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THE  OXFORD 
HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

by    W,  •M. 

VOL.  VI 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

BY 

EDWARD  DANNREUTHER 


OXFORD 
AT  THE   CLARENDON   PRESS 

1905 


HENRY  FEOWDE,    M.A. 

PUBLISHER  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  OXFORD 

LONDON,  EDINBURGH 
NBW  YORK  AND  TORONTO 


\c\o\ 
V  .  6 


. 

NOTE 

IT  is  not  fitting  to  speak  here  of  the  heavy  loss  which  English 
Music  has  sustained  in  the  death  of  Mr.  Edward  Dannreuther. 
To  his  long  career  of  unselfish  and  devoted  labour  there  have 
been  paid  elsewhere  tributes  which  no  words  of  mine  could  en- 
hance. But,  from  respect  to  his  memory,  I  would  ask  leave  to 
offer  a  brief  explanation  of  the  circumstances  under  which  this 
his  last  work  is  presented  to  the  public. 

The  manuscript  was  finished  and  partly  revised  by  the 
Autumn  of  1904.  All  that  remained  was  to  complete  the  re- 
vision and  to  make  a  selection  of  the  musical  examples.  During 
the  winter  Mr.  Dannreuther  was  prevented  by  illness  from  con- 
tinuing the  work ;  and  at  his  request,  and  under  his  instructions, 
I  carried  it  on  to  the  best  of  my  ability.  The  volume  as  it 
stands  embodies  the  results  of  his  research  and  the  verdicts  of 
his  critical  judgement :  but  it  did  not  receive  the  final  touch  of 
his  hand. 

There  is  one  more  point  to  which  the  attention  of  the  reader 
may  be  directed.  When  the  Oxford  History  was  first  planned 
it  appeared  advisable  to  end  with  Schumann,  and  to  leave  to 
some  future  historian  the  more  controversial  topics  of  our  own 
time.  This  view  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  modify,  and 
the  present  volume  contains  reference  to  the  principal  works, 
of  whatever  date,  which  in  origin  or  character  can  be  directly 
attributed  to  the  Romantic  movement. 

My  cordial  thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  J.  A.  Fuller  Maitland 
for  his  assistance  in  the  correction  of  the  proofs. 

W.  H.  HADOW. 


PREFACE 

Ax  attempt  is  here  made  to  show,  with  the  aid  of  copious 
examples,  analyses,  and  comments,  how  the  course  of  Music  has 
gradually  changed  since  Beethoven's  day.  Not  to  disturb  the 
impression  of  historical  sequence  each  department  is  treated 
chronologically,  but  as  the  different  classes  of  music  are  discussed 
separately  the  dates  necessarily  overlap.  Musical  quotations  are 
in  some  instances  rather  long,  because  the  reader,  to  be  in 
a  position  to  judge  of  the  calibre  and  style  of  a  passage,  ought 
to  have  at  least  one  complete  sentence  or  period  before  him. 
They  are  compressed  in  so  far  as  compression  is  consistent  with 
perspicuity,  and  the  original  is  always  faithfully  reproduced. 
In  connexion  with  the  description  of  the  works  that  stand  for 
the  various  phases  of  the  Romantic  movement,  certain  questions 
arising  out  of  the  attitude  towards  artistic  problems  taken  by 
leading  masters  are  discussed  as  they  come  into  view ;  and  it  is 
the  ever-varying  aspect  of  such  questions  that  forms  both  the 
link  and  the  contrast  between  chapter  and  chapter,  sometimes 
even  between  one  paragraph  and  another. 

A  book  so  closely  in  touch  with  the  actualities  of  present-day 
musical  life  must  needs  contain  some  controversial  matter.  It 
ought  to  be  trustworthy  as  to  facts,  but  it  can  hardly  avoid  the 
expression  of  disputable  criticisms.  These  must  be  understood 
to  represent  merely  the  personal  opinions  of  the  writer. 

EDWARD  DANNREUTHER. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.  INTRODUCTORY  SKETCH.  Romanticism  in 
literature  and  music.  German,  French,  Italian 
Romantic  opera.  Overtures  and  Symphonies.  Pro- 
gramme Music.  Oratorios  and  Cantatas.  Piano- 
forte pieces  and  Solo  Songs.  Virtuosi.  Musicians 
as  writers  on  music  .  .  .  .  .  i 

CHAPTER  II.    GERMAN  ROMANTIC  OPERA  FROM  WEBER 
TO  SCHUMANN.     Weber's  Preciosa,  Per  Freischutz, 
Euryanthe,  Oberon —  Spohr  —  E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann  — 
Marschner — Schumann's  Genoveva          .         .         .16 

CHAPTER  III.  ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS.  Auber's 
La  Muette  —  Rossini's  Guillaume  Tell  —  Scribe  and 
Meyerbeer's  Robert  le  Diable,  Les  Huguenots,  &c. — 
Halevy  —  Herold  —  Adam  —  Berlioz'  Benvenuto 
Cellini  .........  36 

CHAPTER  IV.     ITALIAN  OPERA.     Bellini — Donizetti  — 

Verdi 58 

CHAPTER  V.  THE  FURTHER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  RO- 
MANTIC OPERA.  Comic  operas  : —  Lortzing  — 
Flotow  —  Nicolai.  Operas  and  Operettas  in  other 
European  countries :  —  Berlioz'  Les  Troy  ens  and 
Beatrice  et  Benedict.  Works  by  Gounod — Ambroise 
Thomas  —  Bizet  —  Offenbach  —  Peter  Cornelius  - 
Goetz  —  Glinka  —  Moniuszko  —  Smetana  — Sullivan  67 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VI.    OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES.   Mendels- 
sohn's      Overtures  —  Schumann's      Overtures  — 
Schumann's     and     Mendelssohn's     Symphonies  - 
Wagner's  Eine  Faust- Ouvertiire      ....       80 

CHAPTER  VII.  PROGRAMME  Music.  Berlioz*  Sympho- 
nies and  Overtures  —  Felicien  David's  Le  Desert  — 
Liszt's  Symphonies  and  Poemes  symphoniques  .  IIT 

CHAPTER  VIII.  ORATORIOS  AND  CANTATAS.  Mendels- 
sohn's St.  Paul,  Elijah,  Lobgesang,  Die  erste  Walpur- 
gisnacht  —  Schumann's  Paradise  and  the  Peri,  Der 
Rose  Pilgerfahrt,  Choral-Balladen.  Religious  pieces. 
The  music  to  Goethe's  Faust.  Berlioz'  La  Dam- 
nation de  Faust,  and  L'Enfance  du  Christ 

CHAPTER  IX.  RELIGIOUS  Music.  Berlioz  —  Liszt  — 
Rossini  —  Verdi  —  Wagner's  Biblical  Scena,  Das 
Liebesmahl  der  Apostel  .  .  .  .  .  .  j  73 

CHAPTER  X.     CONCERTOS  AND  CHAMBER  Music  .        .     225  N 

CHAPTER  XI.     PIANOFORTE  Music.     Weber  —  Field — 

Mendelssohn  —  Schumann  —  Chopin  —  Liszt  .         .     237 

CHAPTERXH.  SOLO  SONGS.  Schumann — Mendelssohn 
—  Robert  Franz  —  Berlioz  —  Liszt  —  Wagner. 
Balladen.  Melodrama 271 

CHAPTER  XIII.  VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS. 
Anthems  by  Samuel  and  Samuel  Sebastian  Wesley. 
Glees  and  Catches.  Miscellaneous  pieces  by  Niels 
Gade — Sterndale  Bennett — Onslow — Rubinstein  — 
Stephen  Heller  —  Sullivan  —  Volkmann  —  Lachner 
-  Kiel  -  -  Goetz  —  Kirchner  —  Jensen  —  Peter 
Cornelius  —  Hans  v.  Billow  —  Raff.  ^The  Neo- 
Russians : — Balakirev  —  Rimsky-Korsakow — Cui — 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Musorgsky  —  Alexander   Borodine    and    his    opera 
Prince  Igor  —  Dargomijsky  —  Tchaikovsky.     Grieg 

—  Max    Bruch  —  Felix    Draeseke  —  C.  V.    Alkan. 
Organ  pieces  by  Mendelssohn  —  Liszt  —  Rheinberger 

—  The  Wesleys 289 

CHAPTER  XIV.     THE  ROMANTIC  OPERAS  OF  WAGNER 

AND  THE  INCIPIENCY  OF  THE  MUSIC-DRAMA  .        .     333 

CHAPTER  XV.  MUSICIANS  AS  WRITERS  ON  Music. 
Historical  studies  —  Antiquarian  research  —  Editing 
of  classics  ........  350 

CHAPTER  XVI.     SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION     .         .     361 
INDEX  ..........     367 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

CHAPTER   I 

INTRODUCTION 

Music,  polyphonic  and  harmonic,  considered  in  relation  to 
other  departments  of  artistic  endeavour,  is  somewhat  late  in  its 
manifestations.  It  was  not  until  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  when  Counterpoint  flourished  in  the  Netherlands, 
England,  and  Italy,  that  the  affinity  between  polyphony  and 
Gothic  architecture  became  apparent.  The  religious  painting 
of  the  early  Italian  Renaissance  hardly  found  a  counterpart  in 
music  before  Palestrina's  time.  Some  aspects  of  the  secular 
poetry  and  painting  of  the  later  Renaissance  are  reproduced 
in  the  Italian  and  English  Madrigals  and  the  Spanish,  French, 
and  English  lute  music  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  spirit 
of  Protestantism  acquired  its  musical  voice  very  gradually — first 
in  Schiitz,  then  in  Bach  and  Handel.  The  elaborate  courtesy 
and  urbanity  of  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  are,  to 
a  certain  degree,  reflected  in  the  operas  of  Gluck  and  Mozart. 
Echoes  of  the  worship  of  nature,  the  humanitarian  enthusiasm, 
and  the  social  upheaval  of  the  second  half  of  that  century  can 
be  traced  in  the  symphonic  work  of  Beethoven,  which  properly 
belongs  to  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth.  Even  in  the 
revival  of  Teutonic  myth,  and  in  the  dreamland  of  Norse,  Celtic, 
or  Slavonic  poetry,  the  relation  of  things  poetic  to  things  musical 
exhibits  the  same  order  :  the  songs  of  Tieck^s  Schone  Magelone 
had  to  wait  for  Brahms,  the  revival  of  old  German  stories  of 
gods  and  heroes  for  Wagner.  But  as  time  goes  on  and  new 
processes  are  discovered  the  intervals  become  shorter.  The 

DAXSKEUTilEli  \\ 


a  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

rate  of  growth  is  accelerated,  and  musical  art  comes  nearer  to 
the  sister  arts,  to  thought,  and  to  life.  Examined  from  this 
point  of  view,  the  period  of  musical  development  here  to  be 
discussed — the  Romantic  period,  from  Weber  to  Wagner,  i.  e. 
from  Der  Freischutz  to  Lohengrin  and  Tristan,  or  from  Weber's 
overtures  to  the  symphonic  pieces  of  Berlioz  and  Liszt — is,  on 
the  emotional  side,  seen  to  be  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  romantic 
poetry  and  literature,  whilst,  on  the  technical  side,  it  is  a  time 
of  transition  from  the  formal  to  the  characteristic,  from  the 
f  Singspiel 3  or  the  f  Opera  seria '  to  the  '  Opera  caratteristica,' 
and  the  Wagnerian  Music-drama,  from  the  Sonata  to  the 
6  Characterstiick/  from  the  Symphony  to  the  fPoeme  sym- 
phonique/ 

Romantic  music  is,  in  some  sense,  an  offshoot  of  literature ; 
a  reflex  of  poetry  expressed  in  musical  terms;  a  kind  of 
impressionism  which  tends  to  reject  formality,  and  aims  at 
a  direct  rendering  of  its  object ;  a  desire  to  produce  musical 
effects  suggested  by  natural  phenomena  ;  an  art  eager,  sensitive, 
impulsive,  which  seeks  its  ideal  of  beauty  through  emotional 
expression.  With  Wagner  it  is  ancilla  dramatis — a  powerful 
rhetoric  which,  like  scenery  and  action,  is  made  subservient  to 
the  purposes  of  the  Theatre. 

Literary  Romanticism,  about  1800,  found  a  voice  for  the 
thoughts  and  feelings  which  by  natural  reaction  had  begun  to 
invade  the  rationalistic  world  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was 
not  so  much  a  protest  against  classical  work  as  against  some 
aspects  of  the  reasoned  taste  in  art  that  had  sprung  from  the 
spirit  of  rationalism.  It  gave  voice  to  a  keen  love  of  the  past, 
especially  of  the  religious  aspect  of  past  ages,  and  to  a  keen 
passion  for  nature.  The  Christian  ideals  and  the  ideals  of 
Rousseau  met  in  the  sentimentality  of  Bernardin  de  St.  Pierre, 
Chateaubriand,  de  Senancourt,  and  many  others  who  mistook 
the  furore  espressivo  for  a  symptom  of  strength.  ( L'aspiration 
du  sublime/  says  George  Sand,  cetait  meme  une  maladie  du 
temps — c'etait  quelque  chose  de  fievreux  qui  s'emparait  de  la 


INTRODUCTION  3 

j  eunesse.5  In  Germany  as  in  France,  a  little  later  on,  the  growth 
of  music  proceeded  on  similar  lines.  German  music  followed 
the  traces  of  German  literature  at  an  interval  of  a  generation  or 
so — whilst  in  France,  more  directly  in  accordance  with  the 
ficole  romantique,  music  and  literature  came  to  be  very  nearly 
contemporaneous.  On  every  side  it  is  evident  that  music 
received,  and  in  its  peculiar  way  brought  to  efflorescence,  modes 
of  feeling  which  had  their  roots  in  literature. 

Goethe  claimed  to  have  been  the  first  to  use  the  elusive  term 
Romantic  in  contrast  to  Classical.  'The  familiar  conception 
of  the  classical  and  the  romantic  arose  in  my  mind  and  in 
Schiller's.  My  maxims  were  in  favour  of  the  objective  method 
of  treatment.  But  Schiller  preferred  his  own  subjective  method, 
and  defended  it  in  his  essay  on  "Naive  and  Sentimental  Poetry." 
He  showed  that  I  was  romantically  inclined  in  spite  of  my 
desire  to  be  otherwise,  and  that  my  Iphigenie,  because  of  the 
preponderance  of  sentiment,  was  by  no  means  so  antique  in 
feeling  as  I  thought.  Later  on  the  brothers  Schlegel  took  up 
the  matter;  and  people  now  talk  glibly  of  classicism  and 
romanticism,  to  which  fifty  years  ago  no  one  gave  a  thought  V 
Romanticism  in  Germany  reached  its  acme  during  the  period 
of  reaction  and  restoration  following  the  Napoleonic  wars, 
when  the  Germans,  in  their  ardour  for  historical  studies, 
developed  the  historical  sense — a  high  degree  of  sympathy 
with  modes  of  feeling  long  lost,  a  taste  for  conditions  and 
characteristics  of  past  ages  and  climes  remote.  The  historical 
studies  at  the  Universities  induced  a  leaning  towards  criticism. 
A  school  of  literary  critics  arose ;  innumerable  translations 
were  attempted  (Homer,  Shakespeare,  Calderon,  Cervantes), 
philologists  worked  at  Sanscrit,  Persian,  Old  Norse,  and 
mediaeval  German.  Teutonic  mythology  was  reconstructed ; 
legends,  fairy  tales,  remnants  of  folk-lore,  popular  ballads,  and 
songs,  were  collected  and  compared. 

1  J.  P.  Eckennann,  II.  137,  Oesprache  mil  Goethe:  three  parts  published  in 
1837.  The  preface  to  Part  I  is  dated  October  31,  1835. 

B  a 


4  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Following  in  the  wake  of  Thomson,  J.  J.  Rousseau,  and  their 
own  Goethe,  German  romanticists  in  prose  and  verse — such  as 
Novalis,  Tieck,  Fr.  and  A.  W.  Schlegel,  Eichendorf,  Brentano, 
and  later  on  Chamisso,  Hoffmann,  Fouquet,  Jean  Paul  Richter, 
Uhland,  Ruckert,  Platen,  Lenau,  Heine — attempted  an  emo- 
tional interpretation  of  nature.  The  prevailing  sentimentalism, 
together  with  their  special  historical  predilections,  prompted 
the  earlier  of  these  writers  to  deal  mainly  with  mediaeval 
legends,  with  magic  superstition,  with  knight-errantry,  and 
the  worship  of  woman.  Mythology  and  poetry,  symbolical 
legend  and  art,  they  asserted,  must  be  considered  as  one  and 
indivisible;  'the  deepest  want  and  deficiency  of  modern  art 
lies  in  the  fact  that  artists  have  no  mythology  to  fall  back 
upon  V  And  they  insisted  that  only  in  the  service  of  religion 
had  art  ever  flourished — only  in  that  service  could  it  flourish. 
Some  of  them,  like  Tieck  and  A.  W.  Schlegel,  inclined  towards 
mediaeval  Catholicism — the  revival  of  which  they  greeted  with 
the  sympathy  of  poetical  enthusiasts  ;  others,  like  Fr.  Schlegel 
and  Novalis,  accepted  its  doctrines  in  full ;  whilst  contemporary 
German  painters,  such  as  Overbeck  and  Cornelius,  under  the 
same  influence,  busied  themselves  with  an  attempt  to  revive 
the  forms  of  early  Christian  art.  Goethe,  with  some  disdain, 
spoke  of  the  painters  as  ( Nazarenes/  and  of  the  litterati  as 
'forced  talents/  What  he  particularly  disliked  in  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  eccentric  younger  men  was  not  so  much 
the  prevalent  musical  note  in  their  verse,  for  in  their  schemes 
of  verbal  melody  they  often  followed  his  example,  as  the 
quasi-musical  mood  underlying  the  things  set  forth — vague 
visions  and  states  of  feeling,  dissolving  views  bathed  in  moon- 
light and  made  faintly  vocal  with  the  notes  of  the  Aeolian 
harp. 

The  German  writers  of  fantastic  prose  or  verse  (E.  T.  A. 
Hoffmann  excepted)  were  but  dilettanti  in  music — lovers  of  fine 
sound  with  little  knowledge  of  the  art.  Yet  it  is  of  real  interest 

1  Fr.  Schlegel,  Gesprache  fiber  Poesie,  pp.  263,  374. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

to  note  how  persistently  their  instinct  turned  towards  music 
as  a  possible  fulfilment  of  their  aims,  and  how  much  that  is 
sane  and  good  in  their  efforts  has  found  expression  in  artistic 
music. 

Premising  that  music,  be  it  vocal  or  instrumental,  is  incapable 
of  describing  matters  of  fact,  we  may  speak  of  the  romantic 
element  in  music  as  poetical  suggestion  by  musical  means. 
The  suggestiveness  and  witchery  of  certain  fragments  of 
impressionist  music  is  best  illustrated  by  citation  from  Weber 
and  Wagner.  Take  a  few  typical  examples  :  the  last  eighteen 
bars  of  the  second  act  of  Die  Meistersinger,  when  the  moonlight 
peers  through  the  streets  of  old  Nurnberg  after  the  riot,  the 
forest  voices  in  Siegfried,  the  strange  chords  when  Briinnhilde 
sinks  to  sleep.  Weber,  Wagner's  great  prototype  in  this  respect, 
has  such  things  in  abundance — e.g.  the  introductions  of  the 
overtures  to  Der  Freischiitz  and  to  Oberon,  the  intermezzo  in 
the  overture  to  Euryanthe.  Effects  of  mystery — dreams  of  the 
past,  with  all  the  illusions  of  a  dream — *  The  horns  of  Elfland 
faintly  blowing ' — a  rustle  of  fairies,  the  chant  of  some  nameless 
knight — dim  memories  and  suggestions,  Mondbeglanzte  Zauber- 
nacht,  Liebe  denkt  in  siissen  Tonen,  Alles  singt  zu  dieser 
Stunde.  Nor  is  the  suggestiveness  confined  to  snatches  of 
Weber  or  Wagner.  Entire  pieces  or  strings  of  pieces  by  com- 
posers contemporary  with  both  of  them  are  imbued  with  it. 
Take,  for  further  instance,  Schubert's  C  major  symphony ;  com- 
pare the  tones  of  the  horn  in  the  introductory  'Andante'  and 
the  '  Andante  con  moto  ' ;  take  the  sound  of  the  strings  and  oboe 
in  Mendelssohn's  overture  The  Hebrides,  and  of  the  horns 
in  his  Scotch  symphony,  or  Schumann's  trumpet  effects  in  the 
overture  to  Manfred,  his  Song-cycle  Liederkreis  von  Eichendorf, 
or  certain  of  his  pianoforte  pieces  such  as  theKreisleriana.  Every- 
where there  are  musical  echoes  of  nature,  recollections  of  '  old 
unhappy  far-off  things ' ;  appeals  to  sentiment  and  emotion  which 
would  lose  half  their  force  had  they  not  already  been  anticipated 
by  literature. 


6  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Of  course  musical  romanticism  in  the  nineteenth  century,  be 
it  German,  French,  or  Italian,  was  not  a  new  departure.  Pre- 
monitions of  it  are  already  discernible  in  Schiitz,  d'Anglebert, 
Froberger,  Buxtehude,  J.  S.  Bach,  Beethoven,  Dussek,  Schubert, 
Spohr ;  also  in  the  work  of  certain  men  who  made  their  mark 
in  Italy  or  in  Paris — Gluck  (parts  of  Alceste,  particularly  the 
superb  recitative  chorus  and  aria,  e  Grands  Dieux,'  Act  III, 
No.  3) ;  Pergolesi  (Stabat  Mater] ;  Spontini  (La  Vestale,  notably 
the  chorus  of  vestals  in  E  f) ;  Mehul  (Uthal  and  Joseph  en 
figypte) ;  Boieldieu  (Jean  de  Paris  and  La  Dame  blanche}.  No 
one  can  mistake  the  romantic  sensibility  expressed  in  Froh- 
berger's  Tombeaux  ('  Laments ')  ;  in  J.  S.  Bach's  Prelude  in  E !? 
minor1,  the  Chromatic  Fantasia,  the  recitative  arioso  Ach 
Golgotha,  unseliges  Golgotha,  and  Am  Abend  da  es  kuhle 
war;  in  that  Passion  according  to  St.  Matthew,  in  Dussek's 
Elegie  harmonique ;  or  in  some  of  Beethoven's  smaller  pieces, 
such  as  Adelaide,  An  die  Hoffnung,  Op.  94,  In  questa  tomba 
oscura  ;  Liederkreis,  An  die  feme  Geliebte,  the  first  movement 
of  the  Sonate  pathetique,  the  second  movement  of  the  Trio  in 
D,  Op.  705  and  in  many  a  song  and  instrumental  piece  of 
Schubert. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  touches  of  romantic  sentiment 
in  Schiitz  or  in  the  works  of  some  of  Bach's  precursors  like 
Buxtehude  and  Bohm,  as  in  J.  S.  Bach's  own  compositions, 
occur  but  sporadically,  whilst  the  technical  means  employed  to 
express  them  are  in  no  way  exceptional.  The  case  is  very 
different  with  the  composers  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Romantic  sentiment  with  them  is  always  present,  and  at  the 
same  time  they  exhibit  a  continuous  striving  to  keep  pace  with 
the  spiritual  transmutation  that^  is  going  on  around  them. 
Under  some  personal  impulse,  some  suggestion  without,  always 
with  a  view  to  musical  characterization,  they  are  seen  to  be 
taking  pains  to  elaborate  this  or  that  point,  or  trying  to  discover 

1  Compare  it  with  Chopin's  Etude  in  C  g  minor,  or  with  the  Preludes  Nos.  a 
and  4  in  E  minor. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

more  suitable  technical  means  to  attain  this  or  that  particular 
effect. 

From  Weber's  time,  about  1820,  a  new  spirit  was  in  the  air 
and  an  increasingly  rapid  process  of  change  and  expansion 
resulted  from  its  appearance.  It  can  be  traced  from  Spohr  and 
Weber  to  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  Gade,  Sterndale-Bennett, 
Rubinstein,  and  Tchaikovsky ;  from  Berlioz  to  Liszt ;  and  from 
Schumann,  Liszt,  and  Berlioz  to  the  ingenious  Neo-Russians 
such  as  Balakirev,  Borodine,  Cui,  and  Rimsky-Korsakov ;  and 
again  from  Wagner,  Berlioz,  and  Liszt  to  Anton  Bruckner,  and, 
mutatis  mutandis,  to  Richard  Strauss.  Taken  altogether,  the 
romantic  movement — in  so  far  at  least  as  instrumental  music  and 
the  orchestra  is  concerned — appears  as  an  unconscious  tendency 
towards  the  relaxation  of  the  laws  of  structure  in  favour 
of  characteristic  details,  an  almost  total  rejection  of  organic 
design  on  self-contained  lines,  and,  step  by  step,  an  approach  to 
a  sketchy  sort  of  impressionism  and  a  kind  of  scene-painting — 
a  huge  piling  up  of  means  for  purposes  of  illustration.  No 
doubt  it  was  guilty  of  many  excesses.  It  was  often  crude,  often 
extravagant ;  sometimes  apparently  inspired  by  mere  defiance 
and  bravado.  But,  when  all  this  has  been  said,  it  remains  true 
that  the  net  gain,  the  widening  both  of  the  range  of  knowledge 
and  of  the  scope  of  emotion,  which  has  resulted  from  the  move- 
ment, is  a  possession  the  value  of  which  cannot  be  overrated  *. 

After  Weber  the  change  from  the  formal  to  the  characteristic 
and  the  tendency  towards  programme  music  went  on  apace. 
The  attitude  of  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann,  regarding  titles 
and  descriptive  indications  generally,  like  that  of  Beethoven  and 
the  earlier  masters,  was  the  attitude  of  the  specific  musician. 
Up  till  about  1850,  music  on  self-sufficing  lines  was  by  far  the 
main  concern  from  the  professional  point  of  view.  With 

1  The  reaction  against  vague  impressionism  or  pictorial  illustration  came  in 
Germany  under  Brahms,  and  in  England  under  Parry,  Stanford,  and  the  other 
masters  of  the  English  Eenaissance ;  and  it  seems  to  be  coming  in  Eussia.  The 
stragglers,  adherents  of  Berlioz  and  Liszt  (their  name  is  legion),  hardly  count. 


8  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Mendelssohn  and  Schumann,  conscious  poetical  intentions, 
admittedly  present  in  many  instances,  appear  on  the  second  or 
third  plane — as  it  were  by  implication  only — and  do  not  directly 
touch  the  musical  design.  Every  good  overture  or  introduction 
to  an  opera  has  in  the  nature  of  things  a  sort  of  programme 
implied  or  avowed.  The  programme  consists  of  the  opera  to 
follow — witness  Beethoven's  overture  to  Fidelio  1.  Mendelssohn 
held  that  any  attempt  to  reduce  definite  combinations  of  tone 
and  rhythm — that  is  to  say,  musical  expression  generally — to 
verbal  expression  or  vice  versa,  must  result  in  failure.  Musical 
utterance,  he  maintained,  is  positive,  and  remains  so  whether  or 
not  a  more  general  significance  be  attributed  to  it ;  whilst  any 
verbal  or  pictorial  allusion  to  the  effects  of  music  will  be  less 
definite  than  the  music  itself.  To  this  it  may  be  added  that 
music  contrived  with  intent  to  illustrate  a  ready-made 
programme  may — by  lucky  chance,  and  in  a  way  of  its  own 
• — prove  to  be  a  satisfactory  statement  of  essentials.  But  it  is 
by  no  means  sure  to  be  so,  and  this  was  the  point  of  view 
Wagner  took  regarding  Liszt's  symphonic  programme  music. 

Not  only  in  Germany,  but  all  round,  the  spirit  of  Weber's 
opera  led  the  romantic  development.  *  Questo  e  inventore/  as 
Jommelli  said  of  Piccinni.  Through  the  whole  field  of  musical 
art  Weber's  temper  prevailed.  From  Der  Freischutz  onwards, 
opera  (apart  from  the  bel  canto  of  the  Italians)  is  in  a  large 
measure  derived  from  Weber,  and  many  of  the  novel  procedures 
in  instrumental  music  rest  on  his  method.  Thus,  on  the  one 
hand,  the  innovations  and  experiments  in  the  treatment  of 
operatic  forms  first  suggested  to  Weber  by  theatrical  considera- 
tions, constitute  the  starting-point  of  the  changes  that  led  to 
Meyerbeer's  Robert  le  Liable,  Marschner's  Vampyr  and  Hans 
Heiling,  and  the  earlier  operas  of  Wagner2.  And,  on  the  other 

^  Spohr  in  his  Faust  has  gone  the  length  of  explicitly  acquainting  the  audience 
with  what  he  wishes  them  to  imagine. 

2  Lohengrin  was  the  last  of  Wagner's  works  which  he  called  a  '  romantic  opera.' 

later  application  of  Beethoven's  symphonic  music  to  his  own  ends  as  a  musical 

dramatist-in  Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen,    Tristan    und    Isolde,  Die   Meistersinger 


INTRODUCTION  9 

hand,  the  orchestral  pieces — the  overtures  and  symphonies  of 
Mendelssohn  and  his  followers,  as  well  as  the  orchestral  pieces 
of  Schumann,  bear  traces  of  Weber's  spirit  and  practice. 
Besides,  in  several  minor  departments,  such  as  music  for  the 
pianoforte,  and  part-songs  for  male  voices,  Weber  stands  in 
the  position  of  a  pioneer  x. 

In  France  the  immediate  musical  sequel  to  the  romantic 
movement  in  literature  was  restricted  to  about  a  dozen  works. 
Several  grand  operas  belong  to  it:  Auber's  La  Muette  de 
Portici,  Rossini's  Guillaume  Tell,  Meyerbeer's  Robert  le  Diable, 
Halevy's  La  Juive;  as  also  the  symphonies  and  overtures  of 
Berlioz,  his  early  opera  semi-seria  Benvenuto  Cellini,  and  an 
'Ode-symphonic,'  Le  Desert,  by  Berlioz'  disciple  Felicien 
David. 

The  representatives  of  the  opera  comique — Boieldieu,  Auber, 
Adam,  Herold — moved  on  the  ordinary  light  French  lines  of 
Gretry,  Monsigny,  Dalayrac,  Isouard,  and  kept  far  away  from 
the  glimmer  of  romance ;  whilst  in  the  operas  of  Italian  com- 
posers the  influence  of  French  literary  and  pictorial  romanticism 
(Victor  Hugo,  Delacroix,  Ary  Scheffer)  can  be  traced  in  a  few 
cases  only — in  the  sentimentality,  for  instance,  of  Bellini's 
Norma,  La  Sonnambula,  and  /  Puritani,  which  had  its  souree 
in  Rousseau,  through  Chateaubriand  and  Madame  de  Stael,  and 
in  the  violence  of  some  of  Verdi's  early  operas,  Ernani,  Rigoletto, 
both  of  which  are  founded  on  plays  by  Victor  Hugo.  The 
power  of  the  romantic  literature  of  the  day  is  also  manifest  in 
certain  early  Russian,  Polish,  and  Bohemian  operas,  such  as 
Glinka's  La  Vie  pour  le  Tzar,  Russian  et  Ludmilla,  Serof's 
Judith,  Moniusko's  Halka,  and  Smetana's  Prodana  nevhta 
(< The  Bartered  Bride'). 

von  Number g,  and  Parsifal — is  best  considered  apart;  though  in  many  ways,  even 
in  the  latest  phase  of  Wagner's  art,  Parsifal,  the  romantic  impulse  is  felt  to  be 
present,  and  the  master  appears  intimately  connected  with  romanticism — both  on 
the  literary  and  the  musical  side. 

1  The  entire  German  'Mannergesang'  of  the  present  day,  with  all  its  political 
significance,  springs  from  Weber's  initiative  in  such  spirited  little  masterpieces  as 
Lutsow's  wilde  Jagd  and  Gebet  vor  der  Schlacht. 


io  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Many  an  important  development  in  orchestral  music,  apart 
from  the  stage,  starts  indirectly  from  Weber's  overtures  to 
Freischiitz,  Euryanthe,    Oberon.    Weber's   vivid  imagination 
and  fiery  impulse  found  complete  expression  in  these  typically 
romantic    pieces.     Less   compact    and  strictly   consistent  on 
musical  lines  than  Beethoven's  overtures,  they  are,  to  a  large 
extent,   made  up  of  extracts  from  or  allusions  to  scenes  of 
the  operas  to  which  they  serve  as  introductions.     But  they 
are  so  well  put  together,  the  contrasting  modes  are  so  well 
arranged,  that  there   is  no  suspicion  of  any  shortcoming  in 
design.     Mendelssohn   in   his  concert  overtures  improved  on 
Weber's  type,  inasmuch  as  the  thematic  materials  he  worked 
with,  figures,  and  melodies,  are  more  homogeneous  and  suit- 
able for  development.      The  plaintive  tone  pervading  Fingal, 
the  translucent  atmosphere  of  Meeresstille,  the  tender  and 
delicately    passionate    romance    of    Melusina,   have    little    in 
common  with  Weber's  dramatic  power;    but  Weber's  instru- 
mental technique  is  present,  notably  in  the  overture  to  A  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dreamy  and  many  a  subtle  device  of  Weber's 
orchestration  is  adopted  and  put  to  ingenious  use.     In  his  sym- 
phonies, just  as  much  as  in  his  overtures,  Mendelssohn  aimed  at 
the  expression  of  distinct  moods  and  definite  ideas,  but  always 
on  lines  of  purely  musical  design.     In  no  instance  did  he  ven- 
ture beyond  distinctive  titles  or  inscriptions,  and  it  is  significant 
that  he  has  hardly  ever  furnished  sub-titles,  or  any  other  hints 
of  his  meaning,  though  he  might  just  as  well,  for  instance,  have 
called  the  slow  movement  of  the  Italian  symphony  a  ( Pilgrim's 
Procession'  as  the  finale  a  ' Saltarello.'    Schumann,  the  Romantic 
par  excellence  after  Weber,  was  more  inclined  to  give  special 
titles  to  his  musical  poems.     One  of  his  symphonies,  the  first 
in   Bt>,  was  known  to  his  friends  as  the  Spring  Symphony, 
and  another,   Et>,  Op.  97,   as   the   Rhenish.     His   overtures, 
Manfred  and  Genoveva,  were  intended  to  be  close  reproductions 
of  the  moods  which  underlie  the  subjects  indicated  or  suggested 
by  the  titles.     But  with  Schumann,  as  with  Mendelssohn,  the 


INTRODUCTION  n 

titles  are  never  meant  to  furnish  programmatic  details  which 
can  in  any  way  control  the  course  of  the  music. 

Nothing  could  better  prove  the  strength  of  the  impulse  towards 
characterization  than  the  fact  that  Spohr,  who  in  most  things 
was  a  follower  of  Mozart,  should  in  his  latter  days  have  com- 
posed symphonies  illustrating  ideas  more  or  less  alien  to  music. 
The  true  initiator,  however,  the  path-finder  in  the  direction  of 
musical  illustration,  was  Berlioz.  He  and  Liszt  are  the  most 
conspicuous  and  thoroughgoing  representatives  of  programme 
music,  i.e.  instrumental  music  expressly  devised  to  illustrate  in 
detail  some  play  or  poem  or  some  succession  of  ideas  or  pictures. 

In  pieces  such  as  the  first  and  last  movements  of  Berlioz* 
Symphonic  fantastique,  the  first  and  last  movements  of  his 
symphony  Harold  en  Italic,  Liszt's  Poemes  symphoniques 
Ce  qu'on  entend  sur  la  montaane,  after  a  poem  by  Victor 
Hugo,  and  Die  Ideale,  after  a  poem  by  Schiller,  the  hearer  is 
bewildered  by  a  series  of  startling  orchestral  effects  which  are 
not  explicable  on  any  principle  of  musical  design. 

The  use  of  the  oratorio  and  the  cantata  for  concert  rather 
than  church  purposes — which  in  Germany  began  with  Haydn's 
Creation  and  Seasons,  and  with  Beethoven's  setting  of  Goethe's 
Meeresstille — reached  a  climax  when  Mendelssohn  produced 
his  cantata  Die  erste  Walpurgisnacht  and  the  oratorios  St. 
Paul  and  Elijah.  Before  that  time  Spohr,  notably  in  The 
Last  Judgement,  had  found  the  oratorio  better  suited  to  his 
powers  than  the  opera  or  the  symphony.  Contemporaneously 
with  Mendelssohn,  Schumann  made  a  new  start  with  a  secular 
oratorio  (or  rather  a  set  of  three  cantatas)  after  Moore's  rimed 
story  {  Paradise  and  the  Peri'  in  Lalla  Rookh.  Berlioz,  too, 
attempted  something  resembling  oratorio  in  the '  Trilogie  sacree ' 
L'Enfance  du  Christ,  and  something  like  a  dramatic  cantata, 
or  an  e  opera  de  concert,'  in  La  Damnation  de  Faust.  With  his 
Messe  des  Marts,  and  the  Te  Deum,  he  aimed  at  the  seculari- 
zation of  church  music,  purposely  setting  the  words  of  the 
Catholic  service  on  a  grandiose  scale  and  somewhat  histrionically.. 


12  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Liszt,  in  a  more  religious  spirit,  followed  with  the  Graner  Fest- 
Messe  and  Ungarische  Kronungs-Messe,  the  Thirteenth  Psalm, 
the  oratorios  St.  Elizabeth  and  Christus. 

A  tendency  to  deviate  from  the  lines  of  the  sonata,  akin  to 
the  tendency  which  brought  about  changes  in  the  concert-over- 
ture and  the  symphony,  can  be  traced  in  the  concerto,  the 
quartet,  and  other  forms  of  concerted  chamber  music.  To 
Schumann  and  his  contemporaries  it  seemed  difficult  to  produce 
string  quartets  true  in  spirit  and  technique,  yet  distinct  from 
the  classical  models,  unless  they  could  venture  upon  some  modi- 
fications of  design  in  the  direction  of  the  ( Characterstiick/ 
Schumann  appears  to  have  felt  that  the  chances  of  making  the 
most  of  his  peculiar  gifts  were  not  entirely  favourable  on  such 
lines.  His  three  string  quartets,  written  so  rapidly  that  they 
may  almost  be  described  as  improvisations,  are  of  more  account 
for  beauty  of  detail  than  for  any  general  mastery  of  design,  and 
it  is  significant  that  after  the  single  outburst  which  created  them 
he  turned,  as  though  with  a  sense  of  relief,  to  the  combination 
of  pianoforte  with  stringed  instruments  by  which  the  modern 
taste  for  warm  colour  and  volume  of  sound  can  be  gratified 
without  fear  of  conflict  between  technical  means  and  the  end 
in  view. 

The  tendency  towards  concise  expression  of  emotion  reached 
its  zenith  in  some  of  the  short  lyrical  pieces,  both  vocal  and 
instrumental,  by  Schumann — and  in  a  number  of  the  solo  piano- 
forte pieces  by  Chopin.  Chopin  and  Schumann  appear  as  the 
greatest  lyrists  among  romantic  composers  of  the  century.  In 
their  best  pieces  for  the  pianoforte,  both  forsook  the  old  ordin- 
ance of  the  sonata,  and  treated  the  pianoforte  as  the  confidante 
of  their  personal  feelings.  Thus  they  found  new  ways  and 
new  patterns  of  expression,  discovered  abundance  of  novel  and 
striking  effects  of  sonorousness,  and  brought  about  a  notable 
change  in  the  spirit  as  well  as  in  the  technique  of  pianoforte 
playing.  Some  detailed  account  of  these  representative  pieces, 
as  well  as  of  certain  concertos  for  the  violin,  the  pianoforte,  and 


INTRODUCTION  13 

solo  pieces  by  Weber,  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  Chopin,  Liszt, 
and  others,  will  be  attempted  later  on — when  it  will  also  be  con- 
venient to  touch  upon  the  Lieder  of  Schumann,  Mendelssohn, 
Robert  Franz,  Liszt,  Wagner,  the  melodies  of  Berlioz,  the 
Balladen  of  Loewe,  and  the  church  music  of  Samuel  and  Sebastian 
Wesley. 

This  sketch  of  the  most  important  work  produced  during  the 
period  would  be  incomplete  without  a  reference  to  the  influence 
of  the  instrumental  virtuosi  who — from  Paganini  to  Liszt, 
Thalberg,  Ernst,  Vieuxtemps,  Wieniawski,  Joachim — aroused 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  public,  and  to  the  good  work  done  by 
some  of  the  leading  composers  as  critics  and  writers  on  music. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  change  in  the 
status  and  habits  of  certain  classes  of  musicians  took  place. 
The  'Musicien  de  chambre'  ('  Kammermusicus ')  became  the 
wandering  virtuoso  who  appealed  to  the  miscellaneous  public 
with  a  show  of  manipulative  skill.  Composers  of  concerted  and 
solo  music  had  in  consequence  to  reckon  with  an  element  of 
display l  which  soon  came  to  be  regarded  as  an  important 
ingredient  in  the  composition  of  instrumental  pieces.  The 
inclination  to  emphasize  virtuosity  in  lieu  of  musical  quality  came 
to  a  head  with  the  appearance  of  Paganini,  who  exhausted  the 
technical  capabilities  of  the  violin,  and  of  Liszt  and  Thalberg, 
who  did  the  same  with  the  pianoforte.  Inevitably  one  amongst 
the  results  was  an  undue  preponderance  of  glitter  and  show  and 
an  inordinate  display  of  gymnastics  in  finger,  wrist,  and  arm. 
But  at  the  same  time  there  was  brought  about  a  result  of  which 
we  are  now  reaping  the  benefit — that  is  to  say,  technical  mastery, 
absolute  command  of  all  the  capabilities  of  an  instrument.  To 
exhaust  the  technical  possibilities  in  every  direction  was  the  task 
that  executants  of  genius  like  Paganini  and  Liszt  set  themselves 
to  accomplish ;  and  the  command  they  attained  over  every  kind  of 
executive  difficulty  was  the  most  salient,  if  not  the  most  valuable 

1  It  was  always  there  —witness  Each  and  the  concertos  of  Moiartaud  Beethoven — 
but  not  prominently  and  pointedly  so. 


i4  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

among  the  many  factors  which  contributed  to  the  style  of  their 
playing. 

Dilettanti  and  literary  men  fond  of  music  and  eager  to 
discuss  it  had  not  been  wanting  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
from  Mattheson,  Marpurg,  Rousseau,  and  Grimm  onwards.  But 
professional  musicians  with  a  taste  for  literature,  themselves 
competent  to  act  as  writers  and  critics,  were  hardly  known  to 
exist  in  Germany  before  the  time  of  Weber  and  in  France 
before  Berlioz.  E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann — lawyer  and  litterateur  by 
profession,  composer  and  conductor  by  choice — had  written 
a  number  of  fantastic  articles  about  Mozart,  Gluck,  and 
Beethoven,  showing  a  rare  combination  of  poetical  with 
practical  insight,  and  gaining  for  himself  the  reputation  of 
a  prophet  of  romanticism.  But  Weber  was  really  the  first 
among  professional  musicians  to  put  forth  his  opinions  with 
the  distinct  object  of  instructing  the  public.  He  helped  to 
start  Meyerbeer,  Marschner,  Hoffmann,  Fescaj  and  many 
others.  In  early  days  it  appeared  as  though  Schumann  would 
be  able  to  make  better  use  of  his  rare  gift  of  verbal  expression 
than  of  his  specifically  musical  gifts.  Generously  putting  aside 
his  own  claims  to  recognition  as  a  composer,  Schumann,  with 
comprehensive  sympathy,  acted  for  a  number  of  years  as  the 
advocate  of  Chopin,  Mendelssohn,  Gade,  Sterndale-Bennett, 
Heller,  Liszt,  Berlioz — and,  finally,  of  Brahms.  Thus  he 
materially  assisted  in  bringing  about  a  change  for  the  better 
in  the  relation  between  aspiring  composers  and  the  public. 
Liszt's  enthusiasm  was  most  helpful  in  the  cause  of  Wagner. 
Berlioz  furnished  reports  '  a  travers  chants '  for  some  twenty- 
eight  years.  His  peculiar  view  of  music  and  its  effects  on  the 
mind  and  body  can  in  a  manner  be  taken  as  embodying  a 
romantic  leader's  profession  of  faith,  and  may  fitly  close  this 
chapter  of  outlines.  It  is  an  exaggerated  view,  perhaps,  but  it 
fairly  represents  the  spirit  of  the  period  l. 

'  La  musique,  s'associant  a  des  idees  qu'elle  a  mille  moyens 

1  A  travers  chants,  p.  I . 


INTRODUCTION  15 

de  faire  naitre,  augmente  1'intensite"  de  son  action  de  toute  la 
puissance  de  ce  qu'on  appelle  la  poesie  .  .  .  reunissant  a  la  fois 
toutes  ses  forces  sur  Poreille  qu'elle  charme,  et  qu'elle  offense 
habilementj  sur  le  systeme  nerveux  qu'elle  surexcite,  sur  la 
circulation  du  sang  qu'elle  accelere,  sur  le  cerveau  qu^elle 
embrase,  sur  le  coeur  qu'elle  gonfle  et  fait  battre  a  coups 
redoubles,  sur  la  pensee  qu'elle  agrandit  demesurement  et 
lance  dans  les  regions  de  Pinfini ;  elle  agit  dans  la  sphere  qui 
lui  est  propre,  c'est-a-dire  sur  des  etres  chez  lesquels  le  sens 
musical  existe  reellement/ 


CHAPTER  II 

GERMAN  EOMANTIC  OPEKA  FROM  WEBER  TO  SCHUMANN 

A  GERMAN  'Singspiel'  is  a  play  of  .light  texture  in  prose  or 
verse  copiously  supplied  with  incidental  music.  A  German 
f  Oper '  is  a  musical  play  in  which  a  minimum  of  dialogue  is 
employed  for  the  exposition  of  the  situations,  while  music 
serves  as  the  exponent  of  emotion.  With  the  exception  of 
Weber's  Euryanthe  and  Schumann's  Genoveva,  German  operas 
up  to  Wagner  are  merely  enlarged  ( Singspiele.' 

The  increase  in  the  function  and  the  efficacy  of  music  in 
connexion  with  the  actor's  art ;  the  widening  of  its  scope,  as  it 
gradually  rises  from  the  position  of  a  merely  incidental  embel- 
lishment in  a  play,  to  melodrama,  where  it  accompanies, 
illustrates,  and  enforces  the  action;  and  again,  the  rise  from 
melodrama  to  the  aria  and  operatic  scena — where  it  serves  as 
the  principal  means  of  expression — are  well  seen  by  the  com- 
parison of  certain  German  dramatic  pieces  wherein  incidental 
music  plays  a  part  or  contributes  to  the  denouement — for 
example,  Schiller's  Turandot  and  A.  P.  Wolff's  Preciosa — 
with  Weber's  music.  In  Turandot,  a  play  in  Chinese  garb, 
adapted  from  Gozzi's  //  Re  Turandotte,  Weber's  music  is 
incidental  only,  consisting  of  orchestral  pieces — an  overture, 
marches,  &c.  In  Preciosa,  a  romantic  play  in  four  acts,  the 
music  answers  the  purpose  of  embellishment  as  well  as  direct 
expression  and  characterization.  Some  of  the  dance  tunes, 
choruses,  and  portions  of  the  melodrama,  might  be  omitted 
without  loss  to  the  action ;  but  Preciosa's  solo  dance  in  the  first 
'  Ballo,'  and  particularly  her  song  '  Einsam  bin  ich  nicht  alleine,5 
are  essential  to  the  part.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  this  song 


OPERA  FROM  WEBER  TO  SCHUMANN         17 

illustrates  the  character  and  contributes  to  the  portrayal  of 
Preciosa  as  much  as  *  Meine  Ruh'  ist  hin  '  illustrates  the 
character  of  Gretchen  in  Goethe's  Faust,  or  (  Freudvoll  und 
leidvoll'  and  'Die  Trommel  geriihret'  portray  Clarchen  in 
Egmont. 

The  triumph  of  romanticism  in  operatic  music  begins  with 
Weber's  success  Der  Freischiitz  (1821)  1.  In  the  story  of  this 
opera  the  motives  contrast  greatly  with  the  rather  stilted  pathos 
of  the  older  opera  seria  and  with  the  equally  conventional 
comicalities  of  the  opera  buffa.  Certain  romantic  elements, 
such  as  the  myjstery  of  the  forest,  the  interference  of  demoniacal 
powers  in  the  life  of  men,  the  redemption  of  a  man's  soul 
through  a  woman's  devotion,  appealed  powerfully  to  the 
instincts  of  the  German  people  and  assisted  in  establishing 
Weber's  work  in  the  position  of  a  national  favourite. 

After  the  failure  of  Napoleon's  invasion  of  Russia,  Weber 
had  come  to  the  fore  as  the  musical  exponent  of  German 
aspirations  for  independence  with  his  setjing  for  male  voices 
of  some  of  the  fighting  songs  from  Korner's  Leyer  und 
Schwert,  such  as  'Liitzow's  wilde  Jagd,'  'Gebet  vor  der 
Schlacht,'  fDu  Schwert  an  meiner  Linken.'  His  melodies 
stimulated  the  national  enthusiasm,  and  Germany  hailed  Der 
Freischiitz  as  the  first  artistic  expression  of  its  patriotic  senti- 
ment 2.  It  is  the  most  German  of  operas  ;  the  music,  in  some 
respects,  is  the  very  quintessence  of  contemporary  German 
popular  melody.  The  workmanship  throughout  is  conscientious 
and  sincere.  Never  before,  unless  it  be  in  the  second  act  of 
Beethoven's  Fidelio,  has  so  intimate  a  connexion  between  the 
orchestra  and  the  stage  been  attempted.  Weber's  fine  feeling 
for  effect  and  his  extraordinary  sense  of  instrumental  colour 
served  to  define  and  contrast  the  scenes  and  situations,  and  to 
intensify  the  emotional  expression.  'The  various  characters 

1  Weber  was  born  in  1786,  he  died  in  1826. 

1  '  Die  verschiedensten  Richtungen  des  politischen  Lebens  trafen  hier  in  einem 
gemeinsamen  Punkt  zusammen  :  von  einem  Ende  Deutschlands  zum  anderen  wurde 
Der  Freischiits  gehb'rt,  gesungen,  getanzt.'  Wagner-  Schn/ien,  i,  p.  266. 


DANNKBUTBEB 


i8 

are  perfectly  identified  with  the  music  they  have  to  sing. 
Caspar,  the  reckless  meddler  in  dangerous  magic,  was  easily 
drawn;  but  the  heroine  Agathe  and  the  lighter  spirited 
Aennchen  both  also  keep  their  musical  identity  quite  well, 
even  when  they  are  singing  together.  The  scenes  are  separate, 
but  the  final  transition  to  the  continuous  music  of  later  times  is 
happily  illustrated  in  such  a  case  as  Agathe's  famous  scena,  in 
which  a  great  variety  of  moods  and  changes  of  rhythm  and 
speed  and  melody  are  all  closely  welded  into  a  complete  and 
well-designed  unity  V  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  section  of 
the  whole  work  is  the  melodramatic  Finale  of  the  second  act, 
the  scene  of  the  casting  of  the  magic  bullets.  Here  Weber 
found  splendid  opportunity  for  the  suggestive  and  descriptive 
power  of  his  music.  The  orchestral  effects  are  as  novel  and 
telling  to-day  as  they  were  at  the  first  performance :  '  For 
such  things  must  be  heard,5  as  Beethoven  said  of  them.  They 
told  on  contemporary  musicians,  hostile  or  friendly,  just  as 
they  tell  to-day  a. 

In  his  scenas  and  melodramas  Weber  represents  the  environ- 
ment, as  well  as  the  emotions,  of  the  characters.  '  His  music 
conveys  a  pictorial  and  a  psychological  impression  simultane- 
ously 3/  as  in  Max's  scena  and  aria  '  Durch  die  Walder,  durch 
die  Auen '  (Freischiitz),  in  the  cavatina  f  Glocklein  im  Thale ' 
(Euryanthe),  wherein  the  musical  phraseology  is  equally  well 
adapted  to  every  phase  of  emotion  that  passes  through 
Euryanthe's  mind  as  to  her  woodland  surroundings,  and  more 
distinctly  still  in  Agathe's  scena  in  Der  Freischiilz,  '  Wie  nahte 

1  C.  Hubert  H.  Parry,  The  Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,  p.  316. 

8  A  telling  effect  familiar  to  every  concert-goer,  the  long-drawn  melody  for  the 
clarinet  in  the  overture,  is  thus  described  by  Berlioz :  '  Cette  longue  m&odie 
ge'missante,  jet<5e  par  la  clarinette  au  travers  du  tremolo  de  1'orchestre,  comme  nne 
plainte  lointaine  dispers^e  par  les  vents  dans  les  profondeurs  des  bois,  cela  frappe 
droit  au  cceur;  et,  pour  moi  du  moins,  ce  chant  virginal  qui  semble  exhaler  vers  le 
ciel  un  timide  reproche,  pendant  qu'une  sombre  hannonie  fr^mit  et  .menace  au- 
dcssous  de  lui,  est  une  des  oppositions  les  plus  neuves,  les  plus  po&iques  et  les 
plus  belles  qu'ait  produit  en  musique  1'art  moderne.' 

1  W.  H.  Hadow,  Lecture  delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution,  1902. 


OPERA  FROM  WEBER  TO  SCHUMANN        19 

mir  der  Schlummer,'  in  Rezia's  scena  in  Oberon^  Ocean,  thou 
mighty  monster/  and  in  the  great  melodrama  already  mentioned 
which  forms  the  Finale  of  the  second  act  of  Der  Freischiitz. 

The  mere  names  of  Weber's  operas  and  Singspiele  suffice  to 
show  the  wealth  of  opportunity  for  the  display  of  colour  which 
the  romantic  subjects  afforded  him.  Thus  Silvana  (1812) — an 
improvement  on  Das  Waldmadchen  (1800) — and  Der  Freischiitz 
(1821),  serve  to  exhibit  German  forest  legends.  J*re.ciosa_(i$2i)  is 
based  on  a  Spanish  novel  of  Cervantes.  Euryanthe^  (i  823),  based 
on  an  old  French  story,  illustrates  feudalism.  Turandot  (1808), 
Abu  Hassan  (1811),  and  Oberon  (1826),  represent  the  East. 

The  novelty  and  peculiarity  of  Weber's  method  in  opera 
consist  in  the  close  and  persistent  attention  to  characterization 
and  the  use  of  special  devices  of  orchestration  for  particular 
purposes,  so  that  the  musical  speech  of  one  character  shall  be 
palpably  distinct  from  that  of  another.  Weber  attains  his 
object  by  the  use  of  instrumental  tone-quality,  i.  e.  (  colour ' ; 
also  by  the  use  of  folk-songs  and  dances,  or  of  melodic  and 
rhythmic  traits  belonging  to  them,  i.  e.  local  colour.  It  must 
not,  however,  be  supposed  that  devices  to  obtain  particular 
descriptive  effects  by  suggestion  were  a  new  thing  in  Weber's 
time.  Such  devices  were  by  no  means  rare  in  the  older  classical 
opera,  but  they  were  employed  there  in  single  and  separate 
pieces  only — as  wtyen  Gluck  introduced  the  choruses  of 
Scythians  in  Iphigenie  en  Tauride,  when  Mozart  employed  the 
so-called  Turkish  music  in  the  Entfiihrung  aus  dem  Serail,  or 
when  he  made  use  of  a  Spanish  fandango  in  the  second  act  of 
Le  Nozze  di  Figaro.  But  Weber,  in  Der  Freischiitz,  and  still 
more  in  Euryanthe,  kept  up  the  colour  once  adopted  throughout 
an  entire  scene,  or  an  entire  act.  And  he  managed  to  do  this 
by  the  use  of  striking  melodic  curves,  figures,  rhythms,  and  such 
peculiarities  of  instrumentation  as  are  suggested  by  the  particu- 
lars of  the  action  and  the  environment. 

The  vigorous  rhythms,  characteristic  figures,  and  ingenious 
orchestral  contrivances  which  go  to  make  up  Weber's  design  also 

C  a 


20  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

assist  in  the  presentation  of  certain  scenes  and  generally  in  the 
portrayal  of  the  characters.     '  That  fellow  stands  like  a  house/ 
Beethoven  said  of  Caspar  in  Der  Freischutz.     Caspar  is  depicted 
as  a  burly  peasant,  with  an  uncanny  touch  of  evil ;  and  indeed 
Weber's   originality  in  the  invention  and  the  use  of  striking 
vocal  phrases  and  instrumental  effects  to  depict  special  characters 
is  surprising1.     Weber's  strong  feeling  for  '  local  colour  >  had 
its  concomitant  in  a  love  of  folk-songs  and  dances.     Adopting 
a  method  entirely  different  from  that  of  Beethoven,  who  occasion- 
ally takes  a  hint  from  a  folk-tune  or  embodies  fragments  of  folk- 
song or  dance  as  a  builder  might  have  used  curious  bits  of  stone, 
Weber  introduces  popular  melodies  just  as  he  may  have  heard 
them  sung  or  played  in  the  fields  or  streets,  or  found  them  in 
books,  e.  g.  the  Gipsy  march  in  Preciosa,  the  Peasants'  march 
or  the  waltz  in  Der  Freischutz,  or  the  Chinese  tune  in  Turan- 
dot,  which  he  found  in  J.   J.  Rousseau's  Dictionnaire  de  la 
musique.     His  own  peculiar  type  of  melody,  closely  akin  to  the 
contemporary  German  Volkslied,  is  based  upon  the  major  scale 
and  often  consists  solely  of  a  statement  of  the  notes  of  that 
scale  resting  on  chords,  of  the  tonic  or  of  the  dominant  or  sub- 
dominant  chords.     Apart  from  this  native  type,  which  is  Weber's 
personal  note  and  prevails   in   those  of  his  works  that  count 
most,  his  fondness  for  exotic  tunes— Bohemian,  Spanish,  Polish, 
Hungarian,  and  even  Turkish  or  Chinese — is  in  all  cases  typically 
romantic.     Thus  Weber,  together  with  Schubert,  is  the  initiator 
of  those  picturesque  touches  of  exotic  tonality  or  instrumentation, 
and  of  that  tendency  towards  nationalism  in  melody,  rhythm, 
and  even  harmony,  which  is  now  so  prominent  a  feature  in  music. 
The  German  tradition  of  spoken  dialogue  is  still  maintained 
in  Der  Freischutz.     Once  only,  in  Euryanthe2  (1823),  Weber 

1  The  first  part  of  Caspar's  drinking  song  consists  of  a  succession  of  three-bar 
phrases,  the  second  part  of  a  succession  of  four-bar  phrases.     In  Oberon  there  are 
several  cases  where  the  melodic  outlines  show  the  juxtaposition  of  four  bars  or  five. 
Compare  the  first  part  of  the   subject  in  Brahms'  variations  Ueber  ein    eigenes 
Thema,  Op.  21. 

2  Euryanthe,  grosse  heroisch-romantische   Oper   in  drei  Auf ziigen '  (literally, 


OPERA  FROM  WEBER  TO  SCHUMANN        21 

discarded  it  and  trusted  to  music  alone,  or  rather  to  music  in 
close  connexion  with  poetry,  mimetics,  and  scenic  accessories. 
"The  proper  effect  of  my  new  work/  he  wrote  in  1824  (letter 
to  the  Musik-Verein  of  Breslau),  { can  only  be  expected  from  the 
united  efforts  of  the  sister  arts.'  The  ideal  towards  which  his 
instincts  led  him  was  that  of  the  musical  drama  as  subsequently 
realized  by  Wagner  in  Lohengrin.  He  intended  to  make  the 
design  of  the  several  musical  movements  conform  to  the  course 
of  the  action,  and  the  details  were  to  spring  directly  from  the 
verse  with  as  little  repetition  as  possible  of  single  words 
or  lines.  But  his  intuition  of  the  theatrical  concentration 
necessary  to  present  his  effects  was  not  equal  to  his  genius  for 
musical  expression.  He  made  a  mistake  in  the  choice  of  subject. 
His  imagination  was  captivated  by  the  glamour  of  romantic 
incidents  displayed  in  an  old  French  story  of  a  lady's  constancy, 
a  version  of  which  he  had  read  in  Count  Tressan's  Bibliotheque 
des  romans l.  But  he  disregarded,  or  at  least  underrated,  the 
want  of  true  interest  in  the  leading  motives.  He  was  not  far 
wrong  in  his  belief  that  the  principal  personages  concerned  in  the 
*  Histoire '  were  sufficiently  distinct  to  serve  as  types  for  musical 
characterization.  His  librettist,  Frau  von  Chezy,  published  a 
translation  of  the  original  text  in  F.  Schlegel's  Sammlung 
romantischer  Dichtungen  des  Mittelalters,  1804,  and  a  revised 
version  1823,  as  Geschichte  der  tugendsamen  Euryanthe.  But 
she  failed  to  produce  an  intelligible  play  from  the  materials 
at  her  disposal.  As  the  opera  now  stands  2  the  difficulty  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  stage  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  plot  rests 
on  the  existence  of  a  certain  secret,  constantly  referred  to  but 

Grand  heroic-romantic  opera  in  three  rises  of  the  curtain).  First  performed  at 
Vienna  in  1823  ;  first  heard  in  London  in  1833,  and  again  in  1882. 

1  '  Histoire  de  Gerard  de  Nevers  et  de  la  belle  et  vertueuse  Euryante  de  Savoye, 
sa  mie ' — a  tale  probably  known  to  Boccaccio  in  its  original  verse  form, '  Roman  de 
la  Violette/  by  Gilbert  de  Montreil  (Decamerone,  second  day,  ninth  tale),  and  again 
in  Boccaccio's  version  known  to  Shakespeare  (Cymbdine). 

3  According  to  Frau  von  Chezy  it  was  rewritten  eleven  times.  It  has  been 
revised  again,  Vienna,  1904,  seventeen  pages  of  the  pianoforte  score  cancelled,  some 
cuts  sanctioned  by  Weber  restored.  It  seems  a  hopeless  case. 


22  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

not  clearly  explained.  Weber,  when  he  had  already  written  the 
greater  part  of  the  music,  came  to  realize  this  source  of  trouble. 
Apparently  in  despair,  and  at  the  last  moment,  he  adopted  an 
expedient.  In  the  course  of  the  overture,  at  the  Largo  played 
by  the  strings  pianissimo  possibile,  the  curtain  is  directed  to  rise 
upon  a  tableau  vivant  showing  Adolar  and  Euryanthe,  the  hero 
and  heroine,  at  the  tomb  of  Emma,  Adolar's  sister — who,  at  the 
death  of  her  own  betrothed,  is  supposed  to  have  sucked  poison 
from  a  ring — and  who  now,  to  the  weird  sound  of  the  music,  tries 
to  inform  Adolar  and  Euryanthe  in  dumb  show  that  '  her  soul 
will  never  find  rest  until  the  fatal  ring  is  bathed  in  tears  of 
innocence/  This  absurdity  exhibits  the  crux  of  Romanticism 
in  music,  that  is  to  say  the  gap  between  the  end  in  view  and  the 
means  to  attain  it. 

Is  it  surprising  that  a  work  which  commands  the  admiration 
of  musicians  when  they  read  it,  leaves  them  dissatisfied  when 
it  is  .acted,  sung,  or  played  ?  The  excellence  of  the  musical 
material  is  incontestable;  the  score  contains  finer  individual 
passages  than  any  other  work  of  Weber's,  the  exigencies  of 
musical  design  do  not  hamper  the  action,  the  style  is  noble, 
broad,  consistently  German  ;  and  yet  Euryanthe  has  failed. 

Wagner,  loth  to  charge  Weber  with  a  lack  of  discernment  in 
stage  effects,  attributed  the  indifferent  success  to  a  want  of 
balance  between  the  musical  and  the  dramatic  factors.  '  Critics/ 
he  said,  '  have  not  thoroughly  sifted  the  heterogeneous  elements 
which  meet  and  contradict  one  another  in  this  work,  nor  have 
they  tried  to  show  that  the  composer's  inability  to  combine  them 
into  a  harmonious  total  was  the  true  cause  of  failure.  Never 
since  opera  began  has  there  been  a  work  like  this,  in  which  the 
contradictions  of  the  entire  operatic  genre  have  been  so  methodi- 
cally exposed,  by  a  composer  so  gifted,  genuine,  and  high-minded. 
These  contradictions  are,  absolute  self-contained  melody  as  an 
end  per  se,  and  dramatic  expression  which  shall  be  true  through- 
out. Assuredly  the  one  or  the  other,  the  melody  or  the  drama, 
must  give  way.  Rossini  sacrificed  the  drama :  Weber  tried  to 


OPERA  FROM  WEBER  TO  SCHUMANN         23 

restore  it  by  the  power  of  his  expressive  melody,  and  had  finally 
to  acknowledge  the  impossibility  of  the  task  V 

Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  Lohengrin,  where  scenic 
arrangement,  verse,  and  music  are  justly  combined,  Wagner's 
contention  cannot  be  denied,  though  it  is  more  a  defence  of  his 
own  position  than  an  appreciation  of  Weber's  work.  The  words 
of  the  historian  Ambros 2  are  more  to  the  point:  'The  libretto 
of  Weber's  greatest  work  Euryanthe  is  a  romantic  product ;  and 
it  is  greatly  to  Weber's  credit  that  he  succeeded  in  giving  flesh 
and  blood  to  these  moonlit  phantoms  of  Prove^al  knights  and 
ladies.  The  role  of  Eglantine  in  his  hands  becomes  a  demo- 
niacal figure  such  as  had  not  yet  been  depicted  in  music.  The 
part  of  Ortrud  in  Wagner's  Lohengrin  is  modelled  upon  that 
of  Eglantine,  even  to  the  wild  burst  of  triumph  at  the  end  of 
both  operas.  Similarly  the  role  of  Telramund  in  Lohengrin 
rests  on  that  of  Lysiart.  Euryanthe  is  truly  an  epoch-making 
work.  The  roots  of  Wagner's  art,  as  we  have  it  in  Derfliegende 
Hollander,  Tannh'duser,  and  Lohengrin)  spring  from  this  score 
of  Euryanthe,  which  is  also  the  source  of  much  of  Marschner's 
operas  and  of  some  part  of  Meyerbeer's  operatic  writing.' 
Weber's  fairy  opera  Oberon,  on  the  lines  of  an  enlarged  Sing- 
spiel  after  the  manner  of  Der  Freischutz,  was  written  to  order 
for  Covent  Garden  under  Kemble's  management  in  the  year  of 
Weber's  death,  1836.  It  proved  a  popular  success  in  London 
and  abroad,  but  lailed  to  hold  the  stage.  Well  aware  of  the 
puerility  of  the  book,  WTeber  expressed  his  intention  of  having 
it  recast,  and  of  rewriting  the  music,  '  so  that  it  shall  deserve 
to  be  called  an  opera.'  The  fame  of  Oberon  now  rests  on  the 
delightful  fairy  choruses,  the  superb  overture,  and  the  great 
aria  '  Ocean,  thou  mighty  monster/ 

The  nature  of  the  stories  o^Spohr^s  3  principal  operas  (Faust, 
1815-8,  Zelmira  und  Azor,  1718-22,  Jessonda,  1823,  and  Die 

1  Wagner,  Operund  Drama,  iii,  p.  361. 

J  A.  W.  Ambros,  CuUurhistorische  Bilder  aus  dem  Musikleben  dvr  Qegenwart,  p.  45. 

*  Spohr  was  born  in  1784,  he  died  in  1859. 


24  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Kreuzfahrer,  1 844),  together  with  a  certain  plaintive  sensitiveness, 
i.  e.  chromatics  in  the  inner  parts,  which  is  the  personal  note 
that  pervades  Spohr's  music,  has  induced  German  writers  to 
present  him  as  one  of  the  originators  of  musical  romanticism, 
and  by  reason  of  the  early  date  of  his  Faust  (he  began  the  work 
I  in  1813),  as  the  precursor  of  Weber  in  romantic  opera1.  A 
study  of  his  scores  does  not,  however,  bear  this  out.  It  is  a  far 
cry  from  romantic  elements  in  a  libretto  to  true  romanticism  in 
music.  Spohr's  predilections  and,  what  is  more  important,  his 
musical  method,  are  distinctly  Mozartian — to  say  classical  would 
perhaps  be  saying  too  much.  The  formal  finish  of  his  pieces 
and  the  easy  mastery  of  orchestral  effect  fascinated  contemporary 
musicians.  But  nothing  can  be  further  from  the  drastic  verve 
and  vivid  suggestiveness  of  Weber's  musical  speech  than  the 
languor  of  Spohr's  melody  and  his  fondness  for  square  rhythms 
and  square  structure  2. 

It  would  have  been  nearer  the  mark  to  represent  E.  T.  A. 
Hoffmann3,  with  his  opera  Undine  (1816),  after  de  la  Motte- 
Fouque's  Marchen,  as  a  precursor  of  Weber.  But  though 
Hoffmann  acted  for  a  number  of  years  as  a  professional  musician 
and  writer  on  musical  subjects,  he  never  rose  above  the  level  of 
a  highly  gifted  dilettante.  His  opera  did  not  and  could  not 
gain  a  firm  footing  on  the  stage,  it  was  far  too  tentative.  Weber 
introduced  it  to  the  public  of  Prague.  The  story  of  Undine  is 

1  The  overture  to  Faust  has  a  kind  of  programme  which  Spohr  caused  to  be 
printed  at  the  head  of  the  libretto :  '  The  tone  pictures  of  the  Allegro  vivace, 
Largo  grave,  and  Tempo  primo  are  meant  to  suggest  to  the  auditor  the  changing 
moods  and  conditions  of  Faust's  inner  life.' 

2  The  chromatic  and  enharmonic  intervals  in  the  inner  parts,  of  which  Spohr 
was  so  inordinately  fond,  may  once  and  again  have  furnished  hints  to  Schumann 
or  Wagner.     But  it  is  abundantly  evident  that  the  chromatics  of  romantic  music, 
as  we  find  them  in  Schumann,  Chopin,  Wagner,  are  really,  in  so  far  at  least  as 
harmony  is  concerned,  derived  from  J.  S.  Bach  and  his  sons,  and  only  to  a  very 
limited  extent  from  Mozart,  or  Haydn,  or  Spohr.  Compare  introduction  to  Mozart's 
quartet  m  C  and  Haydn's  orchestral  pieces,  '  Chaos '  in  the  freation,  and  •  Summer ' 
in  the  Seasons. 

*  Hoffmann,  1776-1 82 2,  wrote  several  singspiele,  three  operas,  a  mass,  a  requiem, 
a  symphony,  several  overtures  and  sonatas,  some  chamber  music,  and  a  number  of 
smaller  vocal  and  instrumental  pieces. 


OPERA  FROM  WEBER  TO  SCHUMANN         25 

that  of  a  water-nymph,  who  has  no  soul,  but  who  acquires  one 
through  her  love  for  a  knight.  Together  with  the  birth  of  the  soul, 
she  also  receives  knowledge  of  human  distress  and  pain ;  her  hus- 
band breaks  his  faith,  and  she  kills  him  with  a  kiss.  The  music 
to  Undine,  though  performed  twenty-one  times  in  all  (1816-7), 
has  not  been  published,  but  manuscript  copies  of  the  score, 
preserved  at  Berlin,  bear  out  Weber's  appreciation  of  it :  { The 
work  is  one  of  the  most  ingenious  of  recent  years  .  .  .  and  so 
consistent  that  details  disappear  and  the  interest  is  absorbed  by 
the  composition  as  a  whole  .  .  .  the  composer  avoids  empha- 
sizing any  particular  piece  to  the  detriment  of  another,  he  is 
careful  not  to  hamper  the  action  and  always  strives  for  true 
dramatic  expression.  The  part  of  Kiihleborn  stands  out  as  that 
of  the  most  prominent  character,  by  reason  of  the  particular 
cast  of  melody  and  instrumentation  which  persistently  accom- 
panies his  uncanny  appearance  V 

Weber  objected  to  certain  weak  points  in  Hoffmann's  music, 
such  as  his  love  of  short  phrases  and  figures  which  lack  variety, 
monotonous  employment  of  violoncellos  and  violas,  amateurish 
use  of  sequences  of  diminished  sevenths,  and  of  cadences 
which  are  abrupt  and  occur  too  often  in  the  same  shape. 
On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  the  characters  and 
situations  in  Hoffmann's  opera  are  well  depicted.  The  declama- 
tion, in  the  airs  and  the  comparatively  few  recitatives,  is 
remarkably  direct  and  spirited.  The  overture  and  the  short 
instrumental  pieces  which  serve  as  introductions  to  the  second 
and  third  acts — rather  poor  and  somewhat  incoherent — are 
made  up  of  scraps  and  hints  of  things  to  come.  The  orchestra- 
tion, particularly  of  the  vocal  pieces,  shows  an  acute  sense  of 
instrumental  colouring  and  considerable  knowledge  of  effect. 
The  following  extract  from  Undine  may  be  taken  as  fairly 
representative 2 : — 

1  Compare  '  Caspar  *  and  '  Samiel '  in  Der  FreiscMtz. 

*  Compare  the  excellent  article  on  Hoffmann  by  Vianna  da  Motta,  the  quotations 
in  Bayreuther  Blatter,  1898,  and  Die  Musik,  p.  1666. 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


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OPERA  FROM  WEBER  TO  SCHUMANN        27 

Marschner1  had  the  tact  to  select  subjects  fit  for  theatrical 
presentation  and  favourable  to  the  display  of  his  peculiar  musical 
gifts,  which  lay  in  the  direction  of  jovial  popular  humour,  com- 
bined with  a  striking  and,  from  a  theatrical  point  of  view,  very 
effective  combination  of  sentiment  with  a  feeling  of  awe  and 
horror.  Friar  Tuck,  in  Der  Tempter  und  die  Judin,  is  a  good 
example  of  the  former  quality;  and  the  latter  —  Marschner's 
idiosyncrasy  —  is  exhibited,  in  a  more  or  less  prominent  manner, 
by  each  of  the  heroes  of  his  three  best  operas  —  Der  Vampyr 
(1828)2,  Templer  und  Judin  (1829),  and  Hans  Heiling 


As  early  as  1820,  Weber  had  credited  an  opera  of  Marschner's, 
Heinrich  der  Vierte  und  D>Aubigne,  with  c  vivid  original 
invention  and  careful  workmanship.'  Schumann,  twenty  years 
later,  summed  up  his  impression  of  Der  Templer  und  die  Judin 
thus  :  '  the  music  is  occasionally  restless  :  the  instrumentation  not 
sufficiently  discriminate.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  clever  melody, 
considerable  dramatic  talent  —  sundry  echoes  of  Weber.  A  gem 
not  entirely  cleared  from  its  rough  covering.' 

Wagner  used  to  point  to  certain  portions  of  the  Templar's 
long  scena,  No.  1  2,  Act  II,  particularly  the  passage  where  the 
rapid  triplets  of  the  wind  instruments  depict  a  feverish  state  of 
excitement,  as  remarkably  spontaneous  and  original  examples  of 
emotional  expression  :  — 

1  Heinrich  Marschner  (1795-1861)  became  Weber's  assistant  as  conductor  of 
German  opera  at  Dresden  in  1824,  and  fora  number  of  years  subsequently  acted  as 
conductor  at  Hanover. 

1  The  sixtieth  performance  of  Der  Vampyr  took  place  in  London,  1829.  The 
libretto  is  based  on  a  little  known  fragment  of  a  novel  by  Byron,  Augusta  Darnel 
(first  published  together  with  Mazeppa),  which  Byron  began  in  1816  at  Geneva, 
when  Mary  Shelley  wrote  Frankenstein. 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


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OPERA  FROM  WEBER  TO  SCHUMANN         29 


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THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


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OPERA  FROM  WEBER  TO  SCHUMANN         31 

Hans  Heilinff,  an  opera  based  on  one  of  the  manyjegends  in 
which  a  goblin  in  disguise  woos  a  maiden,  appears  to  be  the 
immediate  precursor  of  Wagner's  Hollander  as  regards  both  the 
play  and  the  music.  In  like  manner  the  opening  of  its  prologue, 
when  the  hero  departs  from  the  subterraneous  abode  of  the 
Queen  of  the  Goblins,  contains  the  germ  of  the  scene  in  the 
first  act  of  Tannhduser,  which  culminates  in  Tannhauser's  flight 
from  the  Venusberg. 

Wagner's  admiration  for  Marschner,  though  sincere  and 
warmly  expressed  both  in  public  and  private,  was  yet  by  no 
means  unqualified.  He  strongly  objected  to  certain  banalities 
which  now  and  then  disfigure  Marschner's  melody  and  to  his 
rather  slovenly  declamation.  He  also  drew  the  line  between ( the 
mellifluous  choral  sing-song'  of  some  of  the  concerted  pieces 
for  male  voices,  which  Marschner  in  his  operas  and  in  separate 
publications  addressed  to  the  populace,  and  the  noble  and 
touching  choruses  which  have  dramatic  significance,  such  as 
those  in  the  Finale  to  the  second  act  of  Der  Templer. 

Marschner's  operas,  later  in  date  than  those  mentioned,  and 
sundry  miscellaneous  pieces  of  vocal  and  instrumental  chamber 
music  of  no  particular  importance,  never  gained  a  hearing  out- 
side Germany  ;  and  even  there  the  repute  of  his  three  typically 
romantic  operas  is  distinctly  on  the  wane.  But  the  fact  that 
they  form  a  link  between  Weber  and  Wagner's  early  operas 
secures  for  them  a  permanent  place  in  the  history  of  the  German 
operatic  stage. 

Schumann J,  with  his  introspective  ways  and  his  devotion  to 
personal  ideals,  was  the  least  theatrically  minded  musician  that 
it  is  possible  to  conceive.  A  man  totally  devoid  of  mimetic  gift 
and  as  far  removed  from  the  theatre  as  an  educated  German  can 
well  be,  he  had  but  scant  acquaintance  with  the  aspects  of  opera 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  audience,  and  knew  next  to  nothing 
about  its  conditions  as  they  appear  to  actors  and  singers. 
Beyond  listening  to  an  opera  once  in  a  while,  he  does  not  seem 

1  Schumann  was  born  in  1810,  he  died  in  1856. 


32  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

ever  to  have  come  in  contact  with  the  operatic  stage  and  its 
belongings;  nor  did  he  trouble  to  make  a  special  study  of 
the  conditions  of  success,  when  the  desire  to  produce  an  opera 
took  hold  of  him.  The  '  Theaterbiichlein ' — little  theatre-book, 
printed  at  the  end  of  his  collected  writings — records  impressions 
of  some  fifteen  operas  heard  at  Dresden  during  the  years  1847- 
50.  His  words  show  him  to  have  been  keenly  responsive  to 
certain  musical  points,  such  as  details  of  instrumentation,  the 
treatment  of  the  voice  in  connexion  with  particular  instruments, 
the  use  of  the  chorus.  But  the  histrionic  side,  the  peculiar 
position  and  function  of  music  in  combination  with  stage 
action,  does  not  appear  to  have  occupied  much  of  his  attention. 
While  seeking  a  suitable  subject  for  an  opera,  he  examined  and 
rejected  the  stories  of  the  Nibelungenlied,  the  contest  of 
Minnesanger  at  the  Wartburg,  Die  Braut  von  Messina,  Abelard 
et  Helo'ise,  Faust,  Sakuntala,  Byron's  Corsair  and  Sardana- 
palus,  Moore's  Veiled  Prophet  of  Khorassan,  and  many  others, 
amongst  which  was  a  sketch  of  his  own,  after E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann's 
Doge  und  Dogaressa.  In  the  end  his  choice  fell  on  the 
legend  of  St.  Genevieve — perhaps  of  all  the  subjects  that  came 
under  consideration  the  least  amenable  to  effective  treatment  as 
an  opera.  Apart  from  its  popularity  as  a  favourite  story  like 
that  of  Patient  Grissel,  Genoveva  seems  to  have  attracted  him 
as  bearing  a  certain  affinity  to  the  story  of  Weber's  Euryanthe 
(both  stories  tell  of  maligned  innocence,  banishment,  and 
ultimate  rehabilitation),  and  perhaps  also  because  his  ambition 
was  stimulated  by  the  prospect  of  producing  something  like 
a  match  for  Weber's  work.  The  construction  of  a  libretto 
seemed  to  be  easy,  since  the  legend  of  Genoveva  had  already 
been  treated  in  dramatic  form,  for  reading  purposes  by  Tieck, 
and  for  performance  by  {  Maler  Miiller'  (the  poet  of  Schubert's 
'Die  Schone  Mullerin'),Raupach,andHebbel.  Tieck's  tragedy1, 
written  in  alternating  rimed  verse  and  prose,  is  a  long  shape- 

1  Leben  und   Tod  der  heiligen  Genoveva,  ein    Trauerepiel    von    Ludwig    Tieck, 
1799 ;  Oenoveva,  cine  Tragddie  in  funf  Akten  von  Friedrich  Hebbel,  1843. 


OPERA  FROM  WEBER  TO  SCHUMANN         33 

less,  pious,  and  rather  insipid  expansion  of  the  old  Volksbuch, 
Geschichte  von  der  heiligen  Genoveva.  HebbePs  is  an  ex- 
travagant acting  play  in  blank  verse,  with  a  touch  of  brutality 
in  the  treatment.  Starting  with  such  material,  Robert  Reinick, 
painter,  poet,  and  a  friend  of  the  composer,  sketched  a  scenario, 
but  failed,  after  repeated  attempts,  to  satisfy  Schumann,  who 
then,  in  vain,  applied  to  Hebbel  for  assistance.  Finally,  following 
as  he  thought  the  example  of  Lortzing  and  Wagner  *,  Schumann 
himself  undertook  the  task  of  arranging  a  libretto.  He  managed, 
with  very  indifferent  success,  to  contrive  an  amalgamation  of 
the  two  plays.  In  accordance  with  Hebbel  rather  than  with 
Tieck,  he  chose  to  eliminate  most  of  the  legendary  features, 
which  lend  a  charm  to  the  mediaeval  story.  Thus  certain  telling 
traits,  delicately  developed  in  Tieck's  version — Genoveva's  long 
sojourn  in  the  wilderness,  the  friendship  of  her  little  son  with 
the  doe  and  the  beasts  and  birds,  even  that  most  musical 
incident,  the  chance  meeting  with  her  husband  and  the  recogni- 
tion and  reconciliation — are  rejected ;  and  their  place  is  taken 
by  certain  ugly  scenes  from  HebbePs  play,  which  exhibit  the 
insults  and  brutalities  Genoveva  suffers  at  the  hands  of  her 
domestics.  e  Do  not  expect  to  find  the  old  sentimental  Geno- 
veva 2 ; '  ( I  rather  believe  it  is  a  piece  of  actual  life,  as  a  dramatic 
poem  should  be.'  Golo,  the  traitor  squire,  who,  with  Tieck, 
wavers  inconstantly  between  wickedness  and  contrition,  is  pre- 
sented as  a  cowardly  sensualist  and  scoundrel.  Genoveva's 
husband  Siegfried,  and  Margaretha  the  witch-wife,  are  little 
better  than  lay  figures.  The  final  scene  of  the  second  act,  where 
the  rabble  of  servants — who  a  moment  before  might  have  sworn 
to  Genoveva's  innocence — force  their  way  to  her  apartment,  is  as 
repulsive  as  the  murder  of  the  old  Seneschal  Drago,  Genoveva's 
supposed  paramour.  Part  of  the  third  act  is  occupied  by  a 
series  of  pictures  shown  in  a  magic  mirror  whilst  an  invisible 

1  Genoveva ,  1849-50,  was  completed  two  years  after  the  first  performance  of 
Tannhauser. 

*  Schumann  :  Letter  to  Dora,  1849. 

DAJiKBEUTUEB  D 


34  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

chorus  comments  in  the  background.  The  fourth  act  contains 
a  repetition  of  the  tiresome  incidents  which  make  up  the  close 
of  Weber's  Euryanthe — a  visit  to  the  wild  wood,  an  attempt 
to  murder,  a  rescue,  and  the  usual  jubilant  Finale.  'When 
Schumann  consulted  me  about  the  libretto  of  his  opera  V  says 
Wagner, f  I  failed  to  induce  him  to  alter  the  ineptitudes  of  the 
third  act,  especially  the  magic  pictures :  he  lost  his  temper  and 
appeared  to  believe  my  warnings  were  meant  to  mar  his  best 
efforts/ 

It  is  evident  that  Schumann  had  no  just  conception  of  the 
magnifying  or  dwarfing  effect  of  stage  presentation.  He  did 
not  perceive  that  a  particular  incident,  though  sufficiently  inter- 
esting in  narrative,  may  yet  appear  puerile  or  artistically  impos- 
sible from  a  histrionic  point  of  view ;  and  that  to  read  about 
brutality  is  one  thing,  to  see  it  presented  on  the  stage,  with  the 
details  emphasized  by  music,  is  a  very  different  matter  altogether*. 

Schumann  adopted  Weber's  method  of  connecting  the  scenes 
and  fusing  the  words  and  the  music  into  one  single  and  coherent 
act,  as  in  Euryanthe,  but  he  fell  far  short  of  Weber's  grip 
and  brilliancy.  In  Genoveva  the  composer's  power  of  invention 
appears  to  be  on  the  wane.  The  daring  originality,  the  force 
and  passion  of  the  younger  Schumann  is  gone.  The  opera  con- 
tains no  spoken  dialogue,  and  nothing  resembling  plain  recitative, 
which  might  perhaps  have  acted  as  a  foil  to  the  lyrism  that 
pervades  the  whole.  Neither  in  general  design  nor  in  detail  does 
the  music  spring  direct  from  the  dramatic  situation.  Through- 
out there  is  a  lack  of  actuality  of  vivid  contrast  and  telling  colour. 
The  composer  occupies  the  position  of  an  annotator.  He  stands 
outside  the  story,  and  puts  forth  his  own  musical  comments  on 
the  situation  which  it  portrays.  Rarely,  if  ever,  does  he  rise 
to  the  height  of  his  opportunity  and  succeed  in  making  the 

1  Wagner-Schriften,  x.  pp.  222,  223. 

8  Liszt's  verdict  on  Schumann's  work  was  generous.  Writing  to  a  friend  in  1855, 
when  he  was  rehearsing  Genowwx  at  Weimar,  he  says  :  '  I  prefer  certain  faults  to 
certain  virtues— the  mistakes  of  clever  people  to  the  effects  of  mediocrity.  In 
this  sense  there  are  failures  which  are  better  than  many  a  success.' 


OPERA  FROM  WEBER  TO  SCHUMANN        35 

characters  speak  their  own  language.  He  cannot  paint  affresco, 
as  in  the  salient  points  of  an  operatic  scena  he  should.  The 
wealth  of  clever  detail  in  melody,  harmony,  and  at  times  even 
the  orchestration,  is  no  doubt  interesting ;  but  it  must  be  added 
that  in  performance  the  majority  of  these  subtleties  do  not 
make  the  impression  of  being  in  perfect  accordance  with  the 
action.  They  are  too  minute,  and  therefore  do  not  produce  the 
effect  intended  *. 

1  On  its  first  performance  at  Leipzig,  1850,  Schumann  himself  conducting, 
Genoveva  was  coldly  received.  Subsequent  performances  at  Dresden,  Vienna, 
Weimar,  Leipzig — and  also  a  revival  in  English,  carefully  prepared  by  the  pupils 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Music  under  Sir  Charles  Stanford  in  1893 — one  and  all 
resulted  in  a  lukewarm  succis  cfestime. 


D  2 


CHAPTER   III 

ROMANTIC   OPERA   IN   PARIS 

IN  France,  as  compared  with  Germany,  the  powerful  romantic 
movement  in  literature  was  less  in  accord  with  the  national 
taste  in  music.  A  leaning  towards  romanticism  in  music  was 
mainly  confined  to  those  members  of  literary  and  artistic 
coteries,  amateurs  for  the  most  part,  who  felt  the  influence  of 
Byron,  Scott,  Moore,  or  Goethe,  and  to  some  extent  of  Bee- 
thoven. Parisian  musical  romanticism  was  but  a  reflex  of  the 
ferment  in  French  literature.  It  came  to  the  fore  at  the  Opera, 
where  everything  is  sung  in  French  ;  whilst  the  so-called  opera 
comique,  where  the  entertainment  consists  of  light  music  alter- 
nating with  spoken  dialogue,  was  hardly  touched  by  it.  At  the 
Opera,  the  way  was  opened,  in  1828,  by  the  Muette  de  Portici 
(Masaniello)  of  Scribe  and  Auber  *.  This  work,  romantic,  ex- 
travagant, revolutionary  in  spirit,  is  rich  in  captivating  tunes,  full 
of  clever  instrumental  effects,  and  remarkable  for  the  novel  use 
of  massing  the  chorus,  so  as  to  permit  them  to  take  a  prominent 
share  in  the  action.  '  So  lively  an  opera  had  not  yet  been  seen  V 
It  was  the  first  realistic  drama  in  five  acts,  with  all  the  attributes 
of  a  tragedy,  particularly  a  tragic  end.  I  well  remember  that 
the  latter  circumstance  made  an  especial  sensation.  Hitherto 
operatic  stories  (in  Germany  at  least)  had  always  ended  comfort- 
ably— no  German  composer  could  venture  to  send  people  home 
in  a  sad  mood.  When  Spontini  came  to  Dresden  to  conduct 

1  Scribe,  1 791-1861,  produced,  or  at  least  lent  his  name  to,  422  pieces — 47plays, 
28  grand  operas,  95  comic  operas,  344  vaudevilles,  and  8  ballets.  Auber  was  born 
in  1783,  he  died  in  1871. 

*  Wagner,  Erinnerungen  an  Auber,  ix.  55  (1871). 


ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS  37 

La  Vestale,  he  waxed  wroth  when  he  found  that,  after  Julia  had 
been  happily  saved  from  death,  we  intended  to  let  the  opera 
conclude  with  the  scene  in  the  cemetery.  He  would  not  permit 
such  a  thing.  The  scenario  had  to  be  changed,  the  Bower  of 
Roses  with  the  Temple  of  Venus  had  to  appear,  the  priest  and 
priestesses  of  Love  had  to  lead  the  happy  pair  to  the  altar: 
'  Chantez,  dansez J  .  .  .  impossible  that  things  should  be  other- 
wise. .  .  .  But  all  this  conventional  business  suddenly  came  to 
a  stop  when  La  Muette  appeared.  Here  was  a  grand  opera, 
a  tragedy  in  five  acts,  completely  set  to  music  ;  without  a  trace  of 
stiffness,  of  empty  pathos,  of  so-called  classical  dignity,  warm 
enough  to  burn,  heady  enough  to  intoxicate.  German  musicians 
confessed  themselves  bewildered  by  the  new  prodigy,  and,  after 
some  acrimonious  discussion  of  its  merits  and  defects,  finally 
cut  the  knot  by  referring  it  to  the  influence  of  Rossini.  This 
judgement,  like  many  others  in  the  history  of  Music,  has  been 
reversed  on  appeal.  No  doubt  Rossini  was  in  a  sense  the  father 
of  modern  operatic  melody,  yet  even  he  was  unable  to  produce 
or  rival  the  particular  quality  that  gave  such  dramatic  power  and 
effect  to  this  music  of  Auber's ;  moreover,  the  fates  denied,  not 
only  to  Rossini,  but  to  other  Italians  and  Frenchmen,  and  even 
to  Auber  himself,  a  chance  to  continue  in  the  path  of  La 
Muette 1. 

Before  we  speak  of  Rossini's  romantic  masterpiece  Guillaume 
Tell 2  it  may  be  well  to  touch  on  his  career  in  Italy,  and  to  trace 
through  early  years  of  conflict  the  preparation  for  his  triumphs 
in  London  and  Paris.  In  the  main  a  self-made  man,  he  studied 
Mozart's  operas,  Haydn's  and  Mozart's  symphonies,  and  tried 
to  score  some  of  their  quartets.  He  rapidly  acquired  facility, 
though  not  complete  mastership.  At  first  he  composed  for  the 
lesser  Italian  theatres,  rapidly  producing  serious  or  comic  operas, 
which  lived,  at  best  for  a  couple  of  seasons,  and  at  worst  for 

1  Performances  of  La  Muette  have  repeatedly  furnished  an  excuse  for  political 
demonstrations. 

3  Rossini  was  born  in  1792,  he  died  in  1868. 


38  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

a  single  day.  Then,  in  1813,  he  achieved  his  first  great 
successes  with  Tancredi,  an  opera  seria,  and  U  Italiana  in 
Algerij  an  opera  buffa.  The  latter,  a  forerunner  of  //  Barbiere 
di  Sivifflia,  was  a  surprising  display  of  comical  gaiety  and  verve 
with  a  savour  of  Cimarosa's  //  Matrimonio  segreto,  but  still 
with  a  distinct  note  of  its  own J.  These  were  followed  by 
Elisabetta,  reginad'  Inghilterra  (Naples,  1815)  and  II  Barbiere 
(Rome,  1816)  on  a  subject  already  treated  by  Paisiello,  after 
which  came  La  Cenerentola  and  La  Gazza  ladra  (1817),  Mose 
in  Egitto  (1818),  and,  in  1819,  La  Donna  del  Lago,  after  Scott's 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake.  The  failure  of  Semiramide — one  of  his 
most  ambitious  works — at  Venice,  in  1823,  prompted  him  to 
go  to  London,  where  he  laid  the  foundations  of  his  fortune,  and 
in  the  following  year  to  Paris,  where  the  authorities  appointed 
him  Director  of  the  Opera  with  a  salary  of  20,000  francs  and 
a  share  in  whatever  tantiemes  he  might  be  entitled  to  in  case  he 
chose  to  write  a  new  work  or  rewrite  an  old  one.  At  first  he 
adopted  the  latter  plan  and  rewrote  two  of  his  best  Italian 
scores — Maometto  II,  which  at  the  Opera  became  Le  Siege  de 
Corinthe  (1826),  and  Mose  in  Egitto,  which  was  called  Mo'ise. 
A  third  piece,  Le  Comte  d'Ory,  a  pretty  comic  opera  (1828), 
was  a  pasticcio  of  old  and  new  fragments.  Finally,  he  crowned 
the  edifice  with  Guillaume  Tell. 

In  the  transformation  of  older  work  the  influence  of  French 
theatrical  art  and  French  taste  in  music  is  felt ;  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  Rossini  was  bent  on  making  the  most  of  his  talents. 
He  added  and  changed  a  good  deal,  especially  with  regard  to 
instrumentation,  rendered  the  declamation  more  precise,  the 
accents  more  incisive,  and  revised  the  entire  workmanship  with 
a  fuller  comprehension  of  the  requirements  of  the  stage. 

A  grand  opera,  Italian  in  all  essentials,  yet  French  in  aspect, 
elaborate  in  style  and  rich  in  melody,  Guillaume  Tell  (1829) 
came  upon  the  world  as  a  surprise.  Certain  qualities  always 

»  The  once  popular  sentimental  tune  from  Tancredi,  <  Di  tanti  palpiti,'  now  serves 
for  the  professional  song  of  the  tailors  in  the  third  act  of  Wagner's  Mdstersinger. 


ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS  39 

rare  with  Italian  composers,  and  particularly  rare  with  Rossini 
— characterization  in  great  things  and  in  small,  the  orchestra  in 
touch  with  the  action,  careful  declamation,  appropriate  local 
colour1 — combined  to  form  a  masterpiece  forwhich  neither  school 
was  entirely  prepared.  Up  to  the  time  of  Guillaume  Tell 
Rossini  had  mainly  addressed  himself  to  hearers  who  had 
a  sense  of  musical  verve  and  movement,  as  for  instance  in 
//  Barbiere  di  Siviglia.  In  Guillaume  Tell  he  chose  to  speak 
seriously  to  the  elite  of  the  public  and  of  professional  musicians. 
He  aimed  at  perfection  of  musical  style  under  cosmopolitan  con- 
ditions, and  attempted  a  fusion  of  the  good  qualities  of  Italian, 
French,  and  German  masters  in  opera.  The  workmanship  in 
the  score  of  Guillaume  Tell  is  good  throughout,  the  melody  spon- 
taneous, the  harmony  often  refined  in  a  very  original  manner; 
the  treatment  of  the  solo  and  chorus  voices  and  the  orchestra 
masterly.  The  overture  ranks  high  amongst  overtures  of  the 
potpourri  sort,  and  is  only  excluded  from  the  first  place  by  the 
bustling  vulgarity  of  its  close.  The  power  and  originality  of 
the  principal  pieces  is  best  shown  in  the  scene  of  the  conspiracy 
and  the  taking  of  the  oath  at  the  Riitli ;  also  in  the  duet  between 
Tell  and  Arnold,  in  Matilda's  recitative  and  romanza  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  act ;  in  the  dainty  ballet  tunes  and  the 
Tyrolienne  of  Act  III ;  the  quartet  in  Act  I ;  and  the  storm  in 
Act  IV.  The  solo  parts  exhibit  a  wealth  of  device  for  the 
display  of  fine  emotional  singing ;  and  nowhere  does  Rossini's 
affluence  of  vocal  melody  fail  him.  It  may  be  that  such  tune- 
ful facility  as  is  his  rests  on  the  traditional  musical  speech  of 
the  earlier  Italian  composers  such  as  Piccinni,  Paisiello,  Cimarosa, 
and  in  some  measure  on  that  of  Mozart;  but  the  melodies 
themselves,  even  if  at  times  they  exhibit  touches  of  superficial 
emotionalism  or  border  on  triviality,  have  a  stamp  of  their  own 
and  possess  a  peculiar  sensuous  charm.  Guillaume  Tell  exhibits 
full  measure  of  the  scenic  display  that  especially  belongs  to  the 

1  Local  colour  so  perfect  was  not  again  seen  or  heard  in  opera  till  1875,  when 
Bizet's  Carmen  was  produced. 


40  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Parisian  opera — grand  choral  masses,  a  large  corps  de  ballet, 
sumptuous  pageantry,  dazzling  effects  of  light  and  colour,  &c. — 
and  the  skilful  rhetoric  of  the  libretto  has  given  rise  to  many 
a  novel  and  telling  detail  in  the  musical  setting. 

To  illustrate  the  power  of  Rossini's  temperament  when  it 
touches  upon  a  strong  theatrical  situation  no  better  example 
exists  than  the  Terzetto  in  Act  II  between  Arnold,  Tell,  and 
Walter — tenor,  baritone,  and  bass.  The  scene  shows  Arnold 
(the  son  of  a  patriot  leader,  connected  with  the  governing  party 
by  his  love  for  the  governor's  sister)  at  the  moment  when  he  is 
informed  of  the  ruthless  slaying  of  his  father  j  and  the  music 
reflects  the  conflict  of  his  emotions. 


f  Tell. 

[  Walter. 


*»il 


ri    -    mor   •  so       che    il  cor      gli      mar  • 


~±-  Jl       J— •& 


ra         dell'     .      .      a      -      mor    og    -    ni          no   -    do       spez- 


ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS 

Arnoldo. 


z6  ! 


io         mo 


ro  ! 


I 


fTell. 
1  Walter. 


quel        duo  -   lo       giii          ca    -    de      e  de 


Arnoldo. 


JTell.-P6'      a 
1  Walter.  N        k 


il      pa 
quel  duol  gia  de  -  Hi 


dre,    ohi  -  me  ' ! '  mi  ma-le. 


i       f- 


gia  la      ben  -  da  strap  - 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


va, 


ed       io 


1'  El  -  ve    -    zia  allor  tra- 


ra,    a  quel    duol     gia       de    -    li 

-^  h.  k         ^          K 


Iff 


p6, 


la        ben  -  da    strap  • 


•q        -i — : .  •!     -1      -=%: 


=3 9 1 


di 


va, 


T         P 


o         Ciel  1 


quel    duol      gii        de  - 


m 


•      po,        a  quel    duol      gia       de    -    li 


?A- 


m 


Ciel! 
li 


mai  piii  lo       ri         -          ve  • 

ra,   gia  la       ben  -  da  I  a  • 


ra,    gia  la       ben  -  da        fa    -    ta 


strap- 


m 


** 


t 


ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS 


43 


gE§ES_g*te-g-3 


dro,      mai  piii  lo   ri  -ve-dio,  no,  no,  mai  piii  non         lo     ri     .       ve  -  dr6 
talo,  si  la         ben       -       -       da         atrap-po 


P 


_-j        i    ^±3 — -=r  at 


There  is  in  this  piece  direct  presentation  of  feeling  —  very 
effective  from  the  actor's  point  of  view  —  and  a  considerable 
degree  of  musical  originality.  It  will  be  found  worth  while  to 
compare  it  with  certain  celebrated  operatic  ensembles  of  a  later 
period,  such  as  the  quartet  in  Bellini's  /  Puritam,  the  sextet  in 
Donizetti's  Lucia,  the  quartet  in  Verdi's  Rigoletto,  or  even 
with  the  superb  quintet  in  Wagner's  Meistersinger,  the  middle 
portion  of  which  is  musically,  if  not  emotionally,  cast  in 
a  similar  mould. 

As  time  advances  it  appears  evident  that  Rossini  made  a 
mistake  in  not  demanding  more  than  a  mere  picturesque  book 
of  words  from  his  librettist,  Etienne  de  Jouy1.  Guillaume 
Tell  contains  little  that  resembles  a  plot.  The  interest  in  the 
story  wanes  after  the  second  act,  and  the  succession  of  pretty 
scenes  does  not  make  amends.  In  performance,  the  order  of 
things  produces  a  sense  of  diminuendo  —  there  is  a  gradual 
falling  off  from  the  scene  of  the  morning  sun  on  Alpine  summits, 
after  the  nocturnal  meeting  of  the  conspirators,  to  the  storm 
on  the  lake,  the  leap  from  the  little  boat,  and  the  shooting  at 
the  apple.  In  Germany,  where  Schiller's  Wilhelm  Tell  had 


1  Writer  of  the  libretti  to  Spontini's  La  Vestale  and  Olympic,  and  mentioned 
in  Byron's  Letters,  vol.  vi.  p.  230,  as  the  author  of  the  tragedies  Scylla  and 
L'Hermite. 


44  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

familiarized  people  with  the  peculiar  order  of  scenes1,  this 
drawback  was  hardly  noticed,  and  the  opera,  accepted  on  its 
musical  merits  alone,  became  a  great  favourite. 

It  is  characteristic  of  Rossini  that  he  does  not  indulge  in 
experiments.  There  is  always  a  personal  note  about  his  work, 
be  it  trivial  or  passionate — the  intuition  of  a  great  personality. 
Something  resembling  a  distinct  personal  note  is  also  felt  to 
be  present  in  the  work  of  his  principal  successors,  Bellini, 
Donizetti,  and  Verdi,  notably  Bellini,  but  in  a  far  less  marked 
degree.  The  successors  too  had  something  of  their  own  to 
say,  and,  under  prevailing  theatrical  conditions,  did  say  it,  often 
in  a  convincing  way.  No  one  can  justly  assert  that  Bellini, 
Donizetti,  and  Verdi  derived  directly  from  Rossini.  Did  they 
openly  imitate  his  ways  or  copy  his  mannerisms?  Bellini 
never  attempted  such  a  thing;  Donizetti,  an  Italian  eclectic 
aspiring  to  cosmopolitan  sway,  here  and  there  followed  him ; 
Verdi,  late  in  life,  worked  on  totally  different  lines2.  The 
kinship  is  the  kinship  of  tradition.  The  ways  of  Italian  opera 
persist,  though  the  lines  of  its  development  may  deviate — 
there  is  the  spirit  of  continuance  in  its  treatment  of  the  theatre 
and  in  its  entire  absence  of  introspection.  Together  with 
Donizetti  (Lucia  di  Lammermoor),  Bellini  forms  the  link  in 
the  growth  of  opera  from  Rossini's  exuberant  force  and  the 
consummate  savoir-faire  of  his  later  years  to  the  more  earnest 
and  consciously  cosmopolitan  art  of  Verdi.  In  France,  however, 
soon  after  the  appearance  of  Guillaume  Tell,  people  began  to 
hint  at  defects  which  they  could  not  describe — they  felt  that 
there  was  something  wanting  or  something  amiss.  The  fact 
that  Rossini's  individual  art  had  gained  much  by  its  contact 
with  the  French  stage  was  gracefully  acknowledged.  f  But ' — 
it  was  asked  in  artistic  circles — fif  the  maestro's  masterpiece 
does  not  entirely  fulfil  the  promise  of  romanticism,  cannot 

1  The  order  is  not  that  of  a  play,  but  rather  of  an  epic  poem,  the  plan  for  which 
Goethe  communicated  to  Schiller. 
8  Compare  his  OteJlo  with  Rossini's. 


ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS  45 

some  other  musician  be  discovered  who  will  reproduce  the 
fantastic  or  demonic  side  of  it,  and  create  a  truly  romantic 
opera  ? ' 

This  other  musician  was  soon  found,  and  proved  to  be 
Jacob  Meyer  Beer,  better  known  as  Giacomo  Meyerbeer l.  The 
wild  side  of  romanticism  ran  riot  in  Scribe  and  Meyerbeer's 
Robert  le  Diable,  1831.  In  this  work  the  most  strenuous 
theatrical  and  musical  means  are  employed  to  bring  about 
contrasting  effects.  All  the  elements  of  romantic  and  operatic 
excitement  are  made  to  serve  the  same  purpose  :  characters  and 
situations  as  extravagant  as  possible,  demons  and  men  in  conflict, 
plain-chant  and  ballet-tunes  intermixed,  church-pageantry 
transported  to  the  stage,  prayer  alternating  with  bacchanalian 
song,  simple  tunes  interlarded  with  gruesome  melodramatic 
chords,  and  the  most  ethereal  effects  of  instrumentation  in 
conjunction  with  vulgar  noise.  On  the  dramatist's  side  there 
is  an  exhibition  of  extremes ;  on  the  musician's  an  accumulation 
of  Italian,  French,  and  German  devices  grossly  exaggerated ; 
and  the  total  is  contrived  with  little  regard  for  consistency 
of  style,  and  with  hardly  a  trace  of  artistic  conscience. 
'Meyerbeer's  object  was  to  make  the  mere  externals  tell. 
He  did  not  care  in  the  least  whether  his  details  were  common- 
place or  not.  His  scores  look  elaborate  and  full  of  work,  but 
the  details  are  the  commonest  arpeggios,  familiar  and  hackneyed 
types  of  accompaniment,  scales,  and  obvious  rhythms.  Musically 
it  is  a  huge  pile  of  commonplaces,  infinitely  ingenious,  and 
barren.  There  is  but  little  cohesion  between  the  scenes,  and  no 
attempt  at  consistency  with  the  situation  in  style  and  expres- 
sion. No  doubt  Meyerbeer  had  a  great  sense  of  general  effect. 
The  music  glitters  and  roars  and  warbles  in  well-disposed 
contrasts,  but  the  inner  life  is  wanting.  It  is  the  same  with 
the  treatment  of  his  characters.  They  metaphorically  strut 
and  pose  and  gesticulate,  but  express  next  to  nothing;  they 

x  Meyerbeer  was  born  in  1791,  six  years  before  Schubert  and  eighteen  years 
before  Mendelssohn ;  he  died  in  1864. 


46  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

get  into  frenzies,  but  are  for  the  most  part  incapable  of  human 
passion.  The  element  of  wholesome  musical  sincerity  is  wanting 
in  him,  but  the  power  of  astonishing  and  bewildering  is  almost 
unlimited  V 

When  Scribe  shifted  the  slides  of  the  lantern  to  replace 
the  romantic  phantasmagoria  of  Robert  le  Diable  by  the  quasi- 
historical  pictures  of  Les  Huguenots  (1836)  and  Le  Prophete 
(1849),  his  method  remained  unchanged.  He  continued  to  exhibit 
the  same  mixture  of  operatic  contrasts  of  ecclesiastical  display 
and  voluptuous  ballet,  of  passion  torn  to  tatters,  and  violent 
death.  Nor  was  Meyerbeer's  musical  procedure  modified  in 
any  important  way.  There  is  in  both  these  later  operas  some 
increase  of  means — such  as  enlarged  choral  masses,  greater 
swarms  of  figurantes,  a  fuller  and  even  noisier  orchestra.  There 
is  also  some  gain  in  the  choice  and  variety  of  instrumental 
colour,  some  advance  in  the  precision  and  energy  of  the 
declamation;  but  hardly  anything  deserving  the  name  of 
musical  polyphony  either  vocal  or  orchestral,  and  what  little 
there  is  of  it  savours  of  banality.  Of  invention,  novelty  in  the 
contrivance  of  melody,  harmony,  rhythm,  there  is  very  little 
that  in  any  way  surpasses  the  average  quality  of  the  musical 
materials  in  Robert  le  Diable.  It  may  interest  students  to  see 
how  this  condition  of  things  struck  a  great  contemporary 
between  1836  and  1850.  After  protesting  against  certain 
frivolous  tendencies  in  the  book  of  Les  Huguenots,  Robert 
Schumann  wrote  of  the  music  as  follows:  *It  would  take 
volumes  to  comment  on  the  music.  Each  bar  has  been 
considered  and  reconsidered  by  the  composer,  and  something 
might  be  said  about  it.  To  astonish  and  to  amuse  is  Meyerbeer's 
object,  and  he  succeeds  with  the  vulgar.  As  for  the  ubiquitous 
chorale,  "  Ein'  feste  Burg,"  about  which  French  journals  rave, 
I  confess  that  if  a  clever  pupil  were  to  submit  counterpoint 
of  that  sort  to  me  I  would  beg  of  him  not  to  do  worse  in 
future.  How  studiously  shallow,  how  carefully  superficial 
1  C.  Hubert  H.  Parry,  The  Evolution  of  the  Art  of  Music,  p.  315. 


ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS  47 

is  all  this  obtrusive  screaming  of  "  Ein*  f este  Burg  "  at  the 
groundlings !  A  great  fuss  has  also  been  made  about  the 
"  Benediction  of  the  Swords  "  in  the  fourth  act.  I  admit  that 
the  piece  has  a  good  deal  of  dramatic  force,  that  it  contains 
several  clever  and  striking  traits,  and  that  the  chorus  is 
particularly  effective  and  makes  a  great  show.  The  situation, 
the  stage  accessories,  and  the  instrumentation  support  one 
another ;  and  since  the  terrible,  and  the  horrible,  are  Meyerbeer's 
predilection,  he  has  done  his  share  of  the  work  with  enthusiasm. 
But,  if  we  examine  the  particular  melody  closely,  is  it  other 
than  a  bedizened  marseillaise  ?  And  does  it  really  take  much 
artistic  wisdom  to  produce  a  strong  effect  by  such  means  and 
in  such  a  place?  I  do  not  blame  the  use  of  every  possible 
means  of  effect  in  the  right  place — but  people  ought  not  to 
cry  aloud  and  marvel  if  a  dozen  trombones,  trumpets,  and 
ophicleides,  together  with  a  hundred  men  singing  in  unison, 
are  audible  at  some  distance.  A  special  refinement  of  Meyer- 
beer's must  not  be  forgotten  here.  He  knows  the  public 
too  well  not  to  perceive  that  too  much  noise  might  produce 
apathy.  And  how  cleverly  he  gets  over  this.  Directly  following 
upon  such  rattling  movements  as  the  "Benediction  of  the 
Swords,"  he  inserts  entire  airs  with  the  accompaniment  of  a 
single  instrument — as  if  to  say,  "  Behold,  ye  people,  how  much 
,1  can  do  with  so  little."  Certainly  some  degree  of  esprit 
cannot  in  this  instance  be  denied  him 1.  It  would  be  an  easy 
task  to  point  out  traces  of  the  style  of  Rossini,  Mozart, 
Herold,  Weber,  Bellini,  and  even  of  Spohr.  Meyerbeer's 

1  The  telling  effect  of  contrast  Schumann  here  alludes  to  really  belongs  to 
Weber,  who  in  Euryanthe,  Act  II,  after  the  violent  duet  between  the  evil  characters 
Lysiart  and  Eglantine,  introduces  Adolar's  aria  '  Wehen  mir  Lufte  Huh' '  with 
a  long  delicate  ritornello.  Compare  the  similar  situation  in  Wagner's  Lohengrin, 
Act  II,  where,  after  the  duet  of  rage  and  hate  between  Ortrud  and  Telramund, 
Elsa's  appearance  on  the  balcony  is  accompanied  by  a  lovely  melody  played  upon 
the  clarinet.  With  Meyerbeer  the  trick,  for  such  it  becomes  in  his  hands,  is  first 
employed  in  Robert  le  Liable,  Act  III,  when  Bertram  rushes  into  the  cave  amid 
a  most  violent  orchestral  uproar,  which  is  immediately  followed  by  the  soft  ritor- 
nello of  Alice's  '  Eomanza.' 


48  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

exclusive  speciality,  however,  consists  in  that  famous  ambiguous 
'rhythm  which  appears  in  nearly  all  the  themes  of  the  opera  1. 

(  I  had  already  begun  to  note  the  passages  in  which  it  occurs, 
but  I  soon  grew  weary  of  the  task.  Ill-will  and  envy  could  alone 
deny  the  presence  of  many  better  things,  even  of  some  truly  grand 
and  noble  points.  Thus  Marcel's  battle-song  is  telling,  the  song 
of  the  page  is  lovely,  the  greater  part  of  the  third  act,  with  its 
scenes  of  common  life,  is  interesting.  The  first  part  of  the  duet 
between  Marcel  and  Valentine  is  both  interesting  and  character- 
istic, and  so  is  the  sextet.  The  chorus  of  derision  has  a  comic 
effect.  The  "Benediction  of  the  Swords"  is  comparatively 
original  ;  but,  above  all,  the  duet  between  Raoul  and  Valentine, 
which  follows  it,  is  distinguished  by  fluency  of  thought  and 
musicianly  treatment.  Yet  how  can  all  this  atone  for  the 
vulgarity,  grotesqueness,  ambiguity,  and  anti-musical  quality  of 
the  whole  ?  Thanks  to  Heaven,  we  have  reached  an  end  — 
things  cannot  come  to  a  worse  plight/ 

Schumann  did  not  cry  aloud  over  Le  Prophete.  He  recorded 
the  first  performance  at  Dresden  thus  :  — 

(  Prophet  von  Giac.  Meyerbeer. 
(Den  a.  Febr.  1850.)' 


If  it  be  permissible  to  view  and  estimate  the  value  of  Meyer- 
beer's work  from  the  standpoint  of  Wagner's  achievements, 
Schumann's  strictures,  taken  together  with  Sir  Hubert  Parry's 
weighty  words,  may  be  taken  to  represent  the  verdict  —  severe, 
perhaps,  but  not  unjust  2. 


i  I n  •  5  Li/  r  qj*  r  gj 

Leggiero 

!!  I  r '  L2J    LIT    Llf  I  &c- 

*  Meyerbeer's  early  works— after  some  failures    such  as  the  setting  of  the 
98th  Psalm,  an  oratorio  Gott  und  die  Natur,  i8u,  the  operas  Jepkthas  Tociiter  and 


ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS  49 

Meyerbeer's  manner  is  more  or  less  apparent  in  the  operas 
of  Halevy  and  Herold,  and  even  rouses  echoes  in  the  works  of 
Gounod,  Bi/et,  Massenet,  Ambroise  Thomas,  and  Saint-Saens. 
It  is  felt  in  Mercadante's  //  Giuramento,  Donizetti's  Lucrezia 
Borgia,  Dom  Sebastien,  La  Favorita ;  in  Verdi's  Rigoletto,  La 
Forza  del  destino,  Don  Carlos,  and  A'ida.  There  are  touches  of  it 
in  Wagner's  Rienzi,  and  still  more  in  Goldmark's  Konigin  von 
Saba  and  Merlin. 

Ludovic  Halevy1  stands  to  Meyerbeer  not  so  much  in  the 
position  of  a  disciple  as  in  that  of  a  partial  imitator,  and  in  some 
sense  a  rival.  In  La  Juive  (i  835),  Scribe,  the  librettist,  produced 
a  very  striking  lyric  tragedy,  and  one  peculiarly  fit  for  Halevy's 
talent.  At  its  best,  Halevy's  music  is  distinguished  by  a  certain 
gloomy  sublimity.  It  is  often  full  of  dramatic  animation,  and 
rarely,  if  ever,  sinks  to  the  depths  of  Meyerbeer's  bathos.  The 
musical  movements  of  La  Juive,  connected  by  means  of  recitative, 
are  for  the  most  part  of  large  dimensions,  deftly  put  together, 
well  written  for  the  voices,  well  scored,  and  remarkable  for  the 
skilful  use  of  the  wood-wind  instruments — such  as  corni  di 
bassetto,  corni  inglesi,  bassoons,  oboes,  and  clarinets,  in  com- 
bination with  modern  brass.  U  Eclair  ( 1 835),  the  only  other  one 
of  Halevy's  many  operas  (upwards  of  thirty  in  all)  that  was 
altogether  a  success,  forms  a  strange  contrast  to  this  sumptuous 
theatrical  display.  There  is  nothing  in  the  short  libretto  of 
U Eclair  that  can  be  called  a  plot;  and  the  music  is  for  two  tenors 

Abimelek  oder  die  beiden  Kalifen,  1813  (Munich  and  Vienna),  all  of  which  were 
written  while  he  was  still  in  a  state  of  pupilage  (Weber  and  Meyerbeer  studied 
under  the  Abbe"  Vogler,  Browning's  Vogler,  about  1810-12) — consist  of  a  number 
of  Italian  operas :  Romilda  e  Constama,  Padua,  1 8 1 8  j  Semiramide  riconosciuta, 
Turin,  1819;  Emma  di  Resburgo,  Venice,  1819;  Margherita  d'Angiit,  L'Esule  di 
Granata,  Milan,  1820  and  1822  ;  and  11  Crociato  in  Egitto,  Venice,  1824,  which  was 
repeated  in  Paris,  1826.  The  later  operas  are  : — Das  Feidlager  in  Schlesien,  1842, 
given  in  Vienna  as  Vielka,  1844,  and  rewritten  for  Paris  as  U&toile  du  Nord, 
1854  ;  Le  Pardon  de  Ploermel  (Dinorati),  a  so-called  op^ra  comique,  Paris,  1859  ;  and 
the  grand  opera  UAfricaine,  which,  though  posthumous,  really  belongs  to  the  time 
of  Le  PropJiite.  UAfricaine  was  first  performed  in  Paris,  1865,  one  year  after  the 
composer's  death. 

1  Born  1799,  d'c<l  J862. 

DANNREUTHER  E 


50  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

and  two  sopranos  without  chorus1.  In  connexion  with  La 
Muette  and  Robert  le  Diable,  Adam's  Le  Postilion  deLongjumeau 
(1836),  and  Herold's  Zampa  (1831),  together  with  his  Pre  aux 
clercs  (1832),  may  be  mentioned  2. 

Benvenuto  Cellini,  Berlioz' 3  first  opera,  was  produced  at  the 
Academie  Royale  in  1 838,  as  an  excuse'  for  a  ballet,  and  with- 
drawn after  the  third  performance.  Though  meant  for  an 
(  opera  semiseria '  the  work  was  presented  as  an  opera  proper. 
Originally  it  consisted  of  two  acts  only,  each  divided  into  two 
tableaux.  The  two  acts  were  turned  into  four,  when  Liszt  in 
1852  conducted  the  work  at  Weimar.  Subsequently,  by  dint  of 
omissions,  and  with  Berlioz'  consent,  the  four  acts  were  reduced 
to  three,  in  which  latter  form  Berlioz  himself  (1853)  conducted 
it  in  London,  and  Biilow  revived  it  at  Hanover  in  1878.  It  was 
never  a  success.  Reasons  sufficient  to  account  for  the  persis- 
tent failure  may  perhaps  be  found  in  the  nature  of  the  subject, 
which,  though  lively  enough  and  far  from  commonplace,  does  not 
offer  many  interesting  situations.  But  the  peculiar  character  of 
Berlioz'  music,  the  rarity  of  genuine  pathos  in  the  melody,  and 
a  continuous  striving  after  novelty  of  rhythmical  effect  have  had 
quite  as  much  to  do  with  the  disappointing  general  impression 
as  any  defects  in  the  subject  or  faults  in  the  construction  of  the 
book.  The  music  throughout  is  clever  but  artificial.  For  the 
most  part  it  is  anything  rather  than  dramatic.  In  rapid  move- 
ments the  variety  and  bizarre  originality  of  the  rhythms  together 
with  the  dazzling  instrumentation  produce  a  sense  of  haste  and 
restless  excitement,  and  in  slow  movements  the  phraseology 

1  Probably  Le  Guitarrero  and  La  Heine  de  Chypre  would  now  be  completely 
forgotten,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the  partitions  de  piano  of  both  are  among 
the  journeyman  tasks  Wagner  executed  for  publishers  during  his  first  stay  in 
Paris.  He  speaks  in  warm  terms  of  the  quartet  '  En  cet  instant  supreme,'  at  the 
end  of  the  fifth  act,  and  remarks  that  in  the  first  two  acts  there  are  instances  of 
miscalculated  effects,  when  the  composer  expects  clarinets  and  oboes  to  do  the  work  of 
horns  and  valve-trumpets.  This  early  experience  of  Wagner's  led  him,  later  on,  to 
suggest  certain  emendations  in  the  scoring  of  the  Scherzo  of  Beethoven's  gth 
symphony,  which,  it  must  be  said,  are  not  wanted. 

*  The  latter  piece,  one  of  the  most  popular  of  light  operas,  was  given  for  the 
thousandth  time  in  1871,  and  is  still  occasionally  to  be  heard  in  Paris. 

8  Berlioz  was  born  in  1803,  he  died  in  1869. 


ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS 


fails  to  convince  for  lack  of  warmth  and  fluency.  Always 
ingenious,  Berlioz,  offers  a  superabundance  of  clever  devices  in 
rhythm  and  orchestration.  He  seems  to  be  addressing  himself 
to  an  audience  of  experts,  and  consequently  '  il  faut  de  Pesprit 
pour  lui  en  trouver ' ;  that  is  to  say,  just  the  kind  of  musical 
esprit  with  which  even  the  experts  in  his  day  were  but  scantily 
furnished.  The  result  is  best  described  in  his  own  words: — 
f  On  fit  a  Pouverture  un  succes  exagere,  et  Pon  siffla  tout  le 
reste  avec  un  ensemble  et  une  energie  admirable.'  Considerable 
wit  and  finesse  are  shown  in  the  whispering  duet,  Act  I,  and 
in  the  bantering  aria  of  Scaramoglio.  There  is  instrumental 
humour  in  the  carnival  scene  which  forms  the  finale  of  Act  II. 
By  the  side  of  such  pieces  are  movements,  the  scene  of  the  oath 
for  instance,  that  properly  belong  to  the  grand  opera.  Berlioz 
described  his  own  score  as  containing  '  une  variete  d'idees,  une 
verve  impetueuse,  et  un  eclat  de  coloris  musical  que  je  ne 
retrouverai  peut-etre  jamais  et  qui  meritaient  un  meilleur  sort ' 
(Memoires,  p.  214).  The  following  quotations  may  serve  to 
illustrate  the  validity  of  his  claim  : — 

Allegro  <=!  =  108. 

i 


Feramosca. 


r 


.  « 


f     Vi    -    ve     1'es  -  cri  -  me,  c'est  roon    fort,     oui,   c'est  mon    fort, 


* 


iff 


Allegretto 
J  =  160. 


Rhythme  a  7  Temps. 

A        A        A' 


E   2 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


t>  Temps. 


5  Temps. 


S3E 


accelerando  poco  a  poco  une, 


i 
3^ 


5  Temps. 


o  Temps. 


une, 


'     J 


une,       niort !    san.s     pi  -  titS       je    per  -  ce   son 


ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS 


53 


pi  . 


sans  pi  -  titf, 


•  — * — iF 
rW 


_    _    _    f^-        H    J    J    J 

TF+f— L±-^ 


s 


un  jjoeo  «'<. 


a  tempo 


^fr=g 


je          suis       vain     -      queur 


ff 


Allegro  eonfuoco  a  =  100. 


Teresa. 


Cellini. 


Quand    des          som 


P 


m 


Quand  des  som      •       mets,    des          com 


mets       de  la  nion   -    ta 


Quand  des 


^^ 


meta       de  la  mon  -  ta    - 


Quand  des 


54 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Allegro  confuoco  e  marcato  attai 
.  CHORUS.   •  =  184 


Tenors. 


Basses. 


£j.  i  c  6=gi 


Si      la   terre  aux  beaux  jours  se  cou  -  ron  -  ne 


^P 


-* — e 


-r— i— t 


.    de 


P 


S 


ger    -    bes,  de      fruits      et  de  fleurs,    .      .  en    ses  flancs     I'hoin 


f=X 

^ c^~ 


^•-f-*- 
^2Epi 


ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS 


55 


2nd  Tenors. 


Dang  ti  ms  lea  temps,  dans  toug  les  temps  dee    tic  - 


me      mols  »  son  -  ne    .      . 


dans  tons  les  temps,  dans  toug  leg  tempe  des  tr6 

N 


^=r=^^=^^^ 


_ 

p  e 


son    .      .    meil-leun,        hon  -  neur         am        mal    -    trea        c:  -  M-leura ! 


son    .          meil-leura.       Hon  -   neur         aux        ma!    -    tres        ci  -  se-leurs ! 

=>  «'•    . 


1st  and  2nd  Tenors. 


hon  -  ne\ir       aux          mat    -    tres        ci  -  se  -  leura  !      .      Aux  flancs 


hon  -  neur      aux  mai     -    tree       ci  -  se  -  leure ! 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


*=?=? 


fSE 


de    laterre  en  mois-sonne  en  tout  temps  destre'sors    meil  -  leurs. 
1st  and  2nd  Busses. 


Hon-neur,  hon. 


enmob-sonneentouttempsdestresorsmeil    -    leurs.  Hon-neur,  hon- 


-    neur  aux    mal  -tres  ci  -  se  -  leurs  !      hon  -  neur,    . 


hon     .     neur    au 

J1 


-    neur  aux    mal  -  tres  ci  -  se  -  leurs  !      hon  -  ne 


hon    -    neur       aux 


•tf  ff  if  .. FJ 

j     L  v_  i^ !» — r         P- 


j|. 


' 


F3/5 

-'- 


ed. 


mat      -      tres    ci    -      se  -  leurs ! 


— 


mat      •      tres      ci    -    so,  -  leurs ! 


# 


ROMANTIC  OPERA  IN  PARIS  57 

Auber's  principal  contribution  to  the  repertoire  of  grand 
opera,  as  has  been  stated,  was  La  Muette  (Masaniello).  All  his 
life  long  he  wrote  for  the  Opera-Comique,  and  produced  (mostly 
in  conjunction  with  Scribe)  upwards  of  forty  light  operas  and 
operettas — ephemera  all  of  them — always  bright  and  amusing, 
frankly  written  for  the  market  and  addressed  to  the  bourgeoisie. 
— '  Que  voulez-vous  ?  C'est  le  genre, '  answered  Auber,  when 
Wagner  expressed  his  astonishment  at  certain  banalities. — At 
the  Opera-Comique,  Scribe  and  Auber  met  on  equal  terms.  Both 
show  esprit,  grace,  theatrical  instinct,  at  times  even  passion — but 
the  one,  in  Heine's  phrase,  lacks  poesy,  the  other  lacks  music. 
Apart  from  the  French  stage,  Fra  Diavolo  (1830),  Le  Domino 
Noir,  Le  Philtre  (1831),  and  the  little  masterpiece  Le  Maqon 
(1825)  are  the  best  known.  The  latter  had  a  great  run  in 
Germany  as  Maurer  und  Schlosser.  'C'est  de  la  futilite 
indestructible. ' 


CHAPTER  IV 

ITALIAN   OPERA 

OF  the  Italian  composers  who  made  their  mark  in  Paris  and 
London  after  RQSsmi'j  GuittaMms^TdLf  the  most  conspicuous 
are  Vicenzo  .Bellini1  with  his  La  Sonnambula  (1831),  Norma 
(1832),  and  I Puritani  (1834),  and  Gaetano  Donizetti2  with  his 
Lucrezia  Borgia  (1833),  Lucia  di  Lammermoor  (1835),  and  La 
Favorita  (1840).  None  of  these  productions,  though  they  are 
their  composers'  best,  will  stand  close  scrutiny  as  a  whole,  but 
each  contains  one  or  two  pieces  that,  from  a  vocal  and  a 
theatrical  point  of  view,  possess  high  and  genuine  merit.  Thus 
the  quartet  and  chorus  f  A  te,  o  cara,'  in  /  Puritani,  the  sextet 
in  Lucia,  and  above  all,  the  Finale  to  the  second  act  of  Norma, 
are  in  their  way  masterpieces.  They  exhibit  a  minimum  of 
musical  elaboration,  yet  there  is  much  more  contained  in  them 
than  mere  sentimental  cantilena.  In  each  the  vocal  expression 
rises  to  genuine  pathos  and  passion,  j 

Bellini,  the  favourite  of  the  public  and  of  the  great  vocal  virtuosi 
such  as  Pasta,  Grisi,  Rubini,  Lablache,  met  with  scant  justice 
at  the  hands  of  professional  musicians,  especially  in  Germany. 
'  Bellini's  melody  is  of  a  monotonous  type,  it  depends  on  the 
bel  canto  for  its  effect.'  f  His  cadences  are  weak,  the  choruses 
noisy  and  trivial,  the  orchestration  childish/  Strictures  of  this 
sort  may  be  true  enough  in  the  main,  but  the  emotional  quality 
of  the  pieces  already  mentioned,  and  of  many  a  single  recitative, 
aria,  01  scena  besides,  makes  up  for  much  that  is  poor  or  defective 
in  Bellini's  work  as  a  whole  3.  In  La  Sonnambula,  the  idyllic 

1   1802-35.  u  1797-1848. 

3  Note,  however,  the  wide  divergence  of  Wagner's  estimate  of  Bellini's  abilities 


ITALIAN  OPERA  59 

mood  of  a  slight '  Liederspiel/  a  song-play,  for  such  the  little 
opera  virtually  is,  does  not  suffer  much  from  the  preponderance 
of  vocal  fireworks  that  form  part  of  the  arias,  whilst  in  Norma 
(the  best  of  Italian  tragic  operas  before  Verdi's  Otello)  the  pre- 
vailing elevation  of  sentiment  is  sufficiently  well  sustained,  in 
spite  of  occasional  banalities  in  the  shape  of  noisy  tunes  in 
choral  unison,  long  drawn-out  sequences  of  thirds,  and  the  like 1. 
In  the  middle  of  his  career  Bellini2  had  the  good  fortune  to  meet 
the  man  who  for  his  special  purposes  proved  to  be  an  ideal 
librettist,  Felice  Romani — a  person  of  considerable  literary 
attainment,  of  sufficient  stage  experience  and  of  a  rare  instinct 
for  that  peculiar  compromise  between  stage  action  and  song  of 
which  in  the  time  of  Rossini  and  Bellini  the  traditions  still 
survived  from  the  early  days  of  the  operatic  spectacle  in  Italy. 
Romani  skilfully  contrived  the  book  of  Norma  (1831)  after  a 
little  known  French  play  by  Soumet,  and  that  of  La  Sonnam- 
bula  (also  1831)  after  a  now  forgotten  vaudeville  ballet  by 
^cribe_^.  In  these  model  libretti,  Romani  provided  Bellini  with 
the  outlines,  skilfully  drawn  and  precisely  adapted  for  musical 
colouring :  dramatic  situations  easily  understood,  and  demand- 
ing few  stage  accessories  for  their  proper  presentation,  but  care- 
fully arranged  and  graduated  for  the  lyrical  utterance  of  passion  : 
headlong  words  for  rapid  recitatives,  telling  scenas,  culminating 
in  some  cluster  of  verses  apt  for  emotional  cantilena.  All  the 


from  that  of  other  contemporary  German  critics.  Compare  Wagner's  account  of 
I  Capuletti  e  Montecchi,  1834. 

It  cannot  be  overlooked  that  critics  accustomed  to  the  weakness  of  most  contem- 
porary German  translations  of  operatic  libretti,  and,  what  is  worse,  accustomed  to 
the  lax  methods  of  the  German  operatic  singers  of  the  time,  were  not  in  a  position 
to  appraise  the  value  of  lyrical  effusions,  such  as  those  of  Rossini  in  parts  of 
Otello,  or  of  Bellini  in  parts  of  Norma  or  I  Puritani. 

1  Earlier  operas  of  Bellini  that  deserve  passing  record  are  H  Pirata  (1827),  La 
Straniera  (1829),  I  Capuletti  e  Monlecchi  (1830).  His  first  opera,  Adelson  e  Salvina, 
written  and  produced  at  the  Naples  Conservatoire,  was  never  published.  A  manu- 
script copy  of  it  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 

*  He  died  at  the  age  of  33. 

3  Count  Pepoli,  who  wrote  the  book  for  I  Puritani,  followed  Romani's  lead, 
though  with  far  less  success. 


60  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

rest  was  left  to  the  composer — who  again,  on  his  part,  knew 
exactly  how  to  adapt  his  knowledge  and  sense  of  vocal  effect  to 
the  altogether  exceptional  gifts  and  attainments  of  the  great 
singers  for  whom  he  wrote.  Of  the  two  composers,  Bellini  was 
the  more  delicately  gifted  and  original,  whilst  Donizetti  was  the 
better  trained.  The  dates  of  Donizetti's  best  known  operas 
are:  Anna  Bolena,  1830;  Marino  Falieri,  1833;  Lucrezia 
Borgia,  1 833  ;  Lucia  di  Lammermoor,  1 835 ;  La  Figlia  del 
Reggimento,  1 840 ;  La  Favorita,  1 840 — in  all,  he  produced  sixty- 
six  operas  before  his  career  was  cut  short  by  mental  disease. 
Together  with  Donizetti,  Bellini — the  sentimentalist — forms 
the  link  between  the  gaiety  and  verve  of  Rossini  and  the  more 
strenuous  art  of  Verdi.  Bellini  has  well  expressed  not  only  the 
genuine  feeling,  but  also  the  prevailing  sentimentality  of  his 
time.  As  a  master  of  elegiac  melody,  he  indicates  his  claim  by 
one  fact  which  outweighs  a  host  of  disparaging  remarks — the 
fact  that  Chopin,  the  modern  melodist  par  excellence,  paid  him 
the  homage  of  conscious  or  unconscious  imitation.  For  some 
of  Chopin's  most  telling  cantilena,  no  matter  how  subtle  and 
refined  it  may  appear  as  he  presents  it,  is  essentially  the  can- 
tilena of  Bellini1. 

About  seven  years  after  Bellini's  untimely  death,  Giuseppe 
Verdi2  began  to  attract  attention  with  his  Nabucodonosor 
(1842),  /  Lombardt  alia  prima  crociata  (1843),  Ernani  (1844), 
after  Victor  Hugo's  Hemani,  and  particularly  Rigoletto  (1851), 
after  Hugo's  Le  Roi  s'amuse3.  In  his  first  operas,  such  as 
/  Lombardi,  he  exhibits  an  audacious  temperament  and  power- 
ful theatrical  instincts  rather  than  high  musical  attainments, 
but  already  in  Rigoletto,  II  Trovatore,  and  La  Traviata, 

1  See  post,  p.  254.  a  Verdi  was  born  in  1814,  he  died  in  1901. 

"  Macbeth,  after  Shakegpeare,  had  been  produced  in  1847 ;  1  due  Foscari  in  1844 
and  II  Corsaro  in  1848,  both  after  Byron  ;  Giovanna  d'Arco  in  1845  ;  I  Masnadieri 
(Die  Rduber)  in  1847;  Luisa  Miller  (Cabale  mid  Liebe}  in  1849  an^  Don  Carlos  in 
1867,  after  Schiller;  Les  Vtpres  Siciliennes,  in  imitation  of  Meyerbeer's  Les 
Huguenots,  in  1855  ;  Un  Batto  in  maschera  in  1859— the  libretto  is  identical  with 
that  of  Auber's  Le  Bal  masque—  and  La  Forza  del  destino  in  1862,  the  latter  after 
a  Spanish  play  by  the  Due  de  Rivas. 


ITALIAN  OPERA  61 

the  accomplished  musician  is  evident,  whilst  the  marked 
racial  and  theatrical  qualities  remain  unimpaired.  Riffoletto, 
the  chef-d'oeuvre  of  Verdi's  first  period — his  seventeenth  opera 
— was  at  least  equalled  in  popularity  by  the  success  of  II 
Trovatore  and  La  Traviata,  both  of  which  were  brought  out  in 
1855.  The  subjects  as  well  as  the  construction  of  the  libretti 
of  these  operas  are  each  in  its  way  typical  of  the  curious  con- 
ception of  operatic  romance  that  prevailed  among  fashionable 
circles  in  Paris,  Venice,  Rome,  and  Milan  about  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  The  music  runs  on  the  cosmopolitan 
lines  which  Verdi  affected  in  those  emotional  days.  His  musical 
gifts  and  predilections  were  exactly  fitted  to  reflect  the  ex- 
travagant tragical  situations  of  Ernani  and  Rigoletto,  the  lay- 
figure  and  gipsies,  monks,  knights,  and  ladies  of  II  Trovatore, 
the  story  of  a  consumptive  courtesan  and  her  ultimate  purification 
by  love  and  death  in  La  Traviata1.  The  great  vogue  of 
/  Lombardi,  Nabucodonosor,  Ernani,  and  especially  Rigoletto, 
with  its  appeal  to  the  revolutionary  spirit,  is  partly  explained 
by  the  political  circumstances  of  the  time.  The  romantic 
movement,  which  elsewhere  on  the  continent  told  in  favour  of 
reaction,  became  in  Italy  the  handmaid  of  revolution.  By  a 
curious  accident  the  letters  of  Verdi's  name  were  adopted  by 
the  Italian  populace  as  an  emblem  connected  with  the  liberation 
of  Italy — '  Viva  Verdi ! '  really  meant £  Viva  Vittorio  Emanuele 
Re  D5  Italia  ! J  And  it  is  certain  that  Verdi  himself,  when  dealing 
with  operatic  situations  that  happen  to  have  a  problematic  social 
significance — situations  such  as  could  be  turned  to  account  for 
political  purposes — was  very  much  in  earnest,  and  consciously 
made  the  most  of  them.  Of  his  perfect  sincerity  in  such 
matters  there  can  be  no  doubt — witness  the  fine  scena  in  the 
first  act  of  Rigoletto,  'Pari  siamo.  lo  ho  la  lingua;  egli  ha  il 

1  The  libretto  of  La  Traviata  is  based  on  Dumas  fils'  La  Dame  aux  Cornelias. 
1  Musical  art,'  it  has  been  well  said  in  this  connexion,  'cannot  depict  the  repulsive 
without  some  glimmer  of  beauty.  It  penetrates  and  idealizes  the  elements  of 
corruption,  and  transmutes  the  terrible  reality  of  the  drama  into  a  melancholy 
dream.'  Hanslick,  Die  moderne  Oper,  i.  233. 


62 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


pugnale/  and  other  such  semi-personal  utterances.  Rigoletto 
was  originally  called  La  Maledizione.  The  censorship  objected 
to  King  Francis  I  being  cursed  by  a  court  fool,  as  is  the  case 
in  Victor  Hugo's  play.  Eventually  the  monarch  was  turned 
into  a  duke  of  Mantua,  and  the  opera  appeared  under  the  fool's 
name  Rigoletto. 

Musically  it  is  interesting  to  compare  the  famous  quartet  in 
Rigoletto  with  its  model,  the  quartet  in  Bellini's  I  Puritani,  and 
to  note  the  advance  the  former  shows  in  the  direction  of 
la  musica  caratteristica,  towards  which  Verdi  came  to  lean 
more  and  more  in  course  of  time.  The  change  for  the  better 
with  regard  to  the  independence  of  the  vocal  part-writing, 
the  individualization  of  the  characters,  together  with  a  wider 
range  of  harmony,  may  be  slight  in  this  particular  case,  but  it 
is  remarkable  all  the  same.  In  so  far  as  the  outlines  of  form 
are  concerned  the  two  quartets  are  closely  alike  in  the  cast  of 
the  melody,  the  changes  of  harmonic  centres,  the  culmination 
of  vocal  effects  towards  the  close,  and  in  the  contrivance  of  the 
coda.  The  general  resemblance  may  be  easily  detected  by  a 
comparison  of  the  following  quotations : — 


Largo 


^y  ^  p   P   -Nl 

—  ^  —  tr-1  S 

G£fi  j'^g  q  r   c  r  "~erTfT'-|-f  •  Vr 

'r  r    -.-HK 

-_j  L-  —  H 

^^ 


-g+^-H 


*  u 


ITALIAN  OPERA  63 

Verdi  at  first  derived  his  manner  and  style  from  Mercadante 
and  Bellini;  then  he  felt  the  influence  of  Donizetti  (Lucrezia 
Borgia,  Don  Pasquale),  later  on,  and  in  an  increasing  degree, 
that  of  Meyerbeer.  The  role  of  Azucena  in  II  Trovatore,  for 
instance,  is  but  that  of  Fides  from  Le  Prophete  translated  into 
Romany.  Then  came  the  influence  of  Halevy  (La  Juive). 
Finally,  he  was  swayed  in  a  curious  manner  by  Wagner 
(Tannhauser,  Lohengrin). 

During  the  first  twenty  years  of  his  career  Verdi  produced 
twenty-three  operas.  In  the  following  period  of  twenty-seven 
years,  only  three — Aida,  Otello,  Faktaff.  Fully  up  to  middle 
age  the  trend  of  his  genius  was  evidently  more  inclined  to 
theatrical  than  to  musical  ideals.  Exceptionally  gifted  for 
the  naturalistic  expression  of  passion — it  was  partly  a  gift  for 
finding  emotional  vocal  melodies  in  the  manner  of  Bellini, 
partly  in  that  of  Meyerbeer  for  combining  such  melodies  with 
sharply  accentuated  rhythmical  figures — he  was  able,  by  the  aid 
of  very  simple  choral  and  orchestral  devices,  to  produce  telling 
theatrical  effects.  Thus  his  music,  as  it  were  by  fits  and  starts, 
is  now  operatically  effective,  now  sentimentally  weak  or  vulgar, 
now  blatant  with  theatrical  pathos,  now  genuinely  original  and 
dramatic. 

At  the  age  of  57  Verdi  wrote  Aida  for  Cairo  (1871-2), 
and  produced  it  at  the  European  centres  as  a  pendant  to  Meyer- 
beer's UAfricaine.  Then  in  his  seventy-third  year  came  Otello, 
first  performed  at  La  Scala,  Milan,  in  1887,  the  book  by  Arrigo 
Bo'ito  after  Shakespeare ;  and,  finally,  Falstaff,  first  performed 
in  1893,  the  book  again  by  Bo'ito  after  the  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor. 

Verdi's  efforts  to  keep  pace  with  the  movement  towards 
characterization  in  opera  became  more  and  more  apparent 
from  the  date  of  Rigoletto  onwards,  and  gradually  brought 
about  changes  in  his  manner  and  considerable  improvement  in 
his  technique.  Aida  contains  much  that  is  mere  pageant  music 
or  picturesque  illustration  of  scenic  evolutions,  but  also  several 


64  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

scenes  of  emotional  power  and  impressiveness.  Otello  very 
distinctly — and,  to  a  greater  extent  still,  Falstajf — shows  a 
change  in  method.  The  master  seems  to  have  reversed  his 
artistic  direction,  and  to  have  adopted  a  more  intellectual 
speculative  *  Wagnerian '  gait.  That  Verdi  did  assimilate  some 
minor  points  in  the  method  of  Wagner  is  certain.  Yet  any  one 
familiar  with  the  scores  of  both  masters  will  readily  distinguish 
between  the  perhaps  equally  futile  designations  '  Maestro '  and 
*  Meister.'  In  Verdi  there  is  hardly  a  trace  of  Wagner's 
peculiar  orchestral  polyphony  or  variety  and  richness  of  tone- 
colour.  Verdi,  it  is  true,  employs  the  representative  phrase, 
the  f  Leitmotiv/  but  not  in  Wagner's  many-sided,  contrapuntal 
way,  and  only  in  so  far  as  the  device  is  helpful  in  clearing  up 
special  points  in  the  action.  Moreover  the  character  of  Verdi's 
representative  phrases  is  as  distinctly  his  own,  that  is  to  say 
Italian,  as  that  of  Wagner  is  Teutonic. 

Comparison  of  Rossini's  Tragedia  lirica,  Otello  (1816)  with 
the  Otello  of  Verdi  throws  a  vivid  light  on  the  changes  brought 
about  by  the  spirit  of  romanticism  and  the  example  of  Wagner. 
Rossini's  Tragedia  has  many  traces  of  the  older  opera  seria. 
Verdi's  is  an  opera  caratteristica  of  a  very  pronounced  type. 
With  Rossini  there  is  but  a  faint  shadowof  Shakespeare's  tragedy, 
and  the  music  might,  for  the  most  part,  be  sung  in  solfeggio. 
With  Verdi  the  librettist  adheres  closely  to  Shakespeare's  text, 
whilst  the  composer  strives  to  develop  his  powers  of  dramatic 
realization,  and  to  find  proper  accents,  passionate  or  tragic  or 
comical,  to  tally  with  the  characters  and  situations.  It  is 
a  matter  of  give-and-take  between  dramatist  and  musician  ; 
Boito's  book  inspires  the  composer  to  a  new  mode  of  utterance, 
and  a  good  performance  of  Otello  leaves  the  impression  of 
a  tragic  drama  dissolved  in  music.  In  certain  particulars, 
however,  the  older  Otello  holds  its  own,  and  the  points  are  not 
altogether  in  favour  of  Verdi  and  la  musica  caratteristica.  In 
Desdemona's  '  willow '  song,  for  example,  Rossini's  melody  is 
simple  and  beautiful;  Verdi's  slightly  bizarre,  though  most 


ITALIAN  OPERA  65 

effective  in  its  place l.  A  note  of  warning, '  Wagner  in  the  air/ 
was  uttered  in  Italy  after  the  production  of  Otello ;  it  became 
a  cry  of  alarm  after  Falstaff'^  but  Verdi  even  here  remains  true 
to  himself  and  the  traditions  of  his  country.  In  no  case  has 
he  traversed  the  Italian  doctrine  that  vocal  melody  of  some  sort 
is  the  main  concern,  even  when  the  music  takes  the  place  of 
rapid  dialogue  or  passionate  soliloquy.  His  melody,  in  Falstaff, 
is  more  inclined  towards  recitative  than  cantilena ;  and  its 
power,  though  its  presence  is  felt  throughout,  is  but  rarely  con- 
densed to  actual  song.  In  one  instance  only — Fenton's  little 
arioso  (  Bocca  bacciata ' — there  is  something  like  the  lilt  of  the 
younger  Verdi's  tunes.  For  the  most  part  the  music  has 
the  character  of  a  lively  conversation,  with  here  and  there  some 
bits  of  energetic  declamation  or  emotional  cantabile.  Bo'ito's 
libretto  to  the  Merry  Wives  would  be  quite  effective  as  a  play 
without  music.  Few  lines  in  it  appear  to  be  written  with 
a  direct  view  to  formal  solo  or  concerted  pieces.  But  whenever 
Verdi  chooses  to  make  use  of  an  opportunity  to  write  '  in  form* 
— as  for  instance  in  the  ensemble  ( fe  un  ribaldo,  un  furbo,  un 
ladro/  in  the  second  part  of  Act  I,  the  duets  f  Labbra  di  foco/ 
and  '  Dal  labbro  il  canto  estasiato  vola/  Acts  II  and  III,  and  the 
fugal  finale  'Tutto  il  mondo  e  burla/— the  result  proves  fine  in 
effect,  distinctly  artistic  and  perspicuous,  though  less  striking 
and  impressive  than  earlier  pieces,  excepting,  of  course,  the 
comical  vocal  fugue  at  the  end,  which  is  perfect  in  its  way. 

Falstajf  is  perhaps  less  remarkable  than  Otello  in  point  of 
musical  invention.  But  the  sardonic  vivacity  of  its  humour  is 
surprising.  There  is  not  a  page  in  Falstajf  which  does  not 
exhibit  touches  of  musical  as  well  as  verbal  wit  of  the  most 
entrancing  kind.  'Such  scenes  as  the  assignation  made  by 
Falstaff  with  Dame  Quickly,  with  its  playful  iteration  of  the 
notes  associated  with  the  words  "  Dalle  due  alle  tre,"  the  whole 

1  There  is  in  Verdi's  setting  a  touch  of  artificiality,  recalling  the  song  '  Le  roi 
de  ThultS '  in  Berlioz'  Damnation  de  Fausf.  The  prominent  part  played  by  the  corno 
inglese,  i.  e.  bass  oboe,  also  recalls  Berlioz. 


DANNREUTHER 


66  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

scene  of  the  buck-basket,  the  fat  knight's  soliloquy  after  his 
immersion  in  the  Thames,  and  above  all  the  working  up  of  the 
final  scene,  are  monuments  of  humorous  power  V 

In  Aida,  Otelloy  and  Falstaff  the  robust  naturalistic  expres- 
sion of  passion,  so  characteristic  of  the  early  operas,  appears  less 
crude,  the  declamation  less  violent  and  more  carefully  balanced ; 
the  outlines  of  the  melody  more  sinuous,  the  harmony  and 
modulation  richer  and  bolder,  the  instrumentation  less  coarse 
and  commonplace,  whilst  the  telling  quality  of  the  music,  the 
sum  total  of  its  effect  in  combination  with  proper  stage  manage- 
ment (provided  always  that  the  later  operas  are  performed  at 
theatres  of  more  reasonable  dimensions  than  La  Scala  of  Milan 
or  Covent  Garden),  can  hardly  be  said  to  fall  short  of  what 
it  was  at  the  outset,  that  is  to  say,  in  such  popular  works  as 
Rigoletto,  II  Trovatore,  and  La  Traviata.  Allowing  for  the 
curious  cosmopolitanism  in  his  choice  of  subjects  and  the 
eclecticism  in  their  musical  treatment,  the  occasional  crudity 
and  frequent  vacillation  in  his  style,  together  with  the  not  un- 
common cases  of  perhaps  unconscious  borrowing  of  other  men's 
devices,  it  is  none  the  less  evident  that  the  operas  of  Verdi 
represent  a  forward  movement  in  several  branches  of  the  musico- 
histrionic  art,  and  that  his  music,  taken  altogether,  is  the  result 
of  self-developed  Italianism,  and  the  expression  of  a  strong 
Italian  individuality. 

1  Mr.  J.  A.  Fuller  Maitland. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   FURTHER   DEVELOPMENT   OF   ROMANTIC   OPERA 

AFTER  Weber  and  Marschner  the  progress  of  operatic  art 
did  not  move  so  rapidly  in  Germany  as  might  have  been 
expected.  It  is  true  the  spirit  of  romantic  opera  had  already 
entered  the  mind  of  Wagner,  to  await  there  its  most  complete 
embodiment  in  Lohengrin.  But  it  was  not  till  past  the  middle 
of  the  century  that  any  of  Wagner's  works  came  to  be  an 
appreciable  factor  in  musical  life  1. 

In  the  meantime  the  operas  of  lesser  musicians,  such  as 
Konradin  Kreutzer,  Reissiger,  Lortzing,  Flotow  and  Nicolai, . 
gained  some  degree  of  popular  favour.  It  is  enough  to  mention 
Kreutzer's  Nachtlager  von  Granada  (i  834)2,  Reissiger's  Felsen- 
miihle,  Flotow's  Martha  (1847),  Lortzingjs(  1801-51)  Czar  und 
Zimmermann  (1837),  Der  Wildschutz  (1842),  and  Nicolai's  Die 
lustigen  Weiber  von  Windsor  (1849).  Lortzing,  an  experienced 
actor  singer  and  conductor,  wrote  his  own  libretti,  which,  with 
considerable  skill,  he  adapted  from  already  existing  plays.  His 
practical  knowledge  of  stage  effect  to  some  extent  made  up  for 
the  rather  commonplace  character  of  his  music.  Compared 
with  the  power  of  Marschner's  work,  Lortzing's  is  but  that 
of  a  gifted  dilettante,  who  was  able  to  make  good  use  of  his 
experience  in  the  theatre.  With  the  aid  of  his  lively  tunes 
and  his  actor's  chic,  Lortzing  managed  somehow  to  express  the 
provincial  humours  of  the  period  (about  1840-50)  in  a  manner 

1  The  first  performance  of  Lohengrin  took  place  under  Liszt,  at  Weimar,  in  1850. 

2  Konradin  Kreutzer,  1780-1849.    Some  of  bis  choral  songs  for  male  voices, 
such  as  '  Die  Kapelle,'  '  Der  Tag  des  Herrn,'  '  Marznacht,'  are  models  in  their 
way,  and  had  an  immense  vogue. 

F  2 


68  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

sufficiently  artistic  to  ensure  a  widespread  popularity  in 
Northern  Germany.  His  successor  in  popular  favour  was 
Flotow,  another  quasi-amateur,  whose  Martha  made  the  round 
of  Europe ;  but  Flotow's  melody  is  at  once  more  commonplace 
and  more  sentimental,  and  the  neatness  of  style,  to  which  his 
vogue  was  mainly  due,  does  little  more  than  borrow  a  few 
epigrams  from  the  current  phraseology  of  French  opera 
comique. 

Nicolai,  an  excellent  all-round  musician,  conductor  and 
singing-master,  who  had  produced  operas  in  Italy  and  church 
music  in  Germany,  put  forth  the  ripe  fruits  of  his  experience 
in  Die  lustigen  Weiber  von  Windsor,  e  komisch-phantastische 
Oper  in  3  Akten/  which  was  brought  out  shortly  before  his 
death,  at  Berlin  in  1849,  and  was  received  with  acclamation. 
The  bright  and  spontaneous  good  humour  that  pervades  the 
music  chimes  with  the  gaiety  of  Shakespeare's  play.  The  airs 
and  rapid  conversational  ensemble  pieces  are  connected  by 
short  snatches  of  dialogue,  after  the  manner  of  Auber's  Le 
Maqon.  Nicolai  makes  no  attempt  at  close  characterization, 
such  as  Weber,  for  instance,  achieved  in  the  duet  between 
Agathe  and  Aennchen  in  Der  Freischiitz ;  his  Merry  Wives, 
indeed,  might  exchange  their  tunes  throughout,  as  they  actually 
do,  when,  in  an  amusing  duet,  they  compare  FalstafPs  letters. 
But  the  humours  of  Falstaff,  Mrs.  Ford,  Dr.  Caius,  are  kept 
sufficiently  distinct.  The  finales  of  both  the  first  and  the 
second  acts  are  well  contrived  and  effective.  The  declamation 
is  good  and  the  treatment  of  the  voice  admirable.  But  it  is 
not  till  the  third  act,  during  the  fairy  scene  in  Windsor  Forest, 
that  the  limitations  of  Nicolai's  talent  become  apparent.  Here 
his  routine  proves  insufficient,  and  the  music,  pretty  and  brisk 
as  it  is,  lacks  the  touch  of  poesy. 

It  was  said  that  Lesueur,  Berlioz'  master  at  the  Paris 
Conservatoire,  put  so  much  drainatic  life  into  his  church  music 
that  there  was  none  left  for  his  operas.  In  an  analogous  way 
it  may  be  said  that  Berlioz'  dramatic  vein  was  nearly  exhausted 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ROMANTIC  OPERA        69 

by  his  symphonies  when  he  began  to  write  Les  Troyens,  which 
he  intended  to  be  his  magnum  opus  for  the  stage. 

The  words  and  music  to  the  ( Poeme  lyrique  en  deux  parties ' 
Les  Troyens:  I.  La  Prise  de  Troie,  opera  en  trois  actes,  II. 
Les  Troyens  a  Carthage,  opera  en  cinq  actes  avec  un  prologue, 
were  completed  in  1858.  An  opera  comique,  Beatrice  et 
Benedict,  after  Shakespeare's  Much  Ado  about  Nothing,  followed 
in  1 86 a.  As  at  first  intended,  Les  Troyens,  like  any  other 
grand  opera,  was  to  occupy  one  evening  only;  and  Beatrice 
et  Benedict  was  planned  as  a  musical  comedy,  a  'Lever  de 
rideau,'  in  one  act.  Both  works  were  repeatedly  revised,  unduly 
expanded,  and  spoilt.  ( On  peut  dire  de  lui  (Berlioz),  comme 
de  son  heroique  homonyme,  qu'il  a  peri  sur  les  murs  de  Troie  V 
Les  Troyens,  although  intended  as  an  equivalent  to  Wagner's 
Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen,  is  simply  an  opera  upon  an  unusually 
large  scale,  bearing  no  sort  of  resemblance  to  the  Wagnerian 
music-drama2.  From  the  stage-manager's  point  of  view,  the 
disposition  of  Les  Troyens  (Berlioz'  own)  is  unsatisfactory, 
and  there  are  but  few  cases  where  the  music  supports  and 
furthers  the  action  or  makes  amends  for  defects  in  dramatic 
construction  or  scenic  arrangements.  Even  the  dance  tunes, 
such  as  those  of  the  Combat  de  geste 3,  the  Pantomime  avec 
choeurs  in  La  Prise  de  Troie,  the  Pantomime  in  the  second  act, 
the  airs  de  danse  in  the  third  act  of  Les  Troyens  a  Carthage, 
have  a  touch  of  artificiality.  La  Prise  de  Troie  is  a  ponderous 
prelude  to  the  main  work.  In  the  opera  proper,  Les  Troyens 
a  Carthage,  the  dramatic  interest  lies  solely  in  the  departure 
of  Aeneas,  and  in  the  scene  of  Dido's  death.  The  style  of 
some  of  the  airs  and  scenes  and  of  the  short  choruses  recalls 
the  manner  sometimes  of  Gluck,  sometimes  of  Spontini.  The 
best  pieces  in  La  Prise  de  Troie  are  a  spirited  choral  ensemble, 

1  Gounod,  Preface  to  Berlioz'  Lettres  intimes. 

2  Part  I,  La,  Prise  de  Troie,  was  inadequately  performed  in  Paris  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  and  withdrawn  after  twenty  repetitions.     A  German  version  of  both  parts 
of  Les  Troyens  was  produced  at  Carlsruhe  in  1 897. 

3  Compare  Wagner's  Rienzi,  Act  II. 


yo  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

a  fine  Octet  and  chorus,  'Chatiment  effroyable,  mysterieuse 
horreur,'  a  touching  prayer,  'Puissante  Cybele,'  for  female 
voices,  Cassandra's  air  (in  the  manner  of  Spontini) ( Malheureux 
roi,'  and  a  'Marche  tyrienne,'  which  occurs  again  in  Les  Troy  ens  a 
Carthage, l  dans  le  mode  triomphal '  and  '  dans  le  mode  triste.' 
In  Les  Troyens  a  Carthage,  the  more  remarkable  numbers  are 
the  introductory  Lamento  and  the  ensembles  belonging  to 
Act  I,  including  the  fine  Chant  national '  Gloire  a  Didon,'  the 
ambitious  and  curious  Chasse  royale  et  Orage,  called  a  symphonic 
descriptive  avec  choeurs,  which  forms  the  second  act,  the  Quintet 
' O  pudeur,'  and  the  Septet  'Tout  n'est  que  paix  et  charme 
autour  de  nous,5  the  love  duet,  Dido  and  Aeneas  (a  rifacimento 
of  the  moonlight  scene  in  The  Merchant  of  Venice),  the  delicate 
1  Chanson  du  jeune  matelot,'  the  noble  fragment  of  a  duet,  Act  V, 
'  Va,  ma  soeur,  1'implorer,'  Aeneas'  air  f  Ah,  quand  viendra 
1'instant  supreme?'  Dido's  solo  ( Je  vais  mourir,'  and  f^nee, 
Enee,  ah,  mon  ame  te  suit,'  and  some  portions  of  the  picturesque 
choral  music  which  illustrates  the  funeral  ceremonies. 

Beatrice  et  Benedict  is  a  light  opera,  the  texture  of  which, 
shot  with  strands  of  comedy  and  romance,  was  woven  in  the 
loom  of  Benvenuto  Cellini.  The  influence  of  the  earlier  and 
more  robust  work  is  noticeable  in  many  solo  numbers  and 
ensembles ;  such  for  instance  as  Benedict's  rondo  ( Ah  !  je 
vais  1'aimer,'  the  trio  ( Me  marier,  Dieu  me  pardonne,'  and  the 
whimsical  duet  'L'amour  est  un  flambeau.'  One  of  the 
strangest  numbers  is  an  '^Ipithalame  grotesque'  written  in 
Berlioz'  rather  heavy-handed  counterpoint,  sung,  according  to 
the  stage-direction,  in  tones  of  extravagant  emphasis,  and 
repeated  with  a  farcical  accompaniment  of  oboes  and  bassoons. 
Like  the  'Amen'  chorus  in  Faust  it  is  an  obvious  satire  on 
academic  methods,  the  purport  of  which  hardly  atones  for  its 
ugliness.  But  the  opera  contains  two  numbers  which  are  fresh 
and  spontaneous  : — the  Sicilienne  which  serves  as  entr'acte,  and 
the  duet  '  Vous  soupirez,  Madame,'  which  in  Act  I  occupies 
the  place  of  the  finale.  The  latter  in  particular  is  a  shapely  and 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ROMANTIC  OPERA        71 

beautiful  composition,  which  in  style  and  feeling  forms  a  worthy 
pendant  to  the  shepherd's  chorus  in  the  Enfance  du  Christ. 

The  music  of  Charles  Gounod1,  an  eclectic  in  the  good 
sense  of  the  word,  shows  traces  of  Mozart,  Weber,  Meyerbeer, 
Halevy,  Auber,  Schumann,  and  early  Wagner.  But  Gounod 
so  completely  absorbed  and  assimilated  the  results  of  a  close 
study  of  these  masters  as  to  place  himself  in  a  position  to 
produce  something  that  is  new  in  effect  if  not  new  in  substance. 
The  distinctive  personal  note  of  his  music  consists  in  the 
expression  of  tender  sentiment  and  longing — as  in  certain  parts 
of  Faust  et  Marguerite  and  Romeo  et  Juliette.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  his  lovers,  Faust  and  Marguerite,  Romeo  and 
Juliette,  Vincent  and  Mireille,  Philemon  and  Baucis,  all  seem 
to  make  love  to  the  same  tune.  Gounod  rarely  reaches  the 
heights  of  passion.  He  contrives,  however,  to  reflect  the  changes 
of  light  emotion — in  Mireille  for  instance,  or  in  Philemon  et 
Baucis, andZ/e  Medecin malgre  lui.  Based  upon  just  declamation, 
as  it  was  practised  in  the  days  of  Lully  and  Gluck,  the  accents 
of  Gounod's  melody  never  contradict  those  of  the  words.  The 
refinement  of  his  style  is  peculiarly  French,  and  he  shows  a 
consummate  knowledge  of  orchestration  for  stage  purposes.  His 
first  opera,  Sapho  (1851),  was  a  failure,  and  so  was  La  Nonne 
sanglante,  in  1 854.  Success  came  with  Le  Medecin  malgre  lui, 
from  Moliere's  comedy,  which  appeared  in  1858,  and  particularly 
in  1859  with  Faust  et  Marguerite,  from  the  first  part  of 
Goethe's  Faust,  which,  after  a  short  period  of  suspense,  brought 
him  fame  and  position.  Gounod  professed  to  hold  his  own 
religious  music — the  oratorios  La  Redemption  (1882),  Mors  et 
Vita  (1885),  and  sundry  songs  of  a  pious  character — in  higher 
esteem  than  his  theatrical  works ;  yet  his  talent  was  essentially 
imitative,  histrionic,  and  his  best  work  belongs  to  the  operatic 
stage 2. 

>  1818-93. 

a  After  Faust  et  Marguerite  Gounod  produced  Philemon  et  Baucis  (1860),  and  La 
Reine  de  Saba  (1862),  both  at  the  Grand-0pe"ra  ;  Mireilk  (1864),  and  Romeo  et  Juliette 


73  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Ambroise  Thomas l,  an  eclectic  like  Gounod,  but  of  a  somewhat 
weaker  type,  and  more  inclined  towards  the  methods  of  Meyer- 
beer, made  his  mark  in  1866  with  Mignon,  after  Goethe's 
Wilhelm  Meister\  Hamlet  followed  in  1868,  and  Franqoise  de 
Rimini  in  1882.  But  the  next  French  opera  of  world- wide 
fame  after  Gounod's  Faust  et  Marguerite  was  Bizet's  Carmen, 
produced  at  Paris  in  1 875.  Bizet2  had  already  won  some  reputa- 
tion with  The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth  (1867),  Djamileh  (1872),  and 
with  his  brilliant  incidental  music  to  Alphonse  Daudet's 
Arlesienne  (1872),  but  it  is  into  this,  the  latest  and  greatest 
of  his  compositions,  that  he  put  his  best  work.  Despite  a  touch 
of  diablerie  which  Georges  Bizet's  music  shares  with  Merimee's 
story,  or  perhaps  because  of  that  very  touch,  Carmen  made 
a  distinct  and  strong  impression.  The  public  was  fascinated  by 
the  sensuous  and  picturesque  dances  and  songs,  and  the  murder  in 
the  Bull  Ring ;  musicians  were  fascinated  by  the  novelty  of  the 
Spanish  gipsy  measures,  the  subtle  cleverness  of  the  melodic, 
rhythmical,  and  harmonic  devices,  and  by  the  strange  realistic 
effects  of  instrumental  local  colour.  In  Carmen  (as  in  Weber's 
Preciosa)  the  music  is  always  in  accord  with  the  action,  yet  never 
crude  or  vulgar.  Every  note  sung  by  the  chief  personages 
seems  to  belong  to  them  by  natural  right.  The  music  is 
singularly  free  from  reminiscences  of  the  classical  composers ; 
throughout  it  savours  of  Spanish  and  Proven9al  folk-songs  and 
dances.  Its  beauties  are  too  well  known  to  need  quotation,  yet 
we  may  mention  the  Seguedille  et  Duo,  the  Habanera,  the 
Chanson  Boheme,  and  the  dance  with  which  Carmen  fascinates 
at  once  her  lover  and  her  audience.  Among  composers  of 
lesser  account  Edouard  Lalo  (1823-92)  produced  a  con- 
siderable impression  with  his  opera  comique  Le  Roi  a"  Ys,  and 
Leo  Delibes  (1836-91)  with  Le  Roi  Va  dit  and  Lakme. 

(1867),  both  at  the  The"atre-Lyrique ;  Cinq  Mars  (1877)  ;  Polyeucte  (1878) ;  Le  Tribut 
de  Zamora  (1881) — again  at  the  Grand-Op&a. 

1  1811-96. 

a  1838-75. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ROMANTIC  OPERA         73 

For  a  decade  or  so,  during  the  Second  Empire  (1860-70), 
Jacques  Offenbach l  influenced,  and  in  a  manner  controlled, 
public  taste  in  France  and  elsewhere  on  the  Continent,  in  a 
manner  disproportionate  to  the  musical  value  of  his  productions. 
Offenbach's  opera  bouffe,  which  eclipsed  the  genuine  opera 
comique,  was  a  perfect  echo  of  the  cynical  caprice  of  the  third 
Napoleon's  time — theatrical  extravagance  paired  with  farce—- 
satire with  vulgarity — a  theatrical  journal  pour  rire,  the  stress 
laid  upon  the  comic  licence  of  the  stage  business  and  the  licence 
emphasized  by  the  music  of  a  Meyerbeer  en  miniature. 

Yet  Offenbach  had  an  individual  gift  of  melody,  his  harmony 
at  times  was  refined,  his  instrumentation  often  ingenious,  though 
the  means  were  simple.  From  the  comedian's  point  of  view 
the  facility  and  rapidity  of  his  invention  was  remarkable.  His 
satirical  vein  never  failed.  Perhaps  the  operettas  Orphee  aux 
enfers  and  La  Chanson  de  Fortunio  represented  him  to  best 
advantage.  In  the  once  celebrated  La  Grande-Duchesse  de 
Gerolstein  he  appears  at  his  worst.  He  returned  to  his  first 
manner  before  his  death  in  Les  Contes  dy  Hoffmann. 

Two  German  comic  operas  demand  notice  here :  Peter 
Cornelius' 2  Der  Bar  bier  von  Bagdad,  produced  at  Weimar  in 
1858,  and  Hermann  Goetz'3  Der  Widerspenstigen  Zdhmung, 
after  Shakespeare's  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  produced  at  Mannheim 
in  1875.  Cornelius'  work  shows  the  influence  of  Berlioz' 
Benvenuto  Cellini;  Goetz'  of  Schumann  generally,  and,  far 
away,  of  Wagner's  Meister 'singer.  Both  operas  are  genre 
pictures  full  of  delicate  details,  but  at  times  the  music  is  too 
frail  for  stage  effect.  Goetz  was  not  a  man  of  theatrical  instincts 
and  had  hardly  come  in  contact  with  the  theatre  when  he  began 
to  compose  his  opera.  He  had  previously  produced  chamber 
music,  pianoforte  pieces,  and  songs.  His  sense  of  comedy 
lacked  power,  and,  though  he  never  actually  lost  sight  of  the  stage 
action,  yet,  like  his  model  Schumann,  he  deliberately  chose  to  lay 
his  chief  stress  on  musical  detail.  After  the  performance  at 
1  1822-80.  *  1830-74.  3  1843-76. 


74  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Mannheim,    Der     Wider spenstig en     Zdhmung    was    warmly 
received  at  Vienna  in  1875,  and  it  is  still  occasionally  given. 

Wagner's  Meistersinger  apart,  the  book  of  Cornelius'  Barbier 
von  Bagdad  is,  from  a  literary  point  of  view,  far  and  away  the 
best  comic  libretto  in  German.  There  is  nothing  to  approach 
it  in  any  other  language,  unless  it  be  Boito's  libretto  to  Verdi's 
Falstaff— which  has  the  great  advantage  of  livelier  stage  action. 
In  Der  Barbier  von  Bagdad,  Cornelius  sometimes  employs 
parlando  recitative,  and  even  the  patter  song,  upon  an  elaborated 
orchestral  background  and  with  astonishing  result — as  for 
instance  in  the  fifth  scene :  f  O  wiisstest  du,  Verehrter,  was  ich 
fur  ein  Gelehrter/  The  various  movements  are  formally  com- 
plete, as  is  the  case  in  Berlioz'  Benvenuto,  and  Cornelius  tried 
hard  to  resist  Wagnerian  influences — to  which,  however,  in  his 
last  opera,  Der  Cid,  and  the  unfinished  Gunlb'd  he  finally 
succumbed.  Compared  with  Goetz,  Cornelius'  originality  and 
fertility  of  invention  is  very  striking. 

Opera,  more  or  less  on  the  lines  of  racial  and  national 
characteristics,  began  in  Russia  with  Glinka's  1  La_  Vie  pour 
le  Tsar  (1836),  Russian  et  Ludmilla  (1842)  (the  text  after^ar 
romance  in  verse  by  Pushkin),  and  Serov's  Judith,  produced  in 
1863;  in  Poland  with  Moniuszko's  Halka  (1858);  in  Bohemia 
with  Smetana's  Prodana  nevesta  (The  Bartered  Bride)  (1866); 
in  Hungary  with  Erkel's  Hunyady  Lazlo  (1844). 

The  operas  of  Glinka  and  Smetana  are  distinguished  by  their 
musical  value  apart  from  theirposition  as  national  representatives. 
Glinka,  Russian  by  birth,  chose  to  adopt  the  characteristics  of 
North-eastern  European  folk-song,  both  in  the  vocal  and  instru- 
mental part  of  his  operas.  In  La  Vie  pour  le  Tsar,  Russian  and 
Polish  elements  are  combined 2.  In  his  incidental  music  to  a 

1  Glinka  was  born  in  1804,  he  died  in  1857.    His  memoires  were  published  in  1870. 

2  In  its  strongest  moments  the  music  to  La  Vie  pour  le  Tsar  appears  as  a  kind  of 
scene  painting,  very  bold  and  effective.     That  of  Russian  et  Ludmilla  is  of  a  fantastic , 
semi-oriental  character,  and  differs  so  greatly  from  the  first  opera  that  one  might 
guess  at  another  composer.     La  Vie  pour  le  Tsar  has  been  given  hundreds  of  times, 
and  its  popularity  shows  no  signs  of  abating. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ROMANTIC  OPERA 


75 


tragedy,  Le  Prince  Kholmsky,  by  Koukolnik,  there  are  remini- 
scences of  Hebrew  melodies.  His  technique,  vocal  and  instru- 
mental, is  that  of  a  master  with  a  faint  touch  of  dilettantism, 
trained  in  Italy  and  Germany.  The  melody,  apart  from  Russian 
influence,  is  reminiscent  of  South-western  Europe ;  the  orchestra- 
tion, too,  has  a  Southern  touch — French,  Italian,  or  Spanish — 
it  is  always  simple,  often  very  effective,  but  occasionally  thin. 
A  song  such  as  the  following,  from  La  Vie  pour  le  Tsar,  represents 
him  well. 


Adagio 


Con  molta  anima 
&- 


76 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Certain  orchestral  pieces  of  Glinka's  deserve  mention :  Jota 
Aragonese,  described  as  a  '  Capriccio  brillante/  a  Fantaisie  sur 
des  themes  espagnols,  '  Souvenir  d'une  nuit  d'ete  a  Madrid/ 
and  La  Kamarinskaja,  which  last  is  the  true  ancestor  of  Russian 
instrumental  music.  It  consists  of  an  orchestral  fantasia  on  two 
Russian  folk-tunes,  a  wedding  song  and  a  dancing  song,  rich  in 
novel  contrapuntal  devices  and  orchestral  contrivances  of  con- 
siderable originality  1. 

Alexander  Serov  2,  critic,  librettist,  amateur  composer,  in  early 
life  came  under  the  influence  of  Glinka,  and  later  pn  under  that 
of  Wagner.  His  first  opera,  Judith,  hesitating  and  inadequate  in 
point  of  style,  though  written  when  he  was  upwards  of  forty,  is 

|  National  elements,  Russian,  Spanish,  Italian,  Polish,  are  always  present  in 

Uinka's  songs— some  eighty  in  number.     He  accepts  existing  dance-rhythms  and 

takes  no  pains  to  modify  or  improve  upon  them,  as  Chopin  did  in  his  Mazurkas  and 

Polonaises.    The  list  of  Glinka's  works  includes  pianoforte  pieces,  chamber  music 

vocal  quartets,  choruses. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ROMANTIC  OPERA        77 

laid  out  on  the  lines  of  Meyerbeer  and  scored  in  the  manner  of 
Wagner's  Rienzi.  It  was  produced  in  1863  and  met  with  an 
extraordinary  and  lasting  popular  success  in  Russia.  His 
second  attempt  at  opera,  Rogneda,  contains,  according  to 
Tchaikovsky,  '  certain  oases  in  the  desert,  of  which  the  music 
will  pass  muster.'  In  1867  Serov  tried  something  faintly 
resembling  a  Wagnerian  music  drama  in  Russian,  on  a  Russian 
subject,  and  with  the  aid  of  Russian  folk-tunes,  thus  following 
in  the  wake  of  Glinka.  He  founded  his  libretto  on  Ostrovsky*s 
rather  sordid  play,  The  Power  of  Evil,  but  did  not  live  to  finish 
the  music,  of  which  the  orchestration  was  completed  by  Soloviev 
— an  arrangement  that  still  keeps  the  stage 1. 

Smetana's  most  famous  opera,  The  Bartered  Bride,  like 
Nicolai's  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  is  an  enlarged  Singspiel 
of  the  family  of  Mozart.  There  are  traces  and  touches  of 
Beethoven's  Fidelio  and  Cherubini's  Les  Deux  Journees.  The 
music  throughout  is  fresh  and  bright,  the  melody  refined,  the 
ensembles  masterly,  and  there  is  a  great  deal  of  amusing  inter- 
play and  episode.  Six  other  operas  by  Smetana  have  been 
performed.  His  cycle  of  Six  Poemes  symphoniques,  entitled 
My  Country,  shows  considerable  cleverness  and  some  originality. 

Moniuszko's  Halka  is  the  favourite  Polish  opera.  The 
original  two  acts  were  first  performed  at  Wilna  in  1854. 
With  two  further  acts  interpolated,  it  was  heard  at  Warsaw  in 
1858,  and  repeated  there  for  the  five  hundredth  time  in  1900. 
The  interpolations  weaken  the  total  effect,  but  the  charm  of 
the  tunes  keeps  the  work  afloat.  It  is  admirably  written  for 
the  voices  and  admirably  scored.  Moniuszko  put  forth  a 
total  of  fifteen  Polish  operas,  several  Masses,  cantatas,  and  a 
number  of  songs. 

The  achievements  of  English  composers  during  the  first  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  instrumental  music  of  Sterndale 

1  Liszt  {Letters  to  Madame  de  Wittgenstein,  Hi.  p.  38)  mentions  some  candid  advice 
on  the  subject  of  Serov's  opera  Judith  :  ' . .  .  que  je  lui  ai  conseille  de  traiter  comme 
Judith  avaitfait  d'Holopherne  !  Imagine:  que  Serov  se  figure  qu'il  est  le  Wagner 


7  8  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Bennett  and  the  church  music  of  the  Wesleys  excepted,  were 
by  no  means  imposing.  Judged  by  quality,  the  operas  of  Balfe 
and  Wallace,  such  as  Balfe's  still  popular  Bohemian  Girl  (1843), 
or  Wallace's  Maritana  (1845)  an(^  Lurline  (1860),  are  not  in- 
ferior to  the  lighter  operatic  ware  produced  in  France  and  Italy 
for  the  delectation  of  middle-class  audiences — but,  then  as  now, 
musicians  must  have  found  them  weak  and  insufficient.  Both 
Balfe  and  Wallace  had  a  facile  gift  of  melody.  Expert  vocalists 
and  instrumentalists  (Balfe  was  a  famous  singer,  and  Wallace 
has  the  reputation  of  having  been  a  virtuoso  upon  the  violin), 
they  understood  the  requirements  of  popular  operatic  performers, 
and  were  sufficiently  experienced  as  musicians  to  handle  a  small 
orchestra  and  a  small  chorus  with  ease  and  skill. 

The  operettas  of  Burnand  and  Gilbert,  the  librettists,  and 
Sullivan  the  composer — from  Box  and  Cox,  and  Trial  by  Jury, 
to  The  Gondoliers j  The  Yeomen  of  the  Guard,  and  The  Mikado 
— are  the  leading  English  contributions  to  the  devolution  of 
opera  comique  to  the  opera  bouffe.  These  amusing  pieces 
were  hailed  with  delight  by  all  English-speaking  people,  chiefly 
on  account  of  the  fresh  air  and  healthy  laughter  that  pervades 
their  humorous  extravagance.  When  Sullivan  appeared  with 
his  music  to  Shakespeare's  Tempest,  Balfe  and  Wallace  were 
near  the  end  of  their  careers.  Sullivan,  a  gifted  and  accom- 
plished musician,  had  acquired  the  mannerisms  of  Mendelssohn, 
and  felt  the  simple  charm  of  Schubert ;  he  came  by  degrees  to 
emulate  the  savoir-faire  of  Auber,  and  to  approach  the  satire  of 
Offenbach.  His  first  essays  in  operetta,  Box  and  Cox  (1867), 
and  Trial  by  Jury  (1875)  (both  libretti  by  Burnand),  were 
avowedly  due  to  Offenbach's  example,  but  from  the  outset  they 
were  free  from  the  grotesque  eccentricities  of  their  French 
models.  There  is  a  distinct  personal  note  about  Sullivan's 
lighter  operatic  tunes ;  amiable,  tender/  slightly  ironical,  always 
graceful  and  artistic.  His  lucid  sense  of  humour  stood  him 
in  good  stead.  In  agreement  with  the  Merry  Andrew  in  the 
prologue  to  Goethe's  Faust,  he  seems  to  have  said  to  himself : — 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ROMANTIC  OPERA        .79 

*  Posterity  !  Don't  name  the  word  to  me  !  if  /  should  choose 
to  teach  posterity,  where  would  you  get  contemporary  fun  ? ' 
Technically  Sullivan  was  a  master  all  round;  a  good  vocalist, 
and  well  acquainted  with  every  instrument  used  in  the  orchestra, 
or  in  military  bands.  In  the  matter  of  orchestration  he  was 
completely  at  his  ease,  and  at  once  found  the  simplest  and  best 
means  of  attaining  his  end.  His  melodic  vein  flowed  readily 
and  copiously ;  it  was  never  deep  nor  passionate,  yet  at  its  best 
sufficiently  capable  of  expressing  emotion.  His  declamation 
was  easy  and  natural :  the  words  and  the  tune  seemed  to  spring 
from  the  same  source.  His  own  favourite  among  the  operettas 
was  The  Yeomen  of  the  Guard  (1888),  probably  because  of  the 
touching  dramatic  story.  Ivanhoe,  a  serious  effort  in  opera, 
can  hardly  be  said  to  have  fallen  flat  since  there  were  one 
hundred  and  six  consecutive  performances  in  London  only,  but 
it  failed  to  compel  assent. 


CHAPTER  VI 

OVERTURES   AND   SYMPHONIES 

WEBER'S  music,  both  vocal  and  instrumental,  owes  its 
character  indirectly  to  the  romantic  nature  of  the  legends  and 
scenes  which  he  employed  as  a  basis  of  his  works.  His  innate 
tendency — which  in  later  years  became  a  conscious  aim — was 
to  achieve  a  complete  rendering  of  the  emotional  essence  of 
a  dramatic  situation  in  terms  of  music,  be  it  instrumental  or 
vocal.  Thus  his  Concertstiick  is  essentially  a  f  Dramatic  Con- 
certo/ and  the  three  overtures  to  his  mature  operas  are  the 
finest  Dramatic  Fantasias  extant,  reproducing,  in  a  concentrated 
form,  the  sentiment  of  the  scenes  and  situations  which  are  to 
ensue. 

Apart  from  the  stage,  romantic  effects  in  instrumental  music 
arose  from  a  desire  to  reproduce  impressions  derived  either 
from  imaginative  literature,  or  directly  from  natural  phenomena 
— to  express  the  prevailing  emotion,  the  mood  of  some  particu- 
lar poem  or  story,  or  of  some  particular  aspect  of  nature. 

The  latter  maybe  illustrated  by  Mendelssohn's1  famous  over- 
ture The  Hebrides  (Fingal),  written  in  1830. 

The  music  here  conveys  a  sense  of  distance,  of  solitude,  and 
of  moving  water.  Further  on,  there  are  suggestions  and  effects 
as  of  storm,  or  of  wind-shaken  surges,  of  shifting  gleam  and 
cloud,  of  the  sea-mew's  plaintive  cry,  and  the  shimmer  of  north- 
ern seas.  Most  hearers  will  confess  to  having  received  some 
such  impressions-— even  if  they  do  not  happen  to  possess  Heine's 
or  Schumann's  gift  of  evolving  pictures  from  musical  sounds, 
1  Mendelssohn  was  born  in  1809,  he  died  in  1847. 


OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES 


81 


and  are  not  aware  that  the  work  was  conceived  amid  the  rugged 
scenery  of  Staffa  and  the  adjacent  islands. 

Allegro  noderato 


Flauti. 


Oboi. 


Clarinetti 
iu  A. 


Fagotti. 


Corni  in  D. 


Trombe 
in  D. 


Timpani. 


Violino  I.     / 


Violino  II. 


Viola.    •< 


Violoncello. 


Basso. 


ftp***: 


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Allegro  moderate 


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DANSUECTHIK 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Flanti.     f  ^* 


Oboi. 


Clarinetti 
in  A. 


Fagotti. 


Corn!  in  D. 


Trombe 
in  D. 


Timpani. 


Violino  I. 


Violino  II. 


Viola. 


Violoncello. 


Basso. 


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OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES 


'  Mendelssohn,'  Wagner  said l,  '  was  a  landscape  painter  of 
the  first  order/  and  this  overture  is  his  masterpiece.  Note  the 
extraordinary  beauty  of  the  passage  where  the  oboe  rises  above 
the  other  instruments  with  a  wail  as  of  sea  winds  over  the  sea : 


Oboi. 


Viol  in  1 1 1. 


Violino  II. 


Viola. 


Violoncello. 


Basso. 


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Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music,  article  Wagner. 
G  1 


84  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  this  piece  is  merely 
made  up  of  a  series  of  more  or  less  picturesque  devices  of 
orchestration,  or  that  it  is  in  any  way  meant  to  be  an  example 
of  programme  music.  It  is  pure  instrumental  music  on  musical 
lines  *. 

Its  originality  consists  in  the  nature  of  the  fresh  and  charac- 
teristic subjects,  especially  the  first  subject — and  in  the  masterly 
treatment  of  the  orchestra.  Mendelssohn's  other  overtures — 
A  Midsummer  Night*  s  Dream  (1826),  Meeresstille  und  gliickliche 
Fahrt  (1828),  and  Zum  Marchen  von  der  schonen  Melusine 
(1833) — are  to  a  certain  extent  reflections  of  literature.  In 
Meeresstille  the  composer  is  guided  by  the  poet's  order  of  ideas 
— Goethe's  pictures  of  a  calm  at  sea  and  a  prosperous  voyage. 
In  Melusinaj  Tieck's  version  of  the  old  French  story  prompts 
the  music,  which  seems  to  depict,  alternately,  the  beauteous 
water-nymph  turned  human,  her  pathetic  distress  on  discovery, 
and  the  return  to  her  former  condition.  Here  again,  the  music 
is  meant  to  tell  its  own  tale  in  purely  musical  terms  and  on 
purely  musical  lines.  The  title  contains  all  that  the  composer 
deemed  needful  to  guide  the  audience  2. 

Mendelssohn's  nearest  approach  to  the  role  of  musical  illus- 
trator is  contained  in  the  Scherzo  of  an  early  work,  the  octet  for 
strings  (1825),  and  the  instrumental  introduction  to  the  cantata, 
Die  erste  Walpurgisnacht.  Originally  the  Scherzo  in  the  octet 
was  headed  by  a  stanzg  from  the  f  Intermezzo '  in  Goethe's 

Faust : — 

Orchester — pianissimo. 

Wolkenzug  und  Nebelflor  Floating  cloud  and  trailing  mist 

Erhellen  sich  von  oben ;  Bright'ning  o'er  us  hover ; 

Luft  im  Laub,  und  Wind  im  Kohr,  Airs  stir  the  brake,  the  rushes  shake, 

Und  alles  ist  zerstoben.  And  all  their  pomp  is  over. 

The  materials  are  arranged  in  accordance  with  the  usual  scheme  of  harmonic 
distribution— the  outlines  of  the  sonata  form :  I.  Exposition,  first  subject  in  B 
minor,  second  subject  in  the  relative  major  D.  II.  The  working-out  section, 
wherein  fresh  harmonic  centres  are  touched  upon.  III.  Recapitulation,  with  both 
subjects  in  the  principal  key. 

2  Mendelssohn's  aversion  to  anything  resembling  a  detailed  programme  came  out 
very  clearly  in  his  sarcastic  answer  to  a  question  as  to  the  «  meaning'  of  Metusina  : 
'  Hm — does  my  music  hint  at  a  mesalliance  ?  ' 


OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES  85 

The  Introduction  to  Die  erste  Walpurgisnacht  describes : — i. 
eDas  schlechte  Wetter/ and  2.  '  Der  Uebergang  zum  Friihling.' 

The  germs  of  the  overture  to  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  can 
be  traced  to  a  reading  of  Shakespeare's  play  in  Schlegel  and 
Tieck's  translation,  when  Mendelssohn  was  still  in  his  teens. 
The  score  was  finished  in  1826,  before  he  had  completed  his 
eighteenth  year.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  impressions  of  certain 
scenes  took  shape  in  the  young  man's  mind,  and  how,  with  Weber's 
overtures  for  a  model,  he  fused  and  welded  them  together  so  as 
to  form  a  consistent  whole.  The  music  seems  to  convey  sugges- 
tions of  Titania  asleep,  revels  of  fairies,  a  dance  of  clowns  with 
the  bray  of  ( Bottom  translated,'  the  lovers'  hide  and  seek,  and 
the  nuptial  festivities.  Technically  the  overture  is  a  carefully 
planned  and  carefully  finished  piece  of  work.  The  orchestra- 
tion is  remarkable  for  its  clearness  and  practical  efficiency. 
Every  fantastic  effect  is  produced  with  perfect  ease.  The  spirit, 
however,  is  Weber's  from  the  first  note  to  the  last,  and  in  this 
important  respect  this  overture  is  inferior  to  The  Hebrides,  and 
perhaps  even  to  Melusina.  The  rest  of  the  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream  music  is  of  later  date.  In  1843  Mendelssohn  was  asked 
to  write  incidental  pieces  for  a  performance  of  the  comedy  at 
Berlin.  The  orchestral  numbers — Scherzo,  Elfinmarsch,  Inter- 
mezzo (Hermione  seeking  Lysander),  Notturno,  Wedding  march, 
a  comic  Funeral  march  and  a  Clowns'  dance — show  the  master 
at  his  very  best. 

There  is  no  need  to  dwell  on  the  other  overtures — Ruy  Bias, 
Athalie,  the  overture  for  a  Military  band,  published  as  Op.  24, 
and  the  so-called  Trumpet  overture  in  C — for,  apart  from  the 
technical  merits  which  they  possess  in  common  with  all  Mendels- 
sohn's orchestral  pieces,  they  have  not  sufficient  spontaneity 
and  weight  to  make  their  gradual  disappearance  a  matter  for 
much  regret. 

Schumann  wrote  a  number  of  overtures,  of  which  Manfred 
(1848)  and  Genoveva  (1847-8)  are  the  only  two  that  really 
represent  his  powers.  The  rest,  such  as  Faust,  Julius  Caesar, 


86 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Die  Braut  von  Messina,  Hermann  und  Dorothea,  belong  to  that 
unfortunate  period  of  feverish  productiveness  which  preceded 
his  final  collapse  (1850-4) ;  all  more  or  less  ineffectual,  they  leave 
an  impression  of  weariness  and  vain  effort. 

The  overture  to  Manfred  stands  forth  among  Schumann's 
works  even  more  conspicuously  than  The  Hebrides  among 
Mendelssohn's.  In  some  degree  Schumann's  tone-poem  sug- 
gests the  atmosphere  of  Byron's  Manfred,  though  it  can  hardly 
be  called  Byronic  in  spirit ;  a  generic  name,  such  as  Brahms 
chose  for  his  *  Tragic '  overture,  would  suit  it  better.  With  the 
Manfred  overture,  a  piece  sombre  in  tone,  deeply  felt  and  very 
personal,  Schumann  came  nearer  to  the  inner  fane  of  music  than 
Mendelssohn  with  The  Hebrides,orwith  Meeresstille  or  Melusina. 
Though  perfectly  original  in  matter  and  sentiment,  the  method 
of  construction  employed  in  Manfred  recalls  that  of  Beethoven's 
third  period.  The  subjects  are  strong  and  novel  in  style.  The 
passionate  melody,  the  vehement  rhythm,  the  keen  chromatic 
progressions  and  poignant  dissonances,  combine  to  produce  an 
effect  of  restless  longing  and  fierce  excitement,  to  which,  in  its 
particular  kind,  the  history  of  music  can  afford  no  parallel. 


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OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES 


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THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


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OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES 


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9o  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Next  to  Manfred  the  overture  to  Genoveva,  a  shapely  and 
spirited  piece,  full  of  refined  melody,  still  holds  its  own  in  the 
concert-room. 

Composers,  after  Beethoven,  who  desired  to  attempt  the 
grand  form  of  orchestral  music,  found  the  breaking  of  new 
ground  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty.  Schumann  shared 
Mendelssohn's  reluctance  to  experiment  in  symphonic  design. 
Both  masters,  however,  introduced  some  novel  features  with 
a  view  to  unity,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  use  of  the  same 
subject  in  several  movements  and  the  more  or  less  close  con- 
nexion of  one  movement  with  another,  as  in  Mendelssohn's 
symphony  in  A  minor  and  in  Schumann's  symphonies  in 
D  minor  and  B  flat. 

Mendelssohn,  in  the  so-called  Scotch  and  Italian  symphonies, 
depicts  moods  reflecting  impressions  which  he  received  in  Scotland 
and  in  Italy  (1830-1).  He  also  makes  occasional  use  of  certain 
characteristic  traits  of  Scotch  and  Italian  folk-music,  apparently 
with  a  view  to  a  musical  picture  of  manners  and  local  colour. 
In  the  symphony  known  as  the  ( Reformation,'  in  the  symphony 
to  the  Lobgesang,  and  in  the  overture  to  St.  Paul  he  appeals 
to  religious  sentiment  and  the  associations  of  worship,  by  means 
of  leading  phrases,  such  as  '  Alles  was  Odem  hat,  lobe  den 
Herrn,'  in  the  Lobgesang,  or  the  ( Dresden  Amen '  and  the 
chorales  f  Ein'  feste  Burg  ist  unser  Gott,'  in  the  ( Reformation ' 
symphony,  and  f  Sleepers  wake,'  in  St.  Paul. 

Schumann,  more  introspective  than  Mendelssohn,  more  of  a 
mystic  and  an  intellectualist,  and  less  open  to  external  impressions, 
sought  to  express  his  personal  desires — the  glow  of  enthusiasm, 
the  ardour  of  love,  or  joy,  or  sorrow J.  Thus  his  four  sym- 
phonies make  a  stronger  appeal  to  the  emotions,  and  stimulate 
the  hearer  in  a  more  direct  manner  than  those  of  Mendelssohn. 
They  evince  a  greater  power  of  invention  in  harmony,  melody, 
and  the  rhythms  and  figures  which  constitute  the  thematic 

1  In  every  case  the  man  and  the  musician  always  strove  to  speak  simultaneously 
'  Mensch  und  Musiker  suchten  sich  immer  gleichzeitig  bei  mir  auszusprechen.' 


OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES 


material.     There  is  more  energy  in  the  Allegros,  deeper  pathos 
in  the  slow  movements. 

The  freshness  and  originality  of  Schumann's  talent  is  fully 
apparent,  even  in  his  first  symphony  in  B  flat,  Op.  38  l.  Among 
his  friends  this  work  was  known  as  the  Spring  Symphony  ;  and 
it  is  indeed  full  of  the  glory  of  spring  and  joyous  youth.  The 
Introduction  starts  with  a  stately  phrase  for  horns  and  trumpets  : 

Andante  vn  poeo  mautoso. 
Trumi>ets, 


T    C   r   r    f  r 

which  is  really  the  first  subject  of  the  Allegro  : 


Allegro  motto  virace. 

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it  occurs  again  in  a  larger  form  at  the  close  of  the  working-out 
section.  After  the  recapitulation  of  the  subjects  the  music  breaks 
away  into  a  new  theme,  a  spring  song  which  carries  to  a  full 
climax  the  emotional  fervour  of  the  movement. 


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1  First  performed  undtr  Mendelssohn  at  the  bewandhaus,  Leipzig,  in  1845.     At 
the  same  concert  Mendelssohn's  Violin  Concerto  was  first  heard. 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Towards  the  end  of  the  Larghetto,  a  gentle  sensuous  melody 
with  variants  recalling  the  early  manner  of  Beethoven,  the 
hearer  is  again  surprised  by  the  appearance  of  new  melody. 
This  time,  however,  it  is  not  climax  but  anticipation.  The  new 
subject  arises,  ghostlike,  to  the  sound  of  softly  swelling  trom- 
bones, and  then,  with  a  sudden  forte,  bursts  forth  as  the  Scherzo  : 

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The  Scherzo  has  two  trios,  the  first  of  which  consists  of  a 
curious  device  in  groups  of  chords  rather  weak  in  effect,  alter- 
nating between  strings  and  winds  in  f  time.  The  same  groups 
of  chords  are  again  introduced  at  the  end  of  the  movement,  so 
as  to  serve  as  a  kind  of  bridge  to  the  Finale.  Probably  the 
construction  of  a  suitable  sequel  to  three  movements  of  such 
exceptional  calibre  presented  unforeseen  difficulties.  Schumann, 
serious  by  nature,  when  he  wants  to  be  jocose,  is  apt  to  become 
trivial.  That  he  disliked  triviality,  so  far  as  he  saw  it,  seems 
proved  by  the  fact  of  his  employing  the  full  orchestra,  trombones 


OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES 


93 


and  all,  to  emphasize  a  concatenation  of  violent  phrases,  which 
are  meant  to  serve  as  a  contrast  to  the  somewhat  flimsy  leading 
tunes  of  the  Finale. 

The  result  as  a  whole  is  hardly  satisfactory.  Incongruous 
effects  of  this  kind  may  be  *  humorous,'  or  '  romantic/  or  what 
not — they  are  certainly  eccentric.  And  the  first  leading  tune 
when  it  returns  after  a  polite  little  cadenza  for  the  horns  and 
the  flute,  comes  dangerously  near  to  a  Pas  seul. 


Flute. 
Solo,    cadema 


1  $  J7  **'~  —  =  

p—  —  •   *c«  •  •  —  —  -i 

$f           — 

wnpoco  ritard.    a  Tempo 

fa  1                rz^d 

Strings.    ',_;      ' 


p  w  n  p      p 


P       p 


94  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

With  the  symphony  in  D  minor,  No.  4 *,  Schumann  continued 
his  efforts  to  attain  unity.  To  this  end,  the  leading  phrase  of 
the  introduction  to  the  first  movement  is  repeated  in  the  second 
— a  '  Romanze ' ;  the  principal  figure  of  the  first  Allegro  is 
again  employed  to  form  a  link  between  the  close  of  the  Scherzo 
and  the  beginning  of  the  final  Allegro ;  and  all  the  movements 
are  joined  together  so  as  to  avoid  a  break.  In  spirit  as  well  as 
in  technical  execution  both  the  weak  and  the  strong  side  of 
Schumann's  talent  are  fully  in  evidence.  The  work  contains 
bold,  tender,  and  fantastic  ideas  presented  in  a  very  free  and 
original  manner,  and,  as  in  the  second  part  of  the  first  Allegro, 
often  treated  with  remarkable  skill.  But  both  the  first  and  last 
movements  seem,  at  times,  to  suffer  from  a  want  of  air  and 
perspective. 

The  high-water  mark  of  Schumann's  symphonic  music  is 
reached  in  the  symphony  in  C,  Opus  61  (1846).  Laid  out  on 
consistent  lines,  this  work  shows  perfect  unity  of  spirit,  although 
there  are  fewer  special  devices  to  unify  the  movements  than  in 
the  symphony  in  D  minor.  Some  points  in  the  Finale  excepted, 
the  entire  work  is  strikingly  original  in  topic,  and  the  first  three 
movements  are  admirably  concise  in  form.  As  compared  with 
the  symphonies  in  B  flat  and  D  minor  the  efficiency  of  the 
orchestration  is  worthy  of  note.  The  sounds  emitted  by  the 
various  groups  of  instruments  are  characteristic  and  spontaneous 
in  effect ;  and  most  of  the  themes  give  the  impression  that  they 
were  directly  conceived  in  the  actual  form  in  which  they  reach 
the  ear.  The  work  opens  with  a  solemn  contrapuntal  introduc- 
tion, a  broad  theme  for  trumpets,  horns  and  trombone,  accom- 
panied by  a  flowing  counter-subject  on  the  strings. 


1  This  work  is  really  the  second  symphony,  having  been  sketched  in  1841,  soon 
after  the  first,  though  it  was  not  completed  till  1851.  It  was  at  first  entitled 
'  Symphonische  Phantasie,'  and  it  appears,  indeed,  as  a  landmark  on  the  border 
between  the  older  symphony  and  the  '  Poeme  symphonique.' 


OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES 


95 


Trumpets. 


Horns. 


Flutes. 


Oboes. 


Clarinets 


Bassoons. 


ombone 
Alto. 


et 
olin. 


Second 
Violin. 


Viola.    J 


jllo. 


^'•.-ittinito  iiKfiii      J  =  76. 

&• — « — i 1,.^,  n r-^ 


i 


m 


r 


pp 


g     U  r 


_____! 


P 


96 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Truinpeta. 


Horna. 


Flutes. 


Oboes. 


Clarinets 
inBb. 


Bassoons. 


Trombone 
Alto. 


First       / 
Violin. 


Second 
Violin. 


'Cello. 


Bass. 


I 


J 


m 


Sr^= 


=3 


-  i- 


i   F 


\S*=p 


3Z=± 


& 


=3$A 


OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES 


97 


P 


-^ =4- 


i 


sa= 


-j  r  Irrrarrr 


tP 


m  m  * 


DANNREUTHER 


98 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Trumpets. 


Horns. 


Flutea. 


Oboes. 


Clarinets 
inBb. 


Bassoons. 


Trombone 
Alto. 


First      / 
Violin. 


Second 
Violin. 


Viola.  •< 


'Cello. 


Bass. 


V 


'J.  » 


J.  r    r    _ 


"  " 


OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES 


99 


i 


r* 


fejUE 


±± 


SI 


P 


f 


r     r  r- 


3^ 


=P=^ 


^^ 


I-      C — 1= 


:p    --—     •-H-L-ti- 


J. 


H  2 


ioo  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

This  in  due  course  leads  to  an  Allegro  full  of  virile  and 
impulsive  energy.  The  breadth  and  conciseness  of  this  move- 
ment are  more  noticeable  than  in  any  other  of  Schumann's 
orchestral  compositions;  the  working-out  section  in  particular 
has  something  of  the  grand  style  and  the  classic  dignity. 
Next  follows  a  vehement  Scherzo  with  two  well-contrasted  trios, 
and  then  a  slow  movement  of  poignant  pathos,  remarkable  alike 
for  its  closeness  of  texture  and  for  several  fine  effects  of  instru- 
mentation. Schumann's  special  power  of  vivid  expression  is 
well  illustrated  by  his  treatment  here  of  the  oboes  and  bassoons, 
and  by  the  superb  chain  of  trills  for  the  violins  which  holds  in 
unbroken  unity  the  flying  scales  and  arpeggios  of  the  wood  wind. 

There  is  less  of  concentrated  power  in  the  Finale.  The 
subjects  are  telling  enough,  but  the  persistent  reiteration  of 
a  jerky  rhythm — bars  13-46  and  elsewhere — produces  an  im- 
pression as  of  a  crowd  of  superlatives  jostling  one  with  another. 
The  development  section,  in  which  part  of  the  subject  of  the 
Adagio  reappears  both  in  an  inverted  form  and  recte,  is  ingenious, 
and  the  Coda,  in  which  the  phrase  from  the  Introduction,  quoted 
above,  is  interwoven  with  the  other  subjects,  is  as  irresistible 
in  movement  as  it  is  rich  in  texture.  It  cannot  be  denied, 
however,  that  the  full  effect  is  marred  by  want  of  balance 
and  economy  in  the  distribution  of  strongly  emphasized  points. 

Taken  as  a  whole  this  symphony,  together  with  Schubert's 
symphony  in  the  same  key,  ranks  as  the  greatest  achievement 
in  symphonic  form  after  Beethoven  and  before  Brahms.  It 
stamps  Schumann  as  the  most  original  of  contemporary  instru- 
mental composers  and,  together  with  the  Manfred  overture, 
places  him  as  the  leading  representative  of  the  romantic  spirit 
of  his  day. 

Opus  97,  in  E  flat,  known  as  the  Rhenish,  written  in  1850  and 
published  as  No.  3,  in  1851,  is  the  last  and  longest  of  Schumann's 
symphonies.  It  is  also  the  least  spontaneous  and  the  most 
laboured.  There  are  five  movements.  The  personal  note,  that 
important  element  in  Schumann's  work,  is  not  particularly 


OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES  101 

prominent,  and  the  technique  of  the  experienced  artist  can 
hardly  make  amends  for  its  absence.  In  the  first  movement 
the  process  of  elaboration  is  felt  to  be  artificial,  and  the  middle 
portion  of  the  last  movement,  for  the  same  reason,  appears  dry 
and  dull.  A  so-called  Scherzo  in  C  major,  £,  molto  moderate, 
which  in  Schumann's  words  'probably  reflects  a  bit  of  life/ 
has  the  lilt  of  a  folk-song,  and  was  at  first  called  'Morning 
on  the  Rhine/  The  most  subtle  and  carefully  written  section 
is  an  impressive  contrapuntal  movement  in  E  flat  minor,  placed 
between  the  Andante  and  the  Finale.  It  was  conceived  at  a 
solemn  ecclesiastical  function  held  in  Cologne  Cathedral  and 
was  originally  headed  'Im  Charakter  der  Begleitung  einer 
feierlichen  Ceremonie ' — '  in  the  manner  of  music  at  a  religious 
ceremony/  The  music  of  Schumann's  later  life  is  in  more  than 
one  respect  touched  with  religious  influence.  In  the  days  of 
the  Myrthen,  of  the  Pianoforte  quintet,  of  Paradise  and  the 
Peri,  he  took  the  Romantic  movement  on  its  human  side  and 
expressed  in  a  heightened  and  intensified  form  the  joys  and 
sorrows  of  customary  human  experience.  But  the  second  part 
of  Goethe's  Faust  opened  to  him  a  new  world  of  thought  and 
feeling,  and  from  thenceforward  we  find  him  striving  towards 
a  deeper  and  more  mystic  utterance.  It  was  not  always  with 
success,  for,  with  all  its  reticence,  his  natural  temper  was 
human  and  sympathetic :  when  he  attempted  to  scale  the 
remoter  and  more  solitary  heights  he  climbed  with  a  vacillating 
and  uncertain  tread,  due  partly  to  the  unfamiliarity  of  his 
surroundings,  partly,  no  doubt,  to  the  gradual  encroachment 
of  disease.  The  craftsmanship  would  not  always  answer  the 
requirements  of  the  thought :  there  is  a  want  of  that  supreme 
mastery  which,  in  Bach  or  Beethoven,  can  embody  the  highest 
truth  without  appearance  of  effort.  Hence  he  shows  at  his 
best  when,  as  in  the  movement  under  discussion,  he  represents 
the  external  pageantry  of  spiritual  fervour: — the  medium 
through  which  it  appeals  to  that  romantic  element  in  human 
nature  which  even  religion  itself  has  not  disdained  to  employ. 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

FEIERLICH.  J  =  54. 


TIMPANI  in 

Eb  and  lib 
TRUMPETS 

E?  LJ  _  

in  Eb 

§*  P  "  |J 

1 

^  —  'L^/LA  —  ^--4—^--  z^A^.  uj  i 

1 

£M9                                                                       _—  — 

in  Eb 

Mr                                                 «•  —                               —  -v. 

j?                                                    PflJ        J          I        J           J 

OBOES. 

e  i               i  —  =t 

CLARINETS 

P 

57T  J—  ]  1  J      bj     bj      ^J     1  j  ^bjLj  J-T 

^    wf  f  '  T  f  f       r      T  ^  r 

tt..fe     n  i..  -i.iJ  —  j  —  •*--^r^l  -J-  J     uJ  , 

TROMBONES. 

'  PP'T*    r  f-  'T       •              E- 

-s             *                                        T^ 

r.bb  (;  L.J  *i  r  —  -  —      —  •  P  —  =1  —  p^  —  tr*  —  P  •  — 

tf                                                               ft  pizz. 

'CELLOS.  I 

if                                  f3  pizz. 

BASSES.  / 

if           fl)3  pizz. 

f 

OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES 


103 


r 


r^^r 

i  i    i  -  ~ 
*=^ — ^= 


fe^     J.  3  •  N  .  J  J  *t^ 


1EE 


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r     i  —  i   -)  —i      i   r 


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farm 


3=g= 


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JJ^^UPH-J- 


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104  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

One  of  Schumann's  lesser  orchestral  productions  may  fitly 
be  mentioned  here.  It  is  a  short  Suite  or  Sinfonietta  entitled 
'Ouvertiire,  Scherzo  und  Finale/  Op.  52,  in  E  (1841-5),— a 
bright,  slender,  somewhat  sketchy  piece,  with  a  touch  of 
Cherubini  in  the  Introduction  and  first  Allegro. 

The  most  notable  weakness  in  Schumann's  Symphonic  work 
is  his  deficiency  in  orchestration.  Now  and  then  he  succeeded 
in  producing  novel  effects  of  great  beauty,  such  as  the  weird 
sound  of  the  chords  for  trumpets  and  trombones  in  the  passage 
quoted  above,  from  the  overture  to  Manfred,  or  the  thrilling 
tones  of  strings  ending  in  the  long  chain  of  shakes  in  the  Adagio 
of  the  second  symphony.  New  and  successful  touches  of  in- 
strumental colour  are,  however,  rare  with  him.  He  shows  but 
small  sense  of  the  possibilities  of  instrumental  tone,  and  for  want 
of  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  peculiar  qualities  and  capabilities 
of  orchestral  instruments  either  single  or  grouped,  his  musical 
ideas  do  not  seem  in  the  first  instance  to  have  presented  them- 
selves to  his  mental  ear  through  the  medium  of  the  orchestra. 
His  instrumentation,  in  consequence,  falls  short  of  Mendels- 
sohn's habitual  clearness  and  brilliancy,  and  even  as  compared 
with  the  instrumentation  of  lesser  contemporary  composers, 
German  or  French,  it  often  appears  inept,  turgid,  or  dry. 
Occasionally,  indeed,  a  page  of  his  scoring  looks  and  sounds 
like  so  many  bars  of  rather  clumsy  pianoforte  music  writ 
large. 

The  finest  of  Mendelssohn's  symphonies,  the  Scotch  (1821-31 
-42)  and  the  Italian  (1831),  form  a  remarkable  complement  to 
Schumann.  •  They  certainly  have  more  of  the  practical  efficiency 
that  comes  of  all-round  ability,  training  and  experience — 
especially  in  respect  of  copiousness  and  fluency  of  diction,  and 
variety  of  instrumental  colour.  They  are  most  carefully  designed 
and  finished  down  to  the  smallest  details,  and  they  have  a 
picturesqueness  and  a  poetical  atmosphere  of  their  own  which 
leaves  nothing  to  be  desired  in  point  of  originality ;  yet  they  do 
not  approach  the  emotional  elevation  of  Schumann's  work.  The 


OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES  105 

conrincing  personal  touches  are  absent ;  especially  in  the  case  of 
the  slow  movements  wherein  Mendelssohn's  habitual  attitude  of 
reserve  in  the  expression  of  deep  emotion  is  most  apparent. 
Schumann's  disposition  always  prompted  him  to  deal  directly 
with  passion,  and  strongly  to  emphasize  the  human  element; 
whereas  Mendelssohn  preferred  to  depict  moods  which  are, 
more  or  less  directly,  the  results  of  external  impressions.  In 
other  words,  Mendelssohn  in  his  leading  symphonies,  and  almost 
as  much  in  his  best  overtures,  reveals  himself  as  one  who  chooses 
to  express,  in  musical  terms,  the  moods  of  a  'landscape*  or 
'  genre '  painter.  Thus  the  first  sixteen  bars  of  the  Scotch  sym- 
phony, which  now  act  both  as  an  introduction  and  as  close  to 
the  first  Allegro,  were  written  down  as  an  impression  de  voyage 
(1829)  in  the  chapel  of  Holyrood  Palace,  'open  to  the  sky 
and  surrounded  with  grass  and  ivy,  and  everything  ruined  and 
decayed/  The  subjects  of  the  first  Allegro  (A  minor,  f ),  the 
Scherzo  (F  major,  f),  and  the  Allegro  maestoso  which  follows 
the  Allegro  guerriero  (A  major,  f),  recall  Highland  scenery, 
fighting  legends,  and  the  lilt  of  Scottish  tunes.  The  first  subject 
of  the  Scherzo  is  a  happy  transformation  from  minor  to  major 
of  '  Charlie  is  my  darling.'  In  the  case  of  the  Italian  symphony 
it  is  equally  obvious  that  the  most  characteristic  movements — 
the  Allegro,  the  Andante,  and  the  Finale — are  records  of 
musical  moods  suggested  by  things  actually  seen  and  heard. 
The  Andante  con  moto  (D  minor  £)  recalls  the  music  of  a 
religious  procession,  a  Pilgrim's  March;  and  the  final  Saltarello, 
named  after  two  strains  of  a  popular  dance  of  the  Romagna, 
contains  also  a  bit  of  a  Neapolitan  Tarantella.  Heine  (1842),  in 
one  of  his  half-serious  moods,  compared  Felix  Mendelssohn's 
talent  with  the  talent  of  Mademoiselle  Rachel  Felix,  the 
actress :  '  Peculiar  to  both,'  he  says,  '  is  the  fact  that  they  are 
seriously  in  earnest,  they  have  a  decided,  almost  an  aggressive 
predilection  for  classical  models,  they  delight  in  the  most  in- 
genious calculations  of  delicate  effects,  they  show  singular  clever- 
ness and,  finally,  a  total  lack  of  na'ivete.  But,'  Heine  adds,  ( is 


io6 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


there  such  a  thing  in  art  as  genuine  originality  without  na'ivete"} 
hitherto  a  case  has  not  occurred. ' 

It  seems  a  far  cry  from  Mendelssohn  to  Wagner.  But 
Wagner's  overture  Faust  distinctly  belongs  to  the  Central  phase 
of  the  Romantic  development  and  is  best  discussed  here. 


Der  Gott,  der  mir  im  Busen  wohnt, 
Kami  tief  mein  Innerstes  erregen ; 

Der  tiber  alien  meinen  Kraf ten  thront, 
Er  kann  nach  aussen  nichts  bewegen ; 

Und  so  ist  mir  das  Dasein  cine  Last, 
Der  Tod  erwtinscht,  das  Leben  mir 
verhasst. 


The  God  that  dwells  within  my  breast, 
Can  stir  the  inmost  of  my  being, 

Holds  all  my  power  at  His  behest, 
Yet  naught  without  marks  His  decree- 
ing ; 

And  so  my  whole  existence  is  awry, 
Life  hateful,  and  my  one  desire  to  die.' 


These  are  the  lines  from  Goethe's  Faust  that  serve  for  a 
motto  to  Wagner's  f  Eine  Faust-Ouvertiire,'  an  orchestral  piece 
written  at  Paris,  in  1840,  and  originally  intended  to  be  the  first 
movement  of  a  Faw*/-symphony ;  it  was  entirely  rewritten  in 
1 854-5,  and  is  now  complete  as  it  stands.  The  second  part  of 
the  projected  (symphony  was  to  have  depicted  Gretchen.  The 
overture,  as  we  have  it,  is  concerned  with  Faust's  moods  alone. 
It  depicts  Faust  in  solitude,  with  his  day-dreams,  his  sadness, 
and  his  despair.  In  spite  of  the  motto,  it  would  be  wrong  to 
interpret  this  eminently  independent  and  original  work  as  a 
piece  of  programme  music.  The  designation  (  Eine  Ouvertiire ' 
is  equivalent  to  Characterstiick  or  Stimmungsbild — a  picture  of 
a  particular  mental  state  or  expression  of  feeling,  as  is  the  case 
with  certain  overtures  of  Beethoven  such  as  Eamont,  Coriolan9 
Leonora,  No.  i.  There  is  in  Wagner's  Faust  no  conflict  or 
discrepancy  between  externals  and  the  innermost  being  of  man  ; 
the  state  of  feeling  is  conveyed  to  the  mind  by  purely  musical 
means,  and  the  design  depends  upon  purely  musical  devices. 
There  is  nothing  left  to  be  gathered  from  a  printed  programme, 
and  there  are  no  traces  of  a  symbolical  or  histrionic  kind.  '  Eine 
Faust-Ouvertiire '  invites  comparison  with  the  Coriolan  over- 
ture of  Beethoven  and  the  Manfred  overture  of  Schumann. 
Faust's  moods  are  as  vividly  expressed  by  Wagner,  as  the 
essentials  of  Coriolanus's  character,  and  the  emotional  influences 


OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES  107 

that  touch  upon  it,  are  depicted  by  Beethoven ;  and  Wagner's 
music  reflects  Faust's  passion  more  closely  perhaps  than 
Schumann's  music  reflects  the  passion  of  Manfred.  In  the 
striking  originality  of  the  Coda  and  in  the  conciseness  and 
perspicuity  throughout,  Wagner's  Faust  forms  a  parallel  to 
Beethoven's  Coriolan.  The  instrumentation  is  as  efficient  and 
telling  as  Beethoven's,  and  already  foreshadows  Wagner's  later 
practice  of  grouping  the  instruments  in  accordance  with  deli- 
cate affinities  of  timbre. 

The  slow  introduction  is  a  model  of  condensation,  and  as  it 
were  a  presage  or  anticipation  of  the  Allegro.  It  contains  some 
of  the  leading  subjects  and  figures  in  nuce : 


Viola. 
*•    Sthr  gehalttn 


Nothing  could  be  more  characteristic  of  Wagner  than  this 
bleak  and  rugged  theme.  Its  incisive  rhythm,  its  tragic  in- 
tensity, its  challenging  defiance  of  conventional  melodic  beauty, 
all  may  find  a  hundred  parallels  in  his  later  compositions. 


io8  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

The  opening  themes  of  the  Allegro  are  as  follows  : — 


a.   J 


Strings. ^ 


Sehr  lewegt 


ff 


I  Hi 


OVERTURES  AND  SYMPHONIES 


109 


The  second  subject,  presumably  suggested  by  the  lines  : 


Ein  unbegreiflich  holdes  Sehnen 

Trieb  mich  durch  Wald  und  Wiesen 
hinzugehn, 

Und  unter  tausend  heissen  Thranen 
Ftihlt'  ich  mir  eine  Welt  entstehn. 


A  sweet  uncomprehended  yearning 
Drove  forth  my  feet  through  woods 
and  meadows  free, 

And  while  a  thousand  tears  were  burning 
I  felt  a  world  arise  for  me. 


consists  of  a  broad  melody  in  F  major,  typically  instrumental  by 
reason  of  its  great  width  of  range.  A  marvel  in  the  beauty  of 
its  instrumental  colour,  it  is  at  first  intoned  by  a  group  of  wood 
wind  and  horns,  and  then  repeated  in  A  major  by  the  strings. 


^     K-Bl 

D      r 

fi  1  
r-V- 

^,  3 

-j 

u^ 

>~ 

_  x 

Through  a  series  of  transitions  of  a  type  fully  developed  in 
Tristan  und  Isolde  it  approaches  the  third  subject,  also  in  F, 
which  during  some  sixty  bars  of  ingenious  modulation  gradually 
comes  to  a  crisis,  and  prepares  for  the  development  section 
commencing  thus : 

Wood  wind. 


Bassoon  and  LSaas. 


no 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


,  _fl  M-  14  M-y-r-*- *-/-.-••* 

BEr?irirM  i^^-i^irpf-fr^r 

£g±=iti_jLr  rr  r=«^!  '  i  i  '  !   !  !  ! •  "^ 


and  finally  leading  to  a  climax  of  force  and  power.  The 
conclusion  consists  of  a  condensed  recapitulation,  and  a  long- 
drawn-out  Coda,  pianissimo. 

f  In  instrumental  music  I  am  a  reactionnaire,  a  conservative/ 
said  Wagner  in  1877.  fl  dislike  everything  that  requires  a 
verbal  explanation  beyond  the  actual  sounds/  Together  with 
the  Huldigungsmarschj  the  Kaisermarsch,  and  that  miracle  of 
rare  device,  the  Siegfried-Idyll,  this  overture,  so  consistent  in 
design  and  execution,  is  a  practical  illustration  of  his  views. 


CHAPTER 

PROGRAMME  MUSIC 

BERLIOZ  and  Liszt  were  not  content  with  the  novel  possibilities 
opened  up  by  the  infusion  of  the  romantic  spirit  into  the 
established  forms.  They  desired,  rather,  to  bring  about  some 
sort  of  direct  alliance  of  instrumental  music  with  poetry.  To 
effect  this  they  chose  to  make  use  of  the  means  of  musical 
expression  for  purposes  of  illustration.  Thus  they  came  to  lay 
stress  upon  the  conjunction  of  music  with  some  particular  poem  or 
some  special  order  of  ideas,  and,  in  the  construction  of  their  pieces, 
to  rely  directly  on  suggestions  received  from  literary  or  other  non- 
musical  sources.  The  result  was  the  production  of  a  curious 
hybrid  which  has  been  called  Programme  music,  i.e.  music 
posing  as  an  unsatisfactory  kind  of  poetry l. 

In  the  case  of  Berlioz'  symphonies,  the  programme  forms  an 
important  part  of  the  artistic  scheme  and  the  music  is  hardly 
intelligible  without  it.  His  symphonies  comprise  the  Symphonie 
fantastique  (1828-30),  and  its  sequel,  Lelio,  ou  le  retour  a  la 
vie  —  monodrame  Iyrique(i8^2) ;  Harold  en  Italic  (1834);  and 
the  Symphonic  dramatique,  Romeo  et  Juliette  (1839). 

In  Berlioz'  overtures,  such  as  Waverley,  Les  Francs-Juges, 
Rob  Roy,  Roi  Lear,  Le  Corsaire,  Le  Cameval  romain,  the  mere 
names  ought  to  be  sufficient  to  define  the  nature  of  the  appeal 
to  the  hearer's  imagination.  But  in  a  large  part  of  the  Symphonie 

1  Lesueur  (1763-1837),  Berlioz'  composition  master  at  the  Conservatoire  of 
Paris,  in  his  pamphlet  Expose  d'une  musique  imitative  et  particuliere,  so  early  as 
1786  pointed  at  imitation  as  the  true  aim  of  music,  and  his  compositions  were 
written  in  accordance  with  a  '  plan  raisonn^,'  which  plan  or  programme  was  printed 
for  the  benefit  of  the  audience.  In  this  respect  there  appears  to  be  a  '  filiation 
artistique  '  between  Lesueur  and  his  pupil. 


\ 


ii2  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

fantastique,  notably  the  Finale,  the  music  is  sheer  nonsense 
unless  the  hearer  has  knowledge  of  the  programme ;  yet  even  if 
he  has  full  knowledge,  the  heterogeneous  factors  interfere  with 
one  another,  and  leave  an  annoying  sense  of  incoherence  and 
incongruity.  The  same  may  be  said  of  parts  of  such  movements 
as  the  ( Orgie  des  Brigands,'  which  forms  the  finale  of  Harold  en 
Italic,  or  the  f  Invocation  et  Reveil  de  Juliette,'  and  the  middle 
portion  of  the  ( scene  d'amour,'  which  forms  the  central  move- 
ment of  Rom6o  et  Juliette. 

Berlioz,  who  claimed  to  have { taken  up  music  where  Beethoven 
laid  it  down/  deserves  respect  for  the  power  and  persistence  of 
his  efforts.  About  his  originality  there  can  be  no  contention. 
His  aim  was  always  high,  his  ambition  unbounded.  Whether  he 
succeeded  in  expressing  what  he  meant  to  express,  as  Beethoven 
almost  invariably  did,  is  another  matter.  After  more  than  half 
a  century  of  controversy,  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  estimate  the 
value  or  to  gauge  the  genuineness  of  his  claims.  None,  how- 
ever, need  take  him  at  his  own  valuation  or  at  that  of  his 
partisan  Liszt.  The  problems  involved  are: — Were  his  con- 
ceptions formed  in  harmony  with  the  conditions  of  musical  art  ? 
Did  his  methods  of  composition  do  justice  to  his  conception? 
Is  his  style  convincing  ?  And  the  answers,  even  if  they  are  mainly 
in  the  negative,  may  now  be  given  with  some  hope  of  general 
acceptance.  The  whole  question  hinges  on  the  special  nature  of 
Berlioz'  gifts  and  attainments,  and  on  their  particular  limitations. 
He  was  a  man  of  excitable  temperament  and  vivid  imagination, 
a  great  master  of  instrumental  effect,  an  adept  in  the  use  of 
colour  and  rhythm,  a  melodist  of  limited  scope  and  power,  a  poor 
harmonist,  and  an  equally  poor  contrapuntist.  His  instinct  for 
form  and  just  proportion  was  defective,  his  judgement  wanting 
in  balance. 

His  disposition  was  in  reality  more  poetically  imaginative  than 
musical.  He  was  inclined  to  emphasize  the  histrionic  side  of  art 
and  to  indulge  in  extravagance.  His  ideals  of  beauty  and  style 
in  music  appear  to  have  been  narrowly  personal,  and  he  chose  at 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC  113 

times  to  embody  them  in  a  bizarre  and  eccentric  manner.  He 
was  familiar  with  the  principal  operas  of  Gluck  and  Spontini ; 
and  with  those  of  Weber,  in  so  far  at  least  as  they  can  be  ap- 
preciated without  a  knowledge  of  German.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  assistance  he  derived  from  the  example  of  the  masters  of 
self-dependent  instrumental  music  was  comparatively  small.  His 
acquaintance  with  the  bulk  of  their  work,  Beethoven  excepted, 
was  little  more  than  casual,  his  knowledge  of  Bach  practically 
nil.  The  view  that  he  took  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  is  best  stated 
in  his  own  words  : — '  When  I  hear  Mozart  I  am  troubled  with 
a  slight  nightmare,  when  I  hear  Haydn  I  am  troubled  with  a 
big  one.'  It  is  undeniable  that  in  spite  of  his  sympathy  with 
Beethoven's  symphonies,  quartets  and  sonatas,  he  was  unable 
fully  to  grasp  and  value  the  principles  of  design  which  underlie 
them  and  to  appreciate  the  many  subtle  devices  by  which 
Beethoven  contrives  to  give  them  life  and  unity. 

Berlioz'  failure  to  combine  his  many  excitable  impulses  into 
an  organic  whole,  caused  him  to  feel  the  need  of  a  *  programme ' 
which  should  explain  the  intention  of  his  music.  The  programme, 
as  employed  by  him,  serves  on  the  one  hand  to  disguise  a  lack  of 
constructive  power,  and  on  the  other  hand  assists  in  the  attempt 
to  express  literary  and  theatrical  ideas  in  terms  of  orchestral 
colour  and  rhythm.  It  follows  that  those  sections  of  his  in- 
strumental works  in  which  design  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
that  is  to  say,  the  principal  Allegros  and  the  Finales  of  the 
symphonies,  exhibit  his  peculiar  powers  in  the  least  favourable 
light. 

The  programme  of  his  first  important  instrumental  produc- 
tion, the  Symphonic  fantastique  (1830),  informs  us  that  the 
work  is  intended  to  depict  an  f  episode  de  la  vie  d'un  artiste,' 
and  goes  on  to  state  how  a  young  musician  is  affected  by 
f  le  vague  des  passions,'  which  causes  the  image  of  a  beloved 
maiden  always  to  appear  to  him  accompanied  by  a  musical 
phrase,  a  Leitmotif,  £  comme  une  double  idee  fixe.'  At  a  ball, 
the  young  man  in  an  exalted  mood  stands  and  gazes  upon  the 

DANNRKUTHER 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


scene,  but  the  '  idee  fixe/  both  maiden  and  tune,  continues  to 
trouble  him.  Of  an  evening,  in  the  country,  he  hears  two 
shepherds  piping  to  one  another  from  afar;  he  reflects  that 
the  maiden  might  be  false  to  him :  ( Bruit  eloigne  de  tonnerre 
.  .  .  solitude  .  .  .  silence  .  .  . '  Having  acquired  the  certitude 
that  his  sentiments  are  misunderstood,  he  takes  a  dose  of 
opium.  He  dreams  he  has  murdered  the  beloved  and  has 
been  condemned  to  death,  but  is  yet  in  a  position  to  witness 
the  execution:  cMarche  au  supplice^;  at  the  end  of  which 
'  Fidee  fixe '  appears  again,  but  is  cut  short  by  the  fall  of  the 
axe. — Finale :  Visions  of  a  witches'  sabbath — f  howls,  laughter, 
cries  of  pain,  waitings/ — the  melody  appears  yet  again,  now 
turned  into  a  vulgar  dance  tune — f  Demoniacal  orgies,  death 
bells,  the  Dies  irae  and  Ronde  du  Sabbat  combined  amid  wild 
yells/  and  so  forth. 

The  outlines  of  the  customary  movements  of  a  symphony 
are  shadowed  forth  in  this  curious  scheme.  I.  '  Reveries — 
passions/  Largo  and  Allegro.  II.  ( Un  Bal/  a  dance  movement. 
III.  '  Scene  aux  champs/  Adagio.  IV.  £  Vision — a.  Marche 
du  supplice ;  b.  Songe  d^une  nuit  du  Sabbat/  Allegro  strepitoso. 
A  few  quotations  will  show  the  character  of  the  themes 
employed : — 


Largo    J  =  56. 


a. 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


J*  j 


£ 


80- 


L'idfe  fixe. 
Allegro  agitato  es  =  132. 


b. 


EN 

mf 

X-—  • 

r 

=7-1,       ^> 

P^iF=-^*-H 

r^rn 

—  v 

Ff2^"! 

^V 

Sspretiivo 
eon  passione 

fr' 

jjoco  ^/brzato 

"     1 

w> 


J 


-»-^P^4 — •— P- 


TO — ur 


&C. 


I  2 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Oboe  solo. 


C. 


'"IT 

- 

3  «^  —  1 

ly                                         ~M~ 

Stprettivo 
e 

* 

I 

1 

? 

:^: 

- 

^-- 

" 

E 

P^      f 

*       i 
Strings 

•L 

1 

P* 

r 

* 

t 

r 

'Cello 

6 

\L_  

8 

J       J       J       J       J       J      1 

i 


i 


P 


&C. 


:fr  f 


u 


The  c  idee  fixe '  (Example  a)  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  sample 
of  Berlioz*  melody — artificial  rather  than  warm  or  spontaneous, 
and  not  susceptible  of  much  variety  of  harmonic  or  contrapuntal 
treatment.  The  combination  of  tunes  extending  to  some  forty- 
eight  bars  (Example  b)  is  an  instance  of  that  peculiar  process 
of  rabbeting  which  with  Berlioz  often  takes  the  place  of 
counterpoint,  and  may  be  compared  with  the  subsequent 
treatment  of  the  Ronde  du  Sabbat  and  Dies  irae.  The  Valse 
tune  approaches  the  commonplace : 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


Strings. 


Valtt.    j  •  =  60. 


The f  Scene  aux  champs,3  the  most  consistent  and  most  music;il 
section  of  the  symphony,  shows  the  influence  of  Beethoven's 
Sinfonia  pastorale,  notably  of  the  s  Scene  am  Bach/  Though 
there  are  no  direct  reminiscences  of  that  movement,  its  mood 
is  reproduced  tant  bien  que  mal',  and  an  equivalent  for  the  quaint 
imitation  of  bird  notes  at  the  end  of  it  is  sought  in  a  theatrical 
effect  of  distant  thunder,  which  is  produced,  very  realistically, 


u8 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


by  four  drummers-  on  four  drums  struck  with  s  baguettes  a  tete 
d'eponge/  Berlioz  ends  his  scene  with  a  variant  of  the  duo 
between  oboe  and  corno  inglese  which  forms  the  opening — 
a  subtle  and  telling  device  that  makes  for  symmetry  : 


Adagio      •  -  84. 


a. 


y#-*-J    -r  q      1 

Corno  Inglese. 

*      *     J      J    •    ' 

F=== 

Oboe.                        jjl 

h  r  S  q  f\ 

gO  

dolce 


ffi*: 


^ 


^=^ 


^^ 


Viola. 


PTft 


f=pFTi 


&c. 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


119 


Corno  Ingleae. 


b. 


/rfci 

T":  r.         fl 

[..  J  3  ,  -=] 

Timpani. 

^  '  4  ^J 


P^' 
/"^/^    *P 

1         Timpani. 

w  f 


/tab  —  -  —  h       •      — 

f  1        |       J    a     J      l-UErgr-:  d  —  1 

&?-  —  m 

%      P%              * 

••I       . 

^±J&-L-    If       1      ^=^= 
1^-,-^^=^=  

h       •'-  h-~^"^=1 

The  drummers  are  busy,  with  and  without  sourdines, '  et  avec 
des  baguettes  de  bois,'  during  the  fortissimos  in  the  Marche  au 
supplies,  as  well  as  in  the  Ronde  du  Sabbat,  and  the  travesty 
of  the  Dies  irae  which  constitutes  the  Finale.  In  the  latter 
movement  they  are  assisted  by  two  further  drummers  who 
beat  a  (  grosse  caisse  roulante/  and  by  a  host  of  brass  instru- 
ments, a  pair  of  cymbals,  and  two  bells  behind  the  scenes. 


120 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Strings. 


Drums  with 
mutes. 


J  J  J 


^f 


dim. 


i 


jGTV— t 


— 


r  '^.'r^:^-! — ai 


*  ^ 


Dies  irae  et  Ronde  du  Sabbat  ensemble. 
Strings. 


b. 


^ 


ff 


Brass  and  Wood  wind. 


~t^ 
-&• 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


121 


The  limitations  of  Berlioz'  mental  horizon,  his  histrionic  bias 
and  tendency  to  attitudinize,  are  nowhere  so  much  in  evidence 
as  in  that  collection  of  romantic  platitudes,  the  monologues  of 
'1'acteur  qui  parle  et  agit  seul  sur  1'avant-scene '  in  Lelio, 
ou  le  retour  a  la  vie:  monodrame  lyrique,  which  forms  the 
sequel  to  the  Symphonic  fantastique.  It  is  a  mere  pasticcio 
made  up  of  heterogeneous  fragments  and  pieces  loosely  strung 
together  by  means  of  rhapsodical  declamation. 

Apart  from  his  love  for  a  loud  noise,  every  page  of  his  scores 
manifests  Berlioz'  instinct  for  sonorousness  and  tone  quality, 
and  the  extraordinary  care  with  which  he  worked  out  his 
combinations  of  instrumental  colour — indeed  the  lucidity  and 
beauty  of  his  instrumentation  throughout  is  remarkable.  A 
number  of  his  novel  effects,  however,  be  they  beautiful,  violent,  or 
grotesque,  are  produced  by  the  mere  sound  of  the  instruments 
rather  than  evolved  from  the  musical  conception;  they  seem 
to  have  had  some  separate  existence,  perhaps  in  the  composer's 
notebook,  before  the  notion  of  either  programme  or  symphony 
occurred  to  him.  ( C'est  fort  beau,  quoique  ce  ne  soit  pas 
de  la  musique.' — From  a  technical  point  of  view,  Berlioz' 
orchestration  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  distinctness.  It  is, 


122  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

as  he  calls  it,  eclatant  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  varied,  daring, 
original.  The  stress  is  laid  more  often  on  the  novelty  than 
on  the  beauty,  but  things  sound  as  they  are  intended.  The 
various  procedures  have  nothing  about  them  that  might  be 
called  meretricious — no  particular  devices  predominate.  His 
powers  of  invention,  in  this  respect,  are  almost  as  great  as 
Weber's  and  far  greater  than  those  of  his  disciples  in  orchestra- 
tion such  as  Liszt,  Felicien  David,  Saint-Saens. 

The  second  symphony,  Harold  en  Italic,  contains  also  a 
persistent  melody,  which,  like  that  of  the  Symphonic  fantas- 
tique,  is  somewhat  jejune  in  character,  and  somewhat  incapable 
of  harmonic  variety. 

Adagio    •  =  76. 
Esprestivo  e  largamente 


Viola 

:if*  3    J     rf 

^-^  p=  ~  |***j  J-pJ.  j~T~p~h»  —  "J  1  *  —  ~i 

HIP 

:  J|  —  4            ±. 

7)^ 

iEs^sh 

"j^    i   h-H 

M+-W  

*•  *  ^  — 
^^  _ 

Originally  designed  as  a  concerto  for  Paganini,  this  work 
grew  under  Berlioz5  hand  into  a  l  Symphonie  en  quatre  parties 
avec  UH  alto  principal 3 ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that 
two  of  its  chief  themes  are  taken  almost  exactly  from  the 
discarded  overture  to  Rob  Roy 1.  One,  '  the  persistent  melody,5 
stands  for  '  une  sorte  de  reveur  melancolique  dans  le  genre  du 
Childe  Harold  de  Byron  V  The  other  tune  found  a  place  in 
the  first  Allegro.  The  entire  symphony  forms  a  record  of  the 
composer's  musical  recollections  of  Italy:  I.  f Harold  aux 
montagnes,  scenes  de  melancolie,  de  bonheur  et  de  joie,' 
Adagio  and  Allegro.  II.  *  Marche  de  pelerins  chantant  la 
priere  du  soir,5  Allegretto.  III.  '  Serenade  d'un  montagnard 

1  Written  at  Rome,  1832,  and  said  to  have  been  destroyed  after  a  fiasco  in  1833. 
The  full  score  was,  however,  found  and  published  in  1900. — When  Lully,  obeying 
his  confessor,  put  the  score  of  his  Armida  in  the  fire  :  '  Eh  quoi,  Baptiste,  lui  dit- 
on,  tu  as  pn  bruler  une  si  belle  chose  !  —  Paix,  paix,  j'en  ai  garde  copie.' 

2  Eecte,  Dans  le  genre  du  R^ne",  de  Chateaubriand. 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


123 


des  Abruzzi  a  sa  maitresse,'  a  sort  of  Scherzetto.  IV.  '  Orgie 
de  brigands,  souvenirs  des  scenes  precedentes,'  Allegro  frene- 
tico.  The  scheme  is  closely  akin  to  that  of  the  Symphonic 
fantasttque,  embracing  a  similar  order  of  movements,  with  the 
histrionic  Leitjnotif  in  each,  and  Berlioz'  favourite  '  Orgie,' 
by  way  of  Finale.  The  fragmentary  restatement  of  themes, 
described  as  ' Souvenirs  des  scenes  precedentes'  is  a  device 
derived  from  the  Finale  of  Beethoven's  Ninth  Symphony  (the 
score  of  which  appeared  in  1826).  Advocates  of  Berlioz5 
method  can  point  to  the  '  Marche  de  pelerins'  with  its  mysterious 
charm,  and  the  *  Serenade,'  as  genre  pictures  of  rare  originality, 
the  undeniable  success  of  which  goes  far  towards  justifying 
realistic  effects,  such  as  the  imitation  of  bells  and  the  responses 
of  the  Litany  which  occur  at  intervals  in  the  march,  or  the 
pseudo-contrapuntal  ingenuity  with  which  the  Harold  motive 
is  joined  to  the  main  theme  : 

Allegretto  j  =  96. 

„-    Oboe,  i'       ^J.      r    •        . -— ;        •--.    .  ' v 


Marche  de 
pelerins. 


* 


Strings. 


124 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


dim. 


Wind. 


&c. 


poco  f 


Viola. 


b.    \ 


Strings. 


/  J    f.  1  1 

1 

pizz. 

/^"i~T'Vi  —  in 

E=  4                ^J 

y^-p-"'*-  * 

mp.  'Cellos  and  Bassoons  Cantando  __ 

^*i*P::r:=='T    i  "^~=F3- 

—  i      5^=  —  g       i- 

i^w-rL-^ 

\   ^-Jt-l-J-           yj                [ 

i*       —  =r 

ytzz. 


Solo. 


m/  Theme  de  I'adagio 


g 


«*N-g 


^  Canto. 


- 


TUT 


n  s 

5 


11 


fe? 


^4^==^ 


1; 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


125 


P  Canto. 


eret, 
Ac. 


3= 


•=*»? 


In  the  c  Serenade '  the  interweaving  of  dissimilar  melodies  and 
rhythms  is  carried  to  an  extreme  with  surprising  cleverness 
and  picturesque  effect : 

Allegro  aiaai      J  =  138. 


p 

Wi 

*=j~t 

* 

f 

fc*^ 

•1 
8va.    .         . 

~J. 

^" 

F=f= 

J4. 

r  r    JF  :    JF  : 

mf 

r       r 

in  ?  f  i 

N   8    »-f  T 

—  r  'j  r  r  •  j  r 

h   h   r   h 

Allegretto    J  =  1S9.     Moitit  mains  vite.  Viola  solo. 


-I-  "  n          T  I 


Flute,  Harp  (harmonics). 


Let  Altai  contervent  le  meme  mouvement  (Allegro  assai) 


^ffmfff 


i: 


*      J 


s2- 


P 


126  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


|  ;  j 

j£pr-          1 

^-|»-      ' 

If     '                          =1 



&  j  :  j  :  i  rr»-fpt- 

1 

j  M  h  rn  m 

~JS»  =  1 

&c. 

With  f  Romeo  et  Juliette  —  symphonic  dramatique,  avec 
choeurs,  solos  de  chant  et  prologue  en  recitatif  choral,  composee 
d'apres  la  tragedie  de  Shakespeare '  (1838) — Berlioz  professed  to 
believe  he  had  reached  cl'ile  merveilleuse  ou  s'eleve  le  temple 
de  Part  pur/  What  he  did  in  fact  reach,  or  at  least  approach, 
was  a  kingdom  of  Cockayne.  And  he  seems  to  have  been 
dimly  conscious  of  this  fact  when,  in  the  preface  to  the  edition 
of  1857,  he  tried  to  explain  that  his  efforts  were  not  meant  to 
be  an  (  opera  de  concert '  nor  a  cantata,  but  a  l  symphonic  avec 
choeurs/ 

In  the  first  instance  the  work  was-  undoubtedly  intended  to 
be  a  symphony  illustrating  certain  incidents  of  Shakespeare's 
play.  The  conception  comprised  the  following  movements : — 
Andante  malinconico  and  Allegro  (f  Romeo  seul/  ( Grande  fete 
chez  Capulet '),  Adagio  ('  Scene  d'amour '),  Scherzo  ('  La  reine 
Mab '),  Finale,  instrumental  and  choral  (c  Rixe  des  Capulets  et 
des  Montaigus — Serment  de  reconciliation ') ;  evidently  a  scheme 
resembling  that  of  the  Symphonic  fantastique  and  Harold, 
influenced  by  the  vocal  Finale  of  JJeethoven's  Ninth.  If  a 
programme  thus  laid  out  had  been  furnished  separately,  or  if 
only  the  titles  of  the  sections  had  been  given,  the  composer 
might  have  succeeded  in  justifying  his  scheme ;  but  he  chose, 
instead,  to  preface  the  principal  instrumental  movements  by  a 
lengthy  vocal  introduction  :  which  consists  of  a  Prologue  set  as 
a  choral  recitative,  followed  by  two  Couplets  for  contralto  solo 
containing  sentimental  reflections.  Later  on,  the  symphonic 
movements  are  interrupted  by  a  chorus  of  male  voices  singing 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


127 


1  Reminiscences  de  la  musique  du  bal,'  and  again  by  a  choral 
and  instrumental  piece,  entitled  :  '  Convoi  funebre  de  Juliette.' 
This  is  followed  by  a  melodramatic  orchestral  piece,  ( Romeo  au 
tombeau  des  Capulets' — and  the  close  consists  of  a  kind  of 
operatic  scena  which  includes  a  lengthy  'Recitatif  et  air  du 
pere  Laurence '  and  a  choral  '  Serment  de  reconciliation/ 

Thus  the  complete  work  has  seven  divisions:  i.  Orchestral 
introduction,  'Combats,  tumulte,  intervention  du  Prince'; 
Prologue,  '  Recitatif  choral  et  Scherzetto,  La  Reine  Mab,'  tenor 


solo  and  chorus.  3.  Romeo  seul — ( Tristesse,'  orchestra  alone ; 
c  bruit  lointain  de  bal  et  de  concert ;  grande  fete  chez  Capulet.' 
3.  Ojrchestra  and  chorus — 'Nuit  sereine;  le  jardin  de  Capulet 
silencieux  et  desert;  les  jeunes  Capulets,  sortant  de  la  fete, 
passent  en  chantant;  scene  d'amour' — orchestra  alone.  4. 
Scherzo — { La  reine  Mab,  ou  la  fee  des  songes  ' — orchestra 
alone.  5.  Orchestra  and  chorus — f  Convoi  funebre  de  Juliette.' 
6.  Orchestra  alone — *  Romeo  au  tombeau  des  Capulets  ;  invoca- 
tion, reveil  de  Juliette ;  elan  de  joie  delirante,  brise  par  les 
premieres  atteintes  du  poison ;  dernieres  angoisses  et  mort  des 
deux  amants.'  7._Finjle-— Prchestraj  solo  voice,  and  double 
chorus — fLa  foule  accourt  au  cimetiere;  rixe  des  Capulets 
et  des  Montaigus ;  recitatif  et  air  du  pere  Laurence ;  serment 
de  reconciliation.' 

Is  it  in  any  way  surprising  that  such  a  conglomerate  should 
prove  a  failure  in  spite  of  a  host  of  novel  and  beautiful  details  ? 
Undoubtedly  practical  skill  and  insight  is  shown  in  the  selection 
of  incidents  which  lend  themselves  more  especially  to  musical 
illustration,  and  produce  once  and  again  effects  in  a  high  degree 
striking  and  original.  But  the  plan  of  the  whole,  if  plan  it  can 
be  called,  is  thoroughly  unsatisfactory — the  design  of  some  of 
the  separate  movements  equally  poor.  The  constant  reference 
to  incidents  in  the  play  is  the  cause  of  much  that  seems  musically 
inconsistent ;  it  accounts  also  for  certain  lapses  into  mediocrity 
and  for  an  abundance  of  histrionic  effects  which  tend  to  lower 
the  general  quality  of  the  music.  Effort  after  effort  is  made  to 


ia8  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

attain  dramatic  expression.  The  style  recalls  the  rhetoric  of 
the  grand  opera.  It  is  the  music  of  attitudes.  It  constantly 
seems  to  demand  stage  action,  and  to  be  striving  to  illustrate  or 
emphasize  things  more  or  less  alien  to  musical  art. 

The  vocal  pieces,  both  choral  and  solo,  are  distinctly  inferior 
to  the  instrumental ;  the  artificiality  of  Berlioz'  melody  reduces 
their  value.  With  the  exception  of  the  Convoi  funebre,  the 
touching  effect  of  which  is  more  truly  orchestral  than  vocal, 
they  are  not  particularly  interesting,  either  from  the  singer's 
point  of  view  or  from  that  of  the  hearer.  The  opening  of  the 
movement  entitled  f  Romeo  seul — Tristesse '  is  on  a  par  with 
the  fine  introduction  to  the  Symphonic  fantastique.  Here  is 
genuine  music;  in  both  pieces  the  chromatic  wail  of  strings 
produces  a  striking  effect  of  melancholy  and  longing.  It  is 
interesting  to  compare  such  poignant  chromatic  passages  in 
Berlioz'  symphonies  with  the  richer  and  more  musical  employ- 
ment of  similar  devices  in  the  introduction  to  Wagner's  Tristan 
und  Isolde.  Compare  also  the  melody  and  harmony  of  the 
Andante  malinconico  with  the  chant  of  syrens  in  the  first 
scene  of  Tannhauser,  or  the  following  bars  from  the  finale  (Pere 
Laurence)  with  the  sixteenth  to  the  twenty-fourth  bar  of  the 
overture  to  Tannhauser. 


Au  li  .  vre    du    par  -  don  in  -  scri  .  ra        ce  ser- 

Si«U_ 


'Celli  divisi. 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


129 


In  both  cases  Wagner's  superiority  is  not  less  unmistakable 
than  his  indebtedness  to  Berlioz. 

Then  follows  a  Larghetto  espressivo,  and  an  Allegro;  the 
themes  of  which  are  finally  combined  and  produce  an  effect  of 
extraordinary  brillance.  But  in  the  next  movement  Berlioz  has 
something  better  than  brilliance  to  offer.  The  ( Scene  d'amour J 
contains  some  200  bars  of  the  richest  and  most  delicately 
passionate  music  in  existence.  There  is  nothing  in  the  whole 
range  of  French  music  to  approach  it,  and  nothing  but  the 
'O  sink  hernieder,  Nacht  der  Liebe'  in  the  second  act  of 
Wagner's  Tristan,  to  surpass  it.  Unfortunately  the  instru- 
mental recitatives,  which  are  meant  to  represent  Shakespeare's 
lines  about  the  lark  and  the  nightingale,  produce  an  incongruous 
effect,  and  spoil  the  middle  of  the  movement.  The  instrumenta- 
tion is  remarkable  and  beautiful  from  beginning  to  end : 

2nd  Violins. 


Adagio 

J*=  88. 


Flute  and  Clarinets. 


tip  con  sordini 
Basses. 


^ 


HP 


DANNItEUTHER 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Clarinets  and  Corno  Inglese. 

J- 


mm 


1 


-l  -i 


^7 


-J7 


m 


It. 


sss 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


fcfc 


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IstViolinO 


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ms 


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1        *- H 


ill 


2nd  Violins. 


Bassoons. 


rr 


= 


IT 


K  2 


132 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Clarinet  and  Corno  inglese. 


^ 


1st  Violins, 
fcfcfc 


--— =a-     tr 

'     -^  .d— <•- 


&c. 


r   ^     n 


i»Pr  a- 


fit 


The  Queen  Mab  Scherzo  is  an  orchestral  tour  de  force, 
dealing  largely  in  the  sound  of  violin  and  harp  harmonics.  In 
form  it  is  akin  to  the  Scherzos  of  Beethoven's  Third  and  Seventh 
Symphonies.  The  fantastic  element  predominates  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  effect  is  more  curious  than  beautiful,  indeed, 
borders  upon  the  ludicrous — f  un  petit  bruit  semblable  a  celui  des 
seringues  mal  graissees.'  The '  Convoi  funebre'  which  follows  is 
described  in  the  score  as  a  *marche  fuguee  instrumentale  d'abord> 
avec  la  psalmodie  sur  une  seule  note  dans  la  voix  :  vocale  ensuite, 
avec  la  psalmodie  dans  Porchestre.'  The  following  extract  will 
convey  some  idea  of  its  effect : — 


And' 


'ante  J 


Trebles 

and 
Tenors 
divided. 


"Cellos,    etpressivo 


m 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 

pp  r» 


133 


Je  -  tez  des  fleura  pour  la 

Oboe. 


S 


vierge       ex  -  pi  -  r^      -       -      e  ! 


'Cellos  :m 


P 


Violaa. 


I     v 


Flutes  and  Clarineta. 


134 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

f*   |  h    > 

— -  „   J    4  •         +  i    n= 


-i  i    — - 


Je-tez  des    fieurs ! 


Je  -  tez  des  fleurs  pour  la  vierge  ex-pi  -  r6     - 


-     e  ! 
1st  Violins. 


tr  t " 

poco  a  „ •  poco  cres. 


poco  f 


Of  the  reception  of  the  sixth  division,  a  melodramatic  instru- 
mental piece  illustrating  the  scene  in  the  tomb,  Berlioz  seems  to 
be  in  doubt,  and  the  score  contains  a  note  advising  its  omission  on 
the  ground  that f  le  public  n'a  point  d'imagination ;  les  morceaux 
qui  s'adressent  seulement  a  ^imagination  n'ont  done  point  de 
public.  La  scene  instrumental  suivant  est  dans  ce  cas,  et  je 
pense  qu'il  faut  la  supprimer  toutes  les  fois  que  cette  symphonic 
ne  sera  pas  executee  devant  un  auditoire  d'elite  auquel  le 
cinquieme  acte  de  la  tragedie  de  Shakespeare  avec  le  denoument 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC  135 

de  Garrick  est  extremement  familier,  et  dont  le  sentiment 
poetique  est  tres  eleve.  C'est  dire  assez  qu'elle  doit  etre 
retranchee  quatre-vingt-dix  fois  sur  cent.'  If  imagination  on 
the  part  of  an  intelligent  audience  can  make  up  for  incoherence 
on  the  part  of  the  composer,  this  somewhat  arrogant  manifesto 
may  perhaps  be  justified.  Questions  as  to  the  appropriateness 
of  his  method  seem  never  to  have  troubled  Berlioz.  But  judged 
on  its  musical  merits  alone,  the  movement  is  a  failure.  There 
are  genuine  accents  of  passion  here  and  there,  and  towards  the 
middle  the  pathos  of  the  '  Invocation 3  is  well  sustained  for 
some  four-and-twenty  bars,  then  the  strutting  recitative  of  the 
operatic  actor  again  makes  its  appearance,  and  the  tragedy 
collapses.  The  incongruous  and  lengthy  vocal  scena,  which 
forms  the  seventh  and  concluding  division,  shows  traces  of 
Meyerbeer's  Huguenots.  It  needs  no  comment  beyond  the 
statement  that  it  is  as  dull  as  it  is  elaborate.  A  few  words 
of  Wagner's l  sum  up  the  situation  perfectly :  '  Berlioz  added 
to,  altered,  and  spoilt  his  work.  This  so-called  Symphonic 
dramatique,  as  it  now  stands,  is  neither  fish  nor  flesh — strictly 
speaking  it  is  no  symphony  at  all.  There  is  no  unity  of  matter, 
no  unity  of  style.  The  choral  recitatives,  the  songs,  and  vocal 
pieces  have  little  to  do  with  the  instrumental  movements.  The 
operatic  Finale,  Pere  Laurence  especially,  is  a  failure.  Yet 
there  are  many  beautiful  passages  in  the  work.  The  Convoi 
funebre  is  a  very  touching  and  masterly  piece.  The  opening 
theme  of  the  Scene  d'amour  is  heavenly ;  the  garden  scene  and 
fete  at  Capulet's  wonderfully  clever;  indeed  Berlioz  was 
diabolically  clever  (verflucht  pfiffig).' 

Brief  mention  of  the  remaining  orchestral  pieces  of  Berlioz 
suitable  for  concert  performance  may  conveniently  be  made  here. 
They  are :  a  piece  ^occasion,  entitled :  f  Symphonie  funebre  et 
triomphale  pour  grande  harmonic  militaire,  avec  un  orchestre 
d'instruments  a  cordes  et  un  choeur  ad  libitum'  (1834-40),  and 
eight  overtures,  viz.  Waverley  (1827-8),  Les  Francs-Juges 

1  See  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music,  article  Wagner. 


136  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

(1827-8),  Roi  Lear  (1831),  Rob  Roy  (1832),  Benvenuto  Cellini 
(1837),  Le  Carnaval  romain  (1837-43),  Le  Corsaire  (1831-44— 
55),  Beatrice  et  Benedict  (1862).  The  Symphonic  funebre  et 
triomphale,for  military  band — originally  written  for  the  ceremony 
of  transferring  to  their  monument  in  the  Place  de  la  Bastille  the 
remains  of  the  victims  who  fell  in  the  revolution  of  July  1 830 — 
consists  of  a  sombre  and  rather  heavy  march-like  movement  in 
F  minor ;  and  an  { Oraison  funebre 9  for  trombone  solo,  followed 
by  a  cleverly  contrived  flourish  of  trumpets,  cornets,  trombones, 
and  drums,  leading  to  an  'Apotheose'  for  the  combined  orchestras, 
in  which  the  chorus  joins 1.  The  overtures  are  satisfactory  or 
the  reverse  according  as  the  composer  indulges  or  restrains  his 
e  poetical  intentions/  Thus  Waverley,  Rob  Roy,  Les  Francs- 
Juges,  are  all  open  to  objection  on  the  ground  of  some  deviation 
from  musical  common  sense.  Le  Roi  Lear  and  Le  Corsaire, 
the  latter  remarkable  for  consistency  of  form  on  novel  lines,  i.e. 
lines  analogous  to  those  of  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven's 
Sonata, Op.  109, in  E  major2, though  far  behind  Beethoven's  ideal, 
follow  in  the  track  of  Egmont  and  Coriolan;  whilst  Benvenuto 
Cellini,  together  with  Le  Carnaval  romain  and  the  overture  to 
Beatrice  et  Benedict,  are  frankly  operatic  and  free  from  the 
burden  of  a  programme.  Technically  there  is  little  to  choose 
between  them. 

Berlioz'  eminent  gift  of  calculation  and  combination,  his 
peculiar  method  of  interweaving  heterogeneous  phrases,  arrests 
attention  already  in  his  early  overture,  Les  Francs-Juges 
(F  minor).  This  work,  which  belongs  to  the  period  of  Berlioz' 
pupilage,  shows  as  much  reverence  for  orthodoxy  of  form  as 
its  mercurial  composer  ever  allowed  himself  to  exhibit.  Yet 
even  here  the  histrionic  method  appears.  By  way  of  working 

1  Here,  again,  it  is  instructive  as  well  as  curious  to  compare  Wagner's  two 
occasional  pieces,  the  Huldigungsmarsch,  originally  for  a  military  band,  and  the 
Kaisermarsch,  with  chorus.  The  spontaneity  and  technical  superiority  of  Wagner's 
work  are  very  striking. 

"  As  has  been  pointed  out  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Hadow  in  his  Studies  in  Modern  Music, 
vol.  i.  p.  141. 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC  137 

out,  an  attempt  is  made  to  depict  the  gradual  approach  of 
a  band  of  warriors.  Scraps  of  melody,  scraps  of  accompani- 
ment are  heard,  the  rhythmical  beats  as  from  afar,  then  the 
fragments  coalesce,  and  the  arriving  hosts  are  greeted  with 
a  shout  of  welcome.  Still  more  evident  is  the  dramatic  intention 
in  the  music  of  the  overture  Le  Roi  Lear.  In  this  piece  the 
form  of  expression,  especially  in  the  introductory  part,  is  vivid 
enough  for  a  tragic  opera  with  Leitmotive  which  might  be 
labelled  Lear,  Goneril,  Regan,  Cordelia ;  so  vivid,  indeed,  that, 
given  the  general  designation,  even  an  unimaginative  hearer  is 
likely  to  take  the  composer's  meaning,  and  to  find  the  proper 
names  for  the  themes. 

We  may  agree  with  Felix  Draeseke  *  in  assigning  to  the  over- 
ture Benvenuto  Cellini  (G  major)  the  foremost  place  among 
Berlioz'  shorter  instrumental  pieces.  The  companion  piece,  Le 
Carnaval  romain  (A  major),  invites  comparison  with  the  Saltarello 
of  Mendelssohn's  Italian  Symphony,  though  not  to  its  advantage 
in  point  of  freshness  or  finish.  It  is  made  up  of  the  principal 
tunes  from  the  second  finale  of  Benvenuto  Cellini. 

Berlioz,  his  partisans  assert,  was  grand,  sublime  and  powerful, 
terrible  or  comic  as  he  chose ;  to  which  detractors  not  unfre- 
quently  retort  that  he  was  grotesque,  inflated  and  pretentious. 
Perhaps  there  is  a  modicum  of  truth  on  both  sides.  He  wor- 
shipped the  grandiose.  It  is  vain  to  look  for  traces  of  mental 
growth  in  his  work;  a  comparison  of  dates  reveals  next  to 
nothing  in  regard  to  the  development  of  his  genius,  unless, 
indeed,  the  dates  which  belong  to  the  last  twenty  years  of  his 
life  be  taken  as  marking  retrogression. 

One  of  his  most  ambitious  efforts  as  an  illustrator,  the  Marche 
funebre  pour  la  derniere  scene  a" Hamlet  (1848),  a  piece  little 
known  and  very  rarely  performed,  deserves  at  least  as  much 
attention  as  any  other  bit  of  descriptive  music  by  his  Russian 
or  German  disciples.  It  is  written  for  grand  orchestra  and 

1  Die  Musik,  p.  1257  (1902). 


138  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

voices  in  chorus,   plus  '6   Tambours   voiles   ou  sans  timbre, 
Grosse  caisse,  Cymbales  et  Tambour.' 

A  curious  fact  in  connexion  with  his  programme  music  is 
the  evolution  of  what  is  known  as  the  Leitmotif  from 
the  '  Double  idee  fixe '  of  the  Symphonic  fantastique  and  the 
'melodic  caracteristique'  of  Harold  en  Italic.  The  use  of 
a  musical  phrase  as  a  subordinate  element  of  coherence, 
a  ready-made  appeal  to  the  imagination  and  memory,  was  an 
innovation  in  Berlioz5  time.  It  survives  to  this  day  as  the 
technical  process  which  has  proved  most  serviceable  among  the 
many  experiments  that  Berlioz  made  in  search  of  novelty. 
Partially  adopted  by  Meyerbeer  in  Les  Huguenots  and  Le 
Prophete,  and  systematically  developed  by  Wagner,  it  is  now 
familiar  to  musicians  as  the  method  of  employing  representative 
themes,  and  serves  as  an  efficient  device  in  the  technique  of 
dramatic  music  or  oratorio.  At  first  it  was  an  ( Erinnerungs- 
motif,'  i.e.  a  motive  appealing  to  the  memory,  which  was 
gradually  developed  into  the  f  Leitmotif '  as  we  now  have  it. 

Among  the  few  works  directly  inspired  by  the  example  of 
Berlioz,  perhaps  the  most  noticeable  is  the  Ode-symphonie,  Le 
Desert,  by  Felicien  David.  Le  Desert  was  performed  at  the 
Conservatoire  of  Paris  in  1844  and  speedily  made  the  round  of 
Europe1.  This  work,  inasmuch  as  it  consists  of  orchestral 
movements,  descriptive  or  melodramatic  fragments,  marches, 
dance  tunes,  vocal  solos,  and  choral  pieces  for  male  voices,  each 
preceded  by  some  lines  of  explanatory  verse  or  prose,  resembles 
Berlioz'  Melologue  Lelio,  mentioned  above.  There  is  a  cleverly 
contrived  sequence  of  events — far  less  of  a  makeshift  than  the 
order  of  scenes  in  Lelio — showing  the  progress  of  a  caravan 
through  the  Sahara  and  including  a  hymn  to  Allah,  a  struggle 
with  the  Simoon,  and  a  rest  at  the  well  of  an  oasis.  Effective 
use  is  made  of  typical  Arabic  phrases  and  tunes — -as  in  the 
'Priere  a  1' Allah,'  the  'Chant  du  Muezzin,'  and  the  'Danse  des 

1  Chiefly  in  consequence  of  a  very  appreciative  article  by  Berlioz  in  the  Journal 
des  Debats,  December  15,  1844. 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


139 


Almees.5 — There  is  nothing  really  symphonic  about  David's  ode, 
but^it  pleased  those  who  had  a  liking  for  descriptive  experiments  : 
and  Le  Desert,  for  a  number  of  years,  furnished  hints  to  seekers 
after  novel  modes  of  picturesque  expression 1.  The  Muezzin's 
chant  at  sunrise,  as  David  puts  it,  is  well  worth  quoting : 


Tenor. 


Uii  poco  motto  e  con  elevaiione 


^-.^  -eg 

If*       r    e  e  p  '   ff  i 

BE=EE 

i 

£1    .    .       .Sii-liiin    a 

-  lek,             a   -  leUkoum  el        8a> 

V  w_jJ^_J_ 

IJCT—  i—  i   rpr  r    ,   \fp  \  ^_j*  {*  '  f^p—  {-P-FiH 

i  f  .  .    r  -=pq 

A  1  -  lali 

a^,  j  ,»        ,—         :  , 

/r\ 

1  h    rf       —  ^ 

dim. 

/7\ 

boa          ak   -   bur, 


ia      lea        Sa  -  lah    .    . 


m 


^ 


1  Compare  Borodino's  Dans  les  steppes  de  I'Asie  Centrale,  and  the  '  Au  convent  * 
and  '  Serenade '  in  his  Petite  Suite ;  some  of  Rubinstein's  Persische  Lieder ;  portions 
of  Saint-Saens'  Africa,  and  his  Fifth  Concerto;  the  'Danse  Indienne'  in  Rimsky- 
Korsakov's  Milada ;  the  Reverie  orientale  and  Bhapsodie  orientate  by  Glazounov. 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


la          Al  -  lah    .    .    .      il  Al   -   lah  ou      Mu- ha- rued  ras-soul'  Al- 


dim. 


f  r 

:^pA«-j 

= 

t 

p± 

p 

• 

*= 

-f-f 

?±: 

^p 

ffi          i—  l- 

-      lah 

===! 

c= 

Al  •  lah 

p 

- 

—  . 

/T\ 

-  -C_t 

— 

= 

r  f  -     1 

dim. 

3= 

— 

ad  lib. 


hou       ak  -  bar,  ia  leg    Sa-lah 


dim. 


fp 


f          ere* 


Al  -  lah    ...       il  Al  -  lah !    . 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC  141 

David's  second  Symphonic  avec  choaurs,  Christophe  Colomb 
(1847),  failed  to  attract  attention1. 

Liszt2,  with  his  largest  productions — Sine  Symphonic  zu 
Dantes  Divina  Commedia  (i  847-55),  and  Sine  Faust-Symphonic 
(i  854-7) — shows  less  directly  than  David  the  trace  of  Berlioz' 
influence.  Like  Berlioz  he  aims  at  effects  derived  from  a  desire 
to  illustrate,  and  he  relies  on  points  of  support  outside  the  pale 
of  music  proper.  Saturated  with  contemporary  literature, 
imbued  with  the  Parisian  romanticism  and  the  spirit  of  the 
Catholic  revival  of  1 830-40,  and  stimulated,  musically,  by  the 
example  of  Berlioz,  he  set  himself  in  his  own  way  to  work  out, 
on  poetic  lines,  the  problem  of  musical  illustration.  Composed 
of  imagination  and  impulse,  his  musical  genius  was  one  that 
could  hardly  express  itself  save  through  some  other  imaginative 
medium.  He  devoted  his  extraordinary  mastery  of  instrumental 
technique  to  the  purposes  of  illustrative  expression;  and  he 
was  now  and  then  inclined  to  do  so  in  a  manner  that  tends  to 
reduce  his  music  to  the  level  of  decorative  scene  painting  or 
affresco  work.  His  orchestral  compositions  consist  of  the  two 
symphonies  already  mentioned,  two  illustrations  to  Lenau's 
Faust,  twelve  lesser  pieces  with  the  happily  chosen  title  ( Poemes 
symphoniques/  and  a  few  miscellaneous  works  of  comparatively 
slight  importance. 

Of  all  the  subjects  Liszt  chose  for  symphonic  treatment  the 
Divina  Commedia  was  the  best  suited  to  his  peculiar  tempera- 
ment, as  it  offered  superb  opportunities  for  the  display  of  his 
powers  as  a  master  of  instrumental  effect.  Already,  in  1847,  he 
had  planned  musical  illustrations  of  certain  scenes  from  Dante's 
poem  with  the  aid  of  the  newly-invented  Diorama.  The  original 

1  Such  was  also  the  fate  of  his  oratorio  Moise  au  Sinai,  the  Jfystere  Eden  (1848), 
the  comic  operas  La  Perle  de  Bresil  (1851),  LaUa  Rookh  (1862),  Le  Saphir  (1865),  and 
the  grand  opera  Herndaneum  (1859).  David  with  advancing  years  gave  way  to  an 
inartistic  desire  to  illustrate  all  manner  of  non-musical  ideas.  He  reached  the 
height  of  absurdity  in  the  score  of  L'Avant-homme,  where  by  means  of  marginal 
notes  he  endeavoured  to  combine  certain  curious  musical  effects  with  a  statement 
of  the  principles  of  antediluvian  geology. 

*  Liszt  was  born  at  Raiding,  Hungary,  in  1811 ;  he  died  at  Bayreuth  in  1886. 


142 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


idea  was  never  carried  out,  nor  does  there  seem  to  be  much  con- 
nexion between  certain  sketches  he  made  with  a  view  to  it  and 
the  symphony  as  it  now  stands.  An  eccentric  e  Fantasia  quasi 
Sonata'  for  the  pianoforte  (Annees  de  pelerinage  ii,  7), 
suggested  by  a  poem  of  Victor  Hugo,  c  Apres  une  lecture  de 
Dante,5  seems  also  to  have  been  merely  tentative.  A  number  of 
lines  from  the  Inferno,  as  at  first  selected  for  illustration,  have, 
however,  been  retained.  They  now  appear  in  the  score  of  the 
Dante  Symphony,  as  inscriptions  elucidating  a  number  of 
musical  phrases  which  act  as  Leitmotive.  To  give  an  idea  of  the 
character  of  the  whole  composition  would  require  more  exten- 
sive quotation  than  is  possible  here,  but  the  Leitmotive  will  at 
least  exhibit  the  general  conception  of  the  music.  The  entire 
work  is  laid  out  so  as  to  form  three  divisions,  entitled  Inferno, 
Purgatorio,  and  Magnificat — the  last  in  place  of  Dante's 
Paradiso. 


Inferno. 


Trombones,  Ti 
Strings  in  u 

iba,  and 
aison. 

i?  cJT^'-1^ 

r=*£-^~ 

Lento  ff    Per   me 

]<&•—{*      -    -=(  -   - 

Sa 

si 

ra  nel-la  cit  -  ta  do  • 

h  .!  'r^rTJ  Ei-l 

len  -  te: 
Timpani. 

A           $ 

^ 

—  —  —  z5  —  ~3  — 

Tam-tam. 


Per  me     si       va  nell'  e  -  ter  -  no     do  -  lo  -  re  : 

Timpani. 


Tam-tam. 


Per    me    si       va    tra    la    per  -  du  -  ta       gen    -    te. 

*/: 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 

<f\         "i      ^i ^ 


143 


T         T 
-     sciji    .    te   o  -  gni    spa  •   ran 
Tremolando 


99    t 


I 


TO! 


ch'en  tra 


to! 


-I    "K 


^ 


2t 
f=»- 


The  furious  chromatics  of  the  first  Allegro,  entitled  Inferno 
(D  minor  mainly),  do  full  justice  to  the  poet's  words  : 


Diverse  lingue,  orribili  favelle, 
Parole  di  dolore,  accent!  d'  ira, 
Voci  alte  e  fioche,  e  suon  di  man  con 

elle 

Facevan  un  tumulto,  il  qual  »'  aggira 
Sempre  in  quell'  aria  senza  tempo  tinta, 
Come  la  rena,  quando  al  turbo  spira. 


Languages  diverse,  horrible  dialects, 
Accents  of  anger,  words  of  agony, 
And  voices  high  and  hoarse,  with  sound 

of  hands, 

Made  up  a  tumult  that  goes  whirling  on 
For  ever  in  that  air  for  ever  black, 
Even  as  the  sand  doth,  when  the  whirl- 
wind breathes. 


For  musical  reasons,  much  is  made  of  the  Paolo  and  Francesca 
episode  with  its  characteristic  theme  in  £  time :— 


^<nrfan<«  amoroto 
(Tempo  ruftato) 


r^ 


144 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


'| 

tK 


^ 


«  J- 

=*»  = 


The  theme  ( Lasciate  ogni  speranza '  is  repeated  with  tremen- 
dous vehemence  at  the  end  of  the  movement.  The  strains  of 
the  Purgatorio,  after  a  tranquil  introduction  reflecting  Dante's 
'  tremolar  della  marina,'  are  meant  to  suggest  the  soul's  passage 
through  expiatory  pain  and  a  state  of  contrition,  towards  a 
sense  of  beatitude : 


Metto 


Purgatorio. 

a. 


g^g 


P    Woodwind. 


rJ- 


Flibile 


b. 


? 

'     Trombone 


Strings. 


tip       Si 


La-neutrino 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 

1ft 


The  fugato,  62  bars  in  B  minor  (e),  which  forms  the  centre  of 
the  movement,  its  theme  derived  from  a  recitative  for  the  bass 
Clarinet  in  the  preceding  movement,  may  be  compared  with 
the  '  Convoi  funebre '  of  Berlioz5  Romeo  Symphony l.  For  the 
Magnificat,  Liszt  employs  the  intonation  of  the  third  tone, 
supporting  it  by  long-drawn  consonant  harmonies  consisting  of 
major  chords  exclusively,  which  towards  the  end,  where  the  bass 
descends  by  slow  steps  of  whole  tones  (£),  produces  a  novel 
effect  of  great  beauty : 


a. 

Chorus  of  c 
Women's  i 
Voices. 


Magnificat. 
Dolce 


9- 


Mag 


ni.fi.  cat 


Do 


mi    .  num  . 


1  Compare  also  with  fngato  in  the  third  movement  of  Liszt's  Faust  Symphony. 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


a     ] 

i  —  a      1     a     i     s=^pgteP=q 

ffl)  *  "S_!teg-=^ 

—  =g  —  -i 
_^ 

l=i 

^ 

c-  1  —  )  ca  1  btp  1 

The  ideal  aimed  at  in  <Eine  Faust-Symphonic  indrei  Charakter- 
bildern l '  is  akin  to  that  of  the  Dante  Symphony.  The  moods 
of  Goethe's  characters  Faust,  Gretchen,  and  Mephistopheles  are 
depicted  in  three  instrumental  movements,  and  a  chorus  of  male 
voices  supplies  a  sort  of  comment  by  way  of  a  close.  The 
method  of  presentation  is  again  by  means  of  Leitmotive  and  by 
their  reaction  upon  one  another,  as  well  as  by  allusions  to  those 
incidents  of  the  play  which  are  susceptible  of  musical  illustration. 
The  portraiture  of  Faust  is  the  object  of  the  first  and  weightiest 
movement :  the  Andantino  which  follows  represents  Gretchen : 
the  spirit  of  Mephistopheles  animates  the  Scherzo  (Allegro 
ironico),  in  which  the  themes  of  the  earlier  movements  are  per- 
verted and  caricatured,  much  as  the e  Idee  fixe '  and  the  Dies  irae 
are  turned  into  burlesque  in  the  Finale  of  Berlioz'  Symphonic 
fantastique.  A  setting  of  Goethe's  chorus  mysticus  'Alles 
Vergangliche  ist  nur  ein  Gleichniss/  for  tenor  solo  and  male 

1  Ary  Scheffer's  Faust  pictures  had  some  influence  on  the  conception  of  Liszt's 
Faust  Symphony. 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


147 


chorus,  concludes  the  work. — The  changing  moods  of  doubt, 
despair,  desire,  enthusiasm,  are  shadowed  forth  in  the  Faust 
section.  Like  the  Inferno  of  the  Dante  Symphony,  this  move- 
ment exhibits  the  outlines  of  symphonic  structure ;  exposition 
of  themes,  development,  recapitulation ;  but  the  details  for  the 
most  part  have  reference  to  the  exigencies  of  the  'poetical  idea,' 
and  such  exigencies  are  permitted  to  overrule  considerations  of 
musical  consistency  and  beauty. 

The   rather  mechanical  sequence  of  chords  with  the  aug- 
mented fifth,  which  forms  Liszt's  principal  theme  : 


lento  attai 
Strings. 
^         Con  lonlino 

f 

Hfcu==d 

V       Sit 

/— 

[j£    •  r*1  -IT 

-^^^ 

^^-^ 

if 

E 

r^^ 

Oboe.  ..  ^ 

=^ 

Violins. 

^i 

^  1  Joiente 

<=*         •        ^ 

rz^-^7  —  p= 

Fii^ 

1^- 

-D^— 

-TO  —      -3-f*r- 
«/     -*-' 

rf^ 

r'i..,.;,,af. 

P 

4<  —  i- 

rsc 

pt3&  ^  — 

ptnlendo  , 

may  profitably  be  compared  with  the  theme  of  Mozart's  Fantasia 
in  C  minor  (a),  Rossini's  Guillaume  Tell,  Act  II  (d),  and  finally, 
Wagner's  Die  Walkiire,  Act  II  (c). 


Adagio 


L  2 


i48 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


c. 


The  Andantino,  a  portion  of  which  refers  to  the  garden  scene 
in  Goethe's  poem,  invites  comparison  with  the  *  Scene  d'amour* 
in  Berlioz'  Romeo  et  Juliette.  Here,  as  there,  and  for  similar 
reasons,  the  thematic  materials  fail  to  produce  their  full  effect. 
The  Gretchen  themes  are  delicate  and  tender,  the  dainty  illus- 
tration of  '  Er  liebt  mich — liebt  mich  nicht,'  is  of  charming 
naivete,  and  the  modifications  of  the  Faust  subjects,  quoted  or 
adopted  from  the  first  movement,  are  sufficiently  eloquent.  Yet 
the  section,  taken  as  a  whole,  produces  an  incongruous  effect J. 
Liszt's  endeavour  to  illustrate  certain  incidents  directly  leads  to 
combinations  which  are  rather  detrimental  from  the  point  of  view 
of  consistent  musical  design.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be 
asserted  that  the  recurrence  of  Leitmotive  furnishes  a  clue  to  the 
spiritual  connexion  of  one  movement  with  another,  a  connexion 
that  certainly  exists  in  this  instance,  and  which  probably  could 
not  be  so  clearly  expressed  by  other  means.  In  the  Scherzo  the 
travesty  of  the  Faust  subjects  (those  referring  to  Gretchen  are 
barely  touched  upon)  is  piquant  in  the  extreme.  Compared 
with  the  violence  of  Berlioz'  burlesque  treatment  of  the  themes 
in  the  ( Songe  d'une  nuit  de  Sabbat,'  Liszt's  method  is  delicate 
and  light-handed,  equally  clever  in  instrumental  device,  and  far 
more  successful  in  its  appeal  to  the  imagination  2. 

The  chorus  mysticus  ('Alles  Vergangliche  ist  nur  ein 
Gleichniss')  indicates  one  clear  limitation  of  the  descriptive 
method :  its  inability  to  express  those  solemn  emotions  to  which 
devices  and  tricks  of  phrase  are  inappropriate.  It  endeavours 
to  complete  the  story  by  combining  themes  assigned  to  the  char- 

1  Just  as  in  Berlioz'  'Scene  d'amour,'  where  the  composer  tries  and  fails  to 
reproduce  the  sense  of  Shakespeare's  words  about  the  lark  and  the  nightingale. 
*  Saint-Saens  in  his  Danse  macabre  follows  Liszt  in  pursuit  of  the  grotesque. 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC  149 

acters  of  Faust  and  Gretchen,  but  it  is  perforce  confined  within 
restrictions  where  pure  music  alone  can  move  freely,  and  in  its 
attempts  to  be  reverent  it  approaches  perilously  near  to  dullness. 

Two  other  orchestral  Faust  illustrations, '  Zwei  Episoden  aus 
Lenau's  Faust :  (i)  Der  nachtliche  Zug,  (ii)  Der  Tanz  in  der 
Dorfschenke*  (Mephisto-Walzer,  No.  I),  are  best  mentioned  here. 
They  belong  to  the  year  1859,  and  rank  as  rather  eccentric 
*  paralipomena '  to  the  Faust  Symphony. 

Liszt's  Poemes  symphoniques  (1850-60),  companion  pieces  to 
the  Faust  and  Dante  symphonies,  may  be  described  as  the  out- 
pourings of  a  musician's  fancy  as  stimulated  by  certain  pieces  of 
poetry  and  painting.  They  are  as  follows  :— 

1 .  Ce  qu'on  entend  sur  la  montagne  (after  a  poem  by  Victor 
IJugo). 

2.  Tasso :   Lament o   e   Trionfo  (partly  after  Byron's   The 
Lament  of  Tasso). 

3.  Les^JPreludes    (after    one  of    Lamartine's   Meditations 
poetiques). 

4.  Orjyhfa. 

5.  Promethee  (an  introduction  to  Herder's  dramatic  scenes, 
'  Der  entfesselte  Prometheus '). 

6.  Mazeppa  (after  Byron  and  Victor  Hugo.). 

7.  Fest-Klange   (Prelude    to   Schiller's    '  Huldigung    der 
Kiinste '). 

8.  Hero'idefunebre  (Part  I  of  a  symphony  composed  in  1 830). 

9.  Hungaria. 

10.  Hamlet. 

11.  Hunnen-Schlacht  (after  a  painting  by  Kaulbach). 

12.  Die  Ideale  (after  a  poem  by  Schiller). 

13.  Von  der  Wiege  bis  zum  Grab  (after  a  sketch  by  Michael 
Zichy). 

With  the  exception  of  the  little  masterpiece  Orphee,  which 
is  pure  self-contained  music,  all  are  impromptu  illustrations, 
corresponding  to  some  poem,  or  picture  or  group  of  concepts 
expressed  in  words.  They  are  mere  sketches  arranged  in 


150  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

accordance  with  some  poetical  plan,  extraneous,  and  more  or  less 
alien,  to  music.  The  words  ( Lamento  e  Trionfo,'  which  mark 
the  two  sections  of  Tasso,  show  the  scheme  of  the  majority ; 
thus  the  essence  of  Promethee  is  ( Malheur  et  gloire  —  Une 
desolation  triomphante  par  la  perseverance  de  la  hautaine 
energie ';  Mazeppa's  ride  closes  with  a  glorification, '  II  tombe . . . 
et  se  releve  roi ' ;  Les  Preludes  ends  with  an  Allegro  marziale  ; 
Hungaria  with  an  Allegro  trionfante ;  Hunnen-Schlacht  with 
f  The  triumph  of  Christianity ' ;  Die  Ideale  with  an '  Apotheosis 3 
of  certain  symbolical  themes.  Orphee,  as  has  already  been  said, 
is  a  gem  in  its  way,  and  is  exquisitely  scored.  Les  Preludes, 
Tasso,  and  Fest-Kldnge  bid  for  popularity ;  they  are  melodious, 
effective,  readily  intelligible,  but  have  a  touch  of  the  common- 
place. The  two  former  are  in  reality  Variations,  arranged  in 
accordance  with  the  contrasted  images  contained  in  one  of 
Lamartine's  Meditations  poetiques  ({ Notre  vie  est-elle  autre 
chose  qu'une  serie  de  preludes  a  ce  chant  inconnu  dont  la  mort 
entonne  la  premiere  et  solennelle  note  ? '),  and  with  the  com- 
poser's own  meditations  on  the  fate  of  Tasso.  By  means  of 
rhythmical  changes,  contrasting  subjects  are  evolved  from  the 
same  order  of  notes — an  ingenious  device  that  seems  to  be 
Liszt's  peculiarity,  but  which  he  derived  from  Berlioz,  who  again 
was  by  no  means  its  originator *. 

Mazeppa  and  Hungaria  are  expansions  of  early  pianoforte 
pieces  :  the  first  of  an  Etude,  the  germs  of  which  are  contained 
in  Op.  i  (1826-7,  aet.  16),  the  second  of  a  { Heroischer  Marsch 
im  ungarischen  Styl'  (1840-4).  There  is  quite  a  family  of 
Mazeppas,  though  only  the  two  latest  take  the  name:  (i)  A 
little  c Exercise  in  the  manner  of  Czerny,'  Op.  i,  No.  4;  (a) 
Grandes  Etudes,  No.  4  (1839);  (3)  Etudes  d'execution 
transcendante,  No.  4,  Mazeppa ;  (4)  the  Poeme  symphonique ; 

1  The  device  in  question  is  in  fact  at  least  as  old  as  the  Partite  (variations)  and 
Suites  of  Froberger  and  other  seventeenth-century  precursors  of  J.  S.  Bach,  who 
frequently  constructed  successive  movements  upon  subjects  consisting  of  the 
same  notes  rhythmically  changed.  In  Handel's  Suites,  too,  movements  occur 
which  are  variants  of  one  another. 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


and  finally  (5)  a  transcription  for  two  pianofortes  of  the  latter 
piece.  The  title  Mazeppa,  and  the  reference  to  Byron's 
'  Away,  Away,'  and  Victor  Hugo's  f  II  tombe  .  . .  et  se  releve 
roi,'  appear  in  the  third  version.  The  early  Herdide  funebre 
(1830-56),  Hamlet  (1858-61),  and  a  late  piece  Von  der  Wiege  bis 
zum  Grab  (1881-3)  exhibit  his  method  in  a  less  favourable  light. 
Ce  qu'on  entend  sur  la  montagne  (1848-56)  and  Die  Ideale 
(1853-7)  are  the  longest  examples  of  tborough-going  programme 
music  among  Liszt's  works  of  that  description.  On  various 
pages  of  the  score  of  Die  Ideale  he  has  inscribed  extracts  from 
Schiller's  poem,  much  as  mediaeval  painters  used  to  add 
legends  to  parts  of  their  pictures.  Unity  is  sought  by  the  use  of 
representative  themes,  of  which  the  principal  one  undergoes 
various  rhythmical  changes.  In  its  first  and  complete  shape 
it  recalls  the  effect  of  measured  prose  : 

Alltgro  tpiritoto 

« -^""V  f-  f*  f- 

py,.  ,u          i  r~ ^:i     I 


ff 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


The  sections  are  connected,  and  the  main  lines  of  symphony- 
form  can  be  traced,  though  the  contours  are  somewhat  blurred 
and  indefinite.  Auf schwung,  aspiration  .  .  .  Allegro  spiritoso ; 
Enttauschung,  disillusion  .  .  .  Andante  maestoso;  Beschafti- 
gung,  occupation  .  .  .  Allegretto  mosso ;  Apotheose  .  .  .  maes- 
toso, Allegretto  fuocoso  assai.  The  Leitmotive  are  summed 
up,  as  it  were,  in  the  final  section.  An  episode  in  E  major, 
symbolical  of  friendship  it  would  seem,  merits  quotation  for 
its  tenderness  and  beauty.  It  is  but  a  fragment,  however,  and 
remains  undeveloped : 


Andante 


r—  r 


pp 


s 


5fe* 


i 


J. 


w 


m 


F 


r 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC 


153 


The  singularities  and  oddities  of  Lis/t's  style  roused  the  ire 
of  contemporary  critics  and  conservative  musicians — such  as 
Ferdinand  David,  Rietz,  Hauptmann  and  other  professors  of 
the  Leipzig  Conservatorium.  'The  bulk  of  Liszt's  orchestral 
pieces/  it  was  said,  'is  needlessly  and  gratuitously  ugly — he 
delights  in  eccentric  combinations  solely  because  of  their 
eccentricity.'  Censure  and  hostility  were  directed,  not  so 
much  against  his  'poetic'  tendencies  and  the  nature  of  the 
subjects  he  chose  for  illustration  (which  latter  to  some  extent 
appear  to  justify  Liszt's  system  of  procedure),  as  against  ill- 
contrived  outlines,  forced  connexion  of  chords,  strained  melody, 
and  bluster.  Uncouth,  '  impure '  harmony  was  the  principal 
subject  of  complaint 1.  Liszt's  friends  and  pupils,  when  they 
failed  to  discover  satisfactory  reasons  for  this  or  that  ugly 
distortion,  fell  back  on  'poetical  intentions' — but  an  abundance 
of  cases  remained  for  which  they  found  it  hard  to  discover 
a  plausible  excuse.  It  is  on  record  that  certain  extravagances 
in  Liszt's  early  pianoforte  pieces  annoyed  Chopin,  and  that 
sundry  perversities  in  the  Poemes  symphoniques  puzzled 
Wagner. 

What,  then,  can  have  induced  a  born  ffrand  seigneur  in  the  realms 
of  music,  a  man  so  highly  gifted  as  Liszt,  to  put  his  trust  in 
harmonic  crudities  and  chromatic  horrors,  from  which  sensitive 
musicians  shrink  with  an  instinctive  dislike  ?  One  fact  which 
throws  a  strange  light  upon  the  matter,  is  that  Liszt  in  early 
days  (about  1 832)  earnestly  worked  at  a  notion  vaguely  expressed 
1  This  was  Hauptoiann's  objection. 


154  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

by  Fetis,  the  lexicographer,  as  a  possible  ordre  omnitonique : 
which  ordre,  according  to  Fetis,  might  be  destined  at  some 
distant  date  to  supersede  our  present  tonality.  But  it  is  a  fact 
stranger  still  that  Liszt,  all  his  life  long,  should  have  retained 
such  a  notion,  and  that  he  desired  to  make,  and  was  ever  ready 
to  encourage,  experiments  in  tonality  which  led  to  effects  of 
interesting  ugliness l. 

Another  fact  to  be  taken  count  of  is  the  pianoforte  virtuoso's 
prodigious  mastery  in  chromatic  '  double  stops,'  major  and 
minor  thirds,  augmented  fourths,  diminished  fifths  and  sevenths, 
and  the  like.  This  feature,  conspicuous  among  the  many 
specialities  of  Liszt's  pianoforte  technique,  was  the  result  of 
his  strenuous  practice  of  chromatic  passages  in  every  imaginable 
form.  And  it  is  indisputable  that  mechanical  practice  of 
chromatics,  if  carried  to  an  excess,  particularly  on  the  piano- 
forte, will  prove  detrimental  to  the  inner  ear,  and  induce 
decadence  of  that  native  instinct  for  tonality  and  harmonic 
relation  generally,  without  which  a  modern  musician  can  hardly 
hope  to  keep  steady  and  hold  his  own  as  a  harmonist 2.  Thus 
it  seems  sufficiently  clear  that  Liszt's  habit  and  his  taste  were 
subject  to  many  an  out-of-the-way  influence,  and,  without  press- 
ing the  point  further,  it  may  be  surmised  that  certain  cases  of 
harsh  dissonance,  juxtaposition  of  chords  having  little  or  no 
harmonic  affinity,  perverse  and  ugly  modulation,  may  be  the 
result  of  poetical  or  rhetorical  guesswork,  materialized  through 

1  Witness  certain  curious  productions  of  his  old  age,  such  as  the  close  of  the 
second  Mephisto-Walzer — score  published  1881 — 'La  lugubre  Gondola,'  and  por- 
tions of  the  last  number  of  Annees  de  pelerinage,  iii,  'Sursuni  corda,'  1882.    Not 
only  in  his  original  compositions  but  also  in  his  numerous   transcriptions  and 
arrangements  Liszt  shows  a  predilection  for  harmonic  piquancies  and  haute  gouts. 
'  Gieb  ihm  Weissbrod,  so  streut  er  Paprika  darauf,'  said  Wagner  in  1877  : — '  Give 
him  white  bread,  he  will  sprinkle  red  pepper  upon  it.' 

2  Berlioz,  when  composing,  professed  to  prefer  the  guitar  to  the  pianoforte. 
Wagner  always  made  use  of  the  latter  instrument  for  testing  purposes ;  but  his 
independence  of  any  sort  of  digital  mnemonics  was  remarkable.     With  him  the 
inner  ear  was  always  paramount.    For  instance,  the  full  orchestral  score  of  Tristan 
was  engraved  long  before  the  composer  had  heard  a  note  of  it,  and  not  a  note  was 
ever  altered. 


PROGRAMME  MUSIC  155 

the  pianist's  fingers.  Other  traits,  such  for  instance  as  the 
tempestuous  chromatic  crescendos  in  Les  Preludes,  the  harp 
glissandos  representing  gusts  of  wind  in  the  Dante  Symphony, 
and  kindred  effects  of  crude  realism  got  by  means  of  rapid 
chromatic  scales  or  arpeggios  arranged  in  chords  of  the  diminished 
seventh — are  but  a  reflex  of  certain  technicalities  of  pianoforte 
playing  and  a  reproduction  of  some  of  Liszt's  peculiar  ways  at 
the  pianoforte  *. 

Though  the  widest  difference  of  merit  exists  between  the 
good  and  bad,  it  must  be  admitted  that,  from  the  point  of  view 
of  musical  design,  a  lax  and  loose  conception  of  art  prevails 
more  or  less  through  all  the  Poemes  symphoniques.  In  those 
pieces,  in  place  of  melody,  Liszt  offers  mere  fragments  of  melody 
— touching,  it  may  be,  and  beautiful,  passionate  or  tinged  with 
triviality;  in  lieu  of  a  rational  distribution  of  centres  of  harmony 
in  accordance  with  some  definite  plan,  he  presents  clever  com- 
binations of  chords,  and  ingenious  modulations  from  point  to 
point ;  in  lieu  of  musical  logic  and  consistency  of  design,  he  is 
content  with  rhapsodical  improvisation.  The  power  of  persistence 
seems  wanting,  orchestral  polyphony  is  not  attempted.  The 
musical  growth  is  spoilt,  the  development  of  the  themes  is 
stopped  or  perverted  by  some  reference  to  extraneous  ideas. 
Everywhere  the  programme  stands  in  the  way  and  the  materials 
refuse  to  coalesce. 

No  doubt,  Liszt  as  sincerely  believed  in  the  symbolical 
efficiency  of  his  representative  themes  as  Berlioz  believed  in 
the  dramatic  significance  of  Uldee  fixe  and  La  Mtlodie 
caracttristique.  Both  the  great  illustrators  were  convinced 
that  a  close  union  of  instrumental  music  and  poesy  is  possible 
and  desirable.  Both  masters  may  have  erred  in  their  method ; 
and  programme  music,  as  they  conceived  it,  may  in  the  end 
prove  to  have  been  a  dubious  hybrid  of  insufficient  vitality. 

1  Wagner  to  Liszt,  1856.  Letters,  vol.  ii.  pp.  129-30:  'So  gelten  mir  deine 
Orchesterwerke  jetzt  gleichsam  als  eine  Monumentalisinmg  deiner  personlichen 
Kunst,  und  unverglelchbar,  dass  die  Kritik  lange  Zeit  brauchen  wird,  um  nur 
irgendwie  zu  wissen,  wohin  damit' 


CHAPTER  VIII 

OBATORIOS   AND   CANTATAS 

THE  steadily  increasing  tendency  towards  closeness  of  charac- 
terization, which  forms  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  romantic 
period,  is  apparent  even  in  the  work  of  Mendelssohn,  who  was 
by  nature  and  training  averse  to  innovation  or  experiment. 
Mendelssohn's  attitude  in  regard  to  Protestant  church  music 
was  peculiar.  Looking  at  music  mainly  from  the  artistic  point 
of  view  he  thought  it  ill-placed  in  the  Lutheran  church  service. 
He  confessed  his  inability  to  see  how  artistic  music  could  be 
made  to  form  an  integral  part  of  such  a  service  so  that  it  would 
appear  other  than  '  a  mere  concert  with  more  or  less  of  devo- 
tional effect* — as,  for  instance,  is  the  case  when  J.  S.  Bach's 
Cantatas  are  performed  in  church l.  Accordingly,  he  wrote  his 
Psalms,  the  Lobgesang,  and  the  oratorios,  St.  Paul  and  Elijah, 
for  purposes  not  directly  connected  with  worship,  that  is  to  say, 
for  the  use  of  choral  societies  and  with  a  view  to  performance 
at  festivals.  Thus  his  choral  work  of  this  description  must  be 
considered  as  concert  music  of  a  serious  kind — touched,  it  is 
true,  with  the  spirit  of  devotion  and  with  Christian  symbolism, 
but  by  no  means  ecclesiastical. 

Mendelssohn's  strength  in  oratorio  and  cantata  lies  in  the 
mastery  of  polyphonic  choral  technique  which  he  had  acquired 
by  the  study  of  Bach  and  Handel,  in  his  facile  gift  of  melody, 
and  in  his  command  of  instrumentation.  To  this  may  be 
added  a  marked  inclination  towards  the  formal  side  of  musical 
art;  an  instinctive  love  of  form  for  its  own  sake;  and  also, 
perhaps,  the  influence  of  individual  temperament,  of  hereditary 

1  Mendelssohn's  Briefe,  vol.  ii.  p.  75. 


ORATORIOS  AND  CANTATAS  157 

bias,  and  the  love  of  religious  emotion.  In  the  choice  of  the 
scriptural  account  of  St.  Paul,  and  of  Elijah  as  subjects  for 
oratorio,  as  well  as  in  the  arrangement  of  the  ground-plan  and 
general  disposition  of  the  materials  with  a  view  to  the  best 
musical  effect,  Mendelssohn  relied  upon  his  own  judgement,  and 
friends  merely  supplied  a  choice  of  texts  and  occasionally  the 
wording  of  a  recitative  or  an  aria. 

The  book  of  St.  Paul,  which  comprises  a  cento  of  texts 
interspersed  with  Lutheran  chorals,  is  mainly  concerned  with  the 
death  of  Stephen,  the  conversion  of  Saul,  and  the  firmness  of 
the  Apostle's  faith.  In  the  first  part  of  the  book  of  Elijah,  the 
symbolical  element  which  a  Christian  mind  may  find  in  the  Old 
Testament  appears  to  be  latent  only;  but  it  occupies  a  more 
prominent  position  towards  the  close  of  the  second  part,  where 
allusion  is  made  to  the  coming  of  Christ.  The  Biblical  account 
of  Elijah  forms  the  groundwork,  while  a  superstructure  of  texts 
is  arranged  so  as  to  serve  musical  purposes.  The  framework 
consists  of  a  series  of  scenes  and  situations  laid  out  dramatic- 
ally, and  held  together  by  the  figure  of  Elijah.  The  narrative 
in  the  form  of  recitative — which  in  St.  Paul  connects  the  vocal 
numbers — is  eliminated,  so  that  in  this  oratorio  the  principal 
character,  the  subordinate  characters,  and,  in  some  instances, 
even  the  chorus,  are  made  to  speak  dramatically.  The  book 
embraces  just  enough  action  and  contrast  to  sustain  the 
interest,  and  allows  enough  of  expansion  to  give  a  chance  to 
the  full  musical  expression  of  the  inner  aspect  and  the  inner 
ground  upon  which  the  events  are  set  forth. 

In  St.  Paul  the  narrative  consists  of  recitative  delivered  by 
soprano  and  tenor  voices  in  turn,  with  simple  accompani- 
ments for  strings.  The  declamation,  in  German,  is  precise  and 
accurate,  though  without  undue  insistence.  When  the  narrative 
demands  the  expression  of  emotion,  the  recitative  rises  to 
cantilena — as  at  the  death  of  Stephen — and  such  touches  are 
among  the  best  and  most  sincerely  felt  details  resulting  from 
the  composer's  mode  of  treatment.  Side  by  side  with  such 


158  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

touches,  rank  the  poignant  accents  of  remorse  and  contrition 
in  pieces  such  as  the  air,  '  Lord,  a  broken  heart,  and  a  contrite 
heart' ;  the  burst  of  rage  and  hate,  '  Confound  them  all,  Lord 
Sabaoth';  and  the  expression  of  strong  indignation,  as  in  the 
aria,  '  Is  not  His  word  like  a  fire  ?' 

From  a  musician's  point  of  view,  the  weight  and  power  of 
Mendelssohn's  oratorio  music  is  best  seen  in  the  choruses. 
They  are  masterly  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word,  characteristic 
and  varied,  and  evince  a  command  of  contrapuntal  resource 
beyond  the  reach  of  any  of  his  contemporaries.  The  following 
are  conspicuous  examples  from  St.  Paul : — the  powerful  opening 
chorus  in  A,  ( Lord,  Thou  alone  art  God ' ;  the  chorus,  f  Rise  up, 
arise  and  shine  ' ;  the  choruses  of  Hebrews,  ( Now  this  man 
ceaseth  not  to  utter  blasphemous  words,'  and  ( Stone  him  to 
death ' ;  the  chorus  of  Gentiles,  '  O  be  gracious,  ye  immortals ' ; 
the  earnest  and  serious  chorus  of  Christians,  in  D  minor, ( But 
our  God  abideth  in  heaven,'  which  contains  the  melody  of  a 
chorale,  cHis  will  directeth  all  the  world,'  inserted  after  the 
manner  of  J,  S.  Bach.  As  in  Bach's  Passion-music,  harmon- 
ized chorales  are  introduced  at  intervals  between  the  airs  and 
choruses  to  act  like  ideal  comments  upon  events,  and  so  as  to 
enforce  a  mood  or  close  a  section. 

The  secret  of  the  greater  success — especially  in  England — of 
the  later  oratorio,  Elijah,  lies  in  its  dramatic  scheme,  and  in  the 
enhanced  opportunities  for  solo  and  concerted  music  which  it 
afforded  the  composer.  In  Elijah,  Mendelssohn  exhibits  his 
talent  at  its  full  maturity.  Taken  as  a  whole  and  compared 
with  St.  Paul,  Elijah  stands  on  a  higher  plane.  It  is  stronger 
in  spirit,  freer,  broader,  more  direct,  and  less  tinged  with 
Lutheran  influences.  Whether  the  composer  was  conscious  of 
the  fact  or  not,  it  is  evident  that  every  conspicuous  feature  in  the 
method  and  technique  makes  for  characterization.  The  dramatic 
force  of  the  scenes,  their  conciseness  and  vivid  colouring,  the 
pointed  rhythms  of  the  choruses,  the  highly  wrought  orchestration, 
the  energy  expressed  in  the  choruses  of  Baal's  priests,  the  fierce 


ORATORIOS  AND  CANTATAS  159 

savagery  of  '  Woe  to  him,  he  shall  perish,'  and  certain  almost 
histrionic  effects  in  the  rain  scene,  all  point  in  the  same  direction. 
The  influence  of  the  Lutheran  service,  which  in  St.  Paul  is 
apparent  in  the  symbolism  of  the  chorals  and  in  the  pietistic 
tone  of  certain  airs  and  choruses,  is  less  conspicuous  in  move- 
ments of  the  same  order  in  Elijah.  The  dramatic  sections  of 
the  latter  oratorio  are  as  free,  as  vivid,  and  as  frankly  pictorial, 
as  anything  in  Handel.  As  an  example,  note  the  impressive 
'  prophecy  of  the  drought '  which,  preceded  by  four  solemn  chords 
of  brass  and  placed  before  the  overture,  produces  a  very 
remarkable  effect.  Further  examples  are  contained  in  the  scene 
of  the  widow,  the  priest's  scene  with  the  flesh,  of  fire  from 
heaven,  the  scene  of  Elijah  standing  on  the  mount,  and  above 
all  the  great  scene  which  describes  the  giving  of  the  rain ;  all 
striking  and  expressive  in  idea,  all  remarkably  original  in  form 
and  workmanship.  The  choruses  at  the  beginning  of  Part  I 
describing  the  drought,  and  also  the  duet  and  chorus  following 
— 'Lord,  bow  Thine  ear  to  our  prayer,' — are  both  touching 
and  impressive.  In  Part  II  the  splendid  chorus, '  Be  not  afraid,' 
and  the  chorus,  f  He  that  shall  endure  to  the  end,'  are  typical 
examples  of  the  master's  sentiment  in  music  and  of  his  great 
knowledge  of  effect.  The  chorus  last  named — Andante  sos- 
tenuto,  F  major — is  especially  attractive ;  it  contains  nothing 
that  resembles  or  even  aims  at  passion,  nothing  that  is  even 
telling,  it  is  merely  the  record  of  a  tranquil  and  peaceful  mood, 
truly  and  beautifully  expressed.  Wonderfully  characteristic  in 
their  way  are  the  choruses  of  the  priests  of  Baal.  In  the  scene 
of  Elijah  standing  on  the  mount,  the  repetitions  of  '  Behold, 
God  the  Lord  passed  by,'  produce  a  kind  of  rhythmical  effect, 
framing,  as  it  were,  the  description  of  storm,  earthquake  and 
fire.  An  impression  of  resistance  and  striving  against  natural 
phenomena,  and  at  the  same  time  an  irresistible  onward  impulse, 
is  conveyed  to  the  mind  by  the  use  of  choral  imitations  leading 
to  the  crisis,  c  And  after  the  fire  there  came  a  still  small  voice : 
and  in  the  still  small  voice  onward  came  the  Lord.'  After  the 


i6o  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Holy,  Holy/  of  the  angels,  and  the  arioso,  f  For  the  mountains 
shall  depart  and  the  hills  be  removed,5  Elijah  is  silent ;  his 
ascent  to  heaven  is  depicted  in  the  chorus,  '  Then  did  Elijah 
the  prophet  break  forth  like  a  fire.'  The  five  numbers  following, 
which  point  to  the  coming  of  Christ,  form  rather  an  anticlimax 
and  are  not  particularly  interesting  as  music. 

Mendelssohn  intended  to  compose  another  oratorio,  Christus, 
as  a  sort  of  sequel  to  Elijah.  He  began  to  work  at  it  in  1847, 
the  year  of  his  death. 

Apart  from  the  two  oratorios  Mendelssohn's  other  choral 
works  demand  little  comment.  Planned  as  a  kind  of  choral 
symphony,  the  disposition  of  the  Lobgesang  (1840)  is  open  to  a 
charge  of  tautology,  inasmuch  as  the  choral  movements  follow- 
ing upon  the  instrumental,  cover  the  same  ground,  and  act  as  a 
restatement  by  the  aid  of  words  of  that  which  has  been  already 
expressed  by  the  orchestra  without  them.  Connexion  and 
unification  is  attained  by  the  use  of  a  leading  phrase  or  motto, 
like  Berlioz'  ( Idee  fixe/  which  consists  of  the  intonation  of  the 
eighth  tone  as  sung  to  the  Magnificat,  and  forms  the  subject  of 
the  first  movement  of  the  '  symphonia,'  the  first  chorus,  and  the 
close  of  the  cantata. 

TONE  VIII. 


(\/L         >sr-_ 

r=«r-—  H-=ej 

69  —  <=>  —  =- 

Mag     - 

—  »««  1  —  j  —  —  3 

ni.fi       .       cat. 

WM^  1"" 

_JL_-T   JLJ-n 

Al  .  les 

-j:  H 

was     O  >  dem  bat. 

Like  the  overtures  to  Mendelssohn's  oratorios,  the  three  orches- 
tral movements  of  this  work  are  fluent  and  finished  but  not  very 
fresh  or  spontaneous.  The  choral  movements,  six  in  number, 
have  full  measure  of  the  technical  merits  that  always  characterize 
the  master's  choral  pieces ;  yet  they  do  not  come  near  to  the 
direct  impulse  and  power,  or  to  the  warmth  and  tenderness  of 
feeling  he  managed  to  express  in  certain  choruses  belonging  to 


ORATORIOS  AND  CANTATAS  161 

Elijah  and  St.  Paul.  The  entire  work  consists  of  serious  music, 
individual  and  independent  in  style,  but  neither  inspired  nor 
inspiriting. 

In  the  three  motets,  Op.  39,  for  female  voices  and  organ 
(1830),  and  in  the  Lauda  Sion,  for  chorus  and  orchestra  (1846), 
Mendelssohn  tried  to  compose  in  a  style  suitable  for  the  Roman 
Catholic  service.  The  Psalms  for  chorus  and  orchestra,  e  As  the 
hart  pants/  f  Come,  let  us  sing/  '  When  Israel  out  of  Egypt 
came/  ( Not  unto  us,  O  Lord/  though  more  or  less  important  in 
the  list  of  his  works,  belong  to  the  Protestant  concert-room. 

The  case  is  very  different  with  Goethe's  wild  scene,  '  Die  erste 
Walpurgisnacht J  (1831-32-43),  which  forms  the  subject  of  a 
cantata  expressly  intended  by  Goethe  for  music,  and  laid  out 
with  a  view  to  that  end : 

Miige  dies  den  Sanger  loben, 
Ihm  zu  Ehren  war's  gewoben. 

This  scene  is  one  among  three  cantatas  contained  in  Goethe's 
collection  of  f  Books  of  words  for  music J — a  companion  piece 
to  the  RinaldOy  so  beautifully  set  by  Brahms.  The  poem  is 
triumphantly  successful — a  masterpiece  in  a  field  where  master- 
pieces are  extremely  rare ;  so  simple  and  consistent  in  motive  that 
it  seems  like  one  spontaneous  growth,  so  direct  in  its  appeal  to 
the  imagination  that  there  is  no  need  of  scenic  accessories,  yet 
so  precise  and  vivid  in  its  fantastical  way,  that  it  could  be  set, 
sung,  and  acted  on  the  stage,  without  the  change  of  a  scene  or  a 
line.  Whether  it  was  expressly  written  for  Mendelssohn  does 
not  appear,  but  it  exactly  met  his  views  and  afforded  fine  oppor- 
tunities of  which  he  thoroughly  availed  himself.  On  the 
approach  of  spring,  in  face  of  warning  that  heathen  practices 
are  punished  with  death,  Druids  assemble  on  the  hill-tops  at 
dusk  to  kindle  flames  in  honour  of  All-father.  Below,  on  the 
borders  of  the  wild  wood,  they  post  sentinels  who  all  night  long, 
with  diabolical  din,  feign  a  witches'  orgy  to  scare  the  profane. 
Christian  watchmen  hold  aloof  for  fear  of  devils,  whilst  the  fires 
burn  above,  and  the  worship  proceeds.  As  has  already  been 


DARRKXUTBXK 


i6a  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

pointed  out,  Mendelssohn  in  the  f  Overture '  to  this  cantata  is 
a  musical  illustrator  with  a  definite  idea  before  him.  In  this 
Introduction — for  such  it  is  and  not  a  true  overture — he  depicts 
in  a  realistic  manner  the  rough  winter  weather  and  the  gradual 
approach  of  spring ;  then,  by  a  series  of  vocal  solos  and  choral 
songs,  he  leads  up  to  one  of  the  most  vivid  and  striking  of  his 
pieces — the  wild  and  fantastic  chorus,  l  Kommt  mit  Zacken  und 
mit  Gabeln,'  Allegro  molto,  A  minor,  f ,  which  recalls  certain 
weird  instrumental  effects  first  heard  in  the  incantation  scene  of 
Weber's  Freischutz.  A  kind  of  hymn  for  baritone  solo  and 
chorus — Andante  Maestoso,  C  major,  £,  rounds  off  and  closes 
the  work. 

Passing  mention  may  here  be  made  of  the  works  which 
Mendelssohn  wrote  to  order  for  the  Court  Theatre  at  Berlin  : 
overture,  solos,  and  choruses,  to  Racine's  Athalie  (1845),  and 
the  music  to  Donner's  translation  of  Sophocles'  Antigone  (1841), 
and  of  Oedipus  in  Colonos  (1845),  for  male  voices  and  orchestra. 
The  fragments  of  an  opera,  Lorelei,  the  text  by  Geibel,  are 
essentially  concert  music,  and  one  fails  to  see  how  it  could  gain 
by  stage  action. 

Much  more  than  in  Mendelssohn's  oratorios,  the  spirit  of 
romanticism  with  its  innocent  striving  after  emotional  expression 
pervades  Schumann's  Das  Paradies  und  die  Peri,  Der  Rose 
Pilgerfahrtj  and  other  choral  works  for  the  concert-room. 
The  presence  of  romantic  emotion  is  felt  throughout — even  in 
bits  of  choral  description,  and  in  solo  narrative,  which  in  place 
of  the  ordinary  recitative  often  rises  into  definite  arioso. 

After  having  produced  a  large  amount  of  original  and  very 
interesting  music  for  pianoforte  solo,  Schumann,  about  1840, 
began  in  splendour  the  career  as  a  composer  of  songs  and 
choral  pieces  which  he  ended  in  darkness.  In  the  zenith  of  his 
brilliant  genius  he  put  forth  a  treasury  of  song ;  from  about 
1850  onwards,  in  failing  health,  he  flooded  the  market  with 
vocal  mediocrity.  His  secular  oratorio,  Das  Paradies  und  die 
Peri  (1843-4),  consists  of  the  translation  in  rather  perfunctory 


ORATORIOS  AND  CANTATAS  163 

verse  of  Moore's  story  of  'Paradise  and  the  Peri,'  slightly 
expanded,  and  set  as  a  series  of  three  cantatas  for  solo  voices, 
chorus  and  orchestra.  It  made  a  great  impression  and  was 
immediately  popular  in  Germany.  Novel  in  style,  romantic 
and  sentimental  in  spirit,  it  won  the  sympathy  of  the  upper 
bourgeoisie,  and  pleased  the  members  of  Singing  Societies. 
To  the  luxurious  oriental  pictures  of  Moore's  poem,  the  music 
adds  a  warmth  of  feeling  peculiarly  German  and  peculiarly 
Schumann's  own.  The  airs  contain  an  abundance  of  sweet, 
perhaps  over-sweet,  melody ;  and  several  of  the  lesser  choruses 
or  choral  songs  are  pleasant  to  sing,  as,  for  instance,  the  delicate 
f  Sleep  on,  in  visions  of  odour  rest,'  which  closes  the  second 
cantata,  the  canon  for  female  voices  called  the  '  Song  of  the 
Houris/  and  the  choruses  of  the  Genii  of  the  Nile — the  two  latter 
forming  part  of  the  few  slight  additions  to  Moore's  poem.  The 
larger  choruses,  however,  fall  short  of  the  mark.  Schumann's 
choral  technique  is  almost  always  defective*,.  It  will  not  bear 
comparison  with  that  of  Handel,  Bach,  Haydn,  or  Mendelssohn. 
It  is  often  inept,  inefficient,  and  trying  to  the  voices.  The  lack 
of  practical  experience  is  seen  to  be  a  real  drawback.  Despite 
strenuous  efforts  and  a  not  inconsiderable  display  of  contrapuntal 
skill  in  choruses — such  as  '  Denn  heilig  ist  das  Blut,'  and 
'  O  heil'ge  Thranen  inn'ger  Reue  ' — the  result  is  disappointing. 
Yet  such  occasional  shortcoming  in  choral  and  orchestral 
effect  does  not  detract  much  from  the  originality  of  the  work 
taken  as  a  whole.  The  true  source  of  its  weakness  lies  rather 
in  the  disposition  of  the  poem  and  the  decrease  in  interest  as 
it  proceeds.  Moore's  story  of  the  three  gifts  that  should  open 
the  gate  of  Eden  to  the  disconsolate  Peri  exhibits  a  sequence 
of  events  diminishing  in  excitement  and  picturesqueness.  From 
f  Mahmudh  of  Gagna's  wrath  '  and  '  The  warfield's  bloody  haze,' 
to  '  Blest  tears  of  soul-felt  penitence,'  there  is  a  diminuendo 
very  detrimental  to  the  total  effect  of  the  music. 

The  historical  interest  which  belongs  to  Paradise  and  the 
Peri  will  probably  be  found  to  exceed  the  intrinsic  value  of  the 

M  z 


164  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

work.  It  is  the  first  instance  of  a  long  poem  not  especially 
written  for  music,  being  set  from  beginning  to  end  without 
interference  with  the  verse  or  the  disposition,  and  with  minute 
attention  to  the  poet's  meaning.  Schumann's  music  covers 
Moore's  poem  like  a  close-fitting  garment.  Formerly,  poems 
intended  for  music  were  expressly  contrived  to  meet  the  real  or 
supposed  exigencies  of  the  art ;  or  else  composers  appropriated 
some  poet's  work,  and  cut,  compressed,  or  by  means  of  repeti- 
tion, expanded  it  to  suit  their  particular  purposes — as,  for 
instance,  Handel  expanded  the  f  Alexander's  Feast '  of  Dryden. 
It  was  not  until  after  Beethoven's  time  that  musical  resources 
were  sufficiently  developed  to  allow  of  a  composer  attempting 
so  difficult  a  task  as  the  complete  absorption  and  adequate 
reproduction  of  a  poem  of  some  length.  Nowadays,  and  since 
Schumann  set  the  example,  any  poem  that  is  musical  in  its 
nature  may  be  aptly  treated,  and  presented  in  conformity  with 
the  poet's  intention.  It  has  been  proved  that  the  sequence  of 
moods  which  makes  a  good  design  in  poetry  will  also  make 
a  good  design  in  music  *. 

With  the  exception  of  Paradise  and  the  Peri,  a  portion  of  the 
music  to  the  second  part  of  Goethe's  Faust,  i.  e.  the  ( Transfigu- 
ration,' the  'Requiem  fiir  Mignon'  (1849) — one  of  the  poems 
contained  in  Goethe's  Wilhelm  Meister,  Op.  98  b — and  the  short 
Nachtlied,  Op.  108  (poem  by  Hebbel),  which  also  belongs  to  1 849 
and  is  both  poetically  and  musically  suggestive  and  original,  none 
of  Schumann's  choral  works  have  stood  the  test  of  time.  Der 
Rose  Pilgerfahrt,  a  companion  piece  to  Paradise  and  the  Peri, 
was  a  production  for  the  market.  The  music  to  the  Adventlied 
— a  kind  of  choral  ode  (poem  byRuckert),  1848 — is  reminiscent 

1  Beethoven's  cantata  Meeresstille  and  Mendelssohn's  Walpurgisnacht,  together 
with  Schumann's  successful  initiative  in  Paradise  and  the  Peri,  and  in  part  of  his 
music  to  Goethe's  Faust,  may  be  regarded  as  the  starting-points  of  that  extensive 
development  of  the  Ode  and  Cantata  which  starts  from  Bach,  and  which  Brahms 
furthered  in  his  setting  of  Holderlin's  Schicksalslied  and  Goethe's  Rinaldo.  The 
development  culminates  in  some  recent  versions  of  great  English  poems  by  English 
composers. 


ORATORIOS  AND  CANTATAS  165 

of  Mendelssohn's  Psalms,  but  does  not  reach  their  level  of 
excellence.  The  Balladen  for  solo  voices,  chorus  and  orchestra 
(1851),  Der  Konigssohn,  Des  Stingers  Fluch,  Das  Glilck  von 
Edenhall  (after  poems  by  Uhland),  the  four  Balladen  by  Geibel 
(1852-3),  entitled  <Vom  Pagen  und  der  Konigstochter/  are 
failures  one  and  all.  The  motet, l  Verzweifle  nicht  im  Schmer- 
zensthal,'  for  a  double  choir  of  male  voices,  with  organ  ad 
libitum,  1849  (poem  by  Riickert),  has  several  fine  moments, 
but  it  is  monotonous,  long,  and  heavy;  and,  owing  to  certain 
chromatic  progressions,  rather  difficult  to  sing.  There  is  hardly 
any  relief  to  the  forte  of  the  chorus  and  organ,  and  the  effect  of 
the  intricate  harmonies  at  the  words  '  Harre  aus  im  Leid '  is 
distressing.  For  the  sake  of  completeness  certain  lame  and 
tame  attempts  at  church  music — a  Mass  and  a  Requiem,  both 
composed  in  1852  and  published  after  the  composers  death — 
may  be  mentioned  here.  The  Requiem  has  a  few  points  of 
interest.  The  Mass  was  stillborn.  In  the  Requiem  the 
opening  and  closing  movements,  '  Requiem  aeternam  dona 
eis  Domine/  which  are  written  in  a  tender  and  delicate  strain — 
the  fugal  *  Pleni  sunt  coeli/  which  has  a  certain  degree  of  life 
and  power — portions  of  the  closing  section  of  the  Benedictus — 
and  also  the  Sanctus  and  Agnus  Dei,  are  still  worth  the 
attention  of  the  student. 

The  ecstatic  verses  of  the  closing  scene  of  Goethe's  Faust, 
Part  II,  the  Transfiguration,  exercised  a  peculiar  fascination 
over  Schumann's  mind;  he  set  them  line  by  line,  for  solo 
voices,  chorus  and  orchestra.  The  music  pertaining  to  this 
section  belongs  to  his  best  period,  about  1 848 ;  it  is  complete 
in  itself  and  important. — In  later  years  (1853-6)  he  tried  his 
hand  at  certain  other  scenes  from  both  the  first  and  second 
part  of  Faust.  Ultimately  the  detached  pieces  were  gathered 
together  and  prefaced  by  an  overture,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of 
concert  oratorio.  Thus  the  huge  posthumous  publication 
entitled  (  Scenen  aus  Goethe's  Faust '  is  in  fact  a  mere  conglo- 
meration, having  no  more  real  coherence  than  can  be  claimed 


1 66  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

for  its  rival,  Berlioz'  Damnation  de  Faust.  The  first  division 
consists  of  portions  of  Goethe's  garden  scene,  Gretchen  before 
the  shrine  of  the  Mater  dolorosa,  and  the  scene  in  the  cathedral. 
The  second  contains  the  scene  of  the  dawn  and  Ariel's  hail  to 
sunrise,  the  scene  of  the  e  four  grey  sisters ' — Want,  Guilt, 
Misery,  and  Care — striking  Faust  with  blindness,  and  the 
scene  of  Faust's  death.  The  third,  as  has  been  stated,  is 
concerned  with  the  mystical  Transfiguration,  the  translation 
of  Faust's  soul  to  heaven. 

The  spirit  of  Goethe's  great  scene  in  heaven  exactly  suited 
Schumann's  temperament  and  stimulated  his  genius  to  its  best. 
He  seems  to  have  had  no  difficulty  in  dealing  with  the  verse. 
Except  in  the  chorus  *  Gerettet  ist '  and  the  chorus  mysticus  at 
the  end,  hardly  a  line  is  repeated.  There  is  little  flagging  or 
shortcoming  ;  things  seem  to  take  form  and  fall  into  their  place 
quite  naturally.  The  rhythmical  variety  of  the  verse  is  reflected 
in  the  movement  and  speed  of  the  music ;  and  the  gradual 
increase  of  animation  and  ecstasy  expressed  in  the  words  of 
the  Hermit-fathers  and  the  Doctor  Marianus,  in  the  chorus 
of  blessed  youths  and  the  younger  and  elder  angels,  the  chorus 
of  female  penitents,  and  the  voice  of  ( una  poenitentium — sonst 
Gretchen  genannt '  is  rendered  to  perfection. 

The  delicate  swing  and  balance  of  rhythm  in  the  choral 
song,  *  Dir,  der  Unberiihrbaren,'  is  a  good  specimen  of  the  ease 
and  spontaneity  that  distinguishes  Schumann's  declamation. 
The  Doctor  Marianus  and  chorus  address  the  Mater  Gloriosa 
thus : — 


ORATORIOS  AND  CANTATAS 
JTV 


167 


r 

die  leiclit  Ver  .  fUhr   -  ba  -  ren    Truu-lich    zn        dir 


nom  •  men,      Dass 


CHORI-S. 


*-J  'fl:  J.  <=3»t 

der  Un  -  be    •    rUKr    -    ba    -    ren,       1st        ea  nlcht  be 


kom-men,          Dir, 


4 


die  leicht  Ver  -  fUhr  -  ba  -  ren  Trau-lich  zu     dir    kom-men. 
I 


j±±4^ 


&c. 


From  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  Transfiguration,  Goethe's 
verse  is  reproduced  in  melody  of  equal  beauty  and  subtlety.  Of 
the  opening  and  concluding  choruses  two  versions  have  been 
published.  The  principal  choral  numbers  are  difficult  to  sing ; 
but  the  effect  of  a  correct  rendering  is  distinctly  fine  almost 
throughout.  The  music  emphasizes  the  points  of  the  poem,  and 
explains  its  meaning  more  effectually  than  any  commentary. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  words  of  the  Doctor 
Marianus,  and  the  final  chorus  mysticus : — 


Alles  Vergiingliche 

1st  nur  ein  Gleichniss ; 
Das  Unzulangliche, 

Hier  wird's  Ereigniss. 
Das  Unbeschreibliche, 

Hier  1st  es  gethan ; 
Das  Ewigweibliche 

Zieht  uns  hi  nan. 


All  things  transitory 

But  as  symbols  are  sent ; 
Earth's  insufficiency 

Here  grows  to  event ; 
The  Indescribable, 

Here  it  is  done  ; 
The  Woman-Soul  leadoth  us 

Upward  and  on. 


168  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

If  Schumann's  Faust  music  is  but  a  conglomerate  of  scenes 
from  Goethe's  poem  arranged  in  a  sequence  for  concert  purposes, 
the  so-called  L&gende  dramatique,  La  Damnation  de  Faust,  by 
Berlioz  (1846),  may  be  described  as  an  accumulation  of  stray 
pieces — some  taken  from  the  composer's  first  publication,  f  Huit 
scenes  de  Faust,  oeuvre  Ier,'  which  was  cancelled,  some  totally 
alien,  like  the  arrangement  of  the  Rakoczy  March,  and  some  few 
specially  written  to  fill  up  gaps  in  the  curious  scheme  of  a  grand 
opera  or  rather  of  an  opera  de  concert,  in  accordance  with  which 
the  materials  were  finally  put  together.  The  designation 
'Legende  dramatique'  (Legende  fantastique  would  have  been 
more  appropriate)  merely  serves  to  conceal  the  absence  of  any 
definite  plan.  In  his  preface,  Berlioz  is  quite  frank  on  this 
subject.  '  Pourquoi  1'auteur  a-t-il  fait  aller  son  personnage  en 
Hongrie  ?  —  Parce  qu'il  av;  it  envie  de  faire  entendre  un  morceau 
de  musique  instrumentale  dont  le  theme  est  hongrois.  II  1'avoue 
sincerement.  II  1'eut  mene  partout  ailleurs,  s'il  cut  trouve  la 
moindre  raison  musicale  de  le  faire.'  As  to  the  violence  done  to 
Goethe's  poem,  the  author  of  La  Damnation  asserts  that  '  Le 
titre  seul  de  cet  ouvrage  indique  qu'il  n'est  pas  base  sur  1'idee 
principale  du  Faust  de  Goethe,  puisque  dans  1'illustre  poeme 
Faust  est  sauve.'  Portions  of  the  libretto  are  taken  from  Gerard 
de  Nerval's  translation  of  Faust;  the  first,  fourth,  sixth,  and 
seventh  scenes  were  written  for  Berlioz  by  an  acquaintance, 
the  remainder  by  Berlioz  himself. 

The  separate  airs,  choral  songs,  and  orchestral  pieces,  which 
go  to  make  up  the  four  main  divisions  are  picturesque  in  effect, 
highly  coloured,  and  superbly  scored.  As  regards  intrinsic 
musical  value  they  differ  greatly.  Occasionally,  in  scenes  such  as 
Faust  in  the  fields,  or  Marguerite  in  her  room  alone,  when  the 
situation  appeals  to  the  sober  and  more  serious  side  of  his  mind, 
the  composer  rises  to  heights  of  noble  and  original  music.  In 
the  Chansons  called  '  Histoire  d'un  Rat,' (  Histoire  d'une  Puce,' 
and  in  the (  Serenade  du  Diable/  the  comical  and  ironical  sense  of 
the  words  is  well  brought  out.  In  this  last  piece  (which  in  the 


ORATORIOS  AND  CANTATAS  169 

suppressed  Opus  I  appears  as  a  song  for  a  tenor  voice  with  guitar 
accompaniment),  in  Marguerite's  beautiful  romance  just  men- 
tioned, '  IVamour  1'ardente  flamme/  in  her  Chanson  gothique, 
<Le  Roi  deThule/ in  the  gracefuland  delicate  'Danse  desSylphes,' 
the '  Menuet  des  Follets,'  and  the  famous  *  Marche  Hongroise,'  the 
cleverness  of  the  instrumentation  is  remarkable  even  for  Berlioz, 
with  whom  the  treatment  of  the  orchestral  instruments  is  always 
a  strong  point.  The  choral  numbers  are  comparatively  weak. 
The  Easter  hymn, ( Christ  vient  de  ressusciter,'  is  not  particularly 
impressive.  The  burlesque  fugato  on  the  subject  of  the  song  of 
the  Rat,  '  Requiescat  in  pace,  Amen,'  is  in  fact  rather  a  display 
of  Berlioz'  shortcomings  as  a  contrapuntist,  than  a  telling  skit 
on  fugal  composition  as  he  meant  it  to  be.  Compare  the  queerly 
contrapuntal  double  chorus  for  male  voices  (soldiers  and  students) 
in  La  Damnation  de  Faust. 

The  *  Course  a  1'abime '  (Faust's  and  Mephistopheles'  ride  to 
hell),  and  the  scene  in  '  Pandaemonium/  with  its  'Choaur  de 
demons  et  damnes'  screaming  in  Swedenborgian  'langue 
infernale,'  attempt  to  inspire  terror,  but  achieve  no  more  than 
distaste,  whilst  the  'Epilogue  sur  la  terre,'  and  the  chorus  of 
blessed  spirits  singing  the  f  Apotheose  de  Marguerite  dans  le  ciel,' 
are  trite  and  rather  insignificant.  They  would  appear  wholly 
commonplace  were  it  not  for  a  new  and  beautiful  effect  at  the 
end  which  is  obtained  by  an  ingenious  combination  of  harps  and 
boys'  voices. 

All  the  numbers — airs,  vocal  ensembles,  and  orchestral  pieces 
— are  more  or  less  redolent  of  the  opera.  There  is  a  sense  of 
theatrical  rhetoric,  of  musical  pose  and  tirade,  quite  correct  in 
its  way  and  perhaps  effective  in  an  opera  de  concert,  but  not 
always  good  music.  At  times  the  instrumental  noise — as  in  the 
'Marche  Hongroise'  and  the  scene  in  'Pandaemonium' — is  almost 
deafening.  By  devices  of  orchestration  the  colourist  tries  to 
reach  that  which  the  melodist  fails  to  attain  for  want  of  warmth, 
the  harmonist  for  want  of  power,  and  the  designer  for  want  of 
skill.  Everywhere  the  composer  is  prone  to  speak  in  tones 


170  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

acceptable  to  that  kind  of  public  taste  which  is  caught  by  peculiar 
tricks  of  sound  or  glaring  colours.  For  the  most  part  the  music 
is  histrionic  in  style,  it  stimulates  the  nerves  and  is  frequently 
constrained  to  attract  attention  by  strange  or  barbaric  sounds,  or 
to  excite  interest  by  appeals  to  ideas  and  associations  outside  the 
pale  of  musical  art.  Purely  musical  expression,  as  we  find  it  in 
Bach,  or  Beethoven,  or  Brahms,  may  not  have  been  intended ; 
but  even  where  it  does  in  fact  exist,  it  is  not  well  sustained,  and 
its  quality  is  hardly  pure  enough  to  tell  as  absolute  music.  From 
a  rhetorical  point  of  view,  Berlioz  in  this  his  fo3uvre  le  plus 
accompli '  is  successful  enough ;  not  so,  tested  by  the  standard  of 
the  greatest  masters. 

Berlioz5  Salon  Oratorio,  the  Trilogie  sacree,  L'Enfance  du 
Christ  (1854) — a  series  of  three  cantatas — consists  of  nine  short 
scenes  of  studied  conciseness,  irregularly  grouped  in  three 
divisions:  I.  Le  Songe  d'Herode;  2.  La  Fuite  en  Egypte; 
3.  L'Arrivee  a  Sa'is.  The  music  is  daintily  written  for  a  small 
chorus,  small  orchestra,  solo  voices  and  solo  instruments. 
By  the  side  of  much  that  is,  essentially  dull — like  the 
'Marche  nocturne/  the  overture  to  fLa  Fuite  en  Egypte,' 
and  '  L'Arrivee  a  Sa'is ' — or  both  dull  and  grotesque,  like  the 
conjuration  of  the  soothsayers  (said  to  be  based  on  Hebrew 
tunes) — this  triptych  of  cantatas  contains  several  movements 
distinctly  interesting  and  charming  from  a  musical  point  of 
view — as,  for  example,  the  choral  song,  '  II  s'en  va  loin  de  la 
terre,*  the  Choeur  mystique,  *6  mon  ame*  (which  Berlioz 
palmed  off  on  a  select  Parisian  audience  as  the  work  of  a  for- 
gotten mediaeval  composer),  the  duo  fLJ6table  de  Bethleem,' 
and  the  interlude  fLe  Repos  de  la  Sainte  Famille/  The  latter 
movement  is  most  delicately  scored  for  wood  wind  and  strings, 
to  which  at  the  end  are  added  a  tenor  voice  and  eight  female 
solo  voices  representing  angels  at  a  distance.  The  following 
extract  will  give  an  example  of  its  melody : — 


ORATORIOS  AND  CANTATAS 


171 


S^T1 


"il-      <•      i 


r^-r 


^ — J^^ 


~f-^  •        ^=— H* 

fejTfff 


&c. 


r      r 

Two  pieces  by  Liszt  may  fitly  be  mentioned  here.  One  is 
a  Chorus  of  Reapers,  A  major,  f — No.  IV  of  an  ambitious  set 
of  choruses  for  Herder's  ( Entfesseltem  Prometheus'  (1856), 
to  which  the  Poeme  symphonique  *  Prometheus'  forms  the  over- 
ture. An  oasis  in  a  desert,  this  f  Chor  der  Schnitter '  is  a  good 
specimen  of  a  Pastorale,  closely  akin  to  certain  pieces  belonging 
to  the  cancelled  Album  Suisse  and  now  contained  in  Les 
Annees  de  pelerinage,  i,  such  as  'Eglogue'  and  'Au  bord 
d'une  source.'  The  other  is  a  setting  of  the  opening  scene  of 
Longfellow's  Golden  Legend  (1875),  *  Die  Glocken  des  Strass- 


172 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


burger  Miinsters,'  for  baritone  solo,  chorus,  full  orchestra,  and 
organ.  This  approaches  the  category  of  Schumann's  Balladen, 
being  rendered  in  the  manner  of  a  dramatic  dialogue  between 
baritone  and  chorus.  The  liturgical  motif  of  the  Preludio 
recurs  in  the  Vorspiel  to  Wagner's  Parsifal,  and  elsewhere  in 
that  work. 


CHAPTER  IX 

RELIGIOUS    MUSIC 

THE  Romantic  movement  in  France  was  a  revolution  which 
invaded  not  only  the  theatre  and  the  concert-room  but  the 
Church  also.  Not  that  it  set  up  any  worship  of  the  '  Goddess 
of  Reason ' — from  this,  indeed,  it  was  in  many  ways  removed — 
but  it  made  a  definite  and  conscious  effort  to  break  through  all 
ecclesiastical  restrictions,  and  to  treat  religion  as  one  department 
of  human  feeling,  different  in  object  but  not  different  in  kind  from 
the  sentiments  evoked  by  natural  beauty  or  by  the  tragedy  of 
history  and  romance.  Liszt,  in  a  letter  to  the  Gazette  Musicale 
(1834),  described  his  own  and  Berlioz5  ideal  of  romantic  religious 
music  thus  :  '  For  want  of  a  better  term  we  may  well  call  the 
new  music  Humanitarian.  It  must  be  devotional,  strong,  and 
drastic,  uniting — on  a  colossal  scale — the  theatre  and  the  Church, 
dramatic  and  sacred,  superb  and  simple,  fiery  and  free,  stormy 
and  calm,  translucent  and  emotional/  And  Berlioz  furnished 
a  practical  example  of  what  such  music  would  be  like,  when  in 
1 836-7  he  composed  the  Requiem  Mass  which  was  performed 
in  the  church  of  the  Invalides  at  a  memorial  service  for  General 
Damremont  and  the  French  soldiers  who  fell  at  the  taking  of 
Constantine. 

The  words  '  on  a  colossal  scale,  theatre  and  Church,  dramatic 
and  sacred'  suffice  to  indicate  Berlioz'  views  when  he  wrote 


174 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


this  wilfully  eccentric  score.  He  particularly  emulated,  and 
hoped  to  eclipse,  the  fame  which  Cherubim,  the  then  Director 
of  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  had  gained  with  a  grand  Requiem 
mass  in  C  minor1.  When,  in  the  most  striking  movement  of 
Cherubim's  Requiem,  to  the  trumpets  and  trombones  of  the 
*  Dies  irae,'  a  gong  is  struck,  fortissimo,  we  may  readily  under- 
stand that  the  impressiveness  of  the  subject  has  passed  beyond 
the  ordinary  resources  of  the  composer.  But  what  is  the  beating 
of  a  gong  or  a  sudden  clash  of  cymbals  to  Berlioz'  Tuba  mirum, 
with  its  ( Quatre  orchestres  d'instruments  de  cuivre  places  aux 
quatre  angles  de  la  grande  masse  chorale  et  instrumentale,' 
together  with  sixteen  kettledrums  and  a  grosse  caisse  roulante, 
a  gong,  three  pairs  of  cymbals,  and  another  grosse  caisse  f  avec 
deux  tampons'  ?  No  such  volumes  of  sound  had  been  heard  in 
Paris  since  the  taking  of  the  Bastille.  No  such  orchestra  had 
ever  been  collected — Gossec's  Te  Deum  is  pale  and  ineffectual  in 
comparison. 

There  is  not  space  to  quote  the  host  of  instruments  in  detail, 


Tuba 
minim. 


Andante  maestoso  m  =  72. 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


175 


Laiucz  le  mouvement  t'animer  Mi  peu. 


tt^SiE 


but  some  of  the  drums,  the  cymbals,  and  the  gong,  figure  in  the 
score  as  follows  : — 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Wood  wind. 


Brass. 


Eight  pairs 
(alternating) 

of 
Kettle-drums. 


Two  big 

drums. 


Gong  and 

three  pairs  of 

Cymbals. 


Sopranos  and 
Tenors. 


CHORUS. 


Basses. 


Strings. 


* 


_ 


.g^-i-Sa- f  jg-.    ..  _    |  -SB ^r=q 

S-l       be?  \k<a>  —   I  bag  -  — ^H 


jf  Tamtam. 

* 


==| ^=j 


[11  faut  f  rapper  sur  six  cymbales  avec  des  baguettes  a  tete  d'eponge.] 

—         _IN  ^ 


-j — ib 


In     -     dex, 


1 


iu-dex  er 


8P 


Iu-dex,  iu-dex    er      -      -      -     go    cum  se- 


ff 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


177 


-£EEl 


$ 


, 


ff  & 


ff  ^ 


Sat 


ff  & 


-t  —     -  r-  —  "  -  1 
-J-    -*-••*-      3      i 

go       cum          oe    »        <!«•     -     bit, 


cum    Be  -  de  -  bit, 


-      cic    -    bit, 


cum    se  -   de  -  bit, 


DAKNHEUTIIER 


i78 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


After  this  the  'cellos  and  basses  resume  the  tune  of  the  ( Dies 
irae,'  piano,  accompanied  by  little  phrases  played  upon  the  corno 
inglese  and  bassoons,  while  the  tenor  voices,  also  piano  and  { avec 
un  sentiment  d'humilite  et  de  crainte/  sing  'Quid  sum  miser 
tune  dicturus/  This  short  movement  makes  a  subtle  appeal  to 
the  imagination.  It  acts,  of  course,  as  a  contrast  and  relief, 
and  is,  in  its  way,  both  novel  and  beautiful,  though  the  musical 
substance  does  not  rise  much  above  mediocrity.  A  similar 
effect  of  contrast  is  expressed  in  the  next  movement  between 
the  fortissimo,  { Rex  tremendae  maiestatis/  and  the  supplication, 
piano, f  Salve  me/ 

The  monotonous  psalmody  of  the  Offertoire  produces  a  cal- 
culated effect  on  the  nerves  *.  As  in  the  Convoi  funebre  from 
the  symphony  Romeo  et  Juliette,  the  device  here  consists  of 
a  long-drawn  instrumental  fugato,  154  bars  (A),  interrupted 
at  intervals  by  a  plaintive  wail  of  voices  on  two  notes  only 
which  are  repeated  again  and  again  (B). 


Moderate  J 
Sopranos. 


84. 


w=±=        =J 

Tenors  and  Basses. 

A, 

Violins.  _____  =^^; 

^.•T—7—=Z                J 

H—  *H 

g    .    ,  %i 

—  i  —  d  —  JH 

D. 


Do 


m 


1  Wagner  admired  the  skilful  contrivance  of  this  Offertoire,  and  repeatedly 
spoke  of  the  singular  effect  it  produces  :  '  If  a  man  cares  to  be  hypnotised  musically, 
here  is  his  chance.' 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 

W 


179 


Do 


ne, 


Wood  wind. 
«/ 


Wood  wind. 


^^ 


5 


The  'Hostias'  which  follows  depends  for  its  effect  upon  a 
surprising  trick  of  instrumentation,  i.  e.  chords  played  piano, 
crescendo,  and  again  piano  by  three  flutes  and  eight  trombones : — 


3  flutes. 


8  trombones. 


Tenors. 


Basses. 


I 


1 


±1: 


mf  Ho»  -    ti  -  as       et    pre  -  ces  ti  -  bi   laud  -  is      of  .  f«r  -   i  - 

» 


r      r  * 

x 


P^ 


sfe 


This  contrivance,  though  but  little  suited  to  the  dignity  of 
the  occasion,  is  a  capital  example  of  Berlioz'  ingenuity  and 

N  2 


i8o 


keenness  of  perception  in  matters  of  instrumental  effect,  and 
of  the  marked  attention  he  paid  to  those  remoter  capabilities 
of  the  orchestral  instruments  with  which  the  majority  of 
professional  musicians  in  his  day  were  not  familiar.  The  score 
contains  a  note  drawing  attention  to  a  particularly  clever  con- 
trivance in  the  employment  of  certain  bass  notes  of  the  tenor 
trombone  at  the  end  of  the  movement  *. 


3  flutes. 


8  trombones. , 


!SF   •"  -^ 

p-= 

ev  -     , 

p^= 

—  §  

»— 

•M     U 

^.      jg~~i 

The  most  musicianly  number  is  the  opening  ( Requiem 
aeternam,5  which  is  repeated  in  a  shortened  form  at  the  close 
of  the  work.  It  is  original,  sincere  and  consistent;  marked 
by  a  touch  of  austerity  which  is  rare  in  Berlioz,  and  approach- 
ing more  nearly  than  was  his  wont  to  a  contrapuntal  style.  Its 
various  themes  are  effectively  contrasted : — the  sombre  melody 
with  which  it  begins,  the  whispered  monotone  of  its  fKyrie 
eleison/  the  transition  to  the  major  mode  at  the  words  'Te 
decet  hymnus/ 

'  '  Ces  notes  graves  de  trombone  te*nor  sont  peu  connues  meme  des  exe'cutants ; 
elles  existent  cependant  et  sortent  meme  assez  aisement  lorsqu'elles  sont  ainsi 
amene'es.' 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


181 


A  ndante,  un  poco  lento,  •'  =  69. 


Soprani 
1  and  2. 

Tenori 
1  and  2. 

Bassi 
land  2. 

£T                                                                                                                                      ' 
Imi  Soli. 

Be    -     qui    . 
Imi  Soli,    mezzo,  voce                                                  g  .      ^. 

Re        -       -       qai  -em..            ae    .    ter 

lempre  ft       =»                                        =••                                         -» 

^    ^         J                     '     J            J              J    1              J.         —  ^ 

Imi  Soli,    metza  voce 


Re 


qui    -    em 


em  ae      »     ter 


do    -    na 


i 


-I        c-l 


=3= 


r 


182 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


i 


ter 


•un  poco  piii 


&£ 


Do 


mi   •  ne, 


qui- 


re      •      qui       »        em  ae     •     ter      -      naua         do     -     na 


r 


do      •     na  e  is,  do 


ae     -     ter 


is,  Do 


mi    .    ne, 


r   r  f 


r 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


183 


i 


to*-J^H£ 


Oft  e       -      is, 


Do 


mi  -    ue, 


&  -tt 


SE 


Imi  &  2di 


qui  >  em    .  ae  ter 


-J^— .j- 


i*Hm 


Sans pretser  tt  largcmtnt 


Tenori 


Soli. 


Te         de      .      cet        hym   •    nua, 


De-ua,  in 


Si    '     on 


Ky.ri  -  e       e.le.i-son,  Ky-ri   .    e      e-le-i-son,  Ky-ri 


i    -     son. 


1 84 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


And  as  this  is  the  most  ecclesiastical  number  so  the  fLacry- 
mosa '  is  the  most  operatic.  Written  with  every  consideration 
for  the  voices,  and  admirably  scored,  it  is  wholly  theatrical  in 
character ;  it  is  no  more  suited  to  the  Church  than  Rossini's 
Stabat  Mater,  and  in  the  midst  of  all  its  artificial  passion 
and  histrionic  effect  it  even  stops  to  borrow  a  moment's  in- 
spiration from  Bellini : 


Unison.   Dolce  assai 


Sop.  2di 

K£^— 

Ten.  Imi 

La  . 

P 
cry  • 

w 

mo     ' 
j 

^^ 

aa 
0   ^ 

•fl  —  |      !     I 

1  1      il 

dl    -    es 

2E 

'     •  1   J  J^ 

J  *   J~ 

La  -    cry  -  mo 


-1  l—T-1—  -N 

il     .    la 

qua      re  - 

jTT"j  ""•<  •  —  a= 

mr  -    get,       qua    re  - 

V  »*•  C-ff  —  ^  —  •LJ-J— 

1  __j  »  J_*  L 

—                 1 

di.es     il 


la, 


/  3:  —  I  1  r*    V 

gi-3  •  -<J--       Jj  J: 

-     aur     -      get                 ex          fa 

SB  —  j-,  = 

.    vil      -      la. 

v  ^—  -^  —  •'-J  J^  J  .  

di 


es     il        -       -      la     . 


In  other  movements,  however, — notably  in  the  unaccompanied 
{ Gluaerens  me ' — this  charming  trait  appears  as  a  mere  trick  that 
comes  in  conveniently  when  contrapuntal  invention  fails.  Some- 
times, too,  as  in  the  ( Dies  irae,'  the  choral  writing  has  an  instru- 
mental air.  The  words  are  put  under  the  notes,  in  accordance 
with  the  popular  French  formula  of  progress,  l  Marche,  ou  je 
t'assomme  V 


1  Cited  by  George  Sand  in  Lettres  d'un  voyageur. 


Sopranos. 


Tenor*. 


Basses. 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 

Modtrato  f 


jj'"  "V  pTfg=  =5  ^ 

gu  ^  

Di      -      .      -      -    es        il      -       -       la 

f 

\  SLtt-b  —  —  1 

i  —  i        •                                '   1           '         '       "*""  —  ' 

Quau  -  tus          tre    •    mor 


st       fu     -     tu     •     rus, 


=rd^:_^  n 

H 

aol    - 

if 

P 

Di  -  es             i    .    rae,            di  -  ea 

i)  -  l.i,             di  •  et           i-  rac, 

quan 


i 


<p 


&**=? 


clum. 


m 


il  -    la, 


do 


dez, 


di  -  es  il  -   la,  sol  •  vet          aae-clum. 


* 


I 


do      iu     -     dex. 


Curiously  enough,  the  instrumental  phrases  thus  sung  by  the 
tenors  recur  in  the  Offertoire  (bars  96-105),  where,  more  appro- 
priately, they  are  allotted  to  the  strings. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Requiem  shows  little  of  religious 
resignation,  quiescence,  or  repose  of  the  soul.  Grandiloquent 
effects  predominate.  It  is  musical  scene-painting ;  illustration 
on  a  large  canvas  and  with  glaring  colours. 

The  Te  Deum  (1849-54)  was  performed  once  only  during 
Berlioz*  lifetime,  and  under  his  personal  direction,  in  the  church 
of  St.  Eustache,  Paris,  April  30, 1855 — to  celebrate  the  opening 


1 86  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

of  the  Palais  de  1'  Industrie  on  the  day  following.  For  its  due 
performance  the  composer  demands  an  orchestra  of  134 
executants,  a  double  choir  of  200  voices  each,  and  a  choir  of 
600  children's  voices1.  In  a  note  prefixed  to  the  score,  he 
directs  that  the  orchestra  and  two  principal  choirs,  with  the 
third  choir  on  a  separate  platform  and  at  some  distance  from 
them,  are  to  be  placed  at  one  end  of  the  church  opposite  to  the 
organ. 

It  is  difficult  to  speak  plainly  and  without  exaggeration  of 
this  very  ambitious  but  very  disappointing  work.  The  rather 
limited  range  of  Berlio/'  melody  has  already  been  criticised, 
and  there  is  little  evidence  of  increase  or  development  in  the 
measure  of  his  genius.  Indeed,  the  later  date  of  the  Te  Deum 
(1854)  as  compared  with  that  of  the  Requiem  Mass  (1837), 
and  of  the  operas  Les  Troyens  and  Beatrice  et  Benedict  as 
compared  with  Benvenuto  Cellini,,  would  seem  to  indicate  a 
decadence  of  inventive  power.  Musicians  are  agreed  that  strange 
instances  of  inept  harmony  or  melody  occur  in  the  early  works, 
and  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  are  less  frequent  in  the  later ; 
indeed,  inepitude  gradually  becomes  more  obvious.  In  a  general 
sense  the  Te  Deum  is  distinctly  inferior  to  the  Requiem.  The 
composer  alters  the  arrangement  of  the  ritual  text,  and  repeats  or 
omits  words  for  the  sake  of  dramatic  effect.  Side  by  side  with 
passages  undeniably  clever  though  rarely  beautiful,  it  contains 
much  that  is  inchoate,  dull  or  perverse,  and  much  that  is  marred 
by  abstruse  and  laboured  details,  instances  of  vain  effort  and 
errors  of  tact  and  taste  which  4a  man  of  forty  ought  not  to 
have  committed2/ 


1  The  use  of  such  choral  Masses  was  not  an  entire  novelty  in  the  churches  of 
Paris  at  that  time.     Mehul,  in  the  Chant  du  n  juillet  1800,  had  already  employed 
three  independent  choirs  and  full  orchestra. 

2  Schumann :  private  letter  to  Amhros.   Franchomme,  the  violoncellist,  Chopin's 
friend,  asserted  that  as  early  as  1833  Chopin  declared  that  he  had  expected  better 
things  from  Berlioz,  and  that  Berlioz'  music  was  of  '  such  a  quality  as  to  justify 
any  man  who  chose  to  break  with  him ' — a  singular  expression  of  opinion  on  the 
part  of  one  so  reticent  as  Chopin,  if  it  is  strictly  true  as  reported. 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


187 


A  lltgro  moderate 

Sopranos. 


Tc       De  -  um    lau  •  da    »       -     mua,  te      Do  -  iui-nuiu  con. ft   • 


Alltgro  non  troppo 
Tenon  and  Basses. 


.    Oi  fS        .      -j  I 

b-  I  g)  *  <h — ^-\-r — p- 


Tu,          Chris   •  te, 


tu 


Rex  glo    -    ri    -  ae, 


* 


Fa     •     tris  seiu  -  pi   -  ter    •    nus      Pi    -    li    -    us. 


These  quotations,  which  show  the  theme  of  the  first  number, 
the  'Te  Deum  laudamus'  and  the  scale-like  theme  of  the  fTu 
Christe/  cannot  be  said  to  possess  much  distinctive  character. 
Neither  of  them  is  particularly  suitable  for  contrapuntal  treat- 
ment, and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  developed  is  never 
really  effective.  Although  the  orchestral  and  choral  means 
employed  are  abundant  and  the  cumulative  mass  of  sound  is 
great,  both  movements  are  tedious. 

The  sixteen  bars  of  an  Andantino  which  form  the  opening 
and  the  end  of  the  second  number — Hymne, e  Tibi  omnes  angeli 
incessabili  voce  proclamant* — are  perhaps  the  most  fluent  in 
the  entire  work. 


i88 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


.$>— ; 

'•=3= 

r 


^ 


Pff 


J  J  J  J     .fe 


The  close  of  the  third  number — <  Priere :  Dignare  Domine  '- 
on  the  whole  a  weak  number,  approaches  the  same  level : 

Moderate  quasi  andantino,  •  =  69. 

~J » 


Mi .  se  -  re 


re  nos 


tri,  mi  -  se  -  re    - 


3 


£6=^ 


r 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


189 


ppp 


•      re,                  dig 

na      -      re          ia 

-    to 

1      ^     J      J1—  >,«!            H 
di     -     e         sine  pec  - 

I 

=  

—  S-  'J          1 

1 

r 


rallent.  «  jxrdfndo 


But  the  one  movement  that  really  shows  the  composer's  power 
and  originality  is  the  '  ludex  crederis/  No.  6.  This  is  a  piece 
of  large  dimensions,  grandiose  in  style,  and  in  spirit  akin  to  the 
'Rex  tremendae'  and  the  'Lacryraosa'  of  the  Requiem.  It 
resembles  the  latter  in  the  cast  of  the  themes  and  mode  of 
treatment.  A  very  powerful  and  original  effect  is  attained  by 
the  restatement  a  semitone  higher,  step  by  step,  of  its  striking 
and  vigorous  melody  : — 


I9o  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Alleyretto  un  poco  maettoso. 
j  .  =  69. 


Base. 


lu    -  dex     ere  •  do  •  ris        es  -  se     ren  •  tu    -      -    rua.  In 

t~~     I         1     *    \         — 


te,       Do  -  mi   -  ne,        ape  -  ra   -   vi,          non   con  -  fun  -  dar  in         ae 

^=,r   i  bf    g  ii?r-Jg-jQ»  g   r-  ipj    in 


-     ter .  num,          non    con  •  fun  -  dar      in         ae  -  ter    -    num. 

The  final  movement,  a  ( Marche  pour  la  presentation  des 
drapeaux,'  in  B  flat,  Allegro  non  troppo,  leaves  the  impression 
of  empty  rhythmical  noise  rather  pretentiously  put  forth. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  Liszt's  orchestral  Programme- 
music  derives  in  a  large  measure  from  Berlioz'  Symphonic 
fantastique,  Harold  en  Italic,  and  Romeo  et  Juliette.  In  like 
manner  it  may  be  asserted  that  much  of  Liszt's  miscellaneous 
church  music  and  a  large  portion  of  the  oratorios  St.  Elisabeth 
and  Christus  emanate  from  Berlioz'  Requiem  and  L'Enfance 
du  Christ.  Wagner's  method  of  employing  representative 
themes  is  adopted  by  Liszt  in  the  Graner  Festmesse  (written  for 
the  consecration  of  the  Basilica  at  Gran,  1855-6),  as  well  as  in 
Die  Legende  von  der  heiligen  Elisabeth  (1861-5)  and  Christus 
(1866-73). 

In  St.  Elisabeth,  which  is  published  as  a  concert-oratorio, 
Liszt  virtually  produced  something  like  an  opera  sacra — in  which 
guise  the  work  has  been  performed  at  Munich,  Weimar,  Hanover, 
Leipzig,  &c.  According  to  the  authorized  biography1  the 
success  of  St.  Elisabeth,  when  performed  with  scenic  accessories, 
came  as  a  surprise  to  the  composer.  But,  however  that  may  be, 
the  nature  and  structure  of  the  work  seem  to  call  for  theatrical 
pomp  and  circumstance.  The  conception  of  St.  Elisabeth  is 
rooted  in  the  enthusiastic  admiration  felt  by  both  Wagner  and 

1  Lina  Ramann,  Franz  Liszt  als  KunsUer  und  Mensch,  iii.  p.  444. 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


191 


Liszt  for  certain  of  Calderon's  Autos  sacrament  ales l.  A  libretto 
was  wanted  which  should  give  a  composer  of  sacred  music  an 
opportunity  to  illustrate  the  legend  of  a  saint,  as  Wagner  had 
illustrated  the  stories  of  Tannhduser,  Lohengrin,  and  Siegfried. 
Taking  his  cue  from  the  order  of  Moritz  v.  Schwind's  frescoes, 
which  illustrate  the  history  of  St.  Elisabeth  of  Hungary  in  the 
restored  hall  of  the  Wartburg  at  Eisenach,  Liszt  planned  six 
scenes  for  which  Otto  Roquette  2  furnished  the  verses.  The 
scenes  are :  i.  The  arrival  of  the  child  from  Hungary — a  bright 
sunny  picture ;  2.  The  rose  miracle — a  forest  and  garden  scene ; 
3.  The  crusaders — a  picture  of  mediaeval  pageantry;  4. 
Elisabeth's  expulsion  from  the  Wartburg — a  stormy  nocturne ; 
5.  Elisabeth's  death ;  6.  Solemn  burial  and  canonization. 
Five  sections  belong  to  the  dramatic  presentation  of  the  story. 
The  sixth  and  last,  the  burial  and  canonization,  is  an  instrumental 
and  vocal  epilogue  balancing  the  long  instrumental  movement 
which  acts  as  a  prologue.  The  ( Leitmotive,'  five  in  number, 
consist  of  tunes  of  a  popular  type : 
I.  ( In  festo  Sanctae  Elisabeth  8 ' : 

Andante  moderato 


2.  A  Hungarian  folk-tune 


Andante  moderate 


3.  A  Pilgrims'  Song 


1  See  the  Wagner-Liszt  correspondence,  anno  1858. 

*  Author  of  the  well-known  poem  Waldmeisters  Brautfahrt. 

3  Compare  Brahms'  Qeisttiches  Wiegenlied,  Op.  91,  No.  a 


192  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

4.  A  hymn-tune  assigned  in  the  oratorio  to  Saint  Elisabeth 


-^-r-i  —  ,   :||  v 

/!\ 

J   J   J   j-Hhr*- 

/tN 
«  [—        —  fl 

bgL-jLj 

5.  The  intonation  of  the  Magnificat — frequently  employed 
by  Liszt  as  symbolical  of  the  Cross 1 : 


Mag     -     ni    -     fi  -  cat.  Crux      fi      -      de        -         lis. 

Of  these  tunes  the  first  proved  the  most  pliable  and  the  most 
fruitful  of  results.  Its  gentle  contours  supply  the  main  lines 
and  suggest  the  development  of  the  two  best  sections  of  the 
oratorio — the  instrumental  Introduction  and  the  scene  of  the 
Rose-miracle.  The  latter  is  a  little  masterpiece :  the  most 
touching  and  most  artistic  scene  in  the  whole  work,  and 
altogether  one  of  the  best  things  Liszt  ever  produced.  The 
story  is  one  of  charming  naivete,  and  seems  to  call  for  music : 
Landgrave  Ludwig,  Elisabeth's  husband,  is  surprised  to  meet 
her  in  the  wild  wood  alone,  carrying  a  covered  basket.  In  reply 
to  his  questions,  she  timidly  pretends  to  have  wandered  while 
gathering  roses.  Questioned  further,  she  confesses  to  be  on  her 
way  to  the  sick  poor  with  bread  and  wine.  At  the  Landgrave's 
command,  she  uncovers  the  basket,  and  it  is  found  to  be  full  of 
roses.  c  A  wonder,  a  marvellous  wonder  hath  the  Lord  done 
unto  us.' 

1  For  example,  in  the  Dante  Symphony,  Granermesse  :  nachtlicher  Zug — No.  I 
of  the  illustrations  to  Lenau's  Faust,  and  in  the  Poeme  symphonique  Die  Hunnen- 
scUacht. 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


193 


un  poco  rait. 


Liindgrave, 


Sf*&^ 

—  1  IT    :    p-Qfr  —  i*-;  U»  •  r     r^     :    r    ^    _    /H 

•  ^fr*^™ 

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/TV 

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Elisabeth. 

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DANNRKUTHKR 


194 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Andante  relifiio 


p 


Ihm,  der  uns  die  -  sen   Se  -  gen  gab,  ihm  .    .  lasst  uns       dan  .  ken  ! 

Landgrave.  ~a=~  .r-^ — CZ, 


f.-h 


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rf^Tr 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


195 


E£j&-^  r^=F 

er                Mi         una 

Stab,               wenn 

wir                 im    .      .      . 

8tab, 

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196  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

The  chorus  enters  and  continues  in  the  same  strain  with  subtle 
changes  leading  to  a  climax  of  praise;  then  the  two  solo 
voices,  alternating  with  the  chorus,  resume  their  song,  and  the 
scene  ends  as  quietly  as  it  began. 

Everything  following  this  scene  is  comparatively  weak.  The 
chorus  and  march  of  the  Crusaders  are  poor  and  trivial ;  the 
scene  of  the  expulsion  culminates  in  a  theatrical  thunderstorm : 
that  of  Elisabeth's  death  recalls  the  last  act  of  Tannhduser; 
indeed,  a  steady  diminution  of  power  and  effect  is  manifest  from 
the  close  of  the  miracle  scene  to  the  close  of  the  work.  There 
is  as  complete  a  miscalculation  in  this  case  of  St.  Elisabeth  as 
in  that  of  Schumann's  Paradise  and  the  Peri — the  subject  of 
which  offered  material  enough  to  make  one  fine  cantata,  whereas 
Schumann  wrote  three  weak  ones — and  Liszt  chose  to  write 
a  series  of  six. 

Next  to  St.  Elisabeth,  the  setting  of  the  thirteenth  Psalm — 
for  tenor  solo,  chorus  and  orchestra  (1855-65)— occupies 
a  prominent  place  among  Liszt's  contributions  to  sacred  music. 
In  Luther's  version  of  the  Psalmist's  words  the  force  of  the 
personal  pronoun  comes  out  strongly:  fWie  lange  soil  ich 
sorgen  ?  Ich  aber  hoffe — Ich  will  dem  Herrn  singen.'  This 
is  Liszt's  cue.  He  exhibits  the  Psalmist's  passionate  appeals, 
his  trust  and  hope,  and  his  final  conviction  that  he  has  been 
heard  and  will  find  help.  In  his  own  words,  fthe  tenor 
part  (that  of  the  Psalmist)  is  very  important.' — fl  have  permitted 
myself  to  sing  personally,  and  I  have  tried  to  convert  the  ways 
of  my  own  flesh  and  blood  to  the  ways  of  King  David 1.' 

The  following  recitative-like  setting  of  the  words  '  How  long 
wilt  Thou  forget  me,  O  Lord  ?  for  ever  ?  how  long  wilt  Thou 
hide  Thy  face  from  me  ? ' — shows  the  character  of  the  main 
themes : — 

1  Liszt,  Letter  to  Brendel. 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


197 


A  adante  maeitoio 


Tenor 

-=  &  —  iP^ 

Solo. 

Heir 

0                     """" 

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hO      *      re  inidi,    Hi  IT,  niein        Gott ! 


198 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


The  chorus  repeats  these  supplications  and  the  orchestra 
strengthens  and  enforces  them.  The  first  appeal  is  followed 
by  a  f ugato l :  '  How  long  shall  I  take  council  in  my  soul, 
having  sorrow  in  my  heart  daily  ?  how  long  shall  mine  enemy 
be  exalted  over  me  ? ' 


Andante  eon  moto 


mf  esprets. 


crescendo 


ten.          ten. 


.    ten.         .    ten. 


Then  comes  another  supplicating  strain :  '  Consider  and  hear 
me,  O  Lord  my  God ;  lighten  mine  eyes,  lest  I  sleep  the  sleep 
of  death';  after  which  the  supplications  are  again  resumed,  and 
again  the  pain  seems  assuaged:  fBut  I  have  trusted  in  Thy 
mercy  ;  my  heart  shall  rejoice  in  Thy  salvation.5 

1  Compare  the  contrapuntal  fragments  quoted  above,  pp.  120  and  133,  from 
Berlioz'  Symphonic  fantastiqw  andf rom  Romeo  et  Juliette.  Liszt's  essays  in  counter- 
point are,  perhaps,  more  successful  than  those  of  Berlioz,  though  his  fugue  subjects 
are  equally  artificial  and  he  fails  to  make  the  most  of  them.  Both  masters  seem 
to  have  concocted  rather  than  composed  their  fugues. 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC  199 

Etpreuivo 


Ich     a-ber  hof  -  te      dar  -  auf ,  daas  du   so   gntt  -  dig,  so       gnfc  -   dig          bist 

The  close  consists  of  an  Allegro  impetuoso,  ( I  will  sing  unto 
the  Lord  V 

Allegro  impetunto 

L«_S 


Herrn       sin    -     -     -    gen,        will          dem 


E=3^ 


Among  Lis/t's  many  contributions  to  the  repertoire  of 
Catholic  church  music2  the  Missa  solemnis,  known  as  the 
f  Graner  Festmesse/  is  the  most  conspicuous.  Written  to  order 
in  1855,  performed  at  the  Consecration  of  the  Basilica  at  Gran, 
in  Hungary,  in  1856,  it  was  Liszt's  first  serious  effort  in  the 
way  of  church  music  proper,  and  shows  him  at  his  best  in  so 
far  as  personal  energy  and  high  aim  are  concerned.  'More 
prayed  than  composed/  he  said,  in  1856,  when  he  wanted  to 
smooth  the  way  for  it  in  Wagner's  estimation — ( more  criticised 

1  In  connexion  with  the  setting  of  the  thirteenth  Psalm  it  is  curious  to  note  the 
contrast  between  Liszt's  ultra-romantic  pose  of  passion,  and  Brahms'  studied 
reticence  and  purity  of  diction  when  dealing  with  the  same  words.  Liszt's  setting 
was  published  in  1865  ;  Brahms'  Op.  27, '  Der  13.  Psalm  for  dreistimmigen  Frauen- 
Chor  mit  Begleitung  der  Orgel,1  appeared  at  about  the  same  time.  Party  strife  was 
then  at  its  height ;  and  the  two  versions  may  be  taken  to  represent  as  nearly  as 
possible  the  conflicting  ideals  of  style,  under  the  influence  of  which  German 
musicians  ranged  themselves  in  hostile  camps  — '  Zukunftsinusik  '  on  the  one  side, 
uncompromising  classicism  on  the  other. 

J  I.  Missa  quatuor  vocum  ad  aequales  (two  tenors  and  two  basses),  concinentc 
organo.  II.  '  Graner  Festmesse.'  III.  Missa  choralis  quatuor  vocum,  concinente 
organo.  IV.  '  Ungarische  Kronungsmesse.'  V.  Requiem,  for  male  voices  and 
organ.  Psalms  13,  137,  23,  18,  116,  129.  VI.  Twelve  Kirchenchorgesange. 


300  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

than  heard/  when  it  failed  to  please  at  the  Church  of  St. 
Eustache,  in  Paris,  in  1866.  It  certainly  is  an  interesting  and, 
in  many  ways,  a  remarkable  work. 

Liszt's  instincts  led  him  to  perceive  that  the  Catholic  service, 
which  makes  a  strong  appeal  to  the  senses,  as  well  as  to  the 
emotions,  was  eminently  suited  to  musical  illustration.  He 
thought  his  chance  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  function  assigned  to 
music  in  the  ceremonial  is  mainly  decorative,  and  that  it  would 
be  possible  to  develop  still  further  its  emotional  side.  The 
Church  employs  music  to  enforce  and  embellish  the  Word. 
But  the  expansion  of  music  is  always  controlled  and  in  some 
sense  limited  by  the  Word — for  the  prescribed  words  are  not 
subject  to  change.  Liszt,  however,  came  to  interpret  the 
Catholic  ritual  in  a  histrionic  spirit,  and  tried  to  make  his 
music  reproduce  the  words  not  only  as  ancilla  theologica  et 
ecclesiastica,  but  also  as  ancilla  dramaturgica.  The  influence 
of  Wagner's  operatic  method,  as  it  appears  in  Tannhduser, 
Lohengrin,  and  Das  Rheingold *,  is  abundantly  evident ;  but  the 
result  of  this  influence  is  more  curious  than  convincing.  By 
the  application  of  Wagner's  system  of  Leitmotive  to  the  text 
of  the  Mass,  Liszt  succeeded  in  establishing  some  similarity 
between  different  movements,  and  so  approached  uniformity 
of  diction.  It  will  be  seen,  for  example,  that  his  way  of 
identifying  the  motive  of  the  Gloria  with  that  of  the  Resurrexit 
and  that  of  the  Hosanna,  or  the  motive  of  the  Sanctus  and  the 
Christie  eleison  with  that  of  the  Benedictus,  and  also  his  way 
of  repeating  the  principal  preceding  motives  in  the  ( Dona  nobis 
pacem,'  especially  the  restatement,  at  its  close,  of  the  powerful 
motive  of  the  Credo,  has  given  to  the  work  a  musical  unity 
which  is  not  always  in  very  clear  accordance  with  the  text. 

Liszt's  illustrative,  decorative,  and  dramatically  expressive 
style  is  seen  in  the  Kyrie  and  Christe,  as  well  as  in  the  Gloria, 
of  which  movements  the  following  quotations  will  give  some 
notion  :— 

1  The  score  of  Das  Rheingold  was  finished  in  1854. 


A. 

Soprano*. 
Altos. 


Tenors. 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 

Andante  toltnne 


201 


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202 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


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Solo,  espress. 
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Tempo 


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RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


203 


B. 

aprtu. 


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s 


Chri      -      «te,       Chri 
dolce  J  I  i 


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Strings. ' 


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204 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


f           —  ^ 

.    nae                              vo     -     lun 

^,    -p-  -            a     -*  — 

-     ta 

1 
tis 

^I^^J_±I-—         —  -    1     _^-  — 

^==- 

The  sentences  of  the  Credo,  so  difficult  to  weld  into  a  con- 
sistent musical  whole,  are  treated  separately,  and  a  semblance 
of  unity  is  attained  by  means  of  repetition  and  expansion  of  the 
principal  subject. 

Altogether  it  may  be  said  that  Liszt's  treatment  of  the  text 
of  the  Mass — his  treatment  of  the  Gloria,  for  instance,  as  a 
chorus  of  angels  with  the  accompaniment  of  whirring  violins — 
is  here  and  there  strikingly  picturesque  and  effective.  Com- 
pare the  example  C,  above.  But  it  must  be  added  that  with 
the  exception  of  the  Kyrie  and  its  little  offshoot,  the  Benedictus, 
no  complete  movement  is  sufficiently  well  knit  together  to  bear 
severe  scrutiny ;  that  the  music  is  made  up  of  scraps  of  melody,  of 
fragmentary  counterpoint,  and  sudden  changes  of  key ;  and  that 
the  prevailing  restlessness  and  the  theatrical  character  of  some 
of  its  instrumental  effects  are  not  in  just  accord  with  the  spirit 
of  a  religious  ceremonial. 

In  the  Hungarian  Coronation  Mass  ('  Ungarische  Kronungs- 
messe/  1866-7)  Liszt  aimed  at  characteristic  national  colour, 
and  tried  to  attain  it  by  persistently  putting  forward  some  of  the 
melodic  formulae  common  to  music  of  the  Hungarian  type,  such  as : 

A. 


'  1ft 

B. 


m 


which  occurs  in  the  national  f  Rakoczy  March '  and  in  number- 
less popular  tunes — or  an  emphatic  melisma,  such  as : 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


205 


C. 


D. 


known  to  everybody  through  the  famous  Rhapsodies.  From 
beginning  to  end  the  popular  Hungarian  element  is  represented 
by  devices  of  this  kind  in  a  manner  which  is  always  ingenious 
and  well  suited  to  the  requirements  of  a  national  audience. 
The  following  bars  from  the  Benedictus  and  the  Offertorium 
will  serve  for  examples : — 


Adagio  molto 


\- 


•9? 

* 


=£ 


/v  *  —  p—ir  i  r  —  P  —  '  — 

t/  —  *• 

*f»)ij)re  dolcittimo 

Vffe      g 

j^I   5     r 

^                         —  i 

ao6 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


— 


pfc-T-T-ff- 


dim.  pentoido 


EEE3 


.fEf- 


£FTT-  efrrriT- 


rfim.  perdendo 
PPP 


fe 


-r — I        " 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


207 


i 


..  e  £    g  iei££    £»£;££  g  °e 


••g  "  i  r 


i 


/,to ,: 


i 


Ac. 


- 


B. 


Lento 


<7\        tostenuto  ed  trpreutirn 


ao8 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


r 


v*  

+=£  i  ,J~jS 

—  j.  —  i 

J  —  t—  s  —  -T- 

TT 

*u 

I1"*- 

i     t- 


*>        < 


fed^Szft: 


"1    f 


1 


lA 


?^^i^y 


-4   j  -i 


^ 


«    i    $ 


:^=s=i 


^ 


rilenulo 


^I\  «V 


•i  K  ••     r-4- 


misterioio 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


309 


piu  ere*. 


to, 


But  the  style  of  the  entire  Mass  is  as  incongruous  as  a  gipsy 
musician  in  a  church  vestment — doubly  strange  to  students 
of  the  present  day,  who  in  Liszt's  Rhapsodies  and  Brahms' 
Ungarische  Tdnze  have  become  familiar  with  the  rhythmical 
and  melodic  phrases  of  the  Hungarian  gipsy  idiom,  and  who 
all  along  have  known  them  in  their  most  mundane  aspect. 
Apart,  however,  from  its  incongruities  of  style,  the  Offertorium 
is  a  shapely  composition  with  a  distinct  stamp  of  its  own 1. 

Liszt's  manner  of  writing  for  solo  and  choral  voices  is  generally 
practical  and  effective.  The  voice-parts  are  carefully  written 
so  as  to  lessen  the  difficulties  of  intonation  which  the  many 
far-fetched  modulations  involve,  and  are  skilfully  disposed  in 
point  of  sonority.  The  orchestration,  always  efficient,  is  fre- 
quently rich  and  beautiful. 

The  oratorio,  Christus(i  863-73), thelargestand  most  sustained 
of  Liszt's  efforts,  and  the  magnum  opus  of  his  later  years,  is 
remarkable  for  the  fact  that  its  conception  is  essentially  Roman 
Catholic,  devotional,  and  contemplative  in  a  Roman  Catholic 

1  Allowing  for  *ce  double  caractfere  national  et  religieux,'  Liszt  asserts  that 
'  dans  ces  ^troites  limites,  La  Hesse  du  Couronnement  est  plus  concentrique  qu'e- 
courte'e,  et  que  les  deux  tons  principaux  du  sentiment  national  hongrois  et  de  la 
foi  catholique  s'y  maintiennent  et  s'harmouient  d'un  bout  a  1'autre.' — Letters  to 
Madame  de  Wittgenstein,  iii.  181. 

DANNKEUTIIEK  P 


aio  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

sense  both  in  style  and  intended  effect.  It  contains  nothing 
that  is  not  in  some  way  connected  with  the  Catholic  ritual  or 
the  Catholic  spirit;  and,  more  than  any  other  work  of  its 
composer,  recognizes  and  obeys  the  restrictions  imposed  by  the 
surroundings  of  the  Church  service.  The  Latin  book  of  words 
(Liszt's  own  selection)  consists  of  Biblical  and  liturgical  texts, 
with  the  Beatitudes  (Matt.  v.  3-10)  for  the  centre.  The  person 
of  Christ  is  treated  with  great  reticence,  though  His  words  are 
used  in  the  Beatitudes,  in  the  illustration  of  the  storm, '  Quid 
timidi  estis,  modicae  fidei  ? '  and  in  the  scene  of  the  Passion, 
'Tristis  est  anima  mea  usque  ad  mortem.'  There  are  three 
main  sections:  I.  Christmas  oratorio;  z.  After  Epiphany; 
3.  Passion  and  Resurrection.  These  sections  or  parts  are 
subdivided  thus  :  Part  I.  Christmas  Oratorio — I.  Instrumental 
introduction  with  the  prophet  Isaiah's  words  for  a  motto : 
'Rorate  coeli  desuper  et  nubes  pluant  iustum,  aperiatur  terra 
et  germinet  Salvatorem.'  a.  Instrumental  Pastorale,  and  the 
Annunciation  :  c  Angelus  Domini  ad  pastores  ait  V  3.  { Stabat 
Mater  speciosa.'  4.  Instrumental  Pastorale,  the  music  of  the 
shepherds.  5.  Instrumental  March,  the  Three  Kings,  ( Et  ecce 
stella  quam  viderant  in  Oriente  antecedebat  eos.'  Part  II.  After 
Epiphany:  T.  The  Beatitudes.  2.  ( Pater  noster.'  3.  The 
foundation  of  the  Church :  e  Tu  es  Petrus  et  super  hanc  petram 
aedificabo  Ecclesiam  meam.'  4.  The  storm-miracle.  5.  The 
entry  into  Jerusalem  :  '  Hosanna,  Benedictus  qui  venit  in  no- 
mine Domini,  Rex  Israel.'  Part  III.  Passion  and  Resurrection : 
i.  '  Tristis  est  anima  mea.'  2.  '  Stabat  mater  dolorosa.'  3. 
Easter  hymn,  '  O  filii  et  filiae.'  4.  Resurrexit. 

A  mere  cento,  it  may  be  said.  But  it  would  be  difficult  to 
make  a  better  selection  for  the  special  purposes  which  Liszt 
had  in  view. 

Of  the   Leitmotive,   several   of   which   consist   of  liturgical 

From  c  Angelus  Domini '  to  the  words  '  Coelestes  exercitus  '  Liszt  quotes  the 
Gregorian  chant  note  for  note  (soprano  solo) ;  even  the  chorus  '  Laudantium  Deuia 
et  dicentium,'  which  follows,  is  almost  entirely  taken  from  the  same  source. 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


211 


phrases  and  are  therefore  meant  to  be  taken  for  symbolical  as 
well  as  representative  themes,  two  may  be  quoted1:  I.  The 
intonation  of  the  '  Rorate  coeli '  (Introitus ;  Advent  IV) — 


Ko  ra    -       -       -    te          coe 

which  Liszt  has  as  follows : 

P  — =      = 


de      -      eu 


per 


=3? 


Bo    -    ra    -    »    -    te          coe    .    .    .    li  de    -    su    .    -    - 

2.  The  intonation  of  the  '  Pater  noster  '  : 


per 


Pa  •  u-r      no   -    ster,        qui       ea      in       coe     •     111, 

which  Liszt  has  thus  : 

1ft  


1 


4^   r    r 


Pa    -    ter       no   -  ster, 


qui      ea        in 


The  themes  of  the  introductory  fugue,  the  first  Pastorale 
(a,  below),  and  the  March  of  the  Three  Kings  (by  below),  are 
evolved  from  No.  i,  above  : 


Allegretto  moderate,  pattora.lt, 


,    Allegro  non  troppo. 

.     ten. 


1 F 


The  phrase  from  the  first  bar  of  No.  I  appears  in  the  introduction 
to  the  Beatitudes,  Part  II,  in  the  Easter  hymn,  Part  III,  and 

1  Compare  Biiumker,  '  Das  katholische  deutsche  Kirchenlied  in  seinen  Sing- 
woisen,'  where  '  Gtesangbucher '  of  Mayence,  1661  and  1665,  are  quoted,  i.  p.  476. 

P   2 


212 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


elsewhere.  Both  the  Pastorale  movements  and  the  March, 
though  they  are  somewhat  long-drawn-out,  considering  the 
quality  of  the  musical  texture,  are  full  of  simple,  popular 
melody  and  effective  instrumentation.  Instances  may  be  found 
in  the  pifferare  tunes  of  the  second  Pastorale,  the  tender  melody 
in  F  major  from  the  same  number,  the  picturesque  effect  of  the 
high  notes  of  the  violins  and  flutes  in  the  trio  of  the  March, 
meant  to  depict  the  star  of  Bethlehem,  or  the  rich  sound  of  the 
following  passage,  also  from  the  March,  illustrating  the  adoration 
of  the  Magi,  c  Apertis  thesauris  suis,  obtulerunt  Magi  Domino 
aurum,  thus  et  myrrham  '  : 


Adagio  sostenuto  ed  esprettivo  a*sai 
Strings.     |  |  . 


m 


Cl.  and  Bassoons. 


- 

^   9 


^  j 


^E£ 


^ 


r 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


213 


The  '  March  of  the  Three  Kings,'  it  is  said,  was  inspired  by 
a  picture  in  Cologne  Cathedral.  *  Stabat  mater  speciosa,'  No. 
3,  Part  I,  in  spite  of  its  cloying  sweetness  proves  singularly 
impressive  in  performance.  On  the  whole,  the  entire  Christmas 
section — the  first  part  of  the  oratorio — is  distinctly  good,  and 
in  its  naive  way  deserves  to  rank  with  the  charming  Children's 
chorus  of  welcome  and  the  fine  scene  of  the  Rose-miracle  in 
St.  Elisabeth.  With  one  exception,  namely,  the  beautiful 
illustrations  to  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (the  Beatitudes),  it 
cannot  be  said  that  the  second  and  third  parts  take  rank  with 
the  first.  There  is  an  increasing  preponderance  of  effort  and 
dubious  experiment  as  the  work  proceeds. 

The  exception,  however,  is  very  noticeable.  The  Beatitudes 
contain  more  refined  music,  convincing  in  itself  by  reason  of  its 
beauty,  than  all  the  later  movements  put  together.  The 
antiphonal  disposition  of  this  piece  is  simple  and  very  effective. 
The  protagonist,  baritone  solo,  begins :  '  Beati  pauperes 
spiritu '  (E  major),  and  the  chorus  repeats  and  responds : 


Baritone  solo.    Lento 
dolce , 


Be   .  a 


pau  -  pe  •  res      spi    -     ri    -  tu, 
poco  rit.  ^. 


quo  .  m  - 


Oi£ 


-jf. 


-     am    .    .         ip    -    so    -     rum    eat         reg  -  num      ooe    »    lo 


Sopranos  and  Altos. 


P 


Be    -    a 
Tenors  and  Bass**. 


pau  •   pe  -   res       spi 


ri- 


-P— 

i      - 


214 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


quo  -  ui    -    am  .    .       ip    •    so    -    rum    oat          reg  -  num    coe  - 

I*        ft       J 


L_        I" 


Advantage  is  taken  of  the  opportunity  for  expressive  modulation 
offered  by  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  versicles : 


(a) 


ttprct*. 


"-CTT 


Be    -    a       .       ti       qni        lu        -       gent,          quo  -  ni    •    am       ip    -    si 
dolee 


con      -      so   •  la     -     bun     •      tur. 


Eifefe 


Be  -   R      •     ti       qni     e  •  su   -   ri  -  xint  et       si   -    ti  -  unt  ins  .  t  i  • 


ti  -  am. 


(r) 


Be    -    a 


ti  mi    -     ee 


li  .  cor 


dee. 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


215 


and  of  the  chance  to  introduce  an  effect  of  energy  at  the  eighth 
response  :  (  Beati,  qui  persecutionem  patiuntur  propter  iustitiam.' 


In  tempo 
ed  tnergico 


Solo. 


Chorus. J 


Organ.  •( 


??=£ 


"1= — -F-:—3=* 


Be  -  a     .      ti,  Be  •  a 

/  :=- 


Be  -  a       .       ti, 


mf 


r    ..-fr- 


-     ti, 


Be  -  a 


n'n/orj.          ,  A 
?»o»o    B^.  *•  • . 


Be  -  a      •      ti, 


qoi    per-ae  -  cu  .  ti  •  o-nem  pa  -  ti  >  UD  -  tur 


ti, 


S^ 


It  1        1 

Be-  a    -    ti, 
^  J         J 

B«-  -=•     C*- 


>     hM 


^ 


ai6  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

f  Beati,  Beati,  Amen '  forms  the  close,  pianissimo.  Then 
comes  the  '  Pater  noster,'  a  choral  movement  in  a  similar  mood, 
equally  well  written  for  the  voices,  though  far  less  original. 
The  section  entitled  f  The  foundation  of  the  Church '  ('  Tu  es 
Petrus) 3  consists  mainly  of  a  choral  song,  ( Simon  loannes, 
diliges  me  ? '  written  in  1863,  under  the  title  of  cLJHymne  du 
Pape,5  and  published  with  French  and  Italian  words,  in  1865,  at 
a  time  when  there  was  talk  of  Liszt  being  appointed  Maestro 
della  Cappella  Pontifica.  The  storm-miracle  in  Christus,  like 
the  wild  storm-scene  in  St,  Elisabeth,  is  a  piece  of  decorative 
affresco  work — partly  instrumental  with  descriptive  indications 
such  as  f  Ipse  vero  dormiebat/  printed  in  the  score,  partly  choral 
with  short  exclamations  chanted  by  a  chorus  of  male  voices : 
( Domine,  salva  nos,  perimus ' ;  it  culminates  in  a  phrase  sung  by 
a  baritone  voice  which  represents  the  voice  of  Christ :  '  Quid 
timidi  estis,  modicae  fidei  ? '  This  curious  specimen  of  hybrid 
composition  comes  as  near  to  failure  as  any  similar  deviation  in 
Berlioz5  work. 

In  the  scene  of  the  entry  into  Jerusalem  the  music,  admirably 
adapted  to  the  pageant,  culminates  in  an  animated  fugato, 
'Hosanna  Filio  David/  with  a  coda,  in  graver  mood,  to  the 
words  '  Benedictum  quod  venit  regnum  patris  nostri  David : 
hosanna  in  altissimis.' 

The  f  Tristis  est  anima  mea  usque  ad  mortem }  of  Part  III 
illustrates  the  sufferings  of  Christ  as  realistically  as  it  is  possible  to 
present  them  in  terms  of  music.  The  persistent  chromatics  affect 
the  ear  as  an  excess  of  sombre  chromes  and  browns  may  affect 
the  eye  in  a  picture.  In  the  somewhat  prolix  '  Stabat  mater 
dolorosa,'  the  process  of  emphasizing  the  expression  of  suffering  is 
continued  with  similar  insistence,  by  an  ingenious  and  at  times 
really  fine  accumulation  of  tones.  The  poignant  expression  is 
carried  to  an  extreme  of  pathos,  strikingly  dramatic  in  nature 
and  effect :  such,  for  instance,  as  the  following  passage  from 
the  '  Inflammatus ' : — 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC 


217 


con  lomma  pauione 


Soprano 


r    r 

per        te,         vir 


go, 


aim 
fl 
A 


de 


fen 
A  t 


;M^-£ 


^^=fe 


^ 


iF=*F=  *m 

Chorus.  -AT""""^  A        A          -g-'      ^^^ 

^:f-F  i  •     f  ^=£q^=:^ 


In  •  flam    -  ma   -   tus        et        ac     -     cen     -    BUS 


But  the  main  impression  left  by  this  part  of  the  oratorio,  i.  e. 
the  Tristis  and  the  Stabat,  is  as  wearisome  and  oppressive  as 
that  of  a  collection  of  realistic  pictures  of  martyrdom  l. 

1  We  have  got  accustomed  to  all  manner  of  chromatics  and  the  most  poignant 
dissonances  in  Tristan,  Gotterdammerung,  and  Parsifal  ;  but  we  have  also  learnt  to 
appreciate  the  closeness  of  Wagner's  musical  diction,  which  responds  at  once  and 
precisely  to  the  stimulus  of  emotion.  Moreover,  the  extremes  of  emotion,  as 


2l8 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


A  nai've  little  hymn,  a  favourite  old  tune  tastefully  set  for 
female  voices  with  harmonium  (or  flutes,  oboes,  clarinets  and 
corno  inglese),  is  introduced  by  way  of  relief  and  contrast  after 
the  Stabat.  It  is  intended  to  be  sung  and  played  by  invisible 
choristers  and  instrumentalists  : 

tin  poco  aniinato 


p    Al   -  le    -    lu 


Al   -   le     •     lu   -    in,         Al    -    le  -  lu 


mor  -  te       sur  -  re 


The  oratorio  closes  with  an  ecstatic,  and  indeed  somewhat 
militant,  'Resurrexit/  in  which  the  voices  are  almost  overpowered 
by  the  tumult  of  brass  instruments.  The  following  excerpt 
may  serve  to  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  it  is  conceived : 


Allegro  mosso    (Alia  breve) 


2-2E 

pT     r  ,  i 

—  r  —  !-i 

Chris    -    tus 


via    -     cit, 


Chris    .     tus 


leg     -     nat, 


=F=S 

Chris     - 

tus                 iin 

pe    -    rat 

in 

seni 

—         —  1 
-  pi 

Chris      - 

tus           via 

cit,            Chris 

.    tus 

reg 

nat, 

1     P 
— 


A         ±     r    J- 


'i    r 


na  sae 


Wagner  sometimes  deals  with  them,  are  explained  by  the  dramatic  action.  Thus 
the  utmost  violence  in  musical  combinations  may  be  intelligible  and  justifiable 
from  the  dramatist's  point  of  view,  even  when,  taken  as  mere  music,  combinations 
of  the  kind  seem  to  pass  the  limits  of  intelligibility,  and  appear  simply  ugly  and 
repelling.  Compare  Wagner's  own  view  as  expressed  in  Ueler  die  Anwendung  der 
Musik  aufdas  Drama,  Schriften  x.  231-50. 


RELIGIOUS  MUfc 

Chris     -     tns                im       -        pn   -    rat 

>IC                           219 

in            gem            pi 

A            J                                 ^      i       r 

J      A.'    .J.    j 
=g_l    »     -^=^ 

L  —  *  —  E 

^=^—  1  J  

:  —  _L  J 

pi     -     ter 


Was  Liszt's  bias  essentially  histrionic,  as  the  use  of  repre- 
sentative themes  and  operatic  effects  of  illustration  in  his  Pro- 
gramme-music seems  to  suggest ;  or  was  it  ecclesiastical,  as 
the  use  of  Intonations  serving  as  symbolical  Leitmotive  in  his 
Masses,  Psalms,  oratorios,  and  even  in  a  number  of  instrumental 
pieces,  would  imply  ?  Perhaps  both.  All  his  life  long  Liszt  was 
a  faithful,  if  somewhat  wayward,  son  of  the  Catholic  Church ; 
and  from  the  first,  some  of  his  music  echoes  the  tone  of  the 
cloister,  and  bears  traces  of  the  faicts  et  gestes  of  the  priest- 
hood. It  is  difficult  to  deal  justly  with  a  certain  class  of  Liszt's 
productions — pieces  imbued  with  religious  sentiment  and  pro- 
duced at  all  stages  of  his  career — from  the  morbid  '  Pensee  des 
morts '  of  1 834,  the  rather  austere  '  Pater  Noster '  (in  C)  or  the 
devout  ( Ave  Maria'  (in  B  b)  of  1847  13  and  the  painfully  chro- 
matic 'Stabat  mater  dolorosa'  (Fminor)  of  1886  (Christus),  to  the 
various  azure  and  ultramarine  Pieties,  such  as  the  *  Ave  Maria ' 
(in  E)  of  1863,  the  'Pater  Noster'  (in  A  t?)  of  1866  (Christus),  or 
the  Angelas '  Priere  aux  anges  gardiens '  (in  E)  of  1 883  2.  Several 
of  these  effusions  are  very  ambitious  :  the  scene  of  the  canoniza- 
tion of  St.  Elisabeth,  for  instance,  or  the  distressing ( Stabat  mater 
dolorosa '  just  mentioned,  or  the  beautiful  Beatitudes ;  others  are 
so  slight  as  to  be  hardly  appreciable,  like  the  '  Stabat  mater 
speciosa,'  and  the  naive  Easter  hymn, f  O  filii  et  filiae'  (Christus}, 
the  Sposalizio  of  the  Annees  de  pelerinage,  or  the  delicate  little 

1  Harmonies  poetiques  et  religieuses,  Nos.  2,  4,  5. 

2  Annees  de  pelerinage,  iii.  No.  i. 


220  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

pianoforte  pieces  called  '  Consolations.'  Among  such  widely 
divergent  compositions,  religious  in  tone  and  character,  those  of 
later  days  than  the  simple '  Pater  Noster 3  of  1 847  are  by  no  means 
extravagant  or  problematic,  or  in  any  sense  outside  the  pale  of 
music  proper  ;  yet  the  majority  of  them  can  hardly  be  accounted 
good  music  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word.  Taken  simply  as 
music,  and  without  regard  to  any  symbolism  or  casual  associa- 
tion with  the  ritual,  they  convey  an  undefinable  sense  of  effort 
and  weakness.  Nevertheless,  some  of  these  very  pieces,  notably 
the f  Stabat  mater  speciosa '  and  the  Beatitudes,  have  been  known 
to  make  a  deep  impression  on  persons  not  particularly  suscep- 
tible to  influences  of  an  ecclesiastical  description  or  subject  to 
sudden  devotional  impulses. 

Looked  at  from  a  musician's  point  of  view — apart  from  the 
glamour  of  an  ancient  ceremonial,  apart  also  from  the  fascination 
of  Liszt's  unique  personality — a  large  proportion  of  these 
compositions  appear  wanting  in  that  specific  musical  character 
and  in  those  distinctive  features  which  make  for  consistency 
and  coherence  of  musical  interest.  Pieces,  to  a  certain  degree 
well  put  together,  are  found  to  contain  bare  and  arid  stretches, 
full  of  intention  perhaps,  and  full  of  feeling,  but  full,  also,  of 
wearisome  and  pointless  particulars.  The  means  of  effect 
employed  by  Liszt  are  neither  commonplace,  nor  especially 
eccentric,  extravagant,  or  in  any  technical  sense  deficient. 
The  devotional  feeling  that  prompts  their  use  is  evidently 
sincere,  amounting  now  and  again  to  true  fervour  and  passion  ; 
yet,  in  the  end,  the  entire  endeavour  fails  to  convince  the  mind's 
ear,  and  leads  to  little  that  is  complete  or  even  likely  to  prove 
of  enduring  value  as  artistic  work.  If  a  man  chooses  to 
employ  the  pianoforte  or  the  chorus  and  orchestra  for  devotional 
purposes  he  is  bound  to  be  watchful  of  his  mode  of  musical 
expression ;  mere  emotional  improvisation  will  not  suffice ; 
for  his  experienced  hearers  are  always  inclined  to  resent  any 
shortcomings  in  the  musical  substance  or  workmanship,  and 
to  assert,  with  increasing  emphasis,  that  the  cause  of  piety 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC  221 

is  but  ill  served  by  deficiency  in  the  essential  elements  of 
composition  J. 

The  pieces  sacrees  of  Rossini  and  Verdi  may  fitly  be  men- 
tioned here.  Rossini's  consist  of  the  well-known  Stabat  mater, 
begun  in  1831,  finished  and  performed  1841-2;  three  choruses 
for  female  voices:  La  Foi,  L'Esperance,  and  La  Charite  (1844), 
of  which  the  first  two  belong  to  a  forgotten  opera,  Oedipus ;  a 
'  Tantum  ergo 3  for  two  tenors  and  bass  with  orchestra,  a  '  Quo- 
niam'  for  bass  solo  and  orchestra,  and  SO  Salutaris'  for  four  solo 
voices;  and  the  so-called  'Petite  Messe  Solennelle'  (1864),  the 
scoring  of  which  was  completed  in  1867,  shortly  before  his  death. 
Writing  about  the  first  Parisian  performance  of  Rossini's 
Stabat  Mater,  in  1842,  Heine2  slyly  stated  that  the  impression 
he  had  received  reminded  him  of  a  curious  representation  of  the 
Passion  by  little  children,  which  he  professed  to  have  witnessed 
at  Cette.  '  The  ineffable  martyrdom  was  presented  and  repro- 
duced, but  in  the  most  naively  juvenile  way — the  terrible 
plaint  of  the  Mater  dolorosa  was  intoned  by  little  maiden  voices,' 
&c. — It  is  sufficient  to  state  broadly  that  Rossini's  Stabat  is 
fine  music  from  the  professional  singer's  point  of  view,  and  not 
always  devoid  of  devotional  sentiment.  The  Introduction  and 
first  Chorus,  the  duet, '  Quis  est  homo/  the  '  Inflammatus,'  and 
the  unaccompanied  quartet,  s  Quando  corpus  morietur,'  rank 
with  the  most  effective  of  Rossini's  work. 

Verdi's  contributions  to  sacred  music  are  a  Requiem  Mass 
for  solo  voices,  chorus,  and  orchestra,  in  memory  of  Alessandro 
Manzoni ;  a  Pater  Noster  for  two  soprani,  contralto,  tenor,  and 
bass ;  an  Ave  Maria  for  soprano  and  strings,  and  '  Quattro 
pezzi  sacri.5  In  1 875,  his  sixty-second  year,  Verdi,  amid  rare 
enthusiasm,  made  the  tour  of  the  principal  European  concert- 
rooms  with  the  Requiem.  It  is  in  the  nature  of  things  that 
the  religious  music  of  a  man  who  from  youth  to  old  age  devoted 

1  Witness  in  recent  years  the  failure  of  Gounod's  oratorios  The  Redemption  and 
Nors  tt  Vita,  Tinel's  Frandscus,  Perosi's  Transfguration,  &c. 
3  Werke,  x.  331. 


222  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

himself  exclusively  to  the  composition  of  operas  should  have 
something  dramatic  about  it.  The  marvel,  under  the  circum- 
stances, is  rather  that  this  religious  music  of  his  (it  is  not 
precisely  church  music)  should  have  so  little  of  the  histrionic 
or  the  theatrical  about  it.  The  expression  of  sorrow,  terror, 
despair,  supplication,  and  hopeful  expectancy  in  the  Requiem 
is  perhaps  too  personal  and  passionate,  but  it  is  sincere.  There 
is  no  trace  of  frivolity,  and,  what  to  a  musician  is  more 
important,  it  will  bear  inspection  from  a  strictly  musical  point 
of  view.  Much  of  it  is  admirable  in  its  way,  and  convincing ; 
some  portions,  where  the  contrapuntal  treatment  of  choral 
parts  comes  in  sporadically,  are  now  and  then  weak,  though 
by  no  means  inept.  The  best  numbers  owe  their  success  to 
the  composer's  native  gift  for  vocal  melody,  to  his  able  treat- 
ment of  the  voice-parts  in  ensemble  pieces,  also  in  some 
measure  to  certain  realistic  effects  produced  by  choral  noise 
and  orchestral  blare,  as  in  the  '  Tuba  mirum,'  which  shows  that 
Verdi  had  studied  Berlioz'  Requiem  to  some  purpose.  The 
elegiac  reposeful  numbers  have  the  charm  of  sincerity  and 
tender  feeling ;  such  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  '  Requiem 
aeternam,'  in  which  a  subdued  expression  of  sorrow  alternates 
with  a  tender  ray  of  hope,  and  the  Kyrie  and  Christe.  The  mezzo 
soprano  solo,  '  Liber  scriptus,'  and  the  bass  solo,  '  Confutatis,' 
which  form  part  of  the  'Dies  irae,'  are  remarkably  effective. 
The  extremely  simple  'Agnus  Dei'  is  as  original  as  it  is  masterly, 
a  melody  of  thirteen  bars  six  times  repeated  with  ingenious 
changes  in  the  voicing,  and  a  few  bars  of  coda.  The  closing 
'  Requiem  aeternam '  is  as  touching  as  the  opening  of  which  it 
is  an  expansion.  Of  the  two  fugues, £  Sanctus'  and  ( Libera  me/ 
the  second  is  the  best  as  regards  the  invention  of  the  subject 
and  also  in  point  of  workmanship  ;  its  climax  acts  as  a  telling 
foil  to  the  pianissimo  of  the  final  '  Libera  me.' 

In  the  course  of  1 898,  his  eighty-fifth  year,  Verdi  published 
the  latest  of  his  religious  pieces :  Quattro  pezzi  sacri,  Ave  Maria 
(scala  enigmatica  armonizzata  a  quattro  voci),  Stabat  mater 


RELIGIOUS  MUSIC  223 

(per  coro  a  quattro  parti  ed  orchestra),  Laudi  alia  Vergine 
Maria  (per  quattro  voci  bianche),  and  Te  Deum  (per  doppio  coro 
a  quattro  parti  ed  orchestra).  The  first  of  these,  the  Are  Maria, 
a  harmonic  puzzle,  looks  as  if  it  were  a  jeu  d"  'esprit,  meant  to 
be  a  skit  upon  certain  curious  experiments  of  Liszt's  in 
chromatics.  It  is  based  upon  an  (  enigmatic  3  scale  —  ascending 
C,  D  b,  E,  Ffc  G  ff,  Afc  B,  C  ;  descending  C,  B,  A  J,  Gfl,  F  fl, 
E,  D[7,  C.  This  'scala'  in  minims  is  employed  as  a  cantus 
firmus,  first  in  the  bass,  then  successively  in  the  tenor  and 
alto,  finally  in  the  soprano.  The  queer  counterpoint  which 
Verdi  applies  to  it  is  far-fetched  and  difficult  of  intonation  ;  the 
total  effect  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  musical  as  it  is  curious. 
From  a  vocalist's  point  of  view,  the  (  Laudi  per  voci  bianche,' 
female  voices,  is  an  exquisite  piece  —  sweet  and  tender,  showing 
Verdi  as  a  singer  of  genius.  It  produces  a  wonderful  effect 
of  purity  and  happiness.  The  words  are  from  the  last  canto 
of  Dante's  Paradiso  : 

Vergine  Madre,  figlia  del  tuo  Figlio,          Thou  Virgin  Mother,  daughter  of  thy 
Umile  e  alta  piu  che  creatura,  H-ji  ftnd 


Termine  fisso  d'eterno  consiglio,  creature, 

The  limit  fixed  of  the  eternal  counsel, 
Thou  art  the  one  who  such  nobility 
Nobilitasti  si,  che  il  suo  Fattorc  Tohuman  naturegave,  that  its  Creator 

Did  not  disdain  to  make  Himself  its 
Non  disdegnfc  di  farsi  sua  fattura.  creature. 

Nel  ventre  tuo  si  raccese  1'  amore,  Within  thy  womb  rekindled  was  the  love, 

By  heat  of  which  in  the  eternal  peace 
Per  lo  cui  caldo  nell'  eterna  pace  After  guch  wige  this  flower  ^  ^ 

Cosl  e  germinato  questo  fiore.  minated. 

The  Stabat  and  Te  Deum,  in  the  violent  contrasts  of  colour 
employed,  the  noisy  instrumentation,  and  the  crude  use  of 
chromatics,  show  traces  of  the  operatic  stage  of  Berlioz' 
Requiem,  and  even  of  Liszt's  Christus;  but  they  also  exhibit 
high  imagination  and  some  genuine  musical  quality. 

Wagner's  Das  Liebesmahl  der  Apostel  :  eine  biblische  Scene, 
for  male  voices  and  orchestra,  belongs  to  this  part  of  the 
subject,  though  it  can  hardly  be  ranked  under  the  head  either 


224  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

of  orthodox  or  of  secular  church  music.  It  is  religious  in  spirit 
and  tinged  with  the  partly  religious,  partly  humanitarian  and 
political,  enthusiasm  of  the  years  which  preceded  the  revolution 
of  1848.  It  was  composed  as  apiece  d' occasion,  for  a  festive 
gathering  of  men's  choral  societies  in  Dresden.  Like  some 
scene  from  an  opera  seria  of  Spontini,  it  is  planned  to  form 
one  continuous  movement.  Remarkable  rather  for  the  spirit 
in  which  it  is  conceived  than  for  its  actual  musical  value, 
Das  Liebesmahl  recalls  the  style  of  Wagner's  first  successful 
opera,  Rienzi  (1840-2).  As  in  Rienzi,  the  melodic  and 
harmonic  effects  are  simple,  direct,  and  telling,  though  occasion- 
ally somewhat  blatant  and  commonplace.  Certain  passages — 
fSende  uns  deinen  heiligen  Geist,'  f  Machet  euch  auf,  redet 
f reudig  das  Wort ' — show  traces  of  that  mystical  fervour  which 
many  years  afterwards  found  fuller  expression  in  the  choruses 
of  the  Knights  of  the  Grail  in  the  first  act  of  Parsifal,  Three 
separate  choirs  a  cappella  (each  consisting  of  tenors  and  basses 
divided),  who  represent  the  Disciples,  are  supplemented  by 
twelve  solo  bass  voices,  who  represent  the  Apostles,  and  by  a 
choir  of  '  voices  from  on  high,'  who  represent  the  Trinity ; 
ultimately  the  mass  of  voices  is  joined  by  a  very  full  orchestra, 
which,  as  in  Rienzi,  includes  certain  extra  wind  and  percussion 
instruments  such  as  additional  bassoons,  a  '  Serpent,'  valve 
horns,  valve  trumpets,  a  bass-tuba  and  two  kettledrums,  besides 
the  usual  trumpets,  horns,  trombones,  and  timpani.  The 
sound  of  *  voices  from  on  high '  as  in  Parsifal — •'  Seid  getrost, 
Ich  bin  euch  nah,  und  mem  Geist  ist  mit  euch' — was  heard 
in  its  fullest  beauty  when  the  words  were  sung  from  the 
cupola  of  the  Frauenkirche,  at  Dresden,  on  the  sixth  of  July, 
1843;  and  the  fine  effect  thus  produced  was  made  to  serve  again, 
thirty-nine  years  later,  in  the  first  and  third  acts  of  Parsifal 
(1882)— f  Der  Glaube  lebt,  die  Taube  schwebt.' 


CHAPTER  X 

CONCERTOS   AND   CHAMBER  MUSIC 

and  shorter  pieces  chiefly  for  pianoforte  or  violin 
with  orchestra  are  conspicuous  among  the  instrumental  music 
of  this  period.  They  noav  be^  4'^fififl  \yijgr,  foy°-  ^ea:48-  v  J&^figJ3 
rem^arka.ble^focxu'iginitlityjof^oncgpldon  and  a  high  quality  of 
material  and  ^workmanship  —  such  as  WefrprN  ^^"^rtitMrV  fcy 
jpranoiorte,  Spohr's  eighth  Concerto,  fln  modo  d'una  scena 
T  caniante'  (1816),  MepH^^Qhai'8  Concerto  for  violin,  and  Schu- 


mann's for  pianoforte  (both  1  84.^)  ;  secondly,  pieces  wherein  stress 
is  laid  on  a  display  oT  the  solo  player's  attainments  as  a  virtuoso 


_Q»oT)  nfi  PagtHinavioln    oncertoin  D  (1820),  Ernst's  in  F  g 

^^*  '^WM^JWnHMMMM>MHn*MHPIiMMM^ 

minor  (1836),  Vieuxtemps'  in  E  (1835)  and  D  minor  (1853), 
Moscheles'  third  pianoforte  Concerto  in  G  minor1  (1822), 
Henselt's  in  F  minor,  jistj^  Fi  I?  ""^  il  his  concert 


variations  on  the  Dies  irae  known  as  '  Todtentanz  '  (Danse 
macabre),  1  850,  and  furthermore,  three  cha^^jfp«^'^aUy  XTQ  f  innai 
concertos,  distinrtly 


%  though  comparatively  recent  in  date,  viz.  Joachim's  Hungarian 
Concerto  in  D  minor  for  violin,  Grieg's  .Norwegian  Concerto 

•ffl  A  "minor  for  pianoforte,  and  Tchaikovsky^s  Russian  Concerto. 
also  |pr  jjianofortej  in  B  b  minor. 

*^rebe?TCSllL'WlHlUl!k  (iSiij),""1  Larghetto  affettuoso,  Allegro 
passionate,  Marcia  e  Rondo  giojoso,'  was  first  designed  on  the 
scheme  of  a  romantic  story,  which  Weber  finally  did  not  publish, 
since  he  deemed  the  sequence  of  movements  sufficiently  intel- 

1  The  first  movement  of  which  contains  music  of  a  high  order,  undeservedly 
neglected,  and  represents  the  technique  of  Hummel,  grafted  on  that  of  dementi 
and  Beethoven. 


DANNREUTHEU 


236  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

ligiblfc  without  verbal  explanation.  His  own  views  on  the 
subject  of  this  piece  and  its  relation  to  '  programme  music '  are 
expressed  with  great  frankness :  f  I  am  planning/  he  wrote  to 
Rochlitz,  the  critic,  '  a  pianoforte  concerto  in  F  minor.  The 
choice  of  key  seems  curious — seeing  that  concertos  in  a  minor 
key  so  rarely  please  unless  there  be  some  rousing  idea  connected 
with  them.  A  sort  of  story  has  somehow  taken  hold  of  me ; 
it  will  serve  to  link  the  movements  together  and  determine  their 
character  in  detail,  as  it  were,  dramatically.  I  intend  to  entitle 
them :  Allegro,  "  Separation  "  ;  Adagio,  "  Lamento  "  ;  Finale, 
"  Deepest  grief,  comfort,  return  and  jubilation."  I  find  it  very 
difficult  to  accustom  myself  to  this  conception,  as  I  particularly 
dislike  all  musical  pictures  with  specific  titles — yet  it  irresistibly 
forces  itself  upon  me  and  promises  to  prove  efficacious.  In 
any  case  I  do  not  care  to  put  it  forward  for  the  first  time  at 
any  place  where  I  am  not  already  well  known,  for  fear  of  being 
misunderstood  and  counted  as  a  charlatan.' 

As  the  Concertstiick  now  stands,  the  sequence  of  movements 
reflects  the  changes  of  mood  in  some  operatic  scena,  thus : 
A  lady  sitting  in  her  bower  and  thinking  of  her  knight,  \vho 
has  gone  to  the  Crusade  (Larghetto  affettuoso).  She  fancies 
him  in  battle  (Allegro  passionato)  and  longing  for  one  more 
sight  of  her  before  death.  She  is  near  to  fainting  away,  when 
suddenly  from  the  woods  without  comes  the  sound  of  men 
approaching  (Tempo  di  mar  da).  She  looks  out  anxiously. 
There  is  her  lover — and  with  a  wild  cry  she  rushes  into  his 
arms  (Presto  giojoso)1.  Technically,  the  Concertstiick  marks 
a  new  departure  in  the  treatment  of  t 


C,  amHs  full  of  ingc'nious   devices  both  in  the   solo 
part  and  the  orchestration. 

*  ;          __  ,  mm  -iimn  i 

1  An  ingenious  commentator,  C.  F.  Weitzmann  (the  first  good  historian  of 
clavier  music),  inspired  hy  Liszt's  grand  rendering,  regarded  the  piece  from 
a  political  point  of  view,  as  an  echo  of  the  glorious  uprising  of  Germany  towards 
the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and  not  without  some  reason,  in  so  far  as  the 
spirit  of  the  music  is  concerned. 


CONCERTOS  AND  CHAMBER  MUSIC          227 


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The  novel  effect  of  a  sustained  melody  with  arpeggiando  and 
quasi-pizzicato  accompaniments,  senza  pedale  (Introduction), 
has  been  reproduced  by  Mendelssohn  in  his  Capriccio  brillante, 
mentioned  above ;  and  the  staccato  octaves,  rippling  semi- 
quavers, and  certain  details  of  instrumentation  (Finale)  reappear 
in  Mendelssohn's  Concerto  in  G  minor.  The  plaintive  wail 
produced  by  the  high  notes  of  the  bassoon  against  the  throbbing 
chords  of  the  strings — an  operatic  effect — just  before  the  Tempo 
di  Marcia,  is  singularly  telling  in  its  place  : 


Bassoon  solo.  Adagio 

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228 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


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After  {hfo  the  hearers  are  astonished  by  rapid  octave  jj]U 
over  the  white  keys  of  'the^TflgMb'fu'f  Ui,'  a  virtuoso  effect  com- 


paratively^  easy  ^on  the  oTcT  Viennese  instruments,  but  nc 
impossible  on.,niodoM»  jgroiadfr^ 


ere  is  yet  another  even  more  surprising  effect,  and  more 
distinctly  Weber's  own,  but  too  long  for  quotation — the  sustained 
crescendo  from  pianissimo  to  fortissimo  for  sixteen  bars  before 
the  first  Allegro  on  the  same  harmony,  where  the  sound  of  the 
instrument  is  allowed  to  accumulate  with  the  dampers  raised  2. 

Before  the  Concertstiick  Weber  wrote  two  concertos,  one  in 
C  and  another  in  Eb.  The  second  of  these  appeared  in  1812, 
a  year  after  Beethoven's  great  Concerto  in  E  7.  Thus  Weber's 
surprising  choice  of  the  key  of  B  major  for  the  Adagio 3  is 
accounted  for ;  it  appears  as  a  reflex  of  Beethoven ;  there  are 
also  other  points  of  resemblance — slight  but  unmistakable. 

Though  not  strong  enough  for  performance  in  public  at  the 
present  day,  Weber's  Concerto  for  bassoon  in  F,  his  concertino 
in  E  b,  Op.  26,  and  the  Concertos  in  F  minor  and  E  b  for  clarinet, 
and  especially  the  interesting  Concertino  in  E  minor  for  horn 
(1806-18) — occasional  pieces  rapidly  written  for  virtuoso  friends 
— deserve  notice  as  containing  the  best  solo  music  extant  for 

1  It  is  apparently  due  to  Beethoven,  who  made  use  of  it  in  his  Trio  in  C  minor, 
Op.  i,  in  the  first  Concerto  in  C,  and  in  the  Finale  of  the  Waldstein  Sonata. 

a  This  is  the  celebrated  crescendo  that  Goethe  asked  for  when  Weber  visited 
him  in  1812.  Here  again  Beethoven  was  the  initiator,  and  Weber,  with  his 
theatrical  '  flair,'  the  first  to  make  the  most  effective  use  of  it. 

3  Virtually  C  J?  major — the  key-note  E  I?  becomes  D  ;$  and  forms  the  third  of 
the  new  key. 


CONCERTOS  AND  CHAMBER  MUSIC         229 

the  particular  instruments.  The  latter  piece,  for  the  first  time 
in  recorded  music,  exhibits  a  curious  trick  of  obtaining  the  effect 
of  three-  or  even  four-part  harmony  from  a  solo  horn.  (The 
player  ( blows '  a  note  and  at  the  same  time  sings  or  rather 
s  hums '  another — if  this  is  done  perfectly  in  tune  the  acoustical 
result  is  of  a  chord  in  three  or  four  parts.)  Taken  together 
Weber's  show-pieces  for  wind  instruments  form  a  compendium 
of  the  good  effects  the  instruments  can  produce  individually, 
and  here  again,  as  with  some  of  the  solo  pianoforte  pieces  to  be 
mentioned  later  on,  the  details  appear  like  studies  for  something 
to  come.  Compared  with  Spohr's  early  violin  concertos,  the 
freshness  of  Weber's  pieces  is  remarkable,  in  spite  of  their 
rather  flimsy  texture.  The  best  piece  in  which  the  clarinet 
takes  part  is  the  duo  concertante  Op.  48,  in  Eb,  a  spirited  and 
showy  sonata  for  that  instrument  and  pianoforte. 

Musicians  and  virtuosi  of  the  present  day  are  agreed  that 
after  Beethoven's  concertos  in  C  minor,  G  major,  and  E  b,  and 
before  Brahms'  in  Bb  major  and  Tchaikovsky's  in  Bb  minor, 
Schumann's  is  the  great  pianoforte  concerto;  and  similarly, 
that  after  Spohr's  (  Scena  cantante,'  and  Beethoven's  concerto 
in  D,  but  before  Joachim's  f  Hungarian'  in  D  minor  and  Brahms' 
in  D  major,  Mendelssohn's  is  the  great  concerto  for  the  violin. 
So  grateful  to  the  violinist  and  so  much  in  vogue  with  the 
public  is  the  latter,  that  it  bids  fair  to  outlast  the  interest  in 
the  rest  of  Mendelssohn's  solo  and  ensemble  pieces. 

The  device  of  joining  the  movements  of  a  concerto  so  as  to 
form  a  continuous  whole  has  frequently  been  ascribed  to  Spohr, 
who,  in  his  c Scena  cantante'  (Gesangsscene)  just  mentioned, 
imitates  an  operatic  scena  of  tragic  import.  Moscheles  in  his 
(  Concerto  fantastique '  worked  on  similar  lines.  Mendelssohn 
made  use  of  it  with  very  good  effect  in  both  of  his  pianoforte 
concertos  and  in  the  concerto  for  violin.  But  the  credit  of 
having  originated  the  happy  innovation  belongs  to  Beethoven, 
whom  Weber  followed  in  the  Concertstiick  (compare  the  beautiful 
transition  from  the  Adagio  to  the  Finale  in  Beethoven's  Eb 


230  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

concerto  with  Weber's  bassoon  passage  quoted  above).  Mendels- 
Rf>nn^r»2^t^2il  ftf  .  flO,ll)biining  *  J^^tB«vetaenU..derive&  dicejclly  |rom 
Weber's  ConcertstiickA  as  Spohr's  design  derives  from  Mozart's 
"fantasias  in  D  minor  and  C  minor.  Mendelssohn's  concertos  for 
pianoforte,  the  Capriccio  brillante,  the  Serenade  and  Allegro 
giojoso,  and  the  Rondo  brillante,  are  not  included  in  the  first 
rank  of  concert  pieces  for  the  reason  that  even  the  best  of  them, 
the  G  minor  concerto  and  the  Capriccio,  bear  palpable  traces  of 
borrowing  from  Weber,  and  the  remainder,  though  clever  in 
detail  and  eminently  practical,  exhibit  conspicuous  mannerisms. 
Schumann's  pianoforte  concerto  stands  with  Weber*?  finTrMi:- 

as  a  typical  representation  offlie  RomantitTperjo^  ^  The_ 
opening  Allegro   was  written   first  as  a  Ivric   fantasia  :  ,tne 
tHteMfie'Z20""fffitl'  CiiaF  Allegro  were  adaed  alter  an  interval  of 

^l»»i«.y<''»W*«M»ma»«n»g>iB<.»Mj»i>iiaMlt«»«»i»ii'»iii  ""  ......  •  '•••••••.naiiiiiiiliim*"""  *» 

some  years.  Traces  of  Schumann's  aphoristic  manner  are 
*  present  throughout,  particularly  in  the  first  movement,  but 
the  design  is  firmly  and  consistently  maintained.  Among  his 
larger  instrumental  pieces  there  is  none  that  offers  a  more 
complete  and  well-balanced  expression  of  his  individuality,  and 
in  none  of  his  works  (the  Manfred  overture  and  the  Adagio  of 
the  C  major  Symphony  excepted)  has  he  so  perfectly  succeeded 
in  setting  forth  the  delicately  passionate  sentiment  and  the 
fiery  exaltation  that  represents  the  normal  state  of  his  musical 
mind.  The  technique  of  the  solo  part  is  original  and  sufficiently 
effective,  though  there  isnblb  a 


_ 
sake.     The  instrumentation,  without  being  striking  or  clever, 

muim  Mtnm>**>' 

yet  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.  Less  satisfactory  is  the 
Introduction  and  Allegro  appassionato,  Op.  93,  an  ambitious 
work,  but  rather  monotonous  and  ineffective,  and  still  less  the 
Concert  Allegro  with  Introduction,  dedicated  to  Brahms,  Op.  134. 
Chopin's  two  concertos  were  early  works  (1833-6).  In  the 
general  outlines  they  recall  the  style  of  Hummel,  as  is  shown 
in  the  arrangement  of  tuttis  and  solos,  the  distribution  of 
cantilena  and  passage  work,  and  in  certain  technicalities  be- 
longing to  the  treatment  of  the  solo  instrument.  The  cantilena 


CONCERTOS  AND  CHAMBER  MUSIC          231 

in  the  E  minor  concerto  is  Italian  in  spirit,  and,  like  much  of 

melody,  shows  traces  of  the  influence  of  Bellini l. 
Agdinst  both  concertos  and  indeed  against  all  Chopin's  pieces 
with  ^orchestra — the  Krakoviak,  which  ranks  with  the  Rondos 
of  thfe  concertos,  the  Andante  spianato  and  Polonaise  in  E  b,  Op. 
32,Ahe  Fantasia  on  Polish  airs,  Op.  13,  the  variations  on  '  La 
ci/darem/  all  of  them  fascinating  from  a  virtuoso's  point  of 
vfew  and  very  clever  as  compositions — there  is  serious  objection  : 
icy  apjeajito  .better  advantage  without  orchestra,  and  with  the 
accompaniment  J^JgdlW  ?  s^^p^d  pianoforte.  Chopin  did  not 
know  enough  about  orchestral  instruments,  either  singly  or  m 
combination,  to  employ  them  with  proper  effect.,  ffis  tuttis 
Jack  sonority,  aflfl  Wfl£fa  the  pianoforte  "enters*.  Jhe  _would-be~" 
accompaniment  fails' Jbo  blend  with_.the  solo  instrument.  One 
or  two  fine  and  original  effects,  however,  must  not  be  overlooked, 
viz.  the  alternation  of  strings,  pianissimo  and  unisono,  with 
soft  chords  of  wood  winds,  in  the  beginning  of  the  Larghetto  in 
the  F  minor  concerto ;  and  the  long  tremolo  of  strings  inter- 
spersed with  the  solemn  pi/zicato  of  the  double  basses  which 
supports  the  recitative  of  the  pianoforte  in  the  same  movement  -. 
Regarded  from  the  pianoforte  player's  point  of  view,  Henselt's3 
concerto  in  F  minor  (1838),  the  most  ambitious  among  that 
pianist's  pieces,  has  very  considerable  merits.  As  a  record  of 
Henselt's  personal  achievements  at  the  keyboard,  the  work  is 
remarkable  for  the  rich  effects  of  sound  attained  by  the  use  of 
widespread  chords  in  the  most  complex  form  of  arpeggio,  the 
intricate  filigree  work  of  passages,  the  rapid  fioriture,  the  broken 

1  The  Italian  eighteenth-century  vocal  cantilena  as  transferred  to  the  violin  by 
Legrenzi,  Tartini,  Viotti,  and  afterwards  from  the  violin  to  the  pianoforte, 
constitutes  the  cantilena  of  Mozart's  and  Hummel's  concertos,  and  from  Mozart 
and  Hummel,  Field  and  Chopin  in  the  main  derive  theirs. 

3  Attempts  at  re-instrumentation,  such  as  those  of  the  F  minor  concerto  by 
Klindworth  and  of  the  E  minor  concerto  by  Tausig,  or  of  instrumentation  direct 
such  as  that  of  the  Allegro  de  Concert  in  A  by  Nicode,  have  not  justified  their 
existence.  Almost  throughout,  the  solo  part,  as  Chopin  has  it,  is  complete  in  itself. 
The  accompaniments,  whether  the  composer's  own  or  added  by  commentators,  act 
as  drags  and  obscure  rather  than  enhance  the  effect. 

s  1814-89. 


232  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

octaves,  and  the  other  devices  which  afford  such  ample  oppor- 
tunity to  the  skill  and  endurance  of  the  virtuoso.  But  in  spite 
of  the  brilliancy  of  the  protagonist's  part,  and  the  fairly  good 
orchestration.,  there  is  a  noticeable  lack  of  convincing  effect. 
One  misses  the  chief  of  Henselt's  peculiarities  —  that  smooth, 
sentimental  (  Lieder  ohne  Worte  '  tunefulness,  which  distin- 
guishes many  of  his  Etudes  and  Impromptus  —  and  this  perhaps 
more  than  anything  else  has  stood  in  the  way  of  a  complete 
success.  Though  the  concerto  is  well  planned  and  carefully 
written,  it  breathes  an  air  of  pedantry,  chiefly  owing  to  the 
rather  trite  character  of  the  themes  —  which  have  all  the 
mediocrite  distinguee  of  Henselt's  master,  Hummel.  Certain 
details  in  the  two  principal  movements,  Allegro  patetico  and 
Allegro  agitato,  are  obviously  appropriated  from  Chopin's  F 
minor  concerto,  and  thus  derive  from  Hummel  at  second 
hand.  The  middle  movement  —  Larghetto  in  D  b  major  and  C  Jf 
minor,  f,  a  piece  more  distinctly  Henselt's  own  in  point  of 
melodic  invention  and  sentiment,  starts  and  terminates  as  a  kind 
of  Nocturne  after  the  manner  of  Field  or  Chopin.  The  centre 
portion,  CJf  minor,  very  remarkable  from  a  pianist's  point  of 
view,  contains  a  bold  effect  of  sonority  l  :  a  broad  cantilena  for 
both  hands  in  double  octaves  sustained  by  the  pedal,  —  in  imita- 
tion of  heavy  bass  and  tenor  instruments,  —  at  first  piano,  later  on 
forte,  and  thenj^X",  played  simultaneously  with  the  accompany- 
ing chords,  which,  also  laid  out  for  both  hands,  follow  each  main 
note  of  the  melody  in  semiquavers  higher  up  on  the  key-board. 

Schumann  expressed  a  wish  to  write  a  piece  which  should 
consist  of  an  extended  movement,  the  opening  section  to  stand 
for  the  first  Allegro,  a  cantabile  section  for  the  Adagio,  and 
a  bright  close  for  the  customary  Rondo.  Liszt  tried  to  carry 
out  some  such  idea.  Taking  a  h^tf  from  Berlin?, 
Wflgper's  system  of  Leitmotive,  as  employedj 
L  strove^foy  unity  hjr 


1  Recently  copied  —  key,  effect,  notation  on  four  staves  —  by  S.  Rachmaninoff,  in 
the  celebrated  C     minor  Prelude. 


CONCERTOS  AND  CHAMBER  MUSIC         233 


serve  both  in  quick  a^d  glow,  .*ti?lga  J?yT-roafePJih-a  ^QfifolHZ 
e.pfe  P'prpf  and,  by  stringing  together  the 
it&  variants  ami  all  accessory  melodies  in  tfyr 
.  This  novelty  in  form,  designed  as  self-depen- 
dent music  without  regard  to  a  programme,  proved  to  be  a  success. 
Indeed  Liszt's  two  concertos  in  E  b  and  A  major,  to  which  may 
"  Be  adSed'tfie  so-called  Concerto'  for  two  pianos  without  orchestra 
in  E  minor,  and  the  '  Todtentanz  '  (Danse  macabre),  would  rank 
among  the  best  of  concert  pieces,  were  it  not  for  the  lack  of 
weight  and  beauty  in  their  main  themes.  As  virtuoso  pianoforte 
music  these  efforts  are  magnificent,  the  orchestration  superb  — 
particularly  in  the  Concerto  in  A  and  the  wildly  fantastic  l  Dance 
of  Death  V  The  Danse  macabre,  sketched  in  1839  (written 
and  rewritten  in  1  849  and  1  859)  —  a  piece  that  belongs  to  the 
category  of  Berlioz'  Nuit  d'un  sabbat,  the  Orgie  des  brigands, 
and  Liszt's  own  Scherzo  ironico,  Mephistopheles,  has  for  an 
avowed  programme  Orcagna's  frescoes  representing  the  Dance 
of  Death,  at  Pisa,  together  with  a  reminiscence  of  Holbein's 
Dance  of  Death,  at  Basle.  The  piece  consists  of  a  series  of 
grotesque  variations  on  the  old  intonation  of  the  '  Dies  irae  '  used 
by  Berlioz  in  the  Nuit  d'un  sabbat.  Remarkably  clever  as  an 
example  of  the  extremes  of  pianoforte  technique,  and  equally 
clever  as  an  example  of  grotesque  instrumentation,  it  is  very 
effective  when  properly  played  to  an  audience  in  the  mood  for 
such  things. 

Bare  enumeration  must  suffice  for  John  Field's  pianoforte 
Concerto  in  Ab  (the  7th),  Ferdinand  Ries'  in  C$  minor  (the 
3rd),  Sterndale-Bennett's  in  F  minor  (the  4th),  Ferdinand  Killer's 
in  F$  minor  (1863),  Rubinstein's  in  G  major  and  in  D  minor, 
Joachim  Raff's  in  C  minor  (1870),  as  well  as  for  Schumann's 
Concerto  for  violoncello,  and  his  Concerto  for  four  horns.  All 
these  works  stand,  more  or  less,  apart  from  the  main  line  of 

1  The  Concerto  in  E  [?  and  a  good  number  of  Liszt's  earlier  works  owe  much 
of  their  telling  effect  to  Joachim  Raff,  who  for  several  years  acted  as  Liszt's 
secretary. 


234  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

gradual  change  which  marks  the  Romantic  period,  and  none  of 
them  have  left  an  appreciable  impression  upon  professional 
executants,  to  whom  they  were,  in  the  first  instance,  addressed 
and  whom  they  mainly  concern. 

Both  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann  made  strenuous  efforts  in 
concerted  chamber  music  for  pianoforte  and  strings.  Mendels- 
sohn's two  trios,  D  minor  and  C  minor,  and  his  two  sonatas  for 
'cello  and  pianoforte,  fine  and  finished  as  they  are,  particularly  in 
the  first  movements  and  the  Scherzos,  have,  for  the  present  at 
any  rate^  lost  their  vogue.  His  three  early  pianoforte  quartets 
are  of  small  moment. 

Written  in  1842,  Schumann's  famous  Quintet  in  Eb  soon 
became,  and  (apart  from  Brahms's  in  F  minor)  still  remains,  the 
favourite  of  concert  audiences,  despite  the  lugubrious  In  modo 
d'una  marcia,  which  has  been  maliciously  described  as  an 
( Elegy  on  the  death  of  a  Philistine/  Next  to  this  ranks  the 
pianoforte  quartet  also  in  Eb.  Schumann  in  his  later  years 
wrote  three  trios — in  D  minor,  F  major,  and  G  minor — of 
which  the  first  is  the  strongest  and  the  last  a  failure.  With  the 
exception  of  the  first  Allegro  of  the  Trio  in  D  minor  and  perhaps 
the  Adagio  of  this  and  the  Larghetto  of  the  Trio  in  F,  none  of 
Schumann's  trio  movements  reach  the  level  of  Mendelssohn's. 
Two  sonatas  for  violin  and  pianoforte,  in  A  minor,  Op.  105,  and 
D  minor,  Op.  121,  not  so  well  considered,  in  point  of  form,  as 
Mendelssohn's  'cello  sonatas,  belong  to  the  period  of  Schumann's 
decline,  when  he  wrote  in  feverish  haste.  The  themes  of  the 
first  movements  of  both  sonatas  are  passionate,  but  the  treat- 
ment produces  an  effect  of  effort  and  forced  agitation.  The 
slow  movements,  in  F  and  G  respectively,  especially  the  first  one, 
are  in  their  way  good,  the  finales  mediocre.  It  is  enough  to 
mention  the  three  Phantasiestiicke,  Op.  73,  for  clarinet  (or  violin) 
and  piano,  and  the  three  Roman/en,  Op.  94,  for  oboe  (or  violin) 
and  piano,  as  pieces  perhaps  better  suited  for  the  violin  than 
either  the  oboe  or  clarinet.  Miirchenbilder,  for  pianoforte  and 
viola,  Op.  113,  Marchenerzahlungen,  for  pianoforte,  clarinet, 


CONCERTOS  AND  CHAMBER  MUSIC         235 

and  violin,  and  Stiicke  im  Volkston,  for  violoncello  and  piano- 
forte, Op.  1 02,  are  in  the  main  dull,  though  not  without  an 
occasional  glimpse  of  beauty. 

In  his  three  string  quartets,  Op.  41,  Schumann  tried  to  make 
each  movement  exhibit  some  definite  mood,  in  a  manner  which 
should  depend  for  its  effect  upon  a  concise  and  direct  expression 
of  the  idea  rather  than  upon  a  complex  scheme  of  contrasting 
subjects  and  balanced  developments.  And  he  thus  managed  to 
say  things  aphoristically  which  had  never  been  so  expressed 
before.  He  was  well  aware  that  in  the  most  intellectual  de- 
partment of  instrumental  music,  the  string  quartet,  any  effect 
produced  by  mere  mass  or  colour,  anything  which  gave  the 
impression  of  trickery,  would  instantly  be  revealed  as  an  error 
in  style,  and  in  this  respect  his  three  quartets  are  more 
satisfactory  than  Mendelssohn's  seven.  Not  that  Mendels- 
sohn's music  for  stringed  instruments  can  be  called  other  than 
masterly;  but  the  fact  remains  that  his  Quartets  and  Quintets 
contain,  here  and  there,  certain  effects  which  suggest  the 
orchestra  or  the  pianoforte — such,  for  instance,  as  the  use  of 
the  tremolo  in  the  first  Allegro  of  the  D  major  Quartet,  Op. 
44,  No.  i,  and  the  Quintet  in  F  minor,  Op.  80,  or  the  use 
of  syncopated  accompaniments  in  the  first  Allegro  of  the 
Quartet  in  E  minor,  and  other  devices  of  the  kind.  Mendels- 
sohn's fine  Octet  for  strings,  published  as  Op.  20,  with  its  very 
clever  and  poetically  suggestive  Scherzo,  is  too  well  known  to 
need  any  detailed  description.  It  was  a  truly  astonishing  feat 
for  a  boy  half-way  through  his  seventeenth  year l.  Unification 
is  attempted  by  a  repetition  in  the  Finale  of  the  principal 
subject  of  the  Scherzo — with  the  same  end  in  view,  subjects 
from  the  first  movement  of  the  Quartet,  Op.  12,  in  Eb,  are  also 
reproduced  in  the  Finale. 

Verdi's  one  contribution  to  chamber  music,  a  string  quartet 
in  E  minor,  is  interesting  and  original  throughout.  It  consists 
of  the  usual  four  movements :  (i)  a  rather  lengthy,  yet  effective, 

1  Compare  Sir  George  Grove  in  the  article  on  Mendelssohn,  Diet.  ii.  p.  258. 


236  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Allegro,  £ ,  consistent  in  form,  masterly  in  treatment,  and  full 
of  novel  effects;  (z)  an  Andantino,  f,  in  C,  of  piquant  inven- 
tion both  as  regards  melody  and  modulation;  (3)  a  short 
Scherzo  Prestissimo ;  and  (4)  a  Scherzo  Fuga,  ^,  allegro  assai 
mosso,  very  cleverly  elaborated  and  brought  to  a  bright  close 
in  E  major.  The  work,  like  Borodine's  second  quartet,  is 
worthy  of  more  serious  attention  than  it  has  received. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PIANOFORTE   MUSIC 

AN  anthology  of  Weber's  compositions  for  the  pianoforte 
would  exclude  all  the  variations  on  popular  tunes  and  include 
the  Concertstiick,  the  sonatas  in  Ab  major  and  D  minor,  the 
so-called  Perpetuum  mobile  (Finale,  Sonata  in  C),  the  Mo- 
mento  capriccioso,  the  Rondeau  brillant  in  Eb,  the  Polacca 
in  E,  the  Aufforderung  zum  Tanz  (L'Invitation  a  la  valse) 
and  a  few  of  the  four-hand  trifles,  Op.  60.  It  is  a  small  list, 
but  a  weighty  one,  for  it  consists  of  the  most  original  and 
technically  the  most  advanced  pieces  after  Beethoven  and 
Schubert  and  before  Schumann  and  Chopin.  In  most  of  these 
pieces  Weber  has  broken  new  ground  and  has  proved  to  be  the 
pioneer  of  later  developments  :  in  almost  all  of  them  he  added 
a  good  deal  to  the  keyboard  technique  of  Dussek,  Clementi, 
and  even  of  Beethoven.  Thus,  for  instance,  taking  a  hint  from 
Beethoven,  he  produced  special  and  very  distinct  effects  of 
sonority  without  the  aid  of  the  pedals,  or  by  some  particular  use 
of  them ;  he  developed  Dussek's  showy  passage  work  of  scales 
and  broken  chords — as  we  know  it  in  that  master's  sonatas  in 
F  minor,  Op.  77,  called  L' Invocation,  and  Op.  70  in  A 9* 
called  Le  Retour  a  Paris — still  further  in  the  direction  of  pliant 
grace  and  glitter.  Unfortunately  Dussek's  rather  lax  and  patchy 
construction  also  reappears  in  the  Allegros  of  Weber's  sonatas, 
which,  like  those  of  Dussek,  are  concert  pieces  intended  for  the 
use  of  professional  players.  The  predominance  of  sentiment 
over  closeness  and  concentration  of  design  is  fully  apparent 
— as  for  instance  in  the  fine  first  movement  of  the  Sonata 
in  Ab.  A  number  of  Weber's  early  pianoforte  works  look 


238  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

like  stepping-stones  to  his  operas ;  even  the  Polacca  in  E,  the 
Invitation,  and  the  Concertstiick  seem  to  belong  to  the  same 
group  and  to  point  in  the  same  direction.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  up  to  the  present  day  Weber's  influence  is  felt  in  the 
ball-room.  The  chevaleresque  spirit  and  subtle  grace  of  his 
Aufforderung  zum  Tanz  (IS Invitation  a  la  valse) l  has  changed 
the  character  of  the  German  Walzer,  which  it  made  the  richer 
by  a  note  of  brilliant  gaiety,  of  dignified  ease,  and  gentle  manners, 
unknown  before.  Up  to  Weber's  time  the  Walzer  resembled 
a  rustic  dance  known  as  the  Landler  (compare  the  Waltz  in 
Der  FreischiitZ)  or  the  middle  part  of  the  Presto  alia  tedesca 
of  Beethoven's  Sonatina,  Op.  79),  or  else  it  was  like  a  fluent 
Minuetto  with  a  touch  of  sentimentality  like  Schubert's  so- 
called  Sehnsuchtswalzer  in  A  b,  Op.  9,  No.  2. 

Then  came  Weber  with  his  dashing  Allegro  con  fuoco,  and 
his  frank  enjoyment  of  life  and  movement.  Thus,  together 
with  Schubert,  he  appears  as  the  originator  of  the  modern  Valse 
and  the  father  of  the  music  of  the  Strausses  and  other  masters 
of  the  dance.  His  influence  is  perceptible  even  in  Chopin, 
whose  lighter  valses  owe  as  much  of  their  freshness  and  charm 
to  the  Invitation  as  some  of  his  Polonaises  owe  their  fire  to 
the  Polacca  in  E  2. 

Before  passing  on  to  the  works  of  Mendelssohn,  Schumann, 
and  Chopin,  John  Field  must  be  mentioned3.  To  find  any- 
thing so  dainty  in  sentiment,  so  novel  and  perfect  in  diction, 
as  Field's  Nocturnes,  No.  4  in  A,  £  and  No.  7  also  in  A,  f ,  one 
would  have  to  go  back  to  Mozart's  Rondo  in  A  minor,  or 
forward  to  certain  Nocturnes  of  Chopin.  The  designation 
1  Nocturne  '  is  Field's  own,  and  only  nine  or  ten  of  the  pieces 

1  The  graceful  pantomimic  music  of  the  Introduction  and  the  Epilogue  accounts 
for  that  title. 

2  Viennese  dance  music  from  1820  to  1850,  with  Labitzky,  Strauss  the  elder, 
and  Lanner,   reflects  the  spirit  of  the  South  German  bourgeoisie  of  that  time. 
With  the  younger   Strauss  and   Gungl  the  valse  becomes   Pan-Germanic  and 
cosmopolitan.     With  Chopin  and  Brahms  it  leaves   the  confines  of  the  public 
ball-room  and  returns  to  the  domain  of  graceful  fancy. 

3  Field,  a  pupil  of  dementi,  was  born  in  Dublin  1782,  he  died  in  1837. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  239 

so  called  are  genuine1.  Field's  frail  little  pieces  are  remark- 
able for  originality  of  spirit  and  novel  technique.  Each  bar 
shimmers  with  the  gleam  of  romance.  To  realize  their  merit 
it  suffices  to  remember  their  date,  and  to  compare  them  with 
some  of  their  offspring,  such  as  Nos.  I,  18,  19,  37,  of  Men- 
delssohn's Lieder  ohne  Worte,  or  the  first  set  of  Chopin's 
Nocturnes,  Op.  9.  High  and  varied  as  is  the  artistic  quality 
of  these  particular  pieces  of  Mendelssohn's  and  Chopin's,  the 
mysterious  voice  of  poesy  does  not  so  unmistakably  resound 
in  them  as  in  Field's.  Besides  the  two  Nocturnes  just  men- 
tioned, those  in  Bt?,  Ab,  and  Eb  merit  attention2.  It  is 
evident  that  Chopin  in  his  elegiac  mood  is  much  indebted  to 
Field.  The  kind  of  emotion  expressed  in  Chopin's  Noc- 
turnes, the  type  of  melody  with  its  graceful  embellishments, 
the  waving  accompaniments  in  widespread  chords  with  their 
vaguely  prolonged  sound  supported  and  coloured  by  the  pedals, 
all  this  and  more  Chopin  derived  from  Field.  Even  from  the 
executant's  point  of  view,  there  is  as  much  trace  of  the  study 
of  Field's  pieces  in  Chopin's  case,  as  there  is  of  Clementi's  or 
Berger's  3  in  Mendelssohn's,  or  of  Cramer  and  Hummel  in 
Schumann's. 

Mendelssohn  intended  his  Lieder  ohne  Worte,  eight  books 
in  all,  to  be  straightforward,  simple,  and  naive,  that  is  to  say, 
Mozartian  in  the  expression  of  emotion.  In  their  effects  the 
majority  of  the  Lieder  are  graceful  and  pleasing.  There  is 
refined  musical  sentiment,  perfect  savoir-faire,  balance,  com- 
plete finish,  but  not  music  in  the  fullest  and  warmest  sense, 
as  we  get  it  so  often  in  Schumann  and  Brahms.  In  spite  of 
occasional  titles — Gondellied,  Volkslied,  Jagdlied,  Friihlings- 
lied,  Spinnerlied  (the  three  latter,  though  generally  adopted, 
are  not  furnished  by  the  composer),  each  Lied  rests  solely  upon 
its  musical  merits.  Among  the  finest  of  them  we  may  point 

1  Publishers,  by  including  arrangements,  have  increased  the  number  to  18. 

2  The  latter  is  the  prototype  of  Chopin's  Op.  9,  No.  a,  also  in  E  t?. 

3  Berger  was  Clementi's  pupil  and  Mendelssohn's  teacher. 


240  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

to  the  Gondellied  in  A  minor,  the  Volkslied  in  the  same  key, 
the  so-called  Spring  Song  in  A  major,  the  first  Lied,  in  E  major, 
of  Book  I x,  and  the  first,  E  b  major,  of  Book  II 2. 

Besides  the  Songs  without  words,  Mendelssohn's  most  im- 
portant contributions  to  the  solo  literature  of  the  pianoforte 
consist  of  six  Preludes  and  Fugues,  a  Scherzo  a  capriccio  in 
F  #  minor,  Op.  35,  and  the  Variations  serieuses,  Op.  54.  The 
first  of  the  six  fugues,  in  E  minor,  is  a  masterpiece  on  the  lines 
of  J.  S.  Bach,  whose  manner  it  often  recalls  both  in  texture 
and  in  movement 3 ;  but  with  the  remaining  numbers  the 
interest  lies  more  in  the  Prelude,  e.g.  the  one  in  A  b,  F  minor, 
and  Bb.  The  *  Serious'  Variations  on  a  beautiful  theme  in 
D  minor,  Andante  f ,  are  remarkable  for  ingenuity  of  treatment 
and  grouping,  and  for  skilful  handling  of  the  instrument.  The 
scheme  is  akin  to  that  of  Bach's  Chaconne  for  violin  and 
Beethoven's  Variations  in  C  minor  with  the  very  effective  turn 
to  the  major  key  towards  the  end  common  to  both,  and  a 
showy  close  in  the  minor.  These  Variations  in  the  matter  of 
invention  break  no  new  ground — as,  on  the  contrary,  is  the 
case  in  all  of  Beethoven's,  the  majority  of  Brahms',  and  in  some 
of  Schumann's  Variations — but  the  unity  of  style,  the  balance 
of  effects,  and  the  mature  craftsmanship  shown  throughout  are 
qualities  beyond  praise. 

Other  sets  of  variations,  the  posthumous  Op.  8 a  in  E  b  and 
those  in  Bb,  look  like  preparatory  studies  for  the  Variations 
serieuses.  The  two  sets  last  mentioned  can  hardly  count  as 
representative  pieces,  though  they  are  quite  up  to  the  average 
level  of  the  master's  work. 

When  Schumann  took   to   composing,   at  first   he  devoted 

1  Chopin's  favourite. 

3  It  may  be  added  that  several  of  the  Lieder  make  good  studies  for  specialities 
of  touch — like  Nos.  10,  u,  15,  18,  24,  30  and  32.  Fanciful  sub-titles,  such  as 
have  been  furnished  for  all  the  Lieder  by  Stephen  Heller,  or  poems  cited  by  way 
of  illustration,  are  entirely  superfluous  and  often  misleading. 

3  Compare  the  wonderful  fugues  in  Beethoven's  Op.  101,  106,  and  no,  which 
are  also  written  on  the  lines  of  Bach,  but  in  every  bar  bear  the  stamp  of 
Beethoven's  impetuous  individuality. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  241 

himself  exclusively  to  the  pianoforte— he  relied  more  upon  his 
temperament  and  his  gift  of  improvisation,  than  upon  any 
system  or  tradition  of  style  ;  and  from  the  earliest  sketches  for 
pianoforte  to  the  apotheosis  of  Faust,  he  was  influenced  by 
the  romantic  spirit  of  the  time  as  it  reached  him  through  litera- 
ture. With  regard  to  the  pianoforte  pieces,  it  is  wonder- 
ful that  so  early  in  his  career  he  should  have  been  able  to 
condense  and  express  so  many  heterogeneous  suggestions 
emanating  from  non-musical  sources.  When  he  began  to 
publish,  his  actual  professional  attainment  was  insufficient, 
distinctly  less  than  that  of  Mendelssohn,  Chopin,  or  Berlioz. 
His  early  manner,  from  Opus  i  to  about  Opus  9,  was  modelled 
on  the  style  of  his  favourite  author  Jean  Paul.  '  I  have  learnt,' 
he  said,  'more  counterpoint  from  Jean  Paul  Richter  than 
from  any  music-master/  The  counterpoint  is  not  particularly 
in  evidence;  but  Heine's  humorous  account  of  Jean  Paul's 
manner  will  throw  some  light  on  the  matter.  'Jean  Paul's 
periods,'  wrote  Heine,  '  are  constructed  like  a  series  of  diminu- 
tive chambers,  which  are  often  so  narrow  that  if  one  idea 
happens  to  meet  another  there  is  sure  to  be  a  collision ;  the 
ceiling  above  is  provided  with  hooks  to  hold  up  all  manner  of 
ideas,  and  the  walls  are  furnished  with  secret  drawers  to  con- 
ceal emotion  V  And  Schumann's  style,  like  Jean  Paul's,  was 
the  result  of  impulsive  improvisation  and  a  constant  desire  to 
symbolize,  with  apparently  no  knowledge  of  the  art  of  selection. 
He  seems  to  be  trying  to  reproduce  Jean  Paul's  figurative  and 
metaphorical  mode  of  expression  in  terms  of  music,  and  appears 
to  be  playing  with  poetical  metaphors,  unable  to  find  full 
expression  for  his  meaning.  In  the  early  sets  of  solo  pieces 
with  suggestive  titles,  Schumann  deals  in  terse  epigrammatic 
phrases,  which  he  joins  one  with  another,  but  with  little  or  no 
attempt  at  evolving  anything  further.  So  long  as  such  phrases 
are  sufficiently  novel  and  the  pieces  concise,  the  result  is  both 
striking  and  fascinating,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Intermezzi,  Op.  4, 

1  Heine-Schriften,  vii.  p.  268. 

PAHSRKUTHKB  R 


34*  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

the  Davidsbundlertdnze,  Op.  63  the  Scenes  mignonnes  entitled 
Carneval,  Op.  9,  Kreisleriana,  Op.  16  (1837)  (the  title  is 
meant  to  recall  the  fantastic  figure  of  E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann's 
Capellmeister  Kreissler),  particularly  the  highly  original  num- 
bers i,  a,  4,  and  6.  The  fantastic  miniatures 1  that  go  to  make 
up  the  majority  of  Schumann's  publications  from  Op.  9  to  23, 
some  numbers  of  the  Phantasie  in  C  and  Kreisleriana,  the 
Allegro  Op.  8  and  the  Sonatas  excepted,  are  each  the  brief 
expression  of  a  single  mood,  each  remarkable  for  concentration 
and  power  of  suggestion.  But  this  method  of  stringing  together 
a  number  of  independent  paragraphs,  as  in  the  lengthy  Hu- 
moreske,  Op.  20,  or  in  the  last  of  the  Novelletten,  F  $  minor, 
Op.  2,1,  does  not  commend  itself.  The  result  is  ill-balanced, 
incongruous,  and,  at  times,  even  wearisome.  In  several  sets 
of  pieces  earlier  than  the  Carneval,  such  as  Papillons,  Op.  2, 
Intermezzi,  Op.  4,  Impromptus,  Op.  5,  Davidsbundlertdnze, 
Op.  6,  there  is  much  that  is  inchoate,  though  not  exactly 
indefinite.  Even  in  later  and  more  mature  pieces  surprises 
and  contradictions  abound,  as  for  instance  in  No.  7,  Traumes- 
wirren,  where  a  series  of  abstruse  chords  interrupts  a  lively 
piece  of  salon  music.  Sometimes  Schumann  obtrudes  his 
particular  whims  and  even  his  personality,  for  instance  when 
he  introduces  mysterious  quotations  from  his  own  Papillons 
in  the  Carneval  or  from  the  'Abegg'  variations  in  the  last 
number  of  the  Intermezzi,  Op.  4. 

Schumann  in  his  early  days  reproduced  what  he  had  been 
taught  or  what  he  had  studied.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore, 
that  his  early  pieces  contain  traces  of  Hummel  and  of 
Schubert.  His  indebtedness  to  Schubert  has  been  frequently 
pointed  out,  but  that  to  Hummel  and  even  to  Moscheles  has 
been  overlooked.  The  Allegro  in  B  minor,  for  instance,  might 
well  be  called  ( Reminiscences  d'Hummel' ;  compare  also  the 
Finale  of  the  Sonata  in  F  $  minor,  Op.  1 1,  and  the  Toccata, 
Op.  7,  with  Hummel's  Sonata  in  F  $  minor,  Fantasia  in  E  b,  and 
1  Hauptmann  called  them  Sachekhen,  Tit-bits. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC 


243 


the  Scherzo  of  the  Sonata,  Op.  106,  in  D.  The  fantastic  titles, 
some  of  them  interchangeable  ad  libitum — such  as  Arabesque, 
Blumenstiick,  Novelletten,  Humoreske,  Nachtstiicke,  Kreis- 
leriana — derive  directly  from  Jean  Paul  and  E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann. 
It  has  already  been  pointed  out  with  regard  to  Schumann's 
orchestral  works  that  he  stopped  short  of  actual  programme 
music,  although  here  and  there  he  makes  use  of  an  inscription 
or  a  motto  in  verse  or  a  musical  quotation  from  some  work  of 
his  own  or  of  his  bride,  Clara  Wieck.  The  same  practice 
appears  in  his  pianoforte  music.  For  example,  the  great 
Phantasie  in  C  major,  Op.  1 7,  exhibits  the  following  lines  of 
F.  Schlegel's  by  way  of  a  clue : — 


Durch  alle  Tone  tonet 
Im  bunten  Erdentraum 
Ein  leiser  Ton  gezogen 
Fur  den  der  heimlich  lauscht. 


Midst  all  tones  that  vibrate 
Through  earth's  mingled  dreams 
One  whispered  note  resounds 
For  ears  attent  to  hear. 


The  ( ear  attent  to  hear '  will  readily  perceive  the  uniting  tones 
that  run  through  all  the  pictures  which  the  imagination  of  the 
composer  unrolls. 


a.- 


244 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

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Again,  the  Intermezzo  No.  2,  Op.  4,  is  inscribed l  Meine  Ruh 
ist  bin/  i.  e.  Gretchen's  song  from  Goetbe's  Faust ;  Novelletten 
No.  3,  as  at  first  published,  had  a  motto  taken  from  Macbeth, 
and '  Verrufene  Stelle '  in  Waldscenen  has  a  motto  from  Hebbel. 
Such  things  are  meant  to  be  merely  accessories,  indications  of 
the  mood  in  which  the  piece  is  to  be  heard  or  interpreted.  Out 
of  a  total  of  seventy-four  instrumental  pieces  thirty-four  have 
characteristic  titles  and  musical  quotations.  In  the  majority 
of  instances  the  titles  and  inscriptions  help  to  explain  the  mood 
of  the  music.  It  may  be  that  the  hearer  misses  his  way  if 
he  goes  from  the  piece  to  the  inscription  or  the  quotation, 
but  from  the  inscription  to  the  piece  the  path  is  straight  and 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  245 

a  knowledge  of  what  is  intended  adds  to  the  pleasure  of 
listening.  The  delicate  touch  of  romanticism  shows  to  per- 
fection in  pieces  like  Des  Abends.  This  little  masterpiece 
conveys  just  that  which  music  can  convey,  and  words  or 
colours  cannot.  There  is  something  new  here,  both  in  spirit 
and  in  technique.  In  the  latter  respect  the  novelty  lies  in  the 
continuous  contradiction  of  the  prevailing  f  time  of  the  harmonic 
accompaniment  and  the  quaver  triplets  of  the  melody,  to  which 
the  constant  use  of  the  pedal  adds  a  vague  atmospheric  effect ; 
a  mere  trifle,  it  may  be,  but  complete  and  perfect  in  itself. 
The  companion  piece  entitled  Warum  ?  is  equally  good.  Here 
the  charm  lies  in  the  syncopation  of  the  accompaniment  against 
two  responding  parts  which  overlap,  one  phrase  beginning 
before  the  other  has  come  to  an  end.  There  is  no  need  to 
dwell  upon  other  such  buds  and  flowers  of  poesy ;  but  attention 
must  be  called  to  Nos.  4  and  6  from  Kreisleriana, '  Arlequin ' 
and  '  Eusebius '  from  Carneval,  '  In  der  Nacht '  from  Phan- 
tasiestucke,  Op.  12,  the  Aria  from  the  Sonata  in  F$  minor, 
the  last  of  the  Etudes  symphoniques  in  G  $  minor,  and,  above 
all,  to  those  inimitable  examples  of  musical  miniature,  the 
Kinderscenerij  Op.  15. 

Apart  from  his  Concerto  in  A  minor,  none  of  Schumann's 
larger  pianoforte  works,  i.e.  the  three  Sonatas,  the  Etudes 
symphoniques,  the  Phantasie  in  C,  Op.  17,  the  Faschings- 
schwank,  the  Humoreske,  Op.  20,  the  Novelletten,  are  entirely 
without  flaw  or  shortcoming.  The  power  of  invention  and  the 
emotion  displayed  are  astonishing;  so  is  the  wealth  of  detail 
in  rhythm,  harmony,  melody,  and  the  persistency  in  the  attempts 
to  produce  new  effects  of  sonority.  But  the  formative  power 
is  defective  or  imperfectly  developed ;  the  materials  are  not 
completely  welded  together,  the  profusion  of  detail  tends  to 
obscure  or  upset  the  balance,  the  structure  shows  a  lack  of 
unity,  the  music  is  not  so  much  an  organic  whole  as  it  is  a 
fusion  of  parts,  and,  at  times,  the  treatment  of  the  instrument 
leaves  much  to  be  desired.  Indeed  the  key-board  technique  is 


246  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

here  and  there  so  clumsy  that  the  novel  effects  fail  to  be 
effective. 

To  make  Schumann's  pianoforte  music  sound  right  a  far 
greater  and  more  persistent  use  of  the  pedal  is  required  than 
in  the  music  of  any  earlier  composer.  He  is  generally  content 
with  the  indication  f  con  pedale/  and  leaves  the  application  in 
detail  to  the  executant.  If  the  use  of  the  pedal,  no  matter  how 
frequent,  were  restricted  to  the  sustaining  of  particular  notes 
or  harmonies  there  could  be  no  objection;  but  if  a  composer 
chooses  to  sustain  certain  important  notes  or  chords  in  defiance 
of  the  context  and  without  regard  to  the  '  muddy '  confusion 
and  contradiction  of  harmony  which  results,  he  wilfully  does 
an  injury  to  his  cause.  Compare  for  instance,  Schumann's 
Faschingsschwank,  the  Intermezzo  in  E  b  minor,  bars  fourteen 
and  fifteen  and  bars  twenty-nine  and  thirty,  or  Etudes  sympho- 
niques,  No.  VIII,  the  last  four  bars — where  the  blur  of  conflicting 
harmonies  is  the  unavoidable  result  of  the  prescribed  c  pedal 
obbligato,'  and  these  bars  cannot  be  played  without,  the  pedal. 
As  instances  of  impracticable  technical  experiments  see  the 
Intermezzo  entitled  'Paganini5  (No.  16  of  the  Carneval),  and 
note  the  chords  ff  and  pp  before  the  return ;  other  examples 
occur  in  the  last  twenty  bars  of  Kreisleriana,  No.  3,  in  the 
Humoreske  (middle  of  the  Intermezzo),  and  in  the  third 
section  of  the  Blumenstuck,  where  during  some  sixteen  bars 
the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  is  expected  to  hold  down  certain 
keys  whilst  the  left  hand  is  to  touch  the  same  keys  staccato. 

Of  the  three  Sonatas  (in  F  $  minor,  Op.  1 1 ;  F  minor,  Op.  14; 
and  G  minor,  Op.  22),  the  first  two  are  the  strongest  and 
warmest ;  the  third  is  formally  finished,  but  not  very  significant. 
The  Adagio  Introduction  to  the  Sonata  in  F$  minor,  'the 
most  romantic  of  sonatas,'  as  Liszt  was  wont  to  call  it,  is  full 
of  passionate  melody ;  the  Allegro  which  follows  is  forcible  and 
vigorous,  though,  by  a  curious  error  of  judgement,  it  reaches 
its  emotional  climax  before  the  close  required  by  the  sonata 
form,  and  thus  the  interest  declines  at  the  very  point  where, 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  247 

with  Beethoven,  it  would  have  been  chiefly  concentrated.  This 
means  that  the  design  of  the  entire  movement  is  feeble  with 
regard  to  the  distribution  of  key  centres.  The  boisterous 
Scherzo  has  an  intermezzo  'Alia  BurlaJ  and  a  burlesque 
instrumental  recitative  to  lead  back  to  the  theme.  The  Finale 
contains  fine  points,  notably  the  first  subject  and  a  coda  of 
entrancing  warmth  ;  but  it  is  long  and  patchy,  there  is  evidence 
of  its  having  been  still  longer  in  the  first  instance,  and  the 
shears  seem  to  have  been  ruthlessly  applied,  so  that  the  relative 
positions  of  key  centres  is  even  more  anomalous  than  it  is  in 
the  first  Allegro.  Compare  the  section  in  E  b  and  in  C  with 
the  context.  For  the  absurd  title  of  the  Sonata  in  F  minor, 
Op.  14,  *  Concert  sans  orchestre/  Schumann  disclaimed 
responsibility.  The  second  edition  presents  a  revised  and 
partially  rewritten  text.  In  turn  fiery,  passionate,  tender, 
humorous,  the  work  covers  a  wide  range  of  feeling,  though  it 
suffers  from  uniformity  of  key,  all  the  movements  being  in 
F  minor.  As  is  the  case  with  the  first  of  the  solo  sonatas,  the 
materials  are  not  completely  unified,  and  there  is  now  and  again 
a  sense  of  incoherence. 

The  phrase  that  acts  as  a  musical  motto  is  part  of  the  subject 
for  the  Variations  that  form  the  third  movement.  Under 
various  disguises  it  appears  throughout  the  work.  Among 
these  disguises  the  last  of  the  variations  is  particularly  interesting 
as  a  very  characteristic  and  personal  effusion — striking  in  its 
emotional  sincerity. 


248 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


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The  final  Presto,  a  sort  of  Toccata  akin  to  the  Finales  of 
Beethoven^s  Op.  37  and  54,  with  its  incessant,  almost  delirious 
whirl  of  rapid  semiquavers  and  the  persistent  rhythmical 
anticipation  with  every  change  of  chord,  produces  a  disquieting 
effect  on  the  hearer l.  The  Andantino  belonging  to  the  Sonata 
Op.  22,  f,  a  moonlight  scene '  mit  allem  romantischen  Zubehor 2,' 
is  the  best  of  the  four  movements,  the  final  Rondo  the  weakest. 
The  Novelletten,  a  total  of  eight  numbers,  are  pieces  of  an 
illustrative  kind — in  some  sense  programme  music.  To  the 

1  This  movement  is  an  extreme  instance  of  the  mechanically  contrived  effects  of 
anticipation  and  syncopation,  of  which  Schumann  was  so  fond.  Compare  the 
long  series  of  hardly  interrupted  syncopations  in  the  middle  of  the  first  movement 
of  Faschingsschwank,  Op.  26. 

8  Schumann's  letter  to  Miss  Laidlaw  anent  the  PJumtasiestucke,  Op.  12. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  349 

exquisite  little  miniatures  called  Kinderscenen  already  mentioned 
may  be  added  the  second  of  the  Romanzen  (F$  major),  the 
charming  trifles  contained  in  the  Album  fur  die  Jugend,  the 
Albumbldtter,  Op.  124,  and  the  four-hand  pieces,  Op.  85. 

The  Carneval,  so  called  by  Schumann  himself,  consists  for 
the  most  part  of  very  clever  variations  on  a  rather  unmusical 
theme  of  four  notes — A,  E  \)  (German  Es),  C,  and  B  fl  (German 
H) ;  thus  A-S-C-H,  which  notes,  besides  being  the  musical 
letters  in  Schumann's  own  name,  also  happen  to  spell  the 
name  of  the  birthplace  of  his  friend  Ernestine  von  Fricken l. 
These  notes  will  be  found  embedded  in  most  of  the  little 
pieces.  The  arrangement  with  a  view  to  contrast,  and  the  notion 
of  a  musical  carnival,  were  an  afterthought.  The  enigmatic 
presentation  of  the  four  notes  as  '  Sphinxes '  is  evidently 
intended  as  a  joke  in  the  manner  of  Jean  Paul — a  riddle 
without  an  answer2.  J.  S.  Bach  in  his  younger  days  set 
the  example  of  using  the  letters  of  his  name  in  this  way,  and 
Schumann  took  the  hint  in  his  six  Fugues  on  the  name  of 
B-A-C-H,  as  did  Liszt  afterwards.  The  theme  of  Schumann's 
'Abegg'  variations,  Op.  I,  is  a  sort  of  musical  acrostic 
belonging  to  the  same  style  of  experimental  composition ;  so 
is  the  little  piece  d' occasion,  'Greeting  to  Gade,'  G-A-D-E, 
in  the  Album  fur  die  Jugend,  and  several  others.  The 
signatures  Florestan  and  Eusebius  (in  imitation  of  Jean  Paul's 
Walt  und  Wult)  which  Schumann  appended  to  his  critical 
articles,  and  which  appear  as  noms  de  guerre  in  the  Davids- 
biindlertanze,  and  the  F  $  minor  Sonata,  are  meant  to  represent 
Schumann  himself  in  his  humorous  and  sentimental  moods.  The 
series  of  sketches  entitled  Waldscenen,  already  mentioned, 
contains  one  number,  ( Einsame  Blumen,'  that  in  its  delicate 
loveliness  ranks  high  among  the  lesser  pieces  3.  ( Canonische 

1  The  '  Estrella'  of  the  Carneval. 

*  Of  course  the  breves  are  not  meant  to  be  played,  though  Anton  Kubinstein 
used  to  bang  them,  slowly,  fortissimo, — and  look  solemn. 

3  '  Gesange  der  Friihe,'  the  latest  publications  for  the  pianoforte,  belong  to  the 
last  sad  years  that  were  darkened  by  Schumann's  genius  ater. 


250  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Studien*  and  'Skizzen*  for  Pedalfliigel,  Op.  56  and  58, 
together  with  the  six  '  Bach  3  Fugues,  Op.  60,  for  the  organ, 
seven  '  Characterstiicke  in  Fughetten  form '  for  pianoforte, 
Op.  126,  are  fruits  of  the  special  studies  in  Counterpoint  that 
Schumann  began  to  make  about  the  middle  of  his  career. 
They  are  all  interesting ;  some,  like  the  first  of  the  Canonische 
Studien  (a  minor  *•/•)  and  Nos.  i  and  2  of  the  '  Bach '  Fugues, 
are  ingenious  and  beautiful. 

As  a  composer  of  pianoforte  music  Schumann  had  but  one 
superior  among  his  contemporaries— Chopin,  pre-eminently 
the  poet  of  the  piano,  the  genius  of  the  instrument,  who  by 
divine  instinct  realized  the  impossible  and  hardly  seemed 
conscious  of  the  fact.  There  is  in  his  best  work  a  breath  and 
glow  as  of  the  south  wind.  His  fervour  of  spirit,  the  fire  and 
force  of  his  fancy,  his  pathos,  and,  in  his  lighter  moods,  his 
ease,  grace,  and  consummate  taste,  are  unique.  Some  part 
of  his  work,  not  a  large  part,  appears  over-refined,  hectic,  and 
morbid ;  a  small  part  belongs  to  the  Parisian  salon ;  most  is 
poetical  work  of  a  high  order,  perfect,  not  only  in  fragments 
and  sporadically,  but  in  entire  pieces  and  entire  groups  of 
pieces.  The  music  rings  true.  Chopin  does  not  pose  for 
pathos  and  emphasis.  The  sensitive  delicacy  of  his  nature 
kept  him  within  the  limits  of  courtesy  and  prompted  him  to 
shun  the  more  violent  accents  of  passion ;  his  canon  of  taste 
was  the  result  of  his  temperament.  He  shrank  from  the 
robust,  open-air  power  of  Beethoven  and  was  now  and  then 
inclined  to  emphasize  those  elements  that  make  for  sensuousness. 
The  most  artistic  of  romanticists,  he  never  forgot  or  over- 
stepped the  limits  of  the  art.  He  avoided  everything  that 
might  seem  pedantic,  dogmatic,  or  theoretical.  He  had  nothing 
to  preach  or  teach,  unless  it  be  his  own  incommunicable  gift 
of  beauty.  The  fire  of  his  genius  increased  in  intensity  as 
time  went  on.  His  skill  ( in  the  use  of  the  sieve  for  noble 
words '  enriched  his  work  and  saved  it  from  extravagance. 
To  a  student,  the  perfect  finish  of  Chopin's  pieces  affords 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  251 

evidence  of  the  care  and  labour  that  he  expended  upon  them. 
A  comparison  of  the  rather  flimsy  early  pieces  which  were 
published  as  oeuvres  posthumes  with  those  that  he  published 
himself,  say  from  Op.  9  to  Op.  65,  inclusive,  will  suffice  to 
show  that  he  rejected  music  enough  to  fill  scores  of  pages.  As 
he  was  fond  of  types  such  as  the  Mazurka,  the  Polonaise, 
the  Nocturne,  in  which  some  sort  of  rhythmic  and  melodic 
scheme  is  prescribed  at  the  outset,  he  virtually  set  himself  the 
task  of  saying  the  same  thing  over  and  over  again.  Yet  he 
appears  truly  inexhaustible ;  each  Impromptu,  Prelude,  Etude, 
Nocturne,  Scherzo,  Ballade,  Polonaise,  Mazurka  presents  an 
aspect  of  the  subject  not  pointed  out  before;  each  has  a 
birthright  of  its  own.  Chopin  indeed  is  one  of  the  rarest 
inventors,  not  only  as  regards  the  technicalities  of  pianoforte 
playing,  but  as  regards  composition.  Besides  being  a  master 
of  his  particular  instrument,  he  is  a  singer  in  that  high  sense 
in  which  Keats,  and  Coleridge,  and  Tennyson  are  singers.  He 
tells  of  new  things  well  worth  hearing,  and  finds  new  ways  of 
saying  them.  He  is  a  master  of  style — a  master  of  flexible 
and  delicate  rhythm,  a  fascinating  melodist,  a  subtle  harmonist. 
The  emotions  that  he  expresses  are  not  of  the  highest :  his 
bias  is  always  romantic  and  sentimental.  In  his  earliest 
productions  his  matter  and  manner  are  alike  frequently  weak  ; 
in  his  latest  now  and  then  turgid.  But  in  the  bulk  of  his  work, 
be  the  sentiment  what  it  may,  he  makes  amends  for  any 
apparent  want  of  weight  by  the  utmost  refinement  of  diction. 
With  him  the  manner  of  doing  a  thing  is  the  essence  of  the 
thing  done.  He  is  ever  careful  to  avoid  melodic,  rhythmic,  or 
harmonic  commonplace ;  and  he  strove  so  hard  to  attain 
refinement  of  harmony  that  in  a  few  of  his  latest  pieces,  such, 
for  instance,  as  the  Polonaise-Fantaisie,  the  Violoncello  Sonata, 
and  the  last  set  of  Mazurkas,  he  appears  to  have  spun  his 
progressions  into  useless  niceties.  The  impressions  Chopin 
received  in  Poland  during  boyhood  and  youth  remained  the 
principal  sources  of  his  inspiration.  Personal  impulses,  later 


252  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

on,  added  radiance  and  intensity  to  his  expression  of  passion, 
but  the  influence  of  the  Parisian  environment  is  felt  only  in 
such  pieces  as  the  Valses,  the  Bolero,  the  Tarantella,  and  a  few 
of  the  Nocturnes. 

Seen  on  paper,  much  of  Chopin's  work  appears  to  be  unduly 
ornate.  Frequently,  indeed  generally — except  in  the  cantabile 
of  the  Nocturnes,  Scherzos,  and  Sonatas — the  thought  is  stated 
in  terms  of  ornament.  In  consequence  there  is  a  softening  and 
clouding  of  outlines  and  things  look  very  complex  on  paper, 
but  in  performance  the  main  lines  stand  forth  clearly  enough. 

A  considerable  variety  and  novelty  of  form  may  be  found  in 
the  collection  of  pieces  such  as  Preludes,  Etudes,  Impromptus, 
Mazurkas,  and  Ballades ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  first 
movements  of  the  Concertos  and  of  the  three  Sonatas,  Op.  35, 
58,  and  65  (the  last  of  which  is  the  Sonata  with  violoncello  men- 
tioned above),  there  is  no  shortcoming.  A  very  delicate  feeling 
for  balance  and  proportion  is  generally  present ;  no  matter  how 
novel  the  scheme  or  how  complex  the  details,  the  outlines  are 
simple,  telling,  and  self-contained,  requiring  no  title  or  explana- 
tion. Certain  exceptional  works,  such  as  the  Preludes  in  E 
minor  and  D  minor,  the  Prelude,  Op.  45,  in  C$  minor,  the 
Etudes  in  A  minor  and  C  minor,  Op.  25,  the  Berceuse,  the 
Barcarolle,  the  Nocturne  in  G  major,  Op.  37,  No.  2,  the  Finale 
of  the  Sonata  in  B  b  minor,  Op.  35,  seem  to  mark  a  new  de- 
parture, as  of  poems  upon  new  lines.  The  art  is  here  so  com- 
plete that  it  disappears. 

Beethoven  excepted,  Chopin  invented  more  that  is  valuable 
in  the  way  of  pianoforte  effect  and  the  technical  treatment  of 
the  instrument,  than  any  of  his  predecessors  or  contemporaries. 
His  pupils  and  other  witnesses  agree  in  using  the  same  words 
to  convey  a  notion  of  his  mode  of  playing  his  own  pieces : 
*  veiled,  graduated,  accentuated,  evanescent/  { the  harmonic 
notes  vaguely  blending,  yet  the  transitions  from  chord  to  chord 
and  phrase  to  phrase  clearly  indicated/  'ever-changing  and 
undulating  rhythms/  ' indescribable  effects  of  chiaroscuro/  i.e. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  253 

effects  of  sustained  tone  produced  with  the  aid  of  the  pedals. 
Heine,  who  was  intimate  by  instinct  with  the  nuances  of 
Chopin's  musical  expression  and  style  of  playing,  speaks  of 
him  with  becoming  warmth:  'Not  only  does  he  shine  as 
a  virtuoso  with  a  perfect  technique,  but  he  accomplishes  things 
of  the  highest  value  as  a  composer.  He  belongs  to  the  sphere 
of  Mozart  or  of  Raphael.  His  true  home  is  the  dreamland  of 
poesy.  When  I  hear  him,  I  entirely  forget  the  mastery  of  his 
pianoforte  playing  and  sink  into  the  sweet  abysses  of  his  music.' 
(Heine-Schriften,  x.  pp.  287  and  342.) 

Of  his  solo  sonatas  two  alone  count :  Op.  35  in  B  b  minor 
and  Op.  58  in  B  minor;  the  third  in  C  minor  (Op.  4)  is  an 
early  and  immature  work  which  was  published  posthumously. 

Op.  35,  the  sonata  that  contains  the  funeral  march  (pub- 
lished 1840),  is  a  great  composition,  Chopin's  own  from  the 
first  note  to  the  last.  There  is  no  hint  as  to  the  composer's 
meaning  in  the  title  of  any  of  the  movements;  all  that  we 
know  is  that  the  extremely  emotional  music  was  called  forth  by 
the  struggle  for  independence  in  Poland,  and  that  the  spiritual 
connexion  of  one  movement  with  another  is  to  be  sought  in 
this  direction.  The  first  movement  conveys  a  sense  of  strife, 
of  a  resolve  to  conquer  or  to  die.  It  is  a  true  sonata  movement, 
with  the  usual  two  contrasting  subjects,  a  working-out  section 
and  a  recapitulation.  Then  follows  a  fervent  Scherzo,  having 
something  of  the  same  fierce  impulse  in  its  leading  part,  with 
a  piu  lento  exquisitely  tender  and  graceful ;  then  the  Marcia 
f  unebre,  with  the  cantilena  which  we  all  know  by  heart ;  finally 
there  is  a  wail,  like  the  night  wind's  cry  over  the  graves  of 
vanquished  men  *.  If  this  Finale  is  played  exactly  as  Chopin 
directs — pianissimo  and  with  hardly  any  gradation  of  tone — the 
effect  produced  is  weird  in  the  extreme.  This  is  the  movement 
of  which  Mendelssohn  is  reported  to  have  said  :  '  Oh,  I  abhor 
it.  There  is  no  music — no  art,'  and  of  which  Schumann 
asserted  that  it  contained  'more  mockery  than  music.'  But 

1  Compare  the  Prelude  in  E  j?  minor,  Op.  28,  No.  14. 


254  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

supposing  it  to  be  on  the  verge  of,  or  even  outside  the  pale  of 
music  proper,  what  is  it  to  be  called  ?  It  is  a  piece  unique  in 
its  way,  and  of  a  genius  not  less  than  that  of  the  three  movements 
preceding  it.  Both  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann  seem  to  have 
overlooked  the  fact  that  the  little  toccata  is  perfectly  orthodox 
in  form J.  The  Sonata  in  B  minor,  Op.  58,  published  some 
five  years  later  (1845),  is  less  concise  and  less  well  planned ;  this 
is  particularly  the  case  in  the  first  movement,  of  which  the  work- 
ing-out section  is  as  lax  in  design  as  overwrought  in  style,  and 
consequently  somewhat  chaotic  in  effect  no  matter  how  well 
played.  But  the  long-drawn-out  melodies  of  the  Allegro 
maestoso  and  the  Largo  are  remarkable  even  for  Chopin,  the 
supreme  master  of  elegiac  cantilena.  In  such  melodies  of 
Chopin  there  are  frequent  touches  of  Bellini — no  note-for-note 
resemblance,  but  obvious  spiritual  connexion.  Such,  for  ex- 
ample, are  the  second  subject  of  the  first  Allegro  in  Chopin's 
E  minor  concerto ;  the  corresponding  passage  in  his  B  minor 
Sonata,  Op.  58  ;  the  long  melody  in  D  b  of  the  Scherzo,  Op.  31 ; 
the  melody  that  forms  the  trio  of  the  Marche  funebre ;  the 
principal  melodies  in  the  Nocturnes  in  F$  and  Ab  and  C$ 
minor ;  the  second  part  of  the  Nocturne  in  B,  Op.  9,  No.  3  ; 
the  posthumous  Impromptu  in  C  $  minor ;  the  Prelude  in  D  b, 
and  many  others. 

The  majority  of  Chopin's  Etudes,  unlike  those  of  dementi, 
Cramer,  and  Moscheles,  have  no  didactic  purpose  ;  the  best  are 
characteristic  pieces,  studies  for  masters,  not  for  pupils.  The 
f  Etiiden,'  Op.  2  and  5  of  Henselt,  the  ( Etudes  d'execution 
transcendante '  and  '  Etudes  de  concert '  of  Liszt,  may  be  said 
to  vie  with  them.  But  if  we  look  for  originality,  beauty,  and 
variety  of  effect,  Henselt's  Studies  are  left  far  behind,  and 
Liszt's,  though  remarkable  from  a  virtuoso's  point  of  view,  lack 

1  After  four  introductory  bars  it  starts  in  the  key  of  B  j?  minor ;  with  the 
24th  har  it  moves  on  to  something  like  a  second  subject  in  the  relative  major,  D  |?  ; 
with  the  39th  bar  the  four  introductory  bars  recur,  and  the  return  from  the  43rd 
bar  to  the  end,  in  B  j?  minor,  forms  a  complete  recapitulation  of  the  first  section. 
The  movement  is  in  fact  unified  on  the  lines  of  certain  Preludes  of  J.  S.  Bach. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  255 

the  musical  inspiration  of  Chopin's  l.  In  a  number  of  cases 
Chopin  contrives  to  exhibit  the  theme  of  an  Etude  in  different 
aspects  and  under  different  lights.  The  Etude  in  Ab,  for 
instance  (Op.  10,  No.  10),  weaves  into  a  single  texture  the 
diverse  aspects  of  the  leading  figure.  Other  such  Etudes  are 
Op.  25,  Nos.  3  and  5.  But,  technicalities  apart,  the  most 
glorious  of  the  Etudes  are  the  two  in  C  minor,  Op.  i  o,  No.  1 2, 
and  Op.  25,  No.  12,  and  No.  n  in  A  minor,  Op.  25 — pas- 
sionate lyrics  in  the  form  of  studies.  Some  of  the  Preludes, 
Op.  28,  many  of  them  little  tone-poems  that  convey  something 
of  a  passing  perfume,  correspond  in  style  with  particular 
Etudes  contained  in  Op.  10  and  Op.  25,  though  with  the 
exception  of  Nos.  8,  16,  19,  and  24  (F$  minor,  Eb,  Bb  minor, 
and  D  minor),  which  are  Etudes  in  the  full  sense,  they  are 
but  sketches 2. 

The  Impromptus,  so  called  by  Chopin,  have  some  affinity 
to  the  Impromptus  and  Moments  musicaux  of  Schubert;  the 
exquisite  melody  and  style  are  of  course  Chopin's  own  3.  Two 
or  three  of  the  early  Nocturnes,  Op.  9,  No.  2,  parts  of  Op.  32, 
Nos.  i  and  2,  show  traces  of  Field  4,  but  in  all  the  rest  Chopin 
speaks  in  his  own  magical  way.  The  Nocturne  in  G  major, 
Op.  37,  No.  2,  is  one  of  the  most  original  and  subtly  beautiful 
pianoforte  pieces  extant.  Other  fine  pieces  are  the  Nocturnes 
in  C  $  minor  and  D  b,  Op.  27,  the  tragic  Nocturne  in  C  minor, 
Op.  48,  No.  I,  the  dreamy  and  perhaps  a  little  over-elaborated 
Nocturne  in  E  major,  Op.  62,  No.  i,  and  the  Duet-Nocturne 
in  E  b,  Op.  55,  No.  2,  to  which  professed  students  of  Chopin 

1  In  two  instances,  at  any  rate,  Liszt's  fitudes  are  Chopin  at  second  hand.  Compare 
Liszt's  very  clever  '  fitude  de  concert*  in  F  minor  (No.  2)  and  the  '  fitude 
d'ex^cution  transcendante '  (No.  10)  with  Chopin's  two  Etudes  in  the  same  key. 
Henselt  too  imitates  and  dilutes  Chopin — witness  fitudes,  Op.  5,  Nos.  2,  9,  and  10. 

3  Taken  as  sketches  they  may  be  compared  with  the  second  and  third  set  of 
Beethoven's  '  Bagatelles ' — merely  experiments,  it  may  be,  but  of  high  value. 

s  Compare  Schubert's  Moment  musical,  No.  4  in  C  4  minor,  with  Chopin's 
fourth  Impromptu,  the  posthumous  one,  also  in  C  ft  minor. 

*  As  Leopardi's  darker  mood  reflects  the  pessimism  of  Byron,  so  Chopin's 
elegiac  melancholy  is  closely  in  touch  with  that  of  Field  and  Bellini. 


256  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

have  not  yet  given  the  attention  that  it  deserves.  e  I  do  not 
care  for  the  Ladies'-Chopin,'  Wagner  remarked  in  1877,  *  there 
is  too  much  of  the  Parisian  salon  in  that ' ;  but,  whether  one 
cares  for  the  salon  or  not,  the  wit  and  finesse  of  French  society 
seem  to  be  more  accurately  caught  and  reflected  in  some  of 
Chopin's  lighter  pieces  than  anywhere  else  in  art.  Un- 
doubtedly, within  these  confines  of  elegance  and  pleasant 
trifling,  Chopin  is  unrivalled.  But  let  no  one  suppose  that 
the  true  weight  and  significance  of  his  music  is  to  be  found 
there. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  anything  adequate  of  that  glorification 
of  Polish  national  music  which  Chopin  has  accomplished  in  his 
Polonaises  and  Mazurkas.  The  latter  range  from  mere  jeux 
d? esprit  to  highly  elaborated  pieces.  Some  of  the  Polonaises, 
such  as  those  in  A,  C  minor,  A  b  and  F  minor,  are  grandiose 
pictures  of  pomp  and  pageantry.  In  both  Mazurkas  and 
Polonaises  melodic  and  rhythmical  idioms  belonging  to  Eastern 
Europe  abound.  To  a  western  ear  some  of  the  exotic  melodies 
based  on  unfamiliar  scales  and  the  resulting  harmonies  sound 
strangely  impressive.  The  impulsive  rhythm,  the  delirious  swirl, 
or  the  languor  of  certain  Mazurkas  (Nos.  39,  3, 10-13, 40,  22,  23, 
29-32),  the  dithyrambic  enthusiasm,  the  barbaric  din  and  clang, 
of  certain  Polonaises  (Ab,  F  J£  minor,  Op.  53  and  44),  convey 
impressions  as  of  oriental  exaltation,  languid  sensuousness,  mili- 
tant enthusiasm,  or  dithyrambic  excess.  Compared  with  the 
fresh  open-air  spirit  of  Beethoven's  Scherzos,  the  burly  humour 
of  Schumann's,  the  bustle  of  Mendelssohn's,  Chopin  seems  to 
have  struck  a  new  vein ;  he  invented  the  sardonic  Scherzo.  In 
the  four  pieces  which  he  calls  by  this  title,  the  music  has  an  air 
of  impatience  and  questioning  irony  that  alternates  with  mo- 
ments of  dreamy  pathos.  A  fifth  Scherzo,  the  best  of  all,  that 
in  E  b  minor,  contained  in  the  Sonata,  Op.  35,  already  men- 
tioned, belongs  to  this  group.  It  is  remarkable  for  conciseness, 
for  concentrated  energy,  and  for  the  strange  grace  of  the  trio 
— four-bar  and  five-bar  rhythms  overlapping.  In  the  Barca- 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  257 

rolle,  the  Berceuse,  and  the  Ballades — pieces  of  an  illustrative 
cast,  experiments  with  an  unwritten  but  implied  programme — 
Chopin  discovered  a  form  of  expression  peculiar  to  himself; 
the  music,  especially  in  the  Ballades,  appeals  to  the  imagina- 
tion, like  a  narrative  poem.  The  third  Ballade,  in  A  b,  is  the 
most  perfect  as  a  well-balanced  and  carefully-designed  piece ; 
the  second,  in  F,  is  the  most  fascinating  and  fantastic — one  longs 
for  a  clue  to  the  mysterious  tale  which  the  music  unfolds ;  the 
first  is  perhaps  the  most  impassioned ;  the  fourth  is  the  most 
elaborate,  as  it  is  the  richest.  Certain  harmonies  that  look 
unfamiliar  in  Chopin's  text  because  of  the  complex  notation 
with  all  manner  of  accidentals,  sound  like  pure  chords J.  The 
practice  of  employing  transient  chromatic  harmonies  in  the 
same  manner  as  transient  chromatic  single  notes  or  groups  of 
notes  began  with  Chopin,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  trio  of  the 
Polonaise,  Op.  40.  It  has  been  much  extended  by  later  com- 
posers, notably  by  Wagner  in  Tristan  und  Isolde  and  in  Parsifal. 

Chopin  always  kept  a  metronome  on  his  teaching  piano.  His 
tempo  rubato  was  not  an  eccentric  swaying  to  and  fro  in  point 
of  speed.  'The  singing  hand/  he  taught,  cmay  deviate — the 
accompanying  hand  must  keep  time.'  l  Fancy  a  tree  with  all 
its  branches  swayed  by  the  wind — the  stem  is  the  steady  time, 
the  moving  leaves  are  the  melodic  inflexions  V  It  follows  that 
certain  readings  of  Chopin,  which  are  dear  to  the  heart  of  many 
a  virtuoso,  must  be  discarded  as  caricatures.  He  disliked 
exaggerated  accentuation :  *  It  produces  an  effect  of  didactic 
pedantry.'  'You  must  sing  if  you  wish  to  play — hear  good 
singers  and  learn  to  sing  yourself.' 

Since  the  expiration  of  the  copyrights,  Chopin's  text  has 
suffered  much  at  the  hands  of  editors.  It  is  true  that  Chopin's 
method  of  notation  does  not  always  express  the  full  musical 
sense,  inasmuch  as  the  effects  of  sustained  sound,  which  are 

1  Compare  the  Barcarolle,  the  Sonata  in  B  minor,  first  movement,  the  Polonaise- 
Fantaisie. 

8  This  saying  is  vouched  for  by  Liszt. 

DANWRKUTHEE  S 


358  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

best  gained  by  the  use  of  the  pedal,  are  written  out  only  in  so 
far  as  the  player's  finger  can  hold  down  the  key.  In  like 
manner  his  notation  of  fioriture,  consisting  of  an  irregular 
number  of  delicate  grace-notes,  expresses  exactly  what  the 
fingers  are  to  do,  but  no  more.  Nor  is  anything  more 
desirable.  Attempts  to  write  out  note-values  in  full,  or  to 
group  the  little  ornamental  notes  so  as  to  fit  them  into  the 
time  of  the  bar,  are  thoroughly  misleading,  for  they  tend  to 
destroy  the  graceful  ease  of  the  music  and  to  foster  pedantry 
on  the  part  of  the  executants.  Tellefsen's  presentation  of  the 
text,  based  upon  Parisian  proof-copies  (the  only  proofs  read 
by  Chopin  himself),  is  perfunctory  and  insufficiently  revised 
for  the  press.  Klindworth's  valuable  edition,  a  marvel  of 
careful  musical  philology,  contains  too  much  of  the  editor's 
own  views  as  to  details  of  notation,  fingering,  &c. ;  it  is  Chopin 
seen  through  the  temperament  of  a  very  masterful  editor. 
The  only  recent  edition  free  from  undue  interference  with  the 
notation,  valuable  also  as  a  partial1  record  of  Chopin's  pecu- 
liarities in  the  matter  of  fingering,  pedalling,  and  the  like,  is 
that  of  Mikuli,  the  last  of  the  master's  professional  pupils. 

Chopin  and  Liszt,  as  pianists  and  composers  for  the  piano- 
forte, have  often  been  compared.  Facing  the  audience  Liszt 
was  triumphant.  But  when  it  is  asserted  that  Liszt  has  out- 
stripped Chopin  as  a  composer  for  the  instrument  we  must 
protest — the  fact  being  that  Liszt,  in  many  instances,  is  but 
the  imitator  or  the  exaggerator  of  Chopin.  Liszt's  publications 
for  the  pianoforte  solo  may  be  ranged  thus:  I.  Fantaisies 
dramatiques.  II.  Annees  de  pelerinage.  III.  Harmonies 
poetiques  et  religieuses.  IV.  Sonata,  Concertos,  Etudes,  and  mis- 
cellaneous works.  V.  Rhapsodies  hongroises.  VI.  Partitions 
de  piano  of  Berlioz  and  Beethoven's  Symphonies,  Beethoven's 
and  Weber's  Overtures,  &c. ;  Transcriptions  of  Paganini's 
Caprices,  Rossini's  Soirees  musicales,  Schubert's  Soirees  de 

1  Frequently  when  Mikuli  has  no  authentic  materials  as  to  fingering,  he  falls 
hack  upon  Kliudworth ;  hence  certain  inconsistencies. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  259 

Vienna  (Valses),  Songs  by  Schubert,  Schumann,  Robert  Franz, 
arrangements  for  two  pianos  of  Beethoven's  ninth  symphony, 
Beethoven's  Concertos  in  C  minor,  G,  and  E  b  ;  and  also  the 
majority  of  Liszt's  own  orchestral  pieces1. 

Liszt  was  always  ready  to  make  speculative  experiments  in  form. 
The  earliest  of  these  were  the  '  Fantaisies  dramatiques/  which 
belong  to  the  period  of  his  early  manhood,  1830—49-50,  when 
he  led  the  life  of  a  travelling  virtuoso.  These  pieces  derive  from 
the  '  Variations  brillantes '  and  '  Variations  de  concert,'  mainly 
on  operatic  tunes,  which  were  equally  beloved  by  the  virtuosi 
and  the  public  of  those  days.  Starting  from  such  facile  types 
Liszt  added  an  Intrada,  certain  connecting  links  to  make  the 
design  continuous,  and  a  Finale.  The  idea  was  to  combine  the 
tunes  and  variations  in  such  wise  that  the  entire  piece,  from 
the  introduction  to  the  final  climax,  should  consist  of  a  crescendo 
of  effects  reproducing  the  mood  of  some  dramatic  situation  or 
condensing  an  entire  act.  By  means  of  dazzling  execution  and 
the  personal  magic  of  Liszt  himself,  some  of  these  fantasias, 
such  as  Norma,  Sonnambula,  Robert  le  Diable,  and  Don  Juan, 
took  the  musical  world  by  storm.  As  the  vogue  of  the  theme 
wanes  the  chances  of  arresting  the  attention  of  an  average 
audience  diminish.  Still  the  beauty  of  certain  melodies  such  as 
Mozart's  '  La  ci  darem  la  mano '  and  the  Finale  of  Bellini's 
Norma  will  support  Liszt's  pianoforte  effects  for  a  long  while 
to  come.  From  the  virtuoso's  point  of  view,  the  technical 
difficulties  contained  in  the  fantasias  remain  as  a  supreme  test 
of  the  executant's  efficiency.  Liszt  exhibits  true  fancy  in  the 
general  arrangement,  and  remarkable  cleverness  in  the  treatment 
of  finger  and  wrist.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  fantasias,  Don 
Juan,  apart  from  its  merits  as  a  piece  of  display,  is  really 
interesting  as  a  composition.  Liszt  takes  Mozart's  entire  duet 

1  At  Borne  in  1839  Liszt,  finding  no  proper  partner  for  ensemble  music,  gave 
the  first  of  those  pianoforte  recitals  of  which  we  have  since  felt  the  benefit  and  the 
boredom.  In  his  case  the  '  ennuyenx  soliloques  musicaux,'  as  he  frankly  called 
them,  were  entirely  a  one-man  show,  executant  and  composer  combined. 

S  2 


a6o 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


1  La  ci  darem  la  mano '  for  the  subject  of  his  variations,  and 
frames  them  by  means  of  an  Intrada,  derived  from  the  overture 
to  Don  Giovanni  and  a  final  presto  based  on  the  Brindisi  from 
the  third  act.  The  whole  piece  is  well  designed  and  leaves 
nothing  to  be  desired  in  consistency  and  unity  of  effect.  The 
fantasias,  Robert  le  Diable,  Norma,  La  Sonnambula,  and  others, 
contain  clever  combinations  of  two  or  three  different  tunes 
played  simultaneously — a  virtuoso  trick  contrived  in  imitation 
of  Berlioz'  practice  of  dovetailing  diverse  melodies  and  rhythms l. 
Taking  into  account  the  restricted  possibilities  of  the  key- 
board and  the  difficulties  which  arise  from  it,  the  following  bars 
from  La  Sonnambula  show  the  highest  degree  of  manipulative 
ingenuity.  They  contain  a  combination  of  two  tunes  and 
a  staccato  bass,  with  a  persistent  trill  at  the  top. 


1  For  examples  of  Berlioz'  methods  see  pp.  120,  125. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC 


261 


A  curiosity  called  Hexameron,  1837,  which  bears  Liszt's 
name  and  is  included  in  the  thematic  catalogue  of  his  works, 
claims  a  few  words.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  variations  on 
a  melody  known  as  '  La  Marche  des  Puritains '  from  Bellini's 
/  Puritani ;  the  variations  were  composed  and  played  upon  six 
pianofortes  by  six  pianists  of  repute :  five  played  on  full  grands, 
Chopin  sat  at  a  two-stringed  semi-grand.  Liszt  contributed  the 
Intrada,  the  connecting  links,  and  the  Finale ;  the  others  one 
variation  each.  Chopin's  variation,  a  little  Larghetto  in  E  major, 
1 7  bars  of  square  time,  shines  like  a  gem  set  in  pinchbeck. 

Les  Annees  de  pelerinage,  published  in  three  divisions,  bear 
dates  ranging  from  1835  to  1883.  For  the  most  part  the  pieces 
are  but  slight  sketches — several  among  them,  belonging  to  the 
first  division,  are  strikingly  true  to  nature  and  suggestive. 
They  appear  to  be  records  of  impressions  directly  derived  from 
natural  sights  and  sounds — the  beginnings  of  what  may  be  called 
V impressionisms  musical.  The  charm  of  such  trifles  as  <Au 
lac  de  Wallenstadt,'  '  Pastorale,'  '  Au  bord  d'une  source '  is 
indefinable.  For  adroitness  and  elegance  in  the  treatment  of 
the  pianoforte  it  would  be  difficult  to  match  the  latter  piece. 
Personal  effusions,  like  cTre  Sonetti  di  Petrarca,'  which  belong 
to  the  second  division  and  are  transcriptions  for  the  pianoforte 
of  certain  melodies  set  to  Petrarca's  sonnets,  have  the  peculiarly 
Italian  note  of  ecstasy  that  distinguishes  the  melodies  of  Bellini. 
Other  pieces,  like  *  Sposalizio,'  after  Raphael's  picture  in  the 
Brera  Gallery  at  Milan,  '  II  Penseroso,'  after  Michael  Angelo, 


262  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

( D'apres  une  lecture  de  Dante,'  after  a  poem  by  Victor  Hugo 
so  entitled,  show  the  first  attempts  at  illustration  made  by  the 
great  musical  illustrator.  The  third  division  of  Les  Annies 
is  a  collection  of  lesser  value  belonging  to  Liszt's  old  age. 

Harmonies  poetiques  et  religieuses,  of  which  No.  i,  'Bene- 
diction de  Dieu  dans  la  solitude,'  and  No.  10, '  Cantique  d'amour,5 
are  the  best,  is  made  up  partly  of  transcriptions  of  vocal  pieces 
and  partly  of  attempts  at  the  illustration  of  poetry.  All  have 
descriptive  titles  or  mottoes  in  verse.  A  set  of  six  little  pieces 
called  'Consolations/  belonging  to  Liszt's  prime,  about  1850, 
may  be  taken  as  corollaries  to  the  Harmonies.  Distinguished 
by  a  dreamy  personal  note,  the  meditative  and  pious  '  Consola- 
tions '  take  as  high  a  rank  among  Liszt's  pieces  as  the  naive 
Kinderscenen  among  Schumann's.  Nothing  better  than  these 
little  sets  of  miniatures  could  be  found  to  exhibit  the  two 
composers'  widely  divergent  temper  and  mode  of  work. 

The  Etudes,  which  head  the  thematic  catalogue  of  Liszt's 
works,  show,  better  than  anything  else,  the  transformation  his 
style  has  undergone ;  and  for  this  reason  it  may  be  well  to  trace 
the  growth  of  some  of  them 1.  ( Etudes  en  douze  exercices,  par 
Fra^ois  Liszt,  Op.  i,'  were  published  at  Marseilles  in  1827. 
They  were  written  during  the  previous  year,  Liszt  being  then 
under  sixteen.  The  second  set  of  ^Etudes,  '  dediees  a  Monsieur 
Charles  Czerny,'  appeared  in  1839,  but  were  cancelled  ;  and  the 
( Etudes  d'execution  transcendante,'  again  dedicated  to  Czerny, 
f  en  temoignage  de  reconnaissance  et  de  respectueuse  amitie  de 
son  eleve,'  appeared  in  1852.  The  now  cancelled  copy  of  the 
Etudes  which  Schumann  had  before  him  in  1 839,  when  he  wrote 
his  brilliant  article  2,  shows  these  studies  to  be  more  extravagant 
and,  in  some  instances,  technically  more  difficult  than  even  the 
final  version.  The  germs  of  both  the  new  versions  are  to  be 
seen  in  the  Op.  i  of  1827.  Schumann  transcribed  a  couple  of 

1  With  the  permission  of  Messrs.  Augener  &  Co.  the  above  paragraph  regarding 
the  '  Etudes  d'exe"cution  transcendante  '  is  quoted  from  the  preface  to  the  complete 
edition  of  Liszt's  Etudes  which  the  present  writer  prepared  for  them  in  1899. 

2  Gesammdte  Schriften,  iii,  pp.  166-8. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  263 

bars  from  the  beginning  of  Nos.  J,  5,  9,  and  u,  from  both  the 
new  and  the  old  copies,  and  offered  a  few  of  his  swift  and  apt 
comments.  The  various  changes  in  these  Etudes  may  be  taken 
to  represent  the  history  of  the  pianoforte  during  the  last  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  from  the  'Viennese  Square5  to  the 
concert  grand,  from  Czerny's  Schule  der  Gel'dufigkeit  to 
Liszt's  Danse  macabre.  Czerny  might  have  written  the 
original  exercise  No.  I,  but  it  would  not  have  been  so  shapely 
a  thing  as  Liszt's  final  version.  The  difference  between  the  two 
versions  of  No.  I  is,  however,  considerably  less  than  that  which 
separates  Nos.  a,  3,  and  4  from  their  predecessors.  If  the 
earlier  and  the  later  versions  of  No.  3  in  F  and  No.  4  in 
D  minor  were  signed  by  different  composers,  the  resemblance 
between  them  would  hardly  attract  notice.  Of  No.  a  little 
remains  as  it  stood  at  first.  Instead  of  a  reduction  there  is  an 
increase  (38  to  103)  in  the  number  of  bars.  Some  harmonic 
commonplaces  which  disfigure  the  original,  as,  for  instance,  the 
detour  to  C  (bars  9-16),  have  been  removed.  The  remainder  is 
enlarged,  so  as  to  allow  of  more  extensive  modulation,  and  thus 
to  avoid  redundancy.  A  short  introduction  and  a  coda  are 
added,  and  the  diction  throughout  is  thrown  into  high  relief. 
*  Paysage,'  No.  3  in  F,  has  been  subjected  to  further  alteration 
since  Schumann  wrote  about  it.  In  his  article  he  commends 
the  second  version  as  being  more  interesting  than  the  first,  and 
points  to  a  change  of  movement  from  square  to  triple  time,  and 
to  the  melody  which  is  superadded,  as  improvements.  On  the 
other  hand  he  calls  an  episode  in  A  major '  comparatively  trivial,' 
and  this,  it  may  be  noticed,  is  omitted  in  the  final  version.  As 
it  now  stands,  the  piece  is  a  test  study  for  pianists  who  aim  at 
refinement  of  style,  tone,  and  touch.  The  Etude  entitled 
'Mazeppa'  is  particularly  characteristic  of  Liszt's  power  of 
endurance  at  the  instrument,  and  it  exhibits  the  gradual  growth 
of  his  manner,  from  pianoforte  exercises  to  symphonic  poems 
in  the  manner  of  Berlioz.  It  was  this  fitude,  together  perhaps 
with  Nos.  7  ('Vision'),  8  ('Wilde  Jagd'),  and  la  ('Chasse-neige'), 


364 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


that  induced  Schumann  to  speak  of  the  entire  set  as  '  Wahre 
Sturm-  und  Graus-Etiiden '  (Studies  of  storm  and  dread),  studies 
for,  at  the  most,  ten  or  twelve  players  in  the  world 1.  The 
original  of  No.  5,  in  B  b,  is  a  mere  trifle,  in  the  manner  of  J.  B. 
Cramer — the  final  version  entitled  l  Feux  follets '  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  transformations  extant,  and  perhaps  the  best 
study  of  the  entire  series,  consistent  in  point  of  musical  design 
and  full  of  delicate  technical  contrivances.  '  Ricordanza/  No.  9, 
and  e  Harmonies  du  soir/  No.  n,  may  be  grouped  together  as 
showing  how  a  musical e  Stimmungsbild '  (a  picture  of  a  mood 
or  an  expression  of  sentiment)  can  be  evoked  from  rather  trite 
beginnings.  Schumann  speaks  of  the  melody  in  E  major,  which 
occurs  in  the  middle  of  the  latter  piece,  as  '  the  most  sincerely 
felt';  and  in  the  last  version  it  is  much  improved.  Both  pieces, 
6 Ricordanza'  and  f  Harmonies  du  soir/  show  to  perfection  the 
sonority  of  the  instrument  in  its  various  aspects.  The  latter 
piece,  ( Harmonies  du  soir 9  in  the  first,  as  well  as  in  the  final 
version,  appears  as  a  kind  of  Nocturne.  No.  10,  again,  begins  as 
though  it  were  Czerny's  (a),  and  in  the  cancelled  edition  is 
developed  into  an  Etude  of  almost  insuperable  difficulty  (b). 
As  finally  rewritten,  this  study  is  possible  to  play  and  well  worth 
playing  (c). 

Moderate 


a.  j 


1  This  is  no  longer  the  case ;  we  might  multiply  the  twelve  by  teu  and  still  be 
below  the  number,  so  much  has  the  mastery  over  the  mechanical  difficulties  of 
pianoforte-playing  increased  of  late. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC 


265 


Prtito,  moltoagitato 


No.  12  also  has  been  recast  and  much  manipulated,  but 
there  is  no  mending  of  weak  timber.  We  must  also  mention 
'Ab  Irato/  an  fitude  in  E  minor  cancelled  and  entirely 
rewritten ;  three  fitudes  de  concert  (the  second  of  which  has 
already  been  mentioned  as  Chopinesque) ;  and  two  fine  fitudes, 
much  later  in  date  and  of  moderate  difficulty,  'Waldesrau- 
schen '  and  ( Gnomentanz.'  The  Paganini  Studies,  i.  e.  tran- 
scriptions in  rivalry  with  Schumann  of  certain  Caprices  for  the 
violin  by  Paganini,  and  far  superior  to  Schumann's,  do  not  call 
for  detailed  comment.  They  were  several  times  rewritten  (final 
edition,  1852)  as  Liszt,  the  virtuoso,  came  to  distinguish 
between  proper  pianoforte  effects  and  mere  haphazard  bravura, 


266  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

and  also,  as  the  pianoforte  makers  afforded  him  better  oppor- 
tunities in  point  of  touch  and  carrying  power. 

About  Liszt's  technique  as  pianist  and  composer  of  piano- 
forte music,  it  may  be  said  that  it  rests  on  the  teaching  of 
Czerny,  who  brought  up  his  pupil  on  Mozart,  a  little  Bach,  more 
of  Hummel  and  still  more  of  Czerny  himself.  Hummel,  the  solid 
respectable  classic,  on  the  one  hand,  and  Carl  Czerny — a  trifle 
flippant  perhaps,  and  inclined  to  appeal  to  the  gallery — on  the 
other:  these  are  the  musical  ancestors  of  the  young  Liszt. 
Then  appears  the  Parisian  incroyable  and  grand  seigneur ;  then 
the  imitator  of  Paganini  and  Chopin ;  and  last  the  passionate 
and  devoted  student  of  Beethoven,  Weber,  Schubert,  and 
Berlioz.  Thus  gradually  there  develops  the  mature  master  who, 
both  as  player  and  composer,  bore  to  the  end  of  his  days  the 
double  marks  of  his  origin  *. 

Taken  together  with  the  Concertos,  Liszt's  ambitious  Sonata 
in  one  movement,  B  minor  (( Senate  in  einem  Satz,  an  Robert 
Schumann '),  completely  represents  him  in  his  more  serious  and 
manly  mood.  Etudes  and  Rhapsodies  hongroises  apart,  it 
shows  the  ripest  phase  of  his  technique  both  as  pianist  and 
composer.  The  scheme  consists  of  a  novel  and  rather  specula- 
tive device,  akin  to  that  of  the  Concertos ;  that  is  to  say,  the 
composer  strives  for  unity  by  employing  single  phrases  in  quick 
as  well  as  in  slow  time,  and  by  arranging  the  materials  so  as  to 
make  a  continuous  movement  of  the  entire  piece.  And  in  the 

1  Prom  about  1863  onwards  the  writer  has  at  times  had  the  good  fortune  to 
hear  Liszt  play,  in  private,  pieces  of  such  various  descriptions  as  the  following  : 
a  number  of  Bach's  Preludes  and  Fugues  and  single  movements  from  the  five  later 
and  several  of  the  earlier  sonatas  of  Beethoven,  bits  of  Chopin,  some  of  his  own 
Ehapsodies,  transcriptions  from  Schubert's  '  Divertissement  a  la  Hongroise?  sundry 
valses  by  Schubert,  fragments  from  his  own  operatic  fantasias,  &c.  There  was 
an  air  of  improvisation  about  his  playing — the  expression  of  a  fine  and  grand 
personality — perfect  self-possession,  grace,  dignity,  and  never-failing  fire.  His 
tone  was  large  and  penetrating,  but  not  hard;  and  every  effect  was  produced  naturally 
and  easily.  Performances,  it  may  be  of  the  same  pieces,  by  younger  men,  such  as 
Rubinstein  or  Tausig,  left  an  impression  as  of  Liszt  at  second  hand,  or  of  Liszt 
past  his  prime.  None  of  Liszt's  contemporaries  or  pupils  were  so  spontaneous, 
individual  and  convincing  in  their  playing ;  and  none,  except  Tausig,  so  infallible 
with  their  fingers  and  wrists. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  267 

case  of  this  sonata  as  in  the  Concertos  already  discussed  he  does 
so  on  consistent  musical  lines  without  reference  to  a  programme. 
The  work  is  a  curious  compound  of  true  genius  and  empty 
rhetoric,  which  contains  enough  of  genuine  impulse  and 
originality  in  the  themes  of  the  opening  section,  and  of  suave 
charm  in  the  melody  of  the  section  that  stands  for  the  slow 
movement,  to  secure  the  hearer's  attention.  Signs  of  weakness 
occur  only  in  the  centre,  where,  according  to  his  wont,  Liszt 
seems  unable  to  resist  the  temptation  to  tear  passion  to  tatters 
and  strain  oratory  to  bombast.  None  the  less  the  Sonata  is  an 
interesting  study,  eminently  successful  in  parts,  and  well  worthy 
the  attention  of  pianists. 

Two  Ballades,  a  Berceuse,  a  Valse-impromptu,  a  Mazurka, 
and  two  Polonaises  sink  irretrievably  if  compared  with  Chopin's 
pieces  similarly  entitled.  The  'Scherzo  und  Marsch,'  in  D 
minor,  an  inordinately  difficult  and  somewhat  dry  piece,  falls 
short  of  its  aim.  Two  legends,  ( St.  Francis  of  Assisi  preaching 
to  the  birds,'  a  clever  and  delicate  piece,  and  '  St.  Francis  of 
Paula  stepping  on  the  waves,'  a  kind  of  Etude,  are  examples  of 
picturesque  and  decorous  programme-music. 

At  the  present  day  Liszt's  reputation  as  a  composer  of  piano- 
forte music  rests  largely  upon  the  success  of  his  Rhapsodies  hon- 
groises.  These  transcriptions  of  Hungarian  songs  and  dances, 
ostentatiously  rhythmical,  and  by  no  means  discreet  in  character, 
are  the  most  dazzling  of  show  pieces  in  the  hands  of  virtuosi. 
The  arrangement  of  some  of  them  for  full  orchestra  has  doubled 
their  brilliancy  and  increased  their  intoxicating  effect. 

Liszt  adopts  the  incisive  Hungarian  tunes  as  the  itinerant 
gipsy  bands  are  wont  to  play  them ;  he  finds  many  ingenious 
modes  of  imitating  the  orgiastic  sounds  of  the  cymbalon  and 
ably  develops  the  luxurious  semi-oriental  ornamentation  and 
the  crude  harmony 1.  The  Rhapsodies,  starting  from  short 
transcriptions  of  Hungarian  tunes,  were  elaborated  at  intervals, 

1  It  seems  worth  while  to  add  here  that  Brahms,  in  his  Ungarische  Tanze  and 
all  other  movements  that  show  the  Hungarian  influence,  was  careful  to  preserve 


368  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

published,  cancelled,  rewritten,  and  republished  in  some  cases 
three  times  over.  Schubert's  Divertissement  a  la  Hongroise 
was  the  prototype  of  Liszt's  Ungarische  Melodien,  which 
began  to  appear  in  1838;  Melodies  hongroises  followed  in 
1846;  the  final  version,  entitled  Rhapsodies  hongroises,  in 
1854;  this  consists  of  a  total  of  fifteen  pieces,  ending  with  the 
f  Rakoczy  March  V  and  was  accompanied  by  a  curious  attempt 
to  prove  the  existence  of  a  Gipsy  epic. 

In  the  so-called  '  Partitions  de  piano,'  transcriptions  reproduc- 
ing orchestral  effects  as  closely  as  the  pianoforte  permits  and 
without  regard  to  difficulties  of  execution,  Liszt  has  accomplished 
some  of  his  best  work.  The  task  he  set  himself  was  akin  to 
that  of  an  engraver,  who  must  have  knowledge  of  the  painter's 
and  designer's  art  ere  he  can  hope  to  apply  his  own  technique 
to  advantage.  It  is  astonishing  to  find  how  well  Liszt  succeeded 
in  the  apparently  impossible  cases  of  Berlioz'  Symphonic 
fantastique  and  Harold  en  Italie.  The  transcriptions  of 
Beethoven's  first  eight  symphonies,  for  pianoforte  solo,  and 
especially  that  of  the  ninth  (choral),  as  well  as  those  of  the  three 
Pianoforte  Concertos  in  C  minor,  G,  and  E  b,  for  two  pianofortes, 
are  marvels  of  skill.  So  are  the  transcriptions  of  Beethoven's  and 
Weber's  overtures,  the  overtures  to  Berlioz'  Francs  Juges  and  to 
Wagner's  Tannhduser,  and  of  sundry  other  pieces  culled  from 
Lohengrin,  Tannhauser,  Derfiiegende  Hollander,  Tristan,  and  Die 
Meister singer.  Together  with  the  ( Partitions  de  piano '  certain 
arrangements  for  orchestra  deserve  to  be  mentioned,  such  as 
the  arrangement  of  Schubert's  Fantasia  in  C,  set  out  so  as  to 
serve  as  a  pianoforte  concerto  ;  Weber's  Polacca  in  E,  to  serve 
as  a  concert-piece  with  orchestra,  the  instrumentation  of  Schu- 
bert's ( Marches  a  quatre  mains,'  and  the  accompaniments  to 
some  of  Schubert's  songs. 

the  principal  rhythmical  and  melodic  characteristics  of  Hungarian  music ;  that  he 
generally  reproduced  them  in  his  own  firm  idiom,  and  very  rarely  touched  upon  the 
Gipsy  vernacular. 

1  Later  additions  to  the  number,  all  feeble,  are  of  no  account,  be  they  authentic 
or  not. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC  269 

Liszt  was  also  a  master  in  the  notation  of  pianoforte  music 
— a  very  difficult  matter  indeed,  and  one  in  which  even  Chopin 
frequently  erred1.  His  method  of  notation  coincides  in  the 
main  with  that  of  Beethoven,  Berlioz,  Wagner,  and  Brahms. 
Let  the  player  accurately  play  what  is  set  down  and  the  result 
will  be  satisfactory.  The  perspicuity  of  certain  pages  of  Liszt's 
mature  pianoforte  pieces,  such  as  the  first  two  sets  of  Annees  de 
pelerinage,  Consolations,  Sonata  in  B  minor,  the  Concertos,  the 
Danse  macabre,  and  the  Rhapsodies  hongroises,  cannot  be 
surpassed.  His  notation  often  represents  a  condensed  score,  and 
every  rest  not  absolutely  necessary  is  avoided  ;  again,  no  attempt 
is  made  to  get  a  semblance  of  an  agreement  between  the 
rhythmic  division  of  the  bar  and  the  freedom  of  certain  rapid 
ornamental  passages,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  everything  essential 
to  the  rendering  of  accent  or  melody,  to  the  position  of  the 
hands  on  the  key-board,  to  the  details  of  special  fingering  and 
special  pedalling,  is  faithfully  recorded.  Thus  the  most  complex 
difficulties,  as  in  the  Fantaisies  dramatiques,  and  even  apparently 
uncontrollable  effects  of  tempo  rubato,  as  in  the  first  fifteen 
Rhapsodies  or  the  fitude  '  Ricordanza,'  or  the  ( Tre  Sonetti  di 
Petrarca/  are  so  closely  indicated  that  the  particular  effect 
intended  cannot  be  mistaken.  One  simple  example  of  the 
notation  of  tempo  rubato  will  suffice  to  show  the  method.  In 
the  vocal  version  of  the  first  Sonnet  (recently  republished  with 
the  composer's  latest  emendation)  the  effects  are  obtained  by  the 
contrasting  rhythms  of  the  voice-part  and  the  accompaniment 
(a),  and  a  corresponding  effect  in  the  pianoforte  transcription  by 
means  of  slightly  delaying  the  main  notes  of  the  melody  (b). 

1  As  he  did  in  the  second  part  of  the  Nocturne  in  F  A,  Op.  15,  No.  a ;  and  in 
which  Schumann  frequently  showed  himself  regardless  of  practical  expediency — 
as,  for  instance,  in  the  first  Intermezzo  belonging  to  Kreisleriana,  No.  II,  where 
what  is  intended  for  both  hands  is  crowded  into  the  lower  stave,  whilst  the  upper 
stave  is  left  empty,  or  in  Novelletten,  V.  (Vol.  iv.  p.  55  of  Madame  Schumann's 
edition),  where,  besides  the  perversely  crabbed  diction,  a  most  awkward  task  is 
assigned  to  the  left  hand. 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Andante,  un poco  mono 


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CHAPTER  XII 

SOLO  SONGS 

THE  romantic  problem,  the  many-sided  question  of  an  equi- 
poise between  poesy  and  music,  has  presented  itself  under  various 
aspects  again  and  again  since  Beethoven's  time.  One  impor- 
tant side  of  it,  the  relation  of  verse  to  music  and  of  music  to 
verse,  is  best  studied  in  connexion  with  the  German  Lied,  in 
which  direct  appeal  to  the  heart  of  man  is  made  by  the  fusion 
of  the  two.  In  countless  instances  attempts  at  such  an  alliance 
or  interchange  of  forces  have  failed,  chiefly  for  the  reason  that 
lyric  verse  possesses  greater  rapidity  of  movement  than  music. 
Even  with  the  Germans,  whose  lyric  poetry  is  closely  akin  to 
the  folksong  and  therefore  best  fitted  to  associate  with  music, 
instances  of  complete  success,  such  as  Schubert's  Gretchen  am 
Spinnrade,  Schumann's  Friihlingsnacht,  Mendelssohn's  Fruh- 
lingsliedj  Durch  den  Wald,  Robert  Franz'  Zu  Strassburg  auf 
der  Schanz  and  Stille  Sicherheit,  Wagner's  Traume,  Brahms' 
Wann  der  silbeme  Mond,  Feldeinsamkeit,  and  Wie  raff?  ich 
mich  auf  in  der  Nacht,  are  by  no  means  common.  Another 
reason  is  that  poets  often  aim  at  effects  resembling  actual 
vocalization — as  Tennyson  does  in  that  despair  of  composers, 
the  f  Bugle  Song ' — or  cast  their  stanzas  in  epigrammatic  form 
with  the  point  at  the  end,  in  which  case  the  composer  is  at 
a  loss,  and  must  pass  on  to  something  else  ere  he  can  bring  his 
melody  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion.  On  the  musician's  side  it 
may  be  contended  that  the  musical  exposition,  inasmuch  as  it 
is  more  protracted,  makes  a  stronger  appeal  to  the  senses  and 
therefore  acts  more  powerfully  on  the  emotions  than  verse  alone. 


ay*  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Thus,  for  instance,  the  music  in  Brahms'  song  Wie  raff't'  ich 
mich  aufin  der  Nacht,  just  mentioned,  enforces  the  passion  and 
melody  of  Platen's  verse  in  a  truly  wonderful  manner.  But  in 
every  case  the  balance  between  the  poetical  and  the  musical 
factors  is  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty,  and  a  completely 
successful  fusion  is  a  rare  achievement. 

Apart  from  Brahms,  who  belongs  to  a  later  period,  Schumann 
taken  at  his  best  is  the  greatest  composer  of  songs  after 
Schubert.  When  composing  a  song  he  was  always  instinctively 
guided  by  the  idea  rather  than  by  any  traditional  conventions. 
Whether  he  utters  a  poet's  passion  or  his  own  personal  cry, 
Schumann  is  true  and  strong.  In  a  supreme  degree  his  best 
Lieder,  such  as  Widmung,Ujbe^m^^arten  durch  die  Lufte, 
Mondnackty  JJie  Jboioshlume,  Schone  Fremde,  Er  der  herxtichste 
von  alien,  Waldesgesprach,  possess  the  rare  quality  which 
Wordsworth  failed  to  discover  in  certain  metrical  works  of 
\Croethe's/old  age — absolute  spontaneity.  'The  verses  are  not 
inevitable  enough '  was  Wordsworth's  way  of  putting  it.  But 
the  lyrical  pathos  of  Schumann's  songs  is  indeed  inevitable, 
original,  spontaneous.  Schumann  produced  the  bulk  of  his 
Lieder  in  1840,  the  year  of  his  marriage.  Saturated  as  he  was 
with  German  romantic  literature — Jean  Paul  Richter,  E.  T.  A. 
Hoffmann,  translations  of  Byron  and'Moore,  Eichendorff,  Heine, 
Riickert — saturated  still  more  with  the  emotional  music  of  his 
predilection,  Schubert,  Beethoven,  Chopin,  he  was  often  able  to 
produce  two  or  three  songs  in  a  single  day.  With  him  each 
song  is  the  full  musical  utterance  of  the  poem,  without  sacrifice 
of  meaning  and  without  repetition  of  words.  The  principal 
inflexions  of  the  voice-part  spring  directly  from  the  words,  and 
every  subtlety  is  emphasized  by  characteristic  harmony  or 
reiterated  figures  of  accompaniment,  or  by  some  significant 
prelude,  interlude,  or  coda.  The  balance  between  the  voice  and 
the  instrument  is  well  maintained,  each  factor  makes  for  definite 
articulation  and  contributes  towards  a  consistent  and  homo- 
geneous whole.  Thus  the  majority  of  Schumann's  Lieder  are 


SOLO  SONGS  273 

convincing  as  the  direct  utterance  of  his  personal  feeling  *, 
Among  the  less  well-known  songs  there  is  occasionally  a  touch 
of  weak  ecstasy,  as  in  Du  Rose  meines  Herzens ;  or  of  pedantry, 
as  in  Rathsel,  where  the  singer  is  made  to  sing  of  *  Gottes- 
gelehrtheit  und  Philosophic'  (Myrthen,  No.  16),  or  Zahnweh, 
Op.  55,  No.  2  ;  or  of  sentimentality,  as  in  Frauenliebe  und  Leben, 
No.  6,  where  there  is  something  artistically  wrong  that  invites 
parody.  In  certain  other  songs  of  a  Spanish  type,  e.  g.  Der 
Hidalgo  (Op.  30,  No.  3),  Der  Contrabandista  (sequel  to  Op.  74), 
as  well  as  in  the  sets  of  songs,  duets,  and  quartets,  called 
Spanische  Liebeslieder,  Op.  138,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  Schumann 
produced  de  VAndalou  de  Leipzig. 

Schumann,  in  his  Lieder  and  choral  pieces,  was  the  first  of 
the  Germans  who  troubled  about  correct  declamation.  Before 
him,  neither  in  opera  nor  in  simple  songs  did  any  one  take 
offence  at  prosodical  absurdities ;  and  it  is  significant  that 
Weber,  Marschner,  and  Mendelssohn — educated  men,  and  not 
devoid  of  humour — should  have  allowed  so  many  anomalies  to 
pass.  The  source  of  many  a  curious  instance  of  obtuseness  in 
this  respect — composers,  singers,  and  the  public  are  alike 
implicated — may  be  sought  in  the  fact  that  the  tunes  of  German 
popular  songs  and  chorales,  from  Luther's  time  downwards, 
were  generally  older,  often  much  older,  than  the  words. 
Throughout  the  history  of  music,  and  not  in  Germany  alone,  it 
has  been  a  common  practice  to  fit  new  words  to  old  tunes — as, 
for  instance,  Moore  did  in  his  Irish  Melodies — and  nobody  seems 
to  have  cared  whether  or  not  the  words  and  the  tune  meet  on 
equal  terms.  To  this,  again,  must  be  added  the  universal  habit 
of  singing  successive  stanzas  to  the  same  tune,  as  in  the  German 

1  Ami,  as  he  was  the  most  German  of  contemporary  musicians,  and  the  most 
intimately  connected  with  his  own  language,  it  would  seem  to  follow  that  they 
had  better  not  be  sung  in  translation.  Translations  of  German  romantic  songs,  be 
they  ever  so  faithful,  are  heavily  handicapped  because  the  musical  and  verbal  effects 
belong  together.  Any  translation  of  Schubert's  Du  bist  die  ftufi,  Sei  mir 
gegntsst,  Der  Wanderer,  Der  Erlkonig,  Schumann's  Mondnacht,  Brahms'  Feldeinsamkeit, 
or  Wagner's  Traume,  is  foredoomed  to  failure. 

DANNRECTHER  f 


274  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Balladen  of  Zumsteeg  and  Zelter,  or  in  many  of  the  sea  songs  of 
Dibdin. 

Compared  with  Schumann's  method,  the  connexion  of  the 
melody  with  the  verse  in  Mendelssohn's  songs  is  rather  lax. 
The  melody  reflects  the  mood  of  the  poem  well  enough,  but  it 
rarely  starts  directly  from  the  sound  and  sense  of  the  words. 
Always  facile,  graceful,  delicately  refined,  the  music  seems  to 
stand  aloof  from  the  verse,  and  in  many  cases  it  appears  as 
though  either  the  words  or  the  tune  might  be  other  than  they 
are.  This  severance  of  verse  and  music  marks  Mendelssohn's 
songs  as  distinctly  inferior  to  Schumann's ;  though  the  best  of 
them  show  a  mastery  of  their  own  which,  from  a  vocalist's 
point  of  view,  is  supreme — as  is  the  case,  for  instance,  in  the 
setting  of  Lenau's  Fruhlingslied,  Gpethe's  Suleika  I :  Ach,  um 
deine  feuchten  Schwingen,  West,  wie  sehr  ich  dick  beneide,  and 
Suleika  II :  Was  bedeutet  die  Bewegurig  ?  In  like  manner  the 
setting  of  Heine's  Auf  Flilgeln  des  Gesanges  is  above  praise  as 
a  vocal  expression  of  the  mood  of  the  poem.  Yet  nevertheless, 
cases  where  Mendelssohn's  melody  chimes  perfectly  with  the 
words  are  all  too  infrequent.  Perhaps  Frage,  Op.  9,  No.  I, 
shows  him  at  his  best  in  this  respect — and  a  prosodical  blunder 
such  as  Friihlingsmachtig  in  Op.  47,  No.  3,  at  his  worst. 

There  is  the  same  difference  between  the  vocal  duets  of 
Schumann  and  Mendelssohn  as  between  their  songs.  Schumann's 
melody,  in  the  treatment  of  the  vocal  parts,  is  more  emotional 
and  more  closely  in  connexion  with  the  words,  whilst  Mendels- 
sohn's is  more  effective  from  the  singer's  point  of  view.  In 
the  department  of  vocal  quartets  and  part-songs  without 
accompaniment,  Mendelssohn's  choral  mastery  shows  to 
advantage;  he  proves  himself  superior  in  point  of  choral 
technique  quite  as  clearly  as  in  the  choruses  of  the  oratorios  and 
cantatas J.  Mendelssohn's  productions  in  song  form  embrace 
eighty-three  solo  songs,  thirteen  duets,  twenty-eight  quartets  for 

1  Some  of  the  weaker  songs  of  Op.  8  and  9  (Nos.  2,  3,  4,  and  7,  10,  12, 
respectively)  are  by  his  elder  sister,  Fanny  Hensel. 


SOLO  SONGS  275 

mixed  voices,  and  seventeen  quartets  for  male  voices.  Wer  hat 
dich,  du  schoner  Wald,  one  of  his  four-part  songs  for  male 
voices,  has  become  a  folk-song  in  Germany. 

Robert  Franz's *  Lieder  und  Gesange,  forty-four  books  in  all, 
containing  some  340  numbers,  have  compelled  the  admiration 
but  failed  to  elicit  the  full  sympathy  of  later  musicians. 
Finished  in  structure  and  technique,  they  lack  the  human 
sympathy  of  Schumann,  the  fluency  of  Mendelssohn,  the 
weight  and  power  of  Brahms.  Apart  from  three  or  four 
spontaneous  outbursts,  such  as  the  celebrated  Er  ist  gekommen 
and  the  less  well-known  Volker,  spielt  auf,  Op.  27,  No.  i,  Franz 
is  subtle,  delicate,  contemplative ;  he  often  exhibits  a  note  of 
resignation  or  of  quietism — derived,  it  would  seem,  from  the 
Freylinffhauser  Gesang-Buch,  the  hymn-book  of  the  later 
Protestant  Pietists,  so  well  known  to  J.  S.  Bach.  Complete 
unity  of  expression  was  Franz's  aim.  A  song,  with  him,  is 
intended  to  be  the  reproduction  of  a  single  mood,  simple  or 
complex,  and  all  the  factors,  voice  and  verse,  melody,  harmony, 
figures  of  accompaniment,  are  co-ordinated  and  made  to  con- 
tribute their  share  towards  the  end  in  view.  Most  of  Franz's 
songs  come  and  go  like  a  gleam — they  are  nearly  all  too  short 
and  frail  for  performance  in  public.  The  matter  is  ingenious 
in  weaving  up  the  voice  parts  and  the  accompaniment  without 
interfering  with  the  flow  of  the  words.  f  I  merely  illustrate  the 
words,  and  my  music  does  not  pretend  to  be  much  by  itself.  In 
this  respect  my  Opus  I  is  no  better  and  no  worse  than  my  last ' 
(Opus  52).  Franz  is  in  fact  generally  content  with  the 
articulation  of  the  poem,  supplemented  by  a  rather  complex 
pianoforte  part.  Technically,  he  is  a  master  in  the  fullest 
sense.  But  impulse  is  impulse,  and  he  had  little  of  it.  Com- 
pared with  Schubert,  and  still  more  with  Schumann,  he  is 
impersonal  and,  in  so  far,  weaker  than  they.  He  fails  in 
personal  charm,  and  his  pathos  at  its  most  touching  (e.  g. 
Verfehltes  Lieben,  verfehltes  Leben,  Op.  20,  No.  3)  strikes  the 

1  Recte  Knauth,  1815-92. 
T  2 


276 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


hearer  as  somewhat  factitious.  A  sense  of  weakness  is  almost 
always  present  when  Franz  unites  his  music  to  verse  by  his 
friend  Osterwald.  He  is  at  his  best  when  he  sets  Lenau's, 
Heine's^  or  Goethe's  verse ;  as  in  the  following  example : — 


Andante 
Innig. 


Aua     mei-nen  groa  .  sen       Schmer    -  zan 
'  canto  ..  N 


macli'    ich  die  klei  -  nen 


- 


dolce 


S^ 


fed.  * 


** 


Lie       -      der,        die      he    •    ben    ihr  klin  •  gend  Ge  -  fie         -        der          und 


«  •Mr1 


-Jw.  *  Ped- 


-&-. 

Ped. 


flat  •  tern  nacb    ih       -       rent     Her 


ritard. 


tiprcuivo 


^i>  JM- 


*3^ 


Sie 


SOLO  SONGS 


277 


•j    j,j^==£gg!E=^ 


fan  .  den  den  Wef    zur          Trau     -     ten,    doch    kom-men  ale    wie  •    der  Und 


»  i 


m 


PP 


»=3iC 


kla      -       gen,        und    kla  •  gen  und  wol  »  len  nicbt    sa 


gen,    was 


. 


Pal. 


278  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

To  understand  Franz's  ideal,  his  setting  of  Tieck's  Ruhe,  Stiss- 
liebchen,  im  Schatten  der  Matten,  Op.  10,  may  be  compared 
with  Brahms'  treatment  of  the  same  words  (Romanzen  aus 
Tiecks  Magelone,  Op.  33,  No.  9),  or  his  setting  of  Lenau's 
Durch  den  Wald,  den  dunklen,  geht,  Op.  52,  with  Mendelssohn's 
in  the  Frilhlingslied  already  mentioned.  Franz  usually  expresses 
his  sentiment  in  a  rather  complex  and  somewhat  laboured 
manner,  apparently  natural  to  himself.  His  style  is  an  amalgam 
of  Bach,  Handel,  Schubert,  Schumann,  the  German  folk-song, 
and  the  Lutheran  chorale, — all  of  which  Franz,  from  time  to 
time,  absorbed  and  reproduced  in  his  own  way.  Hence,  the  quasi- 
abstract,  scholastic  sound  of  so  much  of  his  work.  He  was,  in 
fact,  essentially  a  scholar,  and  much  of  his  most  congenial  work 
is  to  be  found  in  his  textual  commentary  on  the  scores  of  Bach 
and  Handel. 

Of  a  very  different  character  are  the  pieces  written  by  Berlioz, 
Liszt,  and  Wagner  for  solo  voice  with  the  accompaniment  of 
pianoforte  or  small  orchestra.  The  songs  of  Schumann  and 
Franz  are  effusions  belonging  more  or  less  to  the  intimacy  of 
private  life,  whereas  the  aim  of  Berlioz  and  Liszt  was  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  singers  or  actors  in  the  concert-room. 
Berlioz  offers  the  Chanson  and  the  pathetic  Arioso ;  Liszt  both 
the  Chanson  and  the  German  Lied,  or  the  Lied  expanded  to  a 
short  scena ;  Wagner,  by  the  side  of  his  three  Chansons,  has 
a  Ballade  in  French,  a  German  Lied,  and  five  pieces  which  he 
calls  e  Poems  set  to  music,'  Gedichte  in  Musik  gesetzt,  and  which, 
as  reminiscences  of  the  lyric  stage,  appear  to  form  a  link  between 
the  two  categories.  It  is  pleasant  to  find  that  the  tendency  to 
eccentricity  rarely  appears  in  Berlioz's  Chansons.  Ditties,  such 
as  Chanson  de  Paysan,  Petit  oiseau,  La  Belle  Voyageuse,  Elle 
s'en  va  seulette1,  or  the  Villanelle  No.  i  of  Les  Nuits  d'ete  (verses 
by  Theophile  Gautier),  are  gems  with  a  real  charm  of  their  own. 
No.  2  of  the  Gautier  set,  Le  Spectre  de  la  rose,  is  a  broad  Arioso. 
Connaissez-vous  la  tombe  blanche  ?  No.  5,  has  a  touch  of  the 

1  Paroles  imitees  de  I'anglais  de  Thomas  Moore,  par  Thomas  Gounet. 


SOLO  SONGS 


279 


same  melancholy  which  is  expressed  in  the  introduction  to  the 
Symphonie  fantastique.  No.  3,  the  so-called  Lamento,  Sur  les 
Lagunes,  and  No.  4,  Absence,  rank  among  the  finest  histrionic 
examples  of  forlorn  passion.  For  their  due  effect  Les  Nuits 
d'ete  should  be  sung,  not  at  the  pianoforte,  but  with  a  small 
orchestra  as  originally  written.  Berlioz  himself  pointed  to  La 
Captive,  Op.  12 — the  poem  taken  from  Victor  Huj^Ps  Les 
Orientales — as  his  supreme  achievement  in  the  way  of  solo  song  ; 
and,  from  the  musical  impressionist's  point  of  view,  this 
Reverie,  as  he  calls  it,  is  truly  a  fascinating  piece.  The  exotic 
mood  of  the  poem  is  well  expressed  in  a  compact  and  beautiful 
tune,  and  the  scoring  for  a  small  orchestra  is  a  marvel  of  skill — 
a  treasury  of  novel  and  picturesque  effects,  all  directly  illustrating 
the  verse. 


AiiJantino  non  troppo  lento    (/"=  132). 


Hi     jo  n't)  - 


Fed. 


S^ 


tais        cap  -  ti 


J'ai  -  me-rais    ce  p*  . 


I       i  I 

5  J.  J-  '  d  "F 


E^ 

Perf. 


a8o 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


et    cet     -     te        mer        plain-ti 


I 


f 


Ptd. 


#     '   Ped. 


Et  ces  champs  do        ma    -    is 
.*. 


Et 


+. 


Jlf.0. 


y/r/i-o  rforzato 


fP 


'g— r — =f. 


ces  ns  -  tres        sans     nom   •    bre.     Si 


le        lon 


du  luur 


«/   P 

4=-  • 


*/  1'ed. 


som      -      bre         NM  -  tin     -     ce  -  lait       dans       1'om        -       bre  Le 


LLJ 


#    Fed. 


~t  * 


SOLO  SONGS 


281 


•a    •    bre    da         Spa  •  his, 


"  w  r 


^nHEJ.!  JI 


-Ped. 


cJ 


/LL1 


*    Fed. 


Fed. 


Fed. 


Liszt,  when  composing  for  solo  voice  (a  total  of  about  sixty 
songs,  published  in  nine  books),  took  less  account  of  the  poem 
as  a  whole  than  of  its  successive  details.  He  tried  to  intensify 
the  effect  of  his  lyrics  by  emphasi/ing  the  more  important  single 
words  or  clauses,  or  by  strongly  contrasting  one  word  or  clause 
with  another,  and  was  thus  led  to  develop  an  exaggerated  style 
that  tends  towards  the  incoherence  of  melodrama.  Brief  and 
unified  expression  is  rare  with  him,  though  we  meet  with  it  in 
his  setting  of  Victor  Hugo'flj  ^Q^^ntt  dis^nt-ils  ?  Oh^guand 
je  dors,  and  S*ll  esl  'urT  charm  an  t  (jazoiif  as  well  as  in  Es  muss 
ein  wunderbares  sein,  and  Utjoeihs  Kennst  du  das  Land  ? 


again  'Tie  approaches  the  Ballade,  as  n  he  most 
picturesque  of  his  songs,  Die  drei  Zigeuner,  or  the  Scena,  as  in 
Lorelei.  Frequently  he  appeals  to  that  public  taste  which  is 
caught  by  over-emphasis,  as  in  Enfant,  si  fetais  roi  and 
Vergiftet  sind  meine  Lieder,  or  in  Es  war  ein  Konig  in  Thule 
and  Wer  nie  sein  Brod  mit  Thrdnen  ass,  in  which  latter  song 


282 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


the  words f  Der  kennt  euch  nicht,  ihr  himmlischen  Machte/  are  at 
first  directed  to  be  (  spoken  softly,'  and,  when  they  recur,  '  to  be 
sung  with  full  force/  Again,  he  is  disposed  to  indulge  in  over- 
sentimentality,  as  in  Ich  mochte  hingehn  and  Tre  Sonetti  di 
Petrarca,  or  in  decorous  platitudes,  as  in  the  two  songs  called 
Marienstrausslein,  or  in  languorous  sensuousness^  as  in  Liebes- 
traume,  Nos.  i  and  3.  In  point  of  accent  and  declamation 
Liszt's  French  songs  are  admirable. 


Trit  ani»if 


S         5       *         14 


^r  CJ 


staccato  (quasi  Chitarra) 


~h      -(•     —      I         r 


see 


parU 


Com  .  ment, 


di-saient  •  ilg, 


*A 


[iVirj^r  —  -*-j| 

1  j       —  =3=1 

vec                        nos  na  - 

eel     .      les 

^  J*  -T^i    i**i 

fuir                        les 

^^-J  J  PJ 
—  ,___  _(.  —  _*  —  , 

1       i             |.              b           1 

SOLO  SONGS 


283 


al  -  gua-zila? 


m 


ry  r 
^X  u^ 


itn  pen  retenu 


MH  p«u  reftnu 


/ifV    i 

(fo  •  "g  j«^: 
£/       ~~V~ 


•9-S^i 


»»<<><-«••""> 


284 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

a  tempo 


The  German  ones  leave  much  to  be  desired ;  an  annoying 
discrepancy  is  felt  to  exist  between  the  true  sounds  of  the  words 
and  the  musical  accent — for  example,  the  stress  on  du  and  die 
in  Goethe's  Kennst  du  das  Land  ?  is  detestable ;  and  there  are 
other  errors  of  declamation  in  the  rest  of  the  song. 


Sehr  langtam,  tehniuchttvoll 


Kennst        du  Uas    Land,  wo 


una  corda 


* 

^m 

_ J_ — nrj 


die         Ci  -  tro   -  nen    blUh'n?  Im        dun      -      klen    Laub      die 


Ped. 


:i='- 
P«^. 


SOLO  SONGS  285 

fe=£gssEE  Eg^=,F^=j=E£EEgEl  EEi 


Gold        .o  •         ran       -       -      gen         gllili'n. 


Musically  considered,  Kennst  du  das  Land?  is  a  song 
remarkable  for  its  romantic  colour  and  the  exquisite  touches  of 
longing  expressed  in  the  refrain.  The  atmosphere  of  Die  drei 
Zigeuner,  too,  is  wonderfully  characteristic. 

Wagner's  French  Chansons,  Dor*,  mon  enfant ;  Mignonne ; 
Attente  ;  and  the  Ballade  Les  Deux  Grenadiers — a  translation  of 
Heine's  Die  beiden  Grenadiere — belong  to  the  period  of  his  first 
sojourn  in  Paris  (1841-2),  when  he  finished  Rienzi  and  wrote 
Der  fliegende  Hollander.  Another  Ballade,  Der  Tannenbaum, 
words  by  Scheuerlin,  was  written  at  Riga  in  1839,  when  only 
two  acts  of  Rienzi  were  completed.  Yet  this  piece  has  some 
connexion  with  the  style  of  Tannhauser,  as  the  Fiinf  Gedichte, 
the  verses  of  which  were  written  by  Frau  Mathilde  Wesendonck 
(1855-7),  are  closely  connected  with  Die  Walkiire  and  Tristan. 
The  earlier  of  Wagner's  songs  and  vocal  pieces  differ  as  much 
in  style  from  the  later  as  his  operas  differ  from  the  tone-dramas. 
The  third  and  fifth  of  the  Fiinf  Gedichte,  <  Im  Treibhaus' 
and '  Traume/  are  offshoots  or  forerunners  of  Tristan  und  Isolde. 
'Traume'  prefigures  the  love-scene  in  the  second  act,  flm 
Treibhaus'  recalls  the  instrumental  introduction  to  Act  HI. 
Again,  '  Stehe  still,'  No.  2,  is  connected  with  the  third  act  of 
Tristan,  ( Schmerzen,'  No.  4,  and  '  Der  Engel,'  No.  I,  with 
Die  Walkiire.  It  is  curious  to  watch  Wagner  listening  to  him- 
self, as  it  were,  in  his  own  workshop.  His  personality  is  as 
perfectly  revealed  in  these  five  songs  as  in  the  later  Siegfried- 
Idyll  t  which  belongs  to  Siegfried,  Act  III. 


a86  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Wagner  laid  great  stress  on  prosody.  Compared  with 
Schumann,  Robert  Franz,  or  Brahms,  who  each  are  occasionally 
lax  in  their  ways,  and  more  or  less  consciously  take  up  a  recal- 
citrant position  in  regard  to  declamation,  Wagner  is  an  uncom- 
promising purist.  In  every  case,  he  insisted,  the  spirit  and 
sense  of  the  language  must  be  respected  and  the  laws  of  prosody 
and  of  musical  rhythm  should  form  an  equilibrium. 

Lapses  such  as  Robert  Franz's  Ich  stand  gelehnet  an  den  Mast, 
or  Ihr  Thrdnen,  bleibt  mir  aus  den  Augen  (Wasserfahrt,  Op. 
48,  No.  3),  roused  his  ire.  f  If  Franz,'  he  said, '  did  not  care  to 
sacrifice  the  characteristic  figure  or  the  tune,  he  might  have 
found  a  better  figure  or  a  better  tune.' 

In  connexion  with  the  partially  dramatic  lyrics  of  Liszt  and 
Berlioz  mentioned  above,  it  seems  convenient  here  to  touch 
upon  certain  earlier  forms  of  Ballade  and  of  Melodrama  proper. 
Carl  Loewe 1,  who  is  practically  the  originator  of  the  German 
Ballade  as  it  now  exists,  relies  on  various  means  of  artistic  effect, 
justifiable  it  may  be,  but  not  entirely  musical.  Declamation, 
histrionic  changes  of  voice,  and  even  mimicry  are  called  upon  to 
bear  their  part.  With  the  aid  of  the  musical  actor's  art,  some 
of  Loewe's  Balladen,  such  as  Edward,  are  effective  enough, 
but  they  need  such  external  assistance  to  cover  defects  in  the 
music.  The  poetry  usually  is  allowed  to  tell  its  own  story,  but 
the  music  is  subordinate.  There  is  a  sense  of  insecurity. 
Rarely  does  the  musical  mood  embrace  the  entire  poem,  and 
almost  invariably  the  stress  is  laid  upon  the  externals  of  the  story 
rather  than  upon  the  lyrical  emotion  which  underlies  it.  The 
impression  left  is  that  of  a  partially  musical  recitation  by  an 
actor,  not  the  consistent  outpouring  of  a  musician  2. 

Excepting  the  pieces  mentioned,  to  which  may  be  added  Herr 
Oluf,  Prinz  Eugen,  Der  Pilger  von  St.  Just,  and  Der  Wirthin 
Tochterlein,  the  musical  ideas  are  neither  new  nor  deep,  and  they 

1  1796-1869. 

8  This  may  help  to  explain  Wagner's  inordinate  fondness  for  Loewe's  Edward 
and  Erlkimig,  as  well  as  the  fascination  which  these  pieces  had,  and  still  have, 
with  operatic  singers. 


SOLO  SONGS  287 

occasionally  approach  the  confines  of  bathos.  Loewe's  manner 
of  writing  for  the  pianoforte  is  a  little  in  advance  of  the  point 
reached  by  his  predecessors  Zumsteeg  and  Zelter,  yet,  like  theirs, 
it  is  somewhat  commonplace.  There  is  abundant  evidence  of  a 
gift  for  rapid  improvisation,  but  little  restraint  or  self-criticism. 
Hence  the  superiority  of  certain  Balladen  by  later  masters,  such 
as  Schumann's  Belsatzar,  Die  beiden  Grenadiere,  and  Die 
Lowenbraut.  The  early  dates  of  Loewe's  best  work  must  not  be 
overlooked;  Edivard  and  the  Erlkonig  belong  to  1818,  Der 
Wirthin  Tochterlein  to  1 824;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Archibald 
Douglas  appeared  in  1857,  which  was  Loewe's  sixty-second 
year — a  date  which  may  account  for  certain  instances  of  appa- 
rently direct  indebtedness  to  Wagner's  Derfiiegende  Hollander. 
Melodramatic  music,  such  as  that  contained  in  Mendelssohn's 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream  and  Schumann's  Manfred,  is  an 
offshoot  of  the  great  melodramas  in  Beethoven's  Fidelio,  or  in 
Weber's  Freischiitz  and  Preciosa,  or  a  combination  of  both 
styles,  as  in  Marschner's  Vampyr.  Schumann,  besides  the 
three  melodramatic  fragments  in  the  music  to  ^Byron's  Manfred 
— the  calling  of  the  witch  of  the  Alps,  the  invocation  to  Astarte, 
and  Manfred's  address  to  Astarte — published  three  pieces  for 
declamation  with  pianoforte  accompaniment,  Schb'n  Hedwig  and 
Vom  Haidenknaben,  both  by  Hebbel,  and  Die  Fluchtlinge,  Op. 
122,  taken  from  Shelley's  Fugitives.  These  pieces,  again, 
prompted  Liszt  to  write  melodramatic  music  to  illustrate  a 
recitation  of  Burger's  Lenore,  and  a  Ballade  by  Lenau  called 
Der  traurige  Monch1.  As  early  as  1773  J.  J.  Rousseau,  with  his 
Pygmalion,  set  the  example,  and  the  amateurish  character  of  this 
early  instance  appears  to  have  tainted  all  its  successors.  There 
was  the  alternative  of  recitation  and  music,  musical  illustration  or 
mere  support  of  the  reciter's  voice — then  again  music,  and  again 
recitation,  and  so  on.  The  unity  of  effect  was  difficult,  if  not 

1  Liszt's  music  to  the  latter  poem  is  a  curious  experiment  in  ugliness — an  entire 
piece  built  on  a  whole  tone  scale.  Compare  Verdi's  Scala  enigmatica  quoted  above, 
p.  223. 


288  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

impossible  to  attain,  because  as  the  reciter's  topic  or  his  mood 
changes,  the  music  must  change — and,  as  music  must  recur  to 
its  beginning  or  remain  inchoate,  the  two  aspects  rarely  fit 
together. 

In  connexion  with  the  stage,  melodramatic  music  is  accept- 
able in  so  far  as  it  underlines  the  words ;  it  supplies  emphasis 
and  descriptive  touches  and,  in  the  intervals  of  speech,  completes 
the  expression  of  the  emotion.  How  well  it  can  serve  in  the 
latter  capacity  may  be  felt  in  the  great  prison  scene,  Act  II  of 
Beethoven's  Fidelia,  and  the  invocation  and  address  to  Astarte 
in  Schumann's  Manfred.  Apart  from  the  stage,  however,  a 
true  fusion  of  the  poetical  text  with  the  musical  accompaniment 
seems  impossible.  The  speaking  voice  and  the  music  fail  to 
blend.  If  the  reciter  is  competent  he  will  absorb  the  interest, 
or  else  the  accompanist  will  disturb  the  reciter.  Musically 
considered,  melodramatic  effects  appear  tolerable  only  in  con- 
nexion with  a  poem  that  contains  a  certain  proportion  of 
definitely  musical  elements,  such  as  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden, 
for  instance,  to  which  Richard  Strauss  has  recently  added  illus- 
trative music ;  but  even  in  this  case  the  result  is  of  doubtful 
value. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

VARIOUS   WORKS   BY   OTHER   MASTERS 

REFERENCE  to  the  followers  of  those  Romantic  masters 
who  founded  a  school,  as  the  phrase  goes,  has  hitherto  been 
avoided.  We  may  now  turn  to  the  adherents  of  Mendelssohn — 
such  as  Niels  Gade,  Sterndale  Bennett,  Rubinstein,  Stephen 
Heller,  Sullivan ;  of  Schumann — such  as  Volkmann,  Kiel, 
Goetz,  Theodor  Kirchner,  Jensen ;  of  Liszt  and  Berlioz — such 
as  Peter  Cornelius,  Hans  v.  Billow,  and  the  eclectic  Joachim  Raff. 
It  is  pleasant  to  record  that  most  of  these  men  were  independent 
enough  to  indulge  their  personal  note  and  guard  their  spon- 
taneity, though  they  frankly  adopted  the  methods  and  even 
some  of  the  mannerisms  of  their  leaders. 

But  before  going  into  details  we  may  consider  the  case  of 
two  composers  who  are  not  followers  at  all,  and  whose  claim 
to  recognition  rests  entirely  on  its  own  merits:  the  twin 
masters  of  English  church  and  organ  music  (they  happen  to 
be  father  and  son),  Samuel  Wesley  (1766-1837),  and  Samuel 
Sebastian  Wesley  (1810-76).  And  in  connexion  with  their 
productions  we  may  also  touch  upon  certain  specifically  English 
forms  of  vocal  music — the  glee,  the  round,  and  the  catch. 

In  the  musical  history  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  work  of 
the  two  Wesleys  is  of  real  importance.  They  are  by  far  the 
weightiest  composers  who  wrote  for  the  Anglican  Church 
Service  at  a  period  when  English  music  in  general  was  at 
a  low  ebb.  They  tower  above  their  English  contemporaries, 
laymen  or  churchmen ;  and  in  their  particular  department — in 
which  they  are  by  no  means  imitators — need  not  shun  com- 
parison with  continental  celebrities  such  as  Spohr,  or  even 
with  a  master  such  as  Mendelssohn.  The  fine  eight-part 
antiphon  for  double  chorus  and  organ  in  In  exitu  Israel,  the 
motets  Dixit  Dominus  and  Exultate  Deo,  the  bold  motet 
for  two  altos,  tenor,  and  bass  in  B[7,  Levate  capita  vestra, 
and  the  noble  Ecce  Pants  in  D  minor  for  soprano,  alto,  tenor, 

DANNREUTUER  U 


290  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

and  bass,  the  '  Carmen  funebre '  for  five  voices,  Omnia  vanitas, 
by  Samuel  Wesley1,  together  with  S.  Sebastian  Wesley's  eight- 
part  anthems,  Let  us  lift  up  our  hearts,  and  0  Lord,  thou  art 
my  God ;  his  Morning  and  Evening  Service  in  E ;  his  masterly 
five-part  anthem  The  Wilderness;  his  four-part  anthem  Man 
that  is  born  of  a  woman,  with  its  direct  expression  and  fine 
pathos ;  his  beautiful  setting  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  which  forms 
a  part  of  the  Morning  Service  just  mentioned ;  and  the 
poignantly  expressive  Wash  me  throughly  from  my  wickedness 
are  the  most  valuable  of  their  pieces.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
range  of  modern  religious  music  more  sincerely  felt  and  ex- 
pressed than,  for  example,  the  anthem  last  mentioned,  Wash 
me  throughly — neither  in  Spohr,  with  whose  practice  certain 
chromatic  progressions  seem  to  coincide,  nor  in  Mendelssohn, 
with  whose  oratorio  style  there  is  a  certain  resemblance  in 
phraseology.  S.  S.  Wesley's  way  of  expressing  religious  emotion 
appears  more  individual  than  either  Spohr's  or  Mendelssohn's, 
and  it  is  for  that  very  reason  better  worth  hearing.  Always 
in  close  connexion  with  the  traditions  of  English  vocal  music, 
the  choral  technique  in  the  work  of  both  masters  is  of  a  high 
order — witness  the  elder  Wesley's  five-part  madrigal  0  sing 
unto  my  roundelay,  and  Samuel  Sebastian's  five-part  glee 
J  wish  to  tune  my  quivering  Lyre.  The  sheer  musical  invention 
in  S.  S.  Wesley's  0  Lord,  thou  art  my  God,  in  the  Credo 
belonging  to  the  Morning  Service,  and  in  Wash  me  throughly, 
is  that  of  a  virile  genius,  who  knows  his  J.  S.  Bach  not  only 
contrapuntally  but  emotionally,  and  loves  him2.  The  quotation 
subjoined  may  appear  inordinately  long,  but  it  is  not  possible  to 
convey  in  a  few  bars  an  adequate  idea  of  the  persistent  strength 
of  this  contrapuntal  music,  that  ought  to  be  studied  and  recog- 
nized as  masterly  wherever  the  English  language  is  spoken. 

1  A  complete  list  of  S.  Wesley's  pieces  will  be  found  at  p.  446  of  Grove's 
Dictionary,  vol.  iv. 

3  The  elder  Wesley's  enthusiasm  for  Bach's  organ  works  and  the  48  preludes 
and  fugues,  which  the  son  fully  shared  (S.  Wesley,  together  with  C.  E.  Horn, 
brought  out  the  first  English  edition  of  Das  icoftltemperirte  Clavier  in  1110),  is  well 
shown  in  the  familiar  epistles  known  as  the  'Bach  letters  '  written  to  Benjamin 
Jacob  in  1808,  which  were  not  published  till  1875. 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      291 


Andante  e  marcato 


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mf  Decani. 

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Lord, 

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393 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


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Thou,  Thou  .    .     .  artmyGod;!  will   .     .   ex-alt.    .    .  Thee,  I  .    .    .    willpraiseThy 


Thou  .    .    .  art  my  God;.   .    I  will  ex-  alt  ....   Thee,  I.    .    .   willpraiseThy 


- 

sit 


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£^3:  -^  •  +~H*'/'- 


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rsCT 


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Cantoris. 


cBm. 


y   coun-sels  of     old        arefaith-ful- 


Thy 
Cantoris. 


th-ful-nessand  truth.  Thou  hast,      Thou 


dim. 


"fny  coun-sels  of    old         arefaith-ful-nessand  truth.  Thou  hast,       Thou 
Cantoris.  


Name;   Thy  coun-sels  of    old         arefaith-ful-nessand  truth.  Thou  hast,      Thou 
Cantoris. 


Name ;  Thy       coun-sels  of  old         arefaith-ful-nessand  truth.  Thou  hast 

""Ml  '— 


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VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      293 


p  Decani. 


O^i     ^~|~b^  .  *    y   - 


bant.  .  done  won-der-ful  things;  Thy    couu-sela  of     old  .    .     are  faith-ful-nessand 
era.  p  Decani.  >. 


I  I     =T 


liast       done  won-der-ful  things;  Thy    coun-selsof    old  are  faith-ful-ness  and 

-_          era.  P  Decani.  =* 


hast        done  won-der-ful  things;  Thy    coun -sels  of    old  are  faith-ful-ness  and 

era.  p  Decani.  > 


frr-er  r. 


done    .      .    won-der-ful  things; Thy    coun-sels  of   old  are  faith-ful-ness  and 


•*^  1,        25  »  Ofc-'  — K    k    ^S 

i  i  -'i  r 


r-    r 


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truth.      O    Lord,  Thou     art,  .    .Thou  art      my         Qod;    Thy    coun  -  sels  of 
=-  /  '»/  >        P 


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truth.         O    Lord, 
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Thou         art   my         God ;      Thy  coun   -   sels  of 
mf  >          P 


tnith.         O    Lord, 


Thou         art   my         God ;      Thy      conn  -  sels  of 
mf  =-          p 


tnith.          O    Lord, 


Thou         art    my         God ;      Thy      coun  -  sels  of 


J 


294 


Decani. 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


mf 


old        are          truth,   are  truth, 


Thy  coun  -  sels   of 

mf  =~ 


old        are          truth,   are  truth, 


are  truth, 

mf  > 


old      are  truth,      are          truth, 


are  truth, 

mf  a. 


old       are         truth,    are  truth, 

Cantoris.  J> 


are  truth, 


Thy         coun  -  sels  of       old  .    .     are 


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coun  -  sels  of       old  .    .      are 


Thy         coun  -  sels  of        old  .    .      are 


Thy  coun  -  sels  of 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      295 


old  are  faith  -  ful -ness    and       truth.  .    .        Thou 


Thou  art, 


O        Lord, 
/ 


Thou 


m 


Thou  art,  O  Lord,      Thou 

crei.  f 


Thou  art, 


O        Lord,  Thou 


j=r=f=fr- 


r    * 


faith  -  ful  -  ness   and       truth Thou,  Thou 


faith  -  fill-ness    and       truth 


Thou,  Thou 


I 


faith  >  fill-ness    and       truth. 


Thou,  Thou 


old  are  truth. 

—  1  -  J  -  , 


Thou,  Thou 


m 


m 


^ 


296 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


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art      my        God,        Thou,         Thou   .      .          art 
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art     my        God,        Thou,         Thou    .      .          art 
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Lf  '         . 

VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      297 

Not  less  magnificent  is  the  closing  chorus  of  the  same 
anthem.  Indeed,  the  best  examples  of  S.  S.  Wesley  contain 
an  expression  of  the  highest  point  up  to  that  time  reached 
by  the  combination  of  Hebrew  and  Christian  sentiment  in 
music.  They  are  well  worthy  of  comparison  with  Mendelssohn's 
psalms,  with  the  best  things  in  Spohr,  and  with  the  Beatitudes 
of  Liszt  and  of  Cesar  Franck,  to  which  their  relation  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  following  excerpt  from  the  anthem  Wash  me 
throughly. 


TREBLE. 


ORGAN. 


IT-™  

Waah           m« 
Larrihetto 

tl  iroi 

igh     -     ly 

s=»= 

from            in 

v 

" 

wick  -  ed  -  ness, 

pj       .J       | 

ir 

^ 

g: 

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r- 

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-*  1 

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Sir.  /<«<< 
*                               1 

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cT 
a 

A-  — 

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r 

giv 

-T  1- 

1                           J       1 

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1 

— 

r  *• 

M  ni) 

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sin,     .    . 

pi 

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la 

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m   b       ^                      1  ' 

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through  .  •      ly 

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from              my 

wick  -  ed  -  nesd, 

—  ^  J  1—  i 

P^= 

^p~^-=~z>  *^~ 

P               ^ 

1 

29«  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

TREBLE. 


And 
ALTO. 


fur  -  give  me         all 


For       ... 
TENOR  (8ve  lower). 

43- . 


give 


=p 


me        all 


my       sin, 


dim. 


And    .    .          for      give 
BASS. 


me       all 


my       sin, 


and 


and 


for   -  give 


m 


m 


and  for  .  give  me        all 


my       sin, 


and       for  •  give,  .    .         for    •    give   .  .          me       all    .     .          my 


i 


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m 


£=*= 


for  »    give .    .         me        all 
dim. 


S&7—& 


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and 


for  •  give       me 


all     .    .  my       sin,         all 


^g~f^ 


1 — J-JY 


-W 1 

=T=°g: 


*=E 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      299 


5fc=p===fs=: 

|X-^  —- 

wash                   me 

L_ 
through     -       ly 

from              my 

wick  >  ed  -  ness, 

Bin,    .    . 

and 
P 

for      ... 

give,                    for- 
1      J                       =P| 

sin,    .    . 

\\.-L-II               roe 

through       .      ly 

|                -         ^=j 

and                        f  or- 

mv 

—  ^-.  

, 

al  id                          fur. 

~^J                  J 

"^J                      1 

I 

^  f  ^ 

"^i      r 

tS—           *          y   J 

y 

i^1^      -^ 

—  F?—  -  J 

i  —  ^  —        i 

and        fur 


give 


me       all  my       sin, 


.    give,  for    -     give 


me      all         my  sin,         all    ... 


^ 


i-P  •  -rj 


^BE 


^^= 


=j 


-     give,  for     -     give       .  me       all         my  sin,        and      for- 


J I  -J     =*fe 


^m 


•    give       roe 


all 


mr       ain,       and        for- 


^J""      ^ 


300 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


&r^ 

a.l, 


all 


f 


my        sin, 


all    . 


my        sin. 


-    give 


me        all, 


all,         all 


my        sin. 


In  the  wake  of  these  masterpieces  (longo  intervallo)  certain 
contemporary  compositions  written  for  the  Anglican  Service, 
and  for  Societies  of  Glee-singers,  merit  a  passing  notice. 
Thomas  Attwood  Walmisley's  (1814-56)  Magnificat  and  Nunc 
Dimittis  in  D  minor  are  sincerely  felt;  his  Thanksgiving 
Anthem  in  G  minor,  If  the  Lord  Himself  had  not  been  on  our 
side,  shows  individuality,  is  strong  at  the  beginning  and  the 
end,  but  has  an  unfortunate  touch  of  sentimentality  in  the 
middle  (G  major  |).  A  dainty  five-part  madrigal,  Sweete 
Floweres,  ye  were  toofaire,  also  deserves  mention.  S.  Webbe 
senior's  (1740-1816)  Discord,  dire  sister  of  the  slaughtering 
power,  a  glee  for  alto,  two  tenors,  and  bass,  Y  minor  |,  is 
concise  and  powerful  with  a  suave  close  in  F  major 1.  Sir  John 

1  Dr.  Callcott's  (1766-1806)  rather  saccharine  With  sighs,  sweet  rose,  I  mark  the 
faded  form  is  a  homophonous  four-part  glee  in  E  |?,  for  alto,  two  tenors,  and  bass, 
E.  Spofforth's  (1768-1827)  five-part  glee  for  two  altos,  tenor,  two  basses,  Come, 
bounteous  May,  and  William  Horsley's  (1774-1858)  By  Celia's  Arbour,  a  four-part 
glee,  are  both  well  contrived  for  the  voices.  Thomas  Moore's  verse  is  reproduced 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      301 

Goss's  anthems,  If  we  believe  that  Jesus  died  and  rose  again, 
and  O  Saviour  of  the  World,  are  sincere  and  beautiful,  and 
the  part-writing  is  masterly.  His  Ossian's  Hymn  to  the  Sun, 
as  well  as  the  anthem  Praise  the  Lord,  lacks  the  personal 
note.  Finally,  we  may  mention  J.  L.  Hatton's  lively  four-part 
song,  King  Witlaf's  Drinking-horn,  and  R.  L.  de  Pearsall's 
Sir  Patrick  Spens — a  ballad-dialogue  in  ten  real  parts,  as 
he  is  careful  to  note.  Pearsall's  glee  for  four  voices,  When 
Allan- a -dale  went  a  hunting,  is  spirited  and  deservedly 
popular  *. 

This  would  seem  to  be  the  right  place  to  call  attention  to 
a  species  of  concerted  music  for  solo  male  voices  unaccompanied, 
which  is  worthy  of  note  as  peculiarly  English,  intrinsically 
genuine,  and  in  its  peculiar  way  good.  Setting  aside  the 
madrigal,  it  may  be  said  that  from  about  the  fourth  quarter 
of  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth,  the  round,  the  catch,  and  the  glee  held  the  field 
now  occupied  by  the  part-song  for  mixed  voices.  From 
Cromwell's  time  onwards,  and  especially  before  and  during 
the  Napoleonic  wars,  a  truculent  male  element  was  conspicuous 
in  English  society,  and  was  reflected  in  a  manner  which  needs 
no  further  particularization,  in  the  '  tavern-catches '  on  which 
a  good  deal  of  current  musical  invention  was  employed.  The 
glees  are  mostly  sober,  gently  bucolic,  or  sentimental;  but 
with  a  large  proportion  of  the  rounds,  and  with  most  catches, 
there  is  only  one  sentiment — ergo  bibamus.  Yet,  whether 
emotional  or  lively  or  boisterous,  many  rounds  and  catches 
are  distinctly  effective  both  from  the  musical  and  from  the 
histrionic  point  of  view  2.  The  quotation  of  a  catch  by  Purcell, 

in  the  music,  and,  as  in  Moore's,  there  is  a  curious  air  of  sensuousness  obviously  at 
second  hand. 

1  Other  well-known  productions  of  Pearsall's,  such  as  There  is  a  Paradise  on  earth, 
from  the  German  of  Hiilty,  Lay  a  garland  on  my  hearse,  also  an  eight-part  madrigal, 
Great  God  of  Love,  though  nobly  sonorous,  are  rather  dry,  and  the  music  hardly 
chimes  with  the  spirit  of  the  words. 

a  It  appears  that  certain  catches  were  not  only  sung  but  acted. 


302 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


though  it  belongs  to  the  seventeenth  century,  may  perhaps  be 
condoned,  since  it  serves  to  exhibit  the  social  function  of  such 
jeux  d'esprit l. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


Fie, 
lf.    ,.      |?-g- 

nay    pri  •  thee,  John, 

=====£==£== 

do                       nut  quar-rel,  man, 

i    h  r    r     n    N  *  -v  —  1^1 

You're  a  rogue,  you've  cheat-ed    me,    I'll   prove  be  -fore    the 

-0  ^  «  •£•  (•  =  P    r    m  %  —  •- 

com  -pa  -  ny,      I 

lijgF*:  g  p  ^-fc=5  rr^-r 

^=S=^^~ 

T~rT^\ 

Sir,  you    lie,      I    scorn  your  word,  or      a  -  ny    man  that  wears  a  sword.  For 


•H  s  ' 

—  i  1 

$-*-*    '     "     J     J.=- 

let's                            be        met   -  ry       and 

—  g  
drink 

3^^ 

a       -        bout. 

caren't    a         far  -  thing     six       for       all      you 

are 

_H  i        J 

so               stout. 

—  u  '   e    r*=n 

G  "*  M      >—        r..-J—  J=—  ^~ 

9  —  i  n 

all      your     huff,    who    cares        a        fig,      or 


who 


cares      for    you? 


The  first  voice  starts,  the  second  enters  after  the  fourth  bar, 
the  third  after  the  eighth  bar.  Thereafter  the  first  starts  again 
at  the  point  where  the  second  entered,  and  finally  at  the  point 
where  the  third  entered.  The  process  consists  in  giving  out, 
first  a  solo,  then  a  duet,  finally  a  complete  harmonic  trio  which, 
with  successive  changes  and  histrionic  exaggeration,  may  go  on 
for  ever.  'The  catch  in  music/  says  Dr.  Hayes,  the  editor 
of  several  sets  of  catches,  f  answers  to  the  epigram  in  poetry, 
where  much  is  expressed  within  a  very  small  compass,  and 
unless  the  turn  is  neat  and  well  pointed  it  is  of  little  value.' 
Like  the  round,  the  catch  is  a  short  Canone  infinite  in  the 
unison  or  the  octave,  and  the  e  epigrammatical  touch '  is  sought 
in  the  connexion  of  pointed  words  with  the  musical  sounds. 

1  Compare  also  Purcell's  catch  in  G  minor,  If  all  be  true  that  I  do  think,  reprinted 
in  Samuel  Webbe  junior's  Convito  Armonico,  p.  423. 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      303 

A  glee  may  be  described  as  a  sort  of  harmonic  madrigal  for 
three,  four,  five,  or  more  male  voices — i.  e.  combinations  of  alto, 
tenor,  bass  (with  the  occasional  addition  of  a  boy's  treble), 
depending  on  the  deft  interweaving  of  vocal  parts — in  which 
the  contrapuntal  element  is  usually  more  or  less  present1. 
Points  are  started  and  taken  up,  much  as  in  the  madrigal 
proper;  indeed,  though  less  persistently  developed,  they  are 
more  frequent  than  in  the  madrigal,  and  they  are  generally 
poetical  points.  The  musical  structure  is  always  strictly  har- 
monic (there  is  no  trace  of  the  modes),  and  the  total  appeal 
is  rather  to  the  poetical  perception  of  the  auditor — that  is  to 
say,  attention  is  drawn  to  the  drift  of  the  verse  as  emphasized 
by  means  of  harmonic  music.  Of  course  the  specifically  musical 
charm  is  never  entirely  absent.  Frequently  a  glee  consists  of 
various  movements  in  succession,  suggested  by  the  course 
of  a  poem;  and  this  again  differentiates  the  glee  from  the 
madrigal,  in  which  the  same  words  are  repeated  to  support 
contrapuntal  points.  Many  a  glee,  round,  or  catch  is  remark- 
able for  good  craftsmanship  and  delicate  knowledge  of  vocal 
effect.  In  a  number  of  rounds,  catches,  glees,  something  like 
a  democratic  note  may  be  felt:  each  voice  seems  to  represent 
an  individual  holding  his  own,  yet  harmonically  co-operating 
with  the  others.  This  applies,  for  instance,  to  a  fine  work 
by  a  recent  master  of  contrapuntal  and  vocal  effect,  Sir  John 
Goss's2  five-part  glee,  Hark!  heard  ye  not  that  strange 
tumultuous  sound? 

1  It  is  entirely  absent  from  the  fine  homophonic  glees  of  R.  G.  S.  Stevens. 
a  1800-80. 


3°4 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Con  moto,  ed  animato.    e3  =  84. 


ALTO. 


1st  TENOR    / 
(Sve  lower).  | 


2nd  TENOR  i 
(Sve  lower).   \ 


1st  BASS. 


2nd  BASS. 


PIANO 

(ad  lib.) 


dfcdtirJS; 

G&alS 


^zgzzo^as^^ 

•        -S-.   rw— *•     *  •*• 


Hark!  heard  ye  not  that  strange,  tu-mul-tnous  sound? 

mf  t  » 


=£=p: 


a^E===±=H — EL-HE=&±£Eg=p 


Hark  ! 

mf 


Hark  !  hark  !  heard  ye  not  that 


S 


Hark! 
mf 


Hark!  hark! 


Hark! 

mf 


Hark  !  hark  ! 


Hark! 

Con  moto,  ed  animato 


Hark!  hark! 


mf 


\ 


=i 


1 


Hark  !   heard    ye  not  that  strange  tu  -  mul    -    tuous 


e^g^^^B -=^^^^^g-^^^ 


strange  tu  -  mul  -  tuous  sound  ? 


Hark !         hark  !  heard      ye    not  that 


Hark !  heard    ye    not  that  strange        sound  ?  heard    ye    not  that 


Hark  !  heard    ye  not  that  strange  tu  -  mul    •    tuous 


Hark !  hark ! 


( 


I 


hark !         hark !    heard      ye    not  that 
em. 


^ ft 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS     305 
#- 


sound,     that  grates,  that     grates  dia    .    cor  -  dant  on    the  star  -  tied 


sound,    that  grates,  that     grates  dia    •    cor  -  dant  on    the  star  -   tied 


sound,     that  grates,  that  grates      dis        -        cor  •  dant  on    the  star  •  tied 


f^i     I, 


sound,     that  grates,  that     grates  dis    -    cor  -  dant  on    the    star  •   tied 


'-C~- *- 


i  -  1 


sound,     that  grates,  that     grates          dia    •    cor  -  dant  on    the   star  •  tied 

— 1»  i  i — j 1 * 1 1— i 


i 


1 


J         J     J     J.    „ 

'*-*• — *— - ^-i-r5 


**:-w — ^* 

g?tvl 1- 


I*  •    I* 


^f-^-Tf^-^f^- 


ear?  Too  .  .    faith  -  ful     e  •  cho,    too  .  .      faith  •  ful      e  -  cho    of    a 


l5g      "      -    | 


^  l^ag_    [•  rI9f   r    «i-H^I 


ear? 

feg^— -I— ±=£=£ 


Too      faithful     e  -  cho    of    a 


W 


•     *        -J        -J— jl- 


ear? 


Too      faithful     e    -    cho,  too       faithful     e  •  cho    of    a 


ear? 


Too     faithful     e    •    cho,  too       faithful    e  -  cho    of    a 


g=g==] 


ear? 


Too       faithful    e   -   cho  of    a 


r 


DANNREUTHZR 


306 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


—        I 

ngj  'CS^ 

jar  .  ring    world,        Too  .   .       faith  -  f ul      e   -   cho,      too  .   .        faith  •  ful 
43 


jar  •  ring    world, 


Too       faithful 


jar  •   ring    world,  Too       faithful     e     -     cho,  too       faithful 


jar  -   ring    world,  Too        faithful     e     *     cho,  too       faithful 


,gp ,          ftp 


Sr^     i  —  -j-  —  i     i  

e   •  cho      of    a         jar       •       » 

ring 

world, 

e  >  cho     of     a        jar 

ring 

..^ 

world, 

e  .  cho     of     a        jar 

^SS>                      GiJ 

ring 

^zrr==^^ 

world, 

e  -   cho      of     a         jar 

ring,  jar-ring  world,    Where  all   the 
i  1  1 

e    .    cho  of     a        jar 

ring 

world, 

"         "P"      "D"     "**''*'"       '^                      5s>"  • 
'     ^rJ^2__j..j-.|      ,,           ^^__J__^^_ 

|  :  

l^L-<9  —  rrj--  ^^^—  f= 

\=z^>-?-*  —  r  —  f-\ 

-t  '     [T     I       tJ 

VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      307 


/ 


J-    -v 


Where  all   the    passions  most  de     »    gra 

£ 


ding 


Wheie  all  the    pas-aions  most  de-gra-ding 


Where  all    the 


E 


j  wis-fcions  most 


de  •  gra     -     ding,                de  >  gra       -     ding, 
-f 


^=3=2 


. 


Where  all    the    pas-sions  most  de-  gra-  ding 


f  f  r  r  f  ~-  f 


i 


jLJN^J. 


man,  Where  all  the    passions  most  de    -    gra 


ding 


man,  Where  all  the     pas        •       sions  most  de  -  gra      -      ding 


pas-sions  most  de-gra-ding       man, 


de    -     gra 


ding 


^ 


J      * 


Where  all   the    pa**ions  niott  de- gra.  ding 


man, Where  all  .  .      the  .  .       pas    .    sions        most  de    -    gra 


ding 


*&= 

i±tz: 


^FW 
•  t  i  f 


f 


X  2 


jo8                    THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

man                     are 

gen     •     der'd,  and  break    forth                    in 

-1-—  1——  1           \—\  —  "-E  —            —  L          '  "| 

man    .    ,    .    .     are  .  . 

gen     -     der'd,  and  break     forth                    in 

-f*--  T~  *     *  ~\  —  ^  —         F  ~==\ 

man    ....      are  .  . 

gen     -     der'd,  and  break     forth                     in 

r  '    f-  r  r  i-  n            ] 

man                      are 

fr*-fr  

gen     -     der'd,  and  break     forth 

\  ^  —  ~— 

man, 

are  gen-der'd  and  break 

u  —  i           i      i      r  j     _-  —         H  j  •  =TJ 

r  '  t  r  *  r  i 

T  •   r  r  P1^        F 

in     •     suits, 

"                   0  J  ^                  „              \ 
broils,                  loud           up         -         roar, 

-    r  r  ^-p^3--^  ==g=^ 

in     -     suits, 

are  gender'd,  and  break     forth                      in 

in     •  '  suits,         in 

/  TFi  —  r  r  r  r  f 

suits,          broils,    .     . 

are  gender'd,  and  brea 

k    forth                                           in    up-roar,  rage,  in  • 

forth                    in 
0  h       1 

in     -     suits,               in        broils,                           in- 

j  ~d3~~]-d                 1 

Qi  »  ^  —  j        — 
"T  "T  "T  Y"  f^  — 

-*  r  r  r  ^r  r  r  r  f  r 

VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      309 


rage     ....      in     -     f  u  •  riate,  dire  re  -  venge,    loud    up  -  roar,  rage,  . 


up    •  ronr, 


dire          re  -  venge,   loud    up  -  roar,  rage  in  - 


•±±=+—J—l 


rage 


in     -     fu  •  riate,  dire  re  •  venge,    loud    up  -  roar,  rage, 


m 


ftf-3 


»*=£ 


• — — *^- 


fu 


re i"   ~i 


riate,  dire  re  -  venge,  loud       up  •  roar,  rage  in  • 


^g 


-     fu 


riate,  dire   re  •  venge,  loud       up  •  roar,  rage  in  . 


m 


3=        r4  \    rf. 


^m  +   !*=. 


I 


•T  I?          i  J  I    _i        r~  •         -J-4— — 

~   i  -of        p-J  .        -m   i    «*          i        -     ffl    \      "^ 


dire 


re  -  venge,   dire          re  -  venge,  dire          re  •  venge.     &c. 


fu     •     riate,      dire  re  -  venge,    dire          re  -  venge,   dire          re  •  venge.     &c. 


-p-r^t 


dire 


re  -  venge,    dire          re  -  venge,    dire          re  -  venge.     &c. 


f  u-riate,  dire  re  -  venge,    dire          re     -     venge 


Ac. 


=3fe£ 


m 


fu-riate,  dire  re     -     venge, 


dire  le  -  venge.     Ac. 


3  .  .1 


r- 


^a 


310  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

The  best  glees  deal  with  poetry  in  a  sympathetic,  often 
very  human  and  manly  way.  The  composers  are  generally 
mindful  of  their  poets,  and  their  music  keeps  closely  in  touch 
with  the  language.  No  doubt,  in  the  case  of  many  a  favourite 
glee — e.g.  Stevens'  The  cloud-capped  towers  or  Ye  spotted 
snakes  with  double  tongue — the  words  far  outshine  the  musical 
expression ;  yet  it  must  be  conceded  that  correct  declamation, 
as  here  represented,  is  a  feature  worth  having  and  accentuating, 
inasmuch  as  it  makes  for  conciseness  and  sincerity  in  musical 
diction,  and  leads  to  effects  which  chime  with  the  modern 
feeling  for  elasticity  in  point  of  Tempo.  Too  frequently  in  this 
curious  by-way  of  vocal  art — an  ill-tilled  wheat-field,  where 
tares  predominate — the  musical  expression  is  cheap,  dull, 
narrowly  provincial,  yet  it  is  sometimes  novel,  ingenious, 
beautifully  contrived  for  the  voices  and  delightful  to  sing. 
The  admixtures  of  the  so-called  alto  voice,  i.e.  a  bass  or 
baritone  in  falsetto,  brings  about  variety,  and  if  the  singing 
is  well  done  there  is  sure  to  be  beauty  of  tone-colour  in  the 
ensemble.  And  though  the  total  effect  may  be  a  trifle  sensuous, 
it  need  not  be  sickly.  Incidentally  too,  the  use  of  the  alto 
voice — which,  as  an  artificial  product,  is  useless  unless  it  is 
well  trained  and  well  managed — makes  for  artistic  vocal  style 1. 

Among  the  followers  of  Mendelssohn,  Niels  Gade  and 
Sterndale  Bennett  were  the  most  conspicuous.  Gade  (1817-90), 
Mendelssohn's  successor  in  the  conductorship  at  Leipzig,  subse- 
quently held  a  leading  position  in  Copenhagen  akin  to  that 
of  Sterndale  Bennett  (1816-75)  in  London.  Both  men  were 
friends  and  disciples  of  Mendelssohn,  and  in  some  sense, 
particularly  in  their  later  days,  disciples  of  Schumann  as 
well,  yet  their  style,  far  from  appearing  as  a  mere  reflex 
of  the  greater  masters,  exhibits  a  distinct  physiognomy  of 
its  own.  Gade,  who  was  more  of  an  expert  in  instrumental 

1  In  the  matter  of  vocal  ensemble,  just  intonation,  and  correct  phrasing,  lovers  of 
English  music  have  always  had  a  good  example  in  the  performances  of  the  trained 
vocalists  belonging  to  the  cathedral  choirs. 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      311 

colour  than  a  master  of  design,  in  such  pieces  as  his  overtures, 
Reminiscences  of  Ossian  (1841),  and  In  the  Highlands,  shows 
a  fine  vein  of  imagination,  recalling  the  spirit  of  Scandinavian 
folk-song  and  Northern  scenery.  His  themes,  though  rarely 
passionate,  are  spontaneous,  and  never  without  some  special 
grace  of  colour  or  sentiment,  or  a  tinge  of  Norse  melancholy. 
The  fascination  usually  lies  in  the  prevailing  sense  of  beauty 
and  poetical  suggestion  conveyed  by  the  entire  piece,  rather 
than  in  any  prominent  feature  of  tune  or  harmony  or  rhythm, 
and  the  details  are  always  apt  to  the  particular  instrument 
concerned.  His  cantatas,  Comala  and  Erlkonigs  Tochter,  met 
with  well-merited  success.  He  published  eight  symphonies, 
two  violin  concertos,  Novelletten  for  orchestra,  and  a  mass 
of  chamber  music,  amongst  which  an  octet  for  strings  and 
a  sonata  in  D  minor  for  piano  and  pianoforte  are  the  most 
conspicuous. 

With  less  pathos  than  the  best  effusions  of  Gade,  Sterndale 
Bennett's  dainty  pieces  leave  a  less  definite  impression.  Yet 
Bennett  (1816-75)  accomplished  the  work  of  a  high,  though 
but  a  secondary  master.  His  style  was  distinguished  by  fluency, 
as  well  as  fineness  and  delicacy  of  fancy.  There  is  grace  and 
natural  beauty  in  much  of  his  work.  His  attitude  towards 
Schumann's  musical  poems  with  suggestive  titles  was  at  first 
one  of  hesitating  assent.  Later  in  life  he  made  some  com- 
promise with  programme  music — as  in  his  last  publication, 
the  sonata  called  The  Maid  of  Orleans,  Op.  46  (the  themes 
of  which  are  labelled  as  they  occur,  like  the  themes  in  Lizst's 
Ideale],  and  the  '  Phantasie-Overture '  to  Moore's  Paradise 
and  the  Peri,  Op.  42.  His  cantata  The  May  Queen  (1858), 
which  suffers  from  a  weak  libretto,  and  his  oratorio  The 
Woman  of  Samaria  (1867),  fell  flat,  as  did  the  Symphony  in 
G  minor,  Op.  43,  produced  three  years  earlier — the  only  one 
of  his  symphonies  that  was  published.  His  best  overtures  are 
Parisina  (1835),  Op.  31,  The  Naiads,  Op.  15,  and  The  Wood 
Nymph  ( \  836),  Op.  20.  The  passage  work  of  Bennett's  piano- 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

forte  pieces,  like  that  of  Mendelssohn's,  is  derived  to  a  large 
extent  from  the  methods  of  the  older  harpsichord  players,  and 
from  Clementi ;  but  his  treatment  of  the  instrument  is  neither 
vigorous  nor  various.  The  Toccata  in  C  minor,  the  exquisite 
sketches  entitled  The  Lake,  The  Millstream,  The  Fountain,  the 
Barcarolle  belonging  to  the  Concerto  in  F  minor,  and  the  Rondo 
piacevole  are  good  examples  of  his  individuality  and  style1. 
His  Chamber  Trio  for  pianoforte,  violin,  and  violoncello,  in 
A,  is  really  good  chamber  music  of  a  delicately  reticent  sort. 

George  Onslow  (1784-1852),  a  composer  of  English  origin, 
though  born  and  chiefly  resident  in  France,  gained  an  ephemeral 
reputation  with  a  comic  opera,  Le  Colporteur,  and  enjoyed  a 
wide  popularity  in  amateur  circles,  both  in  France  and  in 
England,  chiefly  by  reason  of  his  string  quintets  with  double 
bass,  which  have  no  inconsiderable  merit. 

Like  Liszt,  Anton  Rubinstein  2,  in  some  respects  incompar- 
able as  a  pianist,  was  given  to  rapid  improvisation  as  a  com- 
poser. But,  unlike  Liszt,  he  chose  to  ignore  the  labor  limae — 
with  the  unfortunate  result  that  many  an  ambitious  piece,  fine 
in  impulse,  remained  sketchy,  flimsy,  and  diffused.  He  wrote 
many  operas,  of  which  the  least  unsuccessful  is  The  Demon, 
after  a  Caucasian  legend  versified  by  Lermontov;  { sacred 
operas/  i.e.  oratorios  contrived  with  a  view  to  stage  per- 
formance; symphonies,  concertos,  quintets,  quartets,  trios, 
sonatas,  preludes,  etudes,  smaller  pieces  for  the  pianoforte,  and 
something  like  two  hundred  miscellaneous  songs  for  one  or  two 
voices.  The  larger  works — operas,  both  secular  and  sacred, 
symphonies,  &c. — were  for  the  most  part  stillborn,  though  it 
is  true  that  some  were  received  with  acclamation  when  the 
composer  personally  introduced  them.  But  in  a  few  instances 
has  there  been  a  success  other  than  ephemeral.  The  Symphony 
in  C  entitled  Ocean,  six  movements,  the  Symphonic  dramati- 

1  Felix  Moscheles'  Autobiography :    '  It  sounds  like  Mendelssohn,  it  must  be 
Sterndale  Bennett.' 
8  1830-94. 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS     313 

que  in  D  minor,  the  Pianoforte  concertos  in  G  major  and  D 
minor,  the  Trio  in  B  b,  the  'Cello  sonata  in  D,  are  the  most 
likely  to  survive.  Certain  trifling  improvisations,  little  piano- 
forte pieces,  like  the  Barcarolles  in  G  major  and  F  minor,  and 
especially  a  few  little  songs,  have  a  singularly  oriental  charm. 
The  best  of  the  songs,  Gelb  rollt  mir  zu  Fiissen  der  rauschende 
Kur,  belongs  to  a  set  of  so-called  Persian  Lieder1.  With 
a  minimum  of  elaboration,  and  in  spite  of  two  glaring  faults 
in  declamation,  this  Lied  is  both  novel  and  charming;  and, 
somehow,  with  its  Eastern  melismata,  haunts  the  memory. 
Other  such  Lieder,  though  on  a  lower  level,  are  No.  i  of  the 
Persian  songs,  Nicht  mit  Engeln  im  blauen  Himmelszelt  mein 
Mddchen  vergleich  ich,  and  a  fine  setting  of  one  of  Heine's 
most  original  poems,  Und  der  Slave  sprach  :  Ich  heisse  Mahomet, 
ich  bin  aus  Jemen,  und  mein  Stamm  sind  jene  Asra,  welche 
sterben  wenn  sie  lieben.  As  in  the  poem  there  is  considerable 
originality  in  the  music. 

In  contrast  to  the  diffuseness  of  Rubinstein's  pianoforte 
concertos,  etudes,  &c.,  we  may  note  the  graceful  futility  of 
Stephen  Heller's  pieces  (1815-88).  Heller,  in  spite  of  his 
conspicuous  mannerisms  and  constant  production  for  the 
market,  was  a  conscientious  worker  in  the  field  of  solo  piano- 
forte music  and  free  from  affectation.  His  etudes,  Op.  16, 
47,  46,  45,  his  preludes,  Op.  81,  Promenades  d'un  Solitaire, 
Op.  78,  may  be  taken  to  represent  his  delicate  talent.  His 
pianoforte  technique  is  sufficiently  effective  and  refined,  though 
he  rarely  gets  full  value  out  of  the  instrument. 

Arthur  Sullivan,  apart  from  his  true  domain,  the  operetta, 
comes  into  view  under  other  aspects.  There  was  an  English 
note  already  in  his  early  music  to  Shakespeare's  Tempest  (1863), 
which  ranks  with  his  best  productions ;  also  in  the  duet  from 
The  Merchant  of  Venice,  (  How  sweet  the  moonlight  sleeps 
upon  this  bank,'  which  forms  part  of  the  cantata  Kenilworth, 
1864;  and  particularly  in  the  set  of  six  Shakespearean  songs 

1  Lieder  des  Mirza  Schafiy,  edited  by  Friedrich  Bodenstedt. 


314  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

written  and  published  in  1 865,  one  of  which,  Orpheus  with  his 
lute,  with  its  genuine  tunefulness,  gained  great  popularity  and 
deservedly  retains  it.  There  is  something  English  too,  though 
not  so  pronounced,  in  the  effect  of  the  overtures  In  Memoriam 
(1868),  Di  Ballo,  Macbeth  (1888),  and,  we  may  even  add,  in 
the  so-called  Irish  Symphony  (1866).  Of  Sullivan's  quasi- 
oratorioSj  The  Martyr  of  Antioch,  a  sacred  music  drama,  has 
actually  been  performed  on  the  stage.  Other  oratorios,  The 
Light  of  the  World  (1873),  Mendelssohnian  in  style  and 
arrangement,  and  The  Prodigal  Son  (1887),  which  shows  a 
little  more  of  his  individuality,  do  not  at  the  present  day  count 
for  much.  But  the  sincerely  expressed  Golden  Legend,  half 
cantata,  half  oratorio,  proves  as  attractive  as  ever.  A  collec- 
tion of  the  best  modern  English  songs  would  as  certainly  ex- 
clude Sullivan's  hypersentimental  The  Lost  Chord,  as  it  would 
include  Hatton's  To  Anthea,  and  Sullivan's  Orpheus  with  his 
Lute. 

As  equivalents  to  certain  simple  songs  by  Rubinstein  and 
Sullivan,  just  mentioned,  we  may  point  to  Luigi  Gordigiani's 
Canti  populari  Toscani,  which,  with  their  artless  charm,  have 
found  their  way  to  the  hearts  of  cultivated  amateurs,  as  have 
Rossini's  Soirees  musicales,  Gounod's  Quand  tu  chantes  bercee 
le  soir,  and  certain  German  sentimentalities  by  Abt,  Kiicken, 
Lassen,  and  other  Capellmeister.  Taubert's  na'ive  Kinderlieder 
deserve  mention. 

Robert  Volkmann  (1815-83),  a  German  who  lived  in  Hungary, 
and  whose  music  contains  many  Hungarian  traits,  merits  con- 
sideration as  the  composer  of  a  good  pianoforte  trio,  B  b.  minor, 
Op.  5  (1852),  and  a  fine  set  of  solo  pianoforte  pieces,  with 
characteristic  titles  after  the  manner  of  Schumann,  called 
Visegrad.  The  trio,  Op.  5,  attracted  the  attention  of  Liszt 
and  was  frequently  performed  by  him  at  Weimar.  It  is  of 
elegiac  import,  a  sort  of  forerunner  to  Tchaikovsky's  trio 
A  la  memoire  d'un  grand  Artiste,  and,  technically,  fully  up 
to  the  mark  of  that  interesting  work.  In  Visegrad  Volkmann 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      315 

appears  as  an  illustrator,  of  power  and  originality  and  on  con- 
sistently musical  lines  of  his  own.  For  the  most  part  his 
pieces  are  like  German  translations  of  the  Hungarian  idiom — 
pomp  and  pride,  a  ponderous  sort  of  grace,  and  some  pathos 
— altogether  well  set  for  the  instrument.  Five  string  quartets, 
two  symphonies,  a  violoncello  concerto,  and  two  serenades 
for  strings,  still  belong  to  the  staple  concert  repertoire  in 
Germany.  Volkmann  also  published  two  Masses  for  male 
voices  and  other  choral  music. 

Schubert's  friend  Franz  Lachner  (1804-90),  who  made  his 
name  with  an  opera,  Catarina  Comoro,  and  a  number  of 
orchestral  suites,  may  be  bracketed  with  Friedrich  Kiel  (1821- 
85),  a  North  German  composer  of  considerable  attainment  who 
is  best  remembered  as  a  master  of  counterpoint.  A  Requiem 
Mass,  Op.  20,  appeared  in  1862,  a  Missa  Solennis  in  1867; 
and  these,  with  the  two  oratorios,  Der  Stern  von  Bethlehem 
(1866)  and  Christus  (1872),  and  a  second  Requiem  (Op.  80), 
produced  shortly  before  his  death,  are  the  most  conspicuous  of 
his  works  for  chorus  and  orchestra.  Good  in  their  way,  there 
is  nothing  of  real  importance  about  them.  Kiel  also  composed 
a  large  amount  of  chamber  music — three  pianoforte  quintets,  two 
pianoforte  quartets,  seven  pianoforte  trios,  four  violin  sonatas, 
a  viola  and  a  violoncello  sonata,  two  string  quartets,  and  a  set 
of  waltzes  for  strings,  of  which  the  same  estimate  may  be  offered. 

Goetz,  as  a  composer  of  instrumental  music,  must  be  included 
on  account  of  an  overture  entitled  Fruhlingsouvertiire,  Op.  15, 
and  a  Symphony  in  F,  Op.  9  (1876),  both  of  which  pieces,  like 
the  late  and  latest  efforts  of  Gade  and  Bennett,  were  at  first  well 
received,  but  failed  to  make  a  definite  mark.  The  one  concerted 
piece  by  Goetz  likely  to  survive  is  his  Nanie,  Op.  10,  a  poem 
by  Schiller  set  for  chorus,  solo  voices,  and  orchestra.  Not  par- 
ticularly strong,  but  emotionally  genuine  and  technically 
finished,  it  forms  a  sort  of  pendant  to  Brahms'  Gesang  der 
Parzen  iiber  dem  Wasser  and  the  Schicksalslied.  Goetz'  church 
music  is  insignificant. 


316  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

About  1 860  there  was  a  ready  sale  for  Theodor  Kirchner's l 
smaller  pianoforte  pieces,  and  for  Jensen's 2  pieces  and  songs — 
with  the  usual  result  that  both  men  continued  to  compose  for 
the  market,  with  increased  facility,  but,  as  time  went  on,  with 
decreasing  freshness.  This  may  not  be  entirely  true  of  Jensen, 
whose  songs  show  progress,  but  it  is  near  the  mark  in  both 
cases. 

It  was  not  until  after  his  death  that  Peter  Cornelius'  verse 
and  music  began  to  attract  attention.  He  wrote  much  and 
published  little.  Each  carefully  considered  publication,  however, 
represents  something  in  the  growth  of  his  talent.  His  three 
operas,  written  to  his  own  librettos,  have  already  been  mentioned. 
It  remains  to  touch  upon  his  remarkable  choral  music  a  capetta, 
and  his  songs  and  duets  with  pianoforte  accompaniment,  which 
are  also  for  the  most  part  attempts  to  set  his  own  verses  to 
music.  The  songs,  some  fifty  in  all,  are  little  more  than  an 
array  of  trifles — occasional  pieces,  akin  to  certain  little  lyrics 
of  Goethe — each  the  expression  of  some  particular  emotional 
experience,  many  among  them  perfect  in  their  delicately 
reticent  way.  Neither  as  a  writer  of  lyrical  verse  or  of  lyrical 
music  does  Cornelius  aspire  very  high.  But  what  he  has  put 
forth  in  each  department  shows  perfect  sincerity,  a  rare  sense  of 
fitness,  and  considerable  technical  attainment.  Everywhere  one 
hears  the  voice  of  a  man  who  is  somebody,  a  man  with  a 
delicate  ear  for  balanced  beauty  of  verbal  and  musical  expression. 
In  a  number  of  instances  the  verbal  expression  appears  richer 
than  the  musical ;  but  this  applies  to  the  solo  songs,  duets,  and 
the  operas  more  than  to  the  choral  pieces,  a  capella,  which 
latter  belong  to  the  best  modern  work  in  that  department. 
Here,  especially  in  the  unaccompanied  choral  pieces,  Cornelius 
combines  contrapuntal  mastery  on  the  traditional  lines  of  canon 
and  fugue,  with  the  chromatic  harmony  of  the  later  romantic 
development,  in  the  manner  of  Berlioz,  Liszt,  and  Wagner. 
The  majority  of  these  secular  anthems  are  therefore  difficult  to 
1  1823-93.  a  1837-79. 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      317 


intone,  but  when  the  choristers  have  mastered  the  strange 
intervals  the  result  is  good,  and  at  times  very  impressive,  as  for 
instance  in  the  setting  of  Abbot  Notker's  (Balbulus)  Sequence 
Media  vita  in  morte  sumus  (Mitten  wir  im  Leben  sind  von 
dem  Tod  umfangen),  which  perfectly  represents  the  Neo-German 
ideal  of  declamation,  or  the  remarkable  setting  of  Uhland's 
Die  Vatergruft  ('The  ancestors'  tomb')  for  solo  baritone  and  four- 
part  chorus  of  mixed  voices,  which  is  the  most  original  piece  of 
vocal  programme  music  in  existence.  Of  Cornelius'  songs,  one 
at  least  deserves  special  mention  —  Ein  Ton,  Op.  3,  No.  3,  a 
curiously  speculative  and  original  piece,  in  which  the  voice 
reiterates  one  note  (B  natural)  whilst  the  elaborated  piano  part 
develops  the  poetic  idea  l.  Among  the  duets  the  most  remark- 
able is  No.  3,  Op.  VI.,  a  strict  canon  for  baritone  and  soprano, 
the  voice  parts  a  crotchet  asunder.  This  is  a  setting  of  the  old 
hymn  attributed  to  Abbot  Wernher  of  Tegernsee,  Ich  bin  dein, 
du  bist  mein,  dess  sollst  du  gewiss  sein. 


Icb  bin  dein, 


du  but  mein, 


solUt 


eaft^-g1 


Ich  bin  dein, 


du  bist  mein, 


dcsa         aollst        du     ge- 


1  Compare  Chopin's  Preludes,  Op.  28,  No.  15,  in  D  b  and  Xo.  6,  in  B  minor; 
Op.  4,  No.  2,  '  Kouim,  wir  wandeln  zusammen  im  Mondenschein,  So  zau- 
berisch  glanzt  jedes  Blatt,  Vielleicht  steht  auf  einem  geschrieben,  Wie  lieb 
mein  Herz  dich  hat ' — the  music  to  these  lines,  in  D  t?  and  in  f  and  f  time,  is  as 
simple  and  direct  as  the  words.  Masterly  too,  are  Die  Hirten,  and  Die  Kdnigin, 
Nos.  2  and  3  of  Weinachtslieder,  Op.  8,  and  Op.  5,  No.  5,  Der  Pelion  sprach  zum 
Ossa. 


3i8 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


du      ge  -  wiss      sein. 


Dich         hab'  ich   ge-sclilos-sen  ein    .    . 


i 


wiss        sein. 


Dich       hab'          ich  ge  -  schlos-gen  ein 


-~ 


.  tief          in  meines  Her-zens   Schrein,         ver  •  lo  -  ren   ist  das 


tief          in  meines    Her-zens  Schrein,          ver  »  lo  -  ren    ist  das  Schlusse  • 


m 


--*- 


SchlUsse-lein, 


nun  musst  du  e     -    wig          drin-nen  sein,      nun 


lein,  nun  musst  du  e       -     wig      drin  •  nen  sein,        nun     musst  du 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      319 


wig,          nun  auf      e 


wig   drin-nen  sein. 


/  P 


•=>• 
-^  >•;«. 


3EEEE£ 


Hans  v.  Bulow  (1830-94)  in  his  younger  days  was  ambitious 
to  excel  as  a  composer.  He  wrote  pianoforte  pieces,  songs  and 
duets,  a  Poeme  symphonique,  Nirwana,  also  an  overture  and 
incidental  music  to  Shakespeare's  Julius  Caesar,  an  Orchestral 
Ballade,  Des  Stingers  Fluch,  after  a  poem  by  Uhland,  £c.  But 
the  vein  of  his  invention  proved  essentially  jejune,  and  in  spite 
of  technical  attainment  and  undeniable  musical  ability  he  failed  to 
make  a  mark  as  a  composer.  The  cleverest  and  least  dry  of  his 
pianoforte  pieces  are  a  set  of  modern  dances,  entitled  //  Carnevale 
di  Milano,  Ballabili  ed  Intermezzi,  dedicated  to  an  Italian  opera 
dancer,  as  Op.  21.  His  editions  of  classical  pianoforte  music, 
particularly  those  of  Beethoven's  later  Sonatas,  beginning  with 


320  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

the  Waldstein  Sonata,  Op.  53,  and  of  certain  pieces  which 
formed  part  of  his  concert  repertoire,  are  very  instructive,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  he  is  prone  to  indulge  his  personal 
whims. 

Joachim  Raff  (1822-82)  was  the  most  curiously  eclectic 
among  the  modern  Germans,  and,  in  so  far  as  technical  mastery 
and  versatility  of  production  are  concerned,  the  most  accomplished. 
His  works  exhibit  traits  belonging  to  a  variety  of  contempora- 
ries, from  Mendelssohn  to  Liszt.  He  composed  operas,  oratorios, 
eleven  symphonies,  many  concertos,  quintets,  quartets,  trios, 
suites,  sonatas,  a  host  of  solo  pianoforte  pieces,  songs,  &c.,  of 
very  unequal  value.  Some  of  them  are  merely  productions  for 
the  market,  whilst  others  show  artistic  aim.  Two  symphonies 
still  evince  signs  of  vitality,  Leonore  (1869),  and  Im  Walde  (1872). 
Both  have  a  full  programme;  thus,  Im  Walde:  (i)  Daytime, 
impressions  and  emotions ;  (2)  Twilight,  dreams,  dance  of 
Dryads ;  (3)  Night-time,  silence  and  darkness,  coming  and  going 
of  the  '  Wild-chase '  with  Odin  and  Venus  ;  (4)  Break  of  day. 
In  Leonore  (after  Burger's  well-known  Ballade)  Raff  tries  to 
depict  the  lovers'  farewell,  the  war,  the  return  of  the  dead  lover 
and  the  spectre's  ride.  But  in  both  cases  an  annoying  discrep- 
ancy between  the  programme  and  the  exigencies  of  musical  logic 
impairs  the  value  of  the  work.  The  composer,  to  satisfy  his 
instinct  for  musical  symmetry,  finds  himself  compelled  to  violate 
the  continuity  and  progress  of  his  story ;  he  falls  between  two 
incompatible  ideals,  and  his  music,  in  spite  of  its  skilful 
instrumentation,  strikes  us  as  essentially  dull  and  artificial. 
Next  to  these  symphonies  may  be  ranked  his  pianoforte  quintet 
in  A  minor,  the  trio  No.  i  in  E  minor,  a  suite  in  E  flat,  Op. 
aoo,  for  pianoforte  with  orchestra,  a  solo  suite  for  pianoforte  in 
E  minor,  Op.  72,  and  a  very  effective  set  of  variations  on 
a  Gigue  belonging  to  the  suite  in  D  minor,  Op.  91,  also  for 
pianoforte. 

In  this  place  mention  may  fitly  perhaps  be  made  of  a  remark- 
able set  of  quasi-amateurs  who  called  themselves  the  ( Five  Neo- 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      321 

Russian  innovators/  a  coterie  held  together  by  friendly  rivalry 
and  patriotic  ambition.  It  consisted  of  four  men  of  uncommon 
talent,  Balakirev  the  leader,  Cui,  Musorgsky,  Rimsky-Korsakov, 
and  a  man  of  genius,  Alexander  Borodine,  who  was  a  son  of 
a  Prince  of  Imeretia  in  the  Caucasus.  Their  cry  was  ( Russian 
music  for  the  Russians.'  Following  the  example  of  Glinka  and 
Dargomijsky,  they  studied  ecclesiastical  melodies,  folk-songs  and 
dances,  investigated  the  various  oriental  elements  which  are 
intermingled  with  Russian  art,  and  strove  for  novelty  in  melody 
and  harmonization,  and  for  piquancy  of  orchestral  effect.  In  the 
Liturgy  of  the  Greek  Church,  together  with  the  semi-oriental 
songs  and  dances  of  the  peasantry,  they  found  a  vast  amount  of 
material  that  strikes  Western  ears  with  a  strange  sense  of  power 
and  spontaneity.  Balakirev  (1836),  a  man  of  keen  intelligence 
and  an  accomplished  musician,  collected  Russian  folk-songs, 
composed  orchestral  pieces  in  the  manner  of  Berlioz  and  Liszt, 
and  pianoforte  pieces  in  a  manner  of  his  own — of  which  the 
oriental  fantasia  Islamey  (variations  on  an  Eastern  tune)  is  the 
most  ingenious.  Rimsky-Korsakov,  born  in  1844,  has  written 
some  twelve  operas,  many  songs,  a  pianoforte  concerto  in  Eb, 
two  Poemes  symphoniques,  Antar  and  Sheherazade,  and 
published  two  valuable  collections  of  folk-songs  taken  down 
from  oral  tradition *.  Cui,  born  in  1835,  a  truculent  critic, 
produced  eight  operas,  over  160  songs,  and  a  large  number  of 
small  pianoforte  pieces — many  of  which  are  but  Schumann  at 
second  hand.  Musorgsky  (1839-81),  the  'most  Russian  of  the 
Russians,'  in  his  vocal  efforts  appears  wilfully  eccentric.  His 
style  impresses  the  Western  ear  as  barbarously  ugly.  Alexander 
Borodine  (1834-87)  composed  two  symphonies  (two  movements 
of  a  posthumous  third  have  been  published),  an  orchestral 
sketch  Eine  Steppenskizze  aus  Mittel-Asien,  two  string  quartets, 
a  Petite  Suite  in  D  minor  for  pianoforte,  twelve  songs,  some  to 

1  Korsakov  is  fond  of  reproducing  the  peculiar  metrical  structure  of  certain 
Russian  folk  tunes,  f,  J  and  the  like,  and  so  gets  surprising  effects  of  rhythm  and 
colour.  He  is  a  master  of  orchestration. 


DASXBEUTHEK 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

his  own  words ;  and  left  unfinished  one  of  the  most  original 
productions  of  modern  times,  Prince  Igor,  an  opera  on  a  Russian 
subject,  which,  after  his  death,  was  completed  by  Rimsky- 
Korsakov  and  Glasounov.  The  picturesque  oriental  elements 
upon  which  Balakirev  laid  so  much  stress,  the  use  of  chromatics, 
augmented  seconds,  and  sequences  of  whole  tones,  frequent 
changes  of  rhythm  and  surprising  modulations,  abound  in 
Borodine's  works.  His  instrumental  pieces,  almost  throughout, 
are  programme  music  sincerely  felt  and  expressed,  and  without 
a  trace  of  affectation.  The  thematic  material  is  novel,  the 
workmanship  careful,  the  sense  of  variety  and  beauty  in  instru- 
mental colour  striking.  Dans  les  steppes  de  I'Asie  centrale 
forms  a  good  pendant  to  Berlioz/  Marche  des  Pelerins 1.  The 
second  symphony  in  B  minor,  the  two  movements  of  a  third,  the 
Asiatic  sketch  just  mentioned,  the  second  quartet  in  D  major,  and 
the  Petite  Suite,  have  permanent  value.  For  completeness'  sake 
the  name  of  Dargomijsky  (1813-69)  must  be  included.  A 
disciple  of  Glinka,  he  wrote  several  operas — Roussalka  (f  Water 
nymph')  has  been  most  frequently  given — about  100  songs, 
a  number  of  which  are  noteworthy  by  reason  of  a  curious 
alternation  of  passion  with  oriental  languor,  and  a  grotesque 
( Cossack-dance '  (Kosatshok)  for  orchestra,  that  made  the  round 
of  European  concert-rooms,  and  is  indeed  very  clever  and 
characteristic. 

Borodine  is,  however,  the  national  genius  after  Glinka.  So 
far  as  concerns  sheer  novelty  in  the  scenes  depicted  and  originality 
in  the  musical  material  and  treatment,  his  Prince  Igor,  an  opera 
in  four  acts  with  an  overture  and  a  prologue,  published  in  1889, 

1  The  programme  is  as  follows :  '  Dans  le  silence  des  steppes  sablonneuses  de 
I'Asie  centrale  retentit  le  premier  refrain  d'une  chanson  paisible  russe.  On  entend 
aussi  les  sons  me"lancoliques  des  chants  de  1' Orient ;  on  entend  le  pas  des  chevaux  et 
dee  chameaux  qui  s'approchent.  Une  caravane,  escortee  par  des  soldats  russes, 
traverse  1'immense  desert,  continue  son  long  voyage  sans  crainte,  s'abandonnant 
avec  confidence  h,  la  garde  de  la  force  guerriere  russe.  La  caravane  s'avance 
toujours.  Les  chants  des  Russes  et  ceux  des  indigenes  se  confondent  dans  la 
mSme  harmonic,  leurs  refrains  se  font  entendre  longtemps  dans  le  desert  et  finissent 
par  se  perdre  dans  le  lointain.' 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      323 

equals,  perhaps  surpasses,  Bi/et's  Carmen.  It  is  the  strangest 
and  the  strongest  production  of  the  Neo-Russian  school. 
Borodine,  better  than  any  other  composer,  represents  the  poetry 
of  the  manners  and  the  sights  and  the  sounds  of  the  north  and 
south-east.  He  does  not  consciously  strive  to  produce  charac- 
teristic Eastern  music ;  with  him  it  is  true,  spontaneous,  and 
irresistible.  Throughout  his  work  Russian  local  colour  is 
supreme — so  much  so  that  Rubinstein's  and  even  Tchaikovsky's 
oriental  tints  fade  before  its  vivid  rays.  Borodine's  invention 
never  flags — he  is  ever  ready  with  something  new,  strange,  and 
appropriate.  In  Prince  Igor  there  are  popular  Russo-Asiatic 
motives  of  surprising  delicacy  and  charm,  as  for  instance  in  the 
dances,  the  songs,  and  the  choruses  for  female  voices.  Certain 
virile  movements  again,  such  as  the  Introduction  and  the  close 
of  Act  I,  the  Warriors'  dance  at  the  end  of  Act  II,  or  the 
march  at  the  beginning  of  Act  III,  are  pieces  of  barbaric  splen- 
dour, which,  for  all  their  colours,  are  as  compact  and  logical  in 
construction  as  they  are  subtle  and  penetrating  in  style.  Better 
materials  for  a  Russian  opera  could  hardly  have  been  found J, 
yet  Prince  Igor  is  perhaps  more  of  an  epic  pantomime  than  an 
opera  proper.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  scenes,  choruses, 
ensembles,  dances,  songs — for  the  most  part  of  startling  origin- 
ality, so  vivid  indeed  that  once  heard  they  persistently  linger 
in  the  memory.  A  professional  librettist  might  denounce  the 
book  as  inorganic — it  is  not  weak  or  inept,  but  sketchy  rather, 
and  unfinished.  It  has  only  a  semblance  of  a  plot  and  is 
pervaded  by  a  curious  duality  :  two  khans,  two  Vladimirs,  two 
ladies  in  love,  two  fools,  two  outrages  on  the  princely  dignity, 
two  captive  princes,  two  victorious  armies.  It  should  be  added 
that  the  composer's  command  of  musical  form  and  diction,  of  the 
treatment  of  solo  and  choral  voices  and  the  orchestra,  is  that  of 
a  bold,  highly  accomplished  master — one  who  never  rouses  the 
suspicion  that  he  may  have  intended  one  thing  and  by  lucky 

1  Of  course  the  work  must  be  heard  in  Russian ;    for  reading  purposes  the 
French  translation  may  be  called  fairly  good,  the  German  is  clumsy. 

Y  2 


3*4 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


chance  achieved  another 1.  For  delicacy  and  strange  charm  it 
would  be  hard  to  surpass  the  following  twenty-eight  bars  of 
Kontchakovna's  Cavatine  (Prince  Igor,  No.  9) : 


Largo    •  =  48. 


Kontchakovna. 


Choeur  des     - 
jeunes  fillea. 


Soprani  (14-16). 


Alti  (12-14). 


=i— 


4 


Ah  ! 


ces      •      sons      lea  chants, 


fflg^jy-f^s 


m 


-&?• 


ar      -      re    -    tons     noa  jeux. 


Le         jour 


1  And  this  astonishing  man  was  an  army  surgeon  who  for  a  quarter  of  a 
century  acted  as  a  professor  of  chemistry.  His  scientific  publications  aroused  the 
attention  of  his  colleagues. 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      325 


f 


nieurt ! 


Kt     sur 


—a    i 

•  •  -  •  •&• 


£=£: 


de    la  mi  it  sont  le«        voi-lea. 


a  jnaetrr 


^S 


fff    at 


zr*—:- 


N  >        N 
*   J     < 


^o.  tempo 


m 


Oh  1 


des 


cenda      des 


cienx  blcus, 


f>p  con  Fed. 
una.  conia, 


^ 


326 


THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 


Dans 

r 


man-teau 

r 


d'6    -    toi 


les, 


•-=)- 


6     ...       nuit,      6 


r 


bel 


nuit :         Le 


doux 


re      .      ve 


— 1  j — — b[jj_         — — - 

>•  I  — — l —  : 


1 
Le 


doux 


r6     -     ve 


Doux 


!*•  "S 

-**i  -.      i  i  ...  j 

[J.   J.  J23JJ. 


Z=^i|== 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      327 


r9ltT." f- 


clian 


suit,        Bel 


.      tent 


unit,        bel 


merit,       bel 


unit,        bel 


Poro  piu  ani 


suit. 


nuit ! 


nuit ! 

Pocopiu  animato 


&C. 


&c. 


^^5=g 


So  exquisite  a  sample  of  the  exotic  element  in  artistic  music 
has  not  been  seen  since  Chopin's  Mazurka,  Op.  1 7,  No.  4,  and 
the  Trio  of  his  C  minor  Polonaise  *.  The  idiom  is  not  altogether 

1  One  of  the  most  extraordinary  attempts  at  musical  humour  (musicians  take 
their  humour  seriously  at  St.  Petersburg)  is  a  pianoforte  composition  for  four 
hands  entitled,  '  Paraphrases  sur  le  theme  favori  et  oblige",  d&liees  aux  petits 


338  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

new :  indeed  it  has  been  in  some  measure  anticipated  both  by 
Dargomijsky  and  by  Glinka,  but  no  master  has  ever  employed 
it  to  such  admirable  effect. 

The  total  work  of  the  Russian  innovators  is  a  distinct,  though 
very  late  outcome  of  that  development  of  the  historical  and 
critical  sense  which  has  been  already  discussed 1.  On  the  basis 
of  the  Russian  language,  coloured  by  ecclesiastical  chants,  most 
of  which  are  modal,  by  peasants'  songs  and  dances,  by  funeral 
laments  and  festive  tunes,  together  with  the  quaint  wail  of 
Hebrew  and  other  Semitic  melismata,  something  has  of  late 
years  been  achieved  in  Russia  that  exhales  'le  rude  et  viril 
parfum  de  la  terre  slave  V  and  offers  one  of  the  most  important 
contributions  to  the  history  of  romantic  music.  The  composers, 
like  their  precursors  and  masters,  Schumann,  Berlioz,  Liszt, 
looked  at  music  through  the  lenses  of  literature.  Hence  their 
pronounced  tendencies  in  favour  of  a  programme,  whether  it  be 
avowed  or  not.  Hence  also  their  leaning  towards  the  further 
or  nearer  East — which,  apart  from  oriental  barbarisms  deliber- 
ately chosen  for  barbaric  ends,  as  in  Musorgsky,  has  hitherto 
made  for  good.  Kept  within  proper  artistic  bounds,  the  Russian 
movement  now  in  full  course  may  ultimately  lead  to  illustrative 
instrumental  music  of  the  highest  beauty  arid  value.  There  is  no 
need  that  the  young  Russian  composers  should  hark  back  to 
partially  exhausted  formulas.  The  laws  of  musical  design,  the 
principles  of  good  sense  and  proportion  will  make  themselves 

pianistescapables  d'ex&uter  le  theme  avec  un  doigt  de  chaque  main  ! '  The  theme 
is  that  known  in  England  as  the  '  Chopsticks  Waltz,'  and  is  played  continuously 
by  one  of  the  two  performers,  while  the  other  accompanies  it  with  galops,  mazurkas, 
requiems,  fugues  on  the  name  of  Bach,  and  similar  incongruities.  Started  by 
Borodine  this  curious  jeu  d'esprit  was  a  joint  production  by  himself,  Cui,  Liadow, 
Rimsky-Korsakow — and,  later  on,  by  Liszt  and  N.  Stcherbacheff  (who  well 
replaces  Musorgsky).  Some  of  these  very  speculative  variations  rival  those  of 
Schumann's  Carneval  in  point  of  beauty,  and  for  variety  and  subtlety  of  invention 
may  be  said  here  and  there  to  surpass  them.  A  similar  piece  of  still  more  serious 
fooling  is  the  Quatuor  sur  le  nom  de  B-la-f  (Belaieff — the  generous  publisher's 
name),  but  this  concoction,  though  enormously  clever,  is  really  too  serious. 

1  See  ch.  i.  pp.  3-5. 

3  Alfred  Bruneau,  Musiques  de  Russie  et  Musiciens  de  France,  1903. 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      329 

felt,  whatever  be  the  material  to  which  they  are  applied.  With 
Tchaikovsky  (1840-93)  Russian  music  became  cosmopolitan. 
His  pianoforte  concerto  The  Russian,  in  B  i?  minor,  has  already 
been  mentioned.  The  second  and  third  concertos  in  G  and  E  b, 
and  the  Fantaisie  de  Concert  in  G,  Op.  56,  fell  far  below  that 
high  mark.  Among  his  six  symphonies,  the  fifth  and  sixth  are 
the  most  important,  and  the  latter  of  them  (known  as  the 
Pathetique}  is  the  most  famous.  Next  to  these  symphonies,  or 
rather  beside  them,  we  may  place  the  Poemes  symphoniques, 
Romeo  et  Juliette  and  Francesco  da  Rimini.  The  plan  of 
the  latter  pieces,  it  has  been  said  by  Mr.  Ernest  Newman, 
*  fulfils  very  happily  one  of  the  main  requirements  of  good 
programme  music — that  the  various  points  shall  not  be  not  only 
dramatic  but  musical,  lending  themselves  naturally  to  musical 
treatment  at  the  same  time  that  they  speak  connectedly  to 
the  intellectual  ear '. 

Among  Tchaikovsky's  achievements  may  further  be  included 
an  overture  entitled  1812,  another  overture,  Hamlet,  the  Poeme 
symphonique,  Manfred,  a  symphonic  Ballade,  Der  Wojewode 
(after  Mickiewicz),  three  string  quartets,  and  a  pianoforte  trio,  A  la 
memoire  d'un  grand  artiste  (Nicholas  Rubinstein).  His  lesser 
works  of  unequal  merit — suites  for  stringed  instruments,  numer- 
ous small  pianoforte  pieces,  117  songs,  many  set  to  inferior 
verse  J — have  all,  more  or  less,  a  fascination  of  their  own.  It 
seems  to  be  the  rule  with  the  Slavs,  *  that  the  power  of  creating 
intrinsic  interest  is  considerable,  but  that  the  faculties  which  are 
needed  for  concentration  and  systematic  mastery  of  balance  of 
design  are  proportionately  weak  %  and  this  applies  to  Tchai- 
kovsky in  almost  the  same  degree  as  to  all  the  rest.  His  operas, 
Eugene  Onegin  and  La  Dame  de  Pique  excepted,  met  with 
little  success  outside  Russia — they  contain  much  graceful  and 
at  times  interesting  and  original  music — but  the  composer 
approached  the  theatre  as  a  novice,  and  his  stage  instincts,  if 

1  And  generally  sung  to  perfunctory  German  translations. 

2  C.  Hubert  H.  Parry,  Summon/  of  Musical  History,  p.  89. 


330  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

he  ever  had  any  worth  cultivating,  remained  in  an  undeveloped 
condition. 

Edvard  Grieg,  born  1843,  a  Romantic  of  the  Romantics,  had 
the  good  fortune  to  light  upon  topics  of  a  fresh  and  fascinating 
nature,  in  the  folk-songs  and  dances  of  his  native  Norway ;  and 
he  had  the  instinct  to  treat  them  adequately,  without  disguis- 
ing or  unduly  accentuating  their  characteristic  features.  His 
Norwegische  Volksweisen,  Op.  17  and  66,  contain  all  the  germs 
of  his  music :  the  tunes,  plaintive  or  crude,  as  the  people  sing  and 
play  them — the  drone  bass  (which  is  implied),  the  chromatic 
inner  parts,  which  he  supplies,  the  use  of  some  quaint  fragment 
of  the  tune  by  way  of  introduction  or  coda,  the  studied  com- 
pactness and  concentration,  the  sudden  and  unexpected  contrasts. 
That  he  should  have  been  able  at  all  to  weld  these  tiny  phrases, 
and  fuse  them  so  as  to  serve  for  the  thematic  material  of  pieces  in 
large  form,  such  as  his  pianoforte  concerto,  already  mentioned, 
his  string  quartet,  and  the  sonatas  for  violin  and  for  violoncello, 
speaks  highly  for  his  genius.  We  owe  to  Grieg  a  number  of 
the  most  beautiful  of  modern  songs,  and  a  host  of  charming 
lyrical  pieces  for  pianoforte  solo.  Mention  must  also  be  made 
of  Max  Bruch,  born  in  1838,  a  master  of  choral  as  well  as 
instrumental  effect,  and  the  writer  of  some  very  effective  violin 
concertos — and  of  Felix  Draeseke,  born  in  1 835,  an  accomplished 
theorist  and  critic,  and  a  gifted  composer  whose  music  is  full  of 
original  and  romantic  ideas. 

Before  we  pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  organ  music,  mention 
must  be  made  of  the  little-known  pianoforte  pieces,  chiefly 
Etudes,  by  C.  V.  Alkan,  who  died  in  1880,  and  of  the  clever 
transcriptions  of  certain  movements  from  Beethoven's  string 
quartets  (in  the  manner  of  Liszt's  partitions  de  piano)  by 
Tausig  and  Saint-Saens.  Alkan's  fitudes — the  work  of  a  specu- 
lative and  eccentric  rather  than  an  essentially  musical  talent — 
are  technically  magnificent  in  so  far  as  the  treatment  of  the 
instrument  is  concerned ;  the  inventiveness  in  virtuosity  is  very 
considerable,  though  musically,  that  is  to  say,  meledically  and 


VARIOUS  WORKS  BY  OTHER  MASTERS      331 

harmonically  considered,  they  are  somewhat  barren.  Alkan's 
most  important  Opus  is  marked  39.  It  is  made  up  of  twelve 
impressionist  Etudes  of  inordinate  length :  I,  is  entitled,  '  Comme 
le  vent/  II,  'En  rhythme  molossique,'  III,  (  Scherzo  diabolico  ' ; 
Nos.  IV  to  VII  are  meant  for  a  symphony ;  Nos.  VIII  to  X  for 
a  concerto ;  No.  XI  for  an  overture.  The  twelfth  Etude,  called 
Le  Festin  d'Esope,  in  E  minor,  is  a  veritable  tour  de  force — it 
consists  of  a  set  of  curiously  characteristic  variations  on  a 
theme  of  eight  bars  akin  to  that  of  No.  6  of  Liszt's  f  Paganini 
Caprices '  in  A  minor,  and  of  Brahms'  '  Paganini  Variations ' 
in  the  same  key — remarkable  for  an  almost  farcical  humour  and 
for  ingenuity  of  contrapuntal  device.  If  well  played  the  total 
effect  of  this  grotesque  piece  is  astonishing  from  the  virtuoso's 
point  of  view — and  almost,  if  not  entirely,  satisfactory  from  the 
musician's.  There  is  no  actual  indication  of  a  plot,  but  the 
comical  effects  tell  their  own  tale.  Other  numbers  worth 
attention  are  Le  Chemin  de  fer,  Op.  27,  Trois  Etudes  pour 
les  deux  mains  separees  et  reunies,  Op.  76,  and  twelve  Etudes, 

Op-351- 

The  organ  music  of  the  nineteenth  century  owed  much  of  its 
impetus  to  Mendelssohn,  who  infused  new  life  into  the  forms  of 
prelude  and  fugue.  His  so-called  organ  sonatas  do  not  essen- 
tially belong  to  the  sonata  order,  having  little  about  them  of  its 
typical  character  or  its  principles  of  design ;  still  they  rank  among 
his  best  works  and  occupy  an  important  place  in  the  literature 
of  the  organ.  Schumann's  six  fugues  on  the  name  B-A-C-H 
have  already  been  mentioned ;  Liszt's  ambitious  fantasia  on 
Ad  nos,  ad  salutarem  undam,  published  in  connexion  with  the 
1  Illustrations '  to  Meyerbeer's  Le  Prophete,  and  his  B-A-C-H 
Fugue  must  also  be  mentioned.  Finally  there  remains  a  mass 
of  organ  music  by  Joseph  Rheinberger — which  consists  of  two 
concertos  with  orchestra,  twenty-two  trios,  twelve  '  Meditations,' 
twenty  solo  sonatas,  &c.  Rheinberger's  operas  and  his  numerous 

1  Huit  prieres  pour  orgw  ou  piano  a  darter  de  pedales,  Op.  64,  have  been 
admirably  transcribed  for  pianoforte  solo  by  Jost?  Vianna  da  Motta. 


332  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

symphonic  and  choral  works  have  almost  entirely  disappeared. 
An  early  work,  a  deft  and  fresh  pianoforte  quartet  in  E  \),  Op. 
38,  had  some  vogue,  and  is  still  welcomed  in  amateur  circles. 

Few  of  the  elder  Wesley's  works  for  the  organ  are  in  print. 
The  best  of  those  contained  in  Vincent  Novello's  collection  of 
Select  Organ  Pieces  consist  of  a  f  Slow  Air  in  D/  f  ,  a  Fugue 
in  D,  the  transcription  of  a  choral  fugue  for  four  voices, 
Sicut  eratf  in  C,  a  Voluntary  and  Fugue  in  B  b,  and  a  Fugue 
in  C  minor  on  a  partially  chromatic  subject.  Of  these,  the  last 
two,  especially  the  Fugue  in  C  minor,  show  considerable  skill  and 
originality. 

Of  Sebastian  Wesley's  works  for  the  organ,  fourteen  numbers 
have  been  edited  by  his  pupil,  the  late  Dr.  Garrett,  '  for  modern 
Pedal  organ/  They  consist  of  single  pieces — elegiac  cantabile 
voluntaries,  andante,  or  grave  and  andante,  and  produce  their 
impression  by  persistence  of  mood  and  without  any  particular  con- 
trapuntal subtlety,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  Spohr,  though 
generally  freer  in  treatment,  broader  in  melody,  and  less  cloying 
in  harmonization.  There  are  a  few  instances  of  incongruous 
pianoforte  technique,  as  for  instance  the  Andante  in  F  (No.  5), 
and  the  fourth  and  fifth  variations  on  the  National  Anthem 
(No.  10) ;  but  apart  from  these  the  workmanship  is  sound  and 
musicianly,  with  bold  sweeping  melodic  outlines  and  a  strong 
and  characteristic  handling  of  the  bass.  Among  the  finest 
numbers  may  be  cited  the  opening  Andante  in  C  (No.  i),  the 
Introduction  and  Fugue  in  C  $  minor  (No.  9),  and  the  masterly 
settings  of  Psalm-tunes  (Nos.  1 1  to  14)  which  close  the  volume. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE   ROMANTIC   OPERAS   OF   WAGNER   AND   THE 
INCIPIENCY   OF  THE   MUSIC-DRAMA 

So  far  as  the  musical  stage  is  concerned  Wagner :  sums  up 
and  completes  the  ideas  and  aspirations  of  Romanticism.  He 
expresses  them  in  Tannhauser  and  Lohengrin,  transcends  them 
in  Tristan,  departs  from  them  in  Der  Ring  and  Die  Meister singer, 
and  returns  to  them  in  Parsifal.  The  gradual  transformation 
of  the  opera  seria,  semi-seria,  or  buffa  into  the  current  modern 
equivalents,  the  development  of  German  ( Singspiel '  into  '  Ro- 
mantische  Oper '  and  finally  into  the  music-drama,  both  alike 
mark  a  change  in  the  relative  position  of  the  two  operatic 
factors  to  which  nothing  in  artistic  history  supplies  an  exact 
parallel.  By  degrees  the  play  asserts  its  full  rights,  operatic 
conventions  recede,  and  the  music  becomes  pliant ;  until  at  last 
dramatic  illusion  is  attained  by  means  of  a  compromise  between 
the  imitative  arts  on  the  one  hand  and  music  on  the  other. 

Dramatic  poet  by  instinct,  by  training  supreme  master  of 
musical  effect,  Wagner  was  gradually  led  towards  a  new  manner 
of  blending  music  with  the  drama.  Eight  early  operas  or 
musical  plays  conceived  between  1833  and  1848  saw  the  light 
in  pairs,  with  an  interval  of  about  five  years  between  each  group 
of  two — Die  Feen  and  Das  Liebesverbot,  Rienzi  and  the  Flying 
Dutchman,  Tannhauser  and  Lohengrin.  Siegfrieds  Tod  and 
Friedrich  Rothbart  did  not  go  beyond  the  stage  of  elaborated 
sketches  for  a  musical  drama  (Siegfried),  and  a  spoken  tragedy 

1  Richard  Wagner  was   born   in  1813 — thirteen   years   before  Weber's  death 
and  fourteen  years  before  the  death  of  Beethoven.     He  died  in  1883. 


334  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

(Rothbart).  In  1848-9  Wagner  carried  a  number  of  dramatic 
sketches  with  him,  sketches  for  the  tragedy  Rothbart,  for  Die 
Franzosen  vor  Nizza  and  Wieland  der  Schmied,  the  operas, 
Jesus  von  Nazareth,  the  music-drama,  as  well  as  for  other  less- 
matured  dramatic  ideas,  such  as  Achilleus.  The  development 
of  his  dramatic  and  musical  capabilities  took  place  with  logical 
consistency,  even  when  the  process  was  quite  instinctive,  from 
one  positive  experience  to  another.  There  is  nothing  like  this 
in  the  history  of  any  musician,  and  it  can  be  explained  only  by 
the  extraordinary  energy  of  Wagner's  character,  which  kept  him 
isolated  from  the  world  and  wholly  surrounded  by  the  atmosphere 
of  his  own  deeds  and  aspirations. 

In  the  libretto  to  the  Hollander  Wagner  begins  to  pay 
attention  to  poetic  qualities  regardless  of  operatic  considerations. 
He  had  begun,  he  tells  us,  by  trying  to  acquire  the  faculty  of 
musical  expression  in  the  way  in  which  one  learns  a  language. 
A  man  speaking  in  a  foreign  tongue  over  which  he  has  not  yet 
acquired  complete  control  must  consider  its  peculiarities  in  every 
sentence  that  he  utters ;  if  he  wishes  to  be  understood  he  must 
always  be  thinking  of  the  expression,  and  this  will  influence  him 
in  the  choice  of  what  he  shall  say.  Wagner,  however,  was  an 
apt  pupil,  and  could  soon  declare :  f  By  this  time  I  had  finished 
learning  the  language  of  music.  I  am  now  able  to  use  it  like 
my  own  mother  tongue/ 

Again,  Wagner  maintains  that  legendary  subjects  are  to  be 
preferred  to  historical  ones,  inasmuch  as  the  substance  of  a 
legendary  story  is  so  readily  intelligible  that  there  remains  plenty 
of  space  for  the  full  expression  of  the  inner  motives  of  the 
action.  For  instance,  the  story  of  Der  fliegende  Hollander  is 
set  forth  in  the  simplest  way  possible — details  resembling  the 
intrigue  of  every-day  life  are  excluded,  whilst  stress  is  laid 
on  those  aspects  which  serve  to  accentuate  the  expression  of 
emotion.  In  Tannhduser  the  action  springs  mainly  from  the 
inner  motives  of  the  characters,  and  even  the  final  catastrophe 
is  essentially  lyrical.  In  Lohengrin  the  interest  is  concentrated 


THE  ROMANTIC  OPERAS  OF  WAGNER      335 

on  a  psychological  process  in  the  heart  of  Elsa.  Thus  the  lyric 
spirit  pervades  the  whole,  and  the  total  effect  depends  upon  close 
connexion  of  the  play  with  the  music — each  factor  being  modi- 
fied in  turn  by  the  other. 

Questions  of  aim  and  method  arise  here.  If  in  an  opera  close 
and  direct  expression  is  desired,  the  use  of  formal  musical  design 
seems  to  stand  in  the  way,  for  during  the  process  of  musical 
exposition  the  action  is  apt  to  be  retarded,  whereas  it  would 
seem  to  be  a  necessity  that  the  music  moves  simultaneously  with 
the  action  ;  and  the  difficulty  from  beginning  to  end  consists  in 
the  proper  adjustment  of  speed,  the  give  and  take  between  the 
motions  of  each  collaborator.  Every  true  melodic  subject  has 
its  inner  law  of  growth  and  expansion,  and  this  musicians  are 
loth  to  infringe  for  the  sake  of  histrionic  effect;  on  the  other 
hand,  operatic  music  must  be  true  to  the  situation.  It  is,  there-  ! 
fore,  the  principal  convention  in  the  Wagnerian  drama  that  J 
musical  sounds  may  be  accepted  as  symbolical.  Music  for  the 
theatre  must  be  regarded  from  a  standpoint  other  than  that  of 
chamber  or  concert  music  ;  for  as  soon  as  dramatic  presentation 
and  stage  effect  are  elements  in  the  artistic  whole,  the  appeal  is 
not  exclusively  to  the  auditor's  sense  of  musical  balance  and 
proportion,  but  it  is  also  addressed  to  other  forms  of  consciousness. 
It  follows  that  the  standard  of  absolute  self-contained  formal 
music  cannot  be  fairly  applied.  Dramatic  music  is  meant  to 
arouse,  stimulate,  or  exhaust  emotion — it  does  not  aim  at  delight 
in  purely  musical  expression  in  just  balance  of  statement  and 
restatement.  And  because  it  illustrates  or  emphasizes,  or  fully 
expresses  something  more  or  less  extraneous,  it  ought  to  be 
frankly  accepted  and  judged  as  a  kind  of  rhetoric. 

To  suppose  that  Wagner  ever  was  guided  by  some  abstract 
theory  would  be  entirely  erroneous.  With  him  theory  and 
practice  advanced  together,  or  rather  his  artistic  instincts  led  the 
way  and  his  theoretical  opinions  acted  as  support  and  rearguard. 
With  his  divine  discontent  and  self-sufficing  strength  he,  the 
great  learner,  was  ever  striving  after  something  fresh  and  new. 


336  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Every  work  marks  a  step  in  the  development  of  his  genius, 
and  the  distance  traversed  from  the  first  romantic  opera,  Die  Feen 
(1833),  to  the  last  music-drama,  Parsifal  (1883),  is  perhaps 
greater  than  the  distance  ever  before  covered  by  any  great 
artist.  Wagner's  individuality  was  first  revealed  in  Eine  Faust- 
Ouvertiire  (1839-40)  (pp.  106-10  ante),  then  in  Der  fliegende  Hol- 
lander (i  841 ),  and  so  onwards.  The  three  operas  of  earlier  date, 
Die  Feen,  Das  Liebesverbot,  and  Rienzi,  do  not  demand  close 
examination,  though  the  third,  Rienzi,  der  letzte  der  Tribunen, 
is  of  vast  dimensions — a  grand  tragic  opera  in  five  acts  in  the 
manner  of  Spontini,  and  with  sundry  traces  of  Meyerbeer.  All 
three  resemble  the  types  of  opera  which  prevailed  in  their  time, 
and  were  it  not  for  their  authorship,  the  first  two,  at  least,  might 
rest  in  oblivion.  Das  Liebesverbot  was  withdrawn  from  the 
stage  after  two  performances :  Die  Feen,  a  weightier  and  more 
important  work,  was  never  heard  until  after  the  master's  death. 
His  first  operatic  victory  was  won  with  Rienzi,  which  contains 
some  noble  passages,  such  as  the  Introduction  to  Act  IV,  and 
particularly  the  Introduction  and  the  Prayer  in  the  fifth  act. 
Its  remarkable  success  at  Dresden  in  1 842  was  fully  justified. 

It  is  curious  to  note  that  these  early  pieces  possess  the  stamp 
of  theatrical  rather  than  of  musical  originality.  The  grip  of  the 
dramatist  is  unmistakable ;  there  is  a  keen  instinct  for  general 
effect,  there  is  frequent  evidence  of  a  practical  acquaintance  with 
the  stage,  but  the  musical  details,  both  in  the  action  and  in  the 
orchestra,  are  often  raw  and  blatant.  One  point,  however, 
stands  forth  conspicuously :  Wagner  always  succeeds  in  his 
fusion  of  dramatic  and  musical  elements,  and  invariably  contrives 
to  get  the  result  that  he  wants.  And  this  gift  remained  with 
him  throughout  his  wonderful  career.  As  he  approaches  maturity 
the  technique  of  the  musician  and  the  power  of  the  dramatist  is 
everywhere  seen  to  expand  with  the  complexity,  the  subtlety,  and 
the  intensity  of  his  aims ;  but  from  the  first  he  approaches  his 
hearers  on  every  side  and  excites  them  with  the  cumulative 
appeal  of  all  arts  in  combination. 


THE  ROMANTIC  OPERAS  OF  WAGNER       337 

The  libretto  of  Die  Feen  is  an  arrangement  of  Gozzi's  La 
donna  serpente.  Das  Liebesverbot  is  based  on  Shakespeare's 
Measure  for  Measure.  Bulwer's  novel,  Rienzi,  the  last  of  the 
Tribunes,  suggested  the  characters  and  the  plot  of  the  third 
opera.  The  poem  of  Der  fliegende  Hollander — it  must  not  be 
called  a  libretto — is  derived  from  Heine's  account1  of  the 
Ahasuerus  of  the  ocean.  The  materials  for  Tannhduser  and 
for  Lohengrin  were  collected  from  the  wide  field  of  German 
mediaeval  ballads  and  epic  poems,  and  from  certain  modern 
romantic  stories  by  Tieck  and  Hoffmann  2. 
>  Now  and  then  the  music  of  Die  Feen  is  reminiscent  of  Weber 
and  Marschner,  as  Das  Liebesverbot  contains  echoes  of  Auber 
and  Bellini.  In  Die  Feen  the  composer's  sudden  change  of  aim 
and  of  style  comes  as  a  surprise.  It  is  the  only  one  of  his 
works  planned  in  two  acts,  and  the  only  one  that  is  tainted  with 
what  has  been  called  '  an  open  championship  of  the  rights  of 
the  senses/  In  this  matter  it  is  difficult  to  criticize ;  but  as, 
throughout  the  opera,  the  music  is,  on  the  whole,  the  predomi- 
nating factor,  its  effects  may  be  judged  from  a  musical  point  of 
view ;  and  in  that  respect  they  appear  just  as  little  deserving  of 
censure  as  anything  of  Auber  or  Bellini.  As  is  the  case  in  some 
of  Marschner's  less  important  operas,  a  certain  lack  of  melodic 
distinction  is  noticeable  in  Die  Feen — the  musical  phrases  are 
effective  and  by  no  means  weak  or  commonplace,  yet  they  might 
be  signed  with  a  name  other  than  Wagner's.  The  pianoforte 
score  of  Die  Feen  was  published  in  1888 3;  but' of  Das  Liebes- 


1  Memoiren  des  Serrn  von  Schnabelewopski  in  Heine's  Salon. 

*  Tieck's  rhymed  Erziihlung  '  Tannhauser/  and  Hoffmann's  novel  '  Der  Kampf 
der  Sangcr*  (Serapionsbruder,  ii.  i). 

3  The  following  pieces  will  be  found  fairly  representative : — Act  I.  Ouverture 
and  Ballet,  in  E  major;  a  characteristic  Tenor  Aria  in  C  minor;  Quartet  in  B  b. 
Act  II.  Introduction  and  Chorus  of  Warriors,  D  minor  (powerful  and  very 
effective) ;  a  touching  Aria  in  F  minor;  a  capital  comic  duet  in  C  for  Soprano 
and  Bass ;  a  fine  Scena  and  Aria  for  Soprano  in  D,  and  a  grand  Finale.  Act  III. 
Terzett  in  C,  and  Finale  in  E  minor  and  major,  remarkable  for  its  use  of  the 
trombones.  Extensive  and  good  use  is  made  of  Ritornellos  before  and  after  the 
principal  arias  and  ensembles. 

*•          DASNREUTHER  Z 


338  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

verbot  only  one  complete  number  and  certain  slight  fragments 
have  hitherto  appeared  in  print l. 

The  imposing  spectacular  and  musical  pomp  of  Spontini's 
Olympic  and  of  Meyerbeer's  Huguenots  is  at  least  equalled  in 
Wagner's  Rienzi.  The  subject,  first  attracted  him  by  the  superb 
opportunities  that  it  offers  for  the  display  of  operatic  pageantry 
on  a  grand  scale,  and  by  the  presence  of  certain  lyrical  elements, 
such  as  the  chorus  of  the  Messengers  of  Peace,  the  Battle 
Hymns,  the  Church's  call,  and  the  Excommunication.  When 
Wagner  wrote  Rienzi,  grand  opera  loomed  large  before  him ;  and 
it  was  the  object  of  his  ambition  not  merely  to  produce  a  copy, 
but  to  outvie  the  original  on  its  own  ground  and  in  its  every 
detail.  Yet  already  in  Rienzi  stress  is  far  more  consistently  laid 
on  the  drama  than  in  the  case  of  any  contemporary  grand  opera. 

Derfliegende  Hollander  was  originally  meant  to  be  performed 
in  one  act,  as  a  long  dramatic  Ballade,  and  not  as  a  conglomerate 
of  operatic  pieces.  Reference  to  the  score  will  show  that  the 
division  into  three  acts  is  made  by  means  of  crude  cuts,  and  of 
new  starts  equally  crude2.  The  music  grew  out  of  Senta's 
Ballade  in  the  second  act,  which  Ballade,  as  it  were,  forms  the 
musical  nucleus  and  contains  the  principal  thematic  germs 
(symbolical  Leitmotive)  which  permeate  the  entire  work.  Far 
more  distinctly  than  in  Rienzi  (1839),  we  may  recognize  in  the 
Hollander  (1841)  the  true  incipiency  of  the  music-drama.  In 
the  poem  of  The  Flying  Dutchman  Wagner  treats  the  legendary 
subject  on  its  own  merits,  with  the  total  effect  in  view,  and 
with  little  regard  to  any  operatic  scheme  of  recitative,  aria,  and 
ensemble,  though,  to  a  considerable  extent,  their  forms  and  even 
their  cadenzas  are  still  present.  *  There  are  moments  when  the 
music  rises  to  an  extraordinary  pitch  of  vivid  picturesqueness  and 
expressiveness.  The  whole  of  the  overture  is  as  masterly  a 

1  They  consist  of  a  vivacious  carnival  song  in  D,  f ,  specimen  bars  of  which, 
together  with  two  other  short  quotations,  may  be  seen  in  Mr.  Wm.  Ashton 
Ellis'  English  version  of  Glasenapp's  Life,  vol.  i.  pp.  184-5. 

3  This  has  been  set  to  rights  at  Bayreuth. 


THE  ROMANTIC  OPERAS  OF  WAGNER      339 

musical  expression  of  omens  and  the  wild  hurly-burly  of  the 
elements  as  possible,  and  carries  out  Gluck's  conception  of  an 
overture  completely  ;  Senta's  ballad  is  one  of  the  most  charac- 
teristic things  of  its  kind  in  existence,  and  hits  the  mood  of  the 
situation  in  a  way  that  only  a  man  born  with  high  dramatic 
faculty  could  achieve ;  and  the  duet  between  Senta  and  the 
Hollander  is  as  full  of  life,  and  as  fine  in  respect  of  the  exact 
expression  of  the  moods,  of  the  situation,  and  as  broad  in  melody, 
as  could  well  be  desired  V  The  instrumentation  of  the  entire  score 
was  twice  retouched — in  1846  and  in  1852 — and  the  close  of  the 
overture  completely  rewritten. 

Originally  the  legend  of  Tannhauser  and  the  Hill  of  Venus, 
and  that  of  the  contest  of  the  Minnesingers  at  the  Wartburg, 
were  not  connected.  The  fusing  and  welding  of  these  materials 
is  Wagner's  own.  Tannhauser  has  undergone  more  change 
and  transformation  than  any  other  of  Wagner's  productions. 
We  can  but  touch  upon  a  few  salient  points.  At  the  close  of 
the  third  act,  both  action  and  music  were  altered  (1845-7)  with 
the  intention  of  making  things  clear  to  the  sensuous  perception 
of  the  audience  in  lieu  of  an  appeal  to  their  imagination ;  and 
the  entire  scene  in  the  Venusberg,  Act  I,  was  completely 
transformed  for  performance  at  Paris  in  1861.  Wagner 
immediately  realized  the  difficulty  of  adapting  French  verse  to 
the  prevailing  square  rhythms  of  the  German  music,  and  he 
seems  to  have  felt  no  hesitation  in  making  extensive  changes  to 
triple  time,  both  in  the  scene  in  the  Venusberg  and  the  Ballet 
that  frames  it.  In  the  course  of  revision  both  the  Ballet  and 
the  scene  came  to  be  expanded  to  more  than  double  their 
original  dimensions.  And,  together  with  the  great  expansion, 
there  came  an  equally  great  change  of  style — a  change  so  great 
that  one  cannot  help  deploring  the  interval  of  fully  sixteen  years 
which  intervenes  between  the  old  Tannhauser  and  the  new 
(1845-61).  The  new  music  was  composed  to  French  rhymed 
verse  (by  M.  Nuitter),  and  all  that  remained  of  the  old  was 

1  C.  H.  H.  Parry,  The  Art  of  Music,  p.  350. 
Z  2 


340  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

carefully  revised  so  as  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  French 
accentuation  *. 

The  Lohengrin  legend  tells  of  a  knight  from  oversea,  who 
reached  the  banks  of  the  Scheldt  in  a  skiff  drawn  by  a  swan. 
There  he  fought  for  a  noble  maid  and  was  wedded  to  her,  but 
when  she  asked  whence  he  came  and  desired  to  know  his  name 
he  was  forthwith  obliged  to  depart.  Wagner  takes  up  this 
legend — one  of  the  many  mythical  stories  with  a  religious 
colouring  that  cluster  round  the  traditions  of  the  Holy  Grail — 
at  the  point  of  its  contact  with  History  in  the  first  half  of  the 
tenth  century.  He  develops  the  historical  aspect  side  by  side 
with  the  supernatural,  and  thus  contrives  to  present  an  unrivalled 
picture  of  Teutonic  mediaeval  manners  and  belief.  Lohengrin 
presents  the  ideals  of  the  later  Middle  Ages  so  completely  that, 
for  emotional  essentials,  it  would  seem  idle  to  go  back  to 
documents,  and  we  may  add  that  this  is  the  last  of  his  pieces 
which  Wagner  called  a  Romantische  Oper.  The  copiousness 
of  resource  displayed,  the  power  and  variety  of  dramatic  and 
musical  detail,  are  astounding.  The  whole  work  is  a  single 
organism,  the  soul  of  music  clad  in  a  body  of  dramatic  action. 

It  may  be  stated  here  that  for  complete  comprehension  of 
Wagner's  intentions  in  Hollander,  Tannhduser,  Lohengrin,  and 
especially  in  the  later  music-dramas,  it  ought  always  to  be 
borne  in  mind  that  on  the  stage,  the  power  to  declaim  and  put 
dramatic  meaning  into  the  delivery  is  in  the  forefront,  and  the 
singer's  task  is  little  more  than  that  of  assisting  and  intensifying 
the  expression  of  emotion.  In  other  words,  the  hearer's  atten- 
tion is  meant  to  be  drawn  and  directed  more  to  the  dramatic 
whole  than  to  the  musical  details 2.  If  this  be  understood,  it 

1  The  Parisian  version  is  of  course  adopted  at  Bayreuth  as  '  the  sole  authentic 
one' — in  spite  of  the  fact  that  translation  back  into  German  has  inevitably 
brought  about  certain  discrepancies  between  text  and  music.  On  the  whole, 
however,  the  new  Tannhdustr  is  superb  and  perfectly  convincing.  Wagner  dropped 
the  sub-title  Romantische  Oper  and  called  the  new  version  Handlung,  i.  e.  action. 

a  But  every  singer  ought  to  be  able  to  sing — a  fact  overlooked  by  the  majority 
of  people  who  are  allowed  to  take  part  in  Wagnerian  performances. 


THE  ROMANTIC  OPERAS  OF  WAGNER      341 

will  be  readily  conceded  that  since  the  poetical  subject  is  every- 
where amenable  to  the  governance  of  music,  the  latter,  no 
matter  how  complex,  need  not  be  cast  in  the  mould  of  conven- 
tional operatic  forms,  the  declamation  need  not  spoil  the  vocal 
melody,  and  the  melody,  vocal  or  orchestral,  need  not  interfere 
with  the  progress  of  the  action.  Thus,  without  consciously 
striving  to  deepen  the  musical  expression,  Wagner,  in  accordance 
with  the  peculiar  nature  of  his  subjects  and  of  certain  histrionic 
details  connected  with  their  due  presentation,  did  in  point  of  fact 
develop  a  new  melodic  idiom ;  and  so  step  by  step,  particularly 
with  the  inception  of  the  music-drama,  considerably  enlarged 
the  scope  and  power  of  his  music. 

Lohengrin,  already,  shows  great  concentration  in  the  scenic 
arrangements.  Its  precursor,  Weber's  Euryanthe,  was  laid  out 
in  three  acts,  with  two  changes  of  scene  in  each.  Lohengrin  also 
has  three  acts,  but  each  has  only  one  set  scene — an  immense 
gain  in  the  direction  of  perspicuity  and  sustained  interest.  The 
choruses,  in  their  prodigious  variety,  from  mere  ejaculatory 
utterance  to  the  most  expansive  lyrical  effusion,  are  very  important 
factors  in  the  development  of  the  dramatic  action.  To  take  but 
one  instance,  the  beautiful  chorus  in  eight  parts  which  precedes 
and  accompanies  that  miracle  of  scenic  effect,  Lohengrin's 
arrival  in  the  first  act,  is  perhaps  the  finest  example  extant  of  a 
dramatic  chorus  springing  directly  from  and  entirely  belonging 
to  the  plot.  The  instrumentation  of  Lohengrin  exhibits  the 
highest  instinct  for  beauty  of  tone.  *"  To  any  one  who  hag 
neither  seen  nor  heard  Wagner's  scores,  neither  studied  their 
consummate  workmanship  nor  felt  their  scenic  power,  it  is  not 
so  easy  to  convey  a  notion  of  his  extraordinary  doubling  of  the 
great  symphonist  with  the  great  dramatist.  .  .  .  The  orchestra 
is  divided  into  three  main  constituent  bodies,  with  subsidiary 
groups  of  three.  This  ternary  system  has  the  advantage, 
among  other  things,  that  the  whole  chord  can  be  given  and  held 
in  the  same  scale  of  colour.  .  .  .  Wagner  also  makes  frequent  use 
of  the  distribution  of  the  strings  into  separate  bodies.  In  a 


342  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

word,  instead  of  treating  the  orchestra  as  an  almost  homogeneous 
mass,  he  parts  it  into  tributary  streams  and  brooks ;  at  times 
— to  change  the  metaphor — he  spins  it  out  to  the  finest  parti- 
coloured threads,  and  casts  their  spools  first  here  then  there, 
now  weaving  them  together,  now  dividing,  until  their  wondrous 
ravelling  has  formed  a  tissue  of  priceless  lace  V 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  occasional  touches  of  Weber, 
Marschner,  Auber,  and  Bellini  which  are  apparent  in  Wagner's 
earliest  works.  As  he  comes  nearer  to  maturity  Italian  and 
French  melody  predominates — Rienzi,  and  even  ten  years  later 
the  Finale  to  the  first  act  of  Lohengrin,  recall  Spontini.  In  the 
Hollander  the  melody  leans  either  towards  the  tersely  rhythmical 
folk-song  (e.  g.  the  Ballade,  the  spinning  chorus,  and  the  sailors' 
choruses)  or  the  broad  cantilena  in  which  emotion  is  paramount. 
In  Tannhauser,  and  still  more  in  Lohengrin,  the  melodic  ebb  and 
flow  is  regulated  by  the  action,  which  in  turn  is  enforced  by 
characteristic  harmony  and  instrumentation.  Finally,  in  the 
music-dramas  Tristan  und  Isolde,  Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen,  Die 
Meistersinger,  Parsifal,  the  vocal  melody  often  springs  from 
the  words ;  it  is  frequently  independent  of  the  orchestra,  in 
some  cases,  indeed,  it  is  but  an  intensified  version  of  the  actual 
sounds  of  the  German  language,  and  it  becomes  lyrical  only  when 
the  situation  demands  lyrical  ardour. 

In  the  hands  of  the  dramatist,  music  possesses  an  inestimable 
advantage  in  its  capacity  to  convey  the  mood  of  an  entire 
scene  or  act  at  once  and  in  an  unmistakable  manner.  A  few 
bars  suffice  to  indicate  a  mood,  and,  once  established,  the 
expression  of  such  a  mood  can  be  sustained  for  as  long  a  period 
as  may  be  desirable.  A  series  of  scenes  or  an  entire  act  can 
be  so  laid  out  as  to  be  governed  by  one  or  more  musical  moods, 
each  at  will  developed,  focused,  and  brought  to  a  climax.  The 
greatest  scenic  contrasts  may  thus  be  risked  without  fear  of 
failure — such  as  the  sudden  transformation  in  Tannhauser 
from  the  lurid  light  of  the  Venusberg  to  sunshine  and  open  air, 

1  Liszt,  Tannhauser  et  Lohengrin  a  Weimar,  1850. 


THE  ROMANTIC  OPERAS  OF  WAGNER      343 

the  reappearance  of  Venus  after  Tannhauser's  recital  of  his 
pilgrimage  to  Rome,  the  appearance  of  Elsa  on  the  balcony 
after  the  scene  of  the  conspiracy  in  the  second  act  of  Lohengrin, 
or  the  happy  contrast  between  the  two  sections  of  the  third  act 
of  Die  Meistersinger;  while,  for  similar  examples  of  homogeneous 
development,  we  may  take  any  of  the  three  acts  of  Tristan  und 
Isolde,  the  first  or  third  act  of  Die  Walkiire,  or  the  first  act  of 
Siegfried.  In  all  such  cases  music  makes  for  simplicity  in 
dramatic  construction,  whilst  it  furnishes  the  fullest  and  deepest 
expression.  Witness  the  opening  of  the  second  and  third  act 
of  Tristan,  and  the  third  act  of  Die  Meister singer. 

Every  medal  has  its  reverse.  Wagner,  whose  work  at  the 
dawn  of  the  twentieth  century  is  acclaimed  with  indiscriminate 
admiration  all  the  world  over,  was,  i  a  the  third  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth,  the  best  abused  man  in  Europe.  Violent  and 
rancorous  attacks  upon  him  found  admission  into  the  columns 
of  German,  French,  and  English  journals.  Leading  musical  and 
theatrical  critics  were  bitterly  hostile.  Musicians,  the  veteran 
Spohr  excepted,  stood  aside  in  the  difficult  position  of  Moliere's 
Bridoison :  '  Ne  sachant  pas  trop  que  dire  pour  exprimer  sa 
fa9on  de  penser.'  Playwrights,  actors,  singers,  put  forward 
the  most  inept  professional  comments.  At  best  poets  were 
ready  to  admit  Wagner's  musical  attainments,  composers  had 
no  objection  to  his  dabbling  in  poetry,  whilst  sober-minded 
people  among  the  laity  felt  uneasy  and  held  aloof.  Thus  during 
the  greater  part  of  his  lifetime  Wagner  was  placed  in  an 
anomalous  position;  that  of  an  idealist,  a  passionate  poet, 
confronted  with  the  journalists,  the  miscellaneous  public,  the 
host  of  professionals  connected  with  the  opera  and  the  operetta. 
It  requires  a  long  period  of  cure  to  eradicate  from  the  body 
of  art  the  poison  of  a  bad  tradition.  In  his  own  words,  '  It  was 
like  having  to  walk  against  the  wind  with  sand  and  grit  and 
foul  odours  blowing  in  one's  face/  But  time  has  brought  its 
revenge.  The  present  generation  of  professional  musicians  is 
making  the  most  minute  study  of  Wagner's  scores,  both  from 


344  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

the  dramatic  and  the  musical  point  of  view;  public  perform- 
ances of  his  work  are  still  on  the  increase,  and  are  steadily 
improving  in  quality ;  while  if  we  put  aside  sundry  attempts  to 
find  f  hidden  meaning '  in  the  dramas,  it  may  be  said  that  even 
the  futilities  of  an  overgrown  Wagner  literature1  appear  to 
have  their  use,  inasmuch  as  they  frequently  arouse  and  stimulate 
enthusiasm. 

About  the  time  of  the  composition  of  Lohengrin  Wagner's 
mind  was  agitated  by  the  question  whether  he  ought  to 
continue  as  dramatist  or  musician  or  both.  As  has  already 
been  said,  he  tried  historical  subjects,  Friedrich  Rothbart 
and  Jesus  von  Nazareth — the  latter  a  tentative  effort  in  the 
direction  of  Parsifal,  for  which  a  vast  number  of  notes  were 
taken  and  elaborate  sketches  made 2.  Both  of  these  subjects 
were  conceived  as  spoken  plays.  Ultimately  his  musical 
instincts  gained  the  upper  hand,  and  he  came  to  the  conclusion 
that,  in  his  own  case  at  least,  perfect  emotional  expression  was 
possible  only  when  the  idea  occurs  simultaneously  to  the  poet 
and  the  musician.  Accordingly  he  discarded  Barbarossa  and 
Jesus  von  Nazareth,  and  went  on  with  the  story  of  Siegfried's 
death — which  ultimately  grew  into  Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen. 
So  by  degrees  he  approached  the  music-drama.  Before  it  was 
reached,  however,  an  immense  amount  of  mental  fermentation 
was  at  work — as  may  be  traced  in  the  mass  of  theoretical 
writing  which  he  put  forth  between  1849  and  1852.  His  great 
problem, '  the  problem  of  the  art-work  of  the  future '  as  he 
called  it — somewhat  like  the  social  problem  of  Comte — was  to 
inquire,  first  how  the  scattered  elements  of  modern  existence 
generally,  and  of  modern  art  in  particular,  could  be  united  so  as 
to  form  an  adequate  expression  of  the  whole;  and  secondly, 
what  hope  of  a  reaction  in  favour  of  higher  forms  of  life,  than 
our  present  industrialism,  would  the  creation  and  acceptance  of 

1  '  Lorsque  celui  qui  parle  ne  comprend  pas  et  celui  a  qui  Ton  parle  ne  comprend 
non  plus,  alors  c'est  de  la  mdtaphysique '  (Memoirts  de  Voltaire,  p.  151). 
s  They  have  now  been  published. 


I 

THE  ROMANTIC  OPERAS  OF  WAGNER      345 

such  a  work  of  art  hold  out  ?  His  views  of  artistic  possibilities 
being  thus  ultimately  connected  with  those  of  social  regenera- 
tion— art  reform  with  social  reform — he  might  well  venture  to 
take  a  plunge  edans  I'improvisation  risquee  des  theories 
sublimes/  if  only  to  clear  his  own  mind  of  doubts  and 
cobwebs l. 

There  is  many  an  utterance  in  Wagner's  writings  of  1849- 
53,  which  appears  but  as  a  comment  upon  certain  experiments 
in  the  execution  of  Tannhauser  and  Lohengrin.  His  writings 
at  that  important  period  of  transition  are  little  more  than  a 
forcible  reaction  against  obstacles  in  the  way  of  his  impulse  to 
produce — he  admits 2  some  obscurity,  some  want  of  definiteness 
in  the  use  of  philosophical  categories — he  rightly  calls  it 
confusion.  In  quite  early  days,  and  even  later  up  to  the  end, 
his  writings  represent  the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  the  modern 
man — occasional  lassitude  alternating  with  crudely  vigorous 
effort.  In  consequence  his  utterances  are  at  times  fanatical  in 
tone,  at  times  needlessly  protracted.  If  we  take  his  prose 
works  as  a  whole,  and  appraise  them  with  regard  to  style,  we 
must  admit  that  Nietzsche's  words  are  final.  '  These  products  of 
Wagner's  genius  excite,  produce  unrest ;  there  is  an  irregularity 
of  rhythm  in  them,  which  makes  them,  as  prose,  confusing. 
The  discourse  is  frequently  broken ;  a  sort  of  aversion  on  the  part 
of  the  writer  lies  like  a  shadow  over  them,  as  if  the  artist  were 
ashamed  of  conceptual  demonstration.  What  perhaps  most 
offends  those  who  are  not  quite  at  home  in  them,  is  an  expression 
of  authoritative  dignity,  which  is  quite  peculiar  to  them,  and 
difficult  to  describe.  It  seems  as  if  Wagner  often  felt  he  was 
talking  before  enemies — for  all  those  writings  are  in  a  talking,  not 
a  writing  style,  and  they  will  be  found  to  be  such  when  they  are 
read  aloud — before  enemies  to  whom  he  refuses  familiarity,  and 


1  Letter  to  Uhlig,  May  1853.  '  Nur  insofern  kann  ich  mit  einiger  Befriedigung 
auf  meine  in  den  letzten  Jahren  gespielte  Litteratenrolle  xuriickblicken,  als  ich 
f  iihle,  daes  ich  mir  selbst  dabei  vollkommen  klar  geworden  bin.' 

8  Introduction  to  vols.  iii  and  iv  of  his  collected  writings. 


346  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

for  this  reason  he  shows  himself  reserved  and  supercilious.  But 
not  unfrequently  the  violent  passion  of  his  feelings  breaks  through 
the  assumed  impassibility;  then  the  heavy  artificial  periods, 
loaded  with  qualifying  words,  disappear,  and  sentences  and 
whole  pages  escape  him  which  are  amongst  the  most  beautiful 
that  German  prose  possesses  V 

The  main  object  Wagner  had  in  view  was,  as  he  put  it, '  to 
reconcile  the  claims  of  poetry  and  music  with  the  claims  of  that 
most  contestable,  most  equivocal  institution  of  our  day,  the 
opera.'  Or  in  other  words,  and  broadly  stated,  it  was  his  aim 
to  reform  the  opera  from  Beethoven's  point  of  vantage.  Can 
the  modern  spirit  produce  a  theatre  that  shall  stand  in  relation 
to  modern  culture  as  the  theatre  of  Athens  stood  to  the  culture 
of  Greece  ?  This  is  the  complex  problem  that  he  set  himself 
to  solve.  Whether  he  touches  upon  minor  points  connected 
with  it ;  speaks  of  the  performance  of  a  play  or  an  opera ; 
proposes  measures  of  reform  in  the  organization  of  existing 
theatres ;  discusses  the  growth  of  operatic  music  up  to  Mozart 
and  Weber,  or  of  instrumental  music  up  to  Beethoven ;  treats 
of  the  efforts  of  Schiller  and  Goethe  to  discover  an  ideal  form 
for  their  dramatic  poems  ;  whether  he  sweeps  round  the  problem 
in  wide  circles ;  comparing  modern  social  and  religious  institu- 
tions with  ancient,  and  seeking  free  breathing  space  for  his 
aspirations,  he  arrives  by  either  method  at  the  same  ultimate 
result — his  final  answer  is  in  the  affirmative.  Starting  from 
the  vantage  ground  of  symphonic  music,  he  asserts  that  we  may 
hope  to  rise  to  the  level  of  Greek  tragedy ;  our  theatre  can  be 
made  to  embody  the  modern  ideal  of  life.  From  the  opera  at 
its  best  a  drama  can  be  evolved  that  shall  be  capable  of  express- 
ing the  complex  relations  of  modern  life  and  thought.  In  the 
first  of  his  speculative,  semi-prophetic  books,  Die  Kunst  und  die 
Revolution  (1849),  he  points  to  the  theatre  of  Aeschylus  and 
Sophocles,  searches  for  the  causes  of  its  decline,  and  finds  them 
identical  with  the  causes  that  led  to  the  decline  of  the  ancient 

1  G.  A.  Right's  translation. 


THE  ROMANTIC  OPERAS  OF  WAGNER      347 

state  itself.  An  attempt  is  then  made  to  discover  the 
principles  of  a  new  social  organization  that  might  bring  about  a 
condition  of  things  in  which  proper  relations  between  art  and 
public  life  might  be  expected  to  revive.  These  and  similar  ideas 
are  further  developed  in  Das  Kunstwerk  der  Zukunft,  which 
followed  in  1850 — a  book  which,  despite  its  difficulty,  is  well 
worth  attention.  The  main  argument  is  as  follows:  Poetry, 
imitation,  and  music  were  united  in  the  drama  of  the  Greeks ; 
the  drama  disappeared  with  the  downfall  of  the  Athenian  State; 
the  union  of  the  arts  was  dissolved,  each  had  an  existence  of  its 
own,  and  at  times  sank  to  the  level  of  a  mere  pastime.  Attempts 
made,  during  and  since  the  Renaissance,  to  reunite  the  arts,  have 
been  more  or  less  abortive,  though  most  of  them  have  made 
some  advance  in  technique  or  in  width  of  range.  In  our  day 
each  '  separate  branch  of  art '  has  reached  its  limits  of  growth, 
and  cannot  overstep  its  limits  without  incurring  the  risk  of  be- 
coming incomprehensible,  fantastic,  absurd.  At  this  point  each 
art  demands  to  be  joined  to  a  sister  art — poetry  to  music, 
imitation  to  both ;  each  will  be  ready  to  forgo  its  special 
pretensions  for  the  sake  of  an  *  artistic  whole,'  and  the  musical 
drama  may  become  for  future  generations  what  the  drama  of 
Greece  was  to  the  Greeks. 

Wagner's  next  work,  Oper  und  Drama  (by  far  his  largest 
critical  and  theoretical  treatise),  contains  little  of  this  revolution- 
ary and  philosophical  ferment.  It  is  set  forth  in  three  divisions, 
of  which  the  first  contains  an  historical  criticism  of  the  opera, 
the  second  consists  of  a  survey  of  the  spoken  drama,  and  the 
third  is  an  attempt  to  unite  the  results  obtained  and  so  construct 
a  theory  of  the  musical  drama.  In  the  opera,  Wagner  asserts, 
the  means  of  expression  (music)  have  been  taken  for  the  sole  aim 
and  end,  while  the  true  aim  (the  drama)  has  been  neglected 
for  the  sake  of  particular  musical  forms.  Mythical  subjects 
are  best,  and  Beethoven's  music  indicates  the  ideal  language  in 
which  they  are  to  find  expression. 

These  and  other  assertions  of  Wagner's  tending  in  the  same 
direction  have  already  been  discussed.  One  further  point,  how- 


348  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

ever,  requires  elucidation — his  use  of  alliterative  verse  in  Der 
Rinff,  and  of  a  combination  of  alliteration,  assonance,  and  rhyme 
in  Tristan  and  Parsifal.  Poets  of  the  Middle  Ages,  to  attain 
regularity  of  rhythm,  constructed  their  verses  according  to  some 
semi-melodious  chant  or  fixed  melody ;  the  great  variety  of 
Greek  metres  arose  under  mimetic  influence,  springing  from 
the  pantomimic  action  of  a  dance  combined  with  the  choral 
song.  German  poets  have  imitated,  as  well  as  their  language 
permits,  every  possible  metre,  but  no  one  can  deny  that  the 
complex  rhythms,  upon  which  they  pride  themselves,  exist  far 
more  for  the  eye  than  for  the  ear.  Take  the  most  common  form 
of  verse  in  modern  German  plays — accentual  iambics — is  it  not 
torture  to  hear  the  sense  of  the  language  forced  and  twisted  to 
suit  the  purpose  of  this  metre  ?  Sensible  actors,  when  iambics 
first  came  into  use,  were  afraid  of  sing-song,  and  recited  the 
lines  as  prose 1. 

French  poets,  who  do  not  base  their  rhythms  upon  recurrences 
of  stress,  and  who  measure  their  verse  by  the  number  of  syllables 
that  it  contains,  believe  rhyme  to  be  indispensable.  Now  if  we 
examine  the  relation  of  music  to  verse,  we  find  the  curious  fact 
that  musicians  declaim  iambics,  and  indeed  every  species  of 
verse,  in  every  sort  of  time ;  as  for  the  rhyme  at  the  end  of  a 
line,  music  usually  engulfs  it !  and  the  cases  wherein  the  musical 
rhyme  actually  corresponds  to  the  rhyme  in  the  verse  are  for  the 
most  part  accidental  or  at  any  rate  few  and  far  between.  A 
musician  can  do  more  with  iambics  than  the  actors  did :  he 
must  treat  them  as  prose  and  stretch  or  compress  them  to  fit 
his  melody.  Seeing  that  modern  versification  offers  such  small 
attraction,  Wagner  was  led  to  ask  himself  what  sort  of  rhythmical 
speech  it  might  be  that  would  best  admit  of  musical  diction,  and 
the  answer  was  not  far  to  seek.  When  we  speak  under  the 

1  '  Talma,  in  remarking  to  me  that  a  French  actor  has  difficulties  to  surmount 
which  an  English  has  not,  began  with  pointing  out  the  necessity  he  lies  under  of 
breaking  the  joints  and  claws  of  every  verse,  as  of  pigeons  for  a  pie,  and  of 
pronouncing  it  as  if  it  were  none  at  all ;  thus  undoing  what  the  writer  had  taken 
the  greater  part  of  his  pains  to  accomplish'  (Landor,  Imaginary  Conversations, 
The  AbU  DeliUe  and  Walter  Landor). 


THE  ROMANTIC  OPERAS  OF  WAGNER      349 

pressure  of  some  strong  emotion,  we  drop  conventional  phrase- 
ology ;  we  enforce  accents  with  a  raised  voice ;  our  words  become 
strongly  rhythmical.  In  the  early  days  of  the  Teutonic 
languages,  such  a  manner  of  speech  was  in  use  for  artistic 
purposes ;  it  is  the  alliterative  verse  of  the  Eddas  and  of 
Beowulf.  The  condensed  form  and  the  close  relative  position  of 
the  accented  vowels  in  alliterative  verse  give  to  it  an  emotional 
intensity,  which  renders  it  peculiarly  musical:  while,  in  like 
manner,  assonance  and  rhyme  can  be  contrived  so  as  to  suit  the 
musician's  requirements.  The  verse,  then,  with  Wagner,  is 
conceived  and  executed  in  the  spirit  of  musical  sound,  and  there 
is  neither  place  nor  scope  for  subtleties  of  diction ;  music  can 
supply  all  that  is  needed.  Firm  and  concise,  abounding  in 
strong  accents,  the  alliterative  lines  of  his  verse,  notably  in  Der 
Ring,  seem  to  demand  music;  indeed  musical  emphasis  and 
prolongation  of  sound  render  them  more  readily  intelligible  and 
more  impressive. 

The  entire  music-drama  is  musical  in  spirit  and  in  detail. 
The  mythical  subject,  chosen  because  of  its  essentially  emotional 
nature,  the  division  into  scenes,  and  their  sequence;  verse, 
declamation,  the  orchestra,  preparing,  supporting,  commenting, 
enforcing,  recalling ;  all  these  factors  are  imbued  with  the  spirit 
of  music.  The  pathos  of  dramatic  speech  is  positively  fixed  by 
the  musician's  technique,  and  their  interrelation  is  a  direct  appeal 
through  the  senses  to  the  emotions. 

Artists  connected  with  the  opera — scene  painters  and  stage 
managers,  dancers,  choristers,  actors,  the  members  of  theorchestra 
and  the  Capellmeisters,  have  been  roundly  scolded  by  Wagner 
for  this  or  that  reason,  but  all  owe  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  him. 
He  has  made  their  task  more  difficult,  but  infinitely  more 
interesting.  Even  apart  from  the  stage,  at  every  good  perform- 
ance of  music  on  a  large  scale,  Wagner's  spirit  is  present.  The 
leading  conductors,  whether  they  care  to  acknowledge  the  fact 
or  not,  are  under  his  spell:  and  who  can  name  a  composer 
(Brahms  perhaps  excepted)  who  has  not  to  some  extent  felt  his 
weight  and  in  some  measure  submitted  to  his  influence  ? 


CHAPTER  XV 

MUSICIANS  AS  WRITERS   ON   MUSIC 

IT  remains  to  trace  the  Romantic  masters'  efforts  in  criticism 
and  to  mention  some  of  the  good  work  which  they  have  done 
in  musical  philology,  historical  research,  the  editing  of  classics 
and  the  like.  The  most  significant  feature  in  the  mental 
activity  of  nineteenth-century  musicians  is  the  fact  that  the  spirit 
of  J.  S.  Bach  has  become  a  living  influence.  The  Romantic 
element  in  Bach,  already  pointed  out  in  Chapter  I,  found 
response  in  the  mind  and  heart  of  Schumann,  Mendelssohn, 
Chopin,  Brahms,  and  Wagner.  Bach's  earnestness  and 
consistency  became  the  ideal  of  all  serious-minded  composers, 
and  his  contrapuntal  technique  gave  a  fresh  impulse  to  poly- 
phonic treatment  in  choral  and  orchestral  composition.  The 
study  of  his  works,  with  their  solidity,  their  variety,  and  their 
elasticity  of  form,  acted  as  a  steadying  and  staying  power,  and 
it  may  be  hoped  that  it  will  ultimately  serve  as  an  antidote  to 
the  incoherence  and  laxness  of  structure  which  came  as  the 
attendant  disease  of  programme  music. 

E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann,  a  writer  of  imagination  and  poetical 
insight,  was  the  first  to  recognize  Beethoven's  genius.  His 
reviews  of  Beethoven's  fifth  and  sixth  Symphonies,  of  the  Trios, 
Op.  70,  the  Fantasia,  Op.  80,  together  with  his  so-called 
Phantasiestiicke  Ritter  Gliick  and  Don  Juan,  all  of  which 
belong  to. the  early  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century,  are  still 
worth  reading.  'When  we  speak  of  self-dependent  music,' 
says  Hoffmann  in  an  article  on  Beethoven  *,  *  do  we  not  intend 

1  Kreisleriana,  4. 


MUSICIANS  AS  WRITERS  ON  MUSIC         351 

instrumental  music  exclusively?  Is  not  instrumental  music 
the  most  romantic  of  arts,  the  one  truly  romantic  art  ?  Is 
not  the  infinite  its  sole  object  ?  There  are  secrets  which  only 
sounds  can  reveal,  and  under  whose  weight  words  break  down.' 
His  estimate  of  the  C  minor  symphony  is  broad,  sympathetic, 
and  tersely  expressed :  (  Critics  have  often  complained  of  a  lack 
of  unity  in  Shakespeare,  and  failed  to  realize  that  a  fine  tree, 
with  its  leaves,  blossoms  and  fruit,  may  spring  from  a  single 
seed.  So  they  might  fail  to  comprehend  the  clearness  of  vision, 
the  high  seriousness  and  complete  self-possession  l  which  mark 
the  genius  of  Beethoven  and  stamp  his  art/  Valuable  remarks 
on  music  occur  incidentally  in  Hoffmann's  tales ;  and  it  is  well 
known  that  several  of  the  tales  and  many  a  stray  aphorism 
made  a  strong  impression  on  both  Schumann  and  Wagner. 
For  instance — '  A  fantastic  description  of  a  piece  of  music  is 
admissible  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  understood  to  be  metaphorical/ 
Certain  titles  adopted  by  Schumann  are  borrowed  from  Hoff- 
mann's works :  Nachtstiicke,  Kreisleriana,  Phantasiestiicke ; 
Hoffmann's  Serapionsbriider  and  Schumann's  Davidsbiindler 
are  closely  akin.  Wagner's  indebtedness  to  Hoffmann's  story 
Der  Krieg  der  Sdnger  has  already  been  pointed  out  j  and,  in 
like  manner,  the  influence  of  Hoffmann's  Meister  Martin  der 
Kiifer  is  perceptible  in  Die  Meistersinger  von  Nurnberg. 
Moreover,  Hoffmann's  opinions  on  the  subject  of  Poetry  and 
Opera,  as  set  forth  at  length  in  a  brilliant  article  entitled  '  Der 
Dichter  und  der  Komponist 2,'  are  the  immediate  precursors  of 
Wagner's  article  '  Ueber  das  Operndichten  und  Komponiren.' 
The  very  language  strikes  one  as  Wagnerian :  '  Ja,  in  jenem 
fernen  Reiche,  das  uns  oft  in  seltsamen  Ahnungen  umfangt — da 
sind  Dichter  und  Musiker  die  innigst  verwandten  Glieder  einer 
Kirche :  denn  das  Geheimniss  des  Worts  und  des  Tons  ist  ein 
und  dasselbe,  das  ihnen  die  hochste  Weihe  erschlossen.'  And 
again :  *  Eine  wahrhafte  Oper  scheint  mir  nur  die  zu  sein,  in 

1  '  Die  hohe  Besonnenheit.'  '  Serapionsbruder,  i. 


35*  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

welcher  die  Musik  unmittelbar  aus  der  Dichtung  als  nothwen- 
diges  Erzeugniss  derselben  entspringt V 

Weber  did  not  aim  at  literature  when  he  wrote  his  e  Drama- 
tisch-musicalische  Notizen ' — little  articles  on  new  operas.  His 
object  was  to  attract  attention  and  induce  sympathy  with  the 
works  which  he  was  about  to  conduct  for  the  first  time  at 
Prague  or  Dresden.  Marschner  (Heinrich  IV.  und  IfAubigne), 
Meyerbeer  (Abimelek),  Hoffmann  (Undine),  Fesca,  and  other 
composers  of  operas,  profited  by  his  generous  advocacy.  Exam- 
ples of  Weber's  technical  strictures  have  already  been  given  in 
the  extracts  from  the  review  of  Hoffmann's  Undine 2.  That  they 
are  always  apt  and  to  the  point  goes  without  saying ;  yet  there 
is  little  of  enduring  value  in  Weber's  literary  remains,  except  in 
his  last  publication — a  small  pamphlet  that  accompanied  his 
directions  as  to  the  tempi  in  Euryanthe :  ( On  Tempo  in  music 
and  on  its  metronomic  indications/  This  is  a  little  masterpiece, 
a  landmark  in  the  history  of  style.  Weber's  views  regarding 
'  modification  of  tempo '  are  exactly  those  of  Wagner,  as  set 
forth  in  the  tatter's  essay  on  Conducting.  There  is  another 
curious  and  highly  significant  point  of  agreement  between 
the  two  masters :  '  I  look  upon  any  one,'  says  Weber, '  who  per- 
forms a  piece  from  one  of  my  operas  at  a  concert  as  my  personal 
enemy'  (Letter  from  London,  1826). 

Schumann  was  proprietor,  editor,  and  chief  writer  in  Die 
neue  Zeitschrift  fur  Musik  from  its  foundation  in  1834  to 
1853,  when  he  took  leave  of  his  readers  with  the  prophetic 
article  on  Johannes  Brahms.  Shortly  before  his  death  he 
revised  a  number  of  the  essays,  reviews,  and  reports,  and  in  1852 
republished  them  in  four  small  volumes.  The  Zeitschrift  was 
issued  to  a  few  hundred  subscribers.  But  in  book-form,  since 

1  '  Yes,  in  that  far-off  land  which  we  often  reach  in  dreams,  poet  and  musician 
are  closely  related  members  of  one  church :  and  in  their  highest  moods  the  secret 
of  word  and  tone  is  revealed  to  them  as  an  identity.'  And  again  :  '  It  appears  to 
me  a  true  opera  is  one  in  which  the  music  emanates  from  the  poem  as  an  inevit- 
able product.' 

'  See  p.  25. 


MUSICIANS  AS  WRITERS  ON  MUSIC         353 

about  1860,  Schumann's  writings  have  been  widely  read  and 
have  had  great  influence.  It  is  the  rare  union  of  literary  gifts 
with  the  insight  of  a  composer  of  genius  that  renders  Schumann's 
writings  unique.  At  once  enthusiastic  and  humorous,  bold  in 
imagery,  and  whimsical  in  phrase,  the  style  is  redolent  of  Jean 
Paul  Richter  and  E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann — not  involved  like  Jean 
Paul's,  however,  but  made  up  of  short  vivid  sentences,  always 
fresh  and  breezy.  Like  his  forerunners,  the  brothers  Schlegel, 
Tieck,  Jean  Paul,  Hoffmann,  Schumann  protested  against  all 
kinds  of  pedantry  and  formalism ;  like  them,  he  was  ever  ready 
to  hail  anything  that  showed  a  touch  of  individuality  and  of 
genuine  human  nature.  His  weightier  reviews,  such  as  those  of 
Berlioz'  Symphonic  fantastique,  Meyerbeer's  Huguenots,  Men- 
delssohn's choral  works  and  overtures,  Liszt's  etudes,  and  a 
large  number  of  Chopin's  pieces,  are  of  permanent  value.  A  note 
of  perfect  sincerity  pervades  them,  and  the  style  has  a  rare  charm, 
even  when  it  deals  with  mere  technicalities.  In  some  of  the 
earliest  articles  (1834-6)  Jean  Paul  and  Hoffmann  are  closely 
imitated.  Later  on,  the  quaint  ironical  devices,  disguises,  and 
noms  de  guerre  are  dropped,  and  Schumann  writes  like  a 
serious  artist  addressing  his  equals.  Everywhere,  even  when  he 
laughs  or  plays  tricks,  his  earnestness  is  felt  to  be  present. 
He  was  a  perfect  hater  of  shams.  And  though  he  dealt  gently 
and  kindly  with  all  manner  of  ephemeral  productions  he  never 
lost  sight  of  a  high  standard  of  excellence.  The  essay  on 
Brahms,  with  which  he  closed  his  career  as  a  journalist,  is  written 
with  the  same  care  as  the  essay  on  Chopin  with  which  he 
began  it1. 

Mendelssohn's  letters,  many  of  which  were  apparently  written 
to  be  read  outside  the  family  circle,  demand  some  notice.  They 
are  full  of  facts  and  precepts  valuable  to  practical  musicians  and 
to  students  of  contemporary  musical  history;  they  show 
a  delicate  gift  for  reproducing  impressions  received  from  nature 

1  A  good  English  translation  of  his  works  would  be  a  boon.  Madame  Raymond- 
Bitter's  version  is  incomplete  and  miserably  inadequate. 

DANKRECTHXB  A    a 


354  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

and  art,  and  are  expressed  in  a  tone  of  genial  good  humour. 
Mendelssohn  always  expresses  himself  with  the  crispness  and 
precision  of  a  man  who  thoroughly  knows  what  he  is  talking 
about. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  Wagnerian  system  of  aesthetics. 
Das  Kunstwerk  der  Zukunft  and  Oper  und  Drama  excepted, 
Wagner's  writings  are  occasional  pieces  without  any  calculated 
continuity.  The  earliest  Romantic  pieces,  i.  e.  the  Parisian 
feuilletons1,  recall  the  manner  of  E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann.  Then  came 
the  books  which  reflect  the  revolutionary  ferment  of  1848-52 
and  show  a  leaning  towards  Hellenism ;  next  follow  the  mature 
pieces  written  at  Munich  and  Triebschen  (i  864-70),  Ueber  Staat 
und  Religion,  Deutsche  Kunst  und  deutsche  Politik,  Ueber 
das  Dirigiren  (1866),  and  Beethoven  (1870).  These  are  the 
result  of  insight,  wide  culture,  and  wide  experience.  Finally 
we  may  mention  the  occasional  contributions  to  the  Bayreuther 
Blatter,  such  as  Ueber  das  Dichten  und  Komponiren,  Ueber  die 
Anwendung  der  Musik  auf  das  Drama,  Wollen  wir  hoffen  ?,  in 
which  the  master  talks  leisurely  and  confidentially  to  his  friends. 
They  are  singularly  charming  and  instructive. 

Wagner's  criticism  is  always  valuable,  even  if  it  is  but  a  side- 
light or  indirect  comment  on  his  own  practice.  Now  and  then 
his  judgement  seems  somewhat  strained  and  beside  the  mark — 
as  when  he  maintained  that  in  Beethoven's  pth  Symphony 
instrumental  music  has  burst  its  confines  and  said  the  last  word 
possible,  when  he  denounced  the  oratorio  as  a  feeble  hybrid 
without  proper  raison  d'etre,  or  when  he  refused  to  credit  Jews 
with  creative  ability.  But  his  width  of  view  and  his  absolute 
sincerity  are  everywhere  apparent.  Next  to  the  valuable  essay 
on  Conducting — a  treatise  on  style  in  the  execution  of  classical 
music — we  must  rank  Beethoven,  an  exposition  of  the  author's 
thoughts  on  the  significance  of  Beethoven's  music.  This  work 
contains  his  contributions  towards  the  metaphysic  of  music,  if 
indeed  such  a  metaphysic  can  be  said  to  exist.  It  is  based  on 
1  See  W.  A.  Ellis'  translation  of  the  prose  works,  vol.  viii. 


MUSICIANS  AS  WRITERS  ON  MUSIC        355 

Schopenhauer's  famous  theory ;  which  that  philosopher  candidly 
admitted  to  be  incapable  of  proof,  though  it  satisfied  him. 
Wagner  accepts  it,  and  supplements  it,  by  way  of  analogy,  with 
quotations  from  Schopenhauer's  Essay  on  Visions,  the  doctrine 
of  which  is  at  least  equally  problematic l. 

The  history  of  music  in  Paris  from  1835  to  1863  might  be 
traced  in  the  feuilletons  which  Berlioz  wrote  for  the  Journal  des 
Debats.  Though  he  was  a  journalist  of  genius  and  well  aware 
of  the  fact,  Berlioz  all  along  protested  against  his  weekly  task, 
and  eloquently  complained  of  it  as  downright  slavery 2.  The 
celebrated  Mtmoires  are  a  brilliant  plaidoyer,  but  not  a  record  of 
fact.  'Ma  vie  est  un  roman  qui  m'interesse  beaucoup,'  he 
says  in  his  letters 3.  Indeed  his  own  standard  seems  to  have 
been  Dtsordre  et  Gtnie  in  literature  as  in  music.  The  fantastic 
child  of  a  fantastic  time,  he  never  passed  beyond  the  period  of 
storm  and  stress  belonging  to  his  youth  and  early  manhood. 
His  critical  remarks,  often  penetrating,  do  not  spring  from  a 
consistent  principle,  but  strike  or  retort  as  the  occasion  suggests. 
The  famous  attack  on  Wagner  (Journal  des  Dtbats,  Feb.  8, 
1860)  and  Wagner's  dignified  reply  (Feb.  22)  only  serve  to 
accentuate  the  fact  that  Berlioz  could  not  be  just  to  Wagner 
without  disavowing  part  of  his  own  work.  Comparatively  few 
articles  can  be  classed  as  literature.  The  enthusiasm  expressed 
in  the  more  elaborate — the  essays  on  Spontini,  on  Beethoven's 
symphonies  and  sonatas,  on  Gluck's  Alceste  and  Orphfa, 
Weber's  Oberon  and  Freischiitz — was  doubtless  genuine ;  but 
now  and  then,  notably  in  the  essay  on  Spontini,  it  seems  as 
though  Berlioz  was  writing  de  parti  pris  with  more  fervour  than 
penetration.  Many  of  the  smaller  pieces,  brilliant  fireworks  for 

1  See  the  writer's  translation  of  Ueber  das  Dirigiren,  1887,  and  Beethoven  with 
a  supplement  from  Schopenhauer,  London,  1 880. 

8  '  II  faut  pourtant  m'obstiner  a  4crire  pour  gagner  mes  miserable*  cent  francs 
et  garder  ma  position  arm^e  centre  tantde  drdles  qui  m'aneantiraient  s'ils  n'avaient 
pas  tant  peur.  La  violence  que  je  me  fais  pour  loner  certains  ourrages,  e«t 
telle  que  la  ve"rit£  suinte  k  travers  mes  lignes,  comme  dans  les  efforts  extraordi- 
naires  de  la  presse  hydraulique  1'eau  suinte  &  travers  le  f er  de  1'instrument.' 

3  Lettres  intimes,  p.  127. 

A  a  2 


356  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

the  most  part — biting,  satirical,  ironical — were  issued  in  book 
form  as  Les  Soirees  d'orchestre,  A  travers  chants,  and  Les 
Grotesques  de  la  musique  *.  A  number  of  filoges  de  complaisance 
arrachees  a  sa  lassitude  were  not  reprinted,  but  the  rancorous 
attack  on  Wagner  et  la  musique  de  I'avenir  was  included  in  A 
travers  chants.  A  series  of  letters  describing  his  tours  in 
Germany  and  visits  to  England  and  Russia  are  incorporated  in 
the  Memoires.  Taken  altogether  there  is  not  much  beyond 
amusement  to  be  gained  from  Berlioz'  f euilletons.  He  had  little 
to  teach  2 ;  and  his  teaching  was  too  often  phrased  in  terms  of 
contempt.  The  two  following  sentences  will  convey  some  idea 
of  his  position  and  his  attitude :  ( La  musique  pure  est  un  art 
libre,  grand  et  fort  par  lui-meme.J  f  Les  theatres  lyriques 
sont  des  maisons  de  commerce,  ou  cet  art  est  seulement  tolere,  et 
contraint  d'aiUeurs  a  des  associations  dont  la  fierte  a  trop  souvent 
lieu  de  se  revolter/  In  point  of  style  the  demon  romantique 
occasionally  led  him  to  bizarre  exaggeration,  and  to  a  confusion 
between  the  grandiose  and  the  great.  He  seemed  to  consider 
Beethoven  as  older  Berlioz.  But  many  pages  are  full  of  wit 
and  charm ;  and  this  is  particularly  the  case  with  a  large  portion 
of  the  Memoires.  There  is  something  musical  about  the  tempo, 
the  rhythm,  and  the  cadence  of  Berlioz'  best  sentences.  Like 
his  own  music  his  prose  is  always  rhetorical,  sometimes  eloquent, 
sometimes  violent,  sometimes  even  grotesque.  His  humour 
occasionally  degenerates  into  buffoonery,  his  wit  too  often  takes 
the  form  of  parody  or  sarcasm.  One  only  of  his  literary 
efforts  is  really  a  landmark  in  the  History  of  Music:  the 
Grand  trait e  d' instrumentation,  Op.  10,  with  its  sequel  Le  Chef 
d'orchestre,  which,  taken  all  round,  is  an  exhaustive,  and  in  the 
full  sense  of  the  word,  masterly  work.  Thus,  Berlioz  on 
Instrumentation,  Weber  on  Tempo,  and  Wagner  on  Conducting, 
are  the  three  practical  treatises  (classics  in  their  way)  that 

1  A  volume  of  his  miscellaneous  articles  has  recently  been  collected  under  the 
title  of  Musique  et  Musiciens. 

2  '  Esthe'tique  !  Je  voudrais  bien  voir  fusilier  le  cuistre  qui  a  invent^  ce  mot-la  ! ' 


MUSICIANS  AS  WRITERS  ON  MUSIC         357 

represent  the  refined  sense  of  style  and  instrumental   colour 
prevalent  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Liszt  habitually  wrote  in  French1.  His  enthusiastic  admiration 
for  Wagner  is  recorded  in  the  best  of  his  literary  works,  a  short 
pamphlet  entitled  Lohengrin  et  Tannhausef  a  Weimar.  It  made 
a  great  stir  and  was  very  helpful  in  the  furtherance  of  Wagner's 
aims.  Next  to  this  masterpiece  of  sympathetic  criticism,  we  may 
rank  a  delightful  little  essay  on  John  Field,  written  to  serve 
as  an  introduction  to  an  edition  of  Field's  nocturnes.  The 
more  ambitious  efforts,  Frederic  Chopin,  and  Les  Bohemiens  et 
leur  muisique  enHongrie — improvised  contributions  to  the  Gazette 
musicale — were  rewritten  with  the  collaboration  of  Princess 
Sayn-Wittgenstein,  and  spoilt  in  the  process.  Both  contain 
much  irrelevant  detail  couched  in  hyperbolical  language.  Les 
Bohemiens,  in  book  form,  was  published  together  with  the 
revised  edition  of  the  Rhapsodies  hongroises.  In  the  main  it 
consists  of  a  laboured  attempt  to  prove  the  existence  of  some- 
thing like  a  gipsy  epic  in  terms  of  music — an  attempt  which 
was  met  with  ridicule  in  Hungary  itself — the  fact  being  that 
Hungarian  gipsies  merely  play  Hungarian  popular  tunes  in  a 
fantastic  and  exciting  manner  peculiar  to  themselves,  but  have 
no  music  that  can  properly  be  called  their  own.  Liszt's  book 
on  Chopin  contains  much  that  is  delicately  appreciative  and 
valuable  as  a  record  at  first  hand  of  Chopin's  methods  as  a 
player  and  composer ;  unfortunately,  it  also  contains  many  mis- 
statements  of  fact,  and  a  good  deal  of  verbiage.  Other  pieces 
of  interest  are  the  articles  on  Robert  Franz*  songs,  on  Wagner's 
Fliegende  Hollander,  and  on  Berlioz'  Symphony,  Harold  en 
Italic.  German  critics,  not  without  good  reason,  have  spoken  of 
the  correspondence  between  Liszt  and  Wagner  as  worthy  to  rank 
with  that  between  Goethe  and  Schiller.  These  letters,  Wagner's 
especially,  are  full  of  interesting  passages  on  problems  of  music 
and  literature.  Liszt's  literary  efforts,  whatever  their  short- 

1  The  complete  collection  of  his  writings  is  to  be  found  in  a  German  version  by 
Lina  Kamanii,  six  volumes. 


358  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

comings,  proved  a  stimulating  force,  the  effect  of  which  is 
still  felt. 

The  manner  of  Hoffmann's  imaginative  criticism  was  success- 
fully imitated  by  Ambros,  the  historian  of  music,  whose  Cultur- 
historische  Bilder  aus  dem  Musikleben  der  Gegenwart,  a  col- 
lection of  admirable  essays,  1860-5,  stands  forth  conspicuously 
among  the  doings  of  the  lesser  men.  Ambros  was  well  equipped 
as  a  musician  and  gifted  with  some  of  Hoffmann's  insight  and 
felicity  of  speech,  which  he  further  qualified  with  Jean  Paul's 
fantastic  imagery  and  verbal  wit.  Even  in  comparison  with 
Schumann  his  articles  hold  their  own,  and  in  point  of  detail  he 
occasionally  surpasses  his  master.  Billow's  analysis  of  Wagner's 
Eine  Faust-Ouvertiire  and  Draeseke's  articles  on  Liszt's  'poemes 
symphoniques '  deserve  mention  as  models  in  their  way J. 

With  advancing  years  the  historical  tendency  gained  in  strength 
and  widened  in  scope.  The  success  of  the  Bach  revival  prepared 
the  way  for  editions  of  the  works  of  Palestrina,  Lasso,  Purcell, 
Handel,  Gluck,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Schubert,  and  also  of  a 
number  of  Bach's  immediate  precursors,  such  as  Schiitz, 
Sweelink,  Frescobaldi,  Frohberger,  Buxtehude,  Reinken,  Kerl, 
George  and  Theophilus  Muffat,  Fux,  Couperin,  Rameau,  and 
both  Alessandro  and  Domenico  Scarlatti. 

Antiquarian  research  brought  to  light  the  splendid  collection 
of  early  English  music  for  the  Virginals  known  as  the  Fitzwilliam 
collection,  Denys  Gaultier's  La  Rhetorique  des  dieux,  and  a  vast 
number  of  miscellaneous  Italian,  Spanish,  and  German  pieces 
for  the  lute.  Extensive  collections  of  folk-songs  and  dances 
were  made;  and  good  historical  and  biographical  work  was 
done. 

Among  the  leading  books  of  antiquarian  research,  history,  and 
biography  may  be  mentioned  :-Kiesewetter's  Geschichte  der  euro- 
paisch-abendlandischen  oder  unsrer  heutigen  Musik  (1834-46); 

1  Ferdinand  Killer's  lucubrations  were  characterized  by  Wagner  as  '  Literatur ' 
— meaning  waste  paper.  And  the  same  holds  good  of  Riehl's  once  celebrated 
CharacterWpfe,  1853,  and  La  Mara's  Musikalische  Studienkopfe. 


MUSICIANS  AS  WRITERS  ON  MUSIC         359 

Coussemaker*s  Lea  Harmonies  des  XII6  et  XIII"  sticks,  and 
L'Art  harmonique  aux  XII8  et  XIII6  siecles  (1865) ;  Ambros, 
Geschichte  der  Musik,  of  which  vols.  ii  and  iii  are  the  most 
valuable  (the  third  volume  of  Ambros'  History, extending  down  to 
Palestrina,  appeared  1868, and  the  work  was  completed,  in  rather 
perfunctory  manner,  by  W.  Langhans) ;  Ritter's  Geschichte  des 
Orgelspiels  (1884);  Weitzmann's  Geschichte  des  Clavier  spiels 
(I863)1;  Wasielewski's Die  Vtoline  und  ihreMeister  (1869).  The 
standard  biographies  are  PohPs  Haydn,  Jahn's  Mozart,  Thayer*s 
Beethoven  (to  be  read  in  Belter's  much  augmented  German 
edition);  F.  W.  Jahns'  C.  M.  von  Weber  in  seinen  Werken 
(a  thematic  catalogue,  chronologically  arranged,  the  comments 
on  which  form  the  most  trustworthy  treatise  on  Weber's  works), 
1871;  Chrysander's  Handel,  Spitta's  /.  S.  Bach,  and  Glasenapp's 
Life  of  Wagner  as  rewritten  by  Mr.  W.  Ashton  Ellis.  Among 
technical  treatises  Helmholtz'  Die  Lehre  von  den  Tonempfin- 
dungen,  and  Riemann's  researches  into  the  nature  of  rhythm, 
and  his  ingenious  solutions  of  difficult  rhythmical  problems,  are 
important.  In  Russia  much  energy  has  been  devoted  to  the 
history  and  theory  of  ecclesiastical  music.  Dimitri  Rasumovsky 
— author  of  Der  Kirchengesang  in  Russland,  Die  patriarchali- 
schen  Stinger,  Diakone  und  Unterdiakone  (1868),  and  Unter- 
suchungen  iiber  die  Lesung  der  Znamja-Notation  (1884) — began 
to  lecture  at  the  Conservatoire  of  Moscow  on  the  music  of  the 
Orthodox  Church  in  1866.  Yurij  v.  Arnold  published  Die  alten 
Kirchenmodi,  historisch  und  akustisch  entwickelt,  1879 ;  Theorie 
des  altrussischen  Kirchen-  und  Volksgesanges,  1881 ;  Die 
Harmonisierung  des  altrussischen  Kirchengesangs,  1886. 
Smolensky,  Rasumovsky's  successor  as  lecturer  at  Moscow, 
wrote  a  Kursus  des  kirchlichen  Chorgesangs  (1887),  and  ABC- 
Buch  des  Gesanges  nach  der  Znamja-Notation  des  Alexander 
Minez  (1868),  which  is  said  to  be  an  important  work  with  regard 
to  the  history  of  the  melodies  belonging  to  the  Russian  Church. 

1  See  third  edition,  edited  and  enlarged  by  Max  Seiffert  and  Oskar  Fleischer, 
1899.    An  admirable  piece  of  work  in  course  of  publication. 


360  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

Instrumental  music  does  not  form  part  of  the  Greek  orthodox 
service,  which  is  exclusively  choral.  And  in  this  connexion  the 
ten  volumes  of  sacred  music  a  capella  by  Dimitri  Bortniansky, 
which  have  been  edited  by  Tchaikovsky,  deserve  mention. 
Bortniansky  (1779-1828)  was  a  pupil  of  Galuppi,  and  to  his 
vapid  Italianisms,  quite  as  much  as  to  the  Italian  opera,  may 
be  traced  many  of  those  curious  southern  idioms  which  so  often 
and  so  incongruously  occur  in  the  melody  of  later  Russian 
masters. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

SUMMARY  AND   CONCLUSION 

A  BRIEF  summary  will  be  sufficient  to  recall  to  the  reader's 
mind  the  salient  points  in  this  survey  of  the  Romantic  move- 
ment. In  Weber's  time  musicians  came  under  the  spell  of 
Romantic  literature  and  learnt  to  look  at  their  art  from  the 
Romantic  standpoint.  Increased  facility  of  international  inter- 
course was  a  powerful  source  of  change.  Thus  it  has  come  about 
that  at  the  present  day  exotic  rhythms,  harmonics,  and  even 
melodies  are  found  to  be  admissible  and  sometimes  welcome 
elements  in  the  musical  speech  of  Western  Europe.  Indeed,  if 
a  lexicon  of  musical  diction  were  compiled,  it  would  have  to 
include  many  curious  rhythms  as  well  as  melodic  and  harmonic 
deviations  from  the  normal  language.  In  opera  as  well  as  in 
instrumental  music  poetical  suggestion  by  musical  means 
became  one  of  the  chief  aims.  In  music  for  the  orchestra  and 
the  pianoforte  characteristic  titles,  mottoes,  superscriptions,  were 
employed.  Gradually  '  poetical  intentions '  took  the  lead  ;  and 
composers  began  to  accept  relaxations  of  the  laws  of  structure. 
In  symphonic  music  design  on  purely  musical  lines  was  gradually 
set  aside  to  make  room  for  a  kind  of  impressionism,  wherein 
unity  was  sought  not  so  much  in  well-balanced  musical  develop- 
ment as  in  extraneous  considerations,  such  as  the  sequence  of 
ideas  in  a  poem,  the  incidents  in  a  story,  or  the  variety  of 
colours  in  a  landscape.  After  a  time  illustration  became  the  ideal 
and  symphonic  music  was  transformed  into  programme  music. 
At  first  the  aim  seemed  to  be  freedom  in  matters  of  form  only. 
But  with  this  freedom  the  door  was  opened  to  sheer  eccentricity 
and  ugliness  of  theme.  Yet  in  the  long  run  the  common  sense 


352  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

of  musical  art  showed  that  these  extravagances  were  mere 
incidents  which  did  not  prevent  the  attainment  of  more  pliant 
and  varied  forms,  together  with  increased  power  and  beauty  of 
emotional  expression. 

The  entire  process,  in  instrumental  music,  was  a  change 
from  the  formal  to  the  characteristic — a  movement  away  from 
the  precise  symmetry  of  the  sonata  and  the  symphony  and 
tending  towards  the  Characterstiick  and  the  Po&me  symphonique. 
In  dramatic  music,  it  was  a  movement  away  from  the  conven- 
tions of  the  older  opera  and  a  tendency  towards  the  freedom  of 
the  music-drama.  Expressive  consistency,  at  times  of  a  very 
subtle  sort,  was  retained  and  depended  in  songs,  chansons, 
Lieder  ohne  Worte,  nocturnes,  and  other  short  characteristic 
pieces.  A  taste  for  excessive  emotionalism  was  developed,  and 
composers  took  pains  to  attain  the  clearest  articulation  of  details. 
Everywhere  in  the  short  lyrics  of  the  time  there  is  the  charm  of 
novelty,  'the  magic  touch  of  Romanticism,  the  addition  of 
strangeness  to  beauty/  Technically  the  principle  of  tonality 
was  expanded,  and  new  departures  in  key  distribution  and  an 
increasing  use  of  chromatic  harmonies  and  complicated  discords 
became  prevalent,  especially  in  Chopin,  Berlioz,  and  Wagner. 
Liszt,  in  particular,  endeavoured  to  find  new  cadences  to  serve  for 
the  close  of  his  pieces. 

Weber's  Freischiitz  marks  the  triumph  of  early  Romanticism, 
his  Euryanthe  the  transition  to  the  continuous  music  of  later 
times.  Characterization,  subtle  devices  of  instrumentation,  and 
local  colour,  played  an  important  part  in  his  work.  In  France 
the  storm  and  stress  of  Romantic  literature  found  an  echo  in  the 
opera,  and  in  Berlioz*  orchestral  pieces.  Italy  began  with 
sentimental  cantilena  and  ended  with  a  marked  increase  in 
dramatic  effect.  The  tendency  towards  closeness  of  characteriza- 
tion affected  the  oratorio  and  the  cantata,  which  were  rejuve- 
nated, and  somewhat  secularized  in  the  process.  Instrumental 
music  in  the  concert-overture  and  the  symphony  endeavoured 
to  reproduce  moods  and  impressions  derived  from  literature 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION  363 

or  from  natural  phenomena.  The  beginnings  of  illustration 
proper,  apart  from  the  ostensible  writers  of  programme  music, 
appeared  in  Mendelssohn's  octet  and  the  cantata  Die  erste 
Walpurgisnacht.  Attempts  at  direct  alliance  of  music  with 
poetry  and  painting  were  made  by  Berlioz  and  Liszt,  who 
frankly  employed  the  means  of  musical  expression  for  purposes 
of  illustration.  The  programme,  suppressed  or  implied,  made 
its  appearance  in  the  concertos  of  Spohr  and  Weber.  The 
instinct  for  concentrated  expression  produced  Schumann's  string 
quartets.  Weber  in  the  ball-room  and  Chopin  in  the  salon 
infused  the  Romantic  spirit  into  the  dance.  The  growth  of 
instrumental  technique  is  exemplified  in  Paganini,  Chopin,  and 
Liszt ;  the  last  of  whom  invented  the  '  Dramatic  Fantasia J  and 
produced  faithful  transcriptions  of  symphonies,  overtures,  and 
songs  for  the  pianoforte.  Berlioz  and  Wagner  extended  the 
technique  of  orchestration.  National  elements,  Polish,  Hunga- 
rian, Norwegian,  Spanish,  Russian,  came  into  play.  Schumann 
was  successful  in  obtaining  a  perfect  equipoise  between  verse 
and  music  in  the  Lied.  Impressionism  and  word-painting  made 
their  appearance  in  Liszt's  Lieder  and  Berlioz'  chansons;  the 
dramatic  and  histrionic  element  prevailed  in  the  vocal  ballade ; 
and  music,  even  apart  from  the  stage,  was  pressed  into  the  service 
of  melodrama. 

One  result  which  followed  from  this  attempt  to  make  music 
representative  was  the  development  of  a  new  kind  of  comedy, 
its  lighter  form  in  Offenbach  and  Sullivan,  its  more  elaborate  in 
Wagner's  Meistersinger  and  Verdi's  Falstaff.  At  the  same 
time  national  opera,  based  on  folk-tunes  and  dances,  appeared 
in  Poland,  Bohemia,  and  Russia.  Finally  Wagner  gathered 
together  the  various  Romantic  tendencies ;  tested  them  through 
a  period  of  experiment,  speculation  and  theory,  and  ultimately 
reached  the  music-drama. 

The  main  problem  set  before  us  by  the  Romantic  movement 
is  that  of  an  alternative  between  programme  music,  with 
concomitant  laxness  of  structure,  and  self-dependent  music,  it 


364  THE  ROMANTIC  PERIOD 

may  be  in  conformity  with  an  unwritten  programme,  but  firmly 
and  consistently  designed  on  musical  lines.  The  case  for  self- 
contained  instrumental  music  cannot  be  better  stated  than  in 
the  words  of  Schopenhauer  :  c  If  we  look  at  pure  instrumental 
music,  we  shall  see  that  in  the  symphony  of  Beethoven  there 
reigns  the  greatest  confusion,  beneath  which  nevertheless  there 
is  the  most  perfect  order :  the  most  violent  strife,  that  in  the 
next  moment  grows  into  loveliest  concord :  it  is  rerum  concordia 
discors,  a  true  and  complete  image  of  the  essential  nature  of  the 
world,  that  rolls  on  in  the  immeasurable  complication  of 
countless  shapes,  and  supports  itself  by  constant  destruction. 
At  the  same  time  all  human  passions  and  emotions  speak  from 
this  symphony :  joy  and  sorrow,  love  and  hate,  fear  and  hope, 
in  countless  gradations ;  all  however  in  the  abstract  only,  and 
without  any  particularity ;  it  is  merely  the  form  of  emotion, 
a  spirit  world,  without  matter.  It  is  true,  however,  that  we 
are  inclined  to  realize  it  while  listening,  to  clothe  it  in  our  fancy 
with  flesh  and  blood,  and  to  see  in  it  the  various  scenes  of  life 
and  nature.  Yet  on  the  whole,  this  neither  facilitates  its 
comprehension,  nor  enhances  its  delight,  giving  rather  a  hetero- 
geneous and  arbitrary  alloy :  it  is  therefore  better  to  receive  it 
directly  and  in  its  purity  V 

Perhaps  the  following  considerations  may  be  taken  to  repre- 
sent fairly  what  can  be  said  of  music  with  an  implied  or  an 
avowed  programme.  In  characteristic  overtures  such  as  Mozart's 
Don  Giovanni,  Beethoven's  Coriolan,  Leonora,  Egmont,  and  the 
overtures  of  Weber,  the  feeling  for  musical  symmetry  and 
proportion  is  completely  in  accord  with  the  tendency  to  express 
the  particular  mood  or  moods  indicated  by  the  titles.  But  in 
the  poeme  symphonique,  symmetry  and  proportion  are  made  to 
depend,  not  on  purely  musical,  but  on  more  or  less  extraneous 
considerations.  Under  such  circumstances,  so  long  as  the  com- 
poser develops  his  subjects  and  figures  on  musical  lines  and 
makes  no  attempt  to  deal  with  concrete  facts  of  any  kind, 

1  Schopenhauer,  Die  Welt  als  Wttle  und  VorsteUung,  ii.  chap.  39, 


SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION  365 

musical  design  may  still  be  direct  and  definite.  Conversely 
the  question  may  be  asked :  if  a  poem  or  a  picture  forms 
the  programme,  can  the  music  be  actually  identical  with  the 
material  contents  of  the  verse  or  with  the  scene  upon  the 
canvas  ?  It  can  be  analogous,  but  that  is  all.  Yet  so  long  as 
the  moods  of  a  poem  or  picture  are  truly  rendered  in  terms  of 
music,  this  very  analogy  will  illuminate  the  musical  form  with 
its  own  beauty  and  suggestiveness.  Programme  music,  at  its 
best,  means  symbolism — that  is  to  say,  expression  gained  by  the 
use  of  symbolical  phrases  which  are  treated  by  some  intellectual 
process  necessarily  logical.  But  the  genius  of  symphonic 
music  cannot  rest  satisfied  with  signification.  Beethoven's 
musical  design  is  complete  in  itself;  it  appeals  to  us  not  by  what 
it  signifies,  but  by  what  it  is,  and  its  fullest  expression  never 
obscures  or  weakens  its  architectonic  structure.  On  the  dramatic 
side,  Wagner's  method  is  at  present  the  most  completely 
organized  system  for  purposes  of  musical  expression.  On  the 
instrumental  side  illustration,  apart  from  design,  is  in  pursuit  of 
a  false  ideal :  it  is  the  satyr  Marsyas,  imitating  on  his  flute  the 
music  of  his  native  uplands,  and  doomed  to  destruction  if  he 
challenges  the  golden  lyre  of  Apollo. 


INDEX 


ABT,  314. 
ADAM,  g. 
ALKAN,  330-1. 
AMBROS,  358. 
ARNOLD,  von,  359. 
AUBER,  9,  68,  337. 
Operas,  36-7,  57,  60. 

BACH,  J.  S.,  i,  6,  13,  24,  150,  240, 
266,  350. 

BALAKIREV,  7,  321. 

BALFE,  78. 

BEETHOVEN,  i,  6,  7,  n,  13,  77, 
106-7,  112,  117,  123,  228-9,  237, 
240,  266,  287,  346-7,  354,  355. 

356,  364- 
BELAIEP,  328. 

BELLINI,  9,  44,  47,  184,  259,  337. 
Operas,  58-60. 

Influence  on  Chopin,  60,  254. 
BERLIOZ,  2,  7,  9,  n,  13,  I4~i5»  l8» 
50-6,  65,  112,  173,  198,  260,  289, 

353,  357,  362-3. 
Operas,  50-  6,  69-70. 
Overtures,  in,  135-8. 
Symphonies,  111-35,  145,  J48. 
Enfance  du  Christ,  11, 71, 170, 190. 
Damnation  de  Faust,  166-70. 
Requiem,  174-85,  190. 
Te  Deum,  185-90. 
Songs,  278-81. 
Criticisms,  &c.,  355-6. 


BIZET,  49,  72,  323. 

BOEHH,  6. 

BOIELDIEU,  6,  9. 

BOITO,  63. 

BORODINE,  7,  139,  236,  321-8. 

BORTNIANSKY,  359-60. 

BBAHMS,  i,  7,  14,  191,  199,  209, 

229,  267,  271,  315,  350. 
BRUCH,  330. 
BRUCKNER,  7. 
BULOW,  289,  319-20,  358. 
BUXTEHUDE,  6. 

CANTATAS.    See  Oratorios. 

CATCH,  301-2. 

CHAMBER  Music,  234-6,  311-13, 

314-15,  320,  322,  329,  332. 
CHERUBINI,  77,  174. 
CHEZY,  Frau  von,  21. 
CHOPIN,  6,  12,  14,  24,  60,  153,  1 86, 

317,  327,  350,  353,  357- 
Concertos,  230-1. 
Pianoforte  Music,  240,  250-8,  261, 

268,  269. 

CHRYSANDER,  359. 
CONCERTOS,  225-34,  311-13,  320> 

329,  330. 
CORNELIUS,  73-4,  289,  316-19. 

Cui,  7,  321. 
CZERNY,  263-6. 

DALAYRAC,  9. 


368 


INDEX 


D'ANGLEBERT,  6. 
DARGOMIJSKY,  321,  322. 
DAVID,  Felicien,  9,  122,  138-41. 
DAVID,  Ferdinand,  153. 
DEITERS,  359. 
DELIBES,  72. 
DONIZETTI,  44,  49,  63. 
Operas,  58-60. 
DRAESEKE,  137,  330,  358. 
DUSSEK,  6,  237. 

EDITIONS  OF  CLASSICS,  358-60. 
ELLIS,  Mr.  W.  A.,  338,  354,  359. 
ERKEL,  74. 
ERNST,  13,  225. 

FESCA,  14,  352. 

FIELD,  232,  233,  238-9,  255,  357. 

FLEISCHER,  359. 

FLOTOW,  67,  68. 

FRANZ,  13,  271,  357. 

Songs,  271,  275-8. 
FROHBERGER,  6,  150. 

GADE,  7,  14,  289,  310-11. 

GALUPPI,  360. 

GARRETT,  332. 

GAULTIER,  358. 

GAUTIER,  278. 

GLASENAPP,  359. 

GLAZOUNOV,  139. 

GLEE,  301-10. 

GLINKA,  9,  74-6,  321. 

GLUCK,  i,  14,  19,  339,  355. 

GOETHE,  3, 106,  165,  244,  281,  357. 

GOETZ,  73,  289. 

GOLDMARK,  49. 

GORDIGIANI,  314. 

Goss,  301,  303-9. 

GOSSEC,  174. 

GOUNOD,  49,  314. 

Operas,  71. 

Oratorios,  71. 
GRETRY,  9. 
GRIEG,  225,  330. 


GRIMM,  1 4. 

HALEVY,  9,  49,  63. 
HATTON,  301,  314. 
HAUPTMANN,  153,  242. 
HAYDN,  n,  24. 
HAYES,  302. 
HEBBEL,  32-3. 
HEINE,  105,  221,  241,  337. 
HELLER,  14,  289. 
HELMHOLTZ,  359. 
HENSELT,  225,  231-2. 

HlLLER,  233,  358. 

HOFFMANN,  4,   14,   32,  243,  337, 

352-3,  354,  358. 
Operas,  24-6. 

Criticisms,  &c.,  350-2,  357. 
HUGO,  Victor,  9,  n,  142,  149,  279, 

281. 
HUMMEL,  225,  242,  266. 

ISOUARD,  9. 

JAHN,  359. 
JAHNS,  359. 
JENSEN,  289,  316. 
JOACHIM,  13,  225,  229. 
JOUY,  43. 

KIEL,  289,  315. 
KIRCHNER,  289,  316. 

KORNER,   17. 

KOUKOLNIK,  74. 
KREUTZER,  67. 
KUCKEN,  314. 

LABITZKY,  238. 

LABLACHE,  58. 

LACHNER,  314. 

LALO,  72. 

LANGHANS,  359. 

LANNER,  238. 

LASSEN,  314. 

LEITMOTIF,  142,  191,  200,  338. 

LERMONTOV,  312. 

LESUEUR,  68. 


INDEX 


LlADOV,  328. 

LISZT,  7,  n,  12,  13,  14,  34,  122, 

173,  220,  246,   255,    289,  331,  342, 

353,  362-3. 
Symphonies,  141-8. 
Podmes  symphoniques,  149,  155. 
Smaller  Choral  Works,  171-2,  219. 
St.  Elisabeth,  190-6. 
Thirteenth  Psalm,  196-9. 
Masses,  199-209. 
Christus,  209-19. 
Concertos,  225,  232-3. 
Pianoforte  Music,  258-70. 
Songs,  281-5. 
Melodramas,  287. 
Criticisms,  &c.,  357. 
LOEWE,  13,  286-7. 

LORTZING,  67-8. 
LULLY,  71,  122. 

MARPUBG,  14. 

MARSCHNER,  8,  14,  273,  337,  352. 

Operas,  27-31. 
MASSENET,  49. 
MASSES,  1 1- 1 2,  174-209. 

Graner  Fest-Messe,  12,  199-204. 

Messe  des  Morts  (Berlioz),  1 1,  174- 
85. 

Ungarische    Krvnungs-Messe,     12, 

204-9. 

MATTHESOK,  14. 
MEHUL,  6,  186. 
MELODRAMA,  72,  78,  287-8,  313, 

319- 
MENDELSSOHN,  5,  7,  10,  14,  137, 

253,  289,  310,  350,  353,  362-3. 
Overtures,  80-5. 
Symphonies,  90,  104-6. 
Oratorios,  II,  156-60. 
Lobgesang,  1 60. 
Motets,  Cantatas,  &c.,  161-2. 
Concertos,  225-30. 
Chamber  Music,  234-5. 
Pianoforte  Music,  239-40. 
Songs,  274-5. 


MENDELSSOHN  (con*.) 

Melodramas,  287. 

Organ  Music,  331. 
MERCADANTE,  49. 
MEYERBEER,  8,  9,  14,  138,  338, 
35o,  353- 

Operas,  45-9. 
MIKULI,  258. 
MONIUSKO,  9,  74,  77. 
MONSIGNY,  9. 
MOSCHELES,  225. 

MOZART,  i,  13,  14, 19,  24,  47,  M7i 
259,  266,  364. 

MttLLER,  32. 
MUSORGSKY,  321,  328. 

NEWMAN,  Mr.  E.,  329. 
NICOLAI,  67-8,  70. 
NIETZSCHE,  345. 
NUITTER,  339. 

OFFENBACH,  73,  78,  363. 
ONSLOW,  312. 
OPERAS : 

Abimelek,  49,  352. 
Adelson  e  Salvina,  59. 
Africaine,  L\  49. 
Atda,  49,  63-6. 
Alceste,  6,  355. 
Anna  Hole  tut,  59,  60. 

Hal  masque",  Le,  60. 
Ballo  in  Maschera,  Unt  60. 
Barbier  von  Bagdad,  Der,  73-4. 
Barbiere,  II,  38,  39. 
Bartered  Bride,  The,  9,  74. 
Beatrice  et  Benedict,  70. 
Benvenuto  Cellini,  9,  50-6,  73. 
Bohemian  Girl,  The,  78. 
Box  and  Cox,  78. 

Capuletti  e  Montecchi,  I,  59. 
Carmen,  72,  323. 
Cenerentola,  La,  38. 
Chanson  de  Fortunio,  La,  73. 


DANNREUTHER 


Bb 


INDEX 


OPERAS  (cont.). 
Cid,  Der,  74. 
Colporteur,  Le,  312. 
Comte  d'Ory,  Le,  38. 
Conies  d*  Hoffmann,  Les,  73. 
Corsaro,  II,  60. 
Crodato  in  Egitto,  H,  49. 

Dame  Blanche,  La,  6. 
Dame  de  Pique,  La,  329. 
Demon,  The,  312. 
Dinorah,  49. 
Djamileh,  72. 
Domino  Noir,  Le,  57. 
Dom  Pasquale,  63. 
Dow  Sebastien,  49. 
Don  Carlos,  49,  60. 
Donna  del  Logo,  La,  38. 
D«c  Foscari,  I,  60. 

Eclair,  L',  49.  ^ 

Elisabetta,  Eegina  d'Inghilterra,3%. 
Emma  di  Resburgo,  49. 
Entfuhrung  ausdem  Serail,  Die,  19. 
Ernani,  9,  60. 

Granata,  L',  49. 
Afortf,  Z/',  49. 
Eugene  Onegin,  329. 
Euryanthe,  5,  16,  18,  19,  20-2,  32, 
34,  341,  362. 

Fair  Maid  of  Perth,  The,  72. 
Falstaff,  63-6. 

(Gounod),  71. 

(Spohr),  23. 
Favorita,  La,  49,  58,  60. 
Feen,  Die,  333-8. 
Fidelio,  8,  17. 
Figaro,  19. 

Figlia  del  Reggimento,  La,  60. 
Fliegende  Hollander,  Der,  23,  31, 

333-9,  357- 

Forza  del  destino,  La,  49,  60. 
jFra  Diawlo,  57. 
Franfoise  de  Rimini,  72. 


OPERAS  (cont.). 
Freischutz,Der,  5,  8,17-20,355,362. 


Ladra,  La,  38. 
Genoveva,  16,  31-5. 
Giovanna  d'Arco,  60. 
Giuramento,  II,  49. 
Gondoliers,  The,  78. 
Grande  Duchesse,  La,  73. 
Guillaume  Tell,  9,  38-44. 
Gunlod,  74. 


9,  74,  77. 
Hamlet,  76. 
.Hans  Heiling,  8,  27. 
Heinrich  der  Vierte,  27. 
Huguenots,  Les,  46-8,  353. 

Iphigdnie  en  Tauride,  19. 
Italiana  in  Algeri,  L',  38. 
Ivanhoe,  79. 

Ji3aw  rfe  Paris,  6. 
Jephthas  Tochter,  48. 
Jessonda,  23. 
Joseph,  6. 
Judith,  9,  74. 
Jww,  La,  9,  49,  63. 

Konigin  von  Saba,  Die,  49. 
Kreuzfahrer,  Der,  24. 

Lakme,  72. 

Liebesverbot,  Das,  333-8. 
Lohengrin,  8,  21,  23,  47,  63,  67, 

200,  333-43. 
Lombardi,  I,  60. 
Lucia  di  Lammermoor,  43,  44,  58, 

60. 

Lucrezia  Borgia,  58,  60. 
Luisa  Miller,  60. 
Lurline,  78. 

Macbeth,  60. 
,  Le,  57. 


INDEX 


OPERAS  (cont.). 
Margherita  ffAnjou,  49. 
Marino  Falieri,  60. 
Maritana,  78. 
Martha,  67. 
Mamadieri,  I,  60. 
Matrimonio  Segreto,  H,  38. 
Me'decin  malgre  lui,  Le,  71. 
Meistersinger,  Die,  5,  8,  43,  73,  343, 

351,  363- 
Merlin,  49. 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  The,  67, 

68,  70. 
Mignon,  72. 
Mikado,  The,  78. 
Mireille,  71. 
.flfos^  w  Egitto,  38. 

Portici,  La,  36-7,  57. 


Nabuchodonosor,  60. 
Nachtlager  von  Granada,  Das,  67. 
Nonne  sanglante,  La,  71. 
JVbrmo,  9,  58,  59. 

06m>n,  5,  19,  23,  355. 
Olympie,  43. 
Orpfcfe,  355. 
Orphe'e  anx  enfers,  73. 
,  44,  59,  63-6. 


Parsifal,  9,  224,  257,  333,  342. 
Philemon  et  Baucis,  71. 
Pfc»ftr«,  Le,  57. 
Pirata,  11,  59. 
Pottw  of  Evil,  The,  77. 
Preciosa,  16,  19,  20. 
Prince  Igor,  322-8. 
Prince  Kholmsky,  75. 
Pme  rfe  TroiV,  La,  69. 
Prophete,  Le,  46,  48,  63. 
Puritani,  I,  9,  43,  58,  62. 

Eheingold,  Das,  200. 
.B/enzi,  333-8. 
Rigoletto,  9,  43,  60-3,  66. 


OPERAS  (cont.). 
Ring  des  Nibelungen,  Der,  8,  342, 

344,  349« 

Robert  le  Diable,  8,  9,  45. 
Rogneda,  77. 
Roi  d"  Ys,  Le,  72. 
Roi  fa  dit,  Le,  72. 
Rome'o  et  Juliette,  71. 
Romilda  e  Constanza,  49. 
Roussalka,  322. 
Russian  et  Ludmilla,  9,  74. 


71. 

Semiramide,  38. 
Semiratnide  riconosciuta,  49. 
SiVjre  d«  Corinthe,  La,  38. 
Siegfried,  5. 
Sonnambula,  La,  g,  58. 
Sylvana,  19. 

Taming  of  the  Shrew,  The,  73. 

TancraW,  38. 

Tannhauser,  23,  31,  63,  196,  200, 

333,  339-43- 

TVmpkr  unrf  di>  Judin,  Der,  27-3  1  . 
rmn'ate,  La,  60-3,  66. 
Trial  by  Jury,  78. 
Tristan  und  Isolde,   8,  129,   257, 

343- 

Trovatore,  77,  60-3,  66. 
Troyens,  Les,  69-70. 
Turandot,  16,  19,  20. 

Undine,  24. 
6. 


Vampyr,  Der,  8,  27. 
F^pre*  Siciliennes,  Les,  60. 
Fe«<a7e,  La,  6,  37,  43. 
Fi>  pour  le  Tsar,  La,  74-6. 

WaldmSdchen,  Das,  19. 
TTa//ture,  Die,  343. 
Widerspenstigen    ZtihnniHci,     Der, 
73-4- 


373 


INDEX 


OPERAS  (cont.). 
Yeomen  of  the  Guard,  The,  78. 
Zelmira  und  Azor,  23. 

ORATORIOS,  CANTATAS,  &c. : 
Christus  (Liszt),  12,  209-19. 
Christus  (Mendelssohn),  160. 
Christus  (Lachner),  315. 
Comala,  311. 
Creation,  u. 

Damnation  de  Faust,  168-70. 
Elijah,  II,  158-60. 
Erlkonigs  Tochter,  311. 
Enfance  du,  Christ,  n,  71,  170." 
Golden  Legend,  314. 
Gott  Ttnd  die  Natur,  48. 
Last  Judgment,  u. 
Liebesmahl     der     Apostel,     Das, 

323-4- 

Light  of  the  World,  314. 
Lobgesang,  160. 
Martyr  of  Antioch,  314. 
May  Queen,  311. 
3fors  e£  Ft  to,  71. 
JVtfwX  315. 

Paradise  and  the  Peri,  162-4. 
Prodigal  Son,  314. 
Redemption,  71. 
S#.  Elisabeth,  12,  190-6. 
Sfe.  PottZ,  u,  157-8. 
Seasons,  II. 

Stem  ww  Bethlehem,  Der,  315. 
Walpurgisnacht,  n,  161-2. 

ORGAN  Music,  331-2. 
OSTROVSKY,  77. 
OVERBECK,  4. 
OVERTURES : 

Beethoven,  364. 

Berlioz,  in,  135-8. 

Goetz,  315. 

Mendelssohn,  10,  80-5. 

Mozart,  364. 

Schumann,  10,  85-90. 

Sterndale  Bennett,  311. 


OVERTURES  (cont.). 
Sullivan,  314. 
Tchaikovsky,  329. 
Wagner,  106-10. 
Weber,  10,  364. 

PAGANINI,  13,  225,  363. 
PALESTRINA,  i. 
PARAPHRASES,  Les,  327-8. 
PARRY,  7,  18,  45-6,  329,  339. 
PEARSALL,  301. 
PERGOLESI,  6. 
PICCINNI,  8. 
POEMES  SYMPHONIQUES,  n,  77, 
319,  329.  362. 
Liszt,  149-155,  321-2. 

POHL,  359. 

PROGRAMME  Music,  111-55,  363- 
365- 

PURCELL,  301. 

RACHMANINOV,  232. 
RAFF,  233,  289,  320. 
RASUMOVSKY,  359. 
RAUPACH,  32. 
REISSIGER,  67. 
RHEINBERGER,  331-2. 
RICHTER,  Jean  Paul,  241, 243,  249, 
353- 

RlEHL,  358. 
RlEMANN,  359. 

RIES,  233. 

RlETZ,  153. 

RIMSKY-KORSAKOV,  7,  139,  321. 
RlTTER,  359. 
ROMANI,  59. 

ROMANTIC  ideal  in  Music,  5-12. 
ROMANTIC  movement  in  Literature, 

3-5,  U,  15- 
ROSSINI,  9,  22,  47,  64,  147,  314. 

Operas,  37-44,  64. 

Stabat  Mater,  184,  221. 
ROUSSEAU,  2,  14,  20,  287. 

RUBINI,  58. 

RUBINSTEIN,  7,  139,  233,  266,  289, 
312-3. 


INDEX 


373 


SAINT-SAENS,  49,  122, 139,  148. 

S  A  YN-WlTTGENSTEIN,  Princess,  357. 

SCHEFFER,  146. 
SCHILLER,  3,  11,  149,  357. 
SCHLEGEL,  4,  243,  353. 
SCHOPENHAUER,  355,  364. 
SCHUBERT,  5,  6,  20,  32,  255,  266, 

271. 

SCHUMANN,  5,  7,  10, 11,  12,  13,  14, 
24,  46-8,  106,  172,  186,  253,  264, 
289,  310,  331,  350,  351. 

Genoveva,  31-5. 

Overtures,  85-90. 

Symphonies,  90-104. 

Paradise  and  the  Peri,  162-4. 

Smaller  Choral  Works,  164-5. 

Faust,  165-8. 

Concerto,  230. 

Chamber  Music,  234-5. 

Pianoforte  Music,  240-50,  269. 

Songs,  272-5. 

Melodramas,  287. 

Criticisms,  46-8,  352-3. 
SCHUTZ,  I,  6. 
SCRIBE,  36,45,  46/57. 
SEIFFERT,  359. 
SEROV,  9,  74,  76-7. 

SlNGSPIEL,  1 6. 

SMETANA,  9,  74,  77. 
SMOLENSKY,  359. 
SOLOVIEV,  77. 
SONGS,  271-87. 

Schumann,  272-4. 

Mendelssohn,  274-5. 

Franz,  275-8. 

Berlioz,  278-81. 

Liszt,  281-5. 

Wagner,  285-6. 

Loewe,  286-7. 

SOUMET,  59. 

SPOHR,  6,  7,  n,  24,  47.  225,  363. 
Operas,  23-4. 

SPONTINI,  6,  36,  43.  336,  342,  355. 
STANFORD,  7,  35. 
STCHERBACHEV,  328. 


STERNDALE  BENNETT,  7,  14,  78, 

233,  289.  310-12. 
STEVENS,  310. 
STRAUSS,  J.,  238. 
STRAUSS,  R.,  7,  288.  / 
SULLIVAN,  78-9,  289,  363. 
SYMPHONIES  : 

Berlioz,  n,  111-35. 

Borodine,  321-2. 

Gade,  311. 

Goetz,  315. 

Liszt,  141-8. 

Mendelssohn,  90,  104-6. 

Raff,  320. 

Rubinstein,  312. 

Schumann,  10-11,  90-104. 

Sterndale  Bennett,  311. 

Tchaikovsky,  329. 

TAUSIG,  266. 

TCHAIKOVSKY,  225,  229,  315,  323, 

329-30,  360. 
TELLEFSEN,  359. 
THALBERG,  13. 
THAYER,  359. 
THOMAS,  49,  72. 
TIECK,  i,  32-3,  278,  337,  353. 
TRESSAN,  Count,  21. 

VERDI,  9,  44,  64,  363. 
Operas,  60-6. 
Requiem,  221-2. 
Smaller  Choral  Works,  222-3. 
Quartet,  235-6. 

VlANA  DA  MOTTA,  25. 
VlEUXTEMPS,  13,  225. 

VIRTUOSI,  influence  of.  13. 

VOGLER,  49. 
VOLKMANN,  289,  314-5. 

WAGNER,  i,  2,  5,  7,  8,  13,  21,  22 
23,  34,  36,  49.  So.  57,  64,  69,  76, 
129,  135,  147,  153,  154,  155,  172, 
191,  200,  217,  271,  286,  350-1. 
355,  357,  358,  362-5- 


374 


INDEX 


WAGNER  (cont.). 
Famt  Overture,  106-10. 
Smaller    Orchestral  Works,    no, 

136. 
Liebesmahl     der     Apostel,     Das, 

223-4. 

Songs,  285-6. 
Sketches,  333-4,  344. 
Operas,  333-43- 
Criticisms,  &c.,  58,  135,  154,  155, 

218,  256,  344-9.  354-5- 
WALLACE,  78. 
WASIELEWSKY,  359. 
WEBEB,  2,  5,  7,  13,  14,  24,  25,  47, 

68,  80,  266,  273,  337,  362-4. 


WEBEB  (cont.). 

Influence  of,  7-10. 

Operas,  16-23. 

Concertstiick,  80,  225-8. 

Concertos,  228-9. 

Pianoforte  Music,  237-8. 

Criticisms,  &c.,  352. 
WEITZMANN,  359. 
WESLEY,  S.,  13,  78,  289-90,  332. 
WESLEY,  S.  S.,   13,   78,  289-300, 
332. 

WlENIAWSKI,  13. 

ZELTEB,  287. 
ZUMSTEEG,  287. 


Oxford  :  Printed  at  the  Clarendon  Press  by  HORACE  HART,  M.  A. 


PLE 
CARDS  C 


*"•    9  1992 


-Q 


oo 

3