Full text of "Ozone"
TREATISE OF ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY
Edited by BERTRAM BLOUNT. F.I.C,
OZONE
XRIDEAL, M.B.E,M.A,(CANTAB), PH.;
CO
A TREATISE OF ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
EDITED by BERTRAM BLOUNT, F.I.C., ETC.
OZONE
A TREATISE OF ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
Edited by BERTRAM BLOUNT, F.I.C.
THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEMICALS
BY ELECTROLYSIS. By ARTHUR J.
HALE, B.Sc., F.I.C.
OZONE. By E. K. RIDEAL, M.B.E., M.A.,
Ph.D.
Other volumes in preparation.
A TREATISE OF ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY,
EDITED by BERTRAM BLOUNT, F.I.C., ETC.
OZONE
E. K^TUDEAL, M.B.E., M. A. (CANTAB.), Pn.D.
PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
LONDON
CONSTABLE & COMPANY LTD.
ORANGE STREET, W.C.
1920
EDITOR'S PREFACE.
THE idea of a series of books on Electro-Chemistry emanated
not from me, but from Messrs. Constable. Some years back
I wrote for them a book called "Practical Electro-Chemistry,"
intended to cover a great part of the ground of knowledge
then extant. Fortunately, knowledge has a habit of growing
and of propagating its kind, and my book, in consequence of
this, became a " back number ".
The subject of Electro-Chemistry is so ramified and
specialised that it was impossible for one man to make a
survey of the whole field. This fact is the genesis of the
present series in which those who have accurate and intimate
knowledge of the various branches of electro-chemistry have
undertaken the work for which they are particularly qualified.
It will be readily understood that, as the series of books was
started at an early period of the war, many contributors were
engaged in work of national and primary importance, and
were unable, however willing, to apply themselves at the
moment to exacting literary work. But this difficulty was
gradually overcome, as some prospect of a period to the
struggle came within view, with the result which the reader
will judge with consideration for the onerous conditions
under which my contributors have wrought.
The monographs resulting from their labours speak for
themselves, and if the educational advantages which I have
obtained from reading them during their passage through
the press is shared by the public, I believe that the thorough
and modern work of my friends and collaborators will be
appreciated, and such faults as there be will be attributed to
the person ultimately responsible — the Editor.
AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
EVER since the time of its discovery Ozone has attracted the
attention of chemists, physicists, and industrialists alike.
To the former it presented the first example of a gaseous
allotrope of an element, differing from oxygen in many
remarkable ways. The physicist frequently came in contact
with the substance in his investigations on the conduction
of electricity through air, whilst the industrialist was not
slow to avail himself of an oxidising agent, unsurpassed in
strength, leaving no objectionable material in its wake, and
at the same time easy, if indeed somewhat expensive, to
manufacture.
The angle from which Ozone and its modes of prepa-
ration was regarded by these three different sets of investi-
gators naturally varied, and an endeavour has been made in
the following pages to summarise and correlate the many
different references which are to be found scattered over a
wide field of literature. The merest survey, however, was
sufficient to indicate that our knowledge of Ozone, its pro-
perties and modes of formation, is exceedingly scanty. The
industrialist is ever at hand with extravagant claims as to
the utility of ''electrified oxygen"; the evidence as to the
chemical behaviour and properties of ozone is somewhat
meagre and frequently conflicting, for example, the existence
of the ozonates and of oxozone still awaits confirmation ;
whilst the hypotheses advanced to explain the mechanism
of its formation, either chemical, thermal, electrolytic, or
photo-chemical, are purely speculative. Ozone is generally
produced by means of the silent electric discharge, the
Vlll AUTHOE S PEEFACE
Aladdin's lamp of synthetic chemistry, for which no satis-
factory "modus operandi " has been suggested, synthesis
appearing to result from a combination of photo-chemical
action and electron emission.
A study of the ultra-violet spectrum of oxygen and its
allotropes gives us an insight into the various photo-chemical
actions involved, and quantitative relationships may be ob-
tained by an application of the quantum theory ; at the same
time the study of the disintegration or synthesis of the
molecules by electron emission is as yet in its infancy.
The work of Sir J. J. Thomson at the Cavendish
Laboratory on the subject of thermionics has opened up a
new vista of electro-chemical research, for it would appear
that the elements, including oxygen, can exist not only in
the form of allotropes, but also as allotropic modifications
possessing electrical charges. It remains for the future to
reveal the influence of these charges on chemical reactivity.
Thanks are due to those who have been kind enough to
place material dealing with the applications of ozone at my
disposal, and if the following pages can assist in stimulating
research both scientific and technical in this, one of the most
interesting branches of electro-chemistry, the object of the
writer will be fully attained.
EEIC K. EIDEAL.
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS,
ILLINOIS, U.S.A., 14£/i November, 1919.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
EARLY HISTORY OF OZONE AND ITS GENERAL PROPERTIES 1
CHAPTER II.
THE NATURAL OCCURRENCE OF OZONE 16
CHAPTER III.
CHEMICAL PRODUCTION . 28
CHAPTER IV.
THERMAL PRODUCTION 44
CHAPTER V.
THE ELECTROLYTIC PREPARATION OF OZONE ... 57
CHAPTER VI.
PRODUCTION BY ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION AND BY IONIC
COLLISION 70
CHAPTER VII.
PRODUCTION BY MEANS OF THE SILENT ELECTRIC DIS-
CHARGE 91
CHAPTER VIII.
THE CATALYTIC DECOMPOSITION OF OZONE . . . .133
CHAPTER IX.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS 142
CHAPTER X.
METHODS OF DETECTION AND ANALYSIS 179
NAME INDEX 191
SUBJECT INDEX 195
ix
CHAPTEE I.
OZONE.
EARLY HISTORY.
IN 1783 Van Marum, a Dutch philosopher, noticed that the
air in the neighbourhood of his electrostatic machine (now
in the museum at Haarlem, Holland) acquired a marked and
characteristic odour when subjected to the passage of a series
of electric sparks. Cruickshank in 1801 likewise drew at-
tention to the fact that the oxygen gas produced by the elec-
trolytic decomposition of dilute acids under certain conditions
was possessed of a similar odour.
These two investigators merely chronicled the results of
their experiments, and did not pursue their inquiries to
elucidate the origin of the odoriferous substance. Schonbein,
in a memoir presented to the Academy at Munich in 1840,
recognised that the smell noted in air subjected to the spark
discharge, and in the oxygen generated by electrolysis, was
due to the presence of a new gas, to which he gave the name
" ozone " (ofo) — to smell), he also showed that ozone was
formed in certain processes of autoxidation, notably by the
action of air on phosphorus, but failed to establish the exact
nature or composition of this new substance.
We shall have cause to observe, when discussing the pro-
cesses of autoxidation, the development of Schonbein's hypo-
thesis in that ozone or active oxygen is produced with its
1
2 OZONE
electrical isomer " antozone" by the disruption of the neutral
oxygen molecule —
+
02 -» 0' ozone + 0 antozone.
This hypothesis naturally led to the division of peroxides
into two groups, the ozonides and the antozonides, and to
an extended search for the two active electrically charged
forms of the oxygen atoms.
Various other speculative hypotheses were made as to
the composition of ozone, all unsupported by experimental
evidence, thus, Williamson suggested that it might be gase-
ous hydrogen peroxide, and Baumert considered ozone to be
an oxidised form of hydrogen peroxide, i.e. H203.
Becquerel and Freny first showed that oxygen could be
completely transformed into ozone, thus proving that ozone
was an allotropic modification of this element.
These experimenters effected the conversion of oxygen
into ozone by the passage of a stream of electric sparks
through the gas, the ozone formed being continuously re-
moved by means of a solution of potassium iodide. In this
way all the oxygen originally in the tube ultimately disap-
peared.
Andrews, Tait and Soret (" O.K.," 1876) took up the in-
vestigation at this stage, and by the following experiments
proved that the allotrope was actually a condensed form
of oxygen: —
A tube of volume V connected to a sulphuric acid ma-
nometer and containing oxygen gas was submitted to the
action of the spark discharge when a contraction in volume v
was recorded on the manometer. On heating up the tube to
OZONE
270° C. the ozone was destroyed and the gaseous mixture then
occupied its original volume V.
Soret showed that no change in the volume of the ozonised
oxygen (V - v) took place when the gas was exposed to
potassium iodide or metallic silver, nevertheless the ozone
was destroyed.
When, however, the gas mixture was exposed to turpen-
tine a further contraction in volume was observed, the final
C
Sulphuric Acid •
in Manometer.
FIG. 1.
volume being V - 3v where v was the volume contraction on
ozonisation.
As a result of the experiments Soret came to the conclusion
that the molecule of ozone consisted of three atoms of oxygen,
three volumes combining to give two volumes of ozone —
302 = 203,
since the volume contraction v on ozonisation is clearly equal
to one-third of the oxygen converted into ozone (or one-half
of the resulting ozone), which is subsequently absorbed by
the turpentine. Further, that when ozone reacted with
4 OZONE
potassium iodide or metallic silver it liberated an equal
volume of oxygen : —
03 + 2Ag = Ag20 + 02.
Soret ascribed the structural formula 0 — 0 to the tri-
V
o
atomic allotrope of oxygen, and confirmed tb~ existence of
ozone by a determination of its density. The theoretical
density of ozone at N.T.P. should be equal to one and a half
times that of oxygen, and this value was obtained by Soret
and Otto by several different methods, which may be briefly
described : —
A glass globe of about one litre was filled with pure dry
oxygen at a determined temperature and pressure ; and
subsequently weighed ; the oxygen was then displaced by
ozonised oxygen reweighed, and the weight of ozone in the
flask determined by titration with iodine and sodium thio-
sulphate.
If V be the volume of the globe, containing w grams of
oxygen of density J, and w + w' be the weight of the ozonised
oxygen in the globe, where S is the density of ozone, and v
and w" the actual volume and weight of ozone in the globe,
then
(i) w + w' = &v + (V - v)A,
(ii) w" = vS,
(iii) w = JV.
From (i) v(S - A) = w + w' - AV ••= w',
<> w' „
hence : — o K A = w
= -
\w-
OZONE 5
From two determinations Otto obtained the values for the
ratio —A
A
= 1-5 - 0-0034 and T5 + 0'0035,
or the density of ozone was practically one and a half times
that of oxygen.
DENSITY BY DIFFUSION.
Soret showed that the rate of transpiration through a
small aperture of the purest ozone which he could obtain was
intermediate between the values obtained for chlorine and
carbon dioxide. By applying Graham's law to the figures
obtained for the time of transpiration of ozone and carbon
dioxide, taking t' as the time of transpiration for a volume of
carbon dioxide of density A, and £2 for an equal volume of
ozone of density S,
the value T554 was obtained, taking oxygen as unity. Laden-
burg (" Ber.," 1901) at a later date obtained the value 1-3698
for an ozonised oxygen containing 86 per cent, ozone.
We have already referred to Soret's early experiments on
the comparison of the volumes occupied by equal weights of
oxygen and ozone, in which the ozone formed from a known
quantity of oxygen was removed by absorption in turpentine.
From the results of seven experiments Soret obtained a mean
value differing by only 2*7 per cent, from the theoretical.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OZONE.
Ozone possesses a strong penetrating and characteristic
odour which can be detected in concentrations of one part in
6
a million of air. We may note that there is no Unanimity in
describing this odour, since it has been likened to sulphur,
chlorine and phosphorus (presumably undergoing oxidation
when ozone itself would actually be present) ; other observers
have compared it to dilute oxides of nitrogen, whilst De la
Coux likens it to lobster.
Dilute ozone is practically colourless, but when viewed
through a tube five or six feet long it is found to give a sky
blue tint to the column of air.
Hautefeuille and Chappuis ("C.K.," 94, 1249, 1882) ob-
tained liquid ozone by compressing ozonised oxygen to 125
atmospheres at a temperature of - 103° C. Liquid ozone is
soluble in liquid oxygen, and Ladenburg ("Ber.," 31, 2508,
1898) obtained a mixture of liquid ozone and oxygen, con-
taining 84'4 per cent, ozone by passing a current of ozonised
oxygen through a tube cooled in liquid oxygen, whilst E.
Goldstein (" Zeit. Elektrochern.," 50, 972, 1903) obtained
pure liquid ozone by immersion of a double walled quartz
mercury vapour lamp in liquid oxygen. When a small
quantity of oxygen was admitted into the vacuous space it
was rapidly ozonised by the ultra-violet light emitted by the
mercury vapour and condensed in the form of small drops,
the pressure rapidly fell and fresh oxygen could then be
admitted. Dewar likewise obtained practically pure liquid
ozone by the careful f ractionation of liquefied ozonised oxygen.
Liquid ozone, which is very liable to explode if accidentally
brought into contact with a trace of organic matter or if the
temperature be allowed to rise, is a dark blue liquid, opaque
in thickness exceeding 2 mm. Olszewski (" Monatsh.," 8, 109,
1887 ; " Ann. der Physik," 3, 31, 1887) gave the boiling-point
OZONE • 7
at - 106° C. to - 109° C., whilst Troost ("C.B.," 126, 1751,
1898) determined it at - 119° C.
The formation of ozone from oxygen is accompanied by
the absorption of heat and the instability of liquid ozone
and the gas at ordinary temperatures is doubtless occasioned
by its strongly endothermic nature.
203 = 302 + 2Q.
The lowest value of Q, the heat of decomposition per gram,
mol. of ozone, is recorded by Hollman in 1868 as 17,064
calories, later determinations by Berthelot (1876) gave 29,600,
Van de Meulen obtained values between 32,600 and 36,000,
whilst Kemsen gives the highest value of 36,600. The most
recent observations of Jahn (" Zeit. Anorg. Chem.," 60, 357,
1908, and 68, 250, 1910) give 34,000 (see p. 45).
Ozone is soluble in water, but wide discrepancies are found
in the published figures, doubtless occasioned by partial de-
composition during solution.
Schone (" Ber.," 6, 1224, 1873) obtained the value for the
solubility coefficient at 18° C. of 0'366, McLeod at 14° C.
0-2795, Carius ("Ann.," 174, 30, 1874) at 1° C. 0'834, Laden-
burg ("Ber.," 31, 2510, 1898) gave the solubility at 12° C. as
O'Ol per cent, by volume, whilst Mailfert (" C.K.," 119, 951,
1894) gives the following values for the coefficient : —
Temperature. Coefficient of
Solubility.
0°C 0-64
11-8° 0-5
15° 0-456
19° 0-381
27° 0-27
40° 0-112
55° 0-031
60° . 0
8 OZONE
about fifteen times the values obtained for oxygen. Mouf-
gang ("Woch Brauerei," 28, 434, 1911) determined the
following values : 10 mgm. per litre at 2° C. and 1'5 mgm. at
28° C.
In dilute solutions of sulphuric acid (0*03 - 0'09 percent.)
the coefficient of solubility is somewhat higher, as is indicated
by the following figures : —
Temperature. Coefficient of
Solubility.
30° C 0-240
33° 0-224
49° 0-156
57° 0-096
Eothmund (" Nernst Festschrift," 391, 1912) has indicated
that the above figures are in all probability too low owing to
the decomposition of ozone occurring during the estimation
of the solubility. He found that this decomposition was
remarkably small in O'l N. sulphuric acid at 0° C. and obtained
a value 0*487 for the absorption coefficient at this tempera-
ture; when corrected for the salting out action of the sul-
phuric acid the coefficient in water would be equal to 0'494.
Ozone is soluble in acetic acid, acetic anhydride, ethyl
acetate, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride (Fischer and
Tropsch, " Ber.," 50, 765, 1917), forming blue solutions which
are fairly stable. Solutions of ozone in carbon tetrachloride,
in which the solubility is seven times that in water, do not
undergo decomposition for twenty-four hours.
The decomposition of ozone (see p. 133) is frequently ac-
companied by a phosphorescence noted by Dewar when pass-
ing ozonised air through a capillary opening, and by Otto in the
action of ozone on water containing traces of organic matter.
OZONE 9
A vivid phosphorescence is likewise obtained when a hot
glass rod is brought near the surface of liquid oxygen contain-
ing ozone ("Beger. Zeit. Elektrochem.," 16, 76, 1910).
R S. Strutt ("Proc. Roy. Soc.," 85, 10, 1911) has ex-
amined a number of cases of phosphorescent combustions,
especially marked in vacuum tubes containing ozonised air
under low pressures. Phosphorescence was noticed during
the oxidation of a number of substances by ozone, amongst
the more important being nitric oxide, sulphur, hydrogen
sulphide, ethylene, and iodine. The spectroscopic examina-
tion revealed a banded spectrum in the majority of cases, but
occasionally continuous spectra were obtained.
The spectrum of ozone is exceedingly complex and has
been the subject of numerous investigations.
Chappuis (" C.R.," 94, 858, 1882) found eleven lines lying
in the region X = 628'5 ^ and X = 444 ^ in the visible
spectrum, those lying on either side of the sodium lines being
particularly distinct and characteristic, X = 609'5 - 595'5 ^
and X = 577 to 560 /^. Schone (" Zeit. Anorg. Chem.," 6, 333,
1894) added two to the above number, whilst Ladenburg and
Lehmann ("Ber.," 4, 125, 1906) noticed a line in the red
portion of the spectrum.
J. Stark ("Ann. der Physik," 43, 2, 319, 1914) has shown
that the ozone molecule gives rise to many bands lying be-
tween the visible green and the ultra-violet, X = 210 fjL/j,. The
bands of long wave lengths were found to be resolvable into
line series.
Certain lines attributed to the ozone molecule are fre-
quently caused by other allotropes of the element, either of
elementary oxygen in the monatomic or diatomic form, 0 or
10
O2, or of those substances when charged. Thus Stark (" Phys.
Zeit.," 14, 720, 1913) has shown the existence of two distinct
arc spectra of oxygen attributable to the substances 02 and
62.
The line in the visible red of the spectrum noticed by
Ladenburg and Lehmann (loc. cit.) is possibly not due to ozone
but to another allotrope of oxygen, viz. oxozone, 04 ; whilst
the existence of a band in the infra red or thermal region at
X = 1040 fjifju has been claimed for ozone but has not received
confirmation.
The lines of the oxygen spectrum at the negative electrode
of a discharge tube were examined by Schuster, Steubing and
F. Croze ("C.K.," 153, 680, 1916) who gives the following:
X = 685-3 ftp, 662'5, 603*2, 564'6, 529'6 and 498. Schuster's
two negative bands X = 570 - 584 ^ and X = 601 - 596 /JL/JL
could not be resolved.
The lines of atomic oxygen 0 are found in the examin-
ation of water vapour as well as in oxygen submitted to
intense electrical discharges. Fowler and Brooksbank (" Roy.
Astron. Soc.," 77, 511, 1917) have likewise shown the pres-
ence of lines of this series, the third line spectrum of oxygen
X = 559'2 JJLJI, and 39618 in stars of the fi type as well as in
Wolf Eayet stars.
The ultra-violet spectra of oxygen and its allotropes are
of special significance in the consideration of their photo-
chemical interconversion (see p. 70).
That of ozone has been examined by Lenard (" Ann. der
Physik," i, 480, 1900), Goldstein (" Ber.," 36, 304, 1903),
and more especially Regener (" Ann. der Physik," 20, 1033,
1906).
11
The 02 molecule gives short wave length bands resolvable
into lines between the region X 200 and X 188 fifjL correspond-
ing to the ultra-violet fluorescence of oxygen. Steubing
noticed five bands between X = 183*1, and 191*1 /-&/*, whilst
L. and E. Bloch (" O.K.," 158, 1161, 1914) isolated two new
ones conforming to the Delandres formula at X = 192'3 to
193'6, and 194'6 to 195 '7 ^//,. The ultra-violet oxygen atom
0 band in the region X = 230 pp and X = 340 /*//, is observed
in the positive column in pure rarified oxygen, and in the
decomposition of dissociation of many oxygen-containing
compounds. The strongest band (see Meyerheim, Grebe,
Holtz and Fowler, « Proc. Eoy. Soc.," 94, 472, 1918) is found
at X = 306 '4 ftp, and is usually attributed to water vapour.
Investigations on the carriers of positive electricity by
Sir J. J. Thomson and his co-workers (" The Carriers of
Positive Electricity") have revealed the presence of a great
number of allotropes of oxygen which give rise to their re-
spective band spectra. F. Horton (" Phil. Mag.," 22, 24, 1911)
has shown the existence of carriers of positive electricity in
oxygen of electric atomic weights, 8, 16, 32, 48 and 96.
Becquerel has shown that the magnetic susceptibility of
ozone exceeds that of oxygen, and that the ratio of the
specific magnetic susceptibilities exceeds that of the ratio of
their densities.
CHEMICAL PKOPEETIES.
Chemically, ozone is a strong oxidising agent, capable of
effecting the oxidation of all the elements with the exception
of gold and some of the metals of the platinum group.
It liberates iodine from potassium iodide and brings about
12 OZONE
the oxidation of numerous substances such as lead sulphide,
manganous salts and ferrocyanides, reactions which form the
basis of its qualitative and quantitative detection and esti-
mation.
The general reaction may be expressed by the equation : —
M + 03 = MO + 02.
In some cases, however, oxygen is not liberated, but the whole
of the ozone reacts and no free oxygen is evolved. Thus
sulphur dioxide is oxidised to sulphuric anhydride by ozone
according to the reaction : —
3S02 + 03 = 3S03
(see Brodie, "Phil. Mag.," 1894, and Eiesenfeld, "Zeit. Elek-
trochem.," 17, 634, 1911). In the combustion of the organic
matter in water during the process of sterilisation by ozonised
air this reactivity of the ozone molecule as a whole is likewise
noted.
Kiesenfeld (" Zeit. Anorg. Chem.," 85, 217, 1914) observed
a similar series of reactions in the action of ozone on sulphur
compounds. Three atoms of oxygen in the ozone molecule
react with sodium hydrogen sulphite, whilst with neutral
sulphites and alkaline thiosulphates only two atoms react,
the third being liberated as oxygen gas.
With certain peroxides, such as hydrogen peroxide, it
undergoes decomposition as follows :—
03 + H202 = H20 + 202,
Eothmund ("Monatsh.," 38, 295, 1917) showed that the
reaction was unimolecular in excess of hydrogen peroxide,
but in dilute solutions the ozone underwent catalytic decom-
position.
OZONE 13
It has found many uses industrially as an oxidising agent,
which will be detailed in a subsequent section of this volume.
Reference, however, may be made to the deodorising of air,
the conversion of manganates into permanganates, of chlo-
rates into perchlorates, and the " drying " of oils in the pre-
paration of linoleum and varnishes.
At suitable temperatures selective oxidation of undesirable
substances which give an objectionable colour or odour to
many fats and waxes may be obtained, and such processes of
bleaching are receiving extended application. Attempts have
also been made to accelerate the ageing of spirits and wine
by fractional oxidation with ozone.
Ozone is a powerful germicide, as was first indicated by
Frohlich. Its high germicidal activity is doubtless due to its
oxidising power, and as a dual agent of this character it has
been fairly extensively employed for the sterilisation of public
water supplies, for the treatment of wounds in hospitals, and
for various purposes of sterilisation and preservation in in-
dustries, such as hide preservation, cold meat storage and
the like. Although ozone in high concentrations will effect
the sterilisation of air, yet such concentrations as are neces-
sary (ca. '05 per cent.) are not capable of respiration without
damage to the tissues, consequently its chief function is as a
deodoriser and " freshener " for air in confined and crowded
spaces.
In the realm of organic chemistry ozone has received ap-
plication in two directions, firstly as an oxidising agent of
great strength which introduces no foreign matter, and
secondly as a reagent for the ethylene linkage - C = C - .
As an oxidising agent it is employed for the preparation
14 OZONE
of vanillin on an extremely large scale. The production of
other substances, such as heliotropine, piperonal, and anisalde-
hyde, can also be accomplished with its aid (see chap. ix.).
Apart from its powerful oxidising properties, ozone will react
with certain substances in two definite and characteristic
ways to form ozonates and ozonides.
THE OZONATES.
Baeyer and Villiger (" Ber.," 35, 3038, 1908) state that
strong ozonised air fumes in moist air colours blue litmus
red, and causes an increase in the conductivity of distilled
water when passed through it. They therefore regarded
ozone as the anhydride of an unstable ozonic acid, H204.
According to these authors, if due precautions are taken,
highly coloured ozonates may be prepared by the interaction
of ozone and moist solid alkali hydroxides or concentrated
solutions of the same at low temperatures.
The ozonates are usually orange or brown. If ozone be
passed into a cold ammonia solution, it acquires a dark red
colour attributed by these investigators to the formation of
ammonium ozonate, NH4H04. Lithium ozonate was found
to be least, and that salt of caesium most stable.
A white granular precipitate of calcium peroxide is formed
on the passage of ozonised air into cold lime water.
According to W. Manchot ("Ber.," 41, 47, 1908), Baeyer
and Villiger's results are to be attributed to the presence
of small quantities of oxides of nitrogen in their ozonised
air, since he found that ozone possessed no acidic quali-
ties.
OZONE 15
THE OZONIDES.
The ozonides are formed by the interaction of ozone with
organic compounds containing unsaturated ethylene linkages
according to the general equation : —
— C — C— Ov
!l + 03 -* | >0
_c — c— cr
Discovered by Harries ("Ann.," 343, 311, 1905; " Ber.," 38,
1195, 1905), this reaction was successfully employed by him
to elucidate the composition of rubber (see p. 170), and has of
recent years been frequently utilised to identify the presence
of ethylene linkages.
Where compounds containing ethylene linkages are
treated with strongly ozonised oxygen (ca. 40 per cent. 03)
the ozonides thus formed on analysis yield more oxygen than
is to be expected by the assumption of simple saturation of
the ethylene linkage according to the equation :—
— C —G—0\
II + 03 -> | )0
— c — c— cr
According to Harries, oxozonides are formed by interaction of
the organic compound with oxozone present in the gas :—
_ C — C— 0— 0
H + 04 -> | |
_ c — c— o— o
More recent experiments, however (see p. 184), have failed
to establish the existence of oxozone in ozonised air or oxy-
gen and consequently some other explanation for the forma-
tion of oxozonides must be advanced.
CHAPTEE II.
THE NATURAL OCCURRENCE OF OZONE.
THE occurrence of ozone in ordinary atmospheric air has
long been a matter of dispute. C. Schonbein (" J. f. Prakt.
Chemie," 73, 99, 1858), as early as 1858, showed that starch
iodide paper, when exposed to the air, slowly turned blue,
thus demonstrating the existence of some oxidising agency.
He noted that the rate of liberation of iodine varied from day
to day and attributed this to an alteration in the ozone con-
tent of the air. Cloez and Bineau pointed out that the
liberation of iodine from starch iodide could likewise be
caused by the presence of oxides of nitrogen naturally present
in atmospheric air.
Houzeau ("Ann. Chem. Phys." IV, 27, 5, 1872, and
" C.K.," 74, 712, 1872), as a result of over 4000 determina-
tions with neutral litmus starch iodide paper, came to the
conclusion that ozone was present in atmospheric air in ad-
dition to the frequent occurrence of oxides of nitrogen. As
a maximum ozone content Houzeau recorded 2 '8 mgm. per
cubic metre. Houzeau's views were supported by Hartley
(u Trans. Chem. Soc.," 39, 10, 111, 1881, and "Nature," 39,
474, 1889), who noted that many of the dark lines of the solar
spectrum were coincident with those that would have been
produced on the assumption that atmospheric ozone absorbed
light of these particular wave lengths emitted from the sun,
(16)
THE NATUEAL OCCUEEENCE OF OZONE 17
thus exhibiting the Frauenhofer lines ; which conclusions
were confirmed by Meyer ("Ann. der Physik," IV, 12,
849, 1903).
The vivid blue colour of ozone was asserted by Hartley
to give the characteristic coloration to the summer sky, an
alternative theory to the one first propounded by Lord Bay-
leigh in 1871 (Hon. S. W. Strutt, " Phil. Mag.," n, 107, 1871)
and extended by Schuster (" Theory of Optics," p. 325) and
King (" Trans. Phil. Boy. Soc.," A, 212, 375, 1913).
Kayleigh showed that the intensity of the light scattered
by small particles of dust in the atmosphere would vary in-
versely as the fourth power of the wave length, i.e. the light
in the ultra-violet and blue end of the spectrum being of the
shortest wave length would be most intensely scattered and
thus made visible. It may be noted that in Lord Bayleigh's
experiments the sky light appeared somewhat bluer than
anticipated by this theory, and thus indicated that absorption
by ozone may be a contributary cause to the colour of the
sky. C. Fabry and H. Buisson (" C.B.," 156, 782, 1913), as
a result of a series of experiments on the absorption coefficient
ozone for light of the wave lengths X = 255 fip to 330 pp,
showed that a thickness of only 25 /JL of ozone reduces the
incident light intensity by over 50 per cent. For a wave
length of X = 300 fip the proportion of transmitted light for
a thickness of 5 mm. of ozone was only 1 per cent., approxi-
mating to the conditions of the terrestrial atmosphere exposed
to solar radiation. If uniformly distributed this would equal
0'6 c.c. or 1'4 mgm. per cubic metre ; this concentration is
somewhat high for air at low altitudes, hence it may be
argued that with increasing altitudes the ozone content rises.
2
18
OZONE
E. Kron (" Ann. der Physik," 45, 377, 1914) records X =
325 /uyu, as the limit of the effective solar spectrum at sea-level
on the clearest days. Fabry and Buisson's results between
the wave length X = 200 and X = 350 ^ are shown in the
following graphical form : —
foo
50
20
^
\
1
J
\
\
I
i
\
0 250 300 35(
\ 771 [JtfJL
FIG. 2.
More recently Fowler and Strutt ("Proc. Eoy. Soc.," 93,
577, 1917) showed that the Frauenhofer lines between the
wave lengths X = 319*9 ^ and X = 333-8 /-t/4, the ultra-violet
lines shown by Ladenburg and Lehmann to be present in the
ozone absorption spectrum, were present in the greatest in-
tensity in the solar spectrum at low altitudes, or when the
terrestrial air stratum through which the light had to pass
was greatest, thus again supporting Hartley's contention that
the atmospheric ozone was an effective agent in fixing the
extension of the solar spectrum in the ultra-violet.
Strutt (" Proc. Koy. Soc.," 114, 260, 1918) likewise showed
that the limitation of the solar spectrum to the lower wave
THE NATUEAL OCCUEEENCE OF OZONE 19
length of X = 294*8 pp was due to the absorption by atmos-
pheric ozone. By long distance experiments on absorption
of the light from a cadmium spark and mercury vapour lamp,
the lower air, mass for mass, was found more transparent
than the upper air, and that if the absorption was not due to
dust, the ozone content would not exceed 0'27 mm. at normal
pressure, in four miles of air.
Engler and Wild ("Ber.," 29, 1940, 1896) likewise con-
firmed the presence of atmospheric ozone by the action of
air on manganous chloride paper, whilst Schone in 1897
(" Brochure," Moscow, 1897) obtained as maxima and minima
the following values : —
Maximum, 100 mg. per cubic metre.
Minimum, 10 ,, ,, ,,
In the same year, Thierry ("C.B.," 124, 460, 1897) made
the important observation from experiments conducted on
Mont Blanc, that the ozone content of the atmosphere rose
with increasing altitude, thus, at 1000 metres height he ob-
tained 0'039 mg., and at 3000 metres, 0'094 mg. of ozone per
cubic metre of air. Similar figures were observed by H. de
Varigny (Smithsonian College, " Proc.," 39, 27), viz. a maxi-
mum and minimum of 0'03 and 0*01 mg. per cubic metre.
These observations were continued by Hatcher and Arny
(" J. Amer. Pharm.," 72, 9, 1900), who determined the amount
of ozone in the air by two different methods, viz. the iodide
and arsenitic titration processes, as maxima and minima,
they observed the following values : —
Method of Minimum. Maximum.
Estimation.
Iodide 158 316 mg. per cubic metre.
Arsenite 34 80 „
20 OZONE
Henriet and Bonyssy ("C.R," 146, 977, 1908) showed that
the ozone content of the air at ground level varied approxi-
mately inversely with the carbon dioxide concentration.
Hayhurst and Pring ("J.C.S.," LXII, 868, 1910) drew
attention to the wide variation of the results obtained by
numerous investigators, and conducted a series of observa-
tions on Glossop Moor in Derbyshire. They showed, utilising
Houzeau's original method of estimating both iodine and
alkali liberated from potassium iodide solutions, a procedure
which was found to give extremely accurate results, both for
ozone and mixtures of ozone and nitrogen dioxide, that in
this neighbourhood at least, oxides of nitrogen were always
present in the air up to an altitude of 8000 ft., and that the
quantity of ozone present, if any, was too small to be de-
tected. With an increase in the altitude small quantities of
ozone were obtained up to a ^height of 10 miles. Concen-
trations of the order of 0'12 to 0*4 mg. per cubic metre of
ozone, and smaller quantities of oxides of nitrogen were ob-
tained.
H. N. Holmes ("J. Amer. Chem. Soc.," 47, 497, 1909)
has shown that the maximum amount of ozone is formed in
moving areas of air under a high barometric pressure when
the conditions are favourable for bringing air of high altitudes
close to the earth's surface.
It may be concluded that ozone is a normal constituent
of pure air, and that the quantity of ozone in the air increases
with the altitude. Seasonal variations in the ozone content
have likewise been obtained. Thus, Houzeau, as a result of
eight years observation with neutral and alkaline iodide test-
papers (loc. cit.}, noted that the ozone content of the atmos-
THE NATURAL OCCURRENCE OF OZONE 21
phere rose in spring and summer, but sank to very small
proportions in autumn and winter. Berigny observed a
maximum in the month of May, and a minimum in Novem-
ber, and gives the following order for decreasing ozone con-
tent, May, March, April, June, August, July, September,
January, October, February, November.
Pring ("Proc. Koy. Soc.," 96, 204, 1914) extended his
investigations to the air in the high Alps ; at 2100 metres, he
obtained the value 4'7 rag. per cubic metre, and at 3580
metres 8*8 mg. per cubic metre. No considerable increase
in the ozone content was observed at altitudes up to 20 km.
Oxides of nitrogen and hydrogen peroxide were absent in the
air at the higher altitudes.
Usher and Eao (" J.C.S.," in, 779, 1917) conducted a
series of estimations in India on the ozone (by manganese
dioxide), hydrogen peroxide (by chromic acid), and oxides of
nitrogen content of the atmosphere. They could not detect
the presence of ozone although oxides of nitrogen in con-
centrations of from 1 to 5 parts per million were frequently
obtained.
The ozone concentration in the lower air strata likewise
increases during periods of storm or after heavy rain storms,
and the south and south-west winds are said to be richer in
ozone than the northern ones.
K. Nasini ("Atti. d. K. Accad. Lincei," 21, 740, 1912)
records interesting cases of naturally occurring ozonised
water ; he states that the acid waters of Bagnone, Monte
Annata are highly ionised, and contain T25 of oxygen, and
0135 c.c. of ozone per litre.
22 OZONE
SOUECES OF NATUEAL OZONE.
Various alternative hypotheses have been advanced to
explain the mode of formation of this small ozone concentra-
tion in atmospheric air. It is at once evident that even this
minute quantity exceeds the normal thermal equilibrium
amount, and consequently there must be a continuous source
of ozone. We may classify the various hypotheses as to this
source under three groups : —
(a) chemical ; (b) photo-chemical ; (c) electrical.
NATUEAL CHEMICAL PEOCESSES.
The earlier investigators such as Schonbein, Houzeau,
Berigny, Peyrou, and Marie Davy, were of the opinion that
the green vegetation of plant life was responsible for the
production of ozone, thus accounting for the observed maxi-
mum and minimum ozone content in the months of May and
November respectively. It was shown, however, that coloured
plants yielded no volatile oxidising substances whatever, and
more recent experiments have shown that the oxidising agent,
which can always be detected in green plant growth, is hy-
drogen peroxide. According to Priestly and Usher ("Proc.
Phys. Soc.," 78, 3, 38, 1906), the plant chlorophyll serves
merely as a light sensitiser to bring about the reaction —
3H20 + C02 + light energy = HCHO + 2H2 02,
the formaldehyde thus formed is subsequently polymerised
to formose (d.l. glucose) by the protoplasm of the cell chloro-
plast.
The hydrogen peroxide is usually destroyed by one of the
numerous enzymes, termed oxidases, present liberating mo-
lecular oxygen —
THE NATUEAL OCCUEEENCE OF OZONE 23
2H202 -> 2H20 + O2
(see Bach and Choat, "Arch. d. Sci. Phys. et Nat. Geneva,"
17, 4771, 1909), but many investigators suspect that during
the decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide small quantities
of ozone may be produced.
The production of ozone by the atmospheric oxidation of
various gums and essential oils exuded by trees and plants,
such as turpentine, sandal-wood oil, or oil of lavender, has
long been suspected, and undoubtedly the rapidity with which
starch iodide slips are turned blue in a pine forest is, in some
measure, due to the ozone present in the surrounding air,
although the formation of hydrogen peroxide under these
conditions is without doubt the more important natural pro-
cess contributing to the freshness of the air.
PHOTO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES.
We shall have occasion to refer to the interesting fact that
oxygen is ozonised by exposure to ultra-violet irradiation of
wave length \ = 120 - 180 //.^ whilst ozonised oxygen is re-
solved into its original form by light of somewhat longer wave
length, viz. \ = 330 /JL/JL.
Hartley ("Trans. Chem. Soc.," 39, 10, 111, 1881) noted
the presence of Frauenhofer lines in the visible solar spectrum
corresponding to those which would be absorbed by ozone.
These conclusions in the visible part of the spectrum were
confirmed by Meyer ("Ann. der Physik," IV, 12, 849, 1903)
and extended by C. Fabry and H. Buisson (" C.R.," 156,
782, 1913) and Fowler and Strutt ("Proc. Roy. Soc.,"
93» 77, 1917) to the ultra-violet portion of the spectrum.
Furthermore, all experimental evidence indicates that the
24 OZONE
ozone concentration is greatest in the upper portion of the
atmosphere, where the intensity of the ultra-violet radiation
would naturally be greatest (see also K. Birkeland, " Cairo
Soc.," 8, 287, 1916). It would appear that the presence of
ozone in atmospheric oxygen is largely due to the synthetic
operation of solar radiant energy of short wave length
(X = 120 - 180 ftp), whilst the limitations in the amount in
the upper parts of the atmosphere is caused by the destructive
action of light of longer wave length (X = 300 /JL/J,), a dynamic
equilibrium being finally established between the rate of
formation and the rate of decay. Near the earth's surface,
as we have seen, smaller ozone concentrations are obtained,
partly owing to the fact that the light of longer wave length
penetrates somewhat further into a dusty atmosphere than
that of short wave length, but more especially to the reducing
action of easily oxidisable substances both on the earth's
surface, and carried to low altitudes by the wind. Country
air, according to Houzeau, contains more ozone than that
around villages, whilst its presence can rarely be detected in
towns. This observer, in fact, records the disappearance of
ozone in the air after the passage of a crowd on a public fete
day, and its gradual reappearance when the normal conditions
had been re-established.
ELECTEICAL PEOCESSES.
The increasing attention which during the last few years
has been paid to a study of atmospheric ionisation and electri-
fication has not only clearly demonstrated that the potential
difference between different parts of the atmosphere and be-
tween earth or water and the air may reach extremely high
THE NATURAL OCCURRENCE OF OZONE 25
values during periods of atmospheric disturbances such as
electrical storms, but even during periods of fair weather,
local potential differences of high magnitude may result.
Evidence for the ozonisation of oxygen during periods of
intense electrical discharge, either silent as in the aurora,
natural corona, and the remarkable Andes glow occasionally
observed in S. America (see " Knoche Meteor. Zeit.," 29, 329,
1912), or violent as in lightning and the so-called thunderbolt
or globular discharge, is somewhat conflicting. Undoubtedly
oxides of nitrogen are present, since these can always be
detected during periods of heavy discharge, and in many cases
it appears probable that ozone is formed either without or
more probably in conjunction with the oxides of nitrogen.
Thornton (" Phil. Mag.," 21, 630, 1911) has advanced the
view that the globular discharges themselves are purely
gaseous bodies and consist of ozone in active combination.
In a subsequent chapter we shall observe that the condi-
tions for the possible ozonisation of oxygen by means of
ionisation are established when a discharged electron or a gas
ion strikes an oxygen molecule with sufficient violence so as
to permit the temporary distortion of, or the actual removal
of one of the valency electrons circulating round the oxygen
molecule from its orbit, and a rough computation of the volt-
age of discharge which is necessary to give the emitted
electron this requisite energy is but nine volts, a relatively
low figure.
The potential difference between strata of air during
periods of fine weather is frequently extremely great and quite
sufficient to produce atmospheric ionisation, with the conse-
quent possible production of ozone, thus P, Mercanton
26 OZONE
(" Terrest. Magn.," 22, 35, 1917) obtained a P.D. of 1200 volts
per metre on the top of a tower at Lausanne, 930 metres
above sea-level.
C. Chree (" Phil. Trans.," 215, 133, 1915) gives 304 volts
per metre as the average potential gradient in the atmosphere
at Kew for the last fifteen years.
McLennan (" Nature," 92, 424, 1913) obtained the follow-
ing values for the number of gas ions formed per second per
cubic centimetre of air, nine ions in the air over the land and
four over sea water. He ascribed ionisation due to the influ-
ence of the ultra-violet light itself; a view supported by the
experiments of G. Simpson (" Monthly Weather Keview,"
44, 115, 1916), who found that at a height of 6000 metres,
over thirty times as many ions were formed per second as at
sea-level. W. Swann ("Terrest. Magn.," 21, 1, 1916) like-
wise showed that the upper air was a region of high electrical
conductivity, the source being the ultra-violet light of ampli-
tude X<135 ftp, a fraction only T61 x 10 ~5 of the total
radiant energy derived from the sun. Production of ozone
by natural ionisation is thus chiefly a secondary effect of ultra-
violet irradiation, which, as we have already noted, is one of
the chief ozonising agencies in the atmosphere. Natural ion-
isation and consequent ozonisation is, however, not entirely
derived from ultra-violet radiation, since ionisation and small
quantities of both ozone and hydrogen peroxide are formed
by the evaporation of water in air, especially in the neighbour-
hood of fountains and waterfalls, where conditions of spray
formation obtain.
A. Besson (" C.K.," 153, 877, 1911) noted that the maxi-
mum concentrations of ozone and hydrogen peroxide were
THE NATURAL OCCURRENCE OF OZONE 27
formed in air during the fall of heavy drops of rain from a
previously clear sky in hot summer weather.
C. Oddo (" Gaz. Soc. Chim. Ital.," 45, 395, 1915) ascribes
the formation of gas ions under these conditions to the
spontaneous ionisation of water vapour when rarified. One
kilogram of moist air (773*4 litres when dry at N.T.P.)
contains 89 x 10 ~ 20 hydrogen and hydroxyl ions at 15° C.
and 760 mm. pressure ; he shows that a fall in temperature
naturally diminishes the content of water vapour in the air
but also increases the degree of ionisation below 32° C., where
it is practically zero. The optimum temperature range for
maximum ionisation was found to be 5° to 20° C., which, it
may be noted, is the optimum for animal and vegetable life
in the temperate zones.
Lenard, in a series of researches on the Electricity of
Waterfalls (« Ann. der Physik," 45, 7, 100, 1914), showed that
ionisation was effected not only by the impact of suspended
drops upon obstacles such as rocks or stones, but by impact
of drops against each other resulting in the production of
secondary drops.
CHAPTEE III.
CHEMICAL PRODUCTION.
AN indication of the production of ozone can be observed in
a great variety of chemical reactions such as the decomposi-
tion of certain peroxides, in processes of autoxidation, and in
many cases of combustion of gaseous fuels. In the latter
case the ozone is doubtless of a purely thermal origin and a
consideration of the mechanism of production by this means
will be deferred to a subsequent section.
Ozone can nearly always be detected in oxygen resulting
from chemical decomposition. The temporary existence of
atomic oxygen liberated according to the equation :—
M"02 + H2S04 -> MS04 + H20 + 0
has not yet been definitely proved, although the evidence for
the formation of atomic hydrogen by similar processes is now
extremely strong. In any case during the decomposition of
the peroxides, the atomic oxygen polymerises with great
rapidity to the molecular form :—
0 + 0 -*• 02.
C. Brodie ("Phil. Trans.," 141, 759, 1850) first advanced the
view that ordinary oxygen during processes of chemical
action was split up into two parts termed ozone and antozone.
+
02 -» 0' (ozone) + O (antozone).
As we shall have occasion to note in discussing processes of
(28)
CHEMICAL PRODUCTION 29
autoxidation, Brodie's hypothesis was strongly supported by
the experimental work of Schonbein.
K. Clausius ("Zeit. Phys. Chem.," 103, 644, 1858) sug-
gested that Brodie's so-called " ozone " and " antozone " were
identical with atomic oxygen, possessing opposite electric
charges
02 -> 0 + 0'.
This view was further enlarged upon by van't Hoff
(" Zeit. Phys. Chem.,'r 16, 411, 1895), who, as a result of his
studies on the autoxidation of phosphorus, came to the con-
clusion that there exists a definite equilibrium in normal
gaseous oxygen between the molecular and atomic form, the
atomic being charged : —
02 ^:=t 6 + 0'.
Nernst ("Zeit. f. Elektrochem.," 9, 891, 1903) showed, from
a series of observations on the electromotive force of ozone-
oxygen cells, that if the three allotropes of oxygen were as-
sumed to exit in equilibrium with each other under normal
conditions, according to the reversible equations : —
03 2 02 + 0
02 ^ 0 + 0,
none of the allotropes possessing an electrical charge, then
the equilibrium concentration of the atomic oxygen would be
only 1/1023 of the normal ozone concentration, which we shall
see is of the order 10~5 per cent. The normal concentration
of atomic oxygen is, therefore, so small as to render its exist-
ence as a chemical substance, to which the ordinary methods
of statistical calculation of its concentration and properties in
bulk can be applied, extremely doubtful.
30 OZONE
Nevertheless, the formation of ozone in small quantities
may be expected to occur in the decomposition of the per-
oxides, since, on the above assumption, the following sequence
of chemical reactions may be assumed to occur : —
(i) Ba02 -> BaO + O.
(ii) O + O -> 02.
(iii) 02 + 0 -> 08.
We have already noted that reaction (ii) proceeds with great
rapidity, and that reaction (iii) is merely a side reaction,
which will only proceed during the evolution of oxygen.
Any ozone formed may, of course, be subsequently decom-
posed by catalysis at the surface of the decomposed peroxide,
or by the somewhat elevated temperature necessary to cause
decomposition of the peroxide.
Houzeau, in fact, was able to obtain concentrations as
high as 28 gms. of ozone per cubic metre of oxygen evolved,
by gently heating small quantities of powdered barium per-
oxide in eight times its volume of concentrated sulphuric
acid. Hydrogen peroxide is likewise formed in small quan-
tities under these conditions :—
4H2S04 + 4Ba02 -> (i) 4BaS04 + 1H20 + 202
(ii) 4BaS04 + 4H20 + 03 + 0
(iii) 4BaS04 + 4H202.
The same investigator showed that similar results were
obtained with other peroxides, notably those of magnesium,
zinc, sodium, and potassium.
Even better results can be obtained by the decomposition
and gentle dehydration of permanganic acid or potassium
dichromate,
Mn207 -> 2Mn02 + 03.
CHEMICAL PEODUCTION 31
As dehydrating agent, sulphuric acid is most conveniently
employed in the proportions of one of potassium perman-
ganate to two of sulphuric acid. De la Coux (" L' Ozone," p.
67) states that oxalic acid can be likewise employed in the
proportion of 10 gms. of permanganate to 15 gms. of oxalic
acid, and that 90 c.c. of oxygen containing 3 mgrn. of ozone
can be obtained from this mixture.
Satisfactory yields of ozone may also be obtained by the
cautious addition of barium peroxide to a solution of potas-
sium permanganate in sulphuric acid, of density 1'85.
By the thermal decomposition of the persulphates, small
quantities of ozone are likewise disengaged, Malaquin ("J.
Pharm. Chem.," VII, 3, 329, 1911) gives the following details
for the preparation of ozonised oxygen by this means.
Twenty gms. of dry and freshly prepared ammonium persul-
phate are mixed with 15 gms. of nitric acid in a small flask ;
the air is subsequently displaced by carbon dioxide, and the
mixture cautiously raised to 65° to 70° C. The reaction,
which is strongly exothermic, proceeds somewhat vigorously
when once started, and the resulting oxygen, after removal
of the carbon dioxide, contains 3 to 5 per cent, of ozone and
small quantities of nitrogen.
Moissan, in his researches on the properties of fluorine,
which he isolated by the electrolysis of fused potassium
hydrogen fluoride, noted that appreciable quantities of ozone
were produced when a few drops of water were introduced
into an atmosphere of fluorine.
The formation of ozone proceeding according to the
equation : —
3F2 + 3H20 = 6HF + 03,
32 OZONE
is especially marked at low temperatures, when the rate of
thermal decomposition of any ozone formed is considerably
reduced.
An ozone content of upwards of 14 per cent, in the oxy-
gen disengaged by means of this reaction may be obtained,
if the temperature be maintained at 0° C. De la Coux
(" L'Ozone," p. 70) suggests that the preparation of strongly
ozonised oxygen, by this method, offers some hope of techni-
cal application.
Small quantities of ozone may likewise be obtained by
the thermal decomposition of other oxygen-containing salts,
but the quantity of ozone in the liberated oxygen is far
smaller than in the cases alluded to above. Thus Rammels-
berg noted that ozone may be detected in the oxygen evolved,
on heating crystallised periodic acid up to 135° C.
Periodic acid is formed by the action of iodine on an
aqueous solution of perchloric acid, and can be obtained as
crystals containing two molecules of water. When heated
carefully, periodic anhydride is formed.
2(HI04 . 2H20) -> I207 + 5H20,
which on continued heating, loses oxygen to form iodic an-
hydride : —
I207->I205 + 02.
The iodic anhydride itself suffers decomposition into its ele-
ments at 300° C., consequently the liberation of ozonised
oxygen by decomposition of the crystallised periodic acid
only takes place within a somewhat narrow temperature
range. Aqueous solutions of the acid and its sodium salt
likewise gradually acquire the smell of ozone.
CHEMICAL PRODUCTION 33
0. Brunck has shown that commercial samples of potas-
sium chlorate liberate ozonised oxygen during thermal de-
composition, although purified samples fail to yield any ozone.
The yield of ozone is sensibly increased by the addition of
manganese dioxide, thus equal weights of manganese dioxide
and potassium chlorate liberate 0'3 per cent, of the weight
of chlorate employed in the form of ozone. With twenty-
five times as much manganese dioxide, over 1*5 per cent, of
the weight of chlorate can be recovered in this form. Other
oxides, such as those of copper, iron and zinc do not exhibit
this behaviour, which appears to be characteristic of man-
ganese dioxide, although slight activity is noted in the cases
of the oxides of nickel and cobalt. This is doubtless associ-
ated with the property of forming unstable peroxides, which
undergo secondary decomposition, liberating atomic oxygen,
which can secondarily react with the molecular form to pro-
duce ozone.
In the thermal decomposition of many metallic peroxides
the presence of ozone may be detected in the oxygen evolved,
the yield of ozone being naturally greater in the case of those
peroxides which undergo thermal decomposition at relatively
low temperatures, such as silver oxide, yielding oxygen
containing 4 to 5 per cent, of ozone. Lead peroxide and
mercuric oxide are likewise capable of yielding small quantities
of ozone.
If the peroxide of manganese, or cobalt, or nickelic oxide
be subjected to thermal decomposition in a current of oxygen,
appreciable quantities of ozone are stated to be formed.
All these oxide decompositions, resulting in the formation
of small quantities of ozone, may be referred to chemical
34 OZONE
processes of activating atmospheric oxygen, whilst in the
case of the decomposition of chlorates and iodic anhydride
these salts may be regarded as convenient sources of oxygen.
In the case of the elements of the first group of the peri-
odic table, namely, copper, silver and gold, the sub and
normal oxides of copper, Cu40, Cu20, and CuO, are somewhat
too stable, cupric oxide possessing only a small dissociation
pressure at very high temperatures. The oxides of both silver
and gold, on the other hand, dissociate much more readily,
silver oxide possessing a dissociation pressure equal to that
of atmospheric oxygen at 250° C. Silver peroxide, Ag202,
readily liberates hydrogen peroxide and oxygen containing
ozone when dissolved in acids. Mercuric oxide closely re-
sembles silver oxide in its chemical properties.
The general reactions involved may be expressed by the
following sequence of reactions : —
(i) 2M + 02 = 2MO ;
(ii) 2MO = 2M + 20 ;
(iii) 20 ^02;
(iv) 0 + 02->03;
in which by the operation of the first two reactions the oxygen
molecule is temporarily split up into its atoms, the necessary
energy to perform this operation being supplied by heating or
cooling the metal to form or decompose the oxide. The
atomic oxygen so formed may then instantaneously recom-
bine to form molecular oxygen or combine with molecular
oxygen to form ozone.
OZONE PBODUCTION BY AUTOXIDATION.
It had long been known that many substances when ex-
posed to the air undergo a process of slow oxidation.
CHEMICAL PEODUCTION 35
Exemplifications are found amongst the most diverse
types of substances such as the corrosion or rusting of metals,
e.g. zinc, lead and iron, of certain non-metallic elements such
as sulphur and more especially phosphorus, and in many
organic substances, such as benzaldehyde, turpentine, linseed
oil and various essential oils, such as oil of cinnamon, lavender
or citronella.
It was formerly thought that these reactions were com-
parable to the ordinary processes of oxidation or combustion
except in so far as the reaction velocity was exceedingly low.
In 1858, however, C. F. Schonbein (" J. f. Prakt. Chemie,"
73, 99, 1858, et seq., to 1868) opened a new and interesting
chapter in the theory of oxidation by showing that in these
cases of slow oxidation, for every molecule of oxygen consumed
by the substance undergoing oxidation a molecule of oxygen
was simultaneously transformed to a more active state. This
activated oxygen would then secondarily react to form a
fresh series of new substances.
Thus in the presence of oxygen, ozone could be produced ;
in the presence of water as in the wet oxidation of the metals,
an amount of hydrogen peroxide was produced equivalent to
the quantity of metal oxidised. In the presence of other
oxidisable substances the active oxygen can oxidise them,
frequently bringing about oxidations which cannot be accom-
plished by ordinary atmospheric oxygen ; thus indigo is
converted into isatin during the autoxidation of palladium
hydride or benzaldehyde.
The quantitative relationship between the production of
active oxygen and the quantity of substance undergoing the
process of slow oxidation was shown by Schonbein to hold in
36 OZONE
the case of the wet oxidation of the metals by an estimation
of the quantity of hydrogen peroxide simultaneously produced.
An interesting confirmation of Schonbein's views was
afforded by A. Genthe's investigations on the drying of linseed
oils ("Zeit. Angew. Chem.," 19, 207, 1906). It had been
previously shown by Lippert ("Zeit. Angew. Chem./' n,
412, 1898) and Wegen (" Chem. Kev. f. fett. u. Harz.,"
4, 345, 1899) that the drying of linseed oil was virtually
Time in Hours
FIG. 3.
a process of atmospheric oxidation. Genthe examined the
reaction velocity of this process of oxidation and found that
the time-increase of weight curves for the drying of a thin
film of linseed oil exhibited the sinuous character of an auto-
catalytic reaction.
It will be observed that the initial rate of dryings increases
somewhat slowly with the time ; as, however, the quantity of
autocatalyst increases simultaneously the reaction proceeds
at an ever-increasing velocity and only begins to sink when
CHEMICAL PRODUCTION 37
the quantity of oil remaining to be oxidised diminishes in
amount.
It had therefore to be assumed that in the process of dry-
ing, a catalyst was simultaneously formed, thus if a and b be
the initial concentrations of the linseed oil and catalyst, then
the rate of oxidation of the oil after a time t will be given by
the equation : —
/J<r
I? = K(o - x)(b + x).
Genthe, in fact, showed by his experiments on reaction velocity
that there was a quantitative relationship between the quantity
of linseed oil oxidised and the quantity of autocatalyst simul-
taneously produced.
Houzeau (1860), Genthe (loc. cit.), Hazura (" Zeit. Angew.
Chem.," i, 312, 1888), Kissling (" Zeit Angew. Chem.," 4,
395, 1891) and Friend (" Proc. Paint and Varnish Soc.," 1914)
all showed that the autocatalyst was an unstable peroxide,
since it liberated iodine from potassium iodide and showed
the other reactions of a peroxide and a similar catalytic
acceleration could be produced by the addition of ozone,
benzoyl peroxide, oxidised turpentine or ether, to the linseed
oil. It is still a matter of uncertainty as to the nature of
this catalytic peroxide. Houzeau was of the opinion that it
was dissolved ozone, whilst other investigators support the
theory of an unstable peroxide of linoleic acid, similar in
character to benzoyl peroxide. It appears probable that small
quantities of ozone can be isolated from turpentine, oil of
cinnamon and other essential oils, undergoing atmospheric
oxidation, but that most of the activated oxygen is absorbed
or combines with part of the substance to form a peroxide.
38 OZONE
Jorrisen and Keicher ("Ber.," 30, 1451, 1897; " Zeit.
Anggw. Chem.," 22, 6829, and " Chem. Zeit.," 26, 99, 1902)
showed that ozone could be formed during the reduction of
certain oxidising acids, such as chromic acid, attributed to
the intermediary formation of an unstable peroxide with its
subsequent decomposition :—
Ov O— 0— C
Cr03 + (COOH)2 -> H20 + >Cr/ |
or xo— o— c
Kelatively large quantities of ozone, however, are produced
in the autoxidation of phosphorus, and in view of the con-
veniences of this method of preparation the following details
may be given : A rapid current of air is passed through a
bottle containing sticks of yellow phosphorus, moistened with
a dilute sulphuric acid acidified solution of potassium per-
manganate or bichromate. The reaction proceeds but slowly
at 6° C., whilst the optimum temperature is stated to be 24° C.
Under reduced pressure the reaction still proceeds at 0° C.
As is well known, pure oxygen reacts but slowly with phos-
phorus except under reduced pressure. A 20 per cent, mix-
ture of oxygen in hydrogen is particularly efficacious for the
production of ozone, but the phosphorus is liable to become
extremely hot, with the attendant risk of explosion. Small
quantities of hydrogen peroxide are simultaneously produced.
From time to time the stale phosphorus should be re-fused
in order to remove the superficial layer of phosphoric acid
which causes a diminution in its activity.
We have already noted that the theory of Brodie, developed
by Clausius and van't Hoff, postulating the existence of two
forms of oxygen : —
CHEMICAL PKODUCTION 39
fO (ozone),
o, +
\0 (antozone),
was supported by Schonbein as a result of these researches.
According to this hypothesis all processes of autoxidation are
dual in character, since two substances must simultaneously
undergo oxidation. Engler (" Kritische Stiidien liber die
Autoxydationsvorgange, Braunschweig," 1903) has attempted
to distinguish between these by terming the substance under-
going oxidation the autoxidiser, and the substance simultan-
eously oxidised the acceptor. Clearly, either the ozonic or
antozonic form of active oxygen may react with the autoxi-
diser or the acceptor to produce " ozonides " or " antozon-
ides " ; thus ozone is an " ozonide," and phosphoric acid the
" antozonide " produced in the autoxidation of phosphorus.
Van't Hoff (loc. cit.) noted that the presence of excess of
"ozonide" prevented the formation of the antozonide, and
thus it necessarily followed that the primary reaction,
+
02 5 0 + 0 was reversible in character. Since the antozon-
ide, viz. phosphoric acid, is not volatile the escaping ozonic
form of active oxygen or ozone should be electrically charged.
A search for this electrically charged form of oxygen in air
which has been passed over phosphorus has yielded conflicting
results. Elster and Geitel ("Phys. Zeit.," 16, 321, 1890;
"Wied. Ann.," 39, 457, 1903) noted that air thus treated
was electrically conducting (see also Matteuci, " Enc. Brit.,"
VIII, 622, 1855; Naccari, "Atti. della Scienze de Torino,"
XXV, p. 252 ; J. Joubert, " These sur la Phosphorescence
du Phosphore," 1874; T. Evan, "Phil. Mag.," 5, 38, 512,
1897; J. Chappuis, "Bull. Soc. Chem.," 2, 35, 419, 1881).
40 OZONE
However, Goekel ("Phys. Zeit.," IV, 1903) showed that this
conductivity was not due to the presence of ozone which
could be absorbed without destroying the conductivity.
Barus ("Washington," 1901), Harms ("Phys. Zeit.,"
IV, in, 1902), and Bloch ("Ann. de Chemie et de Phys.,"
n, 25, 1905) likewise showed that the conductivity was not
due to the presence of ozonic oxygen or charged ionic oxygen,
but to oxides of phosphorus collected round charged nuclei,
forming aggregates of fairly large dimensions (r = 10~6 cm.),
while the actual number of charged gas ions observed fell far
short of the stoichiometric ratio, oxygen absorbed — oxygen
activated : 1 : 1, as postulated by the hypothesis. A. Blanc
(" C.B.," 95, 2, 1170, 1911) showed the existence of both
positive and negative ions, the production of which was ac-
companied by the formation of white fumes. The production
of these gas ions was accelerated by allowing the process of
oxidation to take place in an electric field.
K. Przibram (" Akad. Wiss. Wien., Ber," 126, 247, 1912)
showed that the charge on each gas ion was approximately
6 x 10~10 E.S. units, and that 1'43 x 10~6 gms. of phosphorus
in the form of phosphoric acid was associated with each E.S.
unit, and 1-3 x 10~15gms. of phosphorus in each particle. A.
Blanc ("C.R.," 158, 1492, 1911) claims to have discovered
the existence of a radiation emitted during the autoxidation
of phosphorus like 7 rays, extremely soft and not corpuscular
in character. They are easily absorbed by air. E. Hoppe
Segler ("Zeit. Physiol. Chem.," 2, 23, 1878), and Baumann,
adopted the same hypothesis as Schonbein, but substituted
the somewhat less confusing term of " nascent " oxygen for
Schonbein's " ozone" and " antozone ". It is, however,
CHEMICAL PRODUCTION 41
evident that the case for the existence of charged ions of
atomic oxygen of opposite electric sign is not strongly sup-
ported by the investigators cited above, although, as we have
observed, the existence of uncharged atomic oxygen is a
plausible hypothesis.
M. Traube (" Ber," 15, 663, 1882, and 1471, 1843; " Ges-
ammelte Abhandlungen," Berlin, 1899), A. Bach (" C.K.,"
126, 2957, 1897), and C. Engler and V. Wild ("Ber.," 30,
1667, 1897), and others, on the other hand, developed the
theory of an intermediate compound.
Thus, according to Traube, the presence of water is
necessary for all these processes of slow combustion, a point
of view strongly supported by the researches of Mrs. Fulhame
("An Essay on Combustion," London, 1794), B. Baker,
H. B. Dixon ("Phil. Trans.," 175, 630, 315, 4795, 1896), and
H. E. Armstrong (B.A. Eeports, " Proc. Eoy. Soc.," 4°» 287,
1886) ; the primary reaction taking place is the formation of
an oxide and hydrogen peroxide according to the equation :—
M + 02 + H20 = MO + H202.
The formation of Schonbein's ozonides must thus be con-
sidered as due to secondary reactions between the hydrogen
peroxide and the acceptor, in some cases exceedingly improb-
able reactions. Thus, it is difficult to imagine the formation
of ozone by the action of oxygen in a dilute solution of hy-
drogen peroxide according to the following equations : —
P2 + 02 + H20 = P20 + H202
H202 + 02 = H20 + 03,
although it is stated that by the distillation of strong solutions
of hydrogen peroxide in vacuo ozone can be obtained.
42 OZONE
Bach's modification of the hypothesis embodied the con-
ception of the formation of an unstable intermediary peroxide
prior to decomposition into an oxide with simultaneous oxi-
dation of the acceptor thus : —
7°
M + 02 -> M<; I
\
o
O
M/ | + A -> MO + AO
\0
Engler and Wild ("Ber.," 30, 1669, 1897), and Ostwald
("Zeit. Phys. Chem.," 30, 250, 1900) applied Bach's concep-
tion of the mechanism of processes of autoxidation to the
case under consideration, i.e. the formation of ozone by the
autoxidation of phosphorus.
Engler and Wild suggested the following sequence of
reactions : —
2P + o2 - p i
xo
|
02 = P20 + Os,
whilst Ostwald suggested that a still higher oxidation form
of phosphorus was produced as an unstable intermediate
product : —
2P + 200 =
'0
03,
xo
thus giving the stoichiometric ratio, P : 03 : : 2 : 1 which was
actually obtained by van't Hoff.
CHEMICAL PEODUCTION 43
The fundamental difficulty inherent in the peroxide theory
was raised many years ago in a remarkable essay by G. Live-
ing (" Chemical Equilibrium, the Eesult of the Dissipation
of Energy," Cambridge, 1885). It is evident that the per-
oxide formed must be endowed with available energy
greater than that possessed by atmospheric oxygen, and it is
thus difficult to explain its formation as the result of an exo-
thermic reaction from phosphorus and air. It is usually
assumed that the chemical energy of one system is not avail-
able for another totally different system, i.e. that the energy
liberated during the oxidation of phosphorus is dissipated
through the system in the form of heat. Liveing introduced
the interesting hypothesis, that in certain cases, the liberated
energy was not dissipated in this form, but stored up in one,
or at least a very few, neighbouring molecules, which would
thus be endowed with a great deal of energy. Thus we can
imagine a simple transfer of energy from one set of reacting
molecules to another set, molecule to molecule, and thus ex-
plain the simultaneous equivalent formation of an endo-
thermic compound, during a strongly exothermic reaction.
CHAPTEK IV.
THERMAL PRODUCTION.
SINCE the formation of ozone is a strongly endothermic re-
action, we would expect, as pointed out by Nernst (" Zeit.
Elektrochem.," 9, 891, 1903), that the equilibrium:—
302 ^ 203
would shift over from left to right with elevation of the tem-
perature. An approximate idea of the ozone concentration
in equilibrium, with oxygen at various temperatures, can be
obtained by two independent methods ; from a calculation of
the value of K, the equilibrium constant by means of the
Nernst heat theorem, as well as from the observed measure-
ments of the electromotive force of the ozone/oxygen cell.
According to the Nernst heat theorem (" Applications of
Thermodynamics to Chemistry," Sillman Lectures, 1906),
Griineisen ("Ann. Phys.," 26, 401,1912), Pollitzer ("Berech-
nung Chemischer Amnitaten nach dem Nernstchen Warme-
theorem. Ahrens Sammlung. Encke," 1912), a simple ex-
pression for the equilibrium constant K, in homogeneous gas,
reactions can be obtained in terms of known quantities,
provided two basic assumptions are made, firstly, that the
entropy of a condensed chemically homogeneous system
vanishes at the absolute zero, and secondly, that the specific
molecular heat of a gas can be approximately evaluated
from a simple expression : —
(44)
THEEMAL PEODUCTION 45
Cp = 3-5 + 2/3T,
where Cp is the molecular specific heat and /3 a constant.
Making these two assumptions (and much experimental evi-
dence has been adduced to prove the validity of the Nernst
heat theorem), it is easily shown (loc. cit.} that the equilibrium
constant can be obtained from the following equation : —
logloK = 1T + 1-75 Sv log T - *
where Q is the heat of reaction,
and vaa + vjb — vcc + vdd
va, vb, vc, vd being the number of molecules of such species,
a, b, c, d, reacting, Ca, C6, Cc, Cd being the so-called chemical
constants of each element or compound reacting,
applying this equation to the case under consideration, viz. : —
203 = 302 + 68,000 calories.
SV = [2] - [3] = - 1.
Svc = (2 x 3) - (3 x 2-8) = - 2'4.
Information as to the specific heat of ozone is at present not
available, but with Pollitzer, we may assume that its value is
not very different from that of the other triatomic gases, such
as sulphur dioxide, which has a molecular specific heat of
lO'o, then
^v/3 = — - — - = 0'005.
Hence
68,000 0-005T
log KP = - A^TTW ~ l'15 log T + -I^rT ~ 2'4-
46 OZONE
If x be the fraction of oxygen converted into ozone at equi-
librium, then since : —
ff203 _ if
* P30* P
when x is small, and p is the total gas pressure,
oo ooo
log z = - - 0-875 log T + 0-0005T - 1-2 + i log*,
from this equation the values of x, and thus the percentage
of ozone present in oxygen at equilibrium at various tempera-
tures, can be calculated thus : —
•p . -i
T° centigrade. P = 10,000 atmospheres.
1000° 10-8 10-6
2000° 10-5 10-3
3000° 10-3 10-1
It will be noted that increase of pressure greatly favours high
equilibrium amounts of ozone.
Somewhat higher values for the equilibrium amounts at
various temperatures are arrived at by means of evaluating
the magnitude of the potential difference between the ozone
and oxygen electrode (see p. 63).
The potential difference between two platinum electrodes
immersed in the same electrolyte, one saturated with oxygen
under a pressure TT, and the other with ozone at the same
temperature and pressure irlt is given by the equation : —
TT TT BT 1 7T
V-V.-aj-lpg-,
where V* represents the value observed of the potential differ-
ence 02/03, at one atmosphere, under conditions of reversi-
bility.
THERMAL PRODUCTION 47
There exists considerable uncertainty as to the values of
V0, thus Luther and Inglis (" Zeit. Phys. Chem.," 43, 203,
1903) obtained the value V0 = - 0'736 volts ; Nernst (" Zeit.
Elektrochem." 9, 891, 1903), V0 = - 0'57; Fischer and
Brauner (" Ber.," 39, 3631, 1906) - 0'64, and - 0'46 volts.
Calculation from the value of K obtained by the Nernst
heat theorem as follows, yields the value - 0'83 volts : —
68,000 0-005T 0 .
logK,= - - - 1-75 log T + -
273 x 4-571 or/ 34,000
r/
L(
o ,
2+ + °'875
•• «" 4 x 23,046
- 0-0005T + 1-2)] = - 0-83 volts.
It is evident that if the pressures of oxygen and ozone are
so adjusted that the cell shall have zero E.M.F., this will
represent the equilibrium conditions between oxygen and
ozone.
ET . TT
V' - 2F IQS
, 7T
lo
2FV
where A is a constant = °
The values of the percentage of ozone in equilibrium with
oxygen under one atmosphere pressure at various tempera-
tures, as calculated from the above equation for the two
extreme values of V0, i.e. V0 = - 0'83 volts and V0 = - 0'46
volts, are given in the following columns : —
48
OZONE
fcentage of
Ozone.
Equilibrium
Temperature.
Equilibrium
Temperature.
V0 = - 0-83 volts.
V0 = - 0-46 volts.
10
7900°
. 4400°
1
3950°
2200°
O'l
2630°
1460°
o-oi
1970°
1100°
o-ooi
1580°
880°
It will be noted that in this calculation the change in
specific heats of the gases with alteration in the temperature
have been neglected, consequently the values are probably
somewhat too high, and in view of the wide discrepancies
between the two values an experimental redetermination of the
oxygen ozone electromotive force would be very desirable.
From the foregoing considerations we must conclude that
the quantity of ozone in equilibrium with atmospheric oxygen
at normal temperature and pressures is scarcely detectable,
and that if present in measurable concentrations under these
conditions true equilibrium does not obtain. Further ap-
preciable quantities of ozone may be formed at high tempera-
tures and should be capable of detection and estimation.
The estimation of ozone in gases which have been heated
up to a high temperature, is somewhat difficult owing to the
fact that ozone rapidly undergoes decomposition to its
equilibrium concentration during the cooling of the gas mix-
ture. Dewar (" Year Book E.I," 559, 1887) inferred that
ozone had two centres of stability, one above the melting-point
of platinum and the other at ordinary temperatures, whilst
between these temperatures ozone is decomposed. Chapman
and Jones ("Trans. Chem. Soc.," 97, 2463, 1913, and 99,
1811, 1911) showed that at 100° C. nearly 75 per cent, of
THERMAL PRODUCTION 49
the ozone in excess of the almost undetectable equilibrium
amount is destroyed in half an hour, whilst at 300° C. it is
practically instantaneous.
The explanation of these observations of Dewar is that
the velocity of decomposition of ozone from high temperatures
down to 100° C. is extremely rapid, whilst below 100° C. the
velocity of decomposition becomes markedly slower and the
ozone appears to be stable on account of the extremely low
velocity of decomposition, the equilibrium being " frozen ".
The earlier experiments of Schonbein (Engler, "Hist.
Kritic Studienuber Ozon," Halle, 1879), Bottger ("Ann. der.
Chem.," 125, 34, 1861), Pincus ("Pogg. Ann.," 144, 480, 1871),
Struve (" Jahresber. f. Chem.," 199, 1870), and Traube (" Ber.,"
1 8, 1894, 1885), all indicated that small quantities of ozone
were formed during the combustion of hydrogen. Similar
results were obtained by the combustion of coal gas, notably
by Than ("Jour. f. Prakt. Chem.," 2, 1415, 1870), Loew
("Zeit. f. Chem.," 65, 1870), Ilosvay (" Bull. Soc. Chem.,'J 3,
2, 360, 1881), whilst Zenghilis demonstrated the presence of
ozone (" Zeit. Phys. Chem.," 46, 1903) in the oxygen which
had been raised to a high temperature by the combustion of
aluminium powder.
Contemporary with these investigations, others were
carried out on the synthesis of ozone by merely heating air
or oxygen by means of an independent source of heat, as the
objection may be raised to the former experiments that the
ozone may have been formed by chemical activity (see Ch. III).
As catalytic agent hot platinum or silver was generally
employed, notably by V. der Willigen ("Pogg. Ann.," 98,
511, 1831), Meissner ("Neue Untersuchungen iiber Elekt.
4
50 OZONE
Sauerstoff," Gottingen, 1863),Leroux ("C.R," 50, 691, 1860),
Troost and Hautefeuille (" C.E.," 84, 946, 1877), Helmholtz
(" Wied. Ann.," 32, 18, 1887), and Elster and Geitel (" Wied.
Ann.," 39, 912, 1890). Troost and Hautefeuille (loc. cit.)
detected the presence of ozone in oxygen which had been
heated up to only 1400° C. The oxygen was heated by passage
through a porcelain tube maintained at 1400° C. In order to
effect the rapid cooling of the gas a water-cooled silver tube
passed along the axis of the porcelain tube. Samples of oxygen
were drawn from the annular space between the porcelain
and the silver tubes by aspiration through a small side tube
which passed into the silver tube itself.
J. Clements, at Nernst's instigation in 1904 (" Ann. Phys.,"
14, 334, 1904), reviewed the whole subject and came to the
conclusion that many of the previous observers had mistaken
oxides of nitrogen or hydrogen peroxide for ozone. By the
use of Arnold and Mentzel's tetramethyl base paper (" Ber.,"
35, 1324, and 2902, 1902), which is diagnostic for ozone,
Clements showed that ozone could be detected in the hot
gases from a Bunsen burner, but only in very small quantities.
(Tetramethyl base paper is stated to be sensitive to O'OOl per
cent, ozone.)
By the passage of ozonised air containing 1 per cent, of
ozone over a glowing Nernst filament maintained at 1000° C.
at various speeds up to 80 cms. per second, he showed that
the rate of decomposition of ozone was extremely rapid, 1
per cent. 03 sinking to O'OOl per cent, in 0*007 seconds.
In passing air over a Nernst glower even when heated up
to 3000° C., only oxides of nitrogen were obtained, a result
which was confirmed by Kossi (" Gaz. Chim. Ital.," 35* 1> 89,
THERMAL PEODUCTION 51
1905). Clements, however, confirmed the formation of ozone
by spark discharge, and Erode (" Zeit. f. Elektrochem.,"
u, 754, 1905) observed the formation of ozone in the high
voltage arc at 4000° C. Ozone formation in these latter
cases may, however, be attributed to the action of ultra-
violet light (see p. 79) or electrical ionisation, and not to the
result of the establishment of a purely thermal equilibrium.
Fischer and his co-workers Brauner ("Ber.," 39, 940,
1906), Marx (" Ber.," 39, 3631, 1906, 40, 443, 1907), and Wolf
(" Ber.," 44, 2956, 1911) realised from Troost and Hautefeuille
and Clements' experiments that rapid cooling was essential to
preserve any ozone which might be formed, from secondary
thermal decomposition, during the process of cooling to the
point where the reaction of decomposition was negligibly
small. They showed by a series of interesting researches
that ozone could be formed by thermal methods provided
that the right conditions were obtained.
It was shown that ozone could be produced by plunging
a jet of burning hydrogen or acetylene into liquid air, the
ozone formed by the local heating being thus preserved by
rapid cooling.
When liquid oxygen was substituted for liquid air, large
quantities of ozone were formed and the liquid rapidly be-
came dark blue in colour, similar to ammoniacal solutions of
copper salts. When an electrically heated platinised wire
was immersed in liquid oxygen, practically no ozone was
formed. This somewhat unexpected result was shown to be
due to the fact that the platinum wire in the liquid oxygen
underwent dispersion into colloidal particles which catalytic-
ally accelerated the decomposition of the ozone. A bright
52 OZONE
platinum wire, protected from dispersion by a coating of the
oxides of zirconium and yttrium, gave a uniform yield of
ozone. Using a glowing Nernst filament in liquid air and
oxygen, ozone was produced and no oxides of nitrogen. The
yield of ozone rose steadily with increasing temperature, the
maximum equilibrium amount being 1*5 per cent, by weight
at an approximate temperature of 2200° C., a figure which
bears a strikingly close agreement to that obtained by calcula-
tion from the electrometric force of the oxygen ozone cell.
Taking V0 = - 0*46 volts, this corresponds to an equilibrium
amount of 1'5 per cent, by weight at 2048° C.
Utilising an arc in liquid air a mixture of ozone and nitro-
gen peroxide was obtained which frequently exploded when
attempts were made to separate the residual oxygen
(B.P.08 - 120°C.,02 - 182-7°).
The maximum yield of ozone obtained by means of a
glowing Nernst filament in liquid oxygen was 40 mgms. in
twenty-five minutes with a current consumption of 0'25
amperes at 100 volts equal to a yield of 3*5 grams of ozone
per kilowatt hour.
Fischer having thus demonstrated the thermal production
of ozone with the aid of liquid air, proceeded to extend
Clements' experiments on the production of ozone by passing
air at a high flow rate over a glowing Nernst filament. We
have already noted that Clements was not able to detect the
thermal synthesis of ozone with air-flows of linear speeds,
up to 80 cms. per second. Fischer and Marx, using much
higher velocities, showed that ozone was formed under these
conditions and obtained a series of interesting results by
studying the conditions of oxidation.
THEEMAL PEODUCTION 53
When dry air is passed over a glowing Nernst filament
two endothermic compounds may be formed, viz. nitric oxide
and ozone. If moist air be employed the presence of hydro-
gen peroxide may likewise be demonstrated. The thermal
equilibrium concentrations of nitric oxide, formed according
to the reaction
N2 + 02 ^ 2NO,
have been obtained by Nernst (" Gottingen, Nachricht.,"
p. 261, 1904) and Jellinek and Finck (" Zeit. Anorg. Chem.,"
49, 212, 224, 1906) and are given in the following table :—
Temperature. Per Cent. Concentration
°C. of NO in Air.
1811 0-35
2033 0-67
2580 2-02
2675 2-35
3200 5-0
Jellinek (loc. cit.) likewise calculated the rate of decomposition
of nitric oxide to its equilibrium value at various temperatures.
Nitric oxide in this respect is markedly different from ozone
since it is relatively much more stable at high temperatures ;
the times for the decomposition of half a given volume of NO
to nitrogen and oxygen at atmospheric pressure are as
follows : —
Temperature. Time in Minutes to Effect
°C. 50 Per Cent. Decomposition.
900 7-35 x 103
1100 5-80 x 102
1300 4-43 x 10
Similar calculations can be made for hydrogen peroxide. We
should therefore expect that with relatively low velocities of
04 OZONE
air-flow over the glowing filament, only oxides of nitrogen
should be obtained ; with higher velocities mixtures of ozone
and nitric oxide, and with very high velocities only ozone,
since the rate of formation of nitric oxide as well as its rate of
decomposition is sensibly less than that of ozone. As will be
observed from the following figures obtained by Fischer and
Marx, this theoretical deduction is amply confirmed by ex-
periment : —
Flow Rate in
Metres per Sec.
2-8
Reaction to Tetra-
methyl Base Paper.
N02
5'2 ....... N02 + 03
5-5 ........ O3 + little N0e
6-2 ........ O3 + trace N02
At flow rates exceeding 30 metres per second no oxides of
nitrogen could be detected in the air but ozone was always
present. The yield of ozone was influenced both by the
temperature of the glowing filament as well as by the
linear velocity of the gas flow, as shown in the appended
tables : —
Temperature of
Nernst Glower
in°C.
Weight Per Cent.
O3 in Air.
Weight Per
Cent. 03 in
Oxygen.
Air-flow 44 Meters
Per Sec., Oms. O3
PerKiv.Hr. '
1479
0-0029
0-0126
0-34
1598
0-0088
0-0382
0-80
1667
0-0118
0-0512
0-90
1772
0-0166
00720
1-07
1822
0-0218
0-0916
1-15
1889
0-0238
0-1032
1-19
1930
0-0293
0-126
1-30
THERMAL PRODUCTION
55
Weight Per Cent.
Velocity of Air
03in
Gms. 03
Per Kw Hr
Air.
Oxygen.
at 1800° C.
30
0-011
0-049
0-29
44
0-019
0-082
0-85
57
0021
0-091
1-15
63
0-019
0-080
1-28
75
0-012
0-052
1-07
I
In the presence of water vapour, the yields of ozone are
considerably lower, and hydrogen peroxide is formed. The
influence of the water vapour was likewise investigated by
Fischer with the following results : —
Water Vapour
Pressure in
mm. Hg.
•0 .
0-002
5-0 .
10-0 .
44-1 .
149-2 .
Wt. Per Cent.
of03.
0-0219
0-0176
0-00205
0-00136
0-00105
0-00076
Wt. Per Cent.
HaO2 in
10 Litres.
0-011
0-031
0-074
According to this investigator, the function of the water
vapour when present in but small quantities is purely cata-
lytic in depressing the yield of ozone by accelerating the
normal decomposition according to the equation —
203 -> 302.
When present in large quantities a reversible equilibrium
obtains as follows : —
03 + H202 ^ H20 + 02 + 20.
Nernst (loc. cit.) has calculated that the ratio of the equili-
56 OZONE
brium concentrations of 03 and 0 formed according to the
reversible equations
03 £ 02 + 0,
02 ^ 0 + O,
is as 1023 to 1 or atomic oxygen is present in almost vanish-
ingly small concentrations ; consequently, in the above reaction
the yield of ozone and of hydrogen peroxide is extremely
small. Fischer was thus able to prepare ozone, nitric oxide,
or hydrogen peroxide, all endothermic compounds, from air
and water vapour at will by controlling the conditions so as
to take advantage of the different rates of formation and
decomposition of these substances at definite temperatures.
CHAPTEK V.
THE ELECTROLYTIC PREPARATION OF OZONE.
As early as 1801 Cruickshank drew attention to the fact that
electrolytic oxygen, generated by the electrolysis of dilute
sulphuric acid at insoluble anodes, frequently contained
ozone.
Schonbein (" Ann. Phys. Chem.," 50, 616, 1840) showed
that the optimum yield of ozone was obtained when the sul-
phuric acid electrolyte contained 23 '5 to 26*9 per cent, of
sulphuric acid ; solutions of phosphoric acid when submitted
to electrolysis likewise yielded small quantities of ozone in
the anodic oxygen.
De Marignac (" C.K.," 20, 808, 1845) appears to be the
first to point out the necessity of using cool electrolytes for
the production of ozone ; similar observations were made by
Williamson (" Mem. Chem. Soc.," 2, 395, 1845), H. Mei-
dinger ("Ann.," 88, 57, 1853), and Baumert ("Phil. Mag.,"
4, 6, 51, 1853).
The next advance to be recorded was the observation of
H. Meidinger (" J.C.S.," 7, 151, 1854) that small anodes
were essential for the economic production of ozone. With
the aid of an electrode only 20 mm. long by 0'5 mm. wide, in
a sulphuric acid electrolyte of density 1-9, he obtained 0*3
per cent, ozone in the anodic oxygen.
Soret ("Pogg. Ann.," 92, 504, 1854), showed that the
(57)
58 OZONE
quantity of ozone liberated in the oxygen was determined by
various factors. As electrode material, bright platinum,
gold or platinum iridium were found most suitable, since
other electrode materials, such ;as silver, black platinum,
or oxide anodes, such as lead, iron or manganese, exert a very
considerable activity in the catalytic decomposition of any
ozone which might be formed at the surface.
The temperature of the sulphuric acid electrolyte and also
of the anode itself plays an important part in obtaining
relatively large yields of ozone. Soret (loc. cit.) obtained the
following ozone concentrations when using constant currents
and electrolyte composition : —
Temperature. Gms. O^per
Cubic Metre.
- 21° C 4-4
- 13° C 2-7
6°C 0-9
De la Coux (" L'Ozone," p. 79) gives the following values for
the volume percentage of ozone liberated in the oxygen at
different temperatures : —
Electrolyte : H2S04 : H20 : : 1 : 5.
Temperature. Volume Per Cent.
of Ozone.
Boom 0-4
5°-6°C 1
Ice and salt freezing mixture ... . . 2
Andrews ("Phil. Trans.," i, 1850), utilising 20'81 per
cent, sulphuric acid as electrolyte and a bunch of platinum
wires as anode, kept cool during electrolysis by immersion of
the cell in ice water, obtained 0'85 per cent, ozone. Schone
("Ber.," 6, 1274, 1873) claimed the production of 3'29 to
THE ELECTROLYTIC PREPARATION OF OZONE 59
8'6 per cent, ozone, and Carius (" Ber.," 174, 1, 1874), 3'44
per cent, of ozone by similar means.
Berthelot in 1878 (" C.R," 86, 74, 1878) observed the
formation both of ozone and hydrogen peroxide in sulphuric
and other electrolytes and that high anodic current densities
were essential for the production of ozone. The conception
of anodic current density as distinct from the utilisation of
small anodes marked a fundamental advance in the electro-
lytic synthesis of ozone.
Persulphuric acid (H2S208) is simultaneously produced
when very concentrated electrolytes are employed.
The investigations of Berthelot were continued by
Eicharz (" Wiedemann Annalen.," 24, 183, 1885 ; 31, 912,
1887), who determined the yields of ozone, persulphuric acid
and hydrogen peroxide respectively with various current
densities and varying sulphuric acid concentrations at 0° C.
It will be noted from the following tables that Eicharz con-
firmed the previous observer's results as to the necessity of
high anode current densities and relatively concentrated
electrolytes : —
Calculated Volume
of Oz Liberated
during a Definite
Time.
Litres.
Yield of Oxygen
Ozone.
Litres.
in the Form of :
Persulphuric Acid.
Litres.
2-4 ..
. — " .
. 0-03
3-74 .
—
. 0-40
7-47 .
—
. 2-32
17-12 .
. 0-04
. 8*08
30-0 .
. 0-11 .
. 16-25
45-4 .
. 0-26
. 24-70
65-7 .
. 0-61
. 39-00
95-0 .
, I'X
. 45-60
60
OZONE
Per Cent.
Sulphuric Acid.
Yield of Ozone.
Yield of Per-
sulphuric Acid.
Yield of Hydro-
gen Peroxide.
In Terms of Oxygen.
Litres.
Litres.
Litres.
10-1
0-11
0-62
0
19-8
0-18
6-79
0
28-3
0-11
16-75
0
39-5
0-11
22-01
0
50-7
0-15
18-76
0
60-0
0-06
4-85
2-54
69-4
0-05
3-49
3-43
77-6
0-07
2-55
4-17
89-4
0-07
1-21
2-61
McLeod ("Trans. Chem. Soc.," 44, 54, 1886) conducted a
very thorough investigation into the electrolytic preparation
of ozone, he showed the importance of the various factors,
viz. acid density, temperature of the solution and current
density to which attention had been drawn by previous
investigators.
From the following figures the extraordinary good yields
obtained by McLeod are evident : —
1
Electrode Material.
Density of
Acid.
Per Cent.
Ozone by
Volume.
Current Density
Amps, per Sq. Cm.
6 platinum wires
1 mm. long by 0-045 mm.
diameter
f 1-086
\ 1-075
U-25
13-96
16-7
9-5
30-76
50-6
50
6 platinum wires
6 mm. long by 0'045 mm.
diameter
IW
U-6
16-7
0-6
50
50
The influence of the acid density on the production of
available oxygen in the electrolyte in the form of persulphuric
acid and hydrogen peroxide was likewise investigated, the
optimum production occurring with an acid density of
specific gravity T20 with a current density of 50 amps, per
THE ELECTROLYTIC PEEPAEATION OF OZONE 61
sq. cm., as is evident from the following figures taken from
McLeod's data : —
Current Density Mols. active 02
Amps.ISq.Cm. Acid Density. Per 100 Mols. H.2
evolved.
51 . . . . 1-05 .... 11-08.
53 . . . . 1-10 .... 20-80
54 . . . . 1-15 .... 25-8
53 . . . . 1-20 .... 34
50 . . . . 1-25 .... 29-9
With the introduction of the ionic theory by Arrhenius
and van't Hoff in 1887 a more systematic investigation of the
anodic reactions taking place during the electrolysis of dilute
sulphuric acid was commenced.
It was shown that if the potential difference between two
platinum electrodes in dilute sulphuric acid be gradually
raised and the current intensity be plotted against the ap-
plied electromotive force a series of breaks occurs, which
breaks, on the ionic theory, correspond to different anodic
ionic discharges, the discharge of hydrogen being the only
cathodic reaction. Careful investigation has shown that the
ionic discharges associated with each break in sulphuric acid
and electrolyte are as follows : —
P. D. Anodic Discharge.
1-08 0"->02
1-67 20H' -> 02 + H20
1-95 S04 " -* H2S04 + 0,
2-60 HS04' -> (HS04)2
2-83 30" -^Og
In 1889 Nernst, by the introduction of the conception of
electrode solution pressure, pointed out the method of deter-
mining the influence of the anode potential on the discharge
62
OZONE
of anions without having to take into account any cathodic
reactions.
If a platinum electrode be saturated with oxygen under a
definite pressure at a temperature of T°, and immersed in a
sulphuric acid electrolyte, normal in respect to its hydrion
concentration, electrical equilibrium will finally be arrived at
between the oxygen molecules, atoms and ions in the elec-
trode and electrolyte, the electrode becoming positively
charged relatively to the solution by the discharge of nega-
tively charged oxygen ions,
+ ve
and a condition of equilibrium will obtain when the potential
difference between solution and electrode becomes sufficiently
great to prevent the discharge of any more negative ions.
If V be the electrode-electrolyte potential difference,
fjb02 and yu,O" the molecular chemical potentials of the oxygen
gas in the electrode and of oxygen ions in the solution, then
if we imagine the transfer of a quantity of electricity Se from
electrode to solution, the electrical work will be equal to
- VSe, the change in molecular chemical potential per mol.
will be fj,02 - 2/u,0", therefore, the work done on the transfer
of this quantity of electricity is equal to
- yuO" ,
~
where e is the charge associated with one gram ion of a
monovalent element.
THE ELECTEOLYTIC PKEPAKATION OF OZONE 63
If the conditions of reversible equilibrium obtain, then
Now //X)2 = T(<£02 + R log 7r02) for a dilute solution, where
<f> is independent of the concentrations, it being merely a
function of the temperature,
similarly yuO" = T(c/>0" + E log CO").
ET . CO"
+ -t - log
Further, since in aqueous solutions
^7logi
which gives an expression for the variation of the oxygen
electrode potential, with alteration in the hydrion concentra-
tion of the solution and the pressure of the oxygen gas.
The value of V0 is approximately - 1*35 vollfe, whence
the value of the cathode potential for a hydrogen electrode in
normal hydrion solution under a pressure of one atmosphere
is + 1-08 - 1-35 = - 0-27 volts.
If an oxygen electrode be set up against an ozone elec-
trode, the difference in potential between the two electrodes
can be calculated in a similar manner and found equal to : —
V ' + ?? lo ^
Luther and Inglis (" Zeit. f. Physik. Chem.," 43, 203, 1903)
first attempted to obtain an approximate value for V</ by
64 OZONE
measurement of the potential difference between an oxygen
and an ozone charged platinum electrode immersed in dilute
sulphuric or nitric acid. They obtained the value : —
V; = - 0-736 volts.
We have noted that approximately the same value, viz.
- 0'83 volts, can be obtained by calculation from the Nernst
heat theorem. Subsequent investigators have found con-
siderably lower values: Nernst ("Zeit. Elektrochem.," 9, 89,
1903) obtained the value V0 = - 0'57, and Fischer and
Brauner("Ber.," 34, 3631, 1906) the values - 0'64 to - 0'46
volts. It would appear from the experiments of these latter
observers on the thermal equilibrium, that the lower value,
viz. - 0*50 volts is probably more correct. It is possible
that the higher values obtained by the earlier experimenters
were occasioned by the presence of oxozone 04 in the ozone
round the electrode, and a reinvestigation of this electrodic
reaction is clearly eminently desirable.
From the above calculation it is evident that an extremely
high anode potential is required to remove the formation of
ozone, whilst, in order to ensure its stability when produced,
both electrode and electrolyte must be kept cold. Fischer,
Massenez, and Bendixsohn (" Zeit. Anorg. Chem.," 52, 202,
1907; 11,229, 1907; 61, 13,153, 1909), realising these im-
portant factors, improved upon McLeod's results by adopting
the artifice of water-cooled electrodes, in addition to the sup-
plementary cooling of the electrolyte.
In their earlier experiments, a small platinum tube 6 mm.
long was sealed to two terminal glass tubes and served as
anode ; the tube itself was covered with glass with only a
thin strip, 0'4 mm. wide, exposed to the electrolyte.
THE ELECTEOLYTIC PREPAKATION OF OZONE 65
Cold water was circulated through this anode, and the
electrolyte was kept cool by immersion in ice water.
Utilising an anodic current density of 58 amperes per sq.
cm., and a sulphuric acid concentration of density 1*075 to
I'lO, a yield of 17 per cent, ozone by weight (11*3 per cent,
by volume) was obtained in the anodic oxygen.
A glass-covered, rhomboidal, platinum tube was then
substituted for the cylindrical one, and one edge, 01 mm. in
width, was exposed by grinding away the glass. The length
of the tube was 11'5 mm., and it was maintained at - 14° C.
by circulation of a solution of cold calcium chloride. A yield
of 28 per cent, ozone by weight (19 per cent, by volume) was
thus obtained. By embedding platinum foil in glass, and
exposing one edge only, O'Ol mm. wide, to the electrolyte,
slightly lower yields were obtained, viz. 23 per cent, of ozone
by weight.
In confirmation of McLeod's results, the optimum
concentration of sulphuric acid lay between = 1'075 and
110.
They noted that the quantity of ozone produced per kw.
hr. rose steadily with continued use of the platinum, which
became quite bright and burnished by the gas evolution in
course of time.
A yield of 71 gms. per kw. hr. was obtained at a potential
difference of 7*5 volts, and an anodic current density of 80
amperes per sq. cm. If we calculated the theoretical pro-
duction of ozone per kw. hr. from its heat of formation, i.e.
34,000 calories, the yield of 71 gms. per kw. hr. indicates an
7*1
electrical efficiency of only -^T^ = 0*6 per cent.
66 OZONE
P. Fischer assumed that the primary discharge of ozone
occurs according to the equation—
30" -> 03 + 60, %
which ozone is partly decomposed by the catalytic action of
the anode surface.
Other, but less efficacious methods have been suggested
from time to time for raising the anode discharge potential,
and thus increasing the yield of ozone. Donovan and Gard-
ner utilised a saturated solution of potassium permanganate
in from 5 to 10 per cent, of sulphuric acid, and obtained
relatively high concentrations of ozone ; chromic acid can
likewise be substituted for the permanganate.
St. Edme adopted the somewhat ingenious method of
obtaining a high anode current density, by employing
moistened crystals of phosphoric acid, or caustic potash or
soda, as the electrolyte.
In this way, the electrolyte was given sufficient conduc-
tivity for passage of the current, yet at the same time only
point contact between the moistened crystals and the anode
was ensured.
Archibald and von Wartenberg (" Zeit. Elektrochem.," 17,
812, 1911) pointed out that the low yields of ozone accom-
panying the electrolytic decomposition of dilute sulphuric
acid were probably occasioned by the high degree of anodic
polarisation that was produced when operating at high cur-
rent densities. In agreement with Fischer they considered
that the primary formation of ozone takes place according
to the equation —
30" -> 03 + 60,
THE ELECTROLYTIC PREPARATION OF OZONE 67
but that the subsequent catalytic decomposition of ozone at
the electrode surface
203 -> 302
was not the most important factor. It was suggested that
the ozone thus formed is further oxidised at the anode —
O3 + 0" -> 202 + 20,
consequently, if the anodic polarisation could be diminished
without alteration of the anodic current density, increased
yields of ozone could be obtained, since the secondary oxida-
tion would be diminished.
A series of experiments were carried out in which an
alternating current was super-imposed on the direct current
flowing through the cell ; this method of reducing the elec-
trode polarisation having been utilised in the Wohwill pro-
cess for the electrolytic parting of gold and silver, and in the
electrolytic preparation of hydrogen peroxide. As electrodes,
short platinum wires or platinum capillaries cooled with
water were utilised, as electrolyte sulphuric acid of varying
density, whilst a direct and alternating current of variable
periodicity was applied simultaneously to the cell.
It was established that the optimum acid density varies
with the area of the electrode and not only with the current
density, more concentrated electrolytes being desirable for
big electrodes as indicated by the following figures : —
Area of Electrode Optimum Acid
in S%. Cm. Density.
0-041 1-34
0-333 1-478
The yield of ozone was also affected by the periodicity of the
68
OZONE
alternating current, especially with currents of low frequency ;
above 20 periods per second the effect was not so marked.
Direct
Current.
Alternating
Current.
Periods per
Second.
Per Cent. O3.
Amperes.
0-61
0-50
11
3-04
0-61
0-50
17
4-10
0-61
0-50
25
4-77
It was noted that the applied potential difference necessary
for the passage of the current rose until the ratio
alternating current exceefled 3 md then idl sunk until
direct current
this ratio became equal to 6, which was found to be an
optimum. The potential difference was found to sink with
increasing current density.
Their optimum yield was obtained under the following
conditions : —
Electrode area : - 0*333 sq. cm. periodicity 18 v. per sec.
Temperature : 10° C.
Acid density : 1*478.
Direct
Current.
Alternating
Current.
A.C.
Anode
Current
Density.
Per Cent. 03
by Volume
Calculated on the
Direct Current.
D.C.
Amperes.
0-25
1-50
6
0-75
37
The most important result from a technical point of view
was the effect of the alternating current on the potential
THE ELECTKOLYTIC PREPARATION OF OZONE 69
difference necessary to effect the passage of this current ; in
the above case only 2' 75 volts being necessary with an anode
potential of 0'71 volt as opposed to 7'5 volts required by F.
Fischer for direct current. We can calculate from the above
data the production of ozone per kw. hr. as follows;
96,540 coulombs or 26*8 ampere hrs. liberate 1 gm. equiv-
alent, or 11 '2 litres of oxygen gas. Under the conditions of
operation, however, the liberated gas contains 37 per cent,
of ozone which would result from the condensation of 55 '5
per cent. (37 per cent. + \ 37 per cent.) of the oxygen, which
weighs 4'40 gms. Hence 26'8 ampere hrs. liberated 4'40
gms. of ozone. The potential difference which has to be ap-
plied to the cell to effect this liberation is 2' 75 volts, thus
4*4 gms. of ozone are produced by the expenditure of energy
equal to 26*8 x 2*75 or 73'7 watt-hrs., representing an output
of 59 gms. per kw. hr., or over eight times the yield. This
yield approximates to those obtained by the method of the
silent discharge, and it would appear possible, if larger
electrodes, and a cooled electrolyte were employed, to develop
this method of producing ozonised oxygen both for strong
and weak gas concentrations for the purposes of technical
production.
CHAPTER VI.
PRODUCTION BY ULTRA- VIOLET RADIATION.
IN 1900, Ph. Lenard ("Ann. der Physik," i, 480, 1900), utilis-
ing a quartz mercury vapour lamp as a source of energy,
showed that ultra-violet light of extremely short wave length
was an effective agent for ozonising oxygen. Both Lenard
and E. Goldstein ("Ber.," 36, 3042, 19fe) showed that
ultra-violet light in the Schumann portion of the spectrum
within the spectral region X = 120 ^ to X = 180 pp exerted
the maximum activity in this respect; Goldstein (loc. cit.)
actually obtaining pure liquid ozone by means of a quartz
vacuum tube. Regener (" Ann. der Physik," 20, 1033, 1906),
who reinvestigated the matter, noticed the interesting fact
that although light of wave length X = 120 //,/-& to 180 fi/j, was
a powerful ozonising agent, yet light still in the ultra-violet
portion of the spectrum of wave length A, 230 //./-i to A = 290 ^
(especially \ = 257 fiji) exerted an equally effective catalytic
decomposing effect. Ozone is thus formed by light of short
wave length and decomposed again by light of slightly longer
wave length. According to E. 'Warburg the ozonisation
effected by ultra-violet light likewise increases steadily with
the pressure of the gas (" Deut. Phys. Ges. Vehr., 17, 10,
184, 1915).
(70)
PRODUCTION BY ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION 71
EFFECT OF KADIATION OF SHORT WAVE LENGTH.
Since marked concentrations of ozone result when oxygen
is subjected to irradiation in light of this wave length, it
necessarily follows that the energy necessary for the forma-
tion of ozone from oxygen is derived from the light, the
process of ozone formation being a typical photo-chemical
synthesis.
According to Planck's quantum theory (" Vorlesungen
iiber die Warmestrahlung," M. Planck, Leipzig, 1906, pp. 100,
et seq.), radiant energy is discrete, and can only be emitted
by an oscillator or absorbed by a resonator in definite quanta.1
The magnitude of the quantum bears a definite relationship
to the frequency, of the light e = hv, where e is the magnitude
of the quantum, v the light frequency, and h Planck's constant
equal to 6*85 x 10~27erg seconds.
Quanta, or the units of energy, may be emitted or absorbed
in single units or in even multiples of that unit at a time.
Two hypotheses have been advanced to explain the directional
motion of the quanta since it is evidently rectilinear in
motion. A. Einstein (" Ann. der Physik," 17, 133, 1905) pos-
tulates an entity for the quantum in the form of a light cell
which moves uniformly in the direction in which its centres
of gravity is projected. Sir J. J. Thomson (" Proc. Phys. Soc.,"
14, 540, 1908; "Phil. Mag.," 792, 1913) has advanced the
ingenious hypothesis which assumes that the light travels in
the wave form as postulated on the old hypothesis, but that
these waves are confined to certain directions, being virtually
xlt is, of course, possible, and indeed more probable, to assume that radiant
energy appears discrete because matter is discrete, and that the radiation
itself is continuous.
72 OZONE
kinks in Faraday tubes which project from the point source.
A beam of light is thus compared to a bundle of a number of
Faraday tubes, and light transmission is effected by trans-
mission of pulses naturally of definite magnitudes, and there-
fore in quanta along these tubes.
The elements when raised to a high temperature emit
light in the form of spectral series. In all elements two
distinct types of light emission can usually be observed,
namely, band spectra and line spectra. Various investigators,
notably H. Delandres (" C.E ," 100, 1256, 1885, et seq.) have
shown that the elementary band spectra can be divided into
groups related by the expression v = Bn2 + /3, where /3 and B
are constants, and n a series of integers, whilst in each group
the frequency of the bands v0 are also related by the ex-
pression : —
i/0 = A (m + a)2 -f d,
where A, a, d are constants, and m a series of integers.
Again, in the line spectra, J. J. Balmer (" Verb. d. Natur. ges.
Basel," 2, 648, 750, 1885; " Wied. Ann./' 25, 40, 1885),
C. Eunge ("B.A. Eeports," 576, 1888), F. Paschen ("Ann.
der Physik," 27, 537, 1908, 35, 860, 1911), and J. E. Eydberg
("K. Svenska, Vet. Akad. Handl.," 23, 155, 1890) have
shown similar relationships.
From these and other considerations (see J. J. Thomson,
"Proc. Eoy. Soc.," 14, 540, 1908; "Phil. Mag," 19, 331,
1910) ; J. Stark (" Prinzipien der Atorndynamik," Leipzig,
1911) we deduce that a chemical element is not composed of
homogeneous atoms or molecules, but that each atom or
molecule is composed of at least two parts, one which gives
rise to a line spectrum, and the other to a band spectrum
PRODUCTION BY ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION 73
when excited. The light thus emitted is periodic in character,
being produced by some form of oscillation or oscillators,
each periodic movement corresponding to one series of bands,
or lines in the spectrum.
From other considerations, such as the electrical pro-
perties and radioactivity of certain elements, the composite
nature of the atom receives confirmation.
Sir J. J. Thomson, who first suggested this actual structure
for the atoms, although speculations on the electrical nature
of matter had long been made for the purpose of calculation,
assumed the existence of a relatively large positive nucleus
with the negative electrons (or corpuscules) distributed in it.
A small positive nucleus with the electrons rotating round it,
in fact a small planetary system, is now a common hypoth-
esis. It is at present uncertain whether the inverse square
law or some higher power such as the inverse fifth power
conditions the rotation of the electrons. Information is also
lacking whether the electrons rotate in big or small circles,
i.e. whether the plane of their rotation passes through the
centre of gravity of the atom or not, and it is also a matter
of speculation whether the electrons are point charges, or
consist of rings such as are found in the satellites of Saturn.
It can easily be shown (see F. A. Lindemann, " Verh. d.
Phys. Ges.," 13, 482, 1911) that the amplitude of the vibrat-
ing particle in the oscillator emitting light radiation is of the
order 10~9 to 10~10 cms., or from 10 to 100 times smaller
than the actual diameter of an atom ; we are therefore forced
to the conclusion that the oscillators, both for the band and
line spectra emissions, are to be found in the atom itself.
Much evidence has been adduced to show that the source of
74 OZONE
infra-red radiation is the atom, of the visible light the charged
atom, and of the ultra-violet light the electron, the band
spectra owing their origin to the oscillations caused by the
swing of a valency electron about the positive nucleus.
If we imagine a valency electron circulating in its orbit
with a definite and constant momentum, a definite amount
of energy E must be supplied to remove the electron from
the system. If the electron be nearly but not quite removed
from the sphere of action of the atom it will oscillate about
its mean position of rotation and emit light. The energy of
oscillation must, according to Planck's hypothesis be a mul-
tiple of quanta, or :—
nhv where n is a whole number, h Planck's constant, and v
the light frequency.
hence E must be > nhv to cause deformation and light
emission ; the smallest value of n is unity, so to cause light
emission by deformation of the orbit of a valency electron —
E = kv,
TT
or v must be less than _. It necessarily follows that as E,
n
the energy of deformation, is decreased, the wave length of
the light will increase or be shifted towards the infra-red
portion of the spectrum. The band spectrum of an element
thus, according to this view, optically expresses the configur-
ation of the valency electrons in the molecular system.
The relationship between position of the band spectrum
and complexity of the molecule in which the valency electron
is oscillating, can be clearly shown in the case of oxygen.
Monatomic oxygen, viz. 0, has a band spectrum in the
region X = 245 up to \ = 333 p^ (W. Steubing, " Ann. der
PEODUCTION BY ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION 75
Physik," 33, £53, 1913). In diatomic or molecular oxygen,
viz. 02, the band spectrum is shifted towards the ultra-violet,
viz. X = 120 /jL/jb to X = 190 ftp, since the energy E, required
to remove a valency electron from two positive nuclei, is
much greater than is required to remove one of the two
valency electrons from the single positive nucleus of the
atomic oxygen. In ozone, on the other hand, not only is it
evident from its endothermic character, but also from a visual
representation of three positive nuclei coupled by valency
electrons, that the energy required to remove a valency
electron from the ozone molecule will be less than from the
molecular form, i.e. the band spectrum will be between the
two former. In fact, a strong absorption is noted at X =
258 fifi (W. N. Hartley, " Chem. News," 42, 268, 1888).
The oscillator of the series spectrum, on the other hand
(J. Stark, " Die Elektrizitat in Gasen," Leipzig, p. 447, 1902),
is to be found in the positive ion resulting from the complete
removal of a valency electron from an atom or a molecule.
The notable experiments of Sir J. J. Thomson (" Phil. Mag.,"
13, 561, 1907, 21, 275, 1911, et seq.} on cathode ray analysis
have indicated that such ions which have lost or gained a
valency electron possesses actual entities, and can be distin-
guished one from another by their difference in electrical
charge ; thus in the case of oxygen there have been isolated
the charged gas ions : —
++ + - —
o, o, o, o,
as well as oxygen molecules of various charges.
R Horton ("Phil. Mag.," 22, 214, 1914) has identified as
carriers of positive electricity, giving positive band spectra in
76 OZONE
oxygen, the following polymers of electric atomic weights
8, 16, 32, 48, 96.
N. Bohr ("Phil. Mag.," 26, 476, 1913) attributes to the
oxygen atom a nucleus carrying eight unit position charges
with eight electrons, of which only two appear removable by
methods at present available.
The Mechanism of Ozone Formation.
We have already noted that the oxygen molecule when
subjected to ultra-violet light radiation of the correct fre-
quency for resonance may absorb quanta of energy. Similar
conditions obtain for the iodine molecule in the infra-red
spectral range and we may regard the primary cleavage to
occur in a similar manner, viz. : —
I2 JT I + I
02 ^ 0 + O.
Warburg (" Preuss. Akad. Wiss.," Berlin, 872, 1914) has
adopted this hypothesis to explain the mechanism of ozone
formation. He assumes that the atomic oxygen resulting
from the cleavage of the molecule secondarily reacts either
with atomic oxygen to reform molecular oxygen as indicated
by the reversibility of the above equation, a point clearly
emphasised by Nernst from thermal considerations (see p. 29),
or it may react with molecular oxygen to form ozone —
02 + 0 = 03.
Warburg's experiments, conducted under pressures of from
30 to 400 kgm. per sq. cm., yielded a photo-chemical efficiency
of 55 per cent, at 120 kgm. cm.2 and 29 per cent, at 300 kgm.
cm.2, indicating the plausibility of the above hypothesis.
Weigert (" Zeit. Wiss. Photochem.," n, 381, 1912) obtained
PEODUCTION BY ULTRA-VIOLET EADIATION
77
a photo-chemical efficiency of 46 '0 per cent, and a thermo-
dynamic efficiency of 27'7 per cent.
The reaction is primarily a molecular one and the energy
of formation of a gram. mol. of 03 (34,000 cal.) should have
its corresponding photo-chemical equivalent equal, as cal-
culated by Warburg, to ~Nhv where N is the number of
molecules per gram. mol. From the relationship
(cal.) ncm.
with a value of 34,000 calories for the heat of formation of
ozone we obtain X = 800 ^/JL, as the critical ozonising wave
length, or we must assume that one quantum of X = 200
will form four ozone molecules.
Ozone formation may therefore occur without gas ionisa-
tion, a fact which was first demonstrated by Lenard and con-
firmed by Ludlam (" Phil. Mag./'
23, 757, 1912).
We can easily deduce from our
previous considerations on the
mechanism of photo-chemical
processes in the light of the
quantum theory that ionisation
of oxygen will be brought about
by light of shorter wave length
than that required to produce
atomic oxygen and hence ozone.
If A, B, represent the two
positive nuclei of oxygen atoms
in a neutral molecule and c, c,
one valency electron of each atom which has come within the
attraction (partially saturated) of the positive charge of the
78 OZONE
neighbouring atom ; the simplest line of cleavage is along a,
a', resulting in the formation of an oxygen molecule with one
bond as link 0 — 0, which can then react to form ozone —
30—0 -> 203.
This requires the smallest amount of energy, and hence is
effected by light of the longest wave length (> X = 200 /A/A).
The simplest cleavage into neutral atoms takes place along
the line b, b\ requiring more energy than is necessary to
effect partial unsaturation, and hence shorter wave length
light X = 200 /A/A. Cleavage along the line d, df necessitates
the removal of one electron from an oxygen atom and conse-
quent increase of energy or light of a still shorter wave length,
ca. X = 180 /A/A. The energy required to move a valency
electron which is partially attached to two atoms on to one
atom is of the order 1 x 10~12 ergs, to completely remove
the electron requires a considerably greater expenditure
of energy. A quantum of light energy in the visible or
ultra-violet portion of the spectrum is of the order of
> 3 x 10~12 ergs ; thus with very short wave length light
electron removal can easily be effected.
Under these conditions we obtain monatomic oxygen
ions —
02 ;± 6 + 6.
Ozone formation may result from this ionisation according to
the following reaction : —
202 + O + 6 = 203.
Light of still shorter wave length will actually remove elec-
trons from the monatomic oxygen ion (Ca. X = 130 /A/A)
+ ++
0 -> 0 + 0,
which electron may attach itself to the charged - ve residue
PBODUCTION BY ULTKA-VIOLET KADIATION 79
provided that it be projected from the original ion with suf-
ficient kinetic energy —
6 + 0 -> 0.
Or again, it may attach itself more easily than as above to a
neutral molecule —
02 + © -» 62.
In this way we can imagine the formation of the various
charged ions actually observed during irradiation of oxygen
by ultra-violet light of short wave lengths within the range
X = 130 to 200 w.
Construction of Apparatus.
(a) Source of Ultra-violet Light. — We have already in-
dicated that for the production of ozone a source of ultra-
violet light rich in lines of the Schumann region (below
A, = 200) and if possible free from light of longer wave length,
especially in the region X = 230 to 290 /-t^, which exerts a
strong catalytic activity in deozonisation.
A glance at the curves representing the distribution of
energy over the spectrum radiated from a black body at
various temperatures will suffice to indicate that "black
body " radiation is unsuitable as an efficient source of Schu-
mann light. In agreement with the theoretical calculations
of Wien and Planck the experimental observations of Lummer
and Pringsheiin (" Ver. d. Deut. Phys. Gesell.," i, 23, 1899 ;
2, 163, 1900) have indicated that, with elevation of the
temperature of the radiator, the maximum energy emission
E™ shifts from the longer to the shorter wave length portion
of the spectrum. Even, however, at sun temperature,
ca. 5500° C., which temperature can only be approached with
difficulty by the utilisation of carbon arcs under high gas
80 OZONE
pressures, a black body radiator will have its E position at
about X = 500 /JL/J,, or in the green of the visible spectrum.
The fraction of the total energy emitted which will lie in the
Schumann region of the spectrum XI to 200 //,/* will be re-
markably small.
We must, therefore, reject black body radiators and fall
back on methods of obtaining selective emission and as such
light sources we may utilise the arc, spark, or vacuum tube
illumination of various elements.
Arc and Spark Light Sources.
Most metals exhibit strong Schumann and ultra-violet
light radiation when the arc or spark electric discharge is
made to pass between metallic electrodes.
We may argue from the electronic structure of the atom
that since the removal of a second electron from an atom
which has already lost one, necessitates the supply of a still
greater quantity of energy for its removal than the first, and
as this energy is supplied in quanta, the value of hv must rise
with each subsequent removal. Atoms which can loose many
electrons without loss of atomic identity will therefore radiate
light corresponding to high values of hv, i.e. of extremely
short wave length.
The elements which have been most widely used as
sources of ultra-violet light are those of aluminium, iron and
especially mercury, which can loose as many as eight electrons.
The aluminium ultra-violet spectrum has been investigated,
more particularly by Lenard (" Sitz. Heidelberg, Akad. Wiss.
Abh.," 31, 1910) and Morris Airy (" Man. Lit. Phil. Soc.,"
XLIX, 1, 1905), and iron by Lyman (" Astrophys. Jour.,"
38, 282, 1913).
PEODUCTION BY ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION 81
Much work has been accomplished on the mercury arc,
which is especially rich, both in green, violet, and ultra-violet
radiation, most conspicuous where mercury vapour lamps are
used as light sources.
The investigations of Tian (" C.R," 155, 141, 1912) and
Lyman (" Astrophys. Jour.," 38, 282, 1913) have shown that
"the spectrum is dominated by the broad unsymmetrical
line X = 184'96 /z/z, ". The spark spectrum of mercury is
rich in lines, whilst the arc spectrum contains only a few.
Other lines in the same series predicted by Paschen have
likewise been observed at X = 140*2 ji/j, and A, = 126'9 /u/4.
When viewed through a short column of air the line X =
184'96 pi* is replaced by three groups of faint lines observed
by Steubing (" Ann. der Physik," 33, 573, 1910). lonisation
of the mercury atom by collision commences at X = 253 '6 /Ayit,
equivalent to a fall of potential of the colliding electron of
4'8 volts— A. Lande ("Phys. Zeit.," 15, 793, 1914), J. Franck
and G. Hertz ("Deut. Phys. Ges.," 16, 407, 1914).
Vacuum Tube Discharge.
Of the elements investigated by means of the vacuum
tube discharge, the remarkable activity of mercury vapour in
the emission of light of short wave length has already been
discussed, two other substances also exhibit a marked selec-
tive emission in the ultra-violet region, namely hydrogen
and carbon, the latter usually introduced into the vacuum
tube in the form of one of its oxides, carbon monoxide or
dioxide. Lyman (" The Spectroscopy of the Extreme Vio-
let," Longmans, 1914) states that hydrogen surpasses all
other gases in the wealth and strength of lines in the Schu-
mann region. They extend at pressures of 1 to 5 mm. from
6
82 OZONE
X = 90 ftp to X = 167*5 pp, and this light forms one of the
most important of all three distinct spectra which the
element possesses. St. John ("Astrophys. Jour./' XXV,
p. 45, 1907) found hydrogen to emit 250 times as much
energy of short wave length as a mercury vapour lamp.
There appears to be a distinct gap in light emission within
the spectral region X = 167*5 pp to X = 243*3 pp.
Delandres (" C.K.," 106, 842, 1888) noted a great number
of bands in the ultra-violet spectrum with the rarified oxides
of carbon in the vacuum tube within the range X = 130 /*//,
and X = 210 /^.
When consideration is taken of the difficulties in the
operation of an arc lamp with iron or aluminium electrodes,
such as the automatic adjustment of the arc gap, the removal
of the oxides produced during combustion, if the arc be open,
or the volatilisation of the metals on to the walls, if the arc
be of the enclosed type, as well as the great thermal effects
produced by an arc lamp in continuous operation, which, as
we have seen, militates against a high yield of ozone, it will
be clear that the mercury vapour lamp operating at low volt-
ages and relatively high internal mercury vapour pressures,
or working at high voltages with only a few millimetres
pressure of vapour, is the most suitable source of ultra-violet
light which, up to the present time, has received systematic
investigation.
The utilisation of hydrogen vacuum discharge tubes,
however, may possibly receive more attention in the future,
since discoloration of the tube walls, so frequently noticed in
mercury lamps, would be greatly minimised (see also Lyman,
"Astrophys. Jour.," 27, 87, 1908).
PRODUCTION BY ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION 83
(b) Material for Lamp Construction.
The walls of the mercury vapour lamp must be trans-
parent to radiation of this extremely short wave length, in
order that ozonisation of the surrounding oxygen may be ef-
fected. Ordinary glasses are singularly opaque, thus boro-
silicate crown-glass, which is the most transparent of the
ordinary glasses, passes only 8 per cent, of light of wave
length X = 309 pp (Kriiss, " Zeit. f. Instrumentkunde," 23,
197, 1903), and is opaque to light below X = 297 ^/*. Schott
of Jena's uviol glass was specially prepared by Zschimmer
(" Zeit. f. Instrumentkunde," 23, 360, 1903) for ultra-violet
transparency. With a thickness of 1 mm. fifty per cent,
transmission of light at X = 280 w is effected, whilst a uviol
microscope cover-slip is still transparent to X = 248 pp.
Zschimmer further indicated ("Phys. Zeit.," 8, 611, 1907)
that pure boric anhydride and silica are very transparent
even below X = 200 ^ (and even below X = 185 /z/t),
but that the addition of certain salts lessens their transpa-
rency. Boric anhydride is slightly inferior to silica, its lower
limit of transparency, according to Lyman, being X = 170
IJLfi,. Fritsch ("Phys. Zeit.," 8, 518, 1907) gives the follow-
ing composition of a glass extremely transparent down to
X = 185 fifi :—
CaF2 6 parts.
B203 14 „
M. Luckiesh (" J. Franklin Inst.," 186, 111, 1918) claims
that a special cobalt-blue glass is more transparent than
ordinary glass to ultra-violet. With the exception of Fritsch's
borate glass, which does not appear to have received any
technical application as yet, extremely pure fused silica is the
most suitable material for lamp construction.
84 OZONE
Hughes ("Photo Electricity," 1913, p. 137) has shown
that fused quartz is still transparent down to X = 145*0 /JL/JL ;
a thickness of 0'3 mm. will transmit 24 per cent, of X = 184'9
fji/ju, 36 per cent, of X = 197 /*/*, and 40 per cent, of X =
200'2 pp.
Mention may be made of the naturally occurring sub-
stances, which are even more transparent to ultra-violet
light than fused silica, viz. quartz, fluorite, and rock salt.
Quartz in very thin laminae is transparent down to X = 145
/jifi, rock salt to X = 175 /up, and fluorite to X = 123 /i/x,.
In the Quain apparatus, which is the only form of quartz
mercury vapour lamp ozoniser in technical use, the lamp
which is of the vacuum type and operated by a coil or mag-
neto, at a terminal potential difference of circa 7000 volts,
is inserted in a hollow aluminium tube through which the
air or oxygen, undergoing ozonisation by irradiation from
the lamp, is passed at a relatively low velocity. No litera-
ture has been published dealing with the problem of the in-
fluence of gas velocity on ozone concentration and ozone
production per minute, but the following considerations will
indicate that the optimum conditions will very likely be
formed when only a thin film of air passes over the lamp at
high velocity. Dry and dust-free air is relatively transparent
to light above X = 186 /-tyu, but nearly opaque to light below
X = 178 /iyLt. Lyman (" Astrophys. Jour.," 27, 87, 1908)
states that 1 mm. of air will cut off most of the light below
X = 185 fjifi, which, as we have seen, is the active light for the
production of ozone. Kreusler ("Ann. der Physik," 6, 418,
1901) gives the following figures for the absorption produced
by 20 '45 cms. of oxygen : —
PRODUCTION BY ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION 85
Light of Per Cent.
Wave Length. Absorption.
186 32-5
193 6-2
200 negligible
whilst Schumann observed an air film only 4 mm. thick
(equal to '8 mm. of oxygen approximately) was sufficient to
render all lines below X = 178 p/j, extremely faint. With 0'5
mm. of air, light down to X = 168 /J,/JL would be transmitted,
and below 0*05 mm. in air thickness, the spectrum stretched
considerably below X = 160 //,/z. It will thus be observed
that the ozonising action of ultra-violet light, in so far as it
is caused mainly by light of wave length smaller than X =
200 /tyi is confined to but a millimetre thickness or so of air.
Lamp Efficiency.
Figures are not available as to the optimum conditions
for the production of ultra-violet light from mercury vapour
lamps. As is to be expected the ultra-violet light fraction
increases with increasing voltage (see A. Tian., " C.R.," 155,
141, 1912).
J. N. Pring (" Proc. Eoy. Soc.," 96, 204, 1914) showed
that no oxides of nitrogen or hydrogen peroxide were formed
during operation and that the average ozone content of the
air in the neighbourhood of the lamp was O'Ol per cent, at
760 mm. and 0'0014 per cent, at 30 mm. air pressure. W.
Chlopin (" Zeit. Anorg. Chem.," 71, 2198, 1911), on the other
hand, detected the presence of both hydrogen peroxide, ozone
and nitrous anhydride by exposure for a few minutes of
ordinary moist air to the rays of a Westinghouse quartz
mercury vapour lamp.
86 OZONE
The ultra-violet efficiency of the various types of mercury
vapour lamps on the market was examined by C. Fabry and
Buisson in 1911 ("C.R.," 153, 93, 1911), who obtained the
following results : —
Percentage of Power Sup-
Lamp. plied, Radiated in Wave
Lengths below 320.
Westinghouse ....... 6
A.E.G ......... 4-7
, ......... 0-85
Westinghouse (ii) . . . . • . .0*13
PKODUCTION BY IONIC COLLISION.
In the previous discussion we have noted that molecular
cleavage of oxygen into neutral atoms with or without sub-
sequent ionisation may be brought about by absorption of
light energy, provided that this latter is of the correct fre-
quency for absorption.
The production of ozone depends primarily on the simplest
cleavage, viz : —
O2 -> 0 + O,
with subsequent synthesis of ozone, whilst secondary ozone
formation probably results from the combination of charged
ions, e.g. : —
2
(see W. W. Strong, " J. Amer. Chem. Soc.," 50, 104, 1913)
The cleavage and ionisation of the oxygen molecule may
also be brought about by other means than by the absorption
of light quanta, such as by direct impact by a particles or
electrons.
Madame Curie noticed that radium salts were effective in
ozonising oxygen (" C.B," 183), a point at first disputed by
6 + 6 = 0
PRODUCTION BY ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION 87
Ramsay and Soddy, but finally confirmed by Giesel and
Nasini and Levi (" Atti. R Accad. Lincei," 17, 46, 1908). S. C.
Lind (" J. Amer. Chem. Soc.," 47, 397, 1912) and 0. Schoner
("C.R.," 159, 423, 1914) showed that the a particles projected
from radium ozonised oxygen ; Lind showed, inter alia, that
the number of ozone molecules formed were equal to the
number of ions made by the a particles —
02 -> O + O
202 + 2O = 203.
In many of his experiments a slight deficiency in ozone
formation was observed from that calculated, but under no
circumstances was more ozone than the theoretical obtained.
(See also W. Duane, " C.R.," 153, 336, 1911.) It may be
noted in passing that similiar results were obtained for
hydrogen by W. Duane and Wendt (" Phys. Rev.," 10, 110,
1917), the presence of H3 being clearly demonstrated. F.
Kriiger (" Phys. Zeit.," 13, 1040, 1912) obtained ozone by the
ionising action of Lenard rays obtained by the projection of
cathode rays through an aluminium window and showed, as
indicated in the following tables, that more ozone was formed
per second than ions in oxygen, the number of molecules of
ozone formed approximately more closely to the ionisation
of nitrogen under similar conditions : —
No. Ions Produced per Sec. in No. Mols. O3 Produced per Sec.
O2 x 1014. N2 x 1014. 4 x 1014.
0-70 6-0 7-0
0-56 1-2 1-1
0'41 1-4 1-4
0-21 0-5 0*33
In the case of radium, practically all the ozone produced is
formed through the agency of the a particles, the j3 and 7
88 OZONE
radiation producing but minor and secondary effects. The
energy associated with each group of rays is clearly demon-
strated from the following figures ("Phil. Mag.," 22, 567,
1907) :-
Heating effect of 1 gm. radium =110 gms. cal. per hr.
a rays = 103*5
0 „ = 2-0
7 „ = 4-5
With Kontgen or X-rays, on the other hand, ionisation is not
so marked, since only about 1 atom in 1212 is ionised by the
penetration of the rays into a substance.
For ionisation to be effected by collision, the molecule or
atom must be struck by the a particle or electron with suffi-
cient energy to discharge a valency from its normal orbit in
the atomic sphere. It will thus leave the atom with a certain
critical velocity which it would also acquire if it had been
acted on by a definite potential difference. We may there-
fore equate the loss in kinetic energy sustained by the im-
pinging a particle or electron as a result of collision with the
molecule and the energy of discharge of the electron.
If m be the mass of the impinging electron, VQ its incident
and v1 final velocity, its loss in kinetic energy will be :
l/2m(v02 - v-f) whilst the discharged electron of charge e will
possess an energy Ve.
Hence l/2ra« - v^) = Ne.
A discharged electron or a particle will thus continue its
passage through the gas, causing ionisation by collision on its
way until its velocity sinks to the value vs where
l/2m^32 = Ve,
PRODUCTION BY ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION 89
the minimum velocity necessary to cause ionisation by colli-
sion. Below this velocity the electron will merely adhere to
a neutral molecule to form a negatively charged ion, the a
particle will loose its charge to a neutral molecule to form an
atom of helium and a negatively charged gas ion, provided that
they have not come in contact with the walls of the con-
taining vessel before their journey is completed.
In the case of ionisation by electrons the value of
— = 1-77 x 107,
m
.'. V = 2-82 x 10 - 1G vz
or vcc
In the following table are given the electron velocities in
cms. per second and the potential difference in volts required
to bring them to rest : —
V. v.
1 5-9 x 107
10 1-88 x 108
100 0-595 x 109
1000 1»88 x 109
10,000 5-95 x 10*
100,000 18-8 x 109
200,000 27 x 109
For the minimum velocity required for an electron to
cause ionisation of an oxygen molecule by collision Franck
and Hertz ("Verb. d. Deut. Phys. Ges.," XV, 34, 1913)
found the value 1'80 x 108 cms. per second corresponding to
a fall of 9-0 volts.
This value is in extremely good agreement with that cal-
culated from the critical wave length requisite for ionisation
by absorption of ultra-violet light quanta. It is evident that
90 OZONE
the requisite energy equal to ~Ve can be supplied by the kinetic
energy lost by an impinging electron, i.e. l/2?/w2, or by the
absorption of a light quantum hv thus —
Ne = I/ton . v2 = hv.
Taking X = 135 fifi we obtain the value 9*20 volts for the
value of V determined in this manner. A value of 8 '6 volts
being obtained by Compton (" Phys. Kev.," 8, 412, 1916), by
calculation of the work necessary to remove a valency electron
from an atom possessing Bohr's hypothetical structure.
Quantitative agreement between the yield of ozone calcu-
lated and that actually obtained has, as has already been
mentioned, been shown to hold for the case of ozonisation by
a particle discharge by Lind. Cases of ionisation and ozon-
isation by electron emission have given more variable
results. This is in part due to the great velocity and rela-
tively small size of the electrons which can pass through a
vessel containing gas and come to rest on the walls without
having made a great number of collisions, thus the major
part of its kinetic energy is still retained when it emerges
from the gas and strikes the walls. Again, it appears that
every collision which an electron makes with a molecule of
oxygen, with sufficient energy to dissociate the molecule, is
not always effective in doing so. According to P. Kirkby
(" Proc. Eoy. Soc.," 85, 151, 1911), only 50 per cent, of such
collisions are effective. The yield of ozone by electron col-
lision in oxygen, therefore, usually falls far short of the
theoretical quantity.
CHAPTEK VII.
PKODUCTION BY MEANS OF THE SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE.
THE formation of ozone by the action of the silent discharge
on air is the only process of ozone production which has
received considerable technical development and a great
number of ozonisers of various types and designs have been
incorporated in installations for the economic manufacture
of ozone and ozonised air.
It may be stated at the outset that we do not possess
sufficient information about the mechanism of the silent
discharge to put forward a satisfactory explanation as to the
modus operandi of a " Siemens tube," nor can it be said that
the design and construction of ozonisers is on a scientific
basis, since, with the exception of a few generalisations based
on experiment and a few suggestions based upon somewhat
unsatisfactory and frequently incomparable theories, ozonisers
have been built on the rule of thumb and hit-or-miss
principle.
The following considerations, however, will indicate in
some measure the intricacy of the problem : —
If the potential difference between a point and a plate
separated by a few millimetres of air space from it be
gradually raised, the current potential difference curves be
plotted, and they will be found to possess certain character-
istic features for both direct and alternating currents. The
V, i characteristic curves for point plate and plate discharges
have been obtained with great accuracy by Toepler (" Drud.
(91)
92
OZONE
Ann.," 7, 477, 1902) and Brion (" Zeit. Elektrochem.," 14, 245,
1906) for direct currents, and by Cramp and Hoyle (" Electro-
chem. Ind.," 7, 74, 1909) for alternating currents.
The following indicate the series of changes in the char-
acter of the discharge obtained by Toepler :—
~ ve point to
"*• t/e point
Low Tens/on
Arc.
FIG. 5.
+ ye point to
— ue point
PEODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTEIC DISCHAEGE 93
If a very small potential difference be applied between a
negative point and positive plate, a small amount will flow,
the current being carried entirely by the negative ions
present in the gas ; the i, V curve will then follow Ohm's
law until the rate of removal of gas ions by the electric cur-
rent becomes equal to the rate of supply, when the so-called
saturation current is arrived at, which is independent of the
applied potential difference.
As the P.D. is gradually raised, negative electrons are
discharged from the point and participate in carrying off the
current. The area around the point now becomes luminous,
which luminosity extends towards the plate with increasing
P,D., the discharge becoming a typical brush accompanied
by a slight crackling noise. At this point positive gas ions,
produced at the anode by detachment of an electron from a
gas molecule through collision with an electron travelling at
high speed, will also augment the current capacity of the
system.
The resistance of the air circuit now falls quite rapidly
owing to increase in conductivity by collision between
electrons and the gas molecules and the brush discharge is
converted into a high tension arc discharge. During the
high tension arc discharge, the cathode gets extremely
hot owing to bombardment by positive ions and the
thermionic emission of electrons as well as particles of
vaporised electrode material charged positively commences,
resulting in a still greater increase in conductivity ; the high
tension arc is therefore not stable but is transformed into the
more usual low tension arc. For the production of ozone
the electrically stable part of the discharge only, viz. the
94 OZONE
non-luminous, the glow, and the brush discharge, come under
consideration, since, as we have already had occasion to
observe, the high thermal effects associated with both the
high and low tension arc discharges are more than sufficient
to mask any electronic formation of ozone.
We have noted that the transformation of the silent dis-
charge into the high tension arc discharge occurs after the
whole inter-electrode space has been filled with the discharge
glow, which makes its first appearance in the so-called
corona light. The nature of this luminescence is not clearly
understood ; that it is a function of the composition of the gas
is shown by the experiments of E. Eiesenfeld (" Zeit. Elektro-
chem.," 17, 725, 1911), who noted that the discharge is pink
in nitrogen, blue in hydrogen, white in chlorine, " like the
combustion of iron wire in oxygen," and greenish-blue in
oxygen.
Sir J. J. Thomson (" Conduction of Electricity through
Gases," 1906, pp. 478-512) has shown that at the moment
when both anode and cathode glow make their appearance
there is a very great increase in conductivity of the gas
space, and advanced the hypothesis that just prior to the
appearance of the glow discharge the atoms have acquired
internal energy by collision with electrons and by absorption
of soft Eontgen rays, generated by collisions of electrons with
other atoms, until it has nearly approached the critical value
at which the atom becomes unstable and luminous ; that
ionisation precedes the luminous discharge was clearly
indicated by D. Mackenzie (" Phys. Kev.," 5, 294, 1915).
According to K. Nesturch (" Phil. Mag.," 30, 244, 1915)
there always exists a definite ratio between the amount of
PEODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTEIC DISCHAEGE 95
radiation and the number of gas ions formed by such
collision.
Sir J. J. Thomson and E. Threlfall ("Proc. Eoy. Soc.,"
40, 340, 1886) clearly showed that ozone formation in the
silent discharge tube was associated with the production of a
luminous glow, whilst a similar conclusion was arrived at by
E. Warburg ("Ann. der Physik," 17, 1, 1905), who advanced
the hypothesis that ozone is only produced by electrons with
sufficient kinetic energy to cause themselves to become
luminous.
The view that the corona and brush discharges are at
least in part due to ionisation by collision is supported by a
series of experiments which have been made on the corona
"pressure" phenomenon by S. P. Farnweld, J. Kunz, and
especially Townsend and E. Warner (" Phys. Eev.," 8, 285,
1916). It is evident that if the molecules break up into ions
as a result of ionic collision an increase of pressure should
result. In an enclosed gas space subjected to the brush dis-
charge, this pressure increase has actually been noted, and
when corrected for the unavoidable temperature increase the
following relationship was found to hold good : —
Vi = v0Bp,
where V is the applied voltage, i the corona current, v0 the
volume of the gas subjected to the silent discharge.
In oxygen, however, there is scarcely any increase in
pressure, due to the formation of ozone ; in other words, the
ozone formation is strictly proportional to the ionisation.
It would therefore appear that only a relatively small
portion of the discharge is effective in the production of
ozone and that the optimum results are to be obtained when
96 OZONE
the ozoniser is so operated that the luminosity of the silent
discharge glow is at a maximum.
Many conflicting statements have been published relative
to the yield of ozone per kilowatt hour obtainable in ozonisers ;
on analysis these are found to be due to the fact that many
investigators have ignored the primary consideration affecting
the production, of ozone by this means, viz. the relationship
between ozone production per kilowatt hour and the concen-
tration of the ozone. It is evident that if a definite volume
of air be subjected to the silent electric discharge, the ozone
concentration in that air will rise to a certain definite value,
Co, the " limiting " concentration. When this concentration
is reached, the rate of formation of ozone ~~ will be equal to
its rate of destruction by thermal, catalytic and other effects.
Thus, in the enclosed volume of air, the apparent ozone pro-
duction per kilowatt hour will be zero whilst the actual pro-
duction will be -~. As a first approximation it may be
taken that the rate of catalytic deozonisation is proportional
to the concentration of ozone or -— = KC0 5 thus the energy
required to produce strong concentrations of ozone in a
stream of gas will be a great deal more than is necessary to
produce the same amount of ozone in a very dilute state.
As clearly pointed out by Allmand (" The Principles of
Applied Electro-Chemistry "), the duty of an ozoniser cannot
be obtained without a knowledge of the following data :—
(1) The limiting yield, or the yield per ampere hour at
zero concentration.
(2) The maximum concentration of ozone obtainable.
PEODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE 97
(3) The rate of variation of the yield with the concentra-
tion.
INFLUENCE OF CURRENT ON YIELD OF OZONE.
Owing to the difficulties inherent in the construction of
high-tension (4000, 10,000 volts) generators the current for
ozone installations is usually derived from static transformers.
The static transformer may operate either on alternating
current or on direct current with a suitable interrupter in the
primary circuit.
(1) Static Transformer with Alternating Current Generator.
If a conductor such as a piece of wire describe simple
harmonic motion in front of the pole of a magnet as is ob-
tained in the rotation of an armature between the poles of a
magnet, a current varying in intensity from moment to
moment will be induced in the conductor.
Both E.M.F. and current time curves will follow those of
the sine or cosine curve.
Time
FIG. 7.
The E.M.F. at any time t being given by the relationship
E = Kcos2^
the current in a similar manner by i = ig x sin
7
98 OZONE
If the circuit were entirely non-inductive, the volt-ampere
curves would naturally be superimposed, since at any time
the current flowing, would, in accordance with Ohm's law,
be strictly proportional to the applied E.M.R In actual
practice self-induction is always present, being defined as the
value of the integral —
"cos e dl dl'
-if
r
where e'&dl dl' in the current circuit.
The product L* may be termed the electrical momentum
acquired by the current in the circuit, and Ohm's law has to be
modified to include the rate of change of electrical momentum
as well as the instantaneous current —
<*© - E cos
or
<ft E. = E
The solution of this equation is given by —
E cos (-J- - a
, i
where a = tan"
-^^.
xil
There is therefore a lag between the current and E.M.F.
curves, and the maximum value of the current never exceeds
TC
where the expression under the square root
the " impedance " takes the place of K.
PRODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE 99
Several generalisations which have an important bearing
on ozoniser designs follow from these considerations.
Firstly, large currents cannot be obtained in systems of
high inductances, and with increasing values of the periodicity
( PpJ the inductance term becomes the only one of significance
in the resistance of circuit.
For high frequencies „ will be large, consequently
augmenting tan a, making a the angle of lag approximately
7T
2
E0 sin
equal to _-.
or when cos -~- = 0, sin -^- = 1, the E.M.F. will therefore
be at a maximum when the current is zero and vice versa.
The Wattage consumption ~Ei0i0 will be equal to
,-,„ 27T£ f^TTt \
Baa cos -jjp cos (-y- - a)
7T
- = o when a is ^,
\*
or
— for small values of a
For R = o or a there is therefore no energy consumption,
whilst for some intermediate value there is a maximum energy
consumption.
100
OZONE
E
to be a minimum
For
. /27r\2-r , 27rL
E2 must equal \jp] L2 or E = -=-.
If a condenser of capacity C be placed in circuit with the
secondary system we can in a similar manner obtain the ex-
pression for the relationship between the varying potential
difference and the charge on the plates.
T? (
E (
cos -- -
27T
Q
By suitable adjustment of the condenser, i.e. making
T
C = o~Y> we can Se* larger amounts through the circuit for
a given applied potential difference than if the circuit were
closed by a wire.
According to Kabakjian (" Phys. Rev.," 31, 117, 1910) the
limiting yield of ozone increases with decreasing capacity,
whilst the efficiency of ozone production at a definite con-
centration increases with decreasing capacity.
So far we have assumed that the resistance E of the cir-
PKODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE 101
cuit is non-variant, but as we have had occasion to observe
the conductivity of the air gap in the discharge apparatus
varies with the current. Large currents cause the gap to
become more conducting, permitting under a constant applied
E.M.F. still higher currents to pass, ending finally in spark
and arc discharges. The sinuous character of the curve will
thus be altered, the maxima a, a being increased for this
reason to higher values b, b.
(2) Direct Current with Interrupter.
Small coils with magnetic or larger induction apparatus,
with mercury or Wehnelt type of make and break on the
primary, also yield a periodic current which, however, no
longer possesses the sinuous character of the alternating
current machine, but consists of a number of periodic current
makes and breaks as is depicted in the following curves : —
FIG. 9.
It will be noted that under both conditions of operation
there exists a great danger of the spark discharge taking
102
OZONE
place at the point of optimum current flow, which practically
coincides with the period of maximum conductivity of the
gas. The spark discharge itself is oscillatory in character
having a period T = 2ir^/~LC and will possess a curve of the
following form : —
FIG. 10.
According to the investigations of Kabakjian (" Phys.
Rev.," 31, 117, 1910) the brush discharge itself may under
conditions of high rates of discharge assume the oscillatory
character of the spark discharge.
(a) Influence on Voltage on Ozone Yield. — Chassy (" Etude
sur TOzone, C.R.V.," 135, 1902) claimed that there was for a
fixed air gap in a given ozoniser a practically linear relation-
ship between the ozone yield per ampere hour and the
potential difference between the electrodes. Later experi-
ments have shown that Chassy's conclusions were not entirely
correct. E. Warburg ("Ann. der Physik," 13, 464, 1904)
showed that provided that the potential difference applied
was sufficient to maintain a uniform glow at the point of the
air gap, the yield of ozone was practically independent of the
voltage as is shown by the following figures :—
PRODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE
103
Current
I x 10- 6.
57
57-5
57-2
Voltage of
Point.
. 4,200
. 9,880
11,700
Gms. Ozone
per Coulomb.
•0375
•0386
•0387
A. W. Gray (" Ann. der Physik," 13, 477, 1904), utilising a
standard Siemens ozoniser, likewise found that the yield per
coulomb was constant and independent of the voltage pro-
vided that uniform illumination was maintained in the dis-
charge space.
Kabakjian (" Phys. Rev.," V, 31. 17, 1910) found that the
ozone output per coulomb rapidly rose witti the voltage until
a potential difference of 2,700 volts with a 1 mm. air gap and
3,200 volts with a 2 mm. air gap was reached after which no
further1 increase was noted. At these voltages presumably
"saturation" of the field with the brush discharge was just
effected.
Influence of Current Density.
With a constant regime established in the working of an
ozoniser the quantity of ozone produced per coulomb is
practically constant, for a point discharge on the other hand,
the yield per coulomb varies with the current flowing, as is
shown from the following figures obtained by Warburg:—
Positive Point.
Negative Point and
Positive Plate.
Negative Point and
Positive Cylinder.
Voltage.
Current
1 x 10-B.
Grammes
03per
Coulomb.
Current
I x 10- 6.
Grammes
03per
Coulomb.
Current
1 x 10 -6.
Grammes
O3 per
Coulomb.
8,420
10,400
12,000
28-8
57-2
94-2
0-0172
0-0600
0-0630
17-4
25-1
57'2
0-0489
0-0459
0-0375
29-1
94-2
0-0431
0-0386
0-0370
104 OZONE
The variation in these figures is attributed by Warburg
to the alteration in the volume of the corona glow in the dis-
charge space under the varying voltages. In a Siemens type
of ozoniser operating under the optimum conditions, he ob-
tained a value of 0-260 gms. per coulomb, a figure confirmed
by A. W. Gray (" Ann. der Physik," 13, 477, 1904).
These figures show some light on the mechanism of ozone
formation. Since, as can be shown by electrolytic decom-
position or by measurement of the charge of the electron,
together with the number of molecules in a gram molecule,
96,540 coulombs are associated with one equivalent of a
substance, it necessarily follows that if the ozone were pro-
duced by some form of electrolytic action in the gas space, a
limit is set to the quantity of ozone obtained per coulomb.
We may, of course, make various assumptions as to the
magnitude of the electronic transfer associated with the for-
mation of a molecule of ozone, but it will be evident that the
maximum yield for the minimum transfer will be obtained
on the assumption of the following possible sequence of
reactions : —
02 + 2® -> 6 + 6
O2 + 6 -» 03
i.e. one molecule of ozone would be formed for each electron
transferred. Forty-eight gms. of ozone should therefore .be
formed for a current consumption of 96,540 coulombs, or
0'0005 gms. per coulomb. It is evident that the quantities
of ozone actually produced per coulomb exceed the amount
some 520 times, even though these conditions represent those
most favourable to ozone formation by electronic transfer.
PRODUCTION ,BY SILENT ELECTRIC niSCHARGE 105
We are forced to the conclusion, assuming the accuracy of
Warburg and Gray's experimental data, that most of the
ozone is of secondary origin and is produced by collision
between electrons both primary and secondary and gas
molecules.
Kriiger and Moeller (" Nernst Festschrift," 240, 1912)
have suggested that one electron may liberate, in the case of
the positive point discharge, seventeen secondary electrons,
and for a silent discharge in metallic tubes 287 secondary elec-
trons, which would necessitate velocities produced by applied
voltages of approximately 100 and 50,000 volts respectively.
Influence of Wave Form.
The hypothesis advanced from the previous considerations
that ozone formation is produced by inter-molecular and
electronic collision, and is not a phase of gaseous electrolysis
between the electrodes, is supported by a consideration of the
effect of the wave form on the ozone yield. A. Vosmaer
("Ozone," Constable, 1916, p. 70) states, "a very peaked
wave form would cause a greater distance between regular
working tension and ordinary maximum tension and thus
facilitate the brush discharge. On the other hand a flattened
curve would give more available energy in the domain of
working and would give a better output of ozone . . . there
is not so much difference in wave form to be of any import-
ance." It is clear that this investigator does not consider
wave form of great importance and his views have been sup-
ported by many other observers. Those, however, who have
had occasion to make use of the oscillograph and thus have
been able to plot the wave form with accuracy have noticed
106 OZONE
that the wave form does have an important bearing on the
yield of ozone. Amongst the more important investigations
published, may be mentioned those of 0. Frohlich (" Elek-
trotech. Zeitschrift," 12, 340, 1901). E. Warburg and Leit-
hauser (" Ann. der Physik," 4, 28, 17, 1909), and G. Lechner
("Zeit. Elektrochem.," 17, 414, 1911; 21, 309, 1915).
The following is a brief summary of the more important
conclusions : —
The ozone yield per coulomb rises at first rapidly with the
periodicity of the alternating current and thereafter more
slowly. Up to 500 periods have actually been employed in
technical installations. It is evident from a consideration of
the form of the sine curve that an increasing periodicity in-
creases the steepness of the curve, i.e. high periodicity ensures
a large value for the rate of alteration of the current flow ^.
(it
A high periodicity likewise lowers the minimum potential
difference to produce a silent discharge across a fixed inter-
polar space (E. Eiesenfeld, " Nernst Festschrift," 374, 1912).
More ozone is produced per coulomb with a periodically
broken direct current than with an alternating current of the
same current strength and periodicity. A glance at the
typical wave forms for these two types of current flow will
suffice to indicate that in the former case the -r, values are
dt
much larger than in the symmetric alternating currents. A
further advantage of the direct current is that for the same
effective potential difference a larger current can be passed
through the silent discharge tube with a consequent increase
in ozone production.
PRODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTBIC DISCHARGE 107
Puschin and Kauchtschev (" J. Euss. Phys. Chem. Soc.,"
46, 576, 1914; have likewise shown that the yield of ozone
increases with the frequency, but that the optimum frequency
was dependent on the applied voltage as indicated by the
following figures : —
Periodicity. Applied Voltage.
1240 6500
950 7000
660 8000
For a constant air-flow an increase in periodicity above
these limits decreases the output of ozone, whilst an increas-
ing air-flow displaces the maximum towards increasing
frequencies.
In a general way it is not difficult to offer an explanation
of the increase in yield of ozone per coulomb with rapid
alteration of the current flow or increasing tension of a
current impulse, if we regard the formation of ozone due to
electronic and molecular collisions.
At any given instant we may regard the current flow as
constant ; then proceeding from the negative to the positive
electrode there will be a stream of electrons which, in their
passage through the gas space will ionise part of the gas
therein. The effect of the electron stream on the oxygen
fraction of the gas is three-fold : —
(a) A splitting of the molecule into two neutral atoms by
direct impact —
02 = 0 + 0.
As we have seen it is by this disruption that ozone is chiefly
formed in ultra-violet light.
(6) An ionisation of the molecule or atom by impact —
108 OZONE
02 -* 62 4- 0
o -»6 + 0
the positive ions so formed which may be atomic or consist
of molecule clusters (we have already indicated that evidence
for clusters up to 06 in complexity is at hand, this probably
represents the extreme upper limit, as large clusters easily
break down again). The atoms or molecules with one or two
positive charges naturally proceed in the reverse direction to
the stream of electrons and by impact and combination with
them neutralisation to atoms and molecular groups is once
more effected —
62 + 20 = 02.
(c) An ionisation of the molecule or atom by impact and
adherence of the electron.
The electron having spent most of its kinetic energy with
which it left the electrode or dielectric, may, on contact with
a neutral atom or molecule, not possess sufficient energy to
detach a valency electron from its orbit of rotation and may
actually adhere to the system it strikes forming a negatively
charged atom or molecule —
02 + 0 = 0'2
0 + 0 = 0'.
Oppositely charged atoms and molecules may then react to
form ozone —
62 + 0' = 08.
If the current flux be subject to violent changes then the
stream density of both electrons and gas molecules will not
be constant, but will proceed by a series of irregular spasmodic
bursts of varying velocities, thus greatly enhancing the pos-
sibilities of collision.
PRODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE
109
Influence of Gas Flow and Composition.
We have already referred to the fact that the output of an
ozoniser is governed by the concentration of the ozone formed
during the discharge, since for high concentrations the rate
of deozonisation is increased and the apparent yield of ozone
per kw. hr. decreased. In the curves on next page are
shown the relationships obtained between yield and concen-
tration by utilising a standard Siemens and Halske industrial
ozoniser (Erlwin, " Zeit. f. Sauerstoff and Stickstoff," e, 143,
1911).
Warburg and Leithauser ("Drud. Ann.," 28, 1, 1908)
made a very extensive series of experiments on both glass
and metallic ozonisers to determine the influence of the ozone
concentration derived upon the yield. Their results are
tabulated in the following columns : —
Gms. per
Limiting
Ampere
Hour for
Distance
Concentra-
Type of
Ozoniser.
between
Electrodes
Voltage.
Period-
icity.
Amperes.
Cos e.
tions of
Gms. per
Cubic
Yield
Concen-
tration
in Cms.
Metre.
Gms. 1 Amp.
in Gms.
Hr.
per Cubic
Metro
10
4
Mil. & Vf& .
Glass
0-51
8,050
50
0-182
0-185
38-3
41-9
45-5
3-5
>
1-40
10,080
50
0-102
0-314
,
1-40
16,900
50
0-193
0-243
52-3
55-1
56-8
59-2
i
3-72
17,500
50
0-160
0-415
51-1
56-1
60-1
31-2
M tal
2-26
10,800
50
0-182
0-431
72-2
78-4
82-6
40-5
4-66
13,900
50
0-169
0-450
53-3
62-4
68-4
20-2
2-26
9,480
100
0-308
0-451
75-7
81-4
88-2
51-6
4-66
12,300
100
0-280
0-447
54-0
63-0
69-0
16-8
2-26
9,340
510
1-58
0-537
57-1
66-0
71-9
18-3
4-66
12,100
510
1-19
0-704
33-0
58-0
74-7
11-4
110
OZONE
10
IS ^0 25 30
Cubic Metres per Hour
10 15 20 ~~E T~
Cubic Metres per Hour
FIG. 11.
Mr Flow Rate
PBODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE 111
It will be noticed that the conditions most favourable for
the economic production of ozone obtain with low concentra-
tions of ozone or relatively high flow rate of air. High air
flow rates likewise serve to keep the ozoniser cool, an import-
tant consideration since the catalytic decomposition of ozone
is considerably accelerated by high temperatures.
For technical operations the air-flow rates are accordingly
adjusted as to give the minimum concentration of ozone
which will prove effective for the process under consideration ;
for under these conditions, although more energy must be
expended for pumping air, yet a very considerable economy
is effected in the ozone production.
The concentrations of ozone and the yields obtainable per
kw. hr. are higher in oxygen than in air, but the employment
of oxygen instead of air does not prove to be economical in
practice, although concentrations up to 150 gms. per cubic
metre, or nearly three times the maximum concentration
attainable with air, can be carried out.
The yield, however, does not increase indefinitely with
the oxygen pressure, thus, H. von Wartenberg and L. Max
(" Zeit. f. Elektrochem.," 14, 879, 1913), operating with an
ozoniser constructed to withstand high pressures with an
interpolar space of from 2 to 6 mm. and a current of 1 milli-
ampere at 23,000 volts and 50 periods, obtained the maximum
ozone concentration and ozone yield per watt-second at 0'5 to
1 atmosphere. Pressures up to 5 atmospheres were reached
during the course of their experiments.
It will be noted that 60 gms. of 03 in air, and 180 gms.
of ozone in oxygen per kw. hr. represent the best results
yet obtained with ozonisers operating under the optimum
112 OZONE
conditions. Taking 34,000 calories as the heat of formation
of ozone, this represents a theoretical yield of 1'2 kgms. per
kw. hr., or industrial ozonisers have an efficiency of only
5 per cent, in air or 15 per cent, in oxygen.
Air suitable for ozonisation should be free from dust,
which favours the passage of sparks, and from certain gaseous
impurities such as oxides of nitrogen, chlorine, and more
especially water vapour. All three gases appear to exert a
distinct inhibiting effect on the formation of ozone, in addi-
tion to a deozonising action, which is especially marked in
the case of chlorine and nitrogen dioxide. The function of
these gases as catalytic deozonisers will be referred to later.
The inhibiting action, which is most marked in the case of
water vapour, has been attributed to the formation of mist,
which serve as nuclei for the condensation of the gas ions.
Under these conditions of condensation, the velocity of the
ions is naturally reduced and their power of ionising or
breaking down a molecule into atoms is correspondingly
lowered. Undried air at ordinary temperatures having a
water vapour pressure of ca. 7mm. H20 has a limiting yield
of ozone which is only 60 to 70 per cent, of the air when
dry ; in the presence of moisture likewise the formation of
oxides of nitrogen, due to the thermal effects of sparking as
well as the possible interaction of ozone with some form of
active nitrogen produced in the spark discharge, is usually
occasioned. T. Lowry (" J.C.S.," 101, 1152, 1912), in an in-
teresting research on the effect of the silent and spark dis-
charges on air, showed that in dry air oxides of nitrogen were
not formed under the experimental conditions by passage
through the ozoniser or the spark discharge gaps. When
PRODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE 113
passed, however, through both in series, or when the air
currents subjected to each discharge were mixed, oxides of
nitrogen were produced.
Lowry came to the conclusion that in the spark discharge
an active variety of nitrogen was formed which was easily
oxidised by ozone.
DIELECTRIC MATERIAL.
We have already noted that the yield of ozone per kw.
hr. at a definite concentration increases with the increase in
capacity of the ozoniser, but that the limiting yield decreases.
In addition it must be remembered that extreme variation in
the size of the air gap or interpolar free space is not permis-
sible, since too small a gap will permit the passage of sparks
and possible arcing with minute variations in the applied
voltage, whilst with a large interpolar free space the luminous
discharge, on which the formation of ozone appears to be
largely dependent, will not fill or " saturate " the field. It is
evident that the use of dielectric material other than air, by
which alterations in the capacity and interpolar distances
can readily be made, offers the designers of ozonisers a very
considerable latitude in these factors.
For the purposes of calculation we may take a simple
plate form of ozoniser and consider the effect of inserting a
plate of dielectric material in the air space between the two
metallic electrodes.
T*
i
FIG. 12.
8
114 OZONE
If the two plates are charged with a quantity of electricity
of surface density <r, the attraction, at a point P situate in one
plate, by the other plate which is separated from it by the
interpolar distance (a) is —
r^irrdra cos 0 _ fS^rEUan 0crQ sec2 0d0 cos 6
" } a2 sec2 6 " } ~
F
a2 sec2
-f
2-7r<7 sin 6 = 27r<r.
At a point between the two plates the attraction due to each
plate is 27r«r, thus, with a positive charge on one plate and a
negative charge on the other, F = 47r<r.
If the potential difference be V, and the total charge Q,
then — = 47ra- = -5$, A being the area of each plate, or the
Cb A.
capacity =
if we neglect the irregular distribution of the stream lines
near the edges of the plates.
On the insertion of a piece of plate glass of thickness b
between the plates, the equivalent air thickness is ^, where
K is the specific inductive capacity of the glass, hence the
O A
new capacity will be augmented to = -- - -- - , and
(a -
the interpolar distance of air space reduced to a - b. By
this means we have augmented the capacity and decreased
the interpolar distance of the ozoniser, and thus increased its
efficiency ; at the same time the tendency to sparking and
rupture of the gap between the electrodes is diminished, since
the mechanical force per unit area is likewise reduced, and
PRODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTEIC DISCHARGE 115
the possibility of the flow of currents of high densities natur-
ally excluded.
The following are the approximate values of the specific
inductive capacities of the more common dielectric materials,
dry air being taken as unity : —
Material K.
Paraffin wax 2-3
Eosin 2-6
Ebonite 8-2
Sulphur 3-8
Glass 6 to 7
The choice of dielectric material is naturally limited, since
it has to withstand both high temperatures and the destruc-
tive oxidising action of the ozone. Amongst those which
have been suggested may be mentioned : shellac, mica,
quartz, glass, and artificial insulators formed by condensation
of phenol and formaldehyde, the so-called Baekelites ; glass,
however, is the only material which has received extended
technical application.
The effect of insertion of a solid dielectric in the inter-
polar space is, however, not so simple as indicated by the
above considerations, since like other materials, not only are
they imperfect insulators, but many of them possess the in-
teresting property of acquiring residual charges. We may
regard the dielectric medium to consist of a number of con-
ducting particles embedded in an insulating material, the
fraction being smaller in the case of the more perfect insula-
tors. If this fraction be denoted by u, then the specific in-
ductive capacity can be calculated approximately from the
relationship : —
116 OZONE
1 - u
u being determined from the molecular specific volume -,.
Cu
When a strip of dielectric material is charged up to a
high potential, after discharge it will be found to acquire a
small charge on standing, which is often sufficiently great to
raise the potential of the dielectric up to 300 volts. This
property of acquiring a residual charge is only possessed by
those bodies which possess the property of exhibiting elastic
after-effects, it is never shown by simple substances, but only
by mixtures such as the glasses ; thus xylene and paraffin
oil alone do not show this effect, but on mixing the two, the
residual charge is apparent. One of the constituents must
also possess a certain amount of electrical conductivity.
It is interesting to note that Eiesenfeld (" Zeit. Elektro-
chem.," 725, 1911) failed to obtain a brush discharge with
pure quartz glass, although such discharges are readily ob-
tained with all forms of glass which may contain quite large
percentages of silica, attributable to the slight electrical con-
ductivity of the glass, and its possession of a residual charge.
Two other important properties of dielectric materials
must be briefly alluded to, namely, the alteration in conduct-
ivity with elevation of the temperature, and the modification
which the dielectric undergoes when subjected to electrical
stress.
It is well known that the conductivity of glass at even
slightly elevated temperatures rapidly increases. Mond and
Langer and Huber have actually used solid glasses as
electrolytes at temperatures between 200° and 500° C. Local
PEODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTKIC DISCHAEGE 117
overheating at one point in the dielectric, due to a slight ir-
regularity in the current flow, will thus cause an increase of
conductivity at this point, with a corresponding augmentation
of the current. Fusion and finally perforation of the glass
results. It is for this reason that porcelains, which possess
temperature coefficients even higher than those of the glasses,
are unsuitable for dielectric material in ozonisers.
Kerr noted that the optical properties of dielectrics were
considerably modified by the application of electric stresses.
These modifications are influenced by the period of time for
which the stress has been applied, thus Fleming (see " Amer.
Suppl.," 45, 1912) showed that the conductivity of a dielec-
tric varied with the frequency of the applied alternating
current, and Lipp (" Hochspanning Technik ") found that
the applied voltages necessary for perforation of thin sheets
of dielectric material varied with the period to which the
dielectric material had been subjected to the electrical stress.
The perforating potentials for the usual dielectric materials
are approximately as follows : —
Material Perforating Potentials
lal- in Kilovolts per Cm.
Mica 600 to 750
Micanite 400 „ 500
Porcelain 100
Glass 75 „ 300
Lead glass 1000
Air (" Amaduzzi N. Cimenta," 3, 51, 1912) —
7000 volts per 1-5 cm.
97,000 „ „ 13-5 „
100,000 „ „ 14 „
The potential difference necessary for discharge between
two conductors in air varies with the size and shape of the
118 OZONE
conductor, point discharge taking place much more readily
than discharge across plane surfaces. The following figures
(Abraham and Villard, "Physical Constants," 1910) indicate
the potential difference required to cause a 30 mm. spark to
strike between two spherical electrodes of varying radius :—
Radius in Mm. Potential Difference.
a (plane) 82,700
300 85,100
100 84,400
50 90,000
0 (point) 30,500
The relationship between the potential difference and the
striking distance, is also not a simple one, as indicated from
the experimentally derived figures for spherical electrodes
1 cm. in radius —
Distance in Cms. Kilovolts.
0-06 27
0-10 41
0-40 13-0
0-50 15-6
For very small interpolar distances, say 1 to 50 /A/A, the volt-
age necessary is independent of the distance and equal to
about 350 volts (E. Williams, "Phys. Chem.," 31, 216, 1910).
0. Hoveda ("Phys. Eev.," 34, 25, 1912) gives the follow-
ing relationship for point to plane discharges :—
c +
where a, b, c, are constants, and D is the interpolar distance.
The use of minute points corrugated or roughened metal
electrodes in industrial ozonisers is very frequent, since, as
we have seen, the presence of points facilitates the electrical
discharge,
PKODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE 119
L. Decombe ("Jour, de Physique," 2, 181, 1912) has at-
tempted to calculate the energy dissipated in a condenser
when connected to an alternating current source ; he shows
that the energy absorbed, i.e. V&q (where V is the applied
E.M.F. and q the charge on the condenser), can be expressed
in the form : —
where in is the polarisation and E0 a constant, this is equi-
valent to the dissipated energy : —
or the dissipated energy is proportional to the square of the
polarisation current and independent of the periodicity.
V. Ehrlich and F. Euss (" Zeit. Elektrochem.," 19, 330, 1913),
as a result of an investigation on the measurement of the
electrical quantities in a Siemens ozone tube, showed that
the ionisation or polarisation current and applied potential
were always in phase, and that the potential difference
across the gas gap was a direct measure of the energy.
Chassy ("Jour, de Physique," 2, 876, 1912), on the other
hand, showed that the energy absorbed per second by a gas
under alternating fields, varied as the charge Q and not as
the square of the charge, as in metallic conductors.
An increase in conductivity of the solid dielectric is also
to be expected from its exposure to the ultra-violet light
generated by the brush discharge in the interpolar air gap.
A. Goldmann ("Ann. der Physik," 36, 3584, 1911) has
shown that solid dielectrics exhibit both an increase in con-
ductivity and a negative discharge of electrons similar to the
Hallwachs effect in metals when subjected to ultra-violet
120 OZONE
irradiation ; the conductivity of sulphur is said to increase
1500 times when thus illuminated.
Types of Industrial Ozonisers.
Industrial ozonisers may be grouped into two distinct
types : those in which the silent discharge passes across the
air gap without the interposition of any solid dielectric, and
those in which one or both of the electrodes are protected by
some suitable dielectric material, usually glass.
Non-dielectric Ozonisers.
Several attempts have been made to produce an ozoniser
without any dielectric and although large units on various
systems have been constructed from time to time, their
efficiency has usually been extremely low and at the present
time all industrial ozonisers contain dielectric material.
Schneller, Wisse and Sleen, in 1894, were the first to
construct large ozonisers without a dielectric. One dis-
charging surface consisted of a sheet of platinum gauze to
provide a great number of small points some 30 mm. from
the other surface formed of perforated metal sheet, the air
current being forced through the perforations in the sheet.
The two electrodes were cylindrical in shape and were
mounted in glass tubes. The operating voltage was at first
15,000, which was subsequently raised to 50,000. To avoid
the formation of an arc discharge, which in the absence of
any dielectric between the electrodes would be attended with
disastrous effects, a high resistance was inserted in series
with the ozoniser.
These investigators found much difficulty in the con-
struction of a resistance suitable for the purpose. It was
PEODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTEIC DISCHARGE 121
necessary to obtain a suitable resistance of 1*5 megohms,
capable of carrying O01 ampere ; moist unglazed porcelain
and glass tubes containing 80 per cent, glycerine were found
most suitable. Vosmaer (" Ozone," p. 94) showed that
sparking and arcing could not be avoided even with this
artifice, and that the external resistance served to increase
the capacity of the circuit rather than the resistance.
Slate was found to be more suitable than either glycerine
or moist unglazed porcelain, which rapidly lost its humidity
and suffered an increase in resistance.
Patin's ozoniser followed a similar construction ; re-
frigeration of the air prior to ozonisation was employed to
increase the yield, and a number of small metallic perforated
prisms enclosed in a single unit comprised the electrodes in
lieu of the perforated plates and gauzes in Schneller's ap-
paratus.
Various improvements in design of this type of ozoniser
were introduced by Tindal in 1894 and more especially by
De Frise in 1904. De Frise's plant was actually employed
for a short period in the sterilisation of water on a large
scale at the Saint-Maur Water Works at Paris, but the
dielectric Siemens-Halske ozoniser was subsequently in-
stalled and adopted as proving itself more economical in
operation.
Tindal employed Schneller's method of augmenting the
capacity of the system by the insertion of liquid resistances
in series with the ozoniser. The ozoniser consisted essenti-
ally of a system of compartments separated by perforated
metal plates, containing alternately a set of electrodes and a
water-cooling device,
122
OZONE
The perforated metal plates attached to the cooling tubes
served as one set of electrodes of the ozoniser and fine gauze
as the other set.
FIG. 13.
The water was maintained in active circulation to aug-
ment the cooling.
De Frise likewise adopted Tindal's arrangement of alter-
nating ozonisation and refrigeration, but adopted a different
arrangement for the distribution of the electrodes.
These consisted essentially of a series of crescent-shaped
discs mounted in parallel each with its own liquid inductive
capacity in a water-cooled metallic trough which served as
the other electrode.
FIG. 14,
PRODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE 123
Each disc was furnished with a number of minute points to
facilitate the discharge.
These ozonisers were in successful operation with voltages
up to 10,000, although an applied voltage of from 15,000 to
20,000 was usually employed.
It possessed distinct advantages over Tindal's apparatus
in that the distance between the electrodes could be reduced
very considerably without risk of arcing, thus increasing the
efficiency of the apparatus.
Various types of mechanical ozonisers operating without
the interposition of any dielectric have been constructed from
time to time, the most successful being that of Otto.
FIG. 15.
The frequent occurrence of arcing in non-dielectric
ozonisers as well as the necessity for obtaining a very small
polar distance between the electrodes for efficient working,
led Otto to construct an ozoniser in which by the rotation of
one electrode the polar distance was always varying, so that
if for any accidental cause an arc should be formed at one
124 OZONE
point, it would speedily be broken again by the subsequent
increase in the arc gap. A diagram of an improved form of
Otto ozoniser is shown above. One electrode, which is fixed,
consists essentially of an aluminium disc, studded with a
great number of small points, the rotor being a metallic disc
segmented with insulating material. Up to 80,000 volts have
been employed on these machines.
None of these ozonisers have proved sufficiently economi-
cal or reliable for industrial operations in which, at the
present time, ozonisers containing one or more dielectrics
are practically universally employed.
Ozonisers Containing a Dielectric.
Tubular Ozonisers. — The present construction of service-
able apparatus for the production of ozone by means of the
silent discharge has developed from the simplest forms of
ozone tubes constructed by von Siemens, in 1857, in Germany,
by Brodie in England, and Berthelot in France.
Siemens' first ozoniser consisted essentially of two coaxial
glass tubes, the outer coated externally and the inner intern-
ally with tin-foil, the air being passed through the annular
space. Brodie substituted water as electrode material in the
place of tin-foil, and Berthelot used sulphuric acid.
These ozonisers thus contained two dielectric plates cover-
ing each electrode, and in practice gave serviceable and
uniform results.
Brodie's and Berthelot's system gives somewhat better
results than that of Siemens', since it is a simple matter in
these forms to arrange for efficient cooling of the electrodes
and interpolar space. When oxygen is employed instead of
PEODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTEIC DISCHAEGE 125
air, a 10 per cent, ozone concentration can easily be obtained
at room temperature and over 20 per cent, at -25° C.
Yet another type of apparatus was introduced by Dr.
Oudin and Andreoli in 1893. As one electrode a simple
form of glass vacuum tube was used, electrical connection
being furnished by means of a sealed-in platinum wire,
which in Andreoli's apparatus ran through the whole length
of the tube. The second electrode consisted of a series of
equally spaced indented steel rings, surrounding the vacuum
tube, or a copper spiral coiled in the form of a helix round
the tube; the whole unit being inserted in a glass tube
through which the current of air was passed. Gaiffe and
E. Chatelain at a later date modified Oudin and Andreoli's
apparatus by substituting a second annular vacuum tube in
place of the steel or copper electrode by the former investi-
gators.
Small types of Oudin and Andreoli's machines were at
one time popular for medical work but have not been
developed for industrial purposes.
The Siemens type of ozoniser was developed by Froh-
lich and Erlwein, of Siemens and Halske, to its present form,
which has proved to be eminently suitable for industrial
purposes.
The tubular form of the earlier form of apparatus was
preserved, but various modifications were made in the dis-
position of the electrodes.
For the internal tin-foil coated glass tube, a cylindrical
aluminium tube was substituted, maintained in position in
the outer tube (of glass), and separated from it by 1'5 mm.
by means of three ebonite spring plungers. As the other
126
OZONE
electrode, Brodie's idea of using water was adopted and pro-
vision was made for circulation to ensure cooling, the cast-
iron frame containing the ozoniser and water cooling being
carefully earthed. The smallest technical unit contains two
ozone tubes, the largest eight in the same water-cooling
frame, which is provided with a glass inspection plate.
The operating voltage varies between 4000 and 10,000
volts.
Ozone
\luminium Cylinder
G/ass Tube
FIG. 16.
We have already discussed the results obtained by
Erlwein with this type of apparatus and will refer to the
technical applications in a subsequent section.
A similar type of apparatus has been developed by the
General Electric Company, but the somewhat cheaper and
equally efficient enamelled iron has been substituted for the
aluminium.
The Westinghouse Company in the Gerard ozoniser sub-
PRODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE 127
stitute oil for water as the external electrode, and utilise, as
in the early Brodie tube, a double dielectric system.
According to the investigations of Vosmaer, the economi-
cal production of high concentrations of ozone is realisable
in this type of apparatus.
Various other forms of tubular ozonisers have been the
subject of patent literature, a few of which, such as the
H
Air
i
j.
on/s<
q/vi
s
?d
afi
Oil
k
%*~
/V-
/
-~J
Oil
G/ass
Metal
FIG. 17.
Elworthy, Yarnold and Gaiffe, have been sporadically de-
veloped for a short time by small companies, only to sink
again into oblivion. In Europe the only representation of
this type of ozoniser which may be said to have established
its footing industrially is that of Siemens and Halske.
Plate Type Ozonisers. — In the tubular type of ozoniser,
owing to the disposition of the electrodes, it would appear
128 OZONE
that the use of cooling water is essential in order to keep
the interpolar space and the inner electrode relatively cool,
which, as we have seen, is one of the most important factors
in the economic production of ozone. Since the thermal
radiation obtainable from two parallel plates is much greater
than in the tubular form, where the radiation is practically
confined to the interpolar area and to the external surface of
one electrode, the provision of cooling water is not essential
for efficient operation. Although better results are obtain-
able in well-designed ozonisers, where water cooling is used
in addition to the cooling effected by the air passage, yet
with air-cooled plate ozonisers of the proper design and with
the enhanced capital and running costs entailed in water-
cooling devices, the cost of ozone production by either
method is approximately equal. Nevertheless, in those cases,
usually exceptional, where high ozone concentrations or low
air current velocities are required, provision for water would
appear desirable. Modern plate form ozonisers have con-
sequently developed on these two distinct lines, those in
which air cooling only is utilised and those in which supple-
mentary water cooling is made use of.
Air-cooled Plate Ozonisers. — The earlier ozonisers of
this type, such as those of Villon and Genin of Prepoignot,
and an experimental one of Otto's, were not a success, since it
was found impossible to prevent a very considerable rise in
temperature during continuous operation, resulting in a
serious loss of efficiency.
The first technical ozoniser which showed promise was
that of Andreoli, and possessed the great merits of simplicity
of construction and uniformity in operation.
PRODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTRIC DISCHARGE 129
Andreoli's ozoniser consisted of a series of serrated alu-
minium plates separated from each other by a sheet of glass,
ca. 2 mm. thick, and an air gap. Each plate had an area of
30'5 x 30*5 cms., and possessed 17,760 points formed by in-
dentation of the serrations. These units were mounted in a
wooden box ; provision was made for possible expansion and
contraction, and various artifices were devised to ensure the
plates being inserted quite parallel with each other.
With an eight-plate ozoniser, operating with a voltage as
low as 3,300 volts, an energy consumption of 550 watts could
easily be maintained, producing ca. 60 to 100 gms. of ozone
per kw. hr., naturally at very low concentrations. In his
later models Andreoli likewise introduced water cooling, and
could consequently elevate to applied voltage from 3,300 to
10,000, without any undue rise in temperature.
Experimental ozonisers of similar construction have been
designed by Vohr and Vosmaer but do not appear to have
been developed for industrial purposes. The only air-cooled
type plate ozoniser which appears to have outgrown the ex-
perimental state, and to be actually employed in the various
industries, is that of the Ozonair Company.
This ozoniser is extremely simple in construction and
efficient in operation. The electrodic discharge through the
glass dielectric plates and air gap is facilitated by employing
flat sheets of metallic aluminium alloy gauze as electrode ma-
terial ; this possesses the dual advantage of an even distribution
of points over the whole electrode area, and of being practi-
cally resistant to corrosion or tarnishing. Cooling is effected
by the air current and concentrations up to 3, and, for
short periods, even 4 gms. of ozone per cubic metre may be
9
130
OZONE
obtained under conditions of actual operation without undue
elevation of the temperature. The operating voltage is usu-
ally 5000 at periodicities varying from 25 to 100. Tests have
shown that at a concentration of 2 gms. per cubic metre the
output may exceed 100 grns. per kw. hr.
Aluminium
Glass,
FIG. 18.
Water-Cooled Plate Ozonisers. — This type of ozoniser
was developed chiefly by the early investigations of Otto,
and subsequently by those of Marmier and Abraham ; as a
result the Otto Marmier Abraham Ozoniser was constructed,
which has found a by no means insignificant number of in-
dustrial applications, especially in France.
The unit consists of a pair of hollow disc electrodes with
perfectly plain faces which are protected by plates of the
dielectric, in this case glass, some 2 mm. thick. The inter-
polar air space through which the air flows in a radial
direction varies from 1'3 to 1'8 mm. in width. Each electrode
PBODUCTION BY SILENT ELECTEIC DISCHAEGE
131
is cooled by running water, a broken fall providing against
short circuiting through the earth.
Air
FIG. 19.
The outer casing is made of earthenware, the air being
forced in at one end and emerging after ozonisation at the
other.
The ozoniser operates successfully at a voltage of 30,000
to 40,000 volts, although voltages much lower than this can
naturally be employed, 12,000 being quite normal.
132 OZONE
Otto introduced for these machines a simple form of
electric safety valve consisting of two horn-shaped electrodes,
separated by a variable air gap and placed in series with the
ozoniser.
An accidental rise in the operating voltage would cause a
discharge to take place across the air gap when suitably ad-
justed, and thus obviate any break-down in the dielectric
plates of the ozoniser.
Labille suggested the use of mica as a dielectric in place
of glass plate in ozonisers of this type, but in practice, owing
to the disintegration of this laminated material, unfavourable
results were obtained.
CHAPTEK VIII.
THE CATALYTIC DECOMPOSITION OF OZONE.
SINCE the quantity of ozone in equilibrium with atmospheric
oxygen at ordinary temperatures is, as we have seen, almost
vanishingly small, it follows that in ozonised oxygen or
ozonised air conditions of unstable equilibrium obtain, and
the apparent stability of the ozone is due to the fact that the
equilibrium is " frozen," or the rate of decomposition of ozone
at these temperatures is almost negligible. The rate of de-
composition of the ozone in excess of the minute amount
present at the true equilibrium can be accelerated in a variety
of ways, such as by the addition of catalytic materials, either
solid, liquid, or gaseous, by photo-chemical action, or by
purely thermal methods, by slightly elevating the temperature.
The rate of decomposition of ozone has been the subject
of many investigations. Shenstone in 1897 considered dry
ozone to be extremely unstable, and to undergo decomposi-
tion with extreme rapidity. At a later period, H. E. Arm-
strong showed that, in the absence of oxides of nitrogen, the
rate of decomposition was sensibly lessened.
Jahn ("Zeit. Anorg. Chem.," 48, 260, 1906), at Nernst's
suggestion, conducted a series of experiments on the rate
of decomposition with a view to elucidating the mechan-
ism of decomposition. The ozone molecule may undergo
(133)
134 OZONE
decomposition in a variety of ways, as indicated in the fol-
lowing equations : —
(i) 208 = 302
(ii) 03 = 02 + 0
(iii) O3 + O = 202.
Jahn's experimental results appeared to indicate that the rate
of decomposition could be formulated in the expression —
<fo(0,) KC(03)2
dt C(02)'
He consequently argued that the decomposition followed the
course indicated by equations (ii) and (iii) on the assumption
that the first reaction was rapid and reversible —
03 ^ 02 + 0,
and the second slow and irreversible—
03 + 0 -> 202.
Perman and Greaves ("Proc. Eoy. Soc.," 4, 807, 353, 1908)
likewise stated that the rate of decomposition was inversely
proportional to the concentration of the oxygen —
K
dt ~ 0(02)'
Chapman and Clark (" Trans. Chem. Soc.," 93, 1638, 1908)
and Chapman and Jones (" Trans.," 254, 2463, 1910) subjected
the whole matter to an exhaustive examination ; they showed
that Jahn's and Perman's interpretation was not correct and
that very serious errors due to the catalytic effect of the sur-
face of the glass vessel vitiated the accuracy of their results.
These investigators found that the rate of decomposition was
proportional to the square of the concentration of the ozone
and independent of the oxygen pressure ;
THE CATALYTIC DECOMPOSITION OF OZONE 135
^ = KC(0,)«.
E. Weigert (" Zeit. Phys. Chem.," 80, 78, 1912), however,
obtained values corresponding to an order of decomposition
somewhat exceeding two in the dark.
The rate of decomposition is greatly accelerated by rise
in temperature, being almost instantaneous at 270° C. and
quite rapid at 100° C. This fact, namely, that the equilibrium
is not to be regarded as " frozen " until room temperatures
are arrived at is, as we have seen, the factor militating against
the successful thermal production of ozone in contradistinc-
tion to nitric oxide where the equilibrium is practically
" frozen " at 600° C.
The decomposition may likewise be accelerated by solid
catalytic agents such as the following : —
Ag, Cu, Co, Ni, Cr203, Pb304, V205, Mn02, Ti02, Th02,
Ce02, U308, W203, BaO, CaO, Hg, Ni, Pt, Pd, V,
and powdered glass.
The catalytic activity of platinum black is extremely
great. Mulder and v. d. Meulen (" Eec. Trans. Chem. Pays.-
Bas.," i, 167) and Warburg (" Berl. Akad.,Ber.," i, 1900, 1176,
1901) noted the rapidity of decomposition of ozone rich gas
when passed over cold or warm platinum black, whilst Elster
and Geitel (" Ann. der Physik," 2, 39, 321, 1890) and Well and
Kopp ("Jahresber. Chem.," 270, 1889,322, 1890) observed
the formation of ozone by passing oxygen over hot platinum,
indicating the reversibility of the catalytic activity of the
platinum.
In many cases the activity of these catalytic materials
136 OZONE
can be attributed to the formation and subsequent decom-
position of an unstable oxide or peroxide, e.g.
2Ag + 03 -> Ag20 + 02 -> Ag.
Manchot ("Ber.," 39, 1510, 1906; 40, 2891, 1907; and 42,
3948, 1908), as a result of a series of experiments, obtained
some interesting results with silver as a catalytic agent. He
noted that pure silver was relatively stable in the presence
of ozone, it being necessary to warm the metal up to 24° C.
before decomposition of the ozone and formation of silver
oxide occurred.
A trace of iron, usually obtained from the emery powder
employed for cleaning the silver, serves as an excellent
catalyst promoter, silver containing but a minute trace of
iron reacts already at normal temperatures, and less than
O'Ol per cent, of ozone can be detected by this means. Man-
chot states that silver thus prepared is even more sensitive
than alcoholic tetramethyl base paper and that the ozone
present in hot flames can easily be detected.
J. Strutt ("Proc. Koy. Soc.," 87, 302, 1912) examined
Chapman and Jones' results from a statistical point of view.
He showed that in the case of catalytic decomposition at a
gas-solid surface, the rate of decomposition depends on the
number of collisions of a gas molecule with the surface neces-
sary to effect the rupture of the molecule or reaction with
the surface.
Calculating the number of collisions necessary to effect
the decomposition of ozone in the presence of metallic silver
from the minimum area of silver necessary to effect such
change, he showed that only 1'6 collisions of an ozone mole-
cule with the silver was necessary, or practically every col-
THE CATALYTIC DECOMPOSITION OF OZONE 137
lision was effective. In the absence of any surface, i.e. in free
space, Strutt concluded that at 100° C. two molecules of ozone
must collide 6 x 1011 times before a favourable collision re-
sulted.
The effect of various gases on the rate of decomposition
of ozone was likewise investigated by Chapman and Jones,
who showed that oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide had
no effect, whilst nitrogen dioxide and chlorine accelerated
the rate of decomposition. The influence of water vapour
was not very marked. Shenstone (" Trans. Chem. Soc.," 71,
47, 1897) stated that water vapour did not retard the forma-
tion of ozone ; but, as pointed out by Armstrong, Shenstone
probably included any nitrogen dioxide formed at the same
time in his ozone estimations. Warburg and Leithauser
("Ann. der Physik," IV, 20, 757, 1906) found that the for-
mation of ozone was retarded by water vapour whilst the rate
of decomposition was not affected. The specific influence of
water vapour in accelerating the decomposition of ozone was,
however, noted by Warburg (" Sitzungs K. Akad. Wiss.,"
Berlin, 644, 1913) in the course of his investigations on the
photo-catalytic decomposition of ozone.
It may be concluded from these experiments, as well as
from the somewhat scanty data collected on the rate of
decomposition of ozone in solutions, that water vapour exerts
a slight yet distinct catalytic action. This is only to be ex-
pected if it can be assumed that ozone is slightly acidic, since
when passed into strong alkalis it forms the somewhat un-
stable coloured ozonates MH04. In this case (see Chapman
and Jones, "Trans. Chem. Soc.," 208, 1811, 1911) an equili-
brium is probably set up represented by the equation—
138 OZONE
20H' + 203 ^ 2H04'
2H04' -> H20 + 02 + 20.
If the rate of decomposition in the presence of moisture is
thus accelerated by the HO/ ion then the observed rate of
decomposition will be —
^g^ = K(03)2 + K'C(03)2(OH)2,
where C(OH) is very small and K' relatively small compared
toK.
Eoth (" Monatsheft," 34, 665, 1913) investigated the de-
composition of ozone in acid solutions ; he showed that the
rate of decomposition in strong acids was nearly bimolecular
and in very weak acids practically monornolecular, the rate
for any acid strength being determined by the equation —
= KC(03)2 + K'C(03),
by suitable choice of the values from K and K', the velocity
coefficients.
The catalytic activity of light in decomposing ozone was
first studied by Eegener (" Ann. der Physik," 20, 1033, 1906),
who showed that light of a certain wave length in the ultra-
violet portion of the spectrum, viz. in the region 230 to 290 /JL^L,
exerted a very marked deozonising action, and we have
already discussed the interesting fact that light of shorter
wave length exerts an ozonising action.
The reaction of kinetics of this reaction was investigated
by von Bahr (" Ann. der Physik," 4, 33, 598, 1910) and especi-
ally by Weigert (" Zeit. Phys. Chem.," 80, 78, 1912), who
showed that with complete absorption of light the reaction
velocity of decomposition was proportional to the ozone con-
THE CATALYTIC DECOMPOSITION OF OZONE 139
centrations. On the other hand, under conditions of homo-
geneous illumination, when the emergent and entrant beams
are equally intense, conditions obtaining approximately in
very thin gas films, the reaction velocity was found to be pro-
portional to the square of the ozone concentration. From
Weigert's data it may be calculated that in his experiments,
approximately 100 molecules of ozone were decomposed per
quantum of light energy absorbed. We have already noted
that the magnitude of the quantum hv necessary to effect
any given photo-chemical action increases as the required
energy increases, and consequently the photo-chemical activity
of light is greatest as we approach the extreme ultra-violet.
In the case of the formation of ozone from oxygen we have
already discussed the effect of quanta of various magnitudes
on both the oxygen atom and molecule ; we would expect
that the magnitude of the quantum necessary to detach an
oxygen atom from an ozone molecule would be very small, on
account of its instability ; and again that the period of natural
vibration of an ozone molecule, which determines the absorb-
tive power for light of a definite wave length, would be larger
than that for the smaller oxygen molecule or atom. Both
these expectations are fulfilled in the experimental results
since deozonising light has a longer wave length than that
effective in ozonisation. Photo-chemical equivalence, how-
ever, is not obtained as in the case of ozonisation. The
absorption of a quantum of light energy by the already ex-
tremely unstable ozone molecule causes it to explode with
considerable violence, and, as we have seen, the energy liber-
ated during the explosion is able to cause the primary and
secondary decomposition of over 100 other molecules before
140 OZONE
the energy is dissipated into the surrounding medium. M.
Saltmarsh (" Proc. Phys. Soc.," 27, 357, 1915) regards the
ultra-violet light in deozonisation as the source of nuclei in
the ozonised oxygen which serve as centres of decomposition.
Similar results were obtained by E. Warburg (" Berlin Akad.
Sitzungsber.," 2, 644, 1913). He obtained values for the
specific photo-chemical activity by filling a little quartz cell
with ozonised oxygen and exposing it to radiation for a
definite length of time.
The specific photo-chemical activity </> was obtained from
the ratio —
, __ m0 - ms
where E is the energy absorbed from the light m0, and ms the
ozone concentration before and after irradiation.
The rate of deozonisation was calculated from the relation-
ship—
,, 3 = <4AJ - gm.
ctt
J = Light energy in gm. calories per second.
A = Fraction of light energy absorbed = am.
m = Concentration of ozone in cell.
g = A cell constant correcting for the spontaneous decomposi-
tion of the ozone in the cell.
in
Hence log — = t log (6AJ + g\
ms
and in the absence of radiation —
log ^V = if log g-
He obtained the following values for the specific photo-
chemical activity with light of wave length X = 253 /A/A for —
THE CATALYTIC DECOMPOSITION OF OZONE 141
Ozone in $ x 105.
Oxygen 0-253
Nitrogen 0-975
Helium 1*520
Hautefeuille and Chappuis (" C.E.," 91, 762, 1880) were the
first to notice the inhibiting effect of chlorine on the forma-
tion of ozone, which result was confirmed by Shenstone and
Evans (" J.C.S.," 73, 246, 1898). The work of Bodenstein
and others on the hydrogen chlorine combination leads one to
conclude that chlorine is an optical sensitiser for the decom-
position of ozone. F. Weigert (" Zeit. Elektrochem.," 14,
591, 1908) clearly showed that ozone containing small
quantities of chlorine was rapidly decomposed by blue and
violet light, whilst pure ozone is, as we have seen, only sensi-
tive to ultra-violet radiation. The rate of decomposition was
found to be proportional to the intensity of the light and
independent of the ozone concentration. It would appear
that the molecules of chlorine absorb the smaller quanta of
longer wave length and are consequently endowed with an
excess of kinetic energy equal in magnitude to the quantum
absorbed. By subsequent collision with an ozone molecule
this increment of energy is transferred, causing a rupture of
the ozone molecule into oxygen. The chlorine molecule thus
serves as a conveyor of energy and makes the medium sensi-
tive to this particular radiation frequency.
CHAPTEE IX.
INDUSTRIAL USES OF OZONE.
APPLICATION TO HYGIENIC PURPOSES.
The Sterilisation of Water by Ozone. — The earliest experi-
ments on the use of ozone as a germicide for the sterilisation
of water were made by De Meritens in France (1886).
He showed that even dilute ozonised air would effect the
sterilisation of polluted water, provided that intimate contact
between gas and liquid was effected. A few years later the
subject was reinvestigated by Frohlich(" Elektrochem. Zeit,"
344, 1891), of the firm of Siemens and Halske, who erected
a semi-technical experimental plant at Martinikenfeld.
Ohmiiller and Prall ("Arbeit. Kais. Gesund," 229, 1892), at
the request of the German Government, investigated the
process in great detail and as a result showed that ozone
energetically attacked bacteria in water from which any
excess of inert organic matter had been previously removed.
Sufficient evidence as to its practical utility was thus at
hand to warrant a closer examination as to its suitability for
municipal work.
Chemically, ozone is the ideal agent for purification, since
it leaves behind it nothing foreign in the treated water, with
the exception of oxygen, which assists in the normal aeration
and greatly augments the palatability of the water.
(142)
INDUSTEIAL USES OF OZONE 143
For technical purposes, however, the important factors of
reliability and cost are all important.
As a result of Frohlich's experiments and the satisfactory
report of Ohmuller and Prall, the firm of Siemens and Halske
developed their process of sterilisation with ozone, and large
plants were installed at Wiesbaden and Paderborn and at a
later date at St. Maur, Paris, and Petrograd.
Contemporary with these developments, Tindal, Schneller
and Van Sleen installed an ozone sterilisation plant at Oud-
shoorn in Holland which was subjected to a detailed in-
vestigation by Van Ermengem on behalf of the Belgian
Board of Agriculture, and by Drs. Ogier, Koux and Eepin
(" Eev. Gen. des Sciences," 596, 1896) for the municipality
of Paris, with the result that an ozone installation on Tindal
and de Frise's system was installed at St. Maur, Paris. At
a later date a combination of the Tindal-de Frise and
Siemens-Halske systems was utilised by the Parisian muni-
cipal authorities.
In 1898, Abraham and Marmier erected an installation at
Lille, and in 1904 an ozone plant on Otto's system was sup-
plied to the municipality of Nice.
Small installations were likewise erected on Vosmaer's
system in Holland and at Philadelphia, U.S.A.
As a result of these developments at the present time
there are in operation over fifty plants for the industrial
sterilisation of water by this means.
We have already given a brief description of the various
types of ozonisers developed for the purpose of the economical
production of ozonised air ; the various installations naturally
differed in their methods of ensuring contact of the water
144
OZONE
with the ozonised air and in the preliminary treatment of
the water.
Systems of Ensuring Intimate Contact Between the Ozone
and Water. — In the earlier Siemens and Halske installations
at Wiesbaden and Paderborn, ozonised air containing from
2-j- to 3 grammes of ozone per cubic metre passed upwards
'Qzomzed
Air
Water
FIG. 21.
through a tower filled with broken flint and met a descend-
ing current of water which had passed through roughing
filters.
Fairly satisfactory bacterial reduction was effected by
this method, the count ranging from 9 to 2 organisms per
c.c. after ozonisation, and these organisms were of the
resistant and harmless B. subtilis types. Economically,
INDTJSTBIAL USES OP OZONE 145
however, these contact towers left much to be desired, the
cost being about 2'75d. per 1000 gallons of water treated.
The fundamental point to be considered in the design of
a contact tower, viz. the intimate contact of every drop of
water with the ozonised air, was clearly not realised in this
elementary type of tower. It is evident that every flint is
covered with a thin film of water into which the ozone can
only penetrate by diffusion. Now the rate of diffusion of the
ozone into the liquid film is proportional to its partial pres-
sure in the gas above the film and approximately inversely
proportional to the square root of its density. Thus, although
it is not a difficult matter to oxygenate water in this type of
tower by means of air, since the partial pressure of oxygen
in air is about 20 per cent, of one atmosphere, yet in the
case of ozonised air containing 2*4 gms. per cubic metre
the partial pressure of ozone is only 1/1000 of an atmosphere
and its relative rate of diffusion only J% f , or three-quarters
that of oxygen. As a consequence, to ensure sterility, high
concentrations of ozone had to be employed and much ozone
was lost at the top of the tower.
Trouble was also caused, especially at Wiesbaden, by
clogging of the contact tower with precipitated ferric
hydroxide. The water contained small quantities of ferrous
salts up to 0*5 parts per million, which were precipitated on
oxidation as ferric hydroxide in the interstices of the quartz
packing.
Vosmaer states that by proper design of this type of
tower, relatively long and slender in proportion, sterilisation
can be accomplished by uzing an ozone concentration of
only 1 gramme per cubic metre, and that complete removal
10
146
OZONE
of the ozone is effected by such a tower when gas and liquid
flow rates are properly adjusted ; thus a tower 1 foot in
diameter and 33 feet high was shown capable of treating
10,000 gallons an hour, one 3 feet diameter at Philadelphia
dealt with 50,000 gallons per hour.
In the first plants of Tindal and de Frise both ozonised
air and raw water entered by separate pipes at the base and
flowed in the same direction through the flint packed tower,
which was divided up into segments by means of perforated
metal or celluloid plates.
=— Water
FIG. 22.
A considerable advance on this practice was made by
Otto by the introduction of an emulsifier for ensuring inti-
mate mixture of ozonised air and water at the base of the
tower. The emulsifier is constructed on the lines of a Korting
injector or simple water vacuum pump, the water supplied
under pressure drawing in the ozonised air under vacuum.
Not only was a very intimate mixture of the ozone and the
water effected by this means but by utilising the vacuum
produced by the water stream the necessity for pumping
ozonised air, which requires pumps of special construction, is
avoided. Otto's installation at Nice included a sectional
contact tower of cement using shingle as packing, and
INDUSTRIAL USES OF OZONE
147
operated by means of these emulsifiers. The plant is
capable of dealing with 5,000,000 gallons per day.
In the Ozonair Sy 'stem, which has been successfully
developed for installations of capacity from 1000 to 2000
gallons per hour, the ozonised air is drawn into an injector
by the pressure of the water which is of the order of about
two atmospheres. It is thoroughly emulsified by the injector
and passes into a sterilising tank which is so proportioned as
to give a contact of about 80 minutes. The concentration of
ozone used is from 2 to 3 gms. per cubic metre produced in
the standard type of ozonisers (see p. 129).
The greatest economy in the utilisation of ozone was
effected by de Frise, who introduced a cyclic system at the
St. Maur waterworks, where it operated with great success.
A diagrammatic sketch of De Frise's system is shown
below.
FIG. 23.
The ozone compressor draws the ozonised air from the
ozonisers and forces it into the plate sterilising tower ; from
the top of the steriliser the air returns to the ozonisers,
148 OZONE
passing on its way through a separator and a dryer in which
it comes in contact with calcium chloride, which is cooled in
hot weather. A small suction valve on the inlet of the
separator admits fresh air to make up for the loss through
absorption by the sterilised water. The sterilising tower is
constructed on the sectional system, being built up of
enamelled iron sections 20 inches long and 3 feet in diameter,
each section (there being 30 sections in the tower) being
separated from the others by perforated plates.
With a ratio of ozonised air to water of two to five,
88 per cent, removal of the ozone is effected in the tower
system, the residue being returned after drying to the ozon-
isers.
Pre-treatment of the Water. — Since inert organic matter
is readily oxidised by ozone to carbon dioxide and water, in
order to exercise every possible economy in the utilisation of
ozone, it is necessary to subject polluted waters to some form
of preliminary purification.
The earlier installations at Wiesbaden and Paderborn
were equipped with simple roughing filters with small pebbles
as filtration medium, through which the water passed at
relatively high speeds. In the later plants, where it was
realised that the cost of removing organic matter by oxida-
tion with ozone was higher than by the usual methods of
sedimentation and filtration, more attention was paid to the
pre-treatment of the water, and the ozone was utilised merely
to remove the last traces of organic matter and ensure steri-
lising of the water, conditions unobtainable by any method
of sedimentation and filtration except at prohibitive costs.
In the Otto installation at Nice sand filtration alone is
INDUSTRIAL USES OF OZONE 149
employed as pre- treatment. At Ginnekin, in Holland, the
Mark water is subjected to gravel filtration, followed by a
sand filter. At Oudshoorn the Khine water is passed through
sedimentation basins and sand filters prior to sterilisation.
At St. Maur, Paris, sedimentation basins in conjunction with
gravel and sand filters are utilised for the Marne water,
whilst at Petrograd the Neva water, which is subjected to
very serious pollution and liable to contain pathogenic or-
ganisms, is passed through a battery of mechanical filters
using alumina as coagulant prior to the ozone treatment.
For the sterilisation of upland waters which are subjected
to sporadic or seasonal pollution such pre-treatment is gener-
ally unnecessary, especially in those cases where adequate
storage is provided by means of impounding reservoirs which
act as sedimentation basins of large capacity. Exceptions,
however, are to be found when the upland water is derived
from .a peaty or recently flooded watershed, where, during
the summer months, the quantity of oxidisable organic matter
in the water suffers a considerable augmentation and neces-
sitates a correspondingly increased dosage of ozone.
For the treatment of river supplies which are already
polluted, and with the growth of the riparian population are
becoming increasingly contaminated in organic matter, some
form of pre-treatment is necessary, and it must be emphasised
that the utility of ozone in the present stages of its industrial
manufacture is most marked when it is employed as a finisher
or sterilising agent for waters which are already good enough
but not safe enough for public supplies, rather than when at-
tempts are made to purify highly contaminated streams,
150
OZONE
EESULTS EFFECTED BY OZONE TREATMENT.
The change in appearance of many waters after ozonisa-
tion is frequently very striking, attributable to the removal
of traces of coloured organic compounds and to the aeration
and oxygenation effected during the process. Marshy or
polluted river waters, which, although clear after effective
sand filtration, are brown or greenish-brown in colour, and
generally flat and insipid, after ozonisation they become
bright and sparkling, generally colourless or acquiring a faint
bluish tint.
The physical changes are accompanied by chemical
changes no less marked and characteristic of the process,
thus the oxygen consumed figure determined by the potas-
sium permanganate under standard conditions (usually at
60° C. in acid solution) is usually reduced from 30 to 70 per
cent., as is indicated by the following figures : —
Installation.
Oxygen Consumed Figure.
Parts per 100,000.
Observers.
Before
Treatment.
After
Treatment.
Nice ....
Seine ....
St. Maur .
Philadelphia
1-4
0-43
0'124
0-3
0-21
0-060
(mean of 14)
40 per cent,
reduction
Buisine & Bouriez.
Van der Sleen.
Rideal.
Vosmaer.
The quantity of organic matter oxidised by the ozone as in-
dicated by the difference in the oxygen consumed figures
naturally varies with the three factors, the nature of the
organic matter, the concentration of the ozone, and the time
INDUSTEIAL USES OF OZONE 151
of contact between the ozone and the water. Thus S. Kideal
("J. Eoy. S. Inst.," 30, 32, 1909) found at St. Maur the
following distribution of the ozone at two different gas con-
centrations : —
Ozone in Gins. Per Cubic Metre, in
Entering air 1'68 2-65
Entering water 0-679 1-071
Escaping into the air 0-137 0*291
Escaping in solution in the water . . . 0'048 0'162
Used in oxidising organic matter . . . 0-494 0-618
Gms. Per Cub. Metre.
Oxygen consumed for the water untreated
(from acid KMn04 at 60° C.) 1-73 1-12
Oxygen consumed for the water treated
(from acid KMn04 at 60° C.) 1-25 0-61
Decrease 0-48 0'51
= 28 % = 45 %
During these experiments it was noticed that the dissolved
ozone left in the water after it left the ozonising column dis-
appeared after a few hours, and it seemed probable that
oxidation of the more resistant organic matter was still pro-
ceeding. This was confirmed by the determination of the
oxygen consumed figures from time to time.
Two typical tests giving the following results : —
Oxygen Consumed Gins.
Per Cubic Metre.
Filtered water 1-73 1-12
After ozonisation 1-25 0'61
One hour later 1-15 0'58
Two hours later . . . . . . 0-90 0'51
A corresponding decrease in the free and albuminoid
ammonia takes place simultaneously with the reduction in
152 OZONE
the oxygen consumed figures, as is shown from the investiga-
tions of Van der Sleen on the Seine water : —
Before Treatment. After.
Free ammonia .... 0-271 0-136
Albuminoid ammonia . . . 0-536 0-189
As in the case of the organic matter in the water, a
marked reduction in the number of bacteria takes place. In
common with other germicides ozone is selective in its action
on micro-organisms, certain organisms being more resistant
than others to its action. It so happens that pathogenic
organisms which are already enfeebled by their unsuitable
environment are easily destroyed, whilst the non-pathogenic
sporing organisms, such as B. subtilis, are frequently found in
ozonised waters. This point was fully investigated by Otto
in his experiments on the treatment of the Seine and Vannel
waters.
He showed that all pathogenic organisms and the follow-
ing common bacteria which he isolated were rapidly removed :
these included B. fluorescens liquefaciens, B. coli, B. termo,
B. proteus vulgaris, B. prodigiosus and Aspergillus niger.
More resistant were B. subtilis, B. luteus and Penicillium
glaucum, which only succumbed to prolonged treatment with
ozone.
Camlette showed that Lille installation effected an average
reduction in the bacterial pollution of the water from 28,000
per c.c. in the untreated water to 10 c.c. in the treated water ;
these latter were found to consist entirely of the B. subtilis
type. These conclusions were confirmed by S. Rideal in his
investigations on the Siemens-de Frise plant at St. Maur.
In the filtered water, prior to ozonisation, B, coli was usually
INDUSTEIAL USES OF OZONE 153
present in 40 c.c. of water and occasionally in 20 c.c., whilst
it was never found in the treated water. The 20 c.c. count
was reduced from an average of 74 to 11 per c.c., which were
found to be spore-bearing organisms of B. subtilis type.
Whilst purification can be effected by the consumption of
0'53 gms. of ozone per cubic metre of water, the ozone
consumption per cubic metre of water naturally varies with
the quality of the water to be treated, the economic limit
appears to be in the neighbourhood of 2 gms. ozone per cubic
metre of water. If, by preliminary testing with permanganate,
it is found that more than this quantity would be required
then some form of preliminary treatment is essential for
economic operation.
The Purification of Air.
Several types of apparatus have been designed for the
the purification of air in confined spaces, such as theatres,
lecture halls, slaughter houses, tanneries and breweries, whilst
extended use of ozonised air has been made upon the Central
London Railway systems and public lavatories.
Although the immunity of the motor drivers on the
London Tubes during the recent epidemics of influenza has
been somewhat remarkable it is more probable that this must
be attributed to the uniformity of temperature and to the
circulation of the air rather than to any specific action of the
ozone in the air.
The evidence for the specific utility of ozone as a means
of purifying air is somewhat conflicting.
Dewar and McKendrick ("Pogg. Ann.," 152, 329, 1874)
showed that by the inhalation of strongly ozonised air the
frequency of pulsation of the heart is lowered very consider-
154 OZONE
ably, the blood temperature sinks from 3° to 5°, and post
mortem examination showed that the blood had become
venous in appearance. Thenard (" O.K.," 82, 157, 1876) and
Biny ("Med. C. Bl.," 20, 721, 1882) confirmed these observa-
tions of Dewar's. Schultz (" Arch. f. Exper. Path. u. Plan.,"
29, 365, 1892) records several cases of chronic poisoning by
ozone. Jordan and Carlson l (" J. Amer. Med. Assoc.," 61, 1007,
1913) confirmed the deodorant action of ozone on air but
showed that long before the concentrations reached those
necessary for germicidal action injury was caused to the res-
piratory tract.
The lowest concentrations of ozone in air which can
exert a definite disinfecting action (Schultz, " Zeit. f. Hyg.,"
75, 1890 ; and de Christmas, " Ann. de 1'inst. Pasteur," 7, 689,
1893) appears to be in the neighbourhood of 13'53 mgm. per
litre. With such concentrations sterilisation can usually be
effected in air, but the presence of large quantities of moisture
lowers its germicidal activity. According to Labbe and
Oudin ("C.K.," 113, 141, 1891) the highest concentration
which may be inhaled without deleterious effects is approxi-
mately O'll to 0'12 mgm. per litre.
They state that beneficial results obtain by the inhalation
of ozonised air of this concentration, a marked increase in the
oxyhsemoglobin contact of the blood taking place after an
interval of from ten to fifteen minutes.
It is therefore evident that there is no question of
germicidal activity in ozonised air of concentrations suitable
for respiration. As a powerful oxidant it doubtless removes
1 Leonard Hill and Flack (" Proc. Eoy. Soc.," B 84, 405, 1911) state that a
concentration of 1 in 106 of ozone produces irritation of the respiratory tract.
INDUSTRIAL USES OF OZONE 155
small traces of hydrogen sulphide and other impurities in air,
whilst the unpleasant smells associated with crowded places
are amenable to treatment with oxidising agents such as
ozone. It is somewhat remarkable that most odoriferous sub-
stances contain unsaturated valencies and as such would
naturally be attacked by means of ozone. The odour of ozone
in itself when very dilute is by no means unpleasant and thus
provides a counter irritant to the olfactory organs, a matter
of psychological importance if of no physiological significance.
The use of ozone even in dilutions of O'll to 0'12 mgm.
per litre has frequently been condemned on account of its
supposed physiological activity, in many cases erroneously,
since, unless the usual precautions such as drying the air and
the avoidance of sparking are taken in the preparation of the
ozonised air, oxides of nitrogen are liable to be formed which
have an extremely high physiological activity even in extreme
dilutions. Schwarg and Munchmeyer ("Zeit. f. Infekt.
Krankh," 75, 81, 1913) investigated in great detail the de-
odorising action of small concentrations of ozone in air ; they
observed that hydrogen sulphide was rapidly oxidised, sulphur
dioxide slowly converted to sulphuric anhydride, whilst the
mercaptans, skatol, and indol were oxidised to somewhat
pleasant smelling substances.
Carbon monoxide was but slowly oxidised whilst ammonia
was not affected. Franklin (" IV. Int. Congress on School
Hygiene," 1918) and Biesenfeld and Egidius (" Zeit. Anorg.
Chem.," 85, 217, 1914) confirmed these observers' results on
the action of ozone on hydrogen sulphide. This reaction
was studied in detail by Eiesenfeld, and it was found that
oxidation takes place through a series of intermediate com-
pounds according to the following scheme ; — -
156 OZONE
hyposulphate, sulphite
Sulphide -> thiosulphate '
^polythionates.
-> dithionates -> sulphates.
Although the germicidal activity of ozone in concentrations
which exert no injurious action on the respiratory organs is
practically negligible, yet as has been shown by Dibden some
sterilisation is effected by ozonisation of air, since a marked re-
duction is obtained in the bacterial count of the air which has
actually passed through the ozoniser. This air, which has been
relatively strongly ozonised and subjected to the ultra-violet
radiation in the ozoniser, is practically sterile, and a consequent
improvement in the bacterial pollution of air which has been
admixed with this purer air was naturally expected and in
fact obtained. The largest system of air purification by
means of ozone is that of the Central London Eailway which
is equipped with air screens, washers, and ozonisers of the
.Ozonair type. The total air supply treated for this system
being of the order of eighty million cubic feet per day. The
average concentration of ozone in the Tube air is of the order
of one part in two millions (1*2 mgm. per cubic metre) which,
under special circumstances, it is stated that it is increased to
five parts per million (12 mgm. per cubic metre).
The installation on the Central London Kailway was so
successful in operation that the system of ventilation has been
extended to practically every other London Tube.
Surgical and Therapeutic Uses of Ozone.
During the period of the war small portable ozonisers
have been in use in many of the military hospitals of the
nations for the treatment of wounds. Major Stokes, of the
INDUSTEIAL USES OF OZONE 157
Queen Alexandra Military Hospital ("Lancet," 1918), de-
scribes the following method of wound sterilisation which
appears to have given excellent results. Wounds and sinuses
are washed twice daily with boiled water and a dressing of
oxy gauze is applied. The ozone (ozonised air) is applied on
the wounded surface or on to the cavities and sinuses twice
daily for a maximum time of fifteen minutes or until the sur-
face becomes glazed. At first ozone causes an increase of the
discharge of pus, which is gradually replaced by clear serum.
The serum at a still later stage becomes coloured reddish or
purplish. It was found that ozonised air applied in this way'j
was a strong stimulant, and increased the flow of blood to the f
affected part, that it was a germicide and exerted great powers I
in the formation of oxyhsemoglobin. A record of seventy-
nine cases so treated is given, in which the period of treat-
ment varied from a few days to three months and was in
practically all cases completely successful.
Curie (" Practitioner," 864, 1912) describes the application
of ozonised air to the liberation of iodine in the lungs for the
treatment of phthisis. Potassium iodide is introduced into
the lungs by ionisation, and the iodine is subsequently liber-
ated by the inhalation of ozonised air. For disinfection of
the intestinal canal in cases of enteritis and dysenteries,
Lessing (" Lancet," Nov., 1913) records the improvement
obtained by washing out the intestinal canal with ozonised
water. The treatment of ulcers and pyorrhoea of the teeth has
been successfully accomplished with ozonised air. Ozonised
medicaments and ointments, such as vaseline, have been stated
to possess a superior curative value to those not so treated.
Ozone appears to be slightly soluble in these semi-fluid
158 OZONE
hydrocarbons, and would naturally give the medicaments a
germicidal activity. Information is not available as to the
extent of the solubility of ozone in vaseline, fats, and lards,
or how long the substance retains any germicidal activity due
to dissolved ozone or to the presence of unstable ozonides.
As has already been mentioned, the action of dilute ozonised
air in stimulating the production of oxyhsemoglobin has been
successfully utilised for the treatment of cases of anaemia,
whilst its application in cases where there is a shortage of
oxygen absorbed in the system, such as in asthma or heart
weakness, is not without benefit.
Applications for Bleaching Purposes.
Houzeau (" O.K.," 75, 349, 1872) and Boillot (" C.R," 80,
1187, 1875) showed that dilute ozonised air possessed, in
common with chlorine and bromine, the property of selectively
oxidising the colouring matters present in various natural
substances. Ozone appears to be even more efficacious than
either chlorine or bromine, since not only is the danger of
forming coloured substitution chloro- or bromo-derivatives
avoided, but the oxidising power of ozone greatly exceeds that
of chlorine or bromine. For this reason only very dilute
concentrations of ozone may be utilised for bleaching purposes,
and many unsuccessful results are directly attributable to the
employment of air relatively highly ozonised.
Fibres.
Linen and cotton goods are slowly attacked by ozone
(" Kolb. Bull. Soc. Ind. Mulhouse," 38, 94, 1868), and accord-
ing to Witz("Bull. Soc. Eouen," u, 198, 1883), in the
presence of moisture, oxycellulose is formed. The subject
INDUSTRIAL USES OF OZONE 159
was reinvestigated by Cunningham and Doree (" J.C.S.,"
103, 1347, 1912) employing high concentrations of ozonised
oxygen (20 to 25 gms. per cubic metre). They showed that
an oxycellulose and cellulose peroxide accompanied by a de-
struction of the fibre were produced with the liberation of
carbon dioxide.
Unbleached samples of cotton became white in from one to
two hours, but when dried the fibre was found tendered and
dusty. Jute fibres were likewise rapidly bleached, but became
acid and tender when subjected to a similar treatment for a
few hours. The cellulose peroxide affected a photographic
plate, and possessed oxidising properties such as the liberation
of iodine from potassium iodide. In the presence of water
hydrogen peroxide was formed. In general the action of
ozone on cellulose closely resembles that of ammonium per-
sulphate ("Ditz. Chem. Zeit," 31, 833, 1907 ; " J. Prakt. Chem.,"
78, 343, 1908), and with more dilute concentrations of ozonised
air bleaching without subsequent tendering might be ob-
tained.
The application of ozonised air to the conditioning of tex-
tile materials is stated to be entirely successful ; exceedingly
dilute concentrations of ozonised air are employed, and under
suitable conditions of humidity the period of conditioning
can be reduced from several months to a few days.
Oils, Fats, and Waxes.
The applications of the use of ozone in the oil, fat, and
wax industries are very considerable, the reagent being useful
for a great diversity of purposes. Amongst the more im-
portant of these may be mentioned : —
160
OZONE
1. Eemoval of odour, flavour, and colour from oils and
fats intended for edible purposes.
2. Bleaching and refining of oils and fats for use in the
soap industry.
A. Air Cleaner.
B. Electrically driven Blower.
C. Air Delivery Pipe.
D. Air Cooling Machine.
K. Electric Motor.
E. Cold Air Delivery Pipe.
F. Ozone Generators.
G. Transformer.
H. Valve.
I. Ozone Pipe.
J. Ozone Injectors.
L. Switchboard.
FIG. 24.
3. Bleaching of oils for paint and varnish-making.
4. Bleaching and refining of waxes for use in the manu-
facture of candles, polishes, and ointments.
In the above sketch is given a diagrammatic arrange-
INDUSTEIAL USES OF OZONE 161
ment of a bleaching plant on the Ozonair system. The
temperatures at which selective oxidation of the colouring
matter or objectionable odoriferous substances in the oil, fat,
or wax commences, the concentration of ozone, and the period
of action naturally vary with the nature of the substance
treated and the degree of refining required. Generally a fairly
dilute concentration of ozone at not too elevated temperatures
passed through the material for a relatively long time gives
the best results. In certain cases it is found advantageous
to add small quantities of catalytic materials, such as salts
of manganese, vanadium, or cerium, to accelerate the process
of oxidation.
The application of ozonised air to the bleaching and
deodorisation of oils, fats, and waxes is well exemplified by
the following list (see pp. 162, 163), in which a summary is
given of the effect of dilute ozonised air on various com-
mercial products.
Application to the Paint and Varnish Industry.
As has already been observed all the industrial oils and
waxes readily undergo partial or complete deodorisation by
fractional oxidation of the coloured chlorophyllic constituents
utilising ozonised air as oxidising agent. For the production
of clear and transparent varnishes this is a matter of some
technical importance, and the use of ozone for this purpose has
been frequently suggested.
It would appear that the use of ozonised air as a substitute
for siccatives in the preparation of drying oils is already
out of the experimental state. It has long been known that
the drying of oils is a process of slow oxidation and poly-
merisation (see Lippert, " Zeit. Angew. Chem.," 11, 412, 1895;
162
OZONE
Oil, Fat,
or Wax.
Bleaches.
Deodorises.
Remarks.
Arachide or
ground nut
Yes
Yes
Bleaches easily, but requires subsequent
treatment for deodorisation and im-
provement of flavour.
Bone fat
Yes
Yes
Bleaches easily, at the same time the
odour is much improved, in fact rank
or ill-smelling fats are readily con-
verted into perfectly sweet substances.
Borneo
Tallow
Yes
—
bleaches readily, but requires subse-
quent treatment for deodorisation
and improvement of flavour.
Coconut oil
Yes
No
1 Bleaches readily, but requires subse-
quent treatment for deodorisation
and improvement of flavour.
Coconut acid
oil
Yes
Yes
Yields readily to treatment for bleach-
ing and deodorisation.
Cod oil
Yes
Yes
Cotton seed
Yes
No
bleaches fairly easily according to
grade or quality, but requires subse-
quent treatment for deodorisation
and improvement of flavour.
Japan wax
tallow
Yes
Yes
Bleaches well according to grade or
quality.
Lard oil
Yes
No
Bleaches very easily.
Mowrah
Yes
—
Bleaches readily, but requires subse-
quent treatment for deodorisation
and improvement of flavour.
Neatsfoot oil
Yes
Yes
Bleaches readily.
Oleine
Yes
Yes
Bleaches easily. At the same time the
odour is much improved, but the
characteristic odour still remains.
Olive
Yes
Yes
Bleaches very easily, the darkest
varieties, such as that known as
"sulphur," are bleached to the or-
dinary olive colour.
Palm
Yes
No
Bleaches very easily in most cases.
Even " unbleachable " varieties such
as Congo and saltpond are much im-
proved in colour.
Sesame
Yes
No
Bleaches fairly easily according to
grade or quality, but requires subse-
quent treatment for deodorisation
and improvement of flavour.
INDUSTEIAL USES OF OZONE
163
Oil, Fat,
or Wax.
Bleaches.
Deodorises.
Remarks.'
Soya
Yes
Yes
Bleaches easily. At the same time
the odour is much improved, but the
characteristic odour still remains.
Stearine
Yes
Yes
Bleaches easily. At the same time
the odour is much improved, but the
characteristic odour still remains.
Tallow
Yes
Yes
Bleaches easily. Odour is much im-
proved.
Turnip seed
Yes
Yes
bleaches fairly easily according to
grade or quality, but requires subse-
quent treatment for deodorisation
and improvement of flavour.
Beeswax
Yes
There are at least twenty well-known
commercial varieties all of which
possess different characteristics, and
respond to the treatment in varying
degree. Some are bleached entirely
by ozone, others only partially, so
requiring subsequent sun treatment
in the ordinary way. Contrary to
what might be presumed, the dark
varieties, such as " Cuba" or "West
Indian," give the best, whereas the
lighter varieties may give the least
satisfactory results.
Cardililla
No
—
—
Carnauba
No
—
—
Lanoline
Yes
_
The bleaching is effected very readily
after removal of all the free fatty
acids. The degree of colour or bleach
obtained depends very much on the
quality of the original wax and the
care with which it has been collected.
Montana
No
—
—
aln all these cases, if deodorisation only is desired, this can be obtained
in certain cases by using a low concentration of ozone and without any sub-
sequent treatment, but when bleaching and deodorisation are both required,
subsequent treatment is necessary.
It has been stated that the actual cost of bleaching and deodorising oils
and fats for edible purposes or for soap-making, by means of ozonised air,
does not exceed five shillings per ton, a figure which compares quite favour-
ably with the alternative methods of treatment with superheated steam, fuller's
earth or charcoal filtration.
164 OZONE
Weger, " Chem. Eev. Fett. Harz. Ind.," 4, 301, 1899). A.
Genthe ("Zeit. Angew. Chem.," 19, 2087, 1906), who investi-
gated the process in detail, showed that the action was auto-
catalytic in character, or that the rate of oxidation of the oil
after a time when a quantity x had already been oxidised was
given by the equation -^- — K(a - x)(b + x\ where a and b
were the initial concentrations of linseed oil and catalyst
originally present. Further experiments (see also Engler
and Weiszberg, " Chem. Zeit.," 27, 1196, 1903) showed that
the catalytic material naturally formed was some form of
unstable peroxide which accelerated the oxidation of the oil
by air.
This unstable peroxide could be supplemented or replaced
by other peroxides of a similar character, such as those ob-
tained on the exposure of turpentine to the air or even by
the agitation of an ether air mixture. These peroxides are
destroyed by boiling the oil but can be regenerated by aera-
tion. (For a consideration of the composition of these
peroxides formed in the drying of linseed oil see Orloff (" J.
Buss. Phys. Chem. Soc.," 42, 658, 1910); Fahrion ("Zeit.
Angew. Chem.," 23, 723, 1910); Salway and Kipping
("J.C.S.," 95, 166, 1909), and others.)
The addition of siccatives, such as salts of lead, manganese
zinc, frequently with the addition of certain promotors as
cobalt, vanadium, cerium, and uranium is now common
practice. The salts are either those of weak acids such as
the borates, or of soluble organic acids and oleates, linoleates,
or resinates (see Ingle, "J.C.S. Ind.," 454, 1917). The
siccatives are pseudo-catalytic in behaviour, and serve to
INDUSTKIAL USES OF OZONE 165
stabilise or assist in the formation of the auto-catalytic per-
oxide.
Identical results are obtained with the use of ozonised
air, the oils can be easily thickened and the process conducted
at much lower temperatures. Linseed, Chinese wood, poppy
seed, rape, and similar oils, rapidly thicken at comparatively
low temperatures (upwards of 35° C.), and at the same time
their colour is much improved by selective oxidation of the
coloured constituents. Bleaching usually proceeds anterior
to the thickening process, consequently an improvment in
colour may be obtained without drying the oil.
Linseed oil may readily be thickened to a syrup or to a
jelly for the manufacture of linoleum ; Chinese wood oil
likewise rapidly undergoes oxidation, whilst poppy-seed and
rape oils thicken less readily than linseed oil. The utilisation
of ozonised air in the oxidation of linseed oils has naturally
been extended from the simple preparation of drying oil to
the drying of the oil in its various technical applications,
such as linoleum manufacture, the preparation of waterproof
materials, fish netting, and other similar manufactures.
Ozone in the Fine Chemical Industries.
The oxidation of organic substances by means of ozone has
been the subject of numerous investigators. Carbon monoxide
is readily oxidised to carbon dioxide in the presence of moisture
(Clausman, " C.B.," 150, 1332, 1910), but only slowly when
the gases are dry (Remsen, " Ber.," 8, 1414, 1875). Alde-
hydes are readily oxidised to alcohols ; iodobenzene to iodoso
benzene whilst the saturated hydrocarbons themselves are
readily attacked at low temperatures. Thus, methane is
166 020Nfi
converted below 100° C. into a mixture of methyl alcohol
formaldehyde and formic acid. Drugrnan (" J.C.S.," 89, 1614,
1906) has shown that gradual hydroxylation of one carbon
atom takes place, the corresponding alcohol is first formed
which is then oxidised rapidly to the more stable aldehyde
acid. Subsequently slow oxidation to the acid proceeds : —
/OH
C . CH3 -> C . CH2OH -> G . CH( -> C . HOH
XOH
->C - OH
^OH -» COOH
\OH
Harries ("Ann.," 374, 288, 1910) suggests that oxidation
proceeds through the intermediary formation of unstable
peroxides, e.g., C . CH2OH -> C . CH20 = 0, and not through
a series of unstable hydroxylations as postulated by Drugrnan.
Ozone is finding many applications as an oxidising agent
in the fine chemical industries. It has been successfully
employed for the preparation of several synthetic perfumes,
such as the methyl ether of pyrocatechaldehyde (vanillin),
piperonal (heliotrope), and anisic aldehyde ; the manufacture
of vanillin being accomplished on a very large scale in France,
America, and in this country.
Vanillin is prepared from eugenol according to the follow-
ing scheme : —
C3H5 CH = CH . CH3 CHO
+ CHaCHO
COCH,
Eugenol.
INDUSTRIAL tJSES OF OZONE 167
the isoeugenol being oxidised by ozone to vanillin and
acetaldehyde by rupture of the double bond.
According to Trillat the process is conducted as follows :
Eugenol is converted into isoeugenol by treatment with
caustic potash and amyl alcohol, from which solution it is
liberated by sulphuric acid.
About 25 litres of isoeugenol are dissolved in acetic acid
and subjected to a current of ozonised air (2 to 2'5 gms.
per cubic metre) for a period of six hours at a low temperature
(ca. 2° C.) in an enamel-lined vessel fitted with a tall recti-
fication column. When the oxidation to the aldehyde is
completed the acetic acid is removed by distillation, ether and
sodium bisulphate are added and the solution warmed to 30° C.
The bisulphate aldehyde compound is washed with ether
decomposed with sulphuric acid, and the vanillin finally ex-
tracted with ether.
In a similar manner heliotropin is prepared from safrol
according to the equations —
CH, - CH = CH2 CH = CH.CH3
CHO
Safrol. Isosafrol. Piperonal (heliotropin).
The safrol is converted into isosafrol by heating with an
alcoholic solution of caustic potash, from which it is subse-
quently extracted by means of ether. For treatment with
ozone (as in the case of isoeugenol) it is dissolved in acetic
acid, from which the heliotropin is recovered in like manner.
168 OZONE
Anisaldehyde can be prepared in a similar manner by the
oxidation of anethol —
CH = CH . CH, CEU . CH = CH9 CHO
OCH3 OCH3
Attempts have also been made to utilise ozone for the
oxidation of aniline to aniline black and the leuco bases of
various dyes, such as indigo, to the coloured dye-stuffs, but do
not appear to have received any extensive technical applica-
tion.
For analytical purposes in organic chemistry ozone merits
some attention, since by the preparation of ozonides and their
subsequent decomposition the structure of various complex
compounds containing ethylene linkages has been elucidated.
The investigations of Harries (" Ber.," 37, 839, 842, 2708,
3431, 1904, et seq.) and his co-workers, have been the most
remarkable in this direction. Unsaturated compounds are
ruptured at the double bond and converted into aldehydes
and ketones.
In the absence of water, however, a direct addition of
ozone to the double bond occurs with the formation of
ozonides —
>C:C<-»>C -. C<
I I
o o
V
which on the subsequent addition of water undergo decom-
position to ketones and hydrogen peroxide —
INDUSTKIAL USES OF OZONE 169
>C . C<
+ H20 ->>C = 0 + O = C<+ H202.
0 0
V
The ozonides are colourless, viscid, oily substances, highly
explosive and possessing a penetrating odour.
In common with ozone they affect a photographic plate,
attributable to the chemioluminescence produced on oxida-
tion of organic matter by means of ozone (see pp. 8, 159).
The ozonides behave like powerful oxidising agents them-
selves, akin to the peroxides in chemical behaviour in that
they bleach indigo, liberate iodine from potassium iodide and
react with potassium permanganate.
Benzene triozonide or ozobenzene, isolated by Kenard, is
a relatively stable substance, easily produced by passing
ozonised air into dry benzene, from which it is precipitated
as a gelatinous amorphous product. It explodes somewhat
violently on the addition of warm water.
Oleic acid, either when dissolved in acetic acid (Harries
and Thieme, "Ber.," 39, 28, 44, 1906), or when treated with
ozonised air without a solvent (Molinari and Sonicini, " Ber.,"
39, 27, 34, 1906), forms a normal ozonide. In chloroform
four atoms of oxygen are taken up to form an ozonide per-
oxide.
By analysis of the products of decomposition the position
of the unsaturated linkage in oleic acid was established be-
tween the atoms C9 and C10, thus giving oleic acid the structure
CH3(CH2)7CH = CH(CH2)7COOH.
If strong concentrations of ozone be employed for the
preparation of ozonides, oxozonides are said to be formed at
170 OZONE
the same time (Harries, " Ber.," 43, 936, 1912, et seq.\ thus
s. butylene yields the following substances on ozonisation : —
1
(1) GH3 . CH . CH . CH3 (2) fCH3 . CH . CH . CH,
v> { \/
o3 I o3
Normal ozonide. The dimeric ozonide.
(3) CH3 . CH . CH . CH3
and \ /
04
Oxozonide.
and a dimeric oxozonide —
(4) f CH8 . CH . CH . CH31
I Y 1
cyclo pentene exhibits a similar behaviour in that two ozonides
and two oxozonides are formed on oxidation (Harries, " Ann.,"
4, 4101, 1915).
Harries (loc. cit.) attributed the formation of oxozonides
to the presence of oxozone in the ozonised oxygen which he
postulated to be present by analysis, employing the iodide
method of estimation. The existence of oxozone in ozonised
air or oxygen has, however, not been confirmed (see p. 184)
and some other structural formula must, consequently, be
adopted for the oxozonides.
The ozonisation of rubber was first attempted unsuccess-
fully by Wright in 1897 ("Bull. Soc. Chem.," 18, 438, 1897),
and was subsequently investigated in great detail by Harries
and his co-workers, Langheld and Haeffner, in the hope of
elucidating the complex structure of the isoprene polymer.
Harries (" Ber.," 37, 2708, 1904) ozonises rubber by the
following procedure : Ozonised air, washed with caustic soda
INDUSTRIAL USES OF OZONE
171
and sulphuric acid to remove the oxozone, containing from
6 to 12 per cent, of ozone, is passed for ten hours into a 1 per
cent, solution of purified rubber in chloroform. The end of
the reaction is ascertained by the decolorisation of bromine.
The ozonide is obtained by evaporation at 20° C. in vacuo,
subsequently reprecipitating from ethyl acetate by petroleum
ether in the form of a thick oil solidifying to a vitreous mass.
Rubber ozonide is soluble in ethyl acetate, benzene and
alcohol is explosive and like ozone it acts on a photographic
plate.
Analysis gives the average composition C 49 per cent.,
H2 6'9 per cent., and the molecular weight about 526, corre-
sponding to the compound —
(C10H16O6)2 (C 51-72 per cent., H2 6'70 per cent., m.w. = 464).
Adopting Harries' structural formula for isoprene rubber —
fCH3C— CH2— CH2— CH ]
\ ? # f
[HC— CH2— CH2 C.CH3L
the rubber ozonide would possess the following structure : —
CH3 H
\j — C» — OH2 — OH2 — C\^^
0— C— CH2— CH2— C
I - /
H CH,
:0
Rubber ozonide suffers decomposition on boiling with
water, forming levulinic aldehyde and levulinic aldehyde
peroxide, as indicated by the following equation : —
172 OZONE
CH3
O— C— CH2— CH2— CH— Ov
0( | >
X0— C—CH2— CH2— C- -0
H CH3
CH3
0= C—CH2— CH2— CH- 0
-> I! II
O =0
+
CH3.CO.CH2 CH2.CHO
On continued boiling of the aqueous solution the levulinic
aldehyde peroxide undergoes autoxidation to levulinic acid,
and the a and /3 lactones of this acid —
CH3
0= C— CH2— CH2— CH= O
II [I -> CH3 . CO . CH2CH2COOH
0 .Q Levulinic acid.
OH3 — 0 * OH — OH2
I i
O CO
Levulinic lactone.
Gottlob (" Zeit. f. Anal. Chem.," 20, 2213, 1907) investigated
the action of ozone on many varieties of African rubbers,
especially those from Uganda and the Upper and Lower
Congo areas ; he obtained the following mean values for the
decomposition products : — <*
Per Cent.
Yield.
Levulinic acid 49-8
aldehyde . 25'8
„ „ peroxide 3-8
Resin 5-0
INDUSTKIAL USES OF OZONE 173
Paulsen ("Le Caoutchouc et la Guttapercha," 7, 4177, 1913)
has shown that the ozonides of various resins, such as sandarac
and dammar, are precipitated by carbon tetrachloride, a
property which Dubosc and Luttringer (" Kubber, Its Pro-
duction, Chemistry and Synthesis," Griffin, 1918) has applied
to the estimation of rubber resins. Molecular weight deter-
mination has shown that the natural rubber molecule is
exceedingly complex, whilst the ozonide consists of but two
molecules of ozonised dimethyl cyclo octadiene. It there-
fore follows that ozone exerts a depolymerising action on the
rubber molecule.
Attempts to prepare dimethyl octadiene itself by reduction
of the ozonide have, however, proved fruitless.
Cyclo octadiene, the simplest of the cyclo octane deriva-
tions, has, however, been isolated by Willstatter, and on
ozonisation and hydrolysis this yields succinic dialdehyde,
whilst on polymerisation it yields a product very similar to
natural rubber —
CH— CHo— CH— CH 2 . CHO . CH2 . CH2CHO
CH— CH2— CH2— CH,,
On this evidence, supported by his previous work on the
nitrosites and tetrabromide of rubber, Harries adopted the
somewhat unusual eight-ring structure as the unit in the
polymer of natural rubber. Although Harries' views have
received wide acceptation, yet this theory is contested by
several workers in the field; notably by Pickles, who ad-
vances various arguments why rubber should be represented
as an open-chain polymer : —
174 OZONE
f CH, I
1 = C . CH2 . CH2CH = J ,
the ozonide of which would naturally possess the following
structure: —
CH3
°\ I /°\
| XC— CH2— CH2—CH/ X0
°\ '
A few applications of the use of ozonised air have been
made in preparative inorganic chemistry ; thus the oxidation
of manganates to permanganates, chlorates to perchlorates,
ferrous chloride to ferric chloride are reactions which pro-
ceed smoothly and rapidly with the aid of ozone. The
preparation of permanganates by means of ozone is said to
possess advantages over the usual chemical methods of
manufacture.
APPLICATION TO BREWING AND FOOD PRESERVATION.
Ozonised air has found increasing application in the
brewery, not only to prevent the ingress of adventitious
micro-organisms during the process of fermentation and
cooling of the wort, but also the refrigerating and bottling
the beer. By enclosure of the fermenting tuns and the
cascade coolers in a suitable air shaft high concentrations of
ozone may be used, which ensures the sterility of the air in
contact with the liquid. Minor applications are found in the
treatment of filtering material, the cleansing of clarifying
chips and the sterilisation of bottles and casks.
According to V. Vetter (" Zeit. f. Brauerie," Feb., 1911)
all utensils, with the exception of rubber goods, which are
INDUSTRIAL USES OF OZONE 175
rapidly attacked by ozone can be cleaned after washing with
water by subjecting these to an air current containing 0*5 gm.
ozone per cubic metre for half an hour.
Will and Wiensiger and V. Vetter (loc. cit.) have shown
that yeast has a higher power of resisting ozone than other
organisms met with in brewing. On this observation pro-
cesses of selective sterilisation of the fermenting liquid have
been devised in which by the aeration with ozonised air for a
suitable period of time all organisms such as sarcina, with
the exception of the yeast cells, are destroyed. It was found
that aeration with ozonised air containing 3 gms. per cubic
metre at the rate of 12 cubic metres per hour per kilogram of
pressed yeast, for a period of from fifteen to twenty minutes,
ensured the production of a normal and energetic fermenta-
tion. It was further claimed that the flavour of the beer
was unchanged, its keeping qualities improved, together with
its power of resisting infection on storage. In forcing tray
experiments beer from untreated yeast turned at the end of
thirty-two days, whereas that from ozonised yeast remained
good for eighty-six days, showing only a slight haze at the
end of this period. Similar applications of ozone in the
other fermentative industries, such as the manufacture of
wines, cider, perry, alcohol and vinegar, have been frequently
proposed. From time to time proposals have been advanced
to accelerate the normal ageing of wines and especially spirits
by treatment with ozonised air. According to De la Coux
(" L'Ozone," p. 378) the process of ageing is virtually one of
slow oxidation by means of atmospheric oxygen. Not only
is a small fraction of the alcohol oxidised direct to acetic acid,
as indicated by an increase in the quantity of ethyl acetate
176 OZONE
in the spirit, but the bouquet is in part due to the formation
of acetal produced by interaction of aldehyde and alcohol in
the presence of ozonised oxygen. Eesinous matter, which in
the normal process of ageing is precipitated from the wine or
spirit, is, it is said, also removed by treatment with ozone
(together with fusel oils from whisky). De la Coux likewise
records an improvement in colour. Such a process of
artificial ageing, first proposed by Pasteur, has been at-
tempted on a small industrial scale by numerous investi-
gators, notably Villon, Broyer, and Petit, and others. The
type of plant employed follows closely on those adopted for
the sterilisation of water, either plate towers or spray
systems being utilised to ensure intimate contact between
the ozonised air and the liquid. For the artificial ageing of
wines it is said that 20 to 40 litres of oxygen should be
utilised per hectolitre of liquid by the continued passage of
cooled ozonised air for a suitable length of time. The wine
so treated, it is claimed, will become fully mature in from
two to three months.
For spirits some 50 litres should be utilised per hectolitre.
Three days after treatment the spirit is clarified by precipita-
tion with magnesia or filtration through suitable clarifying
agents and reozonised, until another 50 litres of oxygen are
absorbed. The process is repeated three or four times and
the spirit finally stood for a few months. Villon claims that
twenty year old cognac may thus be prepared in less than
six months.
Although these claims are distinctly interesting, and any
method of rapidly maturing wines and spirits would possess
great economic advantages, yet it must be confessed that
INDUSTKIAL USES OF OZONE 177
apart from the fact that no process of industrial ageing on
these lines appears to be in actual operation, ageing is prob-
ably not entirely a process of oxidation but results from a
great number of chemical reactions produced from enzyme
activity taking place but slowly in the wine. Probably not
the least important are the proteoclastic ferments effecting
the gradual hydrolysis of the small quantities of protein sub-
stances present in the liquid.
A useful field for the application of ozonised air is to be
found in the preservation of food, especially in connection
with refrigeration.
For the prolonged storage of fresh meat it is necessary to
maintain it at a low temperature, in order to lower the rate
of hydrolysis both proteoclastic and lipoclastic produced in
the meat by the naturally occurring enzyme. At normal
temperatures meat can only be preserved for a few days
without its quality being seriously affected by such changes
occurring. During storage and transit not only are the sub-
stances subjected to internal attack by the natural enzymes
but frequently external sources of contamination are to be
found, especially flies and air-borne micro-organisms.
Thus maintaining perishable foodstuffs at a low tempera-
ture and in a sterile atmosphere ideal conditions for preserva-
tion obtain. Several large refrigerating warehouses and ship
holds have been equipped with ozonisers on the air-circulating
systems.
We have already alluded to the enhanced efficiency of
ozonisers at low temperatures, hence the conjunction of an
ozoniser in a refrigerating system is a particularly economical
installation.
12
178 OZONE
Useful applications for ozone are likewise to be found in
the drying of copra, which, when subjected to the ordinary
sun-drying process, is liable to acquire an exceedingly offensive
smell. The conditioning of air in flour mills by means of
ozonised air is said to be attended with a possible increase
in the mill capacity of 30 per cent, and the practical elimina-
tion of the flour moth.
CHAPTEE X.
METHODS OF DETECTION AND ANALYSIS.
THE presence of one part of ozone in a million of air can be
detected by means of its characteristic odour, which, however,
is liable to be confused with that of dilute chlorine or nitrogen
peroxide.
In common with other powerful oxidising agents, it will
readily liberate iodine from the usual starch iodide papers,
colouring them a brilliant blue, a method employed by Schon-
bein, Wolffhiigel and Van Bastelaer.
Houzeau indicated that by a simple modification of the
test paper ozone could be distinguished from acid oxidants,
such as chlorine or nitrogen peroxide. A strip of filter paper
is impregnated with a solution of neutral potassium iodide
and one half is then treated with starch and the other with
an alkali indicator such as phenolphtalein or rosolic acid.
Ozone is sharply distinguished from chlorine and nitrogen
peroxide by liberating both iodine and alkali from neutral
potassium iodide —
03 + 2KI + H20 = 02 + 2KOH + I2.
The paper is not entirely diagnostic for ozone, since carbon
dioxide will slowly liberate iodine from neutral potassium
iodide solutions and will not turn the paper distinctly acid.
Hydrogen peroxide will give the same indications as ozone
itself. Iodine is also set free by photolysis (Loew, " Zeit. f.
(179)
180 OZONE
Chem.," 5, 625, 1869), and the papers should be guarded from
direct sunlight. Guiacum test papers are turned blue by
ozone in common with other oxidants.
Cazeneuve has shown that m.-phenylene diamine test
papers are sensitive to oxidants and that ozone can be dis-
tinguished from hydrogen peroxide, since the former gives a
brown coloration and the latter an intense blue.
Arnold and Mentzel (" Ber.," 35, 1324, 2902, 1902), as a
result of a series of experiments, showed that benzidine and
dimethyl p.-phenylene diamine, or better the tetramethyl
derivative (the sensitivity to oxidising agents increases with
the number of methyl groups inserted), were extremely
sensitive and at the same time gave a ready means of dis-
tinguishing between the different oxidising substances, as
indicated by the following table : —
Colour shown by : —
Oxidant. Benzidine. Tetramethyl
Base.
Ozone
. Brown.
Violet.
Nitrous acid .
. Blue.
Straw yellow.
Halogens
. Blue then red.
Deep blue.
Hydrogen peroxide
. nil.
nil.
Mention may be made of the following test papers which
indicate the presence of ozone : Silver foil is coloured black
by the formation of the somewhat unstable silver oxide in
the presence of ozone ; hydrogen sulphide will, of course,
form a sulphide coloration somewhat similar to that of
oxide ; lead acetate paper is sufficiently diagnostic of hydro-
gen sulphide ; whilst lead sulphide paper is bleached by ozone
and hydrogen peroxide owing to conversion into lead sulphate.
METHODS OF DETECTION AND ANALYSIS 181
Manchot (" Ber.," 39, 3570, 40, 289, 1907, 42, 3948, 1908)
notes that silver is extremely sensitive to the presence of a
little metallic iron as catalytic agent, a coloration is easily
produced by O'Ol per cent, ozone, and he claims this to be
more sensitive than the tetramethyl base paper.
Manganous sulphate impregnated filter papers turn brown
in the presence of ozone, due to the formation of Mn203.
Manganous oxide may, of course, be formed if any alkali be
present in the gas, e.g. ammonia, and this in turn will undergo
atmospheric oxidation to the coloured manganese oxide,
especially in the presence of light (Danhary, " J.C.S.," 5,
1, 1867). Thallous oxide is converted into the brown thallic
oxide T1203 by the action of ozone. Nitrous acid is without
effect, since the nitrite and nitrate of thallium are not coloured.
Halogens and hydrogen sulphide, however, produce a brown
coloration, the former due to oxidation and the latter due to
conversion into a coloured sulphide. Carbonic acid present
in the gas to be detected causes a considerable decrease in
sensitivity of thallous oxide paper owing to conversion to the
somewhat insoluble carbonate.
Various investigators, notably Poe'y and Berigny, have
used these test papers in the form of long strips in a suitable
recorder mechanism for the continuous detection of ozone in
gases. By means of a simple clockwork escapement a small
piece of a ribbon of impregnated paper is exposed to the gas
stream for a short period, and by noting the time and coloration
of the paper the presence of ozone in the gas at any time
during the period of operation can easily be detected.
Some attempts have been made to convert these so-called
cronozoscopes into cronozometers for giving some idea as to
182 OZONE
the quantity of ozone in the gas at different intervals of time.
These experiments have usually been directed along one of
the following lines : either the time of exposure is increased
until the test slip becomes sufficiently coloured to be indis-
tinguishable from a standard colour, when the amount of
ozone present is naturally inversely proportional to the time ;
or a series of standard colours are made up and each test slip
is exposed for a definite and constant time interval. It would
appear that the former method gave more accurate results.
It is evident that human control is necessary for this type of
cronozometer, but a simple mechanical mechanism could
doubtless be fitted to make the machine automatic and not
merely semi-automatic in action. Thus, for example, the
difference in reflecting powers of various shades of thallium
oxide T1203 could be made to actuate a system of balanced
thermocouples.
METHODS OF ESTIMATION.
(a) Iodide Method. — Bunsen's method of estimating ozone
by the liberation of an equivalent of iodide from a neutral
solution of potassium iodide according to the equation —
(1) 2KI + 03 + H20 = 2KOH + I2 + 02,
followed by back titration after acidification with sodium
thiosulphate or sodium hydrogen sulphite, using starch as
indicator, is liable to give unsatisfactory results owing to the
further oxidation of the liberated iodine into iodite, iodate,
and periodate (Garzarolli, " Thurnlackh. Monatsh.," 22,
455, 1901). With a large excess of potassium iodide and in
a slightly acid solution, however, the sensible error due to the
formation of iodate and periodate js not large, According to
METHODS OF DETECTION AND ANALYSIS 183
Ladenburg, hydrogen peroxide is formed under these condi-
tions (" Ber.," V., 34, 1187, 1901)-
(2) 403 + 10HI = 5L + 4H20 + 302 + H202,
and although a slight loss may result, due to interaction of
the ozone and the hydrogen peroxide thus formed —
H202 + 03 = H20 + 202,
the results are usually somewhat higher than those determined
by physical methods, which we will shortly refer to. Laden-
burg (" Ber.," 36, 115, 1903) obtained excellent results by
performing the estimation in the reverse manner, viz. passing
ozone through standardised sodium hydrogen sulphite and
back titrating with standard iodine solution.
Ingles ("J.C.S.," 98, 1010, 1903) showed that the acid
iodide method invariably gave high results, neutral solutions
yielding more accurate determinations. He found that
neutral potassium bromide solutions gave discordant results.
Houzeau's modification of the iodine method is extremely
accurate. A consideration of the equation (1) will indicate
that for every equivalent of ozone two equivalents of alkali
are liberated, and consequently the increase in alkalinity of
the solution gives a measure of the amount of ozone. A very
dilute sulphuric acid solution of potassium iodide is usually
employed, followed after absorption of the ozone by back
titration with standard alkali, using litmus or congo-red as
an indicator. The liberated iodine can be determined in the
neutral solution by means of sodium thiosulphate, thus giving
a check on the former figure.
E. H. Eiesenfeld and F. Bencher (" Zeit. Anorg. Chem.,"
98, 167, 1916) investigated the effect of the addition of
184 OZONE
to neutral potassium iodide solutions for the estimation of
ozone in great detail. They showed that in all cases, although
the main reaction proceeded according to the equation—
03 + KI -> I + 02,
a side reaction took place simultaneously —
03 + 3X1 -> 31.
The side reaction was found to be uninfluenced by the ozone
concentration in the gas, but greatly favoured by low tempera-
tures and relatively strong acid solutions. Any values be-
tween 1 and 3 atoms of iodine per molecule of ozone could
be obtained by altering these conditions, a value of 2 '1 being
readily obtainable.
They suggest that the intermediary ions 10', I03', IO/ play
a part in the reaction, and that in all solutions containing
ozone and potassium iodide an equilibrium between the fol-
lowing ions is invariably obtained, K, OH', I', 10', I03' and
I04'. The production of oxozone (04), in the silent electric
discharge was suspected by Harries (" Zeit. Elektrochem.," 17,
629, 1911) as a result of analyses of the ozonised air by the
iodide method. It appears more than probable that the
above side reaction fully accounts for Harries' results.
N
Vosmaer (" Ozone," Constables, 1916) employs ^j sul-
phuric acid, and finds that no appreciable loss of accuracy
results by using acid of this 'strength.
(b) Arsenious Oxide Method. — Thenard's method of esti-
mating ozone, similar to that employed for evaluating bleach-
ing powder or permanganate solutions, is based upon the
oxidation of arsenious acid to arsenic acid by these oxidising
agents, according to the equation — »
METHODS OF DETECTION AND ANALYSIS 185
3As(OH)3 + 03 + 3H20 = 3As(OH)5.
A dilute solution of potassium arsenite is prepared by the
solution of arsenious oxide in potassium bicarbonate, and after
N
filtration is standardised by -./w iodine solution, using starch
as indicator.
The ozonised air is metered after absorption of the ozone
by the potassium iodide or arsenious acid solutions (1 wash
bottle is sufficient for gas flow rates up to 10 litres per hour);
for higher flow rates a greater number must be employed.
De la Coux (" L'Ozone," p. 530) states that five 1-litre wash
bottles are ample up to 500 litres per hour.
Ozone concentrations are usually expressed in grammes
per cubic metre of air. It will be noted that in the case of
arsenious acid absorption the equivalent volume of oxygen
is not returned to the gas, as is the case in absorption by
means of potassium iodide, and consequently in this case the
gas suffers a diminution in volume when passing through the
absorbers; this correction, however, is but a small one. (4*8
gms. 03 per cubic metre would give a diminution of but
0-224 per cent.)
(c) David (" C.E.," 164, 430, 1917) suggests the use of
N
=- ferrous ammonium sulphate solution, slightly acidified
with sulphuric acid, as absorbent ; back titration is accom-
plished with potassium permanganate. It is stated that the
solution is unaffected by air at this concentration.
(d) Physical Methods. — Otto has made use of a barograph
for obtaining a continuous record of the density of a stream
of ozonised air ; it is claimed that the apparatus is extremely
186 OZONE
sensitive owing to the great difference in densities between
ozone and oxygen. The same investigator also devised a
dilatometer for the estimation of ozone based upon the in-
crease of volume which ozone undergoes when subject to
thermal decomposition. A 500 c.c. flask, terminating in a
graduated neck, is filled at atmospheric pressure and at a given
temperature with the ozonised oxygen. The flask is inverted
and the graduated neck is immersed in a mercury bath, and
the ozone is then decomposed by heat. Boiling amyl benzoate
(b.p. 261° C.) has been found to be a suitable substance for
this purpose. The increase in volume after cooling to the
original temperature and readjusting to the original pressure
is noted and thence the ozone content of the gas can be cal-
culated from the equation —
203 = 302.
Otto further devised an optical method based on the principle
of the tintometer, more recently applied by Lovibond to similar
purposes. A series of coloured cobalt-blue glasses serve as
standards of comparison with a tube of definite length of
ozonised air or oxygen under standard conditions of tempera-
ture and pressure.
F. Kriiger and M. Moeller (" Physik. Zeit.," 13, 779, 1912)
have suggested the measurement of ozone concentrations by
the absorption of ultra-violet light. The maximum absorp-
tion of ultra-violet light by ozone is found in the region X =
200 to 300 P/JL, especially at X = 254 /JLJJL. According to Beer's
law the absorption coefficient may be expressed in the form
I = I0e"ked or log I = log 10-kea, where I0 is the initial inten-
sity of the ultra-violet light, I the intensity after absorp-
tion by a layer of ozonised oxygen d cms. thick containing
METHODS OF DETECTION AND ANALYSIS 187
e gms. per cubic metre, and K the absorption coefficient for
ozone ; thus, under constant illumination in a tube of con-
stant length, the ozone concentration is proportional to the
logarithm of the intensity of the emergent ultra-violet light,
determined by means of a potassium photo-electric cell.
None of these methods of physical analysis have, however,
received technical application, reliance having usually been
placed on some modification of the iodide volumetric method.
The analysis of gases containing ozone and other oxidising
agents has been the subject of investigation by Tommasi, as
early as 1879 (" Chem. News.," 29, 289, 1874).
The gases containing ozone and chlorine or nitrous acid
are passed into a normal solution of potassium ferrocyanide,
and the total oxidising power determined by the conversion
to potassium ferricyanide effected. Another portion of the
gas is then passed over hot platinum black, or through a hot
tube containing manganese dioxide, when the ozone is de-
stroyed. The potassium ferrocyanide conversion is then de-
termined, and from the difference in the two estimates the
ozone content of the gas can be determined.
Analysis of mixtures containing ozone and the oxides of
nitrogen may also be accomplished by passing the gases
into liquid air, when the oxides of nitrogen are solidified and
may be separately determined.
Hauser and Herzfeld ("Ber.," 45, 3575, 1912) cite an in-
teresting method for the analysis of small quantities of
methane, which, it would appear, would also be applicable to
the estimation of ozone. They note that methane is quanti-
tatively oxidised at ordinary temperatures to formaldehyde
by ozone according to the equation—
188 OZONE
CH4 + 203 = HCHO + H20 + 02.
It has been suggested that this method of ozone estimation
might be applied to the detection of electrical leaks and corona
discharge in tunnels through which insulated high-tension
electric cables are led (e.g. the Lotschberg Simplon Tunnel),
as the amount of ozone resulting from the ionisation of the
air in the tunnel would give an approximate idea as to the
magnitude of the electrical leak.
An instrument for the detection and estimation of dissolved
ozone in water was devised some years ago by U. Evans
and the author (" An Electro-chemical Indicator for Oxidising
Agents," " The Analyst," August, 1913). This consists essen-
tially of a small cell formed by a platinum rod surrounded
by a copper tube. The water containing the ozone flows
through the annular space between the platinum and the
copper at a good rate, and forms the electrolyte of the cell,
whilst the platinum rod and the copper tube forming the
electrodes of the cell are connected to a microammeter or
thread recorder. In the absence of any oxidising agents in
the water, the small cell rapidly becomes polarised, the current
flowing through the microammeter sinks to zero, and the
platinum becomes charged with hydrogen corresponding to
the electrolytic solution pressure of the copper in the water.
Most potable waters contain a quantity of dissolved salts to
make the internal resistance of the cell sufficiently low for
practical operation. On the addition of any oxidising agent
to the water, the cell is partly depolarised by the removal of
hydrogen from the platinum electrode, and the rate of re-
moval of hydrogen by the ozone is measured on the micro-
ammeter,
METHODS OF DETECTION AND ANALYSIS 189
Since 96,540 coulombs are associated with 1 gm. equivalent
or 8 gms. of ozone, assuming the electrode reaction —
60 © 03 = 30",
this quantity passing through the cell per second would
generate a maximum current of 96,540 amperes. If the
liquid flow rate were 1 c.c. per second, a fairly normal rate for
the instrument, one part of ozone in 10,000,000 of water would
correspond to a passage of 10~4 mgm. of ozone through the
cell per second, equivalent to a possible current of 12 x 10~4
amperes. It is, however, evident that all the ozone cannot
act as a depolariser, since half of it at least is wasted at the
other electrode, and for convenience of operation the cell and
flow rates are not so proportioned as to effect complete re-
duction of the ozone in the water flowing through the cell.
In actual operation the recorded current is about 25 per cent,
of the theoretical maximum. The instrument is remarkably
sensitive, easily estimating or recording one part of ozone in
10,000,000 of water or '00001 per cent.
NAME INDEX.
ABRAHAM, 130, 143.
Allmand, 96.
Andreoli, 125, 128, 129.
Andrews, 2, 58.
Archibald, 66.
Armstrong, 41, 132, 137.
Arnold, 50, 180.
Arny, 19.
Arrhenius, 61.
BACH, 42.
Baeyer, 14.
Balmer, 72.
Barus, 40.
Baumann, 40.
Baumert, 2, 57.
Becquerel, 2, 11.
Beger, 9.
Bencher, 183.
Bendixsohn, 64.
Berigny, 21, 22, 181.
Berthelot, 7, 59, 124.
Besson, 26.
Bineau, 16.
Binz, 154.
Birkeland, 24.
Blanc, 40.
Bloch, 11, 40.
Bodenstein, 141.
Bohr, 76, 90.
Boillot, 158.
Bonyssy, 20.
Bottger, 49.
Brauner, 47, 51, 64.
Brion, 92.
Erode, 51.
Brodie, 28, 38, 124, 126, 127.
Brooksbank, 10.
Broyer, 176.
Brunck, 33.
Buisson, 17, 18, 23, 86.
Bunsen, 182.
CAMLETTE, 152.
Carius, 7, 59.
Carlson, 154.
Cazeneuve, 180.
Chapman, 48, 134, 137.
Chappuis, 6, 9, 141.
Chassy, 102, 119.
Chatelain, 125.
Chlopin, 85.
Chree, 26.
Clark, 134.
Clausius, 29, 38.
Clements, 50, 51, 52.
Cloez, 16.
Compton, 90.
Cramp, 92.
Croze, 10.
Cruickshank, 1, 57.
Cunningham, 159.
Curie, 86.
Curie, 157.
DAVID, 185.
De Christmas, 154.
Decombe, 119.
De Frise, 121, 122, 143, 146, 147.
De la Coux, 6, 31, 32, 58, 175, 176,
185.
Delandres, 72, 82.
De Marignac, 57.
De Meritens, 142.
De Varigny, 19.
Dewar, 6, 8, 48, 49, 153, 154.
Dibden, 156.
Dixon, 41.
Donovan, 66.
Doree, 159.
Drugman, 166.
Duane, 87.
Dubosc, 173.
EGIDIUS, 155.
Ehrlich, 119.
Einstein, 71.
Elster, 39, 135.
Elworthy, 127.
Engler, 19, 39, 41, 42.
Erlwein, 109, 125, 126.
Evans, 141, 188.
FABRY, 17, 18, 23, 86.
Farnweld, 95.
Finck, 53.
(191)
192
OZONE
Fischer, 8, 47, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 64
66, 69.
Fleming, 117.
Fowler, 10, 17, 23.
Franck, 81, 89.
Franklin, 155.
Freny, 2.
Friend, 37.
Fritsch, 83.
Frohlich, 13, 106, 125, 142.
Fulhame, 41.
GAIFFE, 127.
Gardner, 66.
Geitel, 39, 135.
Genin, 128.
Genthe, 36, 37, 164.
Gerard, 126.
Giesel, 87.
Goekel, 40.
Goldmann, 119.
Goldstein, 6, 10, 70.
Gottlob, 172.
Graham, 5.
Gray, 103, 104, 105.
Greaves, 134.
HABER, 116.
Haeffner, 170.
Hall\vachs, 119.
Harries, 15, 166, 168, 170, 171, 173, 184.
Hartley, 16, 18, 23.
Hatcher, 19.
Hauser, 187.
Hautefeuille, 6, 50, 51, 141.
Hayhurst, 20.
Hazura, 37.
Henriet, 20.
Hertz, 81, 89.
Herzfeld, 187.
Hollman, 7.
Holmes, 20.
Hoppe, 40.
Horton, 11, 75.
Houzeau, 11, 20, 22, 23, 30, 37, 158,
179, 183.
Hoveda, 118.
Hoyle, 92.
Hughes, 84.
ILOSVAY, 49.
Ingles, 183.
Inglis, 47, 63.
JAHN, 7, 132, 134.
Jellinek, 53.
Jones, 48, 134, 137.
Jordan, 154.
Jorrisen, 38.
KABAKJIAN, 100, 102, 103.
Kauchtschev, 107.
Kerr, 117.
Kirkby, 90.
Kissling, 37.
Kopp, 135.
Kreusler, 84.
Kron, 17.
Kriiger, 105, 186.
Kunz, 95.
LABBE, 154.
Labille, 132.
Ladenburg, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 18, 183.
Lande, 81.
Langer, 126.
Langheld, 170.
Lechner, 106.
Lehmann, 9, 10, 18.
Leithauser, 106, 109, 137.
Lenard, 10, 27, 70, 80.
Leroux, 50.
Lessing, 157.
Levi, 87.
Lind, 87.
Lipp, 117.
Lippert, 36.
Liveing, 43.
Loew, 49.
Lovibond, 186.
Lowry, 112, 113.
Luckiesh, 83.
Ludlam, 77.
Lummer, 79.
Luther, 47, 63.
Luttringer, 173.
Lyman, 80, 81, 83, 84.
MACKENZIE, 94.
McKendrick, 153.
McLellan, 26.
McLeod, 7, 60, 61, 65.
Mailfert, 7.
Malaquin, 31.
Manchot, 14, 136, 181.
Marie" Davy, 22.
Marmier, 130, 143.
Marx, 51, 54.
Massenez, 64.
Meidinger, 57.
Meissner, 49.
Mentzel, 50, 180.
Mercanton, 25.
Meyer, 17, 23.
Moeller, 105, 186.
Moissan, 81.
Mond, 116.
Vlorris Airy, 80.
Moufgang, 8.
NAME INDEX
193
Mulder, 135.
Miinchmeyer, 155.
NASINI, 21, 87.
Nernst, 29, 44, 47, 50, 53, 55, 61
76, 133.
Nesturch, 94.
ODDO, 27.
Ogier, 143.
Ohmiiller, 142, 143.
Olzweski, 6.
Ostwald, 42.
Otto, 4, 8, 123, 124, 128, 130, 132,
146-152, 185, 186.
Oudin, 125, 154.
Ozonair, 129, 147, 161.
PASCHEN, 72, 81.
Patin, 121.
Paulsen, 173.
Perman, 134.
Petit, 176.
Peyron, 22.
Pickles, 173.
Pincus, 49.
Planck, 71, 79.
Poey, 181.
Pollitzer, 45.
Prall, 142, 143.
Pre"poignot, 128.
Priestly, 22.
Pring, 20, 21, 85.
Pringsheim, 79.
Przibram, 40.
Puschin, 107.
QUAIN, 84.
, 64
143
, 32.
Ramsay, 87.
Rao, 21.
Regener, 10, 70, 138.
Reicher, 38.
Remsen, 7.
Renard, 169.
Repin, 143.
Richarz, 59.
Rideal, 151.
Riesenfeld, 12, 94, 116, 155, 183.
Rossi, 50.
Roth, 138.
Rothmund, 8, 12.
Roux, 143.
Runge, 72.
Russ, 119.
Rydberg, 72.
SALTMARSH, 140.
St. Edme, 66.
St. John, 82.
Schneller, 120, 121, 143.
Schonbein, 1, 16, 22, 29, 35, 39, 49, 57,
179.
Schone, 7, 9, 19, 58.
Schoner, 87.
Schott, 83.
Schultz, 154.
Schumann, 85.
Schuster, 10.
Schwarg, 155.
Segler, 40.
Shenstone, 133, 137, 141.
Siemens, 124, 125.
Simpson, 26.
Sleen, 120.
Soddy, 87.
Soret, 2, 3, 4, 5, 56.
Stark, 9, 10.
Steubing, 10, 11, 81.
Stokes, 157.
Strong, 86.
Strutt, 9, 17, 18, 23, 136, 137.
Struve, 49.
Swann, 26.
TAIT, 2.
Than, 49.
Thenard, 154, 184.
Thierry, 19.
Thomson, 11, 71, 73, 75, 94, 95.
Thornton, 25.
Threlfall, 95.
Tian, 81.
Toepler, 91, 92.
Tommasi, 187.
Townsend, 95.
Traube, 41.
Trillat, 167.
Troost, 7, 50, 51.
Tropsch, 8.
USHER, 21, 22.
VAN BASTELAEB, 177.
Van de Meulen, 7, 135.
Van der Willigen, 49.
Van Ermengen, 143.
Van Marum, 1.
Van Sleen, 145, 152.
Van't Hofi, 29, 38, 39, 42, 61.
Vetter, 174, 175.
Villiger, 11.
Villon, 128, 176.
Vohr, 129.
Von Bahr, 138.
13
194
OZONE
Von Wartenberg, 66, 111.
Vosmaer, 105, 121, 127, 129, 143, 145,
184.
WARBURG, 70, 76, 77, 95, 102, 103,
104, 105, 106, 109, 135, 137, 140.
Warner, 45.
Weger, 36.
Weigert, 76, 135, 138, 139, 141.
Well, 135.
Wendt, 87.
Wien, 79.
Wiensiger, 175.
Wild, 19, 41, 42.
Will, 175.
Williamson, 2, 56.
Willstatter, 173.
Wisse, 120.
Witz, 158.
Wohlwill, 67.
Wolff, 51.
Wolffhiigel, 179.
Wright, 170.
YARNOLD, 127.
ZENGHILIB, 49.
Zschimmer, 83.
SUBJECT INDEX.
ACCEPTORS, 37, 42.
Active nitrogen, 113.
— oxygen, 35, 37.
Air conditioning, 179.
Air-cooled ozonisers, 128.
Air purification, 13, 153-156.
Allotropes, 2, 10, 29.
Alternating currents, 67-69.
Altitude, effect of, on 03 content, 17,
19, 20, 26.
Aluminium arc, 82.
— oxidation, 49.
Ammonia, 151.
Ammonium ozonate, 14.
Analysis of, 180-187.
— uses in, 168.
Anethol, 168.
Aniline black, 168.
Anisaldehyde, 166, 168.
Anode material, 58.
Anodic polarisation, 67.
Antozone, 28, 29, 39.
Antozonides, 2, 28, 39.
a particles, 87, 88, 90.
Arc discharge, 51, 80, 82, 93, 94, 120.
Arsenious oxide, 184.
Atmospheric ionisation, 24-27.
— ozone, 17-27.
Atomic diameters, 73.
— hydrogen, 28, 87.
— oxygen, 29, 56.
— structure, 72-76.
Aurora, 25.
Autocatalysis, 36, 37, 164.
Autoxidation, 1, 23, 29, 34, 35, 37, 38,
39.
BACTERIA, 142.
Baekelite, 115.
Band spectra, 9, 72, 73, 90.
Barium peroxide, 30, 31.
Barograph, 185.
Benzaldehyde, 35.
Benzene ozonide, 169.
Benzidine, 180.
— derivatives, 180.
Black body radiators, 79, 80.
Boiling-point, 7.
Boric acid, 83.
Boro-silicate glass, 83.
Brewing, 175.
Brush discharge, 93, 95.
CALCIUM peroxide, 14.
Capacity influence, 100, 113.
Carbon arc, 79, 81.
— monoxide oxidation, 165.
Catalytic autoxidation, 161, 164.
— decomposition, 12, 30, 58, 67, 96,
134, 135, 136, 137, 181.
— preparation, 49.
Cathode rays, 75.
Cellulose, action on, 158.
Chemical properties, 11.
Chemioluminescence, 169.
Chinese wood oil, 165.
Chlorates decomposition, 33.
Chlorine, action of, 112, 137, 141, 179,
180.
— discharge, 94.
Chlorophyll, 22, 161.
Chromic acid, 38.
Cinnamon oil, 37.
Citronella, 35.
Cobalt-blue glass, 83.
Cognac ageing, 175.
Cold electrolysis, 57-69.
— storage, 13, 177.
Colloidal platinum, 51.
Colour, 6, 8, 17, 51, 150.
Combustion, formation in, 35, 49, 51.
Condensers, 100.
Conditioning of textiles, 159.
Contact towers, 144.
Copra drying, 178.
Corona, 25, 95, 188.
— pressure, 95.
Corrosion, 35, 129.
Cronozometers, 181.
Cronozoscopes, 181.
Current density influence, 59, 103.
DAMMAR, 173.
Decomposition, 134-139.
Density, 4, 5.
Deodorant action, 13, 154.
(195)
196
OZONE
Depolymerisation, 173.
Detection, 180-187.
Dielectric ozonisers, 124.
Dielectrics, 113-125, 132.
Diffusion, 5, 145.
Drying oils, 13, 36, 37.
Dust, influence of, 17, 24, 84, 112.
ELECTRIC safety valve, 132.
Electrode materials, 58.
— potentials, 47, 61, 63, 64.
Electrolysis, 31.
Electrolytic preparation, 1, 57.
Electron velocities, 25, 89, 105.
Emulsifiers, 146.
Endothermic actions, 7, 43, 44, 75.
Enzymes, 177.
Equilibrium, 29, 46, 48, 49.
Essential oils, 23.
Estimation, chemical, 48, 179.
— electrical, 188.
— photo-chemical, 187.
Ethylene linkages, 13, 15, 168.
Explosive properties, 6, 52, 169.
FAT bleaching, 13, 162, 163.
— deodorising, 13, 162, 163.
Ferric chloride preparation, 174.
Fibres, action on, 158.
Field saturation in corona, 103.
Filtration, 144, 148.
Flour mills, 178.
Fluorine, 31.
Fluorite, 84.
Food preservation, 177.
Formaldehyde, 22, 166.
Formic acid, 166.
Frauenhofer lines, 17, 23.
Frozen equilibria, 49, 133, 135.
7 BAYS, 40.
Gas velocities, 109.
Germicidal action, 13, 142.
Glass, 83, 115, 117.
Guiacum test, 180.
HEAT of formation, 7, 77.
— theorem, 45.
Heliotropin, 14, 167.
Hide preservation, 13.
Historical, 1.
Hydrogen peroxide, 2, 12, 22, 38, 41,
50-56, 59, 84, 180.
— sulphide, 155.
— vacuum, 82.
IMPEDANCE, 98.
Indigo, 35, 168.
Indol, 155.
Induction, 98.
Infra-red radiation, 9, 10, 74, 76.
Intermediate compounds, 41.
Interpolar distances, 114, 115.
Iodide estimation, 19-21, 182, 184.
Ionic theory, 61.
lonisation, 24, 25, 26, 77, 86, 88, 90.
Ionising potentials, 25, 81, 89.
Iron arc, 80.
Isatin, 35.
Isoeugenol, 167.
Isosafrol, 167.
JUTE, action on, 159.
KEER effect, 117.
LAVENDER, 23.
Leucobase oxidation, 163.
Levulinic acid, 171.
— aldehyde, 172.
Limiting yield, 96.
Line spectra, 9, 72, 73-90.
Linoleum, 13, 165.
Linseed oil, 165.
Lithium ozonate, 14.
Liquefaction, 6.
MAGNETIC susceptibility, 11.
Manganese dioxide, 33, 58.
Manganous salts, action on, 12, 19, 181.
Matter, structure of, 73.
Mechanism of formation, 76.
Medicinal uses, 156.
Mercaptans, 155.
Mercury arc, 6, 70, 81.
M.-phenylene diamine, 180.
Methane oxidation, 165, 187.
Methyl alcohol, 166.
Mica, 115, 132.
Monatomic oxygen, 29, 56, 74, 78.
NASCENT state, 40.
Natural sources, 16.
Nitrogen peroxide, action of, 112.
detection of, 180.
formation of, 52-56.
Nitrosites, 173.
Non-dielectric ozonisers, 120.
ODOUR, 5, 6.
Oleic acid, 169.
Optical sensitation, 141.
Organic combustion, 12, 13, 142, 150,
152.
Oscillatory sparks, 102.
Oscillators, molecular, 73, 75.
Oscillograph, 105.
SUBJECT INDEX
197
Oxides of metals, 33, 34.
nitrogen, 14, 16, 21, 25, 50, 54
85, 112, 133.
Oxidising powers, 11, 169.
Oxozone, 15, 173, 174, 184.
Oxozonides, 15, 170.
Oxycellulose, 158.
Oxyhsemoglobin, 154, 158.
Ozobenzene, 169.
Ozonates, 14, 137.
Ozonic acid, 14.
Ozonide peroxides, 169.
Ozonides, 2, 14, 15, 41, 168-171.
Ozonised water, 21.
— waxes, 157.
Ozonisers, 120-132.
PAINTS, 161.
Palladium, 35.
Pathogenic organisms, 149, 152.
Perchlorates, 13, 174.
Periodic acid, 32.
Periodicity, 68, 99, 106, 130.
Permanganates, 13, 30, 32, 66, 150,
153, 169, 174.
Peroxides, 30, 31, 33, 37, 42, 136, 164.
Persulphates, 31, 59.
Phosphorescence, 8, 9.
Phosphoric acid electrolytes, 57, 66.
Phosphorus, 28, 38, 39, 40, 42.
Photo-chemical activity, 140.
- decomposition, 23, 70, 138.
— efficiency, 76-77.
— production, 23, 70, 77, 138-141.
Photo-electric cells, 187.
— effect, 119.
Photographic action, 159, 169, 171.
Photolysis, 180.
Physiological activity, 154.
Piperonal, 166.
Plate ozonisers, 127.
Platinum electrodes, 58-67, 120.
Point discharge, 118, 123.
Polymerisation, 28, 76, 161.
Poppy-seed oil, 165.
Positive carriers, 11, 40, 93.
Potassium chlorate, 33.
— iodide, 2, 4, 11, 20, 157.
Potential electrode, 47, 58, 63.
Pressure, effect of, 46, 70, 76, 111,
Pre-treatment of waters, 148.
Promoters, 164.
Pseudocatalysis, 164.
Pyrocatechaldehyde, 166.
QUANTA, 71, 72, 77, 89, 139, 141.
Quartz, 70, 84, 115, 116, 140.
RADIUM, 86, 88.
Rape oil, 165.
Bate of decomposition, 24, 49, 53, 133,
138, 137, 177.
Reaction rates, 12, 30, 53.
Refrigeration, 122, 177.
Residual charge, 115.
Rock salt, 84.
Rontgen rays, 88, 94.
Rotating electrode, 124.
Roughing filters, 144, 148.
Rubber analysis, 15, 173, 175.
Rusting of metals, 35.
SAFROL, 167.
Sandal-wood oil, 23.
Sandarac, 173.
Saturation current, 93, 113.
Schumann rays, 80.
Seasonal variations, 20, 21.
Secondary production, 26, 86, 105.
Selective oxidation, 13, 161, 165.
Self-induction, 98.
Shellac, 115.
Siccatives, 161, 164.
Silent discharge, 25, 91, 95.
Silica, 83.
Silver, action of, 3, 33, 49, 136, 181.
Skatol, 155.
Solubility, 7, 8.
Spark discharge, 1, 51, 102, 118.
Specific heat, 45.
— inductive capacity, 114, 115.
Spectra, 9, 10, 72, 73-90.
Spirit ageing, 179.
Spontaneous ionisation, 27.
Stability, 48.
Starch iodide tests, 16, 23, 180.
Static transformers, 97.
Storms, 21.
Sulphates, action on, 12.
Sulphuric acid^electrolytes, 57.
TANNERIES, 153.
Temperature, influence of, 46-52, 58.
Tetrabase papers, 136, 180, 181.
Tetrabromides, 173.
Textile conditioning, 159.
Thallous salts, action on, 181.
Therapeutic uses, 156.
Thermal decomposition, 32, 111, 134.
— equilibrium, 22, 45.
— production, 44, 50, 51-56.
Thermionic emission, 93.
Thiosulphates, action on, 12.
Thunderbolts, 25.
Tintometer, 186.
Tubular ozonisers, 124.
Turpentine, 3, 25, 37.
198
OZONE
ULTRA-VIOLET lamps, 70, 85.
— light, 17, 23, 26, 70, 76, 79, 86, 107.
estimation by, 186.
Uviol glass, 83.
VANILLIN, 14, 166, 167.
Varnishes, 161.
Vaseline, ozonised, 157.
Velocity of decomposition, 49.
Voltage, influence of, 102.
— perforating, 117, 118.
WATER-COOLED ozonisers, 130.
Waterfalls, ionisation in, 27.
Water, influence of, 58, 112, 137.
— sterilisation, 142-153.
Wave form, influence of, 105.
Waxes, bleaching of, 13, 162, 163.
Wine ageing, 175.
Wound treatment, 13, 157.
YIELDS, chemical, 30, 31, 33.
— electrolytic, 65, 69.
— silent discharge, 111.
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