Full text of "The pageant of nature"

ALVMNVS BOOK FYND

THE PAGEANT OP NATURE

t *

THE PAGEANT OF
NATURE

Edited by

P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, C.B.E., D.SC,

LL.D., F.R.S.

VOLUME III

LONDON
THE WAVERLEY BOOK COMPANY, LTD

96 Farringdon Street, E.G.4

V.3

Printed in Great Britain

CONTENTS

BIRD LIFE, WONDERS OF
Bird of Many Surprises, A .
Butcher Bird or Red-backed Shrike, The

Common Buzzard in Devonshire, The

Dipper, The

Duck that Burrows, A ...

Dunlin and the Whimbrel, The .

Eccentricity Among Birds .

Feeding Upside Down

Guillemots, The Tribe of the

Haunts of the Chough, In the

Hawks, The Flight of ...

Jay and the Magpie, The .

Little Grebe, The Nesting Habits of the

Magpie and the Jay, The .

Nightjar, The

Oyster Catcher, The ....
Peregrine Falcon at Home, The .
Razorbill and Puffin, The : Sea-fishermen
Red-backed Shrike or Butcher Bird, The

Redshank, The

Swans and Swanneries
Thrushes, Our Visiting : Fieldfare, Red-
wing and Ring-ouzel
Titmouse Family, The : Part II .

Wheatear, The

Whimbrel and the Dunlin, The .
Wild Geese, The Tribe of the .

CURIOSITY CORNER

Nature's Tools and Weapons

Quaint Resemblances in Nature, Some .

FERNS, THE FAMILY OF THE

Ferns, Some Interesting

Lady Fern and the Spleenworts, The .

FISH LIFE, STRANGE FACTS OF
Carp and its Relations, The
Dog-fish and the Rays, The

CHARLES S. BAYNE

G. C. S. INGRAM, M.B.O.U., AND

CAPT. H. MORREY SALMON, M.C.
A. M. C. NICHOLL, M.B.O.U.
H. J. MASSINGHAM
CHARLES S. BAYNE
HENRY WILLFORD
RILEY FORTUNE, F.Z.S.
CHARLES S. BAYNE
SETON GORDON, F.Z.S.
STANLEY CROOK ....
CAPT. C. W. R. KNIGHT
FRANK BONNETT ....
A. M. C. NICHOLL, M.B.O.U.
FRANK BONNETT ....
RALPH CHISLETT, M.B.O.U.

F.R.P.S

HENRY WILLFORD

C. J. KING . ...

SETON GORDON, F.Z.S.

G. C. S. INGRAM, M.B.O.U., AND

CAPT. H. MORREY SALMON, M.C.
CHARLES S. BAYNE
FRANK BONNETT ....

FRANK BONNETT ....
FRANK BONNETT ....
HENRY WILLFORD
HENRY WILLFORD
SETON GORDON, F.Z.S.

BENJAMIN HANLEY
A. HAROLD BASTIN

S. LEONARD BASTIN
S. LEONARD BASTIN

DR. FRANCIS WARD, F.Z.S.
DR. FRANCIS WARD, F.Z.S.

1249

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681240

CONTENTS

FUNGI, HOW TO RECOGNIZE THE
Blushing Toadstool, The . ...
Fairy Clubs .....

INSECT LIFE, CURIOSITIES OF
Apple Tree, Enemies of the
Curious Nests that Insects Make .
Describing the Circle ....
Grasshoppers, British ....

Hover Fly, The

Insect Tree-dwellers :

Bark-borers .....

Leaf-eaters .....
Masked Insects .....
Nature's Fairy Lights ....
One of Nature's Mysteries Solved
Puss Moth, The Life Story of the

OUR WILD ANIMALS AT HOME
Harvest Mouse, The ....

Pugnacious Shrew and his Water-baby

Cousin, The

Rat, The : A General Pest .
Red Deer, The . . . .

Weasel, The Wideawake

PLANT LIFE, BY-WAYS OF
Berry Harvest, The . .

PLANT PARASITES

Dodder, The . . . .

SEA SHORE, LIFE OF THE

Hermit Crab and its Lodgers, The

" Living Flowers " of the Sea

Rock Pools, Fairies of the .

Spiny Lobster, The ....

SPIDERS, THE WORLD OF

Spiders, Jumping and Hunting .
Water-spiders .....
Weavers and Potters in Spiderland

TREES AND THEIR LIFE STORY
Elder Flowers and Elder Berries .
Holly : Male and Female .
" St. Luke's Little Summer " and Leaf-fall
Silver Birch, The : The Lady of the Woods
Trees, The Birth of .

EDWARD STEP, F.L.S.
EDWARD STEP, F.L.S.

M. H. CRAWFORD

A. HAROLD BASTIN

K. G. BLAIR, B.Sc., F.E.S. .

M. H. CRAWFORD

A. HAROLD BASTIN

F. W. FROHAWK, M.B.O.U., F.E.S.

RAY PALMER, F.E.S. .

PAGE

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999
1163
1301
1294

1007
1298

H. W. SHEPHEARD-WALWYN, M.A.,
F.Z.S

" OBSERVER " ....

SETON GORDON, F.Z.S.

FRANK BONNETT

TICKNER EDWARDES
S. LEONARD BASTIN

F. MARTIN DUNCAN, F.Z.S.
DR. FRANCIS WARD, F.Z.S.
F. MARTIN DUNCAN, F.Z.S.
DR. FRANCIS WARD, F.Z.S.

JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S.
JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S.
CHARLES S. BAYNE

G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.
G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.
G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.
G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.
G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.

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CONTENTS

WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR WAYS

Butterworts and Bladderworts : Insect-
eaters in the Plant World

Floral Bells

Flower Lovers of the Sea .

" Lords and Ladies " and Little Flies .

Trapper of the Bog, The .

Weed of Good Repute, A : The Wild
Cabbage ......

" Where the Bee Sucks "...

White Water Lily, The ...

Wild Geraniums, Among the

S. LEONARD BASTIN
EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. .
G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.
G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.
EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. .

EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. .
G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.
G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.
EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. .

'355
1104
1169

993
1278

1358
1274
1283
1350

LIST OF COLOURED PLATES

Berries of the Wild Arum . . . From an Autochrome by

A. HAROLD BASTIN Frontispiece

Sweet Tranquillity From the Painting by FACING PAGE

ARTHUR J. BLACK, R.O.I. . . 1057

The Fly Agaric (Amanita Muscaria) . From a Colour Transparency by

REGINALD A. MALBY, F.R.H.S. . 1121

From an Autochrome by

A. HAROLD BASTIN . . . 1121

The Silver Birch ..... From a Painting by

ARTHUR J. BLACK, R.O.I. . .1185

Mallard From a Drawing by

R. B. LODGE . . . . 1249

Water-lily Pond . . . . . From a Painting by

ARTHUR J. BLACK, R.O.I. . . 1283

Amongst the Pines .... From a Painting by

ARTHUR J. BLACK, R.O.I. . . 1313

Silver Birches and Royal Fern (Osmunda From a Colour Transparency by
Regalis) REGINALD A. MALBY, F.R.H.S. . 1341

Wild Flowers and Their Ways

Photo : G. Clarke Xuttall, B.Sc.

Early in the spring the sharp green spikes of the Arum appear. These are the rolled-up
leaves which, as the days get warmer, gradually unfurl like a flag.

22.-" LORDS AND LADIES " : AND ^f TLE

FLIES

By G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.

UNDER the hedgerows the " lords and
ladies " stand, each with a peculiar
dignity of its own, for among the
handsome leaves every flower spike is set
apart in an enfolding green sheath as if
in a chair of state. No wonder this
plant the wild arum arrests attention,
for it is the only one of its kind in the
whole of the British flora ; its nearest
relative, and that only a distant cousin,
being the rare sweet flag to which it bears
no sort of family resemblance. It is,
however, the little brother of the beautiful
and stately white arum lily of our green-
houses, and to this we can at once trace a

family likeness. With such a luxurious
relative it is not surprising to find that our
wild arum likes to make its home where the
soil is rich and loose, both under the hedge-
rows and in the woodlands. There is a
saying, " Where the arum flourishes there
the spirits of the wood rejoice." Anyway,
children and lovers of the countryside have
a particular regard for it, and sure sign
of interest know it by endless quaint
names, while round it have gathered some
curious fancies. Let us then watch the
plant as it runs its course through the year.
Very early in the spring sharp green
spikes push up through the earth. These

993

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

are infant leaves, at this stage tightly rolled
round their midribs. Under the influence
of the spring sun they gradually unfurl, and
presently dark striking leaves, shaped like
arrow heads, are ranged before us on long
stalks, their shining green surface some-

Photo : G. Clarke Nuttalt, B Sc.

Leaves of the Wild Arum. Notice the veining. As a rule

plants of this class have parallel veins, but the Arum is one

of the rare exceptions.

times marked by purplish blotches. Before
they have finished uncoiling, other spikes,
also of rolled green, push through the ground,
but as these unroll, each proves to be a big

clear, yet " wake robin " is one of the wild
arum's oldest and best-known countryside
names. In still other parts of the country
it is called " jack-in-a-box " or " parson in
a pulpit," also " schoolmaster," either
because he sits in a desk, or perhaps because
the rod-like appearance of
the spike recalls episodes
not unconnected with one's
schooldays. In another old
name, " Aaron's rod," the
allusion is obvious.

The enwrapping green
spathe opens back for two-
thirds of the distance from
its tip, but it then constricts
into a slight " waist " ; its
lower third remains rolled,
swelling out a little so that
it forms a circular hollow
chamber ; hence, to pursue
our investigations further,
it is necessary to slit down
the front wall. This done,
the whole column, which
may be three or four inches
in height, stands naked
before us. The upper part is plain and
fleshy, and in shape like a long club ;
but just where the waist of the spathe
is, there are a number of pale-coloured

green ^heathing. structure or " spathe " hairs all pointing downwards the direction

** If* Jtfcrf^tUttB+Mfc*! l^lr^ f-t-.^. ^*-t **^ .^..f 'U.^.... '* -~ * _ _ " _- A. J _M1V_ _ .. 1 _

in proportion like the eare of a hare,
explains an old writer. Just before these nor-
mally unclose, one can, by a little pressure,
make them pop open suddenly and reveal
their contents a thick fleshy column so
the Hertfordshire children call the plant
" pop -lady," the lady being the aforesaid
column. The upper part only of this column
can be seen, and sometimes it is purplish
and sometimes yellowish, and the plants with
purple spikes are the " lords " in the chil-

is an important point and filling up the
entrance to the chamber. Botanists say
that every one of these hairs has been
evolved from a flower which has been
transformed pro bono publico. A little
below the hairs is a yellow ring made up
of a number of male flowers each flower
being represented by one solitary stamen
which produces its due quota of pollen.
Below this yellow ring is a broad band of
whitish knobs, each of which is a female

dren's fancy, and those with the paler ones flower consisting of a single seed-case con-
are the " ladies " hence their name " lords taming, usually, not more than one seed.

and ladies " for the plant. Further, they
know that when the cuckoo's note is first
heard, then is the time to begin to look for
them, so the plant is also called " cuckoos,"
or more often " cuckoo pint," and sometimes
even " cuckoo babies," quite an apt name,

And so, because of its rings, children know
the plant also as " ladies' fingers." Thus
we have male flowers with pollen above, and
female flowers below, which would appear
to be an obvious and natural state of things,
for it would be the easiest matter in the

for one of the pale columns in its green world for the pollen to fall on the receptive
sheath is somewhat reminiscent of a baby parts below and fertilize the ovules. But

wrapped in a shawl. What imagined con-
nexion there can be with the robin is not so

that is not Nature's plan at all and this is
where the little flies come in.

994

WILD FLOWERS 7WD THEIR WAYS

When we slit open the wall of the green
chamber that encircles these bands on the
spike, we could not fail to notice that a
number of little midges and other insects
were crawling about within and hurriedly
made their escape, and, also, sometimes that
the remains of dead flies lay on the walls.
One might imagine that these flies' presence
was merely accidental, but this is not so
they are there as part of an elaborate scheme
in which they play a most important role.
For the spathe of the wild arum is really
and truly just a fly-trap. When it first opens,
the midges, attracted by the fleshy look of
the flower spike, and perhaps also by a slight
foetid odour therefrom, approach and crawl
down the enclosure. The way is as easy
as the traditional " primrose path of dal-
liance," for the slanting hairs, pointing
downwards, facilitate the passage rather
than impede it, and the flies are quickly in
the circular chamber but imprisoned there,
for the hairs, faced from this side, form a
bristling, impenetrable barrier to any attempt
to escape. Still the flies are quite happy,
for on the top of every seed-case in the lower
ring stands a minute drop of honey to give
them sweet refreshment. In fact the female
flowers are ready and waiting for them (we
are supposing the spathe just to have
opened), though the male flowers above are
still immature and unready. The flies have
probably come on from another spike (of
course, only those that have done so are any
use to the plant now), and, if so, they are
covered with pollen, and as they crawl about
feasting on the honey, they rub some of this
pollen off on to the receptive point of each
seed-case so that the immature seed within
gets fertilized the fly has, in effect, paid
for its feast of honey. And now, and not till
now, do the male flowers in the ring above
mature and open their pollen boxes. Out
falls the pollen in a shower upon the flies
still crawling below, covering them, and
even forming a carpet on which they may
roll. And so, though they have rubbed off
part of what they brought with them, they
have unwittingly gained a fresh supply,
or if they came with none they now go away
loaded. It is a curious fact that these
happenings produce heat in the chamber,
and if one slips a thermometer into it from
above, the temperature therein will be found
to be distinctly higher inside than without

The presence of dead flies has caused a
suggestion to be made that possibly the
wild arum is an ogre plant that takes toll
of some of its visitors, stupefying them with
its nectar, and after their death extracting
and absorbing the juices of their bodies ;
in other words, it makes a meal of them like
all traditional ogres. But it is generally felt
that this point needs further elucidation.

It may take a number of days for all this
to be accomplished, but when the male

A B

Photo: G' Clarke Nuttali, B.Sc.

A. The polled " spathe," bud stage, also
"pop-lady" stage, enclosing the flower spike.

B. The spathe open, showing the fleshy-
looking top of the flower spike. This attracts
insects. The part below the "waist" is a

fly-trap.

995

Photo: G. C. 5. Ingram, M.K.O.U.

The Wild Arum likes to make its home where the soil is rich and loose, both under the

hedgerows and in the woodlands.

The Cuckoo-pint, OP Wild Arum, cut open to show the detail of its fly-trap. The ring of
downward-pointing hairs keeps the victims imprisoned until the plant is fertilized.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

flowers have scattered their pollen, the once is a pretty bunch of scarlet juicy berries
barricading hairs wither, leaving a free (one for each seed-case) on the top of a stiff
passage to the midges. These hurriedly
emerge, and seek another arum spike, so
their enforced detention cannot have been
altogether unpleasant. In the new spathe
the same round of events is repeated, and
cross-fertilization is brought about. The

stalk. Few, indeed, of the passers-by
recognize in them the aristocracy of the
spring. They are much sought after by
thrushes, and pheasants, too, are said to be
very partial to them ; but they are poisonous
to man. The leaves are filled with acrid

a monk's cowl hence two more country
names of the plant, namely, " priest's hood "
and " friar's cowl," that must date centuries
back to the days when monks and friars
were a common sight of the lanes.

Spring passes into summer, the fleshy
column withers and dies down as far as the
band of seed-cases ; the spathe yellows and
disappears except for a ragged, dry frag-
ment that still covers up the seed-band
and, as far as. casual observers see, the
" lords and ladies " have taken their de-
parture. But really they have only gone

into retirement,
and in early
autumn, the
handsome arum

appeared, there,
where each
column stood,

upper part of the first spathe now becomes juices ; if anyone doubt this, let him nibble
limp and falls forward, looking rather like at one, and he will find shortly afterwards

that his mouth will tingle and smart for
some time to come. A very curious tra-
dition has been handed down to us from
the days of the ancients, namely (in the words
of Gerard's " Crete Herball "1632),
" Beares after they have been in their dens
without any manner of sustenance, but
what they get with licking and sucking
their owne feet, doe as soone as they come
forth eat the herbe Cuckoo-Pint, through the
windy nature thereof the hungry gut is
opened and made fit againe to receive
sustenance." The roots, also acrid and
poisonous, have played their part in man's
economy, for they used to furnish the starch
that stiffened the immense ruffs our an-
cestors wore. " The most pure and white
leaves having starch is made of the roots of Cuckoo-Pint "
long since dis- (to quote Gerard again), " but most hurtfull
to the hands of the Laundresse that hath
the handling of it, for it choppeth, blis-
tereth and maketh the hands rough and
rugged, and withall smarting." The roots,
dried and powdered, formed the basis
of a once celebrated French cosmetic
known as " Cypress powder," which
was sold, we are told, at a high
price, being " excellent and innocent."
Finally, their acridness led to a most
amusing suggestion being made by an
old writer some two and a half centuries
ago amusing, that is, to us, though
made, apparently, in all seriousness by
him. If one wishes to get rid of a
presuming " sawcey guest," he suggests
that one should cut up the root of an
arum into small pieces and mix it well
in a " sallet " (salad), and serve it up
to him " Within a while after the
i'hoto- G ciar&e A/uttaii B iv taking of it, it will so burn and pinch

After fertilization. A. The spathe withers; its his mouth and throat that he shall not
top falls over as no more visitors are required, be able to eat any more, and scarce to
[This is the Friar's Cowl stage.] B. A further spea k f or pam This suggestion is

to? 6 C. 'M2S2L ^^7^ here commended to all those who

ragged bit of the spathe. suffer from bores !

998

Curiosities of Insect Life

27.-CURIOUS NESTS THAT INSECTS

MAKE

By A. HAROLD BASTIN

With photographs by the Author

BI RD'S-NESTING is a well-recognized
pursuit which has many adepts ; but
relatively few people know when and
where to look for the nests of insects. For
insects do not all follow the same general
rules when they set about building their
nurseries and domiciles, but make use of
very varied materials, and often select
unconventional locations. Moreover, the
art of nest building is not confined to adult
insects, but is frequently practised with
conspicuous success by mere infants. In
September the tiny caterpillar of the white
admiral butterfly (Limenitis sibylla) prepares
its hibernaculum, or winter-sleeping tent,
by drawing together with silken thread
the edges of the honeysuckle leaf upon
which it has been feeding, having first
secured the leaf-stalk to the stem as a
precaution against falling. Here the^baby
slumbers in security until, with the advent
of spring, it is able to resume its feeding.
The numerous brood of the brown-tail
moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea), perhaps 250
strong, co-operate to weave a nest, or tent,
sufficiently capacious to shelter the whole
family. Some such retreat is eminently
desirable, if not actually essential, for
gregarious caterpillars that hatch from the
egg in late summer and pass through the
winter among the branches of a shrub or
tree, where they are exposed to the full
rigours of our fickle climate. So leaves are
drawn together, and covered by a sheeting
of tough, closely woven silk, which being
non-conductive serves at once to keep
out the cold and to keep in the warmth
generated by the living bodies of the cater-
pillars. In the depth of winter the inmates
of this snuggery lie dormant ; but on mild,
sunny days, both in the autumn and in the

very early spring, they may often be seer,
basking in the genial warmth on the outside
of their tent.

When the winter is past, these brown-tail
caterpillars still preserve their tent-dwelling
habit ; but as they continue to feed and
grow, the original brood splits up into two,
or even three, parties, each of which sets to

Winter- sleeping tent made by a colony of

caterpillars of the Brown-tail Moth. These

nests sometimes accommodate as many as

250 inmates.

999

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

work to make a tent of its own. These
" summer tents," however, are far less
closely woven than those whose main
object is to keep out the inclemencies of
the weather. They resemble the tents of
the lackey moth (Clisiocampa neustria)
caterpillars which never form true hiber-
nacula, since this species passes through
the winter in the egg state. The mother

they are, would destroy every clutch in the
course of a single winter. That this does
not happen suggests that the lackey's eggs
fail to recommend themselves as dainties
when sampled. Perhaps the birds dis-
cover that these easily seen eggs, if eaten,
painfully derange the delicate balance of
their digestive organs, and thus after one
fateful experiment carefully avoid them !

A summer tent of the caterpillars of the Lackey Moth. This species does not make a
true hibernaculum, since it passes through the winter in the egg state.

brown-tail moth, by the way, builds a sort
of nest over her eggs, which are usually
laid on the under surface of leaves, and
invariably covered over by a dense thatching
of hairs from the insect's tail tuft. Exactly
why this precaution should be adopted is
puzzling. It seems plausible to suggest
that a bird, pecking casually at the mass
and getting a mouthful of hairs for its pains,
would be deterred from further investiga-
tion. This may be the true solution.
But the nearly related lackey moth does
not cover her eggs, albeit the time of
hatching is far off when they are laid.
Her egg-bands resemble greyish-brown
bracelets, conspicuous enough by contrast
with the dark ground-colour of the twigs
round which they are glued ; and one
might suppose that our smaller insecti-
vorous birds, industrious egg-hunters as

Many young insects make their homes in
the fruits upon which they feed. Probably
the most notorious example is the cater-
pillar of the so-called codlin moth (Carpo-
capsa pomonella), which by no means con-
fines its attentions to the particular variety
of apple whose name it bears, but attacks all
the best kinds indiscriminately. The moth
lays her very remarkable scale-like eggs
singly upon the newly formed green
fruit ; and immediately after hatching the
minute caterpillar tunnels down (generally
through the " eye ") to the developing
core, which, with the pips, form its chief
food. Many of the apples called " wind-
falls " prove, upon inspection, to have been
attacked by this pest, which may be dis-
covered merely by splitting the fruit open
with a knife unless the invader has already
burrowed its way out, as it does when,

1000

LACKEY MOTH CATERPILLARS.

On sunny days they may be seen basking on the outside of their silken tent.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

having eaten its full, it is intent upon
finding a suitable retreat (usually a crack
or crevice in the bark) where it may spin
the cocoon which shelters it during the
winter. Minute caterpillars, grubs and
maggots of many kinds mine between the
upper and lower skins of leaves, and subsist
upon the soft inner tissues (parenchyma).
Thus, whenever one's attention is caught
by a leaf that is blotched or lined with
pale markings, one may suspect that it

A mere catalogue of the nest-making
habits of insects, if conscientiously drawn
up, would form a bulky volume. In such
a work we should find that the largest
and most interesting section would deal
with the Hymenoptera the order which
includes the ants, wasps and bees. There
are many popular books on natural history
which provide us with reliable information
concerning the nests of many of the
" social " or communal species ; but much
less has been
written indeed,
mu ch less is
known about the
" solitaries " : i.e.
the wasps and
bees which have
not yet discovered
the advantages of
c o-o p e r a t i o n .
Here there is a
vast field for re-
search. Probably
there is no trick,
artifice or expedi-
ent, suitable to
their condition,
which these in-
defatigable little
workers do not

The caterpillar of Corylus avellana mines between the upper and lower

skins of hazel leaves, and subsists upon the soft inner tissues. Their

tracks are clearly seen in these photographs.

has been appropriated as a home, and a
feeding-ground, by some insect. Generally
speaking, the long, tortuous markings bear
witness to the mining operations of tiny
caterpillars, whereas the blotched effects

put into practice.
The bees of the
genus Andrena
sink shafts in the

soil, sometimes in banks, but often vertically
into flat ground. In the accompanying
photograph three " pit-heads " belonging
to a small black species may be seen one
of them surrounded by a quantity of moist,

commonly suggest the operations of mag- dark-coloured fragments of soil just brought
gots and grubs the young stages of flies up by the insect from its subterranean
and beetles respectively. For example, a workings. These particular shafts formed
tiny fly (Phytomyza \ilicis\ aquifolii) is a part of an extensive mining district,
the " parent cause " of the blotches or worked by the Andrence, which twenty-five

years ago might have been seen by anyone
who strolled, in springtime, along a certain

blisters 39 ; often seen on holly leaves,
especially iii'ne'dges ; while the somewhat

similar blistering of b'eech leaves in certain hard-trodden path a few yards above high-
seasons so ; faexjlie'nt, *hat the foliage of the water mark on the coast of the Isle of Wight,
trees on whole hillsides looks as if it had at a point just opposite the entrance to

been scorched may be traced to the
activities of a small blackish beetle (Or-
chestes fagi), whose grub is the actual miner,
although the adult insects also do much
damage by eating holes in the leaves.

Portsmouth Harbour. The aperture of
each completed shaft is closed with particles
of soil, and smoothed down, by the bee ;
so that when the nesting season is over,
nothing remains to attract attention. But

1002

CURIOSITIES OF IfiSECT LIFE

Three " pit-heads " made by a species of Ar.drena bee. The one on the left is surrounded
by moist, dark-coloured fragments of soil just brought up by the insect during its

underground working.

a little careful digging discloses the fact destined to become the food of the grub,

that each shaft communicates with several or " bee-baby," for whose benefit the cell

small chambers, or cells, which are pro- was prepared. Not all the Andrence choose

visioned with a mixture of pollen and honey, to burrow in hard soil. One of the most

The British Mason Bee will take advantage of any hole or crevice,
its cells into the lock of a garden shed.
1003

It will even pack

THE PHGEANT OF NATURE

A blotched holly-leaf at-
tacked by the grub of a fly.
The white spot is a little
hinged door (really a por-
tion of theleaf-skin)through
which the mature fly has
emerged.

noticeable species the
bright red-brown A.fulva
is very partial to- lawns,
where it throws up little
mounds of soil from its
shafts (" worse than worm-
casts," says the irate gar-
dener !) during the month
of April. This bee econo-
mizes space, and is extra-
ordinarily prolific. Her shaft
may be as much as ten or
twelve inches deep, and
usually communicates with
cells throughout its whole
length. " Hence, (says Mr.
O. H. Latter) if one or two

females of A.fulva happen to take a fancy
to a particular path or piece of lawn in
one season, there may issue in the follow-
ing year so enormous a number of young
as to excite wonder as to their origin."

The cells of the Andrence and their
near relatives are mere earthen chambers,
serviceable, but not very durable. Other
burrowing bees (e.g. species of Antho-
phora) are at pains to plaster or varnish
their walls inwardly with a special " hard
drying " secretion, or saliva, with which a
certain percentage of sand or clay may be
mixed. The bees of the genus Osmia
are also plasterers by vocation, and the
cement which they make proves very
hard and enduring, so that their cells
persist long after the occupants have
grown to maturity and flown away. The
Osmice, moreover, are especially interest-
ing on account of their versatile habits.
Most, if not all, of the species would
seem to be burrowers " by nature," but
they are apt to shun hard material, and

Trie caterpillar of the Golden Pigmy Moth mines in the
leaves of the bramble. In this photograph are four sep-
arate mines. The course of each can be traced from where
the egg was laid near the mid-rib to the end of the gallery.
1004

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

This dainty little nest, actually a small

earthenware jar, was built on the heather

twig by the small wasp, Eumenes coarctata.

avoid unnecessary exertion. One (O.
leucomelana) makes use of bramble stems
(usually gaming
entrance at a cut
or broken end)
and does not
scoop away the
whole of the
pith, but scrapes
out a series of
small cells con-
nected by nar-
row passages.
Other species
and this is where
the cement comes
in useful avail
themselves of ex-
isting crevices in
brie k wo r k,
empty snail-
shells, discarded
pipes, the spin-
dle-holes of
cotton-reels, and
so forth, filling

them up with concrete cells. Osmia rufa
the British " mason bee " par excellence
not unfrequently packs its cells into the lock
of an outhouse or garden shed ; and there
is a record of this insect having built between
a book and the back of the book-case against
which it was pressed, leaving just room
for the bee to gain access. This book,
with the Osmia' s cells still attached to it,
may be seen in the Insect Gallery of the
Natural History Museum.

All things considered, we may accept
without qualification Mr. Latter's estimate
that the Osmice " are undoubtedly among
the most intelligent of all the solitary
bees." Yet it is probably true also that
their very cuteness has militated against
the budding instincts which make for co-
operation and communism. These find
expression among the less Highly specialized
bees of the genus Halictus. A number of
female Halicti sometimes combine to form
a common burrow which gives access to the
various groups of cells. There is also a
vestibule, or widening of the burrow near
the opening, which enables the bees to pass
one another easily as they go in and out ;
while a sentinel bee is posted to keep out
would-be intruders.

There is a marked similarity between
the nesting habits of solitary bees and

Nests of Trypoxyton figulus,
the

a species of wasp that rears its young in
hollow stems of reeds.

1005

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

solitary wasps, but the food-contents of stances which characterizes the nesting
the cells is strongly contrasted. For all operations of the Osmice. The cells are
bees are strict vegetarians, and store only constructed in all manner of crevices, or
honey and pollen, whereas wasps provide in burrows in banks, or in bramble
a meat diet caterpillars, flies, beetles, stems ; or they are merely plastered in the

angles of walls, under
window-ledges, or in
the gaps between bricks
left by the crumbling
away of mortar. One
species (Eumenes coarc-
tata) builds the most
charming little nests
among the branches of
heather, or some other
low-growing shrub. Ap-
parently all the British
species of the sub-
family, some sixteen in
number, store tiny
caterpillars in their cells,
although it is stated (in
one of the Ministry of
Agriculture's leaflets)
that one of the species
has been seen to carry
off the clay-coloured
weevil (Otiorhynchus
picipes), which often
works such havoc among
our raspberry canes.
This, however, is almost
certainly an error. Prob-
ably the real benefac-
tress is one of the larger
wasps of the genus Cer-
ceris C. arenaria or C.
ornata for choice.

Finally, it may be
said that while the
wasps which employ
earth in the construc-
tion of their cells are
often spoken of as
" mud-daubers," there
is room for doubt as to the accuracy of this

Cells of Osmia leucomelana a wild bee, built in bramble stems
The Osmise ape among the most intelligent of all wild bees.

spiders, etc. for their progeny. Thus (for

example) when we find cells in a bramble description at least in many instances.

stem stored with flies, we may conclude
with certainty that they are the nurseries of
a " digger-wasp " of the genus Crabro, and
not of the bee Osmia mentioned above.

Mud i.e. water-laden soil may be used by
some British species ; the writer has not yet
satisfied himself on this point. But he has
more than once seen solitary wasps scrape

Among the members of the sub-family together particles of dry soil and moisten
Eumeneince (which includes the nearest with them their saliva, thus preparing a tiny
relatives of our social wasps) we notice mass of concrete which is subsequently added
again the same ready adaptation to circum- to the cell-wall in process of construction.

1006

28.-INSECT TREE-DWELLERS: BARK-
BORERS

By M. H. CRAWFORD

IF we consider a tree from the human
standpoint, any insect that lives in-
side that tree is a pest ; it is doing the
tree no good, and it is successfully making
use of man's property. The human stand-
point, as is generally the case, is a purely
selfish one, but it is also inevitable, and so
there is war between the owner of the tree
and the insect inhabitant.

The lives of these little foes are absorb-
ingly interesting. Weevils,
beetles and moths are the chief
offenders. Usually the adult
insect is of little economic
importance, except for the fact,
of course, that it is the egg-
layer. The grubs or cater-
pillars do the mischief, and,
as they are sheltered by the
bark of the tree and therefore
invisible, they are difficult to
reach. Often it is only when
the tree is fatally injured that
the ravages come to sight. The
tunnels of the little elm-bark beetle are
familiar to everyone. These are made by
the grubs, which eat their way through the
wood under the bark. There are some
signs by which one may recognize the pres-
ence of the grubs, but often these are so
very slight as to pass unnoticed. There
are, for instance, the tiny holes of exit and
entry made by the parent and the young
beetles respectively, and even when the
holes are almost invisible there may be seen
little collections of wood-dust thrown out
from the holes. But when the bark has
become so loosened by the number of tun-
nels that it falls off, then the extensive
damage is apparent. There are several
species of Scolytus, but in the case of the
S. destructor, the elm beetle, the galleries
are all carried out on the same plan, and so
are readily recognized. There is the short
central gallery, made by the parent beetle
in rather more than two weeks. Then,
radiating from this, on both sides, and at

right angles to it, are the galleries made by
the grubs. The eggs number about one
hundred and are laid in two rows ; as they
hatch out each grub begins to make its own
tunnel by eating the wood ; they are full-
fed by the end of July. Most of them hiber-
nate and appear as beetles the following
May. These and many other wood-borers
seem to prefer trees that are already un-
healthy and in a decaying state, and there-
fore it is often un-
certain whether the
attack of the beetle is
the cause or the result
of the decay.

P/ioto: .I/. //. Crav/orti

The Elm-bark Beetle lays its eggs in

a double row, and each larva as it

hatches eats away its own tunnel at

right angles to the main gallery.

ioo:

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

Two other very small beetles that are
rarely seen, but whose destructive larvae
bore tunnels in our furniture, are the
common death-watch and the speckled

death-
watch.
Besides
house-
h o 1 d
fittings

Photo : M. H. Crawford.

(1) The speckled Death-watch Beetle and

(2) the Furniture Death-watch are two very
small beetles whose larvae bore tunnels

in our household fittings. (Enlarged.)

the grubs are found in trees, especially in
willows and oaks. Spirits of wine, in which
corrosive sublimate has been dissolved,
injected into the holes made by the beetles
will kill the " worms " inside and will also
bring out any live insects. This is a good
opportunity to examine these tiny beetles,
though at the first touch they will draw in
their heads and curl up their legs in defence.
There are some very interesting beetles
of wood-boring habits amongst the Longi-
cornia. The largest is the goat beetle
(Prionus coriarius). It is not at all
uncommon in well-wooded districts,
but as it is of a retiring disposition
it is rarely seen. It will cling for
hours to the trunks of beech and oak
trees. Its black coat, dusted with
grey, makes it look much more like

wasps as they crawl quickly about the foliage
of bushes and trees.

On oaks and beeches stag-beetles (Lucanus
cervus) may be found. These are the
largest of all British beetles, and also
they are very handsome ; these two facts
probably prevent a very great increase
in their number, otherwise they would
be much more of a pest than they
actually are. The larvae have very strong
jaws and are quite able to eat living
as well as dead and decaying wood, though
they seem to prefer the latter. It is only
the comparative scarcity of the stag-beetle
that apparently saves it from being, in its
adult stage, as great a destroyer of tree
2 foliage as the cockchafer, for it feeds on
tree sap and, probably, on fruit juices,
bruising and wounding the leaves, twigs
and fruits with its powerful mandibles.

The beech horn-beetle (Sinodrendron
cylindricum) is a relative of the stag-beetle ;
it is a peculiar-looking little creature, the
horn on the head of the female being very
short, that on the head of the male long and
curved backwards. Like the stag-beetle,
too, its larvae prefer rotting wood for food.

A tiny, quarter-of-an-inch beetle, known
as the pine-borer (Hylurgus piniperdd), does
a great
amount
of dam-
age to
pine
trees.

a large excrescence of the bark than
a beetle. Sometimes the white,
flattish larvae are very destructive.
To the same family belong the
common and pretty wasp beetles
(Clytus arietis), whose larvae are also
found feeding on the wood of oaks
and beeches. The beetles are
black, with long, ceaselessly - moving It does not attack the branches but the shoots,
antennae, and with three yellow bands which it frequently destroys by its tunnel-
across the black elytra ; they look very like ling. The active little pine weevil (Cur-

1008

Photo: M. H. Crawford.

The Pine - borer
Beetle (above) and
the active little
Pine Weevil (on
left) both do a
great amount of
damage to pine trees and fir plantations. (Enlarged.}

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

culio abietis) is another enemy of the same and the hornet clearwing of the osier, and
trees, and in young fir-plantations is some- they are both curious and interesting moths.

The wings are transparent, tinged with
yellow, the bodies brown and yellow-
banded, and the legs of a deep orange
colour. The caterpillars of both species
are cream-coloured ; those of the osier
clearwing have dark spiracles, and those
of the poplar clearwing have brownish
heads with dark dorsal line ; both

The Cardinal Beetle is common
everywhere, and is one of our
prettiest summer beetles. (Enlarged.)

times very destructive. It lives under
the bark, both as beetle and as larva ;
buds, branches and bark are all
attacked.

The cardinal beetle is common

, A , f ., The Stag Beetle, found on oaks and beeches, is the

everywhere, and is one of the largest of the Bpitish beetles<

prettiest summer beetles we have.

The eggs are laid in decaying willows, are flat-headed and of a cyclindrical shape.

where the larvae, whitish grubs of a bolster- These moths have no ovipositor, and

like shape, live and feed,

not doing very much

harm, as the trees are

usually already doomed.

The giant wood-wasp
(Sir ex gigas), a most
beautiful and formidable-
looking saw-fly, one of the
most notable of the
" borers," has already
been described (see page

Of lepidopterous insects
that injure the bark and
wood of trees there are
four important examples :
the wood leopard moth,
the goat moth, the poplar
hornet clearwing moth,
and the osier clearwing
moth. The two latter are
often known as the hornet
clearwing of the poplar
70

The Oak Long _ hopned Beetle is not uncommon in wooded
districts, but is not often seen v (Enlarged.)
1009

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

and poplars chiefly, the
wood of the willow being
probably their favourite
food. There is a strong
possibility that these large,
yellowish-pink, very un-
palatable-looking creatures
were the " tree-grubs " or
Cossus of the ancient
Romans. The goat moth
and the musk beetle,
both of whose larvae

Cocoon of the Goat Moth, showing the empty
pupa case. The larvae of this moth attack
willows chiefly, and can sometimes be
detected by their repulsive, goat-like odour.

the work of making the burrow rests on
the larvae, who are well fitted for their task.
Poplars and willows are the trees chosen,
and the caterpillars live inside these for
about two years.

The wood leopard moth's caterpillars are
destructive mostly in orchards. These
pale yellow, black-spotted larvae are found
in apple, pear and walnut trees, as well as
in most forest trees, especially elms. The
larvae of the goat moth attack willows, oaks

: John y. Ward, F.E.S.

A Female Goat Moth searching the

deepest crevices of the bark with her

ovipositor.

are notorious wood-borers, can always be
detected by the odour they leave behind
them wherever they go ; that of the
goat moth larva, however, is exceedingly
repulsive, and the moth owes its popular
name to this fact. This larva possesses
a wedge-shaped head, admirably adapted
for boring into the w r ood, and the large jaws
are exceedingly strong. It frequently pu-
pates in the heart of the tree, but this is no
disadvantage to the moth when it wants to
emerge, as the chrysalis is furnished with
reflexed booklets by means of which it
photo-. John y.ward, F.E.s. fr^ds back along the tunnel to the open
An Osier Clearwing Moth that has mst , i j i i j

emerged from its pupa. The empty chrysalis air > leavm g the cylindrical, chip-made co-
case is seen projecting from the boring below, coon behind.

1010

Our Wild Animals at Home

Photo : Setoti Gordon, i~..$.

A group of Red Deer in March, just before the stags shed their horns. The finest
horns are the first to go ; young or sickly stags will sometimes retain theirs until May.

19.-THE RED DEER

By SETON GORDON, B.A., F.Z.S.

Tvi aois coin, aois eich
Tri aois eich aois duine
Tri aois duine aois feidh
Tri aois feidh aois fir-eoin
Tri aois fir-eoin aois craoibhe dharaich."*
(OLD GAELIC RHYME.)

THE red deer is perhaps the most dis-
tinctive animal of the Highlands of
Scotland. In earlier times a vast
forest covered England and Scotland,
where roamed the stag and the wild boar.
From the I2th century onwards the kings
and nobles gradually monopolized for

*Thrice the age of a dog the age of a horse ;
Thrice the age of a horse the age of a man ;
Thrice the age of a man the age of a stag ;
Thrice the age of a stag the age of an eagle ;
Thrice the age of an eagle the age of an oak tree.

hunting and cultivation large portions of
this enormous forest. We find that by the
1 6th century red deer were scarce south of
Yorkshire. Gradually they have been
driven northward, until now they are found
in a truly wild state only in the Highlands
and Islands of Scotland.

In the 1 6th century Atholl and Mar were
as renowned for their stags as they are
to-day. In 1549 Munro, High Dean of the
Isles, writes of Jura as " a fyne forrest for
deire," and Islay as " full of natural grassing
with maney grate deire." Of the forests
of the Inner and Outer Hebrides and their
deer mention is also made.

There is also record that King James V
(in the i6th century) " Passed out of

ion

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

Edinburgh with 12,000 men and hounded
and hawked all the country of Teviotdale
and killed eighteen score harts. Next
summer he went to hunt in Athol,
accompanied by Queen Margaret and
the Pope's Ambassador, where he re-
mained three days, most nobly entertained
by the Earl, and killed thirty score of hart
and hynd, with other small beasts, as roe

particularly as she observed that such a
numerous herd of deer seemed to be
directed in all their movements by one
animal."

The red stag casts his horns annually.
The best stags are the first to shed their
horns, usually during the last week in March,
but to a certain extent depending on the con-
dition of the deer. Young stags, or those

Photo : Setoit Gordon, F-Z*S.

A fine stag. Gradually the Red Deer have been driven northward, until now they are
found in a truly wild state only in the Highlands and Islands of Seotlands.

and roebuck, wolf and fox, and wild cats."
Queen Mary on occasion (1563) also
hunted in Atholl and Mar, and of her most
famous hunt particulars are given by Bar-
clay, who states that scouts were sent out
to gather in the deer not only in Atholl and
Mar, but also in Badenoch and Moray.
The result of this great hunt was 360 deer,
five wolves, and a number of roe deer.

" The Earl of Atholl prepared for her
Majesty's reception by sending out about
2,000 Highlanders to gather the deer from
Mar, Badenoch, Murray, and Atholl, to the
district he had previously appointed. It
occupied the Highlanders for several weeks
in driving the deer, to the amount of 2,000.
The spectacle much delighted her Majesty,

in bad condition, still retain their horns in
May. In about three months the new
antlers attain their full growth, and as they
make their appearance ten days after the
old have been cast, it will be seen that the
process of regeneration is a speedy one.

It is not often that a stag is seen actually
to drop his horns, but on one occasion, it is
narrated in Scrope's " Days of Deer Stalk-
ing," a forester watched the process. As the
stag grazed near him, one of the horns was
seen to incline leisurely to one side and fall
to the ground. The stag tossed up his head
and began to shake it, whereupon the re-
maining antler dropped off. The animal
thereupon bounded high in the air as if in
sport, and then, tossing his head, dashed

THE PAGEAffT OF NATURE

Photo. Seton Gordon, F .2.S.

A Red Deer 3 calf which made itself at home on the writer's coat one day while he was

busy with his camera.

quickly away. Sometimes a day or two
elapses between the shedding of the horns.

Hinds (as female red deer are termed)
have been seen to chew such discarded
antlers, and I have often found a horn
eaten away right down to the base. A hind
has actually been found dead with part of
a horn sticking in her throat.

During their period of growth the horns
of a stag are covered with what is known
as " velvet." This thick skin remains
until the stags are in good condition. In
August (the date varies according to the
season) the velvet is shed gradually, and for
a short space hangs in shreds about the
horns. The stags thereupon remove it
by rubbing their antlers amongst the
heather roots. No stag is shot until he is
" clean " of velvet, except under very special
circumstances.

The stag is in condition for not more
than a couple of months before the mating
time, or " rutting season." In the early
days of October I have frequently seen a
single stag in possession of over a hundred
hinds. A deer forest at this season resounds
with the hoarse roarings of many stags, and
rights are of everyday occurrence. At this
season the necks of the stags swell, and from

the necks long wiry hair stands out as a ruff.
The animals are hastened into joining the
hinds by a sudden spell of frost and snow.
Yet even on the coldest day they roll restlessly
in the peaty pools until they become black
with mire. It is said also that their food
at this time is different, and that they for-
sake the grass for a light-coloured moss that
grows about the hill-tops.

It is not always the stags with the finest
heads who are masters of the largest number
of hinds. A beast with short and sharp horns
may easily get the better of a splendid
" royal " or 12-pointer whose head is more
palmated, and thus not so effective a weapon
of offence. More often than not a fight be-
tween two stags is broken off before much
damage is done, but at times one of the
animals is seriously injured, and even killed.
A stalker friend of mine told me that on
one occasion he discovered a stag apparently
in .the last stages of illness as a result of a
long fight, and at Gordon Castle are (or
were) the horns of two antagonists firmly
interlocked. Two big stags in fighting
had so entangled their horns that they were
unable to separate them. When found,
one of the beasts was dead ; the other was
still endeavouring to liberate himself.

1014

OUR WILD AWMJILS AT HOME

Sometimes two stags are uncertain of their
strength. I have watched them pace back-
wards and forwards, turn, and retrace their
steps with exactly the same distance between
them. Thus they walked backward and
forward across the hillside, neither venturing
to attack. I have watched two cock
ptarmigan during the nesting season go
through precisely the same tactics.

The life of a big stag during the mating
season is a time of incessant unrest. Any
lack of vigilance on his part allows some
lesser rival to decoy one or two of his ladies
from him. The small stags are always on
the watch on the outskirts of the harem,
and are constantly endeavouring to sneak
in when the attention of the lord of the herd
is otherwise engaged.

Panting and exhausted the big stag runs
now this way, now that, roaring defiance
and sprinting after some over-bold rival,
who flees precipitately, aided, perhaps, by
a prod from a pair of strong horns ! This
continues night and day, and when the even-
ing is calm one can hear the clash of horns
as two big stags contend together.

Should winter follow close upon the rut-
ting season stags are in no condition to meet
a prolonged spell of snow and frost, but
of recent years the autumns and winters
have been unusually mild, and our real
winter has during the present year (1923)
come during the month of May. Thus as
I write (in the first week of June) the high
hills are still deep in snow, and there is no
single blade of grass for deer in the higher
glens and corries.

The young deer-calves are born early in
June. The mother leaves the fawn con-
cealed during the day, visiting it early in
the morning and late at night.

A curious incident once happened to me.
One June day, while photographing a dotterel
on her nest on an exposed hill-top over 3,000
feet above the sea, I found, on turning round,
a young red deer calf lying half asleep on
my coat. Of the mother there was no sign,
and the youngster followed me about per-
sistently, pleading for milk. It was only
with very great difficulty that in the end I
succeeded in eluding him !

For more than a year the calf keeps with

In winter Stags will feed together on peaceable terms, but during the mating season

they will brook no rivals among their hinds.

1015

THE PAGEKttT OF NATURE

its mother, so that two calves are frequently
seen to follow her one over a year old, the
other only a month or two.

The question of the age reached by
a stag is largely discussed, but little is
known as to this. In the Gaelic rhyme
I have quoted at the beginning of this
article it will be seen that the age of
a stag is given as thrice that of a man.
It is said that Captain Macdonald of Tulloch
in Lochaber knew the white hind of Loch
Treig for the last fifty years of his life (he was
86 when he died) ; that his father knew her
for an equal time before that, and his grand-
father for sixty years of his own time. She
was known even before then, so it appears
that she had reached the age of well over
1 60 years. This hind was entirely white,
and was never fired at.

It is narrated that a very big stag was
known in the Monadh-Liath hills in Inver-
ness-shire for no less than two hundred years.
This stag never associated with others of
the herd, and was known as Damh Mor,
or the Great Stag. He was said to have
been wounded thirty years before he was
actually killed in Badenoch.

Stags and hinds are good swimmers.
They have been known to cross from

Morvern to Mull, swimming a distance of
fully three miles across the Sound of Mull.
They also at times swim from Scarba to
Jura, over the Gulf of Corrievreckan, where
a tremendous tide sometimes runs, so that
with a westerly gale driving in the seas
from the Atlantic, the roar of the waves
meeting the tide can be heard at a distance
of many miles.

Occasionally deer are overwhelmed by an
avalanche. Scrope in his classic work
mentions two such records in Glen Mark.
In one avalanche eleven deer were killed,
in another twenty- one.

On January 24, 1921, an avalanche oc-
curred in the Forest of Gaick near Kingus-
sie. There had been little snow until then,
but on that night a fierce gale of south-east
wind resulted in heavy drifting along the
face of Creag Liadh, by the side of Loch-an-
t-Seilich. A number of stags were shelter-
ing in the wood when they were overtaken
by a heavy slide of snow and loose " scree."
Eleven of them were killed, four being swept
right into the loch. With the deer one fox
and one mountain hare met their death.
In all there were no fewer than six snow
slides on that occasion, the largest of them
where the deer were killed.

A fine herd of Red Deep crossing a hill in the Black Mount Forest. Note the number
of stags who have quite forgotten the jealousies of the rutting season.

1016

Frances Pitt-

The Harvest Mouse is the smallest of British mammals. So light is it that it can

climb the slender stems of. corn and barely affect their position; its long prehensile

tail serves as an additional means of support.

20.-THE LITTLE PIXIES OF THE GOLDEN
DALE: THE HARVEST MOUSE

By H. W. SHEPHEARD-WALWYN, M.A.,

F.Z.S., F.E.S., etc.

F.R.MetSoc., F.N.B.A.,

IN the stilted phraseology of technical
treatises on natural science, Mus mtnu-
tus is the most diminutive of British
mammalia. I remember reading somewhere
that two of them weigh a halfpenny. I have
never personally tested the statement, but
no one who has once seen a harvest mouse
in the flesh would feel inclined to dispute it.
Scarcely more than 4! inches from the
tip of his dainty wee nose to the extremity
of the wiry little tail and more than half
that measurement belongs to the tail !
Attired in his best coat of reddish-brown fur
and a spotless white waistcoat, he is a very
smart little fellow when he sallies forth to
pay a call upon his ladylove on a fine spring
morning. He was a highly domesticated
married man when I myself set out to pay a
call upon him one fragrant summer evening
a few years ago. The Golden Dale lies just
beyond the Happy Valley at least, it was
golden that year ; this last summer it was
a slough of mud and mangel wurzels a
piece of sheer vandalism on the part of the

farmer, I thought it ; but very likely he
knows his own business best.

No doubt it was rank plagiarism to
christen it the Happy Valley, since the
sobriquet is shared by at least several
others in different parts of the country ; but
the briefest acquaintance with this particular
vale would convince the visitor that in this
case, at least, the designation is richly de-
served. Leaving on our right the high,
sloping bank of foxgloves and yellow mul-
leins which flank the long yew-tree line of
' The Pilgrims' Way," we pick our steps
along the tiny path that winds through
orange and lemon clumps of rock-rose and
bird's-foot trefoil, the air fragrant with the
scent of marjoram and wild thyme, while
green and crimson burnet moths, fresh from
their silver cocoons on the grass-stems, flit
about the tall mauve scabiouses that stand
like sentinels above the carpet of wild
strawberries and pale blue harebells. With a
metallic clash and whir of his gauzy pinions,
a brilliant dragon fly swoops over the hedge

1017

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

almost into our very faces in pursuit of
some victim, loops the loop with consum-
mate grace, and then, with the luckless fly
in those steel-spring jaws of his, skims back
again to chew it at his leisure. And so on,
skirting the hedge of silvery-leafed guelder
roses until, all in a moment, we turn a
corner to find ourselves face to face with the
glory of the Golden Dale.

Picture a vast natural horseshoe of low
rank undergrowth, from which some gar-

Photo: H. 11'. Shepheard-H'ahvyn.

The nest of a Harvest Mouse is about the
size of a large orange, and is made of
skilfully split grass-blades woven neatly
together. Apparently there is no means of
entrance or exit.

gantuan hand has scooped out the interior
with a spoon a quarter of a mile in length.
In the basin thus formed lay a sea of full,
ripe corn very literally a sea, for the re-
semblance to waves was most arresting as
each glancing puff of the strong breeze
caught the heavily laden heads and set a
series of long, rolling ripples chasing one
another down the gently sloping surface.

When I made my first visit the horse-
shoe was effectively barred against the intru-
sion of trespassers, so I made my way round
through the copse on the right flank, and at
length a gap in the thicket afforded the de-
sired means of entrance to the cornfield. A
moment later I was seated on the bank
awaiting developments.

For some time I sat there without any-
thing happening. A rude blackbird came
and jeered at me from a tree overhead, call-

ing out at the top of his voice, " What-
are-you-waiting-for ? What-are-you-waiting
for ? " Evidently my first attempt had
drawn a blank, so I rose at length and made
my way round the field until another likely
spot was reached. Several times I repeated
the performance, until in the end I found
myself on the side opposite from where I
had started, and the monotonous gibes of the
blackbird were naught but a silver echo
ringing across the waves of golden corn.

A very few moments of absolute stillness
sufficed to show that I had struck the pixies'
encampment at last, and I shifted my limbs
to a position in which it would be possible to
remain motionless for an indefinite length of
time.

And what a treat was in store for me ! As
luck would have it, I had managed to " strike
oil " with even greater precision than had at
first been suspected, for my eyes had not
long been turned in the direction of a sus-
picious rustling sound ere they had the satis-
faction of disentangling from the tall rank
grass that clothed the edge of the field an
object that I knew at once to be the nest of
a harvest mouse. It was about the size of a
fairly large orange, and cleverly suspended
from a series of natural scaffolding-poles in
the form of three or four extra stout grass
stems. The outer wall of the nest was
composed of blades of grass, each one
having been skilfully slit longitudinally
into four or five pieces, in order that the
little builder might be able to wea^ve them
with greater facility into a compact and
durable structure. The accompanying
photograph of a disused nest gives a very
fair idea of the exquisite symmetry of its
construction.

The mysterious point about this nest,
however and I believe it is the same in
every case is the total absence of any kind
of aperture, and the question of how the in-
habitants get in and out is on a par with the
riddle of the Sphinx ! With regard to the
actual mode of construction various theories
have been advanced. Some naturalists in-
cline to the opinion that the little archi-
tect remains inside and weaves the structure
round her, after the manner of a caterpillar
spinning its cocoon ; others maintain that
both the parents have a hand in it, the one
remaining inside and plaiting the grass,
while her mate keeps her supplied with fresh

1018

OUR WILD ANIMALS AT HOME

material and does his share in consolidating
the work from the exterior. Upon its com-
pletion, the female probably forces her way
out and builds up the gap from the outside.
Then comes the question of feeding the
youngsters, which must be a rather difficult
process if there is no means of entrance
for close observers have recorded that there
is no sign of anything of the sort during the
entire term of its tenure ! Gilbert White
suggested that perhaps the mother makes a
temporary opening opposite each baby in
turn, gives it its bottle, stops up the gap,
and passes on to the next infant. When it
is mentioned, however, that the young mice
are frequently eight or nine in number, one
might be pardoned for suggesting that the
harvest mouse could find some more profit-
able way of spending her time.

But stay ! The fun was yet to begin. It
seems that the little pixies of the Golden
Dale are a sociable folk. When not engaged
with family cares they live together in num-
bers, working together and playing together,
and very soon I had the felicity of beholding
as pretty a pastoral play as ever it has been
my lot to witness. Naturally my sudden ap-
pearance on the scene had sent the entire
community scuttling away to their burrows,
but five or six minutes of absolute stillness
apparently made for the assumption that the
gigantic invader of their domain had taken
himself off again. First a tiny brown form
came peeping through the leaves of a tuft of
clover, an instant later it was balanced on
the top of a three-foot stalk, and there it
sat deftly extracting a grain from an ear
of newly ripened wheat. The stalk bent
but slightly, for the tiny creature's weight
made no appreciable difference. The
bright, beadlike eyes, less prominent than
those of the field-mouse, were gazing
straight at me all the time, but years of
communion with Nature have taught me
the value of complete immobility.

Apparently the sound of happily grinding
teeth acted as a signal a guarantee of
security from interruption, at all events for
a moment later it seemed as though the
place were alive with the diminutive atoms.
The harvest mouse is extraordinarily agile
in its movements, and the spectacle which
was forthwith presented to my vision was
truly one never to be forgotten. Scarcely
had I time to blink ere another of the elegant

little figures was perched upon the same ear
of wheat. For an instant they chivied each
other round and round in a manner that

'o: J-tumrs J'ltt.

Harvest Mice at play will scamper up and

down and spring from stalk to stalk with

the ease and lightness of russet-brown

feathers.

suggested imminent peril of breaking their
necks, then a third joined the melee, and the
other two acrobats fled in opposite direc-
tions, springing from stalk to stalk with the

1019

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

ease and lightness of russet-brown feathers.
Two or three more joined the scramble,
some darting this way, others that, running
out upon the slenderest sprays with absolute
confidence, sprinting up stalks so thin that
they bent almost to the ground even with
the weight of this little animal. The long,
slender tail did yeoman's service in these
evolutions, for the extremity is prehensile
and can twine completely round the
stems. Maybe it was the hour set apart
by the little colony for exercise and recrea-
tion, for only a few paused in their gym-
nastic operations for a nibble at some suc-
culent grain of corn. How many there were
of them I could not attempt to conjecture.
At one moment it seemed as though two or
three dozen must have been taking part in
the exhibition, but later on a determined
effort to follow the course of one particular
specimen as it flashed this way and that
among the low vegetation, suggested the
possibility of there being only half, or even
a third, of that number.

There was one pixie, however three,
in order of their appearance who, I fear,
was the glutton of the community, for he
stuck tight to the airy perch from which he
had ejected the first two, and munched on
steadily as though his life depended on it.
Of course, it may be that I am accusing him
unjustly, for it is well known that rooks will
set one of their number to act as sentinel

while the others are trespassing, and there
might well have been some tacit understand-
ing between that solitary little figure and his
rollicking relations around. Nevertheless, I
saw no sign of " changing guard " during the
hour or more that I remained on the watch.

Sometimes the wee pixies get carried oft
with the sheaves of corn when harvest
operations are in progress, to take up their
abode for the winter in the ricks or barns.
Here, of course, they are abundantly pro-
vided for, and they show their gratitude by
remaining awake all the winter, as though
realizing the waste of opportunity to sleep in
such a lap of luxury ! Their less fortunate
relatives left behind in the field retreat to
the shelter of their burrows, where they
spend the winter in a state of partial torpidity.

There was one thing I learnt that evening
that surprised me not a little. I had read
that these little creatures do not confine their
attentions entirely to the farmer's corn, but
I was certainly not prepared to see one of
them pounce with lightning rapidity upon a
large fly that had been so incautious as to
settle upon a blade hard by. I found it so
fascinating to watch them catching any that
came within range that I might have stayed
on for ever, had not the blackbird, which had
taunted me before, suddenly appeared in a
tree behind, calling out " Time-to-go !
Time-to-go ! " in those wonderful liquid
tones of his.

In his coat of reddish-brown fur, and a spotless white waistcoat, the Harvest Mouse
is a very smart little fellow when he goes a-wooing on a fine spring morning.

1020

The Family of the Ferns

The Male Fern is one of the most common of British ferns. Its characteristic feature
is the stout and very upright caudex or stem.

2.-SOME INTERESTING FERNS

By S. LEONARD BASTIN

With photographs by the Author

OF all our native plants there are few
which claim such universal attention
as the ferns. This is not only on
account of their great beauty but also by
reason of the fact that where ferns abound
there it is surely the country. Those near
.relatives of the ferns, the horsetails, will
often flourish on railway embankments
right in the heart of the smoky town, but
not so the ferns. Even the pushful bracken
does not hold its own very successfully
unless the air is moderately pure, and the
more delicate ferns rapidly disappear before
the advances of civilization. Curiously

enough many of our commoner ferns will
grow well in the town garden, where with
a more sheltered existence they seem able
to fight against the polluted atmosphere.
Happily it is a simple matter to get ferns
for the garden without uprooting plants
a practice which in many counties is
illegal, and is always to be deprecated.
Most of our native species grow freely
from the spores which can be shaken from
the mature fronds on to damp soil. If
the soil is sterilized with boiling water to
kill germs of minute fungi, and if after
scattering the spores a close damp atmo-

THE PRGEAttT OF NATURE

sphere be maintained, there will, in due
time, be a host of baby ferns which rapidly
grow to fair size. By this simple plan
many of our more rare species might be
multiplied, and frequently curious and
interesting varieties will appear.

much less than this. The shape of the frond
is roughly lanceolate, broadest in the middle
and tapering at each end. The frond is
bi-pinnate, or twice divided, and the divi-
sions taper to a fine point. The upper
portion of the frond is not so much divided,

The fronds of the Prickly Buckler Fern are almost triangular in outline. This species
is not at all uncommon in damp woods and by the sides of streams.

One of the commonest of our native
ferns, apart from the bracken, is the male
fern (Nephrodium Filix-mas). The name
is derived from the Greek nephros, a kidney
a reference to the shape of the indusia,
the covering which protects the groups of
spore capsules (sporangia). Most people are
probably familiar with the male fern ; but
it may be mentioned that a characteristic
feature of the species is its stout and very
upright caudex or stem. In old specimens
the stem may almost assume the proportions
of a trunk. Within the circle of matured
leaves it is possible to find the undeveloped
fronds, the least advanced of which may not
mature for three years. The length of the
fronds varies enormously, and in a very
favourable situation they may be as much as
three feet, though the average leaf would be

and is what is known as pinnatifid. Nearly
all the fronds are fertile, but the sori as
the collections of sporangia are called
chiefly occur on the upper parts of the
leaves. The male fern often retains its
old fronds almost throughout the winter,
and the photograph on page 1021 was taken
on the last day of December. The new
fronds, which are very beautiful when they
uncurl, begin to come up in the month of
April. The species is very variable, and
some of the varieties have been classed as
definite sub-species.

Several attractive species of the genus
Nephrodium are more or less common in
the United Kingdom. One of these which
specially favours moist situations is the
marsh buckler fern (N. thelypteris). Its
fronds are more delicate in appearance than

1022

The fronds of the Hard Prickly Shield Fern may grow to a length of two feet. The
stalk is covered with brown scales, and the pinnules of the leaf have sharp teeth.

The Oblong Woodsia is a
districts.

pretty but very rare little fern, found only in mountain
Its fronds are but a few inches in length.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

The Mountain Shield Fern, like all the Poly-
stichums, is characterized by the shape of the
indusium, or spore covering. This is circular,
and is attached to the frond by a little stalk.

may, in

those of the male fern, and are of two
kinds. Those which are barren
very damp positipns, ^amgm
reach the height of four
feet, but the spore-
bearing leaves are much
shorter. The marsh
buckler fern is one of
the few British species
which will actually grow
in water, and it is never
happy in dry situations.
The fronds appear in
the spring and are cut
down by the first frosts
of the autumn.

A species which in
many ways resembles the
male fern is the mountain
buckler fern (Nephrodium
oreopteris). A distinctive
feature is the way in
which the fronds taper
to a point at either
end in a very marked

fashion. The colour of the fronds is a
pale bright green, and when the leaves
are passed through the hands a pleasant
odour is evident. This fern is not, as its
name would imply, found only on high
ground, for it will frequently appear in
lowland districts. It is widely distributed
in the United Kingdom, but is especially
abundant in the north of England, where it
will often cover large areas of ground.
One of the rarest of the relatives of the
male fern is the crested buckler fern (N. cris-
tatum). Here the root-stocks have a creep-
ing habit and send up the fronds at intervals.
The leaves^are oblong and have a curiously
narrow appearance. This fern is to be
found chiefly in the north of England,
where it grows in very damp situations.
A very variable fern is the prickly buckler
fern (N. spinulosum), and more than one
of the varieties, such as N. dilatata, are held
to be distinct species. The frond of this
fern rises from an erect root-stock, the length
of the leaves varying from one to three
feet. The fronds are almost triangular in
outline. The species is not at all un-
common, and it should be looked for in
damp woods, especially by the sides of
streams.

A rather rare species is the hay-scented
buckler fern (N. aemulum). A very charac-
teristic point about it is that the margins

The most attractive of the Shield Ferns is the Holly Fern,

but it is a mountain species, and is not common in England,

except in the north.

1024

SHIELD FERN AND HART'S TONGUE

The former owes its name to the shield-shaped coverings of the fruit-dots ; the latter 's

bright green leaves are unbroken

Photograph by Henry Irving

LADY FERN BY THE WATERSIDE (ASPLENIUM FILIX-F&MINAj

The common name of this Fern is due to its slender, graceful appearance, and the delicately-
shaped leaves

Photograph by A. H. Hall

A NATURAL WALL DECORATION

The beautiful Lady Fern occupies a prominent position in this delightful scheme

Photograph by A. H. Hall

MALE FERNS IN A CORNISH DELL

Suggestive of sub-tropical growth, this wealth of greenery is typical of such situations

Photograph by A. H. Hall

THE FAMILY OF THE FERNS

of the fronds are upturned, giving the leaf
the appearance of being curled. When
bruised the fronds give out an odour which
resembles that of new hay. This fern is
not very common, and it occurs chiefly in
the west of England and Ireland.

Quite the rarest of all the Nephrodiums
is the rigid buckler fern (TV. rigiduni). The
plant has a thick root -stock and the fronds
are variable in shape, sometimes being
lanceolate and on other occasions almost
triangular. It is really a mountain species
and is usually found a thousand feet or
more above sea-level. In a few localities
in the north of England the species is fairly
abundant, but the plant is distinctly un-
common.

Following on the male fern group are the
shield ferns (Polystichum). Of these the
most attractive is the holly fern (P. Ion-
chitis). The fronds which arise from a
tufted root -stock are about nine inches in
length and have a curiously stiff appearance.
The leaves are only divided once, and the
edges of the pinnae are adorned with sharp
teeth which give the whole plant a curiously
spiny appearance. Like all the Polystichums
the holly fern is distinct from the Nephro-
diums in the matter of its indusium. This
is quite circular and has no notch, and it

The Alpine Bladder Fern is perhaps the rarest of all British
ferns, and seems only to have been found high up among the

mountains of Wales and Scotland.
71 1025

The back of a Woodsia frond, showing the

son, or groups of spore cases, which are

covered with hair-like indusia.

is attached to the underside of the pinnule
by means of a little stalk in the centre. As
the groups of sporangia
mature they cover the
back of the frond. The
holly fern is really a plant
of the mountains and is
not common in England,
except in the north. It
is much more abundant
in Scotland, where its stiff
evergreen fronds seem well
able to withstand the
coldest weather of the
winter.

A more common shield
fern is the hard prickly
shield fern (P. aculeatum).
This is very different in
general appearance from
the holly fern, though it
can be easily identified as
a shield fern by the round
indusia. The stalk of the
frond is thickly covered
with b-rown scales and the
pinnules of the leaf are

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

The Parsley Fern is very common in some
districts in the Lake Country and in North
Wales ; in others it may be extremely rare.

which resemble thin hairs. In the case
of the oblong woodsia (Woodsia ilvensis]
the covering thus formed by the divided
indusia is so thick that it is often a difficult
matter to discover the sori or groups of
spore cases. Both the woodsias have
been reported from various stations in
England and Scotland, but they are dis-
tinctly uncommon, and the fern hunter will
always regard them as a great find.

Amongst the most beautiful of our native
species are the bladder ferns (Cystopteris).
These are two distinct species, the first
of which, the brittle bladder fern (Cystopteris
fragilis)) has a very wide distribution in
Britain. Although, strictly speaking, a
mountain species, it grows in rocky clefts
or on old walls which are not greatly
elevated. On account of its attractive
appearance this fern is often exterminated,
and those who know where the plant
grows had better keep the knowledge
to themselves. From a tufted root -stock
the delicate fronds, lanceolate in shape and
six or eight inches long, are sent up. These

adorned with sharp teeth. The fronds
are considerably larger than those of the
holly fern, and may attain a length of two
feet. Its home is in damp woods, where
it is often very abundant. A variety
of this fern, which is by some regarded
as a distinct species, is the soft prickly
shield fern (P. angular e}. Here the fronds
have rather a pronounced droop which
gives them a less rigid appearance than is
to be seen in the type.

Two pretty little ferns which are very
rare, and are almost exclusively confined to
mountain districts, are the alpine and
oblong woodsias. The first-named, Wood-
sia hyperborea, has tiny fronds not more
than two or three inches in length. The
outline of the leaves is oblong and the
fronds taper slightly towards the base and
the tip. A curious feature of the alpine
woodsia is that the fronds are jointed just
above their connexion with the root-stock.
When the leaves die they break away at
this point, leaving the bases behind. An
examination of the back of a woodsia frond
will show a very distinctive point. The in-
dusium is exceedingly thin, and as time goes
on it splits into a number of small divisions

1026

The English Maidenhair fortunately grows in

almost inaccessible places, otherwise its

popularity would long ago have led to its

'extinction.

THE FAMILY OF THE FERNS

are of a pale green shade and are sometimes

c i is pus), so called from its

once, and on other occasions twice, divided, resemblance to parsley. The fronds grow

The fern has a habit of spreading in such

a way that each plant may have several

crowns, from every one of which arise

clusters of fronds. The sori (clusters of bright green.

sporangia) are on the mid-vein -of the

in tufts from a thick root-stock and are of
two kinds, barren and fertile. The former
reach six to nine inches and are very
The fertile frond is some-
its leaf divisions are a

what taller and

leaf divisions. The patches are rounded good deal restricted. At first the groups

and are covered with curious

indusia, which have an in-
flated appearance towards

the centre. This bears a

resemblance to a- bladder,

fronrwhich fact the popular

name of the fern has been

derived. When the indusia

disappears the sori tend to

spread all over the back of

the frond so that it is uni-
formly brown. The mountain

bladder fern (Cystopteris

monland) is perhaps the rarest

of all British ferns, and it

seems only to have been

noticed in a few districts high

up among the mountains of

Wales and Scotland.

A native species which is

universally admired is the

maiden-hair fern. In fact,

the plant is so sought after

that it would long ago have

been exterminated were it

not for the fact that it

often grows in inaccessible

positions. The maiden-hair

(Adiantum capillus - veneris)

loves a position where mois-
ture and shade are abundant,

and, in such circumstances,

the fronds may be as much

as a foot in length. Nor-
mally they would be about in old specimens of the Male Fern the stem will assume

almost the proportions of a trunk. Inside the circle of

matured leaves can be found undeveloped fronds, some of

which may not mature until three years later.

y 11

half this size. The frond is
divided into fan-shaped pin-
nules the margins of which
are much notched and veined. The sporangia of sporangia are rounded, but as they mature
are arranged along the margin of the under- they spread so that practically the whole

of the underside of the leaf is covered.

This fern is most likely to be found on

side of the pinnules. This fern is a
delicate species which is almost exclusively

confined to the milder parts of our islands, mountain slopes. In some localities in the

It occurs chiefly in the west of England, Lake District, and also in North Wales,

and old quarries are likely spots. the species is as common as a weed. On

Another interesting and much more the other hand, one might search over a

common species is the parsley fern (Crypto- wide area and not find a single plant.

1027

Strange Facts of Fish Life

be content with fish of a pound or two in
weight. A farm hand, however, had

8,-THE CARP AND ITS RELATIONS

By DR. FRANCIS WARD. F.L.S,

With photographs by the Author

UNDOUBTEDLY there were big carp for though the water was shallow where
in the pond. During the previous the cattle drank, it was deep from the centre
summer numerous well-equipped to where the willows overhung it on the
anglers had tried, their skill, but had to opposite bank. Here during the cold winter

months the fish lay buried in the mud.
In April I again visited the pond and
the carp were on the
move. In May and
June they spawned
amongst the luxuri-
ous vegetation, which
had transformed that
dreary spot into a
picturesque, peaceful
retreat.

I shall always re-
member the first time
that I saw the carp
of that pond spawn.
One is accustomed to
watch them swim

leisurel y Un ^> O /" n
a arm da Y " ask m
the sun, but when

The Capp (Cypnmus carpis) is tenacious of life and gpows to a great
age, attaining a weight of ten, twelve, OP more pounds.

brought in one of ten pounds, and even these fish spawned they appeared to go
heavier fish had been seen cruising round mad. As they rushed about they churned
in the warm summer evenings.

The pond, situated at the end of a

meadow, was of considerable size, sur-

the surface into froth with their violent
splashings ; frequently they jumped a foot
or more out of the water ; while at intervals

rounded by steep banks, except at one they chased one another into the weeds.

spot, where the cattle had worn down a
sloping gangway to the water's edge.

When the spawning actually commenced,
the female fish deposited her ova on the

It was during the winter that I paid my vegetation round the edge, and as soon

first visit ; this cattle track was a veritable
quagmire, with evidence of where more
than one beast had stuck in the sticky

as she left the male dashed forward to

fertilize the eggs.

Carp ova, which are about the size of

clay and mud. The water was dirty; no a millet seed, are of the separate, heavy
floating weeds, with their delicate leaves variety ; they are sticky when first expelled
and little pink flowers, brightened the scene, and readily adhere to the stems and leaves
only withered rushes showed above the of underwater plants,
surface, and the leafless weeping willows, In a week or ten days the larvae fish
which grew along one bank, sighed in the hatch. The larvae of most cyprinoids,
cold wind. It looked an uncongenial or members of the carp family, are invisible
place for fish life, yet the carp were there : in the water because of their transparency,

1028

STRANGE FACTS OF FISH LIFE

but a carp larva can
be detected as a thin
black line about one
quarter of an inch in
length, with two black
dots at one end.

This line is due to
a dense row of dark
pigment cells which
runs the whole length
of the little fish ; the

A Carp larva, six hours old. The primitive fin runs right round
the body, and the yolk-sac is peculiar in that it is the colour of

amber.

that bubbles of gas rise to the surface

two dots at one end

are the eyes. As in the larvae of other

bony fishes, the primitive fin runs right and indicate the position of the feeding

round the body, but the yolk-sac is fish as he works round the pond.

peculiar in that it is of an amber colour.

Growth from the larva to the post-
larva stage is rapid. After this the carp
grows very slowly. As an adult he is a
strong, handsome, thick-set fish with large
bronze scales, and has an under surface
of deep golden-yellow hue.

Like most cyprinoids, the carp is very

The mouth of this cyprinoid is particu-
larly well adapted for sucking up his food.
At each angle there is a sensitive tentacle,
and as the fish feels and smells whatever
he is in search of, he shoots out his leathery,
tubular mouth and the food is carried in by
the water as it enters the cavity thus formed.

The meal is then thoroughly ground into

tenacious of life, and will revive after being a pulp by means of the grinding teeth in
out of water several hours. In fact, if the throat, and any larger pieces \vhich in-
placed in wet grass and w r rapped in a damp advertently pass into the stomach are
cloth he can be conveyed a day's journey returned to the throat to be further masti-
in this way as well as in a can of water, cated ; in fact, the carp chews the cud like
The food of carp mainly consists of a cow, and surely everyone has seen a
larvae, insects and the young shoots goldfish in a tank or bowl behaving in
of aquatic plants. The insect food is this manner.

grubbed up out of the mud and debris The teeth, which are illustrated, are

at the bottom, and the fish in his search attached to the last arch which carries the

disturbs the decomposing leaves and de- gills. Slip your finger behind the gill

cay ing vegetable matter, with the result cover in any cyprinoid, and you will feel

The food of the Carp consists of larvae, insects, and the young shoots of aquatic
plants. The leathery, tubular mouth, which can be projected at will, is particularly well

adapted for sucking up such food.

1029

THE PRGEAHT OF HflTURE

The throat teeth of the Carp have broad, grinding surfaces which
work against a pad of gristle in the roof, and grind all food into

a pulp.

Those of the Chub, on the contrary, are long, pointed, and slightly
hooked, and are used for cutting and breaking up the food.

several arches on either side which carry
the gills, and on the last arch you can feel
the teeth referred to : these in the carp
have broad grinding surfaces, which work
against a pad of gristle in the roof of the
throat. The two illustrations of the throat
teeth of a carp show the grinding teeth
and also the gristle pad in position.

There is a common, but erroneous r
impression that carp feed on mud. This
idea must have arisen in consequence of
the black slimy contents found in the
stomach, as a result of the mixed animal
and vegetable diet being ground to a pulp.
The teeth shown have an interesting
history. In 1902 Ipswich was visited by
a terrific cloud burst ; the water, rushing
down the paths in the Christchurch Park,
cut great gulleys six feet deep, and a torrent
of mud and sand swept through the fish
pond ; from the ponds the water swept
through the houses below, and carried fish
right into the town. The carp from which
the teeth photographs were obtained
weighed seven pounds, and was found

among the branches of
a tree in a private
garden. A four-pound
eel was captured in the
cellar of a house two
miles away. Thousands
of fish died, for their
gills were absolutely
clogged with fine sand.
Many of the larger fish
might have been saved
if the grit had been
gently washed away,
but the district caught
in the flood had suffered
considerably, and the
flooded householders
had more to think about
at the time than the
fish in their gardens,
cellars and even living-
rooms.

In the pond I have
described the fish were
excessively shy, but
once an angler came
down as cute as the
carp themselves. The
fish were feeding out
in the centre, they were
far too shy to be approached in the crazy,
leaking punt, so choosing a suitable breeze
he threaded his gut through a large leaf,
which acted both as a float and a sail,
and carried his bait out. The capture was
only a fair-sized fish ; but doubtless this in-
genious angler was more successful on
another occasion.

The majority of our British freshwater
fish belong to the carp family, the most
familiar representatives being the roach,
rudd, dace, chub and bream. All over
the world carps abound, varying enormously
in size and appearance. The huge mahaseer
that provides sport in the rivers of Northern
India is a carp, so also is our homely minnow.
Undoubtedly, the commonest cyprinoid
in home waters is the roach. This fish
is to be found everywhere, hardly a pond
is without small roach, streams and slow
running rivers abound with them.

On the Norfolk Broads and larger waters
roach grow to three or four pounds in
weight. Here also with these fish is to be
found a near relative, the rudd, a handsome

1030

STRXffGE FACTS OF FISH LIFE

silvery fish, rather deeper
than the roach, and readily
distinguished by his
orange - red eye. Apart
from this feature the rudd
can always be recogni/ed
from a roach by the fact
that in the latter the dorsal
and central fins are on
the same horizontal level,
whereas in the rudd the
dorsal is behind the
ventral fin.

The chub is also a
cyprinoid met in many
waters. Of recent years the
chub has found his way into
many trout streams, and
as he often takes the fly
intended for the trout, his
advent is not very welcome.
During the winter months
chub disappear in the deep
holes, but with the advent
of summer these gregarious fish lie in
shoals in the shallow stream, where the
water sweeps over a gravel bed or trailing

A Rudd photographed in the act
of taking a worm.

weeds, kept flat by the
current. The throat teeth
differ from those of the
carp in their structure
and in the \\-yy that they
are used. The teeth
themselves are long and
pointed and slightly
hooked over at the end,
and are used for cutting
and breaking up the food.
A large-sized chub and
they grow to four or five
pounds in weight can
cut a minnow right in
two with his throat teeth.
The illustration of the
throat teeth of the chub
shows the arch which
carries them, separated
and approximately.

On the Broads them-
selves the bream is very
plentiful. This cyprinoid
is very unlike the carp in appearance. He
is an extremely deep fish, of a dull silvery
white, and covered with thick slime.

The Chub is also a Cyprinoid, and has recently found its way into many trout streams,
is gregarious in habit, and in summer lies in shoals on the gravel bed of shallow streams.

1031

How to Recognize the Fungi

The Hercules' Club has earned its name by reason of its comparatively monstrous size
It varies from a few inches to a foot in height.

3.-FAIRY CLUBS

By EDWARD STEP, F.L.S.

With photographs by the Author

THE title of this paper is somewhat
fanciful, but the forms of some of the
plants figured in the accompanying
photographs are so truly club-shaped that
the selection of the word Clavaria (from
clava, a club) as the botanical name for a
genus of fungi seemed obvious. That being
conceded, it remained to settle upon the
users of the clubs, and their diminutive
size indicated that they might be suitable
weapons for the Little Folk. This need
not be considered as any slur upon the
peaceful disposition of the fairies, for clubs
may be wielded for defence as well as
aggression.

So much for the poetry of the subject.
Let us glance at some of the facts. In

late summer or autumn when wandering
across the pastures, through the woods
or on the heath, with the eyes focused
on the ground, the observant rambler sees
many things that are not visible to the
proud folk who walk with head erect
and eyes straining at the distant horizon.
Among the objects attracting the attention
of the former class will be, in all probability,
some clusters of these fairy clubs, standing
erect upon their narrow ends and variously
coloured according to the species. Of these
clavarias the list of British species includes
about sixty distinct kinds, and there are
several belonging to other genera that
could be included fairly under the popular

name.

1032

HOW TO RECOGNIZE THE FUNGI

As in the case of the mushrooms and
toadstools, these clubs are the ultimate
stage in the development of certain fungi
a fruiting body whose vegetative portion

The naked-eye observer must take this
statement on trust, for he cannot see the
spores in place, standing in fours upon a

common support

lies con-
c e a 1 e d
among the
humus it
has helped
to form.
This fruit-
ing organ
or sporo-
phore, if
its sur-
face be
examined
under the
micro-
scope, will
be seen to
be covered
with my-
riads of

but often the base of
the plant will be found
delicately powdered
with those that have
fallen short instead of
floating away.

The majority of these
fairy clubs are quite
small from half an
inch to two inches in
height but one of the
British species is
commonly three or four
inches and, occasionally,
a foot high. This, which
has been distinguished
as Hercules' club
(Clavaria pistillaris) by
reason of its com-

The Uneven Club shown above is very variable in character, being sometimes
cylindrical and at others flattened, mostly unbranched, but occasionally
forked. Its colour varies from golden-yellow to a rich orange tint. The
clubs of the Wrinkled Club are quite detached and often far apart, yet they
may form a very neighbourly group.

spores

that are

individually invisible to the unassisted

eye. The elevation of these clubs a few

paratively monstrous size, may be met with
frequently in beech woods, usually scat-

inches above the soil enables the spores tered, but sometimes growing near together,

to float off on the air to distant parts of as in the photograph. It has a stout,

the field or woodland, there to germinate rounded top, from which it tapers to its

and repeat the life cycle of the species, base. On its first appearance above ground,

1033

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

any time between September and Decem-
ber, it is of a whitish tint, then it turns
ochreous and finally brown. The club
will snap readily, and the fracture will
show that it is fleshy within and whitish
in colour. On the outside it is delicately

all such as the reader may come across in
his rambles.

The wrinkled club (Clavaria rugosa),
which grows in woods and pastures from
August to December, is white or whitish
and distinguished mainly by being wrinkled
in its length. It attains
a height of two to four
inches, with a thickness
of a quarter of an inch.
The clubs are quite
detached and often far
apart, but they may
form a very neighbourly
group. Though usually
a club is undivided,
specimens will be found
that have forked into
several branches with
blunt tips. This is one
of the edible kinds.
One of the most

The Worm-like Clavaria is one
of the most familiar of the
Fairy Clubs, and is found even
on our lawns if the grass be
allowed to grow long.

downy. Like many other of
the clavarias it is edible.

On this point of edibility,
it is as well to say now that
no fewer than twenty of the
British species have been
ascertained definitely, by ex-
periment, to be edible ; and
there are reasons for believing
that the untried ones are at
least innocuous. It is certain
that no one has attributed evil
to any of them. Personally,
I am unable to offer evidence
either way, for they have

The Yellow-and-white Club is by no means common.

It is easily mistaken for the Uneven Club, but if

broken, the flesh, unlike that of the latter, will be found

to be the same colour all through.

always appeared to me to be too small
to collect for the pot at a season when two
or three specimens of larger fungi will equal
in bulk a hundred fairy clubs. My interest
has been on account of form and colour,
plus, of course, the botanical attraction.
Let me now describe briefly the species

familiar of these graceful plants is the
worm-like clavaria (Clavaria vermicularis),
which is found in all sorts of grassy
places, even on our lawns if the grass
is allowed to grow long. It is more
spindle-shaped than club-shaped, with a
pointed top. A number of the brittle

depicted in the photographs, which are clubs spring in a dense cluster from a

'034

HOW TO RECOGNIZE THE FUNGI

The Spindle not fully grown. This is a common fungus

from July to December. It is edible, although the taste

is somewhat bitter.

The spindle (Clavaria fusi-
formis) resembles the two
preceding somewhat in shape,
but is distinctly yellow, paler
upwards, and the tips are
brown. The members of a
tuft are connected at the
base, brittle, and their spores
are yellow, whereas those of
the two last-named are white.
The taste is bitter, but in
spite of this the plant is
edible. The spindle is a
common fungus in woods
and pastures from July to
December, as a rule springing
from the ground ; but our
photograph shows a rather
immature specimen growing
in a decaying pine-stump.
The uneven club (Clavaria
incequalis) is often mistaken
for the spindle, for it has

common base, and as they are uniformly the same tufted habit. Its colour varies

shining white, they suggest a resemblance from golden-yellow to a rich orange tint.

to a bunch of the old-fashioned tallow-dip The name is based on the variability of

candles, connected by their wicks. There the clubs, which may be cylindrical or

is usually a longitudinal channel down somewhat flattened, mostly unbranched,

the side of each club, which is about but occasionally forked. The height varies

two inches high. It

is edible, and

begins to appear as

early as May, con-

tinuing until

October.

The brittle

clavaria (Clavaria

fragilis) in general

appearance is

similar, but is more

cylindrical, less

sharply pointed at

the top, and its

white is tinged with

yellow. Moreover,

the tufts are looser.

It is rather less

common than the

fast - named, but

may be met with

frequently in

pastures and on

heaths from August clavaria argillacea, the Clay Club, is typically club-like in form. The
to November. It tops are either rounded, as in the photograph, or end abruptly as
also is edible. though they had been cut off.

I0 35

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

also between two and four inches ; the
round, warted spores are colourless. It

a circular outline, but as a rule it is com-
pressed, and the somewhat flattened sides

is edible, and may be found, though not show slight channels running lengthwise.

commonly, in woods, pastures and on
heaths from August to November.

It varies in colour from whitish yellow to
citron. It grows among moss on heaths and

Much more slender and with fewer clubs hillsides, but not on clay soils as its name
in a group they may be all quite separate appears to indicate : the name argillacea was

is the yellow-and-white club (Clavaria
luteo-alba). Its name is due to the fact

Tne beautiful Crested Club appears abundantly in woods from June
onwards to the end of the year. It is one of the kinds known to

be edible.

given to it because some specimens are
clay-coloured. It may be found from
August to Novem-
ber.

Some of the
clavarias, instead of
assuming the club
form appropriate to
their name, bear
closer resemblance
to a leafless twiggy
shrub in miniature.
From a thick, fleshy
base they send up
a number of
branches which
divide again and
again. Such is the
beautiful crested
club (Clavaria
cristata), which
appears abundantly
in woods from June
onwards to the end
of the year. Its
branches are
rounded when they

begin, but become
broad and flattened

that its apricot clubs are often white at above, and end in numerous sharp tines that

the top. It is by no means a common suggest the antlers of the fallow-deer. The

species, and when found it is very likely whole plant is white at first, but the falling

to be mistaken for the uneven club ; but of the ochreous spores gives it a creamy

there is a simple method of avoiding this tinge. It is one of the known edible kinds,

error i.e., by snapping the brittle club and and it appears in such numbers that suffi-

examining the fracture. As a well-known cient for a cooking may be gathered within

authority put it to me " The flesh of a few yards without any other species.

luteo-alba, like Blackpool rock, is the same The photograph suggests the caution that

all through, whereas the flesh of inaqualis in using clavarias for food they should be

is whitish in spite of its golden exterior." well washed, as minute particles of leaf-

It is said to taste like tallow !

mould are apt to cling closely, especially to

The clay club (Clavaria argillacea) comes the much-branched forms like cristata.

nearer to the regulation club form, and A rarer form, with the same habit of pro-

its very neat stems are loosely tufted, ducing many branches from a common base,

Slender at the base they dilate upwards, is the upright clavaria (Clavaria stricta),

and their tops may be either rounded, as which grows from decaying stumps and

in the photograph, or end abruptly as buried wood. From a whitish base it sends

though cut off. A cross-section may show out short horizontal stems from which

1036

HOW TO RECOGNIZE THE FUNGI

arise slender, crowded, vertical branches
which fork, and the tip of each division ends
in two or three spine-like points. Above
the base it is pale yellow. It appears
between August and January.

Somewhat similar in its habit of growing
from rotting wood though ^^^ m
very different in shape and
substance is the beautiful
horn (Calocera vtscosa),
representing a small allied
genus. It has a long, white,
root-like base that is deeply
embedded in the stump of
a pine, and a small tuft of
branching stems about two
inches high rises from it.
Of a beautiful golden-
orange tint, it is rather
gelatinous in structure and
sticky in damp weather.
Throughout the late

autumn it is very noticeable in the pine-
woods.

Although white and yellow are the pre-
vailing tints among the clavarias, there are
a few species that depart from the rule.
The rare Clavaria botrytts, a woodland

but the Beautiful Horn, which has the same habit of
growth, is very noticeable in its golden-orange tints through-
out the late autumn.

1037

Upright Clavaria, which

grows from decaying

stumps and buried wood, is

somewhat rare

species that forms a mass
of clustered branches re-
calling the heart of a cauli-
flower, is some tint of red
sometimes a beautiful
rose colour. Clavaria
amethystina, which grows
among grass in woods and
pastures, is violet coloured.
Clavaria cinerea, a much-
branched plant, is dove-
coloured. Clavaria formosa,
a distinctly beautiful
species, has colouring
ranging in different
examples from orange-rose
to pink-ochraceous.

The World of Spiders

3.-WATER-SPIDERS: THEIR NEST
BUILDING AND COURTSHIP

By JOHN J. WARD, F.E.S.

"With photographs by the Author

SPIDERS may be regarded as amongst
the most enterprising and progressive
little animals that the world has seen.
There is hardly a realm of nature which

A Pirate Spider which has just run down
and captured a Water-skater. Note the
reflection on the surface-film of the water.

they have not conquered, excepting, per-
haps, the Arctic regions. They have tun-
nelled into the earth, and occupied every
niche above ground from the grass-blade to
the topmost twig of the highest tree. Push-
ing out into space they became aeronauts,

sailing in the air buoyed on their silken
cables. Having added the atmosphere to
their dominions, only the water remained.
Since they came from air-breathing stock,
that element presented enormous difficulties.
How marvellously those difficulties were
overcome, I will here endeavour to show.

It was left to a few species of hunting
spiders whose habitat was in moist areas
by the river and pond side to become the
aquatic pioneers of their race. Their
insect prey, also air-breathers, had stolen
a march on them, and were escaping at
the water's edge by running on the surface
film and, not infrequently, by diving into
the watery depths. It was then that some
of the more daring of the spider species
attempted to follow their quarry.

So it came about that the pirate spider
(Lycosa piratica) acquired the art of moving
over the surface of the pool, its greasy and
hairy legs and body refusing the water, and
its light weight merely indenting the surface
film. In the first photograph this spider
is shown just at the moment it has run down
and captured a water-skater, and its re-
flection with that of its victim on the surface
film is interesting to notice. It is extremely
active in its movements, and if* alarmed
immediately plunges beneath the water
and grasps a leaf or stem and remains there
quiet until the danger is passed, for its
hairy body entangles sufficient air-bubbles
to serve for respiratory purposes for quite
a long time. The female spider, in accord-
ance with other members of the genus
Lycosa, carries her silken egg-bag contain-
ing nearly one hundred eggs, and it does
not appear to offer any impediment to her
activities on the surface of the water.

Amongst the members of another genus

1038

The Water-spider makes its nest below then it sets out fop more air. Note how
1 water, capturing air-bubbles and fastening the balloon of silk is indented by the hold
them to the weeds with silken threads of its legs.

At the surface it turns upside down, and

jerks its hind-legs and body into the air,

thereby capturing an air-bubble.

Then it dives, and with the silvery air-
bubble clinging to its legs and body,
returns to the nest.

THE PAGEANT OF NATUfiE

of the same family is the raft spider (Dolo-
medes fimbriatus), a species which adopts
somewhat different tactics by fastening
together with silken threads a raft of leaves.
Resting on this it floats about the pool
watching for unwary prey, which, as soon as
seen, is pounced on and dragged quickly
back to the raft to be devoured at leisure.

MBHHBHMHIHHHHHKii :: ' : ' BIB H '

Water-spider arriving with the captured
air-bubble. Again may be seen the dent in
the balloon made by the pressure of its legs.

Eventually a branch of the spider race
evolved far in advance of these semi-
aquatic species. So well did it succeed
that it is now useless to seek for it on the
land. It is the water-spider (Argyroneta
aquaticd), which is a distinguished individual
in the spider world, for it monopolizes a
whole scientific family designated Argy-
ronettdte, a name based on two Greek words
that signify a spindle and silver, referring
to its spindle-shaped body and the silvery
air-bubble it carries with it when diving to
its nest.

The water-spider prefers deep ditches

where the current is slow. It constructs
a submerged silken balloon filled with air,
in which it lives, lays its eggs, and rears its
family. Its air-breathing offspring, there-
fore, come into life below water ; yet they
would be drowned should they get outside
the nest, for, when hatched, their bodies
are devoid of the velvety pile of tiny hairs
which later makes them waterproof.

It is remarkable that when building its
nest the spider should first capture the air
and later envelop it with a silken covering ;
which suggests an explanation of how its
remote progenitors first learned to work
below water. The water-spider discovered
that the air-bubbles clinging to its hairy coat
often become detached and clung to the
water weeds, or to the silken lines it had
spun amongst the weeds ; also that those
air-bubbles occasionally coalesced to form
larger ones. Seizing the opportunity, a
few additional threads firmly secured such
loose air-bubbles, and there was the begin-
ning for the construction of its wonderful
nest, the bubbles supplying a foundation on
which it could spread a silken cover.

To-day the principle is carried to an
astonishing degree of perfection. The water-
spider about to commence a nest simply
attaches a few mooring lines on a suitable
site. Then it ascends to the surface of the
water, turns upside down and flips into the
air its body and hind pair of legs, which
are instantly quite dry. Without pausing,
it then dives, carrying with it, clinging to its
body and legs, a silvery globule of air. On
reaching its mooring cables it skilfully
manipulates the air-bubble so that, in
releasing it, it becomes entangled with them.
If it is a particularly large bubble, it may
need an additional thread or two to secure it.
Other journeys to the surface are then made
for further bubbles, which are added to
the first, and over the whole the water-
spider then proceeds to weave a silken
envelope.

Having constructed its home in the manner
described, it then is enabled to live below
water and yet breathe atmospheric air.
As the air becomes vitiated, the water-spider
pulls aside the mouth of its glistening belJ
and lets some of the air escape ; then it
ascends to the surface for a few bubbles to
replace that which is released. The series of
photographs on p. 1039 show the process of

1040

THE WORLD OF SPIDERS

replenishing the nest with air more clearly
than could a volume of words. I would,
however, like to point out that the photo-
graph on p. 1040 illustrates very perfectly
how the bubble is held by the spider when
descending by the crossing of its hind pair
of legs near their extremity, so as to intercept
the bubble as it strives to ascend.

creature in the pond has to keep a sharp eye
on the tactics of its neighbour. In the
photograph on p. 1042 a dragon-fly nymph is
seen stalking a water-spider, and while the
latter is quick enough in its movements to
take care of itself, yet the dragon-fly nymph
often plays a waiting game, and endeavours
to tire its quarry to its disadvantage.

Running down the side of the nest, the then backing into the nest, it releases the

Water-spider makes its way to the entrance air-bubble. This rises to the upper part of

at the base the balloon where the spider lives and rears

its family.

Oftentimes the water-weeds grow up
around the spider's cell so that it becomes
almost hidden from view, excepting the
silken top ; resting in its retreat the water-
spider is then well able to take unwary prey
by surprise, its captures being promptly
dragged " indoors." So long as she keeps
in her cell she is herself comparatively
safe ; but when she leaves it, she in turn
has to keep a sharp eye on her enemies ;
for water-beetle larvae, and especially the
larger species of dragon-fly nymphs, are
ever ready to make prey of her. Every

The courtship of the lady water-spider
is a matter on which very little reliable
observation seems to have been made, and
I am here able to offer my readers some first-
hand evidence in that connexion.

It is a common idea that the male water-
spider does not live with the female. In the
photograph on p. 1040 at the base of the
nest, part of the legs of the male spider can
be seen. He is at the entrance of the nest
waiting in attendance on his spouse. He
usually keeps well outside the nest with his
body and legs fully covered with tiny air-

1041

THE PAGEAffT OF NATURE

bubbles, which serve him for respiratory
purposes. Apparently they live amicably
enough together when all is going well ;
but that the lady has a very uncertain
temper, Mr. Water-spider is fully aware, and
is always ready to make a hasty retreat.

Here a Dragon-fly Nymph may be seen stalkin
which is unguardedly moving about outsi

It is in the initial courtship, however,
that the male water-spider has to exercise
the greatest circumspection as regards his
movements. It is when Mrs. Water-spider
has got her home in order that Mr. Water-
spider goes to woo her. Amongst the water-
weeds around her residence are numer-
ous silken cords skilfully arranged to warn
her of what is happening outside. The touch
of a dangerous foe causes her to retreat
hastily within her cell, while the movements
of prey induce her to rush out.

In the illustration on p. 1043 I have photo-
graphed a male water-spider engaged on the
great adventure of his life. Below is a nest
in which the object of his amorous inten-
tions is waiting his arrival. She has her
legs on the communication cords attached
to the two little
strands of weed
which serve as her
landing - stage, and
she is fully alive
to every movement.
He appeared to ap-
proach on tip-toes
if a water-spider can
be said so to do
moving slowly for
a short distance and
then pausing, as if
to listen. When he
reached the spot
shown in the photo-
graph, he took hold
of some of the
threads amongst the
water - weeds and
gave them a sharp
tug. Having rung
the " front door
bell," he awaited a
reply which was
not forthcoming.
His next move was
to descend a little
lower down the
water -'weeds, and,
after another pause,
he again tugged at
the communication
cords. Still no reply.
Again he moved
down the weeds a
little nearer to the

nest, and there he remained, apparently
listening-in, for quite a long period. He
had evidently reached the limit of the safety
zone. The " ringing of the bell " having
proved useless, he then tried the " door-
knocker." Taking hold of the cords he
jerked them so violently that the nest swayed
on its cables like a balloon before the wind.
Then came the reply. Like a tigress the
lady of his choice rushed out and as a
flash of light away shot her adventurous
lover. There was no parleying, or apology ;

a Water-spider,
s its nest.

1042

The female Water-spider is often bad-tempered, and sometimes will savagely attack
her lovers. Here a male is warily approaching. On the left another waits his turn

but to

-day the lady is in no mood for love-making. Savagely she rushes out of
her tent, and the males retreat hastily in different directions.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

he just cleared with all the speed that a
water-spider could attain, never once stop-
ping to look behind. At the same instant a
second suitor, who had been waiting his turn
beneath a floating leaf, discovered that he
ought to be going, and in the lower photo-
graph he is seen on the left getting away as

It is not surprising, after all, that the female
has a grudge against her mate, for here he
is seen capturing and eating the baby Water-
spiders.

quickly as possible. Probably some vibra-
tions on the lines of communication warned
him that danger was near.

Yes, our male water-spider would live
to woo another day ; his well-manoeuvred
approach had saved his life. Had he been
less alert, he would have been " accepted "
without a doubt. He would not have
been invited " indoors "; more probably, he
would have been dragged in ; and later on
the hard parts of his head and legs would
have been pushed out of the " front door "
and so his love-story would have ended.

Why the female water-spider should

possess in her character this cannibalistic
trait is difficult to understand ; but one day
I observed a male water-spider behaving
in a manner which may throw some light
on this grim aspect of her nature. He was
moving amongst some fine water-weeds
in which a party of young water-spiders,
just emerged from the nest, were busy
capturing water-fleas and similar small
prey. I noticed that he went from one to
the other of the baby spiders, but that when
he left the spot no baby spider was there
he was capturing and eating them. That,
perhaps, offers an explanation of how the
water-spider race benefits by the female
destroying the superfluous males.

Sometimes the attentions of the male
water-spider are received with favour, and
then they live amicably enough. Quite
unusual amongst spiders, in the case of the
water-spider the male is often slightly larger
than the female, and he can sometimes put
up a fairly good fight ; but his chief line
of defence lies in retreat.

The eggs are stored in the upper part of
the nest, and in due course a hundred or
more little water-spiders appear and dis-
perse amongst the water- weeds. The baby
spiders are a few days old when they
emerge ; for, as I previously mentioned, they
have to wait until their bodies are clothed
with the minute hairs which make them
waterproof, and allows them to entangle
air-bubbles for respiratory purposes.

When winter comes the water-spider
descends to the deeper and warmer parts
of the pool and there makes quite a simple
air-cell, altogether unlike that of its nest ;
curled up in what looks like merely a large
air-bubble, it sleeps away the greater part
of the winter months. It does not need to
respire very much ; the air contained in its
bubble lasts it for weeks together, but
sometimes a new bubble is formed during
mild weather.

When we remember that this interesting
little creature was once a land animal, we
cannot but admire its wonderful adaptation.
So efficient was it, that it has now appar-
ently forgotten that it ever had a terrestrial
origin. Some spider species have even
taken to living in the sea, but no British
marine-spider has yet been recorded. The
so-called sea-spiders (Pycnogonidd) should
not be confused with the true spiders,

1044

Wonders of Bird Life

Photo: Henry Willfora.

Like other ground-nesting birds, the markings of the Redshank's plumage almost
exactly reproduce the light and shadow patterns of tangled grass.

51.-A WADER THAT WADES: THE

REDSHANK

By CHARLES S. BAYNE

THE redshank is one of the commonest
and also one of the most attractive
of our waders, yet I cannot find in
any bird book an account of one of its most
interesting traits. It is, of course, a bird of
the mud-flats, and all the books with slight
variations say that it obtains its food by
" probing in the mud for worms and other
animal forms, and by picking up crustaceans
and molluscs from the surface," which is
perfectly true up to a point. They also say
that it " wades belly-deep in the shore
pools," and sometimes swims. Both state-
ments again are true, but they are incom-
plete, and inevitably prompt the questions,
11 Why does it wade belly-deep ? " and
" Why does it swim ? " If it wades for food,

does it put down its head into the water and
" pick up crustaceans and molluscs " resting
at the bottom of the pool, or " probe in the
mud for worms and other animal forms ? "
and if it swims for food, does it stand on its
head in the water like a duck to accomplish
its end ?

So far as I know the wading of the red-
shank is unique among waders, and it is
such an interesting performance and sheds
so much light on the true character of the
bird that I cannot imagine any naturalist
who has observed it refraining from des-
cribing it or forgetting it. I have been for-
tunate enough to witness it several times,
but only after hours of patient waiting behind
good cover at a suitable spot, namely, a

1045

THE PAGEAttT OF NATURE

narrow estuary which at low tide was a
stretch of mud with a shallow stream flow-
ing within easy range of my hiding-place.

The redshank is the wariest of the waders,
but, what is worse, it is not only the most
difficult of all to approach, but it is so noisy
when it is disturbed that it startles all other
birds within earshot as the blackbird does
in the woods and fields. Indeed, its alarm
note is an hysterical phrase rising to a screech
very similar to that of the blackbird. So

Photo: /'. M. Blackman,

The mud-flats of the River Irt, looking towards Wastwater,
Cumberland, form a typical nesting-haunt of the Redshank.

when an observer attempts to advance to-
wards a flock of redshank across the open
marshes, he is almost certain to find them
on the alert, or if he is lucky he may un-
expectedly get a flanking view of a party
that has been hidden by a bend in a drain.
In the latter case he may see some sleeping
and others lazily stepping about and pecking
at the mud, and the impression he will carry
away will be of a somewhat sluggish creature
with a mentality rather below that of the
average barndoor fowl. On the mud, indeed,
most of the other waders, including even
the little dunlin, are more interesting than
the redshank, because they are more active.
But the moment the redshank enters the
water on hunting bent its whole character
changes, or rather it comes out in its true
light, showing itself consistent with that of
the alert, self-reliant bird that plays the part
of watch -dog on the marshes. Other waders

wade of course, but their wading could best
be described as paddling. They are not
afraid to wet their feet, and they unconcern-
edly walk through the smaller puddles and
the shallows at the edge of the larger pools,
but not one of them habitually ventures in
so far as the redshank, or rather to the same
depth in proportion to its size, except the
avocet and the phalarope which are web-
footed swimmers, and, except these two, not
one of them displays in the water anything
like its intense concentra-
tion and intelligent activity.
The redshank goes into
the water to hunt for food,
but not to pick it up from
the bottom nor to probe
for it in the mud. What
it wants are certain lively
little Crustacea which have
not had the misfortune to
be stranded and still de-
monstrate their joy in life
by darting swiftly about in
the water. It does not
wade in belly-deep and
stand waiting for them to
come within reach, but
sets off vigorously in search
of them. Once started it
keeps on steadily in one di-
rection, crossing a pool from
side to side in a straight
line, or working round it,
or just as frequently following the line of the
edge of the stream. Any time I have seen
it in the river it has worked up stream, but
whether this practice is invariable I cannot
say. In any case it wastes no time, but
wades quickly onward, its eyes watching the
water intently, its head turning now this
way, now that, and here and there suddenly
thrusting the long bill down into the water
as some tempting titbit swims near, and
always, so far as I could gather, successfully.
Occasionally it will do a sudden and rapid
about-turn and pick up some creature that
has almost escaped by darting past or
between its legs when its head was momen-
tarily averted, but as soon as that is disposed
of it turns again and goes forward as before.
Naturally the water in which the bird is
wading varies in depth. Sometimes it is
just above the knee, sometimes the feathers
of the belly are awash, and once or twice I

1046

Photo: Henry II 'ill ford.

THE REDSHANK.

Stepping about on land the Redshank seems to be rather a sluggish creature, but once
in the water he displays an intelligent activity unsurpassed by any of the waders.

THE PKGEZU1T OF HATURE

have seen a bird so deeply immersed that I
felt sure it must have swum a few paces.
But while the bird's attention is concentrated
on the water its feet are keeping it constantly
informed of the unevenness of the bottom ;
then when one of them descends and finds

Photo: Henry

The nest of the Redshank is usually well hidden ir

a tussock of grass. The mottled eggs are pear

shaped like those of the peewit.

no support owing to a sudden dip in the
ground, the wings are automatically raised,
the concentration is relaxed, and after a
moment's hesitation and a quick, anxious
scrutiny of the banks, the hunter usually
flies off and alights some distance away on
the mud. On the various occasions on
which I have seen a redshank thus incon-
tinently abandoning its pursuit, it has been
wading in a stream, so the fear of being
carried away by the current may have had a
good deal to do with its decision. When
I have observed one that has seemed to be
swimming, it has been crossing a large pool
left by the receding tide, in which the water
has been perfectly still.

While engaged as I have described, the
bird is so perfectly at home, so skilful and so
obviously engrossed and happy, that I believe
this form of hunting is its primary habit of
feeding, and that probing in the mud and
picking up Crustacea and molluscs from the
beach are only secondary. If this is
not the truth, then the hunting must
be a highly developed kind of sport.
When the redshank takes to flight
of its own accord it almost invariably
utters its beautiful call-note. This
consists of three notes which sound
somewhat like tyu-hu-hu. If you
have once heard the call you will
have no difficulty in recognizing it
from that, but no syllables can
convey to the inexperienced ear the
tone or the pitch or the quality, or
the strange haunting beauty of this
cry in the wilderness. It is full of a
pleasing melancholy which is highly
suggestive of the essential quality
of serious Russian music, and is so
peculiarly suited to the wastes
among which it is sung, and of
which it forms such an important
feature, or at any rate it is so
wonderfully in tune with the in-
fluence those wastes exercise on
the human mind, that it is im-
possible to escape the impression
hat th bird is similarly affected by
its surroundings, and that its call is
born of that influence.

On the other hand, no sound in
nature is more joyful or more
richly fraught with the real ecstasy
of spring than the love-song of
the redshank. A good rendering of this is
Te-leera, te-leera, te-leera. To anyone who
has heard the song, these syllables will re-
call many delightful memories of walks along
the sea-wall on the east coast or across
Highland moors, and to the novice who visits
such scenes in March and April they will
be a sure guide to the identity of the bird.

But apart from its aesthetic value, special
interest attaches to this song because of the
manner in which it is delivered. The bird
mounts forty or fifty feet in the air and,
hovering with quivering wings over one
spot for a minute or more, utters repeatedly
a single note which is different from any of
its others, then glides down to the ground

1048

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

singing te-leera. Sometimes it sings on the
ground, and occasionally it will alight on
the rail of a fence or the top of a gate and
run along it bowing and singing.

It is only in the breeding season when it
is under the influence of the love ecstasy
that the redshank indulges in such a per-
formance, for which it is so ill-adapted.
During this period, however, it has been
know r n even to perch on the branch of a tree.

Such demonstrations are a part only of
the courtship of the redshank, or more cor-
rectly the love making, for they take place
as much after as before pairing. They repre-
sent the flanking movement in the attack.
In the direct attack the cock bird advances
on the ground towards the hen, and standing
only a few paces from her, and right in front
of her, he raises his wings slowly above his
back. This is a wonderfully graceful
movement, and it displays at once the beau-
tiful white of the underwing and the flank
and the broad white bar across the wings
which is so conspicuous a feature when the
bird is in flight. These combined with the
bright red legs from which the bird gets
its name, and the red bill with its dark tip,
have a very striking effect at close quarters,
and no doubt the hen is duly impressed,

though female-like she assumes an air of
utter indifference. After holding his wings
in this position for a moment or two he
lowers them to the level of the back and
quivers them gently as he does when he is
hovering, and at the same time he lifts
his feet repeatedly one after the other as if
he were marking time.

The nest is usually well hidden in a tus-
sock of grass or a clump of rushes. The
bird twists the tops of the grass above the
nest in such a way that they interlock and
hide the eggs completely. Once, however,
you have seen these twisted tops, it is easy
to find redshanks' nests on ground where
you know or suspect the birds are breeding.
But this hiding of the nest is not an in-
variable rule. Sometimes in meadows where
several pairs are nesting you may find one
or more placed on short grass and as open
to the sky as a peewit's.

There are usually four eggs, which are
pear-shaped like those of the peewit.
They are buff in colour, marked with a
number of dark brown spots, and also some
fainter ones of a greyish purple.

The young, like those of all the waders,
are able to run about very soon after they
are hatched, and they are even able to swim.

Sometimes in the meadows where several pairs are nesting, the Redshank will place
her nest on short grass, as open to the sky as a plover's.

1049

A Little Grebe swimming to her nest. This was apparently unfinished, for all that
could be seen was a formless mass of rotting green water-weed.

52.-THE NESTING HABITS OF THE
LITTLE GREBE

By A. M. C. NICHOLL, M.B.O.U.

With photographs by the Author

DURING the summer months a few
years ago I had an exceptional
opportunity of studying at close
quarters the nesting habits of the dabchick
or little grebe (Podicepes fluviatilis). As
I fancy that my experiences may be of
interest to others, I am relating them just
as they occurred.

My first sight of the birds was an in-
teresting one. The female was on the
nest, apparently arranging the pieces of
weed of which it was built, while the male
swam about near by. A friend was with
me, and together we watched her for some
time ; then, without giving her any cause
for alarm, we withdrew and discussed
the means of obtaining some photographs.
Near at hand was a farm, from which we
obtained three hurdles, and some old sacks
which had recently contained barley- meal

for the pigs. The sacks we ripped up so
that we could cover one side of the hurdles
with them, thus making them opaque.
We tied on the sacking carefully, stretching
it as tight as possible. Our next step was
to procure a certain amount of greenery,
with which to make the hurdles appear less
unsightly and, when they were erected,
more like a young plantation. We got
small branches of poplar from the trees
near at hand, and these we wove into the
hurdles so that they appeared to be growing.
All this we did in the farmyard and out
of sight of the nest.

At last we got the hurdles into the
required position and I was shut in, eager
to see how the birds would behave in
front of this new erection. I had an old
board to sit on, and a peep-hole had been
made for me in the sacking through which

1050

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

I could see the nest. The latter was placed
about six yards from the hank and was
composed of green weed, which was heaped
up on top of the water, the whole structure
being a floating raft.

As far as one could see, the nest was
not yet finished at any rate, there did not
appear to be a cavity in the centre, and
all that was visible was a mass of damp
and rotting green water- weed. The female
did not return for about twenty minutes.
When she did so she kept one eye on my
hide as she built up the nest with more
weed. This she placed round the outside
and on the top.

As I watched, the male arrived. He
had dived some distance away, and suddenly
came to the surface very quietly by the
side of the female. Up went his head
into the air at once, as he warbled out his
peculiar joy greeting. Then he became
very excited. He dived again and again,
each time coming to the surface with
a beakful of green weed. Next he would
swim off at a great pace and fetch a
mouthful of the floating herbage. This
again he would place on the bottom of

the nest. The female now ran up the
side of the floating mass on to the top
and began arranging the new material.
The male got more excited than ever at
this procedure, and swam round and round,
showing intense interest.

And now what was happening ? The
female on the nest had removed a great
deal of the green weed from the centre on
to the sides, and there before my eyes I
saw her complete clutch of dirty-white
eggs ! When she had left her treasures
she had carefully thrown over them some
of the nesting material, thus hiding them
from view and making one think that no
eggs had yet been laid.

Now she settled gently down, raising
and puffing out her breast feathers over
the eggs. Next she lifted with her beak
some of the weed round her, so that she
sat tucked in and looking very snug. Why
she did this I was not sure. Was it in
order that the warmth of her body might
dry the fresh weed, or was it so that this
material would be handy to cover the eggs
if she had suddenly to leave ?

The male now left her, but he made

Climbing up, however, the bird proceeded to displace some of the herbage, and there,
underneath, was her complete clutch of dirty-white eggs.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

periodic visits about every quarter of an
hour. On each occasion he added slightly
to the foundation of the nest, always
bringing some green weed which he heaped
up. He never stayed longer than a minute
or so, and then he dived and disappeared.

An Idyllic Scene

The scene at the nest was a very pretty
one. Picture to yourself the female sitting
quietly on her eggs, when quite near to
her a head is thrust out of the water, and
her mate has arrived. She looks at him
in a loving way, and he swims once or
twice closely round the nest, as though
to show her what a fine guardian she has.
Then he thinks he ought to show some
interest in the walls of her apartment,
and away he swims, sometimes above and
sometimes below the surface, to get some
weed.

The birds dived with very little effort.
One moment they would be on top of the
water, and the next, after a backward
kick with their lobed feet, they would
have disappeared, hardly a bubble marking
the place where they sank.

We watch for their reappearance. Where
have they gone ? Why, there is one up
all the time ! He has risen so quietly
that we had failed to notice the slight
ripple he made in the water. And as we
watch, the other bird appears, looks round
to see that all is well, and once more
vanishes, possibly to come up ten or twenty-
yards away.

I took many pictures of the female on the
nest and her partner swimming near.
Some of the photographs show the peculiar
pose of the head and neck so characteristic
of the " divers."

When at rest on her eggs the female
would let her neck and beak subside into
the downy plumage, and then she resembled
one of the duck tribe. Any slight sound,
however, would cause her alarm, and I
had to be very careful behind my hurdle
not to make the smallest sound. Often
she would turn her head and look right
over her back without apparently any
discomfort.

Suddenly she became like a mad thing.
Up she jumped, and seized in her beak
the weed so carefully drawn around her.
This she threw in desperate haste over

her eggs. Then in a flash she ran down
the side of her nest, dived, and so dis-
appeared from my view.

But why all this excitement ? It was my
friend arriving with food, not for the young,
but for me. On his appearance the bird
covered up her eggs so that not a single
one was visible, and the mass of floating
vegetation, so uninteresting as not even to
resemble a nest, was all one could see.

So ended my first day with the grebes
We had begun work early in the morning,
and now it was nearly tea-time, but I had
watched at close quarters a bird of excep-
tional shyness.

But for this close inspection one might
have thought that the bird was still con-
tinuing to build while the eggs were
hatching. Even those who had had the
nest under their observation for some time
had no idea that there were any eggs in
it. They had never been left uncovered.

Now a question presents itself to us.
Why are the eggs covered ? Is it to hide
them from view so that they may not
be taken ? Or again, is it in order that
the heat of the decaying vegetation may
help to keep the eggs warm in the absence
of the birds ?

It is said that the little grebe frequently
leaves its eggs for long periods and plays
about with its mate on the water. After
watching these birds from the hide for
different periods, I can bear witness that
they never left their eggs unless they were
put off by someone coming too close.
Even then, when the cause of their alarm
withdrew, one of them was back again in
a very short time, and the eggs again
covered.

The Family of the Grebes

And now perhaps I may say something
about the peculiarities of grebes in general.
Grebes are not ducks, and they are not
divers in the true sense of the word. That
they do dive is obvious to anyone who has
watched one of them on a lake or river,
but the term " divers " has been given
to another family of birds, which differ
in certain important characteristics from
the grebes.

Grebes are interesting as a family in
many ways, and here I will mention only
three. Firstly, the little grebe, the smallest

1052

ill

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

While the female is sitting the male is kept busy bringing fresh water-
weed to build up the sides of the nest.

help.

to fall into the
water from the
nest as his
mother left. He
floundered about
after her for
some time, and
then, apparently
becoming
" blown," he set
out for the
beach, actually
resting himself at
the foot of my
hide, which was
built on the
water's edge.
From this
position he
frequently
uttered a plain-
tive squeak for
He had been out of the egg probably

and commonest member of the family,

has an extraordinarily poor tail. Speaking about twelve or fifteen hours, and although

perhaps in an unscientific way, I should he could get along in the water, he was

say that it has no tail.

In the second place, its legs are placed
much farther astern than is usual. This fact
no doubt helps it to dive with such agility.

Lastly, the toes are not webbed, as in
the ducks and divers proper, but are
lobed, as in the coot. The bird has very
small wings, though it can fly considerable

certainly not yet an expert swimmer.

Only these two young were visible at
that time, so I felt sure that the parents
would shortly return to the remaining eggs.

After my companion had left me in the
hide, I had a very amusing and interesting
time. The male dabchick discovered the
beached young one, and " stood by,"

distances overland, and is often noticed calling to his mate. During this time I

at lighthouses during migration.

had a first-rate view of him, as he was

Again, the grebes are just capable of swimming in the water not more than

walking, whereas the " divers " as a rule four feet off. The young bird seemed

push their way over the ground on their comforted at his father's presence, and

breasts, which become soiled in the process, managed to scramble on to his back, and

The eggs, so far as I could ascertain, then under his wing. The male in this

took twenty-three days to hatch. I am way took him back to the nest, on which

doubtful when the female first began to he was securely placed,

sit, but she was under my observation Just at this moment the female arrived,

from May 5th till May ayth, when two when both birds greeted each other by

young appeared, while on the next day the uttering their curious " song " at the

remainder were seen. When I arrived at same time. As I watched the mother bird,

the spot on this last day the birds showed I saw the leg of one of her young stretched

more excitement than usual. The female, out from under her wing. The baby was

who was covering the eggs, left her charges evidently slipping down, as the only visible

without throwing the green weed over part of him was trying to obtain a foothold

them as she had always previously done, amongst the feathers.

As she swam off, I noticed that one young
bird was sitting on her back. This she

And now the female clambered on to
the nest. The male meantime appeared

was taking to a place of safety. The only to have gone completely off his head with
other youngster was unfortunate enough the excitement of her arrival and the

1054

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

prospects of being a family bird " family yet for a short space, when, if all the food
bird " sounds odd, but " man " won't do ! was not taken, he washed it in the water,

He swam round

and round the nest and again offered the remainder to the same

There was no interest taken

at a most alarming rate. Then he turned youngster

and repeated the operation in the other in the performance by any of the other

direction. Up he rushed to the nest, to young birds, and even the nestling who was

take an admiring look at his bride and her being fed behaved in a very quiet and

family, then, amidst a swirl of water, he gentlemanly manner. The male arrived

dashed off to the other side to see how about once every two minutes with tiny

everything looked from that aspect. particles of food obtained beneath the

But suddenly my attention was taken up surface of the water. He always came in

with a new phenomenon. From under a great hurry, and left at equal speed,

the wings of the female appeared three though when actually delivering the food

little heads, followed by three fluffy little he was motionless.

bodies. Four young had been hatched, The female now left the nest on which

but when the female left the nest on our the young remained, and helped to feed

approach only a single nestling was visible them. She appeared far more self-

on her back. Two others she had held possessed than her partner, who seemed

under her wings, and dived with them to unable to control himself,
a place of safety. Here was a pretty family Only very occasionally was the nest now

scene : four young birds scrambling about built up as it had previously been at each

over the nest, and running from time to visit. In fact, during the two hours that

time over their mother's back.

I remained hidden this last day, green weed

And now came papa with some tiny was only twice brought up for the renewal

morsel of food. He swam up at a tremen- of the nest. Evidently the birds were

dous rate, and was obviously still very aware that it would not be needed much

excited. Now he held out his beak to longer, and so their efforts in this direction

one of the young birds on the nest, but were relaxed.

the baby could not reach it.

The female did not remain off the nest

Hurriedly

the proud father swam round an inter- very long. After an absence of about ten

vening branch and offered the food yet again minutes, she once more covered her eggs, and

to the nearest member of the family. her young, now apparently satisfied, crept

The method by which the food was given on her back under her wings and rested,
is curious. As a

general rule, when ,:; ,;,,.,,, ..i. - - '- -

a parent bird N^

arrives at a nest / \ [ Cy^^^SfclC

with food the
inmates all open
their beaks and
chirp for the
expected titbit.
But here it was
different. Arrived
at the nest, the
male stretched
out his beak and
Held it motion-
less. The nearest
young bird now
very gently took
the morsel from
the male. He

kept his beak and Before i eavin g h er nest the Little Grebe carefully covers over her

eggs, leaving them completely hidden.

1055

neck extended

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

The male ceased his activities now for
about twenty minutes, after which time he
again became extraordinarily active. At
his first visit after this break he had diffi-
culty in finding the young birds tucked
up under the wings of his mate, but at
last he spied an eye peeping out, and reach-
ing up, he fed the young bird as it stood
on the back of its mother.

Again the female left her nest for a
short period, helping with the feeding of
the brood, and then, as before, she returned
and settled down. She then heard my
friend, who was slowly approaching to set
me free, rose gently in the nest, and raising
her wings, held the tiny young on her back.
Then carefully she walked down the sides of
the structure towards the water. But here
a catastrophe occurred. One baby through
ill -fortune failed to retain its hold in the
downy plumage of its mother, and ere she
reached the water fell off.

As the female departed with the remainder
safely ensconced beneath her wings, this
little youngster tried to follow, but was
unable to keep up in the race for safety.

The devoted mother returned to her little
one, and led him to the nest, where
evidently she hoped he would hide himself ;
but this he did not understand. Then
the old bird took up a piece of weed
from the side of the nest and placed it on
the top. At once the baby apparently
understood, and getting out of the water
he climbed up the side of the nest into
the centre, where he crouched.

My partner was now quite close, and
the adult bird swam off at a great pace.
This was too much for poor little desolate
" Tommy." He watched her for a
moment as she departed, and then, un-
able to endure the solitude, he rose in
the nest and floundered uncertainly over
the edge. Next he tripped up over some
slight obstacle on the side, and turning
a complete somersault arrived helter-skelter
in the water. Finally he set off for his
mother, whom he joined in the distance.

The next day the nest was unoccupied, and
all the eggs were hatched. The babies were
carried on the back of the female, in which
position the male was giving them food.

The male Little Grebe feeding one of the chicks who is balanced on its mother's
back. The swirling track in the water shows how he hurried up with the titbit.

1056

H *

fcp

^ .

Trees and Their Life Story

The Elder is characteristic of wild waste places, and endless superstition seems to
have gathered about the tree with its twisted growth and heavy aromatic fragrance.

9.-ELDER FLOWERS AND ELDER

BERRIES

The Tree of Shame and Death "

By G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.

FROM the great creamy plates of flowers
a scent so heavy that it could almost

be felt hung in the hot summer air.
At a little distance down the lane the frag-
rance was aromatic and pleasant rather than
otherwise, but when one went right up to
the hedgerow and buried one's face in the
flat flow r ery masses the old saying, " He who
sleeps under an elder will never awake,"
flashed irresistibly into mind, so overpower-
ing and so narcotic was the scent. There
seemed to be no bees buzzing about the

clusters apparently the blossoms did not
allure them, even though the massed white-
ness of the hedgerow at that spot was dis-
tinctly attractive to the eye ; but instead of
bees a number of little flies with an occa-
sional beetle crept and crawled over the
flowery platforms, and one realized that it
was for their special benefit that the plant
issued so strongly flavoured a perfume.
Flies may be but small things in themselves,
but it is notorious that they invariably
prefer odours that are strong.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

The little flowers, So small that it often
takes three hundred to four hundred of
them to lay the tessellated-like surface of a
single elder cluster, are rather remarkable
and spring a little surprise on anyone who
honours them with more than a passing

An infant Elder. The first seed leaves are
long and narrow ; then come simple leaves,
broad at the base with well-pointed tips.
Next come partly divided leaves, and later,
leaves cut up into separate leaflets.

glance, for incredible as it may appear at
first sight, they are after the exact pattern
of the honeysuckle indeed, the two plants
are very near relatives the only difference
being that in the elder flower the tube of
the petals is very short to suit fly visitors,
while in the honeysuckle flower it is very
long, so that only visitors with long pro-
bosces can obtain the nectar. As in the old
fable of the fox with its dish and the stork
with its pitcher, it is imperative that feeding

vessels must be of the right shape for the
feeder if he is to be properly fed. On one
other point, too, the relatives differ : in the
elder flower there is not a drop of the nectar
that is so lavishly secreted by the honey-
suckle, and visiting insects come after the
pollen, otherwise, in both, there are five
star-like sepals at the back of the flower,
five cream petals joined into a tube, five
yellow stamens, and a seed-case with a short,
thick three-lobed stigma on top to receive
the pollen of fertilization.

The flies creep and crawl over the clusters,
eating their fill, and as the stamens open their
pollen boxes at the same moment that the
three stigma lobes are prepared to receive it,
the pollen that they collect on their bodies
and legs gets smeared in every direction,
and so all the flowers get fertilized one from
another, after which they turn brown and
wither.

At one time housewives made elder flower
cakes (and still do so in some remote parts
of the country) by frying the fresh clusters
in butter and flour, and very tasty they are
reputed to be, the plant's volatile oil being,
of course, the flavouring. Elder flower
wine (which must not be confused with the
far-famed elder wine made from the berries)
was once in considerable request and was
known as " the English Frontignac." Here
is the recipe for adventurous housewives :

Elder Flower Wine or English Frontignac

To 1 8 pounds of white powdered sugar add
6 gallons of water and the whites of two eggs
well beaten. Boil, skim and then add a quarter
of a peck of elder flowers. Allow to cool and
beat up 6 spoonfuls of lemon juice and 5 of
yeast. Stir well for several days. Put 6 pounds
of best raisins into a cask and then add the wine.
Stop it close and bottle in 6 months.

Perhaps an even more desirable effort
on the part of some enterprising maiden is
to make that most refreshing toilet water
known as

Elder Flower Water

Take 5 Ibs. of flowers and add i gallon of water.
Then distil to half the amount.

The peculiar volatile oil of the elder runs
throughout the whole plant, even the leaves
are somewhat fragrant with it. and no doubt
it is largely due to this oil that the elder has
acquired the remarkable reputation it bears.
On the one hand, it has figured as " the
tree of shame and death," and on the other,
as a sovereign heal-all. Under the first

1058

TREES AND THEIR LIFE STORY

category horrid stories have been current ;
it was whispered that in houses which were
thickly encircled with elder the inhabitants
grew sick and died rapidly and mysteriously
one after another, and only when the bushes
were grubbed up by the roots did the un-

pered by fact, stated that he actually saw
the identical elder by the " Pool of Siloe "
when he visited the Holy Land, But
whether one accepts this statement of
the " Prince of Liars " with a grain of salt
or not. the mere tradition cast a sense of awe

Photo : <;. Clarke Nuttall.

The flat flower clusters of the Elder, beloved of flies and beetles. The flowers are of
the pattern of the honeysuckle ; indeed, the honeysuckle and the elder are close relatives.

canny doings cease. Even John Evelyn
speaks of a specific house in Spain where
this happened. Then there is the age-old
tradition that Judas hanged himself on an
elder in the field of Aceldama. As Piers
Plowman said in the fourteenth century :

" Judas he gaped
With Jewen silver
And sithen on an elder
Hanged hymselve."

Shakespeare speaks of this tradition in
" Love's Labour Lost," and Sir John
Mandeville, that peerless romancer who
never allowed his imagination to be ham-

about the tree, and it was reputed that a
spirit, sometimes called the Elder Mother,
dwelt in it, working magic and avenging
any injury done to it. Woodcutters in
Central Europe, when necessity compelled
them to cut the tree, would bow to it and
ask permission before touching it.

Another tradition says that it formed part
of the true cross, and an old Scottish rhyme

runs

" Bour tree, hour tree crooked rung,
Never straight and never strong.
Ever bush and never tree
Since our Lord was hanged on thee,"

1059

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

the allusion in the first two lines being to
the irregular habit of the tree's growth,
which lends further colour to the general
uncanniness. This growth is distinctly
curious, for the trunk rarely grows up singly
and straight as does that of other trees, and
at the outset often divides at its base into
two or three shoots, as shown in the photo-

Photo: G. Clarke Nuttall.

The black berries of the Elder, from which is made the
renowned elder wine.

graph. After a short time each shoot bends
over, and at the top of the curve a bud arises
that carries on the erect growth ; then, later
on, this new bit curves over and again a
bud arises at the top of its curve which,
in its turn, takes on the upward growth,
and so on, and thus the bush grows, but
naturally a patchwork trunk made up in
this fashion cannot be quite normal and
must be more or less zigzag and ungraceful.
The bark, too, is unprepossessing, being, as
Gerard said, " rough and full of chinks and
of an ill-favoured wan colour." The green
twigs are covered with curious spots, which
are really spaces between the cork cells to
allow air to pass through to the tissues
within. These spaces are known as " len-
ticels." The young shoots being filled with
soft pith, easily removed, have served all
manner of purposes ; thus in some country

parts a hollow elder twig, called a " plufT,"
is used as a simple bellows; indeed, this
practice goes back at least to Anglo-Saxon
times, when the housewife kindling her dying
fire with one, knew it as her " eller " or
" kindler," and hence came the name
" eller " or " elder " for the plant. A musical
instrument known as a sambuca, from the

plant's Latin name Sam-

bucus, and perhaps the
sackbut of the Bible, was
fashioned out of elder
tubes, while as a provider
of pop-guns the elder has
been popular with boys
from time immemorial.

Then the winter resting
buds are likewise note-
worthy, being half-naked,
like poverty-stricken
children in winter time
only half-covered with the
protective wraps that most
parents, both animal and
vegetable, provide so
generously for their young.
Perhaps this unusual lack
of protective scales is the
reason they awake so early
in the year lack of clothes
in wintry days is apt to
make one wakeful and in
early January, when other
buds are sleeping, they are
bravely pushing out their
leaves, as the photograph on p. 1062 shows.
The tree, however, takes the wise precaution
of providing an understudy for its main buds
in the shape of a tiny bud at their base which
lies dormant, only springing into activity if
accident befall its principal. The leaves
are large and are made up of a terminal
leaflet and two or more pairs of leaflets.
Two curious little green thread-like objects,
with a sugary gland at the tip of each, may
often be found below them down by the
main stem, but what exact part they play
in the elder's scheme of life is somewhat of
a mystery. Wonderful remedial powers lay
in the leaves, according to our forefathers,
as in other parts of the tree ; indeed, as Evelyn
said in the seventeenth century, " if the
medicinal properties of the leaves, bark,
berries, etc. were thoroughly known I
cannot tell what our countryman could ail

1060

Photo : G. Clarke Nuttall

THE CURIOUS GROWTH OF THE ELDER.

The trunk rarely grows up singly and straight, and at the outset often divides at its

base into two or three shoots.

THE PAGEAttT OF HKTURE

for which he might not fetch a remedy
from every hedge." One herbalist of old
asserted that " the green leaves pouned
with Deeres suet or Bull tallow, are good
to be laid to hot swellings and tumors,
and doe assuage the pain of the gout " !

Photo : G. Clarke Nuttall.

The winter buds of the Elder are semi-naked,

being without the usual full wrapping of scales.

They are, perhaps, the first to awake. These

are January buds in various stages.

while another opines that their juice
" snuffed up into the nostrils purges the
tunicles of the brain." The cure of tooth-
ache was also a very simple matter when one
combined an elder twig with a sufficient
measure of faith. One merely put the twig
in one's mouth, and then taking it out,
stuck it in a wall, saying, " depart thou evil
spirit," and the toothache went ! And to

charm warts away one just took an elder twig
and rubbed it on each one and then cut a
notch in the stick for every wart, finally
burying the twig, and, behold ! as it rotted,
the warts disappeared.

As September draws on the flowers we

1062

left faded in the summer have been trans-
formed into little round black berries, soft
and aromatic, each with three chambers,
the white lining walls of which become
hard and brittle. In each chamber lies
a seed. Now in the flower the seed-cases
were white, and the legend goes that
once the berries were white too, but
that they turned black when the tree
became " the tree of shame." From
them is made the renowned elder wine.
Here is a good recipe.

To every peck of ripe elderberries take 3
gallons of boiling water and pour it over
the fruit. Let it stand 24 hours. Then
strain it all through a sieve or muslin. To
every gallon of the resulting juice add 3 Ibs.
of sugar, \ oz. of ground ginger, 6 cloves, i Ib.
of raisins. Boil for an hour, skimming well.
When nearly cold put into a cask with
4 tablespoonfuls of fresh yeast to every
9 gallons of wine, and let it ferment for a
fortnight. Then, if you wish your wine to
be super excellent and strong, put in J pint
of brandy to every gallon of wine (though
this is not necessary], and let it stand for
some months before bottling. It is said that
a bunch of hops hung inside by a string
from the bung will help the wine to keep.

Blder wine is usually served mulled and
with a little grated ginger and cake.

Elder berries are great favourites with
birds, though country folk hold a belief
that the robin will not touch them
because, they say, he is a " holy " bird.
The soft pulpy envelope is digested by
them, but the hard inner part passes
through them unharmed. When the
seeds germinate in the following spring
the first pair of leaves are oblong, the
next pair or two are almost heart
shaped, then follow leaves that begin
to show divisions, and finally come
leaves that are cut up into complete
leaflets.

Endless superstitions seem to have
gathered round the elder from the earliest
days. A piece of elder twig cut out just
above and below a joint with buds on either
side forms a rough cross, and if it had been
grown in consecrated ground, it was con-
sidered of old to be a charm which would
protect the soul of him who carried it from
the wiles of sorcerers and his body from all
evil. If elder planted in the form of a cross
upon a newly made grave bloomed, it was
thought to be a sure sign that the dead was
happy.

Strange Facts of Fish Life

The long-bodied Dog-fish is one of the commonest of the sharks to be found round our
coasts. Curiously enough, it is a near relative of the flattened Ray.

9.-THE DOG-FISH AND THE RAYS

By DR. FRANCIS WARD, F.Z.S

"With photographs by the Author

THERE are two great divisions in the
fish world : fish that have bony
skeletons, and those in which the
skeleton consists of cartilage or gristle.
The salmon family, which has already been
dealt with in THE PAGEANT OF NATURE,
affords a good example of the former, while
skates, rays and sharks illustrate the latter.

At first it seems strange that fish so
different in appearance as sharks of which
the dog-fish round our shores is the com-
monest example and rays should be so
nearly related to each other ; yet they
had a common ancestor in the most
ancient type of fishes.

One line of descendants, the sharks, took
to an active life, and their bodies became
elongated, enabling them to twist, turn and
slip through the water as they chased a

swimming prey ; while the tail was devel-
oped as a powerful organ to ensure rapid
pursuit.

The rays, on the other hand, became
bottom-feeders and flattened, so as to lie
concealed on the sea-bed ; and as their
habits of feeding did not necessitate active
pursuit, the tail as a swimming organ
became functionless.

The manner in which rays become
flattened is of interest, since it differs
from the method of flattening of the so-
called " flat-fishes " such as the plaice and
the turbot.

The ray is flattened from above down-
wards, and if divided with a knife down the
centre of the back from the snout to the
tip of the tail, the two halves would be
similar in structure and contents. Flat-

1063

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

fish, on the other hand, begin life
by swimming near the surface, like the
rounded larvae of other fish ; they then
flatten from side to side, as they gradually
sink down, to end up on the sandy sea-
bottom, where they lie on one side. Here
the cranium in the region of the orbits
rotates on its longitudinal axis, until both
eyes are on the same plane, thus preventing
one being buried in the sand. If this flat-
fish be divided in two down the centre, as
it lies on a slab, it will be found that the

A female Dog-fish swimming round a rock ; a striking example of
the agility of members of the shark family.

back with its muscles are in one half, while
the other half contains the organs of
digestion.

In the larval stage of bony fishes develop-
ment is incomplete, and a primitive fin
round the body is later differentiated into
the various median fins. In most kinds the
mouth is closed, and on the under surface
of the body is attached a yolk-sac of varying
size, upon which the larval fish feeds.
This has already been illustrated by the
brown trout alevin, on page 405.

On the other hand, in the case of car-
tilaginous fishes, the embryo escapes from
the shell-case as a perfectly developed fish,
ready to feed at once and pigmented so as
to be concealed on the bottom. With very
few exceptions the viviparous blenny is
the only one in our waters bony fish
hatch from liberated eggs, but a considerable
portion of the Elasmobranchs as the
cartilaginous fishes are scientifically known
bring forth young.

In bony fish the growth of the fertilized
egg is often rapid, whereas in cartilaginous
fish the embryo takes seven to ten months
to develop in the expelled egg.

Bony fish have a single gill opening, and
the gills below are protected by a gill cover,
whereas in Elasmobranchs there are five
separate gill slits. With the shark these
are on each side of the head, in the
rays they are on the under surface of the
flattened head. Lastly, the embryo sharks
and rays possess external gills, similar in
appearance to those
of the tadpole, but
these disappear before
the young fish is
hatched. In the case
of the thornback-ray,
which we shall be
considering as an
example, the external
gill filaments dis-
appear about four
months before the
young fish escapes.
From the above de-
tails it will be seen
that Elasmobranchs
have advanced further
in development than
osseous fishes.
There are several

species of sharks and rays in the sea round
our shores, but of rays the common and
the thornback are most frequently met.

Let us examine the thornback as an
example of the development of an Elas-
mobranch.

When considering fish's eggs we have
seen how the quadrangular-shaped egg-
case of the ray has hooklets at each angle,
with which the egg is held until the seaweed
partially grows over it and retains it in
position.

One summer I went down to an oyster-
bed on the river Orwell on several occasions.
When the oysters were dredged up, I
obtained several ray eggs showing the
enclosed embryo in various stages.

The illustration of the egg of a ray was
given on page 946 of THE PAGEANT OF
NATURE, and the first illustration on page
1065 shows a ray taken from the egg-
case approximately two months before it
was due to escape. The yolk-sac is

1064

STRANGE FACTS OF FISH LIFE

1. 2.

1. A young Ray taken from the egg-case two months before

hatching. 2. One month before hatching. Here the fish is

increasing in size, and the yolk-sac diminishing.

large in proportion to the size of the
fish. A photograph often illustrates a
point as a side-light, and in the photo-
graph under consideration the primitive
dorsal fins are seen right at the end
of the tail. These correspond with the
powerful keel-like structures in the shark,
required by him to
steady his course as
he rushes through
the water.

In the second
illustration of a ray
one month before
hatching, the fish is
obviously growing in
size and the yolk-sac
diminishing. Here
the gill slits are well
shown on one side,
and the claspers are
appearing at the root
of the tail.

Then we have
the ray just after
it has escaped.
The under surface
shows the yolk-sac
almost gone, though
the body is filled up
with food. The pee-
to ral fins have
become great wings
on either side of the
fish and extend round
the head. These fins
are a modification of
the large pectoral fins
shown in the photo-
graph of a female

dog-fish swimming round
a rock. The mouth is
open, and in front of each
angle can be seen the
nostrils. (These nostrils
are even better illustrated
in the photograph of the
mouth of the ray.) Just
in front of the yolk-sac
are five rows of gill slits
on either side and the
claspers are well
developed; in fact,
he is a perfectly deve-
loped larval-fish, a
miniature of his parents.

As the ray normally lies on the sea-bottom
his under surface is white, and, therefore, is
invisible. But the back is highly pigmented
and covered with numerous dark spots. These
spots in about fourteen days blend together
and give the ray a more uniform shade.

A Ray just hatched, showing the pigmented back.

The underside of the same fish, showing the absence of any colour.
1065

THE PKGEKNT OF NATURE

Under surface of a Ray, showing the mouth, nostrils, and

gill slits.

Our next illustration shows a ray one
month old. The points of interest in
looking at this photograph are the mottled
uniform shading of the back with definite
rings round the edge of the fins. These
rings assist in concealing the sharp-cut
edge of the fin among the round pebbles
on the bottom.

If you drop pebbles
into a deep tub of
water, seen from
above they appear as
rings, for the top of
the pebble reflects
the light from above,
while the shadow from
round the stone
appears as a ring.

I show this same
one-month-old thorn-
back lying at the
bottom. On the lower
border of the left-hand
pectoral fin about the
centre are two well-
marked rings ; com-
pare these rings with
the appearance of two
pebbles on the bottom
below and to the left.

Returning to the
illustration of the one-

month-old ray, the
protective spikes all
down the back are
well shown and also
the dorsal fins right at
the end of the tail.

Rays are quite
common round our
shores, and it is not
difficult to see the
young in the natural
surroundings if a sea
telescope be used to
assist in the search.
In its simplest form
this need only be a
circular tin tube almost
six inches in diameter.
The object in using it
is to cut off the rays
of light from the sur-
face of the water and
enable the observer to

get a clear view of the bottom. There
are in all some 140 species of rays, from
enormous sea monsters to the smaller
species round our coast.

Flattening and coloration are not the
only means of assisting the ray in the
struggle for existence. All possess sharp

A month-old Thorn back Ray, showing the protective spikes all
down the back, and the dorsal fins at the end of the tail.

1066

STRANGE FACTS OF FISH LIFE

spines on the back, particularly the thorn-
back hence its name. The sting- ray is
armed with a murderous barb, with which
it is able to inflict a terrible wound, while
the torpedo- ray is
able to paralyse fishes
by giving them an
electric shock.

Our skates and rays
spend most of their
time on the bottom,
or swimming about in
a ponderous manner,
with an undulating
movement of their
large wing-like fins.

Their diet consists
mainly of crabs,
oysters, whelks,
mussels, small fish
and the young of the
plaice and sole. Not
infrequently herrings
and other surface-
swimming fishes have
been found inside the
stomachs of larger
rays, and because of
this it has been stated
that rays sometimes
feed near the surface.
This is very unlikely,
for I am sure the
clumsy ray could only
catch the herring when
that active fish is
taken unawares. The
probable explanation
is that occasionally
herring feed on the
bottom, and when in-
tent upon their food
they do not notice the
flat, colour-protected
ray. Suddenly this fish
raises itself up and
flops on the top of the
herring; then, before

the victim can extricate himself, he has
been seized by the horny-lipped mouth
of this predatory fish.

Our second illustration is of a female dog-
fish swimming round a rock, and the position
shows the agility of this member of the shark
family. As in the rays, the mouth is under-

neath the head, and behind the rock can be
seen the immense development of the upper
half of the caudal fin.

There are seventeen different kinds of

A young Thornbaek Ray,

lying on
water.

sand and shingle below the

sharks to be met with in our waters ; the
largest is the hammer-head, which reaches
twelve or thirteen feet in length. On
the Cornish coast the blue- shark frequently
breaks up the fishermen's nets. The
thresher-shark may be seen from the
cliffs feeding on herrings and pilchards.

1067

Wonders of Bird Life

A Merlin in pursuit of a lark. Only such a brilliant and persistent flier as a Merlin
can succeed in taking a strong lark in the air.

53.-THE FLIGHT OF HAWKS

By CAPT. C. W. R. KNIGHT

With photographs by the Author

" TOOK, there's a hawk ! " How many
. people on seeing a bird hanging
quite still in the air, suspended it
would seem by some invisible wire from
the blue, and motionless but for the quiver-
ing wing-tips, have volunteered this piece
of information ? And by the bird's curious
ability to remain thus fixed in mid-air,
moving neither backward nor forward in
spite of the fiercest gale, we may be quite
sure that the bird we are looking at is a
hawk.

And, in truth, the vast majority of people,
never having noticed a hawk under any
other circumstances, have come to think
that it is the nature of any hawk thus to
" hover " in the sky, and to believe that
it is possible to identify any member of
the tribe by this peculiarity.

As a matter of fact, of the four species
of hawks that are more or less common in
Britain, the kestrel is the only one that
habitually hovers whilst in search of food.
In consequence, since while it does so it

1068

KESTREL IN FLIGHT.

The tips of the primaries (OP long flight feathers) are slightly separated, and the twelve

feathers of the tail expanded.

THE PJIGEJTTfT OF NATURE

": of pursuing its quarry; each one suiting
its methods to the country which it nor-
mally inhabits, and to the speed of the
prey upon which it subsists. These
three other species are the sparrow-hawk
of the wooded districts ; the merlin of
the open moorlands ; and the peregrine
of the towering cliffs and mountains.

The kestrel, in addition to being the
most obvious hawk of these islands, is
likewise the most generally distributed.
It is possible that it has been allowed
to survive on account of the fact that
many farmers (and even gamekeepers !)
have at last come to appreciate the fact
that the amount of harm done by the
kestrel is negligible ; that the little hawk
consumes vast quantities of mice, rats,
beetles and so on in the course of its
lifetime, and that, what is more, its
presence adds a real charm to the interest
and beauty of our countryside.

That the kestrel should prey upon
such ignominious quarry as beetles and
mice (and even frogs and earth-worms !)
is no doubt due to the fact that it is
unable, on account of its comparatively
slow flight, to catch those fast fliers that
generally constitute the meals of such
brilliant performers as the sparrow-hawk,
the merlin or the peregrine.

Occasionally a kestrel will succeed in
taking such a strong flier as a meadow
pipit or lark ; but we must bear in mind
that it is only by hovering and searching
the ground beneath that it is in such an
advantageous position as to be able to
secure such active quarry.

In the early spring-time, when the
kestrels are selecting their mates for the
coming nesting season, one may some-
times see a pair of them, high in the air,
circling most gracefully on outstretched,
motionless wings higher and higher into

her quarry she the . blue - With . a P air of g ood glasses
their slender, pointed wings, beautifully
barred in black and white on the under

As the Merlin closes with

endeavours to take it in her talons by a

lightning foot-stroke. A lark is able to shift

from a Merlin's oo with extraordinary sideSj may be easily seen also the out-

stretched, fan-shaped tails with the
remains silhouetted against the sky, it is centre feathers considerably longer than
more likely than any of the others to attract those at the outside.

the attention of passers-by, and, in fact, is The female is slightly larger than the
the only one that is commonly seen at all. male ; her tail is much more definitely
Of the remaining three kinds, each has barred, and the markings on her breast
its own particular manner of flying and heavier than his.

1070

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

Suddenly the male, who has mounted
to a vast height, closes his perfect wings
and rushes in a headlong stoop towards
his mate, who, just as he seems to reach
her, tilts sideways with the utmost ease
and swings away from him to continue
her graceful circlings.

The little male, seeming to have entered
into the spirit of the game, shoots skywards
as his mate shifts from his stoop, and with
but little wing-flapping or other appreciable
effort is soon at the elevation from which
he started. Then once more he turns
over and comes rushing down towards her
in fact, this time, as she swerves aside
and he shoots by, one may see his tiny
foot snatch playfully at her wing- tip,
for all the world as though he meant to
" bind to her," as the falconers of old
would have put it.

Then once again he shoots, almost
perpendicularly into the air above ; once
again he closes his wings, turns and dives
towards his mate, whilst she, applauding
as it were the pace of his descent, utters
a short Kek-Kek-Kek of excitement and
flashes this way and that as she twists and
turns to avoid the impact.

The " Hover " of the Kestrel

Later in the season, when the full clutch
of eggs has been laid and the female is
staying at home to attend to domestic
affairs (though occasionally the male will
play the part of the mother), the male goes
off in search of food, and it is then that
we notice the peculiarity of the kestrel's
hunting flight ; that is, as has already been
mentioned, its manner of hovering.

As he hangs thus in the air, facing the
wind, in the hope of detecting some un-
suspecting or crouching victim unsuspect-
ing, if the dreaded hawk has not been
observed ; and crouching, if, feeling in-
competent to cope with the kestrel's power
of flight, the prospective victim hopes to
escape observation his keen brown eyes
are eagerly scanning the ground beneath.

If the day be still the kestrel will maintain
a quivering movement of the wing-tips.
But if a goodish wind be blowing the little
hawk seems to have the power of retaining
its position without the least discernible
movement or effort. Should a victim be
descried crouching in the grass, the kestrel

will suddenly turn head downward and
with almost closed wings will drop earth-
wards and endeavour, without slackening
speed, to clutch the prize in his needle-
sharp talons. And in the case of such a
helpless antagonist as a mouse or vole,
all is soon over.

But should the prospective victim be a
small bird which decides at the last moment
to, as it were, give the hawk a run for
his money in fact to endeavour to beat
him in the air we shall probably see the
kestrel dished. Missing at the first shot,
and relying upon the impetus which he
gains from dropping from a height, the
kestrel throws up again into the air and
makes a second effort to catch the elusive
quarry. The stoop, however, being from
a lower elevation, is not so hard as the
first, and the kestrel fails ignominiously to
accomplish his object, so he retires beaten
to continue his hovering and observation
elsewhere, in the hope of discovering some
less elusive quarry. The kestrel is really a
poor flier and is not a persevering hawk.

How the Sparrow-hawk Hunts

How differently does the sparrow-hawk
go about this business of procuring food
and a sparrow-hawk out for blood is indeed
a wild-eyed, ferocious-looking creature.

See her perched upon some convenient
bough, as with tightly knit feathers, body
inclined forward, and yellow eyes literally
squinting with eager expectancy, she gazes
about her, ready to dash off at the first
likely movement wood-pigeon, black-
bird, wren, partridge or youthful pheasant,
all fall before her lightning dash and wiry,
steel-taloned feet. Should one of them
come within her radius, she leaves her
perch in a flash and closes with the victim
before that unfortunate has had time to
realize clearly what is going on.

Generally the sparrow-hawk makes no
mistake about the business. Should her
opponent be larger than she is herself
such as wood-pigeon or partridge she will,
in the savagery of her attack, hit the victim
such a resounding smack as may be heard
from a considerable distance. And the
more desperate the struggles of the victim
the firmer does the aggressor drive home
her talons.

A ride in a wood is a favourite hunting-

1071

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

ground for the sparrow-hawk, occasionally,
one regrets to say, when half-grown young
pheasants are accustomed to find their
food there. For the game little hawk does
not deliberate before making the lightning
dash as to whether pheasants might be
beloved of human beings, or as to whether
human beings are more selfish than most
other animals. Nor does she hesitate to
consider whether she might be classed as
" vermin " by such onslaughts.

It is only regrettable that she should
sometimes succumb to the temptation that
such fat and foolish birds afford.

How a Sparrow-hawk Lost its Meal

But there are times when even the dashing
sparrow-hawk is done out of her selected
meal, as the following incident may show.

It was the chattering of a blackbird from
a small copse of elder trees that first of all
suggested that somebody, or something,
was in trouble. " There must be a
hawk there ! " And sure enough, a mo-
ment later, out dashed a cock blackbird
with a female sparrow-hawk in hot pursuit.

In a moment our sable friend, finding
that this idea of taking to the open was a
bad one, flashed aside and dashed back
among the trees, turning and twisting
among their stems in his efforts to evade
the hawk. But the hawk, just about a
foot behind and gaining gradually, repeated
every move with the nicest accuracy, and
seemed on the point of grasping the black-
bird at every fresh turn.

Then once again out into the open. A
final effort to outstrip this dreadful aggres-
sor. . . . Too late !

Some five yards from the trees a violent
shrieking and the floating of black feathers
in the breeze proclaimed that the wily
blackbird had lost.

Lost temporarily, that is ; for at this
moment the sparrow-hawk, catching sight
of human spectators, was overcome by
such feelings of nervousness that she let
the blackbird go, and then made off her-
self, the two of them flying in different
directions !

The writer also recalls the day when a
sparrow-hawk crashed impulsively against
a canary's cage, so intent on securing the
canary that it ignored the wires ! And
instances of a sparrow-hawk crashing

through the glass of window or greenhouse
to seize a bird on the other side are not
at all uncommon.

The sparrow-hawk must, indeed, be a
nightmare to small birds ! Amazingly fast
at a short dash, fierce, courageous, and
unexpected in its movements, it might
well be called " the winged terror of the
woodlands."

And again, how utterly different from both
of the hawks we have mentioned is the
little merlin the " lady's hawk " of the by-
gone age of falconry.

Such a charming, dark-eyed little hawk
could not, and does not, share with the
sparrow-hawk those impulsive, wild charac-
teristics to which we have referred. Nor
does it, like the kestrel, hover over a likely
looking spot in the hope of making an easy
catch. The fact that merlins can exist,
and without difficulty, on the great heather-
clad moors of the north and west, points
to the fact that they must be extraordinarily
capable fliers. For in such open districts
one only meets with birds that can survive
without the presence of hedge, tree or
bush, as a refuge in case of emergency.
Birds, in fact, that can only be secured
by an attacker who is prepared to indulge
in a long, hard flight.

The Persistent Merlin

So that we may be sure that the merlin is
a most sporting and capable flier. Moreover,
she is so persistent that if she should start in
pursuit of some quarry she will stick to her
task until one of three things happens : she
may succeed in catching it ; she may be
thrown off by its diving into cover and
remaining motionless until the little hawk
passes on ; or she may be beaten by the
intended victim in real hard flying ; and
the last is not by any means an improbable
finish to a long flight.

A merlin endeavouring to close v.ith a
strong lark (and the lark is one of the
gamest fliers of this country) is an amazing
exhibition of wing-power ; in fact, the
flight involves such furiously hard work
that one can only marvel that either hunter
or hunted can stand the test for so long.

Each time that the merlin so high that
she appears little more than a speck in
the sky puts in a stoop, the lark, at the
moment when it seems that the merlin

1072

KESTREL "BANKING" TO SWOOP AT A SPARROW.

Having missed the quarry at the first stoop he "throws up" with the impetus of his
descent, and turns for another attempt. The Kestrel is a slow flier, and, unless well-
placed in the air, cannot overtake even so indifferent a flier as a sparrow,

THE PAGEAttT OF NATURE

,-,*,

A pare British hawk, the Hobby, in flight above the trees in which it has made its
home. The Hobby does not build a nest of its own, but appropriates a disused one,

generally that of a carrion crow.

will grasp him, will flick aside, and the
little hawk swishes by only to throw up
again for another shot.

Again the lightning rush, and once more
the lark manages to save himself by the
sideways shift.

And so they go on the" one doing his
very utmost to get into the best position
for the stoop, and to drive the stoop home ;
the other striving by timing his shifts to
the fraction of a second to avoid the deadly
stoops.

It seems to be even chances whether the
lark gets away scot free, or is taken in the
air. In the latter case, there is at least no
undue prolonging of the agony, for the
merlin, ever a true sportsman, kills her
victim in a manner that is, at least, humane.
Seizing it by the neck in one foot a foot
that has a grip of steel she kills it immedi-

ately by giving a few sharp hits at the base
of the skull. It is all over in a few seconds.

But the largest, and the finest flier, of
the four hawks that we are considering
the most impressive, the real master of
the air is the peregrine.

One has only to visit some cliff or preci-
pice where the splendid and much per-
secuted birds breed to see such an ex-
hibition of flying as will not readily be
forgotten. No matter how the wind
whistles over the mountain side (and causes
the human visitors to turn their backs to
its icy blast), the lordly peregrine sails
serenely above, swinging this way and
that, stooping like a bolt from the blue
as though it were a still day in mid- August.

Recently the writer, together with another
bird enthusiast, visited a crag where
a pair of peregrines had their eyrie. As

1074

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

we neared the base of the cliff it almost
seemed that some " collector " had robbed
the nest of its contents, for there was no
sign or sound of the parent birds.

Things were beginning to look black,
when suddenly a hissing, rushing sound,
like an engine letting off steam, or a " whizz-
bang " passing overhead, proclaimed the
fact that the peregrines, or one of them, had
come into action.

Down she came like a bomb from an
aeroplane, and only when she was within
fifteen feet of us did she spread her wings
and shoot up again into the clouds all the
while uttering her rather hoarse cark-
cark-cark of displeasure.

Soon she was joined by the tiercel*
or male and the pair of them continued
to fly excitedly overhead ; first one and
then the other shot down towards us with
the shrieking hiss that rather adds to the
impressiveness of a fine stoop. What
speed ! No wonder that a peregrine,
well placed in the sky, can so easily overtake
a strong cock grouse as to make the latter
seem but an ignoble flier ; and there are few
birds, indeed, that can hope to avoid this
feathered hurricane, be they duck, snipe, gull
or (let it be whispered) homing pigeon ! ! !

* The male peregrine is called by falconers the
tiercel, because he is one- third less in size than the
falcon.

The Buzzard, which closely resembles the golden eagle in appearance, is much addicted

to the practice of soaring, and may be seen, particularly at evening time, high in the

air describing circles on outstretched, motionless wings.

I0 75

A Nightjar 1 brooding. So closely do its markings match the surroundings that one

may easily miss the bird lying motionless on the ground which, to the casual

glance, is merely a bit of twisted lichen-covered bark.

54.-THE NIGHTJAR

By RALPH GHISLETT, M.B.O.U., F.R.P.S.

With photographs by the Author

"Lone on the pine branch, his rattle-note unvaried,
Brooding o'er the gloom, spins the brown eve- jar

(MERRDITH.)

THE name of a bird with which we are
familiar is always associated in the
mind with those scenes in which we
know it best. To me, the name nightjar at
once suggests broken, stony ground over-
whelmed in seas of bracken. One such
characteristic haunt in Wales slopes down
to a low coast ; limestone outcrops on the
hill in little patches, encroached upon by
moss, and islanded by the fern, and the few
trees which grow below the summit spread
their branches above stony debris. Tall
bracken flourishes everywhere, spangled at
dusk in June with the tiny lamps of glow-
worms. " Then be the time to steal adown
the vale," and, resting beneath the trees, to
listen. From the hill above the mysterious
sound comes, like a reedy, throaty roll,
prolonged, it may be, for a minute or more.
A stranger might think an angler was
twirling his reel down by the pool ; or that

a reaper, with the rattle of its machinery
softened by a considerable distance, was
working overtime. It has even been mis-
taken for a distant motor bicycle passing
along the high road. Then, as suddenly as
it began, the sound ceases. The silence
which follows is eerie. Another nightjar
nearer to us takes up the monotonous strain,
to be answered at intervals by others from
different sides. Goic-goic, a bird calls,
as dimly discerned it flies past, alternating
deliberate wing-beats with short glides.
When an answering chur-r comes un-
expectedly clearly from a bough overhead,
as Gilbert White puts it

" A pleasing kind of pain
Steals o'er the cheek and thrills the creeping
vein."

Should a pair of birds tumble and chase
past in courting flight, clapping their wings
with a sudden, whiplike effect which can

1076

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

be quite startling, the eeriness becomes
intensified. In such circumstances, with
the " glow-worm's amorous fire " sparkling
in points of greenish light all around, I have
known superstitions to be awakened in the
most prosaic. The fitting sight of gnomes,
or of fairies dancing on the sward, would
not have surprised us.

The atmosphere of mystery which always
envelops the nightjar adds much to its

over the apparent bit of twisted wood easily
enough, even if the searcher knows exactly
what to look for. When leaving some little
clearing, the edges of which have already
been narrowly scanned, many times have
my eyes suddenly become aware that that
little bit of brown and grey bark represents
a nightjar. With knowledge of discovery,
the half-closed eyes open widely. Then
with a few sudden flaps of the wings, and

The Nightjar makes no nest at all. The young birds are clothed in mottled grey
down, through which, at the age of seven days, the quills begin to force their way.

interest. Early in May it arrives, whence and
when we know not. No one saw it come.
One evening as we pass the edge of a wood,
the bird noiselessly flits past hawking for
moths ; or the species may be overlooked
for a day or two until the chur-r sounds
from the hillside for the first time. The bird -
lover rejoices ; with the nightjar's arrival
the tide of migration is nearly complete.

A few weeks later we may look for the
eggs, but much careful search may be needed
to find them. Either the sitting bird or the
squatting mate may be approached within
a few yards and yet the searcher pass
them. Resemblance to natural surround-
ings, as a means of protection from enemies,
is less firmly believed in to-day than form-
erly ; but in the case of the nightjar, if
the searcher for eggs be an enemy, it is
certainly often efficacious. The eyes pass

looking very much like a gigantic moth, the
creature clears some yards of fern and sinks
from view. The bird may have risen from
eggs, or it may have been the resting mate ;
if the latter, we continue our search.

The nightjar is seldom flushed from the
eggs except by a direct and close approach.
When flushed it does not fly far away. If,
however, we stay long to examine the eggs,
the bird may take several short flights past.
Not infrequently it will flutter over the tops
of the bracken like a wounded bird and thus
endeavour to lead us away from the eggs.
Sometimes it will halt in full view for a
short time on the top of some rock or along
some bough, and occasionally from such a
position it will chur-r mildly. Contrary
to the practice of most birds, the nightjar
usually crouches along a bough, and then
appears like a protuberance on the branch.

1077

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

Having located the eggs, let us examine
the place where they are deposited. There
is no nest. If the eggs are removed there
is nothing to indicate where they were laid
beyond, perhaps, a slight depression. Some-
times I have seen them laid on the naked
stones and amongst bits of stick and bark ;
at other times moss or short grass may
provide a softer resting-place. Bare earth
may be beneath the eggs, or it may be a
thick bed of leaf- mould, or of old dead
bracken crushed to semi-flatness by the
weight of melting snows. The site may be
open to the sky ; or tall, straight bracken
stems may surround it and shield the eggs
from view with their fronds. The two eggs,
placed side by side, are elliptical in shape
and have no pointed ends. In colour they
are greyish white, marbled with grey and
fawn ; and they are small for the size of
the bird. On bare earth they are plain to
be seen ; but among broken fragments of
limestone, or it may be millstone grit, the
eyes easily pass them over.

The Nightjar under Observation

If the bird has begun to sit it is not diffi-
cult to accustom a nightjar to an observation
hide, if care be taken in its erection and it
is well screened with bracken cut from a
little distance. Personally, I never think I
am well acquainted with a species until I
have passed some hours unknown to the
bird in close observation of its behaviour.
If we first flush a nightjar from its eggs, and
then completely conceal ourselves close by,
nothing may happen for the first half-hour
a little longer with some birds. But
although we have not been able to see it,
the nightjar has probably taken several
short, reconnoitring flights across the
bracken. Then, without any previous warn-
ing, with a gentle flap our bird surmounts
the fern and drops to the ground beyond
the eggs. For a few moments, with wide
open eyes, it remains motionless ; and equal
stillness must be maintained by the watcher,
for this is the critical and decisive moment.
Having decided that there is no cause for
alarm, the nightjar raises itself and walks
on short legs across the intervening inches.
When once comfortably settled on the eggs,
stillness may be maintained for hours, ex-
cept for slight alterations of the eyeslit ; the
eye, indeed, may be entirely closed at times.

Both sexes incubate, so that we may have
either bird in front of us. If it be the male
we see a squat form, slightly over ten inches
in length, with long, slightly rounded head,
and with tail projecting beyond the ends of
the wings. Above, it is barred and streaked
and finally pencilled with lichen-grey and
brown. Beneath, the bars alternate more
regularly. The grey head is finely lined and
speckled with brown. Bristles surround the
mouth, which opens far back into the head,
and which is provided with the smallest and
weakest of beaks. The outer tail-feathers
are usually tipped with white ; in the female
these tips are buff, as are also the white spots
which the male displays on his primaries in
flight. Otherwise the hen resembles her
mate. In each case the general effect is
extraordinarily like twisted lichened bark.

A peculiar feature is presented by the long
middle claw, which is provided with a row
of " flattened, serrated projections like the
teeth of a comb." These pectinations have
been connected by some naturalists with the
habit of crouching along a bough instead of
perching across it ; whilst others have sug-
gested that the comb might be used to clean
the bristles surrounding the mouth. Fur-
ther observation, however, is needed to
enable a decision to be made as to the use
of this claw ; and also to determine the
reason for the flickering of the feathers on
the throat which often occurs in brooding
nightjars for no apparent cause.

The Young Nightjar

The fledged young of both sexes closely
resemble the hen. Unless much disturbed,
the young nightjars remain close to the spot
where they have been hatched, and when
crouching side by side with eyes closed are
very difficult to observe. At this age it is
not difficult to induce a young nightjar to
open its mouth widely so as to display the
extraordinarily wide gape ; the attitude has
more the appearance of a threatening and
protective device than of a request for food.
When hatched, young nightjars are clothed
in mottled grey down, through which quills
are beginning to force their way at the age
of seven days. Although I have sat for
hours by the side of nightjars which were
comfortably unaware of my presence, in
the hope that the young would be fed, I
have never yet seen it done. It seems to be

1078

NIGHTJAR AND EGGS.

A typical haunt amongst broken, stony ground overwhelmed in seas of bracken.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

a very remarkable feature of the species that
the young should go so long without food.
Young cuckoos are fed from daybreak to
sunset, and are clamorous all the time. If the
time is reversed for the young of this noc-
turnal species, it can only be very short in
June. Mr. E. Selous, who has watched the
operation, says the food is regurgitated by
the old nightjar into the open throat of its
offspring. The nightjar's food entirely con-
sists of night-flying insects, principally moths
and beetles, for the capture of which the
width of the bristle-aided mouth seems
specially designed. In the Peak District
of Derbyshire, and perhaps elsewhere, the
species is often called the " moth-owl."

Provided they are not too many, the night-
jar is not averse to the proximity of human
dwellings. On one waste of millstone grit

and bracken which I know well, several
pairs breed within a few hundred yards of
a house, from the chimney-pots of which a
bird often chur-rs in the gloaming.

Although the edges of moors, broken
hillsides, and furze-clad commons are the
haunts in which nightjars are most numer-
ous, they also inhabit woods, and then
prefer the more open glades. Sand-dunes
also often harbour a few pairs.

Closely related members of the same
family (caprimulgidce} to the number of
more than fifty species are found the world
over, if we except the Arctic and Antarctic
regions and some islands. The only other
species which have wandered to this country
are the Egyptian nightjar and the Algerian
red-necked nightjar, both of which are
known to have occurred in England once.

The monstrous gape of a young Nightjar: the attitude has more
the appearance of a threatening and protective device than of a request

for food.
1080

The Grey Lag Goose is the only species that nests with us, although persecution has
now driven it from most districts in Scotland

55.-THE TRIBE OF THE WILD GEESE

By SETON GORDON, B.A., F.Z.S.

NO greater travellers exist than the
wild geese.
When full spring is come these
swift-winged wanderers leave our shores
where they have passed the winter. In the
evening perhaps, they are at their usual feed-
ing grounds ; by morning well on their way
to Greenland, Spitsbergen, Franz Josef
Land, or kindred countries that approach
the Pole.

Mainly on the land adjoining the North
Sea are found what are often collectively
termed " grey geese " from the difficulty
in distinguishing them at a distance. These
are the pink-footed goose, the bean goose,
and the grey lag. Both east and west the
small and essentially marine brent goose
is found in suitable estuaries, often in enor-
mous numbers. The white-fronted goose,

sometimes classed as one of the grey geese,
is met with usually upon moorland tarns
in the Hebrides and along the western
sea-board generally ; it is nowhere very
numerous. Besides these, such rare and
accidental visitors as the snow goose and
red-breasted goose may turn up in any district
when a succession of storms have carried
them far off their course, but they are
strangers in a strange land.

To me the most interesting of the tribe
of the wild geese is that bird of mystery the
barnacle goose. This fine bird, heedless of
storms, has always been well known in the
Outer Hebrides from October until May,
but since it disappeared at that season and
apparently never bred, a curious belief
existed and still exists with regard to its
origin. It is said to have its birth as a

1081

THE PAGEAttT OF NATURE

barnacle from which, as it hangs far out to
sea suspended from some floating beam,
there emerges a minute gosling. In the
course of time, when fully developed, this
gosling appears as a barnacle goose at the
Outer Hebrides. It seems curious that this

in the evening, yet the sun still shone warmly,
although in the shade frost was binding the
earth but recently released from its winter
covering of snow. On either side the glen
rose great buttresses of rock, and across them
with incessant twittering flew thousands

upon thousands
of little auks.
Above, on the
tops of the bluffs,
werethebarnacle
geese. One pair
which I watched
through the
glass had their
nest on a ledge
half-way down
the cliff. In Brit-
ain a raven or
peregrine falcon
m i ght have

belief should
apply only to
the barnacle
goose; one
might imagine
it would hold
good equally,
let us say, with
the brent goose
which also dis-
appears during
the nesting
season, but it
is true that the
nesting lands
of the barnacle

Photos: Seton Gordon.

Nest of a Grey Lag Goose, in the upper photograph shown covered
over while the parent is feeding. In the lower, it is uncovered and the

eggs exposed.

goose are unusually inaccessible, and until chosen such a nesting place, and it was un-

the present century nothing was known of looked-for to see a pair of geese occupying it.

them. To one who has examined the nesting

So rarely found is its nest that I believe grounds of the barnacle goose it seems to be

I am right in saying that a clutch of eggs impossible that the young goslings, who leave

obtained in 1921 by the Oxford University the nest almost immediately they are hatched,

Expedition in Spitsbergen fetched no less should be able to make the perilous journey

than sixty pounds in this country.

down the perpendicular rock, then across

The barnacle g'oose chooses the most un- acres of formidable boulders, until they have
likely places to nest, and I shall not readily reached the stream which drains the glen,
forget my first sight of their nesting valley Once this is achieved, however, the worst
in West Spitsbergen. It was eleven o'clock of their troubles are over. They are then

1082

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

carried down the current, swift flowing and
turgid from the melting snows, to the sea
a mile or two beneath. Here they are prob-
ably tended by their parents until they are
able to take their long southward flight at
the approach of winter.

It must be a great change for the barnacle
geese to leave Spitsbergen in September or

sea and alighted on the water they would
be safe.

Nesting as they do so far north, the bar-
nacle geese are late in leaving their winter
haunts. I have seen them there when the
peregrine falcon and other birds of the
islands were already nesting, and in some
years it is almost the middle of May before

thoto : M. Best.

A Grey Lag Goose arranging her eggs in a nest among the heather and rock of the

Outer Hebrides.

October in snow and frost and arrive at the
Hebridean Islands before the cold weather.
Indeed, of late years these low isles of the
Atlantic have experienced scarcely a night's
frost and no snow during the whole winter.
When at its British haunts the barnacle
geese feed almost entirely upon grass, but
even when grazing they are alert, and quick
to see the approach of danger. It is curious
that they are extremely unwilling to alight
on the sea. There is one island group where
from time to time they are shot at in the
winter, yet they fly backwards and forwards
from one island to another, passing often
within gunshot, whereas if they flew out to

the last of them have set their course north-
ward. In Spitsbergen they begin to nest at
the end of May or beginning of June. At
this time the country still carries its snowy
covering, but the precipitous hill slopes and
rocks where the geese nest are snow-free
before the more level lands.

It is probable that the cliff- nesting habit
originated when the Arctic fox was so nu-
merous as to be a menace to the birds.
Now, the fox, like the reindeer, has been
so persecuted by hunters that it is rarely
seen in the western part of Spitsbergen.

The habits of the brent goose in its British
winter quarters are very different from those

1083

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

until April they are present in thousands.

of the barnacle (or as it is sometimes called moss where their nest was a well-marked
" bernicle ") goose. I have mentioned that hollow, lined with soft down and on the
the latter bird never voluntarily alights on shingle. Those nests on the shingle were
the sea. The brent, on the other hand, shallow depressions, after the style of the nest
spends the whole winter afloat, frequenting of the oyster catcher, and the shiny white
some river estuary that will provide it with eggs harmonized closely with the pebbles
an abundance of that marine " grass "- among which they lay.
zoster a marina. There is one favourite Even in that unfrequented haunt the geese
haunt of the species at Malahide, a few were wary, for sealing sloops from Norway
miles north of Dublin, where from October although the distance is more than six

hundred miles each summer visit all the
isles off west Spitsbergen
and collect the eggs and
down of the eider duck.
The brent goose suffers
even more from these raids,
for its eggs are taken and,
since it is a tasty morsel,
it is shot into the bargain !
Thus in Spitsbergen the
species is fast becoming
exterminated, and one may
now visit the island group
named Anser Islands, from
the great numbers of geese
nesting here formerly, and
find not a single repre-
sentative.

The "grey geese,"
though resembling each
other closely at a distance,
and of similar habits during
their winter stay with us,
are birds which in summer
inhabit widely removed

The Barnacle Goose nests in far Spitsbergen, but spends
the summer with us in North Britain.

Another celebrated home of theirs is on

countries. Take first the
grey lag. It is the one
goose that nests with us,
although persecution has
banished it from most
districts of Scotland, and it now nests

at Malahide take the northward
The brent nests far north of Britain.

Holy Island on the coast of Northumbria. only along the north-west seaboard of that

Curiously enough, they leave this winter country and in the Outer Hebrides. In

haunt a full six weeks before their cousins the winter and spring, on the Northum-

flight. brian coast, I have seen grey lag geese per-

Upon haps visitors from overseas and not Scottish

Moffen Island, just over 80 north latitude nesting birds feeding with bean geese, and,

(that is, only six hundred nautical miles from watching them through a powerful stalking

the Pole itself), we found more brent geese glass, it has been interesting to compare

nesting than anywhere else. This curious them. On one occasion three grey lags

island is only a very few feet above high tide ; fed beside two bean geese, each species

in its centre is a lagoon, still ice-covered keeping to itself. The grey lags were dis-

when we visited the isle upon a magnificent tinctly larger, their bill-tips whitish , whereas

day of mid- July.

those of the bean geese were black (hence

The brent geese were nesting both on the the name bean goose, from the fancied

1084

WOHDERS OF BIRD LIFE

resemblance of this black " nail " to a bean).
The heads and necks of the bean geese were
much darker, this being noticeable even on
the wing, while the legs of the two species
were also distinctive, those of the grey lags
being flesh-coloured while the legs of the
bean geese showed a red tinge.

So alike are the bean and the pink-footed

It was largely by accident that I dis-
covered their feeding ground. One after-
noon in mid-March, when the south-west
wind blew warmly and a feeling of spring
was in the air, I was lying with my long glass
in the shelter of a hedge watching the lap-
wings which were wheeling above a large
stubble field where they would shortly nest.

Photo :
Riley Fortune, F.Z.S.

The Bean Goose, so-called from the resemblance of the black bill-tip to a

bean, is much like the Pink-footed Goose, although slightly larger. Their

winter habits also are very similar.

geese that in former times in the days of
Seebohm the one was classed as a sub-
species of the other. The bean is slightly
the larger of the two, and the " nail " of
black at the extremity of the bill is somewhat
longer. Their winter habits are similar, so
a description of the winter haunts of the
bean goose on the coast of Northumbria
(where pink-footed geese are also found) may
be of interest,

I was about to rise from my place of conceal-
ment when a company of perhaps forty " grey
geese " flew in from the sea and settled on
the field. They were in full view of me,
and through the glass I had an excellent
opportunity of studying them as they fed
unsuspectingly on the young grass. After
" grazing " for just under three-quarters
of an hour most of the geese walked to a
small pool, where they quenched their

1085

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

thirst, subsequently returning to their feed-
ing. Several of their number dozed, while
a lazy individual cropped the grass as it sat.
After feeding for one and a half hours with
scarcely a pause the geese rose in a body
and flew west.

The following day they were in the same
field, but took flight and alighted on the
neighbouring mud-flats at the water's edge.
Here most of them went to sleep, but the

afternoon they crossed right over me,
flying high in long "strings" which,
from the somewhat unequal flight of
the birds, " waved " slowly just as though
a long pennant were floating lazily from
some castle turret on a gentle breeze. It
was a very charming sight, and the con-
fused and melodious calls of the birds
were good to hear..

During the first half of April the geese

The small Brent Goose is essentially a marine bird, and spends the whole winter afloat

in and about some estuary.

rising tide annoyed them so that they rose
and steered inland, calling repeatedly,
and again came down in their favourite
field.

On March 24th, a calm and spring-like
day, I had (still in the same field) the best
view of the geese. Through the glass I could
distinctly see the black " nail " or " bean "
on their bills. They had already paired,
apparently, for I saw a bird presumably a
gander walk up to a sleeping goose and
mount guard beside it. There were two
companies of the geese in the field,
about sixty birds in each lot. That

left their Northumbrian haunts and I saw
them no more.

In a subsequent summer, however,
amid the desolate though curiously fas-
cinating wastes of far distant Spitsbergen,
I saw the pink-footed geese at home.

A lonely valley, sodden with melting snow,
was their summer haunt. On either side rose
barren hills, still almost entirely snow-clad.
A great lake of muddy water covered miles
of the valley, and so gradual was the rise
that the elevation, ten miles from the sea,
was less than a hundred feet. From the glen
on each side turgid torrents hurried to the

1086

/. :,>...: SMfc

PINK-FOOTED GOOSE ON HER NEST.

This photograph was taken at midnight, on a precipitous face of rock in Spitsbergen, at

a time of mist and drizzle.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

valley, its banks fringed with a high snow both the parents showed much concern

cornice or an ice wall, and so swollen as to on its behalf.

But perhaps the most lonely and desolate
nesting ground of the pink-footed goose in
Spitsbergen is Vogel Hook, a wild headland

be by no means easy to cross.

No sound broke the stillness save an
occasional wild laughing cry from an Arctic
skua and the murmur of the many streams.

on the north-west coast of Prince Charles

On tireless wing, fulmar petrels made their Foreland. Some of the geese here lay their
way seaward from their inland nesting sites eggs on the precipitous rocks where a ledge
upon the high snow-clad precipices, or affords them a scanty hold, others nest on

the steep grassy slopes, covered
with " scurvy grass," which fall
away beneath the main cliff.

Above the geese Briinnich's guil-
lemots (of stouter build than the
British species) nest in their thou-
sands, and the misty air is filled
with their clamour and the shrill
querulous cries of the kittiwakes
that also have their home here.

In the niches of the cliffs icy,
discoloured snow still lies in July,
and a mile or so farther east and
out of reach of the comparatively
warm air currents from the
Greenland Ocean snow lies deep
and continuous to the tide.

It seems a far cry from these
Arctic solitudes to the shores of
the British Isles, yet it is probable
that some of the geese of Spits-
bergen winter with us.

The last of the grey geese
the white fronted species may
readily be distinguished from
swiftly returned from their foraging in the the rest by its white " frons " or fore-
Greenland Ocean, and far up the valley, head when the birds are upon the ground
where a glacier shed a small cascade and are seen through a glass. On the wing
of muddy water on to the ground it is a larger and heavier bird than the
below, a pair of pink-footed geese had bean or pink-footed species, and it may also

Nest of the Brent Goose. These birds breed in
Spitsbergen and the neighbouring islands.

made their nest.

be identified from its cry.

Upon a little knoll which was evidently It remains very late at its winter

snow-free before the surrounding land, lay quarters, and on May nth, 1923, some of

the two large eggs. Close at hand were the these birds were flying north across the

remains of nests of previous years hollows Hebridean island of South Uist where, along

scraped out in the hard unyielding soil and with the barnacle geese, they have their

holding small pieces of egg-shell now half winter home. The white-fronted goose

overgrown by a scanty Arctic vegetation, does not nest in Spitsbergen, but has its

Another nest which was found at a sub- summer quarters in Northern Greenland,

sequent date was built in a plant of Dry as where it is probably rarely disturbed. It

octopetala, with dark leaves and a profusion breeds also on Kolguef, Novaya Zemlya,

of cream-coloured blossom. In this nest and in Eastern Siberia, so is a species of

a young gosling had just been hatched, and wide distribution.

1088

ADULT OYSTER CATCHER AND ITS EGGS

A well-known bird around the British coasts, the Oyster Catcher is often called "Sea-pie

from its black and white plumage

Photograph by Henry Willford

m ^iU^^^ T ; * -iff : : ' V

'- -

OYSTER CATCHER TURNING ITS EGGS

The long bUl and foot are used in this operation

Photograph by G. A. Booth

OYSTER CATCHER SITTING DOWN ON ITS NEST

One of the eggs is seen to be chipped

Photograph by G. A. Booth

YOUNG FLEDGED OYSTER CATCHER

The newly-hatched chicks are sandy-grey, slightly mottled with black, with almost white

underparts

Photograph by G. C. S. Ingram, M.B.O.U.

The Oyster Catcher may be often seen standing silent on some rocky outpost, a
sentinel of birdland, apparently asleep, yet ever on the alert.

56.-THE OYSTER CATCHER
The Warden of our Rock-bound Coasts

By HENRY WILLFORD

With photographs by the Author

THE oyster catcher, or sea-pie, is a
smart, well-dressed little bird that may
be met with any day around the rocky
places of the coast. With his bright coral-
red beak and legs and well-balanced alterna-
tion of black and white markings, he cuts a
striking figure as he struts about in the fore-
ground of blue sea and sky. Though he is
most partial to the rocks and rugged cliffs, he
may be seen round almost the entire coast
of both the Old and New Worlds, and is a
permanent resident with us in the British
Isles.

In some parts he may be found feeding
some considerable distance inland among

the meadows, or even over arable land,
though I have never found them nesting far
away from the seashore.

Often he may be seen standing silent on
some rocky outpost, a sentinel of birdland,
one leg drawn up and beak tucked away
amid the feathers of the back, apparently
asleep, yet ever on the alert. At the slightest
cause for alarm he wakes as if by magic and
is off, running at great speed before taking
wing. During the autumn and winter he
joins with others of his kind, and large
flocks may be seen together hunting at the
edge of the receding tide. With short runs
they flit hither and thither, probing the

1089

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

rocks and shallow pools, and dislodging
limpets with their strong wedge-shaped
beaks.

Through this habit of feeding on shell-
fish these birds would appear to have got
their descriptive name, even if it does not
altogether apply. They have a clever way

above, either amongst the higher rocks or
simply on the grass or bare earth.

Many birds seem to have a love of orna-
ment, and will decorate their nest with
curious and apparently quite useless oddi-
ties, and the oyster catcher, for this purpose
apparently, will sometimes surround his

The Oyster Catcher takes little trouble about making a nest ; a mere scratch on the
ground seems to content it, but it takes care to place it well out of reach of the tide.

of persuading limpets to release their tena-
cious hold of the rocks by means of one or
two sharp taps from a powerful beak, given
no doubt when the limpet is not concen-
trating fully on its job of clinging.

For his breeding haunts the oyster
catcher favours the north of England and
Scotland, though he also breeds freely in
the Scillies. Of these islands practically
every one, large or small, will have at least
one or two breeding pairs. He takes little
trouble about the making of his nest, how-
ever, a mere scratch in the ground on a
sandy or shingly beach seeming to content
him, but he does take care to place it well
out of the reach of an abnormal spring tide,
and differs in this from the careless little
ringed plovers and colonies of tern, whose
nests are frequently washed clean away.

Where the coast is rugged and cliffs are
steep, he usually nests on the moorland

nest with a collection of small shells. In
cases where this is not done the site seems
to have been carefully chosen in the midst of
Nature's own adornment among clusters of
sea pink, marsh mallow, or spurry.

The eggs, which are two or three
usually three in number, vary very much
in colour. Sometimes the ground tint is
lightish brown or " stone," but more often
it is olive-green, with dark brown or grey
blotches and lines, massed sometimes at the
larger end, and at others fairly evenly
distributed.

Amongst most wild creatures it is usual
to find a great diversity in the temperament
of individuals, and in no birds have I found
this more marked than in the oyster catcher.
While one pair may prove most easy of
approach and become quite accustomed to
the " hide " of the photographer, others
will be almost unapproachable for close-

1090

or
c
15

1
I

Si
S

W -M

H w

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

During incubation both sexes take their turn in sitting. The male may always be dis-
tinguished by his stronger colouring the black being blacker, and the red bill redder

than that of his mate.

range work, which means anything from five
to ten feet. I remember one pair in par-
ticular on the Island of Guthers, in Scilly,
that would stay off their eggs from the time
our boat landed until we departed again,
a period of often seven hours. Curiously
enough, these eggs all hatched out. Another
pair we " tented " caused no trouble what-
ever, and stood the noise of a cinematograph
camera almost at once.

During incubation both birds take turns
at sitting, and are easily distinguishable one
from the other, the male being a much
brighter colour and almost coal-black in the
dark areas, while his mate is of a much
browner hue and lacks that rich red in
beak, iris, and legs.

In some pairs I have watched, the males
seemed to incubate only for short periods,
just long enough, in fact, to allow the female
time for a meal and a preen-up.

The young hatch out more together
than many of the waders, and one can
usually expect to find them all out of the

nest within twenty-four hours of the first
egg chipping.

In appearance the newly hatched chicks
are sandy-grey, slightly mottled with black,
with almost white underparts, harmonizing
wonderfully in colour with the sand, shingle,
and rocks. When standing upright they
are ungainly, being somewhat top-heavy,
but they soon betake themselves to the
water's edge, where they begin their educa-
tion and are fed from the parent's beak on
minute particles of semi-digested food. This
feeding is a most interesting sight to watch,
and I believe is the common method of
all waders in the early stages of chick rear-
ing. Almost as soon as the young hatch they
have the instinct to peck in this way at the
parent's beak, nibbling round it in a pleading
way, as if asking to be fed.

The adults are devoted parents and,
like most waders, are ready to defend their
young to the last. They apparently lose
all fear when the young are hatched, and
both birds fly around screaming, trying by

1092

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

every means in their power to attract the
intruder away from their chicks.

Oyster catchers breed fairly close to each
other and are well disposed among them-
selves, though they will drive intruders away
very fiercely. In Shetland a pair I watched
were very much worried by a hooded crow,
who was feeding on the shore not far from
their nest, and at last both birds made
a determined attempt to get rid of him.
Attacking always from the rear, flying
backwards and forwards and screaming
all the while, they succeeded after three
or four minutes in completely routing the
enemy, for he flew off, apparently never to
return.

As with many other birds and animals, the
breeding and mating season of the oyster
catcher is the time for dance and play, and
they seem to have a curious little jazz-dance
all of their own. One sea-pie, standing on a
rock, will be joined by another and begin the
fun. Chattering and screaming and bob-
bing their heads, with chin tucked in and
beaks pointing vertically downwards, they
prance about, flying from rock to rock and
repeating the performance, until some half-
dozen others have joined in. For a minute

more this goes on, until one by one they tire
of the game and disperse, and silence reigns
once more.

Though in their natural state, like the
curlew, these sea-pies are wild and restless,
ever on the look out for danger, yet they make
delightful pets once they can be tamed. A
pair that was given to me some years ago
lived a long time, and did splendid execu-
tion among the insects and worms in my
garden, being at the same time, I found,
quite harmless to plant life. Altogether
they are attractive birds, and the only
regret one feels when spending a season
in securing their photographs is of being
unable to do justice to the fine colouring,
both of the birds themselves and of the
great expanse of sea and sky and rocky
shore that in Nature makes them so
wonderful a background.

Like the curlew, who may be called the
guardian of the moor, or the redshank
the warden of the marsh, the oyster catcher,
ever ready to sound the first note of alarm
on approach of danger, might well be
dubbed the keeper of the coast, since it is
on his constant alertness that his congeners
mostly rely.

Within twenty-four hours of the first egg-chipping the young Oyster Catchers will have
left the nest and be on their way to the water's edge.

Curiosities of Insect Life

29.-NATURE'S FAIRY LIGHTS

By A. HAROLD BASTIN

With photographs by Hugh Main, B.Sc., F.E.S.

SOME sticklers for accuracy have- ex-
pressed the opinion that Nature's
fairy-lights to wit, the glow-worms
are inaptly named. They certainly glow
(say these critics), but they are insects
not worms ! Yet those who have looked

lowed by a series of nearly identical rings,
or segments creatures, in fine, which
cannot have been very unlike our earth-
worms of to-day. Granted, therefore, that
the glow-worm is an insect, and that all

nsects are

A Glow-worm twisting her body from side to
better to display her light. The " light-bearers
' ^f the female sex.

most closely into the question of animal
ancestry assure us that all insects must be
regarded as " glorified worms," in the
sense that they appear to be derived from
a common stock of progenitors whose bodies
were composed of a simple head -lobe fol-

kinds of worms," the name of
our little " fairy light " is not
so far-fetched after all ! Be-
sides, it carries this positive
advantage, that it rivets atten-
tion upon the fact that its
owner, although actually a
beetle, is distinctly worm-like
in guise. The glow-worms of
the poet " earth-stars," as
Wordsworth called them
which shine in the warm
darkness of summer evenings,
are all members of the fair
sex ; and while their success
as specialists in light-pro-
duction has been exceptional,
their development in other
directions was arrested long
ago if, indeed, they are not
examples of what the biol-
ogists call " retrogression "
or " simplification." For the
female glow-worm, after pass-
ing through the pupal stage
and completing her meta-
morphosis, appears to the
casual glance not to differ at
all from the full-fed larva
save that her light is much
more powerful. The sexually
mature male, on the other
hand, is unmistakably a beetle, with wings
and wing-cases (or elytra) all complete.
Why should these things be ? Perhaps it
is not possible, in the present state of our
knowledge, to answer this question de-
cisively. Yet much interesting information

side the
' are all

1094

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

concerning the glow-worm's physical en-
dowments and manner of life has been
amassed by trustworthy investigators. Let
us at least examine this evidence.

The glow-worm seems to occur most

Two Glow - worm Larvae feeding

on a snail, having first injected

into it a serum which tranforms

the solid flesh into a fluid.

commonly on a dryish soil especially,
perhaps, on chalk. Thus, while the writer
dwells in the midst of a " fertile land "
wherein insect life abounds, he never sees
" fairy lights "in the course of his ordinary
evening walks. Should he desire to renew
his acquaintance with these delights, he
must perforce undertake a journey of some
miles threading the streets of a populous
town, and crossing a bridge which spans
the Thames until he gains the nearest
chalky slopes of Oxfordshire. Probably
the reason for this is that the glow-worm,
being an epicure of somewhat exclusive
tastes, chooses to reside in the localities
where its favourite dainties abound. It
feeds on small molluscs
by preference the little snails
which (so it is said) are
also eaten in enormous num-
bers by sheep, and have
much to do with the excel-
lence of " down mutton." The
nature of the glow-worm's
food has long been known ;
but the precise manner in
which it attacks its prey and
consumes it was discovered
by Fabre, whose essay on this
subject was one of the last

to be penned by this great naturalist. It
would seem that the larval glow-worm,
in common with many other insects,
is furnished with hollowed mandibles,
instruments, in fact, which resemble in
structure the poison fangs of snakes.
Through these grooved jaws the insects in
question imbibe their food in a liquid state.
But the glow-worm does more than this. It
injects into its prey an anaesthetic poison
which speedily insures immobility, and a
serum capable of transforming the solid
flesh into fluid. Fab-re graphically des-
cribes the mode of attack, which may be
witnessed by anyone who has sufficient
time and patience at his disposal ; for your
hungry glow-worm is not coy. The insect
"for a moment investigates the prey,
which, according to its habit, is wholly
withdrawn into the shell, except the edge
of the mantle, which projects slightly."
Then it appears to administer repeated taps
to this vulnerable point taps so gentle
that they " suggest kisses rather than bites,"
and Fabre decides to call them " tweaks."
But the effect of these tweaks, distributed
methodically, and without hurrying, is
very marked. " The first few ... are
enough to impart inertia and loss of all
feeling to the mollusc, thanks to the prompt,
I might almost say lightning, methods of
the Lampyris, who, beyond a doubt, instils
some poison or other by means of its grooved
hooks."

It often happens that several larvae join
the original anaesthetist, with the result that
the carcass of the victim, even when the
prize is a large one, is soon reduced to the
requisite consistency. Wait for a couple of
days, then turn the shell with the opening
downwards, and " the contents flow out as

1. 2. 3.

1. Glow-worm larva on the prowl. 2. Male larva awaiting

pupation. 3. Male Pupa, and empty larval skin.

1095

THE PAGEflTfT OF NATURE

easily as would soup from an overturned
saucepan." Like the maggots of many
flies, the glow-worm is able to liquefy and
partially digest its food before swallowing it !
Fabre's explanation of the circumstances

Glow-worm Pupa just emerg-
ing from larval skin.

which seem to have evoked the glow-worm's
astonishing mode of attack is both interest-
ing and convincing. When (he says) the
snail is resting upon a grass-stem, or the
smooth surface of a stone, the insect must
proceed with extreme prudence. The in-
fliction of a painful wound would cause the
victim instantly to contract, to let go its
hold upon its support, and thus to fall to
the ground, where it would become a
" lost opportunity " since the glow-worm
" has no great zeal for hunting expeditions."
But by means of a few deft almost caress-
ing tweaks the snail is thrown into sudden
and profound anaesthesia ; and subsequent
operations are con-
ducted with such
exquisite precision
that the shell, though
the equilibrium is
sometimes anything
but steady, is main-
tained in its original
position until the
whole of its contents
have been demol-
ished.

The glow-worm's
larva has at its tail-
end a somewhat

unusual apparatus which may be described
as a " pseudopod " or " proleg," since its
chief and original function is to assist the
insect in climbing, especially on smooth
surfaces. When magnified, it is seen to
resemble a " rosette of twelve fingers,"
which " do not seize, but stick."

The " fingers " are retractable, and capable
of moving in every direction. In fine, we
may liken the organ, without an unwarrant-
able stretch of the imagination, to a small
white sea-anemone. As we have said, its
primary office is locomotion and adhesion ;
but it is also used frequently as a sponge,
with which, in moments of leisure following
a feast, its owner polishes its body from
end to end, thus removing the last traces
of viscidity that remain from contact with
the snail.

The adult female glow-worm lays her
eggs about midsummer or rather, she
scatters them at random among the herbage,
or on the bare ground, for she knows no
refinements of the maternal instinct. Hatch-
ing takes place a few days after the eggs
are deposited, and the young larvae com-
mence their feeding. At the approach of
winter they like their prey the snails
find it expedient to retire before the increas-
ing severities of the weather. So the larvae
burrow into the soil, three or four inches
below the surface. In late March or early
April (the snails being now active again)
they reappear, and prosecute the business
of nutrition with so much success that by
the end of April, or the beginning of May,
they are ready to pupate. This means a
second plunge into the soil, perhaps less
deeply than before ; and about a fortnight
later the perfect insects appear.

i. 2, 3.

1. Male Glow-worm, with the terminal segments of its abdomen
extended. 2. Another view. 3. The underside.
1096

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

In the pupal stage the sexes are easily
distinguished, because the wing rudiments
of the male are visible as pads, or flaps,
folded across the ventral surface of the
thorax. This is well shown in one of
Mr. Main's beautiful photographs. Another
point that the pictures serve to emphasize
is the remarkable difference between the
larva's " foot," or tarsus, and that of the
adult female. The former consists of one
piece only, and ends in one claw ; whereas
the latter is five-jointed and terminates in
a pair of claws. Other aggrandisements
conferred by maturity upon the female are :
(i) more elaborate "feelers," or antennae,
and (2) a more expansive pronotum : i.e.
the upper shield, or plate, of the first
thoracic segment. Apart from these details
and, of course, the outstanding fact of
her great light the female might easily
be mistaken for an extra big larva.

Let us now turn our attention to the
luminosity of the glow-worm. It resembles
somewhat that given off by phosphorus,
and is often spoken of as phosphorescence.
Luminescence is, however, the better term,
although the word phosphorescence is
often used loosely nowadays to designate
any light which is produced without the
accompaniment of perceptible heat. But
the glow-worm's light really has nothing
to do with phosphorus. This much the
chemist can tell us with confidence. But
he cannot say precisely what the substance
is from which, under certain conditions,
the glow is given off. We know it only as
a peculiar fatty matter, of undetermined
composition, whose " oxidation," or chemical
combination with oxygen, liberates energy
in the form of heatless light. This matter
is found in the body of the glow-worm in
all the stages of its metamorphosis, even
in the eggs. In the larva and adult male
it appears as two spots mere pin-points
on the terminal segment of the abdomen
beneath. In the adult female we have
in addition to these normal " side-lights "
a broad belt of luminescence on the ven-
tral surface of each of the two segments
which immediately precede the last. In
order that her light may be the more visible
and effective, the glow-worm twists the tip
of her abdomen to right or left, in the manner
shown in the photograph on page 1094.
The bands of luminous matter, which lie

just beneath the skin, are traversed by air-
tubes, or tracheae branches, in fact, from
the insect's general respiratory system.
By regulating the flow of air through these
tubes, the light may be caused to wax or
wane ; by arresting the flow the lamp may
be extinguished. If a glow-worm be placed
in oxygen gas, its light is greatly intensified.
The light is soft and pleasing, with just a
suspicion of blue-green in its refulgence.

The peculiar eyes of the male
Glow-worm are an additional
reason for concluding that the
light of the female is a beacon
hung out to attract her mate.

As Fabre says, it " suggests a spark dropped
by the full moon." Thus the insect's
scientific name (Lampyris noctilucd) is par-
ticularly happy, since being freely trans-
lated it signifies " one whose tail shines
with moonlight."

The light of the glow-worm, although
bright and splendid, is a poor illuminant.
Insects stand in no need of reading-lamps !
It would seem most serviceable as a signal
a beacon. But why should a lady set
up a beacon ? Certain naturalists of the
past appear to have regarded this question
as a " poser." The obvious answer failed
to satisfy them. " There are plenty of
night-flying insects which manage to find
their mates in the dark without the use of
any such aid (i.e. luminescence), being
attracted to them by scent rather than by
sight." Thus, for example, said the late
Rev. J. G. Wood, whose books were the
chief solace and source of inspiration of
the present writer's youthful days. But
surely this is rank philosophical conser-
vatisma mental standpoint from which
the thinker sees Nature as a colossal stereo-
type, instead of as the eternal voyage of
discovery which she really is. To suggest

1097

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

that because old methods have worked to points of vantage among the herbage, and
u perfection new ones must not be tried is no sit restlessly turning their tails, first this
valid argument. The lure- of novelty is way, then that, so that their light is directed
paramount, whether it be in nature or in successively to all points of the compass,
art. Once get the idea into Nature's head The male's eyes constitute another strong
that by the explosion of a bomb she could piece of evidence. They are of uncommon
" unite two loving hearts," and depend upon size great convexities which almost meet
it the experiment would be tried. It in the middle line of the face, and are carried

well back under the hood
formed by the pronotum.
In this way the field of
vision is limited, much
as we. ourselves should
choose to limit it were
we peering from a flying
machine at night, in the
hope of seeing light sig-
!g nals from the ground

jfflH below r . The male glow-

jfllF Jfe ^jjjjjjl worm has ample wings.

J^f jm He travels swiftly

jR | sometimes a great way

in iiarffllr

^"^PP^Wr

up. He sees the light
of the expectant female,
steers towards it, and
alights. These things are
known with certainty.
Whether the lady in-
variably accepts the ad-
vances of the suitor first
to arrive remains an
open question, although

Highly magnified leg of the female Glow-worm. The larva and

the adult female are very much alike, except that the foot of the fruit of observation
the latter, instead of being of one piece ending in a claw, is : n ot h er fields su^ests
five-jointed, and has two claws, as shown in the photograph.

strongly that the answer

might not prove successful. Perhaps the is in the negative," as the parliamentarians
element called " survival value " would be
lacking, because there might be nothing left
to survive. But one more little problem

would be solved for all time,
never forgets !

Nature

say. But the question which asks what is
the " use " of the light is surely no longer
in doubt. As Fab re says : " The beacons
of the female glow-worm are evidently
nuptial signals, invitations to the pairing."

Therefore we are constrained to discard This is exactly what old Gilbert White,

our prejudices, and admit at least until whose death occurred just two centuries

we are ready with a better explanation ago, had to say about it in verse,

that the glow-worm's light is really what it The chilling night-dews fall away, retire ;

seems to be : viz., a beacon displayed by a For see, the glow-worm lights her amorous fire /

lady with matrimonial leanings. All the Thus, ere night's veil^had half^ obscured the^ sky,

known facts point this way. At nightfall True^o^ie^^^l"

these amorously disposed insects clamber to Leander hastens to' his Hero's bed.

oooooooooocooooooO Ooooooooooocoooooo

1098

30.-ONE OF NATURE'S MYSTERIES

SOLVED

The Large Blue Butterfly and its Host

By F. W. FROHAWK, M.B.O.U., F.E.S.

ALTHOUGH the large blue (Lycaena ciative of affection and aversion and other

ariori) has been known as a British emotions. Of all the wonderful phenomena

species since 1795, its life-history in the lives of insects is the extraordinary

remained surrounded by mystery, and friendly association existing between two

for many years defied the
most careful investigation.
Finally, in 1918, combined
with the indefatigable re-
searches carried out by my
friend, Capt. E. B. Purefoy,
for whose kind assistance I
feel deeply indebted, I was
able to complete the very
remarkable life-history of
this most interesting but-
terfly.

Arion was always con-
sidered a rarity, but during
the middle of last century
it occurred in comparative
abundance in certain dis-
tricts in South Devon, at
Ashton and Barnwell Wolds,
Northamptonshire, and the
Cotswold Hills, Gloucester-
shire. Shortly afterwards,
however, it became scarce The

such totally distinct crea-
tures as ants and butterflies.
It has long been known
that a symbiosis exists be-
tween ants and the larvae
of certain species of the
Lyc&nidce (blues), in fact,
the greatest amity prevails
among them. This ab-
normal friendship existing
between two such different
orders of insects is due to
the fact that the ants obtain
nourishment and derive
pleasure in imbibing a
sweet fluid, which they in-
duce the larvae to excrete
from a honey-gland situated
on the tenth segment on
the back of the arion cater-
pillar. It is well here to
explain that the ants and
Large Blue Butterfly, caterpillars which formed

Photo: Hugh Ma

and disappeared entirely whose life-history has for many the subjects for investiga-
from Northamptonshire. Y eaps def ^ e b d se t p v e at ^ st tion were obtained from

During the 'eighties it was

two widely separated locali-

considered to be on the verge of extinction ties, viz., the caterpillars from Cornwall and

in this country, but in 1891 it was unex- the ants from mid-Kent. It is not known

pectedly discovered on the north-west coast that arion ever existed in Kent ; if it did so

of Cornwall, where it has since occurred in it was at some very remote period, probably

abundance.

From the careful investigations made

i ,000 years or more ago. When we take into
consideration its non-existence in Kent,

during recent times it is clearly evident that it is beyond our power to explain the pre-
many acts performed by ants are the outcome vailing sense retained, or the knowledge
of intelligence and reasoning, and many of these two distinct insects instantly acquire,
their ways and doings are governed by enabling them when they suddenly meet,
experience and memory. Ants possess immediately to recognize each other with
the sense of smell, taste, and touch to the greatest amity; it is one of the most
a very high degree, also faculties which wonderful and perplexing of the many
control their actions in accordance with examples of the astounding phenomena
circumstances ; they are likewise appre- occurring in the lives of insects. Unlike

1099

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

j 1

From a drawing by F. If-'. Frohawk, M.B.O.U.,

The larva of the Large Blue Butterfly secretes a sweet juice much appreciated by ants.

1. Larva in its normal attitude. 2. Here it has hunched itself up ready to be carried,

3. The ant, on seeing the signal, seizes it in its mandibles and

the larvae of all other British butterflies,
anon in its larval state undergoes two totally
distinct phases of life, the duration of which
extends over ten months. In early life,
i.e. during its first three stages, it lives and
feeds on the blossoms of the wild thyme
(Thymus serpyllum), which in all occupies
about twenty days, i.e. from the time of
emerging from the egg until it has attained
its third moult, which usually takes place
during the first half of August. After this
stage is reached it ceases to remain any longer
on the thyme, and deliberately casts itself
off and falls on the ground, preliminary to
entering into an entirely changed and strange
existence, to spend its comparatively long
life, extending over nine months, in the
depths and gloom of the interior of an ants'
nest, when it becomes insectivorous, feed-
ing on the little grubs of ants. Until the
year 1905 nothing whatever was known of
either the larva in i*s last stage or the pupa.
The friendship between ants and anon

* It is, of course, quite impossible to photograph
these incidents, so no excuse is needed for intro-
ducing the drawings by Mr. Frohawk.

I first suspected from watching many of
the female butterflies depositing their eggs
on the blossoms of thyme growing on ants'
nests, which they seemed to choose in
preference to the plants growing on the
flat surface in close proximity. Later on,
when searching ants' nests in company with
the late Dr. T. A. Chapman in the month
of May, a fully grown anon larva was found
by him in the nest of a species of ant,
Myrmica scabrinodes. This fortunate find at
once paved the way to success, as it at once
determined that the nature of the food cf
this interesting creature consisted of the
larvae of ants, and it also demonstrated that
the ants' nest was its home. With this
important step in the right direction,
Capt. Purefoy set to work to follow up the
problem, an undertaking which he not only
accomplished, but worked out in such a
manner that every minute detail of the
life of the larva in its last stage was
thoroughly investigated, the whole ter-
minating in complete success.

I may here briefly describe the earlier stages
of arion t which I worked out, and recorded

IIOO

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

in The Entomologist, vols. 32, 36, 38, 39
and 46. In its now few favourite haunts,
arion makes its appearance during the latter
part of June, and continues on the wing
throughout July, a few straggling on until
the middle of August, but in Gloucestershire
it usually appears rather earlier and remains
on the wing for a shorter period. Its
haunts vary according to the district ; in
the Devon and Cornish localities the wild
hillsides and valleys are its favourite re-
sorts, especially the slopes facing the south
and covered with a mixed rough growth of
heather, bramble, gorse, and an abundance
of wild thyme. On the Cotswolds it
frequents the broad rides and openings
in the beech woods as well as the hilly
slopes.

The females select the plants of thyme
growing in a variety of positions, from the
summits of hills, fully exposed to all con-
ditions of weather, to the plants almost
concealed by denser growth in the valleys,
for the deposition of their eggs. These
are always laid singly on the flower-head.
Egg-laying extends over a period of four or
five weeks, and the incubation of the eggs
varies from seven to ten days according to
the temperature. At first the little larva

feeds on the downy exterior of the blossom
and then bores through the calyx to
gain access to the interior, where it feeds
on the bases of the petals. During the
first three stages the larvae greedily
devour each other, but as soon as the third
moult has taken place all attempts at canni-
balism cease. After this moult, and in its
final stage, it only measures 3' 18 mm. long, it
is then about twenty days old, of a pale flesh
colour, and possesses a well-developed
dorsal honey-gland, which exudes clear
minute drops of sweet fluid that are eagerly
licked up by ants. The gland is composed
of flexible tissue and surrounded with very
minute glassy white pyriform processes of
various sizes. Those bordering the edges
of the gland are furnished with extremely
minute bristles, all directed towards the
aperture, the whole series forming a fringe
surrounding the gland, probably serving
the purpose of holding the bead of liquid
in place, and also acting as a protection of this
intensely sensitive organ which at once
responds to the touch of an ant. The gland
becomes visible after the second moult.
The facts relating to the function of this
organ in connexion with ants were revealed
as soon as I placed a living arion larva in a

ing by F. IV. Frohaivk,

carries it away to its nest. There the larva spends the next phase of its existence,
being fed with small ant larvse, and yielding in return its sweet juice to the ants.

IIOI

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

box containing some ants, which at once
ran to the larva, waved their antennae over
and upon it, and at the same time closed
their jaws ; they then smelt and licked the
gland on the back of the larva. First one
and then another of the ants would run over
their friend and then stop to lick its gland.
A bead of liquid appeared, and one of the
ants touched it with its mouth, which caused
the bead to disappear. Examination under
a lens showed that the gland kept throbbing
while the larva was feeding. Directly the
foot of an ant touched the gland or went
very near, it immediately throbbed more
violently, swelled up and ejected a globule
of clear liquid which was instantly licked up
by an ant. In a few seconds another foot
touched the gland, another bead of liquid
oozed out, and was once again licked up.
The larva paid absolutely no heed to the
ants running over and around it while it
was feeding. The gland, although ex-
tremely sensitive to the touch of an ant's
foot, winced and contracted when touched
with the point of a very fine sable brush,
but by no means could it be induced to
exude the liquid, although directly an ant's
foot touched it the reaction would take
place.

A Strange " Courtship"

Upon entering its second phase of life,
directly after its third moult, the little
larva starts wandering aimlessly about upon
the thyme, and either by loosing its foot-
hold or casting itself off, it falls to the ground,
where it roams about apparently without
any object in life whatsoever. If placed
near an ant-run or even at the entrance of
a nest, it will probably turn away in an
opposite direction. It frequently wanders
about for many hours, during which time
long pauses are made. It is waiting for
something, but does it know what ? Finally,
when a foraging ant of the genus Myrmica
comes across the little creature, it at once
manifests great interest in it, but anon itself
does not appear in the least pleased at the
meeting. If it is roaming at the time, it
instantly stops, but should the ant leave it
for a moment it resumes its wanderings
as if nothing had occurred.

Directly an ant meets the larva it begins
to caress it, waving its antenna over and
Stroking it, at the same time slowly closing

its jaws. Then it starts to " milk " it, i.e.
to imbibe the beads of liquid exuded from
the gland. The number of such beads which
are exuded during the subsequent " court-
ship " is extraordinary. At intervals the
ant leaves the larva and walks round it
again and again, returning each time to"
caress and milk it. The courtship often
lasts for more than an hour. Finally, by
some mystic sense arion prepares itself to
be carried off by the ant. A most remark-
able performance now takes place. The
little larva gives the signal to the ant by
assuming an amazing attitude by swelling
up the thoracic segments, while the rest of
its body retains its normal shape. The
ant upon seeing the signal gets well astride
the larva, seizes it in its jaws between the
third and fourth segments immediately
behind the hunch, and at once starts off
with its friend at a quick pace. The journey
may be short or long, but all obstacles in
the path are overcome, and they finally
disappear down one of the entrances of the
nest. It often happens that when the
" hunch " is made the ant may not see
the signal. I have seen it repeated four
times before it was detected by the atten-
dant ant, while it was an inch or so away
facing in an opposite direction. The indi-
vidual ant which first finds the larva is
always the one to remain in attendance and
carry it away. Although during the time
many ants may also find it, and stay by, and
even milk it, they soon depart to leave it to
the original attendant, who apparently tells
them their services are not required.

Arion's Life Underground

When the pair have arrived at the entrance
of the nest the ant descends with its burden
deep down into the darkness of the centre
of the nest a gloomy contrast to the larva's
previous existence, amid sweet-scented blos-
soms of the wild thyme in glowing sunlight.
Arrived at its destination, the little anon
enters into its new and extraordinary mode
of life, and partakes of its meal of the strange
new pabulum, viz., an ant larva of very
small size. Should the pair on arrival at
the entrance meet other ants emerging
from the nest, the latter make way by moving
aside and salute the couple by waving their
antennas as they pass.

During the following five or six weeks

1102

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

arion feeds and rapidly grows, until it has
trebled its size. At the approach of winter
it settles down for hibernation in a cavity
deep in the nest, where the ant larvae in
their last stage are tended by the workers.
In some cases arion moves somewhat away
from the ants previous to hibernation, but
usually it remains in its chosen spot and,
in many instances, surrounded by its hosts.
In the spring arion awakens from its long
winter 's sleep and feeds where it has hiber-
nated without shifting from the spot.
Unlike its hosts, who love the warmth of
the sun and regularly bring their larger
larvae and pupae up close to the surface to
benefit by the heat of the sun, arion never
attempts to do so, but remains in the
deepest and darkest part of the nest with the

smaller ant larvae. It continues to feed on
its diet of ant larvae until early in June,
when it attains full growth measuring
14' 8 mm. in length without again moulting
since the previous August when it measured
only 3* 1 8 mm. in length ; a very remarkable
fact. When ready for pupation it does not
as a rule move from the spot where it has
been living in some cavity, but attaches
itself to the roof by the anal claspers to a
pad of silk, and after about six days pupates.
After remaining in the pupal state for about
twenty-one days, the butterfly emerges and
finds its way through the passages of the
nest to the outer world of warmth and sun-
light, when it at once ascends some stem
or other object, to which to cling until fully
developed and ready for flight.

oooooooooooooooooOQO 00000000000000000

Our Prize Photograph

WILLOW WARBLERS AT NEST

This photograph, taken by Miss Catherine Gwendolen Nicholl, was awarded the first prize in the Children's

Photographic Competition.

1103

Wild Flowers and Their Ways

The beautiful little Ivy-leaved Bell-flower must be sought in boggy OP peaty situations,
and in moist woods in the western half of Britain.

23.-FLORAL BELLS

By EDWARD STEP, F.L.S

With photographs by the Author

"TjART of the appeal that flowers make
to all sorts and conditions of men
is their marvellous diversity of form
and colour. Even in closely related flowers
there are differences of tint, in the curves of
the petals, or the manner in which the flowers
are borne singly, clustered in many
fashions, erect or drooping. You may not
consider the reason for your delight as you
walk along upon a flower-seeking ramble,
but you are conscious of an added pleasure
with every different flower you encounter.
By " different " is here meant those that
are obviously unlike in some respects, not

with the fine distinctions drawn by the
critical botanist who brings an eye of
microscopic power and an analytical brain
to bear, and tells us that when we use the
term common bramble we employ an
aggregate name that covers six score or
more of recognizable forms.

The " infinite variety " is strikingly
evident if we take one of the groups known
as genera, and are content to note the dif-
ferences between related members or species
afforded by even our restricted British flora.
Take the bell-flowers for example. In the
broader sense they are a large family

1104

WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR WAYS

the natural order Campanulacece there
being known about a thousand species from
various parts of the world ; but in this country
we have a paltry dozen of them, distributed

plant it appears to spring from the earth
with its flowers ready to open, much as
Minerva is fabled to have sprung fully
armed from the head of Jupiter. We know

The delicate Harebell the bluebell of the Scots is a typical example of a bell-
flower. The corolla is all in one piece, but the mouth is cut into five lobes.

over six genera, some rare and several
doubtful as true natives. The typical
example, dear to children and to poets of
the old-fashioned sort, is the delicate and
graceful harebell (Campanula rotundifolid)
that grows chiefly in heathy places and is
the bluebell of Scotland.

There is an air of mystery about the

that this is not so; but ask your flower- loving
friends if they have seen the plant before it
blossoms, and you will be surprised to
find how few can answer " yes." The
reason for this ignorance is that the plant
seldom grows apart ; it is found usually
among grasses or heather, and until its buds
appear it does not catch the eye. A per-

1105

THE PRGEKttT OF NATURE

The deep blue Round-headed Rampion is

not a common flower, but may be found

locally in the chalk down country.

ennial plant, it passes the winter as a slender
root-stock underground, and the first leaves
it puts out on awakening are of a broad
heart-shape or kidney-shape, which origin-
ally suggested the name rotundifolia. When
the harebell has reached the flowering stage,
these roundish leaves can rarely, if ever,
be found, so that reliance must not be placed
upon them as a distinguishing character.
The lower leaves on the smooth, angled
stem are lance-shaped, and they become
more and more slender the higher up the
Stem they are placed. The beautiful blue

flowers, so delicately hung on their hair-
like foot-stalks, have such exquisite curves
that anyone at all sensible to the charm of
form must pause to study them. In so
doing he will glance inside, and may be
inquisitive concerning the parts and their
arrangement.

Rarely, there is but a single flower on the
stem, but there may be half a dozen or so
in a light open cluster. When there are
more than one the topmost bud of a cluster
is the first to open. The corolla, it will be
seen, is all in one piece, but the mouth of
the bell is cut into five lobes, which indicate
that the bell is made up of five petals with
their edges joined, just as the small green
calyx at its base is a union of five sepals,
certified by the five awl-like points. Within
the corolla we have the long, hairy, clapper-
like pistil in the centre ; and when the flower
opens the five stamens all stand with their
anthers pressed against the hairy portion
upon which they have shed their pollen
already. Their broad bases cover the
nectar glands on the disk in the roof of the
bell really the top of the ovary which is
hidden in the calyx outside.

Soon after the flower opens the anthers
and middle part of the stamens shrivel up
and leave the pistil coated thickly with pollen.
The foot-stalk bends over and brings the bell
into a hanging position. A flying bee
clings to the pistil and climbs up it, in so
doing getting her underside covered with
pollen, but her tongue pushes under the
stamen base to the nectar, and after drinking
she flies off. Later, the clubbed end of the
pistil splits into three or five slender stigmas
which curve outwards. It is upon these
that the next bee lands, and if she has been
visiting harebell flowers already, some of the
pollen on her underside will adhere to the
stigmas, and in this manner the cross-fer-
tilization of the seeds is effected. Should
that second bee fail to arrive in time, the
stigmas will curve over until they reach
the pollen remaining on the pistil, and in
this way bring about self-fertilization.
It flowers from July to October.

All the bell-flowers will be found to have
floral arrangements of this type with
modifications, of course. Differences be-
tween the species will be found in variations
of the bell -shape, the manner in which the
flowers are borne on the stem, and in the

1106

WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR WAYS

habit and foliage of the plants. Most of strikingly when this bell-flower is found
them have flowers of some tint of blue, growing on downs that are close to the
which is changed occasionally to white. sea ; it is then only about two inches

The rampion (Campanula rapunculus) has high, nestling in the turf, and its cluster
a close superficial likeness to the harebell, reduced to a single flower ; so that the novice
except that it is much taller and that the may be pardoned for thinking he has dis-
flower-stem branches considerably and covered a new species. July and August
forms a loose spray of twenty or
more flowers. These, instead of
hanging in correct bell-fashion, are
more erect with the mouth of the
bell upwards. Its root-leaves are
broad ovals, rather fleshy, but those
on the stem get gradually long and
slender as their distance from the
root increases. Its perennial portion
takes the form of a thick root with
firm white flesh, which is edible.
It is grown in gardens, though not
commonly, on this account, the
roots being sliced and introduced
in salads, or it is cooked like
asparagus. As a wild plant it is
rare in this country, growing on
sandy or gravelly banks, and there
is a strong suspicion that these
have sprung at some time from
seeds produced in gardens. The
male of the slender bee Heriades
which has a singular stud arrange-
ment for keeping its hind body
rolled up in sleep is fond of using
this flower as a dormitory.

Quite different in its habit is
the clustered bell-flower (Campanula
glomerata), which is fairly plentiful
on downs and pastures in chalk
districts. It has a stout, upright
stem, varying from six to eighteen
inches high, according to situation.
From the short root-stock are pro-
duced stalked leaves of an elongated
heart-shape ; the stem leaves are
much smaller, stalkless, and their
bases partially wrap the stem. In
small plants the flowers are pro-
duced singly all up the stem, but
in larger examples they form, as a
rule, a compact cluster at the
summit. Plants may be found,
however, combining both arrange-
ments. The central bud of a

cluster is the first to expand. The
influence of situation on the size
and form of plants is shown

The Nettle-leaved Bell-flower is one of the two

largest of our bell-flowers, and may be found in the

hedgerows from July to October.

1 10:

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

a flowering branch which bears
a large blue purple bell, or two
or three bells. In a well-grown
plant the number is three as a
rule ; and all these small clusters
combine with a denser cluster
at the top to produce a very
striking effect. The central of
three buds is the first to open ;
and it will be noticed that the
flowers are all more or less erect
as in the clustered bell-flower.

In copses and moist woods a
very similar but larger plant, the
throatwort (Campanula latifolid),
maybe found, but less frequently.
Extra fine specimens of the
nettle-leaved bell-flower may

Rampion, instead of hanging its

head in correct bell fashion,

stands more erect, the mouth of

the bell upwards.

are the months for finding this
species in flower.

Along thick, bushy hedgerows
and in woods, one of our two
large bell-flowers may be found
in blossom from July to October.
This is the nettle-leaved bell-
flower (Campanula trachelium)
which grows to a height of
three or four feet. Until the
flowering time it is very liable
to be passed by as a nettle or
woundwort, for it has leaves
very like those of the stinging-
nettle, with coarsely toothed
edges. The keen eye, however,
will be quick to notice that
whilst the nettle has opposite
leaves, those of the bell-flower are unpaired lead one to suppose that the tnroatwo
and alternate on the stem. From the base has been found, but attention to two
of each of the upper leaves there emerges or three points may solve any doubt.

1108

The Clustered Bell-flower varies very much according
to its situation. It grows on the chalk, and some-
times, when near the sea, will be only an inch or two
in height.

SHEEP'S BIT.

This scabious-like flower is easily mistaken fop one of the Composites, but if the flower-
head is examined closely, it will be seen to have the same structure as the Campanulas.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

Trachelium has a bristly, angular stem,
and all its leaves have foot-stalks, whilst
the stem of latifolia -is simply grooved
and downy, and the upper leaves have no
stalks. Moreover, if you examine the leaf
margins of trachelium you will find that the
teeth are themselves toothed.

A strong contrast to these tall-growing
bell-flowers is presented by the exquisite
little ivy-leaved bell-flower (Wahlenbergia
hederacea), which must be sought in boggy
or peaty situations on heaths and in moist
woods in the western half of Britain. It
creeps both above and below ground, a
slender root-stock making way in the peaty
soil and long thread-like stems running
along the surface. Its tiny leaves have a
heart-shaped base, and their margins run
out into several angles ; before they are
fully grown they bear a close resemblance
in shape to ivy-leaves. The pale blue
flowers are only half an inch long, and are
really more cylindrical than bell-shaped,
though the mouth with its turned-out lobes
slightly establishes its relation hip to the
campanulas. They have very long foot-
stalks, and are always more or less erect.
The plant is in flower from July to Sep-
tember.

The Sheep's-bit

A few of our bell-flowers would never be
accepted as such on a cursory view they
are more often regarded by the tyro as
composites. This is due to the fact that
the bells are small, and a large number of
them are packed closely together to form
a dense head. A familiar example of this
type is afforded by the sheep 's-bit (Jasione
montana) sometimes called sheep 's-bit
scabious from a certain resemblance to the
field scabious. It occurs frequently on
sandy soils such as heaths on high ground,
but it is more abundant on sea cliffs ; one
form of it (var. littoralis) with very small
flower-heads keeps to sandy shores. Sheep 's
bit is more primitive than campanula, for if
we examine the flower-head closely or pull
it apart, we shall see that the corollas are
divided to their base into five slender petals.
The other details of flower structure agree
pretty closely with those of campanula.
The plant may be either annual or biennial,
with a small tap-root and a rosette of oblong
leaves which have a wavy outline and a

blunt tip. Small as are the flower-heads,
each is a combination of a hundred to two
hundred flowers ; and the policy of so asso-
ciating them is proved by their popularity
among insects. A large number of species,
including flies, bees, butterflies and even
hawk-moths, have been recorded as visitors.

The Round-headed Rampion

Another scabious-like member of the
family is the round-headed rampion (Phy-
teuma orbiculare) ; but it cannot be con-
sidered a common plant, seeing that its
distribution in Britain is limited to the
southern counties between Kent and Wilt-
shire. It is a chalk-loving plant, and should
be sought on the downs. Its perennial
base is a tuberous root-stock. The leaves
are more lance-shaped than those of sheep 's-
bit, narrowing to the tip, and their edges
have rounded teeth. The flowers are a
fine deep blue, and as in sheep 's-bit the
corollas are split to the base into five petals ;
but there is this difference at first the
petals are united by their tips, and this union
causes the stamens to form a tube in which
the anthers shed their pollen. At this time
the pistil is short, but it lengthens
and pushes the pollen before it, so that
it emerges between the petal tips and is in
position to smear the underparts of visiting
insects. This activity has the effect of
separating the petals which now fall back ;
the pistil spreads its stigmas to take the
place of the pollen heaps and to receive
fresh pollen that may be brought by later
visitors. In the photograph of this species
most of the forty flowers are in the earlier
closed condition, but one in the front is
fully open, and others show the petal tips
separating to allow the pollen to protrude.
One pistil stands with its two stigmas
separating, and its middle still smeared
with pollen.

It will be seen from this brief review of a
few related species that adherence to a par-
ticular type of structure still allows a good
deal of latitude in following that type,
and that considerable interest can be added
to the field study of flowers by comparing
one with another, especially if we try at
the same time to identify the insect visitors
and consider the possibility of the struc-
tural variations being adaptations to suit
the forms or habits of these visitors.

1 1 10

Life of the Sea Shore

Pnoto: F. Martin Dfinc,

The Full-grown Prawn (shown above) is a handsome beast measuring five or six inches

from the top of the rostrum to the end of his forked tail. The pink so-called "shrimps"

of the fishmongers are in reality small prawns; the true shrimp (below) has not the

sabre-like rostrum, but two curious projections, one on each side of the head.

3.-FAIRIES OF THE ROCK POOLS

By F. MARTIN DUNCAN, F.R.M.S., F R.P.S., F.Z.S.

" Did he stand at the diamond door
Of his house in a rainbow frill ;
Did he push when he was uncurl'd
A golden foot or a fairy horn
77m/ his dim water-world ?

TENNYSON'S graceful lines comeback
to us with an added charm and
significance as we peer down into
the mysterious depths of one of those great
rock pools on the Devon or Cornish coasts
which are only exposed for an hour or two
at extreme low tide. The rocks which
form a mimic mountainous coastline to

such a miniature sea are clothed with an
olive-green mantle of sea-wracks and tangle
weeds, while beneath the surface the sides
and floor of the pool are carpeted with
forests of the more delicate and gaily-tinted
seaweeds.

Here is a corner of old Neptune's king-
dom to which we can return again and again,
as tide and season may permit, always with
the certainty of discovering some fresh
object of interest and beauty to hold our
attention until the lapping of incoming
waves break the magic mirror of the pool

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

and warn us of the approach of the swift
returning tide and of the immediate neces-
sity for a hasty retreat shorewards. Be-
neath the mirror-like surface of such a

animals. Larger forms live in the deep water
five to ten or fifteen fathoms off shore,
and their graceful feathery masses, pale
brown in tint and of slightly horny texture

pool exists a fairy kingdom, peopled with to the touch, are cast up on shore after every

strange creatures, many so protean of form
between childhood and maturity that infant
and adult were at first considered and
described as separate species. In many

heavy autumn and winter gale. But no
matter the number of branches or ultimate
attained by these delicate feathery

size

colonies, each has developed, by a process
of repeated budding, from
a primary polyp animal,
tentacle-crowned, and
bearing a strong resem-
blance to its fresh-water
cousin the little hydra
which is to be found
attached to the submerged
stems of the duck-w r eed in
every pond and ditch.

With the aid of our
pocket magnifying glass let
us look more closely at one
of these miniature fairy
" trees " fresh gathered
from the rock-bound pool.
Such closer scrutiny will
reveal an outer semi-
transparent sheath which
encloses a common pith
uniting all the branches and
polyps. This central pith
is really a fleshy tube
composed of two layers, an
outer and an inner, each of

cases, indeed, years of patient study were which plays an important part in the life
necessary ere the connecting links in their of the hydroid colony, for while the
complicated life-histories could be pieced inner layer is chiefly concerned in the pro-

Photo : F. Martin Duncan.

These tiny tree-like things are not members of the plant

world, but belong to the Hydrozoa, and each little "tree"

is actually a colony of exquisite polyp animals.

together.

cesses of digestion and nutrition, the outer

On the surface of the weeds pendant layer is responsible for the development
in the still waters of the pool there are of many important structures. We shall
miniature forests of tree-like things to be also be able to see that the stem and
seen ; each little " tree " barely an inch branches bear numerous minute, cup-
and a half in height, with short stiff branches shaped cells ; while if we place a living
that seem laden with opalescent, slender, colony in a glass jar filled with sea-
petalled flowers, so small as to be just visible water, we may watch the tenant of
through an ordinary hand reading-glass of each cell expand its circle of delicate ten-
low magnifying power. An incautious tacles like the frail petals of some fairy
movement, or the lifting of the frond of flower. The tentacles gently sway about,
seaweed from the pool, will cause all the and minute creatures coming in contact
little " blossoms " instantly to contract, with them are captured and devoured.
These tiny tree-like things are not members These tiny hydroid polyps, like their larger
of the plant world, however, but belong cousins the sea anemones, have their ten-
to a great group of marine animals called tacles armed with those complex cells
the hydrozoa, and each little " tree " is called stinging-cells, or nematocysts, each
really a colony of the most exquisite polyp consisting of a minute sac filled with a

1112

LIFE OF THE SEA SHORE

poisonous fluid and connected with a very
fine hollow tube, like a delicate thread,
which lies coiled up within the cell. Any
microscopic creature brushing against the
tentacles will cause these threads to dis-
charge and perhaps penetrate its soft body
with paralysing effect. It is in this manner
that prey is captured and conveyed to the
mouth within the centre of the waving
circlet of tentacles.

The hydroid colony increases in area and
population by a purely asexual process of
budding which is constantly taking place
at the ends of the stem and branches.
At certain seasons of the year new buds
arise which are quite unlike the sexless
tentacle-crowned polyps. These, according
to the species, will either become urn-
shaped or flask-shaped receptacles con-
taining sexual polyps. In the case of the
little tree-like colonies of obelia growing
on the fronds of the tangle-weeds we have
been examining, the special receptacles
containing the sexual zooids are pretty,
oblong, vase-shaped objects. When mature
the sexual zooids of obelia escape from
these receptacles as tiny medusae or jelly-
fish, that swim about in the sea by means
of the rapid pulsations of their umbrella-
shaped bodies. These exquisite little crea-
tures swarm in the sea during the summer
months, and can often be taken, with the
help of a small fine gauze net and tube
such as is used by microscopists for col-
lecting " pond-life " organisms, in the
tranquil waters of the lowest deep rock
pools. To watch with the aid of our
pocket magnifying glass, half a dozen of
these dainty little medusae swimming about
in a small glass jar, or a deep watch-glass
filled with sea-water, is an extraordinarily
interesting sight, for though of such minute
size, barely one-sixteenth of an inch in diam-
eter, so frail and transparent in appearance,
the energy of these little gelatinous umbrella-
shaped creatures, and the strength and
ceaseless pulsating of their bodies, is truly
amazing. Occasionally one will be seen
literally to turn inside-out, exposing to
view a central hollow tube which terminates
at its free end in the mouth. Having no
ribs to break like a real umbrella, however,
the little medusa is none the worse, and
soon rights itself. The sexes are distinct
in these tiny hydroid jelly-fish, and as the

result of fertilization, the egg-cells of the
female develop into oval ciliated bodies
called planulae, which settle down on the
rocks and tangle-weeds, each to become the
founder of a new obelia colony.

From this brief description, it is obvious
that the little obelia has a very remarkable
life-history ; and in such a complex life-
cycle we have a typical example of what
is known as the alternation of generations
a sexless, fixed, colony forming phase

Photo: f 7 . Martin Cuitcan.

The little Medusa has a remarkable life-history
a sexless, fixed phase alternating in the
next generation with a sexual, active, free-
swimming one in which latter stage it is
seen in this photograph.

alternating with a sexual, active, free-
swimming stage. The phenomenon of the
alternation of generations is by no means
confined to the animal kingdom, for we
meet with striking examples among the
ferns and mosses in the plant world.

Creeping stealthily among the stems and
branches of the hydroid colonies and sea-
weeds that clothe the sides and floor of the
rock pool, the so-called " phantom shrimps "
(Caprella), with their short, jointed legs,
long, waving antennae or feelers, and very
attenuated bodies, certainly live up to their
popular name, for they look like imaginary
creatures that have escaped from the pic-
tures of some quaintly illustrated fairy
story. At times they will remain motion-
less, clinging to the stem of a weed or
hydroid colony, and are then most difficult
to detect, for their colouring and irregular
outline harmonize wonderfully with their

1113

THE PAGEfiffT OF MATURE

Creeping stealthily among the stems of the

seaweeds are so-called Phantom Shrimps,

with their waving feelers and long attenuated

bodies.

surroundings. But they can on occasion
be very active indeed, climbing with curious
movements that remind us somewhat of
the progress of a " looper " caterpillar ;
while the males are pugnacious fellows,
given to fighting and clawing at each other,
encounters which are sometimes responsible
for the loss of a claw or part of a leg. The
female has a curious incubatory pouch in
which the young are reared. As soon as the
baby phantom shrimps are old enough to
enjoy a separate existence, they quit the
shelter of this pouch, and climbing up on
to the back of their mother, may be seen
holding on firmly by the aid of their pos-
terior feet, their little thread-like bodies
more or less erect, and their long feelers or
antennas waving vigorously, as if the young-
sters were thoroughly enjoying their ride.

Should a group of acorn barnacles be
seen on the side of one of the rocks in the
pool, not too far down to be kept under
observation through our hand magnifying
glass, we may watch how these interesting
creatures capture their food. Ever and
anon the little pointed shells that form the
dome of the barnacle's home may be seen
slightly to open, and a number of delicate,
curved legs fringed with fine hairs will be
thrust out and rapidly moved with a rhyth-
mic sweeping action, only to be as swiftly
and suddenly withdrawn into the shell.
Microscopic creatures and particles of
plant and animal matter are swept up by the
movements of these hair-fringed limbs,
to form the food of the barnacle so safely

and snugly housed within the hard shell.
From the external appearance of its little
house, it is not very surprising to find that
in days gone by the barnacle was thought
to belong to the true shell-bearing animals
or mollusca, but we now know that the
barnacle is really a relation of the great
crabs and lobsters, and belongs to that
group of animals called the Crustacea.
The acorn barnacles have a very wonderful
and complex life-history, for they hatch
from the egg as tiny, active, free-swimming
creatures, somewhat triangular in shape,
which at certain seasons of the year swarm
in the surface waters of the sea, where they
swim with a curious jerky motion. Later
on they settle down on the rocks and on
the old timbers of the groynes and piers,
to which they attach themselves by the
head. Considerable change of shape and
modification of the limbs then takes place,
the familiar barnacle-shell is secreted,
and the little creatures spend the rest of
their lives fixed in this position.

As we peer down into the rock pool we
shall catch momentary glimpses of graceful
shadowy forms, swift of movement, playing
at hide-and-seek in and out among the
fringes of the seaweeds. These illusive
shadows are prawns at play, and by reason
of their translucent colour of grey, lined
and spotted with soft purplish tints, they
harmonize in the most wonderful manner
with their surroundings.

Photo : F. Martin Duncan.

Sea Slugs are gaily-tinted, beautiful creatures,

quite unlike our somewhat repulsive garden

slugs.

ii 14

FEATHERED LIMBS OF THE BARNACLE.

When the Barnacle opens the fringed legs appear, and with a rhythmic movement sweep

up their prey. Then they as swiftly retire, and the shell closes.

{Highly magnified.}

THE PKGEAttT OF NATURE

A full-grown prawn is a very handsome
fellow, measuring from five to six inches in
length from the tip of the great hornlike
structure, the rostrum, which projects
outwards from the middle of the front of
the head to the end of his branched tail.
The rostrum is a most formidable-looking
appendage, for it curves slightly upward
sabre-fashion, and has a number of sharp
points which give it a sawlike edge. The

The baby body is slender, and terminates
in a somewhat spoon-shaped tail, while
the relatively short legs end in feathery
tufts. The little creatures swim about
actively, and as they increase in size they
cast their skin from time to time. A
gradual change in form is noticeable with
each successive moult, as well as a slight
increase in size, until the adult form with
its rostrum, long antennae, prominent

Dog-whelks of all shades of colour may be
found clustered together on the wooden
groynes at low tide. When hungry this
carnivorous mollusc calmly walks up on to
a limpet, drills a hole in the shell, and pro-
ceeds to suck its victim out of house and
home.

feelers, or antennas, are long and slender, the
outer pair exceeding the entire length of
the animal's body by an inch or more,
and are kept in constant motion. The
first two pairs of legs terminate in long
slender claws, reminding us of those
of the prawn's great cousin the lobster.
Prawns pass through a regular series of
changes or transformations between the
escape from the egg to the adult form.
The female carries her great mass of seed-
like eggs attached to her swimmerets, the
paired organs on the abdominal region of
her body. The baby prawns when they
first hatch from the eggs are not like their
parents in general appearance, for they
have no great rostrum on the front of the
head, no long, gracefully waving antennae,
no slender claws, and no swimmerets.

stalked eyes, and slender claws is attained.
But although the adult form has been
reached, the prawn is still a small creature,
and many, many months and moults must
pass before it is full grown. The pink so-
called shrimps of the fishmonger's shop are
not shrimps at all, but young prawns which
have reached their adult form but are not
yet fully grown.

These half-grown prawns abound on the
sandy bottom, where they are caught in
large numbers by the shrimpers. The
true shrimp does not turn pink when
cooked, but a speckled brown. More-
over, a shrimp has not the sabre-like ros-
trum, but two curious projections, one on
each side of the head, rather like rabbit's ears,
16

LIFE OF THE SEA SHORE

while the first pair of legs are rather short,
broad, flattened, and have a movable
hook-like claw that can be closed against
a short sharp spine, very different from the
graceful, slender pincers of the prawn.

All the shrimps and prawns appear to have
the chameleon-like power of changing
colour so as to harmonize with the tints
of their surroundings. This is very marked
in the small humped-backed ./Esop's prawn
which frequents the deep tidal rock pools
on the Devon and Cornish coasts.

The Dainty Top-shell

One of the most charming of the small
shell-dwellers is the little top-shell or
trochus. It is a dainty creature, loving
to hide away in the more shadowed parts
of the pool under shelving rocks, and its
delicately tinted shell in shape is a cross
between a peg-top and a Chinese coolie's
wide-brimmed, conical crowned straw
hat. The little mollusc has a well-shaped
head bearing a pair of slender horns or
tentacles, and a pair of eyes mounted on
foot-stalks. It possesses a sturdy foot on
which it carries a curious" roundish-flat
object, the operculum, that exactly fits the
aperture of the shell and forms a most
efficient front door to the house when the
trochus retires within. On each side of
its head is a large lappet broadening out
like a wing, and bordered with a delicate
fringe of the finest cilia. As the mollusc
moves slowly over the rocks in the pool
the rippling, wave-like motion of the cilia
causes a play of iridescent colours round
its head, so that the little creature indeed
looks as if it were dressed " in a rainbow
frill." These fringed lappets are really
the edges of the cloak or " mantle " of
soft, filmy skin in which the animal is
swathed. All molluscs have a mantle,
which lines the shell and surrounds the
body. In most of the univalves the mantle
resembles a sack with an opening through
which the head and foot of the mollusc
can be pushed forth. Over the back of
the animal the mantle rises to form a vaulted
chamber containing the feathery or comb-
like gills by which molluscs, like most sea
creatures, breathe. Respiration is carried
on by means of the sweeping movement of
the fringe of cilia on the edges of the mantle,
by which a current of water is kept con-

stantly passing into the gill chamber, where
the oxygen the water contains is extracted
by the gills and carried to all parts of the
animal's body. Some of the univalve, or
single-shelled, molluscs have what is termed
a siphon-tube through which the water
passes to the gills, but others have only
a simple opening in the mantle, or one of
the neck lappets may be curled round into
a funnel to conduct the water to the gill
chamber within the shell. The little top-
shell is a vegetarian, and has a long ribbon-
like tongue, or radula, with which it rasps
away at the frond of the seaweed on which
it feeds.

The common limpets which abound in
every rock pool are not quite such sedentary
creatures as most people imagine, but
their perambulations are "carried out when
the tide is up, chiefly during the hours of
darkness. As night draws on the limpet
begins to move to its feeding ground,
slowly creeping along on its great sucker-
like foot. From beneath the conical shell
its head appears surmounted by a pair of
horns with eyes at their base. Vegetarian
in habit, the limpet has a most extraordinary
tongue, or radula, like a long narrow
ribbon, which may be quite three inches
in length. This slender organ is really
a kind of rasp, and is covered with
rows and rows of sharp little teeth, one
hundred and sixty rows in all, and each
row contains twelve teeth terminating in
glassy hooks.

The Dog-whelk and the Limpet

Despite its stout dome-shaped shell and
tenacious hold upon the rock on which
it is at rest, the limpet frequently falls a
victim to another mollusc that lives in the
rock pool and is carnivorous in its habits,
namely, the dog-whelk. The dog-whelk
has a long snout or proboscis which it can
push out at will and turn in all directions,
and is furnished with a veritable armour-
plated radula. When hungry, the dog-
whelk will march up on to the shell of the
limpet and calmly proceed to drill a neat
round hole through it, then pushing its
snout into the hole it sucks its unfortunate
victim literally out of house and home.
Nor docs the dog-whelk confine its atten-
tion to the limpets ; for it is really a most
destructive beast, and attacks oysters,

1117

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

mussels and other bivalve molluscs. Its
shell varies a good deal in size and colour,
often being quite white or pale yellow,
sometimes banded with light or dark
brown, or it may be bright orange, grey,
or chocolate brown. Quantities of dog-
whelks of all shades of colour may often
be found clustered together
on the timbers of the wooden
groynes at low tide, in
company with the mussels,
winkles and limpets on which
they feed.

Last of the molluscs I
have room to mention in the
present article as frequenters
of the deep rock pools are
the so-called sea-slugs or
Nudibranchs. They are not
at all like our garden slugs,
for many of them are gaily-
tinted, beaut'iful little
creatures. One of these,
popularly known as the sea-
lemon, which in shape and
colour somewhat resembles
half a lemon cut lengthwise,
is a fairly common denizen
of the rock pools exposed at
extreme low tide, where it
is fond of browsing on the
encrusting sponges. Very
few marine animals will
touch the sponges, but the
little sea-lemon's stomach,
often well lined with the
flinty spicules which con-
stitute the insoluble and
indestructible skeleton
framework of many species
of sponges, offers convincing evidence
of the Nudibranch's favourite diet.

All the marine worms that live in the rock
pools are most interesting and often very
gaily- tinted creatures, not in the least like
the dull, unpleasant-looking earth-worm of
our gardens. Some lead a wandering life,
and in general appearance look rather like
centipedes, for their long slender bodies are
divided into segments, and each segment
bears a pair of curious organs called false-
feet or parapodia, which terminate in a
bundle of sharp-pointed, often serrated-
edged, bristles or chaetae. Others lead a
sedentary life, and either secrete shelly

Photo: F. Martin Duncan.

Some of the Marine Worms

build wonderful tubular homes

composed of grains of sand

and fragments of shell.

tubes, or build wonderful tubular homes
composed of grains of sand and fragments of
shell, in which to live and shelter their more
or less defenceless bodies. The wandering
forms hide away under flat rocks during the
daytime and when the tide is out, or bury
themselves in the sand. Therefore, to
obtain a sight of them we
must very literally " leave
no stone unturned." Many
other creatures seek similar
shelter, so that on turning
over a large flat stone, swiftly
but carefully, one may dis-
cover a whole host of small
but exceedingly interesting
animals, including tiny sand
stars with long writhing arms,
queer little broad-claw crabs
that possess the most
beautiful plumed antennae,
baby molluscs, and shore
crabs, to say nothing of the
gaily-tinted, wriggly worms.
On a rock in one of the
deep pools, or on the back
of an old whelk-shell at the
bottom of the pool, we may
often see a collection of long
shelly tubes, all more or less
bent and twisted, small at
one end, larger and open
at the other ; each tube
measuring about three inches
in length, slightly coiled at
its narrow end, and marked
at irregular intervals by en-
circling ridges which indicate
the successive stage of
growth . The worm that forms
such a tube is known as the serpula, and is
not only a graceful little creature, but has
many remarkable points in its structure. It is
a typical sedentary worm, only putting forth
its head beyond the walls of its tube, and
consequently we find that its breathing
organs or gill-tufts are all arranged close to
its headland not distributed over several
segments of the body as ia the wandering
worms. One of the feelers or antennae is
curiously modified into what is called an
operculum ; it is long, conical in shape, and
beautifully tinted, and serves as a kind of
trap-door or stopper for closing the entrance
to the tube. When the serpuh is undis-
18

Photo : F. Martin Duncan.

HYDRO1D POLYPS.

Like sea anemones these have their tentacles armed with stinging cells, each consisting of

a minute sac filled with poisonous fluid and a coiled thread.

(Highly magnified.)

THE PAGEKttT OF NATURE

turbed and thrusts its head out of its tubular
home, the gill-tufts spread out fanwise in
half-circles on either side of the brightly
coloured operculum. These fans are com-
posed of delicate, bright red, slender fila-

gently swaying in the clear waters of a rock
pool, present a truly wonderful and beautiful
sight. Pass the hand over the group so
as to cast a shadow, and in an instant they
vanish within their tubes, and each little
operculum-door is shut
fast. To enable it to
withdraw with such
lightning-like swift-
ness, the serpula has
a wonderful apparatus
consisting of a row of
tiny hooks upon the
upper part of each foot,
extending half-way
across the back, and
with their edges cut
into teeth. It has
been estimated that the
serpula has about 1,900

The Common Lim-
pet is not altogether
a sedentary crea-
ture ; under cover
of darkness it will
creep about its
feeding-ground on its
great sucker-like
foot.

ments placed side
by side on the
supporting stem.
Countless waving
cilia which clothe
the filaments are
arranged in such a
way as to produce
by their rhythmic
movements an up-
ward current along
one side of each fila-
ment, and a downward current on the other of these hooks in all, each hook having
side. By this means not only are the gills seven teeth, so that something like 13,000
aerated, but minute organisms, upon which or 14,000 tiny teeth engage in the lining of
the serpula feeds, are swept down the the tube to drag the worm down out of
funnel formed by the base of the fans and sight. The feet on the hinder parts of
operculum into the mouth of the worm. the body are still further modified, and are
A group of these worms, with their used for scraping and cleaning out the
brightly tinted fans fully expanded and small end of its tube.

1120

Photo: F. Martin Duncan.

Should a group of Acorn Barnacles live not too far down to be

seen through a hand magnifying glass, we may watch them open

and shut to capture their food.

From a Colour Transparency by Reginald A. Malby, F.R.H.S.

From an Antochrone by A. Harold Rastin.

THE FLY AGARIC (AM ANITA MUSCARIA).

How to Recognize the Fungi

4.-THE BLUSHING TOADSTOOL

By EDWARD STEP, F.L.S.

With photographs by the Author

A FEW summers ago I was wandering
about the beautiful birch woods that
are a conspicuous feature of Wimble-
don Common ; it was during the period
of copious rains that comes pretty regularly
in mid-July. The open
chip basket that I carried
was explained by my ex-
pectation of finding a crop
of an edible toadstool
named the " blusher,"
whose attractive qualities
for the table I have ex-
ploited for many years.
They were there in abun-
dance as I expected, just
as they had been in 1883
when, in the same woods,
I first made acquaintance
with the blusher. There
were now so many that
I was able once more to
select the best specimens
large, unexpanded
''buttons" as big as my fist
which the insect invaders
had not yet reached.

A couple of boys came
up, and looked on for a few seconds.
They appeared to have come from London
back streets, and were revelling fully in the
glamour of the woods. As they passed on
the smaller of the two asked in a subdued
voice : " What's he up to ? "

' 'Sh ! " replied the elder ; " silly old
geezer thinks they're musharooms. He'll
poison hisself " and their laughter con-
tinued to reach me after they had passed
out of sight.

The toadstools that were supposed to
threaten my existence were a group

several stages of emergence and expansion.
Some of them had broad flat caps four or
five inches across, of a dull reddish-brown
tint, with a profusion of grey mealy patches
arranged more or less concentrically, and

The Blusher Toadstool, an edible species that grows in
abundance on Wimbledon Common.

the margin faintly suggested raised lines.
Lifting one of these expanded examples,
the underside of the cap is seen to bear
a very large number of thin, narrow plates
of a white colour which radiate from the
stem, to which they are connected by a
little tooth. The edges of these plates
(known as gills) are spotted with rusty
red.

The broad cap is supported by a stout
stem, about equal in length to the breadth
of the cap, and with a thick bulb-like base,
above which it tapers slightly upwards.

1121

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

The stem is white with a faint tinge of
red in it, and as we handle it we notice
that wherever finger and thumb have
gripped it lightly the colour changes at
once to red. If the stem or cap be broken
across, it will be found that the white
flesh likewise turns red immediately on
exposure. This is the reason for its name.
Around the upper part of the stem there
hangs a deep, soft frill with delicate lines
marked from edge to edge. This is so
frail in structure that it will not bear
touching without breaking.

Carefully uncover a specimen that is
beginning to push up the leaf-mould, and
you will see that it consists of two closely
appressed balls with no intervening stem
visible. There is evidence that the two
balls were lately enclosed in a common
wrapper. If we scrape away the earth
and discover younger examples we shall
see that this is so ; and the specimen that
was pushing up to the air still shows some
ragged remains of the wrapper where the
separation of the two balls took place.
The lower one remains in place as a firm
base for the stem, which begins to lengthen

The Venomous Toadstool contains a deadly

poison. It is entirely white, and usually

has no scales on the cap.

The Prickly Toadstool is a poisonous species
found in beech woods from July onwards.

and so raises the upper ball about five
inches into the air.

By examining these toadstools of various
sizes, we find that the mealy patches on
the cap are the remains of that universal
wrapper that at first covered the whole
toadstool. Its contents were able to
expand, but the wrapper was unable to do
so, and as the cap grew enormously the
wrapper became broken up into the easily
removed fragments that now decorate its
upper surface, whilst a portion forms a
more or less conspicuous ridge around the
swollen base of the stem.

From several of the younger examples
we learn also that the beautiful frill is at
first a curtain spread over the edges
of the gills for their protection whilst the
microscopic spores are maturing, and that
at its circumference it breaks away from
the edge of the cap when the latter expands
and partly flattens itself. The curtain or
veil remains attached to the stem and hangs
down as a frill ; it is referred to usually as
the ring of those species that possess it.
The ring is found in a more or less well
developed condition in all the species of
Amanita, if these are examined soon after
their expansion.

1122

HOW TO RECOGNIZE THE FUNGI

As already indicated, the blusher toadstool
(Amanita rubescens), or mushroom as you may
prefer to call it, is an edible species and one
of the best. Sampled in the raw state, it
tastes at first sweetish, nutty, then somewhat
bitter. Until comparatively recently it was
regarded with suspicion, though Badham
had praised it. The suspicious attitude
was due probably to a closely allied and
superficially similar species, known as the
panther (Amanita pantherina), having been
collected -and eaten in mistake for it. The
two species grow in similar places under
or near trees in and about the woods.
The panther has a scaly brown cap, but
the scales are paler, smaller, and are less
easily dislodged. In moist w r eather the
skin of the cap becomes slightly sticky.
The gills are broader at the edge of the
cap and narrow towards the stem, which
they do not touch though they come close
to it. They are not spotted at their edges.
The ring, too, is lower on the stem than in
the blusher, and often is lop-sided. But
the most easily remembered difference is
that though the white flesh be broken
anywhere it will not change its colour.
Further, it has a rather unpleasant odour and
no definite flavour. When one is collecting
" for the pot " it is advisable to have the
colour test well impressed upon the memory,
for the panther is one of those that are
known to be definitely poisonous.

We British appear not to have sufficient
faith in the cooking procedure of the Latin
races, who in the kitchen do not discrimin-
ate between edible and poisonous fungi,
but mix all together and trust to salt or
vinegar as a neutralizer of the poisonous
principle. The London Italians may be
seen in autumn, in places near the metrop-
olis favourable to fungi, with hampers into
which they gather all sorts of agarics and
boleti of fair size, apparently without
troubling about species and probably not
knowing one from any other. A giovanaccio
from Saffron Hill would never have made
that jesting remark about my poisoning
myself with toadstools : he would be more
likely to follow my lead by gathering for
the home pot, and, to make sure, his
mother would steep them in brine or vinegar.
Fabre tells us that the people of Provence,
among whom he spent a long life, eat
every species they find, and that there is

never a case of poisoning resulting from
the practice. He declares that even the
most certainly poisonous species may be
rendered innocuous by following their
procedure. The rule is' to " blanch " the
toadstools by bringing them to the boil in
water that has a little salt dissolved in it.
They are next rinsed several times in cold
water and are then ready to be cooked by

The Fir-cone Toadstool, besides being edible,

is a handsome fungus standing six to eight

inches in height.

stewing, frying or grilling and eaten
without doubts or fears.

Fabre may be right : I have not tried
the Provengal method which appears to
dissipate the poison by heat ; but in another
statement respecting the genus of fungi
to which both blusher and panther belong
he is certainly wrong. He makes the
sweeping statement that all insects reject
the Amanitas as food, whether these " be
to us a delicious dish or a deadly poison."
Alas ! so far as English-grown specimens
of Amanita rubescens and Amanita strobili-
formis, for examples, are concerned, my
painful experience is that no mushrooms
are more appreciated by insects. Often
before the lengthening stem has been able
to lift the cap from the bulbous base it
has been pierced throughout by a swarm
of the grubs of flies, who quickly render

"23

THE PRGERI1T OF NATURE

a specimen worthless. The blusher is
also a favourite food of squirrels, mice
and slugs. The squirrel I believe to be a
reliable guide as to the wholesomeness of
the toadstools he selects for his own use ;
but I have found the slug buried in holes it
has eaten out in species well known to be
poisonous to mankind the emetic russule
(Russula emettca) for example and, there-
fore, I am not disposed to follow where
the slug leads.

The genus Amanita, of which we have
selected the blusher as a suitable illustra-
tion, is rather a good one for any reader

is very

The Solitary Toadstool is another edible species belonging to
the same family as the Blusher.

to take who wishes to get an acquaintance
with our larger native toadstools. There
are only two dozen British species included
in the genus, and they are all so well marked
by the characters on which the genus is
founded that on meeting with one of them
for the first time we can say at once
" That is an Amanita " ; and it does not
involve much additional trouble to deter-
mine which particular species it is. The
blusher and the panther are, perhaps,
the two that are most nearly alike, but
we have given clues for their separation.
The brilliant fly agaric (A. muscaria)
comes close to the blusher in structure and
habit, but its scarlet or orange cap, flecked
with white or yellowish scales, distinguishes
it even at a distance. Sometimes every

scale or wart has been wiped off in its
upward passage through grass ; and allow-
ance must be made for this in most of the
species. The fly is very poisonous, and
so are several of its companion species,
the most deadly of them being the venomous
(A. virosa), which is entirely white and
usually without scales on the cap. This
appears to be the one chiefly responsible
for the numerous deaths that occur from
" misadventure," owing to the general
ignorance of the appearance of the common
mushroom when growing naturally. There
little actual resemblance between
the two ; but the com-
parative frequency of these
coroners' cases illustrates
the necessity for a little
elementary knowledge con-
cerning these plants. The
vernal toadstool (A.
phalloides), whose cap also
is white, but with a slight
tinge of yellow or green, is
equally virulent and just as
likely to be the cause of
these unnecessary fatalities.
As its popular name sug-
gests, this may be found in
the woods in spring, but
when the conditions are
favourable it continues to
put in an appearance up
to the end of autumn.

The blusher and the
panther appear from July
onwards, and several other
Amanitas are contemporaneous with them,
such as the fine fir-cone (A. strobiliformis)
and the solitary (A. solitarid), both edible,
and the fly and the prickly (A. aspera),
both poisonous. The fir-cone is a very
handsome fungus, standing from six to
eight inches in height, with a stem an inch
thick and the expanded cap as broad as
the length of the stem. The base of the
stem and the margin of the cap are usually
shaggy with the remains of the thick
universal wrapper, which is represented
on top of the cap by large angular warts
whose form has suggested a resemblance
to the bosses on the cones of the pines.
These vary in colour and may be white,
grey or brownish. In many cases they fall
off when the cap has expanded fully.

1124

Wonders of Bird Life

Pnola : Stanley C'noA.

in the matter of plumage the Sheldrake seems to have thrown caution to the winds.
Its bold colours attract attention from a mile away. Both sexes wear the same parti-
coloured dress.

57. -A DUCK THAT BURROWS

By CHARLES S. BAYNE

THE name sheldrake is significant.
For the majority of wild species a
surname is considered sufficient,
the sexes being distinguished by the terms
male and female. But when birds became
domesticated distinctive names for the sexes
were found necessary. The egg-laying sex,
being the more important and the more
numerous, gave its name to the race or
assumed the race name, and the males,
which were more or less useless and whose
numbers could therefore be reduced to a
minimum, but which were nevertheless dis-
tinguished by size, by gorgeous plumage,
by pompous or arrogant manners, were
honoured with specific titles. Thus we
have hen, duck and goose, all of which in-
clude both sexes, but are commonly applied
particularly to the female, and cock, drake
and gander, which signify only the male
of the several races. When we speak of

wild duck we mean any species of wild
duck of either sex, but we may also quite
correctly mean only the females of any spe-
cies, or either sex or only the females of a
particular species, namely, the common wild
duck. Sportsmen distinguish the male of
this species by the term mallard, and this,
partly through ignorance and partly as a
matter of convenience, has become the
popular name of the species.

It might have been expected that shel-
duck (not shell-duck, but sheld-duck or
parti-coloured duck, as the name means),
would have been chosen as the popular
designation of a species which is distin-
guished by its bold conspicuous colouring.
But though this term is sometimes used,
the common name of the species is shel-
drake, and there is a very good reason for
this. It is not that, as in the case of the
blackcock, the male is more brilliantly

II2 5

THE PAGEAffT OF NATURE

plumed than the female. That is the rule
among our more familiar species of duck,
but in the sheldrake the sexes are almost
alike. Both are parti-coloured, and except
at very close quarters they are indistinguish-
able. So, to the popular mind, the flocks
would seem to consist entirely of drakes.

The drakes of other species are brilliantly
clad, but in ordinary circumstances their
hues are not conspicuous. In the matter of

As soon as the ducklings are hatched they set off with their mother
to the sea, often a considerable journey over fields and hedges.

plumage, however, the sheldrake has thrown
caution to the winds, and its bold colours at-
tract attention from a mile away. At a distance
it seems to be piebald, but at close quarters
it will be found that its colour scheme is
much more varied. It may be described as
a white bird with a dark green head and neck,
black on the longer and more important
feathers of the wings and on the tip of the
tail, a broad chestnut band across the breast
and shoulders, and a patch of chestnut and
another of purplish green on the wings.
To this is added the rich blood-red of the

broad, thick bill and the pink of the legs and
feet. On the top of the bill at the base the
male, in breeding plumage, has a large red
fleshy knob similar to the black lump on the
bill of the mute swan. The female is not
favoured with this knob, and though her
colour scheme is the same as her mate's,
it is duller in tone.

If the sheldrake nested in the situations
adopted by other ducks, this conspicuous
plumage would be
a grave danger to
it, but its nesting
habits differ as
widely from those
of other species
as do its female
fashions. Instead
of placing her nest
on the ground
and trusting to
the protection of
overhanging
herbage, she
builds it at the
far end of a tun-
nel. Usually she
adopts an aban-
doned rabbit
burrow, but she
does not hesitate
t o commandeer
one that is still
occupied and
drive out the
rightful owners.
But if a suitable
hole should not
be available she
digs one for her-
self, and no doubt
for this reason she

selects as a rule the side of a sandhill for
her home. The nest itself consists of a
rough pile of dry grass hollowed in the
centre and lined with down.

It is not easy to find the nesting hole even
when the locality is known, for the birds
are careful not to leave at or near the entrance
any traces of their occupation. For this
reason it is believed that the duck usually
flies straight into the hole. As she goes and
comes early in the morning and after dusk
it is not easy to prove or disprove this, but
it is clear that she could not fly out of the

1126

Photo: G. A. Booth.

Sheldrake feeding on the mud-flats of an estuary. Their food consists mostly of small
shrimp-like creatures and shellfish, which they pick up on the beach at low water.

Photo: G. A. Booth.

The Sheldrake usually makes her nest at the end of a long burrow. In this one the
soil has been washed away by rain and the eggs are exposed.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

Photo: G. A. Booth.

After ceremoniously escorting his mate to her burrow, the drake waits a few moments
and then flies off to find solace on the seashore.

burrow but must walk out beyond the en-
trance before she can spread her wings.
So footprints must be made, but as they are
impressed in soft sand they are very soon
obliterated.

Again, during the egg-laying period the
duck's daily visit to the nest is accompanied
by an interesting ceremony. The pair fly
in from the sea and alight at a considerable
distance from the burrow. There they
spend some time resting and giving them-
selves a careful and thorough course of
preening. When he has completed his own
toilet, however, the drake becomes restless.
He takes a few paces in a certain direction,
then returns to his mate and bows to her.
After repeating this several times he induces
her to follow him, and they march off
together towards the burrow. At the
entrance the drake stands aside and bows,
and after some hesitation the duck passes in.
Whether he makes sounds as well as signs
I cannot say, for the performance can be
watched only through field-glasses. When

his mate disappears into the darkness of her
home, he waits only a few moments, then
flies off to find solace on the seashore.

It is on the seashore at low water that the
sheldrake finds its food, so as soon as the
ducklings are hatched they have to be taken
there. How this is done was for a long time
a mystery, as the nest is often a mile or more
from the sea, and it was believed that the
youngsters were carried one by one in the
mother's mouth or on her back. The plain
truth, however, is that they walk there.
Led by the mother they set off in single file
across the fields, and in spite of many ob-
stacles they reach their destination. Some
obstacles such as wire netting, of course, they
cannot surmount. When such a difficulty
confronts them they are forced to diverge
from the direct route, and frequently one of
these quaint family parties creates a sen-
sation by marching boldly down a village
street. Unfortunately the villagers are often
unsportsmanlike enough to impound the
youngsters and sell them into slavery.

128

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

When all difficulties are successfully over-
come, and the little band of adventurers
joyfully rushes out on to the beach, it is
joined by the male who, unlike the drakes
of other species, takes his full share
of responsibility for the welfare of the
brood.

When the youngsters grow up and their
nestling down is replaced by their juvenile
plumage, it is quite easy to distinguish
them from the adults. In most species
the ducklings of both sexes closely
resemble the adult female, and it is only
possible to say which is which at very close
quarters. But while the young sheldrake
of both sexes are alike, they differ widely
from their parents. They have not the
bold black and bright chestnut markings
which give the adults such a handsome

appearance, and their general colour is
brown mottled with white.

Even in the matter of feeding the shel-
drake is a species apart. It swims well,
and when it is in the water it may pick up
a meal by " standing on its head." But
it is more a bird of the mud-flats than a
surface-feeder, and obtains most of its food,
which consists chiefly of small shrimp-like
creatures and shellfish, while stepping about
on the beach at low water. It also adds
worms to its diet, and secures them by a
clever trick, which is also practised by the
mallard. It stamps its feet repeatedly on the
mud at a particular spot. This brings the
worms to the surface either from curiosity
or fear, and the moment they pop their
heads out of their burrows down goes
the strong red bill and their fate is sealed.

Caff. H. Mo*rey Sat)

At a distance the Sheldrake appears piebald, but closer inspection reveals it as a white
bird with a dark green head and a broad chestnut band across the breast and shoulders.

i 129

This particular Whimbrel became so accustomed to the camera that it was quite
difficult to drive her off or make her change position.

58.-ON THE WILD MOORS: THE
WHIMBREL AND THE DUNLIN

By HENRY WILLFORD

With photographs by the Author

THE whimbrel, or " peeriewaap " (little
curlew) as it is sometimes called,
is now a rare bird in the British Isles.
Though during migration it is sometimes
met with farther south, its breeding haunts
are confined almost entirely to one or two
islands in the Orkney and Shetland groups.
In 1921, when on an expedition with a
friend to the Shetlands, we had the good for-
tune to find two nests. One of these
hatched out at the end of June, but the eggs
in the second were just laid when we came
upon it on the fourteenth of July. This
means that the chicks would not hatch until
early in August, and seems to show a very
extended breeding season on the part of
the whimbrel.

It is away among the peat hags of some
desolate moor, far from human habitations,
that the whimbrel builds her nest and rears

her young. We were exploring that part
of the country not many miles south of the
Muckle Flugga lighthouse the northern-
most point of the British Isles and one day,
after an arduous climb, became suddenly
aware that a pair of whimbrels were nesting
near by. The birds were flying round and
round us, alighting now and again, and
calling in great agitation. We stopped and
searched, and soon came upon the nest.
The eggs we concluded were nearly due
to hatch, so my friend put up a hide then
and there, and within a day or two secured
what were probably the first photographs
of the whimbrel ever taken.

Later on, whilst returning over a wild
stretch of moor after a journey in search of
the red-throated diver, I again heard the
long rippling call of the whimbrel. Secret-
ing myself between two large peat hags, I

1130

THE "LITTLE CURLEW."

The Whimbrel is a rare bird in the British Isles, found only in the wilder places of

the north.

THE PAGEKNT OF NATURE

The Dunlin is called sometimes the Sea-snipe, but it nests at some distance from the
sea, usually within reach of the waters of an inland loch.

watched for about an hour through my
glasses, and was at length rewarded by see-
ing the male fly deliberately across a small
ravine and alight on a stretch of mossy peat.
I remained in hiding for another half-hour,
watching him preening himself, but as he
did not seem inclined to move, I decided to
follow. After flushing him a second time,
I lay down and covered myself with an old
hide. Whilst fixing this up the hen whim-
brel appeared, walking about the moss at
no great distance. It was then late in the
afternoon, so after another half -hour of
watching, during which time the hen re-
peatedly walked within a few yards of me,
I decided to return home and try my luck
again the following day. On the morrow
I accordingly made an early start, taking with
me one of my best hides, and feeling con-
fident of success. On getting within a few
yards of my previous " lie up," I flushed the
hen whimbrel almost at my feet, and there
in front of me, on a patch of very short
heather and yellowish moss, lay four beau-
tiful eggs, similar to those of the curlew,

though it seemed to me of rather more
strongly contrasting colour. Then, with a
good deal of trouble, I fixed up my hide,
about six feet away from the nest and only a
foot above the ground, covering it carefully
with peat and moss to make it like its
surroundings.

After looking through the eggs to see
how far they had been incubated, and finding
them practically fresh, I retired across the
ravine to watch through my glasses, and
within twenty minutes had the satisfaction
of seeing the hen return to her eggs.

On the following day I raised the hide
another foot, and the day after to four feet
the extreme height at which I intended
to work.

Curiously enough, my trouble from the
beginning was to get the bird to leave her
eggs. After the first few trials, singing and
shouting had little effect, but later, for a while
at least, I found that I could scare her off
by crumpling the grease-proof paper in
which my lunch had been wrapped. I
have found this the case with many birds ;

132

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

by beginning gently and gradually increas-
ing the disturbance, it is possible to accus-
tom them so thoroughly to strange sounds
that they will sit more or less in the same
position for hours. The difficulty then is
to get them ever to change position. When
the young arrive, however, of course all is
bustle and fidget, and positions alter so
rapidly that one longs for a photographic
plate about ten times as fast as anything at
present on the market.

Like the red-throated diver and many other
innocents of the bird world, the whimbrel
is surrounded by enemies. In the raven
and its satellite, the hooded crow, the great
and Arctic skuas, it has four of the worst
neighbours possible. All of these scour the
moors in search of booty, and delight in
nothing so much as a diet of eggs, fresh or
half-incubated, or such titbits as may be
going in the way of newly-hatched chicks.
One does not like to judge the skuas too
harshly considering that these outlying
islands are almost their last stronghold in
Great Britain, but it is unfortunate that
the whimbrel an even rarer nesting species

with us should have selected such deadly
neighbours.

The young when they hatch are for-
tunately in the circumstances active and
alert little chaps, capable of leaving the nest
almost as soon as they are dry. In colouring
they are very much like the little curlews.
The whimbrel seems, however, a much tamer
bird during the breeding season than her
cousin the curlew, and at that time is
not difficult to approach. With so many
enemies around it is even inclined to be
aggressive. Once when I was watching the
nest, an Arctic skua, taking advantage of the
parents being at a distance, flew down within
a few yards of it. I wondered whether or
not to go to the rescue, but before 1 had
made up my mind, one of the whimbrels re-
turned in great haste to give battle. With
feathers bristling with rage it dropped close
to the skua, and dodging round and round,
making fierce thrusts with its beak, succeeded
in driving the enemy away.

If one spend all day on the moors, watch-
ing quietly in concealment, subordinating
one's usually all too assertive humanity to

A hen Dunlin approaching her nest. These birds are not so wild as most of the waders,
and will often allow one to approach quite close before taking wing.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

the indigenous life thereon, it will soon be
found that these so-called desolate places
are teeming with life and interest. Con-
tinually one may be rewarded with a glimpse
of some intimate scene in the lives of crea-
tures who, to the sportsman or the casual
tourist, present nothing but a whir of re-
treating forms. The hours pass all too
quickly, and as at last one scrambles out of
concealment to the rippling whistle of the
whimbrel, the cur lew of the curlew, and
the distant ag ag of the wheeling skua,
it is with the feeling of a day spent in good
company, and full of lasting profit and
interest.

The Dunlin or " Sea-snipe "

The dunlin, sea-snipe or ox-bird, as it
is sometimes called, is mostly known in
England as a winter visitor. At that
time of the year it is perhaps one of our
commonest shore birds, for it is to be met
with round any of our coasts in small
flocks or, at times, in quite large numbers.

At the first ebb of tide these industrious
little birds betake themselves to the un-
covered mud-flats or sandy beaches to
look for food. Wading far out in the
shallow water until their breast feathers
are almost awash, or searching the tiny
rock-pools, flitting constantly to and fro,
they present a picture of pleasing anima-
tion. Then, when the tide flows back
and re-covers their hunting ground, they
may be seen sunning and preening them-
selves on the rocks, or standing about with
beaks tucked snugly amongst their back
feathers apparently lost in slumber, yet
in reality always on the alert.

They are not so wild as many of our
waders, for they will often allow one to
approach quite close before taking wing.
When flushed, however, they rise in a
bunch repeating their alarm note, a harsh
s-h-r-e-e, and, as they fly over the water,
performing many curious evolutions in spite
of their close formation, twisting and turn-
ing in absolute unity, and alighting once
more only a few hundred yards from where
chey first took wing.

In the spring the dunlins pair before
going north to breed. They nest inland on
the moors, some being found in the south of
Scotland, but the majority voyaging still
farther north, until in the Shetlands they

become really common. They are known to
breed at times in the counties of Yorkshire
and Lancashire, and also in Cornwall and
Devon.

The nest is a mere depression in the
ground, situated in a tuft of grass or heather,
and lined with dried bents. So inconspicu-
ous can it be that unless the bird is actually
flushed off her eggs it is almost impossible
to find it. Sometimes, indeed, the hen may
be flushed many times during a search for
her eggs before the nest is found. No
doubt the birds have a habit of creeping off
the nest and running some distance before
taking wing.

Nests found in Wigtownshire were built
away on the moors, at some distance from
the sea, but within fairly easy reach of
shallow inland lochs. The dunlin usually
chooses a site farther from the water than
does its near relative the sandpiper.

The eggs are four in number, but in
late clutches there may be only three, and
although I have no definite proof, I think
it is more than likely that occasionally two
clutches may be laid in one season, for I
have found fresh eggs in late July and also
in early May. Of course, many birds, such
as the green plover, will lay three or four
clutches of eggs should the earlier ones be
taken.

The dunlin's eggs are large for the size of
the bird ; in colour they are of a varying
green, with spots and blotches of reddish-
brown and black.

On one small island situated in the middle
of a shallow loch, I spent some time photo-
graphing a colony of breeding cormorants,
and here, within close range of my hide, a
pair of dunlins were constant visitors ; in
fact, they spent so much of their time
within sight that it is unlikely that they had
eggs or young, and yet the season was well
advanced. In Shetland, too, many pairs
were seen running about together that I
think must have been non-breeders, though
it might conceivably have been that these
birds were not fully mature.

Young Dunlins and their Ways

The first nest I worked at contained four
eggs, one of which proved later to be un-
fertile, which, among waders, I have found
a very rare occurrence.

The chicks are more beautiful than the

1134

A CONTENTED MOTHER.

Young Dunlin are covered with down of a beautiful rich golden brown, mottled with
patches and spots like molten gold. They begin to wander abroad almost as soon as

they are hatched.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

young of any species I know. They are
covered with down of a rich golden brown,
mottled with patches and spots of the colour
of molten gold. Like all young waders,
they begin to wander abroad almost as
soon as they are hatched.

The male, who during incubation has been
mostly absent from the nest, begins on
the arrival of the first chick to take a per-
sonal pride in his offspring, and from that
time is seldom far away. He will at times
even condescend to help the female to brood.

It is astonishing how soon after hatching
the young may be enticed to the water's
edge, for it is often a considerable journey
before they can get there.

During the breeding season, while the hen
is stolidly sitting on her eggs, closely hidden
by the overhanging herbage, the male,
though seldom in evidence, is ever on guard.
Should a visitor approach the nest he will
appear at once, flying down and alighting on
some hillock. Here he will remain motion-

less for a while, tantalizingly close. Then,
as one comes near, on he flies to another
knoll a few yards distant, and this game
will be kept up until the intruder is piloted
safely away from his sitting mate. Then,
reassured, he flies off, disappearing into the
distance as mysteriously as he came.

In summer plumage the male is greyish
brown with a mottled appearance, due to
the black centres of the feathers ; the under
parts are white with a large black patch
on the breast, the throat being grey streaked
with black. In winter the black patches on
the breast are replaced by white. The female
is very similar to the male, with the black
area on the breast somewhat smaller.

A large migration takes place in the late
autumn and winter months, when the dunlins
journey south. Both male and female have
a curiously sweet little song. I always
knew when they were about to visit the nest
by this little trilling song that invariably
preceded the parents arrival.

The nest of the Dunlin is merely a depression in the ground ; so

inconspicuous is it that unless the sitting bird is flushed it is almost

impossible to find it.

1136

MALE JAY AT THE NEST

Both parent birds take a share in supplying the needs of their young. Note the raised

crest of the chick on the left

Photograph by R. Gaze

YOUNG JAY, NEWLY FLEDGED

more of a vegetable feeder than the
fond of acorns

Photograph by G. C. S. Ingram, M.B.O.U.

The bird is a chatterbox, more of a vegetable feeder than the true crows, and especially

fond of acorns

YOUNG MAGPIE IN HIS FIRST SUIT OF FEATHERS

Inquisitive by nature, he is easily trained even to the acquirement of speech
Photograph by G. C. S. Ingrain, M.BO.U.

THE MAGPIE AND ITS LOFTY NEST

Coarse of structure, the nest of sticks and thorns founded on clay and mud is usually built

in high trees

Photograph by Capt. II. Money Salmon, M.C.

Photo: T. At. Black)iian.

The commonplace description "black and white" hardly does justice to the gorgeous

sheen of the Magpie's plumage. At close quarters the "black" is seen to be shot with

every shade of violet and purple, blue and brown and green.

59.-TWO MISCHIEF-MAKERS: THE
MAGPIE AND THE JAY

By FRANK BONNETT

DURING the latter part of the last cen-
tury, when game-preserving in this
country may be said to have reached
its zenith, one might have prophesied that
those two sworn enemies of the game-
keeper the magpie and the jay were
doomed to extinction at no very distant
date. Yet, in spite of every measure that
was taken to keep down the numbers of
these extremely handsome though possibly
mischievous birds, it is safe to say, so far as
the greater part of England is concerned,
that magpies and jays are to-day as common
as ever, and in certain districts even more
plentiful than they were some thirty or
forty years ago.

During recent years, as a result of the
great decrease in game-preservation, the
magpie and the jay have had an oppor-
tunity to reassert themselves, and in addition
78

1 1

there are undoubtedly no two birds in the
whole kingdom better able to look after
themselves than these. Long years of
experience have taught them that man is
their determined enemy, and while he
may on occasion outwit their cunning, the
balance in the long run, as events have
proved, is in their favour. The magpie is
held to be a greater rogue than the jay in
the matter of destroying the eggs and young
of pheasant and partridge, but if either of
them were so mischievous as is usually
declared, it is hardly conceivable that there
would be a head of game left in the country.
There are plenty of places where both
birds are very common, yet game seem to
thrive. On the other hand, there are dis-
tricts where they are by no means numerous ;
yet there is no increase of game-birds such
as might be expected in the circumstances.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

Granting that both jay and magpie are
fond of the eggs and young of other birds,
it has to be remembered that during the
time when the eggs and chicks of pheasant
and partridge are to be obtained, every field
and bank, wood and hedgerow, contains the
nests of wild birds, and these are far more

On two occasions the writer has come
across a party of magpies so overcome by
the attractions of this fare that he was able
to walk into the midst of them. In one
instance a long-dead rabbit was the piece de
resistance, and it was fortunate indeed for
the thirteen magpies gathered around it

Photo: T. M. Foivler.

^^^^.^^

For 1 all its bad character, the Jay can be a devoted parent. Here is one brooding
the youngsters in the rain. Raindrops may be seen standing out on the plumage.

easily found by a robber than are the nests
of game-birds. What is more, these small
birds are quite defenceless when their homes
are attacked by plunderers so much more
powerful than themselves, while the par-
tridge, if not always the pheasant, will make
a fight for its possessions, and seldom leaves
its eggs unprotected. Nor do magpies and
jays confine their activities, even in the
spring, solely to bird-nesting. Their food
is varied, and it is reasonable to suppose
that at all seasons they live chiefly on that
food which is most easily to be obtained.
No grub or insect comes amiss ; hedgerow
fruits, acorns and beechmast in particular,
are always welcome ; seeds and, occasion-
ally, a few grains of corn are not to be des-
pised when more interesting fare is unob-
tainable. Carrion is regarded as a dainty
that is to be preferred before all else.

that the interrupter of the feast was not the
gamekeeper with his gun, for there would
have been ample time for the taking of a
" family shot " upon the ground at easy
range, while a second barrel as the sur-
vivors took to wing might well have
accounted for two or three more.

On the other occasion the intruder came
out of a wood one winter's day into a
meadow, and to his great astonishment
found himself in the midst of a company of
some fifteen to twenty magpies surely as
strange an experience with these wary
birds as anyone could hope for ! The
explanation, however, was not far to seek.
For some days past there had been heavy
rains and the floods were out, with the result
that some sheep in this low-lying country had
been drowned. One of these the magpies
had found, and had so surfeited themselves
'38

/'//,..- x/. .IA r. Nicholl, .\f.R.O.U.

YOUNG JAYS.

The Jay is a born talker, and when family matters are under discussion the chatter is

almost incessant.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

One weak spot in the Magpie's composition is his fondness for nesting in OP about the
same spot over and over again. On many occasions this habit has led to his undoing.

with the carrion that their usually acute
senses were completely dulled and their
physical powers reduced practically to
nothing. Several of the birds actually
perched in the bare branches of a small oak
while the writer stood underneath, and
others fluttered about on the ground in
helpless fashion within a few yards of him.
Had one been so minded, most of these
birds could easily have been bagged with
no other weapon of destruction than a long
stick ! Such instances as these go to
prove how even the usually wideawake
magpie may sometimes become so utterly
demoralized as to belie his common reputa-
tion for cleverness and self-respect !

There is one weak spot, however, in the
magpie's composition a failing that quite
upsets the theory of his time-honoured
motto of " safety first." And this is his
ill-advised fondness of nesting in or about
the same spot over and over again. This
habit has proved his undoing on numerous
occasions, for even the most slow-witted
of gamekeepers will learn so easy a lesson
sooner or later and profit by it. A nest
may be riddled with a charge of shot to the
destruction of eggs or young, yet the old

birds, if they escape, will almost certainly
attempt to repair it or build another close
at hand. If one of a pair of magpies be
shot, the survivor will probably bring a new
mate back to the spot ; while if both old
birds be destroyed, the chances are that
in the same season, or the next, another pair
will come and take possession of the nest.
If undisturbed, a pair of magpies will
return and repair their nest of the year
before, or build another in the same tree
or at any rate not far away.

At any season of the year the wanderer
through the woods can never go very far
without hearing the jay's raucous cry. The
bird is as good a watchdog as the gamekeeper
ever had, and sometimes the latter, for all
his hatred of the bird, is willing to admit
the fact. With his sharp eyes, and even
sharper ears, the jay misses very little of
what is going on around him, and his cry of
alarm when he detects the presence of the
intruder be it human or otherwise is
unmistakable. He is, in any case, a born
talker, and during the nesting season
especially, when family matters have to be
arranged and discussed, his chatter is almost
incessant. A single jay is not a common

1140

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

sight, for the bird apparently believes in
the safety of numbers, so that one may
sometimes find as many as a dozen or more
in company, and very frequently a family
party of half that number.

Anyone who has shot in covert knows
how cleverly the jay will avoid the guns,
yet there are times when one of them,
after having evaded danger repeatedly,
will break away within easy range of one of
the guns or even invite destruction by run-
ning the gauntlet of half a dozen upraised
muzzles. Even then the reckless bird may
avoid destruction, for at most times it is
a difficult mark owing to its varying pace
and erratic flight at one time turning
sharply out of its course, at another
dropping suddenly almost to the ground as
if it had indeed been mortally wounded.
The magpie, on the other hand, never takes
risks of this description. At the sound of
the first tap of the beaters' sticks he is
away at the other end of the covert.

No wild bird can be seen at its best in a
state of domestication, but it must be ad-
mitted that both jay and magpie can make
amusing and fascinating, if rather mis-

chievous, pets. A magpie, which the writer
knew very intimately, was given its freedom
after being kept as a young bird in the
aviary for some months. In the end this
liberty on parole led to its undoing, but the
bird led a happy and unfettered existence
for some years. When first liberated it was
content to amuse itself in the garden or the
meadow beyond, but, becoming more ven-
turesome, it began to pay visits to the neigh-
bouring village a mile or more from home.
It was on one of these occasions that the
inevitable happened. Perched on a wall
opposite the village school, at the very
moment when the children were let loose
one afternoon, the magpie was quickly
espied. A thoughtless boy threw a stone
at the unsuspecting bird, and in a minute
half a dozen others had followed the bad
example. Such a bit of " sport " as this
was not to be lightly abandoned, and so,
presently, as ill-luck would have it, a
missile better aimed than the rest laid poor
Mag low. The bird was badly wounded,
as a passer-by soon discovered, and was
promptly put out of its misery. Meanwhile
the miscreants had fled.

Photo: A. Brook.

Second, perhaps, to the Woodpecker, the Jay has the gayest coloured plumage of

any of our woodland birds.
1141

THE PAGEJTffT OF NATURE

During the earlier part of its life this
magpie was continually in the house,
spending much of its time in the kitchen,
where the cook doubtless encouraged it by
feeding it with scraps. One day it turned

J'/ioto : y. T. Newman.

Like the Jackdaw, a Magpie will collect an amazing

amount of material for its nest, and sometimes a

succession of nests will be built one on top of the

other.

up just as the good-natured Emily came out
of the dairy with some of her butter-making
utensils, and these having been left on the
table for a minute preparatory to removal
for washing, Mag suddenly seized the
wooden butter -print from under the
cook's very nose and made off with it.
Emily gave chase, but without success,
for the bird disappeared among the thick
ivy on the roof of an outhouse in the
garden. Ladders were brought and much
good time wasted in the futile search for
the missing article, the only being who really
knew where it was sitting meanwhile on the
branch of a tree above an interested

spectator of the proceedings. The sequel
came nearly a year later, when one afternoon
Mag came hopping into the kitchen with
the stolen butter-print quite ruined by
long exposure in his beak ! After this,
who shall say that birds have no
sense of humour ?

Another of this bird's escapades
was its descent into a disused
well, the covering of which was
not very secure. Someone had
come suddenly round the corner,
and the bird being frightened,
had missed its footing as it
jumped aside, and gone down
between the boards. It was
rescued with some difficulty by
means of a noose of twine slipped
over its neck ; a lighted candle,
fixed to a coil of wire with long
string attached, having first to be
let down to provide illumination
for the undertaking. Though very
much out of breath and covered
with slime from the muddy bottom
of the well, the magpie was none
the worse for this unusual adven-
ture. After a bath, and having
dried and rearranged its ruffled
plumage, it was soon reasserting
its authority on the lawn in front
of the house. Here very often,
when let out for a scamper, a pair
of greyhound puppies would come
and play. But if the magpie
were about they did not play for
long. Mag could use his strong
beak and sharp claws to good
effect, and the puppies, once
having appreciated the fact, never
waited for a repetition of the experience.
The tame magpie is always a very self-
assertive bird, with a very good idea of his
own importance.

The jay, too, is seen at times in a cage,
and under such conditions is considered
by some to make an interesting pet. Some
of these birds in captivity are said to be
good talkers, though one may hope that the
foolish and cruel habit of slitting the tongue
with the idea of improving the bird's vocal
efforts has now been abandoned. At the
best the caged jay is but a sorry thing
compared with the gay denizen of the woods,
whose flashing plumage catches the eye as

1142

Phtto: G. C. S. Ingtvm, Hf. B.O.I'.

A HEN MAGPIE.

The beautiful flowing lines of hep form can be well appreciated as she sits for a moment

silhouetted against the sky.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

Photo : Stanley Cn

A watchdog of the woods. With his sharp eyes and still sharper ears, the Jay misses
very little of what is going on around him.

he darts across the ride. There, and there
only, is he at home and in his element, for
he is not to be domiciled about the house
and garden like the magpie. The attempt
has been made, but very soon the liberated
prisoner is off to his native woods, though it
may not be long before he may be back
again, in company with his fellows, to take
toll of the gardener's marrowfats a delicacy
of which he is inordinately fond. Whether
he appreciates equally the coarser varieties
grown in the fields one cannot say, but the
farmer has but little quarrel with him
seeing that on the whole he is a useful bird
to agriculture. The tough leather-jacket
and the cockchafer grub he will destroy, not
to mention the wireworm and other pests
of the soil.

Neither jay nor magpie, of course, can
lay claim to being a songster, and thus they
follow the general rule of British birds with
gay plumage. But the magpie can chuckle
quite pleasingly in the nesting season, and
the jay is capable of producing certain low-

purring notes that are quite a contrast to
his usual strident utterances. At the same
time the ordinary chatter of the magpie is
not unmusical he may, in fact, be said to
have a more agreeable voice altogether than
the jay. Both birds are mimics to some
extent, and either, when kept in captivity,
will copy the notes of other birds as well as
the human voice.

To the magpie, perhaps, more than any
other British bird, old-time superstition
still clings closely. Everyone knows the old
jingle :

One for sorrow, two for mirth,

Three for a wedding, four for a birth,

and there are still some of us who, on
seeing a single magpie, cannot help feeling
that we would rather it had kept out
of sight. But, if tradition may be be-
lieved, the sight of a single magpie need not
always be unlucky. Should the bird be
flying to the right, there is at least a chance
that it may bring us luck rather than mis-

1144

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

fortune ; should it fly to the left, however,
the case is hopeless. Misfortune, in some
form or another, is assuredly waiting for us
round the corner. Altogether, in view of
the great plenty of magpies in many parts
of the country at the present day, there
must be a tremendous amount of good or
bad luck to be met with by all and sundry.
The jay, perhaps, has always been too
common a bird to be associated with for-
tune good, bad, or indifferent.

No pen can adequately describe the
gorgeous plumage of the magpie, to
whose splendour the common description
" black and white " does gross injustice.
For brilliancy of colouring the pheasant
may vie with the magpie's less ambitious
dress, but he can boast of nothing so re-

markable in the way of iridescent effective-
ness. With the exception of the white
parts of his plumage, every feather of the
magpie's gay uniform is shot with an in-
finite variety of glossy sheen violet, mauve,
deep purple, blues and browns and greens,
according to the angle at which the light is
reflected. Viewed at close quarters in the
sunshine, the magpie truly presents as fine
a spectacle as anyone could wish to see, but
with one so wary and wideawake it is a chance
that rarely comes. The jay, too, with his
handsome crest, which he can raise at will,
his black moustache, his bright blue patches
on the wing, and the conspicuous blotch
of white above his dull-black tail, is a bird
whose beauty cannot but appeal to anyone
who may view him close at hand.

f- .1 i.

A wrangle in the Jay nursery but mother gets the coveted bit this time I

While only a week old, and still in their first covering of down, the young Peregrines
already showed signs of their fierce and fearless character.

60.-THE PEREGRINE FALCON AT HOME

By G. J. KING

With photographs by the Author

THE peregrine falcon is certainly one
of the finest, if not the finest, of
our British birds of prey. There is
something about it which commands
respect. The very aspect of the bird as it
sits upon a rock near its eyrie is dignified
and aristocratic. If, as Dr. Heatherley has
said, the eagle is king among birds, then
surely the peregrine falcon must be of the
blood royal. But let us come down to
facts. It was my good fortune to find,
some few years ago, a peregrines' eyrie, in
which it was possible, after much time and
labour and thoughtful scheming, to erect
a shelter that could be lived in day and night
actually with the birds ; and this gave one
opportunities of observing at close quarters
what perhaps the unaided eye had never
seen before. Here at a distance of only
seven and a half feet from the eyases, I and
one or two friends watched these young

birds and their parents from the time the
former were about a week old until they
left the eyrie. Here we saw every meal that
was given to them during thirteen days and
nights, and here we watched the adult birds,
except when they were away hunting,
during all that eventful time.

The initial difficulties were many, for
the peregrine always selects the most in-
accessible position for its eyrie. A high
perpendicular cliff is its favourite home
during the breeding season, and if a ledge
or a small rock-pocket can be found, with
that meagre footing it is quite content. I
believe it is a fact that Salisbury Cathedral
spire has for generations been the home of
peregrines during April and May. I have
myself seen them there during the latter
month. This will give some idea of the
kind of place these birds select, and it also
shows why the actual home life of the bird

1146

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

has been so little observed. Since bird
photography has been taken up more
seriously by the Keartons, Lodge, and a few
others, the interest and success of ornith-
ology has been immensely increased. In
the old days naturalists watched birds from
a distance with field-glasses or telescope ;
but photographers must work at close
quarters if their pictures are to be of any
real value, and in order to do this they have
had to resort to all sorts of devices, so as to
get close up and take the birds without
being seen. The result is that bird photo-
graphers have been able to sit for hours
together, watching their subjects at very close
quarters often no more than three or four
feet away and have seen and heard things
which were impossible to the old-time
naturalist with his glasses or his gun.

Our peregrines then were watched at a
distance of seven feet six inches from the
centre of the eyrie, and at five feet six inches
from the particular rock on which they spent
many hours when not actually engaged in
hunting or feeding the young. When we
began our watching the young were quite
white in their first down, and though only
a week old they already carried the marks
of their fearless character the piercing
eye, the absence of fear, and the readiness
to show fight if we went too near by turning
upon their backs and offering us their sharp
hooked talons. All their characteristic
traits were fully developed at this early
age. But when we retired to the interior
of our hide (which was securely lashed to
the face of the rock), the youngsters would
lie for an hour at a time huddled together

While the female is away hunting, the Tiercel so called because he is about
one-third less in size than his mate makes himself responsible for the work

of the home.
1147

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

like a mass of cotton wool. Often they
were sleeping and quite oblivious to what
was going on. At other times they would
sit close together and watch the flies which,
during the daytime, were always buzzing
about the scattered remains of prey. But
in whatever way the young birds might be
engaged, as soon as the food cry was heard
all their heads went up, and the hubbub
would begin. Without this signal the parent
seldom brought them food.

The normal cry of the peregrine is an
unmusical note, a harsh hek hek or attch,
aitch, aitch repeated time after time, heard
more particularly when disturbed or alarmed.

How the Youngsters were Fed

The usual procedure was for the female
for we found that it was she who did the
hunting to come with the prey and hover
at perhaps forty or fifty feet above the eyrie.
Either she or the male, who was on watch
close to the eyrie, would give the cry, and
the male would go up and take the prey
from her and bring it down to the eyases.
Greedily they would crowd around him
and clamour for it, each one trying to outdo
the other in securing the biggest share.
But the father was very fair ; he saw that all
had their due portion. As they grew older
he gave them considerable joints, such as a
leg drumstick with foot attached. This
particular limb once afforded me a most
amusing half-hour. It happened when
the birds were about a fortnight old. The
tiercel had wrenched off the leg of some prey
I am not quite sure what it was, but prob-
ably a blackbird or a thrush and he dabbed
it, thick end first, into the young bird's
mouth. The youngster stuck to it for
had he dropped it for a moment he might
have lost it altogether and tried hard to
swallow it. He kept straining at it and
doing all he knew, but he could not get it
down. This went on for a considerable
time, and gradually the thicker part became
less visible, until at last there was nothing
but the foot to be seen. Then, evidently
knowing that the young bird could not
digest this, even if he succeeded in swallow-
ing it, the tiercel with one snap of his power-
ful beak cut off the protruding foot. The
whole business occupied just about half
an hour.

The way in which the tiercel, or adult

1148

male, breaks up the prey is astonishing.
Standing upon it and holding it fast in his
talons, he grasps a leg or a wing in his
powerful beak and with one wrench, which
appears to combine a cutting and a pulling
action with a twist, the limb is removed. I
never saw him make two efforts to do this.
He evidently knew exactly how to accom-
plish it with one. It was a movement that
put me in mind of a waiter drawing a cork
from a bottle. When the eyases were
small he gave them little bits, but as they
grew larger they received joints, and some-
times actual mouthfuls of feathers. These
the peregrine seems more able to digest
than some birds of prey, for the castings
showed fewer signs of them than those of
the gulls, for instance. It seemed to me
that as these young birds increased in size
and their growth, like most young birds,
was rapid the parents gave them larger
birds to eat, puffins oftener perhaps than
any other, but occasionally a razorbill, and
once a domestic chicken. All around the
eyrie were the scattered remains of the
prey, heads, legs and wings of various
birds with a decided predominance of
puffins' heads. After the young birds were
able to fly, it seemed to me from later visits
which I made that they must have con-
centrated on homing pigeons, as the whole
district was strewn with the legs and feet
of these birds, many of them with rings
bearing numbers attached to them. Of
course, it is only conjecture, but I have
wondered if this was a deliberate act on the
part of the adult birds when teaching the
young to hunt. By selecting such fast
flying birds as homers they would be
giving them the best of practice, and it
would be interesting to know if this same
habit prevails in other districts.

Parental Cares of the Male

A very interesting point in connexion
with these birds was the watchful care of
the tiercel. All through the downy stage
he watched over these young birds with
ceaseless care. He brooded them for hours
on end, and when they became too large
for him to cover them all at one time, he
got them into the most sheltered corner of
the eyrie and kept them as close under him
as was possible. Once, quite early in the
morning, just as it was getting light, I

MALE PEREGRINE.

The Tiercel, for all his smaller size, is a fierce enough bird, capable of defending his
young against any enemies either furred or feathered.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

The Tiercel makes a most anxious and careful parent. Coming home one day to
find the eyases wet from rain, he betrayed great concern, and drove them all in

under cover of the rock.

awoke to find it raining, and on looking out
was surprised to find that he was not with
them. But almost immediately he returned,
and seemed much upset to find that at least
one of them had become very wet ; he fussed
about, and drove them in under the over-
hanging rock as shown in the accom-
panying photograph.

The above-mentioned facts give a con-
densed resume of the happenings in a
peregrine eyrie during a normal season.
But many things may occur to upset the
domestic arrangements of these birds. I
have known the eggs destroyed by some
other bird or animal, and nothing but bits
of shell left. This was in an eyrie which
was in close proximity to a colony of
greater black-backed gulls, and it is more
than likely that these birds, in the absence
of the peregrines, fed upon their eggs, as I
can hardly think that rats would dare to go
near a peregrine's home.

On another occasion four young pere-
grines were left in a starving condition for
over twenty-four hours. What really hap-
pened we could not say positively, but just
after they had been fed a gun was heard,

and the female or falcon who was away
hunting never came back. After waiting
for a long while the male bird went off too,
and the young birds were left without food
all that time, neither of the adult birds com-
ing near the eyrie throughout the interval.
Then, when at last the male came back, he
evidently brought another mate, for the
falcon who returned with him for some time
behaved in quite a different manner from
his lost wife. Indeed, he had, it seemed,
to train her to the method of procedure
in the work before them. For instance,
when she first came on the scene she
appeared disinclined to deliver the prey to
the tiercel, and I saw a tussle between them
which was a grand sight. She, the falcon,
came with a dead bird, and the tiercel,
flew up in the usual way to take it from her,
but unlike the other falcon she refused to
part with it. My first intimation of what
was going on was the noise of flapping
wings, and when I looked out, there on one
of the projecting rocks stood tiercel and
falcon face to face, each grasping in its beak
one end of a dead bird, each with its feet
firmly fixed upon the rock, and each with

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

fully extended wings trying, by flapping
them, to get more purchase on the prey.
This went on for a minute or more, when
the tiercel, though the smaller bird, se-
cured it and took it to the young. It was
a remarkable sight, and seemed to me to
point to the fact that this falcon was a young,
untrained bird which the tiercel had found
during that long absence from the eyrie.
And when one remembers that he was gone
for twenty-four hours or more, one is led to
wonder how far he may have flown to pro-
cure this foster-mother for his starving
young probably some hundreds of miles.
A very interesting, not to say amusing,
incident happened one day while my friend
Dr. F. Heatherley was on watch. The
tiercel was feeding the eyases when one of
them provoked his anger, and he yapped at
it as he often did when they annoyed him ;
but this young bird snapped at his father's
open mouth and got a hold on his tongue,
and seemed to be trying to pull it out. He
planted his talons on the ground and pulled

with all his might, while his father shrieked
with the pain and was very soon dragging
him round the eyrie. At last the tiercel
freed himself, but instead of administering
punishment, as might have been expected,
he went on feeding his offspring as if
nothing out of the common had happened.
By the time the young birds were three
weeks old they had left the eyrie and w r ere
wandering about the rock, though as yet
unable to fly. Day by day the down was
disappearing, and when they were a month
old scarcely any of it was left. But disaster
awaited one young male on his first attempt
to use his wings. He had been sitting with
his brother and two sisters on the extreme
top of the islet, when he suddenly made a
dash for another rock about a quarter of a
mile away. He sailed off in fine style ;
but the other rock was the home of greater
black-backed gulls, and they came out to
meet him. Before he had a chance to
land they mobbed him to death and left
his lifeless body floating on the sea.

At three weeks the soft down of the young Peregrines is replaced with feathers. Now
they are fed with larger prey, and remains of puffins and other big birds may be seen

littering the nest.

"5*

By-ways of Plant Life

Photo: Stanley Crook.

Among wild fruits there are none more pleasant to the taste, nor more sought after by
birds of all degrees, than the tawny-red fruits of the Wild Rose.

7.-THE BERRY HARVEST

By TIGKNER EDWARDES

ON these ever-shortening days of Octo-
ber, it is full noon before the sun
strikes fairly down the old lane.
Towering hedgerows cut off the slants of
golden autumn sunshine all the morning
through, and half the day is done before
the light gets round far enough to change
the white coverlid of dew in the laneside
grass to flashing, falling diamonds, and lure
the lazy, sun-loving butterflies from the
open fields.

But when the old lane has got its fill of
sunbeams at last, all the light and life and
colour of the autumn seem to focus here
into one winding interminable crevice of

1 1

glory. Not, indeed, the lurid hues of dying
foliage conventionally ascribed to autumn,
that belong of right to November, which
itself is no autumnal but really a winter
month. On the English countryside, Octo-
ber is nearly always out before the woods
have donned their full panoply of russet
and crimson and gold. The hedges of the
lane are gorgeous enough at this time, yet
with the colours not of death but of life
in its richest fulfilment and fruition
mountain-loads of berries, hawthorn and
brier and bramble, nightshade and bryony,
holly and dogwood, the slender spindle
reaching out over the grass-grown wagon-

5 2

BY-WHYS OF PLANT LIFE

way, its pink cushion-stars making a rosy
mist in the air at every turn.

When, in autumn, the countryside puts
on this glowing garment of fruit and berry,
one's impulse is to spend the placid days
that so often come at this time in wander-
ing about, contentedly agape at the squan-
dered loveliness of everything, and to re-
gard the use underlying the beauty almost
not at all. And yet the berry-harvest of
the wilds forms a page in the book of the
year's life wherein, if one will but read
aright, there is set down a record of a
supremely wonderful thing.

The marvel, truly, is not that every year
this bountiful provision should be made for
the fowls of the air in their coming winter
need, but in the manner and conditions of
the gift. For the vegetable-subsisting birds
there is a period of five or six months now
stretching ahead during which nothing can
be added to the store. Against the menace
of this lean time all must now be ready
or it never will be. So
much the least observant
and reflective can see. But
to rejoice and be satisfied
to-day that enough is
visibly provided in the
laden hedgerows for all the
birds through the barren
days to come, is to bring
only a sort of Fool's Para-
dise reasoning towards a
solution of the problem.
It is far from being as
simple as this would make
it. For if the food which
is to sustain the feathered
creatures of the wilds
during the next six months
has been, as it seems to
the eye, set out in the
fields in one gargantuan
banquet for them to help
themselves how and when
they will, why is it that
winter-time is not always
first a time of riotous re-
pletion and then a time
when famine stalks
throughout the land ? Even
though instinct be exalted
to a kind of imputed
divinity of wisdom, it is
79

too much to expect of the birds foresight
and forbearance seldom reasonably to be
looked for even in reasoning beings.

And yet we know that the berry harvest
obviously nature's winter provision for the
wild feathered creatures of the country-
side is never squandered and wasted at
the outset in this way. The supply always
goes gradually in normal seasons, and even
in the earliest and hardest and most pro-
tracted winters, though it disappears at a
greater rate, the provender of the hedge-
rows still holds out bravely through the
lean times. It is seldom, indeed, that
spring comes, however tardily, without
finding still a good sprinkling of scarlet
in the hollies, which may yet shine when
summer blossoms are due amidst the
armoured green.

But, like all nature's mysteries, this
seemingly incomprehensible thing is only
a figment born of human lack of knowledge.
It is no mystery at all, if we look into it

rHoto: E. SUp, F.LS.

Hawthorn Berries, being the sweetest of autumn fruits, are
among the first to go.

1153

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

with eyes able and willing to see. Here
in the old country lane, glowing from end
to end with ruddy berries seemingly ripe
and ready for an immediate and perpetual
feast, one can con over nature's whole
scheme for the winter sustenance of the
birds, and at least concede the wonderful
ingenuity of it all, if one cares to give the
thing no higher name.

For it is soon evident that though, to the

The Rose Hips ripen one by one, so that

the bush is like a locked larder, releasing

each day just sufficient food for the day's

needs.

eye, the banquet is already spread for the
whole season, everything is not equally pre-
pared for use. Certain things, like the
blackberries, and, in a lesser degree, the
hawthorn fruit, ripen almost simultaneously
at this time, and the birds are already at
work upon them. As the season advances
the hordes of smaller birds will daily in-
crease. The brambles will soon lose their
black brightness ; every day will see the
great may-bushes giving forth a more and
more attenuated glow of red. But this is
obviously an integral part of the winter
rationing scheme. There are long months
of wintry weather to face, and a high

physical stamina must be created in the
birds to withstand them. Hence this ripen-
ing of the entire haw-harvest together :
Nature decrees that at the beginning every
feathered creature should have its fill, and
more than its fill, so that robust bodily con-
dition may be built up early a sturdy
bulwark set against winter's ills.

But this is not the case with the hips
the rose berries which form nearly as
large a part of the wild harvest of lane and
field. Their rich glittering tawny- red fills
every brake to-day. Among wild fruits of
the countryside, there is nothing more
pleasant to the taste than the hips, nor more
coveted and sought for by birds of all
degrees. But as yet the bright, inviting
rose-berries are as unattainable as jewels
behind a plate-glass shop-window to passers-
by in the street. Until the hips are ripe,
their skins are so tough and the flesh within
so adamantine, that none but the very
stoutest bill can deal with them.

And here we get an inkling of one of the
chief points in Nature's rationing scheme
for the birds. Much of the berry harvest,
notably that of the hips, the fruit of the
wild rose, is made to ripen to take edible
form by gradual stages. Look at any
brier bush to-day, and you will see it
covered with the shining red lobes of
fruit, all equally ripe and ready for food,
you would say. But it is not so. One or
two, indeed, are softening a little, but all
the rest are still as hard as granite, and thus
as yet perfectly unassailable. Yet each has
its appointed day for usefulness. Each of
the rose bushes throughout the long winter
months to come will be a sort of locked
larder discharging its contents automatic-
ally at daily regular intervals. Every day
will see so many of the hips released,
sufficient, in the aggregate, for the daily
need.

There is another and equally efficient
way in which Nature contrives to prevent
the early and wasteful dissipation of the
stores she has provided, and this lies in
giving the wild fruits varying degrees of
palatableness, and so of attraction. The
holly is the most redoubtable example of
this. The hawthorn berries, which are the
sweetest, are the first to go. They are
meant to provide a first bounteous feast,
and their quality is lure enough. They have

Photo: E. SUP, F.L.S.

The slender Spindle reaches out over the wagon-way making a rosy mist in the air at

every turn.

Photo : A. If. Dennis.

The juicy berries of the Bryony add to the gorgeous pageant of colour in the autumn

hedges.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

deep rich colour, but even in full sunshine fairly claim, as a stand-by for later times,
a thorn-tree heavily laden with ripe berries protected now by the simple expedient of
has nothing of brilliance : the best and making them nasty a quality that imrm-
biggest of them has but a retiring sombre- nent starvation will make light of under
ness of hue. The holly, on the other hand, stress of long-continued penurious days,
seems to be for ever sounding clarion calls But rarely, now and again in the tale of

years, there comes to the
English countryside a winter
of extraordinary rigour.
Week after week, month after
month, the frost keeps its
iron grip upon the land. All
the early supplies of berries
have been prematurely ex-
hausted. Even at length the
repulsively nauseous holly-
fruit has failed ; the last
glowing bunch of it has
vanished even from the secret
fastness of the old lane. And
still the frost holds relentlessly
day after day.

We know that in these
times of exceptionally hard
and long-drawn-out wintry
weather, many of the wild
birds forsake the empty
hedgerows and crowd down
to the farmsteads for food.
But the vast majority remain
in their old haunts, and
yet manage to keep little
feathered body and whatever
it is that stands for soul in
a bird together. How are
these preserved from ex-
tinction as preserved we
know they are in spite of
all that stress of winter frost
and storm can do ?

The answer is plain in
the air of this golden, still
October morning. At every
few loitering steps through the sun-flooded
alley of the old lane, you come upon a new
peal of rich sonorous music a steady, deep
note as from a great harp-string stretched
across the violet sky. Stopping under some
ivy-swathed tree-trunk because there the
sound seems richest and fullest, and gazing
upward into the labyrinth of green-swaddled
stem and bough, you are still at a loss until
you realize that the music comes from the
ivy itself. Every ivy-clad tree in the lane
is besieged by a countless multitude of in-

Blaekberries ripen almost simultaneously, and
are early at work upon them.

of colour to stay the passing depredator.
Its berries are dyed the most brilliant scar-
let conceivable, and the higher the branch
the denser and more vivid is the display.
Nevertheless, holly berries are seldom or
never touched until winter is well on the
wane. The truth is that, though they are
nutritious enough, their flavour is repellent
to almost every bird, and it is no forcing
of fancy to conceive that this is designedly
so. These bountiful loads of scarlet holly-
fruit are set in the hedgerows, one may

/;. Step, l-.L.S.

the birds

1156

BY-WAYS OF PLANT LIFE

sects hive-bees and humble-bees, butter-
flies, drone-flies, wasps by the thousand,
bluebottles and greenbottles : all the winged
atoms of the countryside are here revelling
in the ivy feast. For though it is fruit time
now for every other thing that grows, it is
blossom time with the ivy.

And why should there be this wonderful
blossom time for the ivy now ? The
reason will be plain if the coming season
prove an abnormally hard one, and next
March set in with the icy grip of winter
still upon the land. Then, in every wood
and hedgerow, there will be fat ivy berries,
enough to feed a legion.

Only Mother Nature will leave no loop-
hole for mischance in this, her ultimate
provision for the birds. The ivy berry
harvest is to be their emergency ration, a
last resort in their extremity of need. It
must be protected against all conceivable
hazard, and the surest means of keeping
it safe is to keep it out of existence.

Yet even when March winds blow, and at
last the ivy-fruit is ripe and ready, Nature
sets up still one more barrier against possible
untimely dissipation. No other wild fruit

is put forth in such studiously unattractive
guise as that of the ivy ; the ripe berries
are mere clumps of dull dark green, scarce
distinguishable from the tarnished, winter-
worn green of the foliage. It needs hun-
ger's keen wit to find them out, and found
they are at length every March day sees a
famished horde tearing the pods asunder,
and wasting, one would say, as much as
they consumed ; the ground below is littered
with the small round kernels from the green
pods of the ivy berries.

Yet these are never really wasted. They
are always snapped up by the more
timorous birds who fear to join the greedy
overhead throng. Lying in the grass
or amidst the dead leaves of a woodland
path, the seeds would indeed pass un-
noticed unless something were contrived
to reveal them. And here Providence
achieves a veritable master-stroke ; a few
hours' exposure to light and air brings
to them resplendent colour a soft, yet
intensely brilliant crimson. In the dimmest
light of early morning, these fallen ivy-seeds
reveal themselves to searching birds bright
as railroad danger-lamps in a fog.

: H. Ha i

rnvto : tf. tiamty.

Not until February is past do the Ivy berries ripen; they are the last resort of the

birds in their extremity of need.

Curiosities of Insect Life

31.-

THE LIFE STORY OF THE PUSS

MOTH

By RAY PALMER, F.E.S.

With photographs by the Author

HE caterpillar of the puss moth is completing the picture there is a long black
certainly one of Nature's curiosities ; tail, as long as the body, either lying straight

out behind or raised vertically above the
back, kitten fashion.

Such is the first impression of anyone
previously unacquainted with the insect,
and it is only a closer inspection that reveals
the true nature of the
features which make up
this curious appearance.
Touch this miniature cari-
cature of a kitten and the
resemblance vanishes.
The " tail " suddenly
becomes two tails, which
are waved about over
the back, and the head is
lifted and turned in the
direction of the inter-
ference. Watch the larva
feed and it will be seen
that the enlarged front

The eggs of the Puss Moth, portion of the body, on
as a rule, are laid on the upper
surface of the leaves of poplars
and willows. They are about
one-sixteenth of an inch across.

and its remarkable habits, as well as
its grotesque, or even comical, appearance,
make it one of the chief favourites of the
young entomologist. This is not to be
wondered at, since this extraordinary cater-
pillar is easy to keep in
confinement ; and, if
reared from the egg, it
is possible to observe the
whole life history, which,
for a moth, is one of
exceptional interest.

The eggs, as a rule, are
laid on the upper surface
of the leaves of poplars
and willows, and are
chocolate brown in colour,
and about the size of the
head of a large pin; i.e.
about a sixteenth of an
inch across.

Early in June there
emerges from each of
these eggs a tiny black
caterpillar, which im-
mediately on hatching is at least three
times the diameter of the egg in length.
These little larvae are some of the most
comical creatures imaginable. It is usually
said that the moth takes its name of " puss "
from the beautiful downy hair with which
its body is clothed ; but one has to see the
very young larvae to realize the full signifi-
cance of the name. The newly-hatched
caterpillar reminds one forcibly of a minia-
ture edition of a little black kitten. There
is the rounded head, raised up, with its
two projecting ears ; the black body,
hunched up together when at rest ; and

which the " ears " are
situated, is not the head
at all, but the thorax. The
real head is much smaller
and can be withdrawn almost out of sight
when the caterpillar is at rest. Under-
neath the thorax are the six true legs,
which seem to be principally used for
holding the edge of a leaf which is being
eaten. The larva clings on by its claspers,
of which it has only four pairs, the last
pair being modified to form the curious
" tails " already referred to. To enable
them to adhere to the smooth surface
of a poplar leaf, the young larvae spin
a little pad of silk, in which they hook
their claspers. Thus they can cling on
safely, even in a strong wind. At this

1158

CURIOSITIES OF IHSECT LIFE

the little creature only looks like is about to moult, it spins a silken web
a black speck on the leaf, and it requires over a leaf, thus attaching its old skin,

a very close inspection to perceive
it is a caterpillar.

that

which it is enabled to leave more easily.

The skin splits, and the larva emerges in
_ more brilliant colours ; it then
turns round and makes a meal
of its old coat, devouring it all
with the exception of the casing
of the head, which is probably
too tough a morsel. These
caterpillars also have a curious
habit, when kept in confinement,
of nibbling the tail appendages
of their companions, which they
seem to regard as " tit-bits,"
for it is not done because of
any shortage of food.

The colouring changes some-

The ear - like
projections on
the front of the
thorax are
covered with
minute spines,
and no doubt in
some way serve
a protective
purpose. As the
larvae increase in
size the little
" ears " and the
" tails " decrease.
Their pro-
portionate size,
when the cater-
pillar is about a
fortnight old, may
be seen from the
upper illustration
on this page. At
this stage a good
deal of the black

been lost, and the

One has only to see the young Puss Moth larvae to realize the
significance of the name. Here they are seen looking like small black
kittens, at two (above) and three weeks old. The one on the right in
the lower illustration is spinning a web over the leaf before casting

its skin.

under parts and sides are green, except
for a broad triangular patch of black, which
extends downwards from the back.

Puss moth larvae are enormous eaters,
consequently they grow very rapidly. Their
skin, however, cannot grow or stretch be-
yond certain limits, and so it is periodic-
ally cast off, a new one having formed

what with every moult, after the last of which
the predominating colour is yellowish green.
The nature of the markings may be seen
from the illustrations. The saddle-like
patch on the back is now of a whitish
ground shaded with fine brown or greyish
lines ; this patch is without shading along
the middle of the back, and increases

underneath. When one of these caterpillars in darkness towards the edge, which is bor-

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

Puss Moss larvae at
about five weeks old
showing the " terrify-
ing" and "resting"
attitudes.

head, but larvae in confinement
usually lose this habit.

When the puss caterpillar
reaches its full growth, it loses
its bright colours and turns
to a dingy brown. It then
ceases feeding and wanders about
seeking a place in which to
spin its cocoon. This is a very
wonderful affair, and it is ex-
tremely interesting to watch its
construction. In a state of nature,
the larva crawls some distance
down the trunk of the willow or
poplar tree, and proceeds to gnaw
out a shallow oval cavity in the
bark. While doing this it also
constructs a transparent covering
over itself, with a
glutinous substance
produced out of its
mouth. Through this

The grotesque appearance of the Puss Moth larva is partly
a protective device. The distinct leaf-shape pattern on the back
serves to disguise the outline of the insect when among foliage.

dered by a broad white stripe rising to the
pointed hump of the fourth segment, and
diverging thence along the edges of the
flat top of the thorax. The front part of
the first segment of the thorax is somewhat
square in shape, and between this and the
head, and surrounding the latter, is pink
flexible skin. When the larva is at rest,
the head is withdrawn into this pink recess,
which presents all the more curious appear-
ance because the ear-like prominences
have now sunk into two black spots, which
look like eyes ; these are well shown in
the illustration of the full-grown caterpillar.
The tail appendages are now considerably
reduced, and consist of two prickly horns.
When the caterpillar is irritated, it raises
up its tail and protrudes a long pink fila-
ment from each of its horns, at the same
time turning its grotesque " face " towards
the intruder. This is a good example
of what is known as a " terrifying attitude,"
and no doubt serves as a protection against
birds and other enemies. If further inter-
fered with, however, it has the power of
ejecting a fluid from an opening below the

1160

Puss Moth cocoons. The lower one
usurped by an Ichneumon Fly, and the
hole of the parasite can be seen.

was
exit

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

the caterpillar can be seen at work, gnawing considered it an admirable place in which
off bits of bark and working them into to undergo its metamorphosis,
the surface of the cocoon ; then adding On one occasion an escaped caterpillar

made its way to a bookshelf and
effectually sealed up a book by
spinning its cocoon across the
leaves.

If put in a tin or jar with
nothing to chew up, the puss
larva will make a shiny brown
cocoon, which altogether lacks the
usual rough appearance.

It may be wondered how the
moth makes its way out of such
a tough cocoon ; and were it not
for special provisions, it would
probably be unable to do so.
In the first place the caterpillar.

A Puss Moth just emerged from
its cocoon in the bark of a tree.

more " glue," followed by some
more bark, and so on, until
at a distance it is difficult to
distinguish the cocoon from the
bark out of which it is made.
The gluey material soon hardens
and produces a very tough
structure.

Although the bark of a tree is the
usual situation for the construction
of this remarkable cocoon, the cater-
pillars are not at all fastidious in their
tastes. I have found them on a
small poplar twig, which is quite
an unusual position. Another
instance of an abnormal situation,
that came under my notice, was the carpet instructed by some wonderful instinct,
seat of a folding garden-chair. The cater- makes the head end of the cocoon of
pillar had no doubt dropped from a poplar a thinner texture than the rest. Then the
tree above, and, alighting on the chair seat, pupa is provided with a special appliance,

1 161

A female Puss Moth at rest. Notice the soft

" pussy-like " body and legs, and the beautiful

markings on the wings.

THE PAGEAtfT OF NATURE

in the form of a prominent ridge on the
thorax, with which it scrapes against the
end of the cocoon until an opening is
made. The head of the pupa skin then
splits, and the moth comes partly out
and softens the edges of the opening
with a special fluid. Thus it is enabled
to force its way out, leaving the pupa
case within the cocoon. A round hole is
left in the cocoons, which then become
conspicuous on the tree trunks, though
they are seldom discovered before the
emergence of the moths.

At first the moth appears to be wingless,
and its downy body is wet and limp.
The tiny wings, however, expand with
wonderful rapidity, and the moth, when
fully developed, is a very beautiful object.
The fore-wings are white, or very pale
grey, variegated with black spots and dark
grey lines ; the pattern of these markings
is well shown in the illustrations. The
hind-wings are much darker grey than the
fore- wings, particularly in the female.
In the male the wings are often semi-
transparent. The antennae are feathered,
or " pectinated," in both sexes, particularly
so in the male.

The moth appears in May, and flies by
night throughout June. In the daytime
it may sometimes be found sitting on a

post or tree trunk ; but the caterpillar is
more frequently seen than its parent.

The puss caterpillar is very subject to
the attack of an ichneumon fly a large
reddish coloured insect, with long legs and
antennae, known as Ophion luteus,

This " fly " has a short, but powerful,
ovipositor, with which it pierces its vic-
tim and deposits an egg beneath the skin.
From this egg hatches a little maggot,
which feeds on the fleshy tissues of its host,
avoiding the vital parts. The unfortunate
caterpillar, unconscious of the fate in
store for it, goes on feeding more raven-
ously than ever. Very often there are
three or four of these internal parasites
within a caterpillar, yet they do not threaten
its life at present. The doomed individual
eventually becomes " full fed," as entomo-
logists say, and spins its cocoon. It is
never destined to pupate, however, for
before it has time to do so the ichneumon
larvae attack its vital organs and completely
devour its body.

If puss cocoons which have failed to
yield moths be opened, they will frequently
be found filled with the long, narrow, woolly
cocoons of the ichneumon. This parasite
emerges later than the moth, making a
very much smaller hole at the end of the
cocoon.

Male and female Puss Moths. The male is

the smaller, but both are covered with fine

downy hair.

1 162

A rose spray that has been attacked by a Leaf-cutter Bee. The bee rolls up the

oblong pieces into the form of a jar, half-fills it with nectar and pollen for the future

grub, then lays the egg and seals up the whole with circular pieces.

32.-DESCRIBING THE CIRCLE

By A. HAROLD BASTIN

With photographs by the Author

ITH centre A, and radius A B,
describe the circle Granted

a pair of compasses, anyone may
proceed with confidence to carry out these
instructions. It is related of Leonardo
da Vinci that he once drew a circle with
his pencil alone to testify to his mastery of
his craft. But suppose that you are sup-
plied simply with a sheet of paper and a pair
of scissors, and told to shape your circle
without artificial aid ! Only after long
practice could you hope to perform the feat
successfully. Yet many of Nature's chil-
dren cut circles often once only in the
course of their life-span with the utmost
dexterity and precision. It seems to be a
trick that was acquired easily and early by
" instinct," for it crops up again and again,

1 16

often quite unexpectedly, even (if the writer
is correctly informed) among the savage
and barbaric races of mankind as, for
example, among the Kaffirs, who are said
to construct their characteristic circular
huts and kraals solely " by knack," as we
say, and without the intervention of meas-
urement and calculation. Possibly this
knack, or innate skill, has more to do with
what we call " genius " than our egoism
will allow us to admit !

It has even been suggested in some quar-
ters that the substitution of exact formulae
and instruments of precision for the old
" rule of thumb " methods has detracted
from the cunning of the human hand and
eye. Be this as it may, the fact remains
that not one civilized man in a million can

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

" describe the circle " merely by exercising are pressed and pommelled into the form

his own inborn adroitness.

How different is the case with insects !
Consider, for instance, our leaf-cutter bees,
one of which (Megachile willughbiella)
named after Francis Willughby, a fellow-
worker with the famous John Ray, and one

of a rude vessel, which is subsequently
half-filled with a sweet paste concocted
of nectar and pollen. The egg is then laid ;
and it remains to provide a cover for the
"jam pot." So the bee makes more jour-
neys to the rose-bush and cuts four, or it
, maybe five, round
pieces of leaf
which she rams
down upon the
cell, thus making
things " right and
tight " in accord-
ance with the
custom of her
ancestry. These
cover-pieces are
not perfect circles,
because possibly
to save her tools !

ij the insect avails

"""iPWji herself of the leaf-
VI edge as far as may

! ; '^p^\ be. Nevertheless

ni^ the curve of her

cut is astonish-
ingly accurate.
Perfect circles,
ho weve r , are
habitually cut by
another species of
the genus (aptly
termed circum-
c in eta), whose
cover-pieces sel-

of the " fathers of natural history " is a dom, if ever, include any part of the
frequent visitor to our gardens, even in the natural leaf-edge. Mr. Latter subjected a
London suburbs. These insects build their number of pieces cut by this bee to a
cells in crevices, or in burrows which they critical examination, and reported that,
drive in decaying timber. The cells are even with an instrument capable of meas-
formed of pieces cut from leaves or (more uring accurately to the one-hundredth part
rarely) from the petals of flowers. Willugh- of an inch, he could " hardly detect any
by's namesake uses for the most part rose differences in the diameters of any one."
leaves, and has thus come to be classed Yet the operation of leaf-cutting is per-
as a " pest " by rose-growers. But there formed very rapidly, and the bee combines
are those who watch for and welcome skill with alertness. For, as you watch her
the annual reappearance of willughbiella working, you realize that she is cutting
in their gardens, and, far from grudging away the very portion of the leaf upon
her the spoils of her industry, fer- which she stands. Just as she gives the
vently^hope that she will " cut and come last snip, her beautiful wings commence to
again," not once, but many times. First, vibrate, and off she flies, carrying the
a number say seven or eight of lozenge- severed portion of the leaf gripped both
shaped pieces of leaf are taken. These are by her mandibles and her legs,
carried one by one to the burrow, where they So far we have been dealing with the

1164

A Leaf-cutter Bee at work. Just as she is ready to give the last

snip, hep wings begin to vibrate, and away she flies, carrying with

her the severed part of the leaf.

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

adult insect, its faculties fully developed,
and working at high pressure under the
impulse to procreate. Besides, the same
action is performed many times in succession.
Perhaps the earlier circles cut by the bee
may betray the novice one destined to rise
through practice to perfection ! There-
fore let us examine another instance, in
which the performer is a grub that is

should say rather that the food at their dis-
posal, being concentrated and highly nutri-
tious, goes a very long way. However this
may be, the grub eats little more of the pea
than a portion equal to its own bulk, and the
pea remains capable of germinating, al-
though unless its early circumstances prove
exceptionally fortunate it usually makes
but a weakly plant. As for the grub, before

Cells OP food jars of the Leaf-cutter Bee packed into an old beam of a greenhouse.

to say, a mere infant, unsophisticated
beyond question. Beetles of the genus
Bruchus glue their eggs to the pods of
leguminous plants. The minute newly-
hatched larva has three pairs of good legs,
and is thus able to move about fairly
quickly. But it soon cuts its way into the
substances of the pod, where it burrows for
a short time, and eventually penetrates
one of the developing peas or beans. Once
firmly established therein, it loses its fine
legs and becomes a fat and helpless grub.
The damage done by its entry is slight,
and is soon almost obliterated ; so that at
length we have the strange phenomenon
of a seed, apparently healthy and well-
favoured, which has, nevertheless, a grub
gnawing at its centre. A single pea pro-
vides much more than sufficient nourish-
ment for the insect, which consumes only
a part of the cotyledons, and rarely, if ever,
touches the germ. For these grubs seem
able to accomplish great things upon
remarkably short rations or, perhaps we

changing to the pupa it invariably excavates
a passage to the surface of the seed, where
it scoops away everything except the thin
outer skin. In so doing it " describes the
circle " with perfect accuracy, and round the
circumference gnaws a " line of least re-
sistance " ; so that when the beetle is ready
to emerge it has only to push open a sort
of trap-door to gain the open air ! The
smallest exertion suffices ! This habit of
the grub makes it possible to detect in-
fested peas and beans before the occupants
have escaped, since the tell-tale circular
patches may easily be recognized, although it
is necessary to distinguish between them and
the normal " dimples " which characterize
certain kinds of peas.

Another notable circle-cutter that exer-
cises its knack only once in its lifetime is
the caterpillar of the famous jumping-bean
moth (Carpocapsa saltitans), which while
actually a native of Mexico is so far
" British " that the sections of the triply
divided fruits (of a species of Euphorbia)

1165

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

Grub of a Bruehus Beetle that feeds in a
developing pea.

containing it are imported annually in large
numbers as curiosities, and are always
obtainable from certain London shops and
stores. If the husk in which the caterpillar
lives gets cracked or broken, the inmate
repairs the damage by means of closely
spun silk. By taking advantage of this
habit it is possible to induce the insect
to fix a window of very thin glass to the
side of its abode in place of a portion of
the husk which has been carefully removed
with a knife. Thus, secrets are revealed !
One discovers that the caterpillar unlike
the grub of the pea" takes all " ; that in

order to make the husk jump, it rears itself
up, and with its head gives a series of sharp
blows to the roof. One may also see
something of the manner in which the
circular door is cut without which way
of escape the moth would be doomed to
die a helpless prisoner.

The jumping-bean moth is closely related
to certain British species, one of these
being the notorious codlin moth, whose
caterpillars feed in apples. The larvae
of other species attack walnuts, acorns,
chestnuts and beech masts ; but none of
these causes its habitation to "jump,"
nor does any display adroitness in circle-

Before the grub pupates, it prepares a

When the beetle is ready to emerge, it has
merely to push open the trap-door.

cutting. We have, however, a small native
saw-fly (Phyllotoma aceris), whose larva is
expert in both these feats, which have
been described on page 738 of the PAGEANT
OF NATURE. It is quite a common insect,
and mines the leaves of the maple and the
sycamore in June and July, and prior to
pupation cuts a disk out of the upper
epidermis. This disk is normally circular,
But the perfection of the curve is sometimes
spoilt by a leaf- vein, and always by shrink-
age as the tissue dries and warps. On
the inner surface of the disk, before it is
completely severed from the leaf, the larva
weaves a curtain of silk, thus forming for
itself a snug retreat, close-sealed against

- M ^* wf t*i OO Ct "I'll 1

circular door so that the beetle may have intrusion, in which the winter is passed.

no difficulty in escaping.

When everything is made secure, the least
1166

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

Circular trap-door, cut by the Jumping Bean Moth, which is a native of Mexico, but
found in certain fruits that are imported and sold in London shops.

breath of wind suffices to dislodge the little
fastness, and it flitters lightly to the ground.
Then it begins to jump not high, but
perceptibly and with persistence ! Mr.
Main describes these saltatory disks very
happily as " animated confetti " ! Why do
they do it ? Experiments have shown that
the effective stimulus
is heat heat and,
perhaps, intense
light. The jumping
continues more or
less vigorously so
long as the tempera-
ture is high ; but
when the " beans "
or " confetti " chance
to jerk themselves
into a cool place they
lie still. Now a cool
place, screened from
the sun's rays, is also
presumably a shel-
tered place a har-
bour of refuge. Here
we may hope to lie
secure from birds
and other creatures
which, should they
spy us, might effect

our undoing in a
very literal sense of
the phrase !

The Large Saw-fly of the Hawthorn, which

only makes its debut after cutting and

pushing up a circular lid.

I 167

Many examples might be cited in
which the cocoon spun by the larva is
evacuated by the perfect insect through
a circular doorway which it (or its pupa)
cuts to secure its release. There are the
lacewing-flies : and when one looks first
at the small white cocoon, with its gaping
lid, and then at the
relatively huge insect
by which it was so
recently tenanted
one grows envious
of Nature's skill
at packing ! How all
these gauzy fineries
were folded and
pressed into so small
a space is a mystery !
Many a saw-fly, too,
makes its debut only
after it has cut and
pushed up a similar
circular lid. A good
instance is the large
saw-fly of the haw-
thorn ( Trichiosoma
tibia Its), whose
cocoons may be
found attached to
the twigs in almost
any hedge-row. On
the other hand, we
find that nearlv

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

all moths gain their liberty through an
irregular opening. Frequently the larva

Europe is wide has not yet occurred in
Britain. This insect gets its popular name

leaves a discontinuity in the texture of the " dragon " from the fact that its caterpillars,
cocoon at one point. Sometimes, when the like many others of the Cuspidate family,
cocoon wall is uniformly thick or tough, have a very bizarre not to say alarming

appearance. There is no-
thing startling about the
adult moth.

Like the puss moth, the
" dragon," at the climax of
its metamorphosis, finds
itself imprisoned in a hard,
bark-like cocoon fixed to a
tree trunk. It excretes no
solvent. How does it escape ?
Through a door made by
the pupa, which is equipped
with a short, sharp spine,
or cutter, at its head-end !
This instrument is operated

special adaptations come into

play. The puss moth (Cerura

vinula), as Mr. Latter has

shown, excretes a powerful

liquid solvent by the action

of which the hard-set cement

of its larva is dissolved and

a breach in the wall made

possible. But the solvent

is highly caustic, and contact

with it would certainly

damage the moth's delicate

plumage. Yet a way through

the sodden debris must be

forced ! The dilemma is

escaped very prettily. A

fragment of the stout pupal

skin remains lodged upon

the thorax, and under cover

of this shield the moth moves

on to victory and freedom ! Good ! (one

seems to hear some wiseacre remark) ; of

course a moth could not cut its way out,

since mandibles are lacking in adult Lepi-

doptera. But our critic forgets that there are

such things as tools ! There is a moth known

as the " dragon " (Hoplitis milhauseri), a

fairly near relative to the " puss," which

although its caterpillar is an oak-feeder,

and its range in Central and Southern

" Animated confetti," or leaf-disks, in which a small saw-
fly larva conceals itself. It falls to the ground, and
then jumps until it reaches a cool place in which to
pupate. 1. The disk, ready to fall. 2. The leaf, after
the disk has fallen.

by turning the forepart of the body now
this way, now that, so that the cutter con-
tinually traverses the same elliptical line
(not a circle this time !) until the cocoon
wall is at length penetrated. Well may we
exclaim with Mr. Kipling, " Thanks be
to Allah for the diversity of his creations ! "
For if Nature always took the same short
cut to reach a given end, the study of natural
history would be shorn of half its charms !

1168

Wild Flowers and Their Ways

The Valerian forming a ruby crown to the cliffs. Once an alien, it is now welcome as

a British wild flower.

24.-FLOWER LOVERS OF THE SEA

By G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.

With photographs by the Author

ON the bare beach, just above high- water
mark, on a certain May day, lay a
big patch of pale green and silvery
purple leaves and flowers of the sea-rocket.
Lit up by the bright spring sunshine,
it made a charming harmony with the grey-
blue shingle on which it lay, providing just
such a picture as the great herbalist Gerard
must have seen when in " the spacious
days of Queen Elizabeth " he first found
this plant growing " neare unto the sea in
the Isle of Thanet, hard by a house . . .
called Quake's house." No plant is a
greater sea-lover, and it grows, flirting as it

80 11

were with the waves, always close up to
them but always just beyond their reach
except at those times when they are very
" oncoming." Now there are certain plants
which must have the sea or they cannot
flourish they never live long away from
it the sea-rocket, the sea-convolvulus, the
yellow-horned poppy, the sea-holly, are
some of these ; there are other plants that
prefer the neighbourhood of the sea but are
also found away from it the sea-lavender,
the thrift and the hound's tongue are among
them. There are still others that are in-
different in the matter as long as soil and

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

climate are to their liking such are the
kidney vetch and the rock cist, which must
have chalk in the soil, whether by the sea
or inland, and there are others, no doubt,

- . ., .:: :

The fleshy leaves and the pale purple cross-
like flowers of the Sea-rocket. No flower
grows nearer to the edge of the waves
than this.

whose constitution the sea does not suit and
which are never found near it.

The pale purple flowers of the sea-rocket
have their petals in the form of a cross like
those of its relative the wallflower, and its
much divided leaves are fleshy and thick.
This fleshiness is a wise provision of the
sea-rocket and of many other seashore plants,
for they are much in the position of the
Ancient Mariner there is " water, water
everywhere, and not a drop to drink."
Though they can generally take their water
salter than most plants, the saltness of the
sea is altogether too much for them so
they have to rely on rain and dew for their
drink, and since the sandy, shingly beach
cannot hold water for plants to draw on,
they are obliged to absorb every available
drop and store it in their tissues, as a camel
stores up water when in the desert. Like
many other of the plants that grow at the
very margin of the sea, the sea-rocket dies
down every year, but " recovereth its selfe
again by the falling of his owne seed," as
Gerard quaintly said of its garden brother.

A little behind our particular sea-rocket,
towards the sand dunes, grey-blue prickly
shoots of sea-holly, or eryngium, were

pushing up, small and tender as yet, for their
day is not till full summer has come in.
It was at this stage that our seaside-living
forefathers gathered the shoots and boiled
and ate them like asparagus, and Langham,
writing in 1579 in his " Garden of Health/'
states that the " young leaves may be boyled
and with salts and oyle preserved for sal-
lads " provided strange provision ! the
herb with its roots is gathered " when the
Sunne is in Cancer." Its roots preserved
in syrup formed a very favourite sweet-
meat with our ancestors ; even Falstaff
speaks of " Kissing comfits and snow
eringoes," and a very old writer insists that
they are not only pleasant but valuable.
" The roots preserved and comfited is good
for old folkes and others that are wasted
and withered."

All through the spring days the sea-holly
thrives on the barren beach, as one to the
manner born. Its leaves are so hard
and leathery that they require very little
water to live, and the little they acquire
they retain, for small indeed can be the
evaporation that can take place from
their hard surface. Their shape and prickly
edges make one think of the holly, but
when the flowers come under the August

A spray of Samphire. This plant was, until
recent years, much used as a vegetable and
for sauces. It grows in the crevices of
rocks, and Samphire-gathering was a most
hazardous trade.

sun, then one is irresistibly reminded of
the thistle clan. Yet the sea- holly is
neither a thistle nor a holly it has not

1170

WILD FLOWERS AHD THEIR WAYS

The Yellow - horned Poppy. Notice the
enormous length to which its seed-case
grows. Sometimes it is even a foot long,
and pushes out between the leaves like a
great horn.

the slightest kinship with either ; its rela-
tives, strangely enough, are the cow parsley,
or " keck," the wild carrot, the hemlock,
and all that crowd of plants whose flat
white flower clusters make the hedgerows
gay and whose identification turns the
ordinary man's hair white. Each thistle-
like head is built up of many small flowers,
each flower having a bright blue pointed
bract beneath it ; the bract keeps off
undesirable guests the blueness attracts
desirable ones.

I'hc Eryngo here
Sits as a queen among the scanty tribes

<>! vegetable race

On her brow

She binds a crown of amethystine hue
Bristling with spicula, thick interwove
With clustering florets whose light antlers dance
In the fresh breeze, like tiny topaz gems.

The petals of these florets are very curious ;
eally they end in long pointed lobes, but
:hese are bent over forwards and tucked
town into the centre of the flower. The
"

sepals and petals stand on the seed-case,
whose top is a ten-rayed honey disk. No
doubt it is to prevent this disk being swamped
by dew or rain that the petals are folded
over it in the peculiar way described.
There are two stages in the life of each little
flower. In the first the stamens are long
and stretch out right beyond the petals,
so that visiting insects will get well dusted
with pollen, and in the second and later stage
two short styles from the seed-case grow up
and take the place of the now withered
stamens, so that visiting insects carrying
pollen leave some of it on them, which is by
them transferred to the ovules. Sea-holly
is probably found at its best on the east
coast of England.

When sea-holly is in flower in August it
is companioned by perhaps the handsomest
of all sea-loving plants the yellow-horned
poppy, which, year by year, also renews
itself from seed upon the inhospitable
shingle. Its beautiful yellow flowers, three

Flower clusters of the "butterfly-beloved"
Valerian. The flower has an interesting
and remarkable structure, and is specially
adapted for visits from butterflies and moths.

THE PAGEANT OF NATUfiE

or four inches across, have fragile petals
whose hold upon the stem is so slight that
they fall away at any attempt to transport
the blossom. But the remarkable thing
about the plant, the characteristic that gives
it its name, are the pods which follow the
flowers. They grow incredibly fast and
may be, eventually, a foot long, sticking
out through the leaves in all directions like
so many horns. The colour of the whole
plant is a bluish-grey-green, very like

The Purple Spurge is a very rare plant that can occasionally
be found on sandy shores in southern England and in south

Wales.

that of the sea, hence its Latin name
Glaucium.

Right out of the crevices of the rocks,
close by the sea, especially in southern
England, grows another great lover of the
sea the samphire. Its name emphasizes its
connexion with a rock, for it is a corrup-
tion of S. Pierre (or St. Peter) the herb of
St. Peter, the French call it. Its leaves and
stalks are fleshy, succulent, and with a spicy
salty taste that made it once much sought
after for use, both as a vegetable and as the
basis of a sauce. "It is the pleasantest
sauce, most familiar and best agreeing with
man's body/' was the verdict of Gerard.
Samphire collecting was at one time a
regular trade, a trade moreover of a par-
ticularly hazardous nature, for the gatherers
often had to be let down the face of the cliffs
by ropes.

The samphire has clusters of small flow-
ers " spoky tufts/' Gerard called them

whose minute petals disappear almost as
soon as the bud opens.

The golden samphire (Inula Crithmoides),
with yellow flowers, is quite a different
plant, belonging to quite a different family
that of the daisy and the dandelion
though it is often mistaken for and repre-
sented as the real samphire (Crithmum mari-
timum), which is a member of the family of
the keck and the sea-holly, but unique in
many respects. It grows in salt marshes,
and even on rocks, but in
much greater quantity and
is much more accessible.
Hence to the samphire
collectors its substitution
for the real article is a
great temptation, but its
qualities are very inferior.
Sometimes in the salt
marshes, just behind the
beach, there is a mass of
purple ; it is the sea-lav-
ender adding its quota of
beauty to the fringe of the
waves. There is nothing
of the real lavender about
it, except its colour ; it has
not its sweet fragrance
nor is it even of the same
family, though from it
bees gather nectar with
which they manufacture
honey. Its own family
one, and in England its
sole relative of any account is the common
thrift. Both of these plants are lovers of the
sea and prefer its neighbourhood, but the
sea is not vital to their existence as it is to
some of our first-mentioned plants. They
also follow the sea-holly in meeting difficult
conditions of life by extreme economy, and
therefore their tissues are hard, dry and
membranous, which accounts for the sea-
lavender being so adaptable to drying and
preserving through the winter. It thus be-
comes a great resource to florists and house-
wives in the dreary months when fresh
flowers are expensive and difficult to get.
The flowers are arranged in curious one-
sided spikes, all facing the sky. In the
thrift, the smaller flowers are gathered,
twenty to thirty together, into globular
heads. Individually, they are inconspicuous,
but collectively they make rosy pink touches

most delectable
is a very small

1172

WILD FLOWERS AND THEIR WAYS

of colour that are very attractive. Each over like a long hook, as the photograph
tiny flower has a delicate transparent calyx shows. By degrees, as the stalks lengthen,
outside the red petals, and when the flower these hooks straighten until the flower spike

dies and the seed in each is mature this
calyx acts as the most charming and fairy-
like parachute to carry it away to fields and
pastures new. One very curious fact may

is carried bolt upright. Each spike con-
sists of a great number of minute flowers,
and blossoming begins at the base of the
head and creeps upwards. Another kind

be noticed. In cultivation the flower heads of plantain, with narrow plain leaves, not

of the thrift become bigger and richer in
colour, but very rarely do
they produce good seed.
Perhaps luxury is too
enervating for a plant
which gets its name
" thrift " because it can
live where others starve
cliff-crevice, sand hills,
the bare tops of moun-
tains all come alike to it.
There is a theory that
it is one of the earliest
plants of our flora and
indigenous to the whole
land but, like the Ancient
Britons, was forced by the
overwhelming onrush of
more powerful invaders
to take refuge in remote
spots, in the fastnesses
of rocks and hill-tops.
Other names for it are
sea-pink and sea-gilli-
flower, though it is neither
a pink nor a gilliflower
any more than sea-
lavender is a lavender or
sea-holly a holly.

so attractive or striking as the buck's-horn

The Buek's-horn Plantain is a pretty plant with a charm-
ingly laid rosette. The leaves are cut up so as to suggest
fancifully the horns of deer. Notice how the flower-heads in
their young days are bent over like a hook.

Taken as a class the plantains are dis-
tinctly unpopular, chiefly because the lead-
ing member of the clan the greater plan-
tain is so coarse and aggressive, but the
less common, though not uncommon, hoary
plantain is most attractive, if one would
but consider it impartially, while the buck's-
horn plantain, which is found everywhere
by the sea, has also its good points and should
not be overlooked. It forms, often flat on
the ground, very striking rosettes of leaves,
cut up into such segments that they fanci-
fully recall the horns of deer hence its
name. In May, when they are young and

plantain, is also found upon sea cliffs, and
is known as the sea-plantain (Plantago
maritima).

With the mere mention of the pretty pink-
flowered sea-convolvulus, whose rounded
kidney-shaped leaves mark it off from the
bindweed and the larger convolvulus, which
have arrow-headed leaves, we must pass
over the crowd of less attractive, but still
interesting, sea-loving plants. But one can-
not pass over two great sea- lovers the
valerian and the gorse. Crowning the cliff
the whole summer through with its bunches
of crimson blossom, this butterfly-beloved

fresh and the flower spikes are beginning valerian adds a note of gaiety to the edge

to make their way upwards, the plant is
worth study. Each infant flower-head
starts erect, but as it grows it bends right

of the sea. Not so very long ago it was an
alien. Our forefathers of Queen Elizabeth's
day only knew it in their gardens, but now

"73

THE PAGEKHT OF NATURE

it has settled happily in the country, and its
claims to be included in our flora are allowed.
Butterfly beloved, we said, for it is essen-
tially a butterfly and moth flower, with a
very remarkable structure. Look at one
of the little red flowers. On the top of the
seed-case, which has a curious collar, is set
a long thin petal-tube with a tail or honey-
spur at the base. The tube expands into
five lobes one above, and four spreading
like a hand below. In the centre is a soli-
tary stamen, set on the petal- tube (it is very
rare to find only one stamen), and a long
column which comes all the way from the
seed-case. But examine closely the petal-
tube, and, tiny as it is, it will be found to be
divided lengthwise into two a greater and
a smaller tube. Up through the smaller one
runs the column. The other tube ends in
the spur and is empty. It is through this
tube that any nectar-seeking insect must
probe. Now only butterflies and moths
have probosces long enough and thin enough
to pass down to the bottom of this tube
hence they are the sole insects that find it
to their advantage to visit this plant or that

the plant itself desires to receive. When the
flower bud unfolds the stamen head is open
across the mouth of the tube, showing its
wares of bright pollen. This smears a
visitor as it sips the nectar ; it then flies
away probably to an older flower. As the
flower in question ages, the stamen bends
over the edge of the corolla and the seed-
case column grows into its place, so the next
visitors pollen-dust the column instead of
being dusted themselves. And meanwhile
the hanging, withering stamen gently drops
the remainder of its store upon a neighbour-
ing flower.

And finally the gorse. It, too, is one of the
flower-lovers of the sea. It may be the
glory of an inland common, but never is it
brighter, never more gorgeous than when,
as a sheet of gold, it clothes some steep cliff-
side the blue sky above, the blue sea
below its fragrance mingling with salt
ocean breezes, and the loud humming of
contented bees forming a musical accom-
paniment to the soft murmur of the waves.
The gorse by the sea is one of the fairest
sights in the whole Pageant of Nature.

Gorse in flower growing down a cliff-side provides one of the fairest sights in the whole

Pageant of Nature.

1174

Life of the Sea Shore

The Plumose Anemone, closed and open. In shallow waters it is short-stemmed,
as shown, but in deep waters the column may measure six inches, with a disk

several inches in diameter.

4.-" LIVING FLOWERS' OF THE SEA

By DR. FRANCIS WARD, F.Z.S.

With photographs by the Author

WHILE ot obvious interest to every
shore collector, the sea-anemones
are a fruitful source of discussion
to the scientist, for few forms of animal
life change so rapidly in order to accom-
modate themselves to altered surroundings,
so it often happens that the same species
is known by several names.

The anemones are classed under the
heading of Anthozoa, or " living flowers,"
together with the family of corals, but they
themselves are of the order Zoantharia.
Among them are to be found some of the
most beautiful inhabitants of the sea. They
are present in every rock-pool, in the shallow
waters round our shores, and at considerable
depths in the ocean. Most of them are
delicate and only thrive in well aerated sea-
water, but some, on the other hand, are
very hardy ; for example, Actinia mesem-

bryanthemum the common brown species
to be seen all round our shores.

The most delicate part of the anemone
is the base, by which it is attached, and often
it is necessary to clip away a portion of the
rock upon which it is resting to prevent
destruction of the specimen.

Before describing any particular species,
let us consider the structure of anemones in
general. In the corals and jelly-fish, the
digestive cavity or stomach is identical with
the body cavity, but anemones have a distinct
stomach which is separated from the body-
wall by a space. This space is divided into
vertical compartments. If a horizontal
section be cut through an anemone, the
stomach is seen as a central chamber, with the
compartments radiating from the stomach to
the body-wall. This section has an appear-
ance similar to one cut through a poppy head.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

On the dividing walls of the compart- a marked feature in the jelly-fish, remains
ments are attached the sexual organs. In to some degree in the column. This power
some species the ova and sperms are of contraction is used by the anemone to
crowded together in compartments of the force the fluid from the cavity into the
same animal ; other genera are unisexual, tentacles, which, as a result, expand, and
The ova undergo their early changes in the animal " opens," while relaxation on
the parent, and a ciliated embryo is set the part of the column causes the tentacles
free, known as a planula. These free- to withdraw, and the anemone " shuts."
swimming rounded bodies settle down on a Some anemones do not shut ; for example,
suitable spot, the cilia disappear, and the the opelet (Anthea cereus) remains open

constantly. This particular
anemone will be described
later ; while in the beadlet
(Actinia mesembryanthe-
mum) the tentacles dis-
appear so completely, that
merely a dimple remains
at the apex of the closed
jelly-like chocolate-col-
oured mass.

The question naturally
arises how does the ap-
parently defenceless
anemone escape destruc-
tion ?

Apart from concealment
by mimicry, both by col-
our and shape, the animal
is able to " sting," so as
to overcome enemies on a
much higher development

The beautiful Dahlia Wartlet is a voracious feeder ; a large
specimen will digest two small crabs at a meal.

scale than itself. When
an anemone is touched

tentacles begin to grow ; at first five or with the fingers, the tentacles have a peculiar

adhesive feeling ; this is due to sting cells

six of the latter appear, and later they
increase in multiples of this number.

There is no circulatory system and no
highly specialized nervous system, but the
tentacles are very sensitive to touch and
light.

The free end of the animal is known as
the disk, and the end by which it is attached
to rocks and stones as the base.

An anemone is able to move about by
crawling on this base like a snail, and it

which are insufficiently strong to pierce the
skin.

In certain groups of the Ccelenterata,
sting cells swarm in the compartments below
the stomach. These cells, which are only
one-three-hundredth of an inch in length,
have curled up inside them long, fine
wire-like threads some simple, others
barbed. The columns of these anemones are
perforated by innumerable openings. When

may proceed a considerable distance before the anemone is molested the sting cells

finding a place to its liking.
The column is the stem-like

rupture and the threads are shot out
portion, through the openings in the column. After

between the disk and the base. This being used in this manner the threads again
column varies considerably in character, curl up like a watch-spring inside the sting

It may be smooth or grooved, short or
stumpy, or stalk-like with a broad base.
The tentacles are hollow and communi-

cells. These sting cells are not present in the
bodies of all anemones. In Actinia they are
replaced by batteries of stinging cells, which

cate with the body cavity. The power of are present as rows of bright blue beads at
expansion and contraction, which is such the base of the tentacles.

1176

The Plumose Anemone varies in colour from olive-green to brown. This is a flesh-
coloured specimen, with its colony of young near by.

The Dahlia Wartlet is common both in deep and shallow waters. The tentacles of the
deep-water specimens are long and translucent like elongated bladders.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

*,*

A characteristic feature of the Plumose Anemone is

the thickened ring which separates the column from

the disk. This specimen was pearly white.

Let us now consider some of the species
which are common round our shores.

In the first illustration is shown the
elegant plumose anemone (Actinoloba
dianthus). Usually it is found attached
under a shelving rock in some dark corner.
In shallow water it is short-stemmed and
comparatively small ; in deep waters dianthus
grows to a large size and the column may
measure six inches, with a disk several
inches in diameter.
The column is smooth
and cylindrical, and per-
forated by minute pores,
through which acontia can
be projected. When this
anemone moves about,
not infrequently a small
portion of the base be-
comes detached and this
may grow into another
specimen. In the upper
illustration on p. 1177 is
a variety of the same
species which is of a
delicate flesh-colour.
(Dianthus may be olive
or fawn- coloured as
well). This variety also
differs in the shape of
its feathery tentacles. In
the left half of the full-
page illustration we have

Ammonia sulkata, well hidden
away among the growing weeds.
This species is common among
our rock-pools, where its brown
or olive - green tentacles are
ever on the move. It is the
one British anemone in which
they cannot be withdrawn. The
poisoning power in this case is
very highly developed.

At the end of the same rock is
the thick-horned anemone, or
dahlia wartlet (Tealia crassicornis)
It varies greatly in appearance and
shape, but is always brilliant. This
anemone when out of water covers
itself up with stones and debris.
It is a voracious feeder, and a large
specimen will digest two small
crabs at a meal. There is another
anemone commoner than any of
these, and familiar to all who
wander by the sea, brief reference to which
has been made before, namely, the beadlet.
When fully opened the beadlet is very hand-
some in its simplicity. The column is
smooth and short, relatively to its breadth.
The tentacles, which number some two
hundred, are short and curl right over the
margin of the disk, and at their bases are
seen a row of brilliant blue beads, while a
bluish tinge runs round the base.

The Anemonia sulkata is one whose tentacles cannot be with-
drawn. Its poisoning power is very highly developed.
1178

'QD

W B

Trees and Their Life Story

10.-" ST. LUKE'S LITTLE SUMMER'
AND LEAF-FALL

By G. CLARKE NUTTALL, B.Sc.

With photographs by the Author

A RIOT of colour orange, primrose,
purples from heliotrope to prune,
rich browns, reds of all shades and
green running the gamut of tint, colour

In the Plane the end of the leaf-stalk is hollow,
and forms a conical hut in which the new bud de-
velops. Only when the leaf falls is the bud disclosed.

whose brilliancy is fused in the
mystic haze of autumn sunshine,
and whose background is the
metallic blue of the autumn sky ;
add to this air genial and warm,
yet with an unmistakable tang of
frost, and we have " St. Luke's
Little Summer," those glorious
days that so often centre round
October 18, the day of the
physician - evangelist. Already
the knell of summer has sounded,
and death is in the air ; many
of the flowers have perished,
and the dying leaves are flutter-
ing sadly to earth ; already perhaps
we have been forced to realize
that

Heve the autumn melancholy dwells
And sighs her tearful spells
Amongst the sunless shadows of the plain.

But when St. Luke's Little Summer comes
it banishes all sadness ; it is as if
Nature, realizing that death was
inevitable, set out to meet it with
" gallant and high-hearted happi-
ness," singing her swan-song and
dressed in her most rich and royal
robes. And so the trees loyally
fall in with Nature's mood and
end their year with colours flying.
11 The beech is dipped in wine "
not only are its leaves now copper
and brown, so that it stands out
warm and vivid among its neigh-
bours, but its rusty nut -husks
gaping to shed the black triangular
seeds add their quota of colour to
the branches. Many of the husks
are already empty, and the nuts
with some of the husks are lying

The twin buds of the Maple ape formed in
hollowed-out end of the leaf-stalk. Thus, they

carefully protected until fully formed.
1180

the
are

TREES AND THEIR LIFE STORY

tall spires of the Lombardy poplars are

yellow too, but, shedding quickly their

uppermost leaves, often go bald at the top.

The maples glow with reds and yellows ;

among the russet leaves that cover the
ground with so dry and rustling a carpet
but the majority of the husks cling to the
branches punctuating them and sharing
in the ruddy glow
with which the
slanting afternoon
sun touches branches
and trunk. The dry
carpet of leaves re-
minds us that John
Evelyn discovered
that " the leaves of
the Beech being
gathered about the
fall and somewhat
before they are too
much frost - bitten,
afford the best and
easiest mattresses in
the world to lay
under a quilt instead
of straw because,
beside their ten-
derness and loose
lying together, they
continue sweet for
seven or eight years
long."

The elms are dis-
tinctly quaint in these
days ; they know
nothing of russet
tones, but great
patches of bright
yellow appear here
and there upon them,
just as one sometimes
sees a man's head
going white in
patches. Between
the yellow areas the
foliage is still quite
green, and in St.

Luke's sunshine the tall trees with their sometimes the reds are extraordinarily
characteristic segmented outline stand out vivid and beautiful, while there is one par-
like harlequins. As the days pass the yellow- ticular small maple that becomes wholly a
ing extends, though not until the bitter pale brownish yellow and quite lovely
end, when the feathery twig halo that the before there is any marked fall of leaf. At
tree wears all winter is completely visible, the tip of the branches twin buds can be

seen peeping out of the embrace of the ends

At leaf-fall the Plane tree looks as though it were smitten with a

dire disease, but it is only, as is its custom, shedding its bark

with its leaves.

does the last harlequin touch depart.

The poplars, always a-shiver, turn yellow of the leaf-stalks, which are purposely
in bulk, and are never more attractive than hollowed to form a sheltered nursery for
now with their stiff dark branches showing these young buds the hope of the future,
through the rapidly-thinning leafage. The On every tree the buds for next year have

1181

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

The coral-pink, quatrefoil fruits of the Spindle

tree. (Inset) The pink envelope is opening and

showing the orange seeds within. The colour

scheme is daring and very attractive.

all been formed, and for the most part can
be plainly seen before leaf-fall, and they are
generally found, as in the maple, in the angle
between the stalk of the departing leaf and
the main branch which supports it. The
plane, has, however, a unique plan of its
own, which is only revealed when the wind
snatches away the leaves from the branches.
While the green leaves are there, though other
trees can be seen forming their buds, it
apparently is doing nothing of the kind,
for there can be seen merely the leaf-stalks
rising straight from the branches with no
suggestion of bud in their axils. But, at
leaf-fall, the mystery is solved and the care
of the parent tree obvious, for, behold, the
end of every leaf-stalk where it joins the
branch is a little hollow cave one could
see that there was a bulging at the base of
all leaf-stalks when one really looked for
it and hidden securely in this closed
shelter a tiny sharp-pointed bud has been

gradually forming in security. But when
the wind tugs off the leaf the bud loses the
little hut in which
it was born and is
left to face the
winter in the open
like the rest of its
fellows.

The plane is
eccentric in other
ways. It stands
in this little Sum-
mer of St. Luke
like a ghost a
ghost smothered
with leprosy for
its bark is peeling

off in great pieces, leaving gleaming
yellow - white patches exposed. No
wonder an unlearned Town Council taking
over a park sent to a plant doctor for
expert advice as to the dire disease that
was attacking their trees that autumn.
But it is the habit of this curious tree to
shed its bark with its leaves.

The oak's green foliage bronzes and
browns. It is not gay, but it is eminently
harmonious with a distinctive note of its
own, very pleasant to see and it is still
almost fully clothed with its foliage though
the ash has lost many of its leaves and
the horse-chestnuts are almost bare.

But it is the cherry that lights the
countryside as with a flame. Twice in the
year does the cherry bring joy to that country
which is fortunate enough to possess it ; once
in the spring, when it puts on its bridal dress
of pure white flowers to greet the coming
of life, and again in the autumn, when it
dons a robe of royal crimson to honour its
passing. But, brilliant in the mass though
it is, it is disappointing when one seeks
to annex a portion of this wealth of colour,
for by now the attachment of the leaves
to the branch is of the slightest, and at the
least jar they flutter to the ground, leaving
only the bare twig in the hand.

Leaf-fall is a phenomenon common to
most trees in this country, but trees that
shed their leaves here may retain them much
longer, or even altogether in a warmer
climate. W r ith the approach of winter
life's activities are in abeyance. No longer
can the leaves transpire moisture and manu-
facture organic material, hence they are

1182

TREES AND THEIR LIFE STORY

useless, so the tree prepares to get rid of a layer of separation at the base of the

them. But this is not done promiscuously ; stalk, but also one at the base of each

the .whole is a methodical process. First leaflet, as the accompanying photograph

from the leaf-cells is transferred to the stem shows, so that the compound leaves break

and root any matter of value, such as starch

up into their component parts just as a

completed
jig-saw will,
and the stalk
of the leaf,
looking like
a miniature
thigh bone,
lies among
the ruins.
In the plane
leaf, already
referred to,
the" layer of
separation "
is a complete
circle round
the base of

or sugar;

then across a

definite line

along which

it is decreed

that the lezf

should be cut

off is formed

a special

" layer of

separation "

made up of

cells whose

walls, like the

perforation

between

postage-

stamps, will

easily give

way. Usually

this layer is

formed at the

base of the

leaf- stalk, as

in the oak

and beech

and ash, and so sharply defined is it

that when the leaf falls it looks as though

it had been cut off with a knife. In the

horse-chestnut and the Virginia creeper

and a few other plants, not only is there

In the Virginia Creeper a layer of separation begins to form at the base

of the stalk and at the base of each leaflet. Eventually this gives way,

the leaflets scatter before the wind, and the stalk, like an attenuated

thigh bone, drifts among them.

the bud's shelter. Thus when the leaves fall
they are merely dead husks, things of no
value to the tree ; nay more, they carry with
them all manner of waste matter of which
the tree is desirous of getting rid, and, lying

1183

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

The Beech leaves ape copper-coloured, but still elin'ging to

the branches. Their pointed leaf-buds are well in evidence,

and the husks have opened and dropped their nuts.

on the ground, they decay, and to the soil
is returned that which the tree took from it.
But St. Luke's Little Summer not only has
a brave show of colour overhead, it has often
a gay carpet of flowers second bloomings
in many cases scarlet poppies, heartsease,
white-rayed feverfew, wild geraniums of
several sorts, orange
dandelions and yellow
sow thistles, mingling
with the varying blues of
forget-me-nots, thistles,
and scabious. Recently
the writer at this time
saw a remarkable colour
effect across a waste
pasture. The feverfew
had run riot, giving the
appearance at a distance
of a field covered with a
heavy sprinkling of snow.
The gleaming white field
ran up to a little wood
where the autumn colour-
ing of beech and maple
was particularly vivid,
and in the brilliant sun-
shine under a sky of
intense blue the whole
effect was one of great
and peculiar beauty.

Further, all along the
lanes and in the spinneys
there are touches of gaiety
in the crimson haws of
the hawthorn and the
scarlet hips of the wild
rose, while the spindle
tree hangs out its quaint
colour scheme of pink
quatrefoil fruits showing
orange seeds within
" the fruit which in our
winter woodland looks a
flower," says Tennyson.
The sloe berries are
voluptuous with the
bloom on their dull
purple ; the dog-wood
studs its copper-red foli-
age with the shining black
dots of its fruits ; the
elder offers groups of
heavy luscious - looking
clusters, while the guelder
rose hangs out translucent crimson berries.

The warm sun is failing, the bleak wind is

wailing,
The bare boughs are sighing, the pale flowers are

dying,

And the year
On the Earth her deathbed, in a shroud of leaves dead,

is lying.

The Guelder hangs out translucent crimson berries, the fairest
jewels of the countryside.

1184

THE SILVER BIRCH.

From a Painting by Arthur J. Black, R.O.I.

Our Wild Animals at Home

Photo :
H. Mortimer Batten, F.Z.S.

^^=^

The Weasel is an inveterate enemy of rats, mice, and other vermin. This one is
shown dragging its prey, a sparrow, through the undergrowth.

21.-THE WIDEAWAKE WEASEL

By FRANK BONNETT

THE little weasel, the smallest of the
Mustelidf? family, is easily distin-
guished from the stoat by the fact that
it lacks the black tip to the tail, which is such
a characteristic feature of the larger animal.
In general colour the two species are much
the same, and were it not for this striking
difference it would often be difficult, except
at very close quarters, to say which was
which. Weasels are common enough in
many parts of the country, but compared
with the larger, bolder and more conspic-
uous stoat they are seldom seen, and this
in spite of the fact that they are frequenters

of the ditch and hedgerow rather than of the
wood. Except when one happens to catch
sight of him crossing the road or footpath,
the weasel will seldom afford a clear view
of his small person, and it is at the best
but a fleeting glimpse that one obtains.
For his size he is a tremendously fast
traveller in fact, it is one of his chief
characteristics that he is always in a hurry.
Why it is that he frequents the open
country in preference to dense undergrowth
is plain enough. Rats and mice are his
principal quarry, and these are not usually
found in the woods. In the winter, when

1185

THE PAGEfiffT OF NATURE

every rickyard contains its quota of rats and our gardens in search of the new-sown peas

mice, the weasel is certain to be close at
hand, taking up his quarters in one of the
ricks, or in the nearest convenient cover.
One may come upon him when turning over

and wreak such havoc with the gardener's
programme. On such occasions the weasel,
should he venture within the kitchen garden,
is to be regarded as a friend in need, though

a heap of straw, a stack of faggots or a pile the chances are that if his presence be noted
of timber. He is not very particular where no one will look upon him as such, but will

he lives so long as his shelter be snug and
weatherproof. There are so many holes
and corners into which he can squeeze his

rather suspect him of having designs upon
the poultry-yard.

So all through the warmer months of the

slim little body that he never needs to year the weasel leads a merry life. One
fashion a dwelling for himself ; in truth can hardly suppose that he of all wild crea-
tures knows what it is to go hungry,
for if one source of supply fail him,
there is always another to take its
place. The heyday of his prosperity
arrives with the appearance of those
many families of " small deer "
which are brought into the world
in every field and hedgerow during
the warmer months. For all is fish
that comes to the weasel's net. It
is very doubtful, however, whether
he does much harm to man's in-
terests at any time. Now and again
he may pick up the stray chick of
partridge or pheasant, and a very
young rabbit may sometimes pro-
vide him with a sumptuous meal,
but there are so many other and
easier opportunities for plunder
that the weasel has no need to
become a poacher of the baser sort.
A nestful of young harvest mice
does not take much finding, and a
brood of young larks, or any other
ground-nesting bird, falls an easy
prey. If the fancy takes him, the
Nature has never thought it worth while weasel is also quite prepared to do a little

Photo :

Riley Fortune,

F.Z.S.

The Weasel may readily be distinguished from

the Stoat by its smaller size and the lack of the

characteristic black tip to the tail.

tree-climbing in search of plunder. It
rats of the must go hard with the family affairs of

to teach him how to do it.

When summer comes the

stackyard, even though left undisturbed by many a small inhabitant of the "countryside

threshing operations, are wont to seek more when a pair of weasels establish them-

secluded breeding quarters in the hedges, selves in the vicinity,
and thither the weasel will follow them. In common with most other wild animals

In the meantime he may have been busy of this country the weasel enjoys a certain

among the various species of mice, whose amount of fame among country folk,

activities increase greatly as winter wanes. When one of his kind happens to be killed

The field-mice both long- tailed and short- in the course of a day's ratting for on such

tailed are a favourite quarry, and in certain occasions no one seems tc realize that the

seasons, when, as is their wont, they suddenly mere fact of the little creature's presence

appear in some district in large numbers, proclaims him as a friend rather than a foe

our little friend need never go far or take the victim of such misplaced zeal imme-

much trouble to secure his daily meals, diately becomes an object of extreme in-

These are the mice that sometimes invade terest. Frequently there will be a debate

1186

THE HUNTER ALERT.

A Weasel listening at the mouth of a Water Vole's burrow fop some sound to guide him

in his hunting.

THE PAGEAttT OF NATURE

as to the weasel's identity, for although
some of those present may know it is not
a stoat, others will question the assertion
that it is a weasel. The word " weasel,"
by the way, is almost unknown in some
districts. In certain parts of Sussex, for
example, the little animal is a " hedge-kine "
and nothing else, the word being used in-
discriminately in singular or plural. But
there are some who contend that there is
both a weasel and a " hedge-kine " two
separate species precisely similar except
that one is somewhat larger than the
other. This belief, of course, is quite
erroneous, the fact of the case being that
the weasel varies in size according to its
sex. But you are not going to convince
a countryman who has been taught to be-
lieve otherwise from his youth up by any
such simple explanation as this.

Wariness of the Weasel

But no one will quarrel with that time-
honoured declaration to the effect that you
can never catch a weasel asleep. It is quite
certain that no one ever did come across
the wideawake little creature unawares, and
if it be true that a dog sleeps with one eye
open, it may be taken for granted that a
weasel, metaphorically speaking, never shuts
its eyes at all. One might say, in fact, that
the weasel is a mass of nerves, with senses
of sight, hearing and smell so highly devel-
oped that it is never likely to be caught
napping. Various attempts have been made
from time to time to tame it, but so fero-
cious and distrustful is its nature, and so
averse is it in every way to accommodating
itself to unnatural circumstances, that such
efforts have always ended in failure. Could
it be tamed and domesticated like the ferret,
the weasel would be a most useful aid to
man in his war against the rat, for, unlike
the larger ferret, it can find its way into any
hole where a rat can enter ; and in spite
of its small size it would prove more
effective than any ferret when it came to a
pitched battle with the foe.

In the natural order of things weasels,
if left alone and not trapped and destroyed
as useless vermin, would do more good in
keeping the rat population of this country
under control than all the traps that were
ever invented ; but so long as they are killed
on all possible occasions we must expect

to be troubled by those most destructive of
all small creatures rats and mice. The
poultry-keeper, for example, should he
catch sight of a weasel in the neighbourhood
of his pens, is almost certain to go and fetch
his gun, though really he would be much
better advised to permit the little visitor to
go his way. Granted that the weasel may
snap up a chick if it should get the chance,
the loss is nothing as compared with ser-
vices rendered in the destruction of rats
and mice. To keep the latter vermin at
bay is the constant anxiety of the poultry-
man. On the other hand, it is easy enough
to protect one's live stock from possible
depredations by the weasel, for he cannot
gnaw through wooden walls and does not
burrow under coops like the rat. The
appearance of a weasel in the poultry-runs
is not to be regarded with suspicion there-
fore, but rather as a warning of the presence
of more dangerous foes.

In his lust for blood the weasel is as
savage as the stoat, but whereas the latter
kills its prey chiefly for the gratification
of its passion for blood-sucking, the weasel
finds a further pleasure in devouring the
flesh itself. It is, in fact, a cleaner-feeding
animal altogether, and it may be presumed
that it takes less delight in killing for
killing's sake. In this matter of clearing
up its food the weasel resembles the ferret
rather than the stoat. Like those of all
other members of the family the weasel's
jaws are immensely strong for their size,
while its teeth are much like those of a dog,
though, of course, very much sharper. Any-
thing which it seizes, therefore, has but
small chance of escape, for should it come
to grips with any creature stronger than
itself, the little animal will suffer itself to
be dragged along rather than loose its hold.

An Underground Hunter

Nor is the weasel so much of a huntsman
as its larger relative. Its nose is keen enough,
but it does not possess the same staying
power as the stoat, and therefore contents
itself chiefly with preying upon those crea-
tures which do not seek safety in flight.
It is very largely a subterranean hunter, and
for that reason is often caught in traps set
for moles in underground " runs." It
must not be concluded from this, however,
that the weasel is much of a mole-hunter.

1188

OUR WILD ANIMALS AT HOME

Possibly it does sometimes hunt and kill
that creature, but the flesh of the mole, like
that of the common shrew, does not appear
to be very appetizing to predatory creatures ;
and it is doubtful whether even the weasel,
unless hard pressed for food, would find such
fare sufficient to tempt his appetite. Prob-
ably the weasel traverses the mole's high-
way in the course of its search for mice, for
it may be taken for granted that any animal
of underground habits will at times take
advantage of so convenient and secret a
method of getting from place to place.
These " hidden ways," like those used by
the smugglers near the coast in days gone
by, must be very useful to the retiring
weasel at all times as supplying a means of
unseen travelling with a very good chance
of picking up booty by the way.

In its domestic affairs the weasel resembles
the stoat, and its rate of production is much
the same. As a rule only one family is
reared in the year. The rate of increase
is therefore much slower than that of
creatures like the rat, mouse or rabbit,
whose young are produced several times
a year, and in the case of the two former
practically all the year round. It is, no

doubt, a wise arrangement on the part
of Nature that her predatory creatures
should not become too numerous if only
because of the difficulty they would then
experience in finding food. Apart from the
risks he runs at the hands of man the weasel
has but few enemies to fear, and among these
he probably cherishes the greatest dread
for the hawk, which, sailing overhead, is
ready to swoop swiftly upon any creature
moving on the ground below. But the
weasel has been endowed with a powerful
weapon of self-defence that must often
stand him in good stead when danger is
nigh. In common with others of his tribe
he possesses the power of emitting an odour
so offensive that it is sufficient to keep any
enemy at bay.

Of this, indeed, we may be certain
that were it not for the weasel's existence
the rat plague in Great Britain would
long ago have assumed far more serious
proportions than it has up to the present.
For this our little brown-coated huntsman
of the hedgerow merits the grateful thanks
of the whole community, however doubtful
of his virtue those may be who have
special interests to study.

n \

1-hoto : 11. Mai tuner flatten, J-.Z,.

The Weasel is smaller and far more ferocious than the Ferret, and if it could only
be domesticated would be a great ally to man in his war against the rat.

1189

Curiosities of Insect Life

The Woolly Aphis OP American Blight is a most persistent little enemy of the apple
tree ; it pierces the inner bark and lives on the sap of the tree.

33.-ENEMIES OF THE APPLE TREE

By M. H. CRAWFORD

With photographs by the Author

IF the apple tree were able, like the oak,
to reclothe itself in fresh green foliage
after the earliest spring leaves had been
destroyed by insects, its case would not
be quite so serious. But it cannot do this.
In the recuperative power of the oak lies
its strength, but the apple tree has to
depend, for its yearly crop of fruit, on
human care and attention, and on the
numerical weakness of its foes.

One of the most pernicious, persistent
and interesting of these foes is the apple-
blossom weevil. It is an unobtrusive,
hardy little beetle, about a quarter of an
inch long, to be found both summer and
winter. A distinguishing feature is a
light-coloured mark on each wing ; when

the wings are closed these marks form an
exact V. The weevil in the photograph
was holding its wings slightly apart, but
still this V-shaped mark is quite distinct.
During the winter months the adult weevils
hibernate in hedge bottoms, rubbish heaps,
under the loose bark of trees, anywhere
out of the reach of disturbance, draughts
and daylight, all three of which are inimical
to sound and refreshing sleep. In the spring
they emerge for egg-laying, which is carried
out in a remarkable way by the female
weevil, who throughout the whole business
shows the facility of an expert. At the end
of her proboscis she possesses a tiny set
of jaws, and she uses these for making
holes in the flower-buds. Only the small,
190

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

blossom have been eaten and destroyed.
Towards the end of May the young
weevils appear, and for the rest of the
summer they live on the leaves, though
it is not considered that, in this adult
state, they do much harm.

Another very persistent and injurious
enemy to the apple is the woolly aphis or
American blight. It is called " woolly "
aphis because of the masses of white
threads that exude from the backs of the
Young and the mature^ female insects.

it leaves are sure proof of the author of the The appearance of this cottonwool on
damage. branches, twigs and trunk is a sure sign

of the presence of this aphis. The real

unopened buds are any use to her ; as and original host tree is probably the elm,

soon as the warm sun begins to expand the but apple trees are often and disastrously

petals she passes them by. With her jaws attacked. The insects pierce the inner

she bites a hole in the side of the bud, bark and live on the sap, and generally

and in this hole she lays one egg. How she the roots of the tree are invaded in the

manages to place the egg exactly inside this same manner. In the case of young trees

small hole is something of a mystery, for, total exhaustion often follows the loss of

at the moment of egg-laying, her head is sap, especially when the loss is going on

turned away from it. All the same, the both above and below ground ; with older

egg is always safely laid. Then she turns trees swellings and deformities appear,

round, closes up the opening

with her useful jaws, and goes

on to another bud. She de-
posits one egg only in each

bud, so that, at the end of a

calm and undisturbed period of

laying, she alone may well be

responsible for an enormous

number of the " capped "

blossoms of May. Frosty or

stormy weather does not suit

her ; at such times she stops

her work and rests. But under

favourable conditions she will

go on laying her eggs for two

and even three weeks.

The " capped " blossoms

never open, though they retain

their shape as long as the

maggot inside goes on feeding.

This maggot, like most beetle

grubs, is a most repulsive little

thing, whitish in colour, legless,

slightly hairy, wrinkled, curved,

and possessing a black and

horny head. As egg, maggot

and pupa it lives for about a

month in the fruit bud ; by

the end of that time the

stamens and germ of the

A most pernicious enemy is the Apple-blossom Weevil,

which attacks the flower buds. Making a little hole in

each, she deposits an egg within, and then carefully

seals it. (Enlarged.)

1 191

THE PAGEAHT OF MATURE

which eventually dry up and crack, laying
Dpen the interior for the entry of canker
and other fungoid diseases. These pests,
either in the egg or as adult insects, go
through the winter sheltered in crevices
at the base of the stems. . The eggs, which
are very minute, are found from October
onwards in the bark near the ground.
The larvae hatch out in spring and soon

A very injurious parasite is the small
green apple-sucker. It attacks both leaf
and flower-buds, and the presence of its
easily seen, cast-off skins is always a
proof that the damage has been done by
suckers and not by apple-blossom weevils,
frost or " brown rot." Also, the discoloured,
withered blossoms may hang on the tree
for months, not falling as they do when

I 1 1 m [ I I 1 MB I '

The Mussel Scale insect fixes its proboscis firmly in the bark and proceeds to suck.
There it stays throughout the summer, covering itself with a shield that resembles a

miniature mussel shell. (Enlarged.)

begin to produce the " wool " ; under-
ground, amongst the roots, they have been
found all the year round. The aphis
queens, who have hibernated amongst the
roots during the winter, produce the living
spring broods, and these broods carry on the
work of reproduction all the summer ;
only very rarely are winged insects and
pupae seen. These aphides, like the apple-
blossom weevils, are defeated best by clean
bark, plenty of air, and good drainage.
The difficulty of exterminating them, how-
ever, is increased by the strange tendency
they show to dispense with eggs and to
rely on the root-living insects for the
upkeep of the species during the winter.

attacked by the weevil. The eggs of the
suckers are laid in the early winter on
small twigs, or on or near the flower-buds.
They do not hatch out till spring, and their
hatching always coincides with the develop-
ment of the flower-buds ; when the flower-
buds are ready and ripe for food, then the
larvae are on the spot. They are very
small, very flat, with greenish-yellow
bodies and red eyes. Their first step is
to get inside the nearest flower-bud, and
if there are not any they will content
themselves with leaf-buds. In the larval
state they exist for slightly under two
weeks, during which time they cast their
skins twice. They also exude a drop of

1192

THE PAGEAffT OF NATURE

honeydew and some fine waxy threads.
They then enter another phase, living on
the leaves, and moulting three times ; after
each successive moult the sucker appears
more mature, till it can both fly and hop.

Woolly aphis and mussel scale are often
found together on the same tree. The
shield or covering made by the scale insect
exactly resembles a miniature mussel shell.
Amongst the Coccidce, to which these
insects belong, the perfect males are
winged, but these winged males are exces-

Great injury is sometimes done by the larvae

of the Red-belted Clearwing Moth, which

lays its eggs on the trunks and branches.

sively rare in the case of the apple scale ;
perhaps it may be more correct to say
that they are rarely seen, for eggs are
duly laid at the end of the summer. These
hatch the following June. For a brief
period, about ten days, the newly-hatched
insects are able to run about, but very soon
each one fixes itself, by means of its pro-
boscis, to the bark and commences to feed
on the sap by sucking it up. All power
or desire to move is then quickly lost, and
the proboscis, once driven into the bark,
is probably never taken out again. To^
wards the end of the summer the insect
lays its eggs, numbering usually about forty
to eighty, and then dies. The shield is
made during the summer by the insect as it
feeds, and under this shield the eggs are
safely stored.

The apple is a great sufferer from wood-
boring lepidopterous larvae. Serious injury
is sometimes done by the small reddish-

grey larvae of the red-belted clearwing
moth (Trochilium myopceforme). This is a
very pretty, day-flying moth, with dark-
bordered, transparent wings and a graceful,
slender, black body, with red and white
bands and a black " fan-tail." It appears
during the summer, from May to July,
and its eggs are laid on the trunks and
branches, into which the larvae even-
tually burrow. Still more important is the
wood leopard moth, whose larvae live inside
the branches of apple and other fruit
trees for, probably, two or more years.
Their presence is at once detected by the
exhausted, flagging leaves, which droop
lifelessly and gradually die. The methods
of the larvae in trees have already been
described on page 1010.

Probably the only fruit tree attacked by
the larvae of the lappet moth is the apple.
These larvae, when full .grown, attain a
length of more than four inches. They
are not very easily detected, as they have
a habit of clinging closely to the stems
and branches, so closely that they seem
literally to wrap themselves round the
stems ; their tufts of hair and the queer,
fleshy appendages along the sides of their
bodies all merge into the little excres-
cences of the bark and make the cater-
pillars almost invisible.

The pretty and far too widely distributed
small ermine moths also select the apple
amongst fruit trees for an occasional and
disastrous visit. The moths are seen
in July and August, and often much
later ; they lay their minute eggs on the
twigs in batches of about eighty. Before
the winter comes these hatch out, and
the larvae hibernate under the roof made
by the egg-shells and fragments of dusty
rubbish that somehow collect over them.
As soon as the leaf- buds appear in spring
the larvae come out and begin to devour
them, gradually spinning round themselves
nests made of dense masses of silk ; as
they extend their feeding-grounds they
also enlarge these nests, till sometimes
whole branches are wrapped up in the
greyish-white webbing. In the middle of
summer the larvae pupate, and white,
spindle-shaped cocoons are seen, closely
packed together under the leaves. Two
weeks later the quiet, harmless-looking
little white moths appear.
194

Photo: A. Harold Basti

A larch spray, infested with an Aphis that clothes itself in delicate strands of wax-like
material, and appears like flakes of snow on the bough.

34.-MASKED INSECTS

By A. HAROLD BASTIN

WHEN we study the protective re-
semblance of insects to their sur-
soundings, we soon discover that
the subject presents two perfectly distinct
aspects. On the one hand, there are those
insects whose natural form and coloration
" match " and " blend with " their environ-
ment so perfectly that the eye of the observer
often fails to detect the deception ; on the
other, there are those whose disguises do
not depend upon bodily get-up, but are
actually constructed by the insects them-
selves, much as an artillery officer piles up
turf, brushwood, and so on to hide his
battery from the enemy. These " masked "
insects, as we may call them, often make a
kind of portable case or sheath, which they
drag about with them in their wanderings
as a snail drags its shell. Much, or all,
of the material used may be excreted from
the insect's own body ; but frequently a
considerable quantity of foreign matter is
added, such as lengths of grass or heather,
grains of earth or sand, fragments of leaves,
flowers, moss or lichen.

To begin with, there is a whole host of
case-making larvae, many of which are true
" caterpillars " i.e. larvae which are more
or less soft and cylindrical, with pairs of
short, stumpy " prolegs " on certain of
their hinder segments, in addition to the
six " true " legs of the thorax.

The habits of one case-making caterpillar
may be studied without crossing the thresh-
old of one's own home. This is the
" cloth-worm " the immature form of our
commonest clothes moth (Tinea pellionella).
It constructs its tubular case from fibres of
wool and minute portions of the material
which it is destroying, binding the whole
together very cunningly with a webbing of
silk. It lives continually in this shelter,
just putting its head out to feed ; and eventu-
ally, by closing the opening at each end,
converts it into a very comfortable cocoon,
within which the pupal stage is passed.
Naturally the caterpillar must enlarge the
case as it feeds and grows. To add material
at each end of the tube as occasion requires
is a simple matter, for there is plenty of room
to turn round. But increase in girth must
also be provided for ; so the insect actually
cuts slits in the side of its case and inserts
gussets ! By keeping a few of these tiny
creatures under observation, and supplying
them at short intervals with differently
coloured pieces of cloth, the precise methods
which they employ in order to maintain
the symmetry of their cases may be dis-
covered without much difficulty.

Certain outdoor case-making caterpillars
are known as " basket- worms," because
the results of their labours resemble more
or less closely the basketry of primitive

"95

THE PAGEAttT OF NATURE

peoples. Unfortunately, we have few of
these interesting insects (Psychidte) in
Britain, and those that we have are mostly
small, and so are apt to be overlooked.
One species, however, which occurs in the
New Forest, and in certain localities in

the.. habits of the species been studied as
closely as they seem to merit. The newly-
hatched caterpillar generally feeds for a time
as a " miner " ; that is to say, it burrows
between the upper and lower skins of a leaf,
and feeds on the soft inner tissue. Later,
it makes its case, and adopts
a method of feeding which
is unconventional, to say the
least of it ; for, standing
more or less upon its head,
it fixes the mouth of its case
to a leaf or seed-vessel, bores
its way through the cuticle,
and in this manner gains
access to the dainties within.
When it has exhausted the

P /lotos : A. Harold Bastin.

The housewife's enemy the Common Clothes Moth

(enlarged), with larva ease, showing a patch of darker

material that has been let in as the grub increased

in size.

Dorsetshire, constructs a case
which may be as much as
two inches in length. This
insect is called Psyche villo-
sella. The inner silken tube
of the case is covered ex-
ternally with short pieces of
twig or of ling placed longi-
tudinally. The male insect,
whose case is smaller than
that of the female, develops
finally into a reddish-grey
moth, with a wing expanse
of about one inch, and a
strong, swift flight. The
female, on the contrary, is
grub-like and helpless even when mature, possibilities of one opening or shaft, it
She never leaves her case but is courted relinquishes its claim, and moves slowly
there by her mate, and eventually dies in away to establish another. But it leaves
it not, however, before she has laid a behind a pale blotch, with a tell-tale round
large batch of eggs. hole in the middle" which (says Mr.

In addition to our few native Psychidce, Meyrick) distinguishes the mines 'of this
we have in Britain many small or minute genus from all others."
case-making caterpillars, examples of which The adult moths of this interesting group
may be found, during the summer months, are often extremely similar and difficult to
on a great variety of trees and plants, separate as species ; but the larval cases
The majority of these belong to the genus are nearly always perfectly distinct and easy
Coleophora, which is included in the vast to identify. In many instances they are
family Tineidce a name which conies from covered externally with minute atoms of
the Latin noun tinea, signifying " a moth." the plant on which the caterpillar feeds
Few, if any, of these pygmy case-makers bits of the leaves, petals, seed-husks, and
have recognized popular names, nor have so on characteristically arranged ; but not

1196

Phoio . A. Harold Bastiti.

BASKET MAKERS.

The larva of a certain Psychid Moth, found in the New Forest, covers itself with a

protective case made of bits of twig or ling. The female never becomes a winged moth,

but lives, lays her eggs, and finally dies inside her strange home.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

Photo: A. Harold Basti

Pistol-shaped cases (greatly enlarged), made

by the caterpillar of Coleophora vibicella, which

may be found on dyer's green-weed.

a few of the larvae make their cases entirely
of silk, and add no foreign matter. The
shape and colour of these
silken cases varies greatly
according to the species.
Some are pale coloured,
others dark almost
black ; some cylindrical,
others very curiously
shaped. Certain of the
most remarkable
resemble pistols the
length of the " barrel "
varying in accordance
with the several species.
The longest " barrel " is
probably made by Coleo-
phora vibicella, which
may be looked for on
the plant called dyer's
green - weed, or woad-
waxen (Genista tinctoria).
Its case is a regular,
old-fashioned horse-
pistol in miniature !

The pretty little moth
called the " brown china-

marks " (Hydrocampa nymphceata) deserves
special mention, because its caterpillar's
case serves not only as a protective
disguise, but as a sort of waterproof coat
into the bargain. This insect feeds on
several kinds of aquatic plants, and when
young adopts no special precautions to
keep itself dry. But in later life it cuts
and fixes together with silk two oval pieces
of leaf to form a case, in which it subse-
quently resides. There is a cleft at one
end, through which the caterpillar pushes
out its head to feed ; but, thanks to the archi-
tect's skill, there is never an inrush of water,
for the edges of the cleft are elastic, and
yield only to pressure from within just
enough to allow for the passage of the in-
mate's head. Thus, we have the interesting
spectacle of an air-breathing creature,
constantly submerged, subsisting on water-
weeds, yet never wetting the hinder part
of its body.

The most noteworthy subaquatic case-
makers are the caddis-worms, of which
almost any ditch, pond or stream will supply
numerous examples. Their cases, or
sheaths, are familiar objects ; but compara-
tively few people know what a caddis- worm
really looks like because these insects object
strongly to leave their homes. Force and

Case of Coleophora saturatella
resembling a flower or a gall.

Iiq8

Photos: Hugh Main, B.Sc., F.E.S.

Thorn-like eases of the cater-
pillar of Coleophora trigeminella.

Photo: A. HaroU Bostin.

CASES OF CADDIS-WORMS.

Caddis-worms collect all kinds of odd material for their cases. Those shown here are

mostly of shells. Those at the bottom left-hand corner are made of the finest sand

grains, fitted together as a mosaic, and presenting an almost smooth surface.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

pillar, but its
thoracic legs
are very long,

persuasion applied through the front door desire, namely, to make fresh homes for
prove alike futile. The larva simply refuses themselves with as little delay as possible,
to budge ! But if we insert gently a fine They will utilize almost any objects of
grass-stem through the rear opening of the suitable size which may be given to

case, it very them beads, small pieces of coloured
soon shuffles glass, china or metal, or shreds of cloth,
into view. But in normal circumstances each species
The denuded evinces a characteristic conservatism, and
larva is rather builds only with materials that its ancestors
like a cater- have used before it, following also a time-
honoured plan. Thus, while some of the
cases are of tiny stones, or of mixed stones
and shells (often with their living inmates),
while it has no others are of small pieces of leaf or grass,
abdominal or in one instance arranged lengthwise, in
" pro " legs at another obliquely. For contrast with these
all. At its tail- neat productions there are flattish and irreg-
end we see a ular cases loosely made of large bits cut

by the larvae from leaves
which have fallen into
the water ; while some
species after con-
structing a cylinder of
sand grains, invariably
mar its symmetry by
adding long pieces of
twig or reed probably,
as Reaumur suggested,
for the purpose of
adjusting the specific
gravity of the case to
that of the water in
which it is immersed.
In this way the trans-
portation of the case,
already nearly floating,
is rendered easy ; so
that the larva clambers
nimbly among the stems
of plants, and over
stones, oblivious to the
fact that it is harnessed
to a load which, in the
air, would prove all too
heavy for its utmost
exertion. Those species
whose cases are made
wholly of heavy

Cocoons of Puss Moth,
caterpillars, on a slender
stem in a withy bed,
where they show up
like knobs on drum-
sticks. (Compare with il-
lustration on next page.}

pair of strong hooks,
whose function is to
attach the larva to its
case. We also notice
certain tufts of soft,
white filaments along
the creature's sides
and back these being
the " tracheal gills " by
means of which oxygen
is extracted from the
water.

If we drop a few

Photos : A. Harold Bastin.

Cocoon of the Alder Kitten cater-
pillar, which look like a scar on an
alder stem. An actual scar is almost
vertical, while the cocoon slopes some-
what to the right. The "flight-hole,"
through which the moth escaped, is
almost in the centre of the picture.

materials, such as gravel,
never leave the bottom

naked caddis- worms into a small aquarium of their stream or pool. Most admirable of
say a 2 Ib. glass jam jar and supply them all caddis-cases, perhaps, are those due to
with building materials, we shall soon witness the activities of a species called Sericostoma
a demonstration of their craft. They are multiguttatum. They are made from tiny
very active, and seem animated by one particles of sand beautifully fitted together

1200

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

rhcto: Hugh Main, S.Sc., f-'.E.S.

Nothing could be more admirable as a
retreat than the cocoon of the Puss Moth
in its normal situation. Until the insect has
escaped, leaving the tell-tale " flight hole,"
it is indistinguishable from the bark.

on a " bed " of cement, have an elegant,
curved shape, and remind one of the ele-
phant's tusk shell (Dentalium entalis) one
of the common objects of our northern
seashores.

The cement used by caddis-worms for
fixing together their building materials is
a secretion of the salivary glands, practically
identical with the " silk " spun by cater-
pillars, and issuing likewise as a fluid from
a " spinneret " which is situated close behind
the mouth. When the outer case of foreign
matter is finished, the larva lines it with
closely woven threads ; this snug, inner
cylinder is never omitted, even by those
species whose architectural skill is limited
to the joining together of a few leaf frag-
ments. To their credit it must be said that
caddis-worms are industrious and rapid
workers. We have it on the authority of
Professor L. C. Miall that even the cases
of small stones or sand, which are the hardest
of all to make, are completed by a larva in

five or six hours truly a wonderful achieve-
ment when we realize that the case, pro-
jected " on the flat," is comparable to a
mosaic pavement composed of some thou-
sands of separate pieces ! A few kinds of
caddis-worms construct fixed cases of mud
or sand grains, usually on the underside of
stones in swiftly flowing streams. Often,
several of these larvae unite their labours
and build a case in which the little party
subsequently resides on terms of good fellow-
ship. The most interesting fact, however,
relating to these caddis-worms with fixed
cases is that they are largely carnivorous,
and spin webs in which their prey tiny
aquatic larvae, and the like is entangled.
Sooner or later all caddis-worms close up
the openings of their abodes, and thus con-
vert them into " cocoons," in which the
pupal stage of the metamorphosis is passed.
But the caddis pupa is far from being the
inert mummy that we commonly associate
with this word. It develops a pair of power-

J'/wlo. Illicit Main. fi.Sc., J-'.J-.S.

Cocoons of the Emperor Moth. (One opened

to show the pupa inside). This caterpillar

is able to regulate the colour of its silk

to accord with that of its environment.

1201

THE PflGEAffT OF NATURE

ful jaws, which it uses to tear its way out
of the case ; and when free it swims briskly
to the surface of the water, using its middle
pair of legs like oars. Afterwards, its skin
splits suddenly down the back, and through

Photo: A. Harold Bastin.

The Powdered Wainscot Moth draws together

the edges of a leaf, and then roofs its cocoon

with fragments cut for the purpose.

the chink thus formed the demure, moth-like
caddis-fly emerges.

Probably we shall not greatly err if we
assert that the cocoon-making instinct
among insects was at first induced by the
need for protection, during the pupal stage,
against inclemencies of temperature. But
if there be any truth in the theory of natural
selection, we may take it for granted also
that the cocoon soon became a means
of frustrating other enemies besides the
weather. Nothing could be more admirable
as a retreat than the cocoon of a " puss "
or " kitten " caterpillar, which so closely
resembles an excrescence or irregularity
of the bark as to be indistinguishable,

until the moth has escaped, leaving its
tell-tale " flight-hole." Yet it is easy to
show that this resemblance is fortuitous,
*as we say, and has nothing at all to do with
the insect's " sense of fitness " (if it has one !);
for when, as occasionally happens, puss
moths invade a withy bed, where no tree
trunks are available, the caterpillars build
their cocoons on the slender stems where,
of course, they show up like the knobs
on drum-sticks. Not without reason is
instinct said to be " blind " !

Especially interesting cocoons are made by
the. caterpillars of the powdered wainscot
moth (Asilonche [venosa] albovenosa), which
is confined, in Britain, to the marshes of
the eastern counties. The caterpillar first
draws together the edges of a leaf of the
plant (commonly one or other of the reed-
maces, popularly termed " bull-rushes ")
on which it has been feeding, spins a pure
white cocoon of silk, and then, with much
neatness and skill, roofs in its work with
a thatch of leaf-fragments which it cuts
specially for the purpose. This thatch
serves both to carry off excessive moisture,
and to mask the glaring whiteness of the
cocoon which during the long winter
torpor of the pupa might easily attract
undesirable visitors. The fact that certain
caterpillars e.g. those of the emperor
moth (Saturnia pavonid) are able to regu-
late, within limits, the colour of the silk
which they spin, thus making their cocoons
either light or dark in accordance with the
environment, seems fully established. This
faculty appears to be governed by a pre-
liminary process which we may call " ex-
posure." The caterpillar first selects the
scene of its spinning operations, and then
lies still for some hours, allowing the light
reflected from surrounding objects to
" stimulate " the nerve-endings in its skin
much as a human photographer allows
time for the light rays to " stimulate " or
" act upon " the chemically prepared sur-
face of his plate. Then, so to say, the cater-
pillar " puts the cap on " and proceeds to
development !

The grubs of the little figwort weevils
(Clonus scrophularice and C. hortulanus)
show us how closely success may dance
attendance upon appositeness. The peculiar
effectiveness of their cocoons, regarded as
protective masks, arises from the fact that

1 202

CURIOSITIES OF INSECT LIFE

the fully nourished larva habitually shifts its
quarters from the leaves to the immediate
neighbourhood of the seed-vessels just before
it prepares for pupation. The cocoon is
globular, semi-transparent, and about the
colour of " best Scotch glue." Indeed,
it is a kind of glue which, being excreted as
a fluid from the grub's skin, subsequently
sets hard. Both in tint and texture it then
agrees very closely with the ripe seed-vessels
by which it is surrounded. When still
feeding on the leaves, the grub might par-
donably be mistaken for a little dark-
coloured slug, because it cloaks its identity
under a covering of repulsive slime. This
curious practice is
followed by other larvae,
notably by those known
to gardeners as " slug
worms'* a species
which sometimes works
havoc to the foliage of
fruit trees, and eventu-
ally becomes the sawfly
Eriocampa limacina.
Many kinds of aphides
and scale-insects clothe
themselves in various
ways with substances
thrown off from the skin .
In some instances e.g.
the aphis of the larch
(Chermes lands) the
covering takes the form
of delicate strands of
wax-like material, so that
the insect resembles a
flake of snow, and is
easily wafted by the
wind, like a plumed
seed, from one place to
another. Thus, one is
set wondering whether
the cloak is more useful
as a disguise or as a
means of dispersal, or
whether it serves both
ends equally well. Most
scale insects fit them-
selves out with a sort of
shell beneath which they
lie secure, and carry on
their nefarious calling of
sucking the sap from the
plants.

An old proverb asserts that a silk purse
cannot be made out of a sow's ear. This
may be true. But as one peers into the
recesses of Nature's laboratory, and notes
the apparent endlessness of her resources,
one wonders whether any problem could
baffle her if, and when, she " had a mind " !
One has heard of head-hunters, and of the
scalp-collecting propensities of the Red
Indians ; but to drape yourself beyond recog-
nition with the desiccated skins of a hundred
victims this, surely, exceeds the wildest
excesses of savagery ! Yet this is pre-
cisely the tribal custom of certain lacewing
flies' larva?. And what would you ? The

Photo: A. HaroM Rastin.

The grub of the Figwort Weevil, when ready to pupate, shifts

its quarters from the leaves to the seed-vessels, which its cocoon

closely resembles in shape and colour.

1203

THE PKGEKNT OF NATURE

repast is over ; the aphis
has been sucked dry like
an orange. Let us dispose
of its skin to advantage !
So up it goes, to be
lodged with others among
the stiff hairs of the
larva's back the load
of tiny pelts eventually
hiding its bearer com-
pletely. The larva of a
bug (Reduvius personatus)
tricks itself out with
particles of dust, until
it resembles the little
balls of fluff which care-
less housemaids leave in
the corners of our rooms.

Photo: A. Harold Kasti

After* sucking the juices of its
victims, the grub of a certain Lace-
wing Fly makes itself a complete
covering with their tiny dry skins.

Crioceris and Cassida.
The first a rarity with
us, although common on
the Continent is named
Merdigera (literally,
" the dung carrier ")
because it permits its
excrement to accumulate
upon its back, thus form-
ing (as Fabre has shown)
a pro tective doublet
which effectually wards
off the parasitic Tach-
inid flies. The larval
Cassida, or tortoise-
beetle, also retains its
excrement as a shelter,
which in this instance

But the ways of Reduvius seem ways of is actually supported by a long forward-
pleasantness when we contrast them with inclined fork, or prop, the whole contri-
those of some other insects whose habits will vance reminding one of an umbrella-tent,
not bear more than the briefest possible The incredulous may find these curiosi-

mention. These are the larvae of certain
small beetles belonging to the genera

ties by scores upon thistles during the
summer.

Photo : A. Harold Bastin.

A marvel of packing. This photograph, showing a Lacewing Fly with its cocoon
and pupa skin, is interesting because the cocoon was left in a box and forgotten until
the insect had emerged and died.
1204

Wonders of Bird Life

rhoto: y. D. Rattar.

The Common Guillemot is a bird of the open seas. Wherever one may voyage around
the northern coasts, one is seldom out of sight of these active little birds.

61.-THE TRIBE OF THE GUILLEMOTS

By SETON GORDON, B.A., F.Z.S.

EVERYWHERE along the British coasts
the tribe of the guillemots have their
home. One sees them hurrying to
and from the distant Fame Islands beneath
the horizon as one crosses from Newcastle-
on-Tyne to Bergen in Norway. Sailing
from Oban to the distant Outer Hebrides,
even to lonely Saint Kilda itself, one is
rarely out of sight of these active little sea
birds. From the Shetlands to the Scillies
they range the seas, passing with unerring
flight across the trackless waters in fair
and foul weather alike.

To the tribe of the guillemots, so far as
Britain is concerned, belong the common
guillemot (with its variety the ringed guille-
mot) and the black guillemot. From the
Arctic there come to our seas, during the
winter in certain seasons, Briinnich's guille-
mot distinguished from our own guille-
mot by its thicker bill and stouter build
generally and Mandt's guillemot. This
latter bird closely resembles our own black
guillemot, of which it is the northern form.

Guillemots during their breeding season
are sociable birds. No one who has seen
the immense colonies of common guillemots
on Mingulay or Barra Head in the Outer
Hebrides, or those of Saint Kilda or the
Shetlands, can ever forget the incredible
number of birds that cling, ant-like, to
the stupendous cliffs. Farther afield, amid
the vast solitudes of Spitsbergen, where the
Greenland Ocean with ice-flecked waters
eddies about the forbidding cliffs of Prince
Charles Foreland or dashes, during a
westerly storm, against the rocky face of
Cloven Cliff, the silence of the lands near
the Pole is broken by the strident cries
of myriads of Briinnich's guillemots.

There is one respect in which the guille-
mots of the Arctic are more fortunate than
their relations of the British Isles. They
are still unfamiliar with what will soon
become the curse of the guillemot's life in
our own waters the waste oil from ships,
which lies in a thin sticky layer upon the
surface of the sea.

1205

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

The number of guillemots that perish
from this cause must run into thousands
annually. The crude oil clogs up their
feathers. The more the unlucky birds
attempt to clean themselves by preening
their feathers the more they distribute the
sticky covering over their plumage. Their
wings become affected : they are unable

I have said that the common guillemot
of the British Isles nests often in immense
colonies. But the same cannot be said for
the black guillemot. This plump and
compact little bird, with its handsome
black and white plumage and scarlet legs,
nests in colonies, it is true, but never
approaching in size those of the common

Guillemots often nest in vast colonies, and their

of the bird.

Photo : Peter Webster.

are unusually large for the size

to fly, and, more important still, to fish
for a guillemot uses its wings beneath
the water just as much as when flying
through the air. In this wretched state
they are frequently washed ashore and are
found dead or dying. An acquaintance of
mine carried home one of these unfortunates,
and after carefully cleaning its feathers
with petrol noticed a distinct improvement
in the patient. The bird he kept for a
considerable period, feeding it on fish,
and it gradually came to know him, losing
much of its shyness. Especially bad has
this oil pollution become off the Firth of
Clyde, and great harm has been done to the
bird colony on Ailsa Craig, even the sturdy
solan geese suffering with the rest.

guillemot. Personally I do not know of
any colony of more than fifty pairs, whereas
the common guillemot nests together in
tens of thousands.

While the common guillemot generally
keeps out to sea during the winter months,
the black guillemot may usually be found
in the vicinity of its nesting islands. It
is not, of course, possible to say that the
birds seen beside an island in January or
February are those same individuals that
will nest there in June they may be
migrants from the north.

The black guillemot in its winter plumage
is a very different bird from what it appears
in its summer dress. In winter white is
the predominant colour of its plumage, and

1206

AN EXTENSIVE

Overcrowding is an everyday occurrence in the Guillemot world. On these cliffs every inch of

departure to make

PHolo : 1'cter H'ebitcr.

GUILLEMOT COLONY.

space is occupied, and the arrival of a new-comer means that someone else must take a hurried
room for him.

THE PAGEAffT OF NATURE

I have seen individuals almost as white as ground and were returning to their island,

seagulls. It is not easy to understand what They flew always in single file in long

object this particular coloration serves. " strings " but an inch or two above the

It is true that the bird is rendered more water and passed without sound,
in harmony with the white-crested waves
of an angry sea,
but so far as I

As the sun rose from behind the hills

am aware no
enemy of the
black guillemot
exists off the
coasts of Britain.
The common
guillemot also is
whiter in winter
than in summer,
but the change

Photo :
H. Mortimer Batten.

of plumage in its case is not so
marked.

In March, or early in April, the common
guillemots arrive at their nesting rocks.
Their first visit is a fleeting one and appears
to be merely to inspect the nesting ledges.
By mid- April the whole colony has arrived,
and now the great cliffs resound with a
confused babel of raucous cries.

During April of 1923 I twice sailed
within a few miles of the great
guillemot colony on Mingulay, one of the
Outer Hebrides. It was early morning
an hour before sunrise and the Atlantic
was as calm as the waters of an inland loch.
Unending companies of guillemots were
passing close to our vessel, making, all of
them, towards Mingulay, as yet hidden in
the distant haze. All these wanderers had
evidently been at some distant fishing

Black Guillemots and chick. These plump

little birds nest in colonies, but not in

such immense numbers as the common

species.

of Skye it revealed the white wings of
many passing solan geese. How grace-
fully did they fly, rising and falling and
sometimes banking their course at right
angles to that of the guillemots, and set for
distant Saint Kilda.

About the third week in May the guille-
mots commence to lay should the season
be favourable. This year (1923) the weather
of May was abnormally cold, and very few
of the birds had laid by the first days of
June. The common guillemot for its size
lays an enormous egg. This one egg is
deposited on a shelf of the cliff, no nest of
any description whatsoever being made.
When brooding the bird works the egg on
to her feet, and sits upon it thus for doubt-
less even a webbed foot is warmer than
the cold hard rock. But a disadvantage
in this method of incubation is that when
suddenly disturbed the birds are liable
to carry the eggs over the edge of the cliff
in the first mad scramble to be off. I
remember on one occasion disturbing a
guillemot who unwittingly dragged her egg

210

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

over the edge of the cliff. When she saw
the mischief she had done she stood there
screeching horribly. But fortunately the
egg was caught upon another shelf of rock
six feet below, and, not without risk for
the rock was very rotten I climbed down,
retrieved the egg, which had not suffered
in its descent, and restored it to its owner.

The common guillemot usually chooses
precipitous cliffs on which to nest, but on
islands where they are not molested the
birds sometimes lay on ledges of rock which
can be reached with little difficulty.

Overcrowding is an everyday occurrence
in the guillemot world. No one who has
seen the immense masses that frequent the
top of the Pinnacles, in the Fame Islands
group, can ever forget the confused huddle
of birds. Every inch of space is occupied,
and the arrival of a new-comer from the

From 700 feet above the sea down to
where the long Atlantic swell thunders
against the rock the guillemots nest. They
cluster on every ledge : the air is filled with
moaning and gruntings. Backward and
forward across these cliffs incredible num-
bers of birds fly. Frequently they fail to
make a landing upon their own particular
ledge, and after desperate efforts to find
a footing are compelled to fly out sea-
ward and come round a few seconds later
for a further attempt. It has never been
satisfactorily established how the young
common guillemots reach the sea. They
leave the ledge on which they were born
long before they can fly and, in some cases,
have a descent of 700 feet in front of them.
Do the old birds carry them down, or do
they drop and take their chance ?

During unsettled weather in August I

Photo :
J. D. Rattar.

Suspicious neighbours a Ringed Guillemot and a Kittiwake Gull.

sea means that one of that numerous
company has perforce to take a hurried
departure to make room for him.

But the common guillemot population of
the Fames is as nothing compared with the
innumerable hosts which swarm upon the
towering cliffs of Mingulay.

have seen many young guillemots floating
lifeless at the foot of the Mingulay cliffs,
but it is uncertain whether they had been
killed by being hurled by the great waves
against the base of the cliffs, or had met
their end during the immense drop from
the ledges.

I2II

THE PAGEflffT OF NATURE

Photo : Seton

Each Guillemot sits upon its single egg,
tucking it up upon its webbed feet.

When once it has safely reached the water
the young guillemot is taken by its parent
only one old bird appears to go with it
out to sea, and it is no more seen near
the colony. At first the youngster remains
on the surface while its mother as we
may presume it is dives below for fish.
Using her wings, not her webbed feet, to
propel her through the depths of the
ocean, she hunts the young fry, so that at
times they leap, in despair, into the air
itself in a last effort to avoid capture.

All sea-birds are expert fishermen, yet
all, I think, are particular in the kind of
fish that they capture. The puffin takes
a number of sand eels, which he holds
horizontally across his bill. The razor-
bill catches young herring fry, holding them
also horizontally. The common guillemot,
on the other hand, captures but a single
fish, and this, instead of being held cross-
wise, is carried half swallowed, with tail
projecting beyond the captor's bill. The

fish is usually a herring considerably
larger than those caught by the razorbill.

When the common guillemot arrives with
food at the ledge where its chick is eagerly
awaiting its arrival, it does not at once feed
its offspring. The latter taps appealingly
upon its parent's bill, and at last the
adult bird disgorges the fish, which the
youngster promptly swallows. But I have
said that the fish are larger than those
caught by other sea-birds, and it is only
with great effort that the meal is safely
stowed away. I have seen a young common
guillemot literally stiffened out as the fish
it had swallowed with a great deal of
difficulty was in the act of descending to
its crop !

Whereas the common guillemot may be
said to be a bird of the open seas the black
guillemot is, rather, a frequenter of sea
lochs and island groups it does not appear
to range far out of sight of land. It is a
quiet bird, and does not advertise its pre-
sence even when nesting its nesting-place
is not a bare ledge of rock, but a cranny
between two stones or hidden away far
behind a confusion of boulders. Two
eggs are laid. They are smaller than that

Young Guillemots have an adventurous

journey when they go from their nursery

ledge to the sea below.

12 12

7u<fi>: ]\ttr ll'(bstcr.

GUILLEMOTS AND KITTIWAKES.

The two species often nest together on amicable terms.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

of the common guillemot and in shape not
so pyriform, for their resting place is secure,
and there is no need for them to spin
round on their axes in order to avoid being
hurled over the edge of the cliff.

On one island which my wife and I
visited during the summer of 1923 we
found some forty pairs of black guillemots
nesting. A row of a mile across the waters
of a sea loch in bright sunshine brought us
to the isle. Northward Ben Nevis (4,407
feet) rose, its summit, even on this day of
mid-June, unbroken white. The island is
a large one, with grassy slopes on which
cattle graze. Here and there are boulders
and small rocks, and as we pulled up the
boat black guillemots commenced to fly
out from these boulders and shoot past
our heads as they made for the. open sea.
They left their nesting hollows unobtru-
sively, so that it was difficult to mark
them, and still more difficult to see the
two speckled eggs that lay in the dim
twilight.

Although a number of the black guille-
mots sat lightly, others refused to leave

their eggs although we looked in at them.
Often there was space just sufficient for
the bird to crouch upon her eggs surely
the nesting quarters of the black guillemot
must be as uncomfortable as any.

Unlike the common guillemot, the black
guillemot tends its young in their nesting
hollow until they are well grown ; one
sees them still in the nest at the end of
July.

The island where is the largest colony
of the black guillemot that I knew is not
given over to these birds alone. On its
grassy slopes great colonies of lesser black-
backed gulls nest, and with them a few
pairs of that large bird of most doubtful
reputation the great black back. Oyster
catchers pipe on the shingle, curlews trill
melodiously, and rock pipits fly chirping
overhead.

Here, through the long summer days,
the black guillemots brood their eggs, while
outside their nesting crannies the wild
roses blossom, and on the sunny banks
the wild thyme spreads abroad its sweet
perfume.

Photo: Seton Gordon, F.Z.S.

During April Guillemots arrive at their nesting cliffs, and should the season be
favourable their eggs will be laid by the end of May.

1214

Photo : Stanley Crook.

Young Long-tailed Tits being fed. They are sociable little birds, and the family keeps

together throughout the winter.

62.-THE TITMOUSE FAMILY.-Part II
Some Less Familiar Species

By FRANK BONNETT

THE long-tailed tit enjoys the distinc-
tion of being the builder of the most
beautiful of all British birds' nests,
but unlike the more familiar members of
the tribe, it needs no such assistance as
that provided by a hollow tree or a crevice
in the wall. A tree or bush preferably of
thorn or gorse is usually chosen, and here,
closely clinging to an upright branch, so
closely that the latter is sometimes actually
incorporated in the structure, this marvel
of marvels is to be discovered by the for-
tunate bird-nester. The nest consists of
a truly wonderful collection of moss, wool,
spiders' webs and lichen, so intimately
woven together as to form a thick mat-like
substance of surprisingly strong texture.
Usually the nest is oval in shape, with a
depth of not more than five or six inches
and about half that in width, but occasionally
a much elongated form is met with. The
outside is covered with lichen after the

manner of the chaffinch's nest, but with a
neater and smoother finish, and with a more
liberal use of this effective material. A hole
near the top forms the entrance, the size of
this being so reduced by the profuse lining
of feathers that the birds, small as they are,
have to push their way in and out.

Hundreds of feathers of the softest kind
procurable are employed by the " bottle "
tit to line its nest, the result being as warm
and cosy a nursery as wild bird ever had.
How the family of ten or more little ones
can find room to turn round or even
breathe in so confined a space passes com-
prehension, but that they come through
safely enough is evident when later on one
happens to fall in with the whole party
father, mother and children, perhaps more
than a dozen altogether holding high revelry
among the birch twigs in the wood. Long-
tailed tits are very sociable birds, and will
keep together as a family all through the

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

winter, huddling up in a mass to roost at
night, and by daytime pursuing their jour-
neys through the wood and along the hedge-
rows in animated procession in search of
food. It is easy enough at all times to
recognize the species by their long tails,

How the family of ten OP more little Long-tailed Tits find room to
turn round in the minute nest is beyond comprehension.

which, by the way, are most curiously
marked in black and white on the un-
derside.

This feature is without doubt part of
Nature's plan of protective colouring.
The whole plumage, in fact, is arranged to
that end, for it consists of a wonderful
blending of light and shade, which is emin-
ently adapted for evading detection. Any-
one who has watched a party of long-tailed
tits creeping about among the twigs of tree
or underwood in the coppice on a winter's
afternoon knows how difficult it is to follow
their movements for any distance, and how
impossible it is to rediscover them if the eye
is turned away but for a moment. They are

plain enough in the bare hedgerow with
daylight behind them, but in the dimmer
places of the wood, which is their real
home, their pied uniform harmonizes so
perfectly with the varied colouring of twigs
and stems and lichen-covered bark that

they are quickly
lost to sight.

These are by
far the most
graceful of all the
tits, not only in
regard to their
build, but also in
their movements.
They are not,
perhaps, such
finished perform-
ers as some of
the others when
it comes to
gymnastic d i s -
plays in the course
of peregrinations
through the
branches, but on
the w r ing they are
the personifica-
tion of lightness
and agility. The
long-tailed tit
cannot pride itself
on being a song-
ster, and its call
is so soft and
feeble that it is
easy to be missed
by any but the
practised ear.

Photo : Stanley Crook.

Four species of titmice, two of which are
more or less widely distributed, are to be
reckoned among the less familiar section
of this family. These are the marsh tit and
the willow tit, the bearded tit and the crested
tit. The last two are only found in certain
localities, the range of the first being confined
to the marshy tracts of the eastern counties,
and that of the other to one or two districts
in the north.

The marsh tit belongs to the same order
as the coal tit, and anyone might be forgiven
for confusing the two species. At a little
distance they are indeed much alike, being
about the same size, and each having the
black cap as well as the black markings on

1216

Photo: L. y. Laitjord.

LONG-TAILED TIT AT NEST.

This little Tit enjoys the distinction of building the most intricate and beautiful of all

British birds' nests.

THE PAGEAHT OF NATURE

The tail of the Long-tailed Tit appears to be
frequently used as a prop.

the chin. In the coal tit, however, the
splash of white at the back of the head is a
distinctive feature, this being entirely absent
in the other species. The chin markings
in the marsh tit are also much less prominent,
and are not continued in a curve below the
cheek as in the coal tit. Otherwise the
plumage of the two specimens is much the
same, though in a good light and at close
quarters there are certain distinctions of
colouring which may be observed.

It is quite easy also to confuse the nests
of the coal tit and marsh tit. Both are in
the habit of building near the ground,
usually in the hollow of a decayed stump,
but sometimes in the cracked stem of a
living tree. The nest in both cases con-
sists of the usual collection of moss, wool
and hair, with various oddments such as
pieces of fine grass, the " down " from the
blossoms of plants or shrubs, and even bits
of rabbit fur, with an occasional scrap of
wool or worsted that has been wafted away
from somebody's rubbish heap. Though
often found amid damp surroundings, the
nest of the marsh tit is also built in high and
dry situations a circumstance that makes
identification all the more difficult. Its eggs

are also very much like those of the coal tit,
both in size and markings, and are about
the same in number usually six or eight
but sometimes more.

Nothing much in the way of food comes
amiss to the marsh tit. It is a busy seeker
after insects of various kinds, and it may
occasionally be seen in the meadow in the
company of other birds on the look out
for the seeds of wild plants. But as a rule
this somewhat retiring bird is a frequenter
of the wilder and more secluded places.

For many years the willow tit seems to
have been confounded with the species just
referred to, but it is now generally agreed
that the former is quite distinct. In general
appearance the two birds are very much
alike, though a closer examination will show
that the black markings of the willow tit are
less glossy and of a browner shade, while the
observant ornithologist will notice other
small differences which the average person
would probably overlook. The nest of the
willow tit is also said to be distinctive in
that, although built in the usual crack or
hollow ; it is of rougher construction than
that of the marsh tit, while the variety of

Marsh Tit leaving her nest, which is in an
iron gate-post an unusual site.

1218

Pkoto: Manny Crook.

MARSH TIT AT NEST.

Both the Coal Tit and the Marsh Tit build near the ground, usually in the hollow of a

decayed stump.

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

The Crested Tit is rarely met with this side
of the Scottish border-

places, and unlike the other tits,
with the exception of the long-tailed
species, builds its nest in the open.
It is one of the wildest of birds,
and carries on its family affairs amid
the dense growth of reeds and rushes in
shallow water. The nest is composed
of bits of rush and reed and water
grasses. The eggs in size and mark-
ings are much like those of the great
tit, except that the spots are brown
or chocolate rather than red.

The crested tit, which is rarely met
with south of" the Scottish border, is
not a sociable bird, preferring to
keep to itself in the pinewoods. It
nests in the hole of a tree, employ-
ing much the same materials and
laying an egg not unlike that of the
long-tailed species. Apart from its
mottled crest and black collar, which
runs from the base of the beak

materials used is not so great. The eggs
are not easily distinguishable from those
of the marsh tit and some of the other
species.

Though by no means a familiar species,
the bearded tit is marked by such striking
characteristics of plumage that it cannot
easily be mistaken for any other member of
the family. The bird, in fact, seems to
have but very little of the true tit about him,
and while he is placed in a class by himself,
it might have been better, one would think,
not to have called him a tit at all. His other
name of " reed pheasant " is indeed much
more descriptive of his general appearance,
for he is not a bad imitation either in form
or colouring of a pheasant in miniature.
The bearded tit's most striking feature is an
almost triangular patch of black extending
at the base, so to speak, from the beak to a
point behind the eye, the two sides con-
tinuing in a downward direction until they
culminate in a point at the juncture of neck
and breast feathers. Its resemblance to the
pheasant is in the patch of black beneath
the tail and in the shape of the latter,
which tapers towards the end in true
pheasant fashion, and is nearly as long as
the body. In the female the " beard " is
missing, and the other distinctive markings
are more or less absent.

The bearded tit spends its life in marshy

right round the chin and up to the
back of the head, the crested tit is not con-
spicuously marked, and might possibly be
mistaken for a blue tit at no great distance.

Photo: H. Mortimer and I I'm. B. Batten.

and it keeps to itself in the pinewoods,
seldom venturing near the haunts of man.

1 220

Cormorants are usually associated with sea cliffs or rocky islands, but here is one

nesting in the branch of a tree.

63.-ECCENTRICITY AMONG BIRDS

By RILEY FORTUNE, F.Z.S.

With photographs by the Author

BIRDS are usually conservative, both in
the type of nest they build and in
the particular kind of site they choose,
and an experienced nester can readily
judge by the appearance of a district the
kind of birds he may find nesting there.
Nevertheless, there is no infallible rule in
bird-land, whether in construction of the
nest, the selection of a site or with the
general habits of birds, and in a long
experience I have come across many
interesting examples of experiments or
apparently erratic habits on the part of
various species.

It is not an easy matter to fix the time
occupied in the construction of a nest,
but I have been able on many occasions
to decide this point definitely. A favourite
fork in an ash tree was occupied year after
year for a long period by a missel thrush.

I inspected the site one Sunday when
there was no sign of its occupation, but
on the following Sunday there was a nest
and four eggs ! A pair of long-tailed tits
I had under observation took exactly a
month to build their nest, which was in
a gorse bush. These little builders had
rather more than a quarter of a mile to
go for each feather, and it has been esti-
mated that the lining of a long-tailed
tit's nest will take some thousand or so
feathers. A pair of sparrows occupied
nearly three weeks in building their nest
in a fir tree ; it was thickly lined with feathers,
but it was not until nearly a month after
its completion that the first egg was laid.
Sparrows, however, are always apt to be
casual in their habits.

Coots and waterhens do not vary much
in the type of nest they build ; coots

1221

THE PAGEANT OF NATURE

hen built her nest under this gangway over
which people were continually passing. On
the River Crimple, again, an ivy-covered
tree leans over the water, forming at one
point a flattish surface, and here a pair
of waterhens have built their nest for
many years. The only time I knew them
to miss was when a wild duck fancied
the site. When the waterhens began to
think about nest-building, they found her
already there incubating her eggs. Water-
hens are, however, very fond of nesting
in trees and bushes. One clump of large
rhododendrons on the bank of a lake had
three nests in it at one time, and in an
adjoining covert was another nest in a fir
tree, the branches of which came right
down to the ground. The birds used
these branches as a ladder, and left well-
marked traces where they had hopped from
branch to branch to reach the nest.

On two occasions I have come across
pheasants nesting in trees, the first in a
spruce fir, twenty-two feet from the ground.
The twelve eggs had been deposited in
an old " drey " of a squirrel, and my
attention was drawn to it by seeing the
tail feathers of the bird extending over the
side of the nest. The second nest was in

especially are very conservative in this an almost similar position, but in another

respect. Waterhens, although faithful to part of the county.

the method of building, are prone to take Cormorants are usually associated with

possession of all sorts of strange sites. Both sea cliffs or rocky islands, where they build

birds have one thing in common, WH^MWM^^M

and that is the habit of entwin-
ing surrounding vegetation over

the nest, thus making a delightful

bower. On one occasion I have

known a corncrake do the same

thing. A waterhen once built a

nest in the centre of a large

meadow, at least a mile and a

half from the nearest water ; the

path it had made could be traced

from the boundary right to the

nest. Another bird chose a

peculiar site on Hornsea Mere.

For the convenience of boaters a

low gangway, with spaced wooden

slats for the tread, runs from the

shore some distance into the lake.

It is only a few inches above the

surface of the water, and though

there were hundreds of suitable The Nightjap seMom mope than ^ feut

sites round the mere the water- h e Pe is a nest containing four.

1222

An unusual situation for a Waterhen's nest
in the centre of a meadow, a mile and a
half from any water.

WONDERS OF BIRD LIFE

in colonies, yet I have several times come
across their nests in trees. Once in Holland
I saw cormorants, rooks and