Full text of "Salem"
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MADBAS DISTRICT GAZETTEEBS^
SALEM.
VOLUME I^PAET J.
[Price, 3 rupees 8 annav.] [6 sMUings ^ pence. ^
MADRAS DISTRICT GAZETTEERS.
SALEM.
BY
P. J. EICHAED8,
INDIAN CIVir. SERVICE,
VOLUME I— PART I.
MADEA8:
PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, aOVERNMENT PJIESS.
1918.
PS
V, I
NOTICE.
Since this Grazetteer was written, the taluk of Namakkal has been
retransferred to the Salom district under G.O. No. 641, Ecvenuo, dated
14th February 1918. A full description of Namakkal taluk is given in
Mr. Ilominorvvay's Gazetteer of Trichinopoly District, 1907.
PKEFACE
k
lyTE. LeFanu's " Salem Manual " is a classic, and its revision
is a work of vandalism. In preparing the revised
volumes, as much as possible of the original matter is retained, but
a plethora of new material and the exigencies of space necessitate
ruthless condensation. Perhaps before long Mr. LeFanu's
volumes will be reprinted.
My thanks are due to those whose assistance is acknowledged
in the foot-notes to the text, and especially to the District
Officers of all departments for the unfailing courtesy of their
co-operation. Chapter II (History) is based on a memorandum
specially drawn up by the late M.E, Ky. Eai Bahadur V.
Venkayya, and owes much to M.R.Ey, Rao Sahib H. Krishna
Sastri and Professor S. Krishnaswami Ayyangar. Invaluable
help has been rendered by Lieut.-Col. R. K. Mitter (on Public
Health), by Messrs. F. L. C. Cowley-Brown and H. A. Latham
(on Forests), Messrs. J. Inglis and A. R. deChazal (on
Irrigation), Mr. Alfred Chatterton, c.i.e (on Textiles), Mr.
S F. Chetham (oa Crime) and M.R.Ey P. S. Abbayi Nayudu,
M.R.Ry. Eao Sahib K. D. Subrahmanya Ayyar and others (in
collecting ethnographic data).
For convenience of reference a list of the principal books
consulted is printed on page ix.
The spelling of vernacular names presents serious diffi-
culties, owing partly to the circumstance that the District is
triglott, and names crop up in Tamil, Telugu, Kanarese and
Sanskrit forms, and partly to the ineradicable carelessness, in
this respect, of official correspondence. The language locally
prevailing has been ordinarily preferred; thus Kota is used in a
Telugu tract Kotiai in a Tamil taluk and Kote in the Kanarese
Vlll PREFACE
country. I have adopted the forms " If avert " and " Pennaiydr "
in preference to the cacophonous anglicized corruptions
" Oauvery '• and ''^Penner^'' and have taken the liberty of split-
ting up some sesquipedalian place-names by hyphens into their
component parts, because, to English readers, a word like
'•'' Anantakrishnarayasamudram''^ is even more uncouth than
'• Fortsaintgeorge''^ or " BurtonontrenV In such eases the dupli-
cate consonants are usually dropped, e.g., " PalU-patti^'^'' instead
of PaUi-ppaiti\ and the doubled ^<^ I have transliterated as
ch, instead of cch^ c^ch, chch, or chchh^ which are unnecessarily
"frightful." The names of those who have kindly lent a hand
to the Sisyphean task of proof-reading are too numerous for
insertion, yet I fear that perfect consistency in the spelling of
South Indian proper names is humanly unattainable.
Namakkal Taluk was transferred to Trichinopoly in 1910,
and Tiruppattur Taluk to North Arcot in 1911. Hence statis-
tics later than 1910 cannot adequately illustrate the growth
and progress of the District in comparison with former years,
and have been, for the most part, omitted. The revised volumes
were completed early in 19J3, and the task of incorporating
changes subsequent to that date has been carried out in the
office of the Board of Eevenue.
Vbllorb, 7th March 1916. F. J. RICHARDS
BOOKS OF EEFEBENCE.
Allan, Capt. A. Views in the "Mysore Country, 1794.
Axon. Memoirs of the Late War in Asia, by an Officer of Col. Baillie's Detaoli-
raont, 1788.
Bkatsox, Lt.-Col. Alexander. A Vieiv of the Origin and Conduct of the War
ivith Tippoo Sultaun, 1800.
Bektbaxp, Fathkr J. La Mission du Madure, 1847-50.
Bktham, Major 11. M. Marathas and Vekhani Musalmans (Hand-books for the
Indian Army), 1908.
Bevan, Major H. Thirty Years in India, 1839.
BtAGDON, F. VV. A Brief History of Ancient and Modem India, 1805.
BowRi.NG, L. B. Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan (Rulers of India), 1899.
Bradshaw, John. Sir Thomas Munro (Rulers of India), 1894.
Bran»is, Sir Diktrich. Indian Trees, 1906.
Buchanan, Francis. Journey from Madras through Mysore, Canara and Malalar,
1807.
Glabke, Richard. Regulations of the Oovernment of Fort St. George in force at
the end of 1847.
Cotton, J. J. List of Inscriptions on Tombs and Monuments in Madras possessing
historical or archxological interest, 1905.
Cox, A. F., and Stuart, H. A. Manual of North Arcot District, 1894 and 1895.
Daniell, Thomas. Oriental Scenery, 1795-1807.
Dubois, The Ahbe J. A. Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies (ed. H. K.
Beauchamp, 1897).
Duff, James Grant. History of the Mahrattas, 1826.
Dykes, J. W. B. Salem, an Indian Collectorate, 1853.
Elliot, Sir Walter. Coins of Southern India (Part 2 of Vol. Ill of Marsden's
' Numismata Orienialia), 1885.
Fergusson, James. History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, 1897.
Francis, W. Bellary Gazetteer, 1904. South Arcot Gazetteer, 1906. Madura
Gazetteer, 1906.
Fullarton, William. A View of the English Interests in India and an Account
of the Military Operations in the Southern Parts of the Peninsula, 1782-84,
1787.
Gleig, Rev. G. R. The Life of Major-General Sir Thomas Munro, Bart., 1830.
Hemingway, F. R, Tanjore Gazetteer 1906. Trichinopoly Gazetteer, 1907.
Herklots, G. a. Qanoon-e-Islam, 1833.
Hunter, Lieut. James. Picturesque Scenery in the Kingdom of Mysore, 1805.
Innes, C. a. Malabar Gazetteer, 1908.
Kanakasabhai, V. The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, 1904.
Keabns, Rev. J. F. Kalyana Shataku, or the Marriage Ceremonies of the Hindus
of South India, 1868,
Krishnaswami Aytangar, S. Ancient India, 1911.
Launat, Adrien. Hiatoire des Missions de VInde, 1898.
LeFanu, H. Salem District Manual, 1^%Z, (Referred to as S.D.M.)
MAcquoiD, Capt. C. E. K. Strategy Illustrated by British Campaigns, 1904.
Miles, Col, W. Hisiory of Hydur Naib, etc., 1842.
Nahjundayya, H. V. The Ethnographical Survey of Mysore, 1007-12. (Referred
to as E.S.M.)
Natesa Sastri, Pandit S. M. Hindri, Feasts, Fasts and Ceremonies, 1903.
Nelson, J. H. The Madura Country, 1868.
Nicholson, F. A. Manual of the Coimhatore District, 1887 and 1808.
Oman, J. C. Brahmans, Theists and Musli'ns of India, 1907.
Oppert, Gustav. On the Original Inhabitants of Bhnratavarsa or India, 1893.
Phillips, Dk. Maurice. Evolution of Hinduism, 1903.
Kick, B. L. Mysore (leferred to as Mysore Gazetteer), 1897. Epigraphia Carna-
tica, Vols. I to XII, 1886-1905. Mysore and Coorg from the Inscriptions,
1909.
RisLKY, Sir H. H. The People of India, 1908.
Salt, Hknrx. Vietcs taken in St. Helena, the Cape, India, etc., 1809.
Scurry, Jamks. The Captivity and Escape of James Scurry, 1824.
Sewell, R. a Forgotten Empire {Vi jay ana (jar), 1000. The Indian Calendar,
189(3.
Shortt, Dr. John. Hill Ranget. 1870.
Smith, V. A. The Early History of htdia, 190t.
THO.MPSON, Rev. E. W. A History of India, 1909.
Thurston, Dr. E. Ethnographic Notes in Southern India, 1906. Castes and
Trxbes of Southern In^ia, Vols. I to VII, 1909.
Valkntia, George, Viscount. Voyages and Travels to India, Ceylon, etc., 1811.
Watt, Sir George. The Commercial Products of India, 1908.
Welsh, Col. James. Military Reminiscences, 1830.
WiLKS, Col. Mark. Historical Sketches of the South of India, in an attempt to
trace the History of Mysore. (The references quoted relate to the second
edition, 1869.)
Wilson, W. J. Hietory of the Madrae Army, 1882-1889.
YuLK, Sir Uenrt. Ser Marco Polo, 1908.
ZiKOENBALG, B. Genealogy of the South Indian Oodt, 1869.
Reference has also been made to the Imperial Gazetteer of India, the Census
Reports of Madras and Mysore, the Annual Progress Reports of the Archaeologi-
cal Surrey of Madras and Coorg, the Annual Reports of the Government
Epigraphist, 1888-1912 (referred to as Q.E.), to Epigraphia Indica (Ep. Ind.},
to the Madras Museum Bulletins, to Dr. Hultzsch's South Indian Inscriptions
(S.I.I.), to the Bombay Gazetteer, to Baramahal Records, Sections I Management
and III Inhabitants (published by the Madras Qovernnient, 1907), to the
Pret.0 List of Ancient Records in the Salem Dietrict, 1906, to A Concise History of
ihe Jagheers and Poliems m the District of North Arcot (North Arcot Coliectorate
Press, 1864-65), to the Madras Catholic Directory, to the Indian Antiquary (Ind.
Ant.), to the Asiatic Quarterly Review , and to the Journals of the Royal Asiatic
Society (J.U.A.S.), the Folk-Lore Society and the Mythic Society (Bangalore).
Prooeodings of the Board of Revenue and Orders of Government, Madras,
are referred to as B.P. and G.O., respectively.
PLAN OF CONTENTS.
PART I.
Chapter
PAGES
I.
Physical Description
1-40
11.
History
41-89
III.
The People . .
90-204
IV.
Agbioultube and Ibbigatioj
>f
. . 205-247
V.
FoKEBTB
. . 248-25S
V[.
Occupations and Trade
.. 259-293
VII.
Communications
.. 294-302
VIII.
Seasons
.. 303-310
IX.
Public Health
.. 311-319
X.
Education
. . 320-328
GAZETTEER
OP THE
SALEM DISTRICT.
VOLUME I-PAKT L
CHAPTER I.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION.
General Descrivtion. — Fosifcion and Boundaries— Talnks — Natural divisions —
(A) Balaghat — (R) Baramahal— (C) Talagliafc. Hydrography. Eiter
Systems. — (A) Kaveri system — (1) Sanat-knmara-nadi — (2) Toppur River —
(3) Sarabhanga-nadi— (4) Tiru-niani-muttar — (B) Vellar system — (I)
Vasishta-nadi — (2) Sweta-nadi — (C) Pennaijar system — (I) Markanda-
nadi — (2) Kambaya-nallur River — (3) Pambar — (4) Vaniyar. Hills. I.
Balaghat. II. Upper Ghats — Melagiris — Pikkili— Guttirftyan — Anchetti
Galley — Natara-palaiyam — Urigam — Ilaya-kota Group — Anknsagiri Group —
Maha-raja-gadai — Baramahal Dargams. HI. Lower Ghats— Perumbalai
Hills — Manu-konda and Vattala-malai — Shevaroys—Kavara-malai Group —
Tenando-malai — ■ Tirta-malai — Chitt6ri — Aranuttu-malai — Kottai-patti —
Tumbal Pass — Kalrftyans. IV. TalaghIt Hills. — Kolli-malai— Pachai-
malai — Boda-malai — Jerugu-malai and T6n-malai — Sita-malai — Sankagiri
Group — Kanja-malai— Godu-malai. Climate. Rainfall — Shevaroys.
Hail. Temperature — Shevaroys. Wind. Geology — (A) Archfean
Rocks— The Kolar Schist Band— (B) Intrusive Rocks— (1) The Charnockite
Series — (2) Younger Igneous Intrusions — (a) Basic Dykes— (6) Magnesite
Series — (c) " White Elephant " Rocks — Subaerial Rocks — Soils. — Mineral
Products — Ores of Iron — Magnetic Iron Beds — Magnesite — Chromite —
Corundnm — Gold — Mica — Steatite — Kankar- Clays and Earths — Building
Stone— Fuller's Earth. Flora— Ferns. Fauna— (A) Domestic Animals-
Cattle— Horses— (B) Big Game — Elephants — Tigers— Other Felidae—
Rewards — Other Big Game — (C) Minor Fauna— Mammals — Small Game —
Snakes — Fish. Appendix. — List of References on Geology.
Salem District lies between North Latitude 11° 14' 46" and 1.2''
53' 30", and between East Longitude 77° 30' 52" and 78° 53' 05".i
^ These values are based on the preliminary charts of the Survey of India,
according to the practice of the Madras Survey Department. If bronght into
accord with the Synoptical Volumes of the Survey of India, the values would
read "between 11° 14' 43-30" and 12" 53' 27'30" in latitude, and between 77° 30'
61*25 ' and 78° 53' 04-26" in longitude,"
2
SALEM.
CHAP. r.
General
Description.
Position and
boundaries.
Taluka,
Natural
divisional
I. Balaghat.
II. Bara-
mahal.
It nomprises an area of 6,300 sqiiaro milos, the size of Wales, less
Anglesey and Glamorgan.^ On the north it is bounded by the
Bangalore and K5lar Districts of Mysore ; on the west it is sepa-
rated by the Kaveri from Coimbatore ; on the south it touches the
District of Trichinopoly ; on the east those of North and South
Arcot. Its extreme length from north to south is 112 miles, its
greatest breadth is 105 miles. ^
The District as at present constituted, contains eight Taluks;
in the south, Salem, Omalur, Tirachengodu, Attur ; in the north,
Dharmapuri, Uttankarai, Krishnagiri, Hosur. The Taluk of
Nslmakkal in the south was in 1910 transferred to Trichinopoly,
that of Tiruppattur in the north in 1911 to the newly formed
District of North Arcot.
The present boundaries of the District are the outcome of
political chance and administrative convenience. It is divided
by Nature into throe tracts, which have little connection with each
other, phynical, ethnic, or historical. These throe divisions are
commonly known as the Balaghat, the Baramahal, and the
Talaghat.
(1) The Balaghat^ is part of the Mysore table-land, and
resembles Mysore in its general features ; to the north and east an
undulating plateau, studded with rocky " kopjes," and poorly
wooded ; to the south and west densely jungle-clad. The average
elevation is about 3,000' above sea level, dipping to the south-west
towards the Kaveri. At the time of the cession of this portion of
the District in 1799, the term Balaghat was applied to what is now
the Taluk of Hosur. This is not strictly correct, for the Balaghat
proper, i.e., the plateau country, extends over a large portion of
Krishnagiri Taluk, while nearly half of Hosur Taluk is below
Ghats.*
(2) The Baramahal is an extensive basin, intermediate between
the Mysore table-land and the plains. Its general elevation is
about 1,300' above sea level. Roughly speaking, it comprises the
Taluks of Dharmapuri, tJttankarai,tho greater part of Krishnagiri,
and portions of Hosur. It is bounded on the north and west by
the Mysore plateau ; on the south and east by a second lino of
^ Inclusive of Namakkal and Tiruppattar Taluks, the area of the District was
7.530 square miles, i.e., IGO square miles larger than Wales with Anglesey.
2 I.e. from the tri-junction of Tiruchengodu, Erode and Namakkal Taluks to
the Mysore border of Hosur Taluk, and from the tri-junction of Hosur and KoUegai
Taluks with Mysore territory to the tri-junction of Attar, Perambalur and
Vriddhachalam Taluks.
' The word Balaghat means " the tract above the ghats ".
* In the east, the country round Veppana-palli'.j in the west, the valleys
adjoining the Kavfiri,
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 8
Ghats,^ the most conapiouoiis members of which are the hill ranges CHAP. I.
of the Javadis, Tirta-malai, the Chitteris, tho Shevarojs, and the Gknkral
Mannkonda-malai. On the south-west this barrier is represented '
by the broken country between Pennagaram and Omaltir, which
is skirted on the District frontier by the Kaveri. The word
Bararaahal is variously interpreted as " Twelve Palaces " and
" Twelve Districts." The latter is tho more probable meaning, for
by popular tradition Jagadeva Raya had twelve sons, to whom
he assigned twelve administrative divisions, and Colonel Miles, in
his Histori/ of Ilydur Naik, speaks of the Baramahal as the
" Twelve Pargunas." The Raya's sons may be mythical, but the
tradition of the division of the country into twelve administrative
charges seems correct. No two lists, however, of the twelve
" Mahals " agree. ^
(3) The Talaghat, as its name implies, is the country below HI Talaghat.
the ghats, and differs little in general aspect from the adjacent
districts of Trichinopoly, South Arcot and Coimbatore. The
watershed between the Kaveri and the Vellar river systems
divides the Talaghat into two portions, the eastern of which
coincides with the taluk of Attur, the western with Salem, Omalur
and Tiruchengodu. Salem Taluk, with Omalur, slopes gradually
from a maximum elevation of about 1_,200' in the plains, Salem
Town being 900' above sea level ; Attur Taluk is somewhat
lower ; Tiruchengodu Taluk is lower than Attur, and near Erode
is not more than 550' above sea level.
On a glance at the map it will be observed that Salem Dis- Hydrogba-
trict is intersected by numerous ridges and valleys more or less ^^'^•
^ Called hereafter the " Lower Ghats " to distinguish them from the " Upper
Ghats " which fringe the Balaghat plateau.
2 The names of the " Twelve Pnrgunas " as given hj- Buchanan are-*
(7) Katorgarh,
(8) Tripaturu
(9) Vaniambadi.
(10) Ganganagarh.
(11) Sudarsanagarh.
(12) Thattakalla.
(1) Krishnagiri.
(2) Jagadevagarh (Jagadevi-durgam).
(3) Varanagarh (Virabhadra-durgara).
(4) Kavalgarh.
(5) Mabarajgarh (Maharaja-gadai).
(6) Bajangagarh.
It is by no means certain that tho term Baramahal dates back to the time of
Jugadfiva Riiya, and if it does, it does not follow that the above list is as old, or
seen that it is correct. With the vicissitudes through which the District passed,
administrative divisions must have undergone changes. For instance, up to
1808, Kangundi was part of the Baramahal, while Mallappadi in Buchanan's time
belonged to the Navvab of Arcot. Raya-kota waa newly included in the Baramahal
by Lord Cornwallis' Treaty of 1792. From this it would appear that, istrictly
speaking, the Baramahal is confined to the Taluks of Krishnagiri and northern
Tiruppattur. The historic Baramahiil, i.e., the eastern portiou of the geographi-
cal Baramahal, has a history somewhat distinct from that of the western or
Dharmapuri-tJttankarai portion.
A-1
4 SALEM.
CHAP. I. parallel to one another, the general trend of which is N.N.E.
Hydrogra. and S.S.W. On the other hand, the general direction of the
^°^' main rivers is at right angles to this. The explanation of this
phenomenon is to be sought in the geological structure of the area
concerned.
The surface drainage of the Mysore table-land would naturally
take the shortest course to the sea. Hence the general direction of
the plateau drainage through the District, as represented by the
Pennaiyar and Palar and the upper reaches of the Kaveri, is from
W.N.W. to E.S.E. But the direction of these " master streams "
is modified, and that of their tributaries determined, by the relative
hardness or softness of the rocks over which they flow.
The Arch?ean rocks, which compose the greater part of the Dis-
trict, were crushed and folded in very early geological times by
forces acting apparently in a S.E.-N. W. direction. The axes of the
folds so formed necessarily run at right angles to this, i.e., N.E. and
S.W. Throughout the whole of the geological time during which
the tremendous thickness of sedimentary rocks known in England
and elsewhere was being deposited, the Archfean rooks of Salem
District were subjected to continuous denudation. The amount of
rock removed by denudation must have been vast, a thickness
possibly of five or six miles. Denndation, as it advanced, would
expose the edges of the folded rock-beds, and the general direction
of the outcrop of bedding, or " strike",^ as it is technically called,
would be the same as that of the axes of the folds, viz., N.E. and
^ A cursory examinntion of the Reological map shows that the general diroo-
tionof strike from Dharmapuri, across the country north of the Shovaroys, and
across the TenandC-malai, to the main mass of the Kalrftyans, is north-oast nnd
south-west. Towards Tlrta-malai the strike tends to become north and south.
As the hills approach the Salern-Attar valley, however, the strike approximates
to east-and-west, parallel to the course of the Vasishta-nadi, and this holds pood
in the hilly tract between Salem and Uasipnram. (M the other hand, west of the
Salem-Namakkal road the general Rtrik<! is almost north-and-south, i.e., paral-
lei to tlie course of the 'i'iru-mani-mnttar. In the neighbomhood of the Chalk
Hills, and of Paittar, both dip and strike vary in a bewildering way. The
regularity with which valleys and ridges follow thf direction of strike, in the por-
tions of the District which have been surveyed, make it tolerably certain that the
same principles will be found to hold good in the nnsarveyed area too. The
Attur valley may, or may nof, represent the conrse once taken by a main line of
drainage ; in any case, the east-and-west trend of the Vasishta-nadi and
Sw6ta-nadi, and of the Jerngu imd Tfin-malai hills, appears to follow the lino
of strike, and these exceptions only go to prove the rule. In the extreme south
of the District the rocks form a vast horse-shoe curve. This huge curve, which
includes the whole mass of the Kolli-malais and the Talai-malai in Namakkal
Taluk has its apex to the west, outside of the limits of the aroji, surveyed by the
Geological Surveyors ; bat, the curve of many of the inner (npper) beds was
traced with perfect ease, demonstrating the reabty of the flexure.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION,
CHAP. I.
HyJ)R06BA>
S. W. Soft rooks arc denuded more rapidlj than hard rocks. Hard
rocks stand out as rid<;cos, soft rocks are hollowed out to form river
valleys. Both ridj^os and valleys run in a direction parallel to ^^
the direction cf strike. Such " strike valleys " are well represented
in the Passes of Kottai-patti, Maujavadi and Mallapuram, while
the ridges of the Javadis, Chitteris, Tenande-malais and Vattala-
malais mark the outcrop of harder rocks.
Two causes tend to modify the general principles above laid
down : (1) the local variations in the direction of strike, (2) the
occurrence in some places of the extremely hard and compact rockb
of the Charnockite Series, which appear to have been formed either
by the melting down of crushed rocks, or by the injection of a
molten magma at great depths. Owing to their great resistance to
denudation, these masses of charnockite are left as hills, of which
the Shevaroys are a typical example, while the surrounding
country is worn down to a lower level.
It would seem that the Kaveri and the Pennaiyar are not able
to cut through the harder rocks athwart their course so rapidly as
their tributaries erode the strike valleys through which they flow.
The result is that, wherever one of these streams is joined by an
important tributary, it abruptly changes the direction of its course
at the point of junction, and follows for some distance the direction
of its tributary.^
The river systems are three in number : — (A) The Kav6ri Eiver
system, within the v/atershed of which lie the southern portion of systems.
Hosur and Dharmapuri drained by the Sanat-kumara-nadi and
the Toppur River, and the taluks of Salem, Omalur and Tiruchen-
g5du, drained by the Sarabhanga-nadi and the Tiru-mani-muttar.
(B) The Vellar system, comprising the Vasishta-nadi and
Sw^eta-nadi of Attur Taluk, twin rivers which unite east of the
District boundary, forming the Vellar of South Arcot, which flows
into the sea at Porto Novo. (C) The Pennaiyar, which drains the
northern portion of the Balaghat, and the Baramahal, the south-
western corner of Dharmapuri excepted. The chief tributaries to
this are the Markanda-nadi, the Kambaya-nallur Eiver, the
Pambar and the Vaniyar.
The Kaveri skirts the District on the west. Four times in its
course along the District border it turns sharply at right angles,
namely, at the points, where it is joined by (i) the Sanat-kumara-
nadi, below the celebrated falls of Hogena-kal, (2) the Kollegal
A. The
Kaveri.
^ A characteristic of many rirera, especially in India. Familiar examples of
such change of course are (1) Kistnaand Xnngabhadra, (2) Ehoneand Saone, (3)
Missouri and Mississippi.
6 SALEM.
CHAP. r. Palar, some 14 miles below the falls, (3) the Toppur River at
Rivers. Solappadi, and (4) the Bhavani Eivor at Bhavani. At each turn it
adopts the direction pursued by its tributary in preference to its own.
The Kaveri is usually fordable, within the District limits, in March
and early April, and again late in May and throufrhout Juno. For
the rest of the year it is unfordable. When in fresh the rivei rises
10, 15 or even 20 feet. At intervals in its upper course, generally
at points where it cuts through hard rocks, it forms deep natural
pools, locally known as madurus, which, even in the driest
season, retain water to a depth of 30 or even 60 feet. The position
of these madxwus is permanent, and docs not shift from year
to year, and they occur at points where the river course bends,
narrows or drops, or where it is obstructed by rocky barriers. The
bed of the Kaveri, in its course along the District border, is too
deep and too rocky to allow of its water being iised for irrigation.
Of its tributaries (I) the Sanat- kumara-nadi, otherwise called
the Chinnar,^ rises in the hill of Dovara-betta (3,368') near
Tali, in a j'onai, or sacred well, said to have been constructed by
a sage named Sanatkumara. After flowing through Tali, it takes
an eastward course to within a mile of Kela-mangalara, where
its career is checked by the rock mass of Hude-dnrgam. Thence
it flows south to the Pikkili Hills, whore it is again deflected, this
time to the west. It joins the Kavori just below the Hogoua-kal
Falls.
(2) The Toppur River, otherwise known as the Yoppadiyar,
rises near Muluvi, on the Shevaroys, whence it flows north-east
through the ravine along which the Mallapuram Ghat road is
traced. In this ravine is the small village of Veppadi, from which
the river takes one of its names. Near Mallapuram it turns due
west, passes Toppur, and joins the Kaveri at Solappaxii.
(3) The Sarabhanga-nadi takes its name from a Rishi who
is believed to have done penance at one of its sources. It is formed
by two streams which unite at Omalur, where they are locally
known as the East and West Rivers. The first of those, usually
called the Pcriyar, rises in Yercaud. Shortly after leaving the
' There are jistuiy " Chinniirs " or "Little Rivers" in the District. The
nomenclatnre of rivers is perplexing. An ordinary villager knows only the
river of his own village, which he calls simply " the Kiver." If there are tyr-o,
ho distinguishes them as "iiig IJiver " and *' Little River." To diatingnish the
river which flows through his own village from that which (lows through another
village, he calls each river by the name of the village through which it flows.
Hence, in practice, a river tends to change its name whenever it passes a village
boundary. Sometimes a river is ci-lled after the largest town or village through
which it passes, e.g., 8alem River or Mattur River. More rarely it earns a
descriptive title, such as White River or Milk River.
PfiYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 7
Yercaud lake, it phmgos down the Kiliyur falls, and then turns Chap. I.
westward, towards Omalur. '^l^ho second foodor, called variously Rivers
the Patti-padi River, the Pariaukuli Eiver, the Kuttar, or the " Grhat ~"
Eiver " in various parts of its course, rises on the western slopes of
the Shovaruvan, and flows down the Kadaiyampatti Ghat ravine.
After crossing the railway lino it turns south, and continues in that
direction till it joins the Periyar. The combined stream fills several
largo tanks near Edappadi in Tirucheng5du, and joins the Kaveri
near Kaveri-patti.
(4) The Tiru-mani-muttar (Tamil = " river of the sacred
pearl ") is so called from the fact that the freshwater mussels, which
abound in its lower roaches, sometimes produce pearls. It is com-
monly called the Salem River. It is formed by two streams, which
take their rise near the Manjavadi Pass, and unite about three miles
above Salem. From Salem it flows due south and joins the Kaveri
in Namakkal Taluk. Its chief tributary is the Elur River, which
drains the southern slopes of the BSda-malais and the basin in which
Easipuram lies. A small stream from the Kanja-malai, called the
Pounar or " Gold Eiver," fills the Malla-samudram Tank, and joins
the Salem Eiver four miles below.^
The country between the Kalrayans and the Kolli-malai-Pachai- B. Tho
malai range is drained by two rivers, the Yasishta-nadi and the Bygtem.
Sweta-nadi. The watershed between those two rivers is formed
by the Paittur Hills. Tho word Sweta-nadi in Sanskrit means
" White River:" and the Tamil for « White River " is " Vellar.^'
The term Vellar is applied to both those twin streams indifferently
by some people, though why tho term is used is not clear, for both
rivers, when in fresh, flow with ruddier waters than any other
river in the District. There is a legend that Arjuna, the Pandava,
when on a pilgrimage, camo to the spot where the river rises, and,
when he wished to perform fuja^ he could not find water ; so he
drove a hole in tho rock with his arrow, and the water welled up
and formed a river. As Arjuna is called Sweta-vahana, the river
was called Vellar. The Vasishta-nadi is said to derive its name
from the Eishi, Vasishta, who performed a ydgam^ or sacrifice, near
Belur ; some white rock to be found north of that village is supposed
to be the ashes of the sacrifice, and is used by Saivite worshippers
as pibhuti, for making the sacred marks upon their foreheads.
^ A jewel of the Goddess in the Siva temple, Mettu Street, Salem, is set with a
pearl said to have come from the Tiru-mani-muttar. It is in the shape of a grain
of wheat, and six times as large. It is said that, when it was first discovered >
it was as large as tho top of the little finger of a man's left hand. A much
smaller pearl from this river is preserved as an heirloom in the family of
Mr. Snndram Chettiyar of Shevapet.
8
SALEM.
CHAP. I.
BlV£K8.
C, The
PenoHiyar.
The Yasishta-nadi, which is the uorthern of the sistor streams,
and is sometimes called the F*crdr, rises iu the Araniittu-malai and
flows north for about seven miles. It then turns abruptly south,
through the Kiri-patti valley, entering the plaius near Bolur. Two
miles below Belur it receives the waters of the Kariya-kovil Eiver,
which drains the Kalrayans and is itself reinforced by the
Amma-palaiyam River, flowing from the head of the Kottai-patti
Pass. As it approaches the Salem-Attur road, the Vasishta-nadi
bends eastwards, and, close to Krishnilpuram, receives another
tributary, the Singapuram river, this time from the south. The
main stream keeps close to, and almost in sight of, the Caddaloro
road, au far as Talaivasal, where it is crossed by a bridge. Just
west of Attur, a third tributary, known as the Mekka-palli River,
flowing from Malli-karai, joins the main stream. The Vasishta-
nadi fertilises some of the richest land in the District and is crowded
with anaikats. Its freshes rarely fail.
The Sweta-nadi, which is the southern of the sister streams,
receives almost the entire drainage of the Kolli-malai and Pachai-
malai Hills. In the fertility and constancy of its freshes it
resembles the Vasishta-nadi. It is joined by no tributaries of
importance.
The PennaiySr takes its rise near Nandidrug in Mysore, where
it is known as the Southern Pinakini. The name is said to be
derived from pinaka, the bow of Siva. The Tamil name is
difficult to account for. The forms " Pennaiyar " and " Ponnaiyar "
are used indifferently. It is believed that, during a great drought,
Siva bade Psxvati go forth from Nandidrug in the form of rivers,
that the goddess obeyed and flowed in two directions, forming the
rivers known as the Northern and the Southern Pinakini, and
that the rivers were so named from the figure traced out by their
courses, which faintly resembles the outline of a bow. The
Ponnaiyar is thus a manifestation of Parvati, and so sacred are its
waters, that even the Ganges oomes and bathes in them for five
days every year, to cleanse itself of the sins it has washed from
sinners.
The Pennaiyar enters Hosur Taluk in a south-easterly direction
at a spot three miles north-west of Bagaliu". After crossing? the
Malur road, its waters make their way southwards iu a very
irregular course, till the Stilagiri road is crossed. Its course is then
more uniform to within a mile of the Eaya-koba road, when it turns
due east and passes to the Baramahal, where it is joined by the four
tributaries already named. At the points of junction with each of
these tributaries the Pennaiyar alters the direction of its course.
The first two bends, where it meets the Markanda-nadi and the
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 9
Kambaya-nalltir River, are obtuse ; the last two, where it unites CHAP. I
with the Panibilr and Yauiyar, arc remarkably aento. After Bivers.
crossing the Efiramahal it quits the District through the Chcngam
gap, between Tirta-malai and the Javadis, south of Singarapet,
and pursues its course to Cuddalorc. The bed of the Pennaiyar,
till it reaches the Baraniahal, is too deep and rugged to admit of
irrigation. In the Baramahal it is still, when in fresh, a violent
and rapid stream, but its waters supply the Barur Project, and in
the vicinity of Kilveri-patnam it feeds many spring channels which
afford abundant direct irrigation and terminate in tanks.
Of its tributaries, (1) the Markanda-nadi, otherwise called the
Chinnar, flows due south from the Mvsoro Plateau throug^h the
valleys of Tirtam and Veppana-palli and joins the Pennaiyar soon
after the latter emerges on the low country of the Baramahal.
(2) The Kambaya-uallur l^iver drains the major portion of
Dharmapuri Taluk ; by the Pula-halli IJiver it receives the run-off
of the Pikkili Hills and the country round Palakodu, and by the
Dharmapuri River that of the northern slopes of the Vattala-malai.
(3) The Pambar rises on the Javadis and Yelagiris of Tirup-
pattur Taluk, and from Tiruppattur southwards it follows a course
of remarkable straightness through Uttanfearai to the Pennaiyar,
which receives its waters shortly before quitting the District.
£n route it is joined by the Bargur Eiver, the Mattur Eiver and the
Sandur Eiver.
(4) The Vaniyar rises in the Shevaroys near Yercaud. The
gorge down which it flows is the grandest in the District. The
river reaches the plains at Venkata-samudram ; thence, crossing
the road, it passes Harur and joins the Pennaiyar just below its
confluence with the Pambar.
The Hills of Salem District afford perhaps its greatest charm. Hills
The Balaghat plateau itself is rather monotonous, the only con-
spicuous heights being Devara-betta (3,364') where the Sanat-
kumara-nadi takes its rise, and the Pagoda Hill at Hosur (3,116').
To the south and east, however, the plateau breaks into the upper
line of Ghats which fringe the Baramahal on the north and west.
From the plateau side the approach to Grhats is marked by a
scattered chain of hill forts, which constituted the last line of
defence against an invading army from the plains. The chief of
these are Sulagiri, Tiyarana-durgam (2,930'), Anchetti-durgam,
(3,192'), Munesvara-konda (south of Jakkeri, 2,982'), Nilagiri
(3,054'), the group of hills of which Hude-dnrgam (3 182') and
Eatnagiri (2,805') are the best known, and lastly, near the head
of the Anchetti Ghat, JMallikarjuna-durgam (2,996') and Kundu-
kota-konda (3,319').
I. The
Balaghat.
10
SALESf.
CHAP. I.
Hjlls.
II. Thk
Upper
Ghats.
A. Melagiris.
a) Anobeiti.
(b) Nataia-
palaiyam.
(0) Origam.
Tho upper lino of Ghats is divided into four sections bv the
valleys of the Sanat-kumara-nadi, the Pennaijar and the Mar-
kanda-nadi.
The broken country between the Sanat-kumara-nadi and the
Kaveri is commonly called the Melagiri Hills. Tho former river,
in its course from near Tali to Hogena-kal, describes a crescent the
horns of which point west. A chord to this arc is formed by a
massive ridge of mountains running north-east by north, and south-
west by south, which culminates in the Guttirayan {4,b7Q'). This
ridge determines the course of the Ane-bidda-halla, which drains
its west flank. Between the Ane-bidda-halla and the Kaveri lie
five valleys, each trending north and south, the third and largest
of which opens out into the Anchetti basin, drained by the Dodda-
halla. The Urigam basin lies to tho west of the Anchetti valley,
the basin of Natarapalaiyam to the east. The other two valleys
are of minor importance.
The Anchetti Valley is formed by the conHuence of two
streams, one of which drains the Salivaram plateau and descends
by the Kundu-kota G-hat, and the other rises near Javulagiri and
flows via Pani and Mariyalam. Their united waters arc reinforced
further south by streams from the valleys of Miladikki and Tagatti,
and by the Ebhalla from the Manchi plateau, forming the Dodda-
halla Kiver, which flows for six miles through a deep ravine, and
discharges into the Kaveri. The Anchetti basin is closed on the
north-east by tho Mariyalam hill (3,449'), on the south by Chikka-
betta, (3,356'), and on the east by the Manchi plateau, but it gives
easy access to Urigam via Tagatti on the west, to Biligundlu
(870') via Natarapalaiyam on the south, and to Pennagaram via
Geratti and the Ane-bidda-halla valley on the south-east.
The Natarapalaiyam basin is much smaller than that of
Anchetti. Its general level is little over 1 ,700'. It is closed in on
the west by Chikka-betta, on the south by Chellappan-betta (3,1 45')
and on the oast by a ridge rising to 2,900'. On the north-east,
however, it opens towards the Geratti flat, and a good view is
obtained of tho Guttirayan.
The Urigam basin is a flat valley, about six miles long and
three miles wide. The village Urigam, at tho head of the valley,
is 1,960' above sea level. At Kottevur, two miles further south,
the elevation 18 1,870 . The valley is accessible from Anchetti via
Tagatti (1 ,900'). The valley is bounded on the east by the lofty
ridge on which lies Attinattam village (3,164') and " Hundred-
and-one Swami " Hill. On the west is a similar ridgo running
from Pillikallu village (3,070') to Tadagane (or Tatakani, 2,910').
Beyond this ridge is a series of hills and valleys, dominated by the
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 11
lofty peak of Chokka-betta (3,718') the westernmost corner of the CHAP. I.
District. Hills.
The Guttirfijau (4,579' ) is accessible without much difficulty n ^~p^^
from the village of Ayyur, where there is a good forest rest-house. Ghats,
The distance duo south is about 1 1 miles. The path runs through ' Gutiira-
some of the finest bamboo jungle in the District, skirts the western
flank of the Betta-mugalalam plateau, and overlooks the Ane-bidda-
halla ravine. After passing the jungle-choked sites of several
deserted villages, the path leads to the head of the great east-and-
west Tirumalavadi ravine, and emerges from the forest at the
village of Kodiyur, perched on a level terrace on the north flank of
the Guttirayan, Kodiyur is inhabited by Sivachars, who still re-
member the wholesale abandonment of the country at the time of
the Great Famine. The innumerable rdgi pits in the vicinity of
the village prove that its cultivation was once far more extensive
than it is now. From Kodiyur a steady climb of some three miles
leads across grassy glades, alternating with dense evergreen
forests ^, to the summit of the Guttirayan. The summit is bare of
tree growth, and carpeted with springy turf spattered with gray
lichen-clad rocks. The view is one of the finest in the District.
To the west is a wilderness of mountain and jungle, with here and
there a tiny patch of cultivation. The Kaveri can be seen winding
its way through the maze of hills, and beyond it tower the Ponnachi
Mountains of Kollegal. To the east is a bird's eye view of the
Morappur amphitheatre and the plains beyond, to the south the
vale of Pennagaram, breaking away to meet the Kaveri at
Hogena-kal, and far beyond to the south-east is the mountain
mass of the Shevaroys.
The western side of the Ane-bidda-halla ravine is bounded by
the cultivated plateau of Toluvu-betta and Manchi. The Toluvu-
betta plateau rises to a height of nearly 4,000'^. The general
level of the Manchi plateau is about 3,000' ; it rises to 4,612' on the
Ane-bidda-halla side, and tails off towards the south in a long ridge.
The arc between the Ane-bidda-halla and the Sanat-kumara-
nadi is bisected by a ravine running from west to east in the
direction of Palakodu. This ravine, at the head of which stands
the hamlet of Kesaraguli, forms part of the Tirumalavadi Mitta.
North of the ravine is the plateau of Betta-mugalalam, on which
are the Glenshaw estate and Melagiri Fort. The highest points
in the coronet of hills that surrounds this plateau are Jenkal-
betta (4,150') and Ijalhatti-kal (4,089'). South of the ravine is a
* The chief species are Terminalia arjuna&nd Eugenia jambolana,
2 Adkal 3,820', Gubi-kal 3,969', Vadar-gaddai 3,877'.
12
SALEM.
CHAP. 1.
Hills.
II. Upper
Ghats.
Pikkili Hills.
B. Kaja-
kOf« Oroap.
C. Ankasagiri
Group.
huge amphitheatre of hills opening to the south, which was once
cultivated, but is now (except for a few scattered hamlets) a louel}'
jungle. In the heart of the vallej is the deserted site of Morappur
village (1 ,690' ). The west of the valley is guarded hy the moimtain
mass of the Guttirayan, with its ofPshoot Kavilai-drug or Kagal-
malai (3,538') ; to the north are Uchikal (8,904') and Erimalai
(3,510'), and to the east the hamlet of Kottaiytir (c. 3,000').
To the south-west of this Morappur valley the coiurso of the
Sanat-kumara-nadi is doQeoted westward by a remarkable ridge
known as the Pikkili Hills. But for the obstruction offered
by this ridge, the Sanat-kumara-nadi would flow into the
Pennaiyar and not into the Kavori. Between the ridge and the
river there is now a level plateau or shelf, on which the once
prosperous village of Pikkili, with its hamlets, is situated. The
south of the ridge rises into three peaks, Tambirayan (3,367'),
Kukli-malai (3,183' ) and Adda-malai (3,107' ).
The (rhat line between the Sanat-kumara-nadi and the
Pennaiyar is occupied by a wedge of chaotic mountains jutting
southwards into the plains, of whicii Eaya-kota-durgain (3,239'),
Virabhadra-durgam (3,038') and Bole-Timmaraya-durgam (3,389')
are the most conspicuous members,
The Baramahal is bounded on the Dorth by the portions of
the Mysore plateau comprised in the Kolar District and Kangundi
Zamindari. Here the plateau thrusts long southward-trending
buttresses into the plains below, intersected by narrow valleys
formed by the head waters of the Markanda-nadi, the Mattur
River and the Bargur River. The Markanda-nadi valley has two
branches, separated by a long low ridge known as the Ada-konda
or Adara-konda. The western branch forms the Tirtam basin, and
the eastern branch the Veppana-palli valley. The western wall
of the Markanda-nadi valley is formed by the mountain mass
which rises sharply norih of the Pennaiyar, and culminates in
Balakonda-raya-durgam (3,046'), Ankusagiri and Kundani-malai.
The Tirtam basin lies north of this, and opens on the north in the
Pass of Budi-kota, the old Bandu Out or "Army Road", which
gave access to the Mysore plateau in the days of Colonel Joseph
Smith. To the west, the basin is hemmed in by the fringe of
hills, of no great altitude, which marks the termination of the Bala-
ghat portion of Berikai Palaiyam, and on the north by a long low
ridge known as the Pal-mal-konda, between wliich and the Adara-
konda is another pass leading to Kama-samudram. Tiie east of the
Markanda-nadi valley is bounded by a long serrated ridge which,
starting from Malappa-kouda Hill (3,600'), the trijuuotion of
Chittoor and Salem Districts with Mysore State, rises to a height
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 13
of 2,700', ending- in a gronp of hills of which Oroddi-konda CHAP. I.
(2,424'), Malakonda (2,310') and Boggulu-konda (2,501') aro the Hit-^s.
highest.
East of this ridg-o we enter the watershed of the Mattur ghat.-=.
Kiver, backed by the mountain mass of Maharaja-gad ai Hill d, Muharaja-
('S,88S'), a landmark for many miles around. The village of B'ldai'.
Mahanlja-gadai lies at the mouth of a ravine which separates
this hill from the ridge east of Veppana-palli. Up this ravine
runs a path which loads to Kuppam.
The Bargur Bivor takes its rise in three valleys east of Maha-
raja-gadai Hill, opening respectively on to the villages of
Pungurntti, Mcdugam-patti and Oppattu-vadi. They are of
little importance, the hills which encircle them rarely exceeding
2,100' in altitude.
Outliers of the Mysore plateau are scattered over the TheBara-
Baramahal, the chief being Gaganagiri, otherwise called Periya- Dnpgams
malai (3,436'),Tattakkal (2,629'), Jagadevi-durgam (2,647'), Naga-
malai, Pu-malai (North of Mallappadi 2,599'), JVJallappadi Hill
(2,364') and Krishnagiri Fort Rock (2,409').
The second line of Grhats, to the south and east of the Bara- III. The
mahal, is divided into six sections by the Passes of Toppur, Lower
Mallapuram, Manjavadi, Kottai-patti and Chengam. The section
north of the Chengam Pass, comprising the Javadi Hills, has been
transferred to the new North Arcot District.
(1) The country between the Kaveri and the Toppur Pass is l- Perumbalai
in general level intermediate between Pennagaram Division and ^^^^'
Omalur Taluk. It is intersected by two valleys, that of the
Maddala-pallam and that of the Palar, Pambar, or Perumbalai
River.
Between the Maddala-pallam and the Kaveri the country rises
to a lofty ridge, overlooking, and parallel to, the course of the
Kaveri. The chief peaks of this ridge are Biyanur-malai (2,788')^
Koppu-malai (2,627'), Kadriappan-malai (2,936') and Segala-malai
(2,168'). These eminences are distant some 3 or 4 miles from
the Kaveri bank. In the intervening space is a second ridge, less
regular and less lofty, the highest points being Karala-malai
(1,609') and Karungal (1,524').
The Maddala-pallam averages 1,000' in elevation, towards the
north it rises to 1 ,200' or even 1 ,300', and towards the south it
sinks to 800'. The chief villages in this depression are Sigarala-
palli, Ajjam-patti (1,120') and Neruppur (900').
^ The Kav6ri above Hogena-kal flows straight towards Biyanur-malai and it
is at the very foot of this hill that the river is deflected at a right angle.
14
SALE&r.
CHAP. I.
HlLI.8.
III. Lower
Ghats.
2, Manu-
kouda anil
Vattala.
malai.
:j. The
Shevaroys.
Between the Maddala-pallam and the Perumbllai River is an
extensive plateau of rocky undulating ground, covered with low
jungle, the ordinary elevation of which is from 1,400' to 1,500',
though occasionally rising to 1,800' or 1,900'. This plateau is cut
in all directions bv small streams, the valleys of which lie about
200' below the plateau level. The highest portion of this plateau
is round the village of Donnak\itta-halli, which itself is situated
on a high table-land. East of this village is Bonthal-betta (1,826'),
west is Janda-Kaninkal (1,633'), and south-west Garadi-gutta
(1,981'). The Perurabalai valley runs from Indur in a south-
westerly direction to join the Toppur River. The bed of the
Pambar is low, relatively to the surrounding hills. The levels are
Raskol-patti 1,070', Ranihalli 1,030', Perurabalai 970'. On
nearing the latter village the valley opens out. Between the
Pambar and the Toppur Ghat Eoad is a plateau, ranging in
elevation from 1,400', the general level, to 1,500', and sometimes
even 1,600'. Towards the south, this plateau falls away to the
Toppur River, the level of which at Toppur is little more than
1,100' above sea level. South of the river are outliers of this
plateau in the Gundakal ridge (1,502'), the Ramaswami-malai
(1,094') and the Elattur Reserve (1,539').
(2) The Hills between the Toppur Pass and the Mallapuram
Ghat are intersected by the Toppur River. The southern portion
rises to a height of 3,164' in the Manukonda-malai, roimd the
western base of which the Ghat Road curves. The hills eastward
of the Manukonda-malai do not exceed 2,400' ^ North of the
Toppur River the ground rises rapidly ^ (save for the Reddi-halli
gap, which gives access from Laligam to Mallapuram) towards the
Vattala-malai, an abrupt narrow ridge 1 1 miles in length, culmi-
nating in the conspicuous Mukkanur Peak (4,201') which over-
hang's the Morappur-Dharmapuri Railway. On the summit of the
Vattala-malai there are several hamlets.
(3) Through the Mallapuram Ghat runs the Madras- Calicut
Railway; the highest point in the line being 1,508' above sea
level. Through the Manjavadi Pass runs the Trunk Road from
Madras to Salem. The highest point in the road is 1 ,800' above
sea level.
Between the Mallapuram Ghat and the Manjavadi Pass are
the Shevaroy Hills, the noblest mountain mass in the District.
1 In Loktir Eeeerve, Pula-malai (2,252'), I'amala-malai (2,251') and Boda-
malai (2,391').
* Close to Toppur arc Tamarai-malai (2,920'), Gundal-Guddai (2,360'), Ethu-
malai (2,640') and Kuchu-karada (2,303').
I
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 16
• -, J^^^^f **^«^ ^^n&th of the Hills is 1 7 miles, the greatest width CHAP. I.
18 1.; Ihoy cover about 1 00 sqnare miles. The southern slopes Hir.r.s.
rise abruptly from the plains to a height of from 4,000' to 4,800' r,j 77,,^
above sea level, except for the spur on which the villages of G.imlur « ha«.
and iappa-kadu are situated and up which the Old Ghat ascends.
Ihis abruptness determines the watershed, and most of the drain-
age of the Hills flows towards the north. Hence the northern
slopes of the ShevaroYs, like those of the Kolli-malais, are broken
with deep ravines.
The range is severed into two portions by the Vaniyar valley,
which rises m the south near Sengadu, and flows in a north-
east^erly direction, almost exactly parallel to the Manjavadi Pass
ihe two sections into which the plateau is thus divided are
dissimilar. That to the east is out into ridges and ravines running
m the same direction as the Vaniyar, that to the west is compara-
tively massive and attains a loftier elevation.
The eastern section comprises the mountain mass on which lies
Talaisolai and the Mara-mangalam plateau. Between the two is
the saddle on which the village of Kottan-chedu is situated
The western section of the Shevaroys is divided into two "
portions at Taylor's Saddle, which marks the watershed between
the Vamyar and the Kadaiyam-patti Eiver, a stream which flows
west-north-west at right angles to the Vaniyar, and whose valley
gives access to Kadaiyam-patti Railway Station by the Attur Ghat
ihe southern half of the western section is the irrej^ular
plateau on which Yercaud is situated. Yercaud itself is cut off
from a view of the plains by a circlet of hills, varying in heie-ht
JJufl: s Hill (5,231 ;, otherwise known as Sanyasi-malai. West of
this, a massive buttress juts out from the hill, forming a plateau of
^om_ 2,800 to 2,900' above sea level, on which is^ituated the
Malaiyah villages of Kondayanur and Sonappadi.
The northern half of the western section consists of a central
backbone, of high peaks with a plateau on either side, that of
Nagalur to the west, and that of the Green Hills to the east
ihe central ridge follows a line drawn from Duff's Hill paraUel
to the Vaniyar valley, and includes the Shevarayan (5 342')
BlanfiU (5,410'), Balamadies (5,370') and Cauvery Peak (5 086')
At Cauvery Peak the ridge forks, the left branch runnin'>- due
north to Pulivarai (4,567') and the right branch following the
V aniyar valley.
1 Lady's Seat „ 4,518'. Pagoda Point 4 507'
Fischer's Rill .. 4,828'. The Twins Peak ... "" 4855''
Church Hill ... 4,813'. Prospect Point .. ' 4759'*
16
SALEM.
UHAP. I.
Hills.
III. Lower
Ghats.
Kavara-
mslai Group.
4. Tenande>
malai.
The Nagalur plateau is for the most part under 4,000' in height.
It overlooks the Veppadi valley (also parallel to the Vaniyar
valley), up the eastern side of which climbs the trace of the
abandoned Mallaporam Grhat. West of the Veppadi valley is
the Yerimalai ridge (3,200'), and beyond this another valley and
another ridge, all trending in the same direction.
The Green Hills plateau overlooks the Vaniyar valley, towards
which it presents some bold cliffs, the most striking being
Hawthorne (4,899') and Honey Eocks (4,533'). Opposite the
latter, the Vaniyar flows at a level of 2,490', though only a mile
distant.
The Kavara-malai is an irregular group of hills, 9 miles
long by 3 miles broad, lying between Mallapuram and Tenkarai-
kdttai, and separated from the Shevaroys, of which it forms
an outlier, by the Bairanattam valley. There are more than
half a dozen separate peaks exceeding 2,500' in height, the highest
being Kavara-malai itself, 2,994'.
South-west of the Shevaroys is another outlier, the Nagara-
malai, a small group of hills very bare of vegetation, and covering
some two square miles of country. The highest point is towards
the west (2,030').
Tenande-malai ^ is a term somewhat loosely applied to the hills
between the Manjavadi Pass and the Kottai-patti-Tumbal valley.
The total length of these hills, measured from north-east to
south-south-west, is over 30 miles, the greatest width is about
12 miles. This area may be divided into three natural divi-
sions : (a) to the north, the Tirta-malai Hills ; (b) central, the
Ohitteri plateau, and (c) the Arantittu-malais to the south.
(a) The Tirta-malai Hills of tJttankarai Taluk are divided
from the Chittori plateau in the latitude of Kdttai-patti by the
east-and-west valleys of Kambuttikki and Velimadurai, and
rise to a height of 3,220' in Tirta-malai Hill, which lies almost on
the banks of Pennaiyar. The Tirta-malai ridge is drained on the
east by the Kottai-patti valley, on the west by the Vaniyar.
On the north it is cut off from the Javadis by the Pennaiyar
and the Chengam Pass 2. Except Tirta-malai itself, the peaks
of this ridge rarely rise above 2,500'.
North of Tirta-malai are two groups of low outliers, covered
by the Puvam-patti Forest Eescrvc and its Extension. The
northern of these attains a height of 1,994,' and is in the form
^ The chief Guru for all the Malaiyalis resides at Chitteri and is called
Tenftude Kavundan.
'^ Peramal-malai, north-west of Singarapet, is 2,273' ; Singarapet itself is
about 1 J.00'.
PHySICAL DESCRIPTION. 17
of a ridge rnnninf^ exactly parallel to the Vaniyar. This ridge CHAP. f.
affords an iuterestiug object lesson in the effect of hard rook on IIu.ls.
the course of rivers. After crossing the railway, the Peunaiyar j£j_ lower
flows due east ; withiu two miles of its junction with the Pambar Ghatb.
it inclines to the north-east ; at its junction with the Pambar
it makes an acute bend and follows the direction of the Pambar
almost due south, pointing to the southern end of the Puvam-patti
ridge ; at its junction with the Vaniyar it bends abruptly to the
north-east again, following the direction of the Vaniyar and running
parallel with the ridge, which is clearly the cause of the deflection,
A similar deflection occurs further cast, where the Pennaiyar meets
the stream that flows from the Kottai-patti valley.
(b) The Chitteri plateau is a tangled mass of highland and
ravine, which it would be tedious to describe in. detail. On. the
west, where it overhangs Palli-patti, it rises into lofty peaks,
the western slopes of which are very abrupt. Most of these peaks
are nearer 4,000' than 3,000' in. height, oue due north of the little
village of Tongaluttu rises to 3,957' and 2 miles south-west of this
is Sami-malai (3,993'). The plateau is scattered with numbers of
small Malaiyali villages, the chief of which, Chitteri, is over 3,000'
above sea level. To the east the slopes are gentle and the elevation
less, often not more than 2,000'. The villages vary in altitude
between 2,500' and 3,000'. The general course of ridges and
valleys is, as elsewhere, north-east and south-west. The southern
slopes of this plateau rise to well over 3,000' where it adjoins
Neyya-malai in Sekkadi-patti Mitta (Koppu-malai, 3,131').
Neyya-malai is bounded on the west by the feeders of the Vasishta-
nadi, on the east it overhangs Tumbal.
(c) Aranuttu-malai or " Siva's Spring Hill," is a term
applied to the hills in Salem Taluk immediately east of the
Manjavadi Pass. In them the Vasishta-nadi takes its rise. The
eastern side of the Manjavadi Pass is bounded by a sharply
defined ridge, with steep slopes, rising to nearly 4,000'. About
a mile and a half east of this, and parallel to it, runs another
ridge, exactly similar in appearance and general configuration.
Between the two runs a straight valley, which is quite one of
the most beautiful in the District. Down this valley flows the
Vasishta-nadi in a direction north-north-east for nearly 7
miles. Then it suddenly takes an acute bend, and flows due
south, down the Kiri-patti valley towards Beliir. In the angle so
formed is a large block of lofty mountains rising to 3,822', on
which lies the small village of Pilappadi (over 3,000').
The Kottai-patti valley lies between the Tirta-malai ridge and The Kottai-
the Kahayans of Kalla-kurchi Taluk, South Arcot. It is reached pattj-TnmLai
Pass.
18 SALEM.
CHAP. I. from Tirta-malai by a road which passes through the Tirta-malai
HiLJ-s. Eeserve, and runs as far south as Kottai-patti. The northern part
III. Lower ^f the valley is about 4 miles wide. South of the village of Baira-
GuATB. nayakkam-patti the valley branches in two, the westward branch
forming the Kambutukki valley, which severs the Tirta-malai
ridge from the Chitteri plateau, and the eastern branch continuing
through to K!5ttai-patti. South of Kottai-patti this valley branches
again, the eastward branch running into the Kalrayans at Avalur,
and the main valley continuing to Chittilingi. Beyond Chittilingi
there is a third fork, the minor valley running westward into the
Chitteri plateau at Tadam-patti. The main valley continues via
Velanur, Ammapalaiyam and Mamanji to Tumbal, and thouco to
Belur. The Pass is practicable with difficulty for double bullock
carts. The watershed is crossed between Velanur and Amma-
palaiyam, the highest point being 1 ,486' above sea level. The
distances from Kottai-patti (1,135') are ; Volanur, 12 miles; Amma-
palaiyam (1,344'), 17 miles; Mamanji, 21 miles; Tumbal, 23
miles; Belur, 31 miles; Valappadi, 36 miles.
6. ThbKalra- The Kalrayans of Atttir Taluk measure 16 miles from north
y*""' to 80\ith,and present to the Vellar valley a continuous front of 23
miles from east to west. For half the latter distance, however,
only the southern slopes are in Salem District, the main body
of the plateau behind them being the Jadaya-Kavundan-Nad
of South Arcot. The same remark applies to the unbroken wall
of 1 1 miles which overlooks the Kottai-patti valley on the east,
and forms the western boundary of the Ariya-Kavundan-Nad ; the
slopes only are in Salem District. Even then, however, the Atttir
Kalrayans cover more superficial area than any other block of
hills in the District, excepting only the doab of the Kavori and
Sanat-kumara-uadi in HosQr.
The Attur Kalrayans arc divided in two by the valley running
eastward from Tumbal to Papi-Nayakkam-patti. The northern
portion is called the Chinna Kalrayans, the southern portion the
Periya Kalrayans.
^a) The Chinna Kalrayans form a plateau about 2,700' in
height, the surface of which is much broken by mountains and
ravines. On the north and east this plateau is continuous with
the Ariya-Kavundan and Kurumba-Kavundan Nads of the
Kalla-kurchi Kalrayans. To the west it overhangs the KSttai-
patti -Tumbal valley.
(b) The Periya Kalrayans form a similar plateau, which is
cut in two by a lofty ridge. The north-west portion is called M§1-
Nftd, the south-east portion Kil-Nad. Both those platforms are
ooatiuuous with the South Arcot Kalrayana,
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 19
(i) Tho Mel-Nad averages also about 2,700' in height, Its chap, i,
chief village is Kovil-Pudur. It is most easily accessible from the Hills.
north, where tho slopes towards tho Tnmlal valley are compara- "
tively gentle. Towards tho south-west tho ground rises rapidly to
tho small plateau of Peraudur (3,200') which is joined by a very
narrow saddle (2,600') to the block of hills on which the Manntir
Reserve is situated. Tho Mammr ridgo rises to nearly 3,475' in
Manntlrmalai. South-west of this again is another ridgo, rising to
2,556', and joined to tho Mannur ridge by a similar narrow saddle,
(il) Tho Kil-Nad presents a bold front to the south. Tho
loftiest part of tho whole range overhangs tho town of Attur, The
loftiest peaks are Avvaiyar-malai (4,124')', Songal-malai, 2 miles
to the north-east (4,124'), Kovil-malai, f mile from this (4,256'),
Nagalur-malai and Kalltir-malai (4,229'). The chief village of
this portion of the plateau is Nagalur. The most popular route
from xVttur lies via the small Government village of Kil-Avarai.
The southern slopes of tho Jadaya-Kavundan-Nad of South
Arcot decline in height from 8,395' on the west, to 1,190' on the
oxtrome east of the District, tho average height being v/ell over
2,000'.
The Hills of the Talaghat include (A) the Kolli-malai Group, ly. Tvla-
with which are associated tho Pachai-malais in the west and the ci"^t Hills.
Boda-malais, Jerugu-malais and Ten-malais on the oast, and (B)
a few isolated hills and ridges scattered over the four southern
taluks.
(A) The Kolli-malaia, which lie partly in Trichinopoly District, A. Ko>.ii-
are separated from tho Pachai-malais by the Turaiyur valley and "'^^^' Gr.iap.
the pass loading thonco to Tammam-patti, and from the Bod a- nialaia.
malais by the Ayil-patti Ghat. They form a fine hill mass,
measuring some 18 miles from north to south by 12 miles from
east to west, and situated half in Namakkai and half in Attur. On
the south, east and west they rise abruptly from the plains to a
height of about 4,000'. The northern slopes are broken by
ravines running en echelon in a north-oast-by-east direction, the
chief of which are (I) Varagur-kombai, (2) Mulai-kurichi, (3)
Periya-kombai and (4) Vala-kombai. Tho Namakkai portion of
the hills comprises a high level plateau made up of basin-shaped
depressions covered with terraoed cultivation, and resembliug vast
verdure-elad amphitheatres. Tho Attiir Kolli-malaisi are rather
different in structure. To the south-west is tho raassix'e and lofty
' Apparently this name CDin;neii>or4tes the fauious Tamil poetess Avvaiyar
(see Vol. ir, p. 249).
B-1
20
SALEM.
OHAP. I,
Hills.
17. Tala-
ghIt Hills.
2. Pachai-
malaiB.
3, B6da-
malai.
dcme of Bayil-Nad, from which the valleys already referred to
appear to radiate. The paths which cross tho heads of these ravines
command splendid views of tho plains and of the hills (Shevaroys,
Tenande-malai and Kalrayans) that bound them to the north.
The edge of the plateau to the west towers above tho plains to a
height of over 4,000' above soa level. Tho north-west heights are
about 400' lower. The ridges which separate the northern valleys
are at their top 3,000'. Tho highest peak on tho Attur Kolli-
raalais is Vetakkfira-malai (4,063').'
The main mass of tho Pachai-malaislies in Trichinopoly District.
The Salem portion consists of a series of valleys and ridgos radiat-
ing to the north and east from a plateau in th(^ south-west, which
is continuous with the Trichinopoly hills. The plateau consists
of three areas, grouped in a triangle round iho loftiest peaks of the
range (3,380' to 3,513'). South of this ridge lies the Pakkalam
flat, north of it that of Mayambadi, each about 2,800' above sea
level. Between the two, and south of the peaks r(>ft>rred to, is
the Kotankal river, which flows due east across the third flat, that
of Mangalam (about 2,300') and then phmges to tho plains,
following the line of boundary between Trichinopoly and Salem
Districts, and almost cutting the range in two. It is on accOunt
of this valley that the plan of the Pachai-malais has been com-
pared to an hour glass. North of this valley, and parallel to it, is
the valley in which \'eppadi is situated, and north of this is the low
plateau of the Gangavalli licserve. The highest point is Ammaya-
medu (2,167') situated to the north. The general elevation is less
than 2,000'. The northern front of the Pachai-malais is penetrated
by the valleys of (a) Veppantattai and (6) Velur. Between the
two is a small plateau, on which is situated the little village of
Vedambiyam. The Velur or western valley is narrow, and about
4 miles long. It penetrates as far as Nallamati, rising within this
distance from 900' to 1,200'. It is flanked on the west by tho
imposing spur of the Mau-malai, the summit of which is crowned
with fertile fields. Tho slopes of the Pachai-malai ravines are
clothed with thick bamboo forests. The cultivated flats are rocky
and the soil is poor. The length of the range within Salem limite
is about 12 miles from east to west, and its width from north to
south not more than 8 miles.
The Boda-malai is a lofty ridge running east and west, at a
distance of about 9 miles south of Salem, and separating the
* The gener&l level of the plains on the west and north is between 800' and
ypo',
J»HY8ICAL DESCftlPTlON. 2l
Panamarattu-patti valley from Easipuj'am. Its length is 12 miles. CHAP. I,
The maiu ridg^(> is divided iuto two masses, at a spot five miles from Hii,l8.
its western extremity, by streams llowing north and south. The iv Tala-
saddle between these two blocks is about 2,664' above sea level, ghat Hills
Each block is crowned by a small plateau,
(a) l^he western plat(>au is guarded on all sides by imposing
precipices. Access is usually gained by a spur on the north-west,
which descends to within two miles of Mallur. A stiff climb loads
to the village of Melur (3,653'), tenanted by Malaiyalis from the
KoUi-malais. The highest point on this plateau is east of the
village (3,855'). South of this, and about 700' lower, is a second
village (Kilur).
(b) The eastern plateau also contains two villages, Kedda-
malai (2,963') and Jambuttu (2,139'). At its western extremity
is the highest point on the range, Jandakatti-medu, 4,015'. The
precipice to the north of this is one of the finest in the District.
On the south-east the ridge resolves itself into an irregular group
of hills, the highest of w'hich (Periya-malai, 3,124') overhangs the
Ayil-patti ghat leading from Easipuram to Attur. The range
terminates on the north-east in a fine spur, the highest point of
which is Ten-kal (2,661').
North of the Boda-malais are three sets of hills " en echelon ". 4. jerugu-
The westernmost of these, blocking Salem City on the south, is Tenmaiai.
called the Jerugu-malai. There is no regular name for the other
two, but they are often called the Ten-malai, from the highest peak
in the range. At the back of the whole range runs the Pana-
marattu-patti valley, and its continuation on the Attur side. The
valley of Jalluttu is hemmed in by a circle of heights between
2,000' and 2,700' high, and its drainage runs through a narrow
valley, three miles long, to the north-east. The mouth of this valley
is guarded by the Ten-malai (2,709') on the north, and the Sakkili-
yau-kal (2,172') on the south. There is a comparatively low
col (about 1 ,400') leading into the Panamarattu-patti valley on
the south and to Periya-Kavunda-puram on the north.
The line of the Kaveri to the west of the taluks of Tiruchengodu g. isoJated
and Omalur is marked by the barren ridge of the Sita-malai, which Wills,
runs roughly parallel to the Kaveri for a distance of some 12 ^ajai,
miles and rises to a height of 2,479' on the south, and 2,751' on the
north. The ridge is covered by the Pakkanad and Vanavasi
Keserves, and is continued to the north by the low ridges of the
Gontir and Solappadi Reserves. The southern end of the ridge
approaches very close to the Kaveri bank, and almost opposite to
it, on the Coimbatore side, is the Pala-malai (4,922'). Between the
two it is proposed to construct a dam which will create a la,ke many
22
SALeM.
CHAP. T.
Hills.
ir. Tala-
guIt Hills.
2. Kaiije
malni
3. aoda-
malai
Climatc,
bainfall.
square miles in extent, reaching back to Solappadi, The bank
of the Kaveri west of the ridge is little over 600' above sea level,
and as the eouutry east of the ridge is mnch higher (the eastern
edge of tho Pakkauad Reserve is 1,100' above sea level), the
contoiirs are peculiarly favourable for the scheme.
Further south, and running roughly parallel to the course of
the Kaveri after it passes Kumara-palaiyam, are the Suriya-malai
(2,070'), Saukagiri (2,345'), M5rur Hill (1,643') and Tiruchengodu
(1,901').
Some five miles south- west of Salem is the Kanja-malai, one of
the most interesting hills in the District. It is a rough ridge
running east and west, 4^ miles long and 2 miles broad. Its
highest peak is 3,236'. The Madras Eailway runs within half a
mile of the southern base. The geological structure is interest-
ing, as tho rocks dip at sharp angles towards the axis of the
mountain, which is thus a synclinal. The result of this structure,
and of tho unevenness of the rocks, is that the slopes of the hill are
scarred by ridges, which, at a distance, look like the ruined battle-
ments of an ancient fort. From the top of the Shevaroys the hill,
with its long serrated summit, looks like a gigantic saurian. Its
rocks are full of magnetic iron.
Between the Arauuttu-malai and Ten-malai, and just south of
the Salem-Atttir road is the Godu-malai, a very fine bold mass,
rising to upwards of 1,500' above the centre of tho great Salom-
Attur valley, and forming part of the watershed between the
basins of the Kaveri on the west, and the Vellar on the east of
the Pass. The Godii-malai is about four miles long from west
to cast, which is very nearly the direction of the axial ridge of
the mass ; its extreme width at the eastern end, where broadest,
is about three miles, including the north and south spurs of
the hill.
Many hills of minor importance are scattered over the Talaghat,
such as the Paittur Hills, south-west of Attur, which mark the
watershed between the Vasishta-nadi and Sweta-nadi; the
Mallikarai Peak on the road from Attur to Tammam-patti ;
and the Alavai-malai, west of Andagalur on the Salera-Namak-
kal road.
Eainfall is registered officially at the head-quarters of all Tahsil-
dars and Deputy Tahsildars, and also by the Medical Officers at
Tali, Kaja-kota, Tammam-patti, and by the Sub-llogistrar at
Valappadi. Details of the rainfall arc given in the Separate
Appendix. The mountainous character of the District causes
sharp variations in the rainfall of different localities. So
tHYSICAI- DESCRIPTION. 23
capricious arc the showers round Salom, that an inch may fall CHAP. i.
at tho Collector's office and not a drop at the Club, Climate
The annual averag'e from 1870 to 1 904 for Salem Town was
39-65"^ This is hip^her than at any other recording station
except Yercaud. Tho lowest average for the same period is at
Tiruchengodu (27*06"j and Sankaridrug (2998"). A ttxir registers
36" 06", Tammam-patti a little more, Tali a little less. The rest
of the .District (except Yercaud) ranges between 31" and 33".
Attur is the wettest taluk and Tiruchengodu tho driest '^.
The distribution of rainfall throughout tho year is uneven.
Eain usually sets in towards the end of April, and there is,
normally, a heavy fall in May. During June and July, rain is
irregular. Between August and October occurs most of tho fall
of both monsoons. November is a very uncertain month. Dec-
ember comparatively dry.
At Yercaud the annual rainfall exceeds that of Salem City by Sho7aroy«
an amount varying from 20" in a dry year to nearly 40" in a year
of heavy rainfall. The annual fall in the north of tho Shevaroyo
is about 10" or 12" less than that at Yercaud, and naturally, the
south-west monsoon falls more heavily on the southern slopes, the
north-east monsoon on the northern portion of the hills •''.
In the hottest of the hot weather in tho hottest part of the day, Uail
iSalem is occasionally visited by hail storms. This phenomenon
was observed by Munro on May 17, 1795. The stones were
" perfectly smooth and round and about tho size of small pistol
balls " *. "^ '
^ The highest recorded rainfall for a whole year for iSalein was GO" 12" in
1882, the lowest 20-76" in 1891.
2 For detailed statistics, see Separate Appendix pp. 8-10.
* The annual average for the ten years ending 1906 is as follows : —
Salem 38-61"
Scotforth ... 50-40"
The Grange 57-01"
Scotforth 18 nortli of Muluvi, and has a northern aspect. " The Grange "
in to the east of Yercaud. The heaviest fall recorded at " The Grange " in a
single day was 8" in December 18, 1884; the highest annual fall occurred in
1890 C88-02"), the lowest in 1899 (48-23").
For "The Grange" statistics I am indebted to Mr. R, W. B. Gompertz,
for those of the Scotforth to the late Mr. H. W. Leeming.
* Gleig's '• Life", Vo!. I, p. 174. In the Madras JUail, April 9, 1904, an
observer writes : *' The maximnm shade temperature in Salem has averaged
99° for some weeks past and the minimum about 75°. This afternoon (8th
instant) at 2-30 the heat was suddenly reduced by a violent hail storm accom.
panled by tlmnder and lightning. The hail stones were large and numerous,
many of them were half an inch in diameter. The storm is now over, but the
thermometer registers over 80° ".
u
saLem.
CHAP. I,
The average tempen
itnre for a series
Tempkra-
TCRE.
Moath.
Average
Maximum.
Average
Miniiniim.
Mean.
January
88-3
G3-7
76-0
February
93-6
05-5
79- (5
March
98-6
70-8
84'7
April
10IV7
75-8
88-2
Blay
99-2
75-9
87-G
June
95-2
74-2
84-7
Jnly
931
730
831
Ati<;ast>
92-2
72-5
82-3
September
91-3 .
71-9
81-1
October
89»5
711
80-3
November
87-3
08 fi
77-9
December
86-4
C3-3
7.V9
Shevaroys-
Annual
03
70-7
81-9
8alem Town ^ and re-
ported by the Metooro-
logical office, Madras, is
shown in the margin.
The hot weather begins
early in March, reaches
its worst in April and
May, and from Jnne
onwards steadily de-
clines. The highest
recorded temperature
for the 16 years ending
1 905 was 108"^ (May 9,
1900), the lowest 55'2°
(Janiiary 30, 1902).
The average maximum is higher in February than in July, but
the nights are much cooler. The difference between maximum
and minimum in February is over 28'','^ in October and November
it is less than 1 9°. 0>^ing to the stillness of the atmosphere in
September and October, the temperature is more trying then than
in February or early March, though the maximum is higher in the
latter months.
The dryness of the atmosphere, the comparatively cool nights,
and the drop in temperature from June onwards when the south-
west monsoon bursts on the West Coast, render the climate of
Salem pleasanter than that of the eastern and southern districts.
No official record is kept of the Meteorology of the Shevaroys.
The temperature is most equable. A series of thermometer
readings registered in a first-floor room at " The Grange " at 6 a.m.,
noon, 4 p.m. and 11 p.m. and extending over a period of 24 years,
shows a maximum of 82° (on May 2'i, 1906) and a minimum of
60^° ; thus the difforonoo, in doors, botwoou the hottest part of the
hottest day and the coldest part of the coldest night, over a period
of nearly a quarter of a century, is only 21^°. In any one year
the variation between the highest and lowest recorded tempera-
ture has never exceeded 17°. It is very rare that the temperature
rises above 80°. In fact, the hot weather midday temperature
does not often exceed 77° (April and May), and in December the
^ Tamperature is recorded in the compound of the Collector's Office. The
anemometer is fixed on the roof of that building.
* In Cuddaloro the difFerence in February between maximum and minimum
is 16"5 and in Taniore it is only 12'3. The contrast is striking:.
Month,
Vel
ooity of
Average
wind
in miles.
rainfall.
January
...
115
0-19
February
127
0-30
March
...
127
0-ttO
April
...
110
1-80
May
...
98
5-28
Jaue
...
120
2-99
July
...
113
3-83
August
...
96
667
September
...
82
6-87
October
•••
60
G-G7
November
,,,
74
3-44
December
••»
94
115
paVSICAL DESCRIPTION. 25
usual roadinp^ is 67°, occasionally siiikiufj^ to 64°. It freqnontly CHAP.I
happous that tho four roadiugs ou a siiiglo day show no variation at Tkmi-kka.
all. Of course in tho open air the maximum is greater^ and on turk.
tho grass in tho valleys, frost is not unknown, tho thermometer
sinking to 31° or oven 30° ^.
The oouneotion between wind and rainfall is striking. The Wixn,
averages for Salem Town are
shown side by side in the
margin. The heaviest falls
of rain occur in the months
when the wind is weakest.
The rain stops as soon as the
wind freshens. From Octo-
ber to March a north-easterly
wind prevails. In April the
wind veers towards tho south
and from May to September
the general direction is south-
east or south-west. Tho
The year ... 101 39-65 windiest months arc February
and March. In April the
wind is a little less strong. There is a marked drop in velocity
in May, and a sharp rise in June. From July it slackens, month
by month, till October, which is the calmest month of the year. It
then once more begins to freshen.
The geological structure of Salem District is (so far as it is GEOLoer.
known ^) very simple : —
(a) By far tho larger part is made up of rocks belonging to
the great metamorphic or gneissic series of Southern India, the
Archaean Series.
{f)) Intrusive in these are (1) the older Charnockite Series
and (2) younger igneous intrusions, of which the Basic Trap Dykes
^ Dr. Sbortt (Hill Banges, part II, page 10) says, '* The hottest months are
March, April and May, when the thermometer attains 87° in the shade during
the day."
2 For the above information I am indebted to R. W. B. Gompertz, Esq.
^ The only portion of the District which has been surveyed in detail by the
Geological Survey of India is the rirea included in sheet 78 of the Indian Atlas,
the results of the survey being embodied in volume IV of the Memoirs. The
immediate environs of Salem have been treated by Sir T. Holland in Memoirs
G.S.I., XXX, pp. 103-168 and the corundum deposits by Mr. G. S. Middlemissin
Records G.S.I. , XXX, pp. 118-122 and X XIX, part 2, pp. 39-50. Mr. Middlemiss
has also contributed notes on the Chalk Hills in pp. 32-33 of the same volume.
Lastly, the extension of the Kolar Gold Fields schist belt into the western part
of Krishnagiri Taluk has been described by Mr. Bosworth Smith.
26 salem.
CHAP. T. and the Magnesian Series of the Chalk Hills arc the most couspi-
Geology. criOTi3 features.
The remaining part is occnpied by a few unimportant
sabaerial deposits and the alluvia of the different rivers which arc
also very little noteworthy ; simple thoiigh the geological
features of the District are, they are of much greater interest than
is generally the case in mainly metamorphic regions.
A.— The The Archaean Rocks, so called from their petrological rosom-
Arohsean blancc to the oldest gneisses and schists of Europe and America,
may be roughly classed as (1) granitcj, (2) gneisses and (3;
schists. But the relation between the several members of the
series has yet to be determined.
The older theory, that of Captain Newbold, regards the schists
as the oldest rooks of the series, the schistose rocks being at a later
age broken up by granitic intrusions.
The later theory, that of Mr. R. Bruce Foote, regards the
granites ind gneisses as fundamental, the schists being deposited
over them and included in the Dharwar System, a transitional
system, younger than the gneisses, and older than the Cuddapah
System, which represents the older palteozoio age.
Captain Newbold, who passed through the District in 1841,
regarded the greater portion of Southern India as occupied by two
great series of rocks, viz. : — (1) a metamorphic series, which ho
termed hypogeno schists, (2) and a series of plutonic granites,
which he regarded as having penetrated and broken up the
hypogene schists. This view is strongly combated by Mr. l^ruoe
Foote, who writes,^ " There can be no doubt that such eruptive
action of granite never took place on a large scale, and that the vast
area of granitoidal rock now scon was really the old foundation on
which the gneisses, and after them the Dharwar rocks, were quietly
deposited."
Mr. Bruoe Foote has accordingly divided the Archcoan Series
into —
(a) Granitoids, which ho regards as being the oldest rocks,
and correlates with the Bandolldmnd Gneiss of Central India
(6) Gneisses, which he regards as metamorphosed sedi-
mentary rocks, younger than the granitoids, and older than the
Dharwar Schists. Ncwbold's " hypogene schists " thus include
both the gneisses of Mr. Bruce Footc's Division (6), and the
Dharwar Schists.
Mr. Bruce Footc's opinion can hardly be accepted as final, as
more recent work in Mysore points clearly to a return to the older
> Pajfe 28 (Bellary Memoir), Mem. G.8.I., XXV.
fHYSlCAt DESCRIPTION.
ait
CHAP. I.
Gkolcgv.
Tlio Kolur
Schist Band.
views of Nowbold, viz., that lar^c irniptivc masses of granite do
exist, which hav(> brokcMi up and poiiotratod the older p^ncissos and
schists. A p^ood deal of evidonco has been adduced by the Mysore
Gcolog^ical Department to show that the Dharwar Series of schists
is largely of igneous origin, and is the oldest formation ; that
these schists have been intruded and broken up by a very exten-
sive series of granitic gneisses, corresponding to the fundamental
granitoid gneiss of Mr. Bruce Footo, and that both have bee a
intruded by largo masses of granite and by the rocks of the
Charnockite Series.'
Space forbids any detailed technical description of the Archrean
Rocks of the District. A list of references dealing with the
District is given in the Appendix to this Chapter.
A band of the gold-bearing rocks of the Kolar Gold Fields has
been traced by Mr. P. Bosworth Smith as far as Malappa-konda
Hill, the trijunotion of Salem and Chittoor Districts with Mysore
State. Here it splits into two. " The easterly branch may be seen
keeping about three-quarters of a mile broad and running straight
down south. It rises in the hills that fringe the Maharaja-gadai
valley on the western side, and runs south to a point opposite the
village of Maharaja-gadai, and there it seems to die out." ^
The westerly branch starts out to the west of Malappa-konda
and, " standing out conspicuously in a small line of hills, turns
round south again through Ada-konda, thus forming the main
portion of the hills that border the western side of the Yeppana-
palli valley. The band seems to end with the line of hills which
drop away by Tattattarai."
Several thin bands of schist have been traced east of Krishnagiri,
but their relation to the main bands has not yet been made out.
Much of the District is covered by a very interesting series of (0 'i'he
igneous rocks which are now recognised as the " Charnockite
Series."^ For instance, the whole mass of the Shevaroy Hills
belongs to this series. The Charnockite Eocks are apparently
Cliarriockite
Series.
* For the above I am indebted to Dr. VV. F. Smeetb, State Geologist, Mysore.
Further information in this interesting controversy is to be found in —
(1) Beport of the Chief Inspector of Mines for the year 1899, appendix,
pages i to xii (Mysore Geological Department), Madras, 1901.
(2) Records, Volume 111, Mysore Geological Lepartmont.
(3) Bulletin No. 3, Mysore Geological Department.
The Occurrence of Secondary Augite in the Kolar Schists, by W. F. Smeetb,
M.A., D.Sc, Bangalore, 1905.
2 Report on Kolar Odd Fields, 1889, p. 11, sq.
' For a general description of the whole group see Memoir Geological Survey
of India, 7ol. XXVIII, part 2, p. 119 sq. The term used for this group of
rocks in Germany is " pyroxene grannlites ", in France " pyroxene gneisses " ;
Messrs. King aud Bruce Footo refer to them as " syenitoid gneisses."
28
SAliSM.
CHAP. I.
Geology.
(2) Vonnger
Igiiuous
Iiitruiions.
(a) Ba^ic
Dykes.
(h)The
ftfiitfneaite
Series.
intrusive in relation to both the schists and biotite gneisses abeady
referred to, and are therefore considered to be of younger age.^
The rocks exposed in the neighbourhood of Salem inchide a
fairly complete list of the known varieties of the Oharnockite
Series, gametiferous and non-garnotiferous. Those whose compo-
sition is intermediate between the acid and basic extremes are by
far the most abundant, and are typically represented in the She-
raroy masses, where they are as a rule non-garnetiferous. Basic
varieties, however, occur as small autoliths in the more prevalent
type of the Scries, and also form separate and comparatively large
masses of roiighly lenticular shape in the old biotite gneisses.
The distinctly igneous intrusions of Salem District form three
groups : —
(a) Basic Dykes.
(6) The Magnesiau Series of the " Chalk Hills."
(c) The "White Elephant Kocks " of the Shevaroy Hills.
(a) Although not very numerous, several of these are of suffi-
cient size and importance to form outsti,uding features of the parts
of the District where they occur. " The intrusions are of very
ancient date, and probftbly connected with the volcanic outbursts
of the Cuddapah System," long subsequent, of course, to the
crushing of the gneiss.
The largest exposures of th(^3c intrusive dykes are met with
in the Baramahal and in Attur Taluk.
(h) The name "Chalk Hills " is given to a barren tract of
slightlv hilly ground, north and north-west of Salem Town. Over
a groat part of this tract the surface is whitened by small veins of
magnesito, the white colour of which explains the name.- The
tract covers some twelve square milosj in two areas, stretching
from a little west of the Railway, a couple of miles north-west of
Sura-mangalam Station, north-eastward to the western foot of the
Shevaroys. The northern area is roughly leg-of-mutton-shaped
in plan, with the broad end abutting on the spurs of the
Shevaroys, and much obscured by low jungle. The southern and
smaller area is composed of a series of low hills, the highest of
which are about 50' above the plains.
' Sir Thomas EloDand, who has devoted innoh time to the obRervation of these
rocks, considers that tho Charnockite Series in the vicinity of Salem, tiiough
younger than the biotite gneisses of the sjime area, is not necessarily younger
than other biotite gneisses in the District. A long junction lino which exists
between the pyroxene-granulites and the biotite gneisses of the Biinimahiil, will
probably afford valuable evidence of the general relations of the two series of
rocks, when opportunity for investigation presents itself.
- According to Hindu tradition, these deposits are the bones of Jatayn,
the eagle king, which attempted to rescue Situ when she was carried otf by
R&vana, but was slain by the latter.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION.
29
" Associated with the maj^ucsite arc mirnite veins of baltimorite CHA.P. r.
or fibrous serpentine, p^enerally of pale green colonr, but, here and Geomgy.
there, the larjjfcst of these veins (never exceeding 6" in thickness)
show pieces of a rich bluish green. ^ Weathered and water worn
pieces often show rich tints of yellow, brown, red and purple, but
on the outside only. Of compact serpentine only very small
fragments were found in one or two nullahs as pebbles." A
yellow wax-like variety of serpentine known as retinalito has
also been found. '• Thiu coatings of chalcedony not unfrequently
cover the surface of tho maguesite, or penetrate the mass of it ; the
chalcedony itself is frequently covered with a layer of minute
crystals of quartz."
Maguesite also occurs in smaller masses, but under very similar
conditions, at Isvara-raalai and Singapuram in Attur Taluk, and
near the Kauja-malai.
Tho maguesite of tho " Chalk Hills " was probably formed
by the action of carbonic acid at high temperatures on eruptive
peridotites.- Tho predominant typo of peridotito is oli vine-rock
containing, like tho similar duuitc of New Zealand, quantities of
magnetite and chromitc, with sometimes enstatito. Secondary
alteration of the peridotites has resulted in the formation of
magncsito, chalcedony, serpentine and tale. The action of carbonic
acid gas in large quantities and at high pressure on the unstable
silicate of magnesia (olivine) would produce carbonate of magnesia
and free silica. Most, if not all, of the peridotite eruptions of
South India are accompanied by masses and veins of pure white
quartz containing considerable quantities of carbonic acid gas,
and the constancy of this association suggests a genetic relation-
ship. The picrolite is probably tho result of hydration of the
olivine by subterranean water accompanying the carbonic acid
and included in the original magma. The serpentine is duo to
the hydration, possibly by siibaorial agencies, of portions of the
olivine which escaped the action of the carbonic acid. The forma-
tion of these three minerals is duo to entirely different processes ;
the maguesite came first, tho serpentine last.
Two masses of white quartz are exposed, one on either side of (o) The
the Gundur spur of the Shevaroys.
This quartz is presumably of White Ele-
phnnt Rock.
^ Mr. Comber writes, '" 1 have fonnd weathered and waterworn pieces of
baltimorite ranging liooi aluiost white to dark bhie. Fracture shows the same
colour. Pieces of apparently massive seipentine are found in the northern
area, but many show traces of an apparently fibrous sti uoture."
- Messrs. King and Bruce Foote inferred that the original rock of the
Chalk Hills yrerO metamorpbic. Sir T. Holland, however, in 1892 proved that the
primary rocks were periodtites (XXIV) (of. Beco;ds, Qeological Survey of
India, XXIX, p. 36).
30
SALEM.
CHAP. I.
Geot.ogy.
Snbaerial
Bockfl.
Poat.
Soilfl.
plutouic origin ; thoro arc no sig^ua of the clastic structure
distinctive of a qnartzitc, and no rofj^ular arraup^omont of crystals
characteristic of infiltrated voin quartz. The quartz is sometimes
colourless and transpai'ont, but usually white, owing to innumer-
able cavities containing liquid carbonic acid. At the base of the
quartz mass which lies oast of the spur, large masses of crystalline
calcite occur in close association with the quartz.
Two forms of subaorial rocks are developed commonly, though
not extensively, in the District, viz., the calcareous tufa popularly
known as '* kankar " (or " kunkur ""), and (2) the psoudo-laterite
found on the summit of the Shevarayan and other mountains.
The former is formed by the decomposition of lime-holding rocks
by rain-water, which deposits the lime, when evaporating, at or
very near the surface. The latter is a ferruginous clay incrusta-
tion formed on the surface of ferruginous rocks weathering in a
damp atmosphere. In the same category should bo placed the
local aggregations, loose or compacted, of clayey haematite
pellets often found in, or underlying, highly ferruginous rooks.
True poat forms largely on the Shevaroy Hills at elevations of
over 4,000 feet.^
The soils of the District depend on its geology. The classifi-
cation of soils by the (Settlement Department is not a s.atisfactory
guide to their nature, first because the system of classification is
unscientific, secondly because it leaves out of account all except
ryotwari areas. Only two 2 classes of soil were recognised at the
origlual Settlement, namely, " red " and " black. " White sands
and saline and calcareous soils were classed as " red '' or " black "
according to the classifier's caprice '. The pcrceatages under each
series recognised at the original Sottlemont for the seven old taluks
oomprised in the District as now re-organized are as follows : —
Ury.
Wet.
Rod.
Black.
Ked.
Blaok.
nosar
100
70
24
Dharriiapnri
83
17
24
70
Kmhnagiri
92
8
41
59
Ur-tankarai
95
6
5i
'16
Salem
96
4
49
51
TiracheiJgfldu
99
I
35
65
Attftr
80
20
4t
56
» Mem., O.S.I., XU, p. 252.
' Except for a small area classed as " Pormanont.ly Improved."
' These inconsistencies do not l)y any means involve anomalies in assessment.
Settlement ciassification is invariably adjusted to the merits of the soil, and
sterile sands or saline tracts are usually treated as " worst sort " and assessed
*t i,he lowest rate» prevailing in the villa<?e in which thay oocQr,
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 81
A few remarkablo deposits of true black soil occur in the CHAP. I
south of the Baramahal, and in the Biilaghfit. 1 ho best known Geology.
arc (1) near Dharmapuri and Adaman-kofctai in Dharmapuri
Taluk, (2) cast of the Vattala-malai, round Kadatttir, (3) in the
Vfl-niyar valley, (4) in the Kottai-patti valley, tjttankarai Taluk.
The geological origin of these black soils is still a moot point-
The iron ores^ of Saloni District arc well nigh inexhaustible. Mixkrai,
By far the most abundant ore is magnetite. This mineral occurs in Roi^ts.
well-dofiuod octahedral crystals, embedded in chlorite schist, in OreHoflron.
comparatively small quantities, but magnetite also occurs, associated
with quartz, and forming a schist, in which the crystals of magne-
tite are crushed out in the direction of foliation to a roughly
almond-shape. All gradations in size are found, down to an almost
aphanitic rock, in which the constituent minerals are, to the naked
eye, indistinguishable as individual crystals — a typo common to
all the groups of iron beds. " The incipient expansion of the
mass, accompanying the oxidation and hydration of the magnetite,
has, in many places, been sufficient to produce a rock that crum-
bles under the slightest blow, or even between the fingers. These
are the pieces exclusively used by the native smelters on account of
their friable nature. They are invariably found in the talus at
the foot of the hills, and probably are simply the more weathered
representatives of the compact specimens occurring in the beds
above. A further form in which magnetite occurs in the District
is that of segregation from the main mass of the rock into cavities
and pockets, as innumerable small crystals. Magnetite occurs
also, together with small crystallised fragments of quartz, horn-
blende, garnets and other minerals, as sand in river-beds, being
derived from the disintegration of the numerous crystalline rocks
within the area. In the trappean rocks, in granites, and in the
more basic gneisses, magnetite occurs in disseminated grains, but
not in quantities sufficient for economic use. In almost any locality
in the south of Salem District a magnet dipped into a bed of river
sand becomes coated with large quantities of magnetic grains,"
Haematite is seldom found in large crystals in Salem District.
In the hills to the south of Namagiripet, small crystals of specular
iron occur in larger masses of crypto -crystalline haematite, forming,
with quartz, a schist bedded in conformity tothe adjacent magne-
tite-bearing seams. Frequently both magnetite and haematite are
found intermixed with quartz, and in some cases magnetite cores
have been noticed, surrounded by haematite to varying degrees —
^ The acoonnt of iron ores whioh follow is taken almost entirely from
Sir Thomas Holland's Preliminary Report on the Iron-ores and Iron-industries
of the Ss^len; District, Hecords of Geological Survey, Vol. XXV, p. 135 sq.
32 SALEM.
CHAP. I. producing, iu fact, miuute crystals of martite, which is probably,
Mineral in most cases, pseudomorphoiis after the magnetic oxide. Hccraa-
Peodccts, ^-^.g |g quite subordinate in importance to magnetite in Salem
District.
Under the action of atmospheric influences, haematite takes up
water and passes into turgito, and ultimately into gothito and
limonite, or brown hrematite. Those may bo carbonated to prodiice
the various forma of clay-ironstone and chalybite. Varioiis stages
of these processes are represented amongst the Salom iron- ores,
especially the prodiiction of small quantities of yoUow ochro by
oxidation and hydration of the magnetite. But none of these
ores occur in sufficient quantities to be of value for metallurgical
purposes in comparison to the magnetite and ha3matite.
Pyrites is conspicuously rare in the rocks of the District.
Finely disseminated grains occur scattered through some of the
intrusive igneous rocks, but not in large quantities.
Small crystals of titaniferous iron-ore have been found in some
of the eruptive rocks of Salem, but never in large quantities,
Pyrrhotiiie, or magnetic pyrites, occurs in small quantities, as
minute hexagonal prisms ; it is of no motallurgieal value.
Ferruginous clays, limonitic pellets, ferruginous sands, and
laterito frequently occur in different parts of the District ; but these
iron-bearing deposits, although in some places valuable as sources
of the metal, and for building and other purposes, are developed
on a small scale in Salom District, when compared with the
enormous deposits of richer iron oxide.
The Mutpieiic "The magnetic iron beds," writes Mr. 11. Bruce Foote, "are
the most remarkable and interesting of all the gneissio rooks in
Salem District, on account of their economic value, and forming,
as they do, in many places very striking natural features of the
ooimtry, and affording the geologist who is endeavouring to unravel
the structure of the metamorphic region greater assistance than do
the members of any of the other groups." The iron ore occurs
not in lodes, but iu regular bedded masses of banded iron ore and
quartz, associated with the gneiss. ^
The five principal groups of magnetic iron bods are those of
(1) Konja-malai, (2) Godu-maloi, (3) Singapuram, (4) Kolli-
malai, (5) Tirta-malai. Eicb beds occur also at Malli-karai, and
on the south flank of the Paittur Hills in Attur Taluk, and close
to the southern base of Kedda-malai in Salem Taluk.
Iron beds.
* The ore, even that of the highest qnality, appears extremely siliceoue,
but as the crystals of magnetic iron and of silica are distinct compoiioiits of the
ore mass, it would lend itself to magnetic concentration, which would be neces-
sary if iron working ou a large scale were attempted.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION.
33
For some years a London Syndicate has been opening up
the deposits of raagnesite at the Chalk Hills, and there is every
prospect of a paying industry being in time established. The
maguesito is of very high grade, and its products compare favour-
ably with those of other localities. Lightly calcined, the magnesite
can be used for plaster, tiles, artificial stone, boiler coverings, etc.
** Dead burnt, " i.e., submitted to a much higher temperature, it is
one of the most refractory materials known, and is useful for fire-
bricks, the lining of steel furnaces and other purposes.
Chromito is to bo found in the northern area of the Chalk Hills,
and also on the Kanja-malai. In the former locality it was worked
by the Porto Novo Company till about 1860.
Corundum occurs at Kuttarapundi, south-east of Tiruchengodu
Talak, and in four areas in Dharmapuri Taluk, viz., (1) Pappara*
patti, (2) Rangapuram, (8) near Eaya-k5ta, (4) on the Dharma-
puri-Morappur road.^
Gold was at one time worked near Veppana-palli, and it is
not known when the working ceased.^
Mica was worked about 1897 near Edappadi and Arasiramani
in TiruohengSdu Taluk, but the stuff was poor in quality, and of
no commercial value, and the digging was soon abandoned.
Steatite, an impure hard talc, occurs in the gneissie rocks in
several localities in the District, notably on the Isvara-malai, south
of the Ayilpatti-Mallikarai road in Attur Taluk, and in Omalur
Taluk, north-east of the Tara-mangalam-Nangavalli road. It is
used for the manufacture of culinary vessels, for which the material
is specially suitable, owing to its power of resisting the action of fire.
Kankar supplies most of the lime used in the District. The
quality of the lime produced from it is excellent, and kankar
lime is exported in considerable quantities to the Kolar Grold
Fields. Stone suitable for building purposes is abundant all
over the District. Fuller's earth is an item of importance in
Tirucheng5du Taluk, whence it is exported to Calicut.
No systematic survey has yet been made of the Flora of Salem
District, and it is therefore impossible to describe its distinctive
features.^ A few words, however, on the ferns of the Shevaroys
may be of interest.
Near Yeroaud every wall is clothed with the Geranium Fern
(PelicBa (jeraiiiwfoUa)^ the heart-shaped Hemionitis cordata, the
CHAP. I.
Mineral
Products
Magnesite.
Cbromite.
Cornndnm.
Gold.
Mioa.
Steatite.
Kankar, etc,
Flora.
Ferns.
^ These have been described in detail by Mr. C. S. Middlemiss, in Records
G.S.L, XXXIX and XXX.
* See note on the Kolar Schist Band, p. 27 supra, and the reference quoted in
the footnote,
^ An account of the chief Forest products is given in Chapter 7.
84
SALE\r.
CHAP.
Flora.
Fauna
Domestic
Animals.
Cattle.
He
Pony- breed-
ing.
FJanuel Fern {Niphohohis fissum) and Asplenium furcaiwn ; the
undergrowth of copses* is brightened with the pale green fronds
of Nephrolepis cordi/olia, and open spaces are covered with the
common Bracken (Pten's aquilina). Other common species are
the Lace Fern [Stenoloma chtnensis)^ DavaUia tenutfoUn, the
Silver Fern {Chethnihes farinosa), the Royal Fern (Osmuuda
regaUs\ the Oak Fern [Drynaria quercifoUa), the Edible Fern
(Lasirea aristata), Pieris quadri aun'to and Gymnopteris Feet. In
shady ravines, where running water flows, Tree Ferns {Ahophila
latebrosa) are not uncommon, and, on the lower slopes, the Maiden-
hair Fern (Adiantiim caudaium) and Palm Fern (Actimopter/s
dicliotoma) are abundant. Tbe Golden Fern {Gymnociramme
sulphurea), a Himalayan species, has become naturalised on the
Shevaroys. Among tbe rarer forms, Angiopteris eveefa, Lygodium
mtcrophyllum^ and Micro lepia platyphylla are to bo met with, and,
on the slopes of the Shevamyan, Lt'ndsaya heterophyllii has been
foimd, a species occurring elsewhere only on the Tinnevclly Hills.
A very pretty fern, ClieiUmthes mysorenais, is to be found all over
the District at comparatively low elevations, such as the Paittiir
Hills, the Baramahal Durgams, at Barur and throughout Hosiir
Taluk \
Salem is one of the chief cattle-breeding districts in the Presi-
dency. The chief breeds are three, namely, the Mysore, the
Alambadi and the Tiruchcngodu. The first is bred in the forests
bordering on the Kaveri in the Denkani-kota Division, the second
in those round Pennagaram. The Mysore breed is of larger frame
than that of Alambadi, but shorter in the log. The males of both
these breeds are in much demand for draught, and command good
prices in the great cattle fairs of the southern districts, never less
than Es. 100 a pair, a good pair of trotters selling for as much as
Re. 400. The Tiruchcngodu breed is of diminutive size, the cows
are excellent milkers. The use of cows for ploughing and for
baling water is not uncommon in the Talaghat.
In the northern portion of the District the breeding of
country ponies is of great antiquity, and dealers from Madura
still resort to Denkani-kota and Pennagaram for thoir purchase.
A full grown ^' tat " of four years or so will fetch from Rs, 25
to 30.
Efforts have been made by Government from time to time to
improve the quality of the breed, but without much success.
Attempts to encourage mule-breeding have also failed.
* For the list of Ferns I am in'Jebted to Miss H. Lechler of Yercaud.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 80
The breeding of sheep and goats appears to be on the increase CHAP. i.
in spite of Forest Eescrvation.' Faun.v.
Elephants are no longer found in the District, except ^ in t}»e gheop and
jungles along the Kaveri, and on the Melagiri hills. A small (Joats.
herd not uncommonly crosses the river from the Coimbatore side Big 6ame»
in March or April, and remains for about a month. In 1901 a ^ '^P *" ^
herd of five penetrated to within 4 miles from Denkani-kota. The
Kalrayans were once called the " Elephant Hills," and in 1882 a
pair of elephants with a calf found their way from the Kalla-
kurchi Taluk of South Arcot, penetrated the Javadis as far as
Mottur, and thence crossed the valley and ascended the Yela-giris.
They then returned via Singarapet. Shortly afterwards the bull
was shot by two European officers.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, tigers infested Tigers.
nearly all the forests of the District. They are now very rare and
occur only in the jungles round Denkani-kota, straying occa-
sionally into the limits of Dhannapuri Taluk. On the Javadis
the last tiger is said to have been shot in 1892.
Panthers, leopards, jungle-cat, civet-cat and other Felidce are other
found all over the District. In villages such as Eaya-k5ta, Uddana- ^'^*^'^'
palli, Sulagiri, situated at the foot of rocky kopjes, a panther may
occasionally bo seen in the day time, basking in the sun. One
bold beast took up his abode in the bath-room of the D.P.W.
bungalow at Barur. It is not unusual for panthers to enter the
compounds of ^houses at Yeroaud, and in 1907 a pet watch-dog
was carried off by one.
Rewards to the extent of Es. 7,830 were disbursed by Govern- Rewards.
ment during the ten years ending 1905 for the destruction of wild
animals. About 45 panther skins are brought in annually for
reward. A tiger-skin was presented for reward at Hosur in 1896,
another in 190(5, and another in 1909. It is said that only about
one in every fifty kills is reported to the authorities. Most of the
tio-ers and panthers killed are shot in reserved forests, and the
shikaris that shoot them are generally reluctant to claim a reward
for fear of being taxed with the oiience of shooting in a reserve
without a license.
1 F. 1281 (1871-2) 44,225; F. ]280 (1876-7) 577,373; F. 1291 (1881-2)
(;66,171; F- 1309 (1889-1900) 1,225,423; F. 1319 (1909-10) 1,210,732: the
last figure excludes stati^itics fo:- Namakkal aaii Tiruppaltur.
* Major M. Bevan, writing in the early part of the nineteenth ceniury, speaks
of elephants committing great havoc among the gardens round Raya-kota.
Thirty Years in India, Vol. I, p. 65.
3 For the note on Game I am indebted to the Hon. Mr. Justice C. G. Spencer,
I.O.S.
C-1
36
RALEM.
CHAP. I.
Fauna.
Other
Bi^ Game.
The common Indian sloth bear occurs tbroughout the District
in hillv tracts. Among the best known localities are the Kolli-
malais, the Javadis, the Shevaroys, the Chitteris, the jungles near
Yeppana-palli and the Kundu-kota hills. Native shikaris will
never shoot bears, believing them to descend from Jambavan, the
Bear King, who helped Eama in his invasion of Ceylon. Bison
or gaur were formerly common, but were almost exterminated at
the time of the Great Famine. Small herds of three or four are
still to be found in the deepest recesses of the Dcnkani-kota,
Dharmapuri and tJttankarai jungles. Nilgai or blue bull is very
oocasionally met within the jungles of Dharmapuri and Denkani-
kota which adjoin the Kavori. Sarabur occur in the jungles of
Hosur, Dharmapuri, Uttankarai and at the foot of the Shevaroys,
but not in large numbers. The best place to find them is on the
banks of the Kaveri near Ilogona-kal and Bilignndlu, especially in
the months of March and April, when all jungle streams and pools
are dry, and animals are driven by thirst to the Kaveri. The
covert is too thick for successful stalking, and the only way to
secure a bag is to beat the jungle. Blaok buck can bo foinid all
over the District. They frequent the open country and are never
found in thick jungle. In the Talaghat they may be had at the
foot of the Kolli-malais. But their principal habitats are round
Hosur, Denkani-kota, Matagonda-palli, Tali, BOrikai and Atti-
mugam, all in Hosiir Taluk.^ Within a radius of six miles of
Hosi'ir there are a dozen herds. Thoy arc very shy and cautious ;
once disturbed, they never stop within five miles. Spotted deer
(chetal) and barking deer are met with throughout the Bararaa-
hal. The best localities for the former are near Javulagiri,
Hogena-kal, and in the reserved forests of Kottai-patti, Mallapuram
and Haiiir. Mouse deer, known in the vernacular as the '' goat
footed hare/' is not unknown, especially in the Javadis. It is
caught in nets and easily tamed.
Big game is fast disappearing in the District. Sambur, bison
and spotted deer in particular are in danger of extirpation.
What with native shikaris and wild dogs killing everything,
whether stag, hind or young, the wonder is that any are found.
A good deal of illicit shooting goes on in the jungles between
^ Mr. J. D. Kamasabbier writes, " at Onnalavadi, 4 miles from Hosftr on the
Uddana-palli road ; on thnhigh ground, near Paranda-palli on tho Hosur-Sulagiri
road; near Nail ur on the Hosui-Malur road; at about the 4th mile on the
Bangalore road ; on the high ground near Aggonda-halli on the Kela-mangalam
road, they are always found; as also near Binr.a-mangalam, 3 miles fi-om Matta-
gonda^palli, near Tali on the Maru-palli high ground, and at Jaghir Karu-palli,
4 miles from DenUani-kOta."
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 37
Ponnagaram and Denkani-kota. '* Hogeaa-kal especially is the chap. I.
resort of a number of shikaris from Dharmapuri and Pennagaram. Fauna.
Tho banks of the Kavori at this spot aro generally liaed with
machans from which deer that come to drink in tho river are shot
at night. On a moonlight night each of these machans will have
its tenant." For tho European big game is not easy to bag, for
want of efficient beaters. Moreover, covert is unlimited and unin-
terrupted, and hence the game is difficult to locate.
Wild pigs abound wherever there are jungles, and are very Other
destructive to crops. Thej are shot in large numbers by villagers, ^^ammals.
Good sport can be had by camping at Mallur and working the
jungles round the foot of the Boda-malais.
The common monkey is a regular pest, especially round Salem
and Hostir. Fruit growers are put to much trouble in warding
o£f their depredations. The Madras Langtir [Preshytts priamus) is Madras
found in tho jungles near AncLetti, and in Dharmapuri Taluk, Ipre^^Z]^
and is much sought after, its flesh being eaten by natives on priumus).
account of its supposed medicinal virtues. It is especially common
on Mauukouda-malai near Toppur. The nocturnal Lon's lydeliker-
ianus is also not uncommon.
Hyenas, wolves, red dog, jackals and foxes are found every-
where. It is commonly believed that, if a goat or sheep is pulled
down by a wolf, the flock will thrive. Another belief is that a
man who kills a wild dog will soon die. Hence wolves and wild
dogs are never killed by native shikaris. In the days when Mr.
(now Sir Frederick) Price was Sub-Collector, a pack of hounds
was kept up at Hosur, and foxes and jackals afiorded good
hunting.
Otters are common in the Kaveri, especially above Hogena-kal
Falls, and may often be seen swimming down-stream, 30 or 40 in
a pack. During flood-timo they infest the creeks and inlets along
the Kaveri banks. Hares, hedgehogs, porcupines, the mongoose
and the pangolin may be met with all over the District.
Though not a famous shooting District, Salem at least provides SmaJi Gamp,
what is dear to the heart of every true sportsman, — a " mixed
bag.''' The number of small tanks in the District, especially in
the northern taluks, is legion. These tanks are visited in the cold
season by numbers of teal and duck, and the latter, owing to the
coolness of the Mysore plateau and the Baramahal, seem to defer
their migration till later than is the case in other plain districts.
Most of these tanks are not so big as to render the duck inacces-
sible. Besides duck and teal of all varieties in the tanks, tho
wet lands irrigated by the tanks and on the foreshore frequently
38 SALEM.
CHAP. I. contain a fair sprinkling of snipe. In the drv fields that must be
Faiixa. crossed to reach the tank, a quail is seen, now and again, to bustle
out of a field of gram, or from a tuft of grass on the field margin.
On the stretches of uncultivated, and often rocky, uplands lying
between the villages, partridges, sand-grouse, plover, oeeasionallj
a hare or two, and sometimes florican are to be found. The
bushes lying along dry water-courses afford a shelter to
which they betake themselves at the first alarm. Bustards may
be seen in pairs along the Kaveri bauks when the water is low.
Woodcock visit the higher hill i-anges in small numbers in the
cold weather. Green and blue pigeon, pea-fowl, spur-fowl and
jungle-fowl may be added to the list. In short, most of the
feathered species characteristic of South India are met with in the
District.
Snakes. Snakes are represented by no less than 48 species.^ None of
these are peculiar to the District, but Lachesis macrolepis has
hitherto been recorded only from the Aua-malais, Pahiis and
Shevaroys ; possibly it occurs on the Kolli-malais and other hills
of the District. Only three species of poisonous snakes are com-
mon, namely, the cobra, Eussell's viper and the common green
viper. The krait {Bungarus candidu-s) is less common than else-
where ; the other poisonous species are rare. Some of the
harmless species bear an extraordinarily close resemblance to some
of the deadliest, for example, the young python or " rock snake "
and Eryx conicus to the Eussell's viper ; the rat snake (Zamenis
mucosus) to the cobra ; and some of the Lycodona to the dreaded
krait ; the harmless species in each case being much more numerous
than the poisonous ones. The reported human death-roll from
snake-bite in Salem District between 1885 and 1906 was 3,499, an
average of about 160 annually. The average number of reported
deaths among cattle is 50 per annum.
* The following list has been compiled by Mr. llobert FoulkeH ; Typhlops
braminvs ; T. leddoniii ; T. acutus ; Python molurus ; Eryx conicus ; Eryx
johnii ; Sdybura ocellata ; S. ellioti ; S. urevis ; S. nigra; S, nttida ; S.
rubrolineata ; S. arcticeps ; Plectrurus perroteti ; Xylophis perroteti ; Lycodon
ftriatua ; L. iravanroricus ; L, aulicus j Ilydropliohvt^ nympha ; H. gracilis ;
Ablabfs calamaria ; Simotes arnensis ; Oligodon retiutitus ; 0. brevicauda ;
0. affiriiis ; Polycdontophis suhpunctatus ; Zamenis mvcosus ; Z. fascvdatus ;
Tropidonottis heddomii ; T. stolatus ; T. piscator ; T. plumhicclor ; Helicops
schistosus ; Dipsas trigonata ; Dryophis dispar ; D. mycterizans ; D. pulverulentus ;
Dypsirhina enhydris ; Callophis trimaculatus ; Ilemilung rus nigresccns (coral
snake); Bungarus ^ candidus ; Aaia tripudian.t^ ; Naia bungarus f ; Echia
cartnuta ; Vipera russellii ■f ; EuBEeH's viper or "dab<)ia"t; Lachesis macro-
lepis t ; L. strigatus\ ; L. gramineus.
Note. — Those marked with a t are " poisonons."
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. 89
Mahsoor ^ froquent the waters of the Kaveri below the CUAP. i.
Hogeua-kal Falls, but they are very shy. Cariiatic Carp (Barbus Fauna.
carnaticus, Tain, sol-kondai) and Eod Carp {Labeo Jimbriatus, -pit^h.
Tain, veu-koiulai) abound in the Kaveri and prawns are common.
The chief fishing- centres on the Kaveri arc at Solappadi and near
Erode. In the rainy season, when the tanks are full, Kaveri fish
find their way up the tributary streams and are to be found in
tanks fed by these streams, many miles from the Kaveri itself.
In the larger tanks, especially in the big tank at Barur, the
fresh-water shark ( Wallayo attu, Tam. valai) attains considerable
size. In minor streams and tanks several species of carp are to
be found, e.g., Laheo kontius (Tam. karumani or karumuli-kendai),
"Ohilwa " (Tam. volicehai, three or four species), L, ariza (Tam.
kolariiijan), i. calbnsu, L. boga, Barbus melanastzyma, B, viiiaius,
B. dorsalis, B. micropugon, B. pinnauratus, B, dubius, B. bovamcus.
Murral {Ophtoceplialus maruUus, Tam. viral). Black Murral (0.
di'iatus, Tam. kuravai), Loach (Lepidocephalicht/iys thermaiis,
Tam. asarai), "scorpion fish" {Soccobranchm fossilis, Tam.
kelafcti) and Silundia gangetica (Tam. ponatti), are all of
local commercial importance. During the breach in the Grand
and Lower Anaikats in 1909-10, " Hilsa " [Clupea ilisha) were
traced as far up as Hogena-kal. Catla buchanani were introduced
into the Barur Tank in 1910-11 by the Fishery Department.
Eel {Anguifla bengalensis, Tam. vilangu) and the sand-eel or
spine-eel (Mastacembclus armaius, Tam. aral) are sometimes
caught in, the anaikat pools of Attur Taluk.
^ For the note which follows I am indebted to Sir Frederick Nicholson,
K.C.I.E,
40 SALEM.
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.
References.
1. Memoirs of tlie Geological Survey of India, Vol. lY, Part 2.
" Oil the geological structure of portions of the districts of
Trichinopoly, Salem and South Arcot, Madras, included in sheet No. 79
of the Indian Atlas ; by "William King, Junior, and K. Bruce Foote."
2. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XII —
The Geological Features of the Southern Mahratta Country and
adjacent Districts ; by H. B. Foote.
3. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XXVIII, Part
2, pages 119 to 249.
" The Charnockite Series."
4. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XXX, pp.
i03 to 168, with map facing page 168.
Geology of the ueighbourhood of Salem, witli special reference
to Leschenault de la Tour's observations ; by T. H. Holland.
6. Kecords of the Geological Surrey of India, Vol. XXIV, pp.
157 to 200.
Lacroix ; " Gneissose rocks of Salem and Ceylon."
6. Records ; Geological Survey of India, Vol. XXV, pp. 135 to
159.
Preliminary Report on the Iron Ores and Iron-Industries of the
Salem District, by Thomas H. Holland.
7. Records ; Geological Survey of India, Vol. XXIX, Part 2, 1896.
(a) Preliminary notes on some Corundum localities in the Salem
and Coimbatore districts, Madras ; by C. S. Middleiuiss, pp. 39 to 60.
(6) Notes on the Ultra-basic Rocks and derived minerals of the
Chalk (magnesite) hills and other localities near Salem, by C. S.
Middlemiss, pp. 32 to 38.
8. (a) Records; Geological Survey of India, Vol. XXX, pp. 16
to 42.
On some Norite and associated Basic Dykes and Lava-flows in
Southern India ; by T. H. Holland.
(h) Records; Geological Survey of India, Vol. XXX, pp. 118
to 122,
Report on some trial excavations for Corundum near Palakod,
Salem District ; by C. S. Middlemiss.
9. Report on the Kolar Gold Field, and its Southern Extension ;
by P. Bosworth Smith, Esf^., r.G s., Government Press, Madras, 1889.
10. Manual of the Geology of India ; R. H. Oldham (ed. 1893).
HISTOHY. 41
CHAPTER II.
HISTOEY.
A. rREiiisiORic. — Neoliths — Neolithic Factory — lion Age. B. History. —
General character of Salem History. I.. Ancient History,— (1) Mauryae,
(2) Ilo:uaDs. II. PALiiAVA Pkbiod. — The Pallavas — Nanclivarman Pallava-
ma 11a. — Disruption — (1) Ganga-Paliavas— (2) Nolamba-Pallavas — (3) Banas
— (4) Western Gangas. III. Fkudal Pekiob. — Character of the Period —
Govinda 111., 783—814 A.D.— Amoghavarsha J., 814—877 A.D.— Eashtra-
kuta Decline — Tiiu-Paraiiibiyan — The Chola Expansion, Aditya I. —
Pariintaka I. — Nolamba Aggression — Fall of Banas. — Revolution in Talakad
— Krishna III., 940-956 A.D. — Takkolani, c. 950 A.D.— B.ashtraktita
Collapse. IV. Chola Ascendkncy. — Ilajaraja I. — Chola-Chalukyan Duel —
Chola Administration in the 11th Century. V. The Hoysala Empike. —
The 12th Century — Hoysala Conquest of Gargavadi — War of Paiidyan
Succession — Adigaimans of Dharmapnri — Collapse of Kal^-aui Chalukyas —
Ballala II. — lloysala-Pandyan Duel — Vlia Eamanatha — The Muhanimadan
Cataclysm. VI. Vijayanagab. — Founding of Vijayanagar — First Dynasty —
. Revolution— Third Dynasty— Talikota, 1665 A.D. VII. 1565 — 1761.— After
Talikota — Dissolution — (1) Rise of Mysore — (2) Rise of Madura— Tiruinala
Nayaka — Poligars of the Mjirches — Madura-Mysore Duel — Bijapur and
Golconda intervene — Kantlrava Narasa Raja — Ascendency of Mysore —
Chikka Deva Raja — The Marathas— Reconquest--The Mughals — Break up
of Mughal Empire — The Cuddapah Nawabs — Rise of Haidar Ali and the
British. VIII. The Mysore Wars. — First Mysore War, 1767-9 — Maratha
Advance — ^English Occupation of Baramahal — Haidar's Invasion of the
Biitamahal — Ambur — Haidar's Retirement from the Baramahal — January
to August 1768 — Col. Joseph Smith's Invasion of the Balaghat — Col. Wood's
Campaign — Junction of Smith and Wood — Wood's Disasters, November
1768 — Haidar's Invasion of the Carnatic — Second Mysoi-e War, 1780-84 —
Thii-d Mysore War, 1790-92 — General Medow's Campaign, 1790 — Maxwell's
Advance — Campaign of Comwallis, 1791 — Pennagaram — Krishnagiri — Close
of the War— Interlude, 1 792-99— Fourth Mysore War— 1799. IX. District
Garrisons.
Neither eoliths nor palseoliths have hitherto been found in A. Preh>s.
Salem District. Implements of the later Stone Ago are on the toric
other hand abundant, and their workmanship shows a higher finish
than do the neoliths of the Decca.n.l
Neolithic implements have been found on the Shevaroys, the
Kalrayans, the Kolli-malais, Vattala-malais, Melagiris and on the
Guttirayan. They do not occur m the plains. The commonest
implements arc celts and hammer-axes, the former with sharp
cutting edges, the latter blunt. Mr. Bruce Foote's collection in
the Madras Museum includes no less than 70 celts from Salem
District, 5 hammer-axes, 3 " slick-stones " ', one pestle and a
^ For the information on neoliths, I am mainly indebted to the late Mr.
B. Bruce Fooie.
* Or " slacking stones," for putting a gloss on cloth.
42
SALEM.
OH A P. II. biconical stone perhaps representing a phallus. No scrapers or
A. Pre HIS. spindles have yet been discovered, and there is nothing to show
TOKic. ^,^^^ neolithic man ate, and how he was clothed ; the " slick -
stones ", however, indicate that the art of weaving was not un-
known. The favourite materials for implements are hypersthene-
granite, diorite and diabase. Except at the Bargur " Factory "
no neoliths have been found in situ, and no ancient habitation
site has yet been traced. The implements are turned up by the
plough of the modem Malaiyiili, gathered into shrines, and
worshipped as gods. A few bits of neolithic pottery have been
found on the Shevaroys ; some of those fragments have been ground
into circular discs about two inches in diameter, and these wore
probably used as pawns in some game.
Neolithic Near Bargur in Krishnagiri Taluk an interesting discovery
Factory. jj^ ^^^j^ made by Messrs. E. Bruce Footo and P. Bosworth Smith.
" To the east of Varatana-palli, about two miles north of the
149th milestone on the Madras-Bangalore Trunk Road, there is a
lai^e doleritic dyke which seems to be a continuation of the
' Mysore mine trap-dyke '. Under the temple hill here it will be
seen that the dyke branches into two veins of about equal size.
The rock, which forms the two small branches, is a fairly coarse-
grained dolerite, giving a hackly fracture, but at the junction of
these two, where the dyke rises in a small hillock, the vein,
although more than throe times the width, is composed of an ex-
ceedingly fine-grained stone, having a highly conchoidal fracture,
80 much so that the stone has been used largely for hatchets, etc.,
by the old palsBolithio men, and specimens that have evidently
come from this vein can bo found on many of the durgams round
about. From the number of flakes and " wasters " found on the
hillock, it can bo readily seen that this has been an old chipping
ground." *
The workmanship of these Bargur colts is very crude ; they
are merely chipped, and neither ground nor polished. Mr. Bruce
Foote concludes that they were probably rejecta, left behind
because too bad in form to be worth advancing to a second, third
and fourth stage.
Iron Age. Erlics of the Iron Age are abundant, but they have not been
systematically investigated. A monograph by the Ecv. Maurice
Phillips, published in 1872, is the most recent work on the subject.
Dr. Phillips classes the tumuli as (1) cromlechs^, or tumuli lined
1 p. Bosworth Smith's Report on the Kclar Gold Field and its Southern
Extsnsion ; Government Press, Madrns, 1889, pp. 20-21.
* Tho OBo of the word "cromlech" is not here strictly accDratc, the term
being properly coijfined to circles of upright stones.
I
HI8T0BY.
48
witli four perpend icnlar stone slabs, in the shape of a cist or box,
ami (2) cairns, or tumuli which have no internal lining of stone.
Some cairns contain large earthen urns, others have none. In
outward appearance cairns and cromlechs are alike. " They present
themselves to the eye as mounds of earth and small stones of
various sizes ; circulrr in shape, and often surrounded with circles
of large stones. They measure from 3' to 20' in diameter, and
from 1' to 4' in height. Very often in the stone circles, four
large stones opposite the four points are seen towering above the
others ; and in the case of cromlechs the entrance is from the east.
" After clearing away the mound and stones, it is found gener-
ally, but not invariably, that the mouth of the tumulus is covered
with a stone slab varying in size from 2' long by 2' broad and 4''
thick, to 9' long by 6' broad and 14" thick."
*' Cromlechs " generally contain small urns and iron imple-
ments biit no bones except very small pieces which appear charred.
The chambers vary much in size. Some of them are as small as
3' long, 2' wide, and 2' deep; and others are as large as 5'
long, 3^' wide, and 4' deep. The large urns found in the cairns
invariably contain human bones and small vessels ; and very often
some iron implements and ornaments. They are hardly large
enough to contain the body of a full-grown man, though placed
in a sitting posture, with the legs and thighs drawn up, and the
head bent downwards between the knees, as is sometimes found
in tumuli in Europe. If, therefore, full-grown men were buried
in them, the body must have been either cut up, or partly burnt,
before interment. The position of the bones in layers, one upon
the other, seems to indicate the same conclusion. The cairns
which contain no urns are the most barren in results. In some
of them nothing is found ; and in others only small urns with
small bits of iron, the crumblings of some instruments ; and small
pieces of bones which look like the remnants of cremation.
The large urns are so brittle that they invariably fall to pieces
by their own weight as soon as the surrounding earth is moved.
They very much resemble the large chatties or sals now used by
the Hindus to hold water or grain in their houses. Some vessels
are red and some black ; some are red inside and black outside
and vice versa. The surface of some has been polished by rubbing
it with the mucilaginous juice of Ahutilon indicum, a process still
in vogue in India. The ornaments found are round and oval
beads of different sizes and colour, which must have been worn
by women as necklaces and bracelets. According t,o Dr. Hunter
they are made of carnelian ornamented with a pure white enamel
of considerable thickness, which has been let into the stone by
CHAP. II.
A. Prkhib*
44
SAL£M.
CHAP. II.
A. Pbehis'
TORIC.
B. History.
General
character of
Salem His-
tory-
grinding the pattern, filling in probably with oxide of tin and
exposing the stone to heat. The enamel is very hard, cannot be
touched with a knife, and is not acted upon by strong nitric acid.
The iron implements most commonly found arc knives or short
swords, from 12" to 22" in length, but they occur in such a
crumbling state, that it is difficult to procure one unbroken.
These tumuli are, as elsewhere in South India, popularly
associated with the Panda va brothers, and are known as Pandava-
Kuli or Pandava-Kovil ; terms as valueless historically as the
epithet " Cyclopeean " in Greece, or as the "Nimrod" legends in
Babylonia. With the usual inconsistency of legend, the cairns arc
also said to have been built by dwarfs, a span or cubit in height,
who were endowed with the strength of giants. Pandava " pits "
and " shrines " are found all over the District, notably on either
side of the Morappur-Harur road, in the vicinity of Kundani, and
on a hill near Gummalapuram. Some urns were discovered at
Muudagambadi when the Tercaud Ghat road was constructed, and
a bill-hook about 2^' long was found with them.
The History of South India is the record of a never-ending
struggle between the peoples of the Deccan plateau and the peoples
of the south, an unceasing ebb and flow of nations. The border-
lino between those contending forces is formed by the Eastern
Ghats, which run in an irregular line from east to west, from Kala-
hasti and the Tirupati Hills of Chittoor District to the >Jilgiri8
and the Palghat Gap. It is on this border-line that Salem District
is situated, and the history of the District is essentially the history
of a march land. Moreover, the physical barrier of the Kalrayan-
Shevaroy mountain ranges has been in the past of vast political
importance, and the history of the Baramahal is for the most part
a thing apart from that of the Talaghat. Geographically the
Talaghat belongs to the ancient Kongu country, which comprised
most of what is now Coimbatore District, together with the taluks
of Karur, Namakkal, Salem, Tiruchengodu and Omalur. Its
history is dependent on that of the Ch5la country (Trichinopoly
and Tanjore), and in a less degree on that of the western districts
of the present state of Mysore. The history of the Baramahal,
on the other hand, is dependent on that of the ancient Tondai-
mandalam^ (the present Sotith Arcot, Chingleput, and North
Arcot Districts) and, almost as intimately, on that of the eastern
districts of Mysore, and the hinterland to the north of them
(Cuddapah, Anantapur, and even Bellary), Hence it is that
Salem District has never formed a political entity, and therefore
^ See below, p. 46 for an explanation of the name Tondai-niandalam.
HISTORY.
45
I. Ancient
HieTouT.
(1) Mauryas.
claims no separate history of its own. Wedged botween the OHAP. II,
Dcccan and tho plains, it has owned allegiance in tnrn to Pallava, B. History.
Chola, and Pilndya, to Manyakhcta^ , Dorasarandra and Vijaya-
nagar. Enled at one time by the Viceroy of a distant Emperor,
at another by his fendatory vassals ; placed on the highway of
conquering and vanquished armies ; plundered again and again by
Pathan and Maratha freebooters, and by local adventurers ever
ready to profit by the wcalcness of a suzerain, fought over by
Madura Nayak and Mysore Odeyar, by Haidar Ali and " John
Company " ; too poor to support a capital, a dynasty or an army
of its own, and too important strategically to be left in peace by
a powerful neighbour, Salem District has had a troubled past.
The Edicts of the Maury an P]mperor Asoka (272-231 B.C.)
depict the three historic kingdoms of South India, Ch51a, Chera
and Pandya, as friendly independent states. The southernmost
Mauryaa inscription is at Siddapur, in the Chitaldrag District
of Mysore, and between tho Maury an Empire and the Dra vidian
Kingdoms a broad belt of forest intervened. Jt is possible,
therefore, that in the Mauryan period Salem District was covered
with primeval jangle. If it were worth claiming, it must have
belonged to Chera or Chola.
On the death of As5ka (231 B.C.) his empire crumbled. (2) Romans
The three kingdoms of the south did not share in the Mauryan
decay. Their mutual wars, no doubt, kept them virile. In 47
B.C., Julius Csesar was master of Alexandria, and the Romans at
once began to develop the Red Sea trade ^. It is certain that, by
the beginning of the first century of the Christian era, a vigorous
trade was established between the South Indian Kingdoms and
the ports of Egypt. In 47 A.D. a further impetus was given to
commerce by the discovery that, taking advantage of the monsoon
winds, a shorter and safer course could be steered to the Malabar
Coast. The most noteworthy articles of commerce were the
pepper of Malabar, the pearls of Ceylon, acd beryl. Eery! of the
colour approved by Roman society under the Julian Emperors
was available at only one spot in the then known world, viz., at
Padiyur in Coimbatore District^. Large hoards of Roman coins
have been found at Madura, the old Pandyan capital, at Karur,
the old Chera capital, and at PoUachi, Savadi-palaiyam and
Vellalur in Coimbatore. Most of these coins belong to the reigns
^ la G.E. Report for 1902, page 3, Dr. Hultzsch questions the correctness
of the generally accepted identification of the Eashtraktita capital with Malkhed,
in the Nizam's Doitinions.
2 Vide Mr. R. Sewell in J.R.A.S., XXIII, pp. 591-637.
46 SALEM.
CHAP. II. of Augfustua and Tiberius, a few to Claudius and Caligula. It is
I. Anciknt clear that a regular trade route existed from Madura to Coim-
1 ' batore via the Kaveri valley. Hoards of Eoman coins have also
been found in the neighbourhood of Bangalore.^ It is not
known what trade the Romans had with the Deccan at this
period, or whether the traffic thither passed via Coimbatore. In
any case, it is certain that, in the first century A.D., Salem was
touched on the «>oath, the west and the north by peaceful, pros-
perous states, and though it is unlikely that the trade routes
actually passed through Salem District, the country must at least
have profited indirectly.
It is in this period that some scholars have placed the golden
age of Tamil literature, the age of the Tamil Sangam or Academy,
when Paranar, Kapilar, Tiruvalluvar (the author of the Kural)
and a host of other literary luminaries flourished. Not the least
among them was the poetess Avvaiyar, who flourished under the
patronage of Adiyaman Neduman Anji of Tagadur.^ It was then
that the Chera King Sengut.tuvan ruled from his capital at Vanji,
on the "West Coast at the mouth of the Periyar, his dominion
extending into the Kongu country, and the KoUi-malais were the
seat of Government of the Chora prince Mantharam Serai Ivura-
porai. It is true that the existence of a matured Tamil civilization
in the first century A.D. is not supported by epigraphic records,
but it is difficult to assign the zenith of Tamil literature to any
other period, and it is hardly conceivable that the coins of the
Julian Emperors of Home would be distributed so freely over a
country not well advanced in culture.'
II. Thk On the death of Nero a change came over Eoman society.
Pallavas. Luxury waned, manners became simpler, and the eastern trade
, declined. The History of South India remains a blank till the
4th century A.D., when the Pallavas are found firmly established
in the east coast country, known for centuries after as Tondai-
mandalam.* The Pallavas appear to have ruled from several
1 Coimbatore Manual, II, p. 363, Indian Antiquary V, p. 237. ^ Dharmapuri.
> See ^i««n«nt India, p. 33G sq. and The Tamils Eighteen Uundred Tears Ago,
pp. 100 and 107.
*The modern districts of North and South Arcot and Chingloput. 'Jonda-
man (=Tonda king). " Tonda " may have been a country or a people. The
tradition ascribing the origin of the word to the administration of the Pallava
country by a Chola prince Adondai, born to kiug Kokkilli by a Naga princess, is
a late invention to account for the origin of the Pallavas. "At the time when
this story was invented, the Pallavas were probably looked upon as the outcome
of a mixture of Ch6la and Naga blood."— Mr. V. Vonkayya in G.O. No. 1070 Roy-
of 190i. Cf.a note by Mr. S. Krislinaswami Ayyangar in " Celebrities in Tamil
Literature"— Iwd. Ant. Vol. XXXVII, p. 235.
nt- No. M7
TTOOR
I
■-Arkonam q*VADRAS
ruvalam j
?>Jj5^_^on,eeveram
14
MAP
ondich«rry <Fr.)
!, Parte Novo
.Ijy^ _ uJi.n,, I.
■\\>ai^n^'\'"""
Cangai kondacholapu ram
MADRAS PRESIDENCY
SCALE OF MILES
100
HISTORY. 47
diflToront capitals, among them Kanolii, Vengi ^ on the Godavari, CHAP II.
and Palakkada. Apparently the two latter were independent of U- Thk
each other, and the king of Kanohi exercised some sort of over- .'J
lordship over hoth. It has boon surmised with some probability
that " the Pallava power was superimposed upon the ancient
territorial states much in the same way as the Maratha power
was in later times " and " was confined ordinarily to the levying
of tribute and blackmail." Some such hold the Pallavas may
have exercised over Salem District, though there is no evidence
of J.^allava rule till the eighth century A.D., when the legitimate
monarchs of Kanchi, discredited by their expulsion from the
Deccan at the hands of the Badami Chalukyas, were ousted
from the succession by Nandi-varman Pallava-malla, the scion of Nandivarman
a collateral branch of the royal family. " Chosen by his sub- J'^Hava-
jects," he had to fight for the sovereignty, and owed his ultimate
success to the devotion of his general Udayachandra, who rescued
him when beset by the " Dramila Princes," adherents no doubt,
of the legitimate line, whose leader Chitramaya was slain by
Udayachandra's own hand. This soldier won victories for his
master's armies from Tinnovelly to Nellore. His name is peculi-
arly interesting from its connection with the village of Udayen-
diram on the Palar, on the border of Tiruppattur Taluk, just
within the limits of North Arcot District. The " Udayondiram
Plates " ^ may be claimed as the earliest historical record of Salem
District, and they prove that, early in the eighth century, part, at
least, of the District was within the pale of civilization.
Nandi-varman Pallava-malla lived to see at least the 50th year
of his reigu. For 22 years he preserved his Empire intact ; but
soon after 733 A.D. his kingdom was invaded by Vikramaditya II,
grandson of the monarch of the same name, who restored the
Chalukya Empire and expelled the Pallavas from the Deccan.
The invader entered Kanchi, but did not sack the city ; instead he
contented himself with setting up a pillar of victory " near the
ocean," and, after granting heaps of gold to the principal Siva
temple in the place, he withdrew.
The Badami Chalukyas did not long survive their victory, for
in 757 A.D. their Empire was completely overthrown by the JRash-
traktitas of Malkhod. The defeat of Nandi-varman Pallava-malla
also marks the end of Pallava greatness, and after his death all
that remained of the Pallava Empire was divided between the
dynasty known as the Ganga-Pallavas, apparently the direct
Disruption.
^ Afterwards the capital of tlie Eastern Chalukyas.
2 See S.I.I., Vol. II, pt. II, p. 361.
CHAP. IT.
II. The
Pallatas.
(I) Ganga-
Pallavas.
4g SALEM.
descendants ' of Pallava-malla, and the " Later PaUavaa," who may
represeut either the snccessors of Chitramaya, who led the
"Dramila Prinees" and was slain by Nandi-varnian Pallava-
malla's general Udayachaudra, or the deseeudants of Paramesvara-
varman II, whose throne Pallava-malla had iisurped.
The kines of the so-eallod Gaupa-Pallava Dynasty are distm-
gnished by the prefix " Ko " (=King) a"d " Vijaya as part of
their proper names, and, as in the case of the PaUava kmgs, the.r
names terminate in « varman' ". Though the area over which
they ruled was large, their civilizaticu mnst have been inferior to
that of their prcdcecssors, most of the records being set up to comme-
morate the death of heroes iu cattle raids. Their records ^e
found in the districts of Tanjore, Trichinopoly Chinglepnt, the
two Arcots, as far north «s Gndimallam, and m the ""rt'-J™* »«
Salem District ' The Cholas seem to have acknowledged their
ItZfZ- There are several names, however of .-ulcrs bearing
the titles of this dynasty whom it .s not easy to locate At Hanu-
manta-puram,nearPenn,lgaram, in Dharniapun Taluk, there are
two inLipti^ns of the 17th year of one V jaya Isvara-varman,
whoseTame is also mentioned in an iuscription at Hebban, near
MnTto°ri ' The " IMva-kota Plates' " are dated in the Mth year
^ on^ Ko-Vijava-Skandasishya-Vikrama-varman and record a
Irantmade at hi request of " Mahavali-Vauanlja >, i.e the Bana
k ng IW is yet another name, that of Ko-VuY^-N^^""''!'-
^l^an', whose inscriptieus have been found at Kil-Muttugur, in
. The i™"'""'"'," 'f;„At°l. The political .eUtio-.hi,. between the
Tanjore Ch.ng.op«.|.dt»t-°Ar,^^^^ ^ .,«.,.„torlly made o«..
^l^t^^To'-.hL-trt:^"."!--' -. S*- OlatKot. see......
Vni p. 522, and G.E. Keport, 1910-11.
s'cf) Danti-varman roigned at least ol years.
(ii) Nandi-varmau ,. ^* "
(iii) Nripatunga-varman „ 26 „
(iv) Aparujita " ^.^^„ whose'reign lasted at least 23 years. He
There was also a ^a^^va^ ^^^ ^^,^ther of Nripatunga-varman.
that the reigns of son.e of these rulers overlapped.
*.l^TV^^'"^^c' E^- Carn.Vol.X, Kolar,No.211 of Mulbagal
Taluk.
6 Ep. Ind. V, p. 49.
i£p.I«d.lV,p.3G0andVlI,p.2-.
HISTORY. 43
North Arcot, aud also in Mulbagal Taluk^; ono of these mentions CHAP. II.
the chief of Ta.gadur-Nad, the modern Dharmapuri.^ II. The
Another rolic of the Pallava Empire survived in the teiTitory
north and east of the Talakad Gangas, namely the Nolamba-Pal- ^p^^ikvlr^""
lavas, descendants, perhaps, of Pallavas who settled in the Deccan
after the sack of Badami by Narasimha-varman I (642-655 A.D.)
The territory occupied by these settlers became known as the
" Nolamba-vadi 82,000," the nominal number of villages com-
prised within it.
Another principality which attained a precarious indepen- (3) lianas,
dence with the fall of Kanchi and Badami was that of the Banas,
whose territory is described as being Vadugavaliyin-merku, a term
which may mean either "the country to the west of the Andhra
Road, " or " the Western portion of the Andhi'a Eoad." ^ Vadugu-
vali was the name of the district over which the Banas ruled.
Their territory certainly extended over part of Mysore and part of
Salem and North Arcot and their inscriptions are found as
far north as Nellcre. Their capital was probably at Tiruvalam in
Grudiyattam Taluk of North Arcot, anciently called Vanapuram.
They were essentially guardians of the Ghats. A rock inscription
of one of their kings occurs at Eaya-kota,* and, from the " Eaya-
kota Plates ^' above referred to, it would appear that the Barama-
hal was ruled, in the ninth century by Bana kings under the
suzerainty of some collateral branch of the Ganga- Pallava family.
Advantage had been takea of the confusion into which South (4) Western
India was plunged on the fall of the Badami Empire by a prince ^^"S"^''-
1 Ep. Cam. Vol. X, (Kolar) No. 227 of Mulbagal Taluk.
2 Mr. Krishna Sastri suggests (p. f>3 of G.E. Report for 1910-11) that
" the major portion of the North Arcot district, with the bordering portions of
Salem and Kolar were, even in the earlier Pallava times, under the sway of local
chiefs who claimed, in a way, some distant relationship with the ruling
dynasty of the Pallavas," that in the confusion that followed the usurpation of
Nandi-varman Pallava-malla, they ti-iid to assert their independence, with
Rashtrakuta aid, and that under Nripatunga, or perhaps in his father's time,
they succeeded in establishing themselves as a dominant dynasty.
3 The strategic impoitance of the Bana territory can be abundantly
illustrated from history, e.g., the defeat of the Nawiib Dost Ali Khan at Damal.
cheruTU iu 1740, the defeat of Anwar-nd-din in 1754, and most of the campaigns
of Haidar Ali and Tipn against tho British.
* The Banas traced their descent from tie demon Mahabali, but their
connection with the Seven Pagodas (Mahabali-puram) is " dueto nothing but fancy,
because there is no evidence whatever to show that their territories extended bo
far." The Seven Pagodas, MiLmalla-puram, or Mahamalla-puram, were evidently
called after the Pallava Narasimha varman, one of whose titles was " Mahamalla "
the " Great Wrestler "—See G.E. Iii04, para. 20 and Eice, Mysore Quzitteer 1
300 sq.
9
50
SALEM.
CHAP. II.
II. The
P.VLLAVA8.
(4) Westren
Gangas.
III. FkI'DAL
PEnion.
Character of
the period.
of Ganga race bj name Sivamaia. Ho was the hereditary ruler of
what was known as the " Kougal Nad Eight Thousand." There
are records in Mysore which may be assigned to him, one of which
mentions him solely hy name, without any regal title of any kind,
but uses a technical expression which stamps him as holding a rank
and authority considerably greater than those of any mere local
Governor, and others which speak of him as the " Konguni King,"
a term applied to all his successors. His date has been tentatively
fixed as 755-765 A.D. He was succeeded by his son (or grand-
son) Sripurusha Muttarasa.^ His title at first was the same as
his father's, but there is evidence on his inscriptions that he
gradually felt his way to independence. He is known later by
the title " Maharaja " and finally he adopts the full titles of a
paramount king " Maharajadhiraja " and " Paramesvara." The
territory he ruled over coincided more or less with the south-
eastern portion of what is now Mysore State ; it was technical I}'
known as the " Gangavadi 96,000 " i.e., a province of 96,000
villages ; his capital was Talakad, a sand-buried city on the banks
of the Kaveri near KoUegal. His reign was a long one of at least
42 years, and his date may be tentatively fixed as 764-805 A.D.
The period extending from the middle of the eighth century to
the end of the tenth may be called the Feudal period. It opens
with the subversion of the Badiimi Chalukyas by the Eashtrakfitas,
and closes with the subversion of the Eashtrakiitas by the Chaluk-
yas of Kalyani. The Gauga-Pallavas struggle for existence for a
century and a half, and finally fall before the Cholas, Chola
expansion is checked for a time by the Eashtrakiitas and their
feudatories, but the fall of the Eashtraktitas is followed by the
conquests of Eajaraja the Great, and by the end of the tenth century
the political forces of South India arc once more concentrated in
the hands of two hostile Emperors.
The Feudal period may be conveniently divided into three
phases, each phase dependent on the tone of Eashtrakuta rule : —
(1) A phase of war and consolidation coincident with the
rule of Govinda III, 783-814.
(2) A peace phase, answering to the long reign of Amogha-
varsha I, 815-878 A.D.
J Two Vattelutta inscriptions (G.E. Nos. 211 and 212 of 1910) have
recently been discovered at Odda-patti, near IJommidi llailway Station, dated
in the 27th and 7th year respectively of Sripurusha. As Odda-patti is situated
almost in the extreme south-east corner of the Baramahal, it would follow that
Sripurusha's sway extended over the greater part, if not the whole, of the
northern taluks.
HISTOKY, 51
(3) A phase of anarchy answering to the period of Eashtra- CHAP. II
kuta decline (878-973 AD.), with a short period of revival under ill. Feudal
Krishna III (910-968). ''^'2!^'
By the beginning- of the ninth century the liashtrakuta Govinda f^ovimh III.
Ill was master of the Deccan. By cstahlishing his suzerainty
over the Western G-angas of Talakad, Govinda III indirectly
influenced the history of Salem District for the next two
centuries. Sripurusha Muttarasa was not permitted to enjoy his
paramount title for long. It is known from Itashtrakiita records
that king Dhruva imprisoned a Ganga prince, and that Govinda
III "released hira from a long captivity and sent him back to his
own country." This prince abused his captor's generosity, and
Govinda III was " compelled to reconquer the Ganga, who through
excess of pride stood in opposition to him, and to put him in
fetters again." This would be about 810 A. D.
The name of this adventurous prince is not given. It appears
that Muttarasa had two sons, the elder Sivamara II and the
younger Eana-vikrama. It is claimed, in the spurious Manne
Grant, that one Sivamara won a name for himself by victories over
the armies of the Eashtraktitas, Chalukyas and others, and that ho
" defeated the countless cavalry of Dliruva which had overrun
the whole earth. " It is possible that Sivamara II was entrusted
with the command of his father's armies, and during the campaign
was defeated and captured by Dhruva, that, on his father's death,
he was liberated by Govinda III, " to take up the leadership of
the Gangas," and was crowned by him as his vassal, (about A.D.
805). It is possible that Sivamara II, on regaining his throne,
rebelled, and that his second captivity let in his younger brother
to the Western Ganga succession. If the imprisoned Ganga prince
was not Sivamara II, he must have been Sripurusha Muttarasa
himself, and his assumption of imperial titles would bo the im-
mediate cause of his downfall. It is certain that Muttarasa's son,
Eana-vikrama, began to reign about 810, and that he was a loyal
vassal to the Eashtraktita kings. It is also certain that about this
time the Western Ganga dominions were divided, and that the
eastern portion became a separate State under Sivamara II and
his desceudants, with their capital at Kolar.^
Govinda III was (c. 8 15- A.D.) succeeded by his son, Amogha- AmoghaTai-
varsha I, whose reign extended to the phenomenal length of ^^'^
62 years. He was religiously minded, a devout supporter of the
» 1 he Kolar Gaiigas were :— (1) Sivamiira II, (2) Pritliivlpati I, (3)
Marasimha, (4) Prithivipati II Hastimalla.
D-l
52
SALEM.
CHAP. II.
III. Feudal
Rashtrakuta
Decline.
Tiru-Paiam-
biyain.
Jain faith and a great patron of literature. He enjoyed to the
full the fruits of the great wars of Govinda III, kept at bay the
Eastern Chalukyas, and resigned the sovereignty in extreme old
age to his son, the Yuvaraja Krishna II.
The march land enjoyed comparative peace during this reign ;
it is a period of political marriages, suggestive of the palmy days of
mediaeval chivalry. An alliance was made between the Ganga-Palla
vas and the Eashtrakutas, and the Ganga-Pallava king, Nandi-
vikrama-varman, whose reign lasted at least 62 years, took to wife
the daughter of Amoghavarsha.i The Bana king, Vikramaditya
I, acquiesced in the overlordship of the Ganga-Pallavas. The
relations between the two branches of the Western Gaugas appear
amicable. The Kolar Ganga Sivamara II was succeeded by his
son Prithivlpati I, who seems, like Amoghavarsha and Naudi-
vikrama-varman,.to have enjoyed a very long reign. His daughter
married the Bana Vikramaditya I, and he was in close alliance
with the Ganga-Pallavas. The Talakad-Gangas appear to have
enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity under liana-vikrama (son
of Sripurusha-Muttarasa) and his son Eajamalla (c. 840—871).
The latter cemented an alliance with the Nolambas by giving his
daughter Jayabbe to the Nolamba king Nolambadhiraja,^ son of
Pallavadhiraja.
The death of Amoghavarsha in 877 A.D. marks the beginning
of Eashtrakuta decline, and the weakness of his successors was the
signal for unrest in the South,
The Ganga-Pallava Nandi-vikrama-varman was succeeded by
his son Nripatunga, who appears to have been the most success-
ful monarch of his line. It is significant that, during his reign,
the Ganga-Pallavas abandoned the Ganga emblems of elephant
and swan, and reverted to the bull crest of the ancient Pallavas. Ho
directed his energies towards extending his dominions to the south
in the direction of Trichinopoly and Tanjore.
The advance of the Ganga-Pallavas was, however, checked by
a counter-movement of the part of the Pandyans under Varaguna-
varman, who ascended the Paudyan throne in 862-3 A.D,^ The
struggle culminated in a pitched battle, fought at Tiru-Parambiyam
near Kumbakonam, in which Varaguna was confronted by the
united forces of the Ganga-Pallavas, under Aparajita, and the
Kolar-Gangas, under Prithivlpatlii I ; Prithivlpathi I was slain,
but Varaguna was routed and the Ganga-Pallavas were saved
for a while.
^ Ep. Jnd. YI, p. 60, cf . Mysore Gazetteer, Vol. I, p. 307.
» (}.E, 1907, p. 67,
flISTORY. 53
The tattle of Tiru-Parambiyam was pregnant with results. CHAP. II.
1"'hc riaiu of Varagima paved the way for the Chola Empire. In pKRron/
about 880 A.D., a prince named Aditja I, asoondod the Chola
throne. According to the ICongu-desa-rdjakkal, ho conquered ^.^*^*„giy,,
Kongu ill 894 A.D- The statement is consistent with certain Aditya].
inscriptions ^ copied at Salem and TiruchengSdu, But his greatest
achievement was the invasion of Tondai-mandalam, the defeat of
Aparajita and the complete subversion of the Ganga-Pallavas.
In 906-7 Aditya I was succeeded by his son Parantaka I, a Paiantaka i.
clever statesman and an able soldier. His reign extended to 948
A.D. His inscriptions have been found from Cape Comorin to
Kalahasti in Chittoor. His capture of Madura led him to adopt
the title " Madirai-Konda," ^ and his records at Salem and
Tiruchengodu, the latest of which is dated in his 37th year, prove
thai under him the southern portion of Salem District was a settled
and orderly province of the Ch51a dominions.
Meanwhile the Baramahal became the field for Nolamba Nolamba
aggrandisement. Eaja-malla, it will be remembered, had given his Aggression,
daughter Jayabbe in marriage to the Nolamba king, Nolambadhi-
raja. Their son Mahendra, a nephew through his mother of
Butuga I, succeeded to the Nolamba throne in or before 878-9
A.D. He seems to have been of a turbulent disposition. He
waged war on the Bauas, and claims to have destroyed them. He
certainly ousted them from the Baramahal, for an inscription of
his has been found at Dharmapuri, dated 892-3 A.D. and Nolamba
rule continued at Dharmapuri till 930-1 A.D., the date of an
inscription of Mahendra's great-grandson Irula.^
^ The Chola kings called themselves alternately Eajakesari-varman and Para-
kesari-varnian. The latter title was adopted by Parantaka I, and therefore the
former was applicable to Aditya 1. The early Cholas of this dynasty give no
other name. The records of the later members of the family usnally give a
distinctive name. Inscriptions of Eajakesari-varman are found at Salem (e.g.,
«.W. Nos. 47 and 49 of 1888) and at Tiruchengodu (e.g., Nos, 625, 627 and 629 of
1905, dated respectively in the 16th, 14lb and 13th regnal years). These are all
gifts of gold for feeding Brahmans. It is not unlikely that the Tiruchengcdu
inscriptions are of Aditya I.
2 G.E. Nos. 632,633, 640 of 1905 give the epithet " Madirai Konda, " and
are dated respectively in his 37th, 20th and 27th year. They record gifts of
gold for temple lamps. There are several other inscriptions of Parakosari-varman
at Tiruchengodu which may or may not be bis. The inscription of " Ko-ParakC-
Bari-varman" in the Snkavanesvara temple of Salem, dated in the 5th and 6th
regnal years, probably belong to him (See G.E. 1888).
3 G.E., No. 198 of 1910. Mahendra was succeeded by his son, Ayyappa, two
of whose inscriptions occur at Dharmapuri, viz , G.E. Nos. 304 and 305 of 1901,
which have been edited by Mr. Krishna Sastri in Ep. Ind., Vol X, pp. 44 sq.
Ayyappa was succeeded in turn by his son Anniga, and Anniga by his son Irula.
The last of the line was Dillparaea. See G.E. Eeport for 1910-11, p. 65.
54
SALEM.
CHAV. IT.
III. Fkudal
PF,R1O0.
Fall of the
BHiiias.
Uevolntion
in Talakad.
The overthrow of the Gaiig^a-Pallavas by Aditya I deprived
the Banas of their hereditary allies, and the attacks of Mahoudra
robbed them of half their territory. Vilcramaditya I, the loyal
vassal of the Ganga-PallavaNandi-vikramavarman. was succeeded
by his son, Vijayaditya II, whose inscriptions, dated in 897 and
904 A.D. acknowledge no suzerain. His successor, Vikramaditya
II, throw in his lot with the Eashtrakutas aud allied himself with
Krishna II. The Kolax-Gaugas were wiser. Prithivipati I, the
hero of Tiru-Parambiyam, was succeeded by his son Marasimha,
of whom little is known. His son, however, Prithivipati II, other-
wise called Hastimalla, boldly threw in his lot with Parilntaka I.
Some time prior to 914 A.D. Parautaka attacked and wiped out
the Bana kingdom, and set up the Kolar-Ganga Hastimalla as
lord over it.^ The choice was a wise one, for Hastimalla's father's
sister had married the Bana Vikramaditya I. Hastimalla adopted
the Bana black-buck banner and bull crest, and ruled as a faithful
Chola vassal so long as the Cholas remained paramount." Parau-
taka, in his endorsements on the two Udayendiram Plates of
Nandi-varman Pallava-malla, confirmed those ancient Pallava
grants, and indicated thereby his ambition that the Cholas should
rebuild the Empire which the Pal lavas had lost.
There is reason to believe that the policy of Mahundra was
inspired by a revolutionary movement among the AVestorn Gangas
in Talakad. Eajamalla was succeeded in about 870 A.D., by his
son Butuga I. Butuga I was followed in about 908 A.D. by his
son Ereyappa, a prince who is nowhere shown in the inscriptions
as Yuvaraja. Perhaps an explanation is found in the fact that in
891-2 a Ganga prince, Eacheya Gauga by name, was slain in
battle by the Nolambas. All the available evidence goes to show
that Ereyappa was a close ally of the Nolambas,^ and hostile to
the Rashtrakutas, and it is possible that Eacheya Ganga was an
elder son of Butuga I, and that Ereyappa, after the Nolambas had
slain his elder brother, took advantage of the temporary weak-
ness of the Eashtraktitas to form an alliance with the Nolambas
and throw off his allegiance to the paramount power.*
' See Udayendiram Plates of Naadi-varmuu Pallava-malla aud Hasti-
raalla, Ep. Ind. Ill, p. 142 sq., and S.I.I., Vol. 11- pp. 3G1 and 387.
* See also the Sholinghur inscription, Ep. Ind. IV, No. 32, p. 221, whore
Uaetimalla is called also Vlra-Ch6la.
* It is interesting to note that Maheudra himself, his son Ayjapa and his
grandson Anniga, all married Ganga princessop.
* Butuga I, 870-908
Racheja Ganga slain
891-2 ?
I
Butuga II, 940-963.
Ereyappa, 908-n38
I
Eacha-malla — slain 938-9 by Butuga 11.
11I8T0KY.
55
Tho above explanation is siif^pested by what followed on CHAP. II
Eroyappa's death, in about 938 A.D. PJreyappa was succeeded III. Fecdal
by his sou Racha-malla shortly after Krishna III succeeded to the '_ *
throne. Krishna III at once formed an alliance with one Butnga, Krishna HI
who married his elder sister Eevakka. Within a year of Ereyap-
pa's death, this Butuga had, with Krishna's help, slain his son
liac^ha-malla, and reig-ned in his stead. In the language of the
inscriptions, liiloha-malla was a poisonous tree which was up-
rooted, and Butuga II was a pure tree which Krishna III had
planted in his place. ^ It is a probable conjecture that this
Butuga II was a son of the Eacheya Gauga slain by the Nolam-
bas in 891-2 A.D., and that the revolution effected by Krishna III
was merely the restoration to the Ganga throne of the rightful
line which Ereyappa had supplanted.
The installation of Butuga II was a skilful stroke of diplomacy Takkolaic
on the part of Krishna III. Partly as dowry from his wife and
partly iu return for the slaying of Eacha-malla, the new Ganga
king was entrusted with a large extent of territory.^ Krishna's
confidence in Butuga was not misplaced. With his western flank
protected, Krishna III was free to advance southward, and curb
the rising ambitious of the Cholas. The Chola dominions were
invaded, and, within a year (949-950 A.D.), a pitched battle was
fought at Takk51am (near Arkonam), the Chola forces were routed,
and, with Butuga's assistance, the Ch51a prince Eajaditya was
slain. ^ Hastimalla the Kolar-Ganga made a virtue of necessity,
and became the vassal of the victor.
Krishna III ruled for about 20 years after his great victory at iiashtrakuta
Takkolam. Butuga II died about 95-3 A.D. Of his grandson. Collapse.
Eaoha Ganga, who appears to have succeeded him, little is known.
About 963 A.D. Marasimha acceded to the Western Ganga
throne, and proved himself the mainstay of the Rashtrakuta
power. One of his first exploits was to crush the turbulent
Nolambas ; for this service he was rewarded by his suzerain with
the Nolambavadi province of 32,000 villages, and he adopted the
title Nolamba-kulantaka, " Death to the Nolamba race." He also
acquired the " Santalige 1,000. '' These acquisitions, together with
1 El). Ind. VI, p. 70.
2 Revakka's dowry consisted of tho Purigero 38, the Belvola 300, the
Kisukad 70 and the Baginad 70. For killing Eacha-malla l^utuga II was
awarded the Gangavadi 96,000, in other words he took over in toto tlie Ganga
dominions,
3 For this service Butuga II was rewarded with the Banavaae 12,000, See
Sp. Ind. Vol. VI, p. 57.
* BanavaSe, granted by Krisbna III to Butuga II, had to be reconquered from
tho viceroys to whom Butuga had cutrnsted it.
56
SALEM.
CHAP. 11.
III. Feudal
IV. Chola
PERIOD.
Ghola
Ascendency.
Rajaraja I.
The Chola.
Chalukjan
Duel.
his hereditary dominions, made him one of the most powerful
monarchs of South India,^ and he was able to assist Krishna III
substantially in his campaign against Grujarat. But the days of the
Rashtrakuta Empire were numbered. "Within a few years of
Krishna Ill's death, the Eashtrakuta Empire was siibvertod, in
spite of the loyal assistance of Marasimha, by Taila II, the founder
of the Later or Kalyani Chalukyas. The Western Grangas did not
long survive. In 974 Marasimha abdicated in favour of his son
Panchala-deva and *' died in the practice of religion at the feet of
a Jain teacher named Ajitasena at Bankapur, starving himself
to death by a thi'ee days' fast." Panchala-deva attempted to re-
cover independence, but was shortly afterwards defeated and slain
by Taila II. A son of Panchala-deva named Racha-malla
succeeded, and an inscription of his shows that he was reigning
in 978 A.D. He aimed at independence, and tlie events that led to
his dowafall are not known. He was the last of his lino. After
his death the Granga dominions seem to have been absorbed
in the Chalukya Empire, as it was from the Chalukyas that the
Ch51as took Gangavadi.
It took nearly fifty years for the Cholas to rooover from the blow
dealt them at Takkolam in 949-950 A.D. In 985, after thirty-
five years of prostration and dynastic dissensions, Rajaraja I,
the Great,' acceded to the Chola throne. In A.D. 997 the
Ohalukj'a Taila died. This event afforded Rajaraja his opportu-
nity, and in the following year he launched on one of the most
remarkable campaigns known to history. He overran Gangavadi,
Nolambavadi, (Bellary),^ Coorg, and Vengi, the capital of the
Eastern Chalukyas. By his conquest of Vengi he put an end to
a thirty years' period of anarchy, set up a king of the old Eastern
Chalukya line, and shortly afterwards gave his daughter in marri-
age to the Vengi Prince Vimaladitya, who afterwards became
king. In 1002-3 A.D., he had subdued Ceylon, Quilon and
Kalinga. In 1004 his army invaded the Deccan a second time,
and his son Rajendra, the (^rown Prince, captured the Western
Ganga capital of Talakad. His last recorded exploit was in 1013-4
A.D,, and this is probably the year of his death.
The history of the eleventh century is mainly a history of the
duel between the Cholas and Western Chalukyas, the details of
which do not concern Salem District Though Gangavadi
1 Aa inscription at Liikshmeswar, in Dharwar District, gives liim the
paramount title Paramesvara.
2 Mummudi Chola D6va, King of Three Crowns, i.e., Three Kingdoms.
Cf. /nd. ^n<., XXII. p. 65.
' He could not keep it. It was feudatory to Vikramaditya V. 1009-11. A.D.
fiisTORY. ;67
changed hands several times, Chdla sovoreigaty in the District CHAP. II.
probably remained undisturbed. At the end of the century IV. Chola
honours were even between the two contending powers. '
For administrative purposes the Chola dominions ' were divided ChAla
into six provinces callol mmdilams^ each of which comprised ^rationVn
what was, prior to the conquest, an independent kingdom. Each the Jneventh
nia'idalam app3ar3 to have been named after an Emperor who e"^'"^J'
conquered it, or Viceroy whose rule over the province was
specially distinguished'*; but the foreign names did not always
displace the familiar traditional ' names. The six mandalamii were ;
(1) Tondai-maudalam otherwise called Jayamgonda-Chola-
mandalam, after Rajiidhiraja I. It comprised roughly
the Pallava country, i.e., the East Coast plains from
the Southern Pennaiyar to its northern namesake ;
(2) Chola-mandalam, the Chola country proper (Tanjore
and Triehinopoly) ;
(3) Rajaraja-mandalam, the Pandya and part of the Kerala
country (Madura, Tinnevelly, and Travanoore) ;
(4) The Kongu country, otherwise called Adhirajaraja-
mandalam or Chdla-Kerala-mandalam ;
(5) Gangai-konda-Ch5la-mandalam, including the Western
portion of the Granga country ;
(6) Nigarili-Chola-mandalam, embracing the Eastern part of
the Granga country, together with the Bana kingdom.
The Northern part of Salem fell within Nigarili-Chola-
mandalam, as is proved by inscriptions at Mallapuram* (near
Palakodu), Tlrta-malai^ and Tiruppatttir.^ The Southern part of
Salem District was included in Kongu. Kongu comprised the
whole of Coimbatore District, as well as the Salem Talaghat, and
was divided into three portions, North, "West and South Kongu.
The southern limit of Northern Kongu was probably the Kaveri,
the present District of Coimbatore falling within West and South
Kongu. In the time of Eajendra I and Vira-Eajendra I, Kongu
was known oiRcially as Adhirajaraja-mandalam ^ ; under Kulot-
tunga III it was known as Ch51a-Kerala-mandalam, under
Yikrama Chola as Vira-Ch51a-mandalam, a term which was
* Exolasive of the Vengi country, which i-emained throughont a dependent
ally,
* See Mr, S. Krishnaswami Ayyangar's Aiicient India, p. 174. Of., however,
Mysore and Coorg from the Inscriptions, p. 8G, and Mysore Gazetteer, Vol. I,
p. 333. The terms used wei-e frequently changed.
* The Cholas also changed the name? of towns they conquered, e.g., Talakad
beoame Rajarajapuram, but the new names did not acquire permanence.
* G.E. No. 18 of 1900. » G.E. No. G70 of 1905.
6 G.E, No. 2i3 of 1U09, ' SIX, Vol. Ill, page 31.
58
8A.LBM.
CHAP. II.
17. Cndh\
PEBion.
V. H0Y8ALA
PERIOD.
The Twelfth
Century.
Couqnest of
Gan.!<ava'Ji
by the
HoyaalaB.
continued under tlie Pandyan^ regime, and even into the time of
Aohjnta Raya and Sadasiva.^
•Some mancfalams were in turn divided into kottams, and
the koltams into ndds, but in Salem District it would seem the
word kottam was rarely used, and the general term ndd was
applied to both the larger and the smaller divisions. 'I^hus in an
inscription at Kambaya-nallur,^ Puramalai-Nad is spoken of as a
sub-division of Tagadai-Nad ; and in the Mallapuram iusoription*
Tagadai-Nad is a sub-division of Gang a- Nad, which in turn is a
sub-division of Nigarili-Chola-mandalara. The Adaiyur-Nad ia
mentioned in an it)8cription of 'rirta-malai ^ and an Eyyil-Nad in
one of Tiruppattur.^
In the Talaghat the inscriptions speak of the Kilkarai
Pundurai-Nad / the Vada-Puvaniya-Nad,* the Elukarai-Nad,9
and the Elur-Nad.^"
The twelfth century witnessed the decline of the Chola Empire
and the final ruin of that of Kalyani. In about 11 10 A.D., an
event had taken place which was fraught with peril to both Cholas
and Chalukyas.
The Hoysala Ballalas were originally feudatories of the
Western Ohalukyas, and their first capital was Beliir, in Hassan
District of Mysore.
In 1104 A.D. Bitti-Deva, better known as Vishnu- vardhaiia,
succeeded to the chieftaincy." Himself an able soldier and states-
man, he was ably supported by a general of Ganga stock called
Ganga Eaja. There is a significance in the prominence of Ganga
Eaja's claim to Ganga descent and his distinction as one of the
three chief supporters of the Jain religion.^^ It shows that the
movement he led was a patriotic and religious revolt. }lc estab-
lished his capital at Halebid (Dorasamudra), and reduced Nolam-
bavadi to obedience. But a richer prey awaited him.
At the opening of the twelfth century, Gangavadi was Ch51a
territory, in charge of the Adigaiman of Dharmapuri, The Chola
^ See Tiruohengodu inscription (»f Juta>variaan Snndara.Pandya — G.E. No,
682 of 1905,
* The term is found in unpublished translations of G.E. No». 19, 21and 22
of 1900 kindly supplied me by Mr. V. Venkayya.
» G.E. No. » of 1900. * G.E. No. 18 of 1900.
5 G.E. No. Ge2of 1905. Cf. G.E. No. 204- of 1909, and Eeport for 1010,
p. 88. Cf. also J.K.A.S., 1911,p. 811.
» G.E. No. 248 of 1909. ' G.E. No. G46 of 1905 (Tiruchengoda).
8 G.E. Nos. 19, 22, and 27 of 1900 (Tara-mangalam).
9 G.E. No. 21 of 1900 (Tara-mangalam). >" G.E. No 13 of 1900 (Namakkal).
" Rice, page 337, Dr. Fleet gives as his earliest date 1117, his latest 1137 A.D,
^* Chamundaraya, minister of Marasimha the Talakad Ganga, and Hulla, the
minister of the Hoysala Narasimha I.
fliSTORV. 59
riilo was not popular. Tho Cholas woro foroijj^nors, and out of CHAlMI.
sympathy with tho pooplo. Thoy had ruthlossly destroyed the V. Hoysala
Jain temples and trampled iipon tho local religion. Tho fruit was '
ripo for piekin«^. Vishnu-vardhana invaded Gangavadi, routed
tho Chola Governor at Talakad, and captured the ancient Ganga
capital.
Ostorsibly tho Iloysala conquest of Gangavadi was under-
taken on behalf of Vishnu-vardhana's Chalukya suzerain.
But Vishnu-vardhana proved himself a formidable vassal, and tho
precedent ho sot was dangerous. Ho claims to have captured
Kolilr, sacked Koyatur ^ and overrun Kongu. There is no reason
to discredit those claims, though in other respects the language of
his inscriptions indulges in hyperbole. There is, however, no
evidence that he effected a foothold in tho Baramahal or Talaghat.
He does not claim to have descended the Salem or North Arcot
Ghats, and probably his operations wore confined to Western
Kongu. The Ch5la authority in Northern Kongu and the Baxa-
mahal apparently remained undisturbed for another century.
The immediate successors ^ of Kul5ttunga I are better War of
known as patrons of literature than as warriors. Vikrama-Chola, £^n<3jan
^ . . . . ' Succession.
Kulottunga s son, whoso namo appears m an inscription at
Kambaya-nallur, appears to have maintained tho prestige of Chola
rule. In the reign of Eajadhiraja II (1171-86), however, the
Cholas became involved in a war between rival claimants to the
ancient Pandyan throne which lasted two generations, and at one
time threatened the very existence of the Ch51a power.^ Eajendra
Chola I had set up a member of his own house as ruler of the
Pandyas, and this line became known as " Chola-Pandyas." By
the middle of the twelfth century these Chola-Pandyas had died
out, and the throne was claimed by rivals of the old Pandya stock.
Tho Chola dominions were invaded by the Singhalese, and though
in the end Kulottunga III was able to expel the invaders, and set
his nominee, Vikrama- Pandya, on the Pandyan throne, the
re-establishment of the Pandyan kingdom was fatal to tho Chola
power.
^ Koyatur has been identified with Coimbatore, but more probablj it should
be identified with a place known as Ijaddigam in the PunganOr Zamindari, which
is called Koyatui in ancient inscriptions.
2 Vikrama Chola (1118-1135), Kulottunga II (1123-li4<i), Rajaraja 11 (1146-
1163), Rajadhiraja II (11G3-1181), Kulottunga III (1178-1217), Eajaraja III
(1216-1248), Rajendra III (1246-12GS). The initial dates of each ruler are those
astronomically verified by Prof. Kielhorn ; the terminal dates are based on the
last regnal years as yet available from epigrapliic records. See JEp. Ind. IX,
p. 209 seq.
8 See G.B. 1899. paras. 23, sq.
60
saLem.
CHAP. 11.
V. HOTSALA
PERIOD.
Adigaimans
of Dbarma-
pnri.
That the decline was appreciated by the Chola fendatorios is
evident from coutemporary history of the Adigaimans of Tagadtjr,
the modern Dharmapuri. The princes of Tagadur vverc known
for many generations by the title of Adiyama or Adigaiman.*
Who the early Adigaimans were is not known. In the Tamil
Periya-Puranam an Adigan is said to have fought against the
Ch5la King— Pugal Ch5la^ In the Pandya grant of Jatilavarman
Nedunjadaiyan, one Adiyan fonght against the Pilndiyan king at
Ayiraveli, Ayirur and Pugal iyur, and both Pal lavas and Koralas
are said to have been his allies. A Chera king, known from
Tamil literature, claimed to have conquered his capital Tagadfir.
When Vishnu-vardhana drove the Cholas from Talakad,^ it
would appear that the Adigaimau of Tagadtir was Governor both of
Gangavadi and of Nigarili-Chola-mandalam. In the twentieth year
of Kulottunga III (c. 1 198 A.D.) the " Lord of Takata " (Tagadur)
was one Vidukadalf^iya-Perumal, son of Eajaraja-Adhika (Adi-
gaiman), alias Vagan. Vidukadalagiya-Perumal claims to have
been descended from one Elini, a scion of the family of the kings
of Chera.* An inscription of his at Kambaya-nallur,* dated 1 199-
1200 A.D., describes him as ruling over the three rivers — Piili,
Pennai and Ponni (Palar, Pennaiyar and Kaveri). But the most
significant records oonaeoted with him are two political compacts
discovered at Chengam. One of these,^ dated in the 20th year of
Kulottunga III, is an agreement between two chiefs ^ in which one
Sambuvarayan undertakes that (1) as long as he and the other
party to the compact lives, they shall be faithful to each other ; (2)
in case alliance or hostility has to be declared by either with
Piranda-Perumal, son of Eajaraja Adigan, it shall be done with
the approval of the other ; (3) he (Sambuvarayan) will not join the
enemies of the other party, neither will ho enter into transactions
hostile to the interests of the other party. The second compact ^
appears to be a sequel to the first, and Yidukadalagiya-Penimal is a
party to it along with the two chiefs mentioned in the first. In it he
declares that (1) as long as the other two chiefs continue faithful to
him he will be true to them ; (2) their enemies shall be his
* In Ep. Ind., VI, p. 331, it is stated that Adigai =: Tiruvftdi near Cuddalore
and that Adigaiman = " Lord of Adigai."
' Ind. Ant, XXII, pp. 06 and 73. ' Supra p. 59.
* See Inscription of Tirumalai near Polur, edited in Ep. Ind., vi, p. 331 ; cf .
EJ.I., Vol. I, p. 106.
* See G.E. No. 8 of 1900 ; of. Ep. Ind., vi, p. 332.
« G.E. No. 11.5 of 1900 ; G.E. 1900, p. 13.
' Their names are Karikala-Sola-Adaiyftr-Nftdalvan and Sengeni-Ammaiyap
pan-Attimallan alias Vikrama-Sola-SambuTarayan.
* G.E. No. 107 of 1900.
HISTORY
61
enemies ; (3) his eueraies shall be their enemies ; (4) he will form
no alliance with oortaiu other chiefs. It is clear from these
reoords that the Lord of Takata was virtually au independent
prince, though owing /a nominal allegiance to Kulottunga III, and
they indicate au atmosphere of political lawlcssuess and treachery
oousisteut only with the growing rottenness of the Chola power.
Meanwhile disaster had overtaken the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
The historj' of the short-lived Kalachurya Dynasty (1155-83
A.D.), aud the persecution of the Liugayat sect, the brief revival
of the Chalukyas and the final partition of their territory between
the Yadavas of Dovagiri under Bhillama, ami the Boysalas of
Dorasamudra under Ballala II, a grandson of Vishnu- vardhana,
do not immediately concern Salem District. In 1191 Ballala II
assumed the titles of a paramount sovereign, and by 1196 A.D.
the Hoysala Empire was firmly established.
The history of the thirteenth century resolves itself into a duel
between Hoysalas and Pandyas. Kulottunga III died about 1215
A.D.. and was succeeded by his son Kajaraja III (1216-1248). In
1216 Maravarman Sundara-Pandj a I^ ascended the Pandyan
throne. In about 1220 the Hojsala Ballala II gave place
to his sou Narasimha 11.^ Already by 1213 A.D., the Hoysalas
had been driven from their northern territories by the warlike
Yadava Singhana. Taking the line of least resistance, Narasimha
II extended his dominions southwards, and adopted the policy of
propping up the tottering Chola power. It is known that Vira-
S5mesvara, son of the reigning Hoysala Narasimha II, was in
Coimbatore by 1224, and that a year later Narasimha II recognised
Eajaraja III as overlord. By 1224^ the Hoysalas had established
a capital at Kanuantir, within five miles of Srirangam. This was a
strategic move. Maravarman Sundara-Pandya I claims to have
burnt Tanjore and Uraiyur aud " presented the Chola country/'
Narasimha II claims that "like a thunderbolt he cleft open the
rock that was the Pandya King.^ " This suggests that the
Hoysalas interfered in a civil war among the Chola s, and
reinstated Pajaraja III after he had been temporarily ousted by a
rival claimant who owed his elevation to the Pandyas.^
CHAP. II.
V. Hoysala
I'ERIOU.
Collapse of
the KalyAni
Chalukjas.
Ballala II.
Hoysala'
Pandyaa
Duel.
1 See G.E. 1906, para. 27.
» An inscription of Narasimha II has boon found at Adaman-kottai, dated
1234 A.D. (G.E. No. 201 of 1910).
' Cx.E. Report for 1910-1911, p. 81. Of. Ep. Ind., vii, p, 162.
* This is in an inscription at Harihar in Mysore dated 1224.
5 G.E., 1900, paragraphs 29 and 30. It is inferred that one Tikka, a Teluga
Chola, from the North, and the Ganapati of Orissa took part in the war. It is
also conjectured that Rajgndra Chola III may have been a rival claimant, but
the history of the period is obscure.
62
SALEM.
CHAP. II.
V. HoYsAr.A
Vlra-Ililina-
niihha.
Bat Eajaraja III was to suffer another unpleasant experience.
A Chola feudatory, Peruujinga by name, who claimed Pallava
descent, and adopted the title " Lord of all the earth," rose
suddenly against his overlord, and, with the help of the Singhalese,
seized his person. Narasimha, who was in his capital Dorasamudra
at the time, marched to the rescue, defeated and captured the
rebel, reinstated the imprisoned Chola and adopted the title
" Establisher of the Ch5la Kingdom." ^ These events took place
prior to the year 1231-2 A.D.
In 1233-4 A.D., Narasimha II died, and was succeeded by
Vira-Somesvara. This monarch maintained his ground, and lived
on peaceful terms with the reigning Pandya, Maravarman Sundara-
Pandya II (1238-51), acknowledging him as overlord.^ On the
death of Maravarman came a change. His successor Jatavarman-
Sundara-Pandya I (1251-12G1), who claims to have " conquered
all countries," drove Vira-S5mosvara out of the Chola territory.^
It is doubtful, however, whether he made himself master of the
Salem Talaghat.*
Vira- Somes vara appears to have died about 1254 A.D., and
shortly after, the Hoysala Empire was divided between his two
sons ;^ Narasimha III received as his portion the greater part of
what is now Mysore, Vira-Ramanatha succeeded to the remainder,
and fixed his capital apparently at Kundani to protect the " Army
Eoad " from the Baramahal to Kolar.^ Eecords of Narasin\ha
have been found dated 1293 A.D., and the latest record of Vira-
Ramanatha is dated in his forty-first year (1295 A.D.).^ The
* This title was also adopfcecl by Vlra-Ssmesvara. An inscription of Raja-
raja III (G.E. No. 208 of 1910) has been found afc Adaman-kottai dated 1241
A.D., six 3'eais later thau that of Narasimha II above referrec to (G.E. No. 1
of 1010) i and at the same place is an inscription of SouiCsvara dated 12J7 A.D.
- G.E., 1900, paragraph 13 of G.E., 1907, p. G9, where Somosvara is spoken
of as uncle (or father in-law) of Maravarman II. Cf. also G.E. Nos. 138 and ir>C)
of 1894.
* In 12G1-5 it is certain that Kannanur was in Pandyan possession. See
G.E . 1905, p. 5.5.
* See G.E., 190G, paragraph 27, where »»onie of the inscriptions of Jata-
varman-Sundara-Pandya discovered at Tiriiohengodu are tentatively assigned
to the first king of that name. If this assumption is correct, it f(dlow8 that
Konga was reconquered by the Hoysalas nnder Vira-Ramanatha, and that a
second Pandyan conquest took place under Jatavarman-Sundara- Pandya II. The
point is not yet clear from the records, but in view of Ep. Ind., vi, p. 310 eeq.,
the Tiruchengodu inscript'ons sh )uid more probably be attributed to Jatavarman
Sundara- Pandya II, along with those of Tara-mangalam.
* G.E. Report for 1910 " Vira- Ra;naoatha succeeded to the throne in Saka
1177 ( = A.D. 1255) apparently during tiio lifetime of his father."
" Infra, s. v. Kundani ani cf. Ep. Cam., Vol. x, Kolar. p. XXXII.
' Ep. Gam., Vol. X, Kolar, p. XXXI 1, (Bowringpet) No. 25 (a).
•I
HISTORY. 63
territorios of tho latter were extensive, for his records have been chap. Ii
foTind fiom Trichhiopoly District ( 1262 A.D.)' to Bellary (1275-7);-^ V. Hoy8ai,a
and the whole of Salem District seems to have come under his pkricd.
rule, as his inscriptions are found in Tara-mangalam (12(58 and
1274 A.D.), Eaya-kota^ and Adaman-kottai ^ (1260 A.D.), while
those of his son and successor Vira-Visvanatha, who reigned for
about four ' or five years only, have been found at Kambaya-
nalliir,* Kundani and 1'iruppattur (1288).^ The history of this
period is obscure. There is reason to believe that, towards the
close of Eamanatha's reign, an effort was made to extend his
authority over the portion of the Hoysala territories that did not
belong to him. But the attempt was not successful, for by the end
of the century the whole Hoysala Empire was re-united under
Ballala III, son of Eamanatha's rival brother Narasimha III.
Meanwhile, in tho south, the Pandyas had been steadily encroach-
ing on the Hoysala possessions. The fiction of Chola rule was for a
time preserved under Eajondra III (1246-67), and then it vanished.
In 1268 Maravarman Kulasekhara I succeeded to the Pandyan
throne, and he continued to reign till 1308. He has been identi-
fied with the " Kales Devar " of Muhammadan writers. In 1 275
Jatavarman-Sundara Pandya II was ruling, apparently as a
coregent,^ and he continued till at least 1290. There is every
probability that he was the " Sender Bandi" of Marco Polo, who
touched on the Coromandel Coast in 1292, and that he was the real
conqueror of the Salem Talaghat, who left his inscriptions at Tara-
mangalam and Tiruchengodu.^
1 G.E. No. 597 of 1902 (Aubil) and 542 of 1905 (Tiruvellarai).
» G.E. Nos. 33 and 34 of 1904, from Kogali in Bellary District.
» G.E. Nos. 20, 26 and 29 of 1900.
* G.E. Nc. 202 of 1910. * Nos. 9 and 10 of 1900.
« No. 250 of 1909. Cf. Ep. Cam x, p. XXXII, inscription of Visvanatha at
Kurubur in Chitamani Taluk (Ct 45).
' Marco Polo desoribes the province of Malabar as divided between five
kings, all brothers, who were constantly afc war with each other. His acconnt
is strongly corrobora.ted by Muhammadaa writers. See Yule's Marco Polo, II,
p. 331 sq. (ed. 1903).
8 See Ep. Ind., v, p. 310 sq. G.E. Nos. 23, 24, 25, 30 of 1900, 622,
G42 and 644 of 1905 and No. 5 of 1900. The boundary between Hoysala and
Pandya during the latter half of the Thirteenth Century fluctuated in a most
perplexing manner. The Pan-Jyan Kings of this perif^d are thus dated by
Professor Kielhorn in Ep. Ind., Vol. ix, pp. 226-229 :—
1. Jatavarman Kulaafikhara .. ... ... 1190-1216.
2. Maravarman Sundara-Pandja I ... 1216-1235.
3. Maravarman Sundara-Pandyii II ... 1238-9 to 1251.
4. Jatavarman Sandara-Pandya I ... ... 1251-1261.
5. Vira-Paudya 1252-3 to 1267.
6. Maravarman Kulasekhara I ... ... 12S8-1308,
7. Jatavarman Sundara-Pandya II ... 1275-6 to 128rt.
8. Maravarman Kulasekhara II 1314-1325.
64 SALEM.
CHAP. II. At the opening' of the fourteenth century South India was divided
V. HoYSAi-A among four states, all about equally powerful. To the north-
' west the Yadavas of Devagiri guarded the line of the Nermada, to
The Muham- the north- east the Kakatiyas of Warangal barred invasion from
clysm. ' * Bengal or the Central Provinces. In a second line of defence lay
the Hoysalas of Dorasamudra. South of them lay the Pandyas.
Till 1293 A.D., no Muhammadan ruler had ventured across
the Vindhya mountains. In that year began the series of raids
that carried the Muhammadan armies to Eamesvaram, and by
1310 A.D., every one of the four South Indian Empires was ruined
beyond retrieve. Every flicker of independence was mthlossly
stamped out by the armies of Mnlik Kaffir, Mubarak, and the
Tughlaks Giyas-ud-din and Muhammad. But the Moslem
conquest was not permanent.^ Under Muhammad Tughlak the
terrors of Islam began to wane. The Hindus at last learned the
folly of discord. Out of the ashes of the southern kingdoms rose
the Empire of Vijayanagar,'-^ and for nearly two centuries and a
half the Hindus wore able to present a united front against
Muhammadan aggression.
71. ViJA- The early years of the First or Sangama Dynasty of Vijaya-
First or' nagar were years of war with Muhammad Tughlak, and, after 1347
Sangama A.D., with the Babmaui Sultans of Gulbarga. In 1365-60,
ynas y. however, Bukka I turned his attention to the south, and sent his
son, Kampauna Udaiyar, or Kampa II, to overthrow the Muham-
madan Sultanate of Madura. Sometime prior to 1384, Ilarihara
II sent his sou Virupaksha on an expedition to the south, and this
prince claims victories over the kings of Tondai-mandalam, the
Ch51as, the Pandyas and Ceylon. One or other of these campaigns
must have brought Salem District under the sway of Vijayanagar.
The earliest inscriptions of this dynasty yet discovered in the
District are those of Immadi-Bukka,^ son of Ilarihara II, who
eventually succeeded his father as Bukka II. Thoy are dated
1386-7 A.D. Two inscriptions of Vijaya Bhupathi * and one of
Deva-Baya II ^ have been found at Ttrta-malai.
^ Ballala III, however, appears to hftvo maintained n shadow of sovereignty
first at Tonddiiur, or Toimur, near P'rench Rocks in Mysore District, and
afterwards, till 1842, at Tiruvannan)alai.
* The City of Vijayanagar was founded iii 133C.
3 G.E. No. 11 of 1900, (Kambaya-npllur), nnd G.K. No. 6G4 of 1905
(Tirta-majai).
* No8. 658 and 669 of 1905, dated respectively 1409 and 1411 A.D. In the
latter Vijaya Bhupatlii is called Udaiyar, As he was not reigning ai the time,
he must have been a provincial Governor under his father DSva-Raya I.
5 No. 666 of 1905 dated 1428-9. Deva-Baya is calle.i Udaiyar; as he was
reigaing at the time, the reason for the use of this title is not clear.
HISTORY. 65
Deva-Baya II died some time after 1450-1 A.D.^ The events CHAP. il.
of the uoxt half coutnry are not easy to unravel. The latest VI. VfjAvx-
known date of the First Dynasty is 1486-7 A.D. Between the '^:^^^
death of Deva-Kaya and this date at least four names occur. It Kevoiution
is not certain whether these names refer to two persons or four
or more.^ The one certain fact of this period is that the ruling
Kings were men of poor capacity, and that under them the
PJmpire deteriorated. But there was at least one capable ruler in
the State, of the Saluva family, which traced its descent from
Yadu, and claimed relationship with the royal family of Vijaya-
nagar. One of the family, ISaluva Mangu, had done yeoman
service for Kampa II in his expedition against the Sultan of
Madura. Mangu's great-grandson Narasimha rose to great power
during the latter half of the fifteenth century. His dominions
comprised the whole of North Aroot, Ohingleput and Nellore, with
parts of South Arcot, Cuddapah, Kistna and Mysore. Further, the
war against the Bahmani Sultan, Muhammad Shah II (1463-82),
who penetrated at this period to Malur in Mysore, and to Conjee-
veram, was conducted on behalf of the Emperor by this powerful
Saluva chief. Saluva Narasimha was well served during this
period by his General, Isvara " of the Tulu family." The reigning
Monarch became so hopelessly imbecile, that Narasimha decided
that nothing but a change of rulers could prevent the Empire
falling a prey to its hereditary foes, the Sultans of Gulbarga.
With the consent of the chief ministers and generals of the state
he accordingly seized the throne himself, and allowed the king to
escape. The date of this usurpation cannot, at present, be fixed.
It must have taken place between 1486-7 and 1495-6 A.D.
Saluva Narasimha had not enjoyed the royal power long before
he died. He left two young sons, and appointed as regent the
son of his old officer Isvara, by name Narasa Nayak. The eldest
son was murdered by an enemy of Narasa Nayak, to bring odium
on the regent.^ This act forced Narasa Nayak about 1501-2 A.D. to
assume the supreme authority. The Saluva's sou, Immadi Nara-
simha, was deposed from the throne and allowed to reign, as a
petty Haja, at Penukonda ; ^ the regent Narasa Nayak founded the
1 G.E., 1904, para. 22.
2 The names given by Mr. Sowell are, (1) Mallikarjuna, (2) Eajasokhara,
(3) Virupaksha, (4) Praudha Deva Eaya.
Of these, Mallikarjuna and Virupakeha arc the most prominent. The first
has dates ranging from 1449-50 to 1462-3 A.D. (vide G.E., 1906, para. 47)
Virupaksha's inscriptions range between 1469 and 1478. The name RajasSkhara
occurs in 1468-9 and .1486-7. In the present stare of epigraphy it is hardly
possible to solve the riddle.
3 G.E., 1906, para. 58. * See Ep. Ind., vii, p. 74,
B
66
SALEM.
CHAP. II,
YI. VlJAYA-
NAGAR.
The Third or
Tuluva
Dynasty.
Talikota.
Third or Tuluva Dynasty of Vijayanagar. He was suooeeded by
his eldest son Vira Narasimha, who, after a short reign gave place
to his younger brother, Krishna-Deva-Eaya, the greatest of all the
Vijayanagar Emperors. This double revolution did not seriously
disturb the civil administration of the Empire. An interesting
inscription at Buddi-Eeddi-patti ^ appears to refer to the infant
son of Saluva Narasimha, under the name of Tammaya Deva-
Maharaja, and speaks of Narasa Nayaka as his agent.
While these events were in progress in the Hindu State, the
Bahmini Empire was subverted, and its place was taken by the
five kingdoms of the Deccan, which played an important r61e in
the sixteenth century.^
Under the Third Dynasty the history of Salem was as unevent-
ful as under the Eirst. An inscription of Krishua-Dova-Efiya the
Grreat has been found at Indur, ^ west of Dharmapuri, and another
at Tirachengodu.* The latter records an assignment of market-
tolls for the upkeep of certain festivals. Two inscriptions of
Achyuta-Raya have been found at Tara-inangalam. Of those,*
one records a grant of the proceeds of certain taxes for the upkeep
of a niQiam, the other ^ a private grant of a village for the mainte-
nance of a temple. His successor Sadasiva was a mere puppet in
the hands of his minister Eama-raja. An inscription of his reign
has been found at Kari-mangalam ^ and another at Tara-
mangalam^.
In 1565 A.D., the glory of Vijayanagar was laid in the dust
by the combined armies of the Deccan Sultans,^ on the field of
Talikota. The capital was given over to pillage for five months
and ceased to exist. The catastrophe was sudden and unexpected.
It plunged South India into the most terrible anarchy known to
^ G.E., 165 of 1905, vide G.E., 1905, para. 44.
2 Imad Shahs of Birar 1484^-1572.
Adil Sliahs of Bijapur 1489-1686.
Ninam Shahs of Ahmadnagar 1490-1626.
Barld Shahs of Bldar 1492-1609.
Qutb Shahs of Golconda 1512-1688.
»G.E. No. 13 of 1900.
* G.E.No. 651of 1905.
6 G.E. No. 21 of 1900 (No. 3 of Mr. Sewell's Lists, Vol. I, p. 200), dated
1541-2 A.D.
« G.E. No. 28 of 190C, dated 1539-40 A.D.
^ G.E. No. 5 of 1900.
8 G.E. No. 27 of 1900 (No. 5 of Mr. Sewell's Lists, Vol. I, page 201).
Gift of a village by one of the Mudalis of Tflra-mangalara to a temple called
Bama Kudal.
9 Hnssain Nizam Shah of Ahniadnagar, Ali Adil Shah of Bijapnr, Ibrahim
Qutb Shah of Golconda and Kasim Barld Shah II of Bjdar,
HISTORY. 67
history, an anarchy only terminated by the storm of Seringa pa- CRAP. II.
tam in 1799 A.D. v^n. 1565-
The immediate effect of Talikdta was the razing of the Imperial '
City, and the flight of Tirumala, with the puppet king Sadasiva, After
to Penukonda. A rot faineant at such a time was grave danger, ^ ' ^'
and if any relics of imperial power were to be saved, the removal
of Sadasiva was a political necessity. Hence after 1569-70
A.D. Sadasiva disappears, and Tirumala becomes Emperor.
The truncated Empire about this time was divided into six
viceroyalties —
(1) Andhra. (3) Madura. (5) Gingee.
(2) Karnata. (4) Chandragiri. (6) Tanjore.
The Andhra or Telugu districts round Penukonda were ruled
directly by the Emperor. In 1575 A.D. Tirumala died. His
eldest (?) son, Ranga II, succeeded him at Penukonda ; another son,
Rama III, was entrusted with the Viceroyalty of Karnata with
head-quarters at Seringapatam, and a third son, Venkata I, ruled
in Madura. As a matter of form, the ruler at Penukonda was
regarded as Emperor, but his authority over the other two vice-
royalties varied according as his personality was strong or weak.
This quasi-partition of the Empire marks the lines of political
cleavage during the seventeenth century, which is in the main a
record of the struggle between Mysore and Madura, with a
shadowy Raya flitting from place to place in spasmodic efforts at
piecing together the shattered Empire of his ancestors.
The time was ripe for military adventurers. The members of Dissolution.
the imperial house quarrelled among themselves. Viceroys and
local chieftains carved out principalities on their own behalf.
Bagalur and Ankusagiri, Hosur and Denkani-kota, Salem and
Amara-kundi became the capitals of princelings, while the Jaga-
deva Rajas of Chennapatna ruled the Baramahal and a large
strip of the Mysore plateau stretching to the Western Ghats-
These lesser principalities, however, were soon eclipsed by the
rising states of Mysore and Madura.
The rule of Rama III at Seringapatam was weak, and the local ^^ ^^^^ '^^
chieftains rebelled. On Rama's death, his young son Tirumala li
was sent to Madura, to the care of his uncle Venkata I, and Seringa-
patam was left in charge of a vice-regent. In 1586 A.D. Ranga II of
Penukonda died, and the whole Empire passed to Venkata I. The
young nephew Tirumala II thereupon proceeded to Seringapatam,
and assumed an attitude of hostility to his imperial uncle. This
coolness led directly to the taking of Seringapatam by Raja Odejar
of Mysore, whose act was countenanced by Venkata I, and whose
actual possession was confirmed by the Eaya in 1612 A.D.
68
SALEM.
CHAP. II.
VII. 15G5 -
1761.
(2) Rise
lladnra.
of
Tiruraala
Nayaka.
PoligaiB of
t.he Marches.
Eaja Odeyar next began systematically to absorb the terri-
tories of the Poligars to the south and east, and encroached ex-
tensively on the possessions of Jagadeva Raya, which lay to the
north. His grandson Chania Eaja (1617-37 A.D.), by the con-
quest of Chennapatna after a series of Bijapur invasions,
completed the expulsion of Jagadeva Raya's house from what is
now Mysore territory.
The rise of the Madura Nayakas began in 1559 A.'D. with
Visvanatha's victory over his rebel father on behalf of the Vijaya-
nagar Emperor. Visvanatha's^ vioeroyalty lasted till 1563, and
under the guidance of his able minister Aryanatha, passed to his
descendants. Aryanatha died in 1600 A.D. The infant Raj
grew steadily in strength, and reached its zenith under the Great
Timmala Nayaka, who acceded in 1623 A.D.
Tirumala Nayaka had a difficult game to play, and ho played
it ably and unscrupulously. The empty fiction of imperial suze-
rainty was no longer consistent with a strong centralised govern-
ment. The Madiu-a frontier was already in hostile contact with
the growing kingdom of Mysore. Chama Raja was chafing to
revenge a reverse his arras had recently suffered. In the north
loomed the cloud of Mughal invasion. So long as the energies of
the Decoan Sultans wore absorbed in the Mughal war, the Hindu
kingdoms were safe from their inroads. Tmmediately the
pressure was relaxed, the fighting Siiltans must inevitably seek
compensation for their losses by the invasion and pillage of South
India. Tirumala adopted and perfected the policy of his prede-
cessors for the defence of his northern frontier.
The power of the Nayakas was establialied in a frankly feudal
basis. " There were 72 bastions to the fort of Madura, and each
of them was now formally placed in charge of a particular chief,
who was bound for himself and his heirs to keep his post at all
times and under all circumstances. He was also bound to pay a
fixed annual tribute, to supply and keep in readiness a quota of
troops for the Governor's armies, and to keep the Governor's
peace over a particular tract of oountiy; and in consideration of
his promise to perform these and other services, a grant was
made to him of a tract of country." Among the seventy-two
chief Poligars of the Madura feudal system were Rftmaohaudra
Nayaka and Gatti Mudaliyar of Kongu.
Each of those names is that of a line of Poligars, rather than
of an individual. For instance, Robert de' Nobili found a Rama-
chandra Nayaka established at Senda-mangalam in 1623. The
horoscope of another of these Ramachaudra Nayakas came into
* Mr. Nelaon's Madura Manual, p.
HISTORY. 69
the hands of Colonel Mackenzie, from which it appears he was CHap. IT.
born in October 1652 aad died in 1718^. The name is associated Vil. 1565-
with Talai-malai, a hill overlooking the Kavori in the south of
Naniakkal Tnluk^ and the Namakkal fort is said to have been l)uilt
by a prince of the line.
T^he Gatti Mndaliyars reded in power and splendour the most
dangerously exposed province of the kingdom, Kaveri-puram, on
the rig-it bank of the Kavori. was their strategic capital, command-
ing, as it docs, one of the principal passes to the Mysore Plateau.
The centre of their power seems, however, to have been Taia-manga-
1am, whore tlicy built a costly temple. It is said that their
dominions extended as far as Talai-vasal to the east, Dliarapuram
in the west, and Karur in the south^. The forts of greatest
strategic importance held by tliem in Salem District were
Omalur and Attur. A glance at the map will show that the dis-
position of these forts guarded against an invasion from Mysore,
Kaveri-puram guarded the foot of the only ghat at which tho
Madura dominions touched Mysore^. Omalur served as apointe
tVap'pui against any force proceeding by the routes through
Q^oppur or Perumbalai. In this quarter the petty Poligars of
Denkani-kota, Ratuagiri, Alambadi, etc., intervened between the
two great rivals, Attur commanded the shortest route to the
coast, and guarded against any flank move on Trichinopoly by
way of the Vellar valle3^ The Gratti Mndaliyars are also asso-
ciated with Amara-kundi, Saukaridrug, Tiruchengodu, Mecheri^
Idauga-salai, and Ptilampatti.^ Salem itself appears, at least
during part of the seventeenth century, to have been ruled by an
independent Poligar, Cheimappa Nayaka, whose name tradition
also connects with Tenkarai-kottai^,
The opening of hostilities between Mysore and Madura is '^^^ Madnra-
obscure for want of accurate dates and synchronisms. It would ^^^^^
appear that early in Tirumala Nayaka's reign, Coimbatore was
invaded by Chama Eaja, who penetrated as far as Dindigul, and
was there checked by Tirumala's able general Eamappayya, The
^ Mackenzie Manuscripts, I, 79,
^Another account gives Eraya-mangalam (in Kokkarayanpet Mitta, 9 miles
S.W. of Tii-uchengodu, on the Kaveri), as the fiouthern limit of their dominions
and Andiyur, in Bliavani Taluk, as the wtstern boundary.
^ Buchanan, Vol. I, p. 422, speaks of Kaveri-puram as an important outpost,
with two outlying forts, Nadu-kaval and Chikka-kaval which protected it from
the aggi-essions of the Hill Poligars.
* For further details regarding the Gatti Mudaliyars, see below, Vol. II,
pp. 259 and 264, s.v. Amara-kundi, and Tara-mangalam. Cf, p. 95, s.v. Eobort
de'Nobili.
* Cf, Vol. II, pp, 228 and 250, and the suggested identification of the Mora-
mangalam of Robert de'Nobili with Mara-mangalam, p. 95, n. 2,
70
SAtEIVt.
CHAP. II.
VII. 1565-
1761,
Bijapur and
Golconda
intervene.
Bijapnr
conquers
Baramahill.
Madura army then took the offensive, and drove the Mysore troops
up the Ghats, storming one of their principal fortresses. The
quaiTel then assumed a new aspect, with the sudden intervention
of the Sultans of Bijapur and Golconda.
In 1634 A..D. the Mughals (under Shah Jahan) captured
Ahmadnagar and ended the dynasty of the Nizam Shahs. The
Sultan of Bijapur made his peace with the Mughals, and then
arranged with the Sultan of Golconda to conquer the Caruatic.
They had been invited south by several Hindu princes, who
solicited their aid in finally throwing off the yoke of Vijaya-
nagar.^ About 1635 A.D., a new Eaya, Eanga, ascended the
throne and determiued to revive the authority of his house. Tiru-
mala Nayaka formed a league against him, which the Nayakas
of Tanjore and Ginjee joined. The only State which remained
loyal to the Kaya was Mysore. When the Eaya marched against
him, Tirumala invited the Sultan of Golconda to attack the
Ohandragiri territory from the north. The Ray a countermarched
to meet his new enemy, was routed, and took refuge with the
Nayaka of Ikkeri (North Mysore). The Golconda army then
marched south to reduce the rebels who had so rashly invoked its
aid, and laid siege to Ginjee. Tirumala then asked the Bijapur
Sultan to help him. When the Bijapur troops arrived at Ginjee,
they at once joined with their fellow Muhammadans. Ginjee fell ;
Tirumala lost heart, and purchased peace by becoming their
humble feudatory. The date of these events is uncertain. The
war was apparently over by 1644 A.D.
Meanwhile the main army of Bijapur had been otherwise em-
ployed. In 1636 an expedition started under Kandhula Khan,
with Shahji (Sivaji's father) as second in command. After raid-
ing the country near Bednur, the invaders appeared in 1638
before Seringapatam, where, after a political revolution, Kantirava
Narasa Raja had been placed on the throne by the Dalavay,
(Commander-in-Chief). The new king was no puppet ; he beat
off the assaults delivered by the Muhammadans, and the siege was
raised. The invaders then turned cast, took Bangalore from the
Poligar, Kempc Gauda, and reduced the north and east of what
is now Mysore State. In the course of this campaign the Bara-
mahal was made subject to Bijapur, and, by 1644 A.D., the new
conquests were formed into two Provinces (Carnatic-Balaghat
^ Wilks, i, p. 65. It is "stated in Hindu Manuscripts that they were
invited by several of the usurpers who, under the title of Naiks, Rajas, Udayars,
Politrars and even Gouds of single villages, had erected separate principalities
and foolishly hoped to preserve or extend them by the aid of foreign force."
ttlStORt. 71
aud Cariiatic-Payinghat) and bestowed as ajaghir on Sliabji, who CHAr. II.
fixed his head- quarters at Bangalore.^ vii.^ises-
Later on (the date again is uncertain) the Raya, aided bj _^ '
Mysore, made one'last attempt to recover his authority. Tirumala
threw open to the Muharamadans the passes into Mysore which he
commanded, aud the last flicker of the great Hindu Empire was
extinguished.
Kantirava Narasa Eaja adopted the policy of appropriating Kantirava
territory whenever he could do so with impunity. According to ^ayasa
Wilks, he took several places in Coimbatore from Gatti Mudaliyar
in 1641 A.D. Six years later, he seized Eatnagiri from one Itibal
Rao, and in 1652 he was strong enough to take from Bijapur the
Western Baramahal, including Virabhadradrug, Pennagaram,
and Dharmapuri. In the same year he took Denkani-kota from
the Itibal Eao, from whom he had wrested Ratnagiri. In 1653
he again raided Coimbatore, and took several important fortresses
from the Madura feudatory. In the next year, Hosur was taken
from one Chandra Sankar.
The reigns of Kantirava Narasa Raja and Tirumala Nayaka
closed in 1659 A.D, with one of the most vindictive wars on record.
The ofiensive was taken by the Mysoreans> who threatened Madura
itself. The invaders were then driven back, and the Madura
historians claim that Mysore was invaded, its king captured and
his nose cut oil in revenge for the cruelty of the Mysoreans, who
had cut off the noses of all their captives.^
From 1659 Madura declined and Mysore grew powerful. The Ascendency
latter State was ruled in turn by two capable men, Dodda Deva ^* MysoJ'e.
Eaja (1659-1672) and Chikka Deva Eaja (1672-1704). In the
reign of the first named, the latter repulsed a desperate attack
made on Erode by Tirumala's successor, Chokkanatha Nayaka of
Madura, in combination with the Nayaka of Ginjee and Yenkoji
of Tanjore in 1667. The raid ended in total failure, and Dodda
Deva Eaja wrested Erode and Dharapuram from the Nayaka,
and Omalur from Gatti Mudaliyar.
Chikka Deva Raja was the ablest statesman of his time, except ohikka Dsva
Sivaji himself. The keynote of his policy was friendship with the ^^i^-
Mughal Aurangzib. His financial reforms, his strenuous home
administration, gave stability to his authority. Whenever he
could do so without affront to Aurangzib, he extended his
^ His summer residence was at Nandi and his winter residence at Kolar.
2 There is no reference in Mysore history to this cutting off of the noses,
although there are abundant allusions to insults of this character in literature
and inscriptions. There is mention for instance of Eaja Odeyar having whipped
" across the body, like the holy thread" the OdeySr of Karugahalli for some insult.
72
SALEHf.
OHAP. II.
VII. 1565-
1761.
The Mara-
than.
Eeconquest.
Tho Mughalx
dominions by couquest. Between 1675 and 1678 A.D. he brought
his frontier in contact witli that of Bijapur.
The nggressions of the Marathas, however, checked his enter-
prise. In 1661 Shahji had died, and Venkoji entered on his inheri-
tance. By 1674 Venkoji had established himself in Tanjc>re.
In 1677 Sivaji advanced on Gingte, through the Banialcheri
Pass, to claim his inheritance from liis half-brother, and in July
of the same year the two brothers came to terms. It wouM
appear that, for a few years, the Baraniahal, and perhaps also the
Talaghat, passed under Maratha rule.
Chikka Deva Eaja studiously refrained from interfering with
the Marathas, who came to loot and not to rule. With the death
of Sivaji in 1680, and the fall of Bijapur and Golconda, he came
in closer contact with the Mughals, and made fast friends with
the Mughal general Qasim Khau. In 1689 he assisted in the
final ruin of Madnra. In 1685 he had been negotiating with
Venkoji for the purchase of Bangalore. Before the bargain was
completed, Qasim Khan seized the place, and sold it to Mysore
for the stipulated price, three lakhs of rupees. In 1688-9 Chikka
iJova Raja felt strong enough once again to invade the Baraniahal,
which had apparently thrown off its allegiance. Dharmapuri,
Manukonda, Omaltir and Paramati were taken from "tho people
of Aura ;" Kaveri-patnam and Anantagiri (i.e., Attur)''by the
treaty concluded by Lingurajayah with the Aurachee." ^ By
1704, when Chikka D6va Raja died, almost the whole of Salem
District was within his dominions.
Bijapur fell to the Mughals in 1687 A.D., and Golconda in
1688. In 1690 Aurangzib placed Qasim E ban in command of
the Carnatic provinces lately dependent on the two Sultanates.
These provinces comprised three well-marked territorial divisions ;
(A) Carnatic Haidarabad Balaghat, composed of •the five Circars
of (1) Sidhout, (2) Gandi-kota, (3) Gooty, (4) (Jurramkonda, and
(5) Karabam ; CB) Carnatic Haidarabad Paylnghat, extending
from Guntur to the Coleroon, and including almost all the Coro-
mandel Coast, with Tanjore, Gingce, and Trichinopoly ; (C)
Carnatic Bijapur, situated west of Carnatic Haidarabad, and
comprising the plateau country round Sira and Bangalore. In
1691 the Carnatic Payinghat appears to have been made a sepa-
rate command under Zulfikilr Khan, who was entrusted with the
reduction of Gingee, a task which occupied him till 1698. In
that year Qasim Khan was defeated by the Marathas, and died
either by his own hand or by the dagger of an assassin. He was
1 Wilka I, p. 132.
HtSTORY. 7S
succeeded by Zulfikar Khau, who ruled the Carnatic provinces for OH .a P. ii.
nearly ID years, "a period of incessant and destructive warfare"^ vii. 1505-
On the death of Auraiigzib, in 1707 A.D., rapid disiute^ra- ^^'
tiou set in througiiout the Mughal dominions. Zulfikar Khan Break up of
went north, to watch the struggle for the succession that ensued. ^"&^^»^ Km-
Daud A^vhan, who was left in command of the Carnatic provinces,
followed northwards sliortly after, nominating as his deputy
Sadat-ulla Khan. The territory directly under Sadat-ulla Khan
comprised Carnatic Haidarabad Payinghat and Carnatic Bijapur,
which by this time came to be known as the provinces of Arcot
and Sira respectively. Meanwhile, in Mysore, Chikka Deva
Eaja had been succeeded by his son, a deaf-mute, and hence-
forward that State was ruled by its ministers, in the names of
puppet Eajas. Sadat-ulla Khan at first enjoyed, under the
suzerainty of the Nizam, the undivided control of the two
Carnatics, but, after four years, bis jurisdiction was restricted to
the province of Arcot, and a new Nawab, Amin Khau, was ap-
pointed for Sira. Sadat-ulla Khan resented the removal of the
rich State of Mysore from his jurisdiction, and formed a conspi-
racy with the Nawabs of Cudilapah, Kurnool, Savanur and the
Maratha chief Morari Bao Ghorpade of Gooty to seize it. The
new Nawab, Amin Khan, compromised by suggesting joint action
against the Eaja of Mysore. Accordingly the confederates levied
blackmail to the extent of a crore of rupees. Henceforward the
funds of the unfortunate State of Mysore were looked on as the
lawful property of any one w^ho was strong enough to demand their
surrender.
Meanwhile, four of the five Circars of the Carnatic Haidarabad The Oudda-
Balaghat had been absorbed by Abdul Nabi Khan, the Pathan^ ^'^^ Nawabs.
Nawab of Cuddapah ; the fifth, Gooty, falling to the Ghorpade
Marathas. Abdul Nabi Khan was theoretically a subordinate^
of the officer holding the joint command of the Carnatics, but
he sometimes dealt directly with the Subedar of the Deecan.
Before, however, Nizam-ul-mulk had consolidated his power,
Abdul Nabi Khan had become practically independent. He
' According to the Baramahal tradition, {S.D.M., Vol, I, p. 89), Zulfikar
Khan took northern Salem from the Marathas on behall of the Mugbals, and
ruled it for 8 years.
^ In the early yeai s of the eighteenth century, the Pathan families of Savanur,
Kurnool, and Cuddapah, began " to rally around them the remains of the genu-
ine Pathans, or ferocious bands of the same tribe, who were perpetually descend-
ing from the Indian Caucasus to improve their fortunes in the south ", Wilks,
Vol. I, p. 13G.
3 According to the Baramahal tradition, {S.D.M., Vol. T, p. 89), the Baramahal
was granted by Zulfikar Khan as a Jaghir to Abdul Nabi Khan.
u
bALtit.
CHAP. II.
VII. )565-
1761.
Else of B ai-
dar Aliand
the British-
1748-1761
A.D.
Conquest ot
the Birania-
bal by Hai>
dar.
extended his possessions southward along the back of the Eastern
Grbats nearly to the Kaveri, and, by 1714 A.D., he had made
himself master of the Baramahal.^
The Nizam-nl-mulk died in 1748. A war of suooossion
followed, in which the French and Eug^lish took sides, and for the
first time oame into political prominence. The field of war was
outside Salem District, which at the time was divided between
Cuddapah and Mysore. Nanja Eaj, chief minister of the latter
State, played a double game ; he tried to get the cession of
Trichinopoly from Muhammad Ali, and then intrigued with the
French. His share in the war cost him money, but brought him
no gain. It was in this war that an obscure adventurer, Haidar
Ali, became the most powerful subject in the service of Mysore.
In 1758 Cuddapah was invaded by the MarAthas, who stripped
the Nawab of half of his territory. One A sad Khan, at the time
Governor of Baramahal on behalf of Cuddapah, had recently been
superseded by another officer. He promptly went over to Haidar,
and advised him to essay the conquest of the Baramahal. Haidar
deputed his brother-in-law, Makhdum Ali, for the purpose. This
ofiicer, as a preliminary stop, first reduced the PoHgar of Anekal,
whose territory intervened between that of Haidar and the Bilra-
mah&l. This object was effected in 1760. Meanwhile the French
had been vanquished at Wandiwash (January 22, 1760), and
Lally, as a last resort, applied to Haidar for help. Haidar
thereon sent Makhdum Ali to Pondicherry to negotiate. The
treaty was to stipulate the cession to Mysore of Tiyaga, a fort
which commanded the Attur Pass. At the conclusion of the war,
Trichinopoly, Madura, and Tinnovelly were to be ceded to Haidar.
Makhdum Ali proceeded to Pondicherry before the end of Juno,
and ratified the treaty, when he was recalled with all his forces by
the m"gent necessity of Haidar. The conspiracy of Khaudo Eao
with the puppet Raja and the Marathas had all but terminated
his career. Makhdum Ali, after hard fighting, got as far as
^ The names, dates, and order of succeasion of the Cuddapah Mawubs, present
a hopeless puzzle. Mr. Gribble, in the Cuddapah Manual, p. 91, gives tlie follow-
ing order : (1) Abdul Nabi Khan, (2) his son, Mahazid Khan, (inscription dated
1732 A.D.), (3) Mahasim Khan, brother of (2), (4) Allm Khan. The tradition
preserved in the Baramahal, quoted by Mr. Le Fanu, S.D.M., Vol. I, p. 89, gives
the following order : (1) Abdul Nabi Khan, (2) Abdul Muhammad Khan, (ruled 10
years), (3) Abdul Musum Khan, (11 years), (4) Abdul Muzzad Khan, (8 years),
(5) Abdul Musum Khan again, for another 5 years. According to Grant Duff,
it was Mnhammad Khan who murdered Nazir Jang in 1750. According to the
Punganur tradition, {North Arcot Manual, Vol. IT, p. 408), Abdul Mahsim was
slain in the disastrous battle with the Marathas near Cuddapah in 1757. Accord-
ing to Wilks, Vol. I, p. 402, Allm Khilu joined Nizam Ali on the eve of the Cbital-
drug campaign of 1777.
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u
MiSTORY. 75
Kela-inanp:alam and ocoupiod Anchotti-durgam. Hero ho was CHAP. II.
closoly blookadod, and ovory attempt of Haidar's force at Anokal VII. 1566-
to effect a junction failed. Haidar then resorted to the expedient .*
of bribing the Marathas to desert Khando Rao. The bribe, as
usual, succeeded. Three lakhs were paid, the Baramahal was
ceded. Ilaidar joined his brother-in-law, defeated Khande Rao,
and assumed the supreme control of Mysore affairs.
Tiie year 1761 was eventful in Indian history. On January Vlll. Thr
15th, Pondicherry surrendered to the English, and French ^-^^"^^
dominion in India ceased to exist. Eight days previously Prelode,
(January 7th) two hundred thousand Marathas perished at l^^l-^^^*
Panipat in battle against the Afghan Abdali, and in the mas-
sacre which ensued. In the same year Haidar Ali, emboldened
by the catastrophe at Panipat, usurped the government of Mysore.
By these events the political aspect was completely changed.
Haidar overrated the effect of Panipat. Before the year 1761
had expired, he had, in alliance with the Nizam's brother Basalat
Jang, driven the Marathas out of Sira, and on the payment of
three lakhs, be was created Nawab of Sira, a title which Basalat
Jang had not the faintest authority to bestow. The seizure of
Sira by Haidar was an insult to the Marathas which brought
speedy retribution. In 1764 the Peshwa himself invaded Mysore ;
by June, Haidar had sustained a crushing defeat, and in
February of the following year he bought off the Marathas with
an indemnity of 32 lakhs. In 1766, the pageant Eaja died.
His son, a youth of 18 years, was set on the throne by Haidar.
The young prince chafed against Haidar's authority. Haidar
confiscated all his property, and placed him in confinement. This
act determined the Marathas and Nizam Ali on Haidar's deposi-
tion, and precipitated the First Mysore War.
The War of 1767-9 is of peculiar interest in the history of First Mysore
Salem District, within the limits of which its chief operations ^'ar, 1707-9
were conducted. The war was a sequel to the treaty of Novem- ' *
ber 12, 1766, between the Company and Nizam Ali. Under
this, the Company accepted in fief from the Nizam the Northern
Circars, already granted them by a firman of the Delhi Emperor,
and engaged " to have a body of their troops ready to settle the
affairs of His Highness' (the Nizam's) Government, in everything
that is right and proper whenever required." In pursuance
of this undertaking, plans for a joint invasion of Haidar's terri-
tory were agreed to by the Marathas, the Nizam and the
English.
76
SALEW.
CHAP. II.
VUI. The
MVSOKE
Wars.
Maratha
invasion.
The English
occupy the
Baratnahal.
Haidar
invades the
Baiamahal.
The Marathas moved first, aud early in March, 1767, before
their allies could join thom, thoy had overnmtho Mjsoro domini-
ons as far as the Baramabal, brought Haidar to bis kuoes, aud
agreed to withdraw from the war on tbo payment of 17-| lakhs
cash down, aud the pledge of Kolar District' as security for the
payment of a like sum in addition. The balance was paid early
in May, and on tlie 11th of that month the Marathas finally
moved northwards.
Meanwhile the army of the Nizam had, by March 9th, reached
the Tungabhadra, and was joined by Colonel Joseph Smith, with
six battalions of infantry and some guns. On March 24th the
allies learned that the Marathas had been bribed to withdraw.
Colonel Smith soon discovered that Haidar was making overtures
to the Nizam also, which the latter was prepared to accept. Ho
accordingly withdrew part of his force, but the Madras Govern-
ment insisted on three battalions remaining in the Nizam's camp,
as proof of confidence. This force was soon afterwards reduced
to five companies, and the latter were suffered by the Nizam
to depart within a few days of the actual outbreak of hostilities
between Haidar and the British.
While the Nizam's army was approaching Bangalore from the
north, a respectable force of 3,000 foot, 500 of whom were British,
was despatched from Madras with the object of seizing the
Baramahal. The mud forts of Vaniyambadi, Tiruppattur and
Kaveri-patuam fell without serious opposition, aud on June 3rd an
unsuccessful attempt was made to storm Krishuagiri. The siege
was then converted into a blockade, the prosecution of which
absorbed the energies of the whole force, and precluded further
active operations.
On his return from the Nizam's camp near Bangalore, Colonel
Smith was directed to assume general command of the British
troops in the Baramahal. In the latter part of August the com-
bined armies of Haidar and Nizam Ali^ descended the Krishuagiri
' Smith estimated the relative strength of the armies as t'ollows : —
Cavalry. Infantry. Guns.
Nizam Ali ,<
Haidar
Total
British —
European
Native
Muhammad Ali
Total
30,000
10,000
60
J 2,860
18,000
49
42,800
28,000
109
30
800
5,000
16
1,000
...
1,030
5,800
16
I
HI3T0KY.
77
Passes, aud ou tho 25th, the transport cattle which were grazing in
thfi vicinitv of the British camp near Kakaiikarai/ wore surprised
and driven oiJ. Smith's oavalrj hastily moved out for their
recovery, aud were unoxpootedly assailed by very superior numbers
under Makhdum Ali, who charged them into the very linos of the
enoampment after destroying about one-third of their number, aud
carried ofE tho greater part of the cattle.^
The same evening Haidar appeared before Kaveri-patnam, which
was held by Captain MoKain, with three companies of the 3rd
Battalion of Coast Sepoys. Two assaults were delivered and
repulsed ; but Captain McKain, finding the place untenable, capitu-
lated on August 27th.
By this time Colonel Wood was advancing with reinforcements
from Trichinopoly towards Tiruvannamalai,^ and it became a
matter of vital moment that Colonel Smith should join him.
Smith, crippled by the loss of cattle on the 25th, was unable to
move till the 28th. He fell back eastward, reaching Singarapet
on the 30th, Palli-patti on the 31st, and Chengam on September
Ist. Haidar followed close on his heels.
It was lucky for the British that he did not forestall them and
seize the Chengam Pass. On September 2nd * Smith turned to bay
at Chengam and won a victory. In this action he lost 48 Euro-
peans and 67 sepoys killed and wounded ; the enemy lost 4,000 men,
64 guns and a vast quantity of stores.^ Smith then proceeded to
Tiruvannamalai. Finding no provision there, he was compelled to
move further eastward in search of supplies. On September 8th
he was joined by Colonel Wood, and on the 14th he retraced his
steps to Tiruvannamalai. There on the 26th he brought on a
pitched battle with Haidar and won a decisive victory.^ The
Nizam and his army bolted, 55 field pieces were taken, and Haidar
was compelled to retire into the Baramahal. Colonel Smith,
unable for want of supplies to follow up his victory, dispersed his
CHAP. J I.
Vlli. The
Mysork
\VAE8.
' Now a railway station between Tiruppattur and Samalpatti.
« Wilks i, 311.
3 Commonly but wrongly called " Trinomaloe, " " TrinomHlly " etc., etc.
* Wilks estimates the loss of the confederates at 4,000 men and 64 guns with
tumbrils. The loss to the British was 170 men killed and wounded,
5 His total force amounted to 10,430 effective men with 1,500 bad horse,
European Infantry ... ... ... 1,400
Native Infantry 9.000
European Cavalry ... ... ... .,. ... 30
Native Cavalry ... .., ... ... ... 1,500
Field Pieces .. 34
• According to Wilks, Vibert and Fortescue the battle of Chengam was fought
on September 3rd.
78
SALEM.
OnAP. II.
VIII. The
Mysore
Wars.
Ambur.
Haidar'quits
the Bara-
mahal.
army into cantonments at Vellore, Conjooveram, Wandiwash and
Trichinopolj for the rainy season, and himself proceeded to Madras
in the hope of effecting some improvement in the departments of
Supply.
For a month the discomforted confederates remained at Mattur^
each blaming the other for the disaster at Tiruvannamalai. Early
in November Haidar, led by the oontinned inactivity of the British
to believe himself safe from molestation, resumed the offensive,
recaptured Tiruppattur on the 5th, and Vaniyambadi on the 7th,
and appeared before Arabur on the 10th. Vaniyambadi was
surrendered by Captain Eobinson, on parole not to serve again
during the war, a promise which (apparently under Government
orders) he subsequently broke. ^
Captain Calvert's spirited defence of Ambur was ended on
December 7th by the appearance of Colonel Smith with a detach-
ment from Vellore. On the following day Smith came in touch
with Haidar at Vaniyambadi. Haidar fought a rear-guard action,
retiring as soon as his retreat was secured, and abandoning
Vaniyambadi. In this action Haidar's corps of Europoau horse,
under Monsieur Aumont, moved off in a body and joined the
English army.^ The main body of the latter had to halt at
Vaniyambadi to await provisions from Ambur, but Colonel Tod
with the advance guard occupied Tiruppattur on the 9th. The
allies retreated towards Kaveri-patnam, the defences of which had
been so strengthened by Haidar since its capture, that Colonel
Smith, meanwhile reinforced by Colonel Wood, who had advanced
from Triohinopoly by the Singarapet Pass, declined to attack it.
At this juncture the allies learned of demonstrations by the
Bombay Government against Mysore from the West Coast, and by
Bengal troops from the Northern Circars against Haidarabad, and
of a revolt of the Nayars of Malabar. In consequence of this,
Haidar, on December 14th, despatched his heavy guns and baggage
with Tipu to the West, and four days later Nizam Ali hurriedly
^ Wilks gives the name " Calaimnttoor." It is known that Haidar on one of
his marches crossed the river at Kambaya-nallur, which is only 4 miles from
Irumattur. As Mattur, however, is easier to reach from Singarapet, and stra-
tegically covers Krishnagiri and K&T3ri-patDam, the probabilities favour MattOr
as the place of Haidar's halt.
* In December this Captain Robinson was second in command at Erode, when
it was surrendered to Haidar under disgraceful circumstances. Haidar, after
promising that the garrison should be allowed to proceed on parole to Triohino-
poly, sent them all to the dungeons of Seringapatam. His plea was that
Robinson's broken word of honour absolved him from his own promise.
8 Wilks I, p. 326. This troop of foreign hussars numbered about 60 men, cf,
Wilson Madras Army, i, p. 280.
HI8T0KY. 79
re-asoonded tho Ghats. Haidar, before following his main army, OHAP. li,
made one vigorous attempt in person to cut off a convoy, composed VIII. Thr
of the Ist Battalion^ of Sepoys in charge of provisions, advancing wars.
under Captain E. V. Fitzgerald from Tiruvannamalai. Smith
anticipated the move, and despatched Major Thomas Fitzgerald,
with two companies of Grrenadiers, the 5th Battalion* of Sepoys,
and two field-pieces to reinforce the convoy before Haidar could
attack it, Haidar attacked the united forces in person on
December 29th, with a force of 4,000 horse, 2,000 foot and 5 guns,
and was badly beaten. Immediately after this, Haidar followed
his main army up the G-hats, leaving Makhdum Sahib with a
strong force, mainly cavalry, to watch the British, and act on
their supplies. At the same moment the British army was com-
pelled to fall back eastward on its communications, to save itself
from starvation.
For seven months Haidar was fully occupied with affairs in January to
the north and west, and the field was clear for the British forces. " '
Divided counsels paralysed eificient action. The Government
wished to invade the Balaghat, and strike directly at Bangalore
and Seringapatam. Colonel Smith realised that his force was quite
inadequate for the campaign without any proper commissariat, and
proposed to occupy the whole of the country contiguous to the
frontier, from Vaniyambadi through the Baramahal and Talaghat
down to Dindigul and Palghat, with a view to establishing depots
as a base for subsequent operations. The result was an attempt to
carry out both plans with a force inadequate for either.
The army was formed into two columns. Colonel Smith with Colonel
1,500 Europeans and 7,500 sepoys was to invade the Balaghat, column.
Colonel Wood with 600 Europeans and 4,400 sepoys to reduce the
lowland forts in detail.^ On February 23rd the former appeared
before Kaveri-patnam, which was promptly abandoned. He then
received orders to proceed to the camp of the Nizam at Punganur.
The Nizam had made overtures of peace to Colonel Smith as early
as December 1767. A treaty was concluded between the Nizam and
the Nawab on February 23rd, which was signed by the members of
Council on the 26th idem. Shortly afterwards Smith returned to
^ Now the 61sh Pioneers.
2 Now the 64th Pioneers.
^ Colonel Smith's column was composed of the Isfc and 2nd European
Regiments, a detachment of artillery, the Foreign Legion, Capt. Achmuty's
Bengal Battalion, and the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 13th, 14th and 16th Madras Batta-
lions. Colonel Wood's detachment consisted of the 3rd European Regiment,
a party of artillery, the 4th, 7th, 8th and 11th "Battalions, and 5 companies of
the 10th,
80
SALEM.
CHAP. II.
VIII. The
Myso-UE
Waks.
Smith
invades
lialaghaf.
Colonel
AVoocl's
Detachment.
the Baraniahal, and undertook the blockade of Krishnagiri, which
did not surrender till Ma\ 2nd.
On June 8th an advanced detachment of the British armv,
under Colonel Donald Campbell,' moved from Krishnagiri and
ascended the Pass of Budi-kota ^ ; on the 16th Venkatagiri-kota
was occupied, and the direct road to Velloro via Peddanayakan
dargam secured. On the 23rd, Mulbigal was taken, on the 28th.
Kolar. Meanwhile Colonel Smith, with the main army, had
ascended the Budi-kota Grhat, and arrived at Araleri, where he
directed Colonel Campbell to rejoin him. On July 3rd the united
forces moved via Bagalur for the siege of Ilosur, which fell on
the 11th. The Bagalur Poligar, a feudatory of Haidar, prudently
abstained from hostilities with the English, " at the same time
representing to Haidar his inability to resist, and the necessitv of
temporizing until ho had a better opportunity of evincing his
allegiance."^ Shortly after the fall of Hosur, a detachment
under Captain Cosby seized Anekal and Denkani-kota. Several
days were then wasted by the attempt of a detachment under
Colonel Lang to occupy a number of villages surrounded by almost
impenetrable jungles between Denkani-kota and the Kaveri, a
move which Muhammad Ali thought might increase his revenues,
but which could not be of any conceivable strategical importance.
At Ilosur, Smith was joined by the advance guard of Morari
Rao, the Maratha ruler of Gooty, whose services had been
bargained for by the British and secured. Smith then moved to
Hoskoto, where, on August 4th, he was joined by Morari liao in
person. On that very day Haidar re-entered Bangalore.
Haidar's fu-st move was a night attack on the camp of Morari iJao
at Hoskote ; the attack was repulsed (August 22nd). Both armies
now turned their attention to the advance of Colonel Wood.
This officer had begun his task of reducing the lowland forts
with the siege of Tenkarai-kottai, which capitulated, on the eve of
assault, on February 12th. Dbarmapuri was carried by assault.
The slaughter of the defenders was so severe that only one other
garrison (that of Erode) dare face Wood's storming party. The
forts of Salem, Attiir, Seuda-mangalam and Namakkal surrendered
without a blow. Wood then crossed the Kavori, secured the
passes from Coimbatore to the plateau, and penetrated to Pal ghat.
Doubling back through the south of Coimbatore District, by
August Jird he was master of Dindigul. He then received orders
^ Colonel Campbell's force oomprised detachments of the 1st and 2nd
Eoropean Regiments, and of the 3rd, 5th, Itth and 16th Battalions.
^ For the Budi-kota Ghat vide "Vol. II, p. 108. 3 Wilks, i, p. 340.
HISTORY. 81
to join Smith in Mysore. Marching via the Topptir Pass, ho CHAP. II.
roaehod Krishnagiri on September Ist. VIII. The
Colonel Wood was expected to reach Biidi-kota on September wah«^
5th, and move thence to Malur on the 6th. Colonel Smith,
however, having lost touch with Haidar on the 3rd, thought it q°".^^°,"j*
wise to advance and meet Wood's force. lie throw his baggage yvood.'
into Maliir on the 5th, and on the 6th morning advanced towards
Biidi-kota. The move was a fortunate one, and might have led to
Haidar's destruction, but for the fool-hardiness of Colonel Wood.^
Haidar, carefully concealing his movements, had taken up such a
position at a bend of the defile up which Wood must march, that
he could enfilade the advancing troops from chosen positions, and,
taking advantage of the ensuing confusion, annihilate the British
force. As Smith advanced, he received early intelligence of the
movements of Wood and Haidar, and realised that the latter
could be trapped. He sent messengers to apprise Colonel Wood
of his intentions. Ho shortly afterwards reached the corner of the
defile where he hoped to attacK Haidar, when both he and Haidar
were startled by " a regular salute which Colonel Wood thought
proper to fire in honour of Colonel Smith on receiving the message
of his approach." The warning was enough, Haidar withdrew
and Smith and Wood joined their forces without opposition, but the
chance of dealing the enemy a severe blow was lost. Haidar now
offered the cession of the Baramahal, and an indemnity of ten
lakhs, as the price of peace. The terms were rejected. The
Government were soon to repent their rashness in rejecting these
proposals.
The British army next moved on K5lar. Meanwhile Haidar
recovered Mulbagal. On October 3rd Wood ^ retook the Peta
and failed at the iFort. On the following day Wood was attacked
in force by Haidar, and barely escaped defeat.
Towards the end of October, Smith was summoned by the
Grovernment to Madras, and on November 14th he set out from
K51ax towards Venkatagiri-kota with Muhammad Ali and the two
Deputies, with whom Government had thought fit to hamper the
discretion of their Commander-in-Chief. Smith's column moved
^ SmUh's force comprised the let and 2nd European Regiments, the 1st, 3rd
and 5th Battalions and Achnmty's Bengal Battalion. Wood had with him the
3rd Regiment of Europeans, the 8th and 11th Battalions of Sepoys and 4 com-
panies of the Tth Battalion.
'^ In consequence of the displeasure expressed by Colonel Smith at Colonel
Wood's incomprehensible salute of September 6th, the latter desired permission
^o resign his command, and Colonel Lang took his place. Colonel Wood, however
resumed his command by the end of September. (Wilks, i, p. 345-34G).
82
SALEM.
CHAP. II.
VIII. The
Mysore
Wars.
Haidar
invades the
Oarnatic
and ends
the War.
eastward to cover their march, Wood romaiuiug^ in command at
Kolar. On the first day's march of the Nawab's party, news was
received that Haidar was attacking Hostir. Smith accordingly
detached the 2nd European Regiment and Captain Cosby's
Battalion of Sepoys to reinforce Wood. The remainder of Smith's
force, under Major Fitzgerald, occupied Venkatagiri-kota, to cover
the retreat of the Nawab and the Deputies.
On November 16th Wood marched to the relief of Hosur.^
On the 17th he reached Bagalur and deposited there his baggage,
camp equipage and surplus stores, with two brass 18-poundors, as
a preliminary to a night attack on Haidar's camp. From Bagah'ir
to Hosur is 7^ miles. Wood started from Bagalur at 10 p.m., and
reached Hosur at 7 a.m. on the morning of the 18th. Haidar
allowed him to enter the fort unmolested. His cavalry kept
Wood's force amused with demonstrations in all directions, while
his infantry by a flank march proceeded to Bagalur. It was
not till 2 P.M. that the sound of firing to the north convinced
Colonel Wood of the situation. He hastily retraced his steps to
Bagalur, but arrived too late. Haidar, without attempting an
attack on the Fort, had entered the Peta, packed nearly the
whole of the stores and baggage of the British army on his
carts, tumbrils and gun-carriages, and marched them off to Banga-
lore with the two IS-pouuders. By the time Wood reached
Bagaliir, nearly the whole of Haidar 's army was out of sight.
An awful panic in the Peta had resulted in the loss of over 2,000
human lives and as many bullocks.
On November 20th, Wood retiu-ned to Hosur, and gave the
garrison what ammunition and stores he could spare. On the 2l8t
he marched via Bagalur to Araleri, where there was a small supply
of provisions. There ho was attacked in force by Haidar on the
22nd and 23rd, and was only saved from annihilation by the arrival
of Major Fitzgerald from Venkatagiri-kota, with every man he
could muster. On Fitzgerald's approach, Haidar, thinking he
had the dreaded Smith to deal with, drew off to a respectful
distance, and permitted the united forces of the British to proceed
to Venkatagiri-kota. Wood was sent imdor arrest to Madras and
Colonel Lang took command.
As soon as Haidar discovered that Smith was no longer in the
field against him, ho threw to the winds all anxiety for the safety
of Bangalore. Early in November Fazl-uUa-Khan had been
organizing a force at Seringapatam, and towards the end of the
* His force consisted of the 2nd and 3rd Eeropean Regimdnts (about 700 men)
and 5 Battalions of Sepoys, among them tho 6th, 11th and 16th.
HISTORY.
83
month, ho swooped down on Coinibatoro District through the; Passes
of Gajalhatti and KjlvGri-purana.^ On December Gth Haider
himself marclied into tho Baramahal via Palakodu, and debouched
on the Talaghilt through the Toppur Pass. Four days later, Major
Fitzgerald started in pursuit with a select force of 5,000 men'-^, but
ho oould not come up with Haidar. Colonel Wood's sliort-lived
conquests in the Baramahal and Salem were garrisoned mostly by
the troops of the Nawab, without any mixture of English sepoys.
Capture after capture was reported to Fitzgerald, Dharmapuri
on December 6th, Tcnkarai-kottai on the 7th, Omaltir 12th, Salem
15th, Namakkal 17th, Karur 19th, Erode 25th, Dindigul Slst.
Fitzgerald pushed straight for Trichinopoly. Lang fell back from
Kolar on Vellore. Within six weeks Haider had won back every
post that had been taken from him except Krishnagiri, Venkata-
giri-k5ta and Kolar, the first of little strategic value, the other two
untenable. Haider's final move is famous in history. When 140
miles south of Madras, he suddenly despatched his whole army,
guns and baggage, through the Baramahal, reserving for his
purpose only G,000 horse and 200 chosen foot. With these he
marched 130 miles in three days and a half, and on March 29th he
appeared with his cavalry before Madras. He dictated peace on
his own terms. A treaty was signed on April 3, 1769, stipulating
the mutual restitution of prisoners and places, and a mutual
defensive alliance.^
The Second Mysore War is a tedious record of disaster from
the British point of view. Throughout the War, Salem District
was Haidar's own, and its soil was never violated by the tread of
hostile troops. The Treaty of Mangaloro was signed on March
11, 1784 and imdor it the status quo ante was restored. The
Company w'as not in position to claim a foot of Salem soil.
At the end of December 1789 Tipu attacked tho Travancore
Lines and was beaten off. In April 1790 he carried them by storm.
CHAi'. II.
VIII. The
Mysore
Wars.
Ilaidar
invades the
Carnatic
and ends
t.lie War.
Second
Mysore VVai*
(1780-84).
Third
Mysore
War.
1 An interesting account of the Kaveri-piiram Ghat is given by Buchanan,
Vol. I, pp. 406-422. His itinerary was Siva-samudram, Satt.egalam, " Pallia "
Singanallur, Hannur, Kandhalli, Maratahalli, Nadukkaval, Chikka-Kaval,
Kaveri-puram. Of. Bevan, Thirty Years in India, I, p. 53, sq.
* European and Native Cavalry ... .,. ... 500
3rd Regiment Enropcan Infantry — ... ... 350
Grenadier Companies 1st and 2nd Regiments ... 150
Five Battalions of Sepoys 4,000
8 six-pounders, 6 three-ponnders and a detail of artillery men. The Sepoy
Battalions were the 3rd, 5th, Gth, 13f.h and 16th.
^ " In case either of the contracting parties shall be attacked, thoy shall, from
their respective countries, mutually assist each other to drivn them out.'*
Aitchison's Treaties, Vol. V, p. 253).
F-l
84
SALEM.
CHAP. II.
VIII. The
Mysoke
Wars.
Medows'
Campaign,
1790.
Maxwell's
Advance.
This began the Third Mysore War. The English formed an
alliance with the Marathas and Nizam to curb Tipu's
aggressiveness.
The first stage of the War. was mostly confined to operations in
Coimbatore and Salem. General Modows loft Triohinopoly on
May 26th/ seized Kariir on June 15th, and proceeded to reduce
the fortresses scattered over Coimbatore in detail. Coimbatore
itself was occupied without resistance on July 2l8t. Eroeie fell on
August 6th, and Dindigul on August 23rd. A force was sent
against Palghat, and another against a body of 4,000 horse which
Tipu had posted in the country for observation. This force was
driven up the Grajalhatti Pass, and Satya-maugalam was surprised
and taken. But those operations, while leaving Modows master of
Coimbatore, had split his army into three divisions between
Palghat, Coimbatore and Satya-mangalam. Tipu, hitherto
inactive, now began to move. On the 2nd Septembor, at the head
of 40,000 men, he left Seringapatam, passed south through the
Gajalhatti Pass (September 11th) and crossed the Bhavani river
(September 12th). The moves and counter-moves of the next few
days compelled Medows to retiu'n from the line of the Bhavani to
Coimbatore, where he concentrated his scattered forces between
September 18th and 26th. Meanwhile Tipu marched on Erode,
which at his approach was evacuated (Septembor 25th). By this
move he recovered several of the places taken, and inflicted several
minor reverses on the British arms.
Meanwhile a second English field force, 9,500 strong, had
concentrated at Ami under Colonel Kelly.'-^ On September 24th
that ofiioer died, and the command devolved on Colonel Maxwell.
Exactly a month later (October 24th) Maxwell entered Tipu's
territory near Vdniyambadi; on November 1st ho approached
Krishnagiri, but, instead of attacking, drew off and fixed his head-
quarters at Kaveri-patnam (November 3rd).
As soon as Tipu heard of Maxwell's advance, he started post-
haste for the Baramahal. By November 9th Tipu's light cavalry
reached Kaveri-patnam. On the 12th Tipu appeared in full force,
and attempted, by a variety of evolutions, to find the means of
attacking Maxwell with advantage ; but the strong position
assumed by that officer, his admirable dispositions and his prompti-
tude in anticipating every design, frustrated these intentions, and
the Sultan drew off. The same manoeuvres wore repeated on the
^ His force amounted to about 15,000 men. For details see AVilson, Madras
Army, ii,p. 191.
« For details s^e Wilson, II, p. 193.
biSTORY. 65
18th and 14th. Meanwhile Mcdows had started in pnrsnit of CHAP. II.
Tipn. He crossed thc'Kavori on November 8th; on the 14th he VIII. The
eucamped at the south extremity of the Pass of Topptir. On the wabs.
followinjj^ day he cleared the Pass, and reached a oampinp^ [ground
at the northern cxtromit}^, situated about 29 miles from Kaveri-
patnara. Hero a camp was espied, six miles away. Thinking
it was Maxwell's, the English fired three signal guns. In five
minutes every tent in the siipposod English camp was struck, and
heavy columns were seen in full march to the west. Medows now
realised that he was in sight of Tipu's army. He did not give
pursuit, his junction with Maxwell was more important. This
was effected on the 17th at Pula-halli, 12 miles south of Kaveri-
patnam.^ Tipu now decided to double back through the Topptir
Pass, and try his fortune in the Carnatic. On the 18th both
armies were in motion, both pointing to the Pass of Toppur, and
both intending to clear it in two easy marches. The two armies
were actually preparing to encamp' within four miles of each other,
before they discovered each other's presence. Tipu's columns had
entered the Pass by the time the main body of the English army
arrived on the camping ground. It was a golden opportunity
for cutting off a portion of the enemy's infantry, and attacking the
remainder while entangled in the Pass. Medows lot the chance
slip. Tipu's army cleared the Pass, with the exception of three
infantry battalions in the rear of the main column, which were
intercepted and compelled to retreat in the opposite direction, and
the majority of the cavalry, which disappeared towards Penna-
garam, and rejoined the main body by a circuitous route some days
later. Tipa held on without halting for Trichinopoly, and
Medows' campaign was rendered abortive-
Shortly after, Medows was called to Madras to confer with Campaign
Lord Cornwallis, who arrived there on December 12th. His of ComwalHs,
arrival marks the second stage in the War. The English now had
a definite objective, namely, Seringapatam. The Grovernor-General
concentrated at Vellore on Febrnary 10th. To meet his advance,
Tipu doubled back from the Carnatic vid Chengara and Palakodu.
Cornwallis had feigned the invasion of the Baramahal. His real
intention was to advance on Kolar by the Mogili Pass, west of
Chittoor. This plan he carried out on February 17th, and on the
28th Kolar fell.^ Bangalore was stormed on March 2l8t ; on May
4th Cornwallis started for Seringapatam ; but the rains set in, his
commissariat broke down, and he had to return to Bangalore. By
July he began a series of operations for the reduction of Tipu's
^ For details of the brigading of the combined forces, see Wilson, II, p. 201.
* He marched via Chittoor, Palmanfir, Mulbagal, Kolar, Hoskote, Bangalore,
1791.
86
SALEM.
CHAP. II.
VIII. Thi.;
M rsoRF.
Wars.
Penndj'arani
Krishuagiri
Close of the
War.
loterludo,
1792-99.
outlying forts. Hostir, Anclietti-d iirgam , Nilagiri, l\atnn{?iri,
were taken without resistance. Some sharp iigLting under Major
Growdic was seen at Raya-kota, when the lower fort was stormed
on July 20th ; the upper fort surrendered two days later. About
the same time Hude-durgara and other small hill forts capi-
tulated.^ Garrisons were placed in Raya-kota, Anchotti-durgam
and Hude-durgam. The other places were dismantled. In
September the British directed their efforts to redueing the
countr}'^ north of Bangalore.
In October 1791 a diversion was caused in the Baramahal by a
force under Bakir Sahib, an active young officer, sou of the
venerable Killcdar of Dhilrwar. He descended into Coimbatore
and entered the Baramahal by the Toppur Pass. His object was
threefold; (1) to throw reinfort^raents into Krishnagiri, (2) to
harass the English communications, (3) to sweep off in a southern
direction the population and cattle of the whole District. Colonel
Maxwell was despatched against him. The plunderers had
ensconced themselves and their captives in the fort of Pennagaram.
Colonel Maxwell appeared before the fort on October 31 st, and
called on the garrison to surrender. In reply, tlio Hag of truce
was fired upon. The fort was instantly assaulted and carried by
escalade with little loss to the assailants; but of the garrison two
hundred men were killed before the indignation of the troops
oould bo restrained. Bakir Sahib soon found the Baramahal
nntenable, thanks to Maxwell's activity, and retired via Chengam
to the Coromaudel.
Maxwell now proceeded to Krishnagiri, and seized the Pota
by surprise on November 7th. His attempts on the Rook itself
were repulsed.
Soon afterwards Maxwell rejoined the main army, which was
again preparing for the march on Seriugapatam. What followed
does not concern this narrative. Tipu was brought to his knees
before the end of February, and a peace was ratified on March 1 9th
which stripped Tipu of half his dominions, and crippled him with a
fine of over thirty million rupees. By this treaty the whole of the
present Salom District, except Hosur Taluk, came under the
Company's rule.
The interval between the Third and Fourth Mysore Wars
contains little of interest, except from an administrative point of
view. This is dealt with in its proper place. The military forces
were placed under the charge of Captain Alexander Read, the first
Collector, whose head-quarters were at Krishnagiri with the 15th
^ including CLendraya-durgam, sco note on p. 87.
HISTORY. 87
Battalion.' Tholth Battalion^ was at Poimap^aram, under Captain CHAP. II,
Turing, who died there in 1793. The 22nd Battalion was quartered Vlll. Tiik
under Captain Oram at Sankaridrug, with a detachment under wars
Li(>utenant Maodonald at Salem. The quarters of the 23rd
Battalion were fixed at Attiir under Captain Campbell, and a
detachment xinder Lieutenant Lang was posted to Namakkal.'^
The last Mysore War possesses little of interest so far as it ^*"^'*^I^
oouoorns Salem District, Tipu never had a chance. His whole War, 17*J9.
force did not exceed 33,000 foot and 15,000 horse. His territory
was invaded from Coorg by Greneral Stuart with 6,400 men, from
the Baramahal by Ceneral Harris with a well equipped army of
nearly 30,000. Colonel Eoad (the first Collector of Salem) secured
abundant supplies for the advancing troops. Greneral Harris left
Vellore on February 11, 1799, and marched through the vale of
Ambur. On the 18th he was joined by the Nizam's contingent
" consisting of above 6,000 of the Company's troops subsidised by
His Highness ; about the same number of his own infantry, in-
cluding a proportion of Peron's, the late French corps, now
commanded by British officers, and a large body of cavalry."^ On
the 28th, this army encamped at Kari-mangalam. Thence it
proceeded via Palakodu and " Suntamarinelly " to Raya-kota, where
it encamped on March 4th. Hostilities began on the 5th, when
' Davis-ki-paltan, now the 75th Carnatio Infantry.
* Baillie-ki-paltan, now the 64th Pioneers. The following additional infor-
mation has been furnished by the courtesy of Captain H, P. Murland from the
regimental records of the 64th Pioneers (Baillie-ki-paltaa), At the close of
iiostilities in 1792 a detachment of the 4th Biittalion of about 50 strong', was
posted at Virabhadra-durgam, and another about 130 strong, at Tiruppattur. In
1794 there were detachments at Virabhadra-durgam (Lt. MaoRae), Tiruppattur,
Chendraya-durgani and Solappiidi. In 1795 the regiment was stationed at Eaya.
kota under Captain Gabriel Doveton, with detachments at Virabhadra-durgara
(Lt, MaoRae) Chendraya-dnrgam (Lt. MacGregor) and Kangnndi (Lt. Grant).
In 1797 and 1798 there were detachments at Salem (300 strong under Captain
Innes), Virabhadra-durgam (Lt. Brown), Chendraya-durgam (Lt. Cormiok) and
Kangundi (Lt. Symons). Chendraya-durgam lies about one mile from Nam.-
manda-halli, in the extreme west of Krishnagiri Taluk. Ruins of fortifications
and other buildings are still to be seen on the hill-top, and on the plain to the
north is a plot of land traditionally known as the " drill-ground." The village
site at the foot of the hill is no longer inhabited. Chendraya-durgam is
referred to in Allan's Views as a small but strong hill fort which fell to Maxwell
On July 23rd, 1791, the day after the capitulation of Raya-kota to Major Gowdie
(p. 86 above). It is also mentioned as an important strategic stronghold in
Supplementary Despatches of the Duke of WellitxjtOTi, edited by his son (1858)
Vol. I, pp. 55-67.
. 3 See Wilson, ii, p, 239.
* Main Army, 20,802 ; Nizam's detachment, 6,536 ; Nizam's Infantry, form
orly French Corps, 2,621— Total, 29,959.
^ Beatson, p. 53,
SALEM.
CHAP. II.
VII r. The
MrsoEE
Wars.
DiTOTEICT
GARniSONS
gk detaohment under ^f ajor John Cnppagc occupied without rosis
tauoc the small hill forts of Nllagiri aud Auohclti-dnrgcam. Hudo-
durgam surrendered to Lieut. -Col. Oliver on the 7th, and Ratnagiri
was occupied after slight resistance on the 8th. Meanwhile,
on the 7th, Greueral Harris had established his head-quarters at
Kela-mangalam, and by the 9th his whole army was collected there.
At this moment Tipu was at Maddur. A party of 1,500 horse
had been detached to Hosur, to watch the movements of the army,
and to burn forage. It was the policy of General Harris to keep
him in the dark, as long as possible, as to the route by which he
would advance on Seriugapatam. Three alternatives offered
themselves. (1) The shortest route from Kela-mangalam was via
Tali, Maralavadi and Kankanhalli; but "the Pass of Tali had
never been examined, and it appeared that, besides the uncertainty
of finding it passable for heavy guns, the probable time it would
require to explore and to repair it would more than counter-
balance the advantage which might bo gained on the distance ".
The routes (2) via Auekal and Karikanhalli, and (3) via Anokal
and Chennapatna, had already been surveyed, the former having
been traversed by Lord Cornwallis in May 1791. The Anokal-
Kanhanhalli route was determined on by General Harris after
careful deliberation, the idea being to deceive Tipu into a belief
that Bangalore was his first objective.
Lord Harris moved from Kela-mangalam on March 10th. The
Sultan's horse harassed the advancing columns ut first and sno-
oeeded, near the village of Gulisandiram, in cutting up a light
company of the rear-gnard of the Nizam's contingent. The array
camped at Kalugondapalli (on the present Hosur-Tali road) for
the night, and owing to delay in the transport, was oompollod to
halt there during the 11th. The march was resumed on the 12fch,
On the 27th Tipu was defeated at Malavalli, and on May 4th
Seriugapatam was stormed and the Sultan slain.
In the division of territory which followed the capture of
Seriugapatam, the Balaghat taluks of Hos€tr, Donkani-kota,
Kela-mangalam, Venkatagiri-kota, and Alambadi, with the
Palaiyams of Bagaliir, Berikai and Sulagiri were added to Salem
District.' On November 5, 1799, a general redistribution of
garrisons and detachments throughout the Presidency was effected,
under the orders of Lord Clive, then Governor of Fort St. George.
Under these arrangements, Krishnagiri was selected as the head-
quarters for the Baramahal, and Saukaridrug for the Talaghat
while a garrison at Baya-kota guarded the Balaghat. One
' Aitchison's Treaties, V. p. 1 83.
filSTOUY.
89
Battalion of Native Infantry was allotted to Krishnag-iri and
Raya-kota ; one Battalion to Sankaridrag-, and five companies wore
detached from the latter to garrison Salem, Namakkal and Attar ;
Krishnagiri^, Bayakota and Sankaridrug were made Government
Commands in the Centre Division of the Madras Army, while
Salem, Namakkal and Attiir were classed among " other posts or
stations which were occasionally occupied by troops furnished by
detachments from the principal stations." Krishnagiri, Raya-kota
Sankaridrug and Attur were made ordnance stations. The
garrison at Pennagaram was apparently withdrawn.
In 1814 four Native Veteran Battalions^ were formed for
garrison duties, and shortly afterwards the garrisons of the District
seem to have been reduced, for, between 1816 and 1851, the
only troops, with few exceptions, which figure in the lists were
detachments from Native Veteran Battalions.
In 1823 Salem seems to have taken precedence of Sankaridrug
as the chief military station in the Balaghat. By 1824 Attup
had ceased to be a military station, by 1832 Namakkal had shared
the same fate, and soon after 1832 Sankaridrug and Krishnagiri
disappear from the list.
In 1850 Salem was transferred from the Centre or Presidency
Division, to the South or Trichinopoly Division of the Madras
Army, and was allotted two companies of the first Native Veteran
Battalion, and in the following year Eaya-k5ta was attached to the
Bangalore Command, and garrisoned by a company detached from
Regiments stationed at Bangalore. This arrangement continued
till 1857, when a general redistribution of the army was brought
into force, resulting in the withdrawal of detachments from out-
posts, and the concentration of troops as far as possible in the
head-quarters of Divisions and Brigades. Baya-kota was handed
over to a half company of the 2nd or Arni Native Veteran
Battalion, who were finally relieved by the Police in 1860.
CHAP. ir.
District
Garrisons.
1 1st (in Madias) Native Veteran Battalion, Head-quarters, Fort St. George.
2nd (in Arni) Native Veteran Battalion, Head-quarters, Cliingleput.
3rd (in Ganjam) Native Veteran Battalion, Head-quarters, Chicacole.
4th (in Dindigul) Native Veteran Battalion, Head-quarters, Dindigul.
90 SALEM.
CHAPTER III.
THE PEOPLE.
Population— Growth- DenBity— Lakouagk — EKI,Uilo^'^'— Christians — Iluiuan
Catholic Missions — London Mission— Lutheran MiRsions. Mdiiammadans —
Mahari-ain. Hindus — Villages— Houses — Dross — Tattooing — Food — Games.
Rkliuion — I. Brahiuanic — (A) Siva — (li) Vishnu. IL Panilava Cult
III. Maninatlia Cult. IV. Vlra-Saivas. V. Grama Dovatus, comprising (A).
Ayyanar Cult— (B) Sakti Cnlts — (C) Demon Cults— Hook -swinging. Social
Organisation— Caste — Kight and Left Hand Factions — Polity — Ordeals-
Oaths. Customs — Pollution- Childbirth — Customs of (!hildhooil — Marriage
CuBtoms- Funeral Castoms. Scrvey ok Castks— (A) Hrahnians- (B) Non-
Brnhraans — (1) Agricultural— (i) Tamil — Volliilars — Pallia— Njittilns—
Agamndaiyans — Udaiyiins- Vottnvans — Malniyalis — (ii) 'Jelugu— Kfipun —
Kanimas — (iii) Kanarese — ynkkiligas. (2) Pastoral — Idaiyans — Kurubas —
GoUaN. (3) Fishermen — Sembadavans. (4) Hunftera — Vodars and Bc^dars,
(5) Traders — Chettis — Ralijas. (0) Industrial — (i) VVeavcrs — Kaikolars —
■ D6vangas^(ii) Oil-presaers — Vaniyare — (iii) Toddy-drawers— Shilaiirs —
(iv) Potters — (v) Sall-workei-s — Uppiliyans — (vi) Mat-makers — Vf-dak-
kilrans — (vii) Ariizans- Kammiilars. (7) Labourars — Oddars -- Pailans.
(8) Menials — Barbers — Dliobies. (9) Military Castes — Marathas. (10)
Sectarian — Lingtiyats. (11) Mendicants. (12) Miscellaneous — Kanakkans —
Satanis — Koravas — Dommaras — Lanihadis — Irulas. (13) Panclianias —
Pariahs.
PopiJLATioK. Though Census Statistics can claim no scientific accnraoy prior
to 1871, yet the estimates of
Year. op ulation. population made at earlier periods
.r..,.., since the liritish occupation arc
• oQQ fil2 87l •' '^*^^ Without thoir inttrest. Iho
1835 905,190 marginal statement gives gueh
•838 898,2:13 figures as are available. It will
\m '.'.'. IS221 bo observed that, during a century
jgP^j * ' i'6i9'233 0^ British Rule, the population
1871 1,906,995 has nearly quadrupled, an elo-
1878 1,559,896 3 quont testimony to -the Pax
]^\ ]'Zlit!i Britanniea. The total for 1901
1891 ... ... 1,962,691 , ,» ■y^^
1901 2 204,974 ^^^ Over half a million greater
1911 1,766,680 4 than the total population of Wales
in that year ; after the excision of
1 Bead's estimate of 594,252 excludes, of oourse, the Balaghat. The estimate
for 1850 exclusive of the Balaghat is 1,054,958.
* The figui'es apply to South Salem and Coimbatore — vide part II, p. 58.
' Famine Census. Drop due to Famine of 1876-77.
* Drop due to exclusion of Niimakkal and Tiru])pattOr Taluki*.
THE VEOi^LK
91
Namakkal and Tiiuppattur, tlic total for 1911 is about double that OHAP. III.
of Wales less Glaraorganshiro. Population.
The fluctuations in population since 1871 is a matter of great Growth of
interest, in view of the devastations caused by the Great Famine of population.
1876-77. Prom columns 2, (>, 7 and 8 of the subjoined statement
it will be seen that the Baramahal suffered far more than the
Talaghat, and recovered much more slowly ; that the Balaghat
fared worse even than the Baramahsxl, failing to recover itself for
three decades ; and that, of the Talaghat taluks, Attur possesses
by far the greatest power of resistance, being virtually famine-
proof. It will also be noted that the rate of increase in the decade
1881-91 immediately following the Famine was, except in Hosur,
nearly double that of the next decade (1891-191)1); and that in
the latter decade the increase varies inversely with the decrease in
1881. By 1891 the southern taluks had recovered theii equili-
brium between population and food supply, and the northern
taluks had not.
Hosur
Krishiiagiri ...
Dhaniiapnri .,,
iJttankaiai ...
Salum
Tivuchengodn
Attar
Salem District
Decade,
1871-1881
PER
CBNT.
— 3D
— 29
— 27
— 27
— 19
Decade,
1881-1891,
Decade,
1891-1901.
Decade,
1901-1911
Twenty
years
from
1871-1891,
185
PER
CENT.
PER
CENT.
PER
CENT.
+ m
+ 18]
+ 5-;
+ 2(J
+ 15i
+ Ki
+ 3J
+ 15i
+ !•;-
+ 26
+ t.5i
- 1^
+ -m
+ m
*
+ 30
+ m
*
+ 15J
+ t»
+- i
+ 23j
+ 12J-
«
PER
CENT.
— 2ii
— 12
+ l-'l
Forty
years
from
1871-1911.
8
PER
CENT.
+ 3
+ 10
+ IJ
+ lOi
+ 17^
+ 22^
+ I'U
PER
CENT.
+ 3^
+ <'\
•f 20
+ -i
+ 27^
* Not known, as the Taluk boinidaries were modified before the Census of 1911 was
taken.
The number of persons per square mile in 1911 was 280, against Density.
230 for Wales in the same year. The density in the Balaghat is
16 i, in the Baramahal 224, in the Talaghat 392. Salem and
Tiruchengodu are the most thickly populated taluks, and Omalur
stands third. Next to Hosur, the most sparsely peopled area
is tJttankarai.'
^ The followiag statement shows the number of persons per square mile in
each taluk in 1911 : —
Hosllr
Krishnagiri .
Dharniapuri
Uttaukarai .
161
'Salem
276
Omalur
238
Tiruchengodu
372
Attur
487
377
489
247
d2
SALEM.
CHAP. III. With the sole exception of Salem City/ the population shows
Population, no very marked tendeuc}' to gravitate to towns, of which only
seven are recognised in the Census Lists.*"^
LAHaoAaE. Out of every 1,000 of the population, 747 speak Tamil as their
house language, 148 Telugu, 76 Kanavese. 22 Hindustani, 4 Pat-
nuli and 3 Marathi. In other words, about three-fourths of the
total population are Tamil, a little over oneoightli Telugu, and a
little over one-sixteenth Kanarose.
The percentage of Tamil speakers is 81 in the Talaghat and
74 in the Baramahal ; in the lialaghat it falls to 43. Telugu is
fairly evenly distributed tliroughout the District, owiug to the
number of Telugu ryots who settled in the Talaghat in the wake
of Vijayanagar conquests. Kanarcse on the other hand is most
in evidence in the Balaghat, wheroit exceeds 30 per cent., and in
the Northern Bfiramahal Taluks of Krishnagiri and Dharmapuri,
where it is just under 10 per cent. In the remaining taluks of the
District the Kanareso speakers aro under 6 per cent., falling in
Attur to 2 per cent- Hindustani, and also Marathi, arc more fre-
quently met with iu the Balaghat and Baramalial than in the
Talaghat ; the proportion is highest in llosur, Krishnagiri coming
second. This is clearly due to the circumstance that Hosur and
Krishnagiri have had a more martial past than the rest of the
District. Patnuli (a dialect of Gfujarati, sometimes written in
Telugu characters) is confined to the silk-weavers of Salem. The
Lambadi dialect is spoken by 855 persons, mostly iu Jfosur,
Dharmapuri and tJttankarai, and 202 persons (mostly in
tJttankarai) are returned as speaking the Yerukala or Korava
dialect.
Tamil is understmid throughout the District, except in cciiain
parts of the Balaghat whore Kanareso predominates. The quality
of the Tamil spoken is not pure, but a detailed account of the
local dialect is beyond the scope of this book, liyots are very apt
to substitute I for r, and vice versa, especially with foreign words ;
Salem City increased from 10,000 in 1801 to 70,000 odd in 1901— vide
infra, Vol. II, p. 247.
t
1891.
1901.
1911.
llasiparaai
10,539
11,512
i.-,,2:;h
Attilr
9,205
9,673
10,992
Krishnagiri
9,726
10,416
10,887
Dharmapuri
6,939
8,102
6,158
Hosur
5,756
H,o;ir)
5,913
Kaveripatnam ...
4,457
4,951
5,171
TirachengOdu
7,511
8,196
4,645
THE PEOPLE. 93
e.g., '* lubber" instoad of "rubber," or " ran tern " instead of CHAl'. III.
" lantern ". Not infrequently v (<a;) is substituted for p or b {u) Lanquagb.
{e.g.^ (otsiSij^i^iT instead of ei^u^i^rr)^ and sometimes y (iii) takes the
place of s (c^) (e </., Sriaivayan instead of Srinivasan). Another
local peculiarity is the occasional substitution of k («) for 6 (u),
e.g.i the familiar name Sabraraaniyam is often corrupted
to Sukkramani or Sukku, a ohango which suggests the familiar
philological equation cquus = hippos. The letter (p is usually
pronounced like err.
Though most Muhammadans profess to speak Hindustani, the
house language of the Libbais is ordinarily Tamil, and of the Pin-
jaris Telugu (p. 104). The majority of the Muhammadans in the
northern taluks are returned as speaking Hindustani, but, in the
ultra-Tamil Taluks of Tirucbengodu and Attur, only two-thirds
and one-half, respectively, of the Muhammadans appear to know of
the language.
The polyglot character of the District must have presented
serious difficulties to Eead and his Assistants. The paimaish records
of Salem, Attur and Tiruchengodu are written in Tamil. One-
fifth of those at Uttankarai are in Tamil, two-fifths in Kanarese
two-fifths in Marathi. The Marathi is corrupted witli a number of
Hindustani words. Nine-tenths of the Dharmapuri records are
in Kanarese, the rest being in Marathi, Tamil and Hindi.
In Krishaagiri, two-thirds are in Kanarese, one-third in Marathi'
In Tiruppattur, half are in Tamil, half in Telugu. Lastly in
Hosur throe-fourths of the accounts are in Kanarese and one-
fourth in Marathi. Marathi was the official language of the District
till 1851, when Mr. Phillips procured the Board's sanction for its
abolition in revenue correspondence. In October 1854 the Board
ordered that the practice of submitting jamdhandi accounts to their
office in Marathi should be discontinued ; thenceforward the
Marathi language ceased to have any official existence in the
District.
Of every thousand inhabitants, 967 are Hindus, 25 Muham- kkligions.
madans and 8 Christians. The Muhammadans are above the
District average in Hosur (55 per mille), Krishnagiri (45), and
Uttankarai (32 j ; the Christians only in Salem and Attur (each
13 per raille). The proportion of Muhammadans for the District is
less than half that for the Presidency.
Christians in 1911 numbered 15,002 or less than one percent. Christiaxs.
of the total population. Of these, 584 were Europeans or Eurasians,
and 14,418 were Indians. Of the Indian Christians, 13,301, or 92
por cent, were Eoman Catholics, the remaining 8 per cent, being
divided among the various Protestant denominations ; 652 (rather
94
SALBM
CHAP. III.
CllBISTIANS.
Roman
Catholic 1
less than 5 per cent.) belonged to the London Mission,' 177 to the
various Luthorau Missions, 124 were Anglicans, and the remainder
were attached to minor sects, or were unspecified. -
St. Francis Xavier, the Apostle of India, came from Portugal
to Goa in 1540, and made inuumerable converts during the ten
years of his ministration in the country. The work begun by him
was taken up by the Jesuit Fathers towards the end of the sixteenth
century. In IG06 the celebrated Kobert de'Nobili, a relation of
Pope Julius III, arrived in Madura, and entered on a career of
preaching which lasted 40 years. His early work was in Madura.
Deeply versed in all the languages aud customs of the country,
he made himself '* all things to all men " to win the people to the
faith. He adopted the habit of life of tho Brahmaus, was attended
by Brahmau servants only, and observed in the minutest particulars
the customs of those in whose midst he sojourned.
In June 1623, after he had set the Christian Church at Madura
on a firm basis, Robert de'Nobili loft Madura for tlie north.
Tirumala Nayaba had but lately acceded to the throne, and had
made Trichinopoly his residence. There were a few Christians at
his Court, but de'Nobili could do little work among them, as every
one was in a turmoil of warlike preparations. De'Nobili, therefore,
pursued his journey to Sonda-mangalam (in Namakkal Taluk),
whore he was well received by the reigning prince, Ramaohandra
Navaka, a vassal of Madura, who offered him a handsome site on
which to build a church. Kobert de'Nobili, however, intent on
further conquests, was forced for the moment to decline the
generous offer, and pushed on to Salem, then ruled by Salapatti
Nilyaka, another feudatory of Madura. At the outset, the
populace of Salem adopted an attitude of hostility to the efforts of
the '* great Sanyasi. " Every gate was shut against him, and
he had to content himself with the shelter of a wretched chn?^adi,
exposed on all sides to wind and rain. Here he remained forty
days, during which he fell seriously ill. At length one of the
townsfolk, moved with pity, offered him the shelter of his house ;
the offer was accepted, and everything at once assumed a now
1 The mission retnrna give a total of 1,108. which inclades, no doubt, most of
those who aro " unspcoiriod " in the Census returns.
- Mission work seems ratlier stagnant, if the marginal figures are correct.
The totals exclude fif,'ure.s for Namakkal
and Tiruppattur. Even then the total
for 1011 is lower than that for liiOl by
12 per cent., and has even fallen bolow
that of 1891 ; while the increnso be-
tween 1881 and 1901 is only 13 percent,
against 51 per cent, for the total popula-
tion of the saiao taluks.
Year.
1881
1891
1901
1911
Nunibor of
Christians.
13,950
15,576
lG,63t
1 5,003
THE PEOPLE. 95
aspect. The preacher recovered his health ; the feelings of the CIIAP. ill.
people changed ; those who had hitherto rejected the Apostle Ciiristianb.
became eager to hear him. The Eajaof Salem expressed a desire
to see him, and offered to grant him wliatever favour be desired.
Oe'Nobili replied that he desired nothing but his friendship. The
prince assured him he would always remain his friend, and
allotted him a house in the Brahman quarter to live in.' People
flocked to him for instruction, and a number of miracles won their
conversion. Among his most earnest listeners was Tirumangala
Nayaka, elder brother of Ramachandra Nayaka, the Eilja of
Senda-mangalam, who had driven him from his kingdom. About
the end of 1624, Robert de'Nobili left Salem for Cochin to visit
his Provincial. The Salem Mission seemed firmly established,
and there was every prospect of Tirumangala Nayaka and his
sons, the eldest of whom was heir-apparent of the Senda-manga-
lam chieftaincy, embracing Christianity. Political intrigues,
however, made havoc of his plans, and Tirumangala Nayaka had
to flee for safety from Salem to the Eaja of " Moramangalam " ^
There he wrote to Robert de'Nobili to come and baptise him with
his family. Robert responded to bis call, but, thanks again to
political intrigues, he met with a very cool reception at the bands
of the Raja, who granted him no place of residence. De'Nobili
had to content himself with a wretched hovel. However, before
long, Tirumangala brought him his four sons to be baptised, and
after some hesitation he himself received baptism on Christmas
Day, 1625. Numerous conversions followed, a church was built
and the mission prospered, "Moramangalam" was placed in
charge of Father Emmanuel Martiuz,'^ who had come with Robert
de'Nobili from Cochin in the previous year, and Robert returned
to Madura (1626 A.D.).
The subsequent history of the " Moramangalam" mission is losfc.^
The zeal of the Jesuit Missionaries, however, did not flag.
1 Launay, Histoire des Missions de Vfnde, Vol. I, p. xiv, cf. Bertrand
La Mission du Madure, Vol. II, p. 225 to 251.
'' Possibly one of the Gatti Mudaliyars of Amarakuudi, adjoining the
modern village of Mara-mangalam ; vide p. 69. In Bertrand, Vol. IJ, p. 242,
" Moramangalam " is said to be " eight leagues from Salem". Mara-mangalam is
about 5 miles north-west of Omalur. The Mudalis of Mara-mangalam aro
mentioned in an inscription of the 14th year of Jatavarman Sundara-Pandya II,
1290 A.D., vide G.E. No. 23 of 1900.
3 See Bertrand, Vol. II, pp. 251 and 271 . According to Launay, p. xiv, Ant.
Vico was in charge.
* Father Martinz was in charge in 1626 (Bertrand, Vol. II, p. 271) ; in
Docember 1628 Father Laerzio wrote " The Fathers aro building houses and
churches at Moramangalam and in a place near Salem," but after 1628 the letters
are silent.
96 SALEM.
CHAP. III. It is possible that in 1648 Robert de'Nobili revisited the
Christians. Christian settlements he had founded on his way to JMylapore
where he spent the last eight years of his life.' In about 1050 the
Mysore Mission was founded from Goa, and their centre of opera
tions appears to have been Seringapatam. In 1675 Father Jean de
Britto visited Dharmapuri, where he found a flourishing mission in
charge of two European priests, Fathers Antoine Eibeira and
Mouooiarelli-, wliom he describes as " Missionaries of Mysore." ^ In
1678 Omaliir and Salem are spoken of as Missionary " provinces*'
attached to the Madura Mission.* Between 1678 and 1685 no
fewer than six Fathers in tlie Madura Mission died, and, owing
to the paucity of workers, the Madura Mission handed over a
large tract of country, including most of Coimbutore District and
part of Salem, to the Mysore Mission.* It is also recorded that
Father de Britto, after his return from Europe, made his way from
Gingee through the wild forests of the Javadis to Dharmapuri
whence he proceeded to the Marava country, the scene of his mar-
tyrdom in 1 693.
Moanwhi-le, in 1663, the Capuchins landed inPondicherry and
assumed cliarge of the European congregations. In 1685) the
Jesiiit Fathers, who had been expelled from Siara, took over mis-
sion work among the Indians. Another wave of missionary
enthusiasm brought Father Bcschi, ^ with a body of priests from
Goa, to evangelise the Tamils. Early in the eighteenth century
there were mission stations at " Capinagati " and ' Caguti " in
Hosur Taluk, and a letter from Father San lago to Father
Manoel Savay, dntcd *'Capinagati, ^ August 8, 1711 ^' relates how
Father Dacunha was ill-treated and wounded at Caguti, and died
of his wounds at Capinagati. It was perhaps in the early part
* Robert de'Nobili died on January 16, 1G5G, at the age of 80.
» Bertrand, Vol. Ill, p. 255.
' Accordinj^ to tlie account prepared for Mr. LeFanu by Fatlior Thirion
they were called Susia-pere-Swamiar and Antoniar. " Tradition has it that, in
the outset a European priest was appointed exclusively to minister to the
higher castes and was called the ' Priest of Brahmans', while another, called
' Pandaram-Swiimi ' ministered to the Pariahs, so that caste prejudices should
not stay the progress of conversions."
* Bertrand, Vol. Ill, p. 296.
* These particulars have been kindly supplied by the Eev. Father L,
Besse of Trichinopoly.
^ Father Beschi served the Madura Mission from 1711 to 1740, when he
retired to the Malabar Coast. He died there on February 4, 1747,
' See Hissiovs de V Ivde, Vol. I, p. Ixiv. Capinagati is probably to be identi-
fied with Kappiganatli, half a mile north of Kela-mangalam, and Caguti might
be E^adudi, 7 miles south-east of Kela-mangalam. If tlicFe identifications are
correct, M. Launay should have written " southeast " instead of " south-west "
but ihe distances given by him are approximately accurate.
THE PEOPLE. 97
of tho eighteenth century that tlie Christian settlement of Tigalara- citap. Iir.
halli (1^ miles north of Tali), was colonised from Dharmapuri and Christians.
Gftnjfim (Seringapatam), under Goaneso influence. From
Tigalara-halli the community migrated ^ to Matagonda-palli,
where land was granted them, it is said, by the villagers, in
gratitude for rains which fell in a season of drought in answer
to the prayers of the new settlers.
By the middle of the ciglitoenth century it was estimated that
the number of convei-fs amounted to three millions. But raisfor-
time was at hand. In 1773 the Society of Jesus was suppressed,
"a misfortune felt as irreparable to tho present day, for the
missions oflndia, founded at the price of so many privations, being
deprived of their misfiionaries, many of the Christian communi-
ties were lost, and it was not till the beginning of the nineteenth
century that the work could be seriously taken on hand."^ As
a temporary measure, on the destruction of the Order, the care of
their congregations was made over to the Bishop of Verapolj.
In 1776 the Mission of the Karnatic was entrusted to the priests
of the Paris Society of Foreign Missions, in whoso charge Salem
District still remains, Bnt before the work of reconstruction
could be got under way, a still more serious blow to the Christian
cause in Salera District was inflicted by the persecutions of Tipu.
The history of Tipu's persecution concerns more directly the
history of Mysore. It began in 1784, and continued till 1787,
when Tipu received tho envoys of Louis XV'I, and negotiations
were opened for its cessation. Meanwhile missionaries were expel-
led, churches destroyed, and Indian Christians given the choice
between the " Honour of Islam and death." The Christian com-
munities at " Capinagati '^ and " Oaguti ^' vanished. The churches
at Tigalara-halli, Chikkana-halli (near Anekal) and Selve-kuppam
(near Matagonda-palli) were swept away, and all that remains is
a tamarind tree in Tigalara-halli, and a- stone cross in each of the
other two hamlets, which mark the traditional site of the buildings
which perished. Orders were given for the destruction of Koviltir
(near Adaman-kottai) and Kadagattur, but these two settlements,
as well as Edappadi and Kalkaveri, appear to have survived the
storm.
On the defeat of Tipu after the Third Mysore War, the work
of reconstruction began in earnest, under the auspices of the
famous Abbe Dubois/ who " fled from the horrors of the French
^ The reason for this migration and ita date are not known, vide Launay,
loo. cit.
^ P6re Thirion, loc. cit.
' Vide letter of the Abb^ Dubois to Colonel Read, dated September 13, 1797.
98 SALEM.
CHAP.. III. Ilevolution ^' in 1792, and was attached to the Pondicherry Mission.
Christians. The Abbe was the fourth of the Missionaries sent for the work of
reorganisation by Mgr, Nicholas Champenois, Bishop of Doliche,
and Vicar Apostolic of Pondicherry.^ " We took profit, '^ wrote
the Abbe in 1793, " of the tolerance and protection accorded by
the British to every religion to penetrate into the provinces
acquired by them, and took care of the Christians dispersed by tho
persecution of Tipu Sultan. We gathered together three or four
thousand souls in four or five of the principal churches, and I took
charge of the congregation."
The Abbfe's work lay more particularly in the territory ceded
by Tipuj and he seems to have had a special fondness for Salem
District. The ruined churches were rebuilt, partly at the Abbe's
expense, and partly by the congregation. In 1797 the Abbe
had occasion to complain to Colonel Read that efforts were
being made by certain Groanese Missionaries to subvert his spirit-
ual authority, and oust him from his churches.
"Black Priests," ho wrote, "have arrived from tho Malabar Coast in this
oonntry, and lodged, without my permission, without even preventing me, in my
several ohurches. Amazed by the boldness and impoliteness of snoli a conduct, I
asked the cause of it, when I was answered that thoy came to take this mission
from mo, and to take possession of all the Christian churches in Bavamahal and
Salem's country ; saying that I was nothing else but an usurper, and that if I
should oppose any difficulty to their undertakings, they were bearei-s of orders
from the Right Honourable the Governor of Madras t3 compel mo to leave
without delay this country, and that the orders of which they are bearers are of
so compelling a nature that they leave no choice or alternative. Their bold and
determined discourses filled me with surprise and care . . . The calumnies
they have spread everywhere against me among those ignorant and credulous
people, by saying that I am a French priest, and that all tho Frenchmen have,
Hince their revolution, fallen into heresy, and have been, without exception,
excommunicated by tho Pope, that the doctrine I am announcing is not the
true doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church, that tho Engli-jh Government, sensi-
ble of all these motives, has entrusted thorn with the charge of all the missions
in this country, these anda thousand other absurd discourses, and above all their
likeness, by colour, manners and morals, with the people of this country, have
won them the affection and confidence of all ; and they are received and triumph-
ing in all my churches, while despise 1 of all, I am obliged to fly from a cottage
to another, and I hardly meet with persons compassionate enough to give mo
shelter in their thatched houses,* "
1 The Abbd was born in 1765, and ordained in the Diocese of Viviers in
1792, the year of his departure for India. He returned to France in 1823, and at
once became Director of the Missions Etrang^res in Paris. He died in 1848 at
the age of 83. See Hindu Manners, Customs and Gerenonies (ed. H. K. Boau-
ohamp), Clarendon Press, 1897.
2 Letter of Abb6 Dubois to Colonel Read, dated September 13,1797. See
Correspondence between Abbe Dubois and Col. Alexander Read on the subject of
the Disputes between Ahh^ Dubois and the Black Priests, Government Press
Madras, 1905.
THE PEOPLE. 99
Col. Read replied that Le could not interfere in matters of CHAP. ill.
spiritual jurisdiction, and advised the Abbe to compound with his Christiaks.
persecutors. The Abbe then waived the question of spiritual right,
but claimed compensation for the cost incurred by him in building
'•' Churches and Lodgings" in the District. The correspondence'
does not state exactly how the matter was settled, but the Abbe's
work by no means suffered. The British authorities allowed him
»,n annual grant of Bs. 42 for the church at Dharmapuri-Kovilur,
and similar grants for those at Kalkaveri and Tiruppattur.^ After
the fall of Seringapatam, he was invited ^ to proceed thither to
reorganise the Mysore Mission, and he worked there till 1823.
He did not, however, lose interest in Salem District, and used
periodically to visit Eaya-kota and Krishnagiri. Major Bevan
gives the following account of him : —
" He presided over the whole of the Catholics in the Salem and Baramahal
districts, A residence of thirty years in India, and a life spent among the
natives on a moat friendly and intimate footing, whose dress and habits he in
some measure adopted, combined with his talents and other acquirements,
enabled him to form a just estimate of the characteristic traits of the Indians.
His flock looked up to him with the esteem and reverence that he merited. His
views, with reference to the conversion of the heathen, were rather against his
success. He warmly advocated the rights and privileges of the Hindus,
especially the female part, declaring that they possessed those moral and
correct feelings which form the bond of social intercourse and the basis of
domestic happiness.* "
The history of the nineteenth century is one of steady pro-
gress. In 1838 Grregory XVI established the Vicariate Apostolic
of the Coast of Coromandel. In 1850 Pius IX divided the field
into the three Apostolic Vicariates of Pondicherry, Mysore and
Coimbatore. In 1886 Leo XIII constructed the Vicariate
Apostolic of Pondicherry into an Archbishopric and Mysore became
a Diocese. A year later Pondicherry was made the Metropolitan
See of an Ecclesiastical Province. In 1899 Leo XIII erected the
Diocese of Kumbakonam, by dismemberment from the Archdiocese
of Pondicherry.
Salem District at present is divided between the Archdiocese
of Pondicherry, the Diocese of Kumbakonam, and that of
Mysore. The major portion of the District falls within tbe
^ " For building Kalkaveri's Church and lodging 150 rupees, for Edappadi's
lodging 51 rupees, for Dharmapuri's lodging 47 rupees, for getting a statue
of St. Peter for Tiruppattur's church 18 rupees — Total 269 rupees " (Letter of
October 8, 179V).
- Launay, Vol. I, p. 191.
^ According to the Mysore Gazetteer, Vol. I, p. 483, the invitation came from
the Catholic congregation. Mr. Beauchanip refers to a statement that the
invitation was given by Col. Wellesley himself {Hindu Manners and Cnntoms^
p.xii).
* Thirty Tears in India, Vol. I, p. 77.
G-1
100
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
Chrisstiaks.
The London
Mission.*
jurisdiction of the Poadicherry See, and contains nine stations.
In the Talaghat there are stations at Salem, Attur and Akkara-
varam^, half way between the two ; a fourth at Setti-patti, a
hamlet of ICaioalapuram, near Omaliir ; and a fifth at Edappadi.
On the Shevaroys, Tercaiid and Balniadies are treated as one
station. Dharmapuri Taluk is served by Kovilur near Adaman-
kottai, and Kadagattur. The jurisdiction of the former extends
over the southern part of tJttankarai Taluk. Krishnugiri Taluk
is served by the mission at Elattagiri, and the northern portion
of TJttankarai from Kovilur, three miles from Tiruppattur town.
In 1907 eight French and two Indian priests were working in
the portion of the District included within the limits of the
A^rchdiocese. The Diocese of Kumbakdnam is bounded on the
north by the Vellilr, or rather that branch of it which in Salem
District is called the Swota-nadi. It contains two stations, viz.,
Koneri-patti in the south of Attiir Talul<, and Kalkaveri
(Kakkavori) near Rasipuram. There is only one Salem station
within the Diocese of Mysore, namely Mattigiri.
The congregation of the European and Native Sisters of St.
Joseph of Clany have a branch at Yorcaud, where a boarding
school is maintained. At Yercaud there are also Convents
belonging to the Presentation Nuns of St. Joseph's, Vepery, and
St. Mary's, Madras. The Congregation of the Native Nuns of the
Sacred Heart of Mary, established in 18 tt under the rules of the
Third Eegular Order of St. Francis of Assisi for the instruction
of native girls, maintain schools at Akkaravaram, Kovilur,
Salem, Setti-patti and Elattagiri.
In June 1827 Messrs. Tyorman and Bennet, on behalf of the
London Missionary Society, selected Salem as a field for missionary
effort, and in October of the same year the first Missionai-y, the
Eev. Henry Crisp, began his task. He took over from the Col-
lector, Mr. M. D. Cockbum , five small schools, which were at
the time under the Collector's management. Mr. Crisp met with
a good deal of opposition, and in Ammapet ho was mobbed and
stoned. In 1829 he was deprived by death of the devoted assist-
ance of his wife ; his own health gave way shortly after, and in
1832 an attack of malaria proved fatal. In that year the first
church was built, and two converj^ were baptised.
Mr. Crisp's successor was the Rev. George Walton, an East
Indian, whose work, lasting over eight years, was crippled by ill-
health. Mr. Walton got involved in serious loss by litigation for
1 Hamlet of Kari-patti.
* The information on the rjondoii Mission has beon furnished by the Rev.
W, Robinson.
THE PEOPLE. 101
which he was iu now ay responsible ; the Famine of 1833 added CHAP.iJi
to his troubles ; in 1839 Mrs. Walton died, and two years later CuRisTuyg.
he himself succumbed.
Shortly before Mr. Walton's death, he was joined by the Rev.
J. M. Lechler, a distiogaished Tamil scholar, who had been
associated with the great missionary Rhenius. Mr. Lechler
vigorously revived the Mission work in outlying stations, specially
in Attur Taluk. Ably helped by his wife, he opened homes in
Salem for training the children of converts, and taught them
weaving, carpentry, blacksmiths' work, mat-making and other
industries. Artizan missionaries from Germany were employed,
and, thanks to the efforts of Mr. C. Rahm, who for ten years
developed the v/ork with ungrudging effort, the Industrial School
prospered.
In June 1861, Mr. Lechler died. What followed was "a
series of blunders worse than crimes." " Two elderly Mission-
aries of the old regime/' writes the Rev. J. P. Ashton, " had seen
fit to smash up, in one day, the two boarding schools and the
industrial school. I could never understand the reason of this
step, unless it was they were much too successful and financially
prosperous institutions to be tolerated in a mofussal station. We
juniors could only helplessly look on at the destruction.^'
In 1862 the Rev. G. Mabbs and his wife came to Salem, and
had to inherit the blunders of their immediate predecessor. Papers
and documents were in a terrible state of confusion, and the
Mission is indebted to the careful patience of Mr. Mabbs for
reducing the chaos of the Mission records to order. Mr. Mabbs
was succeeded by the Rev, W.E. Morris, who had laboured already
in Coimbatore, and had a unique mastery over the dialectical
vagaries of the Tamil language. His career was prematurely
cut short by an attack of sun-stroke, and early in 1870 he was
relieved by the Rev. Henry Toller, who died of cholera within a
few days of his arrival, leaving his young widow to return home
in the ship which brought her to India as a bride.
In 1862 the Rev. Mr. Phillips was appointed to Tiruppattur,
and took up his residence in that station. Mr. Phillips laboured
earnestly as a vernacular preacher, and gave a great impetus to
work in the northern half of the District. When Mr. Toller died,
the Directors of the Society decided to give up Salem. In 42
years four Missionaries and three of the ladies of the Mission had
died, and two men had been compelled to retire because of broken
health. It was therefore declared advisable to ask the Arcot
Mission to take charge of Salem. This proposal was set aside,
however, and the Rev. Mr. Phillips was directed to take over the
102
salrm.
CHAP. III.
Christians.
Lutheran
Missions.
work at Salem. He did so, retaining Tiruppattur. Henceforward
the work of the MiKsion steadily progressed. In 1891 the
Australian Auxiliary Society scut Miss Cox as a Zenana Mis-
sionary. After 11 months of work she was compelled to retire
owing to ill-health, and was succeeded by Miss Crouch and Miss
Lodge. In 1908 the Rev. Geo. Wilkins started mission work in
Hosur, in connection with the Bangalore Kauareso Mission.
In 1907 an interesting work was started among the Koravas of
the Salem-Attur valley, a number of whom had expressed a desire
to become Christians and lead a settled and honest life. As many
of them were on the " K.D." register, and hud no permanent
abode, it became necessary to bring them together into one
settlement. Mr. Eobinson accordingly darkhasted for a piece of
waste land near Sukkampatti, about half way between Salom and
the Manjavadi Ghat, and settled ton families upon it. The people
built their own houses, and pay kist for their land through the
Mission. The Mission assumed responsibility for the good
conduct of the settlers. A code of rules was drawn up and strictly
enforced ; the catechist in charge has to see that each member
of the community is in his house at night, and enters his name in
a register, and a Police constable visits the place every night and
checks the register. Crime has not been entirely banished, but it
has decreased to a surprising extent, and on several occasions the
Tillagers themselves have reported cases of theft, and given the
offenders over to the authorities. The settlement is now known as
Elizabethpet, and in 1912 numbered 56 souls. A similar settle-
ment was established in 1909 at Muttampatti by Mr. Robertson,
and in 1912 it numbered 84 members.
In 1912, in addition to the Mission work in Salem Town, there
are congregations in Yereaud, Attur, Viraganfir, Kondri-patti,
Sendara-patti, Sankaridrug, Kira-patti, Elizabethpet, Muttampatti,
Toppa-patti (near Easipuram), all attached to the Salom Mission,
and at Dharmapuri, Harur, Elattagiri in the Tiruppattilr Mission.^
In addition to the three churches in Salem, there are churches in
Yereaud, Sankaridrug, Narasingapuram (AttCir), Kouori-patti,
Sendara-patti, Dharmapuri, Palakodu and Elattagiri.
The Missouri Evangelical Lutheran Mission started work ^
in the District in 1895 under the Eev. Theodor Naether, who,
after travelling throughout the District, selected Krishnagiri as
^ These congregations are estimated to number in all 1,108 souls.
2 Under the auspices of the German Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Mis-
souri, Ohio and other States, one of the largest Lutheran bodies in North America,
working chiefly among immigrants from Germany and Scandinavia.
I
TfiE PEOPLE.
103
an unworked field. In the following year a second station was CHAP, TIT.
opened at Am bur by the Eev. V. Mohii. In the latter part of Christians.
1897 work was taken up in Vaniyanibadi by the Eev. E,. Freche,
and in the following year the Eev. Gr. 0. Kellerbauer completed
the chain by establishing a station at BargQr.^ Tlie four stations
of Ambur, Vaiiiyambadi, Bargur and Krishnagiri form a compact
little district for concentrated eifort.
The Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission began work on the
8hevaroys in 1862, and the first chapel was built on the hill on
which- Mr. Rahm's bungalow now stands. A new chapel was
begun in December 1 875, and consecrated in the following June.
It stands, in the quarter of Yorcaud known as Lutherpet.
A branch of the Danish Missionary Society was opened on the other
Shevaroy Hills in 1883 by the Eev. Kofoed, who had to visit Missions.
Yercaud on account of ill-health. The mission station is located
on the flank of the Shevarayan, about 3 miles from Yercaud.
Most of the missionary's work is among the Malaiyalis.
The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel maintains an
Indian Priest at Salem.
The Muhammadans number in all 43,421. Though they
represent only 2^ per cent of the total popnlatiou of the District,
their local settlements are of no small importance. This is es-
pecially the case with the chief centres of trade, and with places
which in former days wore garrisoned with troops. In such
localities they sometimes exceed one-fourth of the total population.^
Muhammadans are commonly spoken of as divided into two
classes, Dakhanis and Labbais; the former, as their name indicates,
being regarded as immigrants from the Deccan, the latter as des-
cendants of indigenous races.
The Dakhanis class themselves as Sheikhs (24,387), Saiyads^
(6,800), Pathans (7,115) and Mughals (693), but, thanks to the
fact that they are untrammelled by endogamous laws, these
divisions have little or no ethnic significance. Their house
language is Hindustani.
The Labbais, who are returned as 3,851, are supposed to be of
almost pure Dravidian descent. Their house language is Tamil
Muham-
madans.
Dakhanie.
Labbais.
^ Eaob of these pioneers had previous experience in Indian Mission work
under the Leipzig Mission, wLich they left owing to their strict adherence to the
doctrine of scriptural inspiration.
- E.g. Denkani-kota, Hosur, Krishnagiii, Kela-mangalam, etc.
^ Strictly ispeakihg a Saiyad is a direct descendant of the Prophet, a Sheikh
a direct descendant of one of the first three Khalifas, a Sharif is the son of a
Sheikh father by a Saiyad mother.
104 SALEM.
CHAP. in. jy^(j many of ttem do not understand Hindnstani. In most
MADAN^ respects they are orthodox Suunis. It is said^ that they
— ;- ohserve a number of Hindu customs, but no evidence of this is
forthcoming so far as the Labbais of Salem District are concerned.
They are a frugal and industrious community, and persevering
traders.
injans. j^ addition to the Dakhanis and Labbais, there is a section of
Muhammadans who speak a corrupt form of Telugu, aud are
variously known as Pinjaris, Panjaris, Panju-vcttis, Achu-kattis
or Dude-kulaa.* As their name implies, their distinctive means
of livelihood is cotton-cleaning ; tiiey are also weavers and mat-
makers. There arc several settlements of them ^ in Attur Taluk,
and they are to be found in Ammapet, Tara-mangalam, Rasipuram,
Hosur, Mattigiri and BSrikai. It is siiid that their customs
approximate closely to those of the Hindus, that both men aud
women dress like Hindus, that the wonicn wear a pottu, of red
kunkumdm on their forehead, and that the men sometimes shave
the beard and wear a hwiumi ; tali is tied at marriages ; they
adopt Hindu terminations (Appa, Amma, ete.) ti) their names ;
gosha is not observed ; they sometimes worship in Hindu Temples,
and at Bakrid do puja to the implements with which they earn
their livelihood, on the analogy of the Hindu Ayudha-puja, vSvioh
practices are, however, by no means universal among them, aud the
modern tendency is towards assimilation with orthodox Midiam-
madau observances.
In social and religious matters the Muhammadans of the larger
towns are strongly organised into separate communities, each under
its own committee (/aiiulyai). Many of the customs in vogue
among the ruder classes are anathema to the orthodox, but the
efforts at reform that arc from time to time made by zealous
puritan preaehera exeite a great deal of opposition, and meet with
little success. Among the chief items uf controversy are the use
of green pandals, and of tom-toms and music on religious occasions,
the employment of dancing girls at marriages, the tying of nddd
(tape) round the wrist at Muharram. and the processions, masques
and general procedure which characterise the celebration of the
Muharram. Worship at the graves of firs (Saints), which is very
* Seo, Caxtes and Tribes, b. v. — The CQBtums of the Labbaia have nevca- been
systematically worked oat, aiul the available information on the sabjcct is scanty
and vague.
* Dudf-kula means in Telugu " coLton-cleaners " ; Panju-vetti is Tamil for
the same; Achu-kalti means '* luom-making." Sec Castes and Tribes, II, )>. 195,
B.v. Dudekula.
■^ At Attur, Olaippadi, NadavalOr, Gaugavalli, Vlragantir, Tidavar and
Tandavarayapuia m.
THE PEOPLE.
105
prevalent in tLe District, is also discountenanced by the strict CHAP. HI.
Mnsalinan. Tne bodies of Pirs are popularly supposed to be Mlham-
incorruptible ; miracles are performed at their tombs, and oblations i
(urs) are offered on the anniversary of their death. It is a ourions
feature of these tomb-cults that Hindus frequently take part in
them.'
The three chief Muhammadan festivals are, as elsewhere, (1) Festivals.
Ramzan, (2) Baki*id and (3) Muharram. The Ramzan Kuthd
celebrates the close of the Lenten Fast, which is observed through-
out the mouth of Eamzan. The Bakrid commemorated Abraham's
intended sacrifice of Ishmael (who in Muhammadan tradition
takes the place assigned to Isaac in the Hebrew version), and is
celebrated on the ninth day of the month Zillhaj. On both the
Eamzan and Bakrid Kuthds all male Muhammadans shave them-
selves and bathe, and, dressed in new clothes of the purest white,
with shawls, turbans and vests of the gayest colours, flock en
masse to the Idgas, or praying walls, situated on the outskirts of
their town or village, and offer prayers. The Bakrid is also
celebrated in each household that can afford it by the sacrifice of
a sheep. To die on either of these festal days is held to be most
fortunate, and the bodies of those who so die are carried to the
Idga, and special prayers are recited over the biers at the conclu-
sion of the Kutbd service.
As already stated, the thirteen days' festival of Muharram, Muharram.
which commemorates the defeat and martyrdom of Hussain at
Kerbela (G80 A.D.), is accompanied by many ceremonies which
violate the principles of Islam. The centre of operations is a
Makhdn called AshUr-khdna or Alldswdmi Kovil, an unpretentious
building where the panj'ds are kept and where the tdbuts are con-
structed. The panjd is a metal device, mounted on a pole, which
is supposed to represent the standard of Hussain ; its shape varies ;
sometimes it is in the form of a hand, sometimes of a fieur-de-iis.'-^
The tdbut is a model of a mausoleum, constructed of paper, tinsel,
mica, etc., mountod on a platform, which is carried on the
shoulders of men in the manner of a Hindu wheel-less car.
Among the most pleasing features of the Muhariam celebra-
tions are the Giros, or troupes of brightly-clad boys, who fnliven
the towns and villages with songs and dances. Oi the different
guises there is infinite variety. In Salem City, these Giros are
organised on an unusually elaborate scale, each quarter of the
^ The first liiriaii Tlr WJis ALdiJl Kadir, who was born at Bagdad, A.H., 471
(10'78-'79 A.D.) and died A.H., 571 (1175 A.D.). See Qanoon-e.Islam,i>. 432.
* Vide the illustrations in Qanoon-e-Islam.
HADAK8.
106 SALEM.
CHAP. III. town having its own particular masque.^ Roughly speaking the
MunAM- Salem Giros are of two types, the Nanak ^ typo and the Pdkhand
or Sanydsi type.
In addition to the Giros, the Muhariam is made the occasion
for a great display of individual veslianis, of which the familiar
puli-vesham or tiger-masque is the most popular. Tho variety
of guises is, however, too great for detailed description, and the
proceesions are swelled hy athletes {pailxcam) from the local
gymnasia {idlims) who give elaborate exhibitions of sword- plav,
wrestling, fencing with sticks and clubs, and the innumerable feats
of skill and dexterity in which athletic Mnsalmans delight.
The opening days of the festival are spent in preliminary rites
and ceremonies. The panjas are taken out daily from the Gth to
the 10th days. On the evenings of the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th
days, it is usual for the Giros to visit one another at some selected
rendezvous (chauk), and the night is passed ia songs, and dances,
and ribald repartee which eometiraes leads to blows. Tho favourite
meeting places are in Shevapet, Salera, Pension Lines, and tho
Fort. The Fort chauk attracts a specially large oouoouvse, on
account of its side-shows and tableaux.^
On the ninth night all tho tdbfds and panjas are carried in
torchlight procession through the main bazaar street, accom-
panied by the giros and their supporters, the tdltm-lars, and a vast
crowd of Hindus and Muhammadans of both sexes. The order
in which tho (jiros march is prescribed by custom, and should one
fjiro dash forward to get in front of another which claims preced-
ence, a free fight is likely to ensue. On tho afternoon of the
tenth day (the Shahfidat-ka-roz or Day of Martyrdom) idbuis,
panjdi^ (/iros, cic, are assembled on the left bank of the river
above the bridge, and conducted in procession through the two
Agraharams to tho river bank, beside the anaikat near Fischer's
compound. The lads who carry the panjas, some of whom are
mounted on ponies, not infrequently display the most extra-
ordinary symptoms of religious hysteria, swaying to and fro like
drunken men, oblivious to their surroundings, and apparently
endowed with preternatural, strength. When the procession
arrives at tho anaikat, tho panjas are taken out of tho tdbTits, and
the domes of the tdlTds are taken off and placed inside. All the
^ A list of 47, by no means exhaustive, ia given in Qanoon-a-ldam, pp. 189
to 216.
^ Apparently connected with Nanak, the founder of the Sikhs, See Qanoon.
e-IsZam, pp. 212 and 435.
^ See Qanoon-e-Isia/n, p. 208. Several of tahe tbleaux therein described are
to be seen at the Fort chauk.
TttK PEOPLE. 107
panjds aro sprinkled with water, and faiiha^ is offered. The CHAP. Ill
tnbrds are covered with cloths and carried back to the Ashnrkhana, Mo"am-
MAOANS,
kept there for tliree days, and tlien dispaantled. The panjds are
carefully stored, and the festival is at an end.
One of the most distinctive features of the Muharram in the pj^e.
larger towns is the fire-walking ceremony, which usually takes walking,
place on the eighth or ninth night of the festival. One or more
circular pits {aldv) are dug in the public street, or in an open space
fronting one of the AUdswdmi KovUs. The pits aro from 4' to
6' deep,, and from 8' to 10' in diameter. In the afternoon a
bonfire is lighted in each pit, and is kept burning till about mid-
night. The flames are then allowed to die down for half an hour
or so, and sometimes some salt is sprinkled on the embers to pre-
vent the flames from flickering. A few steps are then cut in
the earth of the pit's edge, and the devotees are led up to the
brink, one at a time. The devotees are usually in a frantic state
of religious excitement and shout " Ali, Ali." Then one by one
they run down the steps, on to the glowing embers, walk across,
climb up the other side, turn to the right, rush along the pit's
brink back to their starting place, and repeat the performance
twice. Their friends then douse them with water, the afflatus
leaves then, and in a few seconds they become ordinary mortals
once more. What connection these sensational performances have
with Islam is not clear, and it is not at all uncommon to find
Hindus among the devotees.
In the • .Talaghat and in the southern and eastern Baramahal Hindus.
the village-site {grdma-nattam) is usually open, but in the Balaghat Villages,
and in the portions of the Baramahal that adjoin the Balagbat,
villages were formerly protected by defensive walls and a fort,
which in many cases are still in a fair state of preservation.*
Some villages are surrounded with a hedge of the milk-hedge
plant {Euphorbia tiruca/li), and on the hills a stout palisade of
split bamboo fencing is not uncommon. The houses are usually
built in fairly regular streets and aro not scattered. Sometimes
the houses occupied by the several households of a joint family
are grouped in a fenced compound. Brahmans, Muhammadans,
and some of the larger Non-Brahman castes, usually live in
separate streets or quarters ; Pariahs and Chucklers are relegated
to hamlets {Paracheris, Sa'kTcili-natiams) of their own, situated as
a rule at some distance from the main village, and they do not
intermingle with one another. Most villages are provided with
a platform (Jagili) of earth, rivetted with stone, about 3' in
1 Prayers, accompauied sometime!* by oblations of food,
2 Vide Vol. II, p. 112.
108
SALEM.
CHAP. Ill height, shaded by a banyan or some other tree, where the villago
UixDLs. elders foregather for gossip or for the settlement of disputes. An
open maiddu or green, where the villagers congregate on festival
occasions, is usually to be found in the centre of the village, with
the principal village temples adjoining it. The commonest
suffixes for rural place names are-patti^-doddi, nnd-haUi, which are
respectively the Tamil, Telugu and Kanareso equivalents for
"cattle-pen."
Hoases. Most of the rural population lives in tiled or thatched houses.
a terraced house being regarded as the mark of a wealthy man.
Houses of more than one story are rare. Thatched houses
predominate in the Talaghat and on the hills, and tiled houses
elsewhere. The favourite thatching material is kambu straw ;
paddy straw, cholam stalks, palmyra leaves, and cooo-uut kHIis are
also used when available, and, in the vicinity of the hills, coarse
jungle grasses. The poorest classes have to content themselves
with an one-room hut, about 10' square, but most people of the
ryot clasa have at least two rooms ; a sleeping-room opcuiug into
the street, and a cook-room opening into the sleeping-room, and
also a front verandah. In Ifostir villages the cattle are often
accommodated in the sleeping apartment, and in the cook-room
are kept three or four huge earthenware jars of grain. ^ An im-
provement on this arrangement is to have the cow-house opposite
to, and equal in length to, the dwelling house, with a narrow
yard, fenced at either end, intervening. Town houses are more
elaborate. A new house is usually " warmed " b}' giving a feast
to friends and relatives before it is occupied, and some castes
observe the sacrifice of a fowl or goat, or perform some other rite,
or call in a Brahman purOhit to cleanse the building with the
punt/dha-vdchanam rite, before they venture to live in it.
The picturesque little " bee-hive " villages of the Malaiyalis,
that nestle on the plateaus and slopes of the Shevaroys, differ from
anything fouud in the plains. The huts are circular, the walls
are made of split bamboo, daubed with clay, and the conical roof
is thickly thatched with grass. The eaves extend about 2y
from the inner wall, which is encircled by a second wall of the
same material, the intervening space being partitioned into two or
three compartments, to accommodate calves, kids, poultry, etc. At
the level of the inner walling is a lolt, which answers the purpose
of a store-room. I'he only entrance is ,a door, about 3^' high
and 2h' wide, and there are no windows.^ The hut of the
1 Vide infra, pp. 210-11.
'^ Shortt's H»WB(Mi9e», Vol. II, ij. 4i, from which the above description is
taken.
TME HFOPLE 109
Pacliai-raalais and KoUi-malais is of similar material, but CHAP. ITT.
rectangular in plan, and with a raised pial in front, beneath which Hindcp.
is a small corapartnient closed with a door, whore fowls are penned.^
Except in the case of the Malaiyalis (q.v. pp. 156-57), Dress,
the Hmdi^s of Salem District follow the practice of adjacent
districts in matters of dress. Boys usually go naked till they are
3 or 4 years of age, when they don a small komanam, 3" or 4" wide,
supported by a waist-cord. The flap of the komanam, hangs
outwards, and is not, as in more southern districts, tucked in.
Sometimes boys wear the waist-cord without the l;6man<Cm, and
sometimes tbey are protected against the cold by a little shirt or
jacket of inadequate length. , A fter they lose their first milk-teeth,
they are clad, if their parents can afford it, in a small white waist
cloth, about 7^^' long and 3' wide. For the ordinary man the waist-
cloth (veshti) and turban suffice, and in cool or wet weather,
especially on the hills and in the Balaghat, he carries about with
him a blanket {Jkambli) or a sheet of coarse thick cotton (duppatti).
Those who can afford it wear also a body-cloth (anga-vastiram)
loosely laid across the shoulders, and sometimes the turban is
worn thus. In towns, sleeved jackets of European pattern are in
vogue, and the well-to-do wear a lace bordered anga-vastiram^
neatly folded and passed across the left shoulder and under the
right arm. The waist-cloth is ordinarily white, but modern
depravity of taste affects a cloth dyed partially of an execrable
magenta-crimson hue, which has the advantage of economising
the dhoby's charges. In the Balaghat short drawers, of the type
common in Mysore, are often worn in lieu of the veshti, and caps
are often to be seen. Leather sandals are in general use.
Little girls, up to the age of about 3, wear nothing but the
little heart-shaped piece of silver suspended by a waist-cord {arai-
mudi) " which calls attention to what it purports to conceal."
They are then promoted to a miniature " female " cloth known
as stUddai ; or, in the case of Christians and of well-to-do Hindus,
to a jacket {sokkdy) and skirt (pdvddai). The usual colour ot
the ordinary pudavaiis the familiar red that harmonises so perfectly
with an Indian environment. Eich orange -yellows are sometimes
seen in the Talaghat, and in the Balaghat green or indigo (popu-
larly called " black ") are much in vogue. Some castes eschew the
black pudavat altogether, and others prohibit it at marriages.
White is confined to the Malaiyalis of the Kolli-malais, and the
widows of Brahmans, Reddis, and a few other castes. The bodice
(ravihkai) is in very general use, especially in towns and in the
Balaghat, but it is not usually worn by girls under ten years of age.
^ Trichinopoly Gazetteer, p. 126.
110
SALEM.
cHAr, in.
Hindus.
Tattooing.
Pood.
Tattooing is tolerated by almost every caste, the most notable
exception being that of the Malaiyalis of the Kolli-malais, whose
abhorrence of the practice is so strong that thoy will not permit a
tattooed person to enter their nouses. Most of the liighcr castes,^
however, di8count<?nance t]\e tattooing of males, and nowhere is
the practice carried to extremes. The art of tattooing is almost
confined to itinerant women of a Koravar snb-caste popularly
known as Pachai-kutti Koravars, whoso work is skilful and
correct. Kuruba women sometimes take to the profession.^
The staple food among the higher castes is rice, and among
the masses ragi and kambu. Brahmans and the higher castes
favour pacharisi (i.e., rice husked without boiling), but the poorer
people content themselves with pulnngarm (rice husked after
boiling). Ragi is prepared as food in three ways, (1) hUzhu (or
kanj'i), gruel, (2) /a/i, porridge, the ragi balls of jail diet, (3)
roiti, bread or bisouit. It is usually eaten with dhall or avarai.
Kambu is generally eaten in the form of kauji or kati. Horse-
gram is an article of diet in the Earamahal. The majority of the
population are flesh-eaters, the chief abstainers being the
Brahmans, Komatis and Lingayats. The ilesh of sheep or goats
is a general article of diet throughout the District, much more so
than in the districts adjoining oa the south and oast. The oating
of fish (both fresh and salted), "' fowls, and most birds that pick
up their food with their bills, is generally permitted. Pork is
eaten by a very large proportion of the community, including
Araaa-l*allis, Vakkiligas, Malaiyalis, Kongn-Vollalars, IJdaiyilns,
Shanars, Koravars, Oddas, and all Panchamas. The flesh of the
Hanuman or black-faced monkey {Semnopithecus entcUus) ia
highly valued as a medicine, and Dr. vShortt notes that the
Malaiyalis cut the carcase into small pieces, 2" square, and sell
these pieces at 2 annas each or even more, a whole carcase being
valued at Rs. 7 to Rs. 10.* The flying-fox is relished as food by
Pallis, Pallars, and several other castes. EicJd r*t3 are eaten by
most of the lower castes, who drive them out of their holes with
smoke. The practice of eating frogs gives a certain section of
* Notably the Lingayats, Kapus, VfldaVa, Oollas and Vcttuvans.
' Some interesting information on tattooing, with copioua illustrations, is
gpiven in the Mysore Censius Re-port for 1901, Part I, pp. 556-02. •
' Fresh fish is brought every Tuesday to Shcvapet Sl)an(^y, from the Kuve)i
near Erode, from Omalur and from villages within a radius of 10 miles or so of
Salem, Murrel and some of the smaller fish are sold alive. TJiere is a large
import trade in dried and salted fish from the West Coast. Up to the end of
April the fish imported are of small size, sardines {Matti and Yelluri), anchovy
{Nettali), " mango fish " {Kdld) and horse mackerel (Kora). When the soath-
west monsoon bursts, larger fish arc brought in, such as seer, cat-fish, tunny, etc.
* Uill Range.-f, Vol. II, p. 45.
THE PEOPLE.
Ill
Pariahs the distinctive appellation of Tavalai-tinni (see p. 202), 'CHAP, in,
and x\rasa-Pallis are distinguished from their Panda-mattu Palli Hindus.
cousins by eating erahs. A few castes (including certain Pallia)
are said to eat the iguana (udnmbu). White ants are considered
a delicacy by many of the agricultural and labouring castes. The
universal condiments are salt, chillies, and tamarind, the last
named being so valued that even the fallen blossoms that strew
the roads are carefully swept up by the frugal housewife and
stored for use. The flowers of avaram (Cassia auriculata) are used
to brew tea. In times of famine the fruit of prickly-pear is freely
eaten by the poorer classes, who are sometimes driven to digging
out ant-hills to get the grain {pill-arm or "grass-rice" as it is
called) that the ants have stored.
It would be tedious to give a detailed account of the many Games,
games played by children and adults. Kummi and koldttam} are
of course familiar everywhere. Boys amuse themselves with
endless varieties of bop-scotch {Jillii or pdndi), tip-cat (kttti),
prisoner's-base (bari-kodu), marbles (goli)^ and kite-flying (pattam).
?7c^«-(^/^am is a favourite four-a-side game in some parts. Aintham-
kal is a forfeit game which consists in throwing up five stones
into the air and catching them in various' ways. Palldn-kuzhiis
a rather complicated game for two, played with a board with two
rows of little pits (or the pits are made in the ground) into which
a certain number of seeds are dropped in succession. Day am is
the name for several games akin to backgammon, played on
diagrams of various patterns. The best known of these is the
game called in Hindustani pachls. Another set of games, played
on various diagrams, and bearing various names, resemble the
European game of Fox-and-Geese. One of the best known of
these is called pathinainthdm-puli ("fifteenth tiger ") or /)m^«-
A;a^/am, and is played with 3 " tigers" and 15 " sheep." Of
card games, kelvi-koduve is a curious adaptation of Nap, and
" out ^'-dttam of Bezique. Cock-fighting is occasionally met with
in Salem City, in Rasipuram, and in parts of Omalur Taluk. In
Attur Taluk it is very popular, especially in the villages round
Belur and Taudavarayapuram, where regular tournaments are
held, each competing village being represented by several cham-
pions. Several formidable varieties of spurs are used, straight
and curved, broad-bladed and narrow, some of them 4", or even
6", in length.
No scientific survey has yet been made of the religious cults Kkligion.
of Salem District, and only a cursory notice is possible. The
' ' Dance-songs, the former aocompauied by clapping the hands, and the
latter by striking sticks together.
112
SALEM.
CHAP. Ill
Hindus.
Religiox.
I. Rrahraanic,
(A) Siva
Cults.
Eeligion of South Indian Hindus, like their social organisation,
is a blend of two cultures, the Aryan and the Dravidian, the
former represented by immigrant Brahmanism, the latter by
indigenous cults. The various cults may be roughly classified as
follows : —
I. Brahmanic Cults proper, comprising the cults associated
with (A) Siva and (B) Vishnn. II. The Pandava Cult. IIL
The Manraatha-Rati Cult. IV. The Vira-Saiva Cult. V. The
Cults of the Grama-Devatas or village deities, comprising (A) the
Ayyanar Cult, (B) the Sakti Cults, (C) Demon Cults.
The worship of Siva and Parvati, and their sons, Vignesvara
and Subrahmanya, is universal throughout the District. Most of
the largo temples of the District are dedicated to Siva, and there
are few villages without this shrine. The worship of Vignesvara
is an essential element in most of the more important Hindu
ceremonies, and there are several teiilplea of no small affluence
dedicated to Subrahmanya.
A Siva temple of the correct pattern should have seven
prakarama or wmbulatories, one within tlie other, but this arrange-
ment is not found in any temple in Salem District. The precincts
of most of the large temples of the District are surrounded by a
wall, varying in height and length with the importance and wealth
of the temple. In the centre of this enclosure is the main block of
buildings, -which consists of three parts, (I) the maha-maniapamy
(2) the ardha-montapam, and (3) tho garhha-qriham, correspouding
to the 5th, Cth and 7th prdkdraim of an ideal temple. The
garb/ia-grt'hatn, or Holy of Holies, is a perfect cube, and contains
the god in the form of a lingam} On the northern side of the
garbha-griham is a small drain, terminating outsido the shrine in a
spout {gomuhhnm or 86ma'8utram)y whicii carries off the water used
in the god's ablutions {nb/u'tihekham). The worshippers drink this
water, which is held very sacred.^ Tho garbha-griham is usually
topped by a superstructure {vimdna), ornamented with more or
less elaboration, and surmounted with a brass ornament (kalasam),
which is sometimes covered with gold. The garhha'griham usually?
opens on its eastern side 3 into the ardha-mantapam, a small ante-
room, rather narrower than tho garbha-griham, and connecting it
^ The miila-vigraha, as the representation of the deity fixed in the Holy of
Holies is called, in contrast to the utsava-vigraha used for processional purposes.
2 In temples where the god is installed according to the Saiva Ag.ima,
Smftrta Brahmans decline to take tlrtam from the Archakar, and where the god is
installed according to Smarta JIgama, Saira Brahmans decline to take tirtam from
a Smarts. ArcHakar.
3 Tn sorne temples, e.g., the Kail&sanatha Temples at 'liira-mangalam and
Easipuram, the garbha-griham faces west.
I
THE PEOPLE. 113
with the mnhd-moiapam or main maniapam, a pillared hall or CHAP. ill.
portico where most of the best of the ornamental work of the Hindus.
temple is concentrated. Beligion
South-west of the main shrine should be a temple to Vignes-
vara, and north-west of the same another to 8ubrahman}'a, both
facing east. Parvati's temple is usually in the north-east of the
temple compound, and faces south. The position of these three
shrines varies, however, in different temples. In front of the main
mantapam, in order from west to east are (1) a nandi (bull, Siva's
vd/ianam), facing the garbha-grihatn and usually surmounted by a
stone canopy, (2) a dhicaja-stambliam or flag-post, a tall mast, some-
times of wood, sometimes of copper, with a flag-shaped device on
top, decorated sometimes with bells, (3) a hali-pUatn, or altar of
sacrifice, a pedestal topped by a stone in the form of a lotus, the
eight petals of which are supposed to represent the guardians of the
Eight Carbinal Points (Ashta-dik-Palakas). On this bali-pitam
offerings of flowers and fruits are laid by worshippers.
Siva is credited with 1,008 thoophanies in as many different
localities, and he is known by at least as many names \
He is most commonly known as Sdmesvara in the Northern
Taluks {e.g.i Adaman-kottai, Eaya-k5ta, Indur, Krishnagiri, also
Sankaridrug and Nangavalli) and Kailasanatha in the Talaghat
{e.g., Easipuram, Tirucheng5du and Tara-mangalam). The Ch5las
and Pandyas ^ have claimed him for their Lord and the Soles vara
{e.g., Aragalur, Malla-samudram, Kadagattur) and Pandisvara
{e.g., Kumara-mangalam, and Tiruchengodu) Temples scattered
over the District are relics of ^ their rule. Other popular designa-
tions are Mallik-Arjunesvara {e.g., Dharmapuri, Vellar and
Mallik-Arjuna-Durgam),'Chokkanathesvara (Amarakundi), Para-
mesvara (Palakodu), and Samba-murti (Etlappur). Rarer forms
associated with particular localities are Child an athes vara (Hosur,
Bagalur), Sukavanesvara; (Salem), Siikaya-nir-malesvara (Attur),
Jalakantesvara (Kaveri-patnam), Dosinalhesvara (Kambaya-
nallur), Desesvara (Hogena-kal), Tirtigirisvara (Tirta-malai),
Arunesvara (Kari-raangalam), Pennesvara (near Nedungal) and
Sri-Kamanathesvara (Aragalur). The most important shrines
are those at Salem, Rasipuram, Tara-mangalam, Tiruchengodu,
Tirta-malai, Hosur, and Ettappur.
Siva's consort Parvati has no temples of her own aprt from
the shrine allotted her in the temples of Siva, except as Kamakahi,
1 A list of 87 names is given in Ziegenbalg (p. 44 sq,).
^ Somesyara was a favourite name among the Hoysalas, and possibly tlie
frequent recurrence of this name in Salem District is a survival of Hoysala roJe.
u
114
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
Hindus.
Religion.
Vignfisvara.
Snbrahman-
ya.
(B). Vishnu
Cnlta.
patroness of the Kammalars (p. 187), and as Kanyaka-Pararae-
svari, the goddess of the Komatis (p. 175).^
To the masses Vignesvara, or Pillaijar as he is popularly
called, as the God of Hindrance, is the most important deity of
the Hindu Pantheon.^ " If the mild Hindu would go a journey,
or plough the field that is to support him and his family for the
coming year, ' Pillari devadu ' must be first invoked to help the
work in hand ; incense must burn, and the milky coco-nut must
be broken before the aldermanic god. "
Subrahmanya, whose vdhanam is a peacock, is worshipped
uudcr the name of Kandaswami (see below Vol. II, p. 275, s.v.
Kali-patti) or Muttu-Kumara-swami. Except as adjuncts to the
larger Siva temples, his shrines are not numerous. He is the
patron deity of the Kaikolars, and Tuesdays are considered sacred
to his worship.
Vaishnavism is represented by the Vishnu Temples, to bo
found in most villages of any importance, and the Hanumnn
shrines, which are still more numerous. Vishnu, like 8ivu, enjoys
a multitude of names, those most commonly used in Salem being
Veukataramana (Attiir, Indiir, Chappadi, Kavori-patuam),Nara-
simha, the Man-Lion (Nangavalli, Gummalapuram, Hale-
Dharmapuri, Krishuagiri), Varadaraja (Tara-mangalam, PapiKlra-
patti), Vonugopal (Beliir, Tali), Chendaraya (Adaraan-kottai,
Virabhadra-Durgam) and Lakshmi-Narayana (Kari-mangalam,
Raya-kota). The names Betraya (Denkani-kota) and Alagiri
(Salem) are less common. Vishnu temples arc less well endowed
than those of Siva ; the richest is that of Botraya-swami at
Denkani-kota with an annual tasdik of over Es. 1,800. Vishnu
under his popular name of Perumal appears to have a predilection
for the summits of the rocky eminences so common in the District,
and to him are usually dedicated the plain little masonry shrines
with which such kopjes are often crowned.^
Vishnu's consort Lakshmi has no temples of her own, and is
only worshipped conjointly with Vishnu. Among the masses,
Hanuman, as Kama's /c/c-Zo^wm, seems at one time to have enjoyed
a popularity second only to that of Vignesvara. In addition to
his association with all Vishnu temples, huge bas-reliefs of the
monkey god are to bo found throughout the District, especially
in the Baramahal and Balaghat. Many of these bas-reliefs, gaudy
with scarlet paint, are carved on the enormous boulders with
^ And also, perhaps, as one of the village goddosses, if their linoage as
Saktis be correctly traced to Pftrvati.
^ He is also called Ganesh, Vinayaka and Oanapati.
' See Ziegenbalg, p. 83.
THE PEOPLE. 115
which the country side is littered, some of them protected by a CIIAP. in,
mantapam, and some not. Such carvings aro usually to ho found Hindus.
in the vicinity of the gateways of ruined forts, for Hanuman ueTgxon
seems to have been generally revered as the guardian of the
gates.^
The worship of the five Pandavas and their joint wife Drau- II. Pandava
padi is, curiously enough, confined to non-Brahmans, in spite of " '
the reverence in which the Mahdbhdrata is held by orthodox
Brahmans. The most ardent votaries of this cult are the Pallis,
from whom most of the pU/dris are drawn. The temples aro
popularly called after Draupadi-amman, sometimes after Dharma-
raja ; tliey are plain, uupretentious building's, of simple design.
The annual festival, which is held in spring-time and lasts
about 18 days, is usually signalised by recitations of the Mahd-
bhdrata, and sometimes by dramatic representations of scenes
from that Epic ; a colossal prostrate figure of Dury5dhana, the
king who persecuted the five brethren, is formed in mud in the
vicinity of the temple, and the sacrifice of Aravan, son of Arjuna
by a Naga Princess, is commemorated by the slaughter of a goat>
the entrails of which are afterwards entwined on a pole surmount-
ed with a hideous red mask which represents the head of the
heroic youth.
With the Pandava Cult a fire-walking ceremony is usually
associated. For instance at Edappadi the animal festival takes
place about the middle of Panguni (February-March) and lasts
for 18 days. The pUjdri of the temple, who is a Golla by caste,
for the first 15 days takes food only once a day in the temple, »
and for the last 3 days he subsists solely on a diet of fruit. In
front of the temple a shallow pit is dug, about 25' long, 20'
broad, and 2' deep. At one end of this pit is a ditch, about 3'
broad, which is filled with water. On the last day of the festival
a fire is kindled in this pit at about 10 a.m. and continues
till about 5 p.m., when the embers are beaten down with
bamboo poles and spread evenly over the area. The fuel is
mostly supplied by devotees who have taken a vow to do so.
Meanwhile, those who have taken a vow to pass through the fire,
smear themselves and their clothes with saffron, and worship the
karagam, a brass vessel filled with water and decked with a pyra-
mid of flowers, which is consetjrated for the occasion. When the
embers of the fire have been levelled, the crowd of fire-walkers
approaches the fire-pit {agni-gundam) and led by the pujdri with
the karagam, the devotees call on their gods and rush round the
pit in tho direction of the sun, then across it, and into the ditch
* Vide the gigunfcic bas-relief at Maharaja-gadai, Vol. 1.1, p. 179 below.
H-1
raathn.
116 SALEM.
CHAP, III. of water. Some of the more enthusiastic cross the firo twice or
Hindus. thrice. At Edappadi women as well as men are said to go
Beligion through the ordeal, and oven infants in arras are carried across.
The crowd of fire-walkers numbers about 200. It is said that if
the pujari is a married man, a few embers are taken from the pit
before the walking begins and tiedin the new ?affron-dyed cloth
that his wife dons for the occasion, and she then walks round a
small '* milk-post " planted near the fire-pit '.
III. Man- The legend ^ of Mnnmatha, he god of love, and his incineration
by a glance from the third eye of Siva is commemoratod among
most of the inferior castes in the Kdman-Pandikai (" Festival of
Kdman "= Desire, a synonym for Manmatha) which takes place
about the time of the full moon of the solar month Mas!, coincid-
ing with that of the lunar month Pbrilgima. The festival is
essentially a feast of spring-time, and it synchronises with the
Holi Festival of Northern India.' The comracmorativo rite is the
burning of Kaman on the night of the full niDon, Kaman boing re-
presented by a stalk of the castor-oil plant with some wisps of ndnal
grasd attached to it, which is set up at the meeting points of the
principal thoroughfares in towns and villages, 4 or 5 days before
full-moon day. In some places a human effigy of straw and paper
is also burnt. Kaman has no temple or piljdri, nor are offerings made
to him, but in Salem two lads are dressed up to represent Manmatha
and his wife llati, and are taken in procession thorugh the town,
with a cortege of masqueraders and gymnasts, very much in the
style of the Muharram celebrations, but on nothing like such an ela-
borate scale. The festival is marked by a certain amount of rough
and risque fun as elsewhere in India, and the youngsters amuse
themselves by dousing each other with green or crimson dye.
Sometimes the lower castes dramatise the Manmatha cycle of
stories in a series of ndtakds, which take place on the nights preced-
ing the festival.
IV. Vira- Tije religion of the Vira-Saivas or Liugay ats isa reformed aspect
of Siva worship. As a sect the Vira-Saivas sprang into political
prominence in the middle of the twelfth century, shortly after the
collapse of the Kalyaui Ohalukyas and during the reign of the
1 Cf. a desoriptioQ of a similar eeremony in Bangalore, published in the
Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society, Vol. II, p. 29.
* For the legend see Ziegenbalg, p. 92.
^ The direct connection between the Iloli and Knman Festivals is obscure.
The formoi- is observed in Salem District by Maratha Brahmans and Marwaris.
Both are vernal festivals. For the story of the female demon Ilolika, see the
late Pandit S. M. Natesa Sastri's Hindu Feastsi Fasts and Ceremonies, p. 42 and
Mr. J. C. Oman's Brahmana, Thei.its and Muslims of India, p. 250. The former
writer says that the five days before the full moon are known as IVdi Pundikai
pnd the ne?t three days as the Kdman Fano^ikai,
Baivaa.
TttE PEOPliE. lit
Kalachfirya Bijjrtla. The rise of the Lingayats uiiclor the leader- CTIAP. III.
ship of Basava was essentially ' anti-Brahmanic and anti-Jain. Hindus.
The salient feature of their worship is their reverence for the j^^.^^jj^^
lingain, wliieh is always worn on their persons. Their temples arc
not infreqnent in tlie Balaghat and in Dharmapuri Taluk. They
are usually plain rectangular structures, surmounted with a large
masonry bull, - with miniature bulls at the corners. Each temple
contains a Ungam, a Nandi, or a stone figure of Siva in his form
of Virabhadra.^ These Lingayat temples are popularly called
"Bull Temples" or temples of " Basavesvara-swami." Basava
means " bull " and Basava, the Moses of Vira-Snivism, is revered
as an incarnation of the bull Nandi, the vdhanoim (vehicle) of Siva.
V^ira-Saivas are strict vegetarians, and their ritual prohibits blood-
sacrifice.
The Cult of Ayyauar, the son of Siva and M5hini (the v. Grama-
female form of Vishnu) is fairly common in Atttir Taluk, and is Dsvatas.
also to be met with in the other Talaghat Taluks, but it is com-
paratively rare elsewhere. It is in all respects identical with the
Ayyanar Cult of the adjoining Tamil Districts.^
It is unnecessary here to discuss the philosophic explanation of (B) The
the Saktis as manifestations of the " female energy" of the supreme '^^'^*''^'
deity as represented by Parvati, the consort of Siva in the form of
Kali. To the simple villager the Saktis are goddesses who rule
over evil spirits, and who must be propitiated by bloody sacrifices
of fowls, sheep, goats, pigs and even buffaloes, to induce them to
protect the fields and villages from malignant demons, from
pestilence, famine, war, flood and fire. The cult of these deities
has very little in common with the cult of Siva as observed bv
Brahmaus and Lingayats. The worship of such goddesses was
almost universal at the dawn of civilisation in Europe and Africa,
as well as in Asia, and the syncretism which explains all these
local cults in South India as various aspects of Siva's consort, pre-
sents an interesting analogy with the absoi'ption of the goddesses
of Egypt, Babylonia, Persia, Greece and Eome in the cult of tho
Great Mother of the Gods in the early centuries of the Christian
era. With its love of sacred numbers, orthodox Hinduism
enumerates nine Saktis, vi/., (1) Mari-amman, (2) Ellamma,
(3) Ankal-amma, (4) Pidari, (5) Chamundi, (6) Bhadra-Kali
^ Vide Castes and Tribes, \o\. IV, s. v. Lingayat, p. 237 sq.
- The Lingayat fashion of adorning their temples with large masonry bulls
seems to have influenced the architecture of certain Hindu temples, e.g., the
Sira and Vignesvara temples at Kela-mangalam, the Siva temple at Solappadi,
etc.
^ Kurubas as well as Lingayats of ten worship in these Virabhudra temples,
* Vide South Arcot D.O., p. 99, and Ziegeubalg, pp. 133 -5.
118
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
Hi n d cs.
Religion.
Mii-i-amman.
(7) Durga, (8) Ttiranai, (9) Pudkalai. lu additiou to these there
arc several other female deities of similar type, foremost amoug
them being Pattal-amman, Selli-amman, Nachi-amman, Gang-
amma, Padavattamman, Ponnamma, Pongal-amma and Muttiyal-
amma. Ptiranai and Pudkalai, the wives of Ayj'anar have no
separate cult of their own, and the worship of Durga is rare.^
The ritual observed in the woi*ship of these deities diifers greatly
in different localities, and space permits only a passing reference
to a few salient characteristics.^
By far the most important deity in the District is Mari-amman,
and there is scarcely a village without her shrine. She is pai'
excellence the Grrama-Dovata of the Talaghat Tamils, and her cult
exists all over the Baranaahal and Billaghat.^ She is worshipped
by practically all castes except Bralunans, Komatisand Lingayats.
She is especially associated with smali-pox and kindred contagious
diseases, but there are few cures she cannot effect, and few boons
she cannot confer.
The votaries of Mari-amman torture themselves in honour of
their deity. For iustauce .at the lloddiyur festival near Salem,
men and boys were observed with a number of skewers, sharpened
to a very fine point, thrust through their skin, some 4" below each
armpit. The skewers arc about 18" long, and most of those in
use were the ribs of defunct umbrellas. Some devotees were
content with one skewer under each arm ; one man had fourteen.
When more than one were insei-tcd, the punctures wore very close
together. The points protruded about | ". When all were thrust
in, the devotee clapped his elbow to his side, and held the blunt
ends of the skewers lightly between his fingers, which he clasped.
The operation must be painful, as several of the adults winced,
and little lads of 4 or 5 cried bitterly when they were trussed.
Other of the male devotees stitched a thread through parts of the
body, the favourite place being just above the hip. In one place
were two men yoked by stout cords to a model wooden car, about
5' high, drawn on clumsy solid wheels. The ends of the cords
were fastened to iron hooks, two of which were driven into the
muscles of each man's back, 4" below each scapula and 4" apart
A friend stood between the traces, and gave a helping tug to the
car when it had to be moved. One man, who was evidently
regarded as the most devout of all, balanced on his head a chatty
of blazing fire.
pp.
^ For a description of Durga — see Ziegenbalg, p. 145.
^ For a detailed description of the seven principal Saktia-
13(>-14.5.
3 For further descriptive details— see Ziegenbalg, p. 138.
-see Ziegenbalg,
THE PEOPLE,
119
OHAl'. 111.
lIlMJUS.
Kkhgiox.
Female devotees were treated differently. Their tongues were
pierced with silver needles about 5" long, the blunt ends of which
were neatly fashioned as spcar-blades or tridents. The puncture
was made on the right side of the tongue, about 1^" from the tip.
The women seemed to find the operation painfid, and clasped a
comer of their cloth to their face to conceal any expression of
pain.
EUamman, whoso name is explained as " Mother of All," or Ellamman
'• Lad}' of the Boundary," is especially popular among the
Telugus. A curious legend attaches her to the Vishnu cycle,
Eenuka, the royal wife of the sage Jamadagui, fell from perfec-
tion and fled for refuge from her husband's wrath to a settlement of
Madigas (see p. 204). At his father's behest her son Parasurama
struck oil the heads of all the Madiga women, as well as that of
his mother. The father, delighted with his son^s dutiful obedience,
offered to grant him anything he wished. The pious son asked
that his mother should be restored to life. The boon was granted,
but the son was unable to identify his mother's body, and by
mistake stuck her head on the body of one of the Madiga girla.
EUamman is conventionally represented by a wooden image in a
sitting posture with fiery face, four arms and hands, and a crown
of serpents. But " her principal image to which offerings are
made is of stone, representing but her head, in the earth, to
indicate that only her head was made alive and put on the body
of another woman, " ^ Local tradition is, however, rather vague
as to the exact signitioance of this head, and it is often spoken of
as the head of the Salckilt Pen, or Madiga girl, who was an attend-
ant of Eenuka, and is identified with the famous Matangi, the
goddess of the Madigas, whose body is Renuka's though her head
is that of a Madiga girl.
The chief temple of Bhadra-Kali is at Mecheri (Vol. II, Bhadra-kiili
p. 260) ; her shrine at Tara-mangalam is also worthy of note
(p. 266). She is more popular in the Talaghat than in the Barama-
hal Her worship is frequently associated with buffalo sacrifice. »
Ankal-amman, the patron goddess of the Sembadavaus (see p.
173), is worshipped by most Non-Brahman castes in the Talaghat.
Her pujdri is usually a Sembadavan, but Pallis, Kaikdlars and
members of other castes sometimes officiate. She is honoured
with sacrifices of sheep, goats, fowls, pigs and arrack. Her
annual festival begins on Mahd-Siva-Edtri and during its
course is celebrated the grim Maydna-puja, or ceremony of the
Aiikal-
amman,
^ ZiegenbaJg, p. 136. There are many alternative versions of the story — vide
Castes avd Tribes, IV, p. 297, sq. s.v. Madiga, osp. p. 306 j cf. E.S.M. XVIT,
p. 24.
120
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
HlNPCS.
Keligiok.
Ghamunili.
burning giouud (see p. 173). In Atttir lior festivallasts ton days
the car procession taking place on the ninth day.
On the seventh day the pujdri is garlanded with the entrails of
a freshly-danghtered sheep, and accompanies the goddess in
procession round the town ; devotees place money on this gniosomc
necklace and pour milk over it. Similar practices are connected
with her worship elsewhere.
Chamundi, the patron goddess of the Devanga weavers and
destroyer of the buffalo-headed demon Mahisha, enjoys an annual
festival beginning in Vijaya-dasami. Her shrines, and those of
Pidari, are less frequently met with than those of the other Saktis.
Of the other " mother " goddesses the most popular are Sclli-
amman,Pattill-ammanand Gangamma. Selli-(or SolIandi)-amman,
who appears indistinguishable froni Kali, is a favourite deity
among the ryots, especially among Pallis. She is propitiated
with the blood of fowls, goats and buffaloes but not of pigs.
Pattal-amman is an important deit}^ at Kela-mangalam, where
the chief tank is named after her (see Vol. II, p. 1 10). At Palakodu
and Kari-mangalam the pfijari who serves her is a Janappan . Her
shrines are found mostly in the Jiaramahfil and Balaghafc, and she
appears to be more favoured by the Telugus and Kanareso than
by the Tamils. Iler worship sometimes includes a tiro-walking
ceremony. Gangamma too is more at home in the northern
taluks than in the Talaghat.
A detailed account, however, of the "mother goddesses '' in
the District would fill volumes. Sometimes they bear quaint local
names, sometimes they are vaguely called "Great Mother"
(Periya-thayi or Doddamma), sometimes their names arc merely
descriptive of the spot whore she presides, such as Vella-parai-
amman, " Lady of the White Kock." On the bund of Palaiyam
Tank at Kodihalli, near Pennagaram, is a shrine to Oddammal,
the spirit of an Odda girl who was sacrificed when the bund was
built.' In southern tJttankarai and^ in Tiruchengodu the tank
buods are under the protection of the Akasa-Kannigal or Heavenly
Maidens.^
^ It is a coriouB oircnmsiance that the band of this tank has no stone
revetment.
* E.g. the tanks of Venkata-samndram, Alapnram and Tenkraai-kottai.
What connection these deities have with the Seven Kannimar of a Siva Templo
or of a Muni cult (see below page 121) is not quite clear and the traditions
connected with them are conflicting. Mr. S. G. Roberts writes that the Aasa-
KaJinigal are female centaurs who guard tanks and make them break by stamping
on the bund when quarrelling. This version of the Kannimar is, however, un-
known iu Salem District. They are worshipped by the Vettuvans on the
festival of the 18th Adi,
Rf.ligiox.
TflE PEOPLE. 121
Bikkana-lialli, not far from Denkani-k5ta, is noted for a curious CHAP. 111.
custom eonnooted with the worship of two sister deities known as Hindds.
Doddamnaa and Cliikkamma, to whom the Hale Kurubas of the
Baramahal and of Mysore State are specially devoted. At the
annual festival, women of all ages, who have bound themselves by
a vow, foregather at night at a sacred tank, divest themselves of
all clothing, bathe in the cold water, and, on ascending the steps,
put on loose jackets made of pungam or margosa leaves. They
then arrange themselves in order of precedence, the Mysore
Kurubas taking the lead, and with lighted lamps of rice flour on
their dishevelled locks, march in procession to the accompaniment
oE music thrice round the temple. Their nearest relatives move
with them, forming a sort of bodyguard to protect them from the
vulgar gaze. The third circuit accomplished, they make obeisance
to the deity, doff their leafy attire and resume their proper dress.
The above procedure is believed to ensure offspring.^
Demon worship is a grade lower in tbe theological scale than (C) Demons
the cults of the mother goddesses. The simple villager is never
free from the fear of the malignant beings, Pegs and Bhutams,
with which the darkness is peopled. On lonely village roads, or
in his own back-yard, he is liable to be seized with " panic
terror," - and sometimes actually dies of fright. These evil
spirits must be propitiated, and not unnaturally their cult is
ubiquitous. To guard his children, the Brahman offers pongal, and
the Non-Brahman sacrifices a fowl or goat, to the spirit that
haunts his back-yard.^ Trees in particular are favourite abodes
of these uapleasant beings, and hence the worship of a demon is
very commonly located under the tree he haunts. These demons
are usually worshipped under the name of Muni, Muni-appan,
Muni-swami, and local epithets such as Kottai (fort), Ellai (bound-
ary), Kasi (Benares), etc., are prefixed to their names. A demon
popular in Attur and Salem Taluks is Madurai-Viran,^ the hero
of Madura, who is worshipped on Fridays with offerings of blood
^ The above is the account of an eye-witness in 1006, The account given
by Mr. LeFanu, Vol. II, page 165, differs in several points ; either it has been
embellished by his informants or else the Kurubas have grown more modest.
- The Greek cult of Pan offers many points of analogy to theMuni cults of
South India, especially with regard to the "panic " which he inspires.
* Mr. S. G. Roberts writes that in Conjeevaram Municipality there is a
constant demand for private licenses for the slaughter of sheep to propitiate
Purakadai Isvaran (Lord of the Back-yard).
* For the tradition of Madurai Viran see South Arcot District Gazetteer, page
191, where he is described as a servant of Ayyanar. The Kev. Thomas Foulkes
identified him with Ayyanar himself. He is sometimes called by metathesis
Maruda Viran, or sometimes simply Virakkaran. In Salem he is honoured with
festivals in Tai, Masi and Pangani, which take place on any specially chosen lucky
day, shortly before the full moon of those months.
122
SALEM.
CHAP. ITI.
Hindus.
Religiox.
Hook-swiiig-
injr.
ScK'IAli ORGA-
NISATION.
The Village
coiuraunity.
and spirituous liquors, aud ganja. Other names in common use
are Karuppau (or Karuppauuan) aud V^edi-appan. lu parts of
Salem and Attur, cross-roads are believed to be haunted bj a
demon known as Sauthi-appan, but his vogue is limited, and he
is not held in high esteem. Of minor demons the name is legion,
but all alike have the satne taste for blood and alcohol, aud, if
appropriately honoured, will guard their votaries from pestilence
aud famine, aud relieve them of demoniacal possession or the curse
of barrenness.
Hook-swinging is au ancient religious custom genoral through-
out Southern ludia,^ aud there are still many men in Salem
District who have undergone the ordeal, and bear on their backs
the scars of their wounds. Hook-swinging is practically obsolete,
so far as human beings are concerned, but throughout the District
the upright posts of wood or stone {Siddhi-kal) are still to be seen
in front of the temples of the village goddess, and the ceremony
is still performed in effigy.^
The population of a typical village or small town is made up
somewhat as follows : —
(1) A large agricultural community, with a few fishermen,
hunters and herdsmen.
(2) An industrial community composed of oil-prcssorH,
weavers, artizans, potters, toddy-drawere, etc,
(3) A community of traders aud money-lenders.
(4) Brahmans.
(5) Moniak, such as washermen and barbers.
(6) Out-caste coolies such as Pariahs and Chucklers.
(7) A few Muhammadans and perhaps Christians.
(8) A few alien immigrants, such as Marathas, who have
preserved their nationality iu their new environment.
The Agricultural and Industrial Classes vary inversely with
each other, according as the character of the settlement is rural
or urban. Brahmans, Muhammadans and Christians gravitate to
towns, and Muhammadans are particularly numerous in places
which were formerly of military importance.
Each of the communities above specified is composite. The
Brahmans are divided into a number of smaller communities by
differences in religion or language. The agriculturists may include
Tamil Pallis and Vellalars, Telugu Kapus and Kanarese
Vakkiligas, and each of these again is subdivided into smaller
1 Vide Ethnographic Notes, page 487.
* For '• pseudO'hook-swiDging," see Ethnographic Notes, page 600.
THE PEOPLE. 123
I
groups. The Weavers may include Tamil Kaikolars, Telugu CHAP. ill.
Togatas and Kanarese Devangas, the Fishermen, Tamil Fikdus
Sembadavans and Telueu Bestas, and so with all the other „
communities. organisa-
It is an essential feature of the Hindu social organisation ,pj^g j^^'
that intermarriage between these petty subdivisions of each Gonnuhii.
community is prohibited. In otlier words, the unit of Hindu
Society is the endogamous group, or sub-caste, as it may conveni-
ently be called, the members of which may, except within the
prohibited degrees of relationship, freely intermari'v ; and the
limits of each sub-caste are rigidly ^ fixed b}' iis jus connubii. Not
infrequently all the members of the sub-caste trace their origin
to a common ancestor, who may be eponymous. The sub-caste is
itself divided into a number of smaller groups, which are governed
by the law of exogamy, and which may conveniently be called
CLANS. ^ The members of a clan are theoretically descendants in
the male line of a common ancestor, and are regarded as " daya-
dis" ; thus a marriage between two members of one clan would
bo looked on as within the prohibited degrees of relationship, and
therefore as incestuous. Hence a Hindu must choose his bride
from any clan within the sub-caste save his own, the bride
becoming a member of the clan into which she marries. In some
castes there is strong evidence that their clans are totemistic in
origin, i.e., the members are all theoretically descended from some
animal or plant, which gives its name to the clan, and which is
regarded by the clan with peculiar reverence. It can hardly be
said that totemism is a characteristic of South Indian caste, but
it is quite possible that the apparent traces of totemism in the
clan are survivals of an earlier social phase. It sometimes
happens that two clans regard themselves as " cousin-brothers "
and may not intermarry.^
1 The blending of two endogamous groups is technically kuown as fusion,
and the splitting of an endogamous group into smaller endogamous units as
Jission. Fusion, except between a few advanced sections of Brahmans, is
unknown in Salem District, and the modern tendency is jealously to restrict
the jus connubii, in other words it is a tendency towards fission.
^ The Bralimanic Gotra is strictly an exogamous group, but it implies descent
from a patron saint or Rishi. and the term is not commonly in vogue among non-
Brahman castes. The Tamils use the term Vaguppu, " group," to describe the
exogamous group, but the term is too vague for general application. The same
objection applies to the word Inti-perlu (= house names) used for the exoga-
mous group by the Telugus. The term Kula or Kulam (family) is in general use
among Tamils, Tclugus and Kanarese, but the word is also often used with a
larger and more general meaning, and its adoption in a restricted meaning
would lead to confusion. The term Eilai (branch), used by a few Tamil castes,
is too local for general use.
2 They are spoken of as Ddyddi Vaguppus.
124
SAtEM.
CHAP. III.
Hixncs.
SOCIAL
OBGAMSA-
TION.
Four
Barriers.
]. Langiia^o.
2, Occupa-
tion.
A CASTE is usnally composed of several sub-castes, between
which interdining is allowed, but not intermarriage. Eonghlj
speaking, it may be said that the sub-caste is defined bj the
jus conmibii, and the caste by the jus convivii. It is usually the
case that the ancestors of the sub-castes are supposed to be brothers
or half-brothers. Several oastes are sometimes lumped together
under a common name, based usually on community of occupation,
and such combinations may conveniently be termed "caste
groups," though the term " caste" is often loosely applied to the
whole.
The ramifications of the jxis connnbii are determined by a
variety of factors, foremost among which are (1) linguistic
differences, (2) differences in occupation, (3) territorial differences
and (4) differences in religious or philosophic tenets. It is by no
means. the case that these factors are of uniform importance in all
classes of the community. In some castes it is primarily a differ-
ence of dogma that ha«» led to social segregation, in others a dilTcr-
enco of language, in others of vocation, in others of residence.
All four fa(!tors may have contributed to the creation of a sub-caste ;
all four are influenced by and react upon pride of birth or status,
and the resultaot complex is crystaUizod by oaatom and fiction.^
The causes of caste are multitudinous, though their expression
in the limitation of the jUs connubii is universally uniform.
A difference of language is almost universally a bar to inter-
marriage. For instance, Kanarese Devangas may not marry
with Telugu Devangas, or Kanarese Knrubas with Telugu
Kurubas, or Tamil Barbers, Dhobies or Potters with Telugu or
Kanarese Barbers, Dhobies or Potters. Unfortunately this
distinction has not been observed in tabulating the Census
Statistics of Caste. Thus Kurubas are officially supposed to
speak Kanarese and Devangas Telugu, and it is obvious that large
numbers of Malas and Holeyas have been returned as Paraiyans,
of Mangalas and Kelasis as Ambattans, of Tsakalas and Agasas
as Vannans, of Kuramaras and Kurabaras as Kusavans, etc.
Hence in the Census of 1901, though over 158,000 persons are
shown as speaking Kanarese, the Kanarese speaking castes totalled
just over 89,000, while in 1911 the proportion is about 134,000
Kanarese speakers to 50,000 pei-sons of Kanarese castes, and in the
latter Census many of the Kanarese castes have vanished
altogether.
Difference in occupation is the dominant formative principle in
the Industrial Castes, which may be described as endogamous
guilds based on hereditary apprenticeship.
I For the inlluence of Fiction see Risley, Peoploflniiae, page 265.
THE PEOPLE. 125
A difference in the place of origin or of residence is naturally CHAP. III.
of importance among the Agricultural Castes, whose prosperity is IIindds.
rooted in the soil. Hence arise the distinctions between tho SociAr,
Vellalars of Tonda-mandalam, of Kongu, of tho Chola or Pandya organisa-
country ; between the Malaijalis of the Kolli-raalais, the Pachai- 3 Location,
malais and the Perija-malais. Of analogous origin is the Gangadi-
kara (Gangavadi) division of the Vakkiligas and the Morasu
division of the Kapus.
Sectarian differences are of paramount importance among the 4. Sect,
numerous sub-castes of Brahmans. A Saivite may not marry a
Vaishnavite, a Madhva may not marry a Smarta. The great
Lingayat caste is essentially sectarian in origin. Among other
castes, however, sectarian distinctions are usually disregarded.
The well-known division of South Indian Castes into the Eight Right and
and Left Hand Factions (Valangai and Idangai) is recognised
throughout the District, except in the Taluk of Attur. The origin
of this distinction is unknown, and no satisfactory explanation of
it has yet been advanced.-^ The factions could not have sprung
out of purely racial antipathies, for Tamils, Telugus and Kanarese
are alike divided by it. Probably it sprang, like the factions of
the Guelfs and Ghibellines in Mediseval Italy, from disputes that
were in nature partly religious, partly political, partly economic
and partly social, but when or how the dispute arose is an unsolved
mystery, buried in remote antiquity.^ The salient distinction
between the two factions is that at festivals and marriages the
Eight Hand Castes employ Pariah musicians with pipes and
horns, while the Left Hand Castes employ only Chuckler musi-
cians, with drums and tom-toms of various kinds. There are also
Left Hand
Factions.
1 Dr. Oppert {Original Inhabitants of India, p. 61) traces the feud to the
struggle between Jainism and Brahmanism. " The influence of the Jainas was
perhaps strongest in towns, where the artisan classes form an important and
powerful portion of the population, while the Brahmans appealed to the land-
owning and agricultural classes, whom they won over by entreaties or by threats.
The Brahmans have not joined and strictly speaking do not belong to either side,
but their interests lie mainly with the right side. As in various localities the
same castes have embraced different sides, it is difficult to assign to all a
permanent position." Dr. Oppert quotes a civil suit, tried in Salem in 1843
before a Brahman, in which it was held that the Kammalars " had no right to
study the Veda or to undertake any Prayascitta or any other religious ceremony
whose performance is a privilege of the Bi-ahmans. "
^ The Right and Left Hand factions are mentioned in an inscription of the
reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagar, dated A.D. 1446-47 (G.B. Mo. 23 of 1905
see Report for 1905, p. 58), and the privileges'of the Left Hand faction are dealt
with in inscriptions, dated in the 48th year of Kulottnnga I (1117 A.D., see G.E.
No. 479 of 1908 and Report for 1909, p. 95), and in the 15th year of Konerinniai-
kondan (G.E. No. 186 of 1910, see Report for 1911, p. 78, and G.E. No. 151 of 1905,
see Report for 1905, p. 62, and South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. Ill, p. 40 sq.), the
latter being on jaloeographical grounds assignod to the thirteenth century.
126
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
Hindus.
Social
organisa-
TION.
eertaiu exclusive privileges to which each faction lays claim, " but
as these alleged privileges are nowhere defined and recognisod,
they result in confusion and uncertainty and are with difficulty
capable of settlement." ^ Yet in the days of Abbe Dubois a
trespass by one faction on the so-called rights of the other would
lead to riot and bloodshed throughout the countryside, and the
worthy Abbe records how he had seen the rioters " stand up
against several discbarges of artillery withoiit exhibiting any sign
of submission. '^ The danger of friction has under British Rule
abated, but it has by no means disappeared. The Right Hand
Faction claims precedence over the Left Hand in the distribution
of pdn-supdri, sandal, etc., at marriages and other social and
religious gatherings. At the annual festival to Mari-amman the
Right Hand Faction worships first, and it is often necessary, in the
interests of peace, that the worship of each faction should take
place on a different day.
Popularly the Right Hand Faction is spoken of as the
Eighteen Pauaras, the Left Hand Faction as the Nine Pananis.
The word Panam Ib said to be a corruption of tlio Sanscrit Varnam
" Colour,'* i.o , " Caste." Bu tthe Castes returned as Right Hand
number many more than eighteen, and those returned as Left
Hand number many more than nine, and no two lists agree.'^
Brahmans and many non-Brahman Castes arc neutral in the
quarrel.
The life and soul of the Left Hand Faction is the Artizan
Caste of Kfimmrilars, who are actuated with tlio bitterest animosity
against Brahmans. Another Caste which always figures in the
Left Hand section is that of the l^ori Chottis, a community
bitterly opposed to the Komatis, who are Right Hand. Similarly
Pallans are at feud with Pariahs.
Among the Castes returned in Salem District as Left Hand
are the Kammalars, Beri Chottis, Nagarattu Chettis, Vedars,
Gollas, " Two-]^ull " Oil-pressors, Razus, Kaikolars, Pallans and
Irulans. It may bo noted that most of these castes either repudi-
ate the authority of Brahmans altogether, or rarely employ them
as purohiU, The chief of the Right Hand Castes are the Komatis,
Vollalars, Reddis, Balijas, with Barbers, Dhobies and Potters.
Other Right Hand Castes reported are Agamudaiyans, Bestas,
Boyas, Darzis, Idaiyans, Janappans, Koravas, Kurnbas, Lam-
badis, Malaiyalis, Patnulkarans, Shanans, Togatas, Vakkiligaa and
Vedakkarans.
1 Abbe Dobois, 1897, p. 25-6.
2 See the lists quoted by Dr. Oppert in Original Inhabitants of India, p. 03,
taken from a Chingleput judgment of 1809.
THE PEOPLE. 127
In matters ot social administration each caste is an autono- CHAP. III.
mous unit. In almost every village each sab-caste has its head- Hindus.
man, who is variously known as l/r-Kavundan, Feriya'Tandkkdran^ Social
Muppan, Kutti-maniyain, Kdriijastan, etc. Ho is usually assisted ohganisa-
by a peon (Kolkdran), and sometimes by a sort of vice-headman Poiity,
{Kdriyastan, Kdriyakdran). In some castes the Ur-Kavundim
{^ives his decisions on his own responsibility, in others in consul-
tation with his assistant, and in others again in consultation with
a panchdyat of the leading householders of his village. ^ The
Ur-Kavundmi' s jurisdiction is usually confined to petty matters of
social discipline. Appeals against his decision and disputes of a
grave character are referred to a higher tribunal, consisting
usually of a council of Ur-Kavundans, presided over by an officer
variously entitled Ndttdn^ Dorai^ Ejaman^ Reddi, Cheth\ etc. This
tribunal exercises authority over a number of villages, the number
varying with the strength and distribution of the communities
concerned. The territorial jurisdiction of such a tribunal is
variously known as a Nadu, Path or Hohati. In most castes the
decisions of this second court are subject to a third, or oven a
fourth, tribunal, the constitution of which varies with almost every
caste. Among the castes which acknowledge Brahmanic authority
the supreme decision usually vests in a Brahman Guru. In other
castes several Nads are grouped together under the jurisdiction of
an officer called Pattahkdran, Penya-Ndttdn, Penya Dorai, Pedda
Ej'amdn, Rdja, Gadi Ndttdn, etc., who is usually assisted by a
Mandiri (Prime Minister) and presides over a bench of subordi-
nate Ndttdns. Sometimes the decisions of Pattakkars are referred
to a board of Pattakhdrs, and sometimes to a Guru. The Left
Hand Castes own the authority of the Desdyi Chetti, who is by
caste a Balija.^
The offices above referred to are usually hereditary, or at
least confined to one family ; sometimes, however, they are
elective. The higher offices are usually regarded as sacred in
character, and in some castes, e.g., among the Lingayats, the
whole caste administration is of a strictly hierarchical nature.
The efficiency of the control exercised by these courts varies
1 In some castes the panchdyat is composed entirely of men belonging to the
oaste or sub-caste concjemed ; in others, especially among the Left Hand Castes
and the Telugus and Kanarese, the panchdyat is drawn partly from the caste
concerned (kxdastar) and partly from other castes ipanastar).
^ Spelt also Yejamdnan, or Tejawdn.
3 The usual Kanarese system is the Katte-mane, the Nad, and the Desa,
the latter being governed by a Dcsayi Gauda. Among the Kanarese it is
common for the Shdnbhog and Futel (Karnam and Munsif) to sit on the ordi-
nary caste panchdiiat.
128
salt;m.
CHAP III.
Hindus.
Social
organisa-
TION.
Ordeals.
greatly with different communities ; with the scattered immigrant
community of the Balijas, for instance, caste control is loosely
knit and vaguely defined ; with the compactly grouped Malaiyalis,
on the other hand, the jurisdiction of the several courts is sharply
defined, and their control fairly rigorous. British Eulo, by
ignoring caste politics; has tended to disintegrate caste solidarity,
and the Civil Courts of Judicature have done much to undermine
the authority of caste tribunals, to the financial detriment of the
communities concerned.
The position of the Guru is quite different from that of a
Purohtt. The Guru, who in some castes is not a Brahman, is the
supremo authority in matters of caste discipline ; he can excom-
municate, and without him re-admission to caste is impossible.
The Purohtt on the other hand would be more correctly described
as the family priest and astrologer, wiio determines what dales
are propitious or inauspicious for family undertakings, and whose
services are requisitioned at all births, marriages and funerals, at
the consecration of tanks, wells, houses and temples, and whenever
ceremonial pollution has to be removed (see s.v. punydha-vachanam,
p. 130). The higher castes employ Brahmans as Purohtts, and
many castes of inferior status seek to enhance their social dignity
by discarding their ancestral Purohits in favour of Brahmans.
For the ordinary purposes of caste discipline fines and
sometimes corporal chastisement suffice. In some castes the
offender is subjected to some loathsome and degrading ceremony
(e.g., p. 199), and he usually has to provide a banquet for all his
fellow-caste-men of his own or adjoining villages. Serious
breaches of caste law or defiance of caste authority are met by
excommunication, which prohibits the offender and the members
of his family from taking meals with any of his fellow-casto-raen,
or from receiving fire or water at their hands, or even speaking to
them or entering their houses, deprives him of the services of the
barber and washerman, and forbids all members of the caste from
entering his house, even on occasions of marriage or death.
Before the ban can be removed, the Guru must be cfiUcd in to
perform punydha-vdc/ionam (p. 130), and perhaps brand the
offender on the tongue with a needle of gold ; and among the
higher castes the unhappy sinner must drink the pancha-yavya
(p. 131). The Guru must be heavily feed for his services, and
the caste-men fed.
The ordeal is still resorted to as a means of deciding caste
disputes. The usual form of ordeal requires the litigant parties,
after performing their ablutions, to proceed in public to the local
temple, where, after pujd has been performed, they prostrate
THE PEOPLE. ' 129
before the idol aud are garlanded by the pujari ; each party then CllAP. HI.
dips his rig-ht hand in boiling ghee, and the suitor whose hand is H^J^dos
uninjured wins his suit. Sometimes a piece of red-hot iron takes Sociaf.
the place of the boiling ghee. Another test is for an accused OaoANisA-
person to throw fresh ^w;u6ra flowers into boiling oil or ghee; if
they fade, he is guilty ; if they do not, lie is innocent.
A more usual way, however, of pressing a suit is by taking oath. Oaths and
It is against the principles of a Brahman to tal^e an oath, but " ^^^
there are many ways open to Non-Brahman Hindus for emphasis-
ing good faith. The usual course among the higher castes is for
both parties, after bathing, to resort to a temple, where the oath-
taker extinguishes burning camphor, or a ghee-fed lamp lit by the
other party, in the presence of a deity,
A faA'^ourite oath in the Baramahal, as well as in the Talaghat,
is to swear by the " sixtieth step " [Aruvathdm-padi) at Tiruchen-
goilu^, and it is not necessary to go to Tiruchengodu to swear this
oath. A man may swear by his wife or child {penjdthi-pillai-
uthavai^dppaU), placing his hand on their heads ; or by his family
or village deity, especially by Mari-amman or Selli-amman ; or he
will touch the ground and point to the sky, and swear by earth
and heaven {bhmni-sdtchi-dgdsa'Sdtchi-ydga-soUugiy^en). If it is not
convenient to go to the temple, the oath-taker may stand within
a circle drawn on the ground and so repeat his oath, or he may
throw a cloth on the ground and step over it, or cross over seven
parallel straight lines drawn on the ground within the space of a
foot or two.
Betel and salt are alike sacred ; betel represents Lakshmi, the
goddess of wealth, and salt is a necessity of life ; and hence a
man may swear by touching 3 pieces of salt placed on a betel-leaf,
or with a piece of betel or salt on his head. An oath may be
taken by touching the foot of a Brahman, or a man may swear by
the Ramajana. If a document is in dispute, the plaintiff may
challenge the defendant to draw his pen across the paper, and a
creditor njay challenge his debtor to tear up his bond. Custom
prohibits the taking of an oath by a minor under fifteen years of
age, by a woman (except against a woman), by a man who is
blind or deaf, by a man of bad character, by a drunkard or by
an idiot,^ In Pennagaram a man will give a piece of cow-dung to
the purchaser of his cattle, and the latter dare not then recede
from his bargain. In Denkani-kota, when selling cattle, the
owner of a beast will hand a piece of straw and a little cow-dung
* Vide infra Vol. IT, p. 28G, * Baramahal Records, III, p. 56.
I
130
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
HiXDUs.
Social
Organisa-
tion,
CC78T0M8.
Foliation.
to the purchaser when he hands over the cattle. It is common in
the presence of a Panchdydt to break a straw in two and throw
the pieces over one's head as a token of veracity, Among the
lower castes a straw is broken at dissolution of marriage. A low
caste illiterate man, when called on to sign a document, will break
a straw and place it on the ground, in token that he acknowledges
the mark affixed in lieu of signature.
The social customs of South India are a blond of two cultures,
the Arjan and Dra vidian. The terms Kshatriva, Vaisya and
Sudra have no ethnographic significance in South India ; the
term Brahman has, for it represents Aryanism.
For the sake of scientific convenience, Hindus in Salem District
may be classed as Brahman and non-Brahman^ ; and the non-
Brahman castes may be graded inter se by the degree to which they
have assimilated their customs to Brahmauic practice. The cardi-
nal features of the Aryan culture are (1) infant marriage, (2)
taboo on the re-marriage of widows, (3) taboo on animal food,
(4) the worship of Siva or Vishnu, (5) prohibition of animal
sacrifice, and (6) the performance of sraddhas, i.e., the annual
ceremony in honour of dead ancestors.
Pollution is incurred by breaches of the jus connubii ovjus convim
or by excommunication (see above p. 128) ; by the touch of a low
caste man or even by his presence,'^ by menstruation, childbirth or
death. Pollution usually extends to the near relatives and to all
who come in contact with the person polluted.
The most usual purificatory ceremony is punydha-vdchnnam,^ a
ceremony observed by almost all castes. As a preliminary, the
house is prepared by rubbing the floor with cow-dung and water
and whitewashing the walls, and sometimes a pandal is erected in
front of the doorway. All the members of the family should
bathe, anoint their head with oil, and don clean clothes. A mea-
sure of rice on a plantain leaf is placed before the persons who are
to be purified, and on this is placed a brass vessel of water, the
month of which is covered with mango leaves. The purohi't or
family priest then recites mantras (spells) over the vessel, and
1 Afl the claim of certain castes to be classed as Kshatriyas or Vaisyas is not
generally recognised, the nee of the more generul term Non-Bialiman is neces-
sary to avoid confusion.
2 See Malabar District Gazetteer, p. 102 sq., for the diitioction between " con-
tact" and "distance " or " atmospheric *' pollution, and Census Report, Madras,
1901, p. 137 sq. for lists of castes who pollute by touch and by proximity. The
graded " scale of distances " observed in Malabar is, however, unknown in
Salem.
3 Cftlled also Stala-suddhi,
THE PEOPLE.
13JL
CHAP. III.
HiNona.
CCSTOMS.
then apriokles the water so oonaecrated (Hrfam) over all the mem-
bers of the family who are present and over the house. Several
subsidiary ceremonies are performed, but they are not all essential.
The most potent and efficacious of all purificatory rites, however,
is the drinking of the pancha^gavya, or the five products of the cow,
viz., milk, curds, ghee, oovv-dang and cow -urine ; a ceremony in
vogue only among the higher castes, and reserved for special
occasions.
On attainment of maturity a girl must be segregated for a
prescribed period in a separate room of the house, or in a tempo-
rary shed erected (usually by her maternal uncle) outside the
village. Custom sometimes requires that a new hut should be
constructed every three days or so, the old hut being burned.
Every precaution is taken to guard the girl from the Evil-Bye or
molestation by evil spirits. She must undergo numerous ceremo-
nial ablutions, and custom rigidly lays down how often and when
she should change her clothes. Sometimes she is given special diet.
In some castes, after a few days' isolation outside the village, the
girl is admitted into the house, and she and her relatives remain
under " minor " pollution till the end of the pollution period.
The pollution period varies greatly even within the same caste.^
Brahmans observe pollution for ten days, Malaiyalis sometimes for
a full month, Lingayats none at all. Pollution terminates with
final ablutionary ceremonies, formal presentation of new cloths and
other gifts, the inevitable puny aha- vdchanam and a family feast.
At subsequent menstruations segregation for three, four or five
days suffices, and pollution ends with a bath. After childbirth
similar precautions and ceremonies are observed, but the mother
is permitted to remain in the house.
Between birth and maturity a Brahman has to undergo five Childhood,
important ceremonies, (1) namaharanam or naming ceremony,
(2) chevulU'kuttedi or ear-boring ceremony, (3) anna-prdsanam or
weaning ceremcmy, (4) chaulam or tonsure ceremony and (5)
upanayanam or investiture with i\iQ pUuul or sacred thread. Most
of the castes which claitu to be llvija or "twice born '^ observe
these ceremonies, but many of the other Non-Brahman castes
ignore them. For ear-boring no particular month is specified, and
any convenient day is chosen by the parents provided it is
auspicious. The weaning ceremony among Brahmans takes
place when the boy is six months old, the tonsure^ at the
^ Little 01" no oonsistency as to the daratiou of pollution can be trace!
between the accoonts given in Castes and Tribes, E.S.M., etc., and information
derived locally.
2 Dubois, loc. cit,, p. 160.
M
132
SALEM,
CHAP. III.
Hindus.
Cdstoms.
Bftfcrot.hal.
end of the third year, and the upanayanam ^ between the fifth
and ninth year, and usually between the months of March and
June.
KSmatis and Nagarattus follow Brahman practice, but other
castes that adopt the pUnul are usually invested with it on the
eve of raiirriage. The ndmakaranam is generally performed at the
time of purification after childbirth, sometimes it is reserved till
the fifth, seventh or ninth month and sometimes it is deferred till
even the third year. The ceremonies observed differ greatly in
different castes, and it is a general practice to seek the advice and
blessings of a family or village deity. The names usually
selected are those of ancestors, of local deities, or of deities who are
believed to be the special guardians of the family, e.g., Ardhanari
is a popular name round Tiruchengodu, Betrayan round Denkani-
k5ta, and Muni-appan or Muniswami near Veppana-palli. The
eldest son is usually named after his parental grandfather, but,
as his mother may never utter the name of her husband, her
father-in-law or her mother-in-law, be they alive or dead, her child
must necessarily have a nickname for domestic use. Personal
names are common, such as Mukkaii (anglice^^ Beak "), Karuppau
(Black-fellow), Min-vayan (Fish-mouth), etc. Jf the first and
second children die in infancy, the third child is called Kuppu-
swami, or Kuppan, or if a girl, Kuppammal, and is rolled thrice
on a muck heap, its nostril is bored and a ring inserted, and the
infant is nominally sold away to a third person for a sum of not
more than half an anna.
The practice of branding infants as a prophylactic against
fits, swellings or jaundice is largely resorted to, sometimes
immediately after birth. The parts branded are the forehead,
the joints of the limbs, and the abdomen, and the branding is
done with a red-hot needle, or a piece of thread dipped in boiling
oil. A circle branded on the knee joint is a specific against
rheumatism.
The betrothal ceremonies are usually simple. The proposal
is made by the parents (or guardians) of the bridegroom elect,
who visit the girl's house, taking with them money, pdn-supdri,
and sometimes a new cloth, rice, coco-nuts, plantains, jaggery,
flowers, dust of sandal-wood, saffron, turmeric and other auspi-
cious articles. If any evil omen is observed on their way, they of
coarse turn back. When they arrive at the girl's house they are
received by the girl's parents, take their scats and make known
the object of their visit. Both parties then wait in silence for an
^ Dubois, loo. cit., p. 162.
TfiE PEOPLE. 133
omoii, iwiially'the chirpiug of a lizard.^ If the omen is favourable, CHAP. III.
the parents of the girl formally accept the offer. The girl is anoint- Hindis.
ed and bathed bj her mother. She dons new clothes and returns cubtoms.
to the company. The boy's mother then ties some of the gifts
above referred to in the girl's cloth, and places the money, etc.,
before her. The fathers of the contracting parties then exchange
pdn-snparl, aa act which clinches the bargain. A. general distri-
bution oi pan- supdri among the assembled guests follows, and the
ceremony closes with a feast. It is usually necessary that the
local head of the caste and the principal housheolders, as well as
the maternal uncles of both boy and girl and other relatives,
should be present throughout the proceedings.
The payment of a bride-price (l^amil pai'iyom, Telugu tera^ The Paru
Kanarese oli) by the parents of the bridegroom to the parents of y*"**
a bride is a custom almost universal among non-Brahman castes.
Among Brahmans, on the other hand, the payment of a bride
price is prohibited and this prohibition is a distinctive mark of
Brahraanic culture.
The most suitable match for a boy is considered to be his Menaiikam.
maternal uncle's daughter.^ His paternal aunt's daughter is next
in favour, and in some castes he has a preferential right to marry
the daughter of his sister. So strong is this custom that in some
castes, if the parents of the girl whose hand can thus be claimed
marry her to a man other than the relative who has this right of
first refusal, they will be excommunicated from caste. A girl
who is thus married by virtue of her relationship to her husband
is called an " urimai girl," while one chosen to enhance her hus-
band's position or wealth is called a " ^eruma? (dignity) girl"*.
The rule, which is common among both Tamils and Telugus,
is known to the latter as menanham. It is curious that the
Komati Vaisyas are subject to it. The Komati custom is thus
described *: —
" If a sister has a son and her brother has a daughter, it is an
invariable rule for the brother to give his daughter in marriage to his
sister's son, and let the girl be handsome or ugly, the sister's son
1 In Barumahal Records, section III, three omens are especially referred to
as favourable : (I) A crow flying from left to right, (2) a Brahmani kite from
right to left, (3) a lizard chirping in the south. A crow or kite flying in the
reverse direction or a lizard chirping in the north are evil omens. Many Telngn
castes light a lamp as soon as the visitors arrive, and if the lamp goes out
during the proceedings, the proposal is dropped.
* The rule is observed among the Veddas of Ceylon: see Folk-Lore, 1911^
p. 523,
^ Vide Trichinopoly District Qazetteer, p. 91.
* Baramahal Rerords, section III, p. 88.
Customs.
i34 saleM.
CHAP. Ill must marry her. If a brother have two sisters, and the sisters have
Hindus. each a son, and he himsplf should have two daughters, he is obliged
to give one of the daughters in marriage to each of his sister's sons.
However, if the brother should have three or more daughtors and his
sisters should have a plurality of sons, the brother is only obliged to
give one of his daughters to each of the eldest of his sister's sons, ai d
he may dispose of the rest of his daughters as he pleases, and so in
like manner may the sisters dispose of their younger sons. If the
brother's daughter be blind, lame or deformed, his sister's son must
take her in marriage, bntonthe contrary, if the sister's son should
happen to be blind, lame or in any other shape deformed, the brother
is not obliged to give his daughter in marriage to him. But if the
sister should have a daughter and a brother a son, the sister is not
obliged to give her daughter to her nephew, but may give her to
whom she pleases."
Possibly the custom is a sort of compromise between matrilincal
succession and Brahmanic law. There is reason to believe that
" mother-right " prevailed in early Dravidian Society. Under a
system of inheritance through females, a man had no interest
whatever in finding out who his father might be. When, however,
the idea of paternity began to take shape, as it certainly must
have done under Aryan influences, fathers would begin to take a
paternal interest in their sons. But under ^' fnothor-right" a man
cannot transmit what he inherits to his own children, for his
sister and his sister's children are his heirs. The only way he can
secure the family property in the enjoyment of his own children
is to marry them to the children of his sister. The same advant-
ages would accrue to a marriage between himself and liis sister's
daughter, the family property being saved from disruption. A
marriage between his own daughter and his sister's son would be
still better, for it would unite the properties of his wife and his
mother.
The degree of rigour with which this rule of menarlkam is
enforced varies in different castes. In some castes it is a mere
matter of form to offer the fortunate uncle or cousin the first
refusal.^ In other castes {e.g ^ Malaiyalis) it is said to be carried
to such an extreme that sometimes an immature boy is married to
a woman old enough to be his mother, the boy's father or father's
brother performing the functions ot a husband to the bride, and
^It is significant that in Tamil one woid {mdvnan) docs duty for (1) wife's
father, (2) maternal Lncls, (3) paternal aunt's husband, and one word imachinan)
for (1) brother-in-law, (2) maternal uncle's son, (3) paternal annt's son, while
the feminine form of the hitter word {machini) stands for ^l) sister-in-law'i (2)
■wife's younger sister, (3) younger brother's wife, (4) maternal uncle's daughter
and (6) paternal aunt's daughter-
THE PEOPLE.
13^
raising up progeny for his son. The existence of this practice is CHA.P. Ill
emphatically denied hy most of the castes of whom it is recorded, Hinuus-
and it is probable that it will yield before long (ii it has not Customs.
already done eo) to the pressure of a more enlightened public
Gpinion, and vanish.
Another practice not uncommon among the Telugus and Illatam.
Kanarese^ is that of affiliating a aon-in-law, commonly known as
illatam. Failing male issue, a father is at liberty to marry his
daughter to a maa who agrees to become a member of the family,
and who thereafter resides in the father-in-law's house and
inherits the estate.
The practice of dedicating the eldest daughter as a Basavi
(dancing girl), about which so much has been written, is probably
intended to serve a similar purpose, for a Basavt is entitled to
inherit her father's property as a son, and to transmit it to her
offspring.
Marriage customs are of too great variety to be dealt with in Marriage
the detail they deserve, and it is unsafe to attempt to describe customs,
the wedding ceremonies of Hindus as a whole or those of any
specific caste group, because each sub-caste has its own peculiarities,
and even within the siib- caste there are deviations from standard,
and practice varies in different localities.
Weddings usually take place in Chittrai or Vaiyasi (April and
May) when agricultural work is suspended, and in some communi-
ties the marriage season extends to Ani or Avani (June, July,
August). In most castes the chief ceremonies take place at the
house of the bride's parents ; less commonly ^ the bridegroom's
people are the hosts, and in a few communities the ceremonies are
performed in the houses of both the contracting parties.^
In the case of infant marriage, consummation follows the girl's Consumma-
attainment of puberty, as soon as the pollution period is over. ^°"'
In the case of adult marriage, consummation is usually postponed
for at least three months after the wedding, as it is considered
unlucky for a child to be born within the first year of wedlock.
Consummation is not usually accompanied by any public
ceremony. _^ ^^.^ ^
The re-marriage of widows is altogether prohibited among the
hio"her castes, and even among such castes as tolerate the practice
it is regarded as a sort of legalised concubinage (Jcattuppddu). The
marriage ceremony is of the simplest description, the widow
^ E.g., Bedas, Kammas, Kapus, Vakkiligas, Gollas.
^ E.g., among Malaiyalis, Udaiyans. ^ E.g., amorg the Panta iieddis,
136
SALEM.
Customs.
Fauerald
CJIAP. TTl. puts on a new cloth presented her by her lover, and the latter ties
Hixnua. the M??^ in the presence of the headman. No married woman
should be present, and the bridegroom has usually to pay a reduced
bride-price to the family of the widow's deceased husband, and
sometimes a fine to the caste Guru, and he also has to provide a
feast for his fellow ca,stemen. Where divorce is allowed, divorcees
are usually permitted to remarry, the wedding ceremony being
similarly truncated.
The Aryan custom is to burn the dead, the Dravidian to bury.
Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaisya ritual requires cremation. Some
of the higher castes of the so-called Sudras also cremate, and in
mauy others cremation is adopted by the well-to-do, while the
poorer families have to be content with the lews costly sepulture.
There is a tendency for the Vaishnavite members of a caste to
prefer cremation, and for the Saivites to bury. Infants are usually
buried,^ and so also are those who die of small-po.x or cholera.^
Burial is also adopted in the case of men who have acquired a
great reputation as Sanyasis, even among Brahmans, and with
those who wear the linyam.
The Brahmanic monthly ceremonies in honour of the deceased
are observed with variations by the Komatis and Nagarattais, but
rarely by other castes. Annual ceremonies {srddd/ias) in a very
mutilated form are observed by a few of the higlior castes,* but
for Hindus generally the Mahdlaya Amdvdsai or Hindu All Souls'
Day (the new moon of Furattasi) suflRoes for the propitiation of
ancestors.
The Brahmans number 23,371, of whom about one-half
(11,905) arc Tamils and nearly one-third (6,900) Telngus.
Kanarese Brahmans (u,883) number rather more than half the
Telngus. The remaining G83 are mostly Maralhas.
The number of Brahmans per mille is 13, a lower figure than
can be found in any other district in the Presidency e.\copt the
Nilgiris. But in a district like Salem, where over 96 per cent
of the population is illiterate, Brahmans naturally acquire an.
Survey of
Castes.
(A) Bkah-
MAN'8.
^ Such marriages are called Kudike (concabinage) among the Kanarese, also
Vdike or fiirudike (" puUing on clothes ";.
* Infants under six mouths of age among Brahmans, under three years among
Vaisyas (Komatis and Nagarattiis), and children who have not shed their milk
teeth among castes which are not classed as the twice-born.
* Rut not among tho twice-born.
* The essential item is usually the feeding and feeing of a few needy
Brahmans, the performance of ablutions and the putting on of new clothes.
Sometimes the ceromonies are more elaborate (ride Baramahal Records, Section
III, p. 150).
MANS.
TflE ttlOPLE. 137
influence altogether out of proportion to their number. In general CHAP. Ill,
ability thoy have no rivals. In the remoter villages of the «i'RvtY ok
northern taluks the Brahman Karnam is, not iinfrequently, the '
only literate person accessible to the villagers. He keeps the (A) Br.ui
Village Mnnsif's accounts, writes his reports for him, communi-
cates and explains the Sirkar's orders, settles petty disputes
between the villagers, writes petitions for them and acts as a
general fac-totum in all business that requires the use of brains.
The Brahman^s position in Salem District is, as elsewhere,
prirriarily political in origin. Epigraphic records point clearly to
the privileged position enjoyed by Brahmans from the time of
Pallavas to the British Eaj. Without the Brahman, no Hindu
Eaj ever prospered. The Brahman followed in the wake of
armies, and on him fell the work of settlement and administra*
tion. Many of the village offices are still practically, though not
theoretically, hereditary in Brahman families, and the origin of
the office is proudly traced to the grant of some Eaja whose name
is long since forgotten. Brahman officers are, from time imme-
morial, the links that connect the village administration with the
centre of political power, and any attempt to disturb this connec-
tion, like that of Tipu who tried to administer the District by
illiterate Muhammadan Tahsildars, was sure to meet with disaster.
The ebb and flow of conquest are marked by Brahman settlements
founded for the prosperity of the reigning dynasty.^
There are few sections of South Indian Brahmans unrepre-
sented in Salem District, but space forbids any detailed account
of them.^ The ritual of Saivite temples is for the most part in the
hands of Grurukkals ^, (commonly called " bell ringers "), who form
an important section of the community, though they are rather
looked down upon by other Brahmans. The Golconda Viyaparis
of Krishnagiri Taluk are an interesting community. They mi-
grated from the Decoan to the Baramahal with Jagadeva Raya,
1 E.g., the-Kanarese Madhvas in Ettappur, Pedda-Nayakkan-palaiyam and
Attur (Vol. II, pp. 298, 303, and 297) and the Tamil Vaishnavas at Denkani-kSta,
(Vcl. II, p. 130) ; see also the Sankaridrug grant, Vol. II, p. 281.
An interesting and elaborate account will be found in Castes and Tribes, Vol.
I, pp. 267 to 393, Tanjore District Gazetteer, p. 78 sq. Brahmanic customs are
described in minute detail in Dubois " Hindu Manners, efc."
^ See Castes and Tribes, Vol. 1, p. 347.
138
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
SlRVEY OK
Castes.
(A) BRAH-
MAN'S.
(B) Nox-
Brahmanb.
(1) Agpricnl-
tural Castes.
and made themselves useful to each succeeding sovereign powor,
receiving as reward for their labour grants of land and adminis-
trative appointments. Thej are said to be an off-shoot of the
Telugu Niyogis, and closely connected with the Aruvelu and
Nandavariki groups. Their name ^ (Yivapari= merchant) they
account for by a legend that when migrating souihvvard to escape
the Muhammadan cataclysm, they transported the royal treasure
in the disguise of merchants. ^ They call themselves Ayyar, but
they are all Yaishnavites, and wear the namnm. Another com-
munity worthy of note is that of the Marka Brahmans settled in
Tali. Most of the Markaa are Kanarese Madhvas, but some are
Smartas. They are a wealthy and ambitious commuuity, but
their Brahmanic status is not admitted by other Brahmans, and
they are compelled to keep aloof. ^
In the absence of any satisfactory scientific classification of
castes, a rough and ready provisional arrangement is adopted,
based mainly on the primary formative principle of the several
castes concerned. Castes are grouped as (1) Agricultural, (2)
Pastoral, (3) Fishermen, (4) Hunters, (5) Traders, (6) Indus-
trial, (7) Labourers, (8) Menials, (9) Military, (10) Sectarian, (11)
Mendicants, (12) Miscellaneous Castes which cannot conveniently
be brought under other heads, and (13) Panchamas.
The backbone of the population is of course the great agricul-
tural caste groups of Pallis, Vellalars and Kapus or llcddis.
Dykes* remarks on these three great divisions are worth quoting.*
" The Vellalar is frugal and saving to the extreme •'''; bis hard work-
ing wife knows no finery, and the Vellalichi willingly wears for the
whole year the one blue cloth which is all that the domestic economy
of the house allows ber. If she gets wet, it must dry on her ; and if
she would wash hor sole garment, half is unwrapped to be operated
upon, which in its turn relieves the other half, that is then and there
similarly hammered against some stone by ttie side of the village
tank or on the banks of the neighbouring stream. Their food is the
cheapest of the ' dry ' grains which they happen to cultivate that
year ; and not even the village feasts can draw the money out of a
Yellalar's clctches : it is all expended on his land, if the policy of
* The Nandavariki Brabniana take their name from Nandavaram in Cuddapah
District.
* See Vol. II, p. 168, for further details.
' In spite of papal bulls issued by the Sringfiii Matam on behalf of the
Smartas and by the Parakal Matam at Mysore oii behalf of the Vaishnavas ;
Cosies and Tribes, Vol. I, p. 3G8.
* Dykes, pp. 131—3.
« It is said that Vellalars eat their evening meal by the light of the fire by
which it was cooked to save the cost of lamp-oil.
l-tifE ^EOPte.
m
the revenne administration of the country be liberal, and the acts of
Government such as to give confidence to the ryots or husbandman;
otherwise their lioaided grains are buried. The new moon or some
high lioliday ma}' perhaps see the head of the house enjoy a platter
of rice and a little meat, but such extravagance is rare.
" The Pallis and Pallars are the very reverse ; they have no
heed for the morrow, but spend their money as fast as ihey get it.
Their women wear the gayest-coloured cloths to be found in the
bazaar; ornaments are eagerly sought for; and their diet is the
best rice they can afford, with meat so often as it is to be had or can
be eaten by the Hindu without injury to his health.
" The Reddis, both Kanarese and Gentii, are as provident as the
rice growers are improvident. They spend their money on the land,
like the Vellalars, but they are not parsimonious ; they are always
well dressed if they can afford it ; the gold ornaments worn by the
women or the men are of the finest kind of gold ; their houses are
always neat and well built ; and (if fairly dealt with) they invari-
ably give the idea of good substantial ryots. They chiefly live on
ragi, and are a fine powerful race."
The Vellalars number 268,649. Thev aro strongest in the
Talagliat, especially in the Taluks of Tiruchengodu and Salem
(about 96,000 and 65,000 respectively). In Attiir there are about
29,000 and in tJttankarai about 31,000.
The principal sub-castes returned for Salem District are (1)
Kongu. (2) Velli-kai, (3) Pavalam-katti, (4) Tondai-mandalam,
(5) Tuluva, (6) Nirpusi, (7) Nayanar, (8) Ptisaikkara, (9) Karai-
feattu, (10) Soliya. Unfortunately the Census Beturns give no
idea of the relative strength of these divisions, but local enquiries
indicate that the Konga Vellalars, as might be expected, are by
far the most numerous.
The traditional boundaries of the ancient Kongu country are
on the west the Aliyar River of Pollachi Taluk, on the north the
Pala-malai, on the east the Kolli-malais, on the south the Palni
Hills. The Konga Vellalars are divided into the following terri-
torial groups : (1) Ten-talai (corrupted into Sentalai; located in
Tiruchengddu Taluk and in part of Coimbatore). (2) Vada-talai
(Salem, Attur, and Utfeankarai), (3) Palai (Coimbatore), (4) Padai-
talai (Coimbatore), (5) Narambu-katti (residing round Pulam-
patti), and (6) Pavalam-katti. To these must be added the
Velli-kai Vellalars of the Baramahal and the Nattans (see p. 144),
who are said to have sprung from the Ten-talai section. The
Narambu-kattis ( '* entrail- tying " ) are said to be so named
because they wear entrails round the neck.^
CETAP. III.
scrvet of
Castes.
(B) NoN-
Brahmans.
(2) Tamil
Cultivators.
V'^ellalars.
1 Possibly this is an uncharitable variant on Arlinibu-katti, " those who tie
flower buds " — vide Castes and Tribes, Vol. VII, p. 377.
140
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
suevet of
Castes.
Vellalara.
The chief Bettlements of the^Konga Vellalars are in Tiruohen-
g5du and Qttankarai. Salem Taluk contains man}' settlements of
them, and they are known in Dharmapuri and Atttir. The
Pavalam-katti Vellalars are so-called on account of the circlets of
coral beads worn by their women on the left arm. They are to be
found fairly commonly in the Taluks of Tiruchengodu, Salem and
Omaltlr. and in Dharmapuri, especially in the Pagalpatti Firka.
The Velli-kai (" silver arm ") or Velli-kappu Vellalars are so
called on account of the silver bangles which their women w^car on
the upper arm. They are common in Dharmapuri, and in
Hosur in the Sanat-kumara-nadi valley and on the adjoining
hills ^. They are also found in Krishnagiri and at Kanavay Pudur
in Omalur, but they are not found in Attiir, Salem or Tiruchen-
g5du. They are organised for caste administration into three
Gadi-t'drams or Districts, each under a Periya or Gadi-Nditdn,
namely (l)Eaya-kota Gadi, under Sakkai Kavundan of Dodda-
Timmana-halli (Krishnagiri Taluk), (2) Krishnagiri Gadi under
Venkatapati Kavundan of Mora-madugu and (3) Virabhadra-
Durgam Gadi under Muniswami Kavundan of Golla-halli. Each
Gadi-vdram is divided into a number of Hohalis ^ or groups of
villages, each Hobali being under a Chinna or HObali-Ndttdn.
Each village has its tjr -Kavundan. Appeals in caste matters lie
from the tJr-Kavundan to the Hobali- Ndttdn, and second appeals
to the Gadi-JVdttdriy and if the parties are still dissatisfied, they can
appeal to a full bench of the three Gadi-Ndttdns sitting together.
True Tondai-mandalara Ve.llalars, who are strict vegetarians,
are very rare in the Salem District. They occur sporadically in
the l^alaghat, and also in Dharmapuri and tJttankarai'. Tuluva
Vellalars occur in the Talnghat talnks, and are also found in
Dharmapuri and tJttankarai^ Some authorities class them as a
section of the Tondai-mandalam Vellalars, but this classification is
not generally accepted in Salem District, as they are flesh-eaters,
while the true Toudai-mandalam Vellalan is said to be a strict
vegetarian. In Attur they are called Vettilai-karar or Kodi-kal
Vellalars, and are said to be experts in the cultivation of the
^ Their chief settlements are at PalakOda, Pennagaram and Kari-mangalani in
Dharmapnii, and at Pancha-palli and Betta-mngalalani in llosar.
2 E.g., the /ye6a/i« of Ratnagiri, Chenrtlja-Durgaui, Baratangi, Attijambatiu
and Sngana-halli belong to the Vi&ya,-\i.ot&-Qadi-vdram, those of 'I ogura palli,
Kundara-palli and Mahftraja-gadai to the KriBlinagiri-ff^rfi-rara'n, etc
^ 'J'hey are met with in Gangavalli and Kondayampalli in Atfcur, at Karnppur
and Enadi in Omalur, and also in Salem aud Sura-niangalam.
* There are large settlements of them in Salem, in Attar Town and in
Mangodu near Pennagaram.
THE PEOPLE.
141
betel-vine.^ The so-called Manij'akkarars of the Baramahal are
said to bo Tuluva Vellfilars, organieied under a Pattakkaran at
Hartir who appoints Nattars for Kambaya-uallur, Anaudur
Kaveri-pataam, Jagadevi, and Ponnagaram.
Most of the Yellalars of Krishnagiri Taluk call themselves
Najanar^ and they acknowledge the Dharma-Sivachar Guru of
Norinjipet. Nayauars are also found in Salem and Oraalur/ In
the latter taluk, as well as in Dharmapuri, they are said to be
identical with Nirpusi and Ptisaikkara Vollalars, but irr Krishna-
giri these three sections are reported to be distinct. The term
Nirpusi is derived from the sacred ashes {nlru) which they
apply to their foreheads, and all Nirptisis are Saivites. There are
a few families of Nirpusis at Mallapuram and Kadagattur, both
in Dharmapuri Taluk, and a settlement ^of Pusaikkara Yellalars at
Vadakumai'ai in Attur, whose Guru lives at Vriddhaehalam in
South Arcot.^
Karai-kattu Vellalars are to be found in several villages in the
Taluks of Omalur (near the Kaveri) and Attur (near the
Trichinopoly border ^). In Salem and Tiruchengodu they are
rather rare. lu Dharmapuri there are a few settled near
Solappadi.
Soliya (or Ch5la) Yellalars are not common, but they are said
to occur in all the Talaghat Taluks,^ and also rarely, in Dharmapuri
and tJttankarai, as well as in the villages of Angondapalli and
Mattigiri in Hosur Taluk.
No systematic attempt has yet been made to differentiate the
customs of the numerous sub-castes of Vellalars, except in the
case of the Kongu group. Generally speaking their customs are
of the ordinary Tamil type, with a strong tendency towards
Brahmanic ritual. The customs of the Konga Yellalars are
CHAP. III.
suevet of
Castes.
Vellalars.
1 According to Mr. Francis, however {Census Report, 1901), the Kodikals
are a section of Soliya Vellalars.
^ Their chief settlement is in Kudimonahalli Taraf.
3 E.g., Nallar, Kasipuram, yetti-appanur, Muttu-Nayakkan-patti and
Omalur.
* Reports received of these three groups of Vellalars are full of maddening
cov.tradictions. ' The Ptisaikkara Vellalars of Attur are said to be a section of
Tondai-mandalam Vellalars. Mr. Francis (Census lleport of 1901) classes
Nirpusis as Pandya Vellalars and Nayanars as Tondaimandalam Vellalars.
Others class them with Karai-kattu Vellalars, and others again with Kongu
Vellalars.
5 Their chief settlements are Navalur, Dalavay-patti and Pedda-Nayakkan-
palaiyam in Attur, and Tara-mangalam, Kukkuttai-patti, Pofctaneri, Enadi and
Vellar in Omalur.
® E.g., Singaliindapuram in Salem, Pottuneri in Omalur, and Eranapuram
in Tiruchengodu.
142
SALEM.
CITAP. III.
Survey of
Castes.
Pftllis.
practically the same as those of the Nattans, who are dealt with in
detail below (pp. 144-8).^
The Pallis number 482,631, forming by far the largest castti
in the District. They dominate the Baramahal even more
conspicuously than they do the Talaghat. There are about
125,000 in Dharmapuri, 75,000 in Krishnagiri, 32,000 in Uttan-
karai; in Salem there are some 75,000, in Tiriichcngodu 60,000,
and in Attur 24,000. The name Palli is connected by savants
with Pallan, Kalian, Paraiyan, etc., but tho Pallis themselves
indignantly disown such associations, and claim to be Kshatriyas of
the Fire Race (Agui-kula Kshatriyas), and connect the name
Palli with the ancient Pallava dynasties ; this claim Hindu
Society is by no means inclined to admit, though in some places
the Pallis have taken to wearing the sacred thread of the twioe-
born. The term Palli, however, is considered opprobrious, in spite
of the royal pedigree which tho word connotes, and Pallis prefer
to bo called Vanniyars, from the vanni^ tree {Prosopu spicigcra)
which is held sacred by the caste, or Padaiyachis.
Their most important sub-castes are (1) Arasa Vanniyars and
(2) Panda-mutta Vanniyars. The former are the more numerous,
but the latter consider themselves superior. Both sub-castes are
common throughout the District, except in llostir and Krishnagiri
Taluks. Other well-reoognised sub-castes are the (3) Olai
Vanniyars and (4) Nagavadam Vanniyars, both of which are
said to be off-shoots of the Arasa-Vanniyars. Other sections
reported are the Kongu, Vengaya ^ (Onion), Nila-kanta, Sugambu,
Gangapala, Samba, Pasupatha, Vanniyars all of Salem Taluk ; the
Ktida-katti Vanniyars of Toppur side, and the Kal or Lingam-katti
Vanniyars of Baira-Nayakkam-patti in tJttankarai Taluk. It is
doubtful whether any of these sections are true sub-castes.
1 For Konga Vellalars see also TrichinoTpolij District Oazetteer, pp. 102-5.
Much miscellaneoas information is given in Castes and Tribe a, Vol. VII, p. 3G1
sq. In Baramahal Records an. account is given of" Karakava" Vellalars and
Tonda-mandalam Vellalurs, and under the head of " Vellalas " along list of
agrioultnral castes is given, which includes sevorai sections of Kapus and
Vakkiligas.
* The word vanni is also said to denote king —see Castes and Tribes, Vol. VI,
p. 9 sq.
' Tho Kanarese- sneaking Tigalas of Mysore aro called Ulli Tigalas or " Onion
Tigalas ", and correspond apparently to the Vengaya Pallia. They are said to bo
called Onion Tigalas on account of the f jllowing iticident : " A troupe of
Dorabars gave an acrobatic performance in a villag'O of which all except Tigalas
were invited to witness tho show. The latter felt insulted, and, in order to
out-do the Dombars in their own profession, they constructed a pole by lasliing
together onion stalks, and made ropes by twisting together the filaments
of the same frail material, and surpassed the Dombars' feats of skill,"
(E.S.M. IX, p. 2.)
THE PEOPLE.
143
The Pan da-mutt a Vanniyars derive their name from their
curious custom of piling up two columns of kalasams in their
marriage paudals. The number of pots in each column must
be odd, and there may be as many as 11,13 or 15, and they
reach to the roof. The pots, which must be new, are coated
with chunam, and empty. Each column is based on a curious
foor-eornered earthenware stand, the corners being fashioned to
represent an elephant, a horse, a sheep and a peacock respectively ;
above this stand is placed a crude earthenware figure of a peacock,
on the top of which the column rests } The roof of the pandal is
adorned with earthenware coco-nuts, plantains and mangoes.
The Arasa Vanniyars are more numerous than the Panda-
muttii sub-caste, but they are somewhat less Brahmanised. They
differ from the Panda-muttu Vanniyars in the following parti-
culars, (1) they tolernte the re-marriage of widows, (2) they use
a smaller tali than that of the Arasa sub-caste, (3) they use
only one kalasam at weddings, (4) they use cotton thread instead
of the gold Mrai for tying the tali., (5) they use bamboo baskets
instead of copper trays for carrying the bride's pariyam and other
presents, (6) they may not tie a knot in the necklaces of black
beads {harumani) that they wear. In other respects the customs
of the Arasa Vanniyars resemble closely those of their Pandu-
muttu cousins.^
Olai Pallis are numerous in the Taluks of Hosur,^ Dharmapuri,
Krishnagiri and tJttankarai, and are also found in Salem Taluk.
They derive their name from the fact that their women wear in
their ears rolls of palm leaf [oJai) instead of kammals.
Nagavadam Pallis are common in Hosur,^ Krishnagiri and
Dharmapuri. Their name refers to a curious shoe-shaped ear
ornament, bearing a serpent's head in gold, which is worn by
their womenfolk. The Nagavadam Pallis claim superiority to all
other Pallis, and have substituted the distinctive title Vanni for
Nasavadam.^
CHAP. III.
uurvey ok
Castes.
Pallis.
^ See the illustration facing p. 19 of Castes and Tribes, Vol. VI.
2 In one or two points accoants differ. On attainment of maturity it is said
a girl is segregated for 12 or 15 days in a temporary hut of cholam or kanibu
Straw decorated with margosa leaves. After childbirth punydha-vdchanam is
performed on the 10th day, and sometimes the infant is named on the same day.
The bride price is Rs. 11, in addition to food. The milk-post must have leaves
of the arat^a tree {Ficus religiosa) tied to it.
3 Chief settlement at Aliyalam, Hosur Taluk.
* Chief settlement at Santapuram, Hosur Taluk.
^ An immigrant section of Pallis (Tigalas) at Bangalore, who speak a hybrid
patois of Tamil and Ka-iarese, are known as Dharniaraja Okkalu, and they are
ardent votaries of the Dharniaraja cult.
144
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
Survey of
Castes.
Naitans.
Wherever Pallis occur, their settlements are rather large,
and each village has its headman, who is variously known as
Ur- Kavundan, Naitdn, Nditanmai-Mran^ Pannvja-hdran or Petvju-
tcmakhdran. The panchdyat usually consists of ten members.
The Nattans are treated in the Census Eeports as a distinctive
oaste, though, strictly speaking, they are a sub-caste of Konga
Yellalars,^ sprung from the Ten-talai section of that caste group.
According to the Census of 1911 they number nearly 12,000, of
whom over 7,000 reside in Salem Taluk, and over 4,000 in Tiru-
chcngodu. They arc said to have migrated in the first iustauoe
from Tondai-mandalara and the Chola country, and to have fixed
their head-quarters at Kangayam in Coimbatore District. East
of the Kaveri they distributed themselves into throe Nads,
(1) Kil-Karai Pundurai-Nad, now known as Morur, which is the
chief of their Nads in Salem District, (2) Puvani Nad, the
capital of which is Tara-mangalam, and (3) Rasipnram Nad. These
three Nads have since split into seven, viz., (1) Morur, (2) Molasi
(an ofE-shoot of Morur Nad^), (3) Parutti-palli, (4) Malla-
samudram (an off-shoot of Parutti-palli), (5) Uasipuram, (G) Salem
fan off-shoot of Rasipnram) and (7) Elur. An eighth Nad is
said to have existed, with its centre at Kalyani, but it became
extinct. The Nads are ezogamoiiSy i.e., a member of one Nad must
not choose a bride from his own Nad, and even the two Nads of
MorQr and Molasi are regarded as agnate divisions [ddyddi-
vaguppus), and intermarriage between them is prohibited. Morur
and Molasi belong to one and the same Kulam or Gotram,
called Kanna-Kulam ; Rasipnram belongs to Vijaya-Kulam and
Parutti-patti to Sella-Kulam.
The Nattans are distinguished from the Konga Vellalars in
the following customs : —
(1) The Nattans are called Nattar Kavundar, while the
Konga Vellalars are called Kudiyaua Kavundar. The Nattans of
Morur Nad also have the titles Immudi and Kangayam.
(2) The pariyam of the former is Rs. 4 and 32 vrdlams of
rice, that of the latter Rs. 25 and 18 vallams of rice.
(3) Tlie tali of the former is simple unspun yarn ; the idU
of the latter is spun yarn of 7, 9 or 11 strands.
1 See above, pp. 139 and 141-2.
* Local tradition expliina the term Ela-karai Nad as signifying' the seven
Nads here referred to. The identification appears doubtful, however, for Elu-
karai Nad referred to in an inscription of 1540 A.D. (No. 21 of 190O) existed in
the 16th century as a territorial division quite distinct from Kll-karai-Pundurai
Nad (G.E. GtO of 1905, dated 159.^ A.D.), and Pfivani Nad (G.E. 19 of 1900, dated
1568 A.D., G.E. 27 of 1900. dated 1514 A.D., and G.E. 22 of 1900). See
below, p. 189.
%
THE PEOPLE.
145
(4) Whoa the Nattiln bridegroom goes to the bride's house
for the wedding, ho is heralded by a Pulavati who sings a panegyric
on the caste (^Cisj-'ULh). No such practice is observed among the
Konga Vcllalars.
(5) Nattan girls are tattooed with dots on each cheek, the
Konga Vellalars tattoo one dot on the right cheek only.
(6) The Nattan bride rides to the bridegroom's house, but no
such custom exists among the Konga Vellalars.
(7) The former tie an amulet (@srf?<iFLb) to the necklace (^js
;»/r«@), the latter tie it to the tali proper.
(8) Nattan females salute both men and women with their
hands put together and raised above their heads, the Konga Vel-
lalars do not do so.
Their caste administration is conducted by eleQiive panchayats ^
which can levy fines up to Es. 2, the proceeds being devoted to
temple funds. The panchayat is not, however, a strong body, and
its authority is said to be decaying.
Each Nad has its Brahman Guru. The Guru of Mortir and
Molasi Nads is by caste a Gurukkal, and he lives in Natta-
Kadayur i, in Kangayam Nad of Coimbatore. The Gurus of
Malla-samudram and Parutti-palli Nads are also Gurukkal
Brahmans, the Guru of the former living at Ayyam-palaiyam, in
Paramati Division, his title being Immudi Sitambala Nayinar,
and the Guru of the latter Nad residing at Kallan-kulam in Salem
Taluk. The Guru of Easipuram Nad is a Dikshitar and lives at
Pasur in Erode Taluk.
Nattans ordinarily employ Brahmans as purohits only for
puni/aha-vdchanam. All other priestly duties are performed by
barbers, whether it be at deaths, or marriages, or other ceremonies
The richer classes, however, (Mittadars, etc.), have sought to raise
themselves in the social scale by employing Brahmans only for all
ceremonies except those connected with females, but it is said
that the ceremonial services of barbers cannot even then be
dispensed with.
The marriage customs of the Nattans are curiously complex.
The chief actors in the ceremonies are the arumaikkdran and his
wife and the barber. The arumaikkdran and his wife {antmaikkdri)
are priests of the caste, who are appointed under rather peculiar
conditions To become an arumaikkdran, a man must be well on
in years, of good character, and blessed with children, and his
wife must be alive. He cannot be made an arumaikkdran except
at the marriage of his first, third or last son. Husband and wife
CIIA.P. III.
survkt of
Castes.
Nattans.
^ In Dhiriipuraiu Talak, ono mite from Palaiya-kattai.
146
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
S UK VET or
CAsrEs.
Nattane.
are " consecrated " together. The ceremony^ is conducted by the
barter {/BireS^dr) assisted by other arumaikkdrans, and after it is
over the couple go and dig- cooked rice out of the pot in which
rice is boiled for their son's marriage ; they are then qualified to
officiate in other marriages in the caste.
The prominence of the barber in the marriage rite is accounted
for in the following story. A Vettuva Eaja, out for his morning
ride, saw a Konga Vellalan being shaved by the road-side. The
Eaja, who wanted a shave, ordered the barber at once to attend
on him, and the obedient barber complied, leaving the unfortnuate
Vellalan half shaved. The Vellalan, feeling shy of appearing in
public, shut himself up at home, and begged his son to complete
the barber's unfinished task ; the son refused, however, saying
that, if he complied, no parent, whether within or outside the
caste, would ever accept him as son-in-law. A potter overheard
this, and offered his daughter in marriage on condition that the
son finished shaving his father. The son accepted the offer, and
ever after the son was called " barber ", and a barber has had to
conduct the marriage rite among Konga Vellalans and Natiaus.
[t is said to be in consequence of this marriage between a Vellalan
and a potter girl that the Potters sometimes call themselves
Vcllala Chettis.
When a boy becomes eligible for marriage, his maternal uncle
goes to his parent's house with a few rupees, some ienai (millet)
and a mould used for making palmyra jaggery. The ieyiai-ilonr
is mixed with water, and made into a big ball, and into it is put
the jaggery mould. The whole is boiled, and the ball is placed
on the threshold of the house where the boy's parents live ; the
parents, in company with their arumaikkaran and his wife, then
break the ball in two with a pickaxe. If the jaggery mould is
found to be uninjured, the marriage will bo auspicious. If it ba
damaged, the marriage will be unlucky.
The next test is to mix some rod dye in ghee ; this mixture
the arumatkkdri daubs on the pit of the throat of the bridegroom's
mother, and the stream of liquid is watched as it trickles down
between her breasts ; if the marriage is to be auspicious the stuff
must trickle down in a straight line to the navel ; if its conrse is
deflected the omen is bad. Sometimes the mixture is applied at
the back of the neck, in which case it must trickle straight down
the valley which marks the backbone.
If these omens are favourable the two parents proceed to the
shandy, and buy salt and turmeric, and smear red kunkutnarn on
* Vide TrioMnopoly Gazetteer, p 104.
THE PEOPLE.
147
their foreheads. It is only after the coremonj above doscribod
that the bridegroom's father is permitted to erect a pandal in
front of his house. The boy's father then proceeds with some
elders of his village in search of a bride.
A bride is chosen usually in some village witbin a radius of
10 or 15 miles of the bridegroom's house. The betrothal consists,
as in other castes, of exchange of courtesies between the parents,
followed by a feast in the house of the bride's father. Just
before the wedding, the father and mother of the bridegroom will
sometimes pass through a hoop made by splitting a twig of
tamarind, the object of this being to avert the Evil Eye.
The bridegroom leaves his village on the eve of bis wedding,
riding usually on horseback and proceeded by a Pulavan, who
sings songs as the procession proceeds. The party takes with it
the dowry, which may be one of three tinds : the full sir, the Half
sir and the quarter sir. The full sir consists of 64 vcdlams of
rice, 25 moulds of palmyra jaggery, 5 bundles of betel leaves, 1
Madras measure of areea-nufc, 1 measure of turmeric, 4 measures
of ghee, a hurai or cloth for the bride, the tali and a gold necklace^.
When the party reaches the Pillaiyar Kovil of the bride's
village, a halt is called, and the bride's brother comes to meet the
bridegroom, riding on a horse or ox. The bridegroom and his
party are then conducted to a guest house {e£iQ^ eS®) set apart
for the purpose, and take their seats on a coir cot, over which the
Dhoby has spread some white cloths. The bridegroom's sister is
then given a new red cloth which she has to wear ; she has to
carry the hurai in a basket (pezhai) to the bride's house, and there
a few rupees are tied in the comer of her cloth as her perquisite.
Then follows a feast given to the bride's maternal uncles, after
which they (the uncles) carry the bride, dressed in the kurai but
bare to the waist, and closing her eyes with her two hands, to the
nattu-hal ^, a stone set up in the village boundary. There the aru-
maihkarl, under the supervision of the barber, ties a piece of yarn
round the stone, the bride witnessing the process and sitting on
the basket. This done, the bride is carried back again by her
1 The full sir of the Konga Vellalars consists of Es. 45 in cash, 10 vallams of
i-ice, 25 moulds of jaggery with coco-nuts, pdn.supdri, plantains, etc. ; the three-
quarter sir 19 Rs. 9 in cash, 18 vallams of rice, large pots of jaggery, one pot of
ghee, and one of oil, with plantains, etc.
* The ndttu-Jcal is said to represent the 24 Nads into which the Konga Vella-
lars are distributed ; theoretically no marriage should take place without the
presence of the representatives of all the 2i Nads ; as this rule is impossible in
practice, the ndttu-kal was introduced as a substitute for the absent representa-
tives. In Trichinopoly the ndttu-lial is said to represent the Konga King, whose
permission was essential to everv marriage. {Trichinopoly District Gazetteer
pp. 104—5.)
K-1
CHAP. 111.
Survey ok
Castes.
Nuttans.
148
BALEM.
Sdrvky of
Castes.
K^attans.
CHAP. III. uncles to her parents' house, and on her arrival there the aru-
maiklidri ties the tali, in this case a mere piece of country 3' am ; the
tali ornament being attached afterwards. In former days it is
said the tali was tied by the barber.^
The bridegroom, who till now has been waiting in the guest-
house, is next conducted to the bride's house and introduced to the
bride. The couple clasp hands, an act which is considered the
binding portion of the ceremony. The bridegroom next dips his
little finger in some red dye, and smears it on the bride's shoulder,
the bride returning the compliment. The couple next exchange
betel, and then the barber with the ariimaikkdron and his wife,
souse the pair from head to foot with water. Then ghee is
brought in a golden bowl, and the bridegroom and bride's brother
eat out of it together in the presence of the bride. In poorer
houses a brass bowl is used in which a golden ring is put. The
bridegroom next goes to the pandal, and the Pulavars there sing
a song of blessing. The bridegroom then returns to the nditu-kal,
and there the chuckler meets him with a new pair of sandals,
which the bridegroom puts on, paying the chuckler a few annas.
The bride also is presented with a new pair of sandals at the
entrance of her house. This closes the first day's ceremonies, and
the bridegroom and the party return to their village.
On the second day the bridegroom's female relatives proceed
to the bride's village and meet the women of the bride's party at
the Pillaiyar Shrine. There the two parties salute eaoh other and
thea adjourn to the bride's house and presents are exchanged.
On the third day the bride pays a visit on horseback to the
bridegroom's village , and meets him in his house. Here, too, the
barber is master of the ceremonies.
On the fifth day bride and bridegroom together are conducted
back to the bride's house, and the wedding terminates.
The Tamil agricultural castes are further roproseutod by (4)
Agamudaiyans (11,414), (5) Udaiyans^ (25,028), (6) Vettuvans
(11,130), and (7) Malaiyalis (28,696).
The Agamudaiyans occur mostly in the Taluks of Attur,
tJttaukarai and Krishnagiri. In the Baramahal they are orga-
nised into five Nads, each under its Ndttdn. The head-quarters of
the Ndttdns, in order of their precedence, are (1) Anandur, (2)
Other Tamil
Agricultural
Castes.
Agamudai-
yans.
1 In recent years it has been the practice to permit the bridegroom to visit
the bride's house to see the tali tied, and in the most advanced families the
bridegroom is even asked to tie the tali himself.
* The difference between the to talfor Udaiyans and the sum of the totals
for the three sub-castes represents those Udaiyans whose sub-caste is unspeci-
fied. «
THE PEOPLE.
149
Kaveri-patnam, (3) Jagadevi, (4) Maharaja-gadai, and (5) Pai- OHAP. III.
palaiyam.^ In every village there is an Vr-Kavundan, who is ^°^^J^'^ ^*'
entitled to two shares at marriages, and on other occasions. The
Ur-Kavuvdans, however, are not entitled to summon panchclyais, a Agamudai-
privilege which vests exclusively in the Ndtians. The Baramahal
Agamudaiyans are said to own allegiance to a Guru who lives at
Palni. The Uttankarai Agamudaiyans are also said to recognise
a Gruru at Tiruvannamalai, known as Konga-Namassivayya-swami.
In the Southern Districts they hoar some affinity to the Maravans
and Kalians.^ Their customs closely follow those of the
Vellalars, and there is reason to suppose that in Salem District a
large number of the caste have returned themselves as Vellalars.^
They are said to belong to the Siruntali section.
The Udaiyans are divided into three well marked endogamous Udaiyans.
sub-castes, (a) Malaimans 10,027, (6) Nattaraans 12,421 and (c)
Sudarmans 1,499. They trace their descent from three foster
daughters of the poetess Avvaiyar, who became the wives of a
king of Tiru-koyilur in South Arcot, where their G-uru still resides.
Over two-thirds of the Malaimans are to be found in Salem and
Omalur Taluks, especially in the Easipuram Division, most of the
remaining third residing in Attur ^ Two-thirds of the
Nattamana, and more than half the Sudarmans occur in Attur
Taluk. Outside these three taluks, the Udaiyans are rare.
Their original settlements were in the western portion of South
Arcot, and thence they have spread into Trichinopoly and Salem.
Many of the Catholic converts round Easipuram are Malaimans by
caste, and it is said that '* interdining ", and even intermarriage,
between the converted and unconverted families are tolerated .^
Weddings are celebrated in the bridegroom's house.
The Vettuvans are to be found mostly in Tiruchengddu Taluk ; Vettuvans.
in Salem Taluk they number about 1,000, The Vettuvans of the
Kongu country trace their descent from the followers of an ancient
Eaja of Kalahasti, by name Muttani Eaja.^ In the 2300th year of
^ Pai-palaiyam is about 4 miles south of Kuppam, in North Arcot District.
* Cartes a/nd Tribes, Vol. I, p. 5.
3 Census Report, 1901, p. 140.
* Malaimans are numerous in Pudupalaiyam near Rasipuram, and in
Palli-patti and Pachudaiyau-palaiyam, south of Naniagiripet.
* For a more detailed description of the Udaiyans, see Trichinopoly
Oaeetteer, p. 108, and South Arcot Gazetteer, p. 109, and Castes and Tribes, Vol.
VII, p. 206.
^ For this account I am indebted to Mr. 0. Sltapati Rao, Sub-Magistrate
oi. Namakkal, whose information is based on a booklet in the possession ot Uma
Mahesvara Pandittar, chief Guru of the Talaghat Vettuvans
150
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
SuevSt of
Castks.
VettuTfcns.
the Kali-yuga, or about 800 B.C.^ when South India was ruled by
the Chera, Ohohi and Pandya kings, the king of the Choras, growing
old, was seized with a desire to eschew the world, and witli his
consort to go to Heaven without dying. After searching long and
fruitlessly for a teacher who would guide him in the right way,
he at length heard of a Saint of great sanctity, residing at
Tiruvarur in Tanjore District. Him he consulted ; the holy man
suggested that the king, if he wanted to make a really great
sacrifice, should hand over the kingdom to him. This the king
consented to do; the Saint bade him enter a pushpaka-viindnamy
(aeroplane decorated with heaven-born flowers), which had been
brought to earth for his convenience, and the King and Queen
proceeded to Heaven, leaving the kingdom in the holy man's
charge. The latter soon shifted his regal responsibilities by hand-
ing the kingdom over to Brahman administrators. These
Brahmans ruled for some four centuries, towards the end of which
period the kingdom suffered severely from the depredations of
certain raiders called Ottlars and Salliars, who represented, it is
said, the Kallars and Maravars of to-day. The Brahmans in their
trouble applied for advice to the holy man who had given them
the kingdom, and who must have lived to a great age. The Saint
informed them that in the 2249th year of the Kali-yuga, when the
Chera, Chola and Pandya kings were in like quandary, they had
sought and obtained help from the then Raja of Kalahasti .(in
Chittoor District), and suggested that the Brahman rulers should
do likewise. Envoys were accordingly sent, and, after some
difficulty, the Raja of Kalahasti, Muttani Eajan by name, after
consultation with his Guru TJmapathi Dosikar, was prevailed on
to assist. On the 10th day after the new moon in the month of
Tai in the year Praraatha, 2700 years after the beginning of the
Kali-yuga, the Eaja of Kalahasti set out for the south. On the
Kaveri bank he settled his Guru at Nanjai-Edaiyar.^ The Eaja
and his fighting men then crossed the Kaveri and moved on Kartir,
where he worshipped at the ancient shrine of Pasupatlsvara-swarai.
From Karur the Eaja conducted a successful campaign against
the raiders, and, after crushing them, he repaired again to Nanjai-
Edaiyar. Raja and Guru then visited the Siddha Kovil at the
* The locality is described in the original as follows : —
jfiB^Qps ;B'6sr(rTj>dj sB&srisSu^ih (srprB ^Q^err QuQ^ih Ljsy^ (Q(W)S'mB
the gist of the text being that the site chosen was the " Doab "formed by the
Kaveri and the Tirnmani-rauttar.
THE PEOPLE.
151
foot of the Kniija-malai, to enjoy the society of the liishis and
Yogis then living there. After their return to Nanjai-Edaiyar,
the king was requested by the Brahman rulers to take over the
kingdom as a reward for his services. The king consented, making
Karur liis.heiad-quarters, and posting a chief at Kapila-malai (15
miles south-west of Namakkal) and another at Siva-malai (near
the boundary between Erode and Dharapuram Taluks).
This Muttani Raja of Kalahasti seems to be the same as
the Muttu Eaja referred to in the traditions of the Ambalakka-
raiis, the Muttiriyans (Mutrachas), the Uralis and the Valaiyans.^
According to Vettuva legend, Muttani Eaja was a son of one
Vijayan, born to him by a jimglo girl, with whom ho foil in love
when hunting, and whose father he slew.^ Vijayan's father was
Kannappa Nayanar, a hero whose name is associated with the
traditions of the Vedans, Bedas, Ambalakkarans, and Valaiyans^
and who is identified with one of the sixty-three Saivite Saints.
Kannappa Nayanar ^ was the eldest of ten brothers, sons of a
Vedar girl who contracted a gdndharva marriage with a descend-
ant of Yayathi, one of the heroes of the Mahdbhdrata.^ No
historical evidence has been adduced to corroborate the migration
legends of these castes, but the community of tradition probably
points to a community of origin, and the legend of a Vettuva
Raja still clings to Sankaridrug.^
CHAP. III.
sorvky of
Castes.
7ettnvaE8.
1 Vide Castes and Tribes, Vol. I, page 27 (Ambalakkarars, and Muttarasan-
Ttoradu), Vol. V, p. 127 (Mutrachas), Vol. VII, pp. 242 and 213 (Uralis), and
perhaps Vol. VII, p. 279 Mnfctal Ilavattan, the special caste god of the
Valaiyans).
2 Hence the name " Vettuvan," one who outs.
3 Vide Castes and Tribes, Vol. VII, p. 332 (Vedaus), Vol. I, p. 26 (Ambalak-
karau), Trichinopoly District Gazetteer, p. 114 (Valaijans), and E. S. M, No. Til
Bedas, p. 9.
* The second of the ten brothers earned the title Kavalan, by guarding
the environment of the Rishi Uthangi while he performed a ydgam. The
third brother rode round the earth on a horse of the Devas and won the
title Bhuvalan. The fourth 8<m fell in love with two girls whom he met on the
banks of the Tungabhadra, and wedded them on condition that he adopted the
family title of their father, Mavalar. These three brothers became the proge-
nitors of three tribes the Kavalans, the Bhuvalans (or Puvalans) and the
Mavalans. The Bhuvalans are said still to exist near Perur in Coimbatore
Talnk, the other two tribes have not been traced.
* See Vol. II, p. 281. Mr. V. Venkayya suggests that the " Vidnkadan alias
Vatturayan " mentioned in a fragmentary inscription of the Narasimha-
Perumal temple at Namakkal (No. 11 of 190G) may be connected with the
Vettuva Rajas. Another tradition states that the Konga kings invited Vettu-
vans from the Chola and Pandya couutries to assist them against the Keralas,
and a third tradition relates how the Vettuvans assisted the Chola king Aditya-
varma to conquer the Konga country in the latter part of the ninth century
(Castes and Tribes, Vol, IJI, p. 394).
152
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
Survey of
Castfs.
No clearly defined sub-castes appear to exist among the
Vettuvans. The following exogamous clans are reported : (1)
Anthi, (2) Miilai, (3) Pattali, (4) Karadi, (5) Vanni, (0) Kattii,
Vettavans. (7) Billai, (8) Varagu, (9) Santhappadai, (10) Paudi. Caste
disputes are decided by panchdyats presided over by an hereditary
officer called ICoitukkdran, and appeals lie to a PattakJcdran, of
whom there are three ; one at Irukkur near Kapila-malai
(Namakkal Taluk) ; another, entitled Kaltiliasti Kavundar, at
Pavitram (Karur Tahik) ; and a third at Siva-malai (Dhilrapuram
Taluk). The full title of a Pattakkdran runs Immudi-p/ittam-
kwndra'alldla-rdma-pdthira-Idumha-llaiyn'Ndi/akkar^ the word
Idumba being his personal name. Pattakkars only aro known as
Nayakkar, a title bestowed upon them, it is said, by Tiruraala
Nayaka of Madura, the ordinary caste title being Kavundar.
Vettuvans employ as purohits a sect of Tamil speaking Smarta
Brahmans known as Sivadvijas, who are rather looked down upon
by other Brahmans. These purohits officiate at the purifactory
ceremonies after ehildbirtli, and on tlio 3rd and 16th days after
death, and among the more advanced classes during the perfor-
manco of srdddhas. Their Guru, as already stated, resides at
Nanjai-Edaiyar and bears the title Umapathi-Desikar or Uma-
Mahesvara-Grurukkal ; he claims descent from the Gruru who
migrated with the Vettuvans from Kalahasti. At Nanjai-
Edaiyar is a matam, and a shrine whore Siva and his consort are
still worshipped as Kalahasti Isvarar and Gnanambikai.
The Malaiyalis aro the principal inhabitants of the Talaghat
Hills, their chief settlements being on the Shevaroys, Kalrayans,
Chitteris, Kolli-malais and Pachai-malais In Attur Taluk they
number 12.800, in Salem Taluk 7,300 odd, in tJttankarai just
under 7,000 and there are a few returned for Omalur and tJttan-
karai. Thanks to their isolation and the feverish climate of their
habitat, they form a far more homogeneous community than any
of the castes of the plains, and afford an interesting object lesson
in ethnology. They trace their origin to Conjeeveram,^ The
legend runs that three brothers, by name Periyannan, Naduvan-
nan and Chinnannan, went a hunting in a forest accompanied by
three hiintin g hounds, and it came on to rain so heavily for two
Malaiyalis.
^ The Pacliai-kutti and Pnchai-kuttafha Vellalais of the North Arcot
•Tavadia have also a tradition of migration from Conjeeveram, but they are
quite a distinct caste from the Malaiyalis of Salem, Triohinopoly and South
Arcot, though, curiously enough, they own some sort of allegiance to the Vcdar
Poligars of Kangundi. Legend has it that the Kalraynns, Pachai-malais and
Kolli-malais were wrested by the three brothers from two heroes known as
Veda-Yellala and Kana-Eoravar.
THE PEOPLE. 153
days that they were not able to quit the forest. Their hounds, CPIAP, in
however, returned home, and their wives, seeing the dogs without Survkt or
their masters, concluded that their husbands had died in the '
jungles, and accordingly, as ail loyal widow's should do, set fire MalafyflliH.
to their houses and perished in the flames. On the third day the
hunters returned to find their houses in ashes and their wives
dead. The bereaved husbands thereupon consoled themselves by
marrying again ; Periyannan chose a Kaikolar girl, and settled
on the Kalrayans ; Naduvannan chose a Vedacbi as his bride,
and the Pachai-malais as his residence ; Chinnannan married a
Devendra Pallan, and made his home on the Kolli-malais. These
three brothers thus became the progenitors of the three clearly
defined sub-castes into which the Malaiyalis are divided, the
Periya-Malaiyalis, tlie Pachai- Malaiyalis and the Kolli-Malaiyalis.
The Malaiyalis are also divided into a large number of
exogamous clans which they call vagujjpus. A curious feature in
eunnection with these vaguppus is that certain groups of them
(called dayddi vaguppus) are inter se exogamous also. The
members of these dayddi clans call one another brothers (annan-
tamhigal)^ and marriage between them is, for some unknown
reason, regarded as incestuous. For instance, in Sittur Nad there
are seven vaguppus; five of which (Pilan, Mukkandi, Pusan,
Maiiikkan and Tiruvichi) form one dayddi group, and the
remaining two (Kannan and Tillan) another ; no member of the
first group of clans may marry into any other clan of that group,
but must go to some other clan for his bride. Similarly the
Konan clan of the Mtinur Malaiyalis may not intermarry with
either the Mattayan, the Emaiyande, or Kannathan clan of
Tiruppuli Nad, but may take a bride from the Alatti or Pannan
clan of that Nad, though all the five clans of Tiruppuli Nad
are inter se exogamous. Similarly among the Pachai-Malaiyalis
there are about fifty clans, arranged in about eight dayddi gion^^s.
Some of these vaguppus bear quaint and outlandish names which
would afford unlimited scope for a philologist's fancy, but it
cannot be said they are totemistic in origin.
Of the three sub-castes, the Kolli-Malaiyalis are the most
conservative and the best organised. They are to be found on
the Kolli-malais of Naraakkal and Attur Taluks, on the B5da-
malais and in the valley between the Boda-malais and .Terugu-
malais.' On the Kolli-malais they are organised into four groups
of which two, the Three-Nad and the Four-Nad Malaiyalis, are
* Kolli-Malaiyalis are also found on Pala-malai, Bargilr-malai and Kali-malai
in Bhavanl Taluk.
164 SALEM.
CHA.P III. ^jj Narnakkai with head-quarters respectively at Seltir and
Castks.^*^ Valapptir ; and two, the Anjur (five- village) and Mxinur (three-
village) Malaijalis are in Attiir. The Anjur Malaiyalis comprise
Malaiyalis. ^j^^ g^^ ^^^^ ^f Bayilam, Tiruppuli, Edappuli, Pirakarai and
Sittur, with a population of 6,641, and the Mtlntir Malaiyalis the
three Nads of Kunduni, Alattur and Pelappadi, with a popula-
tion of 1,501. The Anjtir Malaiyalis arc under the jurisdiction
of the Periya-Pattahkdran of Bayil-Nad, whoso office is hereditary.
He is not called Rdja, and has no Mandtri. Each of the five
" Urs " has its Ur-Kavundan, who is elected. Caste disputes are
decided in the first instance by the Ur-Kavundan in cojisultation
with a number of Karakkdra7Ls, who are elected, one from each
clan, in the Ur concerned. An appeal from the decision of the
pancMyat so constituted lies to the Periya-PattakMran of Bayil-
Nad, who finally settles the dispute in conjunction with the
Karakkarans of Bayil-Nad and the Ur-Karundan and Karakkdrans
of the Ur in which the dispute arose. It is not, however, essential
that all the Karakkdi^ans should be present in this appellate court,
and a quorum of five will suffice. Among the Mimur Malaiyalis,
however, the Ur Kuvandans refer disputed decisions to the Raja of
the Four Nads at Valappur, whose decision is final. The KoUi-
Malaiyalis of the Boda-malais and the adjoining valley are ruled
by a Ndttdn resident at Kiliir, who exercises authority over the
Kolli-Malaiyalis of Bhavani Taluk also, and from whom an
appeal may be preferred to the Periya-Pattakkdran} of Bayil-Nad.
The Pachai-Malaiyrdis are organised into three Nads, of whielji
two (Ven-Na<l aud Tembara-Nad) are in Trichinopoly^ District,
•and the third, Atti-Nad, covers the Pachai-malais of Attur. The
Pachai -Malaiyalis extend, however, across Attur Taluk through
the Paittur Hills to the villages of the Tumbal Valley, the upper
Vasishta-nadi, the Arunuttu-malais and the Manjavadi Ghat,
and are found even as far afield as the hamlets of Kaujeri and
Palamedu at the western foot of the Shevaroys, and at Voppadi,
near the headwaters of the Toppur River. For the purposes of
caste administration they are divided ioto Sub-Nads, Karats
or Tatnukkus] for instance, Nallaya-Kavundan Nad, Kalatti-
Kavundan Nad on the Pachai-malais, Manmalai Nad west of the
* During the minority of the Eaja of Valappur, his powers were exercised
by his mother who was called Rani, aided by a Mandiri or Prime Minister.
The adminietraiivo machinery in the KiimakkalN ads is different from that of
the Attur Nads ; each village or jc'^i having its Ur-Kavundan or Kxdti-vianiyam
and each Nad its Ndttin, from whom appeals lie to the Paitakldran or Ed)a of
Valappur or SSlur. See Trich%no^-)ly District Gazetteer, p. 125.
•Vide Trichinopoly QautUer, p. 124.
THE PEOPLE. 155
Pacliai-malais, and Paitttir Nad. There are Ndtidns also at chap. hi.
Mamanji in the Tumbal valley, at Aladi-patti on the Arantittu- ^qYste«''''
raalais, at Kiri-patti in the Yasishta-nadi valley north of IMur,
at Karaniandai with jurisdiction over the Maujavadi villages Malaijalis.
and the slopes of the Shevaroys, and at Tomba-Kallantir a hamlet
of Pattukunam-patti north of the Manjavadi Pass, with juris-
diction extending to the south-western Komhais of the Chitteris
and the northern and western Komhais of the Shevaroys. The
Sub-Nads are divided mto pattis, each under the jurisdiction of an
Ur-Kavundan, whose title is Muppan, and who is assisted by a
Kangdni. Each Sab-Nad is ruled by a Ndttdn^ JS'ditu-Kavundan
or Kutti-Kavundan, assisted by one or more Karakkdrans, whose
appointment is subject to Lis approval. The Ndtidns in turn are
subject to the authority of a council of seven Chinna-Borais^ presi-
ded over by a Periya-Dorai, who is sometimes called Eaja and
resides at Sethakam on the Pachai-malais. Under the Dorais are
certain Mandiris or Prime Ministers, whose powers seem a little
vague. There are Mandiris at Pakkalam, on the Pachai-malais, at
Paitttir and at Kiri-patti. The Paitttir Mandiri is acknowledged
by 12 Karats^ the Kiri-patti Mandiri by six Karats. The
Paittur Mandiri lays claim to a precedence over the Pakkalam
Mandiri^ which is not admitted by some influential members of
the community.
The Periya-Malaiyalis hold the Kalrayans. the Shevaroys and
the Chitteris. They call themselves Karalans^, a name which some
authorities connect with Kerala, the ancient name for Malabar.
The Kalrayans (population in Kallakurchi Taluk a little over
20,000, in Atttir Taluk not quite 10,000) are said to have been
colonised by five Chieftains, whose descendants still govern the
five Kalrayan Jaghirs,^ as a sort of priestly hierarchy, each Jaghir
being divided into several Sub-Nads. Intermarriage between the
Malaiyalis of the Kalrayans and those of the Shevaroys is
extremely rare, owing, no doubt, to distance, a frequent cause
of fission in the caste system. The Sh evaroys are divided into
three Nads, (1) Sela-Nad (Salem), '(2) Moha-Nad, (3) Mutta-Nad
each under its own Pattakkdran, and each containing nine
^ The Chinna-Dorais live at Mayambadi, Mangalam,Manjarai (2), Pudur, Pak-
kalam and Nallamat/i.
* The term appears in the inscriptions of Asoka and is supposed to be
identical with Chera, see Malabar District Gazetteer, p. 27. The Malaiyalis of
the Pachai-malais and Kolli-malais also lay claim to the title Karalan.
^ (1) Periya-Kalrayans, (2) Chinna-Kalrayans, (3) Jadaya-Kavundan Nad,
(4) Kuruba-Kavtindan Nad, (5) Ariya-Kavnndan Nad ; see below, Vol. II, p.
299, and of South Arcot District Gazetteer, p. 329 sq. for the functions of these
Poligars.
156
SALEM.
Survey of
Castes
Malaij'Alis.
CHAP. IIT. pattis under Muppans, who are elected as a rule, each from a
vaguppn prescribed by custom. The Pait/ikkarans are assisted by
Maniyakkarans^ who give notice of marriages to the villages of the
Nad concerned, and summon the villagers to attend ; the Muppans
are assisted by Kangonis. The village of Chitteri is the residence
of a Guru, who appears to be revered by all three sub-castes of
Malaiyalis.
Brahman purohits^ are not usually employed by Malaiyalis, and
the purohiVs duties at marriages and other domestic occurrences
are performed by the caste officers above enumerated, in addition
to their judicial functions. A Paitakkaran or Dorai is treated
with great respect, and his dignity requires that whoever meets
him should prostrate before him.
Though the traditions of the Malaiyalis trace their origin to
Conjeeveram, their easterns point to Malabar, and it has been con-
jectured that they migrated from the ancient Kingdom of Kerala.^
Kalrayan inscriptions (Vol. II, p. 300) throw no light on the sub-
ject. It is possible, however, that certain Malaiyali customs are
survivals of a state of civilization which at one time was common
to both the east and west of the Indian Peninsula, and which
is now confined to the Malabar Coast. The customs referred
to are the following : —
(1) Among the Kolli-Malaiyalis, boys and girls wear the
forelock {mun-kudumi) which is such a becoming and universal
feature of the West Coast Hindus, the rest of the head being
shaved. Boys retain this forelock till they are about 12 years of
age, and girls- till they attain puberty ; boys then have this fore-
lock shaved off, and grow a kudwni at the back of the head in
accordance with the fashion universal'^ in the East Coast Districts,
and girls allow all their hair to grow. Among the Pachai-Malai-
yalis also, little girls wear the forelock, but, unlike their Kolli-
malai cousins, they do not wait for puberty before they shave it off.
(2) The women of the Kolli-raalais wear cloths of white
cotton, tied across the breast and under the armpits, never passed
over the shoulder, and falling a little below the knees. The other
two sub-castes, however, follow the fashion of the plains.
(3j The women of the Kolli-malais wear beneath their
ordinary cloth a short loin-cloth of white cotton about a yard and
1 The KolIi-MalaiyaliB of Bhavani Taluk are, however, said to acknowledge as
Ouru an Ayjaiipar Brahman residing at Pulaveri.
* A suggestiye article by Mr. M. D. Subbaroyan is printed in V^ol. V, p. 821 eq.
of the Indian Rertetc (190 i). The theories therein advanced are not, however,
tenable in the light of historical criticism.
•Except among Soliya Brahmans and Dlkshitars, see Castes and Tribes,
Vol. T, p. 341.
THE PEOPLE.
157
a half long and three-fourths of a yard wide, which serves no CHAP, ill
apparent useful purpose, but bears a striking resemblance to that Survey ok
worn by the girls of Malabar. Similar cloths are worn by the t '
women of tho other two sub-eastes beneath their colonred pudavats} MHlaiyaliB
(4) Thoug'h tattooing is permitted among the Paohai-Malai-
yalis and the Periya-Malaiyalis, yet the KolU-Malaiyalis entertain
such a strong prejudice against the practice, that they will not
permit any tattooed person to enter one of their houses. Why
their feeling on the subject should be so strong is not clear, but
it is a significant fact that on the Malabar Coast, tattooing is
practically unknown.^
(5) On attainment of maturity some Malaiyali girls remain
under pollution for 30 days, a period longer than any recognised
in the plains, but by no means uncommon in Malabar. I^'here
appears, however, to be a tendency among Malaiyalis to shorten the
period.
(6) The only ear-ornament worn by girls among the Kolli-
Malaiyalis is a '' big boss-shaped hollow cylinder of gold or gilt from
an inch to an inch-and-a-half or more in diameter",* an ornament
which requires the lobe of the ear to be largely extended in order
that it may be fitted in, and which resembles the toda worn by
Nayar women.
It is impossible to believe that the above customs, which differ-
entiate the Malaiyalis from the Hindus of the plains, are inno-
vations on their ancestral observances, and they must therefore be
survivals. It is clear, too, that the Malaiyalis of the Kolli-malais
have been less affected by the forces of assimilation than their
cousins. Whatever be the source to which these survivals should
be traced, the suggested affinity with the civilization of Malabar
seems further corroborated by certain marriage customs which
appear to be the reminiscences of a polyandrous civilization such as
that which has made the Nayars and kindred communities famous.
The Malaiyalis observe the rule of menarlkam (see p. 133) with
unusual rigor, and with curious results. An inconvenience in-
herent in the menarlkam system is that sometimes the urimm-girl
is a good deal older than the husband allotted to her by fate and
oustorn. Hence it sometimes happens that "sons when mere
1 Mr. S. Krishaaswamv Ayyangar writes " Two pieces of cloth were worn
by all women in early times, though I am not certain when actually the practice
drops out. It seems to be quite an Aryan practice, as I have seen it referred to
quite often in Sanscrit literature." As a general usage it survives ou the West
Coast. See Malabar District Gazetteer, p. 143.
* The practice of tattooing among the Pachai-ilalaiyalis is traced tradition-
ally to the Vedaohi bride of Naduvannan.
' Vide Malabar District Gazetteer, p. 145.
158
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
sorvky of
Castes.
Malaiyalis.
children are married to mature females and the father-in-law of
the hride assumes the performance of the procreative function " —
and raises up a progenj on his son's behalf. " When the putative
father comes of age, and in their turn his wife's male offspring are
married, he performs for them the same oflRco that his father did
for him." If the boy-husband's father is dead, or is not particu-
larly fond of his daughter-in-law, one of his brothers or some
other near male relative maj bo requisitioned to take charge of
the girl.^ Another curious custom reported of the Periya-M alai-
yalis is that the wedding tali is not tied by the bridegroom, but by
a stranger known as the Kaniyan, whose function seems analogous
to that of the Manaidlan in a {ali-heUu-hal yanam in Malabar.^ Yet
more significant is the fact that though a woman lives openlj in
adultery, all the children she bears to her paramour^ are regarded
as the lawful children of her rightful husband. In fact, divorce is
not permitted among the Periy a -Malaiyalis, is discountenanced by
the Kolli-Malaiyalis, and a husband never loses the proprietary
right over his wife's children, whoever their father may be. The
Pachai- Malaiyalis are said to allow divorce on payment of a fine
of Es. 25, but the practice is presumably an innovation, imitative
of the customs of the plains.
On the whole the marriage customs of the Malaiyalis differ
but little from those of the plains*. The betrothal contract is
settled in the presence of the Ur-ICavundan, and if the contracting
parties belong to different villages, the Ur-Kavundans of both
villages should be present, and the Pattakknran's consent should
be obtained. The bride-price varies, and is often paid in kind;
the Pachai- Malaiyalis of tjttankarai give ionr kandagams of grain,
* It is a oastom that the Malaiyalis are not proud of, and thoy are reluc
tant to admit its existence. That the practice was onco widespread cannot be
doubted. " See Trichinopoly District Gazetteer, p. 94, cf. p. 103 (Konga Vcllalars),
and p. 123 (TCttiyans).
* See Malabar District Gazetteer, pp. 101 and 173. On the Kolli-mahiirt tho
tali is said tx) be tied by the Ur-Kavundan. Intercourse between the Kaniyan
and the bride would be considered incestuous. Mr. Le Fanu writes that "on
the day of marriage the Malaiyali bride in tho ChittCri villages is tho common
property of all the villagers except the person chiefly interested, but after that
date she belongs to him exclnsively, " and adds with reference to the last sen-
tence '■ in theory at least, for tho village bouses ha\ie generally two doors, at
one of which the paramour deposits his slippers on entering ; should tho master
of the house after seeing these persist in entering his own house, he would be
held guilty of a very serious breach of ■village etiqaette. " [Salem District
Manual, Vol. II, p. 274. ] Local enquiries show that this custom is still obferved.
3 Provided of coarse that he is a Malaiyali ; a liason with a man of another
caste invariably involves excommanication.
* For a description of a Malaiyali wedding on the Shevaroys see Castes
and Tribes, Vol. IV, p. 220,
THE PEOPLE. 159
4 papodas (Es. 14) in cash, and a cow with calf ; elsewhere it CHAP. ill.
rangea from Rs. 10 to Rs. 50. A fee of Rs. 10-8-0 should also be ^^cYsiks'"'
paid to the officer h of the caste^ but this may be remitted by the '
Pattakkaraii . On the Pachai-malais the preliminary nalangu is Malaiyalis.
performed on Sundays, the pandals erected at the houses of both
bride and hridegroom ^ on Wednesday, and the Muhurtam takes
place at the bride's house on 'I'liursday. At the house of each
party a kalasam is prepared of three new vessels placed one above
the other, and is taken to the Vignesvara temple on the Wednes-
day night. The order in vihioiipdn-supdri is distributed is governed
by rigid etiquette. The Periya-Dorai receives five shares, the other
Dorais four each, the Mandiris throe each, the Kutta-Kavundan two
and the MUppan one. The bridegroom then presents the bride with
the kurai, a white or red cloth with a black border, measuring from
12 to 17 cubits in length and from 2 to 3 cubits wide ^ On the
Kolli-malais the ceremonies take place at the bridegroom's house,
whither the bride is taken between daybreak and 7 a.m. on the
wedding morning. The bridegroom places the tali on the girl's
neck, and the Ur-Kavundan, standing behind her, ties it. It is
the Ur-Kavundan, too, who places the hand of the boy in that of
the girl, and who pours water over their clasped hands.
Widow re-marriage is permitted in all three sub-castes^ The
Kolli-Malaiyalis do not permit a widow to marry her husband's
brother ; the Pachai-Malaiyalis allow such unions. At a widow
marriage among Kolli-Malaiyalis the bridal couple kneel opposite
each other, and a cloth is suspended between them ; the bride-
groom passes the tali under the cloth, and places it on the bride's
neck, but he is not allowed to see the face of the bride till the tali
is tied by the Ur-Kavundan. When a widow marries, the children
she bore to her first husband are taken charge of by their father's
nearest male relative, and it is usual for a father to register his
patta land in the name of his children to prevent it being enjoyed
1 See Dr. Shortt'8 Hill Ranges, Vol. Ill, pp. 39 and 40. " The poor generally
pay at the time only a portion, whilst the remainder of the dowry is paid by yearly
instalments, and instances have come to my knowledge whero the son was pay-
ing by dribs and drabs the dowry duo by his father when he married his mother.
Should an elderly man marry a young girl, he has to pay a intich larger dowry
than would be required of a young man."
2 Marriage at the bridegroom's house appears to have been the original
customj but the PattakMran may claim the privilege of fixing the place where
the wedding should be celebrated. Cf. Dr. Shortt's Hill Ranges, Vol. II, p. 39,
3 The kurai of the Peiiya-Malaiyalis is said to be only three or four oubi(s
in length.
* This practice is said to be prohibited among the Dorais of the Pachai-
Malaiyalis,
160
SALEM.
OHAP. III.
sukvey of
Castes.
Malaiyalis.
by his widow's husband. Divorce proceedings among the Pachais
Maliiiyalis are of the simplest description ; tlio husband declares
in the presence of the Guru, that be has abandoned his wife, and
he tenders her a bit of straw or a splinter of wood in token of
repudiation. She is not allowed, however, to marrj a second
husband till her first husband dies.
It is possible that a pollution period of thirty days on attain-
ment of maturity was at one time observed throughout the caste,
and that the period has subsequently been shortened in imitation
of lowland practice. On the Pachai-malais, it is said, the girl
is kept in a hut outside the village for five days, and on the 6th
she is bathed and admitted into the house, but the house remains
under minor pollution for another thirty days, and no villager may
enter it. Throughout tjiese thirty days tlie girl is bathed daily,
water being poured over her head, and the house is cleansed once
a week. The Pachai-Malaiyalis of Uttankarai Taluk, however,
observe segregation and pollution for twelve days. Some
KoUi-Malaiyalis observe thirty days' pollution, some only fifteen.
Among the Periya-Malai} illis the period varies from seven to
eleven days. For the purification ceremony it is the fashion for
the few who can afford it to employ Brahman purO/tits. Purifica-
tion after childbirth is said to take place on the 12th, 15th
or 16th day, but the Paohai-Malaiyalis observe pollution of a
minor kind for thirty days. No formal child -naming ceremony
is performed, and no fixed rule appears to exist as to when
a child should bo named. A KoUi-Malaiyali child is named
sometimes on the 10th day, sometimes in the 3rd month after
birth, on the Pachai-malais at the eud of a year, while on
the Shevaroys the name is given on the 3rd day. It is not un-
common to consult the local pUjdri as to what name should be
selected, the priest, after certain ceremonies, announcing the name
under divine inspiration. Children are often named after popular
deities, e.g., Kongan (Kongay, if a girl), Vadaman (Vadami),
Sirangan (Sirangi), Pidavan (Pidari), Kali, Arppali, etc. ; in fact
boys are more frequently named after a God than after their
grandfather (p. 132). Popular nicknames are Kariyan (black),
Vellaiyan (fair), Kuttaiyan (short). Sadaiyan (curly), Periya
Payal (big boy), Chinna Payal (little boy), etc. It is the practice
among the Kolli-Malaiyalis to bore the left nostril,^ among the
Pachai-Malaiyalis the right nostril, and among the Periya-
Malaiyalis neither nostril. Malaijali women never wear the
ravikkai, and, while at home or in the field, they leave bare the
shoulders, arms and upper part of the body ; before strangers,
» Dr. Shortt, Hill Ranges, Vol; II, p. 37.
THE PEOPLE.
161
however, and when going to market " the upper end of the oloth is CHAP. III.
loosened from over the breast or waist and carried across the left Shevey ok
shoulder, and thrown loosely over the back, shoulders, and arms." ''' '
The Pachai-Malaijalis seem peeiiliarly fond of coloar ; their women Malaiyalis.
never wear white except on their wedding day, when they don
the kurai (p. 159), which is never tied above the waist. They
are permitted to wear either " black " or red cloths, and generally
prefer a dash of yellow, orange, or green ; they wear green and
crimson glass in their ear-rings, and even the men affect bright
colours in their only article of attire, the komanam. Their dietary
is of the usual type, and includes pork. Malaiyalis of both sexes
are ardent smokers. The practice of producing fire by silica and
steel survives among the Pachai-Malaiyalis, only two or three
men in a patti possessing the necessary apparatus, which, together
with some charred cotton, is kept in a small leather pouch. The
houses and agricultural methods of the Malaiyalis are referred to
elsewhere (pp. 108 and 211). The duties of the barber, dhoby
and midwife are performed by people of their own caste. Thej"
engage Pariahs, however, to play tom-toms, etc , on ceremonial
occasions, and Pariahs are employed as agricultural labourers and
assist them on their hunting excursions. When any of their cattle
die, they will not go near or touch the carcase, but send for the
nearest Pariahs to come and remove it ; but should an animal get
injured intentionally or accidentally, and be likely to die of the
injury, they will then sell them to the coolies for a trifle. Some of
the Malaiyalis are in great repute as cow-doctors, and they will set
a broken leg very well. They will not touch a cow-hide or use it as
ropes for their ploughs, etc., nor do they make any attempts to
secure the hide of their catfcle that die ; it becomes the perquisite
of the Pariahs who remove the carcase, i
Malaiyalis ordinarily bury their dead, but they burn those who
die of cholera, leprosy or any other infectious or epidemic disease.
"When cremation is resorted to, the milk-ceremony is omitted.
The rites observed are similar to those of the plains. The bier
is sometimes covered by a canopy, in which case it is called a t6r.
The pollution period varies ; on the Pachai-Malais it is said to
last a mouth, among the Pachai-Malaiyalis of Uttankarai for ten
days, among the Periya- Malaiyalis for twelve or fifteen days, and
on the Kolli-malais it closes on the third day. The ghosts of the
dead are believed to haunt the house, and must be propitiated with
sacrifices of fowls, goats, pigs, etc., as the puj'dri prescribes, or a
peg of Strychnos nux-vomica, or a nail is driven into the grave over
1 Dr. Shortt's Hill Ranges, Vol. II, p. il.
162
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
sorvey of
Castes.
Malaivalis.
the head of the corpse. No srdddhas are performed, but the spirits
of departed ancestors are worshipped on occasions of marriage,
childbirth and puberty, during public festivals, and on Fridays, as
pattavans or liousehold deities. A Malaiyali's house is hold sacred,
and not even a Brahman is allowed to enter it with shoes on.
The Malaiyalis worship both Siva and Vishnu impartially, and
they wear both ndinam and vibhrdi, the former being reserved
usually for religious worship, and the latter for everyday use.
They do not, however, ordinarily resort to Brahmanic temples or
employ Brahman archakars} The patron deity of the caste is
Kari-Eaman, an incarnation apparently of Vishnu. His chief
shrine is at K5vil-Padur, in the Mol-Xad of the Periya Kalrayana.
He has a shrine at Tammampatti, and a somewhat pretentious
temple in his honour was built a few years ago at Karadiyur on
the Shevaroys. It contains idols of Siva and Parvati, Vishnu and
Lakshmi, Vignosvara, and a dozen upright stones in two rows,
decorated with wliite spots. The entrance is adorned with Sanku,
chakram and ndmam, the superstructure with figures of Vislinu,
Rg,ma, four Garudas and four Nandis. Puj'a is performed every
Saturday, and a car-festival takes place in Maai. The pujdri is
prohibited from tasting flesh, a,nd may not attend any animal
sacrifice, or dine with flesh-eaters. No blood-sacrifices are made
to Kari-Raman, and it is said that any who have taken part in a
blood-sacrifice are prohibited from entering his temple till after
the lapse of three or four days. In pursuance of a vow Malaiyalis
of both sexes dedicate tl^eir hair at the shrine.
A similar vagueness appears to exist regarding the god whoso
shrine is on the Bhevarayau Hill, Dr. Shortt preserves a tradition
that " a Shorvacaran or Commander of a body of soldiers, being
a pious and holy man, visited this hill from the low country to
worship Earaaswami, the then presiding deity. His piety gained
him much more honour and fame, and when he died, which he
did on this hill, it was called after him, and images of stone were
made and placed in the temple. Ramaswami was forgotten and
Shervacaran took his place." ^
The cult of Vishnu survives also in a vague form in the
Perumal-kovils to be found in many Malaiyali villages ; this
1 The temple of Arappallavaran in ValappQr Nad is an exception. (Trichino-
poly District Gazetteer, p. 175.) They also regard with great reverence the
Vishnu temple of Srlrangam.
* Hill Ranges, Vol. II, p. 48. The shrine is said to have once contained an
idol of gold, but this was stolen and a stone idol took its place. For a dosciip-
tion of the festival, see Castes and Tribes, Vol. IV, p. 415 sq.
THE PEOPLE. 163
Perumfil cult is harldy recognisable as Vishnu worship,^ and CHAP. iir.
sometimcB the dcitj is unprovided with a shrine. The cult is, Survey of
however, entirely dissociated from blood-sacrifice, and the pujari ' '
(a Malaiyali) is usually a vegetarian. The appropriate day for Malaijalis.
Perumal worship is Saturday. The Kolli-Malaiyalis worship a
god they call Arangattappan or Aranga-Sivan, whom they regard
as the tribal god of the three eponymous ancestors of the caste^
and who appears to be a counterpart of Kari-Eaman. In
Kuuduni Nad ^ he is served by a Brahman Gurukkal, and the
ritaal observed is hardly distinguishable from that of an ordinary
Siva temple ; abhisheliham consists of bathing the idol first with
water, then with milk, and thirdly with gingelly oil ; it is then
dressed in a new cloth and marked with sandal and kunkumam ;
dhupam is then offered ; lamps are lighted, a plantain leaf full
of cooked food is placed before the idol, the usual mantras are
repeated, and camphor is burnt ; blood -sacrifices are altogether
avoided, and the only offerings made are boiled grain, milk, sugar,
fruit and other items appropriate to Siva worship. His attendant
Aranga Sevagan receives worship as a distinct deity ,^ but his
priest is a Malaiyali and not a Brahman. The cult of Vignesvara
is as ubiquitous among the Malaiyalis as elsewhere, and he is
often worshipped in the form of neolithic implements placed
upright or heaped promiscuously in a little dolmen'* or in a
shrineless walled enclosure. Monday is the proper day for the
worship of Vignesvara. There is a temple of Subrahraanya under
the familiar name of Kandaswami in Pirakarai Nad ; with a
three days' festival in Panguni (March — April), but otherwise
his cult is rare. Kamakshi is also honoured with a few shrines
and there are a few Dharmaraja temples devoted to the Pandava
cult.
The list of minor deities worshipped by the Malaiyalis is a
long one. Their favourite Saktis are Kali, Pidari and Mari ;
Ayyanar, too, is worshipped. Kali has an annual car-festival in
Edappuli Nad in Chittrai or Vaiyasi. Saturday is in some parts
her special day of worship. Pidari has many epithets, such as
Periya, Chinna, Soka, Pudu, Karum, Karakkattu, Malunguttu,
etc. Her favourite week-day and her annual festivals vary iE
^ One such onlfc in Gundtir IHM, Namakkal KoUi-malais, goes by the e-^tra-
ordinary name of " Pgy (Demon) Perumal."
^ Also iu Gundur Nad of the Namakkal KoUi-malais.
' According to some accounts both Aranga-Sivan and his peon are honoured
■with the sacrifice of fowls and goats. Some informants, however, actually
identify Aranga-Sevagan with Arangattappan.
* E.g., at Melur and Kakkambadi on the Shevaroys.
164
SALEM.
CHAP. in.
sorvet of
Oastes.
Malaijalis.
(ii) Telujru
OuitivutoiB
different Nads. The chief festival of Mari-amraan, or Mariyayi
as she is often called, occurs in the spring months, Tai, Masi, or
Panguni, about the time of full moon. Her special week-days
are Tuesdays and Fridays. Other important " mother goddesses""
are Naehi-amraa, Pongalayi, Kongalayi and Ponnayi. Nachi is
variously known as Mela-Nachi, Koda-kara-Nachi, Ariya-Nachi,
Elaya- Nachi, Elu-karai-Nachi, etc. Her special week-day appears
to he Thursday. She must be worshipped in perfect silence,
and the prasdda is taken home by the worshippers. She is
said to be a patron goddess of the Vedans, and the existence of
her cult among the KoUi-Malaiyalis is traced to their Vedachi
ancestress.^ Pongalayi is called by mauy epithets, e.g., Kosakkuli,
Mayilati, Tannipali, Velarayan, Mtilakadu, Panikkankadu,
Pekkadu, etc. The demons worshipped by the Malaiyalis are
known by many names, such as Periya-Andavan, Andi-appan,
Nambi-andan, Sadayan, Vettukkaran, Masi-Malaiyan, Urulaiyan,
etc., but by far the most important cult is that of Karuppan, who
is propitiated in every village by pig sacrifiee, his special per-
quisite being the livers of the victims. With him is sometimes
associated a female deity known as Kanni-amma.
Mauy of these minor deities have no shrines, and are wor-
shipped in the open air or in a roofless walled enclosure, especially
in the case of Karuppan. They are served by piijdria of Malai-
yali caste, who are known as Tathans or Andis, and whose office
is often hereditary. It is usual for one and the same pujdri to
serve several deities, and he is sometimes distinguished from his
fellow Malaiyalis by his turban, by growing his hair long, and
sometimes by abstaining from animal food for a period or
throughout his life. The chief general festivals observed hy
Malaiyalis are Poiigal, Dipavali and the 18t.h Adi. The second
day of Pongal (Mattu-Pongal) is celebrated by a great hunting
excursion, and by bull-dances.^
The Telugu ryots are known by the general name Kapu, a
term which is loosely applied to the caste groups otherwise
known as Ee<idis, Kammas, 'I'oiagas and Volamas, and even
Balijas, and is extended to the Kanarese Vakkiligas also. The
" Kapus " number over 44,<'00, of whom 35,0UO are returned for
Hosur Taluk, over 2,0<i0 for Salem and about the same number
for Attur. Most of the Hostir Kapus, however, are Kanarese
Vakkiligas. The Kammas (4,t58l) are found mostly in Hosur
1 Cf. her fult at Anganamalai (Jlaharaja-gadai), the former centre ol Vcdan
(Kanyundi) influence, Vol. II, p. 178.
* See description ot a bull-dance in Castes and Tribes, Vol. IV, p. 417.
THE PEOPLE. 165
and the Telagas (841) in Salora. The Velamas ^ number only 91, OIIAF. III.
all ia Ilosfir Taluk. The exact relationship between these castes Survey of
(Jastes
has not yet been clearly determined ; it is probable, however, that '
they, together with the Balijaa (see p. 178) and the Eazus (see ^elugu
p. 191), come originally of the same stock, and settled in the
District in the wake of the Vijayanagar conquests. The Telagas,
Balijas and Eazus claim military antecedents, and there is
evidence for classing the Kammas as Balijas. One more im-
portant class of Telugu cultivators deserves mention, viz., the
Tottiyas, who number 6,410, and who are found mostly in the
Taluks of Salem, Tiruchengodu and Omaltir. They are an
interesting Telugu caste peculiar to the Tamil country. ^
The best kuown sub- castes of Kapus in Salem District are : — Kapus
(1) the Pdkanatis, (3) the Nerati and
(2) the Pedakanti, (4) the Panta Reddis.
The Pokanati lleddis are commonest in Dharmapuri Taluk ; ^
a few occur near Tumbal, in the north of Attur Taluk, but not
in the Sweta-nadi Valley.
Pedakanti Reddis are found in the south-west and south of
tjttankarai Taluk, in Dharmapuri and in Hosur.^ In the
Baramahal Records the name '" is spelt " Perdagantuwaru," and is
said to be derived from joerat/w, a back-door, the legend being that
once on a time a Guru campid near the village where their ancestor
dwelt, and sent an attendant Ddsari to apprise the villagers of his
arrival ; when the Ddsari came to the Eeddi's house, the latter, out
of meanness, bolted out of the back-door, and the (3-uru, on hearing
of it, declared that he and his descendants should henceforth have
no Guru.^ The same authority divides the " Perdagunta " Eeddis
^ The Velamas (who call themselves Naiclu) trace their origin to Kalahasti
in Chittoor District, They bear a close affinity to the Kammas, They
repudiate any connection with the Balijas, who call them Guni Tsakalavandlu
(hunchbacked-washermen). Vide North Arcot Manual, Vol. I, p. 21G, and Castes
and Tribes, Vol, VII, p. 336.
2 Tottiyans are described in detail in Madura District Gazetteer, p. 106, and
Trichinopoly , District Gazetteer, p. 121 ; cf. Madras Census Eeport, 1891
paragraph 361, and Madras Census Report, 1871, p. 146 ; also Castes and Tribes,
Vol. VII, p. 183.
3 E.g., Maranda-halli, Palakodu, Golla-patti.
* E.g., Baira-nattam and Ketn-Reddi-patti in Uttaukarai, and Achitta-palli
in Hosur.
* The name is also sometimes given as " Penakanti," and they gay they
came from a place called Gandi-kottai " near Penukonda." Possibly the name
Pedakanti is an atrocious corruption of Penukonda. Gandi-kota is a stronghold
of historic fame, a few miles south-west of Jammalamadugu in Cuddapah
District.
8 They are reported, however, to acknowledge as Gwtt one Sri Saila SQrya-
Simhasanam Bhiksha-pati Ayyar of Jlgtir in Komarna-palli Taraf, Hosur Taluk.
166
SALBM.
CHAP. III.
Survey of
Castes.
Eapus;
Kammas.
into two sections, Chinna-gumpu and Pedda-gumpu, and sub-castes
bearing these names occur in Omalur Taluk and in the adjoining
portion of Dharmapuri.' Tliey have no Graru, but own the
authority of a Paitakkdran at Vellar. They interdine with the
Pokanatis.
The Reddis of Attur Taluk almost all belong to the sub-
caste known as Panta Kapu, but the term Kapu is never used
among them. Their chief settlements are in the valloy of the
Sweta-nadi,^ in villages bordering on Trichinopoly District ; in
fact, they are closely akin to the Eeddis of Trichinopoly, and are
probably off-shoots of the Telugu settlements formed in the lower
valley of the Kaveri, when Trichinopoly and Madura became the
seats of Vijayanagar Viceroys.^
The Nerati Kapus are the most numerous sub-caste of Kapus
in Hosur, their chief settlement being at Morasur. They also
occur in Dharmapuri. Like the Pdkanatis and Pedakantis, they
acknowledge the Guru at Jigtlr.
In addition to the above sections, there are communities of
Koditti (orKodatha), Sajjala, Yelochi and Sirapari Kapus reported
from Hosur Taluk. In Dharmapuri Kantha Eeddis are to be
found near Toppur, and Perumba Eeddis also occur. Whether
any of these are true sub-castes, or whether they are to be identi-
fied with the better-known divisions is uncertain. The Kapus
employ Brahman purohiia and are almost all votaries of Vishnu.*
The Kammas are said to derive their name from the word
kamma (Tamil, kainmal), a large ear-ornament worn by their
women. Their customs approximate closely to those of the Bali-
jas. They are divided into two sub-castes, (1) Goda Chatulu and
(2) Gampa Chatulu,* the legend being that two sisters were
bathing, when a king passed by, and the bashful maids hid, one
behind a wall (goda) and the other behind a basket {(jampa) and
these two sisters were respectively the mothers of the two castes.
1 Chinnji-^iupu Reddis are found lit Ondi-kota. ronnd Toppftr in Dliarma-
puri, and in Rami-Keddi-patti and ArQr-patti, Onialar Taluk; Pedda-gumpn
Reddis at NallQr, Kongu-patti and Vellar.
* E.g., Sendara-patti, Tammampatti, Kondayam-galli, Vlraganttr, Kadana-
bar, Tidavar, NaduvalQr, Gangavalli, Anaiyampatti. They also occur at Pana-
marattu-patti.
' Vide Tridxinoyoly District Gazetteer, pp. 117 to 119. The Trichinopoly
Reddis are represented by the POkanatis and PantaR. The Pokanatis are ex-
tremely rare in the Balaghat tracts of Salem District, and their alternativo
name Pongala Reddis is said to be unknown.
* For details regarding the customs of the Kapus and allied castes see
Trichinopoly District Gazetteer, p. 117; North A root Manual, \o]. I, pp. 214!-7 ;
Castes and Tribes, Vol. Ill, pp. 222-47.
* Vide the legend recorded in North Arcot Manual, Vol, I, p. 215.
THE PEOPLE. 167
Another variation is that in a desperate battle at Gaudi-kota CHAP. III.
almost all the Kammaa^ were destroyed, except a few who took Survby of
refuge behind a wall or in baskets.^ Possibly the Muttu-kamnia '_'
(or Musa-Kamma) Ealijas, who are found very rarely in Salem Kammas.
Taluk, should properly be classed as Kammas. In the BaramahaL
Records Kammas are divided into two sections, the Musuku-
Kammas and the Bairu-Kammas.
The general term for Kanarese ryots is Vakkiliga, or, in. its (iii) Kanarese
Tamilised form, Okkiliyan. As already stated, the words Vakki- vaSga"'
liga and Kapu are often int Tchangeable, and it is certain that
many Vakkiligas have been returned as Kapus, especially in
Hostir Taluk, where no Yakkiligas have been returned at all.
The Census for 1911 shows 3,078 Vakkiligas, most of them
occurring in Dharmapuri Taluk. The Vakkiligas are of immense
importance in Mysore State, where they form the backbone of the
population. Three well-marked divisions occur in Salem District
—(1) Morasu, (2) Kunchiga and (3) Gangadikara.
The Morasu Vakkiligas derive their name from the ancient
Morasu Nad, which comprised the eastern districts of Mysore
State and the adjoining taluks of Salem and Chittoor Districts.
They predominate in Hostir Taluk, and are the only division
represented in Krishuagiri/
The Morasu Vakkiligas apparently include several sub-castes,*
among them the Icht-viralu, or " finger giving,"^ Vakkiligas,
so-called from the custom which compelled every woman of the
caste, previous to piercing the ears of her eldest daughter as a
preliminary to betrothal,^ to have the last joints of the ring and
« Vide Castes and Tribes, Vol. Ill, p. 96.
2 Vide JTorf/i Arcot Manual,Yo\. I, p. 215. For Oandi'kdta see above p. 165,
foot-note 5, s.v. Perdaganti Kapus.
3 Their chief settlements are at Pedda-lSTallur and Sudiyalam (Aohitta-palli
taraf), in Hosur and at Made-palli in Krishnagiri Taluk.
* Vide JE.S.M., No. XV, Morasu Okkala, p. 5.
5 Or Beralkoduva (Kan.), for the finger-giving Vakkiligas comprise both
Telugu and Kanarese sub-sections, who, it is said, intermarry.
^ According to Buchanan (quoted in Castes and. Tribes, Vol. V, p. 75)
Abb6 Dubois (Hindu Manners and Customs, 1897, p. 18), Mr. L. Rice
{Mysore Gazetteer, Vol. I, p. 230) and E.S.M., IS'o. XV, p. 10. Abb6 Dubois,
howev9r, says two joints in each finger are lopped off. Other authorities Ce.g.
Madras Census Report, 1891, S.D.M., Vol. I, p. 137) connect the finger-giving witli
the birth of a grandchild. Mr. Le Fanu writes " when a grandchild is born in
a family, the eldest son of the grandfather, with his wife, appear at the temple
for the ceremony of boring the child's ear, and there the woman has the last
two joints of the third and fourth fingers of her right hand chopped off. It
does not signify whether the father of the first grandchild born be the eldest
son or not, as in any case it is the wife of the eldest son who has to undergo
the nmtilation."
168
SALEM.
OHAP. III.
Survey of
Castes.
Vakkiligas.
little fitrgers of her right hand chopped off by the village black-
smith's chisel, as a sacrifice to the caste-god Bandi-Devaru ^ (the
" Cart God "), who is by some identified with Siva. The legend-
ary origin of this curious custom is as follows: — "When the
demon Bhasmasura had obtained the power of reducing every-
thing he touched to ashes by severe iapas, he wished to test his
power first on god Siva, the donor himself. The deity fled from
the demon and hid himself in the fruit of a creeper, which to this
day resembles a linga in appearance. The demon who was pursu-
ing the god, suddenly losing sight of the latter, asked a Morasu
man who was ploughing in the fields there, in which direction the
fugitive had escaped. The man of the plough wished to evade
the wrath of both the mighty parties and while saying he had not
observed, pointed with his fingers to the creeper on the hedge
which had sheltered the fleeing god. Just in the nick of time
Vishnu came to the help of his brother in the sliapo of a lovely
maiden, M5hini. The Eakshasa became enamoured of her, and
like a fool, forgetting the fatal virtue that his bare touch had
been endowed with, he was lured by the damsel to place his hand
on his own head, and was immediately reduced to a heap of ashes.
Siva now triumphant was about to punish the treacherous rustic
with the loss of his erring finger, but his wife, who had carried his
food, begged hard that the deprivation would render hira unfit to
do his field work and offered two fingers of hors for one of her
husband." ' The practice is now obsolete, having been stopped
by the Mysore Government, and the women now content them-
selves with " putting on a gold or silver finger-stall or thimble,
which is pulled off instead of the finger itself." ^
Kunchiga Vakkiligas occur both in Hosur and Dharmapuri
Taluks.^
Gangadikara Vakkiligas derive their name from the ancient
country of Gangavadi.^ Denkani-kota and Tagatti are the head-
quarters of two Nads or Gadis, each under its own Ndttu-Karun-
dan, but they are most numerous in Dharmapuri Taluk, where
they outnumber the other divisions of Vakkiligas. The name
Gangadikara, however, is not in general use in the taluk, most
of the members of the community calling themselves Laddagiri
1 The finger-giving 7akkiligas are also known as Bandi Vakkiligas. In
Baramahal Records they are described as Bandi Vcllallu.
* E.S.M., No. XV, p. 8. Similar legends in endless variety arc given in other
authorities, e.g., Baramahal Records, III, p. 109, Castes and Tribes, loc. cit., etc.
3 Mysore Oazetteer, Vol. I, p. 230.
* E.g., Gummalapuram in HosOr; Bilijanftr and Erappalli in Dharmapari.
6 They are numerous in Mysore, Hassan and Bangalore Districts of Mysore
State.
THE PEOPLE.
169
Vakkiligas, and they appear to form a separate cndogamons CHAP. Ill,
group, distinguished from the Gangadikaras proper by tho fact Sdrvky of
that their womenfolk are strict vegetarians. They are to be found *
in the villages of Eoiii-halli, Donnakutta-halli, Ajjampatti, Vakkiligns.
Banijagara-halli in Pennagaram Division. The significance of
tho name Laddigiri is not clear.^
In addition to the above, a settlement of Musnku Vakkiligas
exists in Tora-palli Agraharam, ond a community of Dasiri Vakki-
ligas at Jekkeri, both in Hosur Taluk. Whether these are true
sub-castes is uncertain. A section known as Anchakara Vakki-
ligas is said to occur in Kalapambadi, Erra-palli, Adanur and
other villages south of Pennagaram.
The Pastoral Castes (64,746) are represented by the Tamil (2) Pastoral
Idaiyans (21,395), the Telugu Gollas (9,386) and the Kurubas ^^«*«^-
(33,965), who speak both Telugu and Kanaiese.^ The Idaiyans
and Gollas tend cattle, tho Kurubas sheep and goats. The Idai-
yans^ are ^ti-ongest in Attur (7,000), tJttankarai and Krishnagiri ;
the Gollas in Hosur, Dharmapuri, Omalur and Attur ; the Kuru-
bas in Hosur (15,000), Dharmapuri (7,300), Krishnagiri (6,800),
TJttankarai (2,700), very few^ indeed occurring in the Talaghat.
This distribution of the Pastoral Castes shows clearly that grazing
is of far greater importance in the Balaghat and Baramahal than
in the comparatively poorly- wooded Talaghat.
The Kurubas or Kurumbars as they are sometimes called, Kumbas.
are classed as IJru-Kurubas and Kadu-Kurubas, or Town Kurubas
and Country Kurubas.'* Those in Salem District belong to tho
former group, and most of them speak Kanarese. The tJru-Kuru-
bas are divided into three clearly defined sub-eastes, (1) Hosa
(new), also called Halu (milk) or Hatti (cotton) Kurubas, who
use a marriage kankanam of cotton, (2) the Hale (old), also called
Kambli (blanket), Unne (wool) or Jadi Kurubas, whose kankanam
^ The Laddigiri Vakkiligas state that Laddigiri is a village somewhere near
the Ttingabhadra in Bellary or Kurnool District. Mr. E. S. Lloyd, Collector of
Kurnool, writes, " there is a sinall and rather insignificant village called
Laddigiri on the Handri, a tributary of the Tungabhadra. It is about 20 miles
from the Tungabhadra itself. The nearest railway station is Veldurthi, 8 or 10
miles off."
^ The Census figures cannot be relied on, for the Idaiyans show an increase of
6,624 (nearly 50 per cent) on the figores for 1901, which is impossible,
especially as the 1901 figures include Tiruppattur and Namakkal, while the 1911
figures do not. Obviously many Gollas, or Knrubas, or both, must have been
returned as Idaiyans by Tamil-speaking enumerators.
^ For a description of the Idaiyans see Madura District Gazetteer, p. 96, Gaatea
and Tribes, Vol. II, p. 352, and the authorities quoted in Census Report, 1901,
Part I, p. 155. Among the sub-castes given in Castes and Tribes, both Gollas
and Kurubas have been included.
* For the legends of their origin see E.S.M., No. I, Kuruba, pp. 2-3.
170
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
Survey of
Castes.
Karubaa.
is of white, black and yellow wool, and (3) the Ando Kurubas,
whose kankanam is of cotton and wool mixed. Males of those
three groups may iuterdine. The Old Kurubas weave kamblia ;
the New Kurubas tend sheep; the Ande Kurubas consider them-
selves superior to both, claim to have been a warrior caste, and call
themselves Ande-Eavuts. Kurubas formed an important fighting
element in the armies of Haidar Ali and of the Ankusagiri Poli-
gars, and several fiefs of military origin still remain in the posses-
sion of Inaradars of the Ande sub-caste. Their favourite caste
title is Nayaka.
All three divisions are split into exogamous clans callod Kulax}
The following Kuhs are reported in Salem "District; for the
"New" Kurubas, Deva-kulam, Ari-kulam (according to Mr.
Nanjundayya, Ari = Bauhintaracemosa), Pisa-kulam, Made-kulam,
Sangini-kulam, Sanna-kulam, Raja-kulam ; for " Old" Kurubas,
Pottu-kulam, Basiri-kulam, Gaudi-kulam, Hege-kulam, Arasu-
kulam, Sangama-kulam, Ala-marattu-kulam. It would seem that
some of these names are not confined to one sub-caste. A large
proportion of them are names of plants, and the olan so named
observe a quasi-totomistic reverence for the plants after which
they are called. The Sanku-kulam clan of the Ande Kurubas is
80 named from the Chank shell {Turbinella pyrum), and it is said
that the members of this clan may not use the Chanks as a feed-
ing bottle for their babies, a use to which the shell is put through-
out South India.
The " Old " Kurubas distinguish themselves as belonging to
the Ballala-Eayan-Vamsam and the Bijjala-Eayan-Vamsam.
The " New *' Kurubas are divided into three groups, named after
three week days, Monday, Thursday, and Sunday Kurubas. Yet
another distinction exists, which is said to be common to all throo
sub-castes, namely, the Maduvc-Salu or offspring of regular marri-
age, the Kndike-Salu or offspring of informal marriage, and the
Basavi-Salu or offspring of unmarried girls.^ Exogamous clans
are said to equal in number the grains in four seers of paddy.
The Guru of the Ande Kurubas is a Lingjlyat, and the men
of certain clans who exercise priestly functions among them wear
a lingam round their neck and abstain from flesh and alcohol.
The Lingayat influence in the caste is, in fact, strong. At the
same time the Ande and " Old " Kurubas employ Brahman
purohits at weddings and funerals, but the " New " Kurubas
content themselves with purohits of their own caste.
^ Air. H. V. Nanjundayya in E.S.M. gives a list of 111 Kulas.
2 E.S.M., No. 1, p. 5,
THE PEOPLE. 171
Males arc not allowed to be tattooed. Among the " New " CHAP. III.
Kurubas, women wear white cloths, and black cloths are considered Sdrvky of
inauspicious. " Old " Kuriiba womeu, on the other hand, invari- astes.
ably wear a black kambli, any other colour being prohibited ; the Kurubas.
hambli is not thrown over the shoulders, but is tied tightly over
the breasts and under the armpits, and secured round the waist
with ii girdle of coir rope, a fold being made in the kambli to
conceal the existence of the rope. The bodice (ravikkai) is worn
only by women of the Ande sub-caste, whose cloths may be of
any colour. After marriage, Kuruba women should wear shoes
and not walk abroad barefooted.
The " Old " Kurubas observe a curious custom in their annual
festival to Bira Devar.^ The images are set in a row in an open
space and garlanded, and flowers, milk, coco-nuts, etc., are offered
to them. Such of the worshippers as have vows to perform,
garlanded and covered with saffron, dance in front of the deities,
and work themselves up into a state of frenzied excitement, and
when the climax is reached, the devotees sink to the earth with
one leg bent under and the other stretched out in front (or
else simply kneel), while the pUfdii breaks quantities of coco-nuts
on their heads. The operation looks painful, and some of the
enthusiastic wince as the blow fallS; but broken skulls are unheard
of, and the coco-nut is certainly the weaker vessel. No anmial
sacrifice is offered at this festival. The fragments of broken
coco-nut belong " by right to those whose skulls have cracked
them and who value the pieces as sacred morsels of food. For a
month before this annual ceremony all the people have taken no
meat, and for three days the fujdri has lived on milk alone. At -
the feast therefore all indulge in rather immoderate eating, but
drink no liquor, calling excitedly on their particular Grod to grant
them a prosperous year," ^
The Gollas, the great Telugu caste of cattle graziers, rank high GoUas.
in the social scale, though, curiously enough, they do not employ
Brahman purohiis. They sometimes call themselves Yadavas,
and claim kinship with the Tadava dynasty of Devagiri. One
section of the caste, known as Bokkasa or Bokkusa Gollas, has
given up shepherding and taken to guarding treasure as an
hereditary occupation ; hence the treasury servants who are
entrusted with lifting, carrying and packing bullion are officially
known as Gollas, though they do not necessarily belong to the
Golla caste. Gollas may mess with Nattans, Kaikolars, Vellan
Chettis and Eavuts, but not with Pallis or Tottiyans. The Salem
^ Vide Oppeit, op. cit., p. 238. ^ Madras Census Keport, 1891-
172
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
suevet of
Castes-
GoUas.
(3) Fisher-
men.
Sembada-
vanB.
Gollas trace their origin to Gooty, and a quaint story ,^ is told to
explain their migration thence. When the Gollas were settled at
Gooty one of the ruling sovereigns (a Nawah, tradition calls him)
fell in love with a Golla maid and sought her Land in marriage.
Eefusal spelt ruin, and the panic-stricken Gollas consented to the
match. A time and place for the wedding was fixed, and a
marriage pandal erected. But when, on the wedding day, the
Nawah arrived at the bride's house, he found the pandal deserted,
save for a dog dressed up in girl's clothes ; the Gollas had quitted
his kingdom to a man.
The caste exhibits an extraordinary variety of sub-divisions,
the exact correlation of which is far from clear.^ No less than
eight endogamous groups are reported for Salem District alone,
namely, (1) Guti (Gooty), (2) Kama (Carnatic), (3) Ttimati, (4)
Manthai (sheep or cattle-pen), (5) Doddi (hut), (6) Sana, (7)
Akalu, (8) Mondi. The caste is also said to be sub-divided into
seven yotras, most of them associated with plant totems, viz., (1)
Mamanthila-vadu, who revere the mavaliuga tree, (2) Siru-puvalu-
vadu, worshipping the ncrinji plant, (3) Puchanthila-vadu, a section
in which black beads and black cloths are forbidden, (4) Vanin-
thila-vadu, (5) Ariyanthila-vadu, who honour the atti tree, (6)
Pulavanthila-vadu, who may neither cut nor burn the puldm tree,
and (7) Bangaru-vadu (gold).-' All the members of the first four
of these got r as are looked on as ddyddis and arc not allowed to
intermarry. The same theory holds good for the last three gotras.
Thus a man belonging to the first batch of gotras must choose his
bride from the second batch, and vice versa.
The fishing castes are represented by the Tamil Sembadavans
(7,393) and Telugu Bestas (735). Probably a few Kanarese
Toreyas should be included among one or other of these heads, as
they numbered 1,852 in 1901. About half the Sembadavans occur
in Tiruchengodu Taluk, the rest being distributed evenly through-
out the District. The Bestas are confined to Iloeur Taluk.*
The chief settlement of Sembadavans is at Edappadi, where
they have to some extent abandoned their ancestral occupation as
^ A Bimilar story is told of the other castes, e.g., the Morasn Yakkiligas
(E.S.if., No. XV, p. 3), Beri Cliettis {^Castes and Trihea, Vol. I, p. 213).
* According to E.S.M., No. XIV, Gollas (exclusive of the Kadu-Gollas) are
divided into three sub-castes (1) Uru, (2) Ketta Haiti, and (3) Maddina. In
E.S.M"., No. XX, however, eight other sub-castes are specified. In Baramahal
Records, III, p. 135, twelve sub-castes are named.
2 Only the last of these clan names is given in E.S.M., or Castes and Tribes
and the lists given in those two works are also mutually exclusive.
* An excellent account of the Bestas is given in E.S-M., No. V ; cf . Castes and
Tribes, Vol. I, p. 218.
THE PEOPIE.
178
vans.
fresh-water fishermen and boatmen in favour of trade and the CHAP. III.
manufacture of oastov-oil and puiidk (Vol. II, p. 273). It appears ^'g^g^^^g"^
tliat the Sembadavans form a homogeneous community and — '
recognise no sub-castes. They are divided into about 96 exoga- Sembada-
mous clans, called by rather outlandish names, which are said to
be derived from tribal heroes.^ Caste disputes are settled in the
first instance by a pancJiaycd nominated by the assembled elders,
and presided over by an hereditary Kdriyadan. From this
panchayat an appeal lies to the Pattahkdran and from the Pattah-
kdran, a second appeal lies to an officer known as Konga-Rayar,
who lives in Konga-Raya-palaiyam in Kalia-knrchi Taluk. The
Sembadavans employ Brahman purohits (usually Tamil or Teluga
Smartas) for the ceremonies connected with marriage, childbirth,
puberty, house-warming, srddd/ias and the 16th day death
ceremony, and in the case of Vaishnavites for the mudrd'
dhdranam, or sealing ceremony, when they are branded in two or
three places with a metal sanku or chakram.
The spirits of the dead are propitiated with animal sacrifice.
The Sembadavans are specially devoted to the cult of Ankal-
amman, who is said to have been the daughter of a Sembadava
girl of whom Siva was enamoured. In connection with her
worship a peculiar ceremony is observed. Once a year the
worshippers assemble at dead of night in a burning ground ;
cooked rice, plantains and other offerings are laid on a cloth spread
on the ground, and sheep, goats, and fowls are sacrificed.
Ankal-amman is then worshipped, and the cooked food is distri-
buted among the worshippers. This ceremony, known as
Maydna-pitja (cemetery puja) is performed to the beating of a
pambai drum. The pujdri gathers five handfuls of the ashes of
the burning ground, and mixes them with the sacred ashes of
Ankal-amman's shrine, the mingled ashes being afterwards distri-
buted to worshippers. The ashes and the cooked grain distributed
on these occasions are considered a specific against barrenness.2
The hunting castes include the Telugu Vedans and the (4) Hunters.
Kanarese Bedas or Boy as, as well as a few (515) Telugu Patras.
The Vedaus according to the Census of 1911 number 4,402, of
whom about 2,400 are in Hosur and 1,200 in Krishoagiri Taluk.
No Vedans are returned in the Census of 1901. In 1901 there
were 7,38o Boyas and 4,570 Bedas; in 1911 the Boyas number
1 E.g. (1) Ulaganathar, (2) Maina-kappiriyan, (3) Anjappuli, (4) Tii-ipuram-
kali, (5) Vathayi, (6) Alallau, (7) Mazhaventhi , (8) Tikkali, (9) Iralvan, (10) Emi-
girippiriyan, (11) Suriyappiriyan, (12) FoiinatfcumannaD.
* For a description of a similar, but mucii more elaborate, ceremony at Mala-
yanur (Tindivanam Taluk, Sonth. Arcot) see Gaste.s and Tribes, Vol. VI, p. 35H.
Vedara.
174
SALEM.
OFAP. III.
Survey of
Castes.
Vedars and
Bedas.
(5) Traders,
8,077 and the Bedas nil. Apparently there has been some con-
fusion between the Bedas and Vedans, and also between the Beda
Bovas and the Odda Boy as (see s.v. Odde, p. 187).^
Botb Vedars and Bedas come of the same stock and trace
their descent to Valmiki, who is identified with the author of the
Ramajana, Valmiki, it is said, was the illegitimate son of a
Brahman bj a Vedar woman and adopted the profession of high-
wayman. One day Eama 2 appeared to the bandit, convinced him
of the sinfulness of his life, and converted him to probity. The
reformed robber had twelve sons, who wore the ancestors of both
Vedars and Bedas. Another eponymous hero, who figures promi-
nently in Vedar tradition and custom, is one Kannayya or
Kannappa, who is identified by some with one Kannappa Nayanar,
one of the sixty-three Saivite saints, a trnditioa which seems to
connect them with the Ambalakarans and Valaiyans of Tanjorc
and Trichinopoly.^
Both Vedars and Bedas were originally fighting castes, who
spread southwards with the armies of Vijayanagar. On the down-
fall of Vijayanagar many of their chieftains ostabli.'shed themselves
as independent Poligars ; in fact the Vedar dynasty of the
Kangundi Zamindars still preserves a shadow of authority over
the Vedars of the eastern Baiaghat and Baramahal, as well as on
the Javadi hills of Tiruppattur. Bedas formed the pick of
Haidar Ali's army, and several families of these cousin-castes still
enjoy Umbilikkai maniyams (see Vol. II, p. 54) granted to them
by former Poligars as guardians of the Ghats.*
The most important trading castes are the Balijas, who num-
ber 47,270, and include many communities that would more cor-
rectly be described as agricultural or military ; and the Cliettis, who
number 33,636. The word " Chetti " ^ is used as a general terra
for trader, and covers a multitude of castes. In a more limited
sense the term is applied to a group of sub-castes which all claim
to be Vaisyas. Of these the most important are the Komati Vais-
yas and next to them is the caste group of the Nagarattu Cbettis.
Of the non-Vaisya merchants who call themselves Chettis the
1 In 1901 Bdyaa -\- Bedas — 12,138 -, In 19] I BOyas -f- Vsdans = 12,4.79.
The title BOyi is used by Oddes, and Bestas, ns vvell as by a Telugu caste of
palanquin-bearers.
* Or the sage Vasishta {E.S.M., No. Ill, p. 1) or the seven Riahis (Castes and
Tribes, Vol. I, p. 189), for there is, as usual, an infinite variety in the
details of the legend.
3 See Castes and Tribes, Vol. VII, p. 332, and E.S.M., No. Ill, p. 2- of. Trichi-
nopoly District Gazetteer, pp. 105 and 114.
* E.g., Krishnappa-Nayani-Podur and Batimadagu in Eerikai Palaiyam, ar.d
Ankusagiri-Kotttlr in Bulagiri.
6 " Chetti " 12,511, " Komati " 11,615, " Janappan " 9,510 ; total 33,636.
THE PEOPLE.
175
most important a o the Janappars. The Nattu-k5ttai Chettis of CHAP. Til.
Deva-kottai are very rare in Salem District.^ Other castes Suevky of
which adopt the term " Chetti '* are tho Vaniyars (oil-pressors) a^tes.
who appear to bear some affinity to theNagarattu Chettis (p. 183), Traders,
the Slifinars (toddy drawers), the Devaiigas (weavers), the Linga.-
yats, the Oddars of Attur (Odda-Chetti), the Potters of Pennaga-
ram Division (Kosa -Chetti) and the Senaikkadaiyans. Desayi
Chetti is the title of the Balija who presides over the '' Eighteen "
Eight- Hand Castes.
The Komatis trace their origin to Ayodhya ; 714 families, it is Komafcis
said, migrated to Penukonda, where a king called Vishnu- Vardhana
fell in love with a beautiful girl of the caste named Vasavamba.
The Kdmatis dare not refuse V'ishnu-Vardhana's proffer of
marriage but on the appointed day the maid, her parents and a
married couple from each of 102 families immolated themselves
on a funeral pyre. These 102 families are identified as the gotra^
groups into which the Komatis are now divided, tho remaining 612
formiug the Nagarattu Chettis and allied castes. Personal beauty
having thus proved the bane of the caste, Providence ordained
thenceforth that no Komati girl should be beautiful. Vasavamba
is now worshipped as the tutelary goddess of the caste, under the
name Kanyaka-paramesvari, and is regarded as an incarnation of
Parvati,-^ The K5matis rank high in the social scale, and stre-
nuously live up to their claim to be true Vaisyas. It is curious,
however, that, though their right to wear the sacred thread is
undisputed, very few castes will accept water at their hands or
take food in their houses.* In some mysterious way they are
connected with the Madigas, and are sometimes called " Midday
Madigas." * Their caste panchdyats are of the Telugu type,
presided over by a Chetti and a Yejamdn. Appeals lie to
Brahman Gurus, entitled Bhaskaracharyas, of whom there are
several families, each with its own territorial jurisdiction. Some
Komatis. are Saivites and some Vaishnavites, but sect is no bar to
intermarriage. In their customs, though the Vedic ritual is not
1 For a description of these famous sowkars, see Madura District Qazetteer,
p. 99.
^ One of the families is said to have become extinct at the great holocaust, the
last surviving pair having perished on the pyre. A list of the 101 gotra groups
is given on pp. 32 to 11, £.5.Af.,No. VI. Each group has its appropriate Kishi
on the analogy of Brahmanic gotras, but several of these groups contain more
than one exogamous clan and each gdtra bears the name of a tree, planter
grain the use of which is tabooed by the members of the gotra.
3 There are several variants of the story, see JE.S.M., No. VI, p. 4.
* According to ES.M., No. VI, only ESdas, Madigas and Korachas will eat in
a Komati house.
* See Castes and Tribes, Vol. Ill, pp. 325 sq.
176
SALEM,
CHAP. III.
Survey of
Castes.
Komatis.
Nagarattu
Chettis.
employed, they closely follow the Br.ahmanic model, while
they observe ia addition a multitude of Dravidian rites.
Flesh-eating, adult marriage, widow re-marriage, divorce, etc., are
rigorously eschewed, and annual srdddhas are observed, as well as
monthly ceremonies during the first year of mourning. Exchange
of daughters in marriage between two families is prohibited,^ and.
menarlkam is enforced with a strictness that is proverbial. ^
The Nagarattu Chettis, like the Komatis, claim to have
migrated from the anciont City of Ayodhya (Oudh),^ and they are
said to be descended from the 612 families of Penukonda who did
not join with the 102 Komati families in Vasavamba's immolation.
Nagarattus are strict vegetarians and wear the sacred thread.
Some of them are Saivites, and some are Vaishnavas. They are
divided * into Tamil, Telugu and Kanarese sections, and difference
of language is a bar to intermarriage.
The term ** Nagarattu " is applied to most of the non-Komati
Chettis of Hosur and Krisbnagiri Taluks ;* it also occurs in Saloni,
Omaltlr, Tiruchengodu and Attiir. The Nagarattu Chottis of
Hostir are said to speak Kanarese, but elsewhere Tamil is their
predominant house language. The term Beri Chetti, according
to the Baramnhal Records, is applied to the Telugu section of the
Nagarattu Chettis, but in Krisbnagiri and Dharmapuri Taluks,
where they occur, they are reported to speak Tamil. ^ A section
known as Neikara Chettis (ghee men) ^ is numerous in Tiruchengodu,
and occurs also in Salem and Omaltir (Aranganur) ; they speak
Tamil and are described as a division of the Nagarattu Chettis
* " There should be no turning back of the creeper " as they say ; that is, when
a girl has married into a family, the latter cannot give a girl in marria>ife tu that
girl's family ever afterwards (JE.S.Af., No. VI, p. 8).
* Komati'Menarlkam is " a proverbial expression to denote a relation that
cannot be escaped or evaded " {E.8.M., loo. cit.).
' Hence their name Nagarattu, men of the city (AyOdhya-Nagaram).
* The following sub-divisions are reported : (1) Sivaohar Nagarattus, (2)
Emmaladu Nagarattus, (3) Bfiri Nagarattus, (4) Namadhari Nngarattus, (5) Ktl-
gfOr NasarattuB. The Sivtiohar and Emmaladu .Vagarattas wear the lingam,
the other three divisions are Vaishnavas.
* Their chief settlements are at HosOr, Bagalur, Kiishnagin and Kav6ri-
patnani.
* The exact relationship between the B6ri Chettis and the Nagarattu Chettis
is not clear. The B6ri Chettis are said to be distinct from tlie B6rl Nagarattus
referred to in footnote 4, though in the Tamil districts Bfiri Nagarattus are
commonly called B6ri Chettis. Most BCri Chettis profess to be vegetarians, but
the rule is not everywhere observed. In Trichinopoly, Taujore, and Pudu-kOttai
they speak Tamil, in Chittoor and Aroot, Telugu. Three divisions are reported
(o) 8ama>»purattar, (J) Molagu-mari, (o) Maman-tilli-katti, tlie last named
taking their name from a custom th;it requires a girl's maternal (mdman) uncle
to tie a prenuptial tali (cf. the tdli Icettu-kalydnam of Malabar, Malabar District
QazetUer, \\ 173).
' Cf. the Neti Komatis of Shimoga, E.8.M., No. VI, p. 5.
THE PEOPLE.
177
who trade in ghee. Certain Neikara Chottis of Hostir Taluk, CHAP. III.
however, speak Kanarese. Silakara Chettis (cloth-men) are Survey op
— CJ A ST IPS
found in Hosur, Dhannapuri and Attur.^ In Hostir thej *
speak Kanarese, in Dharmapnri Tclugu, in Attiir Tamil. Beri Cliettis.
Nulkara Chettis (threadmen), otherwise called Vellau Chettis,
ooour in Dharmapuri and in all the Talaghat Taluks.^ They
are described as Nagarattu Chettis who sell twist (nul). In.
Salem they call themselves Bhu-Vaisyas. They are said to wear
no punul. Pattars are reported to be a sub-caste of the Vellan
Chettis who wear a Ungam on the neok or on the right arm, S51iya
Chettis are common in Tiruchengodu, and also occur iu the other
Talaghat Taluks,^ and in Dharmapuri, Acharapakkam and
Tovaram-katti Chettis are found in Tirucbengddu Taluk, but are
not common ; the former take their name from their chief settle-
ments at Acharapakkam in Madurantakam Taluk, Chingleput
District. Kasukkara Chettis (coin-men) are common in Dharma-
puri, and are also found in Attur, Tiruchengodu and Salem ;
they are described as Nagarattu Chettis who exchange coins. In
Salem Taluk there are a few so-called Pannirendam (twelfth)
Chettis, who devote one-twelfth of their income to the god of
Katnagiri, Kulittalai Taluk, Trichinopoly District.*
Most, if not all, of the communities above enumerated appear
to belong to the Nagarattu caste-group, and there is reason to
believe that they are true sub- castes, based on territorial or occupa-
tional distinctions. Most of them acknowledge the supremacy of a
Gruru entitled Dharma-Sivachar, residing at Nerinjipet in Bhavani
Taluk, Coimbatore District, and many of them call themsehes
Dharma-Sivachar Vaisyas.
The Janappars (9,510) are most numerous in the three Bara- janappars.
mahal Taluks of Dharmapuri (3,489), Krishnagiri (2,529), and
Uttaukarai (1,998) ; thereare a few in Hosur, Salem and Omalur,
but they do not occur in Attur or Tiruchengodu. Hariir is their
chief settlement. They acknowledge Ayyangar Gurus at Tora-
palli (Hosur), Raya-kota and Ketanda-patti (near Vaniyambadi),
Their name is said to be derived from the word janappu (= hemp)
the cultivation of hemp and its conversion into gunny bags being
the hereditary occupation of their forefathers. Some members
of the caste, living near Kari-mangalam and in Kondayana-halli
near Solappadi, still follow the ancestral industry, but most of
^ Kela-mangalam, Tali, Dharmapuri, Adamau-kottai, Pudupet.
* E.g., Pedda-Nayakkan-palaiyam, Aiiai> ampatti, Kondayauipalli, Nadu-
valur, all in Attur Taluk, Konagapadi in Omalur, and in the vicinity of
Tiruchengodu.
* Kouganapuram, Aianganur and Pottan6ri.
* Trichinopoly District Qazetieer, p. 282.
178
SALEM.
CHAP. III.
SuaVKT OF
Cabtss.
JanappuTS.
Balijns.
the caste have abandoned it in favour of trade and money-lending.
These now call themselves Teluugas, Telugu being their house
language. The cattle trade of the District is almost entirely in
their hands ( v. p. 280 ). Their customs follow the Telugu
type. They worship Parvati under the name of Du 
