was  added,  and  in 
1765  a  theatre  was  opened.  Here  the  panto- 
mimist,  Joseph  Grimaldi  (q.v.),  gave  his 
earliest  performances.  From  1844  to  1859  it 
was  under  the  management  of  Mrs.  Warner 
and  Mrs.  Phelps,  whose  Shakespeare  produc- 
tions are  historic.  The  theatre  was  rebuilt,  to 
a  large  extent  by  means  of  a  grant  from  the 
Carnegie  Trust,  and  reopened  in  1931,  to  be 
for  North  London  what  the  'Old  Vic*  (q.v.) 
is  for  South  London — a  theatre  where  good 
plays  can  be  seen  at  'popular  prices'. 

Saehrimnir,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  boar  that  is  eaten  every  night  by  the  gods 
in  Valhalla  and  is  every  night  miraculously 
renewed. 

Saemund  (nth  cent.),  an  Icelandic  scholar, 
erroneously  supposed  at  one  time  to  be  the 
compiler  of  the  'Elder*  or  'Poetic  Edda'  (see 
Edda). 

Saga,  an  old  Norse  word  meaning  'story', 
applied  to  the  narrative  compositions  in  prose 
that  were  written  in  Iceland  or  Norway 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  In  English  use  it  is 
often  applied  specially  to  those  which  embody 
the  traditional  history  of  the  Icelandic 
families  or  of  the  kings  of  Norway.  The 
Icelandic  sagas  are  highly  national  and  in- 
sular, in  respect  of  the  physical  character  of 
the  country,  the  types  of  men  and  women,  the 
conditions  of  life,  law,  and  morality,  which 
they  depict.  They  divide  themselves  into 
two  groups,  the  more  historical,  of  which 
the  'Heimskringla'  (q.v.)  of  Snorri  and  the 
*Sturlunga  Saga*  of  Sturla  (q.v.)  are  the 
principal  examples;  and  the  less  historical, 
of  which  the  chief  are:  the  *Laxdaela',  the 
story  of  the  fascinating  Gudrun  and  her 
lovers  (of  which  we  have  a  version  in  W. 
Morris's  'Earthly  Paradise',  q.v.);  the 
'Eyrbyggya',  legends,  without  central  plot, 
relating  to  an  entire  district;  the  *Egla',  deal- 
ing with  the  exploits  (at  Brunanburh  among 
other  places)  of  Egil,  son  of  Skallagrim,  the 
friend  of  JEthelstan  and  enemy  of  Eric 
Bloodaxe;  the  *Njala',  the  story  of  the 
calamities  brought  about  by  the  wickedness 
of  Hallgerd,  wife  of  Gunnar,  culminating  in 
the  burning  of  Njal,  the  lawyer,  and  most  of 
his  family;  and  the  'Grettla',  or  the  story 
of  Grettir  the  Strong,  a  generous  scapegrace, 
marred  by  a  quarrelsome  and  unamiable  tem- 
per, whose  slayings  and  blood-feuds  make 
him  an  outcast.  He  overcomes  the  ghost  of 
the  shepherd  Glam,  but  as  a  result  of  the 
ghost's  curse  becomes  haunted  and  unlucky, 
lives  for  many  years  a  hunted  life  in  remote 
corners  of  the  island,  still  known  as  *Grettir's 
lairs',  and  finally  dies  a  miserable  death.  The 
'Grettla'  saga  has  been  translated  by  William 
Morris  and  Eirikr  Magnusson,  the  'Njala'  by 
Sir  W.  E.  Dasent. 

Sagebrush  State,  Nevada,  see  United 
States. 

Sagittarius,  the  zodiacal  constellation  of 
the  Archer*  according  to  myth,  the  centaur 


ST.  JAMES'S  PALACE 
Cheiron  (q.v.) ;  the  ninth  sign  of  the  zodiac, 
which  the  sun  enters  about  22  November. 

Sagittary,  the  centaur  who,  according  to 
medieval  romance,  fought  in  the  Trojan  army 
againstthe  Greeks.  In  Shakespeare's 'Othello', 
I.  i,  'Lead  to  the  Sagittary  the  raised  search', 
^  name  is  probably  that  of  an  inn.  (Cf. 
aur'  as  the  name  of  an  imaginary  inn 
Siesus  in  'The  Comedy  of  Errors',  i.  ii). 


Sailor  William,  William  IV,  who  served 
in  the  navy  from  1779  (when  he  was  14)  to 
1790- 

Saint,  for  names  with  this  prefix  see,  with 
the  following  exceptions,  the  names  them- 
selves. 

St.  Aldegonde,  LORD,  a  character  in  Dis- 
raeli's 'Lothair'  (q.v.). 

St.  Glair,  MRS,,  a  character  in  Miss  Ferrier's 
'The  Inheritance'  (q.v.),  of  which  her  sup- 
posed daughter,  Gertrude,  is  the  heroine. 

Saint-Cyr,  a  village  near  Versailles,  France, 
where  Louis  XIV,  at  the  instigation  of 
Mme  de  Maintenon,  founded  a  convent 
school  for  young  ladies  of  the  French  nobility. 
This  in  1806  was  transformed  into  a  military 
school,  the  French  Sandhurst. 

St.  Dunstan's,  an  institution  for  the  care  of 
British  soldiers,  sailors,  and  airmen  blinded 
in  the  War  (or  subsequent  military  opera- 
tions), founded  in  1915  by  Sir  Arthur  Pearson 
(himself  blind).  It  had  its  commencement  in 
St.  Dunstan's  Lodge,  a  house  in  Regent's 
Park,  lent  for  the  period  of  the  War  by  the 
American  financier,  Otto  Kahn. 

SAINT-J£VREMOND,  CHARLES  DE 
MARGUETEL  DE  SAINT-DENIS  DE 
(1610-1703),  a  French  author,  who  was 
exiled  from  his  own  country  for  political 
reasons,  and  came  to  England,  where  he 
spent  the  years  1662—5  and  from  1670  to  his 
death.  He  was  on  intimate  terms  with  the 
wits  and  courtiers  of  the  day,  and  wrote 
critical  essays  on  a  variety  of  literary  sub- 
jects, including  one  on  English  comedy 
(1685).  Some  of  these  were  translated  into 
English  (with  a  character  of  St.-£vremond  by 
Dryden)  in  1692.  His  Works,  with  a  Life 
by  Des  Maizeaux,  appeared  in  an  English 
translation  in  1714. 

Saint-  Germain-  en-Laye,  a  town  on  the 
Seine,  a  few  miles  north-west  of  Paris,  at  the 
chateau  of  which  James  II  held  his  court  after 
his  deposition. 

St.  Irvyne,  or  the  Rosicrudan,  see  Shelley 
(P.B.). 

St.  James's  Palace  was  builtby  Henry  VIII 
on  the  site  of  an  ancient  hospital  of  St. 
James  for  leprous  women.  The  lepers  were 
pensioned  off,  and  the  site  surrendered  to 
Henry  VIII,  who  built  there  'a  goodly  manor*. 
Here  slept  Charles  I  on  the  night  before  his 
execution.  After  Stuart  times  it  superseded 


ST.  JAMES'S  PARK 

Whitehall  as  the  principal  royal  residence  in 
London,  and  gave  the  official  title  to  the 
'Court  of  St.  James*. 

St.  James's  Park  is  mentioned  by  Stow  as 
serving  the  two  palaces  of  St.  James's  and 
Whitehall.  From  fields  it  was  developed  by 
Charles  II  in  the  fashion  of  the  Dutch  gar- 
dens he  had  seen  in  exile,  but  was  remodelled 
on  its  present  lines  by  John  Nash  for 
George  IV.  It  is  much  referred  to  by  Pepys, 
Evelyn,  and  Goldsmith.  The  piece  of  water 
in  the  Park  is  a  relic  of  the  course  of  the 
Tyburn  stream  whichflowed  into  the  Thames 
at  Westminster. 

St.  James's  Square  was  constructed  soon 
after  the  restoration  of  Charles  II  on  fields 
that  were  the  leasehold  property  of  the  earl  of 
St.  Albans.  It  at  once  became  a  fashionable 
centre.  It  was  at  first  called  the  Piazza,  and 
had  a  large  pond  in  the  centre  (Loftie). 

ST.  JOHN,  HENRY,  first  Viscount  Baling- 
broke,  see  Bolingbroke  ( Vise.)* 

St.  Leger,  THE,  an  annual  horse-race  for 
three-year-old  colts  and  fillies,  held  in  Sep- 
tember at  Doncaster,  instituted  by  Lt.-Gen. 
St.  Leger  in  1776. 

St.  Martin's-le-Grand,  a  street  in  the  east 
central  district  of  London,  where  the  General 
Post  Office  now  stands.  It  formerly  enjoyed 
rights  of  sanctuary,  originating  from  the  ex- 
clusive jurisdiction  granted  by  charter  of 
William  I  to  the  dean  and  secular  canons  of 
St.  Martin  within  the  precincts  of  their  college, 
one  of  the  oldest  monasteries  in  the  kingdom. 
The  premises  were  demolished  in  the  i6th 
cent.,  but  the  sanctuary  survived  until  the 
reign  of  James  I.  The  bell  of  St.  Martin's, 
by  ordinance  of  Edward  I,  tolled  the  curfew 
in  London.  The  parish  was  formerly  noted 
as  the  resort  of  dealers  in  imitation  jewellery. 

St.  Ronan's  Well,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott 
(q.v.),  published  in  1824. 

In  this  work  the  author  for  once  chose  a 
scene  of  contemporary  life,  in  the  Scottish  spa 
of  St.  Ronan's  Well,  whose  idle  fashionable 
society  is  satirically  described :  Lady  Penelope 
Penfeather,  Sir  Bingo  Binks,  Capt.  Hector 
Mac  Turk,  and  so  on.  Against  this  back- 
ground we  have  the  story  of  two  half-brothers, 
sons  of  the  late  earl  of  Etherington,  who 
had  married,  first  secretly  abroad,  and  then 
publicly  at  home.  The  younger  son  bears  the 
title,  though  not  entitled  to  it,  and  is  at  bitter 
enmity  with  his  elder  half-brother,  Francis 
Tyrrel.  For  he  has  basely  intervened  in  a 
love-affair  between  Francis  and  Clara  Mow- 
bray,  the  sister  of  the  laird  of  St.  Ronan's,  and 
has  actually  personated  his  brother  at  a  mid- 
night marriage  with  Clara,  so  that  Clara  finds 
herself  wedded  to  a  man  whom  she  fears  and 
detests.  (Scott  had  intended  that  Francis 
should  seduce  Clara,  but  altered  the  plot  in 
deference  to  James  Ballantyne.)  The 
brothers  make  a  compact  to  leave  Clara 
undisturbed  and  still  bearing  her  maiden 


SAINT'S  TRAGEDY 

name,  both  undertaking  never  to  return 
to  Scotland;  and  the  whole  affair  remains 
a  secret.  But  Etherington,  menaced  with 
dispossession  of  the  earldom  by  Francis, 
and  finding  that  an  unexpected  accession  of 
fortune  will  accrue  to  him  if  his  marriage 
with  Clara  is  acknowledged,  breaks  the  com- 
pact and  comes  to  St.  Ronan's  to  demand  the 
hand  of  Clara  in  more  regular  fashion.  For 
this  purpose  he  cunningly  avails  himself  of 
the  gambling  vice  of  Clara's  brother,  the 
laird,  and  puts  such  pressure  on  him  that 
Mowbray  actually  menaces  his  sister  with 
death  if  she  does  not  accept  Etherington's 
suit.  Meanwhile  Francis  has  been  active  to 
defend  Clara,  and  the  plotter  has  been 
countermined  and  is  finally  exposed  by  the 
intrigue-loving  old  nabob,  Mr.  Touchwood, 
but  too  late.  For  the  unfortunate  Clara, 
whose  mind  has  already  been  unhinged  by 
her  misfortunes,  succumbs  to  her  fresh 
terrors  before  these  can  be  dissipated. 

One  of  the  best  characters  in  the  book  is 
Meg  Dods,  the  sturdy  refractory  landlady  of 
the  old  inn  at  St.  Ronan's. 

St.  Stephen's  Chapel,  Westminster,  was 
originally  erected  by  King  Stephen,  and 
rebuilt  by  Edward  III.  In  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI  it  was  assigned  to  the  use  of 
parliament,  and  the  House  of  Commons  con- 
tinued to  sit  there  until  the  building  was 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1834. 

SAINT-PIERRE,  JACQUES  HENRI 
BERNARDIN  DE  (1737-1814),  a  French 
writer  and  follower  of  Rousseau  (q.v.), 
chiefly  known  as  the  author  of  'Paul  et 
Virginie*  (q.v.,  1787),  a  poetic  romance 
of  naive  and  virtuous  love,  which  obtained 
immense  popularity.  But  the  principal 
work  of  Bernardin  was  his  Etudes  de  la 
Nature'  (1784),  the  work  of  a  poetical  moralist 
who  seeks  to  trace  in  the  various  phenomena 
of  nature  the  hand  of  a  beneficent  Providence. 

Saint-Preux,  the  lover  of  Julie  in  the 
'Nouvelle  Heloise*  of  Rousseau  (q.v.). 

Saint-Simon,  CLAUDE  HENRI,  Comte  de 
(1760-1825),  a  distant  relation  of  the  Due  de 
Saint-Simon  (q.v.  below),  and  the  true  founder 
of  the  positivist  philosophy  subsequently  ex- 
pounded by  Auguste  Comte  (q.v.).  He  put 
forward  various  projects  for  social  and 
political  reform.  He  sought  to  promote 
international  peace  by  creating  a  sort  of 
League  of  Nations  of  Europe,  and  to  re- 
organize society  on  a  socialistic  basis  and  by 
a  better  organization  of  industry  and  labour. 

SAINT-SIMON,  LOUIS  DE  ROUVROY, 
Due  de  (1675-1755),  author  of  'M&noires* 
(twenty-one  volumes,  1829-30),  famous  for 
the  vivid  picture  they  give  of  the  courts  of 
Louis  XIV  and  the  Regent  d'Orl^ans,  and 
the  series  of  character-sketches  they  contain. 

Saint's  Everlasting  Rest,  The,  see  Baxter. 
Saint's  Tragedy,  The,  see  Kingsley  (C.). 


[688] 


SAINTE-BEUVE 

SAINTE-BEUVB,  CHARLES  AUGUS- 
TIN  (1804-69),  French  critic  and  poet,  is 
famous  chiefly  for  his  critical  writings  in 
*Le  Globe',  *Le  ConstitutionneP,  and  other 
periodicals,  which  were  known  as  'Causeries 
du  Lundi'  ('Monday  talks'),  and  extended 
from  the  'Portraits  Litte*raires'  of  1829  to  the 
*Nouveaux  lundis'  of  1863.  Sainte-Beuve 
was  the  first  great  French  critic  to  break  away 
from  the  dogmas  of  the  classical  school,  and 
did  much  to  promote  the  Romantic  move- 
ment in  France  by  the  attention  he  drew  to 
the  poetry  of  the  i6th  cent.  Besides  some 
volumes  of  poems,  Sainte-Beuve  also  pub- 
lished an  important  history  of  'Port-RoyaP 
(q.v.)  in  1837,  and  a  biography  of  Chateau- 
briand (q.v.)  in  1849. 

SAINTE-MAURE,  BENOlT  DE,  see 
Benott. 

SAINTSBURY,  GEORGE  EDWARD 
BATEMAN  (1845-1933),  educated  at  King's 
College  School,  London,  and  Merton  College, 
Oxford,  is  a  distinguished  literary  critic  and 
historian,  and  was  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
English  literature  at  Edinburgh  University, 
1895-1915.  He  is  the  author  of  a  large 
number  of  works  on  English  and  European 
literature,  including  a  'Short  History  of  Eng- 
lish Literature*  (1898),  'Elizabethan  Litera- 
ture' (1887),  'Nineteenth-Century  Literature' 
(1896),  a  'History  of  Criticism'  (1900-4),  a 
'History  of  EngHsh  Prosody'  (1906-10),  a 
'Short  History  of  French  Literature*  (1882), 
and  lives  of  Dryden,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and 
Matthew  Arnold.  He  was  general  editor  of 
'Periods  of  European  Literature'  (1897- 
1907),  to  which  he  contributed  the  sections  on 
'The  Earlier  Renaissance',  'The  Flourishing 
of  Romance',  and  'The  Later  Nineteenth 
Century*.  He  is  also  author  of  the  interesting 
and  entertaining  'Notes  on  a  Cellar  Book' 
(1920),  'A  Letter  Book*  and  'A  Scrap  Book' 
(1922),  &c. 

Sakuntala,  a  celebrated  Sanskrit  drama  by 
Kalidasa  (q.v.). 

King  Dushyanta  while  hunting  in  the 
forest  sees  the  maiden  Sakuntala  and  con- 
tracts with  her  a  summary  marriage,  giving 
her  a  royal  ring  as  pledge  when  he  leaves  her. 
Later  she  sets  forth  to  join  him,  but  loses  the 
ring  while  bathing  in  a  pool.  This  has  the 
unfortunate  effect  that  the  king  does  not 
recognize  her,  and  she  returns  to  the  forest, 
where  she  gives  birth  to  Bharata,  the  founder 
of  a  glorious  race.  Presently  a  fisherman 
catches  a  fish  which  has  swallowed  the  royal 
ring.  This  is  taken  to  the  king,  the  spell  from 
which  he  suffered  is  removed,  and  he  now 
remembers  Sakuntala,  and  goes  to  seek  her. 

The  drama  was  translated  by  Sir  W.  Jones 
(q.v.). 

Sakyamuni,  one  of  the  names  of  Gautama 
Buddha,  who  belonged  to  the  Sakhya  tribe. 

SALA,  GEORGE  AUGUSTUS  (1828-96), 
journalist,  began  his  literary  career  as  editor 
of  'Chat'  in  1848,  and  after  writing  regularly 


SALLUST 

for  'Household  Words'  (1851-6),  joined  the 
staff  of  the  'Daily  Telegraph'  in  1857.  He 
was  special  correspondent  of  the  'Telegraph* 
in  the  American  Civil  War  (1863)  and  after- 
wards in  various  countries.  He  published 
novels  and  books  of  travel. 

Saladin  (S ALA-ED-DIN  YUSUF  IBN  AYUB, 
Joseph  the  son  of  Jacob,  Honour  of  the  Faith) 
(i  137-1 193),  a  Kurd  by  birth,  became  Sultan 
of  Egypt  about  1174,  invaded  Palestine,  de- 
feated the  Christians,  and  captured  Jerusa- 
lem, He  was  attacked  by  the  Crusaders  under 
Richard  Cceur-de-Lion  and  Philip  II  of 
France  and  forced  to  conclude  a  truce.  He 
appears  to  have  been  chivalrous,  loyal,  and 
magnanimous,  no  fanatic  Moslem,  nor  a 
man  of  deep  piety.  He  figures  prominently 
in  Scott's  'The  Talisman*  (q.v.). 
Salamander,  see  Sylph. 

Salanio  and  Salarino,  characters  in  Shake- 
speare's 'The  Merchant  of  Venice'  (q.v.). 

Salathiel,  see  Croly. 

Saldar  de  Sancorvo,  LOUISA,  countess  of, 
one  of  the  principal  characters  in  Meredith's 
'Evan  Harrington'  (q.v.). 

Salerno,  in  Italy,  the  seat  of  a  medical 
school  famous  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  pro- 
duced the  maxim: 

Si  tibi  deficiant  medici,  medici  tibi  fiant 
Haec  tria :  mens  hilaris,  requies,  moderata 

dieta. 

The  metrical  'Regimen  Sanitatis  Salerni', 
dedicated  to  Robert  of  Normandy  as  'King 
of  the  English'  (he  had  gone  there  to  be 
cured  of  a  wound  after  the  crusade  of  1099), 
was  edited  by  Sir  A.  Croke  in  1830. 

Salic  Law,  originally,  a  code  of  law  of  the 
Salian  Franks,  written  in  Latin,  and  extant  in 
five  recensions  of  Merovingian  and  Caro- 
lingian  (qq.v.)  date.  It  contains  a  passage  to 
the  effect  that  a  woman  can  have  no  portion 
of  the  inheritance  of  'Salic  land',  a  term  the 
meaning  of  which  is  disputed.  In  early  use, 
and  still  in  popular  language,  the  Salic  Law 
is  the  alleged  fundamental  law  of  the  French 
monarchy  by  which  females  were  excluded 
from  succession  to  the  crown.  The  claim  of 
Edward  III  to  the  French  throne  was  op- 
posed on  the  ground  of  this  law  and  the 
above-mentioned  ancient  text  adduced. 
[OED.]  Cf.  Shakespeare,  'Henry  V,  I.  i. 

Sallee-man  or  SALLEE  ROVER,  a  Moorish 
pirate-ship,  from  Sallee,  the  name  of  a 
Moroccan  port  formerly  of  piratical  repute. 

SALLUST  (CAius  SALLUSTIUS  CRISPUS) 
(86-34  B.C.),  the  Roman  historian,  accom- 
panied Caesar  in  his  African  war  (46) 
and  was  left  as  governor  of  Numidia.  He 
wrote  'Catilina',  a  history  of  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline;  'Jugurtha'  or  *Bellum  Jugurthi- 
num',  a  history  of  the  Roman  war  ^against 
Jugurtha  (111-106  B.C.);  and  'Histories' 
covering  the  period  78-66  B.C.  Of  the  last 
very  little  survives. 


3868 


[689] 


Try 


SALLY  IN  OUR  ALLEY 
Sally  in  our  Alley,  a  ballad  by  Carey  (q.v.). 
Sally  Limn,  a  kind  of  tea-cake.  According 
to  Hone  ({Every-Day  Book')  they  were  so 
called  from  a  young  woman  of  that  name  who 
used  to  cry  them  at  Bath,  at  the  end  of  the 
1 8th  cent.  Dalmer,  a  respectable  baker  and 
musician,  bought  her  business  and  made  a 
song  about  her. 

Salmacis,  see  Hermaphroditus. 
Salmagimdy,  a  dish  of  chopped  meat, 
anchovies,  eggs,  onions,  &c.  The  word  is 
from  the  French  salmigpndis,  of  obscure 
origin  (Rabelais  has  salmigupndin).  'Salma- 
gundi' was  the  title  of  a  periodical  edited  by 
W.  Irving  (q.v.)  early  in  his  career. 
Salmantica,  in  imprints,  Salamanca. 
SALMASIUS  (CLAUDE  DE  SAUMAISE)  (1588- 
J6S3),  an  eminent  scholar,  professor  at 
Leyden  University  in  1649,  when  Charles  II 
was  living  at  The  Hague.  He  was  com- 
missioned by  Charles  to  draw  up  a  defence 
of  his  father  and  an  indictment  of  the 
regicide  government.  This  took  the  form  of 
the  Latin  'Defensio  Regia',  which  reached 
England  at  the  end  of  1649.  Milton  (q.v.) 
was  ordered  by  the  Council  in  1650  to  pre- 
pare a  reply  to  it,  and  in  1651  issued  his 
Tro  Populo  Anglicano  Defensio',  also  in 
Latin.  In  this,  instead  of  defending  the 
people  of  England,  as  he  purports  to  do,  he 
merely  heaps  invective  on  his  adversary.  To 
this  Salrnasius  rejoined  in  his  'Responsio', 
which  is  similarly  composed  mainly  of 
personal  abuse. 

Salmoneus,  a  son  of  Aeolus  and  brother  of 
Sisyphus,  who  built  the  town  of  Salmone  in 
Elis.  His  arrogance  was  such  that  he  caused 
sacrifices  to  be  offered  to  himself  and  imi- 
tated the  thunder  of  Zeus,  who  killed  him 
with  a  thunderbolt  and  destroyed  his  town. 
Salmoniaf  see  Davy  (Sir  H.). 
SalS'me,  the  daughter  of  Herodias  (q.v.) 
by  her  first  husband  Herod  Philip.  Herod 
Antipas,  her  stepfather,  enchanted  by  her 
dancing,  offered  her  a  reward  'unto  the  half 
of  my  kingdom*.  Instructed  by  Herodias, 
Salome  asked  for  the  head  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist in  a  charger  (see  Matt.  xiv).  The  story  is 
the  subject  of  a  drama  by  Wilde  (q.v.), 
'Salome*'  (1893),  written  in  French,  a  marvel 
of  mimetic  power.  The  licenser  of  plays  in 
the  summer  of  1892  refused  to  sanction  the 
performance  of  this.  It  was  translated  into 
English  by  Wilde's  friend,  Lord  Alfred 
Douglas,  in  1894  (with  ten  pictures  by  Aubrey 
Beardsley),  and  afterwards  formed  the 
libretto  of  an  opera  by  Richard  Strauss.  The 
original  version  was  produced  in  Paris  in 
1896.  The  ban  on  the  public  performance  in 
England  was  removed  in  1931,  and  the  play 
was  produced  at  the  Savoy  Theatre,  London, 
on  5  Oct.  1931. 

Salsabil,  a  fountain  in  the  Mohammedan 
paradise,  mentioned  in  the  Koran,  c.  Ixxvi. 
Salt  and  Salt  Hill,  see  Montem. 


SAMPO 

Saltero's  Coffee-house,  see  Don  Saltero. 
Saluzzo,    THE    MARQUIS    OF,    Wautierof 
Saluces  in  Chaucer's  'Clerkes  Tale',  is  the 
husband  of  Griselda  (see  Patient  Grissil). 
Salvagge     or    SALVATSCH,    MOUNT,     see 
Titurel. 

Salvation  Army,  THE,  was  started  as  the 
*  Christian  Mission'  in  Whitechapel  in  1865 
by  William  Booth  (q.v.).    It  was  converted 
into   the   *  Salvation  Army*  in    1878,   as  a 
consequence  of  Booth's   accidental  use  of 
a  metaphor,  and  reorganized  on  a  quasi- 
military  basis.  It  became  a  world-wide  engine 
of  revivalism,   addressing  itself  mainly  to 
the  depressed  and  outcasts  and  setting  up 
numerous  centres  for  the  relief  of  the  un- 
fortunate, not  only  in  Great  Britain,  but 
notably    in    the    United    States,    Canada, 
Australia,  India,  and  Japan. 
Salvation  Yeo,  a  character  in  C.  Kingsley's 
'Westward  Ho !'  (q.v.). 
Sam,  UNCLE,  see  Uncle  Sam. 
Sam  Slick,  see  Haliburton. 
Samael  or  SAMMAEL,  in  rabbinical  legend, 
the  personification  of  evil,  the  devil. 
Samaritan,  GOOD,  an  allusion  to  Luke  x.  33. 
Sambenite,  see  Sanbenito. 
Samian  letter,  another  name  for  the  Pytha- 
gorean letter  (see  Pythagoras),  so  called  from 
Samos  (q.v.),  the  birthplace  of  Pythagoras. 
Samian  ware,  originally,  pottery  made  of 
Samian  earth;  extended  to  a  fine  kind  of 
pottery  found  extensively  on  Roman  sites. 
Samiasa,  in  Byron's  'Heaven  and  Earth* 
(q.v.),  the  seraph-lover  of  Aholibamah. 
Samiel,  the  Turkish  name  for  the  Simoom, 
a  hot,  dry,  suffocating  wind  that  blows  across 
the  African  and  Asiatic  deserts  at  times  in 
spring  and  summer. 

Samient,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  v. 
viii,  the  lady  sent  by  Queen  Mercilla  to 
Adicia,  the  wife  of  the  Souldan,  received 
by  her  with  contumely,  and  rescued  by  Sir 
Artegall. 

Samos,  a  large  island  in  the  Aegean,  the 
birthplace  of  Pythagoras.    It  was  a  special 
seat  of  the  worship  of  Hera  (q.v.). 
Samosata,  an  ancient  town  in  Syria,  the 
birthplace  of  Lucian  (q.v.). 
Samothrace,    WINGED    VICTORY    OF,    a 
famous  statue,  now  in  the  Louvre,  found  in 
the   island   of   Samothrace,    representing   a 
winged  figure  of  victory  as  the  beak  or  figure- 
head of  a  war-ship.  It  was  set  up  in  306  B.C. 
to  celebrate  a  naval  victory. 
Samoyed,  the  name  of  a  Mongolian  race 
inhabiting  Siberia.    Milton  ('Paradise  Lost', 
x.    696)    refers    to    'Norumbega    and    the 
Samoed  shore'. 

Sampo,  THE,,  in  the  'Kalevala'  (q.v.),  the 
magic  mill  made  by  Ilmarinen  (q.v.),  which 
grinds  out  flour,  salt,  and  money,  and  is  the 
object  of  contention  between  the  Finns  and 
the  Lapps. 


SAMPSON 

Sampson,  DOMINIE,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Guy  Mannering'  (q.v.).  His  favourite  ex- 
pression of  astonishment  is  'Prodigious  P. 

Samson  Agonistes,  a  tragedy  by  Milton  (q.v.), 
published  in  1671  in  the  same  volume  as 
'Paradise  Regained*  (q.v.).  In  form  it  is 
modelled  on  Greek  tragedies.  'Samson 
Agonistes*  (i.e.  Samson  the  Athlete  or 
Wrestler)  deals  with  the  last  phase  of  the  life 
of  the  Samson  of  the  Book  of  Judges  (xvi), 
when  he  is  a  prisoner  of  the  Philistines  and 
blind,  a  phase  which  presents  a  certain 
pathetic  similarity  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
poet  himself  when  he  wrote  the  play. 

Samson,  in  the  prison  at  Gaza,  is  visited  by 
friends  of  his  tribe,  who  form  the  Chorus, 
and  seek  to  comfort  him;  then  by  his  old 
father  Manoa,  who  holds  put  hope  of  securing 
his  release ;  then  by  his  wife  Dalila,  who  seeks 
pardon  and  reconciliation,  but  being  re- 
pudiated shows  herself  'a  manifest  serpent  in 
the  end' ;  then  by  Harapha,  a  strong  man  of 
Gath,  who  taunts^  Samson.  He  is  finally 
summoned  to  provide  amusement  by  feats  of 
strength  for  the  Philistine  lords,  who  are 
celebrating  a  feast  to  Dagon.  He  goes,  and 
presently  a  messenger  brings  news  of  their 
destruction  and  the  death  of  Samson,  by  his 
pulling  down  of  the  pillars  supporting  the 
roof  of  the  place  wherein  they  were. 

Samuel,  a  Hebrew  prophet,  the  son  of 
Elkanah,  a  Levite,  and  Hannah,  brought  up 
to  the  priesthood  under  Eli  at  Shiloh.  After 
the  defeat  of  the  Israelites  by  the  Philistines, 
he  rallied  the  people,  and  became  their  ruler. 
But,  in  his  old  age,  owing  to  the  misgovern- 
ment  of  his  sons,  whom  he  had  made  Judges, 
the  Israelites  demanded  a  king,  and  Samuel 
reluctantly  anointed  Saul.  The  two  books 
of  the  O.T.  called  after  him  were  not  written 
by  him,  but  cover  the  history  of  Israel  from 
his  birth  to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  David. 

Sanbenito  or  SAMBENITE,  under  the  Spanish 
Inquisition,  a  penitential  garment  of  yellow 
cloth,  resembling  a  scapular  in  shape,  orna- 
mented with  a  red  St.  Andrew's  cross  before 
and  behind,  worn  by  a  confessed  and  penitent 
heretic.  Also  a  similar  garment  of  a  black 
colour  ornamented  with  flames,  demons,  and 
other  devices,  worn  by  an  impenitent  con- 
fessed heretic  at  an  auto~da-f£  (also  called^a 
Samarra).  So  called  from  its  resemblance  in 
shape  to  the  scapular  introduced  by  St. 
Benedict.  [OED.] 

Sancho  Panza,  the  squire  of  Don  Quixote 
(q.v.),  who  accompanies  him  in  his  adven- 
tures and  shares  some  of  their  unpleasant 
consequences.  The  duke  who  entertains  the 
pair,  in  the  second  part  of  the  work,  appoints 
Sancho  Panza  for  a  few  days  governor  of 
Barataria.  Sancho  Panza's  conversation  is 
full  of  common  sense  and  pithy  proverbs. 

SANGHONIATHON,  an  ancient  Phoe- 
nician writer  upon  whom  Philo  of  Byblos  (in 
the  Lebanon,^,  c.  A.D.  100)  claimed  to  have 
drawn  for  the  purpose  of  his  Phoenician 


SANDHURST 

history,  of  which  there  are  extracts  in  Euse- 
bius.  It  is  probable  that  no  such  person  as 
Sanchoniathon  ever  existed,  but  that  he  was 
invented  by  Philo. 

SAND,  GEORGE,  the  pseudonym  of 
ARMANDINE  LUCILE  AURORE  DUPIN,  Baronne 
Dudevant  (1804-76),  French  novelist.  She 
was  married  young,  and  after  some  years 
separated  from  her  husband.  She  subse- 
quently had  relations  with  Alfred  de 
Musset  (1833-5,  see  her  cElle  et  Lui',  1859, 
and  fLui  et  Elle',  1860,  by  Paul  de  Musset) 
and  the  composer  Chopin,  which  influenced 
her  work.  Her  novels  divide  themselves 
into  three  periods  :  the  first  (1831-4)  includes 
'Indiana*,  'Lelia',  'Jacques',  marked  by 
freshness  and  a  spirit  of  revolt  against  the 
institution  of  marriage;  the  second  (1837-44) 
includes  some  of  her  greatest  work, 
'Spiridion*,  'Consuelo',  'La  Comtesse  de 
Rudolstadt',  'Les  Sept  Cordes  de  la  Lyre", 
&c.,  the  product  of  her  study  of  philosophy 
and  politics  and  intercourse  with  great  minds  ; 
the  third,  the  period  of  her  retirement  in  the 
country,  includes  her  charming  rustic  idylls, 
'La  Petite  Fadette',  'La  Mare  au  Diable',  &c., 
and  her  'Histoire  de  ma  Vie'  (1854-5). 

Sandabar,  see  Syntipas. 

Sandalphon,  in  Jewish  legend,  one  of  the 
three  angels  who  receive  the  prayers  of 
the  Jews  and  weave  them  into  garlands  ;  the 
subject  of  a  poem  by  Longfellow. 

SANDBURG,  CARL  (1878-  ),  Ameri- 
can poet,  born  in  Illinois.  Sandburg  is 
representative  of  what  is  most  modern  and 
'free*  in  American  verse.  His  chief  books 
are:  'Chicago  Poems*  (1915),  'Smoke  and 
Steel*  (1920),  'The  American  Songbag*(i927), 
'Good  Morning,  America'  (1928). 

Sandford  and  Merton,  The  History  ofy  a 
children's  tale  by  T.  Day  (q.v.),  of  which  vol. 
i  appeared  in  1783,  vol.  ii  in  1787,  and  vol.  Hi 


.         .      .     ,      . 

It  consists  of  a  succession  of  episodes  in 
which  the  rich  and  objectionable  Tommy 
Merton  is  contrasted  with  the  virtuous  Harry 
Sandford,  a  farmer's  son,  and  the  moral  is 
drawn  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Barlow,  their  tutor. 
Its  most  human  incident  is  the  fight  between 
Harry  Sandford  and  Master  Mash.  It  is 
written,  without  the  least  sense  of  humour, 
to  illustrate  the  author's  doctrine  that  virtue 
pays  and  that  man  may  be  made  good  by 
instruction  and  by  appeal  to  his  humanity 
and  reason  —  the  system  advocated  by  Miss 
Edgeworth's  father.  It  was  translated  into 
French  before  the  end  of  the  i8th  cent. 

A  parody,  'The  New  History  of  Sandford 
and  Merton',  by  F.  C.  Burnand,  illustrated 
by  Linley  Sambourne,  was  published  in 
1872. 

Sandhurst,  in  Berkshire,  often  used  to 
signify  the  Royal  Military  College  at  that 
place,  where  cadets  are  trained  for  the 
cavalry  and  infantry. 


[691] 


Yy2 


SANDRA  BELLONI 

Sandra  Belloni,  originally  entitled  Emilia  in 
England^  a  novel  by  Meredith  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1864. 

Emilia  Sandra  Belloni,  a  simple  ardent 
nature,  daughter  of  a  disreputable  Italian 
musician,  and  the  possessor  of  a  fine  but 
untrained  voice,  leaves  her  wretched  home 
and  becomes  the  protegee  of  the  Pole  family 
— a  city  merchant,  his  three  aspiring 
daughters,  and  his  son  Wilfrid,  a  young  man 
of  weak  character  inclined  to  'diplomacy'^  in 
conduct  of  his  affairs.  Mr.  Pericles,  a  rich 
Greek,  the  business  ally  and  fellow  speculator 
of  old  Pole,  has  a  mania  for  discovering  and 
developing  beautiful  voices,  and  tries  to  lure 
and  bully  Emilia  into  accepting  musical 
training  in  Italy  under  his  direction.  But 
Emilia  falls  desperately  in  love  with  Wilfrid, 
and  he  with  her.  Old  Pole,  deeply  involved 
by  Pericles  in  speculation,  is  brought  by  him 
to  the  verge  of  ruin,  and  tries  to  save  himself 
by  various  expedients  His  daughters  are  to 
make  successful  matches.  His  son  is  to  marry 
Lady  Charlotte  Chillingworth.  He  himself 
tampers  with  the  money  of  Mrs.  Chump,  a 
rich  vulgar  Irish  widow,  whose  trustee  he 
is,  and  with  whom  he  becomes  moreover 
entangled  in  a  project  of  marriage.  Wilfrid, 
torn  between  his  passion  for  Emilia  and  his 
attraction  to  Lady  Charlotte  with  her  worldly 
position  and  Victorious  aplomb',  cuts  a  sorry 
figure,  is  exposed  by  Lady  Charlotte  to 
Emilia,  and  nearly  breaks  the  latter's  heart. 
Emilia  temporarily  loses  her  voice  and  is 
befriended  by  Merthyr  Powys  and  his  sister. 
To  save  the  Poles  from  ruin,  she  extracts 
a  large  sum  from  Pericles  by  consenting 
to  go  to  the  conservatory  at  Milan  for 
training.  Finally  awakened  to  the  in- 
constancy of  Wilfrid,  she  holds  put  to  Powys 
hopes  that  she  will  marry  him  after  her 
training.  The  sequel  of  the  story  is  in  the 
author's  'Victoria'  (q.v.). 

Sandringham,  in  Norfolk,  near  the  Wash, 
a  country  seat  of  the  king  of  England,  on  an 
estate  purchased  by  Edward  VII  when  Prince 
of  Wales. 

SANDYS,  GEORGE  (1578-1644),  educated 
at  St.  Mary  Hall,  Oxford,  a  traveller  in  Italy, 
Turkey,  Egypt,   and  Palestine.    His   chief 
works  were  a  translation  of  Ovid's  'Meta- 
morphoses* (1621-6),  averse  'Paraphrase upon 
the  Psalmes'  (1636),  and  'Christ's  Passion,  a 
Tragedy',  a  verse  translation  from  the  Latin 
of  Grotius  (1640).   He  is  of  some  importance 
in  the  history  of  English  verse. 
Sanger,   JOHN  (1816-89),    the   celebrated 
circus  proprietor,   began  with  his  brother 
George  conjuring  exhibitions  at  Birmingham 
in^  1845.    They  then  started  a  circus  enter- 
tainment at  Lynn,  and  afterwards  acquired 
the  Agricultural  Hall  at  Islington  and  in  1871 
Astley's    Amphitheatre    in    London.     The 
brothers  subsequently  dissolved  their  partner- 
ship, each  continuing  independently.  In  his 
later  years  John  Sanger  was  known  as  Lord 
John  Sanger. 


SANSKRIT 

Sanglier,  SIR,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
v.  i,  the  wicked  knight  who  has  cut  off  his 
lady's  head,  and  is  forced  by  Sir  Artegall  to 
bear  the  head  before  him,  in  token  of  his 
shame.  He  is  thought  to  represent  Shane 
O'Neill,  second  earl  of  Tyrone  (1530  ?~67),  a 
leader  of  the  Irish,  who  invaded  the  Pale  in 
1566.  Sanglier  in  French  means  'wild  boar'. 
Sangrado,  DR.,  a  quack  physician  in  'Gil 
Bias'  (q.v.),  the  whole  of  whose  science  con- 
sisted in  bleeding  his  patients  and  making 
them  drink  hot  water. 

Sangreal,  SANCGREAL,  the  Holy  Grail,  see 
GraiL 

Sanhedrim,  more  correctly  SANHEDRIN,  a 
late  Hebrew  word  adapted  from  the  Greek 
<nWS/wov,  'sitting  together';  'the  name  applied 
to  the  highest  court  of  justice  and  supreme 
council  at  Jerusalem,  and  in  a  wider  sense 
also  to  lower  courts  of  justice*  (Hastings's 
'Dictionary  of  the  Bible').  The  Great  Sanhe- 
drin  is  said  to  have  consisted  of  seventy-one 
members. 

SANNAZAR  (JACOPO  SANNAZZARO)  (1458- 
1530),  Neapolitan  author  and  rediscoverer 
of  the  charms  of  nature  and  the  rustic  life, 
was  author  of  a  pastoral,  in  prose  and  verse, 
the  'Arcadia'  (q.v.),  and  of  Latin  eclogues 
and  other  poems. 

Sansculotte,  in  the  French  Revolution,  a 
republican  of  the  poorer  classes  in  Paris. 
Usually  explained  as  one  who  wore  trousers 
(pantalon)  instead  of  knee-breeches  (culotte), 
but  the  origin  is  disputed. 

Sansculottide,  derived  from  the  preceding 
word,  one  of  the  five  (in  leap-years  six)  com- 
plementary days  added  at  the  end  of  the 
month  Fructidor  in  the  Republican  Calendar. 
These  with  the  twelve  months  of  thirty  days 
each  made  up  the  365  (or  366)  days  of  the 
year. 

Sansfoy,  Sansjoy,  and  Sansloy,  three 
brothers  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene',  I.  ii.  25 
et  seq.  Sansfoy  ('faithless')  is  slain  by  the 
Red  Cross  Knight,  who  also  defeats  Sansjoy 
('joyless'),  but  the  latter  is  saved  from  death 
by  Duessa.  Sansloy  ('lawless')  carries  off 
Una  and  kills  her  lion  (i.  iii).  This  incident  is 
supposed  to  refer  to  the  suppression  of  the 
Protestant  religion  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Mary. 

Sans  G&ne,  MADAME,  a  nickname  of  the  wife 
of  Marshal  Lefebvre,  duke  of  Dantzig,  one  of 
Napoleon's  marshals  who  rose  from  the 
ranks.  She  was  originally  a  washerwoman 
and  followed  her  husband  to  the  wars.  She 
owed  her  nickname  to  her  ignorance  of  court 
manners,  but  was  shrewd  and  kind-hearted. 
Sardou  (q.v.)  made  her  the  subject  of  a  play 
of  that  name. 

Sanskrit,  the  ancient  and  sacred  language  of 
India,  the  oldest  known  member  of  the  Indo- 
European  family  of  languages.  The  extensive 
Hindu  literature  from  the  Vedas  downward 
is  composed  in  it. 


[693] 


SANSON 

Sanson,  CHARLES  (1740-93),  executioner  of 
the  city  of  Paris,  who  put  to  death  Louis  XVI. 
His  son  and  successor  Henri  (1767-1840) 
was  the  executioner  of  Marie  Antoinette. 
Fabricated  memoirs  of  the  family  were 
published  in  1862. 
Santa  Casa,  see  Loretto. 
Santa  Glaus,  a  contraction  of  St.  Nicholas, 
who  is  supposed  to  come,  on  the  night  before 
Christmas  Day>  to  bring  presents  for  children. 
St.  Nicholas  was  the  patron  saint  of  children, 
and  authorities  quoted  by  Brand  ('Popular 
Antiquities')  state  that  it  was  in  many  places 
the  custom  for  parents  on  the  eve  of  his 
festival  (6  Dec.)  to  convey  secretly  presents 
to  their  children  and  pretend  that  they  were 
brought  by  St.  Nicholas.  The  transference 
of  this  custom  to  Christmas  was  perhaps  due 
to  a  spirit  of  economy  on  the  part  of  the 
parents. 

SANTAYANA,  GEORGE  (1863-  ),  a 
Spaniard  naturalized  as  an  American  and 
an  eminent  speculative  philosopher,  of  a 
naturalist  tendency  and  opposed  to  Ger- 
man idealism,  whose  views  are  embodied  in 
his  'Life  of  Reason*  (1905-6).  He  holds  that 
the  human  mind  is  an  effect  of  physical 
growth  and  organization;  but  that  our  ideals, 
though  of  bodily  origin,  stand  on  a  higher  and 
non-material  plane;  that  the  true  function  of 
reason  is  not  in  idealistic  dreams  but  in  a 
logical  activity  that  takes  account  of  facts. 
He  analyses  our  religious  and  other  institu- 
tions, distinguishing  the  ideal  element  from 
its  material  embodiment.  Thus  the  wisdom 
embodied  in  the  ritual  and  dogmas  of  religion 
is  not  truth  about  existence,  but  about  the 
ideals  on  which  mental  strength  and  serenity 
are  founded. 

SAPPHO  (fl.  6 10  B.C.),  a  poetess  of  great 
genius  and  passionate  energy,  a  native  of 
Mitylene  or  Eresos  in  Lesbos.  Only  a  few 
fragments  of  her  work  survive,  marked  by 
melody  and  fire.  The  story  of  her  throwing 
herself  into  the  sea  in  despair  at  her  un- 
requited love  for  Phaon  (q.v.)  is  probably  a 
later  fable.  The  SAPPHIC  STANZA  (used  by 
Horace  with  some  modification  of  its  rules) 
is  only  one  of  the  many  metres  that  Sappho 
employed.  It  consists  of—  w  —  c?  —  w  w  —  w 
—  vi?  thrice  repeated,  and  followed  by — v/w  —  w. 
Such  fragments  of  her  poems  as  survive  have 
been  edited  by  E.  Lobel  (Oxford,  1925). 

Sapsea,  MR.,  in  Dickens's  'Edwin  Drood' 
(q.v.),  an  auctioneer  and  mayor  of  Cloisterham. 

Saracen,  a  name  whose  ultimate  etymology 
is  obscure.  The  derivation  from  the  Arabic 
sharqi,  'eastern*,  is  not  well  founded.  In 
medieval  times  the  name  was  often  associated 
with  Sarah,  the  wife  of  Abraham.  St.  Jerome 
identifies  the  Saracens  with  the  Hagarenes, 
descendants  of  Hagar.  Among  the  later 
Greeks  and  Romans  the  name  was  applied 
to  the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  Syro-Arabian 
desert.  Hence  it  was  used  for  an  Arab,  and 
by  extension  a  Mohammedan,  especially 


SARMATIA 

with  reference  to  the  Crusades.  [OEDJ  In 
the  9th  and  loth  cents,  it  was  always  used 
for  Mohammedan  pirates  who  ravaged  the 
coasts  of  Italy  and  southern  France. 

Saragossa  or  SARAGOZA,  THE  MAID  OF,  see 
Maid  of  Saragoza. 

Saratoga,  near  the  Hudson  River,  the  scene 
of  the  decisive  victory  of  the  American  army 
under  Gates  over  the  British  army  under 
Burgoyne  in  1777,  in  the  American  War  of 
Independence,  and  of  the  surrender  of  Bur- 
goyne and  his  army. 

A  SARATOGA  is  a  trunk  of  large  dimensions 
'much  used  by  ladies'.   [OEDJ 

Sarcastic,  MR.  SIMON,  a  character  in  Pea- 
cock's 'Melincourt*  (q.v.). 
Sardanapalus,  the  last  king  of  Assyria, 
notorious  according  to  legend  for  his  luxury 
and  effeminacy.  Arbaces  the  Mede  and 
Belesis  the  Chaldean  conspired  against  him 
and  collected  a  numerous  force  to  dethrone 
him.  Sardanapalus  thereupon  quitted  his 
effeminate  pursuits,  appeared  at  the  head  of 
his  army,  and  defeated  the  rebels  in  three 
successive  battles.  He  was  at  last  overcome 
and  besieged  for  two  years  in  the  city  of 
Ninus.  Despairing  of  success,  he  burnt  him- 
self in  his  palace  with  .his  concubines, 
eunuchs,  and  treasures,  and  the  empire  of 
Assyria  was  divided  among  the  conspirators. 
The  real  Sardanapalus  was  Assur-bani-pal 
(probably  the  Asnapper  of  Ezra  iv.  10), 
who  about  the  years  670-650  B.C.  made  two 
successful  expeditions  against  Egypt,  but 
subsequently  lost  his  empire  and  perished  in 
Nineveh,  which  was  destroyed. 

Sardanapalus,  a  tragedy  by  Lord  Byron 
(q.v.),  published  in  1821. 

It  was  written  at  Ravenna  and  the  materials 
were  taken  from  the  'Bibliothecae  Historicae* 
of  Diodorus  Siculus,  but  freely  treated. 
Sardanapalus  (see  above)  is  represented  as  a 
luxurious  but  courageous  monarch,  cynically 
humorous  and  amiable,  if  not  estimable. 
When  Beleses,  a  Chaldaean  soothsayer,  and 
Arbaces,  governor  of  Media,  lead  a  revolt 
against  him,  he  shakes  off  his  sloth,  and, 
stimulated  by  Myrrha,  his  favourite  Greek 
slave,  fights  bravely  in  the  van  of  his  troops. 
Defeated,  he  makes  provision  for  the  safe 
withdrawal  of  his  queen,  Zarina,  and  his 
supporters,  prepares  a  funeral  pyre  round  his 
throne,  and  perishes  in  it  with  Myrrha* 
SARDOU,  VICTORIEN  (1831-1908), 
French  dramatist,  author  of  *Les  Pattes  de 
Mouche',  'La  Farnille  Benoiton',  'Madame 
Sans-G&ie',  'La  Tosca',  &c. 
Sargasso  Sea,  a  region  in  the  N.  Atlantic, 
south  of  the  35th  parallel,  so  named  from 
the  prevalence  in  it  of  the  weed  Sargassum 
bacciferum  (from  the  Portuguese  sargapo)* 
Sarmatia,  used  occasionally  by  English 
poets  to  signify  Poland,  though  in  ancient 
geography  it  extended  from  the  Vistula  to  the 
Volga. 


[693] 


SARPEDON 

Sarpedon,  a  Lycian  prince,  son,  according 
to  one  story,  of  Zeus  and  Laodamia,  an  ally 
of  the  Trojans  in  the  Trojan  War,  who  was 
slain  by  Patroclus. 

Sarpego,  a  comical  pedant  in  Brome's  'The 
City  Witt*  (q.v.),  a  character  modelled  on 
Clove  in  Jonson's  'Every  Man  out  of  his 
Humour3  (q.v.). 

Sarra,  the  city  of  Tyre  in  Phoenicia,  cele- 
brated for  its  purple  dye,  referred  to  by 
Milton,  Taradise  Lost',  xi.  240. 
Sarras,  in  the  legend  of  the  Grail  (q.v.), 
titie  country  to  which  Joseph  of  Arimathea 
fled  from  Jerusalem. 

Sartor  Resartus:  The  Life  and  Opinions  of 
Herr  Teufelsdrockh,  by  T.  Carlyle  (q.v.), 
originally  published  in  'Eraser's  Magazine5  in 
1833-4,  and  as  a  separate  volume,  at  Boston, 
in  1836;  first  English  edition,  1838. 

This  work  was  written  under  the  influence 
of  the  German  romantic  school  and  par- 
ticularly of  Jean  Paul  Richter  (q.v.).  It  con- 
sists of  two  parts :  a  discourse  on  the  philo- 
sophy of  clothes  (sartor  resartus  means  'the 
tailor  re-patched')  based  on  the  specula- 
tions of  an  imaginary  Professor  Teufels- 
drockh,  and  leading  to  the  conclusion  that  all 
symbols,  forms,  and  human  institutions  are 
properly  clothes,  and  as  such  temporary;  and 
a  biography  of  TeufelsdrSckh  himself,  which 
is  in  some  measure  the  author's  ^ auto- 
biography, particularly  in  the  description  of 
the  village  of  Entepfuhl  and  of  the  German 
university  (suggested  by  Ecclefechan  and 
Edinburgh),  and  still  more  in  the  notable 
chapters  on  'The  Everlasting  No',  'Centre  of 
Indifference',  and  'The  Everlasting  Yea', 
which  depict  a  spiritual  crisis  such  as  Carlyle 
himself  had  experienced. 
Sarum  Use,  the  order  of  divine  service  used 
in  the  diocese  of  Salisbury,  especially  from 
the  1 3th  cent,  until  the  Reformation.  The 
c  Sarum  Missal'  is  a  i3th-cent.  compilation. 

Sasanian,  the  name  of  the  dynasty  that 
ruled  the  Persian  Empire  from  A.D.  236  to 
651,  so  named  from  Sasan,  grandson  of 
Ardashir  Babagan  (q.v.),  who  founded  the 
dynasty. 

Sassenach,  representing  the  Gaelic  sasun- 
nach,  the  name  given  by  the  Gaelic  inhabi- 
tants of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  to  their 
'Saxon'  or  English  neighbours. 

Sastrl,  TINA,  a  character  in  G.  Eliot's  'Mr. 
GilfiFs  Love- Story*  (see  Scenes  of  Clerical 
Life). 

Satan,  from  a  Hebrew  word  sdtan,  meaning 
adversary,  one  who  plots  against  another.  In 
the  O.T.  the  Hebrew  word  ordinarily  denotes 
a  human  adversary,  but  in  certain  passages  it 
designates  an  angelic  being  who  torments, 
belittles,  or  provokes  man,  sometimes  with 
the  cognizance  or  direct  authority  of  Jehovah 
(see  e.g.  Job  i.  6-13;  ii.  i~6).  It  is  commonly 
used  as  the  proper  name  of  the  supreme  evil 
spirit,  the  Devil. 


SATURN 

Satanic  School,  THE,  Southey's  designa- 
tion (in  the  Preface  to  the  'Vision  of  Judg- 
ment', q.v.)  for  Byron,  Shelley,  and  their 
imitators. 

Satire,  from  the  Latin  satira,  a  later  form  of 
satura,  which  means  'medley',  being  elliptical 
for  lanx  satura,  'a  full  dish,  a  hotch-potch'. 
The  word  has  no  connexion  with  satyr^  as 
was  formerly  often  supposed.  A  satire  is  a 
poem,  or  in  modem  use  sometimes  a  prose 
composition,  in  which  prevailing  vices  or 
follies  are  held  up  to  ridicule.  [OED.] 
Satire  Menippee,  a  bold  and  original  French 
satire,  published  in  1594,  directed  against  the 
Catholic  League  (headed  by  the  Guises  and 
having  as  its  object  the  overthrow  of  the 
heretical  Henri  IV).  It  was  written  by  seven 
men,  otherwise  undistinguished,  Leroy, 
Gillot,  Passerat,  Rapin,  Chrestien,  Pithou, 
and  Durant ;  and  takes  the  form  of  a  burlesque 
account  of  the  opening  of  the  assembly  of  the 
estates  at  Paris,  referring  sarcastically  to 
private  and  public  actions  of  the  leaders  of  the 
league.  The  title  is  taken  from  the  name  of 
Menippus,  the  cynic  philosopher,  author  of 
satires,  celebrated  by  Lucian. 
Satiromastix,  or  The  Untrussing  of  the 
Humorous  Poet,  a  comedy  by  Dekker  (q.v.), 
printed  in  1602. 

Jonson  in  his  'Poetaster'  (q.v.)  had  satir- 
ized Dekker  and  Marston,  under  the  names 
of  Crispinus  and  Demetrius,  while  he  himself 
figured  as  Horace.  Dekker  here  retorts, 
bringing  the  same  Horace,  Crispinus,  and 
Demetrius  on  the  stage  once  more.  Horace  is 
discovered  sitting  in  a  study  laboriously  com- 
posing an  Epithalamium,  and  at  a  loss  for  a 
rhyme.  Crispinus  and  Demetrius  enter  and 
reprove  him  gravely  for  his  querulousness. 
Presently  Capt.  Tucca  (of  the  'Poetaster') 
enters,  and  turns  effectively  on  Horace  the 
flow  of  his  profanity.  Horace's  peculiarities 
of  dress  and  appearance,  his  vanity  and 
bitterness,  are  ridiculed;  and  he  is  finally  un- 
trussed  and  crowned  with  nettles. 

The  satirical  part  of  the  play  ^  is  set  in  a 
somewhat  inappropriate  romantic  setting — 
the  wedding  of  Sir  Walter  Terill  at  the  court 
of  William  Rufus,  and  the  drinking  of  poison 
(as  she  thinks)  by  his  wife,  Caelestina,  but 
really  of  a  sleeping  potion,  to  escape  the 
king's  attentions. 

Saturday  Review,  The,  a  weekly  periodical 
started  in  the  Liberal  interest  in  1855.  It  was 
amalgamated  with  'The  Spectator*  in  1931. 
Among  its  many  brilliant  contributors  were 
Sir  H.  Maine,  Sir  J.  F.  Stephen,  J.  R.  Green, 
Freeman,  Hardy,  G.  B.  Shaw,  and  Max  Beer- 
bohm  (qq.v.). 

Saturn,  an  ancient  Italian  god  of  agriculture, 
subsequently  identified  with  the  Cronos 
(q.v.)  of  Greek  mythology,  one  of  the  Titans, 
a  son  of  Uranus  and  Ge.  Saturn  was 
banished  from  his  throne  by  his  son  Jupiter 
and  fled  to  Italy,  where  Janus  the  king  made 
him  partner  of  has  throne.  He  civilized  the 


[694] 


SATURNALIA 

people  and  taught  them  agriculture.  His  reign 
was  so  mild  and  beneficent  that  mankind  have 
called  it  the  Golden  Age. 

Saturnalia,  an  ancient  Roman  festival  in 
honour  of  Saturn,  to  celebrate  the  freedom 
and  equality  that  prevailed  on  earth  in  the 
golden  age  of  that  ruler.  The  celebration  was 
remarkable  for  the  liberty  which  was  uni- 
versally allowed.  The  slaves  were  allowed  to 
ridicule  their  masters  and  to  speak  with  free- 
dom on  every  subject.  Some  of  the  customs 
of  the  festival  resembled  those  of  the  modern 
carnival  and  Christmas,  e.g.  the  wearing  of  a 
kind  of  fancy  dress,  and  the  election  of  mock 


Kings. 

Saturnian    Age,    the    Golden    Age,    the 

Saturnia  regna  of  the  Roman  poets.    See 

Saturn. 

Saturaian  metre,  the  metre  used  in  early 
Roman  poetry,  before  the  introduction  of 
the  Greek  metres.  Although  a  considerable 
number  of  Saturnian  lines  have  been  pre- 
served, the  nature  of  the  metre  is  still  disputed, 
some  scholars  believing  it  to  be  quantitative, 
and  others  accentual. 

Satyr,  in  Greek  mythology,  one  of  a  class  of 
woodland  gods  or  demons,  in  form  partly 
human,  partly  bestial,  supposed  to  be  tie 
companions  of  Bacchus.  In  Greek  art  of  the 
pre-Roman  period  the  satyr  was  represented 
with  the  tail  and  ears  of  a  horse.  Roman 
sculptors  assimilated  it  in  some  degree  to  the 
faun  of  their  native  mythology,  giving  it  the 
ears,  tail,  and  legs  of  a  goat,  and  budding 
horns.  Cf.  the  two  mentions  of  satyrs  in 
Isaiah,  'owls  shall  dwell  there,  and  satyrs  shall 
dance  there'  (xiii.  21),  and  'the  satyr  shall 
cry  to  his  fellow'  (xxxiv.  14).  The  Hebrew 
word  in  these  passages  means  a  'he-goat', 
perhaps  some  demon  of  popular  superstition 
believed  to  have  goat-like  form. 

The  chorus  of  the  Greek  satyric  drama 
(q.v.)  was  composed  of  satyrs.  The  confusion 
between  satyric  and  satiric  (see  Satire)  occa- 
sioned in  the  i6th-i7th  cents,  the  frequent 
attribution  to  the  satyrs  of  censoriousness  as 
a  characteristic  quality.  [OED.] 

Satyrane,  SIR,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene' 
(i.  vi),  a  loiight,  'plain,  faithful,  true,  and 
enemy  of  shame*,  son  of  a  satyr  and  the  nymph 
Thy  amis.  He  rescues  Una  from  the  satyrs, 
perhaps  symbolizing  the  liberation  of  the  true 
religion  by  Luther. 

Satyric  Drama,  the  fourth  play  in  the 
tetralogy  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  a  semi- 
serious,  semi-mocking  presentation  of  a 
legendary  theme.  The  'Cyclops9  of  Euripides 
(q.v.)  is  the  only  complete  extant  satyric 
drama. 

Satyricon,  see  Petronius. 

Saul,  (i)  the  first  king  of  Israel  (i  Samuel 
x,  in  verse  1 1  of  which  occurs  the  question, 
'Is  Saul  also  among  the  prophets?');  (2)  Saul 
of  Tarsus,  afterwards  St.  Paul  (Acts  vii.  58 
and  the  following  chapters). 


SAVILE 

Saul,  DEAD  MARCH  IN,  the  celebrated  Dead 
March  included  in  HandePs  oratorio,  'Saul*, 
produced  in  London  in  1739. 

Saunderson,  MRS.,  see  Betterton  (Mrs.). 

Sauterne,  a  white  wine  of  the  Bordeaux 
region. 

Savage,  CAPTAIN,  a  character  in  Marryat's 
'Peter  Simple'  (q.v.),  the  first  captain  under 
whom  the  hero  serves. 

SAVAGE,  RICHARD  (d.  1743),  probably 
of  humble  birth,  claimed  to  be  the  illegiti- 
mate son  of  the  fourth  Earl  Rivers  and  of  the 
wife  of  the  second  earl  of  Macclesneld.  The 
romantic  story  of  his  birth  and  ill-treatment 
as  given  in  Samuel  Johnson's  long  and 
interesting  life  of  him  is  now  generally  dis- 
believed. He  wrote  several  second-rate  come- 
dies and  poems,  including  'The  Wanderer' 
(q.v.,  1729)  and  'The  Bastard'  (1728),  a  cen- 
sure on  his  supposed  mother,  the  first  part 
of  which,  at  any  rate,  is  vigorous  and  effective, 
and  contains  the  often-quoted  line,  'No  tenth 
transmitter  of  a  foolish  face'.  He  applied  un- 
successfully for  the  post  of  poet  laureate,  but 
obtained  a  pension  from  Queen  Caroline  on 
condition  of  celebrating  her  birthday  annually 
in  an  ode.  He  was  condemned  to  death  in 
1727  for  killing  a  gentleman  in  a  tavern 
brawl,  but  pardoned.  He  died  in  great 
poverty. 

SAVIGNY,  FRIEDRICH  KARL  VON 
(1779—1861),  professor  of  Roman  law  at 
Berlin,  was  author  of  the  great  'Geschichte 
des  romischen  Rechts  im  Mittelalter*  (1815- 
3 1),  a  work  that  has  had  an  important  influence 
on  the  study  of  the  history  of  law,  and  among 
others  on  F.  W.  Maitland  (q.v.),  who  began, 
but  did  not  complete,  a  translation  of  it. 

SAVILE,  GEORGE,  marquess  of  Halifax 
(1633—95),  one  of  the  first  writers  of  political 
pamphlets,  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his 
'Character  of  a  Trimmer'  (1688),  a  brilliant 
piece  of  writing,  in  which  he  urged  Charles  II 
to  free  himself  from  the  influence  of  his 
brother.  His  political  tracts  (which  include 
his  most  brilliant  bit  of  argument,  'The 
Anatomy  of  an  Equivalent*,  1688)  were 
reprinted  in  1898.  He  also  wrote  some 
pleasant  essays  under  the  title  of  'A  Lady's 
Gift,  or  Advice  to  a  Daughter*  (1688).  His 
other  works  include  'A  Letter  to  a  Dissenter 
upon  Occasion  of  His  Majesties  late  Gracious 
Declaration  of  Indulgence'  (1686),  and  'A 
Character  of  King  Charles  IF  (printed  with 
'Political,  Moral,  and  Miscellaneous  Re- 
flexions' in  1750).  He  saved  the  throne  in 
1679-81  by  his  resolute  opposition  to  the 
Exclusion  Bill.  He  is  the  'Jotham*  of  Dry- 
den's  'Absalom  and  AchitopheF  (q.v.). 

SAVILE,  SIR  HENRY  (1549-1622),  edu- 
cated at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  and  a 
fellow  and  subsequently  warden  of  Merton 
College  and  provost  of  Eton.  He  was 
secretary  of  tie  Latin  tongue  to  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  one  of  the  scholars  com- 


[69S] 


SAVIOUR'S  CHURCH 
missioned  to  prepare  the  authorized  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible.  He  translated  the  'Histories 
of  Tacitus  (1591),  published  an  edition  of  St. 
Chrysostom  (1610-13)  and  of  Xenophon's 
'Cyropaedia'  (1613).    Savile  assisted  Bodley 
in  founding  his  library  and  established  the 
SAVILIAN  PROFESSORSHIPS  of  geometry  and 
astronomy  at  Oxford,  He  left  a  collection  of 
"manuscripts,  now  in  the  Bodleian  Library. 
Saviour's  Church,  ST.,  Southwark,  origin- 
ally the  church  of  the  priory  of  St.  Mary 
Overey,  is  interestingin  a  literary  connexion  as 
containing  the  effigy  of  Gower,  and  the  burial- 
places   of  Fletcher  and  Massinger  (qq.v.). 
The  Harvard  chapel  commemorates  John 
Harvard  (q.v.),  the  founder  of  the  American 
University  of  that  name.  The  church  is  now 
the  Cathedral  of  the  diocese  of  Southwark. 
Savonarola,    FRA    GIROLAMO    (1452-98), 
Dominican    monk,    an    eloquent    preacher 
whose  sermons  at  Florence  gave  expression 
to  the  religious  reaction  against  the  artistic 
licence  and  social  corruption  of  the  Renais- 
sance.   Savonarola  was  leader  of  the  demo- 
cratic party  in  Florence  after  the  expulsion  of 
the  Medici,  and  aroused  the  hostility  of  Pope 
Alexander  VI  by  his  political  attitude  in 
favour  of  Charles  VIII  of  France.   His  in- 
fluence was  gradually  undermined,  and  he 
was  tried,  condemned,  and  executed  as  a 
heretic.    There  is   a  careful  study  of  his 
character  in  G.  Eliot's  'Romola'  (q.v.). 
Savoy,  THE,  a  precinct  between  the  Strand, 
London,  and  the  river,  so  piled  from  having 
been  given  by  Henry  III  in  1246  to  Peter  of 
Savoy,  his  wife's  uncle,  who  built  a  palace 
there.    Here  King  John  of  France  resided 
when  a  prisoner  in  England  (1357)-    The 
palace  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  Wat  Tyler's 
insurrection,  and  was  restored  as  a  hospital  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist  in  Henry  VII's  reign. 
The  manor,  after  passing  through  various 
hands,  reverted  to  the  Crown.   The  hospital 
was  dissolved  in  1702,  and  a  military  prison 
installed  in  its  place.    The  buildings  (with 
the  exception  of  the  ancient  chapel,  since 
destroyed  by  fire  and  rebuilt)  were  finally 
demolished  early  in  the  igth  cent.,  when 
Waterloo  Bridge  was  constructed. 
Savoy  Operas,  see  Gilbert  and  Sullivan. 

Savoyard,  (i)  a  native  or  inhabitant  of 
Savoy  (Savoyards  were  formerly  well  known 
in  other  countries  as  musicians  itinerating 
with  hurdy-gurdy  and  monkey) ;  (2)  a  mem- 
ber of  the  D  Oyly  Carte  Company  which 
originally  performed  the  Gilbert  and  Sulli- 
van operas  at  the  Savoy  Theatre. 
Sawney,  a  Scottish  local  variant  of  Sandy, 
short  for  Alexander,  a  derisive  nickname  for 
a  Scotsman. 

Sawyer,  BOB,  a  character  in  Dickens 's  'Pick- 
wick Papers*  (q.v.). 

SAXE,  JOHN  GODFREY  (1816-87), 
American  poet,  born  in  Vermont,  remem- 
bered for  his  connexion  with  the  Knicker- 


SCALIGER 

bocker  group  of  writers  (see  Knickerbocker 
Magazine)^  and  for  his  once  popular  'New 
Rape  of  the  Lock'  (1847).  Saxe  was  at  his 
best  in  the  field  of  light  verse. 
SAXO  GRAMMATICUS,  a  Danish  his- 
torian of  the  1 3th  cent.,  author  of  'Gesta 
Danorum*,  a  history  of  the  Danes  in  Latin, 
partly  mythical.  This  contains  the  legend  of 
Hamlet. 

Saxon,  the  name  of  a  Germanic  people 
which  in  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era  dwelt  in  a  region  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Elbe,  and  of  which  one  portion,  distinguished 
as  AirGLO-SAXONS,  conquered  and  occupied 
certain  parts  of  south  Britain  in  the  $th  and 
6th  cents.,  while  the  other,  the  OLD  SAXONS, 
remained  in  Germany.  It  has  been  con- 
jectured that  the  name  may  have  been  de- 
rived from  sahso,  the  name  of  the  weapon 
used  by  the  Saxons.  The  name  Anglo-Saxon 
(q.v.)  was  extended  to  the  entire  Old  English 
people  and  language  before  the  Norman 
Conquest,  Anglian  and  Saxon.  [OED.] 
Saxon  shore,  THE,  the  eastern  and  southern 
coasts  of  England  from  the  Wash  to  Shore- 
ham  (or,  according  to  some,  only  to  the 
South  Foreland)  which  in  the  4th  cent,  were 
exposed  to  the  attacks  of  Saxon  raiders  and 
were  governed  by  a  military  officer  known 
as  the  Comes  or  Count  of  the  Saxon  shore. 
Sayers,  TOM  (1826-65),  the  pugilist,  was 
a  bricklayer  by  profession.  He  began  his 
pugilistic  career  in  1 849,  when  he  beat  Crouch 
at  Greenhithe.  He  won  the  champion's  belt 
in  1 8 57.  His  last  fight  was  with  the  American, 
John  C.  Heenan  (the  Benicia  Boy,  q.v.),  at 
Farnborough  in  1860,  the  result  being  de- 
clared a  draw. 

Scaevola,  CAIUS  Mucius,  a  legendary  Ro- 
man famous  for  his  courage  and  firmness. 
When  Porsenna  was  besieging  Rome,  Scae- 
vola introduced  himself  into  the  enemy's 
camp  with  a  view  to  assassinating  the  king. 
By  mistake  he  killed  his  secretary  instead. 
Being  threatened  with  death,  he  laid  his  hand 
on  an  altar  of  burning  coal  to  prove  his  forti- 
tude, and  told  the  king  that  there  were  300 
Roman  youths  prepared  to  take  his  life.  Por- 
senna, amazed  at  Scaevola's  courage,  released 
him,  and  in  fear  for  his  own  life  withdrew  his 
army  and  made  proposals  of  peace. 
Scala,  CANE  GBANDE  BELLA,  usually  known 
as  CAN  GRANDE  (1291-1329),  prince  of 
Verona,  famous  as  the  patron  of  Dante  (q.v.). 
Scald,  see  Skald. 

Scales,  GERALD,  a  character  in  Bennett's 
'The  Old  Wives'  Tale'  (q.v.). 

SCALIGER,  JOSEPH  JUSTUS  (1540- 
1609),  the  son  of  Julius  Caesar  Scaliger  (q.v.), 
was  the  greatest  scholar  of  the  Renaissance ;  he 
has  been  described  as  'the  founder  of  histori- 
cal criticism'.  His  edition  of  Manilius  (1579) 
and  his  cDe  Emendatione  Temporum'  revo- 
lutionized ancient  chronology  by  insisting 
on  the  recognition  of  the  historical  material 


[696] 


SCALIGER 

relating  to  the  Jews,  the  Persians,  the  Baby- 
lonians, and  the  Egyptians.  He  reconstructed 
the  lost  chronicle  of  Eusebius  in  his  'The- 
saurus Temporum*.  He  also  issued  critical 
editions  of  many  classical  authors.  He  in- 
curred the  enmity  of  the  Jesuits  and  retired 
from  France  to  Lausanne  in  1572,  and 
subsequently  to  Leyden.  He  was  attacked  in 
his  old  age  by  Caspar  Scioppius  on  behalf  of 
the  Jesuits,  who  contested  the  claim  of  the 
Scaligers  to  belong  to  the  Delia  Scala  family. 

SCALIGER,  JULIUS  CAESAR  (1484- 
I5SS),  born  at  Riva  on  the  Lago  di  Garda, 
settled  at  Agen  in  France  as  a  physician. 
Besides  polemical  works  directed  against 
Erasmus  (1531),  he  wrote  a  long  Latin 
treatise  on  poetics,  scientific  commentaries  on 
botanical  works,  and  a  philosophical  treatise 
('Exercitationes*  on  the  'De  Subtilitate'  of 
Cardan).  These  show  encyclopaedic  know- 
ledge and  acute  observation,  marred  by 
arrogance  and  vanity.  He  claimed  to  belong 
to  the  princely  family  of  Delia  Scala. 

Scallop-shell,  the  badge  of  the  pilgrim. 
Pilgrims  returning  from  the  shrine  of  St. 
James  at  Compostella  were  accustomed  to 
wear  a  scallop-shell  found  on  the  Galician 
shore;  hence  this  shell  (in  ecclesiastical 
symbolism  used  as  the  emblem  of  the  apostle) 
is  often  referred  to  as  the  distinctive  badge 
of  the  pilgrim. 

Scamander,  a  river  of  Asia  Minor,  flow- 
ing into  the  sea  near  Troy.  Homer  calls  it 
Xanthos  (yellow),  and  in  the  *  Iliad*  (xxi) 
describes  the  great  fight  of  Achilles  with  the 
river,  in  which  the  hero  would  have  been 
overcome  had  not  Hephaestus  sent  fire  and 
driven  the  river  back. 

Scandalum  magnatum,  medieval  Latin, 
meaning  'Scandal  of  magnates';  the  utter- 
ance of  a  malicious  report  against  any  person 
holding  a  position  of  dignity.  The  term  was 
suggested  by  the  wording  of  the  statute  of 
2  Richard  II  (repealed  in  1887)  which  pro- 
vided penalties  for  the  offence. 

Scanderbeg,  the  Turkish  appellation  of 
George  Castriot  (1403-67),  the  son  of  the 
hereditary  prince  of  a  district  in  Albania. 
He  was  brought  up  as  a  hostage  at  the  court 
of  the  Sultan  Amurath  (Murad  II),  and 
became  the  successful  champion  of  Albanian 
independence,  and  for  many  years  resisted 
the  forces  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 
Scandinavia,  a  geographical  term  including 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark.  The  name, 
which  appears  in  the  existing  text  of  Pliny, 
is  a  mistake  for  Scadinavia,  an  adaptation  of 
the  Teutonic  Skadinauja,  the  name  of  the 
southern  extremity  of  Sweden.  The  terminal 
element  is  auja,  island. 
Scapegoat,  a  word  apparently  invented  by 
Tindale  (1530)  to  express  what  he  believed 
to  be  the  literal  meaning  of  the  Hebrew 
*azdzel  in  Lev.  xvi.  8, 10, 26,  an  interpretation 
now  regarded  as  inadmissible.  The  word 


SCARLET  LETTER 

does  not  Appear  in  the  Revised  Version  of 
1884,  which  has  'AzazeP  as  a  proper  name 
and  'dismissal*  in  the  margin  as  an  alternative 
reading.  The^word  is  used  for  that  one  of  two 
goats  which,  in  the  Mosaic  ritual  of  the  Day 
of  Atonement,  was  chosen  by  lot  to  be  sent 
alive  into  the  wilderness,  the  sins  of  the 
people  having  been  symbolically  laid  upon  it, 
while  the  other  was  appointed  to  be  sacri- 
ficed. [OED.] 

Scapin,  in  the  'Fourberies  de  Scapin*  of 
Moliere  (q.v.),  the  type  of  rascally  resourceful 
servant  who  gets  out  of  difficulties  by  his 
audacious  lies .  One  of  these  gives  the  occasion 
for  a  much  quoted  phrase.  In  order  to  ex- 
tract a  sum  of  money  needed  by  his  young 
master  from  his  avaricious  father,  he  tells  the 
latter  a  cock-and-bull  story  of  the  son's 
having  gone  on  board  a  Turkish  galley,  been 
carried  to  sea,  and  held  to  ransom.  The 
father,  gradually  convinced  by  Scapin *s  elo- 
quence that  he  will  have  to  produce  the  ran- 
som, constantly  reverts  to  the  question,  'Mais 
que  diable  allait-il  faire  dans  cette  galere?*. 
The  phrase  and  the  scene  were  taken  by 
Moliere  from  'Le  Pe"dant  Joue*'  (il.  iv)  of 
Cyrano  de  Bergerac  (q.v.). 

Scaramouch,  adaptation  of  the  Italian 
scaramuccia  meaning  'skirmish',  a  stock 
character  in  Italian  farce,  a  cowardly  and 
foolish  boaster,  who  is  constantly  cudgelled 
by  Harlequin.  The  character  was  intended  in 
ridicule  of  the  Spanish  don,  and  was  dressed 
in  Spanish  costume,  usually  black.  The 
clever  impersonation  of  the  part  by  Tiberio 
Fiurelli,  who  brought  his  company  of  Italian 
players  to  London  in  1673,  rendered  the  word 
very  popular  in  England  during  the  last 
quarter  of  the  1 7th  cent.  [OED.]  A  comedy, 
entitled  'Scaramouch*  by  Edward  Ravens- 
croft  was  produced  in  1677. 

Scarborough  warning,  very  short  notice, 
or  no  notice  at  all.  The  origin  of  the  phrase  is 
unknown.  The  statement  of  Fuller,  that  it  is 
an  allusion  to  the  surprise  of  Scarborough  by 
Thomas  Stafford  in  1557,  is  disproved  by  its 
occurrence  in  John  Heywood's  'Proverbs' 
(1546). 

Scarlet,  or  SCADLOCK,  or  SCATHELOCKE, 
WILL,  one  of  the  companions  of  Robin  Hood 
(q.v.). 

Scarlet  Letter,  The,  a  novel  by  Hawthorne 
(q.v.),  published  in  1850. 

The  scene  of  the  story  is  Boston;  in  the 
Puritan  New  England  of  the  i7th  cent.  To 
this  place  an  aged  and  learned  Englishman 
has  sent  his  young  wife,  intending  to  follow 
her,  but  captivity  among  the  Indians  has 
delayed  him  for  two  years.  He  arrives  to  find 
her,  Hester  Prynne,  in  the  pillory,  with  a  babe 
in  her  arms.  She  has  refused  to  name  her  lover, 
and  has  been  sentenced  to  this  ordeal  and  to 
wear  for  the  remainder  of  her  life  the  red  letter 
A,  signifying  adulteress,  upon  her  bosom.  The 
husband  assumes  the  name  of  Roger  Chilling- 
worth  and  obtains  from  Hester  an  oath  that 


[697] 


SCARLET  WOMAN 

she  will  conceal  his  identity.  Hester  takes  up 
her  abode  on  the  outskirts  of  the  town,  an 
object  of  contempt  and  insult,  with  her  child, 
Pearl.  Her  ostracism  opens  for  her  a  broader 
view  of  life,  she  devotes  herself  to  works  of 
mercy,  and  gradually  wins  the  respect  of 
the  townsfolk.  Roger^  ChiUingworth,  in  the 
character  of  a  physician,  applies  himself  to 
the  discovery  of  her  paramour.  Hester's 
lover  is,  in  fact,  the  Rev.  Arthur  Dirnmesdale, 
a  young  and  highly  revered  minister  whose 
lack  of  courage  has  prevented  him  from  de- 
claring his  guilt  and  sharing  Hester's  punish- 
ment. The  author  traces  the  steps  by  which 
ChiUingworth  discovers  him,  the  cruelty  with 
which  he  fastens  on  and  tortures  him,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  moral  degradation  that 
this  process  involves  for  ChiUingworth  him- 
self. When  Dimmesdale  at  the  end  of  seven 
years  is  reduced  to  the  verge  of  lunrcy  and 
death,  Hester,  emancipated  by  her  ex- 
perience, proposes  to  him  that  they  shall  flee 
to  Europe,  and  for  a  moment  he  dallies  with 
the  idea.  But  he  puts  it  from  him^as  a  tempta- 
tion of  the  Evil  One,  makes  public  confession 
on  the  pillory  which  had  been  the  scene  of 
Hester's  shame,  and  dies  in  her  arms. 
Scarlet  Woman,  THE,  an  abusive  term 
applied  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
allusion  to  Rev.  xvii.  1—5. 
SCARRON,  PAUL  (1610-60),  a  French 
burlesque  dramatist  and  novelist,  deformed 
and  paralysed  in  his  lower  limbs,  who  in 
1652  married  Fran?oise  d'Aubigne*,  later  the 
celebrated  Mme  de  Maintenon. 
Scatcherd,  ROGER,  Louis,  and  MARY, 
characters  in  Trollope's  'Dr.  Thorne*  (q.v.). 

Scavenger's  Daughter,  see  Skeffington's 
Daughter. 

Scazon,  from  a  Greek  word  which  means 
limping,  halting,  a  modification  of  the  iambic 
trimeter  in  which  a  spondee  or  trochee  is 
substituted  for  the  final  iambus.  It  is  also 
called  Choliamb* 

Scenario,  a  sketch  or  outline  of  the  plot  of 
a  play  or  film,  giving  particulars  of  the  scenes, 
situations,  &c. 

Scenes  of  Clerical  Life,  a  series  of  three  tales 
by  G.  Eliot  (q.v.),  published  in  two  volumes 
in  1858,  after  having  appeared  in  'Blackwood' 
in  the  previous  year. 

The  first  of  these  is  'The  Sad  Fortunes  of 
the  Rev.  Amos  Barton',  the  sketch  of  a 
commonplace  clergyman,  the  curate  of 
Shepperton,  without  learning,  tact,  or  charm, 
underpaid,  unpopular  with  his  parishioners, 
who  earns  their  affection  by  his  misfortune — 
the  loss  from  overwork  and  general  wretched- 
ness of  his  beautiful  gentle  wife,  Milly. 

The  second  is  'Mr.  Gilfil's  Love-Story*,  the 
tale  of  a  man  whose  nature  has  been  warped 
by  a  tragic  love  experience.  Maynard  Gilfil 
was  parson  at  Shepperton  before  the  days  of 
Amos  Barton.  He  had  been  the  ward  of 
Sir  Christopher  Cheverel  and  his  domestic 
chaplain,  and  had  fallen  deeply  in  love  with 


SCHELLING 

Caterina  Sastri  (Tina),  the  daughter  of  an  un- 
lucky Italian  singer,  whom  the  Cheverels  had 
adopted.  But  Capt.  Anthony  Wybrow,  the 
heir  of  Sir  Christopher,  a  shallow  selfish 
fellow,  had  made  love  to  Tina  and  won  her 
heart.  On  his  part  it  was  little  more  than  a 
flirtation,  and  at  his  uncle's  bidding  he  had 
thrown  her  over  for  the  rich  Miss  Assher. 
The  strain  of  this  and  various  aggravating 
circumstances  brought  Tina's  passionate 
nature  to  the  verge  of  lunacy.  All  this  Gilfil 
had  watched  with  sorrow  and  unabated  love. 
Tina  rallied  for  a  time  under  his  devoted  care 
and  finally  married  him,  but  died  in  a  few 
months,  leaving  Gilfil  like  a  tree  lopped  of  its 
best  branches. 

The  third  tale  is  'Janet's  Repentance',  the 
story  of  a  conflict  between  religion  and  ir- 
religion,  and  of  the  influence  of  a  sympathetic 
human  soul.  The  Rev.  Edgar  Tryan,  an 
earnest  evangelical  clergyman,  comes  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  Milby,  an  industrial  town 
sunk  in  religious  apathy,  which  the  scanty 
ministrations  of  the  avaricious  old  curate, 
Mr.  Crewe,  do  nothing  to  stir.  His  endeavour 
to  remedy  this  condition  is  opposed  with  the 
utmost  vigour  and  bitterness  by  a  group  of 
inhabitants  led  by  Dempster,  a  hectoring 
drunken  brute  of  a  lawyer,  who  beats  and 
bullies  his  long-suffering  wife,  Janet,  until 
he  drives  her  to  seek  solace  in  drink.  She 
shares  her  husband's  prejudices  against  the 
methodistical  innovator,  until  she  discovers 
in  him  a  sympathetic  fellow  sufferer.  Her 
husband's  ill-treatment,  which  culminates  in 
an  act  of  gross  brutality,  causes  her  to  appeal 
to  Tryan  for  help,  and  under  his  guidance  her 
struggle  against  the  craving  for  drink  begins. 
Dempster  dies  of  delirium  tremens,  and  Janet 
gradually  achieves  self-conquest.  The  death 
of  Tryan  from  consumption  leaves  her  be- 
reaved, but  strengthened  for  a  life  of  service. 
Sceptic,  in  philosophy,  originally  a  follower 
of  the  school  of  Pyrrho  (q.v.);  popularly 
applied  to  one  who  maintains  a  doubting 
attitude  with  reference  to  some  particular 
question  or  to  assertions  of  apparent  fact. 
Schamir,  in  Rabbinical  and  medieval  myth, 
the  impersonation  of  a  mysterious  force 
which  enabled  Solomon  to  build  his  temple 
without  the  use  of  iron.  It  is  sometimes 
represented  as  a  worm.  It  can  shatter  stones, 
paralyse,  or  restore  to  life.  Baring-Gould 
('Curious  Myths')  thinks  that  in  its  various 
forms  it  represents  the  lightning. 
Scheherazade  or  SHAHRAZAD,  in  the  'Ara- 
bian Nights'  (q.v.),  the  daughter  of  the  vizir 
of  King  Shahriyar,  who  married  the  king, 
and  escaped  the  death  that  was  the  usual 
fate  of  his  wives  by  telling  him  the  tales  which 
compose  that  work,  interrupting  them  at  an 
interesting  point,  and  postponing  the  con- 
tinuation till  the  next  night. 
SCHELLING,  FRIEDRICH  WILHELM 
JOSEPH  VON  (1775-1854),  German  philo- 
sopher, a  professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena 
(1798),  afterwards  secretary  of  the  Academy 


[698] 


SCHILLER 

of  Fine  Arts  at  Munich,  and  finally  teacher  of 
philosophy  at  Berlin.  He  was  a  disciple  at 
first  of  Fichte  (q.v.),  but  soon  departed  from 
his  doctrine.  Unlike  Fichte,  Schelling  makes 
the  universe  rather  than  the  ego  the  element 
of  reality.  Nature,  obedient  to  the  laws  of 
human  intelligence,  is  a  single  living  organ- 
ism working  towards  self-consciousness,  a 
faculty  dormant  in  inanimate  objects  and 
fully  awake  only  in  man,  whose  being  con- 
sists in  'intellectual  intuition*  of  the  world  he 
creates.  Schilling's  numerous  works  include 
*Vom  Ich  als  Prinzip  der  Philosophic'  (1795), 
'Von  der  Weitseele'  (1798),  and  'System  des 
transcendentalen  Idealismus*  (1800).  In  his 
later^  writings  his  philosophy  took  a  more 
religious  tinge. 

SCHILLER,  JOHANN  CHRISTOPH 
FRIEDRICH  VON  (1759-1805),  German 
dramatist  and  lyric  poet,  the  son  of  an  army 
surgeon,  and  the  chief  figure  of  the  'Sturm 
und  Drang*  (q.v.)  period  of  German  litera- 
ture. Schiller  first  came  into  prominence 
and  struck  the  note  of  revolt  in  his  prose 
drama,  'Die  Rauber'(£The  Robbers',  1781), 
in  which  Karl  von  Moor  the  heroic  robber, 
who  takes  to  the  woods  to  redress  the  evils 
of  his  father's  court,  is  contrasted  with  the 
stage  villain,  his  wicked  brother,  in  a  series  of 
extravagant  incidents.  The  crudities  which 
marred  this  play  disappear  in  great  measure 
in  Schiller's  next  great  dramatic  work,  the 
blank- verse  'Don  Carlos*  (1787);  but  he 
reached  the  summit  of  his  dramatic  power 
in  the  long  historical  tragedy  'Wallenstein' 
(1799),  composed  of  three  parts,  'Wallen- 
stein's  Camp',  'The  Piccolomini',  and  'Wal- 
lenstein's  Death*  (translated  into  English 
verse  by  S.  T.  Coleridge  in  1800).  This 
treats  of  the  treasonable  attempt  of  Wallen- 
stein (the  Emperor's  great  general  and  op- 
ponent of  Gustavus  Adolphus)  to  overthrow 
the  Emperor,  an  attempt  that  is  defeated  by 
the  murder  of  the  traitor.  'Wallenstein'  was 
followed  by  'Maria  Stuart*  in  1800,  'Die 
Jungfrau  von  Orleans*  (Joan  of  Arc)  in  1801, 
'Die  Braut  von  Messina'  (on  the  theme  of  the 
passion  of  two  brothers  for  the  same  woman) 
in  1803,  and  'Wilhelm  Tell'  in  1804. 

Schiller  was  no  less  great  as  a  writer  of 
reflective  and  lyrical  poems  and  of  ballads, 
and  his  best  work  of  this  kind  belongs  to  the 
period  of  his  intimacy  with  Goethe,  dating 
from  1794.  Among  the  more  notable  of  these 
poems  are  'Das  Ideal  und  das  Leben*,  'Der 
Taucher',  'Die  Klage  der  Ceres*,  and  'Die 
Glocke',  a  work  immensely  popular  in  Ger- 
many, in  which  the  process  of  casting  a  bell 
forms  the  symbolic  centre  in  the  presentment 
of  the  chequered  life  of  man.  Mention  should 
also  be  made  of  the  earlier  'Die  Kiinstler',  a 
poem  on  the  humanizing  influence  of  art. 

Schiller  was  also  author  of  philosophical 
and  historical  works,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  'Philosophische  Briefe'(i786), 
and  histories  of  the  'Revolt  in  the  Nether- 
lands' (1788),  and  'The  Thirty  Years  War* 


SCHOLASTICISM 

(1789-93).  Schiller  was  appointed  professor 
of  history  at  Jena  in  1789. 
Schism,  THE  GREAT,  the  state  of  divided 
allegiance  in  the  Western  Church  due  to  the 
election  of  rival  Italian  and  French  popes 
(Urban  VI  and  Clement  VII)  in  1378.  It 
was  ended  in  1417  by  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance, but  other  schisms  followed  till  1448, 
SCHLEGEL,  AUGUST  WILHELM  VON 
(1767-1845),  a  German  Romanticist,  chiefly 
known  in  England  for  his  translation  into  the 
German  language,  with  the  assistance  of  his 
wife  and  others,  of  the  plays  of  Shakespeare. 
SCHLEGEL,  FRIEDRICH  VON  (1772- 
1829),  younger  brother  of  August  Wilhelm 
von  Schlegel  (q.v.),  notable  for  his  studies  of 
the  history  of  literature  ('Geschichte  der 
griechischen  Poesie*  and  'Geschichte  der  alten 
und  neuen  Litteratur'),  and  especially  for  his 
recognition  of  the  importance  of  the  ancient 
Hindoo  poetry  ('Sprache  und  Weisheit  der 
Indier',  1808). 

Schlemihl,  PETER,  in  the  story  or  allegory  by 
Chamisso  (q.v.),  the  impecunious  young  man 
who  surrendered  his  shadow  to  the  devil,  a 
thin  elderly  gentleman  in  a  grey  coat,  in 
exchange  for  a  purse  of  Fortunatus.  The 
lack  of  shadow  exposes  Peter  to  disagreeable 
remark,  and  in  spite  of  his  wealth  he  finds 
himself  an  outcast  from  human  society. 
Schliemann,  HEINRICH  (1822-90),  born  in 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  the  celebrated  Ger- 
man archaeologist,  who  excavated  Troy, 
Tiryns,  and  Mycenae.  He  was  engaged 
during  the  early  part  of  his  life  in  commerce, 
mainly  in  Russia,  and  did  not  begin  archaeo- 
logical work  until  nearly  fifty  years  of  age. 
His  excavation  of  Troy  was  carried  out  in  the 
years  1870-82. 

Scholar-Gipsy,  The,  a  poem  by  M.  Arnold 
(q.v.),  published  in  1853. 

The  poem,  pastoral  in  setting,  is  based  on 
an  old  legend,  narrated  by  Glanvill  (q.v.)  in 
his  'Vanity  of  Dogmatising',  of  an  'Oxford 
scholar  poor*  who,  tired  of  seeking  prefer- 
ment, joined  the  gipsies  to  learn  their  lore, 
roamed  the  world  with  them,  and  still  haunts 
the  Oxford  countryside.  With  this  is  woven 
a  wonderful  evocation  of  that  landscape,  and 
reflections  on  the  contrast  between  the  con- 
centration and  faith  of  the  scholar-gipsy  and 

this  strange  disease  of  modem  life, 
With  its  sick  hurry,  and  divided  aims. 
Scholasticism,  or  the  doctrines  of  the 
Schoolmen  (q.v.),  the  predominant  theo- 
logical and  philosophical  teaching  of  the 
period  1100-1500,  in  the  main  an  attempt 
to  reconcile  Aristotle  with  the  Scriptures, 
reason  with  faith.  In  the  I4th  cent.,  after 
Ockham,  scholasticism,  as  an  intellectual 
movement,  had  exhausted  itself.  It  degener- 
ated into  an  endless  discussion  of  logical 
futilities,  completely  divorced  from  the  reali- 
ties of  life.  The  term  is  also  used  of  a  narrow 
and  unenlightened  insistence  on  traditional 
doctrines  and  forms  of  exposition. 


[699] 


SCHOLEMASTER 

Scholemaster ,  The,  see  Ascham. 

School  for  Scandal,  The,  a  comedy  by  R.  B. 

Sheridan  (q.v.),  produced  in^i777. 

In  this  play,  his  masterpiece,  the  author 
contrasts  two  brothers,  Joseph  Surface  the 
hypocrite,  and  Charles  Surface  the  good- 
natured  reckless  spendthrift.  Charles  is  in 
love  with  Maria,  Sir  Peter  Teazle's  ward,  and 
his  affection  is  returned;  and  Joseph  is 
courting  her  for  her  fortune,  while  at  the 
same  time  making  love  to  Lady  Teazle.  Sir 
Peter,  an  old  man  who  has  married  a  young  wife 
six  months  before,  is  made  miserable  by  her 
frivolity.  The  scandal-mongers,  Sir  Ben- 
jamin Backbite,  Lady  Sneerwell,  and  Mrs. 
Candour,  who  'strike  a  character  dead  ^  at 
every  word',  provide  the  background  and  give 
occasion  for  Sir  Peter's  classic  remark,  on 
leaving  their  company,  'Your  ladyship  must 
excuse  me  ...  But  I  leave  my  character 
behind  me.'  Sir  Oliver  Surface,  the  rich 
uncle  of  Joseph  and  Charles,  returns  un- 
expectedly from  India  and  decides  to 
test  the  characters  of  his  nephews  before 
revealing  himself.  He  visits  Charles  in 
the  character  of  a  moneylender,  and 
Charles  light-heartedly  sells  him  the  family 
pictures,  but  refuses  to  sell  at  any  price 
the  portrait  of  'the  ill-looking  little  fellow 
over  the  settee*,  who  is  Sir  Oliver  him- 
self, and  thus  wins  the  old  man's  heart. 
Meanwhile  Joseph  receives  a  visit  from  Lady 
Teazle  in  his  library  and  insidiously  attempts 
to  seduce  her.  The  sudden  arrival  of  Sir 
Peter  obliges  Lady  Teazle  to  hide  behind  a 
screen,  where  she  is  put  to  shame  by  hearing 
proof  of  Sir  Peter's  generosity  to  her,  though 
he  suspects  an  attachment  between  her  and 
Charles.  The  arrival  of  Charles  sends  Sir 
Peter  in  turn  to  cover.  Sir  Peter  detects  the 
presence  of  a  woman  behind  the  screen,  but  is 
told  by  Joseph  that  it  is  a  little  French  mil- 
liner, and  takes  refuge  in  a  cupboard.  The 
conversation  between  Joseph  and  Charles 
proves  to  Sir  Peter  that  his  suspicion  of 
Charles  was  unfounded,  and  the  throwing 
down  of  the  screen  reveals  Lady  Teazle. 
Scarcely  is  this  revelation  of  Joseph's  hypo- 
crisy accomplished  than  Sir  Oliver  visits  him 
in  the  character  of  a  needy  but  deserving 
relative  applying  for  assistance,  which  Joseph 
refuses  on  the  plea  of  the  stinginess  of  his 
uncle.  This  completes  the  exposure  of 
Joseph.  Charles  is  united  to  Maria,  and  Sir 
Peter  is  reconciled  to  Lady  Teazle. 

Schoole  of  Abuse,  see  Gosson. 
Schoolmen,  the  succession  of  writers,  from 
about  the  i  ith  to  the  r$th  cent.,  who  treat  of 
logic,  metaphysics,  and  theology,  as  taught 
in  the  'schools'  or  universities  of  Italy, 
France,  Germany,  and  England,  that  is  to 
say  on  the  basis  of  Aristotle  and  the  Christian 
Fathers,  whom  the  schoolmen  endeavoured 
to  harmonize.  Among  the  great  Schoolmen 
were  Peter  Lombard,  Abelard,  Albertus 
Magnus,  Aquinas,  Duns  Scotus,  and  Ock- 
nam  (qq.v.). 


SCIRON 

Schoolmistress,  The,  see  Shenstone. 
SCHOPENHAUER,  ARTHUR  (1788- 
1860),  whose  father  died  a  lunatic  and  who 
himself  suffered  from  the  mania  of  persecu- 
tion, was  the  author  of  a  pessimistic  philoso- 
phy embodied  in  his  'Die  Welt  als  Wille  und 
Vorstellung'  (1819,  'The  World  as  Will  and 
Representation').  According  to  this,  Will,  of 
which  we  have  direct  intuition,  is  the  'thing- 
in-itself,  the  only  reality.  Will,  which  is 
self-conscious  in  man,  finds  its  equivalent  in 
the  unconscious  forces  of  nature.  Will,  then, 
it  is  that  creates  the  world ;  and  the  world  is 
not  only  an  illusion  but  a  malignant  thing, 
which  inveigles  us  into  reproducing  and 
perpetuating  life.  Asceticism,  and  primarily 
chastity,  are  the  duty  of  man,  with  a  view  to 
terminating  the  evil.  Egoism,  which  mani- 
fests itself  principally  in  the  'will  to  live*, 
must  be  overcome.  Its  opposite  is  com- 
passion, the  moral  law,  based  on  the  in- 
tuition of  the  essential  identity  of  all  beings. 
God,  freewill,  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
are  illusions. 

SCHREINER,  OLIVE  EMILIE  AL- 
BERTINA  (1855-1920),  born  in  Cape 
Colony,  came  to  England  in  1881  and  pub- 
lished under  the  pseudonym  'Ralph  Iron'  in 
1883  the  most  successful  of  her  works,  'The 
Story  of  an  African  Farm'.  Her  'Women  and 
Labour'  appeared  in  1911,  and  an  uncom- 
pleted novel  'From  Man  to  Man'  posthu- 
mously in  1926.  She  married  in  1894  a 
South  African  politician,  Samuel  Cron 
Cronwright,  who  wrote  an  introduction  to 
this  last  work. 

Schubert  FRANZ  PETER  (1797-1828),  the 
Austrian  composer,  who  in  his  short  life 
produced  several  operas,  ten  symphonies, 
and  much  other  music.  He  was  one  of  the 
greatest  of  song-writers  and  composed  more 
than  500  songs  ('Erlkonig',  *The  Trout,' 
'The  Wanderer',  &c.). 

Scipio  Africanus  Major,  PUBLIUS  CORNE- 
LIUS (237?-! 83?  B.C.),  the  conqueror  of 
Spain,  and  of  Hannibal  at  the  battle  of  Zama 
(202  B.C.),  and  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Ro- 
mans. When  accused  of  peculation  and 
brought  to  trial  in  185  he  proudly  reminded 
the  people  that  it  was  the  anniversary  of  the 
battle  of  Zama  and  triumphantly  brushed 
aside  the  charge.  It  is  recorded  of  him  that 
he  refused  to  see  a  beautiful  Spanish  princess 
who  had  fallen  into  his  hands  after  the  taking 
of  Carthago  Nova,  and  not  only  restored  her 
to  her  parents  but  added  presents*  for  the 
person  to  whom  she  was  betrothed. 
How_  he  surnamed  of  Africa  dismissed, 
In  his  prime  youth,  the  fair  Iberian  maid. 
(Milton,  'Paradise  Regained',  II.  199.) 

Sciron,  a  legendary  robber  in  Attica,  who 
waylaid  travellers,  compelled  them  to  wash 
his  feet,  robbed  them,  and  finally  threw  them 
down  from  the  'Scironian  rocks*  (near  Me- 
gara)  into  the  sea.  He  was  destroyed  by 
Theseus. 


[700] 


SCOGAN 

SGOGAN,  HENRY  (i36i?-i4o7),  a  poet 
and  a  correspondent  of  Chaucer,  to  whom  the 
latter  addressed  an  'envoy*  or  verse  epistle. 
He  was  tutor  to  four  sons  of  Henry  IV.  He  is 
referred  to  by  Leland  as  a  man  given  to  all 
sorts  of  jocoseness  and  wit,  by  Shakespeare 
in  cz  Henry  IV,  in.  ii,  and  by  Jonson  in  'The 
Fortunate  Isles'. 

Scogan,  JOHN,  a  celebrated  jester  of  Ed-, 
ward  IV,  whose  exploits,  real  or  imagined, 
are  recorded  in  'The  Geystes  of  Skoggan' 
(1565-6). 

Scone  stone,  a  stone  supposed  to  have  been 
brought  to  Scone  in  Scotland  from  Tara  in 
Ireland,  and  used  as  the  coronation  stone  of 
the  Scottish  kings.  Edward  I  had  it  re- 
moved to  Westminster  Abbey,  where  it  was 
placed  under  the  coronation  chair,  and  still 
remains.  In  Irish  legend  the  stone  of  Tara 
was  said  to  be  that  on  which  Jacob  rested 
his  head  at  Bethel. 

Scot,  MICHAEL  and  REGINALD,  see  Scott. 

Scotist,  a  follower  or  disciple  of  Duns 
Scotus  (q.v.),  whose  system  was  in  many 
respects  opposed  to  that  of  Thomas  Aquinas. 
The  followers  of  the  latter  were  known  as 
'Thomists*. 

Scotland  Yard,  in  Whitehall,  near  Charing 
Cross,  London,  where  formerly  stood  'great 
buildings  for  receipt  of  the  kings  of  Scotland 
and  other  estates  of  that  country',  and  where 
Margaret  queenof  Scots,  sisterofHenry  VIII, 
'had  her  abiding*  (Stow)  when  she  paid  a 
visit  to  London  before  her  marriage  with  the 
earl  of  Angus.  It  is  now  the  head-quarters 
of  the  Metropolitan  Police  and  is  known  as 
New  Scotland  Yard. 

Scots  Musical  Museum,  a  collection  of 
Scots  songs  published  by  James  Johnson 
(d.  1811)  in  five  volumes,  1787-1803.  Bums 
(q.v.)  took  an  important  part  in  the  editing, 
and  contributed  two  songs  to  vol.  i.  Lady 
Anne  Lindsay's  'Auld  Robin  Gray*  appeared 
in  it;  also  songs  by  Joanna  Baillie,  Dr.  Black- 
lock,  James  Tytler,  and  Sir  Alexander 
Boswell. 

SCOTT  or  SCOT,  MICHAEL  (1175?- 
1334?),  a  scholar  of  Scottish  birth,  who 
studied  at  Oxford  and  on  the  Continent,  and 
was  attached  to  the  court  of  the  Emperor 
Frederick!!,  probably  in  the  capacity  of  official 
astrologer.  He  was  sent  by  Frederick  II, 
about  1230,  to  the  universities  of  Europe  to 
communicate  to  them  versions  of  Aristotle 
made  by  Michael  and  others.  Legends  of  his 
magical  power  have  served  as  a  theme  to 
many  great  writers  from  Dante  ('  Inferno *, 
c.  xx,  1 1 6)  to  Sir  W.  Scott  ('Lay  of  the 
Last  Minstrel').  His  printed  works  include 
'Liber  Physiognomiae'  (i477)>  a  translation 
of  Aristotle's  'De  Animalibus'  (1496),  and 
'Quaestio  Curiosa  de  Natura  Solis  et  Lunae* 
(1622).  Works  of  his  on  astronomy  and 
alchemy,  and  various  translations,  still  re- 
main in  manuscript. 


SCOTT 

SCOTT,  MICHAEL  (1789-1835),  author 
of  'Tom  Cringle's  Log',  which  was  published 
in  'Blackwood's  Magazine'  in  1829-33.  *t 
gives  vivid  and  amusing  pictures  of  life  in 
Jamaica  and  the  islands  of  the  Caribbean  Sea 
in  the  early  days  of  the  igth  century.  Scott 
contributed  'The  Cruise  of  the  Midge'  to  the 
same  periodical  in  1834-5.  Both  works  were 
republished  in  1836. 

SCOTT  or  SCOT,  REGINALD  (1538?- 
99),  educated  at  Hart  Hall,  Oxford,  and 
M.P.  for  New  Romney,  1588-9,  was  author 
of  'The  Discoverie  of  Witchcraft'  (1584). 
This  was  written  with  the  aim  of  preventing 
the  persecution  of  poor,  aged,  and  simple 
persons  who  were  popularly  believed  to  be 
witches,  by  exposing  the  impostures  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  credulity  on  the  other, 
that  supported  the  belief  in  sorcery. 
SCOTT,  ROBERT  FALCON  (1868-1912), 
captain  R.N.,  Antarctic  explorer,  was  author 
of  'The  Voyage  of  the  Discovery'  (1905),  a 
record  of  the  first  National  Antarctic  Expedi- 
tion (1901-4);  and  of  the  notable  journal, 
published  as  'Scott's  Last  Expedition',  in 
1913,  kept  during  the  second  Antarctic 
expedition  (1910-12),  the  last  entry  in  which 
was  made  as  the  writer  was  dying,  storm- 
bound by  a  blizzard  on  his  return  from  the 
South  Pole. 

SCOTT,  SIB  WALTER  (1771-1832),  son 
of  Walter  Scott,  a  writer  to  the  signet,  was 
born  in  College  Wynd,  Edinburgh,  was  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  High  School  and  Uni- 
versity, and  was  apprenticed  to  his  father. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1792.  His 
interest  in  the  old  Border  tales  and  ballads 
had  early  been  awakened,  and  was  stimulated 
by  Percy's  'Reliques*,  and  by  the  study  of  the 
old  romantic  poetry  of  France  and  Italy  and 
of  the  modern  German  poets.  He  devoted 
much  of  his  leisure  to  the  exploration  of  the 
Border  country.  In  1796  he  published, 
anonymously,  a  translation  of  Burger's 
'Lenore*  and  'Der  Wilder  Jager',  and  in  1799 
a  translation  of  Goethe's  'Goetz  von  Ber- 
lichingen*.  In  1797  he  married  Charlotte 
Mary  Carpenter  (daughter  of  a  French 
royalist  refugee),  and  was  appointed  sheriff- 
depute  of  Selkirkshire  in  1799.  In  that  year 
Scott's  schoolfellow,  James  Ballantyne, 
printed  a  few  copies  of  the  Burger  transla- 
tions and  some  original  ballads  under  the 
title  'Apology  for  Tales  of  Terror'.  In 
1802-3  appeared  the  three  volumes  of  Scott's 
'Border  Minstrelsy'  (a  collection  of  ballads, 
historical,  traditional,  and  romantic,  with 
imitations  in  a  separate  section);  and  in  1805 
his  first  considerable  original  work,  the 
romantic  poem,  'The  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel*  (q.v.).  He  then  became  a  partner  in 
James  Ballantyne's  printing  business,  pub- 
lished 'Marmion*  (q.v.)  in  1808,  and  in  the 
same  year  his  edition  of  Dryden's  works,  with 
a  *Life*  of  the  poet.  This  was  followed  by 
'The  Lady  of  the  Lake*  (q.v.)  in  1810, 
'Rokeby*  (q.v.)  and  'The  Bridal  of  Triermain' 


SCOTT 

(q.v.)  in  1813,  'The  Lord  of  the  Isles'  (q.v.) 
in  1815,  and  'Harold  the  Dauntless',  his  last 
long  poem,  in  1817.  In  1809  he  had  entered 
into  partnership  with  John  Ballantyne  in  the 
bookselling  business  known  as  'John  Ballan- 
tyne &  Co/,  and  in  1812  he  had  purchased 
Abbotsford  on  the  Tweed,  where  he  built 
himself  a  residence.  Scott  promoted  the 
foundation  in  1809  of  the  Tory  'Quarterly 
Review*  (q.v.),  having  previously  been  a 
contributor  to  the  'Edinburgh  Review'  (q.v.), 
but  seceded  from  it  owing  to  its  Whig 
attitude.  In  1813  he  refused  the  offer  of  the 
laureateship,  and  recommended  Southey 
for  the  honour.  In  1814  he  issued  his 
edition  of  Swift.  Eclipsed  in  a  measure  by 
Byron  as  a  poet,  in  spite  of  the  great  popu- 
larity of  his  verse  romances,  he  now  turned 
his  attention  to  the  novellas  a  ^  means  of 
giving  play  to  his  wide  erudition,  his  humour, 
and  his  sympathies.  His  novels  appeared 
anonymously  in  the  following  order : ' Waver- 
ley'  (q.v.),  1814;  'Guy  Mannering'  (q.v.), 
1815;  'The  Antiquary'  (q.v.)  in  1816;  'The 
Black  Dwarf'  and  'Old  Mortality'  (qq.v.) 
together  in  1816  as  the  first  series  of 
'Tales  of  My  Landlord';  'Rob  Roy'  (q.v.)  in 
1817;  'The  Heart  of  Midlothian*  (q.v.), 
second  series  of  'Tales  of  My  Landlord*,  in 
1818;  'The  Bride  of  Lammermoor'  and  'The 
Legend  of  Montrose'  (qq.v.),  the  third  series 
of  'Tales  of  My  Landlord',  in  1819 ;  'Ivanhoe* 
(q.v.),  1819;  'The  Monastery*  (q.v.),  1820; 
'The  Abbot'  (q.v.),  1820;  'Kenilworth'  (q.v.), 
1821;  'The  Pirate'  (q.v.),  1821;  'The  For- 
tunes of  Nigel*  (q.v.),  1822;  'Peveril  of  the 
Peak*  (q.v.),  1823  >  'Quentin  Durward'  (q.v.}^ 
1823;  'St  Ronan's  Well'  (q.v.),  1823;  'Red- 
gauntlet*  (q.v.),  1824;  'Tales  of  the  Cru- 
saders', 'The  Betrothed',  and  'The  Talisman* 
(q.v.)  in  1825;  'Woodstock'  (q.v.),  1826; 
'Chronicles  of  the  Canongate:  Two  Drovers, 
The  Highland  Widow,  The  Surgeon's 
Daughter*  (qq.v.),  1827;  'Chronicles  of 
the  Canongate  (second  series) :  St.  Valentine's 
Day,  or  The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth'  (q.v.),  1828 ; 
'Anne  of  Geierstein*  (q.v.),  1829;  'Tales  of 
My  Landlord*  (fourth  series):  'Count  Robert 
of  Paris*  (q.v.)  and  'Castle  Dangerous*  (q.v.), 
in  1832.  Scott  was  created  a  baronet  in  1819, 
and  avowed  the  authorship  of  the  novels 
in  1827.  In  1826,  as  the  result  partly  of 
improvident  borrowings,  partly  of  the  mis- 
management of  James  Ballantyne,  his  partner, 
he  found  himself  involved  in  the  ruin  of  the 
latter  and  of  his  publisher,  Constable,  and 
liable  for  some  £130,000.  Thenceforth  he 
worked  heroically,  shortening  his  own  life  by 
has  strenuous  efforts,  in  order  to  meet  his 
creditors,  who  were  finally  paid  off  at  his 
death  with  the  sums  realized  on  the  sale  of 
his  copyrights. 

Scott's  dramatic  work,  in  which  he  did  not 
excel,  includes  'Haiidon  Hill'  (1822),  'Mac- 
duff's  Cross*  (1822),  'The  Doom  of  Devor- 
goil'  (1830),  and  'Auchindrane,  or  the  Ayr- 
shire Tragedy'  (1830).  Of  these  the  last  is  the 
best.  It  is  founded  on  the  case  of  Mure  of 


SCOTUS 

Auchindrane  in  Pitcairn's  'Ancient  Criminal 
Trials'.  Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the 
important  historical,  literary,  and  antiquarian 
works  written  by  Scott  or  issued  under  his 
editorship :  'The  Works  of  Dryden*  with  a  life 
(1808);  'The  Works  of  Swift*  with  a  life 
(1814);  'Border  Antiquities  of  England  and 
Scotland*  (1814-17);  'Provincial  Antiquities 
of  Scotland'  (1819-26);  an  abstract  of  the 
'Eyrbiggia  Saga*  in  Weber's  'Northern  Anti- 
quities' (1814);  'Description  of  the  Regalia 
of  Scotland*  (1819);  'Lives  of  the  Novelists* 
prefixed  to  Ballantyne's  Novelists'  Library 
(1821-4);  Essays  on  Chivalry  and  the  Drama 
(1814)  and  on  Romance  (1822)  contri- 
buted to  the  'Encyclopaedia  Britannica*; 
'The  Life  of  Napoleon  Buonaparte'  (1827); 
'Tales  of  a  Grandfather'  (q.v.,  1828-30); 
'History  of  Scotland'  (1829-30);  'Letters  on 
Demonology  and  Witchcraft'  (1830);*  Original 
Memoirs  written  during  the  Great  Civil  War* 
of  Sir  H.  Slingsby  and  Captain  Hodgson 
(1806);  the  'Memoirs  of  Captain  George 
Carleton*  (1808);  the  'State  Papers  of  Sir 
Ralph  Sadler*  (1809);  the  'Secret  History  of 
James  I*  (1811) ;  and  'Memorie  of  the  Somer- 
villes*  (1815).  'Paul's  Letters  to  his  Kinsfolk* 
(q.v.)  appeared  in  1816.  Scott  founded  the 
Bannatyne  Club  (q.v.)  in  1823.  In  1826  he 
addressed  to  the  'Edinburgh  Weekly  Journal* 
three  letters  'from  Malachi  Malagrowther*, 
'Thoughts  on  the  proposed  Change  of 
Currency',  defending  the  rights  of  Scotland. 
Scott's  'Life*  by  John  Gibson  Lockhart 
(q.v.),  published  in  1837-8,  is  one  of  the 
great  biographies  of  English  literature.  A 
short  Life  of  Scott  was  published  in  1932  by 
John  Buchan  (q.v.).  Scott's  'Journal*  was 
published  in  1890.  An  edition  of  his  letters 
by  H.  J.  C.  Grierson  began  to  appear  in  1932. 

SCOTT,  WILLIAM  BELL  (1811-90), 
poet  and  artist,  a  friend  of  Swinburne  and 
Rossetti.  He  published  five  volumes  of 
verse,  the  best  of  which  is  of  a  mystical  and 
metaphysical  character. 
Scottish  Chiefs,  The,  an  historical  novel  by 
Jane  Porter  (q.v.),  published  in  1810.  It  was 
extremely  successful  and  was  translated  into 
German  and  Russian. 

The  story  is  a  romance  based  on  the 
historical  events  in  the  life  of  William  Wallace, 
and  opens  with  the  murder  of  Wallace's  wife 
in  1296  by  Heselrigge,  the  English  governor 
of  Lanark,  for  refusing  to  divulge  her  hus- 
band's hiding-place.  The  vicissitudes  of 
Wallace's  career  are  followed  to  his  execution, 
and  the  story  closes  with  the  battle  of 
Bannockburn. 

SCOTUS  or  ERIGENA,  JOHN  (fl.  850),  of 
Irish  origin,  was  employed  as  teacher  at  the 
court  of  King  Charles  the  Bald,  afterwards 
emperor,  c.  847.  He  is  often  confused  with 
one  John  who  came  to  England  with  Grim- 
bald  (q.v.)  at  Alfred's  request,  and  was 
established  at  Malmesbury.  All  the  known 
works  of  Scptus,  which  include  a  series 
of  commentaries  on  Dionysius  the  Areopagite, 


[703] 


SCOTUS 

and  translations,  were  collected  by  H.  J. 
Floss  in  Migne's  'Patrologia  Latina',  cxxii 
(1853);  two  Bother  works  claiming  his  author- 
ship have  since  come  to  light.  The  leading 
principle  of  his  philosophy,  as  expounded  in 
his  great  work,  'De  Divisione  Naturae',  is  that 
of  the  unity  of  nature,  proceeding  from  (i) 
God,  the  first  and  only  real  being;  through 
(2)  the  creative  ideas  to  (3)  the  sensible  uni- 
verse, which  ultimately  is  resolved  into  (4)  its 
first  Cause.  He  was  thus  one  of  the  originators 
of  the  mystical  thought  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  he  prepared  the  way  for  the  scholastic 
philosophy. 

SCOTUS,  JOHN  DUNS,  see  Duns. 
Scourers  or  SCOWRERS,  in  the  I7th-i8th 
cents.,  a  set  of  men  who  made  a  practice  of 
roistering  through  the  streets  at  night,  beating 
the  watch,  breaking  windows,  &c.  They  are 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  literature  of  the 
period  (Wycherley,  Gay,  'The  Spectator', 
£c.). 

Scourge  of  God,  see  Attila. 
Scriblerus  Club,  an  association  of  which 
Pope,  Swift,  Arbuthnot,  Gay,  Parnell,  Con- 
greve,  Lord  Oxford,  and  Atterbury  were 
members,  formed  about  1713.  They  under- 
took the  production  of  the  'Memoirs  of 
Martinus  Scriblerus*  (see  Martinus  Scrib- 
lerus'), designed  to  ridicule  'all  the  false  tastes 
in  learning,  under  the  character  of  a  man  of 
capacity  enough,  that  had  dipped  into  every 
art  and  science,  but  injudiciously  in  each'. 

Scrooge,  a  character  in  Dickens 's  CA  Christ- 
mas Carol*  (q.v.). 

Scrub,  man-of-all-work  to  Lady  Bountiful's 
household  in  Farquhar's  'The  Beaux'  Strata- 
gem* (q.v.). 

Scudamour,  SIR,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie 
Queene*,  Bk.  iv,  the  lover  of  Amoret,  who  is 
reft  from  him  on  his  wedding-day  by  the 
enchanter  Busyrane. 

SCUDfiRY,  MADELEINE  DE  (1607- 
1701),  one  of  the  most  voluminous  writers  of 
French  heroic  romances.  Her  principal  work 
was  'Artamene,  ou  le  Grand  Cyrus*  (ten 
volumes,  1649-53),  which  deals  with  the  love 
of  the  youthful  Cyrus,  grandson  of  the  king 
of  Media,  travelling  incognito  under  the  name 
of  Artamenes,  for  Mandane,  daughter  of 
Cyaxares,  his  uncle,  and  the  rivalry  of  the 
kings  of  Pontus  and  Assyria  for  her  hand, 
resulting  in  sieges,  abductions,  pursuits,  in- 
credible adventures,  and  the  final  union  of 
hero  and  heroine.  The  English  translation 
was  very  popular,  and  Pepys  had  to  check  his 
wife  for  her  long  stories  out  of  it  ('Diary', 
13  May  1666).  A  play  founded  on  the  ro- 
mance was  brought  out  by  John  Banks  in 
1696.  Madeleine  de  Scude*ry  also  wrote 
'Ctelie*  (1656-60),  on  the  subject  of  the 
Clelia  who  escaped  from  the  power  of  Por- 
senna  by  swimming  the  Tiber;  and  'Alma- 
hide*  (1660),  on  the  conflicts  of  the  Zegris 
and  Abencerrages.  All  these  romances  were 


SEASONS 

translated  into  English  and  enjoyed  for  a  time 
great  popularity.  The  brother  of  Madeleine 
de  Scude>$%  George,  a  dramatic  poet,  col- 
laborated with  her  in  her  earlier  romances. 
They  were  vigorously  satirized  by  Boileau 
(q.v.). 

Scylla,  a  nymph  loved  by  Glaucus,  one  of 
the  deities  of  the  sea.  Scylla  scorned  his  suit, 
and  he  addressed  himself  to  Circe  to  render 
her  more  propitious.  Circe  herself  became 
enamoured  of  Glaucus,  and  from  jealousy  of 
Scylla  placed  magic  herbs  in  the  foun- 
tain where  she  bathed.  By  these  Scylla  was 
changed  into  a  monster,  and  was  so  terrified 
by  the  metamorphosis  that  she  threw  herself 
into  the  sea  between  Italy  and  Sicily,  opposite 
the  whirlpool  of  Charybdis  (q.v.),  and  became 
a  danger  to  mariners.  The  passage  of  the 
straits  is  the  theme  of  part  of  the  twelfth  book 
of  the  'Odyssey*,  and  the  story  of  Scylla  is 
referred  to  by  Keats  in  'Endymion*  (iii). 

Scythrop,  a  character  in  Peacock's  'Night- 
mare Abbey*  (q.v.). 

Seafarer,  The,  an  Old  English  poem  of  some 
100  lines,  discussing  the  miseries  and  the 
attractions  of  life  at  sea.  (It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  it  represents  a  dialogue  between 
an  old  seaman  and  a  young  man  who  wishes 
to  follow  the  sea.)  The  poem  passes  to  a 
comparison  of  earthly  pleasures  and  heavenly 
rewards. 

Sea-green  Incorruptible,  a  name  applied 
to  Robespierre  (q.v.)  by  T.  Carlyle  in  his 
'French  Revolution*.  According  to  H. 
Belloc's  introduction  to  this  work  in  Every- 
man's Library,  1906,  *  "Sea  Green",  is  based 
on  one  phrase  of  Mme  de  Stael's  misread. 
What  Mme  de  Stael  said  was  that  the 
prominent  veins  in  Robespierre's  forehead 
showed  greenish-blue  against  his  fair  and 
somewhat  pale  skin.  But  his  complexion 
was  healthy  and  his  expression,  if  anything, 
winning.* 

Seagrim,  MOLLY,  a  character  in  Fielding's 
'Tom  Jones'  (q.v.). 

Seasons,  The,  a  poem  in  blank  verse,  in  four 
books,  one  for  each  season,  and  a  final  'Hymn*, 
by  James  Thomson  (1700-48,  q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1726-30. 

'Winter'  was  the  first  of  the  four  'Seasons* 
written  and  published  (1726).  It  describes 
the  rain,  wind,  and  snow;  the  visit  of  the  red- 
breast; a  man  perishing  in  the  snowdrift 
while  his  family  anxiously  await  him;  wolves 
descending  from  the  mountains;  a  winter 
evening  as  spent  by  a  student,  or  in  a  village,  or 
a  city;  frost  and  skating;  and  the  Arctic  circle. 

Next  came  'Summer'  (1727),  which  sets 
forth  the  progress  of  a  summer's  day,  with 
such  scenes  as  haymaking,  sheep-shearing, 
and  bathing,  followed  by  a  panegyric  of  Great 
Britain.  It  also  includes  a  picture  of  the 
torrid  zone  and  two  narrative  episodes  (of  the 
lover  Celadon  whose  Amelia  is  struck  by 
lightning,  and  of  Damon  who  beholds  Musi- 
dora  bathing). 


[703] 


SEATON 

'Spring*  appeared  in  1728.  The  poet 
describes  the  influence  of  the  season  on  in- 
animate objects,  on  vegetables,  brute  beasts, 
and  lastly  man,  with  a  final  panegyric  on 
nuptial  love.  In  the  charming  picture  of  the 
angler,  the  poet  returns  to  the  earlier  manner 
exemplified  in  'Winter'. 

'Autumn*  followed  in  1730.  The  poet  gives 
a  vivid  picture  of  shooting  and  hunting,  and 
condemns  these  sports  for  their  barbarity. 
He  describes  the  reaping  of  the  fruits  of  the 
earth,  the  coming  of  fogs,  the  migration  of 
birds,  and  the  mirth  of  the  country  after  the 
harvest  is  gathered  in.  This  part  includes  the 
episode  of  Palemon  who  falls  in  love  with 
Lavinia,  a  gleaner  in  his  fields  (the  story  of 
Boaz  and  Ruth). 

The  poem  is  completed  by  the  'Hymn'  to 
Nature  (1730). 

Seaton,  THOMAS  (1684-1741),  fellow  of 
Clare  College,  Cambridge,  founded  by  legacy 
the  SEATONIAN  PRIZE  at  Cambridge  for  sacred 
poetry.  This  is  referred  to  in  Byron's  'English 
Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers". 

Sebastian  (1554-78),  king  of  Portugal, 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Alcazar  in  the  course  of 
an  expedition  against  Morocco.  There  was 
a  widespread  popular  belief  that  he  was  not 
dead  but  would  reappear,  and  various  impos- 
tors appeared  who  claimed  the  crown  in  his 
name.  Dryden's  play,  'Don  Sebastian*  (q.v.), 
relates  to  this  monarch. 

Sebastian,  (i)  in  Shakespeare's  'The  Tem- 
pest* (q.v.),  brother  to  the  king  of  Naples; 
(2)  in  his  'Twelfth  Night*  (q.v.),  brother  to 
Viola. 

Sebastian,  ST.,  a  Roman  soldier  and 
Christian  martyr.  He  was  born  at  Narbonne, 
and  shot  to  death  with  arrows  in  Rome,  about 
A.D.  288,  under  Diocletian.  He  is  com- 
memorated on  20  January. 

Second  Nun's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury 
Tales. 

Sedan,  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  army  of 
Napoleon  III  by  the  Germans  on  2,  Sept. 
1870,  and  of  the  French  emperor's  surrender; 
the  central  incident  of  Zola's  'La  DeMcle'. 

Sedgemoor,  in  Somerset,  the  scene  of  the 
battle  of  6  July  1685  &  which  Monmouth, 
who  had  landed  at  Lyme  Regis  as  the  cham- 
pion of  the  Protestant  party,  was  defeated  by 
the  Royal  troops. 

Sedley,  MR.,  MRS.,  JOSEPH,  and  AMELIA, 
characters  in  Thackeray's  'Vanity  Fair*  (q.v.). 

SEDLEY,  SIR  CHARLES  (x639?-i7oi), 
educated  at  Wadham  College,  Oxford, 
famous  for  his  wit  and  urbanity  and  notorious 
as  a  fashionable  profligate,  was  the  author  of 
two  indifferent  tragedies  and  three  comedies. 
Of  these  the  best  are  'Bellamira'  (q.v.),  pro- 
duced in  2687,  and  'The  Mulberry  Garden', 
partly  based  on  Moliere's  'L'jScole  des  Maris', 
produced  in  1668.  Sedley  also  wrote  some 
pleasant  songs:  Thillis  is  my  only  joy',  'Hears 


SELDEN 

not  my  Phillis  how  the  birds',  &c.  He  figures 
in  Dryden's  'Essay  on  Dramatic  Poesy'  (q.v.) 
as  Lisideius,  who  defends  the  imitation  of 
French  comedy  in  English. 
SEELEY,  Sm  JOHN  ROBERT  (1834-95), 
educated  at  the  City  of  London  School  and 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  was  professor 
of  Latin  at  University  College,  London,  from 
1863,  and  of  modern  history  at  Cambridge 
from  1869  until  his  death.  In  1865  he  pub- 
lished anonymously  his  'Ecce  Homo',  a 
survey  of  the  life  of  Christ  as  one  of  the 
great  religious  reformers,  and  a  defence 
of  Christian  ethics.  His  historical  works, 
designed  to  promote  a  practical  object,  the 
training  of  statesmen,  include:  'The  Ex- 
pansion of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury' (1883),  which  reviews  the  growth  of  the 
Empire  as  an  inevitable  process,  and  infers  the 
imperial  mission  of  Britain  from  the  lessons  of 
the  past,  a  work  which  met  with  great  success ; 
'The  Life  and  Times  of  Stein,  or  Germany 
and  Prussia  in  the  Napoleonic  Age'  (1878); 
and  'The  Growth  of  British  Policy'  (1895), 
tracing  the  development  of  British  foreign 
policy  from  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 

Seicento,  THE,  the  i7th  cent.,  considered  as 
a  period  of  Italian  art  or  literature,  a  period 
of  degenerate  taste. 

Sejan  horse,  THE,  equus  Sejanus,  the  horse 
of  a  certain  Cneius  Sejus,  which  brought 
misfortune  to  him  and  all  subsequent  pos- 
sessors. 

SejanuSt  his  Fall,  a  Roman  tragedy  by 
Jonson  (q.v.),  first  acted  in  1603,  Shakespeare 
and  Burbage  having  parts  in  the  cast. 

The  play  deals  with  the  rise  of  the  histori- 
cal Sejanus,  the  confidant  of  the  emperor 
Tiberius,  his  machinations  with  a  view  to 
securing  the  imperial  throne,  his  fall  and 
execution. 

Selborne,  Natural  History  and  Antiquities  of, 
see  White  (G.). 

SELDEN,  JOHN  (1584-1654),  the  son  of  a 
Sussex  yeoman,  was  educated  at  Chichester 
and  Hart  Hall,  Oxford,  and  became  an 
eminent  lawyer  and  bencher  of  the  Inner 
Temple.  He  was  keeper  of  the  records  in 
1643.  His  'History  of  Tythes',  published  in 
1618,  which  gave  offence  to  the  clergy,  was 
suppressed  by  public  authority.  In  parlia- 
ment he  took  an  active  part  against  the  Crown 
until  1649,  after  which  he  withdrew  from 
public  affairs.  He  won  fame  as  an  orientalist 
by  his  treatise  *De  Diis  Syris'  (1617),  and 
subsequently  made  a  valuable  collection  of 
oriental  manuscripts,  most  of  which  passed 
at  his  death  into  the  Bodleian  Library.  His 
work  in  this  direction  consisted  chiefly  in  the 
exposition  of  rabbinical  law.  His  'Table 
Talk',  containing  reports  of  his  utterances 
from  time  to  time  during  the  last  twenty 
years  of  his  life,  composed  by  his  secretary, 
Richard  Milward,  appeared  "in  1689.  His 
works  include  'Titles  of  Honour*  (1614),  an 
edition  of  Eadmer  ( 1 623 ), ' Marmora  Arundel- 


[704] 


SELDEN  SOCIETY 

liana'  (1624),  *De  Successionibus'  (1631), 
'Mare  Clausum'  (in  which  he  maintained 
against  Grotius  that  the  sea  is  capable  of 
sovereignty,  1635),  'De  Jure Naturali'  (1640), 
'Judicature  in  Parliament'  (1640),  'Privileges 
of  Baronage'(i642),  <Fleta'(i647),  and'Onthe 
Nativity  of  Christ'  (1661).  He  wrote  'Illustra- 
tions' to  the  first  eighteen  'songs'  of  Dray- 
ton's  'Polyolbion'  (q.v.).  His  works  were 
collected  by  Dr.  David  Wilkins  (1726). 

Selden  Society,  THE,  was  founded  in  1887 
by  Maitland  (q.v.),  for  the  publication  of 
ancient  legal  records. 

Select  Society,  THE,  an  association  of 
educated  Scotsmen  formed  in  1754,  whose 
members  met  in  Edinburgh  to  discuss 
philosophical  questions.  Hume  and  Robert- 
son were  among  its  prominent  members. 

Selene,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  goddess  of 
the  moon,  the  Luna  of  the  Romans,  the  sister 
of  Helios  (Sol,  the  sun)  and  of  Eos  (Aurora,  the 
dawn).  In  later  myths  she  is  identified  with 
Artemis  (Diana). 

Seleucids,  THE,  the  dynasty  founded  by 
Seleucus  Nicator  (one  of  the  generals  of 
Alexander  the  Great),  which  reigned  over 
Syria  from  312  to  65  B.C.,  and  subjected  a 
great  part  of  western  Asia. 

Self-Help,  a  work  by  Smiles  (q.v.),  published 
in  1864,  which  enjoyed  great  popularity  and 
was  translated  into  many  other  languages.  It 
inculcates,  by  examples  of  the  lives  and 
characters  of  authors,  artists,  inventors, 
missionaries,  &c.,  the  doctrine  that  the  spirit 
of  self-help  is  the  root  of  all  genuine  growth 
in  the  individual. 

Selim,  the  hero  of  Byron's  'Bride  of  Abydos' 
(q.v.). 

Seljuk,  the  name  of  certain  Turkish 
dynasties  that  ruled  over  large  parts  of  Asia 
from  the  nth  to  the  i3th  cents.,  so  called 
from  the  name  of  their  reputed  ancestor. 
Hence  used  to  designate  that  branch  of  the 
Turkish  people  to  whom  these  dynasties  be- 
longed, in  contradistinction  to  the  Osmanli 
or  Ottoman  Turks.  The  dynasties  began  with 
Togrul  Beg,  grandson  of  Seljuk,  who  made 
himself  a  sort  of  mayor  of  the  palace  to  the 
caliph  of  Bagdad  (c.  1060).  The  Seljuk 
'Turks'  were  the  men  whom  the  Crusaders 
of  the  nth  and  i2th  cents,  had  to  fight;  they 
had  recently  burst  the  frontier  of  the  Eastern 
Empire  and  smashed  the  Greek  army  at 
Manzikert  (1071),  and  all  Asia  Minor  was  in 
their  hands  in  1090. 

Selkirk,  ALEXANDER  (1676-1721),  the  son  of 
John  Selcraig,  shoemaker  of  Largo,  ran  away 
to  sea,  and  joined  the  privateering  expedition 
of  Capt.  William  Dampier  (q.v.),  in  1703. 
Having  quarrelled  with  his  captain,  Thomas 
Stradling,  he  was,  at  his  own  request,  put 
ashore  on  the  uninhabited  island  of  Juan 
Fernandez  in  1704,  and  remained  there  until 
1709,  when  he  was  rescued  by  Capt.  W. 


SENHOUSE 

Rogers  (q.v.).  His  experiences  there  formed 
the  basis  of  Defoe's  'Robinson  Crusoe'  (q.v.). 
Semele,  a  daughter  of  Cadmus  (q.v.;  and 
Hermione,  was  beloved  by  Zeus.  The 
jealous  Hera,  to  punish  her,  assumed  the 
form  of  Beroe,  Semele 's  nurse,  and  persuaded 
her  to  entreat  her  lover  to  corne  to  her  with 
the  same  majesty  that  he  approached  Hera. 
This  rash  request  was  acceded  to  by  Zeus, 
who  came  accordingly  attended  by  lightning 
and  thunderbolts,  by  which  Semele  was 
instantly  consumed.  Her  child,  however,  was 
saved  from  the  flames,  and  was  known  as 
Dionysus  (see  Bacchus). 

Semi'r&mis,  a  mythical  queen  of  Assyria, 
supposed  by  some  to  be  the  daughter  of  the 
fish-goddess  Derceto.  She  married  Onnes, 
an  Assyrian  general,  and  accompanied  him  to 
the  siege  of  Bactra,  where  her  prudent  ad- 
vice hastened  the  fall  of  the  city.  She 
subsequently  married  Ninus,  king  of  Assyria, 
the  reputed  founder  of  Nineveh,  and  suc- 
ceeded him  on  the  throne  (having  according 
to  one  form  of  the  story  contrived  his  death). 
She  built  many  cities,  and  some  of  the  great 
works  of  the  East  are  by  tradition  ascribed  to 
her. 

Semiramis  of  the  North,  a  term  some- 
times applied  to  (i)  Margaret  (1353-1412), 
daughter  of  Valdemar  IV  of  Denmark  and 
wife  of  Haakon  VI  of  Norway,  who  became 
in  1381  regent  of  Norway  and  Denmark, 
and  in  1388  ruler  of  Sweden;  and  (2) 
Catharine  II  of  Russia  (1729-96),  originally 
a  princess  of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  and  empress  of 
Russia  from  1762  (in  which  year  her  husband, 
Peter  III,  was  deposed)  until  her  death, 

Semitic,  meaning  originally  'of  or  pertaining 
to  the  Semites',  the  descendants  of  Shem  the 
son  of  Noah  (in  recent  use,  often  specifically 
equivalent  to  Jewish),  is  used  in  a  linguistic 
sense  to  designate  that  family  of  languages 
of  which  Hebrew,  Aramaean,  Arabic,  Ethio- 
pic,  and  ancient  Assyrian  are  the  principal 
members.  [OED.] 

Sempronius,  (i)  in  Shakespeare's  *Timon 

of  Athens*  (q.v.),  one  of  the  false  friends  of 

Timon;  (2)  a  character  in  Addison's  'Cato* 

(q.v.). 

Senae,  in  imprints,  Sienna. 

SENECA,  LUCIUS  ANNAEUS  (d.  A.D. 
65),  the  philosopher,  was  born  at  Corduba  a 
few  years  before  the  Christian  era.  He  was 
tutor  to  the  young  Nero,  and  when  the  latter 
became  emperor  was  one  of  his  chief  advisers, 
and  exerted  himself  to  check  his  vices.  He 
was  accused  of  participating  in  the  conspiracy 
of  Piso  and  was  ordered  to  take  his  own  life, 
which  he  did  with  stoic  courage.  His  writings 
include  works  on  moral  philosophy  (he  was 
an  illustrious  representative  of  the  Stoic 
school)  and  nine  tragedies  in  a  rhetorical  style ; 
whence  'Senecan*  tragedy. 

Senhouse,  JOHN  MAXWELL,  see  Hewlett. 


3868 


[705] 


SENIOR 

SENIOR,  NASSAU  WILLIAM  (179°- 
1864),  educated  at  Eton  and  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  was  professor  of  political 
economy  at  Oxford,  1825-30  and  1847-52. 
Besides  important  political  articles  con- 
tributed to  the  'Edinburgh  Review*  after 
1840,  he  wrote  'An  Outline  of  the  Science  of 
Political  Economy'  (1836),  'Conversations 
with  M.  Thiers,  M.  Guizot,  and  other  dis- 
tinguished persons  during  the  Second  Em- 
pire' (1878),  'Correspondence  and  Conversa- 
tions of  A.  de  TocqueviUe'  (1872),  'Bio- 
graphical Sketches*  (1863),  and  'Journals' — 
'Kept  in  Turkey  and  Greece'  (1859),  'Re- 
lating to  Ireland'  (1868),  and  'Kept  in  France 
and  Italy*  (1871).  He  also  wrote  a  notable 
series  of  reviews  of  the  Waverley  Novels: 
'Essays  on  Fiction'  (1864). 

Sennacherib,  the  subject  of  Byron's  poem, 
*The  Destruction  of  Sennacherib*,  was  king 
of  Assyria  705-681  B.C.  He  invaded  Palestine 
in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  and  was  obliged  to 
retire  by  a  pestilence  that  broke  out  in  his 
army.  The  poem  is  based  on  the  narrative  of 
his  discomfiture  in  2  Chron.  xxxii. 

Sense  and  Sensibility,  a  novel  by  J.  Austen 
(q.v.),  begun  in  1797  and  published  in  1811. 
A  first  sketch  of  the  story,  read  by  the  author 
to  her  family  in  1795,  was  entitled  'Elinor  and 
Marianne'. 

Mrs.  Henry  Dashwood  and  her  daughters, 
Elinor  and  Marianne,  and  the  still  younger 
Margaret,  are  left  in  straitened  circum- 
stances, for  the  estate  of  which  her  husband 
had  the  life  interest  has  passed  to  her 
stepson,  John  Dashwood.  Henry  Dash- 
wood,  before  his  death,  has  urgently  recom- 
mended to  John  the  interest  of  his  step- 
mother and  sisters.  But  John's  selfishness, 
encouraged  (in  a  discussion,  which  is  one  of 
Jane  Austen's  most  perfect  pieces  of  satire) 
by  his  wife,  the  daughter  of  the  arrogant 
Mrs,  Ferrars,  defeats  his  father's  wish. 
Mrs.  Henry  Dashwood  and  her  daughters 
accordingly  retire  to  a  cottage  in  Devonshire, 
but  not  before  Elinor  and  Edward  Ferrars, 
brother  of  Mrs.  John  Dashwood,  have  be- 
come mutually  attracted,  though  Edward 
shows  uneasiness  in  his  relations  with  Elinor. 
In  Devonshire  Marianne  is  thrown  into  the 
company  of  John  Willoughby,  an  attractive 
but  impecunious  and  unprincipled  young 
man,  with  whom  she  falls  desperately  in  love, 
Willoughby  likewise  showing  signs  of  strong 
affection  for  her.  Willoughby  suddenly 
departs  for  London,  leaving  Marianne  in 
acute  distress  at  the  separation.  Presently 
Elinor  and  Marianne  also  go  to  London,  on 
the  invitation  of  their  friend,  Mrs.  Jennings. 
Here  Willoughby  shows  complete  indiffer- 
ence to  Marianne,  and  finally,  in  an  insolent 
letter,  informs  her  of  his  approaching  marriage 
to  a  rich  heiress.  Marianne,  whose  sensibility 
is  extreme,  makes  no  effort  to  control  the 
outward  symptoms  of  her  grief.  Meanwhile 
Elinor  has  learnt  under  pledge  of  secrecy 
from  Lucy  Steele,  a  sly,  self-seeking  young 


SENTIMENTAL  JOURNEY 

woman,  niece  of  a  former  tutor  of  Edward 
Ferrars,  that  she  and  Edward  have  been 
secretly  engaged  for  four  years.  Elinor,  whose 
sense  and  self-control  are  in  strong  contrast 
to  Marianne's  weakness,  conceals  her  distress. 
Edward's  engagement,  which  was  kept 
secret  owing  to  his  dependence  on  his  mother, 
now  becomes  known  to  the  latter.  In  her 
fury  at  Edward's  refusal  to  give  up  Lucy,  she 
dismisses  him  from  her  sight,  and  settles  on 
his  younger  brother,  Robert,  the  property  that 
would  otherwise  have  gone  to  Edward.  At 
this  conjuncture  a  small  living  is  offered  to 
Edward,  and  the  way  seems  open  for  his 
early  marriage  with  Lucy.  But  now  Robert, 
his  brother,  a  foolish  xpung  &>P>  f^s  i*1  l°ve 
with  Lucy,  who,  findinipier  interest  in  a  mar- 
riage with  the  more  wealthy  brother,  throws 
over  Edward  and  marries  Robert.  Edward, 
delighted  to  be  released  from  an  engagement 
that  he  has  long  regretted,  at  once  proposes  to 
Elinor  and  is  accepted.  Marianne,  gradually 
recovering  from  the  despair  that  had  followed 
her  abandonment  by  Willoughby,  is  finally 
won  by  her  old  admirer,  Colonel  Brandon,  a 
quiet  serious  man  of  five-and-thirty,  whose 
modest  attractions  had  been  completely 
eclipsed  by  his  brilliant  rival. 

The  cheerful,  vulgar  Mrs.  Jennings,  her 
silly  daughter,  and  Mr.  Palmer,  her  ill- 
mannered  son-in-law,  are  among  the  amusing 
characters  in  the  story. 
Sensitive  Plant,  The,  a  poem  by  P.  B.  Shelley 
(q.v.)  written  in  1820. 

The  poet's  spirit  is  represented  as  a 
'sensitive  plant',  or  mimosa,  in  the  midst  of 
a  lovely  garden  tended  by  a  lady,  the  ideal 
of  beauty.  The  lady  dies,  and  death  and 
corruption  settle  on  the  garden.  This  awakens 
in  the  author  the  question  whether,  seeing 
that  beauty  is  permanent,  it  is  not  life  that  is 
unreal. 

Sentences,  MASTER  OF  THE,  Peter  Lombard 
(q.v.). 

Sentimental  Comedy,  a  type  of  sentimen- 
tal drama  introduced  by  Steele  (q.v.),  a  re- 
action from  the  comedy  of  the  Restoration. 
Sentimental  Journey  through  France  and 
Italy,  A,  by  Mr,  Yorick,  a  narrative  by 
Sterne  (q.v.)  of  his  adventures  in  France  in 
1765-6,  published  in  1768.  It  has  often 
been  translated. 

The  work  was  to  consist  of  four  volumes, 
of  which  only  two  were  finished.  In  it,  the 
humour  of  'Tristram  Shandy*  gives  place  to 
sentiment  as  the  predominant  element.  The 
author  travels  to  Calais,  Rouen,  Paris,  through 
the  Bourbonnais  (where  he  finds  the  Maria  of 
vol.  vii  of  'Tristram  Shandy'),  and  nearly  to 
Lyons,  where  the  book  abruptly  ends.  At 
every  turn  he  meets  with  a  sentimental  adven- 
ture, and  finds  pleasure  in  everything,  in 
contrast  to  Smelfungus  (Smollett)  who  saw 
every  object  distorted  by  his  spleen,  and 
Mundungus  (Dr0  S.  Sharp)  who  travelled 
across  Europe  'without  one  generous  con- 
nection or  pleasurable  anecdote  to  tell  of. 


[706] 


SENTRY 

Sentry,  CAPTAIN,  see  Spectator. 

Sephardim,  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
Jews,  so  called  from  Sepharad,  the  name  of  a 
country  mentioned  in  Obad.  xx,  and  identified 
by  the  Rabbins  with  Spain.  The  Sephardim 
regard  themselves  as  the  aristocracy  of  the 
race,  as  opposed  to  the  Ashkenazim,  the  Jews 
of  Central  and  Eastern  Europe  (Ashchenaz 
is  mentioned  as  a  descendant  of  Japhet  in 
i  Chron.  i.  6). 

Sepher  Yezirah,  see  Cabbala. 

Sephiroth,  in  the  philosophy  of  the  Cabbala 
(q.v.)  the  attributes  or  emanations  by  which 
the  infinite  enters  into  relation  with  the  finite. 
September  massacre,  THE,  the  massacre 
of  political  prisoners,  including  the  Princesse 
de  Lamballe,  in  Paris  on  2-5  Sept.  1792.  The 
massacres  dwindled  in  number  after  the  5th, 
but  went  on  occasionally  to  the  Qth. 

Septuagint,  The  (commonly  designated 
LXX),  the  Greek  version  of  the  O.T. 
which  derives  its  name  from  the  story 
that  it  was  made  by  seventy-two  Palestinian 
Jews  at  the  request  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus 
(284-247  B.C.)  and  completed  by  them  in 
seclusion  on  the  island  of  Pharos,  in  seventy- 
two  days  [OED.] ;  or  it  may  have  been  so 
called  because  it  was  authorized  by  the 
seventy  members  of  the  Jewish  sanhedrin 
(Jebb). 

Seraph,  a  word  perhaps  identical  with  the 
Hebrew  saraph  meaning  a  'fiery  serpent*,  is, 
in  Biblical  use  (Isa.  vi.  2),  the  name  of  the 
creatures  with  six  wings  seen  in  Isaiah's 
vision  as  hovering  over  the  throne  of  God. 
By  Christian  interpreters  the  Seraphim  were 
from  an  early  period  supposed  to  be  a  class 
of  angels,  and  the  name  associated  with  that 
of  the  Cherubim  was  introduced  into  the 
Eucharistic  preface  and  the  *Te  Deum*.  In 
the  system  of  the  Pseudo-Dionysius,  the  chief 
source  of  later  angelology,  the  Seraphim  are 
the  highest,  and  the  Cherubim  the  second,  of 
the  nine  orders  of  angels  (q.v.).  [OED.] 

Serapis,  an  Egyptian  divinity,  originally  the 
manifestation  of  Osiris  (q.v.)  in  the  character 
of  a  bull.  His  worship  in  time  superseded 
that  of  Osiris,  and  Serapis  acquired  the 
position  of  the  latter  and  came  to  be  regarded 
as  the  god  of  the  underworld. 

Serbonian  Bog  or  LAKE,  a  great  morass  near 

the  coast  of  Lower  Egypt, 
'Betwixt  Damiata  and  Mount  Casius  old, 
Where  armies  whole  have  sunk'. 

(Milton,  'Paradise  Lost',  ii.  593.) 

Serendipity,  from  Serendip,  a  former  name 
for  Ceylon,  a  word  coined  by  Horace  Walpole, 
who  says  (letter  to  Mann,  28  Jan.  1754)  that 
he  had  formed  it  on  the  title  of  the  fairy-tale 
'The  Three  Princes  of  Serendip',  to  signify 
the  faculty  of  making  happy  discoveries  by 
accident,  which  these  princes  possessed. 

Serious  Call  to  a  Devout  and  Holy  Life,  see 
under  Law  (W.). 


SETEBOS 

Serpentine  verse,  a  metrical  line  beginning 
and  ending  with  the  same  word,  in  allusion 
to  the  ^  representation  of  a  serpent  with  its 
tail  in  its  mouth. 

SERVETUS,  MICHAEL  (MIGUEL  SER- 
VETO)  (1511-53),  a  Spanish  physician  and 
theologian,  who  graduated  in  medicine  in 
Paris  and  lectured  there  on  geometry  and  astro- 
logy, and  subsequently  practised  medicine  at 
various  places  in  France.  He  published  in 
1531  *De  trinitatis  erroribus'  directed  against 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  in  1553 
'Christianismi  restitutio',  in  consequence  of 
which  he  was  arrested  at  Lyons  by  the  In- 
quisition. He  escaped  to  Geneva,  but  was 
arrested  and  burnt  by  order  of  Calvin. 
Sesame,  see  All  Baba. 

Sesame  and  Lilies,  two  lectures  by  Ruskin 
(q.v.),  published  in  1865,  to  which  a  third 
was  added  in  the  revised  edition. 

The  first  lecture,  'Sesame:  of  Kings' 
Treasuries',  deals  principally  with  the 
questions  what  to  read  and  how  to  read, 
passing  to  the  necessity  for  the  diffusion  of 
literature  as  'conferring  the  purest  kingship 
that  can  exist  among  men*.  The  second, 
'Lilies:  of  Queen's  Gardens',  treats  of  the 
sphere,  education,  and  duties  of  women  of  the 
privileged  classes.  The  third  lecture,  de- 
livered in  1868,  is  on 'The  Mystery  of  Life  and 
its  Arts',  the  mystery  that  'the  most  splendid 
genius  in  the  arts  might  be  permitted  to 
labour  and  perish  uselessly',  and  the  mystery 
of  man's  indifference  to  religion  and  the 
purpose  of  life. 

Of  the  first  two  lectures  Ruskin  wrote  in 
1882  that  'if  read  in  connection  with  "Unto 
this  Last",  [they  contain]  the  chief  truths  I 
have  endeavoured  through  all  my  past  life  to 
display'. 

Sesha,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the  king  of  the 
serpents,  who  supports  the  world  on  his  head. 

Sesostris,  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  Rameses  II,  the  great  king  of  the  igth 
Egyptian  dynasty,  who  overran  Syria  and 
defeated  the  Hittites. 

Session  of  the  Poets,  see  Suckling^ 

Sestos,  on  the  European  shore  of  the 
Hellespont,  at  its  narrowest  part,  famous  as 
the  residence  of  Hero  (q.v.).  Here  Xerxes 
built  a  bridge  of  boats  when  he  invaded 
Europe. 

Set,  in  Egyptian  mythology,  the  god  of  evil, 
the  brother,  or  the  son,  of  Osiris,  and  his 
constant  enemy.  He  is  identified  with  the 
Typhon  (q.v.)  of  the  Greeks. 

Setebos,  a  god  of  the  Patagonians,  wor- 
shipped by  Caliban's  mother,  Sycorax  (in 
Shakespeare's  'The  Tempest').  His  purpose 
in  creating  the  world  is  worked  out  by  Caliban 
in  R.  Browning's  'Caliban  upon  Setebos* 
(q.v.). 

Pigafetta's  description  of  Patagonia  had 
been  translated,  and  Drake  and  Cavendish 


[707] 


SETTLE 

had  visited  the  country,  when  Shakespeare 
wrote  'The  Tempest'. 

SETTLE,  ELKANAH  (1648-1724),  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  was  the 
author  of  a  series  of  bombastic  dramas  which 
endangered  at  court  Dryden's  popularity  as 
a  dramatist.  Settle's  heroic  play,  'The  Em- 
press of  Morocco',  in  particular,  had  con- 
siderable vogue,  and  Dryden,  with  Crpwne 
and  Shadwell,  wrote  a  pamphlet  of  criticism 
on  the  play.  Settle  retorted  with  an  attack  on 
Dryden's  'Almanzor  and  Almahide'  (q.y.)» 
Dryden  vented  his  resentment  by  satirizing 
Settle  as  Doeg  in  the  second  part  of  *  Absalom 
and  Achitophel'  (q.v.).  Settle  published 
'Absalom  Senior,  or  Achitoprtiel  Transpros'd' 
in  1682,  and  'Reflections  on  several  of  Mr. 
Dryden's  Plays'  in  1687.  He  was  appointed 
city  poet  in  1691,  and  found  employment 
after  the  revolution  in  writing  drolls  for  Bar- 
tholomew Fair.  He  died  in  the  Charterhouse. 

Seven  against  Thebes,  The,  a  tragedy  by 
Aeschylus  (q.v.)»  for  the  subject  of  which  see 
Eteocles. 

Seven  Bishops,  THE,  Bancroft,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  and  six  other  bishops  (Ken  of 
Bath  and  Wells,  White  of  Peterborough, 
Lloyd  of  St.  Asaph's,  Trelawny  of  Bristol, 
Lake  of  Chichester,  and  Turner  of  Ely),  who 
in  1688  signed  a  petition  asking  that  the  clergy 
should  be  excused  from  reading  in^  their 
churches  James  IFs  second  'Declaration  of 
Indulgence*  (q.v.).  James  regarded  this  as  an 
act  of  rebellion;  the  bishops  were  tried  for 
seditious  libel  and  found  not  guilty,  to  the 
intense  joy  of  the  nation. 

Seven  Champions  of  Christendom,  The 
Famous  Historic  of  the,  a  romance  by  R. 
Johnson  (q.v.),  printed  about  1597.  It  relates 
legends  of  St.  George  of  England,  who 
releases  from  enchantment  the  other  six 
knights,  St.  Denis  of  France,  St.  James  of 
Spain,  St.  Anthony  of  Italy,  St.  Andrew  of 
Scotland,  St.  Patrick  of  Ireland,  and  St.  David 
of  Wales;  and  adds  legends  concerning  these. 
The  book,  the  contents  of  which  are  inspired 
by  the  old  romances  of  chivalry,  was  widely 
read,  and  influenced  Spenser. 

Seven  Cities,  THE  ISLAND  OF  THE,  or  AN- 
TILIA,  a  fabulous  island  believed  in  the  i4th 
and  1 5th  cents,  to  exist  in  the  Atlantic.  It  was 
said  that  seven  bishops  and  their  followers, 
driven  from  Spain  in  the  8th  cent,  by  the 
Moors,  had  founded  seven  cities  on  it.  It 
appears  in  some  i5th-cent.  maps.  It  is  un- 
certain whether  it  represents  some  actual 
discovery  (e.g.  of  the  Azores)  or  a  form  of  the 
legend  of  the  Fortunate  Isles  (q.v.),  or  Atlan- 
tis (q.v.),  or  perhaps  even  Brazil,  which  is 
occasionally  called  'The  Island  of  Brasilia*. 

Seven  Dials,  an  open  space  in  the  parish  of 
St.  Giles-in-the  Fields,  London,  from  which 
seven  streets  radiated.  In  the  centre  stood  a 
column,  on  the  summit  of  which  were,  it  is 
said,  seven  sun-dials  facing  the  several  streets. 


SEVEN  SAGES  OF  ROME 

The  column,  which  was  in  fact  hexagonal, 
was  taken  down  in  1773  and  removed  to 
Addlestone,  and  thence  to  Weybridge  (Wheat- 
ley  and  Cunninghan).  The  district,  which 
was  formerly  one  of  narrow  and  squalid 
streets,  has  been  much  improved  by  the 
opening  up  of  Charing  Cross  Road  and 
Shaftesbury  Avenue. 

Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture,  The,  a 
treatise  by  Ruskin  (q.v.),  published  in  1849. 
This  was  an  incidental  work,  composed 
while  'Modern  Painters'  (q.v.)  was  being 
written.  It  deals,  as  its  title  indicates,  with 
the  leading  principles  of  architecture.  The 
'Seven  Lamps'  are  those  of  Sacrifice,  Truth, 
Power,  Beauty,  Life,  Memory,  and  Obe- 
dience. In  the  'Lamp  of  Sacrifice'  the  author 
suggests  the  distinction  between  sacrifice 
(work  that  carries  on  visible  ornament  into 
partial  concealment)  and  useless  work.  The 
'Lamp  of  Power'  deals  largely  with  shadow 
and  its  uses ;  'The  Lamp  of  Life',  with  'the 
expression  of  vital  energy  in  organic  things* 
and  the  'subjection  to  such  energy  of  things 
naturally  passive  and  powerless' ;  the  'Lamp 
of  Memory*,  with  the  application  of  archi- 
tectural features  to  appropriate  or  inappro- 
priate circumstances;  the  'Lamp  of  Obe- 
dience", with  the  choice  of  a  style  of  archi- 
tecture. The  other  two  'Lamps'  explain 
themselves.  As  a  whole,  the  work  is  a  defence 
of  Gothic,  as  the  noblest  style  of  architecture. 

Seven  Names  of  God,  THE,  El,  Eiohim 
(q.v.),  Adonai,  Yahweh  (see  Jehovah), 
Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh,  Shaddai,  and  Zaba'ot 
('Jewish  Encyclopaedia'). 

Seven  Psalms,  the  seven  Penitential 
Psalms,  vi,  xxxii,  xxxviii,  li,  cii,  cxxx,  cxliii. 

Seven  Sages  of  Greece,  THE,  the  list  of 
these  commonly  given  is:  Thales  (q.v.) 
of  Miletus,  Solon  (q.v.)  of  Athens,  Bias  of 
Priene  (the  reputed  author  of  the  saying 
^tAetv  <f>s  ju-to-ijcrovraj),  Chilo  of  Sparta,  Cleo- 
bulus  of  Lindus  in  Rhodes,  Periander  (q.v.) 
of  Corinth,  and  Pittacus  (q.v.)  of  Mitylene. 

Seven  Sages  of  Rome,  The,  a  metrical 
romance  of  the  early  I4th  cent.  It  is  an 
English  version  (through  Latin  and  French) 
of  short  Eastern  tales,  interesting  as  one  of 
the  earliest  instances  in  English  of  the  form 
of  short  verse-story  subsequently  adopted  by 
Chaucer  in  the  'Canterbury  Tales*.  Diocletian 
has  his  son  educated  by  seven  sages.  His 
stepmother,  jealous  of  him,  accuses  him  to 
the  emperor  of  attempting  to  seduce  her.  The 
boy  is  silent  for  seven  days  (under  the  in- 
fluence of  his  stepmother's  magic)  and  is 
ordered  to  execution.  Then  follow  seven 
tales  by  the  queen  on  each  of  seven  nights, 
designed  to  show  the  emperor  the  danger  of 
the  heir's  supplanting  him,  and  seven  tales 
by  the  sages,  on  each  of  the  following  morn- 
ings, designed  to  show  the  danger  of  trusting 
women.  The  emperor  is  alternately  con- 
vinced by  the  queen  and  the  sages.  The 
seven  days  being  passed,  the  youth  speaks, 


[708] 


SEVEN  SEAS 

the  queen's  malice  is  exposed,  and  she  is 
burnt  at  the  stake.  See  Syntipas. 

Seven  Seas,  THE,  the  Arctic,  Antarctic, 
North  and  South  Pacific,  North  and  South 
Atlantic,  and  Indian  Oceans.  *The  Seven 
Seas'  is  the  title  of  a  collection  of  poems  by 
Kipling  (q.v.)  published  in  1896. 

Seven  Sisters,  or  SEVEN  STARS,  THE,  the 
Pleiades  (q.v.). 

Seven  Sleepers  of  Ephesus,  THE,  seven 
noble  Christian  youths  of  Ephesus  who, 
fleeing  from  the  persecution  of  Decius  (A.D. 
250),  concealed  themselves  in  a  cavern  in  a 
neighbouring  mountain.  They  were  ordered 
by  the  emperor  to  be  walled  up  therein,  and 
fell  into  a  deep  slumber,  which  was  miracu- 
lously prolonged  for  187  years.  At  the  end  of 
that  time  the  slaves  of  one  Adolius,  to  whom 
the  inheritance  of  the  mountain  had  descended, 
removed  for  some  purpose  the  stones  with 
which  the  cavern  had  been  walled  up,  and  the 
seven  sleepers  were  permitted  to  awake. 
Under  the  impression  that  they  had  slept  a 
few  hours,  one  of  them  proceeded  to  the  city 
for  food,  but  was  unable  to  recognize  the  once 
familiar  aspect  of  the  place.  His  singular 
dress  and  obsolete  speech  (or,  in  some 
versions,  the  fact  that  he  tried  to  buy  food 
with  obsolete  money)  caused  him  to  be 
brought  before  a  magistrate,  whereupon  the 
miracle  that  had  occurred  was  brought  to 
light.  The  people,  headed  by  the  bishop, 
hastened  to  visit  the  cavern  of  the  sleepers, 
'who  bestowed  their  benediction,  related 
their  story,  and  at  the  same  instant  expired' 
(Gibbon,  'Decline  and  Fall',  xxxiii).  The 
legend  was  translated  from  the  Syriac  by 
Gregory  of  Tours,  and  is  also  given  by  other 
authors.  It  is  included  in  the  Koran,  c.  xviii, 
among  Mohammed's  revelations.  See  also 
Katmer. 

Seven  Weeks  War,  the  war  of  1866  be- 
tween Austria  and  Prussia,  as  a  result  of 
which  Prussia  became  the  predominant  power 
in  Germany. 

Seven  Wise  Masters,  THE,  a  collection  of 
Eastern  tales,  of  which  there  are  old  versions 
in  several  languages  (see  under ^Syntipas). 
The  story  is  in  the  main  that  of  which  we  have 
a  version  in  the  English  romance,  'The  Seven 
Sages  of  Rome*  (q.v.). 

Seven  Wonders  of  the  World,  THE,  the 
seven  structures  regarded  as  the  most  re- 
markable monuments  of  antiquity,  viz.  the 
Egyptian  Pyramids  (q.v.),  the  Mausoleum 
(q.v.)  at  Halicarnassus,  the  Hanging  Gardens 
(q.v.)  of  Babylon,  the  temple  of  Artemis  at 
Ephesus,  the  statue  of  Zeus  by  Pheidias  (q.v.) 
at  Olympia,  the  Colossus  (q.v.)  at  Rhodes, 
and  the  Pharos  (q.v.)  at  Alexandria,  or  accord- 
ing to  another  list,  the  walls  of  Babylon. 
Seven  Years  War,  THE,  or  Third  Silesian 
War,  the  war  waged  by  France,  Austria,  and 
Russia  against  Frederick  the  Great  (q.v.^of 
Prussia,  who  was  assisted  by  Hanoverian 


SHABBY  GENTEEL  STORY 

troops  and  subsidies  from  England.  It 
lasted  from  1756  to  1763  and  was  ter- 
minated by  the  treaty  of  Hubertusburg,  by 
which  Frederick,  though  he  had  been  hard 
pressed,  retained  all  his  dominions.  Simul- 
taneous and  closely  connected  with  this  war 
was  the  struggle  between  the  English  and 
French  which  ended  in  the  Peace  of  Paris 
of  1763,  leaving  England  predominant  in 
America  and  India. 

Seventh  Heaven,  THE,  see  Heaven. 

Severn,  JOSEPH  (1793-1879),  painter,  a 
friend  of  Keats  (q.v.) ;  he  accompanied  Keats 
to  Italy  in  1820  and  attended  him  at  his 
death. 

Severus,  WALL  OF,  a  reconstruction  in  stone 
by  the  emperor  Septimius  Severus,  about  the 
year  208,  of  the  Wall  of  Hadrian  (q.v.). 
S&VIGN&,  MARIE  DE  RABUTIN- 
CHANTAL,  Marquise  de  (1626-96),  was  left 
a  widow  at  25  years  of  age  with  two  children. 
Of  these,  Francoise,  Mme  de  Grignan,  be- 
came the  principal  recipient  of  the  letters  for 
which  her  mother  is  famous.  Written  in  an 
easy  and  natural  style,  they  give  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  time  of  Louis  XIV. 
Sevres,  a  town  adjacent  to  Paris  on  the 
south-west,  famous  for  its  manufacture  of 
costly  porcelain,  removed  from  Vincennes  to 
Sevres  in  1756  and  subsequently  acquired  by 
the  State. 

SEWARD,  ANNA  (1747-1809),  the  'Swan 
of  Lichfield',  bequeathed  her  poetical  works 
to  Sir  W.  Scott,  who  published  them  with  a 
memoir  in  1810.  Six  volumes  of  her  letters 
appeared  in  1811.  She  frequently  met  Dr. 
Johnson  and  supplied  Boswell  with  particu- 
lars concerning  him. 

SEWELL,  ANNA  (1820-78),  remembered 
as  the  author  of  £Black  Beauty'^  the  'auto- 
biography* of  a  horse,  published  in  1877. 
Seyton,  CATHERINE,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'The  Abbot'  (q.v.). 

Sforza,  FRANCESCO  I,  FRANCESCO  II,  and 
LUDOVICO,  dukes  of  Milan  in  the  isth  and 
1 6th  cents.  The  first  of  them  was  a  con- 
dottiere  in  the  service  of  the  older  line  of 
dukes,  the  Visconti,  ousted  them,  and  took 
the  duchy.  Ludovico  was  the  foolish  duke 
who  called  Charles  VIII  of  France  into  Italy; 
he  is  the  hero  of  Massinger's  tragedy,  *The 
Duke  of  Milan'  (q.v.). 
Sganarelle,  the  name  of  characters  in 
several  of  Moli&re's  comedies,  notably  of  Don 
Juan's  pusillanimous  servant  in ' Le  Festin  de 
Pierre',  and  of  the  hero  of  'Le  M£decin 
malgre'  lui*.  It  is  this  last  who,  in  the  charac- 
ter of  the  pseudo-doctor,  declares  that  'Nous 
avons  change*  tout  cela*,  when  ^some  one 
suggests  that  the  heart  is  usually  on  the  left 
side  of  the  body,  and  not  on  the  right  as 
Sganarelle  supposes. 

Shabby  Genteel  Story,  A,  see  Philip  (The 
Adventures  of). 


[709] 


SHADES 

Shades,  THE,  a  name  for  wine  or  beer  vaults 
with  a  drmking-bar,  either  underground  or 
sheltered  by  an  arcade.  The  name,  now  obso- 
lete, is  said  to  have  originated  at  Brighton. 
Shadow,  SIMON,  in  Shakespeare's  '2  Henry 
IV,  m.  ii,  one  of  Falstaff's  recruits. 
SHADWELL,  THOMAS  (1642  ?-Q2),  dra- 
matist and  poet,  was  educated  at  Caius  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  entered  the  Middle 
Temple.  He  produced  the  'Sullen  Lovers', 
based  on  Moliere's  *Les  F^cheux',  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn  Fields,  London,  in  1668.  ^His 
dramatic  pieces  include  an  opera,  the  'En- 
chanted Island*  (from  Shakespeare's  'Tem- 
pest'), 1673,  'Timon  of  Athens'  (1678),  the 
'Squire  of  Alsatia'  (1688),  'Epsom  Wells' 
(1673),  and  'Bury  Fair'  (1689).  The  last  two 
give  interesting  pictures  of  contemporary 
manners,  watering-places,  and  amusements; 
and  Scott  and  Macaulay  drew  on  the^'Squire 
of  Alsatia'  for  information  regarding  the 
locality.  Shadwell  was  at  open  _  feud  with 
Dryden  from  1683,  the  quarrel  arising  out  of 
some  qualified  praise  bestowed  by  the  latter 
on  Ben  Jonson,  of  whom  Shadwell  claimed 
to  be  the  special  votary.  The  two  poets  re- 
peatedly attacked  one  another  in  satires, 
among  which  were  Dryden's  'Medal'  and 
'Mac  Flecknoe'  (qq.v.),  and  Shadwell's  'The 
Medal  of  John  Bayes'  (1682)  and  a  transla- 
tion of  the  'Tenth  Satire  of  Juvenal'  (1687). 
Shadwell  superseded  Dryden  as  poet 
laureate  and  historiographer  at  the  revolution, 
but  his  claims  to  the  position  were  not  high. 
Lord  Dorset,  to  whom  the  appointment  was 
due,  remarked,  'I  do  not  pretend  to  say  how 
great  a  poet  Shadwell  may  be,  but  I  am  sure 
he  is  an  honest  man.' 
Shafalus,  see  Cephalus. 

Shaftesbury,  ANTHONY  ASHLEY  COOPER, 
first  Baron  Ashley  and  first  earl  of  Shaftesbury 
(1621—83),  a  statesman  prominent  on  the 
king's  side  in  the  Parliamentary  War,  as 
leader  of  the  parliamentary  opposition  to 
Cromwell,  after  the  Restoration  as  a  member 
of  the  Cabal  and  chancellor.  After  his  dis- 
missal he  was  leader  of  the  opposition,  a 
fomenter  of  the  belief  in  the  'Popish  Plot', 
a  promoter  of  the  Exclusion  Bill,  and  a  sup- 
porter of  Monmouth.  He  was  satirized  as 
Achitophel  in  Dryden's  'Absalom  and  Achi- 
tophel*  (q.v.). 

SHAFTESBURY,  ANTHONY  ASHLEY 
COpPER,  third  earl  of  (1671-1713),  excluded 
by  ill-health  from  active  politics,  devoted 
himself  to  intellectual  pursuits,  and  in  par- 
ticular to  moral -.philosophy.  His  principal 
writings  are  embodied  in  his  'Characteristics 
of  Men,  Manners,  Opinions,  Times',  pub- 
lished in  1711  (revised  in  1713),  which  in- 
cluded various  treatises  previously  published 
(notably  his  'Enquiry  concerning  Virtue'  of 
1699).  Shaftesbury  was  influenced  by  Deism ; 
he  was  at  once  a  Platonist  and  a  churchman, 
an  opponent  of  the  selfish  theory  of  conduct 
advocated  by  Hobbes  <q.v.).  Man  has 


SHAKESPEARE 

'affections',  Shaftesbury  held,  not  only  for 
himself  but  for  the  creatures  about  him.  *To 
have  one's  affections  right  and  entire,  not 
only  in  respect  of  oneself,  but  of  society  and 
the  public:  this  is  rectitude,  integrity,  or 
virtue.'  And  there  is  no  conflict  between  the 
self-regarding  and  social  affections;  for  the 
individual's  own  good  is  included  in  the  good 
of  society.  Moreover,  man  has  a  capacity  for 
distinguishing  right  and  wrong,  the  beauty  or 
ugliness  of  actions  and  affections,  and  this  he 
calls  the  *moral  sense'.  To  be  truly  virtuous, 
a  man  must  have  a  disinterested  affection  for 
what  he  perceives  to  be  right. 

Shaftesbury,  ANTHONY  ASHLEY  COOPER, 
seventh  earl  of  Shaftesbury  (1801-85), 
philanthropist,  active  in  many  movements 
for  the  protection  of  the  working  classes  and 
the  benefit  of  the  poor.  He  is  com- 
memorated by  the  'Eros'  (q.v.)  statue  in 
Piccadilly  Circus. 

Shafton,  SIR  PIERCIE,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'The  Monastery'  (q.v.). 

Shagpat,  The  Shaving  of,  see  Shaving  of 
Shagpat. 

Shahnameh,  see  Firdusi. 
Shahrazad,  see  Scheherazade. 

Shakers,  an  American  religious  sect  (calling 
itself  'The  Society  of  Believers  in  Christ's 
Second  Appearing*),  which  exists  in  the  form 
of  mixed  communities  of  men  and  women 
living  in  celibacy.  The  first  of  these  com- 
munities was  founded  by  Ann  Lee  (1736- 
84),  a  factory  hand  and  afterwards  a  cook  in 
Manchester,  who  in  1758  joined  a  band  of 
seceders  from  the  Society  of  Friends,  nick- 
named the  'Shaking  Quakers'  or  'Shakers*. 
She  discovered  celibacy  to  be  the  holy  state, 
and  was  in  time  acknowledged  by  the  Shakers 
as  their  spiritual  head.  In  1774  she  emigrated 
to  America,  where  she  founded  the  first 
American  Shaker  Society  in  1776.  The  name, 
according  to  Dickens,  'American  Notes',  xv, 
was  given  to  the  sect  from  their  peculiar  form 
of  adoration,  consisting  of  a  dance  by  men 
and  women  arranged  in  opposite  parties. 
Artemus  Ward  (see  Browne,  C.  F.)  made  fun 
of  them. 

SHAKESPEARE,WILLIAM  (1564-1616), 
eldest  son  and  third  child  of  John  Shake- 
speare and  Mary,  daughter  of  Robert  Arden  (a 
well-to-do  farmer  of  Wilmcote),  was  born  at 
Stratford-on-Avon,  and  baptized  on  26  Apr. 
1564.  Shakespeare's  father  was  a  husband- 
man (also  variously  described  as  a  yeoman,  a 
glover,  a  butcher,  and  a  wool-dealer)  at  Strat- 
ford and  held  various  municipal  offices. 
Though  in  financial  straits,  he  applied  in  1596 
(perhaps  at  his  son's  instance)  for  a  grant  of 
arms,  which  was  authorized  in  the  same  year. 
We  have  very  little  direct  and  positive  know- 
ledge concerning  the  facts  of  Shakespeare's 
life,  and  are  dependent  on  inferences  of 
more  or  less  probability,  ranging  from 


[710] 


SHAKESPEARE 

practical  certainty  to  conjecture.  The  poet 
was  educated  at  the  free  grammar  school 
at  Stratford.  He  married  in  1582  Anne, 
probably  daughter  of  Richard  Hathaway  of 
Shottery.  He  left  Stratford  about  1 585  to  avoid, 
it  has  been  suggested,  prosecution  for  poach- 
ing at  Charlecote,  the  property  of  Sir  Thomas 
Lucy  (later  caricatured  in  'Shallow'),  and  after 
spending  some  time,  perhaps  as  a  school- 
master in  a  neighbouring  village,  arrived  in 
London  about  1 586,  where  perhaps  he  became 
acquainted  with  Lord  Southampton.  He  was 
probably  engaged  in  some  subordinate  capa- 
city at  one  of  the  two  theatres  (The  Theatre  or 
The  Curtain)  then  existing  in  London,  and 
afterwards  became  a  member  of  the  Lord 
Chamberlain's  (after  the  accession  of  James  I, 
the  king's)  company  of  players.  He  acted 
with  this  company  at  the  Curtain,  the  Globe 
(q.v.),  and  after  c.  1610  at  the  Blackfriars 
Theatre  (q.v.).  He  took  part  in  the  original 
performances  of  Jonson's  'Every  Man  in  his 
Humour*  (1598)  and  'Sejanus*  (1603).  His 
earliest  work  as  a  dramatist  probably  dates 
from  1591,  and  is  to  be  found  in  the 
three  parts  of  'Henry  VF.  This,  and 
Shakespeare's  other  plays  and  poems, 
are  the  subject  of  separate  articles  in 
the  present  book.  The  order  and  dates 
assigned  to  them  below  are  those  which  Sir 
E.  K.  Chambers  thinks  most  probable, 
though  there  is,  he  states,  much  conjecture 
about  the  dates,  and  even  about  the  order. 
'Henry  VI*  was  followed  by  'Richard  III' 
and  'The  Comedy  of  Errors'  in  the  theatrical 
season  of  1592-3,  and  by  'Titus  Andronicus' 
and  'The  Taming  of  the  Shrew*  in  I593~4- 
The  attribution  of  'Titus  Andronicus'  to 
Shakespeare  has  been  much  questioned,  and 
the  share  that  he  had  in  its  authorship  re- 
mains uncertain.  Shakespeare  published  the 
poems  'Venus  and  Adonis*  and  'Lucrece* 
respectively  in  1593  and  1594,  each  with  a 
dedication  to  Henry  Wriothesley,  earl  of 
Southampton,  with  whom,  in  the  latter  year, 
he  was,  it  seems,  on  terms  of  intimate  friend- 
ship. The  'Sonnets*  (q.v.)  were  printed  in 
1609,  but  the  bulk  of  them  appear  to  have 
been  written  between  1593  and  1596,  and  the 
remainder  at  intervals  down  to  1600.  'Two 
Gentlemen  of  Verona',  'Love's  Labour's 
Lost',  and  'Romeo  and  Juliet*  (Shakespeare's 
first  tragedy)  are  assigned  to  1594-5; 
'Richard  IF  and  *A  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream'  to  1595-6.  About  1596  Shakespeare 
may  have  visited  Stratford,  and  relieved  his 
family  from  growing  financial  embarrass- 
ments.. He  purchased  'New  Place',  the 
largest  house  in  the  town,  in  1597,  but  does 
not  appear  to  have  settled  permanently  there 
till  1610,  by  which  year  he  had  by  further 
purchases  built  up  an  estate  at  Stratford. 
'King  John*  and  'The  Merchant  of  Venice* 
are  assigned  to  1596-7,  the  two  parts  of 
'Henry  IV*  to  1597-8.  Shakespeare's  most 
perfect  essays  in  comedy,  'Much  Ado  about 
Nothing',  'As  You  Like  It',  and  'Twelfth 
Night*  belong  to  the  years  1598-1600,  to- 


SHAKESPEARE 

gether  with  *Henry  V*  and  'Julius  Caesar*. 
'Hamlet*  and  'The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor* 
(the  latter,  according  to  tradition,  written  by 
order  of  the  Queen)  are  assigned  to  1600-1, 
'Troilus  and  Cressida'  and  ' All 's  Well  that 
Ends  Well'  to  the  next  two  theatrical 
seasons.  Then  came  the  accession  of 
James  I,  who  (according  to  Ben  Jonson),  no 
less  than  Elizabeth,  held  Shakespeare  in  high 
esteem.  A  period  of  gloom  in  the  author's 
life  appears  to  have  occurred  about  this  time, 
manifested  in  the  great  tragedies,  and  suc- 
ceeded, about  1608,  by  a  new  outlook  in  the 
final  romances.  The  probable  order  and 
dates  of  the  plays  of  the  reign  of  James  are 
given  as  follows  by  Sir  E.  Chambers: 
'Measure  for  Measure*  and  'Othello*,  1604-5 ; 
'King  Lear*  and  'Macbeth',  1605-6;  'Antony 
and  Cleopatra',  1606-7;  'Coriolanus*  and 
'Timon  of  Athens',  1607-8.  'Pericles', 'Cym- 
beline',  and  'The  Winter's  Tale*  are  assigned 
to  the  next  three  seasons ;  and  'The  Tempest*, 
probably  the  last  drama  that  Shakespeare 
completed,  to  1611-12.  'Henry  VIIF,  of 
which  only  some  half-dozen  scenes  are 
thought  to  be  by  Shakespeare,  was  produced 
in  1613.  * 

Meanwhile  his  name  was  applied  by  un- 
principled publishers  to  such  writings  of 
obscure  men  as  'The  Tragedie  of  Locrine* 
(q.v.,  1595),  'The  Puritaine,  or  the  Widdow 
of  Watling-streete*  (q.v.,  1607),  'The  True 
Chronicle  Historic  of  Thomas,  Lord  Crom- 
well' (1602),  'The  Life  of  Oldcastle'  (1600), 
'The  London  Prodigall*  (q.v.,  1605),  'A 
Yorkshire  Tragedy*  (1608),  and  an  old  play  on 
the  subject  of  King  John  (1611).  Only  two 
sonnets  and  three  poems  from  'Love's 
Labour  *s  Lost*  appeared  in  'The  Passionate 
Pilgrim,  by  W.  Shakespeare*  (1599),  the  bulk 
of  the  volume  being  by  others.  Shake- 
speare's name  was  also  appended  to  'a 
poetical  essaie  on  the  Turtle  and  the  Phoenix*, 
which  was  published  in  Robert  Chester's 
'Love's  Martyr',  a  collection  of  poems  by 
Marston,  Chapman,  Jonson,  and  others,  1601. 
Shakespeare  may  have  had  some  part  in  the 
authorship  of  the  historical  play  'Edward 
III'  (q.v.),  published  in  1596,  and  'Sir 
Thomas  More*. 

Shakespeare  now  abandoned  dramatic  com- 
position, but  he  may  have  left  with  the 
manager  of  his  company  unfinished  drafts 
of  more  than  one  play,  which  Fletcher  (q.v.) 
and  others  completed,  such  as  'The  Two 
Noble  Kinsmen'  (q.v.)  and,  possibly,  'The 
History  of  Cardenio*  (licensed  for  publica- 
tion, 1653,  and  perhaps  identical  with  the 
lost  play  'Cardenno*  acted  in  1613).  He 
spent  the  concluding  years  of  his  life 
(1611-16)  mainly  at  Stratford,  but  paid 
frequent  visits  to  London  till  1614,  and 
continued  his  relations  with  actors  and  poets 
till  the  end.  He  purchased  a  house  in  Black- 
friars  in  1613.  He  drafted  his  will  in  January 
1616,  and  completed  it  in  March.  He  died 
23  Apr.  (O.S.,  i.e.  3  May),  after  entertaining 
Jonson  and  Drayton  at  New  Place,  and  was 


SHAKESPEARE-BACON  CONTROVERSY 


SHARP 


buried  in  Stratford  Church,  where  before 
1623  a  monument,  with  a  bust  by  a  London 
sculptor,  Gerard  Johnson,  was  erected.  His 
wife  died  in  1633,  and  Elizabeth  (d.  1670), 
daughter  of  Susannah,  his  elder  daughter, 
and  of  John  Hall,  was  his  last  surviving 
descendant.  His  younger  daughter  Judith 
(Quiney)  had  children,  but  the  last  died  in 
1639.  Mis  only  son,  Hamnet,  Judith's  twin, 
died  in  1596. 

Two  portraits  of  Shakespeare  may  be 
regarded  as  authenticated,  the  bust  in  Strat- 
ford Church,  and  the  frontispiece  to  the 
folio  of  1623,  engraved  by  Martin  Droeshout. 
The  bust  was  by  Gerard,  one  of  the 
brothers  Johnson  (Janssen,  their  father,  was 
an  immigrant  from  Holland),  of  Southwark. 
But  Droeshout  is  unlikely  to  have  had  personal 
knowledge  of  the  poet.  Shakespeare  wrote 
his  name  indifferently,  'Shakspere',  'Shake- 
sper',  'Shakespear',  and  'Shakespeare'.  The 
last  is  the  form  generally  accepted,  being  that 
of  the  main  signature  to  the  poet's  will  and 
that  in  which  the  name  appears  in  most  of  the 
contemporary  editions  of  his  plays  and  in  the 
dedicatory  epistles  to  the  authorized  editions 
of  'Venus  and  Adonis'  and  'Lucrece'. 

Shakespeare's  plays  were  first  collected  in 
1623,  when  a  folio  edition  was  published 
containing  all  the  completed  plays  excepting 
'Pericles'.  Further  folio  editions  appeared  in 
1632, 1663, 1664,  and  1685.  The  first  attempt 
to  produce  a  critical  edition  of  Shakespeare 
was  that  of  Rowe  (q.v.,  1709),  who  provided 
lists  of  dramatis  personae  and  a  systematic 
division  into  acts  and  scenes.  Pope's  edition 
followed  (1725)  and  the  valuable  emenda- 
tions of  Theobald  (q.v.).  Johnson's  edition 
appeared  in  1765.  Capell,  Malone,  and 
Steevens  were  other  important  i8th-cent. 
students  of  Shakespeare.  Dyce's  edition 
appeared  in  1857,  and  Dr.  Aldis  Wright's 
in  1863-9.  The  edition  of  separate  plays  by 
Quiller-Couch  and  J.  D.  Wilson  (Cambridge, 
1921-  )  deals  fully  with  textual  problems; 
and  Sir  E.  K.  Chambers's  'William  Shake- 
speare, a  Study  of  Facts  and  Problems*  (1930) 
is  the  standard  life. 

Shakespeare- Bacon  Controversy,  see 
Baconian  Theory. 

Shakuntala,  see  Sakuntala. 

Shallow,  in  Shakespeare's  *2  Henry  IV,  a 
foolish  country  justice.  He  appears  again  in 
'The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor',  upbraiding 
Falstaff  for  beating  his  men  and  killing  his 
deer.  Shallow  perhaps  represents  Sir  Thomas 
Lucy  of  Charlecote  (he  is  identified  by  his 
coat  of  arms  bearing  'luces',  'Merry  Wives', 
I.  i),  and  the  mention  of  the  killing  of  his 
deer  perhaps  has  reference  to  a  poaching 
incident  in  Shakespeare's  early  days.  But 
much  doubt  has  been  thrown  on  the  story 
and  its  application  to  the  Lucys  of  Charlecote. 

Shalott,  THE  LADY  OF,  Elaine,  the  fair  maid 
of  Astolat  (see  Launcelot  of  the  Lake),  the 
subject  and  title  of  a  poem  by  Tennyson. 


Shamanism,  the  primitive  religion  of  the 
Ural-Altaic  peoples  of  Siberia,  in  which  all 
the  good  and  evil  of  life  are  thought  to  be 
brought  about  by  spirits  who  can  be^  in- 
fluenced only  by  shamans,  priests  or  priest- 
doctors.  The  word  Shamanism  is  now  ex- 
tended to  other  similar  religions,  especially 
of  North- West  American  Indians.  [OED.] 
Shamela  Andrews,  An  Apology  for  the  Life 
of  Mrs.,  see  Pamela. 

Shamrock,  THE,  adopted  as  the  national 
emblem  of  Ireland  because  (according  to  a 
late  tradition)  it  was  used  by  St.  Patrick  to 
illustrate  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 
Shan  van  Vocht,  The,  the  title  of  an  Irish 
revolutionary  song  of  1798,   meaning   'the 
little  old  woman',  i.e.  Ireland.  The  refrain  is : 
Yes  i  Ireland  shall  be  free 
From  the  centre  to  the  sea ! 
Then  Hurra !  for  Liberty  1 
Says  the  Shan  van  Vocht. 

Shandean,  having  the  characteristics  of 
'Tristram  Shandy'  (q.v.)  or  of  the  Shandy 
family  there  portrayed.  Sterne  himself 
describes  'Tristram  Shandy'  as  a  'civil,  non- 
sensical, good-humoured  Shandean  book, 
which  will  do  all  your  hearts  good'. 

Shandon,  CAPTAIN,  a  character  in  Thack- 
eray's 'Pendennis'  (q.v.). 

Shandy,  TRISTRAM,  WALTER,  and  MRS.,  and 
CAPTAIN  TOBIAS,  see  Tristram  Shandy. 

Shapira,  M.  W.  (1830-84),  of  Jerusalem, 
noted  forger.  His  frauds  included  alleged 
pottery  objects  from  Moab  (1872)  and  a 
manuscript  of  part  of  the  Old  Testament 
(Deuteronomy)  of  very  ancient  date.  The 
manuscript  was  actually  written  on  treated 
sheepskin  some  300  years  old.  On  the  ex- 
posure of  this  latter  fraud  Shapira  shot  him- 
self in  1884. 

Sharp,  REBECCA  ('BECKY'),  the  principal 
character  in  Thackeray's  'Vanity  Fair'  (q.v.). 

Sharp,  JAMES  (1618-79), was  appointed  arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrews  in  1661  as  a  reward 
for  his  assistance  in  restoring  episcopacy  in 
Scotland.  His  treachery  to  the  Presbyterian 
cause  made  him  obnoxious  to  the  Covenan- 
ters, a  party  of  whom  murdered  him  on 
Magus  Muir  in  1679.  Oliver  Cromwell  had 
already  nicknamed  him  *  Sharp  of  that  ilk'. 
The  incident  of  his  murder  figures  in  Scott's 
'Old  Mortality'  (q.v.). 

SHARP,  WILLIAM  ('FIONA  MACLEOD'), 
(1855-1905),  educated  at  Glasgow  Academy 
and  University,  wrote  under  his  own  name 
lives  of  D.  G.  Rossetti  (1882),  Shelley 
(1887),  Heine  (1888),  and  Browning  (1890); 
volumes  of  poems,  including  'Romantic 
Ballads  and  Poems  of  Phantasy'  (1888); 
and  romances,  'The  Children  of  To-morrow' 
(1889),  'Sospiri  di  Roma'  (1891),  'The  Gypsy 
Christ'  (1895),  and  'Wives  in  Exile'  (1896). 
He  began  to  write  mystical  prose  and  verse 
under  the  pseudonym  'Fiona  Macleod*  in 


SHAVIAN 

1893:  'Pharais'  (1894),  'The  Mountain 
Lovers'  (1895),  'The  Sin  Eater'  (Celtic  tales, 
1895),  and  plays  including  'The  House  of 
Usna'  (1900),  'The  Immortal  Hour'  (1900). 
Sharp's  identity  with  'Fiona  Macleod*  was 
not  known  till  his  death. 

Shavian,  having  the  characteristic  humour  of 
Mr.  G.  B.  Shaw  (q.v.),  a  word  coined  from 
his  name. 

Shaving  of  Shagpat,  The,  an  Arabian  Enter- 
tainment, a  story  by  Meredith  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1856. 

The^  author  adopts  the  form  and  style  of 
the  oriental  story-tellers.  Shagpat  is  an  en- 
chanter and  holds  the  whole  of  a  city  and  the 
king  thereof  in  enchantment  by  means  of  one 
hair  of  his  head,  'The  Identical'.  It  is  or- 
dained that  Shibli  Bagarag,  nephew  to  the 
renowned  Baba  Mustapha,  chief  barber  to 
the  court  of  Persia,  shall  shave  Shagpat  and 
break  the  spell.  And  this  by  the  help  of  his 
betrothed,  Noorna  bin  Noorka,  and  much 
magic,  and  in  spite  of  many  thwackings  and 
counter-magic,  he  at  last  succeeds  in  doing. 

Shaw,  CAPTAIN  (afterwards  Sm  EYRE 
MASSEY),  the  chief  of  the  London  Fire 
Brigade,  mentioned  in  the  Queen's  song,  'Oh, 
foolish  fay',  in  Gilbert's  'lolanthe'  (see 
Gilbert  and  Sullivan).  He  was  present  at  the 
opening  performance. 

SHAW,  GEORGE  BERNARD  (1856-  ), 
born  in  Dublin,  came  to  London  in  1876  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Fabian  Society  (q.v.), 
for  which  he  wrote  political  and  economic 
tracts.  He  also  applied  himself  to  public 
speaking,  and  in  1885  took  to  journalism, 
writing  for  the  Tall  Mall  Gazette',  'The 
World',  musical  criticism  for  the  'Star'  (1888), 
and  dramatic  criticism  for  the  'Saturday 
Review'  (1895).  He  had  meanwhile  begun  to 
write  for  the  stage,  and  at  once  showed  his 
unorthodox  turn  of  mind  and  distrust  of 
conventions  and  accepted  institutions.  'Wid- 
owers' Houses'  (begun  in  collaboration  with 
William  Archer)  was  produced  in  1892,  and 
subsequently  included  in,  the  collection  of 
'Plays:  Pleasant  and  Unpleasant'  (1898). 
These  were  followed  by  'Three  Plays  for 
Puritans'  (1901)  and  'Man  and  Superman' 
(1903).  The  latter,  described  as  'A  Comedy 
and  a  Philosophy',  introduces  Shaw's  concep- 
tion of  the  'Life  Force*,  a  power  that  seeks 
to  raise  mankind,  with  their  co-operation,  to 
a  higher  and  better  existence.  The  same 
doctrine  appears  in  'Heartbreak  House' 
(1917)  and  in  'Back  to  Methuselah' (1921),  in 
which  the  causes  of  the  failure  of  our  civiliza- 
tion, as  demonstrated  by  the  Great  War,  are 
examined.  The  best  known  of  Shaw's  other 
plays  are  the  following:  the  powerful  and 
effective  historical  drama  'Saint  Joan*  (1924) ; 
'Candida',  'Mrs.  Warren's  Profession',  and 
'You  Never  can  Tell'  (in  'Plays :  Pleasant  and 
Unpleasant') ;  'John  Bull's  other  Island*  and 
'Major  Barbara'  (1907);  'Fanny's  First  Play* 
(1911);  'Pygmalion'  (1912);  and  'The  Apple 


SHE  WOULD  IF  SHE  COULD 

Cart*  (i  929).  Among  his  other  writings  should 
be  mentioned  the  important  Prefaces  to  the 
plays,  the  novel  'Cashel  Byron's  Profession' 
(1886),  'The  Quintessence  of  Ibsenism* 
(1891),  'The  Perfect  Wagnerite'  (1898),  and 
'The  Intelligent  Woman's  Guide  to  Social- 
ism and  Capitalism'  (1928). 

SHAW,  HENRY  WHEELER  (1818-85), 
who  wrote  under  the  pseudonym  'Josh 
Billings',  an  American  comic  essayist  and 
witty  philosopher,  who  ridiculed  humbug  of 
all  kinds.  He  first  popularized  his  work  by 
adopting  a  special  phonetic  spelling  of  his 
own. 

She  Stoops  to  Conquer,  or  The  Mistakes  of  a 
Night,  a  comedy  by  Goldsmith  (q.v.),  pro- 
duced in  1773. 

The  principal  characters  are  Hardcastle, 
who  loves  'everything  that 's  old ;  old  friends, 
old  times,  old  manners,  old  books,  old  wine' ; 
Mrs.  Hardcastle,  and  Miss  Hardcastle  their 
daughter;  Mrs.  Hardcastle's  son  by  a  former 
marriage,  Tony  Lumpkin,  a  frequenter  of  the 
'Three  Jolly  Pigeons',  idle  and  ignorant,  but 
cunning  and  mischievous,  and  doted  on  by 
his  mother;  and  young  Marlow  'one  of  the 
most  bashful  and  reserved  young  fellows  in 
the  world',  except  with  barmaids  and  servant- 
girls.  His  father,  Sir  Charles  Marlow,  has 
proposed  a  match  between  young  Marlow 
and  Miss  Hardcastle,  and  the  young  man  and 
his  friend,  Hastings,  accordingly  travel  down 
to  pay  the  Hardcastles  a  visit.  Losing  their 
way  they  arrive  at  night  at  the  'Three  Jolly 
Pigeons',  where  Tony  Lumpkin  directs  them 
to  a  neighbouring  inn,  which  is  in  reality 
the  Hardcastles*  house.  The  fun  of  the  play 
arises  largely  from  the  resulting  misunder- 
standing, Marlow  treating  Hardcastle  as  the 
landlord  of  the  supposed  inn,  and  making 
violent  love  to  Miss  Hardcastle,  whom  he 
takes  for  one  of  the  servants.  This  contrasts 
with  his  bashful  attitude  when  presented  to 
her  in  her  real  character.  The  arrival  of  Sir 
Charles  Marlow  clears  up  the  misconception 
and  all  ends  well,  including  a  subsidiary  love- 
affair  between  Hastings  and  Miss  Hard- 
castle's  cousin,  Miss  Neville,  whom  Mrs. 
Hardcastle  destines  for  Tony  Lumpkin. 

The  mistaking  of  a  private  residence  for  an 
inn  is  said  to  have  been  founded  on  an  actual 
incident  in  Goldsmith's  boyhood. 

She  would  if  she  could,  the  second  of  the 
comedies  by  Etherege  (q.v.),  produced  in 
1668. 

Sir  Oliver  Cockwood  and  his  wife,  Sir 
Joslin  Jolley  and  his  young  kinswomen, 
Ariana  and  Gatty,  come  up  from  the  country 
to  London  to  divert  themselves,  Sir  Oliver 
and  Sir  Joslin  with  dissipation,  Lady  Cock- 
wood,  in  spite  of  her  virtuous  professions,  with 
a  discreditable  intrigue,  and  the  two  sprightly 
young  ladies  with  innocent  flirtations.  They 
take  lodgings  at  the  'Black  Posts'  in  St.  James 
Street.  Lady  Cockwood  pursues  Mr.  Courtal, 
a  gentleman  of  the  town,  with  her  unwelcome 
attentions.  Mr.  Courtal  and  his  friend, 


SHEBA 

Mr.  Freeman,  strike  up  acquaintance  with  the 
young  ladies,  and  take  them  and  Lady 
Cockwood  to  the  Bear  in  Drury  Lane  for  a 
dance,  where  Sir  John  and  Sir  Oliver  arrive, 
bent  on  less  innocent  pleasures.  Sir  Oliver 
gets  drunk,  dances  with  his  wife,  supposing 
her  to  be  some  one  quite  different.  Confusion 
ensues.  The  ladies  go  home.  Freeman  arrives 
to  console  Lady  Cockwood.  Courtal  arrives, 
and  Freeman  is  concealed  in  a  cupboard. 
Sir  Oliver  arrives,  and  Courtal  is  hidden 
under  the  table.  Sir  Oliver  drops  a  'China 
orange*,  which  rolls  under  the  table.  The  two 
men  are  discovered,  the  young  ladies  are 
awarded  to  them,  and  Lady  Cockwood 
resolves  to  'give  over  the  great  business  of 
the  town*  and  confine  herself  hereafter  to  the 
affairs  of  her  own  family. 

Sheba,  THE  QUEEN  OF,  see  Balkis. 

Sheer  Thursday,  the  Thursday  in  Holy 
Week,  Maundy  Thursday,  so  named  with 
allusion  to  the  purification  of  the  soul  by 
confession  (cf.  Shrove  Thursday,  another 
name  for  this  day),  and  perhaps  also  to  the 
practice  of  washing  the  altars  on  that  day. 
(Sheer  is  related  to  a  Scandinavian  word 
meaning  'to  purify*.)  [OED.] 

SHEFFIELD,  JOHN,  third  earl  of  Mul- 
grave,  and  afterwards  first  duke  of  Bucking* 
ham  and  Normanby  (1648-1721),  a  patron  of 
Dryden  and  friend  of  Pope,  and  a  statesman 
who  held  high  offices  but  was  'neither 
esteemed  nor  beloved*.  He  is  remembered  as 
the  author  of  the  'Essay  on  Satire',  published 
anonymously,  which  cost  Dryden  (q.v.)  a 
beating  by  Rochester's  bravoes.  He  also 
wrote  an  'Essay  upon  Poetry*,  of  no  great 
value,  and  some  fluent  verses.  He  erected  the 
monument  to  Dryden  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Shekinah,  the  visible  manifestation  of  the 
Divine  Majesty,  especially  when  resting  be- 
tween the  Cherubim  over  the  mercy-seat 
(Exod.  xxvi.  17)  or  in  the  temple  of  Solomon. 
In  the  Targums  the  word  is  used  as  a  peri- 
phrasis to  designate  God.  [OED.] 

Sheldon,  GILBERT  (1598-1677),  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  was  warden  of  All 
Souls  College,  Oxford,  1626-48,  and  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  from  1663  till  his 
death.  As  chancellor  of  Oxford  he  built  and 
endowed,  at  his  own  expense,  in  1669,  the 
Sheldonian  Theatre,  where,  in  accordance 
with  his  intention,  much  of  the  printing  work 
of  the  University  was  conducted  until  the 
Clarendon  Building  was  erected  in  1713. 

SHELLEY,MARYWOLLSTONECRAFT 
(1797-1851),  the  daughter  of  W.  Godwin 
(q.v.)  and  second  wife  of  P.  B.  Shelley  (q.v.). 
She  was  author  of  'Frankenstein,  or  the 
Modern  Prometheus'  (q.v.,  1818),  'The  Last 
Man*  (1826,  the  story  of  the  gradual  destruc- 
tion of  the  human  race,  with  the  exception  of 
one  man,  by  an  epidemic),  'Valperga*  (1823, 
a  romance  of  Italy  in  the  Middle  Ages),  and 
the  autobiographical  'Lodore'  (1835). 


SHELLEY 

SHELLEY,  PERCY  BYSSHE  (1792-1821), 
born  at  Field  Place,  Sussex,  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  University  College,  Oxford,  pub- 
lishing, while  at  the  former,  'Zastrozzi*,  and 
in  1 8 10  'St.  Irvyne*,  romances  in  the  style 
of  'Monk*  Lewis.  In  1810  also  appeared 
'Original  Poetry*  'by  Victor  and  Cazire*, 
P.  B.  and  Elizabeth  Shelley.  From  Oxford  he 
was  sent  down  in  1811  after  circulating  a 
pamphlet  on  'The  Necessity  of  Atheism'.  In 
the  same  year  he  married  Harriet  Westbrook, 
who  was  aged  sixteen,  and  from  whom  he 
separated  after  three  years  of  a  wandering 
life,  during  which  he  wrote  'Queen  Mab* 
(q.v.,  piratically  published  in  1821).  Some 
portions  of  this  were  subsequently  remodelled 
as  'The  Daemon  of  the  World*.  He  left 
England  in  1814  with  Mary  Wollstonecraft 
(see  preceding  entry),  to  whom  he  was 
married  after  the  unhappy  Harriet  had,  in 
1816,  drowned  herself  in  the  Serpentine;  and 
Jane  Ckirmont,  Mary's  step-sister,  ac- 
companied them.  Shelley's  'Alastor*  (q.v.) 
was  written  near  Windsor  and  published  in 
1816.  In  the  same  year  began  his  friend- 
ship with  Byron,  with  whom  Shelley  and 
Mary  spent  the  summer  in  Switzerland. 
To  this  period  belong  the  *Hymn  to  Intel- 
lectual Beauty'  and  'Mont  Blanc'.  The 
winter  of  1816-17  he  spent  at  Marlow,  and 
wrote,  among  other  poerns,  'Laon  and 
Cythna',  subsequently  renamed  'The  Revolt 
of  Islam'  (q.v.,  1818),  and  the  fragment, 
'Prince  Athanase*.  In  1818  Shelley  left  Eng- 
land for  Italy,  translated  Plato's '  Symposium', 
finished  'Rosalind  and  Helen*  at  Lucca,  and 
in  the  summer,  at  Byron's  villa  near  Este, 
composed  the  'Lines  written  in  the  Euganean 
Hills*.  He  visited  Byron  at  Venice,  where  he 
wrote  'Julian  and  Maddalo'  (q.v.),  and  at  the 
end  of  the  same  year  the  'Stanzas  written  in 
dejection,  near  Naples'.  Early  in  1819  he  was 
at  Rome.  Here,  stirred  to  indignation  by  the 
political  events  at  home,  and  in  particular  by 
the  Peterloo  affair,  he  wrote  the  'Masque  of 
Anarchy',  an  indictment  of  Castlereagh's 
administration.  He  also  published  'Peter 
Bell  the  Third',  a  satire  on  Wordsworth. 
The  same  year,  1819,  saw  the  publication 
of  'The  Cenci*  (q.v.)  and  the  composition 
of  his  great  lyrical  drama,  'Prometheus 
Unbound'  (q.v.),  published  in  1820.  At 
the  end  of  1819  the  Snelleys  moved  to  Pisa, 
and  it  was  now  that  he  wrote  some  of  his 
finest  lyrics,  including  the  'Ode  to  the  West 
Wind',  'To  a  Skylark*,  and  'The  Cloud*. 
His  'Oedipus  Tyrannus,  or  Swellfoot  the 
Tyrant*,  a  dramatic  satire  on  George  IV's 
matrimonial  affairs,  appeared  in  1820.  To 
this  period  also  belong  the  apologue  of  'The 
Sensitive  Plant*  (q.v.);  the  'Letter  to  Maria 
Gisborne*  (the  outcome  of  an  intellectual 
friendship);  the  Odes  'to  Naples*  and  'to 
Liberty';  the  notable  'Defence  of  Poetry' 
(1821),  a  vindication  of  the  elements  of 
imagination  and  love  in  poetry  against  the 
strictures  of  his  great  friend,  T.  L.  Peacock, 
in  'The  Four  Ages  of  Poetry';  'Adonais* 


[714] 


SHELTA 

(q.v.,     1821);     and    'Epipsychidion'    (q.v., 
1821). 

Shelley  removed  in  April  1821  to  Lerici 
on  the  shores  of  the  bay  of  Spezzia,  and 
completed  his  lyrical  drama,  'Hellas'  (1822), 
inspired  by  the  struggle  of  Greece  for  free- 
dom. He  had  also  been  at  work  on  the  drama, 
'Charles  F,  which  remained  unfinished.  On 
8  July  1821  he  was  drowned,  at  the  age  of  29, 
while  sailing  near  Spezzia.  He  was  at  the 
time  engaged  on  his  uncompleted  poem,  'The 
Triumph  of  Life*  (q.v.).  The  last  period  also 
saw  the  production  of  some  of  his  most 
beautiful  lyrics,  'O,  world!  O,  life!  O, 
time*,  'When  the  lamp  is  shattered*,  and  the 
love  poems  inspired  by  Jane  Williams. 
Shelley's  ashes  were  buried  in  the  Protestant 
cemetery  at  Rome.  His  'Posthumous  Poems', 
including  'Julian  and  Maddalo*  and  'The 
Witch  of  Atlas',  were  published  in  1824.  But 
no  perfect  collection  of  his  works  was  issued 
till  that  of  Mrs.  Shelley  (1847).  His  prose 
works,  besides  those  mentioned  above,  in- 
clude :  a '  Letter  to  Lord  Ellenborough  '(1812); 
*A  Vindication  of  Natural  Diet*  (1813);  'A 
Refutation  of  Deism'  (1814);  a  series  of 
unfinished  philosophical  essays  of  the  year 
1815  'On  Life',  'On  a  Future  State',  &c.; 
and  a  'History  of  a  Six  Weeks*  Tour'  (written 
with  Mrs.  Shelley,  1817).  T.  L.  Peacock's 
'Memoirs  of  Shelley*  are  in  Peacock's  'Works' 
(1875);  also  edited  by  H.  F.  B.  Brett-Smith 
(1909).  E.  J.  Trelawny's  'Recollections  of 
the  Last  Days  of  Shelley  and  Byron'  appeared 
in  1858,  his  'Records  of  Shelley,  Byron,  and 
the  Author'  in  1878. 

Shelta,  a  cryptic  language  used  by  tinkers, 
composed  partly  of  Irish  ^  or  Gaelic  words, 
mostly  disguised  by  inversion  or  alteration  of 
initial  consonants. 

SHENSTONE,  WILLIAM  (1714-63),  a 
contemporary  of  S.  Johnson  (q.v.)  at  Pem- 
broke College,  Oxford.  As  a  poet  much 
of  his  work  is  criticized  for  an  artificial 
prettiness  similar  to  that  which  he  pursued 
in  adorning  his  estate  at  the  Leasowes,  near 
Halesowen.  Of  this,  his  'Pastoral  Ballad' 
(1755)  is  an  example.  His  best-known  work 
is  'The  Schoolmistress*  (1742),  a  poem 
in  Spenserian  stanzas  describing  a  village 
school  and  the  old  dame  (drawn  from 
his  own  schoolmistress)  who  rules  the 
urchins  with  the  aid  of  the  birch.  He  wrote 
miscellaneous  verse  (including  'I  have  found 
out  a  gift  for  my  fair'),  elegies,  odes,  songs, 
and  ballads  (including  'Jemmy  Dawson^ 
q.v.) ;  and  prose  'Essays  on  Men  and  Manners'. 
There  is  a  sketch  of  Shenstone  and  the 
Leasowes  in  Graves 's  'The  Spiritual  Quixote' 
(q.v.,  IX.  vii). 

Sheol,  a  word  frequently  occurring  in  the 
Revised  Version  of  the  O.T.,  where  in  the 
Authorized  Version  it  was  translated  hell, 
grave,  or  pit;  the  abode  of  the  dead,  con- 
ceived by  the  Hebrews  as  a  subterranean 
region  clothed  in  thick  darkness.  [OED.] 


SHERIDAN 

Shepherd,  LORD  CLIFFORD,  THE,  Henry  de 
Clifford,  fourteenth  Baron  Clifford  (1455?- 
1523),  celebrated  in  Wordsworth's  'Brougham 
Castle'  and  'The  White  Doe  of  Rylstone'. 
His  father  was  attainted  and  his  estates  for- 
feited in  1461.  Henry  de  Clifford  was 
brought  up  as  a  shepherd,  and  restored  to  his 
estates  and  title  on  the  accession  of  Henry  VII. 

Shepherd,  THE  ETTRICK,  see  Hogg. 
Shepherd  of  Salisbury  Plain,  THE,  see 
under  More  (H.). 

Shepheards  Calender,  The,  was  the  earliest 
important  work  of  Spenser  (q.v.),  published 
in  1579.  It  consists  of  twelve  eclogues, 
one  for  each  month  of  the  year,  written 
in  different  metres,  and  modelled  on  the 
eclogues  of  Theocritus,  Virgil,  and  more 
modern  writers,  such  as  Baptist  Mantuan 
and  Marot.  They  take  the  form  of  dia- 
logues among  shepherds,  except  the  first 
and  last,  which  are  complaints  by  'Colin 
Cloute*,  the  author  himself.  Four  of  them 
deal  with  love,  one  is  in  praise  of  Elysa 
(Queen  Elizabeth),  one  a  lament  for  a  'pay- 
den  of  greate  bloud',  four  deal  allegorically 
with  matters  of  religion  or  conduct,  one 
describes  a  singing-match,  and  one  laments 
the  contempt  in  which  poetry  is  held. 

Shepherd's  Calendar  f  The,  a  volume  of  verse 
by  J.  Clare  (q.v.). 

Shepherd's  Hunting,  The,  pastorals  written 
by  Wither  (q.v.),  in  the  Marshalsea. 

Shepherd^s  Week,  The,  a  series  _  of  six 
pastorals  by  J.  Gay  (q.v.),  published  in  1714. 
They  are  eclogues  in  the  mock-classical 
style,  presenting  shepherds  and  milkmaids, 
not  of  the  golden  age,  but  of  the  poet's  day,  in 
their  grotesque  reality.  They  were  designed 
to  parody  those  of  Ambrose  ('Namby- 
Pamby')  Philips,  but  they  have  survived  on 
their  own  merits,  for  their  drollery  and 
humour. 

Sheppard,  JOHN  (1702-24),  'Jack  Sheppard', 
the  son  of  a  carpenter,  and  brought  up  in 
Bishopsgate  workhouse,  became  a  thief  and 
highwayman,  and  after  repeated  escapes  from 
prison,  was  hanged  at  Tyburn.  He  was  the 
subject  of  tracts  by  Defoe,  of  many  plays  and 
ballads,  and  of  a  novel  by  W.  H.  Ainsworth. 

SHERATON,  THOMAS  (175171806),  the 
famous  furniture  maker  and  designer,  pub- 
lished his  'Cabinet-maker  and  Upholsterer's 
Drawing  Book'  in  I79*»  ^d  'Cabinet 
Dictionary*  in  1803.  He  advocated  a  severe 
style  and  adhered  to  it  except  in  his  later 
designs. 

SHERIDAN,  MRS.  FRANCES  (1724-66), 
the  mother  of  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan, 
was  author  of  the  'Memoirs  of  Miss  Sidney 
Bidulph'  (1761-7,  a  novel  after  the  manner  of 
'Pamela'),  of  the  'History  of  Kourjahad 
(1767),  and  of  'The  Discovery',  a  comedy 
successfully  produced  by  Garrick  in  1763. 


[7153 


SHERIDAN 

SHERIDAN,  RICHARD  BRINSLEY 
(1751-1816),  the  son  of  Thomas  Sheridan 
(an  actor  and  author),  was  educated  at 
Harrow.  He  married  Miss  Linley  in  i?73> 
after  escorting  her  from  Bath  to  France  and 
fighting  two  duels  with  Major  Mathews,  her 
persecutor.  His  comedy,  'The  Rivals'  (q.v., 
written  when  the  author  was  only  24),  was 
acted  at  Co  vent  Garden  in  1775-  'St- 
Patrick's  Day*  and  'The  Duenna'  (q.v.)  were 
played  in  the  same  year.  He  acquired 
Garrick's  share  in  Drury  Lane  Theatre  in 
1776,  and  in  1777  produced  there  *A  Trip  to 
Scarborough'  (q.v.)  and  'The  School  for 
Scandal'  (q.v.).  His  famous  farce,  'The 
Critic*  (q.v.),  was  given  in  1779,  and  'Pizarro' 
(adapted  from  Kotzebue's  'The  Spaniards  in 
Peru*  and  showing  a  great  decline  in  style)  in 
1799.  His  new  theatre  was  opened  in  1794, 
but  destroyed  by  fire  in  1809.  He  was  re- 
turned to  parliament  in  1780  as  a  supporter  of 
Fox,  and  thereafter  devoted  himself  to  public 
affairs.  In  1787  he  made  his  great  speech  of 
nearly  six  hours  in  moving  the  adoption  of 
the  Oude  charge  against  Warren  Hastings, 
and  again  made  a  celebrated  speech  in  1788 
as  manager  of  the  impeachment.  He  was 
treasurer  of  the  navy  in  the  ministry  'of  all 
the  talents',  1806-7.  He  was  arrested  for 
debt  in  1813,  and  in  his  last  years  suffered 
from  brain  disease.  He  received  a  great 
public  funeral.  There  are  several  portraits  of 
him  by  Reynolds. 

Sheriffs  of  Bristol,  A  Letter  to  the,  see  Letter 
to  the  Sheriffs  of  Bristol. 
SHERLOCK,  THOMAS  (1678-1761),  son 
of  W.  Sherlock  (q.v.),  educated  at  Eton, 
became  a  fellow  and  subsequently  master  of 
St.  Catharine's  Hall,  Cambridge.  As  master 
of  the  Temple  (1704-53)  he  obtained  reputa- 
tion as  a  preacher,  and  rose  successively  to 
the  sees  of  Bangor,  Salisbury,  and  London 
(1748-61).  He  took  part  in  the  Bangorian 
controversy  (q.v.),  and  published,  among 
other  works,  'A  Tryal  of  the  Witnesses  of  the 
Resurrection  of  Jesus*  (1729),  a  defence  of 
the  historical  occurrence  of  miracles,  in  the 
singular  form  of  the  trial  and  acquittal  of  the 
Apostles  in  the  Inns  of  Court  on  the  charge  of 
giving  false  evidence. 

SHERLOCK,    WILLIAM    (1641  ?-i 707), 
educated  at  Eton  and  Peterhouse,  Cambridge, 
became  master  of  the  Temple  and  dean  of  St. 
Paul's.    He  was  author  of  *A  Practical  Dis- 
course   concerning    Death*  (1689)   and   'A 
Practical    Discourse    concerning    a    Future 
Judgment*  (1692),  besides  numerous  con- 
troversial treatises;  and  was  regarded  in  his 
time  as  a  great  preacher.    Macaulay  says  of 
him  ('History  of  England')  that  though  there 
were  more  brilliant  men  among  the  con- 
temporary  clergy,   none   spoke  more   pre- 
cisely the  sense  of  the  Anglican  priesthood, 
without  taint  of  Latitudinarianism,  Puritan- 
ism, or  Popery.  He  was  a  non-juror  and  was 
suspended,  but  was  converted  and  took  the 
oaths  in  1691.    This  created  an  uproar  and 


SHIP  OF  FOOLS 

made  him  the  object  of  attacks,  vindications, 
and  pasquinades. 

Sherlock  Holmes,  see  Holmes  (Sherlock). 
Sherry,  originally  the  white  wine  made 
near  Xeres  (now  Jerez  de  la  Frontera,  near 
Cadiz  in  Spain) ;  in  modern  use  extended  to 
Spanish  wines  of  similar  character.  Falstaff 
refers  to  it  ('sherris-sack',  ez  Henry  IV,  iv, 
iii),  and  allusions  are  frequent  in  the  i7th 
cent.  See  Manzanilla^  Amontillado^  Paxarete. 

SHERWOOD,  MRS.  MARY  MARTHA 
(1775-1851),  nge  Butt,  was  author  of  numer- 
ous popular  books  for  children  and  young 
people,  including  'Susan  Gray'  (1802),  'Little 
Henry  and  his  Bearer'  (1815,  the  outcome  of 
a  period  spent  in  India),  and,  best  known  of 
all,  'The  History  of  the  Fairchild  Family* 
(3  parts,  1818-47),  which  has  frequently  been 
reprinted.  Mrs.  Sherwood's  'Life,  chiefly 
autobiographical*,  ed.  S.  Kelly  (1854),  is 
lively  and  interesting. 

Shi'a  or  SHI'ITES,  the  Moslem  sect  that 
regards  AH  (q.v.)  and  his  descendants  as  the 
rightful  Caliphs.  The  Persians  are  the  chief 
representatives  of  the  Shi'ites. 
Shibboleth,  the  Hebrew  word  used  by 
Jephthah  as  a  test-word  by  which  to  distin- 
guish the  fleeing  Ephraimites  (who  could  not 
pronounce  the  sh)  from  his  own  men,  the 
Gileadites  (Judges  xii.  4-6).  Hence  a  word 
or  formula  used  as  a  test  by  which  the  ad- 
herents of  a  party,  &c.,  may  be  distinguished 
from  others.  In  the  above  passage  the  word 
probably  means  cstream  in  flood'.  [OED.] 

Shillibeer,  GEORGE  (1797-1866),  the  pioneer 
in  London  of  omnibuses,  which  were  fami- 
liarly known  by  his  name. 
Shimei,  in  Dryden's  *  Absalom  and  Achito- 
phel'  (q.v.),  Slingsby  Bethel,  the  sheriff  of 
London  and  Middlesex,  whose  taking  of  the 
paths  in  order  to  qualify  for  office  was  the  sub- 
ject of  several  pamphlets.  The  reference  in 
the  name  is  to  i  Kings  ii.  37  et  seq. 

Shinto,  the  native  religious  system  of  Japan, 
the  central  belief  of  which  is  that  the  Mikado 
(q.v.)  is  the  descendant  of  the  sun-goddess, 
and  that  implicit  obedience  is  due  to  him. 

Ship  of  Fools,  The,  an  adaptation  of  the 
famous  'NarrenschifT '  of  Sebastian  Brandt. 
The  'NarrenschifT'was  written  in  the  dialect 
of  Swabia  and  first  published  in  1494.  It 
became  extremely  popular  and  was  translated 
into  many  languages.  Its  theme  is  the  ship- 
ping off  of  fools  of  all  kinds  from  their  native 
land  to  the  Land  of  Fools.  The  fools  are 
introduced  by  classes  and  reproved  for  their 
folly.  The  popularity  of  the  book  was  largely 
due  to  the  spirited  illustrations,  which  show  a 
sense  of  humour  that  the  text  lacks. 

It  was  translated  into  English  'out  of  Latin, 
French,  and  Doche*  by  Alexander  Barclay 
(q.v.),  and  published  in  England  in  1509;  the 
translation  is  not  literal  but  is  an  adaptation 
to  English  conditions,  and  gives  a  picture  of 


[716] 


SHIPMAN'S  TALE 

contemporary  English  life.  It  starts  with  the 
fool  who  has  great  plenty  of  books, 

But  fewe  I  rede  and  fewer  understande, 
and  the  fool  'that  new  garments  loves  and 
devises',  and  passes  to  a  condemnation  of  the 
various^  evils  of  the  time,  notably  the  misdeeds 
of  officials  and  the  corruption  of  the  courts. 
The  work  is  interesting  as  an  early  collection 
of  satirical  types.  Its  influence  is  seen  in 
'Cocke  Lorell's  Bote'  (q.v.). 

Shipmaris  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 
Ship-money,  an  ancient  tax  levied  in  time 
of  war  on  the  ports  and  maritime  towns  and 
counties  of  England  to  provide  ships  for  the 
king's  service.  It  was  revived  by  Charles  I 
(with  an  extended  application  to  inland 
counties) ;  his  first  two  writs  of  ship-money 
provoked  grumbling,  the  third  led  to  Hamp- 
den's  case  in  the  Exchequer  Chamber;  it  was 
finally  declared  illegal  by  statute  of  1641. 
The  imposition  was  one  of  the  causes  that 
led  to  the  Civil  War.  But  ship-money  was 
spent  on  the  navy;  one  of  the  finest  ships 
ever  built,  'The  Sovereign  of  the  Seas',  Pett's 
masterpiece,  was  built  with  ship-money.  The 
real  danger  was  that,  if  acquiesced  in,  it 
might  lead  to  'soldier-money'  too. 

Ships,  FAMOUS,  see  Alabama,  Argonauts  (for 
Argo),Ark,  Beagle,Bellerophon,Bounty,  Cutty 
Sark,  Dreadnought ,  Endeavour ,  Erebus  and 
Terror,  From,  Golden  Hind,  Great  Eastern, 
Great  Harry,  Marie  Celeste,  Mayflower,  Re- 
venge, Ship-money  (for  Sovereign  of  the  Seas), 
Skidbladnir,  Victory,  Vittoria. 

Shipton,  MOTHER,  according  to  tradition,  a 
witch  and  prophetess  who  lived  near  Knares- 
borough  in  Yorkshire  at  the  end  of  the 
1 5th  cent,  (her  maiden  name  being  Ursula 
Soutmll  or  Southiel),  and  married  one 
Tobias  Shipton,  a  builder  of  York.  She  is 
said  to  have  produced  prophecies  relating 
to  persons  of  importance  at  the  court  of 
Henry  VIII,  and  to  have  foretold  the  Great 
Fire  of  London,  and  other  notable  events. 
Her  history  is  not  supported  by  serious 
authority. 

Shipwreck,  The,  see  Falconer  (W.). 

Shirburne  Ballads,  The,  edited  in  1907  by 
Andrew  Clark  from  a  manuscript  of  1 600-16 
(a  few  pieces  are  later)  at  Shirburne  Castle, 
Oxfordshire,  belonging  to  the  earl  of  Maccles- 
field.  The  collection  contains  ballads  not 
found  elsewhere,  dealing  with  political  events, 
with  legends  and  fairy  tales,  or  with  stories 
of  domestic  life.  Some  of  them  are  homilies. 
Shirley,  a  novel  by  C.  Bronte  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1849. 

The  scene  of  the  story  is  Yorkshire  and  the 
period  the  latter  part  of  the  Napoleonic  wars, 
the  time  of  the  Luddite  riots,  when  the  wool 
industry  of  the  country  was  suffering  from 
the  almost  complete  cessation  of  exports.  In 
spite  of  these  conditions  Robert  Ge'rard 
Moore,  half  English,  half  Belgian  by  birth,  a 
mill-owner  of  determined  character,  persists 


SHIRLEY 

in  introducing  the  latest  labour-saving 
machinery,  undeterred  by  the  opposition  of 
the  workers,  which  culminates  in  an  attempt 
first  to  destroy  his  mill,  and  finally  to  take  his 
life.  To  overcome  the  financial  difficulties 
that  hamper  his  plans  he  proposes  to  Shirley 
Keeldar,  a  young  lady  of  wealth  and  high 
spirit,  though  he  loves,  not  her,  but  the  gentle 
and  retiring  Caroline  Helstone,  who  is  pining 
away  for  love  of  him  in  the  oppressive 
atmosphere  of  her  uncle's  rectory.  Robert 
is  contemptuously  rejected  by  Shirley,  and, 
when  the  end  of  the  war  releases  him  from 
his  embarrassments,  marries  the  faithful 
Caroline.  Meanwhile  Shirley  and  Robert's 
brother,  Louis,  another  strong,  proud  charac- 
ter, occupying  the  humble  position  of  tutor 
in  her  family,  successfully  overcome  the 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  their  mutual  love. 
In  Shirley  Keeldar,  Charlotte  Bronte  depicted 
the  character  of  her  sister  Emily,  as  she  saw  it. 

SHIRLEY,  JAMES  (1596-1666),  was  born 
in  London  and  educated  at  Merchant  Tay- 
lors' School,  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  and 
Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge.  He  took  orders, 
but  was  presently  converted  to  the  Church 
of  Rome  and  became  a  schoolmaster.  He 
followed  the  earl  of  Newcastle  in  the  Civil 
Wars,  after  which  he  returned  to  the  pro- 
fession of  schoolmaster.  His  graceful  poem, 
'Narcissus',  on  the  efforts  of  an  enamoured 
maiden  to  awaken  love  in  a  cold  youth  (after 
the  manner  of  Shakespeare's  'Venus  and 
Adonis'),  was  published  as  'Eccho'  in  1618. 
He  made  an  attack  on  Prynne  (q.v.),  then  in 
prison,  for  his  condemnation  of  the  stage,  in 
the  dedication  of  'A  Bird  in  a  Cage*,  printed 
in  1 63 3 .  He  was  in  Dublin  from  1 63 6  to  1 640. 
He  died  as  a  result  of  terror  and  exposure  on 
the  occasion  of  the  Great  Fire  of  London. 

Shirley  wrote  .some  forty  dramas,  of  which 
the  greater  number  are  extant.  The  tragedies 
include:  'The  Maid's  Revenge'  (1626, 
printed  1639),  'The  Traitor*  (q.v.,  1631, 
printed  1635),  'Love's  Cruelty'  (q.v.,  1631, 
printed  1640),  and  'The  Cardinall'  (q.v., 
1641,  printed  1653).  He  also  wrote  comedies 
of  manners  and  romantic  comedies,  in- 
cluding: 'Changes,  or  Love  in  a  Maze' 
(1632,  the  interchanges  of  affection  between 
three  pairs  of  lovers),  'Hyde  Park'  (q.v., 

1632,  printed  1637),  'The  Gamester'  (q.v., 

1633,  adapted  by  Garrick  and  others),  "The 
Coronation'  (1635,  printed  1640,  the  trans- 
ference of  a  crown,  owing  to  the  discovery, 
successively,  of  two  brothers  of  a  queen),  'The 
Lady  of  Pleasure'  (1635,  the  cure  of  a  wife's 
desire  for  a  life  of  fashionable  folly  by  her 
husband's  feigning  to  engage  in  gambling 
and  intrigue),  'The  Imposture*  (q.v.,  1640, 
printed  i652),'The  Sisters'  (q.v.,  1642,  printed 
1652).  Shirley  also  wrote  'The  Contention  of 
Ajax  and  Ulysses'  (1659)  for  the  armour  of 
the  dead  Achilles,  a  dramatic  entertainment 
ending  with  the  famous  dirge 

The  glories  of  our  blood  and  state 
Are  shadows,  not  substantial  things, 


SHIRLEY 

*the  fine  song  which  old  Bowman  used  to  sing 
to  King  Charles'  and  which  is  said  to  have 
terrified  Oliver  Cromwell.  He  was  disparaged 
by  Dry  den  (cMac  Flecknoe'),  but  his  reputa- 
tion was  revived  by  Charles  Lamb.  Shirley's 
works  were  edited  by  Alexander  Dyce  in 


SHIRLEY,  JOHN  (is66?-i456),  said  to 
have  been  a  traveller  in  various  lands,  and 
described  by  Skeat  as  an  amateur  rather  than 
a  professional  scribe.  He  was  buried  in  St. 
Bartholomew's  the  Less.  He  translated  from 
the  French  and  Latin  and  transcribed  the 
works  of  Chaucer,  Lydgate,  and  others.  His 
collections  of  their  poems  are  extant,  and  it 
is  on  his  authority  that  various  poems  are 
attributed  to  Chaucer. 
Shoemaker's  Holiday,  The,  or  A  pleasant 
comedy  of  the  Gentle  Graft,  a  comedy  by 
Dekker  (q.v.),  published  in  1600. 

Rowland  Lacy,  a  kinsman  of  the  earl  of 
Lincoln,  loves  Rose,  the  daughter  of  the 
lord  mayor  of  London.  To  prevent  the 
match,  the  earl  sends  him  to  France  in  com- 
mand of  a  company  of  men.  Lacy  resigns  his 
place  to  a  friend,  and,  disguised  as  a  Dutch 
shoemaker,  takes  service  with  Simon  Eyre, 
who  supplies  the  family  of  the  lord  mayor 
with  shoes.  Here  he  successfully  pursues  his 
suit,  is  married  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the 
earl  and  the  lord  mayor  to  prevent  it,  and  is 
pardoned  by  the  king.  The  most  entertaining 
character  in  the  play  is  that  of  Simon  Eyre, 
the  cheery,  eccentric  master-shoemaker,  who 
becomes  lord  mayor  of  London. 

Shogun,  THE,  the  hereditary  cornmander- 
in-chief  of  the  Japanese  army,  also  called 
Tycoon.  By  successive  usurpations  of  power 
the  Shogun  became  the  real  ruler  of  Japan, 
though  nominally  the  subject  of  the  Mikado 
and  acting  in  his  name.  In  1867,  with  the 
abolition  of  the  feudal  system,  the  Mikado 
assumed  the  actual  sovereignty,  and  the  reign 
of  the  Shoguns  came  to  an  end. 

Shore,  JANE  (d.  1527?),  mistress  of  Ed- 
ward IV.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a  Cheap- 
side  mercer  and  wife  of  a  Lombard  Street 
goldsmith,  and  exercised  great  influence  over 
Edward  IV  by  her  beauty  and  wit.  She  was 
afterwards  mistress  of  Thomas  Grey,  first 
marquess  of  Dorset.  She  was  accused  by 
Richard  III  of  sorcery,  imprisoned,  and  made 
to  do  public  penance  in  1483,  and  died  in 
poverty.  There  are  two  portraits  of  her  at 
Eton,  which  foundation  she  is  said  to  have 
saved  from  confiscation  at  the  hands  of  the 
Yorkist  king,  her  lover. 

She  is  the  subject  of  a  ballad  included  in 
Percy's  'Reliques*,  of  a  remarkable  passage  in 
Sir  Thomas  More's  history  of  Richard  III, 
and  of  a  descriptive  note  by  Drayton  ('Eng- 
land's Heroical  Epistles*).  The  last  two 
passages  are  quoted  in  Percy's  'ReUques*. 
Her  adversities  are  the  subject  of  a  tragedy  by 
Rowe  (q.v.). 

Shoreditch,  a  district  in  London  named, 


SIBYLS 

according  to  legend,  from  Jane  Shore  (q.v.), 
the  mistress  of  Edward  IV,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  died  there  in  a  ditch.  But  the  name 
dates  from  before  her  time.  Stow  calls  it 
Soersditch  or  Soerditch,  and  says  that  it  had 
borne  the  name  for  400  years. 
Short,  CODLIN  AND,  see  Codlin. 
Short  Parliament,  THE,  the  first  of  the  two 
parliaments  summoned  by  Charles  I  in  1640. 
It  resolved  to  ask  for  a  redress  of  the  nation's 
grievances  before  granting  supply,  and  pre- 
pared to  demand  the  abandonment  of  the 
war  with  Scotland.  In  fact  it  was  prepared  to 
go  as  far  as  the  Long  Parliament  did.  It  was 
dissolved  after  it  had  sat  for  three  weeks. 

Short-Title  Catalogue,  see  Bibliographical 
Society. 

Short  View  of  the  Immorality  and  Prof  one- 
ness of  the  English  Stage,  see  Cottier. 

Shortest   Way  with  the  Dissenters,  see 

Defoe. 

SHORTHOUSE,  JOSEPH  HENRY(i8s4- 
1903),  author  of  'John  Inglesant'  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1 88 1  (privately  printed  in  1880), 
and  other  novels  of  less  importance. 
Show  Me  State,  Missouri,  see  United 
States. 

Shropshire  Lad,  The,  see  Housman  (A.  E.\ 
Shrove- tide,  the  period  immediately  pre- 
ceding Lent,  so  called  from  the  practice  of 
being  shriven  preparatory  to  the  fast.  It  was 
formerly  marked  by  a  final  indulgence  in 
merry-making,  eating,  and  drinking. 

Shylock,  the  Jewish  usurer  in  Shakespeare's 
'Merchant  of  Venice*  (q.v.),  said  to  have  been 
drawn  from  Roderigo  Lopez,  the  queen's 
Jewish  physician,  hanged  in  1594  on  a  charge 
of  conspiring  to  murder  her. 

Siamese  Twins,  two  male  natives  of  Siam, 
Chang  and  Eng  (1814-74),  who  were  united 
by  a  tubular  band  in  the  region  of  the  waist. 
They  were  exhibited  in  1829  and  again  in 
1869.  They  married  sisters. 

Sibylline  Books,  THE,  see  Sibyls. 

Sibylline  Leaves,  a  volume  of  poems  by 
S.T.Coleridge  (q.v.). 

Sibyls,  THE,  certain  inspired  women,  who 
flourished  in  different  parts  of  the  ancient 
world,  at  Cumae,  Delphi,  Libya,  Erythraea, 
&c.  The  best  known  is  the  Curnaean  sibyl, 
who  was  beloved  by  Apollo.  He  offered  to 
give  her  whatever  she  wished.  She  asked  to 
live  as  many  years  as  she  had  grains  of  sand 
in  her  hand,  but  omitted  to  demand  health 
and  youth  as  well.  She  had  already  lived  700 
years  when  Aeneas  came  to  Italy.  It  was 
usual  for  the  sibyl  to  write  her  prophecies  on 
leaves  which  she  placed  at  the  entrance  of  her 
cave,  and  those  who  consulted  her  had  to  be 
careful  to  take  these  up  before  the  wind  dis- 
persed them.  She  instructed  Aeneas  how  to 
find  his  father  in  the  infernal  regions.  One  of 
the  sibyls  came  to  the  palace  of  Tarquin  II 


SICILIAN  BULL 

with,  nine  volumes  (the  Sibylline  Books), 
which  she  offered  at  a  high  price.  The 
monarch  refused  them.  The  sibyl  burnt 
three,  and  offered  the  remainder  at  the  same 
price;  and  when  Tarquin  refused  to  buy 
them,  burnt  three  more  and  again  offered  the 
remainder  at  the  same  price.  Whereupon 
Tarquin  bought  the  last  three  books.  These 
were  probably  written  in  Greek,  and  were 
kept,  under  the  custody  of  special  officers,  in 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  They  were 
consulted  in  times  of  national  calamity  in 
order  to  discover  how  to  avert  the  anger  of 
the  gods.  When  the  temple  of  Jupiter  was 
burnt  down  in  82  B.C.,  the  books  were 
destroyed.  Thereupon  a  fresh  collection  of 
sibylline  prophecies  was  made  in  Asia  Minor 
and  the  Greek  cities  of  Italy  and  Sicily.  These 
were  re-copied  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and, 
it  is  said,  other  fabricated  prophecies  added 
to  them.  They  continued  to  be  consulted 
occasionally  for  several  centuries. 

There  are  representations  of  five  of  the 
sibyls  in  Michelangelo's  painted  ceiling  of 
the  Sistine  Chapel. 
Sicilian  Bull,  THE,  see  Phalaris. 
Sicilian  Vespers,  THE,  a  general  massacre 
of  the  French  in  Sicily  in  1282,  of  which  the 
signal  was  the  tolling  of  the  bell  for  vespers. 
The  cruelties  of  the  Angevin  rulers  of  Sicily 
provoked  the  massacre,  and  the  crown  passed 
to  the  rival  House  of  Aragon. 

Sick  Man  of  Europe,  THE,  a  term  fre- 
quently applied  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
1 9th  cent,  to  Turkey.  It  was  first  so  applied 
by  Nicholas  I,  Tsar  of  Russia,  in  conversation 
with  the  British  ambassador  in  1853. 

Siddartha,  see  Buddha. 

Siddons,  MRS.  SARAH  (1755-1831),  the 
sister  of  J.  Kemble  (q.v.),  the  actor,  probably 
the  one  great  tragedy  queen  that  Britain  ever 
produced.  She  first  attracted  attention  in  the 
part  of  Belvidera  in  Otway's  'Venice  Pre- 
serv'd'  (q.v.),  and  was  subsequently  famous 
in  her  impersonation  of  Lady  Macbeth  and 
other  Shakespearian  characters.  One  of  her 
most  effective  parts  was  that  of  the  heroine  in 
Rowe's  'Jane  Shore*.  She  married  William 
Siddons,  an  actor.  A  picture  of  her  by  Rey- 
nolds as  'The  Tragic  Muse'  is  at  Dulwich, 
and  her  portrait  by  Gainsborough  is  in  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 
SIDGWICK,  HENRY  (1838-1900),  edu- 
cated at  Rugby  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, was  from  1883  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  that  university.  A  follower  in 
economics  and  politics  of  John  Stuart  Mill, 
his  attitude  on  the  question  of  our  knowledge 
of  the  external  world  resembles  that  of  Reid 
(q.v.).  But  his  most  important  ^work  as  a 
philosophical  writer  relates  to  ethics,  and  his 
reputation  rests  on  his  'Methods  of  Ethics*, 
published  in  1874.  Here  his  doctrine  com- 
bines an  intuitional  notion  of  duty,  certain 
'axioms  of  the  practical  reason'  (prudence, 
benevolence,  and  justice),  with  an  empirical 


SIDNEY 

discovery  of  the  nature  of  goodness.  The 
ultimate  conflict  between  prudence  and 
benevolence  remains  unresolved,  and  in  this 
duality  Sidgwick  finds  the  argument  for  a 
divine  government  of  the  world.  But  Sidg- 
wick was  seen  at  his  best  in  analysis  and 
criticism,  rather  than  in  construction.  His 
other  works  include:  'Ethics  of  Conformity 
and  Subscription'  (1871),  'Principles  of 
Political  Economy' (1883),  'Scope  and  Method 
of  Economic  Science'  (1885),  'Outlines  of 
History  of  Ethics'  (1886),  and  'Elements  of 
Polities'  (1891). 

Sfdhe  (pron.  'she')  or  AES  SI'DHE,  the 'People 
of  the  Hills',  the  name  used  by  the  Irish 
peasantry  for  the  fairies. 

SIDNEY,  ALGERNON  (1622-83),  the 
grand-nephew  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  and 
younger  brother  of  Waller's  'Sacharissa'  (see 
Waller),  took  up  arms  against  Charles  I  and 
was  wounded  at  Marston  Moor.  He  was 
employed  on  government  service  until  the 
Restoration,  but  his  firm  republicanism  was 
the  source  of  hostility  to  Cromwell.  At  the 
Restoration  he  refused  to  give  pledges  to 
Charles  II,  and  lived  abroad  in  poverty  and 
exile  until  1677.  He  was  sent  to  the  Tower  of 
London  after  the  discovery  of  the  Rye  House 
Plot,  tried  before  Jeffreys,  and  condemned 
without  adequate  evidence,  though  there  was 
little  doubt  of  his  guilt.  He  was  executed  on 
Tower  Hill.  He  wrote  'Discourses  concern- 
ing Government',  first  printed  in  1698,  and  a 
treatise  on  'Love',  published  in  1884. 

SIDNEY,  SIR  PHILIP  (1554-86),  son  of 
Sir  Henry  Sidney  (who  was  thrice  lord- 
deputy  of  Ireland)  and  of  Leicester's  sister, 
was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  He  became  intimate  with 
Sir  F.  Greville  (q.v.,  Lord  Brooke)  and 
Camden  (q.v.),  and  was  favoured  by  Sir 
William  Cecil  (Lord  Burghley).  He  visited 
France,  Austria,  Venice  (meeting  Tintoretto 
and  Paolo  Veronese),  Genoa,  and  Padua, 
between  1572  and  1575.  In  1573  he  married 
Frances,  daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Walsingham. 
In  1576  he  became  acquainted  with  Walter 
Devereux,  first  earl  of  Essex,  and  his  daughter 
Penelope,  to  whom  he  addressed  the  famous 
series  of  sonnets  known  as  'Astrophel  and 
Stella*  (q.v.),  written  during  1580-4.  He  saw 
much  of  Spenser  at  Leicester  House,  and 
received  the  dedication  of  his  'Shepheards 
Calender'.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Areopagus  (a  club  formed  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  naturalizing  the  classical  metres 
in  English  verse,  which  included  Spenser, 
Fulke  Greville,  Harvey,  Dyer,  and  others).  In 
1584  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Flushing; 
with  Prince  Maurice  he  surprised  Axel  in 
1586,  and  in  the  same  year  joined  as  a  volun- 
teer the  attack  on  a  Spanish  convoy  for  the 
relief  of  Zutphen.  Here,  on  22  Sept.,  he 
received  a  fatal  wound  in  the  thigh.  As  he  lay 
dying,  he  passed  a  cup  of  water  to  another 
wounded  man,  saying,  'Thy  necessity  is 
greater  than  mine'.  He  was  buried  in 


[719] 


SIDNEY  BIDULPH 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  his  death  evoked 
elegies  by  Spenser  ('Astrophel'),  Matthew 
Roydon  (included  after  'Astrophel*  in  Spen- 
ser's Works),  James  VI,  Breton,  Drayton, 
and  others.  There  are  portraits  of  him  at 
Penshurst  and  elsewhere.  He  is  the  subject 
of  a  poem  by  Swinburne. 

Sidney  exercised  an  extraordinary  influence 
on  the  poets  of  his  own  and  the  following 
generations,  heightened,  perhaps,  by  the 
romantic  character  of  his  personal  history. 
None  of  his  works  appeared  in  his  lifetime; 
the c Arcadia*  (q. v.)  was  first  published  in  1 590 ; 
the  3rd  edition  (1598)  included  his  'Apologie 
for  Poetrie'  (q.v.)  and  'Astrophel  and  Stella* 
(q.v.),  of  which  an  unauthorized  edition  had 
appeared  in  1591.  Sidney's  version  of  the 
Psalms  was  published  in  1823  and  reprinted 
as  cRock  Honeycomb*  in  Buskin's  'Biblio- 
theca  Pastorum*.  His  collective  poetical  works 
were  edited  by  Dr.  Grosart  in  1873. 

Sidney  Bidulph,  The  Memoirs  of,  see  under 

Sheridan  (Mrs.  F.). 

'Sidney's  sister,  Pembroke's  mother', 

see  Pembroke. 

Sidonia,  a  character  in  Disraeli's  'Coningsby* 
and  'Tancred*  (qq.v.),  a  wealthy  and  power- 
ful Jewish  banker,  a  man  of  profound  learn- 
ing, devoid  of  human  affections. 

Sidonia  the  Sorceress,  see  Meinhold. 

SIDONIUS  APOLLINARIS  (c.  A.D.  431- 
84),  the  foremost  representative  of  Latin 
literature  of  his  time,  author  of  Letters  on  the 
model  of  those  of  the  younger  Pliny,  and  of 
poems.  He  was  bishop  of  Auvergne. 

Sidrophel,  the  astrologer  in  Butler's  'Hudi- 
bras'  (q.v.,  n.  iii).  He  is  supposed  to  repre- 
sent Sir  Paul  Neal,  a  conceited  member  of  the 
Royal  Society,  who  thought  he  had  dis- 
covered an  elephant  in  the  moon,  in  fact  a 
mouse  in  his  telescope. 

Siege  of  Corinth,  The,  a  poem  by  Lord 
Byron  (q.v.),  published  in  1816. 

It  is  founded  on  the  story  of  the  siege  by  the 
Turks,  in  1715,  of  Corinth,  then  held  by  the 
Venetians.  The  Turks,  guided  by  the  renegade 
Alp,  who  loves  the  daughter  of  the  Venetian 
governor,  Minotti,  make  their  way  into  the 
fortress.  Minotti  fires  the  magazine,  and 
destroys  victors  and  defenders,  including 
himself. 

Siege  of  Rhodes,  The,  the  first  attempt  at 
English  opera,  by  D'Avenant,  performed  in 
1656. 

Dramatic  performances  having  been  sup- 
pressed by  the  Commonwealth  government, 
D'Avenant  obtained  authority  in  1656  to 
produce  at  Rutland  House  an  'Entertainment 
after  the  manner  of  the  ancients*,  in  which 
Diogenes  and  Aristophanes  argue  against  and 
for  public  amusements,  and  a  Londoner  and 
Parisian  compare  the  merits  of  their  two 
cities;  this  was  accompanied  by  vocal  and 
instrumental  music,  composed  by  Henry 
Lawes.  Immediately  after  this  prologue  was 


SIGURD  THE  VOLSUNG 

given  the  'Siege  of  Rhodes'  (at  first  in  one,  but 
in  1662  in  two  parts),  an  heroic  play,  the  'story 
sung  in  recitative  music*,  which  was  corn- 
posed  by  Dr.  Charles  Coleman  and  George 
Hudson.  The  play  deals  with  the  siege  of 
Rhodes  by  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  and  the 
devotion  by  which  lanthe,  wife  of  the  Sicilian 
Duke  Alphonso,  saves  her  husband  and  the 
defenders  of  the  island. 

Siege  of  Urbin,  The,  see  Killigrew  (Sir  W.). 
Siege  Perilous,  see  Round  Table. 

Siegfried,  the  hero  of  the  first  part  of  the 
'Nibelungenlied*  (q.v.). 

In  Wagner's  opera,  'Siegfried*,  the  hero, 
son  of  Siegmund  and  Sieglinde  (see  Valkyrie) 
brought  up  by  the  Nibelung  smith,  Mime, 
forges  the  Nothung  sword  from  the  frag- 
ments of  the  sword  of  his  father.  With  this 
he  slays  Fafner,  the  giant  snake  who  guards 
the  stolen  Rhine-gold,  and  obtains  the  magic 
ring  and  the  'tarn-helm*  which  enables  him 
to  assume  any  shape  he  pleases.  He  passes 
through  the  flames  that  surround  Brynhilde 
and  awakens  her,  and  they  plight  their  troth. 
For  the  end  of  the  story  see  Gotterddm- 
merung. 

Sieglind,  in  the  'Nibelungenlied'  (q.v.),  the 
mother  of  Siegfried. 

Siegmund,  in  the  'Nibelungenlied'  (q.v.), 
the  father  of  Siegfried. 

Sigisrnonda  (Ghismonda),  in  Boccaccio's 
'Decameron*  (iv.  i),  daughter  of  Tancred, 
prince  of  Salerno.  Her  father,  having 
discovered  her  love  for  his  squire  Guis- 
cardo,  slew  the  latter  and  sent  his  heart 
in  a  golden  cup  to  Sigismonda,  who  took 
poison  and  died.  The  father,  repenting  his 
cruelty,  caused  the  pair  to  be  buried  in  the 
same  tomb.  The  story  is  the  subject  of 
Dryden's  'Sigismunda  and  Guiscardo',  and 
of  Robert  Wilmot's  'Tancred  and  Gismund' 
(q.v.).  James  Thomson's  'Tancred  and 
Sigismunda*  (1745)  deals  with  a  different 
story  (see  Tancred  and  Sigismunda). 

Sigmund,  in  the  'Volsunga  Saga'  (q.v.)  and 
in  W.  Morris's  'Sigurd  the  Volsung*  (q.v.),  the 
son  of  King  Volsung  and  the  father  of  Sigurd. 

Signy,  in  the  'Volsunga  Saga*  and  in  W. 
Morris's  'Sigurd  the  Volsung'  (q.v.),  the 
daughter  of  Kong  Volsung  and  the  sister  of 
Sigmund. 

Siguna,  in  Norse  mythology,  the  wife  of 
Lola  (q.v.). 

Sigurd  the  Volsung  and  the  Fall  of  the 
Niblungs,  The  Story  of,  an  epic  in  four  books, 
in  anapaestic  couplets,  by  W.  Morris  (q.v.)» 
founded  upon  the  'Volsunga  Saga',  and  pub- 
lished in  1876. 

The  first  book  of  this,  Morris's  most  im- 
portant work,  recounts  the  grim  tale  of  Sig- 
mund, the  father  of  Sigurd,  and  the  three 
other  books  deal  with  the  story  of  Sigurd  him- 
self. Signy,  daughter  of  King  Volsung,  is 
married  to  Siggeir,  the  dastardly  king  of  the 


[720] 


SIKES 

Goths.  Hatred  springs  up  between  Siggeir 
and  Sigmund,  son  of  Volsung  and  brother 
of  Signy.  Siggeir  treacherously  causes  the 
death  of  Volsung  and  of  all  his  sons  except 
Sigmund,  whose  great  strength  enables  him 
to  escape.  He  and  Signy  devise  revenge,  and 
this  is  effected  by  the  help  of  Sinfiotli,  a  son 
born  to  Signy  of  Sigmund.  Siggeir  is  burnt 
in  his  palace,  Signy  voluntarily  sharing  his 
fate,  pigmund  recovers  his  kingdom;  Sin- 
fiotli is  poisoned,  and  Sigmund  is  killed  in 
battle. 

Sigurd,  the  son  of  Sigmund  by  Hiordis, 
having  learnt  the  lore  of  Regin,  the  dwarf- 
smith,  and  acquired  Greyfell,  the  brave  horse 
of  Gripir,  and  the  sword  that  was  the  gift  of 
Odin,  slays  Fafnir,  the  serpent  enemy  of  the 
gods  that  guards  the  elf-gold,  and  takes  the 
treasure.  He  finds  the  beautiful  and  all-wise 
Brynhild  sleeping  in  the  midst  of  the  wild-fire, 
awakes  her,  and  is  betrothed  to  her.  He  then 
joins  the  Niblungs,  and  as  the  result  of  a 
magic  draught  given  him  by  Grimhild,  their 
queen,  forgets  Brynhild,  and  is  married  to 
Gudrun,  the  Niblung  king's  daughter.  He 
woos  Brynhild  for  Gunnar,  Gudrun's 
brother,  assuming  his  semblance,  and  wins 
her,  but  lays  his  sword  between  himself  and 
her  as  they  lie  together.  Brynhild  is  wedded 
to  Gunnar.  Strife  arises  between  her  and 
Gudrun,  and  Brynhild  learns  the  trick  that 
has  been  played  upon  her.  Deeply  incensed, 
she  provokes  Gunnar  to  have  Sigurd  slain, 
and  kills  herself  that  she  may  join  her  beloved. 
Gudrun,  in  her  exceeding  grief  for  Sigurd, 
withdraws  into  the  wilds. 

The  last  book  narrates  the  fall  of  the  Nib- 
lungs.  Atli  (Attila),  'a  king  of  the  outlands', 
false  and  avaricious,  attracted  by  the  Niblung 
treasure,  seeks  the  hand  of  Gudrun,  and 
obtains  it,  for  Gudrun  meditates  vengeance 
for  the  death  of  Sigurd.  Then  Atli  lures 
Gunnar  and  his  kinsfolk  to  his  city,  and  causes 
them  to  be  slain.  Gudrun  kills  Adi  and  takes 
her  own  life.  There  is  some  historical  basis 
for  the  legend  from  the  point  where  Attila 
comes  into  the  story. 

Sikes,  BILL,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Oliver 
Twist'  (q.v.). 

Silas  Lapham,  see  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham. 
Silas  Mamer,  a  novel  by  G.  Eliot  (q.v.), 
published  in  1861. 

Silas  Marner,  a  linen-weaver,  has  been 
driven  out  of  the  small  religious  community 
to  which  he  belongs  by  a  false  charge  of 
theft,  and  has  taken  refuge  in  the  agricultural 
village  of  Raveloe.  His  only  consolation  in 
his  loneliness  is  his  growing  pile  of  gold. 
This  is  stolen  from  his  cottage  by  the  squire's 
reprobate  son,  Dunstan  Cass,  who  disappears. 
Dunstan's  elder  brother,  Godfrey,  is  in  love 
with  Nancy  Lammeter,  but  is  secretly  and 
unhappily  married  to  a  woman  of  low  class  in 
a  neighbouring  town.  Meditating  revenge  for 
Godfrey's  refusal  to  acknowledge  her,  this 
woman  carries  her  child  one  New  Year's  Eve 
to  Raveloe,  intending  to  force  her  way  into  the 


SILURIANS 

Cass's  house ;  but  dies  in  the  snow.  Her  child, 
Eppie,  finds  her  way  into  Silas's  cottage,  is 
adopted  by  him,  and  restores  to  him  the 
happiness  which  he  has  lost  with  his  gold. 
After  many  years,  the  draining  of  a  pond 
near  Silas's  door  reveals  the  body  of  Dunstan 
with  the  gold.  Moved  by  this  revelation, 
Godfrey,  now  married  to  Nancy,  acknow- 
ledges himself  the  father  of  Eppie  and  claims 
her,  but  she  refuses  to  leave  Silas.  The 
solemnity  of  the  story  is  relieved  by  the 
humour  of  the  rustic  revellers  at  the 
Rainbow  Inn,  and  the  genial  motherliness 
of  Dolly  Winthrop,  who  befriends  Silas. 

Silence,  in,  Shakespeare's  £2  Henry  IV  (q.v.), 
a  country  justice. 

Sileni,  a  name  given  of  old  to  apothecaries' 
boxes  ornamented  with  grotesque  figures  of, 
amongst  others,  Silenus,  and  containing  per- 
fumes and  spices.  Alcibiades,  in  Plato's 
'Symposium*,  compares  Socrates  to  one  of 
these.  They  figure  in  the  prologue  to  Rabe- 
lais's  'Gargantua*. 

Silent  Woman,  The,  see  Epic&ne. 

Silenus,  a  demi-god,  the  foster-father  and 
attendant  of  Bacchus  (q.v.).  He  is  generally 
represented  as  a  fat  and  jolly  old  man,  riding 
on  an  ass,  intoxicated,  and  crowned  with 
flowers.  He  once  lost  his  way  in  Phrygia  and 
was  brought  by  peasants  to  King  Midas, 
who  entertained  him  kindly  and  restored  him 
to  Bacchus.  In  reward  for  this,  Bacchus  gave 
Midas  the  power  of  turning  to  gold  whatever 
he  touched  (see  Midas).  He  is  the  subject  of 
a  poem  by  Thomas  Woolner  (1825-92). 

Silhouette,  a  portrait  obtained  by  tracing 
the  outline  of  a  profile,  head,  or  figure,  by 
means  of  its  shadow,  and  filling  in  the  whole 
outline  with  black;  or  cut  out  of  black  paper. 
The  word  is  derived  from  Etienne  de 
Silhouette  (1709-67),  a  French  author  and 
politician.  According  to  the  usual  account 
it  was  intended  to  ridicule  the  petty  econo- 
mies introduced  by  Silhouette  while  hold- 
ing the  office  of  controller-general  for  eight 
months  in  1759;  but  Hatzfeldt  and  Darme- 
steter  take  the  expression  *a  la  silhouette*  to 
refer  to  his  brief  tenure  of  office,  £appliqu<§ 
plaisamment  &  tout  ce  qui  paraissait  e"ph6- 
mere*.  Littre",  however,  also  quotes  a  state- 
ment that  Silhouette  himself  decorated  the 
walls  of  his  chateau  at  Bry-sur-Marne  with 
outline  portraits. 

SILIUS  ITALIGUS,  TITUS  CATIUS 
(A.D.  25-101),  Roman  poet,  author  of  a  long 
epic,  the  'Punlca',  on  the  wars  with  Hannibal. 

Sillery,  a  high-class  wine  from  the  com- 
mune of  Sillery  in  Champagne.  The  name 
usually  denotes  a  still  wine  known  as  Sillery 
sec,  originally  the  produce  of  the  Sillery 
vineyards,  but  now  mainly  obtained  from  the 
neighbouring  ones  of  Verzenay  and  Mailly. 

Silurians,  an  ancient  British  tribe  that  in- 
habited the  south-east  part  of  Wales. 


3868 


[721] 


SILURIST 

Silurist,  THE,  see  Vaughan. 

SILVA,  FELICIANO  DA,  a  i6th-cent. 
Spanish,  romance  writer,  who  composed 
sequels  to  'Amadis  of  Gaul'  and  to  'Celestina* 
(qq.v.),  and  was  ridiculed  in  'Don  Quixote*. 

Silver- fork,  a  term  used  to  designate  a 
school  of  novelists  about  1830,  distinguished 
by  an  affectation  of  gentility. 

Silvia,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Two 
Gentlemen  of  Verona*  (q.v.).  See  also  Sylvia. 

Simile,  an  object,  scene,  or  action,  intro- 
duced by  way  of  comparison  for  explanatory, 
illustrative,  or  merely  ornamental  purpose. 

SIMMS,  WILLIAM  GILMORE  (1806- 
70),  prolific  American  writer,  author  of  some 
fifty  volumes  in  prose  and  verse,  born  in 
Charleston,  South  Carolina.  His  poetry  was 
highly  esteemed  by  contemporary  critics, 
and  among  romantic  novelists  he  was 
Cooper's  closest  rival.  His  works  include: 
'Atlantis,  A  Story  of  the  Sea'  (1832),  'Martin 
Faber'  (1833),  'Guy  Rivers'  (1834),  'The 
Yemassee'  (1835),  'The  Partisan*  (1835), 
'Mellichampe'  (1836),  'The  Kinsman'  (1841), 
'Donna  Florida*  (1843),  'Katherine  Walton' 
(1851),  'The  Sword  and  the  Distaff*  (1853), 
'The  Cassique  of  Kiawah*  (1859).  His 
literary  labours  also  include  biographies  of 
Chevalier  Bayard,  Captain  John  Smith, 
Nathaniel  Greene,  and  Francis  Marion, 
popular  histories  of  South  Carolina,  an 
edition  of  Shakespeare's  apocryphal  plays, 
and  three  tragedies  in  verse. 

Simnel,  LAMBERT  (fl.  1475-1525),  of  humble 
parentage,  was  educated  by  Richard  Simon, 
a  priest,  taken  by  him  to  Ireland,  and  per- 
suaded to  give  himself  out  as  Edward,  earl  of 
Warwick,  son  of  the  duke  of  Clarence  (there 
seems  to  have  been  some  hesitation  whether 
he  should  personate  Warwick  or  Richard, 
duke  of  York).  He  was  joined  by  Lord  Lovel 
and  the  earl  of  Lincoln,  was  crowned  at  Dub- 
lin as  Edward  VI  (1487),  and  crossed  to  Eng- 
land, where  the  force  that  he  brought  with 
him  from  Ireland  was  utterly  defeated  by 
Henry  VII  at  Stoke-on-Trent.  Simnel  was 
pardoned  and  employed  as  a  turnspit  in  the 
royal  kitchen.  Long  afterwards  Henry  VII 
invited  some  reconciled  Irish  peers  to  dine 
with  him  and  made  Simnel  wait  on  them. 
They  did  not  appreciate  the  joke. 

Simon  Eyre  (d.  1459),  according  to  Stow,  a 
draper  who  became  mayor  of  London,  was  a 
generous  benefactor  of  the  city,  and  built 
Leadenhall  as  a  public  granary  and  market. 
He  figures  in  Dekker's  'The  Shoemaker's 
Holiday*  (q.v.). 

Simon  Magus,  the  sorcerer  of  Samaria  re- 
ferred to  in  Acts  viii.  9—13,  as  converted  by 
Philip.  His  attempt  to  purchase  miraculous 
powers  by  offering  the  Apostles  money  (Acts 
viii.  18-19)  is  alluded  to  in  our  word  Simony. 
According  ^  to  other  accounts,  he  claimed 
divine  attributes  and  was  the  founder  of  an 


SINCLAIR 

early  Christian  sect  known  as  the  Simonians, 
regarded  as  heretical. 

Simon  Pure,  a  character  in  Mrs.  Centlivre's 
'A  Bold  Stroke  for  a  Wife'  (q.v.). 

SIMONIDES  (556-468  B.C.),  of  the  Ionian 
island  of  Ceos,  the  first  great  lyric  poet  of 
Greece  as  a  whole  (Jebb).  He  wrote  elegiac 
epitaphs  on  those  who  fell  at  Thermopylae 
and  Salamis,  and  defeated  Aeschylus  in  489 
in  the  contest  for  the  best  elegy  on  those  who 
fell  at  Marathon.  His  most  distinctive  work 
was  in  his  epigrams,  notable  for  their  sim- 
plicity and  power.  Some  fragments  of  his 
poetry  survive,  as  also  of  the  iambic  poet 
SIMONIDES  OF  AMORGOS  (c.  640  B.C.)* 
Simorg,  see  Simurgh. 
Simple  Simon,  the  subject  of  various 
nursery  rhymes,  used  generally  to  indicate  a 
silly  gullible  person. 

Simple  Story f  A,  a  romance  by  Mrs.  Inch- 
bald  (q.v.),  published  in  1791. 

Miss  Milner,  a  gay  flirt,  falls  in  love  with 
her  guardian,  Dorriforth,  who  is  a  priest,  and 
he  with  her,  but  both  conceal  their  feelings. 
Dorriforth  becomes  Lord  Elmwood,  and  is 
dispensed  by  Rome  from  his  vows,  and  the 
pair  marry.  In  the  second  part  of  the  story, 
Lady  Elmwood,  led  astray  by  Sir  Frederick 
Lawnley,  a  former  suitor,  has  been  banished 
with  her  daugher  from  her  husband's  house, 
and  it  is  only  after  her  death,  when  her 
daughter,  Matilda,  has  been  carried  off  by 
a  brutal  ravisher,  that  Lord  Elmwood 
relents  and  rescues  Matilda,  and  restores 
her  to  her  proper  position.  A  second  priest, 
the  arrogant  Sandford,  plays  an  important 
part  in  directing  the  course  of  events.  The 
author*s  purpose,  she  states  at  the  end,  is  to 
show  the  value  of  ca  proper  education*. 

Simplidssimus,  the  name  of  a  well-known 
German  comic  paper. 

Simplicissimus,  The  Adventurous,  the  Eng- 
lish title  of  <Der  Abentheurliche  Simplicissi- 
mus  Teutsch*  (1669),  by  Hans  Jacob  Chris- 
toph^von  Grimmelshausen :  a  description  of 
the  life  of  a  strange  vagabond  named  Mel- 
chior  Sternfels  von  Fuchshaim.  The  work 
was  first  translated  into  English  (with  an 
account  of  the  author)  in  1912;  its  chief 
interest  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  one  of  the 
few  existing  contemporary  records  of  the  life 
of  the  people  during  the  Thirty  Years  War. 
Simurgh  or  SIMORG,  a  monstrous  bird  of 
Persian  legend,  imagined  as  rational,  having 
the  power  of  speech,  and  of  great  age.  [OED  J 
In  the  'Shahnameh*  of  Firdusi  (q.v.)  a 
Simurgh  nourishes  the  infant  Zal  (q.v.)  and 
afterwards  befriends  him.  One  of  the  feats  of 
Isfendiyar  (q.v.)  is  the  slaying  of  a  Simurgh. 
Sinadoune,  see  Li  Beaus  Desconus. 
Sinbad,  see  Sindbad. 

SINCLAIR,  CATHERINE  (1800-64), 
author  of  'Holiday  House*  (1839),  a  popular 
book  for  children,  and  other  books  of  the 
same  kind,  besides  many  novels. 


[783] 


SINCLAIR 

SINCLAIR,  UPTON  (1878-  ),  Ameri- 
can novelist  and  journalist,  born  in  Balti- 
more. Sinclair  is  a  novelist  with  a  strong 
sociological  bias,  and  most  of  his  books  have 
been  written  definitely  in  protest  against 
abuses  due  (according  to  Sinclair)  to  the 
industrial  system.  Latterly  he  has  become 
more  violent  and  communistic  in  his  views. 
His  chief  works  are:  'King  Midas'  (1901), 
'The  Jungle'  (1906),  'The  Metropolis'  (1908), 
'King  Coal'  (1917),  'They  Call  me  Carpenter' 
(1922),  'Oil'  (1926),  'Boston'  (1928),  'The 
Wet  Parade*  (1931). 
Sindabar  or  SANDABAR,  see  Syntipas. 
Sindbad  of  the  Sea,  or  Sindbad  the  Sailor, 
one  of  the  tales  in  the  'Arabian  Nights'  (q.v.). 
Sindbad,  a  rich  young  man  of  Bagdad, 
haying  wasted  much  of  his  wealth  in  prodigal 
living,  undertakes  a  number  of  sea- voyages  as 
a  merchant  and  meets  with  various  marvellous 
adventures.  The  best  known  are  those  of  the 
Roc,  a  huge  bird  that  could  lift  elephants  in 
its  claws,  and  of  the  Old  Man  of  the  Sea.  The 
latter  persuades  Sindbad  to  carry  him  on  his 
shoulders,  whereupon  he  twines  his  legs 
round  Sindbad,  so  that  Sindbad  cannot  dis- 
lodge him  and  remains  his  captive,  until  at 
last  he  intoxicates  the  Old  Man  with  wine, 
succeeds  in  dislodging  him,  and  kills  him. 
Sindifoad,  see  Syntipas. 
Sinfiotli,  in  W.  Morris's  'Sigurd  the  Vol- 
sung'  (q.v.),  the  son  of  Sigmund  and  Signy. 
He  appears  in  'Beowulf  (q.v.)  as  Fitela. 
Single- speech  Hamilton,  William  Gerard 
Hamilton  (1729-96),  who  as  M.P.  for  Peters- 
field  made  a  celebrated  maiden  speech.  He 
was  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  (1761-4)  and 
chancellor  of  the  Irish  exchequer  (1763-84). 
He  spoke  ably  in  the  Irish  parliament  and  his 
conversational  powers  were  praised  by  Dr. 
Johnson.  The  'Letters  of  Junius'  were 
attributed  to  him  by  some  of  his  contem- 
poraries. His  works  were  published  after  his 
death  by  Malone  under  the  title  of  'Parlia- 
mentary Logick'. 

Singleton,  Adventures  of  Captain,  a  romance 
of  adventure  by  Defoe  (q.v.),  published  in 
1720.  Singleton,  who  is  the  narrator  of  his  own 
story,  having  been  kidnapped  in  his  infancy, 
is  sent  to  sea.  Having  'no  sense  of  virtue  or 
religion',  he  takes  part  in  a  mutiny  and  is  put 
ashore  in  Madagascar  with  his  comrades; 
reaches  the  continent  of  Africa  and  crosses  it 
from  east  to  west,  encountering  many  adven- 
tures and  obtaining  much  gold,  which  he 
dissipates  on  his  return  to  England.  He 
takes  once  more  to  the  sea,  becomes  a  pirate, 
carrying  on  his  depredations  in  the  West 
Indies,  Indian  Ocean,  and  China  Seas,  ac- 
quires great  wealth,  which  he  brings  home, 
and  finally  marries  the  sister  of  a  shipmate. 

Sinis,  a  legendary  robber  who  haunted  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth  and  killed  his  victims  by 
tying  them  to  the  tops  of  two  pine-trees,  which 
he  bent  down  and  then  allowed  to  fly  up.  He 
was  destroyed  by  Theseus. 


SIR  COURTLY  NICE 

Sinn  Fein  (prop.  Shin  Fane),  'ourselves*,  the 
policy  of  the  Irish  Republican  party,  formu- 
lated in  1902;  also  used  for  the  party  itself. 

Sinon,  see  Horse  (The  Trojan). 

Sion  College,  London,  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Elsynge  Spital  (a  hospital  founded  in 
the  1 4th  cent,  by  William  Elsynge,  a  mercer, 
and  converted  by  him  into  an  Augustinian 
priory),  was  established  by  Dr.  Thomas 
White  in  1623.  It  contains  a  valuable  library 
of  theological  works. 

Sir  Charles  Grandison,  The  History  of,  a 
novel  by  Richardson  (q.v.),  published  in 
1754- . 

As  in  Richardson's  previous  novels,  the 
story  is  told  by  means  of  letters.  The  beauti- 
ful and  accomplished  Harriet  Byron  comes 
to  London,  where  she  attracts  many  admirers. 
Among  these,  Sir  Hargrave  Pollexfen,  rich, 
arrogant,  and  unscrupulous,  presses  his 
court  and  offers  marriage  with  insolent  per- 
sistence. Infuriated  by  Harriet's  refusal,  he 
has  her  carried  off  from  a  masquerade,  at- 
tempts by  outrageous  pressure  to  carry 
through  a  secret  marriage  ceremony,  and 
being  foiled,  forcibly  removes  her  in  a  coach 
to  the  country.  The  coach  is  fortunately 
stopped  by  that  of  Sir  Charles  Grandison,  a 
gentleman  of  high  character  and  fine  appear- 
ance, by  whom  Harriet  is  rescued.  Sir  Charles 
and  Harriet  fall  in  love,  but  the  former  is  pre- 
cluded from  offering  marriage  by  certain 
obligations.  When  Jiving  in  Italy,  he  has 
rendered  great  services  to  the  noble  family  of 
the  Porrettas,  and  a  quasi-engagement  has 
been  formed  between  him  and  Clementina 
Porretta,  in  which  her  heart  is  more  engaged 
than  his.  The  difference  of  their  religion  has 
hitherto  made  it  impossible  to  arrive  at  an 
agreement  with  the  parents,  and  Clementina's 
mind  becomes  deranged  by  her  unhappiness. 
Grandison  is  summoned  to  Italy,  the  parents 
being  now  prepared  to  accept  any  conditions 
which  will  ensure  their  daughter  s  recovery. 
As  she  gets  better,  however,  she  decides  that 
she  cannot  marry  a  heretic.  Sir  Charles  is 
released,  and  is  united  to  Harriet  Byron. 

Sir  Courtly  Nicef  or  It  cannot  be,  a  comedy 
by  Crowne  (q.v.),  produced  in  1685. 

This,  is  the  best  of  Crowne's  plays  and  is 
founded  on  a  comedy  by  the  Spanish  drama- 
tist, Moreto.  Leonora  is  in  love  with  Farewel, 
a  young  man  of  quality.  But  her  brother  Lord 
Bellguard,  owing  to  a  feud  between  the  fami- 
lies, is  determined  she  shall  not  marry  him. 
Bellguard  keeps  Leonora  under  watch  by  her 
aunt,  'an  old  amorous  envious  maid',  and  a 
pair  of  spies,  Hothead  and  Fanatick,  who 
hold  violently  opposed  views  on  religious 
matters  and  quarrel  amusingly  in  con- 
sequence. Thanks  to  the  resourcefulness  of 
Crack,  who  introduces  himself  in  an  assumed 
character  into  Lord  Bellguard's  house,  Fare- 
wel  is  enabled  to  carry  off  and  marry  Leonora ; 
while  her  rival  suitor,  favoured  by  Lord  Bell- 
guard,  Sir  Courtly  Nice,  a  fop  whose  'linen  is 


[723] 


3AS 


SIR  LAUNCELOT  GREAVES 

all  made  in  Holland  by  neat  women  that  dip 
their  fingers  in  rosewater',  is  fobbed  off  with 
the  aunt;  and  Surly,  the  rough  ill-mannered 
cynic,  gets  no  wife  at  all. 

Sir  Launcelot  Greaves,  The  Adventures  of,  a 
novel  by  Smollett  (q.v.). 

Sirat,  see  AL  Sir  at. 

Sirens,  THE,  three  sea-nymphs,  who 
charmed  by  their  melodious  voices  all  who 
heard  them,  so  that  at  last  the  victims  died 
from  want  of  food.  Their  names  (variously 
given)  were,  according  to  one  version,  Parthe- 
nope,  Ligeia,  and  Leucosia,  and  they  lived  in 
a  small  island  near  Cape  Pelorus  in  Sicily. 
Ulysses,  informed  of  the  power  of  their  voices 
by  Circe,  when  passing  by  this  point  stopped 
the  ears  of  his  companions  with  wax  and 
caused  himself  to  be  tied  to  the  mast  of  the 
ship,  and  so  passed  them  in  safety  ('  Odyssey', 
xii).  They  also  attempted  to  beguile  the 
Argonauts,  but  Orpheus  surpassed  them  in 
song.  In  Plato's  'Republic*  (followed  by 
Milton  in  'Blest  pair  of  Sirens')  they  have  a 
good  character  and  supply  the  music  of  the 
spheres. 
Sirius,  see  Dog-star. 

Sirmio ,  a  promontory  on  the  southern  shore 
of  the  Lago  di  Garda  (Lacus  Benacus),  on 
which  Catullus  (q.v.)  had  a  villa. 

Peninsularum,  Sirmio,  insularumque 

Ocelle. 

(Catullus,  xxxii.  i.) 

Sirvente,  a  form  of  poem  or  lay,  usually 
satirical,  employed  by  the  troubadours. 
Apparently  from  Fr.  servir,  to  serve,  but  the 
connexion  is  not  clear.  [OEDJ 

SISMONDI,  JEAN  CHARLES  U)ON- 
ARD  (1773-1842),  French  historian  of  Italian 
descent,  author  of  a  famous  'History  of  the 
Italian  Republics  in  the  Middle  Ages'  (1809- 
18),  and  of  a  'History  of  the  French',  'New 
Principles  of  Political  Economy',  &c. 

Sister  Anne,  see  Blue  Beard. 

Sister  Helen,  a  poem  by  D.  G.  Rossetti  (q.v.), 
published  in  1870. 

The  poem  presents  in  semi-dramatic  form 
the  story  of  a  woman  who  destroys  her  un- 
faithful lover  by  melting  his  waxen  image,  and 
thereby  loses  her  own  soul. 

Sisters,  The,  a  comedy  by  James  Shirley 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1643. 

The  theme  is  the  contrast  of  two  sisters, 
Paulina  and  Angellina,  the  one  arrogant,  the 
other  modest.  Paulina  is  fooled  by  Frapolo, 
a  chief  of  bandits,  masquerading  first  as  a 
fortune-teller  who  prophesies  her  marriage 
with  a  prince;  then  as  Prince  of  Parma,  in 
which  character  she  marries  him.  The  true 
prince  ^  supervenes  and  falls  in  love  with 
Angellina.  Frapolo's  fraud  is  exposed,  and 
moreover  Paulina  is  discovered  to  be  a 
peasant's  daughter  and  a  changeling. 

Sisters,  The,  a  tragedy  in  prose  by  Swin- 
burne (q.v.). 


SIVA 

Sistine  Chapel,  THE,  a  chapel  in  the  Vatican 
at  Rome,  built  by  Sixtus  IV,  from  whom  it 
takes  its  name.  He  was  pope  1471-84,  and  a 
great  builder  and  improver  of  the  city.  The 
chapel  is  uninteresting  architecturally,  but 
Sixtus  employed  Perugino,  Botticelli,  Signo- 
relli,  and  other  great  artists  to  decorate  the 
walls.  Michelangelo's  famous  painted  ceiling 
was  added  in  the  pontificate  of  Julius  II,  and 
his  fresco  of  the  Last  Judgement  under 
Paul  III. 

Sisyphus,  a  son  of  Aeolus  and  husband  of 
Merope,  a  crafty  king  of  Corinth,  who  out- 
witted Autolycus  (q.v.).  When  the  latter 
stole  his  neighbours'  cattle,  Sisyphus,  who 
mistrusted  him,  was  able  to  pick  out  his  own, 
having  marked  them  under  the  feet.  After 
his  death,  Sisyphus,  on  account  of  misdeeds 
variously  related,  was  condemned  in  hell  to 
roll  to  the  top  of  a  hill  a  large  stone,  which 
when  it  reached  the  summit  rolled  back  to  the 
plain,  so  that  his  punishment  was  eternal. 
Sita,  in  the  'Ramayana*  (q.v.),  the  wife  of 
Rama. 

SITWELL,  EDITH,  and  her  two  brothers 
(see  below),  have  been  three  of  the  most  dis- 
cussed writers  of  the  present  time.  The 
attack  and  popularity  which  they  have  known 
arose  from  their  interest  and  concern  for 
poetry,  and  largely  from  the  technical  tricks 
they  (especially  Miss  Sitwell)  played  with  it. 
Briefly  Miss  Sitwell,  in  her  work,  'is 
strikingly  different  from  the  average  poetic 
poet:  (a)  in  seeking  to  communicate  sensa- 
tion, more  than  to  describe;  (b)  in  avoidance 
of  worn-out  traditional  imagery  and  meta- 
phor; (c)  in  adapting  poetry  to  modern 
musical  (mainly  dance)  rhythms ;  ( d)  in  (her 
own  words)  studying  "the  effect  that  texture 
has  on  rhythm,  and  the  effect  that  varying 
and  elaborate  patterns  of  rhymes  and  of 
assonances  and  dissonances  have  upon 
rhythm".'  (A.  C.  Ward,  'The  Nineteen- 
Twenties'.)  Her  Collected  Poems'  were 
issued  in  1930. 

The  poetic  work  of  OSBERT  SITWELL 
has  been  largely  satirical.  But  'England  Re- 
claimed' (1927)  is  a  presentation  of  the  house- 
keeper at  the  Great  House,  the  servants,  and 
the  persons  of  the  village.  Even  in  this  pre- 
sentation there  is  a  faint  suggestion  of  the 
superior  intellect  observing  the  inferior. 

The  poetry  of  SACHEVERELL  SIT- 
WELL  is  more  definitely  intellectual  and  in  a 
sense  more  technically  traditional  than  Miss 
Sitwell 's.  Besides  his  poems  ('Hortus  Con- 
clusus*,  'The  People's  Palace',  'The  Hun- 
dred and  One  Harlequins',  'The  Thirteenth 
Caesar',  and  'The  Cyder  Feast')  he  has  written 
three  volumes  containing  his  own  personal 
reflections  on  European  art  and  history,  en- 
titled 'The  Gothick  North':  (i)  'The  Visit 
of  the  Gypsies',  (ii)  'These  Sad  Ruins', 
(iii)  'The  Fair-Haired  Victory'  (1929-30). 
Siva  or  SHIVA,  the  third  god  of  the  great 
Hindu  triad,  of  which  Brahma  and  Vishnu 
are  the  other  two  members.  He  is  regarded 


[724] 


SIX  ARTICLES 

as  a  development  of  the  Vedic  Rudra.  He  is 
the  god  of  destruction,  and  of  the  regeneration 
which  follows  it,  and  is  generally  worshipped 
under  a  phallic  symbol.  He  shares  with 
Vishnu  the  principal  worship  of  the  Hindus. 
He  is  represented  with  three  eyes,  a  necklace 
of  skulls  and  a  serpent  wound  about  him.  His 
wife  is  Durga  (who  has  also  other  names, 
Devi,  Umay  &c.).  He  is  especially  worshipped 
at  Benares. 

Six  Articles,  THE,  a  statute  passed  in  1539 
declaring  in  favour  of  the  'real  presence'  in 
the  Lord's  Supper,  clerical  celibacy,  auricu- 
lar confession,  &c.  Whoever  spoke  against 
the  first  was  to  be  burnt;  whoever  spoke 
against  the  others  was  to  suffer  loss  of  goods 
and  imprisonment,  and  to  be  hanged  for  a 
repetition  of  the  offence.  The  Act  marked 
the  return  of  Henry  VIII,  after  Cromwell's 
loss  of  influence,  to  'Catholicism  without  the 
Pope*.  The  Protestants  called  it  the  'Whip 
with  six  strings'.  It  was  repealed  in  1547. 

Six  Nations,  THE,  see  Five  Nations. 

Sixteen- string  Jack,  a  noted  highwayman, 
John  Rann,  hanged  in  1774,  remarkable  for 
his  foppery  and  for  wearing  a  bunch  of  six- 
teen strings  at  the  knees  of  his  breeches.  He 
is  referred  to  in  Bos  well's  'Johnson'  (n  Apr. 
1776). 

Skadi  or  SKADHI,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  wife  of  the  sea-god  Njord.  The  gods, 
having  killed  her  father,  allowed  her  to 
choose  a  husband  from  among  them,  but  by 
seeing  only  their  feet. 

Skald,  an  ancient  Scandinavian  poet,  usually 
applied  to  the  poets  of  the  Viking  period. 
The  Skaldic  verse  is  extraordinarily  elaborate 
in  metre  and  alliteration. 

Skanda,  in  Hindu  mythology,  a  son  of  Siva, 
commander  of  the  armies  of  the  gods  against 
the  evil  demons,  the  god  of  war.  He  is  also 
called  KARTTIKEYA. 

Skanderbeg,  see  Scanderbeg. 

SKEAT,  WALTER  WILLIAM  (1835- 
1912),  educated  at  King's  College  School, 
Highgate  School,  and  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, was  appointed  to  a  mathematical 
lectureship  at  his  college  in  1864,  and  de- 
voted his  leisure  to  the  study  of  Early  English, 
with  the  result  that  in  1878  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Anglo-Saxon  at  Cambridge.  He 
edited  *  Lancelot  of  the  Laik'  for  the  Early 
English  Text  Society  in  1864,  and  began  his 
great  edition  of  'Piers  Plowman'  in  1 866.  The 
first  part  of  his  edition  of  John  Barbour's  'The 
Bruce'  appeared  in  1870,  and  his  two  stan- 
dard works  in  Early  English,  the  'Anglo- 
Saxon  Gospels',  in  1871-87,  and  Aelfric^s 
'Lives  of  the  Saints',  in  1881-1900.  His 
seven- volume  edition  of  Chaucer  appeared  in 
1894-7.  Skeat  founded  the  English  Dialect 
Society  in  1873,  which  prepared  the  way  for 
the  'English  Dialect  Dictionary'  (edited  by 
Joseph  Wright,  1896-1905).  Skeat's  'Etyrno- 


SKELTON 

logical  Dictionary'  (1879-82,  revised  and  en- 
larged, 1910)  was  begun  with  the  object  of 
collecting  and  sifting  material  for  the  New 
English  Dictionary.  In  addition  to  these 
major  works,  he  wrote  many  text-books  for 
schools  and  universities,  and  did  much  to 
popularize  philology  and  old  authors.  He 
also,  in  his  latter  years,  led  the  way  in  the 
systematic  study  of  place-names.  In  1871  he 
edited  Chatterton. 

SKEFFINGTON,  SIR  LUMLEY  ST. 
GEORGE  (1771-1850)*  a  fop  and  play- 
wright, who  belonged  to  the  Carlton  House 
circle.  He  was  caricatured  by  Gillray  and 
satirized  by  By ron(c English  Bards  and  Scotch 
Reviewers',  599)  and  Moore.  His  'The  Word 
of  Honour',  'The  High  Road  to  Marriage', 
and  'The  Sleeping  Beauty'  were  produced 
1802-5. 

Skeffington's  Daughter,  or  SKEVINGTON'S, 
or  SCAVENGER'S  DAUGHTER,  an  instrument  of 
torture  in  which  the  body  was  doubled  up 
until  head  and  feet  were  drawn  together, 
reputed  to  have  been  devised  by  Leonard 
Skeffington,  associated  with  his  father,  Sir 
William  Skeffington,  in  the  Lieutenancy  of 
the  Tower  in  the  i6th  cent. 

Skeggs,  CAROLINA  WILHELMINA  AMELIA,  in 
Goldsmith's  'Vicar  of  Wakefield'  (q.v.),  one 
of  the  fine  ladies  introduced  to  the  Primroses 
by  Squire  Thornhill. 

SKBLTON,  JOHN  (i46oP-i529),  was 
created  'poet-laureate*  by  both  universities 
of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  an  academical 
distinction.  He  became  tutor  to  Prince 
Henry  (Henry  VIII),  and  enjoyed  court 
favour  despite  his  outspokenness.  He 
was  admitted  to  holy  orders  in  1498  and 
became  parson  of  Diss  in  Norfolk.  His 
principal  works  include:  'The  Bowge  of 
Court'  (q.^.,  a  satire  on  the  court  of 
Henry  VII),  printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde; 
the  'Garlande  of  Laurell'  (a  self-laudatory 
allegorical  poem,  describing  the  crowning 
of  the  author  among  the  great  poets  of  the 
world) ;  'Phylyp  Sparowe'  (a  lamentation  put 
into  the  mouth  of  Jane  Scroupe,  a  young  lady 
whose  sparrow  has  been  killed  by  a  cat, 
followed  by  a  eulogy  of  her  by  Skelton,  and  a 
defence  of  himself  and  the  poem);  'Colyn 
Cloute'  (a  complaint  by  a  vagabond  of  the 
misdeeds  of  ecclesiastics),  which  gave  sug- 
gestions to  Spenser.  Not  only  this  last  poem, 
but  also  his  satires  'Speke,  Parrot',  and  'Why 
come  ye  not  to  courte',  contained  attacks  on 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  setting  forth  the  evil  conse- 
quences of  his  dominating  position.  As  a 
result  Skelton  was  obliged  to  ^take  sanctuary 
at  Westminster,  where  he  died.  His  most 
vigorous  poem  was  'The  Tunning  of  Elynour 
Rumming'  (q.v.).  HisplayofMagnyfycence* 
is  an  example  of  the  Morality  (q.v.).  In  this 
allegory,  Magnificence,  symbolizing  a  gener- 
ous prince,  is  ruined  by  mistaken  liberality 
and  bad  counsellors,  but  restored  by  Good- 
hope,  Perseverance,  and  other  similar  figures. 


[725] 


SKEPSEY 

Skelton's  'Ballade  of  the  Scottysshe  Kynge*  is  a 
spirited  celebration  of  the  victory  of  Flodden. 
A  number  of  Skelton's  poems  were  printed 
and  reprinted  in  the  sixteenth  century,  most 
of  the  extant  copies  being,  though  undated, 
evidently  later  than  the  poet's  death;  in  1568 
appeared  a  fairly  full  collected  edition  in  one 
volume.  The  standard  modern  edition  is  by 
Dyce,  1843.  Anecdotes  of  Skelton  appeared 
in  the  popular  'Merie  Tales'  (1566)  and 
similar  collections. 

His  favourite  metre  was  a  cheadlong 
voluble  breathless  doggerel,  which,  rattling 
and  clashing  on  through  quick  recurring 
rhymes',  'has  taken  from  its  author  the  title  of 
Skeltonical  verse'  (Churton  Collins).  As  he 
himself  said  ('Colyn  Cloute',  ii.  53~8): 

For  though  my  ryme  be  ragged, 

Tattered  and  lagged, 

Rudely  rayne  beaten, 

Rusty  and  mothe  eaten ; 

If  ye  take  well  therwith, 

It  hath  in  it  some  pyth. 
Skepsey,  DANIEL,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'One  of  our  Conquerors'  (q.v.). 
Sketches  by  Boz,  a  collection  of  sketches  of 
life  and  manners,  by  Dickens  (q.v.),  first  pub- 
lished in  various  periodicals,  and  in  book 
form  in  1836-7  (in  one  volume,  1839).  These 
are  some  of  Dickens's  earliest  literary  work. 
Skevington's  Daughter,  see  Skeffington's 
Daughter. 

Skewton,  THE  HON.  MRS.,  in  Dickens's 
'Dombey  and  Son*  (q.v.),  the  mother  of 
Edith,  Dombey's  second  wife.  See  also 
Cleopatra. 

Skidbladnir,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  magic  ship  of  Freyr,  made  by  the  Dwarfs. 
It  was  large  enough  to  carry  all  the  gods,  but 
could  be  folded  up  and  carried  in  the  pocket. 

Skimmington.  It  was  an  ancient  custom  in 
the  rural  parts  of  England  and  Scotland  to 
expose  and  ridicule  marital  quarrels,  and 
particularly  nagging,  bullying,  and  infidelity, 
by  forming  a  ludicrous  procession,  with 
figures  carried  on  a  pole,  symbolical  of  the 
circumstances.  This  was  called  'riding 
Skimmington*  or  'riding  the  stang*.  The 
origin  of  the  word  'Skimmington*  is  un- 
known. It  is  perhaps  from  'skimming',  for  a 
frontispiece  to  'Divers  Crabtree  Lectures' 
(1639)  entitled  'Skimmington  and  her  Hus- 
band' represents  a  woman  beating  her  hus- 
band with  a  skimming-ladle.  There  is  a 
description  of  a  'Skimmington'  in  Hardy's 
'The  Mayor  of  Casterbridge*  (q.v.). 

Skimpole,  HAROLD,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Bleak  House'  (q.v.). 

Skinfaxi  (shining-mane),  in  Scandinavian 
mythology,  the  horse  of  the  sun. 

SKINNER,  JOHN  (1721-1807),  an  Aber- 
deenshire  minister,  and  the  author  of  'Tul- 
Jochgorum',  pronounced  by  Burns  'the  best 
Scotch  song  Scotland  ever  saw*.  'Ewie  wi' 


SLIDELL 

the  Crookit  Horn*,  'Tune  your  Fiddle',  and 
'Old  Age',  are  among  other  favourite  songs 
written  by  Skinner. 

Skinners,  marauders  who  committed  depre- 
dations on  the  neutral  ground  between  the 
British  and  American  lines  during  the  War  of 
Independence. 

Skionar,  MR.,  a  character  in  Peacock's 
'Crotchet  Castle'  (q.v.),  perhaps  a  caricature 
of  Coleridge. 

Skogan,  see  Scogan. 

Slawkenbergius,  HAFEN,  in  Sterne's 
'Tristram  Shandy'  (q.v.),  the  German 
author  of  a  Latin  treatise  on  noses,  one 
of  whose  Rabelaisian  tales  is  given  at  the 
beginning  of  vol.  iv. 

Slay- good,  in  Pt.  II  of  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's 
Progress'  (q.v.),  a  giant  whom  Mr.  Great- 
heart  killed,  rescuing  Mr.  Feeble-mind  from 
his  clutches. 

Sleary,  the  circus  proprietor  in  Dickens's 
'Hard  Times*  (q.v.), 

Sleeping  Beauty,  The,  a  fairy  tale,  translated 
from  the  French  of  Perrault  (q.v.),  by  Robert 
Samber  (1729?). 

Seven  fairies  are  invited  to  attend  the  bap- 
tism of  the  daughter  of  a  king  and  are  received 
with  great  honour.  An  old  fairy  has  been 
overlooked  and  comes  unbidden.  Six  of  the 
first  fairies  bestow  on  the  child  every  imagin- 
able perfection.  The  old  fairy  spitefully  pro- 
nounces that  she  shall  wound  herself  with  a 
spindle  and  die.  The  seventh  fairy,  who  has 
purposely  kept  in  the  background,  amends 
this  fate,  converting  the  death  into  a  sleep  of  a 
hundred  years,  from  which  the  princess  will 
be  awakened  by  a  king's  son.  And  so  it  falls 
out,  and  the  fairy  puts  every  one  in  the  castle 
also  to  sleep  so  that  the  princess  may  not  wake 
up  all  alone,  and  makes  an  impenetrable  hedge 
of  trees  and  briars  to  grow  up  round  the  castle. 
In  due  course  the  prince  comes  and  wakens 
the  sleepers. 

For  analogous  legends  see  Andrew  Lang, 
'Perrault's  Popular  Tales'.  It  is  suggested 
that  the  Sleeping  Beauty  represents  the  earth 
awakened  from  her  winter  sleep  by  the  kiss  of 
the  sun. 

Sleepy  Hollow,  The  Legend  of,  a  story  by  W. 
Irving  (q.v.),  included  in  'The  Sketch  Book'. 
Ichabod  Crane  is  a  schoolmaster  and  suitor  for 
the  hand  of  Katrina  van  Tassel.  He  meets  his 
death,  or,  according  to  another  report,  leaves 
the  neighbourhood,  in  consequence  of  being 
pursued  at  night  by  a  headless  horseman,  an 
incident  for  which  his  rival  Brom  Bones  is 
suspected  to  have  been  responsible. 

Sleipnir,  the  horse  of  Odin  (q.v.). 

Slender,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Merry 
Wives  of  Windsor*  (q.v.). 

Slick,  SAM,  see  Haliburton. 
Slidell  and  Mason,  see  Trent  Case. 


[726] 


SLINGSBY  '       ' 

Slingsby,  a  youthful  character  in  one  of  the 
nonsense  tales  of  E.  Lear  (q.v.). 
Slipslop,  MRS.,  a  character  in  Fielding's 
'Joseph  Andrews'  (q.v.). 
SLOANE,  SIR  HANS  (1660-1753),  a 
physician,  secretary  to  the  Royal  Society, 
1693-1712,  and  president  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  1719-35.  He  pur- 
chased the  manor  of  Chelsea  and  founded 
there  the  Botanic  Garden.  He  published 
(1696)  a  Latin  catalogue  of  the  plants  of 
Jamaica  (where  he  had  been  physician  to  the 
governor,  1687-9)  and  a  *  Voyage'  to  the  West 
Indies  (1707-25)-  His  collections  (including 
a  large  number  of  books  and  manuscripts) 
were  purchased  by  the  nation  and  placed  in 
Montague  House  (afterwards  the  British 
Museum).  Sloane  Square  and  Hans  Place  are 
named  after  him. 

Slop,  DR.,  in  Sterne's  'Tristram  Shandy* 
(q.v.),  a  bigoted  and  clumsy  physician,  'a 
little,  squat,  uncourtly  figure'.  The  name 
was  scurrilously  applied  to  Sir  John  Stoddart 
(1773-1856)  during  his  editorship  of  'The 
New  Times'.  Stoddart  had  been  a  leader- 
writer  on  'The  Times',  but,  in  consequence 
of  a  difference  with  it  in  1817,  started  'The 
New  Times*  as  a  rival.  This  paper  survived 
until  1828. 

Slope,  THE  REV.  OBADIAH,  a  character  in 
Trollope's  'Barchester  Towers*  (q.v.). 

Slough  of  Despond,  THE,  in  Bunyan's 
'Pilgrim's  Progress'  (q.v.),  a  miry  place  on  the 
way  from  the  City  of  Destruction  to  the 
wicket-gate.  'As  the  sinner  is  awakened  about 
his  lost  condition,  there  arise  in  his  soul  many 
fears  and  doubts,  and  discouraging  appre- 
hensions, which  all  of  them  get  together,  and 
settle  in  this  place.* 

Slowboy,  TILLY,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth'  (q.v.). 

Sludge,  DICKY,  or  'Flibbertigibbet',  a 
character  in  Scott's  'Kenilworth*  (q.v.). 

Sludge,  *the  Medium',  see  Mr.  Sludge. 

Slumkey,  THE  HONOURABLE  SAMUEL,  in 
Dickens 's  'Pickwick  Papers'  (q.v.),  the  Blue 
candidate  in  the  Eatanswill  election. 

Sly,  CHRISTOPHER,  see  Taming  of  the  Shrew. 

Small  House  at  Allington,  The,  a  novel  by 
A.  Trollope  (q.v.),  published  in  1864. 

This,  though  not  in  the  Barsetshire  series 
of  novels  as  named  by  Trollope,  deals 
with  some  of  the  same  characters.  Squire 
Dale,  an  embittered  old  bachelor,  lives  at  the 
'Great  House' ;  his  sister-in-law,  with  her  two 
daughters,  Bell  and  Lily  Dale,  at  the  adjacent 
'Small  House'.  Adolphus  Crosbie,  a  rising 
government  official,  well-looking  but  mean 
and  selfish,  wins  the  love  of  the  warm-hearted 
but  penniless  Lily,  and  becomes  engaged  to 
her.  Learning  that  the  squire  will  not  provide 
her  with  a  fortune,  his  determination  to  marry 
her  wavers.  This  reluctance  is  increased  by  the 


SMECTYMNUUS 

aristocratic  atmosphere  of  Courcy  Castle, 
where  he  goes  on  a  visit,  and  he  yields  to  the 
temptation  to  propose  to  Lady  Alexandrina  de 
Courcy,  who  accepts  him.  The  jilting  of  Lily, 
which  nearly  breaks  her  heart,  brings  condign 
punishment  on  his  head ;  he  receives  a  thrash- 
ing from  Johnny  Eames,  a  humble  government 
clerk,  the  lifelong  adorer  of  Lily,  and  is 
thoroughly  unhappy  in  his  married  life  with 
Lady  Alexandrina,  which  is  soon  terminated 
by  their  separation.  Johnny  Eames,  who 
obtains  the  friendship  and  support  of  Earl  De 
Guest,  now  proposes  to  Lily,  who,  though 
fond^  of  Johnny,  still  loves  Crosbie  and 
considers  herself  bound  for  life  to  him,  and 
consequently  refuses  Eames.  Meanwhile  Bell, 
by  refusing  Bernard,  her  cousin,  defeats  a 
cherished  scheme  of  their  uncle,  Squire  Dale, 
and  brings  about  temporary  estrangement 
between  the  'Small  House*  and  the  'Great 
House*.  But  reconciliation  follows,  Bell 
marries  the  honest  Dr.  Crofts,  and  both 
daughters  receive  fortunes  from  the  Squire. 
We  hear  a  good  deal  of  the  heartless  and 
astute  Lady  Dumbello  (the  Griselda  Grantly 
of  the  earlier  novels),  and  of  Sir  Raffle  Buffle, 
the  bullying  head  of  a  government  depart- 
ment. 

Smalls,  at  Oxford,  the  colloquial  term  for 
the  examination  officially  called  Responsions. 
The  name  is  perhaps  connected  with  in 
parvisoy  in  the  parvise,  an  academic  confer- 
ence or  disputation,  so  called  from  being 
originally  held  in  the  portico  of  a  church. 
The  testamur  issued  by  the  examiners  at 
Responsions  stated  (down  to  1893)  that  a 
successful  candidate  had  answered  to  the 
questions  of  the  Masters  of  the  Schools  'in 
parviso'.  [OEDJ 

SMART,  CHRISTOPHER  (1722-71),  edu- 
cated at  Durham  School  and  Cambridge,  was 
author  of  two  volumes  of  'Poems'  (1752  and 
1763);  the  'Hilliad*  (1753),  a  satire  on  John 
Hill,  the  quack  doctor ;  a  paraphrase  of  the 
Psalms;  and  translations  of  Phaedrus  and 
Horace.  But  he  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his 
'Song  to  David'  (1763),  a  song  of  praise  of 
King  David,  as  the  great  poet  and  author  of 
the  Psalms,  containing  splendid  imagery. 
Smart  declined  into  insanity  and  debt,  and 
died  within  the  rules  of  the  King's  Bench. 

Smec,  LEGION,  see  Smectymnuus. 

Smectymnuus  f  the  name  under  which  five 
Presbyterian  divines,  Stephen  Marshal,  Ed- 
mund Calamy,  Thomas  Young,  Matthew 
Newcomen,  and  William  Spurstow,  pub- 
lished a  pamphlet  attacking  episcopacy.  The 
name  is  a  combination  of  the  initials  of  the 
five  authors.  It  was  answered  by  Bishop  Hall, 
and  defended  by  Milton  (who  was  already  en- 
gaged in  the  controversy)  in  his  'Animadver- 
sions upon  the  Remonstrant's  Defence  against 
Smectymnuus'  (1641),  and  his  'Apology 
against  a  Pamphlet . . .  against  Smectymnuus* 
(1642),  which  contains  an  interesting  account 
of  Milton's  early  studies.  From  'Smectym- 


[727] 


SMEDLEY 

nuiis*  is  derived  'Legion  Smec*  in  Hudibras, 
II.  ii,  signifying  the  Presbyterians : 

New  modell'd  the  Army  and  cashier'd 
All  that  to  Legion  Smec  adher'd. 

SMEDLEY,  FRANCIS  EDWARD  (1818- 
64),  a  cripple  from  childhood,  was  author  of 
some  pleasant  novels,  blending  romance  with 
sport  and  adventure.  The  most  popular  of 
these,  'Frank  Fairleigh'  (1850),  was  originally 
contributed  anonymously  to  the  'London 
Magazine'.  'Lewis  Arundel'  appeared  in 
1852,  and  f Harry  Coverdale's  Courtship*  in 
1855. 

Smee,  a  character  in  Barrie's  Teter  Pan* 
(q.v.). 

Smetfungus,  see  Sentimental  Journey. 
Smerdis ,  according  to  Herodotus  (iii.  30, 61, 
&c.)  a  son  of  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia.  He  was 
murdered  by  order  of  his  brother,  Cambyses, 
and  the  murder  was  kept  secret.  A  magian, 
Patizithes,  who  knew  the  fact,  and  was  weary 
of  the  mad  tyranny  of  Cambyses,  had  a 
brother  who  resembled  Smeidis  in  person. 
He  proclaimed  this  man  king,  as  the  younger 
son  of  Cyrus,  and  the  false  Smerdis  reigned 
for  seven  months,  until  the  imposture  was 
discovered  by  one  of  his  wives.  The  name  of 
the  false  Smerdis,  according  to  the  Behistun 
inscription,  was  Gomata. 

Smike,  a  character  in  Dickens  *s  'Nicholas 
Nickleby*  (q.v.). 

SMILES,  SAMUEL  (1812-1904),  educated 
at  Haddington  Grammar  School  and  Edin- 
burgh University,  devoted  the  leisure  of  a 
varied  career  to  the  advocacy  of  political  and 
social  reform  on  the  lines  of  the  Manchester 
School,  and  to  the  biography  of  industrial 
leaders  and  humble  self-taught  students.  He 
publishe_d  the  'Life  of  George  Stephenson'  in 
1857,  'Lives  of  the  Engineers*  in  1861-2,  and 
many  similar  works.  He  achieved  great 
popular  success  with  'Self-help*  in  1859, 
'Character*  (1871),  'Thrift'  (1875),  'Duty' 
(1880),  and  'Life  and  Labour'  (1887). 

SMITH,  ADAM  (1723-90),  born  at  Kirk- 
caldy,  studied  at  Glasgow  University  and  as  a 
Snell  exhibitioner  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of  logic  at  Glas- 
gow in  1751,  and  in  1752  of  moral  philosophy. 
He  became  the  friend  of  Hume.  In  1759  he 
published  his  'Theory  of  the  Moral  Senti- 
ments' (q.v.),  which  brought  him  into  promi- 
nence. In  1764  he  resigned  his  professor- 
ship and  accompanied  the  young  duke  of 
Buccleuch  as  tutor  on  a  visit  to  France, 
where  he  saw  Voltaire,  and  was  admitted  into 
the  society  of  the  'physiocrats'  (q.v.).  After 
his  return  he  settled  down  at  Kirkcaldy  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  preparation  of  his 
great  work,  *An  Enquiry  into  the  Nature  and 
Causes  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations'  (q.v.), 
published  in  1776.  This  revolutionized  the 
economic  theories  of  the  day.  Its  appearance 
at  the  actual  date  of  the  'Declaration  of 
Independence'  of  the  American  rebels  was 


SMITH 

of  importance  if  only  for  the  prophecy  in 
Bk.  iv,  'They  will  be  one  of  the  foremost 
nations  of  the  world'.  To  obviate  the  danger 
he  proposed  the  representation  of  the  colonies 
in  the  British  parliament.    Smith  edited  the 
autobiography  of  Hume  (q.v.)  in  1777,  and 
was  elected  rector  of  Glasgow  University  in 
1787.    He  was   a  member  of  the  Literary 
Club  (see  Johnson,  S.). 
SMITH,    ALEXANDER    (1830-67),     by 
occupation  a  lace  pattern  designer  in  Glas- 
gow, published  in  1853  'A  Life  Drama'  and 
other  poems,  which  were  received  at  first 
with    enthusiasm,    and    were    satirized    by 
Aytoun  (q.v.)  in  'Firmilian'.    He  published 
sonnets  on  the  Crimean  War  in  1855  jointly 
with  S.  T.  Dobell  (q.v.);  'City  Poems'  in 
1857,  containing  'Glasgow',  his  finest  work 
in  verse,  giving  a  sombre  picture  of  the  city; 
and  some  pleasant  prose  essays  under  the 
title  of  'Dreamthorp'  in  1863.    But  his  best 
prose  is  to  be  seen  in  'A  Summer  in  Skye* 
(1865),  a  charming  description  of  the  country 
and  its  inhabitants,  diversified  with  anecdotes 
and  traditions.  'Last  Leaves',  another  group 
of  essays,  appeared  posthumously. 
Smith,  GEORGE  (1824-1901),  joined  in  1838 
thefirm  of  Smith  &  Elder,  publishers  and  East 
India  agents,  of  65  Cornhill,  London,  which 
his  father  had  founded  in  partnership  with 
Alexander  Elder  in  1816,  soon  after  coming 
in  youth  to  London  from  his  native  town  of 
Elgin.   In  1843  Smith  took  charge  of  some  of 
the  firm's  publishing  operations,  and  on  his 
father's  death  in  1846  became  sole  head  of  the 
firm.  Under  his  control  the  business  quickly 
grew  in  both  the  India  agency  and  publishing 
directions.    The  chief  authors  whose  works 
he  published  in  his  early  career  were  John 
Ruskin,  Charlotte  Bronte,  whose  'Jane  Eyre' 
he  issued  in  1848,  and  W.  M.  Thackeray, 
whose  'Esmond'  he  brought  out  in  1851.   In 
1853  he  took  a  partner,  H.  S.  King,  and,  after 
weathering  the  storm  of  the  Indian  Mutiny, 
started  in  1859  'The  Cornhill  Magazine', 
with  Thackeray  as   editor,   and  numerous 
leading  authors  and  artists  as  contributors. 
In  1865  Smith  (with  Frederick  Greenwood) 
founded  the  'Pall  Mall  Gazette',  a  London 
evening  newspaper  of  independent  character 
and    literary   quality,  which   remained   his 
property  till   1880.    In   1868  he    dissolved 
partnership  with  King,  leaving  him  to  carry 
on  the  India  agency  branch  of  the  old  firm's 
business,  and  himself  taking  over  the  pub- 
lishing branch,  which  he  thenceforth  con- 
ducted at  15  Waterloo  Place,  London.    His 
chief  authors  now  included  Robert  Browning, 
Matthew  Arnold,  (Sir)  Leslie  Stephen,  and 
Miss  Thackeray  (Mrs.  Ritchie),  all  of  whom 
were    intimate    personal    friends.    He  was 
founder  (1882)  and  proprietor  of  the  'Diction- 
ary of  National  Biography*  (q.v.). 

SMITH,  VERY  REV.  SIR  GEORGE 
ADAM  (1856-  ),  author  of  'The  Life  of 
Henry  Drummond'  (1898,  7th  edition  1902). 
'Jerusalem,  the  Topography,  Economics,  and 


[728] 


SMITH 

History'  (1908).  His  'Historical  Geography 
of  the  Holy  Land*,  first  published  in  1894, 
reached  its  25  th  edition  in  1931. 

SMITH,  GOLDWIN  (1823-1910),  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
was  Regius  professor  of  modern  history  at 
Oxford,  1858-66,  and  subsequently  professor 
of  history  at  Cornell  University  in  America, 
finally  settling  at  Toronto  in  1871.  He  was  an 
active  journalist  and  vigorous  controversialist, 
supporting  the  cause  of  the  North  in  the 
American  Civil  War,  and  the  sentiment  of 
national  independence  in  Canada.  His  pub- 
lished works  include:  'The  Empire'  (1863), 
indicating  his  distrust  of  imperialism;  *  Irish 
History  and  Irish  Character'  (1862);  lectures 
on  'Three  English  Statesmen'  (Pym,  Crom- 
well, and  Pitt,  1867);  'Lectures  and  Essays' 
(1881);  'Essays  on  Questions  of  the  Day' 
(1893);  'The  United  States:  an  outline  of 
Political  History'  (1893);  'The  United  King- 
dom: a  Political  History*  (1899);  and  'Irish 
History  and  the  Irish  Question'  (1906), 
which  shows  him  faithful  to  the  Unionist 
policy. 

Smith,  or  Gow,  HENRY,  the  hero  of  Scott's 
'Fair  Maid  of  Perth'  (q.v.). 

SMITH,  HORATIO  (HORACE)  (1779- 
1849),  brother  of  James  Smith  (q.v.),  be- 
came famous  as  the  joint-author,  with  him, 
of  'Rejected  Addresses'  (1812,  q.v.)  and  of 
'Horace  in  London*  (1813).  He  subse- 
quently wrote  novels,  of  which  the  best  is 
'Brambletye  House*  (1826),  an  imitation  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  the  story  of  a  young 
Cavalier  in  the  days  of  Cromwell  and  CharlesIL 

SMITH,  JAMES  (1775-1839),  elder  brother 
of  H.  Smith  (q.v.),  solicitor  to  the  Board  of 
Ordnance,  produced  with  his  brother  the 
'Rejected  Addresses'  (q.v.,  1812)  and  'Horace 
in  London'  (1813). 

SMITH,  CAPTAIN  JOHN  (1580-1631),  set 
put  with  the  Virginia  colonists  in  1606  and 
is  said  to  have  been  rescued  by  Pocahontas 
(q.v.)  when  taken  prisoner  by  the  Indians. 
He  became  head  of  the  colony  and  explored 
the  coasts  of  the  Chesapeake.  He  was 
author  of  a  'General  History  of  Virginia,  New 
England,  and  the  Summer  Isles*  (i  624),  and  of 
a  'Sea  Grammar'  for  young  seamen  (1626-7). 

SMITH,  JOHN  (1618-52),  educated  at 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  was  one  of 
the  Cambridge  Platonists  (q.v.).  His  'Select 
Discourses'  were  published  in  1660. 

SMITH,  JOHN  THOMAS  (1766-1833), 
keeper  of  drawings  and  prints  at  the  British 
Museum,  was  author  of  a  life  of  the  sculptor 
Nollekens  ('Nollekens  and  his  Times',  1828) 
remarkable  for  its  singular  candour,  and  of 
*A  Book  for  a  Rainy  Day  or  Recollections  of 
the  Events  of  the  Years  1766-1833*,  an  enter- 
taining picture  of  artistic  and  literary  life  of 
the  period,  published  in  1845. 
Smith,  MARY,  the  narrator  of  the  story  in 
Mrs.  Gaskell's  'Cranford*  (q.v.). 


SMITH 

SMITH,  ROBERT  PERCY,  < Bobus  Smith' 
(1770-1845),  elder  brother  of  Sydney  Smith 
(q.v.),  of  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge. 
He  was  advocate-general  of  Bengal  and 
returned  home  rich  in  1810.  He  was  M.P. 
for  Grantham  and  later  for  Lincoln.  Famous 
for  his  wit  and  his  Latin  verses. 

SMITH,  SYDNEY  (1771-1845),  educated 
at  Winchester  and  New  College,  Oxford, 
resided  for  a  time,  as  tutor  of  Michael  Hicks 
Beach,  at  Edinburgh,  where  he  was  intimate 
with  Jeffrey,  Brougham,  and  Horner,  and 
with  the  first  two  of  these  founded  the  'Edin- 
burgh Review*  in  1802.  He  came  to  London 
in  1803,  lectured  on  moral  philosophy  at  the 
Royal  Institution,  and  shone  among  the 
Whigs  at  Holland  House.  In  1807  he  pub- 
lished the  'Letters  of  Peter  Plymley*  (q.v.)  in 
defence  of  Catholic  emancipation.  He  held 
the  livings,  first  of  Foston  in  Yorkshire,  then 
of  Combe- Florey  in  Somerset,  and  in  1831 
was  made  a  canon  of  St.  Paul's.  He  was 
noted  for  his  exuberant  drollery  and  wit, 
which  were  principally  displayed  in  his 
conversation,  but  are  also  seen  in  his  numer- 
ous reviews  and  letters. 

SMITH,  THOMAS  (&.  1790),  master  of  the 
Hambledon  Hounds  in  1825,  of  the  Craven 
in  1829,  and  subsequently  of  the  Pytchley, 
was  author  of  'The  Life  of  a  Fox,  written  by 
himself*  (1843),  and  of  'The  Diary  of  a 
Huntsman*  (1838).  He  had  an  extraordinary 
knowledge  of  the  habits  of  foxes  and  under- 
standing of  their  nature.  He  is  not  to  be 
confused  with  THOMAS  ASSHETON  SMITH 
(1776-1858),  master  of  the  Quorn  (1806-16) 
and  of  other  packs,  who  was  acclaimed  the 
first  fox-hunter  of  the  day. 

Smith,  WAYLAND,  see  Wayland  the  Smith. 

SMITH,  SIR  WILLIAM  (i 8 13-93), . edu- 
cated at  University  College,  London,  is  re- 
membered as  the  editor  and  part  author  of  the 
'Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities* 
(1842),  of  a  'Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biography  and  Mythology*  (1844-9),  of  a 
'Dictionary  of  the  Bible*  (1860-3),  of  dic- 
tionaries of  Christian  antiquities  (1875-80) 
and  Christian  biography  (1877-87),  and  of 
other  educational  works.  He  was  editor  of  the 
'Quarterly  Review*,  1867-93. 

SMITH,  WILLIAM  ROBERTSON  (1846- 
94),  theologian  and  Semitic  scholar,  was 
educated  at  Aberdeen,  Edinburgh  (New 
College),  and  Bonn.  He  became  professor  of 
Old  Testament  exegesis  at  the  Free  Church 
College,  Aberdeen,  but  was  dismissed  (1881, 
perhaps  the  last  victim  of  a  'heresy-hunt*  in 
Britain)  from  his  chair  for  the  advanced 
character  of  his  biblical  articles  in  the  'Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica'  (9th  ed.),  of  which  work 
he  became  co-editor  in  1881.  He  was  professor 
of  Arabic  at  Cambridge  from  1883.  His 
published  works  include:  'The  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  Jewish  Church'  (1881)  and  'The 
Prophets  of  Israel*  (1882). 


[729] 


SMITHFIELD 

Smitfafield,  WEST,  i.e.  'smooth  field',  was  an 
open  space  outside  the  north-west  walls  of 
the  City  of  London.  Stow  writes  of  the  en- 
croachments 'whereby  remaineth  but  a  small 
portion  for  the  old  uses,  to  wit,  for  markets 
of  horses  and  cattle,  neither  for  military 
exercises,  as  Justings,  Turnings,  and  great 
triumphes  which  have  been  there  performed 
before  the  princes  and  nobility  both  of  this 
Realm  and  forraigne  countries',  of  which  he 
gives  many  curious  instances.  Here  Richard  II 
met  Wat  Tyler,  and  here  the  latter  was  killed. 
Here  also,  in  the  i6th  cent.,  heretics  were 
burnt. 

Smith's  Prizes,  at  Cambridge,  for  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy,  were  founded 
by  Robert  Smith  (1689-1768),  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  who  became 
Plumian  professor  of  astronomy  and  master 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  left  large 
sums  for  university  and  college  purposes, 
besides  pictures  and  sculptures. 
Smithsonian  Institution  ,THE,  in  Washing- 
ton, was  founded  by  James  Smithson,  known 
in  early  life  as  James  Lewis  Macie  (1765— 
1829),  an  illegitimate  son  of  Hugh  Smithson 
Percy,  duke  of  Northumberland.  He  was  a 
distinguished  mineralogist  and  chemist,  and 
spent  much  time  abroad,  among  his  corre- 
spondents beingmanyeminentmen  of  science. 
His  politics  appear  to  have  been  republican, 
and  by  his  will  he  left  over  £100,000  to  the 
United  States  of  America  to  found  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  an  establishment  for  the 
increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge.  The 
institution  was  inaugurated  in  1846,  and  the 
buildings  now  comprise  a  national  museum 
(mainly  zoological  and  ethnological)  and  an 
astrophysical  observatory.  His  own  scientific 
papers  nearly  all  perished  in  a  fire  at  the 
institution  in  1865. 

SMOLLETT,  TOBIAS  GEORGE  (1721- 
71),  born  in  Dumbartonshire,  the  grandson 
of  Sjr  James  Smollett.  He  was  educated  at 
Glasgow  University,  but  left  without  means 
of  support.  He  sailed  as  surgeon's  mate  on 
the  "Cumberland*  in  Ogle's  West  India 
squadron  (1741),  was  present  at  the  attack 
on  Cartagena,  and  remained  some  time  in 
Jamaica,  where  he  married.  In  1744  ne 
returned  to  London,  practised  as  a  surgeon, 
and  wrote  his  novels,  which  appeared  as 
follows:  'Roderick  Random*  (q.v.)  in  1748, 
'Peregrine  Pickle'  (q.v.)  in  1751  (revised 
edition,  1758),  'Ferdinand  Count  Fathom' 
(q.v.)  in  1753,  'Sir  Launcelot  Greaves'  (the 
story  of  an  i8th-cent.  Don  Quixote)  in 
1760-2,  and  'Humphry  Clinker5  (q.v.)  in 
1771.  In  1746  Culloden  drew  from  him  the 
poem  'The  Tears  of  Scotland'.  In  1753  he  had 
settled  at  Chelsea,  translating  'Don  Quixote' 
in  1755,  editing  the  new  'Critical  Review'  in 

1756,  and  bringing  out  a  large  'History  of 
England'  and  also  a  farce,  'The  Reprisal',  in 

1757.  For  a  libel  in  the  'Critical  Review'  he 
was  fined  and  imprisoned  in  1759.   In  1762 
he  conducted,  with  little  success,  'The  Briton', 


SNORRI  STURLASON 

a  weekly  periodical  supporting  Lord  Bute. 
Ill-health  sent  him  abroad  in  1763,  and  in 
1766  he  published  his  entertaining  but  ill- 
tempered  'Travels  in  France  and  Italy*, 
which  procured  for  him,  from  Sterne,  the 
nickname  of 'Smelfungus'.  In  1769  appeared 
his  coarse  and  vigorous  satire  on  public  affairs 
entitled  the  'Adventures  of  an  Atom*  (q.v.). 
He  revisited  Scotland  and  Bath  in  1766,  but 
finally  left  England  in  1769  and  died  at 
Monte  Nero  near  Leghorn.  See  also  Covent 
Garden  Journal. 

Smorltork,  COUNT,  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick 
Papers'  (q.v.),  'the  famous  foreigner'  at  Mrs. 
Leo  Hunter's  party,  'a  well- whiskered  in- 
dividual in  a  foreign  uniform*,  who  is 
'gathering  materials  for  his  great  work  on 
England'. 

Snagsby,  MR.  and  MRS.,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'Bleak  House'  (q.v.). 

Snailsfoot,  BRYCE,  the  pedlar  in  Scott's  'The 
Pirate*  (q.v.). 

Snake,  a  character  in  Sheridan's  'The  School 
for  Scandal'  (q.v.). 

Snarkf  The,  see  Hunting  of  the  Snark. 
Sneak,  JERRY,  a  henpecked  husband  in 
Foote's  'The  Mayor  of  Garret'.  See  Garratt. 
Sneer  well,  LADY,  one  of  the  scandal- 
mongers in  Sheridan's  'School  for  Scandal* 
(q.v.). 

Snell,  HANNAH  (1723-92),  a  female  soldier, 
stated  in  a  chap-book  history  of  her  adven- 
tures, issued  in  1750,  to  have  enlisted  in  1745, 
to  have  served  in  the  fleet,  and  to  have  re- 
ceived a  pension  for  wounds  received  at 
Pondicherry.  The  facts  were  much  em- 
bellished, but  there  was  probably  a  kernel  of 
truth  as  in  the  cases  of  Phoebe  Hessel, 
Christian  Davies,  and  Mary  Anne  Talbot 
(qq.v.).  Hannah,  who  was  thrice  married, 
died  in  Bedlam. 

Snevellicci,  MR.,  MRS.,  and  Miss,  in 
Dickens's  'Nicholas  Nickleby'  (q.v.),  actors 
in  Crummles's  company. 

Snobs  of  England 9  The,  by  one  of  themselves, 
a  collection  of  papers  by  Thackeray  (q.v.), 
published  in  'Punch'  in  1846-7,  descriptions 
of  the  various  types  of  English  snobs.  The 
papers  were  republished  as  'The  Book  of 
Snobs'  (1848). 

Snodgrass,  AUGUSTUS,  in  Dickens's  'Pick- 
wick Papers'  (q.v.),  one  of  the  members  of 
the  Corresponding  Society  of  the  Pickwick 
Club. 

SNORRI  STURLASON  (1178-1241),  an 
Icelandic  historian,  author  of  the  'Heims- 
kringla'  (q.v.)  or  history  of  the  kings  of 
Norway,  and  of  the  prose  'Edda'  (q.v.).  He 
was  also  an  active  and  ambitious  politician 
who  played  a  questionable  role  in  his 
country's  relations  with  Norway,  and  was 
finally  assassinated  by  the  order  of  King 
Hakon.  Snorri  was  uncle  of  Sturla  Thords- 
son,  author  of  the  Sturlunga  Saga. 


[730] 


SNOUT 

Snout,  TOM,  in  Shakespeare's  'A  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream*  (q.v.),  a  tinker.  He 
is  cast  for  the  part  of  Pyramus's  father  in  the 
play  of.  'Pyramus  and  Thisbe',  which  gives 
him  nothing  to  say. 

Snufofoin,  MR.  SERJEANT,  in  Dickens's  'Pick- 
wick Papers'  (q.v.),  counsel  for  the  defendant 
in  Bardell  v.  Pickwick. 

Snuffy  Davie,  or  DAVIE  WILSON,  in  Scott's 
'The  Antiquary*  (q.v.),  the  hero  of  a  favourite 
story  of  Monkbarns,  the  bibliomaniac  who 
bought  Caxton's  'The  Game  at  Chess',  1474, 
for  two  groschen  at  a  stall  in  Holland. 

Snug,  in  Shakespeare's  *A  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream'  (q.v.),  a  joiner,  who  takes  the 
part  of  the  lion  ia  'Pyramus  and  Thisbe'. 

Soane,  Sra  JOHN  (1753-1837),  architect,  the 
son  of  a  mason  named  Swan.  He  was 
architect  of  the  Bank  of  England,  rebuilt  the 
whole  structure,  and  gained  great  reputation. 
He  collected  paintings,  sculpture,  &c.,  in  his 
house  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  which  in  1833 
he  presented  with  its  contents  to  the  nation. 

Soapy  Sam,  a  nickname  of  Samuel  Wilber- 
force  (1805-73),  successively  bishop  of  Ox- 
ford and  of  Winchester,  in  allusion  to  his 
unctuous  and  ingratiating  manners. 

Social  Contract,  The,  the  English  title  of 
*Du  Contrat  Social',  by  J.  J.  Rousseau  (q.v.). 

Socialism,  a  theory  or  policy  of  social 
organization  that  aims  at  the  control  of  the 
means  of  production,  capital,  land,  property, 
&c.,  by  the  community  as  a  whole,  and  their 
administration  or  distribution  in  the  interests 
of  all.  The  early  history  of  the  word  is 
obscure.  It  is  said  [E.B.]  to  have  originated 
in  1835  in  the  discussions  of  a  society  founded 
by  Richard  Owen.  It  is  found  in  1833  in  the 
sense  of  Owenite.  G.  B.  Shaw  (q.v.)  pub- 
lished in  1928  'The  Intelligent  Woman's 
Guide  to  Socialism  and  Capitalism'. 

Society  for  Pure  English,  THE,  or  S.P.E., 
was  founded  in  1913,  the  original  committee 
consisting  of  H.  Bradley,  R.  Bridges,  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  (qq.v.),,  and  Mr.  L.  Pearsall 
Smith.  Its  proceedings  were  suspended  until 
the  end  of  the  war,  and  its  first  Tract,  con- 
taining a  reprint  of  the  original  prospectus,  is 
dated  October  1919.  The  object  of  the  pro- 
moters was  to  guide  popular  taste  and  the 
educational  authorities  in  matters  connected 
with  the  use  and  development  of  the  English 
language.  The  S.P.E.  has  issued  many 
Tracts,  on  questions  of  grammar,  pronuncia- 
tion, etymology,  handwriting,  &c. 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  see  Antiquaries. 

Socinianism,  the  doctrine  of  Lelio  Sozzini 
(Socinus)  and  his  nephew  Fausto  Sozzini 
(1539-1604)  that  Jesus  was  not  God  but  a 
divine  prophet  of  God's  word,  and  that  the 
sacraments  had  no  supernatural  quality.  The 
doctrine  was  set  forth  in  the  Confession  of 
Rakow  (1605). 


SOFRONIA 

SOCRATES  (469-399  B.C.),  the  great  Greek 
philosopher,  born  near  Athens,  was  the  son  of 
Sophroniscus,  a  sculptor.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  robust  but  exceptionally  ugly.  He 
served  with  credit  in  the  army,  saving  the  life 
of  Alcibiades  at  Potidaea  (432  B.C.).  Late  in 
life  he  held  public  office  and  showed  great 
moral  courage  in  resisting  illegalities.  He  was 
married  to  Xanthippe,  a  quarrelsome,  shrew- 
ish woman.  He  conceived  himself  as  having 
a  religious  mission,  receiving  guidance  from 
a  supernatural  voice  (his  'daemon').  He  occu- 
pied his  life  with  oral  instruction,  frequenting 
public  places  and  conversing  with  all  and 
sundry,  seeking  the  truth,  and  the  exposure  of 
pride  and  error.  In  consequence  he  incurred 
the  malevolence  of  those  who  pretended  to 
wisdom,  was  attacked  by  Aristophanes  in  the 
*  Clouds',  and  finally  accused  of  impiety  by 
one  Meletus,  a  leather-seller,  condemned  by 
a  narrow  majority  of  the  judges,  and  sen- 
tenced to  death  (by  drinking  hemlock). 
Socrates  wrote  nothing,  but  the  general 
method  and  tendency  of  his  teaching  are 
preserved  in  the  Dialogues  of  Plato  (q.v.); 
though  precisely  what  contribution  to  the 
history  of  thought  is  to  be  attributed  to 
Socrates  has  been  a  subject  of  discussion. 
A  more  homely  account  of  him  is  to  be 
found  in  Xenophon's  'Memorabilia'.  The 
following  appear  to  have  been  prominent 
features  in  his  teaching:  (i)  the  view  that  it 
is  the  duty  of  philosophy  to  investigate  not 
physical  phenomena,  but  ethical  questions, 
how  men  should  live  and  act;  (2)  the  Theory 
of  Ideas,  that  the  things  which  we  perceive 
in  the  world  about  us  are  mere  copies  or 
images  of  a  perfect  original  or  archetype,  and 
that  the  latter  alone  really  exists.  Our  per- 
ceptions are  good,  true,  or  beautiful,  accord- 
ing as  they  resemble  the  supreme  form  or 
'idea',  the  idea  of  Good;  (3)  the  doctrine  of 
Recollection  (Anamnesis),  that  the  soul  brings 
with  it,  when  it  comes  into  the  body,  some 
memory  of  these  perfect  originals  of  which 
it  has  had  glimpses  (Jebb). 

The  SOCRATIC  METHOD  of  instruction  was 
by  questions  aptly  proposed  so  as  to  arrive  at 
the  conclusion  he  wished  to  convey. 

Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  the  'cities  of  the 
plain'  of  Jordan  (now  covered  by  the 
Dead  Sea),  destroyed,  on  account  of  their 
wickedness,  in  the  days  of  Lot  and  Abraham 
(Gen.  xiii,  xviii,  and  xix). 

Sofa,  The,  the  name  of  Bk.  I  of  Cowper's 
'The  Task'  (q.v.).  Also  the  name  of  a 
licentious  oriental  romance  by  Cre"billon  the 
younger  (published  in  1740):  a  courtier  of 
the  Sultan  Shahbahan  relates  the  experiences 
of  a  sofa  into  which  his  soul  had  passed  in  the 
course  of  its  transmigrations.  In  the  early  days 
of  its  use  in  the  West  the  word  was  always 
spelt  *sopha*.  It  is  from  the  Arabic  suffah,  a 
bench. 

Sofronia  or  SOPHRONIA,  a  character  in 
Tasso's  'Jerusalem  Delivered*  (q.v.). 


SOHO 

Soho,  a  district  of  London,  the  centre  of  an 
Italian  and  French  colony.  The  origin  of  the 
name  is  unknown.  The  traditional  deriva- 
tions are  recorded  in  E.  Walford,  'Old  and 
New  London*  (1891,  iii.  174).  It  was  once  a 
fashionable  quarter.  James,  duke  of  Mon- 
mouth,  had  a  house  there,  and  gave  'Soho' 
as  the  watchword  on  the  night  before^  Sedge- 
moor.  Dryden,  Evelyn,  Burnet,  and  alder- 
man Beckford  resided  there. 

Sohrdb  and  Rustum,  a  poem  by  M.  Arnold 
(q-v«),  published  in  1853. 

Sohrab  was  a  son  of  the  Persian  hero,  Rus- 
turn  (see  Rustem).  Unknown  to  his  father 
(who  had  been  told  that  his  child  was  a  girl), 
Sohrab  has  joined  the  Tartar  forces  of  Afra- 
siab,  and  gained  great  renown  for  his  prowess. 
The  Tartar  host  is  attacking  the  Persians,  and 
Sohrab  challenges  the  bravest  of  the  Persian 
lords  to  meet  him  in  single  combat.  Rustum, 
now  an  old  man,  but  still  their  greatest  war- 
rior, answers  the  challenge,  but  he  does  not 
know  that  Sohrab  is  his  son,  nor  does  Sohrab 
know  that  he  is  fighting  with  his  father,  until 
the  old  man,  at  a  crisis  of  the  struggle,  shouts 
Rustum'.  His  son  recoils  at  the  name,  and  is 
struck  down.  Before  dying,  he  reveals  to 
Rustum  that  he  has  killed  his  son. 

Soldan,  THE,  from  the  Arabic  sultan,  the 
supreme  ruler  of  one  of  the  great  Moham- 
medan powers  or  countries  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  especially  the  Sultan  of  Egypt.  The 
name  Sultan  first  appears  in  the  sense  of 
*  Cap  tain  of  the  Bodyguard*  of  the  caliph 
of  Bagdad  about  1050. 

The  Soldan  or  Souldan  in  Spenser's 
'Faerie  Queene*,  v.  viii,  represents  Philip  II 
of  Spain.  He  is  encountered  by  Prince 
Arthur  and  Sir  Artegall  with  a  bold  defiance 
from  Queen  Mercilla  (Elizabeth),  and  the 
combat  is  undecided  until  the  prince  unveils 
his  shield  and  terrifies  the  Soldan 's  horses,  so 
that  they  overturn  his  chariot  and  the  Soldan 
is  torn  'all  to  rags'.  The  unveiling  of  .the 
shield  signifies  divine  interposition. 

Solecism,  an  impropriety  or  irregularity  in 
speech,  diction,  or  manners;  from  a  Greek 
word  meaning  barbarous,  stated  by  ancient 
writers  to  refer  to  the  corruption  of  the  Attic 
dialect  among  the  Athenian  colonists  of  Soloi 
in  Cilicia. 

Solemn    League    and    Covenant,     see 

Covenant. 

Solitidian,  one  who  holds  that  faith  alone, 
without  works,  is  sufficient  for  justification. 

Solomon,  a  great  and  wealthy  king  of  Israel 
(loth  cent.  B.C.),  son  of  David  and  Bathsheba, 
famous  as  the  builder  of  the  Temple  and  for 
his  wisdom,  illustrated  by  his  judgement  in  the 
dispute  about  the  child  fi  Kings  iii.  16-28). 
He  is  credited  in  oriental  legend  with  power 
over  the  jinn. 

Solomon  Daisy,  in  Dickens's  'Barnaby 
Rudge'  (q.v.),  the  parish  clerk  and  bell- 
ringer  at  Chigwell. 


SOMERVILLE 

Solomon  Eagle,  a  crazy  fanatic  in  Ains- 
worth's  'Old  St.  Paul's'. 
Solomon    Pell,    in    Dickens 's    'Pickwick 
Papers'  (q.v.),   an   attorney   occupied   with 
affairs  of  the  Insolvent  Court. 
Solomon's  carpet,  see  Carpet. 
Solomon's  House,  see  New  Atlantis. 

SOLOMONS,  IKEY,  the  pseudonym  under 
which  Thackeray  wrote  'Catherine'  (q.v.). 

Solon  (c.  638-558  B.C.),  the  great  Athenian 
legislator,  celebrated  for  his  wisdom.  He  was 
appointed  archon  in  594  B.C.,  and  relieved  the 
prevalent  distress  by  his  famous  ordinance 
cancelling  outstanding  debts  (aetaax^eta). 
He  reformed  the  constitution,  repealing  most 
of  the  laws  of  Draco  (q.v.).  The  constitution 
that  he  set  up  was  overthrown  by  Peisistratus. 
Solon  was  also  a  successful  poet,  who  used 
elegy  to  stir  the  Athenians  to  war  and  also  to 
convey  moral  instruction.  See  also  Croesus. 

Solvej  g,  in  Ibsen's  Teer  Gynt*  (q.v.),  the 
hero's  good  angel. 

Soli/man  and  Perseda,  The  Tragedy >e  of,  see 
Kyd. 

Solymean,  of  or  belonging  to  Jerusalem. 
'Solymean  rout'  is  used  in  Dry  den's  'Absa- 
lom and  Achitophel'  (q.v.)  for  the  London 
mob. 

Soma,  in  Vedic  mythology,  the  intoxicating 
juice  of  a  plant,  supposed  to  be  Asclepias 
Acida,  and  the  god  who  dwells  in  it,  the 
Hindu  Bacchus. 

Somerset  House,  London,  takes  its  name 
from  the  palace  built  on  the  same  site  by  the 
duke  of  Somerset,  the  lord  protector  (1506?- 
52).  This  reverted  to  the  Crown  when 
Somerset  was  beheaded,  and,  after  being  en- 
larged and  improved  by  Inigo  Jones,  became 
the  palace  of  a  succession  of  queens.  It  was 
demolished  at  the  end  of  the  1 8th  cent,  and 
replaced  by  the  present  building  (designed 
by  Sir  William  Chambers,  1726-96),  in 
which  are  housed  the  offices  of  the  Revenue 
Department,  the  principal  Probate  Registry, 
and  the  registrar-general  of  Births,  Marriages, 
and  Deaths. 

SOMERVILLE,  EDITH  CENONE,  con- 
temporary Irish  novelist,  who  collaborated 
with  her  cousin  Violet  Martin  ('Martin  Ross') 
(now  dead)  in  a  series  of  admirable  tales  of 
Irish  life,  some  humorous,  some  tragic,  be- 
ginning with  *Some  Experiences  of  an  Irish 
R.  M.'  (1890),  followed  by  'Further  Ex- 
periences' (1908),  *Sorne  Irish  Yesterdays' 
(1906),  &c. 

SOMERVILLE,  WILLIAM  (1675-1742), 
educated  at  Winchester  and  New  College, 
Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow,  was 
author  of  *The  Chace'  (1735),  a  poem  con- 
sisting of  four  books  of  Miltonic  blank  verse, 
which  treats  of  hounds  and  kennels,  hare- 
hunting,  fox-hunting,  and  otter-hunting,  with 
literary  digressions  on  oriental  methods  of 


[732] 


SOMNIUM  SCIPIONIS 

the  chase.  In  1742  appeared  his  'Field  Sports', 
a  short  poem  on  hawking;  and  in  1740 
'Hobbinol',  a  mock-heroic  account  of  rural 
games  in  Gloucestershire. 

Somnium  Scipionis,  from  Bk.  vi  of  Cicero's 
'de  Republica',  is  a  narrative  placed  in  the 
mouth  of  the  younger  Scipio  Africanus.  He 
relates  a  visit  to  the  court  of  Masinissa,  on 
which  occasion  there  was  much  talk  of  the 
first  great  Scipio.  When  the  younger  Scipio 
retired  to  rest,  the  shade  of  the  elder  appeared 
to  him  in  a  dream,  foretold  the  future  of  his 
life,  and  exhorted  him  to  virtue,  patriotism, 
and  the  disregard  of  human  fame,  as  the  path 
leading  to  reward  in  a  future  life,  the  nature 
of  which  is  indicated. 

The  *  Somnium  Scipionis'  is  largely  based 
on  the  fable  of  Er,  the  son  of  Arminius,  in 
Plato's  'Republic'.  It  has  been  preserved  for 
us  in  the  commentary  of  Macrobius  (Cicero's 
text  is  lost).  A  poetical  summary  of  it  occurs 
in  Chaucer's  'Parliament  of  Fowls',  and  it  is 
referred  to  by  him  in  other  passages. 

Sompnour's  or  Summoner's  Tale,  The,  see 
Canterbury  Tales. 

Song  of  Solomon,  The,  otherwise  'The 
Song  of  Songs',  one  of  the  poetical  books  of 
the  O.T.,  at  one  time  attributed  to  the 
authorship  of  King  Solomon,  now  considered, 
on  linguistic  grounds,  to  be  of  later  date, 
perhaps  of  the  4th  or  3rd  cent.  B.C. 

The  allegorical  interpretation  of  the  poem 
is  now  generally  abandoned,  and  it  is  regarded 
as  a  love  drama,  in  which  three  characters  are 
presented,  the  woman  constant  to  her  be- 
loved, the  beloved,  and  the  king. 

Song  of  the  Shirt,  The,  a  poem  by  T.  Hood 
(q.v.),  published  in  the  Christmas  number  of 
'Punch'  for  the  year  1843 ;  one  of  Hood's  best- 
known  poems,  presenting  a  picture  of  the 
overworked  and  underpaid  sempstress. 

Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Children,  The,  a 
portion  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  regarded  as 
apocryphal,  purporting  to  be  the  prayer  and 
song  sung  by  the  three  Jews  in  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's fiery  furnace.  The  latter  part  figures  as 
the  'Benedicite'  in  the  order  for  Morning 
Prayer  of  the  Anglican  Church. 
Song  to  David,  see  Smart. 
Songs  before  Sunrise,  see  Swinburne. 

Songs  of  Experience,  and  of  Innocence,  see 
Blake. 

Sonnet,  a  poem  consisting  of  fourteen  lines 
(of  eleven  syllables  in  Italian,  twelve  in 
French,  and  ten  in  English),  with  rhymes 
arranged  according  to  one  or  other  of  certain 
definite  schemes,  of  which  the  Petrarchan  and 
the  Elizabethan  are  the  principal,  viz:  (i) 
abbaabba,  followed  by  two,  or  three,  other 
rhymes  in  the  remaining  six  lines,  with  a 
pause  in  the  thought  after  the  octave  (not 
always  observed  by  English  imitators,  of 
whom  Milton  and  Wordsworth  are  prominent 
examples) ;(2)ababcdcdefefgg.  The 
sonnets  of  Shakespeare  are  in  the  latter  form. 


SOPHOCLES 

Sonnets  from  the  Portuguese,  a  series  of 
sonnets  by  E.  B.  Browning  (q.v.),  published 
in  1847,  inspired  by  passionate  devotion  to 
her  husband.  The  Portuguese  prototypes 
were  probably  Camoens's  sonnets  to  Catarina, 
one  of  which  is  alluded  to  in  Mrs.  Browning's 
poem  'Catarina  to  Camoens'. 

Sonnets  of  Shakespeare,  The,  were  printed 
in  1609,  but  were  probably  written,  the  bulk 
of  them  between  1593  and  1596,  the  remain- 
der before  1600.  Most  of  them  trace  the 
course  of  the  writer's  affection  for  a  young 
patron  of  rank  and  beauty,  and  may  be  ad- 
dressed to  William  Lord  Herbert,  afterwards 
earl  of  Pembroke,  or  Henry  Wriothesley,  earl 
of  Southampton.  The  publisher,  Thomas 
Thorpe,  issued  the  'Sonnets'  in  1609  with  a 
dedication  to  'Mr.  W.  H.,  the  onlie  begetter 
of  these  ensuing  sonnets*  (who,  if  he  was  not 
one  of  the  persons  above-named,  was  perhaps 
some  friend  of  Thorpe,  through  whose  good 
offices  the  manuscript  had  reached  his  hands, 
'begetter'  being  used  in  the  sense  of  'getter* 
or  'procurer').  Other  characters  are  alluded 
to,  who  evidently  played  a  real  part  in 
Shakespeare's  life,  a  stolen  mistress  (40-2), 
a  rival  poet  (83-6),  a  dark  beauty  loved  by  the 
author  (127  et  seq.). 

For  the  form  of  these  poems  see  Sonnet. 

Sooner  State,  Oklahama,  see  United 
States. 

Sophia,  ST.,  the  name  of  the  principal 
church  of  Constantinople,  built  by  the 
Emperor  Justinian  (532-7),  in  place  of  an 
earlier  church  built  by  Constantine  and 
destroyed  by  fire.  The  architect  was  An- 
themius  of  Tralles.  Justinian  worked  at  it 
in  a  mason's  apron  with  his  own  hands,  and 
when  it  was  finished  in  five  years  exclaimed, 
'I  have  beaten  Solomon'.  It  was  dedicated  to 
HAGIA  SOPHIA,  the  Divine  Wisdom.  On  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks 
(1453)  it  was  converted  into  a  mosque. 

Sophia  Western,  the  heroine  of  Fielding's 
'Tom  Jones'  (q.v.). 

Sophism,  a  specious  but  fallacious  argu- 
ment, used  either  deliberately  to  mislead  or  to 
display  ingenuity  in  reasoning. 

Sophist,  in  ancient  Greece,  one  who  under- 
took to  give  instruction  in  intellectual  and 
ethical  matters  in  return  for  payment;  con- 
trasted with  'philosopher',  and  frequently 
used  as  a  term  of  disparagement. 

SOPHOCLES  (495-406  B.C.),  one  of  the 
three  great  Attic  tragedians,  was  born  at 
Colonus.  He  first  appeared  as  a  tragic  poet  in 
468  B.C.,  when  he  won  the  prize  against 
Aeschylus.  After  this  he  was  regarded  as  the 
favourite  poet  of  the  Athenians.  He  was  the 
first  to  increase  the  number  of  actors  from 
two  to  three.  His  tragedies  are  more  human, 
less  heroic,  than  those  of  Aeschylus.  He  is 
'pre-eminently  the  dramatist  of  human  char- 
acter' (Jebb) ;  but  he  differed  from  Euripides, 
to  use  his  own  words,  in  representing  men  as 


[733] 


SOPHONISBA 

they  ought  to  be,  while  Euripides  exhibited 
them  as  they  are.  He  is  the  most  effective 
of  the  three  poets  as  a  dramatist,  both  by  his 
use  of  tragic  contrast  in  his  situations  and  by 
his  gift  of  depicting  character.  His  extant 
plays  are:  'Oedipus  the  King',  c Oedipus  at 
Colonus',  'Antigone',  'Electra',  *Trachiniae' 
(on  the  death  of  Hercules),  'Ajax',  and 
Thiloctetes*. 

Sophonisba,  daughter  of  Hasdrubal,  the 
Carthaginian  general.  She  was  betrothed  in 
early  life  to  Masinissa,  the  Nubian  prince; 
but  her  father,  in  order  to  gain  the  alliance 
of  Syphax,  married  her  to  the  latter.  Masi- 
nissa, fighting  in  alliance  with  the  Romans 
under  Scipio,  defeated  Syphax  and  captured 
his  capital,  Cirta,  with  Sophonisba.  Masi- 
nissa decided  now  to  marry  Sophonisba,  but 
was  ordered  by  Scipio  (who  dreaded  her  pro- 
Carthaginian  influence  on  Masinissa)  to  sur- 
render her.  Masinissa,  to  save  her  from 
captivity,  sent  her  a  bowl  of  poison,  which  she 
voluntarily  drank,  and  died. 

The  story  has  been  made  the  subject  of 
various  plays,  notably  by  Marston  (q.v.)  in 
his  'Sophonisba*  (printed  in  1606),  where, 
however,  considerable  liberties  are  taken 
with  the  facts ;  also  by  Lee  (1676)  and  Thom- 
son (1730),  and  by  Corneille. 

Sophonisba.  The  line  'Oh!  Sophonisba, 
Sophonisba,  Oh!'  is  from  'The  Tragedy  of 
Sophonisba',  1730  (in.  ii),  by  James  Thom- 
son (q.v.,  1700-48).  The  line, 'Oh,  Sophonis- 
ba, I  am  wholly  thine',  was  substituted  some 
time  after  1738.  The  earlier  text  was  parodied 
by  Fielding  in  his  'Tom  Thumb* — 'O  Hun- 
camunca,  Huncamunca  O!'.  Johnson  ('Lives 
of  the  Poets')  quotes  the  burlesque  *O 
Jemmy  Thomson!  Jemmy  Thomson,  OP. 

Sophronia,  see  Sofronia. 

Sophy,  THE,  a  former  title  of  the  supreme 
ruler  of  Persia.  It  was  the  surname  of  the 
ruling  dynasty  from  c.  1500  to  1736,  derived 
from  an  Arabic  epithet  meaning  'purity  of 
religion*. 

Sophy  Crewler,  in  Dickens's  'David 
Copperfield*  (q.v.),  'the  dearest  girl  in  the 
world*,  whom  Traddles  marries. 

Soracte,  a  mountain  of  Etruria,  visible  from 
Rome,  sacred  to  Apollo.  'Vides  ut  alta  stet 
nive  candidum  Soracte'.  Horace,  'Odes',  I. 
ix. 

Sorbonne,  THE,  a  theological  college  in 
Paris  founded  by  Robert  de  Sorbon  about 
1257.  The  name  was  applied  later  to  the 
faculty  of  theology  in  the  old  University  of 
Paris,  of  great  importance  down  to  the  i7th 
cent.  The  Sorbonne  is  now  the  seat  of  the 
University  of  Paris  and  of  the  faculties  of 
science,  literature,  and  the  hautes  etudes. 

SORDELLO,  a  Provencal  poet,  born  near 
Mantua  about  1180,  who  became  in  popular 
tradition  a  hero  of  romance.  Dante  mentions 
him  repeatedly  in  his  'Purgatorio'. 


SOTADIC 

Sordello  t  a  poem  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1840. 

The  action  takes  place  at  the  time  of  con- 
flicts of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  (c.  1200). 
Eccelino,  lord  of  Vicenza,  has  been  exiled 
from  his  city.  In  the  affray  on  this  occasion 
his  wife,  Adelaide,  has  been  saved  with  her  in- 
fant son  by  the  archer,  Elcorte.  Retrude, 
wife  of  Eccelino's  ally,  Salinguerra,  is  also 
saved,  but  dies  after  giving  birth  to  Sordello. 
Adelaide,  to  prevent  his  future  rivalry  with 
her  son,  passes  Sordello  off  as  the  son  of  El- 
corte and  brings  him  up  as  her  page,  in  the 
castle  of  Goito.  He  is  gifted  with  an  imagina- 
tive nature  and  devotes  himself  to  a  poetic, 
unreal  life.  His  mental  powers  display  them- 
selves in  his  triumph  as  a  poet  over  the 
troubadour,  Eglamor.  At  a  crisis  in  the  politi- 
cal struggle,  his  identity  as  the  son  of  Salin- 
guerra is  revealed,  and  power  and  eminence 
come  within  his  grasp.  But  he  has  a  higher 
spiritual  ideal  and  cannot  bring  himself,  in 
spite  of  the  love  of  the  beautiful  Palrna,  Ecce- 
lino's  daughter,  and  the  urging  of  Salinguerra, 
to  accept  the  lower,  practical  course  of  action. 
In  the  struggle  of  decision,  he  dies. 

But  while  the  outline  of  the  narrative  is 
simple  enough,  'Sordello*,  the  story  of  the 
'development  of  a  soul',  is  in  its  details  and 
allusions  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  Brown- 
ing's works  to  interpret. 

SOREL,  ALBERT  (1842-1906),  French 
historian,  author  of  a  number  of  remarkable 
works  including  'L'Europe  et  la  Revolution 
francaise'  (1885-1911),  'Histoire  diplo- 
matique de  la  guerre  franco-allemande* 
(1875),  'Montesquieu'  (1887),  'Madame  de 
StaeT  (1890),  'Bonaparte  et  Hoche  en  1797' 
(1896),  'Essais  d'histoire  et  de  critique*  (1894, 
1898). 

Sorrel,  HETTY,  a  character  in  George  Eliot's 
'Adam  Bede'  (q.v.). 

Sorrows  of  Werther,  see  Goethe. 

Sortes  Virgilianae,  the  attempt  to  foretell 
the  future  by  opening  a  volume  of  Virgil  at 
hazard  and  reading  the  first  passage  lit  on. 

Dr.  Edward  Lake's  Diary  (Camden  Mis- 
cellany, vol.  i)  under  date  29  Jan.  1677—8, 
records  an  instance  of  Charles  Ps  having 
recourse  to  the  Sortes  Virgilianae  and  lighting 
on  Dido's  curse  on  Aeneas  when  he  left  her. 
The  Sortes  were  also  resorted  to  by  Panurge 
(Rabelais,  in.  x)  to  decide  whether  he  should 
marry  or  not.  Many  instances  are  there  quoted 
of  Sortes  Virgilianae  and  Homericae.  Vam- 
be*ry  mentions  that  the  Persians  use  Hafiz 
(q.v.)  for  the  same  purpose ;  as  do  uneducated 
Christians  the  Bible. 

Sosia,  a  character  in  Dry  den's  'Amphitryon' 
(q.v.). 

Sotadic,  a  satire  after  the  manner  of  Sotades, 
an  ancient  Greek  poet  noted  for  the  coarse- 
ness and  scurrility  of  his  writings.  The  word 
is  also  used  of  a  line  capable  of  being  read  in 
the  reverse  order,  like  a  palindrome  (q.v.). 


[734] 


SOTHEBY'S 

Sotheby's,  in  New  Bond  Street,  a  chief 
centre  of  book  sales  in  London. 

Sothic  cycle  or  CANICULAR  PERIOD,  a  period 
of  1,460  full  years,  containing  1,461  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  years  of  365  days,  which 
were  computed  from  one  heliacal  rising  of 
Sirius  to  the  next.  The  term  Sothic  is 
derived  from  Sotkis,  an  Egyptian  name  of 
Sirius,  the  Dog-star. 

SouPs  Tragedy,  A,  a  drama  by  R.  Brown- 
ing (q.v.),  in^two  parts,  published  in  1846; 
the  first  part  in  verse,  the  second  in  prose. 

The  drama  treats  humorously  the  'tragedy' 
of  the  degradation  of  the  soul  of  Chiappino,  a 
citizen  of  Faenza  in  the  i6th  cent.  He  has 
been  agitating  against  the  tyrannical  provost 
of  the  town  and  is  sentenced  to  exile  and  con- 
fiscation of  his  property.  His  generous  friend, 
Luitolfo,  has  struck  the  provost  and  thinks 
that  he  has  killed  him,  and  that  he  is  pursued 
by  the  provost's  forces.  Chiappino,  who  has 
been  ungenerously  courting  the  woman  that 
Luitolfo  is  to  marry,  shamed  by  his  friend's 
devotion,  seizes  the  latter's  bloody  cloak  and 
goes  out  to  face  the  pursuers  and  claim  the 
deed  as  his  own,  only  to  find  that  the  throng 
consists  of  the  citizens  of  Faenza  who  acclaim 
him  as  their  saviour.  Here  the  tragedy  of  his 
soul  begins,  for  he  fails  to  undeceive  the 
populace.  It  continues  in  the  second  part, 
when  the  pope's  legate,  arriving  at  Faenza, 
lures  Chiappino  on  with  the  hope  that  he  will 
be  made  provost,  and  finally  exposes  him. 

Sousa' s  Band,  a  band  organized  in  1892 
by  John  Philip  Sousa  (1854-1932),  Ameri- 
can composer  and  bandmaster  of  the  U.S. 
Marine  Corps.  Sousa 's  band  visited  Europe 
in  1900-5  and  became  celebrated. 
South,  MARTY,  a  female  character  in  Hardy's 
*The  Woodlanders'  (q.v.). 
SOUTH,  ROBERT  (1634-1716),  educated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  a  great  court 
preacher,  favoured  by  Charles  II.  He  was 
homely,  pithy,  and  often  very  humorous  in 
the  pulpit.  His  *  Animadversions*  (1690)  con- 
tain a  crushing  attack  on  W.  Sherlock  (q.v.). 

South.  Kensington  Museum,  see  Victoria 
and  Albert  Museum. 

South  Sea  Company,  THE,  was  formed  in 
1711  by  Harley  (later  earl  of  Oxford)  to  trade 
with  Spanish  America  under  the  expected 
treaty  with  Spain.  An  exaggerated  idea  pre- 
vailed of  the  wealth  to  be  acquired  from  the 
trading  privileges  granted  by  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht  and  the  Asiento  Treaty,  and  a  fever 
of  speculation  set  in.  A  bill  was  passed  in 
1720  by  which  persons  to  whom  the  nation 
owed  money  were  enabled  to  convert  their 
claims  into  shares  in  the  Company,  and  the 
shares  rose  in  value  from  £100  to  £1,000. 
The  Company  shortly  afterwards  failed.  But 
the  scheme  meanwhile  had  given  rise  to  a 
fever  Of  speculation,  of  which  many  un- 
principled persons  took  advantage  to  obtain 
subscriptions  from  the  public  for  the  most 


SOUTHEY 

impossible  projects.  The  collapse  of  these 
and  of  the  South  Sea  scheme  caused  wide- 
spread ruin.  The  whole  affair  was  known  as 
the  SOUTH  SEA  BUBBLE.  But  the  original  idea 
of  the  South  Sea  Company  was  a  sound  one 
for  perfectly  honest  trade. 

The  SOUTH- SEA  HOUSE,  where  the  Com- 
pany had  its  offices,  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
Lamb's  'Essays  of  Elia'  (q.v.). 

Southcott,  JOANNA  (1750-1814),  a  religious 
fanatic,  was  a  Devonshire  farmer's  daughter, 
who  was  for  many  years  in  domestic  service. 
In  1792  she  began  to  write  doggerel  pro- 
phecies and  to  claim  supernatural  gifts,  and  in 
time  attracted  a  very  large  number  of  followers. 
In  1802  she  affirmed  that  she  would  be  de- 
livered of  a  spiritual  being,  called  Shiloh. 
She  died  of  brain  disease,  leaving  a  sealed 
box  with  directions  that  it  should  be  opened 
at  a  time  of  national  crisis  in  the  presence  of 
the  assembled  bishops.  It  was  opened  in 
1927,  one  bishop  being  present,  and  was 
found  to  contain  nothing  of  interest. 

Southdown,  COUNTESS  OF,  a  character  in 
Thackeray's  'Vanity  Fair*  (q.v.). 

SOUTHERNEorSOUTHERN,THOMAS 
(1659-1746),  of  Irish  parentage,  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  but  spent  his 
life  in  London,  where  he  was  the  friend  of 
Dryden,  for  several  of  whose  plays  he  wrote 
prologues  and  epilogues.  He  wrote  several 
comedies,  but  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his 
two  tragedies,  'The  Fatal  Marriage*  (q.v., 
1694)  and  *Oroonoko*  (q.v.,  1695),  both 
founded  on  novels  by  Mrs.  Behn  (q.v.). 

SOUTHEY,  ROBERT  (1774-1843),  was 
the  son  of  a  Bristol  linen-draper,  of  a  respect- 
able Somerset  family.  He  was  expelled  from 
Westminster  School  for  a  precocious  essay 
against  flogging,  and  proceeded  to  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.  He  made  the  acquaintance 
of  S.  T.  Coleridge  and  joined  in  his  scheme 
for  a  'pantisocratic'  settlement.  He  married 
Edith  Fricker  (d,  1837),  whose  sister  be- 
came the  wife  of  Coleridge,  in  1795.  He 
went  to  Portugal  in  the  same  year,  and 
to  Spain  in  1800.  He  published  'Thalaba' 
(q.v.)  in  1 80 1,  'Madoc'  (q.v.)  in  1805,  the 
*  Curse  of  Kehama'  (q.v.)  in  1810,  'Roderick, 
the  Last  of  the  Goths5  (q.v.)  in  1814,  'A  Tale 
of  Paraguay*  in  1825,  and  'All  for  Love' 
(q.v.)  in  1829.  He  settled  at  Keswick,  with 
the  help  of  an  annuity  given  him  by  his  friend, 
Charles  Wynn,  which  he  relinquished  on 
receiving  in  1807  a  government  pension  of 
about  the  same  amount.  He  worked  at  trans- 
lations from  the  Spanish,  and  in  1808  became 
a  regular  contributor  to  the  *  Quarterly 
Review'.  His  'Life  of  Nelson*  was  expanded 
from  an  article  in  1813.  In  the^same  year  he 
accepted  the  laureateship,  which  had  been 
offered  to  Scott.  His  'Wat  Tyler',  a  short 
drama  'written  in  three  days  at  Oxford'  in 
1794,  was  surreptitiously  published  in  18^17, 
and  in  consequence  of  its  crude  political 
sentiments,  Southey  was  attacked  as  a 


[735] 


SOUTHWARK 

renegado'  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
Southey 's  'Life  of  Wesley*  appeared  in  1820 
and  his  'A  Vision  of  Judgment'  (q.v.,  paro- 
died by  Byron)  in  1821.  His  miscellanies, 
'Omniana'  and  'The  Doctor'  (q.v.)  were 
published  in  1812  and  1834-47,  and  his 
standard  'Life'  and  edition  of  Cowper  in 
1833-7.  In  1839  he  contracted  a  second 
marriage  with  Caroline  Bowles.  From  1835 
he  enjoyed  a  pension  of  £300,  granted  by 
Peel. 

Southey  wrote  an  immense  amount  both 
of  verse  and  prose.  His  longer  poems  are 
little  read  now,  but  were  praised  by  con- 
temporaries so  diverse  as  Scott,  Fox,  and 
Macaulay,  and  admired  even  by  Byron,  who 
hated  the  author.  He  is  now  best  known  by 
some  of  his  shorter  pieces,  such  as  'My  days 
among  the  dead  are  past',  'The  Battle  of 
Blenheim*,  'The  Holly  Tree',  and  'The  Inch- 
cape  Rock'.  He  was  successful  in  the  lighter, 
comic,  or  supernatural  grotesque  style,  e.g.  in 
'St.  Michael's  Chair',  'The  Well  of  St.Keyne', 
and  'The  Devil's  Thoughts'  (q.v.).  Of  his 
prose  works,  besides  those  above  mentioned, 
the  principal  are  his  'Lives  of  the  British  Ad- 
mirals' (1833-40);  the  long  and  valuable 
'History  of  Brazil'  (1810-19),  and  the  'History 
of  the  Peninsular  War'  (1823-32),  which 
proved  less  successful  than  that  of  Napier; 
his  ecclesiastical  writings,  'The  Book  of  the 
Church'  (1824),  and  'Vindiciae  Ecclesiae 
Anglicanae*  (1826);  his  'Sir  Thomas  More, 
Colloquies  on  the  progress  and  prospects  of 
Society'  (1829),  in  which  the  author  converses 
with  the  ghost  of  More ;  and  'Essays  Moral 
and  Political'  (1832).  The  'Letters  of  Espri- 
ella',  a  book  of  a  lighter  character,  purporting 
to  be  the  letters  written  from  England  by  a 
young  Spaniard  at  the  beginning  of  the  1 9th 
cent,  and  giving  a  good  picture  of  the  times, 
was  published  in  1807.  Southey  did  valuable 
work  in  revising  the  old  translations  of  Amadis 
of  Gaul  (1803)  and  'Palmerin  of  England* 
(1807),  in  translating  the  'Chronicle  of  the 
Cid'  (1808),  and  in  editing  Malory  (1817). 
Excessive  mental  work,  as  well  as  domestic 
misfortunes,  at  last  affected  Southey's  in- 
tellect, and  he  died  of  softening  of  the  brain. 
He  was  an  excellent  letter-writer,  and 
three  editions  of  his  voluminous  correspon- 
dence, none  of  them  complete,  have  been 
published,  by  his  son  in  1849-50,  by  his 
son-in-law  in  1856,  and  by  E.  Dowden  in 
1881. 

Southwark,  the  'south  work'  or  bridge- 
head at  the  south  end  of  London  Bridge, 
was  at  one  time  a  royal  'burh'  or  citadel  for 
the  defence  of  London  (hence  Southwark  is 
known  as  'The  Borough').  It  certainly  existed 
in  ^Ethelred's  time,  and  probably  much 
earlier.  It  attracted  traders  by  its  privileges 
and  became  the  great  'cheaping  town'  men- 
tioned in  the  'Heimskringla'  (q.v.,  Lethaby). 
It  is  specially  famous  in  literary  history  on 
account  of  its  ancient  inns  and  theatres.  The 
Tabard  and  the  White  Hart  (qq.v.)  inns  were 


SPANISH  CURATE 

there,  Burbage's  'Globe'  theatre,  Alleyn's 
'The  Hope',  and  Henslowe's  'The  Rose* 
(qq.v.).  Gower  lived  within  the  precincts  of 
the  priory  of  Southwark  and  is  buried  in  its 
church  (see  Saviour's  Church,  St.).  In  1550 
Edward  VI  granted  the  borough  to  the 
commonalty  of  London,  and  Southwark 
became  a  'ward  without'  of  the  City. 

SOUTHWELL,  ROBERT  (1561  ?-ps),  a 
member  of  an  old  Catholic  family,  was  edu- 
cated at  Douai  and  Rome.  Fie  took  Roman 
orders  and  came  to  England  in  1586  with 
Henry  Garnett  (who  was  subsequently 
executed  for  complicity  in  the  Gunpowder 
Plot).  He  became  in  1589  domestic  chaplain 
to  the  countess  of  Arundel,  was  captured 
when  going  to  celebrate  mass  in  1592,  re- 
peatedly tortured,  and  executed  after  three 
years'  imprisonment.  His  poems  were  mainly 
written  in  prison.  Of  these  it  was  his  object 
to  make  spiritual  love,  instead  of  'unworthy 
affections',  the  subject.  His  chief  work  was 
'St.  Peter's  Complaint',  published  in  1595, 
a  long  narrative  of  the  closing  events  of  the 
life  of  Christ  in  the  mouth  of  the  repentant 
Peter,  in  which  the  spiritual  is  contrasted 
with  the  material  by  numerous  comparisons 
and  antitheses.  He  also  wrote  a  'Foure- 
fould  Meditation  of  the  foure  last  things' 
fi6o6),  and  many  shorter  devotional  poems 
(some  of  them  collected  under  the  title 
'Maeoniae*,  1595)  of  a  high  order,  notably 
'The  Burning  Babe',  praised  by  Ben  Jonson. 

Sowdone  of  Babylon,  see  Ferumbras. 

Sower-berry,  in  Dickens 's  'Oliver  Twist* 
(q.v.),  an  undertaker,  to  whom  Oliver  is  ap- 
prenticed when  he  leaves  the  workhouse. 

Sowerby,  MR.,  a  character  in  A.  Trollope's 
'Framley  Parsonage'  (q.v.). 

Sowerby,  THE  HON.  DUDLEY,  a  character  in 
Meredith's  'One  of  our  Conquerors'  (q.v.). 

Spagyric,  a  term  used  and  probably  in- 
vented by  Paracelsus  (q.v.),  the  science  of 
alchemy  or  chemistry;  also,  an  alchemist. 

SPALDING,  JOHNt/Z.  1650),  of  Aberdeen, 
a  Scottish  historian,  author  of  the  valuable 
'Memorials  of  the  Troubles  in  Scotland  and 
England'  from  1624  to  1645  (first  published 
in  1792).  He  is  commemorated  in  the  Spald- 
ing  Club,  devoted  to  the  historical  literature 
of  northern  Scotland. 

Spanish  Curate,  The,  a  comedy  by  J. 
Fletcher  (q.v.)  and  probably  Massinger  (q.v.), 
composed  and  produced  in  1622. 

The  main  plot  deals  with  the  intrigues  of 
Don  Henrique's  mistress,  Violante,  the  failure 
of  which  leads  to  the  reconciliation  of  Don 
Henrique  with  his  divorced  wife,  Jacinta,  and 
his  brother,  Don  Jamie ;  while  Violante  is  con- 
signed to  a  nunnery.  In  the  underplot,  from 
which  the  play  takes  its  name,  Leandro,  a  rich 
young  gentleman,  plays  on  the  cupidity  of  a 
priest  and  his  sexton,  and,  with  their  help,  on 
that  of  the  lawyer  Bartolus,  the  jealous 


[736] 


SPANISH  FRYAR 

husband  of  a  beautiful  wife,  Amaranta,  to  get 
facilities  for  an  intrigue  with  the  latter. 

Spanish  Fryar,  The,  a  comedy  by  Dryden 

(q-v.). 

Spanish  Gipsy,  The,  a  romantic  comedy  by 
T.  Middleton  (q.v.)  and  W.  Rowley  (q.v.), 
acted  in  1623  and  printed  in  1653.  It  is  based 
on  two  novels  by  Cervantes. 

Of  the  two  interwoven  plots,  that  from 
which  the  play  ^takes  its  name  presents  the 
romance  of  Pretiosa,  daughter  of  the  corregi- 
dor  of  Madrid,  who  has  been  carried  away  as 
a  child  by  Alvarez,  a  fugitive  from  justice  and 
brother-in-law  of  the  corregidor,  to  live  with 
his  friends  a  gipsy  life.  The  gipsies  come  to 
Madrid,  where  the  beauty  of  Pretiosa  attracts 
admiration.  Her  lover  joins  the  gipsies,  and 
these  act  a  play  at  the  house  of  the  corregidor. 
Their  identity  is  discovered,  and  Pretiosa  is 
restored  to  her  father  and  married  to  her 
lover.  Longfellow,  in  one  of  his  dramas,  'The 
Spanish  Student',  adapted  much  of  this,  in- 
cluding the  name  Pretiosa. 

Spanish  Gypsy,  The,  a  dramatic  poem  by 
G.  Eliot  (q.v.),  published  in  1868. 
Spanish  Main,  THE,  the  mainland  of 
America  adjacent  to  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
especially  that  portion  of  the  coast  stretching 
from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco.  In  later  use,  also,  the  sea 
contiguous  to  this,  or  the  route  traversed  by 
the  Spanish  register  ships  (i.e.  Spanish  ships 
licensed  to  trade  with  the  Spanish  possessions 
in  America). 

Spanish  Tragedy,  The,  a  tragedy  in  blank 
verse  by  Kyd  (q.v.),  acted  in  1592,  printed  in 
1594. 

The  political  background  of  the  play  is 
the  victory  of  Spain  over  Portugal  in  1580. 
Lorenzo  and  Bel-imperia  are  son  and 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Spain ;  Hieronimo  is 
marshal  of  Spain,  and  Horatio  his  son.  Bal- 
thazar is  son  of  the  viceroy  of  Portugal  and 
has  been  taken  prisoner  by  Lorenzo  and 
Horatio  in  the  war.  He  courts  Bel-imperia, 
and  his  suit  is  favoured  by  Lorenzo,  and  by 
the  king  of  Spain  for  political  reasons. 
Lorenzo  and  Balthazar  discover  that  Bel- 
imperia  loves  Horatio,  and  come  upon  them 
at  night  in  Hieronimo's  arbour,  where  they 
kill  Horatio  and  hang  him  to  a  tree.  Hiero- 
nimo coming  out  and  finding  his  son  dead  is 
frantic  with  grief.  He  discovers  who  are  the 
murderers  and  plots  with  Bel-imperia  their 
destruction.  For  this  purpose  he  engages 
them  to  act  with  Bel-imperia  and  him,  before 
the  court,  a  play  that  suits  his  revengeful 
purpose.  In  the  course  of  this  Lorenzo  and 
Balthazar  are  killed,  Bel-imperia  stabs  her- 
self, and  Hieronimo  takes  his  own  life. 

Interpolations  were  made  in  the  play  as 
originally  written,  probably  by  Ben  Jonson, 
and  the  play  as  revised  was  very  popular, 
though  ridiculed  by  writers  of  the  time. 
Charles  Lamb  declared  that  certain  of  these 
interpolations  were  the  Very  salt  of  the  old 


SPECTATOR 

play*.  He  thought  that  nothing  written  by 
Jonson  warranted  us  in  attributing  them  to 
him;  *I  should  suspect  the  agency  of  some 
more  potent  spirit.  Webster  might  have  fur- 
nished them*.  The  interpolations  in  question 
are  given  in  Lamb's  'Specimens  of  English 
Dramatic  Writers'. 

Sparkish,  a  character  in  Wycherley's  'The 
Country  Wife*  (q.v.). 

Sparkler,  EDMUND,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
'Little  Dorrit'  (q.v.),  who  marries  Fanny, 
Little  Dorrit's  sister. 

Sparsit,  MRS.,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Hard  Times'  (q.v.),  Bounderby's  intriguing 
housekeeper. 

Spartan,  an  inhabitant  of  Sparta,  the  capital 
of  the  ancient  Doric  state  of  Laconia  in  the 
Peloponnesus.  The  Spartan  characteristics, 
to  which  the  adjective  in  modern  use  refers, 
were  simplicity,  frugality,  courage,  discipline, 
and  brevity  of  speech. 

SPARTAN  DOG,  a  kind  of  bloodhound  (cf. 
Shakespeare,  'Midsummer  Night's  Dream', 
IV.  i.  1 1 6). 

Spasmodic  School,  a  term  applied  by 
Aytoun  (q.v.)  to  a  group  of  poets  chiefly 
represented  by  P.  J.  Bailey,  Dobell,  and 
Alexander  Smith  (qq.v.). 

Spectator,  The,  a  periodical  conducted  by 
R.  Steele  (q.v.)  and  Addison  (q.v.)  from 
i  Mar.  1711  to  6  Dec.  1712.  It  was  revived 
by  Addison  in  1714,  when  eighty  numbers 
were  issued.  The  'Spectator'  was  the  suc- 
cessor of  the  'Tatler'  (q.v.).  It  appeared 
daily.  Addison  and  Steele  were  the  principal 
contributors,  in  about  equal  proportions. 
Other  contributors  were  Pope,  Tickell, 
Eustace  Budgell,  A.  Philips,  and  Eusden 
(qq.v.). 

It  purported  to  be  conducted  (see  the  first 
two  numbers)  by  a  small  club,  including  Sir 
Roger  de  Coverley,  who  represents  the 
country  gentry;  Sir  Andrew  Freeport,  Capt. 
Sentry,  and  Will  Honeycomb,  representing 
respectively  commerce,  the  army,  and  the 
town.  Mr.  Spectator  himself,  who  writes  the 
papers,  is  a  man  of  travel  and  learning,  who 
frequents  London  as  an  observer,  but  keeps 
clear  of  political  strife.  The  papers  are  mainly 
concerned  with  manners,  morals,  and  litera- 
ture. Their  object  is  'to  enliven  morality  with 
wit,  and  to  temper  wit  with  morality'.  Among 
their  pleasantest  .features  are  the  character 
sketches,  notably  in  the  Coverley  papers,  and 
the  short  stories  or  episodes,  which  frequently 
take  the  form  of  letters  purporting  to  be 
addressed  to  the  editor.  Readers  of 'Esmond' 
will  remember  the  faked  'Spectator'  which 
appeared  on  Beatrix's  breakfast-table. 

Spectator,  The,  a  weekly  periodical  started 
in  1828  by  Robert  Stephen  Rintoul,  with 
funds  provided  by  Joseph  Hume  and  others, 
as  an  organ  of  'educated  radicalism'.  It^ sup- 
ported Lord  John  Russell's  reform  bill  of 
1831  with  a  demand  for  'the  Bill,  the  whole 


3368 


[737] 


SPECULUM  MEDITANTIS 

Bill,  and  nothing  but  the  Bill'.  R.  H.  Hutton 
(q.v.)  was  joint-editor,  1861-97.  'The 
Spectator*  has  recently  been  amalgamated 
with  'The  Saturday  Review'. 

Speculum  Meditantis  or  Mir  our  de  POmme, 
a  didactic  poem  of  30,000  lines  in  French  by 
Gower  (q.v.)* 

It  relates  the  contest  of  the  seven  vices 
(with  their  offspring,  such  as  arrogance  ^and 
hypocrisy)  and  the  seven  virtues,  all  described 
at  great  length,  for  the  possession  of  man. 
To  ascertain  who  has  gained  the  victory,  the 
author  reviews  every  estate  of  man,  and  all 
are  found  corrupt.  Man  must  therefore  have 
recourse  to  the  mercy  of  the  Virgin,  who  will 
intercede  for  him.  The  poem  concludes  with 
the  Gospel  narrative.  The  description  of  the 
estates  of  man  presents  a  valuable  picture  of 
contemporary  society. 

SPEDDING,  JAMES  (1808-81),  educated 
at  Bury  St.  Edmunds  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  published  an  edition  of  Bacon's 
'Works*  in  1857-9,  followed  by  his  'Life  and 
Letters*  (1861-74).  His  'Evenings  with  a 
Reviewer,  or  Macaulay  and  Bacon'  (1848) 
was  a  refutation,  subsequently  developed  in 
the  greater  work,  of  Macaulay's  'Essay'  on 
Bacon. 

SPEED,  JOHN  (1552  ?-i629),  historian  and 
cartographer,  was  brought  up  as  a  tailor  by 
his  father.  He  settled  in  Moorfields,  London, 
and  obtained  a  post  in  the  custom-house  in 
1598.  He  made  various  maps  of  English 
counties,  and  was  encouraged  by  Camden, 
Cotton,  and  others,  to  write  his  'Historic  of 
Great  Britaine*  (1611).  The  maps  were  far 
more  valuable  than  the  history;  they  began 
about  1607  and  an  atlas  of  them  appeared  in 
1 6 1 1.  There  were  several  later  editions  of 
this  (called  'The  Theatre  of  the  Empire  of 
Great  Britain5)  and  the  maps  are  now  con- 
stantly detached  and  sold  separately. 

Speed  the  Plough,  a  play  by  T.  Morton 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1798. 

Sir  Philip  Blandford,  finding  that  his 
brother  has  supplanted  him  in  the  affections 
of  the  woman  he  was  about  to  marry,  stabs 
the  brother,  leaves  him  for  dead,  quits  the 
country,  and  ruins  himself  by  gambling. 
The  brother's  child,  Henry,  the  hero  of  the 
play,  brought  up  in  ignorance  of  his  parentage 
by  a  neighbouring  farmer,  Ashfield,  is  the 
object  of  Sir  Philip's  hatred.  But  on  the 
latter's  return  home,  twenty  years  later,  his 
daughter  Emma  falls  in  love  with  this  Henry, 
who  moreover  saves  her  life  when  the  house 
is  burnt  down.  And  Henry's  father,  who  has 
in  fact  survived  full  of  remorse,  now  reveals 
himself  as  the  restorer  of  his  brother's  fortunes. 
So  reconciliation  follows  and  all  ends  well. 

Sir  Abel  Handy  with  his  shrewish  wife 
and  breezy  son,  and  the  Ashfield  couple,  pro- 
vide some  amusement.  Mrs.  Grundy,  who 
has  since  become  the  symbol  of  the  British 
idea  of  propriety,  is  a  neighbour  and  obses- 
sion of  Dame  Ashfield,  who  constantly  refers 


SPENCER 

to  her,  wondering  what  Mrs.  Grundy  will 
think  or  say.  But  Mrs.  Grundy  herself,  a 
sort  of  Mrs.  Harris,  never  appears. 
Speenharaiand  System,  a  system  of  poor 
relief  adopted  by  the  magistrates  of  Berk- 
shire at  a  meeting  held  on  6  May  1795  at 
Speenhamland  (now  part  of  Newbury),  to 
improve  the  miserable  condition  of  labourers, 
the  result  of  the  insufficiency  of  agricultural 
wages.  By  this  system,  which  was  widely 
adopted  by  other  counties,  an  allowance  was 
granted  'for  the  relief  of  all  poor  and  in- 
dustrious men  and  their  families'  who  en- 
deavoured to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Justices 
of  their  parish  to  support  themselves,  this 
allowance  being  calculated  according  to  the 
price  of  flour,  so  that  the  man  should  have, 
from  his  wages  and  the  allowance,  the 
equivalent  of  three  gallon  loaves  a  week,  and 
his  wife  and  each  child  the  equivalent  of  one 
and  a  half.  The  effect  was  to  pauperize  the 
labouring  population,  and  to  relieve  the 
employer  at  the  expense  of  the  rates  (see 
J.  L.  and  Barbara  Hammond,  'The  Village 
Labourer'). 

SPEKE,  JOHN  HANNING  (1827-64),  ex- 
plorer, set  out  under  (Sir)  Richard  Burton 
(q.v.)  in  1856  to  investigate  Lake  Nyasa,  and 
discovered  Lake  Tanganyika  and  Victoria 
Nyanza.  He  published  in  1863  his  'Journal 
of  the  Discovery  of  the  Source  of  the  Nile'. 
He  furnished  information  to  (Sir)  Samuel 
Baker  (q.v.),  which  enabled  him  to  discover 
the  third  lake,  Albert  Nyanza. 

SPENCER,HERBERT(i82o-i903),trained 
as  an  engineer,  gave  up  this  profession  early 
and  devoted  himself  to  philosophical  study 
and  writing.  He  published  'Social  Statics'  in 
1851,  'Principles  of  Psychology'  in  1855,  and 
in  1860  his  'Programme  of  a  System  of 
Synthetic  Philosophy*,  to  the  elaboration  of 
which  he  consecrated  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  'First  Principles'  appeared  in  1862, 
'Principles  of  Biology'  (1864-7),  'Principles  of 
Psychology'  (a  recast  of  the  earlier  work, 
1870-2),  'Principles  of  Sociology'  (1876-96), 
and  'Principles  of  Ethics'  (1879-93).  Among 
his  other  works  were  'Education'  (1861,  see 
below),  *The  Classification  of  the  Sciences' 
(1864),  'The  Study  of  Sociology'  (1873),  'The 
Man  versus  The  State*  (1884),  and  'Factors 
of  Organic  Evolution'  (1887).  His  'Auto- 
biography' was  published  in  1904. 

Spencer  was  the  founder  of  evolutionary 
philosophy,  pursuing  the  unification  of  all 
knowledge  on  the  basis  of  a  single  all-per- 
vading principle,  that  of  evolution.  All  our 
notions  are  derived  from  experiences  of 
Force,  a  persistent  inscrutable  power  behind 
phenomena.  From  the  persistence  of  force 
are  deducible  various  principles,  such  as  the 
transformation  and  equivalence  of  all  forces 
whether  physical  or  mental,  and  finally  the 
Law  of  Evolution,  which  can  also  be  obtained 
inductively  from  phenomena,  and  to  which 
all  phenomena  are  subject.  This  law  he 
defines  as  follows :  'an  integration  of  matter 


[738] 


SPENLOW  AND  JORKINS 

and  concomitant  dissipation  of  motion; 
during  which  matter  passes  from  an  in- 
definite incoherent  homogeneity  to  a  definite 
coherent  heterogeneity;  and  during  which 
the  retained  motion  undergoes  a  parallel 
transformation*.  The  process  continues 
until  equilibrium  is  reached,  after  which  the 
aggregate  remains  subject  to  the  action  of 
its  environment,  and  this  in  time  will  bring 
about  disintegration.  The  law  holds  good  of 
the  visible  universe  as  well  as  of  smaller 
aggregates,  suggesting  the  conception  of  past 
and  future  evolutions,  such  as  that  which  is 
now  proceeding.  But  Spencer  recognized 
the  insolubility  of  the  ultimate  riddle  of 
the  universe. 

This  theory  of  a  physical  system  leads  up 
to  Spencer's  ethical  system,  to  which  in  his 
mind  all  else  was  subordinated.  But  here  he 
is  less  successful  in  producing  a  self-con- 
sistent whole.  For  Spencer  was  essentially 
an  individualist,  and  his  first  ethical  principle 
is  the  equal  right  of  every  individual  to  act  as 
he  likes,  so  long  as  he  does  not  interfere  with 
the  similar  liberty  of  other  individuals.  His 
effort  is  to  reconcile  utilitarian  with  evolu- 
tionary ethics,  and  in  his  'Data  of  Ethics*  (the 
first  part^of  his  *  Sociology')  we  have  morality 
treated  In  its  biological  and  evolutionary 
aspect,  and  the  conciliation  of  altruism  with 
egoism  explained.  But  Spencer  had  to  con- 
fess that  for  the  purpose  of  deducing  ethical 
principles  'the  Doctrine  of  Evolution  has  not 
furnished  guidance  to  the  extent  I  had  hoped'. 

Special  reference  must  be  made  to  his 
'Education,  Intellectual,  Moral  and  Physical* 
(1861),  a  collection  of  articles  previously  pub- 
lished in  magazines,  in  which  Spencer  showed 
a  frank  contempt  for  the  humanities,  and 
urged  that  science  should  be  made  the 
principal  instrument  of  education.  Parts  of 
the  work  proved  valuable  and  have  influenced 
subsequent  practice.  It  had  a  wide  vogue  and 
was  translated  into  many  languages. 

Spencer  has  been  diversely  judged.  Carlyle 
called  him  'the  most  immeasurable  ass  in 
Christendom*. 

Spenlow  and  Jorkins,  in  Dickens's  *David 
Copperfield*  (q.v.),  a  firm  of  proctors  in 
Doctors'  Commons,  to  whom  Copperfield  is 
articled.  Jorkins  is  a  gentle,  retiring  man  who 
seldom  appears,  but  Spenlow  makes  his  sup- 
posed intractable  character  the  ground  for 
refusing  any  inconvenient  request. 
Spenlow,  DORA,  in  Dickens's  'David 
Copperfield'  (q.v.),  the  hero's  'child-wife*. 
Spens,  Sir  Patrick,  the  title  of  an  old  Scottish 
ballad,  on  the  subject  of  Sir  Patrick's  dispatch 
to  sea,  on  a  mission  for  the  king,  in  winter;  of 
his  foreboding  of  disaster ;  and  of  his  destruc- 
tion with  his  ship's  company.  The  ballad  is  in 
Percy's  'Reliques*.  Scott,  in  his  version, 
makes  the  object  of  Sir  Patrick's  expedition 
tibe  bringing  to  Scotland  of  the  Maid  of 
Norway  (q.v.). 

SPENSER,  EDMUND  (1552  ?~99),  was  the 
elder  son  of  John  Spenser,  who  was  probably 


SPENSER 

related  to  the  Spencers  of  Althorp,  and  was 
described  as  a  gentleman  and  journeyman  in 
the  art  of  cloth-making.  Edmund  Spenser  was 
bom  probably  in  East  Smithfield,  London, 
and  was  educated  at  Merchant  Taylors*  School 
and  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge.  While  still 
at  Cambridge,  ^he  contributed  in  1568  a 
number  of  'Visions*  and  sonnets  (from 
Petrarch  and  Du  Bellay)  to  an  edifying 
'Theatre  for  Worldlings*.  To  his  'green 
youth'  also  belong  the  'Hymnes  in  honour  of 
Love  and  Beautie*  (not  published  till  1596), 
which  reflect  the  Platonic  influence,  being  the 
adaptation  of  ideas  drawn  from  the  'Sym- 
posium'. Spenser  obtained  in  1578,  through 
his  college  friend,  G.  Harvey  (q.v.),  a  place  in 
Leicester's  household,  and  became,  through 
Leicester,  acquainted  with  Sir  Philip  Sidney 
(q.v.).  With  Sidney,  Dyer,  and  others,  he 
formed  a  literary  club  styled  the  'Areopagus'. 
In  1579  he  began  the  'Faerie  Queene'  (q.v.) 
and  published  his  'Shepheards  Calender' 
(q.v.),  which  was  enthusiastically  received. 
In  1580  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  Lord 
Grey  de  Wilton,  then  going  to  Ireland  as 
lord  deputy.  In  1586  he  became  one  of  the 
'undertakers'  for  the  settlement  of  Munster, 
and  acquired  Kilcolman  Castle  in  county 
Cork.  Here  he  settled  and  occupied  himself 
with  literary  work,  writing  his  elegy  'Astro- 
pheP  (q.v.)  on  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  and  pre- 
paring the  'Faerie  Queene'  for  the  press, 
three  books  of  this  work  being  entrusted  to 
the  printer  on  the  poet's  visit  to  London  in 
1589.  He  reluctantly  returned  to  Kilcolman, 
which  he  regarded  as  a  place  of  exile,  in  1591, 
and  penned  'Colin  Clouts  come  home  agalne* 
(q.v.,  printed  1595).  The  reputation  of  the 
'Faerie  Queene'  led  the  printer,  Ppnsonby,  to 
issue  in  1591  his  minor  verse  and  juvenilia,  in 
part  re-written,  as  'Complaints,  containing 
sundrie  small  poems  of  the  worlds  vanrtie*. 
This  includes  the  'Ruines  of  Time',  which  is 
in  fact  a  further  elegy  on  Sir  Philip  Sidney, 
dedicated  to  his  sister,  the  countess  of  Pem- 
broke. In  1591  appeared  his  'Daphnaida',  an 
elegy  on  Douglas  Howard,  the  daughter  of 
Lord  Byndon.  In  1594  Spenser  married 
Elizabeth  Boyle,  whom  he  had  wooed  in  his 
'Amoretti*,  and  possibly  celebrated  the  mar- 
riage in  his  splendid  'Epithalamion'  (the  two 
were  printed  together  in  1 595).  He  published 
the  second  instalment  of  three  books  of  the 
'Faerie  Queene*  and  'Foure  Hymnes'  in  1596, 
being  in  London  for  the  purpose  at  the  house 
of  his  friend,  the  earl  of  Essex,  where  he  wrote 
his  'Prothalamion'  (q.v.),  and  also  his  well- 
informed,  though  one-sided,  prose  'View  of 
the  Present  State  of  Ireland'.  He  returned  to 
Kilcolman,  depressed  both  in  niind  and 
health,  in  1597.  His  castle  of  Kilcolman  was 
burnt,  October  1598,  in  a  sudden  insurrec- 
tion of  the  natives,  chiefly  O'Neills,  under  the 
earl  of  Desmond ;  on  which,  with  his  wife  and 
four  children,  he  was  compelled  to  flee  for 
refuge  tp  Cork.  Lost  books  of  the  'Faerie 
Queene*  were  probably  burnt  in  the  castle. 
He  died  in  London  in  distress,  if  not  actual 


[739] 


3B2 


SPENSERIAN  STANZA 

destitution,  at  a  lodging  in  King  Street,  West- 
minster, and  was  buried  near  his  favourite 
Chaucer  in  Westminster  Abbey,  the  expenses 
of  the  funeral  being  borne  by  the  earl  of 
Essex. 

Spenserian  stanza,  the  stanza  invented  by 
Edmund  Spenser  (q.v.),  in  which  he  wrote 
'The  Faerie  Queene'.  It  consists  of  eight 
five-foot  iambic  lines,  followed  by  an  iambic 
line  of  six  feet,  rhyming  ababbcbcc. 

Sphinx,  THE,  in  Greek  legend,  a  monster 
with  the  head  and  breasts  of  a  woman,  the 
body  of  a  dog,  the  tail  of  a  serpent,  the  wings 
of  a  bird,  the  paws  of  a  lion,  and  a  human 
voice.  It  frequented  the  neighbourhood  of 
Thebes,  propounded  enigmas  and  devoured 
the  inhabitants  if  these  were  unable  to  explain 
them.  TheThebans  weretold  by  an  oracle  that 
the  Sphinx  would  destroy  herself  as  soon  as  one 
of  her  riddles  was  explained.  The  Sphinx 
now  asked  what  animal  walked  on  four  legs 
in  the  morning,  two  at  noon,  and  three  in  the 
evening.  Creon,  the  king  of  Thebes,  pro- 
mised his  crown  and  his  sister  Jocasta  in 
marriage  to  whoever  should  solve  the  riddle. 
This  was  done  by  Oedipus  (q.v.),  who  ob- 
served that  man  walked  on  all  fours  when  a 
child,  erect  in  the  noon  of  life,  and  supported 
by  a  stick  in  old  age.  The  Sphinx  on  hearing 
this  answer  dashed  her  head  against  a  rock 
and  expired. 

The  legend  appears  to  have  come  from 
Egypt,  where,  however,  the  Sphinx  is  a  male 
creature,  with  the  body  of  a  lion,  and  without 
wings.  It  represented  the  god  Horus.  The 
most  famous  figure  of  the  Sphinx  is  near  the 
Great  Pyramid  at  Ghizeh,  Egypt. 

Spider,  BRUCE  AND  THE,  see  Bruce  and  the 
Spider. 

SPINOZA,  BENEDICT  (BARUCH)  DE 
(1632-77),  a  Jew  of  Portuguese  origin, 
born  at  Amsterdam,  who  lived  there  and 
at  The  Hague.  He  was  expelled  from 
the  Jewish  community  on  account  of 
his  criticism  of  the  Scriptures.  The  prin- 
cipal ^  source  of  his  philosophy  was  the 
doctrine  of  Descartes,  transformed  by  a  mind 
steeped  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  Spinoza 
rejected  the  Cartesian  dualism  of  spirit  and 
matter,  and  saw  only  'one  infinite  substance, 
of  which  finite  existences  are  modes  or 
limitations'.  The  universe  must  be  viewed 
'sub  specie  aeternitatis',  and  the  errors  of 
sense  and  the  illusions  of  the  finite  eliminated. 
God  for  him  is  the  immanent  cause  of  the 
universe,  not  a  ruler  outside  it.  'By  the 
government  of  God,  I  understand  the  fixed 
and  unalterable  order  of  nature  and  the 
interconnection  of  natural  things'.  His 
system  is  thus  in  a  sense  pantheistic.  Among 
his  conclusions  are  determinism,  a  denial  of 
the  transcendent  distinction  between  good 
and  evil,  and  a  denial  ,of  personal  immortality. 
Spinoza's  famous  'Ethics',  finished  about 
1665,  was  not  published  until  1677,  after  his 
death.  His  morality  is  founded  on  the  'in- 


SPITALFIELDS 

tellectual  love'  of  God.  Man  is  moved  by  his 
instinct  to  develop  and  perfect  himself,  and  to 
seek  this  development  in  the  knowledge  and 
love  of  God.  And  the  love  of  God  involves 
the  love  of  our  fellow  creatures.  It  is  by 
goodness  and  piety  that  man  reaches  perfect 
happiness :  virtue  is  its  own  reward. 

Spinoza  founds  his  political  doctrine  on 
man's  natural  rights.  Man,  in  order  to  ob- 
tain security,  has  surrendered  part  of  his 
rights  to  the  State.  But  the  State  exists  to  give 
liberty,  not  to  hold  in  slavery.  The  sovereign 
in  his  own  interest  must  rule  with  justice  and 
wisdom,  nor  must  the  State  interfere  with 
freedom  of  thought.  Spinoza's  'Tractatus 
Theologico-politicus*  was  published  in  1670; 
his  unfinished  'Tractatus  Politicus'  in  1677. 

Spirit  of  Patriotism  f  A  Letter  on  the,  a 
political  treatise  by  Vise.  Bolingbroke  (q.v.), 
written  in  1736  and  addressed  to  Lord  Lyttel- 
ton.  It  was  published  in  1749. 

Written  in  retirement  at  Chanteloup,  it 
represents  Bolingbroke's  final  attitude  in 
political  affairs.  The  author  attributes  the 
misfortunes  of  the  country  to  the  servility  of 
the  opposition,  which  has  made  possible  the 
spread  of  corruption  and  the  tyranny  of  the 
Whig  ministry.  The  opposition  should  ad- 
dress itself  to  the  reform  of  the  State,  not 
merely  to  the  reform  of  the  administration, 
so  as  to  secure  that  government  shall  not 
become  absolute. 

Spiritual  Exercises,  see  Loyola. 

Spiritual  Quixote,  The,  or  the  Summer's 
Ramble  of  Mr.  Geoff ry  Wildgoose,  a  novel  by 
R.  Graves  (q.v.),  published  in  1772. 

GeorTry  Wildgoose,  a  young  man  of  good 
position  in  the  Cotswold  country,  having  im- 
bibed the  doctrines  of  the  Methodists,  sets 
forth,  accompanied  by  his  Sancho  Panza, 
Jerry  Tugwell,  the  village  cobbler,  to  preach 
those  doctrines  about  the  Midlands.  Their 
undertaking  involves  them  in  ludicrous  in- 
cidents and  gives  occasion  for  episodic  tales, 
and  for  much  satire  of  Whitefield,  and  in  a 
milder  degree  of  the  Methodists  in  general. 
The  book  throws  light  on  the  life  of  the  roads 
and  inns  in  the  i8th  cent.  And  there  is  a 
pleasant  sketch  of  Shenstone  (q.v.)  and  the 
Leasowes. 

Spital  sermon  or  SPITTLE  SERMON,  one  of 
the  sermons  formerly  preached  on  Easter 
Monday  and  Tuesday  from  a  special  pulpit  at 
St.  Mary  Spital  outside  Bishopsgate  (after- 
wards at  other  churches). 

Spitalfields,  London,  a  district  that  takes 
its  name  from  having  been  the  property 
of  the  Priory  and  Hospital  of  St.  Mary, 
founded  by  Walter  Brune  and  Rosia  his  wife 
for  Canons  regular  in  1197.  This  hospital, 
when  surrendered  to  Henry  VIII,  contained 
1 80  beds,  well  furnished;  'for  it  was  an 
Hospitall  of  great  relief  (Stow).  JTrench 
Protestant  silk-weavers  settled  in  this  district 
after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
and  really  founded  our  silk  industry,  which 


[740] 


SPLEEN 

has  now  lost  much  of  its  importance.  Among 
the  ironies  of  religious  history  is  that  the 
white  silk  cassock  of  the  popes  continued 
to  be  woven  by  these  Protestants  till  the 
last  quarter  of  the  igth  cent. 

Spleen,  The,  see  Green  (Matthew). 
Splendid  Shitting,  The,  a  burlesque  poem  by 
J.  Philips  (q.v.),  published  in  1705. 

The  poet  sings  in  Miltonic  verse,  with 
much  show  of  classical  learning,  the  contrast 
between  the  happy  possessor  of  the  splendid 
shilling,  who 

nor  hears  with  pain 

New  oysters  cry'd,  nor  sighs  for  chearful 
ale, 

and  the  penurious  poet  in  his  garret,  hungry 
and  ^  thirsty,  smoking  'Mundungus,  ill-per- 
fuming scent',  inditing  mournful  verse  of 

desperate  lady  near  a  purling  stream 
Or  lover  pendent  on  a  willow  tree, 
and  threatened  by  creditors  and  catchpoles. 
Spofforth,  FREDERICK  ROBERT  (1853-1926), 
the  famous  Australian  cricketer,  known  as 
'The  Demon  Bowler'.   He  came  to  England 
on  a  number  of  tours,  achieving  his  greatest 
feats  in  1882  and  1884.  In  1882  England  re- 
quired 84  runs  in  the  last  innings  to  win,  and 
lost  by  7,  Spofforth  talcing  14  wickets  for 
90  runs  in  the  match.   His  success  was  due 
to  disguised  change  of  pace  and  an  occasional 
very  fast  ball. 

Spondee,  a  metrical  foot  composed  of  two 
long  syllables. 

Sponge,  MR.,  the  hero  of  'Mr.  Sponge's 
Sporting  Tour'  by  R.  S.  Surtees  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1853,  with  pictures  by  Leech,  one  of 
the  best  of  the  author's  hunting  novels. 

Spoonerism,  see  Metathesis. 

Sports,  THE  BOOK  or  DECLARATION  OF,  an 
order  issued  by  James  I  in  1617  denning  for 
the  use  of  Lancashire  the  recreations  that  were 
permissible  on  Sunday.  These  included 
archery  and  dancing,  but  not  bear  and  bull- 
baiting,  nor  bowls.  An  attempt  to  extend  the 
order  to  the  whole  kingdom  in  1618  proved 
ineffectual.  Charles  I  directed,  in  1633,  that 
it  should  be  read  in  all  pulpits,  and  this  was 
a  gratuitous  insult  to  the  Puritans.  Many 
clergy,  whose  austerity  was  opposed  to  any 
games  on  Sunday,  were  deprived  in  conse- 
quence. 

Sporus,  the  name  under  which  Pope  (q.v.) 
satirizes  Lord  Hervey  (q.v.)  in  his  'Epistle  to 
Dr.  Arbuthnot*  (11.  305  et  seq.).  The  original 
Sporus  was  an  effeminate  favourite  of  the 
Emperor  Nero. 
Sprat,  JACK,  see  Jack  Sprat. 

SPRAT,  THOMAS  (1635-1713),  educated 
at  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  was  bishop  of 
Rochester  and  dean  of  Westminster.  He  sat 
on  James  IPs  objectionable  Ecclesiastical 
Commission  in  1686  and  allowed  the 
Declaration  of  Indulgence  to  be  read  (amid 


SQUIRE  OF  DAMES 
deep  murmurs  of  disapproval)  in  the  abbey — 
in  short,  he  was  inclined  to  be  a  'Vicar  of 
Bray".  He  is  remembered  for  his  history  of 
the  Royal  Society  (q.v.),  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  first  fellows.  He  wrote  well,  and  is 
thought  to  have  had  a  share  in  Buckingham's 
'Rehearsal'  (q.v.). 

Spring  Gardens,  at  the  NE.  corner  of  St. 
James's  Park,  adjoining  what  is  now  Trafalgar 
Square,  was  a  fashionable  place  of  amusement 
in  the  days  of  the  Stuarts.  Spring  Gardens 
were  gradually  replaced  by  the  New  Spring 
Gardens  at  Vauxhall  (q.v.)  in  the  middle  of  the 
1 7th  cent.,  though  Pepys  still  refers  to  them 
as  a  popular  promenade. 

SPURGEON,  CHARLES  HADDON 
(1834-92),  a  Baptist  preacher  so  popular  that 
Exeter  Hall  could  not  contain  all  his  would- 
be  hearers.  The  Metropolitan  Tabernacle  in 
Newington,  London,  having  been  opened  in 
1861,  to  hold  6,000  people,  he  ministered 
there  until  his  death.  He  was  a  convinced 
Calvinist,  and  his  resentment  at  the  trend  of 
modern  biblical  criticism  led  to  his  leaving 
the  Baptist  Union  in  1887.  His  sermons,  of 
which  a  large  number  were  published,  are 
marked  by  a  strong  vein  of  homely  humour. 

Spurs,  BATTLE  OF  THE,  see  Battle  of  the 
Spurs. 

Spy,  They  a  novel  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion by  J.  F.  Cooper  (q.v.),  published  in 
1821.  The  action  of  the  tale  revolves  around 
the  mysterious  pedlar,  Harvey  Birch,  who 
serves  Washington  as  a  spy,  and  shows  ex- 
traordinary ubiquity,  elusiveness,  and  fore- 
knowledge of  military  operations.  Washing- 
ton himself  figures  in  the  novel  under  the 
name  of  Mr.  Harper. 

Square,  in  Fielding's  'Tom  Jones*  (q.v.),  an 
inmate  of  Mr.  Allworthy's  household,  deeply 
read  in  the  ancients,  who  in  morals  was  a 
professed  Platonist  and  in  religion  inclined  to 
be  an  Aristotelian ;  but  in  fact  a  hypocrite. 

Squeers,  WACKFORD,  in  Dickens's  'Nicholas 
Nickleby'  (q.v.),  the  head  master  of  Dothe- 
bpys  Hall.  He  has  a  heartless  wife,  who  joins 
him  in  bullying  his  miserable  pupils,  a  spite- 
ful daughter  in  Miss  FANNY  SQUEERS,  and  a 
spoilt  son  in  MASTER  WACKFORD  SQUEERS. 

Squintum,  DR.,  the  character  under  which 
Foote  (q.v.)  ridiculed  George  Whitefield  in 
'The  Minor'. 

Squire  Meldrum,  The  History  of,  see  Lindsay 
(Sir  D.). 

Squire  of  Alsatia,  The,  a  play  by  Shadwell 
(q.v.). 

Squire  of  Dames,  a  humorous  character  in 
Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  in.  vii.  He  had 
been  ordered  by  his  lady  to  'do  service  unto 
gentle  dames*  and  at  the  end  of  twelve  months 
to  report  progress.  At  the  end  of  the  year 
he  was  able  to  bring  pledges  of  three  hundred 
conquests.  Thereupon  his  lady  ordered  him 


SQUIRE  OF  LOW  DEGREE 

not  to  return  to  her  till  he  had  found  an  equal 
number  of  dames  who  rejected  his  advances. 
After  three  years  he  had  only  found  three,  a 
courtesan  because  he  would  not  pay  her 
enough,  a  nun  because  she  could  not  trusty  his 
discretion,  and  a  Damzell  of  low  degree  in  a 
country  cottage  found  by  chance*. 
Squire  of  Low  Degree,  a  metrical  romance  of 
the  early  Hth  cent.,  opening  with  the  distich 
It  was  a  squire  of  low  degree 
That  loved  theKing's  daughter  of  Hungary. 
The  squire  tells  his  love  to  the  princess,  who 
consents  to  wed  him  when  he  becomes  a  dis- 
tinguished knight.  But  the  meeting  is  seen 
by  an  interfering  steward,  who  reports  to  the 
king  and  gets  killed  by  the  squire  for  his 
pains.  The  squire  is  imprisoned  by  the  king 
and  is  mourned  as  dead  by  the  princess  for 
seven  years,  in  spite  of  the  king's  offer  of  a 
variety  of  delights.  The  king  is  at  length 
forced  to  relent,  the  squire  is  released,  goes 
forth  on  a  knightly  quest,  and  finally  marries 
the  princess. 

Squire  of  Low  Degree,  THE,  in  Spenser's 
'Faerie  Queene',  is  Amyas.   See  Poeana. 
Squire's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 
Sri,  see  Lakshmi. 

Stabat  Mater  t  a  sequence  composed  by 
Jacobus  de  Benedictis  (Jacopone  da  Todi)  in 
the  1 3th  cent.,  in  commemoration  of  the 
sorrows  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  so 
called  from  its  opening  words,  Stabat 
mater  dolor o$a,  'Stood  the  mother,  full  of 
grief.  There  are  various  musical  settings  of 
the  sequence. 

STAEL,  ANNE  LOUISE  GERMAINE 
DE  (1766-1817),  the  daughter  of  Jacques 
Necker,  the  French  minister  of  finance 
famous  in  the  days  of  the  Revolution,  and  of 
Suzanne  Curchod,  the  'first  and  only  love'  of 
Gibbon.  She  married  the  Baron  de  Stael, 
Swedish  ambassador  in  Paris.  A  woman  of 
remarkable  intellectual  gifts  and  openness  of 
mind,  she  received  in  her  Paris  salon,  on  the 
eve  of  the  Revolution,  the  most  progressive 
elements  in  French  society.  Her  most  im- 
portant writings  were,  in  the  political  sphere, 
her  'Considerations  sur  la  Revolution  fran- 
9aise'  (1818),  and  in  the  sphere  of  literary 
criticism,  'De  la  Literature  dans  ses  rap- 
ports avec  les  Institutions  Sociales'  (1800),  in 
which  she  developed  the  theory  of  the  pro- 
gress of  the  human  reason  in  conformity  with 
the  progress  of  the  national  organism.  She 
rendered  her  greatest  service  to  literature  in 
*De  1'Allemagne'  (1810-13),  in  which  she 
introduced  to  the  French  the  great  literary 
and  philosophic  movement  that  had  been 
proceeding  in  Germany  during  the  previous 
half-century.  The  work  proved  distasteful  to 
Napoleon.  The  first  impression  (1810)  was 
destroyed,  and  the  work  was  ultimately 
published  in  England  (1813),  and  the  author 
was  exiled.  Mme  de  Stael  also  wrote  two 
novels,  'Delphine'  (1802)  and  'Corinne' 


STANHOPE 

(1807),  which  reflect  her  passionate  relation 
with  Benjamin  Constant  (q.v.). 
Stafford  blue,  *to  clothe  in  Stafford  blue*  is 
to  beat  black  and  blue,  with  a  play  on  'staff'. 
Stagirite  or  STAGYMTE,  THE,  Aristotle,  born 
at  Stageira  in  Macedon. 
Stagirius,   a  young   monk   to  whom   St. 
Chrysostom    addressed    three    books.     M. 
Arnold  (q.v.),  in  the  poem  'Stagirius',  places 
in  his  mouth  a  litany. 

Stalky  &  Co.,  tales  of  schoolboy  life,  by 
Kipling  (q.v.),  published  in  1899. 
Stamtooul,  the  Turkish  name  for  Constanti- 
nople, derived  from  the  Greek,  els  ryv  TroAiv, 
*at  the  city'. 

Standard,  BATTLE  OF  THE,  the  battle  of 
Luton  Moor,  near  Northallerton,  in  1138 
between  the  English  and  the  Scottish  armies. 
Richard  of  Hexham,  a  contemporary  writer, 
describes  the  'standard'  there  used  as  the 
mast  of  a  ship,  with  banners  at  the  top  (of  the 
three  great  churches  of  St.  Peter  of  York,  St. 
John  of  Beverley,  and  St.  Wilfrid  of  Ripon), 
mounted  in  the  middle  of  a  machine  which 
was  brought  into  the  field.  This  sort  of 
standard  was  also  used  (and  called  the 
carroccid)  in  the  wars  of  the  Emperor  Fred- 
erick Barbarossa  with  the  Lombard  League. 

Standard  in  Cheap,  Standard  in  Corn- 
hill,  THE,  a  lofty  erection  of  timber  or  stone, 
containing  a  vertical  conduit  pipe  with  taps, 
for  the  supply  of  water  to  the  public, 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  i6th-i7th  cents. 
The  'Standard  in  CornhilT  continued  as  the 
name  of  a  point  from  which  distances  were 
measured,  long  after  the  'standard*  had 
disappeared. 
Standish,  MILES,  see  Miles  Standish. 

Stanhope,  LADY  HESTER  Lucr  (1776-1839), 
was  the  niece  of  William  Pitt  and  kept  house 
for  him  from  1803  till  his  death  in  1806, 
gaining  a  reputation  as  a  brilliant  political 
hostess.  In  1810  she  withdrew  from  Europe 
for  good,  and  in  1814  established  herself  for 
the  rest  of  her  life  in  a  ruined  convent  at 
Djoun  in  the  Lebanon.  Here  she  lived  with 
a  semi-oriental  retinue  which  she  ruled 
despotically;  for  several  years  her  high  rank 
and  imperious  character  made  her  a  real 
political  power  in  Syria  and  the  neighbouring 
desert.  In  later  years  her  debts  accumulated, 
her  eccentricity  increased,  and  she  sought  to 
replace  her  waning  political  prestige  by  an 
undefined  spiritual  authority  based  on  claims 
to  be  an  inspired  prophetess  and  mistress  of 
occult  sciences.  She  became  a  legendary 
figure  in  her  lifetime  and  was  visited  by  many 
distinguished  European  travellers.  Cele- 
brated accounts  of  their  visits  to  her  were 
written  by  Lamartine  in  'Voyages  en  Orient' 
and  Kinglake  in  'Eothen'. 

STANHOPE,  PHILIP  HENRY,  fifth  earl 
(1805-75),  nephew  of  Pitt's  niece,  Lady 
Hester  Stanhope  (q.v.),  educated  at  Christ 


[742] 


STANHOPE  PRESS 

Church,  Oxford,  rendered  important  services 
by  procuring  the  passage  of  the  Copyright  Act 
of  1842,  and  the  foundation  of  the  National 
Portrait  Gallery  (1856),  and  of  the  Historical 
MSS.  Commission  (1869).  He  was  author  of 
the  following  historical  works ;  'The  History 
of  the  War  of  the  Succession  in  Spain3  (1832), 
*The  History  of  England  from  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht  to  the  Peace  of  Versailles5  (1836-63), 
'The  Life  of  William  Pitt'  (1861-2),  'The 
History  of  England  comprising  the  reign  of 
Anne  until  the  Peace  of  Utrecht'  (1870);  also 
of  two  series  of  'Miscellanies'  (1863-72),  and 
other  essays. 

Stanhope  Press,  an  iron  printing-press  in- 
vented by  Charles,  third  earl  Stanhope  (1753- 
1816),  the  husband  of  Lady  Hester,  sister 
of  the  younger  William  Pitt.  He  also  devised 
a  stereotyping  process,  and  a  microscopic 
lens  which  bears  his  name. 

STANLEY,  ARTHUR  PENRHYN  (1815- 
81),  son  of  Edward  Stanley  (who  became 
bishop  of  Norwich),  was  educated  at  Rugby 
under  Arnold  (by  whom  he  was  much  in- 
fluenced) and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and 
became  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at 
Oxford  in  1856,  and  dean  of  Westminster, 
1864-81.  He  applied  himself  to  the  history 
of  the  Eastern  Church  and  the  geography  of 
Palestine,  publishing  his  'Sinai  and  Palestine* 
in  1856,  'Lectures  on  the  History  of  the 
Eastern  Church*  in  1861,  and  'Lectures  on 
the  History  of  the  Jewish  Church*  in  1863, 
1865,  and  1876.  His  'Life  of  Dr.  Arnold*  ap- 
peared in  1844,  'Memorials  of  Canterbury*  in 
1854,  'Memorials  of  Westminster  Abbey*  in 
1868,  'Lectures  on  the  Church  of  Scotland* 
in  1872,  and  'Essays,  chiefly  on  Questions  of 
Church  and  State*  in  1870.  He  was  a  leader 
of  the  Broad  Church  Movement  and  a 
courageous  champion  of  religious  toleration. 
His  wife,  Lady  Augusta  (a  Bruce  of  the 
Elgin  family),  was  a  great  friend  of  Queen 
Victoria. 

STANLEY,  Sm  HENRY  MORTON 
(1841-1904),  was  sent  in  1869  by  Gordon 
Bennett,  proprietor  of  'The  New  York 
Herald*,  to  find  David  Livingstone  (q.v.), 
who  was  believed  to  be  lost  in  Central  Africa. 
Stanley  found  him  at  Ujiji,  and  published  his 
adventures  in  'How  I  found  Livingstone' 
(1872).  'Through  the  Dark  Continent*  (1878) 
relates  his  experiences  while  crossing  equa- 
torial Africa  in  1874-7,  when  he  opened  up 
for  the  first  time  the  heart  of  the  continent. 
In  1890  he  married  Dorothy  Tennant,  who 
edited  his  'Autobiography'  (1909)- 
Stanley,  SIR  HUBERT,  Approbation  front,  is 
praise  indeed:  from  'A  Cure  for  the  Heart- 
ache', v.  ii,  by  T.  Morton  (q.v.). 

STANLEY,  THOMAS  (1625-78),  a  descen- 
dant of  Edward  Stanley,  third  earl  of  Derby, 
educated  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  was 
author  of  a  'History  of  Philosophy*  (1655-62), 
of  an  edition  of  Aeschylus  (1663),  and  of 
translations  from  Theocritus,  Bion,  Moschus, 


STAR-SPANGLED  BANNER 

Marino,  Gongora,  and  others,  besides 
original  poems. 

Staple  Inn,  Holborn,  one  of  the  old  Inns 
(q.v.^)  of  Chancery.  It  was  originally  called 
the  'Stapled  hall',  and  this  may  have  meant 
no  more  than  a  wholesale  warehouse  (Kings- 
ford's  notes  on  Stow),  or  it  was  perhaps 
originally  the  property  of  a  guild  in  some 
way  connected  with  the  wool  trade  (G  R 
Stirling  Taylor). 

Staple  of  News,  The,  a  comedy  by  Jonson 
(q.v.),  first  acted  in  1625,  in  which  on  the  one 
hand  he  satirizes  the  credulity  of  the  age,  and 
on  the  other  illustrates  the  use  and  abuse  of 
riches.  The  'Staple  of  News*  is  a  new  office 
set  up  for  the  collection,  sorting,  and  dis- 
semination of  news  and  gossip,  'authentical 
and  apocryphal*.  The  scanty  plot  is  con- 
cerned with  the  relations  of  the  Lady  Pecu- 
nia,  an  allegorical  personage,  representing 
riches,  with  Pennyboy,  a  young  spendthrift; 
her  uncle  the  usurer;  and  the  master  of  the 
Staple. 

Star- chamber,  THE,  an  apartment  in  the 
royal  palace  of  Westminster  in  which  during 
the  1 4th  and  I5th  cents,  the  chancellor, 
treasurer,  justices,  and  other  members  of  the 
king's  council  sat  to  exercise  jurisdiction,  so 
called  according  to  Stow  'because  the  roof 
thereof  is  decked  with  the  likeness  of  Stars 
gilt'. 

The  COURT  OF  STAJI-CHAMBER  was  de- 
veloped from  the  above  judicial  sittings  in  the 
1 5th  cent.,  whose  procedure  in  the  reigns  of 
James  I  and  Charles  I  made  it  a  proverbial 
type  of  an  arbitrary  and  oppressive  tribunal. 
It  was  abolished  in  1641.  In  its  original 
(Tudor)  capacity,  it  was  essentially  the  'poor 
man's  court*,  to  do  justice  against  great  lords. 
See  on  the  history  of  the  court  J.  F.  Baldwin, 
<The  King's  Council  in  the  Middle  Ages* 
(1913). 

Stareleigh,  MR.  JUSTICE,  in  Dickens's  'Pick- 
wick Papers*  (q.v.),  the  judge  in  the  case  of 
Bardell  v.  Pickwick. 

Stars  and  Stripes,  THE,  the  popular  name 
of  the  flag  of  the  United  States.  In  the  early 
stages  of  the  American  Revolution  each  state 
had  its  own  flag.  The  'Stars  and  Stripes*  was 
introduced  after  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence. When  adopted  by  Congress  (1777),  it 
contained  13  stripes  (alternately  red  and 
white)  and  13  stars,  representing  the  13 
States  of  the  Union.  But  it  was  not  at  first 
stated  whether  there  should  be  seven  red  and 
six  white  stripes  or  vice  versa.  Finally  seven 
red  and  six  white  stripes  were  decided  on. 
The  flag  now  contains  13  stripes  and  46 
stars. 

Star-spangled  Banner,  The,  an  American 
patriotic  song,  is  said  to  have  its  origin  partly 
in  the  air  of  'To  Anacreon  in  Heaven*,  a  con- 
vivial song  of  the  Anacreontic  Society  of 
London,  published  in  1771.  To  this  tune 
Francis  Scott  Key,  an  American,  set  the 
words  of  a  patriotic  hymn  on  the  occasion  of 


[743] 


STARVELING 

the  British  attack  on  Fort  McHenry  in  1814. 
The  words  and  air,  which  at  first  had  no 
great  popularity,  became  an  American 
national  song  at  the  time  of  the  Civil  War, 
and  have  recently  been  made  officially  the 
national  anthem  of  the  United  States 
[C.H.A.L.,  vol.  iv]. 

Starveling,  in  Shakespeare's  'A  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream*  (q.v.),  a  tailor,  who 
is  cast  for  the  part  of  'Thisby's  mother'  in 
the  play  of  Tyramus  and  Thisbe'.  He  has 
nothing  to  do  or  say. 

Statesman,  The,  by  Sir  Henry  Taylor 
(q.v.,  1836),  an  ironical  exposition  of  the 
arts  of  succeeding  as  a  civil  servant. 

Stationers'  Company,  THE,  was  incor- 
porated by  royal  charter  in  1557.  No  one, 
not  a  member  of  the  Company,  might  print 
anything  for  sale  in  the  kingdom  unless 
authorized  by  special  privilege  or  patent. 
Moreover,  by  the  rules  of  the  Company, 
every  member  was  required  to  enter  in  the 
register  of  the  Company  the  name  of  any 
book  that  he  desired  to  print,  so  that  these 
registers  furnish  valuable  information  regard- 
ing printed  matter  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  1 6th  cent.  The  Company's  control  of  the 
printing  trade  waned  during  the  I7th  cent., 
to  be  revived,  in  a  modified  form,  under  the 
Copyright  Act  of  1709. 

Statira,  see  Roxana. 

STATIUS,  PUBLIUS  PAPINIUS  (A.D. 
6i-c.  96),  a  Roman  poet  born  at  Neapolis, 
author  of  a  'Thebaid'  in  twelve  books  (on  the 
expedition  of  the  'Seven  against  Thebes')  and 
of  a  collection  of  poems  called  'Silvae*. 
Dante  ('Purgatorio',  xxii.  89)  refers  to  his 
alleged  conversion  to  Christianity.  Pope 
translated  the  first  book  of  the  'Thebaid'. 

Statue  and  the  Bust,  The,  a  poem  by  R. 
Browning  (q.v.),  published  in  1855. 

In  the  Piazza,  dell*  Annunziata  in  Florence 
stands  an  equestrian  statue  of  Ferdinando  dei 
Medici,  looking  in  the  direction  of  the  Palazzo 
Riccardi.  According  to  tradition,  he  loved  a 
lady  whose  husband  from  jealousy  kept  her  a 
prisoner  in  that  palace,  and  whom  he  could 
see  only  at  her  window.  The  duke  placed  his 
statue  where  its  eyes  could  always  rest  upon 
her. 

Browning  makes  the  love  mutual.  The 
lovers  decide  to  fly  together,  but  circum- 
stances cause  them  to  postpone  their  flight. 
Every  day  as  the  duke  passes  on  his  horse 
they  exchange  glances,  and  every  day  their 
love  grows  cooler,  till  they  realize  that  it  was 
a  dream.  He  places  his  statue  and  she  her 
bust  where  they  can  look  on  each  other — an 
ironical  conclusion  designed  as  a  criticism  of 
infirmity  of  purpose. 

Staunton,  SIR  GEORGE,  alias  GEORGE 
ROBERTSON,  in  Scott's  'The  Heart  of  Mid- 
lothian' (q.v.),  the  lover,  and  subsequently 
husband,  of  Effie  Deans. 


STEELE 

STEAD,  WILLIAM  THOMAS  (1849- 
1912),  was  assistant  editor  (John  Morley 
being  editor)  of  the  Tall  Mall  Gazette', 
1880-3,  and  editor,  1883-8,  in  which 
capacity  he  initiated  many  social  and  political 
movements.  He  founded  the  'Review  of 
Reviews'  in  1890,  and  from  1893  to  1897 
edited  'Borderland',  a  periodical  devoted  to 
psychical  matters.  Stead  was  drowned  in  the 
disaster  of  the  *  Titanic'. 

STEEL,  FLORA  ANNIE  (1847-1929),  an 
inspectress  of  schools  in  India,  published  in 
1896  a  successful  study  of  the  Indian  Mutiny, 
*On  the  Face  of  the  Waters'.  She  wrote  a 
number  of  other  novels,  most  of  them  about 
India. 

STEELE,  SIR  RICHARD  (1672-1729), 
was  born  at  Dublin,  in  the  same  year  as 
Addison,  and  was  educated  with  him  at  the 
Charterhouse.  He  was  subsequently  at  Mer- 
ton  College,  Oxford,  whence  he  entered  the 
army  as  a  cadet  in  the  Life  Guards.  As  a 
result  of  a  poem  on  Queen  Mary's  funeral 
dedicated  to  Lord  Cutts,  colonel  of  the  Cold- 
stream  Guards,  he  became  his  secretary  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  captain.  He  published 
'The  Christian  Hero*  (q.v.)  in  1701,  in  which 
he  first  displayed  his  missionary  and  reform- 
ing spirit.  In  the  same  year  he  produced  his 
first  comedy,  'The  Funeral*  (q.v.),  in  which, 
breaking  away  from  the  conventions  of  the 
Restoration  drama,  he  tried  to  present  virtue 
and  vice  in  their  true  aspects.  Neither  this 
nor  his  two  next  comedies,  'The  Lying  Lover* 
(1703)  and  'The  Tender  Husband'  (1705), 
proved  very  successful.  In  1706  he  was  ap- 
pointed gentleman  waiter  to  Prince  George  of 
Denmark,  and  in  1707  gazetteer;  and  in  the 
same  year  was  married  to  Mary  Scurlock 
('dear  Prue'),  his  second  wife.  In  1709  he 
started  the  "Tatler1  (q.v.),  which  he  carried 
on  with  the  help  of  Addison  (q.v.)  till 
January  171 1.  He  was  made  a  commissioner 
of  stamps  in  1710,  but  lost  the  gazetteership 
after  the  accession  of  the  Tories.  In  con- 
junction with  Addison  he  carried  on  the 
'Spectator'  (q.v.)  during  1711-12.  This  was 
followed  by  the  'Guardian',  to  which  Addi- 
son, Berkeley,  and  Pope  contributed,  and 
which  was  attacked  by  the  Tory  'Examiner' 
(q.v,).  Steele  next  conducted  "The  English- 
man' (1713-14),  a  more  political  paper.  In 
1713  he  was  elected  M.P.  for  Stockbridge. 
In  1714  he  published  'The  Crisis',  a  pam- 
phlet in  favour  of  the  Hanoverian  succession, 
which  was  answered  by  Swift  (q.v.),  and  led 
to  Steele 's  expulsion  from  the  House  on 
1 8  Mar.  1714.  In  October  of  that  year  he 
issued  his  'Apology  for  Himself  and  his 
Writings',  and  during  the  same  year  con- 
ducted the  'Lover',  a  paper  in  the  manner 
of  the  'Spectator*.  The  tide  turned  in  his 
favour  with  the  accession  of  George  I.  He 
was  appointed  supervisor  of  Drury  Lane 
Theatre,  and  to  other  posts,  and  was  knighted 
in  171$.  In  1718  he  denounced  in  the  'Ple- 
beian' Lord  Sunderland's  Peerage  Bill,  and 


[744] 


STEELE  GLAS 

was  answered  by  Addison  in  the  'Old  Whig*. 
This  incident  led  to  the  revocation  of  Steele's 
Drury  Lane  patent,  and  to  an  estrangement 
from  Addison,  He  established  the  "Theatre*, 
a  bi-weekly  paper,  which  continued  until 
1720,  in  which  year  he  issued  pamphlets 
against  the  South  Sea  mania.  His  last  comedy, 
'The  Conscious  Lovers'  (q.v.),  based  on  the 
'Andria*  of  Terence  and  embodying  some  of 
his  views  on  social  questions,  was  produced 
in  1722.  Money  difficulties  forced  him  to 
leave  London  in  1724,  and  he  died  at  Car- 
marthen. His  letters  to  his  wife,  Mary  Scur- 
lock  were  printed  in  1787. 

Steele  Glas,  The,  a  satire  in  verse  by  Gas- 
coigne  (q.v.),  published  in  1576. 

The  poet's  'steele  glas'  reveals  abuses  and 
how^  things  should  be,  whereas  the  common 
looking-glass  only  'shewes  a  seemely  shew', 
i.e.  shows  the  thing  much  better  than  it  is. 
Looking  into  his  'steele  glas'  the  author  sees 
himself  with  his  faults,  and  then  successively 
the  faults  of  kings ;  covetous  lords  and  knights ; 
greedy,  braggart,  and  drunken  soldiers;  false 
judges ;  merchants ;  and  lastly  priests.  Finally 
the  plowman  is  held  up  as  a  model : 

Behold  him  (priests)  and  though  he  stink 
of  sweat, 

Disdaine  him  not,  for  shall  I  tel  you  what, 

Such  clime  to  heaven  before  the  shaven 
crowns. 

Steelyard,  THE,  the  place  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Thames  above  London  Bridge  where 
the  merchants  of  the  Hanse  (q.v.)  had  their 
establishment.  The  name  is  a  mistranslation 
of  the  MHG.  stdlhof,  from  stdl,  sample,  and 
hof,  courtyard.  [OED.] 

Steenie,  James  I's  nickname  for  his  favourite, 
George  Villiers,  ist  duke  of  Buckingham,  in 
allusion  to  the  words  regarding  St.  Stephen  in 
Acts  vi.  15. 

Steenkirk  cravats,  fashionable  after  the 
battle  of  Steenkirk  (1692),  where  the  Allies 
under  William  III  were  defeated  by  the 
French.  They  were  arranged  to  imitate  the 
hasty  carelessness  with  which  the  French 
officers  had  dressed  themselves  to  rush  into 
battle. 

Steenson,  WILLIE,  'Wandering  Willie',  the 
blind  fiddler  in  Scott's  'Redgauntlet'  (q.v.). 

Steerforth,  JAMES,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'David  Copperfield*  (q.v.). 

STEEVENS,  GEORGE  (1736-1800),  a 
well-known  Shakespeare  commentator.  In 
1766  he  issued,  in  four  volumes,  'Twenty  of 
the  Plays  of  Shakespeare,  being  the  whole 
number  printed  in  quarto  during  his  life- 
time, or  before  the  Restoration',  and  in  1773 
a  complete  annotated  edition  (including 
notes  by  Dr.  Johnson)  in  ten  volumes,  to 
which  a  supplementary  volume  of  the  Poems, 
together  with  seven  plays  ascribed  to  Shake- 
speare, was  added  in  1780.  He  assisted  Dr. 
Johnson  in  his  'Lives  of  the  Poets',  and  was 
a  member  of  *The  Club'.  He  constantly 


STEPHEN  OF  BLOIS 

quarrelled  with  his  literary  associates  and 
was  called  by  GifFord  'the  Puck  of  com- 
mentators'. He  assisted  Tyrwhitt  (q.v.)  in 
his  edition  of  the  Rowley  poems,  but  de- 
clared his  disbelief  in  them.  He  attacked 
W.  H.  Ireland  (q.v.),  and  satirized  literary 
crazes.  _  He  forged  a  letter  of  George  Peele 
describing  a  meeting  with  Shakespeare.  See 
also  Upas. 

Stella,  the  name  under  which  Sir  P.  Sidney 
(q.v.)  celebrated  Penelope  Devereux  in  his 
sonnets.  She  was  daughter  of  the  first  earl  of 
Essex,  and  when  a  girl  was  destined  by  her 
father  to  be  Sidney's  wife.  The  project  was 
abandoned  and  she  married  Robert,  the 
second  Lord  Rich,  and  after  being  divorced 
by  him,  Charles  Blount,  Lord  Mountjoy, 
afterwards  earl  of  Devonshire. 

Stella,  Swift's  name  for  Esther  Johnson,  see 
Swift,  and  in  particular  the  account  there  of 
the  'Journal  to  Stella'. 

Stella,  in  Waller's  (q.v.)  poems,  is  Lady 
Dorothy  Sidney,  daughter  of  Robert  Dudley, 
earl  of  Leicester. 

STENDHAL,  pseudonym  of  HENRI  BEYLE 
(1783-1842),  one  of  the  greatest  of  French 
novelists.  As  a  young  man  Beyle  served 
in  Napoleon's  armies,  and  was  present  at 
the  burning  of  Moscow.  After  the  Restora- 
tion he  lived  much  of  his  life  in  Italy,  though 
he  returned  later  to  France  and  died  in 
Paris.  His  two  great  novels  are  'Le  Rouge 
et  le  Noir*  (1831)  and  'La  Chartreuse  de 
Parme*  (1839),  and  on  the  strength  of  these 
he  has  been  accorded  by  modern  critics  a 
place  in  French  fiction  equal  in  importance 
to  that  of  Balzac.  His  definite  gift  to  fiction, 
as  seen  in  these  works,  is  the  objective,  dis- 
passionate analysis  of  complicated  states  of 
conscience.  He  also  wrote  much  occasional 
journalism,  some  short  stories,  sketches  of 
travel,  and  one  critical  pamphlet  which 
survives  with  his  fiction,  'Racine  et  Shake- 
speare'. Some  volumes  of  autobiography 
were  published  at  various  times  after  his 
death,  'La  Vie  d 'Henri  Brulard'  (1890); 
'Souvenirs  d'figotisme'  (1892);  'Lucien 
Leuwen'  (1894),  'Journal  d'ltalie'  (1911),  as 
well  as  collections  of  his  letters. 

Stentor,  the  name  of  a  Greek  warrior  in  the 
Trojan  War  ('Iliad',  v.  785)  'whose  voice  was 
as  powerful  as  fifty  voices  of  other  men*. 

Stepan  Arcadievitch,  in  Tolstoy's  'Anna 
Karenina',  the  husband  of  Anna. 
Stephano,   a    drunken    butler   in    Shake- 
speare's 'The  Tempest'  (q.v.). 

Stephanus,  see  Estienne. 

STEPHEN,  JAMES  KENNETH  (1859- 
1892),  known  as  'J.K.S.*,  educated  at  Eton 
and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  was  the 
author  of  some  brilliant  light  verse,  collected 
in  'Lapsus  Calami'  and  'Quo  Musa  Tendis* 
(1891)  and  republished  in  1896. 
Stephen  of  Blois ,  king  of  England,  1 13$~54- 


[745] 


STEPHEN 

Stephen,  ST.,  the  first  Christian  martyr,  one 
of  the  *  seven  men  of  honest  report*  chosen  as 
a  deacon  at  Jerusalem,  accused  of  blasphemy, 
and  stoned  to  death  (Acts  vi  and  vii). 

Stephen,  ST.,  Stephen  I,  king  and  patron 
saint  of  Hungary,  previously  the  heathen 
king  Waik,  who  took  the  name  of  Stephen  at 
his  baptism,  A.p.  ipoo.  He  died  in  1038, 
having  during  his  reign  promoted  the  spread 
of  Christianity.  The  CROWN  OF  ST.  STEPHEN 
is  the  crown  of  Hungary. 

STEPHEN,  Sm  JAMES  (1789-1859),  the 
father  of  Sir  J.  F.  Stephen  (q.v.)  and  Sir  L. 
Stephen  (q.v.),  and  himself  under-secretary 
for  the  colonies  (1836-47),  professor  of 
modern  history  at  Cambridge  (1849-59),  and 
author  of  'Essays  in  Ecclesiastical  Biography* 
(1849)  and  'Lectures  on  the  History  of 
France1  (1852). 

STEPHEN,  SIR  JAMES  FITZJAMES 
(1829-94),  brother  of  Sir  L.  Stephen  (q.v.) 
and  son  of  Sir  J.  Stephen  (q.v.),  educated  at 
Eton,  King's  College,  London,  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  was  a  barrister  of  the 
Inner  Temple  and  counsel  for  Rowland 
Williams  in  the  'Essays  and  Reviews*  (q.v.) 
case.  He  rose  to  be  legal  member  of  the 
Govemor-GeneraFs  council  in  India  (1869- 
72)  and  a  judge  of  the  high  court  (1879-91). 
He  contributed  to  'Eraser's'  and  the  'Cornhill' 
magazines,  and  to  the  Tall  Mall  Gazette',  and 
many  of  these  contributions  are  collected  in 
'Essays  by  a  Barrister*  (1862)  and  the  three 
series  of  'Horae  Sabbaticae*  (1862,  &c.).  His 
chief  works  were  a  'General  View  of  the 
Criminal  Law  of  England'  (1863,  1890),  a 
'History  of  the  Criminal  Law'(i883),and 'The 
Story  of  Nuncomar  and  Sir  Elijah  Impey' 
(1885).  In  his  'Liberty,  Equality,  Fraternity' 
(1873)  he  severely  criticized  Mill's  utilitarian 
position  in  the  latter 's  essay  'On  Liberty*. 

STEPHEN,  SIR  LESLIE  (1832-1904),  son 
of  Sir  J.  Stephen  (q.v.),  and  brother  of  Sir 
J.  F.  Stephen  (q.v.),  was  educated  at  Eton, 
King's  College,  London,  and  Trinity  Hall, 
Cambridge,  where  he  became  tutor,  having 
taken  orders.  He  was  a  noted  athlete  and 
mountaineer,  and  in  1868-71  edited  the 
'Alpine  Journal'.  His  accounts  of  Alpine 
ascents  were  collected  in  1871  as  'The  Play- 
ground of  Europe'. 

Stephen's  reading  of  Mill,  Combe,  and 
Kant  inclined  him  to  scepticism  and  he  re- 
linquished orders  after  the  Act  of  1870.    In 
1864  he  came  to  London  for  a  literary  career 
and  contributed  critical  studies  to  various 
periodicals,  which  were  collected  in  'Hours  in  a 
Library'  (1874-6-9).  In  1873  he  published  his 
'Essays  on  Free  Thinking  and  Plain  Speaking', 
defining  his  agnostic  position,  and  his  'Agnos- 
tic's Apology*  appeared  in  the  'Fortnightly' 
for  June  1876.    In  the  latter  year  there  ap- 
peared also  his  'History  of  English  Thought 
in  the  iSth  century',  reviewing  the  position 
of  the  chief  writers  in  the  great  deist  con- 
troversy of  that  age,  and  of  the  intuitional  and 


STERNE 

utilitarian  schools  of  philosophy,  followed  in 
1900  by  a  further  instalment  on  the  same 
subject  in  'The  English  Utilitarians*.  His 
'Science  of  Ethics'  appeared  in  1882.  He 
contributed  a  number  of  biographies  to  the 
two  series  of  'English  Men  of  Letters',  John- 
son (1878),  Pope  (1880),  Swift  (1882),  George 
Eliot  (1902),  Hobbes  (1904),  and  also  wrote 
lives  of  Henry  Fawcett  (1885)  and  of  his 
brother,  Sir  James  Fitzjames  Stephen  (1895). 
After  having  been  from  1871  to  1882  editor 
of  the  'Cornhill  Magazine',  he  accepted  in  the 
latter  year  the  editorship  of  the  'Dictionary 
of  National  Biography'  (q.v.),  himself  con- 
tributing many  of  the  most  important 
notices,  especially  of  the  i8th-  and  i9th-cent. 
worthies.  As  editor  he  saw  completed  the 
first  twenty-six  volumes  of  the  work,  and 
continued  to  contribute  to  it  subsequently. 
His  'Social  Rights  and  Duties*  appeared  in 
1896,  'Studies  of  a  Biographer'  in  1899- 
1902,  and  'English  Literature  and  Society  in 
the  1 8th  century'  in  1904. 

Leslie  Stephen  was  the  model  from  which 
Meredith  drew  Vernon  Whitford,  'a  Phoebus 
Apollo  turned  fasting  friar',  in  his  'The 
Egoist*  (q.v.).  His  first  wife  was  Harriet 
Marian,  Thackeray's  younger  daughter. 

Stephen  Guest,  a  character  in  G.  Eliot's 
'The  Mill  on  the  Floss'  (q.v.). 

STEPHENS,  JAMES,  contemporary  Irish 
poet  and  story-writer,  whose  best-known 
work  is  the  prose  fantasy,  'A  Crock  of  Gold*. 

STERLING,  JOHN  (1806-44),  educated  at 
Trinity  College  and  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge, 
contributed  to  various  periodicals, but  is  chiefly 
remembered  as  the  centre  of  a  literary  group 
known  after  him  as  the  STERLING  CLUB 
(founded  1838),  which  included  such  men  as 
Carlyle,  Tennyson,  John  Stuart  Mill,  Lord 
Houghton,  and  Sir  Francis  Palgrave,  to- 
gether with  many  others  more  or  less 
eminent  in  literature.  His  Life  by  Carlyle 
was  published  in  1851. 

STERNE,  LAURENCE  (1713-68),  the  son 
of  a  subaltern  in  the  army,  was  born  at 
Clonmel,  and  after  some  years  of  wandering 
from  garrison  to  garrison  spent  eight  years  at 
school  at  Halifax.  He  was  left  penniless  and 
was  sent  by  his  cousin  as  a  sizar  to  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge.  He  took  orders  and 
became  vicar  of  Sutton-in-the-Forest  in 
1738,  where  he  remained  till  1759,  marrying 
Miss  Elizabeth  Lumley  in  1741.  His  'small, 
quiet  attentions*  to  various  ladies  disturbed 
his  conjugal  life,  and  his  wife  became  insane 
in  1758.  He  began  'Tristram  Shandy'  (q.v.) 
i*1  I759>  volumes  i  and  ii  being  published  in 
1760.  He  carried  on  a  sentimental  correspon- 
dence with  Miss  Catherine  de  Fourmantelle, 
a  young  French  lady,  living  at  York  with  her 
mother,  the  'dear,  dear  Jenny*  referred  to  in 
'Tristram  Shandy*.  He  came  to  London  and 
was  well  received  in  society,  and  in  1760 
published  the  first  volumes  of  his  'Sermons 
of  Mr.  Yorick*.  But  'Tristram  Shandy*,  of 


[746] 


STERNHOLD  AND  HOPKINS 
which  four  more  volumes  appeared  in  1761, 
was  denounced  by  Dr.  Johnson,  Richardson, 
Horace  Walpole,  Goldsmith,  and  others,  on 
moral  and  literary  grounds.  In  1760  he  re- 
ceived the  perpetual  curacy  of  Coxwold,  and 
called  his  house  there  'Shandy  Half.  Ill- 
health  sent  him  abroad  in  1762  and  he  lived 
at  Toulouse  with  his  wife  and  daughter  until 
1764.  Volumes  vii  and  viii  of  'Tristram 
Shandy^  appeared  in  1765,  in  which  year 
began  his  seven  months'  tour  in  France  and 
Italy ,  of  which  the  French  part  is  described 
in  his  'Sentimental  Journey*  (q.v.,  pub- 
lished in  1768).  Volume  ix  of  'Tristram 
Shandy*  appeared  in  1767,  also  volumes 
iii  and  iv  of  his  'Sermons'.  He  met  in  Lon- 
don Mrs.  Eliza  Draper,  for  whom  he  kept  the 
journal  addressed  to  her  ('The  Bramine's 
Journal')  from  April  to  August  1767,  after  her 
departure  for  India.  A  permanent  separation 
from  his  wife  was  arranged  in  that  year,  but 
Sterne  parted  reluctantly  from  his  daughter. 
He  died  of  pleurisy  in  his  Old  Bond  Street 
lodgings,  insolvent,  and  his  wife  and  daughter 
were  relieved  through  subscriptions  collected 
by  his  friend  John  Hall-Stevenson  and  by  Mrs. 
Draper,  and  by  the  publication  (1769)  of 
three  more  volumes  of  sermons.  The  publi- 
cation of  the  'Letters  of  Yorick  to  Eliza'  was 
authorized  by  Mrs.  Draper  in  1775.  The 
'Letters  from  Eliza  to  Yorick'  (1775)  and 
'Letters  supposed  to  have  been  written  by 
Yorick  and  Eliza*  (1779)  are  forgeries. 

Among  fraudulent  imitations  of  Sterne's 
writings  were  John  Carr's  third  volume  of 
'Tristram  Shandy'  (1760),  J.  Hall- Stevenson's 
continuation  of  the  'Sentimental  Journey* 
(1769),  and  Richard  Griffith's  'Posthumous 
Works  of  a  late  celebrated  Genius'  (1770, 
included  in  the  first  collected  edition,  which 
appeared,  without  letters,  in  1779).  The  best 
early  edition  of  the  collected  works  (with 
letters  and  Hogarth's  plates)  appeared  in  1780. 

Sternhold  and  Hopkins,  THOMAS  STERN- 
HOLD  (d.  1549)  and  JOHN  HOPKINS  (d.  1570), 
joint  versifiers  of  the  Psalms.  A  collection  of 
forty-four  of  these  versified  psalms  appeared 
in  1549.  In  1562  'The  Whole  Book  of 
Psalms*  by  Sternhold,  Hopkins,  Norton,  and 
others,  was  added  to  the  Prayer  Book.  This 
version  is  ridiculed  by  Dryden  in  'Absalom 
and  Achitophel',  11.  403,  and  it  drew  the 
following  epigram  from  Rochester: 

Sternhold  and  Hopkins  had  great  qualms 
When  they  translated  David's  psalms, 

To  make  the  heart  right  glad : 
But  had  it  been  King  David's  fate 
To  hear  thee  sing  and  them  translate, 

By  God  'twould  set  him  mad. 
(quoted  in  R.  E.  Prothero's  *The  Psalms  in 
Human  Life'). 

STBUART,  SIR  JAMES,  who  assumed  the 
surname  of  DENHAM  (1712-80),  a  member  of 
the  Faculty  of  Advocates,  was  author  of  an 
'Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Political 
Economy'  (1767),  written  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  mercantile  system. 


STEVENSON 

STEVENSON,  JOHN  HALL-  (1718-85), 
the  friend  of  Sterne  (q.v.)  and  the  original  of 
the  Eugenius  of  'Tristram  Shandy*.  He  was 
author  of  'Crazy  Tales'  (1762),  adaptations  or 
imitations  of  coarse  French  fabliaux,  and 
some  indifferent  political  pamphlets  in  verse. 
He  wrote  a  continuation  of  'The  Sentimental 
Journey'  (q.v.),  published  in  1769. 

STEVENSON,  ROBERT  LOUIS  (1850- 
94),  son  of  Thomas  Stevenson,  joint-engineer 
to  the  Board  of  Northern  Lighthouses,  was 
born  in  Edinburgh.  He  entered  Edinburgh 
University  in  1867  and  studied  engineering, 
but  soon  abandoned  this  for  the  law  and  was 
admitted  advocate  in  1875.  He  composed  an 
essay  on  the  'Pentland  Rising  of  1666'  in  his 
sixteenth  year  (printed  1866)  and  contributed 
to  the  'Edinburgh  University  Magazine"  in 
1871  and  the  'Portfolio'  in  1873.  An  affection 
of  the  lungs  led  to  his  frequent  journeys 
in  search  of  health.  His  'Inland  Voyage', 
describing  a  canoe  tour  in  Belgium  and 
France,  was  published  in  1878,  and  his 
'Travels  with  a  Donkey  in  the  Cevennes',  the 
description  of  a  tour  taken  in  1878,  in  the 
following  year.  In  1879  he  travelled  to  Cali- 
fornia by  emigrant  ship  and  train,  and  married 
Mrs.  Osbourne  in  America  in  1880.  After  a 
stay  at  Calistoga  (recorded  in  'The  Silverado 
Squatters',  1883)  he  returned  to  England. 
Meanwhile,  though  very  ill  with  tuberculosis, 
he  contributed  to  various  periodicals  and 
wrote  a  number  of  essays,  short  stories,  and 
fragments  of  travel  and  autobiography,  col- 
lected in  'Virginibus  Puerisque'  (1881), 
'Familiar  Studies  of  Men  and  Books'  (1882), 
and  'The  New  Arabian  Nights'  (1882),  in- 
cluding 'The  Pavilion  on  the  Links*.  To  the 
same  categories  belong  'Prince  Otto'  (1885), 
'The  Merry  Men'  (1887,  including  'Mark- 
heim'  and  'Thrawn  Janet'),  'Memories  and 
Portraits'  (1887),  'Across  the  Plains'  (1892), 
'Island  Nights'  Entertainments'  (1893),  'In 
the  South  Seas'  (1896),  andJThe  Amateur 
Emigrant*  (included  in  vol.  iii  of  the  Edin- 
burgh edition  of  his  collected  works).  Long 
before  this  Stevenson  had  become  famous  by 
the  publication  in  1883  of  'Treasure  Island' 
(q.v.).  This  was  followed  by  'The  Strange 
Case  of  Qr.Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde'  (q.v.,  1886) 
and  a  series^  of  romances :  'Kidnapped'  (q.v., 
1886)  and  'Catriona*  its  sequel  (1893),  'The 
Black  Arrow'  (q.v.,  1888),  'The  Master  of 
Ballantrae'  (q.v.,  1889),  the  unfinished 
masterpiece,  'Weir  of  Hermiston'(q.v.,  1896), 
and  'St.  Ives'  (1897),  also  unfinished,  but 
completed  by  Sir  A.  T.  Quiller- Couch.  In 
collaboration  with  Lloyd  Osbourne,  Steven- 
son wrote  'The  Wrong  Box*  (1889),  'The 
Wrecker'  (1892),  and  'The  Ebb-Tide'  (1894). 
In  1888  Stevenson  had  set  out  for  the 
South  Seas  and  settled  in  Samoa,  where  he 
bought  the  'Vailima'  property  and  temporarily 
recovered  his  health.  There  he  died  suddenly 
from  rupture  of  a  blood-vessel  in  the  brain, 
and  there  he  was  buried.  He  had  interested 
himself  greatly  in  the  affairs  of  the  Pacific 


[747] 


STEWART 

Islands,  and  on  them  wrote  'A  Footnote  to 
History*  in  1892. 

Stevenson  wrote  some  remarkable  poetry, 
collected  in  'A  Child's  Garden  of  Verses' 
(1885)  and  'Underwoods'  (1887).  He  col- 
laborated with  W.  E.  Henley  in  a  few  dramas : 
'Deacon  Brodie'  (1882),  'Beau  Austin'  (1890), 
and  'Admiral  Guinea*  (1897).  He  was  a 
delightful  letter-writter,  and  his  'Vailima 
Letters*  were  published  in  1895,  followed  in 
1911  by  'The  Letters  of  R.  L.  S.',  edited  by 
Sir  Sidney  Colvin.  The  Edinburgh  edition 
of  his  collected  works  (edited  by  Colvin)  ap- 
peared in  1894-8,  the  Pentland  edition  in 
1906-7,  and  the  Swanston  edition  in  191 1-12. 
A  'Life*  of  Stevenson  by  Graham  Balfour  was 
published  in  1901,  and  there  have  been 
several  later  biographies  and  studies  of  his 
work. 

Stewart,  ALEXANDER,  earl  of  Buchan  and 
lord  of  Badenoch,  called  the  'Wolf  of  Bade- 
noch'  (i343?-i405?),  4th  son  of  King 
Robert  II  of  Scotland.  His  quarrels  with  the 
bishop  of  Moray  probably  led  him  to  burn 
the  town  of  Forres,  and  to  destroy  the  hos- 
pital, houses  of  the  clergy,  and  the  cathedral 
of  Elgin.  These  excesses  earned  for  him  the 
popular  designation  of  the  'Wolf  of  Badenoch* . 

STEWART,  DUGALD  (1753-1828),  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  High  School  and  at 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Universities,  was 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Edinburgh 
from  1785  to  1 8 10,  in  which  post  he  exercised 
a  powerful  influence  on  Scottish  thought.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  Thomas  Reid  (q.v.).  His 
works,  collected  by  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
1854-60  (n  vols.),  include:  'Elements  of  the 
Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind'  (1792, 1814, 
1827),  *  Outlines  of  Moral  Philosophy*  (1793), 
'Lectures  on  Political  Economy'  (delivered, 
1 800),  and  an  'Account  of  the  Life  and 
Writings  of  Thomas  Reid'  (1802). 

Stewart,  FRANCIS,  alias  SERGEANT  BOTH- 
WELL,  a  character  in  Scott's  £Old  Mortality3 


STEWART,  JOHN  (1749-1822),  'Walking 
Stewart',  described  as  'refractory*  at  Harrow 
and  Charterhouse  School,  went  to  India  in 
1763,  was  a  general  under  Hyder  Ali,  and 
prime  minister  to  the  Nabob  of  Arcot.   He 
travelled  in  Persia,  Ethiopia,  and  Abyssinia, 
and  came  to  Europe  through  the  Arabian 
desert,  walking  through  France  and  Spain  in 
1783.  He  also  walked  from  Calais  to  Vienna 
in  1784  and  in  the  United  States.   He  made 
the  acquaintance  of  De  Quincey,  who,  in  his 
'London  Reminiscences',  speaks  of  him  as  a 
most  interesting  man,  but  'crazy  beyond  all 
reach  of  hellebore'.    He  wrote  many  dis- 
cursive philosophical  works. 
Stewart  of  the  Glens,  JAMES,  a  character  in 
R.  L.   Stevenson's  'Kidnapped*  (q.v.)  and 
'Catriona*;  a  real  character  too,  who  was 
executed  for  a  murder  which  he  did  not 
commit,  after  trial  by  a  jury  of  Campbells 
(the  foes  of  his  clan). 


[748] 


STOICS 

Steyne,  MARQUIS  OF,  a  character  in 
Thackeray's  'Vanity  Fair'  (q.v.),  said  to 
have  been  suggested  by  the  second  and 
third  marquises  of  Hertford. 

Stichomythia,  in  the  classical  Greek  drama, 
dialogue  in  alternate  lines  of  verse,  employed 
in  sharp  disputation.  The  form  is  sometimes 
imitated  in  modern  drama,  e.g.  in  the  dia- 
logue between  Richard  III  and  Elizabeth  in 
Shakespeare's  'Richard  IIP,  IV.  iv. 

Stiggins,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens Js 
'Pickwick  Papers*  (q.v.). 

STILL,  JOHN  (1543-1608),  bishop  of  Bath 
and  Wells;  fellow  of  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, c.  1562,  and  master  of  St.  John's, 
1574.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  author  of 
'Gammer  Gurton's  Needle'  (q.v.). 

STILLINGFLEET,  EDWARD  (1635-99), 
fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
bishop  of  Worcester  from  1689,  was  a  popu- 
lar preacher  and  author  of  'The  Irenicum* 
(1659),  suggesting  a  compromise  with  the 
Presbyterians.  His  erudition  was  displayed 
in  'Origines  Sacrae'  (1662)  and  'Origines 
Britannicae'  (1685). 

Stinkomalee,  the  name  under  which  Theo- 
dore Hook  ridiculed  London  University  at 
the  time  of  its  foundation  (1828). 

STIRLING,  EARL  OF,  see  Alexander 
(Sir  W.). 

STIRLING,  JAMES  HUTCHISON  (1820- 
1 909),  educated  at  Glasgow  University  to  be 
a  physician,  abandoned  medicine  for  philo- 
sophy, which  he  studied  in  Germany  and 
France.  He  published  in  1865  "The  Secret  of 
Hegel',  containing  a  translation  and  com- 
mentary, which  was  his  greatest  work.  His 
'Analysis  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's  Philoso- 
phy* appeared  in  the  same  year,  and  a  'Text 
Book  of  Kant'  in  1881. 

Stiver,  a  small  coin  (originally  silver)  of  the 
Low  Countries ;  in  present  use  applied  to  the 
nickel  piece  of  5  cents  of  the  Netherlands, 
equivalent  to  about  a  penny  English. 
Stock  Exchange,  THE,  see  Exchange. 

STOCKTON,  FRANK  R.  (1834-1902), 
American  writer  of  humorous  fiction,  re- 
membered as  the  author  of  'Rudder  Grange* 
(1879),  "The  Lady  or  the  Tiger'  (1882),  'The 
Casting  away  of  Mrs.  Leeks  and  Mrs. 
Aleshine*  (1886),  and  many  other  short 
stories. 

Stoddart,  SIR  JOHN,  see  Slop. 
Stoics,  a  school  of  Greek  philosophers, 
founded  by  Zeno  (q.y.)  of  Citium  about 
310  B.C.,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  Zeno  taught  under  the  'Stoa  Poikile*  or 
Painted  Portico'  of  Athens.  Though  the 
stoic^  doctrine  embraced  a  complete  philo- 
sophical system,  its  chief  importance  lies  on 
the  moral  side.  It  held  that  happiness  con- 
sists^  in  liberation  from  the  bondage  of  the 
passions  and  appetites,  and  in  approxima- 


STONEHENGE 

tion  to  God  by  obeying  his  will;  that  virtue 
is  thus  the  highest  good,  and  suffering  a 
matter  of  indifference.  Among  the  illustrious 
Stoics  of  antiquity  were  Epictetus,  Seneca, 
and  Marcus  Aurelius  (qq.v.). 

Stonehenge,  a  great  prehistoric  stone  circle 
on  Salisbury  Plain.  'It  is  a  reconstruction, 
with  larger  stones,  of  an  earlier  circle,  the 
stones  of  which,  re-dressed  and  somewhat 
reduced  in  size,  were  placed  within  the  larger 
circle.  The  older  stones,  unlike  the  others 
which  are  sarsen  stone  or  grey  wethers  (such 
as  are  found  in  great  numbers  on  Salisbury 
Plain),  are  of  non-local  origin,  and  it  has 
recently  been  shown  that  they  must  have 
been  brought  from  the  Preseli  Hills  in  Pem- 
brokeshire. ...  It  is  possible  that  the  custom 
of  erecting  circles  was  introduced  into  this 
country  by  the  beaker-folk  [?2ist  cent.  B.C.], 
and  translated  into  stone  when  they  came 
into  contact  with  the  megalith  culture'  (Peake 
and  Fleure,  'The  Way  of  the  Sea'). 

Stones  of  Venice,  The,  a  treatise  in  three 
volumes  by  Ruskin  (q.v.),  published  in 
1851-3-  .  , 

It  was  written  while  the  production  of 
'Modern  Painters'  (q.v.)  was  still  proceeding. 
Its  purpose  is  to  glorify  Gothic  and  expose 
'the  pestilent  art  of  the  Renaissance'  by 
attacking  it  in  its  central  stronghold,  Venice. 
'Destroy  its  claims  to  admiration  there,  and 
it  can  assert  them  nowhere  else.'  The  author 
also  traces  the  relation  of  the  rise  and  fall  of 
Gothic  art  to  the  moral  temper  of  the  State. 
Ruskin  places  the  division  between  the  900 
years  of  the  rise  of  Venice  and  the  500  years 
of  her  decline  at  about  the  year  1310,  the 
date  of  the  'Serrar  del  Consiglio',  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Council  of  Ten,  'the  final  and 
absolute  distinction  of  the  nobles  from  the 
commonalty'.  He  explains  the  principles 
of  Byzantine  architecture  exemplified  in 
St.  Mark's,  and  the  union  of  Gothic  and 
Renaissance  in  the  Ducal  Palace  'the  central 
building  of  the  world'.  He  passes  to  the 
minor  corruptions  of  early  Renaissance,  re- 
deemed by  its  noble  use  of  inlaid  marbles, 
the  more  serious  faults  of  the  central  Renais- 
sance, and  the  final  degradation  of  grotesque 
Renaissance. 

Stonewall  Jackson,  a  nickname  of  General 
Thomas  Jonathan  Jackson  (1824-63),  a  bril- 
liant general  on  the  Confederate  side  in  the 
American  Civil  War.  At  a  critical  moment 
of  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  (1861),  another 
officer  remarked  of  him,  'See,  there  is 
Jackson  standing  like  a  stone  wall'.  He  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville,  and 
Lee  said,  'I  have  lost  my  right  arm'. 

Story  of  an  African  Farm,  The,  a  novel  by 
Olive  Schreiner  (q.v.). 
Story  of  Rimini,  The,  see  Hunt  (J.  H.  L.). 
Story  of  Thebes,  The,  see  Lydgate. 
STOW,  JOHN  (1525  ?-i6o5),  chronicler  and 
antiquary,  followed  at  first  the  trade  of  a  tailor 


STRACHEY 

and  was  admitted  a  freeman  of  the  Merchant 
Taylors*  Company  in  1547.  He  occupied 
himself  from  i 5  60  in  collecting  and  transcrib- 
ing manuscripts,  and  in  producing  original 
historical  works.  Becoming  suspected  of 
partiality  for  the  old  faith,  he  was  charged  in 
1568,  1569,  and  1570  with  being  in  posses- 
sion of  popish  and  dangerous  writings,  w,as 
examined  before  the  ecclesiastical  commission, 
but  escaped  without  punishment.  He  spent 
all  his  fortune  on  his  literary  pursuits,  and 
existed  for  some  time  upon  charitable  con- 
tributions. A  fine  effigy  of  Stow,  erected  by  his 
wife,  still  exists  in  the  church  of  St.  Andrew 
Undershaft,  Leadenhall  Street,  London.  He 
was  the  most  accurate  and  businesslike  of  the 
historians  of  his  century.  His  chief  produc- 
tions are:  'The  Woorkes  of  Geffrey  Chaucer', 
1561  (his  further  notes  on  Chaucer  being  sub- 
sequently printed  by  Thomas  Speght,  1598); 
'Surnmarie  of  Englyshe  Chronicles',  1565  (an 
original  historical  work) ;  Matthew  of  West- 
minster VFloresHistoriarum',  1567 ;  Matthew 
Paris 's  'Chronicle*,  1571 ;  Thomas  Walsing- 
ham's  'Chronicle',  1574;  'The  Chronicles  of 
England',  1580  (in  subsequent  editions  styled 
'The  Annales  of  England') ;  the  second  edition 
of  Holinshed's  'Chronicle',  1585-7;  and  lastly 
'A  Survey  of  London',  1598  and  1603,  a  book 
invaluable  for  the  detailed  information  it 
gives  about  the  ancient  city  and  its  customs. 
It  was  brought  down  to  his  day  by  J.  Strype 
(q.v.)  in  1720,  and  modernized  and  annotated 
editions  have  since  been  published  (C.  L. 
Kingsford,  1908). 

STOWE,  MRS.  HARRIET  ELIZABETH 
BEECHER  (1811-96),  born  at  Litchfield, 
Connecticut,  sister  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher 
(1813-87,  divine  and  religious  author  and 
journalist),  was  a  school-teacher  before  her 
marriage.  Her  famous  anti-slavery  novel, 
'Uncle  Tom's  Cabin',  appeared  in  the 
'National  Era'  in  1851—2,  and  in  book  form  in 
1852.  She  wrote  a  number  of  other  less  well- 
known  works,  'Dred'  (1856),  'The  Minister's 
Wooing'  (1859),  &c.  'Uncle  Tom's  Cabin', 
by  its  presentment  of  the  sufferings  entailed 
on  the  negroes  by  the  system  of  slavery,  the 
separation  of  husbands  from  wives,  and 
mothers  from  their  children,  and  the  brutality 
of  some  of  the  slave-owners,  did  much  to 
hasten  the  American  Civil  War.  It  was  in 
Mrs.  Stowe's  own  words  'a  collection  and 
arrangement  of  real  incidents  .  .  .  grouped 
together  with  reference  to  a  general  result'. 
It  was  translated  into  twenty-three  languages. 

STRABO  (b.  c.  54  B.C.),  a  native  of  Amasia 
in  Pontus,  author  of  a  history,  continuing 
that  of  Polybius,  which  is  lost,  and  of  an 
important  historical  geography  of  the  Roman 
Empire  in  seventeen  books,  which  is  extant 
almost  in  its  entirety. 

STRACHEY,  GILES  LYTTON  (1880- 
1932),  educated  at  Trinity  College,  ^  Cam- 
bridge, the  author  of  a  work  of  literary 
criticism,  'Landmarks  in  French  Literature* 
(1912),  became  widely  known  in  1918  by  his 


[749] 


STRADIVARIUS 

'Eminent  Victorians',  biographies  of  Cardinal 
Manning,  Florence  Nightingale,  Dr.  Arnold, 
and  General  Gordon.  The  preface  to 'Eminent 
Victorians*  expounded  Strachey's  method, 
avoiding  'scrupulous  narration*  and  attacking 
'his  subject  in  unexpected  places',  shooting 
'a  sudden  revealing  searchlight  into  obscure 
recesses,  hitherto  undivined'.  This  book  was 
followed  by  a  life  of  'Queen  Victoria'  in  1921, 
'Books  and  Characters'  in  1922,  'Elizabeth 
and  Essex'  in  1928,  and  'Portraits  in  Minia- 
ture' in  1931. 

Stradivarius,  the  latinized  form  of  the 
name  of  Antonio  Stradivari  (i644?-i737),  a 
famous  maker  of  stringed  musical  instru- 
ments, born  at  Cremona,  a  pupil  of  Nicolo 
Amati.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  violins 
of  his  making.  Stradivarius  is  the  subject  of 
a  poem  by  G.  Eliot  (q.v.). 

Strafford,  SIR  THOMAS  WENTWORTH,  first 
earl  of  (1593-1641),  educated  at  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  at  first  showed  himself 
in  parliament  a  moderate  but  firm  opponent 
of  the  policy  of  Charles  I.  He  was  taken  into 
court  favour  and  made  president  of  the 
council  of  the  north  in  1628,  and  lord-deputy 
of  Ireland  in  1632,  where  he  set  himself 
vigorously  to  restoring  the  king's  authority. 
He  became  informally  Charles's  chief  ad- 
viser in  1638,  and  urged  the  invasion  of 
Scotland,  promising  in  1639,  it  was  reported, 
the  assistance  of  Irish  troops  against  both 
Scottish  and  English  rebels.  He  took  com- 
mand in  1640  of  Charles  I's  force  in  York- 
shire against  the  invading  Scots  army. 
Strafford  attended  the  Long  Parliament  on 
the  king's  personal  guarantee  of  his  safety, 
and  urged  that  the  parliamentary  leaders 
should  be  sent  to  the  Tower.  He  was  im- 
peached by  the  Commons  in  1640,  but  as  it 
was  manifestly  impossible  to  convict  him  of 
high  treason,  a  bill  of  attainder  was  substi- 
tuted in  1641,  and  assented  to  by  Charles  in 
fear  of  mob  violence.  He  was  executed  on 
Tower  Hill  in  May  1641.  He  was  nick- 
named 'Black  Tom  Tyrant*. 

Str afford ,  a  tragedy  by  R.  Browning  (q.v.), 
produced  in  1837  at  Covent  Garden,  with 
Macready  in  the  title-role  and  Helen  Faucit 
as  Lady  Carlisle.  The  play  was  not  successful 
on  the  stage  and  ran  for  only  a  few  nights. 

The  tragedy  deals  with  the  close  of  Straf- 
ford's  career;  Pym,  who  loves  Strafford, 
relentlessly  pursues  his  death  from  patriotic 
motives;  Strafford,  whose  unshakable  devo- 
tion to  Charles  has  caused  his  downfall,  is 
abandoned  by  the  weak  and  irresolute  king; 
Lady  Carlisle  (the  theme  of  many  poems  by 
Herrick,  Carew,  and  other  Cavalier  lyrists), 
after  in  vain  warning  Strafford  of  his  danger, 
devises  a  plan  for  his  escape  from  the  Tower, 
which  fails ;  Strafford,  after  appealing  to  Pym 
to  save  him,  and  foreseeing  the  king's  own 
fate,  suffers  on  the  scaffold,  thanking  God 
that  he  dies  first. 

STRANGFORD,  PERCY  CLINTON 


STRULDBRUGS 

SYDNEY  SMYTHE,  sixth  vise.  (1780- 
1855),  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  a 
diplomatist,  published  'Poems  from  the  Portu- 
guese of  Camoens*  in  1803.  He  is  referred 
to  as  'Hibernian  Strangford'  in  Byron's 
'English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers*  (q.v.). 

Strap,  HUGH,  a  character  in  Smollett's 
'Roderick  Random'  (q.v.). 

STRAPAROLA,  GIOVAN  FRANCESCO 
(fl.  end  of  1 5th  cent.),  Italian  author  of 
novelle  entitled  'Piacevoli  Notti*  ('Pleasant 
Nights'),  which  enjoyed  much  popularity. 
Painter,  in  his  'Palace  of  Pleasure'  (q.v.),  drew 
on  Straparola  among  others. 

Straw,  JACK,  see  Jack  Straw. 
Strawberry  Hill,  near  Twickenham,  about 
ten  miles  W.  of  the  centre  of  London.  Horace 
Walpole  (q.v.)  settled  there  in  1747,  making 
it  into  'a  little  Gothic  castle',  housing  in  it  his 
collection  of  articles  of  vertu,  and  establishing 
a  private  printing-press.  'Strawberry  Hill 
Gothic*  is  a  common  term  for  any  example  of 
romantic  gothicized  architecture  of  the  period. 

Strephon,  the  shepherd  whose  lament  for 
his  lost  Urania  forms  the  opening  of  Sidney's 
'Arcadia*  (q.v.).  'Strephon'  has  been  adopted 
as  a  conventional  name  for  a  rustic  lover. 

Strether,  LEWIS  LAMBERT,  a  character  in 
H.  James's  'The  Ambassadors'  (q.v.). 

STRICKLAND,  AGNES  (1796-1874),  was 
author  (in  collaboration  with  her  elder  sister, 
Elizabeth)  of  the  successful  'Lives  of  the 
Queens  of  England'  (1840-8),  and  'Lives  of 
the  Queens  of  Scotland  and  English  Prin- 
cesses' (1850-9).  She  wrote  other  historical 
biographies,  and  a  novel,  'How  will  it  end?* 
(1865). 

STRINDBERG,  AUGUST  (1849-1912), 
Swedish  dramatist  and  novelist,  a  misogynist, 
and  a  disciple  of  Nietzsche;  author,  among 
other  works,  of  the  three  plays,  'The  Father*, 
*Miss  Julia',  and  'The  Creditors',  and  of  the 
novels  'Tschandala'  and  'By  the  Open  Sea'. 

Strode,  RALPH  (fl.  1350-1400),  scholastic 
philosopher  and  logician,  fellow  of  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  where  John  Wycliffe  was  his 
colleague.  He  entered  into  controversy  with 
Wycliffe,  and  Chaucer  dedicated  to  him  and 
to  Gower  his  'Troylus  and  Cryseyde'. 

Strong,  CAPTAIN  or  CHEVALIER,  a  character 
in  Thackeray's  'Pendennis'  (q.v.). 

Strong,  DR.,  in  Dickens 's  'David  Copper- 
field'  (q.v.),  an  amiable  old  schoolmaster, 
who  dotes  on  his  young  wife,  Annie,  and 
supports  her  worthless  cousin,  Jack  Maldon. 
Stro'phe,  from  the  Greek  word  meaning 
'turn',  part  of  a  Greek  choral  ode  sung  as  the 
chorus  proceeded  in  one  direction,  followed 
by  the  anti'stropke,  when  they  turned  and 
proceeded  in  the  opposite  direction  (see 
Alcmari). 

Struldbrugs,  see  Gulliver's  Travels. 


[750] 


STRUTT 

STRUTT,  JOSEPH  (1749-1802),  author, 
artist,  engraver,  and  antiquary,  was  author  of 
many  works  valuable  for  their  research  and 
engravings,  including  a  'Chronicle  of  Eng- 
land' (1777-8),  'Dresses  and  Habits  of  the 
English  People*  (1796-9),  and  'Sports  and 
Pastimes  of  the  People  of  England*  (1801). 
An  unfinished  novel  by  Strutt  was  completed 
by  Sir  W.  Scott  ('Queenhoo  Hall'),  and 
suggested  to  him  the  publication  of  his  own 
'Waverley'. 

Struwwelpeter,  see  Hoffmann  (H.). 

STRYPE,  JOHN  (1643-1737),  ecclesiastical 
historian,  educated  at  St.  Paul's  School, 
Jesus  College  and  Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge, 
formed  a  magnificent  collection  of  original 
documents,  mostly  of  the  Tudor  period,  now 
in  the  Harleian  and  Lansdowne  MSS.  He 
published  lives  of  Cranmer  (1694),  Sir  John 
Cheke  (1705),  Grindal  (1710),  Matthew  Par- 
ker ( 1 7 1 1 ),  and  Whitgift  (1718).  He  corrected 
and  enlarged  Stow's  'Survey  of  London' 
(1720). 

STUART,  DANIEL  (1766-1846),  journa- 
list, is  remembered  as  having  purchased  the 
'Morning  Post'  in  1795  and  the  'Courier*  in 
1796,  and  raised  both  papers  to  importance 
by  his  management.  There  is  a  pleasant 
sketch  of  him  as  'one  of  the  finest  of  editors 
.  .  .  frank,  plain,  and  English  all  over'  in  C. 
Lamb's  'Newspapers  Thirty-five  Years  Ago*. 

STUBBES  or  STUBBS,  PHILIP  G/7.  1583- 
91),  a  Puritan  pamphleteer,  author  of  'The 
Anatomic  of  Abuses'  (1583),  a  denunciation 
of  evil  customs  of  the  time  which,  in  the 
author's  opinion,  needed  abolition.  It  con- 
tains a  section  on  stage  plays  and  is  one  of  the 
principal  sources  of  information  on  the  social 
and  economic  conditions  of  the  period.  It 
was  answered  by  Nashe  in  the  'Anatomic  of 
Absurditie*. 

STUBBS,  WILLIAM  (1825-1901),  edu- 
cated at  Ripon  Grammar  School  and  (as  a 
servitor)  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  be- 
came a  fellow  of  Trinity  College  and.  was  for 
seventeen  years  rector  of  Navestock  in  Essex 
(where  for  a  short  time  he  had  Swinburne  as  a 
pupil).  He  was  much  interested  in  the  publi- 
cation of  the  Rolls  series,  to  which,  in  1857, 
he  contributed  his  'Registrum  Sacrum 
Anglicanum',  exhibiting  by  tables  the  course 
of  ecclesiastical  succession  in  England.  He 
succeeded  Goldwin  Smith  as  Regius  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Oxford  in  1866.  He  now 
published  a  large  number  of  volumes  of  the 
Rolls  series,  beginning  with  the  'Chronicles 
and  Memorials  of  Richard  F  in  1864-5,  and 
ending  with  the  'Historia  Novella*  of  William 
of  Malmesbury  in  1885.  In  1871-8  he 
edited,  jointly  with  A.  W.  Haddan,  'The 
Councils  and  Ecclesiastical  Documents  of 
Great  Britain'.  But  the  works  by  which  he  is 
most  widely  known  are  his  contributions  to 
English  constitutional  history :  the  edition  of 
the  'Select  Charters  and  other  Illustrations  of 
English  Constitutional  History',  published 


STUPOR  MUNDI 

in  1870,  and  ^'The  Constitutional  History  of 
England  in  its  Origin  and  Development', 
published  in  1874-8,  in  which  the  author 
traces  jthe  development  of  our  political 
institutions  from  Saxon  times  to  the  period 
of  the  Tudors.  His  shorter  works,  besides 
lectures,  include  a  book  on  'The  Early 
Plantagenets'  (1876).  Stubbs  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Chester  in  1884,  and  of  Oxford  in 
1888. 

Study  and  Use  of  History,  Letters  on  ihe>  see 
under  Bolingbroke. 

Stukeley,  a  character  in  George  Peele's 
'Battle  of  Alcazar'  (q.v.).  The  real  Thomas 
Stucley  or  Stukeley  (i525?~78)  was  said  to 
be  a  natural  son  of  Henry  VIII.  He  was  an 
adventurer,  who  entered  the  service  of  the 
French  king,  was  sent  on  a  spying  expedition 
to  England,  and  betrayed  his  employer  to 
Cecil.  He  next  entered  the  service  of 
Charles  V;  then  embarked  on  a  privateering 
expedition,  for  which  Queen  Elizabeth  pro- 
vided one  of  his  ships,  till  the  remonstrances 
of  foreign  powers  led  to  his  arrest.  He  pro- 
ceeded to  Ireland,  where  his  ambitious 
schemes  were  distrusted  and  discountenanced 
by  Elizabeth.  He  escaped  to  Spain,  having 
been  in  treasonable  correspondence  with 
Philip  II.  He  joined  the  king  of  Portugal's 
expedition  against  Morocco  and  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Alcazar.  Fuller  in  his 
'Worthies*  gives  an  amusing  account  of  a 
conversation  between  him  and  Queen  Eliza- 
beth :  'So  confident  was  his  ambition  that  he 
blushed  not  to  tell  Queen  Elizabeth  that  he 
preferred  rather  to  be  soyeraign  of  a  mole- 
hill than  the  highest  subject  to  the  greatest 
King  in  Christendome ;  adding  moreover  that 
he  was  assured  he  should  be  a  prince  before 
his  death.  I  hope  (said  Queen  Elizabeth)  I 
shall  hear  from  you,  when  you  are  stated  in 
your  principality.  I  will  write  unto  you 
(quoth  Stukeley).  In  what  language?  (said 
the  Queen).  He  returned,  In  the  stile  of 
Princes :  To  our  dear  Sister.9 

STUKELEY,  WILLIAM  (i  687-1765),  anti- 
quary,  educated  at  Bennet  (Corpus  Christi) 
College,  Cambridge,  was  secretary  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  which  he  shared  in 
founding  (1718).  He  published,  among  other 
writings,  'Itinerarium  Curiosum*  (1724)  and 
'Stonehenge*  (1740),  and  was  specially  in- 
terested in  Druidism.  He  published  in  1757 
as  a  genuine  work  of  Richard  of  Ciren- 
cester,  Charles  Bertram's  forgery,  *De  Situ 
Britanniae'. 

Stupor  Mundi  et  immutator  mirabilis, 
a  term  applied  to  the  Emperor  Frederick  II, 
(d.  1250),  expressing  contemporary  opinion 
of  his  versatility.  He  was  highly  cultured, 
and  his  interests  extended  to  mathematics, 
natural  history,  medicine,  and  other  branches 
of  intellectual  activity.  Frederick's  tolerance 
of  Mohammedans  in  his  service  led  the  papal 
party  to  accuse  him  of  being  the  author  of 
(an  imaginary  work)  'De  Tribus  Impostori- 
bus' — Moses,  Jesus,  and  Mohammed. 


STURLA  THORDSSON 

STURLA  THORDSSON  (c.f  1214-84), 
nephew  of  Snorri  (q.v.),  Icelandic  historian, 
author  of  the  'Sturlunga  Saga"  or  contem- 
porary history  of  the  house  of  Sturla,  a  vivid 
picture  of  old  Icelandic  life. 
Sturm  und  Drang  (storm  and  stress),  the 
name  (taken  from  the  title  of  an  absurd 
romantic  drama  of  the  American  War  of 
Independence  by  the  German,  Klinger, 
1775)  given  to  a  period  of  literary  ferment 
which  prevailed  in  Germany  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  i8th  cent.,  inspired  by 
Rousseau's  fervent  idealism,  revolt  against 
conventional  trammels,  and  recall  to  nature. 
The  principal  figures  of  the  movement 
were  Schiller,  Goethe,  and  Herder  (qq.v.). 
Stutly,  WILL,  one  of  the  legendary  com- 
panions of  Robin  Hood  (q.v.). 

Stylite  or  STYLITES,  an  ascetic  who  lived  on 
the  top  of  a  pillar.  The  best  known  of  these 
ascetics  was  Simeon,  a  Syrian,  who  is  said  to 
have  spent  thirty  years  on  a  pillar  near  Antioch 
before  his  death  in  A.D.  459.  He  had  several 
imitators,  and  is  celebrated  in  Tennyson's 
poem,  'St.  Simeon  Stylites'. 

Styx,  connected  with  the  Greek  orvyciv  to 
hate,   crruyvos  hateful,   gloomy,   a  river   of 
Hades  or  the  lower  world,  over  which  the 
shades    of   the    departed   were   ferried    by 
Charon,  and  by  which  the  gods  swore  their 
most  solemn  oaths.  In  the  'Odyssey*  (x.  515) 
the  Acheron  is  the  principal  river  of  Hades, 
of  which  the  Pyriphlegethon,  and  the  Cocy- 
tus,  a  branch  of  the  Styx,  are  tributaries. 
four  infernal  rivers  that  disgorge 
Into  the  burning  lake  their  baleful  streams — 
Abhorred  Styx,  the  flood  of  deadly  hate ; 
Sad  Acheron  of  sorrow,  black  and  deep ; 
Cocytus  named  of  lamentation  loud 
Heard  on  the  rueful  stream ;  fierce  Phlege- 

ton 

Whose  waves  of  torrent  fire  inflame  with 
rage. 

(Milton,  'Paradise  Lost',  ii.  575-81.) 

Sublapsarian  or  INFRALAPSARIAN,  a  Calvin- 
ist  holding  the  view  that  God's  election  of 
some  to  everlasting  life  was  made  after  he  had 
permitted  or  foreseen  the  fall  of  Adam.  Cf. 
Supralapsarian. 

Sublime  and  Beautiful,  A  Philosophical  En- 
quiry into  the  Origin  of  our  Ideas  of  the,  a 
philosophical  treatise  by  E.  Burke  (q.v.), 
published  in  1756. 

This  is  one  of  the  earliest  of  Burke's 
publications.  He  finds  that  anything  capable 
of  exciting  the  idea  of  pain  and  danger  is  a 
source  of  the  sublime;  that  beauty  is  the 
property  which  causes  love  (as  distinct  from 
desire) ;  and  that  it  consists  in  relative  small- 
ness,  smoothness,  absence  of  angularity,  and 
brightness  of  colour  (thus  very  much  narrow- 
ing the  sense  of  the  word).  The  treatise  con- 
tains interesting  sections  on  the  effect  upon 
us  of  the^  distresses  of  others  as  the  source  of 
pleasure  in  terrible  sights  such  as  a  conflagra- 


SUDERMANN 

tion,  or  in  tragedies ;  and  on  the  pleasurable 
effects  of  words  and  poetry. 
Sublime,  On  the,  see  Longinus. 
Sublime  Porte,  THE,  see  Porte. 

Subtle,  'The  Alchemist',  in  Jonson's  comedy 

of  that  name  (q.v.).   , 

Subtle  Doctor,  THE,  Duns  (q.v,)  Scotus. 

Subura  or  SUBURRA,  a  district  in  ancient 

Rome,  between  the  Esquiline,  Viminal,  and 

Quirinal  hills.   It  contained  many  shops  and 

houses  of  ill  repute. 

Dum  tu  forsitan  inquietus  erras 
Clarnosa,  Juvenalis,  in  suburra. 

(Martial,  'Epig/  xii.  18.) 

SUCKLING,  SIR  JOHN  (1609-42),  of  an 
old  Norfolk  family,  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  He  inherited  large 
estates,  travelled  in  France  and  Italy,  and 
was  knighted  on  his  return  in  1630.  He  is 
said  to  have  fought  under  Gustavus  Adolphus 
and  to  have  taken  part  in  the  defeat  of  Tilly 
before  Breitenfeld  (1631).  He  returned  to 
London  in  1632  and  lived  at  court  in  a  style 
of  great  profusion.  He  became  a  leader  of  the 
Royalist  party  in  the  early  troubles ;  then  fled 
to  France  and  is  said  by  Aubrey  to  have 
committed  suicide  in  Paris.  His  chief  works 
are  included  in  Tragmenta  Aurea'  (1646),  and 
consist  of  poems,  plays,  letters,  and  tracts, 
among  them  the  famous  'Ballad  upon  a 
Wedding'.  His  'Session  of  the  Poets',  in 
which  the  various  writers  of  the  day,  includ- 
ing Ben  Jonson,  Carew,  and  D'Avenant,  con- 
tend for  the  laurel,  appeared  in  i6"37j  it  is 
interesting  as  an  expression  of  contemporary 
opinion  on  these  writers.  Suckling's  play, 
'Aglaura'  (with  two  fifth  acts,  one  tragic,  the 
other  not),  appeared  in  the  same  year.  It 
contains  the  famous  lyric,  'Why  so  pale  and 
wan,  fond  lover?'.  "The  Goblins',  his  best 
play,  was  acted  in  1638.  The  goblins  are 
thieves  who  disguise  themselves  as  devils  and 
behave  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  Robin 
Hood  and  his  men.  His  'Brennoralt*  (1646), 
an  expansion  of  the  'Discontented  Colonell' 
(1640),  a  tragedy,  reflecting  on  the  disloyalty 
of  the  Scots  (in  the  guise  of  Lithuanians),  is 
interesting  for  the  light  which  the  melan- 
choly colonel  throws  on  the  character  of  the 
author  himself.  The  plays,  however,  are 
chiefly  valuable  for  their  good  lyrics. 
D'Avenant  speaks  of  Suckling's  sparkling 
wit,  describing  him  further  as  the  greatest, 
gallant  and  gamester  of  his  day.  He  invented 
the  game  of  cribbage. 

Suddlechop,  BENJAMIN  and  DAME  URSULA, 
characters  in  Scott's  'Fortunes  of  Nigel' 

(q.v.). 

SUDERMANN,  HERMANN  (1857-1928), 
born  in  East  Prussia,  dramatist  and  novelist, 
chiefly  famous  for  his  dramas,  of  which  the 
best  known  are  'Magda'  ('Heimat*,  1892),  in 
which  the  chief  part  has  been  played  by 
Bernhardt,  Duse,  and  Mrs.  Patrick  Camp- 
bell; and  'Die  Ehre'  (1880). 


SUDRA 

Sudra,  the  lowest  of  the  four  great  Hindu 
castes,  the  artisans  and  labourers. 
SUE,  EUGENE  (1804-57),  French  novelist, 
a  prolific  writer  of  romances  of  which  the 
best  known  are  'Les  Mysteres  de  Paris' 
(1842-3)  and  'Le  Juif  errant'  (1844-5). 

Suess,  EDUARD  (1831-1914),  born  in 
London  and  educated  at  Prague  and  Vienna, 
became  professor  of  geology  at  Vienna  and 
one  of  the  greatest  of  recent  geologists.  His 
principal  work  is  'Das  Antlitz  der  Erde' 
(1885-1909),  which  was  translated  as  "The 
Face  of  the  Earth'  (1904-25)  by  H.  B.  C. 
Sollas. 

Sufi,  the  name  of  a  sect  of  Mohammedan 
ascetic   mystics.     There    are   references   to 
them  in  the  'Rubaiyat*  of  Omar  Khayyam. 
Sullen,    SQUIRE   and   MRS.,    characters   in 
Farquhar's  'The  Beaux'  Stratagem'  (q.v.). 

Sullivan,  SIR  ARTHUR  SEYMOUR  (1842- 
1900),  the  son  of  a  bandmaster  at  the 
Royal  Military  College,  Sandhurst,  studied 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  and  at  the 
Conservatorium,  Leipzig,  and  from  1861  was 
organist  at  St.  Michael's,  Chester  Square, 
and  subsequently  St.  Peter's,  Cranley  Gar- 
dens, London.  He  composed  in  1866  the 
comic  opera,  *Cox  and  Box',  and  in  1871 
*Thespis',  the  libretto  of  which  was  by  W.  S. 
Gilbert  (q.v.),  the  beginning  of  a  collabora- 
tion which  produced  the  famous  Gilbert  and 
Sullivan  operas  (q.v.).  He  composed  a  setting 
for  Longfellow's  'Golden  Legend'  (1886) 
and  a  serious  opera,  'Ivanhoe'  (1891);  also 
cantatas,  oratorios,  and  a  great  deal  of  sacred 
music. 

Sumer  is  icumen  in,  the  first  line  of  what 
is  believed  to  be  the  earliest  extant  English 
lyric.  It  was  probably  written  in  the  first 
half  of  the  i3th  cent. ;  the  author  is  unknown. 
The  music  to  which  it  was  sung  still  survives. 

Summa,  see  Aquinas. 

Summers,  WILL,  Henry  VIII's  jester. 

Summerson,  ESTHER,  a  character  in 
Dickens's  'Bleak  House'  (q.v.),  and  one  of 
the  narrators  of  the  tale. 

Summoner's    Tale,    The,    see    Canterbury 

Tales. 

Sunflower    State,    Kansas,    see     United 

States. 

Sunium,  the  ancient  name  of  Cape  Colonna, 

at  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  Attica,  in 

Greece.   It  was  crowned  by  a  marble  temple 

to   Athene,   of  which   some   columns   still 

remain.    It  is  celebrated  in  the  last  stanza  of 

Byron's  'The  Isles  of  Greece*  ('Don  Juan', 

in),  'Place  me  on  Sunium's  marbled  steep*. 

Sunna,  the  body  of  traditional  sayings  and 
customs  attributed  to  Mohammed  and 
supplementing  the  Koran. 

Sunnites,  as  opposed  to  the  ShTites  (see 
Shi*at)  the  orthodox  Moslems,  who  admit  the 


SURLY 

caliphate  of  Abu  Bakr  and  his  immediate 
successors,  but  reject  the  claims  of  Ali's 
descendants. 

Sunshine  State :  (i)  New  Mexico;  (2)  South 
Dakota;  see  United  States. 

Supernaculum,  a  modern  Latin  rendering 
of  the  German  auf  den  nagel,  on  the  nail,  in 
the  phrase  auf  den  nagel  trinken,  to  drink  off 
liquor  to  the  last  drop ;  used  as  an  adverb  in 
reference  to  the  practice  of  turning  up  the 
emptied  cup  or  glass  on  one's  left  thumb- 
nail, to  show  that  all  the  liquor  has  been 
drunk.  Hence,  as  a  substantive,  a  liquor  to 
be  drunk  to  the  last  drop,  a  wine  of  the 
highest  quality.  Hence,  anything  excellent  of 
its  kind.  [OED.] 

Supralapsarian,  a  name  applied  to  those 
Calvinists  who  held  the  view  that,  in  the 
divine  decrees,  the  predestination  of  some  to 
eternal  life  and  of  others  to  eternal  death  was 
antecedent  to  the  Creation  and  the  Fall. 
[OED.]  Cf.  Sublapsarian. 

Supremacy,  ACT  OF:  the  first  Act  of 
Supremacy  was  passed  in  Henry  VIII's 
reign  (1534);  it  declared  the  King  to  be 
the  Supreme  Head  on  earth  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  made  it  treasonable  to  deny 
this.  By  the  second  Act  of  Supremacy  (1559), 
in  Elizabeth's  reign,  the  above  title  was  aban- 
doned, but  an  oath  was  imposed  on  persons 
holding  office  or  taking  a  university  degree 
acknowledging  the  Queen  to  be  supreme 
governor  of  the  realm  in  spiritual  and  eccle- 
siastical matters. 

Sura,  a  chapter  or  section  of  the  Koran  (q.v.). 

Surface,  JOSEPH  and  CHARLES,  in  Sheridan's 
'School  for  Scandal'  (q.v.),  two  brothers 
presenting  £a  contrast  between  shameless 
hypocrisy  and  reckless  good-nature'  (Hazlitt). 

Surgeorfs  Daughter,  The,  a  novel  by  Sir  W. 
Scott  (q.v.),  published  in  1827. 

It  is  the  story  of  Richard  Middlemas,  an 
illegitimate  child  left  in  the  care  of  Gideon 
Gray,  surgeon  of  the  village  of  Middlemas, 
and  brought  up  in  his  home,  where  he  and 
the  surgeon's  daughter  Janet  fall  in  love. 
On  coming  of  age,  Richard,  being  of  an  am- 
bitious as  well  as  violent  and  Si-balanced 
disposition,  leaves  the  doctor's  home  to  push 
his  fortunes  in  India.  Here  he  falls  under  the 
"influence  of  an  adventuress,  the  Begum 
Mootee  Mahal,  otherwise  Mme  Montreville, 
and  has  the  unspeakable  baseness  to  fall  in 
with  her  plan  to  lure  Janet  out  to  India  with 
a  view  to  handing  her  over  to  Tippoo  Sahib. 
The  plot  is  defeated  by  Adam  Hartley, 
Richard's  fellow  pupil  at  Dr.  Gray's,  an  un- 
successful suitor  for  Janet's  hand.  He  secures 
the  interposition  of  Hyder  AH,  who  orders  the 
release  of  Janet.  By  his  order  also,  Richard 
Middlemas  is  crushed  to  death  by  an  ele- 
phant. 

Surly,  a  character  in  Jonson's  'The  Al- 
chemist' (q.v.). 


3868 


[753] 


SURREALISM 

Surrealism,  the  name  given  to  a  recent 
movement  among  certain  writers  and  pain- 
ters. The  former  attempt  expression  ^by 
means  of  words  set  down  without  logical 
sequence;  while  the  latter,  led  by  the  Spanish 
painter,  Juan  Mir<5,  give  weird  distorted 
forms  to  ordinary  objects. 

SURREY,  HENRY  HOWARD  (by 
courtesy)  earl  of  (i5i7?~47)>  the  poet,  was 
son  of  Thomas  Howard  (afterwards  third 
duke  of  Norfolk).  He  married  Frances  Vere 
in  1532.  He  was  with  the  army  during  the 
war  with  France  (1544-6),  being  wounded 
before  Montreuil,  and  was  commander  of 
Boulogne,  1545-6.  He  was  condemned  and 
executed  on  a  frivolous  charge  of  treasonably 
quartering  the  royal  arms  and  advising  his 
sister  to  become  the  king's  mistress.  He  was 
then  barely  30  years  old. 

His  works  consist  of  sonnets  and  miscel- 
laneous poems  in  various  metres,  notable  for 
their  grace  and  finish.  Like  Wyatt  (q.v.)  he 
studied  Italian  models,  especially  Petrarch, 
and  shared  with  Wyatt  the  merit  of  bringing 
the  sonnet  from  Italy  into  England.  He  had 
the  perhaps  even  greater  merit  of  introduc- 
ing, in  his  translation  of  the  Aeneid  (Bks.  II 
and  III),  the  use  of  blank  verse.  The  subject 
of  many  of  his  love-poems  was  'The  fair 
Geraldine*,  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  the  ninth 
earl  of  Kildare.  Forty  of  his  poems  were 
printed  in  Tottel's  'Miscellany',  1557  (re- 
printed 1867  and  1870).  The  poems,  with 
those  of  Wyatt,  were  edited  by  Dr.  G.  F. 
Nott,  1815-16,  and  others,  and  for  the 
Aldine  poets  by  James  Yeowell,  1866. 

SURTEES,  ROBERT  (1779-1834),  edu- 
cated at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  an  antiquary 
and  topographer.  He  spent  his  life  in  collect- 
ing materials  for  his  'History  of  Durham* 
county  (1816—40).  He  is  commemorated  in 
the  Surtees  Society,  a  book-club  dealing  with 
the  literature  of  the  region  constituting  the 
old  kingdom  of  Northumberland.  Scott  in- 
cluded in  his  'Border  Minstrelsy'  a  spurious 
and  spirited  ballad  by  him,  'The  Death  of 
Featherstonhaugh*.  'Barthram's  Dirge*  in 
the  same  collection  is  suspected  of  being  also 
by  Surtees  (Burton,  'The  Book-hunter*). 

SURTEES,  ROBERT  SMITH  (1803-64), 
author  of  a  number  of  humorous  sporting 
novels.  With  Rudolph  Ackermann  the  youn- 
ger, he  started  in  1831  'The  New  Sporting 
Magazine1,  to  which  he  contributed  the 
sketches  of  Mr.  Jorrocks,  the  sporting 
grocer,  subsequently  republished  as  'Jor- 
rocks 's  Jaunts  and  Jollities'  (1838).  This  was 
followed  by  'Handley  Cross'  (1843),  'Hilling- 
don  Hall*  (1845,  about  Jorrocks  in  his  old 
age),  'Hawbuck  Grange'  (1847),  'Mr. 
Sponge's  Sporting  Tour1  (1853),  'Ask  Mam- 
ma' (1858),  'Plain  or  Ringlets'  (1859),  *Mr. 
Facey  Romford's  Hounds'  (1865).  John 
Leech's  illustrations  to  most  of  these  books 
add  greatly  to  their  interest.  Surtees  also 
wrote  in  'Bell's  Life  in  London*  a  series  of 


SVENGALI 

papers,  some  of  which  were  reprinted,  with 
illustrations  by  Alken,  as  'The  Analysis  of 
the  Hunting  Field'  (1846). 

Surtur,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
ruler  of  Muspellheim  (q.v.),  the  fire-god. 

Survey  of  London,  A,  see  Stow. 

Surya,  in  Vedic  theology,  the  sun-god,  in- 
voked by  every  devout  Brahman  when  he 
rises. 

Susanna,  THE  HISTORY  OF,  one  of  the 
apocryphal  books  of  the  O.T.,  detached  from 
the  beginning  of  the  book  of  Daniel. 
Susanna  was  the  wife  of  Joakim,  a  rich  man 
dwelling  in  Babylon.  She  was  accused  of 
unchastity  by  two  elders,  because  she  had 
repelled  their  advances.  Daniel  exposed  the 
plot  by  examining  the  elders  separately;  their 
evidence  conflicted  and  they  were  put  to 
death. 

Suspicious  Husband,  The,  a  comedy  by 
Dr.  Benjamin  Hoadly  (q.v.)  and  his  brother, 
produced  in  1747  at  Co  vent  Garden,  Garrick 
talcing  the  part  of  Ranger. 

Strictland,  the  suspicious  husband  of  a 
young  wife,  is  guardian  of  the  wealthy  Jacin- 
tha.  She  and  Bellamy  are  in  love  with  one 
another,  but  Strictland  will  not  hear  of  the 
match.  So  Jacintha,  a  young  lady  of  spirit, 
determines  to  run  away  with  her  lover,  who 
provides  a  rope  ladder  for  the  purpose. 
Clarinda,  a  sprightly  young  friend  of  Mrs. 
Strictland,  is  staying  in  her  house.  Frankly, 
a  friend  of  Bellamy,  who  has  fallen  in  love 
with  her  at  Bath,  pursues  her  to  London. 
Frankly  and  Bellamy  meet  outside  the  house 
at  night,  just  when  Jacintha  is  about  to  escape 
and  when  Clarinda,  after  a  late  whist  party,  is 
coming  home.  A  general  imbroglio  ensues. 
Bellamy  suspects  Frankly  of  an  intrigue  with 
Jacintha;  Strictland,  discovering  the  latter's 
attempted  flight,  goes  off  in  pursuit.  Mean- 
while Ranger,  a  frolicsome  rattlepate,  and 
friend  of  Bellamy  and  Frankly,  happening  to 
pass  and  seeing  a  rope-ladder  hanging  from 
the  window,  climbs  up  in  search  of  adventure, 
and  makes  his  way  to  the  bedroom  of  Mrs. 
Strictland,  whom  he  has  never  seen  before. 
The  return  of  Strictland  with  the  captured 
Jacintha  puts  him  to  flight,  but  he  drops  his 
hat  in  Mrs.  Strictland's  room,  where  it  is 
discovered  by  her  husband,  who  is  now  con- 
vinced that  his  suspicions  were  well-founded, 
and  sentences  his  wife  to  banishment  to  the 
country.  While  this  is  going  on,  Ranger,  who 
has  taken  refuge  in  another  room,  discovers 
Jacintha,  and  enables  her  to  escape,  this  time 
successfully.  On  the  morrow  there  is  a 
general  confrontation  and  explanation,  and 
all  ends  happily. 

Sutra,  in  Sanskrit  literature,  a  short 
mnemonic  rule  in  grammar,  law,  or  philo- 
sophy, requiring  expansion  by  means  of  a 
commentary. 

Svengali,  see  Trilby. 


[754] 


SWADDLER 

Swaddler,  a  nickname  originally  for  a 
Methodist,  especially  a  Methodist  preacher, 
in  Ireland;  later  for  Protestants  in  general. 
The  explanation  commonly  accepted  (but 
challenged)  is  that  quoted  by  C.  Wesley  in 
his  journal  (10  Sept.  174?):  'It  seems  we 
are  beholden  to  Mr.  Cennick  for  it,  who 
abounds  in  such-like  expressions  as  "I  curse 
and  blaspheme  all  the  gods  in  heaven,  but 
the  babe  that  lay  in  the  manger,  the  babe 
that  lay  in  Mary's  lap,  the  babe  that  lay  in 
swaddling  clouts".  Hence  they  nicknamed 
him  "Swaddler".  And  the  name  sticks  to  us 
all,  not  excepting  the  clergy.' 

Swallow,  the  mare  of  Hereward  the  Wake 
(q.v.);  according  to  the  chronicles  the 
ugliest  as  well  as  the  swiftest  of  her  time. 

Swan,  THE  MANTUAN,  Virgil  (q.v.). 

Swan  of  Avon,  THE,  Shakespeare,  so  called 
by  Jonson. 

Swan  of  Lichfield,  see  Seward. 

Swanhild,  according  to  the  Volsunga  Saga 
(q.v.),  the  daughter  of  Sigurd.  King  Jor- 
rnunrek  desires  to  marry  her  and  sends 
Randver,  his  son,  to  sue  for  her  hand.  On 
his  return  with  Swanhild,  Randver  is  falsely 
accused  to  the  king  of  having  seduced  her. 
He  is  ordered  to  execution,  and  on  the  way 
plucks  the  feathers  from  his  hawk,  and  sends 
it  to  the  king,  as  a  symbol  that  his  honour  is 
taken  from  him.  The  king  repents,  but  it  is 
too  late,  for  Randver  has  been  put  to  death. 
Swanhild,  as  the  cause  of  the  king's  grief,  is 
bound  in  the  gate,  and  is  trodden  to  death 
under  horses'  feet. 

Swaran,  in  the  Ossianic  poem  'FingaP 
(q.v.),  the  Scandinavian  king  of  Lochlin,  who 
invades  Ireland. 

Sweating  sickness,  the  name  given  to  a 
febrile  disease  of  which  highly  and  rapidly 
fatal  epidemics  occurred  in  the  I5th  and 
1 6th  cents.  The  principal  epidemic  in  London 
occurred  in  1517. 

SWEDENBORG  (SWEDBERG),  EMAN- 
UEL  (1688-1772),  Swedish  philosopher, 
scientist,  and  mystic,  was  the  son  of  a  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Upsala.  He  devoted  the 
earlier  part  of  his  life  to  scientific  study  and 
engineering,  and  was  ahead  of  his  contem- 
poraries in  many  branches  of  scientific  dis- 
covery. He  was  gradually  led  to  seek  a 
scientific  explanation  of  the  universe,  pub- 
lishing in  1734  his  'Opera  philosophica  et 
mineralia',  and  in  the  same  year  his  'Pro- 
dromus  Philosophiae  ratiocinantis  deinfinito' 
on  the  relation  of  the  soul  to  the  body  and  the 
finite  to  the  infinite. 

After  middle  age  he  applied  himself  to 
psychical  and  spiritual  subjects.  He  enjoyed 
visions  culminating  in  1745  *n  &  revelation, 
and  thereafter  devoted  his  life  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Scriptures.  According  to  his 
theosophic  system,  God,  as  Divine  Man,  is 


SWIFT 

infinite  love  and  infinite  wisdom,  from 
whom  emanate  the  two  worlds  of  nature 
and  spirit,  distinct  but  closely  related.  The 
end  of  creation  is  the  approximation  of  man 
to  God.  This  end  having  been  endangered 
by  evil  spirits,  Jehovah  descended  into 
nature,  restored  the  connexion  between 
God  and  man,  and  left  the  Scriptures  as 
His  testimony,  of  which  Swedenborg  was 
the  appointed  interpreter.  The  Sweden- 
borgians  or  followers  of  Swedenborg  were 
organized  in  London  in  1778  as  the  'New 
Church'. 

Sweedlepipe,  PAUL  or  POLL,  in  Dickens's 
'Martin  Chuzzlewit*  (q.v.),  bird-fancier  and 
barber,  Mrs.  Gamp's  landlord. 
Swidger,  PHILIP,  WILLIAM,  and  MILLY, 
characters  in  Dickens's  'The  Haunted  Man* 
(q.v.). 

SWIFT,  JONATHAN  (1667-1745),  was 
born  at  Dublin  after  his  father's  death.  He 
was  son  of  Jonathan  Swift  by  Abigail  (Erick) 
of  Leicester,  and  grandson  of  Thomas  Swift, 
the  well-known  Royalist  vicar  of  Goodrich, 
descended  from  a  Yorkshire  family.  He  was 
a  cousin  of  Dryden.  He  was  educated  at 
Kilkenny  Grammar  School,  where  Congreve 
(q.v.)  was  his  schoolfellow.  Thence  he  went 
to  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  was 
censured  for  offences  against  discipline, 
obtaining  his  degree  only  by  'special  grace'. 
He  was  admitted  (c.  1692)  to  the  house- 
hold of  Sir  W.  Temple  (q.v.),  where  he 
acted  as  secretary.  He  was  sent  by  Temple  to 
William  III  to  convince  him  of  the  necessity 
of  triennial  parliaments,  but  his  mission  was 
not  successful.  He  wrote  pindarics,  one  of 
which,  printed  in  the  'Athenian  Mercury* 
(1692),  provoked,  according  to  Dr.  Johnson, 
Dryden 's  remark,  'Cousin  Swift,  you  will 
never  be  a  poet.'  Chafing  at  his  position  of 
dependence,  and  indignant  at  Temple's  delay 
in  getting  him  preferment,  he  returned  to 
Ireland,  was  ordained  (1694),  and  received 
the  small  prebend  of  Kilroot.  He  returned  to 
Temple  at  Moor  Park  in  1696,  where  he 
edited  Temple's  correspondence,  and  in 
1697  wrote  'The  Battle  of  the  Books'  (q.v.), 
which  was  published  in  1704,  together  with 
*A  Tale  of  a  Tub'  (q.v.),  his  celebrated  satire 
on  'corruptions  in  religion  and  learning*.  At 
Moor  Park  he  first  met  Esther  Johnson 
('Stella'),  the  daughter  of  a  servant  or  com- 
panion of  Temple's  sister,  of  whom  more 
presently.  On  the  death  of  Temple  in  1699, 
Swift  went  again  to  Ireland,  was  given 
a  prebend  in  St.  Patrick's,  Dublin,  and 
the  living  of  Laracor.  He  wrote  his 
'Discourse  of  the  Contests  and  Dissensions 
in  Athens  and  Rome*  with  reference  to 
the  impeachment  of  the  Whig  lords,  in 
1701.  In  the  course  of  numerous  visits  to 
London  he  became  acquainted  with  Addison, 
Steele,  Congreve,  and  Halifax.  He  was 
entrusted  in  1707  with  a  mission  to  obtain  the 
grant  of  Queen  Anne's  Bounty  for  Ireland, 
and  in  1708  began  a  series  of  pamphlets  on 


[755] 


302 


SWIFT 

church  questions  with  his  ironical  'Argu- 
ment against  abolishing  Christianity*,  fol- 
lowed in  the  same  year  by  his  'Letter  con- 
cerning the  Sacramental  Test*,  an  attack  on 
the  Irish  Presbyterians,  which  injured  him 
with  the  Whigs.  Amid  these  serious  occu- 
pations, he  diverted  himself  with  the  series 
of  squibs  upon  the  astrologer  John  Partridge 
(1708-9,  see  under  Bickerstaff),  which  have 
become  famous,  and  his  'Description  of  a 
City  Shower'  and  'Description  of  the  Morn- 
ing', poems  depicting  scenes  of  London  life, 
which  were  published  in  the  'Tatler'  (1709)- 
Disgusted  at  the  Whig  alliance  with  dissent, 
he  went  over  to  the  Tories  in  1710,  joined  the 
'Brother's  Club'  (q.v.),  attacked  the  ^  Whig 
ministers  in  the  'Examiner*  (q.v.),  which  he 
edited,  and  in  1711  wrote  'The  Conduct  of 
the  Allies'  and  'Some  Remarks  on  the  Barrier 
Treaty',  pamphlets  written  to  dispose  the 
mind  of  the  nation  to  peace.  He  became 
dean  of  St.  Patrick's  in  1713.  He  had 
already  begun  his  'Journal  to  Stella'  (letters 
I  and  41-65  published  in  Hawkesworth's 
edition  of  Swift's  works  in  1766 ;  letters  2-40 
in  Deane  Swift's  edition,  1768;  a  modern 
annotated  edition  is  that  of  G.  A.  Aitken, 
1901).  It  is  a  series  of  intimate  letters  (1710- 
13)  to  Esther  Johnson  and  her  companion 
Rebecca  Dingley,  for  the  most  part  written 
in  baby-language,  recounting  the  details 
of  his  daily  life  while  in  London,  where  he 
was  in  close  touch  with  the  Tory  ministers. 
Swift's  relations  with  Stella  have  remained 
somewhat  obscure;  she  was  his  worshipper, 
and  he  respected  her  and  returned  her  affec- 
tion .  Whether  he  ultimately  married  her  is  un- 
certain. Stella  died  in  1 728.  Another  woman, 
Esther  Vanhomrigh  (pron.  'Vanummery'), 
entered  into  his  life  in  1708;  she  fell  deeply 
in  love  with  him,  received  some  measure  of 
encouragement,  and  his  final  rupture  with 
her  about  1723  led  to  her  death.  The  story 
of  their  love-affair  is  related  in  Swift's  poem, 
'Cadenus  and  Vanessa'  (q.v.),  'Cadenus* 
being  an  anagram  of  'Decanus',  and  'Vanessa* 
being  the  pet  name  by  which  Swift  knew  her. 
Swift  wrote  various  political  pamphlets, 
notably  'The  Importance  of  the  Guardian 
considered'  (1713)  and  'The  Public  Spirit  of 
the  Whigs'  (1714),  in  reply  to  Steele's  'Crisis' ; 
and  about  the  time  of  the  queen's  death  in 
1714  and  the  fall  of  the  Tory  ministry, 
several  papers  (published  much  later)  in  de- 
fence of  the  latter.  In  the  same  year  he 
joined  Pope,  Arbuthnot,  Gay,  and  others  in 
the  celebrated  Scriblerus  Club  (q.v.).  Here- 
turned  to  Ireland  in  August  1714  and  occu- 
pied himself  with  Irish  affairs,  being  led  by 
his  resentment  of  the  policy  of  the  Whigs  to 
acquire  a  sense  of  their  unfair  treatment  of 
Ireland.  By  his  famous  'Drapier's  Letters' 
(q-v.,  1724)  he  prevented  the  introduction 
of  'Wood's  Half-pence'  into  Ireland.  He 
came  to  England  in  1726,  visited  Pope 
and  Gay,  and  dined  with  Sir  Robert 
Walpole,  to  whom  he  addressed  a  letter  of 
remonstrance  on  Irish  affairs  with  no  result. 


SWIFT 

He  published  'Gulliver's  Travels' (q.v.)  in  the 
same  year,  and  paid  a  last  visit  to  England  in 
1 727,  when  the  death  of  George  I  created  for 
a  moment  hopes  of  dislodging  Walpole.  He 
wrote  some  of  his  most  famous  tracts  and 
characteristic  poems  during  his  last  years  in 
Ireland,  'The  Grand  Question  Debated' 
(q.v.,  1729);  'Verses  on  his  own  Death* 
(1731),  in  which  with  mingled  pathos  and 
humour  he  posthumously  reviews  his  own  life 
and  work;  *A  complete  Collection  of  Genteel 
and  Ingenious  Conversation*  (?i 73 8,  q.v.  un- 
der Conversation);  and  the  ironical  'Directions 
to  Servants'  (written  about  1731  and  published 
after  his  death).  He  kept  up  his  correspon- 
dence with  Bolingbroke,  Pope,  Gay,  and 
Arbuthnot,  attracted  to  himself  a  small  circle 
of  friends,  and  was  adored  by  the  people. 
He  set  up  a  monument  to  Schomberg  in  the 
cathedral  at  his  own  expense,  spent  a  third  of 
his  income  on  charities,  and  saved  up  another 
third  to  found  a  charitable  institution  at  his 
death,  St.  Patrick's  Hospital  for  Imbeciles 
(opened  1757).  The  symptoms  of  the  illness 
from  which  he  appears  to  have  suffered  all  his 
life  (a  form  of  vertigo)  became  very  marked  c. 
1738,  and  for  a  time  before  his  death  he  was 
insane.  He  was  buried  by  the  side  of  Stella, 
in  St.  Patrick's,  Dublin,  his  own  famous 
inscription,  'ubi  sasva  indignatio  ulterius  cor 
lacerare  nequit*,  being  inscribed  on  his  tomb. 
Dr.  Johnson,  Macaulay,  and  Thackeray, 
among  many  other  writers,  were  alienated  by 
his  ferocity,  which  was,  however,  the  result  of 
noble  qualities  soured  by  hard  experience. 
His  indignation  at  oppression  and  unfairness 
was  genuine.  His  writing  was  sometimes 
coarse,  but  never  lewd.  His  political  works 
are  founded  on  common  sense,  pure  and 
simple,  and  he  had  no  party  bias.  Nearly  all 
his  works  were  published  anonymously,  and 
for  only  one,  'Gulliver's  Travels',  did  he 
receive  any  payment  (  £200). 

Among  earlier  biographies  of  Swift  may 
be  mentioned  the  earl  of  Orrery's  (1752, 
followed  by  P.  Delany's  'Observations  upon 
Lord  Orrery's  Remarks',  1754),  Deane 
Swift's  (1755),  and  T.  Sheridan's  (1784). 
There  is  a  memoir  by  Sir  W.  Scott  prefixed 
to  his  edition  of  Swift's  works  (1814),  and 
Lives  by  John  Forster  (1875),  by  Henry 
Craik  (1882),  and  by  Leslie  Stephen  in  the 
English  Men  of  Letters  series  (1882). 
Johnson's  criticisms  in  his  'Lives  of  the 
Poets'  show  an  underlying  antipathy. 

Swift  published  a  great  number  of  works. 
Besides  the  more  important,  which  have  been 
referred  to  above,  mention  may  be  made  of 
the  following : 

Political  writings:  'The  Virtues  of  Sid 
Hamet  the  Magician's  Rod'  (1710),  an  attack 
on  Godolphin;  'The  W— ds — r  Prophecy* 
(1711),  attacking  the  duchess  of  Somerset; 
*A  Short  Character  of  T[homas]  E[arl]  of 
W[harton]'  (i7«);  'The  Fable  of  Midas' 
(1711);  'Some  Advice  humbly  offered  to  the 
Members  of  the  October  Club',  the  extreme 
Tories  (1712);  'Some  Free  Thoughts  upon 


[756] 


SWINBURNE 

the  present  state  of  affairs'  (1714);  'Traulus' 
(1730),  attacking  Lord  Allen  ;  and  the  'History 
of  the  Four  Last  Years  of  the  Queen*  [Anne] 


Pamphlets  relating  to  Ireland*.  CA  Proposal 
for  the  Universal  Use  of  Irish  Manufacture' 
(1720);  'The  Swearers-Bank'  (1720);  'The 
Story  of  the  Injured  Lady*  (?I746);  'A  short 
view  of  the  state  of  Ireland'  (1728)  ;  'A  Modest 
Proposal  for  preventing  the  Children  of  Poor 
People  from  being  a  Burden  to  their  Parents 
or  the  Country'  —  by  using  them  as  food  for 
the  rich  (1729);  'An  Examination  of  certain 
Abuses,  Corruptions  and  Enormities  in  the 
City  of  Dublin'  (1732);  'The  Legion  Club' 
(the  Irish  parliament,  1736). 

Pamphlets  on  Church  questions'.  'The 
Sentiments  of  a  Church  of  England  Man  with 
respect  to  Religion  and  Government'  (1708); 
*A  Project  for  the  Advancement  of  Religion 
and  the  Reformation  of  Manners'  (1709);  'A 
Preface  to  the  B  —  p  of  S  —  r  —  m's  Introduc- 
tion', an  attack  on  Bishop  Burnet  (1713); 
'Mr.  C  —  ns's  Discourse  on  Free  Thinking',  a 
satire  on  Collins,  the  deist  (1713);  'A  Letter 
to  a  Young  Gentleman,  lately  entered  into 
Holy  Orders'  (1721).  Mention  may  here  be 
made  of  Swift's  'Sermons'  (of  which  four 
were  published  in  1744),  marked  by  the 
author's  usual  characteristics  of  vigour  and 
common  sense. 

Miscellaneous  verses  and  other  writings  :  the 
'Petition  of  Mrs.  Frances  Harris',  a  servant 
who  has  lost  her  purse,  an  amusing  burlesque 
(1709);  'Baucis  and  Philemon'  (1709);  'On 
Mrs.  Biddy  Floyd'  (1709);  'A  Meditation 
upon  a  Broom-Stick'  (1710);  'A  Proposal  for 
Correcting,  Improving  and  Ascertaining  the 
English  Tongue'  (1712);  imitations  of  the 
'Seventh  Epistle  of  the  First  Book  of  Horace', 
of  the  'First  Ode  of  the  Second  Book  of 
Horace'  (1713),  and  of  the  'Sixth  Satire  of  the 
Second  Book  of  Horace'  (1738);  'A  Letter  of 
Advice  to  a  Young  Poet'  (1721)  ;  a  'Letter  to  a 
very  young  Lady  on  her  Marriage*  (1727)  ;  the 
'Journal  of  a  Modern  Lady'  (1729);  'The 
Lady's  Dressing-Room'  (1732);  'The  Beasts 
Confession  to  the  Priest*  (1732),  a  satire 
on  'the  universal  folly  of  mankind  in 
mistaking  their  talents';  'A  serious  and 
useful  scheme  to  make  an  Hospital  for 
Incurables'  —  whether  the  incurable  disease 
were  knavery,  folly,  lying,  or  infidelity 
(i733);  'On  Poetry,  a  Rapsody'  (1733), 
satirical  advice  to  a  poet;  'A  Beautiful  Young 
Nymph  Going  to  Bed';  and  'Strephon  and 
Chloe'  (1734)- 

The  principal  editions  of  Swift's  works  are  : 
John  Hawkesworth's  (1766),  Deane  Swift's 
(1768),  Thomas  Sheridan's  (1784),  J. 
Nichols's  (1801-3-8),  Sir  W.  Scott's  (1814 
and  1824),  and  Temple  Scott's  (1897- 
1908). 

Swinburne,  the  quartermaster  in  Marryat's 
'Peter  Simple'  (q.v.). 

SWINBURNE,  ALGERNON  CHARLES 
(1837-1909),    was    educated    at   Eton    and 


SWINBURNE 

Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  was  early  united 
by  ties  of  friendship  with  Rossetti  and  his 
circle.  His  first  published  volume  'The  Queen 
Mother.  Rosamond.  Two  Plays'  (1860) 
attracted  no  attention,  but  'Ataianta  in  Caly- 
don*  (1865),  a  drama  in  the  classical  Greek 
form,  with  choruses  (notably  the  hymn  to 
Artemis)  that  revealed  Swinburne's  unsur- 
passed mastery  of  melodious  verse,  brought 
him  celebrity.  In  the  same  year  appeared 
'Chastelard',  the  first  of  his  three  romantic 
dramas  on  the  subject  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots.  In  1866  followed  the  first  series  of 
'Poems  and  Ballads'  (containing  'Laus 
Veneris',  'Dolores',  and  'A  Litany*,  among 
other  notable  poems),  which,  by  its  out- 
spoken repudiation  of  conventions  and  its 
pagan  spirit,  incurred  no  little  censure.  'A 
Song  of  Italy'  (1867)  and  'Songs  before  Sun- 
rise' (1871),  written  during  the  struggle  for 
Italian  independence,  show  Swinburne's 
detestation  of  kings  and  priests.  'Bothwell, 
a  Tragedy',  the  second  drama  in  the  trilogy 
of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  appeared  in  1874, 
and  'Erectheus',  a  second  drama  in  the 
Greek  form,  in  1876.  The  second  series  of 
'Poems  and  Ballads',  more  subdued  in  tone 
and  subject  than  the  first,  was  published  in 
1878.  It  contains  'A  Forsaken  Garden',  the' 
laments  for  Baudelaire  and  The"ophile 
Gautier,  and  translations  of  the  'Ballades'  of 
Villon.  'Songs  of  the  Springtides*  and 
'Studies  in  Song'  (1880)  are  marked  by  the 
author's  passion  for  the  sea.  'Mary  Stuart', 
the  third  drama  of  the  trilogy,  appeared  in 

1 88 1,  and  'Tristram  of  Lyonesse',  a  romantic 
poem  in  rhymed  couplets,   considered  by 
many  Swinburne's  most  perfect  work,  in 

1882.  The  volume  containing  the  latter  also 
included  'Athens,  an  Ode'  (comparing  the 
victory  of  Salamis  with  the  defeat  of  the 
Armada),  and  other  poems,  among  them  a 
notable  series  of  sonnets  on  the  Elizabethan 
dramatists.  The  tragedy  of  'Marino  Faliero' 
(q.v.),  in  which  he  rehandled  a  theme  pre- 
viously treated  by  Byron,  was  published  in 
1885,  and  'Locrine',  another  drama,  in  1887, 
followed  by  a  third  series  of  'Poems  and 
Ballads'  in  1889.  His  last  volumes  of  poems, 
'Astrophel'  (1894),  'A  Tale  of  Balen*  (1896), 
and  'A  Channel  Passage'  (1904),  and  his  last 
plays,   'The   Sisters',  in  prose   (1892),  and 
'Rosamund,  Queen  of  the  Lombards*  (1899), 
show  some  decline  of  power.  'The  Duke  of 
Gandia'  (1908)  was  his  last  work. 

Of  Swinburne's  prose  works  of  literary 
criticism,  the  most  notable  were  his  'Essays 
and  Studies'  (1875),  'Miscellanies' (1886),  and 
his  monographs  on  Shakespeare  (1880), 
Victor  Hugo  (1886),  Ben  Jonson  (1889), 
George  Chapman  (1875),  and  other  Eliza- 
bethan dramatists.  He  also  wrote  acute  and 
interesting  criticisms  of  many  more  modern 
writers,  from  Blake  to  the  Brontes  and 
Charles  Dickens;  and  produced  the  articles 
on  Mary  Stuart,  Congreve,  Keats,  and  Lan- 
dor  for  the  'Encyclopaedia  Britannica*,  See 
also  Watts-Dunton. 


[757] 


SWING 

Swing,  CAPTAIN,  an  imaginary  person  to 
whom  about  1830-3  were  attributed  a  num- 
ber of  outrages  against  farmers  who  had 
adopted  the  use  of  agricultural  machinery. 
Swiss  Family  Robinson,  The,  the  romance 
of  a  family  wrecked  on  a  desert  island,  pub- 
lished in  1813  by  Johann  Rudolf  Wyss  (1781- 
1830),  a  Swiss  author,  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Bern. 

Swithin  or  SWITHUN,  ST.  (d.  863),  a  priest  of 
the  church  of  Winchester,  who  was  appointed 
by  King  Egbert  tutor  of  his  son  Ethelwulf  .  On 
the  latter's  accession  Swithin  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Winchester,  and  was  one  of  the 
king's  chief  counsellors  in  ecclesiastical 
matters.  His  body  was  buried  by  his  own 
wish  outside  the  north  wall  of  Winchester 
Minster,  'where  the  rains  of  heaven  might 
fall  on  him  and  he  be  trodden  under  foot  by 
those  who  entered  the  church'  (Stanton, 
Penology*).  His  remains  were  translated 
within  the  cathedral  in  970,  when  numerous 
miracles  occurred,  and  Swithin  was  canonized 
in  popular  tradition.  His  shrine  is  said  to 
have  been  destroyed  by  Henry  VIII.  He  is 
commemorated  on  15  July.  There  is  a 
legend  that  if  it  rains  on  this  day  there  will  be 
rain  for  the  next  forty  days. 
Swiveller,  DICK,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Old  Curiosity  Shop'  (q.v.). 
Sword-dance,  a  medieval  folk  custom,  of 
ritual  origin,  probably  symbolizing  the  death 
and  resurrection  of  the  year.  The  stock 
characters  were  the  fool,  dressed  in  the  skin 
of  an  animal,  and  the  'Bessy',  a  man  dressed 
in  woman's  clothes.  In  many  of  the  extant 
dances  one  of  the  characters  is  surrounded 
with  the  swords  of  the  other  dancers  or  slain. 
The  characters  were  introduced  in  rhymed 
speeches.  The  sword-dance  is  one  of  the 
origins  of  the  Mummers'  play  (q.v.)  and  so 
of  English  drama.  See  also  Revesby  Play. 

Sybaris,  an  ancient  Greek  town  in  southern 
Italy,  an  Achaean  colony  and  perhaps  the 
earliest  colony  in  Magna  Graecia.  Its  in- 
habitants were  so  notorious  for  their  luxury 
and  love  of  pleasure,  that  the  name  Sybarite 
became  proverbial  for  a  voluptuary. 

Sybil,  or  The  Two  Nations,  an  historical 
novel  by  Disraeli  (q.v.),  published  in  1845. 

Having  in  'Coningsby'  (q.v.)  'called  atten- 
tion to  the  state  of  our  political  parties ;  their 
origin,  their  history,  their  present  position', 
the  author  proceeds  in  this  work  to  'draw 
public  thought  to  the  state  of  the  People 
whom  those  parties  for  two  centuries  have 
governed'.  He  depicts  the  conditions  pre- 
vailing among  the  working  classes  in  the 
early  years  of  Queen  Victoria's  reign,  the 
overcrowding  in  miserable  tenements,  the 
inadequate  wages,  the  'truck'  system,  and 
the  selfishness  of  many  of  the  landlords  and 
employers;  and  relates  the  agitation  against 
them  that  led  up  to  the  Chartist  riots.  The 
'Two  Nations'  of  the  title  are  the  rich  and  the 
poor.  With  this  exposition  is  woven  the  story 


SYLVIA'S  LOVERS 

of  the  love  of  the  generous  and  enlightened 
Charles  Egremont,  younger  brother  of  Lord 
Marney,  one  of  the  meanest  of  the  landlord 
class,  for  Sybil,  the  daughter  of  Gerard,  one 
of  the  Chartist  leaders.  The  dramatic  force 
of  the  situation  is  heightened  by  making 
Sybil  belong  to  the  family  of  the  last  abbot  of 
Marney,  whose  lands  had  been  plundered 
under  Henry  VIII. 

Sybil  Warner,  a  character  in  Lytton's  'The 
Last  of  the  Barons'  (q.v.). 
Syeorax,  in  Shakespeare's  'The  Tempest* 
(q.v.),  a  witch,  the  mother  of  Caliban. 
Syllepsis,  a  figure  of  speech  by  which  a 
word,  or  a  particular  form  or  inflexion  of  a 
word,  is  made  to  refer  to  two  or  more  other 
words  in  the  same  sentence,  while  properly 
applying  to  or  agreeing  with  only  one  of  them, 
or  applying  to  them  in  different  senses  ;  e.g. 
'Miss  Bold  went  home  in  a  flood  of  tears  and  a 
sedan  chair'.  Cf.  Zeugma. 
Sylph,  one  of  a  race  of  beings  or  spirits  sup- 
posed to  inhabit  the  air,  originally^  in  the 
system  of  Paracelsus  (q.v.),  who  similarly 
imagined     gnomes     inhabiting     the    earth, 
nymphs  the  water,  and  salamanders  fire. 
Sylva,  a  book  on  arboriculture  by  Evelyn 


Sylvander,  the  name  under  which  Burns 

corresponded    with    Clarinda    (q.v.),    Mrs. 

Maclehose. 

SYLVANUS  URBAN,  the  pseudonym  of 

E.  CAVE  (q.v.). 

Sylvester  II,  POPE,  see  Gerbert. 

Sylvia,  a  character  in  Farquhar's  'The  Re- 

cruiting Officer'  (q.v.).  See  also  Silvia  and 

below. 

Sylvia,  or  the  May  Queen,  a  poetic  fantasy 
by  G.  Darley  (q.v.). 

Sylvia's  Lovers,  a  novel  by  Mrs.  Gaskell 
(q.v.),  published  in  1863. 

Sylvia  is  the  daughter  of  Daniel  Robson,  a 
farmer  near  Monkshaven  (Whitby)  on  the 
Yorkshire  coast,  at  the  end  of  the  i8th  cent., 
a  man  who  has  been  sailor  and  smuggler.  He 
has  his  grudge  against  the  press-gang,  of 
whose  terrors  in  the  days  of  the  naval  wars 
a  graphic  description  opens  the  story.  Sylvia 
is  deeply  loved  by  her  plain,  pedantic,  Quaker 
cousin,  Philip  Hepburn,  whose  honesty  and 
diligence  as  assistant  in  the  big  draper's  shop 
of  Monkshaven  win  him  a  partnership  at  23. 
But  Sylvia  falls  passionately  in  love  with  the 
gallant  sailor,  Charley  Kinraid,  and  they 
plight  their  troth,  to  Philip's  distress,  who 
knows  Charley's  reputation  as  a  light-of-love. 
Philip  is  sent  on  a  mission  to  London,  and 
as  he  walks  along  a  lonely  part  of  the  coast, 
he  sees  his  hated  rival  (who  is  simultaneously 
starting  for  his  whaling-ship)  seized  by  the 
press-gang.  As  Charley  lies  overpowered  in 
their  boat,  he  shouts  to  Philip  a  farewell 
message  to  Sylvia,  which  the  latter  has  no 
opportunity  of  immediately  delivering.  On 
his  return  from  London  two  months  later,  he 


[758] 


SYMBOLISTS 

finds  Sylvia  mourning  the  missing  Charley, 
whose  hat  has  been  found  by  the  shore  and 
who  is  believed  drowned,  The  temptation 
is  too  strong  for  Philip,  and  he  conceals  what 
he  knows.  ^Some  time  later  farmer  Robson 
takes  a  leading  part  in  a  riotous  attack  on  the 
press-gang,  and  is  hanged  in  consequence, 
and  Sylvia  and  her  mother  are  thrown  upon 
the  world.  Philip  presses  the  advantage  that 
their  distress  gives  him  and  persuades  Sylvia, 
still  mourning  for  Charley,  to  enter  into  a 
loveless  marriage  with  him.  Then  after  a 
year  Charley  returns,  Philip's  treachery  is 
revealed,  and  under  the  fierce  denunciation 
of  his  wife  he  flees  from  the  town  and  enlists, 
while  Charley  also  disappears.  The  two  men 
meet  again  at  the  siege  of  Acre,  where  Philip 
saves  Charley's  life  and  is  himself  grievously 
wounded.  A  beggar  and  disfigured,  he 
returns  to  Monkshaven,  drawn  by  his  love 
for  Sylvia  and  his  child.  Meanwhile  her 
heart  has  softened  towards  him,  and  she  has 
learnt  that  Charley,  within  a  few  weeks  of 
leaving  her,  had  married  another  woman. 
Philip  and  she  are  at  last  brought  together, 
but  he  is  now  on  his  death-bed,  and  they  have 
time  only  for  mutual  forgiveness  before  he 
dies.  Among  the  many  fine  characters  in 
the  book  may  be  mentioned  the  sturdy  old 
servant,  Kester,  and  Hester  Rose,  the 
Quakeress,  whose  self-denying  love  for 
Philip  remains  steadfast  and  unrequited  to 
the  end, 

Symbolists,  the  name  of  a  recent  school  of 
French  poets  who  aimed  at  representing  ideas 
and  emotions  by  indirect  suggestion  rather 
than  by  direct  expression,  and  attached  sym- 
bolic meaning  to  particular  objects,  words, 
sounds,  &c.  [OED.]  Symbolism  is  a  revolt 
against  the  photographic  methods  of  natural- 
ism and  realism. 

Symkyn,  SYMOND,  the  miller  of  Trumping- 
ton  in  Chaucer's  'The  Reeve's  Tale*  (see 
Canterbury  Tales). 

SYMONDS,  JOHN  ADDINGTON  (1840- 
93),  educated  at  Harrow  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  won  the  Newdigate  prize 
and  became  a  fellow  of  Magdalen.  Symonds 
suffered  long  from  ill-health  and  spent  much 
of  his  life  in  Italy,  writing  under  difficulties. 
His  largest  work,  a  'History  of  the  Renais- 
sance in  Italy'  (1875-86),  containing  much 
valuable  information,  is  a  series  of  picturesque 
sketches  rather  than  a  continuous  treatise. 
He  published  his  translation  of  the  'Auto- 
biography of  Benvenuto  Cellini*  in  1888.  His 
other  works  include  'Studies  of  the  Greek 
Poets'  (1873),  'Sketches  in  Italy  and  Greece* 
(1874),  short  volumes  on  Ben  Jonson,  Sidney, 
and  Shelley,  and  several  volumes  of  verse 
(among  others,  'Many  Moods',  1878;  'New 
and  Old',  1880;  'Animi  Figura*,  1882). 
Symonds  excelled  as  a  translator,  and  his 
versions  from  the  Greek  poets,  and  of  the 
sonnets  of  Michelangelo  and  Campanella 
(1878),  are  especially  praised. 


SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 
Sympl€g&d£s,  see  Cyanean  Rocks. 

Symposiumf  The,  or  The  Banquet,  the  title 
of  a  dialogue  by  Plato  in  which  Socrates, 
Aristophanes,  Alcibiades,  and  others,  at  the 
house  of  the  poet  Agathon,  discuss  the  nature 
of  love.  It  is  also  the  title  of  a  dialogue  by 
Xenophon,  in  which  Socrates  and  others  are 
the  speakers. 

Synaeresis,  the  sounding  of  two  separate 
vowels  as  a  diphthong,  as  when  aerial  is 
pron.  airial;  the  opposite  of  diaeresis. 

Syndicalism,  from  the  French  chambre 
syndicate,  a  trade  union,  a  movement  among 
industrial  workers  having  as  its  object  the 
transfer  of  the  means  of  production  and  dis- 
tribution from  their  present  owners  to  unions 
of  workers  for  the  benefit  of  the  workers. 
[OED.]  The  word  apparently  first  occurs 
in  1907. 

Synecdoche  (pron.  'sinekdoki*),  a  figure  of 
speech  by  which  a  more  comprehensive  term 
is  used  for  a  less  comprehensive  or  vice  versa, 
as  whole  for  part  or  part  for  whole,  e.g. 
'There  were  six  guns  out  on  the  moor*  where 
'guns'  stands  for  shooters ;  and  'Oxford  won 
the  match',  where  'Oxford*  stands  for  'the 
Oxford  eleven*. 

SYNGE,  JOHN  MILLINGTON  (1871- 
1909),  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
spent  his  early  manhood  in  Paris.  There  in 
1899  he  met  W.  B.  Yeats,  who  persuaded 
him  to  apply  his  talents  to  the  description  of 
Irish  peasant  life.  He  visited  the  Aran  Isles 
annually  from  1898  to  1903  and  published 
'The  Aran  Islands'  in  1907.  His  remark- 
able dramas  followed  in  quick  succession; 
'The  Shadow  of  the  Glen*  was  performed 
in  1903,  'Riders  to  the  Sea*  in  1904,  'The 
Well  of  the  Saints',  1905,  'The  Playboy  of 
the  Western  World*  (q.v.),  1907,  and  'The 
Tinker's  Wedding',  1907.  'The  Shadow  of 
the  Glen*  was  at  first  unfavourably  received 
owing  to  the  episode  contained  in  it  of  the 
infidelity  of  an  Irish  wife  to  her  husband. 
The  suggestion  contained  in  'The  Playboy* 
that  an  Irish  peasant  would  condone  a  murder 
and  harbour  the  murderer  gave  rise  to  much 
fiercer  resentment.  But  the  play  is  now 
recognized  as  one  of  Synge*s  best.  The  un- 
finished verse  drama,  'Deirdre  of  ^the 
Sorrows',  was  written  when  Synge  was  dying, 
and  published  in  1910.  His  'Works',  which 
also  include  the  descriptive  essays  'In  Wick- 
low*  and  'In  West  Kerry*  (contributed  to 
the  'Manchester  Guardian*),  were  published 
in  1910. 

Synonym,  strictly  a  word  having  the  same 
meaning  as  another;  but  more  usually  one  of 
two  or  more  words  having  the  same  general 
sense,  but  possessing  each  of  them  meanings 
or  shades  of  meaning  or  implications  not 
shared  by  the  other  or  others ;  e.g.  kill,  slay, 
slaughter. 

Synoptic  Gospels,  THE,  those  of  Matthew, 
Mark,  and  Luke,  so  called  as  giving  an 


[759] 


SYNTAX 

account  of  the  events  from  the  same  point  of 
view,  or  under  the  same  general  aspect. 
Syntax,  DR.,  see  Combe. 

Syntipas,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name 
Sindabar,  Sandabary  or  Sindibad,  an  Indian 
philosopher,  said  to  have  lived  about  100  B.C., 
the  supposed  author  of  a  collection  of  tales 
generally  known  as  'The  Seven  Wise  Masters'. 
Their  main  outline  is  the  same  as  that  of  'The 
Seven  Sages  of  Rome*  (q.v.),  though  details 
of  the  several  stories  vary.  'Syntipas3  was 
translated  from  Greek  into  Latin  (under  the 
title  'Dolopathos')  in  the  i2th  cent.,  and 


TAILORS  OF  TOOLEY  STREET 

thence  into  French.  The  names  Syntipas, 
Sindabar,  &c.,  are  probably  corruptions  of 
the  original  Sanskrit  word  from  which  Bidpal 
(q.v.)  and  Pilpay  are  derived. 

Syphax,  see  Sophonisba.  Also  a  character 
in  Addison's  'Cato'  (q.v.). 

Syrinx,  an  Arcadian  damsel,  who,  being 
pursued  by  Pan,  threw  herself  into  the  river 
Ladon,  where  she  was  changed  into  a  reed. 
Of  this  Pan  made  his  pipe.  In  Spenser's 
'Shepheards  Calender'  (April),  Syrinx  re- 
presents Anne  Boleyn. 


T 


T.P.,  the  Rt.  Hon.  T.  P.  O'CONNOR  (q.v.). 
Tabard  Inn,  THE,  in  Southwark,  the  scene 
of  the  assembling  of  the  pilgrims  in  Chaucer's 
'Canterbury  Tales'  (q.v.).  The  inn  survived 
until  1 875. 

A  tabard  was  a  short  surcoat  open  at  the 
sides  and  having  short  sleeves  or  none,  worn 
by  a  knight  over  his  armour,  and  em- 
blazoned with  his  armorial  bearings ;  or  by  a 
herald,  and  emblazoned  with  the  royal  arms. 
Tabaret,  P&RE,  the  amateur  detective  in 
Gaboriau's  novels  of  crime  (see  also  Lecoq). 

Tabley,  BARON  DE,  see  Warren  (J.  B.  £.). 

TACITUS,  GAIUS  CORNELIUS  (c.  A.D. 
55-£.  117),  the  Roman  historian,  of  whose 
works  the  following  survive  in  whole  or  in  part : 
(i)  *Dialogus  de  Oratoribus';  (2)  'Vita  Agri- 
colae*,  especially  interesting  for  its  account  of 
the  Roman  conquest  of  Britain  5(3)  'Germania', 
a  description  of  the  Germanic  peoples  and 
their  institutions ;  (4)  'Historiae',  comprising 
the  period  A.D.  68-96,  of  which  we  have  only 
a  portion;  and  (5)  'Annales',  comprising 
the  period  from  the  death  of  Augustus  to  the 
death  of  Nero  in  A.D.  68,  of  which  again  the 
extant  portion  is  incomplete.  Tacitus  was 
the  son-in-law  of  Agricola  and  the  intimate 
friend  of  the  younger  Pliny  (q.v.),  some  of 
whose  extant  letters  are  addressed  to  him. 
'Tacitean'  prose  is  incisive,  polished,  and 
epigrammatic;  it  contrasts  with  the  ample 
periods  of  the  Ciceronian  style, 

Tackleton,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'The 
Cricket  on  the  Hearth'  (q.v.). 

Tadmor,  see  Palmyra. 

Tadpole  and  Taper,  in  Disraeli's  cConings- 
by'  and  |SybiT  (qq.v.),  typical  party  wire- 
pullers. 'Tadpole  worshipped  registration; 
Taper  adored  a  Cry.'* 

Tae-ping,  see  Tai-ping. 

Taglioni,  MARIA  (1804-84),  the  celebrated 
ballet-dancer,  daughter  pf  Filippo  Taglioni, 
an  Italian  ballet-master.  She  appeared  in 


London  in  1829,  retired  from  the  stage  in 
1847,  and  died  in  straitened  circumstances  at 
Marseilles.  Thackeray's  Pendermis  was  one 
of  her  admirers. 

A  kind  of  overcoat  in  use  in  the  early  part 
of  the  1 9th  cent,  (mentioned  by  Scott, 
Thackeray,  and  in  the  'Ingoldsby  Legends') 
was  called  a  taglioni. 

TAGORE,  SIR  RABINDRANATH  (1861- 
),  Indian  poet,  was  born  at  Calcutta.  Of 
his  works,  which  are  marked  by  deep  religious 
feeling,  a  strong  sense  of  the  beauty  of  earth 
and  sky  in  his  native  land,  and  by  love  of 
childhood(especiallyin'TheCrescentMoon'), 
many  have  been  translated  into  English. 
These  include  'Gitanjali',  'The  Crescent 
Moon',  and  'The  Gardener',  published  in 
1913  ;  the  three  plays,  'Chitra',  'The  King  of 
the  Dark  Chamber',  and  'The  Post  Office' 
(the  last  two  of  which  have  been  performed  in 
London);  'Sadhana*  (addresses  on  life  and  its 
realization,  1913),  'Fruit-gathering*  (1916), 
*My  Reminiscences'  (1917),  an  introductory 
essay  to  the  'Sakuntala'  (1920),  and  'Red 
Oleanders'  (a  play,  1925).  Tagore  has  also 
written  many  short  stories,  of  which  only  a 
few  have  been  translated  ('Hungry  Stones', 
1916;  'Broken  Ties',  1925).  Tagore  writes 
mainly  in  Bengali,  but  he  also  writes  in 
English  and  has  translated  into  English  some 
of  his  Indian  writings. 

TaiHefer,  a  minstrel  in  the  army  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  who,  at  the  battle  of  Hastings, 
is  said  to  have  encouraged  the  Normans  by 
singing  of  the  deeds  of  Roland. 

Tailors  of  Tooley  Street,  THE,  three 
tailors  of  Tooley  Street,  Southwark,  who  are 
said  to  have  begun  a  petition  to  the  House  of 
Commons  with  the  words:  cWe,  the  people 
of  ^England*.  Canning  and  also  O'Connell  are 
said  to  have  alluded  to  them,  but  an  inquiry 
in  'N.  &  Q.'  (loth  Ser.,  ii.  168)  failed  to  elicit 
a  precise  reference.  A  contributor  in  *N.&  Q.% 
7th  Ser.,tv.  55,  gave  the  names  of  the  sup- 
posed originals,  local  politicians  and  busy- 
bodies,  who,  according  to  him,  prepared  a 


[760] 


TAIN-BO-CUAILGNE 

petition  at  the  time  of  the  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion movement.  But  this  was  challenged  in 
7th  Ser.,  v.  114. 

Tain-Bo-Cuailgne ,  the  chief  epic  of  the 
Ulster  cycle  of  Irish  mythology,  the  story 
of  the  raid  of  Queen  Maeve  of  Connaught 
to  secure  the  Brown  Bull  of  Cuailgne 
(pron.  'Cooley'),  and  the  defeat  of  the  raid 
by  Cuchulain  (q.v,). 

TAINE,  HIPPOLYTE  (1828-93),  French 
historian  and  critic,  author  of  'Origines  de  la 
France  Contemporaine',  including  'L'ancien 
Rdgime'  (1875-85),  'La  Revolution'  (1878- 
85),  and  'L'Empire'  (1891-4).  Taine  also 
wrote,  among  other  works,  a  'History  of 
English  Literature'  (1856-9,  tr.  into  English 
by  van  Laun,  1873). 

Tai-ping  or  TAPPING,  the  name  given  to 
the  adherents  of  a  great  rebellion  that  arose 
in  southern  China  in  1850,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Hung-sin-tsuen,  styled  Tai-ping- 
wang,  Prince  of  Great  Peace,  who  claimed  a 
divine  commission  to  overthrow  the  Manchu 
dynasty  and  establish  one  of  native  origin. 
The  rebellion  was  quelled  in  1864  with  the 
help  of  General  Gordon  (q.v.). 

Taj  Mahal,  the  tomb  at  Agra,  built  (1630-50) 
by  Shah  Jehan  for  his  wife  Murntaz  Mahal ; 
the  most  beautiful  example  of  Mogul 
architecture. 

Talbot,  a  variety  of  hound,  formerly  used 
for  tracking  and  hunting,  now  merely  a 
heraldic  animal.  The  name  is  under- 
stood to  be  derived  from  the  ancient 
English  family  name  of  Talbot  [OEDJ, 
and  this  is  referred  to  in  Scott's  'Waverley', 
hod. 

Talbot,  MARY  ANNE  (1778-1 808),  the  'British 
Amazon',  served  as  a  drummer-boy  in  Flan- 
ders, 1792,  and  as  cabin-boy  in  the  'Le  Sage', 
and  afterwards  in  the  'Brunswick*.  She 
was  wounded  on  board  of  the  latter  ship  in 
the  great  battle  of  i  June  1794.  After 
subsequent  adventures  she  became  a  servant 
and  received  a  small  pension.  Her  history 
was  embodied  by  her  employer,  Robert  S. 
Kirby,  in  his  'Wonderful  Museum*,  second 
volume,  1804. 

Tale  of  a  Tub,  A,  a  comedy  by  Jonson  (q.v.), 
licensed  in  1633,  the  last  play  that  the  author 
put  on  the  stage. 

It  deals  with  the  attempts,  in  the  course  of 
a  St.  Valentine's  Day,  of  various  suitors  to 
marry  Awdrey,  the  daughter  of  Tobie  Turfe, 
high  constable  of  Kentish  Town.  Her  father 
wishes  to  marry  her  to  John  Clay,  tile-maker, 
and  he  and  the  wedding-party  set  off  for  the 
church.  But  his  intention  is  defeated  by 
Squire  Tub  and  Canon  Hugh  the  vicar,  by 
means  of  a  bogus  story  of  a  highway  robbery, 
of  which  John  Clay  is  accused.  Squire  Tub's 
desire  to  marry  Awdrey  is  in  turn  frustrated  by 
Justice  Preamble,  who  conspires  with  Hugh 


TALE  OF  CHLOE 

the  vicar  to  get  her  for  himself.  Tub  warns 
Tobie  Turfe,  who  recovers  his  daughter.  But 
she  is  presently  lured  away  from  him  again 
(together  with  £100)  by  the  Justice,  is 
intercepted  by  Tub,  and  finally  carried  off 
and  married  out  of  hand  by  Pol  Martin, 
usher  to  Tub's  mother,  'a  groom  was  never 
dreamt  of. 

Tale  of  a  Tub,  A,  a  satire  in  prose  by  Swift 
(q.v.),  written,  according  to  his  own  state- 
ment, about  1696,  but  not  published  until 


The  author  explains  in  a  preface  that  it  is 
the  practice  of  seamen  when  they  meet  a 
whale  to  throw  him  out  an  empty  tub  to 
divert  him  from  attacking  the  ship.  Hence 
the  title  of  the  satire,  which  is  intended  to 
divert  Hobbes's  'Leviathan'  and  the  wits  of  the 
age  from  picking  holes  in  the  weak  sides  of 
religion  and  government.  The  author  pro- 
ceeds to  tell  the  story  of  a  father  who  leaves 
as  a  legacy  to  his  three  sons,  Peter,  Martin,  and 
Jack,  a  coat  apiece,  with  directions  that  on  no 
account  are  the  coats  to  be  altered.  Peter  sym- 
bolizes the  Roman  Church,  Martin  (from 
Martin  Luther)  the  Anglican,  Jack  (from  John 
Calvin)  the  dissenters.  The  sons  gradually 
disobey  the  injunction,  finding  excuses  for 
adding  shoulder-knots  or  gold  lace  according 
to  the  prevailing  fashion.  Finally  Martin  and 
Jack  quarrel  with  the  arrogant  Peter,  and  then 
with  each  other,  and  separate.  The  satire  is 
directed  with  especial  vigour  against  Peter, 
his  bulls  and  dispensations,  and  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation.  But  Jack  is  also  treated 
with  contempt.  Martin,  as  representing  the 
church  to  which  Swift  himself  belonged,  is 
spared,  though  not  very  reverently  dealt  with. 
The  narrative  is  freely  interspersed  with 
digressions,  on  critics,  on  the  prevailing 
dispute  as  to  ancient  and  modern  learning, 
and  on  madness  —  this  last  an  early  example 
of  Swift's  love  of  paradox  and  of  his 
misanthropy. 

Tale  of  Chloe,  The,  a  short  novel  by  G. 
Meredith  (q.v.),  published  in  1879. 

This  tragic  little  tale  is  described  by  the 
author  as  an  episode  in  the  history  of  'Beau 
Beamish',  the  king  of  Bath.  Chloe  is  a  young 
lady,  the  soul  of  generosity,  who  has  stripped 
herself  of  her  fortune  to  redeem  from  prison 
an  unprincipled  fellow,  Caseldy,  whom  she 
loves.  But  he  deserts  her  and  leaves  Bath, 
where  she  lives  uncorrupted,  enjoying  the 
favour  and  esteem  of  Beau  Beamish,  and 
faithful  to  Caseldy.  An  old  duke  who  has 
married  a  beautiful  young  dairymaid,  Susan 
Barley,  entrusts  her  for  a  month  to  the  care 
of  Beamish  and  he,  in  turn,  to  the  care  of 
Chloe.  Caseldy  now  returns,  not  to  Chloe, 
but  for  the  sake  of  Susan,  the  'Duchess  of 
Dewlap',  as  Beamish  christens  her.  He 
seduces  her  from  her  allegiance,  and  Chloe, 
heartbroken,  watches  the  process,  determined 
to  save  the  duchess  even  at  the  cost  of  her  own 
life.  And  this  she  finally  does  by  hanging 
herself  on  the  door  through  which  the 


[761] 


TALE  OF  TWO  CITIES 

duchess  is  about  to  make  a  midnight  elope- 
ment with  Caseldy. 

Tale  of  Two  Cities,  A,  a  novel  by  Dickens 
(q.v.),  published  in  1859. 

The  'two  cities'  are  Paris,  in  the  time  of 
the  French  Revolution,  and  London.  Dr, 
Manette,  a  French  physician,  having  been 
called  in  to  attend  a  young  peasant  and  his 
sister  in  circumstances  that  made  him  aware 
that  the  girl  had  been  outrageously  treated 
and  the  boy  mortally  wounded  by  the  Mar- 
quis de  St.  iSvremonde  and  his  brother,  has 
been  confined  for  eighteen  years  in  the 
Bastille  to  secure  his  silence.  He  has  just 
been  released,  demented,  when  the  story 
opens ;  he  is  brought  to  England,  where  he 
gradually  recovers  his  sanity.  Charles 
Darnay,  who  conceals  under  that  name  the 
fact  that  he  is  a  nephew  of  the  marquis, 
has  left  France  and  renounced  his  heritage 
from  detestation  of  the  cruel  practices 
of  the  old  French  nobility ;  he  falls  in  love 
with  Lucie,  Dr.  Manette 's  daughter,  and 
they  are  happily  married.  During  the  Terror 
he  goes  to  Paris  to  try  to  save  a  faithful 
servant,  who  is  accused  of  having  served  the 
emigrant  nobility.  He  is  himself  arrested, 
condemned  to  death,  and  is  saved  only  at  the 
last  moment  by  Sydney  Carton,  a  reckless 
wastrel  of  an  English  barrister,  whose 
character  is  redeemed  by  his  generous  devo- 
tion to  Lucie.  Carton,  who  strikingly  re- 
sembles Darnay  in  appearance,  smuggles  the 
latter  out  of  prison,  and  takes  his  place  on  the 
scaffold. 

The  book  gives  a  vivid  picture  (modelled 
on  ^Carlyle's  'The  French  Revolution')  of 
Paris  at  this  period,  and  the  opening  scene 
of  the  coach-drive  to  Dover  is  one  of  the 
finest  things  in  Dickens.  Among  the  typical 
English  characters  is  Jerry  Cruncher,  an  odd- 
job  man  by  day,  who  carries  on  the  trade  of 
body-snatcher  by  night.  The  novel  has  been 
dramatized  under  the  title  'The  Only  Way* 
(q.v.). 

Tales  in  Verse,  a  collection  of  poems  by 
Crabbe  (q.v.),  published  in  1812. 

Tales  of  a  Grandfather,  The,  a  history  of 
Scotland  to  the  close  of  the  Rebellion  of 
1745-6,  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.),  published  in 
i8z7-9.  A  later  series  (1831)  deals  with  the 
history  of  France. 

The  'Tales'  were  designed  in  the  first  in- 
stance for  the  author's  grandson,  John  Hugh 
Lockhart  ('Hugh  Littlejohn').  After  a  pre- 
fatory chapter  on  the  period  of  the  Roman 
occupation,  the  tales  proceed  to  the  period 
of  Macbeth,  and  thence  through  Wallace  and 
Bruce  right  through  the  history  of  Scotland 
down  to  the  '45. 

Tales  of  My  Landlord,  four  series  of  novels 

JX,!*?^-  Scott  (q'v'):  <The  Black  Dwarf, 
'Old  Mortality'  (ist  Series);  'The  Heart  of 
Midlothian'  (2nd  Series);  'The  Bride  of 
Lammermoor',  'The  Legend  of  Montrose' 
(3rd  Series);  'Count  Robert  of  Paris', 


TALISMAN 

'Castle  Dangerous*  (4th  Series).  See  also 
Cleishbotham. 

Tales  of  Soldiers  and  Civilians,  a  collection 
of  short  stories  by  Ambrose  Bierce  (q.v.), 
subsequently  entitled  'In  the  Midst  of  Life'. 

Tales  of  the  Crusaders,  two  novels  by  Sir  W. 
Scott  (q.v.),  'The  Betrothed'  and  'The  Talis- 
man* (qq.v.). 

Tales  of  the  Hall,  a  collection  of  poems  by 
Crabbe  (q.v.),  published  in  1819. 

TALFOURD,  SIR  THOMAS  NOON 
(I79S~i^54),  judge  and  author,  is  principally 
remembered  as  the  friend  of  C.  Lamb,  whose 
'Letters'  and  'Memorials'  he  published  in 
1837  and  1848  respectively,  and  for  his  'Ion* 
(183 5), a  tragedy  conceived  in  the  Greek  spirit. 

Talgol,  in  Butler's  'Hudibras*  (q.v.),  one 
of  the  characters  in  the  bear-baiting  episode ; 
according  to  Sir  Roger  L'Estrange  a  butcher 
in  Newgate  Market. 

Taliesin  (ft.  550),  a  British  bard,  perhaps  a 
mythic  personage,  first  mentioned  in  the 
'Saxon  Genealogies*  appended  to  the  'His- 
toria  Britonurn'  c.  690.  A  mass  of  poetry, 
probably  of  later  date,  has  been  ascribed  to 
him,  and  the  'Book  of  Taliesin'  (i4th  cent.) 
is  a  collection  of  poems  by  different  authors 
and  of  different  dates.  The  village  of  Taliesin 
in  Cardiganshire  has  sprung  up  near  the 
supposed  site  of  his  grave.  Taliesin  figures 
prominently  in  Peacock's  'The  Misfortunes 
of  Elphin'  (q.v.),  and  he  is  mentioned  in 
Tennyson's  'Idylls 'of  the  King'  as  one  of  the 
Round  Table. 

Talisman,  The,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.), 
published  in  1825,  forming  part  of  the  'Tales 
of  the  Crusaders'. 

The  story  presents  the  forces  of  the 
Crusaders,  led  by  Richard  I  of  England,  en- 
camped in  the  Holy  Land,  and  torn  by  the 
dissensions  and  jealousies  of  the  leaders,  in- 
cluding besides  Cceur  de  Lion  himself, 
Philip  of  France,  the  duke  of  Austria,  the 
marquis  of  Montferrat,  and  the  Grand  Master 
of  the  Templars.  The  consequent  impotence 
of  the  army  is  accentuated  by  the  illness  of 
Richard.  A  poor  but  doughty  Scottish 
crusader,  known  as  Sir  Kenneth  or  the 
Knight  of  the  Leopard,  on  a  mission  far 
from  the  camp  encounters  a  Saracen  emir, 
with  whom,  after  an  inconclusive  combat, 
he  enters  into  prolonged  conversation,  and 
mutual  esteem  springs  up  between  them. 
This  Emir  proves  subsequently  to  be  Saladin 
himself,  and  he  presently  appears  in  the 
Christian  camp  in  the  disguise  of  a  physician 
sent  by  the  Soldan  to  Richard,  whom  he 
quickly  cures.  Meanwhile  the  Knight  of  tie 
Leopard,  set  to  guard  during  the  night  the 
banner  of  England,  is  lured  from  his  post  by 
Queen  Berengaria,  Richard's  wife,  who  in 
a  frolic  sends  him  an  urgent  message  pur- 
porting to  come  from  Edith  Plantagenet, 
between  whom  and  the  knight  there  exists 
a  romantic  attachment.  During  his  brief 


TALMUD 

absence,  his  faithful  hound  is  wounded,  and 
the  English  flag  torn  down.  Sir  Kenneth, 
thus  dishonoured,  narrowly  escapes  execu- 
tion at  Richard's  order  by  the  intervention 
of  the  Moorish  ^physician,  who  receives  him 
as  his  slave.  Kindly  and  honourably  treated 
by  Saladin,  he  is  sent,  in  the  disguise  of  a 
black  mute  attendant,  to  Richard,  whom  he 
saves  from  assassination.  Richard  pierces 
through  Sir  Kenneth's  disguise  and  gives  him 
the  opportunity  he  desires  of  discovering  the 
hand  that  wounded  the  hound  and  tore  down 
the  ^  standard.  As  the  Christian  princes  and 
their  forces  defile  past  the  re-erected  standard, 
the  hound  springs  on  Conrade  of  Montferrat 
and  tears  him  from  his  horse.  A  trial  by  com- 
bat is  arranged,  in  which  Sir  Kenneth  defeats 
and  wounds  Montferrat,  and  is  revealed  to 
be  Prince  David  of  Scotland.  The  obstacle 
which  his  supposed  lowly  birth  presented  to 
his  union  with  Edith  Plantagenet  is  thus 
removed. 

The  Talisman  from  which  the  novel  takes 
its  title  is  the  amulet  by  which  Saladin  effects 
the  cure  of  Richard  and  which  he  presents  to 
the  Scottish  knight.  The  incident  has  some 
historical  basis  in  the  amulet,  known  as  the 
Lee-penny,  obtained  by  Sir  Simon  Lockhart 
in  a  crusade,  and  long  preserved  (perhaps 
still)  in  the  ancient  family  of  the  Lockharts 
of  the  Lee  in  Lanarkshire. 

Talmud,  THE,  in  the  wide  sense,  the  body  of 
Jewish  civil  and  ceremonial  traditionary  law, 
consisting  of  the  Mishnah  or  binding  pre- 
cepts of  the  elders,  additional  to  and  de- 
veloped from  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  later 
Gemara  or  commentary  upon  these.  The 
term  was  originally  applied  to  the  Gemara,  of 
which  two  recensions  exist,  known  respec- 
tively as  the  Jerusalem  (Palestinian)  and  the 
Babylonian  Talmud.  The  precepts  of  the 
Mishnah  were  codified  about  A.D,  200;  the 
redaction  of  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  had 
reached  almost  its  present  form  by  A.D.  408, 
that  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  extended 
from  A.D.  400  to  500.  [OED.] 

Talus,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  man  of  brass, 
made  by  Hephaestus.  He  was  given  to 
Minos,  king  of  Crete,  and  protected  the 
island  by  making  himself  red-hot  and  em- 
bracing any  strangers  that  landed.  He  figures 
in  the  story  of  the  Argonauts  (q.v.)  as  having 
received  them  with  a  shower  of  rocks. 

Another  Talus,  a  nephew  of  Daedalus 
(q.v,),  was  a  mythical  person  to  whom  was 
attributed  the  invention  of  the  saw,  the  com- 
passes, and  other  industrial  devices.  Daeda- 
lus, jealous  of  his  skill,  threw  him  down  from 
the  Acropolis  of  Athens. 

Talus,  a  character  in  Spenser's  'Faerie 
Queene*.  When  Astraea  left  the  world  and 
returned  to  heaven,  she 

left  her  groome, 

An  yron  man,  which  did  on  her  attend 
Always  to  execute  her  steadfast  doome, 

(Bk.  v.  i.  12.) 


TAMERLANE 

He  thus  represents  the  executive  power  of 
government.  He  attends  on  Artegall  (q.v.), 
wielding  an  iron  flail,  with  which  he  dis- 
patches criminals. 

Tarn  Lin,  the  subject  of  an  old  ballad.  Janet 
wins  back  to  mortal  life  her  elfin  lover,  Tarn 
Lin,  from  the  queea  of  the  fairies,  who  has 
captured  him. 

Tarn  o*  Shanter,  a  poem  by  Burns  (q.v.). 

Tarn  o'  Shanter,  a  farmer,  returning  from 
Ayr  late  one  night,  well  primed  with  liquor, 
passes  the  Kirk  of  Alloway.  Seeing  it  lighted 
up,  he  stops  and  looks  in  and  sees  warlocks 
and  witches  dancing  to  the  sound  of  the  bag- 
pipes played  by  Old  Nick.  Impelled  by  the 
sight  of  one  'winsome  wench'  among  the 
beldams,  Tam  shouts,  *Weel  done,  Cutty 
Sarkl'  At  once  the  lights  go  out,  and  the 
witches  make  for  Tam  like  so  many  bees. 
Tam  spurs  his  grey  mare  Meg,  and  just 
reaches  the  middle  of  the  bridge  over  the 
Doon  before  the  'Cutty  Sark*  reaches  him. 
There  he  is  out  of  her  power,  but  the  mare's 
tail  is  still  within  the  witches'  jurisdiction, 
and  this  the  'Cutty  Sark*  pulls  off.  (A  'sark' 
is  a  chemise. 

Her  cutty  sark,  o*  Paisley  harn  .  . . 
In  longitude  tho*  sorely  scanty)* 

Tamburlaine  the  Great,  a  drama  in  blank 
verse  by  Marlowe  (q.v.),  written  not  later 
than  1587  and  published  in  1590.  It  showed 
an  immense  advance  on  the  blank  verse  of 
'Gorboduc*  (q.v.)  and  was  received  with 
much  popular  approval.  The  material  for  it 
was  taken  by  the  author  from  Pedro  Maxia's 
Spanish  life  of  Timur,  of  which  an  English 
translation  had  appeared  in  1571. 

Pt.  I  of  the  drama  deals  with  the  first  rise 
to  power  of  the  Scythian  shepherd-robber 
Tamburlaine;  he  allies  himself  with  Cosroe 
in  the  latter's  rebellion  against  his  brother,  the 
king  of  Persia,  and  then  challenges  him  for 
the  crown  and  defeats  him.  Tamburlaine's 
unbounded  ambition  and  ruthless  cruelty 
carry  all  before  him.  He  conquers  the 
Turkish  emperor,  Bajazet,  and  leads  him 
about  prisoner  in  a  cage,  goading  him  and  his 
empress,  Zabina,  with  cruel  taunts  till  they 
dash  out  their  brains  against  the  bars  of  the 
cage.  His  ferocity  is  softened  only  by  his  love 
for  his  captive,  Zenocrate,  the  daughter  of  the 
Soldan  of  Egypt,  whose  life  he  spares,  in 
deference  to  the  pleadings  of  Zenocrate,  when 
he  captures  Damascus. 

Pt.  II  deals  with  the  continuation  of  his 
conquests,  which  extend  to  Babylon,  whither 
he  is  dragged  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  the  kings 
of  Trebizond  and  Soria,  with  the  kings  of 
Anatolia  and  Jerusalem  as  relay,  'pampered 
jades  of  Asia'  (a  phrase  quoted  by  Pistol  in 
Shakespeare,  '2  Henry  IV,  ir .  iv) ;  it  ends  with 
the  death  of  Zenocrate,  and  of  Tamburlaine 
himself.  See  Timurlane. 

Tamerlane,  a  tragedy  by  Rowe  (q.y.),  pro- 
duced in  1702,  of  some  historical  interest, 


[763] 


TAMING  OF  THE  SHREW 

because  under  the  name  of  Tamerlane  the 
author  intended  to  characterize  William  III, 
while  under  that  of  Bajazet  he  held  up 
Louis  XIV  to  detestation.  The  play  was,  for 
more  than  a  hundred  years,  annually  re- 
vived on  5  Nov.,  the  date  of  William  Ill's 
landing.  See  Timurlane. 

Taming  of  the  Shrew,  The,  a  comedy  by 
Shakespeare  (q.v.)  with  perhaps  a  col- 
laborator, was  probably  written  about 
1594,  partly  adapted  from  a  play,  'The 
Taming  of  a  Shrew',  which  had  appeared  in 
1594,  and  partly  based  on  the  'Supposes*  of 
Gascoigne  (q.v.).  It  was  first  printed  in  the 
folio  of  1623. 

The  play  is  introduced  by  an  'induction*  in 
which  Christopher  Sly,  a  drunken  tinker 
picked  up  by  a  lord  and  his  huntsmen  on  a 
heath,  is  brought  to  the  castle,  sumptuously 
treated,  and  in  spite  of  his  protestations  that 
he  is  only  'old  Sly's  son  of  Burton-heath.  . .  . 
Ask  Marian  Hacket  the  fat  ale-wife  of 
Wincot',  is  assured  that  he  is  a  lord  who  has 
been  out  of  his  mind,  and  is  set  down  to  hear 
the  following  play,  performed  for  his  sole 
benefit  by  strolling  players. 

Petruchio,  a  gentleman  of  Verona,  of 
shrewd  wit  and  imperturbable  temper,  de- 
termines to  marry  Katharina,  the  notorious 
termagant  elder  daughter  of  Baptista,  a  rich 
gentleman  of  Padua.  He  carries  his  court- 
ship through  with  a  high  hand,  undeterred  by 
her  rude  rebuffs,  but  affecting  to  find  her 
courteous  and  gentle.  Then  the  taming 
begins.  He  humiliates  Katharina  by  keeping 
her  waiting  on  the  wedding-day,  and  at  last 
appearing  clad  like  a  scarecrow.  He  cuffs  the 
priest,  refuses  to  attend  the  bridal  feast,  and 
hurries  his  wife  off,  on  a  sorry  horse,  to  his 
home.  On  arrival,  he  refuses  to  let  her  eat  or 
sleep,  on  the  pretext  that  the  food  and  bed 
prepared  are  not  good  enough  for  her,  and 
distresses  her  by  other  mad  pranks.  Finally 
he  takes  her  back  to  her  father's  house,  which 
she  reaches  completely  tamed.  Meanwhile 
Bianca,  Katharina 's  younger  sister  has  been 
won  by  Lucent io,  who  has  made  love  to  her 
while  masquerading  as  a  schoolmaster. 
Hortensio,  the  disappointed  suitor  of  Bianca, 
has  married  a  widow.  At  the  feast  which 
follows  there  is  a  wager  among  the  bride- 
grooms which  wife  shall  prove  the  most 
docile;  Petruchio  wins  triumphantly. 

Tammany,  the  name  of  a  Delaware  Indian 

from  whom  William  Penn  obtained  grants  of 

land.  It  means  'the  Affable'.  The  name  was 

adopted  by  a  society  founded  for  benevolent 

purposes  in  New  York  in  1789,  which  before 

long  took  an  active  part  in  politics  and  built 

the  original  Tammany  Hall  in  New  York. 

This,  and  the  building  which  replaced  it  in 

1867,  became  the  head-quarters  of  a  local 

political   (democratic)  party,   which  by  its 

highly  developed  organization  (and,  it  is  said, 

by  the  use  of  corruption)  has  from  time  to 

time  exercised  a  complete  control  over  the 

municipal  administration  of  the  city. 


TANCRED  AND  SIGISMUNDA 

Tamora,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Titus 
Andronicus'  (q.v.). 

Tanagra,  an  ancient  town  of  Boeotia, 
Greece.  In  its  necropolis  were  discovered  in 
the  last  quarter  of  the  i^th  cent,  the  beautiful 
terra-cotta  figurines  with  which  the  name  of 
Tanagra  is  now  principally  connected.  Tana- 
gra  was  the  birthplace  of  Corinna  (q.v.). 
Landor  in  'Pericles  and  Aspasia',  xliv,  in- 
cludes a  poem,  which  purports  to  be  an  ode 
of  this  poetess  to  her  birthplace. 

Tanaquil,  in  Roman  legend,  the  wife  of 
Tarquinius  Priscus,  the  first  of  the  Tarquin 
(Etruscan)  kings  of  Rome.  Spenser  uses  the 
name  to  signify  Queen  Elizabeth  in  the 
introduction  to  the  first  book  of  the  'Faerie 
Queene'. 

Tancred,  one  of  the  Norman  heroes  of  the 
first  Crusade,  figures  in  Tasso's  'Jerusalem 
Delivered'  (q.v.)  as  one  of  the  principal 
knights  serving  under  Godfrey  de  Bouillon. 

Tancred)  or  The  New  Crusade,  a  novel  by 
Disraeli  (q.v.),  published  in  1847. 

This  was  a  companion  work  to  Disraeli's 
two  principal  political  novels,  'Coningsby* 
and  'Sybil',  and  in  it  he  breaks  new  ground. 
It  combines  an  earnest  vindication  of  the 
claims  and  destinies  of  the  Jewish  race  with  a 
humorous  presentment  of  the  aspirations  of  a 
visionary  young  English  nobleman  to  re- 
generate the  world. 

Tancred,  Lord  Montacute,  is  the  son  of  the 
highly  respectable,  and  in  every  way  ortho- 
dox, duke  and  duchess  of  Bellamont.  On 
coming  of  age,  having  meditated  much  on  the 
social  and  religious  conditions  of  the  day,  he 
horrifies  his  parents  by  refusing  a  seat  in 
parliament  and  announcing  his  intention  of 
going  to  the  Holy  Land  to  elucidate  the  great 
'Asian  Mystery'  and  to  seek  a  direct  com- 
munication from  God  as  to  His  purpose.  All 
attempts  to  dissuade  him  having  failed, 
Tancred  goes  to  Jerusalem  and  thence  to 
Sinai,  where,  in  a  trance,  he  receives  the 
desired  communication,  directing  him  to 
promote  the  doctrine  of  'theocratic  equality'. 
Meanwhile,  however,  he  has  become  involved 
in  the  intrigues  of  the  Druses  and  Maronites 
of  the  Lebanon,  and  has  become  a  pawn  in  the 
game  of  the  amiable  arch-intriguer  Fakredeen. 
Some  stirring  adventures  result,  which  leave 
Tancred  disillusioned  but  violently  in  love 
with  a  beautiful  Jewess,  to  whom  he  offers  his 
hand  and  heart.  At  the  moment  that  he  does 
this,  the  arrival  of  the  duke  and  duchess  at 
Jerusalem  is  announced. 

Tancred  and  Gismund,  or  Gismond  of 
Salerne,  a  play  by  R.  Wilmot  (q.v.)  and 
others,  published  in  1591.  Act  II  is  by  Henry 
Noel,  Act  IV  by  Hatton  (q.v.).  The  play  is 
founded  on  a  tale  by  Boccaccio  (see  Sigis- 
monda). 

Tancred  and  Sigismonda,  for  Dryden's 
poem  on  these,  see  Sigismonda. 

Tancred  and  Sigismunda,  a  tragedy  by  J. 


[764] 


TANNER  OF  TAMWORTH 

Thomson  (1700-48,  q.v.),  published  in  1745, 
produced  (with  Garrick  as  Tancred)  in  1752. 
It  is  based  on  the  story  inserted  in  'Gil 
Bias*,  iv.  iv,  in  which  Tancred,  the  heir  to 
the  kingdom  of  Sicily,  is  lured  by  the  cunning 
Siffredi  into  accepting  with  the  throne  a 
bride,  Constantia,  whom  he  does  not  love, 
and  abandoning  Siffredi's  daughter,  Sigis- 
munda,  whom  he  does.  The  latter,  in  despair 
at  her  desertion,  consents  to  marry  Osmond, 
her  father's  choice.  But  Tancred  does  not 
give  up  his  lady-love  so  easily.  He  kills 
Osmond,  but  not  before  the  latter  has  fatally 
stabbed  Sigismunda, 

Tanner  of  Tamworth,  THE,  the  hero  of  an 
old  ballad  included  in  Percy's  'Reliques', 
who  meeting  King  Edward  IV  out  riding, 
takes  ^  him  for  a  thief,  changes  horses  with 
him,  is  thrown,  disabused  of  his  mistake,  and 
instead  of  being  hanged  as  he  expects,  re- 
ceives Plumpton-park  as  a  gift  from  the 
good-humoured  king. 

Tannhauser  (pron.  'Tanhoizer'),  a  German 
minnesinger  (q.v.)  of  the  i3th  cent.,  the  sub- 
ject of  a  legend  embodied  in  a  i6th-cent. 
ballad.  According  to  this,  as  he  rode  by  the 
Horselberg  in  Thuringia,  he  was  attracted  by 
the  figure  of  a  beautiful  woman,  in  whom  he 
recognized  Venus.  She  beckoned  him  into  a 
cave,  where  he  spent  seven  years  in  revelry. 
Smitten  by  his  conscience  he  then  left  the 
'Venusberg*  and  went  to  Rome  to  seek 
absolution  from  the  pope.  His  Holiness  re- 
plied that  it  was  as  impossible  for  Tann- 
hauser  to  be  forgiven  as  for  his  dry  staff  to 
burgeon,  and  Tannhauser  departed  in 
despair.  But  after  three  days,  the  staff  broke 
into  blossom.  The  pope  sent  hurriedly  for 
Tannhauser,  but  he  was  nowhere  to  be  found. 
He  had  returned  to  Venus. 

The  story  is  the  subject  of  an  opera  by 
Wagner  and  of  Swinburne's  fLaus  Veneris*. 

Tanqueray,  The  Second  Mrs.,  a  successful 
play  by  Pinero  (q.v.). 

Tantalus,  a  son  of  Zeus,  described  as  a  king 
of  Lydia,  the  father  of  Pelops  and  Niobe 
(qq.v.).  He  is  represented  as  punished  in 
hell  with  an  intense  thirst  and  placed  up  to 
the  chin  in  a  pool  of  water  which  recedes 
when  he  attempts  to  drink  it,  while  a  bough 
laden  with  fruit  hangs  above  his  head  but 
withdraws  from  his  hand.  The  reason  for 
this  punishment  is  variously  related.  Some 
say  that  he  stole  nectar  and  ambrosia  from 
the  table  of  the  gods  and  gave  them  to 
mortals.  Others  that  he  killed  his  son  Pelops 
and  offered  his  flesh  to  the  gods  to  try  them. 

Tantivy,  a  nickname  given  to  the  post- 
Restoration  high-churchmen  and  Tories, 
especially  in  the  reigns  of  Charles  II  and 
James  II.  It  arose  in  1680-1,  when  a 
caricature  was  published  in  which  a  number 
of  high-church  clergymen  were  represented 
as  mounted  upon  the  Church  of  England  and 
*  riding  tantivy*  to  Rome,  behind  the  duke  of 
York.  To  'ride  tantivy*  is  to  ride  at  a  rapid 


TAROT  CARDS 

gallop.  The  origin  of  the  word  'tantivy*  is 
obscure;  perhaps  echoic,  representing  the 
sound  of  a  horse's  feet.  [OED.] 

Tantony,  a  shortened  form  of  St.  Anthony, 
chiefly  used  in  reference  to  the  attributes 
with  which  the  saint  was  represented,  as 

TANTONY    POUCH,    TANTONY    BELL    (a    small 

church  bell),  TANTONY  PIG  (the  smallest  pig 
of  the  litter,  St.  Anthony  being  the  patron 
saint  of  swineherds,  and  represented  as 
accompanied  by  a  pig). 

Taoism,  see  Lao-tsze. 

Tapley,  MARK,  see  Mark  Tapley. 

Tappertit,  SIMON,  in  Dickens's  'Barnaby 
Rudge*  (q.v.),  Gabriel  Varden's  apprentice. 

Taprobane,  an  ancient  name  for  Ceylon. 
It  is  referred  to  by  Sir  John  Mandeville  as 
containing  hills  of  gold,  guarded  by  gigantic 
pismires.  Arthur  Tilley  in  *  Studies  in  the 
French  Renaissance*  (p.  33)  makes  Tapro- 
bane  =  Sumatra. 

Tar  Heel  State,  North  Carolina,  see  United 
States. 

Tar  Water,  see  Berkeley. 

Tara,  THE  HILL  OF,  in  county  Meath,  Ire- 
land, celebrated  in  Irish  tradition  as  the 
capital  of  the  Fir  Bolgs  and  of  the  Tuatha  De 
Danann  (qq.v.).  It  was  in  early  times  the 
residence  of  the  high  kings  of  Ireland  and 
the  meeting-place  of  the  national  legislative 
assembly.  Relics  of  its  importance,  in  the 
form  of  earthworks,  still  remain. 

'The  harp  that  once  through  Tara's  halls 
The  soul  of  music  shed'  are  the  first  lines  of 
one  of  Moore's  best-known  *  Irish  Melodies'. 

Targum,  a  word  meaning  interpretation', 
the  name  given  to  several  Aramaic  transla- 
tions, interpretations,  or  paraphrases  of  the 
various  divisions  of  the  O.T.,  made  after  the 
Babylonian  captivity,  at  first  preserved  by 
oral  transmission,  and  committed  to  writing 
from  about  A.D.  100  onwards.  [OED.] 

Tarlton,  RICHARD  (d.  1588),  actor,  a  man  of 
humble  origin  and  imperfect  education,  who 
attracted  attention  by  his  'happy  unhappy 
answers'  and  was  introduced  to  Queen 
Elizabeth  through  the  earl  of  Leicester. 
He  became  one  of  the  Queen's  players  in 
1583,  and  attained  an  immense  popularity 
by  his  jests,  comic  acting,  and  improvisations 
of  doggerel  verse.  He  led  a  dissipated  life 
and  died  in  poverty.  He  is  perhaps  to  be 
identified  with  Spenser's  'Pleasant  Willy* 
(see  Tears  of  the  Muses)  and  Shakespeare's 
Yorick.  Many  fictitious  anecdotes  connected 
with  him  were  published,  notably  'Tarlton's 
Jests'  (i592?-i6n?)  in  three  parts. 

Tarn  Wathelyn,  see  Awntyrs  of  Arthur e  at 
the  Terne  Wathelyne. 

Tarot  Cards,  a  set  of  playing-cards  first 
used  in  Italy  in  the  I4th  cent. ;  from  tarocch£9 
a  word  of  unknown  origin*  'Play  at  Ombre 


[765] 


TARPA 

and  Taroc,  a  game  with  seventy-two  cards  all 
painted  with  suns  and  moons,  devils  and 
monks'  (Gray,  letter  to  R.  West,  1739)- 

Tarpa,  SPURIUS  MAECIUS,  a  literary  critic 
who  was  employed  by  Pompey,  and  also  by 
Augustus,  as  censor  of  plays  and  poems  for 
public  reading  or  performance. 

Tarpeia,  the  daughter  of  Tarpeius,  governor 
of  the  citadel  of  Rome.  She  promised  to 
open  the  gates  of  the  city  to  the  Sabines  if 
they  would  give  her  their  bracelets,  or  as  she 
expressed  it,  what  they  carried  on  their  left 
hands.  Tatius,  the  king  of  the  Sabines,  con- 
sented, and  as  he  entered  the  city,  to  punish 
her  perfidy,  threw  not  only  his  bracelet  but 
his  shield  upon  Tarpeia;  and  his  followers, 
imitating  his  example,  Tarpeia  was  crushed 
under  the  weight  of  their  bucklers.  The  place 
was  called  the  Tarpeian  rock  in  consequence, 
and  criminals  were  said  to  have  been  thrown 
from  it. 

Tarquins,  THE,  Tarquinius  Priscus  and 
Tarquinius  Superbus  (6th  cent.  B.C.),  the 
fifth  and  seventh  legendary  kings  of  Rome 
of  Etruscan  origin.  The  former  reigned  with 
moderation  and  popularity,  increased  the 
military  power  of  Rome,  and  drained  the 
city.  The  second,  his  grandson,  was  noted 
for  his  tyranny  and  arrogance,  and  the 
Romans,  provoked  by  his  oppression,  when 
they  saw  the  virtuous  Lucretia  (q.v.)  stab 
herself  after  her  ravishment  by  Sextus,  son  of 
their  king,  rose  in  rebellion  and  expelled  the 
Tarquins  from  Rome.  It  was  Tarquinius 
Superbus  who  bought  the  books  of  the  Sibyl 
(q.v.).  And  it  was  he  who,  when  his  son 
Sextus,  to  whom  the  people  of  Gabii  had 
entrusted  the  command  of  their  armies,  sent 
to  consult  his  father  as  to  his  conduct,  re- 
turned no  answer  to  the  messenger,  but 
cut  off  with  a  stick  the  tallest  poppies  in  his 
garden.  His  son,  taking  the  hint,  put  to 
death  the  most  powerful  citizens  of  Gabii 
(cf.  the  story  of  Periander,  q.v.). 

Tartar,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens 's  'Edwin 
Drood'  (q.v.). 

Tartarin,  in  certain  novels  of  A.  Daudet 
(q.v.),  a  Frenchman  of  fervid  southern 
temperament,  who  combines  the  power  of 
self-deception  and  enthusiasm  for  adventure 
of  Don  Quixote  with  the  timidity  of  Sancho 
Panza.  He  goes  lion-hunting,  &c.,  with 
absurd  results. 

Tartars,  more  properly  TATARS,  a  Mongol 
tribe  that  overran  eastern  Europe  in  the  I3th 
cent.,  and  called  forth  the  joke  of  St.  Louis, 
'Either  they  will  send  us  to  Heaven,  or  we 
will  send  them  to  Tartarus.* 

Tartarus,  one  of  the  regions  of  Hades  where 
the  most  impious  and  guilty  among  mankind 
were  supposed  to  be  punished.  According  to 
Virgil  it  was  surrounded  by  three  impene- 
trable walls  and  the  burning  waters  of  the 
river  Phlegethon. 


TATE 

Tartaffe,*  LE,  in  Moliere's  comedy  of  that 
name,  an  odious  hypocrite,  who,  under  an 
assumption  of  piety,  introduces  himself  into 
the  household  of  the  credulous  Orgon,  at- 
tempts to  seduce  his  wife,  and,  being  repulsed, 
endeavours  to  ruin  the  family. 

Taskt  The,  a  poem  in  six  books  by  Cowper 
(q.v.),  published  in  1785. 

Cowper's  friend,  Lady  Austen,  having 
suggested  to  him  the  sofa  in  his  room  as  the 
subject  of  a  poem  in  blank  verse,  the  poet  set 
about  the  task.  Its  six  books  are  entitled, 
'The  Sofa',  'The  Time-piece',  'The  Garden', 
'The  Winter  Evening',  'The  Winter  Morning 
Walk',  and  'The  Winter  Walk  at  Noon', 
Starting  with  a  mock-Miltonic  narrative  of 
the  evolution  of  the  sofa,  Cowper  soon  turns 
to  himself  and  his  delight  in  rural  scenes  and 
sounds,  which  he  describes  minutely  and 
exactly.  Similarly  the  later  books  give  a 
detailed  account  of  the  pleasures  of  gardening 
and  the  joys  of  domestic  life  in  the  country, 
with  vignettes  of  the  postman,  the  wagoner 
in  the  snow,  the  woodman  and  his  dog,  and 
many  others.  There  are  interspersed  many 
long  didactic  passages,  condemning  the  evils 
of  the  day,  the  failings  of  the  clergy,  the 
mischiefs  of  profusion,  the  cruelty  of  certain 
sports,  and  the  disadvantages  of  town  life  in 
general. 

Tasman,  ABEL  JANZOON  (1602-59),  a  Dutch 
navigator,  who  commanded  in  1642  an 
exploring  expedition  sent  to  the  South  Seas 
by  Van  Diemen,  governor  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies.  He  discovered  Tasmania  (which  he 
named  Van  Diemen 's  Land),  New  Zealand, 
and  some  of  the  Friendly  Islands. 

TASSO,  TORQUATO  (1544-95),  son  of 
Bernardo  Tasso  (author  of  an  epic  on  Amadis 
of  Gaul),  was  born  at  Bergamo,  and  spent 
many  years  at  the  court  of  Ferrara.  He  was 
from  early  life  in  constant  terror  of  imaginary 
plots  against  him,  and  his  conduct  at  Fer- 
rara was  such  as  to  make  it  necessary  for 
the  duke,  Alphonso  II  of  Este,  to  lock  him  up 
as  mad  from  1 579  to  1 586.  (The  legend  of  his 
passion  for  Leonora  d'Este,  the  duke's  dis- 
covery of  it,  and  his  consequent  imprison- 
ment, is  now  declared  untrue.)  He  was  re- 
leased on  condition  of  his  leaving  Ferrara; 
and  after  wandering  from  court  to  court,  he 
died  at  Rome.  His  chief  works  were  the 
'Jerusalem  Delivered'  (q.v.),  published  in 
authorized  form  in  1581  and  1593;  an  epic, 
'Rinaldo';  a  pastoral,  'Aminta';  and  a  tragedy, 
'Torrismondo '. 

Byron's  'The  Lament  of  Tasso'  is  founded 
on  the  above-mentioned  legend  of  Tasso 's 
love  for  Leonora,  and  Goethe  wrote  his  'Tor- 
quato  Tasso*  in  1790. 

TATE,  NAHUM  (1652-1715),  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  wrote  an  adaptation 
of  'King  Lear'  (in  which  Cordelia  survives 
and  marries  Edgar),  which  held  the  stage  for 

1  So    Moli£re  spelt  it.    The   officially  recognized 
spelling  is  Tartufe. 


[766] 


TATE  AND  BRADY 

many  years ;  and  with  Dryden's  assistance  the 
second  part  of  'Absalom  and  Achitophel' 
(q.v.);  also  the  libretto  of  Purcell's  opera 
'Dido  and  Aeneas'.  With  Nicholas  Brady  he 
published  in  1696  the  well-known  metrical 
version  of  the  Psalms  that  bears  their  name. 
He  was  appointed  poet  laureate  in  1692. 
His  chief  original  poem  was  'Panacea — a 
Poem  on  Tea*  (1700).  He  was  pilloried  in  the 
'Dunciad*  (q.v.). 

Tate  and  Brady,  see  Tate  (N.\ 

Tate  Gallery,  THE,  Millbank,  London, 
a  gallery  of  modern  art,  commemorates  the 
name  of  Sir  Henry  Tate  (1819-99),  a  success- 
ful sugar-merchant  and  a  collector  of  pictures. 
He  gave  £80,000  to  the  nation  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  gallery,  which  was  opened 
in  1897,  and  contains  sixty-five  pictures 
also  given  by  him,  besides  many  other 
examples  of  modern  art. 

Tatter,  The,  a  periodical  started  by  R.  Steele 
(q.v.)  in  Apr.  1709.  It  appeared  thrice  a  week 
until  Jan.  1711. 

According  to  No.  i,  it  was  to  include 
'Accounts  of  Gallantry,  Pleasure,  and  Enter- 
tainment .  .  .  under  the  article  of  White's 
Chocolate  House* ;  poetry  under  that  of  Will's 
Coffee-house;  foreign  and  domestic  news 
from  St.  James's  coffee-house;  and  so  on. 
Gradually  it  adopted  a  higher  mission.  The 
evils  of  duelling  and  gambling  are  denounced 
in  some  of  the  earlier  numbers,  and  presently 
all  questions  of  good  manners  are  discussed 
from  the  standpoint  of  a  humaner  civiliza- 
tion, and  a  new  standard  of  good  taste  is  set 
up.  The  ideal  of  a  gentleman  is  examined  and 
its  essence  is  found  to  lie  in  forbearance.  The 
author  assumes  the  character  of  Bickerstaff 
(q.v.),  the  marriage  of  whose  sister,  Jenny 
Distaff,  with  Tranquillus  gives  occasion  for 
treating  of  happy  married  life.  The  rake  and 
the  coquette  are  shown  in  their  true  light,  and 
virtue  is  held  up  to  admiration  in  the  person 
of  Lady  Elizabeth  Hastings — 'to  love  her  is  a 
liberal  education'.  Episodes  and  short  stories 
illustrate  the  principles  advanced. 

From,  an  early  stage  in  the  history  of  the 
'Tatler*,  Steele  had  the  collaboration  of 
Addison,  who  besides  notes  and  suggestions 
contributed  a  number  of  complete  papers. 

Tatter  sail's,  an  auction-room  for  horses 
founded  near  Hyde  Park  Corner  in  1766  by 
Richard  Tattersall  (1724-95),  stud-groom  to 
the  second  duke  of  Kingston.  His  honesty 
and  businesslike  precision  brought  him  the 
highest  patronage,  and  the  establishment  be- 
came famous,  and  survives  in  premises  at 
Brompton. 

Tattle,  a  character  in  Congreve's  'Love  for 
Love*  (q.v.). 

Tattycoram,  in  Dickens *s  'Little  Dorrit* 

(q.v.),  a  foundling  brought  up  in  the  Meagles 

household. 

Tauclmitz,     CHRISTIAN     BERNHARD    VON 

(1816-95),  the  founder  of  a  publishing  house 


TAYLOR 

at  Leipzig  which  in  1841  (there  being  at  that 
time  no  international  agreement  on  copy- 
right) began  the  issue  of  a  'Collection  of 
British  and  American  Authors*  for  sale  on 
the  Continent,  followed  by  a  collection  of 
English  translations  of  German  authors. 
Taurinum,  in  imprints,  Turin. 

Taurus,  the  Bull,  the  second  of  the  zodiacal 
constellations,  containing  the  groups  of  the 
Pleiades  and  the  Hyades,  and  the  great  star 
Aldebaran.  The  sun  enters  the  zodiacal  sign 
Taurus  on  21  April. 

Taverner »s  Bible,  see  Bible  (The  English). 
Tawdry,  see  Audrey. 

TAYLOR,  BAYARD  (1825-78),  American 
traveller  and  author,  published  a  large  num- 
ber of  books  of  travel,  novels,  poems,  and  a 
translation  of  Goethe's  'Faust*. 

TAYLOR,  SIR  HENRY  (1800-86),  held  an 
appointment  in  the  Colonial  Office  from  1824 
to  1872,  during  which  time  he  published  a 
number  of  plays  in  verse,  *  Isaac  Comnenus* 
(1827),  'Philip  van  Arteyelde*  (1834),  'Edwin 
the  Fair*  (1842),  'A  Sicilian  Summer'  and  'St. 
Clement's  Eve'  (1862).  'The  Eve  of  Con- 
quest' and  other  poems  appeared  in  1847, 
'The  Statesman'  (q.v.)  in  1836.  'Philip 
van  Artevelde'  (q.v.),  his  masterpiece, 
is  remarkable  as  a  study  of  character,  and 
also  displays  his  lyrical  faculty.  There  is  an 
interesting  critical  introduction  to  the  play. 
His  'Autobiography*  appeared  in  1885. 

TAYLOR,  JANE  (1783-1824)  and  ANN 
(1782-1866),  authors  of  books  for  the  young, 
published  'Original  Poems  for  Infant  Minds* 
(including  contributions  by  Adelaide  O  'Keeffe, 
1766-1855?)  in  1804,  which  attained  im- 
mense popularity,  and  'Rhymes  for  the 
Nursery*  (1806),  which  included  'Twinkle, 
twinkle,  little  star';  also  'Hymns  for  Infant 
Minds*  (1810).  Jane  Taylor  also  wrote  'Dis- 
play, a  Tale  for  Young  People'  (1815)  and 
'Contributions  of  Q.Q.*  (1824). 

TAYLOR,  JEREMY  (1613-67),  was  born  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  the  son  of  a  barber.  He 
was  educated  at  Gonville  and  Caius  College, 
Cambridge.  Having  attracted  Laud's  atten- 
tion as  a  preacher,  he  was  sent  by  him  to 
Oxford  and  became  a  fellow  of  All  Souls 
College.  He  was  chaplain  to  Laud  and 
Charles  I,  and  was  appointed  rector  of 
Uppingham  in  1638.  He  was  taken 
prisoner  in  the  Royalist  defeat  before  Cardi- 
gan Castle  in  1645,  and  retired  to  Golden 
Grove,  Carmarthenshire,  where  he  wrote 
most  of  his  greater  works.  After  the  Restora- 
tion he  was  made  bishop  of  Down  and 
Connor,  and  subsequently  of  Drompre.  He 
died  at  Lisburn  and  was  buried  in  his  cathe- 
dral of  Dromore.  His  fame  rests  on  the 
combined  simplicity  and  splendour  of  his 
style,  of  which  his  'Holy  Living'  and  'Holy 
Dying*  (1650-1)  are  perhaps  the  best 
examples.  Among  his  other  works,  the 
'Liberty  of  Prophesying',  an  argument  for 


[767] 


TAYLOR 

toleration,  appeared  in  1646 ;  his  'Eniautos'  or 
series  of  sermons  for  the  Christian  Year,  in 
1653 ;  'The  Golden  Grove',  a  manual  of  daily 
prayers,  in  1655;  the  'Ductor  Dubitantium', 
*a  general  instrument  of  moral  theology'  for 
determining  cases  of  conscience,  in  1660; 
and  his  'The  Worthy  Communicant*  in  the 
same  year. 

TAYLOR,  JOHN  (1580-1653),  the  'water- 
poet',  born  of  humble  parentage  at  Glouces- 
ter, was  sent  to  Gloucester  Grammar  School; 
but  becoming  'mired*  in  his  Latin  accidence 
was  apprenticed  to  a  waterman,  pressed  for 
the  navy,  and  was  present  at  the  siege  of 
Cadiz.  He  then  became  a  Thames  waterman, 
and  collector  of  the  Lieutenant  of  the  Tower's 
perquisite  of  wine.  He  increased  his  earnings 
by  rhyming,  and  showed  a  marked  talent  for 
expressing  himself  in  rollicking  verse  and 
prose.  He  obtained  the  patronage  of  Jonson 
and  other  men  of  genius,  and  diverted  both 
court  and  city.  He  went  on  foot  from  London 
to  Braemar,  visited  the  Continent,  and  the 
queen  of  Bohemia  at  Prague,  started  from 
London  to  Queenborough  in  a  brown-paper 
boat  and  narrowly  escaped  drowning,  and 
accomplished  other  journeys,  each  one  re- 
sulting in  a  booklet  with  an  odd  title.  He  was 
lodged  in  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  during  the 
plague  of  1625.  He  finally  took  the  'Crown* 
public-house  in  Hanover  Court,  Long  Acre. 
He  published  in  1630  a  collective  edition  of 
his  works,  *A11  the  Workes  of  John  Taylor, 
the  Water  Poet*  (reprinted  with  other  pieces 
by  the  Spenser  Society,  1868-78). 

TAYLOR,  JOHN  (1703-72),  commonly 
known  as  the  'Chevalier*,  an  itinerant  oculist, 
who  possessed  much  skill  as  an  operator,  but 
advertised  himself  like  a  charlatan.  He 
was  the  author  of  treatises  on  the  eye  and 
of  a  bombastic  autobiography,  and  was 
the  subject  of  many  satires. 

TAYLOR,  PHILIP  MEADOWS  (1808- 
76),  an  Indian  officer  and  'Times'  correspon- 
dent in  India  from  1840  to  1853,  was  author 
of  'The  Confessions  of  a  Thug*  (1839),  a  very 
successful  book.  After  his  retirement  in  1860 
Taylor  wrote  a  number  of  brilliant  stories 
delineating  epochs  of  Indian  history,  notably 
the  trilogy,  'Tara:  a  Mahratta  Tale5  (1863), 
'Ralph  Darnell'  (1865),  and  'Seeta'  (1873). 
'The  Story  of  my  Life',  edited  by  his 
daughter,  appeared  in  1877. 

Taylor,  THOMAS  (1768-1835),  mathema- 
tician and  Platonist.  He  was  the  first  to 
embark  on  a  systematic  translation  and  com- 
position of  Orphic,  Platonic,  and  other 
ancient  literatures.  He  also  devoted  himself 
to  the  attempt  to  discover  a  metaphysic  of 
mathematics. 

TAYLOR,  TOM  (1817-80),  educated  at 
Glasgow  University  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  fellow, 
wrote  for  various  newspapers  and  was  editor 
of  Punch*  from  1874  to  1880.  He  produced 
a  number  of  successful  plays  (some  in  col- 


TELEGRAPH  PAXARETT 

laboration  with  Charles  Reade  and  others), 
taking  the  plots  as  a  rule  from  previous  writers. 
The  plays  include  'To  Parents  and  Guardians* 
(1845),  'Still  Waters  Run  Deep'  (1855),  'Our 
American  Cousin'  (1858).  He  published  a 
biography  of  Haydon  in  1853,  and  edited 
C.  R.  Leslie's  'Autobiographical  Recollec- 
tions' after  the  author's  death  (1860), 
Taylorian  Institute,  THE,  at  Oxford,  built 
in  1841-5,  is  named  after  Sir  Robert  Taylor 
(1714-88),  sculptor  and  architect,  who  left 
some  £180,000,  mostly  to  Oxford  University. 
The  Taylorian  is  an  institute  for  teaching 
modern  languages  and  has  an  important 
modern  language  library.  See  Sir  C.  H. 
Firth's  'Modern  Languages  at  Oxford,  1729- 
1929* (1929). 

Tchaikovsky,  PETER  ILITCH  (1840-93), 
an  eminent  Russian  composer,  whose  works 
are  marked  by  the  national  spirit  and  the 
power  of  portraying  every  variety  of  emotion. 
They  include  several  operas,  six  symphonies 
(of  which  the  last  three  are  the  best  known), 
pianoforte  concertos,  &c. 

TGHEHOV,  ANTON  PAVLOVICH,  see 
Chekhov. 

Te  Deumt  an  ancient  Latin  psalm  of  praise, 
so  called  from  its  opening  words.  The 
authorship  is  traditionally  ascribed  to  St. 
Ambrose  (c.  340-97,  bishop  of  Milan),  and  is 
connected  with  the  conversion  by  him  of  St. 
Augustine ;  but  parts  of  the  work  are  thought 
to  be  of  older  date.  It  is  ascribed  by  some  to 
Hilary,  a  Gaulish  prelate  (d.  A.D.  368). 

Te  igitur,  the  first  prayer  in  the  canon  of  the 
mass  in  the  Roman  liturgy;  hence  extended 
to  the  liturgical  book  itself,  so  called  from 
the  opening  words  of  the  prayer. 

Tea^Tie,  a  nickname  for  an  Irishman,  the 
anglicized  spelling  of  the  Irish  name  Tadhg. 

Tears  of  the  Muses,  The,  a  poem  by  Spenser 
(q.v.),  included  in  the  'Complaints'  published 
in  1590.  In  this  the  poet  deplores,  through 
the  mouth  of  the  several  Muses,  the  decay  of 
literature  and  learning.  It  contains,  in  the 
lament  of  Thalia,  an  interesting  passage  ('Our 
pleasant  Willy,  ah !  is  dead  of  late')  which  has 
been  thought  by  some  to  refer  to  Shakespeare 
('dead'  being  used  in  the  sense  of  silent) 
or  Tarlton  (q.v.),  but  probably  refers  to  Lyly. 
Tearsheet,  DOLL,  a  character  in  Shake- 
speare's '2  Henry  IV*  (q.v.). 

Teazle,  SIR  PETER  and  LADY,  characters  in 
Sheridan's  'School  for  Scandal*  (q.v.). 
Teian  Muse,  THE,  Anacreon  (q.v.). 
Teiresias,  see  Tiresias. 
Telamon  (plur.  TELAMONES),  a  figure  of 
a  man  used   as   a    column  to  support  an 
entablature  •  or  other  structure.    From  the 
name  of  Telamon,  the  father  of  Ajax  (q.v.). 
Cf.  Caryatids. 

Telegraph  Paxarett,  SIR,  in  Peacock's 
'Melincourt*  (q.v.),  one  of  the  suitors  of 
Anthelia. 


[768] 


TEL-EL-AMARNA  TABLETS 

Tel-el-Amarna  Tablets,  a  series  of  clay 
tablets  with  cuneiform  inscriptions  found  in 
1887  in  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  Amen- 
hotep  IV  (Akhnaton)  at  Tel-el-Amarna  in 
Middle  Egypt.  They  contain  the  diplomatic 
correspondence  of  the  kings  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria  with  the  king  of  Egypt. 

TelSmaclras,  a  son  of  Ulysses  and  Penelope 
(qq.v.),  who  was  still  a  child  when  his  father 
went  to  the  Trojan  War.  At  the  end  of  the 
war,  when  his  father  did  not  return,  Tele- 
machus  went  to  seek  him,  accompanied  by 
Athene  in  the  guise  of  Mentor,  and  visited 
Menelaus  and  Nestor  to  obtain  information. 
On  his  return  to  Ithaca,  where  the  suitors  of 
his  mother  had  conspired  to  slay  him,  his 
father,  who  had  just  returned,  was  revealed 
to  him  by  Athene.  Together  they  concerted, 
with  the  help  of  Eumaeus  (q.v.),  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  suitors. 

Telemaque,  Les  Aventures  de,  see  Fenelon. 
Telephus,  see  Achilles'  spear. 
Telford,  THOMAS  (1757-1834),  a  great  civil 
engineer  and  road  and  bridge  builder.   His 
most  conspicuous  work  was  the  construction 
of  the  Caledonian  Canal.  He  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Campbell  and  Southey,  and  made 
an  interesting  journey  through  Scotland  with 
the  latter  and  wrote  an  account  of  it  in  the 
form  of  a  journal. 

Tell,  WILLIAM,  a  legendary  hero  of  the 
liberation  of  Switzerland  from  Austrian  op- 
pression. The  stories  concerning  him  differ 
in  details,  but  in  its  generally  accepted  form 
the  legend  represents  him  as  a  skilled  Swiss 
marksman  who  refused  to  do  honour  to  the 
hat  of  Gessler,  the  Austrian  bailiff  of  Uri, 
placed  on  a  pole,  and  was  in  consequence 
arrested  and  required  to  hit  with  an  arrow  an 
apple  placed  on  the  head  of  his  little  son. 
This  he  successfully  did,  and  with  a  second 
arrow  shot  Gessler,  subsequently  stirring  up 
a  rebellion  against  the  oppressors.  Another 
version  relates  how  Tell,  being  carried  a 
prisoner  across  the  lake  to  Gessler's  castle, 
was  given  the  rudder,  on  account  of  his 
strength,  when  a  storm  arose.  He  steered  the 
boat  on  to  a  ledge  of  rock,  subsequently  called 
the  Tell's  Platte,  sprang  ashore  and  shot  the 
bailiff.  These  events  are  placed  in  the  I4th 
cent.  But  Swiss  historians  have  shown  that 
there  is  no  evidence  for  the  existence  of  a  real 
William  Tell.  The  story  is  first  found  in  a 
ballad  of  the  rsth  cent.  William  Tell  is  the 
subject  of  a  play  by  Schiller  (q.v.). 

Similar  legends  of  marksmen  shooting  at  an 
object  placed  on  the  head  of  a  man  or  child 
are  of  widespread  occurrence,  e.g.  in  Norway 
and  England  (Egil,  Clym  of  the  Clough, 
William  of  Cloudesley). 

TELLEZ,  GABRIEL  (1570-1648),  who 
wrote  under  the  pseudonym  TIRSO  DA 
MOLINA,  a  Spanish  dramatist,  famous  outside 
Spain  principally  as  the  creator  of  the  proto- 
type of  Don  Juan  in  his  play  'El  Burlador  de 
Sevilla'  ('The  Seville  Deceiver'  or  'Jester*). 


TEMPEST 

Tellus,  the  name  under  which  the  earth  was 
worshipped  at  Rome,  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  Ge. 

Temora,  one  of  the  chief  epics  among  the 
Ossianic  poems  of  Macpherson  (q.v.), 
'Temora*  is  the  name  of  the  palace  of  the 
kings  of  Ulster.  Cormac,  the  young  king,  has 
been  murdered  by  Cairbar  of  Connaught, 
who  has  usurped  the  throne  (as  told  in  'The 
Death  of  Cuthullin').  Fingal  comes  over  to 
Ireland  to  re-establish  the  ousted  dynasty. 
In  the  battle  that  ensues  Cairbar  and  Oscan 
(the  son  of  Ossian  and  grandson  of  Fingal) 
fall  by  each  other's  hand;  Fillan,  a  son  of 
Fingal,  is  also  slain;  and  finally  Fingal  kills 
Cathmor,  the  brother  of  Cairbar  and  leader 
of  the  rebel  host. 

Tempe,  a  valley  in  Thessaly,  between  Mt. 
Olympus  on  the  north  and  Mt.  Ossa  on  the 
south,  through  which  the  river  Peneus  flows 
to  the  sea.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  beauty, 
cool  shades,  and  warbling  birds:  'Zephyris 
agitata  Tempe'  (Horace,  'Odes',  m.  i). 

Tempest f  The,  a  romantic  drama  by  Shake- 
speare (q.v,),  was  probably  written  in  1611 
and  the  latest  of  his  completed  works.  It  was 
not  printed  till  the  folio  of  1623.  The  story 
of  the  exiled  magician  and  his  daughter  had 
figured  in  a  recent  German  play,  and  other 
literary  sources  have  been  suggested.  Shake- 
speare has  worked  into  the  play  details  of  the 
shipwreck  on  Bermuda  of  Sir  G.  Somers's 
ship  the  'Sea- Venture'  in  1609.  He  may 
have  got  the  name  of  the  god  Setebos 
from  Richard  Eden's  'History  of  Travaile* 

(1577). 

Prospero,  duke  of  Milan,  ousted  from  his 
throne  by  his  brother  Antonio,  and  turned 
adrift  on  the  sea  with  his  child  Miranda,  has 
been  cast  upon  a  lonely  island.  This  had  been 
the  place  of  banishment  of  the  witch  Sycorax. 
Prospero,  by  his  knowledge  of  magic  has 
released  various  spirits  (including  Ariel)  for- 
merly imprisoned  by  the  witch,  and  these  now 
obey  his  orders.  He  also  keeps  in  service  the 
witch's  son  Caliban,  a  misshapen  monster,  the 
sole  inhabitant  of  the  island.  After  Prospero 
and  Miranda  have  lived  thus  for  twelve 
years,  a  ship  carrying  the  usurper,  his  con- 
federate, the  king  of  Naples,  and  the  latter's 
son  Ferdinand,  is  by  the  art  of  Prospero 
wrecked  on  the  island.  The  passengers  are 
saved,  but  Ferdinand  is  thought  by  the  rest 
to  be  drowned,  and  Ferdinand  thinks  the  rest 
are  drowned.  Ferdinand  and  Miranda  are 
thrown  together,  fall  in  love,  and  plight  their 
troth.  Ariel,  by  Prospero's  order,  subjects 
Antonio  and  the  king  of  Naples  to  various 
terrors.  Antonio  is  cowed;  the  king  repents 
his  cruelty,  is  reconciled  with  Prospero,  and 
his  son  Ferdinand  is  restored  to  him.  All  ends 
happily,  for  the  ship  is  magically  restored  and 
Prospero  and  the  others  prepare  to  leave  the 
island,  after  Prospero  has  renounced  his 
magical  faculties.  Caliban,  whose  intercourse 
with  Stephano,  a  drunken  butler,  and  Trin- 
culo  the  jester,  has  provided  some  excellent 


3863 


[769] 


TEMPLARS 

fooling,  is  left,  as  before,  the  island's  sole 
inhabitant. 

Templars,  KNIGHTS,  an  order  founded 
about  1118,  consisting  originally  of  nine 
knights  whose  profession  was  to  safeguard 
pilgrims  to  Jerusalem,  and  who  were  granted 
by  Baldwin,  king  of  Jerusalem,  a  dwelling 
place  in  his  palace  near  the  temple.  Many 
noblemen  from  all  parts  of  Christendom 
joined  the  order,  and  it  acquired  great  wealth 
and  influence  in  France,  England,  and  other 
countries.  Active  always  in  the  field,  they 
were  really  a  source  of  weakness  to  the 
Christian  king  of  Jerusalem  from  their  direct 
dependence  on  the  pope  and  their  constant 
violation  of  treaties  with  the  Moslem  powers. 
After  the  battle  of  1187  Saladin  made  an 
example  of  all  the  Templars  and  the  (much 
less  guilty)  Hospitallers  who  became  his 
prisoners,  and  beheaded  them  all,  about  200 
in  number,  while  sparing  nearly  all  his  other 
prisoners.  The  knights  were  organized  in 
commanderies,  under  a  preceptor  in  each 
province,  and  a  grand  master  at  the  head  of 
the  order.  From  a  state  of  poverty  and 
humility  (their  seal  represents  two  of  them 
riding  on  the  same  horse)  they  became  so 
insolent  that  the  order  was  suppressed.  They 
were  accused  of  blasphemy,  sorcery,  and 
other  crimes.  The  order  was  crushed  by  the 
kings  of  Europe  in  their  various  dominions 
with  circumstances,  especially  in  France,  of 
great  cruelty.  It  was  also  officially  suppressed 
by  the  pope  and  the  Council  of  Vienne  (13 12). 
Browning's  poem,  'The  Heretic's  Tragedy', 
alludes  to  the  burning  of  Jacques  du  Bourg- 
Molay,  the  grand  master,  in  1314.  See  also 
under  Temple  (The,  of  London). 

Temple,  Miss,  in  Charlotte  Bronte's  'Jane 
Eyre'  (q.v.),  the  kindly  manager  of  the  Lo- 
wood  Asylum. 

Temple,  THE,  of  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem,  was 
first  built  by  Solomon,  on  the  summit  of  Mt. 
Moriah,  'the  threshingfloor  of  Oman" 
(2  Chron.  iii).  It  was  destroyed  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar in  586  B.C.;  rebuilt  under  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah;  partly  destroyed  by  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes,  167  B.C.  ;  splendidly  restored 
by  Herod  the  Great;  and  finally  destroyed  by 
Titus  in  A.D.  70.  The  site  is  now  occupied 
by  the  Mosque  of  Omar  (q.v.). 

Temple,  THE,  a  district  of  London  lying 
between  Fleet  Street  and  the  Thames,  took 
its  name  from  the  Knights  Templars  (q.v.), 
who  owned  it  from  about  1160  until  their 
suppression.  Their  church,  built  on  the 
model  of  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at 
Jerusalem  and  known  as  the  Round  Church, 
was  consecrated  in  1 1 85,  and  forms  part  of  the 
present  TEMPLE  CHURCH.  The  Temple  was 
leased  to  law  students  and  converted  into  Inns 
of  Court  (the  Inner  and  Middle  Temple)  in 
the  i4th  cent. 

The  TEMPLE  GARDEN  is  the  scene,  in 
Shakespeare's  'i  Henry  VI'  (n.  iv),  of  the 
plucking  of  the  white  and  red  roses  of  York 


TENIERS 

and  Lancaster;  and  in  ci  Henry  IV,  in.  iii, 
the  prince  makes  an  appointment  with 
Falstaff  in  the  Temple  Hall  (an  anachronism, 
Loftie  points  out). 

TEMPLE,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1628-99),  edu- 
cated at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  was 
envoy  at  Brussels  in  1666,  and  visited  The 
Hague,  where  he  effected  the  triple  alliance 
between  England,  Holland,  and  Sweden, 
aiming  at  the  protection  of  Spain  from  French 
ambition  (1668).  He  went  again  to  The  Hague 
in  1674,  where  he  brought  about  the  marriage 
between  William  of  Orange  and  Mary.  He 
married  in  1655  Dorothy  Osborne,  whose 
letters  to  him  were  published  in  1888,  and 
again  in  a  better  edition  in  1928.  He 
settled  first  at  Sheen  and  later  at  Moor  Park, 
near  Farnham,  where  he  was  much  occupied 
with  gardening,  and  where  Swift  (q.v.)  was 
an  inmate  of  his  household.  His  principal 
works  are  an  'Essay  upon  the  Present  State 
of  Ireland'  (1668),  an  essay  upon  'The  Ad- 
vancement of  Trade  in  Ireland'  (1763), 
'Observations  upon  .  .  .  the  Netherlands' 
(1673),  and  three  volumes  of  'Miscellanea31 
(1680,  1692,  and  1701).  The  second  of  these 
contains  his  best-known  essay,  'Of  Ancient 
and  Modern  Learning',  which,  by  its  uncritical 
praise  of  the  spurious  epistles  of  Phalaris 
(q.v.),  exposed  the  author  to  the  censure  of 
Bentley  (q.v.)  and  led  to  a  vigorous  con- 
troversy. The  'Miscellanea'  also  include  the 
essays  'Upon  the  Original  and  Nature  of 
Government' (written  about  1671),  'Upon  the 
Gardens  of  Epicurus',  'Upon  Health  and 
Long  Life',  'Of  Heroic  Virtue',  and  'Of 
Poetry*.  Temple's  Letters  were  published  by 
Swift  in  1701,  after  Temple's  death.  His 
'Memoirs',  relating  to  the  period  1672-9, 
published  in  1692,  are  an  agreeable  blend  of 
public  affairs  with  a  record  of  private  life. 

Temple  Bar,  like  Holborn  Bar  and  other 
bars  on  the  chief  roads  leading  out  of  London, 
marked  the  limit  of  the  common  lands  or 
'liberties*  that  surrounded  the  medieval 
city.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Sir  C.  Wren  (1672-3) 
and  removed  in  1878.  It  is  now  at  Theobalds 
Park,  Cheshunt. 

Ten  Thousand  a  Year,  see  Warren  (£.). 
Tenant  ofWildf ell  Hall,  The,  see  Wildfett. 

Tenters,  DAVID,  the  younger  (1610—90),  the 
third  great  master  of  the  Flemish  school 
(following,  that  is,  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck), 
was  born  at  Antwerp,  and  became  court 
painter  to  the  archduke  Leopold  William,  the 
governor  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  and  to 
his  successor,  Don  Juan  of  Austria.  This 
appointment  secured  the  artist's  prosperity 
and  enabled  him  to  live  in  grand  style  at 
his  chateau  of  the  'Drij  Toren*  ('Three 
Towers')  at  Perck.  Queen  Christina  of 
Sweden  and  Philip  IV  of  Spain  were  among 
his  patrons.  He  was  a  very  versatile  painter, 
taking  for  his  subjects  landscapes,  guard- 
rooms, tavern  drinking-scenes,  village  revels, 
and  also  sacred  themes.  He  was  at  his  best  in 


t77o] 


TENNANT 

genre  pictures,  which  he  painted  with  the 
utmost  realism. 

TENNANT,  WILLIAM  (1784-1848),  edu- 
cated at  St.  Andrews  University,  a  parish 
schoolmaster  (at  Anstruther  in  Fife)  learned 
in  oriental  languages,  of  which  he  became 
professor  at  St.  Andrews.  He  is  remembered 
in  a  literary  connexion  for  his  poem  in  six 
cantos,  'Anster  Fair',  published  in  1812,  a 
mock-heroic  description  of  the  humours  of 
the  fair  (in  James  V's  reign),  and  of  the 
courting,  with  fairy  interposition,  of  Maggie 
Lauder  by  Rob  the  Ranter. 

Tenniel,  SIR  JOHN  (1820-1914),  first  came 
to  notice  by  his  illustrations  of  the  Rev. 
Thomas  James's  version  of  Aesop's  Fables' 
(1848).  He  was  invited  to  join  the  staff  of 
'Punch'  in  1850.  In  1864  he  succeeded  Leech 
as  its  chief  cartoonist,  and  during  fifty  years* 
service  drew  over  two  thousand  cartoons. 
Among  the  best  known  of  these  was  'Dropping 
the  Pilot*  (1890),  referring  to  Bismarck's 
resignation,  and  'Who  said  "Atrocities"?* 
(1895),  showing  Gladstone  as  a  terrier,  alert  at 
the  mention  of  Armenian  massacres.  Tenniel 
also  illustrated  'Alice's  Adventures  in  Won- 
derland* and  'Through  the  Looking-Glass*^ 

Tennis  Court  Oath :  on  29  June  1789  the 
Third  Estate  of  France  (self-styled  'National 
Assembly')  met  in  the  Tennis  Court  (Jeu  de 
Paume)  at  Versailles,  in  defiance  of  the  royal 
orders,  and  its  members  took  an  oath  not  to 
separate  until  they  had  made  a  constitution. 

TENNYSON,  ALFRED,  first  Baron  Tenny- 
son (1809-92),  was  born  at  Somersby,  of 
which  place  his  father  was  rector,  and  edu- 
cated by  his  father  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  became  acquainted 
with  A.  H.  Hallam  (q.v.).  He  won  the 
chancellor's  medal  for  English  verse  in  1829 
with  a  poem,  'Timbuctoo*.  'Poems,  by  Two 
Brothers*  (1827)  contains  some  of  his  earlier 
and  unimportant  verse.  In  1 830  he  published 
'Poems,  chiefly  Lyrical*  (including  'ClaribeF 
and  'Mariana'),  which  were  unfavourably 
reviewed  by  Lockhart  and  Wilson,  and  in 
1832  travelled  with  Hallam  on  the  Continent. 
Hallam  died  in  1833,  and  in  that  year  Tenny- 
son began  his  'In  Memoriam*  (q.v.)  expressive 
of  his  grief  for  his  lost  friend.  He  became 
engaged  to  Emily  Sellwood,  to  whom,  how- 
ever, he  was  not  married  until  1850.  In  1833 
he  published  a  further  volume  of  'Poems', 
containing  'The  Two  Voices',  'CEnone* 
(q.v.),  'The  Lotos-Eaters'  (q.v.),  *A  Dream  of 
Fair  Women*  ('Tithonus*,  q.v.,  published  in 
1860,  belongs  also  to  this  period) ;  and  in  1842 
an  edition  of  his  poems  in  two  volumes, 
which  included  some  of  his  finest  work :  the 
'Morted 'Arthur*  (the  germ  of  the  'Idylls'), 
'Locksley  Hall*  (q.v.),  'Ulysses*  (q.v.), 
'St.  Simeon  Stylites',  &c.  He  received  from 
Peel  a  pension  of  £200.  In  1847  he  pub- 
lished *The  Princess*  (q.v.)  and  in  1850 
'In  Memoriam',  and  was  appointed  poet 
laureate  in  succession  to  Wordsworth  in  the 


TERBURG 

latter  year.  He  wrote  the  'Ode'  on  the  death 
of  Wellington,  and  the  'Charge  of  the  Light 
Brigade*  in  1854,  having  at  this  date  taken 
up  his  residence  at  Farringford,  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight.  He  published  'Maud*  (q.v.)  in 
1855,  and  m  1859  four  'Idylls  of  the  King* 
(q.v.,  Enid,  Vivien,  Elaine,  Guinevere), 
which  finally  established  his  fame  and  popu- 
larity. 'Enoch  Arden'  (q.v.)  appeared  in 
1864  (the  volume  included  his  popular 
dialect  poem,  'The  Northern  Farmer:  Old 
Style');  'Lucretius'  (q.v.),  privately  printed  in 
1868;  'The  Holy  Grail'  (q.v.)  in  1869;  'The 
Last  Tournament*  (q.v.),  privately  printed  in 

1871,  and  'Gareth  and  Lynette'  (q.v.)  in 

1872.  Tennyson  began  building  his  second 
residence,    Aldworth,    near    Haslemere,    in 
1868.    His  dramas,  'Queen  Mary*  (q.v.)  and 
'Harold*  (q.v.),  appeared  in  1875  and  1876, 
'The  Falcon*   (privately  printed)  in   1879, 
'The  Cup*  (privately  printed)  in  1881,  'The 
Promise  of  May*  in  1882,  and  'Becket*  (q.v.) 
in  1 884,  in  which  year  he  was  made  a  peer.  In 
1880   appeared   'Ballads  and  other  poems*, 
which   includes,    besides    'The   Voyage   of 
Maeldune*   and   'Rizpah*   (qq.v.),   the   fine 
war  ballads  'The  Revenge*  (q.v.)  and  'The 
Defence  of  Lucknow*.  Tennyson  published 
'Tiresias,  and  other  poems*  in  1885,  'Locks- 
ley  Hall,   sixty  years   after*  in    1886,   and 
'Demeter,  and  other  poems*  (including  'Mer- 
lin and  the  Gleam',  the  lines  'To  Virgil',  and 
'Crossing  the  Bar')  in  1889.   The  'Death  of 
CEnone,  and  other  poems'  and  'The  Foresters' 
appeared  in  1892.   Tennyson  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey.   A  life  of  him  by  his 
son  was  published  in  1897. 

TENNYSON,  FREDERICK  (1807-98), 
elder  brother  of  A.  Tennyson  (q.v.),  con- 
tributed to  the  'Poems  by  Two  Brothers' 
(1827),  and  published  'Days  and  Hours' 
(1854),  'The  Isles  of  Greece'  (1890),  and  other 
volumes  of  verse. 

TENNYSON  TURNER,  CHARLES 
(1808-79),  elder  brother  of  A.  Tennyson 
(q.v.),  contributed  to  *Poems  by  Two 
Brothers*  (1827)  a^d  published  from  time  to 
time  volumes  of  sonnets  (1830-80),  simple 
and  restrained  in  manner,  some  of  them 
depicting  the  rustic  aspects  of  the  wolds. 

Tensons  or  TENgoNS,  dialogues  or  love  dis- 
putes between  two  troubadours,  which  were 
popular  displays  of  minstrelsy  in  the  Norman 
castles. 

TerapMm,  a  kind  of  idols  or  images,  ap- 
parently household  gods,  an  object  of  rever- 
ence and  means  of  divination  among  the 
ancient  Hebrews  and  kindred  peoples,  men- 
tioned, e.g.,  in  Judges  xvii.  5 ;  perhaps  some- 
thing like  the  Tanagra  figurines  of  Greece, 
or  the  Lares  and  Penates  of  Rome  (if  statues 
were  made,  as  they  probably  were,  of  these 
family  godlets). 

Terburg  or  TERBORCH,  GERARD  (c.  1617- 
81),  a  famous  genre  painter  of  the  Dutch 
school. 

3D2 


TERENCE 

TERENCE  (PUBLIUS  TERENTIUS 
AFER)  (c.  190-159  B.C.),  the  Roman  comic 
poet,  was  born  at  Carthage  and  came  when 
young  to  Rome,  as  the  slave  of  P.  Terentius 
Lucanus,  by  whom  he  was  freed.  He 
subsequently  went  to  Greece,  where  he  trans- 
lated many  of  the  comedies  of  Menander, 
on  which  his  own  plays  are  largely  modelled. 
Of  these  the  following  are  extant:  'Andria', 
'Hecyra9  ('The  Mother-in-Law'),  'Heau- 
tontimoroumenos'  ('The  Self-punisher'), 
'Eunuchus',  Thormio',  'Adelphi'. 
Teresa,  ST.,  see  Theresa. 
Tereus,  see  Philomela. 
Terill,  SIR  WALTER,  a  character  in  Dekker's 
'Satiromastix'  (q.v.),  see  Tyrrell  (Sir  W.). 
Termagant,  the  name  of  an  imaginary 
deity  held  in  medieval  Christendom  ^  to  be 
worshipped  by  the  Mohammedans:  in  the 
mystery  plays  represented  as  a  violent  over- 
bearing personage;  hence  *a  bully*,  and  later 
'a  virago'.  From  Old  French  Tervagant, 
Italian  Trivigante,  probably  for  Trivagante, 
the  moon,  wandering  under  three  names, 
Selene  (or  Luna)  in  heaven,  Artemis  ^  (or 
Diana)  on  earth,  Persephone  (Proserpina) 
in  the  lower  world. 

Terpander,  the  father  of  Greek  music,  a 
native  of  Lesbos,  who  flourished  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  7th  cent.  B.C.  He^is  said  to  have 
made  of  the  lyre  (which  previously  had  only 
four  strings)  a  seven-stringed  instrument,  and 
to  have  founded  at  Sparta  the  first  Greek 
school  of  music. 

TerpsIchSre,  one  of  the  Muses  (q.v.)  who 
presided  over  dancing. 

Terra  sigillata,  'sealed  earth*,  a  medicinal 
earth  from  the  island  of  Lemnos,  so  called 
because  cakes  of  it  were  sealed  or  stamped,  in 
antiquity,  with  the  head  of  Artemis,  in  later 
times  with  the  seal  of  the  Grand  Signior.  It 
was  esteemed  an  antidote  against  poisons  and 
was  famous  during  the  Renaissance. 

Terrae  filius,  Latin,  a  eson  of  the  earth',  a 
man  of  unknown  origin;  formerly  at  Oxford 
University,  an  orator  privileged  to  make 
humorous  and  satirical  strictures  in  a  speech 
at  the  public  'act'.  [OED.j 

Terrible  Temptation,  A,  a  novel  by  Reade, 
published  in  1871. 

It  is  the  story  of  the  persistent  warfare 
waged  on  Sir  Charles  Bassett  by  his  un- 
scrupulous cousin  Richard  Bassett,  who  con- 
siders himself  defrauded  of  his  inheritance. 
This  inheritance  he  is  determined  to  recover 
either  for  himself  or  his  children.  In  pursuit 
of  this  purpose  he  tries  by  a  base  device  to 
frustrate  his  cousin's  marriage,  and  finally 
gets  him  locked  up  in  a  madhouse — a  part  of 
the  story  designed  to  show  the  unsatisfactory 
state  of  the  law  with  regard  to  the  certifica- 
tion of  lunatics  (cf .  Reade's  Hard  Cash).    His 
schemes  are  frustrated  by  the  devotion  of 
Sir  Charles's  wife,  and  a  reconciliation  is  in 
the  end  effected.     The  novel   possesses   a 


TESTAMENT  OF  CRESSEID 

special  interest  in  the  description  of  the 
methods  by  which  the  author  (in  the  character 
of  the  lawyer  Rolfc)  accumulated  the  docu- 
ments which  served  as  the  basis  of  his  narra- 
tives. 
Terror,  THE,  see  Reign  of  Terror, 

Tertimm  quid,  *some  third  thing',  some- 
thing indefinite,  related  in  some  way  to  two 
definite  or  known  things,  but  distinct  from 
both.  In  Browning's  'The  Ring  and  the 
Book'  (q.v,),  after  the  two  halves  of  Rome 
have  given  their  opinions  on  the  story  of 
Pompilia,  conies  the  impartial  opinion  of 
'Tertium  Quid'. 

Terzarima,  the  measure  adopted  by  Dante 
in  the  'Divina  Commedia*,  consisting  of  lines 
of  five  iambic  feet  with  an  extra  syllable,  in 
sets  of  three  lines,  the  middle  line  of  each 
rhyming  with  the  first  and  third  lines  of  the 
next  set  (a  b  a,  b  c  b,  c  d  c,  &c.). 

Tess  of  the  D'Urbervittes ,  A  Pure  Woman>  a 
novel  by  Hardy  (q.v.),  published  in  1891. 

Tess  Durbeyfield  is  the  daughter  of  a  poor, 
foolish  villager  of  Blackmoor  Vale,  whose 
head  is  turned  by  learning  that  he  is  a 
descendant  of  the  ancient  family  of  the 
D'Urbervilles.  Tess  is  seduced  by  Alec,  a 
young  man  of  means  whose  parents  bear  the 
surname  D'Urberville  with  doubtful  right  to 
it.  Tess  gives  birth  to  a  child,  which  dies  in 
infancy,  after  an  improvised  midnight  bap- 
tism by  its  mother.  Some  time  later,  while 
working  as  a  dairymaid  on  a  large  farm,  Tess 
becomes  engaged  to  Angel  Clare,  a  clergy- 
man's son.  On  their  wedding-night  she 
confesses  to  him  the  affair  of  Alec ;  and  Angel, 
himself  a  sinner  while  Tess  has  been  a  victim, 
abandons  her.  Misfortune  and  hardship 
come  upon  her  and  her  family,  and  accident 
throws  her  once  more  in  the  path  of  Alec 
D'Urberville.  He  has  become  a  preacher, 
but  his  temporary  religious  mania  does  not 
prevent  him  from  pressing  hi?  attentions 
upon  her.  After  some  pathetic  appeals  to  her 
husband,  she  is  driven  to  accept  the  protec- 
tion of  Alec.  Clare,  returning  from  Brazil 
repentant  of  his  harshness,  finds  her  in  this 
situation.  Maddened  by  this  second  wrong 
that  has  been  done  her  by  Alec,  she  murders 
him  to  liberate  herself.  After  a  brief  period  of 
concealment  with  Clare  in  the  New  Forest, 
Tess  is  arrested,  tried,  and  hanged.  *  "Jus- 
tice" was  done,  and  the  President  of  the 
Immortals  (in  Aeschylean  phrase)  had  ended 
his  sport  with  Tess.' 

Tessa,  a  character  in  George  Eliot's 
'Romola'  (q.v.). 

Test,    The,    and    The    Con-test,    political 
periodicals  founded  in  1756,  in  favour  of 
Henry  Fox  and  Pitt  respectively. 
Testament  of  a  Man  Forbid,  and  other 
'Testaments',  see  Davidson. 

Testament  of  Beauty,  The,  see  Bridges. 
Testament  ofCresseid,  The,  see  Cresseid. 


[772] 


TESTAMENT  OF  LOVE 
Testament  of  love.  The,  see  Usk. 
Tester,  apparently  a  corruption  or  perver- 
sion of  teston,  a  name  for  the  teston  or  testoon 
(shilling)  of  Henry  VIII,  especially  as  de- 
based and  depreciated;  subsequently  a  col- 
loquial or  slang  term  for  sixpence.    Hence 
also  perhaps  the  slang  'tizzy*. 

TESTON  was  originally  the  French  name  of 
a  silver  coin  struck  at  Milan  by  Galeazzo 
Maria  Sforza  (1468-76),  bearing  a  portrait 
or  head  of  the  duke.  In  England  the  name  was 
first  applied  to  the  shilling  of  Henry  VII,  the 
first  English  coin  with  a  true  portrait;  also 
to  those  of  Henry  VIII  and  early  pieces  of 
Edward  VI.  It  was  declared  in  1543  to  be 
equal  to  iz  pence,  but  was  debased  in  1545, 
no  less  than  half  of  copper  being  put  into 
it,  and  sank  to  iod.t  9^.,  and  6d.;  it  was 
recalled  in  1548. 

Tethys,  in  Greek  mythology,  one  of  the 
deities  of  the  sea,  daughter  of  Uranus  and 
Ge,  and  wife  of  Oceanus.  She  was  regarded 
as  the  mother  of  the  chief  rivers  of  the  earth, 
and  her  daughters  were  known  as  the 
Oceanfdes. 

Tethys,  in  geology,  a  S.  European  ocean, 
so  named  by  Suess  (q.v.),  at  some  time 
connected  with  the  Atlantic,  of  which  the 
Mediterranean  is  a  much  reduced  remnant. 

Tetrachordon,  the  third  of  Milton's  pam- 
phlets on  divorce,  dealing  (whence  its  name) 
with  four  sets  of  passages  from  Genesis, 
Deuteronomy,  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew, 
and  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 
Milton  also  wrote  two  sonnets  on  the  subject 
of  this  pamphlet. 

Tetragrammaton,  from  the  Greek,  'the 
word  of  four  letters*,  referring  specifically  to 
the  Hebrew  word  written  YHWH  or  JHVH 
(vocalized  as  Yahweh  or  Jehovah).  'Tetra- 
grammaton*  is  often  substituted  for  that  word 
(regarded  as  ineffable)  and  treated  as  a 
mysterious  symbol  of  the  name  of  God.  The 
pronunciation  of  the  original  word  was  sup- 
posed to  be  kept  hidden,  for  fear  of  blas- 
phemy. 

Tetterbys ,  THE,  characters  in  Dickens 's  'The 
Haunted  Man'  (q.v.). 

Teubner,  BENEDICT  GOTTHELF  (1784-1856), 
the  founder  of  a  publishing  and  book-selling 
business  in  Leipzig,  famous  for  the  'Biblio- 
theca  Scriptorum  Graecorum  et  Romanorum 
Teubneriana*,  begun  in  1849,  which  attained 
high  renown  as  containing  the  best  available 
texts  of  the  ancient  classics. 

Teucer,  a  son  of  Telamon  and  half-brother 
of  Ajax  (q.v.),  and  the  best  archer  in  the 
Greek  army  before  Troy.  On  his  return  to 
Salamis  after  the  war,  Telamon  refused  to 
receive  him,  because  he  had  failed  to  avenge 
on  Ulysses  the  death  of  Ajax.  Teucer  there- 
upon sailed  to  Cyprus,  where  he  established 
himself. 
Teufelsdrockh,  HERR,  see  Sartor  Resartus. 


THACKERAY 

Thackeray,  ANNE  ISABELLA,  see  Ritchie. 

THACKERAY,WILLIAM  MAKEPEACE 
(1811-63),  of  a  Yorkshire  yeoman  family,  was 
born  in  India,  where  his  father  held  office  as 
collector.  He  was  sent  to  England  in  1817, 
and  educated  at  Walpole  House,  Chiswick,  at 
Charterhouse,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. Here  he  studied  little,  and  left  in 
June  1830  without  a  degree,  after  making 
friends  with  Edward  FitzGerald,  Tennyson, 
and  others.  He  then  travelled  abroad  and 
met  Goethe  at  Weimar.  In  1831  he  entered 
the  Middle  Temple,  sharing  rooms  in 
Crown  Office  Row  with  Tom  Taylor,  but 
soon  gave  up  the  legal  profession.  In  1833 
he  became  proprietor  of  'The  National 
Standard*,  for  which  he  wrote  and  drew.  It 
had  a  short  existence,  and  Thackeray  settled 
in  Paris  to  study  drawing.  In  1836  he  pub- 
lished eight  caricatures  of  ballet-dancers 
entitled  'Flore  et  Zephyr'  under  the  pseu- 
donym *Th£ophile  WagstafF,  and  became 
Paris  correspondent  of  'The  Constitutional', 
which  failed.  In  the  same  year  he  married 
Isabella  Shawe.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1837  and  contributed  to  'Eraser's  Magazine* 
'The  Yellowplush  Correspondence*  (in  which 
Mr.  Yellowplush  (q.v.),  an  illiterate  footman, 
relates  his  social  experiences)  and  wrote 
reviews  for  'The  Times'  and  other  papers. 
The  'Tremendous  Adventures  of  Major 
Gahagan*  (q.v.)  appeared  in  'The  New 
Monthly  Magazine' in  1838-9,  and 'Catherine* 
(q.v.),  narrated  by  'Ikey  Solomons,  junior* 
in  'Fraser*  in  1839-40,  the  latter  being  an 
attempt  to  ridicule  the  exaltation  of  crime 
in  fiction.  In  1840  Thackeray  was  parted 
from  his  wife  owing  to  her  insanity,  a 
calamity  that  had  a  marked  effect  upon  his 
writing,  in  which  the  element  of  pathos 
becomes  more  pronounced.  'A  Shabby  Gen- 
teel Story*  (q.v.)  appeared  in  'Fraser*  in  1840, 
'The  Paris  Sketch-Book,  by  Mr.  Titmarsh*  in 
the  same  year,  and  "The  Great  Hoggarty 
Diamond*  (q.v.)  in  1841.  In  these  last  two 
works  Thackeray  assumed  the  pseudonym 
of  Michael  Angelo  Titmarsh.  In  the  charac- 
ter of  George  Savage  Fitz-Boodle  he  con- 
tributed to  'Fraser'  in  1842-3  the  'Fitz- 
Boodle  Papers',  the  confessions  of  an  elderly 
clubman  of  the  flames  inspired  in  his  suscep- 
tible heart  by  various  German  maidens. 
Fitz-Boodle  reappears  in  'Men's  Wives*, 
a  series  printed  in  'Fraser*  in  1843,  which 
contains  the  diverting  portraits  of  the  adven- 
turer Captain  Howard  Walker  and  the  com- 
poser Sir  George  Thrum.  'Bluebeard's 
Ghost'  and  'The  Irish  Sketch-Book*  by  M.  A. 
Titmarsh  were  published  in  the  same  year; 
and  in  1844  Thackeray,  in  the  character  again 
of  Fitz-Boodle  as  editor,  contributed  to 
'Fraser'  'The  Luck  of  Barry  Lyndon*  (q.v.). 
'Notes  of  a  Journey  from  Cornhill  to  Grand 
Cairo  by  Mr.  M.  A.  Titmarsh*,  a  long 'sketch- 
book', appeared  in  1846.  Thackeray  began 
his  contributions  to  'Punch*  in  1842;  of 
these  the  best  known  are  'Jeames's  Diary* 


[773] 


THADDEUS  OF  WARSAW 

(1845),  'Mr.  Punch's  Prize  Novelists'  (q.v., 
1847)  and  'The  Snobs  of  England'  (1847, 
afterwards  published  as  "The  Book  of  Snobs)', 
a  denunciation  of  social  pretentiousness. 
Even  before  the  'Snobs'  were  completed,  the 
serial  numbers  of  'Vanity  Fair'  (q.v.)  had 
begun  to  appear,  followed  by  those  of  'Pen- 
dennis*  (q.v.)  in  November  1848,  'Esmond' 
(q.v.)  in  1852,  and  'The  Newcomes'  (q.v.)  in 
1853-5.  Meanwhile  Thackeray  had  begun  to 
publish  the  tales  ('Mrs.  Perkins's  Ball',  'Our 
Street',  'The  Rose  and  the  Ring',  q.v.,  £c.) 
reprinted  in  'Christmas  Books'  (1857).  In 
these,  and  in  the  burlesque  'Legend  of  the 
Rhine'  (1845),  'The  Kickleburys  on  the 
Rhine',  and  'Rebecca  and  Rowena'  (1850), 
Michael  Angelo  Titmarsh  reappears  as 
author.  Thackeray  lectured  on  'The  English 
Humourists  of  the  Eighteenth  Century'  in 
1851  (published  in  1853)  and  on  The  Four 
Georges'  in  1855-6  (published  in  1860). 
In  1852  he  went  on  a  lecturing  tour  to 
America,  and  the  result  was  the  sequel  to 
'Esmond',  'The  Virginians'  (q.v.),  published 
in  serial  numbers  in  1 857-9.  In  1 8 57  Thack- 
eray had  unsuccessfully  stood  for  parliament 
at  Oxford.  He  had  retired  from  'Punch*  in 
1854  and  became  editor  of  the  'CornhilP  in 
1860.  He  contributed  to  it  'Lovel  the 
Widower'  (1860),  'The  Adventures  of  Philip" 
(i 86 1-2,  in  which  the  characters  of  'The 
Shabby  Genteel  Story'  reappear),  the  un- 
finished 'Denis  Duval'  (q.y.),  and  *The 
Roundabout  Papers*.  Mention  should  be 
made  of  Thackeray's  ballads  and  other 
rhymes,  written  at  various  periods  of  his 
life,  and  in  various  moods.  The  best  known 
perhaps  are  the  'Ballad  of  Bouillabaisse* 
(q.v.),  'The  Mahogany  Tree*,  and  the  two 
on  Catherine  Hayes,  the  murderess,  and 
Catherine  Hayes,  the  Irish  singer. 

There  is  a  biography  of  Thackeray  by  A. 
Trollope  in  the  English  Men  of  Letters 
series  (1879),  and  Lewis  Melville  published 
another,  in  two  volumes,  in  1910.  Sir  William 
Wilson  Hunter's  'The  Thackerays  in  India* 
(1897)  contains  an  interesting  account  of 
Thackeray's  ancestors  in  India.  Anne 
Thackeray  Ritchie,  Thackeray's  daughter, 
published  'Chapters  from  some  Memoirs'  in 
1894. 

Thaddeus  of  Warsaw t  an  historical  novel  by 
J.  Porter  (q.v.),  published  in  1803. 

Thaddeus,  a  young  nobleman  of  the 
family  of  the  famous  John  Sobieski,  king  of 
Poland,  accompanies  his  grandfather,  the 
count  palatine,  to  join  the  army  of  King 
Stanislaus,  which  Prince  Poniatowski  and 
General  Kosciuszko  are  leading  against  the 
invading  Russians.  The  old  count  is  killed, 
the  Polish  forces  defeated,  the  Sobieski  castle 
burnt,  and  Thaddeus  driven  into  exile.  He 
comes  to  England,  where,  after  suffering 
hardships,  he  is  discovered  to  be  the  son  of  an 
English  gentleman,  and  happily  married. 

The  work  is  of  some  interest  as  an  early 
example  of  the  historical  novel. 


THAMES 

Thais,  an  Athenian  courtesan  who,  accord- 
ing to  legend,  accompanied  Alexander  on  his 
Asiatic  conquests  and  caused  him  to  burn  the 
royal  palace  of  Persepolis.  The  incident  is 
treated  in  Dryden's  ode,  'Alexander's  Feast'. 
Thais  is  the  subject  of  a  romance  by  A. 
France  (q.v.). 

Thaisa,  in  Shakespeare's  'Pericles'  (q.v.), 
the  wife  of  Pericles. 

Thalaba  the  Destroyer,  a  poem  by  Southey, 
published  in  1801, 

The  young  Thalaba,  a  Moslem,  is  the^ap- 
pointed  one  to  destroy  the  race  of  magicians 
who  have  their  seminary  in  Domdaniel  (q.v.), 
a  palace  'under  the  roots  of  the  sea*.  Abdaldar, 
one  of  the  magicians,  seeks  to  kill  him,  but 
is  blasted  by  the  simoom.  Thalaba,  taking 
Abdaldar's  magic  ring  from  his  finger,  learns 
through  it  that  his  father,  Hodeirah,  was  slain 
by  Okba,  the  magician,  and  vows  vengeance. 
He  sets  out  on  his  quest,  learns  that  the 
talisman  by  which  he  shall  accomplish  it  is 
faith,  and,  protected  by  the  ring  from  the 
attacks  of  the  magicians,  finally  makes  his 
way  to  Domdaniel  and  destroys  it  and  the 
sorcerers.  He  sacrifices  his  life  in  doing  so, 
and  is  reunited  in  Paradise  to  his  beloved 
Oneiza,  the  wife  whom  death  had  taken  from 
him  on  their  bridal  night. 

Thalassa!,  'the  seal',  in  Xenophon's  'Ana- 
basis', iv.  7,  the  cry  of  the  Ten  Thousand  when 
from  the  summit  of  Mt.  Theches  they  first 
saw  the  Euxine  after  their  wanderings  in  Asia 
Minor. 
Thaler,  see  Dollar. 

Thales  (c.  624-546  B.C.),  one  of  the  seven 
wise  men  of  Greece,  born  at  Miletus  in  Ionia. 
He  travelled  in  quest  of  knowledge,  and  from 
the  priests  of  Memphis  learnt  geometry, 
astronomy,  and  philosophy.  He  was  the  first 
to  calculate  with  accuracy  a  solar  eclipse.  He 
discovered  the  solstices  and  equinoxes  and 
recommended  the  division  of  the  year  into 
365  days.  He  may  be  considered  the  founder 
of  Greek  philosophy,  being  the  first  to  seek  in 
science,  instead  of  mythology,  the  origin  of 
the  world.  He  held  that  all  things  had  their 
origin  in  water. 

Thalestris,  a  queen  of  the  Amazons,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  attracted  by  the  fame  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  travelled  from  hex- 
country  to  see  him. 

Thalia,  the  Muse  (q.v.)  of  comedy  and 
pastoral  poetry. 

Thames,  Old  English  Temese,  Latin  Tamesis 
or  Tamesa,  the  name  of  the  river  on  which 
London  stands.  It  is  called  the  Isis  from  its 
source  to  its  junction  with  the  Thame,  below 
Oxford,  owing  to  a  false  etymology  of  Tamesis 
or  Tamisis  as  Tam-\-Isis  (Henry  Bradley). 
The  meaning  of  the  word,  which  is  perhaps 
Celtic  in  origin,  is  uncertain  (cf.  Tame, 
Tamar). 

To  set  the  Thames  on  fire,  to  do  something 
marvellous,  to  work  wonders,  a  phrase 


[774] 


THAMUZ 

always  used  negatively,  'he  will  never  set  the 
Thames  on  fire'.  It  has  its  parallel  in  other 
countries  in  respect  of  their  rivers,  e.g.  the 
Rhine  ^  The  conjecture  that  Thames  here 
was  originally  temse,  a  sieve,  which  might  be 
set  on  fire  by  force  of  friction,  has  no  basis 
offset.  [OEDJ 

Thamuz  or  THAMMUZ,  a  Syrian  god.  See 
under  Adonis  and  Pan.  The  relation  of 
Thammuz  to  Adonis  is  referred  to  in  Milton, 
*  Paradise  Lost*,  i.  446-52. 

Thamyris,  a  Thracian  musician,  mentioned 
by  Homer  ('Iliad',  ii.  594).  He  challenged 
the  Muses  to  a  contest  of  skill,  and,  being  de- 
feated by  them,  was  deprived  of  his  eyesight 
and  his  melodious  voice,  and  his  lyre  was 
broken.  'Blind  Thamyris  and  blind  Mseo- 
nides',  Milton,  'Paradise  Lost',  iii.  35. 

Thatched  House  Club,  THE,  at  the  lower 
end  ^  of  St.  James's  Street,  London,  was 
originally  a  tavern  much  frequented  by 
politicians  and  men  of  fashion.  The  tavern 
was  demolished  in  1814. 

Thaumast,  in  Rabelais,  n.  xix,  an  English 
philosopher  who  carried  on  a  learned  dis- 
cussion with  Panurge  solely  by  signs. 

Theagenes,  see  Aethiopica. 

Theages,  THE  BRIDLE  OF,  ill-health.  Theages 
was  a  follower  of  Socrates.  In  the  sixth  book 
of  Plato's  'Republic'  Socrates  is  considering 
how  rare  are  the  worthy  disciples  of  philoso- 
phy, a  gifted  few  condemned  to  exile  or  who 
despise  politics  or  the  arts;  'Moreover,  the 
bridle  which  curbs  our  friend  Theages  may 
be  equally  efficacious  in  other  instances.  For 
Theages  is  kept  in  check  by  ill-health,  which 
excludes  him  from  a  public  life,  though  in  all 
other  respects  he  has  every  inducement  to 
desert  philosophy'  (tr.  Davies  and  Vaughan). 

Thealma  and  Clearchus,  see  ChalkhilL 

Theban  Band,  THE,  or  Sacred  Band  of 
Thebes,  was  a  company  of  young  picked 
citizen-soldiers  united  by  ties  of  affection. 
Under  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas  it  won 
the  great  victories  of  Leuctra  (371  B.C.) 
and  Mantinea  (362),  and  was  destroyed  by 
Philip  at  Chaeronea  (338). 
Thebes,  the  capital  of  Boeotia  in  Greece,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  founded  by  Cadmus,  and 
the  scene  of  the  misfortunes  of  Laius, 
Oedipus,  Polyneices,  and  Eteocles  (qq.v.).  It 
was  the  birthplace  of  Pindar.  For  the  war  of 
THE  SEVEN  AGAINST  THEBES,  see  under 
Eteocles.  This  was  was  the  subject  of  a  long 
epic  poem,  'The  Thebaid*,  by  the  Roman 
poet  Statius  (q.v.). 

Thebes,  the  Greek  name  for  an  ancient 
Egyptian  city  (Tap£),  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Nile  where  Luxor  now  stands. 
It  rose  to  great  importance  as  the  capital  of 
Egypt  during  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  the 
XVII-XXth  dynasties,  except  for  the  brief 
period  of  Akhnaton's  migration  to  Tel-el- 
Arnarna* 


THEOCRITUS 

Thebes,  The  Story  of,  see  Lydgate. 
Theism,  which  in  its  general  sense  means 
belief  in  a  deity,  or  deities,  as  opposed  to 
atheism,  or  in  one  deity  as  opposed  to  poly- 
theism or  pantheism,  is  especially  used  in  the 
sense  of  belief  in  one  God  as  Creator  and 
Ruler  of  the  universe,  without  denial  of 
revelation.  In  this  use  it  is  distinguished  from 
deism,  which  is  belief  in  the  existence  of  a 
Supreme  Being  as  the  source  of  finite 
existence,  with  rejection  of  revelation  and 
the  supernatural  doctrines  of  Christianity. 
[OEDJ 

Thel,  The  Book  of,  see  Blake. 

Thelema,  ABBEY  OF,  in  Rabelais,  i.  Iii  et  seq., 
was  built  and  endowed  by  Gargantua  to  re- 
ward the  bold  Friar  John  (Jean  des  Entom- 
meures)  for  his  prowess  in  the  war  with 
Picrochole.  It  was  to  be  in  every  way  the 
opposite  of  ordinary  monasteries  and  con- 
vents. Only  men  and  women  favourably  en- 
dowed by  nature  were  to  be  admitted  to  it. 
It  was  not  to  be  walled  in ;  it  was  to  contain  a 
magnificent  library  filled  with  the  works  of 
the  humanists.  The  only  rule  was  to  be  'Fay 
ce  que  vouldras*  ('Do  what  you  like') ;  because 
persons  who  are  free,  well-born,  well-edu- 
cated, and  associate  with  honourable  com- 
panions, are  naturally  virtuous  and  averse 
from  vice.  See  Medmenham, 

Thellusson  Act,  the  Accumulations  Act  of 
1800,  passed  in  consequence  of  the  eccentric 
will  of  Peter  Thellusson  (1737-97),  a  rick 
merchant,  by  which,  after  leaving  £100,000 
to  his  wife  and  children,  he  directed  that  the 
remainder  of  his  fortune,  valued  at  £600,000 
or  £800,000,  should  accumulate  during  the 
lives  of  his  sons,  of  his  sons'  sons,  and  of 
their  issue  existing  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
As  it  was  calculated  that  the  accumulation 
might  reach  140  millions  and  might  be  a 
source  of  danger,  the  Accumulations  Act 
prohibited  such  schemes  of  bequest. 

Thfimis,  the  daughter  of  Uranus  and  Ge, 
who  married  Zeus,  and  was  the  mother  of  the 
Fates.  She  was  the  goddess  of  law  and  equity. 

Thenot,  a  shepherd  in  Spenser's  'Shepheards 
Calender'  (q.v.).  Also  a  character  in  Fletcher's 
*The  Faithful  Shepherdess'  (q.v.). 

THEOBALD,  LEWIS  (1688-1744),  author 
of  poems,  essays,  and  dramatic  works,  pub- 
lished in  1726  his  'Shakespeare  Restored*, 
exposing  the  incapacity  as  a  critic  shown  by 
Pope  in  his  edition  of  Shakespeare.  Pope, 
infuriated,  made  Theobald  the  hero  of  his 
*Dunciad*  (q.v.).  But  we  owe  to  Theobald's 
edition  of  Shakespeare  (1734)  many  valuable 
restorations  and  conjectural  emendations  of 
the  text,  among  others  the  admirable  touch 
in  the  death  of  Falstaff,  V  babbled  of  green 
fields'  ('Henry  V,  II.  iii). 

THEOCRITUS,  the  great  Greek  pastoral 
poet,  a  native  of  Syracuse,  or,  according  to 
other  accounts,  of  Cos,  lived  in  the  3rd  cent. 
B.C.  He  visited  Alexandria,  where  he  received 


[7751 


THEODORA  CAMPIAN 

instruction  from  Philetas,  the  tutor  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  enjoyed  the 
favour  of  the  latter.  He  then  returned  to 
Sicily.  His  'Idylls',  in  which  he  depicts  the 
everyday  life  of  the  people  of  that  country, 
were  the  first  examples  of  pastoral  poetry  in 
the  literature  of  Greece,  and  were  imitated  by 
Virgil  and  others  in  Roman  literature. 

Theodora  Campian,  a  characterin  Disraeli's 
'Lothair*  (q.v.), 

THEODORE  (6o2?-9o),  archbishop  ^  of 
Canterbury,  a  native  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia, 
studied  at  Athens,  and  was  well  versed  in 
Greek  and  Latin  literature.  He  was  conse- 
crated archbishop  of  Canterbury  by  Pope 
Vitalius  in  668.  He  imposed  the  Roman  order 
and  was  the  first  archbishop  to  whom  (ac- 
cording to  Bede)  the  whole  English  church 
agreed  in  submitting.  He  founded  a  school 
of  learning  at  Canterbury,  and  created  many 
new  bishoprics.  Theodore  was  a  great  or- 
ganizer, the  effects  of  his  work  surviving  to 
the  present  day;  and  was  author,  at  least  in 
part,  of  the  'Penitential',  of  considerable 
ecclesiastical  and  historical  interest. 

Theodore  andHonoria,  one  of  the  'Fables'  of 
Dryden  (q.v.).  Theodore,  a  young  gentleman 
of  Ravenna,  loves  the  haughty  Honoria,  but 
is  disdained  by  her  and  meditates  taking  his 
own  life.  In  a  vision  he  sees  a  woman  pur- 
sued and  torn  by  two  mastiffs  whom  a 
horseman  on  a  coal-black  steed  urges  on. 
He  interposes  to  save  her,  and  learns  that  the 
horseman  is  Guido  Cavalcanti,  who  took  his 
own  life  for  hopeless  love  of  a  proud  maid. 
Both  were  in  consequence  doomed  to  hell  and 
she  to  die  daily  at  the  hands  of  her  lover. 
Theodore  contrives  that  Honoria  shall  also 
see  the  vision,  by  which  she  is  cured  of  her 
haughtiness. 

The  story  is  from  the  'Decameron'  (v.  viii), 
where  it  is  told  of  one  Nastagio  degli  Onesti. 

Theodoric,  see  Dietrich  of  Bern. 

THEOGNIS,  a  Greek  gnomic  poet,  a  noble 
of  Megara,  who  lived  about  540  B.C.  A  long 
fragment  of  an  elegiac  poem  by  him  survives. 

Theon's  tooth,  in  Horace  ('Ep.'  i .  xviii.  82), 
the  sting  of  satire.  Theon  was  a  satirical  poet. 

THEOPHRASTUS  (d.  278  B.C.),  a  Greek 
philosopher,  native  of  Lesbos,  and  pupil  of 
Aristotle.  He  was  the  author  of  two  botanical 
works,  but  his  interest  in  connexion  with 
English  literature  lies  in  his  'Characters', 
brief  but  graphic  descriptions  of  various 
types  of  human  failings,  illustrated  by  typical 
actions.  They  served  as  a  model  to  J.  Hall 
(q.v.),  to  Overbury  (q.v.),  to  Earle  in  his 
'Microcosmographie'  (q.v.),  and  others,  and 
contributed  in  some  degree  towards  the 
evolution  of  the  English  essay. 

Theophmstus  Such,  The  Impressions  of,  see 
Eliot  (G.). 

Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments,  a  philosophical 
work  by  Adam  Smith  (q.v.),  published  in 


THERMOPYLAE 

1759,  and  originally  delivered  in  the  form  of 
lectures  at  Glasgow. 

The  author  advances  the  view  that  all 
moral  sentiments  arise  from  sympathy,  the 
principle  which  'leads  us  to  enter  into  the 
situations  of  other  men  and  to  partake  with 
them  in  the  passions  which  those  situations 
have  a  tendency  to  excite',  this  sympathy 
giving  rise  to  our  notions  of  the  merit  or  de- 
merit of  the  agent.  Sympathy  is  thus  the 
basis  of  the  fabric  of  society,  and  morality  has 
an  essentially  social  character. 

Theosophy,  from  a  Greek  word  meaning 
wisdom  concerning  God  or  things  divine,  a 
term  applied  in  the  i7th  cent,  to  a  kind  of 
speculation,  such  as  is  found  in  the  Jewish 
Cabbala  (q.v.),  which  sought  to  derive  from 
the  knowledge  of  God  contained  in  secret 
books,  or  traditions  mystically  interpreted,  a 
profounder  knowledge  and  control  of  nature 
than  could  be  obtained  by  the  current  philo- 
sophical methods.  It  was  often  applied  speci- 
fically to  the  system  of  Jacob  Boehrne  (q.v.). 
In  more  recent  times  it  has  been  adopted 
by  the  THEOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY,  an  association 
founded  at  New  York  in  1875  by  Col.  H.  S. 
Olcott,  Madame  Blavatsky,  and  W.  Q.  Judge, 
its  professed  objects  being:  (i)  to  form  the 
nucleus  of  a  universal  brotherhood;  (z)  to 
promote  the  study  of  Aryan  and  other 
Eastern  literature,  religions,  and  sciences; 
(3)  to  investigate  the  unfamiliar  laws  of 
nature  and  the  faculties  latent  in  man. 
[OEDJ 

TheramSnes,  a  supple  statesman,  one  of 
the  oligarchy  of  the  Four  Hundred  at  Athens 
(41 1  B.C.),  who  was  chosen  one  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants,  but  endeavoured  to  check  their 
tyrannical  proceedings.  He  was  accused  as  a 
traitor  and  put  to  death.  He  appears  to  have 
been  in  favour  of  a  moderate  oligarchy,  and 
being  placed  between  two  extreme  factions 
acquired  the  reputation  of  a  trimmer  and 
was  nicknamed  COTHURNUS  (a  stage  boot 
which  could  be  worn  on  either  foot). 

THERESA  or  TERESA,  ST.  (1515-82),  a 
Spanish  saint  and  author,  who  entered  the 
Carmelite  sisterhood  and  became  famous  for 
her  mystic  visions..  Her  works  include  *E1 
Camino  de  la  Perfeccion'  and  'El  Castillo 
interior*.  She  was  great  not  only  as  a  mystic, 
but  as  an  energetic  reformer  of  the  Carmelite 
Order  and  a  foundress  of  new  convents.  Her 
'Book  of  the  Foundations'  narrates  her 
ceaseless  journeys  for  this  purpose  and  the 
continually  growing  labour  of  organization. 

Thermidor,  the  eleventh  month  of  the 
French  republican  calendar  (see  Calendar) 
running  from  19  July  to  18  Aug.  On  9 
Thermidor  of  the  second  republican  year 
(27  July  1794)  occurred  the  events  which 
brought  about  the  fall  of  Robespierre  and 
the  end  of  the  Terror. 

Thermopylae,  a  narrow  pass  between 
mountain  and  sea  leading  from  Thessaly  into 


[7763 


THERON 

Locris  and  Phocis,  celebrated  for  the  battle 
fought  there  in  480  B.C.  when  300  Spartans 
under  Leonidas,  for  three  successive  days, 
resisted  the  vast  army  of  the  Persians  under 

Xerxes. 

Theron,  the  faithful  dog  of  Roderick,  in 
Southey's  poem  of  that  name  (q.v.). 
Thersltes,  the  most  querulous  and  illiberal 
of  the  Greek  host  in  the  Trojan  War.    He 
was  moreover  deformed  and  unsightly.   He 
was  killed  by  Achilles  (q.v.)  for  laughing  at 
the  latter's  grief  over  the  death  of  Penthesilea, 
the  queen  of  the  Amazons.    He  figures  in 
Shakespeare's  'Troilus  and  Cressida'  (q.v.). 
Thersites,  see  Interludes. 

Thesaurus^  Linguae  Latinae,  the  great 
German  dictionary  of  the  Latin  language, 
begun  in  1900  and  still  in  course  of  publi- 
cation, 

Theseus,  a  son  of  Poseidon,  or,  according  to 
a  later  legend,  of  Aegeus,  king  of  Athens,  by 
Aethra,  daughter  of  Pittheus,  king  of  Troezen, 
in  whose  house  he  was  brought  up.  When  he 
reached  years  of  maturity  he  travelled  to 
Athens  to  make  himself  known  to  his  father, 
destroying  many  robbers  and  monsters  on 
the  way.  At  Athens,  Medea  (q.v.),  who  now 
lived  with  Aegeus,  attempted  to  destroy  him 
by  poison  before  he  was  recognized  by 
Aegeus,  but  failed.  Aegeus  knew  him  to  be 
his  son  by  a  sword  that  he  bore.  Theseus 
now  achieved  many  great  feats,  among  others 
the  destruction  of  the  Minotaur  (q.v.)  with 
the  help  of  Ariadne,  daughter  of  Minos, 
whom  he  carried  off  and  subsequently  de- 
serted in  Naxos.  His  return  to  Athens  oc- 
casioned the  death  of  Aegeus,  who  threw 
himself  into  the  sea  when  he  saw  his  son's 
ship  approaching,  with  black  sails,  hoisted  in 
error,  the  signal  of  ill-success.  Theseus  then 
ascended  the  throne  of  Athens,  overcame  the 
Amazons,  and  carried  off  their  queen, 
Antiope.  He  became  the  close  friend  of 
Peirithous,  king  of  the  Lapithae,  and  at  the 
nuptials  of  the  latter  with  Hippodarnia, 
helped  to  defend  her  and  her  attendants 
against  the  Centaurs  (q.v.).  With  Peirithous 
he  descended  to  the  infernal  regions  to  carry 
away  Proserpine,  but  Pluto  defeated  their 
attempt.  Peirithous  was  placed  on  the  wheel 
of  Ixion  (q.v.),  his  father,  and  Theseus  suf- 
fered a  long  imprisonment  in  hell,  until  re- 
leased by  Hercules.  Theseus  was  also  hus- 
band of  Phaedra  (q.v.)  and  father  of 
Hippolytus  (q.v.). 

Theseus,  the  duke  of  Athens  in  Shake- 
speare's 'A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream* 

(q.v.). 

Thespian,  an  epithet  applied  to  tragedy  or 
the  dramatic  art,  from  Thespis  (q.v.). 
THESPIS,  a  Greek  poet  of  Attica,  who 
lived  in  the  6th  cent.  B.C.  He  is  important  in 
the  history  of  tragedy,  for  he  gave  it  a  dramatic 
character  by  introducing  an  actor,  who  re- 
plied to  the  leader  of  the  chorus  (or  coryphaeus). 


THIRLWALL 

Horace  (<Ars  Poetica',  276)  states  that 
Thespis  ^was  a  strolling  player  who  travelled 
about  with  a  wagon  as  temporary  stage,  but 
this  is  an  error. 

Thetis,  one  of  the  sea  deities,  daughter  of 
Nereus  and  Doris,  who  became  the  wife  of 
Peleus  (q.v.).  It  was  foretold  that  her  child 
would  be  greater  than  his  father,  a  prophecy 
that  was  fulfilled  by  the  birth  of  her  son 
Achilles  (q.v.). 

THIBAULT,  JACQUES  ANATOLE,  see 
France  (A.). 

Thierry  and  Theodoret,  a  tragedy  by  J. 
Fletcher  (q.v.),  with  perhaps  the  collabora- 
tion of  Beaumont  and  Massinger,  published 
in  1621. 

Theodoret,  king  of  Australia,  reproves  his 
mother,  Brunhalt,  for  her  licentious  mode 
of  life.  To  revenge  herself,  she  attempts 
to  sow  enmity  between  him  and  his  younger 
brother  Thierry,  king  of  Burgundy,  but  fails. 
With  the  assistance  of  her  paramour  and  a 
physician,  specialist  in  poisons,  she  first  con- 
trives to  destroy  the  happiness  of  Thierry 
and  his  young  bride  Ordella,  then  has  Theo- 
doret assassinated,  then  attempts  to  procure 
the  death  of  Ordella,  and  finally  poisons 
Thierry.  There  is  a  touching  scene  in  which 
Thierry  on  his  death-bed  is  reunited  to 
Ordella,  whom  he  believed  dead.  Vengeance 
falls  upon  Brunhalt  and  her  accomplices. 

The  play  has  an  historical  basis  in  the  tragic 
story  of  Brunehaut,  the  imperious  queen  of 
Austrasia,  and  her  grandsons  Theodebert  and 
Thierry.  There  are  incidents  in  it  which 
may  be  allusions  to  the  queen-regent  of 
France,  Marie  de  Medici,  and  her  favourite, 
Concini  (murdered  in  1617). 

Third  Estate,  THE,  the  third  of  the  orders 
or  classes  of  the  community  regarded  as 
parts  of  the  body  politic  and  participating  in 
the  government.  The  number  of  'Estates' 
in  the  nations  of  Christendom  has  usually 
been  three  (exceptionally  four,  as  in  Sweden 
and  Aragon),  but  their  enumeration  has 
varied.  In  England  the  'Estates'  as  repre- 
sented in  parliament  were  originally:  (i) 
Clergy;  (2)  Barons  and  Knights;  (3)  Com- 
mons. After  various  fluctuations  the  final 
arrangement  was:  (i)  Lords  Spiritual;  (2) 
Lords  Temporal;  (3)  Commons.  In  France 
the  three  estates  were :  (i)  Clergy;  (2)  Nobles ; 
(3)  Commoners  (called  'Tiers  Etat'). 

THIRLWALL,  CONNOP  (1797-1875), 
educated  at  Charterhouse  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  became  bishop  of  St. 
David's.  He  published  in  1828,  with  Julius 
Hare,  a  translation  of  Niebuhr's  'Roman 
History*,  a  vindication  of  Niebuhr  in  1829, 
and  in  1835-47  his  principal  work,  the 
'History  of  Greece',  which  is  generally 
thought  more  dispassionate,  if  less  vivid,  than 
Grote's  (the  two  works  appeared  at  about  the 
same  time).  Thirlwall  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey  in  the  same  grave  with  Grote. 


[777] 


THIRTY  TYRANTS 

Thirty  Tyrants,  THE,  an  Athenian  oligarchy 

of  thirty  magistrates  imposed  by  Sparta  upon 

the  Athenians  at  the  close  of  the  Pelopon- 

nesian  War  (403  B.C.). 

Thirty  Years  War,  THE,  the  religious  wars 

of  1618-48,  fought  chiefly  on  German  soil, 

between    Catholics   and   Protestants.     It  is 

celebrated  for  the  campaigns  of  Wallenstein 

and  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden.   It  was 

concluded  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  and 

left  Germany  a  desert. 

Thirty-nine  Articles,  THE,  see  Articles  of 

Religion. 

Thisbe,  see  Pyramus. 

Thistlewood,    ARTHUR   (1770-1820),    the 

promoter  of  the  Cato  Street  Conspiracy  (q.v., 

1820).     He    had    developed    revolutionary 

sympathies  as  a  result  of  reading  Paine's 

works  and  of  visits  to  France  and  America. 

ike  organized  a  mutiny  in  1816,  and  was 

imprisoned  in  1818  for  sending  a  challenge 

to  Lord  Sidmouth.    After  the  Cato  Street 

Conspiracy  he  was  convicted  of  high  treason 

and  hanged. 

Tholosa,  in  imprints,  Toulouse. 

Thomas,  DOUBTING,  an  allusion  to  John  xx. 
25,  'Except  I  shall  see  in  his  hands  the  print 
of  the  nails  ...  I  will  not  believe/ 

Thomas,  ST.,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles. 
An  ancient  Syriac  work,  the  'Acta  Thomae', 
describes  him  as  having  laboured  as  a 
missionary  in  India  and  having  suffered 
martyrdom  there.  The  shrine  (rebuilt  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1547)  commemorating  his 
death  still  stands  near  Madras.  The  ancient 
churches  of  Southern  India  are  often  known 
as  *  Christians  of  St.  Thomas'. 

Thomas  a  Becket,  ST.  (ui8?-7o),  son 
of  Gilbert  Becket,  of  a  Norman  family  of 
knights,  was  educated  in  London  and  Paris 
and  subsequently  studied  canon  law  at 
Bologna  and  Auxerre.  Henry  II  appointed 
him  Chancellor,  and  made  him  his  intimate 
friend  and  companion.  In  1162  Thomas 
reluctantly  became  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  thereafter  opposed  the  king's  measures 
against  the  excessive  privileges  of  the  Church. 
As  a  result  of  a  prolonged  and  bitter  struggle, 
he  was  driven  into  exile  and  resided  on  the 
Continent  for  seven  years.  He  then  returned 
to  England,  a  reconciliation  with  the  king 
having  been  effected.  But  the  peace  between 
them  was  of  short  duration,  and  the  king  in  a 
passion  made  use  of  hasty  words  which  led 
four  knights  to  start  for  Canterbury  and  slay 
the  prelate,  who  met  his  death  with  splendid 
courage,  in  his  own  cathedral  on  29  Dec.  1 170. 
His  shrine  became  the  most  famous  in 
Christendom  and  Henry  II  did  penance  at 
his  tomb.  Thomas  k  Becket  was  canonized  in 
1173  and  his  festival  is  observed  on  7  July. 
He  is  the  subject  of  dramas  by  G.  Darley  and 
A.  Tennyson  (qq.v.). 

THOMAS  A  KEMPIS  (THOMAS  HAM- 
MERLEIN  or  H&MMERKEN),  (1380-1471),  born 


THOMSON 

of  humble  parents  at  Kempen  near  Cologne. 
He  became  an  Augustinian  monk  and  wrote 
Christian  mystical  works,  among  which  is 
probably  to  be  included  the  famous  'De 
Irnitatione  Christi*,  which  has  been  translated 
from  the  Latin  into  many  languages  (into 
English  in  the  middle  of  the  isth  cent.). 
This  work  was  at  one  time  attributed  to  Jean 
Charlier  de  Gerson,  a  French  theologian.  It 
traces  in  four  books  the  gradual  progress  of 
the  soul  to  Christian  perfection,  its  detach- 
ment from  the  world  and  its  union  with^God ; 
and  obtained  wide  popularity  by  its  simpli- 
city and  sincerity  and  the  universal  quality 
of  its  religious  teaching. 

Thomas  the  Rhymer,  see  Erceldoune. 

Thomist,  a  follower  of  the  scholastic  philo- 
sopher, Aquinas  (q.v.).  Cf.  Scotist. 

THOMPSON,  BENJAMIN  (1640-1714), 
American  poet,  born  at  Braintree,  Massa- 
chusetts, remembered  as  the  author  of  'New 
England's  Crisis',  written  during  King 
Philip's  War  (q.v.);  it  denounced  the  deca- 
dence of  colonial  manners  and  the  degenera- 
tion of  colonial  spirit. 

THOMPSON,  FRANCIS  (1859-1907), 
educated  at  Ushaw  College,  studied  medicine 
without  success  at  Owens  College,  Manches- 
ter, and  lived  a  life  of  ill-health  and,  for  a 
time,  of  extreme  poverty.  His  first  volume  of 
'Poems'  (1893)  included  his  famous  'Hound  of 
Heaven*  (describing  the  poet's  flight  from 
God,  the  pursuit,  and  the  overtaking),  which 
shows  the  influence  of  Crashaw  (q.v.).  This 
was  followed  by  'Sister  Songs'  in  1895,  and 
'New  Poems'  in  1897.  He  contributed 
literary  criticism  to  the  'Academy*  and 
'Athenaeum*.  His  prose  work  includes 
'Health  and  Holiness*  (1905)  and  an  'Essay  on 
Shelley'  (1909). 

THOMS,  WILLIAM  JOHN  (1803-85), 
author  and  editor  of  a  number  of  works  of 
antiquarian  interest  including  'The  Book  of 
the  Court*  (1838)  and  an  edition  of  'Reynard 
the  Fox*  (1844).  He  was  secretary  to  the 
Camden  Society,  1838-73,  and  clerk,  and 
subsequently  deputy-librarian,  to  the  House 
of  Lords.  He  started  'Notes  and  Queries* 
(q.v.)  in  1849. 

THOMSON,  JAMES  (1700-48),  born  at 
Ednam  on  the  Scottish  border,  the  son  of  a 
minister,  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity. He  began  early  to  write  verse  that 
showed  his  fondness  for  rustic  scenes.  He 
came  to  London  in  1725  and  under  stress  of 
poverty  wrote  'Winter',  the  first  of  his 
'Seasons*  (q.v.),  which  appeared  successively 
in  1726—30.  He  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Arbuthnot,  Gay,  and  Pope,  found  patrons, 
and  eventually,  through  the  influence  of  Lord 
Lyttelton,  received  a  sinecure.  He  travelled 
in  France  and  Italy  as  tutor  to  Charles 
Richard  Talbot,  son  of  the  solicitor-general, 
and  in  1734-6  published  his  long  poem 
'Liberty',  in  which  Liberty  herself  narrates 


[778] 


THOMSON 

the  vicissitudes  of  her  progress  through  the 
ages  in  Greece,  Rome,  and  Britain.  He  pro- 
duced a  series  of  tragedies,  'Sophonisba' 
(q.v.,  1730),  'Agamemnon'  (1738),  'Edward 
and  Eleanora*  (1739,  of  which  the  plot  has 
some  points  of  resemblance  to  that  of  Scott's 
'The  Talisman *),  'Tancred  and  Sigismunda' 
(q.v.,  1752,  published  in  1745),  and  'Corio- 
lanus',  produced  after  his  death  (1749).  In 
1740  was  performed  the  masque  of  *  Alfred' 
by  Thomson  and  David  Mallet  (q.v.)  con- 
taining 'Rule,  Britannia',  which  was  prob- 
ably written  by  the  former.  Thomson 
published  in  1748  'The  Castle  of  Indo- 
lence* (q.v.).  This  contains  a  portrait  of 
himself  as  an  inmate  of  the  castle  ('A  bard 
here  dwelt'),  contributed  by  Lord  Lyttelton 
(the  first  line  by  Armstrong).  Thomson  was 
buried  in  Richmond  church.  His  'Seasons* 
first  challenged  the  artificiality  of  English 
poetry,  and  inaugurated  a  new  era  by  their 
sentiment  for  nature. 

THOMSON,  JAMES  (1834-82),  the  child 
of  poor  parents,  was  educated  at  the  Royal 
Caledonian  Asylum,  and  became  an  army 
schoolmaster,  but  was  discharged  for  a  breach 
of  discipline  in  1862.  He  made  friends  with 
Charles  Bradlaugh  (q.v.),  wrote  for  the 
'National  Reformer*,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
the  propaganda  of  free  thought.  He  lived  a  sad 
and  isolated  life  in  London,  aggravated  by 
insomnia  and  addiction  to  drink,  and  died 
in  University  College  Hospital.  His  chief 
poem,  'The  City  of  Dreadful  Night',  a  power- 
ful and  sincere  expression  of  an  atheistic  and 
despairing  creed,  was  contributed  to  the 
'National  Reformer*  in  1874.  It  was  repub- 
lished  with  other  poems  in  1880.  'Vane's 
Story  and  other  Poems'  appeared  in  1881. 
These  collections  show  that  Thomson  could 
also  write  in  other  and  happier  moods, 
though  he  reverts  to  gloom  and  terror  in 
'Insomnia'  (1882).  His  prose  papers  are 
collected  in  'Satires  and  Profanities',  post- 
humously published  (1884).  He  wrote  under 
the  initials  B.  V.  (for  Bysshe  Vanolis). 

THOMSON,  SIR  WILLIAM,  first  Baron 
Kelvin  (1824-1907),  was  educated  at  Glas- 
gow University,  where  he  became  professor 
of  natural  philosophy),  and  at  Peterhouse, 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  senior  wrangler 
and  a  famous  sculler.  He  advanced  the 
science  of  thermodynamics  and  electricity, 
and  evolved  the  theory  of  electric  oscilla- 
tions, which  forms  the  basis  of  wireless 
telegraphy.  He  succeeded  in  laying  a  trans- 
atlantic cable  in  1866,  improved  the  system 
of  electrical  units,  and  invented  much  useful 
scientific  apparatus.  His  'Mathematical  and 
Physical  Papers'  were  published  in  1882- 
1911,  and  his  Life  by  Prof.  Silvanus  P. 
Thompson  in  1910. 

Thone,  in  Milton's  *Comus',  675: 

Not  that  nepenthes  which  the  wife  of  Thone 
In  Egypt  gave  to  Jove-born  Helena, 

a  reference  to  Homer's  'Odyssey',  iv.  228, 


THOROUGH 

where  Helen,  to  divert  Menelaus  and  Tele- 
machus  from  their  gloomy  thoughts,  casts  a 
drug  into  their  wine,  which  Polydamna,  wife 
of  Thon,  a  woman  of  Egypt,  had  given  her,  'a 
drug  to  lull  all  pain  and  anger,  and  bring 
forgetfulness  of  every  sorrow'  (Butcher  and 
Lang), 

Thopas,  The  Tale  of  Sir,  see  Canterbury 
Tales. 

Thor,  in  northern  mythology,  the  god  of 
thunder,  son  of  Odin  (q.v.),  and  one  of  the 
three  great  gods  (Odin,  Thor,  and  Frigga)  of 
the  Scandinavians.  He  was  the  god  of  the 
home,  and  presided  over  the  weather  and 
crops.  He  married  Sif,  a  peasant  woman, 
typifying  the  earth;  his  hammer  was  called 
'Miolnir',  typifying  thunder.  His  name  is 
perpetuated  in  our  'Thursday*. 

THOREAU,  HENRY  DAVID  (1817-62), 
born  at  Concord,  Massachusetts,  and  edu- 
cated at  Harvard,  devoted  himself  to  a 
literary  life,  supporting  himself  by  surveying, 
carpentering,  and  engineering.  He  was  a 
friend  of  Emerson  (q.v.)  and  an  ascetic,  a 
revolutionary,  and  something  of  a  wild  man. 
He  rebelled  against  the  Puritanism  of  New 
England,  and  against  the  State  in  the  matter 
of  slavery,  refusing  to  pay  his  poll-tax,  and 
going  to  prison  in  consequence.  He  also 
rebelled  against  society,  and  built  himself  a 
solitary  hut  on  the  shore  of  the  Walden  pond, 
where  he  lived  on  an  expenditure  of  a  few 
dollars  for  two  and  a  half  years.  He  was  an 
ardent  lover  and  observer  of  nature,  and  his 
'Walden  or  Life  in  the  Woods'  (1854),  his 
best-known  work,  is  admirable  chiefly  for  his 
descriptions  of  natural  phenomena.  His 
other  works  include  *A  Week  on  the  Con- 
cord and  Merrimac  Rivers'  (1849),  'Ex- 
cursions in  Field  and  Forest'  (with  a  memoir 
by  Emerson,  1863),  'The  Maine  Woods' 
(1864),  and  'Cape  Cod'  (1865). 

Thornberry,  JOB,  in  'John  Bull'  by  Col- 
man  (q.v.)  the  younger,  an  honest,  ^kindly 
English  tradesman,  supposed  to  typify  tne 
national  character. 

Thoradyke,  DR.,  in  the  detective  stories  of 
R.  Austin  Freeman,  *a  barrister  and  doctor  of 
medicine',  'probably  the  greatest  criminal 
lawyer  of  our  time'  and  'the  leading  authority 
on  poisons  and  crimes  connected  with  them' 
('As  a  Thief  in  the  Night').  His  companion 
and  foil  is  Dr.  Jervis;  his  laboratory  assistant, 
Polton. 

Thornhil!,  SIR  WILLIAM  and  SQUIRE, 
characters  in  Goldsmith's  'Vicar  of  Wake- 
field*  (q.v.). 

Thornton,  a  character  in  Bulwer  Lytton's 
'Pelham'  (q.v.),  drawn  from  Thurtell,  the 
murderer. 

Thornton,  JOHN,  a  character  in  Mrs.  Gas- 
kell's  'North  and  South'  (q.v.). 

Thorough,  the  motto  adopted  by  Sir 
Thomas  Wentworth,  earl  of  Strafford  (q.v.), 


[77Q] 


THORPE 

and  applied  to  his  policy  as  lord  deputy  of 
Ireland,  'by  which  he  meant  a  "thorough5* 
devotion  to  the  service  of  the  King  and  the 
State,  without  regard  for  private  interests* 
(S.  R.  Gardiner).  It  first  occurs,  appar- 
ently, in  a  letter  from  Laud  to  Strafford,  c. 
1634. 

Thorpe,  JOHN  and  ISABELLA,  characters  in 
J.  Austen's  'Northanger  Abbey'  (q.v.). 
Thoth,  an  ancient  Egyptian  god,  identified 
by  the  Greeks  with  their  Hermes.  He  was 
the  god  of  wisdom  and  science,  the  inventor 
of  speech  and  letters,  represented  as  a  human 
figure  with  the  head  of  an  ibis. 
Thousand  and  One  Nights,  The,  the 
'Arabian  Nights'  (q.v.). 
THRALE,  HESTER  LYNCH,  MRS. 
(1741-1821),  the  friend  of  Dr.  Johnson,  was 
the  only  child  of  John  Salusbury  of  Bachy- 
craig,  Flintshire,  and  was  married  against  her 
inclinations  to  Henry  Thrale,  the  son  of  a 
wealthy  brewer.  Her  intimacy  with  Dr. 
Johnson  became  famous,  Johnson  at  one 
time  being  almost  domesticated  at  Thrale's 
house  at  Streatham  Park.  After  Thrale's 
death  she  married  Gabriel  Piozzi,  an  Italian 
Roman  Catholic  musician.  In  1786  she  pub- 
lished her  'Anecdotes  of  the  late  Samuel 
Johnson',  which  give  a  lively  picture  of  the 
Doctor,  and  in  1788  her  correspondence  with 
him. 

Thraso,  a  braggart  soldier  in  Terence's 
'Eunuchus3. 

Threadneedle  Street,  THE  OLD  LADY  OF, 
a  familiar  expression,  dating  from  the  iSth 
cent.,  for  the  Bank  of  England,  which  stands 
in  that  street.  The  name  of  the  street  ap- 
pears in  Stow's  'Survey'  (1598)  as  'Three 
needle  Street'  ('beginning  at  the  Well  with 
two  buckets').  Its  origin  is  uncertain.  Loftie 
('History  of  London')  says  that  the  guild  of 
the  tailors  seems  'to  have  had  a  hall  in 
Cordwainers  ward,  and  then  to  have  bought 
the  ground  on  which  Merchant  Taylors' 
Hall  still  stands,  in  the  lane  which  their  trade 
endued  with  its  nickname,  now  long  become 
permanent,  of  Threadneedle  Street'. 

Three  Clerks,  The,  a  novel  by  A.  Trollope 
(q.v.)  published  in  1858,  which  gives  some 
glimpses  of  the  author's  youth. 

The  story  is  concerned  with  the  careers  of 
three  government  clerks,  Harry  Norman,  a 
steady,  hard-working  fellow,  the  cleverer  but 
unprincipled  Alaric  Tudor,  and  the  latter's 
cousin,  Charley,  a  weak  but  good-hearted 
youth;  and  the  three  daughters,  Gertrude, 
Linda,   and  Katie,   of  Mrs.  Woodward,  a 
cousin  of  Norman.    The  latter  falls  in  love 
with  Gertrude,  but  she  marries  Alaric  Tudor, 
whom  Norman  has  introduced  to  the  Wood- 
ward family.   Not  only  does  Alaric  thus  de- 
feat Norman's  hopes,  but  he  rapidly  out- 
distances him  in  the  public  service.  Presently, 
however,  Alaric  falls  into  the  hands  of  the 
Hon.    Undeciinus    Scott,    an  unscrupulous 
adventurer,  who  induces  him  first  to  accept 


THROUGH  THE  LOOKING-GLASS 

a  bribe  offered  him  in  virtue  of  his  official 
political  position,  then  to  speculate  in  shares, 
and  finally  to  appropriate  funds  of  which  he  is 
trustee.  The  inevitable  catastrophe  follows. 
Alaric  is  tried  and  found  guilty  of  misappro- 
priation and  sentenced  to  imprisonment. 
Norman  consoles  himself  with  Linda,  and 
unexpectedly  comes  into  the  family  property. 
Charley,  the  course  of  whose  love  has  been 
impeded  by  his  debts  and  general  unsatis- 
factoriness  as  a  suitor,  reforms,  becomes  a 
steady  official  and  a  successful  author,  and 
marries  the  gentle  Katie.  Mr.  ChafTanbrass, 
Alaric's  counsel  in  his  trial,  is  a  well-drawn 
type  of  bullying  cross-examiner. 
Three  Estaits,  Satyre  of  the,  see  Lindsay 
(Sir  £>.). 

Three  Musketeers,  The  ('Les  Trois  Mous- 
quetaires'),  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the 
romances  of  Dumas  (q.v.)  the  elder,  pub- 
lished in  1844. 

With  its  sequels  'Twenty  Years  After'  and 
'The  Vicomte  de  Bragelonne'  it  deals  with 
the  life  of  a  poor  Gascon  gentleman,  d'Artag- 
nan,  who  comes  to  Paris  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIII  to  join  the  king's  musketeers, 
gets  involved  in  duels  with  three  valiant 
members  of  that  force,  Athos,  Porthos,  and 
Aramis,  and  thereafter  becomes  their  friend 
and  shares  their  fortunes  and  their  many 
heroic  adventures.  'The  Three  Musketeers* 
is  more  particularly  concerned  with  the  love 
of  Anne  of  Austria  and  Buckingham,  and  the 
life  of  Miladi  at  whose  instigation  Felton 
stabs  the  Duke. 

The  original  d'Artagnan  was  a  Gascon 
gentleman  born  c.  1611  and  killed  at  the 
siege  of  Maestricht  as  captain  of  the  king's 
musketeers. 

Three  Weeks  after  Marriage,  a  comedy  by 
Murphy  (q.v.),  produced  in  1764.  The  sub- 
ject is  the  disillusionment  of  Mr.  Drugget,  a 
rich  retired  tradesman,  who  has  married  his 
eldest  daughter  to  Sir  Charles  Rackett,  and 
proposes  to  marry  his  second  daughter, 
Nancy,  to  another  penniless  man  of  fashion, 
Lovelace,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  she  is  in 
love  with  Woodley,  a  rival  suitor.  The 
result  of  his  experience  with  the  recently 
wedded  couple  is  to  make  him  abjure  all 
dealings  with  men  of  fashion. 

Thresher,  A,  a  member  of  an  Irish  political 
organization  instituted  in  1806  and  directed 
against  the  Orangemen  (q.v.),  which  issued 
manifestoes  signed  'Captain  Thresher'. 

Through  the  Lookmg-Glass,  a  book  for 
children  by  Lewis  Carroll  (see  Dodgson), 
published  in  1872. 

Alice  (see  Alice's  Adventures  in  Wonder- 
land) walks  in  a  dream  through  the  looking- 
glass  into  Looking-Glass  House,  where  she 
finds  that  the  chessmen,  particularly  the 
red  and  white  queens,  are  alive;  meets  with 
Tweedledum  and  Tweedledee  and  Humpty- 
Dumpty;  and  so  forth.  The  story  ends  with 
Alice,  who  has  the  red  queen  in  her  arms, 


[780] 


THUCYDIDES 

'shaking  her  into  a  kitten'  (for  she  had  gone 
to  sleep  playing  with  the  black  and  white 
kittens).  The  well-known  verses  about  the 
Jabberwock,  and  the  Walrus  and  the  Carpen- 
ter, occur  in  the  course  of  the  story. 

THUCYDIDES,  the  great  Athenian  his- 
torian, was  born  about  471  B.C.  and  died  in 
the  early  years  of  the  4th  cent.  Owing  to 
failure  as  a  naval  commander  in  424,  he  went 
into  exile  for  twenty  years  and  spent  much 
time  in  ^the  Peloponnese.  His  history,  which 
deals  with  the  great  war  between  Athens  and 
Sparta  down  to  the  year  41 1  B.C.,  is  concise 
sometimes  to  the  point  of  obscurity,  but  is 
marked  by  scrupulous  accuracy  and  also  by  a 
gift  for  expressing  the  sadness  of  a  tragic  story. 
It  is  noteworthy,  moreover,  as  the  first  work 
of  the  kind  in  which  events  are  traced  to  their 
cause  and  their  political  lessons  brought  out. 
Jowett's  translation  of  it  was  published  in 
1881. 

Thule,  an  island  in  the  northern  seas,  first 
mentioned  by  Pytheas,  a  Greek  navigator  of 
the  4th  cent.  B.C.,  where  the  day  and  night 
each  lasted  for  six  months,  and  the  sea  was 
thick  and  impenetrable  to  rowers.  It  may 
have  been  Iceland,  or  Norway,  or  the  Shet- 
lands.  ULTIMA  THULE,  'farthest  Thule',  is 
used  figuratively  for  the  uttermost  point 
attainable. 

Thumb,  TOM,  see  Tom  Thumb. 

Thunderer,  The,  a  nickname  given  to  'The 
Times'  newspaper  in  the  middle  of  the  igth 
cent.,  in  allusion  to  the  style  of  writing  of 
Edward  Sterling  (1773-1847),  a  member  of 
its  staff,  and  father  of  John  Sterling  (q.v.). 
Trollope  similarly  alludes  in  some  of  his 
novels  to  'The  Times'  as  'The  Jupiter'  (from 
Jupiter  Tonans). 

Tlmrio,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  'Two 
Gentlemen  of  Verona*  (q.v.). 

Thus  spake  Zarathustra,  see  Nietzsche. 

Thwackum,  in  Fielding's  'Tom  Jones* 
(q.v,),  the  tutor  of  Tom  and  Blifil,  a  divine 
with  a  reputation  for  learning,  religion,  and 
sobriety  of  manners,  but  in  fact  a  narrow- 
minded  pedant. 

Thyestes,  see  Atreus.  Thyestes  was  the 
subject  of  a  play  by  Crowne  (q.v.). 

Thyrsis,  A  Monody,  to  commemorate  the 
author's  friend,  Arthur  Hugh  Clough,  who 
died  at  Florence  1861,  by  M.  Arnold  (q.v.), 
published  in  1867. 

The  poem,  pastoral  in  form,  and  contain- 
ing frequent  reference  to  'The  Scholar-Gipsy' 
(q.v.),  combines  a  lament  for  the  dead  friend 
with  an  exquisite  description  of  the  Oxford 
country,  similar  to  that  found  in  the  earlier 
poem. 

Thyrsus,  a  staffer  spear  tipped  with  a  pine- 
cone,  and  sometimes  wreathed  with  ivy  or 
vine  branches,  carried  by  Dionysus  (Bacchus) 
and  his  votaries. 


TILBURINA 

Tib's  Eve,  ST.,  a  remote  date,  perhaps 
never  (cf.  'Greek  calends').  'Saint  Tibb's 
evening,  the  evening  of  the  last  day  or  day  of 
judgement;  he  will  pay  you  on  St.  Tibb's 
eve  (Irish)*,  Grose,  'Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar 
Tongue*  (1785).  Tib  is  perhaps  a  shortened 
form  of  Isabel.  A  St.  Tibba  is  mentioned  in 
the  late  Peterborough  recension  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle,  under  the  year  963, 

Tibbs,  BEAU,  see  Beau  Tibbs. 

TIbert,  the  cat  in  'Reynard  the  Fox'  (q.v.). 
The  name  is  the  same  as  Tybalt  (see  the 
dialogue  between  Mercutio  and  Tybalt  in 
Shakespeare,  'Romeo  and  Juliet',  in.  i). 

TIBULLUS,  ALBIUS  (54?~i8?  B.C.),  a 
Roman  poet,  a  contemporary  of  Virgil  and 
Horace.  Of  the  four  books  of  elegies  that  bear 
his  name,  only  the  first  two  are  undoubtedly 
by  him. 

Tichborne  Case,  THE:  Roger  Charles 
Tichbome  (1829-54),  heir  presumptive  to 
the  Tichborne  estates,  sailed  from  Rio  de 
Janeiro  in  1854  in  a  ship  that  was  lost  at  sea. 
Arthur  Orton's  claim  to  be  Roger  Tichborne 
gave  rise  to  a  famous  trial,  which  was 
decided  against  the  claimant  in  1872.  Orton 
was  tried  for  perjury  and  sentenced  to 
imprisonment. 

TICKEIX,  THOMAS  (1686-1740),^  edu- 
cated at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  contributed 
verse  to  the  'Guardian*,  'Spectator',  and 
other  publications,  and  was  author  of  a  poem 
'On  the  Prospect  of  Peace'  (1712).  He  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  Addison  and  is  chiefly  re- 
membered as  having  occasioned  the  quarrel 
between  Pope  and  Addison  by  publishing  a 
translation  of  the  first  book  of  the  'Iliad' 
at  the  same  time  as  Pope,  at  Addison's 
instigation  as  Pope  supposed.  He  edited 
Addison's  works,  publishing  in  the  first 
volume  his  celebrated  elegy  on  Addison's 
death.  Tickell  was  also  author  of  a  ballad, 
'Colin  and  Lucy*,  which  was  declared  by 
Gray  and  Goldsmith  to  be  one  of  the  best  in 
the  language. 
Tickler,  TIMOTHY,  see  Timothy  Tickler. 

TXCKNOR,  GEORGE  (1791-1871),  pro- 
fessor of  Belles  Lettres  and  French  and 
Spanish  at  Harvard  University  from  1819  to 
1835.  He  travelled  extensively  in  Europe  and 
is  remembered  for  his  'History  of  Spanish 
Literature*  (1849). 

Tiger,  THE,  a  nickname  of  Georges  Clemen- 
ceau  (1841-1929),  the  French  Prime  Minister 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  Great  War  and 
the  peace  negotiations  that  followed  it. 

Tiger!  Tiger!  burning  bright,  see  Blake. 

Tigg,  MONTAGUE,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Martin  Chuzzlewit*  (q.v.). 
Tilburina,  the  heroine  of  Mr.  Puff's  tragedy 
'The  Spanish  Armada'  in  Sheridan's  'The 
Critic*  (q.v.).  It  is  she  who  observes  that  even 
an  oyster  may  be  crossed  in  love. 


TILDE 

Tilde,  the  diacritic  mark  ~»  placed  in 
Spanish  above  the  letter  n  to  indicate  the 
palatalized  sound  (n7),  as  in  senor  (sen7or). 

Till  Eulenspiegel,  see  EulenspiegeL 
Tillietudlem,  in   Scott's   'Old   Mortality' 
(q.v.),  the  castle  of  Lady  Margaret  Bellenden. 

Tillotson,  JOHN  (1630-94),  educated  at 
Clare  Hall,  Cambridge,  a  'latitudinarian'  who 
became  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  His  ser- 
mons, marked  by  lucidity  of  style,  were  very 
popular,  and  earned  the  approval  of  Dryden. 

Tilney ,  GENERAL,  and  his  sons  and  daughter, 
characters  in  J.  Austen's  'Northanger  Abbey' 
(q.v.). 

Timber,  or  Discoveries  made  upon  Men  and 
Matters,  by  Jonson  (q.v.),  printed  in  the 
folio  of  1640,  a  collection  of  notes,  extracts, 
and  reflections  on  miscellaneous  subjects, 
made  in  the  course  of  the  author's  wide 
reading,  varying  in  length  from  a  single 
sentence  to  short  essays.  They  are,  for  the 
greater  part,  adapted  from  Latin  writers. 

Time  and  Tide,  by  Weare  and  Tyne,  twenty- 
five  letters  by  Ruskin  (q.v.)  on  the  laws  of 
work,  addressed  to  a  working  man  of  Sunder- 
land,  published  in  1867.  They  are  in  effect 
essays  on  social  reconstruction,  expressions  of 
Ruskin's  aspirations  for  a  happier  world  and 
the  disappearance  of  luxury  and  poverty, 
greed  and  suffering. 

Times,  The,  was  founded  under  the  name  of 
'The  Daily  Universal  Register*  on  i  Jan. 
1785  by  John  Walter,  the  name  being  changed 
to  'The  Times*  in  1788.  The  founder 
and  his  son,  also  named  John  Walter, 
introduced  great  improvements  both  in  the 
mechanism  of  newspaper  printing,  and  in 
the  collection  of  intelligence.  Among  the 
famous  editors  of  The  Times'  have  been 
Thomas  Barnes  (1817-41)  and  John  Thad- 
deus  Delane  (1841-77).  The  latter  was 
followed  by  Thomas  Chenery,  and  in  1884 
by  G.  E.  Buckle.  'The  Times'  was  one  of  the 
first  papers  to  employ  special  foreign  corre- 
spondents (Henry  Crabb  Robinson,  q.v.,  was 
sent  out  to  North  Germany  in  this  capacity 
in  1807)  and  war  correspondents  (W.  H. 
Russell,  q.v.,  in  the  Crimea).  Among  notable 
men  of  letters  who  contributed  to  'The  Times' 
in  early  days  were  George  Borrow  (from 
Spain),  Leigh  Hunt,  and  Disraeli  ('Runny- 
mede  Letters'). 

Times  Literary  Supplement,  The,  was  first 
published  on  17  Jan.  1902,  and  has  since  then 
appeared  weekly  under  the  editorship  of  Mr. 
Bruce  Richmond.  It  has  reached  a  position 
of  eminence  among  English  literary  periodi- 
cals by  reason  of  its  articles  and  reviews,  of 
the  correspondence  on  bibliographical  and 
other  subjects  that  appears  in  its  columns, 
and  ^  of  its  record  of  current  literary 
publications. 

Timias,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  Prince 
Arthur's  squire,  represents  Sir  Walter 


TIMON  OF  ATHENS 

Ralegh.  When  wounded  (in.  v),  he  is  healed 
by  Belphoebe  (q.v.).  The  incident  of  Timias 
and  Amoret  (q.v.)  in  IV.  vii.  35  and  36,  refers 
to  Ralegh's  relations  with  Elizabeth  Throg- 
morton  (see  Ralegh). 

Timmins,  FITZROY,  in  Thackeray's  *A 
Little  Dinner  at  Timmins's'  (1848),  an  easy- 
going barrister,  induced  by  his  wife,  Rosa,  to 
give  a  dinner-party  beyond  their  means. 

Timoleon  (d.  337  B.C.),  a  Corinthian  noble, 
who  liberated  Syracuse  and  the  other  Sicilian 
cities  from  their  tyrants.  It  is  said  that  when 
his  brother  Timophanes  aspired  to  become 
tyrant  of  his  own  city,  Timoleon  endeavoured 
to  dissuade  him,  and,  failing  in  this,  stood  by 
while  two  of  his  friends  stabbed  him  to  death ; 
an  incident  referred  to  by  Thomson  in  his 
'Seasons'  ('Winter').  Timoleon  is  also  the 
subject  of  a  tragedy  (1730)  by  Benjamin 
Martyn,  'not  to  be  despised'  (Prof.  Elton), 

Tiraon,  a  misanthropical  citizen  of  Athens 
who  lived  about  the  time  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War,  the  subject  (i)  of  one  of  Lucian's 
finest  'Dialogues  of  the  Gods';  (2)  of  Shake- 
speare's 'Timon  of  Athens'  (q.v.). 

Pope's  Timon,  in  'Moral  Epistles',  rv.  98 
et  seq.,  an  example  of  ostentatious  wealth 
without  sense  or  taste,  was  perhaps  drawn 
from  the  duke  of  Chandos. 

Timon  of  Athens,  a  drama  by  Shakespeare 
(q.v.)  written  probably  about  1607,  perhaps 
left  unfinished  or  written  in  collaboration 
with  another  dramatist ;  not  printed  until  the 
first  folio. 

The  material  of  the  play  is  in  Plutarch's 
'Antony*,  Lucian's  'Misanthropes',  and  an 
anonymous  play  'Timon*  in  the  Dyce  MS. 
Timon,  a  rich  and  noble  Athenian  of  good 
and  gracious  nature,  having  ruined  him- 
self by  his  prodigal  liberality  to  friends, 
flatterers,  and  parasites,  turns  to  the  richest 
of  his  friends  for  assistance  in  his  difficulties, 
and  is  denied  it,  and  deserted  by  all  who  had 
previously  frequented  him.  He  surprises 
these  by  inviting  them  once  more  to  a 
banquet;  but  when  the  covers  are  removed 
from  the  dishes  (Timon  crying,  'Uncover, 
dogs,  and  lap!'),  they  are  found  to  contain 
warm  water,  which  with  imprecations  he 
throws  in  his  guests'  faces.  Cursing  the  city, 
he  betakes  himself  to  a  cave,  where  he  lives 
solitary  and  misanthropical.  While  digging 
for  roots  he  finds  a  hoard  of  gold,  which 
has  now  no  value  for  him.  His  embittered 
spirit  is  manifested  in  his  talk  with  the  exiled 
Alcibiades,  the  churlish  philosopher  Apeman- 
tus,  the  thieves  and  flatterers  attracted 
by  the  gold,  and  his  faithful  steward 
Flavius.  When  the  senators  of  Athens,  hard 
pressed  by  the  attack  of  Alcibiades,  come  to 
entreat  him  to  return  to  the  city  and  help 
them,  he  offers  them  his  fig-tree,  on  which  to 
hang  themselves  as  a  refuge  from  affliction. 
Soon  his  tornb  is  found  by  the  sea-shore,  with 
an  epitaph  expressing  his  hatred  of  mankind. 


[782] 


TIMOTHEUS 

TIMOTHEUS  (446~357  B.C.),  of  Miletus, 
a  celebrated  musician  and  dithyrambic  poet, 
mentioned  by  Dryden  in  his  'Alexander's 
Feast'. 

Timothy,  the  tortoise  of  Gilbert  White 
(q.v.).  See  in  particular  his  letter  to  Hester 
Mulso  (afterwards  Mrs.  Chapone),  31  Aug. 
1784,  besides  various  references  in  his 
'Selborne'. 

Timothy  and  Titus,  companions  of  the 
apostle  Paul,  to  whom  the  Pastoral  Epistles  in 
the  N.T.  are  addressed.  It  is  held  by  some 
that  these  epistles  were  by  an  author  who, 
*  believing  himself  to  be  in  accord  with 
St.  Paul's  teaching  and  possessing  some 
remains  of  his  correspondence,  expanded 
such  into  these  letters  in  order  to  combat 
erroneous  speculations  in  the  church.  . . .  He 
probably  ^  lived  at  a  time  when  ecclesiastical 
organization  was  growing  in  importance. 
Timothy  and  Titus  are  thus  representative 
figures,  standing  for  those  whom  the  writer 
wished  to  admonish  and  instruct*  (G.  W. 
Wade,  'New  Testament  History'). 

Timothy  Tickler,  in  the  'Noctes  Am- 
brosianae'  (q.v.),  was  Robert  Sym  (1750- 
1844),  writer  to  the  signet,  uncle  to  John 
Wilson  (1785-1854,  q.v.). 
Tirmarlane  or  TIMUR  THE  LAME  (d.  1405),  a 
descendant  in  the  female  line  from  Genghis 
Khan  (q.v.),  established  himself  in  Samarkand 
and  extended  his  rule  by  terror  and  desola- 
tion over  parts  of  Turkestan,  Siberia,  Persia, 
and  India,  assuming  the  title  of  the  Great 
Khan.  He  captured  Delhi  and  founded  the 
Mogul  dynasty  in  India. 

Tina  Sastri,  a  character  in  G.  Eliot's  'Mr. 
Gilfil's  Love-Story*  (see  Scenes  of  Clerical 
Life). 

TINDAL,  WILLIAM  (d.  1536),  see  Tyn- 
dale. 

Tintagel,  a  castle  on  the  north  coast  of 
Cornwall,  of  which  ruins  remain.  It  figures 
in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur'  as  the  castle 
where  Uther  Pendragon  (q.v.)  was  wedded  to 
Igraine,  and  subsequently  as  the  home  of 
King  Mark  of  Cornwall. 

Tinto,  DICK,  in  Scott's  'Bride  of  Lammer- 
moor'  and  'St.  Ronan's  Well'  (qq.v.),  a  poor 
artist  and  sign-painter. 

Tintoretto,  JACOPO  ROBUSTI  (1518-94), 
called  Tintoretto  because  his  father  was  a 
dyer,  the  celebrated  Venetian  painter,  whose 
art  is  glorified  by  Ruskin  in  vol.  ii  of  'Modern 
Painters'  (q.v.).  Some  of  his  chief  work  is  in 
the  decoration  of  the  Doge's  Palace  at  Venice. 

Tiphys,  the  pilot  of  the  ship  of  the  Argonauts 
(q.v.). 

Alter  erit  turn  Tiphys  et  altera  quae  vehat 

Argo 
Delectos  heroas. 

(Virgil,  'EcL*  iv.  34.) 

Tippoo  Sahib  (1749-99),  son  of  Hyder  All, 
and  Sultan  of  Mysore,  who  was  engaged  in 


TITANIA 

repeated  wars  with  the  British.  He  figures  in 
Scott's  'The  Surgeon's  Daughter'  (q.v.).  He 
was  killed  in  the  gate  of  his  own  city,  Seringa- 
patam,  when  it  was  stormed  by  General 
Harris  in  1699. 

Tiresias  or  TEIRESIAS,  a  Theban  soothsayer, 
who  was  struck  with  blindness  in  his  youth 
for  reasons  variously  given,  one  that  he  had 
seen  Athene  when  she  was  bathing.  As  some 
compensation,  he  was  given  the  power  of 
prophecy,  and  a  staff  which  guided  his  foot- 
steps. He  advised  the  Thebans  in  the  wars 
of  the  Seven  against  Thebes  and  the  Epigoni. 
He  lived  to  a  great  age.  His  daughter  Manto 
was  also  a  prophetess.  She  was  captured  by 
the  victorious  Argives  and  sent  to  Delphi, 
as  a  priestess  of  Apollo. 

The  legend  of  Tiresias  is  the  subject  of 
a  poem  by  T.  Woolner  (q.v.),  and  of  a 
dramatic  monologue  by  Lord  Tennyson,  in 
which  the  seer  recounts  his  blinding  by 
Athene : 

Henceforth  be  blind,  for  thou  hast  seen  too 
much, 

And  speak  the  truth  that  no  man  may 
believe, 

and  laments  his  impotence  for  good  and  the 
approaching  fall  of  Thebes. 

Tironian  notes,  a  system  of  shorthand  in 
use  in  ancient  Rome,  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  Tiro,  Cicero's  freedman. 

Tirynthian,  an  epithet  sometimes  applied  to 
Hercules,  because  according  to  legend  he  lived 
for  many  years  at  Tiryns,  a  city  of  Argolis, 
Greece. 

*Tis  Pity  she's  a  Whore,  a  tragedy  by  J. 
Ford  (q.v.),  published  in  1633. 

The  play  deals  with  the  guilty  passion  of 
Giovanni  and  his  sister  Annabella  for  each 
other.  Being  with  child,  Annabella  marries 
one  of  her  suitors,  Soranzo,  who  discovers 
her  condition.  She  refuses  to  name  her 
lover,  though  threatened  with  death  by 
Soranzo.  On  the  advice  of  Varques,  his 
faithful  servant,  Soranzo  feigns  forgiveness, 
Varques  undertaking  to  discover  the  truth, 
which  he  does.  Soranzo  invites  Annabella's 
father  and  the  magnificoes  of  the  city,  with 
Giovanni,  to  a  sumptuous  feast,  intending  to 
execute  his  vengeance.  Although  warned  of 
Soranzo's  intentions,  Giovanni  boldly  comes. 
He  has  a  last  meeting  with  Annabella  just 
before  the  feast,  and  to  forestall  Soranzo's 
vengeance,  stabs  her  himself.  He  then  enters 
the  banqueting-room,  defiantly  tells  what  he 
has  done,  fights  with  and  kills  Soranzo,  and 
is  himself  killed  by  Varques. 

TisIphSne,  one  of  the  Furies  (q.v.). 

Titania,  in  Shakespeare's  CA  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream'  (q.v.),  the  queen  of  the 
fairies,  and  wife  of  Oberon. 

The  name  is  given  by  Ovid  in  the  'Meta- 
morphoses' to  Latona,  Pyrrha,  Diana,  and 
Circe,  as  descendants  of  the  Titans. 


[783] 


TITANIC 

Titanic,  The,  a  passenger  steamer  of  the 
White  Star  line,  the  largest  ship  of  her  day, 
sunk  on  15  Apr.  1912,  on  her  maiden  voyage 
from  Southampton  to  New  York,  owing 
to  collision  with  an  iceberg,  with  the  loss  of 
over  1,500  lives. 

Titans,  THE,  sons  and  daughters  of  Uranus 
and  Ge  (qq.v.).  They  included  Cronos 
(Saturn),  Rhea,  Oceanus,  Tethys,  and  Hy- 
perion. The  legend  says  that  Uranus  had 
thrown  his  elder  sons  (Briareus,  Cottys,  and 
Gyes,  the  hundred-handed  ones,  and  the 
Cyclopes)  into  Tartarus,  and  that  Ge  incited 
the  Titans  to  rise  against  him.  This  they  did, 
deposed  Uranus,  and  raised  Cronos  to  the 
throne.  Subsequently  Zeus  (q.v.)  revolted  in 
turn  against  Cronos  and  the  other  Titans,  and 
with  the  help  of  thunder  and  lightning  hurled 
them  from  heaven.  (This  contest  is  some- 
times  confused  by  the  poets  with  the  rising 
of  the  Giants  (q.v.)  against  Zeus  and  the 
later  gods.) 

Tithdnus,  a  son  of  Laomedon,  king  of  Troy. 
He  was  so  beautiful  that  Aurora  (q.v.)  be- 
came enamoured  of  him.  The  goddess 
granted  him  immortality  at  his  request ;  but  he 
omitted  to  ask  at  the  same  time  for  perpetual 
youth,  and  soon  became  old  and  decrepit. 
('Longa  Tithonum  minuit  senectus',  Horace, 
(Od.',  11.  xvi).  As  life  became  insupportable 
to  him,  he  prayed  Aurora  to  remove  him 
from  this  world,  and  she  changed  him  into 
a  grasshopper. 

Tennyson  presents  him,  in  a  dramatic 
monologue,  lamenting  his  unhappy  fate. 

Titian,  the  name  by  which  Tiziano  Vecelli 
(1477-1576),  the  great  painter,  is  usually 
known.  He  was  born  at  Pieve  di  Cadore  in 
Northern  Italy,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Giorgione, 
the  Venetian  master.  He  excelled  as  a 
painter  of  portraits,  and  of  sacred  and 
mythological  subjects.  Among  his  master- 
pieces is  the  'Bacchus  and  Ariadne*  of  the 
National  Gallery. 

Titivil  or  TUTIVILLUS,  a  medieval  word  of 
unknown  origin,  the  name  of  a  devil  said  to 
collect  fragments  of  words  dropped,  slapped, 
or  mumbled  in  the  recitation  of  divine  ser- 
vice, and  to  carry  them  to  hell  to  be  registered 
against  the  offender.  Hence  it  became  a 
name  for  a  devil  in  the  mystery  plays,  and 
hence  again  it  passed  into  popular  speech  as 
a  term  of  reprobation,  a  scoundrel,  villain. 
*Tilley-valley,  Mr.  Lovel — which,  by  the 
way,  one  commentator  derives  from  tittwili- 
tium,  and  another  from  talley-ho*  (Scott, 
*The  Antiquary*,  c.  vi). 

Titivil  was  evidently  in  origin  a  creation  of 
monastic  wit.  The  earliest  mention  of  the 
name  and  function  occurs  apparently  in  a 
Latin  sermon  attributed  to  the  Dominican 
Petrus  de  Palude,  a  Burgundian  student  at 
Paris,  who  became  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  and 
died  in  1342.  [OED.] 

Titmarsh,  MICHAEL  ANGELO,  see  Michael 
Angela  Titmarsh. 


TOBIT 

Titmarsh »  SAMUEL,  the  hero  of  Thackeray 's 
'The  Great  Hoggarry  Diamond'  (q.v.). 

Tito  Melema,  a  character  in  G.  Eliot's 
'Romola'  (q.v.). 

Titurel,  a  German  romance  of  the  Holy  Grail 
(q.v.)  of  the  i3th  cent.,  of  which  Wolfram 
von  Eschenbach  wrote  fragments.  According 
to  one  version  of  the  Grail  legend,  the_  Grail 
was  preserved  in  heaven  until  the  coming  on 
earth  of  a  race  of  heroes  fitted  to  be  its 
guardians.  The  chief  of  this  race  was 
Perillus  or  Parille  of  Cappadocia.  Titurel 
is  the  son  of  Titurisone  and  Eligabel,  and 
grandson  of  Parille.  Angels  announce  that 
he  is  to  be  the  defender  of  the  Grail,  and  he 
is  conducted  to  Mount  Salvagge  (Montsal- 
vatsch),  where  he  builds  a  chapel  and 
organizes  a  band  of  defenders  for  the  holy 
vessel.  He  marries  Richonde  of  Spain,  and  is 
great-grandfather  of  Parzival. 

Titus  Andronicus,  a  tragedy  attributed  to 
Shakespeare  (q.v.),  acted  and  printed  in  1594. 
The  extent  of  Shakespeare's  share  in  the 
authorship  is  uncertain. 
*  It  deals  with  the  revenge  exacted  by  Titus 
Andronicus,  a  Roman  general  under  the 
Empire,  for  the  revolting  atrocities  committed 
against  Lavinia  his  daughter,  his  sons,  and 
himself,  and  for  the  murder  of  his  daughter's 
lover,  by  Tamora  the  captive  queen  of  the 
Goths,  her  sons,  and  her  paramour,  Aaron 
the  Moor.  ('Andronicus*  in  the  play  is 
accentuated  on  the  second  syllable;  in  Latin 
it  is  'Andronicus'.) 

TITUS  LIVIUS  FOROJULIENSIS,  an 
Italian  in  the  service  of  Duke  Humphrey 
of  Gloucester,  who  wrote,  about  1440,  a 
chronicle  of  the  reign  of  Henry  V. 

For  TITUS  LIVIUS,  the  Roman  historian, 
see  Livy. 

Tityre-tu  or  TITTYRY,  one  of  an  association 
of  well-to-do  roughs  who  infested  the  Lon- 
don streets  in  the  I7th  cent.  The  name  is 
taken  from  the  first  words  of  Virgil's  first 
Eclogue,  *Tityre,  tu  patulae  recubans  sub 
tegmine  fagi.* 

TItjhis,  a  giant  of  Greek  mythology,  who 
attempted  to  do  violence  to  Leto  (Latona), 
but  was  killed  by  the  arrows  of  Apollo  and 
Artemis,  her  children.  He  was  placed  in  hell, 
where  a  serpent  (or  vultures)  continually 
devoured  his  liver. 

Tin,  Tiw,  TYR,  an  ancient  Teutonic  deity,  a 
war-god  identified  with  the  Roman  Mars.  In 
Norse  legend  Tyr  is  the  son  of  the  giant 
Hymir,  and  helps  the  gods  to  fetter  the 
Fenris-wolf  (q.v.),  losing  his  hand  in  doing  so. 
Tiu  is  commemorated  in  our  'Tuesday*. 

Tobit,  The  Book  of,  a  romance  of  the  Jewish 
captivity,  forming  part  of  the  Apocrypha. 
Tobit,  a  Jew  who  has  been  carried  captive  to 
Nineveh,  is  deprived  of  his  property  by 
Sennacherib,  and  in  his  distress  bethinks  him 
of  ten  talents  of  silver  he  has  left  in  deposit  at 
Rages  of  Media.  He  sends  his  son  Tobias  to 


[784] 


TOBOSO 

fetch  them.  The  angel  Raphael,  in  the  guise 
of  a  fellow  countryman,  accompanies  the 
young  man.  They  catch  a  fish  in  the  Tigris, 
and  by  burning  its  heart  and  liver  drive  off 
the  evil  spirit  Asmodaeus,  who  has  destroyed 
the  seven  successive  bridegrooms  of  Sarah, 
the  daughter  of  Raguel,  Tobit's  kinsman. 
Tobias  marries  Sarah  and  acquires  half 
Raguel's  goods.  The  gall  of  the  fish  serves  to 
remove  the  blindness  with  which  Tobit  is 
afflicted.  The  angel  also  recovers  Tobit's 
deposit.  He  then  reveals  himself  and  exhorts 
Tobit  and  Tobias  to  bless  God  for  his 
mercies.  The  dog  in  Tobit,  which  accom- 
panies Raphael  and  Tobias,  is  probably  the 
eponym  of  'Dog  Toby'  of  'Punch  and  Judy*. 

Toboso,  DULCINEA  DEL,  see  Dulcinea  del 
Toboso. 

Toby,  the  dog  in  the  puppet-show  drama  of 
'Punch  and  Judy*  (q.v.).  See  also  Tobit. 

Toby,  MY  UNCLE,  Captain  Shandy,  uncle 
of  the  nominal  hero  of  Sterne's  'Tristram 
Shandy*  (q.v.). 

Toby  ('TROTTY')  Veck,  a  character  in 
Dickens's  'The  Chimes'  (q.v.). 

TOCQUEVILLE,  ALEXIS  DE  (1805-59), 
French  writer  on  political  history,  was  author 
of  the  famous  *La  Democratic  en  Ame'rique' 
(1835-9)  anc*  of  'L'Ancien  Regime  et  la 
R6volution'  (1850). 

Todgers,  MRS.,  in  Dickens  Js  'Martin 
Chuzzlewit*  (q.v.),  mistress  of  a  boarding- 
house. 

Toff  ana  or  TOFANA,  AQUA,  see  Aqua  Toff  ana. 

Tojs>a,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the  white  outer 
garment  of  a  Roman  citizen  in  time  of  peace. 
The  toga  praetexta,  with  a  broad  purple 
border,  was  worn  by  children,  magistrates, 
persons  engaged  in  sacred  rites,  and  later  by 
emperors.  The  toga  virilis  was  the  toga  of 
manhood,  as  opposed  to  the  preceding,  and 
was  white  throughout;  the  term  is  hence 
used  figuratively:  'During  this  period  Mr. 
Clive  assumed  the  toga  virilis9  (Thackeray, 
'The  Newcomes',  xvii). 

Tokay,  a  rich  sweet  aromatic  wine  made  near 
Tokay  in  northern  Hungary  (not  a  real  wine, 
*a  prince  of  liqueurs',  Saintsbury  calls  it).  The 
best  was  from  a  vineyard  belonging  to  the 
Austrian  emperors  ('Imperial  Tokay *)»  Swift, 
dining  in  1710  at  Stratford's  in  the  City,  'had 
Burgundy  and  Tokay'  ('Journal  to  Stella'). 
It  is  said  to  have  unrivalled  properties  as  a 
tonic. 

Tolbooth,  originally  a  booth  or  stall  where 
customs  were  collected,  came  to  mean  a  town 
hall  or  town  prison  (formerly  consisting  of 
cells  under  the  town  hall).  The  Tolbooth  at 
Edinburgh  figures  prominently  in  Scott's 
'The  Heart  of  Midlothian'  (q.v.). 

Toledo,  a  city  in  Spain,  long  famous  for  its 
manufacture  of  finely  tempered  sword- 
blades.  Hence  a  sword  made  at  Toledo. 


TOM  AND  JERRY 
Toletan  Tables,  see  Alphonsme  Tables. 
TOLLER,  ERNST  (1893-  ),  German 
revolutionary  poet  and  dramatist,  author  of 
(according  to  their  English  titles)  'The 
Machine  Wreckers' (1923),  'Masses  and  Man' 
(1923),  'The  Swallow  Book*  (1924). 

Tolosa,  GOLD  OF,  gold  plundered  by  the 
Roman  consul,  Quintus  Servilius  Caepio,  in 
105  B.C.  from  a  temple  at  Tolosa  (now 
Toulouse),  a  town  which  had  revolted  to  the 
Cimbri.  Shortly  afterwards  Quintus  Servi- 
lius was  defeated  by  the  Cimbri  and  lost,  it 
is  said,  80,000  men,  a  disaster  that  was  re- 
garded as  a  punishment  for  his  sacrilege.  The 
phrase  is  used  to  signify  ill-gotten  gains. 

TOLSTOY,  COUNT  LEO  NIKOLAE- 
VICH  (1828-1910),  Russian  writer.  He  was 
of  noble  birth  and  heir  to  large  estates,  but 
his  intense  sincerity  of  thought  gradually  led 
him  to  abandon  his  normal  career.  He  arrived 
eventually  at  intellectual  conclusions  which 
involved  non-resistance  to  evil,  the  abolition  of 
governments  and  nationality,  of  churches  and 
dogmas,  but  involved  also  belief  in  God  and 
love  of  men.  He  made  attempts,  more  or  less 
successful,  to  renounce  his  own  property. 
His  chief  importance  rose  from  his  amazing 
power,  which  entered  into  his  books,  whether 
they  were  discussions,  novels,  plays,  or 
exhortations.  This  power  raised  him  to  a 
point  of  reputation  and  greatness  in  his  own 
lifetime  such  that  the  Imperial  Government 
did  not  dare  to  interfere  with  him,  though 
his  writings  were,  of  course,  censored.  It 
spread  his  influence  far  beyond  Russia,  and 
made  him  something  like  a  prophet  to  many 
minds  in  the  West.  His  chief  novels  are: 
'War  and  Peace*  (1865-72,  an  epic  tale  of  the 
Napoleonic  invasion),  'Anna  Karenina* 
(1875-6),  'The  Death  of  Ivan  Ilyitch'  (1884), 
'The  ELreutzer  Sonata'  (1890),  'Resurrection* 

(1899). 

Of  his  other  books,  'What  is  Art?'  (1898)  is  a 
profound  analysis  of  the  nature  of  art,  'in 
which',  Bernard  Shaw  has  said,  'we  hear 
the  voice  of  the  master';  'Confession'  (1882) 
is  an  autobiographical  description  of  the 
great  spiritual  crisis  of  his  life;  'What  then 
must  we  do?'  (1886)  is  a  study  of  economic 
conditions.  Besides  these,  there  are  essays 
and  short  stories,  all  full  of  the  same  power 
and  Intensity,  and  the  plays,  of  which  'The 
Power  of  Darkness'  (1886)  is  the  greatest. 

The  union  of  a  great  moral  conviction  and 
realistic  details,  and  an  immense  imaginative 
vision,  combine  to  make  him  one  of  the  great 
European  writers. 

Tom's,  a  coffee-house  famous  in  the  i8th 
cent.,  named  from  Thomas  West,  its  landlord. 
It  was  situated  in  Russell  Street,  Covent  Gar- 
den, and  was  frequented  by  the  best  company 
after  the  play. 

There  was  another  'Tom's  Coffee-house'  in 
Birchin  Lane,  Comhill. 

Tom  and  Jerry,  names  of  the  two  chief 
characters  in  Egan's  'Life  in  London'  (see 


3868 


[785] 


TOM  A  LINCOLN 

Egan) ;  hence  used  in  various  allusive  senses, 
e.g.  of  riotous  behaviour. 

Tom  a  Lincoln,  a  romance  by  R.  Johnson 
(q.v.),  the  author  of  'The  Seven  Champions 
of  Christendom'.  Tom  a  Lincoln  is  the  son 
of  King  Arthur  and  Angelica,  daughter  of  the 
earl  of  London,  and  is  born  in  a  monastery 
at  Lincoln.  He  becomes  a  knight  of  the 
Round  Table,  conquers  the  Portingales, 
visits  Fairyland,  marries  Anglitora,  the 
daughter  of  Prester  John,  but  is  overtaken  by 
misfortune  and  murdered. 

Tom  Brown's  Schooldays,  see  Hughes. 
Tom  Cringle's  Log,  see  Scott  (M.,  1739-1 835). 
Tom  Folio,  see  Rawlinson  (T.). 

Tom  Fool,  a  quasi-proper  name  applied  to  a 
man  mentally  deficient,  or  to  one  who  acts  the 
part  of  a  fool  in  a  drama,  a  buffoon.  'More 
know  Tom  Fool  than  Tom  Fool  knows' 
(proverb). 

Tom  Hickathrlft  or  HICKIFRIC,  according 
to  an  old  popular  romance,  was  the  son  of  a 
labourer  in  the  Isle  of  Ely  before  the  Norman 
Conquest.  He  was  endowed  with  such  pro- 
digious strength  that  he  was  able  to  kill  a 
giant  with  the  axle-tree  and  wheel  of  a 
wagon,  and,  with  the  help  of  Henry  Nonsuch, 
an  equally  stout  tinker,  to  suppress  an  in- 
surrection in  the  Isle  of  Ely;  for  which  ex- 
ploit he  was  knighted  by  the  king. 

Tom  Jones,  a  Foundling,,  a  novel  by  H. 
Fielding  (q.v.),  published  in  1749,  consisting 
of  eighteen  'books',  each  preceded  by  an 
introductory  chapter  in  the  nature  of  an  essay 
on  some  theme  more  or  less  connected  with 
the  story,  in  the  manner  subsequently 
adopted  by  Thackeray  and  George  Eliot. 
These  essays  contain  some  of  Fielding's  best 
prose. 

The  plot  of  this,  which  is  generally  re- 
garded as  Fielding's  greatest  work,  is  briefly 
as  follows.  Tom  Jones  is  a  foundling, 
mysteriously  discovered  one  night  in  the  bed 
of  the  wealthy,  virtuous,  and  benevolent  Mr. 
Allworthy,  who  gives  him  a  home  and  educates 
him,  but  presently  repudiates  him.  The 
causes  which  lead  to  Tom's  dismissal  are 
several.  In  the  first  place  Tom,  a  generous 
and  manly,  but  too  human,  youth,  has  in- 
curred his  benefactor's  displeasure  by  his 
amour  with  Molly  Seagrim,  the  keeper's 
daughter.  Then  he  has  fallen  in  love  with  the 
beautiful  Sophia  (daughter  of  the  bluff 
irascible  foxhunter,  Squire  Western),  who  is 
destined  for  another.  He  has  incurred  the 
enmity  of  his  tutor,  the  pedantic  divine, 
Thwackum,  and,  in  a  less  degree,  of  his 
colleague,  the  hypocritical  philosopher, 
Square.  And  lastly  he  is  the  victim  of  the 
cunning  misrepresentations  of  young  Blifil,  a 
mean  sneak,  who  expects  to  marry  Sophia 
himself,  and  hates  Tom.  Tom  sets  out  on  his 
travels,  accompanied  by  the  schoolmaster, 
Partridge, a  simple  lovable  creature,  and  meets 
with  many  adventures,  some  of  them  of  an 


[786] 


TOM  THUMB 

amorous  description,  notably  that  with  Lady 
Bellaston,  which  has  been  much  criticized. 
Lady  Bellaston  falls  in  love  with  Tom,  who 
does  not  show  himself  recalcitrant,  and  sup- 
ports him  in  London  out  of  her  liberality. 
Meanwhile  Sophia,  who  is  in  love  with  Torn 
and  determined  to  escape  from  the  marriage 
with  Blifil  to  which  her  despotic  father  has 
condemned  her,  runs  away  from  home,  with 
Mrs.  Honour,  her  maid,  to  a  relative  in  Lon- 
don. Here  she  escapes  a  wicked  design  of 
Lady  Bellaston  to  place  her  in  the  power  of 
Lord  Fellamar,  thanks  to  the  opportune 
arrival  of  Squire  Western  in  pursuit  of  her. 
Finally  Tom  is  discovered  to  be  the  son  of 
Allworthy's  sister,  the  machinations  of  Blifil 
are  exposed,  Sophia  forgives  Tom  his  in- 
fidelities, and  all  ends  happily. 

Tom-noddy,  a  foolish  or  stupid  person. 
NODDY,  of  obscure  origin,  means  a  simpleton. 

Tom  o'  Bedlam,  a  wandering  beggar.  After 
the  dissolution  of  the  religious  houses,  where 
the  poor  used  to  be  relieved,  there  was  for 
long  no  settled  provision  for  them.  In  conse- 
quence they  wandered  over  the  country, 
many  assuming  disguises  calculated  to  obtain 
them  charity.  Among  other  disguises  some 
affected  madness,  and  were  called  Bedlam 
Beggars  (so  in  'Gammer  Gurton's  Needle*, 
*Diccon  the  Bedlam').  Edgar,  in  'King  Lear*, 
II.  iii,  adopts  this  disguise : 

Of  Bedlam  beggars,  who,  with  roaring 
voices, 

Strike  in  their  numb'd  and  mortified  bare 
arms 

Pins,  wooden  pricks,  nails,  sprigs  of 
rosemary. 

In  Dekker's  'Bellman  of  London*  (1616), 
'Tom  of  Bedlam's  band  of  mad  caps*  are 
enumerated  among  the  species  of  beggars. 
Some  of  these  Bedlam  beggars  sang  mad 
songs,  examples  of  which  are  given  in  Percy's 
'Reliques*.  They  were  also  called  'Abraham 
Men*,  from  the  name,  it  is  said  (Brewer),  of 
one  of  the  wards  in  Bedlam. 

Tom  of  Lincoln,  *an  extraordinary  great 
bell,  hanging  in  one  of  the  towers  of  Lincoln 
Minster*  (Ray,  quoted  by  W.  C.  Hazlitt). 
See  also  Tom  a  Lincoln, 

Tom  of  Oxford,  GREAT,  the  great  bell  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford;  it  hangs  in  TOM 
TOWER,  and  the  great  quadrangle  of  the 
college,  TOM  QUAD,  is  named  after  it. 

Tom  Sawyer,  a  novel  by  Mark  Twain,  see 
Clemens, 

Tom  Thumb,  an  old  nursery  tale,  of  which 
there  are  several  Northern  versions. 

According  to  the  English  tale,  Tom  was 
the  son  of  a  ploughman  in  the  days  of  King 
Arthur,  and  he  was  as  tall  as  the  ploughman's 
thumb.  His  diminutive  size  was  the  occasion 
of  many  absurd  adventures,  as  when  he  was 
swallowed  by  a  cow,  was  carried  off  by  a  raven, 
and  was  swallowed  by  Giant  Grumbo. 

GENERAL  TOM  THUMB  was  the  name  given 


TOM  THUMB 

to  Charles  Sherwood  Stratton  (1838-83),  an 
American  dwarf  exhibited  in  England  by 
Barnum  in  1844  and  1857.  Stratton  married 
Lavinia  Warren,  also  a  dwarf,  in  1863. 
Tom  Thumb,  a  Tragedy,  a  burlesque  of  con- 
temporary playwrights  by  H.  Fielding  (q.v.), 
first  acted  in  1730;  reissued,  enlarged,  in 
1731  as  'The  Tragedy  of  Tragedies;  or  the 
Life  and  Death  of  Tom  Thumb  the  Great*. 
Tom  Tiddler's  Ground  or  TOM  TITTLER'S 
GROUND,  the  name  of  a  children's  game,  in 
which  one  of  the  players  is  Tom  Tiddler,  his 
territory  being  marked  by  a  line  drawn  across 
the  ground;  over  this  the  other  players  run, 
crying,  'Here  we're  on  Tom  Tiddler's  ground, 
picking  up  gold  and  silver'.  They  are  chased 
by  Tom  Tiddler,  and  the  player  caught  takes 
his  place.  'Tom  Tiddler's  Ground'  is  used 
for  a  'debatable  territory,  a  no  man's  land 
between  two  states'  (Slang  Dictionary). 
Torn  Tiler  or  TYLER,  a  hen-pecked  husband 
(the  eWcTrsyjiteVos1  of  a  line  in  an  epigram  by 
the  Rev.  W.  W.  Merry,  Trjv  eWe/couaav  /cat  rov 


Tom  Tower,  over  the  gate  of  Christ  Church 
quad,  in  Oxford,  was  built  by  Wren. 

TOMKIS,  THOMAS  (fl.  1604-15),  fellow 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  author  of 
'Albumazar'  (q.v.),  a  comedy  acted  before 
James  I,  and  probably  of  another  comedy, 
'Lingua,  or  the  Combat  of  the  Tongue  and 
the  five  Senses  for  Superiority'  (1607). 

Tomkyns,  MRS.  PONSONBY  DE,  a  type  of 
vulgar  parvenue  caricatured  by  Du  Maurier 
(q.v.)  in  'Punch'. 

Tommy  and  Grizel,  a  novel  by  Barrie  (q.v.), 
a  sequel  to  his  *  Sentimental  Tommy', 
published  in  1900,  the  tragic  story  of  an 
erratic,  inconstant,  fascinating  genius,  and  a 
patient  constant  woman  whose  life  is  blighted 
by  her  love  for  him. 

Tommy  Atkins,  a  familiar  name  for  the 
typical  private  soldier  in  the  British  Army; 
arising  out  of  the  casual  use  of  this  name  in 
the  specimen  forms  given  in  the  official  Army 
regulations  from  1815  onwards,  to  show  how 
such  forms  should  be  filled  up,  with  the  name 
of  the  soldier  concerned,  &c. 
Tdm^ris,  queen  of  the  Mass&ge'tae  (a  tribe 
which  dwelt  south  of  the  Jaxartes),  by  whom 
Cyrus,  who  had  invaded  her  territory,  was 
slain  in  battle,  in  529  B.C. 
Tono-Bungay  ,  see  Wells. 
Tonson,  JACOB  (1656-1736),  publisher.  He 
purchased  the  copyright  of  'Paradise  Lost', 
and  published  many  works  by  Dryden  and 
Addispn,  besides  Rowe's  'Shakespeare*  and 
an  edition  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher.  The 
six  parts  of  his  'Miscellany',  edited  by  Dryden, 
and  including  poems  by  Pope,  Swift,  and 
Ambrose  Philips,  appeared  from  1684  to 
1708.  He  was  secretary  to  the  Kit-Cat  Club 
(q.v.).  His  publishing  business  was  con- 
tinued by  his  nephew  and  great-nephew,  who 
bore  the  same  name  as  he.  Pope  (adapting 


TOR 

Dryden)  mentions  Tonson  in  the  'Dunciad' 
as  'left-legged  Jacob',  but  his  other  references 
to  him  are  more  kindly. 

Tontine,  a  financial  scheme  by  which  the 
subscribers  to  a  fund  receive  each  an  an- 
nuity^ which  increases  as  their  number  is 
diminished  by  death,  until  the  last  survivor 
enjoys  the  whole  income;  so  named  from 
Lorenzo  Tonti,  a  Neapolitan  banker  who 
initiated  the  system  in  France  c.  1 653 .  [OED.] 
A  tontine  forms  the  basis  of  R.  L.  Steven- 
son and  Lloyd  Osbourne's  'The  Wrong  Box' 
(1889),  in  which  the  prize  comes  to  He  be- 
tween two  brothers,  Joseph  and  Masterman 
Finsbury. 

Tony  Lumpkin,  a  character  in  Goldsmith's 
'She  Stoops  to  Conquer'  (q.v.). 

Toodle,  POLLY  and  ROBIN  ('Rob  the  Grin- 
der'), her  son,  characters  in  Dickens's  *Dom- 
bey  and  Son*  (q.v.).  Polly  was  Paul  Dombey 's 
foster-mother. 

TOOKE,  JOHN  HORNE  (1736-1812),  the 
son  of  a  poulterer  named  Horne,  who  added 
the  name  of  his  friend  William  Tooke  to  his 
own  in  1782.  He  vigorously  supported 
Wilkes  (q.v.)  in  connexion  with  the  Middle- 
sex election,  but  subsequently  quarrelled 
with  him,  the  dispute  being  conducted  in  the 
columns  of  the  'Public  Advertiser'  (q.v.).  He 
published  '  "Evea  Trrepoevra,  or  the  Diversions 
of  Purley',  a  philological  work  emphasizing 
the  necessity  of  studying  Gothic  and  Anglo- 
Saxon,  in  1786  and  1798,  which  established 
his  reputation  as  a  philologist.  He  was  more 
than  once  in  conflict  with  the  authorities,  was 
fined  and  imprisoned  for  sedition,  and  was 
tried  for  high  treason  and  acquitted. 

Tooley  Street,  see  Olaf  (St.).  See  also 
Tailors  of  Tooley  Street. 

Toots,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Dom- 
bey and  Son'  (q.v.). 

Tophet  or  TOPHETH,  a  place  near  Gehenna 
or  the  Valley  of  Hinnorn,  to  the  south  of 
Jerusalem,  where  the  Jews,  according  to 
2  Kings  xxiii.  10  and  Jer.  xix.  4,  made 
human  sacrifices  to  strange  gods.  Later  it 
was  used  as  a  place  for  the  deposit  of  rubbish, 
where  bonfires  were  kept  burning,  and  be- 
came symbolic  of  the  torments  of  hell. 

TOPLADY,  AUGUSTUS  MONTAGUE 
(1740-78),  educated  at  Westminster  and 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  incumbent  of  Broad 
Hernbury,  is  remembered  as  the  author  of  the 
hymn  'Rock  of  Ages',  published  in  the  'Gos- 
pel Magazine*  in  1775.  He  engaged  in  violent 
controversy  with  John  Wesley. 

Topsy,  in  Mrs.  Beecher  Stowe's  *Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin'  (see  under  Stowe,  Mrs.  H.  B.), 
a  little  slave  girl  who  asserted  that  she  had 
neither  father  nor  mother,  and  being  asked 
who  made  her,  replied  'I  spect  I  grow'd*. 

Tor,  SIR,  in  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur',  the 
son  of  King  Pellinore  and  the  milkmaid,  a 
knight  of  the  Round  Table.  See  also  Torre. 


[787] 


3E2 


TORAH 

Torah,  THE,  the  teaching  or  instruction,  and 
judicial  decisions,  given  by  the  ancient 
Hebrew  priests  as  a  revelation  of  the  divine 
will ;  the  Mosaic  or  Jewish  law;  hence  a  name 
for  the  first  five  books  of  the  law,  the  Penta- 
teuch. [OED.] 

Torfrida,  in  C.  Kingsley's  novel,  'Hereward 
the  Wake*  (q.v.),  the  wife  of  Hereward. 
Torquatus,    T.    MANLIUS,    see    Manlius 
Torquatus, 

Torquemada,  TOMAS  DE  (1420-98),  a 
Spanish  Dominican  monk,  appointed  in  1483 
the  first  inquisitor-general  by  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella.  He  was  famous  for  the  untiring 
energy  with  which  the  work  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion in  Spain  was  carried  on  under  his 
direction.  Hence  his  name  became  a 
synonym  for  a  cruel  persecutor.  But 
Torquemada's  code  of  instructions  for  the 
application  of  torture  was  relatively  moder- 
ate. It  was  twisted  and  extended  by  his 
successors. 

Torquil  of  the  Oak,  a  character  In  Scott's 
*The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth*  (q.v.). 

Torre,  SIR,  in  Tennyson's  'Lancelot  and 
Elaine5  (q.v.),  is  son  of  the  Lord  of  Astolat  and 
one  of  Elaine's  two  brothers,  the  other  being 
Lavaine. 

Torregiano  or  TORRIGIANI,  PIERO  (1472- 
1522),  the  Florentine  sculptor  who,  as  he 
himself  recounted  to  Benvenuto  Cellini, 
broke  Michelangelo's  nose.  He  came  to 
England  about  1503,  where,  besides  other 
works,  he  made  the  tomb  of  Henry  VII  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  He  is  said  to  have 
ended  his  life  in  a  prison  at  Seville,  having 
starved  himself  to  death.  He  had,  according 
to  the  story,  smashed  to  pieces  a  statue  of  the 
Madonna  for  which  he  had  not  received  the 
stipulated  payment,  and  had  been  imprisoned 
by  the  Inquisition  for  sacrilege. 

TORRENS,  WILLIAM  McCULLAGH 
(1813-94),  a  successful  barrister,  M.P.  for 
several  constituencies  (first  in  1847),  was 
author  of  a  good  life  of  Melbourne  (1878),  and 
lives  of  R.  L.  Sheil  (1855),  Sir  James  Graham 
(1863),  and  Lord  Wellesley  (1880),  besides 
some  notable  works  on  political  subjects 
('Industrial  History  of  Free  Nations',  1846; 
'Twenty  Years  in  Parliament*,  1893). 

Torres  Vedras,  LINES  OF,  three  lines  of 
earthworks  constructed  by  Wellington  across 
the  peninsula  that  lies  between  the  Tagus  and 
the  sea.  They  were  defended  by  him  against 
Massena  in  1810— n  with  English  and  Portu- 
guese Droops,  leaving  the  French  armies  to 
exist  in  a  country  that  had  been  entirely 
stripped  of  food. 

Torricelli  (1608-47),  an  Italian  physicist, 
who  by  the  Torricellian  Experiment  proved  in 
1643  that  the  column  of  mercury  in  an  in- 
verted closed  tube  is  supported  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere.  TORRICELLIAN  TUBE 
was  an  early  name  for  the  mercurial  barometer. 


TOURNEUR 

Tory,  from  an  Irish  word  meaning  'pursuer*, 
was  a  name  applied  in  the  I7th  cent,  to  the 
dispossessed  Irish,  who  became  outlaws, 
subsisting  by  killing  and  plundering  the 
English  settlers  and  soldiers.  In  1679-80  it 
was  applied  as  a  nickname  by  the  Ex- 
clusionists  to  those  who  opposed  the  exclusion 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  James,  duke  of  York, 
from  the  succession  to  the  Crown.  Hence, 
from  1689,  it  became  the  name  of  one  of  the 
two  great  political  parties  in  England,  that 
which  sprang  from  the  I7th-cent.  Royalists  or 
Cavaliers,  whose  members  were  more  or  less 
identical  with  the  Anti-Exclusionists  men- 
tioned above.  For  some  years  after  1689  the 
Tories  leant  more  or  less  decidedly  towards 
the  dethroned  House  of  Stuart.  But  from  the 
accession  of  George  III  they  abandoned  this 
attitude,  retaining  the  principle  of  strenuously 
upholding  the  constituted  authority  and 
order  in  Church  and  State,  and  of  opposing 
concessions  in  the  direction  of  greater  re- 
ligious liberty.  The  opposition  to  the  grow- 
ing demands  of  Liberalism,  a  consistent 
antagonism  to  measures  for  widening  the 
basis  of  parliamentary  representation,  &c., 
became  their  most  marked  characteristic. 
But  this  has  in  course  of  time  undergone 
many  modifications.  As  a  formal  name  'Tory* 
was  superseded  by  'Conservative*  about 
1830,  a  term  introduced  by  Croker.  [OED.] 

Toscar,  in  the  Ossianic  poems,  the  father 
of  Malvina,  betrothed  to  Oscar  the  son  of 
Ossian. 

TOTTEL,  RICHARD  (d.  1594),  a  pub- 
lisher who  carried  on  business  at  "The  Hand 
and  Star*  within  Temple  Bar  from  1553  to 
1594,  is  chiefly  known  as  the  compiler  (with 
Grimald,  q.v.)  of  'Songs  and  Sonnets*,  known 
as  'TottePs  Miscellany*  (i  559),  comprising  the 
chief  works  of  Wyatt  and  Surrey  (q.v.).  He 
also  published,  besides  law-books,  More's 
'Dialogue  of  Comfort*  (1553),  Lydgate's 
'Fall  of  Princes' (1554),  and  Surrey's  'Aeneid* 
(1557). 

Slender,  in  Shakespeare's  'Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor*  (q.v.),  'had  rather  than  forty 
shillings*  he  had  Tottel's  'Book  of  Songs  and 
Sonnets*  with  him  when  courting  Anne  Page ; 
and  the  grave-digger  in  'Hamlet*  mumbles  a 
song  from  the  same  collection. 
Touchett,  MR.,  MRS.,  and  RALPH,  charac- 
ters in  H.  James's  'Portrait  of  a  Lady'  (q.v.). 

Touchstone,  a  clown  in  Shakespeare's  'As 
You  Like  It*  (q.v.). 

Touchwood,  LORD,  a  character  In  Con- 
greve's  'The  Double  Dealer'  (q.v.). 
Touchwood,  MR.  SCROGIE,  a  character  in 
Scott's  'St.  Ronan*s  Well*  (q.v.). 
Touchwood,     SIR     GEORGE     and     LADY 
FRANCES,  characters  in  Mrs.  Cowley*s  'The 
Belle's  Stratagem'  (q.v.). 

TOURGXJENIEF,  see  Turgenieff. 
TOURNEUR,  TURNOUR,  or  TURNER, 
CYRIL  (1575?-!  626),  dramatist.  Practically 


[788] 


TOUSSAINT  L'OUVERTURE 

nothing  Is  known  of  his  life.  Of  his  two  plays 
(assuming  that  they  are  both  his,  which  is 
contested),  "The  Revenger's  Tragedy*,  was 
published  In  1607.  It  deals  with  the  revenge 
of  Vendice  for  the  murder  of  his  mistress  by 
the  licentious  duke,  and  for  the  attempt  of  the 
duke's  son,  Lussorioso,  to  seduce  Vendice 's 
sister,  the  chaste  Castiza.  It  is  a  gloomy  work, 
relieved  by  the  poetic  beauty  of  several 
passages  and  the  tragic  intensity  of  the  plot. 
'The  Atheist's  Tragedy*  (q.v.)  appeared  in 
161 1.  (The  dates  and  order  of  the  two  plays, 
however,  are  disputed.)  'The  Transformed 
Metamorphosis',  published  in  1600,  is  a 
lament,  in  allegorical  form,  on  the  political 
conditions  of  the  day,  the  corruption  of  the 
Roman  Church,  and  the  dangerous  state  of 
Ireland,  ending  with  hope  for  happier  limes. 
Tourneur's  Tlays  and  Poems'  were  edited  by 
John  Churton  Collins  in  1878,  and  by  Prof. 
A.  Nicoll  in  1930. 

Toussaint  L'Ouverture  (1743-1803),  to 
whom  Wordsworth  addressed  a  sonnet,  was 
a  negro  revolutionist  who  made  himself 
master  of  the  French  colony  of  San  Domingo 
(Haiti)  during  the  period  of  the  French 
Revolution.  He  was  overcome  by  the  forces 
of  Buonaparte  and  transported  to  France, 
where  he  died. 

Tower  Hill,  adjacent  to  the  Tower  of 
London,  was  probably  a  site  of  military 
importance  from  pre-Conquest  days,  and 
traces  of  Roman  buildings  have  been 
found  there  (Lethaby).  According  to  Stow 
(1598)  a  scaffold  was  erected  there  for  the 
execution  of  traitors,  and  Sir  Thomas  More, 
the  earl  of  Surrey  (the  poet),  Strafford,  Laud, 
Algernon  Sidney,  and  many  others,  perished 
on  Tower  Hill. 

Tower  of  London,  THE,  the  ancient  for- 
tress-palace of  London,  an  irregular  ag- 
glomeration of  buildings  surrounded  by  wall 
and  moat,  standing  on  the  bank  of  the  Thames 
at  the  SE.  angle  of  the  old  walled  city.  It  was 
constructed  by  William  the  Conqueror  (who 
built  what  Is  now  called  the  White  Tower)  and 
his  successors,  principally  Henry  III.  The 
foundation  of  the  White  Tower  (rebuilt  in 
1638)  overlies  that  of  a  'great  and  solid 
bastion'  (Loftie)  perhaps  of  Roman  construc- 
tion. The  Tower  of  London  has  been  used 
as  a  prison  for  kings  and  queens  and  other 
eminent  persons,  captive  foreign  sovereigns 
(e.g.  John  Balliol,  nominal  king  of  Scotland), 
prisoners  awaiting  trial  (e.g.  Sir  W.  Ralegh), 
and  others  swiftly  destined  to  the  scaffold 
(e.g.  Anne  Boleyn).  Sir  F.  Burdett  was  the 
last  person  'sent  to  the  Tower'  (1810).  Of  the 
church  of  St.  Peter  in  the  Tower  (Ad  Vincula), 
Macaulay  wrote:  'Thither  have  been  carried 
through  successive  ages,  by  the  rude  hands 
of  gaolers,  without  one  mourner  following, 
the  bleeding  relics  of  men  who  had  been 
captains  of  armies,  the  leaders  of  parties, 
the  oracles  of  senates,  and  the  ornaments  of 
courts'  ('History  of  England',  c.  v). 


TRACTS  FOR  THE  TIMES 

For  the  'Lions  in  the  Tower'   see  under 
Zoological  Garden. 

Town  and  Gown,  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
the  body  of  citizens  or  townsmen  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  members  of  the  university  on 
the  other.  Frequent  riots  took  place  between 
these  'factions'  from  the  isth  to  the  igth 
cents. — in  the  last  period  generally  on  the 
fifth  of  November.  One  of  the  most  con- 
siderable of  these  riots  was  the  'Great 
Slaughter*  of  1354  at  Oxford,  for  which  the 
mayor  and  citizens  long  did  annual  penance. 

Town  Mouse  and  Country  Mouse,  a  fable 
told  by  Horace  ('Sat.'  n.  vi)  and  by  La  Fon- 
taine (though  the  latter  substitutes  rats  for 
mice).  The  city  mouse,  contemptuous  of  the 
country  mouse's  cave  and  humble  fare,  in- 
vites it  to  a  sumptuous  supper  in  its  palace. 
But  the  feast  is  disturbed  by  an  alarm,  and 
the  mice  scurry  away.  The  country  mouse 
concludes  that  it  prefers  its  wood  and  cave 
free  from  surprises,  and  its  homely  tares. 

M.  Prior  (q.v.)  was  at  least  part-author  of 
the  'Hind  and  Panther  trans vers'd  to  .the  tale 
of  the  Town  Mouse  and  the  Country  Mouse'. 
Towneley,   a  character  in  Sheridan's   *A 
Trip  to  Scarborough*  (q.v.). 
Towneley  Mysteries,  see  Mysteries. 
Townly,  LORD,  'The  Provok'd   Husband' 
in  Vanbrugh  and  Gibber's  play  of  that  name 
(q.v.). 

Townshend,  CHARLES,  second  Viscount 
Townshend  (1674-1738),  a  distinguished 
statesman  of  the  reign  of  George  I.  He  carried 
on  at  Rainharn  agricultural  experiments  which 
earned  him  his  nickname  of  'Turnip  Town- 
shend'. Pope  ('Imitations  of  Horace*,  ir.  ii. 
273)  refers  to  Townshend's  turnips,  and  in  a 
footnote  states  that  'that  kind  of  rural  im- 
provement which  arises  from  turnips'  was 
'the  favourite  subject  of  Townshend's 
conversation'. 

Tow-wouse,  MR.  and  MRS.,  characters  in 
H.  Fielding's  'Joseph  Andrews'  (q.v.). 
Toxophflus,  see  Ascham. 
Tractarian  Movement,  see  Oxford  Move- 
ment. 

Tracts  for  the  Times,  a  series  of  tracts  on 
religious  subjects,  of  which  the  principal 
authors  were  Newman,  Keble,  R.  H.  Froude, 
and  Pusey  (qq.v.),  published  from  1833  to 
1841. 

They  were  issued  'with  the  object  of 
contributing  something  towards  the  revival 
of  doctrines  which,  although  held  by  the 
great  divines  of  our  Church,  at  present  have 
become  obsolete  with  the  majority  of  her 
members. .  . .  The  Apostolic  succession  and 
the  Holy  Catholic  Church  were  principles  of 
action  in  the  minds  of  our  predecessors  of  the 
1 7th  century  .  . .  Nothing  but  these  neglected 
doctrines  faithfully  preached  .  .  .  will  repress 
the  extension  of  Popery.'  The  first  tract  was 
by  Newman,  'Thoughts  on  the  Ministerial 
Commission,  respectfully  addressed  to  the 


[789] 


TRADDLES 

Clergy*,  and  the  most  famous,  'Tract  XC', 
was  also  by  him.  See  Oxford  Movement. 

Traddles,  a  character  in  Dickens 's  'David 
Copperfield*  (q.v.). 

Tradescant,  JOHN  (d.  1637?)  traveller, 
naturalist,  and  gardener,  probably  author 
of  'A  voiag  of  ambasad'  (1618)  describing  a 
voyage  under  Sir  Dudley  Digges  to  Arch- 
angel, containing 'the  earliest  account  extant 
of  Russian  plants.  From  the  expedition 
(1620)  against  the  Algerine  pirates  he  brought 
back  the  'Algier  apricot'.  He  established  a 
physic  garden  at  Lambeth.  His  son,  JOHN 
TRADESCANT  (1608-62),  was  likewise  a 
traveller  and  gardener.  He  published 
'Museum  Tradescantiamim*  in  1656,  and 
gave  his  collection  to  Elias  Ashmole,  who 
presented  it  to  the  University  of  Oxford. 
Both  this  Tradescant  and  his  father  held 
the  appointment  of  gardener  to  Charles  I. 

Trafalgar  (Trafalgar',  usually  pron.  Tra- 
falgar), BATTLE  OF,  fought  on  21  Oct. 
1805.  Nelson  had  27  ships  of  the  line  and 
4  frigates;  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets, 
under  Villeneuve,  numbered  33  ships  of  the 
line  and  5  frigates.  The  British  fleet  at- 
tacked in  two  lines  towards  the  centre  of  the 
enemy  so  as  to  break  his  line  in  two.  The 
enemy  fleet  was  almost  entirely  captured  or 
destroyed,  but,  owing  to  the  stormy  weather 
that  followed,  only  four  of  their  ships  were 
brought  into  harbour.  Nelson  was  killed  in 
the  course  of  the  battle.  Villeneuve  was 
taken  prisoner,  soon  exchanged  and  re- 
patriated, but  committed  suicide  at  Rennes 
shortly  after  his  landing  in  France. 

Trafalgar  Square,  London,  where  for- 
merly were  the  Royal  Mews  (q.v.)  and  'The 
Bermudas'  (q.v.),  was  laid  out  in  1829  and  the 
following  years,  and  finished  according  to 
plans  prepared  by  Sir  Charles  Barry.  It  is 
named  after  the  last  victory  of  Nelson,  whose 
statue  stands  on  a  lofty  column  in  the  square. 

Tragedy,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek 
rpaywSia,  apparently  meaning  'goat-song'. 
As  to  the  reason  of  the  name  many  theories 
have  been  advanced,  some  even  disputing  the 
connexion  with  goat.  It  is  applied  to  a  play 
or  other  literary  work  of  a  serious  or  sorrow- 
ful character  with  a  fatal  or  disastrous  con- 
clusion; also  to  that  branch  of  dramatic  art 
which  treats  of  sorrowful  or  terrible  events 
in  a  serious  and  dignified  style.  [OED.] 

Tragedy  of  Tragedies,  see  Tom  Thumb,  a 
Tragedy. 

Tragic  Comedians,  The,  a  novel  by  G.  Mere- 
dith (q.v.),  published  in  1880. 

It  is  based  on  the  account  given  by  Helene 
von  Donniges  of  her  tragic  love-affair  with 
Ferdinand  Lassalle,  the  German  Socialist. 
Helene  figures  in  the  novel  as  Clotilde,  the 
daughter  of  a  noble  house,  who  falls  in  love 
with  Alvan  (Lassalle)  and  is  prepared  to  defy 
her  family  and  marry  him.  But  he  insists 
that  she  shall  go  back  to  them  and  obtain 


TRAJAN 

their  free  consent  to  the  match.  So  Clotilde 
returns,  and  is  bullied  and  deceived  into 
accepting  another  suitor  in  her  own  world, 
Marko.  Alvan,  infuriated,  writes  an  insulting 
letter  to  Clotilde's  father.  Marko  fights  with 
him  and  kills  him,  and  marries  Clotilde. 
TRAHERNE,  THOMAS  (i634?-i7o4),  a 
writer  of  religious  works,  both  in  prose  and 
verse,  'Christian  Ethics'  (1675),  Toems* 
(1903),  and  'Centuries  of  Meditation*  (1908), 
marked  by  originality  of  thought,  and  the 
prose  by  a  remarkably  musical  quality, 

TRAILL,  HENRY  DUFF  (1842-1900),  by 
profession  a  journalist,  wrote  two  volumes 
of  light  satiric  verse,  'Recaptured  Rhymes' 
(1882)  and  'Saturday  Songs'  (1890),  and 
other  poems;  'The  New  Lucian*  (new  dia- 
logues of  the  dead,  1884),  'Number  Twenty, 
fables  and  fantasies*  (1892).  He  was  the  first 
editor  of 'Literature' (1897  till  his  death),  and 
wrote  a  life  of  Sir  John  Franklin  (1896).  He 
also  edited  in  six  vols.  (1893-7)  'Social 
England',  a  history  by  various  contributors, 
and  wrote  for  the  'Twelve  English  Statesmen* 
series  a  good  life  of  William  III. 
Traitor,  The,  a  tragedy  by  James  Shirley 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1631  and  printed  in  1635. 
It  has  some  historical  foundation  in  the 
assassination  of  Duke  Alessandro  de*  Medici. 
Lorenzo  plots  against  his  kinsman,  the 
duke  of  Florence,  and  for  this  purpose 
furthers  the  duke's  desire  to  seduce  Amidea, 
sister  of  Sciarrha,  a  Florentine  noble.  At  the 
same  time  he  inflames  Sciarrha  against  the 
Duke's  tyranny,  so  that  Sciarrha  determines 
to  kill  him.  Finally  Sciarrha  kills  Arnidea 
to  save  her  from  dishonour,  and  lays  her 
corpse  on  a  bed,  where  the  duke  finds  her.  In 
his  amazement  he  calls  for  Lorenzo,  who 
enters  and  stabs  him  to  death,  and  is  in  turn 
killed  by  Sciarrha.  The  latter  is  himself 
wounded  in  the  affray  and  dies. 

Traitor's  Gate,  the  river  gate  of  the  Tower 
of  London,  by  which  traitors,  and  state 
prisoners  generally,  were  committed  to  the 
Tower. 

Trajan  (MARCUS  ULPIUS  TRAJANUS),  Roman 
emperor,  A.D.  98-117.  His  victories  are  com- 
memorated on  TRAJAN'S  COLUMN  in  Rome, 
a  circular  marble  column  bearing  reliefs, 
ascending  in  a  spiral  and  representing  the 
emperor's  campaigns,  set  up  in  the  Forum 
which  bears  his  name,  in  A.D.  113.  The 
inscription  on  the  column  has  been  used  as 
a  model  for  lettering;  'Trajan*  or  'archi- 
tects' lettering'  is  a  regular  term  for  a  modern 
style  of  roman  capitals.  There  is  a  specimen 
from  Trajan's  Column  in  PI.  I  of  'The  Art  of 
Lettering  and  its  Use  in  Divers  Crafts  and 
Trades',  the  report  of  a  Special  Committee 
of  the  British  Institute  of  Industrial  Art,  193 1. 
Trajan's  name  is  borne  also  by  the  FORUM 
OF  TRAJAN,  lying  below  the  north-eastern 
slope  of  the  Capitol  Hill  at  Rome ;  and  by  two 
marble  ARCHES  OF  TRAJAN,  one  at  Benevento 
over  the  Appian  Way,  and  one  at  Ancona. 


[790] 


TRAJECTUM  AD  RHENUM 

Trajectum  ad  Rhenium,  also  Ultrajectum, 
in  imprints,  Utrecht. 

Transcendental,  a  word  that  signifies,  in 
the  philosophy  of  Kant  (q.v.),  not  derived 
from  experience  but  concerned  with  the  pre- 
suppositions of  experience ;  pertaining  to  the 
general  theory  of  the  nature  of  experience  or 
knowledge.  The  term  is  also  used  of  any 
philosophy  which  resembles  Kant's  in  being 
based  upon  the  recognition  of  an  a  priori 
element  in  experience.  [OED.] 

For  American  Transcendentalism  see 
Transcendental  Club  and  Emerson. 

Transcendental  Club,  founded  in  America 
in  1836  by  Emerson  (q.v.)  and  others,  the 
embodiment  of  a  movement  of  thought, 
philosophical,  religious,  social,  and  economic, 
produced  in  New  England  between  1830  and 
1850  by  the  spirit  of  revolutionary  Europe 
and  German  philosophy.  The  philosophical 
views  of  this  Transcendentalism  may  be 
gathered  from  Emerson's  short  treatise., 
'Nature1  (1836).  Its  extreme  and  mystical 
aspects  were  embodied  in  Amos  Bronson 
Alcott  (1799-1888),  thus  described  by  Car- 
lyle:  *A  Yankee  Don  Quixote,  who  guesses 
that  he  will  bring  back  the  Saturnian  King- 
dom to  this  forlorn  earth  by  a  life  of  sim- 
plicity and  a  diet  of  vegetables  ...  a  long  lean 
man,  very  like  the  Don  even  in  figure'  (letter 
to  J.  Sterling,  23  July  1842). 

Its  social  and  economic  aspects  took  form 
in  the  *  Brook  Farm  Institute'  of  George 
Ripley,  founded  in  1841,  a  self-supporting 
group  of  men  and  women,  who  shared  in 
manual  labour  and  intellectual  pursuits ;  this 
met  with  considerable  success  for  a  few  years. 

Transformation,  see  Marble  Faun. 

Transformed  Metamorphosis,  The,  see 
Tourneur. 

Transmontane,  dwelling  or  situated  be- 
yond the  mountains ;  from  the  Italian  point  of 
view,  north  of  the  Alps.  Cf.  Ultramontane. 
The  word  'Tramontana*  signifies  a  cold 
north  wind. 

Transome,  HAROIJD,  a  character  in  G. 
Eliot's  'Felix  Holt'  (q.v.). 

Trapbois,  and  his  daughter  MARTHA, 
characters  in  Scott's  'The  Fortunes  of  Nigel* 
(q.v.). 

Trappist,  a  monk  of  the  Cistercian  order 
observing  the  reformed  rule  established  in 
1664  ky  £*e  Ranee",  abbot  of  La  Trappe,  in 
Normandy.  The  observance  of  almost  con- 
stant silence  is  a  special  feature  of  the  rule, 
which  is  in  other  respects  also  extremely 
austere. 

TRAUBE,  LUDWIG  (1861-1907),  classical 
scholar  and  medievalist,  distinguished  by  the 
originality  and  artistry  of  his  methods.  He 
made  his  first  important  contribution  to 
learning  at  the  age  of  1 6.  Soon  after,  he  began 
to  co-operate  in  the  editing  of  the  'Monu- 
ments Gerrnaniae  Historica',  to  which  his 


TREASURE  STATE 

chief  contribution  was  the  third  volume  of 
Toetae  Latini  Aevi  Carolini'  (1896).  As 
professor  at  Munich,  he  founded  the  modern 
school  of  Latin  palaeography.  In  this  field, 
his  best-known  monograph  is  'Nornina 
Sacra*  (1907). 

Traveller,  The,  a  poem  by  Goldsmith  (q.v.), 
published  in  1764,  his  earliest  production 
under  his  own  name.  It  is  dedicated  and 
addressed  to  his  brother,  a  country  clergy- 
man. The  author,  in  the  character  of  a 
traveller,  places  himself  on  the  summit  of  the 
Alps,  and  compares  social  and  political 
conditions  in  the  countries  that  he  sees,  noting 
the  inconveniences  of  each,  and  endeavouring 
to  show  that  there  may  be  equal  happiness 
in  other  states  though  differently  governed 
from  our  own.  Johnson  contributed  nine 
lines  to  the  poem,  11.  420, 429-34, 437-8. 

Travels  in  France,  a  record  of  travel  in  that 
country  during  the  years  1787-90,  by  A. 
Young  (q.v.),  published  in  1792.  The  first 
journey  takes  him  through  the  south-west 
(Berri,  Poitou,  Languedoc),  the  second 
through  Brittany  and  Anjou,  the  third  through 
Alsace-Lorraine,  the  Jura,  Burgundy,  and 
Provence.  Visiting  France  shortly  before  and 
during  the  Revolution,  Young  draws  atten- 
tion to  the  defective  social  and  economic 
conditions  of  the  anden  regime.  The  work 
was  translated  into  various  languages  and  has 
always  been  highly  valued  in  France.  It 
contains  the  famous  phrase,  'The  magic  of 
property  turns  sand  into  gold'.  There  is  a 
good  modern  edition  by  Miss  Betham- 
Edwards,  with  a  Memoir  (i  vol.,  1892). 

Travels  with  a  Donkey,  see  Stevenson  (jR.L.). 

Treasure  Island,  a  romance  by  R.  L.  Steven- 
son (q.v.)  published  in  1883. 

The  narrator  is  the  lad,  Jim  Hawkins, 
whose  mother  keeps  the  Benbow  Inn  some- 
where on  the  coast  in  the  west  of  England,  in 
the  1 8th  cent.  An  old  buccaneer  takes  up  his 
quarters  at  the  inn.  He  has  in  his  chest 
information,  in  the  shape  of  a  manuscript 
map,  as  to  the  whereabouts  of  Capt.  Kidd's 
treasure.  Of  this  his  former  confederates  are 
determined  to  obtain  possession,  and  a  body 
of  them,  led  by  the  sinister  blind  beggar,  Pew, 
make  a  descent  on  the  inn.  But  Jim  Hawkins 
outwits  them,  secures  the  map,  and  delivers 
it  to  Squire  Trelawney.  The  Squire  and  his 
friend  Dr.  Livesey  set  off  for  Treasure 
Island  in  the  'Hispaniola*  schooner,  taking 
Jim  with  them.  Some  of  the  crew  are  the 
squire's  faithful  dependants,  but  the  majority 
are  old  buccaneers  recruited  by  the  plausible 
one-legged  villain,  Long  John  Silver.  Their 
design  to  seize  the  ship  and  kill  the  squire's 
party  is  discovered  by  Jim,  and  after  a  series 
of  thrilling  fights  and  adventures,  is  com- 
pletely thwarted;  and  the  squire,  with  the 
help  of  the  marooned  pirate,  Ben  Gunn, 
secures  the  treasure. 

Treasure  State,  Montana,  see  United 
States. 


TREATISE  OF  HUMAN  NATURE 

Treatise  of  Human  Nature,  a  philosophical 
work  by  Hume  (q.v.),  published  in  1739-40. 

It  is  convenient  to  consider  this  work, 
composed  before  the  author  was  five-and- 
twenty,  together  with  the  'Enquiry  con- 
cerning Human  Understanding'  (1748)  and 
the  'Enquiry  concerning  the  Principles  of 
Morals'  (1751),  which  are  recastings  of  the 
earlier  treatise  in  the  light  of  a  maturer 
judgement.  Hume's  purpose  in  these  is  to 
correct  and  complete  the  philosophy  of  Locke 
and  Berkeley  as  set  forth  in  the  'Essay  con- 
cerning Human  Understanding'  (q.v.),  and 
in  the  earlier  works  of  Berkeley  (q.v.). 
Whereas  his  predecessors  had  maintained  a 
distinction  between  reason  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  effects  of  sensation  and  experience 
on  the  other,  Hume  endeavours  to  show  that 
our  'rational*  judgements  are  simply  im- 
pressions associated  by  custom,  expectations 
resulting  from  experience.  The  problem  of 
knowledge,  in  his  treatment,  becomes  the 
problem  of  causation,  instead  of  the  problem 
of  substance.  He  arrives  at  the  conclusion, 
with  regard  to  our  notion  of  causation,  that 
'reason  can  never  show  us  the  connexion  of 
one  object  with  another,  tho'  aided  by  ex- 
perience, and  the  observation  of  their  con- 
stant conjunction  in  all  past  instances.  When 
the  mind,  therefore,  passes  from  the  idea  or 
impression  of  one  object  to  the  idea  or  belief 
of  another,  it  is  not  determined  by  reason,  but 
by  certain  principles,  which  associate  to- 
gether the  ideas  of  these  objects  and  unite 
them  in  the  imagination'.  'Objects  have  no 
discoverable  connexion  together;  nor  is  it 
from  any  other  principle  but  custom  operat- 
ing on  the  imagination,  that  we  can  draw  any 
inference  from  the  appearance  of  one  to  the 
existence  of  another.*  He  summarizes  the 
position  in  the  statement  'that  objects  bear 
to  each  other  the  relations  of  contiguity  and 
succession;  that  like  objects  may  be  observed 
in  several  instances  to  have  like  relations ;  and 
that  all  this  is  independent  of,  and  antecedent 
to,  the  operations  of  the  understanding*.  The 
repetition  of  the  same  impressions  in  the 
same  relation  produces  'a  new  impression, 
and  by  that  means  the  idea'  of  causation ;  'for 
after  a  frequent  repetition,  I  find,  that  upon 
the  appearance  of  one  of  the  objects,  the 
mind  is  determined  by  custom  to  consider  its 
usual  attendant,  and  to  consider  it  in  a 
stronger  light  upon  account  of  its  relation  to 
the  first  object.  ;Tis  this  impression,  then,  or 
determination,  which  affords  me  the  idea  of 
necessity.'  The  seat  of  the  necessary  con- 
nexion is  in  the  mind  not  in  the  objects. 

As  regards  the  problem  of  substance,  he 
concludes  that  the  continued  existence  of 
objects  distinct  from  perception  is  an  illusion. 
Berkeley's  belief  in  a  spiritual  substance  is  as 
untenable  as  Locke's  belief  in  a  material 
substance.  For  we  have  no  single  permanent 
impression  of  self,  but  only  a  succession  of 
particular  ever-changing  impressions.  Men 
may  call  themselves  persons,  but  'are  nothing 
but  a  bundle  or  collection  of  different  per- 


TRENCH 

ceptions'.  A  variable  interrupted  existence  is 
mistaken  by  the  imagination  for  an  invariable 
uninterrupted  existence. 

The  weakness  of  this  position  was,  how- 
ever, admitted  by  Hume  in  the  Appendix  to 
the  'Treatise';  he  confesses  that  he  'cannot 
discover  any  theory  which  gives  him  satisfiic- 
tion  on  this  head'.  And  he  omitted  the  whole 
discussion  from  the  later  'Enquiry', 

The  general  sceptical  argument  Hume 
confines  to  our  knowledge  of  matters  of  fact, 
and  excludes  from  it  our  knowledge  of  the 
relations  of  ideas,  as  exemplified  in  'the 
sciences  of  Geometry,  Algebra,  and  Arithme- 
tic'. (This  at  least  is  the  view  propounded  in 
the  'Enquiry',  but  in  the  'Treatise*  he 
attaches  less  certainty  to  the  science  of 
geometry,  owing  to  the  empirical  basis  of  our 
idea  "of  space.  The  subject  was  also  dis- 
cussed by  J.  S.  Mill;  see  Logic.) 

The  second  and  third  books  of  the  'Treatise* 
are  occupied  with  an  examination  of  the 
passions,  and  with  morals.  As  regards  the 
latter,  he  rejects  the  view  that  the  distinction 
between  right  and  wrong  is  one  of  reason.  It 
derives  from  a  sentiment  of  approval  or  dis- 
approval of  an  action  which  arises  in  one's 
breast.  'It  lies  in  yourself,  not  in  the  object.' 
But  while  in  the  'Treatise'  Hume  makes 
moral  approval  or  disapproval  a  matter  of 
regard  for  our  own  happiness,  in  the  'En- 
quiry* morality  is  the  outcome  of  a  'moral 
sense'  (the  view  already  expressed  by 
Hutcheson),  a  disinterested  preference  for 
what  is  morally  good;  benevolence,  or  dis- 
interested regard  for  the  general  happiness, 
becomes  the  supreme  end,  and  social  utility 
the  sole  source  or  inseparable  accompaniment 
of  all  the  social  virtues.  At  the  same  time 
Hume  comes  finally  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  happiness  of  others  and  the  happiness  of 
oneself  are  not  discordant  but  harmonious 
aims. 

Trecento,  the  i4th-cent.  as  a  period  in 
Italian  art  and  literature.  To  this  period  be- 
longed Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio. 

Tree  Planters'  State,  Nebraska,  see  United 
States. 

Trelawny,  of  the  ballad,  see  Hawker. 
TRELAWNY,  EDWARD  JOHN  (1793- 
1881)  the  friend  of  Shelley,  who  was  present 
at  Leghorn  when  Shelley  was  drowned,  was 
author  of  the  remarkable  'Adventures  of  a 
Younger  Son'  (q.v.,  1831),  and  of  'Records  of 
Shelley,  Byron,  and  the  Author*  (1858). 

TRENCH,  RICHARD  CHENEVIX(i8o7- 
86),  educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  afterwards  dean  of  Westminster 
and  archbishop  of  Dublin.  He  was  the 
author  of  works  dealing  with  history  and 
literature,  poetry,  divinity,  and  philology. 
As  a  philologist,  and  notably  by  his  'The 
Study  of  Words',  published  in  1851,  he 
popularized  the  scientific  study  of  language. 
The  scheme  of  the  'Oxford  English  Diction- 
ary' originated  in  a  resolution  passed,  at  his 


[792] 


TRENT 

suggestion,  In  1857  by  the  Philological 
Society.  His  *  Notes  on  the  Parables  of  our 
Lord*  appeared  in  1841,  and  *  Notes  on  the 
Miracles  of  our  Lord'  in  1846.  His  sonnets, 
lyrics,  and  hymns  show  much  poetic  ability. 
His  'Sacred  Latin  Poetry,  chiefly  Lyrical* 
(1849)  drew  attention  to  the  masterpieces  of 
Latin  hymnody. 

Trent,  the  detective  in  E.  C.  Bentley's 
'Trent's  Last  Case'. 

Trent,  FRED,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Old 
Curiosity  Shop*  (q.v.).  His  sister  is  'Little 
Nell'. 

Trent  Case ,  THE  :  James  Murray  Mason  and 
John  Slidell,  commissioners  of  the  American 
Confederate  States,  were  in  1861,  during  the 
American  Civil  War,  seized  on  the  British 
ship  'Trent*  by  the  Federal  captain,  Wilkes. 
His  action  was  disavowed  by  the  Federal 
government. 

Trent,  COUNCIL  OF,  see  Council  of  Trent, 

Tressilian,  EDMUND,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Kenilworth*  (q.v.). 

TREVELYAN,  GEORGE  MACAULAY 
(1876-  ),  son  of  Sir  G.  O.  Trevelyan 
(q.v.),  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  appointed  Regius 
professor  of  modern,  history  at  Cambridge 
in  1927.  He  is  author  of  three  re- 
markable works  on  Garibaldi,  *  Garibaldi's 
Defence  of  the  Roman  Republic*  (1907), 
'Garibaldi  and  the  Thousand*  (1909),  and 
'Garibaldi  and  the  Making  of  Italy*  (1911); 
of  a  'Life  of  John  Bright'  (1913);  of  a  'History 
of  England'  (1926);  and  of  'England  under 
Queen  Anne'  (1930). 

TREVELYAN,  SIR  GEORGE  OTTO 
(1838-1928),  the  nephew  of  Lord  Macaulay 
(q.v.),  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  He  entered  parliament 
in  1865  and  held  at  various  times  important 
offices.  Some  of  his  early  humorous  writings, 
including  'Horace  at  the  University  of 
Athens*  and  'The  Ladies  in  Parliament',  were 
collected  and  published  in  1869.  A  year 
spent  in  India  led  to  the  publication  of  'The 
Dawk  Bungalow',  a  comedy,  in  1863;  the 
'Letters  of  a  Competition  Wallah',  which 
gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  Indian  Civil  Ser- 
"  vice,  in  1864;  and  'Cawnpore',  a  clear  and 
moving  account  of  the  Mutiny  tragedy,  in 
1865.  The  first  of  his  great  works,  'The  Life 
and  Letters  of  Lord  Macaulay',  appeared  in 
1876;  the  second,  'The  Early  History  of 
Charles  James  Fox',  in  1880.  The  latter  was 
the  first  instalment  of  what  the  author  in- 
tended to  be  a  complete  life  of  the  great  Whig 
statesman.  But  the  sequel  did  not  take 
precisely  this  form.  "The  American  Revolu- 
tion* followed  in  1909,  in  which  Fox  is  not  the 
dominant  figure.  In  1912-14  appeared  the 
two  volumes  of 'George  III  and  Charles  Fox  . 
Of  the  series,  the  most  brilliant  and  stimulat- 
ing part  is  the  'Early  History',  which  gives  a 


TRILBY 

striking  picture  of  social  and  political  England 
in  the  later  part  of  the  1 8th  century. 

TREVISA,  JOHN  DE  (1326-1412),  fellow 
of  Exeter  (1362-9)  and  Queen's  (1369-79) 
Colleges,  Oxford.  He  was  expelled  'for  un- 
worthiness'  in  1379,  and  became  vicar  of 
Berkeley.  He  translated  Higden's  'Poly- 
chronicon*  (see  Higden)  in  1387,  adding  an 
introduction  and  short  continuation,  and 
other  Latin  works.  The  translation  of  the 
'Polychronicon*  is  one  of  the  early  examples 
of  English  prose,  and  is  written  in  a  vigorous 
and  colloquial  style.  Trevisa  also  translated 
(1398)  the  *De  Proprietatibus  Rerum*  of 
Bartholomaeus  Anglicus,  and  there  is  evi- 
dence that  he  made  a  translation  of  the  Bible, 
though  this  is  lost. 

Triads,  in  ancient  Welsh  literature,  verses 
celebrating  famous  subjects  of  tradition;  a 
form  of  composition  characterized  by  an 
arrangement  of  subjects  or  statements  in 
groups  of  three.  There  are  satirical  allusions 
to  these  'triads'  in  Peacock's  'The  Misfor- 
tunes of  Elphin*  (q.v.). 

Triarnond,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
IV.  iii  and  iv,  the  Knight  of  Friendship.  After 
an  inconclusive  fight  with  Cambello  in  the 
contest  to  decide  to  which  of  her  suitors 
Canace  is  to  be  awarded,  Triamond  and 
Cambello  swear  eternal  friendship.  In  the 
tournament  arranged  by  Satyrane,  Tria- 
mond, though  wounded,  returns  to  rescue 
Cambello.  He  marries  Canace,  Cambello's 
sister. 

Trianon,  the  name  of  two  small  palaces  and 
their  gardens  included  in  the  park  of  Ver- 
sailles. The  GRAND  TRIANON  was  built  by 
Louis  XIV,  the  PETIT  TRIANON  by  Louis  XV. 
The  latter  was  the  favourite  'rustic  retreat'  of 
Marie  Antoinette. 

Tribrach,  a  foot  consisting  of  three  short 
syllables. 

Tribulation  Wholesome,  a  character  in 
Jonson's  'The  Alchemist*  (q.v.). 
Tricolour,  having  three  colours,  especially 
used  of  the  national  flag  of  France,  adopted 
at  the  Revolution,  which  has  equal  vertical 
stripes  of  blue,  white,  and  red. 
Tricoteuses,  from  the  French  tricoter,  to 
knit,  the  women  who,  during  the  French 
Revolution,  plied  their  knitting-needles  while 
attending  the  sittings  of  the  political 
assemblies. 

Tridentum,  in  imprints,  Trent. 
Trifaldi,    THE    COUNTESS    OF,    in    £Don 
Quixote'  (q.v.),  the  'AfHicted  Duenna',  whose 
adventure  Don  Quixote  undertakes  (Pt.  II, 
cc.  xxxvi-xli). 

Trilby,  a  novel  by  Du  Maurier  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished  in  1894. 

It  is  the  tragic  story  of  Trilby  O  Ferrall, 
an  amiable  artist's  model  in  Paris,  with  whom 
various  young  English  art-students  fall  in 
love.  She  becomes  a  famous  singer  under  the 


[793] 


TRILOGY 

mesmeric  influence  of  Svengali,  a  Hungarian 
musician,  but  loses  her  voice  when  the  latter 
dies,  and  herself  languishes  and  dies  soon 
after. 

Trilogy,  in  Greek  antiquities,  a  series  of 
three  tragedies  (originally  connected  in  sub- 
ject) performed  at  Athens  at  the  festival  of 
Dionysus.  Hence  any  series  of  three  related 
dramatic  or  other  literary  works. 

Trim,    CORPORAL,    one    of   the    principal 
characters  in  Sterne's  'Tristram  Shandy'. 
Trimalchio,    a   type   of  ostentatious    ex- 
travagance and  gluttony ;  see  Petronius. 
Trimeter,  see  Metre  and  Iambic. 

Trimmer,  originally  applied  to  one  who 
trims  between  opposing  parties  in  politics; 
hence,  one  who  inclines  as  his  interest 
dictates.  But  Lord  Halifax  in  his  *  Character 
of  a  Trimmer1  (1682)  accepted  the  nickname 
in  the  sense  of  'one  who  keeps  even  the  ship 
of  state*. 

TRIMMER,  MRS.  SARAH  (1741-1810), 
nee  Kirby,  Calverley's  'good  Mrs.  Trimmer', 
was  author  of  the  popular  children's  book, 
'The  History  of  the  Robins',  originally 
entitled  'Fabulous  Histories'  (1786),  and  of 
a  number  of  exemplary  tales  and  educational 
works.  She  is  referred  to  in  Byron's  'Don 
Juan',  Canto  I. 

Trimurti,  in  Hindu  theology,  the  triad  of 
the  three  supreme  gods,  Brahma,  Vishnu, 
and  Siva  (qq.v.). 

Trinacria,  an  ancient  name  for  Sicily, 
meaning  'with  three  promontories'. 

Trinculo,  a  jester  in  Shakespeare's  'The 
Tempest'  (q.v.). 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  the  largest 
college  of  Cambridge  University,  founded 
by  Henry  VIII  in  1546,  in  place  of  several 
older  foundations.  The  library  was  built  by 
Sir  C.  Wren  (q.v.).  Among  the  distinguished 
men  of  letters  educated  there  may  be  men- 
tioned F.  Bacon,  Herbert,  Cowley,  Dryden, 
Newton,  Person,  Byron,  Macaulay,  Thack- 
eray, and  Tennyson.  Bentley  and  Whewell 
(qq.v.)  were  masters  of  Trinity. 

Trinity  House,  Tower  Hill,  London,  the 
hall  of  the  'Guild,  Fraternity,  or  Brotherhood 
of  the  Most  Glorious  and  Undividable 
Trinity',  founded  by  Sir  Thomas  Spert  in 
1512  (incorporated  in  1514)  for  the  benefit 
and  protection  of  the  shipping  industry. 
This  corporation  is  charged  with  the  licensing 
of  pilots,  and  the  maintenance  of  light- 
houses, beacons,  and  buoys.  In  spite  of  an 
Act  of  Elizabeth  (which  charges  it  with  the 
duty  of  doing  its^  best  to  increase  the  Navy  in 
ships  and  men),  it  is  now  wholly  international 
in  its  operations,  and  refuses  to  distinguish, 
in  time  of  war,  between  friend  and  foe.  It  is 
governed  by  'Elder  Brethren'. 
Trinobantes,  see  Brute. 
Triolet,  a  poem  of  eight  lines,  with  two 


TRISTRAM 

rhymes,  in  which  the  first  line  is  repeated  as 
the  fourth  and  seventh,  and  the  second  as  the 
eighth. 

Trip  to  Scarboroughf  A,  a  comedy  by  R,  B. 
Sheridan  (q.v.)  produced  in  1777. 

The  plot  is  that  of  Vanbrugh's  'The  Re- 
lapse' (q.v.)  with  some  modifications.  Berin- 
thia  is  no  longer  an  unscrupulous  adventur- 
ess, but  tempts  Loveless  in  order  to  punish 
Towneley  (the  Worthy  of  the  earlier  play)  for 
deserting  her  in  favour  of  Amanda,  Love- 
less's  wife.  And  it  is  shame,  not  exposure, 
that  restores  Loveless  to  Amanda. 

Triple  Entente,  THE,  the  political  under- 
standing between  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Russia  (an  extension  of  the  Entente  Cordiale, 
q.v.,  between  Great  Britain  and  France)  con- 
cluded in  1907  by  means  of  conventions 
settling  differences  between  Great  Britain  and 
Russia  in  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Tibet. 
It  constituted  a  balance  of  power  with  the 
Triple  Alliance  of  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Italy  during  the  period  which  preceded  the 
Great  War. 

Triplet,  three  successive  lines  of  verse 
rhyming  together,  occasionally  introduced 
among  heroic  couplets,  e.g.  by  Dryden. 

Tripos,  at  Cambridge  University,  formerly 

(a)  a  bachelor  of  arts  appointed  to  dispute,  in 
a  humorous  or  satirical  style,  with  candidates 
for  degrees  at  'Commencement'  (correspond- 
ing to  the  Terrae  films  at  Oxford) ;  so  called 
from  the  three-legged  stool  on  which  he  sat. 

(b)  A  set  of  humorous  verses,  originally  com- 
posed by  the  'Tripos',  and  (until  1894)  pub- 
lished at  Commencement  after  his  office  was 
abolished,   (c)  The  list  of  candidates  quali- 
fied for  the  honour  degree  in  mathematics, 
originally  printed  on  the  back  of  the  paper 
containing  these  verses.    Hence,  in  current 
use,  the   final  honours  examination  in  any 
subject  for  the  B.A.  degree.   [OED.] 

Triptolemus,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  hero 
worshipped  at  Eleusis,  the  son  of  Celeus, 
king  of  Eleusis.  Celeus  hospitably  enter- 
tained Demeter  (q.v.)  when  she  was  wander- 
ing in  search  of  her  daughter,  and  the 
goddess  in  return  gave  Triptolemus  a  winged 
chariot,  wherein  he  travelled  over  the  world 
teaching  men  the  arts  of  agriculture,  which 
he  had  learnt  from  the  goddess. 

Triptolemus  Yellowley,  and  his  sister 
BARBARA,  characters  in  Scott's  'The  Pirate*. 

Trismegistus,  see  Hermes  Trismegistus. 

Tristan  and  Isolde,  a  music-drama  by  R. 
Wagner  (q.v.). 

Tristan  PHermite,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Quentin  Durward'  (q.v.). 

Tristram.  The  story  of  Tristram  and  his  love 
for  Iseult  is  much  older  than  the  parallel  tale 
of  Launcelot  and  Guinevere,  and  in  its 
earlier  form  was  not  connected  with  the 
Arthurian  cycle.  Before  Malory's  'Morte 


[794] 


TRISTRAM 

d'Arthur*,  it  figures  in  English  only  in  'Sir 
Tristrem*,  one  of  the  earliest  romances  in  the 
vernacular,  probably  dating  from  before 
1300.  This  was  drawn  from  earlier  French 
sources,  and  was  possibly  composed  by 
Thomas  of  Erceldoune  (q.v.).  According  to 
this  poem  Tristrem  is  the  son  of  Rouland  of 
Erminia  and  Blanchefleur,  sister  of  King 
Mark  of  England.  He  slays  Moraunt,  king 
of  Ireland,  but  is  himself  wounded  and  is 
tended  by  Ysoude,  sister  of  Moraunt.  Tris- 
trem returns  to  England  and  tells  King  Mark 
of  Ysoude.  Mark  sends  Tristrem  to  request 
Ysoude  in  marriage.  The  remainder  of  the 
story  is  in  essentials  similar  to  that  of  Tris- 
tram as  given  by  Malory  (see  below),  except 
that  Ganhardin  (brother  of  Ysoude  with  the 
White  Hand),  who  does  not  figure  in  the 
latter,  falls  in  love  with  Brangwain,  Ysoude  of 
Ireland's  maid. 

In  Malory's  'Morte  d'Arthur',  Tristram  is 
son  of  Melipdas,  king  of  Lyonesse  (q.v.),  and 
Elizabeth  sister  of  King  Mark  of  Cornwall. 
Meliodas^  is  led  away  by  enchantment  and 
made  prisoner.  Elizabeth  distracted  seeks 
him  in  the  forest,  when  she  is  seized  with  the 
pangs  of  travail.  She  dies  after  having  given 
birth  to  a  son,  whom  she  calls  Tristram,  'that  is 
as  much  to  say  as  a  sorrowful  birth*.  Tristram 
escapes  poisoning  by  his  stepmother  and  begs 
her  life  when  she  is  condemned  to  the  stake. 
He  becomes  a  skilful  hunter  and  harper.  He 
fights  and  defeats  Sir  Marhaus,  who  comes  on 
behalf  of  the  king  of  Ireland  to  claim  the 
*truage'  of  Cornwall,  but  is  wounded  himself. 
Marhaus  dies,  and  Tristram  is  sent  to  Ireland 
to  be  cured  of  his  wound.  Owing  to  his  skill 
with  the  harp  he  is  received  with  favour  by  the 
king  and  is  placed  in  the  care  of  his  daughter, 
La  Beale  Isoud .  Tristram  and  she  fall  in  love. 
The  queen  discovers  that  their  guest  is  the 
knight  who  slew  Sir  Marhaus,  her  brother, 
and  Tristram  leaves  the  court  after  exchanging 
vows  of  fidelity  with  Isoud,  and  returns  to 
Cornwall.  After  a  time  King  Mark,  being 
jealous  of  Tristram  and  desirous  to  destroy 
him,  sends  him  to  Ireland  to  ask  the  hand  of 
La  Beale  Isoud,  whose  praises  he  has  heard 
from  Tristram.  Tristram,  having  rendered 
an  important  service  to  the  king  of  Ireland, 
asks  as  reward  the  hand  of  Isoud  for  King 
Mark.  Isoud  and  Bragwaine,  her  attendant, 
set  off  with  Tristram.  Bragwaine  has  re- 
ceived from  Isoud's  mother  a  love  potion  to 
be  given  to  King  Mark.  On  the  ship  Tris- 
tram and  Isoud  find  the  flask  and  in  ignor- 
ance drink  its  contents,  with  the  result  that 
they  love  each  other  for  the  rest  of  their  lives. 
Mark  and  Isoud  are  married,  but  the  relations 
between  Tristram  and  Isoud  continue,  till  the 
lovers  are  betrayed  to  Mark.  (According  to 
another  version  Bragwaine  or  Brengwaine 
takes  Isoud's  place  on  the  wedding  night; 
after  which  Isoud  ungratefully  plots  to 
murder  her.)  Tristram  leaves  the  court  of 
Mark  and  fighting  for  King  Howel  of  Brittany 
falls  in  love  with  Isoud  la  Blanche  Mains  and 
marries  her,  'almost  forsaking*  Isoud  of  Ire- 


TRISTRAM  SHANDY 

land.  However,  on  the  invitation  of  the  latter 
he  returns  privily  to  Cornwall.  He  is  banished 
thence  and  is  welcomed  at  Arthur's  court, 
where  he  shows  his  prowess  in  many  contests. 
Finally  it  is  stated  that  Mark  slew  Tristram 
as  he  sat  harping  before  La  Beale  Isoud. 

But  a  more  romantic  ending  is  given  in 
one  of  the  manuscripts  and  has  been  adopted 
and  developed  by  later  poets.  Tristram,  in 
Brittany,  is  wounded  by  a  poisoned  arrow. 
Feeling  that  he  is  dying,  he  sends  a  messen- 
ger for  Isoud  of  Ireland.  If  she  comes,  the 
ship  that  brings  her  is  to  set  a  white  sail,  if  not, 
a  black.  Isoud  of  Brittany  overhears,  and 
when  the  ship  returns  tells  Tristram  the  sail 
is  black.  Tristram  in  despair  turns  his  face 
to  the  wall  and  dies  (cf .  the  story  of  Theseus, 
q.v.,  and  Aegeus).  Isoud  of  Ireland  finds  her 
lover  dead,  lies  down  beside  him,  and  dies. 

Tristram  and  Iseult,  a  poem  by  M.  Arnold 
(q.v.),  published  in  1853. 

The  subject  is  the  death  of  Tristram  (q.v.) 
in  Brittany.  As  he  lies  on  his  bed  of  sickness, 
while  Iseult  of  Brittany  watches  by  him,  he 
dreams  in  his  fever  of  the  happy  days  of  his 
prime  and  pines  for  Iseult  of  Ireland.  She 
comes,  and  after  a  brief  passionate  dialogue 
between  them,  Tristram  dies. 

Tristram  of  Lyonesse,  a  romance  in  couplets 
by  Swinburne  (q.v.),  published  in  1882. 

It  tells  the  tale  of  Tristram  (q.v.),  his  first 
visit  to  the  court  of  the  king  of  Ireland,  his 
subsequent  mission  to  fetch  Iseult  to  be 
Mark's  bride,  the  love  of  Tristram  and  Queen 
Iseult,  their  separation  and  the  marriage  of 
Tristram  with  Iseult  of  Brittany,  the  sending 
for  Queen  Iseult  when  Tristram  lies  dying, 
and  Tristram's  death  under  the  blow  of  the 
false  cry  that  the  sail  of  the  returning  ship  is 
black. 

Tristram  Shandy,  The  Life  and  Opinions  of, 
a  novel  by  Sterne  (q.v.),  of  which  vols.  i  and 
ii  appeared  in  1760,  vols.  iii  to  vi  in  1761-2, 
vols.  vii  and  viii  in  1765,  and  vol.  ix  in 
1767.  It  was  translated  into  French  and 
German. 

In  spite  of  the  title,  the  book  gives  us  very 
little  of  the  life,  and  nothing  of  the  opinions, 
of  the  nominal  hero,  who  gets  born  only  in 
vol.  iv,  and  breeched  in  vol.  vi,  and  then 
disappears  from  the  story.  Instead  we  have  a 
group  of  humorous  figures:  Walter  Shandy 
of  Shandy  Hall,  Tristram's  father,  peevish 
but  frank  and  generous,  full  of  paradoxical 
notions,  which  he  defends  with  great  show 
of  learning;  'my  Uncle  Toby',  his  brother, 
wounded  in  the  groin  at  the  siege  of  Namur, 
whose  hobby  is  the  science  of  attacking  forti- 
fied towns,  which  he  studies  by  means  of 
miniature  scarps,  ravelins,  and  bastions  on 
his  bowling-green,  a  man  *of  unparalleled 
modesty*  and  amiability;  Corporal  Trim,  his 
servant,  wounded  in  the  knee  at  Landen, 
devoted  to  his  master  and  sharing  his  en- 
thusiasm for  the  military  art,  voluble  but 
respectful.  Behind  these  three  major  figures, 
the  minor  characters,  Yorick  the  parson, 


[795] 


TRITON 

Dr.  Slop,  Mrs.  Shandy,  and  the  widow 
Wadman,  play  a  more  elusive  part. 

The  book,  which  is  chiefly  occupied  with 
exposing  the  author's  own  personality  and 
whimsical  imaginations,  presents  very 
few  incidents.  The  first  three  volumes 
are  concerned,  amid  many  digressions  (in- 
cluding the  great  curse  of  Ernulphus,  bishop 
of  Rochester),  with  the  circumstances  attend- 
ing the  hero's  birth;  after  which  the  author 
finds  time  to  write  his  preface.  Vol.  iv 
begins  with  the  story  of  Slawkenbergius,  the 
author  of  a  treatise  on  noses ;  followed  by  the 
naming  of  the  infant  'Tristram*  by  mistake 
for  'Trismegistus*.  Vol.  v  contains  the 
notable  discourse  of  Corporal  Trim  on 
mortality ;  vol.  vi  the  affecting  episode  of  Le 
Fevre,  and  the  delightful  dialogue  between 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Shandy  on  the  breeching  of 
Tristram.  Vols.  vii  and  viii  abandon  the 
narrative  to  give  an  account  of  the  author's 
travels  in  France  and  the  story  of  the  king  of 
Bohemia;  and  vol.  ix  is  concerned  mainly 
with  the  love-affair  of  Uncle  Toby  and  the 
widow  Wadman. 

Triton,  a  sea  deity,  son  of  Poseidon  (Nep- 
tune) and  Amphitrite.  He  is  generally  repre- 
sented as  blowing  on  a  shell,  his  body  above 
the  waist  being  that  of  a  man,  below  it  of  a 
dolphin. 

Triumph  of  Life,  The,  an  uncompleted  poem 
by  P.  B.  Shelley  (q.v.),  in  terza  rima,  pub- 
lished after  his  death. 

The  poem,  on  which  Shelley  was  engaged  at 
the  time  of  his  death,  is  an  allegory  of  which 
the  sense  is  obscure.  The  poet  sees  a  vision 
of  the  human  multitude,  and  in  the  midst  of 
it  the  Triumph  passes,  the  chariot  of  Life  the 
Conqueror,  trampling  on  youth,  and  dragging 
others  in  chains.  Rousseau  interprets  the 
vision  to  the  poet,  and  tells  him  that  those 
chained  to  the  car  are  'the  wise,  the  great,  the 
unforgotten',  vanquished  by  the  mystery  of 
Life.  He  shows  him  among  the  captives, 
Napoleon,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Alexander.  The 
vision  passes  to  the  allegory  of  a  single  life, 
which  after  a  youth  of  aspirations,  succumbs 
to  the  same  mystery. 

Triumph  of  Mammon ,  see  God  and  Mammon. 
Trivia,  or  The  Art  of  Walking  the  Streets  of 
London,  a  poem  by  J.  Gay  (q.v.),  in  three 
books,  published  in  1716, 

In  this  entertaining  work,  on  the  model  of 
Swift's  'City  Shower',  the  author  takes  the 
reader  through  the  streets  of  London,  first  by 
day  and  then  by  night,  instructing  him  in 
a  mock-serious  style  as  to  the  coats  and  boots 
he  should  wear,  the  signs  of  the  weather,  and 
the  dangers  to   be  avoided,  notably  pick- 
pockets, mischievous  boys  who  pull  off  wigs, 
the  splashing  mud  below  and  the  spouting 
rain  ^above.    'Safety  first'  among  the  side- 
headings  has  a  familiar  sound.  The  reader's 
attention  is  drawn  to  the  various  characters 
he  will  meet,  ballad-singers,  chairmen,  foot- 
men, bullies,  and  the  like.    The  poem  is  a 
mine  of  information  on  i8th-cent.  manners. 


TROILUS  AND  CRESSIDA 

Trivinm,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  lower 
division  of  the  seven  liberal  arts,  comprising 
grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric.  Cf.  Quadriviuni* 

Trochee,  a  metrical  foot  consisting  of  a  long 
followed  by  a  short  syllable;  in  accentual 
verse,  of  an  accented  followed  by  an  un- 
accented syllable. 

Trochilus,  a  small  Egyptian  bird  (not 
certainly  identified)  said  by  the  ancients  to 
enter  the  crocodile's  mouth  and  pick  its  teeth. 
Troglodyte,  from  the  Greek  rpaiyXrj,  hole, 
and  Sven>,  to  get  into,  a  cave-dweller.  The 
ancients  (Pliny,  Strabo,  &c.)  mention  races  of 
Troglodytes  in  Aethiopia  and  elsewhere. 

Troil,  MAGNUS,  MINNA,  BRENDA,  and  ULLA 
(NoRNA),  characters  in  Scott's  'The  Pirate* 
(q.v.). 

Troilus  and  Cressida.  This  story,  which  has 
no  basis  in  classical  antiquity  but  has  its 
origin  in  Dictys  Cretensis  (q.v.),  has  been 
dealt  with  by  a  number  of  modern  writers, 
by  the  trouvere  Benoit  de  Sainte-Maure,  by 
Guido  Colonna  in  the  'Historia  Trojana*,  by 
Boccaccio  in  'Files trato Yby  Chaucer,  by  Lyd- 
gate  in  his  'Troy-Book',  by  Henryson,  by 
Shakespeare,  and  by  Dryden. 

The  first  of  these  makes  Briseida  (Homer's 
Briseis)  the  daughter  of  Calchas  (the  seer  who 
advised  the  restoration  of  Chryseis  to  her 
father;  see  Briseis  and  Chryseis}^  and  Troi- 
lus and  Diomed  her  successive  lovers. 
Briseida  was  changed  to  Griseida  by  Boc- 
caccio, and  to  Cryseyde  by  Chaucer.  The 
story  is  that  of  the  love  of  Troilus,  a  son 
of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  for  Cressida, 
daughter  of  Calchas  the  priest,  who,  fore- 
knowing the  fall  of  Troy,  has  fled  to  the 
Greeks  but  left  his  daughter  in  Troy.  Cressida 
returns  the  love  of  Troilus,  and  Pandarus  acts 
as  go-between.  But  an  exchange  of  prisoners 
is  arranged  and  Cressida  is  sent  to  tne  Greek 
camp,  where  Diomede  urges  his  suit  and  is 
finally  preferred  to  Troilus.  Troilus  and 
Diomede  meet  in  the  field  but  neither  kills 
the  other.  Troilus  is  at  last  killed  by  Achilles. 

Chaucer's  poem,  'Troylus  and  Cryseyde*, 
probably  written  between  1372  and  1386, 
contains  some  8,200  lines  of  rhyme-royal 
(annotated  text  by  R.  K.  Root,  1 926) ;  in  it 
the  poet  enriched  the  story  as  he  got  it  from 
Boccaccio  by  the  vivid  and  humorous  figure 
of  Pandarus  and  by  the  development  of  the 
character  of  Cressida,  *a  grave,  sober,  con- 
siderate personage,  who  has  an  alternate  eye 
to  her  character,  her  interest,  and  her 
pleasure'. 

Shakespeare's  Cressida,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  *a  giddy  girl,  an  unpractised  jilt,  who  falls 
in  love  with  Troilus,  as  she  afterwards  deserts 
him,  from  mere  levity  and  thoughtlessness  of 
temper*.  His  Pandarus,  again,  instead  of  being 
a  friendly,  officious  go-between,  'has  "a  stamp 
exclusive  and  professional":  he  wears  the 
badge  of  his  trade;  he  is  a  regular  knight 
of  the  game*.  (The  above  quotations  are 
from  Hazlitt.)  Shakespeare's  play,  produced 


[796] 


TROJAN  HORSE 

probably  in  1602,  and  printed  in  1609, 
presents,  as  background  to  the  story,  the 
principal  characters  of  the  'Iliad':  Agamem- 
non^ Ajax,  Ulysses,  Nestor,  Achilles  sulking 
in  his  tent,  the  railer  Thersites;  and  on  the 
Trojan  side,  Priam,  Aeneas,  Hector  and 
Andromache,  Paris,  and  Helen.  The  death  of 
Hector  at  the  hands  of  Achilles  is  summarily 
dealt  with. 

For  Henryson's  pathetic  treatment  of  the 
latter  days  of  Cressida  see  Cresseid.  Dryden 
in  1679  published  a  play,  "Troilus  and 
Cressida',  which  Saintsbury,  in  his  life  of 
Dryden  (English  Men  of  Letters),  calls  a 
'pot  boiler',  *  which  might  much  better  have 
been  left  unattempted*. 

Trojan  Horse,  THE,  see  Horse  (The 
Trojan). 

Trojan  War,  see  Troy. 

Troll,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  one  of  a 
race  of  supernatural  beings  formerly  con- 
ceived as  giants,  now  in  Denmark  and  Swe- 
den, as  dwarfs  or  imps,  supposed  to  inhabit 
caves  or  subterranean  dwellings.  [OED.] 

TROLLOPE,  ANTHONY  (1815-82),  was 
born  in  London.  He  has  described  in  his 
'Autobiography*  the  miserable  conditions 
under  which,  owing  to  the  poverty  of  his 
family,  induced  by  the  misfortunes  or  mis- 
management of  his  father,  he  went,  first  to 
Harrow,  then  to  Winchester,  then  again  to 
Harrow;  and  how,  when  his  father's  debts 
obliged  the  family  to  take  refuge  in  Belgium, 
his  mother  supported  them  by  her  writings. 
Anthony  Trollope  entered  the  General  Post 
Office  as  a  clerk  in  1834  and  in  time  proved 
himself  an  active  and  valuable  public  servant. 
His  first  novels  were:  'The  Macdermots  of 
Ballycloran'  (1847)  and  'The  Kellys  and  the 
O'Kellys'(i848).  The  Warden' (q.v.,  1855), 
the  first  of  the  Barsetshire  series,  was  a 
moderate  success.  But  from  this  point  his 
popularity  as  a  novelist  steadily  increased. 
His  output  was  considerable,  having  regard 
to  the  fact  that  his  official  work  was  arduous 
and  that  he  also  found  time  to  hunt  twice 
a  week;  it  was  achieved  by  a  mechanical 
regularity  in  his  writing  which  he  has  him- 
self described.  His  chief  remaining  novels 
•were:  'Barchester  Towers'  (q.v.,  1857),  'The 
Three  Clerks'  (q.v.,  1858),  'Doctor  Thorne' 
(q.v.,  1858), 'Framley  Parsonage' (q.v.,  1861), 
*Orley  Farm'  (q.v.,  1862),  'The  Small  House 
at  Allington'  (q.v.,  1864),  'The  Belton  Estate' 
(q.v.,  1865),  'The  Coverings'  (q.v.,  1867), 
*The  Last  Chronicle  of  Barset'  (q.v.,  1867), 
'Phineas  Finn'  (q.v.,  1869),  'The  Eustace 
Diamonds'  (q.v.,  1873),  'Phineas  Redux* 
(1874),  'The  Prime  Minister'  (1876),  'The 
Duke's  Children'  (1880),  'Ayala's  Angel' 
(q.v.,  1881),  'Dr.  Wortle's  School'  (q.v., 
1881).  Trollope  also  published  various  books 
of  travel,  on  the  West  Indies  and  Spanish 
Main  (1859),  North  America  (1862),  Austra- 
lia (1873),  and  South  Africa  (1878);  also 
a  monograph  on  Thackeray  (1879).  His 


TROTCOSEY 

interesting  'Autobiography*  appeared  in  1883. 
According  to  this  his  publications,  down 
to  1879,  had  brought  him  in  some  £70,000. 

TROLLOPE,  FRANCES  (1780-1863),  nee 
Milton,  the  mother  of  A.  Trollope  (q.v.). 
When  her  family  were  reduced  to  poverty 
she^  supported  them  by  writing  novels,  of 
which  the  best  knownis  'The  Widow  Barnaby ' 
(i  838),  the  story  of  an  unscrupulous  and  astute 
widow,  whose  schemes  to  make  a  rich  marriage 
prove  unsuccessful.  She  is  finally  imprisoned 
for  debt,  and  marries  a  fellow  prisoner,  the 
Rev.  Patrick  O'Donagough,  who  turns  out  a 
gambler  and  drinker ;  while  her  niece,  Agnes, 
whom  she  has  cruelly  ill-treated,  makes  a 
happy  match.  Mrs.  Trollope's  'The  Vicar  of 
Wrexhill'  (1837)  is  a  more  sombre  if  more 
powerful  story,  the  picture  of  a  cold,  evil- 
minded,  cruel  clergyman.  Her  'Domestic 
Manners  of  the  Americans*  (1832),  written 
after  a  visit  to  America,  gave  great  offence, 
of  much  the  same  kind  as  did  parts  of 
Dickens 's  'Martin  Chuzzlewit', 

Trompart,  in  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene*,  II. 
iii, 

wylie  witted  and  grown  old 
In  cunning  sleights  and  practick  knavery, 
attends  Braggadochio  (q.v.)  as  his  squire,  and 
with  him  is  finally  exposed  and  beaten  out 
of  court. 

Trophee,  an    unknown  writer   mentioned 
by  Chaucer  in  the  Monk's  Tale  (I.  127): 
At  bo  the  the  worldes  endes,  seith  Trophee, 
In  stide  of  boundes  he  [Hercules]  a  pileer 
sette. 

A  marginal  note  in  the  Ellesmere  and 
Hengwrt  MSS.  says,  'Ille  vates  Chaldeorum 
Tropheus'.  Lydgate  states  that  Chaucer  in 
his  youth  made  a  translation  of  a  book 
called  in  the  Lombard  tongue  Trophe,  and 
that  he  later  named  it  'Troilus  and  Cressida*. 
No  such  book  as  'Trophe'  is  known. 

Trophonius,  son  of  Erginus,  king  of  Orcho- 
menos  in  Boeotia,  and  brother  of  Aga- 
medes.  The  two  brothers  built  a  temple 
of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  a  treasury  for  Hyrieus, 
king  of  Hyria,  in  Boeotia.  About  this  treasury 
a  story  is  told  similar  to  that  of  the  treasury 
of  King  Rhampsinitus  (q.v.).  The  two 
brothers  robbed  the  treasury  by  means  of  a 
movable  stone  in  the  wall,  and  when  Aga- 
medes  was  caught  in  a  trap,  Trophonius  cut 
off  his  head  to  avoid  detection:  Trophonius 
was  subsequently  swallowed  up  by  the 
earth,  or,  according  to  another  story, 
was  granted  death  by  Apollo,  as  the  best 
reward  for  men.  A.t  Lebadeia  in  Boeotia, 
Trophonius  after  his  death  was  consulted 
as  an  oracle  in  a  cave.  The  suppliant  always 
emerged  from  this  Cave  of  Trophonius  pale 
and  dejected,  and  it  became  proverbial  to  say 
of  a  melancholy  man  that  he  had  consulted 
the  oracle  of  Trophonius. 

Trotcosey,  in  Scott's  'The  Antiquary' 
(q.v.),  a  favourite  subject  of  reference  by 


[797] 


TROTTER 

Jonathan  Oldbuck;  the  house  of  Monk- 
barns  stood  on  the  lands  of  the  ancient  abbey 
of  Trotcosey.  Scott  prepared  in  his  later 
years  'Reliquiae  Trottcosienses',  a  catalogue 
raisonne  of  the  most  curious  articles  in  the 
library  and  museum  at  Abbotsford. 

Trotter,  JOB,  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick  Papers' 
(q.v.),  Jingle's  servant. 
Trotwood,  BETSEY,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'David  Copperfield  (q.v.). 
Troubadours,  see  Chansons  de  Geste. 

Trouillogan,  in  Rabelais,  in.  xxxv  et  seq., 
the  philosopher  whom  Panurge  consults  on 
the  subject  of  his  marriage. 
Trouveres,  see  Chansons  de  Geste. 

Trows  or  DROWS,  in  the  mythology  of  the 
Orkneys  and  Shetland,  supernatural  beings, 
dwarfs,  or  imps,  inhabiting  caves  and  the  sea. 
They  figure  in  Scott's  'The  Pirate'  (q.v.). 
The  word  is  a  survival  from  the  Troll  (q.v.)  of 
Norse  mythology. 

Troy  or  ILIUM,  a  city  that  stood  near  the 
Hellespont  and  the  river  Scamander  in  the 
NW.  of  Asia  Minor.  Its  ruins  have  been 
discovered  near  the  modern  Hissarlik.  The 
opinion  now  is  that  several  cities  have  been 
buried,  one  on  the  top  of  the  other,  at  the  site 
of  Hissarlik,  which  must  always  have  been 
importajnt  as  commanding  the  passage  from 
Europe  to  Asia.  According  to  legend,  as 
related  by  Homer  in  his  'Iliad',  Troy  was  the 
capital  of  King  Priam,  and  was  for  ten  years 
besieged  by  the  Greeks  in  their  endeavour  to 
recover  Helen,  wife  of  Menelaus,  king  of 
Sparta,  who  had  been  carried  off  by  Paris, 
son  of  Priam.  See  Agamemnon,  Menelaus, 
Helen,  Paris,  Achilles,  Horse  (The  Trojan),  &c. 

Troy,  SERGEANT,  a  character  in  Hardy's  *Far 
from  the  Madding  Crowd'  (q.v.). 

Troy-book,  a  poem  in  five  books,  in  ten- 
syllable  couplets,  written  by  Lydgate  (q.v.), 
at  the  request  of  Prince  Henry,  afterwards 
Henry  V.  It  was  begun  in  1412  and  finished 
in  1420.  It  tells  the  'noble  storye'  of 
Troy,  following  the  Latin  history  of  Guido 
di  Colonna  (which  had  drawn  largely  on  the 
apocryphal  tales  of  Dictys  Cretensis  and 
Dares  Phrygius,  qq.v.),  and  serves  in  some 
sort  as  an  introduction  to  the  story  of  the  Tro- 
jan settlement  of  England  by  Brutus,  great 
grandson  of  Aeneas,  told  by  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth  and  Wace.  In  the  third  book,  in 
connexion  with  the  story  of  Troilus  and 
Cressida,  he  introduces  a  tribute  to  his 
*maister  Chaucer*. 

Troynovant,  see  Brute. 

Truce  of  God,  'Treuga  Dei',  also  'Pax  Dei', 
a  suspension  of  hostilities  between  armies,  or 
of  private  feuds,  ordered  by  the  Church 
during  certain  days  and  seasons  in  medieval 
times.  The  general  acceptance  of  it  seems  to 
have  been  about  1033  (a  thousand  years  from 
the  Passion).  The  close  days  of  the  week 


TUATHA  Dfi  DANANN 

were  from  Wednesday  evening  to  Monday- 
morning.  Urban  II  proclaimed  a  universal 
'Treuga  Dei*  when  urging  the  First  Crusade 
at  Clermont  (Auvergne)  in  1095. 
True  Law  of  Free  Monarchies,  The,  a 
political  treatise  attributed  to  James  I,  pub- 
lished in  1603,  and  written  to  combat  the 
Calvinistic  theory  of  government  advocated 
by  George  Buchanan  in  his  'De  Jure  Regni* 
(1579).  It  sets  forth  the  doctrine  of  the 
divine  right  of  kings,  and  of  the  king's 
responsibility  to  God  alone. 
Trulla,  a  virago,  one  of  the  bear-baiters  in 
Butler's  'Hudibras'  (q.v.). 
Trulliber,  PARSON,  a  character  in  Fielding's 
'Joseph  Andrews'  (q.v.). 
TRUMBXJLL,  JOHN  (1750-1831),  Ameri- 
can poet,  born  at  Westbury,  Connecticut, 
one  of  the  'Hartford  Wits'.  He  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  'The  Anarchiad'  (q.v.),  and  his 
collected  poems  appeared  in  1820. 

Trumper,  VICTOR  (1877-1915),  a  celebrated 
Australian  cricketer,  an  easy  natural  batsman, 
who  met  with  astonishing  success  in  the 
English  tours  of  1902,  1905,  and  1910. 

Trumpet-Major,  The,  a  novel  by  Hardy 
(q.v.),  published  in  1880. 

This  is  one  of  Hardy's  simplest  and 
pleasantest  tales,  with  hardly  a  trace  of  irony 
or  bitterness.  It  is  set  in  the  time  of  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  and  deals  with  the  wooing 
of  Anne  Garland,  whose  mother  is  the  tenant 
of  part  of  Overcombe  Mill,  where  the  dra- 
goons come  down  from  the  camp  to  water 
their  horses.  One  of  these  dragoons  is  John 
Loveday,  the  trumpet-major,  the  gentle  un- 
selfish son  of  the  miller,  and  he  is  one  of 
Anne's  suitors.  Another  is  his  brother  Bob, 
a  cheery  light-hearted  sailor.  The  third  is  the 
braggart  boorish  yeoman,  Festus  Derriman. 
The  story  ends  in  the  exposure  and  dis- 
comfiture of  Festus  and  the  success  of  Bob, 
while  John  marches  off  into  the  night,  'to  blow 
his  trumpet  till  silenced  for  ever  upon  one 
of  the  bloody  battle-fields  of  Spain*. 

Trumpington,  THE  MILLER  OF,  the 
miller  in  the  'Reeve's  Tale*  in  Chaucer's 
'Canterbury  Tales'  (q.v.). 

Trunnion,  COMMODORE  HAWSER,  see  Pere- 
grine Pickle. 

Try  amour,  see  Launfal. 

Tryan,  THE  REV.  EDGAR,  a  character  in  G. 
Eliot's  'Janet's  Repentance*  (see  Scenes  of 
Clerical  Life). 

Tschaikovsky,  see  Tchaikovsky. 
Tuatha  D&  Danann,  in  Gaelic  mythology, 
the  gods,  the  'Folk  of  the  goddess  Danu',  the 
enemies  of  the  Fomors  (q.v.).  They  are 
represented  as  invaders  of  Ireland,  subse- 
quent to  the  Fomors  and  the  Fir  Bolgs.  They 
rout  the  Fomors  at  the  battle  of  Moytura, 
and  are  ousted  in  their  turn  by  the  Milesians 
(q.v.).  Conspicuous  among  the  Tuatha  De 


[798] 


TUBAL-CAIN 

Danann  are  Lugh,  the  Gaelic  sun-god,  their 
leader;  and  Lir  or  L6r  (q.v.),  the  god  of  the 
sea. 

Tubal-cain,  according  to  Gen.  iv.  22,  the 
'instructer  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and 
iron'. 

Tuck,  FRIAR,  see  Friar  Tuck. 

TUCKER,  ABRAHAM  (1705-74),  a  coun- 
try gentleman  and  one  of  the  first  writers  of 
the  utilitarian  school  of  philosophy.  In  his 
great  work,  'The  Light  of  Nature  pursued', 
of  which  three  volumes  were  published  in 
1768  and  three  after  his  death  in  1778,  he 
rejects  the  moral  sense  theory  of  Shaftesbury 
and  Hutcheson  (q.v.),  and  finds  the  criterion 
of  moral  conduct  in  general  happiness,  and 
the  motive  of  the  individual  in  his  own 
happiness.  The  coincidence  of  these  two  is 
almost,  but  not  quite,  complete.  There 
comes  a  point  where  virtue  requires  a  self- 
sacrifice  that  prudential  motives  do  not 
justify.  Here  Tucker  finds  the  place  for 
religion  and  its  promise  of  a  future  life,  where 
'the  accounts  of  all  are  to  be  set  even*,  and  the 
sacrifice  of  personal  happiness  required  by 
virtue  is  to  be  made  good. 

Tucker's  writings  are  diffuse  and  un- 
methodical, but  marked  by  humour  and 
quaint  illustration  and  comment.  His 
theories  were  systematized  by  Paley  (q.v.). 

TUCKERMAN,  HENRY  THEODORE 
(1813—71),  American  author,  born  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  remembered  chiefly  for  his  poetry. 
Among  his  books  are:  'The  Italian  Sketch- 
Book*  (1835),  'Isabel,  or  Sicily,  a  Pilgrimage* 
(1839),  'Thoughts  on  the  Poets'  (1846), 
*  Artist  Life,  or  Sketches  of  American 
Painters*  (1847),  'Characteristics  of  Litera- 
ture* (1849),  *  Poems*  (1851),  'A  Month  in 
England1  (1853),  'Biographical  Essays'  (1857), 
'Book  of  the  Artists*  (1857). 

Tugwell,  JEREMIAH,  in  Graves 's  'Spiritual 
Quixote*  (q.v.),  Geoffry  Wildgoose's  Sancho 
Panza. 

Tuileries,  THE,  in  Paris,  a  royal  palace 
built  by  Catherine  de  Me"dicis,  on  the  site 
of  a  tuilerie  or  brickyard.  It  was  destroyed  at 
the  time  of  the  Commune  (1871). 

Tuirenn,  The  Fate  of  the  Sons  o/,  one  of  the 
'three  sorrowful  tales  of  Erin',  a  mythological 
tale  in  which  the  three  sons  of  Tuirenn  are 
punished  for  killing  Cian,  the  father  of  the 
hero-god  Lugh,  by  being  required,  by  way  of 
fine,  to  achieve  a  number  of  quests,  in  the 
last  of  which  they  perish. 

Tulchan  bishops,  a  term  applied  derisively 
to  the  titular  Scottish  bishops  appointed 
after  the  Reformation,  on  the  understanding 
that  they  should  not  receive  the  revenues  of 
their  sees,  which  had  been  confiscated  in 
1560  and  had  mostly  gone  to  the  lay  barons; 
a  tulckan  is  a  calf's  skin  stuffed  with  straw, 
placed  under  a  cow  to  induce  her  to  give 
her  milk. 


[799] 


TURGENIEFF 

Tulkinghorn,  MR.,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Bleak  House*  (q.v.). 

Tulliver,   MR.   and   MRS.,   and  BOB   and 
MAGGY,  the  principal  characters  in  G.  Eliot's 
'The  Mill  on  the  Floss*  (q.v.). 
Tullochgorum,  see  Skinner. 
Tully,  see  Cicero. 

Tuliy-Veolan,  in  Scott's  'Waverley'  (q.v.), 
the  castle  of  the  Baron  of  Bradwardine. 

Tunning  ofElynour  Rumming,  The,  a  poem 
by  Skelton  (q.v.),  is  a  vigorous  Hogarthian 
description  of  contemporary  low  life.  Ely- 
nour  Rumming  is  an  alewife  who  dwells 
beside  Leatherhead  and  brews  'noppy  ale*  for 
'travellers  and  tynkers,  for  sweters  and 
swynkers,  and  all  good  ale  drynkers',  and  the 
poem,  coarse  but  full  of  humour  and  life, 
describes  the  mixed  company  who  throng  to 
drink  it. 

TUNSTALL,  CUTHBERT  (1474-1559), 
studied  both  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and 
also  at  Padua,  and  became  learned  in  Greek, 
Hebrew,  mathematics,  and  civil  law.  He  was 
appointed  master  of  the  rolls  and  bishop 
successively  of  London  and  Durham,  and 
was  employed  in  the  diplomatic  service  of 
Henry  VIII.  He  was  Wolsey's  agent  at  the 
Diet  of  Worms.  During  the  ecclesiastical 
revolution  he  remained  faithful  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  dogma,  but  obeyed  passively  the 
civil  power.  He  was  the  author  of  religious 
works  and  of  an  arithmetical  treatise,  'de 
arte  supputandi'.  Rabelais  refers  to  this  in 
'Gargantua*,  xxiii. 

Tupman,  TRACY,  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick 
Papers*  (q.v.),  one  of  the  members  of  the 
Corresponding  Society  of  the  Pickwick  Club. 

TUPPER,  MARTIN  FARQUHAR  (1810- 
89),  of  an  old  Huguenot  family,  was  educated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  published  in 
1838-42  his  'Proverbial  Philosophy',  com- 
monplace maxims  and  reflections  couched  in 
a  rhythmical  form,  which  achieved  extra- 
ordinary popularity.  He  published  numerous 
other  works,  including  "The  Crock  of  Gold' 
(1844,  a  book  of  poems),  and  a  naive  'Auto- 
biography' (1886). 

Turaii,  see  Iran. 

TURBERVILLE  or  TURBERVILE, 
GEORGE  (i54o?-i6io?),  scholar  of  Win- 
chester and  fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford, 
published  'Epitaphs,  Epigrams,  Songs,  and 
Sonets'  (1567),  'Poems  describing  . . .  Russia* 
(1568),  'The  Booke  of  Faulconrie*  (i575)>  and 
various  translations  from  Ovid  and  modern 
Italians.  'The  Noble  Art  of  Venerie  or 
Hunting*  is  also  attributed  to  him  _(i575> 
reprinted,  Oxford,  1908).  He  familiarized 
the  employment  of  Italian  models,  and  shows 
the  influence  of  Surrey  and  Wyatt  (q.v.). 

Turcaret,  see  Le  Sage. 

TURGENIEFF,  IVAN  SERGIEVICH 
(1818-83),  one  of  the  greatest  of  Russian 


TURGOT 

novelists,  possessing  in  a  high  degree  humour 
and  the  power  of  presenting  character  and 
local  colour.  He  lived  much  abroad  and  his 
work  is  characterized  by  a  far  more  western- 
ized spirit  than  is  found  in  most  Russian 
writers  of  the  first  class.  He  first  came  into 
repute  by  his  *  Sketches  of  a  Sportsman* 
(1847—51),  vignettes  of  Russian  country  life. 
His  most  important  novels  were :  *  A  Nest  of 
Gentlefolk'  (1859),  'Fathers  and  Sons'  (1862), 
'Smoke'  (1867),  and  'Virgin  Soil'  (1876). 
Turgot,  ANNE  ROBERT  JACQUES,  see  Physio- 
crats. 

Turk  Gregory,  in  Shakespeare's  'i  Henry 
IV,  V.  iii,  where  FalstafT compares  his  deeds  in 
arms  with  those  of  'Turk  Gregory',  is  a  face- 
tious combination  of  the  characters  of 'terrible 
Turk*  and  militant  pope  (Gregory  VII). 
Turkish  Spy,  Letters  written  by  a,  eight 
vols.  published  in  1687-93.  The  fiist  fifty 
letters,  and  probably  the  whole  first  volume, 
are  a  translation  of  'L'Espion  du  Grand 
Seigneur'  by  Giovanni  Paolo  Marana,  a 
Genoese  residing  in  Paris,  published  in 
French  in  1684-87?,  perhaps  itself  a  transla- 
tion from  an  Italian  version.  For  the  obscure 
history  of  the  remainder  see  'The  Gentle- 
man's Magazine',  1840-1  (vols.  xiv  and  xv). 

Mahmut,  a  Turkish  spy,  employed  by  the 
Porte  to  report  on  the  Christian  courts,  writes 
letters  from  Paris,  between  1637  and  1682, 
addressed  to  various  members  of  his  govern- 
ment and  to  relations  and  friends.  In  these  he 
discusses  the  political,  historical,  and  social 
affairs  of  France,  Spain,  England,  and  Italy, 
and  a  variety  of  other  subjects,  scientific  and 
religious,  and  also  his  personal  concerns  and 
those  of  his  own  country. 

A  continuation  to  the  'Letters',  probably 
by  Defoe,  was  published  in  England  in  1718. 
Turks,  THE  YOUNG,  the  party  of  reform  in 
the  former  Ottoman  Empire,  who  came  into 
prominence  about  the  year  1907,  deposed 
the  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid,  and  endeavoured 
to  introduce  modern  methods  into  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  country. 
Turn  of  the  Screw,    The,  a  masterpiece 
of  horror  fiction  by  Henry  James  (q.v.). 
Turnbull  Street,  see  Turnmill  Street. 
TURNER,  CHARLES  TENNYSON,  see 
Tennyson  Turner. 

Turner,  JOSEPH  MALLORD  (or  MALLAD) 
WILLIAM  (1775-1851),  the  great  landscape 
painter,  was  son  of  a  London  barber,  and 
sold  drawings  at  a  very  early  age.  He  entered 
the  Academy  schools  in  1789  and  exhibited  a 
view  of  Lambeth  Palace  at  the  Royal  Academy 
in  1790.  His  'first  style',  in  which  he  imitated 
various  old  masters,  as  in  his  'Dido  building 
Carthage'  (1815), Blasted  till  c.  1820.  After 
this  he  ceased  to  imitate  and  aimed  at  ideal 
compositions,  as  in  his  'Ulysses  deriding 
Polyphemus3  (1829),  sometimes  regarded  as 
his  masterpiece.  He  entered  his  third  period 
J-^S-'IS*  his  reputation  being  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  publication  of  Ruskin's 


TUSSAUD 

'Modern  Painters'  (q.v.)  in  1843.  During  the 
next  five  years  he  produced  many  character- 
istic and  inimitable  works,  including  'The 
Fighting  T&neraire'  (1839),  the  'Snowstorm' 
(1842),  'The  Approach  to  Venice'  (1843),  and 
'Rain,  Steam,  and  Speed'  (1844).  Turner  is 
unrivalled  as  a  water-colour  artist.  Collec- 
tions of  his  water-colour  drawings  were 
given  to  the  universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  others  are  at  the  National 
Gallery,  South  Kensington  Museum,  &c. 
Turner  was  buried  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
TURNER,  SHARON  (1768-1847),  a  stu- 
dent of  Icelandic  and  Anglo-Saxon  literature, 
whose  'History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  from  the 
earliest  period  to  the  Norman  Conquest' 
(1799-1805),  subsequently  extended  to  the 
death  of  Elizabeth,  initiated  an  entirely  new 
treatment  of  the  origins  of  English  history. 
'Turnip  Townshend',  see  Townshend. 
Turnmill  or  TURNBULL  Street,  Clerken- 
well,  London,  frequently  mentioned  by  the 
Elizabethan  dramatists  (e.g.  Shakespeare, 
'2  Henry  IV,  in.  ii),  took  its  name  from  the 
Turnmill  brook,  probably  identical  with  the 
upper  course  of  the  Fleet  (q.v.)  stream.  The 
street  was  notorious  for  its  low  haunts. 

Turaus,  a  king  of  the  Rutuli,  and  a  brave 
warrior,  who  fought  against  Aeneas,  because 
Latinus  proposed  to  give  the  latter  his 
daughter  Lavinia,  who  had  been  betrothed  to 
Turnus.  He  was  killed  by  Aeneas  in  single 
combat,  in  Bk.  xir  of  the  'Aeneid'. 

Turonum  or  TURONIUM,  in  imprints,  Tours. 

Turpin  (d.  c.  800),  archbishop  of  Rheims 
in  the  days  of  Charlemagne,  to  whom  is 
erroneously  attributed  the  Latin  chronicle, 
*De  Vita  et  Gestis  Caroli  Magni',  the  source 
from  which  Boiardo  and  other  authors  drew 
some  of  their  romantic  tales.  According  to 
one  version  of  the  story  he  died  among  the 
last  of  the  heroes  at  Roncesvalles  after 
shriving  the  dying  Roland  (q.v.). 

Turpin,  RICHARD  (1706-39),  the  famous 
highwayman,  the  son  of  an  innkeeper  at 
Hempstead,  Essex.  He  was  arrested  for 
horse-stealing  and  hanged  at  York.  He 
figures  in  Ainsworth's  'Rookwood',  which 
gives  an  account  of  his  great  ride  to  York  on 
Black  Bess ;  but  romances  connected  with  his 
name  are  legendary. 

Turveydrop,  father  and  son,  characters  in 
Dickens's  'Bleak  House'  (q.v.). 

Tusculum,  a  town  about  ten  miles  SE.  of 
Rome,  where  Cicero  had  a  villa. 

Tusher,  THE  REV.  THOMAS,  chaplain  to  the 
Castlewood  family  in  Thackeray's  'Esmond* 
(q.v.),  subsequently  a  bishop  and  the  first 
husband  of  Beatrix  Esmond  (see  Virginians). 
Tussaud,  MARIE,  Madame  Tussaud  (1760- 
1850),  nSe  Gresholtz,  was  born  at  Berne.  She 
assisted  her  uncle  Curtius  in  his  'Cabinet  de 
Cire'  in  the  Palais  Royal,  Paris,  and  modelled 
heads  of  victims  of  the  Terror.  She  married 


[800] 


TUSSER 

Tussaud,  separated  from  him  in  1800,  and, 
migrating  to  England,  transferred  her 
museum  to  the  Lyceum,  Strand,  in  1802,  and 
thence  to  Blackheath.  After  Blackheath,  and 
until  1884,  the  Exhibition  was  at  58  Baker 
Street  (not  far  from  Portman  Square);  in 
1885  it  was  moved  to  Marylebone  Road.  The 
latter  building  with  many  valuable  relics  and 
figures  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1925,  and  the 
existing  building,  with  the  exhibition  and 
cinema,  was  opened  on  the  same  site  (ad- 
joining Baker  Street  station)  in  1929. 

TUSSER,  ^  THOMAS  (1524  ?~8o),  agri- 
cultural writer  and  poet,  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge.  He 
farmed  at  Cattiwade,  Suffolk,  and  introduced 
the  culture  of  barley.  He  published  his 
'Hundreth  ^good  pointes  of  husbandrie'  in 
*SS7  (amplified  in  later  editions)  in  verse  of 
quaint  and  pointed  expression,  many  pro- 
verbs being  traceable  to  this  work.  It  is  a 
collection  of  instructions  on  farming,  garden- 
ing, and  housekeeping,  together  with  humor- 
ous and  wise  maxims  on  conduct  in  general. 

Tutankhamen  (i4th  cent.  B.C.),  the  son-in- 
law  and  successor  of  the  Egyptian  heretic 
king,  Amenhotep  IV  or  Akhnaton  (q.v.).  He 
reverted  to  the  old  religion  and  was  buried 
in  the  valley  of  the  tombs  of  the  kings  at 
Karnak,  where  his  tomb,  containing  a 
wonderful  collection  of  furniture,  jewels,  and 
other  relics  of  the  age,  was  discovered  in 
1922  by  Mr.  Howard  Carter,  excavating  on 
behalf  of  the  earl  of  Carnarvon. 

Tutivlllus,  see  TitiviL 

Tuyll,  ISABELLA  VAN,  see  Zdide. 

Tvastri,  in  Hindu  theology,  the  divine 
builder  and  smith,  the  Hindu  Vulcan.  He  is 
known  in  post- Vedic  writings  as  Visvakarma, 

Two,  Dogs,  The,  a  poem  by  Burns  (q.v.),  com- 
pleted in  1786. 

Caesar,  the  gentleman's  dog,  and  Luath, 
the  ploughman's  collie,  converse  on  the  com- 
parative happiness  of  the  lives  of  their  rich 
and  poor  masters,  until  the  sun  goes  down, 
When  up  they  gat,  and  shook  their  lugs, 
Rejoic'd  they  were  na  men  but  dogs. 

TWAIN,  MARK,  see  Clemens. 

Tweedledum  and  Tweedledee,  for  the 

origin  of  the  expression  see  under  Handel. 
The  words  were  first  used  in  a  musical 
connexion.  'To  tweedle'  is  to  produce  a 
succession  of  shrill  musical  sounds,  to 
whistle  or  pipe;  and  'tweedledee'  and 
'tweedledum'  were  used  to  suggest  the 
contrast  between  the  sounds  of  high-  and 
low-pitched  musical  instruments.  [OED.] 

Tweedledum  and  Tweedledee  figure  in 
L.  Carroll's  'Through  the  Looking- Glass', 
where  they  engage  in  a  notable  battle. 

Twelfth  Bay,  6  Jan.,  the  twelfth  day  from 
the  Nativity,  also  called  the  feast  of  the 
Epiphany,  was  formerly  celebrated  as  the 


TWELVE  OF  ENGLAND 

closing  day  of  the  Christmas  festivities,  with 
special  reference,  some  think,  to  the  Magi 
(q.v.)  or  Wise  Men  of  the  East.  A  large 
cake  was  served  at  the  festivities,  containing 
a  bean  or  coin,  to  determine  who  should  be 
king  of  the  feast. 

Twelfth  Night,  Or  what  you  will,  a  comedy 
by  Shakespeare,  produced  probably  in  1600- 
i,  and  first  printed  in  the  folio  of  1623.  The 
story  was  probably  taken  from  'The  History 
of  Apolonius  and  Silla'  in  'Riche  his  farewell 
to  the  Military  Profession'  (1581),  an  English 
rendering  of  a  tale  in  Cinthio's  'Hecatom- 
mithi',  or  from  Bandello  or  Belleforest. 

Sebastian  and  Viola,  twin  brother  and 
sister,  and  closely  resembling  one  another, 
are  separated  in  a  shipwreck  off  the  coast  of 
Illyria.  Viola,  brought  to  shore  in  a  boat,  and 
disguised  as  a  youth  Cesario,  takes  service  as 
page  with  Duke  Orsino,  who  is  in  love  with 
the  lady  Olivia.  The  latter  rejects  the  Duke's 
suit  and  will  not  admit  him  to  her  presence. 
Orsino  makes  a  confidant  of  Cesario  and  sends 
her  to  press  his  suit  on  Olivia,  much  to  the 
distress  of  Cesario,  who  has  fallen  in  love  with 
Orsino.  Olivia  in  turn  falls  in  love  with 
Cesario.  Sebastian  and  Antonio,  captain  of 
the  ship  that  had  rescued  Sebastian,  now 
arrive  in  Illyria.  Cesario,  challenged  to  a 
duel  by  Sir  Andrew  Aguecheck,  a  rejected 
suitor  of  Olivia,  is  rescued  from  her  predica- 
ment by  Antonio,  who  takes  her  for  Sebastian. 
Antonio,  being  arrested  at  that  moment  for  an 
old  offence,  claims  from  Cesario  a  purse  that 
he  had  entrusted  to  Sebastian,  is  denied  it, 
and  haled  off  to  prison.  Olivia  coming  upon 
the  true  Sebastian,  takes  him  for  Cesario, 
invites  him  to  her  house,  presses  her  suit  on 
him,  finds  him  not  unwilling,  and  marries  him 
out  of  hand.  Orsino  comes  to  visit  Olivia. 
Antonio  is  brought  before  him,  claims 
Cesario  as  the  youth  he  has  rescued  from  the 
sea;  while  Olivia  claims  Cesario  as  her  hus- 
band. The  duke,  deeply  wounded,  is  bidding 
farewell  to  Olivia  and  the  *y°ung  dissembler* 
Cesario,  when  the  arrival  of  the  true  Sebastian 
clears  up  the  confusion.  The  duke,  dis- 
appointed of  Olivia,  and  becoming  conscious 
of  the  love  that  Viola  (as  Cesario)  has  be- 
trayed, turns  his  affection  to  her,  and  they 
are  married. 

The  humour,  which  abounds  in  the  play,  is 
chiefly  provided  by  the  subordinate  charac- 
ters, who  have  no  essential  connexion  with 
the  plot,  Sir  Toby  Belch,  uncle  to  Olivia; 
Sir  Andrew  Aguecheek,  his  friend ;  Malvplio, 
the  pompous  conceited  steward  to  Olivia; 
Maria,  her  attendant;  and  the  clown,  Feste. 
The  play  contains  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  Shakespeare's  songs,  'Come  away,  come 
away,  death'. 

Twelve  of  England,  THE,  in  the  'Lusiads* 
of  Camoens  (q.v.),  canto  VI.  xlii  et  seq. 
Velloso  tells  a  tale  of  a  tournament  arranged 
by  the  duke  of  Lancaster  between  'the 
Twelve  of  England'  and  an  equal  number 
of  Portuguese  knights. 


3863 


[Sox] 


TWICKENHAM 

Twickenham,  on  the  Thames,  about  ten 
miles  W.  of  the  centre  of  London,  for  many 
years  the  residence  of  Pope  (q.v,).  Famous 
also  for  Strawberry  Hill,  where  Horace 
Walpole  made  his  'little  Gothic  castle*. 
Twickenham  now  has  a  celebrated  Rugby 
football  ground. 

Twitcher,  JEMMY,  in  Gay's  'Beggar's  Opera' 
(q.v.),  one  of  Captain  Macheath's  associates, 
who  betrays  him.  The  nickname  was  given 
to  the  fourth  earl  of  Sandwich  (1718-92), 
who  had  been  associated  with  Wilkes  in  the 
Medmenham  'brotherhood'  and  yet,  when 
Wilkes's  papers  were  seized,  was  active  in 
collecting  evidence  against  him.  The  allusion 
is  to  a  line  in  the  play,  'That  Jemmy  Twitcher 
should  peach  me,  I  own  surprised  me.* 

Two  Drovers,  The,  a  short  story  by  Sir  W. 
Scott  (q.v.),  one  of  the  'Chronicles  of  the 
Canongate',  published  in  1827. 

The  story  is  designed  to  illustrate  the 
Highland  character.  Robin  Oig  M'Combich, 
a  Highland  drover  of  good  family,  sets  out  for 
England  with  his  cattle,  in  company  with  his 
friend,  a  Yorkshire  drover,  Harry  Wakefield. 
When  they  reach  Cumberland,  the  latter, 
annoyed  over  some  trivial  affair  of  accom- 
modation for  the  cattle,  fixes  a  quarrel  on 
Robin  in  an  inn,  where  the  whole  company 
join  in  insulting  the  Highlander.  When 
Robin  refuses  to  fight  with  his  fists,  as  be- 
neath the  dignity  of  a  Highland  gentleman, 
Wakefield  knocks  him  down.  Robin  walks 
twelve  miles  to  fetch  his  dirk,  which  he  has 
left  with  a  comrade,  returns  to  the  inn,  and 
in  the  presence  of  all  plunges  the  dirk  in 
Harry's  breast.  He  then  gives  himself  up  to 
justice,  ready  to  give  a  life  for  the  life  he  took. 

Two  Foscari,  The,  an  historical  tragedy  by 
Lord  Byron  (q.v.),  published  in  1821. 

Jacopo,  son  of  the  doge  of  Venice,  Francesco 
Foscari,  has  twice  been  exiled,  for  venality 
and  for  complicity  in  murder.  He  has  been 
brought  back  from  exile  on  a  charge  of 
treasonable  correspondence,  and  the  play 
opens  with  his  examination  on  the  rack.  The 
doge,  his  father,  brokenhearted  at  his  dis- 
grace, signs  the  sentence  for  his  third  per- 
petual exile.  But  Jacopo 's  love  for  Venice  is 
so  intense  that  he  expires  from  dread  of 
leaving  it  again.  The  Ten  meanwhile  decide 
to  require  the  abdication  of  the  old  doge.  He 
at  once  leaves  the  palace,  and,  as  he  descends 
the  steps  and  hears  the  bells  of  St.  Mark's 
tolling  for  the  election  of  his  successor,  falls 
down  and  dies. 

The  play  departs  slightly  from  the  facts. 
Jacopo  died  in  exile  at  Candia,  and  the  doge 
a  few  days  after  his  deposition. 

Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,  The,  a  comedy 
by  Shakespeare  (q.v.),  one  of  his  early 
works,  probably  of  1594-5,  first  printed 
in  the  folio  of  1623.  The  story  is  taken  from 
Montemayor's  pastoral  romance  'Diana'. 

The  two  gentlemen  of  Verona  are  the 
friends  Valentine  and  Proteus.  Proteus  is  in 


TWO  ON  A  TOWER 

love  with  Julia,  who  returns  his  affection. 
Valentine  leaves  Verona  for  Milan  'to  see  the 
wonders  of  the  world  abroad',  and  there  falls 
in  love  with  Silvia,  the  duke  of  Milan's 
daughter.  Presently  Proteus  is  sent  also  on 
his  travels,  and  exchanges  vows  of  constancy 
with  Julia  before  starting.  But  arriving  at 
Milan,  Proteus  is  at  once  captivated  by 
Silvia,  and,  betraying  both  his  friend  and  his 
former  love,  reveals  to  the  duke  the  intention 
of  Valentine  to  carry  off  Silvia.  Valentine  is 
banished  and  becomes  a  captain  of  robbers, 
and  Proteus  continues  his  court  of  Silvia. 
Meanwhile  Julia,  pining  for  Proteus,  comes 
to  Milan  dressed  as  a  boy  and  takes  service  as 
Proteus*  page,  unrecognized  by  him.  Silvia, 
to  escape  marriage  with  Thurio,  her  father's 
choice,  leaves  Milan  to  rejoin  Valentine,  is 
captured  by  robbers  and  rescued  from  them 
by  Proteus.  Proteus  is  violently  pressing  his 
suit  on  Silvia  when  Valentine  comes  on  the 
scene.  Proteus  is  struck  with  remorse,  and 
his  contrition  is  such  that  Valentine  is 
impelled  to  surrender  Silvia  to  him,  to  the 
dismay  of  Proteus'  page,  the  disguised  Julia. 
She  swoons,  and  is  then  recognized  by 
Proteus,  and  the  discovery  of  her  constancy 
wins  back  his  love.  The  duke  and  Thurio 
arrive.  Thurio  shows  cowardice  in  face  of 
Valentine's  determined  attitude,  and  the 
duke,  approving  Valentine's  spirit,  accords 
him  Silvia.  Launce,  the  clownish  servant  of 
Proteus,  and  his  dog  Crab,  'the  sourest 
natured  dog  that  lives',  provide  some  drollery. 
Two  Kings  of  Brentford,  see  Rehearsal 

Two  Noble  Kinsmen,  The,  a  play  by  J. 
Fletcher  (q.v.),  probably  with  the  collabora- 
tion of  Shakespeare,  printed  in  1634. 

The  play,  which  deals  with  the  story  of 
Palamon  and  Arcite,  follows  fairly  closely  the 
story  as  told  by  Chaucer  in  the  'Knight's 
Tale*  (see  Canterbury  Tales),  but  adds  the 
incidents  of  the  liberation  of  Palamon  from 
prison  by  the  gaoler's  daughter,  and  her  going 
mad  for  love  of  him. 

Two  on  a  Tower,  a  novel  by  Hardy  (q.v.), 
published  in  1882. 

^  Lady  Constantine,  whose  notoriously  un- 
kind husband  has  gone  to  Africa  lion- 
hunting,  falls  in  love  with  Swithin  St. 
Cleeve,  a  young  astronomer  and  a  man  of 
comparatively  humble  position.  She  learns 
that  her  husband  has  died,  and  marries 
Swithin  secretly.  Later  she  discovers  that  by 
doing  so,  she  has  deprived  him  of  a  legacy 
which  would  have  enabled  him  to  advance  in 
his  career ;  and  then  that  her  husband,  though 
now  dead,  was  alive  at  the  time  of  her  marriage 
with  ^  Swithin,  which  is  consequently  void. 
She  insists  on  his  leaving  her  and  accepting 
advantageous  employment  in  S.  Africa. 
After  he  has  gone,  she  discovers  that  she  is 
with  child  by  him.  Under  pressure  from  her 
brother  she  accepts  in  haste  an  offer  of 
marriage  from  Bishop  Helmsdale,  and  a  son 
is  born.  Of  the  arrogant  bishop's  discovery 
of  her  reason  for  marrying  him  and  of  their 


[802] 


TWO  YEARS  AGO 

life  together  we  are  told  nothing.  But  the 
end  of  the  story  is  illuminating.  Swithin 
returns  after  the  bishop's  death.  He  is 
disillusioned  at  finding  her  an  old  woman, 
and  is  at  first  cold  to  her,  to  her  despair;  but 
recovering  himself,  he  says  he  has  come  to 
marry  her.  The  revulsion  is  too  great,  and 
she  falls  dead  of  joy.  'The  Bishop  was 
avenged.* 

Two  Years  Ago,  a  novel  by  C.  Kingsley  (q.v.), 
published  in  1857. 

In  this  work  the  author  deals  with  some  of 
the  moral  problems  and  material  evils  of 
contemporary  English  life,  notably  the  need 
for  sanitary  reform.  The  central  event  is  the 
descent  of  cholera  (which  was  prevalent  in 
England  in  the  middle  of  the  igth  cent.)  upon 
a  Cornish  village,  revealing  the  self-sacrificing 
character  of  some  of  its  inhabitants.  Chief 
among  these  are  the  gallant  doctor,  Tom 
Thurnall,  in  whom  countless  escapes  by 
flood  and  field  have  raised  self-confidence  to 
the  point  of  arrogance;  the  nonconformist 
schoolmistress,  Grace  Harvey,  whose  devo- 
tion is  based  on  a  higher  faith ;  and  the  high- 
church  curate,  Frank  Headley,  whose  grit  at 
last  wins  the  hearts  of  the  dissenting  villagers. 
Contrasted  with  Tom  Thurnall  is  the 
effeminate  John  Briggs,  the  apothecary's 
poetic  assistant,  whose  career,  based  on  the 
assumption  of  a  false  name,  brings  him 
temporary  prosperity,  marred  by  terror  of 
detection,  and  ended  by  tragedy.  There  is  a 
vividly  described  shipwreck,  and  a  secondary 
plot  involving  a  denunciation  of  slavery  in  the 
United  States.  The  Crimean  War  enters 
slightly  into  the  story,  bringing  occasion  for 
a  crisis  in  Tom  Thurnall's  spiritual  life,  and 
his  final  union  with  Grace  Harvey. 
Twysden,  TALBOT,  a  character  in  Thack- 
eray's 'The  Adventures  of  Philip*  (q.v.). 

Tybalt,  a  character  in  Shakespeare's  *Romeo 
and  Juliet*  (q.v.).  For  the  allusion  in  the 
play  to  cats  in  connexion  with  his  name,  see 
TiberU 

Tyburn,  the  name  of  an  ancient  manor, 
north-west  of  the  old  city  of  London,  so 
called  from  the  stream,  the  Tybourne,  which 
ran  through  it.  Its  name  was  changed  to 
Mary-le-bourne  (Marylebone,  q.v.)  in  the 
1 5th  cent.  The  Tybourne  flowed  south  to 
the  Thames  through  what  are  now  the  dips  in 
Oxford  Street  and  Piccadilly,  west  of  Bond 
Street. 

Tyburn  is  celebrated  as  the  principal  place 
of  execution  of  malefactors  until  1783-  The 
gallows,  which  had  formerly  stood  farther 
east,  were  moved  in  the  i6th  cent,  to  a  point 
NW.  of  the  present  position  of  the  Marble 
Arch.  Here  the  Tyburn  Road  turned  off 
from  Watling  Street,  and,  following  ap- 
proximately the  line  of  Oxford  Street  and 
Holborn,  reached  the  city  at  Newgate. 

Tyburnia,  the  residential  quarter  of  London 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Portman  Square,  so 


TYNDALL 

named  from  its  proximity  to  the  ancient 
Tyburn  (q.v.),  and  frequently  mentioned  in 
Thackeray's  novels. 

Tyler,  WAT  (^.1381),  the  leader  of  the  peas- 
ants* revolt  of  1381.  He  is  said  to  have  struck 
dead  a  tax-collector  who  insulted  his  daugh- 
ter, and  with  Jack  Straw  led  the  peasants  of 
Kent  and  Essex  to  London,  He  was  killed  by 
William  Walworth,  the  lord  mayor  of  London, 
in  the  course  of  a  discussion  with  Richard  II 
at  Smithfield.  He  is  the  subject  of  a  drama 
by  Southey. 

TYNDALE,  WILLIAM  (d.  1536),  the 
translator  of  the  Bible,  studied  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  He  was  preaching  in  Gloucester- 
shire before  1522  and  became  involved  in 
disputes  with  the  clergy.  He  formed  the 
project  of  translating  the  Scriptures  into  the 
vernacular,  but  finding  difficulties  in  England, 
went  to  Hamburg  for  the  purpose.  He 
visited  Luther  at  Wittenberg,  and  com- 
menced printing  his  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  at  Cologne  in  1525.  ^  He  com- 
pleted the  work  at  Worms  and  introduced 
copies  into  England,  which  were  denounced 
by  the  bishops  and  destroyed.  He  himself 
was  ordered  to  be  seized  at  Worms  by  Wolsey, 
but  escaped  to  the  protection  of  Philip,  the 
landgrave  of  Hesse,  at  Marburg.  He  became 
a  Zwinglian  and  an  active  pamphleteer,  up- 
holding the  sole  authority  of  Scripture  in  the 
church  and  of  the  king  in  the  State,  earning 
the  approval  of  Henry  VIII,  which  he 
subsequently  lost  by  opposing  the  king's 
divorce.  He  engaged  in  controversy  with 
Sir  T.  More  (q.v.)  and  wrote  'An  answere 
unto  Sir  Thomas  Mores  dialoge*  in  1531. 
He  was  betrayed  to  imperial  officers  and 
arrested  for  heresy,  imprisoned  at  Vilvorde 
in  1535,  and  strangled  and  burnt  at  the  stake 
there,  in  spite  of  Cromwell's  intercession. 
Tyndale  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
the  Reformation  leaders ;  his  original  writings 
show  sound  scholarship,  but  his  translation 
of  the  Bible — consisting  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (1525),  Pentateuch  (c.  1530),  and  Jonah 
(1531) — the  accuracy  of  which  has  been  en- 
dorsed by  the  translators  of  the  authorized 
version,  is  his  surest  title  to  fame.  He  also 
translated  the  'Enchiridion  Militis  Christiani' 
of  Erasmus  (q.v.). 

TYNDALL,  JOHN  (1820-93),  professor  of 
natural  history  at  the  Royal  Institution  in 
1853  and  superintendent  there  from  1867  to 
1887,  did  much  by  his  investigations  to  ad- 
vance, and  by  his  lectures  and  published 
works  to  popularize,  science.  The  following 
are  some  of  his  principal  writings:  'The 
Glaciers  of  the  Alps'  (1860),  'Mountaineer- 
ing* (1862),  'Heat  considered  as  a  Mode  of 
Motion*  (1863),  'On  Radiation*  (1865),  'On 
Sound'  (1867),  'On  Light'  (1869),  and  'Lec- 
tures on  Light'  (1873),  'Contributions  to 
Molecular  Physics'  (1872),  'Floating  Matter 
in  the  Air*  (1881).  His  famous  address  to  the 
British  Association  at  Belfast  in  1874,  on  the 
relation  between  science  and  theological 


[803] 


TYPEE 

opinion,   was   reprinted   In   'Fragments   of 
Science',  vol.  ii. 
Typee,  see  Melville. 

Typhon  or  TYPHOEUS,  in  Greek  mythology, 
a  giant,  son  of  Tartarus  and  Ge,  and  father  of 
various  monsters,  such  as  the  Chimaera  and 
the  Lernaean  hydra  (qq.v.).  He  had  a  hun- 
dred heads,  which  breathed  forth  flames.  He 
made  war  against  the  gods,  was  destroyed  by 
the  thunderbolt  of  Zeus,  and  was  buried 
under  Mount  Etna. 
Tyr,  see  Tiu* 

Tyrannic  Love,  or  The  Royal  Martyr,  a 
heroic  play  in  rhymed  couplets  by  Dryden 
(q.v.),  published  in  1669. 

Maximin,  the  Roman  emperor,  while  be- 
sieging Aquileia,  falls  in  love  with  Catharine, 
the  Christian  princess  of  Alexandria,  his  cap- 
tive, but  is  repulsed  by  her.  Catharine  con- 
verts Berenice  the  empress  to  Christianity, 
and  Maximin  orders  them  both  to  execution. 
St.  Catharine  is  beheaded,  but  Maximin  is 
stabbed  by  Placidius,  one  of  his.  officers,  who 
loves  Berenice. 

The  play,  which  contains  some  beautiful 
passages,  is  marred  by  absurdities,  which 
provided  material  for  ridicule  in  the  "Re- 
hearsal* (q.v.). 

Tyrrel,  FRANCIS,  a  character  in  Scott's  'St. 
Ronan's  Well*  (q.v.). 

TYRRELL,  GEORGE  (1861-1909),^  a 
leader  of  the  modernist  movement  in  religion, 
joined  the  Roman  Church  in  1879  and  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  from  which  he  was  dis- 
missed in  1906  for  his  unorthodox  'Letter 
to  a  Professor  of  Anthropology'*  This  he 
published  as  *A  much  abused  Letter*  with 
copious  annotations.  His  other  published 
works  include:  'Nova  et  Vetera'  (1897),  'Hard 
Sayings*  (1898),  'External  Religion*  (1899), 
*The  Faith  of  the  Millions*  (1901-2,  two 
series),  'Oil  and  Wine*  (1902),  'Lex  Orandi* 
(1903),  'Lex  Credendi*  (1906),  'Through 
Scylla  and  Charybdis*  (an  exposition  of  his 


UGOLINO  DE*  GHERARDESCHI 

religious  development,  1907),  'Medievalism* 
(a  reply  to  Cardinal  Mercier*s  attack  on 
modernism,  1908),  'Christianity  at  the  Cross- 
roads' (1909).  'Essays  on  Faith  and  Im- 
mortality* (1914),  and  his  'Autobiography 
and  Life',  edited  by  M.  D.  Petre  (1913),  were 
issued  after  his  death. 

Tyrrell,  SIR  JAMES  (d.  1502),  a  strong  ad- 
herent of  Richard  III,  and  the  supposed  mur- 
derer of  the  princes  in  the  Tower  of  London. 

Tyrrell  or  TIREL,  WALTER  (fl.  1 100),  son  of 
the  lord  of  Poix  in  Picardy,  was  generally 
believed  to  have  shot  the  arrow  which  killed 
William  Rufus,  but  denied  having  done  so. 

TYRTAEUS,  an  Ionian  poet  of  the  early 
part  of  the  7th  cent.  B.C.  who  migrated  to 
Lacedaemon,  and  by  his  elegiac  lays  en- 
couraged the  Spartans  in  their  war  with  the 
Messenians  (685-668  B.C.). 

TYRWHITT,  THOMAS  (1730-86),  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Queen's  College,  Oxford, 
fellow  of  Merton  and  Clerk  of  the  House  of 
Commons  (1762-8),  is  remembered  for  his 
edition  and  exposure  of  the  'Rowley  Poems' 
(q.v.,  1777-8),  in  the  authenticity  of  which 
he  originally  believed;  for  his  'Observations 
. .  .  upon  .  .  ,  Shakespeare*  (1766);  and  still 
more  for  his  studies  of  Chaucer,  whose 
'Canterbury  Tales'  ^he  edited  in  1775-8, 
'expounding  his  versification  and  helping  to 
establish  the  Chaucer  canon. 

TYTLER,  PATRICK  FRASER  (1791- 
1849),  joint  founder  with  Sir  W.  Scott  of  the 
Bannatyne  Club  (q.v.),  was  author  of  a 
'History  of  Scotland'  from  the  reign  of 
Alexander  III  to  the  year  1603  (1828-43), 
and  a  history  of  'England  under  the  Reign  of 
Edward  VI  and  Mary*  (1839).  He  also  wrote 
lives  of  the  Admirable  Crichton  (1819), 
WyclifTe  (1826),  Sir  Walter  Ralegh  (1833), 
and  Henry  VIII  (1837),  besides  other  his- 
torical works. 

Tzigane,  see  Gipsy. 


u 


UDALL  or  UVEDALE,  NICHOLAS 
(1505-56),  dramatist  and  scholar,  educated  at 
Winchester,  successively  head  master  of  Eton 
and  Westminster.  He  was  author  of  'Ralph 
Roister  Doister*  (q.v.),  the  earliest  known 
English  comedy.  He  translated  selections 
from  Terence  and  other  works,  and  wrote 
Latin  plays  on  sacred  subjects.  Tusser  (q.v. 
'Five  hundreth  pointes')  complains  of  having 
been  severely  flogged  by  Udall  'for  fault  but 
small  or  none  at  all*.  Udall  got  into  grave 
trouble  at  Eton  and  was  sent  to  the  Marshal- 
sea  by  the  Privy  Council.  He  figures  in 
F.  M.  Ford*s  novel,  'The  Fifth  Queen*. 

Udaller,  a  tenant   of  land  in  Orkney  or 


Shetland  by  the  old  native  form  of  freehold 
tenure.  The  word  is  connected  with  'alodial* 
as  opposed  to  'feudal*  tenure  of  land.  Magnus 
Troil,  in  Scott's  'The  Pirate*  (q.v.),  is  fre- 
quently referred  to  as  'the  Udaller'. 

Udolpho,  Mysteries  of,  see  Mysteries  of 
Udolpho. 

Ugplino  de*  Gherardeschi  (d.  1289),  an 
Italian  Guelph  leader,  who  twice  by  treachery, 
in  1284  and  again  in  1288,  made  himself 
master  of  Pisa.  He  was  finally  overthrown, 
and  with  his  two  sons  and  two  of  his  grand- 
sons was  locked  up  in  a  tower  and  starved  to 
death.  The  episode  figures  in  canto  xxxiii 
of  Dante's  'Inferno'. 


[804] 


ULFILAS 

ULFILAS  or  WULFILA  (A.D.  311-81),  a 
Christian  of  Cappadocian  origin,  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  the  Arian  Visigoths  in  341, 
and  subsequently  migrated  with  them  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  Nicopolis  in  Moesia.  He 
translated  the  Bible  into  Gothic  from  the 
Greek,  inventing,  it  is  said,  an  alphabet  for 
the  purpose.  Fragments  of  this  translation, 
chietly  of  the  N.T.,  survive  (e.g.  the  Codex 
Argenteus  at  Upsala),  and  are  of  great  value 
to  the  philological  science  of  the  Germanic 
languages. 

Ullirfs  Daughter,  Lord,  a  ballad  by  Camp- 
bell (q.v.). 

ULPIAN  (ULPIANUS  DOMITIUS),  a  cele- 
brated Roman  jurist,  who  became  secre- 
tary and  adviser  of  the  emperor  Alexander 
Severus  (222-35).  He  was  killed  by  some 
soldiers  who  had  entered  the  palace  at  night, 
about  228.  He  wrote  many  valuable  legal 
works. 

Ulric,  in  Byron's  'Werner'  (q.v.),  the  son  of 
Werner. 

Ulrica,  in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe*  (q.v.),  the  old 
sibyl  who  sets  fire  to  the  castle  of  Torquil- 
stone  and  perishes  in  the  flames. 
Ultima  Thule,  see  Thule. 
Ultramontane,  meaning  literally  'beyond 
the  mountain*  (i.e.  the  Alps),  a  term  applied 
to  those  who  hold  extreme  views  in  favour 
of  the  papal  authority. 
Ultrajcctum,  also  Trajectum  ad  Rhenum, 
in  imprints,  Utrecht. 

Ulysses,  or,  according  to  his  Greek  name, 
ODYSSEUS,  son  of  Laertes  and  Anticlea, 
daughter  of  Autolycus,  and  king  of  the  island 
of  Ithaca.  He  became  one  of  the  suitors  of 
Helen  (q.v,),  but  despairing  of  success 
married  Penelope  (q.v.).  It  was  by  his 
advice  that  Tyndarus,  father  of  Helen, 
bound  her  suitors  by  an  oath  to  join  in  pro- 
tecting her  if  ever  exposed  to  violence.  When 
she  was  carried  off  to  Troy,  Ulysses  joined 
the  other  Greek  princes  in  the  expedition  to 
recover  her,  after  having  failed  to  evade  his 
obligation  by  simulating  madness  (see  Pala- 
medes).  During  the  Trojan  War  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  prudence  and  sagacity 
no  less  than  for  his  valour,  and  was  awarded 
the  arms  of  Achilles,  after  the  death  of  that 
hero,  in  preference  to  Ajax.  After  the  war  he 
embarked  to  return  home,  but  was  exposed* 
to  a  series  of  misfortunes  recounted  in 
Homer's  'Odyssey'.  He  was  thrown  upon  the 
coast  of  Africa  and  visited  the  country  of  the 
Lotus-eaters;  narrowly  escaped  destruction 
by  the  Cyclops,  Polyphemus  (q.v.) ;  received 
a  bag  of  winds  from  Aeolus  (q.v.);  was  de- 
tained a  year  by  Circe  (q.v.),  and  for  seven 
years  by  Calypso  (q.v.);  was  cast  on  the 
island  of  the  Phaeacians,  where  he  was  kindly 
entertained  by  Nausicaa  and  her  father 
Alcinous;  and  finally  after  an  absence  ^of 
twenty  years  reached  Ithaca,  where  with 
the  assistance  of  his  son,  Telemachus, 
and  the  swineherd,  Eumaeus  (qq.v.),  he 


UNCLE  SILAS 

destroyed  the  importunate  suitors  of  Penelope. 
He  lived  some  sixteen  years  after  his  return. 
Then  Telegonus,  his  son  by  Circe,  who  had 
come  to  Ithaca  to  make  himself  known  to  his 
father,  was  shipwrecked  on  the  island,  and, 
being  destitute,  plundered  some  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. In  the  ensuing  quarrel,  Telegonus 
killed  Ulysses,  not  knowing  who  he  was. 

In    a    dramatic    monologue,    Tennyson 
presents  Ulysses,  in  his  last  years,  setting  out 
'to  saH  beyond  the  sunset',  'to  follow  know- 
ledge like  a  sinking  star'.  The  episode  is  not 
in  Homer,  but  in  Dante  ('Inferno*,  xxvi). 
Ulysses,  a  novel  by  J.  Joyce  (q.v.). 
Ulyssipo,  in  imprints,  Lisbon. 

Uma,  in  Hindu  mythology,  a  name  of  the 
goddess  Devi,  the  wife  of  Siva. 

Umayyads  or  OMMIADES,  a  powerful 
family  of  the  Quraysh  tribe  (to  which  the 
Hashimite  family  of  Mohammed  also  be- 
longed), which  included  a  series  of  caliphs, 
beginning  with  Moawiyah,  the  successor  of 
AH  (q.v.).  To  this  family,  at  a  later  period, 
belonged  the  Arab  dynasty  that  ruled  in 
Spain  (8th  to  nth  cents.). 

Umforiel,  *a  dusky  melancholy  sprite'  in 
Pope's  'Rape  of  the  Lock*  (q.v.). 

Una,  in  Bk.  I  of  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene', 
typifies  the  true  religion.  She  is  separated 
from  the  Red  Cross  Knight  (q.v.)  of  Holiness 
(the  Anglican  Church)  by  the  wiles  of 
Archimago  (q.v.),  but  meets  and  is  protected 
by  a  lion  (England),  until  the  latter  is  killed 
by  Sansloy  (q.v.),  who  carries  Una  off  to  a 
forest.  She  is  rescued  by  fauns  and  satyrs, 
and  is  finally  united  to  the  Red  Cross  Knight. 

Uncial,  from  the  Latin  undalis,  'pertaining 
to  the  twelfth  part',  i.e.  an  inch  or  an  ounce. 
In  connexion  with  writing,  it  is  applied  to 
letters  having  the  large  rounded  forms  (not 
joined  to  each  other)  characteristic  of  early 
Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts.  The  term  is 
commonly  explained  as  meaning  originally 
'letters  of  an  inch  long*. 

Uncle  Remus,  see  Harris  (J.  C.). 

Uncle  Sam,  a  jocular  name  for  the  govern- 
ment (or  people)  of  the  United  States,  a 
facetious  interpretation  of  the  initials  U.S. 
Various  legends  connecting  the  expression 
with  government  officials  of  the  name  of 
Samuel  appear  to  be  unfounded.  [OEDJ 

Uncle  Silas,  a  novel  by  J.  S.  Le  Fanu  (q.v.), 
published  in  1864. 

Maud  Ruthyn  is  the  daughter  of  Austin 
Ruthyn,  a  rich  eccentric  recluse,  whose 
younger  brother,  Silas,  is  under  suspicion  _  of 
having  murdered  in  his  own  house  a  man  with 
whom  he  was  involved  in  gambling  trans- 
actions. Austin  Ruthyn,  however,  believes 
his  brother  to  be  maligned,  and  at  his  death 
leaves  his  daughter,  Maud,  to  the  guardian- 
ship of  Silas,  to  whom  his  fortune  will  revert 
in  the  event  of  her  death.  Silas,  who  is  in  fact 
a  hypocritical  villain,  heavily  in  debt,  tries  to 


[805] 


UNCLE  TOBY 

force  a  marriage  between  his  niece  and  his 
own  repulsive  son,  and  when  it  turns  out 
that  his  son  is  married  already,  plots  with 
him  to  murder  Maud.  The  author  skilfully 
sets  out  the  various  circumstances  so  as  to 
produce  on  the  reader  a  sense  of  terror;  the 
seclusion  of  Maud  from  all  her  friends;  the 
arrival  of  a  sinister  French  governess,  Mme 
de  la  Rougierre,  an  accomplice  of  the 
murderers;  the  description  of  the  spiked 
hammer  with  which  the  murder  is  to  be 
committed,  &c.  The  murder  miscarries,  for 
the  governess  falls  its  unintended  but  de- 
serving victim,  and  Maud  is  rescued. 

Uncle  Toby,  MY,  Captain  Shandy,  uncle  of 
the  nominal  hero  of  Sterne's  'Tristram 
Shandy*  (q.v.). 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  see  Stowe. 

Uncommercial  Traveller,  The,  a  collection  of 
tales  and  sketches  of  places  and  manners,  and 
of  institutions  needing  reform,  by  Charles 
Dickens  (q.v.),  first  published  in  'Household 
Words'  and  'All  the  Year  Round*,  and  re- 
issued in  1 86 1  and  1866.  It  contains  some  of 
Dickens's  best  literary  work. 

Under  the  Greenwood  Tree,  a  novel  by 
Hardy  (q.v.),  published  in  1872. 

This  is  an  idyll,  set  in  the  rustic  scene  of 
Mellstock  village,  of  two  young  lovers,  Dick 
Dewy,  son  of  the  local  'tranter*  or  irregular 
carrier,  and  Fancy  Day,  the  schoolmistress, 
who,  after  overcoming  the  usual  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  true  love,  are  happily  married. 
The  Mellstock  musicians,  rebellious  against 
their  displacement  from  the  church  gallery 
in  favour  of  a  harmonium,  provide  some 
delightful  racy  talk.  There  is  a  little  bitter 
with  the  sweet.  Fancy  Day,  engaged  to 
Dick,  momentarily  yields  to  the  temptation 
of  an  offer  of  marriage  by  the  vicar.  She 
comes  to  her  senses  and  withdraws,  but  she 
will  not  tell  Dick,  as  the  vicar  urges. 

Understanding,  LORD,  in  Bunyan's  'Holy 
War'  (q.v.),  the  lord  mayor  of  Mansoul,  de- 
posed from  his  office  and  imprisoned  during 
the  tyranny  of  Diabolus. 

Underwoods ,  a  collection  of  'lesser  poems'  by 
Jonson  (q.y.),  first  printed  in  the  folio  of 
1640.  It  includes  the  famous  poem  to 
Shakespeare,  and  Whalley's  edition  (1756) 
adds  the  well-known  epitaph  on  the  countess 
of  Pembroke  ('Sidney's  sister,  Pembroke's 
mother')  now  generally  attributed  to  W. 
Browne. 

'Underwoods'  is  also  the  name  (confessedly 
adopted  from  Jonson)  of  a  book  of  poems  by 
R.  L.  Stevenson  (q.v.). 

Undine,  a  fairy  romance  published  in  1811 
by  Friedrich,  Baron  de  la  Motte  Fouque" 
(1777-1843),  German  officer  of  cuirassiers 
and  prolific  writer  of  poetry,  drama,  and 
prose  fiction.  The  story  was  suggested  to 
him  by  a  passage  in  Paracelsus,  and  Undine 
is  a  sylph,  the  personification  of  the  watery 
element.  A  humble  fisherman  and  his  wife 


UNICORN 

have  lost  their  child  by  drowning,  and  Undine, 
a  capricious  roguish  maiden,  has  come 
mysteriously  to  them  and  been  brought  up 
in  her  stead.  A  knight,  Huldbrand  von 
Ringstetten,  takes  shelter  in  their  cottage  and 
falls  in  love  with  Undine.  They  are  married, 
and  the  sylph  in  consequence  receives  a  soul. 
But  her  relations,  and  particularly  uncle 
Kuhleborn,  the  wicked  water  goblin,  are  a 
source  of  trouble.  Huldbrand  begins  to 
neglect  his  wife  and  becomes  attached  to  the 
haughty  Bertalda,  who  is  humbled  by  the 
discovery  that  she  is  the  fisherman's  lost 
child.  One  day,  in  a  boat  on  the  Danube, 
Huldbrand,  tormented  by  Undine's  kindred, 
angrily  rebukes  his  wife,  and  she  is  snatched 
away  by  them  into  the  water  and  seen  no 
more.  Presently  Huldbrand  proposes  to 
Bertalda,  and  they  are  about  to  be  married, 
when  Undine,  rising  from  a  well,  goes  to  the 
knight's  room,  kisses  him,  and  he  dies. 

Unfortunate  Traveller,  The,  or  the  Life  of 
Jacke  Wilton,  a  prose  tale  of  adventure  by  T. 
Nash  (q.v.),  published  in  1594,  the  earliest 
picaresque  romance  in  English,  and  the  most 
remarkable  work  of  the  kind  before  Defoe. 
It  is  dedicated  to  the  earl  of  Southampton. 
Jacke  Wilton  is  *a  certaine  kinde  of  an  ap- 
pendix or  page*  attending  on  the  court  of 
Henry  VIII  at  the  time  of  the  siege  of  Tour- 
nay.  He  lives  by  his  wits,  playing  tricks  on  a 
niggardly  old  victualler  and  other  gullible 
occupants  of  the  camp,  and  gets  whipped  for 
his  pains.  He  goes  to  Minister,  which  the 
Anabaptists  are  holding  against  the  emperor, 
and  sees  John  of  Leyden  hanged.  The  earl  of 
Surrey,  the  lover  of  the  Fair  Geraldine,  takes 
him  to  Italy  as  his  page.  During  their  travels 
they  meet  Erasmus  and  Sir  Thomas  More, 
and  Aretino.  They  hear  Luther  disputing  at 
Wittenberg.  Wilton  passes  himself  off  as  the 
earl  of  Surrey  and  runs  away  with  an  Italian 
courtesan.  There  is  a  pleasant  scene  where 
the  true  earl  discovers  them  and  treats  the 
escapade  with  singular  good  humour.  After 
a  tourney  at  Florence,  where  the  earl  defeats 
all  comers  in  honour  of  the  Fair  Geraldine, 
Wilton  leaves  him,  and  is  at  Rome  during  an 
outbreak  of  the  plague.  Here,  turning  from 
lighter  themes,  he  depicts  scenes  of  violence 
and  tragedy,  rapes,  murders,  tortures,  and 
executions.  Depressed  by  what  he  has  seen, 
he  is  converted  to  a  better  way  of  life, 
marries  his  courtesan,  and  is  last  seen  at  the 
Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  in  the  king  of 
England's  camp.  The  whole  story  is  told 
with  much  spirit  and  wit. 

Unicorn,  a  fabulous  animal  usually  regarded 
as  having  the  body  of  a  horse  with  a  single 
horn  projecting  from  its  forehead;  the 
monoceros  of  the  ancients.  Pliny  describes  it 
as  having,  in  addition,  the  head  of  a  deer,  the 
feet  of  an  elephant,  and  the  tail  of  a  lion.  Its 
horn  was  reputed  to  have  medicinal  or 
magical  properties.  It  has  been  identified  at 
various  times  with  the  rhinoceros,  certain 
species  of  antelope,  &c.  See  'The  Lore  of  the 


[806] 


UNIFORMITY 

Unicorn*,  by  O.  Shepard  (1930),  an  interest- 
ing piece  of  research.  In  Heraldry  a  unicorn 
figures  as  a  supporter  of  the  royal  arms  of 
Great  Britain^  the  old  royal  arms  of  Scotland 
had  two  unicorns  for  supporters.  The 
narwhal  or  sea-unicorn  has  a  spirally  twisted 
horn  resembling  that  of  the  fabulous  animal. 
The  word  translated  'unicorn'  in  the  O.T.  is 
translated  'wild  ox'  in  the  Revised  Version. 

Uniformity,  ACT  OF,  passed  in  1559,  for- 
bade the  use  of  any  form  of  public  prayer 
other  than  the  second  prayer-book  of  Ed- 
ward VI  (with  some  modifications).  The 
Act  of  Uniformity  of  1662  required  clergy- 
men and  schoolmasters  to  accept  the  prayer- 
book. 

Unigenitus  Dei  Films,  €The  Only-begotten 
Son  of  God*,  a  papal  bull  issued  by  Pope 
Clement  XI  in  1713  condemning  the  Jan- 
senist  (q.v.)  heresy.  The  effect  of  this  bull 
was  felt  in  all  Latin  Catholic  countries 
throughout  the  century;  and  at  last,  as 
Voltaire  said,  it  turned  out  to  the  prejudice 
of  the  Jesuits,  who  had  driven  the  pope 
to  issue  it. 

Unionist,  a  member  of  the  political  party 
which  advocated  maintenance  of  the  parlia- 
mentary union  between  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland;  an  opponent  of  Home  Rule.  The 
party  was  formed  in  1886  by  the  coalition 
of  the  Conservatives  with  those  Liberals 
(Liberal  Unionists)  who  were  opposed  to 
Gladstonian  Home  Rule.  While  the  chief 
tenet  of  this  party  was  the  maintenance  of 
the  union,  its  general  policy  and  principles 
gradually  became  identified  with  those  of  the 
Conservative  party. 

Unitarian,  a  member  of  a  religious  body 
that  affirms  the  single  personality  of  the 
Godhead,  as  opposed  to  believers  in  the 
Trinity.  The  distinct  English  body  of  Uni- 
tarians dates  from  the  secession  in  1773 
of  Theophilus  Lindsay  from  the  Anglican 
Church;  and  it  was  to  some  form  of  Uni- 
tarian Church  that  the  English  (as  opposed 
to  the  Scottish)  Presbyterians  ultimately 
turned.  It  was  strong  at  Manchester  and  at 
Norwich  in  the  first  half  of  the  igth  cent. 

United  States,  POPULAR  NAMES  OF  (the  date 
indicates  when  the  State  was  first  admitted 
to  the  Union): 

Apache  State,  Arizona  (Ariz.)»  as  tne  home 

of  most  of  the  Apache  Indians.    1912. 
Badger  State,  Wisconsin  (Wis.).   1848.^ 
Bay  State,  Massachusetts  (Mass.).  Origi- 
nal State. 

Beaver  State,  Oregon  (Oreg.).  1859- 
Blue  Grass  State,  Kentucky  (Ky.)i  because 
of  the  luxuriant  blue  grass  found  in  the 
central  part.   1792. 
Buckeye  State,  Ohio  (O.).   1803. 
Centennial  State,  Colorado  (Col.),  because 
of  its  entrance  into  the  Union  100  years 
after  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
1876. 

[807] 


UNITED  STATES 

Cotton  State,  Alabama  (Ala.),  because  of 
its  chief  agricultural  product.  1819. 

Deseret  State,  Utah.  Deseret  (in  the  Book 
of  Mormon)  means  the  'land  of  the 
working  bee'.  1896. 

Diamond  State,  Delaware  (Del.).  Original 
State. 

Empire  State,  New  York  (N.Y.).  Original 
State. 

Empire  State  of  the  South,  Georgia  (Ga.). 
Original  State. 

Equality  State,  Wyoming  (Wyo.),  because 
it  was  the  pioneer  in  woman  suffrage. 
1890. 

Evergreen  State,  Washington  (Wash.). 
1889. 

Flickertail  State,  North  Dakota  (N.Dak.). 
1889. 

Garden  State,  New  Jersey  (N.J.).  Original 
State. 

Gem  State,  Idaho,  from  'gem  of  the 
mountain',  often  erroneously  given  as  a 
translation  of  the  Indian  name  for  the 
State.  1890. 

Golden  State,  California  (Cal.),  from  its 
early  and  continued  production  of  enor- 
mous quantities  of  gold.  1850. 

Granite  State,  New  Hampshire  (N.H.). 
Original  State. 

Green  Mountain  State,  Vermont  (Vt.), 
from  the  evergreen  forests  of  its  moun- 
tains. 1791. 

Hawkey e  State,  Iowa  (la.).   1846. 

Hoosier  State,  Indiana  (Ind.).   1816. 

Keystone  State,  Pennsylvania  (Pa.),  be- 
cause of  its  central  position  among  the 
original  13  colonies.  Original  State. 

Little  Rhody,  Rhode  Island  (R.I.),  Original 
State. 

Lone  Star  State,  Texas  (Tex.).   1845. 

Magnolia  State,  Mississippi  (Miss.).  1817. 

North  Star  State,  Minnesota  (Minn.).  1858. 

Nutmeg  State,  Connecticut  (Conn.),  be- 
cause of  an  alleged  practice  on  the  part 
of  some  of  its  earlier  citizens  of  manu- 
facturing and  selling  wooden  nutmegs 
as  genuine.  Original  State. 

Old  Dominion,  Virginia  (Va.).  Original 
State. 

Old  Line  State,  Maryland  (Md.).  Original 
State. 

Palmetto  State,  South  Carolina  (S.C.). 
Original  State. 

Panhandle  State,  West  Virginia  (W.Va.), 
from  the  peculiarity  of  its  shape,  the 
extensions  between  Ohio  and  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Maryland  and  Virginia  being 
called  'panhandles'.  1863. 

Pelican  State,  Louisiana  (La.).    1812. 

Peninsular  State,  Florida  (Fla.),  because  of 
its  outline.  1845. 

Pine  Tree  State,  Maine  (Me.),  from  its 
forests.  1820. 

Prairie  State,  Illinois  (111.).    1818. 

Sagebrush  State,  Nevada  (Nev.).    1864. 

Show  Me  State,  Missouri  (Mo.).   1821. 

Sooner  State,  Oklahoma  (Okla.),  because 
those  who  entered  on  22  Apr.  1889 


UNITIES 

found  much  of  the  best  land  taken  by 
those  who  had  evaded  the  guards  and 
entered  before  the  official  opening;  the 
evaders  were  known  as  'Sooners*. 
1907. 

Sunflower  State,  Kansas  (Ka.).   1861. 
Sunshine  State  (i),  New  Mexico  (N.Mex.). 

1912. 
Sunshine  State  (2),  South  Dakota  (S.Dak.). 

1889. 
Tar  Heel  State,  North  Carolina  (N.Car.). 

Original  State. 

Treasure  State,  Montana  (Mont.).  1889. 
Tree  Planters'  State,  Nebraska  (Neb.),  a 
title  given  by  act  of  legislature  on  4  Apr. 
1895  because  Arbor  Day  (an  annual 
tree-planting  day  generally  observed 
throughout  the  United  States)  origi- 
nated there  (on  10  Apr.  1872),  and 
forestry  had  been  given  great  emphasis 
by  its  early  pioneers  and  their  suc- 
cessors. 1867. 

Volunteer  State,  Tennessee  (Term.),  be- 
cause of  its  remarkable  record  in 
furnishing  volunteers  in  the  Civil 
War.  1796. 

Wolverine  State,  Michigan  (Mich.),  1837. 
Wonder    State,   Arkansas    (Ark.),    a   title 
given  by  act  of  general  assembly  in  1923 
because  of  its  remarkable  natural  re- 
sources.   1836. 

Unities,  THE,  three  principles  of  dramatic 
composition,  viz.  that  a  play  should  consist  of 
one  main  action,  occurring  at  one  time  (not 
longer  than  the  play  takes  to  perform),  and 
in  one  place;  expanded  from  Aristotle's 
'Poetics'  by  i6th-cent.  Italian  critics,  and  by 
French  classical  dramatists  of  the  i7th  cent. 
The  Unities  were  often  modified;  e.g.  the 
time  limit  was  extended  to  twenty-four  hours, 
and  the  place  to  one  house  or  town,  rather 
than  one  room  or  street. 

Unreason,  ABBOT  OF,  see  Misrule. 

Unter  den  Linden,  'Under  the  lime  trees', 
the  name  of  a  celebrated  street  in  Berlin 
running  eastward  from  the  Brandenburger 
Thor,  and  containing  the  palaces  of  the 
former  Imperial  family,  the  academy,  the 
university,  &c. 

UNTERMEYER,  LOUIS  (1885-  ), 
American  poet,  critic,  and  novelist,  born  in 
New  York,  one  of  the  'young  poets'  of 
America.  His  chief  works  are :  'Challenge* 
(1914),  'These  Times'  (1917),  'This  Singing 
World'  (modern  poems  for  children,  1923), 
'American  Poetry  since  1900'  (1923),  'Col- 
lected Parodies'  (1926).  Untermeyer  has 
translated  much  German  poetry,  including 
Heine  (1917). 

Unto  This  Lastf  four  essays  on  economics 
by  Ruskin  (q.v.),  published  in  1860-2.  The 
publication  was  begun  in  the  'Cornhill 
Magazine',  but  gave  rise  to  so  great  an  outcry 
that  Thackeray,  the  editor,  discontinued  it. 
This  was  the  earliest  of  Ruskin's  economic 
treatises.  He  first  deals  with  wages  and  em- 


URANIAN  APHRODITE 

ployment,  the  possibility  of  fixing  wages  by 
legislation,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  regular 
flow  of  employment.  He  then  discusses  the 
nature  of  true  wealth,  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  riches  obtained  at  the  cost  of  making 
others  poor.  He  defines  the  abstract  idea  of 
just  wages — 'that  they  will  consist  in  a  sum  of 
money  which  will  at  any  time  procure  for 
[the  worker]  at  least  as  much  labour  as  he  has 
given*.  He  investigates  the  nature  of  this 
'equivalent',  from  which  the  element  of 
'human  capacities  and  dispositions*  must 
not  be  excluded,  as  it  is  by  J.  S.  Mill.  'The 
real  science  of  political  economy  ...  is  that 
which  teaches  nations  to  desire  and  labour 
for  the  things  that  lead  to  life/  Righteous- 
ness and  ideals,  and  not  only  self-interest  and 
material  needs,  should  be  taken  by  it  into 
consideration.  His  final  plea  is  for  'Not 
greater  wealth,  but  simpler  pleasure.  —  Care 
in  no  wise  to  make  more  of  money,  but  care  to 
make  much  of  it;  remembering  always  the 
great,  palpable,  inevitable  fact — that  what 
one  person  has,  another  cannot  have.* 

Ruskin's  views  were  derided  at  the  time, 
but  many  of  the  reforms  that  he  advocated 
have  since  been  adopted. 
Up,  Guards,  and  at  them  3,  reputed  to  be 
the  duke  of  Wellington's  order,  which 
opened  the  last  stage  of  the  Battle  of 
Waterloo. 

Upanishad,  see  Veda. 
Upas,  a  fabulous  tree  alleged  to  have  existed 
in  Java,  with  properties  so  poisonous  as  to 
destroy  all  animal  and  vegetable  life  to  a 
distance  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  miles  around  it. 
The  account  given  in  the  'London  Magazine* 
of  1783,  from  which  Erasmus  Darwin 
adopted  and  gave  currency  to  the  fiction, 
professed  to  be  translated  from  an  account  by 
a  Dutch  surgeon  who  was  at  Samarang  in 
1773.  It  was  apparently  the  invention  of 
Steevens  (q.v.).  Darwin  ('Loves  of  the 
Plants',  iii.  238)  refers  to  it  as  follows: 
Fierce  in  dread  silence  on  the  blasted  heath 
Fell  Upas  sits,  the  Hydra-Tree  of  death. 
Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  the  city  where,  accord- 
ing to  the  book  of  Genesis,  Abraham  settled, 
and  whence  he  migrated  northwards  to 
Haran.  It  stood  on  the  Persian  Gulf  near  one 
of  the  mouths  of  the  Euphrates.  Recent 
excavations  have  resulted  in  discoveries  of 
great  interest.  Ur  was  the  seat  of  three 
Sumerian  dynasties  of  which  the  first  came 
to  an  end  about  3575  B.C.,  and  the  third  about 
2300  B.C.  (Peake  and  Fleure). 
Uraeus,  a  representation  of  the  sacred  asp  or 
serpent,  employed  as  an  emblem  of  supreme 
power  and  worn  on  the  head-dress  of  ancient 
Egyptian  divinities  and  sovereigns. 
Urania,  the  Muse  (q.v.)  of  astronomy. 
Uranian  Aphrodite  or  URANIAN  VENUS, 
the  'Heavenly  Aphrodite*,  distinguished  from 
APHRODITE  PANDEMOS,  the  Aphrodite  of  the 
World,  was  the  goddess  of  pure  and  en- 
nobling love. 


[808] 


URANUS 

Uranus,^  the  personification  of  the  sky,  the 
most  ancient  of  the  Greek  gods  and  the  first 
ruler  of  the  universe.  He  married  Ge,  the 
earth,  and  was  father  of  the  Titans,  including 
Cronos,  who  ousted  him  from  his  throne. 

The  planet  Uranus  was  discovered  in  1781 
by  Sir  W.  Herschel,  accidentally, 
URBAN,  SYLVANUS,  the  pseudonym  of 
E.  Cave  (q.v.),  and,  by  succession,  of  the 
later  editors  of  the  'Gentleman's  Magazine*. 
Urbi  et  Orbi,  Latin,  'to  the  City  and  the 
World',  an  expression  used  in  papal  docu- 
ments to  indicate  that  they  are  addressed  not 
to  the  City  of  Rome  alone,  but  to  the  whole 
Catholic  world.  It  was  also  applied  to  the 
blessing  given  by  the  pope  on  exceptional 
occasions  (' Catholic  Encyclopaedia*). 
Urdu,  the  same  as  Hindustani,  the  language 
of  the  Mohammedan  conquerors  of  Hin- 
dustan, being  a  form  of  Hindi  (q.v.)  with  a 
large  admixture  of  Arabic,  Persian,  and  other 
foreign  elements.  It  was  'the  language  of  the 
camp*  (the  word  of  command  in  our  native 
Indian  regiments  was  given  in  it). 

URF$,  HONORS  DJ  (1568-1626),  a  French 
nobleman,  the  author  of  'AstreV  (1608-24),  a 
very  popular  heroic  pastoral,  and  the  first  of 
a  type  of  works  that  culminated  in  the 
romances  of  La  Calprenede  (q.v.)  and  Mile 
de  Scuddry  (q.v.).  The  principal  story  deals 
with  the  love  of  the  shepherd  Celadon  for  the 
shepherdess  Astraea,  whose  reproaches  for 
his  supposed  perfidy  lead  him  to  throw  him- 
self into  a  river.  He  is  not,  however,  drowned 
as  Astraea  supposes,  and  after  some  military 
exploits,  rejoins  his  mistress  disguised  as  the 
girl  Alexis.  The  tale,  which  contains  refer- 
ences to  events  in  the  author's  family  history, 
is  supplemented  by  various  episodes,  sup- 
posed to  allude  to  intrigues  at  the  court  of 
Henri  IV. 
Urgan,  see  Alice  Brand. 

Urganda,  an  enchantress  in  the  romances  of 
Amadis  and  Palmerin  (qq.v.). 
Uriah  the  Hittite,  an  officer  in  David's 
army,   the   husband   of  Bathsheba,   whom 
David  caused  to  be  killed  in  battle  (2  Sam.  xi). 

Uriel ,  one  of  the  seven  archangels  enumerated 
in  the  'Book  of  Enoch*  (see  under  Angel). 
Milton  ('Paradise  Lost*,  iii.  690)  makes  him 
'Regent  of  the  Sun*,  beguiled  by  Satan  in 
spite  of  his  sharp  sight. 

Urien,  see  Ryence. 

Urim  and  Thummim,  certain  objects,  the 
nature  of  which  is  not  known,  worn  upon  the 
*breast-plate'  of  the  Jewish  high-priest,  by 
means  of  which  the  will  of  Jehovah  was  held 
to  be  declared.  They  are  mentioned  in 
Exod.  xxviii.  30;  Deut.  xxxiii.  8,  and  other 
passages. 

Urizen,  in  the  mystical  poems  of  Blake 
(q.v.),  a  grim  old  giant,  the  symbol  of  restric- 
tive morality,  identified  with  Jehovah.  Also  a 
symbol  of  the  bondage  of  man  to  the  senses. 


USK 

Urn  Burial  or  Hydriotaphia,  a  treatise  by  Sir 
T.  Browne  (q.v.)  published  (with  the  'Garden 
of  Cyrus1,  q.v.)  in  1658. 

The  point  of  departure  is  the  discovery  of 
some  ancient  sepulchral  urns  in  Norfolk, 
which  leads  the  author  to  consider  the 
various  modes  of  disposal  of  the  dead  re- 
corded in  history  and  practised  in  Britain, 
urns^and  their  contents,  funeral  ceremonies, 
and  immortality  or  annihilation.  The  tone  is 
meditative  and  mystical,  and  the  style,  from 
the  first  words  of  the  Epistle  Dedicatory, 
'When  the  Funerall  pyre  was  out,  and  the  last 
valediction  over',  to  the  melancholy  splen- 
dour of  the  closing  passage,  'But  the  iniquity 
of  oblivion  blindly  scattereth  her  poppy", 
reaches  the  highest  level  of  rhetorical  prose. 

URQUHART  or  URCHARD,  SIR 
THOMAS  (1611-60),  of  Cromarty,  educated 
at  King's  College,  Aberdeen.  He  fought  at 
TurrifT  against  the  Covenanters,  withdrew  to 
London,  and  was  knighted  in  1641.  He 
followed  Charles  II  to  Worcester,  where 
many  of  his  manuscripts  were  destroyed  by 
the  Parliamentarians.  He  was  imprisoned 
during  1651-2,  and  died  abroad.  His  best- 
known  work  is  a  translation  of  the  first  three 
books  of  Rabelais  (q.v.)  (first  two  books  pub- 
lished in  1653,  the  third  in  1693).  He  wrote 
a  number  of  curious  treatises  on  mathematics, 
linguistics,  &c.,  with  strange  Greek  titles 
('Trissotetras*,  'Logopandecteision'),  col- 
lected in  1774  and  1834;  among  them  is  his 
'Ekskubalauron*,  which  combines  an  Intro- 
duction to  his  Universal  Language  with  a 
Vindication  of  the  Honour  of  Scotland. 
This  contains  his  well-known  account  of  the 
'Admirable  Crichton'. 

Ursa  Major,  the  Great  Bear  constellation, 
see  Cattisto*  Also  a  name  given  to  Dr.  John- 
son by  Boswell's  father,  Lord  Auchinleck. 

Ursula,  ST.,  a  British  saint  and  martyr, 
daughter  of  a  'Christian  British  King',  who, 
according  to  legend,  was  put  to  death  with 
11,000  virgins,  having  been  captured  by 
Huns  near  Cologne  when  on  a  pilgrimage. 
A  large  number  of  human  bones  were  dis- 
covered when  foundations  were 'being  dug, 
in  the  i2th  cent.,  for  the  city  walls,  and  these 
were  pronounced  to  be  the  bones  of  the 
martyrs  and  venerated  in  consequence.  But 
bones  of  men  were  found  among  them.  One 
explanation  of  the  legend  is  that  the  11,000 
virgins  were  in  reality  only  one,  a  certain  'St. 
Undecemilla". 

There  is  no  mention  of  St.  Ursula  before  the 
loth  cent.,  several  hundred  years  after  her  sup- 
posed martyrdom.  Details  of  the  story  appear 
in  the  i2th  cent.,  and  it  is  told  by  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth.  Baring-Gould  ('Curious 
Myths')  traces  St.  Ursula  to  the  Swabian 
moon-goddess  H6rsel,  the  wandering  Isis. 

USK,  THOMAS  (d.  1388),  the  author  of 
*The  Testament  of  Love',  formerly  ascribed 
to  Chaucer,  was  under-sherifT  of  London 
by  Richard  IPs  mandate  in  1387,  and  was 


[809] 


USNACH 

proceeded  against  by  the  "Merciless*  parlia- 
ment in  1388  and  executed.  'The  Testament 
of  Love*  is  an  allegorical  prose  work  written  by 
Usk  in  prison  to  enlist  sympathy.  Prof.  Skeat 
discovered  that  the  initial  letters  of  the 
sections  formed  an  acrostic  reading,  *  Mar- 
garet of  virtu,  have  merci  on  TSKNVP. 
He  thought  these  letters  a  partial  anagram  for 
'Kitson'.  Henry  Bradley,  as  a  result  of  cer- 
tain rearrangements  of  the  text  found  that 
the  last  letters  should  read  TH I N  U  S  K ,  i.e. 
*thine  Usk'. 

Usnach,  THE  SONS  OF,  see  Deirdre. 

USSHER,  JAMES  (1581-1656),  a  scholar  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  at  its  foundation, 
became  archbishop  of  Armagh.  He  wrote 
much  on  theological  subjects,  and  was  learned 
in  patristic  literature  and  ancient  Irish  his- 
tory. But  his  chief  work  is  the  'Annales 
Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti',  a  chronological 
summary  in  Latin  of  the  history  of  the  world 
from  the  Creation  to  the  dispersion  of  the 
Jews  under  Vespasian,  of  extraordinary 
critical  quality.  His  dates  are  still  printed 
in  the  English  Bible.  He  bequeathed  his 
collection  of  books  and  manuscripts,  includ- 
ing the  'Book  of  Kells',  a  fine  Irish  illu- 
minated manuscript  of  the  Gospels,  to  Trinity 
College,  Dublin. 

Utgard,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
outer  chaotic  world,  the  residence  of  the 
giants,  whose  chief  was  Utgard-Loki. 

Uther  Pendragon,  in  the  Arthurian  legend, 
king  of  the  Britons  and  father  of  Arthur  (q.v.). 
'Pendragon*  in  Welsh  means  ( chief  leader  in 
war*. 

Utilitarianism,  an  essay  by  J.  S.  Mill  (q.v,), 
first  published  as  a  series  of  articles  in 
'Eraser's  Magazine*  in  1861,  and  in  book 
form  in  1863. 

In  this  work,  Mill,  while  accepting  the 
Benthamite  principle  (see  Bentham)  that 
Utility,  or  the  greatest  happiness  of  the 
greatest  number,  is  the  foundation  of  morals, 
departs  from  it  by  maintaining  that  pleasures 
differ  in  kind  or  quality  as  well  as  in  quantity, 
'that  some  kinds  of  pleasure  are  more  de- 
sirable and  more  valuable  than  others* ;  also 
by  recognizing  in  'the  conscientious  feelings 
of  mankind*  an  'internal  sanction'  to  be  added 


VALENCE 

to  Bentham's  'external  sanctions'.  "The 
social  feelings  of  mankind,  the  desire  to  be 
in  unity  with  our  fellow  creatures'  constitute 
'the  ultimate  sanction  of  the  greatest  happi- 
ness, morality'. 

Utopia f  the  principal  literary  work  of  Sir  T. 
More  (q.v.)  is  a  speculative  political  essay, 
written  in  Latin,  in  two  books,  the  first  in 
1516,  the  second  in  1515.  The  work  was 
published  in  1516  at  Louvain.  The  form  was 
probably  suggested  by  the  narrative  of  the 
voyages  of  Vespucci,  printed  in  1507.  The 
subject  is  the  search  for  the  best  possible 
form  of  government.  More  meets  at  Ant- 
werp a  traveller,  one  Raphael  Hythloday, 
who  has  discovered  *  Utopia*,  'Nowhere  land*. 
Communism  is  there  the  general  law,  a 
national  system  of  education  is  extended  to 
men  and  women  alike,  and  the  freest  tolera- 
tion of  religion  is  recognized.  The  work  at 
once  became  popular,  and  was  translated 
into  English  in  1551,  and  into  French  (in 
1530),  German,  Italian,  and  Spanish.  The 
rapid  fame  of  the  book  is  shown  by  the 
reference  to  Utopians  by  Rabelais  (in.  i,  pub- 
lished in  1546). 

Utrecht,  PEACE  OF,  the  peace  concluded  in 
1713,  which  terminated  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession.  By  the  treaties  between 
France  on  the  one  hand  and  Great  Britain, 
Holland,  Prussia,  Savoy,  and  Portugal,  on  the 
other,  Philip  V  retained  the  throne  of  Spain, 
but  the  crowns  of  France  and  Spain  were 
never  to  be  united ;  the  Protestant  succession 
was  secured  in  England ;  the  fortifications  of 
Dunkirk  were  to  be  dismantled ;  Spain  ceded 
her  possessions  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands 
to  Charles  VI,  and  Sicily  to  the  duke  of  Savoy; 
Great  Britain  retained  Minorca  and  Gibraltar, 
and  acquired  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland, 
and  the  French  part  of  St.  Christopher's. 
By  the  BARKIER  TREATY  the  fortresses  on  the 
southern  frontier  of  the  Netherlands  were  to 
be  garrisoned  by  Dutch  troops,  three  fifths  of 
whose  wages  were  to  be  paid  by  the  emperor; 
galling  to  the  latter,  and  at  best  a  feeble 
guarantee.  See  also  Asiento  Treaty. 

Uzziel,  one  of  the  angels.  In  Milton's  'Para- 
dise Lost',  iv.  781-2,  he  is  'next  in  power*  to 
Gabriel. 


v 


Vae  Victis!,  Latin,  'Woe  to  vanquished  T, 
the  exclamation  attributed  to  Brennus,  the 
Gaulish  conqueror  of  Rome  (390  B.C.),  when, 
having  demanded  1,000  Ib.  of  gold  as  ransom 
for  the  Capitol,  he  threw  his  sword  into  the 
scales  to  balance  an  excess  in  the  quantity 
delivered  (Livy,  v.  48). 

Vainlove,  a  character  in  Congreve's  'The 
Old  Bachelor'  (q.v.). 

Vaisya,  the  third  of  the  great  Hindu  castes, 


comprising  the  merchants  and  the  agri- 
culturists. 

Vala,  see  Blake. 
Valclusa,  see  Vaucluse, 

Valdarno  (Val  d'Arno),  the  valley  of  the 
Arno,  in  which  Florence  is  situated. 

Valence,  AYMER  DE,  in  Scott's  'Castle 
Dangerous*  (q.v.),  lieutenant  to  Sir  John  de 
Walton. 


[810] 


VALENTINE 

Valentine,  one  of  the  *Two  Gentlemen  of 
Verona*  In  Shakespeare's  play  (q.v.). 

Valentine  and  Orson f  the  subject  of  an 
early  French  romance,  which  has  been 
attached  to  the  Carolingian  cycle.  Bellisant, 
sister  of  King  Pepin,  is  married  to  Alexander, 
emperor  of  Constantinople.  The  archpriest 
treacherously  accuses  Bellisant  to  her  hus- 
band and  she  is  banished.  A  bear  carries 
away  one  of  her  children  (Orson),  who  is 
reared  as  a  wild  man.  The  other  (Valentine) 
is  found  by  Pepin  and  brought  up  as  a 
knight.  Valentine  meets  Orson,  conquers 
him,  brings  him  to  the  court,  and  tames  him. 
Numerous  adventures  follow,  the  principal  of 
which  is  the  imprisonment  of  Valentine  and 
Orson  and  their  mother  Bellisant  in  the 
Castle  of  Clerimond,  sister  of  the  giant 
Ferragus,  and  their  rescue  by  Pacolet,  the 
dwarf  messenger  of  Ferragus,  who  has  a 
little  magic  horse  of  wood  which  conveys 
him  instantly  wherever  he  wishes. 

The  story  appeared  in  English  about  1550 
as  the  'History  of  two  Valyannte  Brethren, 
Valentyne  and  Orson*,  by  Henry  Watson. 
A  ballad  in  Percy's  'Reliques*  deals  with  it. 

Valentine  Legend,  the  hero  of  Congreve*s 
'Love  for  Love*  (q.v.). 

Valentine  Vox  the  Ventriloquist,  a  novel  by 

Henry  Cockton  (1807-53),  first  published  in 
book  form  in  1840. 

Valentine's  Bay,  ST.,  14  Feb.,  on  which 
day  two  martyrs  of  the  name  were  executed, 
one  a  Roman  priest,  the  other  a  bishop  of 
Terni  There  was  an  ancient  practice  among 
young  people  in  England  of  choosing,  by  lot 
or  otherwise,  on  St.  Valentine's  day,  a  sweet- 
heart, a  lover,  or  a  special  friend  for  the 
ensuing  year,  and  of  sending  a  present  to  the 
person  so  chosen.  John  Brand  ('Popular 
Antiquities')  quotes  'Paston  Letters',  ii. 
24,  as  showing  that  the  custom  prevailed 
as  early  as  1476.  Its  origin  is  obscure.  A 
rural  tradition  that  birds  choose  their  mates 
on  the  day  in  question  is  referred  to  by 
Chaucer  ('Assembly  of  Foules',  309),  by 
Shakespeare  ('Midsummer  Night's  Dream', 
IV.  i),  and  by  Herrick  in  'Hesperides*.  There 
is  a  charming  essay  on  St.  Valentine's  Day 
in  Lamb's  'Essays  of  Elia*.  In  Hardy's  Tar 
from  the  Madding  Crowd',  it  is  the  thought- 
less sending  of  a  valentine  by  Bathsheba 
Everdene  to  Farmer  Boldwood  that  starts 
the  train  of  events  leading  to  the  tragedy 
of  the  story. 

On  St.  Valentine's  Day,  1797,  Sir  John 
Jarvis  with  a  fleet  of  fifteen  sail  defeated  the 
Spanish  fleet  of  twenty-seven  sail  off  Cape 
St.  Vincent. 

Valentinianf  a  tragedy  by  J.  Fletcher  (q.v.), 
produced  between  1610  and  1614. 

The  play,  which  includes  some  beautiful 
lyrics,  deals  with  the  vengeance  of  Maximus, 
a  general  under  Valentinian  III,  for  the  dis- 
honour of  his  wife  Lucina  by  the  emperor, 
and  her  self-inflicted  death.  To  get  rid  of 


VALLEY  OF  THE  SHADOW  OF  DEATH 

Aecius,  commander  of  the  army  and  faithful 
to  the  emperor,  who  stands  in  the  way  of  his 
vengeance,  he  causes  the  emperor's  suspicion 
to  fall  on  Aecius,  who  takes  his  own  life  in 
consequence.  Valentinian  is  then  poisoned 
by  two  followers  of  Aecius.  Maximus  is  pro- 
claimed emperor,  takes  Eudoxia,  Valentinian's 
widow,  as  his  consort,  and  reveals  to  her  the 
part  he  has  played  in  the  deaths  of  Valen- 
tinian and  Aecius,  even  pretending  that  he 
has  been  a  party  to  the  ravishment  of  Lucina. 
Eudoxia,  in  abhorrence,  poisons  Maximus 
at  his  inauguration. 

'Aecius*  is  obviously  Aetius  (who  defeated 
the  Huns  at  Chalons  in  451).  Some  historical 
truth  underlies  the  play. 

Valerian,  the  husband  of  St.  Cecilia,  whose 
story  is  told  in  Chaucer's  'The  Second 
Nun's  Tale'  (see  Canterbury  Tales). 

VALffiRY,  PAUL  (1871-  ),  French  poet 
and  essayist,  author  of  'La  Jeune  Parque', 
'Charmes',  'Varied'. 

Valhalla,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  a 
hall  in  Gladsheim  (the  residence  of  Odin), 
destined  for  the  reception  of  dead  heroes. 

Vali,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  young- 
est son  of  Odin,  who  avenges  Balder  by 
slaying  Hodur  (qq.v.),  the  two  deaths  per- 
haps symbolizing  the  changes  of  the  seasons. 
He  is  one  of  the  survivors  of  Ragnarok  (q.v.). 

Valjean,  JEAN,  an  ex-convict,  the  hero  of 
Hugo's  (q.v.)  'Les  Miserables*. 

Valkyries,  THE,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  messenger  maidens  of  Odin.  Their  special 
function  was  to  select  the  heroes  who  were 
to  fall  in  battle,  and  to  conduct  them  when 
dead  to  Valhalla. 

Wagner's  opera  'Die  Walkiire'  ('The  Val- 
kyries'), the  second  part  of  the  'Ring  des 
Nibelungen'  (q.v.),  tells  of  the  flight  o£ 
Sieglinde,  the  wife  of  Hunding,  with  her 
brother  Siegmund,  of  their  love,  and  of 
the  fight  between  Hunding  and  Siegmund,  in 
which,  by  the  interposition  of  Wotan,  Sieg- 
mund is  slain.  Brynhilde,  the  Valkyrie,  who 
has  endeavoured,  contrary  to  Wotan's  order, 
to  protect  Siegmund,  is  degraded  and  laid  to 
sleep,  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  fire,  where 
only  a  hero  can  enter  and  awake  her.  For  the 
continuation  see  Siegfried. 

Valley  of  Humiliation,  THE,  in  Bunyan's 
'Pilgrim's  Progress'  (q.v.),  the  place  where 
Christian  encounters  Appllyon.  There  is  a 
beautiful  description  of  it  in  Pt.  II,  where 
Mr.  Great-heart  describes  its  beauties  and 
virtues. 

Valley  of  the  Shadow  of  Death,  THE,  see 
Ps.  xxiii.  4.  Christian  in  the  'Pilgrim's  Pro- 
gress' (q.v.)  passes  through  it,  'a  very  solitary 
place',  with  a  dangerous  quag  on  one  side  and 
a  deep  ditch  on  the  other,  and  the  mouth  of 
hell  is  close  by  one  side  of  it,  from  which  issue 
flames  and  fiends. 


VALLOMBROSA 

Vallombrosa,  a  valley  some  twenty  miles 
east  of  Florence,  referred  to  by  Milton  in 
'Paradise  Lost',  i.  303. 

Vamp,  MR.,  in  Peacock's  'Melincourt'  (q.v.), 
a  caricature  of  GifTord  (q.v.). 

Van  Diemen's  Land,  now  called  Tasmania, 
was  discovered  by  Abel  Janzoon  Tasman  in 
1642,  and  so  named  after  Anton  van  Die- 
men,  governor  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
1636-45. 

Van  Dyck,  ANTOON  or  SIR  ANTHONY  (1599- 
1641),  born  at  Antwerp,  a  Flemish  painter, 
the  greatest  of  the  pupils  of  Rubens  (q.v.). 
As  early  as  1620  he  was  in  England  in  the 
employment  of  James  I,  but  in  1623  he  went 
to  Italy,  and  from  1626  to  1632  he  was  at 
Antwerp.  In  1632  he  became  one  of  the 
court  painters  of  Charles  I,  and  was  knighted 
by  the  king.  He  married  in  1640  a  lady  of  the 
Scottish  house  of  Ruthven.  He  then  went  to 
Antwerp  and  Paris,  but  returned  to  England 
in  1641  to  find  that  the  Civil  War  had  com- 
menced and  that,  like  his  patron,  he  had 
fallen  on  evil  days.  He  died  in  Blackfriars  in 
the  same  year  and  was  buried  in  old  St. 
Paul's. 

Though  his  ambition  was  to  be  a  great 
historical  painter,  circumstances  made  him 
principally  a  portrait-painter,  in  which 
capacity  he  ranks  with  Titian  and  Velazquez. 
His  finest  portrait  of  Charles  I  and  the 
portraits  of  'The  Three  Children  of  Charles 
and  Henrietta  Maria'  are  in  the  Louvre. 
Another  portrait  of  the  king  is  in  the  Hermi- 
tage Gallery.  Van  Dyck  also  painted  some 
notable  sacred  pictures. 

Van  Eyck,  HUIBRECHT  (i366?-i426),  and 
his  brother  JAN  (13  90?-! 440),  two  of  the 
greatest  painters  of  the  early  Flemish  school. 
Their  success  is  partly  attributable  to  their 
discovery  of  a  new  process  of  mixing  colours 
with  oil,  and  to  them  we  perhaps  owe  the 
introduction  of  the  movable  picture  in  place 
of  wall-painting.  Jan  van  Eyck  was  appointed 
painter  to,  and  became  the  confidential  friend 
of,  Philip,  duke  of  Burgundy.  The  greatest 
work  of  the  brothers  is  the  'Adoration  of  the 
Lamb*  for  a  church  at  Ghent.  In  the  National 
Gallery  we  have  the  famous  picture  by  the 
younger  brother  of  John  Arnolfini  and 
his  wife. 

Van  Gogh,  VINCENT,  see  Post-Impressionism. 

VAN  VECHTEN,  CARL  (1880-  ), 
American  novelist,  born  in  Iowa.  Van 
Vechten  is  a  good  representative  of  the 
modern  'sophisticated*  American  writer  of 
fiction.  His  chief  works  are :  'Peter  WhirHe, 
his  Life  and  Works'  (1922),  'The  Blind  Bow- 
Boy'  (1923),  'The  Tattooed  Countess'  (1924), 
'Nigger  Heaven*  (1926),  'Spider  Boy1  (1928). 

VANBRUGH,  SIR  JOHN  (1664-1726), 
dramatist  and  architect,  was  son  of  a  London 
tradesman,  whose  father,  a  merchant  of 
Ghent,  had  fled  to  England  from  Alva's 
persecutions.  In  1691  he  was  for  some  time 


[812] 


VANITY  FAIR 

a  prisoner  in  the  Bastille.  In  1697  he  produced 
'The  Relapse,  or  Virtue  in  Danger*  (q.v.)  with 
immense  success,  and  'The  Provok'd  Wife* 
(q.v.)  in  the  same  year.  His  other  principal 
comedies  are  'The  Confederacy*  (q.v.,  1705) 
and  'The  Provok'd  Husband'  (q.v.),  which 
he  left  unfinished  and  Cibber  (q.v.)  completed 
and  brought  out  in  1728.  His  collected 
dramatic  works  appeared  in  1730.  As  a 
playwright  he  offers  a  strong  contrast  to  his 
contemporary,  Congrevc,  in  that  he  paid  no 
attention  to  style.  He  wrote  as  he  .talked.  He, 
together  with  Congreve,  was  specially  attacked 
by  Collier  (q.v.)  in  his  'Short  View'. 

As  an  architect  Vanbrugh  designed  Castle 
Howard,  his  own  Hayrnarket  Theatre,  and 
Blenheim  Palace.  He  also  designed  the 
Clarendon  Building,  Oxford,  jointly  with 
Nicholas  Hawksmoor.  Vanbrugh  was  Clar- 
enceux  king-of-arms,  1704-26. 

Vance,  PHILO,  the  detective  in  a  series  of 
stories  of  crime  by  the  American  author,  Van 
Dine  (Willard  Huntington  Wright). 

VANCOUVER,  GEORGE  (1758-98),  ex- 
plorer, accompanied  James  Cook  on  his 
second  voyage,  was  in  Rodney's  victory  at 
Les  Saintes  in  1782,  and  was  subsequently 
sent  on  voyages  of  discovery  to  Australia  and 
the  North  Pacific  (1791-4).  He  was  sent  to 
take  over  Nootka  Sound  in  1791  and  explored 
in  1792  the  island  now  called  after  him 
Vancouver  (it  had  been  discovered  earlier  by 
Spaniards).  His  'Voyage  of  Discovery  to  the 
N.  Pacific*  was  published  posthumously  in 
1798. 

Vandals,  a  Germanic  tribe  which  in  the  4th 
and  5th  cents.  A.D.  invaded  western  Europe, 
and  established  settlements  in  various  parts 
of  it,  especially  in  Gaul  and  Spain,  finally  in 
428-9  migrating  to  Northern  Africa,  where 
they  supplanted  the  old  Roman  provincial 
government.  In  the  year  455  their  king, 
Genseric,  led  a  marauding  expedition  against 
Rome,  which  he  took  and  sacked.  The  Van- 
dals were  overthrown  by  Belisarius  (q«v.)  in 
533,^  and  this  was  a  great  misfortune  for 
Christendom,  for  it  let  in  the  Mohammedans 
in  the  7th  cent. ;  and  these,  not  the  Vandals, 
completed  the  ruin  of  Roman  Africa  and 
Mauretania. 

Vanessa,  Swift's  name  for  Esther  Van- 
homrigh.  See  Swift. 

Vanhomrigh,  ESTHER  (1690-1723),  'see 
Swift.  The  name  is  pronounced  'Vanum- 
mery'. 

Vanir,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  a  race  of 
gods,  distinct  from  the  -ffisir  (q.v.),  but  who 
became  united  to  them.  They  were  the  gods 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  included  Ni6rdr, 
Frey,  Freyja,  and  Heimdal  (qq.v.).  It  is 
suggested  that  the  JEsh  and  Vanir  were 
originally  the  gods  of  two  different  races  or 
religions,  which  coalesced. 

Vanity  Fair,  in  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's  Pro- 
gress* (q.v.),  a  fair  set  up  by  Beelzebub,  Apol- 


VANITY  FAIR 

lyon,  and  Legion,  in  the  town  Vanity,  through 
which  pilgrims  passed  on  their  way  to  the 
Eternal  City.  The  town  was  so  called  be- 
cause it  was  lighter  than  vanity,  and  in  the 
fair  were  sold  all  kinds  of  vanity,  houses, 
honours,  kingdoms,  and  all  sorts  of  delights. 
There  ^  Faithful  was  burnt  to  death;  but 
there,  in  Pt.  II,  were  found  some  pious  per- 
sons who  could  now  show  their  heads,  for 
the  blood  of  Faithful  lay  as  a  load  upon  his 
oppressors. 

Vanity  Fair,  a  novel  by  Thackeray  (q.v.), 
published  in  monthly  numbers  in  1847-8. 

The  novel  is  principally  concerned  with 
the  parallel  careers  of  two  strongly  contrasted 
characters ;  Rebecca  (Becky)  Sharp,  the  clever, 
unscrupulous,  and  courageous  daughter  of  a 
penniless  artist  and  a  French  opera-dancer; 
and  Amelia  Sedley,  a  pretty,  gentle,  un- 
intelligent creature,  whose  father  is  a  rich 
man  of  business  and  lives  in  Russell  Square, 
The  pair  are  brought  together  as  girls  at 
Miss  Pinkerton's  Academy,  where  Becky  is 
an  articled  pupil  and  teaches  French.  We 
follow  her  through  her  attempt  to  capture  the 
fat  Jos  Sedley,  Amelia's  brother  and  ex- 
collector  of  Boggley  Wallah,  to  the  home  of 
the  dirty,  cynical,  old  Sir  Pitt  Crawley,  where 
she  is  engaged  as  governess  and  captivates 
Sir  Pitt  himself  and  his  rich  sister  Miss 
Crawley,  The  baronet  on  the  death  of  his 
wife  proposes  to  her,  and  brings  to  light 
the  fact  that  Becky  has  overreached  herself 
by  getting  secretly  married  to  Rawdon, 
Sir  Pitt's  second  son  and  the  favourite  of 
Miss  Crawley,  cavalry  officer,  gambler,  and 
duellist; fa  revelation  that  infuriates  Sir  Pitt 
and  Miss  Crawley,  and  loses  Rawdon  his 
aunt's  inheritance. 

Meanwhile  Amelia's  father  is  ruined  by 
speculations,  and  her  intended  marriage  with 
a  young  officer,  George  Osborne,  is  for- 
bidden by  Osborne's  purse-proud  father. 
Ajmelia  is  heartbroken  at  the  desertion  of 
George,  a  worthless  fellow  whom  she  blindly 
adores.  Captain  Dobbin,  George's  fellow- 
officer,  her  honest  and  unselfish  worshipper, 
brings  George  to  a  sense  of  the  shabbiness  of 
his  conduct,  and  the  marriage  takes  place  in 
defiance  of  old  Osborne,  who  utterly  re- 
pudiates his  son.  Then  follows  the  campaign  of 
Waterloo,  and  the  chief  actors  are  brought  to- 
gether at  Brussels,  where  George,  before  being 
killed  in  the  battle,  engages  in  an  intrigue 
with  Becky,  now  Mrs.  Rawdon  Crawley. 

Much  of  the  remainder  of  the  story  is 
occupied  with  the  skilful  generalship  by 
which  the  undaunted  Becky  wins  her  way 
into  the  highest  society,  first  in  Paris,  then 
in  London,  in  spite  of  poverty  and  dis- 
advantages of  birth.  Unfortunately  she  does 
not  confine  herself  to,  legitimate  manoeuvres, 
but  compromises  her  reputation,  if  not  her 
virtue,  by  her  encouragement  of  the  vicious 
old  Lord  Steyne,  from  whom,  without  her 
husband's  knowledge,  she  receives  large 
sums  of  money.  Rawdon,  who  is  devoted 


VARUNA 

to  his  wife,  and  in  spite  of  his  faults  has  a  high 
sense  of  honour,  finding  her  and  Lord 
Steyne  together  in  incriminating  circum- 
stances, breaks  with  her  after  a  furious  scene 
with  his  lordship. 

Amelia,  plunged  in  grief  by  the  loss  of  the 
husband  she  still  worships,  lives  with  her 
shiftless  parents  a  life  of  poverty  and 
humiliation  which  the  devoted  Dobbin  has 
secretly  done  his  best  to  alleviate.  She  is  even 
forced  to  surrender  her  son  to  old  Osborne, 
in  order  to  obtain  from  him  some  means  of 
support.  After  ten  years  Dobbin  comes 
home  from  India,  but  though  Amelia  is 
grateful  to  him,  the  memory  of  her  husband 
still  stands  between  her  and  him.  It  is  only 
after  Becky,  now  a  disreputable  frequenter 
of  continental  haunts,  has  revealed  to  her 
George's  infidelity  that  Amelia's  idol  is 
finally  shattered,  and  room  is  made  in  her 
heart  for  Dobbin,  whom  she  finally  marries. 

There  are  many  other  entertaining  charac- 
ters in  the  book:  Pitt  Crawley,  the  old 
baronet's  pompous  elder  son;  the  Rev.  Bute 
Crawley,  the  baronet's  brother,  and  his 
designing  wife ;  Briggs,  Miss  Crawley's  com- 
panion and  Becky's  'sheep-dog';  Major 
O'Dowd,  his  Irish  wife,  and  Glorvina,  his 
dashing  sister;  the  Bareacres  family  whose 
rank  is  the  only  ground  for  their  arrogance; 
and  the  tyrannical  Lady  Southdown,  Pitt 
Crawley's  mother-in-law,  who  administers 
tracts  and  medicine  to  all  her  family. 

Vanity  of  Human  Wishes,  The,  a  poem  by 
S.  Johnson  (q.v.),  published  in  1749.  It  is  an 
imitation  of  the  Tenth  Satire  of  Juvenal. 

The  poet  considers  the  various  objects  of 
human  ambition  and  indicates  their  vanity. 
First,  power,  which  he  illustrates  by  the  rise 
and  fall  of  Thomas  Wolsey,  of  Buckingham, 
Hyde,  and  others.  Then  he  points  to  the 
dangers  attending  eminence  in  learning,  and 
the  end  of  Galileo  and  Laud.  He  passes  to 
military  glory  and  the  fate  of  Charles  of 
Sweden;  and  then  to  the  miseries  attending 
great  length  of  life  and  the  dangers  of 
physical  beauty.  His  conclusion  is : 

Still  raise  for  good  the  supplicating  voice, 
But  leave  to  Heav'n  the  measure  and  the 

choice. 

Varangians,  THE,  from  ON.  V&ringi,  ap- 
parently from  var-,  plighted  faith;  the 
Scandinavian  rovers  who  in  the  Qth  and  loth 
cents,  overran  Russia  and  reached  Constanti- 
nople ;  hence  the  Northmen  (latterly  also  the 
Anglo-Saxons)  forming  the  bodyguard  of 
the  later  Byzantine  emperors.  [OED.]  The 
Varangians  figure  in  Scott's  'Count  Robert 
of  Paris'  (q.v.). 

Varden,  GABRIEL,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Barnaby  Rudge*  (q.v.),  father  of  Dolly 
Varden* 

Varney,  RICHARD,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Kenilworth*  (q.v.). 

Varuna,  in  early  Vedic  mythology,  the 
greatest,  with  Indra,  of  the  Indian  gods,  the 

'si 


VASARI 

lord  and  maintainer  of  the  physical  universe. 
The  name  is  perhaps  to  be  identified  with  the 
Greek  ovpavos,  heaven.     In  post-Vedic  my- 
thology, Varuna  appears  as  the  god  of  the 
ocean  and  of  the  night. 
VASARI,    GIORGIO    (1511-74),    Italian 
painter,  architect,  and  author,  especially  re- 
membered as  the  author  of  'Lives  of  the  most 
excellent  Architects,  Painters,  and  Sculptors* 
of  his  own  country  (1550  and  1568). 
Vasco  da  Gama,  see  Gama. 
Vashti,  the  rebellious  queen  of  Ahasueras 
(see  Esther  i).   She  figures  in  Pt.  I  of  Aber- 
crombie's  (q.v.)  series  of  dramatic  poems, 
'Emblems  of  Love*. 

Vatel,  FRANCOIS  (d.  1671),  steward  to 
Fouquet  and  subsequently  to  the  Prince  de 
Conde*.  The  fish  having  failed  to  arrive  in 
time  for  a  banquet  given  at  Chantilly  by  the 
prince,  Vatel  committed  suicide. 

Vathek,  An  Arabian  Tale,  by  W.  Beckford 
(q.v.),  published  in  English  in  1786. 

The  work  was  written  by  Beckford  in 
French  and  translated  into  English,  probably 
by  Samuel  Henley,  the  translation  being 
revised  by  Beckford.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
written  in  three  days  and  two  nights.  It  is 
founded  on  Eastern  tales. 

The  Caliph  Vathek,  grandson  of  Haroun-al- 
Raschid,  under  the  influence  of  his  sorceress 
mother,  the  Greek  Carathis,  and  of  his  own 
unbounded  curiosity  and  megalomania,  be- 
comes a  servant  of  Eblis  (the  Devil),  makes  a 
sacrifice  of  fifty  children,  and  sets  off  from 
his  capital,  Samarah,  to  the  ruined  city  of 
Istakar,  where  he  is  promised  the  sight 
of  the  treasures  of  the  pre- Adamite  sultans. 
On  the  way  he  falls  in  love  with  Nouro- 
nihar,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  one  of  his 
emirs,  who  accompanies  him  on  his  quest. 
Amid  various  grotesque  and  extravagant 
incidents,  he  obtains  admission  to  the  sub- 
terranean halls  of  Eblis,  only  to  discover  the 
vanity  of  the  riches  and  wonders  that  he  sees 
there,  and  to  receive  the  penalty  of  his  crime, 
in  the  form  of  eternal  torture.  The  principal 
literary  merit  of  the  work  lies  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  this  inferno  and  of  Vathek's  end. 

To  'Vathek'  Beckford  added  three  'Epi- 
sodes' (the  last  unfinished),  also  oriental 
tales,  which  were  only  recently  published. 
They  were  translated  from  the  French  by 
Sir  F.  T.  Marzials  (1912). 

Vatican,  THE,  the  palace  of  the  pope  on  the 
Vatican  Hill  in  Rome  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Tiber.  It  contains  galleries  of  pictures  and 
sculpture,  and  the  famous  Vatican  library. 
The  'Vatican  City*  is  now  distinct  from 
Rome. 

Vatican  Decrees,  THE,  adopted  in  July 
1870  at  the  Oecumenical  Council  summoned 
by  Pius  IX,  laid  down  a  theological  defini- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility. 
Vaucluse  or  VALCLUSA,  a  village  near  Avig- 
non in  the  south  of  France,  famous  as  the 


VECK 

residence  of  Petrarch,  and  for  the  fountain 
which  he  celebrated. 

Vaudeville,  a  light  popular  song  or  a  stage 
performance  of  a  light  and  amusing  charac- 
ter interspersed  with  songs,  from  vau  de  vire9 
in  full  chanson  du  Vau  de  Vire,  a  song  of  the 
Valley  of  the  Vire  (in  Calvados,  Normandy). 
The  name  is  said  to  have  been  first  given 
to  songs  composed  by  Olivier  Basselin,  a 
fuller  of  Vire  (isth  cent.). 

Vaudois,  see  Waldenses. 

VAUGHAN,  HENRY  (1623-95),  educated 
at  Jesus  College,  Oxford,  is  noteworthy 
for  his  'Silex  Scintillans*,  a  collection  of  re- 
ligious poems  (including  the  magnificent 
*They  are  all  gone  into  the  world  of  light'), 
of  which  the  first  part  was  published  in  1650, 
and  the  second  in  1655.  Of  his  profane 
works,  'Poems*  appeared  in  1646,  'Olor 
Iscanus*  (q.v.)  in  1651,  and  'Thalia  Rediviva* 
(including  a  section  of  'Pious  Thoughts 
and  Ejaculations')  in  1678.  His  'Collected 
Works'  were  published  in  1871.  He  was 
known  as  the  'Silurist*  because  of  his  love 
for  the  country  of  Brecknockshire,  the  county 
of  his  birth,  which  was  anciently  inhabited 
by  the  Silures. 

VAUGHAN,  THOMAS  (1626-66),  brother 
of  Henry  Vaughan  (q.v.),  alchemical  writer, 
author  of  'Magia  Adamica',  &c.  He  engaged 
in  controversy  with  Henry  More  (q.v.),  and 
was  in  part  an  original  of  Ralph  in  'Hudibras* 
(q.v.). 

Vaxix,  ROLAND  DE,  the  baron  of  Triermain, 
see  Roland  de  Vaux. 

VAUX,  THOMAS  LORD  (1510-56),  a 
contributor  to  'Tottel's  Miscellany*  (q.v.), 
principally  remembered  as  the  author  of  'The 
aged  Lover  renounceth  Love*,  the  source  of 
the  song  mumbled  by  the  grave-digger  in 
'Hamlet*. 

Vauxhall  or  Fox  HALL,  originally  'Falkes 
Hall*  (said  to  be  from  Falkes  de  Breaute*, 
captain  of  John's  mercenaries,  and  lord  of 
the  manor  in  the  early  i$th  cent.),  famous 
for  the  gardens  laid  out  there  in  the  middle 
of  the  1 7th  cent.,  and  at  first  called  'The  New 
Spring  Gardens',  because  they  replaced  the 
old  Spring  Gardens  (q.v.)  adjoining  St. 
James's  Park.  Vauxhall  Gardens  are  fre- 
quently referred  to  from  that  time  by  dra- 
matists and  other  writers,  including  Pepys. 
Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  visited  them  with  Mr. 
Spectator  (he  commented  on  the  scarcity  of 
nightingales  in  the  gardens  as  compared  with 
less  desirable  visitors — 'Spectator',  No.  383). 
Thackeray  in  c,  vi  of  'Vanity  Fair*  and  Fanny 
Burney  in  'Evelina*  describe  the  visits  to 
them  of  certain  of  their  characters.  The 
gardens  were  finally  closed  in  1859. 

Veal,  MRS.,  see  Defoe. 

Veck,  TOBY  ('Trotty'),  a  character  in 
Dickens's  'The  Chimes*  (q.v.). 


[814] 


VECTIS 

Vectis  or  VECTA,  the  Roman  name  of  the  Isle 

of  Wight. 

Veda,  one  or  other  of  the  four  ancient  sacred 
books  of  the  Hindus  (called  the  Rig-,  Yajur-, 
Sama-,  and  Atharva-Veda).  Each  Veda  in- 
cludes a  sanhita  or  collection  of  mantras  or 
hymns,  and  a  Brahmana  or  body  of  precepts ; 
and^to  each  is  attached  a  Upanishad  (mean- 
ing 'a  sitting-down  at  the  feet  of  an  instruc- 
tor*), a  speculative  mystical  treatise  dealing 
with  the  Deity,  creation,  and  existence.  The 
date  of  the  Vedas  is  unknown,  but  they  are 
among  the  most  ancient  literary  works  of  the 
world. 

VEGA,  GARCILASSO  DE  LA,  see  Garti- 
lasso  de  la  Vega* 

VEGA,  LOPE  DE  (1562-1635),  the  founder 
of  the  Spanish  drama,  and  the  author  of 
a  great  number  of  plays,  poems,  and  ro- 
mances, which  have  been  a  source  of  inspira- 
tion to  European  literature  in  general,  par- 
ticularly to  that  of  France.  A  curious  testi- 
mony to  his  facility  is  that  he  wrote  a  long 
continuation  of  Ariosto  while  taking  part  in 
the  expedition  of  the  Armada,  from  which  he 
returned  safely. 

Vehmgericht  or  VEHMIC  TRIBUNALS,  secret 
tribunals  that  existed  in  Westphalia,  'original 
jurisdictions  of  the  "Old  Saxons",  which 
survived  the  subjugation  of  their  country' 
(Palgrave),  for  the  maintenance  of  public 
peace  and  order.  They  exercised  an  extra- 
ordinary power,  persons  of  exalted  rank  being 
subject  to  their  jurisdiction  and  frequently 
punished.  The  members  of  the  order  were 
initiated  with  mystic  rites  and  had  secret  signs 
of  recognition.  These  tribunals  rose  to  im- 
portance in  the  i2th  cent,  and  were  not  sup- 
pressed until  the  i6th.  They  figure  in  Scott's 
*Anne  of  Geierstein'  (q.v.). 

Veiled  Prophet  of  Khorassan,  The,  see 
Lalla  Rookh. 

Velazquez,  DIEGO  RODRIGUEZ  DA  SILVA  Y, 
(1599-1660),  the  great  Spanish  painter,  a 
man  no  less  remarkable  for  character  than  for 
artistic  genius.  He  became  court  painter  to 
Philip  IV,  who  declared  that  he  would  be 
painted  by  no  one  else.  In  1528  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Rubens  (q.v.)  and  the  two 
artists  became  close  friends.  Velazquez  paid 
two  visits  to  Italy. 

Vendee,  LA,  a  department  in  the  west  of 
France,  the  scene  of  civil  war  during  the 
French  Revolution  incited  by  the  priests  (far 
more  than  by  the  squires)  of  the  region.  It 
was  the  *leve*e-en-masse*  by  the  decree  of  the 
Convention  of  23  Feb.  1793  which  led  to  the 
first  insurrection,  more  against  this  quasi- 
conscription  than  in  favour  of  the  'ancien 
regime'.  See  also  Chouans. 

Vende"miaire,  from  Latin  vindemia,  grape- 
gathering,  the  first  month  in  the  French 
Republican  calendar  (see  Calendar). 


VENICE  PRESERVED 

Vendice  or  VINDICE,  the  chief  character  in 
'The  Revenger's  Tragedy',  ascribed  to 
Cyril  Touraeur  (q.v.). 

Veneering,  MR.  and  MRS.,  in  Dickens's 
'Our  Mutual  Friend'  (q.v.),  types  of  flashy 
social  parvenus. 

Venetia  f  a  novel  by  Disraeli  (q.v.),  published 
in  1837. 

The  story  is  partly  based  on  the  life  of 
Byron  with  some  admixture  of  that  of 
Shelley,  but  is  placed  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
1 8th  cent.  Venetia  is  the  daughter  of  Mr. 
Herbert  and  Lady  Annabel  Herbert,  who  has 
separated  from  her  husband  owing  to  his 
subversive  views  on  morality,  politics,  and 
religion.  He  is,  however,  a  man  of  character 
as  well  as  ability,  joins  the  American  forces 
in  their  revolution,  and  becomes  a  general. 
He  subsequently  lives  in  seclusion  in  Italy. 
Venetia  is  brought  up  by  her  mother  in  com- 
plete ignorance  of  her  father,  but  grows  up 
with  an  instinctive  devotion  to  him,  which  is 
increased  by  the  discovery  of  his  portrait  and 
of  his  sonnets.  She  is  also  thrown  into  in- 
timate contact  with  the  young  Lord  Cadurcis, 
a  youth  of  brilliant  abilities,  who  presently 
becomes  animated  with  the  same  subver- 
sive ideas  as  Herbert.  He  is  in  consequence 
looked  upon  by  Lady  Annabel  with  aversion, 
his  hope  of  marrying  Venetia  is  frustrated, 
and  he  is  obliged  to  leave  England  owing  to  a 
social  candal.  Venetia's  health  is  impaired 
by  the  troubles  of  her  heart,  and  mother  and 
daughter  travel  in  Italy.  Meeting  accident- 
ally her  father  there,  Venetia  effects  the 
reconciliation  of  her  parents,  and  the  general 
happiness  appears  complete  when  Cadurcis 
joins  them,  at  once  wins  Herbert's  affection, 
and  recovers  the  esteem  of  Lady  Annabel. 
But  at  this  juncture,  when  the  obstacles  to 
the  union  of  Cadurcis  and  Venetia  have  been 
removed,  Cadurcis  and  Herbert  are  drowned 
in  a  squall  in  the  bay  of  Spezzia. 

Veni,  vidi,  vici,  Latin,  'I  came,  I  saw,  I 
conquered',  words  which  Suetonius  in  'Lives 
of  the  Caesars'  (Julius,  37)  says  were  dis- 
played before  Julius  Caesar  in  his  Pontic 
triumph  (after  his  victory  over  the  rebel 
Pharnaces  II,  47  B.C.).  According  to  Plutarch 
(Life  of  Caesar)  the  three  words  formed  the 
whole  of  the  account  of  this  victory  which  he 
sent  to  his  friend  Amintius. 

Venice  Preserved,  or  a  Plot  Discovered,  a 
tragedy  in  blank  verse  by  Otway  (q.v.),  pro- 
duced in  1682. 

Jaffier,  a  noble  Venetian  youth,  has  secretly 
married  Belvidera,  daughter  of  a  proud 
senator,  Priuli,  who  has  repudiated  her. 
Jaffier,  reduced  to  poverty,  begs  Priuli  for 
assistance,  but  is  met  with  insults.  Pierre,  a 
foreign  soldier,  with  a  grievance  against  the 
Venetian  republic,  stimulates  Jaffier's  desire 
for  revenge,  confides  to  him  a  plot  that  is 
hatching  against  the  State,  and  introduces 
him  to  the  conspirators.  As  a  pledge  of  his 
loyalty  to  them  Jaffier  places  Belvidera  in  the 


VENN 

charge  of  their  leader,  Renault,  but  without 
explaining  the  reason.  Renault  in  the  night 
offers  her  insult.  She  escapes  to  her  husband, 
who,  in  spite  of  his  pledge  to  the  contrary, 
makes  known  to  her  the  conspiracy.  To  save 
her  father,  who,  as  one  of  the  senators,  is  to  be 
killed,  she  persuades  Jaffier  to  reveal  the  plot 
to  the  Senate,  but  to  claim  as  reward  the 
lives  of  the  conspirators.  These  are  arrested. 
Jaffier,  loaded  by  them  with  insults,  is  over- 
whelmed with  remorse.  The  senators,  in 
spite  of  their  promise,  condemn  the  con- 
spirators to  death.  Jaffier  threatens  to  kill 
Belvidera  unless  she  secures  their  pardon 
from  her  father.  She  succeeds,  but  Priuli's 
intervention  is  too  late.  Belvidera  goes  mad. 
Jaffier  stabs  his  friend  Pierre  on  the  scaffold 
and  then  himself,  and  Belvidera  dies  broken- 
hearted. 

The  play  with  Betterton  as  Jaffier  and  Mrs. 
Barry  as  Belvidera  was  very  well  received,  and 
was  frequently  revived ;  it  was  seen  at  Drury 
Lane  Theatre  in  1829,  and  at  Covent  Garden 
under  Macready  between  1837  and  1839.  The 
senator  Antonio  is  a  caricature  of  Shaftesbury. 

Venn,  DIGGORY,  the  reddleman  in  Hardy's 
'The  Return  of  the  Native*  (q.v.). 

Ventidius,  (i)  in  Shakespeare's  *Timon  of 
Athens'  (q.v.),  one  of  the  faithless  friends  of 
Timon;  (2)  in  Shakespeare's  'Antony  and 
Cleopatra'  (q.v.)  and  in  Dryden's  'All  for 
Love*  (q.v.),  Antony's  general. 

Venus ,  identified  with  the  Aphrodite  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  Astarte  of  the  Syrians,  was 
the  Roman  name  for  the  goddess  of  beauty  and 
love.  She  sprang  from  the  foam  of  the  sea  near 
the  island  Cythera  (whence  the  epithets  *Ana- 
dyomene*  and  *Cytherean*).  Zeus  gave  her  in 
marriage  to  Hephaestus  (Vulcan)  the  ugliest  of 
the  gods.  She  was  unfaithful  to  him,  was  found 
in  the  arms  of  Ares  (Mars),  and  was  exposed 
to  the  ridicule  of  the  gods.  By  Ares  she 
became  mother  of  Harmonia ;  by  Ares,  Zeus, 
or  Hermes,  of  Eros  (Cupid);  by  Hermes  of 
Hermaphroditus ;  and  by  Dionysus  (Bacchus) 
of  Priapus.  She  became  enamoured  also  of 
Adonis,  and  of  Anchises  (by  whom  she  was 
mother  of  Aeneas).  In  the  contest  with  Hera 
and  Athene  for  the  golden  apple,  the  prize 
was  awarded  to  her  by  Paris.  The  most 
celebrated  of  her  statues  was  that  in  her 
temple  at  Cnidos,  by  Praxiteles.  There  is  an 
antique  reproduction  of  it  in  the  Vatican  at 
Rome.  Other  famous  statues  of  Venus  are 
the  Venus  of  Milo  or  Melos,  found  in  1820 
in  the  island  of  Melos  and  now  in  the  Louvre 
in  Paris,  thought  to  date  from  about  400  B.C. ; 
and  the  Medici  Venus,  a  Greek  statue  of 
later  date,  perhaps  of  the  time  of  Augustus, 
now  in  the  Uffizi  at  Florence.  See  Uranian. 
Venus,  the  second  planet  in  order  of  dis- 
tance from  the  sun,  known  as  the  morning  or 
evening  star. 

Venus  and  Adonis,  a  poem  in  six-lined 
stanzas  by  Shakespeare  (q.v.),  published  in 
1593,  and  dedicated  to  Henry  Wriothesley, 

[8 


VERDUN 

earl  of  Southampton.  It  was  probably  Shake- 
speare's first  published  work.  Venus  in 
love  with  the  youth  Adonis,  detains  him  from 
the  chase,  and  woos  him,  but  cannot  win  his 
love.  She  begs  him  to  meet  her  on  the 
morrow,  but  he  is  then  to  hunt  the  boar. 
She  tries  in  vain  to  dissuade  him.  When  the 
morning  comes  she  hears  his  hounds  at  bay, 
and,  filled  with  terror,  goes  to  look  for  him, 
and  finds  him  killed  by  the  boar. 

Venus,  MR.,  in  Dickens Js  *Our  Mutual 
Friend*  (q.v.),  a  preparcr  of  anatomical 
specimens  and  for  a  time  an  ally  of  Silas 
Wegg. 

Venusberg,  or  MOUNTAIN  OF  VENUS,  the 
Horselberg  in  Thuringia,  in  the  caverns  of 
which,  according  to  medieval  legend,  the 
goddess  Venus  held  her  court.  See  Tann- 
hduser. 

Vercelli  Book,  a  codex  of  Old  English 
manuscripts  in  the  possession  of  the  chapter 
of  Vercelli  in  N.  Italy.  It  is  unknown  how 
it  came  into  their  keeping.  It  contains 
prose  sermons  and  religious  poetry,  particu- 
larly the  'Andreas',  Cynewulf's  'Elcne',  and 
the  'Dream  of  the  Rood'  (qq.v.). 

Vercingetorix,  the  chief  of  the  Arverni, 
who  roused  his  countrymen  to  resist  Julius 
Caesar  and  carried  on  the  struggle  against 
him  with  great  ability,  as  described  in 
Caesar's  'Commentaries'  (Bk.  VII).  He  was 
captured  at  the  taking  of  Alesia,  was  brought 
to  Rome  for  Caesar's  triumph,  and  after- 
wards put  to  death. 

Verdant  Green,  The  Adventures  of  Mr.,  see 
Bradley  (E.). 

Verdi,  GIUSEPPE  (1813-1901),  the  great 
Italian  composer  of  operas,  was  the  son  of  a 
village  innkeeper  and  was  trained  by  the 
organist  of  his  village.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
rejected  from  the  Milan  Conservatoire  for 
lack  of  musical  talent.  His  most  important 
works  were:  'Ernani*  (1844),  'Rigoletto' 
(1851),  *I1  Trovatore'  (1853),  'La  Traviata* 
(1853),  'Un  Ballo  in  Maschcra*  (1859),  'Aida* 
(1871),  'Otello'  (1887),  and  'Falstaff  (1893). 

Verdun,  a  French  fortified  town  on  the 
Meuse,  with  a  long  history  as  an  outpost  of 
Lorraine,  and  an  old  bishopric  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire.  It  became  French  in  1552 
and  guards  the  straightest  and  shortest  road 
from  central  Germany  to  Paris.  It  fell  to  the 
Prussians  in  1792  and  was  for  a  time  lost  to 
France.  It  played  an  important  part  in  the 
Great  War  and  was  the  object  of  a  concen- 
trated attack  by  German  forces  in  February 
1916.  The  concentration  on  Verdun  was  not 
foreseen  by  the  French,  and  the  defences  of  the 
town  were  imperfect.  A  heavy  bombardment 
on  21  Feb.  obliterated  the  outer  line  of  these. 
By  the  24th  the  Germans  were  threatening 
the  last  line.  The  crisis  was  reached  on  the 
25th  in  the  German  attack  on  Douaumont, 
where  the  enemy  failed  to  carry  the  position, 

16] 


VERE 

though  they  captured  the  fort.  On  the  morrow 
they  were  driven  back  by  a  counter-attack. 
They  then  shifted  their  attacks  to  other 
points,  including  in  particular  Mort  Homme 
on  the  west  of  the  Meuse,  but  were  met 
with  no^  less  stubbornness.  The  fighting 
round  Verdun  continued  until  the  end  of 
June  ^19 1 6,  when  the  pressure  was  relieved  by 
the  Franco-British  offensive  on  the  Somme. 

Vere,  ARTHUR  DE,  see  De  Vere  (Arthur). 

VERE,  AUBREY  DE,  see  De  Vere  (Aubrey). 

Verges,  one  of  the  constables  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Much  Ado  about  Nothing'  (q.v.). 
VERGIL,  the  Roman  poet,  see  Virgil. 

VERGIL,  POLYDORE  (i47o?~i5ss?),  a 
native  of  Urbino,  who  came  to  England  in 
1502  as  ^sub-coIlector  of  Peter's  pence,  and 
held  various  ecclesiastical  preferments,  being 
archdeacon  of  Wells  from  1508  to  1554.  He 
published  his  *Anglicae  Historiae  Libri 
XXVI*  in  1534-55,  a  chronicle  of  special 
value  for  the  reign  of  Henry  VI L  He  was 
also  author  of  a  'Proverbiorum  Libellus* 
(Venice,  1498),  anticipating  the  'Adagia'  of 
Erasmus. 

Verisoplit,  LORD  FREDERICK,  a  character  in 
Dickens 's  'Nicholas  Nickleby*  (q.v.). 

VBRLAINE,  PAUL  (1844-96),  French 
poet.  His  verse  is  musical,  mystical, 
passionate,  and  generally  regarded  as  de- 
cadent in  character. 

Vermeer  of  Delft,  JAN  (1632-75),  one  of 
the  greatest,  and  also  rarest,  of  Dutch  painters, 
remarkable  for  his  treatment  of  effects  of 
light. 

VERNE,  JULES  (1828-1905),  French 
novelist,  who  achieved  great  and  enduring 
popularity  by  the  combination  of  adventure 
with  popular  science  in  such  books  as  the 
*  Voyage  au  centre  de  la  Terre'  (1864),  'Vingt 
mille  lieucs  sous  les  mers*  (1869),  and  *Le 
Tour  du  rnonde  en  quatre-vingts  jours*(i  873). 

VERNER,  KARL  ADOLPH  (1846-96),  a 
philologist  of  Copenhagen,  the  son  of  a  Ger- 
man father  and  Danish  mother.  'Verner's 
Law*,  which  completes  'Grimm's  Law*  (see 
Grimm,  J.  L.  C.)  of  consonantal  variations  in 
the  Aryan  languages,  was  a  notable  advance 
in  the  science  of  comparative  philology. 

Vernon,  DIANA,  the  heroine  of  Scott's 
*Rob  Roy'  (q.v.). 

Veronica,  ST.,  in  Christian  legend,  the 
woman  of  Jerusalem  whose  cloth  or  kerchief 
was  used  to  wipe  the  face  of  Christ  on  the 
way  to  Calvary,  and  retained  miraculously 
impressed  upon  it  His  features.  Whence  the 
word  vernide,  signifying  this  cloth  (which  is 
preserved  at  St.  Peter's,  Rome)  or  the 
representation  upon  it.  The  name  Veronica 
is  a  corruption  of  Berenice  (itself  a  Macedonia 
form  of  the  Greek  Pherenice,  'bringing  vic- 
tory'). Veronica  suggested  verum  icon,  *true 
3868 


VESTA 

image',  and  thus  perhaps  gave  rise  to  the 
above  legend. 

Vers  lifores,  verses  in  which  various  metres, 
or  various  rhythms,  are  combined,  or  the 
ordinary  rules  of  prosody  disregarded. 
Versailles,  a  town  a  few  miles  south-west  of 
Paris,  which  contains  the  royal  palace,  of 
which  the  central  portion  was  built  by 
Louis  XIII,  and  the  wings  and  other  edifices 
by  Louis  XIV.  Its  great  gallery,  the  GALERIE 
DES  GLACES,  and  the  antechamber  known  as 
the  CEiL  DE  BGEUF  (q.v.),  are  celebrated 
features  of  it.  Versailles  is  prominent  in  the 
history  of  Louis  XVI  and  his  queen,  Marie 
Antoinette,  and  of  the  early  days  of  the  French 
Revolution  (see,  e.g.,  Trianon  and  Tennis 
Court  Oath).  Here  was  signed  the  Peace  of 
Versailles  or  Treaty  of  Paris  of  1783,  by 
which  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  was  recognized  and  peace  made  with 
France  and  Spain.  In  the  palace  of  Ver- 
sailles King  William  of  Prussia  was  pro- 
claimed German  Emperor  in  1871;  and 
here  was  signed  the  TREATY  OF  VERSAILLES, 
which  terminated  the  Great  War  with 
Germany,  on  28  June  1919. 

Vertue,  GEORGE  (1684-1756),  engraver  and 
antiquary,  collected  in  his  note-booksmaterials 
for  a  history  of  art  in  England.  The  note- 
books were  bought  by  Horace  Walpole,  and 
utilized  in  his  'Anecdotes  of  Painting'.  They 
are  now  in  course  of  publication  by  the 
Walpole  Society. 

Vertumnus,  an  Italian  deity,  worshipped 
as  the  god  of  the  changing  year,  and  the 
giver  of  fruits.  He  became  enamoured  of  the 
goddess  Pomona  (q.v.),  pursued  her  in 
various  shapes,  and  won  her  in  the  guise  of  a 
beautiful  youth.  Pope  has  a  poem  on  the  sub- 
ject, adapted  from  Ovid's  'Metamorphoses', 
xiv. 

Verulam  or  VERULAMIUM,  the  ancient  Ro- 
rnano-British  town  whose  modern  name  is 
St.  Albans,  and  from  which  Francis  Bacon 
took  his  title  of  Baron  Verulam.  It  is  now 
being  excavated;  it  stood  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  little  river  Ver  to  the  modern 
St.  Albans. 

VERY,  JONES  (1813-80),  American  poet 
and  religious  mystic,  born  at  Salem,  Mass., 
who  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Emerson  (q.v.), 
by  whom  he  was  deeply  influenced.  His 
'Essays  and  Poems*  appeared  in  1839. 

Vesey,    ELIZABETH    (1715  ?-9i),    wife    of 
Agmondesham  Vesey,  a  member  of  the  Irish 
parliament.  She  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Blue  Stocking  (q.v.)  circle. 
Vesey,  SIR  JOHN,  a  character  in  Bulwer 
Lytton's  comedy,  'Money'  (q.v.). 
Vesey-  Neroni,    SIGNORA,    a    character  in 
Trollope's  'Barchester  Towers'  (q.v.). 
Vespucci,  AMERIGO,  see  Amerigo  Vespucci. 
Vesta,  akin  to  the  Greek  goddess  Hestia, 
was  worshipped  by  the  Romans  as  goddess  of 


VESTAL  VIRGINS 

fire.  Aeneas  was  the  first  who  introduced  her 
mysteries  into  Italy,  and  Numa  built  her  a 
temple  which  no  males  were  permitted  to 
enter.  Her  fire  was  kept  alight  by  a  number 
of  virgins,  who  had  dedicated  themselves  to 
the  service  of  the  goddess.  These  VESTAL 
VIRGINS  were  required  to  be  of  good  family 
and  without  deformity  or  blemish,  and  to 
remain  celibate  for  thirty  years.  They  en- 
joyed great  privileges  and  honour,  had  the 
best  seats  at  games  and  festivals,  were  chosen 
as  arbiters  in  cases  of  moment,  and  had  the 
power  of  pardoning  criminals  whom  they 
met  accidentally  on  the  way  to  execution. 
In  case  of  violation  of  their  vow,  they  were 
buried  alive.  The  Temple  of  Vesta,  now 
restored,  stands  in  the  Forum. 

Vestal  Virgins,  see  Vesta. 
Vestiges  of  Creation,  see  Chambers, 

Vestris,  MADAME,  Lucia  Elizabeth  Mathews 
(1797-1856),  granddaughter  of  Bartolozzi  the 
engraver,  was  an  unrivalled  operatic  singer 
with  a  contralto  voice.  She  appeared  fre- 
quently at  Drury  Lane,  Covent  Garden,  and 
the  Haymarket,  London,  1820-31. 

Veto,  MONSIEUR  and  MADAME,  nicknames 
given  to  Louis  XVI  and  Marie  Antoinette 
during  the  French  Revolution,  in  allusion  to 
the  king's  right  (which  he  used  more  than 
once  in  1791-2)  of  vetoing  decrees  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly. 

Vholes,  a  lawyer  in  Dickens's  'Bleak  House* 


Vicar  of  Bray,  The,  the  title  of  a  well-known 
song  of  unknown  authorship,  dating  from  the 
1  8th  cent.  The  subject  is  a  time-serving 
parson,  who  boasts  that  he  has  accommodated 
himself  to  the  religious  views  of  the  reigns  of 
Charles,  James,  William,  Anne,  and  George, 
and  that  whatsoever  king  may  reign  he  will 
remain  Vicar  of  Bray. 

Various  suggestions  have  been  made  as  to 
who  this  vicar  was.  Haydn  ('Dictionary  of 
Dates*)  quotes  Fuller  as  stating  that  Symon 
Symonds,  vicar  of  Bray,  Berks.,  in  the  reigns 
of  Henry  VIII,  Edward  VI,  Mary,  and 
Elizabeth,  was  twice  a  Papist  and  twice  a 
Protestant.  When  charged  with  being  a  time- 
server  he  is  said  to  have  replied,  'Not  so, 
neither,  for  if  I  changed  my  religion,  I  am 
sure  I  kept  true  to  my  principle,  which  is  to 
live  and  die  the  vicar  of  Bray*  (see  D'Israeli, 
'Curiosities  of  Literature',  s.v.  Vicar  of 
Bray). 

Vicar  of  Christ,  a  title  first  assumed  by 
Pope  Innocent  III  (1198-1216). 
Vicar  of  Hell,  see  Bryan. 

Vicar  of  Wakefield,  The,  a  novel  by  Gold- 
smith (q.v.),  written  in  1761-2  but  not 
published  until  1766.  Goldsmith  received 
£60  for  the  manuscript. 

The  story  is  told  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Primrose, 
the  Vicar,  kindly,  charitable,  devoid  of 
worldly  wisdom  and  not  without  some  literary 


VICE  VERSA 

vanity.  His  wife,  Deborah,  is  proud  of  her 
housekeeping  and  her  children,  with  aspira- 
tions to  gentility.  Six  children,  two  girls, 
Olivia  and  Sophia,  and  four  boys  (see 
Primrose),  complete  the  family.  At  first  they 
are  prosperous  and  contented,  but  misfor- 
tunes presently  come  upon  them  thick  and 
fast.  The  Vicar  loses  his  independent  fortune 
through  the  bankruptcy  of  a  merchant.  They 
move  to  a  new  living  under  the  patronage  of  a 
certain  Squire  Thornhill.  Thornhill,  who  is 
an  unprincipled  ruffian,  seduces  Olivia  after 
a  mock  ceremony  of  marriage,  and  deserts 
her.  She  is  discovered  by  her  father  and 
brought  home,  but  his  humble  vicarage  is 
destroyed  by  fire.  He  himself  is  thrown  into 
prison  for  debt  at  the  suit  of  Thornhill ;  and 
George  Primrose,  who  challenges  the  latter 
to  a  duel  to  avenge  his  sister,  is  overpowered 
by  ruffians  and  likewise  sent  to  prison.  The 
Vicar's  second  daughter,  Sophia,  is  forcibly 
carried  off  in  a  postchaise  by  an  unknown 
villain,  and  Olivia,  who  has  been  pining  away 
since  her  desertion,  is  reported  to  the  Vicar 
to  be  dead.  All  these  misfortunes  he  bears 
with  fortitude  and  resignation. 

On  their  removal  to  their  new  vicarage  the 
Primrose  family  had  made  the  acquaintance 
of  a  certain  Mr.  Burchell,  who  appears  to  be 
a  broken-down  gentleman,  kind-hearted  but 
somewhat  eccentric.  He  occasionally  visits 
them,  and  offers  advice  concerning  the  dis- 
posal of  the  daughters,  which,  though  wise, 
is  unpalatable  to  the  ambitious  Mrs.  Prim- 
rose* This  leads  to  a  breach  in  their  relations, 
and  he  is  even  suspected  of  being  Olivia's 
seducer.  By  good  fortune  he  is  now  the 
means  of  rescuing  Sophia,  thereby  increasing 
the  regard  she  already  feels  for  him.  It 
thereupon  appears  that  he  is  in  reality  the 
benevolent  Sir  William  Thornhill,  the  squire's 
uncle.  The  squire's  villainy  is  now  exposed, 
and  it  appears  that  the  abduction  of  Sophia 
was  carried  out  by  his  design.  All  now  ends 
happily.  Sir  William  marries  Sophia.  Olivia 
is  found  not  to  be  dead,  and  her  marriage  to 
the  squire  is  shown  to  have  been,  contrary  to 
his  intentions,  legal.  The  Vicar's  fortune  is 
restored  to  him,  and  George  marries  the 
young  lady  of  his  heart,  from  whom  he  had 
been  separated  by  his  father's  misfortunes. 

In  the  course  of  the  work  are  included 
the  famous  adventure  of  Moses  Primrose 
(q.v.)  and  the  gross  of  green  spectacles,  as  also 
three  well-known  poems,  'The  Hermit'  (q.v.) 
or  'Edwin  and  Angelina',  the  'Elegy  on  the 
Death  of  a  Mad  Dog',  and  the  lyric  sung  by 
Olivia,  When  lovely  woman  stoops  to  folly'. 

Vice,  THE,  a  fool  or  buffoon  introduced  Into 
some  of  the  interludes  (q.v.)  and  later 
moralities  (q.v.).  The  character  was  probably 
evolved  from  the  merry  and  mischievous 
devil  'Tutivillus*  (see  Titivil),  one  of  the 
stock  figures  of  mysteries  and  moralities. 

Vice  Versa ,  a  novel  by  F.  Anstey  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1882,  the  story  of  the  misadventures 
of  Mr.  Bultitude,  a  father  who,  by  the  action 


[818] 


*VICISTI,  GALILAEE' 

of  an  Indian  charm,  is  transformed  into  the 
physical  appearance  of  his  schoolboy  son, 
while  the  son  takes  the  outward  form  of  his 
father;  each  retaining  their  original  mental 
characteristics.  Mr.  Bultitude  has  to  go  to 
school  while  Dick  remains  at  home  and  be- 
haves as  a  schoolboy  might  be  expected  to 
behave. 

'Vicisti,  Galilaee',  see  Julian  the  Apostate. 
VICTOR  AND  CAZIRE,  the  pseudonyms 
under  which  P.  B.  Shelley  (q.v.)  and  Elizabeth 
Shelley  published  'Original  Poetry*  in  1810. 
VICTORIA,  queen  of  England,  1837-1901. 
The  *  Letters  of  Queen  Victoria*  have  been 
issued  in  three  series,  1837—61  in  1907, 
1862-85  in  1926-8,  1886-1901  in  1930-2. 
Her  *  Leaves  from  a  Journal  of  our  Life  in  the 
Highlands,  1848-61*  appeared  privately  in 
1867,  and  publicly  in  1868.  A  second  part, 
'More  Leaves',  followed  in  1883,  covering 
the  years  1862-3. 

Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  at  South 
Kensington,  London,  was  created  out  of  the 
surplus  funds  of  the  Exhibition  of  1851,  and 
was  first  known  as  the  Department  of  Practi- 
cal Art,  its  guiding  principle  being  the- 
application  of  art  to  industry.  Its  principal 
collections  are  of  pictures  (including  the 
Raphael  cartoons  belonging  to  the  King), 
textiles,  ceramics,  furniture.  It  also  contains 
a  large  art  library.  The  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL 
HISTORY,  a  department  of  the  British 
Museum,  is  in  a  neighbouring  building. 

Victorian,  an  epithet  applied  to  anything 
(spiritual  or  material)  or  to  a  person  (author, 
artist,  politician,  &c.)  considered  typical  of 
the  reign  of  Queen.  Victoria.  Among  the 
characteristics  of  the  age  in  allusion  to  which 
the  term  is  sometimes  used  are  its  improved 
standard  of  decency  and  morality;  a  self- 
satisfaction  engendered  by  the  great  increase 
of  wealth,  the  prosperity  of  the  nation  as  a 
whole,  and  the  immense  industrial  and 
scientific  development;  conscious  rectitude 
and  deficient  sense  of  humour;  an  un- 
questioning acceptance  of  authority  and 
orthodoxy. 

Victory,  The,  Nelson's  flag-ship  at  Trafalgar. 
She  was  a  line-of-battle  ship  of  100  guns. 
She  is  now  in  Portsmouth  harbour. 

Vidar9  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  a  son  of 
Odin,  and  one  of  the  gods  who  survive 
RagnarSk  (q.v.).  He  is  the  silent  god,  the  god 
of  the  forest.  It  is  he  who  slays  the  Fenris- 
wolf  (q.v.). 

Vienna,  THE  CONGRESS  OF^was  held  by  the 
principal  European  powers  in  1814—15,  after 
Napoleon's  first  abdication,  to  settle  anew  the 
boundaries  of  the  European  states.  Among 
those  who  attended  it  were  the  emperors 
of  Russia  and  Austria,  the  king  of  Prussia, 
Wellington  and  Castlereagh  representing 
Great  Britain,  and  Talleyrand  representing 
France.  By  its  decisions  France  was  con- 
fined practically  to  her  frontiers  of  1792, 


VILLEHARDOUIN 

Prussia  was  much  enlarged,  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  and  the  old  territories  of  the 
Dutch  Republic  were  united  as  a  new  king- 
dom of  the  Netherlands.  Savoy  and  Nice 
were  restored  to  the  king  of  Sardinia.  Austria 
received  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  and  became 
dominant  in  Italy.  A  new  kingdom  of 
Poland  was  formed  under  the  Tsar.  The 
slave  trade  was  declared  illegal.  The  naviga- 
tion of  tidal  waters  was  thrown  open. 

Vignette,  an  ornamental  design  on  a  blank 
space  in  a  book,  especially  at  the  beginning  or 
end  of  a  chapter,  of  small  size,  and  unenclosed 
in  a  border.  The  word  is  a  diminutive  of  the 
Fr.  vigne,  a  vine;  originally  meaning  an 
ornament  of  leaves  and  tendrils. 

VIGNY,  ALFRED  VICTOR,  Comte  de 
(1797-1863),  French  poet,  dramatist,  and 
novelist,  an  early  leader  of  the  Romantic 
movement  in  French  literature.  His  works 
include:  Toemes  antiques  et  modernes' 
(1826),  an  historical  novel  of  the  period  of 
Louis  XIII,  'Cinq-Mars'  (1826),  the  drama 
*Chatterton'  (1835),  and  three  stories  under 
the  title  'Servitude  et  grandeur  militaires* 

(1835). 

Viking,  one  of  the  Scandinavian  adventurers 
who  practised  piracy  at  sea,  and  committed 
depredations  on  land,  as  far  as  the  Mediter- 
ranean (Hasting  the  Viking  sacked  Pisa), 
from  the  8th  to  the  nth  cents.  The  Old 
Norse  word  is  commonly  regarded  as 
derived  from  vik,  a  creek.  The  OED., 
however,  shows  reason  to  think  that  the 
word  originated  in  the  Anglo-Frisian  area 
and  is  derived  from  the  Old  English  wic, 
camp,  the  formation  of  temporary  encamp- 
ments being  a  prominent  feature  in  Viking 
raids. 

Village,  The,  a  poem  by  Crabbe  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1783,  in  which  the  poet  presents  the 
life  of  the  rustic  poor  unidealized,  in  sombre 
colours. 

Village  Blacksmith,  The,  a  poem  by  Long- 
fellow (q.v.),  published  in  1841. 

Villanelle,  a  poem,  usually  of  a  pastoral  or 
lyrical  nature,  consisting  normally  of  five 
three-lined  stanzas  and  a  final  quatrain,  with 
only  two  rhymes  throughout.  The  first  and 
third  lines  of  the  first  stanza  are  repeated 
alternately  in  the  succeeding  stanzas  as  a 
refrain,  and  form  a  final  couplet  in  the 
quatrain.  [OED.] 

VILLEHARDOUIN,  GEOFFROI  DE  (c. 
1157-1213),  marshal  of  Champagne,  was  an 
eyewitness  of  the  events  described  in  his 
*Conqu£te  de  Constantinople*  or  account  of 
the  so-called  fourth  Crusade,  the  first  great 
literary  work  in  French  prose.  Villehardouin 
relates  with  vigour  and  picturesqueness  the 
negotiations  with  the  doge  of  Venice,  the 
departure  of  the  crusading  host,  its  diversion 
from  its  proper  purpose  to  various  more 
secular  undertakings,  including  the  capture 
of  Constantinople,  the  subsequent  dissensions 


[819] 


VILLETTE 

and  intrigues,  culminating  in  the  crowning  of 
Baldwin  of  Flanders  as  emperor  of  the  East, 
and  the  grant  of  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia 
to  Boniface  of  Montferrat. 

Villette,  a  novel  by  C.  Bronte  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1853. 

The  story,  which  is  a  rehandling  of  material 
already  dealt  with  in  'The  Professor*  (then 
unpublished),  reflecting  the  personal  ex- 
periences of  the  authoress,  is  that  of  the  life 
of  an  English  girl  without  beauty,  money,  or 
friends,  who  obtains,  in  order  to  support 
herself,  a  post  as  teacher  in  a  girls'  school 
at  Brussels.  There,  by  virtue  of  a  strong 
character,  steeled  by  adversity,  she  soon 
establishes  her  position  and  wins  the  respect 
of  the  capable,  if  unscrupulous,  headmistress, 
Madame  Beck.  She  firmly  represses  a  dis- 
position to  fall  in  love  with  the  handsome 
John  Bretton,  the  English  doctor  of  the 
school,  in  whom  she  recognizes  an  acquain- 
tance of  her  childhood,  the  son  of  her  own 
godmother.  She  watches  with  friendly  con- 
cern his  infatuation  for  the  worthless  flirt, 
Ginevra  Fanshawe,  followed  by  a  happier 
love  for  the  tiny  companion  of  his  boyhood, 
Paulina  Home.  But  the  principal  theme  is 
the  description  of  the  heroine's  gradual 
fascination  by  the  waspish,  despotic,  but 
golden-hearted,  little  professor,  M.  Paul 
Emanuel,  and  of  the  change  in  him  from 
bitterness  and  tyranny  to  esteem  and  affec- 
tion. His  generosity  leaves  her  mistress  of  her 
own  school  at  Brussels  when  he  is  called 
away  by  business  to  the  West  Indies.  Whether 
he  shall  live  to  return  and  marry  her  is  left 
to  the  reader  to  decide.  The  drabness  of  the 
story  is  redeemed  by  its  biographical  aspect 
and  by  the  drawing  of  the  characters,  particu- 
larly of  Monsieur  Paul,  Madame  Beck,  and 
the  heroine  herself. 

VILLON,  FRANQOIS  (6.  1431),  French 
poet,  a  poor  scholar  of  the  university  of  Paris, 
who  spent  a  riotous  life  between  the  tavern 
and  the  prison,  and  narrowly  escaped  the 
gallows  for  theft.  Gay,  witty,  ironic, 
melancholy,  he  struck  a  new  note  in  his 
lyrics,  in  which  he  sang  the  experiences  of 
his  own  life.  His  chief  works  are  the  'Petit 
Testament*,  the  'Grand  Testament*,  and  a 
number  of  ballades  and  rondeaux,  of  which 
the  best  known,  the  'Ballade  des  Dames  du 
temps  jadis*,  was  translated  by  D.  G. 
Rossetti  (q.v.),  and  'La  Belle  Heaulrniere*  by 
Swinburne  (q.v.). 

VINCENT  DE  BEAUVAIS,  a  i3th~cent. 
Dominican,  author  of  the  'Speculum  Majus*, 
an,  enormous  compilation  of  all  the  knowledge 
of  the  time.  He  is  mentioned  by  Chaucer  in 
the  prologue  to  the  'Legend  of  Good  Women*. 
Vincentio,  (i)  the  duke  in  Shakespeare's 
'Measure  for  Measure*  (q.v.) ;  (2)  a  character 
in  his  'The  Taming  of  the  Shrew'  (q.v.). 

Vindication  of  Natural  Society,  A,  a  treatise 
by  E.  Burke  (q.v.)  published  in  1756. 
This  is  one  of  the  first  of  Burke's  published 


VIOLENTA 

writings.  It  is  an  ironical  answer  to  Boling- 
broke's  indictment  of  revealed  religion,  in 
imitation  of  his  style  and  in  the  form  of  a 
reductio  ad  absurdum.  Bolingbroke  had 
pointed  to  some  of  the  unfortunate  results  of 
religious  creeds ;  Burke  examines  the  various 
forms  of  artificial  society,  despotic,  aristo- 
cratic, and  democratic,  and  shows  that  they 
may  all  result  in  tyranny.  He  shows  the 
evils  resulting  from  artificial  laws  and  the 
division  of  society  into  rich  and  poor.  His 
conclusion  is,  'If  you  should  confess  all  these 
things,  yet  plead  the  necessity  of  political 
institutions,  I  can  argue  with  equal,  perhaps 
superior,  force,  concerning  the  necessity  of 
artificial  religion.  If  you  say  that  natural 
religion  is  a  sufficient  guide  without  the 
foreign  aid  of  revelation,  on  what  principle 
should  political  laws  become  necessary?' 

Vindication  of  the  Rights  of  Woman,  see 
Godwin  (Mrs.  Mary  Wollstonccraft). 

Vindice,  see  Vendicc. 
Vindobona,  in  imprints,  Vienna. 

Vinegar  Bible,  THE,  an  edition  of  the 
Bible  printed  by  Baskett  (q.v.)  at  Oxford  in 
1716-17,  so  called  from  the  substitution  or 
misprint  of  the  word  'vinegar'  for  'vineyard' 
in  the  heading  of  Luke  xx. 

VINER,  CHARLES  (1678-1756),  educated 
at  Hart  Hall,  Oxford,  a  jurist  who  published 
an  'Abridgment  of  Law  and  Equity*  in 
twenty-three  volumes  (1742-53).  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  VJNERIAN  PROFESSORSHIP 
of  common  law  at  Oxford,  and  of  various 
fellowships  and  scholarships  at  the  same 
university. 

Vinland,  the  region  of  North  America  where, 
according  to  the  Norse  sagas,  a  settlement 
was  made  by  Norsemen  in  the  early  years  of 
the  i  ith  cent.  It  appears  to  have  been  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Cape  Cod.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  grapes  said  to  have  been 
found  there  by  the  discoverers. 

Vintry ,  THE,  according  to  Stow  a  part  of  the 
bank  of  the  Thames  in  the  City  of  London 
where  the  merchants  of  Bordeaux  landed 
their  wines.  It  gave  its  name  to  one  of  the 
wards. 

Vinum  theologicum,  a  proverbial  ex- 
pression for  exceptionally  good  wine,  due  to 
the  monks*  reputed  fondness  for  good  living. 
(See  e.g.  Montaigne,  in.  xiii;  Henri  Estienne, 
'Apologie  pour  H&rodote*,  c.  xxii ;  Holinshed, 
i.  282;  Rabelais  in  the  earlier  editions  of 
'Gargantua'  has  'chopiner  the"ologalement', 
to  drink  freely  of  the  best  wine.) 

Viola,  the  heroine  of  Shakespeare's  'Twelfth 
Night*  (q.v.). 

Violenta,  one  of  the  dramatis  personae  of 
Shakespeare's  'All's  Well  that  Ends  Well' 
(q.v.)  who  appears  only  once  (m.  v)  in  the  play 
and  does  not  speak ;  sometimes  referred  to  as 
typical  of  a  nonentity. 


[820] 


VIOLET-CROWNED  CITY 

Violet-crowned  City,  THE,  Athens,  so 
called  by  Pindar  and  Aristophanes,  perhaps 
from  the  beautiful  purple  colour  sometimes 
to  he  seen  on  the  mountains  round  the  city. 

But  the  epithet  is  also  applied  by  the  Greek 
poets  to  Aphrodite,  the  Muses,  and  the 

Graces. 

Virgidemiamm,  Sex  Libri,  by  J,  Hall  (q.v.),  a 
collection  of  satires  on  the  abuses  of  the  day, 
in  the  spirit  of  Juvenal.  The  first  volume  was 
published  in  1597  and  the  second  in  1598. 
The  'Virgidemtae*  CVirgidemia*  means  a 
'harvest  of  rods')  deal  with  literary  matters, 
with  institutions  and  conventions,  and,  in 
the  'byting*  satires  of  the  last  three  books, 
with  individuals,  whose  identity  under  their 
pseudonyms  was  probably  clear  to  con- 
temporaries. Among  their  subjects  are  the 
neglect  of  learning,  the  impostures  of  astro- 
logy, ostentatious  piety,  the  character  of  an 
avaricious  squire,  and  the  servile  condition 
of  a  tutor.  The  book  was  condemned  by  the 
High  Commission  to  be  burnt. 

VIRGIL  (PUBLIUS  VERGILIUS  MARO)  (70- 
19  B.c.)»  the  Roman  poet,  born  at  Andes, 
a  village  near  Mantua.  His  chief  works  were 
the  *Aeneid,*  the  epic  poem  of  the  Roman 
people,  recounting  the  adventures  of  Aeneas 
and  his  Trojans  and  his  settlement  in  Italy; 
the  'GcorRics*,  a  didactic  poem  on  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  and 
bees;  and  the  *  Eclogues*  or  'Bucolics',  imita- 
tions* of  the  pastorals  of  Theocritus.  There 
are  also  minor  poems  attributed  on  doubtful 
authority  to  him,  such  as  'Culex*,  'Ciris*, 
*Moretum*,  &c.  See  also  Sortes  Virgilianae, 
and  below,  Virgil's  Fourth  Eclogue. 

VIRGIL,  POLYDORE,  see  Vergil  (P.). 

VirgfPs  Fourth  Eclogue,  written  in  403.0. 
and  hailing  the  birth  of  a  child  who  should 
bring  back  the  golden  age,  was  interpreted  by 
the  early  Church  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  as 
a  prophecy  of  Christ;  and  Virgil  and  the 
Cumacan  Sibyl  (I.  4,  'Ultima  Curnaei  venit 
jam  carminis  aetas1)  held  a  special  place  in 
medieval  belief  (e.g.  Virgil  was  Dante  s 
guide  to  the  gates  of  Paradise:  the  bibyl 
appears  in  the  'Dies  Irae'  hymn).  The 
identity  of  the  child  to  whom  Virgil  was 
really  referring  has  not  been  fully  established : 
it  may  have  been  either  a  son  of  Asinius 
Pollio,  to  whom  the  poem  is  addressed,  or 
more  probably  the  expected  child  of  Octavia- 
nus  and  Scribonia  (who  was,  in  fact,  a  girl, 
Julia), 

VfrgiPs  Gnat,  a  poem  by  Spenser  (q.v.), 
adapted  from  the  'Culex'  attributed  to  Virgil. 
A  shepherd  sleeping  in  the  shade  is  about  to 
be  attacked  by  a  serpent,  when  a  gnat,  to  warn 
him,  stings  him  on  the  eyelid.  The  shepherd 
crushes  the  gnat,  and  sees  and  kills  the 
serpent.  The  next  night  the  ghost  of  the 
gnat  reproaches  him  for  his  cruelty.  The 
shepherd,  filled  with  remorse,  raises  a  monu- 
ment to  the  gnat. 


VIRGINIANS 

Virginia,     in     Shakespeare's     'Coriolanus' 
(q.v.),  the  wife  of  Coriolanus. 

Virgin-Martyr,  The,  a  tragedy  by  Massinger 
and  Dekker  (qq.v.),  printed  in  1622. 

The  Emperor  Diocletian  bids  his  daughter 
Artemia  choose  whom  she  will  marry.  She 
chooses  Antoninus,  a  brave  soldier,  son  of 
Sapritius,  governor  of  Caesarea.  He  declines 
the  dangerous  honour,  being  moreover  de- 
voted to  Dorothea,  a  rnaid  of  the  Christian 
sect,  who  are  at  the  time  subject  to  persecu- 
tion. Theophilus,  a  zealous  persecutor,  and 
Harpax,  'an  evil  spirit*,  his  secretary,  betray 
Antoninus  and  Dorothea  to  Artemia,  who 
finds  them  together,  and  at  once  orders  them 
to  execution,  but  presently  allows  Theophilus 
to  send  his  daughters  to  Dorothea  to  convert 
her  to  the  pagan  religion.  The  daughters, 
instead,  are  converted  by  Dorothea  to 
Christianity,  and  on  their  boldly  professing 
it  are  killed  by  their  own  father.  Dorothea, 
attended  by  her  £good  spirit*,  Angelo,  ^  is 
subjected  to  extremes  of  torture  and  indignity 
and  finally  executed,  Antoninus  dying  by  her 
side.  In  the  last  act,  Angelo  and  Harpax,  the 
good  and  evil  spirits,  contend  for  the  soul  of 
Theophilus.  Theophilus  summoned^  before 
Diocletian  proclaims  his  conversion  to 
Christianity,  courageously  suffers  torture, 
and  dies.  The  same  story  has  been  treated  in 
poems  by  Swinburne  and  G.  M.  Hopkins. 
Virgin  Queen,  a  name  for  Queen  Elizabeth 
of  England. 

Virginia,  a  daughter  of  the  centurion,  Lucius 
Virginius.  Appius  Claudius,  the  decemvir, 
became  enamoured  of  her  and  sought  to  get 
possession  of  her.  For  this  purpose  she  was 
claimed  by  one  of  his  favourites  as  daughter 
of  a  slave,  and  Appius  in  the  capacity  of  a 
judge  gave  sentence  in  his  favour  and  de- 
livered her  into  the  hands  of  his  friend. 
Virginius,  informed  of  these  proceedings, 
arrived  from  the  camp,  and  plunged  a  dagger 
into  his  daughter's  breast  to  save  her  from 
the  tyrant.  He  then  rushed  to  the  camp  with 
the  bloody  knife  in  his  hand.  The  soldiers, 
incensed  against  Appius  Claudius,  marched 
to  Rome  and  seized  him.  But  he  destroyed 
himself  in  prison  and  averted  the  execution 
of  the  law.  This  incident  led  to  the  abolition 
of  the  decemviral  power.  The  story  (which 
is  in  Livy,  Hi.  44  et  seq.)  is  the  basis  ot 
Sheridan  Knowles's  (q.v.)  tragedy  Vir- 
ginius', and  of  Macaulay's  (q.v.)  lay 
<  Virginia*. 

Virginians,  The,  a  novel  by  Thackeray  (q.v.), 
published  in  twenty-four  serial  numbers, 
Nov.  1857  to  Sept.  1859; 

The  author  relates  the  fortunes  of  the 
descendants  of  Colonel  Henry  Esmond  (see 
Esmond),  in  particular  of  the  twin  sons, 
George  and  Henry,  of  his  daughter  Rachel. 
Rachel  has  married  a  Warrington  (ancestor  ot 
the  friend  of  Pendennis)  and  survived  him 
as  owner  of  an  estate  in  Virginia.  George 
Warrington,  the  elder  twin,  disappears  in 


[821] 


VIRGINIE 

General  Braddock's  disastrous  expedition 
against  Fort  Duquesne,  and  is  believed  to 
have  perished.  His  younger  brother,  now 
regarded  as  the  heir  of  a  great  property,  visits 
England,  and  is  received  with  questionable 
cordiality  by  his  cousins  of  the  Castlewood 
family — Lord  Castlewood,  a  well-bred  card- 
sharper,  his  brother  Will,  a  cowardly  swindler 
and  bully,  and  their  notorious  sisters,  in 
particular  the  elderly  Maria,  who  inveigles 
Harry  into  a  promise  of  marriage.  With  them 
is  the  dominating  character  of  the  book, 
Baroness  Bernstein,  the  Beatrix  Esmond  of 
the  earlier  novel,  who  has  buried  her  first 
husband,  Tom  Tusher,  the  bishop,  and  the 
second,  the  baron,  and  is  now  a  stout  sardonic 
old  lady  with  a  very  dark  pair  of  eyes,  who 
conceives  a  strong  affection  for  Harry,  and 
influences  his  fortune  for  good  and  evil. 
Harry,  who  is  a  frank,  open-handed,  jbut 
stupid  fellow,  plunges  into  a  course  of  dissipa- 
tion which  lands  him  in  a  sponging-house, 
whence  he  is  rescued  by  his  brother  George, 
who  has  survived  his  wounds  and  spent 
eighteen  months  as  a  prisoner  in  French 
hands.  Harry,  being  no  longer  heir  to  the 
property,  escapes  from  the  clutches  of  the 
mercenary  Maria,  enters  the  army,  serves  with 
distinction  under  Wolfe,  returns  to  Virginia, 
and  marries  the  daughter  of  his  mother's 
housekeeper,  Mrs.  Mountain.  George  settles 
in  London  and  leads  a  struggling  life ;  for  his 
tyrannical  mother,  whose  love  is  centred  on 
Harry,  cuts  off  supplies  when  he  marries 
Theo,  the  daughter  of  the  gallant  but 
impecunious  old  General  Lambert.  In  time, 
however,  he  inherits  the  Warrington  property, 
and  his  troubles  come  to  an  end. 

The  book  contains  a  vivid  account  of  the 
rakish  and  unprincipled  society  of  the  day, 
and  introduces  Wolfe  and  Washington.  The 
latter  part  deals  with  the  American  War  of 
Independence. 

Virginia,  see  Paul  et  Virginie. 

Virgins,  THE  ELEVEN  THOUSAND,  the  com- 
panions of  St.  Ursula  (q.v.)  who,  according 
to  legend,  suffered  martyrdom  at  Cologne  in 
452. 

Virgo,  a  zodiacal  constellation  and  the  sixth 
sign  of  the  zodiac,  which  the  sun  enters 
about  20  Aug.  See  Astraea  and  Icarius  for 
alternative  stories  of  its  origin. 

Virtues,  one  of  the  orders  of  the  celestial 
hierarchy.  See  Angel. 

Virtues,  in  scholastic  philosophy,  comprised 
the  three  THEOLOGICAL  VIRTUES,  faith,  hope, 
and  charity,  and  four  CARDINAL  VIRTUES, 
justice,  prudence,  temperance,  and  fortitude. 

Vishnu,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the  second 
god  in  the  triad  (Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva), 
regarded  as  the  preserver.  He  had  many  in- 
carnations, which  were  assumed  when  some 
disaster  threatened  the  world.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  of  these  is  KRISHNA  (q.v.). 
Another  is  MATSYA,  the  fish  which  saves 


VITA  NUOVA 

Manu  (q.v.)  from  the  deluge  by  means  of  an 
ark ;  a  third  is  RAMA,  whose  exploits  are  told 
in  the  'Rarnayana*  (q.v.).  A  fourth  is  BUDDHA, 
adopted  apparently  by  the  Brahrnans  in  order 
to  place  Buddhism  in  what  they  regarded  as 
the  proper  relation  to  their  own  religion ;  for 
they  represent  Vishnu  as  adopting  the  form 
of  Buddha  in  order  to  delude  by  his  teaching 
the  enemies  of  the  gods.  Vishnu's  wife  is 
LAKSHMI  (or  SRI).  Vishnu  shares  with  Siva 
the  principal  worship  of  modern  Hinduss 
Brahma  having  fallen  into  the  background. 

Vision  concerning  Piers  Plowman ,  They  see 
Piers  Plowman. 

Vision  of  Judgment f  A,  a  poem  in  hexa- 
meters by  Southey,  published  in  i&ax. 

The  preface,  in  defence  of  this  metrical 
innovation,  contains,  in  a  digression,  a  violent 
attack  on  the  works  of  Byron,  *those  mon- 
strous combinations  of  horrors  and  mockery, 
lewdness  and  impiety \ 

The  poet  in  a  trance  sees  George  III,  who 
had  died  in  1820,  rise  from  the  tomb,  and, 
after  receiving  from  the  shade  of  Perceval  the 
latest  intelligence  about  affairs  in  England, 
proceed  to  the  gates  of  Heaven.  The  Devil, 
accompanied  by  Wilkes,  comes  forward  to 
arraign  him,  but  retires  discomfited,  and  the 
king,  after  receiving  a  testimonial  from 
Washington,  is  admitted  to  Paradise,  where 
he  is  greeted  by  previous  English  sovereigns, 
the  worthies  of  England,  and  finally  by  his 
family. 

The  poem  was  amusingly  parodied  by 
Byron  in  'The  Vision  of  Judgment*  (q.v.). 

Vision  of  Judgment  f  The,  a  satirical  poem  by 
Lord  Byron  (q.v.),  published  in  'The  Liberal* 
in  1822. 

In  1821  had  appeared  Southey  *s  (A  Vision 
of  Judgment'  (q.v.),  containing  in  the  pre- 
face a  violent  attack  on  Byron's  works.  Byron 
replied  in  the  appendix  to  'The  Two  Foscari' 
(q.v.),  and  in  the  present  satire,  a  travesty  of 
Southey *s  poem,  in  which,  besides  holding  up 
the  poet  laureate  to  derision,  he  treats  the 
subject  of  the  late  king's  appearance  before 
the  tribunal  of  heaven  very  disrespectfully  if 
very  humorously.  The  publisher  was  prose- 
cuted  for  endangering  the  public  peace  by  a 
publication  calumniating  his  late  majesty, 
convicted,  and  fined. 

Vision  ofMirza,  The,  an  allegory  by  Addison 
(q.v.),  published  in  the  *  Spectator*  (No.  159). 
Mirza  has  a  vision  of  human  life  in  the  form 
of  a  bridge  of  three  score  and  ten  arches,  over 
which  the  multitudes  are  passing,  some 
dropping  through  concealed  trap-doors  into 
the  flood  beneath. 

Vision  of  Theodore,  the  Hermit  of  Teneriffe, 
The,  see  Johnson  (£.). 

Visions  of  the  Daughters  of  Albion,  see 
Blake. 

Visvakarma,  see  Tvastri. 
Vita  Nuova,  see  Dante. 


[822] 


VITRUVIUS 

VITRUVIUS,    MARCUS    POLLIO    (/?. 

40  B,c,)»  a  Roman,  the  author  of  a  valuable 
treatise  on  architecture,  dedicated  to  Augus- 
tus, the  only  surviving  classical  work  on  the 

subject, 

Vittoria,  a  novel  by  G.  Meredith  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1867. 

The  scene  is  laid  in  northern  Italy  in  the 
period  of  the  first  rising  of  1848,  at  the  inspira- 
tion of  Mazzini,  against  the  Austrian  domina- 
tion^ The  author  depicts  the  dissensions  and 
suspicions  of  the  period,  and  the  conflict 
between  the  republicans  and  the  supporters  of 
Charles  Albert.  Against  this  background  we 
have  a  continuation  of  the  romance  of 
'Sandra  Belloni'  (q.v.).  The  noble-minded 
singer  throws  herself  with  ardour  into  the 
movement  for  Italian  independence  and 
places  her  voice  at  the  service  of  the  cause, 
singing  under  the  name  of  Vittoria  in  the 
opera  at  Milan  the  song  which  is  to  be  the 
signal  of  Italian  revolt.  But  her  connexion 
with  her  English  friends,  particularly  with 
Wilfrid  Pole,  now  an  officer  in  the  Austrian 
army,  brings  her  under  the  suspicion  of  a 
crazy  patriot.  This,  and  the  enmity  of  two 
women,  Anna  von  Lenkenstein  and  Violetta 
d'lsorclla,  involve  her,  the  gallant  Carlo 
Ammiani,  whom  she  marries,  and  Wilfrid 
himself,  in  a  series  of  dangerous  situations, 
from  which  she  emerges  widowed.  Merthyr 
Powys  reappears  in  the  character  of  her  de- 
voted and  self-sacrificing  friend  and  protector. 

Vittoria,,  The,  the  only  one  of  Magellan's 
(q.v.)  live  ships  to  complete  (in  1521,  with 
i  $  men  out  of  the  original  365  members  of 
the  expedition)  the  first  circumnavigation  of 
the  globe.  Some  perplexity  was  caused  by 
her  arriving  one  day  later  than  her  journal 
indicated— -the  converse  of  what  happened 
to  Mr.  Phileas  Fogg  (q.v.),  who  went  round 
the  world  the  opposite  way. 

Vittoria  Corombona,  see  White  Devil. 

Vitus,  ST.,  the  son  of  a  Sicilian,  nobleman, 
who  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Diocletian.  His  relics  were  in  the  9th  cent, 
removed  to  the  abbey  of  Corvey  in  Saxony, 
where  his  cult  developed.  The  saint  is 
especially  invoked  in  cases  of  chorea,  the 
disease  otherwise  known  as  ST.  VITUS'S 
DANCE. 

Vivian  Grey,  a  novel  by  Disraeli  (q.v.)»  pub- 
lished in  1826-7*  This  was  the  first  of 
Disraeli's  novels,  written  when  he  was  only 
21,  and  is  based  on  Imagination  acting  upon 
knowledge  not  acquired  by  experience*  but 
from  books  and  the  conversations  that  he 
heard. 

Vivian  Grey,  a  precocious  youth  of  intelli- 
gence, charm,  and  ambition,  thinks  that  he 
can  achieve  success  by  his  wits  and  audacity. 
He  gains  great  influence  over  the  marquis  of 
Carabas,  a  selfish  disappointed  politician,  and 
builds  up  round  him  a  faction  of  discontented 
peers  and  M.P.'s,  by  skilfully  playing  on 
their  foibles.  His  scheme  to  create  a  new 


VOLSUNG 

party  is,  however,  defeated  by  the  machina- 
tions of  the  treacherous  Mrs.  Lorraine.  He 
is  challenged  by  Cleveland,  the  designated 
leader  of  the  new  party,  who  has  been  led  to 
regard  him  as  a  traitor.  In  the  duel  Cleve- 
land is  killed,  and  Vivian  Grey  leaves  the 
country.  A  succession  of  adventures  on  the 
Continent,  in  love  and  politics,  leaves  him 
with  the  'satisfaction  of  knowing  himself  to  be 
the  most  unfortunate  and  unhappy  being  that 
ever  existed*. 

Vivien,  see  Nimue. 

Vogelweide,  WALTHER  VON  DER,  see  Minne- 
singers. 

Volapiik,  an  artificial  language,  chiefly  com- 
posed of  materials  from  European  tongues, 
invented  in  1879  by  a  German  priest,  Johann 
M.  Schleyer,  as  a  means  of  international 
communication. 

Volpone  f  or  The  Fox,  a  comedy  by  Jonson 
(q.v.),  first  acted  in  1606  and  printed  in  1607. 

Volpone,  a  rich  Venetian  without  children, 
feigns  that  he  is  dying,  in  order  to  draw  gifts 
from  his  would-be  heirs.  Mosca,  his  parasite 
and  confederate,  persuades  each  of  these  in 
turn  that  he  is  to  be  the  heir,  and  thus  extracts 
costly  presents  from  them ;  one  of  them,  Cor- 
vino,  even  sacrifices  his  wife  to  Volpone  in  hope 
of  the  inheritance.  Finally  Volpone  overreaches 
himself.  To  enjoy  the  discomfiture  of  the 
vultures  who  are  awaiting  his  death,  he  makes 
over  his  property  by  will  to  Mosca  and  pre- 
tends to  be  dead.  Mosca  takes  advantage  of 
the  position  to  blackmail  Volpone;  and  Vol- 
tore,  a  lawyer,  who  has  aided  Volpone  in  the 
infamous  conspiracy  against  Corvino  *s  wife, 
finding  himself  defrauded  of  his  expected 
reward,  reveals  the  whole  matter  to  the 
senate;  whereupon  Volpone,  Mosca,  and 
Corvino  receive  the  punishment  they  merit. 
Sir  Politick  Would-Be,  the  English  traveller 
in  Italy,  with  his  absurd  schemes  for  supply- 
ing Venice  with  red  herrings  and  detecting  by 
means  of  onions  and  bellows  whether  there  is 
plague  on  a  ship,  and  Lady  Politick  Would- 
Be,  the  voluble  female  pedant,  have  little 
connexion  with  the  main  plot.  The  names  of 
the  principal  characters,  Volpone  (the  fox), 
Mosca  (the  fly),  Voltore  (the  vulture),  Cor- 
baccio  (the  crow),  Corvino  (the  raven),  are 
significant  of  the  parts  they  play. 

It  was  under  the  name  of  VOLPONE  that 
Godolphin  was  attacked  by  Dr.  Sacheverell 
in  1710. 

Volscius,  PRINCE,  a  character  in  the  duke  of 
Buckingham's  'The  Rehearsal*  (q.v.).  He  is 
torn  between  love  and  honour,  and  comes 
on  the  stage  with  one  boot  on  and  one  off,  his 
legs  illustrating  his  distraction. 

Volsung,  in  Icelandic  legend,  a  descendant 
of  Odin,  and  the  father  of  Sigmund  and  grand- 
father of  Sigurd.  See  Volsunga  Saga. 

Volsung,  SIGURD  THE,  see  Sigurd  the 
Volsung. 


[8*3] 


VOLSUNGA  SAGA 

Volsunga  Saga,  a  prose  version  of  a  lost  epic 
of  which  fragments  survive  in  the  poetic 
Edda  (q.v.),  dealing  with  the  families  of  the 
Volsungs  and  the  Niblungs.  It  has  been 
translated  by  W.  Morris  and  E.  Magnusson 
(1888).  For  the  treatment  in  it  of  the  story 
of  Sigurd  and  Brunhild,  see  Sigurd  the 
Volsung. 

VOLTAIRE  (1694-1778),  Fransois  Marie 
Arouet  according  to  his  true  name  ('Voltaire* 
is  perhaps  a  partial  anagram  of  Arouet  le 
jeune),  was  born  in  Paris,  and  spent  the  years 
1726-9  in  exile  in  England,  owing  to  a 
quarrel  with  a  French  noble.  Here  he  wrote 
the  'Lettres  philosophiques'  (i734)»  one  of 
his  masterpieces.  He  was  in  1746  appointed 
historiographer  of  France.  In  1750  Frederic  II 
of  Prussia  tempted  him  to  Potsdam  with  the 
offer  of  a  post  of  court  chamberlain.  But 
king  and  philosopher  presently  disagreed,  and 
in  1753  Voltaire  settled  at  Ferney  on  the 
shores  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  He  returned  to 
Paris  when  84  years  old  and  enjoyed  there 
a  brief  period  of  glory  before  his  death. 

A  sceptic  in  philosophy,  rejecting  all 
systems,  he  was  a  believer  in  God,  though  he 
condemned  particular  religions,  to  which  he 
attributed  an  intolerance  and  superstition 
which  he  regarded  as  the  worst  scourges  of 
humanity  ('ecrasons  Vinfdme!9).  His  anti- 
clericalism,  his  wit,  and  his  style  have  made 
him  one  of  the  most  famous  of  French 
writers,  and  one  of  the  leaders  of  free 
thought  everywhere.  His  influence  on  the 
French  Revolution,  which  in  1778  he  de- 
clared had  'already  come  and  even  gone  too 
far*,  was  wholly  on  the  practical  side  (e.g.  on 
statesmen  like  Danton).  Dreamers  (e.g. 
Robespierre)  were  more  influenced  by 
Rousseau. 

The  best  known  of  his  works,  of  which 
he  left  seventy  volumes,  are,  besides  the 
'Lettres  philosophiques*:  the  *Essai  sur  les 
moeurs*(i753),  the  cDictionnaire  philosophi- 
que  portatif'  (1764),  his  history  of  the  'Siecle 
de  Louis  XIV*  (1751),  his  amusing  satirical 
tales  'Zadig'  (1748),  'L'Ing&iu'  (1757),  and 
'Candida1  (1758),  and  his  correspondence 
with  D'Alembert.  Voltaire  wrote  a  number 
of  tragedies  on  classical  subjects,  and  a  few 
comedies ;  also  cLa  Pucelle*  (1762),  a  burlesque 
epic  on  Joan  of  Arc,  In  his  'Lettres  sur  les 
Anglais',  he  condemned  Shakespeare  for  lack 
of  taste  and  ignorance  of  the  classical  rules 
of  the  drama.  In  1761  he  wrote  his  *Appel  & 
toutes  les  nations'  in  defence  of  the  latter 
against  the  influence  of  Shakespeare  (see 
Montagu,  Mrs.  E.). 

A  biography  of  Voltaire  by  Lord  Morley 
was  published  in  1872. 

Volumnia,  in  Shakespeare's  'Coriolanus* 
(q.v.),  the  mother  of  Coriolanus. 

Volundr,  see  Wayland  the  Smith. 

Volunteer  State,  Tennessee,  see  United 
States. 

Voluspa  Saga,  a  poem  included  in  the  Elder 


VULGAR  ERRORS 

Edda  (see  Edda),  describing  the  creation  and 
destruction  of  the  world. 
Voodoo,  a  body  of  superstitious  beliefs  and 
practices,  including  sorcery,  serpent- worship, 
and  sacrificial  rites,  African  in  origin,  current 
among  negroes  in  the  West  Indies  and 
Southern  United  States. 

VORAGINE,  JACOBUS  A,  see  Golden 
Legend. 

Vortigern,  a  legendary  king  of  Britain  in 
the  5th  cent,  who,  it  is  said,  usurped  the 
crown.  About  449  he  invited  the  Jutes  to 
England  to  aid  him  against  the  Picts,  and, 
according  to  legend,  married  Rowena, 
daughter  of  their  leader,  Hengist ;  after  which 
the  Jutes  declined  to  go  away  again.  The 
story  is  in  'Layamon',  11.  14255-396. 

Vortiqem  and  Rowena,  a  pseudo-Shake- 
spearian play  forged  by  W.  H.  Ireland  (q.v,), 
on  the  story  of  Vortigern  (q.v.). 

VOSSIUS,  GERARD  JOHN  (1577- 
1649),  and  ISAAC  (1618-89),  his  son, 
eminent  Dutch  scholars.  The  father,  who 
was  invited  to  England  and  made  a  canon  of 
Canterbury,  was  professor  of  history  at 
Amsterdam,  and  author  of  'Historia  Pela- 
giana*.  The  son  came  to  England  and  was  a 
canon  of  Windsor  1673-89.  He  published 
editions  of  Catullus  and  Juvenal  and  *  Obser- 
vations' on  classical  subjects. 

Vox  Clamantis,  a  poem  of  10,000  lines  in 
Latin  elegiacs  by  Gower  (q.v.),  recounting 
the  Peasants'  Rising  of  1381  and  exposing  the 
corruption  of  contemporary  society,  especi- 
ally in  its  political  aspect. 

Vrain- Lucas,  see  Lucas  (V.-). 

Vronsky,  COUNT  ALEXIS,  in  Tolstoy's  'Anna 
Karenina*,  the  lover  of  Anna. 

Vulcan,  the  Roman  equivalent  of  the  Greek 
god  HEPHAESTUS.  He  was  the  god  of  lire  and 
the  patron  of  workers  in  metal.  Hephaestus 
is  represented  as  the  son  of  Hera,  and  was 
hurled  from  Olympus  by  Zeus  when  he  took 
his  mother's  part  in  a  conjugal  quarrel.  He 
fell  for  nine  days  and  dropped  on  the  island 
of  Lemnos,  breaking  his  leg  and  remaining 
thereafter  lame.  He  erected  forges  on  earth, 
indicated  by  the  presence  of  volcanoes,  and 
wrought  many  ingenious  pieces  of  mechanism. 
He  is  said  to  have  made,  at  the  request  of 
Zeus,  the  first  woman  that  appeared  on  earth, 
known  as  Pandora  (q.v.).  Aphrodite  (Venus) 
was  given  him  for  his  wife,  but  she  was  un- 
faithful to  him.  Her  amour  with  Ares 
(Mars)  was  detected  by  means  of  a  net 
prepared  by  Hephaestus.  In  *  Iliad*  xviii  he 
forges,  at  the  request  of  Thetis,  the  armour 
of  Achilles. 

Vulgar  Errors,  the  usual  name  for  Pseudodoxia 
Epidemica,  or,  Enquiries  into  very  many  re- 
ceived Tenants  and  commonly  presumed  Truths, 
a  treatise  by  Sir  T.  Browne  (q.v.),  published 
in  1646. 
This  was  the  author's  longest  work.  He 


[824] 


VULGATE 

first  analyses  the  causes  of  mistaken  popular 
beliefs,  attributing  them  to  the  common  in- 
firmity of  human  nature  and  the  inclination 
of  mankind  to  error,  to  false  deductions,  to 
credulity,  to  adherence  to  authority,  and 
finally  to  the  endeavours  of  Satan.  He  then 
ranpes  over  a  vast  number  of  legends  and 
beliefs,  discussing  them  with  a  pleasant  irony 
and  quaint  fancy ;  for  instance,  that  crystal  is 
ice  strongly  congealed,  that  an  elephant  has 
no  joints  (based  'on  the  gross  and  somewhat 
cylindrical  composure  of  the  legs'),  that 
snails  have  no  eyes,  and  the  popular  notions 


WAGNER 

about  mandrakes  and  the  salutation  of  a 
person  who  has  just  sneezed. 

Vulgate,  THE,  from  the  Latin  vulgatus, 
'made  public  or  common*,  a  term  applied 
more  particularly  to  St.  Jerome's  Latin 
version  of  the  Bible  completed  in  405. 
The  CLEMENTINE  text  of  this,  a  recension 
made  by  order  of  Clement  VIII  (1592-1605), 
is  the  authorized  text  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  See  Bible. 

Vye,  EUSTACIA,  a  character  in  Hardy's  'The 
Return  of  the  Native'  (q.v.). 


w 


WAGE  OF  JERSEY  (d.  after  1171),  wrote 
c.  1154  a  'Gcste  des  Bretons',  dedicated  to 
Eleanor,  queen  of  Henry  II,  embodying  the 
Arthurian  legends,  based  on  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth  (q.v.).  This  was  one  of  the 
sources  of  Layamon's  'Brat*  (see  Layamori). 
Wace  was  ultimately  a  canon  of  Bayeux. 

Wacht  am  Rhein?  Diet  'The  Watch  on  the 

Rhine',  a  German  national  song  of  which  the 
words  were  composed  in  1840  by  Schnecken- 
burger,  and  which  became  very  popular 
during  the  Franco-German  War. 

Wackles,  MRS.  and  the  MISSES  MELISSA, 
SOPHY,  and  JANE,  in  Dickens's  'The  Old 
Curiosity  Shop'  (q.v.),  kept  a  'Ladies* 

Seminary'  at  Chelsea, 

Wade,  GEORGE  (1673-1748),  an  Irishman 
who  rose  to  be  field-marshal  in  1743.  He  was 
commander-m-chief  in  England  in  1745,  but 
he  was  superseded  for  failing  to  stop  the 
advance  of  Prince  Charles  Edward.  He  had 
been  sent  to  the  Highlands  in  1734,  where 
he  was  celebrated  for  the  military  roads  that 
he  constructed.  The  famous  distich 

Had  you  seen  these  roads  before  they  were 
made 

You'd    hold   up   your  hands   and   bless 

General  Wade. 

does  not  contain  a  'bull*  (as  generally  sup- 
posed) because  a  'made  road*  differs  from  a  * 
road  (G.  Sheldon,  'From  Trackway  to  Turn- 
pike', 1930). 

Wade,  Miss,  a  character  in  Dickens's  'Little 
Dorrit'  (q.v.),  a  suspicious,  venomous  woman 
who  entices  away  Tattycoram  from  the 
Meagles  family. 

Wade's  boat,  in  Chaucer's  'Merchant's 
Tale*  (see  Canterbury  Tales),  1.  179: 

And  eek  thise  olde  widwes,  God  it  woot, 

They  conne  so  muchel  craft  on  Wades  boot. 

According  to  Skeat's  note  Wade  was  a 
famous  hero  of  antiquity  who  is  mentioned 
in  various  poems  and  in  Malory's  'Morte 
d'Arthur',  vn.  ix.  He  was  the  son  of  Wayland 
the  Smith  (q.v.)  and  the  king's  daughter,  and 
had  a  magic  boat  called  Wingelock  (French 
Otnngelot,  see  Gringolet}.  'Old  widows',  says 
Chaucer  in  effect,  'know  too  much  of  the  craft 


of  Wade's  boat ;  they  can  fly  from  place  to 
place  in  a  minute,  and  if  charged  with  any 
misdemeanour,  will  swear  they  were  a  mile 
away.*  A  I2th-i3th-cent.  English  reference  to 
Wade  is  recorded  in  the  'Academy'  (1896), 
i- 137»  157- 

Wadman,  WIDOW,  in  Sterne's  'Tristram 
Shandy'  (q.v.),  a  comely  'daughter  of  Eve', 
who  occupies  the  house  and  garden  next  to 
that  of  'my  Uncle  Toby*  and  tries  to  secure 
him  for  a  husband. 

Waft  of  Death,  a  phrase  used  by  G.  Fox 
(q.v.)  in  his  'Journal'  for  the  year  1658.  He 
writes,  'And  after  this  I  mett  him  [Oliver 
Cromwell]  riding  into  Hampton  Court  park, 
and  before  I  came  at  him  he  was  riding  in  the 
head  of  his  life  guard,  and  I  saw  and  felt  a 
waft  of  death  go  forth  against  him  that  tie 
looked  like  a  dead  man.' 

Wagg,  MR.,  in  Thackeray's  'Vanity  Fair' 
(q.v.),  a  satellite  of  Lord  Steyne.  His  name 
has  allusion  to  Theodore  Hook  (q.v.). 

Waggoner,  The,  a  poem  by  Wordsworth 
(q.v.),  composed  in  1805,  and  published  in 
1819  with  dedication  to  Charles  Lamb. 

It  tells  how  Benjamin  the  Waggoner, 
driving  home  his  team  of  eight  horses  through 
the  night  among  the  Lakeland  hills,  escapes 
the  temptation  of  the  Swan  Inn,  but  falls 
victim  to  that  of  the  Cherry-Tree,  and  loses 
his  place  in  consequence.  But  no  one  else 
can  drive  the  team,  and  Lakeland  loses  both 
waggoner  and  wain. 

Wagner,  the  attendant  of  Faust  in  Marlowe's 
'Doctor  Faustus'  (q.v.)  and  in  Goethe's 
'Faust'. 

WAGNER,  (WILHELM)  RICHARD 
(1813-83),  German  musician  and  poet,  who 
by  the  combination  of  these  twin  arts  in  his 
great  music-dramas  (the  'Ring'  of  the 
Nibelungen  (1853-70),  'Tristran  and  Isolde' 
(1865),  the  'Meistersinger'  (1868),  'Parsifal' 
(1882),  &c.),  and  also  by  his  critical  work, 
'Oper  und  Drama'  (1851),  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  on  German  literature.  Wagner 
created,  or  at  least  reformed,  musical  drama 
by  combining  the  spoken  drama  with  the 
old  'opera'  in  which  music  was  the  sole  aim. 
Choosing  mythical  or  legendary  matter  for 


Pad 


WAHABi 

his  subject,  he  sketched  his  drama  and 
wrote  the  verse,  which  itself  evoked  the  music 
appropriate  to  it. 

Wahabi,  a  follower  of  Abd-el-Wahhab,  a 
Mohammedan  reformer  (1691-1787)  whose 
sect  flourishes  in  central  Arabia. 
Wainamoinen,  the  principal  hero  of  the 
'Kalevala*  (q.v.),  the  god  of  music  and  poetry. 

WAINEWRIGHT,  THOMAS  GRIF- 
FITHS (1794-1852),  wrote  art-critiques  for 
the  'London  Magazine*  during  1820-3  and 
exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy.  He  was^a 
forger  and  a  poisoner,  and  died  a  convict  in 
Tasmania.  He  was  the  original  of  Varney  in 
Bulwer  Lytton's  'Lucretia'  and  suggested  to 
Dickens  his  sketch,  'Hunted  Down*.  He  was 
a  friend  of  C.  Lamb  and  the  subject  of  an 
essay  by  O.  Wilde  (qq.v.). 

Wakefield,  EDWARD  GIBBON  (1796-1862),  a 
colonial  statesman,  who  from  1829  devoted 
himself  to  the  reform  of  the  administration 
of  the  Australian  colonies.  He  had  been  in 
1826-9  in  prison  for  abducting  an  heiress; 
wrote  'The  Art  of  Colonization'  in  1833 ;  and 
went  with  Lord  Durham  to  Canada,  as  un- 
official adviser,  in  1838 ;  he  had  some  share  in 
writing  Lord  Durham's  famous  'Report'.  He 
opposed  the  transportation  system  and 
procured  the  discontinuance  of  the  wasteful 
free  grants  of  land  to  settlers.  Land  was 
to  be  sold  to  these  at  a  fairly  high  price  by 
the  Crown,  and  part  of  the  proceeds  employed 
to  assist  emigration.  He  secured  the  forma- 
tion of  the  South  Australian  Association  in 
1834,  and  of  the  New  Zealand  Association  in 
1837,  to  organize  the  colonization  of  those 
countries.  He  himself  emigrated  to  Welling- 
ton in  1853. 

WAKEFIELD,  GILBERT  (1756-1801), 
educated  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  edited 
the  'Georgics'  (1788),  'Horace'  (1794), 
'Lucretius'  (1796-9),  and  some  Greek  plays, 
and  published  'Silva  critica'  in  1789.  He  was 
a  vigorous  controversial  writer,  and  conceived 
a  violent  hatred  of  Pitt  and  of  Person.  He 
attacked  the  latter's  'Hecuba3  in  a  'Diatribe 
Extemporalis*  in  1797.  He  also  edited  some 
English  authors,  including  Pope.  He  was 
imprisoned  for  a  seditious  pamphlet,  1799- 
1801. 

Wakefield,  HARRY,  the  English  drover  in 
Scott's  'The  Two  Drovers'  (q.v.). 

Wakefield  Plays,  see  Mysteries. 

Wakem,  MR.  and  PHILIP,  characters  in  G. 
Eliot's  'The  Mill  on  the  Floss'  (q.v.). 
Walbrook  or  WALLBROOK,  London,  a 
stream  that  had  its  source  in  the  fens  beyond 
Moorgate  (q.v.),  passed  through  the  city  wall, 
and  flowing  under  many  bridges,  divided  the 
city  in  two,  issuing  into  the  Thames  at  Dow- 
gate.  The  present  street  called  Walbrook 
roughly  follows  part  of  its  course. 

The  name  is  not  taken  from  the  city  wall ; 
it  is  weall-broc,  the  stream  of  the  Britons. 


WALDHERE 

Walcheren  Expedition,  a  disastrous  ex- 
pedition, directed  against  the  French,  under- 
taken in  1809.  The  British  troops  under  Lord 
Chatham  (eldest  son  of  the  great  Chatham), 
with  a  naval  force  under  Sir  Richard  Strachan, 
reached  Walcheren,  an  island  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Scheldt,  and  took  Flushing,  but  failed 
to  achieve  anything  else,  and  the  expedition 
was  obliged  to  return  after  suffering  heavy 
losses  from  fever.  The  idea  of  such  an  ex- 
pedition was  excellent;  it  was  probably 
suggested  by  the  French  exile,  Dumouricz. 
Antwerp,  where  a  new  French  fleet  was  being 
built,  was  the  objective;  and  when  the  ex- 
pedition was  being  planned  Austria  was  still 
holding  out  on  the  Danube.  But  Castlerea^h 
ought  to  have  known  that  the  islands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Scheldt  were  notoriously  un- 
healthy and  that  tt>ere  was  no  drinkable  water 
there.  And  the  expedition  started  too  late 
(28  July),  when  Napoleon  had  already  won 
Wagram.  The  incident  inspired  the  well- 
known  epigram  (there  are  various  readings 
of  the  first  line) : 

The  Earl  of  Chatham,  with  his  sword  drawn, 
Stood  waiting  for  Sir  Richard  Strachan ; 
Sir  Richard,  longing  to  be  at  *em, 
Stood  waiting  for  the  Earl  of  Chatham. 

Waldeck,  MARTIN,  the  subject  of  a  legend 
from  the  German  interposed  in  Scott's  'The 
Antiquary'  (q.v.),  a  charcoal-burner  enriched 
by  gold  obtained  from  the  demon  of  the 
Harz  Mountains,  whose  wealth  brings  him 
to  an  evil  end. 

Waldegrave,  HENRY,  in  Campbell's  'Ger- 
trude of  Wyoming'  (q.v.),  the  husband  of 
Gertrude. 

Walden,  see  Thoreau. 

Waldenses  or  WALDENSIANS,  the  adherents 
of  a  religious  sect  which  originated  in  the 
south  of  France  about  1170  through  the 
preaching  of  Peter  Waldo,  a  rich  merchant  of 
Lyons.  They  Dejected  the  authority  of  the 
pope  and  various  rites,  and  were  excom- 
municated in  1184  and  subjected  to  persecu- 
tion. But  they  survived  and  eventually  be- 
came a  separately  organized  church,  which 
associated  itself  with  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion of  the  1 6th  cent,  and  still  exists,  chiefly 
in  northern  Italy  and  the  adjacent  regions. 
Their  persecution  by  the  duchess-regent  of 
Savoy  in  1655  led  to  Milton's  noble  sonnet, 
'Avenge,  O  Lord,  thy  slaughtered  saints% 
and  caused  Oliver  to  insist  on  his  new  ally, 
France,  putting  an  instant  stop  to  the 
massacre.  In  French  the  Waldenses  are 
called  Vaudois. 

Waldhere,  the  name  given  to  two  short  frag- 
ments (i  ith  cent.)  of  an  OE.  epic  poem  pre- 
served in  the  Royal  Library  at  Copenhagen. 
We  know  from  other  sources  that  Wald- 
here  was  the  son  of  a  king  of  Aquitaine,  who 
was  given  up  to  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  and 
became  one  of  his  generals,  but  escaped  with 
Hiltgund  (daughter  of  a  king  of  Burgundy),  to 
whom  he  had  been  betrothed  when  young. 


[836] 


WALKER 

In  the  ^course  of  their  flight  they  are  waylaid, 
and  Waldhere,  after  slaying  his  assailants  in 
a  first  encounter,  is  surprised  and  wounded 
on  the  following  day,  but  is  able  to  continue 
his  journey  and  is  finally  married  to  Hiltgund. 
The  fragments  give  speeches  that  pass  just 
before  the  second  fight. 

Walker,  HOOKEY,  a  derisive  exclamation 
expressive  of  incredulity.  It  is  not  unlikely 
that  it  was  derived  from  some  hook-nosed 
person  of  the  name  of  Walker,  but  the 
various  stories  told  to  explain  it  have  probably 
no  foundation.  [OED.] 

WALKER,  THOMAS  (1784-1836),  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge ;  called  to  the  bar 
1812;  magistrate  of  Lambeth  Police  Court 
1829.  He  is  noted  as  the  author  of  a  weekly 
periodical,  *The  Original',  of  which  twenty- 
nine  numbers  appeared  (20  May  to  2  Dec. 
1^35)  UP  to  his  death  in  Jan.  1836.  Each 
number  contains  short  articles  on  a  variety 
of  subjects;  its  purpose  was  'to  treat,  as 
forcibly,  perspicuously,  and  concisely  as  each 
subject  and  my  own  ability  will  allow,  of 
whatever  is  most  interesting  and  important 
in  Religion  and  Politics,  in  Morals  and 
Manners,  and  in  our  Habits  and  Customs** 
Walking  Stewart,  see  Stewart  (y.). 

Walkinshaw,  CLAUD,  his  sons,  and  his  wife 
LEDDY  GRIPPY,  characters  in  Gait's  'The 
Entail*  (q.v.). 

Wall,  THE  ROMAN,  see  Hadrian  and  Severus. 

Wall  Street,  in  Lower  New  York,  a  short 
street  running  from  Broadway  to  the  East 
River,  the  financial  centre  of  the  city,  where 
the  principal  banks  and  the  Stock  Exchange 
are  situated. 

WALLACE,  ALFRED  RUSSEL  (1823- 
1913),  was  born  at  Usk  in  Monmouthshire, 
and  educated  at  the  Grammar  School  at 
Hertford.  He  left  school  at  the  age  of  14, 
studied  surveying,  was  for  a  time  appren- 
tice to  a  watchmaker,  and  schoolmaster  at 
Leicester,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Henry  Walter  Bates,  the  naturalist.  In  1848 
he  joined  Bates  in  a  trip  to  the  Amazon  for  the 
collection  of  specimens.  The  expedition, 
including  the  destruction  of  their  ship  by  fire 
on  the  homeward  voyage,  is  described  in 
Wallace's  'Travels  on  the  Amazon  and  Rio 
Negro1  ( x 853).  A  further  voyage  to  the  Malay 
Archipelago  (1854-62)  is  described  in  his 
'Malay  Archipelago'  (1869).  It  was  in  1858 
during  an  attack  of  fever  at  Ternate  in  the 
Moluccas  that  the  idea  of  natural  selection 
as  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  evolution 
flashed  upon  him,  and  he  at  once  communi- 
cated it  to  Darwin.  The  outcome,  a  testimony 
to  the  generosity  of  both  the  great  biologists, 
was  the  famous  joint  communication  to  the 
Linnean  Society  on  the  theory  of  evolution. 
Among  numerous  works  and  scientific  papers 
Wallace  published  in  1876  his  'Geographical 
Distribution  of  Animals',  in  1889  the  semi- 
popular  'Darwinism*,  in  1898  'The  Wonder- 


WALLER 

ful  Century*,  in  1903  'Man's  Place  in  the 
Universe',  and  in  1905  his  autobiography, 
'My  Life*. 

WALLACE,  EDGAR  (1875-1932),  a  very 
prolific  author,  one  of  the  masters  of  the  pure 
'thriller',  among  whose  numerous  works  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  select  the  most  notable. 
A  few  landmarks  for  the  inquiring  social  and 
literary  historian  are:  'The  Four  Just  Men* 
(1906)  and  its  followers,  'Sanders  of  the 
River',  'The  Angel  of  Terror',  'The  Green 
Archer',  *The  Fellowship  of  the  Frog',  'The 
Dark  Eyes  of  London',  'The  Hand  of  Power* 
(novels);  'The Terror' (1927),  'The  Squeaker* 
(1927),  'The  Calendar',  'On  the  Spot'  (plays). 
Wallace,  SIR  WILLIAM  (i272?-i3os),  the 
Scottish  patriot  of  the  time  of  Edward  I,  who 
devoted  his  life  to  resistance  to  the  English 
and  was  finally  captured  by  treachery  and 
executed  in  London,  is  the  subject  of  a  long 
poem  by  Henry  the  Minstrel  (q.v.),  'Blind 
Harry*. 

WALLACE,  WILLIAM  (1844-97),  edu- 
cated at  St.  Andrews  and  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  succeeded  T.  H.  Green  as  professor 
of  moral  philosophy  at  Oxford  (1882-97). 
Wallace  devoted  himself  largely  to  the  eluci- 
dation of  Hegel's  thought,  and  his  principal 
publications  were  'The  Logic  of  Hegel' 
(1874),  translated  from  Hegel's  'Encyclo- 
paedia', and  'Hegel's  Philosophy  of  Mind* 
(1894).  After  his  death  appeared  his  'Lec- 
tures on  Natural  Theology  and  Ethics*  (1898). 
His  'Life  of  Arthur  Schopenhauer'  appeared 
in  1890. 

Wallace  Collection,  THE,  named  from  Sir 
Richard  Wallace  (1818-90),  supposed  natural 
son  of  Maria,  marchioness  of  Hertford,  an  art 
connoisseur  and  collector.  His  upbringing 
was  more  French  than  English;  and  during 
the  siege  of  Paris  in  1870-1  he  devoted  much 
of  his  large  fortune  to  assisting  the  City  of 
Paris  and  the  French  nation.  His  widow 
left  the  great  Hertford- Wallace  Collection  of 
pictures,  &c.,  to  the  nation  in  1897.  It  is 
exhibited  in  Sir  R.  Wallace's  house  in 
Manchester  Square,  London. 

Wallenstein,ALBRECHTEusEBiusvoN(is83- 
1634),  an  Austrian  general  celebrated  for  his 
campaigns  in  the  Thirty  Years  War  (q.v.). 
After  many  victories  he  was  defeated  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus  at  Liitzen  in  1632.  He 
now  prepared  to  abandon  the  Imperial  cause; 
but  the  emperor,  Ferdinand  II,  suspecting 
his  intention,  removed  him  from  his  com- 
mand. Wallenstein  was  murdered  by  some 
of  his  officers  when  he  was  believed  to  be  on 
the  point  of  going  over  to  the  Swedes.  His 
career  is  the  subject  of  a  great  historical 
trilogy  by  Schiller  (q.v.),  of  which  the  two 
last  parts  were  translated  by  S.  T.  Coleridge 
(q.v.). 

WALLER,  EDMUND  (1606-87),  inherited 
Beaconsfield  in  Buckinghamshire,  and  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1631  he  married  a  London 


[827] 


WALLIS 

heiress,  who  died  in  1634.  He  entered  parlia- 
ment early  and  was  at  first  an  active  member 
of  the  opposition.  Later  he  became  a 
Royalist,  and  in  1643  was  leader  in  a  plot 
(Waller's  plot')  to  seize  London  for  Charles  I. 
For  this  he  was  imprisoned,  fined,  and 
banished,  but,  on  betraying  his  associates, 
spared  execution.  He  made  his  peace  with 
Cromwell  in  1651  and  returned  to  England. 
He  was  restored  to  *  royal  favour  on  the 
Restoration  and  was  again  member  of  parlia- 
ment. After  the  death  of  his  first  wife  he  had 
paid  unsuccessful  court  to  Lady  Dorothy 
Sidney,  whom  he  celebrated  in  poems  as 
'Sacharissa*,  and  married  Mary  Bracey  as  his 
second  wife  in  1644.  Waller  was  a  precocious 
poet.  He  wrote,  probably  as  early  as  1625, 
a  complimentary  piece  on  'His  Majesty's 
Escape  at  St.  Andere'  (Prince  Charles's  escape 
from  shipwreck  at  Santander)  in  heroic 
couplets,  one  of  the  first  examples  of  a  form 
that  prevailed  in  English  poetry  for  some  two 
hundred  years.  His  verse,  much  of  which  is 
occupied  with  praise  of  'Sacharissa*  (and  also 
of  Lady  Carlisle  and  others),  is  of  a  polished 
simplicity,  and  was  highly  commended  by 
Dryden.  Some  of  his  best  work  belongs  to  his 
later  period:  the  'Panegyric  to  My  Lord 
Protector',  the  'Instructions  to  a  Painter'  on 
the  battle  of  Sole  Bay,  and  'Of  the  Last  Verses 
In  the  Book',  containing  the  famous  lines, 
The  Soul's  dark  cottage,  battered  and 

decayed, 
Lets   in  new  light  through   chinks  that 

time  hath  made. 

His  earlier  pieces,  'On  a  Girdle'  and  'Go, 
lovely  Rose',  are  also  well  known.  He  pub- 
lished six  cantos  'Of  Divine  Love'  in  1685. 
WAJLLIS,  JOHN  (1616-1703),  the  mathe- 
matician, was  educated  at  Felsted  School  and 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and  was 
Savilian  professor  of  geometry  at  Oxford, 
1649-1703.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Royal  Society.  His  famous  'Arithmetica 
Infinitorum*,  which  contained  the  germs  of 
the  differential  calculus,  was  published  in 
1655- 

WALPOLE,  HQRACEJourth  earl  of  Orford 
(1717-97),  fourth  son  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole, 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College, 
Cambridge.  He  travelled  in  France  and  Italy 
.with  Gray  (q.v.)  in  1739-41,  and  was  M.P. 
successively  for  Callington,  Castle  Rising, 
and  Lynn  from  1741  to  1767.  In  1747  he 
settled  at  Strawberry  Hill,  Twickenham, 
which  he  made  into  'a  little  Gothic  castle', 
and  where  he  collected  articles  of  vertu,  and 
established  a  printing-press.  Here  he  printed 
Gray's  two  great  odes,  in  1758  his  own 
^Catalogue  of  ^  Royal  and  Noble  Authors', 
in  1762-71  his  'Anecdotes  of  Painting  in 
England*  (which  still  retain  importance),  in 
1763  his  'Catalogue  of  Engravers  in  England', 
and  in  1764  his  'gothic  story',  'The  Castle  of 
Otranto*  (q.v.).  He  also  printed  a  description 
of  his  house  and  collections  and  other  works 
(prose  and  verse)  and  editions.  Walpole  visited 


WALPOLE 

Paris  in  1765, 1767,  and  1775.  He  published 
'Historic  Doubts  on  Richard  I  IF  and  the 
'Mysterious  Mother*  (q.v.)  in  1768.  He 
befriended  Kitty  Clive,  the  actress,  and  Mary 
Berry,  the  authoress,  and  her  sister  Agnes.  He 
succeeded  his  nephew  in  the  earldom  in  1791. 
His  collected  'Works'  were  published  in 
1798.  Of  his  voluminous  correspondence,  a 
series  of  'Miscellaneous  Letters'  formed 
vol.  v  of  the  'Works',  and  collections  of 
'Letters'  appeared  in  1820,  1840,  1857-9 
(Peter  Cunningham),  and  1903-5  (Mrs. 
Paget  Toynbee,  16  vols.),  with  supplementary 
volumes  in  1918  by  Paget  Toynbee.  It  is 
on  his  letters  that  Walpole's  literary  reputa- 
tion principally  rests.  They  are  remarkable 
both  for  their  charm  and  their  autobio- 
graphical, social,  and  political  interest.  They 
extend  from  1732  to  1797,  and  display  his 
affectionate  disposition  and  cheerful  fortitude 
in  sickness.  His  principal  correspondents 
were  Sir  Horace  Mann,  his  own  cousin 
Henry  Seymour  Conway  (Field  Marshal),  the 
countess  of  Upper  Ossory,  George  Montagu, 
and,  in  his  later  days,  Miss  Berry.  His  letters 
to  Madame  du  Deffand  were  destroyed  by  his 
wish.  Hers  to  him  were  edited  by  Mrs. 
Toynbee  in  1913. 

WALPOLE,  HUGH  SEYMOUR  (1884- 
),  novelist,  among  whose  chief  works  are : 
'Maradick  at  Forty*  (1910),  'Mr.  Perrin  and 
Mr.  Trail!'  (1911),  'Prelude  to  Adventure' 
(1912),  'Fortitude'  (1913),  'The  Dark  Forest* 
(1916),  'The  Green  Mirror'  (1918),  'The 
Cathedral'  (1922) ;  and  an  historical  sequence 
comprising  'Rogue  Henries'  (1930),  'Judith 
Paris*  (1931),  and  'The  Fortress*  (1933). 

Walpole,  SIR  ROBERT,  first  earl  of  Orford 
(1676-1745),  educated  at  Eton  and  King's 
College,  Cambridge,  was  M.P.  for  Castle 
Rising  (1701-2)  and  King's  Lynn  (1702-12 
and  1713-42),  and  was  soon  recognized  as  a 
great  man  of  business  and  a  leader  of  the 
Whig  party.  He  was  secretary  of  war,  1708- 
10,  and  treasurer  of  the  navy,  1710-11. 
After  the  fall  of  the  Whig  ministry  he  was,  in 
1712,  expelled  from  the  House  of  Commons 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  on  a  vexatious 
charge  of  venality  in  office.  He  was  prime 
minister  and  chancellor  of  the  exchequer, 
1715-17,  and  again  1721-42,  during  which 
periods  he  did  much  to  encourage  trade,  both 
international  and  colonial,  by  removing  im- 
port and  export  duties  and  restrictions.  He 
followed  a  policy  of  union  with  France  and 
held  the  view  that  England's  best  interest  lay 
in  European  peace.  He  vainly  resisted  the 
clamour  for  war  with  Spain  in  1738-9  and 
made  the  mistake  of  remaining  in  office  when 
the  demand  proved  irresistible.  Walpole 
was  the  first  minister  since  the  Restoration 
who  made  a  special  study  of  finance  and 
commerce;  he  laid  the  foundations  of  free 
trade  and  modern  colonial  policy.  He  was  the 
father  of  Horace  Walpole  (q.v.).  His  grand- 
son sold  his  fine  collection  of  pictures  to  the 
Tsarina  Catharine  II. 


\VALPOLE 

WALPOLE,  SIR  SPENCER  (1839-1907), 

author  of  a  'History  of  England  from  1815  to 
i  $56*  and  /The  History  of  Twenty-five 
Years  (1856-1880)*,  a  continuation  of  the 
former,  published  respectively  in  1878-90 
and  1 004-8  (the  last-named  work  was  in- 
complete, only  four  volumes  being  pub- 
lished) ;  also  of  a  'Life  of  Lord  Russell'  (1889). 
Wulpurgis  Niftht,  so  called  from  St.  Wai- 
purges  (an  English  nun  who  in  the  8th  cent, 
helped  to  convert  the  Germans  to  Christianity), 
the  nitfht  before  i  May,  when,  according  to 
popular  superstition  in  Germany,  the  witches 
and  the  Devil  hold  a  festival  on  the  Bracken 
in  the  Harz  Mountains.  It  is  the  subject  of  a 
scene  in  Goethe's  'Ifyust',  Pt.  I. 

Walter  Lorraine f  the  name  of  the  first  novel 
written  by  Pendennis  (q.v.). 

Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  see  Minne- 


WALTON,  IZAAK  (1593-1683),  was  born 

at  Stafford,  and  apprenticed  to  a  London 
ironmonger,  and  subsequently  carried  on 
trade  there  on  his  own  account.  He  was  the 
friend  of  Donne,  of  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  and 
of  Bishops  Morley,  Sanderson,  and  King. 
The  latter  part  of  his  life  he  spent  at  Win- 
chester, where  his  son-in-law  was  prebendary, 
and  there  he  died.  He  published  his  bio- 
graphies, of  John  Donne  (q.v.)  in  1640,  of 
Sir  Henry  Wotton  (q.v.)  in  1651,  of  Richard 
Hooker  (q.v.)  in  1665,  of  George  Herbert 
(q.v.)  in  1670,  and  of  Bishop  Sanderson  in 
1678.  The  *Compleat  Angler'  (q.v.),  by 
which  he  is  chiefly  known,  first  appeared  in 
1653,  completed  in  the  second  edition  (1655). 
See  also  Cotton  (C.). 

Walton,    SIR    JOHN,    in    Scott's    'Castle 
Dangerous*    (q.v.),    governor    of    Douglas 
Castle. 
Walwain,  see  Gawain. 

Wamba,  in  Scott's  'Ivanhoe'  (q.v.),  'the 
son  of  Witless*,  the  devoted  and  heroic 
jester  of  Cedric  the  Saxon. 

Wanderer r  The,  an  OE.  poem  of  115  lines, 

included  in  the  'Exeter  Book*,  telling  of  the 
wanderings  of  a  man  who  has  lost  his  lord. 
He  dreams  of  his  former  happiness,  and  re- 
flects on  the  vicissitudes  of  human  life. 

Wanderer,  The,  a  moral  and  descriptive 
poem  in  five  cantos  by  R.  Savage  (q.v.), 
published  in  1729;  designed  to  prove  that 

man  may  owe 

The  fruits  of  bliss  to  bursting  clouds  of  woe. 
But  the  execution  of  the  plan  is  difficult  to 
follow.  Johnson,  who  praises  the  poem, 
admits  that  it  is  not  so  much  *a  regular 
fabrick'  as  *a  heap  of  shining  materials  thrown 
together  by  accident*. 

Wandering  Jew,  THE,  a  Jew  condemned  to 
wander  about  the  world  until  Christ's  second 
coming,  because,  according  to  the  legend,  as 
Christ  bore  the  cross  to  Calvary,  the  Jew 
chid  him,  and  urged  him  to  go  faster. 


WANLEY 

A  pamphlet  was  published  at  Leyden  in 
1602  relating  that  Paulus  von  Eizen,  bishop 
of  Schleswig,  had  in  1542  met  a  Jew  named 
Ahasuerus,  who  admitted  that  he  was  the 
Jew  in  question.  The  story  became  popular, 
and  many  instances  of  the  appearance  of  the 
Wandering  Jew  are  recorded  from  the  i6th 
to  the  1 9th  cents. 

But  a  somewhat  similar  story  is  told  by 
the  English  chronicler,  Matthew  Paris  (q.v.), 
at  a  much  earlier  date.  An  Armenian  arch- 
bishop visited  England  in  1228,  and,  while 
being  entertained  at  St.  Albans,  was  asked  if 
he  had  ever  seen  or  heard  of  Joseph,  who  was 
present  at  the  Crucifixion,  and  was  said  to  be 
still  alive,  as  a  testimony  to  the  Christian 
faith.  The  prelate  replied  that  the  man  had 
recently  dined  at  his  own  table.  He  had  been 
Pontius  Pilate's  porter,  by  name  Cartaphilus, 
who,  when  they  were  dragging  Jesus  from 
the  Judgement  Hall  had  struck  him  on  the 
back,  saying,  'Go  faster,  Jesus,  why  dost  thou 
linger?',  to  which  Jesus  replied,  *I  indeed  am 
going,  but  thou  shalt  tarry  till  I  come.'  This 
man  had  been  converted  soon  after  and  named 
Joseph.  He  lived  for  ever,  and  was  now  a 
very  grave  and  holy  person.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  Matthew  Paris  was  a  monk  at  St.  Albans 
at  the  time  of  the  archbishop's  visit.  In 
1242  Philip  Mouskes,  afterwards  bishop 
of  Tournay,  wrote  his  rhymed  chronicle, 
which  contains  a  similar  account  of  the  Jew, 
derived  from  the  same  Armenian  prelate 
(Baring-Gould,  'Curious  Myths'). 

The  legend  of  the  Wandering  Jew  has  been 
made  the  sxibject  of  many  German  works, 
and  Goethe  designed  a  poem  on  the  subject. 
Eugene  Sue's  'Le  Juif  Errant'  introduces  it 
There  is  a  ballad  in  Percy's  'Reliques'  in 
which  the  Wandering  Jew  is  described  as 
having  been  a  shoemaker,  who  refused  to 
allow  Christ,  on  the  way  to  Calvary,  to  rest 
upon  a  stone.  George  Croly  (1780-1860) 
wrote  a  romance,  'Salatniel*  (1829),  on  the 
same  subject. 

Wandering  Willie,  Willie  Steenson,  the 
blind  fiddler  in  Scott's  'Redgauntlet*  (q.v.). 
'Wandering  Willie's  Tale*  is  an  episode  in  the 
novel,  an  example  of  the  author's  successful 
use  of  the  supernatural. 

'Wandering  Willie*  is  also  the  name  of  a 
song  by  Burns. 

Wanderings  of  Cain,  The,  a  prose-poem  by 
S.  T.  Coleridge,  written  in  1798.  The  work 
was  undertaken  in  conjunction  with  Words- 
worth, who  was  to  have  written  the  first 
canto.  Coleridge  wrote  the  second  canto ;  but 
the  work  was  then  abandoned,  and  *The 
Ancient  Mariner*  was  written  instead. 
WANLEY,  HUMFREY  (1672-1726),  began 
life  as  a  draper's  assistant  at  Coventry,  but 
read  widely  and  went  to  Oxford  in  ^1695, 
and  was  an  assistant  in  the  Bodleian  Library 
in  1696.  He  displayed  remarkable  skill  in 
palaeography  and  assisted  Edward  Bernard 
in  the  preparation  of  the  'Catalog!  Libro- 
rum  Manuscriptorum  Angliae  et  Hiberniae 


[829] 


WANLEY 

(1697),  He  produced  in  1705  a  catalogue  of 
Anglo-Saxon  manuscripts,  which  is  still  the 
standard  work.  He  was  librarian  to  the  first 
and  second  earls  of  Oxford,  and  began  the 
catalogue  of  the  Harleian  MSS.,  a  work  on 
which  he  was  engaged  when  he  died. 

WANLEY,  NATHANIEL  (1634-80),  di- 
vine and  compiler.  He  published  'The 
Wonders  of  the  Little  World'  (1678,  an 
anecdotal  treatise  on  mankind),  and  other 
works.  His  poems  have  been  edited  by  L.  C. 
Martin  (1928). 

Wans  Dyke  or  WODEN'S  DYKE,  a  defensive 
entrenchment  of  Roman  or  Romano- 
British  construction  running  from  Savernake 
nearly  to  the  Bristol  Channel. 
Wantley,  The  Dragon  of,  see  Dragon  of 
Wantley. 

Wapping,  adjoining  the  Tower  of  London, 
'the  usual  place  of  execution  for  hanging  of 
pirates  and  sea-rovers,  at  the  low  water  mark 
there  to  remain  till  three  tides  had  over- 
flowed them*,  but  after  the  removal  of  the 
gallows  further  off  *a  continual  street  or  filthy 
straight  passage,  with  alleys  of  small  tene- 
ments or  cottages  builded,  inhabited  by 
sailors  and  victuallers,  along  by  the  river 
Thames  almost,  to  RadclifF  (Stow),  later 
known  as  the  RatclifTe  Highway. 

Warbeck,  PERKIN  (1474-99),  the  impostor 
who  gave  himself  out  for  Richard,  duke  of 
York,  son  of  Edward  IV;  in  fact  the  son 
of  John  Osbeck  or  De  Werbecque,  controller 
of  Tournay.  He  was  welcomed  in  Scotland 
by  James  IV,  and  married  Lady  Catherine 
Gordon  in  1495.  He  landed  in  Cornwall  in 
1497,  proclaiming  himself  King  Richard  IV, 
was  taken  prisoner,  confessed  his  imposture, 
and  was  hanged.  For  Ford's  play  see  Perkin 
Warbeck, 

WARBURTON,  BARTHOLOMEW 
ELLIOTT,  see  Crescent  and  the  Cross. 

Warburton,  JOHN  (1682-1759),  herald  and 
antiquary.  He  was  an  indefatigable  collector 
and  owned  many  rare  manuscripts.  Most 
of  the  rare  Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  plays 
in  his  possession  were  through  his  own  'care- 
lessness and  the  ignorance*  of  Betsy  Baker, 
his  servant,  'unluckily  burned  or  put  under 
pye  bottoms*.  A  list  in  his  handwriting  of 
those  destroyed,  fifty-five  in  number,  and  of 
those  saved,  three  and  a  fragment,  has  been 
preserved.  Some  of  the  burnt  manuscripts 
were  unique. 

WARBURTON,  ROWLAND  EYLES 
EGERTON  (1804-91),  author  of  'Hunting 
Songs  and  Ballads*  (1846),  'Hunting  Songs 
and  Miscellaneous  Verses'  (1859),  and  of  a 
version  of  Gray's  'O  tu  severi  Religio  loci* 
(the  alcaics  written  by  Gray  in  the  album  of 
the  Grande  Chartreuse). 

WARBURTON,  WILLIAM  (1698-1779), 
rose  to  be  bishop  of  Gloucester  in  1759.  He 
was  much  engaged  in  theological  controversy, 
writing  with  vigour  and  arrogance.  His 


WARD 

principal  works  were ;  'The  Alliance  between 
Church  and  State*  (1736)  and  'The  Divine 
Legation  of  Moses'  (1737-41),  a  paradoxical 
argument  that  the  very  absence  in  the 
Mosaic  law  of  any  reference  to  a  future  life, 
a  necessary  element  in  a  scheme  of  morality, 
is  a  proof  of  the  divine  mission  of  the  law- 
giver. His  'Doctrine  of  Grace*,  directed 
against  John  Wesley's  views,  was  published 
in  1762.  He  brought  out  in  1747  an  edition 
of  Shakespeare  which  was  sharply  criticized, 
and  in  1751  an  edition  of  Pope's  works  (he 
had  been  left  Pope's  literary  executor).  He 
was  a  bad  scholar,  a  literary  bully,  and  a  man 
of  untrustworthy  character. 

WARD,  ARTEMUS,  see  Browne  (C.  F.). 

WARD,  EDWARD  ('Ned')  (1667^73  *)> 
tavern-keeper  and  writer  of  Hudibrastic 
doggerel  verse  and  coarse  humorous  prose,  is 
remarkable  for  his  sketches  of  London  life 
and  characters.  Some  of  the  best  of  these  are 
contained  in  'The  London  Spy*  (1698-1709), 
a  simply  told  tale  of  a  country  resident  who 
visits  London,  meets  a  cockney  acquaintance, 
and  with  him  ranges  about  the  town,  noting 
sights,  sounds,  and  smells,  and  odd  charac- 
ters. His  'Hudibras  Redivivus*  was  pub- 
lished in  1705-7. 

WARD,  MARY  AUGUSTA,  better  known 
as  MRS.  HUMPHRY  WARD  (1851-1920),  was 
granddaughter  of  Thomas  Arnold  of  Rugby. 
She  wrote  her  first  novel,  'Miss  Brethcrton*, 
in  1884,  and  translated  Amiel's  *  Journal  In- 
time*  in  1885.  She  embodied  in  her  most 
famous  novel,  'Robert  Elsmere*  (1888),  her 
view  that  Christianity  could  be  revitalized  ^by 
emphasizing  its  social  mission  and  discarding 
its  miraculous  element.  Among  her  other 
novels,  'The  History  of  David  Grieve*  fol- 
lowed in  1892,  'Marcella*  in  1894,  'Sir  George 
Tressady*  in  1896,  'Helbeck  of  Bannisdale* 
in  1898,  'The  Marriage  of  William  Ashe*  in 
1905,  and  'The  Case  of  Richard  Meynell* 
in  1911.  Besides  carrying  on  much  social 
and  philanthropic  work,  Mrs.  Humphry 
Ward  was  an  active  opponent  of  the  exten- 
sion of  the  franchise  to  women. 

WARD,  WILLIAM  GEORGE  (1812-82), 
known  as  'Ideal  Ward'  from  his  most  famous 
work,  was  educated  at  Winchester,  a  scholar 
of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  and  a  fellow  of 
Balliol.  He  was  a  keen  religious  contro- 
versialist and  capable  dialectician,  adopted  the 
theological  views  of  Newman  (q.v.),  and  wrote 
in  defence  of  his  Tract  XC  in  1841.  He 
published  'The  Ideal  of  a  Christian  Church*,  a 
Romanizing  treatise,  in  1844,  in  consequence 
of  which  he  was  removed  from  his  degree  for 
heresy.  He  was  lecturer  in  moral  philosophy 
at  St.  Edmund's  College,  Ware,  1851-8,  and 
editor  of  the  'Dublin  Review',  1863-78, 
writing  against  liberal  theology  and  in  favour 
of  papal  infallibility.  He  was  commemorated 
by  Tennyson  in  the  touching  poem  in  which 
he  is  described  as  'Most  generous  of  all 
Ultramontanes,  Ward*. 


[830] 


WARDEN 

Warden,  HI:NRY,  In  Scott's  'The  Monastery* 
and  *The  Abbot'  (qq.v.),  an  earnest  Protes- 
tant divine* 


Warden,  The,  a  novel  by  A.  Trollope  (q.v.), 
published  in  1855.  This  was  the  first  of  the 
IJarset.*hire  series,  and  the  first  of  Trollope's 

novels  that  met  with  success.  The  idea  of  it 
was  conceived  while  Trollope  one  summer 
evening  was  wandering  about  the  neighbour- 

hood of  Salisbury  Cathedral. 
^  The  Rev.  Septimus  Harding,  gentle,  re- 
tiring, and  conscientious,  is  a  widower  with 
two  daughters,  the  elder  of  whom  is  married 
to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Theophilus  Grantly,  son  of 
the  bishop,  and  archdeacon  of  Barchester. 
The  bishop  has  made  Harding  precentor  of 
the  cathedral  and  warden  of  Hiram's  Hospital, 
a  charitable  foundation  maintaining  twelve 
old  bedesmen.  The  property  of  the  charity, 
having  increased  in  value,  yields  enough,  after 
housing  the  old  men  in  comfort,  to  provide 
£800  a  year  for  the  warden,  who  enjoys  what 
h  practically  a  sinecure.  This  is  attacked  as 
an  abuse  by  John  Bold,  an  energetic  young 
surgeon  of  Barchester,  with  a  passion  for 
reform;  the  matter  is  taken  up  by  the 
'Jupiter*  newspaper  (see  Thunderer),  and 
finally  an  action  is  brought  against  the  warden 
and  the  bishop's  steward,  on  behalf  of  the  old 
bedesmen,  who  it  is  alleged  are  being  de- 
frauded of  their  rights.  All  this  causes  poor 
Mr.  Harding  intense  distress,  for  he  is  not 
satisfied  that  there  may  not  be  some  ground 
for  the  allegation.  The  situation  is  compli- 
cated by  the  fact  that  Bold  is  in  love  with 
1  lardinjif  s  younger  daughter,  Eleanor,  and  she 
with  him.  In  spite  of  the  strenuous  opposition 
of  Archdeacon  (  Jrantly,  a  somewhat  worldly 
divine  and  u  vigorous  and  overbearing  de- 
fender of  the  righto  of  the  Church,  Harding 
resigns  his  wardenship.  Meanwhile  Eleanor 
has  pleaded  with  Bold  and  persuaded  him  to 
withdraw  his  action.  There  the  matter  is  left. 
The  oltl  bishop,  Harding's  close  friend, 
refuses  to  fill  the  wardenship,  the  hospital  falls 
into  decay,  and  the  bedesmen  lose  the  friendly 
care  of  their  former  warden.  Bold  marries 
Eleanor*  Harding  remains  precentor  of  the 
cathedral,  and  obtains  a  small  living  in 
addition.  The  story  is  continued  in  *Bar- 
chcster  Towers*  (q.v.). 
Wardle,  MR,,  a  character  in  Dickens  Js  Tick- 
wick  Papers*  (q.v.). 

Wardour,  Sm  ARTHUR,  and  his  son  and 

daughter  CAPTAIN  REGINALD  and  ISABELLA, 
characters  in  Scott's  *Thc  Antiquary'  (q.v.). 
Wardour  Street,  the  name  of  a  street  in 
London,    which    was    formerly  ^  occupied 
mainly  by  dealers  in  antique,  and  imitation- 
antique,  furniture.    Hence  £Wardour-Street 
English'  is  applied  to   the  pseudo-archaic 
diction  affected  by  some  modern  writers, 
especially  of  historical  novels. 
Ware,  THE  BED  OF,  see  Bed  of  Ware. 
Waring  f  one  of  the  'Dramatic  Romances*  of 
R,  Browning  (q.v,),  published  in  1843. 


WARREN 

The  poem  is  the  reminiscence  of  a  friend, 
Domett  (q.v.),  who  has  left  England.  The 
poet's  fancy  follows  Waring  in  the  places 
where  he  may  now  be.  Finally  he  is  reported 
to  have  been  seen  off  the  Illyrian  coast  in  a 
light  bark,  sailing  away  into  the  sunset. 

Warming-pan,  a  word  used  with  allusion  to 
the  story  that  James  IPs  son,  afterwards 
called  the  Old  Pretender,  was  a  supposititious 
child  introduced  into  the  queen's  bed  in  a 
warming-pan. 

WARNER,  WILLIAM  (15  58?-!  609), 
studied  at  Oxford  and  was  an  attorney  in 
London.  He  published  in  1585  Tan  his 
Syrinx*,  seven  prose  tales,  and  a  translation 
of  the  ^Mensechmi*  of  Plautus  in  1595.  His 
chief  work  is  'Albion's  England',  a  metrical 
British  history,  with  mythical  and  fictitious 
episodes,  extending  in  the  first  (1586)  edition 
from  Noah  to  the  Norman  Conquest.  It  was 
brought  down  to  James  I's  reign  in  1606;  a 
complete  edition  appeared  (posthumously)  in 
1612.  Meres,  in  his  'Palladis  Tamia'  (1598), 
associated  him  with  Spenser  as  one  of  the 
two  chief  English  heroic  poets,  and  with 
Spenser,  Daniel,  Drayton,  and  Breton  as  a 
lyric  poet.  Drayton  also  eulogized  him. 

WARREN,  JOHN  BYRNE  LEICESTER, 
Baron  de  Tabley  (1835-95),  educated  at  Eton 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  published  some 
volumes  of  verse  under  the  pseudonyms  of 
'George  F.  Preston'  (1859-62)  and  'William 
Lancaster'  (1863-8),  and  two  tragedies,  also 
under  pseudonyms,  Thiloctetes'  (1866)  and 
'Orestes'  (1868).  In  1893  and  1895  he  pub- 
lished over  his  own  name  two  series  of  'Poems 
Dramatic  and  Lyrical',  in  which  he  is  at  his 
best;  also  a  'Guide  to  Bookplates*  (1880). 
His  collected  poems  appeared  in  1903.  De 
Tabley  was  a  botanist,  and  his  poems  give 
proof  of  his  close  observation  of  nature. 

WARREN,  SAMUEL  (1807-7?),  a  student 
of  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  then  a  barrister, 
M.P.  for  Midhurst,  and  a  master  in  lunacy, 
and  the  author  of  many  legal  text-books.  He 
is  remembered  for  his  'Passages  from  the 
Diary  of  a  Late  Physician'  (1838,  after  having 
appeared  in  'Blackwood'),  and  for  his  very- 
popular  novel,  'Ten  Thousand  a  Year*  (183  9), 
the  story  of  Mr.  Tittlebat  Titmouse,  a 
draper's  assistant,  who  comes  into  a  large 
fortune,  thanks  to  documents  forged  by  the 
lawyers  Gammon  and  Quirk.  Having  suc- 
cessfully ousted  the  rightful  owners  of  the 
property,  Charles  Aubrey  and  his  charming 
sister  Kate,  the  lawyers  proceed  to  blackmail 
Titmouse,  whose  unexpected  elevation  to 
wealth  gives  rise  to  absurd  consequences.  He 
marries  Lady  Cecilia,  the  daughter  of  the  earl 
of  Dredlington,  and  is  returned  to  parliament 
by  reckless  corruption.  Finally  the  fraud  is 
exposed,  Titmouse  is  discovered  to  be  of 
illegitimate  birth,  is  imprisoned  for  debt, 
goes  mad,  and  is  confined  in  a  lunatic  asylum, 
and  Gammon  commits  suicide. 


WARRINGTON 

Warrington,  GEORGE,  a  character  in 
Thackeray's  Tendennis*  (q.v.),  who  figures 
also  in  'The  Newcomes*.  He  is  a  descendant 
of  the  Warringtons  of  'The  Virginians'  (q.v.). 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  THE,  the  prolonged 
struggle  between  the  houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster,  whose  badges  were  respectively 
a  white  and  a  red  rose.  The  wars  began  in 
1455  in  Henry  VFs  reign  and  ended  with  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Richard  III  at  Bos  worth 
in  1485,  and  the  accession  of  Henry  VII,  who, 
by  marrying  Elizabeth  of  York,  united  the 
two  lines. 

Wart,  THOMAS,  in  Shakespeare's  '2  Henry 
IV,  one  of  the  recruits  for  Falstaff's  force. 

WARTON,  JOSEPH  (1722-1800),  brother 
of  T.  Warton  (q.v.),  educated  at  Winchester 
and  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  held  various 
livings  and  was  a  conspicuously  unsuccessful 
head  master  of  Winchester  (1766-93).  He 
was  a  literary  critic  of  wide  knowledge  and 
independent  judgement,  and  is  principally 
known  for  his  'Essays'  on  Pope  (1756  and 
1782),  in  which  he  criticized  the  'correct' 
school  of  poetry  and  distinguished  'betwixt 
a  man  of  wit,  a  man  of  sense,  and  a  true  poet'. 

WARTON,  THOMAS  (1728-90),  brother 
of  J.  Warton  (q.v.),  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  was  professor  of  poetry  at 
Oxford  (1757-67)  and  subsequently  Camden 
professor  of  history,  and  poet  laureate  in 
1785,  an  appointment  that  was  celebrated  in 
the  'Probationary  Odes'  (see  Rolliad).  He  was 
the  author  of  many  works,  including  'Poems' 
(i?77)>  notable  for  their  revival  of  the  sonnet; 
a  'History  of  English  Poetry'  (1774-81),  a 
valuable  pioneer  work;  and  'Observations  on 
the  Faerie  Queene  of  Spenser*  (1754).  He 
edited  the  early  poems  of  Milton  and  the 
famous  miscellany  of  university  verse  en- 
titled, 'The  Oxford  Sausage'  (1764).  He  was 
the  author  of  much  varied,  including 
humorous,  verse.  In  spite  of  several  sparrings 
he  and  Dr.  Johnson  were  warm  friends. 
Warton  was  a  real  predecessor  of  the  Ro- 
mantic school,  and  a  much  bigger  man  than 
has  been  (until  recently)  recognized. 

Warwick,  MRS.,  the  heroine  of  Meredith's 
'Diana  of  the  Crossways'  (q.v.). 

Washington,  GEORGE  (1733-99),  born  in 
Virginia,  was  General  Braddock's  A.D.C.  in 
the  war  with  the  French  and  the  Indians 
(1755)>  and  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Continental  Forces  in  the  War  of 
American  Independence.  He  compelled  the 
surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown  in  1781. 
He  was  president  of  the  American  convention 
of  1787,  and  first  president  of  the  United 
States  (1789).  A  man  notable  for  his  lofty 
character,  self-command,  calmness,  justice, 
and  wisdom. 

George  Washington  figures  in  Thackeray's 
'The  Virginians*  (q.v.). 

Washington   and  the  Cherry-tree,  the 

story  is  told  in  Mason  L.  Weems's  *A  History 


WATERLOO 

of  the  Life  and  Death,  Virtues  and  Exploits 
of  General  George  Washington*  (1800);  the 
incident  is  now  regarded  as  apocryphal,  but 
it  is  frequently  quoted. 

When  George  was  about  six  years  old  he 
was  given  a  hatchet,  with  which  he  amused 
himself  chopping  everything  that  came  in  his 
way.  One  day  he  unluckily  tried  its  edge  on 
a  beautiful  young  English  cherry-tree.  The 
next  morning  George's  father,  seeing  what 
had  befallen  his  tree,  which  was  a  great 
favourite,  asked  George  if  he  knew  who  had 
killed  it.  George  staggered  under  the  ques- 
tion for  a  moment,  but  quickly  recovered 
himself,  and  bravely  cried  out:  *I  can't  tell 
a  lie,  Pa;  you  know  I  can't  tell  a  lie.  I  did 
cut  it  with  my  hatchet.'  'Run  to  my  arms, 
you  dearest  boy,'  cried  his  father  in  trans- 
ports ;  'glad  am  I,  George,  that  you  killed  my 
tree ;  for  you  have  paid  me  for  it  a  thousand- 
fold.' 

WASHINGTON,  BOOKER  TALIA- 
FERRO  (c.  1859-1915),  born  of  a  negro  slave 
mother  on  a  Virginia  plantation,  studied  at 
Hampton  after  the  Civil  War,  and  then 
devoted  himself  to  raising  the  moral  and 
intellectual  status  of  his  fellow  negroes, 
working  out  a  scheme  of  education  for  them 
and  becoming  the  foremost  representative  of 
his  race.  He  was  an  eloquent  speaker  and 
voluminous  writer.  His  works  include  an 
interesting  autobiography,  consisting  of  two 
parts  *Up  from  Slavery '(1901)  and 'Working 
with  Hands'  (1904). 

Wasserman,  German,  'water-man*,  a  fabled 
sea-monster  partly  in  the  form  of  a  man, 
supposed  to  destroy  ships,  referred  to  in 
Spenser's  cFaerie  Queene*,  II.  xii.  24. 

Watch  on  the  Rhine,  The,  see  Wacht  am 
JRhein. 

Watchman,  The,  a  periodical  issued  by 
S.  T.  Coleridge  (q.v.)  from  i  Mar.  to  13  May 
1796. 

Water  Babies,  The,  A  Fairy  Tale  for  a  Land- 
Baby,  by  C.  Kingsley  (q.v.),  published  in 
1863. 

The  story  tells,  with  much  pleasant 
humour,  how  little  Tom,  the  chimney-sweep, 
employed  by  the  bully,  Mr.  Grimes,  runs 
away,  falls  into  a  river,  and  is  turned  into  a 
water-baby.  In  the  river  and  sea  he  makes 
intimate  acquaintance  with  all  sorts  of 
aquatic  creatures  and  learns  the  wickedness 
of  ill-using  efts  and  the  like,  and  also  the 
necessity  of  self-sacrifice.  The  first  edition 
was  charmingly  illustrated  by  (Sir)  Noel 
Paton. 

Water-Poet,  THE,  see  Taylor  (JoJm). 

Waterloo,  a  village  to  the  S.  of  Brussels, 
where,  on  18  June  1815,  was  fought  the  battle 
in  which  Napoleon  was  finally  and  decisively 
defeated.  The  allied  British,  Netherlander, 
Hanoverians,  and  Brunswickers,  under  the 
duke  of  Wellington,  held  their  own  until  the 
close  of  the  day,  when  the  Prussian  army 


[832] 


WATERS 

under  Bliirher  appeared,  and  took  Napoleon 
in  the  think.  The  French  Imperial  Guard 
made  a  last  desperate  charge  and  was  re- 
pulsed, \\Vllinnton  then  ordered  a  general 
advanee,  before  which  the  French  gave  way 
and  fled.  Wellington  had  some  70,000  men, 
Napoleon  r.ither  more,  Blueher  about  40,000, 
The  word  *  \Vatet  loo*  is  used  allusively  for  a 
decisive  contest. 

Waters,  CkiUe,  see  Childe  Waters. 
Wafers  f  Young,  see  Young  Waters. 

WATKRTON,  CHARLES  (1782-1865), 
naturalist.  of  Walton  I  lall,  Yorks.,  who  resided 
in  Buri'.h  (Juiana  during  1804-12  and  sub- 

Kcquentlv  travelled  in  the  Orinoco  region, 
wtote  an  interesting!  narrative  of  his  'Wander- 
truisjn  S.  America*  (1825),  in  which  occurs 
the  famous  account  of  his  ride  on  an  alligator, 
Watler's,  a  club  founded  at8i  Piccadilly,  at 
the  surest  ion  of  the  Prince  Regent,  by 
\Vatier,  the  prince's  chef,  as  a  dinner  club, 
noted  for  its  elaborate  cooking.  It  was  fre- 
quented by  men  of  fashion  (including  Beau 
Brumme!),  became  a  gambling  centre,  and 
was  closed  about 


\VatUn£  Street,  one  of  the  great  Roman 
roads  of  Uritain,  which  ran  from  Dover, 
through  Canterbury*  past  the  ancient  city  of 
London,  crossing  the  Thames  by  a  ford  at 
Westminster,  where  the  river  was  exception- 
ally wide  and  shallow,  then  along  the  line  of 
what  ij4  now  the  Kd^ware  Road,  through  St. 
AHrans  and  across  England  to  Chester.  The 
name  in  Old  English  was  Wtzcfinga  Street  i 
the  first  word,  apparently  the  genitive 
plural  of  the  name  of  a  (real  or  imaginary) 
family  or  elan,  occurs  also  in  Waclinga 
ccastcr  *the  Windings'  city',  the  Old  English 
name  of  St.  Alhans. 

In  Chaucer's  'House  of  Fame*,  ii.  431,  the 
eagle  draws  the  poet's  attention  to  the  Milky 
Way  and  says: 

And  some,  parfay, 
Callen  it  Wat  ling  Street. 

WatHng  Street,  London,  was  probably  a 
diversion  to  London  Bridge  of  the  older 

Watling  Street  (see  above)  that  crossed  the 
Thames  by  the  ford  at  Westminster. 

Watson,  DR.,  in  the  cycle  of  stories  by  Sir 
A.  C*  Doyle  (q.v.)  relating  to  Sherlock 
Holme*,  the  detective,  is  a  stolid  medical 
man,  Holmes  's  companion  and  assistant  in 
his  adventures,  and  his  chronicler.  His 
stupidity,  which  is  good-humouredly  tolerated 
by  his  brilliant  leader,  serves  as  a  foil  to  set 
off  the  qualities  of  the  latter. 

WATSON,  RICHARD  (1737-1816),  edu- 

cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry,  1764,  and  Regius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity,  1771,  became  bishop  of 
Llandaff  in  178^.  He  wrote  a  notable 
'Apology  for  Christianity'  (1776)  in  reply  to 
Gibbon,  and  an  'Apology  for  the  Bible1  (1796) 
in  reply  to  Thomas  Paine. 


WATT 

WATSON,  THOMAS  (i557?-9a)»  was 
possibly  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  a  law- 
student  in  London.  He  published  a  Latin 
version  of  the  'Antigone'  of  Sophocles,  with 
an  appendix  of  Latin  allegorical  poems  and 
experiments  in  Latin  metres,  in  1581 ;  and  in 
1582,  ^/carojuwaflta,  or  Passionate  Centurie  of 
Loue',  eighteen-line  English  poems  (called 
'sonnets'),  reflecting  classical  and  French  and 
Italian  poerns,  and  being  in  some  cases  trans- 
lations ;  this  is  his  most  important  work.  He 
published  Latin  versions  of  Tasso's  'Aminta' 
(1585),  and  of  Raptus  'Helenae'  from  the 
Greek  of  Coluthus  (1586);  his  version  of  the 
*  Aminta'  was  rendered  into  English,  without 
authority,  by  Abraham  Fraunce  (1587).  He 
published  'The  first  Sett  of  Italian  Madrigalls 
Englished'  (i 590),  and  an  'Eglogue*  (Latin  and 
English)  on  Walsingham's  death  (1590).  His 
Latin  pastoral  'Amyntae  Gaudia*  appeared 
posthumously  in  1592,  and  'The  Tears  of 
Fancie*,  sixty  English  sonnets,  inspired  by 
Petrarch  and  Ronsard,  in  1593;  a  few  pre- 
viously unpublished  poems  by  him  appeared 
in  'The  Phoenix  Nest'  (1593)  and  'England's 
Helicon'  (1600).  His  sonnets  appear  to  have 
been  studied  by  Shakespeare  and  other 
contemporaries.  He  was  the  'Amyntas*  of 
Spenser's  'Colin  Clouts  come  home  againe* 
(q.v,),  and  was  declared  by  Francis  Meres  to  be 
the  equal  of  Petrarch,  Theocritus,  and  Virgil. 

WATSON,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1858-  ), 
poet,  born  in  Yorkshire,  whose  chief  works 
are :  'Lachrymae  Musarum'  and  'Lyric  Love' 
(1892),  'The  Eloping  Angels'  (1893),  'Odes 
and  other  poems'  (1894),  'The  Father  of  the 
Forest'  (1895),  'The  Year  of  Shame'  (1896), 
'The  Heralds  of  the  Dawn'  (1912),  'Col- 
lected  Poems*  (1906). 

Watsons,  The,  an  unfinished  fragment  of  a 
novel  by  J.  Austen  (q.v.),  written  about  1805 
and  appended  by  J.  E.  Austen  Leigh  to  the 
second  edition  of  his  'Memoir  of  Jane 
Austen*  (1871);  reprinted,  Oxford,  1927. 

Emma  Watson,  who  has  been  brought  up 
by  a  well-to-do  aunt,  on  the  latter's  re- 
marriage returns  to  her  family,  who  live  in  a 
modest  way  in  a  Surrey  village.  A  pretty, 
sensible  girl,  she  is  here  surrounded  by  per- 
sons of  inferior  minds,  her  sisters  being 
chiefly  bent  on  the  acquisition  of  husbands. 
The  other  principal  characters,  who  are 
introduced  to  the  reader  in  a  local  ball- 
room scene,  are  Lady  Osborne,  handsome 
and  dignified ;  her  son  Lord  Osborne,  a  fine 
young  man  with  an  'air  of  coldness,  of  care- 
lessness, even  of  awkwardness  about  him'; 
Mr.  Howard,  a  gentlemanly  clergyman ;  and 
Tom  Musgrave,  a  hardened  flirt.  The  inten- 
tion appears  to  have  been  that  the  heroine 
should  marry  Mr.  Howard,  but  the  authoress 
completed  little  more  than  the  mise  en  sc&ne 
of  the  story. 

Watt,  JAMES  (1736-1819),  born  at  Greenock, 
was  son  and  grandson  of  mathematicians, 
and  son  of  a  mathematical-instrument  maker. 
He  began  his  career  as  a  mathematical-instru- 


3868 


[833] 


WATT 

ment  maker^showing  great  manual  dexterity. 
While  repairing  a  model  of  John  Newcomen's 
steam-engine,  he  discovered  the  cause  of  its 
waste  of  power  (1764),  and  devised  the 
separate  condenser  and  air-pump  to  remedy 
this  defect.  He  was  in  partnership  with 
Matthew  Boulton  at  the  Soho  Engineering 
Works,  Birmingham,  1775-1800,  and  it  was 
owing  to  this  association  that  he  was  able 
to  bring  his  various  inventions  to  such  fruit. 
He  patented  the  'Watt'  steam-engine  in  1769, 
and  continued  improving  it  by  various 
mechanical  devices  down  to  about  1785.  He 
also  projected  the  screw-propeller,  and  by  his 
own  researches  discovered  the  composition 
of  water.  He  was  about  equally  devoted  to 
chemistry  and  music  and  drawing,  and  in 
spite  of  very  poor  health,  much  beloved  in 
every  society.  He  became  F.R.S.  in  1875. 

WATT,  ROBERT  (1774-1819),  author  of 
the  'Bibliotheca  Britannica,  or  a  general 
Index  to  British  and  Foreign  Literature* 
(1824),  the  first  great  bibliographical  work 
produced  in  Scotland. 

Watteau,  JEAN  ANTOINE  (1684-1721), 
French  genre-painter,  whose  pictures  of 
f$tes  champ&res,  and  of  shepherds  and 
shepherdesses  in  the  fashionable  costumes  of 
the  early  i8th  cent.,  have  given  his  name  to 
various  articles  of  female  dress,  such  as  the 
Watteau  hat. 

WATTS,  ISAAC  (1674-1748),  the  son  of  a 
Nonconformist  schoolmaster,  is  remembered 
as  the  author  of  'Divine  Songs  for  Children', 
1715,  containing  such  well-known  lines  as: 
Let  dogs  delight  to  bark  and  bite, 
For  God  hath  made  them  so ; 
and  the  lines  about  the  little  busy  bee.  He 
also  wrote  a  number  of  hymns,  some  of  which 
have  obtained  a  wide  popularity,  including, 
*O  God,  our  help  in  ages  past',  'When  I 
survey  the  wondrous  Cross',  'There  is  a 
land  of  pure  delight',  and  'Jesus  shall  reign 
where'er  the  sun'.  He  published  a  selection 
of  metrical  'Psalms  of  David'  in  1719,  and  a 
number  of  doctrinal  treatises  and  educational 
manuals.  There  is  a  monument  to  him  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

WATTS-DUNTON,  WALTER  THEO- 
DORE (1832-1914),  gave  up  his  profession  of 
solicitor  to  devote  himself  to  literary  criticism, 
on    which    subject    he    contributed    many 
valuable  articles  to  the  'Athenaeum*.  He  was 
much  interested  in  the  gipsies,  and  repub- 
lished  in  'The  Coming  of  Love'  (1897)  scenes 
in  verse  previously  printed  in  the  'Athen- 
aeum,* in  which  Rhona  Boswell,  a  gipsy  girl, 
figures  prominently.    Gipsies  again  play  an 
important  part  in  his  novel  'Aylwin*  (1898), 
which  met  with  great  success.  Watts-Dunton 
had  met  Borrow  (q.v.)  in  1872,  and  his  re- 
collections of  him  may  be  read  in  his  editions 
of  Lavengro  (1893)  and  'The  Romany  Rye* 
(1900).  His  best  critical  work  is  the  essay  on 
'Poetry*  in  the  'Encyclopaedia  Britannica* 
(9th  ed.,  1885). 


WAVERLEY 

Watts-Dunton  befriended  Swinburne  in 
his  declining  health,  took  him  to  his  house  at 
Putney  (where  Swinburne  lived  from  1879 
until  his  death),  and  exercised  a  devoted  and 
tactful  control  over  him. 

Waverley,  the  first  of  the  novels  of  Sir  W. 
Scott  (q.v.),  published  in  1814.  Much  of  it 
had  been  written,  and  thrown  aside,  some 
years  before.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been 
suggested  by  Waverley  Abbey  near  Farn- 
ham,  which  Scott  seems  to  have  visited 
(letter  in  'The  Times',  30  June  1931). 

Edward  Waverley,  a  young  man  of  roman- 
tic disposition  ('a  sneaking  piece  of  imbecility  *, 
Scott  himself,  with  perhaps  excessive  severity, 
called  him),  has  been  brought  up  in  part  by 
his  father,  a  Hanoverian  in  politics,  in  part 
by  his  uncle  Sir  Everard  Digby,  a  rich  land- 
owner of  Jacobite  leanings.  Obtaining  a 
commission  in  the  army  in  the  year  1745,  he 
joins  his  regiment  in  Scotland,  and  there, 
while  on  leave,  visits  his  uncle's  friend,  the 
baron  of  Bradwardine,  a  proud,  kind-hearted, 
but  pedantic  old  Jacobite,  and  attracts  the 
favourable  notice  of  the  gentle  Rose  Brad- 
wardine, his  daughter.  Impelled  by  curiosity, 
he  visits  Donald  Bean  Lean,  a  Highland 
freebooter,  in  his  lair,  and  Fergus  Mac- Ivor 
of  Glennaquoich  (Vich  Ian  Vohr),  a  young 
Highland  chieftain,  active  in  the  Jacobite 
interest.  While  at  Glennaquoich,  he  falls  in 
love  with  Fergus's  sister  Flora,  whose  beauty 
and  ardent  loyalty  to  the  Stuart  cause  appeal 
to  his  romantic  disposition.  These  visits,  in- 
judicious in  an  officer  of  the  English  army 
at  a  time  of  acute  political  tension,  com- 
promise Edward  with  his  colonel.  He  more- 
over falls  a  victim  to  Jacobite  intrigues  and 
finds  himself  accused  of  fomenting  mutiny 
in  his  regiment,  and  is  finally  cashiered  and 
arrested.  From  imprisonment  he  is  rescued 
by  the  action  of  the  devoted  Rose,  and,  under 
the  influence  of  a  sense  of  unjust  treatment, 
of  Flora's  enthusiasm,  and  of  a  gratifying 
reception  by  Prince  Charles  Edward,  he  joins 
the  Jacobite  forces.  At  the  battle  of  Preston- 
pans  he  has  the  good  fortune  to  save  from 
death  Colonel  Talbot,  a  distinguished  English 
officer  and  friend  of  his  family,  and  the  in- 
fluence of  the  latter,  after  the  final  defeat  and 
dispersal  of  the  Pretender's  army,  is  the 
means  of  securing  Edward's  pardon,  and  the 
rehabilitation  of  the  good  baron  of  Brad- 
wardine. Meanwhile  Edward  has  been  de- 
cisively rejected  by  the  spirited  Flora,  and  has 
turned  his  affections  to  the  milder  and  more 
congenial  Rose,  to  whom  in  due  course  he  is 
married.  Fergus  is  convicted  of  high  treason 
and  bravely  meets  his  end,  and  Flora  retires 
to  a  convent. 

Among  the  minor  characters  may  be  men- 
tioned Bailie  Duncan  Macwheeble,  Bradwar- 
dine's  'prime  minister';  Davie  Gellatley,  the 
'innocent',  the  mouthpiece  of  some  of  Scott's 
most  beautiful  lyrics;  and  the  laird  of  Bal- 
mawhapple,  the  quarrelsome  sportsman  who 
falls  foul  of  Edward  and  contributes  to  his 


[834] 


WAY  OF  ALL  FLESH 

early  discomfiture.  For  Colonel  Gardiner, 
Edward  Waver  ley's  commanding  officer,  see 
under  Doddridge. 

Way  of  All  Flesh,  The,  a  novel  by  S.  Butler 
(1835-1902,  q.v.),  published  in  1903  after 

the  author's  death. 

In  the  form  of  a  novel,  brilliant  with  wit 

and  iiony,  Butler  here  presents  a  study  in  one 
of  his  favourite  themes,  the  relations  of 
parents  to  children,  a  study  embittered  by 
some  of  his  own  recollections.  The  idiosyn- 
crasy of  the  Pontifex  family  is  traced  from 
fattier  to  son  through  several  generations:  old 
John  Pontifex,  the  village  carpenter;  George 
Pontifex,  the  domineering  publisher;  Theo- 
bald his  son,  who  is  bullied  into  taking  orders 
and  jockeyed  into  marriage  with  the  smug 
Christina  ;*  and  Ernest,  their  child,  who  in  turn 
suffers  cruelly  from  the  pharisaical  tyranny  of 
his  father  during  childhood  and  schooldays, 
until  after  his  ordination,  the  reaction  from 
suppression  leads  to  sudden  catastrophe.  He 
manages  to  insult  a  young  woman  whom  he 
takes  for  a  prostitute,  and  is  sentenced  to  six 
months'  imprisonment.  On  emerging,  ruined, 
from  prison,  he  contracts  a  disastrous  union 
with  Ellen,  a  former  maidservant  of  his  family, 
but  is  released  from  the  incubus  of  her 
drunkenness  by  the  discovery  that  she  is 
already  married.  A  fortune  inherited  from  an 
aunt  permits  him  to  devote  the  rest  of  his  life 
to  literature.  The  gloom  and  irony  of  the 
work  are  relieved  by  the  pleasant  portrait  of 
Alethea  Pontifex  (drawn  from  Butler's  friend, 
Eliza  Mary  Ann  Savage)  and  the  'godless  old 
sinner*,  Mrs.  Jupp,  the  landlady. 

Way  of  the  World,  Thcy  a  comedy  by  Con- 
grevts  (q.v,),  produced  in  1700.  This  is  the 
most  finished  of  Congrcve's  comedies,  but 
it  was  not  very  well  received  and  the  author 
in  disgust  renounced  any  further  writing  for 
the  stage . 

Mirabell  is  in  love  with  Millamant,  a  niece 
of  1  /ady  Wishfort,  and  has  pretended  to  make 
love  to  the  aunt  in  order  to  conceal  his  suit 
of  the  niece.  The  deceit  has  been  revealed  to 
Lady  Wishfort  by  Mrs.  Marwood  to  revenge 
herself  on  Mirabell,  who  has  rejected  her 
advances.  Lady  Wishfort,  who  now  hates 
Mirabell  'more  than  a  quaker  hates  a  parrot', 
will  deprive  her  niece  of  the  half  of  the  in- 
heritance which  is  in  her  keeping,  if  Milla- 
mant marries  Mirabell.  The  latter  accord- 
ingly contrives  that  his  servant  Waitwell  shall 
personate  an  uncle  of  his,  Sir  Rowland,  make 
love  to  Lady  Wishfort  and  pretend  to  marry 
her,  having,  however,  first  married  Lady 
Wjshfort*s  woman,  Foible.  He  hopes  by  this 
deception  to  win  Lady  Wishfort's  consent  to 
his  marriage  to  her  niece.  The  plot  is  dis- 
covered by  Mrs.  Marwood,  and  also  the  fact 
that  Mirabell  has  in  the  past  had  an  intrigue 
with  Mrs,  Fainall,  daughter  of  Lady  Wish- 
fort.  She  conspires  with  Fainall,  her  lover 
and  the  pretended  friend  of  Mirabell,  to 
reveal  these  facts  to  Lady  Wishfort,  while 
Fainall  is  to  threaten  to  divorce  his  wife 


WAYZGOOSE 

and  discredit  Lady  Wishfort  unless  he  is 
given  full  control  of  Mrs.  Fainall's  property 
and  Millamant's  portion  is  also  handed 
over  to  him.  The  scheme,  however,  fails. 
Mrs.  Fainall  denies  the  charge  against 
her,  brings  proof  of  FainaU*s  relations  with 
Mrs.  Marwood,  while  Mirabell  produces 
a  deed  by  which  Mrs.  Fainall,  before  her 
last  marriage,  made  him  trustee  of  her  pro- 
perty. Lady  Wishfort,  in.  gratitude  for 
her  release  from  Fainall's  threats,  forgives 
Mirabell  and  consents  to  his  marriage  to 
Millamant. 

Besides  the  finished  portrait  of  Millamant, 
finely-tempered  in  sense  and  intellect,  Con- 
greve's  most  brilliant  creation,  there  are 
amusing  characters  in  Sir  Wilfull  Witwoud, 
Lady  Wishfort's  boisterous  country  nephew, 
and  Foible  and  Waitwell,  the  servants.  The 
dialogue  is  exceptionally  brilliant  and  there 
are  some  highly  entertaining  scenes;  while 
Lady  Wishfort's  display  of  'boudoir  Billings- 
gate* (as  Meredith  called  it)  when  she  dis- 
covers how  she  has  been  tricked,  is  unequalled 
in  its  kind. 

Wayland  or  WELAND  THE  SMITH,  the  Vulcan 
of  Scandinavian  mythology,  where  he  is  called 
Volundr.  According  to  the  Elder  Edda,  he 
was  one  of  three  brothers  settled  in  Ulfdale 
and  married  to  Valkyries  or  war-nymphs. 
After  nine  years,  these  were  constrained  by 
fate  to  leave  their  husbands.  Two  brothers 
departed  in  search  of  their  partners,  but 
Weland  remained  at  home  working  at  his 
smith's  craft  and  amassing  wealth.  Besieged 
by  Nidudr,  a  Swedish  king,  he  was  cruelly 
lamed  by  the  cutting  of  the  sinews  of  his 
knee,  and  conveyed  to  a  small  island  where 
he  was  forced  to  work  for  his  captor.  Here 
he  murdered  the  sons  of  Nidudr,  and  pre- 
sented their  gold-set  skulls  to  their  father, 
gems  made  from  their  eyes  to  their  mother, 
and  a  breast-ornament  of  their  teeth  to 
Bodhilda,  their  sister,  who  became  his  vic- 
tim. He  then  entered  the  palace  of  Nidudr 
and  recounted  to  him  the  fates  of  his  children, 
afterwards  escaping. 

He  is  the  Wieland  of  German  epics,  who 
fashioned  the  famous  sword  Mimung.  There 
are  traces  of  his  legend  in  England.  He  was 
supposed  to  have  his  forge  in  a  dolmen  near 
the  White  Horse  on  the  Berkshire  Downs  (see 
Scott's  *Kenilworth').  His  misfortunes  are 
referred  to  in  the  'Complaint  of  Deor'  (q.v.). 
King  Alfred  translates  Boethius  *ubi  mine 
sunt  ossa  Fabricii*  by  'where  are  now  the 
bones  of  Weland  once  the  cunning  goldsmith 
of  old'. 

Wayzgoose,  according  to  the  OED.  prob- 
ably a  corruption  of  waygoose,  arising  from 
an  etymological  conjecture  by  Bailey  (1731), 
who  connected  the  word  with  wayz-goose, 
stubble  goose.  But  it  has  now  been  dis- 
covered from  old  records  of  the  Oxford 
University  Press  that  the  word  was  formerly 
wake-goose.  It  signified  originally  an  enter- 
tainment given  by  a  master-printer  to  his 


[835] 


3H3 


WEAK  ENDING 

workmen  'about  Bartholomewtide',  marking 
the  beginning  of  the  season  of  working  by 
candle-light.    In  later  use  it  is  an  annual ' 
festivity  held  in  summer  by  the  employees  of 
a  printing  establishment. 
Weak  ending,  the  occurrence  of  an  un- 
stressed or  proclitic  monosyllable  (such  as  a 
preposition,  conjunction,  or  auxiliary  verb) 
in  the  normally  stressed  place  at  the  end  of  an 
iambic  line. 

Wealth  of  Nations,  Inquiry  into  the  Nature 
and  Causes  of  the,  a  treatise  on  political 
economy  by  Adam  Smith  (q.v.),  published  in 
1776,  originally  delivered  in  the  form  of 
lectures  at  Glasgow. 

Adam  Smith's  work  is  the  first  compre- 
hensive treatment  of  the  whole  subject  of 
political  economy,  and  is  remarkable  for  its 
breadth  of  view.  Smith  shared  the  objection 
of  the  French  physiocrats  (q.v.)  to  the 
mercantile  system,  but  he  did  not  share  their 
view  that  land  is  the  sole  source  of  wealth. 
The  'Wealth  of  Nations'  sets  out  with  the 
doctrine  that  the  labour  of  the  nation  is 
the  source  of  its  means  of  life.  It  insists  on  the 
value  of  the  division  of  labour.  Labour  is  the 
standard  of  value,  and  originally  was  the  sole 
determinant  of  price ;  but  in  a  more  advanced 
state  of  society  three  elements  enter  into 
price — wages,  profit,  and  rent — and  these 
elements  are  discussed  separately. 

The  second  book  deals  with  capital,  its 
nature  and  its  accumulation.  It  distinguishes 
between  fixed  and  circulating  capital,  be- 
tween money  and  goods,  between  productive 
and  unproductive  labour,  and  between  the 
different  modes  of  employing  capital.  With 
the  increase  of  capital  there  is  an  increase  of 
productive  labour  and  a  decrease  in  the  rate 
of  interest. 

After  this  exposition  the  author  proceeds 
to  an  elaborate  attack  on  the  mercantile 
system,  and  an  advocacy  of  freedom  of 
commerce  and  industry.  His  political 
economy  is  essentially  individualistic;  self- 
interest  is  the  proper  criterion  of  economic 
action.  But  the  universal  pursuit  of  one's 
own  advantage  contributes,  in  his  view,  to 
the  public  interest. 

Wearin?  of  the  Green,  The,  an  Irish  national 
folk-ballad,  attributed  to  the  last  decade  of 
the  1 8th  cent. 

Webster,  DANIEL  (1782-1852),  born  at 
Salisbury,  New  Hampshire,  in  America,  rose 
to  great  eminence  as  an  orator,  both  in  the 
practice  of  the  law,  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives and  Senate,  and  in  discourses  to 
the  public,  in  which  he  stimulated  the  idea  of 
union  among  the  American  States.  He  was 
twice  secretary  of  state.  His  speeches,  even  in 
ordinary  criminal  trials,  show  a  rare  literary 
quality,  comparable  to  that  displayed  by  the 
speeches  of  Burke.  Among  the  best  known  of 
them  is  the  Discourse  on  the  sooth  anniver- 
sary of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  (1820),  the 
Bunker  Hill  oration  (1825),  and  the  Adams 
and  Jefferson  speech  (1826). 


WEGG 

WEBSTER,  JOHN  (1580?-! 625?),  the  son 
of  a  London  tailor,  and  himself  a  freeman  of 
the  Merchant  Taylors'  Company,  collaborated 
with  Dekker  and  other  dramatists  in  a  num- 
ber of  comedies,  *  Christmas  comes  but  once 
a  year*  (1602),  'Westward  Hoe*  (q.v.)  and 
'Northward  Hoe*  (q.v.)  in  1603-4  (printed  in 
1607),  and  with  Rowley  in  'A  Cure  for  a 
Cuckold'  (q.v.,  printed  1661).  He  completed 
for  the  stage  Marston's  'Malcontent'  (1604). 
With  Heywood  and  Tpurneur  he  published 
elegies  on  Prince  Henry  in  1612.  His  tragedies, 
founded  on  Italian  novelle,  show  that  he 
approached  in  tragic  power  nearest  of  his 
contemporaries  to  Shakespeare ;  they  are  'The 
White  Divel*  (q.v.),  produced  c,  1608 ;  'Appius 
and  Virginia'  (q.v.,  perhaps  partly  by  Hey- 
wood), c.  1609 ;  'The  Duchess  of  Malfi'  (q.v.), 
c.  1614.  His  tragi-comedy,  'The  Devil's  Law 
Case',  was  published  in  1623.  His  tragedy  on 
contemporary  French  history  entitled  'Guise' 
and  *A  late  Murder  of  the  Son  upon  the 
Mother'  (written  in  conjunction  with  J.  Ford, 
c.  1624)  are  lost.  Collected  editions  of  his 
plays  were  published  (1830)  by  Alexander 
Dyce  and  (1856)  by  William  Hazlitt. 

WEBSTER,  NOAH  (1758-1843),  American 
lexicographer,  was  educated  at  Yale  Univer- 
sity and  was  subsequently  a  teacher  and 
a  journalist.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  Amherst  College,  Massachusetts.  The 
chief  work  by  which  he  is  remembered  is 
his  great  'American  Dictionary  of  the  Eng- 
lish Language'  (1828),  of  which  there  have 
been  several  subsequent  editions. 

Wedding,  Ballad  upon  a,  see  Suckling. 

Wedgwood,  JOSIAH  (1730-95),  the  founder 
of  the  celebrated  pottery  works  at  'Etruria* 
(a  village  which  he  built  for  his  workmen 
near  Stoke-on-Trent).  He  started  life  as  a 
working  potter,  and  greatly  developed  the 
technique  of  the  industry,  perfecting  cream 
(afterwards  called  Queen's)  ware,  and  adopt- 
ing sulphate  of  baryta  to  produce  his  fine 
jasper  ware.  On  the  artistic  side,  he  promoted 
the  application  of  classical  taste  to  the 
decoration  of  pottery. 

THOMAS  WEDGWOOD  (1771-1805),  son  of 
Josiah,  was  the  first  photographer,  and  a 
generous  patron  of  S.  T.  Coleridge. 

Wedmore,  TREATY  OF,  between  Alfred  and 
Guthrum,  king  of  the  Danes,  after  the  defeat 
of  the  latter  at  Ethandun  in  878.  The  treaty 
gave  Alfred  Wessex,  Sussex,  Kent,  and  the 
western  half  of  Mercia.  The  rest  of  England 
as  far  as  the  Tees  was  surrendered  to  the 
Danes  and  became  known  as  the  Danelaw. 
But  either  by  this,  or  by  a  treaty  two  years 
later,  Alfred  kept  London.  Wedmore  is  at 
the  foot  of  the  Mendips. 

Weeping  Philosopher,  THE,  Heraclitus 
(q.v.). 

Wegg,  SILAS,  in  Dickens's  'Our  Mutual 
Friend'  (q.v.),  a  one-legged  impudent  old 
rascal,  with  a  smattering  of  education,  who 


[836] 


WEIR 

becomes  reader  to  Mr.  Boffin  and  attempts  to 
bhu-kmail  him. 

Weir,  MAJOR,  in  Scott's  'Redgauntlet*  (q.v.), 
Sir  Robert  Uedgauntlet's  monkey  in  'Wan- 
dering Willie's  Tale',  named  after  a  famous 
wizard  executed  at  Edinburgh  for  sorcery  and 
other  crimes, 

Weir  o/  Hcrmiston,  an  unfinished  novel  by 

K.  L._  Stevenson  (q.v.),  published  in  1896. 
The  fragment  does  little  more  than  set  the 
scene  and  present  the  chief  characters,  but  it 
includes  some  of  Stevenson's  finest  work. 

Archie  Weir  is  the  only  child  of  Adam 
Weir,  Lord  Hermiston,  the  lord  justice-clerk, 
a  formidable  'hanging  judge*,  grim  and  stern, 
wielding  with  a  fierce  enjoyment  the  terrors 
of  the  law.  His  mother,  a  pale  ineffectual 
woman,  dies  young,  and  leaves  Archie,  *a  fine 
ardent  modest  youthful  soul*  with  a  taste  for 
letters,  to  the  care  of  a  father  whom  he  both 
dreads  and  dislikes.  Archie,  revolted  at  the 
cruel  glee  with  which  the  old  judge  hounds 
to  death  some  wretched  criminal  at  a  trial, 
passes  a  grave  public  affront  on  his  father, 
and  is  banished  by  him  to  the  solitude  of 
llcrmistont  a  remote  pastoral  village.  He 
shrinks  from  the  uncongenial  society  of  the 
clodpole  lairds  of  the  neighbourhood,  and 
lives  a  recluse,  with  Kirstxe,  his  devoted 
housekeeper  and  distant  relative.  She  is 
aunt  to  four  notable  brothers,  the  'Black 
Elliotts',  famed  for  their  hunting  down  of 
their  father's  murderer.  These  have  a  young 
sister,  Christina,  whose  beauty  attracts  Archie. 
The  two  fall  deeply  in  love  and  have  many 
meetings,  which  at  last  become  known  to 
Kirstie  and  to  Archie's  disloyal  friend  and 
visitor,  Frank  Innes.  Moved  by  Kirstie's 
earnest  warning  and  Frank's  facetious  com- 
ments, Archie  tells  Christina  that  their  secret 
meetings  must  cease,  and  offends  her  deeply. 
At  this  point  the  fragment  ends,  but  we  know 
that  in  Stevenson's  intention  the  argument 
was  to  proceed  as  follows.  Archie  persists  in 
his  £<x>d  resolution  of  avoiding  further  con- 
duct compromising  to  Christina's  good  name. 
Taking  advantage  of  this  and  of  the  girl's  un- 
httppincss  and  wounded  vanity,  Frank  Innes 
seduces  her.  This  becomes  known  to  Archie, 
who  has  an  interview  with  Frank,  which  ends 
in  a  quarrel  and  in  Archie  killing  Frank.  He 
is  tried  before  his  own  father  and  sentenced 
to  death.  Meanwhile  Kirstie  who  has  dis- 
covered that  Frank,  and  not,  as  had  hitherto 
been  supposed,  Archie,  Is  the  author  of 
Christina's  betrayal,  informs  the  Four  Black 
Brothers,  These  gather  a  following,  and  after 
a  great  fight  break  the  prison  where  Archie 
lies  confined,  and  rescue  him.  He  and 
Christina  thereafter  escape  to  America.  But 
the  ordeal  of  taking  part  in  the  trial  of  his  ' 
own  son  is  too  much  for  the  old  judge,  who 
dies  of  the  shock.  Lord  Hermiston  is  believed 
to  be  drawn  from  Robert  Macqueen,  Lord 
Braxfield. 

Welssnichtwo  (*  Know  not  where* ;  cf .  Scott's 
*Kennaquhair')»  in  Carlyle's  *  Sartor  Resar- 


WELLS 

tus*  (q.v.),  the  town  where  TeufeisdrSckh 
was  professor. 

Weland  the  Smith,  see  Wayland  the  Smith. 

Well  of  St.  Keyne,  The,  a  ballad  by  Southey 
(q.v.). 

The  well  is  in  Cornwall.  'Whether  hus- 
band or  wife  come  first  to  drink  thereof,  they 
get  the  mastery  thereby/  says  Fuller.  The 
ballad  tells  how  a  Comishman,  though  he  left 
his  bride  at  the  church  porch  to  hurry  to  the 
well,  was  outwitted  by  her — for  she  had 
taken  a  bottle  of  the  water  to  church. 

Well-Beloved,  The,  a  novel  by  Hardy  (q.v.), 
published  serially  in  1892,  reissued  in  revised 
form  in  1 897, 

The  scene  is  the  *Isle  of  SKngers*,  that  is, 
Portland,  and  the  tale  deals  with  the  peculiar 
temperament  of  its  inhabitants.  Jocelyn 
Pierston  the  sculptor,  an  'islander',  falls  in 
love  successively  with  three  Island  women — 
Avice  Caro,  her  daughter,  and  her  grand- 
daughter, of  the  same  name — seeking  in  each 
an  elusive  ideal  Well-Beloved;  but  the  per- 
versity of  circumstances  prevents  him  from 
marrying  any  of  them.  In  his  old  age  he 
marries  an  elderly  widow,  from  whom  all 
pretence  of  being  the  Well-Beloved  has  long 
since  departed. 

Wellborn,  FRANK,  a  character  in  Massinger's 
*A  New  Way  to  pay  Old  Debts'  (q.v.). 

Weller,  SAMUEL,  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick 
Papers*  (q.v.),  Mr.  Pickwick's  devoted  ser- 
vant, formerly  boots  at  the  White  Hart  in  the 
Borough,  a  cheerful,  facetious,  and  resource- 
ful character,  with  an  endless  store  of 
humorous  illustrations  apposite  to  the  various 
incidents  of  life.  The  greatest  character  that 
Dickens  ever  drew. 

Weller,  TONY,  in  Dickens's  'Pickwick 
Papers*  (q.v.),  a  coach-driver,  the  father  of 
Sam  Weller.  He  has  married  a  widow,  who 
keeps  the  'Marquis  of  Granby*  inn  at 
Dorking. 

WELLS,  CHARLES  JEREMIAH  (1800- 
79),  author  of  'Stories  after  Nature*  (1822), 
and,  under  the  pseudonym  of  H.  L.  Howard, 
of  'Joseph  and  his  Brethren:  a  Dramatic 
Poem*  (1824).  In  1876  (and  in  the  World's 
Classics  in  1908)  this  was  republished  with  an 
essay  by  Swinburne.  It  was  greatly  admired 
by  RossettL 

WELLS,  HERBERT  GEORGE  (i866-a     ), 

the  son  of  a  small  tradesman  and  professional 
cricketer,  was  apprenticed  to  a  draper  in 
early  life,  a  period  of  which  reflections  may 
be  seen  in  some  of  his  best  novels  ('The 
History  of  Mr.  Polly*,  'Kipps',  'The  Wheels 
of  Chance').  He  became  a  teacher  at 
Midhurst  Grammar  School  and  subsequently 
graduated  at  the  Normal  School  of  Science, 
South  Kensington.  He  followed  the  teaching 
profession  until  1893,  when  he  definitely 
adopted  that  of  letters.  Some  interesting 
autobiographical  details  are  to  be  found  in 


[837] 


WEMMICK 

his  essay,  'This  Misery  of  Boots'  (1907, 
reprinted  in  *A  Miscellany  of  Tracts  and 
Pamphlets',  World's  Classics). 

Wells's  novels  divide  themselves  broadly 
into  three  groups:  (i)  fantastic  and  imagina- 
tive romances,  in  which,  after  the  manner  of 
Swift  in  'Gulliver's  Travels',  the  author 
projects  himself  to  a  distant  standpoint — the 
moon,  the  future,  the  air — and  views  our  life 
from  outside,  e.g.  as  an  angel  sees  it  ('The 
Wonderful  Visit') ;  (2)  novels  of  character  and 
humour,  of  which  'The  History  of  Mr.  Polly5 
(q.v.,  1910)  is  the  type ;  (3)  discussion  novels — 
discussion,  that  is,  in  the  main,  of  human 
ideals  and  progress — to  which  Wells's  essay 
on  'The  Contemporary  Novel'  (' Fortnightly 
Review',  Nov.  1911,  reprinted  in  'An 
Englishman  Looks  at  the  World',  1914) 
serves  as  a  general  introduction. 

Mr.  Wells's  publications  include:  'The 
Time  Machine'  and  'The  Wonderful  Visit' 
(1895),  'The  Invisible  Man'  (1897),  'The  War 
of  the  Worlds'  (1898),  'When  the  Sleeper 
Wakes'  (iSo^f  revised  and  reissued  in  1911 
as  'The  Slleper  Awakes'),  'Love  and  Mr. 
Lewisham'  (1900),  "The  First  Men  in  the 
Moon'  (1901),  'Anticipations'  (sociological 
essays,  1902),  'The  Food  of  the  Gods'  (1904), 
'AModern  Utopia'  and  'Kipps'  (1905),  'Tono- 
Bungay'  (1909,  one  of  Wells's  most  remark- 
able works,  a  picture  of  English  society  in 
dissolution  in  the  later  ipth  cent.,  and  of  the 
advent  of  a  new  class  of  rich),  'The  History  of 
Mr.  Polly'  (q.v.,  1910),  'Ann  Veronica'  (1909), 
'The  New  Machiavelli'  and  'The  Country  of 
the  Blind'  (1911),  'Bealby'  (1915),  'Mr. 
Britling  sees  it  through'  (1916),  'The  Outline 
of  History*  (1920,  first  issued  in  fortnightly 
parts),  'Short  History  of  the  World'  (1922), 
'The  World  of  William  Clissold'  (1926),  'The 
Open  Conspiracy*  (1928),  'The  Science  of 
Life'  (1931). 

Wemmick,  in  Dickens's  'Great  Expecta- 
tions* (q.v.),  clerk  to  Mr.  Jaggers  the  lawyer, 
and  Pip's  good  friend. 

Wen,  THE,  William  Cobbett's  name  for 
London  ('Rural  Rides',  passim). 

Wenfcam,  MR.,  in  Thackeray's  'Vanity  Fair' 
(q.v.),  a  satellite  of  Lord  Steyne. 
Wentworth,  SIR  THOMAS,  see  Strafford. 

Werewolf  or  WERWOLF,  a  person  who 
(according  to  medieval  superstition)  was 
transformed  or  was  capable  of  transforming 
himself  at  times  into  a  wolf.  Lycaon,  an 
impious  king  of  Greek  mythology,  who  served 
a  dish  of  human  flesh  to  Zeus  to  test 
whether  he  was  really  a  god,  and  was  turned 
into  a  wolf  as  punishment,  is  an  early  instance 
of  the  superstition,  and  the  ancient  writers 
afford  other  examples.  The  belief  in  were- 
wolves was  widespread  in  England,  Wales, 
Ireland,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Continent, 
down  to  the  i7th  cent.,  and  is  hardly  extinct 
everywhere  even  to-day,  though  with  the 
disappearance  of  the  wolf,  the  delusion 
necessarily  loses  its  basis.  Cf.  the  story  of 


WESLEY 

William  of  Palerne  (q.v.).  In  Scotland  hares 
take  the  place  of  wolves. 

The  first  element  in  the  word  has  usually 
been  identified  with  the  OE.  wer,  man,  but 
the  OED.  regards  this  as  doubtful. 

Werner,  a  tragedy  by  Lord  Byron  (q.v.), 
published  in  1823,  founded  on  'The  German's 
Tale'  in  Sophia  and  Harriet  Lee's  'Canterbury 
Tales'. 

The  dissolute  and  outlawed  son  of  Count 
Siegendorf,  bearing  the  assumed  name  of 
Werner,  finds  himself  by  accident  in  the  same 
house  as  his  enemy,  Count  Stralenheim,  and 
under  a  sudden  impulse  robs  him.  His  son 
Ulric,  more  determined,  murders  Stralen- 
heim to  conceal  his  father's  dishonour,  but 
without  his  father's  knowledge,  and  throws 
the  appearance  of  guilt  on  the  Hungarian, 
Gabor,  Later,  when  Werner  has  become 
Count  Siegendorf,  he  finds  himself  con- 
fronted by  Gabor,  who  accuses  Ulric  of  the 
crime.  Ulric  seeks  to  kill  Gabor,  but  is 
prevented  by  Siegendorf,  who  shrinks  from 
assassination  and  dies  broken-hearted  at  his 
own  infamy  and  his  son's  crime. 

Werther,  The  Sorrows  of  Young,  see  Goethe. 
Thackeray  wrote  a  short  satirical  poem 
called  'The  Sorrows  of  Werther'  ending  with 
the  well-known  lines : 

Charlotte,  having  seen  his  body 
Borne  before  her  on  a  shutter, 
Like  a  well-conducted  person 

Went  on  cutting  bread  and  butter. 

WESLEY,  CHARLES  (1707-88),  a  brother 
of  J.  Wesley  (q.v.),  founded,  while  a  student 
at  Christ  Church,  a  'methodist'  society  of 
pious  young  men,  who  strictly  observed  rules 
of  fasting  and  prayer.  To  this  society  belonged 
John  Wesley  and  George  Whitefield,  and 
these,  with  Charles  himself,  were  the  principal 
leaders  of  the  Methodist  movement.  From 
a  literary  standpoint,  Charles  Wesley  is  re- 
membered as  the  composer  of  a  very  large 
number  of  hymns,  including  'Jesu,  lover  of 
my  soul*,  many  of  which  are  still  in  use.  He 
left  a  'Journal',  published  in  1849. 

WESLEY,  JOHN  (1703-91),  of  old  Puritan 
ancestry  (which  perhaps  led  to  his  belief 
in  witchcraft),  was  educated  at  Charter- 
house and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He 
became  fellow  and  tutor  of  Lincoln  College, 
and  leader  of  the  'methodist'  society  of  his 
brother  Charles  (q.v.)  in  1729.  He  accepted 
charge  of  the  Georgia  mission  in  1735  and 
came  under  the  influence  of  the  Moravians, 
and  after  his  return  to  England  became  a 
member  of  the  Moravian  'society*  at  Fetter 
Lane  Chapel.  He  visited  Zinzendorf  at 
Hcrrnhut  in  1738,  and  was  appointed  his  first 
lay  preacher.  He  then  began  field  preaching 
and  opened  a  Methodist  chapel  at  Bristol,  and 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life  showed  prodigious 
activity  in  his  ministry,  preaching  forty 
thousand  sermons  and  travelling  many 
thousands  of  miles,  nearly  all  on  horseback. 
He  was  a  man  of  real  and  deep  learning,  and 


[838] 


WESBEX 

of  autocratic  temper.  He  had  a  passionate 
desire  to  remain  a  member  of  the  Church  of 
England,  but  he  committed  a  definite  act  of 
sell  ism  when,  in  1784,  he  ordained  a  minister 
(for  one  of  his  American  congregations);  his 
brother  Charles  was  bitterly  opposed  to  this, 
John  Wesley  published  twenty-three  collec- 
tions of  hymns  ( 1737-86)  and  his  collected 
prose  'Works'  (i77i"»4).  His  'Journal*,  of 
which  a  standard  edition  is  now  in  course 
of  publication,  is  remarkable  not  only  as  a 
record  of  his  spiritual  life  and  tireless 
activity,  but  also  for  its  pathos,  humour, 
and  observation  of  mankind,  Southey's  'Life 
of  John  Wesley*,  perhaps  one  of  the  best 
biographies  in  the  language,  was  published 
in  itSsx.  See  also  Methodism. 

Wessex,  the  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons, 
who  established  themselves  in  Hampshire 
early  in  the  6th  cent,,  and  extended  their 
dominion  north  and  west  under  their  kings, 
Cerdic  and  Cynric.  It  included  Hants,  Dor- 
set, Wilts,,  Berks.,  and  part  of  Somerset. 
Ultimately*  under  Egbert,  Alfred,  and  their 
successors,  the  kingdom  of  Wessex  developed 
into  that  of  England. 

'Wessex*  is  used  by  Hardy  (q.v.)  to 
designate  the  south-west  counties,  princi- 
pally Dorset,  which  are  the  scene  of  his 
novels. 

West  Point,  New  York  State,  on  the  W.  bank 

of  the  Hudson,  where  the  U.S.  Military 
Academy  trains  cadets  for  army  service.  It 
figured  in  the  Revolutionary  War:  Washing- 
ton had  his  head-quarters  there  in  1779, 
and  in  1780  Benedict  Arnold  endeavoured 
treasonably  to  surrender  it  to  the  British. 

WESTCOTT,  BROOKE  FOSS  (1825- 
1901),  theological  scholar,  bishop  of  Durham, 
famous  for  his  recension,  jointly  with  F,  J.  A. 

I  fort,  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (1871).  He  also  wrote  commentaries 
on  the  Gospel  and  Epistles  of  St.  John  and 

on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

West  Indian ,  The,  a  comedy  by  Cumberland 

(tj*y.),  produced  in  1771, 

Stockwcll,  having  early  in  life  secretly 
married  in  Jamaica  the  daughter  of  his  rich 
employer,  old  Belcour,  has  had  a  son  by  her, 
who  has  been  passed  off  on  old  Belcour  as  a 
foundling,  brought  up  by  him,  and  has 
inherited  his  property.  Young  Belcour,  as  he 
is  called,  comes  home,  but  Stockwell  post- 
pones recognizing  him  as  his  son  until  he  has 
made  trial  of  his  character. 

Young  Belcour,  a  generous  but  hare- 
brained fellow,  fells  in  love  at  first  sight  with 
Lucy,  daughter  of  the  impecunious  Captain 
Dudley,  tracks  her  to  the  lodgings  where  she 
lives  with  her  father  and  brother  Charles,  and 
is  there  beguiled  into  thinking  her  the  mis- 
tress of  Charles  by  the  rascally  landlord 
Fulmer  and  his  wife,  who  hope  to  profit  by 
the  intrigue,  Charles  is  in  love  with  his 
rich  cousin  Charlotte,  stepdaughter  of  the 
avaricious  and  unscrupulous  Lady  Rusport, 


WESTMINSTER  HALL 

but  in  his  poverty  will  not  confess  his  love, 
though  it  is  returned  by  Charlotte.  Belcour 
generously  comes  to  the  assistance  of  Captain 
Dudley  in  his  pressing  needs,  but  his  impu- 
dent addresses  to  Lucy,  under  a  mistaken 
idea  of  her  character,  and  his  inconsiderate 
gift  to  Lucy — because  he  happens  to  have  no 
other  present  handy — of  some  jewels  en- 
trusted to  him  for  Charlotte,  lead  to  grave 
complications  and  a  duel  with  Charles.  The 
imbroglio  is  cleared  up  by  Charlotte  (to 
whom  Belcour  frankly  confesses  his  disposal 
of  her  jewels)  with  the  help  of  the  amiable 
Irishman,  Major  O'Flaherty.  Belcour  dis- 
covers his  mistake,  is  pardoned  by  Lucy  and 
obtains  her  hand,  and  is  recognized  by  his 
father.  Charles  is  discovered  to  be  the  real 
heir  of  his  grandfather's  property,  which 
Lady  Rusport  had  tried  to  appropriate,  and 
marries  Charlotte. 

Western,  SQUIRE  and  SOPHIA,  characters  in 
Fielding's  'Tom  Jones*  (q.v.). 
Western  Empire,  THE,  the  more  westerly 
of  the  two  parts  into  which  the  Roman  Empire 
was  divided  in  A.D.  395.  Its  capital  was  Rome. 
It  came  to  a  real  end  with  the  deposition  of 
Romulus  Augustulus  in  476,  and  its  pre- 
tended revival  by  the  pope  and  Charlemagne 
in  800  was  far  from  being  a  reality,  though 
it  nominally  endured  as  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  till  1806. 

Westlock,  JOHN,  a  character  in  Dickens's 
'Martin  Chuzzlewit*  (q.v.),  at  one  time  pupil 
of  Mr.  Pecksniff. 

Westminster  Abbey:  a  monastery  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Peter  was  founded,  in  the  7th 
or  8th  century,  on  the  island  of  Thorney  in 
the  estuary  of  the  Thames,  close  to  where 
Watling  Street  reached  the  river  at  Tothill. 
It  was  re-founded,  after  destruction  by  the 
Danes,  and  endowed  with  a  large  manor,  in 
the  time  of  Edgar  and  Dunstan.  The  river 
was  gradually  pushed  back  and  the  adjoining 
land  reclaimed.  Edward  the  Confessor  passed 
much  of  his  reign  at  Westminster  and  built 
a  great  church  for  the  monks.  It  was  rebuilt 
by  Henry  III  and  added  to  and  partly  re- 
constructed in  subsequent  reigns.  Chaucer 
was  clerk  of  the  king's  works  at  the  abbey 
during  part  of  Richard  IFs  reign.  'Poets' 
Corner'  in  the  S.  transept  contains  the  monu- 
ments or  other  memorials  of  Chaucer, 
Spenser,  Shakespeare,  Ben  Jonson,  Milton, 
and  other  British  authors.  It  is  in  the  abbey 
that  the  English  kings  are  crowned. 

Westminster  Hall,  a  part  of  the  old  West- 
minster Palace,  built  by  William  Rufus  (per- 
haps in  ihe  place  of  an  earlier  hall)  and  rebuilt, 
substantially  in  its  present  form,  by  Richard  II. 
The  early  kings  held  many  of  their  Christmas 
and  other  festivities  there.^  Many  of  the  early 
parliaments  sat  in  it,  and  it  was  the  principal 
seat  of  justice  from  the  time  of  Henry  III 
until  the  iQth  cent.,  and  the  scene  of  many 
great  trials,  among  others  of  Strafford, 
Charles  I,  and  Warren  Hastings. 


[839] 


WESTMINSTER  PALACE 

Westminster  Palace,  supposed  to  date 
from  Edward  the  Confessor,  on  the  site  now 
occupied  by  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  was 
damaged  by  fire  in  1512,  and  ceased  to  be  a 
royal  residence ;  but  a  great  part  of  it  remained. 
The  Houses  of  Lords  and  Commons  for  a 
long  time  sat  in  buildings  of  the  Palace,  until 
these  were  destroyed  by  the  fire  of  1834.  All 
that  now  survives  of  the  palace  is  West- 
minster Hall  (q.v.)  and  the  crypt  of  St. 
Stephen's  chapel. 

Westminster  Review,  The,  was  founded  in 
1824  by  Bentham  (q.v.),  with  the  assistance 
of  James  Mill  (q.v.),  as  the  organ  of  the 
philosophical  radicals.  John  Bowring  was  its 
first  editor.  In  1851  G.  Eliot  (q.v.)  became 
its  assistant  editor  (John  Chapman  being  then 
editor). 

Westminster  School,  was  founded  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  1560.  Among  its  famous 
pupils  have  been  Ben  Jonson,  George  Her- 
bert, Locke,  Dryden,  Wren,  Bentham, 
Gibbon,  Cowper,  and  Southey.  The  boy- 
choristers  of  Westminster  Abbey  are  drawn 
from  its  scholars. 

Westphalia,  THE  PEACE  OF,  concluded  in 
1648  by  the  treaties  of  Osnabruck  and 
Munster,  brought  to  an  end  the  Thirty  Years 
War  in  Germany.  The  religious  and  political 
equality  of  the  German  states  was  secured ; 
France  was  granted  most  of  Alsace ;  Sweden 
received  part  of  Pomerania  and  other  dis- 
tricts; Holland  and  Switzerland  were  de- 
clared independent. 

Westward  for  Smelts,  a  collection  of  tales 
borrowed  from  the  'Decameron*  and  similar 
sources,  recounted  by  seven  fish-wives  who 
embark  after  selling  their  fish  in  London;  by 
'Kinde-Kit  of  Kingston'  (1603?,  1620). 

Westward  Ho! ,  a  novel  by  C.  Kingsley  (q.v.), 
published  in  1855. 

This  was  the  most  successful  of  the  author's 
novels,  and  is  a  patriotic  tale  of  adventure, 
Jesuit  intrigue,  and  naval  enterprise  of  the 
time  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  hero,  Amyas 
Leigh,  a  spirited  Devonshire  lad,  after  being 
disappointed  in  his  desire  to  sail  with  John 
Oxenham  on  his  last  ill-fated  expedition,  has 
accompanied  Drake  on  his  voyage  round 
the  world.  The  story  continues  with  his 
participation  in  the  military  measures  against 
the  Spaniards  who  landed  at  Smerwick  in 
1580,  in  the  course  of  which  he  takes 
prisoner  a  Spanish  captain,  Don  Guzman. 
The  latter,  while  on  parole  in  Devonshire, 
falls  in  love  with  the  beautiful  Rose  Salterne, 
and  assisted  by  Amyas 's  Jesuit  cousin,  Eustace, 
induces  her  to  leave  her  home,  marries  her, 
and  carries  her  off  to  the  Spanish  main. 
Amyas  and  his  brother  Frank,  and  other 
disappointed  suitors  of  Rose,  with  Salvation 
Yeo,  'flower  and  pattern  of  all  bold  mariners', 
sail  in  pursuit,  but  with  tragic  results.  Rose, 
brought  under  suspicion  by  their  action,  falls 
a  victim  of  the  Inquisition,  together  with 
Frank  Leigh.  Amyas  and  his  ship's  crew 


WHATELY 

wander  for  three  years  in  South  America, 
capture  a  Spanish  galleon,  and  return  to 
England  with  the  beautiful  Ayacanora,  whom 
they  have  found  ruling  an  Indian  tribe.  The 
last  chapters  of  the  book  are  devoted  to 
Amyas  's  pursuit  of  his  vengeance  on  Don 
Guzman,  for  which  the  arrival  of  the  Armada 
provides  an  opportunity.  But  Providence 
takes  the  vengeance  out  of  his  hands.  After 
a  long  pursuit  the  Spaniard  is  wrecked  and 
drowned,  and  Amyas  is  struck  blind  by 
lightning.  He  ends  by  marrying  Ayacanora, 
who  has  proved  to  be  the  daughter  of  John 
Oxenham, 

Westward  Hoe,  a  comedy  by  J,  Webster 
(q.v.)  and  Dekker  (q.v.),  printed  in  1607,  but 
entered  at  the  Stationers'  Hall  in  1605. 

The  main  plot  deals  with  an  escapade  of 
three  merry  wives  and  their  gallants  to  Brent- 
ford, where  their  husbands  find  them  at  an 
inn,  but  their  innocence  is  established.  In 
the  sub-plot  Justiniano,  an  Italian  merchant, 
convinced  of  his  wife's  infidelity,  abandons 
her  and  lives  disguised,  enjoying  the  comedy 
of  London  life.  Mistress  Justiniano  is  in- 
volved in  an  intrigue  with  a  profligate  earl, 
but  conscience  intervenes,  and  repentance 
and  reconciliation  follow. 
Weyburn,  MATTHEW  (MATIE),  a  character  in 
Meredith's  'Lord  Orniont  and  his  Aminta' 


WHARTON,  EDITH  (1862-  ),  Ameri- 
can novelist,  born  in  New  York,  Mrs. 
Wharton  is  probably  the  best  known  of 
America's  'classical'  novelists.  Her  vogue 
is  based  upon  a  sure  sense  of  psychology  and 
a  style  that,  at  first,  borrowed  a  certain 
amount  from.  Henry  James,  though  later  it 
threw  off  his  influence.  Her  chief  books  are 
'The  House  of  Mirth'  (1905),  'Madame  de 
Treymes'  (1907),  'Ethan  Frome'(i9ii),  'The 
Reef  (1912),  'The  Custom  of  the  Country' 
(1913),  'The  Age  of  Innocence'  (1920), 
'Glimpses  of  the  Moon'  (1922),  'The  Chil- 
dren' (i  928),  'Hudson  River  Bracketed*  (i  929). 
Mrs.  Wharton  has  a  deep  knowledge  of 
European,  particularly  of  French,  life,  and 
the  subject-matter  of  her  novels  is  taken,  for 
the  most  part,  from  the  leisured  life  of  the 
rich  either  in  Europe  or  New  York. 

What  you  Will,  (i)  sub-  title  of  Shakespeare's 
'Twelfth  Night'  (q.v.);  (2)  a  comedy  by  John 
Marston  (q.v.),  printed  in  1607,  of  no  great 
importance,  except  for  containing,  it  is  said, 
some  satire  of  Ben  Jonson. 

WHATELY,  RICHARD  (1787-1863),  edu- 
cated at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he 
became  fellow  and  tutor.  He  was  principal 
of  St.  Alban  Hall,  1825-31,  and  professor  of 
political  economy,  1829-31.  He  was  ap- 
pointed archbishop  of  Dublin  in  the  latter 
year.  His  'Historic  Doubts  relative  to  Napo- 
leon Buonaparte'  (1819)  is  a  clever  satire  on 
rationalist  criticism  of  the  Scriptures.  His 
Bampton  Lectures  on  'The  Use  and  Abuse 
of  Party  Feeling  in  Matters  of  Religion"  were 


\\11PATLKY 

published  iniSzz.  But  his  fame  rests  chiefly 
on  his  4Loi*ic*  and  'Rhetoric*,  popular  ex- 
pansions of  articles  in  the  Encyclopaedia* 
08a6  smd  ^828).  In  theology  he  showed 
himself  a  critic  of  dogma,  and  was  a  supporter 
of  the  Broad  Church  views. 

\VHR.\TLEY,  PHILLIS  (1754-85),  Negro 

poet,  horn  in  Africa  and  shipped  as  a  child  to 
the  slave-market  of  Boston,  the  first  of  her 
rare  to  contribute  to  American  literature. 
Her  poems  were  first  published  in  London 

in  1773. 

WHETSTONE,  GEORGE  (i544?~87?), 
author  ^  of  miscellaneous  verse  and  prose 
tales,  is  principally  remembered  for  his 
Tronios  and  Cassandra*  (1578),  a  play  in 
rhymed  verse  (based  on  a  tale  in  Cinthio's 
'Heoatommithr),  which  provided  the  plot 
for  Shakespeare  *s  'Measure  for  Measure*,  and 
is  an  early  example  of  English  romantic 
comedy. 

WHEWEIX,  WILLIAM  (1794-1866),  the 
son  of  a  carpenter,  educated  'at  Lancaster 
<  rramnwr  School  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, learned  German  thoroughly  and 
helped  ^  to  introduce  the  analytical  methods 
of  continental  metaphysicians.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  at  Cambridge 
from  1838  to  1855,  and  master  of  Trinity 
College  from  1841  till  his  death.  His  princi- 
pal works  were  the  'History*  (1837)  and  the 
*Pl»losof>hy*(i84o)"oftheInductiveSciences', 
his  'Astronomy  and  Physics  In  reference  to 
Natural  Philosophy*  (1833),  and  his  treatise 
(published  anonymously  in  1853)  contesting 
the  probability  of  the  'Plurality  of  Worlds*. 
He  published  and  edited  many  other  works 
in  natural  and  mathematical  science,  philo- 
sophy, and  theology,  including  "Elements  of 
Morality1  (1845)  and  'The  History  of  Moral 
Philosophy  in  England*  (1852), 

WhtffofGrapcskot,  The,  the  title  of  the  last 
chapter  of  Carlyle's  *  French  Revolution*  in 

which  he  describes  how  Buonaparte  with 

artillery  quelled  the  insurrection  headed  by 
the  'Section  Lepelletier*  against  the  Con- 
vention on  the  1  3th  Venderniaire  of  the  year 
IV  (5  Oct.  1795)- 


,  a  word  probably  shortened  from 
orf,  one  who  urges  on  a  mare,  was 
originally  applied  to  the  Covenanters  in  the 
west  of  Scotland  who  in  1648  wrested  the 
government  from  the  Royalist  party  and 
marched  as  rebels  to  Edinburgh,  and  in  later 
years  to  the  extreme  section  of  the  Covenant- 
ing party.  About  1679  it  was  applied  to  the 
Bxcluaionxsts,  who  opposed  the  succession  of 
James  II  to  the  Crown,  Hence  from  1689  it 
came  to  be  used  for  an  adherent  of  one  of  the 
two  great  political  parties  in  England.  Since 
the  middle  of  the  igth  cent,  the  term  has 
been  mostly  superseded  by  Liberal,  but  is 
occasionally  used  to  express  adherence  to 
moderate  or  antiquated  Liberal  principles. 
[OEDJ  It  is  often  applied  to  the  great 


WHITE 

Whig  families  who  professed  a  kind  of 
aristocratic  or  limited  fondness  for  liberty. 

Whig  Examiner,  The,  a  literary  and  political 
periodical  published  by  Addison  (q.v.).  Five 
numbers  appeared  in  Sept.  to  Oct.  1710. 

Whisker,  in  Dickens's  'The  Old  Curiosity 
Shop*  (q.v.),  the  Garlands'  pony. 

Whiskcrandos,  DON  FEROLO,  in  Sheridan's 
'The  Critic'  (q.v.),  the  lover  of  Tilburina. 
Whist,  the  name  of  the  popular  card-game 
developed  from  the  i6th-cent.  game  called 
'Triumph*  (whence  the  word  'trump*),  or 
'Ruff  and  Honours*.  The  name  may  perhaps 
be  due  to  the  silence  which  prevails  during 
the  game,  but  it  was  originally  'whisk',  and  is 
so  called  by  Taylor  the  water-poet  and  by 
Farquhar. 

Whistlecraft,  see  Frere. 
WHISTLER,  JAMES  ABBOT  McNEILL 
(1834—1903),  born  at  Lowell,  Massachusetts, 
a  distinguished  American  painter  and  etcher. 
He  settled  in  England  at  Chelsea  in  1863. 
Among  his  best-known  pictures  are:  'Por- 
trait of  my  Mother*  (in  the  Luxembourg, 
Paris),  his  'Nocturnes*,  and  his  portraits  of 
Carlyle  and  Miss  Alexander.  He  brought  a 
libel  action  against  Ruskin  in  1878  for  con- 
demning his  'The  Falling  Rocket*,  and  was 
awarded  a  farthing  damages.  He  published 
'The  Gentle  Art  of  making  Enemies'  (q.v.) 
in  1890.  Whistler  exerted  an  immense  in- 
fluence on  contemporary  art.  His  'Life*  by 
E.  R.  and  J.  Pennell  was  published  in  1908. 

Whit- Sunday,  the  seventh  Sunday  after 
Easter,  observed  as  a  festival  of  the  Christian 
Church  In  commemoration  of  the  descent 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 
Whit  is  for  white,  and  is  generally  taken  to 
refer  to  the  ancient  custom  of  the  wearing  of 
white  baptismal  robes  by  the  newly  baptized 
at  the  feast  of  Pentecost  (from  which  our 
word  'candidate*  is  derived). 
WMtaker^s  Almanack,  founded  in  1868  by 
Joseph  Whitaker  (1820-95),  a  publisher,  and 
at  one  time  (1856-9)  editor  of  the  'Gentle- 
man's Magazine*.  It  is  a  compendium  of 
general  information  regarding  the  govern- 
ment, finances,  population,  and  commerce 
of  the  world,  with  special  reference  to  the 
British  Empire  and  the  United  States,  be- 
sides being  an  almanac  in  the  ordinary  sense. 

WHITE,  GILBERT  (1720-93),  born  at 
Selborne  in  Hampshire,  was  educated  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a 
fellow.  He  spent  most  of  his  life  as  curate  of 
Selborne,  refusing  various  livings  in  order  to 
remain  in  his  beloved  birthplace.  He  began 
in  1751  to  keep  a  'Garden  Kalendar*  and 
later  a  'Naturalist's  Journal*.  He  made^the 
acquaintance  of  two  distinguished  naturalists, 
Thomas  Pennant  and  the  Hon.  Daines 
Barrington,  with  whom  from  1767  he  carried 
on  a  correspondence  which  formed  the^  basis 
of  his  'Natural  History  and  Antiquities  of 
Selborne*  (published  in  1789).  He  died  at  his 


[841] 


WHITE 

house,  'The Wakes*,  Selborne.  *A Naturalist's 
Calendar,  extracted  from  the  papers  of  the 
late  Rev.  Gilbert  White*  appeared  in ^  1795. 
An  edition  of  his  'Works  on  Natural  History' 
with  notes  by  Bell,  Daniel,  Owen,  and 
Yarrell,  was  issued  in  1837.  An  edition  of 
his  'Journals'  by  Walter  Johnson  was  pub- 
lished in  1931.  The  Selborne  Society  for  the 
preservation  of  birds,  plants,  &c.,  ^  was 
founded  in  1885  in  memory  of  Gilbert 
White. 

WHITE,  HENRY  KIRKE  (1785-1806),  the 
son  of  a  butcher  at  Nottingham,  was  articled 
to  a  lawyer  at  Nottingham.  By  a  volume  of 
verses  (1803)  he  attracted  the  favourable 
notice  of  Southey,  who  thereafter  protected 
him,  and  wrote  a  memoir  of  him  in  1807  after 
his  death.  White  obtained  a  sizarship  at  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  overwork 
brought  about  his  death.  He  was  praised  by 
Byron,  but  little  survives  of  his  work  except 
one  or  two  hymns  ('Oft  in  danger,  oft  in 
woe'). 

WHITE,  JOSEPH  BLANCO  (1775-1841), 
born  at  Seville,  entered  Seville  University  in 
1790  and  was  ordained  a  priest,  but  aban- 
doned the  priesthood,  came  to  England,  and 
studied  at  Oxford.  He  published  'Evidences 
against  Catholicism'  in  1825,  received  the 
degree  of  M.A.  at  Oxford  in  recognition  of 
his  services  to  the  Church,  and  settled  at 
Oriel  College.  He  became  a  friend  of 
Whately,  and,  when  the  latter  was  appointed 
archbishop  of  Dublin,  accompanied  him 
there  as  tutor  to  his  son.  His  other  publica- 
tions include  'Observations  on  Heresy  and 
Orthodoxy'  (1835),  and  translations  into 
Spanish  of  Paley's  'Evidences',  &c.  He 
wrote  the  sonnet  on  'Night  and  Death*  (pub- 
lished in  the  'Bijou',  1828),  which  Coleridge 
declared  the  finest  and  most  grandly  con- 
ceived sonnet  in  our  language. 

WHITE,  WILLIAM  HALE  (1831-1913), 
known  as  a  writer  under  the  pseudonym 
MARK  RUTHERFORD,  was  the  son  of  William 
White,  a  dissenter,  bookseller,  and  later  a 
well-known  doorkeeper  of  the  House  of 
Commons  and  author  of  'The  Inner  Life  of 
the  House  of  Commons'  (1897).  Hale  White 
was  educated  with  a  view  to  becoming  an 
independent  minister,  but  in  1854  entered 
the  Civil  Service,  rising  to  be  assistant 
director  of  contracts  at  the  Admiralty. 

His  literary  work  began  with  the  publica- 
tion in  1 88 1  of  'The  Autobiography  of  Mark 
Rutherford*,  followed  in  1885  by  its  sequel 
'Mark  Rutherford's  Deliverance',  works  of 
intimate  spiritual  self-revelation,  marked  by 
sincerity  and  depth  of  feeling  and  ironic 
humour.  His  other  imaginative  works  were  : 
'The  Revolution  in  Tanner's  Lane*  (1887), 
'Miriam's  Schooling  and  other  Papers'  (1890), 
'Catharine  Furze'  (1893),  'Pages  from  a 
Journal*  (1900),  'More  Pages  from  a  Journal' 
(1910),  and  'Last  Pages  from  a  Journal' 
(posthumous,  1915).  Under  his  own  name 
he  translated  Spinoza's  'Ethic*  (1883)  and 


WHITE  HOODS  OF  GHENT 

'Emendation  of  the  Intellect*  (1895),  and 
published  an  'Examination  of  the  Charge 
of  Apostasy  against  Wordsworth*  (1898)  and 
'John  Bunyan*  (1905). 

White's,  a  chocolate-house  in  St.  James's 
Street,  London,  started  in  1697  by  Francis 
White.  The  first  number  of  the  'Tatler* 
announced  that  accounts  of  gallantry, 
pleasure,  and  entertainment  would  emanate 
from  White's  Chocolate  House.  It  was  taken 
over  by  Arthur  (the  founder  of  Arthur's  Club) 
and  converted  into  a  club,  which  became  a 
celebrated  gaming  centre.  The  present  club- 
house with  its  bow-window  (associated  with 
Beau  Brummel)  dates  from  1755,  though 
much  altered  inside  and  out. 
*  White  Company,  THE,  a  body  of  English 
mercenaries  led  by  the  condottiere  Hawk- 
wood  (q.v.)  about  1360  into  Italy,  where  they 
took  part  in  the  wars  then  prevailing.  They 
are  found  fighting  for  the  marquis  of  Mon- 
ferrato  against  Milan,  and  for  Pisa  against 
Florence.  Sir  A.  Conan  Doyle  (q.v.)  wrote  a 
spirited  story  with  this  title  about  a  similar 
company. 

White  Cross  Knights,  see  Hospitallers  of 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

White  Divel,  The,  or  Vittoria  Corombona,  a 
tragedy  by  J.  Webster  (q.v.),  produced  c* 
1608,  published  in  1612.  The  play  is  founded 
on  events  that  took  place  in  Italy  in  1581-5. 
The  duke  of  Brachiano,  husband  of  Isa- 
bella, the  sister  of  the  duke  of  Florence,  is 
weary  of  her  and  in  love  with  Vittoria,  wife  of 
Camillo.  Flamineo,  brother  of  Vittoria,  helps 
Brachiano  to  seduce  her,  and  contrives  the 
death  of  Camillo,  while  Brachiano  causes 
Isabella  to  be  poisoned.  Vittoria  is  tried  for 
adultery  and  murder,  and  in  spite  of  her 
'innocent-resembling  boldness',  sentenced  to 
confinement,  whence  she  is  carried  off  and 
married  by  Brachiano.  Flamineo  quarrels 
with  his  young  brother,  the  virtuous  Mar- 
cello,  and  kills  him.  The  duke  of  Florence 
avenges  Isabella  by  poisoning  Brachiano,  and 
two  of  hia  dependants  kill  Vittoria  and 
Flamineo.  The  play  contains  many  splendid 
passages,  including  the  famous  dirge  by 
Cornelia,  the  mother  of  Marcello,  over  her 
dead  son,  'Call  for  the  robin-red-breast,  and 
the  wren'  (Act  v.  iv). 

White  Friars,  THE,  the  Carmelites,  whose 
habit  is  distinguished  by  a  white  cloak  and 
scapular.  They  had  a  convent  in  Fleet  Street, 
London,  which  gave  its  name  to  the  adjoining 
district. 

White  Hart  Inn,  THE,  in  Southwark,  is 
referred  to  by  Shakespeare  in  *2  Henry  VI % 
iv.  viii,  as  the  head-quarters  of  Jack  Cade. 
There,  at  a  later  period,  Mr.  Pickwick  first 
met  Sam  Weller.  It  survived  until  1889. 
White  Hoods  of  Ghent,  a  name  given  to 
members  of  the  popular  party  in  Ghent  who 
led  the  rebellion  against  the  count  of  Flanders 
in  1381.  They  are  referred  to  in  Taylor's 
'Philip  van  Artevelde'  (q.v.). 


[842] 


p 
h 


WHITE  HORSE 

White  Horse,  THE,  the  figure  of  a  white 
horse,  reputed  (by  later  writers)  to  be  the 
ensign  of  the  Saxons  when  they  invaded 
Britain,  Also  the  figure  of  a  horse  cut  on  the 
fact*  of  the  chalk  dawns  In  Berkshire  and 
opularly  supposed  to  represent  the  'White 

rse'  of  the  Saxons,  There  are  other  'White 
Hordes*  on  the  Downs,  e.#.  near  Westbury. 
'The  Semiring  ot  the  White  Horse*  by  Tom 
Hughes  (q.v.)  was  published  in  1859, 

A  white  horse  is  the  heraldic  ensign  of 
Brunswick*  Hanover,  and  Kent. 

White  Horse  Cellar,  THE,  stood  at  the 
corner  of  Piccadilly  and  Dover  Street.  It  was 
a  famous  starting-point  for  coaches, 

White  House,  THE,  at  Washington,  the 
official  residence  of  the  President  of  the 
United  Stales. 

Whitf*  Jacket,  by  Herman  Melville  (q.v.), 

published  in  1850,  is  the  realistic  story 
of  the  author's  life  as  a  common  seaman 
aboard  a  frigate  in  the  U.S.  Navy. 

White  Knight,  TIIK,  oncof  the  chesspiecesin 
C.irmirit  'Through  the  I  Booking-Glass*  (q.v.). 
White  Lady,  Tnr,  a  character  of  German 
folk-lore,  appearing  in  various  legends;  per- 
haps a  sunnal  of  the  goddess  Holda  or 
Betcthu  of  Teutonic  mythology. 

White  Luciy  of  Avenel,  TUB,  a  super- 
natural beintf  introduced  by  Scott  in  'The 
Monastery'  (q.v.). 

White  Moon,  TIIK  KNIGHT  OF  THE,  in  'Don 
Quixote*  (q.v.),  the  bachelor,  Samson  Car- 
ni.Keo,  who  assumes  the  disguise  in  order  to 
overcome  l>on  Quixote  and  oblige  him  to 

return  to  his  home. 

White  Queen,  THE,  one  of  the  chess  pieces  in 

Carroll's  'Through  the  Looking-Glass*(q.v.). 

White  Rose,  THE,  the  emblem  of  the  House 

of  York  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses. 

White  Rose  of  Raby,  THE,  Cicely,  daughter 

of  Ralph  Neville,  first  earl  of  Westmorland, 
wife  of  Richard,  duke  of  York,  and  mother  of 
Edward  IV  and  Richard  III. 

White  Ship,  T/«^a  poem  by  D.  G.  Rossetti 

(q.v.),  included  in  'Ballads  and  Sonnets', 
published  in  1881, 

The  butcher  of  Rouen,  Berold,  tells  the 
story  of  the  sinking  of  the  White  Ship  in 
which  Prince  William,  son  of  Henry  I,  was 
returning  with  his  half-sister  from  France. 
The  ship  ran  on  a  recf»  The  prince  was 
placed  in  a  boat  and  might  have  been  saved, 
but  returned  to  the  ship  to  rescue  his  sister, 
whereupon  the  boat  was  swamped.  As  none 
of  the  courtiers  dared  to  tell  the  king,  a  Htde 
child  xvas  sent  to  do  so. 

White  Surrey,  Richard   Ill's  horse  (see 

Shakespeare,  *  Richard  IIP,  v.  iii). 

WMteboy,  a  member  of  a  secret  agrarian 

association  formed  in  Ireland  in  1761,  so 
called  from  the  fact  that  its  members  wore  a 


WHITEHEAD 

shirt  over  their  clothes  to  distinguish  each 
other  at  night.  The  Whiteboys  figure  in 
'Tales  by  the  O'Hara  Family*  by  Banim 
(q.v.). 

Whitechapel,  lying  to  the  east  of  Aldgate, 
London,  was  in  Strype's  time  'a  spacious 
fair  street  for  entrance  into  the  city  eastward', 
*a  great  thoroughfare,  being  the  Essex  Road*. 
The  region  became  one  of  the  worst  localities 
in  London,  both  in  respect  of  its  narrow  filthy 
streets  and  disreputable  inhabitants,  until 
the  construction  of  the  broad  Commercial 
Road  through  the  centre  of  it,  and  better 
policing,  improved  its  character.  It  is  still 
a  poor  quarter  and  has  a  large  Jewish 
population. 

A  WHITECHAPEL  SHAVE,  according  to 
Dickens  (* Uncommercial  Traveller'),  'is  in 
fact,  whitening,  judiciously  applied  to  the 
jaws  with  the  palm  of  the  hand*. 

WHITEFIELD,  GEORGE  (1714-70),  edu- 
cated at  St.  Mary  de  Crypt  School,  Gloucester, 
and  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  joined  Charles 
Wesley's  'Methodist  Society*,  and  undertook 
a  missionary  journey  to  Georgia  in  1738.  He 
subsequently  engaged  in  evangelical  preach- 
ing in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  other 
parts  of  America,  adopting  Calvinistic  views, 
so  that  his  followers  and  those  of  Wesley 
separated  and  formed  rival  parties.  He 
became  domestic  chaplain  to  Lady  Hunting- 
don in  1748,  and  founder  of  Lady  Hunting- 
don's Connection,  a  body  of  Calvinistic 
Methodists,  whom  the  countess  energetically 
supported.  He  compiled  a  hymn-book  (1753) 
and  published  sermons  and  autobiographical 
writings.  Whitefield  was  ridiculed  by 
Samuel  Foote  (q.v.)  in  his  play  'The  Minor*, 
and  was  satirized  in  Graves 's  'The  Spiritual 
Quixote*  (q.v.).  See  also  Mesopotamia. 

Whitehall,  London,  once  known  as  York 
Place,  from  the  residence  of  the  archbishop  of 
York,  passed  into  the  hands  of  Cardinal 
Wolsey,  who  built  a  palace  there,  which  (like 
Hampton  Court)  he  had  to  cede  to  Henry  VIII. 
The  Treasury  stands  on  the  site  of  Wolsey*s 
great  hall.  The  name  'Whitehall*  became 
current  in  James  I*s  reign,  when  Inigo  Jones 
built  the  Banqueting  Hall,  the  only  part  of 
the  old  palace  that  survives.  The  execution 
of  Charles  1  took  place  'in  the  open  street 
before  Whitehall',  between  the  centre  of 
the  Banqueting  Hall  and  its  north  end 
(Loftie). 

'Whitehall'  is  now  used,  in  a  transferred 
sense,  of  the  government  offices  which  are 
housed  there. 

WHITEHEAD,  ALFRED  NORTH  (x86x- 
),  educated  at  Sherborne  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Harvard  University.  He  is  the  author  of 
many  important  philosophical  and  mathe- 
matical works,  including  'Science\and  the 
Modern  World*  (1926),  *Religion\n  the 
Making*  (1926),  'Symbolism*  (ig28)VPio- 
cess  and  Reality*  (1929).  v 


[843] 


WHITEHEAD 

WHITEHEAD,  CHARLES  (1804-62), 
poet,  novelist,  and  dramatist,  published  in 
1831  *The  Solitary',  a  poem,  which  met  with 
warm  approval.  His  quasi-historical  ro- 
mances, 'Jack  Ketch'  (1834),  'Richard  Savage* 
(1842),  were  also  successful,  as  was  also  his 
play,  'The  Cavalier7  (1836).  His  career  was 
wrecked  by  intemperance,  and  he  died  in 
Australia. 

WHITEHEAD,  WILLIAM  (i  71 5-85),  edu- 
cated at  Winchester  and  Clare  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, produced  at  Drury  Lane  in  1750  a 
tragedy  'The  Roman  Father*  (a  version  of 
Corneille's  'Horace')  which  was  highly  suc- 
cessful, and  was  followed  by  another 
tragedy,  'Creusa',  in  1754, anda  comedy,  'The 
School  for  Lovers',  in  1762.  He  was  ap- 
pointed poet  laureate  in  1757.  His  produc- 
tions in  this  capacity  met  with  much  un- 
friendly comment,  to  which  he  replied  in  'A 
Charge  to  Poets*  (1762),  but  his  earlier  pro- 
ductions are  not  without  merit.  His  'Plays 
and  Poems'  were  collected  in  1774,  and  a 
complete  edition  of  his  poems  appeared  in 
1788. 

Whites,  THE,  a  faction  in  medieval  Florence. 
See  Bianchi. 

Whitford,  VERNON,  a  character  in  Meredith's 
'The  Egoist'  (q.v.). 

WHITMAN,  WALT  (short  for  Walter,  to 
distinguish  him  from  Walter,  his  father) 
(1819-92),  born  in  Long  Island,  New  York, 
became  an  office  boy  at  1 1  years  of  age,  and 
subsequently  a  printer,  wandering  school- 
teacher, and  contributor  to,  and  editor  of, 
various  magazines  and  newspapers.  He 
published  his  first  edition  of  'Leaves  of  Grass* 
in  1855,  twelve  poems,  saturated,  as  he 
describes  it,  'with  the  vehemence  of  pride  and 
audacity  of  freedom  necessary  to  loosen  the 
mind  of  still-to-be-form'd  America  from  the 
folds,  the  superstitions,  and  all  the  long,  tena- 
cious, and  stifling  anti-democratic  authorities 
of  Asiatic  and  European  past*.  In  this 
volume  and  its  numerous  subsequent  en- 
larged editions,  Whitman  made  himself  a 
champion  of  American  intellectual  indepen- 
dence. His  poems,  on  moral,  social,  and 
political  questions,  written  in  an  uncon- 
ventional form  between  rhythmical  prose 
and  verse,  and  containing  some  occasional 
lyrical  passages,  show  a  strong  sense  of  the 
brotherhood  of  man,  but  are  marred  by 
defects  of  taste  and  an  excess  of  egotism. 
His  'Drum-Taps',  vivid  poems  on  the  Civil 
War,  were  published  in  1865. 

WHITTIER,  JOHN  GREENLEAF  (1807- 
92),  the  American  poet,  was  born  of  Quaker 
parents  at  Haverhill,  Massachusetts,  where 
Thomas  Whittier,  his  Puritan  ancestor  had 
built  the  oak  farmhouse  described  in  'Snow- 
Bound'.  He  began  life  as  a  farmer's  boy  and 
supported  himself  while  at  Haverhill  Academy 
by  shoemaking  and  teaching.  His  poetical 
instincts  were  aroused  by  reading  Burns 's 
poetry,  and  he  was  from  early  years  an  in- 


WHOLE  DUTY  OF  MAN 

dustrious  writer.  He  edited  various  periodi- 
cals and  became  an  ardent:  abolitionist,  and 
secretary  of  the  American  Anti-Slavery 
Society,  and  was  more  than  once  attacked  by 
mobs  on  account  of  his  political  opinions. 
After  1840  he  lived  in  seclusion  at  Amesbury, 
near  his  birthplace.  He  has  always  been  a 
popular  poet  in  America,  owing  in  part  to 
the  transparent  sincerity  and  nobility  of  his 
character,  in  part  to  the  appeal  to  the  young 
made  by  his  ballads.  He  published  many 
volumes  of  poems,  of  which  a  final  collected 
edition  appeared  in  1888-9.  Among  these  the 
best  known  are  'Snow-Bound'  (1866),  a 
description  of  an  old  Puritan  Colonial  in- 
terior, and  'The  Tent  on  the  Beach'  (1867), 
a  cycle  of  verse  tales. 

Whittington,  RICHABD  (d.  1423),  son  of  Sir 
William  Whittington,  a  mercer  in  London. 
He  rose  to  be  mayor  of  London,  1397-8, 
1406—7  (a  year  of  plague),  and  1419—20.  He 
was  a  liberal  benefactor  of  the  city,  leaving 
legacies  for  rebuilding  Newgate  prison  and 
other  purposes  (including  a  city  library).  The 
popular  legend  of  Whittington  and  his  cat, 
the  germ  of  which  is  probably  of  very  remote 
origin,  is  not  known  to  have  been  narrated 
before  1605,  when  a  dramatic  version  and  a 
ballad  were  licensed  for  the  press.  The  story 
of  a  cat  helping  its  owner  to  fortune  has 
been  traced  in  many  countries  of  Europe.  It 
is  also  suggested  that  it  is  based  on  a  confusion 
between  'a  cat'  and  the  French  achat>  in  the 
sense  of  'trade*.  According  to  the  story, 
Whittington,  when  in  the  service  of  Mr.  Filz- 
warren,  a  London  merchant,  sent  his  cat,  the 
only  thing  he  possessed,  as  part  of  one  of  the 
latter's  trading  ventures ;  the  king  of  Barbary, 
who  was  plagued  with  rats  and  mice,  pur- 
chased the  cat  for  an  enormous  sum.  Mean- 
while Whittington,  in  consequence  of  ill- 
treatment  by  the  cook  under  whom  he 
served  as  scullion,  ran  away.  He  rested  at 
Holloway,  and  hearing  Bow  Bells  ringing,  as 
he  fancied,  the  words, 

Turn  again  Whittington, 
Lord  Mayor  of  London, 
returned  to  Fitzwarren's  house. 

Who's  Who,  an  annual  biographical  dic- 
tionary of  contemporary  men  and  women. 
First  issued  in  1849  and  now  published 
annually  (incorporating  since  1901  'Men 
and  Women  of  the  Time'). 

Whole  Duty  of  Man,  The,  a  devotional  work 
published  in  1658,  in  which  man's  duties  in 
respect  of  God  and  his  fellow  men  are 
analysed  and  discussed  in  detail.  The  book 
was  at  one  time  attributed  to  Lady  Dorothy 
Pakington  (d.  1679).  She  was,  however, 
probably  only  the  copyist.  The  book,  by 
internal  evidence,  is  the  work  of  a  practised 
divine,  acquainted  with  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and 
Arabic,  perhaps  Richard  Allestree  (1619-81), 
chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  king,  Regius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity,  and  provost  of  Eton.  It 
had  enormous  popularity,  lasting  for  over  a 


[844] 


\VUYMPER 

ccntuiy ;  it  is  comparable  in  this  respect  only 
to  the  'Imitatio  Christl'  and  to  Law's  (Serious 
Call*.  Some  of  the  injunctions  in  it  belong 
to  a  sterner  acje  than  the  present,  e.g.  *Rut 

of  all  the  acts  of  disobedience  that  of  marrying 
mptnst  the  consent  of  the  parent  is  one  of  the 
highest*. 

WHYMPKR,  ^ EDWARD    (1840-1911),    a 

pioneer  of  Alpine  climbing  who  made  the 
first  ascent  of  a  number  of  peaks  in  the  Alps. 
His  first  successful  ascent  of  the  Matterhorn 
in  July  1865  was  followed  by  a  disastrous 

descent,  three  of  his  party  being  killed.  He 
related  his  experiences  in  'Scrambles  in  the 
Alps1  (1871),  He  published  in  1892  *  Travels 
among  the  Great  Andes  of  the  Equator*. 
Whymper  was  by  profession  a  wood  engraver, 
and  illustrated  many  books, 

WHYTK-MELVILLE,   GEORGE  JOHN 

(xK2i-  78),  educated  at  Eton,  and  a  captain  in 
the  I  "old  stream  Guards,  served  in  the  Crimea 
as  a  m.jjor  of  Turkish  irregular  cavalry.  He 
was  killed  in  the  hunting-field.  His  novels,  in 
many  of  which  hunting  figures  largely,  in- 
clude *Pigby  Grand*  (1853),  'Holrnby  House* 
(1860).  'Tilbury  Nogo*  (1861),  'The  Gladia- 
tors* (1863), ' Contraband* (1870),  'Sarchedon* 
(1871),  'Satanella'  (1872),  'Katerfelto'  (1875), 
*Royps  Wife'  (1878),  and  'Black  but  Comely' 
(1870),  His  *  Hiding  Recollections'  appeared 
in  1878. 

Wickftcld,  MR,  and  AGNES,  characters  in 

Dickens  *s  *  David  Coppcrficld*  (q.v.). 

WK2KUKFE,  see  Wycliffe. 

Widdicombc  Fair,  the  title  of  a  popular  song, 
4  For  some  reason  or  other,  not  exactly 
known*,  writes  S,  Baring-Gould  in  'English 
Minstrelsie^  'this  has  become  the  accepted 
Devonshire  song.  .  „ .  The  date  of  words  and 
tune  is  probably  the  end  of  the  last  [z  8th]  cent/ 
Tom  Pearsc  lends  his  grey  mare  to  carry 
a  party  (including  Old  Uncle  Tom  Cobb- 
Icigh)  to  Widdicombc  Fair,  but  the  mare 
takes  sick  and  dies,  and  is  still  to  be  seen 
haunting  the  moor  at  night*  Widdicombe  or 
Widccombe-in-thc-Moor  is  near  Ashburton. 

\Vi<l<!rington,  see  Withcrington. 

Widow  of  Watting  Street,  THE,  see  Puri- 
tan (The). 

Wid$itk>  a  poem  of  143  lines  in  Old  English, 
so  named  after  its  opening  word.  It  is 
included  in  the  'Exeter  Book*  (q.v,)» 

Widsith,  a  wandering  minstrel,  belonging 
to  the  Myrging  tribe,  speaks  of  his  travels  and 
the  kings  he  has  heard  of.  He  was  in  Italy 
with  ,/Blfwine  (Alboin),  and  with  Eormanric 
(Hcrmftnric)  king  of  the  Goths,  who  gave 
him  a  rich  bracelet.  This  he  handed  over  to 
ISadgiJs,  his  own  lord,  who  gave  him  land,  his 
father's  heritage.  Thus  do  minstrels  wander 
over  many  lands,  giving  fame  by  their  songs, 
and  receiving  gifts. 

The  kernel  of  the  poem  may  belong  to  the 
yth  cent,  or  an  even  earlier  date.  It  was 
elaborately  edited  by  R,  W.  Chambers,  1912. 


WILD  BOAR  OF  THE  ARDENNES 
Wieland,  see  Way  land  the  Smith. 

WIELAND,      CHRISTOPH      MARTIN 

(1733-1813),  German  poet  and  writer  of 
romances,  whose  best-known  works  are  light 
ironic  verse-tales,  drawn  from  medieval  or 
oriental  sources,  of  which  'Oberon*  (on  the 
stoiy  of  Huon  of  Bordeaux,  1780)  is  a  good 
example.  Wieland  translated  eleven  of 
Shakespeare's  plays  into  German  prose, 
and  'A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream*  into 
verse. 

Wife  of  Bath,  (i)  see  Canterbury  Tales;  (2) 
the  title  of  an  unsuccessful  comedy  by  J. 
Gay  (1713). 

Wife  of  Usher's  Well,  The,  a  ballad  of  the 
Scottish  border.  The  wife  sends  her  three 
sons  to  sea,  and  soon  gets  tidings  of  their 
death.  Their  ghosts  come  back  on  one  of  the 
long  nights  of  Martinmas,  and  the  mother, 
deceived  by  the  apparitions,  orders  a  feast; 
but  at  cock-crow  they  disappear. 

WIGGLESWORTH,  MICHAEL  (1631- 
I7°5)t  colonial  American  poet,  born  in  Eng- 
land, who  emigrated  in  1638,  and  who  is 
known  chiefly  for  his  long  Calvinistic  poem, 
'The  Day  of  Doom'. 

WILBERFORCE,WILLIAM  (1759-1833), 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
and  M.P.  for  Yorkshire,  devoted  himself  to 
the  cause  of  the  abolition,  first  of  the  slave- 
trade,  then  of  slavery,  and  to  other  philan- 
thropic projects.  He  published  in  1797  'A 
Practical  View  of  the  Prevailing  Religious 
System  of  Professed  Christians',  a  work  that 
had  an  immense  influence.  He  was  the  lead- 
ing layman  in  the  'Clapham  Sect*  (as  Sydney 
Smith  nicknamed  the  Evangelicals),  and  he 
just  lived  to  know  that  the  second  reading 
of  the  Bill  abolishing  slavery  was  carried. 

WILCOX,  MRS.  ELLA  WHEELER  (nte 
Wheeler)  (1855-1919),  American  poet  and 
journalist,  described  ('The  Times',  31  Oct. 
1919)  as  'the  most  popular  poet  of  either  sex 
and  of  any  age,  read  by  thousands  who  never 
open  Shakespeare',  She  began  to  publish 
poems  at  the  age  of  seven,  and  her  last 
volume,  *  Poems  of  Affection',  was  published 
posthumously  in  1920.  Her  books  of  verse  in- 
clude 'Poems  of  Pleasure',  'Poems  of  Passion', 
'Poems  of  Hope',  'Poerns  of  Experience', 
'Poems  of  Progress*,  'Poems  of  Love',  'Poems 
of  Cheer',  &c.  Her  'Collected  Poems'  were 
published  in  1921. 

Wild,  JONATHAN  (1682?-! 725),  worked  as  a 
buckle-maker  in  London.  He  became  head 
of  a  large  corporation  of  thieves,  and  opened 
offices  in  London  for  the  recovery  and 
restoration  of  property  stolen  by  his  depen- 
dants. He  gained  notoriety  as  a  thief-taker, 
and  was  ultimately  hanged  at  Tyburn.  His 
'Life  and  Actions'  were  related  by  Defoe 
(1725).  For  Fielding's  satire  see  Jonathan 
Wild  the  Great. 
Wild  Boar  of  the  Ardennes,  see  Ardennes, 


[845] 


WILD-GOOSE  CHASE 

Wild-Goose  Chasef  The,  a  comedy  by  J. 
Fletcher  (q.v.),  acted  with  great  success  in 
1631,  and  printed  in  1652. 

Mirabell,  the  'wild  goose',  a  Don  Juan 
with  an  aversion  to  marriage,  is  'chased'  by 
Oriana,  his  betrothed,  who  tries  various 
wiles  to  bring  him  to  the  altar.  She  feigns 
madness  for  love  of  him,  but  is  detected,  and 
finally  wins  him  in  the  disguise  of  a  rich 
Italian  lady.  His  two  companions,  Pinac  and 
Belleur,  with  less  assurance,  carry  on  an 
amusing  courtship  of  Rosahira  and  Lillia- 
Bianca,  alternately  pursuing  and  pursued, 
with  ultimate  success.  Farquhar's  comedy, 
'The  Inconstant',  is  based  on  this  play. 

Wild  Huntsman,  THE,  a  spectral  huntsman 
of  German  folk-lore,  the  subject  of  a  ballad 
('Der  Wilde  Jager')  by  Burger,  imitated  by 
Sir  W.  Scott.  Scott's  version  was  included  in 
'The  Chase  and  William  and  Helen:  two 
ballads  from  the  German'  published  anony- 
mously in  1796.  The  legend  is  that  a  wild- 
grave  (keeper  of  a  royal  forest),  named 
Falkenburg,  not  only  hunted  on  the  Sabbath 
but  also  tyrannized  over  the  peasants  under 
his  authority.  After  his  death  he  continued 
to  haunt  the  forest,  and  he  and  his  hounds 
might  be  heard,  though  rarely  seen. 
Wildair,  SIR  HARRY,  a  character  in  Farqu- 
har's  'The  Constant  Couple'  (q.v.)  and  in  its 
sequel,  which  bears  his  name. 

WILDE,  OSCAR  FINGAL  O'FLA- 
HERTIE  WILLS  (1856-1900),  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  at  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  gained  at  the  latter  the 
reputation  of  founder  of  an  aesthetic  cult, 
which  was  caricatured  in  Gilbert  and 
Sullivan's  comic  opera,  'Patience*.  He  pub- 
ished  his  first  volume  of  'Poems'  in  1881, 
followed  by  several  works  of  fiction,  including 
'The  Picture  of  Dorian  Gray*  (1891),  and 
several  sparkling  comedies,  of  which  the 
best  known  are  'Lady  Windermere's  Fan*, 
produced  in  1892;  'A  Woman  of  No 
Importance*,  in  1893;  and  'The  Impor- 
tance of  being  Earnest*,  in  1895.  His  play 
'Salome"'  (in  French,  see  Salome)  was  pub- 
lished in  1894.  But  the  most  remarkable  of 
his  works  were  the  'Ballad  of  Reading  Gaol* 
(1898)  and  *De  Profundis*  (1905),  written 
after  his  sentence  to  imprisonment  in  1895. 

Wildenhaim,  BARON,  a  character  in  Mrs. 
Inchbald's  'Lovers*  Vows'  (q.v.). 
Wildeve,  DAMON,  a  character  in  Hardy's 
'The  Return  of  the  Native*  (q.v.). 

Wildfell  Hall,  The  Tenant  of,  a  novel  by  A. 
Bronte  (q.v.),  published  in  1848. 

The  tenant  of  Wildfell  Hall  is  Helen 
Graham,  said  to  be  a  widow.  Her  youth  and 
beauty,  her  secluded  mode  of  life,  and  her 
silence  as  to  her  antecedents,  set  the  tongues 
of  local  gossips  wagging,  and  the  gossip  turns 
to  scandal  when  it  is  discovered  that  she 
receives  secret  visits  from  her  landlord, 
Frederick  Lawrence.  Gilbert  Markharn,  the 
narrator  of  the  tale,  a  young  gentleman 


WILKES 

farmer  and  her  neighbour,  who  has  fallen  in 
love  with  her,  is  loyal  in  his  conviction  of  her 
innocence  until  he  overhears  her  in  affec- 
tionate conversation  with  Lawrence,  The 
result  is  a  violent  scene  between  the  two  men. 
The  threatened  rupture  of  relations  be- 
tween Gilbert  and  Helen  forces  the  latter  to 
confide  her  secret  to  her  lover,  and  this  she 
does  in  the  form  of  her  diary,  which  occupies 
a  great  part  of  the  book.  In  this  she  recounts 
her  youthful  marriage  with  Arthur  Hunting- 
don, a  drunken  profligate,  her  miserable  life 
with  him,  and  her  efforts  to  reclaim  him, 
until  his  shameless  conduct  and  corrupting 
influence  on  her  child  force  her  to  seek  the 
asylum  of  Wildfell  Hall,  provided  for  her  by 
Lawrence,  who  is  her  brother.  Soon  after  the 
revelation  of  her  secret  to  Gilbert,  Helen 
returns  to  her  husband  to  nurse  him  in  an 
illness  which,  aggravated  by  his  intemper- 
ance, proves  fatal.  The  discovery  that  Helen 
is  now  wealthy  is  an  obstacle  to  the  renewal 
of  Gilbert's  suit,  but  this  is  finally  overcome. 

Wildfire,  MADGE,  a  character  in  Scott's  'The 
Heart  of  Midlothian*  (q.v.),  the  mad  daugh- 
ter of  old  Margaret  Murdockson. 

Wilding  and  Mrs,  Wilding,  characters  in 
Shirley's  'The  Gamester*  (q.v,), 

Wildrake,  ROGER,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'Woodstock'  (q.v.). 

Wilfer  Family,  THE,  characters  in  Dickens's 
'Our  Mutual  Friend'  (q.v.). 

Wilfrid  or  WILFRITH,  ST.  (634-709),  bishop 
of  York,  of  which  see  he  was  twice  deprived. 
He  was  instrumental  in  winning  the  adher- 
ence of  King  Oswy  of  Northumbria  to  the 
Roman,  as  opposed  to  the  Columban, 
Church  (synod  of  Whitby),  and  was  involved 
in  other  ecclesiastical  disputes;  he  was  im- 
prisoned by  Ecgfrid,  king  of  Northumbria, 
in  680;  and  in  68 1  took  refuge  in  Sussex, 
where  he  converted  the  South  Saxons  and 
taught  them  to  fish.  He  twice  appealed 
successfully  to  Rome  against  the  deprivation 
of  his  functions.  He  is  commemorated  on 
12  Oct.  'The  Conversion  of  St.  Wilfrid* 
is  a  beautiful  tale  in  Rudyard  Kipling's 
'Rewards  and  Fairies'. 

Wilhelm  Meisters  Lehrjahre  and  Wander- 
jahre,  see  Goethe. 

Wilhelmstrasse,  often  used  to  signify  the 
German  Foreign  Office,  which  stands  in  that 
street  in  Berlin. 

WILKES,  JOHN  (1727-97),  the  son  of  a 
Clerkenwell  maltster,  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Ley  den,  and,  after  marrying  an 
heiress  much  older  than  himself,  led  a  life 
of  dissipation  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Medmenham  Abbey  (q.v.)  fraternity.  He  was 
elected  M.P.  for  Aylesbury  in  1757  and  1761. 
He  founded  in  1762  'The  North  Briton'  (q.v.) 
in  which  he  skilfully  attacked  the  government 
of  Lord  Bute.  His  prosecution  for  libel  in 
connexion  with  No.  45  of  this  paper  and  the 
publication  of  the  obscene  'Essay  on  Woman* 


[846] 


WILKINS 

led  to  the  suppression  of  'The  North  Briton' 
and  to  his  own  expulsion  from  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  outlawry.  He  retired  to  Paris, 
whence  he  returned  in  1768  and  was  elected 
M.P.  for  Middlesex,  and  his  outlawry  was 
reversed.  He  was  again  expelled  from  the 
HoustMn  1769  for  a  libel  in  the  'St.  James's 
Chronicle*,  and  three  times  re-elected  for 
Middlesex,  his  elections  being  each  time 
annulled.  He  was  made  sheriff  of  London  and 
Middlesex,  and  linally  took  his  seat  without 
opposition  in  1774,  in  which  year  he  was  lord 
mayor  of  London. 

A  man  of  much  wit,  ability,  and  deter- 
mination, though  of  low  moral  standard,  and 
an  idol  of  the  London  mob,  he  was  the  means 
of  asserting  and  securing  several  of  our  most 
valuable  political  rights. 
Wllkins,  PETER,  see  Peter  Wilkins. 
WILKINSON,  SIR  JOHN  GARDNER 
(1707-1  #75)»  educated  at  Harrow  and  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  a  distinguished  Egyptolo- 
gist, arrived  independently  at  conclusions 
regarding  hieroglyphics  identical  with  those 
of  Chumpollion  (q.v.).  He  was  author  of  a 
standard  work,  'Manners  and  Customs  of  the 
Ancient  Egyptians'  (1837-41). 

Wfir«  Coffee-house,  called  after  William 

Unwin,  its  proprietor,  was  at  No.  i  Bow 
Street,  at  the  corner  of  Russell  Street.  It 
was  frequented  in  the  I7th  and  x8th  centuries 
by  authors  (notably  by  Dryden,  Wycherley, 
Addison,  Pope,  and  Congreve),  wits,  and 
gamblers.  The  first  number  of  the  'Tatler* 
(q.v.)  announced  that  all  poetry  appearing 
in  it  would  be  under  the  article  of  Will's 
Coflee-housc. 

Willbewill,  THE  LORD,  in  Bunyan's  'Holy 
War*  (q.v.),  'as  high-born  as  any  man  in 
MansouP,  *a  man  of  great  strength,  resolu- 
tion, and  courage1,  one  of  the  first  that  went 
over  to  Diabolus. 

Will- o*~ the- Wisp,  see  Ignis  Fatuus. 

Wtiiet,  JOHN,  in  Dickens 's  'Barnaby  Rudge* 
(q.v.),  the  host  of  the  Maypole  Inn,  and  JOE 
his  son,  finally  the  successful  wooer  of 
Dolly  Varden, 

Willett,  WILLIAM  (1856-1915),  a  builder, 
who  with  his  father  established  a  remarkable 
reputation  for  the  houses  they  built  in  Lon- 
don, Chislehurst,  Hove,  and  other  places, 
lie  is  especially  remembered  as  the  pioneer 
of  *  daylight  saving*,  of  which  he  began  the 
advocacy  in  1907.  The  measure,  to  the 
furtherance  of  which  he  devoted  much  time, 
energy,  and  money,  was  adopted  by  parlia- 
ment in  1916;  but  Willett  did  not  live  to 
see  this. 

William  I,  of  Normandy,  *The  Conqueror*, 
king  of  England,  1066-87. 
William  II,  or  RUFUS,  king  of  England, 
1087-1100. 

William  III  and  Mary,  king  and  queen  of 
England  from  1689.  Mary  died  in  1694, 
William  in  1702. 


WILLIAM  OF  PALERNE 
William  IV,  king  of  England,  1830-7. 
William  and  Helen,  see  Lenore. 

William  and  Margaret,  a  ballad  by  Mallet 
(q.v.),  written  in  1723,  and  first  published  in 
Aaron  Hill's  'Plain  Dealer*,  No,  36,  July 
1724.  It  is  included  in  Percy's  'Reliques' 
under  the  title  'Margaret's  Ghost'. 

The  ghost  of  Margaret,  who  has  died 
before  her  time,  betrayed  by  William,  visits 
her  faithless  lover  at  dead  of  night,  upbraids 
him,  and  bids  him  come  and  see  *how  low 
she  lies*  in  the  grave.  He  goes  to  the  grave, 
lays  himself  down,  and  never  speaks  more. 

William  de  la  Marck,  see  Ardennes. 
William  of  Gloudesley,  see  Adam  Bell 
WILLIAM  OF  MALMESBURY  (<1 1 143?), 
historian,  was  born  between  1090  and  1096. 
He  was  educated  at  Malmesbury  Abbey,  and 
became  librarian.  He  probably  resided  some 
time  at  Glastonbury,  later  revisions  of  his 
'Gesta  Regum  Anglorum*  containing  notices 
derived  from  the  history  and  charters  of 
Glastonbury.  His  works  include  'Gesta  Re- 
gum  Anglorum',  finished  in  1125,  covering 
the  period  from  A.D.  449  to  1127;  its 
sequel  'Historia  Novella*,  dealing  with  Eng- 
lish history  to  1142;  'Gesta  Pontificum 
Anglorum*,  finished  1125;  and  *De  Antiqui- 
tate  Glastoniensis  Ecclesiae*,  written  between 
1129  ^d  1139.  William  of  Malmesbury  is 
not  only  a  historian  of  high  authority,  but 
a  picturesque  and  vivacious  writer,  who 
diversifies  his  narrative  with  anecdotes, 
reminiscences,  and  comments.  The  *Gesta 
Regurn*  has  two  passages  about  Arthur, 
whom  William  regards  as  a  great  warrior, 
while  discrediting  many  of  the  stories  about 
him  (see  E.  K.  Chambers,  *  Arthur  of  Britain'). 
WILLIAM  OF  NEWBURGH  (1136- 
1198?),  educated  at  the  Augustinian  priory 
of  Newburgh,  Yorkshire,  was  the  author  of  a 
'Historia  Rerum  Anglicarurn*  in  Latin,  coyer- 
ing  the  period  from  1066  to  1198,  but  mainly 
devoted  to  the  reigns  of  Stephen  and  Henry  II. 
It  is  the  best  historical  work  extant  by  an 
Englishman  of  this  period,  and  earned  for  its 
author  Freeman's  opinion  that  he  was  'the 
father  of  historical  criticism'. 

William  of  Norwich  (ii32?-44),  saint  and 
martyr,  was  apprenticed  to  a  tanner  of 
Norwich.  He  is  said  to  have  been  murdered 
when  twelve  years  old  by  Jews  as  a  victim,  in 
compliance  with  what  was  believed  to  be  a 
Jewish  rite.  The  resting  place  of  his  body  in 
Norwich  Cathedral  became  a  centre  of  pil- 
grimage. He  is  commemorated  on  25  March. 

William  ofPalerne,  one  of  the  earliest  of  the 
I4th-cent.  alliterative  English  romances,  of 
some  5,500  lines  and  probably  of  Latin 
source. 

William  is  prince  of  Apulia.  He  is  saved 
from  poisoning  in  childhood  by  a  werewolf 
(q.v.),  who  is,  in  reality,  the  heir  to  the  king- 
dom of  Spain,  but  has  been  enchanted  by  his 
stepmother,  the  queen  of  Spain.  William 


[847] 


WILLIAM  OF  WYKEHAM 

falls  in  love  with  Meichior,  daughter  of  the 
emperor  of  Rome,  and  William,  as  he  flees 
with  her,  is  again  protected  by  the  werewolf. 
William  then  fights  against  the  king  of  Spain, 
captures  him,  and  forces  the  stepmother  to 
undo  her  magic.  The  werewolf  is  restored 
to  human  form  and  reveals  the  identity  of 
William. 

William  of  Wykeham  (1324-1404),  bishop 
of  Winchester  and  chancellor  of  England, 
obtained  a  papal  bull  for  the  endowment 
of  Winchester  College  in  1378,  and  issued 
the  charter  of  foundation  of  New  College, 
Oxford,  in  1379.  His  college  was  built  in 
1380-6,  and  his  school  in  1387-94.  He  was 
first  employed  as  clerk  of  the  king's  works  at 
Windsor,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  he 
may  have  been  the  architect  who  planned  the 
castle  there. 

Williams,  CALEB,  see  Caleb  Williams. 

WILLIAMS,  HELEN  MARIA  (1762- 
1827),  resided  chiefly  in  France  after  1788 
and  wrote  from  there  'Letters*  (1790-5) 
which  contain  interesting  information  on  the 
state  of  Paris  and  France  just  before  and 
during  the  Revolution. 

WILLIAMS,  ISAAC  (1802-65),  educated 
at  Harrow  and  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  came 
under  the  influence  of  Keble  and  was  one  of 
the  participants  in  the  Oxford  Movement 
(q.v.).  He  contributed  No.  80  to  the  'Tracts 
for  the  Times',  on  'Reserve  in  communicating 
Religious  Knowledge*;  also  Nos.  86  and  87. 
He  also  was  author  of  poems  in  'Lyra 
Apostolica*  (q.v.)  signed  *  £  *,  and  of  several 
volumes  in  prose  and  verse,  notably  the 
volume  of  poems  entitled  'The  Cathedral* 
(1838).  His  'Autobiography*  (edited  by  Sir 
G.  Prevost  in  1892)  is  an  interesting  record 
of  the  days  of  the  Oxford  Movement. 

Williams,  MICHAEL,  in  Shakespeare's 
'Henry  V  (q.v.),  one  of  the  English  soldiers 
who  converses  with  the  king  before  the  battle 
of  Agincourt. 

Williamson,  SIR  JOSEPH  (1633-1701),  suc- 
ceeded Arlington  as  secretary  of  state  in  1674. 
He  was  a  patron  of  Muddiman  (q.v.),  and  it 
was  under  his  direction  that  Muddiman 
started  the  'Oxford  Gazette*  (q.v.)  in  1665. 

WILLIS,  NATHANIEL  PARKER  (1806- 
67),  born  at  Portland,  Maine,  American 
author  of  plays,  essays,  and  poems.  Among 
his  works  are:  'Pencillings  by  the  Way* 
(1835),  'Loiterings  of  Travel*  (1839),  'Letters 
from  under  a  Bridge*  (1840),  'Outdoors  at 
Idlewild*  (1854),  'Poems:  Sacred,  Passionate 
and  Humorous*  (1869). 

Wiiioughby,  SIR  CLEMENT,  a  character  in 
Miss  Burney*s  'Evelina*  (q.v.). 

Willougfafoy,  JOHN,  a  character  in  J.  Austen's 
'Sense  and  Sensibility*  (q.v.). 

WILLOUGHBY  DE  BROKE,  RICHARD 
GREVILLE  VERNEY,  nineteenth  Baron 
(1869-1923),  educated  at  Eton  and  New 


WILSON 

College,  Oxford,  master  of  the  Warwickshire 
Foxhounds  from  1900,  was  author  of  the 
classical  'Hunting  the  Fox*  (1920). 
WILMOT,  ROBERT  (fl.  1568-1608),  dra- 
matist, rector  of  North  Ockendon,  1582,  and 
ofHorndon-on-the-Hill,  1585.  He  published 
in  1591  'The  Tragedie  of  Tancred  and  Gis~ 
mund*  (q.v.),  a  play  based  on  Boccaccio,  and 
the  oldest  English  play  of  which  the  plot  is 
certainly  taken  from  an  Italian  novel. 
Wilraot,  the  name  of  the  three  principal 
characters  in  Lillo's  'The  Fatal  Curiosity* 
(q.v.). 

Wilson,  ALISON,  in  Scott's  'Old  Mortality* 
(q.v.),  the  housekeeper  of  Silas  Morton  of 
Milnwood. 

Wilson,  CAPTAIN,  in  Marryat's  'Midship- 
man Easy*  (q.v.),  the  captain  of  the  hero's 
first  ship. 

WILSON,  SIR  ARNOLD  TALBOT  (1884- 
),  author  of  a  history  of  'The  Persian 
Gulf  (1928),  and  of  two  books  on  Mesopo- 
tamia during  the  Great  War. 

WILSON,  SIR  DANIEL  (1816-92),  author 
of  'The  Archaeology  and  Prehistoric  Annals 
of  Scotland*  (1851)  and  'Memorials  of  Edin- 
burgh in  the  Olden  Time*  (1846-8),  and 
some  biographical  and  other  works. 

WILSON,  JOHN  (1627 ?~96),  a  native  of 
Plymouth,  was  educated  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  and  became  a  barrister  of  Lincoln's 
Inn  and  recorder  of  Londonderry.  His 
principal  plays  are  two  comedies  on  the 
Jonsonian  model,  'The  Cheats*  (1664)  a**d 
'The  Projectors'  (1665),  in  which  sharks, 
bravoes,  usurers,  astrologers,  and  their  vic- 
tims are  vigorously  and  effectively  displayed ; 
and  a  tragedy,  'Andronicus  Comnenius* 
(1664),  based  on  the  adventurous  career  of 
the  Roman  emperor  Andronicus  Comnenus 
(1183-5).  A  fourth  drama,  'Belphegor,  or  the 
Marriage  of  the  Devil',  was  printed  in  1691. 

WILSON,  JOHN  (1785-1854),  educated  at 
Glasgow  University  and  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  was  elected  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  at  Edinburgh  University  on  the 
strength  of  his  Tory  principles  in  1 820.  He 
joined  the  editorial  staff  of  'BlackwoocTs 
Magazine*  (q.v.)  in  1817,  and  contributed  to 
it  the  greater  number  of  the  *Noctes  Am- 
brosianae*  (q.v.),  in  which  he  figures  as 
'Christopher  North*.  He  joined  with  Lock- 
hart  and  Hogg  in  the  production  of  the 
famous  'Translation  from  an  Ancient 
Chaldee  Manuscript',  in  which  Edinburgh 
notabilities  were  satirized  in  scriptural 
language  ('Blackwood*,  Oct.  1817).  He  was 
author  of  the  poems  'The  Isle  of  Palms* 
(1812)  and  'The  City  of  the  Plague*  (*8i6). 
'The  Recreations  of  Christopher  North*  ap- 
peared in  1842,  and  several  volumes  of  his 
essays  in  1866.  His  'Works'  were  edited  by 
Prof.  Ferrier  in  1855-8.  Wilson  was  one  of 
the  first  critics  to  do  justice  to  the  poetry  of 
Wordsworth. 


WILSON 

WILSON,  THOMAS  (1525  ?-8i),  educated 
at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  privy 
councillor  and  secretary  of  state  in  1578,  pub- 
lished the  *Ru!e  of  Reason'  in  1551,  and  the 
'Art  of  Rhetorique*  in  1553.  Thelatter  work 
is  noteworthy  in  the  history  of  English 
literature;  in  it  the  author  vigorously  urges 
tine  importance  of  writing  of  English  matters 
in  the  English  tongue,  avoiding  affectations 
and  latinisms. 

Wilton,  JACKE,  see  Unfortunate  Traveller. 
Wimble,  WILL,  in  Addison's  'The  Specta- 
tor' (tj.v.),  a  friend  of  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley, 
a  good-natured  officious  fellow,  who  hunts  a 
pack  of  dogs  better  than  any  man  in  the 
country,  and  is  generally  esteemed  for  the 
'  obliging  services  that  he  renders  to  all, 
Winchester  College,  see  William  of  Wyke- 
ham  and  Wykehamist. 

WINCHILSEA,  ANNE  FINCH,  Countess 
0/(r66i-i72o),  a  writer  of  pleasant  occasional 
verse  (praised  by  Sir  E.  Gosse)  and  a  friend 
of  Pope  and  Rowc  (qq.v.).  Wordsworth 
found  affinities  in  some  of  her  work.  One  of 
her  longer  poems,  *The  Spleen*,  contains  a 
couplet  about  the  'jonquille*  and  f  Aromatick 
Pain*  of  which  there  are  echoes  in  Pope's 
*  Essay  on  Man*  and  Shelley's  'Epipsychidion'. 
WINCKELMANN,  JOHANN  JOACHIM 
(1717-68),  the  son  of  a  German  shoemaker, 
became  the  founder  of  the  modem  study 
of  Greek  sculptures  and  antiquities.  By 
his  understanding  of  the  ideal  of  Greek 
art,  its  spiritual  quality,  and  its  sense  of 
proportion,  he  exerted  an  immense  influ- 
ence on  subsequent  thought  and  literature 
(e.g.  on  Goethe).  His  principal  works  were 
the  'Gcdankcn  uber  die  Nachahmung  der 
griechischcn  Wcrke  in  Malerei  und  Bild- 
hauerkunst*  (1755),  'Geschichte  der  Kunst 
dcs  Altcrthums'  (1764),  and  'Monument! 
Antichi  Xncditi'  (1767).  Winckelmann  was 
murdered  by  an  Italian  thief.  He  is  the 
subject  of  an  essay  by  Walter  Pater  and  of 
*The  Conversion  of  Winckelmann*  by  A. 
Austin. 

Windsor,  HOUSE  OF,  since  1917  the  official 
designation  of  the  royal  family  of  Great 
Britain. 

Windsor  Castle,  in  Berkshire,  a  royal 
residence,  founded  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, and  extended  by  his  successors, 
particularly  by  Edward  III,  who  had  the 
greater  part  re-erected  under  the  direction  of 
William  of  Wykeharn  (q.v.). 
Windsor  Forest,  a  pastoral  poem  by  A.  Pope 
(q.v.),  published  in  1713,  combining  descrip- 
tions of  the  English  countryside  and  field 
sports,  with  historical,  literary,  and  political 
passages. 

Wines  and  other  beverages,  see  Absinthe, 
Amontillado,  Artemisia,  Asti,  Bacharach, 
Burgundy,  Champagne,  Chartreuse,  Chianti, 
Claret,  Cognac,  Comet,  Constantia,  Cdte  Rdtie, 
Curapoa,  Geneva,  Glenlivet,  Graves,  Haut 
Brian,  Hermitage^  Hippocras,  Hollands, 


WINTER'S  TALE 

Madeira,  Malmsey,  Manzanilla,  Maraschino, 
Marsala,  Moselle,  Noyau,  Paxarete,  Perignon, 
Port,  Schiedam,  Sherry,  Sillery,  Tokay. 

Winifreda,  Song  to,  a  poem  published  in 
1726  and  included  in  Percy's  'Reliques',  ex- 
tolling happy  married  life  on  moderate  means. 
The  author  is  unknown. 

Winkle,  NATHANIEL,  in  Dickens  *s  'Pickwick 
Papers'  (q.v.),  one  of  the  members  of  the 
Corresponding  Society  of  the  Pickwick  Club. 
Winkle,  RIP  VAN,  see  Rip  van  Winkle. 

Winner  and  Waster,  Good  Short  Debate 
between,  an  alliterative  poem  composed  in 
the  middle  of  the  i4th  cent.,  discussing  the 
economic  problems  of  the  day.  It  perhaps 
contributed  to  inspire  the  'Vision  concerning 
Piers  Plowman*  (q.v.). 

Winter's  Tale,  The,  a  play  by  Shakespeare 
(q.v.),  probably  produced  in  1609-10,  and 
based  on  Robert  Greene's  Tandosto*  (q.v.). 
It  was  not  printed  until  the  folio  of  1623. 

Leontes,  king  of  Sicily,  and  Hermione,  his 
virtuous  wife,  are  visited  by  Leontes'  friend, 
Polixenes,  king  of  Bohemia.  Leontes,  pre- 
sently filled  with  a  baseless  suspicion  of  the 
relations  of  Hermione  and  Polixenes,  attempts 
to  procure  the  death  of  the  latter  by  poison, 
and  on  his  escape,  imprisons  Hermione,  who 
in  prison  gives  birth  to  a  daughter.  Paulina, 
wife  of  Antigonus,  a  Sicilian  lord,  tries  to 
move  the  king's  compassion  by  bringing  the 
baby  to  him,  but  in  vain.  He  orders  Anti- 
gonus to  leave  the  child  on  a  desert  shore  to 
perish.  He  disregards  a  Delphian  oracle 
declaring  Hermione  innocent.  He  soon 
learns  that  his  son,  Mamillus,  lias  died 
of  sorrow  for  Hermione's  treatment,  and 
shortly  after  that  Hermione  herself  is  dead, 
and  is  thereupon  filled  with  remorse.  Mean- 
while Antigonus  leaves  the  baby  girl,  Perdita, 
on  the  shore  of  Bohemia,  and  is  himself 
killed  by  a  bear.  Perdita  is  found  and  brought 
up  by  a  shepherd*  When  she  grows  up, 
Florizel,  son  of  King  Polixenes,  falls  in  love 
with  her,  and  his  love  is  returned.  This  is 
discovered  by  Polixenes,  to  avoid  whose 
anger  Florizel,  Perdita,  and  the  old  shepherd 
fly  from  Bohemia  to  the  court  of  King 
Leontes,  where  the  identity  of  Perdita  is  dis- 
covered, to  Leontes*  great  joy,  and  the  revival 
of  his  grief  for  the  loss  of  Hermione.  Paulina 
offers  to  show  him  a  statue  that  perfectly 
resembles  Hermione,  and  when  the  king's 
grief  is  intensified  by  the  sight  of  this,  the 
statue  reveals  itself  as  the  living  Hermione, 
whose  death  Paulina  had  falsely  reported  in 
order  to  save  her  life.  Polixenes  is  reconciled 
to  the  marriage  of  his  son  with  Perdita,  on 
finding  that  the  shepherd-girl  is  really  the 
daughter  of  his  former  friend  Leontes.  The 
rogueries  of  Autolycus,  the  pedlar  and 
*snapper-up  of  unconsidered  trifles',  add 
gaiety  to  the  later  scenes  of  the  play;  and  his 
songs,  'When  daffodils  begin  to  peer*  and 
*Jog  on,  jog  on,  the  foot-path  way5,  are 
famous. 


3868 


[849] 


WINTERBLOSSOM 

Winterblossom,  MR.,  a  character  in  Scott's 
'St.  Ronan's  Well'  (q.v.). 

Winterbourne, GILES,  a  character  in  Hardy's 
'The  Woodlanders'  (q.v.). 
WIREKER,  NIGEL  (jL  1190),  precentor 
of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury,  author  of 
*  Speculum  Stultorum',  a  satire  on  monks, 
an  elegiac  poem  recounting  the  adventures 
of  Burnel  the  Ass  (q.v.).  It  is  referred  to 
in  Chaucer's  'Nun's  Priest's  Tale*. 
Wisden,  A  Cricketer's  Almanack,  first  pub- 
lished in  1864  by  John  Wisden  &  Co.  ^  The 
first  number  contains  the  laws  of  cricket, 
scores  of  100  and  upwards  from  1850  to  1863, 
records  of  extraordinary  matches,  &c.  The 
publication  still  continues. 

Wisdom  of  Solomon,  one  of  the  books  of 
the  Apocrypha,  attributed  by  tradition  to 
Solomon's  authorship,  but  probably  from  a 
Greek  original  of  a  period  little  anterior  to 
Christianity.  It  is  an  eloquent  eulogy  of 
wisdom,  with  illustrations  of  its  beneficent 
influence,  and  a  condemnation  of  idolatry. 

Wise  Men  of  Gotham,  see  Gotham. 

Wise  Men  of  Greece,  see  Seven  Sages  of 

Greece. 

Wislifort,  LADY,  a  character  in  Congreve's 

'The  Way  of  the  World'  (q.v.). 

Wit  without  Money,  a  comedy  by  J.  Fletcher 
(q.v.),  written  about  1614,  printed  in  1639. 

Witch,  The,  a  play  by  T.  Middleton  (q.v.), 
written  before  1627,  not  printed  until  1778. 
The  principal  part  of  the  plot  is  based  on 
the  story  of  the  revenge  of  Rosamond  on 
Alboin  in  the  history  of  the  kings  of  Lom- 
bardy.  In  Middleton's  play  the  duchess  is 
obliged  by  her  husband  to  drink  a  health  at  a 
banquet  out  of  a  cup  made  from  her  father's 
skull,  and  to  avenge  herself,  purchases  by  her 
pretended  favours  the  help  of  a  courtier, 
Almachides,  to  kill  her  husband.  (The  same 
subject  is  treated  in  D'Avenant's  'Albovine', 
q.v.,  and  in  Swinburne's  'Rosamund,  Queen 
of  the  Lombards'.)  In  this  and  the  subordi- 
nate intrigue,  the  assistance  of  the  witch 
Hecate  is  called  in,  and  part  of  the  interest 
of  the  play  lies  in  the  comparison  between 
Middleton's  Hecate  and  the  witches  in 
Shakespeare's  'Macbeth'.  Charles  Lamb  in 
his  'Specimens*  has  indicated  the  difference 
between  them. 

Witch  of  Atlas,  The,  a  poem  in  ottava  rima 
by  P.  B.  Shelley  (q.v.),  written  in  1820. 

The  poet,  in  playful  mood,  invents  the 
myth  of  a  beautiful  and  beneficent  witch,  the 
daughter  of  Apollo,  who  tames  wild  beasts, 
plays  pranks  in  her  magic  boat  among  the 
clouds,  can  see  the  souls  of  men  under  their 
mortal  forms,  blesses  those  whom  she  sees 
most  beautiful,  but  'writes  strange  dreams 
upon  the  brain'  of  those  who  are  less  beauti- 
ful, and  mischievously  crosses  their  purposes. 

Witch  of  Edmonton,  The,  a  tragi-comedy  by 
Dekker,  J.  Ford,  W.  Rowley  (q.v.),  'etc/  (as 


WITHERINGTON 

the  title  states),  first  performed  probably  in 
1623,  but  not  published  until  1658. 

Frank  Thorney  marries  his  fellow  servant 
Winifred,  without  his  father's  knowledge  and 
against  his  will.  To  save  himself  from  being 
disinherited,  he,  at  his  father's  bidding,  also 
marries  Susan  Carter,  and  presently,  to 
extract  himself  from  his  embarrassment, 
murders  her,  and  attempts  to  throw  the 
guilt  on  her  two  rejected  suitors,  but  is  dis- 
covered, and  in  due  course  executed. 

The  old  woman  of  Edmonton,  who  is  perse- 
cuted by  her  neighbours  until  she  sells  her 
soul  to  the  devil  in  order  to  be  revenged  on 
them,  and  becomes  the  witch  that  they  have 
called  her,  provides  the  title  for  the  play,  but 
has  little  connexion  with  the  main  plot. 
This  part  is  notable  for  the  characteristic 
sympathy  shown  by  Dekker  for  the  poor 
outcast. 

Witch  of  Endor,  THE,  see  Endor, 

Witchcraft,  The  Discoverie  of,  see  Dtscovertc 

of  Witchcraft. 

Witches'  Sabbath,  see  Sabbath  (Witches'). 

WITHER,  GEORGE  (1588-1667),  was  bom 
at  Brentworth  in  Hampshire  and  educated 
at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  His  satires, 
'Abuses  stript  and  whipt',  published  in  1613, 
in  spite  of  the  innocuous  character  of  their 
denunciations  of  Avarice,  Gluttony,  and  so 
forth,  earned  him  imprisonment  in  the 
Marshalsea.  There  he  wrote  five  pastorals 
under  the  title  of  'The  Shepherd's  Hunting*, 
containing  some  of  his  best  verse,  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  'Shepherd's  Pipe*  which  he 
had  written  in  conjunction  with  William 
Browne  (q.v.),  the  'Willie'  of  these  eclogues. 
In  the  second  of  these,  Wither  (in  the  charac- 
ter of  Philarete)  describes  the  'hunting  of 
foxes,  wolves,  and  beasts  of  prey*  (the  abuses) 
which  got  him  into  trouble  with  the  govern- 
ment. His  'Fidelia',  a  poetical  epistle  from  a 
faithful  nymph  to  her  inconstant  lover,  ap- 
peared in  1617  (privately  printed,  1615)  and 
again,  with  the  famous  song,  'Shall  I,  wasting 
in  despair',  in  1619.  His  'Motto.  Nee  habeo, 
nee  Careo,  nee  Curo*,  published  in  1621,  led 
again  to  his  imprisonment;  it  is  a  pleasant 
self-eulogy,  in  three  parts,  dealing  with  the 
three  phrases  of  his  motto.  In  1622  appeared 
his  'Mistress  of  Phil'Areie',  a  long  panegyric 
of  his  mistress  Arete,  a  partly  real,  partly 
allegorical  personage;  also  the  collection  of 
pieces  called  'Juvenilia',  containing  most  of 
his  best  work.  After  this  he  became  a  con- 
vinced Puritan  and  published  principally 
religious  exercises,  notably  his  'Hymnes  and 
Songs  of  the  Church'  (1623)  and  his  'Helelu- 
iah'  (1641).  No  complete  edition  of  Withcr's 
works  has  been  published,  but  six  collections 
were  published  by  the  Spenser  Society, 
1872-8.  During  the  Civil  War  he  raised  a 
troop  of  horse  for  parliament  in  1642,  and 
was  captain  and  commander  of  Farnham 
Castle  in  that  year. 

Withcrington,   or   WIDDRINGTON,   in   the 


[850] 


WITITTERLY 

ballad  of  Chevy  Chase  (q.v.),  the  knight  who, 
when  his  legs  were  cut  off,  fought  upon  his 

stumps. 

Witittcrly,  MR.  and  MRS.,  in  Dickens's 
'Nicholas  Nickleby*  (q.v.),  typical  snobs. 

Wtt$t  The,  a  comedy  by  D'Avenant  (q.v..), 

published  in  1636. 

This  play  is  generally  considered  D'Ave- 
nant's  comic  masterpiece.  Young  Pallatine,  a 
wit,  who  lives  in  London  on  an  allowance,  but 
finds  it  unequal  to  his  wants,  is  in  love  with 
Lucy,  \\ho  sells  her  jewels  to  provide  him. 
with  money  and  is  in  consequence  turned  out 
of  doors  by  her  cruel  aunt,  who  suspects  her 
of  misconduct.  She  takes  refuge  with  Lady 
Ample,  the  rich  ward  of  Sir  Tyrant  Thrift, 
who  proposes  to  force  an  unwelcome  marriage 
on  his  ward  before  he  loses  control  over  her. 
Meanwhile  Pallatine's  wealthy  elder  brother 
comes  to  town,  with  old  Sir  Morglay  Thwack, 
for  a  spell  of  dissipation.  He  tells  young 
Pallatine  that  he  will  never  more  give  him 
money,  but  that  he  must  live  by  his  wits,  as 
the  elder  brother  and  Thwack  propose  to  do. 
In  pursuit  of  this  purpose  they  become 
involved  in  a  series  of  adventures,  are 
thoroughly  fooled,  and  the  elder  Pallatine  is 
released  from  his  troubles  only  on  making 
liberal  provision  for  his  brother  and  Lucy. 
Thrift  is  likewise  fooled  and  held  to  ransom. 

Wittol,  SIR  JOSEPH,  a  character  in  Congreve's 
'The  Old  Bachelor'  (q.v.). 
Witwotid,  and  his  half-brother  SIR  WIL- 
FULL  WITWOUD,   characters  in   Congreve's 

'The  Way  of  the  World*  (q.v.). 

Wives  and  Daughters,  the  last  and  un- 
finished novel  of  Mrs.  Gaskell  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  the  'Cornhill  Magazine*  1864-6. 

In  this  novel  Mrs.  Gaskell's  subdued 
humour  and  irony  are  seen  at  their  best.  Mr. 
Gibson  is  the  simple  hardworking  doctor  of 
the  little  town  of  Hollingford.  He  is  a 
widower  at  the  outset  of  the  story.  Molly,  his 
daughter,  an  honest  and  unselfish  girl,  is 
passionately  devoted  to  her  father.  Dr. 
Gibson,  partly  to  protect  his  growing  daugh- 
ter, partly  to  please  himself,  marries  a  widow, 
Mrs.  Kirkpatrick,  formerly  governess  at  'The 
Towers',  the  neighbouring  seat  of  Lord 
Cumnor,  a  superficially  attractive  woman, 
but  with  all  the  petty  vices  of  a  shallow,  selfish 
nature,  to  which  Mrs.  Gaskell  amusingly 
holds  up  the  mirror.  The  marriage  of  her 
father  goes  far  to  spoil  Molly's  previously 
happy  life,  but  she  loyally  strives  to  accept  the 
new  conditions.  Her  lot  is  improved  when 
Mrs.  Gibson's  own  daughter,  Cynthia, 
arrives  from  the  Continent,  where  she  has 
been  educated,  a  fascinating  girl  without  her 
mother's  petty  dishonesty,  but  also  without 
Molly's  capacity  for  deep  love  and  strong 
sense  of  principle.  She  has  entangled  herself, 
when  1 6,  with  Mr.  Preston,  Lord  Cumnor 's 
clever  but  ill-bred  agent,  from  whom  she  has 
borrowed  money  and  who  has  availed  him- 
self of  this  to  extract  a  secret  promise  of 


WODROW 

marriage  from  her;  him,  however,  she  now 
hates.  Another  family  enters  largely  into  the 
drama:  Mr.  Hamley,  a  hot-tempered,  good- 
natured  old  squire;  his  gentle  wife,  who 
presently  dies;  and  their  two  sons,  Osborne 
and  Roger.  The  parents'  hopes  are  set  on 
Osborne,  handsome  and  clever,  who  is  to 
distinguish  himself  at  Cambridge  and  make  a 
brilliant  marriage.  But  he  fails  miserably  at 
the  university,  and  secretly  marries  a  French 
governess.  The  resulting  situation  produces 
a  bitter  estrangement  between  Osborne  and 
his  father.  Osborne's  health  fails  and  he 
dies,  leaving  a  baby  son,  and  the  squire 
realizes  too  late  his  past  harshness  and  the 
bitterness  of  his  loss.  Roger,  the  younger 
son,  without  his  brother's  outward  charm, 
is  made  of  sterner  stuff,  becomes  senior 
wrangler  and  an  eminent  man  of  science.  The 
story  is  largely  occupied  with  the  relations 
of  the  Gibson  and  Hamley  families.  The 
Haxnleys  are  devoted  to  Molly,  who  falls  in 
love  with  Roger,  as  Roger  does  with  Cynthia. 
Cynthia,  although  engaged  to  Preston,  accepts 
Roger,  without  loving  him,  to  Molly's  dis- 
tress. However,  realizing  the  incongruity  of 
their  characters,  Cynthia  throws  him  over  and 
marries  a  man  better  suited  to  herself,  after 
Molly  has  liberated  her  from  the  pursuit  of 
Preston.  All  promises  well  when  the  un- 
finished work  closes,  for  Roger  has  discovered 
the  worth  of  Molly  and  will  evidently  marry 
her. 

There  are  many  pleasant  and  amusing 
subordinate  characters:  the  arrogant  Lady 
Cumnor ;  her  kindly  daughter,  Lady  Harriet ; 
the  Misses  Browning  and  Mrs.  Goodenough, 
genteel  inhabitants  of  Hollingford. 
Wizard  of  the  North,  THE,  Sir  W.  Scott 
(q.v.). 

WODEHOUSE,  PELHAM  GRENVILLE 
( 1 88 1~  ),  humorous  novelist,  among  whose 
chief  works  are:  'Uneasy  Money'  (i9*7)> 
'Piccadilly  Jirn' (19 1 8),  *A  Damsel  in  Distress' 
(1919),  *The  Indiscretions  of  Archie'  (1921), 
'The  Clicking  of  Cuthbert'  (1922);  and  the 
series  of  Jeeves  stories  (from  about  1911  on- 
wards), which  have  been  collected  in  'My 
Man  Jeeves',  'The  Inimitable  Jeeves',  'Carry 
On,  Jeeves',  'Very  Good,  Jeeves',  and  recently 
in  'The  Jeeves  Omnibus'. 
Woden,  the  Old  English  name  of  the  god 
called  in  Norse  Odin  (q.v.),  from  whom  our 
'Wednesday'  or  'Woden's  day*  is  derived. 
WODROW,  ROBERT  (1679-1734),  was 
minister  of  Eastwood  near  Glasgow,  and 
university  librarian  of  Glasgow.  His  works 
include  a  'History  of  the  Sufferings  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  from  the  Restoration  to 
the  Revolution'  (1828-30).  _  He  also  kept 
private  note-books  (partly  in  cipher)  published 
by  the  Maitland  Club  in  1842-3  as  'Analecta, 
or  materials  for  a  history  of  remarkable 
providences'.  He  was  a  great  book-collector, 
and  left  a  valuable  collection  of  broadsides 
and  pasquinades  (see  J.  H.  Burton,  ^The 
Book-hunter').  He  is  commemorated  in  the 


WOEFUL  COUNTENANCE 

Wodrow  Society,  devoted  to  the  history  of 
Presbyterianism  and  the  works  of  eminent 
Presbyterians. 

Woeful  Countenance,  THE  KNIGHT  OF  THE, 
Don  Quixote  (q.v.). 

Woffington,  MARGARET  (1714  ?-6o),  Teg 
WofBngton',  the  celebrated  actress,  was  the 
daughter  of  a  bricklayer  in  Dublin.  She  was 
engaged  by  Rich  for  Co  vent  Garden  in  1740 
and  was  immediately  successful,  acting  in  a 
great  number  of  leading  parts .  She  quarrelled 
with  Mrs.  Bellamy  and  while  performing  in 
Mrs.  Bellamy's  'Statira'  drove  her  off  the 
stage  and  stabbed  her.  Her  amours  were 
numerous  and  for  some  time  she  lived  with 
Garrick.  For  Charles  Reade's  novel  and  the 
play  'Masks  and  Faces*  concerning  her,  see 
Peg  Woffington. 

WOLCOT,  JOHN  (1738-1819),  'PETER 
PINDAR',  began  his  career  as  a  physician, 
in  which  capacity  he  was  attached  to  Sir 
William  Trelawny,  governor  of  Jamaica 
(1767-9).  He  then  took  holy  orders,  but 
returned  to  the  practice  of  medicine  in 
Cornwall.  He  abandoned  medicine  for 
literature  in  1778  and  removed  to  London 
with  the  painter  Opie,  whom  he  had 
helped.  He  published  his  satirical  'Lyric 
Odes  to  the  Royal  Academicians'  in  1782—5, 
followed  by  a  mock-heroic  poem,  'The 
Lousiad'  (q.v.)  in  1785,  and  various  satires  on 
George  III.  He  was  attacked  by  Gifford  in 
the  'Anti- Jacobin'  (q.v.).  His  'Bozzy  and 
Piozzi',  in  which  Boswell  and  Mrs.  Thrale 
set  forth  their  respective  reminiscences  of 
Dr.  Johnson  in  amoebean  verse,  appeared  in 
1786.  He  became  blind  before  his  death. 
He  had  a  gift  for  the  comical  and  mischievous 
exposure  of  foibles,  but  his  work  suffers  from 
vulgarity  of  thought  and  inelegance  of  style. 

Wolf  of  Badenoch,  The,  see  Stewart 
(Alexander). 

WOLFE,  CHARLES  (1791-1823),  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  was  curate  of 
Donoughmore,  co.  Down,  from  1818  to 
1821.  He  was  the  author  of  the  splendid 
lines  on  'The  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore' 
(apparently  based  on  Southey's  narrative  in 
the  'Annual  Register',  and  first  published  in 
the  'Newry  Telegraph'  in  1817).  Wolfe 
wrote  no  other  poem  worthy  of  remark  (his 
'Remains'  were  published  in  1829). 

WOLFRAM  VON  ESCHENBACH  (fl.  c. 
1200-20),  ^  a  great  German  minnesinger, 
whose  principal  work  was  the  epic  poem, 
'Parzival'  (q.v.).  He  also  composed  frag- 
ments of  'Titurel'  (q.v.).  He  was  a  Bavarian 
knight,  and,  according  to  his  own  statement, 
illiterate. 

WOLLSTONEGRAFT,  MARY,  see  God- 
win (Mrs.  M.  W.). 

Wolsey,  Life  and  Death  of  Thomas,  see 
Cavendish  (G.). 


Wolstan,  ST.,  see  Wulf start  (St.). 


[85*] 


WOMAN  KILDE  WITH  KINDNESSE 

Wolverine  State,  Michigan,  see  United 
States. 

Woman  in  the  Moonef  The,  a  prose  piny  by 
Lyly  (q.v.),  published  1597.  The  shepherds 
of  Utopia  ask  Nature  to  provide  a  woman  to 
'comfort  their  sole  estate'.  Nature  creates 
Pandora,  endowing  her  with  the  qualities  of 
the  Seven  Planets.  Pandora's  moods  and 
actions  vary  as  the  planets  in  turn  assume  the 
ascendant,  with  consequent  complications 
among  the  shepherds. 

Woman  in  White,  The,  a  novel  by  Wilkie 
Collins  (q.v,),  published  in  'All  the  Year 
Round'  in  1860. 

The  story  is  told  by  several  of  the  char- 
acters in  succession.  Walter  liartright,  a 
drawing-master,  is  accosted  on  a  lonely  road 
by  a  woman  dressed  entirely  in  white,  who 
shows  signs  of  being  partially  demented  and 
appears  to  have  escaped  from  an  asylum.  He 
is  engaged  by  Mr.  Fairlie,  a  selfish  valetudi- 
narian, to  give  lessons  to  his  niece,  Laura 
Fairlie,  and  her  half-sister,  Marian  Hal- 
combe.  He  falls  in  love  with  Laura,  who 
strikingly  resembles  the  woman  in  white,  and 
she  returns  his  love,  but  she  has  promised  her 
father  on  his  death-bed  that  she  will  marry 
Sir  Percival  Clyde,  of  Blackwater  Park,  and 
Hartright  leaves  the  country  in  despair.  The 
marriage  of  Laura  to  Sir  Percival  takes  place, 
and  it  comes  to  light  that  Sir  Percival,  whose 
affairs  are  embarrassed,  has  married  Laura  to 
get  possession  of  her  wealth,  that  he  is 
responsible  for  the  confinement  of  the  woman 
in  white,  Anne  Catherick,  in  an  asylum,  and 
that  Anne  Catherick  and  her  mother  are  in 
possession  of  a  secret  concerning  Sir  Percival, 
of  which  he  is  determined  at  all  costs  to 
prevent  the  revelation.  Unable  to  obtain 
Laura's  signature  to  the  surrender  of  her 
money,  Sir  Percival  and  Count  Fosco,  his 
friend  (a  fat  smooth  villain,  admirably  con- 
ceived), contrive  to  get  Laura  confined  in 
an  asylum  as  Anne  Catherick,  while  Anne 
Catherick,  who  dies,  is  buried  as  Lady 
Catherick.  The  device  is  discovered  by  the 
courage  and  resource  of  Marian  Halcornbe, 
and  Laura  is  rescued.  At  this  point  Hartright 
returns  to  England,  takes  Laura  and  Marian 
under  his  care  and  discovers  Sir  Percival's 
secret  (that  he  was  born  out  of  wedlock  and 
has  no  right  to  the  title).  Sir  Percival  is 
burnt  to  death  while  tampering  with  the 
parish  register  in  a  last  effort  to  save  his 
position.  Anne  Catherick  turns  out  to  be 
Laura's  half-sister,  and  Laura  and  Hartright 
are  happily  married.  Fosco  is  forced  to 
supply  the  information  which  restores  Laura 
to  her  position,  and  is  killed  by  a  member  of 
an  Italian  secret  society  that  he  has  betrayed. 

Woman  Kilde  with  Kindnesse,  A,  a  romantic 
comedy  by  T.  Heywood  (q.v.),  acted  about 
1603,  printed  in  1607. 

Frankford,  a  country  gentleman,  is  the 
husband  of  Anne,  a  'perfect'  wife.  But  his 
happiness  is  ruined  by  the  treachery  of  Wen- 


WOMAN  WHO  DID 

doll,  a  guest  to  whom  Frankford  has  shown 
every  kindness  and  hospitality.  Frankford 
discovers  Anne  in  the  arms  of  WendolL  But 
instead  of  taking  immediate  vengeance  on  her, 
he  determines  to  'kill  her  even  with  kindness*. 
He  sends  her  to  live  in  comfort  in  a  lonely 
manor-house,  only  prohibiting  her  from  see- 
ing him  or  her  children  again.  She  dies  from 
remorse,  after  having  sent  for  Frankford  to 
ask  forgiveness  on  her  death-bed,  and  re- 
ceived it. 

This  play,  in  which  pathos  and  manli- 
ness are  blended,  is  considered  lieywood's 
masterpiece.  It  opens  with  a  pleasant  hawk- 
ing scene. 

Woman  who  did.  The,  a  novel  by  Grant 
Allen,  raising  the  question  of  the  moral  basis 
of  marriage,  published  in  1895.  It  is  the 
truftic  story  of  a  noble  and  pure-minded 

woman,  of  advanced  views,  who  regards 
marriage  as  a  barbarous  institution,  incom- 
patible with  the  emancipation  of  women, 
courageously  follows  out  her  principle  in  her 
relations  with  the  man  she  loves,  and  suffers 
the  inevitable  penalty, 

Woman-Hater,  The,  see  Beaumont. 

Women  beware  Women,  a  tragedy  by  T. 
Middleton  (q.v.),  published  in  1657,  thirty 

years  after  his  death* 

The  story  involves  two  interwoven  plots. 
The  first  is  concerned  with  the  guilty  love  of 
Hippolitp  for  his  niece  Isabella.  Hippolito's 
sister,  Livia,  makes  Isabella  believe  that  she 
is  not  akin  to  htm,  and  she  then  consents  to 
marry  a  foolish  young  heir  as  a  screen  for  her 
own  passion  for  Ilippolito. 

The  second  is  based  on  the  life  of  the  his- 
torical Bianca  Capcllo.  Bianca  has  run  away 
from  her  father's  house  and  married  Leantio, 
a  merchant's  clerk.  The  duke,  seeing  her  at 
her  window,  becomes  enamoured  of  her  and 
carries  her  off  to  be  his  mistress.  Reproved 
by  the  cardinal,  his  brother,  for  his  sin,  he 
contrives  the  death  of  Lcantio,  and  marries 
Bianca,  For  this  purpose  he  incites  Hip- 
polito  to  kill  Lcantio  by  revealing  to  him 
that  his  sister  Livia  has  become  enamoured  of 
Lcantio.  These  various  crimes  meet,  in  the 
last  act,  with  their  retribution  in  a  wholesale 
massacre  of  the  characters, 

Wonder  State,  Arkansas,  see  United  States. 

Wonders  of  the  World,  Tim  SEVEN,  see 
Seven  Wonders  of  the  World. 

WOOD,  ANTHONY,  or,  as  he  latterly 
called  himself,  ANTHONY  A  WOOD  (1632-95), 
antiquary  and  historian,  was  educated  at  New 
College  School,  Oxford,  Thame  School,  and 
Merton  College,  Oxford.  He  prepared  a 
treatise  on  the  history  of  the  University  of 
Oxford,  which  was  translated  into  Latin  and 
edited  (with  alterations)  by  Dr.  John  Fell 
(q.v.),  dean  of  Christ  Church,  and  published 
as  'Historia  et  Antiquitates  Univ*  Oxon/ 
(1674),  Of  this  an  English  version  by  Wood, 
issued  by  John  Gutch,  is  the  standard  edition 
( 1 786~-96).  Wood  published  *  Athenae  Oxoni- 


WOODLANDERS 

enses*,  (1691-2),  a  biographical  dictionary  of 
Oxford  writers  and  bishops,  containing  severe 
judgements  on  some  of  these,  and  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  University  in  1693  at  the 
instance  of  Henry  Hyde,  second  earl  of 
Clarendon,  for  a  libel  which  the  work  con- 
tained on  his  father,  the  first  earl.  Several 
antiquarian  manuscripts  left  by  Wood  were 
published  posthumously.  His  'Life  and 
Times',  edited  by  Andrew  Clark,  occupy  five 
volumes  of  the  Oxford  Historical  Society's 
publications  (1891-1900).  In  the  same  series 
A,  Clark  has  edited  his  'History  of  the  City  of 
Oxford'  (three  vols.,  1889-99), 
WOOD,  ELLEN,  better  known  as  MRS. 
HENRY  WOOD  (1814-87),  novelist,  among 
whose  best-known  works  are  'East  Lynne* 
(1861),  'The  Channings'  (1862),  'Johnny 
Ludlow*  (1874-90),  and  'Pomeroy  Abbey* 


Wood's  half-pence,  see  Drapier*s  Letters. 

Woodcock,  ADAM,  the  falconer  in  Scott's 

'The  Abbot'  (q.v.). 

Woodcourt,  ALLAN,  a  character  in  Dickens's 

'Bleak  House'  (q.v.). 

Wooden  Horse,  THE,   an  instrument  of 

punishment,  chiefly  military,  formerly  in  use. 

The  back  of  the  horse  was  a  sharp  wooden 

ridge,  across  which  the  offender  was  seated, 

with  his  hands  tied  behind  his  back,  and 

muskets  hung  to  his  feet. 

The  Wooden  Horse,  Clavileno  (q.v.),  is 
the  subject  of  an  amusing  episode  in  'Don 
Quixote'. 

Wooden  Horse  of  Troy,  THE,  see  Horse 
(The  Trojan). 

Wooden  Spoon,  THE,  a  spoon  made  of 
wood,  formerly  presented  by  custom  at  Cam- 
bridge to  the  lowest  on  the  honours  list  in  the 
mathematical  Tripos. 

WOODFORDE,  THE  REV.  JAMES 
(1740-1803),  fellow,  and  at  one  time  sub- 
warden,  of  New  College,  Oxford,  and  the 
holder  of  livings  in  Somerset  and  later  in 
Norfolk,  was  author  of  the  'Diary  of  a 
Country  Parson'  (5  vols.,  1  924-3  i),which  gives 
a  vivid  picture  of  the  life  of  the  period  in 
college  and  country  parish,  with  special  refer- 
ence, incidentally,  to  what  was  eaten  and 
drunk. 

Woodhotise,  MR.,  in  J.  Austen's  'Emma' 
(q.v.),    the   father   of   Emma,   an   amiably 
egoistic  old  valetudinarian. 
Woodfanders,  The,  a  novel  by  Hardy  (q.v.), 
published  in  1887. 

The  scene  is  the  wooded  country  on  the 
skirts  of  Blackmoor  Vale  in  Dorset.  Honest 
Giles  Winterbourne,  in  the  apple  and  cider 
trade,  is  betrothed  to  Grace  Melbury,  daugh- 
ter of  a  timber-merchant  of  Little  Hintock. 
But  on  her  return  from  the  fashionable 
school  to  which  she  has  been  sent  to  finish 
her  education,  her  social  superiority  to  her 
rustic  lover  is  evident.  This  and  a  financial 
misfortune  that  at  this  time  befalls  Giles, 


[853] 


WOODS  OF  WESTERMAIN 

induce  her  ambitious  father  to  bring  the 
engagement  to  an  end,  and  to  hustle  his 
daughter  into  marriage  with  Edred  Fitzpiers, 
a  fascinating  young  doctor,  a  marriage  to 
which  she  consents  in  spite  of  her  suspicion 
of  a  low  intrigue  between  Fitzpiers  and  Suke 
Damson,  a  village  girl.  Fitzpiers  is  presently 
lured  away  from  his  wife  by  the  wealthy 
widow,  Felice  Charmond,  and  the  hope  of 
a  divorce  brings  Grace  and  the  faithful 
Giles  together  again.  But  the  hope  proves 
illusory.  Fitzpiers  returns  from  his  travels 
abroad  with  Mrs.  Charmond,  and  Grace  flies 
for  refuge  to  Giles's  cottage  in  the  woods. 
Owing  to  delicacy  on  his  part  and  respect  for 
the  proprieties  on  hers,  she  is  left  alone  in  the 
cottage,  and  the  man  she  loves,  though  ill, 
betakes  himself  to  a  crazy  shelter  of  hurdles, 
where  after  a  few  days  of  exposure  he  dies. 
Mrs.  Charmond  being  now  dead,  Grace  and 
Fitzpiers  are  ultimately  reconciled. 

Parallel  with  the  devotion  of  Giles  to  Grace, 
is  the  devotion  of  poor  plain  Marty  South, 
the  typical  primitive  Wessex  girl,  to  Giles. 
Marty  and  Grace  meet  by  his  death-bed  and 
pray  for  his  soul;  together  they  regularly 
visit  his  tomb.  At  the  end  of  the  book,  after 
Grace  has  rejoined  her  husband,  Marty 
stands  alone  beside  the  tomb. 

Woods  of  Wesfermain,  The,  a  poem  by  G. 
Meredith  (q.v.)  included  in  *Poems  and 
Lyrics  of  the  Joy  of  Earth',  published  in 
1883. 

Woodstock;  or,  The  Cavalier.  A  tde  of  the 
year  1651,  a  novel  by  Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1826.  The  work  was  written  when 
misfortunes  were  heaping  themselves  upon 
the  author :  his  financial  ruin,  the  death  of  his 
wife,  and  the  grievous  illness  of  his  beloved 
grandson. 

The  period  is  that  of  the  Civil  War,  and 
the  story  centres  in  the  escape  of  Charles  II 
from  England  after  the  battle  of  Worcester. 
The  scene  is  laid  in  the  royal  lodge  and  park 
of  Woodstock,  near  Oxford,  of  which  the 
gallant  old  cavalier,  Sir  Henry  Lee,  is  ranger. 
His  nephew,  Colonel  Markham  Everard,  has, 
for  reasons  of  conscience,  adopted  the  parlia- 
mentary cause,  distinguished  himself  as  a 
soldier,  and  earned  the  favour  of  Cromwell. 
On  the  other  hand  he  has  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  fiery  old  Lee,  and  the  course 
of  his  love  for  Lee's  daughter,  Alice,  has  been 
gravely   impeded.     Parliamentary   commis- 
sioners are  sent  to  sequestrate  Woodstock, 
but  through  Everard 's  influence  with  Crom- 
well  are   withdrawn,  for  Cromwell   hopes 
that  the  fugitive  Charles  II  will  take  advan- 
tage  of  the  opportunities   for  concealment 
offered  by  the  old  lodge,  and  be  captured 
there.     Charles    indeed    arrives,    disguised 
as    the  page   of   Colonel   Albert   Lee,    Sir 
Henry's  son ;  and  during  his  residence  at  the 
lodge  makes  ardent  love  to  the  unwilling 
Alice,  first  in  the  character  of  page  and,  when 
this  fails,  of  king.  This  brings  about  a  fierce 
dispute  between  Everard  and  Charles,  and 


WOOLF 

bloodshed  is  prevented  only  by  the  inter- 
position of  Alice.  The  king,  from  a  generous 
impulse,  relieves  the  anguish  caused  to 
Everard  by  the  preference  apparently  shown 
by  Alice  to  his  rival,  by  revealing  to  him  his 
identity;  and  Everard  promises  not  to  betray 
him,  Cromwell,  advised  by  a  spy  of  the 
presence  of  Charles  at  Woodstock,  now 
arrives  with  a  force  to  capture  him,  arrests 
Everard,  and  prepares  to  surround  the  lodge. 
During  these  preparations  the  king  receives 
warning  and  flies,  leaving  Albert  to  personate 
him  and  thus  delay  the  pursuit.  After  an 
exciting'  search,  Albert  is  captured  and  the 
escape  of  the  fugitive  king  is  revealed.  Crom- 
well, after  having,  in  his  fury,  ordered  the 
immediate  execution  of  Everard,  Sir  Henry 
Lee,  and  his  other  prisoners,  presently  relents 
and  pardons  them.  The  reconciliation  of 
Everard  and  Sir  Henry,  and  the  marriage  of 
Everard  and  Alice,  are  brought  about  by  a 
parting  message  from  Charles.  An  important 
feature  in  the  story  is  the  supposed  haunting 
of  Woodstock.  The  Royalists  take  advantage 
of  it,  by  'playing  at  ghosts'  in  the  secret 
passages  of  the  old  mansion,  in  order  to 
defeat  the  intended  sequestration. 

The  portrait  of  Cromwell  has  been 
criticized;  the  author  makes,  it  is  said,  the 
mistake  of  representing  Oliver  as  being 
in  supreme  power  before  he  became  lord 
protector  in  1653.  But  the  work  gives  a  vivid 
picture  of  a  reckless  cavalier,  Roger  Wildrake; 
of  the  Rev.  Nehemiah  Holdenough,  Presby- 
terian minister  of  the  town  of  Woodstock ;  of 
Puritan  soldiers  and  preachers  (including 
Joseph  Tomkins,  the  steward  of  the  parlia- 
mentary commissioners,  a  mixture  of  hy- 
pocrisy and  enthusiasm) ;  and  of  plotters  and 
spies  on  both  sides. 

WOODWORTH,  SAMUEL  (1785-1842), 
American  printer,  journalist,  and  author,  born 
at  Scituate,  Massachusetts,  who  is  remem- 
bered as  author  of  'The  Old  Oaken  Bucket'. 
Wookey  Hole,  a  cavern  in  the  Mendip  Hills 
in  Somersetshire,  the  legendary  abode  of  the 
Witch  of  Wokey,  a  ballad  concerning  whom 
is  included  in  Percy's  'Reliques',  She  was 
changed  into  a  stone  by  a  'lerncd  wight'  from 
Glaston,  but  left  a  curse  behind  that  the 
maidens  of  Wokey  should  find  no  lovers. 

WOOLF,  VIRGINIA,  daughter  of  the  late 
Sir  Leslie  Stephen  (q.v.),  author,  whose  chief 
works  are;  'The  Voyage  Out*  (1915),  'Night 
and  Day*  (1919),  'Jacob's  Room'  (1922),  'Mrs. 
Dalloway'(i92s),  'To  the  Lighthouse' (1927), 
'Orlando'  (i 929),  'The  Waves'  (i  93 1 ),  novels ; 
*A  Room  of  One's  Own'  (1929),  essay;  'The 
Common  Reader'  (1925),  literary  criticism. 
Mrs.  Woolf  is  considered  by  some  the  most 
important  of  living  English  novelists.  She 
is  a  tireless  experimenter,  in  whose  hands  the 
novel  tends  to  become  something  different 
from  a  mere  fictional  narrative  of  'characters*. 
This  may  be  seen  especially  in  her  'Jacob's 
Room',  'Mrs.  Dalloway',  'Orlando*,  and  "The 
Waves'. 


[854] 


WOOLNER 

WOOLNER,  THOMAS  (1825-92),  sculp- 
tor and  poet,  one  of  the  original  Pre- 
Raphaelite  Brethren  (q.v.)  and  a  contributor 
to  the  'Germ*  (q.v,).  He  met  with  small 
success  and  went  to  the  Australian  goldfields, 
hit*  departure  inspiring  Madox  Brown's  pic- 
ture 'The  Last  of  England'  (1852).  The 
statue  on  the  Thames  embankment  of  J,  S. 
Mill  (q.v,)  is  by  him. 

Woolsack,  THE,  the  usual  seat,  without  back 
or  arms,  of  the  lord  chancellor  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  made  of  a  large  square  bag  of 
wool  and  covered  with  cloth.  It  is  said  to 

have  been  adopted  in  Edward  Ill's  reign  as 
a  reminder  to  the  Lords  of  the  importance 
to  England  of  the  wool  trade.  The  term 
is  often  used  allusively  to  signify  the  lord- 
chancellorship, 

Woolscy,  The  Life  and  Death  of  Thomas,  see 

Cavendish  (G.). 

Woolwich,  on  the  Thames  below  London, 
often  used  to  signify  the  Royal  Military 
Academy,  where  cadets  are  trained  for  the 

Royal  Artillery  and  Royal  Engineers.  Also  a 
great  arsenal.  It  is  now  a  part  of  London. 

Wopsle,  MR.,  in  Dickens's  'Great  Expecta- 
tions* (q.v.),  a  parish  clerk  who  turns  actor 

and  plays  Hamlet  with  indifferent  success. 

Worcester,  THE  BATTLE  OF,  fought  on 
3  Sept.  1651;  the  Scottish  army  with 
Charles  II  was  utterly  defeated  by  Crom- 
well, who  referred  to  his  victory  as  *a  crown- 
ing mercy*. 

Worde,  WYNKYN  DE  (d.  ?  1534),  printer  and 
stationer.  His  actual  name  was  Jan  van 
Wynkyn,  and  he  was  born  at  Worth  in 
Alsace.  He  came  to  England  and  was  ap- 
prenticed to  William  Caxton  (q.v.),  whose 
business  he  carried  on  after  his  death.  He 
removed  to  Fleet  Street  in  1500  and  opened 
a  shop  in  St.  Paul's  Churchyard  in  1509.  He 
issued  a  large  number  of  books  from  his 
press,  among  the  most  notable  being  the 
third  edition  of  the  'Golden  Legend'  (1493), 
the  *  Vitae  Sanctorum  Patrum'  of  St.  Jerome, 
translated  by  Caxton  (1495),  the  second 
edition  of  the  *Morte  d 'Arthur*  (1498),  and  the 
fourth  edition  of  the  Canterbury  Talcs* 
(1498). 

WORDSWORTH,  DOROTHY  (1804-47), 
sister  and  constant  companion  of  W.  Words- 
worth (q.v.).  Her  'Journals*  were  edited  by 
W.  Knight,  1896  and  1904. 

WORDSWORTH,WILLIAM(x77o-i85o), 

born  at  Cockermouth,  the  son  of  an  attorney 
of  that  place,  was  educated  at  the  grammar 
school  of  Hawkshead  and  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  leaving  the  University  without 
distinction.  In  1790  he  went  on  a  walking 
tour  in  France,  the  Alps,  and  Italy.  He  re- 
turned to  France  late  in  1791,  and  spent 
there  a  year.  The  revolutionary  movement 
was  then  at  its  height  and  exercised  a  strong 
influence  on  his  mind.  While  in  France  he 
fell  in  love  with  the  daughter  of  a  surgeon  at 


WORDSWORTH 

Blois,  Annette  Vallon,  who  bore  him  a 
daughter  (see  fimile  Legouis,  'William 
Wordsworth  ^and  Annette  Vallon*,  1922). 
The  episode  is  in  part  reflected  in  'Vaudra- 
cour  and  Julia*,  written  in  1805.  In  1793  he 
published  'An  Evening  Walk'  and  'Descrip- 
tive Sketches*  (of  the  Alps),  his  first  serious 
poetical  efforts.  When  the  French  Revolu- 
tion was  followed  by  the  English  declaration 
of  war  and  the  Terror,  Wordsworth's  re- 
publican enthusiasm  gave  place  to  a  period  of 
pessimism,  which  manifested  itself  in  his 
tragedy,  'The  Borderers'  (q.v.),  written  in 
1795-6.  He  received  in  1795  a  legacy  of  £900, 
left  to  him  by  his  friend  Raisley  Calvert,  a 
mark  of  Calvert's  confidence  in  Wordsworth's 
genius.  In  the  same  year  Wordsworth  made 
the  acquaintance  of  S.  T.  Coleridge  (q.v.).  A 
close  and  long-enduring  friendship  developed 
between  the  poets,  and  Wordsworth,  with  his 
sister  Dorothy  and  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Coleridge, 
lived  for  a  year  in  close  intercourse  at  Alfox- 
den  and  Stowey  in  Somerset.  Together  the 
poets  published  in  1798  'Lyrical  Ballads' 
(q.v.),  which  marked  a  revival  in  English 
poetry,  but  was  unfavourably  received.  The 
volume  contained  the  'Lines  written  above 
Tintern  Abbey'  (written  in  1798).  Together 
also,  at  the  end  of  the  same  year,  the  poets 
went  to  Germany,  Wordsworth  and  his  sister 
wintering  at  Goslar.  Here  Wordsworth 
began  'The  Prelude'  (q.v.)  and  wrote  'Ruth*, 
'Lucy  Gray',  'Nutting*,  the  lines  on  'Lucy* 
(q.v.),  and  other  beautiful  poems.  In  1799  he 
settled  with  his  sister  at  Grasmere,  where 
he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  (at  first 
at  Dove  Cottage).  In  1800  appeared  an  en- 
larged edition  of  the  'Lyrical  Ballads',  with 
a  critical  essay  named  'Observations',  ex- 
pounding Wordsworth's  principles  of  poetry, 
to  which  was  added  in  1802  an  appendix 
on  'Poetic  Diction*.  This  edition  of  the 
'Lyrical  Ballads',  and  particularly  the  'Ob- 
servations*, were  received  with  extreme 
hostility  by  the  critics,  which  left  Words- 
worth unmoved.  To  the  year  1800  belongs 
'Michael',  one  of  the  most  harmonious  of 
Wordsworth's  poems.  His  financial  position 
having  been  improved  by  the  repayment  of  a 
debt  on  the  death  of  Lord  Lonsdale,  he 
married  in  1802  Mary  Hutchinson  of  Penrith. 
He  made  a  tour  in  Scotland  in  1801, a  journey 
to  Calais  in  1802,  and  another  tour  in  Scotland 
in  1803,  and  began  a  cordial  friendship  with 
Sir  W.  Scott  (q.v.).  Events  abroad  now 
changed  his  political  attitude  to  one  of  patrio- 
tic enthusiasm,  while  the  death  of  his  brother 
John  in  1805  and  the  physical  decline  of  his 
friend,  S.  T.  Coleridge,  deeply  affected  him. 
In  1805  he  completed  'The  Prelude'  (q.v.), 
which,  however,  was  not  published  until 
after  his  death.  In  1807  he  published  poems, 
including  the  odes  to  'Duty'  (written  in  1805) 
and  on  'Intimations  of  Immortality',  'Mis- 
cellaneous Sonnets*,  and  'Sonnets  dedicated 
to  Liberty'.  To  the  same  year  belongs  'The 
White  Doe  of  Rylstone'  (a  tragedy  of  the  time 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  which  the  surviving 


[855] 


WORLD,  THE 

daughter  of  a  family  of  Catholic  rebels  is 
comforted  by  the  visits  of  a  white  doe  that 
she  has  reared  in  happier  times),  published  in 
1815.  In  1813  he  was  given  the  office  of 
distributor  of  stamps  for  the  county  of  West- 
morland, which  brought  him  in  some  £400 
a  year.  He  now  moved  to  Rydal  Mount, 
Grasmere,  which  he  occupied  till  his  death. 
He  again  toured  in  Scotland  in  1814, 
and  in  that  year  published  'The  Excursion* 
(q.v.),  of  which  a  part,  'The  Story  of  Mar- 
garet*, had  been  written  many  years  before 
(1797).  In  the  same  year  was  written 
*Laodamia*,  on  the  legend  of  the  wife  of 
Protesilaus,  who  is  allowed  by  Hermes  to 
converse  with  the  shade  of  her  husband 
killed  before  Troy,  and  dies  when  the 
shade  disappears.  'Dion*  and  the  'Ode  to 
Lycoris',  further  poems  on  classical  subjects, 
followed  in  1816  and  1817.  Teter  Bell*  (q.v., 
written  in  1798)  and  'The  Waggoner*  (q.v., 
written  in  1805)  appeared  in  1819.  To  this 
year  belong  the  'River  Duddon*  sonnets,  pub- 
lished in  1820.  The  'Ecclesiastical  Sonnets* 
appeared  in  1822.  He  travelled  on  the  Con- 
tinent in  1820,  1823,  and  1828,  publishing 
in  1822  a  volume  of  poems  entitled 
'Memorials  of  a  Tour  on  the  Continent*. 
He  went  to  Ireland  in  1829,  to  Scotland 
in  1831  (writing  'Yarrow  Revisited*,  pub- 
lished in  1835),  and  again  in  1833.  A 
tour  in  Italy  in  1837  inspired  several  pieces, 
published  in  his  last  volume,  Toems  chiefly 
of  Early  and  Late  Years*  (1842).  He  resigned 
his  place  in  the  stamp  office  and  received  a 
civil  list  pension  in  1842.  In  1843  he  suc- 
ceeded Southey  as  poet  laureate.  His  later 
writings  show  him  in  politics  converted  from 
a  revolutionist  to  an  opponent  of  liberalism. 
He  was  buried  in  Grasmere  churchyard. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  two  prose 
works  by  Wordsworth:  his  essay  'Concerning 
the  Relations  of  Great  Britain,  Spain,  and 
Portugal  ...  as  affected  by  the  Convention 
of  Cintra*,  published  in  1809,  in  which  he 
deplores  the  lack  of  vigour  shown  by  the 
English  policy;  and  'A  Description  of  the 
Scenery  of  the  Lakes  in  the  North  of  Eng- 
land', written  in  1810  as  an  introduction  to 
T.  Wilkinson's  'Select  Views  in  Cumberland* 
and  republished  with  additions  in  1822,  an 
interesting  account  of  the  county  and  its 
inhabitants. 

Wordsworth's  'Poetical  and  Prose  Works', 
together  with  Dorothy  Wordsworth's  'Jour- 
nals', edited  by  W.  Knight,  appeared  in  1896. 
'Letters  of  the  Wordsworth  Family,  1787- 
1855'  (chiefly  of  William  Wordsworth)  were 
edited  by  W.  Knight  in  1907. 

World,  The,  a  periodical  that  appeared  in 
I753~6,  owned  by  Robert  Dodsley  and 
managed  by  Edward  Moore.  Chesterfield 
and  Horace  Walpole  were  among  the  con- 
tributors. 

World's  Classics,  a  series  of  cheap  reprints 
of  standard  works  of  English  literature,  but 
including  also  some  translations  (e.g.  of 


WOULD-BE 

Tolstoy,  Pope's  'Homer*,  Dryden's  *Vir«ir, 
Florio's  'Montaigne*,  and  others).  The 
series  began  in  1901  and  is  still  in  progress; 
over  400  volumes  have  been  published. 
Worldly  Wiseman,  MR.,  in  Bunyan's  'Pil- 
grim's Progress'  (q.v.),  an  inhabitant  of  the 
town  of  Carnal  Policy,  who  tries  to  dissuade 
Christian  from  going  on  his  pilgrimage. 
Worms,  DIET  OF,  see  Luther. 
Worthies  of  the  World,  THE  NINE,  were 
'three  Paynims,  three  Jews,  and  three 
Christian  men',  viz.  Hector  of  Troy,  Alexan- 
der the  Great,  and  Julius  Caesar;  Joshua, 
David,  and  Judas  Maccabaeus;  Arthur, 
Charlemagne,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  (Cax- 
ton,  Preface  to  the  'Morte  d'Arthur').  The 
list  of  worthies  in  Shakespeare's  'Love's 
Labour's  Lost*,  v.  ii,  is  not  quite  the  same,  for 
it  includes  Pompey  and  Hercules. 
Worthies  of  England,  The,  by  Fuller  (q.v.), 
published  in  1662,  after  his  death. 

The  work  is  a  kind  of  gazetteer  of  England, 
in  which  the  author  takes  the  counties  one  by 
one,  describes  their  physical  characteristics, 
natural  commodities,  and  manufactures,  with 
quaint  comments  on  each.  After  these  come 
short  biographies,  not  devoid  of  humour,  of 
the  local  saints,  martyrs  (i.e.  persons  who 
suffered  for  the  Protestant  faith),  prelates, 
statesmen,  judges,  notable  soldiers,  sailors, 
and  writers;  and  lists  of  the  gentry  and 
sheriffs. 

WOTTON,  Sm  HENRY  (1568-1 639),  was 
educated  at  Winchester  and  New  and  Queen's 
Colleges,  Oxford,  and  entered  the  Middle 
Temple.  He  became  agent  and  secretary 
to  the  earl  of  Essex,  1595,  and  was  employed 
by  him  in  collecting  foreign  intelligence. 
He  was  ambassador  at  the  court  of  Venice 
and  employed  on  various  other  diplomatic 
missions  from  1604  to  1634.  While  on  a  visit 
to  Augsburg  he  wrote  in  his  host's  album  the 
famous  definition  of  an  ambassador,  *vir  bonus 
peregre  missus  ad  mentiendum  Reipublicae 
causa',  'which  he  would  have  been  content 
should  have  been  thus  englished  "An  Am- 
bassador is  an  honest  man,  sent  to  lie  abroad 
for  the  good  of  his  country" '  (Walton) ; 
Scioppius  mentioned  this  in  his  printed 
diatribe  against  James  I  ( 1 6 1 1 ) .  Wotton  was 
provost  of  Eton,  1634-39.  He  published 
'Elements  of  Architecture*  (1624).  A  collec- 
tion of  his  poetical  and  other  writings  ap- 
peared under  the  title  'Reliquiae  Wot- 
tonianae'  (containing  his  famous  'Character 
of  a  Happy  Life'^and  'On  his  Mistress,  the 
Queen  of  Bohemia' — 'You  meaner  beauties 
of  the  night')  in  1651  (enlarged  editions,  1672 
and  1685).  His  'Life'  was  written  by  Izaak 
Walton  (1670).  His  'Life  and  Letters',  by 
L.  Pearsall  Smith,  appeared  in  1907.  There  is 
a  handy  modern  edition  of  his  poems,  to- 
gether with  those  of  other  'courtly  poets',  by 
John  Hannah  (1870). 

Would-be,  SIR  POLITICK  and  LADY,  charac- 
ters in  Jonson's  'Volpone'  (q.v.). 


[856] 


WRAGG  IS  IN  CUSTODY 

Wragg  is  in  custody :  M,  Arnold  (q.v.)  in 

the  first  of  his  *  Essays  in  Criticism",  com- 
menting onjthe  exuberant  satisfaction  of  Mr, 
Roebuck  with  the  state  of  England,  quotes 
a  newspaper  paragraph  ending  with  these 
words,  Wragg  was  a  girl  who  had  left  the 
workhouse  with  her  young  illegitimate  child. 
The  child  had  been  found  strangled. 

Wrayburn,  EUGENE,  a  character  in  Dickens 's 
*Our  Mutual  Friend*  (q.v,). 

Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,  The,  a  poem  by 
Ixmgfellow  (q.v.),  published  in  1841, 

Wren,  SIR  CHRISTOPHER  (1632-1723),  son  of 
Christopher  Wren,  who  was  dean  of  Windsor, 
1635-8,  and  nephew  of  Matthew  Wren,  the 
bishop  of  Ely,  who  spent  eighteen  years  in  the 
Tower,  was  educated  at  Westminster  School 
and  Wadham  College,  Oxford.  He  became  a 
fellow  of  All  Souls  in  1653.  He  subse- 
quently devoted  much  attention  to  a  variety 
of  scientific  subjects  and  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  circle  which  was  incorporated 
as  the  Royal  Society  (q.v.).  He  was  Savilian 
professor  of  astronomy  (1661)  and  a  fore- 
runner of  Newton  in  many  of  his  mathe- 
matical discoveries.  He  became  surveyor- 
general  to  Charles  IPs  works  in  1661,  and 
built  the  chapel  of  Pembroke  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1663-5,  the  Sheldonian 
Theatre,  Oxford,  in  1664-9,  and  the  chapel 
of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  1668. 
Wren  prepared  a  scheme  for  the  remodelling 
of  London  after  the  fire  of  1666,  which 
unfortunately  was  not  adopted  (his  plans 
for  the  purpose  remain  at  All  Souls).  He 
was  engaged  from  1 668  for  many  years  on  the 
demolition  and  reconstruction  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  London,  the  work  for  which  he  is 
most  celebrated.  His  first  project  had  to  be 
abandoned,  but  he  obtained  in  1675  royal 
approval  for  a  design  which  he  modified  into 
that  of  the  existing  cathedral  (the  choir  was 
opened  for  service  in  1697).  He  made  de- 
signs for  rebuilding  Temple  Bar,  and  built  no 
fewer  than  fifty-two  churches  in  London, 
the  monument  commemorating  the  Fire  of 
London,  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, Tom  Tower  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  Chelsea  Hospital,  Maryborough 
House,  London,  and  many  additions  to 
Kensington  and  Hampton  Court  Palaces. 
He  also  prepared  designs  for  the  western 
towers  of  Westminster  Abbey,  which  were 
completed,  with  new  details,  by  his  succes- 
sors. Wren  was  a  man  of  amiable  and  modest 
character,  integrity,  and  strong  Christian 
faith.  He  was  buried  in  St.  Paul's. 

Wren*  JENNY,  the  business  name  of  the 
doll's  dressmaker  in  Dickens  *s  'Our  Mutual 
Friend*  (q.v.).  Her  real  name  was  Fanny 

Cleaver. 

WRIGHT,  THOMAS  (1810-77),  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  was  instru- 
mental in  founding  the  Camden  and  Percy 
Societies  (qq.v.).  He  published  four  volumes 
of  'Early  English  Poetry*  in  1836,  and  in 


WUTHERING  HEIGHTS 

1840  edited  'The  Vision  and  Creed  of  Piers 
Plowman*.  His  'Biographia  Literaria  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Period'  appeared  in  1842,  and 
*Anecdota  Literaria*  in  1844.  He  published 
many  other  works,  some  in  collaboration 
with^J.  O.  Halliwell  (afterwards  Halliwell- 
Phillipps),  on  subjects  connected  with  the 
literature,  history,  and  customs  of  England, 
including  'Queen  Elizabeth  and  her  Times' 
(1838)  and  a  'History  of  Domestic  Manners 
and  Sentiments  in  England  during  the 
Middle  Ages'  (1862). 

Wrong  Box,  The,  see  Tontine, 

Wronghead,  SIR  FRANCIS,  a  character  in 
Vanbrugh  and  Cibber's  'The  Provok'd  Hus- 
band1 (q.v.). 

Wulfila,  see  Ulfilas. 

WTJLFSTAN(^.  1023),  archbishop  of  York, 
author  of  homilies  in  the  vernacular,  in- 
cluding a  famous  address  to  the  English 
('Sermo  Lupi  ad  Anglos'),  in  which  he  de- 
scribes the  desolation  of  the  country  owing  to 
the  Danish  raids,  and  castigates  the  vices  and 
demoralization  of  the  people. 

Wulfstan  or  WOLSTAN,  ST.  (1012  P-Q  5), 
was  educated  at  the  abbey  of  Peterborough 
and  became  a  monk  of  the  priory  of  Worces- 
ter, where  he  was  successively  schoolmaster, 
precentor,  sacristan,  and  prior.  He  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Worcester  in  1062.  He 
assisted  Harold  on  his  accession,  but  subse- 
quently made  submission  to  the  Conqueror. 
He  was  the  only  Englishman  left  in  possession 
of  his  see  by  William  I.  He  preached  at 
Bristol  in  condemnation  of  the  slave  trade 
practised  by  English  merchants  against  their 
fellow  countrymen,  and  procured  its  abandon- 
ment. He  was  buried  at  Worcester  (of  which 
he  had  rebuilt  the  cathedral)  and  is  com- 
memorated on  19  January. 

Wuthering  Heights,  a  novel  by  E.  Bronte 
(q.v.),  published  in  1847. 

The  central  figure  of  this  sombre  and 
highly  imaginative  story  is  HeathclifT,  a  gipsy 
waif  of  unknown  parentage,  picked  up  by  Mr. 
Earnshaw  in  the  streets  of  Liverpool  and 
brought  home  and  reared  by  him  as  one  of  his 
own  children.  Bullied  and  humiliated  after 
the  elder  Earnshaw's  death  by  Earnshaw's  son 
Hindley,  Heathcliffs  passionate  and  ferocious 
nature  finds  its  complement  in  Earnshaw's 
daughter,  Catherine,  and  he  falls  passionately 
in  love  with  her.  Overhearing  her  say  that  it 
would  degrade  her  to  marry  him,  he  leaves 
the  house.  Returningthree  years  later  he  finds 
Catherine  married  to  the  insignificant  Edgar 
Linton.  Being  possessed  of  money,  he  is 
welcomed  by  Hindley,  a  coarse-natured 
gambler,  who  is  now  married.  Heath- 
cliff's  vindictive  nature  henceforth  has 
full  play.  His  violent  love  for  Catherine 
brings  her  to  her  grave  at  the  birth  of  her 
daughter  Cathy.  He  marries  Edgar's  sister 
Isabella,  not  loving  her,  and  cruelly  mal- 
treats her.  He  gets  Hindley  and  his  son 


[857] 


WYATT 

Hareton  completely  in  his  power,  brutalizing 
the  latter  in  revenge  for  Hindley's  treatment 
of  himself  when  a  child.  Later  he  lures  the 
young  Cathy  to  his  house  and  forces  a 
marriage  between  her  and  his  own  sickly  and 
repulsive  son,  with  a  view  to  getting  Linton's 
property  eventually  into  his  own  power. 
After  his  son's  death,  affection  springs  up  be- 
tween Cathy  and  Hareton,  and  Cathy  sets 
about  the  latter's  education.  HeathclifFs 
nature  has  now  worn  itself  out.  He  longs  for 
the  death  that  will  reunite  him  with  Catherine. 
His  attempt  to  destroy  the  houses  of  Earnshaw 
and  Linton  fails  in  the  end  from  lack  of 
resolution,  and  at  his  death  Hareton  and 
Cathy  are  left  to  be  happy  together. 

WYATT,  Sm  THOMAS  (15031-42),  was 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
He  held  various  posts  at  home  and  abroad, 
including  that  of  ambassador  to  Charles  V 
(1537-9),  in  the  service  of  Henry  VIII.  He 
was  a  lover  of  Anne  Boleyn  before  her 
marriage  with  Henry  VIII,  and  was  tem- 
porarily imprisoned  in  the  Tower  of  London 
in  1536  on  the  discovery  of  Anne's  alleged 
post-nuptial  infidelities.  He  was  again  im- 
prisoned in  the  Tower  as  an  ally  of  Thomas 
Cromwell,  but  released  in  1541-  He  was  a 
close  student  of  foreign  literature,  and  (with 
Surrey,  q.v.)  introduced  the  sonnet  from 
Italy  into  England.  His  first  published  works 
appeared  as  'Certayne  Psalmes  .  .  .  drawen 
into  Englyshe  meter'  (1549),  and  many  of  his 
poems,  which  include  rondeaux,  lyrics,  and 
satires  in  heroic  couplets,  were  issued  by 
Tottel  (q.v.)  in  his  'Miscellany*  (1557).  He 
was  a  lyric  poet  of  the  purest  note.  His 
portrait  after  Holbein  is  in  the  National 
Portrait  Gallery.  He  was  the  father  of  Sir 
T.  Wyatt,  who  tried  to  raise  an  insurrection 
against  the  Spanish  marriage  of  Mary  I 


Wybrow,  ANTHONY,  a  character  in  G. 
Eliot's  'Mr.  Gilfil's  Love-Story'  (see  Scenes 
of  Clerical  Life). 

WYCHERLEY,  WILLIAM  (1640-1716), 
of  a  Shropshire  family,  was  educated  first 
in  France,  then  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford. 
His  first  play,  *Love  in  a  Wood,'  or  St.  James's 
Park',  brought  him  the  favour  of  the  duchess 
of  Cleveland,  the  king's  mistress.  Some 
years  later  he  secretly  married  the  widowed 
countess  of  Drogheda,  daughter  of  the  first 
earl  of  Radnor,  and  incurred  thereby  the 
displeasure  of  Charles  II,  who  had  offered 
him  the  tutorship  of  his  son,  the  duke  of 
Richmond.  Wycherley's  first  play,  'Love  in 
a  Wood',  above  referred  to,  a  comedy  of 
intrigue  of  which  St.  James's  Park  furnishes 
the  scene,  was  acted  in  1671  and  published  in 
1672.  His  second  play,  'The  Gentleman 
Dancing-Master'  (q.v.),  was  acted  in  1671  or 
1672  (published  in  1673);  'The  Country 
Wife'  (q.v.)  in  1672  or  1673  (published  in 
1675);  his  last  play,  'The  Plain  Dealer'  (q.v.), 
probably  in  1674  (published  in  1677).  His 
Miscellany  Poems'  (published  in  1704)  led 


WYKEHAMIST 

to  a  friendship  with  Pope,  who  revised  many 
of  his  writings.  His  'Posthumous  Works* 
appeared  in  1728.  Lamb  classes  him  with 
Congreve  as  one  of  the  best  masters  of 
'Artificial  Comedy*  ('Last  Essays  of  Elia'). 
Wycherley  was  labelled  by  Macaulay  as 
licentious  and  indecent.  The  present  view  of 
him  is  that  he  was  a  satirist  more  savage  than 
Congreve,  but  a  poet  less  sensitive.  Con- 
temporaries named  him  'manly  Wycherley \ 

WYCLIFFE,  JOHN  (c.  1320-84),  was  born, 
according  to  Leland,  at  Iprcswell  or  Hipswdl 
near  Richmond  in  Yorkshire,  and  probably 
educated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  There 
is  a  tradition  also  of  his  being  at  Queen's 
and  at  Merton,  and  he  appears  to  have  been 
master  of  Balliol.  A  realist  in  philosophy  and 
a  religious  reformer,  he  advocated  the  poverty 
of  the  clergy  and  attacked  church  endow- 
ments. His  'De  Dominio  Divino*  (1376) 
expounds  the  doctrine  that  all  authority  is 
founded  on  grace;  which  leads  to  the  idea 
that  wicked  kings,  popes,  and  priests  should 
have  no  power.  Wycliffe  was  in  consequence 
banned  by  Pope  Gregory  XL  Moved  to 
bolder  defiance,  he  now  attacked  the  papacy 
and  after  the  Great  Schism  (q.v.)  of  1378 
declared  it  'Antichrist  itself.  He  went  on  to 
condemn  the  whole  hierarchy,  to  deny  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and  to  assert 
the  right  of  every  man  to  examine  the  Bible  for 
himself.  He  was  condemned  by  an  ecclesi- 
astical court  for  his  theological  doctrines, 
and  retired  to  Lutterworth,  where  he  died. 
The  Lollards  adopted  and  exaggerated  his 
views.  From  a  literary  standpoint  he  is  chiefly 
notable  as  having  instituted  the  first  transla- 
tion into  English  of  the  whole  Bible,  himself 
translating  the  Gospels,  probably  the  New 
Testament,  and  possibly  part  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Why  he  was  not  burnt  alive,  no 
one  knows ;  but  his  remains  were  disinterred 
(by  Fleming,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  the  founder  of 
Lincoln  College,  which  was  later  to  be  the 
home  of  Wesley)  and  thrown  into  the  river 
Swift  (a  tributary  of  the  Avon),  whence  the 
prophecy : 

The  Avon  to  the  Severn  runs, 
The  Severn  to  the  sea, 

And  Wycliffe's  dust  shall  spread  abroad 
Wide  as  the  waters  be. 

The  Hussite  movement  in  Bohemia  was 
based  on  Wycliffe's  influence,  and  Huss's 
works,  which  were  largely  copies  of  Wycliffe's, 
in  turn  influenced  Luther.  The  standard  life 
of  Wycliffe  is  by  H.  B.  Workman  (1926). 
See  also  Bible  (The  English). 

Wycliffe,  OSWALD  and  WILFRID,  characters 
in  Scott's  'Rokeby'  (q.v.). 

Wykeharn,  WILLIAM  OF,  see  William  of 
Wykeham. 

Wykehamist,  a  member,  past  or  present,  of 
Winchester  College.  Among  Wykehamists 
famous  in  a  literary  connexion  may  be  men- 
tioned Grocyn,  Udall,  Sir  H.  Wotton,  Sir 
T.  Browne,  Otway,  W.  Somerville,  E.  Young, 


[858] 


WYLIE 

William  Collins,  J.  Warton,  Sydney  Smith, 
1 .  Arnold,  A.  Trollope,  F.  Buckland,  and  L. 

Johnson  (qq.v,), 

WYLIE,  ELINOR  HOYT(Mrs.W.R.Benet) 
(r.  1888-1028),  American  poet  and  novelist ; 
author  of 4 Black  Armor*  (poems ;  1923),  'Mor- 
tal Image'  (novel),  'Nets  to  Catch  the  Wind' 
(poems), '  The  Venet  ianGlass  Nephew'  (novel). 

Wynd,  HAL  oy  THE,  Henry  Smith,  the  hero 

oi  Scott's  'The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth*  (q.v.). 

Wynkyn  cle  Worde,  see  Worde* 


XENOPHON 

a  canon  regular  of  St.  Andrews  and  author  of 
'The  Orygynale  CronykiP,  a  metrical  history 
of  Scotland  from  the  beginning  of  the  world 
to  the  accession  of  James  I.  He  becomes  a 
valuable  authority  in  the  later  part  of  the 
work.  Among  his  stories  is  that  of  Macbeth 
and  the  witches,  Malcolm,  and  Macduff. 
The  chronicle  was  first  published  in  1795 
from  a  manuscript  in  the  Royal  Library. 
Wyvern,  a  chimerical  animal  (in  heraldry 
and  romance)  imagined  as  a  winged  dragon 
with  two  feet  like  those  of  an  eagle  and  a 
serpent-like  barbed  tail.  The  word  is  from 
Old  French  wyvre,  a  serpent. 


x 


X-Rays,  sec  Rontgcn, 

Xanadu,  in  Coleridge's  'Kubla  Khan*  (q.v.), 
the  place  where  the  Khan  decreed  'a  lordly 
pleasure-house'.  The  name  is  taken  from  the 
passage  in  'Purchas  his  Pijgrimes*  which 
inspired  the  poem.  "This  citie  is  three  dayes 
journey  northeastward  to  the  citie  Xandu, 
which  the  great  Chan  Cublay  now  raigning 
built.*  The  passage  goes  on  to  describe  the 
enclosure  or  park  with  meadows,  rivers,  deer, 
and  *a  faire  wood,  in  which  he  hath  built  a 
royal!  1  louse  on  pillars  gilded  and  varnished* 
(described  in  the  margin  as  *A  goodly  house 
of  pleasure').  See  *Purchas  his  Pilgrimes', 
Hakluyt  Soc,,  1906,  vol.  xi,  p.  231,  'Marco 
Polo*.  J.  L.  Lowes  in  his  'The  Road  to 
Xanadu'  (1937)  reconstructs,  with  the  aid  of 
one  of  Coleridge's  note-books  (of  the  years 
probably  1795-8),  the  process  by  which  the 
Images  in  the  poem  were  drawn  from  various 
source's. 

Xanthian  Marbles,  a  collection  of  sculp- 
tures, now  in  the  British  Museum,  dis- 
covered in  1838  by  Sir  Charles  Fellows 

(1799-1860),  traveller  and  archaeologist,  in 
the  ruins  of  Xanthus,  an  ancient  city  of 

Ami  Minor. 

Xanthus,  one  of  the  horses  of  Achilles 
('Xanthus  and  Balius  of  Podarges*  strain*, 
Pope's  *  Iliad*),  who,  when  chidden  for  leaving 
Patroclus  dead  on  the  afield,  warned  Achilles 
of  his  own  approaching  death  (Homer,  'Iliad1, 
acbc,  ad  fin.). 

Xanthus,  in  Homer,  is  also  a  name  of  the 
river  Scamander  (q.v.). 

XantippS,  the  ^wife  of  Socrates  (q.v.),  a 

woman  of  shrewish  disposition* 

Xavier,  ST.  FRANCIS  (1506-52),  a  Spanish 
Jesuit,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  t  Society  of 
Jesus,  and  a  famous  missionary  in  the  Far 
East*  He  is  commemorated  on  3  December. 

X&nQ"cr&te"s  (396-314  B.C.),  a  native  of 
Chalccdon  and  a  Platonic  philosopher,  the 
successor  of  Speusippus  as  head  of  the  Aca- 


demy (q.v.).  His  character  is  said  to  have  been 
in  harmony  with  his  philosophy,  for  when 
sent  on  embassy  to  Philip  of  Macedon,  he 
refused  a  present  from  him  of  fifty  talents. 

XEN6PHANES  (c.  576-480  B.C.),  a  Greek 
philosopher,  born  at  Colophon,  and  founder 
of  the  Eleatic  School^  He  taught  that  God 
was  the  eternal  and  immutable  unity  per- 
vading the  universe.  He  was  also  a  poet,  and 
in  his  didactic  poem,  'On  Nature',  of  which 
we  have  fragments,  he  inferred  from  shells 
and  fossils  found  in  the  quarries  of  Syracuse 
that  the  earth  had  undergone  great  changes 
and  risen  from  the  sea. 

XENOPHON,  an  Athenian,  probably  born 
about  430  B.C.,  was,  when  young,  a  pupil  of 
Socrates.  He  joined  the  Greek  contingent 
raised  by  the  younger  Cyrus  in  401  for  his 
war  with  Artaxerxes.  After  the  battle  of 
Cunaxa,  Xenophon  was  elected  one  of  the 
generals  of  the  Greek  force,  which  was  left  in 
a  dangerous  situation  between  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
memorable  retreat  thence  to  the  Black  Sea. 
Embittered  against  the  democratic  govern- 
ment of  Athens  by  the  execution  of  Socrates, 
he  then  served  under  Agesilaus,  king  of 
Sparta,  against  the  Persians  in  396,  and  against 
Athens  at  Coronea  in  394,  as  a  consequence  of 
which  his  exile  was  decreed  at  Athens.  After 
this  he  settled  at  Scillus,  near  Olympia, 
where  some  of  his  works  were  composed. 
The  sentence  of  exile  was  finally  revoked,  but 
Xenophon  probably  died  at  Corinth. 

Xenophon's  principal  writings  include :  the 
'Anabasis*,  or  history  of  the  expedition  of  the 
younger  Cyrus  and  the  retreat  of  the  Greeks ; 
the  'Hellenica*,  a  continuation  of  the  history 
of  Thucydides  down  to  the  battle  of  Man- 
tinea  (362);  the  *Cyropaedia*,  a  political  ro- 
mance based  on  the  history  of  Cyrus,  the 
founder  of  the  Persian  monarchy;  the 
'Oeconomicus*,  on  the  management  of  a 
household  and  property;  treatises  on  the 
Horse,  on  Hunting  and  Dogs  (the  'Cynegeti- 
cusj),  and  on  the  duties  of  a  cavalry  com- 
mander; and  the  'Memorabilia*  of  Socrates 


[859] 


XERXES 

and  the  *  Symposium',  in  which  he  expounds 
and  defends  the  doctrines  and  character  of 
the  great  philosopher. 

Xerxes  (519-465  B.C.),  king  of  Persia,  the  son 
of  Darius  Hystaspes.  He  bridged  the  Helles- 
pont with  boats,  invaded  Greece,  overcame 
the  resistance  of  Leonidas  and  300  Spartans 
at  Thermopylae  (q.v.),  but  was  defeated  at 
Salamis  (480  B.C.).  He  is  the  King  Ahasuerus 
of  the  Book  of  Esther. 


YEAST 

Ximcna,  the  wife  of  the  Cid  (q.v.).  Gibber 
(q.v.)  wrote  an  adaptation  of  Mpliere's  *Cid% 
called  'Ximena,  or  the  Heroic  Daughter* 
(1719). 

Ximenes,  FRANCISCO  (1436-1517),^  Span- 
ish cardinal  and  statesman,  who  printed  the 
Complutensian  (q.v.)  Polyglot  Bible,  and 
founded  the  University  of  Alcala.  But  he  also 
destroyed  endless  Arabic  works  of  learning, 
especially  after  the  taking  of  Granada. 


Y 


Yahoo,  see  Gulliver's  Travels. 

Yahweh,  see  Jehovah. 

Yajuj  and  Majuj,  see  Gog  and  Magog. 

Yale  University,  originally  founded  as  a 
school  at  Say  brook,  Connecticut,  in  1701, 
was  transferred  to  New  Haven,  Connecticut, 
in  1718  and  called  Yale  College  in  conse- 
quence of  benefactions  received  from  Elihu 
Yale  (1648-1721),  a  native  of  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts, who  came  to  England,  entered  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  be- 
came governor  of  Madras.  It  received  a  new 
charter  in  1745  and  assumed  the  name  of 
Yale  University  in  1887. 

Yama,  in  Hindu  theology,  the  ruler  of  the 
world  of  the  dead.  In  post-Vedic  writings  he 
is  also  the  judge  of  man,  who  punishes  the 
wicked. 

Yankee,  a  nickname  for  a  native  or  in- 
habitant of  the  United  States.  During  the 
War  of  Secession  it  was  applied  by  the  Con- 
federates to  the  soldiers  of  the  Federal  army. 
Its  origin  is  uncertain.  It  has  been  derived 
from  the  Cherokee  earikket  slave,  coward, 
said  to  have  been  applied  to  the  inhabitants 
of  New  England  by  the  Virginians  for  not 
assisting  them  in  a  war  with  the  Cherokees ; 
and  explained  as  an  Indian  corruption  of  the 
word  English.  Perhaps  the  most  plausible 
explanation  is  that  it  comes  from  the  Dutch 
Janke,  diminutive  of  Jan,  John.  [OED.]  In 
America  it  is  used  only  of  the  New  Englander 
and  New  Yorker. 

Yankee  Doodle :  according  to  'Our  National 
Ballads'  by  C.  A.  Boune,  the  origin  of  this 
song  is  to  be  traced  to  1755,  when  a  conglo- 
merate army  ^  of  English  regular  troops  and 
provincial  militia  was  being  formed  under 
General  Amherst  on  the  bank  of  the  Hudson 
for  the  French  and  Indian  War.  The  raw 
American  volunteers  were  a  subject  of 
mockery  to  the  English,  and  Dr.  Richard 
Shuckburgh  palmed  off  on  them  'the"Nankee 
Doodle"  tune  of  Cromwell's  time'  as  a  cele- 
brated air  of  martial  music  and  set  to  it  words 
of  an  absurd  song  which  he  called  'The  Yan- 
kee's Return  from  Camp'.  The  tune  and 
song  became  extremely  popular,  and  de- 
veloped into  the  battle-song  of  the  new 


republic  in  the  War  of  Independence.  The 
words  of  the  refrain  are : 

Yankee  Doodle  keep  it  up, 

Yankee  Doodle  dandy, 
Mind  the  music  and  the  step, 

And  with  the  girls  be  handy-; 
The  authenticity  of  the  above  story  has 
been  questioned.  The  C.H.A.L.  states  that 
the  text  of  'The  Yankee's  Return  from  Camp* 
is  attributed  to  Edward  Bangs  and  was  written 
in  1775  or  1776.  C.  C.  Bombaugh,  in  his 
'Gleanings',  thinks  that  the  song  probably 
originated  in  Holland,  where  a  song  with  the 
refrain 

Yanker  didel  doodel  doon 
has  long  been  sung  by  harvest  labourers, 

Yardley  Oak,  a  poem  by  Cowper  (q.v.)» 
written  in  1791. 

Yarico,  see  Inkle  and  Yarico. 

YARRELL,  WILLIAM  (1784-1856),  zoolo- 
gist, author  of  the  'History  of  British  Birds* 
(1843)  and  'History  of  British  Fishes*  (1836). 

Yarrow,  THE,  a  river  in  Selkirkshire  that 
joins  the  Ettrick  near  Selkirk.  It  has  inspired 
many  poets,  from  the  author  of  the  ballad 
'The  Dowie  Houms  of  Yarrow'  onwards,  in- 
cluding Hamilton  of  Bangour,  the  Rev.  John 
Logan  (1748-88),  James  Hogg,  Scott,  and 
Wordsworth. 

Yaughan,  'Go,  get  thee  to  Yaughan;  fetch 
me  a  stoup  of  liquor'  (says  the  first  grave- 
digger  in  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet*,  v.  i). 
'Yaughan*  was  perhaps  an  anglicization  of  the 
German  'Johann'  and  the  name  of  an  actual 
tavern-keeper  in  London. 

Year  Books,  reports  of  English  common  law 
cases  for  the  period  1292—1534,  of  great 
interest  from  an  historical  as  well  as  a  legal 
standpoint.  They  were  succeeded  by  the  law 
'Reports'.  F.  W.Maitland(q.y.)  began  editing 
them,  and  the  work  is  still  going  on. 

Yeast,  a  novel  by  C.  Kingsley  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in 'Eraser's  Magazine'  in  1848,  and  as  a 
separate  b6ok  in  1851. 

This  was  the  first  of  Kingsley's  novels  and 
is  crude  as  a  literary  work.  It  deals  with  some 
of  the  social  and  religious  problems  of  the 
day  (the  miserable  conditions  of  the  rustic 


[860] 


YEATS 

labourer,  the  game  laws,  and  the  Tractarian 
movement),  largely  by  means  of  dialogues 
between  the  hero  and  various  other  charac- 
ters. The  story  is  that  of  the  reactions  of  the 
generous  but  undisciplined  nature  of  Lance- 
lot Smith  to  the  influences  exercised  on  him. 
by  the  philosophical  Cornish  game-keeper 
Tregarva,  the^  worldly  Colonel  Bracebridge, 
the  Romanizing  curate  Luke,  Lancelots 
orthodox  love  Argemone  Lavington,  and  the 
philanthropic  banker  Barnakill;  he  is  seen 
suffering  the  loss,  first  of  his  fortune,  and  then 
of  Argemone.  The  story  ends  in  a  vague  and 
semi-mystical  indication  that  Lancelot  is  to 
seek  his  salvation  in  contributing  to  the 
regeneration  of  England. 

YEATS,  WILLIAM  BUTLER  (1865-  ), 
was  horn  in  Dublin  and  educated  at  the 
Godolphin  School,  Hammersmith,  and  Eras- 
mus School,  Dublin.  He  studied  art  for  three 
years,  but  adopted  literature  as  a  profession 
when  21,  Inspired  by  the  Gaelic  movement, 
he  helped  to  found  an  Irish  Literary  Society 
in  London,  and  another  in  Dublin;  and 
subsequently  applied  himself  to  the  creation 
of  an  Irish  national  theatre,  an  achievement 
which,  with  the  help  of  Lady  Gregory  (q.v.) 
and  others,  was  partly  realized  in  1899,  when 
his  play,  *The  Countess  Cathleen*  (q.v.,  1892), 
was  acted  in  Dublin.  The  English  actors 
engaged  by  the  Irish  Literary  Theatre  for  the 
purpose  gave  place  in  1902  to  an  Irish 
amateur  company,  by  which  Yeats *s  'Cath- 
leen  ni  Houlihan*  was  produced  in  that  year. 
The  Irish  National  Theatre  Company  was 
thereafter  created,  and  with  the  help  of  Miss 
A.  K,  llorniman  acquired  the  Abbey  Theatre, 
in  Dublin,  which  has  since  been  the  home  of 
the  famous  Irish  Players.  Mr,  Yeats's  other 
best-known  play  is  *The  Land  of  Heart's 
Desire*  (1894),  But  his  chief  eminence  is  as  a 
lyric  poet,  and  some  of  the  best  of  his  work 
is  included  in  the  collected  'Poems'  of  1895 
and  *The  Wind  among  the  Reeds*  (1899). 
Mr.  Yeats's  publications  include:  'The 
Wanderings  of  Oisin  and  other  Poems* 
(1889),  'The  Celtic  Twilight1  (1893),  'The 
Poems  of  William  Blake*  (1893),  'The  Works 
of  William  Blake*  (with  E.  J.  Ellis,  1893), 
'The  Secret  Rose'  (1897),  'The  Shadowy 
Waters*  (1900),  'Ideas  of  Good  and  Evil* 
(essays,  1903),  'Where  there  is  Nothing* 
(1903),  *In  the  Seven  Woods*  (1903),  'The 
Tables  of  the  Law*  (1904,  privately  printed, 
1897),  'The  Hour-Glass,  The  Pot  of  Broth, 
&c.*  (plays,  1904),  *The  King's  Threshold, 
On  Baile's  Strand*  (plays,  1904),  'Stories  of 
Red  Hanrahan*  (1904),  'Deirdre*  (play, 
1907),  'Discoveries*  (essays,  i9o?X  'Col- 
lected Works*  (1908),  'The  Green  Helmet 
and  other  Poems'  (1910),  *J.  M.  Synge  and 
the  Ireland  of  his  Time*  (1911),  'Plays  for 
an  Irish  Theatre*  (1912),  'The  Wild  Swans  at 
Coole*  (poems,  1917),  'Per  Arnica  Silentia 
Lunae*  (essays,  1918),  'The  Cutting  of  an 
Agate*  (essays,  1919),  'Seven  Poems  and  a 
Fragment*  (1922),  'Reveries  over  Childhood* 


YEO 

(autobiographical)  and  €The  Trembling  of  the 
Veil3  (privately  printed  in  1922)  (1926),  'A 
Vision1  (philosophy,  1925). 

Yellow  Book,  The,  an  illustrated  quarterly 
which  appeared  from  1894  to  1897.  Many 
distinguished  writers  and  artists  contributed 
to  it,  notably  Aubrey  Beardsley  and  Max 
Beerbohm,  Henry  James,  Edmund  Gosse, 
Walter  Sickert,  &c. 

Yellow  Dwarf,  The,  one  of  the  fairy  tales  of 
the  Comtesse  d'Aulnoy  (d,  1705). 

A  queen  consults  the  Fairy  of  the  Desert 
about  the  marriage  of  her  daughter,  the  Prin- 
cess Toutebelle,  who  wishes  to  remain  single. 
The  Yellow  Dwarf  offers  himself  as  suitor, 
and  obtains  from,  the  queen  the  promise  of 
the  princess's  hand  by  threats.  The  princess 
to  escape  this  fate  consents  to  marry  the 
king  of  the  Gold  Mines.  But  the  marriage 
is  prevented  by  the  Yellow  Dwarf;  prince 
and  princess  both  perish,  and  are  turned  into 
palm  trees. 

Yellow  Journalism,  a  name  given  to  the 
sensational  journalism,  of  America  which 
developed  about  1880  (see  Pulitzer).  The  term 
is  derived  from  the  appearance  in  1895  of  a 
number  of  the  'New  York  World3  in  which  a 
child  in  a  yellow  dress  ('The  Yellow  Kid') 
was  the  central  figure  of  the  cartoon,  this 
being  an  experiment  in  colour-printing  de- 
signed to  attract  purchasers.  [OED.]  The 
YELLOW  PRESS  is  a  term  applied  in  England 
to  sensational  periodicals: 

Amid  that  Press  of  Yellow  hue 

One  sheet  was  yellower  yet, 
It  was  (Great  Heavens!)  the  Oxford  U- 

niversity  Gazette. 
(A.  D.  Godley,  'In  a  Strange  Land*,  1913.) 

Yellow  Peril,  THE,  the  supposed  danger  of  a 
destructive  invasion  of  Europe  by  Mongolian 
peoples.  It  was  much  talked  of  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  1910  cent, 

Yellow-backs,  cheap  editions  of  novels,  so 
called  from  being  bound  in  yellow  boards. 
They  were  the  ordinary  'railway  novels*  of  the 
seventies  and  eighties  of  the  last  century. 

Yellowley,  TRIPTOLEMUS  and  BARBARA, 
characters  in  Scott's  'The  Pirate*  (q.v.). 

Yellowphish,  MR.  CHARLES  JAMES,  a  foot- 
man, a  character  assumed  by  Thackeray 
(q.v.),  as  observer  of  manners,  and  also  as 
literary  critic,  in  several  of  his  earlier  works, 
'The  Yellowplush  Correspondence'  (1837-8), 
and  'Mr.  Yellowplush's  Ajew*  (1838)  re- 
printed as  'Memoirs  of  Mr.  C.J.  Yellowplush* 
('Miscellanies',  1856).  The 'Memoirs*  contain 
the  story  of  the  Hon.  Algernon  Deuceace 
(q.v.).  ^earnes's  Diary*  was  printed  in 
'Punch',  Nov.  i845~Feb.  1846,  and  was  re- 
printed as  'The  Diary  of  C.  Jeames  de  la 
Pluche*  (seejeames)  in  'Miscellanies'  (1856). 

Yeo,  SALVATION,  a  character  in  C.  Kingsley's 
Westward  HoF  (q.v.). 


[861] 


YEOBRIGHT 

Yeobrigtit,  CLYM,  THOMASIN,  and  MRS., 
characters  in  Hardy's  'The  Return  of  the 
Native*  (q.v.). 

Yeoman's  Tale,  The,  see  Canterbury  Tales. 
Ygerne,  see  Igraine. 

Yggdrasil,  in  northern  mythology^  the 
world  tree,  an  ash,  representing  all  living 
nature,  which  connects  heaven,  earth,  and 
hell.  Under  its  branches  sit  the  Norns  (q.v.). 
The  dragon  Nidhdggr  gnaws  at  its  root  in 
Niflheim,  an  eagle  sits  at  its  summit,  and  the 
squirrel  Ratatosk  runs  up  and  down  to  sow 
strife  between  the  two.  Our  maypoles  and 
Christmas  trees  are  said  to  be  derived  from 
this  conception.  See  also  Jack  and  the 
Beanstalk. 

Yiddish,  anglicization  of  the  German 
judischy  Jewish ;  the  language  used  by  Jews  in 
Europe  and  America,  consisting  mainly  of 
German,  with  admixture  of  Balto-Slavic  or 
Hebrew  words,  and  printed  in  Hebrew 
characters. 

Ymir,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
primeval  giant  who  was  nourished  by  the 
milk  of  the  cow  Audhumla ;  his  vast  bulk 
filled  a  portion  of  the  original  abyss.  He  was 
the  father  of  the  frost-giants. 
Yniol,  in  Tennyson's  'Geraint  and  Enid* 
(q.v.),  the  father  of  Enid. 

YONGE,  CHARLOTTE  MARY  (1823- 
1901),  was  born,  and  educated  by  her  father,  at 
Otterbourne  in  Hants.  She  came  under  the 
influence  of  John  Keble  (q.v.),  vicar  of  the 
neighbouring  parish  of  Hursley,  who  urged 
her  to  expound  his  religious  views  in  fiction. 
'The  Heir  of  Redclyffe*  (q.v.,  1853)  first 
brought  her  popular  success.  'Heartsease* 
followed  in  1854,  'The  Daisy  Chain"  (of 
which  'The  Trial'  is  a  continuation)  in  1856, 
and  'Dynevor  Terrace*  in  1857.  Her  early 
historical  romances  included  'The  Little 
Duke*  (1854),  'The  Lances  of  Lynwood* 
(1855),  'The  Prince  and  the  Page*  (1865), 
'The  Dove  in  the  Eagle's  Nest*  (1866),  and 
'The  Caged  Lion*  (1870),  She  edited  "The 
Monthly  Packet'  from  1851  to  1898,  to  which 
she  contributed  'Cameos  from  English  His- 
tory'. She  issued  in  all  160  books,  including 
a  life  of  Bishop  Patteson  (1874),  a  'History  of 
France*  (1879),  and  a  'Life  of  Hannah  More' 
(1888). 

Yorick,  (i)  in  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet'  (q.v., 
V.  i),  the  king's  jester,  whose  skull  the  grave- 
diggers  throw  up  when  digging  Ophelia's 
grave.  He  is  perhaps  to  be  identified  with 
Tarlton  (q.v.).  (2)  In  Sterne's  'Tristram 
Shandy*  (q.v.),  'the  lively,  witty,  sensible,  and 
heedless  parson',  of  Danish  extraction,  and 
probably  a  descendant  of  Hamlet's  Yorick. 
Sterne  adopted  'Yorick'  as  a  pseudonym  in 
his  'Sentimental  Journey*  (q.v.). 

Yorkshire  Tragedy,  A,  a  play  published  in 
1608  and  stated  in  the  title  to  be  written  by 
Shakespeare,  but  internal  evidence  and  the 


YOUNG 

late  date  make  it  extremely  improbable  that 
he  had  any  part  in  its  authorship. 

The  play  is  based  on  certain  murders 
actually  committed  in  1605.  The  husband,  a 
brutal  and  depraved  gamester,  suddenly  filled 
with  remorse  when  he  realizes  his  shame, 
murders  his  two  children  and  stabs  his 
docile  and  devoted  wife. 

Yorktown,  on  the  shore  of  the  Chesapeake, 
where,  in  1781,  the  British  army  under  Lord 
Cornwallis  was  blockaded  by  the  American 
army  and  the  French  fleet  under  De  Grasse. 
The  capitulation  of  the  former  practically 
brought  the  American  War  of  Independence 
to  an  end. 

YOUNG,  ARTHUR  (1741-1820),  the  son 
of  a  Suffolk  clergyman,  became  well  known  as 
an  agricultural  theorist,  though  unsuccessful 
as  a  practical  farmer.  He  wrote  a  large  num- 
ber of  works  on  agricultural  subjects  and 
edited  the  periodical  'Annals  of  Agriculture* 
(1784-1809),  which  extended  to  forty-seven 
volumes  (parts  of  another  volume  were  pub- 
lished in  1812  and  1813).  His  power  of 
political  and  social  observation  is  shown  by 
his  'Political  Arithmetic'  (1774)  and  his  'Tour 
in  Ireland*  (1780),  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly 
on  his  'Travels  in  France*  (q.v.,  1792).  He 
became  secretary  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
in  1793.  Young  was  connected  with  the 
Burneys,  and  his  country  house,  Bradfield 
Hall,  Suffolk,  is  described  in  Fanny  Burney's 
'Camilla*.  He  took  Fanny  Burney  to  hear 
Warren  Hastings  *s  trial  in  Westminster  Hall 
and  she  was  charmed  with  him.  He  went 
blind  about  1811,  and  spent  a  sad  old  age. 

Young,  BRIGHAM  (1801-77),  Mormon  (q.v.) 
leader,  first  saw  the  'Book  of  Mormon*  in 
1830,  was  appointed  president  of  the  Mor- 
mon Church  in  1844,  led  the  Mormons  to 
Utah  in  1847,  founded  Salt  Lake  City,  and 
was  appointed  governor  of  Utah  territory  in 
1851. 

YOUNG,  EDWARD  (1683-1765),  born  at 
Upham,  near  Winchester,  and  educated  at 
Winchester  and  New  College  and  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Oxford,  He  received  a  law 
fellowship  at  All  Souls  College,  Oxford,  in 
1708,  and,  having  been  disappointed  in  his 
hopes  of  a  parliamentary  or  professional 
career,  took  orders  and  became  rector  of 
Welwyn  in  1730,  where  he  spent  the  remain- 
der of  his  long  life,  never  receiving  the 
ecclesiastical  promotion  to  which  many  of  his 
contemporaries  thought  him  entitled.  In 
1731  he  married  Lady  Elizabeth  Lee,  daugh- 
ter of  the  second  earl  of  Lichfield.  His 
literary  work  includes  two  plays,  'Busiris*,  a 
tragedy  of  violence  and  ungoveraed  passion, 
successfully  produced  at  Drury  Lane  in  1719, 
and  'The  Revenge*  (q.v.),  another  tragedy, 
produced  at  the  same  theatre  in  1721.  In 
i 725-8  he  published  a  series  of  satires  under 
the  title  'The  Universal  Passion'  (the  Love 
of  Fame),  which  were  witty  and  brilliant,  and 
were  much  admired  until  they  were  thrown 


[862] 


YOUNG 

into  the  shade  by  the  satires  of  Pope.  In 
1742-5  appeared  the  work  by  which  he  is 
principally  remembered,  'The  Complaint,  or 
Kight  Thoughts  (q.v.)  on  Life,  Death,  and 
Immortality',  which  immediately  became 
very  popular.  He  published  'The  Brothers*, 
a  tragedy  written  long  before,  in  1753,  and 
'Resignation',  his  last  considerable  poem,  in 
I7(u.  Dr.  Johnson  winds  up  his  life  of 
Younft  with  the  words— *  But,  with  all  his 
defects,  he  was  a  man  of  genius  and  a  poet.* 
Young,  PATRICK,  see  Clement  I. 
Young  Plan,  THE,  a  financial  scheme  for 
the  settlement  of  German  Reparations  which 
superseded  the  Dawes  Flan  (q.v.).  It  was 
evolved  by  an  international  committee  of 
experts  which  sat  in  iQag  under  the  chair- 
manship of  Mr.  Owen  IX  Young,  an  Ameri- 
can, It  fixed  the  final  figure  of  German 
liabilities  under  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
(an  average  annuity  of  about  £100,000,000 
for  37  years,  and  a  maximum  of  £80,000,000 
for  another  si  years).  The  organs  of  control 
act  up  under  the  Dawes  Plan  were  abolished, 
and  the  Bank  of  International  Settlement  was 
created  to  act  as  general  trustee.  The  annui- 
ties were  divided  into  one  part  transferable 
unconditionally,  and  the  other  part  transfer- 
able subject  to  certain  conditions  depending 
on  the  economic  state  of  Germany  (*The 
Times',  Annual  Review,  1930). 

Young  Waters,  a  Scottish  ballad,  included  in 
Percy's  'Reiiques*.  Young  Waters  comes 

riding  into  the  town  and  the  queen  declares 
his  is  the  fairest  face  her  eyes  did  ever  see. 
The  jealous  king  has  Waters  fettered  and  put 
to  death. 

Younger  Sonf  The  Adventures  of  a,  see 
Adventures  of  a  Younger  $on» 

Youwarkee,  the  'gawrie*  whom  Peter 
Wilkins  (q.v.)  married. 


ZANY 
Ysolde,  YSOUDE,  or  YSEULT,  see  Iseutt. 

Yuga,  in  the  division  of  time  set  put  in 
Hindu  mythology,  is  a  period  comprising  a 
certain  number  (1,200  to  4,800)  of  divine  years, 
each  divine  year  being  equal  to  360  years  of 
mortal  men.  There  are  four  Yugas,  called  the 
Krita,  Treta,  Dvapara,  and  Kali  Yuga.  The 
first  was  the  golden  age  and  endured  for 
4,800  X  360  ==  i  ,728,000  years  of  mortals.  Each 
of  those  which  followed  showed  a  decline  of 
righteousness  and  happiness  as  compared 
with  its  predecessor.  The  present,  the  Rali 
Yuga,  is  the  worst.  Its  duration  is  i,2ooX 
360=432,000  years  of  mortals. 


the  Old  English  geol,  Christmas 
ayor  Christmastide,  corresponding  to  the 
Old  Norse  j6l,  a  heathen  feast  lasting  twelve 
days,  and  (later)  Christmas. 

Yule,  SIR  HEJXTRY  (1820-89),  see  Cathay.  He 
was,  with  Arthur  Coke  Burnell,  originator  of 
'Hobson-Jobson*  (q.v.). 

Yvetot,  see  Roi  d'  Yvetot. 

Ywain  and  Gawain,  a  verse-romance  of  the 
1  4th  cent.,  translated  from  the  French  of 
Chretien  de  Troyes.  Ywain,  a  Knight  of  the 
Round  Table,  is  the  hero,  and  Gawain  plays 
a  secondary  part.  Ywain,  with  the  magic 
help  of  the  damsel  Lunet,  kills  the  knight 
of  a  castle  and  falls  in  love  with  his  mourning 
widow,  Alundyne,  whom,  again  with  Lunet's 
help,  he  persuades  to  marry  him.  At  Gawain  's 
instance  he  leaves  her  to  go  in  search  of  fame, 
assisted  by  a  lion,  and  forgets  his  wife.  He 
takes  the  part  of  one  of  Gawain's  sisters  In  an 
attempt  to  get  all  her  father's  property,  while 
Gawain  takes  the  part  of  the  other.  Ywain  and 
Gawain  fight  without  knowing  each  other. 
At  nightfall  they  learn  each  other's  name  and 
are  reconciled.  Lunet  effects  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  Ywain  and  Alundyne.' 


Zadigf  a  satirical  romance  by  Voltaire  (q.v.). 

Zadkicl,  an  angel  of  Rabbinical  lore  ;  also  the 
pseudonym  of  William  Lilly  (q.v.)  and  of 
Richard  James  Morrison  (1795-1074),  author 
of  the  TIeralcl  of  Astrology*  (1831,  continued 

as  'Zadkiel's  Almanac'). 

Zagreus,  see  Orphicism. 

ZHI,  in  the  'Shahnameh*  of  Firdusi  (q.v.),  the 
father  of  Rustem  (q.v.). 

ZamfoTiIlo,  DON  CLEOFAS,  the  hero  of  Le 
Sage's  *Le  Diable  Boiteux'  (q.v.). 

Zam^ummims,  giants,  *a  people  great, 
and  many,  and  tall,  as  the  Analums*  (Deut.  ii. 


Zanga,  a  character  in  E.  Young's  'The 
Revenge'  (q.v.). 


ZANGWILL,  ISRAEL  (1864-1926),  was  a 
prominent  member  of  Jewish  literary  society 
in  England,  as  a  lecturer,  novelist,  and  play- 
wright. He  was  author,  among  many  novels, 
of  *  Children  of  the  Ghetto'  (1892,  dra- 
matized by  him  in  1899),  'Merely  Mary  Ann' 
(1893),  'Ghetto  Tragedies'  (1893),  'The 
Master'  (1895),  'Dreamers  of  the  Ghetto' 
(1899),  'Ghetto  Comedies'  (1907). 
Zany,  from  the  Italian  scan,  the  name  of 
servants  who  act  as  clowns  in  the  'Corn- 
media  dell'  Arte',  a  comic  performer  attend- 
ing on  a  clown,  acrobat,  or  mountebank,  who 
imitates  his  master's  acts  in  a  ludicrously 
awkward  way.  Hence  an  attendant,  follower 
(almost  always  in  a  contemptuous  sense) ;  or 
a  buffoon;  or  a  fool,  simpleton.  The  Italian 
zani  is  the  Venetian  and  Lombardic  form  of 
Gianni^  Giovanni,  John.  [OED.] 


[863] 


ZANZIS 

Zanzls,  a  supposed  poet  referred  ^  to  by 
Chaucer  In  'Troylus  and  Cryseyde',  iv.  414. 
The  name  perhaps  arises  from  a  misreading 
of  Boccaccio's  text  which  Chaucer  is  trans- 
lating. 

Zapolya,  a  'dramatic  poem*  in  humble 
imitation  of  'The  Winter's  Tale',  by  S.  T* 
Coleridge  (q.v.),  published  in  1817.  Zapolya 
is  a  dowager  queen  of  Illyria  driven  from  the 
throne  by  the  usurper  Emerick.  After  a 
twenty  years*  interval  she  returns  to  power 
with  her  son  Bethlen. 

Zara,  a  character  in  Congreve's  *The  Mourn- 
ing Bride*  (q.v.). 

Zaraph,  the  lover  of  Nama  in  Moore's  'The 
Loves  of  the  Angels'  (q.v.). 
Zarathustra,  see  Zoroaster. 
Zaratkusfra,  Thus  Spake,  see  Nietzsche,, 
Zastrozzi,  see  Shelley  (P.  5.). 
Zeal-of-tfae-land   Busy,   a    character    in 
Jonson's    'Bartholomew    Fayre'    (q.v.),    a 
typical  religious  humbug. 

Zegris,  see  Abencerrages. 

Zeitgeist,    German,   the   spirit   or   genius 

which  marks  the  thought  or  feeling  of  a 

period. 

Zelica,  the  heroine  of  'The  Veiled  Prophet 
of  Khorassan*,  one  of  the  tales  in  Moore's 
'Lalla  Rookh'  (q.v.). 

Zelide,  the  name  given  to  herself  in  a  self- 
portrait  by  ISABELLA  VAN  SEROOSKERKEN  VAN 
TUYLL,  also  known  as  BELLE  DE  ZUYLEN,  and 
after  her  marriage  as  MME  DE  CHARRIERE 
(1740-1805),  a  Dutchwoman  of  good  family, 
great  intelligence  and  originality,  and  con- 
siderable beauty.  She  numbered  among  her 
many  suitors  James  Boswell,  who  quickly 
reconciled  himself  to  her  rejection  of  his 
hand.  Declining  more  brilliant  matches,  she 
married  her  brother's  Swiss  tutor,  the  dull 
but  worthy  M.  de  Charriere.  Her  unhappy 
married  life  was  brightened  by  an  ardent 
intellectual  friendship  with  Benjamin  Con- 
stant, until  she  was  ousted  by  Mme  de  Stael. 
There  is  an  interesting  account  of  her  life  in 
Geoffrey  Scott's  'Portrait  of  Zelide'. 

Zelmane,  in  Sidney's  'Arcadia*  (q.v.)  the 
name  assumed  by  Pyrocles  when  disguised 
as  a  woman. 

Zeluco,  a  novel  by  Dr.  J.  Moore  (q.v.),  pub- 
lished in  1786. 

Zeluco,  sprung  of  a  noble  Sicilian  family, 
is  a  thorough-paced  scoundrel,  actuated  in 
all  his  doings  by  lust,  cruelty,  selfishness,  or 
revenge^;  his  character  is  solely  redeemed  by  a 
certain  intrepidity.  The  novel  is  a  long  story 
of  his  misdeeds.  As  a  child  he  crushes  a  pet 
sparrow  to  death;  he  drives  his  widowed 
mother  to  her  grave  heart-broken ;  has  a  slave 
beaten  to  death  in  the  West  Indies;  and 
engages  in  various  discreditable  love-affairs. 
He  sets  himself  to  get  possession  of  a  beauti- 
ful and  high-minded  girl,  and  to  effect  his 


ZBPHYRUS 

purpose  stages  an  attack  on  her  by  robbers, 
from  whom  she  is  rescued  by  himself.  He 
kills  their  child  and  drives  her  mad,  finally 
meeting  his  own  death  from  a  stiletto  under 
scandalous  circumstances.  In  spite  of  the 
repulsive  and  improbable  character  of  much 
of  the  tale,  it  is  told  with  considerable 
humour.  Zeluco  sometimes  overreaches  him- 
self and  meets  with  his  deserts.  And  there 
are  three  amusing  servants:  Dawsoii^  who 
writes  an  entertaining  description  of  a  visit  to 
Paris,  and  Buchanan  and  Targe,  the  Scots- 
men who  quarrel  about  the  character  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots. 

Zend-Avesta,  the  sacred  writings  of  the 
Parsees,  literally  the  Avcsta  (q.v.)  with  the 
interpretation.  The  word  Zend  came  to  be 
used  to  denote  the  old  Iranian  language  in 
which  the  Avesta  is  written, 
Zenelophon,  see  Cophetua. 

Zetio,  of  Citium  in  Cyprus,  the  founder  of 
the  Stoic  school  of  philosophy  (close  of 
the  4th  cent.  B.C.).  He  was  shipwrecked 
as  a  young  man  on  the  coast  of  Attica, 
while  on  a  trading  voyage,  settled  at 
Athens  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
philosophy.  For  his  ethical  teaching  see 
under  Stoics.  Another  Zeno,  of  Elea  (c.  450 
B.C.),  was  a  disciple  of  Parmenides  (q.v.)  and 
expounded  his  philosophy.  In  Dickens's 
'Pickwick'  (c.  xv)  Mrs.  Leo  Hunter,  who  is 
going  to  give  a  fancy  dress  party,  suggests, 
among  other  'founders  of  clubs',  that  Mr. 
Pickwick  should  assume  the  dress  of  Zeno. 

Zenobia,  SEPTIMIA,  a  celebrated  princess 
of  Palmyra,  the  wife  of  Odenathus,  whom 
Gallienus  (emperor  A.D.  260-8)  recognized  as 
partner  on  the  Roman  throne.  After  the 
death  of  her  husband,  which  some  authors 
say  she  hastened,  she  reigned  in  the  East  as 
regent  for  her  infant  children.  Aurelian 
marched  against  her  to  repress  her  insolence, 
and  in  273  finally  defeated  her.  She  was 
taken  captive  to  Rome,  where  she  was  treated 
with  humanity. 

Zenocrate,  the  wife  of  Tamburlaine,  in 
Marlowe's  play  of  that  name. 

Zephalinda,  in  Pope's  'Epistle  to  a  Young 
Lady  [Miss  Blount],  on  her  leaving  the  town 
after  the  Coronation',  the  young  lady  who 
goes 

from  opera,  park,  assembly,  play, 
To  morning  walks,  and  prayers  three  times 

a  day, 

in  the  country,  where  she  will 
O'er  her  cold  coffee  trifle  with  her  spoon, 
Count  the  slow  clock,  and  dine  exact  at 
noon. 

Zephon,  in  Milton's  'Paradise  Lost",  iv.  788, 
a  'strong  and  subtle  Spirit'  charged,  with 
Ithuriel,  to  search  the  Garden  of  Eden  for 
Satan. 

Zephyrus,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  per- 
sonification of  the  west  wind.  He  was  the 


ZERBINO 

father  of  Xanthus  (q.v.)   and   Balius,   tlie 
horses  of  Achilles. 


*  In  the  'Orlando  Furioso*  (q.v.),  a 
Scottish  prince  and  perfect  knight,  of  whom 
It  was  said  that  Nature  broke  the  mould  in 
which  he  had  been  fashioned.  He  was  the 
lover  of  Isabella  (q.v,).  He  was  rescued  by 
Orlando  when  about  to  be  executed  on  a 
fake  charge,  but  was  killed  by  Mandricardo 
when  attempting  to  defend  the  arms  that 
Orlando  in  his  madness  had  thrown  away. 

Zetland,  an  old  name  of  the  Shetland  Isles. 

Zeugma,  a  figure  of  speech  by  which  a 
single  word  is  made  to  refer  to  two  or  more 
words  in  a  sentence,  especially  when  properly 
applying  in  sense  to  only  one  of  them;  e.g. 
*See  Fan  with  flocks,  with  fruits  Pomona 
crowned*.  Cf.  Syllepsis. 

Zeus,  the  greatest  of  the  Greek  gods,  in 
whom  the  myths  of  many  different  nations 
centred.  The  Roman  god  Jupiter  was 
identified  with  him,  and  the  Greek  myths 
transferred  to  him.  According  to  Hesiod, 
Zeus  was  the  son  of  Cronos  (Saturn,  q.v.)  and 
Rhea  ;  he  was  saved  by  his  mother  from  being 
devoured  by  Cronos,  was  entrusted  to  the 
Corybantes  "(q.v.)  to  educate  on  Mt.  Ida  in 
Crete,  and  ousted  his  father  from  the  govern- 
ment of  the  world.  He  gave  the  empire  of 
the  sea  to  his  brother  Poseidon  (Neptune), 
and  of  the  infernal  regions  to  his  brother 
Hades  (Pluto).  With  the  assistance  of 
Hercules  he  repelled  the  attack  of  the  giants 
on  heaven  and  destroyed  them.  He  is 
represented  in  mythology  as  marrying  his 
sister,  Hera  (Juno),  and  also  other  goddesses 
such  as  Themis  and  Ceres  ;  and  as  assuming 
various  disguises  in  his  amours  with  mortals, 
He  introduced  himself  to  Danae  (q.v.)  in  a 
shower  of  gold,  to  Antiope  as  a  satyr,  to  Leda 
(q.v.)  as  a  swan,  to  Europa  (q.v.)  as  a  bull,  to 
Callisto  as  Diana,  and  to  Alcmena  as  Amphi- 
tryon (q.v.).  His  worship  was  widespread  and 
of  great  solemnity.  He  was  regarded  as  the 
king  and  father  of  gods  and  men,  with  power 
over  all  other  deities  save  the  Fates. 

The  most  famous  representation  of  Zeus 
was  the  colossal  chryselephantine  statue  of 
the  god  made  by  Pheidias  for  his  temple  at 
Olympia.  It  was  removed  to  Constantinople 
in  the  sth  cent.  A.D.,  where  it  was  destroyed 
in  the  great  fire  of  476. 
Zeuxis,  a  celebrated  Greek  painter,  born  at 
Heraclea  (probably  the  town  on  the  Euxine), 
who  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
5th  cent.  B.C.  His  most  famous  work  was  a 
picture  of  Helen  of  Troy.  He  was  a  skilful 
painter  of  still  life  ;  it  is  said  that  birds  came  to 
peck  at  his  picture  of  a  bunch  of  grapes.  But 
in  this  branch  of  art  he  is  said  to  have  been 
excelled  by  Parrhasius.  The  latter,  with  whom 
he  was  engaged  in  a  trial  of  skill,  bade  him 
draw  back  a  curtain  to  reveal  his  picture,  and 
when  Zeuxis  attempted  to  do  so,  it  Appeared 
that  the  curtain  was  itself  the  picture  by 
Parrhasius  which  Zeuxis  had  mistaken  for  the 


ZOILUS 

reality.  Zeuxis  is  said  to  have  died  from 
laughing  at  a  comical  picture  he  had  made  of 
an  old  woman. 

Zimbabwe,  a  Bantu  name  given  to  the 
extensive  ruins  near  Victoria  in  Mashonaland 
discovered  in  1868  and  described  by  J.  T. 
Bent  in  his  *  Ruined  Cities  of  Mashonaland* 
(1871).  The  ruins  are  attributed  to  Bantu 
builders  of  the  i4th  or  1 5th  cents.  Their  chief 
features  are  a  roughly  elliptical  kraal  some 
800  feet  in  perimeter,  surrounded  by  a 
massive  stone  wall,  and  an  elaborately  forti- 
fied hill  adjoining  it.  [E.BJ 

Zimri,  (i)  in  i  Kings  xvi,  the  servant  of  Asa, 
king  of  Judah,  captain  of  half  his  chariots, 
who  conspired  against  the  king,  'drinking 
himself  drunk  in  the  house  of  Arza  steward  of 
his  house*,  and  went  in  and  killed  him,  and 
reigned  in  his  stead.  'Had  Zimri  peace,  who 
slew  his  master?*  (2  Kings  ix.  31).  (z)  in 
Dryden's  'Absalom  and  AchitopheP  (q.v.), 
in  allusion  to  the  above,  represents  the  duke 
of  Buckingham. 

Zingano,  ZINGARO  (plural  Zingani,  Zingari), 
a  gipsy.  *I  Zingari*  is  the  name  of  a  famous 
cricket  club. 

Zionism,  a  movement  among  modern  Jews 
having  for  its  object  the  assured  settlement 
of  their  race  upon  a  national  basis  in  Palestine. 

Zisca  or  ZISKA,  JOHN  (1360-1424),  a 
Bohemian  nobleman,  who,  after  fighting  at 
Tannenberg  (1410)  against  the  Turks,  and 
for  the  English  at  Agincourt,  became  the 
leader  of  the  Hussites,  built  the  fortress  of 
Tabor,  and  gained  many  victories  over  the 
Imperialists.  It  is  related  that  he  ordered  his 
skin  after  his  death  to  be  made  into  a 
drumhead.  'Must  I  be  annihilated  lest,  like 
old  John  Zisca's,  my  skin  might  be  made 
into  a  drum?'  (Burke,  'Letter  to  a  Noble 
Lord'). 

Zobeide,  in  the  'Arabian  Nights'  (q,v.),  the 
wife  of  the  caliph  Haroun-al-Raschid. 

Zodiac,  from  the  Greek  pwSiov,  a  sculptured 
figure  (of  an  animal),  a  sign  of  the  zodiac;  a 
belt  of  the  celestial  sphere  extending  8  or  9 
degrees  on  each  side  of  the  ecliptic  within 
which  the  apparent  motions  of  the  sun,  moon, 
and  planets,  take  place.  It  is  divided  in 
twelve  equal  parts  called  signs.  These  are 
named  after  the  twelve  constellations  (Aries, 
Taurus,  Gemini,  Cancer,  Leo,  Virgo,  Libra, 
Scorpio,  Sagittarius,  Capricornus,  Aquarius, 
Pisces)  with  which  at  a  former  epoch  they 
severally  coincided  approximately.  They  no 
longer  do  so  owing  to  the  precession  of  the 
Equinoxes. 
Zohar,  see  Cabbala. 
Zohara,  see  Hardt  and  Mardt. 
ZOILTJS,  a  grammarian  of  Amphipolis,  of 
the  period  of  Philip  of  Macedon.  His  name 
became  proverbial  as  that  of  a  malignant 
critic,  on  account  of  his  strictures  on  Homer, 
Plato,  and  Isocrates. 


[865] 


ZOLA 

ZOLA,  ©MILE  (1840-1902),  the  principal 
figure  in  the  French  school  of  naturalistic 
fiction,  of  which  'Theiese  Raquin'  (1867)  is 
his  first  example.  After  1870  he  set  about 
his  principal  work,  the  Rougon-Macquart 
series,  in  which  he  departs  from  the  limited 
themes  of  the  novel  of  his  day  to  display  the 
whole  panorama  of  igth-cent.  French  life, 
studying  vice  and  crime  with  faithful  minute- 
ness and  focusing  attention  mainly  on  the 
more  animal  aspects  of  human  nature.  In 
this  series  'Germinal',  for  instance,  deals  with 
the  life  of  a  great  mining  community,  (La 
Terre'  with  the  life  of  the  agricultural  peasant, 
*Le  Ventre  de  Paris'  with  the  markets  of  the 
metropolis,  *L'Assommoir'  with  its  taverns. 
The  cynicism  and  pessimism  that  characterize 
these  give  place  to  a  more  romantic  mood  in 
*La  Faute  de  1'Abbe"  Mouret',  *La  Joie  de 
Vivre',  and  'Le  Docteur  Pascal'.  'La  Delude' 
deals  with  the  catastrophe  of  the  war  of  1870. 
In  his  three  later  works,  'Lourdes',  'Rome', 
and  'Paris',  Zola  examines  what  the  religion 
and  social  organization  of  the  day  have  to 
offer  to  man.  His  last  works,  'Fe'condite'', 
'Travail',  and  'Ve'rite"',  are  long  disquisitions 
on  the  subject  of  their  several  titles,  the  last 
with  reference  to  the  Dreyfus  case,  in  which 
Zola  intervened  on  the  side  of  truth  with 
memorable  vigour  (notably  in  his  letter  to 
'L'Aurore',  *J 'accuse')* 

Zoological  Gardens,  London:  the  origin 
of  these  is  to  be  found  in  the  'lions  at 
the  Tower'.  Wild  beasts  were  kept  at  the 
Tower  of  London  (q.v.)  soon  after  it  was 
built.  Henry  I  had  a  number  of  lions,  leo- 
pards, and  other  animals  there,  and  we  hear 
of  a  present  of  three  leopards  to  Henry  III, 
in  compliment  to  the  royal  arms.  A  white 
bear  and  an  elephant  were  there  in  the  i3th 
cent.,  and  a  very  large  collection  by  the 
middle  of  the  i8th  cent.  It  then  dwindled 
until  1822,  when  it  was  once  more  increased 
by  Mr.  Cops,  and  in  1834  transferred  to  the 
present  'Zoo*  in  Regent's  Park,  where  the 
Zoological  Society,  founded  in  1826  by  Sir 
Stamford  Raffles,  had  already  brought  to- 
gether a  certain  number  of  animals.  (Loftie, 
'History  of  London'.) 

Zoplaar,  one  of  the  three  friends  of  Job  (q.v.). 
The  name  means  'chatterer'. 

ZopMel,  in  Milton's  'Paradise  Lost',  vi.  535, 
one  of  the  Victor  Angels',  'of  Cherubim  the 
swiftest  wing*. 


ZWINGLI 

Zoroaster,  the  Greek  form  of  Zcnrathustra, 
the  founder  of  the  Magian  system  of  religion, 
probably  an  historical  personage  who  has  be- 
come the  subject  of  legends ;  a  Persian  who  is 
believed  to  have  lived  in  the  6th  cent.  B.C., 
during  the  reigns  of  Cyras,  Cambyses,  and 
Darius. 

The  Zoroastrian  religion  was  founded  on 
the  old  Aryan  folk-religion,  but  the  polythe- 
istic character  of  the  latter  was  completely 
changed.  The  essential  feature  of  Zoroas- 
trianisrn  is  the  existence  of  two  predominant 
spirits :  Ahura-Mazda  (Ormazd)  the  wise  one, 
the  spirit  of  light  and  good;  and  Ahriman, 
the  spirit  of  evil  and  darlcness.  The  conflict 
between  these  two  is  waged  in  this  world,  and 
centres  round  man,  created  a  free  agent  by 
Ormazd.  Zoroastrianism  includes  the  belief 
in  life  after  death,  eternal  punishment  or 
eternal  death  according  to  the  balance  of  a 
man's  good  and  evil  deeds  on  this  earth, 

Zoroaster,  who  claimed  to  be  the  prophet 
sent  by  Ormazd,  thus  raised  the  ancient 
Aryan  religion  to  a  higher  and  more  spiritual 
level.  The  other  deities  of  the  Vedic  pan- 
theon, with  the  exception  of  the  god  of  fire, 
and  Mithra,  the  god  of  day,  disappeared  or 
sank  to  the  position  of  minor  evil  spirits. 

Zuleika,  (i)  according  to  Mohammedan 
tradition  (Sale's  'Koran',  xii),  the  name  of 
Potiphar's  wife;  (2)  the  heroine  of  Byron's 
'The  Bride  of  Abydos'  (q.v.). 

Zuleika  Dobson,  see  Bcerbohm. 

Zurich  Bible,  THE,  a  German  version  of  the 
Bible,  printed  in  1530,  embodying  Luther's 
translation  of  certain  portions,  and  as  regards 
the  rest,  the  work  of  other  translators. 

ZWEIG,  ARNOLD  (1887-  ),  German 
novelist,  known  in  England  as  the  author  of 
*Der  Streit  um  den  SergeantenGrischa*  (1928, 
"The  Case  of  Sergeant  Grischa'). 

Zwingli,  ULRICH  (1484-1531),  a  famous 
Swiss  leader  of  the  Reformation.  Fie  first 
found  his  inspiration  in  Erasmus  and  Luther, 
but  soon  drew  away  from  the  latter,  and  by 
1525  had  rejected  the  mass  altogether;  and 
this  split  Switzerland  into  Catholic  and 
Protestant  cantons.  To  Zwingli  the  Euchar- 
ist was'  purely  symbolic;  there  was  no  'real 
presence'  at  all,  not  even  in  the  (later) 
Calvinistic  sense,  still  less  in  the  Lutheran 
sense  of  'consubstantiation'.  It  ended  in 
civil  war,  in  which  Zwingli  was  killed  in 
battle. 


PRINTED  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS,  OXFORD 

BY  JOHN  JOHNSON,  PRINTER  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY 


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