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-OLOGY. | 


GEOLOGY 


CS61 9 | AVF 


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AMERICAN (GEOLOGIST 


/ 
A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY 
AND 
ALLIED SCIENCES. 
j 
{/ 
i| 
\ 
o 
EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS: 5 
CHARLEs E. BEECHER, New Haven, Conn. 
SAMUEL CALVIN, Iowa City, Iowa. 
JOHN M. CLARKE, Albany, N. Y. 
EDWARD W. CLAYPOLE, Akron, Ohio. PERSIFOR FRAZER, Philadelphia, Pa. 
FRANCIS W. CRAGIN, Colorado Springs, Colo. EDWARD O. Uuricn, Newport, Ky. 
JOHN EYERMAN, Easton, Pa. WARREN UPHAM, Cleveland, Ohio. 


MARSHMAN E. WADsworTH, Houghton Mich. 
IsRAEL C. WHITE, Morgantown, W. Va. 
Newton H. WINCHELL, Minneapolis, Minn. 


VOLUME XVI. 


JuLy To DECEMBER, 1895. 


MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 
THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY. 


1895. 


THE FRANKLIN PRINTING Co., Printers. 


Ill 


CONTENTS. 


JULY NUMBER. 
Remarks on the Genus Nanno, Clarke. ALnprueus Hyarr. 
le SIAR oA 294 Wie 8 aera ian te Rae ae 1 


mee of Progressive Research in the Geology of the bake 
Superior Region prior to the late Wisconsin Survey. 


N. H. WINCHELL. cal tae: | Saleanie ist wok Da Rees aieale gs Be 
Actinophorus Clarki New Roce! ‘f. W. Craypoxe. [Plate 

| ay eae 22 Sy ot aS TENSE VES Ie fe Oe aaa Seco RUA ee es ear 20) 
Pamintani tes and other kent usives ot pfiniee Mawpneonacon 

wunnon F. Marsters. | Illustrated. |. 25 
The Kame-Moraine at Rochester, N. Y. H. L. Farrcuitp. 

Se: SG Ol ass 2 a Bee ae ae ee A ce cu) tah? 


Editorial Comment.—The Reldepiea: 51. 


Review of Recent Geological Literature.—Om Didymograptus, Tetra- 
graptus och Phyllograptus, G. Hoitm, 58.—De l’existence de nom- 
breux débris de Spongiaires dans le Précambrien de Bretagne, L. 
Cayevx, 59.—Tertiary Rhynchophorous Coleoptera of the United 
States, 8. H. ScuppEr, 59.--A Manual of Topographic Methods, 
Henry Gannett, 60.—Reconnoissance Map of the United States, 
showing the distribution of the Geologic Systems, so far as known, 
W J McGesr, 61.—Interloessial Till near Sioux City, Iowa, J. E. 
Topp and H. F. Barn, 61.—Preglacial Elevation of Iowa. H. F. 
Barn, 62.—A Bibliography of North American Paleontology, 1888- 
1892, 'C. R. Keyes, 62. 

Recent Publications, 62. 

Correspondence.—Interglacial Climatic Conditions, G. M. Dawson, 65. 

Personal and Scientific News, 66. 


AUGUST NUMBER. 
Joseph Granville Norwood, M. D., LL. D. G. C. Broap- 


mera. |e Ororait,.E bate LV.) ice. it 69 
The Keweenawan according to ie Wi isconsin core 

N. H. WIncHELL. 75 
Superior Mississippian i in western CMiasduri ar Arkan- 

Sas. CHARLES Rotiin Keyes...... Pim: Wan 86 


CI&DG 


IV Contents. 


Glacial Notes from the Planet Mars. E. W. CLAypore. 


[Tlustrated “ic. s.c.cc 3 2S ee ee 91 
Correlation of Stages of the Ice Age in North America and 
Europe. WaARrREN Upnam. [ Plates V and VI. J... 100 


Editorial Comment.—Demonelix or What?, 1138.—Reconnoissance map 
of the United States, 113. 

Reveiw of Recent Geological Literature.—Evolution of Australia, A. C. 
GreGory, 114.—Portland Cement, a monograph, C. D. JamEson, 
115.— Origin and Use of Natural Gas at Manitou, Colorado, Wm. 
SrRIEBLY, 116.—Lead and Zine Deposits of Missouri, ARTHUR 
Winstow and J. D. Ropinson, 118.—On some Dykes containing 
Huronite, A. E. Bartow, 119.—On Lawsonite, a new rock-forming 
Mineral from the Tiburon Peninsula, Marin Co., Cal., F. L. Ran- 
some, 119.—Post-Laramie Deposits of Colorado, 120.—Etuce sur 
le Metamorphisme de contact des roches volcaniques, A. LACRorx, 
122.—Htude minéralogique de la lherzolite de Pyrénées et ses phé- 
nomeénes de contact. A. LaCrorx, 122.—Peary Auxiliary EK xpedi- 
tion of 1894, Geology, T. C. CHAMBERLIN, 124.—Preliminary Re- 
port on the Physical Geography of the Litorina Sea, H. Munrur, 
126. . 

Recent Publications, 127. 

Personal and Scientific News, 129. 


SEPTEMBER NUMBER. 
Edward Hitchcock. C. H. Hircucoox. | Portrait, Plate 


Wa] ice a he 133 
A Rational View of the Keweenawan. N.H. WINcHELL. 

[Thustrated. |. :. 05) lee a 150 
The Mentor Beds, a central Kansas terrane of the Coman- 

che ‘series. ~ EF. W. CRAGING =) 622. Je eee 162 


The Larval Stages of Trilobites. Cuartes E. Brecuer. 
[ Plates ‘VILL to 2X. |). sss ae | SR 166 


Review of Recent Geological Literature.—Geological Survey of Canada, 
Annual Report (new series), vol. v1, for 1892-93, A. R. C. SELwyn- 
Director, 197.—Summary Report on the Operations of the Geolog- 
ical Survey [of Canada] for the year 1894, G. M. Dawson, Direc 
tor, 198.—Does the Delaware Water Gap consist of Two River 
Gorges?, EMMA WatrTer, 200.—En resa till norra Ishafvet somma- 
ren 1892, AxEL HamBerc, 200.—The Protolenus Fauna, G. F. Mar- 
THEW, 200. 

Correspondence.— Recent Geological Work in South Dakota, J. E. 
Topp, 202. 


Personal and Scientific News, 203. 
OCTOBER NUMBER. 
The Synchronism of the Lake Superior Region with other 
portions of the North American Continent. N. H. 


WINCHELL. [Plate XI. 2.202 ee ee 
Brachiocrinus and Herpetocrinus. F. A. BATHER................ 213 


Contents. Vv 


Description of a New Genus and five New Species of Fos- 
sils from the Devonian and Subcarboniferous rocks of 


Missourt. > KR. RR. Rowxey.: [Tlustrated. |... 217 
The Elective System as adopted in the aa Mining 
School. M. E. Wapswortn. ......... 223 


Rock Hill, Long Island,.N. Y. ee Pies. iat XII. | 228 
Geological Society and American Association Meetings. 
TES | 2 0G ee 233 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. Dr istoceny ra an ig phe Ese 
Characteristic, ALPHEUs Hyatt, 256.—Structure and Appendages 
of Trinucleus. C. E. BrrcueEr, 259.—Report on the Coosa Coal 
Field, A. M. Greson, 260.—The Origin of the Arkansas Novacu- 
lites, L. S. Griswoxp, 261.—Ueber palzeozoische Faunen aus Asia 
und Nordafrika, F. Frecu, 261.—Folds and Faults in Pennsylva- 
nia Anthracite Beds, B. S. Lyman, 261.—Directions for Collecting 
and Preparing Fossils, CHARLES SCHUCHERT, 262.—On a New Tril- 
obite from Arkansas Lower Coal*Measures, A. W. VopaEs, 262.- 
A Supplement to the Bibliography of the Palzezoic Crustacea, A. 
W. Vopcss, 262 S for the Determination of Common Min- 
erals, W. O. Crospy, 262.—A Contribution to the Mineralogy of 
Wisconsin, W. H. Hoss, 263. 

Recent Publications, 263. 


Correspondence.—The International Congress of Geologists: A Correc- 
tion, ALBERT HEIM, 266. 


Personal and Scientific News, 267. 


NOVEMBER NUMBER. 


The Latest Eruptives of the Lake Superior Region. N.H. 
VAIO BED: V2. 2 225: ERY ok Ree Ube At 269 

The Upper Silurian in Griheadiors Toe A. G. Witson. 275 

High Level Gravel and Loam Deposits of Kentucky Rivers. 


AnoHuR M. Minter. | Illustrated. ],....::.00.. 281 
Origin of the Iowa Lead and Zine Deposits. <A. G. Lron- 

Dg coh dinte earl | ee ee eee 288 
The Devonian Series in Seuithive estern ee ee OscAR 

Few ORIRGENE Vexees fete ei oy, dade 294 
Geology at the Baitish Association far the Ady aneement of 

Science. E. W. CLAYpPo_Le............. 300 


Section of the Eocene at Old Port ¢ ‘add Pandine: Harri- 
son Co., Texas, with Notes upon a Collection of Plants 
from that locality by F.H. Knowrton. T. WayLanp 
VAUGHAN .............. CO Are Sa eae SE 304 


Editorial Comment. a re Heim’s Letter. Pr RSIFOR FRAZER, 309. 


Review of Recent Geological Literature.—Fourteenth Annual Report of 
the U.S. Geological Survey, J. W. Powett, Director, 310.—-Re 
publication of Descriptions of Fossils from the Hall collection, ete., 


VI Contents. 


R. P. Warrrrecp, 311.—Ammoniten-Brut mit Aptychen in der 
Wohnkammer von Oppelia steraspis Oppel sp., R. MrcHasgt, 312. 
Revision of the Fauna of the Guelph Formation of Ontario, J. 
F. Wurreaves, 312.—Systematic List of Fossils of the Hudson 
River Formation at Stony Mountain, Manitoba, J. F. WHITEAvEs, 
312.—Fauna fosil de la Sierra de Catorece San Luis Potosi, J. G. 
AGUILERA, 313.—Bureau of Mines of Ontario, Fourth Report, 1894, 
ARCHIBALD Buu, Director, 313.—Scientific results of the New Si- 
berian Islands Expedition, The Fossil Ice Strata and their rela- 
tions to the Mammoth remains, E. v. Tou, 314.—Further Obser- 
vations upon the Occurrence of Diamonds in Meteorites, O. W. 
Huntineron, 316.—The Erosive Action of Ice, G. E. Cutver, 316, 
-The Duration of Niagara Falls and the History of the Great 
Lakes, J. W. Spencer, 316.-—-Critical Periods in the History of the 
Earth, Joseph LEConts, 317.Ueber einige Fischreste des nord- 
deutschen und bohmischen Devons, A. von RoENeEnN, 318.—Sur une 
Faune du sommet de la serié rhénane, a Pepinster, Goé et Tilff, 
E. Kayser, 318.—The Stone Industry in 1894, W. C. Day, 318.- 
Mineral Products of the United States, 1885 to 1894, D. T. Day. 
319.— Opinions concerning the Age of the Sioux Quartzite, C. R. 
Keyes, 319.— Ueber postarchzischen Granit von Sulitelma in Nor- 
wegen und tiber das Vorkommen von s. g. Corrosionquarz in Gnei- 
sen und Graniten, Orro NORDENSKJOLD, 320. 
Recent Publications, 321. 


Correspondence.—The Source of the Mississippi, N. H. WiIncHELL, 323. 
—Warm Temperate Vegetation near Glaciers, WARREN UPHAM, 
326. 


Personal and Scientific News, 327. 


DECEMBER NUMBER. 
Comparative Taxonomy of the Rocks of the Lake Supe- 
rior Regions. oN ELA WGN G ae ili eS. eee a B32 
River Valleys of the Ozark Plateau. Oscar H. HERsHEY. 338 
A Study of the Belvidere Beds. F.. W. CRAGIN: 0023 B57 


‘Editorial Comment.—The Heim-Capellini Incident in the International 
Geological Congress at Zurich, PERSIFOR FRAZER, 386. 

Review of Recent Geological Literature.—Geology ot the Green Moun- 
tains in Massachusetts, R. Pumpeniy, J. E. Wourr and T.N. 
Date, 386..-Handbook and Catalogue of the Meteorite Collection, 
O. C. Farrinetron, 388.—Das obere Mittledevon im Rheinischen 
Gebirge, E. HoLzapPFre., 389.—Mollusea and Crustacea of the Mi- 
ocene Formations of New Jersey, R. P. WuHrrFrELp, 391.—A Geo- 
logical Reconnoissance in Northwest Wyoming, G. H. ELDRIDGE, 
392.—Elementary Physical Geography, R. S. Tarr, 392.—The 
Lakes of North America, a reading lesson for students of Geogra- 
phy and Geology, I. C. RussELn, 393.—Characteristics of the Ozark 
Mountains, C. R. Keyzs, 393. 

Recent Publications, 393. 

Correspondence.—Dr. Holst on the Continuity of the Glacial Period, G. 
FREDERICK WRIGHT, 396. 

Personal and Scientific News. General notes, 400.—Greenland Ice 
fields, 401.--Geological Survey of Canada, 401..-Wisconsin Acad- 
emy of Science, Arts and Letters, 401.—Field Work of the U.S. 
Geological Survey, 402.—Geological Survey of New York, 403. 

fndex to Volume XVI, 405. 


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PLATE I. 


Ture AMERIOAN GeoxoaisT, Vol. XVI. 


NANNO AULEMA, CLARKE. 


THE 


AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. 


Vor. XVI. JULY, 1895. Nez 


REMARKS ON THE GENUS NANNO, CLARKE. 


By ALPHEUS Hyatt, Boston, Mass. 
(PLATE I.) 


The discovery and description of this genus by Prof. J. M. 
Clarke has materially added to our knowledge of the structure 
and development of the siphon in the 2Hndoceratide and 
thrown a new light upon the affinities of the forms of this 
group. The endvusiphon* is absent in the maturer stages of 
Nanno and probably also in Vagsnoceras, and in Sannionites 
it appears to be present only in a fragmentary form in some 
species. Prof. Clarke’s original specimens in some cases dem- 
onstrate the existence of an endosiphon in the young of Van- 
no ant that it was in one stage an open tube. This gives a 
standard by which to judge of the affinities of the genera in 
the Hndoceratidw and shows clearly that Lndoceras is the 
radical from which the genera Sannionites, Nanno and Vagino- 
ceras were derived. Prof. Clarke having generously al- 
lowed me to study his types, I have made careful observa- 
tions upon these interesting fossils. The specimens figured 
in his platet+, figures 5-7, are in my opinion the young of fig- 
ure 1, as described by Clarke, and so are also figures 2 and 8. 
Figure 3 represents a full grown siphon of a specimen older 
obviously than figure 1. 


*[ have used the term siphon in this paper to facilitate comparison 
and reference to Clarke’s paper. I usually use the term siphuncle for 
the calcareous tube and siphon for the fleshy tube. 

+*‘Nanno, a new Cephalopodan type,’”’ J. M. Clarke, AM. GEOLOGIST, 
vol. xIv, p. 205, pl. 6, Oct., 1894. 


2 The American Geologist. July, 189% 


I have been able to find the endocones of his figure 8, al- 
though there are only slight indications of their presence in 
this specimen, and the deposits are much more solid in this 
specimen than in any Endoceras 1 ever saw. They greatly 
resemble in color and general aspect those of Narthecoceras, 
mentioned below, and may have been built in the same way, 
namely, by the sheath while shrinking towards the central 
axis. This specimen is important because it shows clearly 
the alteration in shape of the sheath and that it has shrunk 
in size. There are no indications that it built any deposits 
while it was being withdrawn upwards except in a small 
patch on one side. Here the radiatory lines are inclined as if 
there had been a steady withdrawal upwards or orad at 
the same time that there was a shrinkage in bulk towards the 
central axis. The shape of this sheath explains the truncated 
end of that given in this paper, figure 1, and shows that the 
bevelled apical end of this and its acutely angular ventral 
point is really the normal form derived from this younger 
stage of the sheath. It shows also that this tube is not a true 
endosiphon, although it so closely resembles one, but is in 
reality the termination of a retreating sheath. 

I have not been able to find satisfactory evidence of the 
general existence of fibrous radial structure. Obscure radia- 
tions occur but close study of these show that the radial lines 
are the apparent boundaries of pseudocrystals, not true fibres. 
They may be attributed to the mode of deposition of the cal- 
careous matter, but can hardly be considered integral struc- 
tures of the solid filling, which, in my opinion, is an amorphous 
pseudocrystalline deposit often denser than in FHndoceras 
but only secondarily radiatory in structure. I do not wish 
to be understood as stating that the structure of the filling is 
not radiatory. On the contrary there is a decided radiation 
in the pseudocrystals that shows well on broken and abraded 
surfaces, but I differ somewhat from Prof. Clarke in my inter- 
pretation of the meaning of these lines. When radiating lines 
are present as integral structures the fibrous nature of the de- 
posits are easily demonstrated. Such structures occur in the 
siphon of Nurthecoceras* a new genus of Endoceratide 
the fine specimen from which it was taken and find distinct but spo- 


The Genus Nanno, Clarke.—Hyatt. 3 


described ina paper I am now preparing for publication. 
The type is NVarthecoceras ( End.) crassisiphonatum (Whit- 
eaves sp.)* The only known species are this and Narth. 
( End.) simpsoni, sp. Billings. 

The youth of the specimens referred to above is in my 
opinion established by the aspect of the sheath. The sheath 
is complete in Clarke’s figure 8 and approximately complete 
in the originals of figures 5,7 and 2 and also 4. Thisisa 
most extraordinary fact considering the great variety of 
young specimens as a rule, and one might well claim that these 
were probably full grown. On the other hand the original of 

'Clarke’s figure 1, gives strong evidence in support of his con- 
clusion that they are identical and belong to the same species. 
That they are each complete in their own stage is demonstra- 
ted by one of the specimens from Chatfield, figured here on 
plate I, figure 1. This is about the size and length of Clarke’s 
figure 2 but is not a complete siphon like that specimen. It 
is a fragment of the apical end of some larger and older fos- 
sil. The sheath penetrating the center of the broken stem is 
represented by a narrow tube less than 2 mm. in diameter 
which at first seems to be an endosiphon. 

Having examined the tips of the siphon in Clarke’s speci- 
mens of Nanno, I found on each a broken place or sear indi- 
cating in one specimen, the original of Clarke’s figure 2, pos- 
sible contact with the external shell and having in the center 
what appeared to be the mark of an endosiphon. On each of 
the other specimens there were marks not wholly accounted for 
by abrasion, except in that of the original of figure 1, which 
is considerably worn. Suspecting that these indicated the 
presence of an endosiphon I ventured to make a section of 
the specimen described. 


radic traces of fibrous deposition in a specimen of Hndocerus, EF. protei- 
forme? trom the Trenton limestone. The filling varies from loose sub- 
crystalline or sparry to comparatively dense, opaque, white with nu- 
merous lines of deposition, all of them parallel with the surfaces of the 
endocones. These are crossed here and there by curved lines which 
occasionally may have a fibrous aspect. Near the wall of the siphon 
there is, in one spot, a number of these lines that may be described as 
indicating a tendency towards fibrillization in the structure of the fill- 
ing, and in other parts there are similar appearances especially near the 
wall of the siphon. 

*The Orthoceratidw of the Trenton limestone of the Winnipeg basin; 
Trans. Royal Soc. Canada, vol. 1x, 1891. 


4 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


The tubular sheath (fig. 1, pl. I.) extends apicad of the bro- 
ken end to a length of 7 mm. without change of diameter, but 
bends slightly and is truncated or bevelled at the apical end 
forming an acute angle in the section on the ventral or 
straight side and an obtuse angle on the dorsal or gibbous 
side of the siphon. The whole length of the section is 31 mm., 
the greatest transverse diameter is 9.5 mm., and the diameter 
of the broken end is7.5 mm. Apicad of this sheath the fill- 
ing was not dense as in the original of figure 8 of Clarke, or 
figures 3-6 given in this paper, but very loose semicrystalline 
‘alcite, and in the middle of the broadest part the entire cen- 
ter was hollow with an intruded piece of the darker colored 
matrix on one (the dorsal) side. ‘Phis local absence of de- 
posits can be accounted for because the upper right hand side 
of the specimen removed in making the section, was crushed 
opposite this cavity. This wound may have been made dur- 
ing the life of the animal and, if so, this would account for 
the absence of deposits in the center as well as the loose sub- 
crystalline aspect of the filling above. The character of the 
deposits and the differences between those of the periphery 
and central parts is given accurately in the figure. The dark 
mass on the left upper corner above the hollow space is the 
intrusive matrix alluded to above. This space was completely 
inclosed so that the matrix did not penetrate into its interior. 
The pseudocrystals surrounding it were distinctly visible 
through the hole in the wall of the siphon before the right 
side was cut away in making the section. The wound in the 
right side had been partly closed by these internal deposits 
as the animal grew in length but these repairs did not fill it 
out to the surface of the siphon, they merely shut off the en- 
trance to the ventral parts of the hollow. 

The peripheral deposits are radiatory in arrangement and 
evidently organic. These deposits are penetrated at the tip 
by the endosiphon which is a tube open at the end. The wall 
on the dorsal side is a distinct dark line showing that it was 
composed of conchiolin. The limits on the opposite side are 
less definite but perfectly perceptible. The center near the 
lower end is completely filled with the red matrix, identical 
in aspect with the piece of matrix on the left of the hollow 
above and that filling the interior of the truncated sheath. 


~ 


The Genus Nanno, Clarke.—Hyatt. 5 


The matrical filling of the endosiphon tails out internally, 
disappearing in the organic, caleareous, white deposits. The 
form of the filling proves clearly that the ananepionic endo- 
siphon was open to the exterior like the sheath above and 
that it was closed during the life of the animal by internal 
deposits which did not completely fill the tube but left an ir- 
regular conical hollow at the tip which was plugged up by 
the ferruginous matrix after the death of the animal. The 
exact time of the internal organic closure was probably at the 
end of the paranepionic substage or beginning of the next or 
neanic stage. This young endosiphon in other words pene- 
trated the first endocone and belonged to the same substage. 

The earlier substage when the siphon was empty must have 
possessed a simple aperture connecting with the protoconch. 
To make this clearer to readers unfamiliar with recent inves- 
tigations among cephalopods it is necessary to interpolate a 
short description of the stages of development among these 
forms. 

The protoconch or earliest embryonic stage of the shell is 
supposed to have preceded the formation of the tip of the 
conch and to have communicated with the first living cham- 
ber in this tip through the endosiphon. This is naturally 
ealled the “‘prosiphon” by Zittell on account of its position, 
but the author considers it as not proventhat this organ is in 
any sense a siphon. On theother hand it is when complete a 
differentiation of the tube formed by the tip of the sheath 
and it is at all stages distinct from the funnels of the sur- 
rounding siphon. The siphon is built up by the funnels 
which are formed by a differentiated zone at the base of the 
mantle, whereas the endosiphon is built by the probably thin- 
ner walls of a prolongation of the mantle called the fleshy 
sheath. There is always a sharp distinction between the in- 
ternal deposits of the fleshy sheath and the funnels both in 
position and structure. 

The ananepionic substage is a septaless living chamber with 
a cicatrix, oval or round in Endoceratida, the metanepionic 
has septa and a huge empty siphon, which in Vanno practi- 
eally fill the interior of the apex, the paranepionic sub- 
stage has a similar siphon but with the first endocone and an 
endosiphon formed in the apex and continuous with the open- 


6 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


ing of the cicatrix. At the end of this substage or the begin- 
ning of the neanic (adolescent) stage the endosiphon was 
plugged up internally with caleareous matter in Manno, as 
described above. The second endocone belongs to the first or 
ananeanic substage when the siphon begins to contract and 
there is no endosiphon. 

Among the specimens there was another figured by Prof. 
Clarke only in part in his section, figure 4, to show the radial 
deposits. This proved so very peculiar and interesting that 
I have given an enlargement in plate I, figure 2, with the cen- 
ter omitted where Clarke’s section was taken. The sheath in 
this is complete but has a rounded termination. The two en- 
docones are present as in Clarke’s figure 8 and the structure 
of the organic filling is the same but less dense than in that 
specimen and not so opaque. The interest centers in the pe- 
culiar density, rounded termination, and structureless aspect 
of the filling of the second endocone, immediately apicad of 
the tip of the sheath, and the contrast between this and the 
triangular space between this and the first endocone. In this 
triangular space the filling is looser and suberystalline show- 
ing rapid deposition as if done by a retiring and comparative- 
ly rapidly moving fleshy sheath. 

In completing the end of this section I opened up the en- 
dosiphon and, finding that the trace grew narrower nearer 
the center of the tip, ceased grinding. Subsequently upon 
close study by reflected light from a sheet of white paper I 
succeeded in seeing the dark trace of the endosiphon still be- 
low the surface but penetrating, as shown in figure 2, the en- 
tire thickness of the first endocone. Then by taking off a 
little more I found the endosiphonal walls below continuous 
as given in the figure, but the dark shade still allowed to re- 
main in this figure has become less noticeable. 

This observation shows that the endosiphon is not always 
precisely tubular and sometimes is not in the exact center so 
that it may be easily obliterated when rubbing down a speci- 
men and may be present when not visible in a section taken 
through the center. That it was like that of figure 1, open 
to the exterior, is shown by the dark color of the matrical fill- 
ing, which agrees with that of the sheath above, and it also 
belongs to the age of the first endocone as in that specimen. 


The Genus Nanno, Clarke.—H yatt. i 


Thus it seems clear that in Nanno, and possibly in Sannioni- 
tes, in which genus the endosiphon is often absent in adults, 
this organ is clearly a characteristic of the metanepionic sub- 
Stage. 

The opening through the apex of the empty, siphonless 
shell in the anepionic substage was not an endosiphon but a 
primitive organ or protendosiphon probably communicating 
with the protoconch. 

The true endosiphon was formed by the tip of the swollen 
sheath while it was building the first endocone, which there- 
fore belongs to the middle nepionic substage. Upon the en- 
try of the animal into the paranepionic substage a rupture of 
the sheath and endosiphon took place and the sheath in clos- 
ing at the apical end plugged up the endosiphon and began 
to build the loose filling immediately apicad of the tip of the 
second endocone. The second endocone was built as shown 
by Clarke’s figure 8 and this figure 2, as the siphon was _ be- 
coming contracted and it was completed after the siphon had 
assumed the proportions of the ephebie siphon so that this 
endocone should be reckoned as belonging to the ananeanic 
substage. These materials give the approximately exact his- 
tory of these substages but they plainly show that the nepi- 
onic stage had an endosiphon which was lost at the termina- 
tion of this stage and that at the beginning of the neanic 
stage there was still a large sheath with a more or less conical 
end, as in figure 2 and Clarke’s figure 8, quite different from 
the elongated tubular termination of the same organ in the 
ephebie stage as shown in figures 1 and 3, yet agreeing with 
it sufficiently in figure 1 and Clarke’s figure 8, to make it highly 
probable that the older sheath is only a shrunken modifica- 
tion of the ananeanic sheath. 

This result does not in the least contradict Prof. Clarke’s 
result that Nanno did not have an endosiphon, on the con- 
trary it confirms this point and adds simply the fact, that this 
genus possessed an endosiphon only in the young and was 
probably therefore, a modified descendant of Lndoceras which 
had this organ throughout life. 

The original of Clarke’s figure 3, having been cut by him, 
shows some extremely interesting and novel characteristics. 
The sheath is shown in plate I, figure 3, terminating abrupt- 


8 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


ly and is somewhat different from figure 1, showing consider- 
able variation in the form of the termination of the sheath. 
This is in part due to age, since this is obviously an older 
stage than that given in figure 1. It is probable that Vanno 
aulema was a short shell, all the indications being in favor of 
this opinion. If so the tubular termination of the sheath in 
figure 1, which is undoubtedly ephebic, indicates that the 
more abrupt and stouter termination in figure 3 is a degener- 
ation due to age, and implies that the senile stage had been 
entered upon in this specimen before the animal died. There 
are no definite endocones and the filling is very solid and 
opaque, the radiation of the deposits is also less distinetly 
marked than at younger stages. The lower end of this frag- 
ment of a siphon is swollen slightly showing that the proxi- 
mal part of the nepionic stage is present and that the distal, 
or younger part, only is missing. ‘The shell is preserved and 
is shown in figure 4 on the ventral side and in figures 5-6. 
These figures demonstrate relations between the siphon and 
shell unparalleled in the history of similar fossils. The shell 
on the venter is in absolute contact with the walls of the 
siphon so that it becomes part of the siphonal wall on that 
side. Microscopal sections of more perfect specimens are 
needed to establish the details, but so far as can be deter- 
mined by this fossil, it appears to be quite certain, that the 
septa and funnels, which exist on the dorsum of the siphon 
and which there and on the sides form the wall of the siphon, 
have entirely disappeared on the venter. This alone estab- 
lishes Vanno as a new form of the Endoceratida. 


The shell in the section, flgure 8, is the outer or ventral 
wall of the siphon and in the ideal view, figure 1, page 8, 
the relations of the ventral shell to the siphon are shown as 


The Genus Nanno, Clarke.—Hyatt. 9 


they are supposed to be when the shell of figure 4 has been 
removed from around the edges. The funnels and remnants 
of the septa are shaded with vertical lines. These disappear 
when they come in contact with the shell and do not pass 
around the venter asin all other endoceratites. The substance 
or filling of the siphon is dotted and the remnants of the 
shell clinging to the venter and surrounding the apex of the 
siphon are not shaded. 

The shell was thick and smooth, externally. The funnels 
on the dorsal and lateral aspects of the siphon were certainly 
present and appeared to form the wall of the siphon as they 
do in Sannionites, Endoceras and Piloceras, i. e., pass from 
one septum to the next, building a single wall. Nevertheless 
the length of the funnels was not actually traced except near 
the septa, and this conclusion, that they actually reach from 
one septum to another is an inference from the structure of 
allied forms of the same group. It is very common to find 
the isolated siphons of this family without the delicate shell 
of the lower parts of the funnels, but with remnants of the 
septa and upper parts of the funnels still attached to the solid 
siphon. 

Vaginoceras (Endoceras) belemnitiforme Wolm,* differs 
from Sannionites in having the siphon composed of longer 
funnels. Each septum in forming its funnel passes beyond 
and into the opening of the next funnel and reaches, in many 
cases, to a point opposite the opening of the second funnel 
apicad of its aperture. The wall of the siphon is, in other 
words, everywhere and in all stages later than the nepionic 
stage, double and composed of the apical and oval parts of two 
funnels. The young of Vaginoceras belemnitiforme, as figured 
by Holm, is very similar to that of Manno, and filled the apex 
of the shell in the same way. 

Materials for comparing the young of Sannionites and 
Nanno are wanting at present and, although the adults seem 
to approximate closely, it does not follow that the nepionic 
stages will be similar. There are two specimens in the collec- 
tion of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., 
which appear to be the young of Sannionites (Cameroceras ) 
trentonnense, sp. Conrad, and if so the young of this species 


*Abhandl., Dames et Kayser, II], pl. I. 


10 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


has a much smaller neponie siphon than Nanno. The tips are 
decidedly similar in form, but have constrictions showing 
traces of the presence of funnels and septa to within a short 
distance of the apex. The siphon, in other words, is made up 
of funnels even in the nepionie stage. 

Endoceras has siphons with swollen ends that in some spe- 
cies must have nearly filled the tip of the shell, but in other 
species this is not the case. There are similar phenomena in 
Piloceratida; some genera of this group have siphons as small 
as in Sannionites and compare with typical Piloceras as San- 
nionites compares with ELndoceras. 

The large size of the apical part of the siphon which ap- 
proximately fills the the interior of the shell in Manno caused 
that author to speak of this young shell in an article on 
“Cephalopod Beginnings’’* as having a hugh protoconch. This 
view is also held by Holm and others in Europe, and is a nat- 
ural inference from the general aspect of the swollen tip, but 
I held the opposite opinion in several papers before the pub- 
lication of Ford’s observations. These showed conclusively 
in Piloceras and Actinoceras, both of which have very large 
siphons in the young, that the apex of the sheil had a deep 
cicatrix. This discovery shows clearly that the swollen tip 
of the siphon and shell is not a protoconech in the forms in 
which it occurs, but that the apex of the surrounding shell is 
a true conch, having a cicatrix like that of other nautiloids. 

The view that this swollen apical part of the siphon is a 
protoconch is more likely to be taken in Vaginoceras and in 
Nanno than in Sannionites, Endoceras or Piloceras. In these 
genera the siphon may or may not have a swollen end and I 
am even doubtful whether the existence of this swollen, si- 
phonal apex in the nepionic stage of the shell may not be a 
matter of individual variation in some species. I am quite 
sure, from the materials now on hand, and from Holm’s fig- 
ures of Vaginoceras, that it varies greatly in the same species. 
It is also a fact that when the siphon in this stage is swollen 
in Lndoceras that it must have very nearly filled the interior 
of the beginning or earlier stages of the shell. 

The septa are, however, traceable in some specimens not- 
withstanding the very narrow space in which they were de- 


*AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, vol. Xv, p. 125, Feb., 1895. 


The Genus Nanno, Clarke.—Hyatt. Et 


veloped and it is obvious that the swollen end is sometimes 
made up of the funnels of from four to six septa and that the 
tip of the siphon is a coecal cone like that of other forms of 
nautiloids, differing principally in size. 

In good specimens the extreme tips of these siphons bear 
marks of having been perforated by a hole that communicated 
with the apex of the shell layers, which seemed to have been 
plugged up as the siphon became filled with organic deposits. 
The evidence of this consists in the lighter or darker color of 
a central spot that appears on the apex of isolated siphons 
and is often much more decisive than the external marks on 
any specimen of Nanno. This spot is sometimes circular but 
may also be elliptical or irregular, and it differs usually in 
color from the outer surrounding surface and is continuous 
internally with the endosiphon. 

The remarkable transitional form described by Clarke as 
Orthoceras with a protoconch makes the conclusion previ- 
ously drawn from the existence of the cicatrix on the apices 
of Nautilus, Orthoceras, and Piloceras, much more reliable 
than it was previously. This discovery confirms the opinion 
that the division of the early stages into protoconch and 
conch is true probably of all nautiloids and the cicatrix upon 
the apex of the true conch is probably in all cases to be ac- 
cepted as due to the removal of a protoconch. 

This being true, the very close similarity of the younger 
stages of Nanno, Sunnivnites, Vaginoceras and Endoceras to 
Piloceras, makes it highly probable that the apex of the shell 
will be found to have an external cicatrix in the former, 
although it may not be such a deep pit as that already dem- 
onstrated in Piloceras by Ford and confirmed by my own ob- 
servations upon the species in this country. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. 
Nanno aulema Clarke. 

Fig. 1. Fragment of the end of the siphon of aspecimen in the ephe- 
bic stage, enlarged two diameters. This shows the endosiphon in the 
first endocone, filled by the red ferruginous matrix and closed internally 
by organic deposits, aiso the loose character of the remaining internal 
deposits, the hollow formed in the center by the absence of these depos- 
its and a part of the narrow tubular end of the sheath above. Knlarged 
+2 diameters. Locality, Chatfield, Minn. 

Fic. 2. The entire siphon of a younger specimen in the ananeanic 


12 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


substage, enlarged two diameters. It is somewhat younger than 
Clarke’s fig. 8 and belongs to a larger specimen, but is nevertheless in 
the same substage of growth. In Clarke’s figure the sheath is more 
shrunken in proportion and shows the approaching termination of the 
ananeanic substage. The triangular space between the first and second 
endocones is filled with the loose organic deposit of the paranepionic 
substage which plugged up the endosiphon of the metanepionic sub- 
stage. The second endocone has a dense structure at the apex and be- 
longs entirely to the ananeanic substage, as shown in this and Clarke’s 
fig. 8. Enlarged + 2 diameters. Locality, Minneapolis. 

Fies. 3 to 6. Clarke’s original of his fig. 3, enlarged about 2.3 to show 
details. This is a siphon belonging to a somewhat longer and older 
Specimen than his fig. 1 when complete, and is perhaps at the begin- 
ning of the gerontic stage. Fig. 3 shows the shell on the venter forming 
the outer wall of the siphon and the abrupt termination of the sheath, 
which is larger and blunter in that of fig. 1 at a younger stage of 
growth. 

Fig. 4 is the same specimen from the front, showing relations of shell 
to the septa and funnels on the left. Fig. 5-6 the same from side and 
back. 


[CRUCIAL POINTS IN THE GEOLOGY OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION. NO. §.] 


STEPS OF PROGRESSIVE RESEARCH IN THE 
GEOLOGY OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION 
PRIOR TO THE LATE WISCONSIN 
SURVEY. 


By N. H. WINCHELL, Minneapolis, Minn. 

Having now briefly noted the leading concurrent geologic 
events of the Taconic in North America as they are known to 
have occurred in regions surrounding the Lake Superior re- 
gion, it is next in order to give more close attention to the 
Lake Superior region itself. The geological literature of this 
region may be separated into two parts, based on a historical 
datum, viz., the Wisconsin geological survey concluded in 
1879 and fully published in 1883. 

American geological opinion, while in the main making an 
onward advance in correct interpretation, has been oscillatory 
on more subjects than one. This has been owing in no small 
degree to the tendency of the human mind to overestimate its 
own achievements. When some new fact in science, or some 
new understanding of a group of facts, has been vividly por- 
trayed and applied by some new investigator he has some- 
times given such wide scope to the new truth that it has been 


Geology of the Lake Superior Region—Winchell. 138 


made the cause of serious error. It is not always under the 
lead of the discoverers that these new keys are misused, but 
their followers and imitators are prone to not only adopt the 
new ideas but to apply them to the solution of problems and 
to the fancied discovery of other ideas to which they have no 
relation. This tendency oncestarted by an influential geol- 
ogist is carried much farther by others, and still farther by 
their successors until the bad consequences become so evident 
that they are finally detected and their cause is discovered. 
Then commences a swing of the pendulum in the opposite di- 
rection, with perhaps equal exaggeration and equally serious 
errors. The later errors, however, are never duplicates of the 
old mistakes. They are on another plane, and their effects 
are less broad in scope though not less profound in originality 
and importance. By the amount of advance which separates 
the later plane from the arena, on which the earlier geologists 
operated, is the progress of the science measured, from gener- 
ation to generation as the pendulum of opinion swings from 
extreme to extreme. Like a ship which makes headway by 
tacking into the wind, does geology constantly shift and con- 
stantly advance, though rarely or never straight ahead. 

The Wisconsin geological survey served as one of the turn- 
ing points in the progressive examination of the geology of 
the Lake Superior region. Almost everything before that, so 
far as relates to these formations, had been substantially in 
at least there were few dissentients from 


accord with itself 
the leading classification which had been advanced in the 
middle and early in the latter half of the century. Before 
noticing the new ideas approved by the corps of the Wiscon- 
sin survey, it will be best to consider succinctly the ideas 
that were prevalent prior to that survey. 

The officers of the Canadian geological survey were among 
the first to put forth generalizations upon the stratigraphy of 
the Lake Superior region. The tragic early death of Dr. 
Douglass Hughton, by drowning, cut short for many years the 
voice which American geologists south of the international 
boundary might have had in forming geological opinion on 
these rocks. He shared the views of Dr. E. Emmons, and 
many of the specimens collected by his field parties were la- 
belled by him and referred to the Taconic system. Thus la- 


14 The American Geologist. July, 1895. 


belled they lay for many years in the museum of the Univer- 
sity of Michigan.* His reports, however, were few and rather 
brief, and exerted but little influence. Meantime the views 
of the Canadian survey became current in American litera- 
ture. The energies of the New York survey, and of the offi- 
cials who inherited its results, were at this juncture expended 
in other directions. New York was the only state with an 
eflicient geological organization that had a lively interest in 
the classification of these rocks. Those who are acquainted 
with the rather personal disputation which followed the offi- 
cial close of the New York survey will quickly apprehend the 
probable cause of the silence of the geologists of New York 
on this subject at a date when their voice would have been 
powerful. States further west entered later upon this field, 
and they were in a large measure forced to accept the princi- 
ples and the general stratigraphy of the Canadian survey 
then in vogue. With slight exceptions they have not varied 
from the established nomenclature, nor from the early group- 
ing of these ancient terranes as made out and published by 
the later Canadian survey. 

The first important generalization by the Canadian survey 
was printed at Paris in the French language in 1855.+ In 
this publication, after a brief description of the Laurentian, 


the Huronian system is defined in the following words: 
Du systeme Cambrien ou Iuronien. 

Les bords des lacs Huron et Supérieur nous offrent une série de 
schistes, grés, calcaires et conglomérats, intercalés avec de puissantes 
assises de diorite, et reposant en stratification discordante surle systéme 
laurentien. Comme ces roches sont inférieures au terrain silurien, et 
comme (ailleurs elles n’ont jusqu’ a présent offert aucun fossile, elles 
peuvent bien é6tre rapportées au systeme cambrien (le cambrien infé- 
rieur de M. Sedgwick). Les schistes de ce systéme sur lelac Supérieur, 
sont de couleur bleuatre, et renferment des couches de silex corné qui a 
des bandes calcaires, et dont les fentes sont souvent remplies Q’anthra- 
cite. 

Ces roches sont recouvertes d’une épaisseur considérable de trapp, sur 
lequel sont superposées de puissantes assises de grés blane et rouge qui 
passent quelquefois a l'état de conglomérat renfermant des orbicules de 


quartz et de jaspe Eee BS 


*Compare also the lists published in Geol. Sur. of Mich. by Brooks, 
vol. 1, p. 235, 1869-78; and ‘\Jackson’s report,’’ giving rock samples 
collected in 1844, pp. 917-918 and 919. 

+Esquisse géologique du Canada, LoGAN and Hunt. Paris, 1855. 


Geology of the Lake Superior Reygion.—Winchell. 15 


Dans la formation correspondante de la rive septentrionale du lac 
Huron, on rencontre des grés ayant un aspect plus vitreux et des con- 
glomérats plus abondants que sur Je lac Supérieur, associés pourtant 
avec des schistes et des conglomérats schisteux semblables & ceux que 
nous venons de decrire. le tout offrant de grandes masses intercalées de 
diorite. Une couche de calcaire ayant une épaisseur de seize métres 
forme une partie de cette série, & laquelle M. Logan donne une puis- 
sance de plus de trois mille métres. M. Logan a constaté, apres l’ir- 
ruption des diorites interstratifiées, celle de deux systemes de dykes de 
diorite, et une troisiéme de granite d'une époque intermédiaire entre 
ces deux derniers. La formation des veines métalliféres appartient & 
une époque plus récente encore. Les espéces principales de ces veines 
sont le cuivre natif, le quartz, le spath calcaire, Ja dolomie, la fluorine 
et la barytine avec plusieurs zéolithes, dont la plus abondante est la lau- 
montite: on vy rencontre en outre la heulandite, la stilbite, la thomson- 
ite, ’apophyllite et Vanaleime, ainsi que la prehnite et le datholite. 
Ces veines ne sont métalliféres que lorsqu’elles traversent les couches de 
trapp. 

This statement, which doubtless was designed to embody 
the results of the Canadian survey to that date, covering the 
researches of Logan and Murray, on the Huronian of the 
region, is remarkable for three things: 

1. The Huronian is made the equivalent of the Lower Cam- 
brian of Sedgwick. 

2. The Huronian includes the whole copper-bearing series 
of the region, including whatis now styled Keweenawan. The 
little colored map which accompanies the work also demon- 
strates that. 

3. The Huronian is said to be noneconformable on the Lau- 
rentian. It is probable that the locality about five miles east 
of the mouth of the Thessalon river, in the original Huronian 
region, was depended on for authority for this statement. 

In 1863 Logan issued his great summary of Canadian ge- 
ology,* in which he varies somewhat from the Hsquisse of 1855. 
The assumed parallelism of the Huronian with the Lower 
Cambrian is not mentioned, and the copper-bearing rocks are 
divided into two series—the upper and the lower voleanic 
groups. These are said to Jie non-conformably upon the Hu- 
ronian, the upper groupin the original Huronian region and 


the survey to 1863. Montreal, 1863, with an atlas. 


16 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


er are, with some hesitancy, made the equivalent of the Pots- 
dam or of the Potsdam and Calciferous of New York state. 

But a serious error was committed by Logan in this compi- 
lation, as has been pointed out distinctly by R. D. Irving. It 
consisted in not parallelizing the rocks of the original Huron- 
ian with the lower volcanic group (Animikie) of the copper- 
bearing series, in the vicinity of Thunder bay, and making 
them the equivalent of the lower slates at that point which 
are non-conformable below the lower volcanic group. This 
separation of the lower voleanic group in the region of Thun- 
der bay from the Huronian necessitated the application of 
the term Huronian, by him and by all subsequent Canadian 
observers up to the time of A. C. Lawson, to the underlying 
schists, which has finally led to the extension of the term to 
all the schists and associated rocks downward to the Lauren- 
tian, and, further, to the assertion that the Huronian is con- 
formable with the Laurentian, since these schists gradually 
merge into the gneisses which constitute the Laurentian in the 
Lake Superior region. Again, since these lower schists, with 
their associated greenstones, are by far the greater series and 
the most important of the schistose rocks of the region, they 
came soon to monopolize the term Huronian, and to determine 
its significance, thus greatly perverting its original sense and 
scope. It was this perversion that Irving and Lawson cor- 
rected.* The separation of these lower schistose and gneis- 
sic rocks from the term Huronian, and their designation un- 
der the new term Ontarian by Lawson, is a recent important 
classificatory step. However, these corrections have taken 
place since the Wisconsin survey. 

With the exception of the non-identification of the Huron- 
ian with the copper-bearing rocks (both upper and lower 
groups), the later grouping by Logan agrees with his earlier. 
The effect, however, of his earlier publication remained with 
the British geologists, and remains to this day. They recog- 
nized and adopted Logan’s term, Laurentian, but they make 
the Cambrian the equivalent of his Huronian. 

Some years before Logan’s classifications, as above, some 
United States geologists were surveying the copper and iron 


*Compare N. H. WINCHELL, Methods of stratigraphy in studying the 
Huronian. AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, vol. Iv, pp. 342-357, 1889. 


Geology of the Lake Superior Region.— Whuchell. Y7 


lands in the Lake Superior region for the United States goy- 
ernment. Their report appeared in 1851* and is accompanied 
by a map which, has a classification which, in the light of 
what is known now of the geology of the Lake Superior region, 
appears curious and fantastic. All the rocks are divided in- 
to aqueous, metamorphic and igneous formations, which, for 
a grouping as to origins, is not bad. The aqueous rocks ex- 
tend down to and include the Potsdam sandstone and its un- 
derlying conglomerate the base of the “Silurian.” Below that 
is the Azoic system, a metamorphic group, comprised in two 
parts, viz., “crystalline schists” and “quartz.” The igneous 
rocks are represented as of two sorts, granite and trappean, 
the latter being sometimes associated with the Azoie and 
sometimes with the Silurian. As with Logan, the names and 
the classification of the New York series were employed as 
far as possible, the copper-bearing formation being at the 
base of the Silurian. 

Examining this map more carefully, itis learned that under 
“Azoic” is included, essentially, the rocks of the real Huro- 
nian, viz., the area of the original Huronian and their exten- 
sion on the east shore of lake Superior and the slates of the 
Thunder Bay district. The granitic and trappean rocks asso- 
ciated with these make up the Azoic. In general the Mar- 
quette and Menominee iron districts, and the area north- 
westward on the Brulé river as far as Lace Vieux Desert are 
fragmental Azoic. These are surrounded by igneous granite 
and pierced by trappean rock. It will be seen that Logan in 
1863 followed Foster and Whitney in distinguishing the up- 
per copper-bearing series as of Silurian age, but not in put- 
ting the slates of the Animikie in the Azoic. The copper- 
bearing series is placed bodily, as the equivalent of the Pots- 
dam of New York. Itseems further that Foster and Whitney 
were not aware of the existence of two series of slates in the 
Thunder Bay district. 

After the foregoing the next contribution to the geology of 
the Lake Superior region which needs to be mentioned here 
was the report of the Michigan survey, conducted by Brooks, 


Foster and J. D. Warrney. Part Il. 1851. Washington. 


18 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


ed Huronian ideas of the Canadian survey, and attempted a 
delineation of. the stratigraphic succession of the rocks of 
that system as exemplified in the Marquette district, making 
nineteen stratigraphic parts, to which he subsequently added 
one more, an eruptive granite supposed to be younger than 
all the others. He says nothing of the duplicate nature of 
the copper-bearing series, brought out by Logan in 1863, but 
only deseribes Logan’s “upper voleanic group.” He institu- 
ted, however, an important distinction in this series, as it had 
before been described, viz., he separated the traps and their 
tilted sandstones from the horizontal sandstones which he 
called Silurian. He does not seem, however, to be very posi- 
tive about the validity of this distinction, since at his typi- 
cal locality for examining the relations of these rocks* he 
calls attention to sandstones “apparently Silurian,’ which had 
a dip amounting to 45° toward the south. He says: 

So far as my observation has extended, this rule is general: that is, 
no Lake Superior sandstone which is unmistakably Lower Silurian has 
ever been found in any position other than horizontal: and no rock 
which was unmistakably of the Copper series has been seen which was 
not considerably tilted. The fact that certain sandstones belonging to 
the Copper series are very similar, if not lithologically identical with 
some of the Lower Silurian sandstones, has helped to complicate the_ 
question. 

Subsequently he united with Hunt in the name Keweenawan 
for the traps and their associated amygdaloids and inter- 
stratified sandstones.+ It will be noted that the use of the 
qualifying word “unmistakably,” by Maj. Brooks, on each side 
of this dividing datum, in the classification which he adopts, 
leaves a wide margin of uncertainty. It is within this mar- 
gin that the crucial facts on which such a distinction should 
rest, ought to be sought for; for on close inspection it might be 
found that, on either side, those strata which are assumed un- 
mistakably to be one or the other,show characters of dip or other 
structural relations which would make them doubtful. Others 
might be doubtful on account of lithology. Thus the datum 
of distinction might disappear in thoroughly exploring the 
unknown interval of uncertainty existing between the unmis- 


*Geological Survey of Michigan, vol. 1, p. 185, 1873. 
tCompare U.S. Grant: The name of the copper-bearing rocks of 
lake Superior, AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, vol. XIv, pp. 192-194, March, 1895. 


Geology of the Lake Superior Region.—Winchell. 19 


takable certainties to which he applies distinguishing names. 
This point will be examined more fully later. 

Prof. Pumpelly’s attention was given to the copper-bear- 
ing rocks and the sandstones. From his observations made 
on the Penokee and Gogebic ranges, and thence eastward to the 
Ontonagon river, in company with Maj. Brooks, he reached 
the conclusion that the Cupriferous series is conformable 
with the Huronian. A joint paper by Pumpelly and Brooks* 
expressed the opinion that the Cupriferous may be more near- 
ly related, in point of time, to the Huronian than to the Silu- 
rian. Like Brooks, he calls the later sandstones Silurian, the 
Cambrian at that time being included in the lower part of 
the Silurian. From this conclusion, however, Brooks later 
receded+ and pointed to evidences of the separateness of the 
Keweenawan and the Huronian. 

Dr. Rominger affirms that there is no choice, from strati- 
graphic considerations based on observed facts, but to see in 
the Lake Superior sandstones the equivalent of the Potsdam 
sandstone. ‘Its lower portions are so intimately connected 
with the sandstones and conglomerate beds of the Copper- 
bearing trappean series that I could draw only an arbitrary 
division line between the two groups, which would swell the 
thickness of the sandstone group to many thousand feet.” + In 
passing through the Portage canal, Keweenaw point, and to 
the west side of the axis of the point, Dr. Rominger made a 
series of careful observations upon the relations existing be- 
tween the eastern sandstone and the western sandstone, and 
thence to the traps. He states that there seemed to be a 
conformable continuation in the descending order, ‘an unin- 
terrupted serial connection between the trappean copper- 
bearing deposits and the Lake Superior sandstones.” (P. 98.) 
This has never been contradicted as to that locality. 

It appears, therefore, that the result of the Michigan sur- 
vey, touching the relations of these sandstones to each other, 
and of the copper-bearing series to the Huronian, was not 
satisfactorily conclusive. The three principal geologists 
reached different conclusions. It remained for the Wisconsin 


*Am. Jour. Sci., (3), vol. m1, p, 428. 1872. 
+Am. Jour. Sci., (3), vol. x1, pp. 206-21], 1876. 
t{Michigan report, vol. 1, p. 81 (of report on the Paleozoic rocks), 1873. 


20 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


survey to put the stamp of approval upon one or the other of 
these diverging views. 

Up to the time of the Wisconsin survey, therefore, it may 
be said that the following was the state of opinion of the 
leading official authorities on the geological questions under 
consideration : 

1. The Huronian system is a vast congeries of Azoie frag- 
mentals, cut by granitic and trappean eruptives. 

2. The copper-bearing series overlies the Huronian, the 
upper voleanic group non-conformable on the original Huron- 
ian, and the lower voleanic group non-conformable on the 
expanded Huronian. 

3. The upper voleanic group is non-conformable on the 
lower voleanie group. 

4. The Cupriferous series (upper voleanie group), is close- 
ly associated with sandstones, the upper portions of which, 
and probably the lower, are of Potsdam age, the non-con- 
formities with the traps being incidents of an eruptive age 
and of local extent and significance,—or 

5. The horizontal sandstones are of wholly later date, of 
Potsdam age, and, being non-conformable against tilted trap, 
cannot be of the age of the trap. 


[ PALZONTOLOGICAL NOTES FROM BUCHTEL COLLEGE. NO, II. ] 


ACTINOPHORUS CLARKI, NEWBERRY. 


By E. W. CLaypo.e, Akron, Ohio. 
(Plate II.) 


In his monograph of the fossil fishes of North America Dr. 
Newberry described and figured a specimen under the above 
name of which, however, very few details were given in con- 
sequence of the imperfection and indistinctness of the fossil. 
It was obtained by Dr. Clark of Berea, Ohio, from the Cleve- 
land shale and is now in the collection of Columbia college. 

Sinee that time Dr. Clark has found another specimen of 
the same fish which being in better condition, though incom- 
plete, enables us to recognize some additional features. On 
this fossil the following note is based. 

Actinophorus clarki was, according to Dr. Newberry’s de- 


THE AMERICAN GEoLoaistT, VoL. XVI. 


PuATE II. 


Sec |\lzon 
a} \s 
JSneut 
= er eras: is Ty A 
Brie | <<a) a \ yy YG yy a; 
Meee ae ae 
; apt = 
a eee 
laa 
eae — 
ee ge 
ee is = 
ee eee Actinoph Clarki, va 
Te ae AE eee Clinophorus ClAaThl, Noy 
x ae —— ———s 
fh Jaws, right svde. 


Mapiy JYbLL uly PBLOZITT 


ACTINOPHORUS CLARKI, NBY. 


i 
Yf 
Yj 


Actinophorus Clarki, Newberry.—Claypole. 21 


scription, about eighteen inches or two feet in length, but 
these measurements must be somewhat increased if we may 
judge by the size of the jaw of the new fossil which, when 
compared with that of Dr. Newberry’s is at least one-third 
longer. The whole hinder part is missing, but the body is 
fairly preserved as far back as the ventral fins which are in 
part visible. The most conspicuous and the best preserved 
portions are the jaws and the pectoral fins. The jaws of the 
right side are almost perfect, lying closed and spread out on 
the stone. Those of the left side are crushed and concealed 
beneath them. The former aspect of the fossil is represented 
in our figure, where very little has been attempted in the way 
of restoration beyond supplying one or two teeth from the 
opposite jaw and setting in its original position the nasal or 
intermaxillary bone which had been flattened down. 

The mandible in its general form agrees with that of the 
cladodont sharks as figured in one of our previous notes but 
it has little of the corrugation that is so conspicuous there 
and was consequently inferior in strength-and stiffness though 
this lack was in part made up by a greater thickness. Its 
surface, in the hinder part at least, is marked with a fine and 
simple tubereulation. The broad thin blade of which pos- 
teriorly it consists thickens forward, especially upon its upper 
margin, so as to afford a broad base for the support of the 
teeth. Most of these have disappeared but one or two remain 
in place and resemble those of the upper jaw where most are 
still visible. They are simple, conical cusps, not true teeth, 
beeause they are not by nature epithelial but consist of in- 
tegral parts of the jaw, as do the teeth of Coccosteus, being 
as it were excavated from that bone. Eight or ten of them 
stood in a row distant from each other about a half-inch and 
locked in, closing between those of the opposite jaw. Their 
form is that of a round cone slightly flattened laterally at the 
base. They are quite smooth and unstriated. 

Behind these and along the upper margin of the mandible 
is an irregular row of small, fine, sharp denticles very distant 
from one another. They occupy about an inch and a half of 
the jaw and disappear where the maxillary closes down out- 
side of the mandible. If they continue farther back they are 
concealed by this bone. 


22 The American Geologist. July, 1§95 


The mandible is nearly straight and meets its fellow of the 
opposite side at a very acute angle. The symphysis was not 
terminal but was overhung, as will be shown later, by the 
forward projection of the maxillary. 

The maxillary also consists of a thin plate of bone of a 
similar nature and appearance to that of the mandible with 
which it unites posteriorly by a condyle fitting into a fossa or 
socket in the latter. The hinder part of this bone is in good 
eondition but its anterior portion is badly crushed and dis- 
placed except along the edge that carried the teeth where it 
is well preserved. It bears the same style of ornamentation 
as the mandible already described and on its lower edge, be- 
tween the condyle and the teeth, stood a row of fine, sharp 
denticles facing those already mentioned in the lower jaw. In 
front of these are six conical teeth, and three others can _ be 
supplied from analogy with the opposite maxillary, making 
nine in all. These in no wise differ from their antagonists in 
the mandible already spoken of. But in front of them and 
apparently rather in front also of the foremost of the lower 
teeth stand two very much larger and stronger than the rest. 
They are unfortunately somewhat forced out of place by the 
compression to which the fossil has been subjected, but they 
apparently inclined backward as well as downward, thus 
gaining additional prehensile power. 

All the teeth are perfectly simple and show no sign of lat- 
eral denticles of any kind and of course no successional teeth 
are present. 

The maxillary bones are firmly united in front and form a 
sharp beak or snout, projecting an inch beyond the above 
mentioned large teeth. All the rest of the head has been so 
crushed as to be quite unrecognizable, though some fragments 
of comparatively thick plates indicate the existence of an os- 
seous cranium. 

Along the lower edge of the mandible is a series of plates 
which were regarded by Dr. Newberry as representing the 
branchiostegal rays. He remarks “branchiostegal rays nu- 
merous” in his decription of the species. They are perhaps 
more correctly described by Mr. A. S. Woodward in his cata- 
logue as a paired series of transversely elongated rays deyel- 


Actinophorus Clarki, Newberry.—Claypole. 23 


oped in the branchiostegal membrane between the mandibular 
rami. 

These are an excellent preservation in the present specimen 
and form, as shown in the figure, a kind of fringe, composed 
of thin plates and covering the lower surface of the mouth, 
running backward from the lower margin of the mandible to 
meet on the median line a corresponding set from the oppo- 
site side. ; 

The individual plates are about two inches long and one- 
third of an inch in width and overlap slightly at the edges. 
They are as thinas paper and apparently formed a pliable 
protection to the tissues beneath them. At the hinder end of 
the mandible these two sheets of chain armour parted on the 
medial line, leaving a space in which now lie the fragments of 
bone already mentioned, among which are probably the brok- 
en hyoids with some of the branchial arches in an unrecog- 
nizable condition. 

Many of the above details are rendered attainable by the 
fact that, although the fish lies, as did that of Dr. Newberry, 
belly upward, yet the head has been so pressed to one side 
during fossilization as to show that aspect in considerable 
perfection. This has prevented the crushing of the semi-ecar- 
tilaginous bones of the head into an indiscriminate mass asis 
usual with the fossil fishes from this shale. 

Not much can be added to Dr. Newberry’s account of the 
pectoral fins. They are well displayed in his specimen and 
only afew more details can be gathered from this one. The 
peculiar faleate form, the great number (68 in this case) and 
the remarkable thinness of the rays mark this species off from 
all other known fossil fishes of the same horizon. Both the 
long and the short rays fork at about one-third of their 
length from the base and again about as far from the tip so 
that their ultimate branches or trichinosts become excessively 
fine and give a very delicate texture to the edge of the fin 
which has no membranous border, 

The seapulo-coracoid arch is only seen as a broken and 
crushed mass, so that it is impossible to give any account of 
it. It may, however, be noted that the pectoral fins show dis- 
tinct signs of fulcra in the advance of the ganoid scales over 
the base of the rays in the hinder portion. 


24 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


The pectoral fins are two inches behind the back of the 
mandible and about eleven inches farther back still may be 
seen parts of the two ventral fins. These show a similar fine 
structure and nineteen or twenty rays can be counted on one 
of the fragments. 

No part of the body behind these fins is preserved in the 
specimen, so that its whole length can only be inferred from 
its proportions. But it was an exceedingly slender fish, not 
apparently exceeding three inches in width at the pectoral 
fins and one inch and a half at the ventral. 

The skin was protected in whole or in part with a covering 
of small rhomboidal ganoid seales which are here and there 
preserved so as to exhibit their form and relationship. A few 
of them are shown, much magnified, in our figure. (Plate II.) 

Though the present specimen affords several data concern- 
ing this fish that were not previously known, yet, unfortu- 
nately, its imperfection renders the determination of some 
other critical questions impossible. The whole head above 
the maxillary is missing, so that nothing can be said of the 
orbit or the suspensorium, on the position of which latter the 
place of the animal in the system in part depends. Its refer- 
ence to the paleoniscids is, however, satisfactorily confirmed 
by other and previously known evidence, such as the minute 
scales, the broad and numerous branchiostegal rays and the 
very slender body. The genus was accordingly placed by Mr. 
A. S. Woodward next to his Apateolepis from New South 
Wales, a fish about ten inches long, whose length was about 
six times its greatest width. 

Actinophorus clarki must have measured when alive at least 
thirty-six to forty inches while its greatest depth at the pec- 
toral fins did not exceed three and a half or four inches, 
making the former dimension about ten times the latter and 
showing a fish far surpassing the other in slenderness and 
grace, Apateolepis is also said to be without fulera, which, 
as we have seen, is not true of Actinophorus. 

In the family of the Paleoniscids the neural arches are 
more or less ossified and in many cases the hemal arches also, 
especially toward the caudal end. This is true of Actinopho- 
rus. A well marked line of thin bones can be traced from the 
pectoral to the ventral fins, a distance of fifteen inches. They 


Intrusives of Lake Memphremagog.—Marsters. 25 


form a continuous ridge in the fossil and occupy about one- 
eighth of an inch each. These show by their position that 
they are the ossified neural arches and along the hinder part 
of the iine a double row can be traced consisting of both neu- 
ral and hemal arches. The presence of distinctly ossified 
spines is not clear. 

An interesting point in the interpretation of the fossil is 
the presence in the place of the stomach of the remains of the 
food. Behind the pectoral fin are the mandibles of a small 
titanichthyoid fish, with other unrecognizable plates scat- 
tered over the interval. Farther back still is a well marked 
ichthyodorulite fluted from end to end so far as it is visible. 
It lies separate from all the other fragments and must be re- 
garded as belonging to the food and not to the fish in ques- 
tion. The original of neither of these relics has yet been 
discovered elsewhere. 

The paleoniscids are an essentially Carboniferous and post- 
Carboniferous family of fishes, scarcely any of them having 
yet been found below the latter horizon, Chetrolepis trailli 
from the lower Old Red sandstone of Scotland and (©. cana- 
densis from the upper Devonian of Scaumenac bay, Canada, 
being almost the only Devonian forms. Moreover, it should 
be here borne in mind that this genus has been by some ich- 
thyologists, as by Pander for example, separated from the 
palzoniscids and placed ina family by itself—the Cheirvlepide. 

It is, therefore, interesting to find so well marked a species 
of the family on an horizon so low and in company with as 
old a type as Coccosteus. The origin of the palweoniscids 
must evidently be sought in strata below the upper Devonian. 


CAMPTONITES AND OTHER INTRUSIVES OF 
LAKE MEMPHREMAGOG.* 


By VERNON F. MARSTERS, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. 


*[ wish to gratefully acknowledge assistance given by Mr. W. A. Wil- 
son in providing me with a tracing from a map of lake Memphrema- 
vog on file in the office of the Canadian Geological Survey, and from 
which I have prepared the accompanying map (greatly reduced) show- 
ing the relative position of the dikes. 

I desire also to express my sincere appreciation of assistance so cheer- 
fully given by Mr. E. M. Kindle (instructor in Indiana University, 1893- 
94) and Mr. E. M. Walker, student, in collecting material under some- 
what adverse circumstances. 


26 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 
Genéralistratigraphy of the lake Shore:.«....c.0..5. + se vcles vce aol cee eee 
Granite GiKES en ees aisesagscie's Sols eee viel se 01s c6ysie ose itler 0 blotove,¢/o-013t2- UOT ee RE eRe ea aa 
Lamphrophyre dikes.. me < wausleibe are vie ete (ae. Sache ajclolatelel leit CRC etete ee emmee 
Micraecenicdcsennomantieaices oiraya)01e (aye),4,0)ay0 \a/ei/a a’ ble ele ele, e)e a eRe eee 
Granite dikest en csi ee, alee Cee sess GO 
Lamphrophyre dikes’. ois. vs ctvsins cles in ssid eros de «/eisie oro alo 4 04 2/50 nis tote aoe ere 
DAD ASC i accis Safse ie ce wae aces S aeiek Ootuiays ois a) sunt OvereaTeaneTsi2¥e 01-75 bn Se eR 
Camiptonite: sad-.auc tenes scutes estien ares oiemue nine tre les siete eee oem, 
Augite wot. Sec . wia:d- Siete bp, ee eee Re 
Summary of literature on Ghee occurrences Sas Baie Noa Ch aiar ate: See eee TERNS 
Monchiquite dikes........... 2 ciele 01a goto AEROS 
Summary pilteraice on Genene occurrences 5! sbaesPene.- Reet hiote acd 2517 
Fourchite dikes ni dew. og et pee ee Aa eee el Dediec ee aoe eae 


GENERAL STRATIGRAPHY OF THE LAKE SHORE. 


In the northeast corner of Vermont and extending across 
the line into the province of Quebee for several miles is one 
of the most picturesque bodies of water to be found in that 
region. ‘This unique lake has long been known as lake Mem- 
phremagog. It is somewhat crescentic in shape, but has 
general north and south trend. The contour of the surround- 
ing country and the shape and position of the lake, as com- 
pared with others in the same region, suggest that the de- 
pression now occupied by this body of water was produced 
by glacial agents. It is evidently not due to a downward 
folding of the Paleozoic strata, for there is little or no evi- - 
dence of such a movement. On the other hand, the prominent 
elevations, especially those on the west side of the lake, as 
well as the shores, with their occasionally eroded surfaces, all 
point to the conclusion that the depression was produced by 
glacial erosion. 

Along the southeastern shore there is suflicient accumula- 
tion of drift to render an examination of the country rock 
impossible. A few of the islands at the southern extremity 
of the lake are made up wholly of drift material, while those 
in the central parts consist of rounded domes of schistose and 
shaly rocks, having resisted to a remarkable degree the erod- 
ing effects of moving ice. ; 

A brief examination of the stratified rocks, as exposed 
along the shores toward the north, has led the writer to be- 
lieve that they represent the lower members of the Paleozoic. 
Starting from Magog, at the northern extremity of the lake, 
the rocks exposed on either side for some distance to the 


J 


Intrusives of Lake Memphremagog.—Marsters. 2 


south consist of thinly bedded shaly limestones. These ex- 
tend on the west side as far south as Sargent’s bay, and on 
the east within a short distance of Magoon’s point. The three 
islands knownas the“Three 
Sisters” show admirable ex- 
posures of the same lime- 
stone series, which is re- 
garded as belonging to the 
Upper Silurian period. 
Passing to the south along 
the east shore a limestone 
formation was found to 
overlie a slaty series con- 
taining graptolitie remains. 
st] The slaty rocks are re- 


Entarceo Map of 


Gegnceviuee Milstae Island} garded by the Canadian 

te Baap tis & (About 4 mile long) 
mL, © 

z 4 : bro-Silurian. Between the 


Geological Survey as Cam- 


& sakes Whast graptolitic slates and the 


= ipd’s Id. 
1s we 


mouth of Fiteh bay was 
found a schistose slaty de- 
posit resting upon a crys- 


ey 
y 
Heag\ Ni A098} 2 IS, 


| Canadian Portion of | north shore of Fiteh bay. 
Lake MemMPHaEMAcoG, 
showing Location of Dikes. 


4 ° 1 - 


tulline series skirting the 
MAP OF THE 


W 


9 Round Id. The latter is regarded by 


Mr. Ells as pre-Cambrian,* 


e vl . . 2 
aaa, Aaa being an extension of the 


mf : a 
Sherbrooke anticline which 
gives rise to Stooke mountain to the northeast. At Magoon’s 
point were found moderately fine grained granites associated 
with schistose and slaty rocks. From this point to the 
southern extremity of the lake the country rock is quite ex- 
tensively covered with drift. The granite is undoubtedly an 
outlier of the granitic series mapped by the Canadian Survey. 
Similar rocks cover quite large areas to the east and north. 
The Upper Silurian limestones on the west were found to 
extend to the north side of the entrance to Sargent’s bay. 


*R. W. Enis, Report on the geology of a portion of the eastern town- 
ships, relating more especially to the counties of Compton, Stanstead, 
Beauce, Richmond and Wolfe. Can. Geol. Survey, Pt. J, An. Rep. 1886, 
p. 32, 


28 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


On the south side of the bay similar shaly limestones were 
noted overlying a black calcareous rock. Further south the 
stratified rocks have been disturbed by the intrusion of Owl’s 
head. The sediments are somewhat metamorphosed to eal- 
‘areous schists and taleose slates. In this region calcareous 
layers were recognized beneath black slaty deposits, while on 
the east the calcareous rocks were found to invariably overlie 
the slates.* At Round island the rocks are made up wholly 
of calcareous schists intersected by dikes. These rocks are 
probably metamorphosed portions of Upper Silurian deposits. 
THE DIKEs, 

Through the entire area examined the dikes were found to 
cut the shaly limestones. It seems probable that the outlying 
dikes are more or less closely associated with the intrusions 
now represented by Owl’s head, mount Orford, and possibly 
many others known to have occurred even as far north as 
Montreal. The dikes represent two well defined groups, 
granites and lamprophyres, 

Granite Dikes, 

The granitic intrusions are invariably light in color, owing 
to the predominance of quartz and white or flesh colored feld- 
spar. The dark silicates consist mainly of biotite, with occa- 
sional flecks of muscovite, and yellowish brown patches of 
some mineral substance which has probably resulted from the 
decomposition of an iron-bearing silicate not at present re- 
cognizable. Insome instances the crystalline texture becomes 


has kindly outlined the results derived from a recent study of the strat- 
igraphy of this region. He says: ‘‘The lower part, as you suppose, is 
bordered on either side by Upper Silurian limestones which contain 
fossils at several points. These rocks extend from Capt. Gully’s wharf, 
north of Magoon’s point, to Magog, and on the westside from the north 
entrance of Sargent’s bay to the north end of the lake. At Owl’s head 
the Upper Silurian is underneath the Cambro-Silurian graptolitic 
slates, the formation being overturned. At Round island, below the 
Mountain house the rocks are Upper Silurian, fossiliferous, now altered 
to schists and cut by dikes from the Owl’s head. This places the age 
of the Owl’s head and other prominent hills in the vicinity at the same 
horizon as the Montreal intrusion or at the close of the Upper Silurian. 
The Owl’s head dikes also cut the Cambro-Silurian slates as do the Or- 
ford diorites on the east. On the east side of the lake the Georgeville 
limestones are upderlaid by the graptolitie slates about one and a half 
miles south of the village and the ridge between there and Fitch bay 
consists of an intermediate series, presumably Cambrian, between the 
graptolitie series and the pre-Cambrian of the extension of the Sher- 
brooke anticlinal. 


Tntrusives of Lake Memphremagog.—Marsters. 29 


unusually fine. The scales of biotite seem to have adjusted 
themselves in a parallel position as if the mass had been sub- 
jected to great pressure while in a plastic state. In such cases 
the rock presents a somewhat gneissic structure. In a few 
instances the dark colored silicates form but a small part of 
the rock, quartz phenocrysts become insignificant, and the 
crystalline texture is less prominent so that the rock mass at 
times resembles quite closely the bostonites* of lake Cham- 
plain. The rock ordinarily presents all the phases of a true 
granite and is regarded as such in this paper. 
Lamprophyre Dikes. 

There were found associated with the granitic rocks, as well 
as in other parts of the lake, dikes differing quite widely from 
the former, both in physical structure and mineral composi- 
tion. Microscopic examination shows that they fall naturally 
into the lamprophyrie group of Rosenbusch. They differ from 
the granites in being dark grey to black in color, with mod- 
erately fine crystalline texture and occasional phenocrysts of 
dark colored silicates, sufficiently well developed to be macro- 
scopically determined. In some instances the phenocrysts 
were found to be pyroxene; in others the idiomorphie con- 
stituent proved to be hornblende; while in still other instances 
olivine played the same role. A number of instances were 
noted in which the olivine reached a diameter of one and a 
half inches. It is a significant fact that the olivine pheno- 
erysts were invariably located in the central part of the in- 
trusive mass. On the contact the dikes were generally fine- 
grained and in some instances even flinty, the phenocrysts 
having entirely disappeared. 

Many of the olivine-bearing rocks have suffered decompo- 
sition. The olivine has passed into serpentine, thus imparting 
a peculiar green tinge to the rock. In some cases a cross 
section of the olivine crystals exhibit a central core of the 
original mineral surrounded by a coating or shell of serpen- 
tine. All stages of decomposition were found in the thin 
sections. No feldspar was macroscopically determined except 
in one or two undoubted diabases, which were evidently very 


*Bull. No. 107, U.S. G.S.. Trap Dikes of Lake Champlain, by J. F. 
Kemp and Y. F. Marsters. 


30 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


closely associated with the intrusive mass represented by 
Owl’s head. 

A microscopie examination of the dark colored rocks re- 
veals some interesting petrographical relations. As was an- 
ticipated, the examination of the series proved them to be 
made up of the same mineral mixtures as were found along 
the shores of lake Champlain (Bull. 107, U. 8. G.S.). The 
intrusives, therefore, as found along the shores of lake Mem- 
phremagog may be enumerated as follows: Olivine diabase, 
camptonite, augite camptonitle, fourchite and monchiquite. 

Microscopic Description oF DIKEs. 
Granite Dikes, 

This variety predominates along the eastern shore of the 
lake immediately north of the mouth of Fitch bay. A few 
narrow dikes were also found intersecting an island opposite 
Owl’s head. 

Thin sections revealed well developed phenocrysts of feld- 
spar, as well as exceedingly minute lath shaped crystals, the 
latter making up at least eighty per cent. of the rock and 
constituting the ground mass. In some cases the ground mass 
has suffered mechanical deformation, thus inducing an appar- 
ent clastic structure. When the clastic magma prevails the 
feldspar phenocrysts become comparatively rare. When the 
micro-crystalline structure predominates the porphyritie feld- 
spars become prominent and generally show twinning struc- 
ture. 

Quartz occurs as large irregular grains showing little or no 
erystalline form, and as fine grains making up a portion of 
the ground-mass. The larger individuals contain numerous 
streaks and clouds of fine dust, probably magnetite, as well 
as minute hair-like crystals with high index of refraction. 
Cross sections show hexagonal outlines. The crystalline 
form and high refraction suggest that the inclusions may be 
apatite. Under a high power lens numerous globules and 
acicular aggregates were also detected. 

Miea is the only remaining constituent of any importance. 
Biotite is by far the most prominent, but a few flecks of mus- 
covite have been detected in one or two sections. The biotite 
oceurs as large irregular plates or bunches. The larger flecks 
are invariably frayed out on the edges as if they had been 


Intrusives of Lake Memphremagog—Marsters, 8] 


subjected to some eroding process. It seems probable that 
the more minute flecks and shreds of biotite found in the 
ground mass may have been derived from the larger individ- 
uals which originally may have been idiomorphic. — Pleo- 
chroism is especially prominent. Plates parallel with the 
cleavage show a bright brown to very dark brown or nearly 
black color, while sections across the cleavage exhibit lighter 
shades of brown with a yellow tinge, and upon rotating the 
stage becomes dark greenish yellow. The biotite is gener- 
ally quite fresh but in a few instances a partial decomposi- 
tion to a reddish opaque mass was noted. Small amounts of 
magnetite are present with the biotite in addition to the fine 
dust noted in the quartz grains. 
Lamprophyre Dikes, 

While a few of the dark colored intrusives are undoubtedly 
diabase the majority of occurrences show various porphyrit- 
ic constituents which even by an examination of the hand 
specimens led me to anticipate the repetition of the same 
mineral mixtures (monchiquite group of Rosenbusch) as were 
found on the borders of lake Champlain to the southwest. 
As was expected microscopic examination reveals all the va- 
rieties of the monchiquite group except the biotite-amphibole 
mixture designated by J. F. Kemp as amphibole ouachitite.* 

Diabase.—Yhe true diabases differ much from the typical 
diabases of the Triassic trap-ridges of the Hudson river or 
similar flows forming the north mountains of Nova Scotia. 
The dikes under consideration differ in containing a much 
smaller percentage of lath-shaped feldspar and a correspond- 
ingly large amount of augite, with occasional olivine pheno- 
erysts. Ophitie structure, so common in the Triassic diabases 
of Nova Scotia, is quite generally absent in thin sections. 
The augite proves to be the most prominent colored silicate 
present. It occurs in two generations, as phenocrysts and as 
irregular grains making up a portion of the groundmass and 
partially filling. the interstices between the feldspars. The 
-porphyritie form is well developed, showing in cross section 
the characteristic cleavage angle and crystalline form. In 
most instances they exhibit light yellow rims with slight 


*Ark. Geol. Survey, vol. m, p. 893, 1890. Basic dikes outside of the 
syenite areas of Arkansas. 


32 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


pleochroism and a still lighter yellow or nearly colorless cen- 
ters with little or no pleochroic tendencies. Rims of magnet- 
ite and reddish opaque masses generally surround the larger 
individuals and in a few cases seem to be partially absorbed 
by the peripheral area of the phenocryst. The irregular 
grains of the ground-mass have undergone more or less de- 
composition giving rise to secondary products. The grains 
as in the ease of the phenocrysts are generally surrounded by 
magnetite rims or have become opaque and gray in color. 

Olivine is also more prominent than in the typical diabases. 
It is present as large crystals which have suffered greater 
change than its host. Fibrous rims and patches of serpentine 
make up the secondary products derived from the olivine. 

Plagioclase forms the remaining part of the rock. The 
crystals are invariably fresh and lath-shaped, but not large. 
Multiple twinning is very common. An arrangement akin to 
flow-structure, or an adjustment of the individual feldspars, 
in a more or less definite direction, is apparent in a few sec- 
tions. Pockets or cavities filled with calcite are quite numer- 
ous in some sections. In some cases they were lined with a 
fibrous mineral resembling serpentine, thus suggesting that 
the original mineral substance may have been olivine. On 
account of the prominence of olivine the rock is regarded as 
an olivine diabase. No. 17 is the best representative of this 
type. Others were found but are so completely weathered as 
to be unfit for microscopic study. 

Camptonite.—-Associated with augite plagioclase rocks were 
found other mixtures of hornblende, augite, olivine and pla- 
gioclase. In two dikes the olivine and augite disappear, leav- 
ing the hornblende and plagioclase as the chief constituents. 
This combination is regarded as the typical camptonite. The 
hornblende is always of the basaltic type, idiomorphie and in 
two generations. Ina few dikes the augite forms an appre- 
ciable part of the rock, and in some instances is more promi- 
nent than the hornblende. Comparing these with the ecamp- 
tonites of lake Champlain, it is evident that the persistent 
association of augite with the basaltic hornblende, together 
with its larger growth and idiomorphie habit, is more promi- 
nent in the lake Memphremagog occurrences, Owing to this 


Intrusives of Lake Memphremagog.— Marsters. 33 


fact it is thought best to regard this combination as augite 
camptonite. 

No. 20. Of the typical camptonites but one occurrence was 
found, (No. 20). In this dike the basaltic hornblende in two 
generations is the only colored silicate present. Magnetite is 
very abundant. The amount of plagioclase present is not 
large, but it is quite fresh. Considerable glass was also de- 
tected in the groundmass. Comparing this section with the 
original camptonite* discovered by Hawes, the only difference 
to be noted is that the hornblende is not so well developed in 
the dikes from lake Memphremagog. Although they are 
much smaller the idiomorphic habit is quite apparent and 
other petrographical characteristics of this type are very easily 
recognized. 

Augite camptonite.—Of all the dikes belonging to the camp- 
tonite series the augitic type is by far the most abundant. 
In addition to this hornblende in two generations, we find 
augite in the same relationship. In many cases the augite 
is far more abundant than the hornblende. The idiomorphie 
habit of the hornblende is retained as in the camptonite 
proper. The augite phenocrysts are well developed. The 
zonal phases so prominent in the Lake Champlaint+ dikes are 
equally conspicuous in the dikes under consideration, the 
central portion of the individual being in general very light 
yellow while the peripheral area shades into light pink which 
brightens as the edge is approached, the latter being some- 
what pleochroic. Occasionally the central part is bright green 
surrounding a narrow rim, light yellow in color. It has been 
noted that with increase in the intensity of color in the pe- 
ripheral area there is a corresponding increase in the extinction 
angle. The variations noted reach a mamimum of 8°. 

The augite of the second generation shows definite crys- 
talline form. It is packed in between the feldspars and is the 
only granular constituent present. Pleochroism is noticeable. 
Small olivines with characteristic form and decomposition 


*The author wishes to acknowledge the aid so kindly rendered by 
Prof. J. F. Kemp, of Columbia College, N. Y., in loaning thin sec- 
tions of camptonite from the original locality of Hawes, and offering 
suggestions which have been very helpful in the study of these intru- 
Sives. 

+See Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 107, p. 30. 


34 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


products were observed in a few sections. Although consid- 
erable plagioclase is present it is decidedly secondary in 
amount to the colored silicates. The idiomorphie habit so evi- 
dent in the diabases has disappeared, but the lath-shaped 
form and twinning are very easily recognized. Dikes Nos. 
12,14, 19, 24, 27, 34 are augite camptonites. 

No. 12. Augite is the chief colored silicate in this dike. 
Two generations are present. The phenocrysts exhibit marked 
zonal structure, the centres being nearly colorless or light 
shades of yellow or green, and rims various shades of pink 
with slight pleochroism. In general, it may be said that 
the greater variation in color the stronger the pleochroism. 
The augite of the second generation is allotriomorphie with 
the same optical features as the porphyritic constituent and 
filling the interstices between the plagioclases. The horn- 
blende present is very small in amount. Only a few flakes’ 
and ragged blades were noted. The plagioclase, although 
quite subordinate, shows the usual twinning and bladed 
form. Olivine crystals and grains are not uncommon.  Ser- 
pentine is more or less closely associated with the olivine. 
Magnetite is also quite abundant. 

No. 14 differs from No. 12 in containing more hornblende, 
but it is still secondary in amount to the augite. Only 
one generation of hornblende is present and it is ag- 
gregated in bunches throughout the section. The individ- 
uals are idiomorphie and highly pleochroic, bright yellow- 
ish brown to deep brown. Cross-sections show the following 
forms: oP, oP, waPo. Augite in two generations forms 
the larger part of the rock. The phenocrysts are exception- 
ally well developed, showing excellent zonal structure in 
nearly every individual, the centers being light yellow or 
colorless and the rims bright yellow with slight pleochroism. 
In cross-section the following faces are easily recognized: 
aPa2, mPa, oP. The following angles were determined by 
means of the graduated stage: Ia I=88° ; iia I=132°. Very 
little fresh olivine was recognized. The larger phenocrysts 
have passed into serpentine, the crystalline outline, however, 
being retained. The plagioclase is generally twinned and 
more abundant than in No, 12. The feldspar contains nu- 
merous inclusions of colorless needles with strong refractive 


TIntrusives of Lake Memphremagog.—Marsters. 35 


power as well as minute and ragged flecks of a brown pleo- 
chroic mineral resembling hornblende. The former may be 
apatite. Irregular bunches of magnetite are exceedingly 
abundant. 

No. 19 is nearly identical with No. 14, with the exception 
that the augite phenocrysts generally show a smaller extinct- 
ion angle. The great portion of the interior is grass green to 
yellowish green with vellow to pink rims. Small inclusions 
of hornblende were observed in the augite. 

No. 24. In this section the colored silicates show the same 
relationships as in No. 19. The plagioclase however is 
unique. It is more abundant than in any section yet de- 
scribed and contains the usual inclusions. The individual 
crystals are arranged with the long axes in the same general 
direction. The fractured and bent shape suggests that such 
an adjustment of the individuals may have been caused by 
great pressure while the magma, although somewhat plastic, 
was sufliciently firm to suffer fracture. This section is an in- 
teresting one for the reason that it contains pockets of a 
green Opaque mineral in which are distributed many fresh 
basaltic hornblendes. The hornblende too is chiefly confined 
to this part, very little being associated with the augite. 

No. 27. The description of No. 12 is quite applicable to 
No. 27 with the exception that there is relatively much more 
augite of the second generation and correspondingly fewer 
augite phenocrysts of the first generation. 

No. 34 agrees very closely with No. 19, with olivine as an 
additional constituent. The olivines are unusually well devel- 
oped, and are easily recognized in the hand specimen, some of 
them being fully one and a half inches in length. 

SumMARY oF LITERATURE ON OTHER OCCURRENCES OF 
CAMPTONITE. 

The name camptonite was first applied by H. Rosenbusch* 
to dikes containing augite and basaltic hornblende as the chief 
bisilicates, with variable percentage of plagioclase, mag- 
netite and accessories. G. W. Hawest was the first to dis- 
cover these peculiar rocks in this country, near Campton, N. 


*H. RosenspuscH: Physiographie der massigen Gesteine, vol. 1, 1886, 
Hoe 


Pp. doo, 
+G. W. Hawes: On a group of dissimilar eruptive rocks at Campton, 
Neekin VAR di o.o)s MOlrox VIL, p. 14, 1879. 


36 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


H., but described them simply as diabase, olivine-diabase and 
diorite. I apprehend it was to material from this locality 
that Rosenbusch first applied the term camptonite, as the 
name implies. Subsequently similar rocks found in the vi- 
cinity of Montreal were described by B. J. Harrington. In 
1888 J. F. Kemp* discovered other occurrences in Orange 
county, N. Y. In 1889 the same writer§ described another 
‘amptonite dike from Kennebunkport, Maine, and in the 
same year (as joint author with the present writer) published 
a short description of identical intrusives from Whitehall, | 
N. Y. and Proctor, Vt. In 1890-91 a much larger number of 
‘amptonite dikes were discovered along the shores of lake 


Champlain by the same writers.@/ An additional occurrence 
some thirty miles east of Fairhaven has been noted by Mr. F. 
L. Nason.** But few occurrences have been noted in other 
countries. E. Gollert+ describes very similar rocks from the 
Black forest; Cathreintt and Doelter§§ make mention of one 
from the Southern Tyrol, and Brogger|||| of others from 
Norway. 
Moncuiguite DIKeEs. 

In dike No. 16 the feldspar disappears—pyroxene and am- 
phibole become very prominent, making at least 80 per cent. 
of the rock. Olivine and its decomposition products play an 
important role. The importance of the individual constitu- 
ents based upon relative amounts composing the rock is as 
follows: Augite (second generation), augite (first genera- 
tion), basaltic hornblende, olivine, magnetite. 


*J. T°. Kemp: Diorite dike from the Forest of Dean, Orange Co., N.Y. 
DNei dls. ttn (G)h MOUS RELAYS! 1s esl! - 

SJ. FF. Kemp: Trap Dikes near Kennebunkport, Me. Am. Gron., Mar., 
1890, p. 127. 

J. F. Kemp and VY. F. Marsters: Camptonite Dikes near Whitehall, 
Washington Co., N. Y. and Proctor, Vt. Am. Gron., 1889, p. 97. 

“J. 1. Kemp and VY. F. Marsters: The Trap Dikes of the Lake Cham- 
plain Region. Bull. U.S. G. S. No. 107, 1893. 

**I. 11, NASON: On a new locality for the Camptonite of Hawes and 
Rosenbusch. A. J. S., (3); vol. xxxvin, p. 229, 1889. 

HE. GoLLER: Die Lamprophyrgange des stidlichen Vospersart. Neues 
Jahrbuch, vol. vi, Beil. Band 1888, p. 485. 

ttA,. CATHREIN: Zeitschr. f. Krystal., vol. x, 1884, p. 22]. 

SSC. DoELTER: Tscher. Min. und Petrog. Mitth., 1875, pp. 179, 188 
and 30-4. 

|W. C. Bréaerr: Zeitschr. f. Krystal., vol. xv1, 1890, p. 23. 


Intrusives of Lake Memphremagoy.—Marsters. 37 


The augite phenocrysts present the same characteristics as 
observed in the augite camptonite. It might be said in addi- 
tion that the zonal structure is somewhat more prominent, 
becoming intensified under cross nicols. The angle of ex- 
tinction varies from 20° to 24°. The augite of the second gen- 
eration which makes up the greater part of the ground mass 
is allotriomorphic, with a tendency at times to become idio- 
morphic. Seattered through the augitic magma are numer- 
ous but minute crystals of basaltic hornblende. The strong 
pleochroism from light yellow to deep reddish brown is espe- 
cially noticeable. With one or two exceptions the hornblende 
may be said to show but one generation. A few very minute 
needles, however, were noted as inclusion in the augite phen- 
oerysts. The remaining silicate is olivine, occurring either as 
partially decomposed granules, surrounded by rims of serpen- 
tine, or, occasionally as well developed phenocrysts exhibiting 
the usual crystalline form. Magnetite is very abundant and 
closely associated with the augitic groundmass, —Consider- 
able glass was observed filling the minute interstices in the 
groundmass. 

SumMARyY oF LITERATURE ON OTHER OCCURRENCES OF 
MoncHIQUITE. 

Such non-feldspathie rocks were first discovered by Prof. 
Bonnet* in the Monchique mountains (Portugal) and subse- 
quently described by Leopold van Werweke}+ as an abnormal 
limburgite. In 1887 Prof. E. O. Derby? of the Brazilian Ge- 
ological Survey discovered similar eruptives in the region of 
Rio Janeiro. These, as in other instances, were associated 
with eleolite syenite. They were subsequently examined by 
Prof. Rosenbusch§ and in reality formed the basis for the 
determination of the new rock type, but received the name of 
the original locality discovered about 1850. Along the shores 
of lake Champlain very similar dikes were found and subse- 


* ALGARVE BONNET: Description geographique et eéologique de cette 
Ps I geographiq géologiq 
province, Lisbon, 1850. 

+L. vy. Werwekn: Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Limburgite. Neues Jahr- 
buch, 1879, p. 481. See also Neues Jahrbuch, 1880, vol. 1, pp. 141-186. 
Ueber die Nephelin-syeniten der Serra de Monchique im_ siidlichen 
Portugal und die denselben durchsetzenden Gesteine. 
_ $0. A. Dersy: On Nepheline Rocks in Brazil, ete. Quart. Journ, 
Geol. Soc. London, 1887, p. 457. 

$M. Hunrer and H. Rosenspuscu: Ueber Monchiquite ein Campton- 
itisches Gangestein aus der Gefolgschaft der Elaeolith-syenite. Tscher- 
maks Min. und Petroe. Mitth., vol. x1, 1890, p. 445. 


38 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


quently described by Prof. J. F. Kemp and the writer.* J. 
Francis Williamst has also contributed to the annual reports 
of the Geological Survey of Arkansas very elaborate petro- 
graphical investigations of similar intrusives found in the 
vicinity of Fourche mountain, Arkansas. In this locality 
were found all the members of the monchiquite group. In 
defining the petrographical features of the monchiquites Dr. 
Williams states that ‘“Rosenbusch considers these are made 
up of a porphyritic combination of olivine, augite anda glassy 
base with which may be associated either hornblende or mica 
or both of these minerals together. The glassy base often in- 
cludes minute crystals of plagioclase and occasionally of 
nepheline.”’ 
Fourcuite DIKkes. 

In dikes Nos. 18 and 40, olivine, forming one of the essen- 
tial constituents of monchiquite, entirely recedes, thus pro- 
ducing an olivine-free monchiquite. To such a mineral mix- 
ture J. Francis Williams has given the name fourchite.t 

The dike under consideration is composed chiefly of basaltic 
hornblende in two generations with a very subordinate 
amount of augite, a moderate amount of magnetite and a 
glassy base. The older hornblende phenocrysts are univer- 
sally large, well terminated and beautifully pleochroic. The 
smaller circular forms show the same feature as noted in the 
camptonites proper. Of the two generations the latter is 
more abundant. Augite is very subordinate, consisting of a 
few poorly developed individuals and occasionally pink or yel- 
low grains in a glassy base. Imbedded in the glass are 
many minute highly refracting needles. These may be apa- 
tite. A dark grayish opaque mass seems to be associated 
with the allotriomorphie augite. It may have resulted from 
the decomposition of augite, and may thus account for the 
unusually subordinate position of this mineral species. Much 
magnetite is also present. 

In the region of Fourche mountain, Arkansas, Dr. Wil- 
liams found numerous dikes of very similar mineralogical 
composition. In these occurrences, however, augite seems to 
be the most prominent constituent, while hornblende is more 


*Op. cit. 


tJ. Francis WiitttAMs: Igneous Rocks of Ark. Annual Report, Geol. 
Survey of Arkansas, 1890, vol. 1. 


tSee Ann. Rep. Geol. Survey of Ark., vol. 1, 1890, p. 110. 


The Kame-Moraine at Rochester, N. Y.—Fairchild. 39 


or less subordinate. The reverse is true of the occurrences 
under consideration. In the Lake Champlain region but one 
dike that can with any degree of certainty be called fourchite 
was found. Strangely enough, not a single dike, so far as I 
have examined them, shows a trace of biotite, which forms 
an additional and essential constituent of the missing mem- 
ber of the monchiquite group. The same is true of the Lake 
Champlain dikes. To such a combination Prof. J. F. Kemp 
has applied the term owachitite.* 

Other dikes than those mentioned are known in the region 
north and east of the lake. Prof. Kemp reports one from 
Sherbrooke. It therefore seems probable that a careful ex- 
amination of the lakes, streams and elevated areas between 
Magog and the St. Lawrence river may bring to light many 
more of these interesting formations. 


THE KAME-MORAINE AT ROCHESTER, N. Y.+ 
By H. L. FAIRCHILD, Rochester, N. Y. 


[PLate III.] 


CONTENTS. Page. 
Introduction .... ML estas ett seciiieee | SO 
Location and grouping SCIP Eieg a CoRR Mei Mie 41 
Topography.. BV cee Miefion'e ecceeaktte naar 42 
Structure and composition... NeuinvisGns cmaeiaccernaetetse, 42 
Morainic character and relationship... THE HIN Space oar oa ann, | 
Conditions of formation... See seus tess. .40 
Beeson with neighboring kame areas. Repo Tone cane me |S 
Summary.. sedans E30, deo UGdOOp GOO SEE: yee 


Inrropuction. 
The city of Rochester is situated upon a plain having an 
average altitude of 500 feet above ocean level. Within a ra- 


*The classification of this series. as arranged by H. Rosenbusch, and 
presented in tabulated form by Dr. Williams, in his Arkansas Report, 
p. 110, is as follows: 

MONCHIQUITE GROUP. (Rosenbusch, 1890.) 


CONTAINING OLIVINE. GLASSY BASE AND MINERALS OLIVINE FREE, 


{ “Fourchite, in F. Williams, 


Monchiquite, Rosenbusch, 1590. 


| 
‘ AUPILE Sc, cones sincsss cv soeis |i AUgitite’ from Sierra de 
SMe eee sista os cies siahe-oicte: 3c | Tskud (in: part), Be: 
{ senbusch. 
Amphibole monchiquite... Amphibole and augite...... Amphibole fourchite. 
Biotite munchiquite. . Biotite and augite ......... | Ouachitite, Kemp, tXgo. 
Amphibole biotite monchi- ppp unveles | biotite and) 
(UCAS ae Se ae ee augite . Sati clea tee, dicta Amphibole ou: Ac hitite. 


+This paper is an abstract of a longer and more complete description 
of the “Geology of the Pinnacle Hills,’ read before the Rochester 
Academy of Science, April 22, 1895, which will be published in the 
Proceedings of that Society, with maps and photographs. 


40- The American Geologist. July, 1895 


dius of six miles from the center of the city the only eleva- 
tions even one hundred feet higher than the plain are the 
range of hills known as the ‘Pinnficle hills,” lying at the south 
border of the city. With their conspicuous position, unusual 
topography and complex structure these hills have not escaped 
the notice of glacial geologists, but until 1892 no one ventured 
any detailed description or any explanation of their origin.* 
During the meetings of the Geological Society of America 
and the American Association for the Advancement of Science 
in Rochester, August, 1892, the geologists in attendance vis- 
ited and subsequently discussed them briefly in “Section E.” 
At the Ottawa meeting of the Geological Society in December 
of that year Mr. Warren Upham read a paper describing these 
and other deposits of the region under the title “Eskers near 
Rochester, N. Y.,” which was subsequently published in the 
Proceedings of the Rochester Academy of Science.t In that 
paper Mr. Upham describes the hills with considerable detail 
and concludes that they were deposited ‘in the ice-walled 
channel of a stream of water,” “open tothe sky.” Since that 
time the writer has been able to make a long and close study 
of these peculiar hills and has been forced to a conclusion 
radically different from that of his friend, Mr. Upham. The 
opinion as to their origin, which the writer holds with full 
confidence, is that the hills are a kame series forming part of 
a frontal moraine. (See Plate III.) 

Mr. Upham’s brief examination of the hills was made under 
the disadvantages that the forests were in full leaf and the 
gravel pits in active working. Only when the thick timber 
and undergrowth which covers the roughest portions are bare 
of foliage does some of the most significant topography ap- 
pear to good advantage; and the structure of the finer sands 
is developed by the wind only when the walls of the pit are 


*The earliest published reference to these hills is in Dr. James Hall’s 
report on the Fourth Geological District of New York. Professor Ches- 
ter Dewey recognized their glacial character, so the writer is informed, 
but no writing of bis relating to them has been found. In the AMERI- 
CAN GEOLOGIST, vol. V, p. 202-207, April, 1890, Dr. Charles R. Dryer, in 
an article upon the ‘‘Glacial Geology of the Irondequoit Region,’” refers 
briefly to the hills. 

tVol. 1, pp. 181-200, February, 1893. 


THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VoL. XVI 


PLate III. 


Allen cre’ 


=~ 


: Wy ‘ 
SALIENT FEATURES IN THE GLACIAL GEOLOGY OF ROCHESTER, N. Y. 


The Kame-Moraine at Rochester, N. Y.—Fuirchild. 41 


left undisturbed for some time, yet not so long as to crumble. 
Mr. Upham is mistaken in describing the hills asa “ridge,” 
and he seriously underestimated the amount of till in their 
mass and the great amount of disturbance to which the beds 
have been subjected. Several important characters which are 
not noted in Mr. Upham’s paper will be briefly deseribed in 
the following pages. 
Location AND GROUPING OF THE HILLS. 


The Pinnacle hills extend from the village of Brighton to 
the Genesee river, a distance of four miles, with a general di- 
rection of west 15° south. The belt of hills has a linear 
form with a distinct curvature of large radius, the convexity 
facing southward. The range, however, is not continuous or 
uniform, but consists of groups of irregular hills and knolls, 
three main divisions being easily recognized. The first large 
group extends from Brighton to Monroe avenue. This group 
is subdivided by a deep cut, the western mass being known 
as Cobb’s hill, with a summit hight of 668 feet above tide. 
The sag which was cut by Monroe avenue origitially had an 
elevation of 560 feet.. The second large group lies between 
Monroe avenue and a sag or depression one-fourth of a mile 
west of South Clinton street (Pinnacle avenue). This group 
is the most distinct and compact, and contains the highest 


’ 


point in the whole range, called the ‘ Pinnacle,” which name 
has been extended to cover the whole series of hills. The al- 
titude of this summit is 749 feet, or about 240 feet above the 
surrounding plain. The third group may be regarded as in- 
eluding all the western part of the hill range, which is lower 
than the eastern part, much broader and less definite. This 
includes in succession, westwardly, the knolls east of South 
Goodman street; Highland park, between Goodman street and 
South avenue; the “Warner tract,” lying between South and 
Mt. Hope avenues; Mt. Hope cemetery, lying west of Mt. Hope 
avenue; and the low point running into a bend of the Genesee 
river. The highest points in this area are the knoll on which 
is built the Memorial pavilion, near the reservoir, 650 feet, 
and summits in the cemetery, 650 to 670 feet. 


42 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


ToroGRAPHy, 

The eastern portion of the range consists of a series of 
overlapping ridges or elongated mounds having their longer 
diameters parallel in general with the trend of the range. 
Only at the ‘‘Pinnacle” is the cross-section a single ridge, and 
this part is better described as an elongated, irregular mound. 
The width of the belt at Cobb’s hill is but little less than one- 
half mile, and here the crests of the northern and southern 
series of ridges or mounds are about one-fourth mile apart. 
At South Goodman street the two series of ridges are one- 
eighth of a mile apart. The western third of the range, or 
the portion beyond South Goodman street, is very different, 
being, instead of east-west ridges, a broader, irregular aggre- 
gation of mounds with a larger number of enclosed basins. 

The crest line is very irregular, nowhere level for any. dis- 
tance, varying 100 to 180 feet in hight between the groups of 
hills. The northern slopes of the range are irregular, with 
spurs and hillocks and deep ravines, and over the eastern half 
of the range are usually as steep as the material will rest, 25 
to 80 degrees. The southern slopes are more smooth and uni- 
form, commonly with gentle inclination to the southern plain 
into which they blend. 

The irregularity of the hills is great in both longitudinal 
and transverse sections. The only feature of evident system 
is the linear arrangement of the series, taken as a whole. 

A striking feature which has not been sufficiently noted is 
the frequent occurrence of “kettle holes” and basins. A _ bet- 
ter example of mound and basin topography might not be 
desired than is found in Mt. Hope cemetery. Beautiful ex- 
amples of kettle holes are seen here; also in the Warner 
tract; also east of South Goodman street, and east of Cobb’s 
hill. The only ponds or swamps are found east of South 
Goodman street, where one pond occurs, lying at the base of 
the hills, and one large oval basin has been filled with peat to 
a depth of at least six feet. 

STRUCTURE AND CoMPosITION, 

The materials composing these hills are so various and with 
such irregular arrangement that a brief description is diffi- 
cult and inadequate. A minor portion is true till, which forms 
a thick sheet over Cobb’s hill and probably the very summit 


The kKame-Moraine at Rochester, N. Y.— Fairchild. 48 


of the Pinnacle. The flanking ridges and knobs along the 
north side are mostly till, and one till ridge is found with 
east and west direction upon the south side of the range at 
South avenue. Gravelly till is abundant along South avenue 
and in Highland park. Huge blocks of Niagara limestone 
abound upon the Pinnacle summit and in many other places, 
and occur in prodigious numbers in the till covering Cobb’s 
hill, mostly angular, although many are heavily scored and 
striated. The till is probably sufficient in amount to consti- 
tute alone a distinct moraine. 

The greater mass of material is sand and gravel, of all 
sizes up to large cobbles, and of every admixture. The coarser 
material is not well assorted and the stratification is usually 
obscure, except in the mass and in a distant or general view. 
More than one-half of the coarser material is Medina sand- 
stone, which also constitutes the mass of the sand and gives 
a reddish color to even the finer sand and silt. 

In a broad way it may be said that the coarser materials 
prevail at the eastern end of the range and finer gravel and 
sand at the western end; but there are notable exceptions. 
The large pit in the heart of the north ridge near Brighton is 
mainly sand and silt. The great pit on the south side of the 


wr} 


“Pinnacle,” reaching almost to the very core of the hill and 
exposing a full 100 feet vertical section, is nearly all fine 
gravel. At South Goodman street the cutting for the grade, 
with the deep sewer tunnel below, shows fine sand and silt, 
with only thin leaves of fine gravel, to a depth of 72 feet. In 
Mt. Hope cemetery heavy gravel beds occur, while the low 
point near the river, cut by the railroad, is chiefly till with a 
jumbled mixture of sand and silt. It is the general rule that 
the coarser beds are upon the northern side of the hills, while 
the southern side is usually fine sand horizontally bedded and 
undisturbed. 

The dip of the beds is not westward nor lengthwise of the 
hill range, nor is it away from a median line, as would be the 
case if the range were an esker, but generally southward and 
east of south, or across the trend line. This southward dip is 
most pronounced in the gravels upon the north side of the 
hills. At the extreme east end, near Brighton, the gravel dips 
in several directions from the end of the ridge. In the huge 


44 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


Pinnacle pit, 80 feet thickness of the lower gravel beds in the 
heart of the hill have a dip of 12°-15° to east or south of east. 
There are many local exceptions to the southward or east-of- 
south dip of the coarser beds, and some small sections show 
inclination in several and even opposite directions. Obviously 
a part of this local variation is due to disturbances by the ice 
thrust. Some of the diverse inclination may be due to origi- 
nal deposition in subaqueous cones by the changing torrents 
of water over an ice front subject to every possible variation. 
Where beds of fine sand and silt are steeply inclined the in- 
clination may be wholly attributed to ice thrust. 

At two localities upon the south side of the range, one up- 
on Goodman street and the other east of South Clinton street, 
distinctly bedded and alternating sands and gravel have a 
high dip to east of south. At the former pit the dip is 10°- 
14° to S. 15°-30° E. At the latter excavation the dip is 20° 
to east, varying to south. These beds show no disturbance, 
but are filled with angular and glaciated stones of large size. 

Upon the north flank of the hills and even to the heart and 
summit, as shown at Monroe avenue and at South Clinton 
street, the beds have suffered great disturbance. This is 
shown in the coarse gravel beds by the loss of all stratifiea- 
tion, and in the fine gravel, sands and silts by their tumbled, 
tumultuous, disordered character. In all the pits there is 
much faulting. This is the chief kind of disturbance in the 
deeper parts of the hills, and in some sections it is truly sur- 
prising. 

The sand beds upon the south flank of the hills have an ap- 
proximately horizontal position and are without faulting or 
other disturbance. The structure of the beds indicates cur- 
rents sometimes westward, or parallel with the range, some- 
times west of south, or obliquely aeross the range, and some- 
times east of south, or more directly across the trend of the 
range. The large sand pit near Brighton shows current lam- 
ination in the fine sands and silts produced by flow of water 
varying from east to south. The heavy beds of fine sand 
south of Cobb’s hill show currents 8. 45°-60° W. The deep 
cut on Goodman street reveals a direction of current west of 
south. 

The structure of the hills would seem to be explained by 


The Kame-Moraine at Rochester, N. Y.—Fuairchild. 45 


supposing them to have been built up from several centers of 
accumulation by shifting torrential streams pouring over a 
changing ice front. 

Morarnic CHARACTER AND RELATIONSHIP. 

The topography of the whole range is decidedly morainic. 
Of this there can be no doubt. The origin of the range as a 
frontal moraine requires, however, its continuance both east 
and west, and the evidence of such continuation is abundantly 
at hand. Eastward from Brighton the ice front has left its 
marks in the form of boulder-fields and low ridges and mounds 
of till and sand, until intercepted by the deep excavation and 
drainage of Irondequoit bay. East of Irondequoit bay con- 
spicuous boulder-fields of huge Niagara blocks, piled in great 
masses, mark the further eastward extension of the ice front. 
West of the Genesee river for two miles the moraine is plainly 
continued in knolls and ridges of till, as noted by Mr. Upham. 
The further extension of the moraine westward was first dis- 
covered by Mr. Frank Leverett, in 1893. He traced itasa 
low but distinct frontal moraine from near Albion and Brock- 
port southeastward to the Genesee river opposite Mount Hope 
cemetery. Relying, however, upon Mr. Upham’s theory that 
the Pinnacle range was an esker, formed at right angles to 
the ice front, Mr. Leverett sought for the continuation of the 
moraine in alow, broad, indefinite ridge of till, running south- 
ward from Mt. Hope, which is probably drumlinoid. The 
distinet curvature of the Pinnacle range is now seen to be of 
great significance, as it forms part of the are described by the 
front of the glacier lobe. The accompanying map (Plate III) 
shows the moraine west of the Genesee river and its continu- 
ation in the same curvature as the kame series of the Pinnacle 
hills. As remarked above, the amount of till in the hills 
would probably be sufficient in itself to mark a distinct con- 
tinuation of the undoubted moraine. 

The glaciated surface of the Niagara limestone beneath 
Rochester is found to have over the main and older striae, 
with their direction of S.40°-60°W., another lighter and later 
striation, hardly more than a polishing, with direction per- 
pendicular to the are of the moraine. West of the Genesee 
river the last ice movement was S. 5°-15°W., as shown in sev- 


46 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


eral localities. East of the river exposures are rare, but the 
few found give a direction east of south for the latest striz. 
CoNDITIONS OF FORMATION. 

The changes from fine to coarse material in a direction 
lengthwise of the range of hills are too abrupt, too complete, 
and too frequent for production by a single continuous river. 
Objections to such agency are also found in the irregularity 
of the topography; the inclination of the strata; the direc- 
tion of current lamination; the distribution of the materials 
according to size; and the extreme difference between the 
north and the south slopes. Every one of these features, 
along with the topography, the distribution of till, and the 
pushing of the northern sides of the hills, is entirely ex- 
plained by supposing the beds to have been accumulated at 
the front of the ice sheet by the drainage from the dissolving 
glacier. One other condition is necessary to account for the 
peculiar structure, and that is a body of deep water into 
which the materials were thrown. It was the recognition of 
this condition that gave the writer the key to the problem. 

At the time when the Ontario ice-lobe deployed over the 
Rochester plain, the eastern or Mohawk outlet of the glacial 
waters must have been still closed by the Adirondack ice- 
sheet. The waters of lake Warren laved the front of the 
Rochester glacier to a depth between 350 and 400 feet. The 
evidences of this deep water through western-central New 
York are abundant and conclusive. The discussion of this 
subject will form another paper. To the writer it seems clear 
that the “Pinnacle hills” are a true kame series, forming part 
of the frontal moraine of the water-laved glacier. : 

Over the flat area south of the kame hills thick silts and 
brick clays lie above the till, which are the finest deposit car- 
ried out into the lake by the slackened currents of the glacial 
rivers. North of the range the silts lie thick in the depres- 
sions of the plain, as the waters of lake Warren doubtless 
buried the region for some time after the retreating ice-front 
had abandoned the locality. 

An objection to the morainic origin of the hills might be 
offered, that the accumulation of such a mass of assorted ma- 
terials along three miles of the ice-front seems inconsistent 
with the diverging flow of the glacial streams, and more ex- 


The Kame-Moraine at Rochester, N. Y.—Fairchild. 47 


plicable as the result of the concentration of the torrential 
waters in one channel. This objection may be answered by 
a discussion of the peculiar conditions, and a description of 
other kame areas of the region. 

The total amount of stream detritus in these hills may not 
be so great, comparatively, but it shows to full advantage be- 
cause it lies conspicuously upon a plain, instead of filling de- 
pressions in an uneven surface. 

The Pinnacle hills are only a small portion of the enormous 
amount of water detritus which the glacial drainage has left 
over the Genesee and Jrondequoit region. The objection 
above noted would apply to other deposits of even greater 
magnitude. Ina recent journey through the Genesee valley 
professor Shaler noted the unusual and remarkable amount 
of water deposits, which even occur frequently upon the drum- 
linoids throughout Monroe county and adjacent territory. In 
explanation it should be noted that the strata outcropping 
north of Rochester are peculiarly adapted to supply the finer 
material. The Medina sandstone is over 1,000 feet thick and 
has been excavated to form the southern side of the basin of 
lake Ontario. It contributed by preglacial decay and glacial 
erosion the material for the sand and the greater proportion 
of the gravel and cobble of all the water deposits of this re- 
gion. The overlying Clinton shales and thin bedded lime- 
stones with shale partings, and the 80 feet of Niagara arena- 
ceous shale supplied the bulk of thesilts. The Niagara lime- 
stone occurs in the drift chiefly as boulders. 

At the time of the formation of the Rochester moraine the 
Ontario glacier had probably become quite stagnant, and ab- 
lation of the surface had doubtless exposed the lower portion 
of the ice which was heavily charged with material from the 
Ontario excavation. The conditions thus favored the rapid 
accumulation of detritus, along certain portions of the ice 
front, by the heavy drainage from the rapidly dissolving ice. 

It is also suggested that the Warren waters had removed 
the thin edge of the ice sheet so rapidly by melting and flo- 
tation that little opportunity was given for local accumula- 
tion of any kind of glacial material over a belt several miles 
wide south of Rochester. When the balance between the ice- 
flow and the ice destruction was established for a short time 


48 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


at the line of the Rochester moraine, the conditions were pe- 
culiarly favorable for dropping the detrital ice-burden rap- 
idly and in large amount. The areas immediately north and 
south of the Pinnacle hills are quite free from morainie accu- 
mulations, although covered by lake silts. The materials that 
under some conditions might have been scattered over a large 
area are here concentrated in a narrow belt. Three or four 
moderate streams at intervals of nearly one mile apart could 
have produced the Pinnacle hills in a comparatively short time. 
Perhaps such an interval was not too close for the drainage 
lines of this rapidly dissolving ice-front. 
CoMPARISON WITH NEIGHBORING KAME AREAS. 

The Pinnacle hills are far from being the only kame-like 
deposits of the region, for over the relatively smooth plain of 
Monroe county several other accumulations of sand and gravel 
are conspicuous. At least two of these surpass the Pinnacle 
hills in amount of material. As these neighboring deposits 
have a bearing upon the subject under discussion they will be 
briefly described. 

(1). The Chili Sand Hills.—Six miles southwest of Roch- 
ester occur some curious hills and knolls composed chiefly of 
fine sand. These knolls are partly indicated in the map. 
They are twenty to forty feet high, lying upon a foundation 
of till. Among themselves they have no order, but have in- 
dividually an east and west elongation. They lie in a north- 
east by southwest belt about one mile wide chiefly between 
the New York Central railroad (main line) and the Chili 
wagon road and reach northeast to the moraine, which is 
there partly of the same character. Two drumlins lie in the 
eastern edge of the sand belt partly covered with the sand, 
and another may form the base of the larger group of sand 
knolls. The higher of the sand knolls have an altitude of over 
620 feet. Upon the highest summits are numerous granitoid 
boulders, evidently ice-rafted. These hills have been studied 
by Mr. Frank Leverett. They appear to have been formed by 
the drainage from the glacier, with deposition in lake Warren. 
The east and west elongation may be regarded as indicating 
a morainic¢ origin. 

(2). The Lincoln Park Kame Area.—Close to the western 
border of the city and north of the moraine is another area of 


The Kame-Moraine at Rochester, N. Y.—Fairchild. 49 


sand and gravel forming partof the moraine. As indicated 
upon the map, the northernmost mound of the area is a dis- 
tinct kame, over one-fourth of a mile long, lying in east and 
west direction, or parallel with the moraine, and consisting 
chiefly of fine gravel. It lies about one and one-half miles 
north of the moraine. Between this kame and the moraine 
and forming part of the latter are a series of low gravel and 
sand mounds, which make a connected series and grade in 
material from the gravel of the northern mound to fine sand 
at the moraine. 

(3). Red Creek Sand Knolls —Lying one to three miles 
south of the western end of the Rochester kame-moraine is a 
series of scattered low mounds of fine sand. The southeastern 
corner of Genesee Valley park forms part of this sand area 
which is there exposed by the Lehigh Valley and the Erie 
railroads. Other somewhat conspicuous mounds, ten to 
twenty feet high, occur along the road leading to West Hen- 
rietta, and the farthest lie across and below the West Shore 
railroad west of Red Creek Junction. The map shows only 
the northern part of this area. 

(4). The Brighton Sand Knolls —These are indicated upon 
the map, lying north and east of Brighton village, between 
the east end of the Pinnacle range and the Irondequoit exca- 
vation. These are a part of the eastward extension of the 
moraine, which from Brighton trends southeast, indicating 
the natural lobing of the ice-front in the deep excavation of 
the Irondequoit valley. 

(5). The Irondequoit Kame Area.—Extending from the 
head of the deeper part of the Irondequoit valley up the shal- 
lower valley, or southward, for ten miles, is a kame series of 
great proportions. It represents the drainage deposits from 
the Irondequoit lobe of the Ontario glacier, and probably far 
exceeds in quantity the Pinnacle hills. The northernmost hill 
is just reached by the map. The series extends east of south 
from Allen Creek past Pittsford, ten miles, to Victor. It has 
been described in the article by Dr. Dryer referred to in the 
introduction of this paper. 

(6). The Mendon Hills Kame Area.—The largest and most 
interesting of the kame-like sand and gravel deposits of the 
region are the Mendon hillsin the southern part of Monroe 


dO The American Geologist. July, 1895 


county, about ten miles from Rochester, east of south. Next 
to the ‘“Turk’s hill” mass of drumlinoid drift in the extreme 
southeast corner of the county, the Mendon sand hills are the 
highest land in the county, rising over 840 feet above sea 
level. These hills have an irregular grouping and cover an 
area of nearly four square miles. They can be roughly de- 
scribed as two series of very irregular kames having a general 
direction of 8. 80° W., and with a valley between containing 
five ponds. ‘These are the only ponds of note in the county. 
The intermediate valley is lower than the drumlinoid surface 
surrounding the two kame series. The northern pond is the 
largest and highest, having «a surface 662 feet above tide. 
The sand hills, therefore, rise above the marshy valley quite 
two hundred feet. They are exceedingly varied in form, con- 
ical, mammillary, billowy, and enclose basins and kettles. 
The composition is also complex, being mainly fine gravel and 
sand, but with some till. These hills seem to be isolated and 
to have no relation to any moraine or to any line of drainage. 
They are surrounded by heavy drift, distinctly drumlinoid in 
form, the ridges having a direction S. 20°-30° W. 
SUMMARY. 

The “ Pinnacle hills” of Rochester, N. Y., are regarded as 
part of a frontal moraine, for the following reasons: 

1. The linear arrangement with distinct curvature. 

2. The continuation of the curve in the well-defined mo- 
raine west of the Genesee river. 

3. The continuation eastward of Irondequoit bay of mo- 
rainic phenomena. 

4. The topography emphatically morainic, “knob and ba- 
sin,” with abundant ‘‘kettle-holes.” 

5. The occurrence of a set of later striw north of the range 
nearly perpendicular or radial to the curving line of the mo- 
raine. 

6. The steep northward slope, with spurs and reéntrant 
angles. 

7. The presence of much till in the range, especially upon 
the north side and summits of the belt. 

8. The pushed and tumultuous condition of the beds on the 
north side and crest of the range. 

That the hills were accumulated in the waters of lake 


Editorial Comment. 51 


Warren, which laved the front of the glacier, is believed for 
the following reasons: 

1. The beds on the north side of the hills consist of coarse 
and poorly assorted materials. 

2. The beds upon the south sides of the hills are mostly 
fine sand. 

3. The coarse beds forming the north side of the hills have 
generally a decided east-of-south dip or inclination across the 
trend of the range. 

4, The fine sands upon the south flank of the range are hor- 
izontally bedded and are undisturbed. They must have been 
deposited in comparatively quiet water, and directly upon 
terra firma. 

5. The silt and sand, over 72 feet deep, constituting the 
middle ridge or heart of the South Goodman street section 
was deposited in a body of quiet water. The same is true of 
other sections, particularly in the large sand pit near Brigh- 
ton. 

6. In some exposures the fine oblique lamination of the sand 
beds indicates currents of the water southward, or east of 
south. 

7. Over the low plain southward are fine surface silts and 
workable clays, representing the ultimate product of assorting 
and deposition by water. 

8. Heavy boulders occur in the fine silts, especially south- 
west of Rochester, explainable only by flotation in ice. 


BDITOREAE COMMENT. 


THe FELDsPARs. 

As a mineralogical assemblage the feldspars have played a 
leading role in the laboratories of all mineralogists. They 
have been the basis of the most prolonged chemical research 
and of the most refined petrographic methods, They have 
been embraced differently in various classifications ; the mono- 
clinic and the triclinic, the orthoclastic and the plagioclastic, 
the acid and the basic, and the last again divided into acid 
and basic. The plagioclases have latterly been arranged, ac- 


52 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


cording to views of Tschermak, in a series from albite to an- 
orthite, called the soda-lime feldspars, in which albite and 
anorthite stand at the extremes, the former representing the 
largest percentage of soda and the latter the largest of lime. 
All the intermediate feldspars are, by this classification, con- 
sidered variable and indeterminable mixtures of albite and 
anorthite. These would include oligoclase, andesine, labra- 
dorite and bytownite, but it excludes microcline which is also 
a triclinie feldspar nearly approaching orthoclase crystalli- 
graphically, and identical with it, according to Michel-Leévy, 
only differing from it in having evident both albite and 
pericline twinning. 

This theoretical chemical arrangement into a graduated 
series has become very popular as, after its adoption by Ros- 
enbusch, it found its way into most German and English 
works on mineralogy, and is also generally taught in Ameri- 
ean schools of petrography. It is probable, however, that, 
while for its convenience it will serve as a useful grouping of 
a lot of facts unknown, it is still destined to be superseded 
in its ordinary interpretation by more exact knowledge. 
There is a certain plausibility also which is apparent in its 
main idea. Nothing is more common than a minute interca- 
lation of two kinds of feldspars. Albite and orthoclase are 
characteristically thus closely intergrown, as in perthite. All 
twinning, even of the plagioclases, seems to be based on 
minute molecular variations which are, as yet, unascertaina- 
ble, but whieh still probably have their chemical as well as 
their physical manifestations, and could be presumed to have 
resulted in such chemical variations as the law of Tschermak 
requires. 

Notwithstanding the popular approval of what may be des- 
ignated the German school of petrographers on this subject, 
the nice microscopic researches of Messrs. Fouqué, Michel- 
Lévy and La Croix, in calling attention to constant physical 
differences between the feldspars of this series have gone di- 
rectly against the idea of their being made up by variable 
mixtures of chemical units, and have demonstrated the valid- 
ity and the constancy of the various species. Microscopic 
research cannot be said to have yet reached the point where 
it traces the chemical atom from place to place and detects its 


Editorial Comment. 53 


physical relations to surrounding atoms, but it is in the di- 
rection of this preciseness that these researches tend. The 
chemical method of distinguishing between these feldspars, 
which is the ultimate theoretical basis of the law of Tscher- 
mak, encounters the indefiniteness of chemical solutions, and 
the variations of chemical balances. It depends largely on 
the determination of chemical quantities when they are in 
unknown amounts and set free from their normal affinities. 
The exigences of evaporation, unequal heating at critical 
readings, loss by contact with the apparatus and with the re- 
agents—these impose on all chemical determinations certain 
limitations which render it impossible in this way to enter 
into the minutest mineralogical distinctions, and which puts 
before the law of Tschermak a priori an obstacle which 
seems to render it fundamentally unsatisfactory to the human 
mind. Physical methods, however, have only to do with fixed 
quantities, with solids which manifest always the same phys- 
ical characters, and if the refinement of the appliances be 
sufficiently nice, they are the best adapted for the examina- 
tion of the differences that exist between the feldspars. A 
feldspar isa solid. On solution it is no longer a feldspar. 
On fusion it may contain the same chemical elements but it 
cannot be called a feldspar. A feldspar possesses definite ex- 
ternal form and crystalline interior. Its proper examination 
should, therefore, be physical and its specification should be 
dependent on the characters that crystalline solids exhibit. 
Now the physical examination of the plagioclases has been 
greatly advanced by the researches of Michel-Lévy. American 
students are hardly aware of the state of progress to which 
this art-science has been carried, Michel-Lévy has tabulated 
the properties of the plagioclases as derived from an exami- 
nation of thin sections cut parallel to the bases of the crystals 
and also in those cut parallel to their brachypinacoids. While 
much of this was known before, the full classification and ex- 
pression of the differences is due to the optical and mathe- 
matical skill of Michel-Lévy. These tables are to be seen in 
Etude sur la determination des feldspaths dans les plaques 
mince au point de vue dela classification des roches, published 
at Paris in 1894. These tables consist of circular plates rep- 
resenting the stereographie projection of the crystal and its 


54 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


properties on a plane. Within these plates are expressed 
graphically the figures of maximum extinction and the direc- 
tions of their variations from pole to pole, also the curves of 
double refraction, their relations to the different axes of elas- 
ticity and the differences which the plagioclases of the albite- 
anorthite series manifest. These tables are accompanied by 
a descriptive text and a full discussion of the methods. 

M. Fouqué has recently added another chapter to the phys- 
ical examination of the feldspars. It isa publication of the 
Sociéte Francaise de Mineralogie (Tome xvu, Nos.7 and 8, 
1894) and differs from that of Lévy principally in the choice 
of different planes within the crystal, from which to draw 
optical properties. Whereas Lévy employed the sections par- 
allel to the base and the brachypinacoid, Fouqué has cut 
the crystal in planes perpendicular to its bisectrices. He thus 
avoids some of the difficulties inherent in the observation of 
the maximum extinction on cleavages in the base and brachy- 
pinacoid, although he encounters others which are, perhaps, 
at present equally formidable to the ordinary student viz., the 
discovery of the plane of the optic axes and the cutting of 
the crystal perpendicular to the bisectrix. But the chief ad- 
vantage of the method of Fouqué seems to lie in its avoidance 
of the actual observance of the maximum extinction of light. 
The eye is not sensible of small changes in the amount of 
light. There is need of making many readings and of taking. 
the average of these to warrant the observer in affirming the 
angle of greatest extinction. In place of a difference in light, 
Fouqué substitutes a difference in form, which centers in the 
interference figure. When this figure is perfect it can easily 
be observed. When the hyperbolas are farthest removed from 
a cross in the field of the microscope the optic plane is at the 
angle of greatest extinction which can be read from the rim 
of the stage in the same manner as that obtained by maxi- 
num extinetion of light. 

There remain, of course, other directions in which erystals 
can be cut and examined, viz., those perpendicular to the op- 
tic axes, in which, as M. Fouqué remarks, there are numerous 
properties of the various feldspars yet to be worked out. 
When these, and other microscopic physical properties by 
which the feldspars are presumably marked, are discovered 


Editorial Comment. 55 


and described, the masks which now obscure them and which 
make them appear similar will be removed, and each one will 
be recognized and easily distinguised from the rest. 

At the present stage of this investigation M. Fouqué has 
felt warranted in referring to the law of Tschermak, calling 
attention to its crudity and to the frailty of its foundation. 

After acknowledging the beauty and simplicity of the law 
of Tschermak, and its undeniable utility in many min- 
eralogical determinations, he remarks that it encounters two 
objections of equal gravity. These may be given in a free 
translation from his late contribution : 

First, then, if all the lime-soda feldspars result from a simple associ- 
ation of albite and anorthite, why is it that one of the parties to this 
association, albite, never shows itself individualized among the crystals 
of volcanic rocks, while the other, anorthite, is very frequently so seen, 
and in a State little short of actual purity. In the zoned individuals, 
composed of different triclinic feldspars, anorthite figures often as an 
element that is distinguishable with the microscope, albite never. Here, 
then, is a mineral which is found in very distinct individuals almost 
exclusively in stratified or metamorphic regions, which almost never 
appears in a crystalline determinable form in voleanic rocks, but which 
nevertheless, in consequence of its association with anorthite, should be 
of extreme frequence. 

That which gives special force to this objection is the fact that, ac- 
cording to the theory of Tschermak, the complex feldspars are not 
definite chemical compounds, but simple mixtures of those two ele- 
ments, viz., the albiteand the anorthite molecules, framed in the same 
crystallographic mould. Each element, in whatever state of division it 
may be supposed to exist, enjoys its proper individuality. In order that 
it may enter into the supposed association it is necessary, in the first 
instance, toadmit that its physical molecule has acquired its individual 
constitution and even that it already possesses a crystalline structure 
conformable to that of the mineral. In other words, the formation of 
a complex feldspar implies the crystallization of albite, if not before, at 
least concomitantly with the other elements and that, too, under condi- 
tions eminently unfavorable, and actually ina manner which is opposed 
by all that nature teaches of the formation of albite in regions that have 
been studied. 

It is true that albite figures largely in the state of individualized crys- 
tals in the potash-soda series, but it isin veins of later date than the 
formatioa of the potash feldspar, and its formation can be assigned to 
its normal manner of production, in secondary genesis rather than to 
crystallization from fusion. And, as to the rocks which contain micro- 
lites of albite, recently discovered and studied by Michel-Lévy, it is in 
a pre-Tertiary rock much changed, and the albite may have been the 
result of such change. 


56 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


The crystallization of this mineral from a fused mass is certainly not 
impossible. The tests of M. Hautefenille sufficiently show that, but itis 
at least very difficult. The production of albite, therefore, is scarcely 
probable in these conditions, even when the generating magma possesses, 
either originally or after various liquations or crystallizations, a com- 
position which is nearer that of albite than of anorthite. 

But the objection just presented, although very strong, does not con- 
stitute, however, an argument which cannot be answered. It may be 
said, indeed, that the formation of a crystalline molecule of anorthite 
may exert a decisive influence upon the formation of a molecule of al- 
bite, and that that which is not possible in the absence of a basic ele- 
ment takes place easily in its presence, especially at the moment when 
its atoms are the seat of intense movement. In chemistry such cases 
are common. A body which refuses to crystallize when it is alone, for 
want of a solvent, often crystallizes readily under the action of a neigh- 
bor of similar constitution, or even, sometimes, of unlike constitution. 
In this case anorthite would play a role of this kind, and would be the 
element which would determine the crystallization of albite. 

The objection, therefore, leads to controversy. Let it be set aside, 
and Jet the discussion be confined to the decisive fact which appears to 
demand an interpretation of the law of Tschermak different from that 
which is generally adopted. 

This fact is the frequent observation of certain of the types of feld- 
spar which are intermediate between albite and anorthite, and the rar- 
ity of certain others. The studies that Ihave set forth in previous 
portions of this work appear to me to leave not the least doubt on this 
fact, however inexplicable under the hypothesis of an association or 
physical mixture of albite and anorthite. 

The serial discontinuity, indicated in the group of the lime-soda 
feldspars, is still more evident in the potash-soda feldspars, without 
speaking of certain anomalies peculiar to this last group. In order to 
account for this fact it appears to me necessary to admit that between 
albite and anorthite there exists a certain number of intermediate feld- 
spars with a definite composition, forming by themselves a natural fam 
ily, a series that may be compared to similar series so well established 
in organic chemistry. In the series to which I allude, the extreme 
terms being known, the properties of the intermediate compounds are 
exactly determined. It may be supposed that the same can occur in 
the inorganic world. Such a hypothesis, atleast, offers nothing contra- 
ry to ordinary scientific principles. 

If this is admitted it leads to the same practical conclusions as the 
theory of Tschermak. It furnishes the same facts as to the composi- 
tion and as tothe physical properties of the intermediate feldspars, and, 
further, it has the advantage of explaining a mineralogical peculiarity 
as to which the theory of Tschermak is silent. 

The intermediate feldspars having a definite composition, here re- 
ferred to, are susceptible of physical association and the formation of 
compound crystalline bodies, but it should be noted that this is nota 


Editorial Comment. SY 


purely hypothetical mixture, such as constitutes the basis of Tscher- 
mak’s theory. These associations are visible under the microscope, 
sometimes even to the naked eye. Chemical tests show them, as well 
as separation by heavy liquids, in all favorable conditions. It is a mat- 
ter of real phenomena and not aconception of the imagination, The 
zoned crystals are exceedingly common, buta multitude of observations 
have shown their integral components. 

The idea of these mineralogical types is not new. Mineralogists of 
the first half of our century made Jabradorite, oligoclase and andesine 
distinct species. Later M. Des Cloiseaux recognized in the oligoclase 
group separate types with well-marked characters. 

How does it happen that, instead of trying to separate and define 
these types and to establish their individuality, modern science has pre- 
ferred, on the contrary, to make them disappear, and even to deny 
their actuality? * s es * cs Hs 

Mr. Fouqué concludes as follows: 

1. There are feldspathic types, of definite composition, intermediate 
between albite and anorthite. 

2. These feldspars are capable of uniting together in physical associ- 
ation. 

3. Several of them are visible generally in the same rock, sometimes 
in large crystals and sometimes in the form of microlites, but nearly al- 
ways with the preponderance of one of them at each consolidation. 

4. Most frequently the order of acidity is in inverse order of their 
formation, and the glassy material which constitutes the residue after 
crystallization is more siliceous than the most acid of the feldspars. 

These aphorisms, which were announced by me some years ago, after 
the study of rocks upon a limited district and with limited means of 
investigation, are to-day supported by the results of study over a large 
field, and with the aid of the perfect methods introduced during the 
last fifteen years of the science. 

The last contribution to this research is by Michel-Lévy. 
in a communication read before the Societe Francaise de 
Mineralogie.* It is based on the spherical projections and 
figures of extinction which he had before deduced for the 
plagioclases (Htudes sur la determination des feldspaths). By 
means of these he constructs a general plan showing the spher- 
ical projections of simultaneous extinctions of the parts of 
compound mineral bodies, like the plagioclases, and their re- 
lations to the spherical traces of the optic axes of the com- 
pound mineral. Each of the points of these curves where the 
ellipses of the components have their axes crossed corresponds 


*Recherche des axes optiques dans un mineral pouyant étre considéré 
comme un mélange de deux minéraux déterminés. Application aux 
plagioclases et & la verification de la loi de Tschermak. 14 March, 1899. 


58 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


to an optic axis of the compound mineral. Assuming that 
the law of Tschermak is true, it is found that the general 
principle deduced holds true in its application to the special 
cases between andesine and anorthite. Between albite and 
andesine it is not possible to say as much. It appears that 
in the vicinity of oligoclase something produces such devia- 
tions that no conclusions can be drawn. So far as it goes 
this shows a substantial confirmation, by the methods of op- 
tics, of the formule deduced theoretically for the composition 
of some of the plagioclases, but it is dependent on the as- 
sumption that the feldspars considered are of definite compo- 
sition, and represent ascertainable and fixed conditions in 
their physical structure. 

The studies of both Fouqué and Michel-Léevy tend, not so 
much to the denial of the law of Tschermak, as to its defini- 
tion, and to the correction of the popular interpretation of it, 
At the same time they tend to establish definite characters, at 
least physical characters, for several new intermediate feld- 
spars, and thus to eliminate the prevalent idea of vagueness 
and uncertainty which the law of Tschermak has propagated 
respecting those before known. If their chemical characters 
could be established with equal refinement there is great 
probability that the two methods would corroborate each 
other, but the mechanical separation of two or more of them 
when they are closely intergrown, which is almost always 
their natural condition, so that reliable chemical examination 
can be made, is as yet a very difficult and almost impossible 
task. N. H. W. 


REVIEW OF RECENT GEOE@GGlezss 
LITE AE Win. 


Om Didymograptus, Tetragraptus och Phyllograptus. Af GERHARD 
Houm. (Geol. Foren. i Stockholm Forhandl., Bd. 17, Hafte 3, Sid. 319- 
359, Tafl. 11-16, 1895.) Dr. Holm has continued his studies on grapto- 
lites preserved in limestone, which he began a decade ago, in describ- 
ing the intimate structure of a Climacograptus and a Retiolites. The 
chitinous parts of these organisms were freed by means of acid and 
their special structure clearly revealed. 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 59 


In the three genera first above named he finds thecew to have been 
formed earlier than has been supposed. The distal part of what has 
been considered the sicula is the first theca. Succeeding this he dis- 
tinguishes two, following each other, the s¢vistra/ and the dextral theca; 
these, with the one on the sicula, comprise the primordiul theew, which 
form the foundation of the polyparies of these genera. He discards the 
term funacle as unnecessary, there being no barren part to the polypary. 
He states also that he has not discovered a vergulain the Dichograptide. 

The essay contains notes on the genus Didymograptus, with special 
reference to D. gibberulus Nich. The proximal part of Tetragraptus 
bigsbyt Nich., and Phyllograptus angustifolius Hall, are also fully de- 
scribed in this article. The article is illustrated with six well finished 
plates and several wood-cuts, and is an important one for students of 
the Rabdopora. G. i. M. 

De Vexistence de nombreux débris de Spongiaires duns le Précambrien de 
Bretagne. Par L. Caysux. (Ex. de la Société du Nord, T. xxi, p. 52, 
3 Avril, 1895.) The author illustrates this contribution to this ancient 
fauna with two plates. On these plates are figures of forms referred to 
Monaxes, Tetractinellide, Lithistidee and Hexactinellide. These re- 
mains are fonnd in the same rocks as the Foraminifera and Radiolaria 
already announced by M. Cayeux and noted in recent pages of the 
GEOLOGIST. “The evidence of the fossiliferous nature of these rocks 
seems to be abundantly satisfactory. The only remaining doubtful ele- 
ment in the discussion is that of the age of the rocks themselves, on 
which there is not yet sufficient knowledge. In M. Cayeux’s other paper 
he stated that his impression was that these rocks belong in the Ameri- 
can ‘‘Algonkian,’’ but that is to take them not only from the Cambrian 
but also from the Archean, and to put them into an uncertain limbo in 
which are found all unstudied rocks at about that horizon, and in which 
the sponsors for that term have included some rocks certainly Cambrian 
and others that may be Cambrian, as well as some that are probably 
Archean. In other words, in the absence of a known lower limit for 
Cambrian, and in the presence of similar organisms reported in several 
places in America from the Taconic (Lower Cambrian), taken with the 
author’s idea that they are of ‘‘Algonkian’’ age, there remains much 
reason to hesitate to accept these fossil forms as Archean, or even as 
‘yre-Cambrian.’’ The nature of the rocks themselves, a séiceous slate 
intercallated with an enormous formation of black slates, which occupy a 
wide extent of territory in that part of Bretagne, presents an anomalous 
petrographic assemblage to be placed in the Archean. N. H. W. 

Tertiary Rhynchophorous Coleoptera of the United States. By SAMUBL 
HvuBBARD ScuppER. (Monograph xx, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1893. Pages 
xi, 206; with 12 plates. Price, 90 cents.) Four localities in Colorado 
and Wyoming have supplied 191 species of beaked beetles which are 
described in this work, 116 being from Florissant, all distinct from any 
found in the other places, and 75 from the Roan mountains and the 
White and Green rivers. A considerable number of species occur in 


60 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


two or in all three of the last named localities, and their fossil insects 
are grouped together and named the Gosiute fauna. Both the Florissant 
and Gosiute beds have been regarded as Oligocene; but their unlike 
faunas show that they differ somewhat in age, although it cannot yet 
be decided which is the older. 

From the European Tertiary strata only 141 species of this group 
have been discovered. Nine others are known in the European Pleisto- 
cene, while our continent has thus far only one Pleistocene species, this 
being from the interglacial beds of Scarboro, Ontario. Another species 
is discovered by Mr. J. B. Tyrrell in the Cretaceous Fort Pierre shales 
on the Assiniboine river, making a total of 193 known fossil American 
Rhynchophora. These all are specifically distinct from any found fos- 
sil in Europe, and from all known living species. 

Notwithstanding the universal change in species from the Tertiary 
to the present time, the author affirms that ‘‘there has been but little 
important change in the insect fauna of the world since the beginning 
of the Tertiary epoch. In the earlier Tertiaries we not only possess in 
profusion representatives of every one of the orders of insects, but every 
dominating family type which exists to-day has been recognized in the 
rocks; even many of che families which have now but a meager repre- 
sentation have also been discovered, and though many extinct genera 
have been recognized, no higher groups, with a single exception or two, 
have been founded upon extinct forms.” Ww. U. 


A Manual of Topographic Methods. By Henry GANNErtT, Chief Topog- 
rapher. Monograph xxi, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1893. Pages xiv, 300; 
with 36 mathematical tables, 18 plates, and 14 figures in the text. Price, 
$1.00.) he first 180 pages contain a description of the topographic 
work, instruments and methods used by the U.S. Geological Survey in 
its task of preparing a topographic map of the United States. The first 
chapter very concisely notices the several government and state Surveys 
by which portions of the country have been previously mapped, and 
the general plan of the present work. The second chapter treats of as- 
tronomic determinations of position: the third, of the primary triangu- 
lation; the fourth, of the secondary triangulation, traverse work, baro- 
metric determination of hights, ete.; the fifth, of the field sketehing, 
with a detailed review of the geologic agencies giving origin to topo- 
graphical features, as uplifts, volcanism, sedimentation, stream, wave 
and subaérial erosion, glacial deposition and erosion, and wind action; 
and the sixth and final chapter relates to the office work of drafting. 
Streams, lakes, marshes, and the sea, are drafted and printed in blue; 
the culture delineations and lettering are in black; and the contours in 
brown (burnt sienna). 

The second half of the volume is a series of tables used in the reduc- 
tion of astronomic observations for position, of triangulation, of hight 
measurements, and other operations connected with the making of 
topographic maps. This work was primarily intended for the informa- 
tion of the men engaged on the national survey; but it has been found 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 61 


also very serviceable by other surveyors and engineers and by teachers 
in technical schools. Ww. U. 


Reconnoissance map of the United States, showing the distribution of the 
Geologic Systems, so far as known. Compiled from data in the possession 
of the U.S. Geological Survey, by W J McGrx, 1898. This set of twelve 
maps, which are classed together as plate II of the forthcoming Four- 
teenth Annual Report of this survey (for 1892-’93), is issued in advance 
of that report. The scale is about 110 miles to an inch, being the same 
with that of the geologic map compiled by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock about 
ten yearsago. Professor Hitchcock’s map has geologic coloring extended 
provisionally over the entire United States, and across the-border of Can- 
ada tothe limit of the sheet; but the present map omits coloring from Can- 
ada, and from areas where the exact boundaries of the formations have 
not yet been traced. Thus a large region of western Montana, Idaho, 
Oregon, and southern Washington, comprising the great volcanic area 
crossed by the Snake and Columbia rivers, remain uncolored on Mr. 
McGee’s map. 

Another and more regrettable departure from the earlier map is the 
omission of the Cretaceous color from a large tract of eastern North 
and South Dakota, giving to it only the designation of glacial drift. 
This tract was rightly called Cretaceous by Hitchcock; and the same 
Cretaceous formations, according to Prof. N. H. Winchell in the front- 
ispiece map of the Geology of Minnesota, Vol. m1, Part 1, also continue 
eastward, beneath the drift, upon the western half of that state. In 
this opinion the present reviewer confidently accords, and would also 
include the northwestern quarter of Iowa in the eastern extension of 
the Cretaceous area. 

Besides the comprehensive geologic map, with its contour lines, this 
series comprises an uncolored map with only contours, and ten other 
maps showing respectively the areas of (1) the Pleistocene ice and water 
deposits, these alone being colored; (2) Neocene and Eocene formations; 
(8) the Oretaceous; (4) the Jura-Trias; (5) the Carboniferous: (6) the 
Devonian; (7) the Silurian; (8) the Cambrian; (9) the Algonkian and 
Archean; and (10) igneous rocks. The Pleistocene formations are dis- 
played by overprinted dots. The scheme of colors is very tasteful, with 
mostly lighter tints than on Prof. Hitchcock’s map. 

A further improvement, very helpful for convenient reference and 
study, is the more frequent insertion of names of cities, towns, rivers, 
lakes, bays, capes, etc. Among these the name of lake Itasca is 
wronely spelled, with A; its derivation being from the Latin words 
veritas and caput, by Procrusteanelision of the initial and final syllables. 

WwW. U. 

Interloessial Till near Sioux City, Towa. By J. &. Topp and H. Fosrrer 
Barn. (Proceedings of the lowa Academy of Sciences, vol. 11, 1895. pp. 
20-23.) At the hight of about 150 feet above the Big Sioux and Missouri 
rivers, a deposit of typical boulder-clay or till, having an observed max- 
imum thickness of six feet, is underlain and overlain by ordinary loess. 


62 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


The intercalated till is many feet above any other known glacial drift 
in the vicinity. It is referred to deposition from amass of floating ice 
laden with débris from the adjacent ice-sheet. The origin of the drift 
generally in the surrounding region to the south of the Altamont or 
outermost moraine, which lies at a distance of 20 to 80 miles north of 
Sioux City, is supposed by the authors to have been likewise from float- 
ing bergs and floes. The extramorainic till there ‘‘is thin and patchy, 
being usually not over fifteen feet in thickness. That the region has 
not been covered by the heavy land ice would seem to be indicated, not 
only by this, but also by the general presence of beds of fine sand and 
clay under the drift, and showing no signs of disturbance.” W. U. 

Preglacial EHlevation of Iowa. By By H. Fostmr Barn. (Proc. lowa 
Acad. of Sciences, vol. i, pp. 23-26.) Numerous deep, drift-filled val- 
leys, cut 100 to 800 feet below the general surface of the bed-rocks, are 
described as found by well borings throughout Iowa, and their erosion 
is good evidence of a long preglacial period of considerable elevation. 
It remains undetermined, however, whether this valley erosion took 
place chiefly during the great Tertiary cycle of base leveling, or during 
the less prolonged early Pleistocene period of renewed uplifting and 
stream channeling which immediately preceded the Ice age. W. U. 

A Bibliography of North American Paleontology, 1888-1892. By CHARLES 
Rouumn Knyes. (U.S. Geological Survey, Bull. No. 121, 251 pp., 1894.) 
This work embraces: (1) An author’s list, in which is given the full 
title, volume, etc. Each title is followed by a brief synopsis of the 
paper, an enumeration of the new genera and species described, and a 
list of forms already known, which are described and figured anew. 
(2) A title index. (3) Subject entries and cross references. Under 
the last head each article is included under its appropriate biological, 
geological and geographical divisions. 

The present bibliography is thus seen to be much more complete than 
most works of a similar nature. In addition to being an index and 
catalogue, it is really a condensed review of all literature pertaining to 
paleontology published during the period from 1888 to 1892. It is thus 
of great aid to those who do not have access toa complete library. The 
amount of work required to produce such a bibliography as the above 
must have been very considerable, but its usefulness to the paleontolo- 
gist and to the general geologist will fully compensate for the labor be- 
stowed upon it. U. Ss Gi 


RECENT PUBLICATIONS: 


I. Government and State Reports. 
Geol. Survey of Ga., Bull. 2. A preliminary report on the corundum 
deposits of Georgia, F. P. King. 133 pp., 6 pls., 1 map, 1894. 
N. Y. State Museum, 47th Ann. Rept. for 1893; 1187 pp., numerous 
plates and sections, 1894. Official reports; The Livonia salt shaft, its 


Recent Publications. 638 


history and geological relations, James Hall; Report on the geology of 
the Livonia salt shaft, D. D. Luther; The succession of fossil faunas in 
the section of the Livonia salt shaft, J. M. Clarke; New or rare species 
of fossil from the horizons of the Livonia salt shaft, J. M. Clarke; Re- 
port on the Helderberg limestones, N. H. Darton; Report on the geology 
of Albany county, N. H. Darton; The economic geology of Albany coun- 
ty, F. L. Nason; Report on the geology of Ulster county, N. H. Darton; 
Economic geology of Ulster county, F. L. Nason; Geology of the Mo- 
hawk valley, N. H. Darton; Report on the geology of Essex county, J. 
F. Kemp; Report on the geology of Clinton county, H. P. Cushing; Re- 
port on the geology of four townships in St. Lawrence and Jefferson 
counties, C. H. Smyth, Jr.: Report on the geology of Cattaraugus and 
Chautauqua counties, F. A. Randall; report on field-work in Chenango 
county, J. M. Clarke; Publications relating to the geology and paleon- 
tology of the state of New York, 1876-1893, J. M. Clarke; Platycnemic 
man in New York, W. H. Sherzer; Discussion of the genera of Fenes- 
tellidee, G. B. Simpson; Glossary of names of Bryozoa and corals, G. B. 
Simpson; Handbook of the Brachiopoda, II, James Hall, assisted by J. 
M. Clarke. 

Iowa Geol. Survey. Administrative reports, vol. Iv, pp. 17-83, 1895. 

Geol. Survey of N. J., vol. 3 of the Final Report. Report on water- 
supply, water-power, the flow of streams and attendant phenomena, C. 
C. Vermeule. xvi and 448 pp., plates and maps, 1894. 

U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 121. <A bibliography of North American 
paleontology, 1888-1892, C. R. Keyes. 251 pp., 1894. 


IT. Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 


Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., sec. ser., vol..tv, pt. 1, April, 1895: On a new 
trilobite from Arkansas Lower Coal Measures, A. W. Vogdes. 

Bull. Geol Soc. Amer., vol. v1, pp. 428-528, April, 1895: Proceedings 
of the seventh annual meeting, held at Baltimore, Dec. 27-29, 1894, H. 
L. Fairchild; Memorial of George Huntington Williams, W. B. Clark; 
Memorial of Amos Bowman, H. M. Ami; High-level gravels in New 
England [abstract], C. H. Hitchcock: Variations of glaciers [abstract], 
H. F. Reid; Lake Newberry the probable successor of lake Warren [ab- 
stract], H. L. Fairchild: Notes on the glaciation of Newfoundland [ab- 
stract], T. C. Chamberlin; Crystallized slags from copper smelting 
[abstract]. A.C. Lane; the granites of Pikes Peak, Colorado, E. B. Mat- 
thews; Illustrations of peculiar mineral transformations, B. Kk, Emerson; 
Spherulitic voleanics at North Haven, Maine, W. 8. Bayley; A new in- 
trusive rock near Syracuse, N. H. Darton and J. F. Kemp; Cretaceous 
deposits of the northern half of the Atlantic Coastal plain, W. B. Clark; 
Surface formations of southern New Jersey, R. D. Salisbury. 

Proc. Colo. Sci. Soc,, vol. tv. Artesian wells of Denver, P. H. van 
Diest; Remarks on the classification of Huerfano Eocene, R. C. Hills; 
Types of past eruptions of the Rocky mountains, R. C. Hills; Informal 
note on twin crystals of selenite, R. C. Hills; Notes on the discovery of 
Radiolites austinensis Roemer (7), G. L. Cannon, Jr.; The ore deposits 


64 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


of Newman hill, J.B. Farish; Notes on Montana sapphires, A. S. 
Dwight; The post-Laramie beds of Middle Park, Colo,, Whitman Cross; 
Notes on the geology of Palmer Lake,Colo., and the Palaeozoic exposures 
along the Front range, G. L. Cannon, Jr.; The geology of Denver and 
vicinity, G. L. Cannon, Jr.; On a series of peculiar schists near Salida, 
Colo., Whitman Cross; Informal notes on slag crystals, A. Raht; Certain 
dissimilar occurrences of gold-bearing quartz, T. A. Rickard; Evidence 
bearing on the formation of ore deposits by lateral secretion, P. H. van 
Diest; Eruptive dikes near Manchester, Mass, Richard Pearce; Nickel 
—historical sketch, W. L. Austin; Nickel—occurrence, geological dis- 
tribution and genesis of ore deposits, Philip Argall; Informal notes on 
Independence mine, F, KE. Schwartz. 

Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci., vol. 8, part 3. Contributions to the 
Tertiary fauna of Florida, pt. 1m, A new classification of the Pelecy- 
poda, W. H. Dall. Pp. 479-570, March, 1895. 


ITT. Papers in Scientifie Journals, 


Science, May 24, 1895. Current notes on physiography (VII), W. M. 
Davis. 

Science, May 31, 1895. Current noteson physiography (VIII), W. M. 
Davis. 

Amer. Jour. Sci., June, 1895. Crystal form of borneol and isoborneol, 
W. H. Hobbs; Synopsis of the mode of growth and development of the 
graptolitic genus Diplograptus, R. Ruedemann; Newly discovered dike 
at DeWitt, near Syracuse, N. Y., N. H. Darton and J. F. Kemp; Note 
on the amount of elevation which has taken place along the Rocky 
Mountain range in British America since the close of the Cretaceous 
period, G. M. Dawson; Three new analyses of sodalite from three new 
localities, L. Mel. Luquer and G. J. Volekening. 

School of Mines Quarterly, April, 1895. Contributions from the min- 
eralogical department of Columbia College, XXI, A. J. Moses; Mona- 
zite and orthoclase from South Lyme, Conn., W. D. Matthew. 

Ottawa Naturalist, June, 1895. Notes on the stratigraphy of the 
Cambro-Silurian rocks of eastern Manitoba, D. B. Dowling. 

Am. Naturalist, June, 1895. Is Deemonelix a burrow? A reply to Dr. 
Theodor Fuehs, E. H. Barbour; Sponges, recent and fossil, J. F. James 


IV. EHecerpts and Individual Publications. 


Notes on some eruptive rocks from Gallatin, Jefferson and Madison 
counties. Montana, G. P. Merrill. Proc. U.S. Nat. Museum, vol. 17, pp. 
637-673, (No. 1031), 1895. 

The rocks of the Sierra Nevada, H. W. Turner. 14th Ann. Rept. U. 
S. G. S., pp. 435-495, pls. 48-59, 1895. 

Tennessee phosphate rocks, J. M. Safford. Reprint from Rept. Com. 
of Agriculture. 16 pp., 1895. 

On the structure of the ridge between the Taconic and Green Moun- 
tain ranges in Vermont, T. Nelson Dale. 14th Ann. Rept. U.S. G.S., 
pp. 525-549, pls. 66-70, 1895. 


Correspondence. 65 


On the structure of Monument mountain, Great Barrington, Massa- 
chusetts, T. Nelson Dale. 14th Ann. Rept. U. S. G.S., pp, 551-565, 
pls. ‘71-72, 1895. 

The laccolitic mountain groups of Colorado, Utah and Arizona, 
Whitman Cross. 14th Ann. Rept. U.S. G.S., pp. 157-241, pls. 7-16, 
1895. 

Geological section—St. Louis to Shawneetown, J. M. Nickles. Final 
Report of the Illinois Board of World's Fair Commission, pp. 155-228, 
1 pl., Springfield, 1895. 


V. Proceedings of Scientific Laboratories, ete. 


Univ. of Cal., Bull. Dept. Geol., vol. 1, no. 10. On lawsonite, a new 
rock-forming mineral from the Tiburon peninsula, Marin Co., Cal., F. 
L. Ransome. Pp. 301-312, pl. 17, May, 1895. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


INTERGLACTAL Chmatic Conpirions. In the article by Mr. Warren 
Upham, printed in the May number of the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST and 
entitled “Climatic Conditions shown by North American Interglacial 
Deposits,’’ it appears to me that the author very greatly underrates the 
evidences of a warm climate afforded by the plant remains found in the 
deposits of this age in the vicinity of Toronto. The particular beds in 
which these remains have been found at Toronto and Scarborough may 
for the present be assumed to be contemporaneous, for, although this 
has not been absolutely proved, the evidence they give is at least con- 
current. 

In these beds the following species of plants have been recognized: (1) 
Asimina triloba, (2) Fraxinus quadrangulata, (3) Quercus obtusilobu, (A) 
Ulmus recemosa, (5) Taxus baceata var. canadensis, (6) Acer pleistocentcum. 
Of these the yew (No. 5) is too wide-spread in habitat to give much in- 
formation, and the maple (No. 6) is supposed to be a species now ex- 
tinct, but the four first-mentioned plants are all, for the region, south- 
ern forms, which here reach or surpass their present northern limits. 
This statement may be verified by consulting Prof. Sargent’s ‘‘Forest 
Trees of North America” and Prof. Macoun’s ‘Catalogue of Canadian 
Plants.”’ Prof. Macoun, in fact, records the two first-named species in 
Canada only from the shore of lake Erie: the third he recognizes doubt 
fully in the southern part of Ontario, while the fourth is not quite so 
distinctively southern in habitat, being found sparsely both in southern 
Ontario and in the ‘‘Eastern Townships” of the province of Quebec. 

To assume, as Mr. Upham* does, that these trees flourished when 
“the ice-sheet was melted away from the region of the Upper Lauren- 
tian lakes as far eastward as Toronto, while yet it remained on the 


Filo, cit., Pp. 290. 


66 The American Geologist. July, 1895 
northeastern part of the basin of lake Ontario, on northern New York, 
and the greater part of New England,”’ and that ‘tthe ice border during 
that whole time was near,’ seems to me to be wholly opposed to the 
evidence in our possession. It is surely evident that the mere proximity 
of such continental ice surfaces would have resulted in the occurrence 
of killing frosts nearly every clear night during the summer, and that 
no conditions less favorable, or less remote from such arctic influences 
than those now found in the same region, are at all compatible with the 
facts. 

[am not aware that any of the plants found about the edge of the 
Malaspina glacier in Alaska* attain their highest northern range for the 
continent there, but even if this were the case, the climatic conditions 
to be reckoned with on the Pacific coast are quite different from any 
which could possibly have occurred during the Glacial period in the 
eastern part of America. GEORGE M. Dawson. 

May 20, 1895. 


PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEV 


Dr. Epwarp B. Maruews, instructor in mineralogy in the 
Johns Hopkins University, is spending the summer in study 
in Germany. 

Mr. Harry A. Lee has been appointed Commissioner of 
Mines of Colorado by Gov. McIntire. A bill was recently 
passed establishing a state bureau of mines in Colorado simi- 
lar to that in California. (ng. and Mining Journal.) 

Hon. Ecxiey B. Coxe, of Drifton, Pa., died on May 13th. 
Mr. Coxe was a well known mining engineer and was one of 
the organizers and early vice-presidents and presidents of the 
American Institute of Mining Engineers. 

Mr. J.S. Dimer, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, passed 
through Minneapolis on June 8th. He was on his way to in- 
vestigate the Tertiary coal beds a short distance west of 
Portland, Oregon. 

Pror. Kari A. von Zirrer’s paper on “ Paleontology and 
the Biogenetie Law,” which was read before the Internation- 
al Congress of Geologists last summer, has recently been pub- 
lished in Natural Science (No. 89, May, 1895). 

Dr. Henry Woopwarp, president of the Geological Society 
of London, at the last meeting of that society chose for the 
subject of his presidential address, ‘Some points in the life- 
history of the Crustacea in early Paleozoic times.” 

Tue British AssocraTion FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE 
will meet at Ipswich from Sept. 11th to 19th. The president 
is Sir Douglas Galton. Mr. W. Whitaker, of the Geological 
Survey of Great Britain, is president of section C (Geology ). 


*Ibid., p. 288. 


Personal and Scientific Neus. 67 


Dr. Karu Voer, for many years professor of geology at 
Geneva, died on May 6th, at the age of 78 years. He was 
born at Giessen and studied under Liebig and Agassiz. Be- 
fore his appointment at Geneva he had held a similar chair 
at the university of his native town. 

Mr. Bairey Wits, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, and as- 
sistants will make a reconnaissance of the mineral resources 
in the vicinity of Puget sound. This region is already some- 
what familiar to Mr. Willisfrom his work on the Northern 
Transcontinental Survey. 

THe University or Curcaco has lately distributed the pro- 
gramme of the department of geology, 1895-1896. Brief ac- 
counts of the aims of the department, the equipment, library 
facilities and courses of instruction are given. The officers 
of instruction number eight, and there are thirty-one courses 
offered. 

GEOLOGICAL Society oF WasHineatron. At the meeting on 
May 22d the following papers were read: Questions in re- 
gard to the former extent of continental areas suggested by 
the distribution of oceanic fishes, by G. Brown Goode; The 
North American continent in Cretaceous and Tertiary time, 
by G. K. Gilbert; Recent examination of the Cambrian in 
Georgia and Alabama, by C. D. Walcott. 

Tue GroroaicaL Society or America will hold its seventh 
summer meeting Tuesday and Wednesday, August 27th and 
28th, in the Art Museum, Springfield, Mass. Several excur- 
sions to points of geological interest in the neighborhood of 
Springfield have been arranged. These will be conducted by 
HeEGisaw «©. Crosby, W. M. Davis; W. N. Rice and Wm. H. 
Hobbs. 

THe SrxtuH INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL ConGreEss, which 
meets in London from July 26th to August 38d, has made ar- 
rangements for an exhibition. It has been definitely ar- 
ranged that the exhibition, as well as the Congress, will be 
held in the building of the Imperial Institute, South Kensing- 
ton. The exhibition will be opened early in July and will 
probably remain open until the middle of September. 

THe GeroLogicaL Socrety oF Lonpon has adopted the plan 
of issuing in a separate pamphlet the catalogue of literature, 
mainly of course geological, which was added to its library 
during the last six months of 1894. It is double, the first part 
under the author’s names and the second under subject-titles. 
It fills 58 closely printed pages. It will prove, i continued, 
as we hope it will be, a very valuable summary of geological 
literature. 

Messrs. G. F. Becker and Cuester W. Purineron, with Dr. 
W. F. Dat, left Washington May 14th for a reconnaissance 


68 The American Geologist. July, 1895 


of the mineral resources of Alaska, Congress having made a 
special appropriation of $5,000 for that purpose. The work 
of the season will be confined to the coast,and an examination 
of the upper Yukon will not be attempted. 

THE CoLorapo Screntiric Society has recently issued the 
fourth volume of its “Proceedings.” This volume contains 
xxix and 456 pages and includes the proceedings and papers 
for 1891, 1892 and 1898. Some of the more important papers 
were reviewed in the American Georoaist at the time of their 
appearance in separate form. The contents of this volume 
are given under the head of “Recent Publications” in this 
issue. 

Tue Royat Socrery or Canava held its fourteenth meeting 
at Ottawa, May 15th, 16th and 17th. The following geolog- 
ical papers were read: The geology of the proposed Ottawa 
ship canal, by R. W. Ells; Note on Tertiary fossil plants 
from the vicinity of the city of Vancouver, B. C., by Sir Wil- 
liam Dawson: Organic remains of the Little River group, No. 
4, by G. F. Matthew; The chemical composition of andra- 
dite from two localities in Ontario, B. J. Harrington. 

BULLETINS oF AMERICAN PALeontToLocy. This is a title of a 
new serial issued under the direction of Gilbert D. Harris, 
Ithaea, N. Y. It is intended that these bulletins will appear 
when suitable material is prepared for them and not necessa- 
rily at regular intervals. They will not represent work done 
merely by one person or institution, but will be of a more gen- 
eral nature—subject to acceptable contributions from all 
paleontological workers. No. 1 is entitled “Claiborne Fos- 
sils,’ part I, Synonymy of Lea’sand Conrad’s species; part IJ, 
New or remarkable species. 

THe AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCI- 
ENCE will hold its forty-fourth meeting at Springfield, Mass., 
Wednesday, Aug. 28th, to Saturday, Sept. 7th. Information 
relating to membership and papers can be obtained from the 
permanent secretary, Prof. F. W. Putnam, Salem, Mass., while 
the local secretary, Mr. W. A. Webster, of Springfield, will 
attend to all inquiries concerning arrangements, hotels, rail- 
way rates, ete. A number of general and special excursions 
have been arranged for the members of the Association and 
other societies. The following societies will meet at Spring- 
field in connection with the A. A. A. S.: Geological Society 
of America; Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Sei- 
enee; Association of Economie Entomologists; Association 
of State Weather Service; Society for Promoting Engineering 
Edueation; American Chemical Society; American Forestry 
Association. 


N 


THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 
Vol. XVI, Plate IV. 


THE 


AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. 


Vou. XVI. AUGUST, 1895. No.2. 


JOSEPH GRANVILLE NORWOOD, M. D., LL. D. 


By G. C. BROADHEAD, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. 
(Portrait, Plate LV.) 


John Norwood, an English gentleman, was born in London 
and came to Virginia about 1740. He was an accomplished 
mathematician and left to his eldest son two manuscript 
works on mathematics.* 

Charles, the eldest son of John Norwood, was born in 1753. 
and was a Revolutionary soldier. He was twice married, the 
first time, in 1781, to Anna Dale. After her death he moved 
to Kentucky, settling in Woodford county, and within a few 
years married Mildred Dale, a sister of his first wife. She was 
the mother of Joseph G. Norwood. During the second war 
with Great Britain Charles Norwood operated a powder mill, 
which he sold soon after the war closed and settled on a small 
farm near Lexington, where he died in 1832. 

Joseph Granville Norwood was born in Woodford county, 
Kentucky, December 20, 1807. When six years of age he at- 
tended a school taught by a Scotchman named Buchanan. 
When nine years old he entered the school of Aldrich and 
Vaughan, taught on the Laneastrian system. The school con- 
tained nearly four hundred pupils, whose studies ranged from 
the lowest primary to higher mathematics. He remained in 
this school for about five years, officiating as head monitor 
during the last two years. Young Norwood’s father moved 


*One of these books was shown to me by the late Dr. Norwood and is 
now in the possession of the Norwood family. 


70 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


into town and occupied a house near a printing office. The 
son, often observing the process of printing, became ardently 
desirous of becoming a printer. But his father earnestly de- 
sired him to study medicine. About this time he secured em- 
ployment as clerk in the banking house of Mr. Winn. While 
thus engaged a Mr. Snell visited Lexington giving illustrated 
popular science lectures. Mr. Winn being an old acquaintance, 
Mr. Snell called to see him. Mr. Winn being absent, Mr. Snell 
presented the clerk with a ticket to the exhibition. The exhi- 
bition chiefly consisted of illustrations in chemistry and elec- 
tricity. Heretofore young Norwood’s evenings had been dull, 
but they were no longer so. A love for experimental science 
was then born in him. With the assistance of a tinner and with 
lenses obtained from a watchmaker he constructed a magic 
lantern. He prepared his own slides, using ivory black for 
outlines, a few transparent colors and colorless varnish. With 
bottles, a pane of glass, tin-foil, a stick of sealing wax, a skein 
of silk and elder pith a few electrical experiments were made. 

He next entered a printing office, and afterwards purchased 
a newspaper and continued in that business for several years. 
The greater part of 1827 was spent in travelling. In 1828 he 
published a journal of medicine and in 1829 the ‘Christian 
Examiner.” In 1830 Norwood and Palmer were engaged in 
printing and publication in Louisville, Kentucky. Norwood 
soon after sold out and determined to devote himself to the 
study of medicine and the sciences. He already had begun 
to devote all of his leisure to the study of scientific books. In 
the meantime he took control of the “Lexington Intelligencer” 
for a year, but finding that this interfered with his medical 
studies he soon withdrew and pursued his study of medicine 
at Transylvania Medical College. Toward the close of the 
second session of his medical course, although he was in- 
formed that he could secure a diploma, he determined to wait 
another year as he was not altogether satisfied with his ac- 
quirements. Without solicitation the entire faculty gave him 
recommendations and he at once entered upon the practice of 
medicine, and by the end of the year he was possessed of a 
large practice. The next year (1836) he returned to Lexing- 
ton, wrote out a thesis on spinal diseases, and in March he 
graduated. 


Joseph Granville Norwood, M. D., LL. D—Broadhead. 71 


In 1840 the Indiana legislature chartered the Madison Med- 
ical Institute and Dr. Norwood was given the chair of sur- 
gery. In 1843 he was invited to a chair in the medical de- 
partment of the St. Louis University. This position he held 
until 1847 when he was urged to enter upon the United States 
Geological Survey. From 1847 to 1851 he was assistant ge- 
ologist with Dr. D. D. Owen on the survey of Wisconsin, Iowa 
and Minnesota, his work chiefly being near lake Superior. In 
1854 he was elected to the chair of chemistry in the Kentucky 
Medical school at Louisville, but did not serve. 

From 1851 to 1858 Dr. Norwood was state geologist of Ili- 
nois. From1858 to 1860 he was assistant geologist of Missouri. 
In 1871 Dr. Norwood was offered the position of state geolo- 
gist of Missouri. He would only agree to accept the office 
until a state geologist was appointed. He held the office for 
three or four months. 

From 1860 to 1880 he was professor in the University of 
the State of Missouri, filling the chairs of geology and chem- 
istry, also of natural science, including physics, anatomy and 
_physiology, and for several years he was dean of the medical 
department of the university. On account of ill health his 
active work with the university ceased in 1880. Since then 
his name has remained on the catalogue as emeritus professor 
of physics. Part of the time between 1861 and 1865 the reg- 
ular university exercises were suspended and the university 
‘building was occupied by United States troops, but Dr. Nor- 
wood came regularly to the building and remained all day, 
faithfully watching over the university property. 

About fifteen years ago Dr. Norwood met with a serious 
fall, which injured his hip and made it difficult to get about. 
For over twelve months previous to his death he suffered 
painfully at times from gravel, and during the last two 
months of his life the end of all seemed to be near. For 
months he took but little nourishment and during his last 
days it was mechanically given him. He died in Columbia, 
Missouri, May 6, 1895. 

He was devoted to his family, faithful to his friends, fear- 
less in his views and yet was never known to speak unjustly 
of any one. His mind was strong, it was clear and bright to 
the last. He possessed a gentle grace and a grand dignity 


72 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


that made all who knew him love, honor and respect him. 
His scholarship was broad; he was accomplished in natural 
science and a thorough instructor, and universally loved by 
his pupils. 

Dr. Norwood was twice married, his first wife being Miss 
Louisa Taylor. By this marriage he had two sons and one 
daughter. The daughter married Col. J. A. Hendricks, of 
Indiana, who was killed at the battle of Pea Ridge. Dr. Nor- 
wood’s second wife was Mary Francis Pugh, of Madison, In- 
diana. Three sons and five daughters were born of this mar- 
riage. One of these daughters married John D. Vineil, D. D., 
of St. Louis, who is one of the most prominent free masons 
of the country. Charles J. Norwood, a son by Dr. Norwood’s 
second marriage, has been state mine inspector of Kentucky 
for ten years, and is now state geologist of Kentucky. 

Dr. Norwood was a mason for 67 years and was buried with 
masonic honors, and his remains were also escorted to the 
grave by the cadets of the University of Missouri. The coun- 
cil of the university, at a meeting held for the purpose, 
adopted resolutions extolling his many virtues and his great 
learning, stating that in his death the school, the State and 
education lost one whose place it would be hard to fill. 

A prominent characteristic of Dr. Norwood was his extreme 
modesty as it concerned himself. All of the various positions 
that he has held were offered him without his seeking. I had 
been most intimate with him for thirty-five years yet I never 
found him praising himself, yet for his every action there was 
praise due to him. For the past three years I had endeavored 
to obtain certain information necessary to a sketch of his life, 
but he always evaded the subject and asked me to wait, and 
my respect for him was such that I could not urge the matter. 
He was a valued friend, a good man, a pure man. 

Dr. J. G. Norwood’s publications, so far as now known by 
me, were as follows: 

1838. ‘Outlines of a Course of Lectures on the Institutes of Medi- 
cine.’’ Lexington, Ky. 

1841. ‘‘Family Medical Library.’? Published by U. P. James, Cin- 


cinnati. This was a revision, with additions, of Dr. Buchan’s then well 
known English work. 


1846. ‘Description of a New Fossil Fish from the Paleeozoic Rocks 
of Indiana,’ by Joseph G. Norwood, M. D., and David Dale Owen, M. 


Joseph Granville Norwood, M. D., LL. D.—Broadhead. 73 


D. February 16, 1846.—American Journal of Science and Arts, 2d se- 
ries, vol. 1, page 367. This was the Macropetalichthys rapheidolabis, 
and the description was the second notice of fish remains in the Cornif- 
erous. The genus was erected by Norwood and Owen.* 

1846. ‘‘Description of a Remarkable Fossil Echinoderm from the 
Limestone Formation of St. Louis, Mo., by J. G. Norwood, M. D., and 
D. D. Owen, M. D. June 20, 1846.—American Journal of Science and 
Arts, 2d series, vol. 1, p. 225. This was the Melonites multipora. 
The genus was erected by Norwood and Owen. 

1847. ‘‘Researches Among the Protozoic and Carboniferous Rocks 
of Central Kentucky, made during the Summer of 1846,” by D. D. 
Owen, M. D. and J. G. Norwood, M. D. St. Louis, 1847. This was an 
“excursion through part of Tennessee and Kentucky, by way of Nash- 
ville, Gallatin, Scottsville, Glasgow, New Haven and Bardstown,’ and 
was undertaken ‘‘with a view to clear up some doubtful points in west- 
ern geology.’’ The authors say: ‘‘The points to which our attention 
was mainly directed were to determine whether the ‘Cliff’ formation 
of the west—the Upper Silurian and part of the Devonian rocks of 
Europe—existed in Tennessee and the southern part of Kentucky: to 
observe the succession, bearings and relative area occupied by the pro- 
tozoic and carboniferous or mountain limestone; and to collect, if pos- 

‘sible, a greater variety of fossils from the strata above the black slate, 
which occupy the knobby region of the Western States, in order to ob- 
tain additional evidence of the true age of these deposits, which have 
been usually regarded, on lithological grounds, as having been depos- 
ited contemporaneously with the Portage and Chemung groups of New 
York and the Devonian rocks of Europe.’’ They identified the ‘*Cliff”’ 
formation in various places and decided that the deposits in question 
above the black slate ‘‘belong to the Carboniferous [also referred to as 
‘sub-carboniferous’] and not to the Devonian age.’’ These ‘‘sub-carbon- 
iferous’’ beds are now known in Kentucky as the Keokuk-Waverly se 
ries, in part. The pamphlet is an interesting one on several accounts. 
It contains one plate of fossils and a horizontal section of the beds along 
the line of observation. 

1848. First Report as Assistant U. 8. Geologist in the Survey of the 
Northwest. 

1852. Second Report as Assistant U.S. Geologist in the Survey of 
the Northwest. 

Geological Report of a Survey of.a portion of Wisconsin and Minne: 
sota made during 1847, 1848, 1849 and 1850. 260 pages, large quarto, 
illustrated. Prof. N. H. Winchell, state geologist of Minnesota, has 
remarked upon the the thorough accuracy of this work of Dr. Nor 
wood’s.t 


*Nore.—A portion of the specimen described and figured is now in the 
collection of Missouri University, Columbia. Comparing this with de 
scription of M. sullivantii, Ohio Rep., vol. 1, Pal., I am covinced that it 
is the same species, and Norwood’s specimen has priority. 

TDr. A. Litton, of St. Louis, I believe is the only person now remain 
ing who was engaged in that survey. 


74 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


1851-1857. State Geologist of Illinois. Following the election of a 
Republican Governor, he (being a pronounced Democrat) was removed 
from office and the legislature refused to appropriate means to publish 
his report. Concerning the latter, a legislative committee reported as 
follows: ‘‘We refer the accompanying report of Dr. Norwood to his ex- 
cellency, the Governor, and also the report of the topographer annexed 
to the same. From these reports it will be seen, first, that Dr. Norwood 
has materials of an entirely economic character, nearly ready for publi- 
cation, which will make a volume of from one thousand to twelve hun- 
dred pages, with all the sections and diagrams necessary to illustrate 
the work,”’ etc., ete. The committee also reported: ‘‘Your committee 
will further state that, in their opinion, there has not only been a large 
amount of labor performed at comparatively a small expense, but that 
it has been well done. No just cause of complaint can be urged against 
the present incumbent, Dr. Norwood, or any of his assistants.’? These 
brief extracts from the legislature’s records may give to those whose 
knowledge of Dr. Norwood’s services in Illinois is limited to, what his 
friends deem, a singular note in the first report of his successor, a dif- 
ferent notion as to what the facts really were.* 

During his term as state geologist of Illinois he made two reports of 
progress, one dated Feb. 5, 1853, and one Feb. 7, 1855; and in February, ~ 
1857, he was prepared to publish the report ‘‘of 1,000 or 1,200 pages’’ 
mentioned above, for which no appropriation could be obtained. Sub- 
sequently, however, in August, 1857, he published an ‘‘Abstract of a 
Report on Illinois Coals,’’ 93 pages, with map and two plates of sections, 
the expense of which was met from a fund controlled by the Governor. 
This, with a short account of the Rosiclare lead region given in Vol. I 
of Worthen’s reports (1866), contains, unfortunately, all the published 
results of his work in Illinois. It may be proper to state that Governor 
Bissell did not desire to remove Dr. Norwood, but was forced to yield to 
political pressure. Mr. Worthen’s appointment was then made upon Dr. 
Norwood’s urgent request, Mr. Worthen having been one of his assis- 
tants. 

1854. Two paleontological papers, with plates: 1.—‘‘Notice of Pro- 
ducti,’”’ ete., ‘‘with Descriptions of Twelve New Species.’’? 2.—‘‘Notice 
of the Genus Chonetes,”’ etc., ‘‘with Descriptions of Eleven New Spe- 
cies.”’ By J. G. Norwood and Henry Pratten.—Journal of the Academy 
of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. 

1855. ‘Notice of Fossils from the Carboniferous Series of the West- 
ern States,’’ etc.; ‘‘with Descriptions of Eight New Characteristic Spe- 
cies.”?’ By. J. G. Norwood and Henry Pratten.—Journal of the Acad- 
emy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. 

1868. ‘‘Experimental Exercises and Problems in Elementary Chem- 
istry.’’ Published by U. P. James, Cincinnati. 


*Dr. J. Lindahl, late curator of the Illinois State Museum, has informed 
me that he was surprised upon looking over the Illinois collection to find 
that Dr. Norwood had collected such a large lot of specimens. Both 
Owen and Swallow forty years ago wrote complimentary letters to Nor- 
wood concerning the collection. 


The Keweenawan.— Winchell. 75 


[CRUCIAL POINTS IN THE GEOLOGY OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION. NO. 6.] 


THE KEWEENAWAN ACCORDING TO THE 
WISCONSIN GEOLOGISTS. 


By N. H. WINcHELL, Minneapolis, Minn. 

Concisely it may be said, at once, that the Wisconsin 
survey immediately reached definite ideas on these mooted 
questions of Lake Superior geology. That survey continued 
from 1873 to 1879, a period of six years. The whole state 
was reported and mapped in an incredibly short space of time. 
Its proximity to Michigan, where many of these rocks had 
been described, aided the geological corps in no small degree. 
They were aided still further in having the codperation and 
active service of Prof. C. E. Wright and Maj. T. B. Brooks of 
Michigan, the latter already familiar with the problems in- 
volved, and the former still concerned with Michigan geology. 
- The conclusions of this survey are summed up by Prof. 
Chamberlin in volume I of the final report, published in 1883. In 
general they are based on facts reported by the other geolo- 
gists and published in other parts of the final report. They 
are as follows, so far as they bear upon the questions we are 
considering : 

1. The Laurentian embraces gneiss and crystalline schists, 
micaceous and chloritic, and allied rocks. 

2. The Huronian is non-conformable upon the Laurentian, 
embracing all the known iron ore deposits, made up of quartz- 
ytes, black slates, often micaceous diorytes, limestones, con- 
glomerates and cherts, having a total thickness of at least 
13,000 feet. Quartz-porphyries overlie the quartzytes in cen- 
tral Wisconsin. These members constitute what has later 
been styled Upper Huronian, and are made the equivalent, 
after Selwyn, of those extensive deposits in Canada consisting 
of limestone, iron ores and carbonaceous shales, which were 
formerly classed with the Laurentian but have been separated 
from it by Selwyn, as portions of the Huronian. It is non- 
conformable, but not strikingly so, with the overlying Kewee- 
nawan. It is associated with intrusive masses of granite, 
gabbro and dioryte. 

This conception of the Huronian is greatly different from 
that entertained by Brooks and Irving, who divided it into 
twenty parts, and included in it the crystadine schists and the 
Archean greenstones. 


76 The American Geologist. August, 1895.. 


3. The Keweenawan consists essentially of eruptive mate- 
rials, but toward the top has interstratified fragmental beds, 
such as conglomerates, sandstones and shales, the aggregate 
thickness being from 40,000 to 45,000 feet, three-fourths of 
which is igneous material. The lowest member consists of a 
great thickness of diabase and allied igneous rocks. The 
conglomerates consist almost wholly of porphyry pebbles, 
which cannot be certainly referred to their native sources. 
One conglomerate is 1,200 feet thick. The trap beds are tilted 
sometimes to angles of 45 degrees and greater, the immediately 
overlying sandstones having a conformable dip. After the 
Keweenawan there was an interval of erosion. The whole 
period of the Keweenawan was accompanied by subsidence of 
the region of lake Superior. This is proved by the enormous 
thickness of the deposits. The subsidence was also accom- 
panied by flexure and faulting. 

4. After the Keweenawan was elevated and broken there 
supervened a period of erosion, during which the region was 
a land area. This was the time of the Taconic or Lower 
Cambrian, the sediments of which are found on the Atlantic 
seaboard. Then the sea returned slowly over the region, de- 
positing a non-conformable sandstone up. n the upturned beds 
of the Keweenawan. 

5. This non-conformable sandstone is the Potsdam, and 
its distinctness from the Keweenawan is not a matter of 
doubtful opinion. Its accumulation was also accompanied by 
continued subsidence. 

* From Nos. 1 and 2 of these general conclusions the writer 
has no reason to express essential dissent. He wishes here 
only to call attention to the discriminating foresight of Prof. 
Chamberlin in not accepting the expanded Huronian of the 
Canadian geologists, though it was advanced by Irving and 
Brooks in the same report. The strata which Prof. Chamber- 
lin accepts as typically “Huronian” are those of the Penokee 
range, which, except the cherty limestone, are by Van Hise 
classed as “Upper Huronian” in the correlation paper Archean 
and Algonkian, and which at a later date Irving considered, 
rightly, the equivalent of the Animikie and of the original 
Huronian. The principal correction in the Huronian of Prof. 
Chamberlin, which later study has shown to be necessary, is. 


The Keweenawan.— Winchell. 


| 
=~] 


the separation of a part of the iron ores from the Penokee 
series and the relegation of them to the greenstone and_per- 
haps to other horizons of the Archean. This would also ne- 
cessitate the recognition of a non-conformity at the base of 
his Penokee series, by which that series would be likely to 
oceur transversely and non-conformably on all the parts of 
the Archean, including many of the so-called diorytes, which 
are really phases of the greenstones. There is still much 
doubt as to the true place of the basal limestone of Chamber- 
lin’s Penokee series, since Van Hise has latterly included it in 
the Lower Huronian, thus placing it below the great non-con- 
formity instead of above it where it had uniformly been 
classed before.* 

We desire, however, to call attention to Nos. 3,4 and 5 of 
these conclusions, and to examine the evidence on which they 
are based, as they are the same as expressed by Messrs. Wal- 
cott and Van Hise in the two “Correlation papers” to which 
reference has been made. 

No. 3, of Chamberlin’s summary, defines the Keweenawan 
and gives its essential structural relations. As to the nature 
of the Keweenawan, later examinations have rendered neces- 
sary a slight recons’s action of this description. Instead of 
having an enormous diabase mass at its base, or a gabbro mass, 
the base consists of fragmental materials. Prof. Irving refers. 
to this fact in his later work on the Keweenawan,t saying that 
layers of conglomerate and sandstone extend nearly to the 
base, the conglomerates being generally of acid eruptive rock, 
such as felsytes, quartz-porphyries and augite syenites. He 
refers also specially to the light-colored and marly sandstones 
of the region of Black and Nipigon bays, on the north shore, 
which lie non-conformable upon the Animikie slates and have 
a thickness of about 1,300 feet according to Robert Bell. 
These he considers as in the base of the Keweenawan. If he 
is correct in this there is abundant reason to put the Kewee- 
nawan age in the midst of a great sandstone epoch. But we 
shall find evidence to believe these Black Bay and Nipigon 


*See: Penokee Iron-bearing series of Michigan and Wisconsin. 
Monograph xix, U.S. Geol. Sur., p. 473, 1892. 


+The copper-bearing rocks of lake Superior. Mon. v, U.S. Geol. 
Survey, pp. 152, 155, 156, 1883. 


78 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


sandstones and marls are later instead of earlier than the bulk 
of the great Keweenawan traps. However, regardless of these, 
it may be shown that the lowest part of the Keweenawan, as 
described by Irving, and later by the Minnesota survey and 
by Prof. Van Hise, consists of massive sandstones and con- 
glomerates. Reference may here be made to the composition 
of Grand Portage island, in the northeastern part of Minne- 
sota.* At this place is a white sandstone and a conglomerate 
which show unmistakably that the Keweenawan is separated 
from the Animikie by an important erosion interval. _ Below 
this interval is the upheaved and metamorphosed Animikie, 
the same that has been examined on Pigeon point by Bayley.+ 
Pebbles from this changed Animikie and from the attendant 
eruptives (quartz-porphyry and felsyte) are in this eonglom- 
erate mingled with pieces of Animikie slate. Over the con- 
glomerate is a white siliceous sandstone. This conglomerate 
seems to extend for some distance below the water level, since 
pieces of it having somewhat different characters are on the 
beach of the island. It has been seen also at other places. A 
recent re-examination of the valley of the St. Louis river, be- 
low Carlton, reveals the existence of remarkable differences in 
the fragmental conglomerate which there hes on the Archean 
slates (Keewatin). The lowest portion is a purely quartzose 
though strongly pyritiferous conglomerate, with pebbles 
which sometimes are several inches in diameter, becoming 
gray sandstone above.* The materials of this conglomerate are 
referable wholly to the rocks of the pre-Keweenawan. Careful 
search did not bring to light a single Keweenawan pebble, al- 
though the gabbro hills rise in the immediate vicinity to the 
hight of over 500 feet. Its structural features indicate a 
greater age than that of the overlying conglomerate. A finer 
red conglomerate and red sandstone and shale lie upon the 
gray conglomerate, and are charged with pieces that can only 
be referred to the rocks of the Keweenawan immediately adja- 


*U.S. Grant, Note on the Keweenawan rocks of Grand Portage is- 
land. AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, June, 1894, vol. x11, p. 437. 

See also earlier references to this basal conglomerate by the writer, 
viz., 16th Minnesota report, pp. 55-56; 18th ditto, pp. 42-43. 

+The eruptive and sedimentary rocks on Pigeon point, Minnesota, 
and their contact phenomena. Bulletin 109, U.S. Geol. Sur. 

{Tenth Minnesota report, p. 33, 1881. Twenty-third ditto, p. 239, 
1895. 


The Keweenawan.— Winchell. 79 


cent. The lay of the ground and the perpendicular condition 
of the bluff necessitated a detour away from the river and the 
manner of union of the red conglomerate with the gray was 
not observed. This distinction besides was not established, 
although anticipated, until the specimens collected were sub- 
sequently being examined. The most convincing fact tending 
to show a difference of age between the lower and upper con- 
glomerates, at this place, was the discovery, among the peb- 
bles collected from the upper, of a rounded fragment of iron 
pyrite which could be directly referred to the pyrite so abun- 
dant in the lower conglomerate. The writer was at first dis- 
posed to consider the lower conglomerate as the base of the 
Animikie,* but there is more reason to consider it the base of 
the Keweenawan and the equivalent of that at the base of 
Grand Portage island. The upper conglomerate and sand- 
stones must date from Keweenawan or post-Keweenawan time, 
since they consist almost wholly of Keweenawan debris. If 
this be correct the Keweenawan age separated the dates of 
their origin. The upper conglomerate passes upward into the 
sandstones at Fond du Lae. | 

Prof. C. R. Van Hise has discovered lately a similar frag- 
mental base for the Keweenawan in Michigan.+ It oecurs 
also in Wisconsin. He describes it in one place as the top of 
the Penokee series, though that is a very anomalous assign- 
ment for such a conglomerate, and in another he makes it the 
base of the Keweenawan. This conglomerate, according to 
his description, is siliceous and coarsely pebbly, and contains 
only material that can be referred to pre-Keweenawan rocks. 
It is associated with a “red sandstone or quartzyte,” and is 
“mingled with Keweenawan greenstones.” 

Nos. 4 and 5 of Chamberlin’s summary (above) are so 
closely related that they may be considered together, especially 
so as we do not wish here to call in question the Potsdam age 


99 


of this upper, or “Eastern sandstone.” They appertain to the 
structural features of the Keweenawan. 
Keeping in mind the fact that, as above shown, the Kewee- 


nawan was introduced not by eruptions of igneous rock, but 


*See Twenty-third report of the Minnesota survey, p. 239. 
+The Penokee Iron-bearing series of Michigan and Wisconsin. Mon. 
x1x, U. S. Geol. Sur., pp. 326, 456-457. 


SO The American Geologist. August, 1895... 


by subsidence of the region by which the Animikie and its 
modified beds and associated gabbros, red granites and fel- 
sytes, were covered by the ocean, it is apparent that the great 
eruptions of the period began in the midst of the formation of 
a sandstone. The flexures that were the attendants of this 
subsidence and eruption were very great. In some places the 
very rocks themselves which constitute the predominant fea- 
ture of the Keweenawan were broken and violently scattered, 
either by erosive action or by voleanic ejection, probably by 
both. The formation of a conglomerate, which Irving reports 
as 1,300 feet thick imbedded in the typical Keweenawan on 
Montreal river, was not the event of a year nor of a century. 
Several fragmental beds occur on the north shore of lake Su- 
perior interstratified in the series. How far they continue as 
independent strata is not known, but it is very probable that 
they have a general parallelism with those found on the south 
shore. The sandstones become conglomeratic. Indeed the 
wide dissemination of coarse material, especially of felsitie 
and red-porphyritic rock, during the time of the Keweenawan 
is one of the most common features of its fragmental strata. 
It goes, therefore, without saying that the existence of Ke- 
weenawan conglomeratic material is not, per se, any proof of 
pre-Keweenawan time, nor evidence of the existence of a great 
erosion-plane of sufficient significance to warrant the intro- 
duction of an important time interval. Yet it is just such 
evidence as this and an occasional non-conformity which 
forms the basis of the assumption that the sandstones which 
are seen non-conformable on the traps at sundry points are of 
an age widely different from the traps. 

In order to make it clear what value the individual cases 
may have it will be necessary, in the next place, to examine 
the reports which have been published concerning them. 
Some of these descriptions omit important data, perhaps be- 
cause not obtainable. In some cases later examinations have 
supplied these missing data, but in others they are lacking 
still. 

The St. Croix Falls case is perhaps the most frequently re- 
ferred to. Prof. Irving depended on this to establish the 
enormous erosion interval between the traps and the overlying 
sandstone and inferentially to prove such an interval between 


The Keweenawan.— Winchell. sl 


‘the Lake Superior sandstone and the sandstones of the upper 
Keweenawan. It is true that the St. Croix beds there lie on 
the trap, the base of the former being a coarse conglomerate 
made up largely of trap material from the trap range. There 
are, however, some important considerations, relating to this 
-oceurrence, which are usually overlooked, viz.: 

The overlying non-conformable strata at St. Croix falls are 
not of the age of the Lake Superior sandstone, but younger, 
although probably a part of the same great formation. The 
fossils that are found in the strata are those that characterize 
the horizon of the St. Lawrence limestone, which is the horizon 
of the original Dicellocephalus. The strata are,in part, not a 
‘sandstone, but a dolomyte, and below them, further south, are 
about 1,000 feet of siliceous sandstone. These lower layers 
were penetrated in sinking the deep well at Stillwater. They 
-are well known both toward the east, in Wisconsin, and to- 
ward the west, in Minnesota, where they have been named 
Dresbach and Hinckley sandstones. It is these lower sand- 
‘stones that appear on the Lake Superior shore involved with 
the traps. The facts at St. Croix falls demonstrate that the 
subsidence which was going on during the time of the typical 
Keweenawan and later was yet in progress during the deposi- 
tion of the St. Croix formation, and that whatever fractures 
there may have been, in the Keweenawan rocks, incident to 
the movements of the crust in that region, were covered by 
the later sediments non-conformably. The St. Croix strata 
are very far above the base of the sandstone formation, and it 
is necessary to find the base and show it is a non-conformable 
conglomerate to warrant the assumption of a great erosion 
interval after the Keweenawan. This important element is 
lacking in several other similar non-conformities, if not in all 
of them so far as described. 

Prof. Chamberlin refers specifically to the phenomena at the 
falls of Black river in Douglas county, Wis., described by Mr. 
Sweet.* But there is here nothing to prove the horizon of the 
non-conformable sandstones. They are assumed to be later 

than the sandstones overlying and tilted with the traps. But 
the descriptions and the figures of Mr. Sweet do not make 
that a necessary relation. Indeed one of Mr. Sweet’s figures 


*Geol. of Wisconsin, vol. 111, pp. 340-347. 


82 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


(fig. 3) shows diabase overlying conglomerate and interstrati- 
fied sandstone. Between them is an obscure breccia. This 
conglomerate and sandstone dip 29° southwesterly toward 
a diabase cliff about 50 feet distant which rises 40 feet. Some 
of the sandstone outcrops in the gorge are ‘“tindurated,’’ as if 
by igneous contact. In general, however, the interpretation 
by Mr. Sweet sustains the view taken by Prof. Chamberlin. 
In ‘the light of observations, however, some of which have 
been mentioned above, going to prove the pre-existence of 
conglomerate and sandstone, the facts that have been pub- 
lished relating to this locality will warrant the supposition 
that here we have to deal with two sandstones and two con- 
glomerates, one pre- and the other post-Keweenawan, and the 
remark of Mr. Sweet that in one of the conglomerates, i. e., the 
more friable one, some of the pebbles are themselves of a con- 
glomerate, much strengthens this hypothesis. The contrary 
dip of the conglomerates also sustains it. There can be no 
question, however, that the upper sandstone and conglomerate 
are later than the diabase at that locality. This seems to be 
proven by the existence of diabase pebbles disseminated 
through their fragmental materials as well by the difference 
of dip. How much later is not known. It may have been 
formed very soon after the intrusion and tilting of the dia- 
base. Whatever its date, the fractured and tilted condition of 
its beds, as described by Mr. Sweet, goes to demonstrate that 
the crustal movements, whether upward or downward at this 
point, had not ceased, but that on the contrary the same in- 
stability which is recorded at the St. Croix falls prevailed 
here probably at an earlier date. The pressure and crushing 
here were such as to produce a dip in the horizontal sand- 
stones of over 40°, and in other cases to obliterate their 
bedding and to cause a slaty cleavage and a micaceous grain.* 
It is very evident that a re-examination of this locality might 
throw more light on the relations existing between the traps 
and the sandstones. The lowest beds of the sandstone seem 
not to be visible. 

In reference to the southern side of Keweenaw point, to 
which Chamberlin refers for further confirmatory evidence, it 


*See Irving’s description of this locality, Wis. Acad. Sci., vol. 11, p. 
118, 1874. 


The Keweenawan.— Winchell. 83 


is difficult to ascertain what can be relied on as to the inter- 
pretation of this shore. Chamberlin and Irving, in Bulletin 
No. 23 of the United States Geological Survey, admit that the 
Eastern sandstone in some places passes below the trap rocks 
of Keweenaw point, as first shown by M. E. Wadsworth, but 
they claim that this is illusory and only local, and that the east- 
ern sandstone is really non-conformable upon the traps. They 
explain the structural relations as understood by them by a 
hypothesis which in itself presents inherent difficulties. It 
may be that the contrariety of fact and interpretation can be 
adjusted by allowing two sandstones on the south side of Ke- 
Wweenaw point, one being older than the traps as represented 
by Rominger and Wadsworth, and one younger, but both em- 
braced in the same great sandstone period, separated locally 
into two parts by the Keweenawan eruptives.* Indeed, there 
are some facts, admitted by Chamberlin and Irving, which 
seem to require this conclusion. We do not, however, consider 
it important here to decide between these opposite “views,”’ 
since whether the Eastern sandstone be older or later than the 
traps there are four important points well established and ad- 
mitted by all observers, to which attention may be directed, 
which have bearing on this discussion. 

1. Since the Eastern sandstone was deposited there have 
been considerable, and perhaps very extended, crustal move- 
ments which have bent and broken the Eastern sandstone. 
This is but a repetition of the conclusion that has been drawn 
from occurrences in Douglas county, Wisconsin, and elsewhere. 

2. Whether the Eastern sandstone was flexed upward or 
downward by such movements, the tilting was abrupt and ac- 
complished within a few hundred yards of the contact plane. 

3. There are sandstones that pass, both abnormally because 
of overthrust, and naturally because of normal infraposition, 
below the Keweenawan traps. (Bull. 23, pp. 66, 67.) 

4. The basal beds of the Eastern sandstone are not here ex- 
posed. 

The foregoing are the localities to which Chamberlin refers 
for support for the structural relations affirmed in his sum- 


*T hose who desire to ascertain the facts that have been relied on for 
the different theories of the relations of these rocks on the south side of 
Keweenaw point will find them ably presented and discussed in Bulletin 
No. 23 of the United States Geological Survey, by Chamberlin and Irv- 
ing. See also an editorial review in the Am. GEoLoais?, vol. I, page 47. 


84 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


mary in volume I of the Wisconsin survey report. Prof. Van 
Hise has since reviewed this subject.* While he employs the 
same data he has also mentioned one other. It is the non- 
conformable position of the sandstone near Agogebic lake upon 
the rocks of the Penokee series. The conglomerate here con- 
tains rolled pebbles from the Archean, from the Penokee series 
and from the Keweenawan, the last, consisting of ‘‘quartz por- 
phyry and certain phases of basic eruptives,’’ being considered 
proof that this sandstone here is of later date than the Ke- 
weenawan. Admitting the references of all the pebbles as 
expressed by Van Hise and their significance, there is lacking 
still that same element which has been found wanting in sey— 
eral other similar cases, viz.: Is this conglomerate at the bot- 
tom of the series? It is evident that in a region which is 
subject to prolonged progressive subsidence the same fragmen- 
tal series may form a conglomerate in contact with various 
terranes as the ocean advances. This would show non-con- 
formity on each of them. But this circumstance does not 
prove non-conformity upon the beds nearest related in time to 
the transgressing formation. In order to prove an erosion 
interval preceding such transgressing formation it is neces- 
sary to find its lowest beds to be composed of a conglomerate 
and that they lie non-conformably upon the strata that next 
preceded the disturbance in point of time. In the case of an 
eruptive age it is hardly sufticient to find simply some of the 
upper parts of a sandstone non-conformable upon some of the 
earlier parts of the same formation to warrant the assertion 
of a long land interval between those extremes. 

Further, the origin of the supposed Keweenawan pebbles is 
not so certainly established as would be desirable to prove the 
post-Keweenawan age of this conglomerate. If the situation 
be considered a moment it appears that the quartz-porphyry 
pebbles may have been derived from the south. The pebbles 
from the southern complex must have come from the south. 
That shows the existence of powerful drift from that diree- 
tion. According to the Wisconsin geologists there is a large 
amount of quartz-porphyry associated with the “Archean”’ 
quartzytes further south. These probably are higher in the 


*The Penokee iron-bearing series of Michigan and Wisconsin. Mon. 
xix, U.S. Geol. Sur. 


+Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 11, pp. 249, 520. 


The Keweenawan.— Winchell. 85 


series than Archean, but whatever their age they are likely to 
occur at many points throughout the area of the southern 
complex, or surrounding it, and there would in that case be 
no plausible reason to exclude their débris from that conglom- 
erate. As to the basic eruptives in this conglomerate it would 
probably not be questioned that they may have been derived 
from the voleanics of the ““Penokee series’’ lately described by 
Van Hise in that immediate neighborhood.* The additional 
case, therefore, cited by Van Hise, seems not to strengthen the 
hypothesis of the separateness of the Eastern sandstone from 
the Keweenawan. In the light of what is now known of the 
wide extension of a basal siliceous conglomerate at the bottom 
of the Keweenawan, it seems to the writer quite reasonable to 
refer this conglomerate to that horizon—especially so since all 
those conglomerates in the Lake Superior region that can be 
referred unmistakably to a higher horizon in the series consist 
wholly, or largely, of Keweenawan debris. Its persistence after 
the erosion and recession of the Keweenawan trap range to its 
present line of strike might be reasonably expected for many 
miles further south. It must have been affected, and perhaps at 
first covered by the diabasic floods, and so hardened that in its 
low lying positions it would be almost as durable as the neigh- 
boring granite. 

Finally, it may be said that all the cited individual cases 
of non-conformity are defective as proof of an extended ero- 
sion -interval between the upper part of the Keweenawan, 
which consists of sandstones quite similar to the horizontal 
sandstones, and those horizontal sandstones. According to 
Irving’s estimate the upper fragmental member of the Ke- 
weenawan rocks, in which no trap layers are found, consists 
of sandstones and shales, usually reddish, which reach the ag- 
gregate thickness of 12,000 or 15,000 feet.+ It is claimed on 
the foregoing evidence that between these and the horizontal 
sandstones the age of the Taconic, or Lower Cambrian, must 
be ineluded. This is the fundamental idea on which the whole 
structure of the “Correlation papers” of Walcott and Van 
His2 is based so far as they discuss the geology of this region. 


*Bulletin Geol. Soc. Am., vol. v, p. 425. 


repent hearing rocks of lake Superior, Mon. v, U. S. Geol. Sur., p. 
ov . 


S6 The American Geologist. August , 1895, 


On it Mr. Walcott has based a reconstruction of the Kewee- 
nawan, or “pre-Cambrian” continent, and, later, has caleu- 
lated the age of the world on the hypothesis that the sedi- 
ments were accumulated in accordance with its shore-lines, 
while the interior of the continent was elevated above the 
ocean* and was again submerged. 


SUPERIOR MISSISSIPPIAN IN WESTERN 
MISSOURI AND ARKANSAS. 


By CHARLES ROLLIN KEYES. 


It has long been thought that in the western part of the 
Ozark uplift the Lower Carboniferous rocks do not present a 
succession that can be readily paralleled with the more widely 
and better known sequence exhibited at the eastern extremity 
of the elevation. Along the Mississippi river, where the typ- 
ical section of the Lower Carboniferous rocks of the continen- 
tal interior may be regarded as occurring, there are now rec- 
ognized four principal members: the (1) Kinderhook, (2) 
Augusta, (3) St. Louis and (4) Kaskaskia. It has been 
generally considered that the last two of these are unrepre- 
sented in southwestern Missouri and on the western flank of 
the Ozarks, and it was this absence of the upper members of 
the series that gave the Lower Carboniferous of the district 
its apparently anomalous characters. 

Until quite recently very little more than the mere presence 
of Mississippian rocks has been known in southwestern Mis- 
sourl and northwestern Arkansas. When the region first 
began to be studied with some detail a few years ago an en- 
tirely new classification of the rocks was proposed, new names 
were given to the different members and no attempts were 
made to correlate the latter with the better known rocks of 
the same age further to the east. This radical departure from 
the usual classifactory scheme was due partly to a change in 
the lithological characters of the strata, partly to a misinter- 
pretation of facts and partly to insufficient familiarity with 
the nearest beds of like age along the Mississippi river. 


*The North American Continent during Cambrian time, 12th Annual 
Report U. S. Geol. Survey, 1890-91, Plates XLII and XLIII; Correla- 
tion Papers, Bulletin 81, 1891, Plates II and III: Geologic Time, as in- 
dicated by th e sedimentary rocks, Am. GEoLoGIsS?, vol. x11, p. 343. 


Superior Mississippian tn Missouri and Arkansas.—h eyes. 87 


In geographical extent the rocks of the Mississippian series 
present some striking peculiarities which have an important 
bearing upon the question of the range and character of the 
contained faunas. Beginning in north-central Lowa near the 
Minnesota line, where the Carboniferous passes beneath the 
Cretaceous, the Mississippian rocks extend southeastward in 
a broad belt to the river from which the formation takes its 
name. From southern Iowa the Lower Carboniferous lime- 
stones continue southward along the great stream on the east- 
ern border of the Ozark uplift and sweep through Kentucky 
and Tennessee into Alabama. In northeastern Missouri 
another zone stretches around the northern and western flanks 
of the uplift through southwestern Missouri, northwestern 
Arkansas and Indian Territory, extending, discontinuously 
probably, as far as New Mexico. 

The Lower Carboniferous rocks which are exposed along 
the Mississippi river were carefully studied and the fossils 
and succession of beds clearly made out long before any other 
portion of the area had been satisfactorily determined. It 
was on this account and for the reason that the rocks of this 
age are so excellently and fully exposed on the stream that it 
became eminently proper to designate the strata as the Mis- 
sissipplan series. The section disclosed thus becomes the 
principal one and the standard of comparison. To it sections 
of different localities in the interior basin must be referred 
and with it all correlations made. 

A review of the geological work done previous to 1891 in 
southwestern Missouri and the adjacent territory shows clearly 
that not only difficulties of interpretation were encountered 
but that no serious attempts were made to compare the suc- 
cession with those of other localities. The want of details and 
the uncertainty which surrounded the various accounts of the 
region have been in great measure relieved by recent personal 
visits to some of the more important localities. The inferior 
portion of the Lower Carboniferous was found to be as fully 
developed and as clearly defined as in the typical localities in 
that 


southeastern Iowa. The superior portion of the series 
part comprising the St. Louis and Kaskaskia limestones—did 
not appear to be represented. Only a few of the localities ex- 
amined gave evidence of the higher faunas and none of these 
were conclusive enough to settle the question satisfactorily. 


8S The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


In order that the sections in southwestern Missouri might 
be accurately correlated with the typical localities as a basis 
for future detailed work, the Lower Carboniferous strata were 
carefully traced from Iowa southward along the eastern bor- 
der of the state, all the original localities were examined in 
detail and full collections of fossils made. From northeastern 
Missouri the strata were similarly traced across the state into 
the southwest. The Kinderhook, upper Burlington and lower 
Burlington limestones were found to extend the entire distance 
with almost no lithological or faunal change. But with the 
Keokuk and higher formations of the Lower Carboniferous, 
which are so well displayed in southeastern Iowa, som? start- 
ling facts developed in progressing southwestward. After 
passing the Missouri river where, at Boonville, these rocks 
oecur with abundant and characteristic fossils, the Keokuk 
beds soon vanished. At Sedalia and for fifty miles beyond no 
Keokuk or higher beds of the Lower Carboniferous limestone 
appeared to be exposed; and the Coal Measures rested directly 
upon the Burlington. This was indeed clearly demonstrated 
by Broadhead* nearly a quarter of a century ago. It is at 
this part of its southwestern extension, in Pettis, Benton and 
St. Clair counties, that the Lower Carboniferous zone abruptly 
narrows from a width of 75 miles on the north and the south 
to less than adozen miles. Atsome points the belt is reduced 
to a mere thread, as it were, that is, with only a limited ver- 
tical exposure disclosed by some stream, the Chouteau lime- 
stone being below and the Coal Measure shales in the bluffs 
above. Such a place was at the Osage river. Repeated 
searches and rather extensive collections of fossils from the 
various levels failed to disclose anything of the Lower Car- 
boniferous above the Burlington. 

Probably the feature which most disguises the Lower Car- 
boniferous rocks of southwestern Missouri is the great preva- 
lence of chert; and in the absence of a careful examination of 
the fossils much difficulty has been encountered in the inter- 
pretation of the stratigraphical problems presented. Further- 
more, it is a striking fact that of all the references to the 
geology of the region under consideration no definite mention 


*Missouri Geol. Sur., Report on Iron ores and Coal Fields, Pt. II, pp. 
162. New York, 1873. 


Superior Mississippian in Missouri and Arkansas.—K eyes. 89 


is made to rocks belonging to the upper half of the Mississip- 
pian series. Farther south, in Arkansas, the upper part has 
been reported, to be sure, but it has not been paralleled with 
the St. Louis and Kaskaskia formations at the eastern end of 
the Ozark uplift and a new name has been applied, both 
members being taken together. 

It is therefore of considerable interest that the higher fau- 
nas have been recognized recently at a number of points, the 
principal places being Golden City, Joplin and Seneca in Mis- 
souri, and at Blancett mountain, near Garfield station on the 
St. Louis and San Francisco railroad, in northern Arkansas, 
three miles from the Missouri boundary line. 

The locality near Golden City is three miles northeast of 
the town, in Dade county, on the border of the Coal Measures. 
At this place were found large numbers of Lithostrotion mam- 
illare the widely distributed coral so characteristic of the St. 
Louis limestone. In the neighboring county this fossil also 
oceurs along with the widely known echinoid Welonites multi- 
pora, 

At Blaneett, Prof. G. C. Broadhead collected, as much as a 
dozen years ago, a number of fossils, which until recently 
were not carefully examined and remained unidentified. The 
species that were most abundant were: 

Spirifer increbescens Hall. Agassizocrinus gibbosus Hall. 
Agassizocrinus dactyliformis Troost. 

Ata point one and one-half miles north of Joplin a large num- 
ber of bryozoans and brachiopods have been found. Mr. R.R. 
Rowley also collected considerable numbers which were exam- 
ined. Several species of Chonetes, Terebratula, Rhynchonella, 
Retzia and Phillipsia were secured but have not been as yet 
satisfactorily identified. The bryozoans were, moreover, sub- 
mitted to Mr. E. O. Ulrich, who independently determined all 
of them as characteristic Kaskaskia forms. The principal 
species found were: 


Ayassiocrinus dactyliformis  Rhombopora persimilis Ulrich. 


Troost. Meekopora approximata Ulrich. 
Agassiocrinus gibbosus Hall. Prismopora serrulata Ulrich. 
Spiriferina spinosa Hall. Prismopora, sp. Nov. 

Athyris sublamellosa Hall. Streblotrypa nicklesi Ulrich. 


Productus parvus Meek & Worth- — Streblotrypa subspinosa Ulrich. 
en. Septopora subquadrans Ulrich. 


90 The American Geologist. August, 195. 


Productus setigerus Hall. Polypora corticosa Ulrich. 
Stenopora ramosa Ulrich. Fenestella cestriensis Ulrich. 
Anistrypa solida Ulrich. Fenestella flexuosa Ulrich. 
Anistrypa fistulosa (Kaskaskia Archimedes compactus Ulrich. 
variety.) Archimedes intermedius Ulrich. 
Batostomella abrupta Ulrich. Archimedes invaginatus Ulrich. 


The Seneca specimens are not now at hand and a list of 
them cannot now be given. 

The fossils taken indicated clearly that they belong to the 
Kaskaskia fauna. The crinoids and bryozoans are particularly 
characteristic species of the typical locality of that formation 
on the Mississippi river, and are also widely distributed forms 
which range through Kentucky and beyond. 

These limited deposits of Kaskaskia rocks are clearly rem- 
nants of beds which were once much more widely distributed 
but have been almost entirely obliterated through erosion. 
Further south in the Boston mountains of northwestern Ar- 
kansas they are thought to be extensively developed. 

From what has been said it may be inferred that, in south- 
west Missouri: 

1. Both the inferior and superior portions of the Mississip- 
pian or Lower Carboniferous are present. 

2. In faunal, lithological and stratigraphical features the 
Burlington limestones are practically the same as at the typi- 
eal locality and that throughout this wide range their charac- 
teristics are remarkably well preserved. 

3. The upper part of the superior portion of the Lower Car- 
boniferous is not well represented and is altogether absent 
over much of the area. 

4. The uppermost member of the series contains the typical 
Kaskaskia fauna. 

5. The Coal Measures rest unconformably on all the older 
strata represented in the district, and in the vicinity of Seda- 
lia and to the southward the overlap is very much more pro- 
nounced than elsewhere. 

The explanation of the somewhat anamolous features pre- 
sented by the Lower Carboniferous formations of southwest 
Missouri is found in the stratigraphical rather than in the 
faunal evidence. Further, the physical changes that the re- 
gion has undergone are corroborated by the phenomena which 
are known to have taken place in other parts of interior basin. 


Superior Mississippian in Missouri and Arkansas.—ZA# eyes. 91 


It is now pretty well established that ever since the earliest 
times, from the period when the North American continent 
first began to raise itself above the boundless sea, the Ozark 
region has been a district of constant movement. 

In the Carboniferous rocks which are exposed in almost con- 
tinuous section for nearly 300 miles along the Mississippi 
river the records of a number of oscillations have been recently 
made out. Immediately preceding the deposition of the 
Lower Carboniferous there was certain slight uprisings. 
Notable warpings of the earth’s crust also took place at the 
beginning of the St. Louis, of the Kaskaskia and of the Coal 
Measures. The idea of a line of unconformity existing at the 
base of the St. Louis was first brought out by White. It has 
later also been suggested by Williams for Arkansas. At the 
top of the St. Louis exists the most prominent disparity in 
sedimentation, one only approached by that at the base of the 
Coal Measures. Along the line of the present Mississippi 
river the shore line moved rapidly southward far beyond any 
point previously reached and littoral deposits were laid down 
below the mouth of the Missouri. A similar sequence of 
events appear to be disclosed in southwest Missouri. 


GLACIAL NOTES FROM THE PLANET MARS. 
By E. W. Cuaypouek, Akron, Ohio. 


In connection with the much discussed Glacial era of our 
planet’s history it would be of great interest to obtain definite 
knowledge of the possibility or reality of similar conditions on 
some other planet in our system. Nor does such knowledge 
seem altogether unattainable, though one planet alone thus far 
has afforded the slightest prospect of success in the effort to 
secure it. Mars has, ever since telescopes of suflicient power 
were first turned to his dise, presented to the eye appearances 
so strongly suggestive of that which our earth would present 
to a Martian astronomer as to inevitably suggest a compari- 
son, if not a resemblance. It is indeed difficult to avoid the 
conviction that the white masses on the poles of Mars as they 
emerge from their long winter are really snow-caps. Their 
constant occurrence, their regular seasonal diminution during 
the past two hundred years as the poles alternately come out 
into the strong sunlight, and the total disappearance of one of 


92 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


them, for the first time since observations began, during the 
last Martian summer of 1894, form an argument so strong as 
to be almost demonstrative in support of this long entertained 
opinion. They bring this planet, our nearest superior neigh- 
bor in the system, into very close analogy with our own globe. 

It is scarcely relevant to conjure up theoretical objections 
drawn from possible but imaginary differences between the 
physical constitution of the earth and Mars. Not the slight- 
est grounds exist for supposing such differences. The com- 
munity of material through the universe is so well proved and 
the absence from the other planets of all elements other than 
those with which we are familiar justifies us in assuming iden- 
tity and in believing that the white caps of Mars are composed 
of real snow and ice. 


EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAM. 


Projection of the orbits of the Earth and Mars on the plane of the Ecliptie. 
PP. Perihelion point. Earth 100° Long. Mars 335° Long. 
SVE. Southern Vernal Equinox. Mars 354° Long. 
SSS. Southern Summer Solstice. 
SAE. ey Autumnal Equinox. 
SWS. oS Winter Solstice. 
Si. Eccentricity of orbit of Earth. 
S2: BS Ss Miars: 


Glacial Notes from the Planet Mars.—Clay pole. 93 


The recent opposition of Mars has been industriously util- 
ized by various astronomers in securing observations under 
very favorable circumstances. As may be seen from our fig- 
ure, Mars and the earth can seldom be better placed for this 
purpose than they were during the summer and autumn of 
1894. Mars being in perihelion and the earth at mean dis- 
tance, the two globes were coursing along through space side 
by side with an interval of less than 50 million miles between 
them. Moreover, the illumination of Mars was ata maximum, 
the bright side being directed toward the night side of the 
earth so that he was visible from sunset to sunrise for several 
months. 

This admirable opportunity of scrutinizing the surface of 
our neighbor planet led to the confirmation of some previ- 
ous opinions and the discovery of not afew details. From va- 
rious sourees the following account of our present knowledge 
and belief, as based on the researches of past and present as- 
tronomers, has been compiled. 

As already mentioned, the polar snows annually melt and 
_ diminish, and during the recent Martian summer the southern 
snow-cap entirely disappeared evidencing an unusually hot 
season. During its diminution there was seen bordering it a 
dark band of unequal breadth, but averaging in June, 1894, 
about two hundred miles. “It was the darkest marking on 
the dise and was blue.” (Lowell. ) 

The snow-cap extended down to 674° south latitude so that 
the dark boundary band was at least 6° in width and its 
northern end lay in south latitude 614°. Of it Mr. Lowell of 
the Flagstaff Observatory in Arizona says: “The formation 
was water beyond a doubt, for it was of the color of water, it 
faithfully followed the melting of the snow, and it subsequent- 
ly vanished—three independent facts mutually confirmatory 
of this conclusion.” 

Following the appearance of the water band, says Mr. Low- 
ell, the well known system of Martian canals shares in the 
deepening of the color but temporarily and in south-north 
succession. The so-called seas through which the canals pass 
share also in the change of tint. Gradually this dark hue 
spreads toward the planet’s equator. One after another the 
markings on the surface become blue-green and in similar or- 


gA4 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


der pass back in a short time to their original yellow color or 
invisibility. 

On the view advocated by Mr. Lowell the melting of the 
south polar snow-cap produces a glacial lake extending from 
the ice-front for two hundred miles to the northward and 
probably deepest where it is in contact with the ice. The 
steady increase of the lake at last enables it to throw off its 
” and with the arrival of 
these streams the growth of vegetation commences and gives 
the blue-green tint so much insisted on by that author. With 


water through the so-called “ canals, 


the disappearance or great reduction of the polar cap the wa- 
ter disappears, vegetation dies and the surface of the planet 
returns to its wonted fiery tint. In Mr. Lowell’s words the 
polar ice-dammed sea isthe “Deus ex machina’? to the sum- 
mer life of the planet. Mars being short of water draws on 
its polar reservoir for an annual supply. 

Mars would on this view be in the same condition as some 
of the arid regions of the earth where a short wet season de- 
velops an equally short-lived period of vegetation and perhaps 
of animal life. The so-called seas would be the lowest parts. 
of the surface through which water passes at annual intervals: 
but in which it does not continually remain. With his scanty 
allowance of air and water the planet shows a stage of being 
considerably more advanced than that of our own earth where 
water is still almost everywhere abundant and air the cheap- 
est necessity of life. This is in keeping with what might be 
expected fronr his great distance from the sun and his smaller 
size. Internal cooling may be assumed to be more nearly com- 
plete. 

There is no doubt concerning the excessive tenuity of the 
Martian atmosphere. Delicate tests have many times failed 
to detect it and this fact has led to the denial of its existence 
by many observers. But the peculiar hazy appearance that 
veils the structural details near the edge of the planet’s dise 
justifies Mr. Lowell in the conclusion that a thin atmosphere 
of some kind must exist. And if we admit the presence of 
water as shown above, there must certainly be, at least locally 
and temporarily, an atmosphere of water-vapor of tension va- 
rying with the temperature. Assuming other conditions as on 


© 


the earth, this tension would at 32° Fahrenheit equal 0.2 


Glacial Notes from the Planet Mars.—Claypole. 95 


inches of the mercurial barometer, and at 80° Fahrenheit it 
would equal an inch. One curious effect that must follow is 
the rapid transfer of the vapor from the sunny to the shady 
side of the planet. The rapid evaporation that must accom- 
pany the high temperature of the Martian summer day must 
produce an aqueous atmosphere of considerable tension which 
must immediately flow off, more or less completely, to the op- 
posite hemisphere and then condense, probably at once, to the 
solid form. If, as Schiaparelli says, the northern snow-cap 
does not begin to increase until a month after the occurrence 
of the northern vernal equinox, it follows that the shady side 
of the planet cannot be intensely cold or that the quantity of 
water thus transferred is not very great. Both conclusions 
are probably true. Possibly the condensation of the vapor 
near the edge may in part cause the haze there noticed. 

There can be no doubt that of whatever material the as- 
sumed atmosphere may consist it is exceedingly rare in com- 
parison with our own. Mr. Lowell concludes that “in con- 
stitution it does not differ greatly from our own and that it is 
heavily charged with water-vapor, but that its density is less 
by a half than that of the air at the summit of the Himalay- 
as.” This would equal a mercurial column (on the earth) of 
about three inches. Under such conditions movement would 
be easy and the transfer of gas or vapor from place to place 
exceedingly rapid. 

From what has been above said it is obvious that no true 
glacial conditions exist on Mars at present. His polar snow- 
caps form regularly every twenty-two months and have done 
so for two centuries past. But they never extend beyond the 
frigid zones of the planet and with the returning sun of sum- 
mer they waste and dwindle, and, as already mentioned, that 
on the south pole has actually disappeared during the just 
ended southern summer. Not sowith the earth. Observation 
fails to show any marked reduction of the Antarctic ice-cap 
during our Antarctic summer. It is true that the correspond- 
ing season on Mars is ten months long instead of six. But we 
must bear in mind that the corresponding winter lasts through 
a whole terrestrial year. It is, however, possible that water 
on Mars is so scarce that no great addition could be made 
to the polar ice-fields by any increase in the length of the 
winter. 


96 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


The relative distances of the earth and Mars from the sun 
being as 1: 1.5, the ight and heat that they receive is in pro- 
portion to 9:4. Consequently the sunlight and sun heat on 
Mars are a little more than half as strong as that we feel. 
Yet in spite of this diminution his polar regions are kept above 
the freezing point throughout the summer and his polar ice 
nearly or altogether disappears. The excessive tenuity of his 
atmosphere, rendering cloud and fog almost impossible, may 
combine with the scarcity of water above mentioned to pro- 
duce this result. 

The aqueous vapor of which his atmosphere may in great 
part consist is a third factor in the problem. By retaining 
near the surface of the planet the reflected solar heat the tem- 
perature of the lower layers must be considerably raised by 
day and their cooling by radiation equally reduced at night. 
The combined result is apparently to render the Martian eli- 
mate far from intolerable during the summer, and the contin- 
ued flow of vapor and its condensation must to some degree 
at least mitigate the otherwise intense severity of the long 
twelve-month winter. 

In considering the glacial relations of Mars it must be fur- 
ther remembered that the eccentricity of his orbit far exceeds 
that of our own earth at present or that which it has attained 
at any known epoch in the past. These two amounts are rep- 
resented by the figures 0.01617 and 0.09326 respectively. The 
latter is nearly six times as great as the former. The axes of 
the orbits and the perihelion and aphelion distances of the 
planets also greatly vary. At the southern summer solstice 
the earth is about three million miles nearer to the sun than 
in midwinter. But Mars at the same season is twenty-eight 
million miles nearer than at his southern winter solstice. One 
consequence of this is the lengthening of the latter season. 
On the earth at the present time the southern summer is eight 
days shorter than the winter, but on Mars the differenee in the 
same direction amounts to 74 days, the planet spending 3506 
days in the perihelial and 380 days in the aphelial division of 
its orbit. If the eccentricity were the main cause of glacial 
climates Mars must then be in a very favorable condition for 
glaciation. But as it is possible that his eccentricity may 
yet reach the yet higher figure of 0.14224 these conditions are 


Glacial Notes from the Planet Mars.—Claypole. 97 


not yet at their maximum, for in the latter case the Martian 
winter can exceed his summer by about 110 days. This would 
produce a winter of 398 and a summer of only 288 days. 

Wher we recall to mind the meteorological conditions of 
our own south polar regions it is searcely possible to doubt 
that if eccentricity were the dominant factor in producing an 
ice-age there should be evidence of more extensive Antarctic 
snows on a planet possessing nearly the same inclination as 
the earth but an orbit six times as eccentric. On the earth S. 
Georgia, in latitude 55°, is covered with snow “many fath- 
oms deep at the sea-level and in the height of summer.’’* 

Another fact deserves mention in this connection. Aeccord- 
ing to the “eccentricity theory” the north polar region of 
Mars should now be enjoying a warm interglacial climate. 
The inclination of his axis, which in amount is nearly equal 
to that of the axis of the earth, is such as to bring his north 
pole into the sunlight during the long aphelion passage of 
twelve months. Says Dr. Croll in “Climate and Time” (p. 
237): “As the cold periods in the southern hemisphere become 
more and more severe, the ice would continue to advance 
northwards in the temperate regions; but at that very same 
time the intervening warm periods in the northern hemisphere 
would become warmer and warmer and more equable, and the 
ice of the arctic regions would continue to disappear farther 
and farther to the north, till by the time that the ice had 
reached a maximum during the cold antarctic periods, Green- 
land and the arctic regions would, during the warm interven- 
ing periods, be probably free of ice and enjoying a mild and 
equable climate.” 

Instead of this, however, we find the north pole of Mars 
capped with its snow and ice as regularly and almost as ex- 
tensively as his south pole, and this wintery accumulation 
lasts as long into the northern summer as does its southern 
counterpart into the warm season of the southern hemisphere. 
If any difference existed between the glacial condition of the 
two planets it should be one that indicates greater intensity 
both of the cold and warm eras on Mars in consequence of the 
high eccentricity that now elongates his orbit so far beyond 
that of the earth. 


*Capt. Cook’s Second Voyage, vol. 11, p. 232, 1875. 


9S The American Geologist. Augmst, 1895. 


It is true that at least one astronomer entertains an opinion 
radically different from those above summarized and which 
are shared by most observers. Mr. Holden, of the Lick Ob- 
servatory, in the North American Review for May, 1895, 
writes on the spectroscopic observations ef Prof. Campbell on 
Mars during the spring and summer of 1894. From a com- 
parison between the absorption bands shown in the spectra of 
that planet and the moon this observer draws the conclusion 
that “there is no more evidence of aqueous vapor or of an at- 
mosphere on the former than there is on the latter. And it is 
in the highest degree unlikely that Mars has an atmosphere 
anything like as dense as the earth’s atmosphere at the sum- 
mit of the Himalayas.” 

Henee Mr. Holden concludes that “the lakes, oceans, ete., 
have all vanished with the aqueous vapor. It is very unsat- 
isfactory, no doubt, to be unable to answer many questions” 
regarding this planet, but “it is satisfactory to have taken the 
very important step of clearing the way by sweeping out of 
sight the fabric of assumptions that have barred the path.” 

This iconoclastic opinion is in itself so sweeping and _ soli- 
tary that in spite of its positive tone and the high position of 
the Lick Observatory we may be excused for declining to ae- 
cept it without reserve so long as observers equally experi- 
enced and equally careful cling to their opposing views. We 
are the more fully justified in so doing by recalling the fact 
that Mr. Holden’s opinion is qualified with the proviso that 
“the atmosphere of Mars cannot be anything like as dense as 
the earth’s atmosphere at the summit of the Himalayas,” while 
Mr. Percival Lowell only claims one ‘less than half of that 
density, though charged with aqueous vapor.” So modified a 
denial of previous observations is by no means tantamount to 
disproof. 

Morover, several emphatic contradictions of Mr. Holden’s 
conclusions have lately appeared in print. Prof. Huggins and 
Prof. Vogel have both affirmed in the Astrophysical Journal 
that a comparison of the spectra of Mars and the moon does 
show a difference that indicates absorption really due to the 
atmosphere of Mars. And Mr. Jewell in the same periodical 
for April last says that unless the amount of vapor in the at- 
mosphere of Mars is greater than that in October in Baltimore 


(Glacial Notes from the Planet Mars.—Claypole. 99 


it is useless to look for its evidence in the spectrum with our 
‘present means. 

In general, therefore, it appears safe to conclude that the 
‘polar caps of Mars are really composed of snow and therefore 
‘prove the existence of water on his surface,—that they prove 
‘a variation of climate, with latitude like our own,—that they 
‘prove by melting on emergence into sunlight that approxi- 
mately similar laws control the freezing of water and the 
‘thawing of ice there and here. 

It is also obvious from what has here been summed up that 
Mars affords no evidence in support of the eccentricity theory 
of glacial cold, though his conditions are at present such as 
to favor a state of intense glaciation in his southern hemi- 
sphere. But exactly how far this inference may be modified 
by the apparent searcity of water and therefore of snow on 
the planet is a point not easy at present to be determined. 
For obviously if the supply of vapor be small no degree of cold 
or length of winter can produce more than a corresponding 
quantity of polar snow. For this reason the presence of a 
north polar snow-cap during an interglacial period is evidence 
of greater importance. 

It is further to be noted in the same direction that we find 
no evidence whatever of the intenser climate which the eccen- 
tricity theory would lead us to look for on the planet Mars. 
His snow-caps extend no farther south than do those of the 
earth. Indeed we cannot say that they extend so far. In a 
‘severe American winter the snow field is often continuous from 
the pole to the middle states or to about the parallel of 35° 
north. Not infrequently the whole northern part of the con- 
tinent is sheeted in white. Nothing of the kind has ever been 
‘seen on Mars. Yet a layer of snow a few inches in thickness 
would be just as conspicuous as one of greater depth. If also, 
according to Schiaparelli’s observation already referred to, 
the north polar i¢e-cap does not form until after the vernal 
equinox of that hemisphere has passed, the fact shows a sur- 
prising power of retaining the heat of the long summer. It 
would also seem as if the climate of Mars, in spite of greater 
distance from the sun and the high eccentricity of his orbit, 
was really milder than our own. And it would be an inter- 
esting question in physics, but scarcely cognate with our pres- 


LOO The American Geologist, August, 1895. 


ent subject, to enquire how far such a climate might be in- 
duced by the presenee of an atmosphere in great part, or al- 
most entirely, composed of aqueous vapor. 


CORRELATIONS OF STAGES OF THE ICE AGE IN 
NORTH AMERICA AND EUROPE. 


. 
By WARREN UPHAM, Cleveland, Ohio. 
(Plates V and VI.) 


Exploration of the “uropean terminal moraines and other 
drift deposits by two Americans, Prof. H. Carvill Lewis in the 
British Isles, and Prof. R. D. Salisbury in Germany, less than 
ten years ago, laid the foundations for determining the geo- 
logic equivalency of the successive parts of the drift series in 
North America and Europe. Salisbury especially noted that 
the marginal moraines of northern Germany lie, as in the 
United States, at some distance back from the limits of the 
drift. 

Studies by many observers have shown that on both conti- 
nents the border of the drift along the greater part of its ex- 
tent was laid down as a gradually attenuated sheet; that the 
ice retreated and the drift underwent much subaerial erosion 
and denudation; that renewed accumulation and growth of 
the ice-sheet, but mostly without extending to its earlier lim- 
its, were followed by a general depression of these burdened 
lands, after which the ice again retreated, apparently at a 
much faster rate than before, with great supplies of loess from 
the waters of its melting; that moderate re-elevation ensued, 
and that during the farther retreat of the ice-sheet prominent 
moraines were amassed in many irregular but roughly paral- 
lel belts, where the front at successive times paused or re-ad- 
vanced under secular variations in the prevailingly temperate 
and even warm climate by which, between the times of forma- 
tion of the moraines, the ice was rapidly melted away. 

Such likeness in the sequence of glacial conditions probably 
implies contemporaneous stages in the glaciation of the two 
continents; and the present writer believes that it is rather 
to be interpreted as a series of phases in the work of a single 
ice-sheet on each area than as records of several separated 
and independent epochs of glaciation, differing widely from 
one another in their methods of depositing drift. The latter 
view, however, is held by James Geikie, Penck, De Geer, and 


Ice Age in North America and Europe—Upham. 101 


others in Europe; and it has been regarded as the more prob- 
able also for America by Chamberlin, Salisbury, McGee, and 
others. 

Under this view, Geikie distinguishes no less than eleven 
stages or epochs, glacial and interglacial, which he has very 
recently named,* since the publication last year of the new 
edition of his “Great Ice Age,’ in which, however, they were 
fully described. These divisions of the Glacial period are as 
follows: 1. The Scanian or first glacial epoch; 2. The Nor- 
folkian or first interglacial epoch; 8. The Saxonian or second 
glacial epoch; 4. The Helvetian or second interglacial epoch ; 
5. The Polandian or third glacial epoch; 6. The Neudeckian 
or third interglacial epoch; 7. The Mecklenburgian or fourth 
glacial epoch; 8. The Lower Fcrestian or fourth interglacial 
epoch; 9. The Lower Turbarian or fifth glacial epoch; 10. 
The Upper Forestian or fifth interglacial epoch; and 11. The 
Upper Turbarian or sixth glacial epoch. 

The earliest application of such geographic names to the 
successive stages and formations of the Ice age appears to be 
that of Chamberlin in his two chapters contributed to the new 
third edition of Geikie’s admirable work before mentioned, in 
which he names the Kansan, East Iowan, and East Wisconsin 
formations. For the second and third he has since adopted 
the shorter names, Iowan and Wisconsin, which were suggest- 
ed by a review in the AmertcaAn GeroxLoGist (vol. xv, p. 56). 
This classification he has also more recently extended, the in- 
terglacial stage and deposits between the Kansan and Iowan 
till formations being named Aftonian, and the Toronto inter- 
glacial formation being thus named and referred, with some 
doubt, to an interval between the Iowan and Wisconsin stages. 
Chamberlin correlates, with a good degree of confidence, his 
Kansan stage of maximum North American glaciation with 
the maximum in Europe, which is Geikie’s Saxonian epoch ; 
the Aftenian stage as Geikie’s Helvetian; the Iowan as the 
European Polandian; and the Wisconsin or moraine-forming 
stage of the United States as the Mecklenburgian, which was 
the stage of the “great Baltic glacier’? and its similarly well 
developed moraines.+ 


*Journal of Geology, vol. 111, pp. 241-269, April-May, 1895, 
tJournal of Geology, vol. 11, pp. 270-277, April-May, 1899. 


102 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


According to the law of priority, the names of the Kansan, 
Iowan, and Wisconsin formations and stages should also be 
applied to these European divisions of the Glacial series, for 
the studies of Geikie and Chamberlin show them to be in all 
probability correlative and contemporaneous. Plates V and 
VI therefore employ these names for both our own continent 
and Europe, giving the boundaries of these formations as 
mapped in “The Great Ice Age,” and adding for the northeast- 
ern United States and Canada the Warren, Toronto, Iroquois, 
and St. Lawrence stages in the glacial recession, nearly as in- 
dicated in the writer’s recent article on the glacial representa- 
tives of the Laurentian lakes and on the Late Glacial or Cham- 
plain subsidence and re-elevation of the St. Lawrence river 
basin.* 

Differing much from the opinions of Geikie, and less widely 
from those of Chamberlin, concerning the importance, magni- 
tude, and duration of the interglacial stages, but agreeing 
with Dana, Hitchcock, Wright, Kendall, Falsan, Holst, Niki- 
tin, and others, in regarding the Ice age as continuous, with 
fluctuations but not complete departure of the ice-sheets, my 
view of the history of the Glacial period, comprising the Gla- 
cial epoch of ice accumulation and the Champlain epoch of 
ice departure, may be concisely presented in the following 
somewhat tabular form.+ The order is that of the advancing 
sequence in time, opposite to the downward stratigraphic order 
of the glacial, fluvial, lacustrine, and marine deposits. 

Erocus AND STAGES OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD. 
I. The Glacial Epoch. 

1. THE CULMINATION OF THE LAFAYETTE -EPEIROGENIC UP- 
Lirt, affecting both North America and Europe, raised the 
glaciated areas to so high altitudes that they received snow 
throughout the year and became deeply ice-enveloped. Val- 
leys and fjords show that this elevation was 1,000 to 4,000 
feet above the present hight. 

Rudely chipped stone implements and human bones in the 
plateau gravels of southern England, 90 feet and higher above 


*Am. Jour. Sci., IIT, vol. xirx, pp. 1-18, with map, Jan., 1895. 

+A partial outline of this correlation of North American and European 
glacial and interglacial stages was first published in the American Nat- 
uralist, vol. xx1x, pp. 235-241, March, 1895. 


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PLATE V. 


THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, Vou. XVI. 


STAGES OF THE ICE AGE IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA. 


Ice Age in North America and Europe —Upham. 103 


the Thames, and the similar traces of man in high terraces of 
the Somme valley, attest his existence there before the maxi- 
mum stages of the uplift and of the Ice age. America ap- 
pears also to have been already peopled at the same early time. 

The accumulation of the ice-sheets, due to snowfall upon 
their entire areas, was attended by fluctuations of their grad- 
ually extending boundaries, giving the Scanian and Norfolk- 
ian stages in Europe, and an early glacial recession and re- 
advance in the region of the Moose and Albany rivers, south- 
west of Hudson bay. 

2. KANSAN sTAGE. Farthest extent of the ice-sheet in the 
Missouri and Mississippi river basins, and in northern New 
Jersey. The Saxonian stage of maximum glaciation in Eu- 
rope. 

Area of the North American ice-sheet, with its development 
on the Arctic archipelago, about 4,000,000 square miles; of 
the Greenland ice-sheet, then somewhat more extended than 
now, 700,000 square miles or more, probably connected over 
Grinnell land and Ellesmere land with the continental ice- 
sheet [the area of Greenland is approqgimately 680,000 square 
miles, and of its present ice-sheet, 575,000 square miles]; of 
the European ice-sheet, with its tracts now occupied by the 
White, Baltic, North, and Irish seas, about 2,000,000 square 
miles. 

Thickness of the ice in northern New England and in cen- 
tral British Columbia, about one mile; on the Laurentide high- 
lands, probably two miles; in Greenland, as now, probably one 
mile or more, with its surface 8,000 to 10,000 feat above the 
sea; in portions of Scotland and Sweden, and over the basin 
of the Baltic sea, a half mile to one mile. 

3. HELVETIAN oR AFTONIAN STAGE. Recession of the ice- 
sheet from its Kansan boundary northward about 500 miles to 
Barnesville, Minn., in the Red river valley; 250 miles or more 
in Illinois, according to Leverett; but probably little between 
the Scioto river, in Ohio, and the Atlantic coast, the maximum 
retreat of that portion being 25 miles or more in New Jersey, 
A cool temperate climate and coniferous forests up to the re- 
ceding ice border in the upper Mississippi region. Much eros. 
ion of the early drift. 

The greater part of the drift area in Russia permanently re- 


104 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


linquished by the much diminished ice-sheet, which also re- 
treated considerably on all its sides. 

During this stage the two continents probably retained 
mainly a large part of their preglacial altitude. The gla- 
cial recession may have been caused by the astronomie cy- 
ele which brought our winters of the northern hemisphere in 
perihelion between 25,000 and 15,000 years ago.* 

4. JTowAn staGe. Renewed ice accumulation, covering the 
Aftonian forest beds, and extending again into Iowa, to a dis- 
tance of 850 miles or more from its most northern indentation 
by the Aftonian retreat, and re-advancing about 150 miles in 
Illinois, while its boundary eastward from Ohio probably re- 
mained with little change. 

The Polandian stage of renewed growth of the European 
ice-sheet, probably advancing its boundaries in some portions 
hundreds of miles from the Helvetian retreat. 

[T. The Champlain Epoch. 

5. CHAMPLAIN SUBSIDENCE; NEUDECKIAN STAGE. Depres- 
sion of the ice-burdened areas mostly somewhat below their 
present hights, as shown by fossiliferous marine beds overly- 
ing the glacial drift up to 300 feet above the sea in Maine, 560 
feet at Montreal, 800 to 400 feet from south to north in the 
basin of lake Champlain, 300 to 500 feet southwest of Hudson 
and James bays, and similar or less altitudes on the coasts of 
British Columbia, the British Isles, Germany, Scandinavia, 
and Spitzbergen. 

Glacial recession from the Iowan boundaries was rapid un- 
der the temperate (and in summers warm or hot) climate be- 
longing to the more southern parts of the drift-bearing areas 
when reduced from their great preglacial elevation to their 
present hight or lower. The finer portion of the englacial 
drift, swept down from the ice-fields by the abundant waters 
of their melting and of rains, was spread on the lower lands 
and along valleys in front of the departing ice as the loess of 
the Missouri, the Mississippi, and the Rhine. Marine beds 
reaching to a maximum hight of about 375 feet at Neudeck, 
in western Prussia, give the name of this stage. 

6. Wusconsin staGe. Moderate re-elevation of the land, in 
the northern United States and Canada advancing as a perma- 


*Am. GEOLOGIST, vol. xv, pp. 201, 255, and 293, March, April, and 
May, 1895. 


-y a he ” 
Ke ood page (Paap ae nay er)“ 
- + > 


‘TA FLV Td : , "IOA ‘LSTDOIONL) NVOIUAWY AH 
4A 2 


Ice Age in North America and Europe—Upham. 105 


nent wave from south to north and northeast; continued re- 
treat of the ice along most of its extent, but its maximum ad- 
vance in southern New England, with fluctuations and the 
formation of prominent marginal moraines; great glacial lakes 
on the northern borders of the United States. 

The Mecklenburgian stage in Europe. Conspicuous moraine 
accumulations in Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and Finland, 
on the southern and eastern margins of the great Baltic gla- 
cier. No extensive glacial re-advance between the Iowan and 
Wisconsin stages, either in North America or Europe. 

7. Warren stace. Maximum extent of the glacial lake 
Warren, held on its northeast side by the retreating ice bor- 
der; one expanse of water, as mapped by Spencer, Lawson, 
Taylor, Gilbert, and others, from lake Superior over lakes 
Michigan, Huron, and Erie, to the southwestern part of lake 
Ontario; its latest southern beach traced east by Gilbert to 
Crittenden, N. Y., correlated by Leverett with the Lockport 
moraine.* 

This and later American stages, all of minor importance and 
duration in comparison with the preceding, cannot probably 
be shown to be equivalent with Geikie’s European divisions 
belonging in the same time. Successive American boundaries 
of the receding ice-sheet are noted as on Plate V, in accord- 
ance with studies of the Laurentian series of glacial lakes. 

8. Toronto stage. Slight glacial oscillations, with tem- 

erate climate nearly as now, at Toronto and Scarboro’, Ont., 
indicated by interbedded deposits of till and fossiliferous 
stratified gravel, sand, and clay. These sections and the cli- 
matic conditions of the Toronto stage, with its place in the 
series, are more fully considered in the May number of the 
American Groroarst (pages 285-291). 

Although the waning ice-sheet still occupied a vast area on 
the northeast, and twice re-advanced, with deposition of much 
till, during the formation of the Scarboro’ fossiliferous drift 
series, the climate then, determined by the Champlain low al- 
titude of the land, by the proximity of the large glacial lake 
Algonquin, succeeding the larger lake Warren, and by the 
eastward and northeastward surface atmospheric currents and 
courses of all storms, was not less mild than now. The trees 


*Am. Jour. Sci., III,.vol. L, pp. 1-20, with map, July, 1895. 


106 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


whose wood is found in the interglacial Toronto beds now 
have their most northern limits in the same region.* 

9. Iroquois stace. Full expansion of the glacial lake Iro- 
quois in the basin of the present lake Ontario and northward, 
then outflowing at Rome, N. Y., to the Mohawk and Hudson 
rivers. Gradual re-elevation of the Rome outlet from the 
Champlain subsidence had lifted the surface of lake Iroquois 
in its western part from near the present lake level at Toronto 
to a hight there of about 200 feet, finally holding this hight 
during many years, with the formation of the well developed 
Troquois beach. 

Between the times of lakes Warren and Iroquois, the glacial 
lake Lundy, marked by the beach ridge of Lundy’s Lane,t 
probably had an outlet east to the Hudson by overflow across 
the slope of the highlands south of the Mohawk; but its rela- 
tionship to the glacial lake Newberry, named by Fairchild as 
outflowing to the Susquehanna by the pass south of Seneca 
lake,t needs to be more definitely ascertained. 

10. Sr. Lawrence stack. The final stage in the departure 
of the ice-sheet which we are able to determine from the his- 
tory of the Laurentian lakes and St. Lawrence valley is ap- 
proximately delineated on Plate V, when the glacial lake St. 
Lawrence, outflowing through the. Champlain basin to the 
Hudson, stretched from a strait originally 150 feet deep over 
the Thousand Islands, at the mouth of lake Ontario, and from 
the vicinity of Pembroke on the Ottawa river, easterly to 
Quebee or beyond. As soon as the ice barrier was melted 
through, the sea entered these depressed St. Lawrence, Cham- 
plain, and Ottawa valleys; and subsequent epeirogenie uplift- 
ing has raised them to their present slight altitude above the 
sea level. 

Later stages of the glacial recession are doubtless recogniz- 
able by moraines and other evidences, the North American ice- 
sheet becoming at last, as it probably also had been in its 
beginnings, divided into three parts,one upon Labrador, an- 


*Am. GEOLOGIST, as cited; also Dr. George M. Dawson’s letter in the 
July number, pp. 65, 66. 

tJ. W. Spencer, Am. Jour. Sci., IIT, vol. xiv, pp. 207-211, with map, 
March, 1894. 

{Bulletin, Geol. Soc. of America, vol. v1, pp. 353-374, with map and 
five plates from photographs of topographic features, April, 1895. 


‘ = = 
Ice Age in North America and Burope—Upham. 107 


‘other northwest of Hudson bay, as shown by Tyrrell’s obser- 
vations,* and a third upon the northern part of British Colum- 
bia. From my studies of the glacial lake Agassiz, whose du- 
ration was probably only about 1,000 years, the whole Cham- 
plain epoch of land depression, the departure of the ice-sheet 
because of the warm climate so restored, and most of the re- 
elevation of the unburdened lands, appear to have required 
only a few (perhaps four or five) thousand years, ending 
about five thousand years ago. These late divisions of the 
Glacial period were far shorter than its Kansan, Aftonian, and 
Iowan stages; and the ratio of the Glacial and Champlain 
epochs may have been approximately as ten to one. The term 
Champlain conveniently designates the short closing part of 
the Ice age, when the land depression caused rapid though 
wavering retreat of the ice border, with the accumulation of 
many retreatal moraines of very knolly and bowldery drift. 


How THE ICE-SHEET FORMED MARGINAL MORAINES. 


One difficulty which will arise in the minds of many glacial- 
ists, concerning the brevity of the time allotted to the Wiscon- 
sin and later moraine-forming stages should receive special 
consideration. The view here presented, with the light de- 
rived from my work on lake Agassiz, implies that the con- 
spicuous belts of morainic hillocks, hills, and ridges, consisting 
of very bowldery till, frequently with much kame gravel and 
‘sand, of which I have mapped twelve in Minnesota and North 
Dakota, and Leverett a still larger number in Illinois, Indi- 
ana, and Ohio, were each amassed within a few years, or at 
the longest probably no more than 25 or 50 years, even for the 
accumulation of the prominent Leaf hills, rising 200 to 350 
feet above the surrounding country. How could such rapid 
drift transportation and deposition take place? If this ques- 
tion can be satisfactorily answered, with reference of the mo- 
raines both in North America and in "urope to the time of re- 
treat from the Iowan glacial boundaries, a chief argument, 
which is much relied on by the defenders of the theory of two 
or several distinct glacial epochs, having unlike methods of 
drift accumulation, will be set aside. 


*Geol. Magazine, IV, vol. 1, pp. 394-399, with map, Sept., 1894: Am. 
GEOLOGIST, vol. xtv, pp. 338-340, Nov., 1894. 


, 


L108 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


As an aid for clearer statement, the accompanying figure, 
drawn on the same scale vertically as horizontally, may rep- 
resent a.section of the border of the departing ice-sheet along 
a distance of ten miles from south to north, where its origi- 
nal thickness,-as probably for the vicinity of the Leaf hills, in 
northwestern Minnesota, was about a mile. Englacial drift, 
as I have shown in previous papers,* had been carried by the 
ice currents in some important amount into the basal quarter 
or third of the ice-sheet; and when the superficial melting or 
ablation reduced the ice border to a less thickness, this drift 
was gradually uncovered upon the ice surface. The rates of 
ascent of the frontal slope are taken in accordance with the 
upper limits of glacial action on mountains, and after careful 
consideration of the surface gradients of the Alpine glaciers 
and of the Greenland ice-sheet, as 400 feet in the first mile, 
200 feet in the second mile, and 150, 120, 100, 85, 75, 67, 60,. 
and 55 feet in the third to the tenth miles, respectively, at- 
taining an altitude of 1,312 feet, or about a quarter of a mile. 
Thence we may suppose the ascent to average 50 feet per mile 
for the next nine miles, by which the altitude of a third of 
mile, the probable upper limit of the englacial drift, would be 
reached. 


SoS Sess See Sse 


me ee a Sn a i nn ies se eng 


ORIGINAL MAXIMUM orate Owe MILE. 


Fic. 1. Section of the border of the ice-sheet during its retreat. 
Seale, three miles to an inch. 


On areas where the ice-sheet built up large marginal mo- 
raines, and also wherever its drainage from ablation brought 
exceptional volumes of modified drift, or stratified gravel, 
sand and clay, directly supplied by the ice melting, we must 
believe that the amount of the englacial drift was greater than 
on other tracts having smaller moraines and little modified 
drift. Let us assume, therefore, for the definite illustrative 
case in which we are seeking to account for prominent mo- 
raine accumulations, that the total englacial drift, in the lower 
third or 1,760 feet of the ice-sheet, was equal to a thickness of 
15 feet. This may have been distributed, as shown in the aec- 


“Bulletin, CaN a vol. III, 1892, pp. 134-148; vol. \ 7, 1894, pp. 71-86. 
Am. GEOLOGIS?, vol. vii, pp. 376-385, Dec., 1891; vol. x, pp. 339-362, Dec., 
1892; vol. x11, pp. 36-43, July, 1893. 


Ice Age in North America and Europe.—Upham. 109 


companying table, so that the basal ice stratum, 400 feet thick, 
terminating within the first mile from the front, should con- 
tain 5 feet of englacial drift; the stratum, 200 feet thick, ter- 
minating in the second mile, 2 feet of drift; the 150 feet of 
ice terminating in the third mile, 14 feet of drift; the fourth 
mile’s ie? stratum, 120 feet thick, 1 foot of drift; and the stra- 
tum of 100 feet in the fifth mile, seven-tenths of a foot. The 
amount of englacial drift above the altitude of 970 feet, 
reached at the end of five miles, would be about five feet in a 
thickness of about 800 feet of ice, the upper limit, as before 
noted, being assumed to be 1,760 feet above the land surface. 

The rate of ablation of the ice in the warm summers of the 
Champlain epoch, with alternating sunshine and still more ef- 
ficient rains, probably averaged from two to four inches daily 
during 200 days of the warm portion of each year. In the re- 
maining five and a half months we may suppose that the 
snowfall and ablation counterbalanced each other, while the ice 
advance, though diminished on account of the lower tempera- 
ture, would produce some thickening of the border, When a 
series of years had a small mean rate of ablation, the ice 
front remained nearly stationary, giving the conditions neces- 
sary for the formation of a marginal moraine; but when the 
ablation was more rapid, no belt was occupied by the front so 
long as to be marked by morainic hills and ridges. An aver- 
age ablation of two inches per day during 200 days of each 
year may be assumed as permitting the front to remain on the 
same line, or with advances and recessions not exceeding a 
half mile or one mile from that line. The resulting moraine 
would be heaped irregularly on a belt one or two miles wide. 

Conditions of Morainic Drift Accumulation. 


Tee Pian pee ‘ GLACIAL NEDSS Dn ie Oe 
stratum |*SCENT OF ICE SURFACE] — apvANCE. MORAINIC DRIFT, IN FEET. 
termina-) = [etre | Becoming | ; 

ting in Feet _ | Beets) Miles super- Previously 
SUCCHSS- per | Total.| Ratio. |daily in| in 30 | Englacial.! gjacial | supe2r- 
ST ommios||) Mille. summ’r} years. TA) oy ATS. glacial. 
| if insca ean = 7; -|* 

1 400 400 1:13 Pasty A geenres On| 5.0 12.3 10.09 

2 200 GOV P20 fe ods 2.0 10.6 8.0 

3 150 750) |) 1:35 Bs Ge tee Gt alee MSOC 6.5 

4 120 | 870 | 1:44 Meera DAN Tid 7 5.5 

5 100 970 | 1:53 8.8 | 10.4 Oats | 7.3 1.8 

==} ‘ 
Total average thickness of moraine from these five miles, 1 18.9 1.8 


83.7 feet, if amassed on a belt one mile wide. 


To supply the ice by onflow equivalent to the ablation of 
two inches daily in summer upon the first mile from the fron- 


110 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


tal line would require an average forward current of 26 inches 
daily for the lowest 400 feet of the ice-sheet. On the land 
bed, where it was impeded by friction, the rate was very small, 
thence gradually increasing upward. In the second mile the 
ice would retain its hight unchanged under this ablation by 
an average onflow of 4.3 feet daily for the stratum of ice 200 
feet thick terminating in that mile; the third mile would re- 
quire for its stratum of 150 feet a daily current of 5.8 feet; 
and the fourth and fifth miles would require currents, respec- 
tively of 7.3 and 8.8 feet. Between nine and ten miles from 
the ice front, at an altitude of 1,257 to 1,312 feet, the ablation 
could be offset only by a current of 16 feet daily. By such 
currents, urged forward by the great weight of the more cen- 
tral and increasingly thicker part of the ice-sheet, the super- 
ficial wasting of the ice border would be evenly balanced, 
holding, therefore, the nearly steady frontal line indispensa- 
ble for abundant marginal drift deposition. The gradients 
thus assumed for the ice surface near its boundary are proba- 
bly twice as steep as they were during the earlier stages of 
predominant ice accumulation. Hence, with the greatly in- 
creased Champlain temperature, the rates of glacial move- 
ment were perhaps five or even ten times faster than during the. 
maximum stage of glaciation. 

If the outermost five miles of the ice, having the conditions 
here assumed, remained in essentially unchanged position 
thirty years, the total volume of drift there becoming super- 
glacial would be equivalent to about 50 feet on a width of one 
mile. With the previously superglacial drift of the same outer 
belt of the ice, which, like the foregoing, must have been car- 
ried forward to the boundary, there would be a thickness of 
about 85 feet; and with all received in the same time from the 
more distant part of the ice surface, up to ten miles from the 
margin, the total terminal mass of drift would equal at least 
an average of 100 feet on a belt one mile wide. This amount,, 
amassed by the small frontal oscillations of the ice so as to 
form irregularly grouped hills and ridges, separated, as those 
of the moraines usually are, by deep and wide hollows, would 
constitute a morainic belt probably unsurpassed either in 
North America or Europe. Under the same conditions, a 
small but distinct moraine might be formed in only five or 


Ice Age in North America and Europe—Upham. 111 


ten years; or, where the ice-sheet had less englacial drift, as 
a quarter or only a tenth as much, the smaller parts of a mo- 
raine belt would be made during the same thirty years in 
which elsewhere its most prominent portions were being de- 
posited. 

CoMPARISON OF ALASKA AND GREENLAND. 

The Malaspina ice-sheet in Alaska, reaching from the St. 
Elias range to the ocean, has been slowly retreating, like the 
Muir glacier and others of that country, during the past hun- 
dred years or probably much longer. On all its border for a 
width of a few miles, now thinned perhaps to a quarter part, 
or less, of the earlier depth, the waning ice is covered by its 
formerly englacial drift; but, in that cold climate, the glacial 
movement is so very slow that forest trees, with luxuriant un- 
dergrowth of shrubs, and many herbaceous flowering plants, 
grow on this drift lying upon hundreds of feet of ice as re- 
vealed by stream channels. Advancing toward the interior, 
the explorer soon comes upon higher clear ice and névé, hay- 
ing risen above the plane of the englacial débris, excepting 
along the course of belts of medial surface morainic drift, 
swept outward from spurs of the mountains. This ice-sheet 
partially suggests the conditions of the moraine-forming 
southern porthern of the North American and European ice- 
sheets during the Champlain epoch; but these had a climate 
much warmer than that of Alaska, with consequent far more 
rapid ablation and stronger glacial currents. 

In Greenland, on the other hand, the mean temperature has 
probably been gradually lowered during several centuries past, 
since the prosperous times of the Norse colonies 900 to 500 
years ago. A great ice-sheet, 1,500 miles long with a maxi- 
mum width of 700 miles, covers all the interior of Greenland; 
and, although now its extent is less than during the Glacial 
period, it has doubtless held its own or mainly somewhat in- 
creased during several hundred years. While the snow and 
ice accumulation is predominant, no englacial drift becomes 
superglacial; but in the region of Inglefield gulf Chamberlin 
finds the frontal ice-cliffs well charged with englacial débris 
to a third or half of the total hights of 100 to 200 feet or more. 
The same ratio of the lower part of the ice-sheet containing 
drift would quite certainly give it a thickness of 1,000 to 2,000 


as 


112 The American Geologist, August, 1895. 


fest in the deeply ice-covered central portion of Greenland. 
Other features especially noted are the very distinct stratifi- 
sxation of the ice and its differential forward motion, produe- 
ing not only this stratification but also sigmoid folds and 
overthrust faults, where the upper layers move faster than the 
lower and these in turn faster than the friction-hindered base. 
In just the sam? way, as I have shown in the foregoing pages, 
the accelerated currents of the waning ice-sheet during the 
temperate Champlain epoch overrode each other in suecession 
from the highest to the lowest on the moraine forming border. 
bearing a great amount of superglacial drift to the margin. 
If a mild temperate climate could bring to Greenland the con- 
ditions of the Champlain epoch, its thick ice-sheet in the in- 
terior under rapid ablation would fully illustrate, as the Mal- 
aspina glacier even now does in a considerable degree, the 
formation of the great series of morainie drift hills which 
mark stages in the retreat of the continental ice-sheets. 

MarcGinaL MoRrAINES: CHIEFLY A CHARACTERISTIC OF THE CHAM- 

PLAIN EPocu. 

From this discussion of the origin of marginal moraines, it 
will be seen that their accumulation belonged chiefly to the 
Champlain epoeh of land depression, restored warmth, and 
mainly rapid glacial retreat, interrupted by times when the 
ice-sheet for several years or decades of years held a nearly 
stationary position. According to the supposition that two 
inches of daily summer ablation was approximately equalled 
by the glacial onflow, whenever the ablation was at a faster 
average rate, as three or four inches daily, the ice receded, de- 
positing the smoother till sheets between the hilly marginal 
moraine belts. 

During the stages of ice accumulation, up to the maximum 
of the glaciation and to the Iowan stage, I think that the ice- 
sheet eroded much drift on its central area and bore it for- 
ward in the basal quarter or third of the whole thickness of 
the ice, depositing much of it, however, as subglacial till with- 
in fifty miles, more or less, back from its front. When the 
final recession of the ice carried its border gradually back- 
ward over all its area, I believe that the proeess of subglacial 
drift deposition continued, forming the ground moraine or 
lower part of the till progressively as the ice border withdrew. 


Editorial Comment. eV 


So much of the drift as remained englacial when the frontal 
line in its retreat reached the place of a temporary pause, per- 
mitting a marginal moraine to be formed, was then borne for- 
ward in the manner described to the boundary. 

Only with a rate of ablation much faster and with glacial 
currents much stronger than those of the Arctic regions or of 
the continental ice-sheets during their time of accumulation 
under the severe climate of their high plateau elevation, in 
short, only during the Champlain epoch, when the land had 
sunk from its preglacial and Glacial altitude bothin America 
and Europe, could noteworthy peripheral moraines be amassed. 
They record on each continent the definite closing epoch of 
the Glacial period. 


Pol rOrRirAL: COMMENT. 


D#MONELIX OR WHAT? 


In the midst of the controversy which has arisen over this 
strange Nebraskan fossil may we remark that the correct 
spelling of the name adopted is Damonhelix. It may perhaps 
be regretted that a more euphonious form, such as Helicoda- 
mon, was not employed from the first, but this not being the 
case the correct spelling of the term may as well be used. 

HW. C, 
RECONNOISSANCE Map or THE UNITED StTArveEs. 

In the July number of the American GEoLoGist we published 
a review of a“ Reconnoissance map of the United States” by 
Mr. W J McGee. From a recent letter from Mr. McGee, con- 
cerning this review, we quote as follows: ‘“*The review con- 
tains several minor errors, which may mislead readers not fa- 
miliar with the history of geologic mapping, and will certainly 
lead to disappointment on the part of the many geologists who 
will receive the Fourteenth Annual Report of the United 
States Geological Survey but will not receive the series of 
maps referred to in the notice. The first paragraph of this 
review should have read about as follows: 

‘““Reconnoissance map of the United States showing the dis- 
tribution of the Geologic Systems so far as known * * 
by W J McGee, 1893.—This map forms plate II of the Four- 
teenth Annual report of the United States Geological Survey 
(for 1892-’93). The scale is about 115 miles to an inch, be- 


114 The American Geologist. August, 1894, 


ing printed on the base used for the geologic map compiled 
by the same author in 1884, and published in the Fifth An- 
nual Report of the Survey; this earlier map serving also as the 
basis of Professor Hiteheock’s map of 1886, which was printed 
(by permission of director Powell) from the stones prepared 
for the survey edition, with certain alterations—notably the 
extension of reconnoissance and hypothetie coloring over un- 
surveyed portions of the country. The present map, like its 
predecessor, omits coloring from Canada and Mexico, and from 
areas not yet surveyed geologically; but it differs from its 
predecessor in that the results of trustworthy reconnoissance 
in the unsurveyed portions of the United States are intro- 
duced. In addition to the regular edition of this map accom- 
panying the Fourteenth Annual Report of the Survey, a lim- 
ited number of copies of the complete map and of a series of 
sheets each showing a single geologic system have been printed 
by director Walcott for the use of working geologists. A 
number of sets of maps, each comprising the geologic map, 
the base map with contours but without geologic colors, and 
a series of the system sheets, has been distributed by the Sur- 
vey in advance of the issue of the report.” U. S. G. 


Beginning with this month’s issue the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST 
will be printed by the Franklin Printing Co., 50 Fourth St. 8., 
Minneapolis. Mr. Nelson F. Twing, under whose careful over- 
sight this journal has been printed for the last five years, is 
manager of this company. The rates for excerpts, found on 
the third page of the cover, have in some cases been slightly 
reduced. U. 8. G. 


REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGIC 
BYTE RA Ui: 


Evolution of Australia. By A. C. Grecory. At the recent meeting 
of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science the pres- 
ident, the Hon. A. C. Gregory, C. M. G., chose for the subject of his 
address ‘*The Geographical Development of the Australian Continent.”’ 
Mr. Gregory’s great experience as an explorer lent unusual interest and 
value to his statements. 

In very early times a chain of islands extended northward from Tas- 
mania to cape York, a distance of 2,000 miles, with a breadth of not 
more than one hundred. In western Australia a wide table land 
stretched from cape Leeuwin northward for 1,000 miles. Both were 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 115 


granitic. Between them lay a deep sea dotted perhaps with a few is- 
lands. The waste of these ancient rocks was deposited in the adjacent 
s2a forming the Cambrian, Silurian and Devonian series, the last of 
which is in some places 10,900 fest in thickness. The later part ‘of the 
ensuing Carboniferous era was marked by an elevation of several thou- 
sand feet and a s2vere crumpling of the strata ‘‘by a force from the: 
east,’”? which together brought most of the former shores and s2a_bot- 
toms of the eastern land high above the water. This was apparently 
the date of the deposition of the now auriferous fissures. The result 

2ems to have been a continent much like that now existing, with an 
elevated range along the eastern coast and a climate favorable to vege- 
tation. 

Later, about the beginning of Mesozoic time, a second elevation took 
place, carrying the continent yet higher and annexing the Great Barrier 
reef, New Guinea and possibly Timor, but making little change on the 
western side. To this elevation and the high mountains which it devel- 
oped along the eastern coast, probably 10,000 feet in altitude, Mr. 
Gregory is inclined to attribute the great moisture of the Carboniferous 
era, whose deposits are limited entirely to that part of the continent. 
An extensive depression ensued in late Mesozoic time, carrying the in- 
terior part again below the sea and affording room for the wide-spread 
Cretaceous rocks. Only the higher peaks and ranges rose above the 
water. 

Subsequent elevation, without distortion, raised the whole area to a 
hight about 509 feet above its present level and it then presented almost 
its present appearance. “Extensive river systems then existed in the in- 
terior and violent volcanic outbursts poured basalt over the new Creta- 
ceous beds. Then followed the era of the great Australian marsupial 
fauna when Diprotodon, Nototherium and others obtained subsistence 
where now the kangaroo cannot live. Great rainfall marked this era, as 
is shown by the way in which the fossils are buried on the margins of 
extinct freshwater lakes. 

But desiccation followed and the huge marsupials vanished, the dingo 
alone surviving by adaptation to the altered conditions, and the interior 
became the dry and waterless area that it is at the present time. 

E. W. C. 


Portland Cement; a Monograph. By Cuaries D. Jameson. (The 
Transit, vol. 11, no 1,192 pp. Iowa City, 1895.) The recent broaden- 
ing of the scope of geological surveys so that the official géologist is ex 
pected now to not only point out the location of valuable beds but to 
also indicate the best methods of working them, makes it imperative 
that he keep informed upon certain portions, at least. of technical liter 
ature. Few recent contributions are therefore more welcome than that 
which Prof. Jameson has just made to the study of cements. There has 
been of recent years a notable expansion in the business of cement 
manufacture. Portland cement was first manufactured in 1824 in 
England. The industry for many years made little headway against the 
active competition of the natural or Roman cements. In 1852 the in 


116 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


dustry was introduced in Germany. Up to 1875 all the Portland cement 
used in this country was imported principally from Germany and Eng- 
land. There are now factories at Bellefountaine, Ohio; South Bend, 
Indiana; Warner’s, New York; and Yankton, 8. D. In 1889 there were 
only 159,000 barrels of cement manufactured here and 659,000 imported, 
so that there would seem to be abundant room for more factories. 

Prof. Jameson’s monograph is the outgrowth of his lectures before 
the engineering students at the State University of Iowa. While the 
subject is Portland cements, the author gives considerable information 
regarding cements and limes of all kinds. It isnoteworthy that, whereas 
Gilmore’s work, the last preceding general treatise on cements from the 
American standpoint, is so largely taken up with descriptions of the 
Roman cements and Portlands are only incidentally discussed, in the 
present volume the relations are transposed. 

The work includes studies on the manufacture, testing and use of the 
cement. In connection with the latter are some beautiful illustrations 
of monolithic construction as employed in the dams of the Hennepin 
canal and the museum of Stanford University. The economy with 
which the vast chalk beds of the interior may be utilized and the ex- 
cellent character of the product is insisted upon. The monograph is 
exceedingly valuable to all working in economic geology, since it places 
in convenient form a vast quantity of matter which was before scattered, 
principally in French and German works, and was well nigh inaccessi- 
ble. In addition much new matter of great value is given. Fh). B: 


Origin and Use of Natural Gas at Manitou, Colorado. By W1iLL1aM 
SrrreBLty. (Colorado College Studies. Fifth Ann. Pub., pp. 14-35. 
Colorado Springs, 1894.) In considering the origin of the gas-charged 
mineral water at Manitou the author gives a brief resume of the geo- 
logie features of the region. It is pointed out that the springs are lo- 
cated on the crests of low folds in the sedimentary strata near the con- 
tact of these beds with the Archean granites. Attention is called to 
the presence of a prominent fault at the exact contact and of a series of 
smaller parallel slips. The study of a number of chemical analyses al- 
lows several interesting inferences to be drawn, among which are the 
following: 

1. All the springs hold the same salts in solution, a fact which seems 
to point to a common origin. 


2. The waters of the Navajo and Manitou springs are almost identical 
in mineral contents, while the Ute Iron spring contains a much smaller 
quantity of dissolved salts. It is very probable that percolating waters 
from the streams or from local seepage channels make their way into 
the springs —such influx being greater in some springs and smaller in 
others. In the Ute Iron spring calcium and magnesium are low, and 
silica, chlorine, iron, sulphuric-anhydride, soda and potash relatively 
high. The proximity of this spring to the silicate rocks on the south, 
and to the very broken siliceous Silurian limestone and Cambrian 
quartzites on the north and west, suggests reasons for a possible change 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. LT 


in this spring water, on the supposition that its main source is the same 
as that yielding the waters of the other groups. 

3. The presence of so large quantities of the bicarbonates of calcium 
and magnesium points toa prolonged contact of the waters with the 
limestones. 

4. The almost total absence of iron salts indicates either a source 
quite free from ferruginous minerals, or more probably the oxidation 
of dissolved iron and its previous precipitation. 

5. The high percentage of chlorides may be derived from the Silurian 
rocks or with less probability from the more distant Jura-Triassic beds. 

6. The large percentage of sodium bicarbonate probably indicates an 
origin among silicate rocks, whence the soda (and potash) may come as 
carbonates formed by the decomposition of the rocks by atmospheric 
waters containing carbonic acid, or as alkaline silicates, which react 
upon the limestones (calcium carbonate) before reaching the surface. 

7. The sulphates may come from unseen gypsum beds, but it is prob- 
able that they come in greater part, at least, from the oxidation of sul- 
phides in granites, igneous rocks, or even sedimentary beds. 

8. The concentration of the solutions—that is, the large quantity of 
mineral matters contained in the springs’ waters, comes evidently from 
prolonged contact with rocks, such as would arise from percolation and 
probably also from an increased solvent power of the water, due to heat 
or pressure, or both combined. 

9. The difference in temperature of the several springs is remarkable 
as showing that either the waters come from different sources, or if 
coming from the same source have been cooled in an unequal degree by 
passing through diverse strata, or through the influx of cooler foreign 
waters. 

10. The variation of the springs between summer and winter, in their 
contents of mineral matters dissolved, in the quantity of water flowing 
from them and in the volume of gas yielded, together with the remark- 
able uniformity of temperature throughout the year in some of them, 
are evidently significant phenomena. 

The gas with which the water is charged is carbon-dioxide and the 
author reviews the various explanations usually offered for its origin. 
It is believed that in this instance the gas is derived from the chemical 
decomposition of limestone by acid waters or salts. The theory ad- 
vanced for the origin of the natural gas at Manitou is thus summarized: 
‘“‘Water percolating through silicate rocks and becoming highly miner- 
alized under favorable conditions of temperature and pressure, makes 
its way through cracks and profound rock-fissures by the action of 
gravity and the ascensional power imparted by heat, to the limestones 
west and north of Manitou. It is here increased in volume and in dis 
solved salts by the numerous additions of seepage waters from the loca! 
rocks, and also lowered in temperature at the points where these in 
fluxes occur. By chemical reactions some of the dissolved salts are 
changed, and the carbon-dioxide originally held (almost entirely) by the 
limestones is liberated from that combination but dissolved in the water 


118 The American Geologist. August, 1895, 


on account of the great hydrostatic pressure. As the waters rise 
through the irregular channels enlarged from cracks and seams, the 
pressure decreases and more and more of the dissolved gas escapes from 
the water until at last, when the surface is reached at the various 
springs, the gas emerges with the rythmic flow due to the irregularities 
in the channels of exit.’’ H. F. B. 


Lead and Zine Deposits of Missouri. By ArrHuR WINsLow, assisted 
by James D. Roperrson. (Missouri Geol. Survey, C. R. Keyes, State 
Geologist; vols. 6 and 7, 763 pages, 40 pls.,3 folded maps; JeffersonCity, 
1895.) As gleaned from the preface, the investigation was begun, first, 
in connection with the U.S. Geological Survey, and later independently. 
During the past year the extent of the report has more than doubled 
over the estimate first made, probably due to the fact that since the 
authors’ relief from the administrative work of the survey they have 
been able to devote all their time to the preparation of the report. 

The report has been divided into three parts. The first portion con- 
tains an historical sketch of the metals and a summary of what is known 
of them in all countries of the globe. Particular attention is given to 
the lead and zine producing districts of North America with which the 
Missouri product is brought into competition. A chapter is also de- 
voted to the metallurgy of the metals, and the various processes are 
described with sufficient minuteness for all practical purposes. Concise 
tables of the production in the United States are also given in this con- 
nection, together with the prices. 

The second section outlines the history of mining in Missouri, and 
the general geology of the southern half of the state. The development 
of the mining in the state is traced from the time of the earliest explo- 
rations. The physical characters of the lead and zine regions are de- 
scribed at length. The geological formations containing the metals 
under consideration are referred to in a general way, and considerable 
detail entered into in the case of the most important localities. The 
lithological differences are compared and some of the salient structural 
features pointed out. Under ore deposits is a full consideration of the 
distribution, the form, structure and composition of the ore bodies, 
their manner of formation and the origin of metalliferous veins. Con- 
cerning the latter topic, the various theories are set forth and their ap- 
plication to Missouri deposits clearly given. Smelting and manfacturing 
received the attention they demand, and full statistics are given regard- 
ing the production of the two metals in Missouri, the prices received 
from year to year and the total output of the various counties. 

The third part is an account of the Missouri mines, with a systematic 
and detailed description of the important developments and occurrences 
of lead and zine. Three districts are recognized, the southeastern. the 
central and the southwestern. Here is incorporated all the detailed in- 
formation concerning the various camps. Many of these are mapped 
and the workings of typical individual mines plotted. This is the por- 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 119 


tion of the work which will appeal most directly to the people actually 
engaged in working in the diggings. 

A considerable part of the report is devoted to a description of the 
general topographic and geologic features of the state. So much detail 
may seem unnecessary; Mr. Winslow states that ‘‘The writer has en- 
deavored to embody, and thus to place on record, all the notes of im- 
portance relating to the geology of the southern part of the state, which 
he accumulated during his occupancy of the position of state geologist 
and which the recent severance might prevent the publication of.’? Mr. 
Robertson has already published in the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST (vol. Xv, 
pp. 235-248, April, 1895,) a comprehensive abstract of this report on the 
lead and zine deposits of Missouri. 

““A Study of the Cherts of Missouri,’’ by Dr. E. O. Hovey, is em- 
braced in the appendix. The two volumes in size and general appear- 
ance are similar to the other excellent reports of the Missouri Survey. 

UeSiay 


On Some Dykes Containing Huronite. By Atrrep E. Bartow. 
(Ottawa Naturalist, vol. rx, no. 2, pp. 25-47, 1835.) In this paper, read 
before the Geological Society of America at the Baltimore meeting, 
there is a full description of the known occurrences of this mineral. 
Huronite was described by Thompson in 1835 as a mineral species from 
material obtained from a diabase boulder on Drummond island, lake 
Huron. The exact relationship of this mineral has been open to some 
doubt. Dana originally placed it under prehnite and later mentions it 
as a supposed altered form of iolite. T. Sterry Hunt considered it ‘‘an 
impure anorthite-like feldspar related to bytownite,’’ and on the same au- 
thority Dana speaks of it as ‘‘an altered mineral near fahlunite.’’ In 
1885 Dr. B. J. Harrington examined the mineral, using material from 
Pogamasing, and upon this authority it is in Dana’s last edition placed 
under anorthite. Michel Lévy and Lacroix considered it a decomposi- 
tion product of iolite or cordierite. 

For some time after the original description of the mineral it was not 
known from material found in situ. Knowledge on the subject has been 
accumulating until in the present paper it is described from eleven lo- 
calities. The doubt as to the correct position of the mineral arose from 
the fact that its true nature could not be discovered by analysis. Mr. 
Barlow studied the material with the microscope and discovered ‘‘that 
in every case the so-called huronite is really a plagioclase near the basic 
end of the series which has undergone more or less complete saussuriti- 
zation.”’ : 

In the present paper the results of this detailed petrographic study of 
material from the different localities are given and the different stages 
in the alteration are traced. H. F. B. 


On Lawsonite, a New Rock-forming Mineral from the Tiburon Pe 
ninsula, Marin Co., Cal. By F. Lestre Ransome. (Bull. Dept. Geol. 
Univ. Cal., vol. 1, no. 10, pp. 301-312, pl. 17, May, 1895.) This is a clear 
and colorless or gray-blue mineral which occurs as an important rock 


120 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


making constituent of a rather massive outcrop of crystalline schist. 
The associated minerals are margarite, in which the new mineral is fre- 
quently imbedded, epidote, actinolite, glaucophane and red garnet. 
Lawsonite is orthorhombic in crystallization, and its axial ratio is a:b:c 
—,.6652:1:.7385. It possesses two fairly distinct habits, the crystals oc- 
curring in cavities show a strong development of the prismatic faces, 
while those imbedded in the margarite are usually larger and have a 
prevailingly tabular habit, the basal plane being well developed. A per- 
fect cleavage exists parallel with the brachypinacoid and a sub-perfect 
cleavage parallel with the base, while an imperfect prismatic cleavage 
can sometimes be seen in thin sections. In optical character the min- 
eral is positive and the axial plane is the brachypinacoid. In certain 
basal sections pleocroism is strong, but in sections of the ordinary thick- 
ness it is rarely detected. In thin sections of the schist the bright po- 
larization colors and high relief of the mineral are decidedly striking. 
The specific gravity is about 3.085, and the hardness is 8. The chemical 
formula deduced from two analyses is H, CaAl, Si, Oj), being similar 
to carpholite (H, MnAl, Si, O,)). The possibility of the isomorphism 
of the two minerals is suggested. Lawsonite is named in honor of Prof. 
Andrew C. Lawson of the University of California. U. S. G. 


Post-Laramie Deposits of Colorado. In the volume recently issued 
by the Colorado Scientific Society* there are several paperst which add to 
our knowledge of this interesting series of beds. It will be remembered 
that in 1888 Eldridge and Crosst described the Arapahoe and Denver 
formations as post-Laramie. At the same time Cannon§ announced the 
‘discovery of Tertiary Dinosauria in the Denver beds and Hills! shortly 
after described Tertiary beds from the Huerfano River basin consider- 
ing them as Eocene but recognizing their probable contemporaneity, in 
part at least, with the Denver and associated beds. In 18899 he gave 
additional notes on the Huerfano beds. In 1899 Cannon** noticed the 
description by Marshtt of the dinosaurian remains found at Denver and 
similar remains from Montana, and in the same year Hills{{ discussed 
the beds already described and added considerable information regard- 
ing contemporaneous deposits. The original paper by Cross was re- 
vised and republished in the American Journal of Science§§ and more 
recently he has described ||| the whole subject of the post-Laramie. 

The post-Laramie beds are not confined to Colorado but similar de- 
posits have been noted by Canadian geologists and Weed‘ { has recent- 


*Proc. Col. Sci. Soc., Iv, 1891, 1892, 1893. 

+Remarks on the Classification of the Huerfano Eocene; by R. C. Hills; pp. 7-9. 

The Post-Laramie Beds of Middle Park, Colorado; by Whitman Cross; pp. 192-214. 

Geology of Denver and Vicinity ; by Geo. L. Cannon, Jr.; pp. 224-234. 

tProc. Col. Sci. Soc., 111, i, 86-118, 119-133. 

SIbid., 140-147. 

\|\Tbid., 148-164. 

SjLbid., 111, i, 217-223. 

**Tbid., ITI, li, 253-254. 

+tAm. Jour. Sci., (3), XXxTx, 81-86, Jan., 1890. 

t{t¢Proc. Col. Sci. Soc., 111, ili, 388-397. 

§SAm. Jour. Sci., (3), XX1x, 261-282, 1889. 
Ibid., xLIv, 19-42, 1892. 

(7Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv., No. 105. 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 121 


ly described the Livingstone formation as belonging to the same series. 
The present paper by Hills is mainly a rectification of the nomencla- 
ture. He would now arrange the Huerfano deposits as follows: 


Huerfano beds—Bridger Group. 
Couchara beds / (Lower 
Poison Canyon beds} Eocene) 


He considers the Couchara and Poison Canyon beds as the equivalent of 
all the Rocky Mountain Eocene older than the Bridger, including the 
Green River and Wasatch and probably a still older series whose depo- 
sition immediately followed the post-Laramie disturbances. In the lat- 
ter category are placed the Arapahoe and Denver beds, similar beds 
near Canyon City, the Ruby beds, and certain beds in the South park 
and on the Yampa. 

In the paper by Cross the post-Laramie of Middle park is discussed in 
detail. These beds had been previously studied by Hayden, Marvin, 
and White, all of whom agreed in placing them in the ‘* Lignite ’’ or 
Laramie. The determination of their position rests in the main upon 
Marvin’s notes and seems to have been based upon the general strat- 
igraphic position, a supposed lithological resemblance and the testi- 
mony of certain plant remains, as well, probably, as the absence of any 
strong evidence allying them with any other beds. In an examination 
of the outcrops Cross finds that all the lithological characters which so 
distinctly mark the Denver beds are equally well shown in the Middle 
Park beds. The ‘“doleritic breccia ’’ described by Marvin as underly- 
ing them is shown by Cross to grade up by transition beds into the sup- 
posed ‘‘ Lignitic.’’ It is made up of a large series of andesitic rocks 
such as characterize the Denver beds at the type locality. Certain of 
the strata contain the same reddish heulandite cement which is also 
characteristic. The whole lithological character of the beds in fact is 
strikingly like the Denver beds and unlike the Laramie proper. Marvin 
noted an unconformity separating the beds in question from the under- 
lying Cretaceous but was disposed to consider it as only of local im- 
portance. Cross shows the greater extent of the unconformity and cor- 
relates it with that which elsewhere succeeds the Laramie proper. The 
evidence from the plant remains cannot at the present time be fully dis- 
cussed since the much needed revision of the Laramie fauna, undertak- 
en by Mr. Knowlton, is not yet finished. Of the twenty-eight species 
found in the old and new collections from Middle park four being doubt 
ful and three unknown elsewhere, at least twelve occur in the Denver 
beds as developed at Golden. The paleontological evidence would seem 
then to bear out that derived from lithological resemblance and uncon 
formity in placing the Middle Park beds in the series which is at pres 
ent known by the inadequate term post-Laramie. 

In the course of a resumé of the geology of Denver and vicinity Can 
non reviews the history of the discovery of vertebrate remains in the 
Denver beds. The interesting discussions which grew out of these dis 
coveries and were terminated by the description by Marsh, from mate 
rial collected by Hatcher in Wyoming, of that interesting order of horned 
Dinosauria known as Ceratopsia, are also brought to mind. 


Huerfano Series 
(Eocene) 


H. F. B. 


122 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


Etude sur le Metamorphisme de contact des roches voleaniques. Par 
A. La Crorx. (Mem. Acad. Sciences de |’ Institut de France. Ex. de Tome 
xxx1, 1894.) The author confines himself to the consideration of yol- 
sanic rocks per se, not older than the Tertiary, which obviously leaves 
unstudied a large field of contact metamorphism. It conduces to clear- 
ness and probably to the correctness of his conclusions to embrace in 
the discussion only such phenomena as can be referred -vithout doubt 
to the action of contacting volcanic rock, for many of the older voleanic 
rocks, and the sediments they modified, have undergone later modifica- 
tions through the action of other forces, and these changes are liable to 
be confounded with those which are due to the voleanic contact. 

The author considers separately the effect of basaltic and of trachytic 
rocks on other rocks in contact with or enclosed in them, giving a his- 
tory of all researches on metamorphism and adding new results of his 
own. Among his conclusions are the following : 

1. Heat alone is unable to produce the phenomena of intense meta- 
morphism, but mineralizing waters under pressure have played an im- 
portant role in metamorphic changes. 

2. Volcanic rocks, either in outflow or in dikes, whatever the nature 
of the molten mass, produce identical effects upon the rocks with which 
they come in contact. 

3. Basic volcanic rocks, when they entirely enclose foreign masses, 
through heat cause a slight chemical transformation in a narrow zone, 
by the intimate mixture of the modifying and the modified rocks; but 
trachytic eruptives produce chemical phenomena throughout their en- 
closures, the simple calorific phenomena seen in the basic eruptives be- 
ing developed as chemical change through the action of caustic fluids 
under pressure and at a high temperature. 

4. These chemical transformations, so far as studied, are all produced 
by the addition of elements to the rock modified ; such as vapor of wa- 
ter, alkaline silicates, chlorides, and sometimes fluorides, all of which 
have borne important parts in the reactions which have taken place. 
The number of minerals that can be formed, for instance in a limestone, 
by these reagents are necessarily quite limited, from which fact it is 
easy to see how the chemical transformations in contact metamorphism 
are always the same whatever be the nature of the modifying eruptives. 

5. In the case of enclosures of rock by eruptives, the greater chemical 
effect of the trachytic eruptives is probably due to their less fusibility, 
less conductivity of heat, greater porosity, through which they main- 
tain their mineralizing agents longer and are enabled to produce on their 
enclosed masses more profound mineralogical changes. 

6. The principal factor in contact metamorphism is not, therefore, so 
much the heat itself as the physical conditions in connection with which 
the heat operates. In one set of conditions (voleanic rocks) the miner- 
alizing fluids are readily disengaged, and in another (intrusives) they act 
energetically under pressure. ‘ N. H. W. 


Etude minéralogique de la lherzolite des Pyrénées et de ses phénom- 
enes de contact. Par A. La Croix. (Extrait des Nouvelles Archives du 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 123 


Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. 3me Série, vr, pp. 209-3808, avec 6 
planches des caracteres microscopiques, quarto, 1894.) This publication 
results from Prof. La Croix’ connection with the Geological Survey 
of France, in the prosecution of which he was intrusted with an 
examination of the eruptive and metamorphic rocks of the Pyrenees. 
While this embraces all that is known concerning the mineralogy of 
lherzolyte, another contribution devoted to its geological relations will 
appear at a later date in the bulletins of the geological survey. This 
work is divided into three parts, viz.: 

1. Historical sketch and rapid review of the geographic distribution 
and the age of lherzolite and of the rocks which accompany it. 

2. The mineralogical study of all these rocks. 

3. Description of the metamorphic phenomena produced by its con- 
tact with the secondary rocks. 

Lherzolyte is a yellowish green, rather coarse-grained hard rock, eas- 
ily disintegrated by atmospheric agents, consisting of olivine, enstatite 
(bronzite), chromiferous diopside and a chromiferous spinel, picotite— 
an eruptive, basic rock which, in the Pyrenees, has always heretofore 
been considered of a later date than a certain white crystalline lime- 
stone, and thus later than the Lias, or even of the Neocomien. Obser- 
vations, however, made by the author, prove it is older than this lime- 

stone, which contains fragments of it in a rounded form. It is later, 
however, than another limestone which it cuts which contains fos- 
sils of the middle Lias. The ease with which the rock separates 
into its separate. constituent elements has contributed to the exact- 
ness and the completeness of the study of the crystalline and optic 
characters. The rock is sometimes porphyritic with large crystals of 
bronzite and of diopside, and it sometimes contains hornblende. It 
has been affected by mechanical action, resulting in a ‘‘mortar struc- 
ture,’’ and in a secondary pseudo-porphyritic appearance. 

Among the secondary mineralogical changes the author mentions 
rubifaction, serpentinization and amphibolization. Theseare very char- 
acteristic at the outcrops, which take a dark, rusty color greatly in con- 
trast with the surrounding white limestone. In this change olivine 
plays a leading part. It turns red, by absorbing an ochreous-yellow 
substance which finally replaces it entirely. This is then easily removed 
by rains and forms a yellowish mud. The cavities left by the removal 
of the olivine bring the other minerals into relief, and they undergo a 
slow loosening disintegration which serves to allow the extraction of 
each separately. In the interior of the rock, however, these minerals, 
on fresh fracture, can with difficulty be distinguished from each other 
without microscopic examination. 

Serpentinization has in some places gone on on a large scale, but 
frequently is confined to fissures. 

Amphibolization, in its simplest form, is uralitization, or a change 
from pyroxene. It also takes place in the bronzite. Hornblende in 
certain places is so common that the author describes and names the 
rock containing it, as a special variety of lherzolyte. It is interesting 


124 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


to note that the author, while recognizing certain changes due to dyn- 
amic forces, does not consider that there is any relation of cause and ef- 
fect between amphibolization and dynamic action in the cases he has 
studied. 

In comparing this rock with similar rocks from other parts of the 
world, he mentions the pyroxenytes of North Carolina and Maryland, 
described by Dr. G. H. Williams in the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST? (vol. VI, 
p- 38, 1890), and calls attention to the confusion that attends the use of 
that term; Coquand, Hunt, Kalkowsky, Dana, Zujovie and Doelter em- 
ployed it in various senses, none of them the same as that assigned to it 
by Williams. This whole group of similar rocks is included by the 
author under the term pyrowenolyte, and they are considered as special 
forms of lherzolyte, appearing as dykes. The term websteryte, given by 
Williams to a bronzityte belonging in this group, had already been 
used to designate a mineral, a hydrated sulphate of alumina, and, as re- 
marked by the author, has to be rejected as a synonym. 

One of the most interesting facts reported by the author is the devel- 
opment of zeolites in the metamorphic rocks at the contacts with these 
basic eruptives. The zeolites are chabazite, thomsonite, and christian- 
ite, rarely stilbite. He has before reported zeolites in granulytes, 
gneiss, Paleozoic schists, cipolins of the gneisses, in Jurassic limestones, 
in porphyrytes and in ophitic diabase, where they seem to have resulted 
from mineralized waters which do not necessarily proceed from any 
great depth. These phenomena are all inthe Pyrenees mountains. 

N. H. W. 

Peary Auxiliary Expedition of 1894: Geology. By T. C. CHAMBER- 
LIN. (Pages 29-56, with eight plates, forming Appendix A of the Bulletin 
of the Geographical Club of Philadelphia, No. 5, June, 1895.) This re- 
port, appended to a narrative of the expedition by its leader, Mr. Henry 
G. Bryant, gives in popular form a concise but comprehensive summary 
of the author’s geological observations in Greenland, which are being 
more fully published in the Journal of Geology. Its plates are from 
photographs of the unglaciated Dalrymple island, of the glaciated Carey 
islands, which have striz and drift boulders on their summits, 500 feet 
above the sea, of the Bryant, Gable, Bowdoin, Fan, Tuktoo, and East 
glaciers, and of a portion of the edge of the ice-cap, being the same series 
which appears also in the author’s presidential address to the Geologi- 
cal Society (Bulletin, G. S. A., vol. v1, pp. 199-220, Feb., 1895; Am. Gr- 
OLOGIST, vol. xv, pp. 197, 198, March, 1895). The greater part of the 
present paper treats, like that address, of the glaciers, local névé fields, 
and margin of the inland ice-sheet, in the vicinity of Inglefield gulf. It 
also describes the topography of the western coast, the general geology 
of the borders of Inglefield gulf, and the icebergs, floes, and pack ice of 
the region. Brief outlines of these minor parts may be here noted, sup- 
plementing the previous abstract cited in our March number. 

From cape Desolation, near the south end of Greenland, northward 
for about half the distance to Disco island, the coastal mountains have 
sharply angular forms; but along the further extent to this large island 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 125 


and the contiguous Nurgsuak peninsula, the high coast has mostly 
rounded crests and gently curving slopes, the contour having been 
smoothed by glacial erosion. ‘‘From Svarten Huk to the Devil’s 
Thumb, north of Upernavik, a portion of the contours are serrate, while 
other parts are subdued. There is no marked predominence of either 
class. The coast of Melville bay is largely formed by the edge of the in- 
land ice, which here comes down to the sea. The remainder is formed 
by promontories jutting out from the ice-sheet like dormer windows, or 
by peaks projecting like islands through the great sheet of ice. The 
Devil’s Thumb and Melville Monument are rather slender rock columns, 
standing but a few miles off the border of the present inland ice-sheet. 
From cape York northward to Inglefield gulf, subdued contours prevail 
over rugged ones; the latter, however, are not entirely absent on the im- 
mediate line of the coast.”’ 

The mountainous border of Greenland terminates northward at Mel- 
ville bay. Thence the border tract isa plateau with an average altitude 
of about 2,000 feet, upon which the inland ice deploys as it would on any 
lower plain, excepting where its glaciers descend in valleys from the 
summit toward the sea level. About half of the glaciers reach the sea, 
while the other half end on the land. The plateau may be the edge of 
a very extensive and elevated plain underlying the greater part of the 
ice-sheet. A lower and comparatively narrow peneplain is also some- 
times observable, notably in the vicinity of Godthaab, descending gently 
to Baffin bay, in which its low undulations form numerous small islands. 

Professor Chamberlin traces the following stages in the development 
of the grand topographic features of Greenland. ‘‘The upper plateau 
appears to signify that af some former period, not very remote geologi- 
cally, yet certainly not very recent, the west coast of Greenland stood 
some 2,000 feet lower than at present, and remained in that position dur- 
ing a period sufficiently long for the reduction of considerable tracts to 
a gradation plane, but apparently not long enough for the reduction of 
all the surface, for the bordering mountains of southern Greenland ap- 
pear to be survivals. After this partial leveling of the island, it appears 
to have been elevated to an altitude not very different from the present, 
and to have stood there long enough for the development of the coastal 
plain above described. Contemporaneously with this, the valleys doubt- 
less extended themselves backward into the higher country. Later, a 
further elevation appears to have ensued to the extent of two or three 
thousand feet, during which the valleys were deepened and both the 
higher and lower plains considerably dissected upon their borders. 
Subsequent to this, the land sank to its present position, about which it 
is now obviously fluctuating, for there are evidences—among which are 
raised beaches and elevated shell deposits—that it has recently been ele 
vated, and there are also evidences--among which are sunken ruins and 
forced migrations—that it has recently been sinking.”’ 

In the region of Inglefield gulf, the probably Archean crystalline rocks 
which form the principal mass of Greenland, so far as it is free of ice, 
are overlain by a narrow coastal belt of sandstones and shales, which lie 


126 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


at low inclinations and have an aggregate thickness of 4,000 or 5,000 feet. 
No fossils have been found in this series, but it is provisionally regarded 
as of Tertiary age, like the plant-bearing beds, of similar lithologic 
character in the Disco region. Between the crystalline and the clastic 
rocks, ‘‘ the discordance is very great and indicates that the crystalline 
terrane had assumed essentially its present attitude, had undergone very 
great erosion, and had approached its present topographic expression, 
before the sandstone was laid down upon it. If the sandstone were re- 
moved, the relief of the topography would apparently not be less than it 
is now, and not very different from it in general aspect.”’ 

The floe ice formed in Baffin bay was found to seldom exceed five or 
six feet in thickness; but the East Green!and current, sweeping around 
cape Farewell and running thence northward some five hundred miles 
in a belt adjoining the west coast, brings closely driven ice-floes, an im- 
passable ice-pack, and these floes are commonly 15 to 20 feet thick and 
in some cases probably 3) feet or more. This great thickness is regarded 
as the result of freezing during several years, perhaps with increase by 
snowfall. ; 

Few icebergs were drifted with the floes from East Greenland. North- 
ward only a few others were seen, until a grand procession, thirty being 
in sight at once, was encountered streaming out southwesterly from 
Disco bay, into which they had been discharged by the Jacobshaven 
glacier. Another magnificent procession of icebergs was seen moving 
outward from the Umanak fjord. These were much larger but more 
tabular and less picturesque. Thirty or forty of large size, besides many 
smaller ones, were in view at the same time. In Inglefield gulf hun- 
dreds of icebergs were frozen in the floe-ice, which remained wholly un- 
broken in 1894 until August. Many of these bergs are doubtless held 
several years before they reach Baffin bay to be borne southward in the 
Labrador current. Ww. U. 


Preliminary Report on the Physical Geography of the Litorina Sea. 
By Henr. Munrue. (Pages 1-38, with two maps, in vol. 11, Bulletin of 
the Geological Institution of the University of Upsala, 1895.) Very 
thorough study is given in this paper to the diatoms, Rhizopoda, and 
Ostracoda, which occur in the Litorina deposits around the Baltic sea 
and the gulf of Bothnia. This work well supplements the valuable pa- 
pers contributed by Baron De Geer to the Bulletin of the Geological So- 
ciety of America (vol. 111, pp. 65-68, with map) and the AMERICAN GE- 
OLOGIS?Y (vol. Ix, pp. 247-249, April, 1892; vol. x1, pp. 22-44, Jan., 1893). 
The following stages in the history of the Baltic basin are ascertained : 

1. The time of the great Baltic glacier, forming marginal moraines 
south and east of the present sea and gulf. 

2. Yoldia time, when the land subsidence reached its maximum. The 
Baltic then received bergsand glacial rivers from the retreating ice, and 
was inhabited by Yoldia artica, which now is restricted to Arctic re- 
gions, preferring the muddy waters where the sea has inflowing tribu- 
taries from glaciers. There was direct connection with the ocean by 
the Cattegat strait dividing Sweden and Denmark, and also across the 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 12 


I 


low lands of southern Sweden by the present lakes Wettern and Wen- 
ern, and probably northeast across the low area of lakes Ladoga and 
Onega to the White sea and Arctic ocean. 

3. Ancylus time, when the Baltic basin, on account of gradual uplift- 
ing, became a great fresh-water lake, with shores in part since raised 
50 to 150 feet above the present water level, outflowing through the Cat- 
tegat by a river which probably fell some 59 feet before reaching the 
North sea. The lacustrine fauna comprised Ancylus fluviatilis, Lim- 
neea ovata, Pisidia, and other Mollusea, with fresh-water Ostracoda, 
and the climate was temperate. 

4. Litorina time, when the area of the Cattegat and Danish archipel- 
ago sank somewhat lower than now, permitting inflow of marine cur- 
rents to the Baltic so that it became salter and warmer than at present. 
Two species of Litorina, and others of Scrobicularia and Rissoa, ex- 
tended north into the gulf of Bothnia, where now the water is too fresh 
for their existence. The uplift of the northern part of the Baltic basin 
since the Litorina time has ranged from 100 to 300 feet. 

5. Limneea time, when the strait and archipelago became more shal- 
low, nearly as now. Limncea species then immigrated where the Litor- 
ince had before flourished. This stage is perhaps scarcely distinct from 
the next. 

6. Mya time, extending to the present day, characterized by the im- 
migration of Mya arenaria from the North sea into the Baltic. w. v. 


Be TP UPBEAT IONs. 


I. Government and State Reports. 

Bull. N. Y. State Museum, vol. 3, no. 11. Salt and gypsum indus- 
tries of New York, F. J. H. Merrill. 89 pp., plates and maps, 1893. 

The same, vol. 3, no. 12. -Clay industries of New York, Heinrich 
Ries. Pp. 93-262, map, 1895. 

II. Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1895, pt. 1. New and otherwise inter- 
esting Tertiary Mollusca, G. D. Harris; The Eocene Tertiary of Texas 
east of the Brazos river, Wm. Kennedy; Does the Delaware water gap 
consist of two river gorges, Emma Walter. 

Bull. of the Geographical Club of Phila., vol. 1, no. 5, 1895. Report 
on geology, Peary Auxiliary Expedition of 1894, T. C. Chamberlin. 

Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc., vol. 11, part 2, 1891. History of the 
Atlantic shore line, H. L. Harris; An examination into the nature of 
Paleotrochis, C. H. White. 

III. Papers in Scientific Journals. 

Science, June 14, 1895. Current notes on physiography (IX), W. M. 
Davis; Volcanic dust in Utah and Colorado, Henry Montgomery: Vol 
canic dust in Texas, E. T. Dumble. 

Science, June 21, 1895. On a Devonian limestone-breccia in south 
western Missouri, O. H. Hershey; Current notes on physiography (X), 
W. M. Davis. 


128 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


Science, June 28, 1895. Some meandering rivers of Wisconsin, H. B. 
Kiimmel. 

Science, July 5, 1895. The submergence of western Europe prior to 
the Neolithic period, Agnes Crane; Current notes on physiography (X1), 
W. M. Davis. 

Journ. of Geology, vol. 3, no. 4, May-June, 1895. Mesozoic changes 
in the faunal geography of California, J. P. Smith: The age and suc- 
cession of the igneous rocks of the Sierra Nevada, W. H. Turner; The 
stratigraphy of the California Coast ranges, H. W. Fairbanks; Studies 
in the Neocene of California, G. H. Ashley; Some Cretaceous beds of 
Rogue River valley, Oregon, F. M. Anderson; Glacial studies in Green- 
land, V, The Redcliff peninsula, T. C. Chamberlin; Studies for stud- 
ents, Geologic study of migration of marine invertebrates, J. P. Smith. 

Amer. Jour. Sci., July, 1895. Correlation of New York moraines with 
raised beaches of lake Erie, Frank Leveret; Pitch lake of Trinidad, S. 
F. Peckham; Some reptilian remains from the Triassic of northern Cal- 
ifornia, J. C. Merriam: Further contribution to our knowledge of the 
Laurentian, F. D. Adams. 

IV. Excerpts and Individual Publications. 

On a granite-diorite from Harrison, Westchester county, N. Y., Hein- 
rich Ries. ‘Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. 14, pp. 80-86, 1895. 

The Protolenus fauna, G. F. Matthew. Ibid., pp. 101-153, pls. 1-11, 
1895. 

The effusive and dyke rocks near St. John, N. B., W. D. Matthew. 
Ibid., pp. 187-217, pls. 12-17, 1895. 

A new fossil Nelumbo from the Laramie group, at Florence, Colo., 
Arthur Hollick. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, vol. 21, pp. 307-310, July 20, 
1894. 

Wing-like appendages on the petioles of Liriophyllum populoides 
Lesq., and Liriodendron alatum Newb., with descriptions of the latter, 
Arthur Hollick. Ibid., pp. 467-475, pls. 220-221, Nov. 24, 1894. 

Descriptions of new leaves from the Cretaceous (Dakota group) of 
Kansas, Arthur Hollick. Ibid., vol. 22, pp. 225-228, pl. 237, May, 1895. 

The gold-silver veins of Ophir, California, Waldemar Lindgren. 14th 
Ann. Rept. U.S. G.S., pp. 243-284, pls. 17-18, 1895. 

The origin of the Arkansas novaculites, L. S. Griswold. Proce. Bos- 
ton Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 26, pp. 414-421; Author’s edition, Feb. 9, 1895. 

Origin of the lower Mississippi, L. S. Griswold. Ibid., pp. 474-479; 
Author’s edition, May 14, 1895. 

Lansing lead mines, A. G. Leonard. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., vol. 2, 
pp. 36-38, 1895. 

Cinnabar in Texas, W. P. Blake. Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Eng., 
Florida meeting, March, 1895; 8 pp. 

Vein structure in the Enterprise mine, T. A. Rickard. Proc. Colo- 
rado Sci. Soc.; 8 pp., 6 pls. 


Personal and Scientific News. 129 


mee oONAL, AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


Tuomas Henry Huxtry died at Eastbourne, England, on 
June 29th, aged 75 years. 


Pror. E. W. Criayporr, of Buchtel College, is spending the 
summer months in Hngland. 


Proressor G. C. BROoADHEAD has been made Professor Emer- 
itus at the State University of Missouri. 


In Syracuse University Dr. E. C. Qurereau has been ap- 
pointed professor of geology and mineralogy. (Sc/ence.) 


Curtis F. Marsur of Harvard University has been appoint- 
ed instructorin geology at the State University of Missouri. 
He also has charge of the topographical work of the Missouri 
Geological Survey. 


Dr. Cart Barus, who is well known through his work in 
the division of chemistry and physics of the United States 
Geological Survey, becomes Hazard professor of physics in 
Brown University. 

Proressor W. H. Seamon, member of the Geological Board 
of Missouri and professor of chemistry in the Missouri School 
of Mines, has been elected director of the New Mexico School 
of Mines at Socorro. 


Mr. W. N. Moore. who has been in charge of the forecast- 
ing office of the Weather Bureau at Chicago, is now chief of 
the United States Weather Bureau, having succeeded Prof. 
Mark W. Harrington. 


Proressor J. J. SrevENson, of the University of the City of 
New York, will spend the summer in the coal fields of Arkan- 
sas, Indian Territory and Texas, with incidental studies in 
New Mexico and Colorado. (Science.) 

Siras Watson Forp died at Saratoga, N. Y., June 25th, aged 
48 years. Mr. Ford’s name is familiar to American paleontol- 
ogists through his papers on the fauna of the Silurian and 
Sambrian, which were published from 1871 to 1886. 

Toe New York Strate Museum announces the following 
bulletin (Vol. 3, No. 14) as in press: “Geology of Moriah and 
Essex Townships, Essex Co., with Notes on the Iron Mines,” 
by J. F. Kemp. A bulletin (Vol. 3, No. 15} on the “ Mineral 
Resources of New York,” by F. J. H. Merrit, is in prepara- 
tion. 

AT THE COMMENCEMENT EXERCISES AT YALE University Prof. 
George Fisher introduced a resolution of regret, which was 
unanimously adopted, on the death of Prof. James Dwicur 
Dana. He announced that if $4,500 more were raised, a ped- 
estal and bust of the late professor would be erected on the 
campus. (Scvence. ) 


130 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


Mr. ArtHuR Winstow has published a list of errata and 
acknowledgements for his report on the “Lead and Zine De- 
posits of Missouri” (Mo. Geol. Survey, vols. 6 and 7). This 
list was not inserted in the report and Mr. Winslow will be 
glad to send a copy of the list to any one receiving the report 
who will apply to him. His address is: Rooms 411 and 412 
Roe Building, St. Louis, Mo. 


Tue Micuiegan Minine Scuoor has recently issued a“ Pros- 
pectus of elective studies,” which states that the school will 
this fall adopt an elective system. Students are allowed to 
select one of several courses with a certain principal subject, 
and in each course certain studies are required and the rest 
are elective. The school thus allows greater freedom in the 
selection of studies than do most mining schools. 


THe GLACIALISTS’ MAGAzInE begins its third volume as a 
quarterly, of which the first part bears the date of June, 1895. 
Its leading article in this number is by Dr. Karl Grossmann 
and J. Lomas, on the glaciation of the Farée islands, with a 
map of this group on the scale of three miles to an inch, and 
several sections and views. Communications for the maga- 
zine are to be addressed to the editor, Percy F. Kendall, 
Chapel Allerton, Leeds, England. The annual subscription 
price remains at six shillings, which may be sent to Arthur 
R. Dwerryhouse, 8 Livingston Avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool. 

SixtH INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL ConGreEss. The meet- 
ings in London from July 26th to August 3d have been men- 
tioned in previous numbers of the AmMerIcAN GroLoaist. Itis 
announced that there will be several short excursions for 
members of the Congress about London and the vicinity. A 
limited excursion will start for the Sea Lake distriet un- 
der the guidance of Mr. J. E. Marr, F. R.S., a geologist who 
has made this district his special study. ee JAMES 
GEIKIE will conduct a geological and geographical excursion 
in the neighborhood of Edinburgh, and this will be followed 
by a physico-geographical excursion to the Scottish highlands, 
of a week’s duration, which will be under the guidance of an 
experienced field geologist. 

University or Minnesota. The instruction in geology and 
mineralogy is under the direction of Dean C. W. HALL, pro- 
fessor of geology and mineralogy. He will be assisted by Mr. 
C. P. Berkey, instructor in mineralogy, and by Mr. A. H. 
Evrrman, laboratory assistant. Ten courses in geology and 
seven in mineralogy are open to undergraduate students, and 
six speci ial courses are offered to graduate students. In the 
College of Engineering, Metallurgy and the Mechanic arts 
eleven courses in geology and mineralogy are open to students 
who make either mining, metallurgy, or chemistry a specialty. 


Personal and Scientific News. A350 


Mr. F. W. Denton, formerly professor of mining and civil en- 
gineering in the Michigan Mining School, and at present min- 
ing engineer for the Minnesota Iron Company, will this fall as- 
‘sume the duties of associate professor of mining and metallurgy. 


Jouns Hopxins University. At the annual commencement 
an oil portrait of the late Prorrssor GEorGE Huntinaton WIL- 
LIAMS was presented to the university by Proressor Wm. B. 
Cxiark on behalf of the former students and colleagues of Pro- 
fessor Williams. Prestpent GitMan announced that the 
widow of Professor Williams had given a sum suflicient to es- 
tablish a lectureship in geology in commemoration of her hus- 
band. The trustees of the university have invited as the first 
lecturer Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKI®, director of the Geological Sur- 
vey of Great Britain and Ireland. Messrs. G. K. Ginpert and 
Barrey Wit is, of the U.S. Geological Survey, who have given 
special courses of lectures in geology the past year, will give 
similar courses the coming year. Dr. E. B. Maturws, in- 
structor in mineralogy, has been promoted to be associate in 
mineralogy. The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was con- 
ferred upon the following gentlemen who have been pursuing 
geological studies: Rurus Matruer Bace, of West Springfield, 
Mass.; SAMUEL WALKER Beyer, of Ames, lowa; HENRY STEWART 
Gang, of Chicago, Ill. Mr. Bagg’s thesis was entitled, ‘‘ The 
Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey ;” he is assisting Prof. 
W. B. Clark in his work on the Eocene of the Atlantic Coastal 
plain. Mr. Beyer’s thesis was entitled, ‘‘ The Sioux Quartzite 
near Sioux Fallsin South Dakota, with especial reference to an 
Intrusive Diabase;” he becomes assistant professor of geology 
and zoology in the Iowa Agricultural College, and is also con- 
nected with the Iowa Geological Survey. Mr. Gane’s thesis 
was on “ The Neocene Corals of the United States ;” he becomes 
an assistant on the U.S. Geological Survey and this summer 
will work under Dr. Whitman Cross in Colorado. 


THE GeEoLoaicaL Society or AMERICA announces a week’s 
excursion through the crystalline area of western Massachu- 
setts. This will be under the direction of Prorrssors B. K. Em- 
ERSON and Wm. H. Hopps. Geologists desiring to join this ex- 
eursion will meet on Monday evening, August 19th, at the 
American House in Pittsfield, Mass. The party will reach 
Springfield ez arly Tuesday morning, August 27th, in time for the 
opening session of the Geological Society. It is particularly 
desired that all persons who wish to join in this excursion 
should communicate in advance with Prof. B. K. Emerson, 
Amherst, Mass. The following geological excursions are pro- 
posed for the week of the meetings: 

(1) Russell and Chester on the Boston & Albany R.R. The 
kaolin quarries at Blandford, the Atwater marble quarry at 
Westfield, and the emery mines at Chester will be visited on 


132 The American Geologist. August, 1895. 


this trip. These formations illustrate the crystalline rocks 
west of the Conneeticut river. PRrorrssor W. O. Crossy, of 
Boston, will accompany the party which makes this excursion. 

(2) An exeursion to study the Triassic sandstones and also 
contacts of these rocks with the Holyoke trap sheets and in- 
trusives. This trip will include Mount Tom and Mount 
Holyoke. Proressor B. K. Emerson, will conduct this exeursion. 

(3) Proressor W. M. Davis, in connection with PRorrssor 
WitiraAm Norta Rice, has arranged for an exeursion to Meri- 
den and Southington, Connecticut. This region affords fine 
examples of contact between the older crystalline rocks and 
sandstone. The Meriden quarry exhibits lava flows and faults. 


Prorrssor Rozert Beir, of the Geological Survey, read a 
paper on “A great pre-glacial river in northern Canada” at 
the annual meeting of the Royal Society of Canada held at 
Ottawa in May last. It was the outcome of much study and 
extensive observation in the North. The paper was illustrated 
by amap. The following short abstract is from the Offawa 
Journal, 


*“¢Tt was,’’ he said, ‘‘ generally conceded by geologists that just before 
the advent of the glacial epoch, the continent of North America stood 
at a considerably greater elevation than at present, the difference accord- 
ing to some authorities, amounting to two or three thousand feet, if not 
more. The difference was greater towards the south, as compared with 
the present general altitudes. The inevitable result of this would be to. 
greatly alter the river systems. We should find in northern Canada a 
wide central drainage area equal to about one-third of the present land 
surface of the continent, the center of which would be in the region now 
covered by Hudson bay. 

‘‘This great inland sea does not average 400 feet in depth, and it would 
be all dry land even with a very moderate elevation. 

‘‘ Hudson Strait is much deeper and it would either form a long bay 
or a river valley, according to the amount of the continental elevation. 

‘‘Some geologiststs think that about this time the upper part of the 
St. Lawrence basin, including all the lakes, except Ontario, discharged 
its waters northward from lake Superior. But even without this doubt- 
ful part, the drainage area of this one great northern river would be 
seven times that of the present St. Lawrence. Judging from the an- 
cient erosion of the valleys and from other considerations, the annual 
precipitation was at least as great then as now, so that this former river 
must have been of gigantic proportions compared with any river of the 
present world. 

‘«Tts catch-basin would extent from the sources of the Saskatchewan 
and the Athabasca beyond the Rocky mountains to near the eastern 
coast of Labrador, and from the Minnesota river in the south to the 
northern part of Baffin land, and would also include the southern part 
of the great McKenzie basin. It would flow through the centre of 
Hudson bay and down Hudson strait. The former existence of this 
great river was not a mere speculation as to what might have been, but 
a necessary consequence of the elevation and change in the slope of the 
land, and it was proved in detail by a multitude of concordent facts all 
over the territory involved.” 


THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 
Vol. XVI, Plate VII. 


THE 


AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. 


Vox. XVI. SEPTEMBER, 1895. No. 3. 


EDWARD HITCHCOCK. 
By C. H. Hircucock, Hanover, N. H. 
[Portrait, Plate VII.] 


Edward Hitchcock, the youngest of five children, and of the 
sixth American generation of an English family, was born at 
Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1793. He died at Amherst, Mas- 
sachusetts, in 1864, having nearly completed his seventy-first 
year. 

An ardent desire for knowledge impelled him to acquire by 
himself many of the branches of learning usually taught in 
colleges, but at hours devoted by his associates to recreation 
and repose. His tastes were shaped at first by a maternal uncle, 
Gen. Epaphras Hoyt, being directed towards astronomy and 
military engineering. His first study was the determination 
of the longitude of his native town by observations upon the 
total eclipse of the sun in 1811. For three months and a half 
he took observations upon the distance of the comet from va- 
rious stars, on the latitude and longitude by lunar distances 
and eclipses of the sun and moon and on the variation of the 
magnetic needle. Then it required several months to reduce 
the observations, and as he had very few books he was obliged 
to calculate many elements by spherical trigonometry, which 
are found to-day in practical astronomical tables. The results 
as applied to the longitude of Deerfield church were given by 
Gen. Hoyt in the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts 
and Sciences for 1815, vol. 111, p. 307-9. Few young men of 


134 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


eighteen labor more diligently than he did in this amateur ef- 
fort. A still more improving discipline was developed from 
this. In making his calculations he made much use of Blunt’s 
Nautical Almanac, which was a reprint from the highest En- 
glish authority. Beneath the opening page for every month 
appeared this sentence, ‘Ten dollars will be paid on the dis- 


5 


covery of an error in the figures.” This led to an examina- 
tion and to the discovery of many errors, which were com- 
municated to Mr. Blunt, who took no notice of them. He then 
sent the list to the American Monthly Magazine. This excited 
Mr. Blunt’s indignation and he endeavored to evade the force 
of the errors by representing that they occurred only in that 
part of the tables used by astronomers and not in that used by 
seamen, and:charged Hitchcock with shameful neglect in not 
examining this more practical portion. The answer to this 
reproach was the discovery of twenty errors of such magni- 
tude in the navigation tables as to lead to disaster if depend- 
ence were placed upon them. Further calculations led to the 
discovery of eighty errors in all in four or five of these alma- 
nacs, and to an apology from the editor. One can see that 
rigid accuracy was indispensable for the discovery of these 
errors with corresponding application. The discipline thus 
obtained was the same in kind with that of a college course, 
which through a failure of health he was not able to acquire. 
Other discipline and a knowledge of the classics was acquired 
by holding the principalship of Deerfield Academy for four 
years. He learned much of English by taking an active part 
in a village debating society. During these years he wrote 
some poetry, particularly a tragedy, entitled the “Downfall of 
Bonaparte,” which was both published and acted with great 
success before, his neighbors and friends. 

The decade from 1810 to 1820 was an active one in theologi- 
eal thought in New England, it being the time of the Unita- 
rian controversy. Young Hitchcock had sided with the Uni- 
tarians at first, but on further reflection became satisfied that 
the truth lay on the orthodox side, and was induced to devote 
himself to the ministry. He fitted himself for this office in 
the theological department of Yale College and was settled as 
pastor of the Congregational church of Conway, Massachu- 
setts, from 1821 to 1825. 


Edward Hitchcock.—Hitchcock. 135 


While seeking for some means of promoting health he was 
led to study plants, animals and minerals, and to the acquaint- 
ance of Prof. Benjamin Silliman. Doubtless the love for sci- 
ence led him to Yale, where he might derive some collateral 
instruction besides‘his theology. The early volumes of the 
American Journal of Science contain many papers based upon 
his early observations, and a lifelong friendship ensued be- 
tween the teacher and the scholar. In 1825 Hitchcock was 
appointed professor of chemistry and natural history in Am- 
_herst College and filled this chair till elected to the presidency 
of the same institution in 1845. After nearly ten years of 
service he returned to the professorial ranks, teaching only 
geology and its relations to theology for another decade. 

A complete biography would find materials for three classes 
of activity. First, he was a philanthropist, theologian and 
devoted minister of the gospel. He believed in the truths of 
christianity and labored as he had opportunity to better the 
moral condition of society. Second, he was a college professor 
and president and achieved success both in the lecture room 
and in the management of a literary institution. By his pru- 
dence and skill he saved the college from threatened collapse. 
A burdensome debt was removed, handsome endowments se- 
eured and the number of students more than doubled during 
his administration. Third, he was a geologist and his greatest 
successes were connected with this phase of activity. Only 
this part of his work will be here considered. 

The subject of surface geology occupied the attention of 
Mr. Hitchcock from the very beginning of his researches. In 
1823 he explained the origin of deltas, terraces, dispersion of 
drift and polished rock surfaces by the action of moving wa- 
ters or floods. Glaciers were unknown to him and were not 
referred to by any geologist as productive of drift phenomena 
before 1838 when Agassiz first promulgated the glacier theory. 
What are now distinctly known to be moraines were correctly 
described and figured in 1833 as “diluvial elevations and de- 
pressions” and it was not till 1842 that he ventured to call 
them moraines, after Agassiz, Buckland, and Lyell. In the 
presidential address of 1841 before the American Association 
of Geologists the main phenomena and facts of glacial dis- 
persion are correctly described and he seemed almost ready to 


136 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


accept the glacial theory. Indeed, Murchison pronounced him 
a glacialist from the reading of this address, but the adoption 
of the term “‘glaceo-aqueous action” for the drift showed that 
the ageney of icebergs appeared the more important. There 
were three difficulties in his way: first, the immense area o0c- 
cupied by the supposed ice-sheet, far greater than any known 
system of glaciers; second, the transport of boulders from 
lower to higher levels, as from the St. Lawrence valley to the 
tops of the Green mountains and beyond; and third the pres- 
ence of the enormous moraines near the sea coast in Massa- 
chusetts. He once remarked upon the possibility that these 
hillocks might have been the terminal moraines of this imag- 
ined ice-sheet, which is the earliest allusion to such a view 
that can be found anywhere in the annals of American geol- 
ogy. 

After returning from Switzerland he discovered in western 
Massachusetts the moraines and glacial markings of real gla- 
ciers, which he distinguished carefully from the phenomena of 
general drift supposed to have been produced by icebergs. 
Later discoveries enabled him to generalize and advocate the 
presence of glaciers upon the summits of the White and Green 
mountains and other equally high mountains by inference, 
from which bergs broke off and floated away more or less ra- 
dially. But he was careful to explain that this was a local 
glaciation and entirely distinct from the general drift, which 
still seemed to him to have been produced mainly by floating and 
shore ice. As his early life had been spent in a region where 
the terraces are unusually perfect, he was led naturally to 
adopt theories which would explain their origin, and thus he 
made much of the distinction between the drift and the mod- 
ified drift, asserting that the terraces had been derived from a 
re-working or assorting of the ice-made accumulations. It 
was the careful study of terraces that led to the preparation 
of the Illustrations of surface geology published by the 
Smithsonian Institution in 1857. This was, to that date, the 
most complete treatise upon surface geology that had been 
published in the United States. It is to his credit that he did 
not allow himself to be led astray by any fanciful theory like 
that proposed by the brothers Rogers, who were his contem- 


Edward Hitchcock.—Hitchcock. 1337 


poraries. Hitchcock never hesitated to say, “I do not know,’’* 
when existing theories failed to be reasonably satisfactory. 
This was especially obvious in his treatment of the celebrated 
Berkshire trains of boulders. Had he lived two years longer, 
he would have probably adopted the glacial theory, as by that 
time it had become obvious that the immensity of the glacial 
area and the ascent of the ice thousands of feet were no 
bar to its adoption; and he would then have been the first 
to see a terminal moraine in the hillocks of cape Cod and Long 
island. 

The name of Edward Hitchcock is more thoroughly identi- 
fied with the subject of ichnology and the Connecticut sand- 
stone. To him belongs the honor of having proved the exist- 
ence of a large fauna of giant bipeds and quadrupeds in the 
trias of New England from their footmarks. When he first 
examined the track of the large Brontozoum some eighteen 
inches in length, he threw away the slab, supposing it merely an 
accidental resemblance, but very soon he discovered that the 
accidents were the law in this case and the large creatures 
were very plenty. It was the description of these gigantic 
footmarks that fortified Prof. Owen, of London, in his belief 
in the existence of the Deinornis of New Zealand. The bib- 
liography shows how numerous and varied were the papers 
illustrating these ichnites. The footmarks gave the first 
proofs of the existence of Deinosaurs, although they received 
the name of “ornithoid lizards or batrachians.” The final 
classification of Prof. Hitchcock summarized the groups as 
follows: one marsupial; seventeen pachydactylous birds; 
seventeen leptodactylous birds; twenty-one ornithoid reptiles ; 
twenty-five reptiles and Amphibia; seventeen Batrachia; six 
Chelonia; two fish; twenty-four insects; twenty-one inferior 
Arthropoda or larvae; and ten Mollusca, or over one hundred 
and fifty in all. There is a fine collection of these Ichnozoa 
at Amherst, where a room one hundred by thirty feet, with 
two smaller ones, are filled by numerous slabs, exhibiting over 
20,000 distinct impressions, all gathered by Edward Hitchcock 
and named after him since his decease. A fine marble bust by 
Millmore adorns one of the shelves. 


*My brother adds as very characteristic of our father, that he should 
acknowledge that he made a mistake in calling the lizards and batrach 
ians birds at the first. 


138 The American Geologist. September, 195 


Perhaps greater originality is indicated by his discoveries 
of distorted and metamorphosed pebbles ‘in conglomerates. 
As far back as 1833 he noticed these elongated pebbles near 
Newport, R. I., and briefly described them in his reports of 
1833, 1835, and 1841. In 1859 additional localities showing 
greater distortions and alterations were found on both sides 
of the Green mountains. The following conclusions he de- 
rived from the Rhode Island illustrations: 1. The rock was 
once a normal conglomerate, with the ordinary waterworn 
rounded pebbles, which have been elongated, flattened, bent 
and indented by some subsequent agency. 2. The pebbles 
were somewhat plastic before distortion. 3. Pebbles upon ex- 
isting beaches do not exhibit any such distortions. 4. Some 
of the pebbles have been cut by joints. 5. The forces produc- 
ing the alterations are the same that have produced plication. 
From the more northern examples it may be said further, 6, 
that in Vermont the elongation and flattening operated most 
energetically in the direction of the dip, while it had been 
in the direction of the strike in Rhode Island. 7. This was 
often effected by minute folding. 8. Some of these conglom- 
erates after extreme flattening have been altered into crystalline 
schists, partly by chemical changes, partly by mechanical flex- 
ing. This may be done in many cases without obliterating 
entirely the original fragmental shapes. Itis not to the credit 
of American geologists that so many of them refused to ac- 
cept these views till they were forced to do so by the petro- 
graphical studies entered upon by Europeans. The micro- 
scope has fully confirmed and enlarged our views respecting 
the origin of many schists from sediments, through mechani- 
cal and chemical alteration of the constituent fragments. 

Edward Hitchcock also performed eminent service in con- 
ducting geological surveys and in establishing scientific asso- 
ciations. It was his success in conducting explorations in 
Massachusetts that led to the inauguration of similar surveys 
simultaneously in 1886 in all the important states in the then 
existing Union. The government of New York consulted him 
as to the best method of surveying that great state, and his 
advice that it be divided into four districts was followed, and 
he was appointed to the charge of the survey of the first dis- 
trict. He entered upon the work with C. B. Adams for assist- 


Edward Illitchcock.—Hitchcock. 139 


ant, but thought best to resign, largely to endeavor to urge 
the importance of a re-survey of Massachusetts. This effort 
was successful and the final results appeared in 1841. Further 
researches in ichnology and certain special topics appeared in 
1853 and 1859 as a part of this state survey. In 1857 he was 
persuaded to direct the state survey of Vermont, whose results 
appeared in 1861. 

For several years he had labored to bring the working geol- 
ogists of the country together to confer and compare re- 
sults. This was the origin of the American Association of 
Geologists, who met for the first time at Philadelphia in 1840, 
and he was the first president. This company invited the 
naturalists to join them the following year, and the organiza- 
tion was known as the American Association of Geologists 
and Naturalists until 1848, when, by the addition of the phys- 
icists the society became the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science. The meetings of this society he al- 
ways attended and took prominent part in its sessions as in- 
dicated by the records. 

A very appreciative biographical sketch was prepared and 
read by Prof. J. P. Lesley before the National Academy of 
Sciences in 1866. To this and to his autobiography we must 
refer those who wish for a fuller information than can be 
given here. The portrait (plate VII) represents him as he 
appeared not far from the age of fifty-five. 


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46 pages. Official document. 

Description of a Brown Coal Deposit in Brandon, Vt., with an 
attempt to determine the Geological Age of the principal 
Hematite ore beds in the United States. Amer. Jour. Sci., 
N.S., vol. XV, 10 pages. 

Geology of the route traversed by Capt. R. B. Marcy in Texas, 
etc. 16 pages. 

Murderers of Fathers and Murderers of Mothers. 12 pages. 
Tract published by the American Tract Society. 

Relations and Mutual Duties between the Philosopher and the 
Theologian. Address before Porter Rhetorical Society. A. 
T.S. Bibliotheca Sacra; 45 pages. 

Special Divine Interpositions in Nature. Address before theo- 
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34 pages. 

Report on Soapstone of Middlefield, Mass., to Metropolitan Soap- 
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Outline of the Geology of the Globe and of the United States in 
particular, with two maps and six plates of fossils. 136 pages; 
several editions. 

Introduction to Genesis and Geology, by Dennis Crofton. 1 
page. 

The Plurality of Worlds. Introduction to American Edition. 8 
pages. 

Valedictory address on leaving the presidency of Amherst Col 
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A Sister’s Deathbed. Recorder. 

Charge to Dr. Stearns at his installation as pastor of the Am- 
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. Geology of the Hoosac Mountain. Testimony before committee 


of the legislature. 4 pages. 

Lecturing tour in the west. Congregationalist. 

Report on Coal Lands to the Great Kanawha Company, West 
Va. 8 pages. 


1856. 


1855. 


1859. 
1859. 


The American Geologist. September, 1895 


Report on Soapstone of Newfane, Vt., to Vermont Marble and 
Soapstone Co. 6 pages. 

On a new Fossil Fish and new Fossil Footmarks. Amer. Jour. 
Sci., N.S., vol. XXI: 4 pages. 

Illustrations of Surface Geology. 155 pages, 12 plates. From 
vol. [IX of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 

Reprinted with an addition of two pages in 1860. 

Address at the inauguration of the State Geological Hall at Al- 
bany; 7 pages. Printed in the Tenth Annual Report of the 
Regents of the University. 

Description of several sections measured across the sandstone 
and trap of Connecticut river valley i Masssachusetts. 

Additional facts respecting the tracks of the Otozoum Moodii on 
the Liassic sandstone of the Connecticut valley. 

Account of the Discovery of the Fossil Jaw of an extinct family 
of sharks from the Coal Formation. Abstract of three papers 
presented at the Providence meeting A. A. A. S.: five pages. 

The Religious Bearings of Man’s Creation; 31 pages. A sermon 
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Sermon at the funeral of Rey. Dr. Theopilus Packard, preached at 
Shelburne, Mass., in 1855. 23 pages. 

Religious Truth illustrated from Science, in addresses and ser- 
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Description of a large boulder in the Drift of Amherst, Massa- 
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Report on the Geological Survey of the State of Vermont. Offi- 
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Report on the Geological Survey of the State of Vermont. Offi- 
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Ichnology of New England. A report on the sandstone of the 
Connecticut valley, especially its footmarks; made to the 
government of Massachusetts. 232 pages; 60 plates. 

Sermon at the funeral of Mrs. Mary Ann Woodbridge, preached 
at Hadley, Mass., Jan. 20. 15 pages. 

The United States a Commissioned Missionary Nation. A dis- 
course delivered in the chapel of Amherst College Sept. 26. 
29 pages. 

Address on the presentation of silver plate from faculty and stu- 
dents of Amherst College. 


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Catalogue of the Massachusetts State Cabinet under the charge 
of the Sec’y of the Board of Agriculture. 69 pages. From 
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Report to the Hunterdon (N. J.) Copper Company. 1 page. 

Preliminary Report on the Geology of Vermont. Official state 
document; 16 pages. 


1859. 


1860. 


1860. 
1860. 
1860. 
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1861. 
1862. 


1862. 


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1863. 


1863. 


1865. 


Edward Hitchcock.— Hitchcock. 149 


Who first scientifically investigated and described fossil foot- 
marks in the Connecticut valley? Two issues of the Spring- 
field Republican in May. 

Remarks upon certain points of Ichnology. 15 pages. 

On certain conglomerated and brecciated trachytic dikes in the 
Lower Silurian rocks of Shelburne, Vt., with special refer- 
ence to the degree of heat at the time of their production. 3 
pages. 

Additional facts respecting the Clathropteris of Easthampton, 
Mass. 1 page. Read at the Newport meeting of the A. A. 
Ney: 

Elementary Geology. 31st edition; 4830 pages. Entirely rewrit- 
ten with the assistance of C. H. Hitcheock. 

Letter to New York World dated Oct. 8, concerning a memoir of 
Mary Lyon. 

Exegesis of 1 Cor. XV, 25-44. Bibliotheca Sacra. 10 pages. 

Distorted pebbles. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1 page, vol. VII. 

Elementary Anatomy and Physiology. By E. Hitchcock and E. 
Hitchcock, Jr.: 441 pages. First and last chapters; 43 pages. 

The West Parish Cemetery, Amherst, Mass. Hampshire and 
Franklin Express. 

On the conversion of certain conglomerates into talcose and mi- 
caceous schists and gneiss, by the elongation, flattening and 
metamorphosis of the pebbles and the cement. Amer. Jour. 
Sci., N. S., vol. XX XI, 21 pages. 

Geology of Vermont; Descriptive, Theoretical, Economical and 
Scenographical. By Edward Hitchcock, Edward Hitchcock, 
Jr., A. D. Hager and C. H. Hitchcock. 2 vols: 988 pages; 
38 plates; of this E. H. prepared 211 pages. 

The Cross in Nature and Nature in the Cross. 31 pages. Biblio- 
theca Sacra, vol. XVIII. 

Address at Mt. Holyoke Seminary at its 25th anniversary. 

Supplement to the Ichnology of New England. Proc. Amer. 
Acad. Art and Sciences., vol. VI, 8 pages. 

The Visitor’s Guide to the Public Rooms and Cabinets of Am 
herst College. By C. H. Hitchcock. 51 pages prepared by 

A Gorilla at Amherst. Congregationalist. 

New facts and conclusions respecting the Fossil Footmarks of 
the Connecticut valley. Amer. Jour. Sci., N.S., vol. XXXVI, 
11 pages. 

The law of Nature’s constancy subordinate to the higher law of 
change. Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. xx, 72 pages. 

Reminiscences of Amherst College, Historical, Scientific, Bio 
graphical and Autobigraphical: also of other and wider life ex 
periences. 4 plates and map. 420 pages. 

Supplement to the Ichnology of New England. Report made in 
1863 to legislature of Massachusetts. 106 pages: 20 plates. 
Edited by C. H. Hitchcock. 


150 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


[CRUCIAL POINTS IN THE GEOLOGY OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION. NO. 7.] 

A RATIONAL VIEW OF THE KEWEENAWAN. 

By N. H. WIncHELL, Minneapolis, Minn. 

The following further difficulties stand in the way of the 
Wisconsin idea of the separateness of the horizontal Lake Su- 
perior sandstones from the tilted. 

1. There is no permanent petrographic distinction between 
them. The red shales and red sandstones, which are said to 
prevail in the tilted beds, are found in great volume in the lower 
portion of the horizontal beds. This may be seen in consult- 
ing the sections of the horizontal beds recorded by the Minne- 
sota survey,* and by the descriptions of Mr. Sweet in volume 
IIT of the Wisconsin report, as well as by those of the eastern 
sandstone for many miles east of Keweenaw point by C. Rom- 
inger. 

2. The tilted beds are sometimes horizontal or nearly so, 
and the horizontal beds are sometimes tilted at high angles.t+ 

3. The top of the Keweenawan sandstones has never been ob- 
served. 

4. The bottom of the overlying sandstones has never been 
observed except where by regional subsidence it is non-con- 
formable upon the tilted traps or the older crystallines. 

5. In various places the horizontal sandstones, and even 
some of the higher associated magnesian limestones, have been 
seen non-conformable on the traps of the lower portion of the 
Keweenawan, indicating a progressive submergence after the 
tilting of the traps. 

The non-conformable contact which is assumed to have 
taken place between the base of the horizontal sandstones and 
the Keweenawan tilted sandstones has never been observed. 

7. The whole region in which this question centers is one of 
disturbance and eruptive action. Ever since some of the hor- 
izontal sandstones were deposited there have been such move- 


*N. H. WIncHELL, Tenth Minnesota report, pp. 30-34, 1881. 


+Sweet, Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., vol. 111, p. 46. Irvine, in Am. Jour. 
Sci., (3), vol. vrrr, July, 1874, p. 50, describes briefly horizontal red sand- 
stones and shale on Silver creek, but in Copper Bearing Rocks of Lake 
Superior, Mon. V, U.S. Geol. Survey, he includes these in his upper 
member of tho Keweenawan. See plate xx11. See also p. 411, where 
Irving speaks of the ‘* comparative flatness of the northward dip.”’ 

Brooks, Geol. Sur. of Mich., vol. 1, p. 185, 1873. 

At nearly all the points where the horizontal sandstone lies non-con- 
formably upon the traps it is locally highly tilted away from the traps. 


A Rational View of the Keweenawan.— Winchell. 151 


ments that the sandstones are broken and thrust in various 
attitudes in their immediate relations with the traps. 

8. The shortest observed interval between the horizontal 
sandstones and the tilted sandstones, within which such non- 
conformity must occur, if it exist at all, is four miles, viz., 
between Montreal river and Clinton point, both in Wisconsin. 

9. If it were to be affirmed that there is no such non-con- 
formable contact between these sandstones, the statement 
could not be disproved by any known facts. 

10. If the statement were to be made that the upper part of 
the Keweenawan sandstones passes conformably into the hori- 
zontal, as represented in figure 1, in all places where they are 
in contact, excepting only a slow subsidence of the whole re- 
gion, bringing the later horizontal sandstones unconformably 
over wider and wider areas of formerly tilted rocks, such 
statement could not be disproved by any known facts, but 
would be in harmony with all that is known of these forma- 
tions. 


Montreal River 


<A y 


Clinton Point) ~~ _ 
= Ss Le 1 of Lake Superior_ 


Figure 1. Structural relations of the sandstones at Clinton point, Montreal river 
and Silver creek. This collocation of these outcrops is warranted by Prof. Irving’s 
final mapping of the sandstones on Silver creek, in Ashland, Co., Wis. (Copper-bear- 
ing Rocks, plate xxIt.) 


Up to the date of Maj. Brooks’ work in the Lake Superior 
region it had generally been considered that the trap rocks of 
the copper-bearing series, and the sandstones with which they 
are associated, whether interstratified or otherwise, consti- 
tuted essentially one formation, all the non-conformities that 
were observed being local phenomena such as an epoch of 
eruptive disturbance would be subject to. When, however, 
the non-conformable underlying trap rocks at Taylor’s Falls 
(i. e. St. Croix falls) were traced from that point to their 
connection with the trap rocks in the northern part of Wis- 
consin and Michigan, it was thought at once that the evidence 
bore out the conclusion that the upper sandstone was a for- 
mation distinct from the copper-bearing series. The upper 
sandstone being considered, at Taylor’s Falls, as of Potsdam 
age, it was appropriate, with that view of the evidence, to give 
a new name to the trap rocks. When later it was found that 
a great thickness of sandstone is sometimes seen tilted con- 


152 The American Geologist. September, 1295 


formably with the traps, and must therefore belong with them, 
it became necessary to divide the sandstone between the Pots- 
dam age and the age of the Keweenawan. When, still later, 
it was found that the overlying strata at Taylor’s Falls are 
not of the age of the sandstones which, in the Lake Superior 
basin proper, overlie unconformably the trap rocks, but are 
considerably higher, and actually consist, in part, of the mag- 
nesian limestones which are well known as parts of the Cal- 
ciferous of New York state, it became apparent that the basal 
beds of the supposed non-conformable upper sandstones had 
nowhere been seen, but that the Taylor’s Falls locality could 
not be taken to show a wide-spread non-conformity between 
two separate formations, but rather implied that after the 
time of the eruptives there had been, in the Lake Superior re- 
gion, a subsidence which at first brought some of the lower 
sandstones upon the tilted traps non-conformably, and at a 
later date also brought some of the higher sandstones and 
some of the magnesian limestones non-conformably upon the 
same beds in other places. These facts, have been brought to 
light since the new name was applied, and they should be 
given their proper significance, since they disturb the grand 
conclusion as to the distinctness of the eruptive age from the 
Potsdam. Without the knowledge of this progressive sub- 
mergence after the epoch of eruption, and without the knowl- 
edge of the later crustal movements which, after the deposi- 
tion of the horizontal sandstones, have disturbed them on a 
grand scale in Douglass Co., Wisconsin, and along the Ke- 
weenaw peninsula, it was a very reasonable conelusion that 
the Keweenawan in all its parts is non-conformable below all 
That would be the first inter- 
pretation that would be put upon the facts as seen by Brooks 


5 


the “horizontal sandstones.’ 


and Irving. It seems now, however, that the violent tilting 
‘and shattering which the Keweenawan strata have suffered 
may in part be of a date as late as after the horizontal 
sandstones, and in part due to local voleanic or other dynamic 
disturbance during the progress of the eruptive epoch, and, 
finally, in part due to a grand crustal movement which has ad- 
vanced since Archean time tending to give both these and all 
earlier strata a synclinal dip toward lake Superior. 

The only point, however, which it is intended to insist on, at 
this place, is the lack of sufficient evidence to show a general 


A Rational View of the Keweenawan.—Winchell. 153 


erosion interval between the Keweenawan sandstones and the 
horizontal sandstones—such an interval as would allow the 
lapse of the time involved in the Taconic, or Lower Cambrian, 
while the region of lake Superior was dry land. During such 
an interval the upper Keweenawan sandstones would have 
been entirely swept away, or so hardened that they would 
show marked lithological contrasts with the ‘ horizontal sand- 
stones.” 

What has now been said relating to the Keweenawan is 
mainly of the nature of destructive and controversial criti- 
cism of the views which are set forth in Bulletins 81 and 86, 
of the United States Geological Survey, touching the nature 
and structural relations of those rocks. It sometimes becomes 
necessary to enter upon wholesale re-examination of the evi- 
dences on which hypotheses are founded. It is proposed now 
to construct the Keweenawan in the light of some newly dis- 
covered facts, and to indicate its stratigraphic place. 

The eruptive rocks which have been ineluded in Michigan, 
Wisconsin and Minnesota in the Keweenawan consist of tivo 
widely different series, of widely separated ages. This state- 
ment is based on facts observed in Minnesota, mostly not yet 
published in detail, but it is believed to be equally applicable 
in Wisconsin and Michigan. The brief letter of Dr. U.S. 
Grant published* in June, 1894, expresses the key to this sep- 
aration, viz., the Animikie was upturned by eruptive disturb- 
ance, and changed to quartz-porphyries and probably augite- 
syenites prior to the Keweenawan. Along with this disturb- 
ance there issued from greater depths in the earth great 
quantities of gabbro and allied eruptives. This may be fully 
understood by consulting the important work of Dr. W.S. 
Bayley on Pigeon point,+ without further specification. The 
eruptive red rocks which Bayley has described can be traced 
westwardly to Brulé lake, and still further west and to Du- 
luth. They are not of Keweenawan age, though so mapped 
and described by Irving. They are everywhere associated 
with modified conditions of the Animikie and with coarsely 
crystalline basic rock. Indeed, the great gabbro, or anorthosyte, 


* AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, vol. xtt1, p, 437, 1894. 


+The eruptive and sedimentary rocks of Pigeon point, Minn., and 
their contact phenomena. Bulletin 109, U.S. Geol. Surv., 1893. 


154 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


masses are believed to be wholly of this age. The writer has 
discussed the pre-Keweenawan age of this gabbro quite fully, 
based on Lawson’s report and vivid illustrations from photo- 
graphs, in Bulletin 8, of the Minnesota survey, and the results 
of later field work in northeastern Minnesota have only served 
to supply details entirely consistent with this general distine- 
tion. The basal conglomerate at Grand Portage island con- 
tains pebbles from these eruptive rocks as well as from the 
hardened ¢lastics of the Animikie adjacent. The great gab- 
bro dikes which cut the Animikie about Grand Portage bay, 
rising abruptly, as in Mt. Josephine and Hat point, from three 
hundred to a thousand feet above lake Superior, extend from 
Pigeon point characteristically across the Indian reservation 
and to Brulé lake. Atthis point the slates are hardened into a 
“black rock,” or are rendered vesicular, but are distinguisha- - 
ble as members of the Animikie. The details of the extension 
of these eruptives to Duluth cannot be given here. Suffice it 
to say that as a group they appear on the lake shore at many 
places, and apparently flowed as lava sheets. They consti- 
tute the felsytes at Grand Marais, and at Baptism river and 
near Duluth. They easily furnish pebbles on the lake beach. 
This group seems to constitute the most of the shore on the 
north side of the lake, in Minnesota, leaving much less of the 
Keweenawan proper than has been supposed. The later Ke- 
weenawan eruptives invaded these eruptives in the form of 
laceolites and of dikes. The gabbro is frequently cut by them. 
The beautiful display of these later Keweneewan basic erupt- 
ives at the red rock point east of the ‘‘ Eastern palisades”’ 
may be mentioned. The trap sheets that pass about and un- 
derlie the “Great palisades”’ are of later Keweenawan, the 
palisades themselves being pre-Keweenawan. The red islands 
at and east of Beaver bay are pre-Keweenawan. At Beaver 
bay and eastward from there the later traps hold many pieces 
of the earlier eruptives, both basic and acid, which they have 
derived from them in flowing alony. These have been noted 
by several geologists. 

The reader is referred to a fuller discussion of this question 
in the introduction to Bulletin VIII, of the Minnesota survey, 
where also is presented evidence of a similar separation in 
Wisconsin and Michigan. 


A Rational View of the KReweenawan.— Winchell. 155. 


After the Animikie revolution was along erosion interval. 
This interval is emphasized by the siliceous conglomerates that 
have already been referred to—first at the base of Grand 
Portage island, second, in the valley of the St. Louis river, 
and third, west of Agogebic lake, as described recently by 
Van Hise.* This conglomerate we are disposed to consider as 
pre-Keweenawan, notwithstanding the argument of Van Hise 
that it is post-Keweenawan. Its readiness to disintegrate on 
exposure to the atmosphere is perhaps its strongest evidence 
of post-Keweenawan age. So far as observed all pre-Kewee- 
nawan conglomerates are much indurated. 

In addition to these localities Sweet has described it in T. 
32, R. 6 W., Wisconsin, on the Chippewa river, but without 
apprehending its age, except that he found it underlying a 
massive quartzyte. The conglomerate here reaches 300 feet 
in thickness.+ It has been fully described by the Wisconsin 
Geological Survey.t This conglomerate and the overlying 
quartzyte have been found in Minnesota associated as in Wis- 
consin. At New Ulm this conglomerate lies on a coarse red 
granite and has a thickness exposed of about 25 feet. As a 
conglomerate this formation is not known further southwest, 
but as a quartzyte it appears conspicuously in Cottonwood 
county, where it forms a long characteristic ridge. It reappears 
in Pipestone county, and is well known at Sioux Falls, in 
South Dakota. Red felsytes, probably connected with it, have 
been described by 8S. W. Beyer,§ and certain diabases appar- 
ently cutting it in South Dakota have been described by G. E. 
Culver and W. H. Hobbs. || 

This red quartzyte has had various names, and has been as- 
signed to various ages. The authors of the Wisconsin geolog- 
ical report, 1873-1879, referred it to the Huronian, and they 
have since so considered it, though, later, Van Hise has char- 
itably covered the whole question with the convenient non- 
committal term. A/gonkian. The writer originally, in 1872, 


*The Penokee Iron-bearing series of Michigan and Wisconsin, Mon. 
x1x, U. S. Geol. Sur., p. 461. 


+E. T. Sweer, Notes on the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. Wis 
consin Acad. Sci. and Arts, vol. 1m, p. 45. 


{Vol. tv, p. 575. 
SlIowa Geological Survey, vol. 1, 1892, p. 165. 
|Wisconsin Acad. Sciences, vol. vi11, p. 206. 


156 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


referred it to the Potsdam, and at a later date described Par- 
adoxvides barbers and Lingula calumet from the red pipestone 
clay at Pipestone, Minn., which is a layer embraced mol 1h 
Probably there isno one who would call in question the fact 
that this conglomerate and quartzyte are earlier than the Ke- 
weenawan eruptive age. This is owing to the metamorphism 
and upheaval to which it has been subjected, and to a general al- 
liance which it shows in other ways with the older rocks. That 
its age is post Animikie, i. e., post Upper Huronian, is shown 
by its contents. The writer once made, in company with 
Prof. R. D. Irving, a collection of the various sorts of rolled 
pebbles that occur in this conglomerate at New Ulm. One of 
the most common kinds is a sort of jasper, probably of the 
same variety as seen by Mr. Sweet in the conglomerate on the 
Chippewa river. On making thin sections of these jasper 
pebbles they are found to be very characteristically from the 
taconyte beds of the Mesabi range, or from the parallel strata 
of the Penokee range: It may be thought by those who have 
not carefully studied the crystalline rocks, that a jasper is not 
a very sure guide to the age of the conglomerate in which it 
may occur asa pebble. But a little consideration will show, 
in this case, that there is no mistake. This is a peculiar jasper 
—so peculiar that it has received the special name faconyte.* 
Several thin sections are illustrated in Bulletin X, Minnesota 
survey, by Mr. J. E. Spurr (plates V, VI, VII and VIII) who 
considers this taconyte one of the stages of transformation of 
the ores of the Mesabi range from glauconite to hematite. 
Prof. Van Hise has illustrated others from the Penokee range 
in his discussion of the Penokee iron-bearing rocks (plates 
XXVI, XXVIII and XXIX) but he gives a different explana- 
tion of their origin. Setting aside entirely ‘the question of 
their origin it is plain that they are peculiar to the upper 
iron-bearing member of the Lake Superior region. Sueh jas- 
per pebbles of course might be found in any later fragmental 
rock, through the transportations which the formations un- 
dergo as débris from older to newer strata. Butif it be char- 
acteristic in its indigenous form of a certain horizon it will 
never be found ina conglomerate at a lower stratigraphic hori- 
zon. This is the case with this curious jasper. There are 


*H. V. WiIncHELL, Twentieth Minnesota report, p. 124, 1893. 


A Rational View of the Keweenawan.— Winchell. 157 


banded jaspers in the older strata, and they are repeated in 
the Mesabi rocks, owing to the recurrence of the same causes 
and conditions in the time of the Mesabi iron ore, or owing to 
the existence of conglomerates in the Mesabi rocks derived 
from the older rocks, but there are no taconyte jaspers in the 
older rocks; at least, during all the time that the members of 
the Minnesota survey have studied the older rocks none have 
been found, and they have not been reported from the lower 
strata by any other geologist. Dr. U. 8. Grant, who detected 
this taconyte in this conglomerate, has kindly made the ac- 
companying drawings which show these taconyte grains mag- 


nified about thirty diameters. 


FIGURE 2 (Minn. Geol. Sur. No. 852 B) and Ficure 3 (Minn. Geol. Sur. No. 852C). 
Thin sections of taconyte pebbles in the conglomerate at Courtland, Nicollet Co., 
Minn. The black, both solid and dots, represents hematite. The white, both be- 
tween and in the granules, is very finely crystalline silica. The iron ore thus not 
only coats the surface of the granules, but penetrates into them and sometimes 
makes up whole granules. Magnified about thirty diameters. 


This seems to prove that the Sioux quartzyte, the New Ulm 
quartzyte, the Barraboo quartzyte and the Barron County 
quartzytes are of the same age, since they have always been 
linked under one grouping by all who have classified them. 
Being post-Mesabi and post-Penokee and pre-Keweenawan the 
question next arises, where are they to be found in the Peno 
kee region? They are below the Keweenawan diabases, It is 
a fact, which has not attracted much attention, that there is 
a considerable quartzyte and conglomerate below the Kewee- 


nawan diabases in the Penokee district. The writer first, so 


L158 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


far as known, reported this in the Penokee district, and re- 
ferred it to the base of the Keweenawan.* Buta very slight 
exposure was seen near Bessemer in 1885. Mr.W.G. La Rue, 
of Barraboo, Wis., gave more definite information concerning 
it. North from the Colby mine near the bluffs of the Kewee- 
nawan range, which there are plainly visible rising as a series 
of hills within a mile or less of the village (Bessemer), he was 
employed to explore for ore. Under the Keweenawan diabases, 
or gabbro, he found a quartzyte and a sandstone, the two dif- 
fering only in induration, both consisting of crystalline quartz. 
He shafted under the quartzyte in a conglomerate of iron ore, 
and after a time he found that the conglomerate turned al- 
most at a right angle toward the north. He did not ascertain 
what was under the conglomerate, but he found the quartzyte 
and sandstone together had a thickness of at least 235 feet. 
This was in the 8S. W. 4, N. E. 4, see. 10, 47-16, Michigan. 

Besides the points mentioned in Minnesota two others may 
be referred to. In 1879 the writer noted a red quartzyte, 
whose appearance reminded him of the New Ulm rock, on the 
upper waters of the Temperance river, near the Mesabi divide. 
This is much re-crystallized, however, so far as specimens col- 
lected show, but some of the thin sections consist almost whol- 
ly of quartz. This quartzyte range occurs just south of the 
anorthosyte and the red-rock belt, and north of the principal 
Keweenawan ridge. Again, in Bulletin V, of the Minnesota 
geological survey, will be found the record of a deep well 
drilled at Short Line Park, in the St. Louis valley west of Du- 
luth. This well is located about 200 feet above the river, on 
the flank of the “ gabbro” range, which here, however, consists 
of a more or less diabasic, amygdaloidal rock. The drill 
struck at the depth of 463 feet, a quartzose rock, or grit, 
which proved to develop at a greater depth into a siliceous 
conglomerate which was deseribed as pyritiferous, plainly the 
same as that which is at the river side about a mile further 
down the valley, already referred to as probably being pre- 
Keweenawan. This rock was struck below 230 feet of the so- 
called gabbro of that region, and developed a thickness of 67 
feet. 

With this it is sufficiently shown that after the Animikie 


*Sixteenth Minnesota report, pp. 55-56: Eighteenth report, pp. 42-43. 


A Rational View of the Keweenawan.— Winchell, 159 


there was a long erosion interval. It may be that the great fel- 
syte-pebble conglomerate at the mouth of the Montreal river 
will prove yet to be the basal conglomerate of the Keweena- 
wan proper. It is evident that itremains yet to trace out this 
quartzyte and conglomerate carefully in Wisconsin and Michi- 
gan, as well as in Minnesota, for that they have an important 
place and significance seems unquestionable. It will doubtless 
be found, in the main, along the base of the precipitous side 
of the Keweenawan ridge, in Minnesota on the north side of 
the Keweenawan hills and in Wisconsin on the south side of 
the same range. Owing to the induration which it and the 
overlying sandstone have suffered by the action of the Ke- 
weenawan traps, it is very persistent and has escaped the de- 
struction which otherwise would have befallen it. In volume, 
character and hardness it is comparable to the conglomerate 
and associated quartzyte described by the writer at Cascade, 
Mich., and at Ishpeming.* At the former of these points it 
lies on the Taconic ore horizon of the Animikie and contains 
the peculiar taconyte pebbles, but at the latter it is non-con- 
formable on the lower iron horizon, viz., that of the Vermilion 
range of Minnesota, and is made up locally of the débris of. 
the Archean. The horizon of the conglomerate itself, how- 
ever, is the same at both points, as it is traceable continuously 
between them. It has beeu supposed to belong in the base of 
the Taconic horizon (Upper Huronian ) but evidently it is later 
and, according to the foregoing classification, belongs to the 
base of the Keweenawan. Other conglomerates in the region, 
much less dense, though non-conformable on the Taconie iron 
horizon, may belong higher. The mere fact that a conglom- 
erate contains taconyte does not prove it to belong at the base 
of the Keweenawan. It only proves that it cannot be older 
than the base of the Keweenawan. 

There is a curious anomaly to which Van Hise has called 
attention in the Penokee region, viz., the “ cherty carbonate” 
is intermittent, although it is a part of the Penokee series. A 
conglomeratic quartzyte lies non-conformably upon it. It 
may be that in some places he has mistaken the basal con- 
glomerate of the Keweenawan for a conglomerate of the Pen- 
okee series. In case the structural relations do not sufficiently 


*Sixteenth Minnesota report, pp. 43-48, 1887. 


160 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


determine the stratigraphic place of such a transgressive con- 
glomerate, an inspection of the pebbles would decide. If any 
of them consist of the peculiar taconyte, the conglomerate 
must be later than the Penokee series. 

Prof. Van Hise has kindly submitted for examination three 
specimens taken from this conglomerate, viz., Nos. 9418, 9420 
and 9449 (mentioned on pp. 167 and 169, Mon. XIX, U.S. 
Geol. Survey). They are from sees. 14 and 15, of T. 47-45 W.., 
Michigan. The first two of these show no evident taconyte 
pebbles but numerous angular and sub-angular pieces of 
cherty silica, in a dark gray or greenish matrix. No. 9449 is 
similarly composed, but coarser and lighter colored. There is 
near the center of this specimen a large light-gray, impure, 
cherty mass or fragment whose texture and composition are 
not unlike some parts of the taconyte seen in the Mesabi rocks 
of Minnesota, but there are no certain or characteristic glob- 
ular spots in any of the pebbles marking the conglomerate as 
post-Penokee. The conglomerate at the Palms mine likewise 
shows, in one specimen belonging to the Minnesota survey, 
nothing but débris from the Archean. 

On the north shore of lake Superior this conglomerate leaves 
the Minnesota shore at Grand Portage island. It reappears 
at the west end of Isle Royale, where it has a large exposure, 
and is overlain by red sandstone.* It is largely exposed north- 
ward from Siskiwit bay, having a strong dip toward the south. 
The northern rim of this island is composed of a dike or series 
of dikes of the type of the Grand Portage and Pigeon Point 
dikes. The shore is high and precipitous and the water very 
deep, caused by the perpendicularity of an immense Animikie 
dike. The overlying Keweenawan conglomerate consists of 
felsitie material of Animikie source, also of some of the hard- 
ened grits of the Wauswaugoning quartzyte. Thus Isle Roy- 
ale is divisible between the Animikie and the Keweenawan, 
the larger portion of it belonging to the latter. The strike of 
these Keweenawan beds is such that they cannot reach the 
Lake Superior shore again until many miles east of Thunder 
bay and Nipigon. In addition to this, they differ so remark- 
ably from the fragmental strata, which at Thunder bay and 
Black bay have been considered the base of the Keweenawan 


“*Tenth Minnesota report, p. 48. 


A Rational View of the Keweenawan.— Winchell. 161 


by Irving and Van Hise, that they cannot be parallelized with 
them, although they directly overlie non-conformably the 
same Animikie beds. 

Mr. Thomas Macfarlane concluded from his section of the 
Keweenawan at cape Mamainse, on the eastern shore of lake 
Superior*, that a sandstone of greater age than the bedded 
traps is a reasonable supposition, from the evidence, and that 
it perhaps belongs to the lower group of the upper copper- 
bearing series. He seems, however, in deference to the opin- 
ion of Sir William Logan, to have finally decided that it is a 
part of the non-conformable overlying sandstones which ex- 
tend to Sault Ste. Marie. 

The Keweenawan eruptive age, following the accumulation 
of this conglomerate and quartzyte, separated the Paradouvides 
horizon from the Dicellocephalus horizon. The former is rep- 
resented by Paradowvides barber’ of the pipestone clay, and the 
latter by the fossils of the St. Croix beds of the Mississippi 
valley. It is evident from the non-discovery of fossils that 
during the accumulation of the Lake Superior sandstone, 
which seems to be conformable below the St. Croix sandstones 
and dolomytes, the ocean’s waters were not yet sufliciently 
settled to allow of the existence of animal life, at least in the 
Lake Superior region. There is no evidence that the ocean 
was driven out at once after the eruptions. 

The Olenellus horizon is separated from the Paradoxwides 
horizon by the disturbance that closed the Animikie. The ab- 
sence of Olenellus, and of nearly all fossils, from the Animikie 
strata of course stands yet in the way of the full establish- 
ment of this proposition. But there is every reason to expect 
that the proper fauna will yet be discovered in these beds. 
Indeed, it is not wholly wanting. Mr. G. F. Matthew has de- 
scribed a Taonurus-like impression from the Animikie rocks 
of the north shore of lake Superior, discovered by Dr. Selwyn, 
and has named it Medusichunites.+ This is similar to several 
other forms found by Mr. Matthew in the St. John group of 
New Brunswick and illustrated by him in the same volume. 

Reference should also be made to the indication of foramin- 
iferal fossils in the glauconite sand from which the iron ores 


*Geological Survey of Canada, Report for 1866, p. 136. 


+Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. viir, sec. tv, p. 143, 1890. Originally 
described in the Am. Jour. Sci., Feb., 1890, as Taonichnites. 


162 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


of the Mesabi region are derived. Although as yet no identi- 
fiable organic forms have been detected in the few microscopic 
slides that have been made, their presence in the rock origi- 
nally is so strongly indicated by all the attendant cirecum- 
stances that Mr. Spurr has included it as probable amongst 
his final conelusions.* This discovery is also in line with the 
late announcement by Mr. W. D. Matthew of the discovery of 
many foraminiferal forms associated with a large amount of 
iron in the St. John group, in New Brunswick,+ which points 
to the Lower Cambrian age of the upper iron-bearing rocks of 
the Mesabi region. 


HE MENROR BE DS: 


A CENTRAL KANSAS TERRANE OF THE COM- 
ANCHE SERIES. 


By F. W. Craain, Colorado Springs, Colo. 


The Mentor beds, named from a small station in Saline 
county, Kansas, within the area of their outcrop, are a terrane 
of variegated, earthy-textured marine shales, with interea- 
lated beds of brown sandstone, resting in part conformably 
upon the Kiowa shales and in part unconformably upon the 
drab and purple-red laminated shales and impure limestones 
of the Permian, and succeeded above by the more heavily are- 
naceous fresh-water sediments of the Dakota. They were 
formerly considered by all geologists as constituting a part of 
the Dakota group, but are now known to belong to the upper 
part of the Comanche series. 

The Mentor beds occur typically in Saline county, to whose 
area their outcrops contribute more than those of any other 
formation, and nearly all of that part over which the Dakota- 
sandstone-topped Iron Cap mound, North Pole mound, Soldier 
Cap mound, and Smoky Hill buttes stand sentinel and indi- 
‘ate the comparatively recent erosion of the Dakota. They 
occur in the southeastern quarter of Ellsworth county also, 
extending thence eastward across the northern part of Me- 
Pherson county, to and beyond the noted double eminence, 


* AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, Vol XIII, p. 335. 
Bulletin X, Minnesota Geological Survey, 1894. 
+Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. x11, pp. 108-120, 1893. 


The Mentor Beds.—Cragin. 163 


which, strewn with huge rectangular blocks of quartzytic 
sandstone, is known as Battle hill. They are supposed to ap- 
pear tosome extent also in Rice, Marion, and Dickinson coun- 
ties, though their presence there still lacks confirmation, and 
in Marion and Dickinson they must be limited to the northern 
and southern parts of the counties respectively. 

The shales of the Mentor beds are chiefly argillaceous,but they 
contain a greater or less admixture of sand, to which, as soft 
sandstones, they locally give place in certain horizons. They 
apparently contain some lime also, partly in the condition of 
sulphate. Being little consolidated, they weather into gentle 
slopes and broad, low, rounded eminences scarcely worthy the 
name of hills, and present few conspicuous outcrops. Such . 
outcrops of the shales as do occur present themselves either as 
limited, more or less steep-faced banks of marly-appearing 
clay, of white, ferruginous-yellow, red, or blue color, or parti- 
colored with two or more of these. Their coloring seems to be 
the result of the variable distribution of oxide, peroxide, and 
sulphates of iron. 

The sandstone of the Mentor beds occurs in thin, local 
strata. While these are of slight consequence judged by the 
space they occupy, they are nevertheless of great stratigraphic 
importance, since it is from these alone that our knowledge of 
the geological age of the Mentor terrane has been derived. 
So softis this sandstone that its natural outcrops rarely present 
themselves as integral ledges, but commonly as slopes scattered 
with lumps and slabs of sandstone, representing the hardest and 
most durable parts of a vanished bed; but occasionally ap- 
pears a ledge that is considered sutticiently hard and uniform 
to be quarried, yielding a rather soft and poor quality of 
building-stone. Some quarries of this sort, belonging to the 
Mentor beds, may be seen in the district between Bavaria and 
Soldier Cap mound. 

The thickness of the Mentor beds varies greatly, since that 
portion of the terrane that rests directly upon the Permian 
lies unconformably upon the latter and presents considerable 
differences in the elevation of its base. It probably nowhere 
greatly exceeds fifty or sixty feet. 

The fauna of the Mentor beds, so far as at present known, 
is included in the following list: 


164 The American Geologist. 


Ostrea franktlini, Coq. 


Ostrea quadruplicata, Shum. 


Anomia sp. 

Avicula salinaénsis, White. 
Gervillea mudgeana, White. 
Modiola pedernalis, Roem. 
Barbatia parallela, Mk 
Trigonarca salinaénusis, Mk. 
Nucula catherina, Crag. 
Yoldia microdonta, Mk. 


Cardium kansasense, Mk. 
Protocardium tecanum, Con. 
Corbicula (2?) nuealis. Mk. 
Corbicula subtrigonalis, Mk. 
Cyprimeria texanu, Roem. 
Tellina subscitula, Mk. 
Arcopagella mactroides, Mk. 
Leptosolen conradi, Mk. 
Mactra siouwensis, M. & H. 
Margarita mudgeana, Mk. 


September, 189 


Trigonia clavigera, Crag. 
Crassatellina oblonga, Mk. 
Lucina (2) sp. 

About twenty-five years ago Prof. B. F. Mudge collected a 


Turritella seriatim-granulata, R-. 
Sphenodiscus pedernalis, Vou B. 


number of marine fossils from sandstone of the Mentor beds 
(then referred to the Dakota) twelve miles southwest of Sa- 
lina. Of the sixteen molluscan forms reported as thus col- 
lected by him, fourteen were described by Meek in the Fourth 
Annual Report and in volume IX of the Final Report of the 
Hayden U. 8. Geological Survey of the Territories, all of these 
being illustrated in the latter volume; and two were described 
and figured by White in volume IX of the Proceedings of the 
U.S. National Museum and in the Twelfth Annual Report of. 
the Hayden Survey. 

The forms described from this terrane by these authors are 
as follows: 
Corbicula subtrigonalis, Mk. 
Cardium kansasense, Mk. 
Protocardium salindense, Mk. 
Tellina subscitula, Mk. 
Arcopagella mactroides, Mk. 
Leptosolen conradi, Mk. 


Margarita mudgeana, Mk. 
Turritella kansasensis, Mk. 


Ostrea sp. 
Avicula salinaénsis, White. 
Gerviilea mudgeana, White. 
Barbatia parallela, Mk. 
Trigonarca salinaénsis, Mk. 
Yoldia microdonta, Mk. 
Crassatellina oblonga, Mk. 
Corbicula (2?) nucalis, Mk. 
The Turritella kansasensis of this list is a synonym of 7”. 
seriatim-granulata, Roemer, which oceurs-in all or nearly all 
of the terranes of the middle and upper Comanche. Wod/ola 
pedernalis, Cyprimeria tecana and Sphenodiscus pedernalis of 
the general faunal list are likewise common to the middle and 
upper Comanche. Profocardium salinaénse, Meek, is a syno- 
nym of P. fecanuim, Con., a species of the Denison beds and of 
the Kiowa shales. The specimens of this species figured by 
Meek are young examples; but the Mentor shales yield large 


The Mentor Beds.—Cragin. 165 


examples of the typical form so common in the Denison beds 
and in the Kiowa shales. The Cardium kansasense is a com- 
mon fossil of the Kiowa shales but has not been reported from 
the Denison beds. Ostrea franklini oceurs in profusion in the 
Kiowa shales and less abundantly in the Denison beds; while 
the O. quadruplicata, abundant in the Denison beds, occurs 
only in the upper part of the Kiowa shales, and that rather 
sparingly. TVrigoniu clavigera is common in the Marietta 
beds of the Denison and in the Kiowa. In his recent ar- 
ticle on “The Choctaw and Grayson terranes of the Ari- 
etina” (published April 5, 1895, in Colorado College Stud- 
ies, vol. 5*) the writer has noted the occurrence of the 
Yoldia microdonta in the Pawpaw clays of the Denison beds. 
It is probable that Margaritana mudgeana, Meek, should be 
added to the list of species common to the Mentor beds and 
the Kiowa shales, as the writer’s WZ. marcouana is closely re- 
lated to it and is likely to prove to be synonymous. The re- 
volving carine on the shell are represented as plain in the 
former and are apparently crenulated or granulated in the 
latter species; but this supposed difference may be due to a 
difference in the state of preservation of the specimens exam- 
ined. 

The Mentor beds are thus seen to be characterized by a 
fauna related to that of the Denison beds and still more closely 
to that of the Kiowa shales. Their fauna is, in fact, especially 
related to that of the upper part of the latter. 

The stratigraphic relation to the Kiowa shales is also close. 
While the Mentor beds generally rest upon the Permian in Sa- 
line county, they rest in part upon the Kiowa shales further 
southward, as shown by the occurrence beneath them of black 
shales amongst some of whose fossils, submitted to the writer 
from a few miles west of Lindsborg by Prof. J..A. Udden, are 
Modiola stonewallensis, nob., and Sphenodiscus pedernalis, 
Roem.; but whether they are to be considered as overlying all 
of the Kiowa or only a lower part of it, and whether or not 
they merge southward into the upper part of the Kiowa, are 
questions that remain still unanswered. 


* Ag the date of the papers published in this volume has been called 
in question, the writer wishes here to state that, owing to circum- 
stances beyond his control, this ‘‘Fifth Annual Publication’? was erro- 
neously dated ‘‘1894.’’ Being a delayed volume, due to appear in 1894, 
it should have been inscribed, ‘‘For 1894,’’ and the date of publication, 
1895, should have been repeated at the foot of the title page. 


166 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


THE LARVAL STAGES OF TRILOBITES: 


By CHARLES E. BEECHER, New Haven, Conn. 
(Plates VIII—X.) 


CONTENTS. PAGE 
a; Imtrod ution... o.. 250 oo sais shodeblecodeereto't Barc constes Selene Hie ae TLS 
Te The ‘protaspissy yeh. kk ek dha eds dee ns So ee 
Iti: — Review of larval stages of trilobites:..-. ee. so. asses ee ae 
IV: Analysis’ of yariationsim trilobite larvee--. 4420.2. eee eens 177 
Vis Antiquity‘of‘the trilobrtes.an corso ..seen oe ook tule ce cee dene Oe 
VI.) Restoration:of tthe protaspis: ac. cce cee scenes cee ee ee Le 
VILE; Thescrustacean naupliusicsicoeeeoe eet hoe ee ee LES 
WILEE! Suamammiary ie See oe a ee EE cigs oS ake re Ee 
IX... - References: 25.5 paced ciched on core stk oe ee ne ena 
XG Explanation of plates......... PROM TE ta Bn ee INR 


I. InrRopUCcTION. 

It is now generally known that the youngest stages of 
trilobites found as fossils are minute ovate or discoid bodies, 
not more than one millimetre in length, in which the head por- 
tion greatly predominates. Altogether they present very little 
likeness to the adult form, to which, however, they are trace- 
able through a longer or shorter series of modifications. 

Since Barrande? first demonstrated the metamorphoses of 
trilobites, in 1849, similar observations have been made upon 
a number of different genera by Ford,”2 Walcott,3+ *) 36 Mat- 
thew,” 27,28 Salter,®2 Callaway,8 and the writer.4>,7 The 
general facts in the ontogeny have thus become well estab- 
lished and the main features of the larval form are fairly well 
understood. 

Before the recognition of the progressive transformation 
undergone by trilobites in their development, it was the cus- 
tom to apply a name to each variation in the number of tho- 
racic segments and in other features of the test. The most 
notable example of this is seen in the trilobite now commonly 
known as Sao hirsuta Barrande. It was shown by Barrande? 
that Corda! had given no less than ten generic and eighteen 
specific names to different stages in the growth of this species 
alone. 

The changes taking place in the growth of an individual are 
chiefly: the elongation of the body through the gradual addi- 
tion of the free thoracic segments; the translation of the eyes, 
when present; the modifications in the axis of the glabella; 
the growth of the free-cheeks; and the final assumption of the 
mature specific characters of pygidium and ornamentation. 

In the present paper the larval stages of several species are de- 
scribed and illustrated for the first time, and a review is under- 


Larval Stages of Trilobites.—Beecher. 167 


taken of all the known early larval stages thus far described. 
This work would have no special interest in itself were it not 
for the fact, that, with our present understanding of trilobite 
morphology, it is possible to reach some conclusions of general 
importance, which have a direct bearing on the significance 
and interpretation of several of the leading features of the 
trilobite carapace, and incidentally upon the structure and re- 
lations of the nauplius of the higher Crustacea. 


KL Tan: Prorasris. 
Barrande? recognized four orders of development in the 
trilobites, as follows: 


TYPEs. 


( Head predominating, incomplete. 
I Sao hirsuta. 


. ) Thorax nothing or rudimentary. 
/ Pygidium nothing. 
Head distinct, incomplete. Trinucleus ornatus, and 


-- all Agnostus. 


Thorax nothing. |] 
Pygidium distinct, incomplete. ) 
Head complete. 
III. } Thorax distinct, incomplete. 

) 


Pygidium distinct, incomplete. 
Head complete. 
IV. 


Arethusina konineki. 


x 


Thorax complete. Dalmanites hausmanni. 


. Pygidium distinct, incomplete. 

A study of these groups shows at once that they form a 
progressive series in which the first alone is primitive. The 
others are more advanced stages of development, as shown by 
the larger size of the individuals, and their having characters 
which appear successively in the ontogeny of a species belong- 
ing to the first order of development. To attain the stage 
which is represented by actual specimens, they must have 
passed through earlier stages, which as yet have not been 
found. Furthermore, it is evident that Barrande did not con- 
sider the orders after the first as primitive, and characteristic 
of the genera cited, for, in some remarks under the third or- 
der, he says?: “Il est trés-vraisemblable, que la plupart des 
Trilobites de cette section, si ce n’est tous, devront etre un 
jour transférés dans la premiére, par suite de la découverte 
probable d’embryons sans segmens thoracique.” 

The geological conditions necessary for the fossilization of 
the minute larval forms of trilobites are such, that only in 
comparatively rare instances are any of the immature stages 
preserved. Larval specimens are doubtless often overlooked 
or neglected by collectors, but generally the sediments are too 


168 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


coarse for the preservation of these small and delicate organ- 
isms. In certain horizons and rocks, however, such remains 
are quite abundant, and complete ontological series may be 
obtained. Yet, it is not strange that series of equal complete- 
ness have not been found in all Paleozoic horizons. 

The abbreviated or accelerated development of many of the 
higher Crustacea has resulted in pushing the typical free- 
swimming, larval nauplius so far forward in the ontogeny 
that this stage is either eliminated or passed through while 
the animal is still within the egg, so that when hatched it is 
much advanced. Although the trilobites show distinet evi- 
dence of accelerated development through the earlier inherit- 
ance of certain characters which will be taken up later, yet it 
is not believed that the normal series or periods of transfor- 
mation were to any degree disturbed, since both the simplest 
and most primitive genera whose ontogeny is known and the 
most highly specialized forms agree in having a common early 
larval type. This would be expected from their great antiq- 
uity, their comparatively generalized and uniform structure, 
and from the fact that no sessile, attached, parasitic, land, or 
fresh-water species are known. These conditions by introduc- 
ing new elements into the ontogeny would tend to modify or 
abbreviate it in various ways, especially among the higher 
genera. 

Before discussing any of the various philosophical and the- 
oretical problems involved in an attempt to correlate the lar- 
val forms of Crustacea, a brief consideration of the known 
facts relating to the larve of trilobites will be presented. 

Minute spherical or ovoid fossils associated with trilobites 
have been described as possible trilobite eggs, by Barrande® 
and Waleott,® but nothing is known, of course, of the embry- 
onic stages of the animals themselves. The smallest and most 
primitive organisms which have been detected, and traced 
by means of series of specimens through successive changes 
into adult trilobites, are, as stated above, little discoid or 
ovate bodies not more than one millimeter in length, as shown, 
on plates VIII and IX. It is fair to assume that we have here 
a general exhibition of trilobite larval stages, since the ten spe- 
cies represented are from various geological horizons, belong- 
ing to the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian sediments, with 


Larval Stages of. Trilobites.— Beecher. 169 


Devonian types, and showing the simple as well as the highly 
specialized forms. 

All the facts in the ontogeny of trilobites point to one type 
of larval structure. This is even more noticeable than among 
recent Crustacea, in which the nauplius is considered as the 
characteristic larval form. It is desirable to give a name to 
this early larval type apparently so characteristic of all trilo- 
bites, and among different genera varying only in features of 
secondary importance. This stage may therefore be called 
the protaspis (7pa@tos, primus; amis, scutum). 

~The principal characters of the protaspis are the following: 
Dorsal shield minute, varying in observed species from .4 to 
1 mm. in length; circular or ovoid in form; axis distinct, more 
or less strongly annulated; head portion predominating ; 
glabella with five annulations; abdominal portion usually less 
than one-third the whole length of the shield, axis with from 
one to several annulations; pleural portion smooth or grooved ; 
eyes when present anterior, marginal or submarginal; free- 
cheeks when present very narrow, marginal. 

Several moults took place during this stage before the com- 
plete separation of the pygidium or the introduction of tho- 
racic segments. When such moults are recognized, they may 
be considered as early, middle and late protaspis stages, and 
designated respectively as anaprotaspis, metaprotaspis and 
paraprotaspis. They introduced various changes, such as the 
stronger annulation of the axis, the beginning of the free- 
cheeks, and the growth of the pygidial portion from the in- 
troduction of new appendages and segments as indicated by 
additional grooves on the axis and pleura. Similar ecdyses 
occur during the nauplius stage of many living Crustacea be- 
fore a decided transformation is brought about. Certain of 
these later stages have received a distinctive name, and are 
called the metanauplius. 

It is believed that the protaspis is homologous with the 
nauplius or metanauplius of the higher Crustacea. Most of 
the reasons for this belief will appear later in the present 
paper; some which may be stated now are as follows: 

(1) The size of the protaspis does not differ greatly from 
that of many nauplii, and represents as large an animal as 
could be hatched from the bodies considered as the eggs of 
trilobites. 


170 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


(2) Some of the sediments carefully examined by the writer 
could preserve smaller larval trilobites were such originally 
present and provided with a chitinous test, as shown by the 
abundance of minute ostracodes, and the perfection of detail 
in these and other fossils. 

(3) The protaspis can be shown to be structurally closely 
related to the nauplius, and in a more marked degree possesses 
some characters required in the theoretical crustacean an- 
cestor. 

TI. Revrew or LARVAL StraGEs OF TRILOBITES. 

Matthew °8 has carefully described several early larval 
(protaspis) stages of trilobites from the Cambrian rocks of 
New Brunswick, which are very simple and primitive, and will 
be noticed first. 

Solenopleura robbi Hartt; plate VIII, figure 1; from the 
Cambrian of New Brunswick; after Matthew.2’ This larva is 
very minute and circular in outline; the glabella is obscurely 
annulated and extends to the anterior margin, where it is ex- 
panded; the neck ring is the only one well defined; the ab- 
dominal portion is less than one-third the whole length, and 
is limited by a slight transverse furrow; no traces of eyes or 
free-cheeks discernible. 

Liostracus onangondianus Hartt; plate VIII, figure 2; from 
the Cambrian of New Brunswick; after Matthew.2’ This 
form is similar to the preceding, though larger, and with the 
glabella more rapidly expanding in front. The neck segment 
is the only one which is distinet. 

It should be mentioned that most of the larval specimens 
here described and figured are preserved in fine shales and 
slates, as casts of the interior of the dorsal shield, so that 
some features are not as emphatic as on the exterior of the 
test. When well preserved, the axis always shows the typical 
five annulations on the cephalon. 

Ptychoparia linnarssoni Walcott; plate VIII, figures 3 and 
4; from the Cambrian of New Brunswick; after Matthew. 
The earliest stage is slightly more elongate than the preced- 
ing forms. The axis is narrow, expanding in front and ob- 
scurely annulated, five annulations belonging to the cephalon, 
and one to the pygidium, which is very short and separated 
from the cephalon by a distinet groove. 


Larval Stages of Trilobites— Beecher. 171 


The second stage (figure +) is decidedly more elongate ; the 
axis is more distinctly annulated; the occipital pleura defined ; 
and the pygidium is larger and has an additional segment. 

Ptychoparia kingi Meek; plate VIII, figures 5,6 and 7; 
from the Cambrian of Nevada and Utah. Figure 5 represents 
a cast of the protaspis, and shows a defined occipital ring, 
with the axis slightly expanded and undefined in front; py- 
gidium truncate behind. Figure 6, which is referred to a 
later stage (metaprotaspis) of the same species, shows the in- 
ception of several characters that have not as yet appeared in 
the previous larve. The axis is very strongly annulated; the 
anterior lobe is nearly as long as the four posterior annula- 
tions of the cephalon, and on each side there is a furrow rep- 
resenting the eye-line of the adult; the free-cheeks are pres- 
ent as narrow marginal plates, including the genal spines; the 
pygidium shows two segments separated by a furrow. 

An adult Pfychoparia kingi is shown in figure 7 and may 
be taken as representing the sum of the changes passed 
through in the development of larve like the preceding, be- 
longing to the genera Solenopleura, Liostracus and Ptycho- 
paria. The introduction and growth of the segments of the 
thorax are perhaps the most marked changes, but other points 
of importance to be noted are: the comparatively smaller size 
of the cephalon and its transverse form; the limitation and 
recession of the glabella, which is now rounded in front, and 
only extends about two-thirds the length of the cephalon ; the 
growth of the eyes and free-cheeks at the expense of the fixed- 
cheeks; the increased segmentation of the abdomen, shown in 
the axial and pleural grooves on the pygidium. 

Sao hirsuta Barrande ; plate VIII, figures 8, 9,10 and 11; from 
the Cambrian of Bohemia; after Barrande.? The specimens of 
this species are preserved as casts, and several of the features 
are therefore somewhat subdued. The earliest or anaprotaspis 
stage, represented in figure 8, is quite as primitive in most re- 
spects as any of the preceding. It is circular in outline, the 
annulations of the axis are distinctly shown only in the neck 
segment and pygidial portion, and the eye-line is present. In 
figure 9 of the metaprotaspis, quite an advance is seen in the 
development of the free-cheeks and the more pronounced an- 
nulation of the glabella, together with pleural grooves from 


172 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


the neck segment and those of the pygidium. The next stage 
(figure 10) probably represents the close of the protaspis stage 
(paraprotaspis) and the inception of the nepionic condition, 
when the cephalon and pygidium are distinct and before the 
development of the free thoracic segments. 

In considering the changes necessarily passed through by 
these larve previous to attaining their adult characters (figure 
11) the most notable, aside from increase in size and addition 
of the sixteen thoracic segments, are: the appearance and 
translation of the eyes pars passu with the growth of the free- 
cheeks; the growth of the border in front of the glabella, 
which now narrows anteriorly, and terminates about one-third 
the length of the cephalon within the margin; the less dis- 
tinct annulation of the glabella; and the development of the 
spines and tubercles ornamenting the test. 

Triarthrus beck? Green; plate VIII, figures 12, 13, and 14; 
from the Ordovician, Utica slate, near Rome, N. Y. A larval 
form of this species was figured by the writer in 1893. At 
this time, the eye-line was confused with the anterior annula- 
tion of the axis, making the cephalon appear to have six in- 
stead of five annulations. A recent examination of a large 
number of specimens shows that five is the invariable number, 
as here represented. Two protaspidian stages of this species 
have been noticed, differing chiefly in the size of the pygidium. 
Both agree in showing a strongly annulated axis, not ex- 
panded in front and terminating some distance within the 
margin. From the first annulation, a slightly elevated ridge 
on each side indicates the eye-line, and extends to the mar- 
ginal eye-lobe. The adult form (figure 14) shows in addition 
to several characters noted in the previous species, the nearly 
complete loss of the two anterior annulations of the glabella; 
the disappearance of the eye-line; and the development of a 
row of nodes along the axis, from the neck segment to the 
proximal segment of the pygidium. 

Acidaspis tuberculata Conrad; plate IX, figures 1, 2 and 3; 
from the Lower Helderberg group, Albany county, New York.t 
Several of these remarkable larvee have been found perfectly 
silicified in a limestone from which they have been freed by 
etching. In general form, they resemble the second larval 
stage of Sao (plate VIII, figure 9), but the pygidium is shorter 


Larval Stages of Trilobites.— Beecher. 17 


and the glabella does not expand and terminate in the ante- 
rior margin. . No eye-lineis present, but the eye-lobes may be 
seen a little within the margin. The glabella has the charac- 
teristic number of annulations; margin provided with a row 
of denticles; genal angles extended into spines; pygidium 
with four spines. 

The adult condition (figure 3) shows that the eyes have 
moved inwards and backwards to near the neck segment. The 
glabella has lost its annulations and is broken up into a me- 
dian lobe with two smaller ones on each side, while the neck 
ring is projected into a spine. The changes noted here are 
much more profound than in any of the preceding genera, 
since Acidasp/s is one of the most highly specialized of trilo- 
bites in its glabellar structure and elaborate ornamentation. 
The protaspis, too, partakes of this specialization, and, al- 
though the general form of the shield and the annulation of 
the axis are as primitive asin Tréarthrus, yet the character- 
istic spinosity of the genus appears even at this early stage 
and is a marked instance of acceleration of development. 

Arges consanguineus Clarke; plate IX, figure 4; from the 
Lower Helderberg group, Albany county, New York. A sin- 
gle larval form of this type has been found and at first was 
provisionally referred to Phaéthonides+ The recent publica- 
tion by Clarke," of Arges consanguineus from the same horizon, 
and a comparison of the larva with the description and with 
considerable additional material, renders it now possible to 
determine definitely the relations of this interesting form. As 
the main details of structure in Ac/dasp/s and Arges are so 
similar, the transformations undergone by the larva are much 
alike in each case. The young Arges likewise shows the same 
acceleration in the development of the spines and surface or- 
namentation, and the retention of the primitive features of 
the glabella. The specimen seen in figure 4 represents a late 
larval stage (paraprotaspis), as shown by the transverse form 
of the cephalon and the large size of the pygidium. 

Proétus parviusculus Hall; plate IX, figures 5,6 and 7; 
Utica slate, near Rome, New York. Two larval stages of this 
species have been found. The younger (figure 5) is smooth, 
broadly ovate, .72 mm. long, and widest in front; axis dis- 
tinctly annulated, cylindrical on the cephalon, tapering on the 


174 The American Geologist. September, 1895- 


pygidium ; eyes nearly transverse to the axis, very large and 
prominent, situated on the anterior margin, separated only by 
the axis. The specimen represented in figure 6 is in the para- 
protaspis stage, and measures .96 mm. in length. It shows 
an advance over the other in its size, its larger pygidium with 
grooved pleura, and the beginning of the recession of the eyes. 

The adult of this small species is shown in outline enlarged 
two diameters, in figure 7. The principal changes from the 
larva which should be noticed are: the loss of the four ante- 
rior annulations of the glabella, the neck segment being the 
only one wholly defined, although the basal lobes represent 
remnants of the next anterior; the translation of the eyes 
backward as far as the pleura of the neck segment, and the 
change from a transverse to a parallel position with respect 
to the axis. 

In the original description of this species,2? no mention was 
made of fine undulating strie ornamenting the entire dorsal 
surface of the test, nor of the basal lobes of the glabella. Both 
these features are present in the type specimen, which is from 
Cincinnati, Ohio, as well as in all the specimens from the 
Utica slate, near Rome, New York. With these additional 
characters, the species is very closely related to Proétus 
decorus Barrande. 

Dalmanites socialis Barrande; plate LX, figures 8-11; from 
the Ordovician of Bohemia; after Barrande.® A nearly com- 
plete series of the growth stages of this species is given by 
Barrande. The earliest, or anaprotaspis, stage found (figure 
8) exhibits an outline and axis similar to Acédasp/s. The 
eyes are quite large and situated, as in the same stage of 
Proétus, transverse to the axis, on the anterior border. Genal 
angles present, but in this case not produced by the free- 
cheeks asin Sao and Ptychoparia; glabella strongly annulated,,. 
increasing in diameter anteriorly, although not expanding at 
the frontal margin as in Sao, ete. In the two following stages 
(figures 9, 10), the pygidium increases in size, and the pleura 
are defined. To reach maturity (figure Dye eleven segments 
are developed in the thorax, the glabella becomes more promi- 
nently developed in front, but the five annulations are main- 
tained. The eyes have travelled in and back as far as the 
third head segment, and their longer axes have swung around 


Larval Stages of Trilobites.—Beecher. 175: 


into a position parallel with the axial line, as in Proétus. 
The pygidium has added many new segments, and the extrem- 
ity is prolonged into a spine. 


Before proceeding further in the discussion of the protaspis, 
it is necessary to notice a number of forms of young trilobites 
which have heretofore been referred to the embryonic and lar- 
val stages, but which are now believed to belong to stages: 
later than the protaspis. 

1 


oo a O 


Qo W 


FIGURE1. Agnostus nudus Beyr.; after Barrande. 

FIGURE 2. Agnostus rex Barr.; after Barrande. 

FIGURE 3. Trinucleus ornatus Sternb.; after Barrande. 

FicurEeE4. Hydrocephalus saturnoides Barr. ; after Barrande. 

FIGuRE 5. Hydrocephalus carens Barr.;after Barrande. 

HigcEE 6. Olenellus (Mesonacis) asaphoides Emmons; Ford collection; original. 
x 30. 

FIGURE. Olenellus (Mesonacis) asaphoides Emmons: after Ford. 

FIGURE 8. Olenellus (Mesonacis) asaphoides Emmons; after Walcott. 


_— 


Besides the truly elementary forms described by Barrande 
and already noticed (Sao hirsuta and Dalmanites socialis ), 
there are others which he referred to his second, third and 
fourth orders of development.? Among these Aguvostus may be 
taken first. The youngest forms of Agnostus nudus and A. 
rex (figures 1, 2) measure respectively 2 and 1.3 mm. in length, 
and the adults 13 and 15 mm. The earliest stages of the gen- 
era shown on plates VIII and IX measure less than 1 mm., 
while the adults are more than 25 mm., with the exception of 
Proétus parviusculus, which is seldom more than 10 mm. long, 
though this species has a protaspis .72 mm. in length. The 
cephalon and pygidium of the youngest known Aynosfus are 
quite separate and distinet, which is not the case with the 
typical protaspis stage. It therefore seems probable that on 
account of the comparatively large size and advanced struc- 


176 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


ture of the youngest stages observed, the elementary forms of 
this genus are as yet unknown, and possibly the extreme tenu- 
ity of the test in the protaspis has prevented their preserva- 
tion. In the same way the young of Trinucleus (figure 3) 
show a separate cephalon and pygidium, and the specimens 
are in a much more advanced stage of development than the 
protaspis of Proétus, shown on plate IX, figure 5. An evi- 
dence of age is furnished, also, in the transverse shape of the 
head, which, in typical elementary forms, is longer than wide, 
instead of wider than long. 

The youngest specimens of Arethusina honinck/, figured by 
Barrande,® are 2 mm. or upwards in length and have seven or 
more free thoracic segments, with the cephalon wider than 
long. The facts of ontogeny show that younger stages must 
be admitted in which the number of segments diminishes to 
nothing, continuing down to a form agreeing with the pro- 
taspis of other genera. 

It has already been suggested! that the species described by 
Barrande® under the generic name of Hydrocephalus are prob- 
ably the young of Paradowides. This conclusion receives fur- 
ther support from the undoubted young of Olenellus,a related 
genus, which in its immature stages bears a strong resem- 
blanee to Hydrocephalus. The youngest examples of the lat- 
ter have a distinct pygidium, a well-developed cephalon, and 
large eye-lobes at the sides of the glabella, as in adult forms. 
Free-cheeks were evidently present though not generally pre- 
served. See figures 4 and 5. 

The young of Olenellus asaphoides, described and illustrated 
by Ford” and Walcott,» also present a number of features 
considerably in advance of a typical protaspis. The imma- 
ture characters are mainly the large size of the cephalon and 
the distinct annulation of the axis. The post-protaspidian 
characters are the distinct and separate pygidium, the adult 
position of the eyes, and the apparently well-developed free- 
cheeks. In figure 7, after Ford,” the outer pair of spines be- 
longs to the free-cheeks, the other pair being formed by the 
pleural extensions of the glabella, which were called the in- 
terocular spines. See also figures 6 and 8. 

The young specimen of Ptychoparia monile Salter sp., fig- 
ured and noticed by Callaway, is 1.5 mm. in length, and 


Larval Stages of Trilobites.— Beecher. i 


agrees, as far as can be determined without seeing the origi- 
nal, with what is known of other species of the same genus. 
It probably belongs to a stage later than the protaspis. 

Matthew” has carefully described some small cephala of 
Ctenocephalus (Hartella) matthewi and Conocoryphe (Baili- 
ella) bailey’, from the Cambrian of New Brunswick. The fact 
of their being separate cephala, transverse in form, and from 
2to 38mm. in length, is sufficient to show that they do not 
represent the youngest stages of these species. 

The immature examples of Agunostus, Trinuclus, Arethusina, 
Paradoxides, Olenellus, Ctenocephalus and Conocoryphe, here 
briefly noticed are of great interest in a study of the ontog- 
eny of the various species to which they pertain. In the pres- 
ent paper, however, it is intended chiefly to establish the pri- 
mary larval characters of the trilobites, and therefore only the 
earliest stages are considered. Under the genera just men- 
tioned, the writer has endeavored to show that as yet their 
ontogeny cannot be traced as far back as the stage which has 
been defined as the profaspis. Therefore, any general notions 
of first larval forms must at present be based on the genera Sol- 
enopleura, Liostracus, Ptychoparia, Sao, Triarthrus, Acidaspis, 
Proétus and Dalmanites. 

IV. ANALysiIs oF VARIATIONS IN TRILOBITE LARV#. 

After taking a general survey of the earliest known larval 
stages of trilobites figured on plates VIII, LX, it is evident that 
an accurate and detailed description of any one would not ap- 
ply to any other except in certain broad characters. To formu- 
late a definition of the protaspis applicable to all, as has been 
done previously (p. 169), it is necessary to neglect or eliminate 
some rather striking characters which should now be men- 
tioned. A few features thus omitted are considered as very 
primitive larval characters, while others are modifications in- 
troduced in higher or later genera through the operation of 
the law of earlier inheritance. 

From the best evidence now obtainable, the eyes have mi- 
grated from the ventral side, first forward to the margin and 
then backward over the cephalon to their adult position, 
thus agreeing with Bernard’s conclusions.!2 Therefore, the 
most primitive larve should present no evidence of eyes 
on the dorsal shield, and naturally there would be no free- 


178 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


cheeks visible. Just such conditions are satisfied in the 
youngest larva of Ptychoparia, Solenopleura and Liostracus, 
which are the most primitive genera whose protaspis is known. 
The eye-line is present in the later larval and adolescent stages 
of these genera, and persists to the adult condition. In Sao it 
has been pushed forward to the earliest protaspis, and is also 
found in the two known larval stages of Trvarthrus. Sao re- 
tains the eye-line throughout life, but in 7réarthrus the adult 
has no traces of it, and none of the higher and later genera 
studied has an eye-line at any stage of development. Mat- 
thew has considered this feature as especially characteristic 
of most of the Cambrian genera, and now it is further shown 
to be a character first appearing in the later larval stages of 
certain genera (Ptychoparia, etc.), next in the larval stages 
(Sao), then disappearing from adult stages ( Triarthrus), and 
finally pushed out of the ontogeny altogether (Ac/daspis, Dal- 
manites, ete.). The eyes are visible on the margin of the dor- 
sal shield after the paraprotaspis stage, later than the eye-line 
in Ptychoparia, Solenopleura, Liostracus, Sao and Triarthrus; 
but in the other genera through acceleration they are present 
in all the protaspis stages, and persist to the mature, or ephe- 
bic, condition, moving in from the margin to near the sides of 
the glabella. 

The changes in the glabella are equally important and in- 
teresting. Throughout the larval stages, the axis of the ceph- 
alon is five-segmented or annulated, indicating the presence of 
as many paired appendages on the ventral side. In its sim- 
plest and most primitive state, it expands in front, joining and 
forming the anterior margin of the head (larval Ptychoparia, 
Sao). During later growth it becomes rounded in front and 
terminates within the margin. In higher genera through ac- 
celeration it is rounded and well-defined in front even in the 
earliest larval stages and often ends within the margin (lar- 
val Triarthrus, Acidaspis). From-these common types of sim- 
ple, pentamerous glabell, all the diverse forms among adult 
individuals of various genera have been derived, through 
changes affecting any or all of the lobes. The modifications 
usually take place in the anterior lobes first, and gradually in- 
volve the others, though rarely disturbing the neck segment 
which is the most persistent of all. Six lobes are occasion- 


Larval Stages of Trilobites.— Beecher. 179 


‘ally found in the glabelle of some species. They do not indi- 
cate an additional pair of limbs, for the extra lobe is produced 
(a) by division of the anterior lobe through the greater or less 
extent of the eye-line across the axis, as in Olenellus, Paradow- 
ides and Ogygia; or (b) by the marked development of mus- 
cular fulera, which are supposed to be connected with the 
hypostoma, 

The next structures not especially noticeable in all stages 
of the protaspis are the free-cheeks, which usually manifest 
themselves in the meta- or paraprotaspis stages, though some- 
times even later. Since they bear the visual areas of the eyes, 
their appearance on the dorsal shield is practically simultan- 
eous with these organs; and before the eyes have travelled 
over the margin, the free-cheeks must be wholly ventral in posi- 
tion. They are very narrow when first discernable (plate VIII, 
figures 6, 9 and 10), and in Pyfchoparia, Sao, ete., include the 
genal angles, but in Dalmanites they extend only a short dis- 
tance below the eyes. 

The remaining features of the protaspis which here require 
notice are the pleural furrows and the pygidium. The pleura 
from the anterior segments of the glabella are occasionally 
shown, as in the young of Olenellus (figure 6), but usually the 
pleura of the neck segment are the first and only ones to be 
distinguished on the cephalon, the others being so intimately 
coalesced as to lose all traces of their individuality. This 
makes the cranidium, or head shield, exclusive of the free- 
cheeks, consist of the fused lateral extensions or pleura of the 
head segments, as already noticed by Bernard.” The possible 
pleural or segmental nature of the free-cheeks will be noticed 
later. 

The distinct pleura of the pygidium appear soon after the 
anaprotaspis stage, and in some genera (Sao, Dalmanites) are 
even more marked than in the adult state, much resembling 
separate segments. The growth of the pygidium is very con- 
siderable through the protaspis stages. At firstit is less than 
one-third the length of the dorsal shield, but by the successive 
addition of segments, it soon becomes nearly one-half as long. 
In some genera it is completed before the appearance of the 
free thoracic segments, though usually new segments are add- 
ed during the adolescence of the animal. 


L8O The American Geologist. September, 1895 


A number of genera present adult characters, which agree 
closely with some of the larval features noticed in this section, 
and are important in a phylogenetic study of the trilobites. 
The main features of the cephalon in the simple protaspis 
forms of Solenopleura, Liostracus and Ptychoparia, are re- 
tained to maturity in such genera as Carausia and Acontheus, 
which have the glabella expanded in front, joining and form- 
ing the anterior margin. They are also without eyes or eye- 
line. Ctenocephalus retains the archaic glabella nearly to ma- 
turity, and likewise shows eye-lines and the beginnings of the 
free-cheeks (larval Sao). Conocoryphe and Ptychoparia are 
still further advanced in having the glabella rounded in front, 
and terminated within the margin (larva of Tréarthrus). 
These facts and others of a similar nature show that there are 
characters appearing in the adults of later and higher gen- 
era, which successively make their appearance in the protaspis 
stage, sometimes to the exclusion or modification of structures 
present in the most primitive larva. Thus the larve of Dal- 
manites or Proétus, with their prominent eyes, and glabella 
distinctly terminated and rounded in front, have characters 
which do not appear in the larval stages of ancient genera, 
but which may appear in their adult stages. Evidently such 
modifications have been acquired by the action of the law of 
earlier inheritance, or tachygenesis. Altogether itseems that 
we have represented on plates VIII and IX a progressive series 
of first larval stages in exact correlation with adult forms, the 
latter also constituting a progressive series, structurally and 
geologically. 

A summary of the features added to the dorsal shield of the 
anaprotaspis stage of acceleration during the evolution of the 
class, from the simpler forms of Cambrian times to the later 
and more highly differentiated Dalmanites, Proétus and Acid- 
aspis, would include: the free-cheeks; the eyes; the more 
strongly lobed glabella, rounded in front; the transient eye- 
line; the genal angles; and the ornaments of the test. 

These additions, as may be seen by reference to plates VIII 
and IX, considerably complicate and modify the primitive 
protaspis, but, as previously mentioned, it does not lose any 
of its essential structures. Besides, it is possible to trace the 
origin and significance of the acquired characters, and thus to 
assign to each its true value. 


Larval Stages of Trilobites.— Beecher. IS] 


V. ANTIQUITY OF THE TRILOBITES. 

The superlative age of the trilobites has been generally rec- 
ognized, and is too well known to require more than a passing 
notice. Even in the earliest Cambrian, they bear evidence of 
great antiquity in their diversified form, their larval modifi- 
cations, and their polymerous head and caudal shield, all of 
which features show that trilobite phylogeny must reach far 
back into pre-Cambrian times. 

Not only are the smallest species found in the Cambrian 
( Agnostus), but also many of the largest (Paradovides). There 
is a great range of variation in the number of free thoracic 
segments, varying from two in Agnostus to twenty in Paradow- 
‘des. The pygidium likewise shows extreme variation of from 
two to upwards of ten ankylosed segments. The eyes may be ab- 
sent asin Agnostus and Microdiscus, or very large as in Para- 
doxides, though both in this respect and in the number of 
somites, free or fused, the Cambrian genera are exceeded in la- 
ter deposits. In ornamentation and spiniform processes, the 
Cambrian species show considerable development though not 
as great as others since that time. However, the wide varia- 
tions they do present in this particular indicates differentia- 
tion and specialization considerably removed from the begin- 
ning of the trilobite phylum. 

The acquisition of distinct larval stages could only have 
been reached through a long series of changes in ancestral 
forms. The composition of the cephalon and caudal shield 
indicates a derivation from some primitive form, probably 
annelidan, in which, through adaptation to special require- 
ments, certain polar segments became fused, forming very 
distinct terminal body regions. Furthermore, the tribolites 
are the only large division of the Arthropoda which has 
become extinct. The Merostomata and Phyllocarida, cul- 
minated a little later, though still represented by living 
species, but all the other divisions apparently have continued 
to increase since their inception during Paleozoic time. The 
only known arthropod contemporaries of the trilobites in the 
Cambrian are the Merostomata, Ostracoda, Phyllopoda, and 
Phyllocarida, all of the higher forms apparently having de- 
veloped since that time. A more graphic view of the geolog- 
ical range and distribution of the arthropods is represented in 
the following table: 


182 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


x x 3) o 
= A as x + 
wo s L : = = 
z “2 a = sv = = bs as h 
Ae cS - = = ~ L S| 3 S fa! 
= oc S = = a = S = 
jz = 3) S = L 5 5 = 2 = ce 
= = = > > ~ Ss) ~ =| 27 x se! 
= = —~ = 2 Ss = Le = = ~ 2 
= rs = = aa = = 9 o = aes >) 
< 4 = B a = S 5 FS > 8 
= oS = a Eo a7 = ® > © n 
a5; A a =~ ae > = = Ss = x: | 
ei Lal ey CO oO <4 e al << rn) a — 


Cenozoic 


Mesozoic 
Carboniferous 
Devonian 


Silurian 


Ordovician lah 
ae ll 


Having thus far reviewed the features of the primitive pro- 


taspis and some of the characters it acquired through earlier 
inheritance, together with the comparative age of the differ- 
ent groups of arthropods, it must be conceded, that, in inter- 
preting crustacean phylogeny from the facts of ontogeny, the 
trilobites, so far as they show structure, are entitled to first 
place. Moreover, since the appendages are quite fully known 
and from them the trilobite proves to be a most genéralized 
and primitive crustacean, still greater reliance can be placed 
on deductions based upon a study of this type. The recent 
discoveries of the antenne and the exact details of trilobite 
structure, together with the larval homologies here made and 
the coneordance of trilobites with the theoretical original 
crustacean leave almost no doubt as to their true crustacean 
affinities. Woodward,*’ from another point of view, reaches 
the same opinion by saying: “The trilobita, being certainly 
amongst the earliest forms of crustacea with which we are ac- 
quainted, cannot be removed from that class without destroy- 
ing its ancestral record.” 
VI. RESTORATION OF THE PROTASPIS. 

At first thought, the attempt to reconstruct the ventral side 
of the trilobite protaspis may seem a little hazardous or pre- 
mature, but a careful consideration of all the data leads the 
writer to undertake this with some confidence. 


Larval Stages of Trilobites—Beecher. 183 

The genus Tr/arthrus is taken for the basis of this restora- 
tion, as it is to-day the best known of all the trilobites, and 
its ventral structure has been ascertained to a degree of per- 
fection of detail which compares favorably with many of the 
recent crustaceans.® 7.89 The writer has studied the structure 
of many adult and immature specimens some of them not more 
than 5 mm. in length, so that fortunately the appendages are 
known at many stages of growth. Especially are the young 
and rudimentary limbs near the extremity of the pygidium 
in adolescent individuals of considerable morphological inter- 
est, for they agree closely with the phyllopodiform trunk ap- 
pendages in the metanauplius of Apws, and protozoéa of Lu- 
phausia, or in a general way, with the still more rudimentary 
trunk limbs in the nauplius stages of these and other forms. 

It has been definitely ascertained that the cephalon in trilo- 
bites bears five pairs of jointed appendages or limbs.® In lar- 
val or immature specimens, and in adults in which the glabella 
retains its primitive structure, this number is indicated on the 
dorsal shield by the five lobes or annulations of the glabella, 
including the neck ring. ‘These may therefore be taken as 
representing, in so far, the original segmentation of the head, 
and agree with what is generally accepted as the primitive 
structure in modern true Crustacea. The head portion of the 
protaspis clearly shows this pentasomitic structure, and evi- 
dently carried a corresponding number of paired limbs on the 
ventral side. It has also been demonstrated that the annula- 
tions on the axis cf the pygidium correspond to the number 
of paired limbs beneath, exclusive, of course, of the anal seg- 
ment. Here, too, it is possible to tell from the pygidial por- 
tion of the protaspis the number of limbs present during life. 
The protaspis of 7r/arthrus, represented in plate VIII, figure 
13, on this basis had five pairs of limbs attached to the head 
portion and two pairs to the pygidium. 

Next, as to the composition and form of these elementary 
protaspis limbs, it is safe to assume that the anterior pair, 
corresponding to the antennules, must be uniramous since 
they are so during all the young and adult stages observed, 
and since this form is common to all nauplius stages of modern 
Crustacea, and is recognized as primitive and elementary for 
the class. There is apparently a greater similarity in the 


L84 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


larval antennules than between any other appendages, and as 
Apus and Huphausia have these in a very generalized form, 
they are taken as types of the first pair of limbs of the trilo- 
bite protaspis, as shown in plate X, figure 1 (1). It should 
be noted, too, that the antennules of the trilobites arise from 
the sides of the upper lip or hypostoma, as in the nauplius. 

The other head appendages are typically branched, though 
in many of the recent Crustacea they lose this character after 
the larval stages. Especially is this true of the third pair of 
limbs, which become modified into the mandibles. In trilo- 
bites the primitive biramous structure of the head limbs per- 
sists to adult stages, occurring also in limbs of all the posterior 
segments where they become more and more phyllopodiform.> 
In the restoration of the protaspis it seems only necessary to 
append this archaic type of limb to each segment, agreeing as 
it does in form and structure with the rudimentary limbs of 
older stages and with the nauplius and metanauplius stages 
of Apus. 

It cannot be doubted that the protaspis had five pairs of 
limbs on the head portion and one or more on the pygidium, 
and although these are the main points necessary to prove the 
argument in the next section, on the nauplius, yet it seems 
perfectly warrantable and better for graphic purposes to at- 
tach the required number of elementary limbs to the ventral 
side of the protaspis, as represented in plate X, figure 1. 

There are other organs and structural details occurring in 
the nauplius and in adult trilobites, which deserve recogni- 
tion in a restoration of the protaspis stage. First among these 
is the labrum, or upper lip. Nowhere is this plate so well 
developed and so striking a ventral feature as among the tril- 
obites. There can be no hesitation, therefore, in accepting 
this as characteristic of the protaspis. 

The trilobites and most recent crustaceans have a metas- 
toma, or lower lip. This is already developed in the nauplius 
stage of some Crustacea, as Kuphausia and Peneus, and prob- 
ably represents an early larval character. It usually appears 
as a median plate divided into two small plates, or lappets, on 
each side of the median line, posterior to the mouth, and is 
thus represented in the restored protaspis. As it occurs ona 
segment bearing also a pair of legs and has no separate neu- 
romere, it cannot well be considered as representing a somite. 


Larval Stages of Trilobites.—Beecher. 185 


An anal opening is found in most nauplii, especially in 
those of the non-parasitic Crustacea, and in those in which 
this stage is normal and free-swimming. The protaspis, as 
representing a free-swimming larval stage of trilobites, there- 
fore, probably possessed an anal opening. 

The only character represented in the restoration which is 
accepted purely from analogy is the median unpaired eye. 
This organ is almost universally present in the nauplius, and 
is regarded as a very primitive character wherever found. 

The next and last structures to be noticed are the free- 
cheeks and the beginnings of the paired eyes, as shown in 
plate X, figure 1 (yg, 0c). Their existence has already been 
indicated in the descriptions and observations of the protaspis 
and its derived characters, and need not be repeated here. Ap- 
parently the nauplius presents nothing homologous, unless 
possibly the frontal sensory organs of Apus, Balanus, Peneus, 
ete., may be taken as such. The paired eyes and frontal sen- 
sory organs are close together and seem to have some intimate 
connection, for, as the paired eyes develop, the latter dwindle 
and disappear. Likewise in the trilobites the free-cheeks bear 
the visual areas, and may be almost wholly converted into 
eyes as in uf g/ina (Cyclopyge). 

The greater or less separation of the cerebral ganglia in the 
chetopods and in some of the lower crustacea leads to the 
idea that the free-cheeks in trilobites are the pleura of an oc- 
culiferous head segment, which otherwise is lost. If the hy- 
postoma is homologous with the annelid prostomium, as urged 
by Bernard", then the free-cheeks may be considered as rep- 
resenting the second procephalic segment, which is the num- 
ber required on the supposition that each neuromere corres- 
ponds to a somite. There is a separate neuromere to each 
mesodermic metamere posterior to the head, and from analogy 
we should expect that each neuromere in the head would 
represent an original segment, especially as it can be demon- 
strated that the head is composed of consolidated or fused 
segments (Kingsley*'). 

Having thus shown the probable ventral structure of the 
protaspis, we are prepared to make some general observations 
on the larval type of modern Crustacea known as the Vauplius. 
Before doing this it is well to emphasize again that there is 


LS6 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


very positive evidence, amounting virtually to certainty, that 
the protaspis had five pairs of limbs attached to the cephalic 
portion, behind which was an abdominal portion containing 
the formative elements out of which all the posterior somites 
and appendages were developed. 

VII. Tue Crustacean NavPtiivs. 

The name Vawplius was first used by O. F. Muller” to desig- 
nate a minute crustacean believed to represent an adult animal. 
Afterwards it was found to be a larval stage of Cyclops, but 
because it agreed in structure with the larvee of many other 
Crustacea the name was retained for that type of larval form 
and is now in general use. Primarily it is supposed to repre- 
sent the first free-swimming stage after the escape of the ani- 
mal from the egg. However, many species are quite fully devel- 
oped when leaving the egg, and undergo comparatively slight 
subsequent metanmorphoses, and in these and other species 
there may be developed in the egg an embryo having some of 
the characters of the nauplius. Therefore, the term is also 
applied to all cases where a certain assemblage of nauplian 
characters occurs in the development of any crustacean. Thus 
it may be considered as a stage of development not restricted 
to a definite period of ontogeny. 

The adult Apus possesses so many nauplian features, and in 
its development passes through such simple metamorphoses, 
that it has been aptly considered by Bernard!!! as a nauplius 
grown to maturity. Balfour! also states that the chief point of 
interest in the development of Apus ‘is the fact of the primi- 
tive Nauplius form becoming gradually converted without any 
special metamorphoses into the adult condition.”* This form, 
together with the nauplii of other crustaceans and the study of 
the larval and adult characters of the trilobites, ought to af- 
ford definite knowledge of the characters possessed by the an- 
cestral forms of the Crusateea. 

Before farther examining the nauplius it may be well to state 
the characters, which, on the grounds of comparative anatomy 
and phylogeny, are believed to represent the primitive adult 
crustacean. It will be seen that, in many respects, the trilobite 


*The adult Apus properly has five pairs of cephalic limbs. <A sixth 
pair of appendages has been correlated as maxillipedes, though from 
their innervation they seem to be metastomie and homologous with the 
chilaria of Limaulis. 


Larval Stages of Trilobites.—Beecheyr. 187 


recalls this type, but, as already suggested, is removed some 
distance from the prototype, although in itself a most primi- 
tive crustacean. Lang gives a very comprehensive de- 
scription of the racial form,as follows: ‘The original Crustace- 
an was an elongated animal, consisting of numerous’ and 
tolerably homonomous segments. The head segment was fused 
with the 4 subsequent trunk segments to form a cephalic re- 
gion, and carried a median frontal eye, a pair of simple ante- 
rior antenne, a second pair of biramose antennze and 3 pairs 
of biramose oral limbs, which already served to some extent for 
taking food. From the posterior cephalic region proceeded an 
integumental fold which, as dorsal shield, covered a larger 
or smaller portion of the trunk. The trunk segments were 
each provided with one pair of biramose limbs. Besides the 
median eye there were 2 frontal sensory organs. The nervous 
system consisted of brain, csophagael commissures and seg- 
mental ventral chord, with a doublo ganglion for each segment 
and pair of limbs. The heart was a long contractile dorsal 
vessel with numerous pairs of ostia segmentally arranged. In 
the racial form the sexes: were separate, the male with a pair 
of testes, the female with a pair of ovaries, both with paired 
ducts emerging externally at the bases of a pair of trunk limbs. 
The excretory function was carried on by at least 2 pairs of 
glands, the anterior pair (antennal glands) emerging at the 
base of the second pair of antenne, the posterior (shell glands) 
at the base of the second pair of maxille. The mid-gut possi- 
bly had segmentally arranged diverticula (hepatic invagina- 
tions ).” 

The characters ascribed to the typical nauplius have been 
selected mainly on the principle of general average. They do 
not satisfy the theoretical demands resulting from a compara-_ 
tive morphological study nor are they consistent with the ac- 
cepted requirements of an ancestral type of the Crustacea. 
Claus!6 urges that the nauplius is a modified or secondary lar- 
ral form, and the writer now hopes to farther substantiate this 
view, and partly to reconstruct the nauplius from internal evi- 
dence and from its more primitive representative, the protas- 
pis of the trilobites. 

The usual fetaures attributed to the nauplius are: three 


pairs of appendages, afterwards forming two pairs of antenne 


188 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


and the mandibles; the first pair is uniramous and sensory in 
function; the second and third pairs are biramous, swimming 
appendages; body usually unsegmented; anteriorly there is a 
single median eye, and a large labrum, or upper lip; an ali- 
mentray canal bent anteriorly, and ending in an anus near the 
posterior end of the body; a dorsal shield; the second pair of 
antenne are innervated from a sub-wsophageal ganglion. 
Frontal sense organs anda rudimentary metastoma are some- 
times present. The trunk and abdominal regions are not gen- 
erally differentiated. 

Balfour! remarks of the nauplius that: “In most instances 
it does not exactly conform to the above type, and the diver- 
gences are more considerable in the Phyllopods than in most 
other groups.” This variation is indeed quite marked among 
nearly all the groups besides the phyllopods and furnishes the 
facts for the conclusion, that the hexapodous condition is not 
primitive. 

On plate X are represented some of the leading types of 
nauplius structure, taken chiefly from the excellent compila- 
tion by Faxon.2”? Bearing in mind the typical and average 
characters of this larva, some of the variations will be briefly 
reviewed. 

The nauplius of -fpus, represented in plate X, figure 2, 
shows the rudiments of five trunk segments, which in a later 
stage (figure 3) develop phyllopodiform appendages belonging 
to sixth, seventh, and eighth pairs of limbs. They are the an- 
terior trunk appendages and appear at a time when the fourth 
cephale pair is a mere rudiment while the fifth is entirely un- 
developed. The fourth and tifth pairs of head appendages evi- 
dently must have some existence, though undeveloped in the 
nauplius. The physical conditions of nauplius life probably do 
not require them, and they therefore remain fora time quies- 
cent or undeveloped. 

In figures 4, 5, 8, and 6, respectively, of Branchipus, Artemia, 
Leptodora, and Limnaida, the first pair of appendages becomes 
progressively shortened, until, in the last, they almost disap- 
pear. Leptodora (figure 8) and Lepidurus (figure 7) also have 
rudimentary trunk segments and appendages (7). Figures 9 and 
LO,of Daphnia and Moina (from summer eggs), show how rudi- 
mentary the nauplius appendages may become when this stage 


Larval Stages of Trilobites —Beecher. 189 


is passed within the egg. Even a more marked reduction is ex- 
hibited in the embryos of Palwmon and Astacus (figures 25 and 
26). Cyclops is a very normal form,‘though even here in a sec- 
ond nauplius stage (figure 12), a fourth pair of limbs is devel- 
oped. 

Examples have been cited showing the reduction and obso- 
lescence of the anterior antenne, or first pair of nauplius limbs, 
and some cases will now be cited in which the third pair also 
becomes reduced and rudimentary. <Achtheres (figure 14) and 
Mysis (figure 22) afford instances of this variation. The for- 
mer is of additional interest, as showing that the appendages 
from the fourth to the eighth, may be developed, while the third 
remains quiescent, and that the second pair, typically biramous, 
is here unbranched. Similarly, in Wyss, Vebal/‘a (figure 19), 
and especially in Cypr/s (figure 18), the nauplius limbs are 
simple. The embryo of Lucifer (figure 24+) and a late nauplius 
stage of Huphausia (figure 21) are also of moment, in showing 
the beginnings of the metastoma (m/) with the two maxille 
-and first maxillipedes. 

It appears from the foregoing facts, that enough has been 
shown to prove the marked variations in the number and state 
of development of the nauplius appendages, and to reach the 
conclusion, that potentially five pairs of cephalic appendages 
are present. The two posterior pairs are the ones usually not 
developed until after some of the trunk limbs appear. Very 
satisfactory explanations have been offered as to why the first 
three pairs have been selected by the larva, although it does not 
seem to have been recognized that the fourth and fifth have 
been more or less suppressed during the evolution of the class. 
Lang” accouuts for the three pairs of nauplian limbs by say- 
ing that: “In a young larva which, like the Vawplius, is 
hatched early from the egg, only a few,of the organs most nec- 
essary for independent life and independent acquisition of food 
can be developed. The 3 most anterior pairs of limbs which 
serve for swimming may be described as such most necessary 
organs. The third pair perhaps belongs to this category, be- 
‘ause as mouth parts, generally provided with masticatory pro- 
cesses, they serve not only witn the others for locomotion, but 
also for conducting food to the oral aperture.” 

Another point in favor of the original pentamerous composi- 


190 The American Geologist. September, 1595 


tion of the cephalic portion of the nauplius or protonauplius is 
the dorsal shield which is present in many forms, and is consid- 
ered (vevde Bernard!) as a dorsal fold of the fifth segment. So 
that in reviewing the nauplius structures, we find here and | 
there evidences of the entire series of head segments. 

Now, since the protaspis fulfils the rquirements by having 
five well-developed cephalic segments, and is besides the oldest 
crustacean larva known, it is believed that, in so far, at least, it 
represents the primitive ancestral larval form for the class. 

The nauplius, therefore, is to be considered asa derived larva 
modified by adaptation. 

Other variations in the characters of the nauplius occur, but 
as they have clearly originated (@) from the parasitic habits of 
the adult, (/) from embryonic conditions, or (¢) from earlier 
inheritance, they need not enter into consideration here. Such, 
for example, are (@) the absence of an intestine in Sacculina, 
(0) the absence of the median eye in Daphnia and Moina, and 
(c) the bivalve shell in Cypris. The larval stages of other, and 
especially later and higher groups of arthropods, offer more 
considerable differences and need not enter into this discus- 
sion, which is aimed chiefly to establish the genetic relationship 
between the protaspis of trilobites and the nauplius of re- 
cent Crustacea. 

VIII. Summary. 

Barrande first demonstrated the metamorphoses of trilobites 
in 1849, and recognized four orders of development, which 
are now shown to be stages of growth of a single larval form. 

A common early larval form is recognized and called the 
protaspts. 

The protaspis has a dorsal shield, a cephalic portion com- 
posed of five fused segments and a pygidial portion consist- 
ing of the anal segment with one or more fused segments. 

The simplest protaspis stage is found in the Cambrian gen- 
era of trilobites. During later geological time it acquired 
additional characters by earlier inheritance and became mod- 
ified, though retaining its pentamerous glabella and small ab- 
dominal portion. 

Some of these acquired characters of the dorsal shieid are 
the free-cheeks, the eyes, the eye-line, the genal angles and 
the ornaments of the test. The free-cheeks and eyes moved 
to the dorsum from the ventrum., 


Larval Stages of Trilobites.— Beecher. Lon 


The history of the acquired characters is traced by means 
of comparisons between larval and adult trilobites, through 
paleozoie time, and a progressive series of larval forms estab- 
lished in exact correlation with adult forms, which them- 
selves constitute a progressive series, chronologically and 
structurally. 

The antiquity of trilobites is indicated by their remains in 
the oldest Paleozoie rocks, and especially by the fact that in 
the early Cambrian they are already much specialized and dif- 
ferentiated in number of genera. The age of the trilobite or 
erustacean phylum is further shown from the distinet larval 
stages of trilobites and their having a head and pygidium of 
consolidated segments. 

Since the trilobites are among the oldest and most general- 
ized of Crustacea, their ontogeny is of considerable import- 
ance in interpreting crustacean phylogeny. 

The protaspis in its segmentation shows that the cephalon 
had five pairs of appendages as in the adult. 

The crustacean nauplius is shown to be homologous with 
the protaspis and to have potentially five cephalic segments 
bearing appendages, which should therefore be taken as char- 
acteristic of a protonauplius. 

The nauplius is a modified crustacean larva. The protaspis 
more nearly represents the primitive ancestral larval form for 
the class, and approximates the protonauplius. 

IX. REFERENCES. 


1. Balfour, F. M., 1885.—A Treatise on Comparative Embryology, Me- 
morial edition. 
2. Barrande, J., 1849.—Sao hirsuta Barrande, ein Bruchstiick aus dem 


‘““Systém silurien du centre de la Bohéme.’’ Neues Jahrb.fiir Min., 
Geol., ete. 

3. ———1852.—Systéme silurien du centre de la Bohéme. Ir partie. 

4. Beecher, C. E., 1893.—Larval forms of Trilobites from the Lower 
Helderberg Group. Am. Jour. Sci., IIT, vol. xivr. 


5, ——_1893.—A Larval Form of Triarthrus. Am. Jour. Sci., III, vol. 
XLVI. 

6. ——1893.—On the Thoracic Legs of Triarthrus. Am. Jour. Sci., 
ITI, vol. xiv. 

7. ———1894.—On the Mode of Occurrence, and the Structure and De 
velopment of Triarthrus Becki. Am. GroLoaisr, vol. XIII. 

8. ———1894.—The Appendages of the Pygidium of Triarthrus. Am. 
Jour. Sci., vol. xLvit. 

9, ———1895.—Further Observations on the Ventral Structure of Tri 


arthrus. Am. GEOLOGIST, vol. xv. 


192 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


—1895.—Structure and Appendages of Trinucleus. Am. Jour. 
Scie, We svola sn px: 

11. Bernard, H. M., 1892.—The Apodide. A Morphological Study. 
Nature Series. 

12. ———_1894.—-The Systematic Position of the Trilobites. Quar. Jour. 
Geol. Soc., Lond., vol. L. 

13. Callaway, C., 1877.—On a new area of Upper Cambrian rocks in 
South Shropshire, with a description of a new fauna. Quar. Jour. 
Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. xxx1i1t. 

14. Clarke, J. M., 1894..-The Lower Silurian Trilobites of Minnesota. 
In advance of vol. 111, pt. 11, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. of Minn. 

15. Claus, C., 1876.—Untersuchungen zur Erforschung der genealo- 
gischen Grundlage des Crustaceen-Systems. 

1885.—Neue Beitrage zur Morphologie der Crustaceen. Arb. 
z. Inst. Wien, Vt. 

17. Corda, A. J. C. [and I. Hawle], 1847.--Prodrom einer Monographie 
der bomischen Trilobiten. Abhand]. b6hm. Gesell. Wiss., Prag, 
vol. v. 

18. Dohrn, Anton, 1870..-Untersuchungen tiber Bau und Entwickelung 
der Arthropoden, Zeit. f. Wiss. Zo6l., Bd. xxt. 


16. — 


19. ———_1870.-_ Geschichte des Krebs-Stammes nach embryologischen, 
anatomischen und paleontologischen Quellen.Jenaische Zeitsch., 
vol. vi. 


20. Faxon, W., 1882..-Crustacea. Selections from Embryological Mon- 
ographs. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zodl., vol. 1x, No. 1. 

21. Fernald, H. T., 1890..-The Relationships of Arthropods. Studies 
from the Biological Laboratory, Johns Hopkins Univ., vol. rv, 
No. 7. 

22. Ford, S. W., 1877.--On Some Embryonic Forms of Trilobites. Am. 
Jour. Sei., IL], vol. xr. 

23. Hall, James, 1859..-New Species of Fossils from the Hudson-River 
Group of Ohio and other Western States. Appendix, 13th Ann. 
Rept. N. Y. State Cabinet. 

24. Kingsley, J. S., 1894.—The Classification of the Arthropoda. Am. 
Nat., vol. XXVIII. 

25. Lang, Arnold, 1891.—Text Book of Comparative Anatomy. English 
translation by H. M. and M. Bernard. 

26. Matthew, G. F., 1884.—Illustrations of the Fauna of the St. John 
Group continued: on the Conocoryphea, with further remarks on 
Paradoxides. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. 11, section Iv. 

27. ——-—1887. Illustrations of the Fauna of the St. John Group. No. 
IV.—Part II. The Smaller Trilobites with Eyes (Ptychoparid 
and Ellipsocephalide). Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. v, section 
IIe 

298. ——-1889.—Sur le Développement des Premiers Trilobites. An- 
nals Soc. Roy. Mal. de Belgique. 

29. Miiller, O. F., 1785.—-Entomostraca, seu Insecta testacea, quae in 
aquis Daniae et Norvegia reperit, etc. 

30. Miiller, Fritz, 1864.—Fiir Darwin. 


Larval Stages of Trilobites.— Beecher. 193 


31. Packard, A. S. Jr., 1883.—A Monograph of North American Phy]- 
lopod Crustacea. Twelfth An. Rept. U.S. Geol. and Geog. Sur- 
vey. 

32. Salter, J. W., 1866.—A Monograph of British Trilobites. Part IIT. 
Paleont. Soc. London, vol. xviii. 

33. Walcott, C. D., 1877.—Notes upon the Eggs of Trilobites. Pub- 
lished in advance of 3lst Rept. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 


34. ——_1879.—Fossils of the Utica Slate and Metamorphoses of Tri- 
arthrus Becki. Printed in advance of Trans. Albany Inst., vol. x. 

35. ——1886.—Second Contribution to the Studies on the Cambrian 
Faunas of North America. Bull. U. S. Geol. Sury., No. 30. 

36. ———1890.—The Fauna of the Lower Cambrian or Olenellus Zone. 


Tenth An. Rept. Director U. S. Geol. Surv., 1888-’89. 

37. Woodward, Henry, 1895.._Some Points in the Life-history of the 
Crustacea in Early Paleozoic Times. Anniversary Address of the 
President. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. 11. 


X. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 
PLATE VIII. 

FicureE 1. Solenopleura robbi Hartt: after Matthew. Anaprotaspis 
stage: showing obscurely annulated axis. x30. St. John group, Cam- 
brian, New Brunswick. 

Ficure 2. Liostracus onangondianus Hartt; after Matthew. Ana- 
protaspis stage : the neck lobe is the only one distinctly marked. x23. 
Cambrian, New Brunswick. 

Fiaure 3. Ptychoparia linnarssoni Waicott: after Matthew. Ana- 
protaspis stage : axis slender, slightly annulated; pygidium defined by 
transverse furrow. x30. Cambrian, New Brunswick. 

Ficure 4. Plychoparia linnarssoni Walcott: after Matthew. Pro- 
taspis representing a later moult than the preceding, and showing 
stronger annulations on the axis, with an additional one on the pygidi 
um. x25. Cambrian, New Brunswick. 

Ficure 5. Ptychoparia kingi Meek. Anaprotaspis or early stage ; 
showing obscurely defined characters, partly due to the fact that the 
specimen isa cast. x45. Cambrian, Nevada. 

Ficure6. Ptychoparia kingi Meek. A later stage (metaprotaspis) : 
showing the strongly annulated axis, the eye-line, the free-cheeks in- 
cluding the genal angles, and two segments on the pygidium. x45. 
Cambrian, Nevada. 

Figure 7. Ptychoparia kingi Meek: after Walcott. An adult spec 
imen. This and the other figures of adult individuals are represented 
in outline, with the free-cheeks shaded, to bring out more strongly the 
changes in the structure of the cephalon. x15. Cambrian, Utah. 

Ficure 8. Sao hirsuta Barrande; after Barrande. Anaprotaspis 
stage ; showing obscurely the limits of the pygidium, the eye-line, and 
the nearly cylindrical glabellar axis, expanding on the frontal margin. 
This and the two following specimens are preserved as casts. x30. Cam 
brian, Bohemia. 


194 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


Figure 9. Sao hirsuta Barrande; after Barrande. A later moult, 
probably near the end of the metaprotaspis stage; showing the annu- 
lated axis expanded in front: free-cheeks narrow and marginal; pygidi- 
um of four segments, with pleura distinctly marked and grooved. x30. 
Cambrian, Bohemia. 

Ficure 10. Sao hirsuta Barrande: after Barrande. A more ad- 
vanced stage at or after the close of the paraprotaspis, in which the 
pygidium is complete, but before the first free thoracic segment is de- 
veloped. x30. Cambrian, Bohemia. 

Fieure ll. Sao hirsuta Barrande. An adult- individual combining 
the characters as shown in seyeral of Barrande’s figures of this species. 
xts. Cambrian, Bohemia. 

Fiaureb 12. Triarthrus becki Green. Anaprotaspis: showing the 
annulated axis, terminating before reaching the anterior margin: the 
eye-lines extending from the first segment to the marginal eye-lobes: 
pygidium defined by a slight groove, and including two segments of the 
axis. x45. Ordovician, Utica Slate, near Rome, New York. 

Ficure 13. Triarthrus becki Green. Protaspis at a later moult; 
showing slight increase in size and the addition of a segment to the 
pygidium. x45. Utica Slate near Rome, New York. 

Fiaure 14. Triarthrus becki Green. An adult individual of this 
species. xls. Utica Slate, New York. 

PLATE IX. 

Fiaurbé 1. Acidaspis tuberculata Conrad. Anaprotaspis; showing 
denticulate margin and spines on cephalon; axis strongly annulated ; 
eyes submarginal. x20. Lower Helderberg, Albany Co., New York. 

Figure 2. The same: profile, slightly oblique. x20. 

FiGuRE 3. <Acidaspis tuberculata Conrad. An adult individual, re- 
stored from fragments and an entire enrolled specimen. Natural size. 
Lower Helderberg, Albany Co., New York. 

FicurE 4. Arges consanguineus Clarke. Dorsal view of a larva at 
or after the close of the paraprotaspis stage; showing the form and or- 
namentation. x20. Lower Helderberg, Albany Co., New York. 

Ficurt 5. Proétus parviusculus Hall. Anaprotaspis; showing 
strongly annulated axis, with grove at each side; large prominent an- 
terior eyes: pygidial pleura indicated by faint grooves. x45. Ordovician, 
Utica Slate, near Rome, New York. 

Ficure 6. Proétus parviusculus Hall. <A later moult, near the close 
of the paraprotaspis stage: showing the larger pygidium which, how- 
ever, is still incomplete, and the slight backward movement of the eyes. 
The right side of the specimen is restored. x45. Ordovician, Utica 
Slate, near Rome, New York. 

Ficure 7. Proélus parviusculus Hall. An adult individual. x2 
Ordovician, Utica Slate, near Rome, New York. 

Ficure 8. Dalmanites socialis Barrande: after Barrande. Anapro- 
taspis stage: showing the large strongly annulated axis: the prominent 
anterior marginal eyes: mucronate genal angles: pygidium of three seg- 
ments. x30. ‘ 


Larval Stages of Trilobites—Beecher. 195 


Figure 9. Dalmanites socialis Barrande; after Barrande. Meta 
protaspis stage: showing the stronger definition of the pleura of the 
pygidium. x30. Ordovician, Bohemia. 

Ficure 10. Dalmanites socialis Barrande; after Barrande. The 
specimen probably represents the close of the paraprotaspis stage, and 
shows four segments in the pygidium and the first evidence of the 
backward movement of the eyes, which now indent the margin. x30. 
Ordovician, Bohemia. 

Ficure ll. Dalmanites socialis Barrande ; after Barrande. Outline 
of an adult individual. xs. Ordovician, Bohemia. 

PLATE X. 

The Roman numerals indicate the appendages in their consecutive 
order. 

I, Ist pair of appendages, or antennules. 

II, 2d pair of appendages, or antenne. 

III, 3d pair of appendages, or mandibles. 

IV, V, ete., maxilla, maxillipeds, swimming feet, ete. 

Ocl, unpaired eye : oc, paired eyes: /b, labrum. 

Ficurel. Triarthrusbecki. A restoration of the ventral side of the 
protaspis stage in accordance with the best evidence at present attain- 
_able, as explained in the text. The VIth and the VIIth pairs of ap- 
pendages belong to the abdomen, which is marked off by a transverse 
line: mt, metastoma: g, free-cheeks. 

Ficurk 2. Apus cancriformis : after Claus (from Faxon). Phyllo- 
poda. Nauplius larva, just hatched; ventral side. Behind the mandi- 
bles (IIT) are indications of five thoracic somites, y. 

FicureE 3. Apus cancriformis ; after Claus (from Faxon). Phyllo- 
poda. Second larval stage (metanauplius); ventral side. The second max- 
illa, V, is wanting; /, frontal sense organs. 

Ficure 4. Branchipus stagnalis ; after Claus (from Packard). 
Phyllopoda. Nauplius stage. 

Figure 5. Artemia gracilis; after Packard. Phyllopoda. Nauplius 
stage; showing obscure segmentation. 

Fiaure 6. Limnaida hermanni; after Lereboullet (from Packard). 
Phyllopoda. Nauplius: dorsal side; first pair of appendages obsoles 
cent: labrum, /b, greatly developed. 

Figure 7. Lepidurus productus; after Brauer (from Bernard). 
Phyllopoda. Nauplius with obscure segmentation of the trunk, y. 

Ficure 8. Leptodara hyalina; after Sars (from Balfour and Bronn). 
Phyllopoda, Cladocera. Nauplius larva from winter egg; y, rudimen 
tary feet. 

Ficuret 9. Daphnia longispina; after Dohrn (from Claus). Phyllo 
poda, Cladocera. Nauplius stage of embryo, with rudimentary append 
ages. 

Ficure 10. Moina rectirostris; after Grobben (from Faxon). Phyllo 
poda, Cladocera. Embryo from the summer egg in the nauplius 
stage, developed in the brood-cavity of the parent: appendages rudi 
mentary. 


/ 


L196 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


Ficure ll. Cyclops tenuicornis; after Claus (from Balfour). Cope- 
poda, Natantia. Nauplius, first stage. This and the next are the origi- 
nal forms described as Nauplius, by O. F. Miiller, and believed at that 
time to be adult. 

Figure 12. Cyclops tenuicornis; after Claus (from Balfour). Cope- 
poda, Natantia. Nauplius, second stage; IV, maxilliz. 

Ficure 13. Cetochilus septentrionalis; after Grobben (from Faxon). 
Copepoda, Natantia. Nauplius, just hatched : ventral view. 

Fiaure 14. Achtheres percarum:; after Claus (from Faxon). Cope- 
poda, Parasitica. Larva at the time it leaves the egg, with only two an- 
terior unbranched pairs of appendages of the typical nauplius present. 
Under the skin are the rudiments of six pairs of appendages: III, man- 
dibles; IV, maxille ; V, VI, maxille: VII, VIII, swimming feet. 

Ficure 15. Balanus balanoides; after Hoek (from Faxon). Cirri- 
pedia. Nauplius. 

Figure 16. Lerncediscus porcellane; after F. Miller (from Faxon). 
Cirripedia, Rhizocephala. Nauplius, ventral side: showing outline of 
dorsal shield. 

Ficure 17. Sacculina purpurea: after F. Miller (from Huxley and 
Balfour). Cirripedia, Rhizocephala. 

Ficure 18. Cypris ovum; after Claus (from Faxon). Ostracoda. 
First larval (nauplius) stage, with bivalve shell and unbranched second 
and third pairs of appendages. 

Ficure 19. Nebalia geoffroyi; after Metschnikoff (from Faxon). 
Leptostraca. Side view of the so-called nauplius stage of the embryo 
within the egg. Rudiments are present of the two pairs of antenne, I, 
II, the mandibles, ITT. 

Figure 20. Huphausia; after Metschnikoff (from Faxon). Schizo- 
poda. Nauplius, just hatched. 

Ficurk 21. Huphausia; after Metschnikoff (from Faxon). Schizo- 
poda. Nauplius at a later stage: ventral view: mt, metastoma; IV, V, 
maxille; VI, maxilliped. In the next, or Protozoén, stage, the append- 
ages, IV, V, VI, are true phyllopodiform feet. 

Ficure 22. Mysis ferruginea; after Van Beneden (from Faxon). 
Schizopoda. Nauplius-like embryo; side view. The appendages are 
unsegmented, and the third pair quite rudimentary. A number of later 
metamorphoses are undergone in the nauplius skin, until the full num- 
ber of appendages is developed. 

Figure 23. Peneus; after F. Miller (from Faxon). Decapoda, Mac- 
roura. Nauplius: froni dorsal side. 

Figure 24. Lucifer: after Brooks (from Faxon). Decapoda, Macroura. 
Ventral view of embryo artificially removed from the egg; IV, V, VI, 
buds representing the two pairs of maxille and first pair of maxillipeds 
of the adult. 

Ficure 25. Palemon: after Bobretzky (from Faxon). Decapoda, 
Macroura. Nauplius stage of embryo within the egg. 

FricureE 26. Astacus fluviatilis; after Reichenbach (from Faxon). 
Decapoda, Macroura. Nauplius stage of embryo. 


PLATE VIII. 


THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VOL. XVI. 


PLATE IX. 


THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, Vou. XVI. 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 197 


Ficure 27. Limulus polyphemus; after Kingsley. Xiphosura. Ven- 
tral view of embryo; showing the budding of the legs. 

FicureE 28. Limulus polyphemus; after Packard (from Balfour ). 
Xiphosura. Ventral view of embryo in the egg; showing the rudiments 
of six pairs of legs; m, mouth. 

Ficure 29. Limulus polyphemus; after Packard (from Balfour ). 
Xiphosura. Oblique side view of embryo, with the mouth and rudimen- 
tary limbs on the ventral plate. 

The figures of embryonic Limulus are introduced for comparison. 
They are so different from the nauplius that detailed notice seems un- 
necessary. 


Peeve OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 
PAE RA RE RE. 


Geological Survey of Canada, Annual Report (new series), vol. v1, for 
1892-93. ALFRED R. C. SEtwyn, Director. (Ottawa, 1895. Price 50 
cents.) This volume includes the summary reports of the operations of 
the Survey during 1892 (95 pages) and 1893 (98 pages); a preliminary re- 
port on the geology of a portion of central Ontario, in the counties of 
Victoria, Peterborough, and Hastings, by Frank D. Apams, 15 pages; 
a preliminary report on geological investigations in southwestern Nova 
Scotia, by L. W. Batrey, 21 pages with map; chemical contributions to 
the geology of Canada, from the laboratory of the Survey, by G. Curis- 
TIAN HoFrMann, 93 pages; and the annual report of mineral statistics 
and mines for 1892, by E. D. Incauu and H. P. H. BruMmeEtt, 212 pages, 
with 12 plates showing graphically the production of asbestus, coal, cop- 
per, iron, petroleum, phosphate (apatite), gold, silver, and salt (import- 
ed), during 1892 and preceding years. The parts of the volume as here 
noted are separately paged, with the addition of a letter to designate 
each part, so that they are indexed together. 

Several other important manuscript reports, with numerous maps, re- 
sulting from the work of the Survey during the years here covered, are 
stated to be ready for the printer and engraver, but are unfortunately 
delayed in publication on account of inadequacy of the appropriation 
for this use. It is hoped that these will soon be issued in a succeeding 
volume. : 

The deep well at Deloraine in Manitoba, northwest of Turtle mount- 
ain, has been completed under the direction of the Geological Survey, 
boring to a total depth of 1,953 feet. The section consisted chiefly of 
the Ft. Pierre, Niobrara, and Ft. Benton shales, beneath which the top 
of the Dakota sandstone was reached at 1,822 feet from the surface, or 
about 178 feet below sea level. From the sandstone at 1,855 feet a fee- 
ble artesian flow of somewhat saline water was obtained, which, how 
. ever, was shut off by the lowering of the casing as the boring was con- 
tinued in the hope of securing a more copious supply. Because of the 
imperfect permeability of the sandstone, its lower supply of water rose 


198 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


only to a level 60 feet below the surface. When pumped several days 
the water attains the warm temperature of 80 degrees F., showing that 
the downward increase of the earth’s heat at this locality averages about 
one degree for each 43 feet, the mean annual surface temperature of the 
air and of the earth at a slight depth being about 35 degrees F. The 
mineral contents of this water considerably exceed those of the many 
mildly saline and alkaline artesian wells of the James River valley in 
North and South Dakota, which recieve their strong flows from the 
same sandstone at a less depth. 

Shore-lines of the Champlain epoch have been traced by Mr. Robert 
Chalmers all around the coast of Prince Edward island, the postglacial 
and recent emergence having there attained a vertical extent of about 
25 feet. It was somewhat more on the northwestern coast of Nova Sco- 
tia and much more in New Brunswick, amounting to 225 feet in the vi- 
cinity of St. John. These provinces, like Newfoundland, are wholly 
drift-covered, though with abundant rock outcrops: but the intermedi- 
ate Magdalen islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are found to have 
never been enveloped by the ice-sheet. The rocks of these islands bear 
no striation nor boulder-clay, but are decaying and mantled with resid- 
uary soil. They have well defined Champlain shores, which are higher 
than on Prince Edward island. 

During the year 1893 field work of exploration was carried forward by 
sixteen parties, of which four were in. the province of Ontario, three 
each in British Columbia and Nova Scotia, two in the province of Que- 
bec, and one each in the Northwest Territories, in eastern Manitoba and 
Keewatin, in the East Main district and Labrador, and in New Bruns- 
wick. Brief outlines of the results of all these explorations are noted. 

Ww. U. 


Summary Report on the Operations of the Geological Survey [of Can- 
ada| for the year 1894. By GrorGE M. Dawson, Director. (Pages 
124: Ottawa, 1895. Price 10 cents.) After only a very short interval from 
the publication of the foregoing volume, this first part of the next is is- 
sued. During 1894 it was found necessary to reduce the number of field 
parties to twelve, Ontario having three, British Columbia and Nova 
Scotia each two, and the Northwest Territories, Keewatin, Quebec, 
Labrador, and New Brunswick, each one, from all of which brief ad- 
ministrative reports are given. 

Boring to test whether petroleum can be obtained in commercially im- 
portant quality has been carried to the depth of 1,011 feet at Athabasca 
Landing. This work is to be continued to at least 1,500 feet, unless the 
stratum outcropping northeastward as ‘‘ tar sands ”’ shall be previously 
reached. It is hoped to find large supplies of petroleum in this Creta- 
ceous formation, or in porous beds of the next underlying Devonian 
strata, whence the tar or bitumen is thought to have come by upwell- 
ing and evaporation. 

Among the areas of new explorations, the most interesting are the 
country from lake Athabasca northeast to Chesterfield Inlet, and thence 
south along the west coast of Hudson bay, traversed by Mr. J. B. Tyr- 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 199 


rell and his brother, as already noted in the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST? (vol. 
XI, p. 132, Feb., 1894, and vol. xiv, pp. 338-340, Nov., 1894), and the 
Labrador peninsula, which Mr. A. P. Low crossed from south to north 
and again from east to west and south. 

Low’s northward route was by lake Mistassini, the upper part of the 
East Main river, lakes Nichicun and Kaniapiskau, and down the Kok- 
soak or Ungava river to Fort Chimo, near the debouchure of the river 
into Ungava bay. Finding great scarcity of provisions there, with fam- 
ine and starvation of the Indians, Low and his party took passage on 
the Hudson Bay Company’s steamer to Hamilton Inlet. Thence they 
went up the Hamilton river, by its expansion in lake Winokapau, to the 
Grand falls, where the river has 300 feet of sheer vertical plunge, witha 
very narrow and crooked cahon next below, about ten miles long and 
descending in that distance another 300 feet. Lake Winokapau was 
found to have a maximum depth of 416 feet, and was at one place 80 
feet deep within 50 feet from the shore. From these soundings Mr. 
Low concludes that ‘‘ the elevation of the land in preglacial times was 
much greater than at present, and that the valley of the Hamilton river 
has since been filled up with glacial drift; out of which the river is again 
cutting a channel; but owing to the less elevated state of the land it 
will probably not again reach the depth that it had previous to the gla- 
cial period.”” The Champlain subsidence and reélevation at Hamilton 
Inlet, as shown by raised beaches, are thought not to have exceeded 200 
feet. 

In summing up his observations, Low writes: ‘‘ The most important 
- geological information obtained is the discovery of a great and hitherto 
unknown area of Cambrian rocks extending north-northwest from north 
latitude 53 degrees to beyond the west side of Ungava bay. These rocks 
are made up of a great thickness of conglomerates, sandstones, slates, 
shales, and limestones, together with intrusive igneous rocks. Their 
chief economic value is due to the immense amount of bedded iron ore 
found along with them. The ores are chiefly specular and red hema- 
tite, together with beds of siderite or carbonate of iron. Thick beds of 
fine ore associated with jasper were met with in many places, on both 
the Ungava and Hamilton rivers; and the amount seen runs up into 
millions of tons. Owing to their distance from the seaboard, these ores 
at present are of little value, but the time may come when they will add 
greatly to the wealth of the country.’’ The similarity of these areas 
with the valuable mining districts of northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and 
Minnesota, seems especially noteworthy. 

From observations of the glacial striz and transportation of drift, it 
appears that the ice-sheet flowed outward ‘in all directions from a cen 
tral area south of lake Kaniapiskau and between the headwaters of the 
Hamilton and East Main rivers.’’ Upon the central tract, however, 
only a comparatively small amount of ice movement is indicated, for 
the ground, even to the very summit of the hills, is commonly covered 
by very abundant subangular blocks and boulders of the local rocks, 
while erratics are very rare. 


200 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


After many years of service on the Canadian Geological Survey, Dr. 
Dawson is appointed to its directorship, which Dr. Selwyn lays down at 
the end of a successful administration through twenty-five years. We 
extend to the new director the wish that the work carried on and super- 
intended by Logan and Selwyn may be as long and as prosperously con- 
tinued under his direction. W. U. 


Does the Delaware Water Gap consist of Two River Gorges? By Em- 
MA WaLrTer. (Pages 8, with map, Proc. Philadelphia Acad. of Natural 
Sciences, March 13, 1895.) The topographic features of the Water Gap, 
the exceptional depth of the river, 35 to 50 feet, in the gorge, while it is 
shallow with rapids above and below, and the hights of the valley ter- 
races of gravel and sand, are regarded as evidences that the greater part 
of this gap, passing through the Kittatinny or Blue Mountain range, 
was cut in preglacial times by a river flowing there northwestward, op- 
posite to the present course of the river, which since the Ice age is 
thought to have cut the lowest 150 feet of the southeastern part of the 
gorge. The depth of the river, however, seems no more than may be at-— 
tributed to the force of its floods in this constricted and curved part of 
its channel. Wises 


En resa till norra Ishafvet sommaren 1892. By AxEL HAMBERG. 
(Pages 25-61, with map, and 14 figures in the text, views engraved from 
photographs; Ymer, 1894.) In the northeastwardly facing frontal cliffs 
of Loven’s glacier, near the shore of King’s bay, Spitzbergen, much en- 
glacial drift was observed. The ice is distinctly stratified, and the in- 
closed drift occurs chiefly in definite layers, separated by others of near- 
ly clear ice. Where a boulder is imbedded, the ice laminz curve up- 
ward over it and downward under it. Sigmoid folds and overthrust 
faults have been produced by the differential motion of the ice strata. 
Loven’s glacier thus presents very conspicuously the same conditions 
which Chamberlin has described from his studies, two years later, in 
northern Greenland. W. U. 


° 


The Protolenus Fauna. By G. F. Marraew. (Trans. N. Y. Acad. 
Sci., vol. 14, pp. 101-153, pls. t-1x, 1895.) Protolenus, Matthew, is a 
trilobite genus closely allied to Olenellus. The Protolenus-fauna is the 
oldest known Cambrian fauna in the New Brunswick section. It lies 
immediately beneath the Paradoxides beds, and is otherwise denomi- 
nated by the author as the fauna of Band b of division 1, or the Acadian 
division of the St. John group. The ‘‘ Olenellus-zone’’ which in New 
Brunswick, and generally throughout the Atlantic region of North 
America, in Scandinavia, etc., lies beneath the Paradoxides horizon, 
has not been found in New Brunswick. It would seem that the fauna 
with Protolenus occupies the stratigraphical position of the Olenellus- 
zone. 

The author had already described certain species of this fauna, but 
the number has been much enlarged and their distribution established 
with greater precision, by the diligent collecting of Messrs. W. D. Mat- 


Review of Recent Geological Literature, 201 


thew and Gilbert von Ingen. The assemblage of species, to the descrip- 
tion of which most of these pages are given, is an interesting and in 
many respects highly remarkable one. The author’s well known keen- 
ness of observation is displayed to admirable advantage in these de- 
scriptions and the accompanying illustrations. Some of the more strik- 
ing elements in the fauna are here briefly noticed : 

The determination of Foraminifera of the genera Orbulina and Glo- 
bigerina (8 species) is one of much interest, originally due to Mr. W. D. 
Matthew. To the Spongida are referred some doubtful bodies designated 
as Monadites, Protospongia and Astrocladia. The list of Brachiopoda 
presents an assemblage of noteworthy forms; typical Lingulellas; Botsfor- 
dia, an oboloid genus founded upon the species Obolus ? pulcher Matth., 
to the illustration of which an entire plate (111) is given: aspecies of Obolus 
(O. pristinus) which, if correctly referred, is the sole American repre- 
sentative of the genus; the interesting genus Trematoboius, Matthew, 
(type, T. insignis Math.) an obloid shell with certain siphonotretid char- 
acters and articulating apparatus is redescribed at length: species of 
Obolella, Linnarsonia, Acrotreta and Acrothele. Among the Mollusca 
are representatives of some interesting genera, such as Orthotheca, No- 
vak, Diplotheca, Matth., with its septate hyolithoid shell, and Volbor- 
thella, another septate supposed pteropod. Pelagiella is a new generic 
name introduced for a small spiral Platyceras-like shell, believed to rep- 
resent a heteropod; P. atlantoides is the type. 

The ostracodes are represented by eighteen species, among them forms 
belonging to the author’s genera Hipponicharion and Beyrichona, with 
others referred to Primitia, Aparchites, Schmidtella, and Leperditia. 
To the Phyllopoda is doubtfully referred the genus Lepiditta, Matth. 
(L. sigillata, type.) 

The Trilobites present a number of new things: a new genus, Prota- 
graulos (type, P. priscus), founded on a small cranidium of very primi- 
tive type, with unsegmented glabella and long eye-lobes: another, Mic- 
macca (type, M. matthevi), based on large cephala with broad, sub- 
quadrate, obscurely lobed glabella extending to the frontal margin, and 
elongate eye-lobes. Four species of this genus are described. Berger- 
onia is a new term applied with subgeneric value to a form previously 
described as Protolenus elegans, W. D. Matth. The difference from 
Protolenus is stated to be wholly in the form of the thoracic segments, 
those of that genus being flat, with a diagonal furrow, while in Berger- 
onia they are strongly grooved and geniculate. The list contains also 
species of Ellipsocephalus and Avalonia, and of the entire number of 
trilobite species, seven are new. The entire fauna lists seventy-four spe 
cies and varieties. 

In his conclusions the author shows that the Protolenus-fauna, on 
account of the absence of characteristic types, can not be regarded as the 
fauna of Olenellus, whatever its stratigraphical relations to that fauna 
may be. Further, that the fauna with Protolenus is more primitive 
than that with Olenellus; as evinced, for example, in the long contin 
uous eye-lobes of all the trilobites; and also more pelagic, as shown by 
the presence of Foraminifera and Heteropoda. Jy Mack 

« 


202 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


CORRESPONDENCE: 


Recent GEOLOGICAL WorK IN SourTH Dakora. By the direction of 
the State Board of Regents of Education the School of Mines of South 
Dakota sent two parties into the field in May and June of this year. 

The general oversight of the work was placed in the hands of the 
state geologist. One party, consisting of Prof. F. C. Smith of the 
School of Mines and several of his students, spent the time in carefully 
examining the section of the Black hills along Rapid creek, with the 
special purpose of unravelling the complicated structure of the Algon- 
kian slates and quartzite. The other party, consisting of myself and 
one assistant, made an extended reconnoissance of the northwestern 
portion of the state. The following points of general interest to geolo- 
gists were ascertained and it is thought best to place them on record 
before the: preparation of a more careful report. 

1. Numerous small bivalve shells have been found in the Purple lime- 
stone which lies in the Red beds and which has been reported by all. 
previous observers as entirely without fossils. 

2. Numerous folds of great extent and of very complex character are 
found to occur in the slates along Rapid creek in the eastern portion 
of the Black hills. Also an important advance in the tracing of the ex- 
tent and subdivisions of the Algonkian. 

3. Miocene beds, both White River and Loup Fork, with character- 
istic fossils, have been found overlying wide areas of the Laramie north 
of the Black hills, covering quite deeply most of Harding county, with 
thin outlers over the north half of Butte county and south half of Ew- 
ing. In the Short Pine hills and Slim buttes these deposits exhibit a 
depth of 200 to 400 feet with characteristic fossil features closely resem- 
bling those of the White River region. 

4. An area of disturbance was found in the north half of Slim buttes 
in northeast Harding county covering perhaps 20 to 25 square miles. 
This consists of sharp folds, including the Laramie and White River 
beds, with throws of perhaps 100 feet and dips of 25 degrees. 

5. Upon these beds lie horizontal strata of white sandstone over 100 
feet in thickness, doubtless of the Loup Fork age. | Photographs of in- 
structive exposures were secured. 

6. The lignite beds of the Laramie of North Dakota and Wyoming 
are found to extend so as to underlie most of Ewing, Harding and Mar- 
tin counties. These features are quite constant in thickness over wide 
areas, especially toward the north. Two of them, four to five feet in 
thickness, underlie the Cave hills, and the lower one extends scores of 
miles under the surrounding country. In some places, as in the north 
half of Slim buttes, three beds were found, five, six and ten feet in 
thickness, in a vertical distance of 50 or 60 feet. With these great 
quantities of fossiliferous clays, affording beautiful specimens of fossil 
leaves, were found. J. H. Lopp: 

Vermillion, S. D., Aug. 5, 1895. 


Personal and Scientific News. 208 


Peso Al AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


Mr. W. D. Marrnew, of Columbia College, has been ap- 
pointed assistant in vertebrate paleontology in the American 
Museum of Natural History. 


Pror. JoHn Mine, the well known seismologist, is about to 
return to England. For several years he has ‘been connected 
with the Royal University at Tokio, Japan. 


Pror. J. F. Kemp has conducted the geological work of this 
year’s Summer School of Columbia College at Central © ity, 
Colorado. In August and September he will be engaged in 
field studies in the Adirondacks. During Prof. A. J. Moses’ 
absence the coming year Prof. Kemp will act as managing ed- 
itor of the School of Mines Quarterly. 


Pror. VALENTINE Batt, director of the Museum. of Science 
and Art of Dublin, died on June 17th, at the age of 52 years. 
He was elected a fellow of the Geological Society of London 
in 1874, fellow of the Royal Society in 1882, president of the 
Royal Geological Society of Ireland in 1882, and was professor 
of geology and mineralogy in the University of Dublin from 
1881 to 1883. 


Mr. F. W. Sarpeson, formerly instructor in paleontology in 
the eer ay, of Minnesota, has this summer taken the degree 
of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Freiburg. His 
first work in Freiburg was the reéxamination of the Dogger of 
the Upper Rhine valley, which has proved a perplexing “puzzle 
for some years. By the discovery of a few new localities for 
fossils he was able to establish the following succession, in as- 
cending order: 1. Murchisone-Schichten ; 2. “Sowerbyi-Se shich- 
ten; 3. Blaue Kalke; 4. Giganteus-Thone; 5. Humphriesi- 
Schichten; 6. Coronatus-Schichten; 7. Subfureatus-Sehich- 
ten; 8: alee alan ae d. lydeak Badischen Geol. 
Landes., Bd. III, Heft. 2, S. 109-117, Taf. 2; 1895.) 


THE UNITED States GEOLOGICAL SuRVEY. Sc/ence for July 
19th, gives an extended abstract of the report of director Wal- 
cott for the month of May, 1895. He remarks on the early 
commencement of field work this season as compared with 
former years, with the prospect of a longer season and more 
abundant results. The topographic parties nearly all took 
the field during May, as did also a number of geologic parties. 
Such topographers and geologists as were detaine d in Wash- 
ington beyond the close of the month have since taken the 
field from time to time, as the exigencies of the work already 
in hand permitted. This early commencement of the field 
vork of the Survey is attributable in the main to the action 


204 The American Geologist. September, 1895 


of Congress in providing in the last Sundry Civil bill that the 
appropriations for the Survey for the fiscal year 1895-1896 
should become available before the first of July. The different 
directions in which work is progressing and the work of the 
various geologists is given in some detail. 


Dr. M. E. Wapswortn, director of the Michigan Mining 
School, delivered an address before the graduating class of 
the L’Anse (Mich.) high school this summer. He makes a 
plea for mining engineering as the best field for many a young 
man to enter. We quote the most interesting and important 
part of the address: 

The engineering tines offer opportunities for as high an education and 
the exercise of as great ability as any other profession, while the re- 
wards are often great. * * * * * In my judgment mining engi- 
neering now offers one of the best fields for any industrially inclined- 
young man. The reason for this is the especially broad and varied 
training a man obtains in his preparation for this profession. The object 
of the training is to teach a man to aid in the development of the min-. 
eral wealth of the country. In doimg this the student is instructed how 
to explore the field and forest, to know the valuable and useful minerals 
and rocks and to distinguish them from those that are not useful, to 
understand the geological principles that govern the formation and as- 
sociation of all useful mineral deposits and to be able to approximately 
estimate their value: to survey and lay out the property for opening, 
and to map it accurately: to design or select the hoisting, transporta- 
tion, power and light plants: to design and erect the mills, furnaces, 
docks, dams, ete.: tosurvey, lay out and plot the town, roads, railroads, 
tramways, etc.: to understand the methods of mining or quarrying the 
deposit, of timbering and ventilating the mine; assaying the ores; to un- 
derstand the strength and properties of construction materials, the im- 
proved methods of generating and using steam, the care of boilers, en- 
gines and pumps, how to test them and determine their efficiency: make 
repairs, handle machine and other tools: to know the principles of elec- 
tricity, its generation, storage, transmission and use, and to design and 
lay out plans suitable for its use in lighting, haulage, etc.; to under- 
stand hydraulic mining, the use and transmission of water power; the 
flow of water through pipes, ditches, etc.: and the various problems of 
water supply, drainage, sewage, etc.: to intelligently select the methods. 
of handling any ore, to dress ‘and concentrate it, to understand its con- 
stitution, and to choose the metallurgical processes by which it should 
be treated: to be conversant with the methods of keeping the accounts 
and books relating to mines, making the purchases, selling the pro- 
ducts, etc. Such a training as this makes a man not only useful about 
any part of the work in obtaining mineral products, but it makes him 
valuable in almost every walk in life. 

It is easy to see that such an education will make any man of reason- 
able intelligence a fair mathematician, physicist, chemist, assayer, met- 
allurgist, mineralogist. geologist, draughtsman, designer, surveyor, a 
civil, mechanical, electrical and mining engineer, woodsman, mechanie, 
millman, ete. 


THE OCTOBER NUMBER OF THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST Will con- 
tain an account of the meetings of the Geological Society of 
America and the American Association for the Advancement 
of Science at Springfield, Mass., August 27th to September 
7th. 


PLATE XI. 


OLOGIST, Vou. XVI. 


tara ee 
she 


dinni 
ian. 


By Pror. N.H.WincHELL, 
State Geologist of Minnesota 


[O=JAdditions of Land at the end of Cambrian Time) 


EGION 
EAFZAdditions of Land at the end of Taconic Time. 


poe 
ing the 


AREAL INCREMENTS TO THE LAND 
85 


p 


Show 
of the Lower Siluri 


1 r 
STRAITS 
5.9 Mac 
averl. 


from the Archean to the be 


g 
10 20 30 


Dis 
2-LAKE SUPERIOR R 


icoten 
AS] Land at the end of Archean Time. 
5 


ipl 


Mich 


SeTpeofeas 
5 


ene 


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CACOCLL 


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AMERICAN ( 


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THE 


AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. 


Vor, XVI. OCTOBER, 1895. No. 4. 


[CRUCIAL POINTS IN THE GEOLOGY OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION. NO. 8.] 


THE SYNCHRONISM OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR 
REGION WITH OTHER PORTIONS OF THE 
NORTH AMERICAN CONTINENT. 


By N. H. WIncHELL, Minneapolis, Minn. 
(Plate XI.) 


After this glimpse of the succession of events in the Lake 
Superior region it will be well to institute another comparison 
with eastern localities, showing a general synchronism of the 
geology of lake Superior with the Adirondack and Taconic 
areas. Reference has already been made to the occurrence of 
eruptive rocks in the Canadian territory which is immediately 
adjacent to these rocks in Minnesota, considered Lower Cam- 
brian by Dr. Selwyn, and to others further north which Dr. 
G. M. Dawson has mapped as Lower Cambrian and places at 
about the same age as the copper-bearing rocks of lake Supe- 
rior. The succession of geological changes, as now made out, 
in the Lake Superior region, appears to be expressed as follows. 
This leaves out of the account the latest of the volcanic con- 
vulsions, viz., that which caused the intrusion of the traps 
that cover the light colored and marly sandstones at Black 
bay and which produced, according to Dr. A. C. Lawson, the 
Logan sills of the Animikie* at a considerably later date than 
the Keweenawan epoch, and which will be considered later. 
It embraces only the essential steps that are covered by the 


*Bulletin VIII, Minnesota Geological Survey, p. 47. 


206 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


classification embodied in the Bulletins of the United States 
Geological Survey, which are here examined (Nos. 81 and 86). 
They are given in descending order. 

Succession of Geological Events. 

(I.) A great sandstone, non-conformable over (a) the Archean; (b) the 4 
lower iron-bearing series (Keewatin); (c) the upper iron-bearing series 
(Animikie) and its eruptives; (@) parts of the Keweenawan. It is con- 
formably under sandstones carrying an Upper Cambrian fauna. The 
Dicellocephalus horizon. 

(II.) Disruption, folding and metamorphosing of the rocks of No. ITT, 
accompanied by the issuing of basic molten rock, and perhaps by the 
fusion of some of the clastics. Eruptives cotemporary with and fol- 
lowed by clastic sediments of great thickness. AKeweenawan eruptive 
age. 

(III.) Great quartzyte and conglomerate, underlying the last, non- 
conformable over all the older formations, after a great erosion interval. 
The Keweenawan basal beds, Paradowides horizon. 

(IV.) Great upheaval and metamorphosing of the rocks of No. V, ac- 
companied by the formation of enormous dikes and masses of gabbro 
with titanic iron ore, and of anorthosyte rock, the fusing of the clastics 
of No. V and the production of quartz-porphyries and felsytes cn a large 
scale. The Animikie revolution. 

(V.) Black slates and reddish to grayish quartzytes (Wauswaugo- 
ning), iron ore (Mesabi), quartzyte. Slates sometimes converted to fine- 
grained crystalline schists and magnetited, and to gneisses. Quartzytes 
and slates changed sometimes to quartz-porphyry and keratophyre. A 
limestone, often marmorized, of greater or less thickness belongs near 
the bottom. The Animikie. Supposed Olenellus horizon. Non-con- 
formable on the different parts of the Archean. 

(VI.) An unconformable underlying complex of crystalline rocks. 


It is scarcely necessary to dwell on this statement of the se- 
quence of geological events in the Lake Superior region. This 
history has been established by the combined observations of 
numerous geologists during the last thirty years. Probably 
no geologist who is acquainted with the region would call in 
question any of the events above expressed, or the relations in- 
dicated. There are of course many minor matters, more in 
the detail of subdivision and derivation for the different parts, 
on which geologists would not be found in accord, but the 
grand steps of the history as tabulated, whatever the age at 
which they occurred, are accepted by nearly all. 

Attention may now be called to the parallelism of this strue- 
tural series with that already expressed for the Adirondack 
and the Taconic areas. 


Synchronism of the Lake Superior Region.—W inchell. 207 


Parallelism between the Hastern New York and the Lake 
Superior Region.* 


Lake Superior. 

(a). Upper Cambrian (Dicello- 
cephalus) fauna, embraced in mag- 
nesian limestones and _ siliceous 
sandstones. 

(b). The upper parts of (a) non- 
conformable on some of the earlier 
rocks, indicating a progressive 
submergence. Contact on the 
trap at St. Croix falls. St. Croix. 

(c). The base of (a) is a sand- 
stone, and a conglomerate and is 
non-conformable on the rocks of (e) 
and of (g), and the sandstones also 
on some parts of (d). Lake Supe- 
rior sandstone. 

(d). Basic irruptives and surface 
flows, accompanied by acid igne- 
ous rocks; these interstratified 
with clastic rocks. Keweenawan. 

(e). Underlying the eruptives of 
(d)is a great quartzyte and con- 
glomerate, very compact and firm. 
The Sioux quartzyte containing 
Paradoxides and Lingula. This 
is non-conformable on all the older 
rocks. In Wisconsin Paleacmeat 
irving? is evidently from this hori- 
zon. 

(f). Massive basic  irruptives; 
acid eruptives; titanic iron ore; 
anorthosytes, associated with the 
rocks of (g) which they change to 


crystalline conditions. The Ani- 
mikie revolution. 
(g). Slates, limestone, quartz- 


schist, hematite iron ore, upheaved 
and crystallized; mica schists and 
gneisses. The Mesabi and the 
Penokee rocks. The Animikie. 


Eastern New York. 
(a). Upper Cambrian fauna em- 
braced in magnesian limestones 
and siliceous sandstone. 


(b). The rocks of the Upper Cam- 
brian fauna non-conformable on 
the older rocks—both crystalline 
and uncrystalline. Contacton the 
‘thypersthene rock.”? Calciferous. 

(c). The basal parts of (a) are a 
sandstone and conglomerate, wide- 
ly transgressing the older rocks. 
This sandstone is also non-con- 
formable with parts of (f). Upper 
part of the Polsdam sandstone. 

(d). Not certainly identified, but 
probably in the ‘‘eastern town- 
ships’ of Canada. Not yet sepa- 
rated from (/). 

(e). A hardened sandstone or 
quartzyte lying, with a basal con- 
glomerate, non-conformable on 
crystalline schists. The true Pots- 
dam sandstone at Potsdam, and 
eastward to the Au Sable gorge. 
Hyolithes, Palecacmeea, Conoceph- 
alites, Lingula. 


(f). The ‘‘hypersthene rock,”’ or 
gabbro, of the Adirondacks with 
its titanic iron ore. The Upper 
Laurentian of the Adirondacks, in 
part. 


(g). Mica schists, marbles, 
quartzyte, magnetic iron ores, 
gneiss. Marbles and quartzytes 
have Olenellus in Vermont. Part 
of the Upper Laurentian of the 
Adirondacks, and the VPaconic of 
Vermont. 


*The Eastern New York region in this connection is supposed to in- 
clude adjacent areas in Canada and New England. 

+In Wisconsin, seven miles west from Merillan, in Jackson county, are 
mounds of quartzyte (white and pink) similar to the quartzyte at Bara- 
boo, except they are not so dark, from which this fossil evidently was 


obtained. 


Geol. Wis., vol. tv, p. 173. 


208 


(h). Great non-conformity on the 
Archean. The rocks of (g) are 
sometimes folded with the Archean 
so as to cause them to be con- 
founded. 

(7). Oldest known series of crys- 
talline rocks. Archean. 


The American Geologist. 


October, 1895 


(h). Unconformity on the Green 
Mountain gneiss and on an older 
series in the Adirondacks, as late- 
ly announced afresh by Kemp. 


(‘) An older series of crystal- 
lines. 


Lithological Constants, 

Much has been said in late years against the evidence of 
lithologic similarity as a guide to the parallelism of rock out- 
crops in different localities; but when it is remembered that 
in the earlier epochs of geological history great uniformity of 
oceanic and physical conditions spread over vast expanses of 
the earth’s surface, and that differentiation of no kind had ad- 
vanced very far, it is perhaps more reasonable, in the case of 
the epochs which we are considering, to expect a uniformity 
of rocky structure over large areas than a cotemporary diver- 
sity. Physical effects, as they are manifested in the ocean’s 
‘drama of sedimentation, were not modified by great variations 
of depth, nor by continental shores. It was only when the 
heaving of the thin crust, perhaps under changing astronomic 
influences, finally broke it and allowed the molten interior to 
escape to the surface, that the repose of eons was disturbed 
In the light of 
the facts which are brought together above, making a litho- 


and the sedimentary succession was varied. 


logical and structural comparison between the eastern portions 
of New York and the Lake Superior basin, in Taconic time, it 
is at least not unreasonable to question the wisdom of the 
common practice of casting out as unreliable all evidence de- 
rivable at this horizon, from a comparison of lithological 
characters. In order to make this plainer it will be well to 
emphasize the constant lithological features that are known to 
have prevailed, simultaneously, in the two regions. 

To do this but little more is necessary, at the first glance, 
than to refer to the sequence as already stated in the fore- 
going tables. There are, however, some remarkable rock spe- 
cies, unlike any found in any other part of North America, 
either in earlier or later geological history which oceur coin- 
cidently at these distant points. First of all the great anor- 
This remarkable group 
under the names Norian, Upper Laurentian and Hypersthene 


thosyte series stands prominent. 


Synchronism of the Lake Superior Region.— Winchell. 209 


rock, or simply gabbro, embracing the crystalline apatites and 
the titanic iron ores of the country, and, as dependencies, 
certain marbles and quartzose gneisses with their graphite and 
non-titanic magnetites and a large variety of novel mineral 
species, protrudes itself upon our notice. That it should ap- 
pear in North America at so widely separated points, at essen- 
tially, if not precisely, the same time in the early history of 
the earth, is a remarkable event which calls for some explana- 
tion other than the ordinary reference to oceanic conditions. 
This great plutonic agitation appears to have been felt along 
a belt extending from southern New York northward through 
the Adirondacks, through Canada, appearing on the north 
shore of lake Huron, where coarse eruptives are mingled with 
the broken and subcrystalline strata of the “original Huron- 
ian,” to lake Superior and the region of Duluth, occurring on 
both sides of the great basin. More recently a gabbro of sim- 
ilar character has been discovered about 120 miles still further 
west in Minnesota. How far southward along the Appala- 
chian fold this effect can be distinguished from that of other 
epochs of irruption and erystallization is unknown, but simi- 
lar gabbro rock has recently been announced in the vicinity 
of Philadelphia* and Baltimore.+ The actual eruption of the 
characteristic labradorite-anorthosite rock may not have pre- 
vailed in all those regions throughout which, still, the cotem- 
porary folding and metamorphic changes were imprinted on 
the earlier rocks. In the latter effects this epoch may perhaps 
yet be identified over wide areas on the Appalachian moun- 
tains and its rocks may be found to extend much further 
northeastward toward the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and to 
be of the age of the rock in Labrador from which ‘its chief 
feldspar is named. 

Another lithological constant involved in the rocks of the 
Taconic from eastern New York and Vermont to northeastern 
Minnesota is the iron ore horizon which appears overlying the 
basal quartzyte of the Animikie. That this must have de- 
pended on oceanic causes inherent in the Taconic for its 
stratigraphic position as well as for its geographic extent, is 


*J.F. Kemp. On an occurrence of gabbro (norite) near Van Artsda 
len’s quarry, Bucks county, Pennsylvania. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 
vol. x1r, March, 1893. 

+G. H. Witurams. Bulletin 28, U.S. Geol. Sur., 1886. 


. 


210 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


evident. That its existence, whether the ore be hematite (or 
limonite) or magnetite, must be based in some cause equally 
applicable of operating over areas so widely separated at the 
same time, is equally apparent. That it antedated, in part at 
least, the main gabbro disturbance, which closed the Animikie 
portion of the Taconic, is plain, since the gabbro has rendered 
it magnetite where it has been in contact with the gabbro. It 
is with some satisfaction that it can now be stated that work 
recently done for the Minnesota survey by Mr. J. E. Spurr, 
after prolonged investigation into the environments of the iron 
ores of the Mesabi range, has resulted in a substantial demon- 
stration of the oceanic nature of the rock from which the ore 
is produced by metasomatosis and of the probable existence 
of organisms in the ecotemporary Taconic ocean as the primal 
source of the ore.* In short, Mr. Spurr’s result on this point 
indicates that the iron ores of this geological horizon were at 
first in the form of greensand, and that foraminiferal remains 
contributed to the unstable chemical condition in which the 
primary glauconite rock was formed. This important diseov- 
ery accords with other facts known before which pointed to- 
ward a very early oceanic origin for these ores. It also 
explains their existence at the same stratigraphic plane and 
over a wide extent. 

Chondrodite, a characteristic mineral of the limestones of 
the Taconic in New York and New Jersey, at first supposed 
to be proof of their Archean age, also accompanies the lime- 
stones of this horizon in Canada,t but has not yet been re- 
ported further west. 

Without further specification of the lithological constants 
of the Taconic it may finally be remarked that the usual rock 
kinds, such as sandstone, limestone and graphitic slates,which 
succeed each other in these strata in the east and in Minne- 
sota, when the same are non-crystalline, are quite similar and 
oceur in the same successional order, and when crystalline are 
converted into quartzytes, schists and marbles having notice- 
able peculiarities; and that, finally, they are accompanied in 
the two regions by almost an identical suecession of physical 
disturbances, manifesting cotemporary non-conformities in 
the stratigraphy. 


*Bulletin X, Minnesota Geological Survey, 1894. 
+Geology of Canada, 1863, p. 586. 


Synchronism of the Lake Superior Region. Winchell. 211 


Map of the Lake Superior Region. 

The accompanying map of the Lake Superior region (plate 
XI) is designed to show the approximate areas of land and 
water at three different times in the progress of events as 
above projected, throughout the Lake Superior basin. 

The areas designated by A represent the land at the close 
of Archean time, or just prior to the opening of Taconic time. 
As the Taconic seems to have been inaugurated by a _ wide- 
spread submergence, as indicated by the extensive conglom- 
erate which forms its base, even at points somewhat remote 
from its present surface boundaries (which themselves may be 
supposed, however, to have been driven back by degradation 
some distance from their original positions) it is probable that 
the land areas at the close of the Archean were considerably 
larger than here shown. It is, however, obviously impossible 
to even approximate a correct representation of the actual 
Archean land in those tracts which are still buried beneath 
sediments of Cambrian and later date. This map therefore 
shows simply a representation of Archean areas that are now 
known to be exposed at the surface. The term Archean here 
covers all the basal crystalline complex which is found in a 
erumpled condition unconformable below the Taconic and 
which has been divided by Lawson into Laurentian, Couchi- 
ching and Keewatin. It includes the lower iron-bearing rocks 
of the Lake Superior region, but not the upper. 

Areas designated by T show the land increments due to 
rocks of Taconic age, including in this the areal extent of the 
eruptives of the Norian and of the Keweenawan, the latter of 
which brought Taconic time to a close. The difficulty of map- 
ping the later eruptives as an integral part of post-Taconic 
time is the principal reason for putting them with the Taconic. 
Again they are so intimately associated with the earlier erup- 
tives and with the metamorphic conditions of the clastic 
strata of the Taconic of which they embrace large masses, 
and between the planes of which they have penetrated as con- 
formable layers, that to separate them in such a map would be 
impossible. Chronologically they are post-Taconic,and on their 
upper surface lies the base of the rocks of the Dicellocephalus 
zone. They simply form a punctuation datum in geological 
history, belonging as much to what precedes as to that which 


212 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


follows, but at the same time not a chronologic fraction of ei- 
ther as a faunal zone. Within the Taconic area are included 
the upper iron-bearing rocks of Minnesota, which in Michigan 
and in some parts of Wisconsin are so closely folded with the 
rocks of the lower iron-bearing series that they have never 
before been mapped separately in those states. The attempt 
here made to separately indicate them must be considered, 
therefore, as only a very general provisional mapping.* 

Areas designated C show the additions which were made to 
the land area by the elevation of those rocks which immedi- 
ately followed the eruptive Keweenawan and yet preceded the 
base of the Lower Silurian—i..e. up to the bottom of the 
Trenton limestone. These are distinctively the “Upper Cam- 
brian” of the region and are the only rocks which in the final 
Minnesota reports have been mapped as Cambrian, the Lower 
Cambrian having been called Taconic. 

The foregoing presentation of comparative facts of strue- 
ture, lithology and paleontology, as expressed on the accom- 
panying map, render the following conclusions both reason- 
able and probable: 

1. The rocks of the Cortlandt series (the clastics), of the 
original Taconic area and of the upper series of the Adiron- 
dacks, are of the same age, i. e., Taconic or Lower Cambrian. 

2. The basic rocks of the Norian or Upper Laurentian sys- 
tem of Canada are of the same age as the gabbros of the 
Adirondacks. 

3. The Taconic in America embraces all the strata contain- 
ing any known fossils older than the Dicellocephalus zone, or 
Upper Cambrian. It is separated from the Archean by a 
profound non-conformity. 

4. The Animikie strata in Minnesota and in general the 
upper iron-bearing series of the Lake Superior region are of 
the age of the Taconic. 

5. There are great objections to the supposition that the 
Taconic age is represented in the Lake Superior region by a 
supposed erosion-interval between the red sandstones of the 
Upper Cambrian (St. Croix or Dicellocephalus zone ). 


*Van Hise’s map of the Penokee series accompanying the Monograph 
on the Penokee Iron-bearing rocks of Michigan and Wisconsin (Mon. 
xrx, U.S. Geol. Survey) has been published since this map was con- 
structed. It would not, however, essentially modify it. 


Brachiocrinus and Herpetocrinus.—Bather. 213 


6. These are so great that, in consequence of other consider- 
ations that lead to the belief that the two sandstones are es- 
sentially the same formation, it is better to consider them as 
one, although manifesting many evidences of disturbance by 
the eruptive action which prevailed during their deposition 
and later. 

7. The Taconie age, therefore, is represented in the Lake 
Superior basin, as in New England and Newfoundland, by a 
great series of quartzytes and slates and a few limestones. 

8. Those rocks which have been described and mapped as 
Keweenawan embrace three eruptive systems,* separable by 
two erosion intervals marked by basal conglomerates and by 
faunal differences, viz., the eruptives of the Animikie revolu- 
tion, those of the Keweenawan proper, and the eruptives of the 
region of Thunder bay and Black bay. 

9. We may add as a corollary of the foregoing that the 
ocean which covered the spot where North America was to 
exist was subject to forces which acted simultaneously on a 
very wide extent, producing oceanic deposits of like nature 
and of like succession, in widely separated regions; and, 
again, that some other widely operating forces caused the 
simultaneous elevation, depression and, finally, the breaking 
of the crust and the escape of vast quantities of basic rock at 
points far distant from each other. 


BRACHIOCRINUS AND HERPETOCRINUS. 


By F. A. BArHER, London, England. 

The comparison to which I desire to direct the attention of 
American paleontologists seems to me, now that it is once 
made, so obvious that Iam quite ashamed of not having noticed 
it before. 

In the “Paleontology of New York” + Prof. James Hall 
founded a genus Brachiocrinus,taking as its type a new species, 
B.nodosarius, represented on plate V, figures 5-7, and plate V1, 
figures 1-3. The type-specimens were supposed by Prof. Hall 
to be the arms of a erinoid, to which structures they do in- 
deed bear a strong external resemblance. Further, in the 


*THe next paper of this series will describe the youngest of these 
systems. 
TVol. i, p. 118: 


214 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


“Revision of the Paleozoic Crinoidea,’* Messrs. Wachsmuth 
and Springer alluded to the fossils as “arm-fragments,” and 
in their privately issued “Index” the name was printed in ital- 
ics, as being invalid. 

Now, I have little doubt that the fossils in question are not 
arm-fragments but stem-fragments, and that they belong to 
the same genus as the fossils also described by Prof. Hall as 
arms, under the name Myelodactylus, and correctly described 
by J. W. Salter as stems, under the name Herpetocrinus. A 
detailed account of the literary history of those names and a 
minute description of the structure of those fossils was given 
in my “Crinoidea of Gotland. Part I. Crinoidea Inadunata’’+ 
on pages 36-52. It is therefore needless to repeat here the 
reasons for preferring the name /Herpetocrinus or for regard- 
ing the ordinary specimens as portions of stems. I will merely 
point out the reasons for a reconsideration of the status of 
Brachiocrinus. 

That the remains are not arms follows from the fact that 
there is, as shown on plate VI, figures 1 and 3a, of Prof. Hall’s 
work, no ventral ambulacral or food groove on the main stem, 
while the supposed pinnules (tentacula of Hall) are stated to 
be “without any appearance of a groove or canal on the inner 
side.” Further, our present knowledge does not permit us to 
imagine a solitary arm, ‘without any appearance of an artic- 
ulating surface or point of attachment to any other body,’ 
but terminating “below in a rounded condyle;” ‘as if the 


r 


arm, as it now occurs, had had an independent existence.” 
On the other hand, the remains agree in essential structure 
with the stems of other crinoids. The tentacula, or cirri as 
they should now be called, are round in section, “with a linear 
foramen” or axial canal, which in plate V, figure 7, is seen to 
pass into the main stem, where it doubtless joins an axial canal 
inthe stem. This latter, it is true,is neither mentioned in the 
text nor shown in the section (plate VI, figure 3a); perhaps, as 
in many undoubted specimens of Herpetocrinus, the axial canal 
has been obliterated by the processes of petrifaction. The 
rounded condyle at the distal end of the stem is also not 
without parallel in other crinoids, e. @., Calceocrinus and Mil- 
*Part II, p. 229, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1881, p. 403. 
TK. Vet. Akad. Handl., Bd. xxv, No. 2, Stockholm, 1893. 


Brachiocrinus and Herpetocrinus.—Bather. 215 


lericrinus; and it is no unusual thing to hear of stalked crin- 
oids attaining to a semi-locomotor existence. 

Next, to show that the remains called Brachiocrinus nodo- 
sarius are referable to Herpetocrinus. The coiling of the 
stem, as in plate V, figure 7, is notoriously characteristic of 
that genus; so also are the paired cirri, which give the stem 
the semblance of a pinnulate arm. The slight groove on the 
inner curvature, represented in plate VI, figure 1, is also found 
in all species of Herpetocrinus, while the section, plate VI, 
figure 8a, may be compared with the numerous sections figured 
in “The Crinoidea of Gotland,’’ text-figure 12 and plates I 
and ITI. 

It is true that in the excellent drawings by F. B. Meek, 
which adorn Prof. Hall’s volume, one cannot see any of the 
minuter details and anatomical structures which a prolonged 
study of a very large number of Swedish and English speci- 
mens has enabled me to demonstrate in my memoir. There 
may, therefore, still be room for doubt as to whether the spe- 
cies is actually a MHerpetocrinus. Mr. Charles Wachsmuth 
informed me some time ago that //erpetocrinus-like forms oc- 
curred in an order of crinoids other than the Inadunata; so 
that Brachiocrinus might conceivably be generically distinct 
from Herpetocrinus. I cannot, however, think that this is 
really the case. So far as I understand, the forms alluded to 
by Mr. Wachsmuth are of Carboniferous (or Subcarboniferous ) 
age; whereas the true Herpefocrinus is confined to the Silu- 
rian. The three species as yet described in North America 
come from the Niagara group, corresponding to the English 
Wenlock, in which also the genus is well developed. Brachi- 
ocrinus nodosarius is from a higher horizon—the Lower Hel- 
derberg. But in Gotland, species of Herpetocrinus occur in 
beds of the same age, so that this presents no difficulty. On 
the contrary, the geological horizon is just what the appear- 
ance of the species would lead one to expect. It is a pecu- 
liarly developed species, more removed from what may be re- 
garded as the ancestral form than are the species from lower 
horizons. Its cirri are distinctly curious, “composed of thick 
bead-like joints, which increase in size from the base to the 
middle, and thence diminish to the extremities.’’ This char 
acter is possessed by only one other species of //erpetocrinus, 


216 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


viz., WH. flabellicirrus, which occurs in the uppermost beds of 
Gotland. In //. flabellicirrus, however, the character is eor- 
related with the arrangement of the cirri in alternating fan- 
like groups. It may therefore be concluded, in the absence 
of evidence to the contrary, that ‘the fossils deseribed as 
Brachiocrinus nodosarius are congeneric with the species 
hitherto referred to Wyelodactylus and Herpetocrinus, but 
that specifically they are distinct. 

‘The name Brachiocrinus was published in 1859; Wyelodac- 
fylus had been published in 1852; while Merpetoerinus, whieh 
is the only other name that demands consideration, was not 
published till 1878. If we are to follow the law of priority, 
without paying any attention to the various limitations pro- 
posed by the founders of that law, then all these species must 
—if I am correct as to the facts—be called by the name Wye-' 
lodactylus. If, on the other hand, we accept only the more 
obvious among those limitations, then we shall attribute due 
value to the facts that Wyelodactylus and Brachiocrinus were 
described in terms which anatomically considered were of ab- 
solute incorrectness; that, in consequence of this, the Euro- 
pean paleontologist who first gave a correct description of 
Herpetocrinus could not recognize its identity with either of 
them; that for similar reasons the generic identity of the 
American and European species has been and still is denied 
by some American writers—I allude especially to Mr. S$. A. 
Miller; that the most competent students of the Crinoidea in 
America refused to recognize either Wyelodactylus or Brachio- 
erinus; and finally, that the names Wyelodactylus and Brach- 
focrinus, being based on erroneous inferences, are essentially 
misleading. It seems to me that the zoologists, who, as at the 
International Congress, have recently been insisting on the 
absoluteness of the law of priority, under all circumstances, 
have overlooked the difficulties presented by fossils. Surely 
it is absurd that a name given to a complete skeleton should 
yield to some prior name given to a tooth ora tarsal, a feather 
or a fin-ray, especially since uncertainty so often attaches to 
the determination of their identity. Names that have been 
given to obscure fragments, and that, owing to insuflicient 
description, have failed to gain acceptance, might well elude 
the stringency of the law. For such names at all events I 
prefer to accept the limitations proposed by the wise and ex- 


New Fossils from Missouri.—Rowley. 217 


perienced founders of the law of priority, and for the above 
given reasons I have adopted the name Herpetocrinus. The 
question, however, is one of minor importance so long as we 
understand the true facts of structure and affinity. Without 
further argument, therefore, I suggest the following revised 
diagnosis of 

Herpetocrinus nodosarvus : 

Cirri (known as yet only in regions 5 and 6) irregular, alternating, at 
intervals of 1 to 4 ossicles: cirrus-ossicles moniliform, increasing in 
thickness distalwards to the middle of the cirrus, thence diminishing to 
the end. (Longitudinal sutures as yet unknown.) Distal end of the 
stem may form a bulb-like swelling, marked off by a slight constriction. 


This diagnosis is congruent with those given in the “Crin- 
oidea of Gotland,”’ 
plained. 


where all the terms here used are ex- 


The bulb-like end is of interest, and confirms the view ex- 
pressed in the following sentence:* “The attachment of the 
stem has not been seen in this genus. * * * * It is very 
probable that the animals usually broke off any rooted at- 
tachment they may have formed, and that they clung to corals 
or other submarine objects by their cirri. In some specimens 
the stem narrows at the distal end (plate II, figure 56); and 
this suggests that the creatures may have had some power of 
locomotion, such as might have been effected by successive 
contractions and extensions of the stem.”’ 

I have ventured to submit these remarks for publication in 
the American Geoxoaist, thinking that to be the surest means 
of attracting the attention of American students to these 
curious animals, about which, in spite of the investigations of 
many skilled observers, we have still so much to learn. 

British Museum (Nat. Hist.), London, S. W., England. 


DESCRIPTION OF A NEW GENUS AND FIVE NEW 
SPECIES OF FOSSILS FROM THE DEVONIAN 
AND SUB-CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS 
OF MISSOURI. 

By R. R. Rowuey, Louisiana, Mo. 

ARISTOCRINUS, gen. nov. 

ieneleey! aristos, best; krinon, lily. 

Fig. 1. Generic diagram. Fig.2. Aristocrinus concavus, natural size. 

Diagnosis.—Calyx forms a low cup and together with the 
short, thick arms has comparatively little hight. Basal region 


*Crin. Gotland, p. 45. 


218 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


coneave. Underbasals, if present, hidden beneath the upper 
stem joint. Basals five, four of them being equal with acute 
angles above, the fifth truncate above. Primary radials three, 
—four in one ray of one example,—by tive of unequal size, 
wider than long. Three of the first radials are heptagonal, 
while two are hexagonal. Secondary radials three in number. 
Two arms spring from the bifurcating plate of each secondary 
series of radials, making twenty free arms in all. Arms short 
and rather heavy, made up of single joints folded in or over- 
lapping at the top. Short, strong pinules, apparently along 
the entire length of the arms but more crowded toward the 
ends. No so-called patelloid plates present in any of the 
specimens. A single, large, nine-sided interradial to each 
space except the azygous area. (The type specimen of 4. 
concavus, instead of a single plate, has apparently some mi-’ 
nute accompanying lateral plates which may really be frac- 
tured parts of the large plate.) The anal or azygous area is 
filled by three irregular plates accompanied by one or two 
smaller ones to the right and above. No appearance of an 
anal tube or proboscis. A single small, rounded, axillary 
plate rests between the first and second radial plates of the 
secondary series. Column moderately large, round and com- 
posed of even thin joints. Central perforation rather small. 
This fossil occurs in the Hamilton beds of Callaway Co., Mo. 
Type, Aristocrinus concavus (Rowley). The type specimen 
was first described by the author in the American GEoLoGist* 
under the name Tawvocrinus concavus. Afterward other fea- 
tures were brought to light by the use of the knife, and in the 
same journalt+ other illustrations followed and the near rela- 
tion of this crinoid to Onychocrinus was pointed out. Further 
study has led to the belief that it does not naturally belong to 
any known genus, and we have accordingly created a new 
generic term for its reception. It is evidently close to Taxo- 
crinus, from which it differs in the shape of the calyx, the en- 
tire absence of the minute plates above the interradials and 
the possession of pinulz, differing in this latter respect from 
all known ichthyocrinoids. In general outline Aristrocrinus 
differs much from Onychocrinus, but, in the possession of pin- 


*Vol. x11, p. 304, Nov., 1893. 
Vol. x111, p. 153, March, 18%. 


New Fossils from Missouri.—Rowley. 219 


ule, reminds one of that genus with its short arms given off 

by the free rays. In case the name Aristocrinus should prove 

to be predeccupied our genus could be changed to Callaway- 

crinus. 
ALLAGECRINUS AMERICANUS. sp. nov. 


Fig. 3. Lateral view of the body. Fig. 4. Ventral aspect of the 
largest specimen in the collection, greatly magnified. Figs. 5 to 10. 
Other and smaller specimens very greatly enlarged, showing additional 
features. 


Crinoid minute. Calyx conical, Basals form a low rounded 
cup. Number unknown, as the suture lines are not visible 
under a hand glass. Radials five, elongate, each with one or 
two distinct articular facets above for the attachment of arms. 
These scars directed upward but not noticeably outward. 
Arms unknown. The dome or ventral surface composed ap- 
parently of three single pieces, though the depressions around 
the vault suggest five. The left upper corner of one of the 
radials in several of the larger specimens meets the edge of 
the adjacent radial below the right upper corner of that plate 
and at first sight suggests an accidental break, but this may 
represent the anal area of other Paleozoic crinoids. The larger 
specimens with this feature present have scars for the attach- 
ment of nine arms, while the smaller examples have but five 
facets. A few thin round joints of a column have been ob- 
served attached to some of the specimens, and small, round 
stems are common in the clay. Plates apparently smooth. 
Most of the specimens are highly calcified so that features are 
made out with difficulty. The collection contains over three 
hundred specimens of all sizes, from those almost microscopic 
to those one-sixteenth by one-thirtieth of an inch, all posses- 
sing the vault in place. 

Obtained from the clay partings between the two lower 
‘layers of the Lithographic or Louisiana limestone at the base 
of the Kinderhook group, Louisiana, Mo. The discovery of 
these little crinoids was made while washing clay for small 
brachiopods. 

All the specimens collected correspond very closely with 
those figured by Dr. Carpenter as the young of A. austin/, but 
nothing like his mature form has come under our observation 
and we are convinced that our larger specimens are adults. 
This little crinoid is especially interesting, both because it is 


220 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


the second species of the genus from American rocks and also 
from its close relation to the only European species; more- 
over it is from a much lower horizon than Mr. Wachsmuth’s 
A. carpenteri. 

GRANATOCRINUS (Schizoblastus?) MAGNIBASIS, sp. nov. 

Figs. 11 to 13. Lateral, ventral and dorsal views of the type specimen, 
natural size. Fig. 14. Lateral view of a large distorted specimen, nat- 
ural size. 

Body subglobose. Interradial areas greatly depressed so 
that the ambulacra and the bounding margins of the radial or 
fork pieces below stand out as five fiattened ridges when the 
specimen is viewed from the base. Top of the body slightly 
sunken, so that it appears truncate above on a side view. 
That part of the base occupied by the column fiattened. Basal 
plates form a very large pentagon, visible on a side view as- 


the base is quite convex. The ambulacra do not extend to the 


New Fossils from Missouri.—Rowley. PAM | 


basal plates. The edges of the radial pieces and basal plates 
at their union form a slender double ridge, quite noticeable. 
‘The radial plates extend upward almost to the flattened top. 
Interradials occupy a space at the top larger than the area 
occupied by the basal plates at the other end. A slightly ele- 
vated double ridge follows the radio-interradial sutures, but 
no such elevation can be seen along the sunken radial sutures. 
Fine granular lines parallel to the ambulacra ornament the 
radial plates. The edges of the radials at the ambulacra are 
bent so abruptly upward as to appear to be bounded below by 
a suture. The ambulacra occupy less than three-fourths of 
the hight of the body, are very narrow with numerous pore 
pieces either side of the mesial furrow. The azygous interra- 
dial is little, if any, larger than the other four interradials. 
Anal opening rather large. Ovarian openings eight in number, 
rather small. Central opening uncovered in the specimens. 

This blastoid may belong to Dr. Carpenter’s genus Sch/zo- 
blastus, as it seems to present some outward resemblance to it. 

The collection contains nine specimens preserving the test 
and ten or more fine natural casts, some of which are larger 
than figure 14, all very striking fossils because of the great 
elevation of the ambulacral ridges which are extravagantly 
high above the sunken radials in the largest casts. One only of 
the casts is sub-elliptical in outline, while all the others 
eayre with the specimens figured, and all have a more or less 
distorted appearance, hardly accidental. 

Collected from the upper Burlington limestone and _ the 
cherts of that horizon, just above the Act/nocrinus scitulus ho- 
rizon and consequently at the very base of the upper Burling- 
ton, in the quarries at Louisiana, Mo. Found associated with 
Schizoblastus say?t, Physetocrinus ventricosus and other well 
known upper Burlington forms. 


GONIATITES LOUISIANENSIS, sp. nov. 

Fig. 15. The largest specimen found, natural size. Figs. 16 to 18. 
Enlarged views of the same specimen. 

Shell compressed, very small. Umbilicus large and rather 
deep, but the condition of the specimens is such that the inner 
whorls are not visible. Volutions rather slender and rounded 
on the dorsal side. Septa distinct only in a few specimens, 
probably on account of the pyritized condition of the shells. 
Dorsal lobe long, tongue-shaped and rounded at the end. Dor- 


aa The American Geologist. October, 1895: 


sal saddle hardly as long as the dorsal lobe, but wider, and 
rounded at the extremity. Upper lateral lobe shallow and 
rounded at. the end. Lateral saddle shallow, broad and 
rounded. Lower lateral lobe broad, obtuse. From the um- 
bilicus to the dorsal side of a volution, three well defined, 
equi-distant furrows extend. Body chamber not present in 
the specimen figured., The average size of the twelve or more 
specimens in the collection is little more than half that of the 
example figured. 

Obtained from the clay partings between the lower two 
layers of the Lithographic or Louisiana limestone at Louisi- 
ana, Mo. Compare with Dr. A. Winchell’s G. pygmaeus from the 
Marshall group. 

PLEUROTOMARIA MINIMA, sp. nov. 


Fig. 19. Lateral view of a large specimen of the species, greatly mag- 
nified. 


Outline of shell, low trochiform, minute. Volutions pre- 
served rarely more than three, increasing rapidly in size. A 
narrow spiral band quite noticeable around the middle of the 
first volution. Suture well defined. Umbilicus small. Surface 
apparently ornamented by transverse lines, visible only on a 
single specimen. Aperture subeircular. Length and breadth 
of specimens about equal. One-seventeenth of an ineh in di- 
ameter. 

Collected from the clay parting between the lower two lay- 
ers of the Lithographic or Louisiana limestone at Louisiana, 
Mo. 

MURCHISONIA (2?) PYGMAA, sp. nov. 

Fig. 20. Lateral view of a specimen greatly magnified. The figured 
specimen preserves six rounded volutions. 

Shell minute, elongate, slender, tapering very gradually. 
Volutions rounded, the lowest being quite as long as the two 
whorls above. Suture well defined. No surface ornamenta- 
tion visible, probably on account of the pyritized condition 
of the specimens, which after all may be but casts. Natural 
size of the figured specimen one-sixteenth by one-fortieth of 
an inch. A rare species. 

Collected from the clay parting between the lower two lay- 
ers of the Louisiana or Lithographic limestone at Louisiana, 
Mo. These shells were obtained while washing the clay for 
young brachiopods and were found associated with A/lagecri- 


The Elective System.— Wadsworth. 223 


nus americanus, Pleurotomaria minima, Goniatites louisianen- 
sis, Ambocelia minuta, Cyrtina acutirostris, Orthothetes lens, 
Chonetes geniculata, C. ornata, Spirifera marionensis, Spiri- 
ferina aciculifera, Productella pyxidata, Nucleospira barrisi, 
and other well known Kinderhook species. 


EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. 


Ficure 1. Diagram illustrating the arrangement of plates in the body 
and arms of Aristocrinus, anew genus of crinoids. 

FicureE 2. Azygous view of the type specimen of Aristocrinus concavus 
(Rowley); natural size. 

Ficures 3 and 4. Lateral and ventral views of the largest specimen of 
Allagecrinus americanus, sp. noy., greatly magnified. 

Ficures 5 and 6. Similar views of a medium sized specimen of the same 
species, highly magnified. 

FiGuREs 7 and 8. Side views of smaller specimens of the same species, 
greatly enlarged. 

FiGcureE 9. Ventral view of a large specimen of the same species, greatly 
magnified. 

FieureE 10. Lateral view of a medium sized specimen of the same spe- 
cies, greatly enlarged. 

Ficures 11 to 18. Lateral, ventral and dorsal views of the type specimen 
of Granatocrinus (Schizoblastus?) magnibasis, sp. nov., natural 
size. 

Fiaure 14. Lateral view of a large distorted specimen of the same spe- 
cies, natural size. 

Figure 15. Lateral view of the largest specimen of Goniatites lowisia- 
nensis, Sp. nov., natural size. 

Fiaures 16 to 18. Lateral, dorsal and ventral views of the same _ speci- 
men, enlarged. 

Figure 19. A greatly magnified view of the type specimen of Plewroto- 
maria minima, sp. DOV. 

FicurE 20. Murchisonia ? pygmcea, sp. nov. Type specimen, greatly 
magnified. 


tab eeLECTIVE SYSTEM, AS ADOPTED IN THE 
MICHIGAN MINING SCHOOL. 


By M. E. WApswortH, Director, Houghton, Michigan, 

In this country two systems have been chiefly followed in 
the higher educational institutions,—the fixed and the elect- 
ive. The latter was introduced first in this country by Pres- 
ident Wayland, of Brown University, and it has since been 
systematized and developed with remarkable skill and success 
by President Eliot, of Harvard. Indeed, the system has 
proved to be so well adapted to the needs of modern times 
and to be so popular that it has made its way in the face of 


224 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


a strenuous opposition, until all or nearly all of our colleges 
and universities have employed it for their work in general 
or literary and scientific education. 

In technical or engineering education the case has been 
different, since even those schools, like Harvard, Stanford, or 
the University of Michigan, which have a most liberal elective 
system for general education, have still only a partially mod- 
ified form of the rigid system in the engineering and tech- 
nical courses. The rigid system is disguised in most institu- 
tions in their technical work under the head of election 
between various fixed courses, which may or may not have a 
few options, or it masquerades under an elective dress, to 
which it has but little, if any, right. 

The elective system proper in any of the higher institutions 
giving general education has consisted of two features: 
first, the essential studies; second, the sequence of studies. 
The first is composed of those studies which are considered 
in each institution as necessary or essential to maintain the 
scholarship or traditions of the school in question, and in 
engineering schools, not even excepting that at Harvard, the 
required or essential studies to-day constitute the chief amount 
of the entire course in any of the engineering branches. In 
the case of general or literary education, the number of studies 
that are considered essential usually rapidly diminishes ac- 
cording to the experience and number of the faculty until only 
afew studies are required; and in time this feature will be 
fully eliminated. 

Regarding the second, or “the sequence of studies,” but 
little public attention is called to it in any statements relating 
to electives in any institution, although it is the keynote of 
them all. No school can maintain any elective system or any 
work above a kindergarten or primary grade, without care- 
fully considering the question of the natural sequences. It is 
the unwritten law, that no student can take calculus who has 
not previously prepared himself in algebra, nor can he study 
petrography without any knowledge of mineralogy. 

All the catalogues of the advanced schools show that they 
tacitly recognize the law of sequence of studies with greater 
or less fullness, but I do not know of any which call attention 
to the fact, except the recent prospectus of the Michigan Min- 
jing School. 


The Elective System— Wadsworth. 225 


In truth, the greatest curses, that beset any system of elect- 
ives, are the neglect of proper sequences in the studies and the 
tendency of various instructors to bid for students, by giving 
weak and inferior (technically known as soft) courses. This 
last, like many of the other ills of educational institutions, 
can be partially, if not entirely, removed, by placing the charge 
of the instruction under one experienced executive head, which 
head is to be held strictly accountable for the success of the 
work, and is to be given absolute control over all the instruct- 
ors, with power to discharge them if they do not properly per- 
form their functions. In other words, there should be intro- 
duced into our schools more of the business methods of suc- 
cessful business houses,—the direct responsibility for,and power 
of the individual over, everything placed under his charge. 

The Michigan Mining School has attempted to apply the 
methods in use in the elective systems employed for general or 
literary instruction to technical or engineering education, so 
far as the school’s province of training men to assist in the 
development of the mineral wealth of the country will enable 
it to do. In accomplishing this it has tried to reduce to a min- 
imum all studies to be taken by every student, to conserve the 
sequence, and to obtain thorough work by the business method 
of individual responsibility. 

The only studies required of all the pupils here are “ ele- 
mentary geology” and the “elementary principles of mining,” 
—these are asked for because it is believed that in any insti- 
tution dealing with the problems relating to the mineral 
wealth the pupil should have some knowledge of geology and 
of mining methods, and also because the director (who in this 
case happens to be in charge of the geological instruction) 
desires to come into personal contact with every pupil in the 
school early in his course. The above mentioned studies re- 
quire altogether the pupil’s presence in the class room only 
three times a week for thirty-four weeks. 

Outside of the elementary geology and mining the student 
is allowed unrestricted freedom of choice in his studies, the 
same as he is in the literary, but not in the engineering, work 
of Harvard, Michigan or in any other of our universities. 

Emphasis is here placed upon the almost absolute freedom 
of choice at the Michigan Mining School because many have 


226 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


mistaken the natural “sequence of studies” for ‘required 
This error happens because in the prospectus of 


the elective system issued last May special attention was called 


5 


studies.’ 


to the natural sequences in chemistry, metallurgy, mechanical, 
electrical and mining engineering, ore-dressing and geology, 
provided any student wished to obtain every particle of in- 
struction that is given in the school in any of the subjects 
named. These outline schemes are merely signs showing the 
student some of the numerous ways of reaching the upper 
rooms of the house, but he has absolute freedom to use any of 
the other numerous ways that might just as well have been 
pointed out. Owing to the fact that.in the usual discussions 
of elective systems, the natural sequence of studies is not dwelt 
upon, it was expected that these guiding lines would be mis- 
taken for required courses by many readers, although it was 
thought the error was sufliciently guarded against in the 
prospectus on pages L1, 13, 14 and 25. The precaution seems 
not to have been entirely successful, since a friendly hand in 
a friendly journal* has penned the following: ‘Students are 
allowed to select one of several courses with a certain princi- 
pal subject, and in each course certain studies are required 
and the rest are elective.. The school thus allows greater free- 
dom in the selection of studies than do most mining schools.” 
This friend has entirely misapprehended the facts, as the 
statements made above show. The freedom of choice is not 
only greater than that allowed in all other mining schools, 
but, so far as the present writer is aware, also greater than 
that in all other technical or engineering schools whatsoever. 

Although this is the first time this general freedom has ever 
been allowed in any engineering school, the problem seemed to 
be so fully solved, so far as the special conditions of this in- 
stitution are concerned, that when it was brought before the 
faculty and the board of control it passed both bodies without 
a single objection. The ostensible working of the system does 
not go into full effect until September 16th of this year, yet 
the choice of electives has already been made; and the pas- 
sage of all the students from a rigid system to an elective one 
has been accomplished without any hitch or difficulty, but also 
with the pupils’ unanimous approval. 


* AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 1895, vol. xvi, p. 130. 


bo 
i 
co | 


The Elective System.— Wadsworth. 


The courses in operation up to the time of commencement, 
August 16th of this year, are two exceedingly rigid ones. The 
required work demanded of the student from seven to ten 
hours a day, five days a week for forty-five weeks a year, and 
for three or four years (according to which course was taken ) 
in the class room, laboratory, field, mine or mill, while his 
daily preparatory work had to be attended to in outside time. 
When it is considered that all students, both special and reg- 
ular, have been transferred, not only without trouble but with 
general satisfaction from one system to the other, the success 
seems almost phenomenal. 

In the elective system of the Michigan Mining School the 
unit of work is taken as three hours a week in the class room 
or nine hours a week in the laboratory for thirty-four weeks, 
and this amount of work is called a course or a full course, 
while any subject scheduled in the prospectus for less time 
is taken for its proportionate part of a full course. The stu- 
dent, to obtain the degree of Bachelor of Science, must complete 
eighteen full courses, and to obtain that of Mining Engineer, 
twenty-two full courses, which in both cases include the sub- 
jects of elementary geology and mining. 

Owing to the fact that the regular work in the Michigan 
Mining School extends through forty-five weeks of the year, a 
good student can obtain his degree in three or four years, de- 
pending upon the question of whether he remains during the 
entire forty-five weeks each year or for only the first thirty- 
four weeks, or, also, whether he wishes his course to be largely 
of practical or theoretical work. 

At the present time this institution has announced sixty- 
five different subjects or studies from which the pupil can 
make up his eighteen or twenty-two full courses, only one of 
these full courses being of required work. In a required sys- 
tem of study the pupil can be carried over all the subjects that 
experience considers necessary for the successful prosecution 
of his future profession, but this is always done at the expense 
of thoroughness, and it pays no, or but little attention to the 
individuality of every student or to the rapidly increasing 
specialization of work in every subject. It gains breadth, but 
it is at the expense of depth. 

In an elective system the individuality of the student, the 
specialization of work in modern times and the limitations of 


228 Tie American Geologitsé. October, 1895 


human capacity are all considered. It loses in breadth, but it 
gains in the greater interest and consequently greater depth 
of the work done. 

Much can be said in favor of both systems, as the writer 
knows from long experience with both; but there is one point 
that ought to be the controlling factor in every engineering 
school in deciding what it will do for the future. If the signs 
of the times and the history of education are read aright this 
is true and certain, that whether we like the elective principle 
or not, whether we are willing to adopt it or not, every engi- 
neering or technical school in the land must and will adopt 
it in its entirety, sooner or later, or else perish. It needs no 
Daniel to read the handwriting all over our walls. 


ROCK HILL, LONG ISLAND, N. Y. 


By JoHn Bryson, Eastport, L. I. 
(Plate XII.) 


Rock hill derives its name from a huge boulder which 
crowns the summit of the ridge—the terminal moraine of 
geologists—about two miles north of the village of Eastport, 
on the Great South bay. 

The boulder, though less than half its original size, is stilk 
a very respectable erratic, as may be seen by the picture ac- 
companying this paper. It isa block of feldspathic granite, 
and the present measurement is about 50 by 20 feet. Judg- 
ing from the size of the hole, which is partially seen to the 
left of the rock in the picture, from which the rock has been 
quarried, it must have been originally more than 125 by 20 
feet. A good deal also has been blasted from the face of the 
boulder; one of the drill holes is visible at the feet of the 
figure on the top of the erratic. 

Although exposed to the blasts from the ocean and the 
weathering of many centuries, some faint lines of glacial 
strive can still be detected on the upper surface of this erratic 
block. 

The moraine at this point is very fluviatile in character, 
only a few inches of loam covering the water-worn material, 
mostly quartz pebbles, It would seem at first as if the huge 
boulder had been dropped by floating ice, but a study of all 
the phenomena connected with it hardly permits this inter- 
pretation. It is not reasonable to suppose that icebergs would 


Rock Hill, Long Island, N. ¥.—Bryson. 229 


have unloaded all their burden along the line of the ter- 
minal moraine, as no erratics of any size are found on the 
southern plain. Some of the advocates of floating ice have 
suggested that bergs would naturally become stranded on the 
higher elevations; and the absence of boulders between the 
two moraines seems to give weight to this suggestion, but as 
all the erratics have come from the north, why is it that the 
bergs which carried them did not become stranded on the 
northern moraine, the more elevated of the two? It is true 
that the boulders are more abundant on the north side of the 
island, but that some of them escaped gives us reason to sup- 
pose that a few would have been carried beyond the southern 
ridge, if floating ice was the means of transportation. That 
none were deposited in the valley between remains a mystery, 
no matter what theory we adopt; but the phenomenon is not 
peculiar to Long Island alone, as it has been noted in other 
glacial regions. 

On the west end of the island, boulders, as a general thing, 
lie scattered in the valleys as well as on the ridges. It is only 
when we enter the Peconic depression, about opposite Port 
Jefferson, that the absence of boulders becomes conspicuous. 
This fact has led some glacialists to believe that the two 
ridges, separated by the Peconic valley, represent two distinct 
ice-sheets, but the present writer, after several years of care- 
ful study, can see no evidence of more than one. The con- 
nection of old river channels, with their effect on the whole 
contour of the island, precludes the dual theory; for that the 
streams flowing under the ice-sheet and advancing with it 
from the mainland had a great influence, not only in forming 
the valleys, but in giving shape to the hills, there can be no 
question, as I have tried to show in my paper on “The Ups 
and Downs of Long Island.”* 

The fact has been noted that opposite to the bay depres- 
sions, on the north side of the island, the terminal moraine 
becomes more broken and the glacial detritus is washed out 
in front of it and shaped into hummocky ridges or kames. To 
the north of Rock hill, on the sound, is the Wading river in- 
dentation, which cuts through the northern moraine, and the 
old glacial channels can be traced into the ponds and marshes 
of the Peconic valley. 


* Am. GEOLOGIST, vol. xv, pp. 188-192, March. 1895. 


230 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


It may be, as Prof. James D. Dana has somewhere sug- 
gested, that some of the boulders lie buried in the bottom of 
these ponds and marsh lands; but this is very doubtful, as 
erratics are absent on the higher intervening portions of land, 
at least so far as I have been able to observe. I have been 
over the ground on foot several times, and between Manor and 
Wading River, a distance of six miles, not a single large er- 
ratic was seen. 

The island at this point is nearly fourteen miles in width. 
On leaving Eastport on the south you pass across a plain of 
stratified sand and gravel, covered with brush and stunted 
pines. About two miles this side of Manor, which is halfway 
between Eastport and Wading River, erratic blocks become 
quite plentiful, especially along the railroad track; and they 
grow larger and more abundant until the Manor station is- 
reached. North of this, as you near the Peconic river, the 
boulders begin to disappear again, until the second moraine is 
reached about a mile and a half this side of the village of 
Wading River. The journey is very tiresome, as the road is 
a bed of loose white sand, with. here and there a patch of clay 
and coarse gravel. The valley, however, consists chiefly of 
ponds and marshy depressions, as already stated. 

From the terminus of the Port Jefferson branch of the Long 
Island railroad to the sound the hillsides are covered with 
huge boulders, nearly all from the same parent rock as the 
Rock hill erratic. Some of them doubtless contain more cubic 
feet, but none of them are so impressive in appearance. 

It would be interesting to know if any of these large boul- 
ders were dropped in the bottom of this part of the sound, 
which is nearly opposite to New Haven, Conn. If none could 
be found, it would show that the boulders must have been dis- 
tributed along certain lines or loops. 

During my visits to Wading River I could detect no trap- 
rock blocks among the boulders: but they are found about 
two miles east of this point, and also on the southern moraine 
east of Rock hill, on the Culverton road. 

The old channels of the Wading river depression unite, and 
seemingly end, with the Peconic river; but during the glacial 
floods the streams must have penetrated the terminal moraine 
at and in the vicinity of Manor, for we find the old channels 


THE AMERICAN (FHOLOGIST, Vou. XVI. PLATE XII. 


W.S°BURN, 


BOULDER ON THE SUMMIT OF ROCK HILL, LONG ISLAND. 


Rock Hill, Long Island, N. Y¥.—Bryson. 2311 


indenting the ridge in many places. The Manor branch of 
the Long Island railroad runs through one of these waterways, 
with only a slight gradient from north to south. Very little 
cutting or filling in had to be done along this part of the 
route. We find that most of the old roads crossing the island 
run through these natural depressions in the terminal moraine. 

It would never be suspected, perhaps, that this break in the 
ridge at Manor had anything to do in forming the river chan- 
nel which is crossed by the south side railroad between Cen- 
ter and East Moriches; yet there is no doubt that a former 
connection existed. The writer has lately followed this de- 
pression up from the railroad to the ridge, and was surprised 
to find it uniting with other old channels that branch out from 
the Manor pass. 

Where these breaks occur in the ridge the morainic material 
is generally pushed farther southward, especially between the 
arms of the old watercourses. Thus we find Rock hill coming 
down to within three miles of the bay, so that the boulder can 
be seen from the railroad at Eastport, if one knows where to 
look for it. 

To the right of the picture can be seen one of the old river 
channels that broke through the moraine at this point when 
the glacial streams prevailed. Standing on the ridge by the 
boulder, one can see the course of the natural depression cross- 
ing the frontal plain to the Little Setuck river where it enters 
the bay. North of the Manor branch of the railroad where it 
unites with the main line, the channel is perfectly dry. South 
of it the water begins to percolate through the sand, and the 
swamp and marsh lands of the south side begin. A noteworthy 
kame is here developed and is referred to in ‘The Ups and 
Downs of Long Island,” already mentioned. 

The main branch of the Setuck river is crossed by the rail- 
road a little farther east, and the original swamp lands, from 
which it had its rise, are covered with a beautiful sheet of 
water at Tuthill’s mill. The old channel, however, of which 
the chart of the U. S. Coast Survey fails to give any proper 
idea, has been followed up by the writer through a tangled 
mass of brush to a large basin-shaped depression known as 
“Terrell’s Hole.” The channel becomes perfectly dry about a 
mile north of the railroad, and so is the kettle-hole depression ; 


232 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


yet no doubt a glacial stream at one time plunged into it, and 
the Eastport and Riverhead road seems to follow the old line 
of drainage. 

On the north side of the moraine there is a beautiful sheet 
of water known as Great pond, nearly as large as lake Ron- 
konkoma and similar in origin. This pond and Terrell’s Hole 
were doubtless at one time connected. How this connection 
could have taken place without a change of level we are at 
present unable to explain, but there is no evidence of oscilla- 
tion, at least since the Ice age. It would seem as if the ma- 
terial was taken out of Terrell’s Hole and dumped on the 
ridge near by to form Osborn’s hill, which is said to be 2938 
feet above sea level. 

It is a peculiar geographical feature of the island that the 
highest elevations rise along the line of these old watercourses. 
Dr. F. J. H. Merrill, in his paper on the “Geology of Long Is- 
land,” has noted this fact, although he fails, we think, to un- 
derstand its true significance. After referring to some of the 
higher hills, he says: “From these instances it will be seen 
that the areas of high elevation bear a very marked geograph- 
ical relation to the deep indentations of the coast. That this 
relation is due to glacial action seems more than probable, 
and it can scarcely be an accidental coincidence that the 
highest hills on the island should be in line with the deepest 
bays on the northern coast and that the course of these bays 
should coincide with that of the glacier.”’* Dr. Merrill thinks 
that he sees in this phenomenon a confirmation of his ice-lobe 
theory, that is, he holds that the bay indentations have been 
plowed out by projecting spurs of ice, and that the higher ele- 
vations referred to are the result of lateral thrusts. A careful 
study of all the drift phenomena on the island will hardly 
bear out this interpretation. The present writer, in previous 
papers in the AMprican Gro Loaist and other publications, has 
tried to show that not only the principal morainic ridges, but 
also the kames and the so-called sea beaches along the south- 
ern coast of the island were affected by glacial currents. On 
the beach opposite Eastport and Moriches the pebbles washed 
out by the waves of the sea are the same in character as those 
we find in the banks along the Long Island railroad, or on the 


eae eae ia ze 
*Annals of the New York Academy of Science, vol. ut, p. 360, Nov. 7; 
1884. 


Geological Society and A. A. A. S. Meetings —Upham. 233 


summit of Rock hill, and they must have been brought there 
by rivers flowing from the mainland. I find a confirmation of 
this in a recent English publication, where a writer says: 
“Where pebbly beaches or cobble bars exist on ocean shores, 
they are generally near or at the debouchement of ancient or 
modern channels.’’* 

The view from Rock hill is extensive and very beautiful. 
The Great South bay, with its fringe of beach and the ocean 
beyond, presents a delightful picture. In a clear day Fire 
Island lighthouse, nearly thirty miles away, can be discerned 
with the unaided eye. The vast frontal plain, with its wal- 
derness of tangled brush, stretches out on either hand as far 
as the eye can see, giving a wild grandeur to the scene. To- 
ward the east the moraine sweeps with a graceful curve to the 
Shinnecock range, whose brown hills are seen in the distance. 
Behind us the undulating ground tells of walls of ice and riv- 
ers of water, when the Ice King had sway; and on the crest 
of the huge boulder were written certain still legible lines of 
the history of his powerful reign. 


GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND AMERICAN ASSOCI- 
ATION MEETINGS. 


By WARREN UPHAM, Cleveland, Ohio. 
GEOLOGICAL SocrETY OF AMERICA. 

The seventh summer meeting of the Geological Society of 
America was held in Springfield, Mass., on Tuesday and 
Wednesday, August 27th and 28th, 1895, under the presidency 
of Prof. N. S. Shaler, with an attendance of about forty fel- 
lows and friends of the Society. The meeting was in the 
beautiful new building of the Art Museum, then used for the 
first time. Dr. William Rice, secretary of the Library Asso- 
ciation of Springfield, gave a cordial address of welcome. Me- 
morial mention was made of Profs. James D. Dana and Henry 
B. Nason, fellows of the Society who have died since the last 
meeting; and biographic sketches commemorative of their 
work will be presented at the winter meeting. Eleven new 
fellows were announced as elected by the recent vote of the 
Society, namely, S. Prentiss Baldwin, Cleveland, Ohio, O. C. 
Farrington, Chicago, Ill., G. P. Grimsley, Columbus, Ohio, F. 
P. Gulliver, Norwich, Conn., J. B. Hatcher, Princeton, N. J.. 


234 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


Edward B. Mathews, Baltimore, Md., John C. Merriam, Berke- 
ley, Cal., H. B. C. Nitze, Baltimore, Md., F. L. Ransome, Berke- 
ley, Cal., Charles Schuchert, Washington, D. C., and Joseph 
A. Tatf, Washington, D.C. Philadelphia is to be the place 
of the next meeting, during the Christmas holidays. 

Previous to this session, an excursion of a week’s duration 
was taken, beginning at Pittsfield, Mass., and passing Hins- 
dale, Great Barrington, Mt. Washington, Mt. Race, Bear 
mountain, Salisbury, Canaan, Middlefield, Chester, Greenfield, 
Turner’s Falls and Bernardston, all in Massachusetts, to South 
Vernon, Vt., under the leadership of Profs. B. K. Emerson 
and W. H. Hobbs. Sixteen fellows and invited friends par- 
ticipated in this most enjoyable observation and study of the 
metamorphic rocks and Triassic area of western Massachu- 
setts and the Connecticut valley, namely, George H. Barton, 
Boston, Mass., Miss Florence Bascom, Bryn Mawr, Pa., A. C. 
Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass., W. B. Clark, Baltimore, Md., 
Miss Charlotte F. Emerson, Amherst, Mass., O. C. Farrington, 
Chicago, Ill., C. H. Hitchcock, Hanover, N. H., F. J. H. Mer- 
rill, Albany, N. Y., William Orr, Jr., Springfield, Mass., Chas. 
Palaehe, Berkeley, Cal., Joseph H. Perry, Worcester, Mass., 
William North Rice, Middleton, Conn., Miss Smith, Framing- 
ham, Mass., C. R. Van Hise, Madison, Wis., Lewis G.s West- 
gate, Evanston, Il., and Albert A. Wright, Oberlin, Ohio. The 
party traveled, as convenience dictated, by railroad, by livery 
-arriages, and much afoot, to the localities where the contacts 
of different rock formations, faults and dynamic metamor- 
phism could be best seen. The rich and varying development 
of secondary minerals along the lines of contact and disturb- 
ance was beautifully illustrated. The weather was perfect 
the whole time, with cool nights and mostly mild and clear 
days, having neither rain nor excessive heat. Admiration of 
the visiting geologists was freely expressed for the large area 
of complex crystalline rocks which during the past several 
years Prof. Emerson has mapped in detail for the U.S. Geo- 
logical Survey, going afoot over all parts of a tract of about 
5,000 square miles. 

For notes of this excursion and of the meetings of this So- 
ciety and the Association, aiding much in the preparation of 
the present report, the AmeriIcaAN GeroLocist is indebted to 
Profs. A. A. Wright, I. C. White, J. F. Kemp (in his article on 


Geological Society and A. A. A. S. Meetings —Upham. 235 


fo Aa f 
‘ 


the Geological Society meeting, in Science, vol. 1, pp. 277- 
288, Sept. 6th), and to numerous authors who have kindly 
supplied abstracts of their papers. 

Nineteen papers were presented before the Geological Soci- 
ety, but in several instances the authors were absent and their 
papers were therefore read only by title, for securing an early 
adjournment Wednesday noon. The following afternoon was 
spent in an excursion by thirty-seven fellows and their friends, 
with Prof. Emerson as guide, to Mt. Holyoke, to see contacts 
of the trap and sandstone and other features of the Triassic 
series. These papers in their order on the program, were as 
follows: 

On the Glacial Deposits of southwestern Alberta, in the vicinity of 
the Rocky mountains. GrEorGrE M. Dawson and R. G. McConneE tt, 
Ottawa, Canada. (Read by title.) This paper presents the facts ob- 
tained during a recent examination of the glacial deposits of a portion 
of the southwestern part of the Canadian Great Plains, in the foot-hills 
and along the base of the Rocky mountains, where phenomena of par- 
ticular interest are displayed in connection with the relations of the 
western and eastern drift (Cordilleran and Laurentide). A brief sum- 
mary of previous observations is followed by a description of sections 
along two main lines of approach to the mountains at relatively low 
levels and by an examination of the conditions surrounding the glacial 
deposits at the highest levels, found in the form of terraces with rolled 
shingle at 5,300 feet on the Porcupine hills. In conclusion, the observed 
facts are briefly discussed, attention being practically confined to this 
particular region. [An article on the glacial drift of the same district 
by the same authors appears in the last number of the Journal of Geol- 
ogy (vol. 111, pp. 507-511, July-Aug., 1895), in which the Kansan, Iowan 
and Wisconsin glacial formations are recognized in Alberta and Assini- 
boia, while for a still earlier till of western or Cordilleran derivation, 
with the associated Saskatchewan gravels, the name Albertan forma- 
tion is proposed. The Kansan and Iowan till deposits of this region 
bear testimony, by the interblending of western and eastern drift, that 
the Cordilleran and Laurentide ice-sheets then became confluent along 
the east side of the Rocky mountains. } 


The Champlain Glacial Epoch. C. H. Hircucock, Hanover, N. H. 
The term Champlain was first applied by the author in 1861 to the ma- 
rine deposits and associated fluviatile sands resting upon the glacial 
drift in the Champlain and St. Lawrence basins. Fifteen years earlier 
C. B. Adams pointed out the distinction which has become embodied 
in the terms Leda clay and Sawicava sand. These deposits contain 240 
species of fossils in the St. Lawrence valley, nearly all of which are iden- 
tical with forms now living off the Labrador coast. The same is true 
likewise of the 121 species catalogued from the corresponding deposits 


236 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


at Portland, Maine. The preglacial southern limit of this boreal fauna 
seems to have been a little north of Boston; but its presence later was 
indicated also at Nantucket island, in the upper shell bed of Sankaty 
Head, where the summer temperature was fifteen degrees (Fahr.) colder 
than in the lower beds. 

Northern areas were depressed more than those toward the south, the 
vertical extent of the Champlain subsidence, below the present altitude, 
having been 50 to 75 feet near New York city, 300 to 400 feet in Vermont 
and 560 feet at Montreal. This leads to the belief that the stratified 
clays in the valleys of our northern rivers, like the Connecticut, were 
deposited during this epoch; and the occurrence of Arctic plants in 
them strengthens this view. At the same time the Laurentide, White, 
Green and Adirondack mountains were covered by local glaciers which 
sent bergs into the enlarged gulf of St. Lawrence, giving toit a severely 
cold climate. Ice floes and bergs from Arctic regions must also have 
entered the Champlain sea, as many of the smaller bergs borne south- 
ward by the Labrador current do now: but far more abundantly than 
at present, because of the greater depth of the water in the Strait of 
Belle Isle. 

Marine submergence is suggested for all the area of the great Lauren- 
tian lakes, as far as to lake Superior and Minnesota, by the presence 
there of still living maritime plants, fish,and crustacea. These plants 
and animals appear to require the former presence of the ocean to ac- 
count for their geographic distribution. The glacial conditions of the 
Champlain epoch would correspond to the history of the Canadian Ice 
Age, as that is presented by Sir William Dawson, who asks only for lo- 
cal glaciers, moderate submergence in the St. Lawrence basin, and an 
Arctic current, to explain all the phenomena which he has observed. 
Hence the advocates respectively of icebergs and of land ice as the chief 
agency of formation of the drift may harmonize their views by conced- 
ing, each to the other, an additional cold epoch. By doubling the Ice 
Age, each side can retain its own pet theory and yet allow its opponent 
the same privilege. 

The occurrence of 55 species of temperate fossil shells in the till of 
drumlins near Boston proves the existence of a mild preglacial climate 
and of an ensuing ice-sheet extensive enough to pile up the largest of 
our grand moraines and drumlins, probably amassing these marginal 
and submarginal drift deposits during the Champlain epoch. 

The Mecklenburgian stage in the Glacial period, as described by Gei- 
kie for Europe, has the following points in common with the Champlain 
epoch in America: first, marine fossiliferous clays, with Arctic mol- 
lusea; second, fluviatile clays, with leaves of Arctic plants; and third, 
the deformations of the earth’s crust which have been studied by De 
Geer both in Sweden and North America. If the Mecklenburgian stage 
is necessarily the equivalent of the Wisconsin, the moraines of all the 
northern United States and Canada may be referable to the Champlain 
epoch of land depression and consequent departure of the ice-sheet, 
which was represented finally by many local glaciers. 


Geological Society and A. A. A. S. Meetings —Upham. 237 


Much discussion followed this paper. Prof. WHirrz had wanted still 
water, as of the Champlain submergence, to explain the terraces of the 
Monongahela valley. Prof. Kemp cited the barrenness of the clays in 
the Hudson valley as to all organic remains, excepting a few diatoms, 
and remarked that the variety of fossils is small in the Champlain val- 
ley. Prof. J. W. Spencer called attention to the moderate elevation of 
the Laurentide mountains, so-called, and noted other topographic fea- 
tures of the St. Lawrence basin. Prof. Davis said that a criterion of a 
marine terrace would be steady uniformity of level, not varying with 
the inclination of the stream, and that the Pennsylvania and West Vir- 
ginia terraces are thereby shown to be of fluvial instead of marine ori- 
gin. President SHALER suggested that the lack of fossils might be 
caused by the decay of organic matter in the clays, which would develop 
gases and destroy them. Prof. HrrcHcock, in closing the discussion, 
said it was hard for him to understand why the Hudson valley and that 
of lake Champlain are not more alike in this respect, since no high bar- 
rier separated them. The view taken by Upham gives to the land about 
the mouth of the Hudson even a somewhat higher altitude throughout 
the Champlain epoch than now, so that a glacial lake in the Hudson 
and Champlain valleys outflowed there to the ocean; but he thinks that 
the Hudson valley had become much uplifted northward from the 
Champlain depression before the continuing glacial retreat admitted 
the sea to the St. Lawrence and Champlain valleys. 


Drumlins and Marginal Moraines of Ice-sheets. Warren Upnam, 
Cleveland, Ohio. (Read by title.) Field studies of drumlins in New 
Hampshire, northeastern Massachusetts and New York, and of mar- 
ginal moraines in New England, Long Island, Minnesota, Iowa, the 
Dakotas, and Manitoba, supply explanations of their origin from previ- 
ously englacial drift. The drumlins are shown to have been amassed 
from a sheet of till which had become superglacial by ablation, but 
which afterward by glacial overflow became enclosed in the ice-sheet 
and finally was heaped in these oval or more elongated smooth hills 
of subglacial till. The moraines are referred to pauses in the Cham- 
plain recession of the ice-sheet, when its currents were accelerated by 
steeper gradients and much warmer. climate than during the earlier 
stages of ice accumulation and maximum glaciation. Both in North 
America and Europe the marginal moraines and drumlins are attribu- 
ted chiefly to the Champlain epoch, that is, the short and definite 
closing part of the Ice age. 


The Glacial Genesee lakes. H. lL. Fatrrcniytp, Rochester N. Y. The 
direction, inclination and extent of the Genesee valley made possible the 
production, during the retreat of the ice-sheet. of a succession of glacial 
lakes with different outlets. The paper described, with the aid of a map, 
(1) the present topography and hydrography of the valley, (2) the an 
cient drainage channels, (3) the complex lacustrine phenomena. Ten 
stages in the gradual uncovering of this area from the ice-sheet were 
traced, of which the eighth, with beaches and deltas at 900 to 910 feet 
above the sea, was regarded as the time of the glacial lake Warren; the 


238 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


ninth was that of glacial lake Iroquois; and the tenth is the present 
time. 

This paper was discussed by I. C. Wuirr, N. S. SHauErR, J. W. 
SPENCER, W. M. Davis, and H.S. Wriurams. 


The Geology of Old Hampshire county in Massachusetts. B. K. Eu- 
ERSON, Amherst, Mass. Twenty minutes were first given to a descrip- 
tion, with detailed maps, of the crystalline rocks which form the west- 
ern and eastern borders of the Connecticut valley, in which Springfield 
is situated, for the use of the members of the Society on excursions in 
the vicinity. 

Again, twenty minutes were occupied in a description of the Triassic 
strata of this valley and the history of their origin, involving the filling 
of the basin with sands and gravels, the outflow of trap and the erup- 
tion of ashes, closing with the formation of a series of small voleanic 
cones, and followed by the upfolding and erosion of the whole. This 
part of the paper was illustrated by maps and models. 

Lastly, in the third twenty minutes of the hour, the Glacial and Post- 
glacial history of the region was reviewed, with exhibition of detailed 
maps of the glacial lakes and river courses antedating and following the 
formation of the great series of lakes which occupied the present Con- 
necticut river valley, and maps of the later terraces formed in the old 
lake beds. The way in which the alluvial plains are made up of con- 
fluent islands was explained; and attention was directed to the distinc- 
tion between filled and unfilled lakes, the old Springfield lake having 
become filled, while the Hadley lake remained unfilled. The further 
facts were noted that tributaries run down directly across the old bot- 
tom of unfilled lakes, but when they come upon the broad terrace flat 
or meadow there appears a marked repulsion of the tributary from the 
main stream, so that they flow parallel with each other for long dis- 
tances, after which the affluent finally turns and enters the trunk river 
at right angles. This was explained by the formation of islands in the 
main stream off the mouth of the tributury, so that the latter had to 
flow around the islands down stream one after another, thus running 
parallel a long way before reaching its mouth. 

The many oxbows and big bends of the Connecticut, and of its tribu- 
taries, across the bottom of unfilled lakes, were adduced as indications 
of the influence of the earth’s rotation. 


Notes on the Relations of Lower Members of the Coastal Plain Series 
in South Carolina. N.H. Darron, Washington, D. C. (Read by 
title.) The formations below the Eocene buhrstone, which were in- 
cluded in the Eocene by Tuomey, have been found to be Potomac. 
Some of their features and their relations to the marine Cretaceous are 
described. 

Resumé of general Stratigraphic Relations in the Atlantic Coastal 
Plain from New Jersey to South Carolina. N.H. Darron. (Read by 
title.) A series of sections was announced to accompany this paper, 
showing the distribution and variations of the principal coastal plain 
formations. 


Geological Society and A. A. A. S. Meetings —Upham. 239 


Cretaceous Plants from Martha's Vineyard. Results obtained from 
an examination of the material collected by David White in 1889. Ar- 
THUR Hoxiick, New Brighton, N. Y. At the New York meeting of this 
Society in December, 1889, Mr. David White read a paper on this sub- 
ject which was published in abstract in the proceedings of that meet- 
ing. Mr. White subsequently published a more extended account in 
the American Journal of Science for February, 189), and figured a few 
of the specimens which were most readily to be identified as Cretaceous 
species. These papers were based upon material collected by him and 
Mr. Lester F. Ward during the summer of 1889. Their object was prin- 
cipally to demonstrate the occurrence of Cretaceous strata in that is- 
land, hence only sufficient material for that purpose was utilized. 
During the present year all the material which was collected has been 
turned over to Mr. Hollick for examination and report, in addition to 
which are a few specimens which he collected in 1893. All these col- 
lections indicate a flora parallel with that of the Amboy clays in New 
Jersey. The fossil leaves are found in concretionary sandstones which 
occur with the clays of Martha’s Vineyard in somewhat uncertain rela- 
tions; so that it is very desirable, if possible, to obtain such fossils also 
in the clays. The difficulty of preserving the leaf impressions hitherto 
found in the clays has prevented their study. 


On the Eocene Fauna of the Middle Atlantic Slope. Wriutam B. 
Cxiark, Baltimore, Md. According to the author’s studies, the Eocene 
fossils of New Jersey and the country southward to North Carolina 
should not be referred, as formerly has been done, to one, or a part of 
one, of the seven divisions of the Eocene based on the Gulf localities. 
The glauconitic beds were of slow but continuous growth, not burdened 
with detritus, and 200 feet of this greensand formation may easily be 
the time equivalent of 2,000 feet of Gulf deposits. Prof. Clark has 
found 120 species of fossils instead of the previously known 25, and they 
generally range well through the whole of the series from bottom to top, 
though some are characteristically lower or upper. They agree well 
with those found in both the Lignitic and the Claiborne beds, at least: 
and many of them probably endured through the entire Eocene period. 


Arrangement and Development of Plates in the Melonitide. R. T. 
Jackson and T. A. Jaccar, Cambridge, Mass. This paper consisted 
in a statement of the arrangement of the plates in these spheroidal ech- 
inoderms, and especially of the way in which new rows of plates are in- 
troduced and die out. Whereas it had formerly been supposed that in 
the interambulacral areas new rows of plates originate near either pole, 
and spread meridionally, meeting in the equator, Dr. Jackson showed 
that new rows originate near the oral pole only, often in a heptagonal 
plate, the rest of the plates being six-sided; that the rows are extended 
toward the genital plates at the aboral pole, where the crowding of the 
plates gives them an irregular arrangement; and that new rows are in 
troduced alternately upon the right and left sides of the interambulac- 
ral area, beginning near the oral pole and near the central meridian of 


240 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


an interambulacral space. The two boundary rows of an interambulac- 
ral area are derived from the two initial plates of that area which be- 
long to the peristomial ring: while the intermediate meridional rows up 
to the number of six (the total number af rows thus being eight) origi- 
nate in the place and manner here described. 

Prof. ALpHEus Hyarr commented on this paper, that it is a very val- 
uable contribution to the life history of the family and the class, and 
also to the general subject of evolution. 


On Asbestos and Asbestiform Minerals. GkorGE P. MERRILL, Wash- 
ington, D. C. (Read by title.) The author treats of the composition, 
mode of occurrence and mineralogical nature of the various minerals 
commercially grouped under the name of asbestos, and attempts to ex- 
plain their fibrous structure as due to abnormal elongation of the min- 
eral parallel to the vertical axis, the individual fibers being in part at 
least bounded by prismatic faces, that is, by the planes of easiest cleav- 
age. The primary cause of this elongation is believed to be mainly dy- 
namical, a result of shearing and other earth movements such as are . 
productive of uralitic hornblendes, schistosity, or even platy structure 
and slickensided surfaces where actual fracturing takes place. 


Pre-Cambrian Volcanoes in southern Wisconsin. Wiutram H. 
Hosss, Madison, Wis. A preliminary report on a group of isolated 
areas of igneous rocks which protrude through the Potsdam sandstone 
in the valley of the Fox river, Wisconsin. Some of these areas repre- 
sent local outflows of rhyolitic lava which exhibits superb examples of 
spherulitic, perlitic, fluxion, and breccial structures. The originally 
glassy ground mass of these rocks has become devitrified—hence they 
are apo-rhyolites, and they have been subjected to dynamic metamor- 
phism and subsequent infiltration of silica. They are intruded by dikes 
of both basic and acid rocks. (Specimens and photographs of sections 
were exhibited.) 


A Geological Sketch of the Sierra Tlayacac, in the State of Morelos, 
Mexico. A. Caprn Grit, Ithaca, N. Y. The Sierra Tlayacac, some 
six miles long, situated on the south side of the great fault-line des- 
cribed by Felix and Lenk, consists of a projecting group of mountain 
tops in the midst of the Morelos plain. The plain is formed by the lava 
streams and ejectamenta of Popocatepetl or neighboring volcanic vents. 
The tops of the nearly submerged mountains show that the folding and 
elevation of the Cretaceous (Caprina?) limestone was accompanied or 
followed by the deposition of a limestone conglomerate, in the pebbles 
of which are also Caprina (?) fossils. Absence of pebbles derived from 
eruptive rocks indicates that the voleanic activity of the region was 
subsequent to extensive folding and erosion. 

The limestone agglomerate is overlain by an acid eruptive, and both 
rocks are cut by numerous quartz-pyroxene dikes which show a close 
‘‘consanguinity’’ with the recent extrusions of Popocatepetl. The very 
striking metamorphism produced by these dikes corroborates the view 
that there is little, if any, migration of material from the intruded mass 
into the metamorphosed rock. 


Geological Society and A, A. A. S. Meetings—Upham. 241 


Heated water and steam would appear to be the principal agents of 
metamorphism, rather than heat alone, since the great distance to 
which recrystallization has reached seems dependent on the porous 
character of the rock before alteration. Garnet, vesuvianite, wollaston- 
ite and pyroxene are among the minerals developed, and large crystals 
have been found at a distance of several hundred feet from the contact. 

Prof. EMERSON, in discussion, complimented the author on his having 
modestly refrained from proposing new names for these eruptive rocks. 


Syenite-gneiss (leopard rock) from the Apatite Region of Ottawa 
county, Canada. C. H. Gorpvon, Beloit, Wis. (Read by title.) The 
rock here described appeared in the exhibit of the Canadian Geological 
Survey, at the World’s Fair, under the title of ‘‘Concretionary Vein- 
stone,” from the apatite region. It consists of irregular ellipsoidal or 
ovoid masses of feldspar, with some quartz, separated by narrow, an- 
astomosing bands of interstitial material consisting chiefly of green pyr- 
oxene. The ellipsoidal masses are of all sizes up to two or three inches 
in cross section and several inches long. The field study at High Rock 
mine, Ottawa county, shows the rock to occur in dikes intersecting the 
pyroxenites and quartzites. In some places the rock is very coarse, 
with no indications of the ellipsoidal structure, while in others it is a 
distinctly banded gneiss whose identity with the ellipsoidal rock is evi- 
dent from the anastomosing of the augite bands on a cross fracture face. 
Ordinarily the rock has very little quartz and corresponds to a pyrox- 
ene-syenite, but in some places the quartz is much more abundant,thus 
allying it to the pyroxene-granites. In view of its gneissic structure and 
usually sparing amount of quartz, the rock is here referred to generally 
as syenite-gneiss, though grading locally into forms which may more 
fittingly be regarded as granite-gneiss. 

The presence of a distinct gneissic microstructure, taken in connec- 
tion with other facts, appears to establish the conclusion that the pecu- 
liar ellipsoidal structure is due to orographic forces acting upon a 
coarsely crystallized rock in which the principal constituents (feldspar 
and pyroxene) are more or less irregularly distributed. The breaking 
of the rock under pressure has been attended by the recrystallization of 
the augite and other constituents along the original fracture planes, 
which were probably, in part, determined by the arrangement of the 
two chief constituents. 

The points of interest brought out in the study are: (1) that this pe- 
culiar distribution of the pyroxene is due to dynamic processes, (2) the 
importance to be attached to the process of solution and recrystalliza- 
tion in the formation of gneisses, (3) the significance of the original 
character of the rock with reference to the product derived from it by 
dynamic processes, and the differences resulting from variations in the 
extent to which it has been affected by orographic agencies, and (4) the 
evidence showing the derivation of a gneiss out of a syenite, and estab 
lishing the term syenite-gneiss as the name of a distinct rock type. 


The Titaniferous Iron Ores of the Adirondacks. J. ¥. Kemp, New 
York City. The paper opened with a brief statement of the characters 


949 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


of the two kinds of iron ores which are afforded by the region, the mer- 
chantable magnetites and the titaniferous. The former are in gneisses; 
the latter in the gabbros and anorthosites of the Norian, which are be- 
lieved to be intruded through the gneisses. A list of localities of the 
titaniferous ores was given and the distinction was made between the 
smaller bodies which are, so far as can be seen, basic developments of 
gabbro, and the enormous ore bodies at the old Adirondack Iron Works 
in the heart of the mountains. These latter are in massive anorthosite, 
which is almost entirely formed of large, blue-black crystals of labra- 
dorite. The largest ore body, which is the one crossing Lake Sanford, 
contains numerous included labradorite crystals, each of which is sur- 
rounded by a reaction rim 5-10 mm. across. It is further noted that the 
wall rocks show no signs of the widespread crushing that is exhibited 
in the general ‘‘mortar-structure”’ of the Adirondack and Canadian an- 
orthosites, but are plutonic rocks, free from evidences of dynamic met- 
amorphism. The argument is then made that the ores are segregations 
from an igneous magma formed during the process of cooling and crys- . 
tallization. In conclusion the speaker gave some notes on recent at- 
tempts to utilize the titaniferous ores that bid fair to be successful. 

In discussion, Prof. Van Hise mentioned the similar bodies of titanif- 
erous ores in the gabbros of lake Superior, adding, however, that there 
had been some infiltration of iron oxide since their formation. 


The Decomposition of Rocks in Brazil. J.C. Branner, Stanford 
University, Cal. The deep decay of rocks in Brazil is notorious, though 
but few observations have been published on the subject. The present 
paper embraces the results of the author’s observations made during 
the eight years he lived and traveled in that country, together with the 
statements of other geologists. The evidences of deep rock decay are 
found in railway cuts and tunnels, excavations in hills in Rio de Janeiro 
for buildings and for a reservoir, deep mines in the gold region of Minas 
Geraes, in enormous gullies of recent origin, and in numerous landslides. 
Many instances of decomposition to a depth of more than 100 feet are 
known, and in some of the old gold mines the rocks are soft to a depth 
of more than 390 feet. This decomposition seems to be widespread, 
though not universal, in Brazil. 

Exfoliation is a common feature, and is not confined to boulders: 
massive rock hills and mountains exfoliate in the same way asthe boul- 
ders of decomposition. Some of the peculiarities of the topography in 
the granite and gneiss regions are due to this method of decomposition. 
Talus slopes are very rare. Massive rocks sometimes weather into flu- 
ted surfaces, having steep-sided trenches and ravines that run straight 
down the rock faces. 

The chief mechanical agency promoting rock decay is change of tem- 
perature within a range of about 100° Fahr. But little direct work is 
done by this agency, and its chief importance lies in the fact that it 
opens crevices that admit the chemical agencies of decay, gases, water 
and acids, which destroy the rock rapidly. Color is believed to be of 
some influence in this connection, as the black crystalline rocks are sel- 


Geological Society and A, A, A. S. Meetings— Upham. 243: 


dom or never found naturally exposed on account of their more rapid 
absorption of heat. 

Burrowing animals, especially ants and termites, contribute much te 
the chemical agencies of rock decomposition. The soil of Brazil is fairly 
alive with these insects; their burrows penetrate to a depth of ten or 
twelve feet and radiate on all sides. Into these openings they. carry: 
plant food, and the acids from their decay and from the breath of, the 
insects help to hasten the decay of the rocks below. 

Vegetation in the tropics is notoriously abundant and taal the apes 
of so much organic matter in a hot and moist climate produces large 
quantaties of humus acids that attack the rocks into which they are 
carried by the rains. The amount of carbonic acid carried to the earth 
is calculated from determinations of it in rain water and from the rain- 
fall in that country. Nitric acid, produced by electric discharges, falls 
in larger quantities in Brazil than in the temperate regions of the earth. 
The amount of acid to the litre of water has been determined from di- 
rect observations, and this with the rainfall furnishes the data for de- 
termining the total precipitation of nitric acid. 

The annual rain fall of Brazil ranges from about three feet at Rio de 
Janeiro to seven and a half feet at Manaus on the Amazon, and almost 
twelve feet on the mountain near Santos. This great precipitation is 
not distributed throughout the year as it is in temperate regions, but is 
concentrated for the most part within less than six months. The long 
dry season dries the ground out so that enormous cracks are opened in 
places to depths of ten or fifteen feet. Air circulates freely in these 
openings, and when the rains come organic matter in large quantities i is 
washed into the crevices and the acidulated waters reach considerable 
depths very promptly. 


The Bearing of Uniformity on Uniformitarianism. W.M. Davis, 
Cambridge, Mass. When a theory accounts not only for the facts that 
it was made to explain, but as well for a number of facts that were un- 
known at the time of its suggestion, its correctness is doubly confirmed. 
The early British geologists, who proposed to explain the past history of 
the earth by processes of the same order as those in operation to-day, 
had the general problems of denudation and deposition in mind, but 
they knew nothing of several special problems of denudation that are 
encountered in the study of rivers. Even Lyell defended the marine 
origin of the cliffs of the Weald in southeastern England. The doctrine 
of uniformitarianism successfully routed the hypotheses that explained 
valleys as the work of ocean currents during a time of submergence, or 
as the result of fractures in the earth’s crust; but the British school, by 
whom this doctrine was so ably advanced, did not carry it to to the ex- 
treme application of accounting for the migration of river divides and 
the associated adjustment of river courses to rock structures. A fe 
British writers have touched this problem, but none of them have pene- 
trated it. European and American geologists have the chief credit of 
its solution. 

The deepening of young valleys by the ordinary action of streams is & 
comparatively slow process, and the wasting of valley sides under the 


344 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


attack of weather and water is still slower; but the migration of head- 
water divides by the unequal wasting of their slopes is the slowest of 
all. The occurrence of river arrangements that are indisputably due to 
this excessively slow process of migration is therefore strikingly con- 
firmatory of the doctrine of uniformitarianism. The fundamental prin- 
ciples of uniformitarianism are the postulates of the theory by which 
the spontaneous adjustment of river courses to rock structure is ac- 
counted for. The success that has been reached in explaining this class 
of natural phenomena confirms the correctness of the postulates on 
which the explanation is based. 

Prof. EMERsoN, in discussion, cited instances of the robbing of one 
stream’s headwaters by another in the relations of the Housatonic and 
Connecticut divides in western Massachusetts; and President SHALER 
spoke of the influence of continental tilting in bringing about such 
changes of drainage. 


Analysis of Folds. C. R. Van Hist, Madison, Wis. As regards 
movement, three zones in the constitution of the earth were cited, 
namely, an outer zone of fracture, an inner of fracture and flowage, and 
an interior one of flowage alone. The thickness of the upper zone, which 
is characterized by faults, will vary with the rocks. Quartzites and 
limestones, being relatively unyielding, would give the zone great thick- 
ness; but the more yielding shales and schists flow at a small depth. 
Folds are ordinarily considered as simple flexures in two dimensions, 
but in nature folds are compound flexures in three dimensions. The 
analysis of simple folds given by Margerie and Heim was summarized. 
For the sake of simplicity, folds were first treated in two dimensions. A 
composite fold is produced by the combination of various simple folds. 
Composite folds include both normal composite folds and abnormal com- 
posite folds. The genesis of each was discussed and each was classified 
into upright, inclined, and overturned anticlinoria and synclinoria. 

When composite folds are cross folded, these are called complex folds. 
The character and origin of complex folds were discussed. Rules were 
given for observations in regions which are folded in a complex manner, 
and the use of folds in the discovery of unconformity and the secondary 
changes which accompany folding were summarized. 

Prof. Davis, referring to the three zones, asked whether the speaker 
could estimate from the character of the flowage or fracture, shown by 
an eroded fold, whether much or little original burden of rock had been 
removed; and Prof. Vam Hiss, in reply, stated that he thought it could 
be done within reasonably wide limits, as within probably two to five 
thousand feet. 


Conditions and Effects of the Expulsion of Gases from the Interior 
of the Earth. N.S. SHaAvER, Cambridge, Mass. The aim of the paper 
was to show that the phenomena of escape of gases from the earth in 
the case of ordinary springs, in the ejections of water which occur in 
earthquakes, and in the explosions which take place in volcanic erup- 
tions, all rest on the same general basis. The column of ascent is deter- 
rained by the formation of bubbles in substantially the same way. in 


Geological Society and A. A. A. S. Meetings—Upham., 245 


which the action may be seen to take place in any fluid which is charged 
with carbonic acid. The discussion of the temporary springs termed in 
the paper earthquake fountains, or shock fountains, was directed to 
show that in these colums of ejection the law of ascent of the gases is 
essentially the same as that observable where gases pass upwards in 
fluids, a weak line being made by the formation of a bubble which in 
rising induces the formation of other bubbles by diminishing the pres- 
sure along the line of its ascent. : 

Some attention was given to springs formed in the alluvial mud of 
delta deposits; and it was shown that these springs have had their paths 
of escape determined by the gases which impel the waters upward. This 
was noted as particularly plain in the case of the ‘‘mud lump”’ springs 
of deltas. 

‘The main point of the paper was that volcanic outbreaks, being essen- 
tially vapor outbreaks, can be placed in the series with the other groups 
of gas ejections. Observations on an eruption of Vesuvius in 1882 were 
used to show that the exploding vapors escaped in the form of large 
bubbles which were segregated from the lava. Reference was also made 
to the probable influence of this action in the formation of the ‘‘chim- 
neys”’ of ore-bearing veins. 

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 

The American Association for the Advancement of Science 
also met in Springfield, Mass., holding its forty-fourth meet- 
ing from Wednesday, August 28th, to the following Wednes- 
day, September 4th, under the presidency of Prof. E. W. Mor- 
ley, of Cleveland, Ohio. The retiring president,Dr. Daniel 
G. Brinton, was unexpectedly detained in Europe; but his 
address, “The Aims of Anthropology,” was read before a large 
audience on Thursday evening. 

The next evening a public lecture, complimentary to the 
citizens of Springfield, was given by Prof. William M. Davis, 
entitled “Geographic Development of the Connecticut Valley,” 
with lantern illustrations. Three chief features or stages of 
the growth of the New England highlands and this valley 
were noted: first, the old mountain ranges worn down; seec- 
ond, the ‘“monadnocks” left, as remnants of the former moun- 
tain masses, not wholly worn away; third, the slowly uplifted 
highlands and the streams cutting through them. Narrow 
portions of the valley occur where the material cut down by 
the stream is hard, as the trap ridges in some places adjoining 
the Connecticut river; while elsewhere the valley is broad, 
because the rocks are soft and worn away easily, as the Tri- 
assic sandstone. Views similar to those along the Connecti- 


246 The American Geologist. October, 1895. 


cut were also shown of the part of Germany through which 
the Rhine flows, illustrating how that stream likewise has cut 
down its channel as fast as the highland country has been ele- 
vated. 

On Saturday many members of the Association, braving a 
rain storm, went in an excursion to Mt. Holyoke Seminary in 
South Hadley, to Amherst College, and to Smith College in 
Northampton. The very extensive ichnological collection and 
other paleontological, mineralogical and geological collections 
of Amherst College were much admired. Another excursion 
was taken on Tuesday by the geologists, under the leadership 
of Profs. W. M. Davis and Wm. North Rice, to Meriden and 
Southington, Conn., for observation of the Triassic sandstone, 
lava flows, faults, and planes of contact with the older erystal- 
line rocks. 

The enrolled attendance of the meeting numbered 367, and 
the list of 188 new members elected brings the total member- 
ship of the Association up to 1,980. 

Section E (Geology and Geography) held its sessions in the 
Art Museum, with Major Jed. Hotchkiss, of Staunton, Va., 
vice president, and Prof. J. Perrin Smith, of Palo Alto, Cal., 
secretary. The address of Major Hotchkiss, owing to his late- 
ness of arrival, was deferred to Monday afternoon. It was 
entitled, “The Geological Survey of Virginia, 1835-1841. Its 
History and Influence in the Advancement of Geologie Sci- 
ence.” ‘The Virginia survey, chiefly by William B. Rogers, 
preceded that of Pennsylvania by the same geologist with his 
brother, Henry D. Rogers. Virginia, however, failed to pub- 
lish the work that was done. It still is recorded in the fifty 
note-books, besides maps and files of letters, which are now in 
the possession of Major Hotchkiss; and he is preparing a 
typewritten copy of all the important parts of this pioneer 
survey. 

For next year, Prof. Edward D. Cope was elected president 
of the Association; and, in Section E, Prof. Ben. K. Emerson, 
vice president, and Prof: A. C. Gill, of Ithaca, N. Y., seere- 
tary. Buffalo, N. Y., was chosen as the place of the meeting; 
and, after much discussion, its time was decided to be from 
Monday, August 24th, to Friday, the 28th, so that all the 
reading of papers and business shall come during consecutive 


. Geological Society and A. A. A. S. Meetings —Upham, 247 


days of a single week, instead of being interrupted, as hereto- 
fore, by the excursions of Saturday and the rest of Sunday. 
Eighteen papers were read in Section E, as follows: 


The Relations of Primary and Secondary Structures in Rocks. C. R. 
Van Hise, Madison, Wis. Cleavage was distinguished from fissility. 
A slate or a schist may have both, and they may be parallel or inclined 
to each other. The metamorphosed rocks have secondary structure 
imposed upon them, whose lamination rarely corresponds with the bed- 
ding. The difficulties of determining the true thickness of such beds 
is great, and highly exaggerated estimates have often been made in sec- 
tions of the ancient crystalline rocks. 


The Archean and Cambrian rocks of the Green Mountain Range in 
southern Massachusetts. B. K. Emerson, Amherst, Mass. The main 
purpose of the paper was to bring to the notice of the audience a man- 
uscript geological map of the south central portion of Massachusetts 
from the Housatonic valley to the eastern border of Worcester county. 
The author described in some detail several typical outcrops of pre- 
Cambrian rocks which lie along the western rim of the Green Mountain 
belt as it crosses Massachusetts. 

The Hinsdale area was described as one where the pre-Cambrian rocks 
occur in crescentic bands. The oldest rock is the Hinsdale gneiss in the 
center, and this is surrounded by the coarse Hinsdale limestone, the 
Lee gneiss, and the Washington gneiss, in succession. It was shown 
how the unequal wear of the pre-Cambrian formations had produced 
the upper part of the Westford river pass. 

The Tyringham area was described as giving evidence of an old pre- 
Cambrian land with east to west folds beneath the north to south Green 
Mountain folds. Erosion of pre-Cambrian limestones has formed the 
deep East Lee valley and the basins of many small lakes. In the Bear 
Mountain-Monterey system of V-shaped overturned anticlines, each fold 
of a numerous parallel series is bent sharply, so that the front bed may 
be compared to the double concave surface of a railroad snow-plow. 

Tracts of crystalline rocks east of the foregoing, with prevailing north 
to south trend, were briefly characterized, beginning with the pre-Cam- 
brian rocks and ending with the Upper Devonian crystallines of Bern- 
ardston. Attempts are being made toward a correlation of the crystal- 
lines east of the Connecticut river with those on the west. The schists 
of Worcester county, with their abundant granites, were also described, 
with indication of their relations to the probable pre-Cambrian area of 
Sutton and Douglas in the southeastern part of this county. The 
opinion was expressed that probably some of the granites on both sides 
of the Connecticut river are of Carboniferous age. 

One interesting special point was the description of the stretched 
quartz pebbles in the conglomerate gneisses at Woonsocket, R. I., and 
elsewhere. Their present dimensions in some cases are 18 by 4 by 2 
inches. 


248 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


Gothan’s Cave; or Fractured Rocks in northern Vermont. C.H. 
Hircucock, Hanover, N. H. This cave, or rather series of caves, situ- 
ated on the west side of Norris hill in Maidstone, Vt., extends about 1,- 
000 feet up and down the slopé of the hill in a nearly easterly and wes- 
terly direction. It lies in mica schist and comprises really three distinct 
caverns, marking the course of a fracture or series of fractures which 
resulted from sudden movements of the earth’s crust under the stress of 
lateral pressure. The caverns probably extend farther and deeper than 
they have been explored. Many of the passages are closed by fragment- 
al rocks; fissures are numerous and extend in many directions. Several 
of the chambers may be regarded as cross-fractures, the general appear- 
ance of which would seem to indicate that they originated at the same 
time and in the same manner. In almost every case the walls of the pas- 
sages are found to match nearly, but the south side is invariably a foot 
or more lower than the north wall. In the third chamber ice and snow 
may be found in the summer months. This is one of the largest caverns, 
being 16 by 20 feet, and 15 feet deep. From some of these passages 
blasts of air that will blow out a candle flame are constantly issuing. 


Recent Discovery of the Occurrence of marine Cretaceous strata on 
Long Island. By Arruur HouircK, New Brighton, N. Y. The marine 
marl beds of the Cretaceous in New Jersey are traced on the north 
shore of Long Island, and thence perhaps they continue northeasterly 
as far as Marshfield, Mass., having a course essentially parallel with the 
general margin of the continent in that region. 


Geological Canals between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. J. W. 
Spencer, Washington, D. C. In crossing the isthmus of Tehuantepec, 
the first 100 miles south from the gulf of Campeche are found to be a 
plain which rises slightly toward the interior. Then come 25 miles of 
mountain land, followed by 25 miles more of plain land to the Pacific 
ocean. The mountain belt is interrupted by two main depressions, 
through one of which Captain Eads proposed to build a ship railway. 
The speaker thought that this country has been and is being slowly 
raised from a marine submergence which reached through these depres- 
sions, forming gravel beds there similar to those of valleys in the northern 
drift-bearing part of the United States. The surface fishes of the gulf 
of Mexico are the same or nearly allied with those of the Pacific in the 
gulf of Tehuantepec: but the deep sea forms differ on the opposite sides 
of the isthmus. 


Geological Notes on the Isles of Shoals. H.C. Hovey, Newburyport, 
Mass. Five of these islands belong to Maine and four to New Hamp- 
shire. Appledore island contains about 350 acres, and the others are 
smaller. There are proofs that Star, Malaga and Haley islands, at least, 
were at one time rapidly elevated. Neptune’s Punchbowls, so-called, 
were washed out by the tide daily, but are now eight feet above the 
tides. The rocks are granite, gneiss and mica schist, with frequent trap 
dikes. In many places the dikes, being more readily decomposed than 
the granite through which they extend, have been washed away by the 


Geological Society and A, A, A. S. Meetings —Upham, 249 


waves, leaving very narrow and long channels, sometimes 30 to 40 feet 
deep, through which during storms the sea rushes with great fury. 


Subdivision of the Upper Silurian in northeast Iowa. ANDREW G. 
Witson, Hopkinton, Iowa. After a brief review of the literature of the 
subject, this paper gives characteristics for distinguishing the five fol- 
lowing subdivisions, in descending order: (5) the building stone beds; (4) 
the upper coralline beds; (3) the Pentamerus beds; (2) the lower coral- 
line beds; (1) beds of passage from the Lower Silurian. 


Supplementary notes on the Metamorphic Series of the Shasta re- 
gion of California. J. PERRIN Smiru, Palo Alto, Cal. This paper gave 
the results of work on the Triassic fossils of the Mt. Shasta region, be- 
yond that which is reported in the Sept.-Oct., 1894,number of the 
Journal of Geology. Fully a hundred species of these fossils are now 
known and each species is profusely represented by specimens. Am- 
monites are especially well represented, and the principal part of the 
paper related to them. In only two other localities of the world are 
marine Triassic faunas known, namely, in the Tyrolese Alps and in the 
Himalayas. In California the Karnic division of the Upper Triassic is 
especially prolific. There are two distinct faunas represented, which 
are usually 100 feet apart vertically, but they are also found in some 
places intermingled, either by means of a survival or of a migration. 

The manner in which the ontogeny and phylogeny of the ammonites 
are wound up together was very interestingly shown. By breaking off 
the chambers and outer coils of the shell, successively, the development 
of the individual can be traced from the time when the first nucleus of 
the shell was formed. In applying this process, it was found that the 
genus under investigation had, in middle life, the characters of a differ- 
ent genus and in earlier life the characters of a still different genus. It 
is thus possible to arrange a number of genera in phylogenetic order. 
Trachyceras and Sirenites, for example, while diverse from each other, 
both run back to a Protrachyceras stage, and this to a Balatonetes 
stage, and this to a Tirolites form, which appears to be the primitive 
form for all the others mentioned. 


Recent Elevation of New England. J. W. Seencer, Washington, D. 
C. The gravel and sand terraces of the river valleys of New England 
are regarded as not formed by descending rivers, but are so nearly hori- 
zontal that they seem referable to bodies of standing water. The plat- 
forms or flats do not merge from one step to the next and therefore are 
not attributed in this paper to formerly higher stages of the rivers, 
which has been their usual explanation. Instead the successive ter 
races descend abruptly, like a stairway. Thus a small meadow, near 
the level of the stream, widens out in passing down the valley toa broad 
and extensive plain, through which the river channel gradually be- 
comes deeper until the plain abruptly ends by a sudden descent to a 
lower flat, along the sides of which fragments of the upper plains con 
tinue as lateral terraces. In a connected and nearly level series as mead 
ows, plains and narrow terraces, the same flats may continue even 


‘250 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


several miles, beyond which they are sometimes represented by delta 
remnants farther down the valley from which the terrace remains have 
been removed by erosion. The terrace gravel and sand often extend 
across the country from one valley to another. 

Subject. to certain corrections, the succession of terraces and flats 
marks the repeated lowering of the base planes of erosion, or, in other 
words, an intermittent elevation of the land, which has been raised ap- 
proximately as much as the sum of the vertical intervals between the 
terrace planes. These are commonly situated close together, with only 
a few feet or tens of feet of elevation between them; but in many local- 
ities several of the steps are so combined that the great terraces may be 
from 50 to 250 feet above the rivers. In the course of a few miles scores 
of terraces may be ascended or descended and counted with certainty. 
At any one locality there are seldom more than four or five lateral ter- 
races distinguishable; but these are not identical with the four or five 
observed several miles up or down the valley wherever the slope of the 
stream is considerable. 

Distinct terrace steps occur up to an elevation of 2,700 feet at the 
base of Mt. Washington; and similar gravel and sand continue much 
higher, but without the preservation of the terrace structure upon the 
steep mountain slopes. Such relationship of gravel terraces has been 
observed under so many conditions and over so wide extent of territory 
that it appears to be the prevailing condition, and not the exception. It 
is nearly everywhere well preserved within the region of the drift, which 
has been the source of supply for the gravel and sand. 

If these deposits, lying as terraces in the valleys and here and there 
expanding into plains even two or three miles or more in width, were 
observed only on the northern and western sides of the high lands, they 
might appear to favor the theory of their formation in glacial lakes. 
‘But they also occur on the southern and eastern sides of so many moun- 
‘tain masses as to preclude the idea of their accumulation in glacial 
lakes. Moreover, the author has observed the same structure within a 
few degrees of the equator, occurring there at both low and high alti- 
tudes. He concludes that the mountainous part of New England has 
been recently uplifted at least 2,700 feet. As the valleys had been re- 
excavated out of till, he thinks that the glacial submergence of the re- 
gion equaled this elevation. The magnitude of the movements in the 
coastal regions appears to have been less, but this question is still one 
for future investigations. 

Profs. G. F. Wricut, H. L. Farrcurip, and C. H. Hircucock, in the 
ensuing discussion, distrusted this interpretation of the valley terraces, 
and cited reasons for doubting any greater uplift than the 300 to 560 
feet above the sea which measure the hight of Champlain marine fos- 
sils in Maine and in the St. Lawrence and Lake Champlain valleys. 


View of the Ice Age as two Epochs, the Glacial and Champlain. 
Warren UpuHam, Cleveland, Ohio. The Glacial period or Ice age, is 
found divisible in two parts or epochs, the first or Glacial epoch being 
‘marked by high elevation of the drift-bearing areas and their envelop- 


Geological Society and A, A, A. S. Meetings— Upham, 251 


ment by vast ice-sheets, and the second or Champlain epoch being dis- 
tinguished by the subsidence of these areas and the departure of the 
ice, with abundant deposition of both glacial and modified drift. Epei- 
rogenic movements, first of great uplift and later of depression, are thus 
regarded as the basis of the two chief time divisions of the Ice age. 
Each of these epochs is further divided in stages, marked in the Glacial 
epoch by fluctuations of the predominant ice accumulation and in the 
Champlain epoch by successively diminishing limits of the waning ice- 
sheet. 

Prof. Hrrcxcock, in discussion, said that his view of the Champlain 
time is that of a cold rather than a mild epoch, judging from the boreal 
character of the fossils. He congratulated the glacialists on the grow- 
ing harmony of their views and the diminishing size of the differences 
which separate them. 


Glacial Phenomena between Lake Champlain and Lake George and 
the Hudson. G. F. Wricur, Oberlin, Ohio. This paper gave a detailed 
description of the stratified gravel, sand and clay, and of the till (with 
one conspicuous drumlin), in the valleys crossing the water divides south 
of the two lakes named. Lake George, 225 feet above lake Champlain 
and 325 feet above the sea, is dammed by deposits of glacial and modi- 
fied drift at both ends, and is shallowest at the middle of its length, 
where the Hundred Islands lie. This confirms the conclusion of Mr.58. 
Prentiss Baldwin, based on his field studies of the district three years 
ago, that the basin of lake George was drained in preglacial times by 
two streams, one running northerly and the other southerly. The valley 
of the northwardly flowing stream, now filled with drift, lies west of the 
present outlet and is traced to its junction with lake Champlain about 
halfway between Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 

Delta gravels at Glens Falls, Sandy Hill and Schenectady have an 
elevation of 300 feet, or more, above the sea; but the stratified clays and 
sand of the Hudson valley eastward and southward, and of the divide 
between lake Champlain and the Hudson, reach only to 180 feet above 
tide. The watershed in the valley south of lake George is estimated to 
be only 30 or 40 feet above that lake; and the canal from the Hudson 
river ‘to lake Champlain has a summit level of twelve miles only about 
150 feet above the sea. The glacial striz all bear southwestward 
athwart the prevailing course in Vermont and the east edge of New 
York, the difference in direction being probably attributable to local 
southwesterly deflection during the departure of the ice-sheet. 


Whirlpool of Niagara. G. W. Hottey, Ithaca, N. Y. Attention was 
directed to the parallelism of the river below the falls with the joints in 
the Niagara limestone, and the author rejected the theory that a drift- 
filled preglacial channel extends from the Whirlpool to St. David’s. 

Prof. SPENCER, in discussion, said that he had made excavations upon 
the soft northwestern side of the Whirlpool basin, where the buried 
channel has been supposed to begin, and found rock there up to the 
hight of 190 feet. 


252 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


Distribution of Sharks in the Cretaceous. C. R. Eastman, Cam- 
bridge, Mass. (Read by title.) 

Terminology proposed for Description of Pelecypoda. AtpuEus Hy- 
arr, Cambridge, Mass. This paper states that the so-called hinge of 
bivalves is a general term applicable to the functional part, which as a 
rule is more extensive than the primitive morphic hinge. For the last 
the name cardo is proposed. This occurs in the young of all forms, as 
a rule, in some stage; and it is persistent throughout life in some forms, 
as the Arcidze, most of the Aviculide, the Ostreidee, and the Pectenide. 
The cardo is coextensive with the functional hinge in these families and 
some others: but in all the more specialized shells of Pelecypods it is 
confined in the later stages of growth to the central (amphidetic) or pos- 
terior (opisthodetic) part of the functional hinge area. The mode of 
growth of the anterior dorsal part of the shell shoves the anterior arm 
of the cardo toward the beaks and finally carries this nearly to a line 
between them, or even posterior to them in the opisthodetic forms. 
This area may assume either a crescentic or lunate shape, or be heart-— 
shaped, spear-shaped,or linear. The boundaries are traced by the bands 
of growth that terminate on the borders of this space: and it is, as a 
rule, completely filled by the morphic ligament. This last is often 
longer than the functional ligament, and the term is applied here to the 
whole of the primitively continuous periostracum of the cardo. These 
are the usual senses in which the terms hinge and ligament have been 
used. Dall has proposed ‘‘resilium’’ for the differentiated internal parts 
of the ligament, but has used that term itself for the functional part 
only of that organ, which is often smaller than the periostracum. The 
hinge consists then of the cardo, which includes cardinal line and area, 
and also the internal hinge plate and teeth parts developed during the 
evolution of the Pelecypoda, and for these latter the name articulus is 
proposed. The cardo is the fixed point of comparison. This is dorsal 
in most Pelecypoda. but may shift to all positions between this and the 
anterior end of the body, as it does in Ostreide, Aviculide, Pectenide, 
and Trigonia. 

It is proposed that, in descriptions of the exterior of bivalves, paleon- 
tologists and conchologists should systematically describe first the cardo, 
next the articulus, both as parts of the hinge, and then take up the 
other areas in succession, beginning at either end of the cardo accord- 
ing to the form, preferably perhaps at the anterior end. The parts an- 
terior to the beaks are in the anterior region: the central or umbonal 
region comprises the median and usually more elevated parts: and the 
posterior region lies behind the beaks in elongated shells, but in those 
with an anterior cardo these regions appear to revolve with the bands of 
growth, becoming in the Aviculida, Pectenidz and Ostreidz quite dis- 
tinct with relation to the beaks. These last and the wings are in the an- 
terior region in these animals, and it becomes necessary to accept differ- 
ent boundaries for the regions. The umbonal elevation is no longer 
transverse but runs antero-posteriorly, and the posterior region occupies 
the opposite pole to the cardo, so that it is questionable whether it is 


Geological Society and A, A. A.S. Meetings—Upham, 253 


necessary to distinguish a median region running transversely. The 
terms ventral and dorsal regions can be more accurately limited than 
in the specialized forms with dorsal hinges. These lie on either side of 
a line drawn from the beaks, following the curvature of the growth to 
the points above the terminations of the gills; and this line is very often 
marked, as in other Pelecypods, by a ridge or elevation on the valve. 
The wings, therefore, are not anterior and posterior, as usually de- 
scribed, but are strictly ventral and dorsal wings. 

The term area is used in all subdivisions of regions, and these are of- 
ten well marked by angles or sinuosities in the bands of growth on the 
exteriors and margins of the valves. In the Pholadidz the areas are 
easily distinguishable: but in many shells two or more areas may run 
together and are not distinct,—a fact of the greatest importance in de- 
scribing some shells, since the areas and their blending accurately corres- 
pond to differences in the arrangements and proportions of the parts of 
the internal anatomy. 

For the space from the anterior end of the cardo to the depression 
made by the foot, the name oral area is proposed. The depressions, 
when they occur, are.the pedal sinuses on the margins and pedal de- 
pressions on the exterior: and the succeeding elevation becomes the el- 
evation of the pedal area. This name is open to the objection that there 
is no foot in Ostreide, and possibly it might be wise to substitute the 
term corporeal area. 

Beyond this area posteriorly comes the branchial area, marked off by 
depressions in the surfaces and sinuses on the margins. This area usu- 
ally corresponds with the umbonal region in all the Pelecypoda, and as 
a rule the axis of greatest growth of the valves lies in this area on ac- 
count of the hypertrophy of the gills, the feeding and breathing organs 
of these animals. The depressions can be described as the branchio- 
pedal depressions, and the sinuses as the branchio-pedal sinuses. The 
branchial area proper is the space between this and the area occupied 
by the siphons or siphonal openings. 

The siphonal area is sometimes quite distinctly marked off from the 
branchial, and has often, as in the Mactride, a sharp siphonal crest. It 
would be advisable to restrict the use of some terms, like crest, coste, 
elevation, depression, if this terminology finds favor with anyone, to ra- 
diating structural modifications of the surface, and the terms ridge and 
striz, like the lines and bands of growth, to markings parallel with the 
latter. The bands of growth usually make an angle in crossing the si- 
phonat area, and sometimes another as they bend dorsad to the poste- 
rior boundary of the cardo. These are the ventral and dorsal angles of 
the siphonal area: and the crest, where it exists, is always made by the 
hypertrophy of the ventral angles. It is often of advantage to distin- 
guish two parts in the siphonal area, the incurrent or inhalent part 
ventrad of the siphonal angles or crest, and the excurrent or cloacal 
part dorsad of this structure. 

The intestinal area occupies the space between the dorsal angle of 
the siphonal area and the posterior termination of the cardo. 


254 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


It will be seen that the term area can be used equally well whether 
the shell is equivalvular or inequivalvular. When shells of the first kind 
are under consideration it is not necessary to speak of the right side 
of an area; but in the latter of course it becomes important to describe 
both valves minutely, and then the terms right and left areas can be used 
and their different relations accurately noted. 

In applying these terms to shells with anterior hinges and having 
wings some modifications are necessary. In a Pecten or Avicula, for 
instance, the oral area is the ventral wing, and it would be perhaps bet- 
ter to continue to use the term wing. The pedal sinus is the byssal 
notch, and there is no reason why this term should not also be contin- 
ued in use, if it is understood that the areas are homologous and these 
terms synonymous. The branchial area in these shells is distinguish- 
able from the siphonal in a number of forms, as has been pointed out to 
the writer by Dr. Jackson. 

A good example of the results likely to follow from the application of 
this or any natural system is found in my cursory study of Malleus. 
Taking up this shell simply to see whether this terminology would ap- 
ply, I discovered that the so-called wings are not true wings. The true 
wings of the oral area are arrested in growth at the end of the neanic 
(adolescent) stage. In the first of the ephebic (adult) substages the 
ventral margins of the pedal area in both valves become hypertrophic 
and; grow out into the long so-called anterior wings. The bands of 
growth may be followed in any shell, sufficiently well preserved to show 
the true wings in the young, as they pass around the byssal noteh and 
extend ventrad to build up the great ventral arms that are really spatu- 
late outgrowths of the ventral margins of the pedal area. 


The Equatorial Counter Currents. W.M. Davis, Cambridge, Mass. 
(Read by title.) 


Interesting Features in the Surface Geology of the Genesee Region. 
H. L. Farrcnuinp, Rochester, N. Y. This was a lecture illustrated with 
lantern slides, chiefly relating to the Pinnacle hills in the southeast 
edge of the city of Rochester, which were described and their mode of 
formation discussed by this author in the last July number of the Am. 
GEOLOGIs? (vol. xvi, pp. 39-51, with map). 


Japan. GARDNER G. Hussarp, Washington, D. C. (Read by title.) 


Great Falls of the Mohawk at Cohoes, N. Y. W. H.C. PyncnHon, 
Hartford, Conn. This paper was illustrated by lantern views. The Co- 
hoes falls have been worn back about seven-eighths of a mile since the 
end of the Ice age, in Hudson River slates which dip with a slight in- 
clination down stream. Clear indications of a drift-filled preglacial 
channel are found starting from the Mohawk river about two miles above 
the falls, passing eastward on the north side of the river and opening 
out with a broad mouth into the Hudson valley at Waterford. 


Section E held a joint session with Section H (Anthropol- 
ogy ) on Tuesday afternoon, in which the following paper was 
presented : 


Geological Society and A, A. A.S. Meetings. —Upham. 255 


Account of the Discovery of a Chipped Chert Implement in undis- 
turbed Glacial Gravel near Steubenville, Ohio. G. F. Wricut, Oberlin, 
Ohio. This new evidence of Glacial man consisted of a chert implement 
134 inches long and three-fourths of an inch wide, which was found by 
Mr. Sam Huston, of Steubenville, Ohio, in a terrace of glacial gravel 
and sand of the Ohio river valley at Brilliant, in southeastern Ohio, 
about eight miles below Steubenville. Mr. Huston is a graduate of the 
scientific department of Washington and Jefferson College, and for 
twenty-five years has been the county surveyor of Jefferson county, 
Ohio, being thus perfectly conversant with all the natural features of 
the region, and especially with the gravel deposits which are extensively 
used in road-making. He has made paleontological collections for 
Profs. Cope and Scudder, and so is well known to scientific men. 

The implement was discovered by Mr. Huston projecting from the 
freshly exposed face of an excavation in the terrace gravel about eight 
feet below the surface and about sixty feet above the Ohio river, and 
~ was taken out with his own hands. The gravel was fine and the bed- 
ding and cross-bedding above and below were perfectly distinct and un- 
disturbed, showing that the implement is as old as the deposition of the 
gravel. 

Prof. Wright has visited the place with Mr. Huston and says that no 
one will question that this terrace gravel is of approximately the same 
age as the gravels at Trenton, N. J., and in the valley of the Somme in 
France, where similar discoveries haye been made. These terrace de- 
posits belong to the Champlain epoch of Dana and were formed near 
the close of the Glacial period. There is nothing strange, Prof. Wright 
said, in finding such evidence of men contemporary with the Ice age, for 
it is abundant in France and southern England; while Dr. Abbott’s 
numerous discoveries at Trenton, N, J., are of the same age. It is es- 
pecially significant, however, at the present time, because of recent at- 
tempts to challenge all the past reported discoveries in this country. It 
has thus great cumulative force. This is now the third locality in Ohio 
where similar discoveries of the implements of Glacial men have been 
made and well attested by competent observers: the other two being at 
Madisonville by Dr. C. L. Metz, and Newcomerstown by W. C. Mills. 
Such implements, and artificially chipped fragments from their manufac- 
ture, have been also found by Miss France E. Babbitt in the glacial 
gravel of the Mississippi river at Little Falls, Minn., and by Mr. J. B. 
Tyrrell of the Canadian Geological Survey in a beach deposit of the gla- 
cial lake Agassiz in Manitoba. Thus more and more clearly it becomes 
evident that the study of the Glacial period is an essential preliminary 
to the study of human history. 

In the ensuing discussion Prof. F. W. Purnam said that the patina 
on this implement certainly indicates great age and that its type,though 
in use up to later times, is a most ancient type which has been kept in 
use because it was permanently adapted to the wants of savage men. 

Mr. F. L. Cusuina said that the implement is a knife of the oldest 
pattern and that not only is it beyond question a finished implement, 


256 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


but it had been repeatedly re-sharpened, and that not by the more mod- 
ern methods of pressure with a bone, but by direct blows upon the 
edge, indicating its great antiquity. 

Prof. J. W. SPENCER remarked that this gravel terrace is somewhat 
older than the stratified drift of the Connecticut valley. 

Prof. E. D. Corr noted a close similarity of this implement ils: stone 
implements found by him in Pleistocene beds in Oregon, and regarded 
them as most allied to Mousterian types. 

Dr. R. G. Hatisurron suggested that implements a be deeply 
buried in gravel through the modern washing away and redeposition of 
the beds; but, in reply to this, Prof. Wricur stated that the highest 
modern floods of the Ohio lack some thirty feet vertically of reaching 
the level of this terrace. 


REV LEW OF RECENT ClO GGia a= 
LITERAL URE, 


Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic. By AupHeus Hyarr. 
(Ex. Proce. Am. Phil. Soc., vol.xxx11, no. 148, pp. 349-647, pls. 1-14, Aug., 
1894.) Anything bearing upon the inheritance and phylogeny of an ac- 
quired character is especially interesting in these days of active discus- 
sion upon the same and kindred topics, and the present paper is very 
opportune, since it approaches the subject from a side which is quite 
impossible in ordinary biology. Few besides professor Hyatt can bring 
to bear for this purpose such an extensive knowledge of the development 
and phylogeny of recent and fossil forms of any single class of animals. 
Moreover, the cephalopods offer a wealth of material for the study of 
ontogeny and phylogeny: their geological history has been long, and a 
vast number of species has been described. The division Tetrabranchi- 
ata, now ranked as a subclass by the author, has furnished the richest 
material and has been made the subject of greatest study. One large 
order, the Nautiloidea, began and culminated in Paleozoic time, while 
the other, the Ammonoidea, began later in the Paleozoic, but culmina- 
ted and went out in the Mesozoic. It is seen, therefore, that an oppor- 
tunity is afforded for making parallel correlations in two related orders, 
having much the same general type of form, through widely different 
geological ages. 

In the preliminary discussions professor Hyatt emphasizes the value 
of the shell as an expression of the external form of the animal as giy- 
ing what the adult internal soft parts alone cannot, viz., an accurate 
history of the changes and events in the organism from its embryonic 
stages through youth, maturity and old age to the time of its death. In 
brachiopods, gastropods, pelecypods and cephalopods the embryonic 
shell is at the apex, around which growth takes place, and, in well-pre- 
served specimens, all the subsequent stages may be traced. A farther 
advantage in the cephalopods exists in the internal structures, princi- 
pally the siphuncle and septa. The former exhibits changes of struc- 
ture and position during the life of the animal, and the latter with their 


Review of Recent Geological Literatuve. 257 


‘sutures vary with age, thus making, with the external shell, three rec- 
ords of mutations. The value of such material for phylogenetic study 
can be best appreciated in comparison with that obtainable in other 
groups, such as the vertebrates. The author says upon this point : 
‘*How unreasonable it would seem to a student of fossil Mammalia, if he 
were requested to do what it would be appropriate to require from a 
student of the fossil Cephalopoda, viz., to describe from the investiga- 
tion of a single perfect fossil skeleton of an adult, not only the charac- 
teristics of the skeleton at the stage of growth at which the animal 
died, but the developmental stages of this same skeleton, and in case it 
were the remains of an old, outgrown animal, also, the retrograde meta- 
morphoses through which it had passed during its last stages of decline. 
It might require a life time to make out the stages of a single species of 
mammal satisfactorily from the isolated specimens which would be 
found and the attempt would be hopeless for all the youngest stages of 
growth, while the bones were still cartilaginous. 

‘This kind of evidence, however, is readily obtainable among: fossil 
Cephalopods with relation to the shell and other hard parts as among 
living animals, and it can be obtained in good collections everywhere, 
whether ‘in situ’ or in museums. Thus it is possible to study the rela- 
tions of these fossil forms very minutely and with the certainty of pos- 
sessing a clue to their true relations, which is rarely obtainable even 
among existing animals. For among these we have only the embryos 
and young of contemporaneous forms and necessarily lose all relations 
of succession in time, unless the investigation embraces a prolonged se- 
ries of experiments or is more or less historical, and even then the facts 
cannot have a very wide chronological range.”’ 

The classification adopted is as follows: Class Cephalopoda, with two 
subclasses: I. Tetrabranchiata, containing the orders Nautiloidea and 
Ammonoidea;: II. Dibranchiata, containing the orders Belemnoidea and 
Sepiodea. 

The four orders show a common origin through their development, 
their morphology and their having a similar embryonic shell, the proto- 
conch. The primitive forms, the nautiloids, gave origin to the di 
branchs through the gradual modification of the external shell into an 
internal organ. Transitional forms are met with, such as Azwlacoceras 
of the Trias. The development of Loligo, as shown by Lankester, in- 
dicates an enclosure and suppression of the external shell. Such pre- 
dictions are now substantiated by a morphological study covering the 
geological history of the group. 

The author shows that, from a number of old nautiloid stocks, there 
arose successively series of straight, arcuate, gyroceran and involute 
shells, and that the old idea of a gradual progression of similar forms 
through the order as a whole, the arcuate and gyroceran in later peri- 
ods and the involute last, can only be applied to single branches of the 
phylum. From a general view of the order, Barrande showed that there 
were straight, arcuate and coiled forms appearing all through Paleozoic 
time and considered that this progression of form did not indicate phy- 


258 The American Geologist. October, 1895: 


logeny and could not be used to illustrate: the evolution of the class. 
These objections are now met, as indicated above, by studying devel- 
opment within the families and genera. 

It may be accepted as a law that animals near their points of origin 


in early geologic time evince marked tendencies toward rapid evolution. 


They found the earth comparatively unoccupied or occupied by inferior 
animals, and through such conditions favorable to numerical increase 
were forced to migrate in every direction and thus to come in contact with 
and adjust themselves to many different physical surroundings. Similar 
‘ases of quick evolution of new series and many species occur in later 
times as well as to-day, whenever a stock finds an unoccupied field. In 
this connection the author instances the well-known Planorbis develop- 
ment in the Steinheim basin and the evolution of the extensive family 
of the Arietida, consisting of eleven distinct series, arising, culminat- 
ing and ending within the limits of the Lower Lias. Another marked 
case illustrating the same point, which might be mentioned, is the ex- 
treme differentiation of the genus Gammarus, an amphipod from lake 


Baikal, which probably since glacial times has developed from a single’ 


form one hundred aud fifteen species, many of them highly ornamented 
and specialized, and together constituting more species than are known 
elsewhere, although the genus is world wide. 

Before taking up a detailed description and discussion of the various 
genera and species of cephalopods which furnish professor Hyatt with 
the main points of his argument, he introduces a chapter on the princi- 
ples of bioplastology. or the characteristics of development and decline 
in the life of an individual. This has already been published in part 
elsewhere and reviewed in the GrEotoctsr. The terms adopted will be 
found useful in accurately indicating any stage of ontogeny or any kind 
of development and in correlating them with periods of phylogeny. 

A complete application of the ontogenetic stages is then made to the 
shell covered Cephalopoda, together with definitions of descriptive terms 
for various features and structures. Of these the impressed zone is the 
one to which special attention is called, as it forms the basis for the in- 
vestigation of the inheritance of an acquired characteristic. The im- 
pressed zone is primarily the area on the dorsum which is flattened, 
convex or indented by the contact of the growing whor! with the venter 
of the already formed whorl of the next inner volution. 

It is shown that the impressed zone is invariably consequent upon 


close coiling, never appearing in ancestral forms in the early stages un-— 


less through this agency. It is, therefore, a mechanical and necessary 
result of the pressure of one whorl upon another and must be accepted 
as strictly an acquired character. The influence of tachygenesis, or the 
progressive earlier inheritance of characters, results in the development 
of the impressed zone (then called the dorsal furrow) in very young 
shells belonging to later genera, before the whorls come in contact with 
each other. In other words, the genera geologically later than the an- 
cestral forms of the different groups show an impressed zone during 
growth stages before the appearance of the mechanical conditions which 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 259 


originally produced it. From this it would also be expected that the 
impressed zone would persist in old age forms in which the outer whorl] 
becomes free from the coil. This is often found to be the case, asin Ew- 
rystomites kelloggi from the Quebec group. It is less noticeable in the 
ammonoids, for many old age forms return to the normal cylindrical 
form of the tube soon after the whorls become free. 

The Weissmannian school deny that acquired characters are inherited, 
but the results of the studies here briefly described show the contrary. 
“It is practicable to isolate inherited characters from new variations 
which have not become fixed in any phylum. It is also practicable to 
point out characters which are transient in various ways appearing in 
individuals but not in varieties, in species but not in genera, and so on. 
When one has by this system of excluslon arrived at the end of the list 
he finds that there is no class of characteristics which may be described 
as non-inheritable. The new variations of any one horizon which can 
be isolated from the inherited ones are not distinguishable in any way 
from others which occurred previously. Later in time these new varia- 
tions in their turn become incorporated with the younger stages of de- 
scendants. The transient characters of the zo6bn also do not differ in 
any way from others that are inherited in allied species, genera, etc.”’ 
**All characteristics, even those observable in some groups only in old 
age, are found in the adults of other groups and finally in the young of 
the descendents of these, according to the law of tachygenesis, Every- 
thing is inherited or is inheritable, so far as can be judged by the be- 
havior of the characteristics.’’ In conclusion: ‘‘These cumulative re- 
sults favor the theory of tachygenesis [earlier inheritance] and diplo- 
genesis [acquired and hereditary] and are opposed to the Weissmannian 
hypothesis of the subdivision of the body into two essentially distinct 
kinds of plasm, the germplasm, which receives and transmits acquired 
characteristics, and the somataplasm, which, while it is capable of ac- 
quiring modifications, either does not or cannot transmit them to de- 
scendants.”’ 

How much more satisfactory and conclusive are the results obtained 
through the historical study of a character manifestly acquired by me- 
chanical necessity and running through long geological ages than to 
attempt similar results by cutting off the tails of mice and expecting to 
produce a breed of anurous Mus! So far as known to the reviewer, pro- 
fessor Hyatt has given the most complete scientific demonstration of 
the inheritance and phylogeny of an acquired character. C, B, B. 


Structure and Appendages of Trinucleus. By C. E. Brecuer. (Am. 
Jour. Science, vol. xLrx, p. 307, pl. iii, 1895.) From the study of a ser- 
ies of specimens of Trinucleus concentricus Faton, found associated 
with Triarthrus becki Green, in the Utica slate near Rome, N. Y., the 
author shows that, in young conditions, distinct ocular ridges terminat- 
ing in an ocular node are present, though in this species of the genus 
they become atrophied at maturity. This structure brings the genus 
into relationship with Harpes, whose eyes are ocelli and situated upon 
the fixed cheeks, very distinct from the structure of the visual organ in 


260 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


the schizochroal (Phacops) and holochroal (Asaphus) groups. The pres- 
ence of appendages upon the segments of the thorax and pygidium is 
established, though those of the former are much obscured by the thick 
fringe of the exopodites. A similar fringe accompanies the exopodites 
of the pygidium, while the endopodites are broad and phyllopodiform, if 
less strikingly so than in Triartirus. 4 Sy WeRER 


Report on the Coosa Coal Field, with sections. By A. M. Gipson. 
(Geological Survey of Alabama, 143 pp., one plate. Montgomery, 1895.) 
Alabama in 1893 ranked fifth in coal production in the United States, 
with a total of over five million tons. This tonnage comes from four 
different fields having the following areas as given by state geologist E. 
A. Smith. 

Warrior field: ; 
Plateau regione stata eens coe eee oe 2,275 sq. mi. 


Balsiniresionaseyatie tend iinet ees Roe 4,955 sq. mi. 
Lookout um tains s\n title ait evaje Syanagiegee te 580 sq. mi. 
Cahaba dieldiaks. 624 aces: bien eae . 435 sq. mi. 
Coosa field’ 5. cis aii n.d Zoe hyo ae eee 415 sq. mi. 


The Geological Survey of Alabama has devoted a good share of its re- 
sources to.an investigation of these coal fields. T. H. Aldrich in 1875 
gave a history of early mining in Alabama, Mr. Squire has reported on 
the Cahaba field, and Mr. McCalley upon the Warrior field as a whole 
(1886) and upon the plateau region alone (1892), and Gibson has pub- 
lished a report on the Blount county deposits. ’ 

The present report by Mr. Gibson deals with the Coosa field alone. 
This is'‘the smallest of the Alabama fields and contains, according to 
his surveys, some. 345 square miles of productive area. It stretches in 
a long narrow belt having an average width of five to six and a length 
of some sixty miles. It hes mainly in St. Clair’and Shelby counties 
with a slight prolongation into Cahun» - The ficld is a narrow synclinal 
valley bordered by high marginal 1nountain rims and is in addition, asa 
result of transverse faults, traversed by numerous mountain ridges 
which give it a very rugged topography. The Coosa field is divided in 
eight basins: the Ragland, Fairview, Coal City, Black Anklé, Kelley’s 
Creek, Howard, Peavine Creek, and Yellow Leaf; each of which is con- 
sidered in detail. The principal development so far has taken place in 
the Ragland and Coal City areas. It was from the former that the Con- 
federate ordnance works at Selma drew their supplies. The beds are 
not thick, but run regularly and seem to be of: considerable uniformity. 
The coals are of good quality, free burning, low in sulphur and well 
adapted to steam and grate use. The Coal City and Ragland seams 
furnish an especially good quality of coke. At the latter place the coke 
is made from the fine coal after being washed. 

In the report a large number of workable beds are noted and, while 
the present peculiar economic conditions confine the active work of min- 
ing to two points only, in the future an important development may be 
confidently expected. H. F. B. 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 261 


The Origin of the Arkansas Novaculites. By L. 8. Griswoxp. (Proc. 
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 26, pp. 414-421. Author’s edition, Feb. 9, 
1895.) In the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 
Aug., 1894, Mr. Frank Rutley brought forward arguments to show that 
the novaculités of Arkansas were siliceous replacements of dolomite or 
of dolomitic limestone beds. (His paper, ‘‘On the Origin of certain No- 
vaculites and Quartzites,’’ was reviewed in the American GEOLOGIST, 
vol. 14, p. 253, Oct., 1894.) This explanation of the origin of the novac- 
ulites is at variance with that adopted by Mr. Griswold, who had made 
a careful examination of and a report on these peculiar rocks (Annual 
Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1893, vol. 3). In the 
present paper Mr. Griswold defends his theory of the formation of these 
novaculites, maintaining that they are simple, fine grained, siliceous 
sediments mechanically deposited, i. e., that they are sandstones of very 
fine grain. He does not regard the presence of irregularly rhomb- 
shaped cavities, once probably filled with some carbonate (dolomite), as 
evidence that the whole rock has been derived from a dolomite by sili- 
ceous replacement, and he argues that the novaculite is not composed 
of chalcedonic silica as thought by Mr. Rutley. We see 


Ueber paleozoische Faunen aus Asia und Nordafrika. By F. 
Frecu. (Neues Jahrb. fiir Mineral., ¢te. Jahrg. 1895, Bd. 2, Heft. 1, 
pp. 47-67.) This paper~contains interesting paleontologic news from 
’ various remote corners of the world, the facts having been brought to- 
gether, as the author states, in pursuance of his plan for the completion 
of F. Roemer’s ‘‘Lethzea Paleozoica.’’ From-the:Lunschau, a moun- 
tain near Nanking, China, are described fossils from the lower Ordovi- 
cian, Asaphus, Endoceras duplex, Raphistoma sinense, sp. nov., etc. 
From the province of Schantung in north China and from the Yang-tse 
in, middle China is a well defined Carboniferous limestone fauna with a 
variety of characteristic species. The province of Kiang-su also affords 
a few Permian species, and the upper faunas of this formation, with 
Gastrioceras and Paraceltites, have been found near Ning-kwo-hsien, in 
the province of Nganhwei. Persia, in the vicinity of lake Ooromiah, 
furnishes Carboniferous species, Productus, Spirifer striatus, Syringo- 
thyris, ete., and from Schaku Tschalkhune certain species of probable 
Permian age. An upper Devonian brachiopod fauna is reported in this 
vicinity, with Spirifer disjunctus, S. anossofi, Atrypa concentrica, 
Rhynchonella pugnus, Orthis striatula, Orthothetes umbraculum, Pha- 
cops latifrons, ete. 

Devonian brachiopods were described by Beyrich in 1852 from the 
Hammada, near Murzuk in Tripoli. These, three in number, are re 
viewed by the author and two of them are shown to represent the genus 
Liorhynchus and the third a well known Chemung species, Spirifer 
‘mesacostalis. BP ea OF 


Folds and Faults in Pennsylvania Anthracite Beds. By BensamMin 
Smirxw Lyman, (Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., Atlanta meeting, 1895, 
pp. 1-43.) The author gives thirty-three plates containing 177 highly 
interesting and instructive sections, prepared from cross-section sheets 


262 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


of the Pennsylvania Survey. All are ina N. W.-S. E. direction and are 
viewed from the south. H. D. Rogers held it to be a general law for 
eastern Pennsylvania that northwesterly dips are steeper than the 
southeasterly ones. Mr. Lyman concludes, from the study of these sec- 
tions, that ‘‘steep northerly dips in the Pennsylvania anthracite region 
are much less prevalent than was formerly supposed; that nearly half 
of the basins and saddles are about symmetrical; * * * that the sub- 
ordinate folds throughout the region are confined to subordinate groups 
of beds of inferior firmness, and are not parallel to the main folds, but 
probably at uniform profile-distances from the main axes, so as to de- 
scend the flank of a sinking anticlinal. Further, that the faults are al- 
most invariably longitudinal or reversed faults, occasioned by the over- 
straining of subordinate folds.”’ Jin MiGs 


Directions for Collecting and Preparing Fossils. By CHARLES 
ScuucHert?. (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., no. 39, part K, pp. 1-31, 1895.) The 
paleobiologist of to-day is making such exactions of the collector and 
has raised to such a fine art the preparation of fossils that concise sug- - 
gestions such as Mr. Schuchert has here brought together from his own 
and others’ experience will be found of general usefulness. The best 
collector is the one who collects as much by faith as by sight, and the 
most skillful preparateur he who adapts his methods to the nature of 
his subject. woM. Cc. 


Ona New Trilobite from Arkansas Lower Coal Measures. By A.W. 
VocepEs. (Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 2. vol. rv, p. 589, 1895.) 
Describes Griffithides ornata as a new species, from Conway county, 
Ark. Its similarity to G. scitula, Meek & Worthen and G. cliftonensis, 
Shumard, is pointed out and the suggestion made that all may prove 
referable to Shumard’s species. o. Me G3 


A Supplement to the Bibliography of the Palceeozoie Crustacea. By 
A. W. Voepes. (Proc. California Acad. of Sci., ser. 2, vol. v, pp. 55- 
76, 1895.) Gives 141 titles of papers published since 1893 or omitted 
from the author’s larger work of that date. It is an important addition 
to that very useful compilation. Ji. Ms Ge 


Tables for the Determination of Common Minerals, chiefly by their 
physical properties, with confirmatory chemical tests. By W. O. Crossy, 
Ass’t Prof. of structural and economic geology in the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology. (106 pp.; third edition, rewritten and enlarged; 
Boston, 1895, published by the author. Price, $1.25.) In these tables 
the author has endeavored to do away with, as far as is possible, elabo- 
rate chemical tests in the determination of minerals. The more obvious 
physical properties are used as the chief means of determination, the 
general classification being based entirely on physical characters. In 
this classification the minerals are divided into two great classes, metal- 
lic and non-metallic, according to their luster. Under each of these 
classes are five subclasses, distinguished according to the color in the 
metallic and according to the color of the streak in the non-metallic. 


Recent Publications. 263 


The species of each subclass are further divided into four groups ac- 
cording to their hardness, being classed as very soft, soft, hard and very 
hard. The method of determination or the ‘‘key”’ is analogous to that 
used in analytical botany, and the author aims to show that the com- 
mon minerals can be determined with the same ease and accuracy as 
the common plants. Under each species is given a number of physical 
characters and finally one or more confirmatory chemical tests. Only 
about two hundred of the more common minerals are included in the 
tables, but there is a supplementary table that includes one hundred 
of the less common minerals which are occasionally encountered by the 
student. As these tables are comparatively simple and as they require 
but little chemical knowledge and but a small amount of apparatus, 
it would seem that they are especially well adapted to the general 
uses of schools, colleges and private students. WueSiGs 


A Contribution to the Mineralogy of Wisconsin. By Witi1am HeEr- 
BERT Hosss. (Bull. Univ. of Wis., sci. ser., vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 109-156, 
pls. 4-8; June, 1895.) This paper is devoted largely to the crystallogra- 
phy of Wisconsin minerals and seems to be the first description of the 
crystallographic features of the minerals of that state. The specimens 
measured and figured come from three sources: (1) the pre-Silurian 
rocks; (2) the cavities of the Galena limestone in southern Wisconsin; 
(3) the Hamilton cement rock at Milwaukee. A large number of care- 
ful measurements were made; this work brought out some interesting 
results, among which was the determination of several hitherto unde- 
scribed forms, as follows: two on quartz, three on calcite, one on cerus- 
site, one on sphalerite and four on azurite. Anglesite has been reported 
several times from southern Wisconsin, but the specimens examined 
prove to be selenite. 

A few pages are devoted to ‘‘diamonds from the drift.’’ The main 
facts concerning these have been already presented by Dr. Hobbs in the 
AMERICAN GEOLOGIST (vol. xIv, pp. 31-35, July, 1894). U. Ss. G. 


Pech PUBLICATIONS. 


I. Government and State Reports. 

Geol. Surv. of Ala. Report upon the Coosa coal field, with sections, 
A.M. Gibson. 143 pp., 1895. 

U.S. National Museum, pt. 1 of Bull. 39. Directions for collecting 
rocks and for the preparation of thin sections, G. P. Merrill. 

Geol. Surv. of Canada, Ann. Rept. for 1892-’93, vol. 6, 1895. Summary 
report on the operations of the Geological Survey for the years 1892 and 
1893, by the Director, A. R. C. Selwyn: Preliminary report on the geol 
ogy of a portion of central Ontario, situated in the counties of Victoria, 
Peterborough and Hastings, F. D. Adams; Preliminary report on geo 
logical investigations in southwestern Nova Scotia, L. W. Bailey; Chem- 
ical contributions to the geology of Canada from the laboratory of the 
Survey, G. C. Hoffman; Division of mineral statistics and mines, E. D. 
Ingall and H. P. H. Brumell. 


264 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


Bureau of Mines (Ontario), Fourth (1894) Report; Archibald Blue, Di- 
rector. General introduction; Gold in Ontario—its associated rocks 
and minerals (Report on the Rainy Lake gold region), A. P. Coleman; 
The Hinterland-of Ontario; Calcium carbide and acetylene gas; Dia- 
mond drill explorations; Nickel and its uses; Mining accidents; Fifth 
report of the inspector of mines, A. Slaght. 

‘U.S. Nat. Museum, pt. K of Bull..39. Directions for collecting and 
préparing fossils, Charles Schuchert. 

U.S. Geol. Survey. Mineral. products of the United States,.D. T. 
Day. June 8, 1895. [Large table.] ken 

Boletin de la Comision Geologica-de México, Num. 1. Fauna fosil de 
la Sierra de Catorce San Luis Potosi, J. G- Aguilera. 

~ II. Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. 7, no. 3, Feb. 21, 1895. Note on 
the glacial drift in St. Louis, H. A. Wheeler: Note on the occurrence of 
blende in lignite, H. A. Wheeler; Recent additions to the mineralogy of 
Missouri, H. A. Wheeler. 

Proce. Iowa Acad. Sci., for 1894; tor 2, 1895. - Thterloassial till near — 
Sioux City, Iowa, J. E. Todd and H. F. Bain: Preglacial elevation of 
Towa, H. F. Bain: Secular decay of granitic rocks, C. R. Keyes: Record 
of the Grinnell deep boring, A. J. Jones; Lansing lead mines, A. G. 
Leonard; How old is the Mississippi, F. M. Fultz; Maquoketa shales in 
Delaware county, Samuel Calvin: Occurrence of Megalomus canaden- 
sis, Hall, in Le Claire beds at Port Byron, Illinois, W. H. Norton; Cer- 
tain minerals of Webster county, Iowa, A. C. Spencer: Cement materi- 
als in Iowa, H. H. Lonsdale; Mississippian rocks of central Iowa, H. F. 
Bain; Topaz crystals from Thomas mountain, Utah, A. J. Jones; For- 
mation of the flint beds of the Burlington limestone, F. M. Fultz; Syn- 
opsis of American Paleozoic echinoids, C. R. Keyes; Geological section 
of the Y. M. C. A. artesian well at Cedar Rapids, Iowa, W. H. Norton: 
Upper Carboniferous of southwestern Iowa, E. H. Lonsdale; Coinci- 
dence of present and preglacial drainage system in extreme southeastern 
Towa, F. M. Fultz; Extension of the great ice sheet into Iowa, F. M. 
Fultz; Glacial markings in southeastern Iowa, F. M. Fultz; Opinions 
eoncerning the age of the Sioux quartzite, C. R. Keyes. 

Trans. Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sei., vol. 9, pt. 2, 1895. Revision 
of the families of loop-bearing Brachiopoda, C. E. Beecher; The devel- 
opment of Terebratula obsoleta Dall, C. EK. Beecher. 

Proc. Lake Superior Mining Institute, 3d Ann. Meeting, March, 1895. 
The iron ranges of Minnesota, H. V. Winchell; Distribution of phos- 
phorus and system of sampling at the Pewabie mine, Michigan, E. F. 
Brown; The relation of the vein at the Central mine, Keweenaw point, 
to the Kearsarge conglomerate, L. L. Hubbard; Open pit mining with 
special reference to the Mesabi range, F. W. Denton. 

Ill. Papers in Scientific Journals. 
Amer. Naturalist, July, 1895. On a supposed case of parallelism 
in the genus Palzeosyops, Charles Earle. 

Amer. Naturalist, Aug., 1895. On the presence of fluorine as a test 
for the fossilization of animal bones, Thomas Wilson. 


Recent Publications: 265 


Science, July 12, 1895.. Current notés on physiography (X11), W. M. 
Davis. 

Science, July 26, 1895. -Current notes on physiography (XIII), W.M. 
Davis. Kes : 

Science,-Aug. 2, 1895. _A rock fissure, G. K. Gilbert. 

Science, Aug. 9, 1895. Saporta and Williamson and their work in 
paleobotany, L. F. Ward. 

Science, Aug. 16, 1895. The history, aims and importance of the 
American Association for the Advancement of Science, F. W. Putnam: 
Vertebrate paleontology in the American Museum, H. F. Osborn: The 
causes of the Gulf stream, Joseph LeConte. 

Science, Aug. 23, 1895 .Current notes on physiography (XIV), W. M. 
Davis::" 

Science, Aug. 30, 1895. Current notes on physiography (XV), W. M. 
Davis. . ; 

Science, Sept. 6, 1895. Seventh summer meeting of the Geological 
Society of America, J. F. Kemp. 

Kansas University Quarterly, vol. 4, no. 1, July, 1895. Natural gas 
and coal oil in Kansas, E. H. S. Bailey; Note on the mandible of Or- 
nithostoma, S. W. Williston; The Coffeyville explosion, Erasmus Ha- 
worth. eb 

Bull. Amer. Geographical Soc., vol. 27, no. 2, 1895. A journey up 
the Yukon river, I. C. Russell; The composite origin of topographic 
forms, A. P. Brigham. 2 

Amer. Jour. Sci., Aug. 1895. The earth a magnetic shell, F. H. Big- 
elow; Note on the occurrence of leadhillite pseudomorphs at Granby, 
Mo., W. M. Foote; Distribution and the secular variation of terrestrial 
magnetism, No. 1, L. A. Bauer; Complimentary rocks and radial dikes, 
L. V. Pirsson; Mineralogical notes, W. H.. Hobbs; Calaverite from 
Cripple Creek, Colo., W. F. Hillebrand; Thomas Henry Huxley, O. C. 
Marsh. 

Amer. Jour. Sci.. Sept., 1895.-- Distribution and the secular variation 
of terrestrial magnetism, No. 2, L. A. Baier; Outlying areas of the Co- 
manche series in Kansas, Oklahoma and New Mexico, R. T. Hill; Strat- 
igraphy of the Kansas Coal Measures, C. R. Keyes; On the so-called 
Schneebergite, E. S. Eakle and W. Muthman; Native sulphur in Mich- 
igan, W. H. Sherzer; On two new meteorites, E. E. Howell. 

School of Mines Quarterly, July, 1895. Segregation in oresand mattes, 
D. H..Browne. Appended note to paper of Mr. Browne, J. F. Kemp. 

Jour. of Geology, July-Aug., 1895. Notes on the Glacial deposits of 
southwestern Alberta, G. M. Dawson: Experimental application of the 
photo-topographical method of surveying to the Baird glacier, Alaska, 
O.J. Klotz; The Cambro-Silurian question in Missouri and Arkansas, C. 
R. Keyes; Notes on an examination of a collection of Inter-glacial wood 
from Muir glacier, Alaska, F. H. Knowlton; Lake Passaic—an extinct 
Glacial lake, R. D. Salisbury and H. B. Kiimmel; Description of a new 
species.of Petalodus (P. securiger) from the Carboniferous of Illinois, 
O. P. Hay: Glacial studies in Greenland (VI), T. C. Chamberlin. 


266 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


Technology Quarterly, vol.*8, no. 1, Apr., 1895. Composition of the 

sulphur petroleums of Ohio and Canada, C. F. Mabery. 
IV. Eaucerpts and Individual Publications. 

A supplement to the bibliography of the Paleozoic Crustacea, A. W. 
Vogdes. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., ser. 2, vol. 5, pp. 53-76, 1895. 

The erosive action of ice, G. E. Culver. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. etc., 
vol. 10, pp. 339-366, 1895. 

A geological section across the northern part of Illinois, J. A. Udden. 
Rept. Ill. Board World’s Fair Com., pp., 117-151. 

The voleanic rock of Alum hill, Boulder county, Colo., C. I. Andrews. 
Read before the Colo. Sci. Sec., June 3, 1895; 8 pp. 

Folds and faults in Pennsylvania anthracite beds, B. S. Lyman. 
Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng., Atlanta meeting, 43 pp., 34 pls., 1895. 

The Onyx marbles: their origin, composition and uses, both ancient 
and modern, G. P. Merrill. Rept. of U. S. Nat. Museum, 1893, pp. 539- 
585, pls. 1-18. 

Tables for the determination of common minerals chiefly by their 
physical properties, with confirmatory chemical tests, W. O. Crosby. — 
3d Ed., rewritten and enlarged, 106 pp.; Boston, Published by the Au- 
thor, 1895. 

On the Organic remains of the Little River group, No. II, G. F. 
Matthew. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, See. 4, 1894, pp. 89-111, pl. 1. 

V. Proceedings of Scientific Laboratories. 

Bull. University of Wis. A contribution to the mineralogy of Wis- 
consin, W. H. Hobbs. Sci. Ser., vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 109-156, pls. 4-8, June, 
1895. 

Bull. Museum Comp. Zoél. Fossil sponges of the flint nodules in the 
lower Cretaceous of Texas, J. A. Merrill. Vol. 28 (Geol. Ser., vol. 3), 
no. 1, pp. 1-26, 1 pl., July, 1895. 

Bull. Dept. of Geol. Univ. of Calif. Critical periods in the history 
of the earth, Joseph LeConte. Vol. 1, no. 11, pp. 313-336, Aug., 1895. 


CORRESPON DENCE: 


THE InreRNATIONAL CoNnGREss OF GEOLOGISTS: — A CORRECTION. 
Without in anywise wishing to call in question the general statements 
of the article by Dr. Persifor Frazer in No.4, volume XIV, of the AMER- 
1cAN GEOLOGIST, entitled ‘*The Sixth Session of the International Con- 
gress of Geologists,” still I must ask you to place before your readers 
the following corrections of the statements which affect me personally 
in the above mentioned article. 

On pages 266-267: The prize awarded to me in Bologna amounted to 
2,000 franes, not 1,100. I did not ask Prof. Capellini ‘‘shortly afterward”’ 
to loan me my manuscript for a while, but this was done first at the be- 
ginning of the preparation for the geological map of Switzerland on the 
scale of 1 to 500,000, one year before the last Congress. I did not keep 
my manuscript thirteen years, as Dr. Frazer says, but only about a year 
and a half, and it is already back in Bologna. In the Report of Bologna 


Personal and Scientific News. 267 


my work which won the prize is only a French translation, and it ap- 
pears with hardly one-sixth of the illustrations. In Switzerland in most 
of the institutions which give prizes it is customary that the works 
which compete for prizes remain the personal property of the authors. 
In 1881 no determination whatever concerning the personal ownership 
had been reached. When Prof. Capellini, on the other hand, was of the 
opinion that my manuscript should remain in the archives at Bologna, 
I considered it the wisest and the best course to lay the question before 
the Congress for decision. I have since then done as it decided and can 
see no fault in my conduct,—it was correct. 

On page 269: Dr. Frazer is not familiar with the use of the German 
language when he accuses us of having erred a year in the age of Prof. 
Beyrich. We knew very well that on this day Prof. Beyrich was only 
seventy-nine years old, but that is called ‘“‘the eightieth birthday,’ be- 
cause the first and most important birthday should be numbered, and 
we celebrated entirely correctly his eightieth birthday or the beginning 
of his eightieth year of life. 

I will not mention numerous other misunderstandings, because they 
do not affect me personally. 

Zurich, March 15, 1895. Pror. Dr. ALBERT HErM. 


PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


Pror. J. W. Jupp has been appointed successor of Huxley 
as dean of the Royal College of Science, South Kensington. 

THE PROFESSORSHIP Of geology and mineralogy in the Uni- 
versity of Toronto is vacant, owing to the resignation of Prof. 
Chapman. (Science.) 

Dr. G. P. Griustey, of Columbus, Ohio, has accepted the 
professorship of geology and natural history in Washburn 
College, Topeka, Kansas. 

Mr. RapHaet PumpeLty, ex-state geologist of Michigan, and 
Pror. Henry Luoyp Smiru, of Harvard, have gone to the Seine 
River gold district, Ontario, on professional business. (Fig. 
& Mining Journal.) 

Dr. Henry M. Amt, of Ottawa, Canada, assistant paleontol- 
ogist in the Geological Survey Department, has just returned 
home from Europe, whither he had gone to seek rest last 
spring after a trying’illness. He returns greatly improved. 

Mr. Max Kraumany, editor of the “Zeitschrift ftir prak- 
tische Geologie,’ announces that hereafter that journal will 
be published in Berlin (Charlottenburg, Schillerstrasse 22), 
and that in connection with it he will establish a “Bureau for 
Practical Geology,” where maps, books and advice concerning 
economic geology can be obtained. 

SEVERAL DISTINCT EARTHQUAKE SHOCKS were felt in New 
York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia and vicinity early on the morn- 


268 The American Geologist. October, 1895 


ing of September ist. These cities are situated on the “fall 
line,” which is supposed to be the line of a fault of compara- 
tively recent date. Motion along this fault is probably still 
in progress, as evinced by the above mentioned disturbance 
and the great Charleston earthquake. 


Union CoLieGE has recently issued an announcement of the 
courses offered by the department uf geology and paleontology 
for the present college year. This department is under the 
direction of Prof. Charles §S. Prosser. Special attention is 
called to the excellent facilities for the study of localities in 
the immediate vicinity of Schenectady, which have become 
classic in the history of North American geology. 


Tue Nortuwest Miners’ Association has been temporarily 
organized and a call has been made for the first general meet- 
ing at Spokane, Washington, October 2d and 3d. At this 
meeting it is proposed to effect a permanent organization and 
to elect permanent officers. It is hoped to enlist for this as- 
sociation the hearty support of all who are engaged, in what- 
ever capacity, in mining in the states of Washington, Idaho, 
Montana and Oregon, and the province of British Columbia. 


THe AMERICAN INstTiITUTE oF MINING ENGINEERS will hold its 
sixty-ninth meeting at Atlanta, Ga., beginning October 8th. 
Several excursions have been arranged, and a special train has 
been engaged to convey members and guests from Washington 
to Atlanta and return. Mr. E. W. Parker, of the U.S. Geo- 
logical Survey, Washington, is in charge of all matters con- | 
nected with transportation, and Prof. W. H. Emerson, Georgia 
School of Technology, Atlanta, is the secretary of the local 
committee, 


THE THIRD VOLUME OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE LAKE SUPE- 
RIOR MininG InstiruteE has recently appeared. The articles 
contained are chiefly on matters pertaining to mining rather 
than geology, such as descriptions of pumping tests in the 

Lake Superior region and in New Jersey, and of hoisting ma- 
chinery at Ishpeming. The only geological paper is one by 
Dr. L. L. Hubbard, the State Geologist, of Michigan, on the 
“Relation of the Vein at the Central Mine, Keweenaw Point, 
to the Kearsarge Conglomerate.” This-paper, which is illus- 
trated by some interesting sections, is of value to the geolo- 
gist for the clues which it affords as to the relations which 
subsist between the eastern and the western sandstones of 
Keweenaw point; and has a particular interest for those en- 
gaged in copper mining because it identifies the Kearsarge 
conglomerate and locates the edge of the basin in which it 
was deposited. <A concise account of the developments on the 
Vermilion and Mesabi iron ranges, which was prepared for 
the Minnesota meeting of the Institute by H. V. Winchell, is 
reproduced in this volume. 


THE 


Pe ICAN GEOLOGIST. 


VELA VE. NOVEMBER, 1895. NOx 5. 


[CRUCIAL POINTS IN THE GEOLOGY OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION. NO. 9.| 


Roe LATEST ERUPTIVES OF THE LAKE 
SUPERIOR REGION. 


By N. H. WINCHELL, Minneapolis, Minn. 

Prof. Irving has called attention to the view of Whittlesey 
and of Foster and Whitney that the Lake Superior basin is a 
great synclinal, which began early in its history, and has illus- 
trated the depression with fresh facts and a lucid mapping by 
contours.* Two principal formations are concerned in giving 
the leading topographic expression of this general truth, viz., 
' the Animikie and the Keweenawan. These strata display their 
entire thickness in bluffs that face outward from the basin 
and constitute the rim which discloses in the main the salient 
steps in the physical history, as well as of the geology of the 
great synclinorium. The line of breaking which caused these 
strata to rise thus and present a rampart against the older 
terranes was very regular on the northern side of the lake 
from Duluth to Thunder bay, but on the south side of the lake 
it was broken and even tortuous eastward from the base of 
Keweenaw point. From the western extremity of the basin 
eastward to about the middle of the same the tilting of these 
formations was regular and synchronous, the southern line of 
the rim running out to the extremity of Keweenaw point, 
where it turned toward the southeast. The northern line of 
the rim runs about parallel with the southern, but begins to 


*The Copper-bearing rocks of lake Superior, pl. XXVIII. 


970 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


turn to the southeast and to lose its characteristic dip, in a 
large measure, eastward from Pigeon point. The line of frac- 
ture and of high dip leaves the mainland and passes to Isle 
Royale and is lost under the lake at the extremity of that is- 
land. Prof. Irving has supposed that it continues, under the 
lake, to Michipicoten island, where it rises to view again, still 
having a southerly dip. It is to be noticed that on each side 
of the lake the line of extreme tilting runs under the lake at 
points nearly opposite each other and near the longitude at 
which they are both deflected toward the southeast. Eastward 
and southeastward from Keweenaw peninsula, and backward 
from its great tilting rampart, lie later sandstones (the “Kas- 
tern sandstone’’), practically concealing, along the lake shore, 
the older geology. Analogy suggests the same age for the 
sandstones that are north of the rampart on the north side of 
the lake. 

But this conclusion does not rest alone on analogy. There 
are certain physical struetures that point strongly in the same 
direction. The whole topography of the national boundary, 
along the north side of Minnesota, extends, near the coast, as 
far as Thunder bay. But this is farther north than the great 
fracture line which marks the summit of the tilted rampart. 
This summit is characterized by the heavy gabbro masses and 
the red granites and felsytes from twenty to thirty miles 
further south. This hill range (the Mesabi range) leaves the 
north shore of the lake at Pigeon point, some of its great dikes” 
being somewhat still further north. It rises again in Isle 
Royale, but for the most part it is under water entirely east- 
ward from that point. The very southernmost part of this 
line of elevation, i. e., the dikes of the Animikie revolution, 
appears along the north shore of Isle Royale, where some of its 
characteristic gabbro dikes rise perpendicularly from the water 
to the hight of several hundred feet, sometimes without a shred 
of the Animikie attached. The rocks of the Lucille islands, 
otf the coast of Pigeon point, are wholly in the Animikie, con- 
sisting of hardened slates and of great dikes of gabbro that 
run nearly east and west. In the midst of the disturbances 
which they have suffered some of the strata have been fused, 
both on Pigeon point and amongst these islands, and red gran- 
ite and quartz-porphyry have resulted. Indeed, one or two 
of these islands consist wholly of such red rock. It is proba- 


Latest Eruptives of Lake Superior Region.—Winchell. 271 


bly for this reason that Irving, who put such amongst his Ke- 
weenawan, in Wisconsin as well as in Minnesota, included 
some of these islands in that formation, although, as now 
known, these felsytes and granites are principally, if not 
wholly, pre-Keweenawan. The northern rim of the great syn- 
clinal, therefore, is a persistent feature. When the dip of the 
Keweenawan and Animikie appears reversed a different great 
synclinal is expressed. But so far as known, throughout the 
Lake Superior region this dip is not reversed. It is always 
toward the great basin. This structural fact again causes it 
to appear improbable that the horizontal sandstones of Black 
bay, which lie north of the northern rampart and non-con- 
formably upon the Animikie, are an integral part of the Ke- 
weenawan. Irving put them in the base of the Keweenawan, 
probably because of the great quantity of diabase with which 
they are associated, apparently not apprehending the facet that 
the strike of those beds is further south with a considerable 
dip to the south, and that it would not be possible for them to 
reverse their dip within the interval (about 18 miles) without 
manifesting it at some place above the surface of the lake. 

If this inquiry be carried further, it will be necessary, in 
the next place, to examine into the nature of these rocks them- 
selves, 

Dr. Robert Bell has given very full descriptions of them in 
several reports of the Geological Survey of Canada.*  Litho- 
logically he regarded them comparable with the Permian or 
Triassic. They consist of light-colored sandstones, often ar- 
gillaceous, sometimes reddish, marls and limestones. When 
the writer examined them in 1879, on the mainland north from 
Silver Islet he was impressed with the aspect of recentness 
which they present, in contrast with all the other rocks of the 
region.+ They lie there in a deeply eroded place in the hori- 
zontal Animikie slates of the region. On Thunder cape the 
Animikie slates rise about 1,000 feet higher, lying horizontal, 
or having a dip of a few degrees into the ieee In this eroded 
depression these later sandstones and marls lie, also about 
horizontal, non-conformably on the Animikie, their base being 
a conglomerate hardly more indurated than the sandstones 
and marls above, and in great contrast with the basal ¢ onglom- 


*Report for 1866-69, pp. 313-364; ditto 1873 pe 97. 
+See 10th Report, Minnesota Suryey. 


272, The American Geologist. November, 1895 


erate of the Keweenawan or of the Animikie. This conglom- 
erate consists largely of red felsyte pebbles, often as large as 
walnuts, and of white quartz. These can of course be referred 
to the Animikie underlying which abounds in red felsytes and 
in taconyte cherts. Bell mentions traces of fossils, and re- 
ports the statements of Indians and others that fossils occur 
abundantly in a limestone farther north, which, however, was 
beyond the range of his instructions. The facts seem to war- 
rant a lithological comparison with the ‘Eastern sandstone” 
of the south shore. 

Thus, structurally, geographically, stratigraphically and 
lithologically, they seem to be the northern representative of 
the Eastern sandstones. But they are interbedded and coy- 
ered by copious trap sheets, a circumstance which doubtless 
has led to their being included by Logan in the ‘upper vol- 
‘anic group” of his ‘Supper copper-bearing series,” an assign- 
ment which has been followed by all geologists. 

That these diabases were not cotemporary with the sedi- 
ments with which they are now associated is made evident, 
however, by Dr. A. C. Lawson,* and therein they show an- 
other remarkable divergence from Keweenawan characters. 
He points out that the Logan sills of the Animikie are also 
the diabase sheets and caps of these sandstones, and date from - 
an intrusion later than the sandstones. He suggests that they 
may be as late as the trap dikes which in Mount Royal (Mon- 
treal) cut through the Trenton limestone. Following are the 
characters which show they were not surface flows of molten 
rock like those of the Keweenawan, but are intrusive sheets 
which penetrated the formation and insinuated themselves 
between the beds after the strata were formed. They are 
thus enumerated by Lawson. He applies these statements to 
the Animikie sills, but as he says the trap sheets of the sand- 
stone are of the same age and are visibly continuous from the 
Animikie to the sandstones, they are applicable to the sand- 
stones. + 

They are not volcanic flows because: 

1. They are simple geological units, not a series of overlapping sheets. 

2. They are flat with uniform thickness over areas more than one 


hundred square miles in extent, and where inclined the dip is due es- 
sentially to faulting and tilting. 


*Bulletin VIII, Minnesota Geological Survey. 
+Op. cit., p. 45. 


Latest Eruptives of Lake Superior Region.— Winchell, 273 


. There are no pyroclastic rocks associated with them. 
. They are never glassy. 

. They are never amygdaloidal. 

. They exhibit no flow structure. 

. They have no ropy or wrinkled surfaces. 

8. They have no lava-breccia associated with them. 

9. They came in contact with the slates after the latter were hard 
and brittle, and had acquired their cleavage: yet they never repose upon 
a surface which has been exposed to sub-aerial weathering. 

They are intrusive because : 

1. They are strictly analogous to the great dikes of the region. (a) In 
their general relations to the adjacent rocks, and in their field aspect. 
(b) In that both their upper and lower sides of the sheets have the 
facies of a dense aphanitic rock, which grades toward the middle into 
a coarsely crystalline rock. 

2. They have a practically uniform thickness over large areas. 

83. The columnar structure extends from lower surface to upper sur- 
face, as it does from wall to wall in dikes. 


3 
4 
6 
if 


4. They intersected the strata above and below them after the latter 
had been hard and brittle. . 

5. They may be observed in direct continuity with dikes. 

6. They pass from one horizon to another. 

8. The bottom of the sedimentary strata above them, wherever it is 


observable, is a freshly ruptured surface. 

9. Apophyses of the trap pass from the main sheet into the cracks of 

the slate above and below. 

10. The trap sheets, particularly at the upper contact, hold included 

fragments of the overlying slates. 
‘11. They locally alter the slates above and below them. 

An intrusive rock may appear at the surface and become a 
lava flow at other places. The writer has been unable to find 
any description of the individual localities of these diabases, 
in the region here considered, which mentions any amygda- 
loidal structure or other characters of eruptive surface rocks. 
Robert Bell, however, in his summary section of the rocks of 
Thunder and Nipigon bays,* mentions layers of trap between 
conglomerates and sandstones, mostly of a light color, which 
are “often amygdaloidal,” occurring on the east side of Black 
bay. In the special description. however, of the east side of 
Black bay such characters are not mentioned and it is left to 
be inferred that in making up the generalized section this 
character was added as one of the usual features of the Ke- 
Weenawan traps, based on what the author knew of those 
traps in general, since he describes these sheets uniformly as 


*Geological Survey of Canada, Report for 1866-69, p. 320. 


274 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


surface flows cotemporary with the sedimentation, wholly 
analagous to those of the Keweenawan. 

Whether these horizontal sandstones are involved with the 
tilted sandstones which form the southern extremity of cape 
Mamainse, at the eastern end of lake Superior, is difficult to 
ascertain from the description of Mr. Thomas Maefarlane.* 
That there are “horizontal sandstones” further south, whieh 
extend to Sault Ste. Marie, is generally admitted. 

There is but one point further to be mentioned going to 
show the later date of these Black Bay traps. Without in- 
cluding the peculiar dips and alternations of the sandstone 
beds at Mamainse, it cannot be questioned that the ‘‘horizon- 
tal sandstones’”’ have been tilted locally since they were depos- 
ited. Such violent rupturing-and bending as Sweet and 
Chamberlin and Irving deseribe and illustrate, the former in’ 
Douglass county, Wisconsin, and the latter along the south- 
eastern side of Keweenaw point, imply profound movements 
in the deeper seated portions of the rocky crust. It is reason- 
able to suppose, as Chamberlin and Irving have, that move- 
ments once begun along a line of weakness would be liable to 
recur there at later dates. Since they have recurred at later 
dates it may be inferred that their origination and recurrence 
have a common cause. Their origination was intimately con- 
nected with the fractures that marked the growth of the Lake 
Superior synelinal, and the outpouring of trap rocks. Their 
recurrence, therefore, must have had the same deep seated 
connection with that movement. In other words, the fractures 
and thrusts which are seen in the horizontal sandstones on the 
south side of the lake, not accompanied by trap outflows so 
far as known, may have been accompanied by such phenom- 
ena on the north side, since on both sides of the great basin 
the rim would be likely to feel the effect of the settling at the 
eenter. 

In fine, although it may not be considered as altogether 
demonstrated that the Black Bay sandstones are no part of 
the Keweenawan proper, there is so much evidence tending 
that way that for the purposes of geological correlation the 
rational observer is compelled to accept it as probable, and to 
construct his taxonomy on that evidence as the most likely 
foundation. 


*Geological Survey of Canada, 1866. 


Upper Silurian in Northeastern Towa— Wilson. 275 
/ 


THE UPPER SILURIAN IN NORTHEASTERN IOWA.* 


By A. G. Wiison, Hopkinton, Iowa. 


The literature on Upper Silurian formations in Towa is not 
very extensive. In D. D. Owen’s report of 1840, relating to 
the mineral lands of Iowa, Wisconsin and part of Illinois, the 
Niagara formation and Galena limestone were classed together 
under the name of Upper Magnesian limestone. 

The Maquoketa shales between the Niagara and Galena were 
not observed by Owen. The Cliff or Upper Magnesian lime- 
stone, however. he divides into the upper, middle and lower. 
As the middle and lower are said to be rich in lead and zine, 
the upper must have been what is now known as the Niagara. 
This is characterized as follows:+ “More regularly stratified 
and less frequently vertically fissured than the middle and 
lower, also more rich in siliceous fossils; containing layers of 
chert and indeed passing sometimes wholly into masses of 
flinty rocks; containing also good iron ore and much crystal- 
lized carbonate of lime, but lead rarely and in unprofitable 
quantities.” He says further that these upper beds contain 
casts of Terebratule, which, from his description and figures, 
appear to be Pentamerus oblongus Sowerby,} and various 
names are given for corals now known as //alysites catenula- 
fus Linn., Pfychophyllum expansum Owen, Lyellia glabra 
Owen, Sfrombodes mammilaris Owen, Strombodes gigas Owen, 
and various others. None of the Iowa reports since that date 
(except the reprint of this one in 1844) has figured any fossils 
from the Upper Silurian. 

In Dr. Owen’s much larger report in 1852 on Wisconsin, 
Iowa, Minnesota and part of Nebraska, this Upper Magnesian 
or Cliff limestone is passed over without so much as a mention. 
In the map accompanying this report, however, he called 
this terrane the Coralline and Pentamerus beds of the Upper 
Magnesian limestone, indicating also that it is the equiv 
alent of the Clinton and Niagara groups of the Upper Silurian, 
while the lead bearing beds are placed in the Lower Silurian 
in his table of colors. 

In Hall’s report on Iowa in 1858 three formations are de- 
scribed as representing the Upper Silurian, viz., the Niagara, 


*Read before Section E, A. A. A. S., Springfield, 1895. 
+Op. cit., p. 24. 
{See pp. 66, 121. 


276 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


the Le Claire and the Onondaga salt group. The Niagara is 
said to be recognized by the fossils //alys‘tes catenulatus and 
Pentamerus oblongus. The Le Claire is said to be* “Gray, or 
whitish limestone, sometimes yellowish on fresh fracture. The 
whole mass is semi-crystalline and very porous, from solution 
and removal of fossils. It is sometimes so extremely and uni- 
formly vesicular as to resemble the porous lavas or amygda- 
loids. The surface is harsh to the touch and on fresh frac- 
ture has the sharpness and harshness of a siliceous rock. It 
would nevertheless appear to be a magnesian limestone, but is 
reputed to make the best limestone in that part of the coun- 
try.” The fossils reported are a small Spirifer,a Spirigera 
or Athyris, a Pentamerus indistinguishable from LP. oce/den- 
falis, several gasteropods and some chambered shells. He adds 
that no complete collections were made. The Onondaga salt 
group or Salina formation is described as an evenly bedded, 
drab colored limestone, which affords rock for building pur- 
poses. 

In the American Journal of Science for May, 1862, A. H. 
Worthen stated it as his opinion that the formations called 
Onondaga and Le Claire by Hall were identical and that their 
characteristic beds were found intercalated, and that they 
represented the upper Niagara. In the New York Regents’ 
report of 1864 Hall stated it as his conclusion that the Le 
Claire was of Niagara age, but still maintained that the beds 
he had called Onandaga overlie the Le Claire. In White’s re- 
port+ these representatives of the Upper Silurian are all placed 
under the title of Niagara group, Hall’s Le Claire being men- 
tioned as synonymous in part, and the Onondaga or Salina 
is not mentioned at all. 

In McGee's Pleistocene history of northeastern Iowa, after 
the statement that Norton maintained Hall’s division into Ni- 
agara and Le Claire, the opinion is expressed that, as no un- 
conformity is known and as the successive strata unquestion- 
ably represent continuous deposition, it is inexpedient to 
divide the series. 

In the Iowa report for 1892 a photographie plate is given 
showing apparent unconformity between the upper and middle 


*Hall’s Geology of Iowa, v a 1, part 1, pp. 73, 75. 
+Geol. of Iowa, 1870, vol. 182. 
{Eleventh Annual Re p. v. gy Geol. Surv., 1889-90, p. 325. 


Upper Silurian in Northeastern Lowa— Wilson. Qt7 


members, though it is stated in the text that this may be only 
false bedding. In this report Keyes says,* ‘The exact sub- 
divisions of the Upper Silurian rocks in Iowa are yet some- 
what unsettled. * * * With the exception of White, 
| McGee’s memoir had not yet appeared] all geologists who 
have examined the Upper Silurian strata in Iowa regard the 
rocks as made up of at least two distinet formations. At 
present these subdivisions differ greatly, not only faunally, but 
in a less marked degree in their stratigraphical and litholog- 
ical characters. For reasons set forth above, Hall’s Le Claire 
seems a desirable name for the upper member as now under- 
stood, while Niagara, for the present, will be retained for the 
lower.” 

In the report last quoted there is also an article by G. L. 
Houser on “Building Stones and Limeburning Dolomites of 
the Niagara in Iowa.”+ The subdivisions recognized in this 
are the upper Niagara, affording the building stone, and the 
middle Niagara, said to be the best for lime; thus implying 
that there is a third or lower member. An article by J. P. 
Farnsworth in the American Geroxroaist for Nov., 1888, per- 
taining to the Niagara in Iowa does not mention subdivisions 
of the group, neither do two articles by Calvin on fossils of 
the Niagara in the American Geotoaist for July and August, 
1893. 

The object of this paper is to state the result of a study of 
these rocks which has extended over several years, with an 
attempt to describe the subdivisions as they appear in count- 
less outcrops in Delaware. Jones, Dubuque and Clayton 
counties. 

The basal member of the formation, as determined by out- 
crops of the Maquoketa shales beneath, is well exposed at the 
following places: (1) at Rockville, Delaware Co.;+ (2) two 
miles northeast of Colesburg; (3) on a branch of Elk creek, 
five miles northeast of Greeley; (4) in the Mississippi bluffs 
near Sabula. 

This basal portion, for which Calvin has used the term 
“beds of passage,” is composed of thin bedded, non-vesicular, 
butf colored dolomite, the layers being from one to three inches 

7D 302 niko Ll 


TOp. cit., p. 203. 
tSee article by Calvin, Proceedings Iowa Acad. Sci., 1894, p. 40. 


278 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


in thiekness, often having thin layers of chert intereala- 
ted, and making up as much as one-third of the mass. Fossils 
appear to be entirely wanting. Above about twenty feet of 
this rock there are usually two or three layers of heavily bed- 
ded dolomite, soft, porous, brownish yellow, with imbedded 
chert nodules; then more thin bedded layers of a white or 
light gray color, with scattered nodules of chert. This basal 
member is from 30 to 50 feet in thickness and can probably 
be recognized only by its stratigraphieal and lithological 
characteristics. 

The second member may for the present be called the lower 
Coralline beds. The rock is at the base softer, more vesicular, 
darker butf, scarcely crystalline, heavily bedded and contains 
Lyellia glabra Owen, Halysites catenulata Linn., Syringopora 
verticellata Goldfuss, and species of Havosites, with perhaps a 
few other corals. Toward the upper part the layers usually be- 
come thinner, harder and more compact, and considerable chert 
is found. These lower Coralline beds are usually 25 to 
30 feet in thickness. These two lower members are useless 
for lime or building stone, except for bridge piers, mill dams 
and footing rock, though they furnish good road materials. 

The next higher member is what has long been known as the 
Pentamerus beds. These are from 70 to 80 feet in thiek- 
ness. The texture at the base is like that of the top of the 
lower Coralline, the rock being grayish in color, compact and 
hard, with splintery fracture. Toward the middle the matrix 
becomes much softer, a brighter yellow, scarcely crystalline, 
quite free from chert and very vesicular. The characteristie 
fossil, Pentamerus oblongus Sowerby, is not abundant at the 
base and is of rather small size. Toward the middle the indi- 
viduals are generally larger and often almost the whole mass 
is made up of this fossil. Toward the top this species becomes 
smaller and is comparatively rare, and is accompanied in 
places by Pentamerus pergibbosus Hall and Whitfield. These 
beds also contain Cer/onites dactylioides Owen, Halysites cate- 
nulatus Linn., Afrypa reticularis Linn. Atrypa nodostriata 
Hall, Strophomena rhomboidialis Wilekins. The uppermost 
25 or 30 feet of the Pentamerus beds resume the texture 
of the basal portion, becoming generally much harder and 
more flinty, often showing on fresh fracture a steel gray color 


Upper Silurian in Northeastern Towa— Wilson. 279 


and often striking fire with the hammer, yet being quite free 
from chert nodules. 

Numerous vertical dry joints, of short extent and roughly 
parallel, and trending generally east by south or at right an- 
gles to this, give a characteristic appearance to a weathered 
surface and cause bluffs to wear away rather rapidly from the 
splitting off of huge vertical slabs. The top layers are very 
heavily bedded, a single layer measuring often from ten to 
twenty feet in thickness. A decided change in the fauna also 
takes place, showing a predominance of univalves and crin- 
oids. Cerionites dactylioides Owen, becomes more abundant. 
Orthoceras occurs in numerous species, as do also Phragioce- 
ras, Gomphoceras and Cyrtoceras. A small species of Cono- 
cardium, a small Spirifer, a large Bellerophon three inches in 
diameter of coil, Pésocrinus gemmiformis Miller, several other 
crinoids and several species of Sfraparollus also occur. It is 
this upper portion of the Pentamerus beds that furnishes the 
best material for lime and it. has been very generally used for 
that purpose. 

At the summit of the Pentamerus beds, there is an abrupt 
change in both the lithological and faunal features. In blutts, 
when the two are in contact, the dividing line can generally 
be easily traced. The contact may be seen in the bluffs of the 
south fork of the Maquoketa river in Delaware county, in the 
S. W. 4 sec. 24, T. 87, R. 4; at Flemming’s mill, N. W. 4 sec. 
29,10. 88, R.4; at Hartwick in N. W.4 sec. 30, T. 88, R. 4; 
in the blutfs of Buck creek in the south part of sec. 9, 'T. 87, 
R. 4; and in the N. W. 4 of sec. 18, T. 87, R. 2, of Dubuque 
county. 

The overlying member has been known as the Coralline beds. 
The rock becomes softer and generally shows thinner bedding. 
The fracture is earthy, the texture isin part crystalline and 
in part coarsely granular. The system of dry joints is no 
longer seen, nor is the steel gray color observed on fresh frac- 
tures. The weathered surfaces are no longer covered with 
sharp projecting points and edges, nor filled with amygdaloid 
‘avities, but show rounded surfaces and irregular lines of 
fracture. When these two members form the land surface, the 
upper part of the Pentamerus beds tends to assume a flat tab- 
ular form, covered with angular blocks, while the Coralline 


280 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


forms dome shaped knolls covered with rounded fragments. 
The fossil Pentamerus seems to be entirely wanting in the 
Coralline beds. In the American Groxoarst for August, 1893, 
Calvin has mentioned some of the principal fossils of this 
horizon. They inelude Ptychophyllum expansum Owen, Strom- 
bodes gigas Owen, Plasmopora astraformis Owen, and Lyellia 
glabra Owen. In addition to these might be named Favosites 
niagarensis Hall, F. hispidus Rominger, I’. hisingeri E. & H., 
Syringopora verticellata Goldfuss, Zaphrentis stokes’ EK. & H., 
Orthis flabellites Hall, and several species of A/veolites and 
Stromatopora. 

These upper Coralline beds are estimated at 40 to 60 feet 
in thickness. 

The beds that succeed the upper Coralline are the ones that 
have so often been described as the building stone of the Ni- 
agara. A good general description of these is quoted from 
McGee's writings, by C. R. Keyes in the Iowa report for 1892, 
page 31. They may be generally recognized by their very even 
bedding, butf or bright yellow color, compact fine-grained tex- 
ture and the general absence of lustre due to crystallization. 
Chert layers are usually present, especially in the upper por- 
tion. Near Manchester these beds are of a decided blue or 
even purple color and nearly free from magnesium, but they 
are generally dolomitic elsewhere. The layers range in thickness 
from two or three inches, making rock adapted for flagging, 
to two feet or more. A system of joints trending about 8. 70° 
KE. is generally present. Very little seems to have been written 
about the fossils of these beds in Iowa and the fossils are less 
numerous than in the Pentamerus and upper Coralline beds. 
They comprise Pentamerus oblongus Sowerby, Huronia verte- 
bralis Stokes, numerous species of Orthoceras, Tllanus dayton- 
ensis Hall and Whitfield, Calymene niagarensis Hall, a few 
crinoids, Liturtes and other coiled cephalopods. These build- 
ing stone beds are from 40 to 60 feet in thickness. 

Contacts between the Upper Silurian and Devonian rocks 
may be seen at Fayette and on the banks of the river midway 
between Coggon and Central City. In the last named place 
the rock lying immediately under the Devonian is a buff, 
heavily bedded dolomite, barren of fossils and so little indu- 
rated that in places it can be easily dug with a spade. It 


High Level Deposits of Kentucky Rivers.—Miller. 28) 


strongly resembles a fine-grained sandstone. It shows the 
even bedding of the building stone and also the same absence 
of cavities. This and the heavily bedded dolomite underlying 
the transition layer at Fayette are believed to be the equiva- 
lent of the building stone above described. 

The total thickness of these beds according to these esti- 
mates would be 200 to 280 feet. Deep wells show a thickness 
at Cedar Rapids* of 285 feet; at Tipton, 325 feet; at Daven- 
port, 320 feet; at Ottumwa, 150 feet; at Ackley, 115 feet; at 
Vinton, 100 feet. At Monticello the well begins in the upper 

-Coralline beds and the thickness of the Upper Silurian is 185 
feet. At Manchester also the well begins in the upper Coral- 
line beds and shows about the same depth to the Maquoketa 
shales. At Hopkinton a well beginning at the top of the Pen- 
tamerus beds shows a depth of 160 feet to the shales. 

The characters given here for these five divisions are be- 
lieved to be sufficient for identifying the respective beds in 
this portion of lowa; and they are given with the hope that 
they may aid in leading to a better understanding of the rela- 
tion of the lowa Niagara to that of neighboring states. These 
characters may be of use locally in indicating the presence or 
absence of building stone or lime burning stone; andas water 
is almost sure to be found at the upper surface of the Maquo- 
keta shales, this may furnish the means of calculating its 
depth below the surface. 

It will be seen from the foregoing that there are cycles or 
alternations of sedimentation in this formation. It begins 
with large quantities of chert in the transition beds below, 
and the summit of the building stone returns to the same 
character, while the intervening beds are comparatively free 
from chert. The lower Coralline strongly resemble the upper 
Coralline beds, lithologically and faunally, while the interven- 
ing Pentamerus beds have a fauna much like that of the build- 
ing stone which overlies the upper Coralline. 


HIGH LEVEL GRAVEL AND: LOAM DEPOSITS OF 
KENTUCKY RIVERS. 


By ArTHUR M. MiuurErR, Lexington, Ky. 
The waste of Carboniferous rocks occurring in the upland 
soil of the Blue Grass region has frequently attracted the at- 


*See article by W. H. Norton, Ia. Geol. Rep., vol. 111, 1893, pp. 186, 
208. 


282 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


tention of Kentucky geologists, and has generally been urged 
as an evidence of the former wide extension of the Carbonif- 
erous rocks over a great part, if not all, of central and north- 
ern Kentucky. According to this view the eastern and west- 
ern coal fields were one time continuous across the now well 
defined Cincinnati anticline, and the present exposure of the 
lowest Silurian strata nearest the axis of this anticline has 
been brought about by the extensive denudation since the 
close of the Carboniferous age. 

While not attempting to dispute this latter proposition— 
the successive lines of retreating geological escarpments, with 
“outliers” of the newer formations far within the encircling 
boundaries of the old, point strongly to this conclusion—yet 
it has been forced upon me that there is perhaps another and 
better explanation of the /oose “waste” of the Carboniferous 
far up on the flanks and even on the crest of this anticline. 

This “waste” consists for the most part of hard materials, 
the quartz pebbles from the basal Coal Measure conglomerate, 
silicified Lithostrotion corals from the St. Louis limestone, and 
quartz geodes from the upper Waverly or Keokuk. Now and 
then, however, some of the softer Coal Measure sandstones 
and even pieces of coal occur in exactly the same situations. 
Moreover, all these show evident signs of being river worn, 
and, accompanied as they frequently are, by deposits of beau- 
tifully stratified sand and clay, they lead one to the conelu- 
sion that they have gotten into their present positions mainly 
through the action of running water. Again, the facts that 
these materials are more abundant near the rivers (four miles 
back is about the maximum limit in the Blue Grass region) 
and are not found upon the tops of the highest hills (3850 feet 
above the present channel seems to be the upper limit), nor 
along those watercourses, whose fountain heads are not within 
the eastern coal field, preclude the idea that they have been 
let down into their present positions as the residual products 
of subaerial decay. 

Prof. G. F. Wright, in his discussion of the ‘Cincinnati 


’ makes mention of the finding of 


glacial dam hypothesis,’ 
these gravels with occasional pieces of coal at high levels 
along the Licking river, both near the mouth and as far up as 
Slate ereek in Bath county. Shaler makes mention of similar 


gy 


THE 
AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. 
Vou. XVI. DECEMBER, 1895. No. 6. 


[CRUCIAL POINTS IN THE GEOLOGY OF THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION. NO. 10.]| 


COMPARATIVE TAXONOMY OF THE ROCKS OF 
THE LAKE SUPERIOR REGION. 


By N. H. WINCHELL, Minneapolis, Minn. 

It remains now, in concluding this review, to gather to- 
gether in a more concise form the views that have been pre- 
sented, and to show what contrasts they present with the 
taxonomy of Messrs. Walcott and Van Hise. These geologists 
are not themselves primarily responsible for the classification 
which they have adopted, although they construct their 
schemes and adjust their arguments upon it. They inherited 
it from the Wisconsin survey in part and in part have allowed 
it to grow up from an artificial and fortuitous set of condi- 
tions arising largely from personal preferences and prejudices 
engendered by the literature of the last fifty years. It is 
probable that the understanding of the stratigraphy of the 
Lake Superior region, at the horizon of the lowest Paleozoic 
rocks, will serve in some measure, as in the understanding of 
the pre-Taconic, in applying the key to the stratigraphy of 
these terranes in the eastern part of the United States. The 
greater abundance of the superficial drift in New England, the 
greater complexity of the early folding and the consequent 
metamorphism, the more limited scope of the early individual 
observations, the greater haste with which they were made on 
the crystalline and sub-crystalline rocks, and the active zeal 
of the observers to support personal opinions, resulting in 


aioe The American Geologis: December, 1895 


partisan and sometimes hostile schools, did not facilitate the 
solution of the structural problems that confronted the geolo- 
gist at this horizon fifty years ago, but they all conspired to 
throw about the geology of the sub-Silurian for many years an 
impenetrable fog which no one was willing to attempt to 
pierce. Later these problems have arisen in the Lake Supe- 
rior region, under different conditions, and they have been 
gradually unfolding under the labor of numerous workers, 
spread over a much wider area and advancing with greater 
precision and deliberation, with more means at their disposal 
and better geological training to fit them for the task. If they 
have made more satisfactory headway, with more cooperation 
and harmony, it is because of different stimulants and more 
genial conditions rather than more skill or greater industry. 
Furthermore, they have had the experience of their predeces- 
sors, both as a guide and as a warning. 

The following table exhibits at a glance the contrasts that 
appear between the classification of Messrs. Waleott and Van 
Hise and that of the writer. The geologist who has followed 
the argument of these papers will have learned what are the 
main reasons for not accepting the taxonomy of the “Correla- 
tion papers” lately issued. If these objections are valid, there 
is a necessity for revision and careful re-examination in the 
field at points where the crucial facts can be seen. 

There are two leading and fundamental differences between 
these classifications, which do not relate in the least to the 
question of nomenclature, although nomenclature may have 
been one of the original elements predisposing one way or the 
other. “hese.are:: 

1. The existence or not of a great erosion interval between 
two sandstones, viz., between the upper member of the Kewee- 
nawan, which consists of red erosible sandstones, and the bot- 
tom of the horizontal sandstone, which, excepting its basal 
conglomerate at overlap contacts, also consists of red erosible 
shales and sandstones, 

2. The integrity or the dismemberment of the Keweenawan. 

In reference to the first, while it is not necessary to rehearse 
the argument in full, it may be well to repeat that all the 
non-conformable contacts of the horizontal sandstone on the 
trap of the Keweenawan, and also those on the quartzytes at 


hell, 


Ti 


— Th 


grou 


e 


i 


Taxonomy of Lake Superior 


Classification of the Lake Superior Formations. 


Formations. 


(According to Correlation papers). 


ARCHEAN. 


Coutechiching. 


Sandstone, | 
Pictured Rocks. 

Limestone and sandstone, 
St. Croix valley. 

Sandstone and conglomerate, 
St. Louis valley. 


Low. Cambrian Erosion-interval here. 
Sandstones and shales 
Montreal river, Nipigon bay. 
Trap flows. 
Gabbro and Anorthosyte 
Duluth to Pigeon Point. 
Quartz porphyry and Quartz porphyry 
conglomerate. 
Mesabi gabbro and red rock. 
Quartzyte. 


Non-conformity. 


Slates. ehanged to mica schists locally. 
[ron-bearing rocks. 

Eruptives (basic). 

Quartz-slate. ; 

Quartzyte. 

Conglomerate. 


Lower Huronian. 


Formations. Kinds of rock and localities. (According to Correla- 
. tion papers). 
Gre St; Croix: Trap on limestone and sandstone,}| UPPER CAMBRIAN. 
Eastern sandstone. c Nipigon. Eastern sandstone. 
eee talks Bune eta euaetone: ss Light cote Bad gio: ee Sand=||iparedamisantietone: 
AMI AN. 1pigon TormatLlon. stones. astern sandstone. 5; 
eaagtsee?: Dear : = Conglomerates at contacts on older||Décellocephus zone. 
(The Dicellocephalus by sel ASIEN CAE a ‘ 
Olenus zone! “Potsdam” of New York.)| = 1 ee M 1 vi pee Sno 
; ‘7 |Sandstones at ontreal river; St wanting). 
a |Se ; j 
= Croix valley; St. Louis valley. < 
© |Keweenawan. * |Trap flows at Montreal river. 
| S Traps and 2 |Quartzyte, at Bessemer, Mich. ; Bar- 
aS underlying a ron Co., Wis.; Pipestone, Minn. SS 
* ‘ ve = 
3/48 Quartzyte and % |Conglomerate, at Barron Co., Wis. || 2 | Keweenawan 
alas Conglomerate. et New Ulm, Minn. ; Grand Portage]| -z or 
‘Al eis Potsdam at ot I.; St. Louis valley; Isle Royal.}| © |Nipigon series 
oles > : Gays ac a ar , ; J 7 rs me 
Les Potsdam, N. Y., and east-| © |Quartzyte at Potsdam, N. Y. 8 
5 a 3 ward to the Au Sable Quartzyte, Merillan, Wis. of 
Oly river. ait 
P : - = = Bye I oa ; 
oD Non-conformity. Non-conformity . ae Non-conformity. 
a . . > 73 = 1 = Fa ? c Fi 
1 5 ; Animikie slates. _ |Quartzytes and Black slates at Grand]|> 
25 5 Pewabie and Wauswaugoning Portage bay and Pigeon point. a 
aro! & quartzytes. Gabbro dikes and laecolites, Duluth}| 4 
a a Penokee series. to Pigeon point. Z 
pall ate Mesabi iron range. uartz porphyry and Augite syenite.}| 4 
o| Aa: e I Forel 
Sig's Misquah hills. Acid lavas. = |Penokee. 
3|E= . |Gabbro and Anorthosyte range.|Iron-bearing rocks. 4 |Animikie. 
& z Xs Norian. Cherty limestone. bat Mosse Euros 
“1% we Upper Laurentian. Quartzyte and conglomerate at the pper Auronian 
iS) “3 ‘> |Bohemian range and SouthCop-|__base of the Animikie. 
Siete red per range in Michigan. Massive diabases.. 
Ss Minong range, Isle Royal. Hard aes and tilted black slates, 
= Brule L. 
2 Changed clastices of Pigeon point. 
5 The Great Non-Contormity. 
Keewatin. a 
Ontarian. | 


Un-conformity. 


Marenisean. 


Laurentian. 


Laurentian. 


334 Tue American Geologist. December, 1895 


Baraboo, Wis., that have been appealed to, are more reasonably 
explainable on the hypothesis of a progressive subsidence of 
the region and submergence beneath the ocean, incident to an 
epoch of voluminous igneous ejection. Furthermore, this sub- 
sidence is not a hypothesis; it is proved. In that case there 
may have been no atmospheric erosion-interval, but, after local 
fracturing of the ocean’s bed and the outpouring of lava, sed- 
imentation was resumed and resulted in alternating igneous 
and elastie strata. Toward the end of the epoch of disturb- 
ance fractures occurred in some places without the issue of 
lava, while in other places lava was poured out in vast 
amounts. The former may be seen on the south side of the 
lake, as at Keweenaw point, and the latter in the Nipigon 
region. 

It might be remarked, in addition to the objections already 
urged against a great erosion-interval at this horizon, that, if 
the Lower Cambrian is entirely wanting in the Lake Superior 
region, the top of the pre-Cambrian there presents an anomaly. 
The top of the pre-Cambrian is usually a very firm and evena 
crystalline rock. Its great age necessitates this—i. e., if the 
Cambrian be not limited at the Olenellus zone. Here, how- 
ever, the hypothesis of the Wisconsin survey, adopted by the 
U.S. Geological Survey, reveals the top of the pre-Cambrian 
as an erosible red sandstone with an upper limit that is wholly 
unknown, sometimes tilted and sometimes horizontal, its con- 
tact with the horizontal Cambrian above nerer having been 
seen. At the same time, the base of this erosible sandstone is 
equally elusive, since it vanishes in a mass of conformable 
eruptives, whose appearance is so fresh that they have been 
classed as Mesozoic by several geologists. On so slender a 
thread does this important hypothesis hang. 

In regard to the separation of the Keweenawan system as 
defined by Irving, into three parts, Lower, Middle and Upper 
Cambrian, each marked by its eruptive rocks and character- 
ized by its own clastics, there seems to be not only much ey1- 
dence, but even a necessity for such differentiation. No 
student of the geology of the Lake Superior region can avoid 
the conviction of something anomalous and bizarre in the 
composition and structural features of the Keweenawan as it 
has been described and mapped. Instead of the individual 


Taxonomy of Lake Superior Region.—Winchell, 335 


and simple entity which it appears to be, it is a complex sys- 
tem. The difficulties of the region are great, but sufficient 
has been learned to warrant some leading distinctions. The 
unique and definite conception which may be derived from 
the published descriptions of the Keweenawan gradually 
crumbles away when one goes into the field and carefully notes 
the facts. He first experiences a profound bewilderment, 
from which he emerges with sharpened eagerness to solve the 
conflict between his preconceived notions and the apparently 
anomalous facts. This pursuit, in the case of the Minnesota 
survey, has been continued during several years. Ocecasion- 
ally new data have been discovered which have led to changes 
in interpretation, and later discoveries have necessitated still 
further improvements. No attempt has been made, however, 
until now to group the entire system in a consistent structural 
scheme. Even now the discussion is but partial and the 
classification provisional. It has yet to be rounded out with 
a fund of fact that cannot here be presented, and it may have 
to be still further changed, but as a classification it rests on a 
large amount of field work and of comparative study of the 
published literature. 

In concluding this series of papers it is interesting to note 
how beautifully the grand succession of geologic events in 
America in Cambrian time compares with the succession in 
Europe. Dr. Hicks has recently remarked as follows :* 

There can be no doubt that the genera Olenellus, Paradowides and 
Olenus in the areas where they have been found to succeed each other 
in conformable sediments do mark very definite periods in the world’s 
history; but such arbitrary lines are not natural, and we must expect 
to find from time to time that the limit assigned to a genus will have to 
be extended as new areas are being explored. Where a genus, which 
has been sufficiently abundant to characterize a main zone, disappears 
suddenly, there is usually some indication in the deposits of at least a 
slight physica] change. At St David’s this is particularly marked, for 
immediately below the lowest Puradowxides horizon a fine conglomerate 
containing angular fragments of volcanic material occurs, and this I 
have taken as the boundary line between the Caerfai (Olenellus beds) 
and the overlying Solva (Platonian and Parudowides beds). Again at 
the top of the Menevian, and separating it from the overlying Lingula 
flags (Olenus beds), massive grits succeed black slates and in these grits 
again we meet with volcanic materials. Were it not for these changes 


*Life Zones in Paleozoic Rocks, Geological Magazine, dec. iv, vol. 1, 
p. 404, 1894. 


336 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


I doubt not the genera would have a greater vertical range, and at cer- 
tain horizons also intermediate forms would be found. 

The succession of these three sub-faunal zones has been 
well established in America. But the cause of the changes 
from one to the other has been problematical. As indicated 
by Dr. Hicks, such cause can be seen in the nature of the sed- 
iments, where the strata are conformable, but where they are 
entirely non-conformable at definite horizons it can be seen, 
especially in the Lake Superior region, in the succession of 
eruptive epochs whose activity is attested not only by the 
faunal changes but by the presence of the eruptive masses in 
great volume. 

The writer has been compelled to limit the present diseus- 
sion to the rocks that lie above the great non-conformity at 
the base of the Taconic. To fully review the classification of 
the “Correlation papers” would require another series devoted 
to the Archean, in respect of which are inconsistencies and 
assumptions, in the publications here reviewed, which can 
only be considered detrimental to the progress of geology. 
These chiefly center in and revolve about the introduction, 
the definition and the application of the term Algonkian, the 
whole constituting, in brief, one of the greatest mistakes of 
American official geology. With this brief expression of 
opinion, the writer is compelled to forego the discussion of 
this portion of the subject. 

Minneapolis, April 2, 18965. 

SuPPLEMENTARY Nore. In writing of the Canadian localities of the 
Taconic eruptives (vol. xv, p. 356, June, 1895), by an unfortunate over- 
sight the earliest mention of the rocks of Mt. Stephen, and the erup- 
tives found therein, was omitted by the writer. 

The first announcement of Cambrian fossils from this region was 
made by Mr. H. H. Winwood (on the authority of Dr. Hicks) in the 
London Geological Magazine, May, 1885. The first discovery of such 
fossils was made by Dr. G. M. Dawson, in August, 1884. These, as 
well as those afterwards collected during Mr. Winwood’s visit (at the 
time of the British Association excursion), were examined by Mr. C. 
D. Walcott, who recognized Olenellus gilberti and howelli and Olen- 
oides levis. Publication occurred shortly afterward in the Annual 
Report Geol. Sur. Can., 1885, (pp. 119B, 139B). Mr. McConnell, there- 
fore, who collected later and more fully from the same place, knowing 
this earlier announcement. was in no haste to place his discoveries on 
record. 


Taxonomy of Lake Superior Region.— Winchell. Boe 


It is, further, of interest to note, that in the same report (pp. 515, 
157B, etc.), contemporaneous igneous rocks occur amongst these strata 
in this part of the mountains, thus adding another, and quite import- 
ant locality where in Canada a similar history prevailed. 

Still later, Mr. A. P. Low, of the Canadian survey, has made an 
important announcement (Summary report of operations of the survey 
for 1894, G. M. Dawson, director, Ottawa, 1895: reviewed in the Am, 
Geologist, Sept., 1895, p. 199). In the course of his explorations in the 
Labrador peninsula, he discovered a great and hitherto unknown area 
of Taconic rocks, ‘‘ extending north-northwest from north latitude 53 
degrees to beyond the west side of Ungava bay. These rocks are made 
up of a great thickness of conglomerates, sandstones, slates, shales and 
limestones, together with intrusive igneous rocks. Their chief economic 
value isdue to the immense amount of bedded iron ore found along with 
them. The ores are chiefly specular and red hematite, together with 
beds of siderite or carbonate of iron. Thick beds of fine ore associated 
with jasper were met with in many places on both the Ungava and 
Hamilton rivers; and the amount seen runs up into millions of tons. 
Owing to their distance from the seaboard, these ores at present are of 
little value, but the time may come when they will add greatly to the 
wealth of the country.’’ The reviewer adds: ‘‘ The similarity of these 
areas with the valuable mining districts of northern Michigan, Wiscon- 
sin and Minnesota seems especially noteworthy.’ It seems likely, 
therefore, that, with the great Norian anorthosytes for which Labrador 
is well known, that peninsula will yet develop into one of the interest- 
ing localities of Canadian Taconic rocks, comparable with the Taconic 
of the Lake Superior region. 


The reader will please make the following errata in this series of 
papers: 

P. 299, vol. xv, seventh line from the top, for ‘‘distributed,’’ read 
disturbed. 

P. 304, vol. xv, seventh line from the top, for ‘* Adirondack,’’ read 
Taconic. 

P. 18, vol. xvi, last line in the foot note, for ‘*xtv,’? read xv. 

P. 150, vol. xvi, twelfth line from the bottom, for ‘ ever,’’ read 
even. 

P. 210, vol. xv1, third line from the top, for ‘‘ applicable,’ read 
capable. 

P. 212, vol. xvi, between the fifth and sixth lines from the bottom, a 
line has been omitted: supply, Keweenawan and the reddish sand 
stone of the. 

Paris, Oct. 16, 1895. 


338 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


RIVER VALLEYS. OF THE. OZARK PEATEAL: 
By Oscar H. HersuHey, Freeport, Il). 

In traveling over the Ozark plateau or so-called Ozark 
mountains in Missouri and Arkansas, the writer was sur- 
prised at the comparative narrowness of the immediate valleys 
of the streams, and was led to make an investigation of the 
subject, of which the following observations and conelusions 
are the result. The study is far from complete, but it is 
hoped that this paper may contain some suggestions for 
future researches into the geomorphology of the Mississippi 
basin. 

The Ozark region has been frequently described, and 
the majority of readers are doubtless acquainted with its 
topography. It is essentially a plain which has been elevated 
into a broad, dome-shaped “uplift,” and subsequently it has’ 
been sculptured by erosion into very numerous deep and gen- 
erally quite narrow valleys, with narrow, steep-sided ridges 
between. The crest or water-shed of the plateau has mostly 
an undulating or moderately rolling surface, while the exceed- 
ingly hilly and mountainous country occupies the border por- 
tions of the uplift. The rock strata consist largely of mag- 
nesian limestones and intercalated sandstones of Upper 
Cambrian and Lower Silurian age, with cherty limestones and 
shales of Lower Carboniferous age resting on them toward 
the north, west, and southwest. The conglomerate sandstone 
of the base of the Coal Measures is also present, over the 
Burlington limestone, well within the limits of the uplift, as 
isolated remnants of a once more extensive formation. The 
dip of the strata is gentle and regular, so much so that they 
are perhaps more nearly horizontal than are the same form- 
ations in any other portion of the American continent. 

THe JURA-CRETACEOUS PENEPLAIN. 

It does not take the traveler in the Ozarks very long to dis- 
cover that nearly all the ridges rise to about the same hight, 
and that, were the intervening valleys filled up to the level of 
the hill tops, we should have a nearly level plain. On the 
hard Burlington limestone areas, one will frequently look for 
many miles across the country and see only, in’ appear- 
ance, a vast timbered plain, although it is one of the roughest 
regions east of the Rocky mountains. This ancient and 


. 


River Valleys of the Ozark Plateau.—Hershey. 339 


eroded plain is not confined to regions underlain by any one 
formation, but passes alike over Cambrian, Silurian, and Car- 
boniferous strata: nor is it confined to the Ozark plateau, but 
descends by a gentle slope to the level of the upland country 
which surrounds the plateau on all sides, excepting the south- 
east. Thence it extends across the prairies, joining the 
similarly channeled plains of other uplifted tracts in the 
eastern portion of the continent; and westward it passes 
across the Coal Measures until it sinks under the Cretaceous 
strata of the Great plains. It is the Jura-Cretaceous pene- 
plain, which was produced by subaérial erosion during a long 
period approximately coinciding with the Mesozoic era. At 
or near the close of Cretaceous time the Ozarks did not exist, 
either as a plateau or mountains, but their present site was 
occupied by a low, marshy plain of very slight relief, prob- 
ably nearly at sea level. 

But there are, at widely separated intervals in the Ozark 
region, small hills and short ridges, which rise from twenty- 
five to fifty or perhaps occasionally one hundred feet above 
the level of the peneplain. They are generally composed of 
sandstone, and in the western part of the region are fre- 
quently largely made up of coarse conglomerate which belongs 
to the basal member of the Coal Measures. When of some 
material which powerfully resists erosion, they are steep- 
sided and quite prominent, affording extensive views over the 
surrounding country. These mounds and small ridges gener- 
ally occur on the watershed between the principal streams, 
but are also found far within the broken country, often stand- 
ing on the edges of the deepest valleys. 

The examples of these ridges and knobs which I have ex- 
amined particularly are on the watershed between the Osage 
and Missouri rivers, on the crest or general watershed of the 
plateau between Lebanon and the Arkansas line, in the broken 
country of Barry and Stone counties, and beyond the Ozark 
upliftin western Missouri and southeastern Kansas. But from 
maps and other sources I learn that they are widely scattered 
over the Ozarks in both Missouri and Arkansas. Belonging 
to the same class are doubtless the ‘‘mounds” in Bates, Cass, 
Johnson, Lafayette, and other counties of western Missouri, 
described by Broadhead as “ridges several miles long, and oc- 


340 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


casionally a single mound 80 or 100 feet above the lower 
plains, with an area of probably half an acre on the summit. 
Other mounds may be near, or distant two, five, or fifteen 
miles. ‘The visibly depressed or eroded area may be a pris- 
moid 100 feet deep by five or ten miles in one direction and 
twenty miles or more in another.’’* 

On the main watershed I find generally very long, sometimes 
narrow, and again broad ridges, which merge into the broad 
plain-like country of the crest or, as it has been called, plateau 
portion of the Ozarks. Also from Scholten in Barry county, 
extending several miles toward the northwest, there is a nar- 
row ridge, composed of Carboniferous sandstone and conglom- 
erate, rising from 25 to 50 feet above the surrounding upland 
country. This is entirely isolated, being distant about ten 
miles from the plateau country near Aurora. 

The mounds and short ridges here discussed may be specifi- 
cally classed with the monadnocks of New England; ‘and 
they may be said to bear the same relation to the surrounding 
peneplain as do the “mounds” of the lead region of Wisconsin, 
Towa, and IHlinois. Although much less conspicuous features 
of the topography, their existence is equally significant with 
the other members of the class named. 

There is another series of elevations on the surface of the 
Jura-Cretaceous peneplain. For examples of these I shall 
draw chiefly from the counties of Barry and Stone, in the 
southwestern part of Missouri. The upland country here is 
composed of the hard cherty limestones of the Kinderhook and 
Burlington formations, which have resisted erosion better 
than the magnesian limestones to the east, and hence better 
preserve the original outlines of the peneplain. It has already 
been remarked that the hill-tops in the Burlington limestone 
areas rise to a nearly uniform hight. But close observation 
shows that the ancient plain thus represented is not now level, 
but rises very gently from the vicinity of the streams to the 
watersheds. The rate generally does not exceed a few feet 
per mile, and the exceedingly shallow basins thus formed are 
nearly imperceptible. Occasionally several streams head in 
some slightly undulating elevated tract of small extent, and 
flow outward to all points of the compass. Such a tract occurs 


* AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, vol. xiv, p. 388, Dec., 1894. 


River Valleys of the Ozark Plateau.—Hershey. 341 


-at the head of Pine run in Stone county, and overlooks much 
of the surrounding country. It is composed of strata yielding 
more readily to surface erosion than the sandstone ridge at 
Scholten, and henee is less prominent. Its topography resem- 
bles that of the plateau country, of which it may be consid- 
ered an outlier. 

Only in one way can the steep-sided sandstone mounds and 
ridges have been produced, namely, by erosion. There are 
several ways by which the shallow basins on the peneplain 
may have been produced. They may be due to warpings of 
the earth’s surface since the post-Cretaceous elevation of the 
Ozarks. Warping has certainly occurred over most of the 
Ozark region, but, in that particular portion of it under 
consideration, the strata are so nearly horizontal that no 
great amount of warping can have occurred. Besides, the 
basins form such a regular system, and have such relation to 
the rocky strata under them, that some form of erosion, 
instead of warping, will better explain all the phenomena. 

These shallow basins may be supposed to have been pro- 
duced by subaérial erosion since the elevation of the pene- 
plain. The broader ridges are flat-topped and quite regular 
in hight. They gently descend from the sides to the center 
of the basin. Now, surface erosion should be fully or nearly 
as much at the edges of the basins as in the center. Where 
the edges are narrow, the effect on the streams on either side 
has been to depress them from 10 to 25 feet. But this is 
quite unlike the steady slope of a ridge from one end to 
another. Again, the centers of the larger basins are some- 
times 50 to 100 or more feet lower than the rim. Ordinary 
surface erosion in a hilly country could not be the cause of 
this. In short, it may be said that the theory of surface 
erosion since the elevation of the peneplain is inconsistent 
with the phenomena of the basins. 

One other hypothesis remains open for inspection, namely, 
that the almost imperceptible basins here discussed are the 
outlines of the hydrographic basins of the streams which 
flowed on the Cretaceous lowland plain. This hypothesis 
seems to explain all the phenomena. The baseleveling of 
the region was nearly complete. The rims of our basins 
oecupy the situations of the dividing cols of the ancient 


342 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


drainage system. The elevated tracts like that at the head 
of Pine run in Stone county, and the plateau country or crest 
of the Ozarks, were the higher portions of the plain, where 
the streams had their sourees. The short ridges and mounds 
above described were preserved from erosion on account of 
the hardness of their strata, and were the only elevations of 
any prominence on the ancient plain. 
TERTIARY VALLEYS. 

The larger streams in the Ozark region are exceedingly tor- 
tuous and flow in comparatively narrow, steep-sided valleys, 
trenched 200 to 500 feet below the level of the surrounding 
upland. The meanders of the streams are similar in form to 
those produced on broad flood-plains: but in this case the 
valleys partake of the meandering course of the rivers, and 
there are practically no flood-plains, although generally a 
narrow tract of river swamp deposit spreads to a few times 
the width of the stream, and changes about from side to side 
as it is displaced by the river approaching the bluffs. 

These river valleys are compound, consisting of a small 
trough excavated in the bottom of a much larger trough or 
valley. The duplex form of the valleys is especially notice- 
able in the portion of the White river basin crossing the region 
of Lower Carboniferous limestone. Standing on the edge of 
the higher upland, on the heavily timbered ridges of the ex- 
ceedingly rough country locally known as the Carney moun- 
tains, and looking south across the valley of White river, one 
sees a broad moderately rolling plain, pleasantly diversified 
with cultivated lands and small tracts of timber, and bounded 
on the southern side beyond the Arkansas line by the pine- 
elad hills of the Eureka mountains. Far to the west is the 
still higher range of the Pea ridge, and scattered about in the 
cultivated lowland are timbered, cone-shaped hills or peaks, 
rising nearly or quite to the level of the surrounding moun- 
tainous tracts. Descending from the hills and traversing the 
lower but still undulating country, the traveler is surprised to 
find the White river occupying a small valley only four or five 
times wider than its stream bed, although trenched 100 or 
more feet below the level of the larger valley. 

In the smaller valleys of the region the contrast between the 
two troughs is not so prominent. Along the James river and 
smaller streams, such as Flat creek, the plane of demarkation 


River Valleys of the Ozark Plateau.—Hershey. 343 


between the two troughs consists of persistent though some- 
what irregular terraces, known among the settlers as “bench 
lands,” which are found near the base of the valley slopes, fre- 
quently changing from side to side as the lower trough may 
approach one or the other of the older valley’s borders. These 
“bench lands” are persistent throughout that district, and to 
some extent throughout the Ozarks. Starting near the head- 
waters of the streams, they first appear asa slight relief along 
the sides of the valley bottom. Thence, as the main valley 
deepens, they rise higher above its bottom and become broader 
and more prominent features of the topography. The town 
of Galena in Stone county, Missouri, is mainly built on this 
terrace plane, and many of the farm buildings along the James 
river have been erected on its flat surface, especially where, at 
the intersection of valleys, it frequently runs far out in a point 
or cape-like projection. At Galena and in all valleys of that 
vicinity the hight of the terrace above the present streams aver- 
ages from 50 to 60 feet; but where it connects with the broad 
ancient valley of White river, its elevation is considerably over 
100 feet above the stream. Farther on down the latter valley 
in Taney county, Missouri, and in the portion of the Ozarks 
extending into Arkansas through which the White river flows, 
much of the country near the river, which is described as a 
very hilly upland, is in truth merely a part of the upper 
trough or ancient valley that has been deeply excavated by 
subsequent erosion. 

When first observed by the writer, these terraces were 
thought due possibly to a diversity in hardness of the various 
strata of the bed-rock of the region. It was noticed that the 
valley above the terrace was excavated in the cherty shales 
and limestones of the Lower Carboniferous system, while the 
lower trough was trenched chiefly into the dolomites of the 
Ozark series. But a comparison of erosion forms in the east- 
ern Ozarks and the western portion of Missouri made it evi- 
dent that the Lower Carboniferous rocks were harder and 
less easily eroded than the strata of the Ozark series. Further- 
more, in tracing the terrace plane up the smaller valleys, it 
was found to be equally well developed after the Ozark dol- 
omites, or “cotton-rock,” as they are locally denominated, had 
disappeared under the base of the valleys; and when these 


d44 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


terraces had been traced up over the Kinderhook shales onto 
the crinoidal limestone of the Burlington period, it became a 
certainty that the variable hardness of the rock had nothing 
whatever to do with the formation of the terraces. After the 
upper trough or main portion of the stream valleys had been 
excavated to approximately its present size and form, the 
entire region in which these terraces occur, which includes 
the Ozark plateau and much of the surrounding country, was 
elevated by an epeirogenic movement, which lowered the base- 
level relatively to the general surface, and permitted the 
streams to cut new valleys in the bottom of the older ones. 
Whatever movements may have subsequently affected the 
region, this elevation was to a certain extent permanent. 

Isolated remnants of what appear to be terraces occur at 
various hights along the hillsides far above the prominent 
terrace here described, but they are indistinct and unimport- 
ant, and no attempt has been made to correlate them. Some 
probably are due to difference in hardness of the rocks; 
others may record slight movements of the region, while the 
remainder may have originated through variability in erosive 
power, to which all streams are liable. 

The problem of locating, among the periods of geologic 
time, the date of the epeirogenic elevatory movement to which 
the lower troughs owe their origin, is rather difficult at the 
present stage of the study. I will, however, endeavor to indi- 
eate my opinion on the subject, and will make use of several 
methods for determining the age of a valley. The first is by 
a comparison of valleys in the Ozarks with valleys of a known 
age in other regions: and the second is by the stratigraphic 
relations of the inclosed deposits. 

It is generally conceded that streams of nearly equal size, 
flowing with equal drainage gradients, through strata pre- 
senting the same resistance to erosion, will erode valleys 
approximately equal in size. Hence, also, nearly equal val- 
leys (all conditions governing their erosion being about alike ) 
may be considered to have been formed in essentially the 
same length of time. I wish to apply this principle in roughly 
determining the age of the valleys in the Ozarks, and shall 
compare the valleys of three streams in Illinois, namely, the 
Rock and Pecatonica rivers and Yellow creek, with four 


River Valleys of the Ozark Plateau.—Hershey. 345 


streams in Missouri, namely, the Osage river on the northern 
slope of the Ozark uplift, and the White and James rivers and 
Flat creek on the southeastern slope of the same highland 
region. 

The ancient or Tertiary valley of the Rock river, which is 
still occupied by this stream to the mouth of the Kishwaukee 
river, averages three miles in width and. 150 feet in depth. 
The upper trough of the White river in: Missouri averages 
perhaps three to five miles in width and 200 feet in depth. It 
will thus be seen that they are approximately equal in size; 
the amount of strata excavated by the White river is some- 
what greater than by Rock river, but at the same time the 
drainage area of the former above the point of comparison is 
greater than of the latter. I am not so well acquainted with 
the valley of the Osage, but know its upper trough to be sim- 
ilar in size to the Tertiary valley of Rock river. 

The Tertiary or preglacial valley of the Pecatonica river in 


northwestern Llinois—a stream comparable in size to the 
James river in southwestern Missouri—is from one to two 
miles wide and averages 150 feet in depth. The upper trough 
of the James river varies from a half mile to one mile in 
width, with an average depth of 200 feet. The Pecatonica 
valley is thus somewhat larger than the upper valley of the 
James; but the former is excavated in softer strata than the 
latter, and apparently required about the same length of time 
for the performance of the work of erosion. 

Again, the preglacial valley of Yellow creek in northwest- 
ern Illinois—a stream comparable in size to Flat creek in 
southwestern Missouri—is 3,000 feet in width and L150 feet in 
depth. The upper gorge or valley of Flat creek varies from 
one-fourth to three-fourths of a mile in width, and averages 
200 feet in depth. So they, likewise, are approximately 
equal in size. 

Other valleys in northwestern Illinois and southwestern 
Wisconsin could be compared with valleys in the Ozark 
region with a like result. It is evident that as the valleys in 
the former region are about equal in size to the upper gorges 
or valleys in the Ozark region, when all the conditions of 
areas of drainage basins, drainage gradient, and rock strata 
are similar, they required about the same length of time for 


346 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


their excavation. Now, the period of erosion of the ancient 
valleys in northwestern Illinois is limited, being subsequent 
to the period of Cretaceous baseleveling and previous to the 
glaciation of the region. Jn short, it corresponds to the Ter- 
tiary era, and I have referred to the valleys then eroded as 
Tertiary valleys. Similarly in the Ozark region the erosion 
of the upper troughs of the streams first began when the Jura- 
Cretaceous peneplain was uplifted, and continued to the close 
of the Tertiary era. These troughs are the Tertiary valleys of 
southern Missouri, while the nearly imperceptible basins on 
the peneplain are the Cretaceous valleys of the same region. 
QUATERNARY VALLEYS. 

The Pleistocene gorge of the Rock river below the mouth of 
the Kishwaukee in Illinois first came into existence on the re- 
treat of the first ice-sheet that had overrun what is now Il-_ 
linois, and it has been in process of formation, at varying 
rates, ever since. But it was practically completed previous 
to the deposition of the loess of the Mississippi valley. It 
averages, in the portions which are strictly post-Tertiary in 
age, about a quarter of a mile in width and 75 to 150 feet in 
depth. The lower gorge or present valley of the White river 
is a fourth to a half of a mile in width, and averages in Mis- 
souri 100 feet in depth. The cross-section of one is thus seen 
to be approximately equal to the other. Similar Pleistocene 
rock gorges of the Pecatonica river are an eighth of a mile 
wide and 60 feet deep. The lower trough of the James river 
near Galena averages a sixth of a mile in width and 60 feet 
in depth. Pleistocene gorges in the Yellow creek valley are 
about 400 feet wide and 60 feet deep. The lower trough in 
the Flat creek valley averages 600 feet wide and 60 feet deep. 
It is thus seen that the cross-section of the lower troughs or 
immediate valleys of the Ozark streams is greater than of the 
Pleistocene valleys in northwestern Illinois, but the difference 
is not very great in amount. 

It must be remembered, however, that the gorges of Illinois 
extend through only a comparatively small portion of a 
stream’s course, while those of Missouri extend throughout 
the entire length of the stream. But since the Pleistocene 
valleys, although quite narrow as compared with the Tertiary 
valleys of the sam? region, are from three to twenty times as 


River Valleys of the Ozark Plateau.—Hershey. 347 


wide as the present streams, the greater portion of the period 
of erosion is known to have been occupied by the stream in 
widening its valley by meandering and undermining its walls, 
which take place not more than a few times more rapidly in 
a short than ina long gorge. My observations show that the 
cross-section of a gorge does not depend so much on its length 
as it does on the depth and on the nature of the rock, A 
comparison of short valleys and ravines, having nearly equal 
drainage areas, of Pleistocene age in northwestern Illinois, and 
of the age of the lower troughs in southern Missouri, shows 
that the latter are not many times larger than the former. In 
short, from an examination of all the phenomena in both re- 
gions, I feel safe in asserting that the lower troughs or present 
immediate valleys of the streams in the Ozark region have 
not required more than two or possibly three times as long for 
their excavation as the Pleistocene gorges and ravines of 
northwestern Illinois. 

The earliest known glaciation of Illinois, although many 
times older than the last or that which formed the great mo- 
raine systems, was still perhaps nearer the middie than the 
beginning of the Quaternary era; and, as the erosion of the 
rock-gorges of Illinois has occupied perhaps three-fourths of 
the time since that first glaciation, its length is probably not 
over half that of the Quaternary era. Therefore the period 
of erosion of the lower troughs of the Ozark region, if only 
two or three times as long, would correspond approximately 
to the whole of this era. This reasoning is far from conclusive, 
but, as I hope to show, there is other and even stronger evi- 
dence that the channeling of these valleys began near the be- 
ginning of Quaternary time. 

MEANDERING COURSES OF THE STREAMS. 

The cause of the exceeding crookedness of the Ozark valleys 
has been much discussed during the past few years, two chief 
hypotheses being advanced. One attributes the interminable 
windings of the streams to the effect on them of systems of 
joint planes developed in the Ozarks. While some of the 
minor crooks of the valleys may be due to this cause, I can 
find nothing but contradictory evidence in the application of 
this theory to the larger valleys. Slight anticlinals are locally 
developed in the Ozarks, but the streams maintain their 


348 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


courses irrespective of their existence. The theory which 
seems most in accordance with the known facts is that which 
attributes the crooks to the former meandering of the streams 
on a lowland plain. I have observed that the valleys endeavor 
to follow the lowest portions of the ancient Cretaceous valleys 
or basins, which, as we have seen, supplied the conditions for 
the development of a most perfect system of meanders. The 
old Tertiary valleys are not nearly so crooked as are the 
streams at the present day. In general, the windings of the 
Cretaceous streams, as revealed by the Tertiary valleys, were 
of greater magnitude than at any subsequent period, and were 
in proportion to the size of the stream. It is assumed that, 
following the post-Cretaceous elevation of the Ozarks—the 
most profound elevatory movement which has ever affected 
them,—the streams trenched their valleys in the positions’ 
which they had formerly occupied on the peneplain. After 
cutting to the new Tertiary baselevel they spent a long period 
in undermining the valley walls, until they had formed a new 
but much more circumscribed flood-plain, about which they 
meandered somewhat like the streams of the present day. 

As indicated by the lower troughs of the valleys, this late 
Tertiary system of meanders was less in magnitude than the 
previous Cretaceous system. This may have been due either 
to the more limited area of the flood-plain or to a diminished 
supply of water, probably in part to both these conditions. 
We have now reached the second step in the production of the 
crooks in the present rivers, for the lower or Quaternary 
valley winds about within the very crooked Tertiary valley. 
The post-Tertiary elevation appears to have been sufticiently 
rapid to cause the streams to cut the new valleys exactly or 
nearly under their old courses. In the progress of time the 
streams had again cut to their new baselevel, and have since 
widened their valleys sufficiently to allow the formation of a 
new system of meanders, which, however, is very imperfect as 
compared with the previous ones. The streams are flowing 
from side to side of the valley, first undermining one bluff 
and then the other, forming high mural precipices on the 
outer side of the curves and a comparatively gentle slope on 
the inner side. It is a system of meanders confined to too 
limited an area to give it free play, and were the rocky walls 


River Valleys of the Ozark Plateau.—Hershey. 349 


removed it would probably be comparable in size to that of 
the Tertiary era, but not of the Cretaceous. This is the third 
and last step in the formation of the present courses of the 
streams, which, as mapped, may be considered to be the com- 
plex result of three distinct systems of meanders separated 
by wide intervals of time. 

CoMPARATIVE STRAIGHTNESS OF THE MissourI VALLEY. 

The Missouri river flows across the northern edge of the 
Ozark uplift, but differs from other rivers of the region by 
being comparatively straight, although above the region of 
the uplift it has a broad valley and meanders on a flood- 
plain. The immediate valley of the river, from near Boone- 
ville onward, varies from one to two miles in width, and is 
trenched below the floor of another valley several times as 
large. At Jefferson City the lower gorge is perhaps about 100 
feet deep, and the rim of the upper gorge or trough lies a 
short distance south of the city and is about 200 feet above 
the river. 

In explanation of the comparative straightness of the 
Missouri valley two principal hypotheses may be examined. 
The first is that it is due to a straightening of the river by 
the ice-sheet which once covered northern Missouri and 
advanced to the Missouri valley, yet apparently did not ex- 
tend beyond it in this region; but the valley was in existence 
previous to the glaciation of its northern side, as its relation 
to the drift shows, and was just as straight in preglacial times 
as now. The other hypothesis is, I believe, the one most 
accordant with the facts. The Missouri river did ‘not exist 
in any form comparable to its present size until after the 
elevation of the vast Cretaceous beds of the Northwest. 
Hence, while the tortuous valleys of the other streams in the 
Ozark region are largely due to a meandering on a Cretaceous 
flood-plain, the Missouri river did not then exist; and sub- 
sequently in Tertiary time, when it first began to flow,,it took 
the straightest course across the edge of the Ozark uplift. 

THe LAFAYETTE ForMATION. 

Numerous writers on the geology of southern Missouri have 
mentioned the existence of a local drift in the valleys, which 
is doubtless in large part the same deposit that I propose to 
describe as the probable equivalent of the Lafayette forma. 


350 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


tion. It first attracted my attention in the valley of the 
James river, where I found that the terraces or “benches” are 
_ covered with a mixture of river gravel, broken chert, clay, and 
sand, which, when a fresh exposure is found, is seen to be 
roughly stratified. An examination of all the valleys in the 
region shows that this particular deposit is confined to the 
top and slopes of the terraces. In some places, notably at the 
town of Galena, it consists of large quantities of moderately 
coarse subangular gravel imbedded in a red clay. The thick- 
ness reaches as much as 10 or 12 feet, and its base where ex- 
posed is seen to rest On smooth and waterworn surfaces of 
the solid dolomite rock. In other places its materials are 
finer and it frequently consists of a bed of fine sand or loam 
nearly free from pebbles. I have picked from the sides of 
gullies quite large masses of transparent quartz crystals that 
have been formed in the loam since its deposition. The color 
of the clays and sands which make up the body of this de- 
posit is prevailingly deep red, locally varying to orange, It 
differs from all the other deposits of the region,—from the re- 
sidual clays and chert gravels on the ridges, by its being a 
river gravel, its bright red color, and slight but distinetly flu- 
vial stratification; from the present river deposits, by its 
color, finer texture (indicating less powerful currents), and its 
elevated position: and from the Columbia elays by the pres- 
ence of much gravel, absence of fossils, and red color. 

The position of this deposit indicates that, previous to the 
cutting of the lower cahons or present gorges, it lined the 
broad, nearly level bottoms of the Tertiary valleys. In short, 
it is the deposit which constituted the flood-plains of the 
streams just previous to the early Quaternary uplifting of the 
region, As that uplift of the Ozarks appears to have, been 
contemporaneous with the post-Lafayette period of elevation 
and rapid erosion immediately succeeding the Lafayette period 
of deposition, it becomes evident that our ancient river de- 
posit must have been laid down during some part of the La- 
fayette period. The nature of the deposit indicates rather 
enfeebled erosion, and the ancient river was struggling witha 
mass of clay and sand, the accumulation of whieh was prob- 
ably occasioned by a slight subsidence of the region, in con- 
junction with the Lafayette submergence in the Mississippi 


River Valleys of the Ozark Plateau.— Hershey. 351 


embayment.  Lithologically, the deposit under discussion 
bears a strong resemblance to portions of the Lafayette for- 
mation where it was laid down in valleys near the coast line 
of the sea in which the main body of the deposit was being 
formed; and, so far as I have been able to learn, the terrace 
deposits of the James and upper White river valleys run down 
the sides of the latter valley until they connect with the un- 
doubted Lafayette deposits of the embayment region. 

Assuming our correlation to be correct, we find that, during 
the period of submergence of the lower Mississippi region and 
deposition of the Lafayette formation, the erosion of the 
Ozarks was in a period of quiescence. The streams meander- 
ed in broad flood-plains, their power of excavation was at a 
minimum, and they were slowly building up a red loamy de- 
posit, which, as it took place in the Ozarks, could not help 
but have large quantities of gravel incorporated with it, and 
which may be considered as the Ozark type of the Lafayette 
formation. 

Perhaps the bright red color of the deposits of that period 
indicates a somewhat warmer climate in the Ozarks than at 
present. 

Post-LAFAYETTE ELEVATION. 

It is a well known fact that the Lafayette period was 
terminated by an elevation of the continental plateau, at 
least in the vicinity of the former areas of deposition; and, 
from the existence of deep submarine continuations of the 
present river valleys, the elevation appears to have been of 
continental extent, and to have terminated the Tertiary era 
and initiated the Quaternary. The Ozark plateau partici- 
pated in this great epeirogenic movement. The lower canons 
or present valleys of the streams are a record of this eleva- 
tion, and they also show that to a certain extent the elevation 
has been permanent. It may have originally been greater 
than now, and during the Columbia epoch was undoubtedly 
less than now; but the altitude of the Ozarks relative to that 
of the lands north, east, and south of them, is now greater 
than it was previous to the post-Lafayette elevation. That is, 
in addition to the grand epeirogeni¢ movement, there was 
also a slight orogenic movement, such as has frequently 
affected the Ozarks. 


352 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


During the long period of erosion which ensued as the 
result of,the elevation, the streams, whose activity was thus 
greatly nenewed, excavated their new valleys to substantially 
their present dimensions before the occurrence of the next 
episode recorded in the Ozark plateau. This excavation 
meant the removal of, first, the Lafayette deposits in the 
stream bed; next, the cutting of the underlying solid rock 
to near baselevel; and then a widening of the valley, by the 
undermining of its walls, to several times the width of the 
present streams in the case of the larger valleys, and to many 
times their width in the minor valleys. This period was un- 
doubtedly long, and meanwhile the first glacial stage or epoch 
had come and gone, leaving the Kansan drift sheet over the 
region north and east of the Ozarks. The first interglacial 
epoch, indicated in the region northward by a long period of 
subaerial erosion on the previously ice-covered areas, I have 
been unable to separate from the preceding epochs in those 
portions of the Ozarks that I have studied. The Kansan 
glaciation was probably attended by increased precipitation 
in this region and great erosion, but its effects have been 
obliterated during subsequent epochs, 

THE CoLumMBIA FORMATION. 

The beds of loess which are found in great thickness along 
the Missouri valley within the state of Missouri and far to the 
northwest up that stream, and which also spread out in thin 
sheets over the lower upland country near by, do not continue 
into the Ozark region with any large development. Even in 
the border portions of the uplift the higher upland ridges are 
free from loess, although no higher than many loess-covered 
ridges to the north. But along such streams as the Osage and 
Gasconade rivers, the loess, or rather a loamy deposit resem- 
bling loess, extends to a great distance within the Ozark re- 
gion. Itis at first a pretty definitely marked deposit, and 
forms low terraces, occasionally narrow second bottoms, and 
even spreads out over the lower ridges of the valleys. As the 
headwaters of the streams are approached, it becomes less dis- 
tinct, although still occasionally forming low and imperfect 
terraces; and finally, at an elevation exceeding 1,000 feet 
above the sea, this deposit is generally not present in any 
identifiable form. Crossing the watershed and descending on 


River Valleys of the Ozark Plateau.—Hershey. 353 


the south slope of the uplift, we find a precisely similar de- 
posit beginning to appear at intervals along the banks of the 
streams, growing more and more distinct from the 1,000-foot 
level down, forming low terraces, and finally, as I have been 
informed, connecting with the undoubted Columbia deposits 
along the borders of the Mississippi embayment region. 

This deposit is invariably a reddish brown, light-brown, or 
sometimes butf-colored, sandy clay, nearly free from pebbles 
except in its lower portion. Fossils occur scattered through 
the deposit, mostly terrestrial species, generally land snails. 
It is usually semi-massive, although occasionally well strati- 
fied. It occurs on the sides of the lower troughs or present 
stream valleys as remnants of a formation which once com- 
pletely filled the valleys to the level of the present uppermost 
deposits, but which has been almost completely removed. Al|- 
though falling far short of the Lafayette level, this Columbia 
level is much above the present highest flood-plain deposits. 
This formation was of fluvial origin, when the streams ran at 
a much higher level than they ever succeed in reaching at the 
present time. The streams, however had already cut their val- 
leys to nearly their present depth, so that their Columbia 
high level was produced either by excessive rainfall or by a 
subsidence of the land with the consequent general raising of 
the water level. The former hypothesis is disposed of by the 
nature of the deposits, which contain few pebbles and indicate 
deposition in sluggish currents. Hence it was a raising of 
the water level consequent on a subsidence of the entire Ozark 
plateau, which caused a flooding of the streams by great 
diminution of the drainage gradient, and resulted in the de- 
position of the Columbia clays in the valleys of the region. 
The color and texture of the deposit indicate either a small 
amount of vegetation, insufficient to form a black soil, or a 
rather rapid gathering of the material from the subsoil clay 
of the ridges by increasing precipitation of rain or snow. 
Probably both these conditions were present together, and 
were caused by the proximity to a vast ice sheet on the north, 
the Iowan glacial stage or epoch being then at its climax. 

The synchronism of these clays with the Columbia deposits 
of the lower Mississippi and Missouri region seems reason- 
ably certain, for not only isthere apparent continuity between 


354 The American Geologist. December, 1895: 


them, but wherever the surface erosion and small gullies are 
studied it is found to be similar in amount to that on both 
the Columbia loams of the South, and the Mississippi and 
Missouri loess deposits of the North. Moreover, the subsi- 
dence of the Ozarks, which their phenomena clearly indicate, 
was undoubtedly contemporaneous with that of all the sur- 
rounding regions, and they were merely a portion of the 
great tract which participated in the epeirogenic movement 
of depression characterizing the Columbia epoch. The amount 
of this depression below the present level of the country was 
variable in the Ozarks. Although perhaps only a few hun- 
dred feet in the southern part, it was undoubtedly 400 to 600 
feet throughout the central portion, and perhaps 1,000 feet 
or more at the northeastern corner of the uplift. 

In approaching St. Louis from the west on the St. L. & 
S. F. railroad, the loess or Columbia loain is first observed on 
the upland ridges in the vicinity of Cuba, at an elevation 
slightly exceeding 1,000 feet above the sea. Thence to the 
Mississippi river this loam is found to overspread the surface, 
excepting where, as on steep hillsides, it has been removed by 
erosion; and it increases in thickness as lower levels are 
reached, and especially along the streams, until it connects, 
after having passed over the Meramee highlands, with the 
undoubted Mississippi loess at St. Louis. This same bed of 
clay or loam rests on the eastern slope of the Ozark plateau 
south from this line, but terminates, as I am informed, at 
progressively lower levels until it connects with the undoubted 
marine Columbia deposits of the embayment region. The 
great depression and partial submergence of the Ozark area 
here indicated is amply suflicient to account for the per- 
manently flooded but sluggish condition of the streams in the 
valleys of the central and western portions of the plateau. 

Post-CoLuMBIA ELEVATION. 

Since the Columbia epoch the valleys of the Ozark region 
have been gradually assuming their present aspect. First, 
there was an elevation to approximately the present altitude. 
The region undoubtedly participated to a certain extent in 
the minor movements of neighboring regions later in the 
Glacial period; but these movements were comparatively 
slight and had little effect on the erosive power of the streams. 


River Valleys of the Ozark Plateau.—Hershey. 355 


As farther north, the streams have done but little more work 
since the Columbia epoch than to clear out their ancient 
channels (which they have not yet quite accomplished), and 
to begin an attack on the solid rock in places, though they 
have as yet made comparatively little impression on it. 

The present altitude of the Ozark region is, I believe, 
rather above, than below the normal level. Many of the 
streams abound in rapids, and even some low falls occur that 
show the streams to be still at work cutting down the bottoms 
of their beds. In dry weather some small streams disappear 
entirely and flow below the surface in some cases through 
crevices and caves in the bed rock of the valley. It is also to 
be noted that many of the springs flowing from caves have, 
within a comparatively recent time, cut rapidly to a lower 
level, and emerge at other places than formerly. Of course, 
it is the habit of springs to change their place of emergence, 
but the recent change in the Ozarks is of such a nature as to 
indicate, I believe, a slight elevation of the region. All the 
larger caves are Tertiary in age, and are generally quite dry. 
At a lower level, and much less in size, occur the Quarternary 
caves. Still lower, and generally well filled by the streams 
flowing in them, are the caves which now are in the process 
of formation. 

CHRONOLOGY INDICATED BY THE OZARK VALLEYS. 

Studies of the changes, and of the time required for each, 
in the drift-covered regions, have given a probable mean for 
post-Columbia time of 50,000 years. ‘Those who have studied 
the question from phenomena occurring in the coastal plain 
region want a longer time; but in the Ozarks this time seems 
sufficiently long. and even more than is necessary, to account 
for the work which has been done. In the drift regions of 
the upper Mississippi valley, the time above given is the mean 
of all estimates made by the writer; and I shall consider it as 
the most probable approximate length of post-Columbia time. 

It is somewhat difficult to compare the amount of erosion in 
the Ozark valleys since the Lafayette period with that since 
the Columbia epoch; but, making due allowance for a differ- 
ence in hardness of material excavated, and also for a proba- 
bly greater erosive power before than since the Columbia 
epoch, due partly to difference in gradient, climate and a 


356 The American Geologis=. December, 1895 


longer time of increased precipitation during the Kansan than 
during the Iowan and later glacial stages, I should say that 
the ratio of post-Lafayette or Quaternary time to post-Co- 
lumbia time, as recorded in the Ozarks, is approximately as 6 
tol. In other words, about 300,000 years may have elapsed 
since the Quaternary valleys of the Ozark region began to be 
excavated. A comparison of the size of the Quaternary troughs 
of the region with various valleys and parts of valleys in the 
drift-covered area, whose age has been calculated from various 
phenomena connected with them, also brings a probable mean 
of 300,000 years for the age of the Quaternary valleys of Mis- 
souri and Arkansas. 

The most reliable estimates of the length of the Quaternary 
era give it 200,000 years as a minimum and 300,000 years asa 
maximum. The amount of material removed from the upper 
troughs or Tertiary valleys of the Ozarks, being on an average 
twelve times as great as from the Quaternary valleys, would 
require, under similar condition of erosion, from 2,400,000 to 
3,600,000, or, in round numbers, somewhere between two and 
four millions of years. This agrees well with estimates of the 
length of the Tertiary era derived from studies of the changes 
of its molluscan faunas, whereby the probability of the cor- 
rectness of the figures is confirmed. 

Any estimates which might be made of the length of time 
occupied in forming the Jura-Cretaceous peneplain over what 
is now the Ozark plateau or mountain region would, owing to 
a want of knowledge of some of the factors, be of no value 
whatever, and I will not attempt it. The erosion doubtless 
amounted to a removal of at least 100 feet, or perhaps several 
hundreds of feet of strata, mostly sandstone and shale, with 
a little limestone, from the entire Ozark region. 

CONCLUSION. 

We have now endeavored to trace the changes in the topog- 
raphy of the Ozark region, and the history of the erosion of 
its valleys. We have found no new formation, no earth move- 
ment separate in time and quality from those which have 
atfeeted all the eastern portion of the continent. The Ozarks 
participated in the movements of elevation and subsidence of 
the contiguous areas. The best marked epochs or periods of 


erosion are as well defined here as elsewhere; and the princi- 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 300 


pal formations of the epochs of partial or complete submer- 
gence in contiguous areas are represented at their proper 
horizons throughout the Ozarks, although in a much less 
developed condition. 

The geological history of the Ozark plateau, since the Jura 
period, may be summarized as follows: 

1. First seen in the Cretaceous period as a low marshy plain, 
with river systems similar in extent as now,—the Jura-Creta- 
eceous peneplain. 

2. Undergoing an elevation of some hundreds of feet, re- 
sulting in the excavation of deep broad valleys throughout 
the border portions of what had become the Ozark plateau,— 
‘Tertiary valleys. 

3. Probable slight subsidence, resulting in accumulation of 
«red loamy and gravelly flood-plain deposit in the valleys,— 
the Lafayette formation. 

4. A well marked, and to a certain extent permanent, uplift 
of the region, resulting in the formation of a new set of val- 
leys in the bottom of the older ones,—Quaternary valleys. 

5. Temporary and comparatively rapid, but yet consider- 


oJ 


able, depression of the area, resulting in the deposition of a 


loam in the valleys,—the Columbia formation. 

6. Re-elevation to approximately the present level, with re- 
excavation of valleys which had become partially filled by 
loam,—the present valleys. 


Pest UDY OF - THE BELVIDERE. BEDS. 
By F. W. Cracin, Colorado Springs, Colo. 

The name Belvidere was once employed in the writer’s man- 
uscript as a designation for the Comanche Cretaceous shales 
of the Belvidere district of southern Kansas, but was with- 
held from publication. These shales were finally named the 
Kiowa shales in volume 5 of Colorado College Studies. The 
name Kiowa was considered preferable to that of Belvidere 
because in Kayser-Lake’s Text-book of Comparative Geology, 
now in use in many leading American institutions, the term 
Belvedere beds is given (page 365) for certain Tertiary sands 
and gravels of Austria. The proposed name Belvidere dif- 
fered in spelling by one letter only, and in pronunciation 
scarcely enough to distinguish it in ordinary conversation 


3D8 The American Geologist. December, 1895. 


from the established one, Belvedere; and it was feared that 
it might be too near the older name. But if it be considered 
that two terms really, even if slightly, different in spelling 
and applying to deposits widely separated in locality and ge- 
ological age are in no danger of confusion—a view that seems. 
not unreasonable—then the writer would suggest that the 
name Belvidere be retained, not in the synonymous term 
“Belvidere shales,” recently substituted for Kiowa shales by 
Prof. Hill in an article in the American Journal of Science,* 
but in the term Belvidere beds, used in the Plains section of 
the same article, and including the Cheyenne sandstone and 
the Kiowa shales, together with No. 5 of the Belvidere section, 
a terrane that the writer formerly included with the Kiowa 
shales and that Prof. Hill’s recent article makes first a part of 
the Kiowa shales (ride uf infra) and then a part of the Chey- 
enne sandstone, and which is here recognized as a formation 
separate from either of these, though related to both, and 
called the Champion shell-bed. 

Prof. Hill is not very consistent in his use of the name Bel- 
videre in the article referred to. He first uses the term Bel- 
videre shales in his Black Hills section¢ as an exact synonym 
of Kiowa shales as the latter term was originally defined, orin 
other words so as to include the Champion shell-bed (his No. 
4+); then defines Belvidere shales} so as to exe/ude the Cham- 
pion shell-bed; and on the same page with the definition, caps 
this combination by using the term Belvidere beds§ to include 
the Kiowa shales and the Cheyenne sandstone; and finally he 
a list of fossils which, he states, the writer has reported 
from the “Belvidere shales,’ and here again he includes the 
Champion shell-beds in these shales, as his listing of the 


gives | 


Champion fossils, Astrocenia nidiformis, Margarita newber- 
ryt, ete., shows. Thus four expressions of views, within the 
limits of one article, present three conflicting stratigraphic 
meanings for “Belvidere,’—two meanings for ‘Belvidere 
shales” and one for “Belvidere beds.” Of the two meanings 


*Outlying Areas of the Comanche Series in Kansas, Oklahoma and 
New Mexico. R. T. Hill: loc. cit., September, 1895. 

+ Loe. cit., page 208. 

{Loe. cit., page 211. 

SIn his Plains section. 

Loe. cit., pages 214, 215. 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 359 


for ‘‘Belvidere shales,” one, twice signified by use, makes that 
term an exact synonym of Kiowa shales as first proposed. 
The other, a definition proposed but contradicted by use in 
the same article, makes a few feet of sediments that appear 
below the main body of the Kiowa shales in one part of their 
area the excuse for coining a new term, whose meaning is so 
little and locally different from that of the prior term, Kiowa 
shales, as to be virtually a synonym of it. 

If a geological subdivision must be given a confessedly new 
name whenever one chooses to pare it off or add to it a little, 
or has doubt about the original disposal of some small frae- 
tion of it, ‘confusion worse confounded” will increasingly re- 
sult and finally reign supreme in the science of stratigraphic 
geology. 

Prof. Hill did not think it necessary to find a new name for 
the Fredericksburg division when he removed the Glen Rose 
beds from it; and it is therefore hardly needful to find a new 
name for the Kiowa shales whether the little Champion bed, 
originally included as a basal and local fraction of the latter, 
be left in them or removed from them. ‘These two instances 
merely illustrate the fact that in the majority of cases it is 
impossible to so define a newly proposed terrane that the defi- 
nition shall not be lable to future reasonable modification. 

If the name Belvidere be considered as retired by the unfor- 
tunate double and synonymous use of it above cited, or una- 
vailable because too nearly like the name of the Austrian 
Belvedere beds, the designation Walker beds, referring to 
Walker’s draw, a well known branch of the Medicine Lodge 
river south of Belvidere, on which exposures of all of the sub- 
divisions of this group are seen, may be used as the collective 
name for the Cheyenne, Champion and Kiowa. But owing to 
the prominent part that the vicinity of Belvidere has played in 
the history of our knowledge of the Comanche rocks of Kansas, 
it seems fitting (and on other grounds it has been shown not 
unreasonable) to retain the name Belvidere in some one of the 
fraternity of stratigraphic senses in which Prof. Hill has used 
it. For the present, therefore, the term Belvidere beds seems 
preferable to that of Walker beds-.as the collective designation 
for the Cheyenne sandstone, the Champion shell-bed and the 
Kiowa shales. 


360 The American Geologist. December, 1895- 


Besides the forms listed in this article as belonging to the 
fauna of the Kiowa shales, the fauna of the Belvidere beds in- 
cludes the following fourteen fossils not known in the Belvi- 
dere district higher than the Champion shell-bed : 


Astroceenia nidiformis Cragin. Astarte pikensis Hill. 

Holectypus planatus Roemer. Cardium bisolaris Crag. 

Serpula championi Crag. Homomya alta Roem. 

Ostrea roanokensis Crag. Margarita newberryi Crag. 

Gryphea pitcheri Morton, var.  Turritella seriatim-granulata 
hilli Crag. Roem., var. marnochi White. 

Lima semilevis Crag. Turritella (Lithotrochus) ef. haim- 

Pinna comancheana Crag. boldtii Von B. 


Limopsis subimbricata Crag. 

Altogether there are 78 forms in the known fauna of the 
Belvidere beds, 13 of which are Vertebrata and 65 Inverte- 
brata. Of these, all of the Vertebrata and 22 species (one- 
third) of the Invertebrata are peculiar to the Belvidere beds, 
or at least have been reported from only these and more or 
less closely related sediments occurring north of the Ouachita 
mountain-system in Kansas, Oklahoma and New Mexico. The 
Invertebrata thus peculiar have, with one exception, been de- 
scribed by the writer, and are as follows: 


Astrocenia nidiformis. Cardium bisolaris. 
Nereis incognita. Tapes belviderensis. 
Serpula champion. Leptosolen otterensis. 
Plicatula senescens. Mactra antiqua. 
Avicula belviderensis. Margarita marcouana. 
Limopsis subimbricata. Margarita newberry?. 
Nuecula catherina. Neritoma marcouanda. 
Remondia ferrisst. Lithotrochus cf.humboldtii Von B. 
Cardita belviderensis. Vanikoro propinqua. 
Cardium kansasense. Anchura kiowana. 
Cardium? mudget. Petersia medicinensis. 


The more important subdivisions of the Belvidere beds, as 
seen on the Medicine Lodge River valley in the Belvidere dis- 
trict and typically developed in what may be called the Elk- 
Otter tract, which extends from the heads of South Elk creek 
near the Barber-Comanche county line to the Otter Creek 
region in Kiowa county, are given in the following 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 361 


ELk-Orrer Secrion of the 
Belvidere Beds: 


III. Kiowa shales. 
4. Tucumcari shales (or zone of Gryphea tucumearii. ) 
3. Fullington shales (or zone of Gryphca roemeri.) 
b. Blue Cut shales (or zone of typical and dpundant 
G. roemeri.) 
a. Black Hill shale (or Wafer-shale zone.) 


If. Champion shell-bed (or zone of Gryphaa hilli.) 

I. Cheyenne sandstone. 

2. Elk Creek beds. 

b. Stokes sandstone. 

a. Lanphier beds (or Carbopyrite zone.) 
1. Corral sanastone. 

These subdivisions may be conveniently discussed in the 
order in which they are grouped, beginning with the lower. 

THH CHEYENNE SANDSTONE. 

The Cheyenne sandstone is a white to yellowish-gray sand- 
stone, often gaily colored with variations of red and purple in 
certain horizons, much cross-bedded, locally but not coarsely 
conglomeratic, and again very fine (almost floury) in certain 
eastern exposures. It is very porous and its locally phenom- 
enal display of colors, while perhaps in part due, as suggested 
by the writer in 1885, to chemical reactions following the 
infiltration of mineral-charged waters from superjacent form- 
ations, seems to be largely attributable to oxidations and 
reactions of substances native to the sandstone itself. At 
certain localities where the overlying sediments have been 
Neocene sands and the invading waters siliceous, infiltration 
has converted lenses of the Cheyenne sandstone into light 
bluish-gray quartzyte. One of these lenses, now broken down 
into blocks, covers the sides of a conical hill on the Havard 
slope of the Havard-South Elk creek divide. To see a 
reported “blow-out”’, this hill was visited by the writer in 
the winter of 1884-5, and deseribed in No. 3 of the Bulletin 
of the Washburn College Laboratory of Natural History, 
where the earliest notice of the Cheyenne sandstone appeared. 
A second lens of this sort is found near South Elk creek not 
far distant from the former. This is partly undermined and 
broken into blocks, but a considerable part of the ledge is 
still in situ. The quartzyte is not all perfect. It contains 
more or less soft spots, consisting of unmetamorphosed or 


362 Tne American Geologist. December, 1895 


partially metamorphosed ferruginous sandstone, giving us a 
glimpse of a stage in the conversion of the sandstone into 
quartzyte. Some parts of this ledge are traversed with seams of 
chaleedony. 

The springs issuing from the Cheyenne sandstone are usu- 
ally of more or less distinctly mineral character. Iron, sul- 
phurie acid, gypsum, epsom salts and alum are some of the 
substances which they commonly hold in solution. In some 
instances, as in the Blue spring on the now deserted Lanphier 
claim, the mineral matter imparts to the water a peculiar 
bluish-white turbidity. <A less strongly mineralized spring in 
the box-canon head of Cameron draw, a ravine on the farm of 
Mr. Thomas Cameron, near Belvidere, is probably similar to 
the Blue spring in mineral character. A qualitative analysis 
made by Prof. G. H. Failyer, head of the chemical department: 
of the Kansas State Agricultural College, shows that the 
water of the Cameron spring contains epsom salts, alum and 
gypsum. That this spring was formerly used by the Indians, 
is indicated by the now rapidly vanishing hieroglyphies 
which the latter have carved in the soft Corral sandstone of 
the adjacent cafon-wall.* A spring on North Elk creek, 
which was visited a few years since by Mr. William A. 
Sherrill and the writer and was known to the settlers as 
Poison spring, issues from the sandstone in a trickling cur- 
rent so heavily laden with white floeculent precipitate as to 
have the consistency of corn-meal gruel. The mineral matter 
of the Poison spring, as indicated by the peculiar.and astrin- 
gent taste, is probably in large part alum and epsom salts. 

Nodules of the yellow phosphate of iron were discovered in 
the Cheyenne sandstone by Prof. Failyer as one of the results 
of a reconnaissance of the Barber-Clark county region, which 
he made in company with the writer last summer. This dis- 
covery makes it seem possible that traces of phosphorous may 
be found in the waters of some of the springs in this sand- 


stone. 


*That the Cameron spring was used as a medicinal spring by the 
aborigines of the well-named Medicine Lodge River valley, and not 
merely as an accessible and sheltered camping spot, seems to be indi- 
cated by the fact that the north side of this valley is here well supplied 
fot bold springs of the Neocene gravels, with streams of fine water, 
one of which, Spring creek, enters the bottom-land of the river opposite 
the mouth of Cameron draw, and is fringed along part of its course 
with thickets of timber and brush, affording excellent shelter. 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 363 


In one of the fine, white, floury-appearing exposures of the 
Cheyenne sandstone, east of the Stokes hill*, and nearly on the 
Barber-Comanche county line, the writer once excavated a 
fossil tree-trunk, badly preserved, but showing some of -the 
knots and broken-off branches. It was forty-five feet long, 
with stump and top missing, and apparently signified a tree 
of at least twice that hight. Its excurrent habit indicated 
that it belonged to one of the conifers or their allies, but 
its microscopic structure was not examined. 

Fossil wood is common at certain localities in this sand- 
stone. 

The writer obtained the first foliage (Glyptostrobus gracil- 
limus?) in situ in the Cheyenne sandstone in the fall of 1893, 
not more than half a mile from the Belvidere railway 
station; but although he had then known for several years 
of the discovery of a so-called leaf-bed in either the Carbo- 
pyrite or the Wafer-shale zone of the Belvidere beds by coal 
prospectors, he postponed looking up the locality of the 
supposed dicotyledons. The announcement of Prof. Hill’s 
discovery has therefore come to the writer with a confirma- 
tory as well as scientific interest. 

The Cheyenne sandstone has not been positively identified 
west of Comanche county, but a remnant of grayish-white 
and ferruginous sandstone that should perhaps be referred to 
it, outcrops in the western edge of Little Basin in the western 
part of Clark county, beneath black lower Cretaceous shale. 

In his notice of the discovery of a dicotyledonous flora in 
the Cheyenne sandstone, in the June number of the American 
Journal of Science (page 473), Prof. Hill attributes to the 
writer the opinion that the Cheyenne is the equivalent of the 


* This prominent elevation, so conspicuous from points far to the 
north, east, south and some westerly directions, and which terminates 
a spur of the divide between Medicine Lodge river and Mule creek, 
separating branches of North Elk creek from Gant’s canon and 
Walker’s draw, has no.other name than ‘‘the Black hill,’”’ a designa 
tion also applied to the hill at Hell’s Half Acre, to the hill south of 
Avilla, ete. But in conversation the writer has found the hill easily 
recognized by people of the surrounding region when referred to under 
the name of the former nearest resident, a Mr. Stokes, who lived near 
the eastern foot of it for several years. The name Stokes hill is there 
fore proposed for it. It is in the southeastern corner of Kiowa county, 
barely north of the Comanche county line, and about half a mile west 
of the Barber county line. The natural coral is near the northeastern 
base of it. 


364 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


Trinity sandstone, as if the writer were the original and only 
advocate of such a view; and in the article in the September 
number of the same journal he seems to have difficulty (page 
220) in understanding how the writer could have made sueh 
an error as to think of the Cheyenne as being related to the 
Trinity sands, or the Kiowa shales as being related to the 
Fredericksburg. Here Prof. Hill fails to give himself due 
credit. 

In Bulletin No.9 of the Washburn College Laboratory of 
Natural History (published in February, 1889), the writer 
gave a preliminary deseription of the Belvidere section, 
including as part of the same the Belvidere beds, which he 
there indicated were related to the Comanche series, without 
attempting to correlate them more precisely. On page 115 of 
volume 2 of the 1888 Report of the Arkansas Geological Survey, 
Prof. Hill referred to that section and alluded to No. 5 of it 
as representing the Fredericksburg division; and it was there 
that he was the first to announce that No. 6 (the Cheyenne 
sandstone) of that section probably represented the Trinity 
beds. 

In later articles the writer followed Prof. Hill in this 
opinion that the Cheyenne should be referred to the Trinity 
beds, a view that neither the latter nor the former ever pub- 
liely retracted until after the study of the flora of the 
Cheyenne sandstone by Mr. Knowlton.* But for two or 
three years past the writer had considered this view as 
increasingly doubtful and had been inclined to correlate the 
Cheyenne sandstone with the Paluxy, the terrane immediately 
underlying the Fredericksburg. 

It need not be a matter of surprise if the Paluxy sands 
should yet yield dicotyledonous remains, since the existence 
of dicotyledons in Paluxy time cannot be doubted. Prof. 
Fontaine has described a considerable dicotyledonous flora 
which flourished on the Atlantic seaboard in an epoch that 
seems to have been later than earliest Potomac, or than the 
related early Glen Rose, and which may have been nearly syn- 
chronous with the Paluxy. 


*TIn 1891 again, in discussing the sands which he placed below the 
Glen Rose and called the Trinity sands, Prof. Hill wrote, ‘‘ In southern 
Kansas the Cheyenne sandstones have been properly ascribed to this 
age by Cragin.’”’ (Bul. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 2, page 506.) 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 365 


Not the discovery of a dicotyledonous flora in the Chey- 
enne sandstone, but the discovery that this flora, so far as at 
present known, is of Dakota affinities, indicates that the Chey- 
enne sediments probably belong to an epoch later than the 
Paluxy. 

But when the Paluxy flora shall become well known, if it 
prove that it contains no dicotyledons, it must be borne in 
mind that the absence of the latter may be due to differences 
of physico-geographic conditions. While early Cretaceous 
climates were doubtless milder and more uniform than those 
of recent times, there must have been a degree of such climatal 
differentiation as now obtains. The Belvidere sea, as we may 
call that portion of the older Cretaceous ocean north of the 
Ouachita mountain-system, was more or less cut off from the 
great Texi-Cordilleran ocean that stretched from the southern 
shore of Ouachita land across Texas, Mexico and a large part 
of the Cordilleran region of South America. It was, there- 
fore, perhaps not traversed by warm currents from that ocean- 
And while, in Cheyenne times, the warm temperate flora of the 
coming Dakota had already assumed its main features under 
the developmental influences of the moderate winter and sum- 
mer seasons that had long prevailed on the great Nebraskan 
continent of northern Kansas, Nebraska, etc., that flora may 
have been effectively cut off by the Belvidere sea from the 
flora of Ouachita land, and Ouachita land itself, under the 
climatic influences of warm currents from the tropical region 
of the Texi-Cordilleran ocean, may have been occupied by a 
strictly tropical flora that included no dicotyledons. 

Differences of physico-geographic conditions would, on 
general grounds, appear less probable than differences of time 
as the cause of the absence of remains of dicotyledons from 
the Paluxy sands and their presence in the Cheyenne; but it 
should be noted that a physico-geographic explanation is at 
least possible. It seems on the whole, however, probable that 
dicotyledons will yet be found in the Paluxy; and if they be, 
they will no doubt indicate whether the Cheyenne is approxi- 
mately synchronous with or later than the Paluxy, the 
chances being that they will show it to be later, and belonging 
therefore to a division not earlier than the Fredericksburg. 


366 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


From its position, immediately underlying the Champion 
bed, a terrane charged with an essentially Fredericksburg 
fauna, it seems, on the other hand, impossible to assign the 
Cheyenne sandstone to a period later than the Fredericksburg. 

THE CORRAL SANDSTONE. 

The Corral sandstone is so named from having a consider- 
able portion of its thickness exposed in the walls of the 
“Natural corral.” The latter is a short box canon on the 
Lanphier claim in the southeastern corner of Kiowa county, 
and has been known under this name by the settlers of this 
and adjoining counties for many years. It is about thirty 
feet deep and not only has vertical lateral walls but is also 
abruptly closed"by an equally precipitous head-wall. It has 
at various times been used as an enclosure for holding stock; 
and at the time of the writer’s most recent visit to it (in 
August last) the posts of a fence that had closed the lower 
end of it were still standing. 

The thickness of the Corral sandstone is ordinarily thirty 
to fifty feet. The lower portion of it is white, but the upper 
is often beautifully variegated with various bright reds 
mingled with yellow, purple and brown, as at and near the 
Hell’s Half Acre and on the heads of certain south branches 
of South Elk creek. 

The “Chimney rock” and the row of six small pillars 
which the writer has called (for lack of any other name) the 
Cheyenne Brothers, a short distance down the ravine from 
Hell’s Half Acre, have been carved out of the lower part of 
this sandstone by erosion. The main part of the once much 
more prominent Osage rock (formerly called by some the 
Cheyenne rock), which marks the Cheyenne-Osage battle of 
the latter part of the sixties, is of this sandstone. 

The summit of the Corral sandstone is frequently somewhat 
more indurated than the rest and tends to form a platform at 
the base of the softer Lanphier exposures. 

THE ELK CREEK BEDS. 

The portion of the Cheyenne sandstone situated above the 
Corral zone may be named the H7/ Creek beds, from Elk creek, 
on the heads of which it is finely displayed. These beds are 
for the most part shaly as well as arenaceous and very varia- 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 367 


ble. They comprise the sediments from which Prof. Hill has 
recently reported remains of dicotyledonous leaves, referred 
by Mr. Knowlton to the following Dakota types: 


Rhus uddeni Lesquereux. Sassafras sp. nov. 
Sterculia snowiti Lx. Glyptostrobus gracillimus Lx. 
Sassafras mudgei Lx. Sequoia sp. 


Sassafras cretaceum Newberry. 

They are separable into two fairly distinct and constant 

horizons, the Lanphier beds and the Stokes sandstone. 
THE LANPHIER BEDS. 

These beds, frequently observed but not treated of hitherto 
by the writer, have recently been described by Prof. Hill, be- 
ing No. 2 of his Black Hills and Blue Cut sections. They are 
named from a draw that runs through the Lanphier claim and 
that may be called the Lanphier draw. The latter rises in a 
basin-like hollow at the foot of Stokes hill, but a short dis- 
tance south of the Natural corral. Around this hollow the 
Lanphier beds are well exposed. They are still well developed 
where they disappear beneath the South Elk-Havard divide, 
and in the vicinity of the Blue cut, and again on many of the 
branches of the upper part of Big Mule creek. 

They comprise some ten or fifteen feet of incoherent, more 
or less shaly sands, sometimes passing into shales, often heav- 
ily charged with carbonaceous matter, pyrites of iron and 
selenite crystals, and including numerous fragments of lignite. 
They are finely exposed at the head of one of the south-side 
branches of South Elk creek, near the Barber-Comanche 
county line; and here and on some of the branches of Big 
Mule creek, especially Indian creek among the latter, they are 
charged with peculiar lumps of half lignitized and half pyrit- 
ized wood, which may conveniently be called carbopyrite, and 
fantastic concretions of iron-sandstone and limonite, in which 
the limonite is pseudomorphie after pyrite. These are of end- 
less shapes. Some look like jug-handles or tubercular crook- 
neck squashes. Some that attain a diameter of several inches 
are spheroidal and other shaped aggregations of cubical and 
modified crystals of limonite after pyrite. 

THE STOKES SANDSTONE. 
The Lanphier beds pass gradually upward into the simi- 


larly leaf-bearing Stokes sandstone, a few feet in thickness 


368 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


(No. 3 of Prof. Hill’s Black Hills section). This consists ‘of 
more constantly arenaceous and consolidated sediments. It is 
named from one of the localities of its outcrop, the head of 
what may be called Stokes draw, which proceeds from the foot 
of Stokes Hill near and south of Lanphier draw. At one of 
the most interesting of the Cheyenne sandstone localities on 
South Elk creek, where also the Lanphier beds present one of 
their most remarkable phases, the sandstone of the Stokes ho- 
rizon, like that of part of the Corral horizon at the same lo- 
sality, is brilliantly colored, scarlet and other shades of red. 
THE CHAMPION SHELL-BED. 

Capping the Cheyenne sandstone at Belvidere, its upper 
surface constituting a somewhat uneven floor beneath the 
Wafer-shale, by whose ready recession it is sometimes de- 
nuded, forming local platforms at the foot of the latter’s out- 
crop, is a thin stratum of gray shell-conglomerate in which 
the prevailing fossil is the little Gryphea hilli of the north 
Texas Fredericksburg. This is the Champion shell-bed, so 
named from the fact that it has nowhere yielded so great a 
variety of fossils as along the branches of what may be called 
the Champion draw. The latter is a hitherto unnamed arroyo 
of the Medicine Lodge river, that crosses the A. T. & S. F. 
railway at Belvidere a few rods west of the depot and a short 
distance below a house built and formerly occupied by Mr. H. 
B. Champion, to whom the writer is indebted for acecommoda- 
tion on some of his earlier excursions to this interesting dis- 
trict. 

In the Belvidere district proper the Champion shell-bed is 
remarkably persistent, though commonly less than a foot and 
rarely more than a foot and a half in thickness. Sometimes 
the bed consists almost wholly of shells cemented into rock by 
means of arenaceous limestone and ealcite, again of a matrix 
of sand and clay mingled in varying proportion, containing 
few or many fossils and more or less impregnated with iron- 
oxide and carbonate and sulphate of lime. 

Generally the fossils of the Champion shell-bed are fairly 
well preserved, but where the impregnation with iron and 
gypsum is excessive they are sometimes so decomposed as to 
be scarcely recognizable. In some localities the Gryphea hilli 
is the only fossil found; but generally it is associated with a 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 369 . 


considerable number of invertebrate forms, chiefly molluscan, 
the fauna of the Champion shell-bed being remarkably large 
for a stratum so limited in vertical and geographic extent. 
Thus far the Champion shell-bed has not yielded the remains 
of any Vertebrata, but the forms of Invertebrata known from 
it already number thirty-six, or more than half of the entire 
number known from the lower Cretaceous sediments of Kan- 
sas south of the Arkansas river. 


FAUNA OF THE CHAMPION SHELL-BED. 


** Astroceenia nidiformis Cragin. * Astarte pikensis Hill. 

* Holectypus planatus Roemer. +Cardium kansasensis Meek. 
+ Nereis incognita Crag. **OCardium bisolaris Crag. 

**Serpula champion Crag. + Tapes belviderensis Crag. 
tOstrea subovata Shum. +Cyprimeria texana Roem., var. 
*Ostrea roanokensis Crag. kiowana Crag. 

*Grypheea hilli Crag. +Pholadomya sancti-sabe Roem. 

TExogyra texana Roem. *Homomya alta Roem. 

tAnomia sp. +Margarita marcouana Crag. 

+ Plicatula incongrua? Conrad. (~mudgei? Mk.) 

*Lima semilevis Crag. ** Margarita newberryi Crag. 

t+ Vola occidentalis Con. *Turritella —seriatim-granulata 

t+ Avicula belviderensis Crag. Roem., var. marnochi White. 

+Modiola concentrice-costellata? **Turritella (Lithotrochus) cf. 
Roem. humboldti Von B. 

* Pinna comuncheana Crag. +Tylostoma tumida Shum. 

+Cuculleea recedens Crag. +Natica? cossatotensis Hill. 

** Timopsis subimbricata Crag. +Anchura kiowana Crag. 
+Trigonia emoryi Con. +Schioenbachia peruviana Von B. 
+Remondia ferrissi Crag. +Sphenodiscus belviderensis 
+Cardita belviderensis Crag. Crag.* 


Of these 36 forms, the 22 marked with the dagger are, and 
the 14 marked with single or double asterisk are not at pres- 
ent known to extend from the Champion shell-bed up into the 
Kiowa shales. The number common to the Champion and the 
Kiowa is, however, likely to be increased by further explora- 
tions more than the number not thus common. Of the forms 
that are not known to range higher than the Champion, the 
six marked with the double asterisk are not known outside of 
the Belvidere district, being strictly peculiar to the Champion 
shell-bed so far as yet learned. The eight marked with a 


*Called Ammonites belviderei in 1890. (Bul. W.C. L. N. H., No. 11.) 
Small examples illustrated in figures 3, 4 and 5 of plate [ in volume xiv 
of the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. 


370 ‘The American Geologist. December, 1895 


single asterisk have not hitherto been seen in the Belvidere 
district except in the Champion shell-bed; they occur in the 
North Texas region as follows: 

Hoilectypus planatus was recorded from the Kiowa shales in 
prefatory remarks of the writer’s article on “Vertebrata from 
the Neocomian of Kansas.’’* It is a Fredericksburg fossil, 
being barely known from the Bosque division also, and oecur- 
ring rarely in the Washita and Denison divisions, the com- 
mon Holectypus of the latter being 7. castilloi Cotteau.t 

Ostrea roanokensis is most common in the Denison division, 
but occurs also in the Fredericksburg division (in the Coman- 
che Peak limestone) of Tarrant county, Texas. 

Typical Gryphea hilli is an abundant characteristic fossil 
in the Comanche Peak limestone and in the Walnut beds of 
Tarrant and Williamson counties, Texas. 

Lima semilevis was described from specimens obtained in 
the Denton marls. Soon after it was published, the writer col- 
lected it in the Comanche Peak limestone also. 

Pinna comancheana, in the typical area, is usually if not al- 
ways a Fredericksburg fossil. It is common in the lower part 
of the Comanche Peak limestone of Williamson and Tarrant 
counties, Texas. Inthe Tucumeari district of New Mexico it 
oceurs with Cardita belviderensis in a terrane that probably be- 
longs to the Kiowa shales. 

Astarte pikensis is a species of the Bosque division. 

Homomya alta is listed as a fossil of the Glen Rose beds by 
Prof. Hillin his paper on “Outlying Areas of the Comanche 
Series, etc.” — 

Of the horizon of Turritella marnochi in Texas, Dr. White 
gives no record more precise than ‘‘Cretaceous.” 

Of the 22 forms common to the Champion shell-beds and 
the Kiowa shales, 7 are not known south of the Ouachita 
Paleozoi¢ area, 1 is unknown as to species, and 14 oceur in 
the North Texas region as follows: 

Belonging to the Bosque division: Vatica cossatotensis. 


*This article was first published in a separate edition without plates, 
May 12, 1894, and was republished in volume 5 of Colorado College 
Studies, with the plates, April 5, 1895. 

+The writer having recently examined a large collection of south- 
western specimens of Holectypus submitted to him by his friend, Mr. 
Robert W. Goodell, does not now consider H. char/toni specifically 
distinct from H. castillot. 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragim. d71 


Common in the upper (Natica pedernalis, Cyprina texana 
and C. roemeri) beds of the Bosque and in (especially the lower 
and middle parts of) the Fredericksburg: Hwogyra texana.* 

Known only in the Fredericksburg: Nereis tncognita,t Vola 
occidentalis, Tylostoma tumida and the typical variety of 
Sphenodiscus belviderensis. 

Not recorded from the North Texas area: Plicatula ‘ncon- 
grua.t 

Almost exclusively a Fredericksburg form, but ranging up 
into the basal (Duck Creek) part of the Washita: Schloen- 
bachia peruviana. 

Common to the Bosque?, Fredericksburg and Washita: 
Modiola stonewallensis (—concentrice-costellata? ). 

Common to the Bosque?, Fredericksburg, Washita and Den- 
ison: Ostrea subovata. 

Common to the Fredericksburg and Washita?: Vrigonia 
emoryt. 

Probably common to the Fredericksburg, Washita and Den- 
ison: Cucullea recedens, Cyprimeria texana, var. kiowang and 
Pholadomyso sancti-sabe. 

The fact that Gryphea hill’ is strictly confined to the lower 
and middle Fredericksburg, occurring at Weatherford as low 
as certain sandy marls which there constitute the base of the 
Walnut beds and ranging through these beds a considerable 
distance up into the Comanche Peak limestone proper, indi- 
cates that the Champion shell-bed should be referred to the 
Fredericksburg division and perhaps to a horizon not higher 
than the middle of that division, a conclusion that is quite 
consistent with the other data above given, including the 
mingling which this shell-bed presents of some fossils belong- 
ing to divisions respectively higher and lower than the Fred- 
ericksburg. 

THE KIOWA SHALES. 

The A/owa shales, or Comanche shales of the Belvidere beds 

above the Champion shell-bed, are black, blue and gray argil- 


*See also remarks on this species under Kiowa shales. 

+The writer has collected this fossil in the Walnut bed at Gabriel 
Mills, Williamson county, Texas. 

{Recorded in Messrs. Dumble and Cummins’ Kent section as occur 
ring in a terrane below the main Fort Worth (Hpiaster elegans) zone of 
the ‘*‘Washita’’ division (~ the Kent zone). 


372 The American Geologist. December, 1595 


laceous shales with beds of arenaceous shale, sandstone and 
shell-conglomerate as secondary features. They have a maxi- 
mum thickness of at least 125 feet on the Medicine Lodge 
river in Kiowa county, and of 150 feet on Bluff creek in Clark 
county. 

They have not been observed by the writer west of the wall 
that separates Little Basin from Big Basin in the western 
part of Clark county, where occurs a remnant, much reduced 
in thickness by erosion and well exposed only in the Little 
Basin side of that wall. In the walls of Big Basin generally, 
the Loup Fork Tertiary rests directly upon the Big Basin 
sandstone, or with only loeal, well nigh vanished remnants of 
the Belvidere beds between it and the latter. On the lower 
part of Crooked creek, in Meade county, the Kiowa shales are 
lacking, fresh-water Neocene sediments there resting upon a 
somewhat degraded surface of the Kiger. It is possible that 
a remnant of these shales may be found a little west of Big 
Basin, on upper-middle drainage of Big Sandy creek, only the 
head of one western branch of which has been seen by the 
writer. 

They occur at Mount Tucumeari, New Mexico; at Kent and 
many other localities in Texas, including probably the vicin- 
ity of Tascosa in the “Panhandle;” in the Choctaw Nation, 
and in Oklahoma: the Oklahoma and Panhandle occurrences 
being small remnants. 

The following list excludes a number of erroneous identifi- 
cations reported in earlier writings and some merely manu- 
seript names, but includes all of the forms that the writer now 
recognizes as belonging to the 

FAUNA OF THE KIOWA SHALES. 
Tnvertebrata.—bL Species. 


EHnallaster sp. (Fragments: fide  Cardita belviderensis Crag. 


Clark per Stanton.) Cardium kansasense Meek. 
Nereis incognita Cragin. Cardium ? mudgei Crag. 
Polyzoan: gen. et sp. ind. Protocardium tevanum Con. 
Lingula sp. Roudairia securiformis Crag. 
Ostrea franklini Coquand. Tapes belviderensis Crag. 

Ostrea quadruplicata Shumard. Cyprimeria texana Roem., var. hi- 
Ostrea subovata Shum. owana Crag. 
Gryphea pitcheri Morton, var.  Tellina ? sp. 


roemert Marcou. Leptosolen otterensis Crag. 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 3 


Grypheea pitcheri var. tucumearti 
Marcou. 

Ewogyra texana Roemer. 

Anomia sp. 

Plicatula incongrua ? Conrad. 

Plicatula senescens Crag. 

Pecten inconspicuus ? Crag. 

Vola (Neithea) occidentalis Con. 

Avicula belviderensis Crag. 

Avicula leveretti Crag. 

Tnoceramus comancheanus Crag. 

Modiola concentrice-costellata ? R. 

Lithophagus sp. nov. (Fide Stan- 
ton.) 

Cuculled recedens Crag. 

Nucula catherina Crag. 

Leda sp. (Fide Stanton.) 

Yoldia microdonta Meek. 

Trigonia emoryt Con. 

Remondia ferrissi Crag. 


Pholadomya sancti-sabe Roem. 

Mactra antiqua Crag. 

Corbula crassicostata Crag. 

Dentalium sp. 

Margarita marcouana Cragin. 
(mudgeana ? Mk.) 

Trochus texanus Roem. 

Neritoma marcouana Crag. 

Turritella seriatim-granulata 
Roem., var. kansasensis Meek. 

Turritella (Mesalia) ventrivoluta 
Crag. 

Vanikoro propinqua Crag. 

Tylostoma tumida Shum. 

Natica ? cossatotensis Hill. 

Anchura kiowana Crag. 

Petersia medicinensis Crag. 

Sehloenbachia peruviana Von B. 

Sphenodiseus belviderensis Crag. 


Vertebrata.—13 Species. 


Lamna sp. (like L. occidentalis 
Leidy: fide Williston.) 
Lamna ? quinquelateralis Crag. 
Hybodus clarkensis Crag. 
Celodus brownti Cope. 
Mesodon ? abrasus Crag. 
Uranoplosus arctatus Cope. 
Uranoplosus flectidens Cope. 


The Invertebrata common to the Kiowa shales 


Teleost. (Vertebra like that of 
Portheus; fide Williston.) 

Plesiosaurus mudgei Crag. 

Cimoliosaurus sp. nov. (Fide Wil- 
liston. ) 

Plesiochelys belviderensis Crag. 

Turtle, size of Protostega. (Fide 
Williston.) 

Hyposaurus 2 sp. (Fide Williston.) 


and to the 


Comanche of that portion of Texas and Arkansas in which 
the divisions proposed for this series have been worked out 
and are especially applicable may. as to their occurrence in 
that typical tract, be analyzed as follows: 

The genus Muallaster is most abundant in the Fredericks- 
burg division, but is not very uncommon in the Choetaw and 
Grayson terranes of the Denison. 
the 
abounds in the Bosque division, but ranges at least as high as 


Ostrea franklin’, i Texas-Arkansas region, chiefly 


the Choctaw limestone. Having given a great deal of study 
to this species as it presents itself in Texas and Kansas, and 
having recently reexamined the question of the identity of the 
little conglomerate-building Ostrea so common in the Blue Cut 


374 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


and Tucumeari zones of the Kiowa shales, giving particular 
attention to the characters of beaks, cartilage-pit and adduc- 
tor scar, the writer is compelled to differ from Mr. Stanton 
when he says that “this | the Kiowa shales] species is proba- 
bly a new form,” finding no constant nor nearly constant dif- 
ferences from Ostrea franklini. 

Ostrea quadruplicata, which has been found in the upper 
part of the Kiowa shales of Clark county and in the Mentor 
beds of Saline and Ellsworth* counties, Kansas, has not been 
reported lower than the upper part of the Washita within the 
typical area here considered. It has been recorded as occur- 
ring in a limestone (the Kent bed) a few feet above one con- 
taining Gryphaa tucumcarti and Schloenbachia leonensis and 
underlying the zone of Hpiaster elegans and Holaster simplex 
(Fort Worth zone) in the eastern part of El Paso county, 
Texas, by Messrs. Dumble and Cummins in their interesting 
Kent section, published in the American Gro Locist of Novem- 
ber, 1893. 

Ostrea subovata occurs in most of the terranes of the Fred- 
ericksburg, Washita, and Denison divisions, being found at 
least as low as the summit of the Bosque and as high as the 
Choctaw limestone. 

Gryphwa roemer/ is abundant in the Kiamitia and ranges 
up into the Duck Creek. 

Gryphea tucumcari is recorded by Prof. Hill as occurring 
on the “plains of the Kiamitia,”’ but the horizon of its oce- 
currence there is not given. By Messrs. Dumble and Cum- 
mins it is recorded as occurring below the Kent bed (v/de 
ut infra ) at Kent, Texas, associated with Schloenbachia pe- 
ruviana and S. leonensis, a little above the lowest occurrence 
of the latter. 

Beogyra texana, in the typical area, is chiefly a Fredericks- 
burg form. It is also common there in the upper Glen Rose 
beds of the Bosque division, but it does not occur in the 
Washita division within that area so far as known. Nor has 


*For his knowledge of the occurrence of this fossil in Ellsworth county 
the writer is indebted to specimens in the museum of the State Univer- 
sity of Kansas, collected by the late Judge E, P. West. These specimens 
were labeled as having come from the base of the Dakota on Alum creek: 
but as the Mentor terrane was then supposed to constitute the base of 
the Dakota, there can be scarcely a doubt as to the specimens having 
been found in the Mentor beds. 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 375 


it been recorded from rocks of that division anywhere save 
(? below the zone of Hpiaster elegans) in a single remote 
southwestern locality, the western part of E] Paso county, 
Texas. 

Plicatula incongrua has no record in the typical area. It 
has been recorded by Messrs. Dumble and Cummins at Kent 
from an Ostrea quadruplicata zone (the Kent bed) below the 
horizon of Holaster simplex and Epiaster elegans and above 
the Gryphea tucumcari limestone. 

Pecten inconspicuus. Mr. Stanton records from the Kiowa 
shales a Pecten which he says is “a small smooth form like 
one that occurs in the Paw Paw beds of Denison.” This is 
probably Pecten incouspicuus, the only known species that an- 
swers to Mr. Stanton’s description of the Kiowa form. After 
the description of this species was published the writer ob- 
tained a number of specimens indicating that this Pecten, 
though always very small, attains dimensions considerably 
larger than those that were given for it. The largest of these 
specimens has a hight of over thirteen millimeters. The ears 
are of moderately large and subequal size, though quite differ- 
ent in shape, and are both ornamented with numerous, sub- 
equal, sharply-raised lines on the border by which they spring 
from the body of the valve. 

Vola occidental/s is the common Jola of the Federicksburg. 
The name Vola fredericksburgensis was proposed for this spe- 
cies inadvertently and is here withdrawn. ‘The species was 
correctly referred to occidentalis and to the subgenus .Ve/thea 
in the writer’s earlier papers. 

Avicula leveretti is mentioned by Prof. Hill as if it did not 
occur below the Kiamitia. In the writer's original account 
of this species it was recorded from the Kiamitia and from 
the Exvogyra texana bed, or basal Fredericksburg. It is not 
known to occur above the Kiamitia and is one of the forms 
that shows relationship of the Kiamitia to the Fredericksburg. 

Tnoceramus comancheanus is a fossil of the Duck Creek 
limestone, the basal member of the Washita. 

Modiola concentrice-costellata? The shell here indicated is 
the writer’s MW. stonewallensis. It iscommon to the Fredericks- 
burg and Washita. It has not been recorded from the Deni- 
son division, but occurs in the highest, or Denton, terrane of 


376 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


the Washita. Some of the rocks in which it occurs in north- 
western Texas should possibly be referred to the upper por- 
tion of the Bosque division. The description and illustrations 
of the little round-ribbed shell called Wod/ola concentrice- 
costellata in Roemer’s Avre/debildungen is, on stratigraphie 
grounds, suspected to have been based on small and poorly 
preserved specimens of this species. But only the fact that 
the types of Dr. Roemer’s species came apparently from 
within the stratigraphic range of Jf. sfonewallensis would 
ever lead one to suspeet this, so widely different is the char- 
acter of the ribs, as illustrated, from the concentric ornament- 
ation of Modiola stonewallensis. 

Cucullea recedens is common to the Fredericksburg and 
Denison divisions. The writer has collected it in the Walnut 
and Comanche Peak terranes of the former and in the Choctaw 
terrane of the latter. 

Nucula catherina is reported by Prof. Hill as having been 
“identified in the Washita division of the North Texas region.” 
It would be interesting to know what terrane and locality of 
that division yield it, as it is a fossil common in both the 
Kiowa shales and the Mentor beds. If the terrane that yields 
it in the North Texas region be the Kiamitia, which Prof. 
Hill calls a Washita and Mr. Taff calls a Fredericksburg 
terrane, its “* Washita’’? occurrence means simply occurrence 
in a group of sediments intermediate between Fredericksburg 
and Washita, the Kiowa group, which is about equally related 
to the Fredericksburg and to the Washita; but if it be one of 
the Denison division, it occurs above the true Washita. 

Yoldia microdonta in northern Texas, is a Denison division 
fossil, being common in the Pawpaw beds. In central Kansas, 
it is a fossil of the Mentor beds. 

Trigonia emory/, unlike the Denton marl species, 7. e/avi- 
gerd, is probably common to the Fredericksburg and Washita, 
and not improbably to the Denison also. It was observed by 
the writer in limestone of the Walnut zone of the Fredericks- 
burg in 1890 when, in company with Prof. Hill, he was leay- 
ing Weatherford enroute for Granbury. The species is 
extremely common in some localities in the Walnut clays of 
the Fredericksburg. Twenty-five well preserved specimens of 
it from these clays are before the writer, which were his share 


“| 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 37 


of a collection made by Prof. O. C. Charlton and himself in 
passing a single hill-slope when approaching Walnut Springs 
from Iredell. These specimens are of the typical phase shown 
in Conrad’s original illustration, having the ribs ornamented 
with low, narrowly compressed tubercles or cross-folds. This 
type of ornamentation is quite different from that displayed 
by the 7. clavigera. In the latter, which occurs abundantly 
and beautifully preserved in the Denton marls of Cooke 
county, Texas, and the Choctaw Nation, the ribs bear short, 
erect, triangularly-stalked, clavate, or tubercular-ended 
spines. No one having well-preserved Trigonias from these 
two terranes before him, could confuse them. There occur, 
however, in the Mentor beds of Saline county, Kansas, 
numerous molds of a Vrigonia that the writer has elsewhere 
referred to 7. clavigera, but which are more or less interme- 
diate, so that it is not improbable that 7. clav‘gera will prove 
to be a variety, though, as typically developed in the Denton 
marls, it would at least be a very strongly marked variety of 
T. emoryi. The record of JV. clavigera for the Kiowa shales 
is here withdrawn, as the specimens on which it was given 
were. poorly preserved and the specific determination was 
based largely on stratigraphic considerations. 

Cardium kansasense, which Prof. Hill calls a Dakota 
species, stating (loc. cit., page 223) that Mr. Stanton fails 
to find it in the Hill collection from the Kiowa shales, is one 
of the commonest fossils in the shell-limestone of the Blue 
Cut shales and occurs also in the Champion shell-bed, but in 
the latter has been found only in Champion draw and in 
moderate number. It does not occur in the Dakota, but is an 
abundant element of the fauna of the Mentor beds, from 
which came Mr. Meek’s types of the species. Poorly pre- 
served specimens, showing the same misleading aspect of the 
ornamentation as is shown in the imperfect types figured by 
Mr. Meek, are not uncommon. 

The Kiowa shales fossil that the writer calls Profocardium 
texanum, Which is probably the same that Mr. Stanton has 
identified from these shales as mulfistriatum, is in reality 
somewhat intermediate in character between these two 
species. It differs widely from equal-sized specimens of 
P. multistriatum from the Sierra Blanea mountains of El 


The American Geologist, December, 189 


ee) 
-I 


Paso county, Texas, and from larger specimens of the same 
from the Comanche Peak limestone of central Texas. The 
Texas specimens have the concentric raised lines and strize 
crowded over the entire hight of the valves, while the concen- 
tric strie on the lower part of the valves of the Kiowa shells 
are separated by ribs of considerable breadth. 

Roudairia securiformis (formerly called Trigonia securi- 
formis), of which Roudairia quadrans is a synonym, is a 
species of the Comanche Peak limestone. 

The shell that the writer describes elsewhere as Cyprimeria 
fecand, var. kfowand, is probably not different from the form 
so abundantly represented by casts in the Comanche Peak 
limestone, agreeing with these and differing from the 
casts of the typical Cyprimeria terana (which occur in a 
horizon between the Lvogyra texrana bed of the Frederieks- 
burg and the principal Lvogyra texana bed of the Bosque) in 
size and apparently, though perhaps not constantly, in con- 
vexity. It is probable that most of the specimens of Cyprs- 
meria from the upper divisions of the Comanche also belong 
to the variety, Avowana. 

Pholadomya sancti-sabw ranges from the Fredericksburg to 
the Denison division. It is the small form, like that of the 
Kiamitia clay of Indian Territory, rather than the large, 
coarsely ornamented one of the Denison beds, that occurs in 
the Kiowa shales. 

The Corbula crassicostata of the Kiowa shales is probably 
the same Corbula that is common in the Denison division, as 
the writer noted under the original description of the species. 
It is one of the most abundant of the fossils of the Pawpaw 
beds. 

Trochus texanus in'Texas is known only from the Barton 
Creek limestone of the Fredericksburg division. 

The originally described variety of Turritella seriatim-gran- 
ulata is a small phase that presents one extreme of size in 
this species and is characteristic of the upper Glen Rose beds 
at Fredericksburg. The commonest and, as to size, the cen- 
tral variety of the species, var. Aansasensis, found so pro- 
fusely and in so excellent preservation in the Kiowa shales 
(especially in the lower part of the Blue Cut zone and in the 
Mentor beds) is the same that occurs in the Comanche Peak 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 379 


limestone and in the Washita and Denison divisions in Texas 
and Indian Territory. The large and coarsely ornamented 
extreme of the species, which is the prevailing phase in the 
Champion bed, does not seem to differ from that which, 
from some unknown horizon of the (probably Comanche) 
Cretaceous, Dr. White has described under the name marnochi, 
and which is also approached by some of the largest specimens 
from the Pawpaw beds. 

Mesalia ventrivoluta has been found in northern Texas, but 
only in “drift.” 

Tylostoma tumida is one of the characteristic and profusely 
abundant fossils of the Comanche Peak limestone. 

Nautica? cossatotensis has hitherto been reported only from 
the Bosque division. 

Schloenbachia perucviand bears a somewhat closer relation 
to the Fredericksburg division than S. /eonens/s does to the 
Washita. It iscommon in the Walnut and Comanche Peak 
terranes of the Fredericksburg and ranges up through the Kia- 
mitia into the Duck Creek. S. Jeonensis, on the contrary, 
rarely if ever descends into the Kiamitia in the North Texas 
region, the common Schloenbachia of the Kiamitia there being 
the Fredericksburg species, S. peruciana. 

The specimens of Sphenodiscus belviderensis from the Kiowa 
shales do not seem to ditfer materially in sutural pattern from 
specimens of that species from the Comanche Peak limestone 
of Texas. 

THE FULLINGTON SHALES. 

The Fullington shales, named after the great Fullington 
ranch at Belvidere, on which they have most extensive out- 
erops, include the lower and major part of the Kiowa shales. 
‘They are not sharply separated from the overlying Tucumeari 
shales either lithologically or paleontologically. They include 
that portion of the Kiowa shales in which the Gryphaa is 
Marcow’s G. roemer’. 

At Belvidere they are separable into two principal subdi- 
visions, the lower of which is 

THE BLACK HILL SHALE. 

This terrane was named and briefly characterized by the 
writer in 1885, in his “Notes on the Geology of Southern Kan- 
sas.” The name was derived from the Black hill adjoining 


' - 


380 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


Hell’s Half Acre on Elk creek in Comanche county. The ter- 
“ane consists of a bed of black carbonaceous clay-shale fifteen 
or twenty feet thick, resting upon the Champion shell-bed and 
characterized by a peculiar method of disintegration, breaking 
down under the weather into small, flat and thin, sharp-edged 
spalls resembling wafers, a peculiarity that has suggested for 
this shale the name of Wafer-shale. 

The Black Hill shale is for the most part barren of well- 
preserved fossils. In places it has in its upper part a bed of 
ill-shapen Gryphea, some of the examples of which evidently 
are deformed G. voemer/, while some others possibly should be 
considered as representing @. A//l/, together with Ostrea sub- 
ovata and Beogyra texana, Elsewhere its upper portion yields 
erushed or entire shells and casts of Wodiola concentrice-cos- 
tellata? (M. stonewallensis), Tapes belviderensis, reptilian ~ 
bones (Plesiochelys belviderens/s) and other fossils, most of 
whieh are abundant and often finely preserved in the some- 
what higher zone that is transitional from the Wafer-shale to 
the upper subdivision of the Fullington shales, viz. : 

THE BLUE CUT SHALES. 

These are named from ‘the Blue cut,” a deep railway-cut a 
few miles south-southwest of Belvidere, the same from whieh 
the writer’s Blue Cut section was named. .The Blue cut, how- 
ever, in the first instance, owes to the color of these shales the 
name by which it is known to the railway employees and_ in- 
habitants of the Belvidere district. They consist of alterna- 
tions of blue-back and gray argillaceous shales with minor 
beds of sandy shale, ferruginous sandstone and shell limestone. 
In the latter the shells differ from those of the Champion 
shell-bed in character of preservation and in color, the shells 
of the Champion shell-bed being largely calcite and gray in 
color, while those of the Blue Cut shell-beds (except the gray 
to glossy purple-red Osfrei‘da and the sometimes blackish 
Neritide) nearly all consist of ferruginous yellow limestone. 
The transitional Black Hill-Blue Cut horizon, in certain local- 
ities, yields the smaller and generally rarer shells more abun- 
dantly than other horizons. In the thicker shell-beds, a little 
above the base of the terrane, Cypr/meria texana var. kiowana 
is conspicuous on account of its size as well as its abundance, 
some of the beds having their major portion built up of these 


A, Study of the Belvidere Beds. —Cragin. 381 


shells, which are, however, associated with other species,among 
which two of the most constantly abundant are Cardium han- 
sasense and Turritella seriatim-grantulata var. kansasensis. 

The oceurrence of the Duck Creek shell, /noceramus co- 
mancheanus, in these shales is noteworthy. 

All of the vertebrate and nearly all of the invertebrate fos- 
sils listed from the Kiowa shales have been found in the Ful- 
lington beds, including the upper portion of the Black Hill, 
and all, but especially the lower part, of the Blue Cut shales. 

The lower part of these shales presents locally a ‘‘fish-bed” 
horizon in which oceurs Lingula, associated with numerous 
smal] shark’s teeth and fragments of teeth and spines, recalling 
the so-called “fish-bed” of the Benton in its composition. 

Fossils generally are neither so abundant nor so well pre- 
served in the upper, usually lighter-colored portion of the 
Blue Cut shales as in the lower portion. But to this rule we 
see exceptions in Ostreu franklini, Gryphwa roemeri and 
EBeogyra texana, the first of which occurs in solid ledges with 
either of the two latter, or other shells as intruders, and the 
second of which occurs also finely petrified in the soft shale and 
sometimes in such numbers as to constitute loose beds, though 
rarely rock-ledges like those of O. frankliné. Schloenbachia 
peruciand, Cyprimeria kiowana, and indeed almost any of 
the fossils that are abundant in lower horizons of the Blue 

“Cut shales, occur occasionally, and in more westerly localities 
even commonly, though rarely well preserved, in the upper 
horizons also. 

THE TUCUMCARI SHALES. 

The shells of the genus Gryphaa increase in size as found in 
successively higher horizons of the Belvidere beds from the 
appearance of the genus in the Champion shell-bed to its dis- 
appearance just below the base of the leaf-bearing Reeder 
(Dakota?) sandstone which surmounts the Kiowa shales in 
the upper valley of the Medicine Lodge river near the post- 
office at Reeder. The largest examples are found in the upper 
Kiowa shales of the Otter Creek district. Some of these seem 
most nearly related to Gryphwa roemeri; but others clearly 
belong to -G. fucwmears’, particularly to that phase of the 

latter that Mr. Jules Mareou has ealled G. d/latata ; while 
others still represent various intermediate forms between the 


382 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


two. To the zone characterized in part by this variable G. 
tucumeari, the name Tucumcari shales is here given, after 
Mount Tucumeari, New Mexico, where the zone of Gryphaa 
fucumcari? was originally discovered by Mr. Jules Mareou. 

These shales are well developed in the vicinity of Otter 
ereek, on Thompson creek, and on heads of several smaller 
branches of the Medicine Lodge river. 

They are chiefly clay-shales, and lighter hued, as a whole, 
than the Blue Cut shales, which graduate insensibly into 
them. At their summit, they frequently contain bands and 
concretions of clay-ironstone, in the suecession of whieh, 
premonitory of the immense aggregations of concretions 
that constitute certain parts of the Reeder sandstone of 
Kiowa and Clark counties, the Gryphaa, now in its maximum 
size, is lost sight of, becoming scarcer and more poorly pre- 
served before wholly disappearing. 

CORRELATION. 

An order of horizons, incomplete, but roughly resembling 
that seen in the Elk-Otter tract, is found in the western 
extension of the Belvidere beds; but the differentiation, 
whether lithological or paleontological, is there less clearly 
expressed. To just what extent the various members of the 
Elk-Otter section are present, and where present can be 
recognized, west of the Medicine Lodge River valley, is still to 
be ascertained. 

The relation of the recently described Mentor beds to the 
upper part of the Kiowa shales is evidently close, but a pre- 
cise understanding of it at present seems difficult owing to 
the apparent absence of Gryphawa from Comanche sediments 
north of the Arkansas river. But the writer would here state 
that, in the light thus far obtained, it seems to him that the 
previously supposed relationship of the Mentor to the Deni- 
son is probably more apparent than real and should be largely 
ascribed to similarity of physico-geographiec conditions. 

The Blue Cut shales, and at least the upper part of the 
Black Hill shale, should evidently be correlated approximately 
with the Kiamitia, as has been done by Mr. Stanton, the 
Kiamitia being about equally related to the Fredericksburg 
and the Washita. 

The Tucumeari and the Mentor represent somewhat later 
than Kiamitia sedimentation, but both are probably earlier 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 383 
than the Fort Worth (£p/aster elegans) zone of the Washita. 
Messrs. Dumble and Cummins’ section indicates that the 
Tucumeari zone belongs to a position a little below that of 
the Ostrea quadruplicata zone which they describe as below 
that of Epiaster elegans and which, to distinguish it from 
the quadruplicata-bearing horizons above the Fort Worth 
zone may be called the Kent bed. This Kent bed occupies a 
position near that of the north Texas Duck Creek, and the 
Mentor terrane is perhaps not far, in horizon, from the Kent. 

The paleontological aspect of the mollusk-bearing beds of 
the Tucumeari district, as portrayed by Prof. Hill, is such as 
to show that a portion of those beds must be referred to the 
Kiowa shales. But too little has yet been published as to the 
stratigraphic range of the fossils of the Tucumeari district to 
warrant the conclusion that all of those beds should be so 
referred. The Tucumeari zone of the Kiowa is there finely 
developed. , 

Turbinolia texana, whieh Prof. Hill gives as one of the Tu- 
cumeari district fossils “peculiar to and characteristic of the 
Washita division,” may occur in the Washita, but is certainly 
not confined to it. It is, on the contrary, one of the common 
fossils of the Comanche Peak limestone in the typical North 
Texas region. In the outlying E] Paso and Tucumeari dis- 
tricts it very likely occurs in the inter-Fredericksburg-Wash- 
ita group of sediments. 

The evidence taken altogether seems to point to the conclu- 
sion that the Kiowa shales of Kansas, the Kiamitia and Tu- 
eumeari shales of Indian Territory, the limestones 5b and 5e 
of Messrs. Dumble and Cummins’ Kent section, and a portion 
of the mollusk-bearing beds of the Tucumeari district, repre- 
sent a group of sediments intermediate between the Freder- 
icksburg and the Washita divisions, and one which, as_ the 
meeting ground of the faunas of these two divisions, cannot 
satisfactorily (though it may arbitrarily) be referred to 
either. 

CLASSIFICATION OF COMANCHE TERRANES. 

A brief statement of the classification adopted by the writer 
for the sediments of the Comanche series is added in conelu- 
sion, to indicate the basis of the stratigraphic references in this 
article. 


384 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


The Comanche series naturally resolves itself into terranes 
and horizons the character and degree of whose differentiation 
vary with the locality: but the grouping of these terranes into 
divisions is arbitrary and only approximately expresses nat- 
ural relationships. The so-called divisions are usually con- 
nected by more or less important intermediate groups of 
sediments not properly referable to either. Where such a con- 
necting group is of considerable thickness and wide geographic 
extent, and is itself separable into minor subdivisions, such 
a group is probably most naturally disposed of by considering 
it a division. The Kiowa shales, including the Kiamitia and 
the Tucumeari (or, in the Belvidere district of Kansas, the 
Black Hill, the Blue Cut and the Tucumeari) present these 
conditions and are therefore considered as constituting the 
Kiowa division. 

The Tucumeari terrane is not positively known to occur 
south of the Ouachita mountains, but Prof. Hill’s record of the 
occurrence of Gryphaa tucumcar?// near Goodland, Indian 
Territory, suggests the probability that its horizon may be dis- 
tinguishable in the Choctaw Nation. 

The writer believes that the two groups of Shumard, the 
Washita limestone (including the Dueck Creek, Fort Worth 
and Denton terranes) and the Arvetina (for which the geo- 
graphic name Denison is preferable, and which ineludes the 
North Denison, Pawpaw, Choctaw and Grayson) represent 
divisions as natural as any, and that the sediments of the 
Texas-Arkansas Comanche should be grouped in divisions as 
follows, the oldest unpreoceupied, reasonably brief*, strati- 
eraphie names of geographic derivation being in all cases 


given the preference. 


Comanche Series. : 
DIVISIONS. TERRANES. 
Shoal Creek (of Hill). Not subdivided. 


Grayson (of Cragin). 
Denison (of Hill). Choctaw (of Cragin). 
( Arietina, of Shumard.) Pawpaw (of Hill). 
North Denison (of Hill). 


«Stratigraphic terms, the geographic part of which consists of more 
than two words, are considered inadmissable. Hence the term, Trinity 
sandstone, takes precedence over the older one, Lower Cross Timber 
sandstone. 


A Study of the Belvidere Beds.—Cragin. 385 


Denton (of Taff). 
Washita (of Shumard). Fort Worth (of Hill). 
Duck Creek (of Hill). 


Tucumeari (of Cragin). 
Kiamitia (of Hill). 
Barton Creek (of Cragin). (—Caprina and 
Caprotina, of Shumard.) 
Fredericksburg (of Hill). Comanche Peak (of Shumard). 
. Walnut (of Hill). (—Exogyra texana, of 
Shumard.) 


; Paluxy (of Taff). 
Bosque (of Taff). Glen Rose (of Hill). 
Trinity (of Hill.) 
The Barton limestone includes the Caprina limestone and 
the Caprotina limestone of Dr. Shumard. It is named from 
Barton creek, on which, near Austin, Texas, it has its finest 


Kiowa (of Cragin) 


paleontological expression. It is on Barton creek that Mr. 
George Stolley obtained from this limestone the collection of 
beautiful calcite fossils that constituted the basis of Dr. 
Roemer’s final contribution to Texas paleontology.* 

The Washita division, as here defined and as used in this 
paper, includes a group nearly equivalent to that which Dr. 
Shumard defined as “the Washita limestone,” differing from it 
only in excluding the Tucumeari terrane. Most divisions are 
arbitrary, or only in part natural; and Dr. Shumard’s Wash- 
ita, with the slight modification here adopted, is as natural as 
any of the divisions of the Comanche series hitherto proposed. 

Dr. Shumard’s Arietina (for which Prof. Hill’s geographic- 
ally derived name, Denison, is properly retained) is of equal 
importance with the Washita, and is quite too well differenti- 
ated and large a group of sediments to be swallowed up by the 
name of the latter. If it be needful to sometimes use a col- 
lective name for the Washita and the Denison, an unpreéccu- 
pied name must be found; and for such use the name Ga/nes- 
ville, from the north Texas town of that name, which praeti- 
eally marks the boundary between the Washita and the 
Denison, is appropriate. 


*Ueber eine durch die Haufigkeit Hippuriten-artiger Chamiden aus- 
gezeichnete Fauna der oberturonen Kreide von Texas. Ferdinand 
Roemer. -In Paleontologische Abhandlungen von Dames und Kayser, 
vierter Band, Heft 4. Berlin, 1888. 


386 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


EDITORIAL: COMMEN & 


THe HeEIM-CApELLiIni INCIDENT IN THE INTERNATIONAL GEO- 
LOGICAL CONGRESS AT ZURICH. 

An answer to a letter addressed by the undersigned to Prof. 
Capellini contains the following: 

“The first prize, awarded to M. Heim was 2,000 francs. The 
second was awarded to M. A. Karpinski, 1,200 franes. The 
third, 800 franes, was awarded to M. Maillard. Heim had 
had the illustrations and manuscript in 1881-1882. He had 
returned them with the greatest punctuality.” * * [The 
Congress of Bologna was held from Monday, Sept. 26, 1881, to 
Sunday, Oct..2, 1881. Pp. F.] .* .* “TI have hsiveardeae 
knowledging the receipt of manuscript again dated Dee. 16, 
1891. He added ‘I thank you very much for the trouble you 
have taken to loan it to me.’ The manuscript was finally re- 
turned March 11, 1895. Dec. 16, 1891, to March, 1895, makes 
three years and three months.”’ 

The documents were therefore borrowed twice, but in the 
statement which I took down as it was made, the fact of the 
first return was accidentally omitted. Although I cannot 
consider myself responsible for the error, I regret having been 
led into it and now publicly correct it. Prof. Heim did not 
borrow and retain the manuscript and illustrations of his 
first prize essay before the International Congress of Bologna 
for thirteen years, but only for three years and three months. 

I have already acknowledged my error in stating that he 
received only 1,200 instead of 2,000 franes, an error which is 
the less excusable because the facts are clearly set forth on 
page 87 of the Bologna volume. PERSIFOR F'RAZER. 


REVIEW OF. RECENT GELOLOGs 
LUTE RAS ae Es 


Geology of the Green Mountains in Massachusetts. By RaPHaEL 
PumPELLy, J. E. WouFr, and T. Netson Date. (U.S. Geological Sur- 
vey, Monograph xxitt, pp. xiv, 206; with 23 plates and 79 figures in the 
text: Washington, 1894. Price, $1.30.) The gneisses, conglomerates, 
and crystalline schists of the Green Mountain range are shown to be 
of Cambrian and Lower Silurian age, ranging from the Olenellus zone 
upward to the Hudson River. In Greylock, the highest mountain of 
Massachusetts, rising to 3,505 feet above the sea, thick formations of 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 387 


limestone alternate with the schists, the section in descending order be- 
ing the Greylock schist, the Bellowspipe limestone, the Berkshire schist, 
the Stockbridge limestone, quartzite conglomerate, and the Stamford 
gneiss. The series has an aggregate thickness of 5,000 feet or more. In 
the Hoosac range, a few miles distant on the east, the corresponding 
section has no limestone; and the Greylock series above the conglomer- 
ate is represented there by the Rowe and Hoosac schists. 

Summing up the geologic history of this mountain belt, Prof. Pum- 
pelly writes: ‘“The results of the survey in northwestern Massachusetts 
lead to the supposition that the central or main ridge was in pre-Cam- 
brian time outlined as a mountain range of highly crystalline rocks on 
the western border of an area of dry land. During long exposure to the 
action of atmospheric agencies and of the products of vegetable decay, 
the rocks of this region had become decomposed at the surface and dis- 
integrated at depths. The breaching action along the advancing shore 
line of the Cambrian sea found ready prepared the materials which the 
water assorted and distributed to form the great sheet of Cambrian rocks. 
While these deposits of detritus were accumulating over the shallow 
areas, the materials for the future limestone were gathering offshore to 
the west. As the positive movement deepened the water shoreward, 
the calcareous materials accumulated above the earlier detrital beds, so 
that we may imagine that, while the later beds of the Cambrian were 
being made of sand and gravel in shallow water, the lower beds of the 
great limestone were being deposited offshore. Later. with a change of 
some kind in the conditions, there came the deposit of finer material 
over the previously shallow region, while the accumulation of limestone, 
with Lower Silurian organisms, still continued offshore. Still later, by 
another change in the conditions, the deposit of finer detrital material 
extended far to seaward, covering everywhere the limestone accumula- 
tions.”’ 

Very thorough structural and petrographic studies of Hoosac moun- 
tain and adjacent territory are presented by Mr. Wolff in pages 35-118, 
plates tv-xr; and of Greylock mountain by Mr. Dale in pages 119-196, 
with plates x11-xxu11. Metamorphism has nearly everywhere produced 
cleavage foliation. which commonly is far more conspicuous than the 
vestiges of the original stratification. On a grand scale the rocks lie in 
a series of meridional folds; and often hand specimens of the schists 
have minute and even microscopic folds and faults. Referring to the 
extreme complexity of these altered and foliated formations, in which 
the sedimentary stratigraphy is usually very obscure, Dr. Wolff re- 
marks: ‘‘The gneisses of the Green mountains are just as susceptible to 
stratigraphic investigation as the unaltered sediments of the Appala- 
chians, but the problem is much more difficult owing to the secondary 
structures produced by metamorphism.”’ 

Following his description of the geology of Mt. Greylock, Mr. Dale 
adds a short discussion of the influence of the geologic structure in de- 
termining the present topographic contour. 


388 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


It is hoped that the detailed work here published will serve as a 
bridge leading toward the determination of the stratigraphy and age of 
the similarly metamorphosed and crystalline rocks which form nearly 
the whole area of the New England states; since the western border of 
the Green and Taconic mountains is the boundary between those rocks 
and the unaltered Paleozoic series which occupies the greater part of 
New York and of the Appalachian mountain belt thence southward. 

Ww. U. 


Handbook and Catalogue of the Meteorite Collection. By O. C. Far- 
RinGrON, Ph. D. (Publications of the Field Columbian Museum, Geol. 
Series, vol. 1, no. 1. Chicago, Aug., 1895.) This meteorite collection, 
now carefully catalogued for future use, ranks amongst the largest in 
the world. It is made up of original purchases from the Ward Science 
Establishment, of Rochester. N. Y., at the time of the World’s Colum- 
bian Exposition, where these specimens were on exhibition by Prof. 
Ward, and of later purchases from Mr. Geo. F. Kunz. They comprise 
many of the largest and most valuable meteorites fallen in American 
localities, as well as large representatives of meteorites from nearly all 
parts of the world. With the casts, which number about fifty of the 
other important meteorites, made by Ward, the collection presents an 
attractive exhibition. The total number of falls or finds represented by 
genuine specimens is 180, and their total weight is 4,720.6 pounds. 

The handbook consists of a concise statement of the facts known con- 
cerning meteorites, historical, chemical. physical and cosmical, illustra- 
ted by references to the collection itself, with some references to chief 
authorities and a list of some of the leading works on meteorites. 

In reading the sketch, which is interesting and accurate and credit- 
able to its author, two queries rise in the mind of the reader, viz.: 

1. Why not mention among the theories that have been proposed for 
the origin of the chondritic structure of the stony meteorites the view 
adopted by Proctor and others that the chondri are due to aggregations 
of cosmic matter? It may not be correct, but as it has played quite a 
role in the literature of the subject it deserves mention when one is 
listing the various theories proposed for the origin of this structure. 

2. Is not the idea that meteorites ‘‘explode,’’ producing the detona- 
tions which accompany their fall, traditional and imaginary rather than 
actual? Is not the noise due to the atmospheric agitation produced by 
the impact? Is there anything naturally or possibly ‘‘explosive”’ in the 
interior of a meteorite? Is not the fact that the interior of the mass is 
usually cold sufficient demonstration that the exterior only has been 
heated and hence, also, that it has suffered the greater amount of ex- 
pansion? In the firing of a cannon is it the ‘‘explosion’’ proper that is 
heard, or is it the atmospheric undulation which is produced by the 
rush of the column of liberated gas into the still air? Would it be pos- 
sible for a loosely cemented stone, like most meteorites, to fall upon the 
atmosphere, at the speed with which meteorites travel, without disin- 
tegration? Would it not necessarily crumble into many pieces, in the 
same manner and for the same reason that a pailful of water, suddenly 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 389 
. 


liberated at a hight, is divided into many parts and perhaps into spray 
before it reaches the earth? Cannot the different ‘‘explosions’’ of me- 
teorites be all attributed to the passage of somany large masses through 
the air, or to the atmospheric agitation of their impact on the lower air? 
Would it be possible to produce the detonations heard at the time of 
fall by the separation of the meteoric mass into its parts, and at the 
same time not reduce it to powder? Would not the sudden arrest of a 
mass of matter like a meteorite produce a noise similar to that heard by 
the sudden action of the force which starts a cannon ball? Would not 
the resistance of the atmosphere be such as to cause a comparatively 
sudden arrest of the motion of a meteorite? N. H. W. 


Dus obere Mitteldevon (Schichten mit Stringocephalus Burtini und 
Maeneceras terebratum) im Rheinischen Gebirge. By E. Houzapren. 
(Abhandl. der Konig]. Preuss. Geolog. Landesanst., Heft 16, pp. 1-460, 
pls. 1-19, 1895.) The author, widely known for his previous publications 
upon the Paleozoic faunas of Germany and Bohemia, has here produced 
the most elaborate and important work of the year upon the Devon- 
ian. Ina brief sketch it is not possible to do it justice, for it marshals 
a great array of facts, many of which, though based upon local mani- 
festations. are keyed up to a general significance. The detailed descrip- 
tion of the fauna, with which the work opens, evinces this fact in many 
places throughout the account of its 238 species, and is full of sugges- 
tions to the working paleontologist. 

The radical differences in the composition of this fauna and that oc- 
cupying the same stratigraphical position in America are more strongly 
emphasized than ever. These are not differences which lead in any way 
to doubt the present assignment of either, but rather to the conviction 
that the term is yet to be coined which expresses their individual char- 
acter or mutual relations. Thus, among the multitude of forms in the 
middle Devonian of America (Marcellus and Hamilton divisions) are 
species at certain horizons which, in Germany, appear at wholly differ- 
ent planes: Agoniatites ecpansus Vanux. (A. inconstans Phillips, var. 
exrpanusus, according to Holzapfel) is preéminently a lower middle De- 
vonian species in New York, but abounds ata higher horizon there. We 
might cite the limitation of Tropidoleptus to the German lower Devon- 
ian, while in New York it appears first in the Hamilton group and dis- 
appears with the Ithaca fauna. Schizophoria striatula and Leptena 
rhomboidalis are brachiopods generally diffused through the German 
middle Devonian, but are wanting at the same horizon here. Again, a 
multitude of types of more than specific value there characteristic are 
here unknown. A glance at the list of trilobites described by the author 
enforces this fact. There are Crotalocephalus, Lichas, Arethusina, 
Harpes, forms of Proetus (P. crassirhachis, P. quadratus) which occur 
only in our lower Devonian, the Gerastos-type alone representing this 
genus in the middle division. Likewise among the cephalopods Prole 
canites clavilobus represents a goniatite-type unknown here before the 
opening of the upper Devonian: the nautiloid genera Cophinoceras and 


390 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


Sphyradoceras characterize the American lower Devonian:* the new 
Cyrtoceras-like genus Kokenia is unrepresented. Among the gastero- 
pods is one described as typifying a new genus, Progalerus (P. convi- 
dens) which is, however, synonymous with Protocalyptrea Clarke, and 
is known in American faunas only in the upper Devonian. Of the 
brachiopods, Amphigenia is lower Devonian in America: among the 
crinoids Cupressocrinus is here unknown, Heracrinus and Melocrinus 
are virtually restricted to upper Devonian faunas. There are also some 
notable differences in the intensity of development of certain generic 
types, as in Agoniatites (Aphyllites) of which we recognize two or three 
species in the New York Devonian (Goniatites expansus Van., and yar 
nodiger Hall, and G. unilobautus Hall) and two of these are incorporated 
by the author among the seven varieties of G. ‘nconstans Phill. Anar- 
cestes is represented by six species, only one being known here (A. /ate- 
seplatus Beyr. Gon. plebeiformis Hall). Tornoceras has nine species, 
while the middle Devonian of America has produced but two. Mene- 
ceras, with four species, is not known here unless it be by the little 
known shell Gon. orbicella Hall. Loxonema and Platyceras fall far be- 
low their American development, Pollicina and Agnesia are not known, 
the lamellibranchs Rutotia and Parallelodus, Hoplomytilus and Posi- 
donia have not been identified here, while Cardiola is represented by 
seven species and Conocardium by six. Merista is not a middle Devo- 
nian genus in America. And yet with such differences there is striking 
uniformity in the two faunas in the composition of the goniatite, lamel- 
libranch and brachiopod elements. 

The author introduces four new genera, viz.: Kokenia, a cyrtoceran- 
looking genus, with obliquely ribbed sides but with no evidence of sipho 
or septa; it is compared to Coleoprion in structure. Progalerus, as al- 
ready observed, a gastropod genus synonymous with Protocalyptred. 
Pollicina (accredited to Koken), a supposed platyceratid with strong 
rugose growth-ridges. Chascothyris, a large terebratuloid brachiopod 
having a loop extending for half the length of the shell and slightly re- 
flected in front, whence a long and narrow spine projects backward. Its 
structure suggests a Rensseleria in which the anterior plate formed by 
the coalescence of the descending branches of the loop has been resorbed 
without affecting the median rod connected therewith and extending 
toward the crura. It is an interesting modification of centronellid type 
and is represented by three species, of which Ch. barroisi is the typical 
form. 

The genus Hnantiosphen, which was recently introduced by Whid- 
borne for the brachiopod Meganteris vicaryi Dav., is regarded by Hol- 
zapfel as a synonym of Amphigenia Hall, though we believe it would be 
well to adopt the author’s suggestion by applying this term to those 
middle Devonian shells having a short form and broadly introverted 
margins (EH. vicaryt, A. beyrichi). 


*The author repeatedly refers to the Upper Helderberg fauna as of lower middle 
Devonian age. ‘Vhis is not in accordance with the accepted classification of the 
American faunas, nor does it agree with our own view. ‘That fauna naturally em- 
Drees some middle Devonian types, but its most preéminent elements are distinetly 
of earlier age. 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 391 


The paleontologic portion of the work, which constitutes its main 
part, is followed by chapters mainly pertaining to the local developments 
of the fauna and their correlation. One of these which is concerned with 
the facies of the fauna in its entirety brings forward with much force 
objections to the argument of Walther that the fossil remains of ammo- 
noid cephalopods do not, generally speaking, represent members of the 
faunas with which they are found, but after having been floated by in- 
closed gases resulting from decomposition have been carried by wind 
and tide from their deep water habitat in among the shallow water or- 
ganisms with whose remains theirs are found. Holzapfel shows that 
the goniatites of the German Devonian prevail wherever the limestones 
occur, that their number is greatly diminished in shales and sands, 
while they occur with extreme rarity in coral and crinoid deposits: 
further that, in respect to generic and even specified types, these fossils 
are of general distribution in the middle Devonian of both continents. 
The evidence from equivalent New York faunas distinctively favors this 
conclusion. Not all the limestones of the Marcellus and Hamilton di- 
visions produce goniatites, but these fossils are most prolific in certain 
of these layers and at present appear to be closely restricted to narrow 
horizons, e. g., the almost exclusive development of Agoniatiles expan- 
sus and Tornoceras discoideum in the goniatite limestone of the Mar- 
cellus shales, and of Anarcestes plebeiformis in a local limestone stra- 
tum of the same age. Furthermore, the presence of goniatites in highly 
bituminous or arenaceous sediments of the middle Devonian can not be 
construed as an argument against this inference for such species are 
those which also occur involved in the calcareous sediments of that for- 
mation. This same fact is strikingly true of the lower Devonian or 
Intumescens fauna, a fauna emphatically distinct from those preced 
ing and succeeding; its goniatites abound most freely where there is 
calcareous stratum, but the same species likewise occur in the sandy 
shales and flags. Moreover, the entire fauna in all its elements is an 
harmonious whole, reproduced in world-distant regions. Ti, Mise Ce 


Mollusca and Crustacea of the Miocene Formations of New Jersey. 
By Roserr Parr Wuitrretp. (U.S. Geol. Survey, Monograph xxry, 
pp. 195, with 24 plates: Washington, 1894. Price, 90 cents). Eight 
years ago only fifty Miocene species were known from New Jersey : but 
in the present work the number is increased to 110, of which 36 are 
found only in this State. ‘* No living forms have been found in the 
New Jersey deposits that are not also known to occur in some of the 
more southern localities, and no very close representatives of living 
species are seen among those which so far are found in New Jersey 
only.”’ The fossiliferous Miocene beds occur in three phases, namely, 
in descending order, a dark brown or chocolate-colored clay, which lies 
next below the ‘‘glass sand; *’ next, a stony layer of gray marl, filled 
with shells of Ostrea and other forms; and, below this, the loose sandy 
gray marl. These divisions, however, do not appear to be distinctly 
separable zoologically, and they are therefore thought to be due merely 


392 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


to local changes in conditions during the continuance of the same epoch.. 
The species described in this work, represented mostly by collections 
belonging to the National Museum, the Academy of Natural Sciences 
of Philadelphia, and Rutgers College, are comprised in the following 
classes: Brachiopoda, 1; Lamellibranchiata, 61: Gasteropoda, 39: and 
Crustacea, 1, this being a Balanus, similar to the common barnacle still 
living on the New Jersey coast. WwW. U. 


A Geological Reconnoissance in Northwest Wyoming. By GEorGE 
Homans Evpripce. (U. 8. Geological Survey, Bulletin 119, pp. 72, with 
a geologic map and sections: Washington, 1894. Price, 10 cents.) An 
area about 150 miles square in Wyoming, with an adjoining tract 150 
miles long and 15 miles wide in Montana, is here described, special 
attention being directed to its economic resources. The district com- 
prises the Wind River and Big Horn basins, each nearly inclosed by high 
mountain ranges, and drained respectively by upper and lower parts of 
the same river. The rock formations are of Archean, Cambrian, 
Silurian, Carboniferous, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Eocene 
age. Archean granites, gneisses, and schists, form the chief mass of 
the Big Horn and Wind River mountains: but the southern part of the 
Big Horn range consists of Carboniferous strata. All the members of 
the Cretaceous series, as developed in the Upper Missouri region, are 
displayed on the flanks of the numerous mountain ranges, Lastly, in 
the lowlands, the Wasatch and Bridger deposits of the Eocene period 
occupy larger areas than those of the older formations in this district. 

Lignite coal seams, mostly too thin to be workable, but ranging in 
thickness up to ten feet, occur in the Laramie formations: and in one 
locality the Niobrara beds contain a lignitic layer about two feet thick. 

Petroleum springs issue in various places from the Triassic red beds 
and the Niobrara shales. Three oil wells, 400, 600, and 1,000 feet deep, 
have been sunk, and yield an abundant and steady surface flow, when 
it is permitted: but they are kept closed because of the distance from 
any market. ‘* The natural occurrences of oil, and the success thus far 
attained in the drilled wells, warrant firm and favorable belief in the 
future of the Wyoming petroleum fields.”’ 

Building stones of excellent quality, clays well adapted for brick- 
making, beds of gypsum 5 to 30 feet thick, gold in certain conglomerates 
and sandstones on the Big Horn range, several very large hot springs 
held in high repute for their curative qualities, and the scanty agricul- 
tural lands within irrigable limits, complete the list of the natural re- 
sources of the region. Away from the mountains and streams, the 
country is ‘‘a vast desert, intensely heated in summer, wind-swept in 
winter, with hardly a spear of grass for grazing.” WwW. U. 


Elementary Physical Geography. By Ratepu 8. Tarr. (Pages xxxi, 
488, with 29 plates and charts, and 267 figures in the text. Macmillan 
& Co., 1895. Price $1.40.) The present treatise, designed as a text book 
for schools, is based on the manuscript of a more advanced work, which 
is soon to be published as a handbook for teachers and for reference. 


Review of Recent Geological Literature, 393 


In the first part, treating of the air, the outlines of the fast advancing 
science of meteorology are presented, with a chapter on the geographic 
distribution of animals and plants as dependent chiefly on climatic con- 
ditions. The second part treats of the ocean, its abyssal deposits. its 
faunas in varying depths, and its waves, currents, and tides. In the 
remaining third part, which occupies more than half of the book, the 
land is considered. All the chapters of this part, relating to the crust 
of the earth, denudation, topographic features, river valleys, deltas, 
floodplains. lakes, glaciers, thefcoast line, plateaus and mountains. 
voleanoes, earthquakes, and geysers, and the relationship of man and 
nature, are very instructively and attractively arranged. The whole 
field is viewed, and its lessons are stated, from the standpoints not 
merely of the geographer, but likewise of the geologist. with due regard 
to. the common ground of geomorphology, where the earth’s present 
surface features are shown to have come through long antecedent stages 
of gradual development by geologic conditions and agencies. 

The abundant illustration by charts and diagrams, and especially by 
the admirable ‘“‘ half tone ’’ engraving in its clear copies of photographs 
with all their fidelity to the truth, well exemplifies the recent great pro- 
gress 10 this important auxiliary for imparting school instruction. The 
pupil finds at the end of each chapter a short list of the most useful 
books to be sought in libraries for further pursuit of that portion of the 
subject; but both teachers and students are urged to supplement the 
study of the text book by field excursions and observation. W. U. 


The Lakes of North America: A reading lesson for students of 
Geography and Geology. By IsrarL C. Russein. (Pages xi, 125, with 
23 plates, and 9 figures in the text. Ginn & Co., 1895.) The six chap- 
ters of this interesting and convenient reference book for schools. 
colleges, and general readers, are (1) origin of lake basins, in which the 
author follows mainly the classification of Davis: (2) movements of lake 
waters and the geological functions of lakes; (8) topography of lake 
shores, nearly as in the classical work on lake Bonneville by Gilbert, to 
whom this book is dedicated ; (4) relation of lakes to climatic conditions: 
(5) the life histories of lakes; and (6) studies of special lacustral his- 
tories, including the Pleistocene lakes of the Laurentian basin. the 
glacial lake Agassiz in the Winnipeg basin, and the Pleistocene lakes 
Bonneville and Lahontan in the present Great Basin of interior drainage 
within the broad Cordilleran mountain belt. Excepting occasional 
typographic errors, mostly unimportant, the work is excellently done 
by an author who has contributed much original investigation in this 
field by his work for the U. S. Geological survey in explorations of lake 
Lahontan, the formerly higher stages of lake Mono, and many other 
smaller Pleistocene Jakes due to a more moist climate in the Cordilleran 
region than that of the present time. Ww. U. 


Characteristics of the Ozark Mountains. By C. R. Keyes. (Mis- 
souri Geol. Survey, vol. vii, pp. 319-352. Jefferson City, 1895.) This 
paper is in the main a summary of what is known regarding the Ozark 


394 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


mountains. Under the term Ozark uplift the author would include the 
Shawnee hills, St. Francois mountains, Ozark plateau. Boston moun- 
tains and Ouachita mountains. The uplift asa whole is a canoe-shaped 
dome extending from southern Illinois to Indian Territory. It stands as 
a dividing line between the coastal plain, as represented in the Mississippi 
embayment, and the Great plains. The middle of the uplift is a typi- 
cal high plateau: around the margins are the areas of more pronounced 
topographic diversity known by the different local names given above. 
Each is considered separately. The Shawnee hills are ridges and repre- 
sent structural features. The St. Francois mountains are made up of 
isolated peaks irregularly clustered. The Boston mountains form a 
range of steep-sided elevations lying between the White and Arkansas 
rivers. The Ouachita mountains show numerous anticlinal ridges. 
They are believed to belong structurally with the remainder of the 
group, the separation being due to the more rapid erosion of the Coal 
Measure shales. 

The crystalline rocks of the region belong to two distinct periods, the 
eranites and porphyries to the Archean and the eleolite syenites to the 
Cretaceous. The recognition of the Algonkian is considered as provi- 
sional only. The Ozark series is believed to include both Cambrian and 
Silurian, separated possibly by an unconformity,—that seen at Pacific. 
The presence of numerous unconformities, as indicative of repeated os- 
cillations, and the freshness of the stream erosion, as evidenced in the 
sharpness of the valleys and the dissection of the Tertiary peneplain, 
are insisted upon as evidence of the recentness of the uplift. It is be- 
lieved, indeed, that the last cycle of elevation is not ended and that ele- 
vation is now taking place at a rapid rate. H. F. B. 


RECENY PU BIACAIONS: 


I. Government and State Reports. 

Geol. Survey of Canada. Maps of the principal auriferous creeks in 
the Cariboo mining district, British Columbia, by Amos Bowman; maps 
364-372. 

Geol. Survey of Canada. Maps of Nova Scotia, described in part P, 
vol. 2 (n. s.), 1886; maps 379-390, 550, 551 (sheets 25-38). 

Geol. Survey of Canada. Seine River sheet of Thunder Bay and 
Rainy River districts: geology by W. H. Smith and W. McInnes. 

Missouri Geol. Survey, vol. 8, Ann. Rept. for 1894, 405 pp., 30 pls., 
1895. Organization and results of a state geological survey, C. R. 
Keyes; Crystalline rocks of Missouri, Erasmus Haworth: Dictionary of 
altitudes, C. F. Marbut; Characteristics of the Ozark mountains, C. R. 
Keyes: Coal Measures of Missouri, G. C. Broadhead. 

lith Ann. Rept. of the Inspector of Mines of Ky., for 1894, viii and 
207 pp., 1895. Report of the Inspector, C. J. Norwood; Correlation of 
Kentucky coals with those of Big Stone Gap, Va., J. M. Hodge. 

U.S. Geol. Survey. Lassen Peak folio (Cal.) of Geologie Atlas 
U.S:, J..S. Diller: 


Recent Publications. 395 


II. Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 

Proce. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1895, pt. 2. Distribution of the Ameri- 
can bison in Pennsylvania, with remarks on a new fossil species, S. N. 
Rhoads: Protoptychus hatcheri. a new rodent from the Uinta Kocene, 
W. B. Scott. ; 

Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1894-95, vol. 14. Dislocations in certain por- 
tions of the Atlantic Coastal Plain strata and their probable causes, 
Arthur Hollick: The geological section exhibited by the new tunnel] 
under the East river at 70th street, J. F. Kemp: Phosphorescent dia- 
monds, G. F. Kunz; The Protolenus fauna, G. F. Matthew: Two new 
Cambrian graptolites, with notes on other species of Graptolitide of 
that age, G. F. Matthew: The effusive and dyke rocks near St. John. 
N. B., W. D. Matthew: On a granite diorite near Harrison. Westchester 
county, N. Y., H. Ries: The condition of the interior of the earth (ab- 
stract), R. S. Woodward. 

Proc. and Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. Sci., vol. 8 (2d ser., vol. 1), pt 4, 
1895. Notes on a collection of Silurian fossils from cape George, Anti- 
gonish Co., N.§8., with descriptions of four new species, H. M. Ami: 
Notes on recent sedimentary formations on the Bay of Funday coast, R. 
W. Ells; Deep mining in Nova Scotia, W. H. Prest: Notes on the Sydnev 
coal field, E. Gilpin. ce eae 

ITI. Papers in Scientific Journals. 

Amer. Naturalist, Nov. The first fauna of the earth, J. F. James. 

Amer. Jour. Sci., Nov. Effect of the mutual replacement of manga- 
nese and iron on the optical properties of lithiophilite and triphylite, S. 
L. Penfield and J. H. Pratt: Some phonolitic rocks from Montana, L. 
V. Pirsson: Reptilia of the Baptanodon beds, O. C. Marsh: Restoration 
of some European dinosaurs, with suggestions as to their place among 
the Reptilia, O.-C. Marsh. 

Science, Oct. 25. View of the Ice age as two epochs, the Glacial and 
Champlain, Warren Upham. 

Science, Noy. 8. Current notes on physiography (XVII), W. M. 
Davis: Radiolarian earths of Cuba. R. T. Hill. 

Science, Nov. 15. Current notes on physiography (XVIII), W. M. 
Davis. 

Journ. of Geol., Oct.-Nov. The cliffs and exotic blocks of north 
Switzerland, E. C. Quereau; Preglacial valleys of the Mississippi and 
its tributaries, Frank Leverett: The upper Paleozoic rocks of central] 
Kansas (concluded). C. S. Prosser; The voleanics of the Michigamme 
district of Michigan, J. M. Clements; The influence of débris on the 
flow of glaciers, I. C. Russell; Glacial studies in Greenland (VIII), T. Ge 
Chamberlin. 

IV. Excerpts and Individual Publications. 

Elementary physical geography, R.S. Tarr. 12mo, xxxi and 488 pp., 
29 pls.: New York, Macmillan & Co., 1895. 

Petrology for students, an introduction to the study of rocks under 
the microscope, Alfred Harker. 12mo, viii and 306 pp.: New \ 
Maemillan & Co., 1895. 


ork, 


396 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


The lead and zine mining industry of southwest Missouri and south- 
east Kansas. John R. Holibaugh. 8vo, 54 pp., and map: New York, 
The Scientific Publishing Co., 1895. 

Description of eight new species of fossils from the (Galena) Trenton 
limestones of lake Winnipeg and the Red River valley, J. F. Whiteaves. 
11 pp.: reprint from Canadian Ree. Sci., July, 1895. 

Die krystallisirten Mineralien aus dem ‘‘Galena Limestone’ des 
stidlichen Wisconsin und des nordlichen Illinois, W. H. Hobbs. 
Zeitschrift f. Krystallogr., xxv, 257-275, Taf. 3-5, 1895. 

Mount Shasta, a typical voleana, J. S. Diller. Nat. Geographic 
Monographs, vol. 1, no. 8, pp. 237-268, Oct., 1895. 

The dyke on the Columbia vein in Ward district, Boulder Co., Colo., 
C.S. Palmer and W. B. Stoddard. 6 pp.: read before Colo. Sei. Soc., 
Oct. 7, 1895. 

V. Proceedings of Scientific Laboratories, ete. 

Johns Hopkins Uniy. Circulars, Oct. Description of the geological 
excursions made during the spring of 1895, W. B. Clark: Two new 
brachiopods from the Cretaceous of New Jersey, W. B. Clark; Contri- 
butions to the Eocene fauna of the middle Atlantic slope, W. B. Clark: 
Additional observations upon the Miocene (Chesapeake) deposits of 
New Jersey, W. B. Clark: Notes on some flattened garnets from North 
Carolina, E. B. Mathews; A contribution to the Neocene corals of the | 
United States. H. S. Gane: The spotted slates associated with the Sioux 
quartzite. S. W. Beyer: The Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey, 
R. M. Bagge: The voleanie series of Fox islands, Maine. G. O. Smith; 
A preliminary note on the geology of Massanutten mountain in Vir- 
ginia, A. C. Spencer; Preliminary description of the geology of the Bor- 
dentown sheet of the geologic atlas of the United States, G. B. Shat- 
tuck: The discovery of fossil tracks in the Newark system (Jura-Trias) 
of Frederick county, Md., J. A. Mitchell: Note on the Cretaceous for- 
mations of the eastern shore of Maryland, D. E. Roberts: Notes on the 
paleontology of the Potomac formation, Arthur Bibbins. 


. CORRESPONDENCE. 


Dr. Hotsr on THE ConTINUITY OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD. The Geo- 
logical Survey of Sweden has just published an important paper (No. 
151) by Dr. N. O. Holst, entitled ‘‘Har det funnits mera an en Istid i 
Sverige?” [“‘Has there been more than one Ice Age in Sweden?’’], in 
which Dr. Holst intimates that fashion has had much to do with intro- 
ducing and supporting the theory of two ice ages in Scandinavia. After 
detailing the subdivisions of the glacial advance and retreat which by 
some geologists are confidently attributed to distinctly separate glacial 
epochs, he maintains that the facts have been greatly misinterpreted 
and that he finds no sufficient evidence of successive and distinct ice- 
sheets or epochs of glaciation. 

Much weight attaches to what Dr. Holst writes about American facts, 
inasmuch as he traveled extensively in this country in 1891, and was 
conducted to the critical points of glacial investigation by Prof. Salis- 


Correspondence. 397 


bury and others; and the value of his conclusions is further increased 
by the extended observations made by him several years before on the 
glaciers of southern Greenland. ‘‘The general moraine,’’ he says, 
“which can be compared with that in Scandinavia. endsin North Amer- 
ica in a bouldery belt inclosing small lakes. with drift hills and ridges 
sometimes 150 to 300 feet high, trending commonly in a direction at 
right angles to the glacial strie.. This moraine belt is somewhat like 
the Swedish hilly moraine landscape. It is this ridged belt that is: 
called the terminal moraine. Americans consider themselves able to 
trace this from east of New York along the south side of the Great 
Lakes into Dakota to the east bank of the Missouri, also farther along 
that river toward the north and northwest. 

‘These terminal moraines, according to the interglacial conceptions, 
are supposed to mark the southern boundary of the American ice-sheet 
during the second glacial epoch or ice age. But south of this belt is 
found a considerable tract which adjoins it as a border, and which is: 
characterized in general by less severe glaciation, and, on the whole, by 
a thinner and less complete covering of glacial deposits. This tract has 
been called ‘the fringe,’ or, to use a term of the interglacialists, the ‘at 
tenuated border.’ The larger part of this is attributed to the first ice 
age. 

“When Chamberlin in 1883 expressed himself more certainly for the 
interglacial theory he founded his convictions on two reasons, the first 
of which was the position of the ‘terminal moraine.’ Since then, how- 
ever, it has been discovered that there are several such morainic belts 
which lie concentric one inside the other. If one lets the most southern 
moraine prove a separate ice age, it becomes hard to understand why 
the same importance should not be given to the other remaining mo- 
raine lines. 

“Tn 1886, Chamberlin and Salisbury gave a more complete sketch of 
the differences between the two ice epochs. The first was less power- 
ful, scattered its material more uniformly, and did not generally pile it 
up in moraine ridges; wherefore terminal moraines and drumlins are 
wanting. Further, the glacial erosion was weaker, so that the water 
systems of the drift area south of the moraines have few lakes or rapids. 

‘‘During the last ice age the conditions were nearly the reverse. The 
glaciation was quite strong, and immense terminal moraines were plowed 
up. The mountain sides were strongly eroded, and the streams flowed 
with great power in their courses, sending vast masses of glacial gravels 
from the edge of the ice far down into the valleys, which they filled to 
a great depth with well assorted material. 

‘‘But this so-called proof, the writer dares maintain, speaks directly 
against the theory of the interglacialists. If North America had two 
ice ages, of which the first, after having covered nearly one-half of the 
continent, melted so completely that it left the country in an interglacial! 
condition free from ice as now, it certainly is very peculiar that the ice 
of the succeeding epoch should reach almost as far as that of the first. 
It is even more peculiar that the action of the first and maximum ice 


398 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


sheet should have been weaker than that of the second; and it is most 
remarkable of all that the first continental glacier should have failed to 
deposit moraine ridges and other sediments which usually belong to 
land ice. The case, however, becomes both simple and natural if each 
of the above groups of. facts be regarded as more or less marginal, be- 
longing in one and the same ice epoch. The smaller amount of erosion 
and weaker glaciation outside of the terminal moraines need with this 
conception no separate explanation. 

-*Other proofs, considered even more important, are derived from the 
extensive oxidation and erosion which the oldest ¢lacial drift has under- 
gone, and which are supposed to have required a very long interglacial 
epoch: and finally, the vegetation and interglacial forest, layers imbed- 
ded in the drift bounded by the moraines are thought to be specially 
significant. 

“But the oxidation of the oldest drift (the fringe) is characteristic of 
the eastern as well as of the western border of the glaciated area. It is 
very thorough, showing a strong yellow-brown or reddish color, and in , 
some instances it extends to a depth of twenty or thirty feet. and is as 
thorough at the bottom as near the top. This is the case in the region 
of Oxford Furnace, N. J., where the writer, under the guidance of 
Salisbury, had a chance to get acquainted with it in 1891. But in this 
locality, considered especially important, the oxidation appeared to be 
entirely too deep, too uniform downward, and altogether too thorough, 
to have taken place during the Quaternary era. Clearly the material of 
which the sediments in question are formed must have been already 
strongly oxidized before it was deposited. The oxidation was thus pre- 
elacial.’’ [Reference is here made in a footnote to my reports upon the 
region as in harmony with the author’s.]} ‘‘The writer has come to this 
conclusion in view of the experience which he has had in Sweden in ob- 
serving the Quaternary oxidation and weathering, which decrease gen- 
erally downward.... 

“Salisbury has besides, together with Chamberlin, published facts 
derived from their American investigations which give a more correct 
estimation of the extent of the Quaternary oxidation. They state that 
the loessis often oxidized to a depth of four to five feet, and also in some- 
places deeper. But it is very hard to understand why the interglacial 
oxidation should have affected the Mississippi loess and the older New 
Jersey glacial deposits in such very unlike manner, although they were 
formed at the same time, or at least during some part of the first ice 
age.” 

After discussing the nature and supposed extent of the interglacial ero- 
sion. and outlining the theories of Chamberlin and Salisbury concern- 
ing the loess, Dr. Holst speaks of the light thrown upon this deposit by 
the ‘*kryokonite,’’ or dust found on the Greenland ice-sheet, which, he 
savs. shows a complete resemblance to the loess, and, ‘‘if the writer is 
not mistaken, is the origin of a similar mud-making process with that 
which has produced the loess. The water which circulates upon and 
beneath the outer portions of the ice washes the finer material which is 


Correspondence. 399 


scattered over the margin of the inland ice, and which is inclosed in the 
layers of the decaying ice front, out against the moraine, but leaves in 
the ice the other material which is not fine enough to pass away as Clay 
mud. In this way the loess, as well as the clearly similar mud products 
of Greenland, receive an entirely satisfactory explanation.” 

After remarking upon the diminished importance of interglacial for- 
est beds since Prof. Russell’s discoveries in Alaska, and upon their oc- 
currence chiefly in the marginal area, Dr. Holst says that ‘‘if in reality 
the glacier which once covered almost half of North America could 
have entirely melted away, permitting an interglacial epoch many times 
longer than the postglacial, when the country was free from ice as now, 
vegetation and soil ought, at least to as large an extent as now, to have 
taken possession of the surface; and when an ice-sheet a second time 
moved forward to the former boundary line, it ought to have buried, 
and in numerous cases to have eroded, but not to have wholly removed, 
the interglacial layers. We should, therefore, now find in innumerable 
places under the later moraines vegetation and interglacial soil; and, fur- 
ther, we ought to find in the morainic drift, fragments of bones, shells, 
wood, and other organic remains almost without number, and finally in 
some places one ought to come upon outside layers of interglacial age. 
But, except in the marginal part of the drift area, one finds nothing of 
all this.’ 

Dr. Holst further remarks upon the difficulty encountered in the at- 
tempts to correlate the glacial and interglacial epochs of Europe and 
America. ‘The same yellow and blue moraines which in Scandinavia 
and northern Germany are supposed to represent two ice ages are also 
found in North America. I have seen them myself in Ohio, but there 
they-are wholly attributed to the later ice age....The loess, which in 
Europe belongs to the second ice age, in America is supposed to belong 
to the first,”’ ete. 

In conclusion the distinguished Swedish author expresses it as his 
opinion that there can not be the strong cumulative force in the argu- 
ments brought forward by the multi-glacialists which has been attrib- 
uted to them, since each argument, when weighed separately, is insuffi- 
cient. He affirms that, during his wide travels in the investigation of 
the facts in question, he finds nowhere any decisive proof of the hypoth- 
esis of an interglacial epoch. Nowhere in foreign countries is any fact 
met that can be considered to make it unlikely that in Sweden there 
was only one ice age. G. FREDERICK WRIGHT. 

Oberlin, Ohio, Nov. 15th, 1895. 


400 The American Geologist. December, 1595 


PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


Dr. R. M. BacG has been appointed assistant in geology in 
the Johns Hopkins University. 

Anronio DEL CastiLLo, F. G. 8S. A., director of the Mexican 
‘Geological Commission, died in oe: city of Mexico on Octo- 
ber 27th. 

Pror. CLEVELAND ABBE, of the United States Weather Bu- 
reau, will give four lectures upon ‘‘Climatology in its relation 
to physiogrs iphy”’ before the geological department of Johns 
Hopkins University on Jan. 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th, 1896. 

CHARLES SCRIBNER’S Sons announce the publication of “The 
Karth’s History, an introduction to modern geology,” by R.D. 
Roberts, lecturer in the University of Cambridge; and ‘The 
Realm of Nature,” by Hugh R. Mill, of the University of Ed- 
inburgh, 

Tur Narronan Acapemy of Sciences met in Philadelphia on 
Oct. 29th and 30th. The following geological papers were 
presented: On the Paleozoic reptilian order of the Cotylosau- 
ria, by E. D. Cope; On a bone cave at Port Kennedy, Pa., by 
KE. D. Corr; On borings through the coral reef in Florida, by 
ALEXANDER AGASSIZ. 

THE EIGHTH WINTER MEETING OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF 
America will be held in Philadelphia, probably at the Univer 
sity of Pennsylvania, beginning Thursday, Dee. 26th. The 
council meets Thursday morning and the society will be 
called to order at two o’eclock on Thursday afternoon. The 
list of papers will be distributed on Dee. 11th. 

THe Jouns Hopkins University announces that Si ARCHI- 
BALD GEIKIE, F. R. S., D..Sc., LL. D., Director-General of the 
Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, has accepted 
the invitation of the president and board of trustees of the 
Johns Hopkins University to inaugurate the George Hunting- 
ton Williams memorial lectureship, and has selected October, 
1896, as the time for delivering his lectures. 

Tur GeoLtocicaL Socrery or Wasuineron held its 387th 
meeting on Nov. 13th. The following papers were presented : 
A review of the literature of the South African gold fields, by 
S. F. Emmons: Informal summary of observations in Alaska, 
by G. F. Becker and W. H. Dati. At the meeting on Nov. 
27th the following papers were presented: Field notes on the 
geology of Oregon, by J. S. Dirrer; Geology of the Sonora 
sheet, Cal., H. W. Turner; Notes on magnetie ore, Snoqua- 
lime, Wash., Barmey Wits and G.O.Smrra; Remarks on the 
Black hills, N. H. Darron. 


Personal and Scientific News. 401 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CAPE CoLtony. It is announced that 
a commission has been appointed to undertake a systematic 
geological survey of this district. One of the first efforts of 
the commission will be to prepare a bibliography of publica- 
tions relating to the geology of the region. 

DURING THE PAST SUMMER DR. LEONHARD STEJNEGER, while 
at Bering island, was fortunate enough to secure some bones 
of Pallas’ cormorant at the locality where he had found oth- 
ers in 1882. At the time these were the only known bones of 
this extinct species. Among the more recently obtained spec- 
imens is a fairly complete cranium which is somewhat larger 
than that of any existing species, and is peculiar in the char- 
acter of the ethmoid and opening in the front of the cranium. 
Mr. Grebnitski has also procured some remains of Pallas’ cor- 
morant from the same deposit. (Science.) 

“(GREENLAND ICEFIELDS,” a new volume of the International 
Scientific Series, by Prof. G. Freperick Wricur and Mr. 
WarreEN Upna, is announced among the publications of Ap- 
pleton & Co. for the present month. Prof. Wright, in seven 
chapters, describes the floe ice of the Labrador and Spitzber- 
gen currents, his observations on the coasts of Labrador and 
Greenland in the Miranda expedition of last year, the Eski- 
mos, and the Danish settlements. In the next seven chapters 
Mr. Upham writes of the flora and fauna of Greenland, the 
explorations of the Greenland ice-sheet by Nordenskjéld, 
Nansen, Peary and others, the Pleistocene glaciation of North 
America and Europe, and the causes of the Ice age. The book 
will be illustrated by several maps and many figures from pho- 
tographs. 

THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA has issued, in advance 
of the report, a geological map (Seine River sheet of the 
Thunder Bay and Rainy River districts) of the Seine River 
district of southwestern Ontario. This comprises the region 
directly east of the Rainy Lake gold fields. The belt of Kee- 
watin green schists. in which occur many of the gold veins of 
Rainy lake, extends eastward through this Seine River dis- 
trict, and already many mining locations have been taken 
within the limits of this map. There are also deposits of iron 
ore known in the Keewatin rocks in the center of this district 
along the Atikokan river. The whole region covered by this 
map is underlain by rocks of pre-Cambrian age, a large part of 
which are gneisses and granites. The geological work was 
done by Messrs. W. H. Smith and Wm. McInnes, and the map 
is to illustrate the report of Mr. MeInnes in volume 7, 1895, 
of the Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada. 

THe Wisconsin ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS 
' will hold its annual meeting at Madison on Thursday, Friday, 
and Saturday, Dec. 26th, 27th, and 28th. The sessions will 


402 Tne American Geologist. December, 1895 


be in the rooms of the Academy in the Capitol building. On 
Thursday there will be afternoon and evening sessions, and on 
Friday there will be morning and afternoon sessions. The 
annual supper of the Academy, provided by the local mem- 
bers, will be given Friday evening. According to the usual 
custom, after supper there will be an informal discussion up- 
on matters concerning the welfare of the Academy. At this 
time will come up the question as to whether another attempt 
shall be made to secure the passage of the bill, drawn by the 
Academy, for the establishment of a geological and natural 
history survey, and if it is decided to press the measure, the 
methods to be adopted will be considered. If the program is 
not completed Friday afternoon, the final session will oceur 
Saturday morning. The Wisconsin Academy is the official 
society of the State, occupying the same relation to Wiscon- 
sin that the National Academy does to the United States. 
Liberal provision is made by the State for the publication in 
excellent form of suitable papers. Special invitations for 
papers have not been made. The privilege of reading papers 
is equally open to all members. Titles of papers and time re- 
quired for presentation should be sent to the president or 
secretary on or before Dee. Ist., so that these may be printed 
in the final announcement of the meeting. 

Fietp Work oF THE U. 8. GroLocicaL Survey. In Sc/ence 
for Novy. 8th appears the following note concerning the field 
work of the U. 8. Geological Survey : 

Director Walcott, of the U. S. Geological Survey, has returned to 
Washington after a two months’ absence in the northern Rocky Moun- 
tain region, spent in field work. He was studying the Cambrian rocks 
and faunas of Montana and Idaho. 

The field work of the season is drawing toa close. Nearly all the 
geologic parties have come in, though work is still going on on the 
Pacific coast, and, t» a small extent, in the Interior or Mississippi basin. 
Work in the northern Rocky Mountain region and in Washington was 
brought to a stop early in October by severe storms. In this region 
Mr. Emmons and Mr. Willis were at work as well as the director. The 
special work in Alaska, an examination of the gold and coal resources, 
was adyanced so far as conditions would permit, and Drs. Becker and 
Dall are now in Washington preparing their joint report on the subject. 
Since submitting to the Secretary of the Interior his report on the 
character of the lands involved in the McBride claim in Washington, 
Mr. W. Lindgren, who made the expert examination for the Government 
in that case, has been mapping the geology of the mining region of 
northern-central California. 

Topographic work is still in progress in all quarters. The number of 
sheets surveyed is unusually large and the work is generally of excellent 
character. Surveys are, or have been, in progress in about twenty-five 
states and territories. The Chief Topographer, Mr. Henry Gannett, 
made an inspection of the work, especially that in the west. The work 
going on in Indian Territory is of special interest because of the pec uliar 
conditions governing it. Here, in connection with the regular topo- 
graphic mapping, a sub-divisional or parceling survey is being made in 
the interest of the General Land office. This work was much retarded 


Personal and Scientific News. 403 


in the summer months, partly by the illness of the men, due to the pre- 
valence of malarial fever, and partly to other unforseen obstacles ; but 
the conditions have improved and the work is now advancing with 
gratifying rapidity. This work will go on all winter. 

Director Walcott will shortly prepare a succint report of the oper- 
ations of the field season, for the information of the Secretary of the 
Interior, briefly reviewing the work in all its branches. 

GEOLOGICAL SuRVEY oF NEw YORK. 

There have recently appeared in the daily papers of New 
York city, in the Engineering and Mining Journal and in Sei- 
ence, articles purporting to give an account of the current 
work of the geological survey of the state of New York. 
These have probably had their origin in the unintelligent work 
of the space reporter, and they seem to have been largely de- 
rived from one another. All are inaccurate, a fault more par- 
donable in a daily newspaper than in the two scientific journals 
mentioned. The doings described are those of the recently 
organized land survey which is equipped solely for topograph- 
ical work. 

The geological survey, by the more than usual consideration 
of the last legislature, has had a very busy and profitable sea- 
son in the field, a number of special assistants having been ac- 
tive in various parts of the state. Professors J. F. Kemp and 
H. P. Cushing have been continuing their study of the erys- 
tallines in Essex, Clinton and Hamilton counties. Prof. C. H. 
Smyth, Jr., is engaged with the structural and economic geol- 
ogy of the western crystallines in St. Lawrence, Jefferson and 
Lewis counties. Professors C. 8. Prosser and J. M. Clarke 
have been studying the problems presented by variation and 
distribution of the Portage, Ithaca and Oneonta formations, 
the former in Otsego, Delaware, Schoharie and Albany coun- 
ties, and the latter in Chenango, Cortland and Schuyler coun- 
ties. Mr. D. D. Luther has also given some time to the trac- 
ing of the more westerly extension of the Portage-Chemung 
contact line. Dr. Heinrich Ries has made a stratigraphic and 
economic survey of Orange county, Dr. D. F. Lincoln one of 
Seneca county and Mr. I. P. Bishop one of Erie county. 

The work has been accomplished with the help of a legisla- 
tive appropriation for the prosecution of the geological map 
of the state, of which a proof edition of a preliminary issue is 
to be at once published by the U.S. Geological Survey, by 
virtue of an arrangement made ten years ago between the 
state geologist and major Powell and continued in force by 
the present director. The preliminary edition will be small, 
but sufficient to supply the colleges, high schools and acade- 
mies of the state. With the aid of the legislature work will 
be continued upon the still unsolved problems presented by 
certain regions of the state for incorporation upon a future 
edition of a more complete map. 


4()4 The American Geologist. December, 1895 


Under a special provision for the continuation of investiga- 
tions pertaining to the geology and production of salt, Mr. D. 
D. Luther is employed in the collection of data, much of his 
time thus far being given to the study of the developments i in 
Onondaga county, and the economic geology of that county 
will be published as a special part of his report. 

In the matter of publication the year has been a fruitful 
one. Toward the end of 1894 appeared part 2 of volume vit 
of the “Paleontology of New York” with which the work 
known for so many years under that title and as part of the 
“Natural History of New York” is formally closed. The ter- 
mination of this work is not due to any intention on the part 
of the venerable head of the survey to discontinue investiga- 
tions in paleontology, but is the outcome of embarrassing 
complications which have arisen in late years over the super- 
intendence of the publication. Evidence of the annoyance 
which has come from this source is the fact that of this large 
volume completing the study of the genera of the Brachiopoda, 
upon which work had been carried forward consecutively for 
seven years, but one hundred copies have been printed and 
these were completed at the personal cost of Prof. Hall, after 
an appropriation for the publication of the entire edition had 
been lost through unfavorable influences, notwithstanding the 
good will of the legislature in providing the necessary amount. 

The annual report for 1893, consisting of two royal octavo 
volumes of 1,000 pages and numerous plates, was issued early 
in the year. This report embraced, in addition to much geo- 
logical matter, the final part of the “Handbook of the Brachi- 
opoda” which was begun in the report for 1891. 

The legislature of 1895 provided for the publication of 
monograph of the fossil reticulate sponges. The preparation 
of this work is essentially completed and the printing will 
soon commence. The book will be of elegant proportions, 
contain sixty lithographic plates and constitute number 1 of 
the “Memoirs” of the geological survey. . 

Much publicity has been given to a bitter personal attack 
upon the state geologist made in the summer by the secretary 
of the board of regents of the State University before a com- 
mittee of the legislature. This was one of the galling experi- 
ences of which every one engaged in official scientific work may 
expect ashare, and which are bound to embarrass and delay the 
progress of science. The extreme invidiousness of the attack 
aroused a wide-spread sympathy and interest in professor Hall 
and his work, and under the probing of the committee its base- 
lessness was exposed and the incident has resulted in justifying 
the official conduct of the state geologist and in strengthening 
his department. 


Ad 655 


mre xX TO, VOLUME XVI. 


A 


Abbe. Cleveland, 400. 

Account of the discovery of a chipped 
chert implement in undisturbed glacial 
gravel, G. F. Wright, 255. 

Aetinophorus clarki Newberry, E. W. 
Claypole, 20. 

Adams, F. D., 
tario, 197. 

Aguilera, J. G., Fauna fosil de la Sierra 
de C atorce San Luis Potosi, 313. 

American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, 68; Springfield meet- 
ing, 233. 

American Institute of Mining Engineers, 
265,330. 

Ami, H. M., 267 

Ammoniten- Brut mit Aptychen in der 
Wohnkammer yon Oppelia steraspis, 
R. Michael, 312. 

Analysis of folds, C. R. Van Hise, 244. 

Archean and Cambrian rocks of. the 
Green Mountain range. in southern 
Massachusetts, B. K. Emerson, 247. 

Arrangement and development of plates 
in Melonitidw, R. T. Jackson and T. 
A. Jaggar, 239. 

Asbestos and asbestiform minerals, G 
P. Merrill, 240. 

Australia, Evolution of, A. C. 
114. 


Geology of central On- 


Gregory, 


B 


Bagg, R. M., 131, 400. 

Bailey, L. W., 197. 

Bain, H. F., 327; Interloessial till near 
Sioux City, 61; Preglacial elevation 
of Iowa, 62. 

Ball, Valentine, 203. 

Barlow, A. E., On some dykes containing 
huronite, 119. 

Barus, Carl, 129. 

Bather, F: A., Brachiocrinus and Herpe- 
tocrinus, 213. 

Bearing of physiography on uniformita- 
rianism, W. M. Davis, 243. 

Becker, G.-F., 67. 

Beecher, C. E., The larval stages of tri- 
lobites, 166: Structure and appendages 
of Trinucleus, 259. 

Bell, Robert, 132. 

Belvidere beds, - 


OOle 

Berkey, C. P., 130, 329. 

Beyer, S. W., 131. 

Bibliography of North American paleon- 
tology, C. R. Keyes, 62. 

Blue. A.. Fourth report of the Bureau of 
mines of Ontario, 313. 

Bouchard, Charles, 329. 

Brachioerinus and Herpetoerinus, F. A. 
Bather, 213. 

Branner, J. , The decomposition of 
rocks in Brazil, 242. 


\ study of, F. W. Cragin, 


British Association for the advancement 
of Science, 66, 328; Ipswich meeting, 


Broadhead, Gaes 
Norwood, 69. : 

Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 
329. 

Brummell, H. P. H., 197. 

Bryson, J., Rock hill, Long island, 228. 

Buchtel College, Paleontological notes 
from, 20. 

Bulletins of American Paleontology, 6%. 

Bureau of mines of Ontario, Fourth re- 
port of, 313. 


129; Joseph Granville 


@ 

Camptonites and other intrusives of lake 
Memphremagog, Y. F. Marsters, 25. 

Carter, ees 328. 

Castillo, A A. del, 328, 400. 

Cayeux, L., De v existence de nombreux 
débris de. Spongiaires dans le Précam- 
brien de Bretagne, 59. 

Chalmers, Robert, 198. 

Chamberlin, T. C., Geology of the Peary 
auxiliary expedition of 1894, 124. 

Champlain Glacial epoch, C. H. Hiteh- 
cock, 235. 

Channing, J. Parke, 327. 

( ‘hapman, Prof., 267. 

Characteristics of the Ozark mountains, 
C. R. Keyes, 393. 

Clark, W. B., 131 ; On the Eocene fauna 
of the middle Atlantic slope, 239. 

Clarke, J. M., On Nanno, 1. 

Claypole, E. W., 129,328; Actinophorus 
elarki Newberry, 20; Glacial notes 
from the planet Mars, 91; Geology at 
the British Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science, 300. 

Coleman, A. P., Gold in ‘Ontario, 313. 

Colorado Scientific Society, 68. 

Comparative taxonomy of the rocks of 
the Lake Superior region, N. H. Win- 
chell, 331. 

Continuity of the Glacial 
Holst on, G. F. Wright, 396. 

Conditions and effects of the expulsion 
of gases from the Interior of the earth, 
N.S. Shaler, 244. 

Contribution to the mineralogy of Wis- 
consin, W. H. Hobbs, 263. 

Cope, H: D.,. 256; 

Correlations of stages of the Ice age in 
North America and Europe, W. Up- 
ham, 100. 

Coxe, Eckley B., 66. 

Correspondence, 65, 202, 266, 823, 396. 

Cragin, F. W., The Mentor beds, a cen- 
tral Kansas terrane of the Comanche 
series, 162; A study of the Belvidere 
beds, 357. ; 

Cretaceous plants from Marthas Vine- 


yard, A. Hollick, 239. 


period, Dr. 


406 Index. 


Critical periods in the history of the 
earth, J. LeConte, 317. 

Credner, Herman, 327. 

Crosby, W. O., 132; Tables for the deter- 
mination of common minerals, 262. 

Crucial points in the geology of the 
Lake Superior region, N. H. Winchell, 
12, 19, 150, 205, 269, 331. 

Culver, G. E., The erosive action of ice, 
316. 

Cushing, F.S., 255. 

D 

Deemonelix or what ?, 113. 

Dale, T. N., Geology of Green mountains 
in Massachusetts, 386. 

Dall, W. F., 67. 

Dana, J. D., 129. 

Darton, N. H., Notes on the relations of 
lower members of the Coastal Plain 
series in South Carolina, 238: Resumé 
of general stratigraphic relations in 

_ the Atlantic Coastal Plain, 238. 

Das obere Mitteldevon im Rheinischen 
Gebirge, E. Holzapfel, 389. 

Davis, | W. M., 132, 237, 244: Bearing of 
physiography on uniformitarianism, 
243; Geographic development of the 
Connecticut valley, 245; Equatorial 
counter currents, 254. 

Dawson, G. M., 200, : Interglacial 
climatic conditions, 65; Summary re- 
port of the operations of the Geologi- 
cal Survey of Canada for 1894, 198; 
Glacial deposits of southwestern Al- 

_berta, 235. 

Day, _D. T., Mineral products of the 
United States, 319. 

Day; W.C., The stone industry in 1894, 
OLS. 

Decomposition of rocks in Brazil, J. C. 
Branner, 242. 

Delaware water gap, Does it consist of 
two river gorges?, Emma Walter, 200. 
De lexistence de nombreux débris de 
spongiaires dans le Précambrien de 

Bretagne, L. Cayeux, 59. 

Del Castillo, Antonio, 328, 400. 

Denton, F. W., 131. 

Deseriptions of new fossils from Mis- 
sour, R. R. Rowley, 217. 

Devonian series in southwestern Mis- 

_ souri, O. H. Hershey, 294. 

Diller, J. S., 66 

Directions for collecting and preserving 
fossils, C. Sehuchert, 262. 

Distribution of sharks in the Cretaceous, 
C. R. Eastman, 252. 

Does the Delaware water gap consist of 
two river gorges ?, Emma Walter, 200. 

Dr. Holst on the continuity of the Glac- 
jal period, G. F. Wright, 396. 

Drumlins and marginal moraines of ice- 
sheets, W. Upham, 237. 

Duration of Niagara falls and the his- 
tory of the Great lakes, J. W. Spencer, 


316. 
\2, 
Earthquakes, at New York, Philadel- 

phia, ete., 267. 

Eastman, C. R., Distribution of sharks 

in the Cretaceous, 252. 

EDITORIAL COMMENT. 

The feldspars,51; Deemonelix or what?, 
113; Reconnoissance, map of the Un- 
ited States, 113; A change of printers 
114; Professor Heim’s letter, 309; 
The Heim-Capellini incident in the 
International Geological Congress at 
Zurich, 386. 


ws 


paar Hitcheock, C. H. Hitchcock, 

33. 

Eldridge, G. H., Geological reconnois- 
sance in northwest Wyoming, 392. 

Elftman, A. H., 130, 328. 

Elective system as adopted in the Michi- 
gan Mining School, M. E. Wadsworth, 
223. 


Elements of physical geography, -R. 5. 
Tarr, 392. 

Emerson, B. K., 131, 132, 241, 244; Geology 
of Old Hampshire county in Massa- 
chusetts, 238; Archean and Cambrian 
rocks of the Green Mountain range in 
southern Massachusetts, 247. 

En resa till norra I[shafvet sommaren 
1892, A. Hamberg, 200. 

Eocene fauna of the middie Atlantie 
slope, W. B. Clark, 239. 

Equatorial counter currents, W. M. 
Davis, 254. 

Erosive action of ice, G. E. Culver, 316. 

Etude minéralogique de la lherzolite 

_des Pyrénées, A. ia Croix, 122. 

Etude sur le metamorphisme de contact 
des roches voleaniques, A. La Croix, 
122. 

Evolution of Australia, A. C. Gregory, 
114. 


F 


Fairchild, H. L., 250; Kame-moraine at 
Rochester, N. Y., 39; Glacial Genesee 
lakes, 237; Interesting features in the 
surface geology of the Genesee region, 
254. 

Farrington, O. W., Handbook of the 
meteorite collection, 8&8. 

Fauna fosil de la Sierra de Catorce San 
Luis Potosi, J. G. Aguilera, 313. 

Feldspars, 51. 

Field work of the U. S. Geological 
Survey, 402. 

Folds and faults in Pennsylvania an- 
thracite beds, B. 8S. Lyman, 261. 

Foote. A. E., 328. 

Ford, S. W., 129. 

FossILs. 

Actinophorus elarki, 20. 
Allagecrinus, 219. 

Aristoerinus, 217. 

Brachioerinus, 213. 

Coleoptera, 59. 

Didymograptus, 58. 

Goniatites louisianenses, 221. 
Granatocrinus magnibasis, 220. 
Herpetocrinus, 213. 
Herpetocrinus nodosarius, 217- 
Melonitidee, 239. 

Murchisonia pygmea, 222. 
Nanno, lt. 

New, from Missouri, 217. 

New trilobite from Arkansas, 262. 
Phyllograptus, 58. 

Pleurotomaria minima, 222. 
Protolenus, 200. : 
Spongiaires in the Pre-Cambrian, 99. 
Tertiary Coleoptera, 59. 
Tetragraptus, 538 
Trilobites, 166, 259, 262. 
Trinucleus, 259. 

Fossilice strata and their relations to: 
the mammoth remains, E. v. Toll, 314. 

Fourteenth Annual Report U. 8. Geolo- 
gical Survey, 310. 

Frazer, P., 329; Professor Heim’s letter, 
309: The Heim-Capellini incident in 
the International Geological Congress 
at Zurich, 386. 


é 


Index. 


Frech, F., Paleozoische Faunen aus 
Asia und Nordafrika, 261. 

Further observations upon the occur- 

- rence of diamonds in meteorites, O. W. 
Huntington, 316. 

G 

Gane, H.S., 131. 

Gannett, H., Manual of topographic 
methods, 60. 

Geikie, Archibald, 131, 400. 

Geikie. James, 130. 

Geographic development of the Connec- 
ticut valley, W. M. Davis, 245. 

Geological canals between the Atlant’ 
and Pacific oceans, J. W. Spencer,’ 


Geological notes on the Isles of Sh Is, 


H. C. Hovey, 248. 
Geological sketch of the Sierra Tlayacac, 
Mexico, A. C. Gill, 240. 
Geological reconnoissance of northwest 
_ Wyoming, G. H. Eldridge, 392. 
Geological Society and American Associ- 
ation meetings, W. Upham, 233. 
Geological Society of America, 67, 131, 
238, 329, 400. 
Geological Society of London, 67. 
Geological Society of Washington, 67,400. 
Geological Survey of Canada, 401; Report 
for 1892-93. A. R. C. Selwyn, 197; Sum- 
mary report for 1894, G. M. Dawson, 198. 


Geological Survey of Cape Colony, 401. 
Geological Survey of New York, 403. 


Geology at the British Association, E. 
W. Claypole, 300. 

Geology of the Green mountains in 
Massachusetts, R. Pumpelly, J. E. 
Wolff and T. N. Dale, 36. 

Geology of -the Lake Superior region, 
Crucial points in the, N. H. Winchell, 
12, 75, 150, 205, 269, 331. 

Geology of Old Hampshire county in 
Massachusetts, B. K. Emerson, 238. 

Gibson, A. M., Report on the Coosa coal 
field, 260). 

Gilbert, G. K., 131. 

Gill, A. C., Geological sketch 
Sierra Tlayacac, Mexico, 240. 
Glacial deposits of southwestern Alberta, 

os Dawson and R. G. McConnell, 
Se 
Glacial Genesee lakes, H. L. Fairchild, 
Si 

Glacial notes from the planet Mars, E 
W. Claypole, 91. 

Glacial phenomena between lake Cham- 
plain and lake George and Hudson, G. 
F. Wright, 251. 

Glacialists’ Magazine, 130. 

Gold in Ontario, A. P. Coleman, 313. 

Goodwin, Edwin, 328. 

Gordon, C. H., Syenite gneiss (leopard 
rock) from the apatite region of 
Ottawa county, Canada, 241. 

Gotham’s cave, or fractured rocks in 
northern Vermont, C. H. Hitchcock, 
248. ; 

Gregory, A. C., Evolution of Australia, 


of the 


114. 

Great falls of the Mohawk at Cohoes, N. 
Y., W. H. C. Pynchon, 254. 

Grimsley, G. P., 267. 

Griswold, L. S., Origin of the Arkansas 
novaculites, 261. 

H 

Haliburton, R. G., 256. 

Hall, C. W., 130. 

Hall, James, 404. 

Hamberg, A., En resa till norra Ishafvet 


407 


sommaren 1892, 200. 

Handbook and _ catalogue of the 
meteorite collection, O. W. Farrington, 
388 


388. 

Harris. G. D., 68. 

Heim, A., 309, 386; The International 
Congress of Geologists, a correction, 


Heim-Capellini incident at the Inter- 
national Geological Congress, P. 
Frazer, 386. 

Hershey, O. H., Devonian series of south- 
western Missouri, 294; River valleys of 
the Ozark plateau, 338. 

High level gravel and loam deposits of 
Kentucky rivers, A. M. Miller, 281. 

Hills, R. C., Post Laramie deposits of 
Colorado, 120. 

Bireneeek, Edward, C. H. Hiteheock, 

Hitchcock, C. H., 237, 250,251; Edward 
Hitchcock, 133; The Champlain Glacial 
epoch, 235; Gotham’s cave, or fractur- 
ed rocks in northern Vermont, 248. 

Hobbs, W. H., 131; Pre-Cambrian vol- 
canoes in southern Wisconsin, 240; 
A contribution to the mineralogy of 
Wisconsin, 263. : 

Hoffmann, G. C., 197. 

Holley, G. W.,Whirlpool of Niagara, 251. 

Hollick, A., Cretaceous plants from 
Marthas Vineyard, 239: Recent dis- 
covery of the occurrence of marine 
Cretaceous strata on Long island, 248. 

Holm, G., Om Didymograptus, Tetra- 
graptus och Phyllograptus, 58, 329, 

Holzapfel, E., Das obere Mitteldey 
im Reinischen Gebirge, 389, 

Hovey, H. C.,_ Geological notes on the 
Isles of Shoals, 248. 

Hubbard, G. G., Japan, 254. 

Hubbard, L. L., 268. 

Huntington, O. W., Further observations 
upon the occurrence of diamonds in 
meteorites, 316. 

Huxley, T. H., 129. 

Hyatt, A., Remarks on the genus Nanno, 
Clarke, 1; Terminology proposed for 
description of Peleeypoda, 252: Phy- 
logeny of an acquired characteristic, 
256. 


Ice age in North 
W. Upham, 100. 

Ingall, E. D., 197. 

Interglacial climatic conditions, G. M. 
Dawson, 65. 

Interesting features in the surface geo- 
logy of the Genesee region, H. S. Fair- 
child, 254. 

Interloessial till near Sioux City, J. BE. 
Todd and H. F. Bain, 61. : 

International Congress of Geologists, a 
correction, A. Heim, 266. 

International Geographical 
67, 130. 

International Geological Congress map 
of Europe, 329. - 

J 

Jackson, R. T., Arrangement and de- 
y eraeat of plates in the Melonitide,. 

Jaggar, T. A., Arrangement and develop- 

_ ment of plates in the Melonitide, 239, 

Jameson, C. D., Portland cement, 115. 

Japan, G. G. Hubbard, 254. 

Johns Hopkins University, 131, 400, 

Johnston-Lavis, H. J., 327. 

Judd, J. W., 267. 


America and Europe, 


Congress, 


408 


K 

Kame-moraine at Rochester, N. Y., H. 
L. Fairehild, 39. 

Kayser, E., Sur une fauna de sommet de 
la serié rhénane, 318. : 

Keith, A., Geology of the Catoctin belt, 
SE Qed - ne MART 

Kemp, J. F., 129, 203, 237; Titaniferous 
iron ores of the Adirondacks, 241. 

Keweenawan according to the Wiscon- 
sin geologists, N. H. Winchell, 75. 

Keweenawan, A rational view of, Nive: 

Winehell, 150. 

pes C. R., 327; Bibliography of North 
American paleontology, 62; Superior 
Mississippian in western Missouri and 
Arkansas, 86; Opinions concerning the 
age of the Sioux quartzite, 319; Char- 
acteristics of the Ozark mountains, 
393. 

Knowlton, F. H., Report on a small col- 
lection of fossil plants from Old Port 
Caddo landing, Texas, 308. 

Krahman, Max, 267. 


Kimmell, H. B., 327. 


2 
La Croix, A., Etude sur le metamorph- 


isme de contact, 122; Etude’minéralogi- 
que de la lherzolite des Pyrénées et de 
ses phenomenes de contact, 122. ; 
Lake Memphremagog, Camptonites of, 
V. F. Marsters, 25. A; : 
Lake Superior Mining Institute, 268. 
Lake Superior region, Crucial points in 
the geology of, N. H. Winchell, 12, 75, 
150, 205, 269, bel. } : 
Lakes of North America, a reading 
lesson for students of geography and 
geology, I. C. Russel, 393. 
Larval stages of trilobites, C. E. Beecher, 
66. : é 
ate eruptives of the Lake Superior 
region, N. H. Winchell, 269. Dane 
Lawsonite, a new mineral from Cali- 
fornia, F. L. Ransome, 119. 4 
Lead and zine deposits of Iowa, A. G. 
Leonard, 288. , prepd ; 
Lead and zine deposits of Missouri, A. 
Winslow and J. D. Robertson, 118. 
Le Conte, Joseph, Critical periods in 
the SUS of the earth, 317. 
se, Harry A., 66. 

error \. G., Origin of Iowa lead and 
zine deposits, 288. 

Litorina sea, Physical geography of, H. 
a es 

Lone B. S., Folds and faults in Penn- 
sylvania anthracite beds, 261. 

Manual of topographic methods, H. 
Gannett, 60. 

area ics #3 129. 

Marr, J. E., 130. fon 

Rare: Glacial notes from, E. W. Clay- 
pole, 91. Q 

Marsters, V. F., Camptonites and other 
intrusives of Lake Memphremagog, 2. 

Mathews, E. B., 66, 151. 

Matthew, G. F., The Protolenus fauna, 


200. 
Matthew, W. D., 2038. ; 
Metounell: R. G., Glacial deposits of 


southwestern Alberta, 239. 

McGee, W J, Reconnoissance map of 
the United States, 61, 113. 

Mentor beds. a central Kansas terrane 
of the Comanche series, F. W. Cragin, 
162. 


Index. 


Merriam, W. N., 327. 

Merrill, Py J. H., 129. 

Merrill, G. P., Asbestos and asbestiform 
minerals, 240. 

Metamorphisme de contact, A. La Croix, 

Meteorites, 316, 386. 

Mexican Geological Commission, 325. 

Michael, R., Ammoniten-Brut mit Apty- 
chen, 312. 

Michigan Mining School, 130; Elective 

Mill, Hugh R., 400. 
system in, 223. _ 

Miller, A. M., High level gravel and 
loam deposits of Kentucky rivers, 281. 

Milne, John, 203, 328. 

MINERALS. 

Asbestos, 240. 
Diamonds, 316, 
Feldspars, 51. 
Huronite, 119. 
Lawsonite, 119. 

Mineral products of the United States, 
DD, LoDayol9: 

Mitteldevon im rheinische Gebirge, E. 
Holzapfel, 389. 

Mollusea and Crustacea of the Miocene 
of New Jersey, R. P. Whitfield, 391. 

Moore, W. N., 129. 

Munthe, H., Preliminary report on the 
physical geography of the Litorina 
sea, 126. 

N 


Nanno, Remarks on, A. Hyatt, 1. 

National Academy of Sciences, 400. 

New York Geological Surveys, 403. 

New York State Museum, 129, 

New trilobite from Arkansas, A. W. 
Vogdes, 262. 

New fossils from Missouri, R. R. Rowley, 


217. 

Nordenskjold, O., Postarcheischen Gra- 
nit von Sulitelma, 320, 

Northwest Mining Association, 268, 330. 

Norwood, Joseph Granville, G. C. Broad- 
head, 69. 

Notes on the relations of lower members 
of the Coastal plain series, N. H. Dar- 
ton, 238. 

Notes upon a collection of plants from 
Old Port Caddo landing, Texas, F. H 
Knowlton, 308. 


O 


Om Didymograptus, Tetragraptus och 
Phyllograptus, G. Holm, 58, 329. 

On a new trilobite from the Arkansas 
Coal Measures, A. W. Vodges, 262. 

On some dykes containing huronite, A. 
E. Barlow, 119. 

Opinions concerning the age of the 
Sioux quartzite, C. R. Keyes, 319. 

Origin and use of naturalgas at Manitou 
Colo., W. Striebly, 116. 

Origin of the Arkansas Novaculites, L. 
Griswold, 261. 

Origin of the Iowa lead and zine deposits 
A. G. Leonard, 288. 

Ozark mountains, Characteristies of, C. 
R. Keyes, 393. 

Ozark plateau, River valleys of, O. H. 
Hershey, 338. 

Pp 

Paleontological notes from Buelitet 
College, E. W. Claypole, 20. 

Paleozoische fauna aus Asia aud Nord- 
afrika, F. Frech, 261. 


Index, 


Pallas’ cormorant, 401. 

Parmelee, H. P., 327. 

Peary auxiliary expedition of 1894; Geo- 
~ logy, T. C. Chamberlin, 124. 

- Personal and scientific news, 66, 129, 203, 
267, 327, 400. . : 
Phylogeny of an acquired characteris- 
tic, A. Hyatt, 256. 3 
Physical geography, Elementary, R. 5. 

Tarr, 392. 
Portland cement, C. D. Jameson, 115. 
Post-Laramie deposits of Colorado, 120. 
Powell, J. W., Fourteenth Annual re- 
port U.S. Geological Survey, 310. 
Pre-Cambrian volcanoes in southern 
Wisconsin, W. H. Hobbs, 240. 
Pre-glacial élevation of Iowa, H. F. 
Bain, 62. ; 
Preliminary report on the physical geo- 
graphy of the Litorina sea, H. Munthe, 
Professor Heim’s letter, P. Frazer, 309. 
Prosser, C. §., 268. 
Protoienus fauna, G. F. Matthew, 200. 
Pumpelly, Raphael, 267; Geology of the 
Green mountains in Massachusetts,386, 
Purington. C. W., 67. 
Putnam, F. W., 255. ; 
Pynchon, W. H. C., Great falls of the 
Mohawk at Cohoes, N. Y., 254. 


Q 
Quereau, E. C., 129. 
R 


Ransome, F. L., On lawsonite, a new 
mineral from California, 119. 

Rational view of the Keweenawan, N. 
Winchell, 150. : 

Recent discovery of marine Cretaceous 
strata on Long island, A. Hollick, 248. 

Recent elevation of New England, J. W. 
Spencer, 249. 

Recent Geological work in South Dako- 
ta, J. E. Todd, 202. 

Recent publications, 62, 127, 263, 321, 394. 

Reconnoissance map of the United 
States, W J McGee, 61, 113. 

Relations of primary and secondary 
structure in rocks, C. R. Van Hise, 


247, 
Remarks on the genus Nanno, Clarke, A. 
Hyatt,' 1, 


Report on the Coosa coal field, A. M. 
Gibson, 260. 

Republications of descriptions of fossils 
from the Hall collection, ete., R. P. 
Whitfield, 311. 

Resumé of general stratigraphic rela- 
tions in the Atlantic Coastal plain, N. 
H. Darton, 238. 

Review of recent geological literature, 
58, 114, 197, 256, 310, 386. 

Revision of the fauna of the Guelph for- 
mation, J. F. Whiteaves, 312. 

Rice, W. N., 132. ; 

River valleys of the Ozark plateau, O. H. 
Hershey, 338. 

Roberts, R. D., 400. 

Robertson, J. D., Zine and lead deposits 
of Missouri, 118, 130. 

Rock hill, Long island, J. Bryson, 228. 

Rocks. 

Camptonite, 25. 
Diabase, 31, 119. 
Fourchite, 28, 30. 
Granite, 28, 30, 320. 
Lamphrophyre, 29, 31. 
Leopard rock, 241. 


409 


Lherzolite, 122. 
Meteorites, 316, 386. 
Monchiquite, 36. 
Novaculite, 261. 
Syenite-gnviss, 241. 
Roenen, A. von, Fischreste des norddeut- 
schen und béhmischen Devons, 318. 
Bovey R. R., New fossils from Missouri, 
oli. 
Royal Society of Canada, 62. 
Russell, I. ©., The lakes of North Amer- 
ica, a reading lesson for students of 
geography and geology, 393. 


Ss 


Sardeson, F. W., 203, 327. 

Schuchert, C., Directions for collecting 

_ and preserving fossils, 262. i 

Scientific results of the New Siberian 

_ Islands expedition, E. v. Toll, 314. 

Seudder, S. H., Tertiary rhynchophorous 

_ Coleoptera of the United States, 59, 

Seamon, W. H., 129. 

Section of the Eocene at Old Port Caddo 

_ landing, Texas, T. W. Vaughan, 304. 

Selwyn, A. R. C., 200; Annual Report 

_ Geological Survey of Canada, 197. 

Shaler, N.S., 287; Conditions and effects 
of the expulsion of gases from the in- 
terior of the earth, 244. 

Slatter, James Thomas, 327. 

Smith, J. P., Supplementary notes on 
the Metamorphic series of the Shasta 
region of California, 249, 

Smyth, Henry Lloyd, 267. 

Some dykes containing huronite, A. E. 

_ Barlow, 119. ; 

Source of the Mississippi, N. H. Win- 

_ chell, 322. 

Spencer, J. W., 237, 251, 256; Geological 
canals between the Atlantic and Paci- 
fic oceans, 248; Recent elevation of 
New England, 249; Duration of Nia- 
gara falls and the history of the Great 

_ lakes, 316. 

Stejneger, Leonard, 401. 

Steps of progressive research in the geo- 
logy of the Lake Superior region prior 
to the late Wisconsin survey, N. H. 
Winchell, 12. ; 

Stevenson, J. J., 129. 

Stone industry in 1894, W. C. Day, 318. 

Striebly, W., Origin and use of natural 
gas at Manitou, Colo., 116. 

Strong, W. S., 327. 

Structure and appendages of Trinucleus 

_C. E. Beecher, 259. 

Study of the Belvidere 
Cragin, 357. 

Subdivision of the Upper Silurian in 

_northeast Iowa, A, G. Wilson, 249, 

Summary report on Geological Survey 
of Canada, 1984, G. M. Dawson, 198, ~ 

Superior Mississippian in western Mis- 
souri and Arkansas, C. R. Keyes, &6. 

Supplement to the bibliography of the 
Paleozoic Crustacea, A. W. Vodges, 262. 

Supplementary notes on the Metamor- 
phic series of the Shasta region, Cali- 
fornia, J. P. Smith, 249. 

Sur une fauna de sommet de la serié 
rhénane, E. Kayser, 318. 

Syenite-gneiss (leopard rock) from the 
apatite region of Ottawa county, Can- 
ada, C. H. Gordon, 241. 

Synchronism of the Lake Superior 
region with other portions of the 
North American continent, N. H. 
Winchell, 205. 


beds, F. W. 


+10 


Systematic list of fossils of the Hudson 
River formation at Stony Mountain, 
Manitoba, J. F. Whiteaves, 312. 


ali 


Tabies for the determination of common 
ininerals, O. W. Crosby, 262. 

Tables for the determination of miner- 
als, P. Frazer, 329. 

Tarr, R. S. Elementary physical geogra- 
phy, 392. 

Terminology proposed for description of 
Peleeypoda, A. Hyatt, 252. 

Tertiary rhynchophorous Coleoptera of 
the United States, S. H. Scudder, 59. 
Titaniferous iron ores of the Adiron- 

dacks, J. F. Kemp, 241. 

Todd. J. E., Interloessial till near Sioux 
City. 61; Recent geological work in 
South Dakota, 202. 

Toll, E. v., Scientific results of the New 
Siberian Islands expedition, 314. 

Trilobites, Larval stages of, C. E. Beech- 
er, 166. 

Tyrrell, J. B., 198. 

U 

Ueber einige Fischreste des norddeut- 
schen und béhmischen Devons, A. von 
Roenen, 318. 

Ueber palwzoische faunen aus Asia und 
Nordafrika, F. Frech, 261. 

Ueber postarcheischen Granit von Suli- 
telma. O. Nordenskjold, 320. 

Union College, 268. 

University of Chicago, 67. 

University of Minnesota, 130. 

United States Geological Survey, 203, 402. 

Upham, W., 65, 328, ;401. Correlations of 
the Iee age in North America and 
Europe, 100; Geological Society and 
American Association meetings, 233; 
Drumlins and marginal moraines of 
ice-sheets, 287; View of the Ice age as 
two epochs, the Glacial and Cham- 
plain, 250; Warm temperate vegetation 
near glaciers, 326. 

Upper Silurian in northeastern Iowa, 
A. G. Wilson, 275. 

V 

Van Hise, C. R., 242; Analysis of folds, 
244: Relations of primary and secon- 
dary structures in rocks, 247. 

Vaughan, T. W., Section of the Eocene 
at Old Port Caddo landing, Texas, 304. 

View of the Ice age as two epochs, the 
Glacial and Champlain, W. Upham,250. 

Vodges, A. W., On a new trilobite from 
the Arkansas Coal Measures, 262; Suy- 
plement to the bibliography of Paleo- 


Index, 


zoie Crustacea, 262. 
Vogt, Karl, 67. 


WwW 

Wadsworth, M. E., 204; The elective sys- 
tem as adopted in the Michigan min- 
ning school, 223. 

Walter, Emma, Does the Delaware water 
gap consist of two river gorges?, 200. 
Warm temperate vegetation near 

glaciers, W. Upham, 326. 

White, I. C., 237. 

Whitfield, R. P., Republication of des- 
scription of fossils from the Hall col- 
lection, etc., 311; Mollusca and Crusta- 
cea of the Miocene of New Jersey, 391. 

Whirlpool of Niagara, G. W. Holley, 251. 

Whiteaves, J. F., Revision of the fauna 
of the Guelph formation, 312; Fossils 
of the Hudson River formation at 
Stony Mountain, Manitoba, 312. 

Williams, G. H., 131, 400. 

Willis, Bailey, 67,131. 

Wilson, A. G., Subdivision of the Upper 
Silurian in northeast Iowa, 249; The 
Upper Silurian in northeastern Lowa, 

275. 

Winchell, H. V., 268. 

Winchell, N. H., Steps of progressive re- 
search in the geology of the Lake 
Superior region prior to the late Wis- 
consin survey, 12; The Keweenawan 
according to the Wisconsin geologists, 
75; Arational view of the Keweenawan 
105; The synchronism of the Lake 
Superior region with other portions of 
the North American continent, 205; 
The latest eruptives of the Lake 
Superior region, 269; Source of the 
Mississippi, 3283; Comparative taxono- 
my of the rocks of the Lake Superior 
region, 331. 

Winslow, A., Zine and lead deposits of 
Missouri, 118, 130. 

Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and 
Letters,401. : 

Wolff, J. E., Geology of the Green moun- 
tains in Massachusetts, 396. 

Woodward, Henry, 66. 

Wright, G. F., 250,401; Glacial pheno- 
mena between lake Champlain and 
lake George and the Hudson, 251; Ac- 
count of the discovery of a chipped 
chert implement in undisturbed glacial 
gravel near Steubenville, Ohio, 255; 
Dr. Holst on the continuity of the Gla- 
cial period, 396. 


Z 
Zine and lead deposits of Missouri, A. 
Winslow and J. D. Robertson, 118, 130, 
Zittel, Karl von, 66. 


Errata for 


Volume XV. 


P. 299, line 7 from the top, for ‘distributed ”’ read disturbed. | 
P. 304, line 12 from the top, for ‘* Adirondack ” read Taconic. 


Errata for Volume XVI. 


Pp. 18, last line in foot note, for ‘‘ x1v” 


read XV. 


P. 150, line 12 from the bottom, for ‘‘ever’’ read even. 


P. 210. line 3 from the top, for ‘‘ applicable ”’ 


read capable. 


P. 212. between lines 5 and 6 from the bottom, a line has been omitted ; supply, Ke- 
weenawan and the reddish sandstones of the. 

P, 243, line 21 from the bottom, for “Uniformity” read Physiography. 

P. 305, line 19 from the top, for ‘‘section”’ read sections. ‘ 

P. 307, line 24 from the top, for “Platanus guilleme read Platanus guillelme. 

P. 307, line 10 from the bottom, for “‘spectabilis Lx” read F, spectiubilis lp. 


P. 308, atend of last line insert, never. 


P. 337. line 11 from the bottom, for ‘‘ seventh” 


read twelfth. 


High Level Deposits of Kentucky Rivers —Miller. 283 


deposits in the lower course of this stream, back of Newport 
300 feet above the river and at Flatwoods 11 miles further up 
‘stream. They occur at other points, as at Upper Blue Licks 
in Flemming county, where Coal Measure conglomerate peb- 
bles were noticed as high as 300 feet above the river (875 feet, 
barometric, above tide). No traces of pebbles could be found 
in the soils at corresponding hights on the North fork of the 
Licking, where it is crossed by the Maysville and Lexington 
pike. The North fork does not tap with its headwaters the 
conglomerate region, and this seems a sufficient reason why 
evidence of a former submergence is wanting. The stream 
was not supplied with materials resistant enough to line off 
ancient high water levels. 

The evidences of the former flooded condition of the Ken- 
tucky river are of the same character. Wherever search has 
been made for them, they have been found. At Waco in Mad- 
ison county, on Devonian black shale uplands, four miles from 
the river and at a probable elevation of 300 feet above it (850 
feet above tide), are deposits of sand and clay beautifully 
stratified. Farther down the river, near the mouth of Marble 
creek, on the Jessamine county side, at about the same eleva- 
tion (850 feet), the upland soils are strewn thickly with Coal 
Measure conglomerate pebbles, the same as seen on the Lick- 
ing, and some Subearboniferous geodes. Again, near the 
southern limits of this county, near Little Hickman post of- 
fice, and also near Camp Nelson, where the river reaches its 
extreme southern deflection in its efforts to cross the Cinecin- 
nati axis—right upon the summit of the anticline in fact— 
are found waterworn Keokuk geodes, blocks of Coal Measure 
sandstone as large as 18 inches in diameter and these same 
conglomerate gravels. The latter extend up to a hight of 350 
feet above the river (850 feet above tide ),—to the very top, in 
fact, of the canon-like gorge which the river is forced to make 
in cutting its way across the backbone of the arch. Above 
Little Hickman post office the Kentucky River fault leaves the 
river to the southeast, and, following down Big Hickman creek, 
cuts off a large bend of the river, which is four to six miles 
across. The more rounded hills of the lower and middle Hud- 
son River beds, brought down on a level with the Birdseye by 
this fault, are included in this bend. They are every where 


284 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


thickly strewn with these gravel and boulder remains and a 
sand deposit occurs similar to that at Waco. The boulders 
occur to a hight of 200 feet above the river. With one excep- 
tion, all the materials seem to be of Carboniferous origin. The 
exception noted was a hard quartzite boulder measuring 14 by 
8 by 5 inches; and it had every appearance of the Canadian. 
quartzites found so abundantly in the beds of southern Ohio 
streams near the margin of the drift. The hight of the hills, 
850 feet above tide, has not been quite great enough to render 
their tops entirely free from pebbles. Sixty-five miles farther 
on in the sinuous course of the stream (25 miles in an air 
line), at Tyrone on the western flank of the anticline, where 
the river, after rounding the anciently obtruded barrier, again 
resumes the wonted course of Kentucky rivers—toward the 
northwest—the same high level conglomerate pebbles were 
sought for and found at their proper hight. The evidence 
seems conclusive, that the Kentucky river, as its sister river 
the Licking, was within comparatively recent times flooded 
out over its banks to a level that was, for its lower course, 
from 300 feet to 350 feet above its present channel, or to some- 
thing like 875 feet above sea level. 

The glacial dam hypothesis, which has been urged to ex- 
plain the terrace phenomena of the Ohio River valley above 
Cincinnati, might also seem the most reasonable one here; and 
if we had only the Kentucky river to deal with, ‘lake Ken- 
tucky” might be added to “lake Ohio.” The terminal mo- 
raine is platted by Wright as crossing into Trimble county, 
Ky., below Carrollton. This could give us an ice dam block- 
ing the mouth of the Kentucky as effectually as did that at 
Cincinnati the mouth of the Licking and the upper course of 
the Ohio. We may, upon this assumption, by tracing the 
eontour of 875 feet, approximately determine the outlines of 
this “lake Kentucky.’ It would be long and narrow, hardly 
getting outside the confines of the strip of river hills about 
four or five miles back on either side, because the Kentucky 
river for a great part of its course flows far below the present 
level of the country in a cafion-like gorge. Evidence may be 
forthcoming that the river was flooded to a higher level than 
this, as high as Prof. Wright claims for his lake Ohio, in 
which case the two lakes were probably continuous, at least 


285 


Willer. 


h Level Deposits of Kentucky Rivers. 


ig 


Eh 


e 
x 


x 


Fra. 1. Map of northeastern Kentucky, showing effect of glacial dam blocking the mouths of the Licking and Kentucky 
rivers. The shaded area is approximately the portion submerged as indicated by the highest 
. observed level of river gravels, 875 feet above the sea level. 


286 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


along the ice front; and there are indications that the 875 
foot level would establish a water connection along the foot of 
“the knobs” from Vanceburg through the eastern part of 
Flemming, Bath, Montgomery and Clark counties. Sufficient 
topographic data are wanting to establish this point conelu- 
sively; but the falling off of the land with the dip along the 
eastern flank of the Cincinnati anticline is very pronounced, 
so that the Waverly formation rises abruptly into knobs 1,100 
to 1,300 feet above sea level, from a Devonian black shale base 
that is about 700 feet above the same datum line. 

The accompanying provisional map is constructed with a 
view to showing the probable flooding effect of a glacial dam 
following the line of the terminal moraine in its southwest 
trend through northern Kentucky. 

That such a dam would account for the phenomena de- — 
scribed seems a reasonable hypothesis, and if limited to the 
rivers mentioned might receive more than a provisional ac- 
ceptance. How is it with the Green and Cumberland rivers? 
With a view of determining this a special trip was taken re- 
cently to the headwaters of the Green river and to the Cum- 
berland river where it emerges from the Cumberland plateau. 
Green river barely reaches a hight of 1,000 feet above the sea, 
and that only at the base of Green River knob, where one of 
its head tributaries rises. It lies the lowest of the four great 
rivers of Kentucky whose courses lie mainly or wholly within 
the boundaries of the state. Chester sandstone caps the top 
of this knob. It is almost the extreme eastern limit in the 
reach of this formation. There is no trace of the conglomer- 
ate here or of its having been here. In keeping with this fact, 
no quartz pebbles could be found in the same relative situa- 
tion as on the Kentucky and Licking. The evidence of sub- 
mergence here is largely of a negative character, unless the 
“hill top silicified fossils,” referred to by Shaler as evidence 
of extensive denudation, have a different interpretation. 

Crossing over to the Cumberland in the vicinity of Mills 
Springs, the evidence of submergence becomes very pro- 
nounced. <A yellowish red sandy loam filled with quartz peb- 
bles was found covering all the country back from the river 
several miles. The highest level noted for these deposits was 
300 feet above the present stage Of water (880 feet above 


High Level Deposits of Kentucky Rivers —Miller. 287 


tide). The flood-plain character of the country is even more 
pronounced on the other side of the river. There, extending 
back ten miles or more—to the very base of the Cumberland 
plateau, in fact—and covering quite deeply in places the lower 
100 feet of the St. Louis limestone, are extensive deposits of 
this reddish or orange sandy loam, pebbly throughout. The 
hight of this beautiful valley ranges between 850 and 1,000 
feet above the sea, with the present Cumberland winding 
through it in the deep gorge 200 to 300 feet below. The edge 
of the plateau rises rather sharply from the valley with a 
lower 300 foot slope of upper St. Louis limestone, succeeded 
by 100 feet of Chester sandstone and shales, and is sur- 
mounted by a 200 foot precipitous escarpment of Carbonifer- 
ous conglomerate. This has probably been a line of retreating 
escarpment for ages, but the pebbles now strewn far and wide 
over this valley never owed their present position solely to the 
slow action of atmospheric decay. The slopes of this escarp- 
ment, and the tops of the limestone hills above 1,000 feet show 
scant traces of quartz pebbles, though blocks of conglomerate 
are common. Below this level the evident fluvial deposits 
set in. 

There is an evident similarity between the deposits of the 
Licking, Kentucky and Cumberland rivers, these deposits in- 
creasing in thickness in the order named. The reddish-yellow 
loamy character is more pronounced on the Cumberland, but 
it is not wanting on the Kentucky. These facts, so far as 
they point to a community of cause for the submergence, mil- 
itate somewhat against the glacial dam hypothesis. Still the 
terminal moraine is not far to the north of the mouth of the 
Cumberland at the point of its most southern sweep in Illi- 
nois, and further investigation may reveal the fact that it was 

‘in some way responsible for the flooded condition of this river 
also. More facts must be collected, and especially must ob- 
servations be made at the mouths of these and other rivers 
emptying from the left bank into the Ohio river below Cin- 
cinnati, before the glacial dam theory can be either set aside 
or sustained. 


288 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


ORIGIN OF THE IOWA LEAD AND ZINC 
DEPOSITS.* 


By A. G. LEONARD, Toledo, Lowa. 

The Lowa lead and zine deposits occur in the northeastern 
corner of the state and form part of a larger area known as the 
Upper Mississippi lead and zine region to distinguish it from 
the Lower Mississippi or Missouri region. The Upper Missis- 
sippi area has a length east and west of 96 miles and a width 
north and south of 55 miles, embracing the southwest portion 
of Wisconsin, northwest corner of Illinois and adjoining parts 
of Iowa. This region, embracing some 38,000 square miles, lies 
wholly within the limits of the driftless area. 

As is well known, the lead and zine occur in crevices in the 
Galena and Trenton limestones. These formations are cleft 
by extensive east and west fissures, which at certain depths 
are found to expand into cave-like ‘openings ;” it is in these 
openings that a large portion of the ore occurs. In Iowa the 
first and largest “opening” is as a rule about 45 feet below the 
top of the Galena beds and most of the ore has been taken 
from the upper fifty or sixty feet of the limestone. 

The question of the origin of the lead and zine deposits has 
been under discussion ever since the days of Owen and Perci- 
val and has recently come into renewed prominence through 
the work of Winslow, Jenney, Blake and others. New light 
has been thrown upon the subject, new theories advanced and 
old ones reaffirmed. 

In treating of the genesis of these deposits it will be well to 
consider in the first place the original source of the lead and 
zine and the way in which the ores came to be confined to cer- 
tain districts, and then to discuss the formation of the crevi- 
ces and the deposition of the ores in these receptacles. 

Original source of the lead and zine. For the source 
whence the minerals were originally derived we must doubt- 
less look to the primitive Archean rocks forming the land mass 
to the north. As this land was wasted away and its materials 
carried into the Silurian sea, the waters became charged with 
metallic salts which were deposited along with the limestone. 
The chief agent in the precipitation of the metals appears to 
have been the organic life so abundant during this period. 
The death and decay of the vast multitudes of mollusks and 


*Published by permission of the State Geologist of Iowa. 


Origin of the Towa Lead and Zine Deposits.—Leonard. 289 


other forms gave rise to gases which were doubtless very ef- 
fective in precipitating the metallic sulphides, which were thus 
deposited along with the sediments. 

Localization of the deposits. One fact in connection with 
these deposits is difficult of explanation on the theory of oce- 
anie deposition, namely, the localization of the ore bodies. 
These bodies are confined to certain districts, outside of which 
the ground is nearly or quite barren, although as far as can 
be seen the conditions are quite as favorable. For example, 
the Dubuque mines are confined to an area of some twenty 
square miles, while to the north and south the Galena lime- 
stone carries no ore though everywhere cut by numerous crev- 
ices favorable for its reception. The same is true of the many 
mining districts of Wisconsin and Missouri. The mines are 
noticeably grouped about certain centers while the surround- 
ing country is unproductive. The natural supposition would 
be that the minerals were everywhere equally disseminated 
through the rock and that they have been leached out and 
deposited in the fissures only in certain favorable localities. 
But this is hardly probable in view of the fact that the con- 
ditions are apparently just as favorable for the formation of 
ore bodies in the barren districts as in the productive ones. 
How then can we account for the localization of the depos- 
its on the generally accepted theory that the lead and zine 
were contained in the oceanic waters and were distributed 
through the rocks at the time of their formation? 

Professor J. D. Whitney* over thirty years ago published 
an elaborate report on the lead region and discussed at con- 
siderable length the origin of the deposits. His views differ 
quite radically from those of Messrs. Owen and Percival, who 
had maintained that the netals were derived from great depths. 
Professor Whitney was the first to advance the theory that 
the metallic salts were held in solution in the waters of the 
ancient sea and were thrown down by organic matter or by the 
sulphuretted hydrogen arising from its decay. But no satis- 
factory explanation was given for the localization of the lead 
and zinc. 

Professor T. C. Chamberlin+ attributed the original concen- 

*Geol. of Wisconsin, 1862. PT 

+Geol. of Wisconsin, Survey of 1873-1879, vol. rv, p. 529,1882. 


290 The American Geologist. November, 1495 


tration of the deposits to the currents of the old Silurian sea. 
The oceanic waters impregnated with metallic salts derived 
from the leaching of the adjacent lands were borne by ecur- 
rents to areas where there was an abundance of organic life, 
in the presence of which the metals would be extracted and 
thrown down along with the sediments. 

Mr. Arthur Winslow* has recently advanced a somewhat 
different hypothesis concerning the origin of the Missouri ore 
bodies. He holds that the concentration is due to the surface 
decomposition of the rocks. ‘“According to our theory the 
concentration is entirely secondary. It is primarily a result 
of great and long-continued surface decay of the rocks; and 
secondarily, the result of the presence of local favorable, 
physical and chemical conditions.” The hypothesis starts 
with the proposition that the minerals existed in the Archean 
rocks, and with the decay of these became diffused through 
the later formed sediments. It will be noticed that this the- 
ory agrees with that of Chamberlin in recognizing the pres- 
ence of minerals in the country rocks and the derivation of 
the deposits from them; but it differs in maintaining a con- 
dition of general diffusion, rather than one of concentration, 
over certain favored areas. 

The evidence is abundant that very extensive sub-aerial 
decay has befallen the rocks in the Missouri region, and dur- 
ing successive geological periods many hundreds of feet have 
been removed. Mr. Winslow believes that in the Wisconsin- 
Iowa area the same processes were long operating to concen- 
trate the ores. It has already been stated that the district is 
unglaciated, and thus has been long exposed to atmospheric 
agencies by which the rocks were extensively decomposed. 

Mr. W, P. Blake,+ who is familiar with the Wisconsin ¢e- 
posits, seems to hold something of the same view as Winslow, 
if we may judge from the following words: ‘The evidence is 
strongly in favor of the view of the long-continued decompo- 
sition, downward flow and re-composition of not only the ores 
of zine but of lead and of the pyrite from the upper forma- 
tions to the lower, as the general water-level of the region 
subsided and as the upper formations by long continued ex- 
posure through geologic ages were gradually decomposed in 


*Missouri Geol. Surv., vol. vit, p. 477, 1894. 
+Trans. Am. Inst. Ming. Eng., vol. xxi, p. 621, 1894. 


Origin of the Towa Lead and Zine Deposits —Leonard, 291 


place. By such a process the present zine deposits would seem 
to have accumulated and to represent the originally diffused 
ores in many formations, possibly as high in the geologic 
seale as those of Missouri or the Lower Carboniferous. This 
is, however, improbable, owing to the dense and impervious 
nature of the intervening Hudson River (Maquoketa) shales.” 

It would seem that this impervious character of the shales 
constitutes a serious objection to Winslow’s theory as applied 
to the Iowa deposits. The latter are commonly overlain by 
these shales and occur mostly near the top of the Galena lime- 
stone. Granting that the overlying Niagara and Maquoketa 
formations were impregnated with lead and zine, it would 
hardly have been possible for the mineral-bearing solutions to 
make their way through the impervious shales. In other words, 
there could not have been in this area a very extensive down- 
ward flow and re-composition of the ores. The process has 
doubtless been going on within the Galena formation itself 
and may have caused some local concentration, but the lime- 
stone has not undergone very extensive decomposition in situ, 
and the ore is found largely in the upper beds. For these rea- 
sons, while Chamberlin’s theory of ocean currents may appear 
somewhat too hypothetical, it furnishes on the whole the most 
plausible explanation yet offered for the localization of the 
Upper Mississippi deposits. 

Formation of crevices, Cavities and crevices in rocks are 
formed in several different ways. They may result from con- 
traction due to solidification, drying or cooling. <A familiar 
example of this process is seen in the cracks found in basalt. 
It is probable that some of the joints of sedimentary rocks 
have had the same origin. But the most important cause of 
fracture is found in the movements of the earth’s crust pro- 
ducing a folding and crumpling of the strata. When such 
anticlinals and syneclinals are formed the rocks are fissured by 
the strain to which they are subjected. Should the walls of 
the fissure slip over each other, one side being raised or low- 
ered, a fault would result. The fractures when once formed 
become the channels for subterranean drainage, and these are 
enlarged and modified by the dissolving power of water. 

The crevices of the Upper Mississippi region are apparently 
due to the second cause. Extending east and west through 


292 Tne American Geologist. November, 1895 


the lead district are numerous undulations of the strata. 
These flexures were doubtless the chief agent in the production 
of the crevices. As the strata were slowly elevated the heav- 
ily bedded limestones were fissured in a direction parallel to 
the axis of elevation and crevices more or less open were 
formed. In a direction at right angles little force was exerted 
and the beds were simply fractured, producing the narrow 
north and south fissures. It is also possible that the latter 
may be due to the contraction of the rock as it became more 
compacted. 

It is to be noted that the ore deposits of this region do not 
occur as fissure veins of indefinite extent in depth, but are in 
what are known as “gash veins” of limited extent and confined 
to one rock series. 

Filling of the crevices. Two opposite views are at present 
held concerning the source whence veins have derived their 
metalliferous contents. (1) It is claimed on the one hand 
that the minerals have been deposited from hot solutions rising 
through fissures from profound depths. The solvent power of 
such waters would be great on account of the temperature and 
pressure, and they would thus be rich in mineral materials 
which would be deposited on cooling, or on relief from pres- 
sure. This is the view so ably advocated by Professor Franz 
Posepny in his recent paper on the ‘tGenesis of Ore Deposits”* 
and it has among its supporters many eminent geologists and 
mining engineers. (2) Opposed to this ascension theory is 
that of lateral secretion, according to which the contents of 
the vein are derived from the wall rock itself instead of from 
unknown depths. A broad interpretation of the theory does 
not necessitate the derivation of the minerals from the rocks 
directly bounding the vein, but admits that they may have 
been leached out from a considerable distance on all sides. It 
supposes that there is a free circulation of surface waters 
through crevices and porous strata, and consequently a ready 
transfer of solutions would result. These waters may traverse 
the rocks in any direction and may thus in cases rise and be 
said to come from below. Or, again, they may flow into the 
crevice either from the sides or from above. This broad con- 
ception of the lateral secretion theory has much in common 
with the one first named. But it differs from that, however 


*Trans. Am. Inst. Ming. Eng., vol. xxi, p. 197, 1894. 


= ayes o 7G . ; 3, )Q: 
Origin of the Iowa Lead and Zine Deposits —Leonard. 293 


since it does not necessitate the presence of profound fissures 
or faults, nor the rising of the heated waters through these 
from great depths. 

A third view as to the origin of ore deposits is mentioned 
by Professor J. F. Kemp.* It is held by a number of careful 
observers and was brought into prominence by Emmonst in 
his report on the Leadville region. According to the replace- 
ment theory, as it is called, no large cavity is supposed to have 
previously existed. There is a circulation of ore-bearing s0- 
lutions which interchange their metallic contents, molecule 
by molecule, for the substance of the rock. The ore body in 
this case has no well defined limits but shades off gradually 
into the barren country rock. 

We are now ready to enquire which one of the above theo- 
ries explains in the most satisfactory way the source of the 
Iowa deposits. There seems to be little doubt that to the 
process of lateral secretion is due the deposition of the ores 
in the crevices and that they have thus been derived from the 
limestone whence they have been leached by surface waters. 

The view that the metal-bearing solutions came from below 
is strongly advocated by Professor Jenneyt who holds that 
the Mississippi valley ores have been deposited by waters ris- 
ing through fissures. 

But there are numerous objections to this theory as applied 
to the region under consideration, and among them may be 
mentioned the following: 1. No true fissures extending to 
great depths have been discovered. 2. Faults are of rare oc- 
currence, and when they are occasionally found have no ap- 
parent connection with the deposits. 3. The ores exist only 
in comparatively small amounts in the underlying Saint Peter 
sandstone and Oneota limestone, and are almost altogether 
absent from the Saint Croix or Potsdam formation. 

On the other hand there are many facts connected with the 
mode of occurrence of the ores which go to prove that the 

raters came from above. Masses of Galena are frequently 
found suspended from the roof of the openings. These could 
only have been formed by waters that reached the crevices 


*Ore Deposits of the United States, New York, 1895. 

+Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville, with atlas, Monograph 
xit, U. 8. Geol. Sury., Washington, 1886. 

Lead and Zine Deposits of the Mississippi Valley; Trans. Am. Inst 
Ming. Eng., vol. xx11, p. 171, 1894. 


294 The American Geologist. November, 1895: 


from the upper strata. A few miles south of Dubuque crevi- 
ces are met with identical in every respect with the ore-bear- 
ing fissures farther north, but instead of carrying lead and 
zinc, except in small amounts, they are decorated with great 
numbers of stalactites and stalagmites. The ore deposits of 
this region have evidently had the same origin as these lime 
formations, and no one questions the fact that the latter are 
due to moisture trickling down from above. 

In order that the theory of lateral secretion may be well es- 
tablished it must be shown that the metals are diffused 
through the country rock. The necessary analyses have not 
been made for the Iowa region, but Winslow in his Lead and 
Zine Report* shows that the limestones and crystalline rocks 
of Missouri do contain small quantities of these minerals. 
“The amounts of metallic lead vary from about 0.0004 to 
0.007 per cent., of metallic zine from about 0.0002 to 0.018 per 
cent., and of copper, manganese and barite there are corres- 
pondingly small amounts. It thus appears, on this hypothe- 
sis, which does not require that the ores should come from the 
immediately adjacent rocks, that the metalliferous contents of 
the country rocks are ample to supply the ore deposits.” 

There is every reason to believe that the Galena limestone 
of Iowa also contains small quantities of lead and zine and 
that these have been leached out by percolating waters and 
deposited in the crevices. It is not uncommon to find small 
particles of galena and sphalerite in the different dolomitic 
formations of the state. In the Oneota small pockets of lead 
are very common and denote the presence of this mineral in 
considerable abundance. 


THE DEVONIAN SERIES IN SOUTHWESTERN 
MISSOURI. 


By Oscar H. HERSHEY, Freeport, Ill. 

In publications of the Missouri Geological Survey, and in 
other writings bearing on the stratigraphy of southern Mis- 
souri, we find occasional mention of a black shale occurring 
between the limestones and sandstones of the Ozark series and 
the Kinderhook group in Stone, Barry, and McDonald coun- 
ties, Mo., and extending into Arkansas, which has been re- 
ferred to the Devonian system. This bed of shale is well de- 


*Missouri Geol. Surv., vol. vi, p. 478, 1894. 


Devonian Series in Southwestern Missouri.m—Hershey. 295 


veloped at the town of Eureka Springs, Ark., where it is the 
chief cause of the emergence of most of the springs at a given 
horizon; and from this town it has received the name of Eu- 
reka shale. Its Devonian age is inferred chiefly from its 
stratigraphic relations, it being conformable to the base of 
the Kinderhook group, also well developed in this region. 

In portions of Stone and Barry counties, where it has been 
studied by the writer, it was found to be underlain by strata 
of limestone, and even a thin bed of sandstone intervened be- 
fore the top of the Ozark series was reached. From an exam- 
ination of numerous outcrops the following section has been 
prepared : 


Thickness. 
TL: TEREOHE) Ey Ey 0 1 Fa a eae ae 7 feet 
Pepetryrnbaly, WRESTONG.)\< i. . .... dec genes sec as se ee eae 
3. Speckled crinoidal] limestone.................... 2) ie 
eS aS IKBATIGSLONE)<;. cc des elma s Secsae tue es ASE 


Where studied by the writer, the Eureka shale consists of a 
bed of finely laminated, soft, argillaceous shale, generally 
somewhat calcareous, especially in certain layers. Its color, 
on exposure, varies froma light green to a dark blue gray; 
and it is probably, before being exposed to the atmosphere, of 
a very dark and perhaps even black color. Hence, when pen- 
etrated by wells or other excavations, it would be reported as 
a black shale, while if seen only on exposed surfaces it would 
be considered a green shale. It is nearly or quite destitute of 
fossils, hence its paleontologie position cannot be determined 
with certainty. A characteristic of it is the occurrence of 
satin spar as a secondary mineral in thin layers and in verti- 
cal veins. 

The Eureka shale passes downward by interstratification 
and intergrading of materials into the next division of the 
Devonian strata in this region, a bed of light brown and gray 
shaly limestone. The limestone is evenly but rather thinly 
bedded, and varies locally from a very argillaceous to an al- 
most purely calcareous composition. It also varies greatly 
from layer to layer, sometimes being a nearly pure limestone, 
with macroscopically an “amorphous” or non-crystalline tex- 
ture, alternating with other strata of a distinctly shaly struc- 
ture. The compact ‘‘amorphous” limestone contains no fos- 
sils, or only a few seattered here and there; but the more 


296 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


shaly layers abound in calcareous replacements of various 
small fossil species, broken crinoid stems chiefly predominat- 
ing. These are so abundant in places as to give one the im- 
pression of a highly fossiliferous formation. 

At the base of the shaly limestone there occurs a deposit of 
limestone a few feet thick, having a similar appearance on 
exposed surfaces, but which differs from that above in being 
slightly heavier-bedded, less shaly in structure and composi- 
tion, and in having a distinctly granular texture. This latter 
feature is due to its consisting almost exclusively of the dis- 
severed parts of crinoids. These are closely packed as in the 
Burlington limestone, but it differs from that formation in 
being composed of the débris of smaller species, and hence the 
grain is much finer. Moreover, while the bulk of the rock is 
of a light gray and white color, certain species of crinoids 
seem to be tinted brown and buff, and these give to the rock 
a speckled appearance. This rock, then, is a highly fossil- 
iferous limestone; and, if the base of the Kinderhook forma- 
tion is rightly placed over the Eureka shale, it must be of 
Devonian age. 

Occurring at the base of the Devonian strata in this region, 
and overlying the dolomites of the Ozark series, is the basal 
sandstone. This is a very thin but rather peculiar stratum of 
quartz sand, strongly cemented with calcareous matter. The 
grains of sand vary in size from exceedingly fine to moder- 
ately coarse, and, in addition to the transparent quartz, many 
irregular particles of chert, white, and of other colors, derived 
from the cherts of the Ozark series, occur. The most eurious 
of the contained minerals consists of small subangular parti- 
cles of a hard black quartz, which I have been unable to locate 
anywhere in the Ozarks, although it is possible that it may be 
a common chert modified by some process to an opaque black 
color. Small particles of iron pyrites, besides limonitié stains, 
are present in the deposit and aid in giving it a color varying 
from bluish gray through light brown to a very light gray. 
At the Corner cave in Barry county, where it is best devel- 
oped and attains a thickness of about one foot, this sandstone 
is of a white color, cemented by silica, very hard, and grading 
into an oOdlitie chert. 


Devonian Series in Southwestern Missouri.—Hershey. 297 


That the sandstone does not belong to the Ozark series is 
known from the fact of its passing across the upturned edges 
of slightly tilted layers of dolomite in some places in this 
region; although generally no more than four inches in thick- 
ness, it is present over many square miles of territory, and is 
in contact with different layers of the dolomites in different 
places. Furthermore, in lithological composition it is entirely 
unlike any sandstone stratum in the Ozark series. As final 
proof of its belonging to the overlying series, I may state that, 
although this sandstone is nearly free from fossils, a few have 
been found in it having a distinctly Devonian facies. 

It will readily be seen that the four divisions of our series 
were deposited in the same body of water in immediately suc- 
ceeding periods of time; and I should say that each member 
or division corresponds to a separate epoch of geologic time, 
as each certainly indicates slightly different conditions. From 
a study of the distribution of the series and of certain facts 
indicating very weak wave action in the body of water, and 
also from the nature of the deposits themselves, it is very 
probable, nay almost certain, that they were laid down on the 
bottom of a broad shallow estuarine basin, occupying a_posi- 
tion on the south side of the land mass which then existed 
through what is now central and southern Missouri, and ex- 
tending thence far to the northwest up the present Missouri 
valley. 

Through many ages the Ozark series had been subjected to 
subaérial erosion, and was almost completely baseleveled. A 
subsidence of the land mass or Missouri continent began some- 
time during the Devonian era, and, as soon as the lower por- 
tions of its broad shallow basin-like valleys had been sub- 
merged, the fauna of the surrounding seas invaded these estu- 
aries and formed limestones; and the streams which still 
flowed on the slowly diminishing land mass brought fine sedi- 
ment into the estuarine basins at their mouths. Deposits 
formed in such shallow basins of limited extent are found all 
around the borders of the Ozark uplift, except on the west 
where the proper horizon is not exposed and where the land 
mass continued. 

In the particular region under discussion the subsidence 
lasted throughout the period, as is shown by the overlapping 


298 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


of each stratum beyond that which is under it. The basal 
sandstone was formed partly from the residual material left 
on the surface of the Ozark series when subjected to atmos- 
pheric action, and partly from material (mostly lime in solu- 
tion) brought down by the streams from the land on the north 
and east. Animal life of forms easily preserved was nearly 
absent. This constitutes the first epoch. 

A deepening and broadening of the basin instituted the 
second epoch, which was characterized by its abundance of 
animal life and especially by the prodigious quantities of 
crinoids and kindred forms which lived and died and gave 
their débris to make the deposits of this epoch. The basin 
evidently had free communication with the open sea, and its 
waters were salt. The streams also which emptied into the 
sea near this locality must have been remarkably free from 
sediment of any kind; during the long period required for the 
accumulation of three feet of crinoid débris, wholly of small 
species, the amount of sediment brought from the land was 
very little. 

The third epoch was characterized by a still broader but 
slightly shallower basin, less animal life, or at least more 
rapid deposition of sediment brought by the rivers from the 
land, which was deposited as a caleareo-argillaceous mud to 
harden into shaly and ‘‘amorphous” limestones. 

In the fourth epoch the basin was still more extensive but 
yet very shallow, and fine clay sediment was being rapidly 
deposited, excluding the majority of the animal species which 
had previously inhabited the basin. The deposits of this last 
epoch, making up the Eureka shale formation, vary from a 
few inches to 35 feet in thickness; but I believe that they do 
not indicate any great length for the epoch. 

With the earth movements which inaugurated the Lower 
Carboniferous age, this region was greatly depressed and the 
surrounding land surfaces were submerged. Hence the base 
of the Kinderhook strata, although conformable to the Eureka 
shale, overlaps it to a vast distance. 

The correlation of the several members of the Devonian in 
this region with the divisions of the system recognized in 
other states is impossible until the paleontologic contents of 
these strata have been thoroughly studied and compared with 


Devonian Series in Southwestern Missouri.—Hershey. 299 


the faunas of other regions. This paper has been prepared 
principally for the purpose of drawing attention to the exist- 
ence of these strata in the southwestern corner of Missouri, 
and to perhaps induce some competent paleontologist to un- 
dertake the task of deciphering the history and meaning of 
their contents. Since the beds here described occur in a some- 
what isolated basin and were separated from the deposits in 
central Iowa by an extensive land surface, which in Devonian 
time had perhaps a thousand miles of shore line between the 
two basins, it would be of interest to know what difference, if 
any, existed between the faunas of the two regions, and what 
effect the probable inflow of large quantities of fresh water to 
this more southern basin had on its contained life. 

Although at present unable to correlate the formations on 
paleontologic grounds, I wish to make a few suggestions as to 
what correlations are indicated by the lithologie and _ strati- 
graphic relations of the deposits. The uppermost horizon of 
Devonian age in the Mississippi valley is almost invariably a 
shale, either black or green. In central lowa it is known as 
the Hackberry shale; in southern Illinois it is designated as 


PY) 


the Green shale; and it is described as occurring in the form 
of a black shale of very variable thickness through the Ozark 
hills in Arkansas, westward to and beyond Eureka Springs, 
where it is correlated with the Eureka shale of southwestern 
Missouri. I think it very probable that the correlation of the 
Eureka shale with the Green shale of southern Illinois will be 
found to be correct; but its relations to the Hackberry shale 
of Iowa are not so certain. 

Lithologically the shaly limestone under the Eureka shale 
is similar to portions of the Cedar Valley limestone of Iowa. 
Moreover, it has been subjected at one place in Stone county 
to the peculiar brecciation and contortion which are so char- 
acteristic of the Cedar Valley limestone. This peculiar kind 
of primary deformation of strata is not common to other for- 
mations in the upper Mississippi valley, and it may have been 
confined chiefly to a given period or epoch of geologic time. 
In short, I feel reasonably certain that the shaly limestone of 
my section will be found to be the equivalent of the Cedar 
Valley limestone of central Iowa. 


300 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


The-crinoidal limestone under it I will not attempt to corre- 
late, as that can best be done by means of its paleontologic 
relations; and the basal sandstone is undoubtedly only a 
local development, depending on local conditions, and there- 
fore not to be correlated with any sandstone formation in other 
parts of the country. 


GEOLOGY AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR 
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 
By E. W. CuAypouk, Akron, Ohio. 

The sixty-fifth annual meeting of the British Association 
for the Advancement of Science began at Ipswich on Wednes- 
day, September 11th. Ipswich is a town of about 60,000 peo- 
ple, situated on the east coast of England. It was the birth- 
place of cardinal Wolsey and many of the historical incidents 
and waymarks of the place are connected with him and the 
events of his life. 

The department of geology was well represented and some 
old familiar faces were present. The president of the section, 
Mr. Whitaker, delivered an address on the underground waters 
of Suffolk, tracing their origin and flow in an imaginary sub- 
terranean excursion. The rest of the day was spent by many 
of the sectional members in an excursion to the chalk pits and 
Eocene beds at Bramford. 

On Friday morning sectional work began in earnest with a 
paper by Prof. Sollas. of Dublin, on the action of pitch in some 
artificial glaciers of that material, with which he had been ex- 
perimenting. Placing a mass of piteh in such a position that 
one end was higher than the other he distributed foreign ma- 
terial of various kinds in the mass and placed obstacles in its 
path. On examination after an interval of several weeks he 
found that almost all the planes then formed in the pitch 
had been bent up on meeting each obstacle and had formed 
curved lines of flow over it, returning approximately to their 
former course after having passed it. In this way he proposed 
to explain the elevation of glacial detritus, such as perched 
blocks, from lower to higher positions. He quoted in support 
of his views some photographs taken by Prof. Chamberlin in 
Greenland in which stones and other material were seen en- 
tering the ice at the side of the glacier and riding through it. 


Geology at the British Association.—Claypole. 301 


His address was illustrated with numerous photographs which 
were projected upon a screen. A lively discussion followed in 
which Mr. Godwin Austin, Mr. P. Kendall, Dr. A. Irving, Rev. 
E. Hill and Profs. Fitzgerald and Claypole took part. Various 
suggestions and criticisms on the material and the method 
were made, but the general opinion seemed to be that Prof. 
Sollas had entered on a valuable and interesting series of ex- 
periments and the hope was freely expressed that he would 
continue them. 

Prof. Scott, of Princeton, followed with a paper on the Ter- 
tiary lacustrine formations of North America, with lantern 
illustrations. He briefly but clearly sketched the geological 
history of these North American Tertiary beds of the West, 
especially of the Bad Lands,—the Puerco, the Wahsatch, the 
Bridger, the Uinta, the John Day and the Loup Fork—show- 
ing that they were all the deposits of fresh water lakes that 
occupied different areas in the region during Tertiary time. 
Each of these he illustrated by some of the remarkable forms 
of life by which it is characterized. 

At the reception by the Ipswich Scientific Society and the 
Suffolk Institute of Archeology on Thursday evening, Prof. F. 
W. Petrie exhibited a set of the stone and metal articles found 
during his recent researches in Egypt. ‘These varied from 
paleoliths, or instruments of paleolithic type, to flints of the 
most perfect pattern and finish that can well be conceived. 
With them were bronze articles of various dates but the oldest 
were coeval with the exquisite neoliths above mentioned, 
which are assigned by their discoverer to about 3000 B. C. 

The address of the president, Sir Douglas Galton, on Wed- 
nesday evening consisted of an extensive review of the prog- 
ress of the different sciences since the former meeting at 
Ipswich in 1851, but as geology received only a passing men- 
tion it would be irrelevant to dwell further upon it here. 

On Saturday interest was divided between the business of 
the section room, where Prof. O. C. Marsh delighted an appre- 
ciative audience with an account of his discoveries and resto- 
rations in the great Tertiary deposits of the far West, and an 
excursion to see the English Pliocene of the county—the red 
and coralline crags. These beds are very local and are charged 


with shells in great profusion and frequently in good condi- 


302 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


tion. Under the guidance of Mr. Whitaker and Mr. Reid pit 
after pit was visited, and the only regret was that the time 
allowed only a brief stay in each—enough to tantalize and too 
little to satisfy. The evidence of a fall in temperature be- 
tween the coralline crags below and the red crag above, shown 
by the fauna, was pointed out and an abundance of the crag 
Mollusea was carried off in bags and boxes. A second visit 
was made on the following day under the same able leader- 
ship to several other quarries in the crags near Sutton, and 
fresh collections were made. 

The French and Belgian visitors to the meeting were heard 
on Monday morning. M. Dollftiss stated his views on the ex- 
tent of the sea in western Europe in late Tertiary time and 
they elicited a lively discussion in which numerous geologists 
took part. He considered that in Pliocene days a land barrier 
existed across the English channel and extended northwest- 
ward to the Faroe isles and to Greenland, and that the fossils 
of the English crags were the remnants of the life of the sea 
on the north of the barrier. Others were disposed to place 
this barrier farther to the northward. Mr. Van-den-Brock then 
spoke on the present knowledge which we possess concerning 
the upper Tertiary of Belgium. After these papers were read 
and discussed a number of reports of less interesting but very 
valuable nature were read or taken as read, and the section 
adjourned to visit the crag and coprolite beds of the vicinity. 

The last morning, Tuesday, was occupied with three papers 
on the exploration which has for some years been proceeding 
into the deep strata underlying the London basin. They con- 
tained the details of several borings and the cores were shown 
(cut by the diamond drill) out of a hard argillaceous rock 
whose dip was ata high angle, even up to the vertical, and 
which showed signs of strong movement and pressure. The 
age of this stratum was uncertain, opinion hovering between 
a Carboniferous and a Silurian date, but no doubt was enter- 
tained regarding its Paleozoic age, and it was considered as 
another link in the chain of subterranean investigation that 
has been for many years in progress. An ingeneous but slow 
and very laborious method of determining the azimuth of this 
dip was next given by Mr. Francis, the results of which ap- 
peared to be conclusive, but the method itself was too costly 


Geology at the British Association.—Claypole. 303 


and tedious to allow even a hope of its frequent employment. 

Prof. E. W. Claypole followed with two papers, one on the 
fossil cladodont sharks of Ohio and the other on the fossil 
placoderms of the same region. Both are of upper Devonian 
age and the species are too well known to require lengthy 
mention in this journal. 

Two or three reports on geological subjects closed the 
business of the section, which then adjourned to meet at Liv- 
erpool in 1896. 

A growing opinion is evident that for the geologists the 
proper and most instructive place for holding a session is out 
of duors, in the pits and quarries, and in accordance with this 
view more and more time is given to excursions to places of 
geological interest around the town of meeting, the sessions 
in the room being correspondingly shorter. Besides the trips 
already mentioned there followed on the Wednesday one to the 
coprolite beds lying on the London clay, and on the Thurs- 
day one to Gromer to see the pre-Glacial forest bed at the foot 
of the cliffs exposed at low tide only, another to see the col- 
lections at Cambridge as well as the other places of interest 
in that city, and a third to Brandon in Suffolk to see the “flint- 
knappers” at work. In this last named place the manufacture 
of flint tools of various kinds has been carried on continu- 
ously, or nearly so, from prehistoric to present time. The 
ground is filled and the surface is strewn with chips and flakes 
left by the old workers whose modern representations are em- 
ployed solely in the manufacture of gun-flints. 

Ipswich is one of the several English towns of its size,— 
about 60,000 people,—that possess an excellent museum, the 
geological department of which includes a very large and well 
arranged and named collection of the Tertiary fossils of East’ 
Anglia, enabling visitors to name their own specimens. The 
condition and amount of labor that have been spent on the 
work are honorable alike to the town of Ipswich and to those 
of its citizens who have devoted their time and study to its 
geology. 


304 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


SECTION OF THE EOCENE AT-OLD PORT CADDO 
LANDING, HARRISON COUNTY, TEXAS, WITH 
NOTES UPON A COLLECTION OF PLAN@Ts 
FROM THAT LOCALITY, BY 
Fo H. KNOWLTON 


By T. WAYLAND VAUGHAN,.Washington, D.C. 

The occurrence of fossil plants at Port Caddo landing and 
the interesting section seen there have for a good many years 
been known to the writer. In the summer of 1888 he made a 
collection of plants, which, still unstudied, are now in the 
museum of Tulane University at New Orleans. In the summer 
of 1894, acting under instructions from Mr. Robert T. Hill, the 
writer had the opportunity of again visiting the locality and 
making a collection of plants for the U.S. Geological Survey. 
_ The following is a description of the section, from the cor- 
ner of MeCathern’s field west to the landing on the south side 
of the road, beginning at the top: 

1. Irregularly stratified sands and clay, about 10 feet. 
Above this bed in the vicinity red sands occur. 

2. Reddish nearly pure quartz sands, sometimes cross-bed- 
ded; limonitie geodes and fossil wood abundant. 50 feet. 

3. A zone intermediate between 2 and 4, 10 or 15 feet thick. 
In sands coming just below 2 are water-worn boulders of clay 
or of laminated clay and sand. The boulders vary in size from 
that of a pea to that of a man’s head. In the lower part of 
this bed are broken and contorted masses of clay, which may 
attain a size of several feet in length and a foot in thickness. 
The stratification planes of the separate masses of clay are 
set at all angles. There are also interlocking tongues of clay 
and sand. Below this zone of disturbance a sand bed was 
seen. 

4. Interbedded sands and clays; stratification, so far as 
seen, regular. The clay is of a bluish color, and the sand gray- 
ish. One small lignite seam was observed. Thickness 55 to 
60 feet. 

5. Poor lignite, 2 feet, frequently replaced by iron ore, iron 
sandstone or impure limestone. These masses of limestone of- 
ten appear like huge boulders, but upon close inspection their 
origin may be discovered easily. They are only replacements 


*Published by permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological 
| 
Survey. 


Eocene at Old Port Caddo Landing.— Vaughan. 305 


of the carbonaceous matter of the lignite. From the iron 
sandstone and limestone masses many excellently preserved 
fossil plants were collected. From this stratum the plants 
identified by Prof. Knowlton were obtained. 

6. Thinly laminated bluish clay and sand, to water's edge, 
13 feet. The section has a slight southerly dip. The meas- 
urements were made with an aneroid barometer. 

A few yards to the north of the road leading from the cor- 
ner of MeCathern’s field to the landing, in a ravine near Bon- 
ner’s spring, the following is seen: 

1. Red clay, 3 or 4 feet. 

2. Gray, blue or whitish sand, with some clay, containing 
water-worn boulders of laminated sand and clay, 15 feet. 
These boulders upon being split reveal good impressions of 
ledves. 

3. Blue clay, a few inches. 

4. lLignite, 4 feet. 

Two of this section represents 3 of the first section. 

The interesting part of the above section, aside from the 
plants,is the interpretation of the phenomena seen in 3 of the 
first section and 2 of the second. There has certainly been 
some erosion. Is it only a local unconformity, or do the sands 
with the boulders, etc., at the base represent what Mr. McGee 
has called the Columbian stage? After studying all that he 
could find at Port Caddo the writer was not able to reach a 
positive conclusion, but from the sands apparently passing 
below other stratified clays, of Eocene type, he is inclined to 
believe that we have an instance of local unconformity in the 
Eocene. Until the stratigraphy can be studied in more detail 
a positive opinion cannot be expressed. 

Near Jonesville, Texas, rounded boulders of lignite have 
been found by Dr. Otto Lerch* and the author. 

Around Port Caddo the superficial sands give the character 
to the topography of the country. These sands erode very 
easily and steep ridges with round lateral lobes, separated by 
deep gulches, are formed. The vegetation is pine. Often the 
sands of the surface are indurated by ferruginous cement into 
iron sandstone of a good quality. This sandstone constitutes 
a resisting stratum that caps the hills, below it precipitous 
slopes and deep gulches being developed. 

*Report Geol. Hills. N. La., pt. 1, p. 87. 


306 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


In this vicinity lignite is extremely abundant. We know 
these beds are Eocene, but to what stage of that series to re- 
fer them is a diflicult question. The opinion was expressed 
by the writer in a recent article that they were of Lignitic 
age.* Unfortunately the determination of the age of our EKo- 
cene deposits depends entirely upon the fossil animal remains, 
because no systematic study has been made of the floras. Di- 
visions founded upon mere lithologic characters are insuffi- 
cient, as lignitie strata are found in every division of. the 
Kocene. At present the determination of the age of any part 
of the lignitiferous Eocene of the Gulf states depends entirely 
upon a minute knowledge of the stratigraphy of the surround- 
ing regions in which marine fossils have been found. On a 
blue-print map which has recently been distributed by W. 
Kennedy, entitled “Map showing Areal Distribution of the 
Kocene Tertiary in East Texas, Compiled from Geological 
Surveys,” it appears that most of the beds devoid of marine 
fossils and consisting of lignitic strata have been designated 
as of “Lignitic” age. The present writer doubts the correct- 
ness of this. 

The reason for considering the Port Caddo section of Lig- 
nitiec age is because Mr. Harris in his report on the geology of 
southern Arkansas has indicated the Lignitic-Claiborne as 
running to the headwaters of the lakes developed along the 
Red river. His work was based upon both careful paleonto- 
logic work and field study. The streams in northwestern 
Louisiana and the adjoining part of Texas, i. e., Red river, 
Cypress bayou and the other streams of that type, have cut 
far down into the formations upon which their courses lie. 
The elevation at Jefferson, Texas, is 231 feet; at Shreveport, 
Louisiana, it is 185 feet. It would seem most probable that 
into this low-lying country along these streams where there 
had been so much erosion that we would find an extension of 
the Lignitie from Arkansas. Capping the highlands  sur- 
rounding this eroded area, to the east, south and west we have 
remains of the marine (lower Claiborne) beds. In the vicinity 
of Daingerfield, which is northwest of Port Caddo, at an ele- 
vation of 400 feet, there is an area of the marine beds.+ At 


* AMER. GEOL., vol. xv, p. 209, April, 1895. 
+Kennedy’s map. 


Eocene at Old Port Caddo Landing.—Vaughan. 307 


Marshall, Texas, which has an altitude of 375 feet (from T. 
& P. R’y elevations), an area of the marine beds occurs. The 
beds at Port Caddo, at least in their lower portion, are litho- 
logically like those called “Lignitic.” From these data it 
would seem that there is little doubt regarding the correct- 
ness of the age that is suggested, for the lower part of this 
section. 

The Eocene fossil plants offer a most interesting field for 
study, as probably they will ultimately aid us in the correla- 
tion of our great southern plant-bearing beds with the plant- 
bearing beds of the west. Prof. Knowlton’s accompanying 
report shows this, and Messrs. Penrose* and Hillt have made 
important remarks bearing on the same problem. From Lou- 
isiana Lesquereuxt has identified fossil plants collected at two 
localities. 

In the following table I have placed alongside each other the 
lists from Lesquereux’s paper and from Prof. Knowlton’s: 
Port Cappo Lanp- CaMPBELL’s QUARRY, 2 MILES N. oF Mans- 


ING, TEx. Cross Lake, La. FIELD, La. 
Salix tabellaris? Lx. Sapindus angustifo- Magnolia laurifolia 
Magnolia laurifolia? lius Lx. Lx. 
Jp S. caudatus Lx. Ficus spectabilis Lx. 
M. ovalis ux. S. coriaceus Lx. Aralia fragment. 
Juglans appressa Lx. Magnolia laurifolia Platanus guilleme 


ix: 


Ficus schimperi Ux. eth 
Laurus socialis Ix. 


Ficus, n. sp. 

Ficus, 0. sp. 

Cinnamonum affine 
lie 

(. mississipplense Lx. 

Laurus or Litscea, n. 


Gopp. 


L. utahensis Lx. 
Rhamnus cleburni 
Lx. 
R. eridani Ung. 
Carya antiqua? Ny. 
QYuercus cangustiloba 
EP: Al. Br. 
Juglans? n. sp. Ficus goldiana Lx. 
F’. goldiana Lx., var. 
spectabilis Lx. 
Phragmites oeningen 
sis Lx. 
It is quite probable that the bed from which I obtained the 
specimens at Port Caddo landing and that from which John- 
son obtained those sent by him to Lesquereux from Cross lake 


*Ist Ann. Rep. Geol. Survey Texas, p. 21, 1890. 

ee Geol. of Southwestern Ark.; Ark. Geol. Survey, pp. 62-65, 
88. 
tProc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. x1, for 1888, pp. 24-25, published 1889. 


308 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


are of the same age. I have maintained the opinion that the 
Mansfield group, from which the specimens two miles north 
of Mansfield come, is of lower Claiborne age. 

The object of this brief paper is: 1, to call attention to the 
phenomena seen in bed No. 3 of the first section and in bed 
No. 2 of the second section; 2, to emphasize our lack of data 
for a thoroughly satisfactory correlation of the plant bearing 
beds of the Eocene of the Gulf states; 3, to call attention to 
the excellently preserved fossil plants found at Old Port 
Caddo landing. 

The following is Prof. Knowlton’s report: 


Report on a small Collection of Fossil Plants from Old Port 
Caddo Landing, on Little Cypress Bayou, Harrison Coun- 
ty, Texas, made by Mr. 7. Wayland Vaughan. 

A somewhat hasty study of this material gives the follow- 
ing results: 

Salix tabellaris? Lx. A single rather doubtful leaf. 

Magnolia laurifolia? Lx. A fragmentary leaf that seems 
to belong to this species. 

Magnolia ovalis Lx. 

Juglans appressa Lx. 

Ficus schimperi Lx. 

Ficus. n. sp. A large leaf four and one half inches wide 
with wedge-shaped base. 

Ficus, n. sp. Also a large leaf, but with a broad rounded 
base. 

Cinnamomum affine Lx. A number of leaves of this spe- 
cies, all well determined. 

Cinnamomum mississippiense Lx. This is represented by 
only one leaf. This species should in all probability be re- 
ferred to C. affine. ; 

Laurus or Litswa,n. sp. A fine leaf and well preserved. It 
resembles a number of described forms, but differs from all in 
well marked particulars. 

Juglans?n. sp. A number of doubtful fruits are possibly 
of this genus. They are hardly well enough preserved to ad- 
mit of characterization. 

Fragments. 

This material appears to belong to the so-called eo-lignitic. 
Of the seven species determined specifically four or five have 


Editorial Comment. 309 


been found outside of this formation. The others have been 
detected in a number of places, notable in the Denver beds 
of Colorado. They are too few in number, however, to base 
very definite conclusions on. 

Only one short paper has ever been prepared on the flora of 
this eo-lignitic group, and while there is much material in 
hand there is at present little that may serve as a basis of 
comparison between it and other localities. Most of the spe- 
cies are peculiar to these beds, but a few have been found in 
the Denver (upper Laramie) beds of Colorado. It is alto- 
gether probable that when this eo-lignitic flora comes to be 
thoroughly worked up it will be found to correspond very 
closely with the Denver beds. Until more systematic work can 
be done it is manifestly impossible to generalize further. 

Very respectfully, 
F. H. Knowtron, Asst. Paleontologist. 


MOVrORT AL COMMENT. 


Proressor HeEim’s Lerrer. 

In answer to the criticism by Prof. Heim of my statement 
of the prize essay incident in the sixth session of the Inter- 
national Geological Congress, I refer for corroboration of every 
detail but one as printed in the American Geonocist (vol. 
XIV, no. +) to Prof. Capellini, who I feel sure will confirm my 
notes taken at the time the statements were made. The one 
exception is the amount of the prize, which is not distinctly 
stated in my notes and for which I doubtless trusted to my 
memory. 

Prof. Heim is in error in stating that in returning the man- 
uscript to Prof. Capellini he has “done’ as it” (i. e. the Con- 
gress) “decided.”’” The Congress refused to meddle with the 
question. 

[am not familiar with the use of the German language 
which designates the seventy-ninth recurrence of a natal day 
as the eightieth birthday, and if this be the custom in Ger- 
man Switzerland I own that I should have made an error had 
I attempted to designate such an anniversary. But my ig- 
norance, which I confess and deplore, has nothing to do with 
the case since I nowhere hazarded an assertion in the sentence 


310 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


which is the basis of my learned critie’s stricture. After stat- 
ing that Prof. Heim had extended the good wishes of the 
Congress to Geheimrath Beyrich on the occasion of his eigh- 
tieth birthday, I added, “The good feeling was very hearty and 
spontaneous, but the recipient seemed somewhat embarrassed 
by it; perhaps for the reason, which he explained to your 
correspondent, that he does not attain his eightieth birthday 
till next year.” 

Unless, therefore, I mistook the intent of Geheimrath Bey- 
rich, it was he not I who noted the discrepancy, and it was 
he who must have been unfamiliar with the use of the Ger- 
man language in this particular. 

As to the ‘numerous misunderstandings” in my letter of a 
year ago, which my distinguished reviewer will not mention 
because they do not affect him, I should be glad to hear from 
those they do affect and I promise to promptly withdraw if I 
‘cannot justify these “misunderstandings.” 

PERSIFOR FRAZER. 


REVIEW ©F REOENISGEOL@GIeGrms 
LTE RAM Was 


Fourteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to 
the Secretary of the Interior, 1892-93. By J. W. Powr.uu, Director. 
(Part I: Report of the Director, 321 pages, with map (plate 1) showing 
progress of the topographic survey, 1893; Part II: Accompanying Pa- 
pers, Xx and 597 pages, with plates m-Lxxtv, and 75 figures in the text, 
1894.) During the year of this report the appropriations for the survey 
were much diminished, requiring important changes in the plans of 
work and reduction in the number of geologists and assistants employed. 
Topographic work received $249,200; strictly geologic work, $63,700: 
paleontologic work, $14,000: chemical work, $8,000: preparation of il- 
lustrations, $5,000; the report on mineral resources, $10,000; purchase 
of books, etc., $2,000: the engraving of geologic maps, $10,000; and rent, 
$4,200. The topographic surveys of the year were platted on 91 atlas 
sheets, bringing the total number of surveyed sheets up to 785, repre- 
senting 573,000 square miles. or about a sixth part of the entire national 
domain, excepting Alaska. 

In Part I the Director’s report fills 165 pages, and the remainder of 
this volume comprises the twenty-eight administrative reports of chiefs 
of divisions and heads of independent parties, besides the abstracts of 
disbursements for the survey, which last occupy 40 pages. 

Part Il contains the geological map of the United States by W J 
McGekr, of which notices have be2na given in previous numbers of the 


Review of Recent Geological Literature, Blt 


American Grouocistr (vol xvi, pp. 61, 113, July and August, 1895); a 
paper entitled ‘‘The Potable Waters of eastern United States,’’ also by 
Mr. McGer, in 47 pages, with five figures: ‘‘Natural Mineral Waters of 
the United States,’ by A. C. Pears, in pages 49-88, with two maps; 
“Results of Stream Measurements,’ by F. H. NEWELL, in pages 89-155, 
with two plates, and 19 figures: ‘‘The Laccolite Mountain Groups of 
Colorado, Utah and Arizona,’? by WHirMaNn Cross, in pages 157-241, 
with ten plates and 19 figures; ‘“‘The Gold-Silver Veins of Ophir, Cali- 
fornia,” by WaLpEMAR LinpGREN, in pages 243-284, with two plates; 
“Geology of the Catoctin Belt” [beginning in the south edge of Penn- 
sylvania, extending across Maryland and into Virginia], by ARTHUR 
Kerra, in pages 285-395. with 21 plates and one figure; ‘‘Tertiary Revo- 
lution in the Topography of the Pacific Coast,’ by J. S. Driver, in 
pages 397-434, with eight plates and four figures; ‘‘The Rocks of the 
Sierra Nevada,’”’ by H. W. Turner, in pages 435-495, with twelve plates 
and three figures (a paper which was summarized by the author in the 
American Grovocisr for April and May, 1894); ‘*Pre-Cambrian igneous 
rocks of the Unkar terrane, Grand Canyon of the Colorado, Arizona,” 
by Cuares D. Waxcorr, with notes on the ‘‘Petrographical Character 
of the Lavas,’’ by JosepH Paxson Ippines, in pages 497-524, with s1x 
plates and two figures: ‘On the Structure of the Ridge between the 
Taconic and Green Mountain Ranges in Vermont,’’ by T. NELson DaLr, 
in pages 525-549, with five plates and eleven figures; ‘‘The Structure of 
Monument Mountain in Great Barrington, Massachusetts,’’ also by Mr. 
Date, in pages 551-565, with two plates and eight figures, and ‘‘The 
Potomac and Roaring Creek Coal Fields in West Virginia,’’? by JosEPH 
D. WEEKs, in pages 567-590, with two maps and three figures. 
Presenting so many reports of important special investigations, this 
volume is one of the most valuable in its series. The longest of these 
reports, by Mr. Keith, gives the following approximate ratios of the du- 
ration of Tertiary and Quaternary time, derived from comparisons of 
their relative amounts of denudation in the district comprising the Ca- 
toctin mountain, namely, the Tertiary era, regarded as extending to the 
endof the Lafayette period, 134: the early part of the Pleistocene period, 
1; its later part, 6 : and the Recent period, a small fraction. If the Ice 
age and subsequent time have included about 60,000 years, Tertiary time 
was, according to this estimate, about 4,000,000 years. and the geologic 
record from the dawn of life on the earth would be, according to Dana’s 
ratios for the great eras, some sixty to a hundred million years. w. U. 


Republication of Descriptions of Fossils from the Hall Collection tn 
the American Museum of Natural History, from the Report of Prog- 
gress for 1861 of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin, by James Hall, 
with illustrations from the original type specimens not heretofore fig- 
ured. By R. P. Wuirriretp. (Memoirs Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 1, 
pt. 2, roy. 4to, pp. 39-74, pls. iv-xii, 1895.) Professor Whitfield has done 
a genuine service to American paleontology in the illustration of these 
hitherto almost unrecognizable Silurian species published nearly 
thirty-five years ago. Paleontologists who have had occasion to study, 


Sul The American Geologist. November , 1895 


of late years, fossils of this formation from the state of Wisconsin or its 
vicinity have been at a great disadvantage from the difficulty in getting 
clear conceptions of important species from their brief preliminary de- 
scriptions. This embarrassment has especially been felt by the workers 
who have recently been engaged in the preparation of the volumes on 
the paleontology of Minnesota, and probably they will lament most 
loudly the late appearance of these illustrations while rejoicing that the 
unfulfilled promise of the state of Wisconsin to Prof. Hall has been so 
well redeemed by Mr. Whitfield. 

The species considered are all of Trenton age with one exception 
(Melocrinus nodosus from Devonian drift) and the generic determina- 
tions are wholly those of Hall, except where the author had himself in- 
troduced a generic term, Callihamnopsis, based upon one of these 
species, Oldhamia fruticosa Hall. Mr. E. O. Ulrich’s generic designa- 
tions for the Lamellibranchiata are not recognized and a considerable 
number of that writer’s species described in his report for the paleon- 
tology of Minnesota are here included in the synonymie lists. The work 
maintains the magnificent proportions established by the first number 
of these memoirs, and the plates (with the exception of the first, which 
is a photo-engraving representing certain algous fossils, a part of which 
the author had described in another paper) are exquisite examples of 
lithographic drawing and printing. Je MenG. 


Ammoniten-Brut mit Aptychen in der Wohnkammer von Oppelia 
steraspis Oppel sp. By R. Micuaeu. (Zeitschr. der deutsch. geolog. 
Gesellsch., vol. xLv1, pp. 697-702, pl. liv, 1895.) The author describes a 
fossil of notable interest to the paleontologist. In the body-chamber of 
an ammonite, whose aperature is closed by an aptychus in nearly its 
normal position, is a cluster of some sixty minute aptychi with remnants 
of diminutive shells. The specimen suggests some important facts 
which are duly emphasized by the author; that the brood of the am- 
monites after becoming free from the ovisac are carried about for a time 
in some part of the habitation-chamber; that the antychus or opercu- 
lum is developed very early in the life of the animal and hence its func- 
tion is of serious importance to the organism. The specimen is from 
Solenhofen. fe ils (Cl 


Revision of the Fauna of the Guelph Formation of Ontario, with de- 
scriptions of a few new species, and 

Systematic list, with references, of the Fossils of the Hudson River 
or Cincinnati Formation at Stony Mountain, Manitoba. By J. F. 
WuirkAves. (Geological Survey of Canada, Paleozoic Fossils vol. 3, 
pt. 2, pp. 45-128, pls. 9-15. Sept., 1895.) Since the first description 
of fifteen species of fossils from the Guelph by Hall in 1852, and twenty- 
one additional species by Billings in 1862 and 1865. further contribu- 
tions to the fauna have been quite desultory. The dolomitic character 
of the rock and the condition of preservation of the fossils are such that 
fine cabinet specimens are rarely obtained and their study is somewhat 
difficult. ‘‘Of late years particular attention has been given to the col- 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 313 


lecting of natural moulds of the exterior of shells of Gasteropoda, etc., 
from this formation, as it has been found that gutta percha impressions 
of such moulds often give much more information about the exact shape 
and surface markings of the shell than can be derived from mere casts 
of the interior.”’ The further light thrown upon the Upper Silurian 
Gasteropoda by Lindstr6m’s researches in Gotland has made it desir- 
able and practicable to review all the species thus far known from the 
Guelph formation of Ontario. The author now brings together about 
one hundred and thirty species from this horizon, of which six are new. 
The entire number is distributed as follows: Corals 12 species, Hydro- 
medusze 6, Brachiopoda 25, Pelecypoda 10, Gasteropoda 54, Cephalo- 
poda 15, and Crustacea 7. The absence of echinoderms and the abun- 
dance of gasteropods are conspicuous features. Among the latter, 
Pleurotomaria and Murchisonia are the most diversified types. The 
trimerellids are the dominant brachiopods and give a peculiar aspect to 
the fauna. 

In the second paper an annotated list of nearly sixty species is given 
from the only known locality of the Hudson River group in Manitoba. 

CDESB: 


Fauna fosil de la Sierra de Catorce San Luis Potosi, y Jose G. 
AaurtLERA. (Comision Geologica de México, Antonio del Castillo, Di- 
rector, Boletin Num. 1, 55 pp., 24 pls., 1895.) The first memoir of a new 
series of publications by the Mexican government is a welcome contri- 
bution to our knowledge of North American Mesozoic geology. In at- 
tempting to establish the existence of the Jurassic as a well defined 
formation in that part of the continent, the evidence of recently discoy- 
ered fossils is relied upon. Most of the species considered are described 
as new, the many and minute comparisons which are made with allied 
forms in other parts of the world is an admirable feature in aiding pale- 
ontologists to better understand the true character of the fauna studied. 
The fossils are for the most part cephalopods, though the brachiopods 
and lamellibranchs are comparatively well represented. Most of the 
material upon which the investigations are based is evidently in a good 
state of preservation, but it is rather unfortunate that better illustra- 
tions were not prepared for some of the forms. With the methods em- 
ployed in the reproduction of the illustrations the details of the highest 
specific and generic importance are largely obscured and in some cases 
entirely obliterated. C. R. K. 


Bureau of Mines of Ontario, Fourth Report, 1894. ARCHIBALD BLUE, 
Director. (8vo, pp. vi, 261: maps and illustrations of the Rainy River 
district; Toronto, 1895.) The contents of this volume are: 1. A general 
discussion (pp. 7-34) of the condition of the mining industry of Ontario 
during the year, with particular reference to certain branches in process 
of development at present. 2. A chapter (pp. 35-100) on ‘*Gold in Onta- 
rio,’’ with particular description of the Rainy Lake gold region, by Dr. 
A. P. Coleman. 3. A compiled account (pp.101-138) by Mr. T. W. Gibson 
of the *‘Hinterland of Ontario,’? by which is meant the region lying be 


314 The American Geologist. November, 1895- 


tween lakes Huron and Superior on the south and Albany river and 
James bay on the north. 4. A chapter (pp. 139-166) on calcium carbide 
and acetylene gas, consisting of extracts from articles by Vivian B. 
Lewes, T. L. Willson and J. Suckert. 5. Account of the steps to be 
taken to procure the assistance of the government in making diamond 
drill explorations. 6. A chapter (pp. 177-198) on ‘‘Nickel and its Uses.’” 
7. Mining accidents (pp. 199-215). 8. Summer mining schools (pp. 216- 
222), 9. Fifth Report of the Inspector of Mines (pp. 223-253). 

The principal article and the one which represents the largest amount 
of original geological work is the one by Dr. Coleman on gold in Onta- 
rio. The description of the rocks of the Rainy Lake region is based on 
Lawson’s classification, and in other respects agrees with the main facts 
as set forth in the twenty-third Annual Report of the Geological and 
Natural History Survey of Minnesota. The views of Winchell and 
Grant as to the relative ages of the granite and gabbro of Shoal and 
Bad Vermilion lakes are held by Dr. Coleman to be more probable than 
those expressed by Dr. Lawson. 

The general conclusion reached is rather conservative as to the pros- 
pects for gold mining, although some of the samples assayed gave very 
good results and portions of the district, especially the Seine River re- 
gion, are considered quite promising. 

A few errors of fact have crept into this report from a lack of perfect 
familiarity with the region. Thus it may be pointed out that the wa- 
ters of Rainy lake are usually not turbid nor brownish, but clear and 
colorless: that trout frequent its waters, bass are not uncommon in sur- 
rounding lakes and the drainage is not into Red river: that the cost of 
milling at the Little American mine is not given in the Minnesota re- 
port as $7 per ton. It would appear that the preference of the term 
‘bhedded” rather than ‘‘segregated’’ as applied to the veins in the green 
schist is not well founded,for as the writer himself states,the veins have 
probably had an origin similar to that of the fissure veins and therefore 
are not of the nature of interstratified deposits or beds, but rather formed 
by the action of segregation in its broadest sense. The report asa whole 
gives a good idea of the geology and developments of this new district 
and will be useful to all interested in the region. 

The Ontario Bureau of Mines is doing a good work and doing it well. 
Many of our states could do worse than to copy the example of Ontario 
and establish a mining department which should combine under one 
head and in one report the branches of mine inspection and the adver- 
tisement of the resources and industries of the state through competent 
reports. H. V. W. 

Scientific Results of the New Siberia Islands Expedition in the years 
1885 and 1886, Part IIT: The Fossil Ice Strata and their Relations to 
the Mammoth Remains. By Baron Enuarp vy. Totti. (Memoirs of the 
Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, seventh series, vol. 
XL, no. 13, pp. vii, 1-86, with 7 plates and 17 figures in the text; 1895.) 
Underground strata of ice are found in many localities of the tundras 
from the Yenisei river eastward about 2,500 miles to Bering strait and 


veview of Recent Geological Literature, 315 


sea, and to Eschscholtz bay and the Kowak and Yukon rivers in 
Alaska. These fossil accumulations of ice, covered by a thin soil in 
which occur shells of Cyclas, Valvata, etc., wood of alder, willow and 
dwarf birch. and abundant bones and ivory tusks of the mammoth are 
especially extensive in the New Siberia islands. The great Lyakhoff 
island, having an area of about 2,000 square kilometers or 700 square 
miles, is wholly thus underlain by ice, excepting four granite peaks, and 
the fossil ice has a similar development in the more northern islands of 
this group. 

Baron Toll ascribes the thin overlying clay and sand to the action of 
wind and water as eolian and lacustrine deposits; but it seems worthy 
of inquiry whether in the New Siberia islands and many other places 
they may not instead be derived mostly from englacial drift which be- 
came superglacial by ablation of formerly higher strata of ice, as on the 
borders of the Malaspina ice-sheet south of Mt. St. Elias. In some lo- 
calities, as along valleys and avenues of drainage, Baron Toll considers 
the underground ice as remnants of frozen river waters during a former 
epoch of greater severity of cold, and there the overlying soil may well 
be of fluviatile origin: but on these islands he finds, by the granular 
structure of the ice, that it is derived from snowfall, being a remnant 
of a previous ice-sheet. Several views show marginal ice-cliffs on the 
Lyakhoff island having a vertical hight of about 60 feet, capped by two 
or three feet of soil. Likewise the description given by Dall for the ice- 
cliffs of Eschscholtz bay in Alaska, comparing the texture of the ice to 
compacted hail, proves, as Baron Toll remarks and as was noted in the 
last April Am. Groxoaisr (vol. xv. p. 258), that the ice there also is a 
remnant of an ice-sheet. In these places probably the overlying soil 
was englacial drift in a formerly much thicker sheet of land ice, similar 
to the Pleistocene ice-sheets of North America and Europe, though of 
smaller extent. 

The mammoth remains are never in the ice, but in frozen mud and 
sand beds distinct from the fossil ice masses and often overlying them. 
During a time closely following the Glacial period, a warmer climate 
than that of the present day prevailed in Siberia and Alaska, enabling 
shrubs to grow two hundred miles north of their present limits, while 
herds of the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, both of which have since 
become extinct, ranged north to the Arctic sea. The mild postglacial 
climate may have been due to a depression of the area about Bering 
strait, permitting a strong warm current from the Pacific to pass north 
through this strait. Its width now is 28 miles, with a nearly uniform 
depth of 24 to 28 fathoms, and the present currents vary in direction 
with stages of the tides. A moderate subsidence, which is indicated by 
the raised beaches of this region, similar to the subsidence of the drift- 
covered parts of North America and Europe during the Late Glacial or 
Champlain epoch, and probably contemporaneous with that epoch, 
seems therefore, in tle opinion of the reviewer, to be the best explana- 
tion of the Siberian and Alaskan fossil remains of ice-sheets and of ex- 
tinct mammals. When the ensuing re-elevation, shutting away the 


316 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


warm marine current, brought again an arctic climate, the melting of 
the thick sheets of land ice, protected by their superglacial drift, nearly 
ceased: and the mammoth and rhinoceros perished with cold and hun- 
ger, although these species had endured in migratory herds the more 
severe Glacial period, which there apparently was characterized by the 
accumulation of numerous local ice-sheets, occupying hundreds or 
thousands of square miles. Instead of merely ordinary winter storms 
and deep snowdrifts, to which Mr. Charles Davidson has attributed the 
extinction of the mammoth and the origin of the underground ice (Q. J. 
G.S8., vol. 50, pp. 472-486, Aug., 1894), very important secular climatic 
changes, with epeirogenic movements, seem to have occurred in aseries 
approximately parallel with those of the Glacial and Recent periods on 
the opposite sides of the North Atlantic ocean. W. U. 


Further Observations upon the Occurrence of Diamonds in Meteorites. 
By O. W. Hunrineron. (Proceedings, Am. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, 
new series, vol. xx1, 1894, pp. 204-211, with two plates.) The investiga- 
tion here noted was made with fragments of the Cation Diablo or Coon 
Butte meteoric iron, which was first described by Dr. A. E. Foote in 
the Proceedings of the American Association for 1891 (vol. xu, pp. 279- 
283), and to which also attention has been directed, with careful instru- 
mental surveys, by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, as reported in the AM. GEOLOGIST 
(vol. x11, p. 115, Feb., 1894.) Many pounds of this iron were dissolved 
by the author, who thus obtained from it enough diamond dust to use 
at the Columbian Exposition for cutting and polishing rough diamonds. 
Only a few perfect crystals were found, these being of minute size, as 
about a hundredth of an inch in diameter. These observations seem 
well accordant with the theory of the late Prof. H. Carvill Lewis con- 
cerning the origin of diamonds, and he had actually predicted in 1886 
that diamonds would be discovered in meteorites. WwW. U. 


The Erosive Action of Ice. By G. E. Cutver. (Trans., Wisconsin 
Aead. of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, vol. x, pp. 339-366, April, 1895.) 
The opinions of many European and American geologists are here re- 
viewed, and the author records his own observations of striated boulder 
pavements, where deposits of till have suffered glacial erosion near Big 
Stone City, South Dakota, and on the Big fork of Rainy river in north- 
ern Minnesota. He concludes that the efficiency of ice to excavate rock 
basins has been greatly overestimated. Indeed he thinks that after 
the many years of discussion of this question, ‘‘not a single case of a 
lake basin which can be proven to have been made by ice action has 
been discovered.”’ WwW. U. 


The Duration of Niagara Falls and the History of the Great Lakes. 
3y J. W. Spencer. (Pages 126, with five plates and 27 figures in the 
text, forming the second part of the Eleventh Annual Report of the 
Commissioners of the State Reservation at Niagara, for the year 1894, 
Albany, 1895; also published, at the price of $1, in the Humboldt Li- 
brary series.) Nine papers relating to the Laurentian lakes and Niag- 
ara falls, published by Prof. Spencer within the past six years in the 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. Sey 


Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, the Quarterly Journal of 
the Geological Society of London, and the American Journal of Science 
are here collected to give in one publication the results of his extensive 
explorations and studies in this district. With these he might well have 
included also his earlier paper on the ‘‘Discovery of the Preglacial Out- 
let of the Basin of Lake Hrie into that of Lake Ontario, with notes on 
the Origin of our Lower Great Lakes,’’ from the Proceedings of the 
American Philosophical Society (vol. xrx, pp. 300-337, 1881). The chief 
outlines of the author’s work, as given in these papers, have also been 
recently stated by him in the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST (vol. XIV, pp. 289- 
301, Nov., 1894). His estimate of 32,000 years as the past duration of 
the Niagara river and falls seems, however, to the present reviewer less 
in accordance with the results of many investigations bearing on the 
duration of the Ice age and of the Postglacial period, than the 7,000 
years which Gilbert estimated, with some considerations tending to in- 
crease and others to reduce the estimate, in his American Association 
paper in 1886. This question, and that of the Nipissing outlet from lake 
Algonquin, on which Prof. Spencer bases the greater part of his large 
estimate, have been considered in the AMERICAN GEoLoGtsT (vol. xiv, 
pp. 62-65, July, 1894), with the conclusion that the volume of the Niag- 
ara river has been nearly as now through all its history. W. U. 


Critical Periods in the History of the Earth. By JosErpH LEConrsE. 
(University of California, Bulletin of the Department of Geology, vol. 1, 
pp. 313-336, August, 1895.) This paper is a more full statement of the 
conclusions presented by the author two years ago in the World’s Con- 
gress of Geologists at the Columbian Exposition, on the question, ‘‘Are 
there any natural divisions of the geological record which are of world- 
wide extent?’ An outline of that address was given in the Am. GEoL- 
ocist for October, 1893 (vol. x11, p. 272). Critical periods, having ex- 
ceptionally rapid evolution of new species of plants and animals, so that 
they mark the limits of the great geologic eras, are shown tc be pro- 
duced by exceptionally great changes in physical geography, permitting 
migrations with adaptation to new environment, and by climatic 
changes, which compel migrations along north and south courses. The 
more rapid rate of evolution gives rise to higher dominant classes, and 
the great changes brought by the dominion of man over the lower ani- 
mals and plants have led the author to name the latest and present 
grand division of geologic time the Psychozoic era. He would terminate 
Quaternary time at the end of the Glacial period, and would unite the 
Tertiary and Quaternary divisions of time as together constituting the 
Cenozoic era. By the epeirogenic movements inaugurating the Glacial 
period, North America and northern Europe were ‘“‘certainly raised at 
least three thousand feet and probably much more;"’ and at nearly the 
same time the Sierra Nevada, Wahsatch and St. Elias ranges were 
greatly uplifted by block-tilting. 

As the Glacial period marked the limit of the Cenozoic era, so the 
Laramie period, with still grander epeirogenic and orogenic changes, 
the latter taking place especially along the Cordilleran or Rocky Moun 


318 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


tain belt, ended the Mesozoic era; the Permian period, with the Appa- 
lachian revolution, terminated Paleozoic time; and the greatest of all 
the critical periods or revolutions divided the Archean and Algonkian 
ages from the Cambrian. 

Although the records of critical periods on account of the great geo- 
graphic changes and unconformity of the rock series are principally lost, 
these periods are believea to have been of long duration. Their changes 
of organic forms were not simultaneous everywhere, but rather were 
propogated from place to place by waves of migration, which may have 
reached far beyond the limits of the physical changes. Ww. U. 


Ueber einige Fischreste des norddeutschen und béhmischen Devons. 
By A. von Rornen. (Abhandl]. der Konig]. Gesellsch. der Wissensch. 
zu Gottingen, vol. 40, pp. 1-37, pls. i-v, 1895.) In continuation of his in- 
vestigation of the Devonian fishes of Germany the author here pub- 
lishes accounts of the following species: From the upper Devonian, 
Ctenacanthus ? erectus, nov., Coccosteus inflatus, v. k., Brachydirus 
carinatus, v. k., Aspidicthys ingens, v. k., Anomalicthys scaber, v. K., 
Phatyaspis tenuis, nov. gen. et sp., Holoptychius kayseri, noy., Glyp- 
tolepis traquairi, nov., Rhizodopsis dispersa, nov.; from the middle 
Devonian, Dinicthys efeliensis Kayser, Macropetalicthys agassizi v. 
Meyer., Osteolepis holzapfeli, nov.; from the lower Devonian, Macro- 
petalicthys priimiensis Kays., Holopetalicthys novaki, nov. (stage F. 
Bohemia). J. M. C. 

Sur une Faune du sommet de la serié rhénane, a Pepinster, Goé et 
Tilff. By EK. Kayser. (Ann. de la Soc. géol. de Belgique, vol. xx, pp. 
177-216, pls. i-iv, 1895.) The author describes a recently discovered Bel- 
gian fauna which he refers to the upper part of the lower Devonian. 
‘The assemblage of species is especially notable for the considerable 
number of lamellibranchiates belonging to species and genera peculiarly 
American. ‘‘The American aspect which this fauna bears is one of the 
most interesting results of this work and is the foundation of a remark- 
able distinction between the lower Devonian of Belgium and that of the 
Rhine in which American analogies seem to be wanting. Belgium is 
not unique in this respect. This American expression of the lower De- 
vonian fauna reappears at the same horizon in the northwest of France. 

* * * The relations existing, during the lower Devonian, between 
the basin of Belgium and the north of France and that of North Amer- 
ica are perpetuated to the close of the Devonian period as shown by the 
existence of American species of Aviculide mentioned by Gosselet and 
Frech in the upper Devonian of Belgium, although these species are 
absent on the Rhine.”’ Je MeuOs 


The Stone Industry in 1894. By Wruttam C. Day. (16th Ann. Rept. 
U.S. Geol. Survey, pt. IV, 83 pp., 2 pls. 4-27, 1895.) It is with pleas- 
ure that we note the appearance of this portion of the results of the 
work on the mineral resources for the year 1894 before the end of 1895. 
(Part IV of the 16th Ann. Rept. of the Survey is entitled ‘‘Mineral Re- 
sources of the United States, calendar year 1894.’’) In describing the 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 319 


stone industries the different kinds of stone noted are granite, marble, 
slate, sandstone, limestone and bluestone. Granite includes all quar- 
ried igneous rocks, gneisses and crystalline schists. The total produc- 
tion of stone in the United States for 1894 was valued at over $37,000,000 
—a gain of about $3,500,000 over the total production for the previous 
year. A large number of statistical tables accompany the paper, and 
some information is given concerning the methods of quarrying and 
dressing the various stones. A locally interesting feature is a brief de- 
scription of the status of each kind of stone industry in each state. 
U. 8. G. 
Mineral Products of the United States, calendar years 1885 to 1894. 
By Davin T. Day, Chief of Division of Mineral Resources. (U. 8. Geol. 
Survey; Washington, June 8, 1895.) On a large sheet, about 24 by 30 
inches, is presented a tabulated statement of the quantity and value of 
each mineral substance produced in the United States during the last 
ten years. The value of the total product decreased decidedly both in 
1893 and 1894. The total valuation in the latter year was $527,655,562, 
which is lower than the total valuation of any year since 1887. The 
greatest total production was in ’92 when the valuation was $648,616,954. 
W. Sa Gs 
Opinions Concerning the Age of the Sioux Quartzite. [Abstract.] By 
CHARLES Rouiin Keyes. (Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., 1894, vol. 2, pp. 218- 
222; 1895.) A resumé is given of the opinions of various authors re- 
garding this quartzite which was called ‘‘Sioux quartzite” first in 1870 
by Dr. C. A. White. Itis of interest to note that Dr. F. V. Hayden 
seemed inclined to the view that the age of this rock was post-Carbon- 
iferous and perhaps Cretaceous. The general consensus of recent opin- 
ion regarding this quartzite is that it is of pre-Cambrian age; it is 
placed in the middle division (Upper Huronion) of the Algonkian in re- 
cent publications of the United States Geological Survey. Prof. N. H. 
Winchell has been about the only one lately to entertain a different 
opinion and he has in several papers uniformly placed it in the Cam- 
brian. In the present paper the author states that the fossils (a brach- 
iopod and a trilobite) found in the Sioux quartzite are generally re- 
garded as not of organic origin. The reviewer does not understand that 
this is the case with the brachiopod (Lingula calumet,) which seems to 
be generally acknowledged as a fossil. He understands that both 
Messrs. Walcott and Van Hise are agreed as to its organic origin; the 
latter writes: ‘‘In the Sioux quartzites one generally accepted fossil has 
been found by N. H. Winchell.”’ (Bull. 86, U. 8S. Geol. Survey, p. 194.) 
Dr. Keyes entertains some doubt as to the pre-Cambrian age of this 
quartzite. In his closing paragraph, after a personal examination of 
many of the principal outcrops, he states ‘‘that it must be confessed 
that notwithstanding strong preconceived notions regarding the creat 
antiquity of the Sioux rock, faith in its very old age was considerably 
shaken * * * * * Regarding the age of the Sioux formation, it may 
be said that while it should be considered as pre-Cambrian in age 


320 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


until indisputable evidence is produced to the contrary—there exists 
now a certain element of doubt concerning the accuracy of this view.”’ 
U.S. G. 


Ueber postarcheischen Granit von Sulitelma in Norwegen und iber 
das Vorkommen von s. g. Corrosionquarz in Gneisen und Graniten. 
By Orro NorpEnskJoLp. (Bull. of the Geol. Dept. of the Univ. of Up- 
sala, vol. m, pt. 1, no. 3, pp. 118-128, 1895.) The district of Sulitelma, 
in 68° N. Lat., and on the border between Sweden and Norway, has 
been the subject of careful research by a number of geologists on ac- 
count of the occurrence there of rich copper ores. Occupied with sim- 
ilar research, the author had opportunity to study a granitic rock, in- 
teresting on account of its occurrence in the form of a laccolitic lens 
included between the mica slates, having a length of more than five 
kilometers and a breadth of at least 1,200 meters. The age of the 
schists is not known with certainty, but must be considered as post- 
Archean and pre-Devonian. Though the granite (as well ‘Sim Hangenden 
als im Liegenden’’) very rarely and in small degree traverses the schists, 
it must be considered as younger and not cotemporary with them. Now 
it is interesting that, while all Swedish granites of post-Archean age 
when occurring in undisturbed positions are very well characterized, 
this roeck—a porphyritic mica-granite, more or less gneissoid—much re- 
sembles the old Archean granites. The same appears to be the case 
also in other parts of the mountain districts in Scandinavia where gran- 
ites occur in the same position. The author concludes that they have 
all been intruded simultaneously with the folding of the rocks and the 
forming of the mountains, and have therefore obtained their layer-like 
position and their aspect of greater age. 

An interesting feature in all these rocks is the great development of 
the structure, described by Fouqué and Michel Lévy under the name 
‘‘quartz de corrosion,’ consisting of complex aggregates of quartz and 
feldspar, similar to the granophyric structure but distinctly different as 
the included quartz individuals are always limited by bent and curved 
lines. The author has studied this structure in a number of rocks and 
has found it very common in gneisses, but rather rare in eruptive rocks 
where it oceurs only in rocks altered by dynamic action, it therefore is 
probable that it has always been formed in connection with dynamic 
metamorphism. The author has since seen in Paris, in the collection 
of Prof. A. Lacroix, a granitic rock of post-Carboniferous age from the 
Pyrenees, which, having taken part in the forming of mountains, is 
wonderfully like the rock from Sulitelma and shows the same structure. 
It is of great importance to distinguish the structure here mentioned, 
occurring in gneisses and altered granites, from the granophyric struc- 
ture found probably only in igneous rocks. 


Recent Publications. 321 


Ree NPP BLICA TIONS. 


I. Government and State Reports. 

U. S. Geol. Survey, 14th Ann. Rept., 1892-93; pt. I, 321 pp., pl. 1, 
1893; pt. II, xx and 597 pp., pls. 2-74, 1894. Pt. I.—Report of the 
Director, J. W. Powell; Administrative reports. Pt. II.— Potable 
waters of eastern United States, W J McGee; Natural mineral waters 
of the United States, A. C. Peale; Results of stream measurements, 
F. H. Newell; The laccolitic mountain groups of Colorado, Utah and 
Arizona, Whitman Cross; The gold-silyer veins of Ophir, California, 
Waldemar Lindgren; Geology of the Catoctin belt, Arthur Keith; Ter- 
tiary revolution in the topography of the Pacific coast, J. 5. Diller; 
The rocks of the Sierra Nevada, H. W. Turner; Pre-Cambrian igneous 
-rocks of the Unkar terrane, Grand Canyon of the Colorado, Arizona 
(with notes on the petrographic characters of the lavas, J. P. Iddings), 
C. D. Walcott; On the structure of the ridge between the Taconic and 
Green Mountain ranges in Vermont, T. N. Dale; The structure of Mon- 
ument mountain in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, T. N. Dale; The 
. Potomac and Roaring Creek coal fields in West Virginia, J. D. Weeks. 

Geol. Survey Canada, Paleozoic Fossils, vol. 3, pt. 2, pp. 45-123, pls. 
9-15, Sept., 1895. Revision of the fauna of the Guelph formation of 
Ontario, with descriptions of a few new species, J. F. Whiteaves; Sys- 
tematic list, with references, of the fossils of the Hudson River or Cin- 
cinnati formation at Stony mountain, Manitoba, J. F. Whiteaves. 

U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 118. A geographic dictionary of New Jer- 
sey, Henry Gannett. 131 pp., 1894. 

U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 119. A geological reconnoissance in north- 
west Wyoming, G. H. Eldridge. 72 pp., 4 pls., 1894. 

U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 120. The Devonian system of eastern 
Pennsylvania and New York, C.S. Prosser. 81 pp., 2 pls., 1894. 

U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 121. A bibliography of North American 
paleontology, 1888-1892, C. R. Keyes. 251 pp., 1894. : 

U.S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 122. Results of preliminary triangulation, 
Henry Gannett. 412 pp., 17 pls., 1894. 

U.S. Geol. Survey, Mon. 23. The geology of the Green mountains 
in Massachusetts, Raphael Pumpelly, T. N. Dale and J. E. Wolff. 
xiv and 206 pp., 23 pls., 1894. ; 

U.S. Geol. Survey, Mon. 24. Mollusca and Crustacea of the Miocene 
formations of New Jersey, R. P. Whitfield. 193 pp., 24 pls., 1894. 

Iowa Geol. Survey, 3d Ann. Rept., 1894, 467 pp., 11 pls., maps, 1895. 
Geology of Allamakee county, Samuel Calvin: Geology of Linn county, 
W. H. Norton; Geology of Van Buren county, C. H. Gordon; Geology 
of Keokuk county, H. F. Bain; Geology of Mahaska county, H.F. Bain; 
Geology of Montgomery county, E. H. Lonsdale. 

Comision Geologica Mexicana. Expedicion cientifica al Popocate- 
petl, J. G. Aguilera and Ezequiel Ordonez. 48 pp., 6 pls, 1 section and 
a geological map; Mexico, 1895. 


322 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


Il. Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 

Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1894, vol. 12, 1895. The Potsdam and Cal- 
ciferous formations of Quebee and eastern Ontario, R. W. Ells: 
L’eboulis de St-Alban, Mer. Laflamme; Synopsis of air-breathing 
animals of the Paleozoic in Canada, J. W. Dawson; On the organic 
remains of the Little River group, No. II, G. F. Matthew; On the organ- 
ic remains of the Little River group, No. III, G. F. Matthew; The 
fossil cockroaches of North America, S. H. Scudder. 

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, vol. 10 (1894-1895), 
1895. Some New Jersey eskers, G. E. Culver; Geology of Conanicut 
Island, R. I., G. L. Collie: The erosive action of ice, G. E. Culver: 
Bowlder trains from the outcrops of the Waterloo quartzite area, I. M 
Buell; The origin of the dells of the Wisconsin, C. R. Van Hise. 

III. Papers in Scientific Journals. 

Ottawa Naturalist, Sept., 1895. Crystals, W. F. Ferrier. 

Science, Sept. 20, 1895. Current notes on physiography (XVI), W. 
M. Davis. 

Science, Oct. 4. 1895. A new Jurassic plesiosaur from Wyoming, W. 
C. Knight. 


Science, Oct. 11, 1895. Some notes on Darlington (S. C.) ‘‘bays,”’ L. 


C. Glenn. 

Science, Oct. 18, 1895. Geology at the British Association, W. W. 
Watts; Current notes on physiography (XVI), W. M. Davis. 

Eng. and Mining Journ., Oct. 19, 1895. Notes on Arizona geology, 
T. B. Comstock. 

American Naturalist, Oct., 1895. The first fauna of the earth, J. F. 
James. 

Amer. Journ. Sci., Oct., 1895. Occurrence of copper in western Idaho, 
R. L. Packard; Igneous rocks of the Sweet Grass hills, Montana, W. 
H. Weed and L. V. Pirsson: Distribution and secular variation of ter- 
restrial magnetism, No. 3, L. A. Bauer. 

Journ. of Geol., Sept.-Oct., 1895. James Dwight Dana and his work 
as a geologist, H. S. Williams: Glacial and interglacial deposits near 
Toronto, A. P. Coleman; Origin of certain features of coal basins, H. 
F. Bain; Preglacial gravels on the quartzite range near Baraboo, Wis., 
R. D. Salisbury: Glacial studies in Greenland (VII), T. C. Chamberlin; 
The classification of the upper Paleozoic rocks of central Kansas, C. 8. 
Prosser; Summary of current pre-Cambrian North American literature, 
C. R. Van Hise. 

IV. Hxcerpts and Individual Publications. 

The production of tin in various parts of the world, C. M. Rolker. 
16th Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, pt. 3, 88 pp., pl. 19, 1895. 

The stone industry in 1894, W. C. Day. Ibid., pt. 4, 83 pp.. pls. 24- 


27, 1895. 
Reconnaissance of the gold fields of the southern Appalachians, G. F. 


Becker. Ibid., pt. 2, 85 pp., pls. 1-3, 1895. 

Report on the New Red of Bucks and Montgomery counties, B. 8. 
Lyman. Geol. Survey Pa., Summary Final Rept., pp. 2589-2638, pls. 
600-611: author’s ed., 1895. 


Correspondence. 323 


The organizations and results of a state geological survey, C. R. 
Keyes. Mo. Geol. Survey, vol. 8, pp. 13-79, 1895. 

The crystalline rocks of Missouri, Erasmus Haworth. Ibid., pp. 81- 
222, pls. 1-30, 1895. 

A dictionary of altitudes of Missouri, C. F. Marbut. Ibid., pp. 227- 
316, 1895. 

Characteristics of the Ozark mountains, C. R. Keyes. Ibid., pp. 319- 
352, 1895. 

The Coal Measures of Missouri, G. C. Broadhead. Ibid., pp. 355-395, 
1895. 

Two new Cambrian graptolites with notes on other species of Grapto- 
litidee of that age, G. F. Matthew. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. 14, pp. 
262-273, pls. 48-49, 1895. 

Lakes of North America, a reading lesson for students of geography 
and geology, I. C. Russell. 8 vo, pp. xi and 125, 23 pls.; Boston, Ginn 
& Co., 1895. 

Occurrence of tellurium in oxidized form associated with gold, Rich- 
ard Pearce. 4 pp.: read before the Colorado Sci. Soc., April 1, 1895. 

The soils of Texas— a preliminary statement and classification. E. 
T. Dumble. Trans. Texas Acad. Sci., pp. 25-60, 1 map, 1895. 

Notes on the Texas Tertiaries, E.T. Dumble. Ibid., pp. 23-27, 1894. 

V. Proceedings of Scientific Laboratories, ete. 

Field Columbian Museum, Publication 3, Geol. Ser. vol. 1, no. 1. 
Handbook and catalogue of the meteorite collection, O. C. Farrington. 
Pp. 1-66, pls. 1-6, Aug., 1895. 

Memoirs Am. Museum Nat. Hist., vol. 1, pt. 2. Republication of 
descriptions of-fossils from the Hall collection in the American Museum 
of Natural History, from the Report of Progress for 1861 of the Geolog- 
ical Survey of Wisconsin, by James Hall, with illustrations from the 
original type specimens not heretofore figured, R. P. Whitfield. Pp. 39- 
74, pls. 4-12, Aug. 10, 1895. 


CORRESPONDENCE: 


THE Source OF THE Mississippi. The attention of geographers has 
recently been called frequently to this subject through the widely pub- 
lished claims of captain Willard Glazier. Many have questioned the 
justness of these claims, and the Minnesota Historical Society author- 
ized a careful survey under its auspices. The result was published by 
the state, as one of its volumes of ‘‘Collections,’”’ in which, written by 
Mr. J. V. Brower, the claims of Glazier were not admitted. This volume 
embraces a very full discussion of this question, with maps and other 
illustrations. 

Lately captain Glazier has revived his side of the discussion* in a 
finely illustrated book of over 500 pages. 

In this new volume he strongly insists on the verity of his discovery 
and the justness of his claim that lake Glazier is the true source of the 


*Headwaters of the Mississippi. Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago and New York, 1894. 


324 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


Mississippi river, and he has the testimony of his 14 companions, both 
joint and individual, supporting him in his claim. As the case is pre- 
sented by him he makes a strong showing and one that will be apt to 
influence geographers in his favor. 

It seems the essential points at issue are: 

1. Is the Nicollet creek longer or shorter than the newly described 
creek ‘‘Eixcelsior,’? which feeds lake ‘‘Glazier?”’ 

2. Can Glazier be considered the discoverer of the lake which he has 
named after himself? 

In respect to the first, it should be stated that, as it now appears, 
neither Schoolcraft, nor Nicollet, nor Chambers ever saw the creek that 
enters Itasca lake from Elk lake (Glazier lake). Glazier seems to be 
correct in making that claim. It is overgrown with rushes at its mouth, 
and its debouchure is not at the head of the main valley. Nicollet creek 
is so plainly that which drains the principal valley that the existence of 
another creek uniting with this valley at a mile or so further northeast 
was not suspected and has remained unknown to geographers. This 
superiority of the Nicollet creek as the drainage course of the main val- 
ley is evidenced in the difference in size of the two creeks. Glazier him- 
self states that the Nicollet creek at its mouth is 10 feet wide and 21% 
feet deep. The creek that drains the Elk Lake valley is stated by him 
to be 7 feet wide and 3 feet deep, by which it appears, on his own state- 
ment, that nearly 20 per cent. more water would be discharged by the 
Nicollet creek than by the creek that drains Elk lake. This is on the 
supposition that they have the same velocity, but judging from the 
descriptions the Nicollet creek is much more rapid than the Elk Lake 
creek, and may reasonably be supposed to carry twice as much water. 

The gathering ground of the waters that feed Elk lake and enter 
Itasca lake by way of the outlet of Elk lake is stated by Glazier to ex- 
tend southward from Itasca lake 14,106 feet. The same extension for 
the waters issuing by way of Nicollet creek is given by Glazier at 7,307 
feet. Thus the greater creek has, by his showing, the smaller valley 
and the shorter course, and the less importance as a tributary of the 
Mississippi. It seems questionable whether, whatever the relative im- 
portance of these creeks, a creek having in August a width of 10 feet 
and a depth of 215 feet, could be said to extend, for its source and sup- 
ply, only to the distance of a mile and three-eights from its debouchure. 
If it there be found issuing from a ‘“‘spring’’ it would be the prompting 
of a truly scientific mind, in pursuit of the source of the Mississippi, to 
look a little further. If on further search he should find a stream dis- 
appearing, at a short distance up the valley, by entering into subterra- 
nean passages, it would be almost impossible for him not to assign that 
as the source of the water issuing at the ‘‘spring.”’ 

It should also be stated, in respect to the first of the considerations 
mentioned, that such has been found to be the case, by more than one 
observer who has described the waters of Nicollet valley. Nicollet creek 
runs through a succession of small lakes, marshes and subterranean, at 
least non-visible, passages, which have been described as constituting 


Correspondence. 325 


-one valley, whose drainage, greatly obstructed by peaty accumulations 
and hid from sight, really should be called one stream. This is the view 
that has been taken by the Minnesota Historical Society, under the 
guidance of Nicollet and after the careful survey of Mr. J. V. Brower, 
superintendent of Itasca state park. Mr. Glazier, however, in his late 
publication traces Nicollet creek only up to the great ‘‘spring,’’ thus 
giving it only a length as stated of 7,307 feet. On the contrary it may 
be fecalled that in northern Minnesota such obstruction of the courses 
-of streams is not uncommon. The writer has known many instances. 
Bogs sometimes cover the direct drainage courses of streams, and on 
these bogs bushes of considerable size are sometimes found growing. 
Streams disappear in such places, but they reappear at lower points. 
The St. Louis river, which enters lake Superior at Duluth, was formerly 
- permanently hid from sight for the greater part of a mile in the vicinity 
of Cloquet, by passing under floating vegetable matter, a veritable raft, 
on which grew small birches and willows. All streams which drain a 
rich country in which vegetation is abundant and easily detached are 
liable to such interruption, or to such ‘‘subterranean”’ passages. Such 
-accidents do not destroy their identity and cannot be said to termi- 
nate their courses as continuous streams. It appears, according to all 
thet testimony, that Nicollet creek suffers such obscuration. If it be 

“allowed its legitimate southward extension, according to Mr. Brower, 
its extent is considerabiy more than the extent of the valley drained 
by Excelsior creek. | Mr. Glazier entirely ignores the upper portion of 
Nicollet creek. 

In respect to the second question, Can Glazier be considered the dis- 
coverer of the lake to which he has given his name?, we can but answer 
No. It isa lake, of large size for the nature of the surrounding coun- 
try, and it is very singular that neither Schoolcraft nor Nicollet ever saw 
it. They had Indian guides and were in search of the same end—the 
source of the Mississippi—but they were not conducted to it. On the 
other hand their guides led them to the Nicollet valley. But in 1875 
this lake was discovered and its size was mapped by the officers of the 
United States land survey, under direction of Gen. J. H. Baker, of St. 
Paul. It was given the name which was current, viz., Elk lake,* and 
as such it appears on the government plats. It has been supposed also 
that Julius Chambers entered the same lake in 1872, but Mr. Glazier 
makes it to appear quite doubtful, showing that the description given 
by Chambers applies better to one of the lakes of Nicollet creek. How- 
ever, that Glazier was antedated, by six years, by the U. S. Government 
surveyors even Glazier himself does not deny. He bases his claim to 
priority on the ground that their business was not to seek the source of 
the Mississippi, and that they did not trace out its feeders, and that 
they did not publish their exploits in a manner commensurate with 


*The statement has been made, apparently on the authority of Schooleraft, that 
Itasca lake was formerly called Elk or Omoshkos lake. But it is diflicult to aftirm 
that on the authority of Schoolcraft when later authorities are considered. Ozawin- 
dib, his guide, said ‘‘Omoshkos’’ when Schooleraft pointed up the west arm of Itasca 
lake, and he seems now to have referred to the lake beyond [tasea lake, where deer 
and moose tracks were found so numerous by Glazier. 


326 The American Geologist. November, 1895- 


their importance. Should it be decided that these defects really annul 


their priority of discovery, there is no doubt that Glazier’s claim would! 


at once be admitted. 


Mr. Glazier’s second volume is a very creditable production. It is. 


probable that, had his first volume been issued with as close an adher- 
ence to fact and with as careful regard to the rights of earlier author- 


ship, and to the usages of good literature, it would have received better: 


acceptance. There are serious defects in this, of which it is here only 
necessary to mention one on page 270, in which the author speaks of 
Prof. A. Randall as being connected with ‘‘the Geological Survey of 
Minnesota’? before Minnesota was yet a state. 

All in all, the author, on the basis of the facts which he himself pub- 
lishes, can hardly be admitted to have established his principal thesis, 
viz., that he discovered the true source of the Mississippi in 1881. If the 
true source be not Itasca lake, it must be either the head of Excelsior 
or of Nicollet creek, and of these Nicollet creek has the stronger claims. 
If, however, we admit that it be Excelsior creek, that has but recently 
been fully defined. If Elk lake be supposed to have the honor of stand- 
ing at the source of the Mississippi, that lake was surveyed and mapped 
six years prior to Glazier’s visit. N. H. WINCHELL. 


WarkM TEMPERATE VEGETATION NEAR GLActERs. In the July number 
of this magazine (pages 65, 66) Dr. George M. Dawson supposes that, if 
the ice-sheet still remained over the country north and northeast of To- 
ronto and lake Ontario when the interglacial beds of the Don River valley 
in Toronto and of Scarboro’ Heights were deposited, the district must 
have had ‘killing frosts nearly every clear night during the summer.”’ 
Similarly Prof. A. P. Coleman asks, in the last number of the Journal 
of Geology (page 640), ‘‘Can any one believe that meantime, while elms 
and oaks and maples, not to mention the papaw, were growing along the 
Don, the ice-field, with no lofty slopes to supply gathering ground for 
névé, was lurking a few miles off, ready to advance and overwhelm the 
deciduous forests?”’ 

To this inquiry the present writer replies, Yes, that he holds this as 
the most probable explanation of the repeated accumulations of till 
above the stratified and fossiliferous beds: but No, concerning the ab- 
sence of lofty slopes, by which he thinks that the predominantly wast- 


ing ice border rose probably to the altitude of 5,000 feet within 100: 


miles from its edge while being dissolved by the warm Champlain cli- 
mate with somewhat lower altitude of the land than now. If the retreat 


of the ice-sheet from the northern United States and Canada occupied, » 


as I think, some three to five thousand years, disappearing earliest from 
the upper Missouri and Mississippi basins, and latest from New Eng- 
land, the province of Quebec, and Labrador, the extension of a warm 
temperate flora and fauna could well keep pace with the glacial recession, 
so that, as on the waning Malaspina ice-sheet, a flora like that of the 
same latitude to-day, and concomitant temperate molluscan and insect 
life, may well have thrived up to the very boundary of the ice, or per- 
haps in the case of the plants and insects even extending as in Alaska 
upon the drift-covered ice border. 


Personal and Scientific News. 327 


Darwin noted, in his narrative of the voyage of the Beagle. that gla- 
ciers in the fjords of southern Chile reach down to the sea level within 
nine degrees of latitude from where palms flourish. Prof. W. O. Crosby 
tells me of his observations of fine orchards of cherries and other fruits 
cultivated close to the limits of the large local fields of ice and névé in 
Norway, one of which has an area of about 500 square miles. In the 
Alps the glaciers end only a few hundred feet from productive fields and 
gardens of flowers. Still more like the condition of North America and 
Europe during the recession of their Pleistocene ice-sheets is the vast 
fertile plain of India, enjoying a tropical climate, while within a short 
distance along its northern side, and farther west and east for an extent 
of 1,500 miles, runs the almost impassable Himalayan range, with val- 
leys bearing glaciers and summits crowned with perpetual snow. 

-The proximity of the very cold Himalayas does not bring frosts to the 
neighboring tropical plain. In like manner the ice-sheet still lingering 
on northern Ontario, New York, and New England, did not cause a very 
frigid climate to prevail in the winters, nor nights of frost in the sum- 
mers, on the windward low region of the Laurentian lakes whence the 
ice had recently retreated. WaRREN UPHAM. 

Cleveland, Ohio, Oct. 10, 1895. 


PaxoONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


Tuomas JAMES Suarrer, F.G.S., a geologist of Evesham, 
England, died on August Ist. 

Dr. HERMAN CREDNER has been promoted to a full profes- 
sorship of geology and paleontology at Leipsic. 

Mr. H. P. Parmeter, a geologist of Cripple Creek, Colorado, 
is spending a few months in Charlevoix, Michigan. 

Dr. W.S8. Srrone, of the University of Colorado, has ac- 
cepted the professorship of physics and geology in Bates Col- 
lege. 

Dr. CHartes R. Keyes, state geologist of Missouri, and Mr. 
H. Foster Barn, assistant state geologist of Iowa, recently 
spent a few days in Minneapolis. 

Dr. F. W. Sarpveson, who has been engaged during the past 
year in the study of paleontology at the University of Frei- 
burg, has returned to his home in Minneapolis. 

Mr. W. N. Merriam, of Milwaukee, and Mr. J. Parke 
CHANNING, of New York, have returned from an extended ex- 
amination of mineral lands in northern Minnesota. 

Dr. H. J. Jounsron-Lavis, in the September number of the 
Scottish Geographical Magazine, presents an article on the 
geology, agriculture and economies of Iceland. 

Henry B. Kummett, Ph. D. (University of Chicago, 1895), 
has been appointed assistant geologist on the New Jersey Ge- 
ological Survey. His address is Trenton, N. J. 


328 The American Geoiogis: November, 1895 


Mr. Epwin Goopwin, a graduate of the School of Mines of 
Columbia College, has been appointed professor of mining and 
geology in the University of Idaho at Moscow, Idaho. 

THe Brirish Association FoR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE 
will hold its meeting for 1896 in Liverpool. In 1897 the As- 
sociation will meet in Toronto by special invitation from that 
elty. 

Sir Witi1am Dawson, in the October number of the Geolog- 
ical Magazine, presents the first of a series of papers entitled 
“Review of the Evidence for the Animal Nature of Eozoon 
Canadense.”’ 

Pror. Epwarp W. Craypote, of Buechtel College, has re- 
turned home after a visit to England, during which he at- 
tended the meeting of the British. Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science at Ipswich. 

Mr. A. H. Errrman, of the University of Minnesota, has re- 
turned from a brief trip along the north shore of lake Superior. 
The special object of this trip was an examination of some of 
the well known anorthosites of the Keweenawan. 

THe Mexican GroLoGicAL Commission, of which A. del Cas- 
tillo is director, has recently issued a pamphlet of 48 pages, 
with plates and a geological map, entitled “Scientific Expedi- 
tion to Popocatepetl,’ by José G. Aguilera and Ezequiel 
Ordonez. 

Dr. A.-E. Foor, of Philadelphia, died at Atlanta, Georgia. 
October 1ith. In 1876 Dr. Foote began to deai in minerals 
and scientific books and since then his business has grown to 
large proportions. The business will be continued under the 
management of Mr. Warren M. Foote. 

JAMES CARTER, F. R. C.S., F.G.S., of Cambridge, England, 
died on August 3lst. He was recognized as an authority on 
the fossil Decapod Crustacea; for some time he was engaged 
in collecting materials for a monograph on that group, and 
has left his manuseript in an advanced state. 

Pror. Joun Miine, the well known seismologist, announces 
that he has established a small station at Shide Hill House, 
Shide, Newpoert, Isle of Wight, for the recording of earth- 
quakes having an origin in distant localities. Communica- 
tions for the Transactions of the Seismological Society and 
for the Seismological Journal should be sent him there. 

Mr. Warren Upnuam, who has been engaged during the past 
half year as librarian of the Western Reserve Historical Soci- 
ety in Cleveland, Ohio, has accepted a similar position as li- 
brarian and secretary of the Minnesota Historical Society in 
St. Paul, to enter on his duties there during the present month. 
This library is in the State House and has about 60,000 vol- 
umes, including sets of all the newspapers published in Min- 
uisota from their beginnings. 


Personal and Scientific News. 329 


THE CoUNCIL OF THE GEOLOGICAL Society oF AMERICA has 
determined that the eighth winter meeting of the Society shall 
be held in Philadelphia, beginning on the afternoon of Thurs- 
day, December 26th, 1895. More detailed information regard- 
ing the meeting will be sent to fellows in due time. 

M. Cuartes BoucHarp has lately announced that he has 
examined spectroscopically the gases from three sulphurous 
springs in the Pyrenees and that in one he found the charac- 
teristic lines of both argon and helium, in one “of helium alone 
and in a third helium and an unknown substance character- 
ized by lines in the orange and red. 

“TABLES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MINERALS by physical 
properties ascertainable with the aid of a few field instruments, 
based on the system of Prof. Dr. Albin Weisbach, by PErstror 

Frazer, Docteur és-Sciences, ete., ete. J.B. Lippincott Co.’ 
This book, printed first in 1874 and of which three editions 
have already been exhausted, is undergoing a thorough over- 

hauling for a fourth edition which will appear shortly and 
which will be reviewed in this journal then. 

Dr. GerHarp Howm’s article, ‘Om Didymograptus, Tetra- 
graptus och Phyllograptus,’ which appeared in Geologiska 
Forenigens i Stockholm Forhandlingar (Bd. 17, Hiifte 3, No. 
164, pp. 319-359, 1895,) and was reviewed in the AMERICAN 
Geotoaist (vol. 16, pp. 58-59, July, 1895), has been translated 
into English by Messrs. G. L. Elles and E. M. R. Wood and 
is being published in the Geological Magazine. The first part 
appeared in the October number of that journal, 

Mr. C. P. Berkey, instructor in mineralogy in the Univer- 
sity of Minnesota, is at work on a detailed geological and to- 
pographical map of a district along the St. Croix river on the 
boundary between Wisconsin and Minnesota. Here occurs 
the well known unconformity between the igneous rocks of the 
Keweenawan and the overlying strata of the Upper Cambrian. 
Mr. Berkey expects especially to make a chemical investiga- 
tion of the diabases at this point, with reference to alteration 
products. 

Tue Brookiyn Institute oF ARTS AND SCIENCES has issued a 
prospectus for 1895-96 which gives preliminary announce- 
ments of lectures, courses of instruction, ete., for the year. 
Lectures are announced in geology, for the first Monday even- 
ing in each month, by Messrs. T. ©. Mendenhall, R. S. Wood- 
ward, C. D. Walcott, J. F. James, C. S. Prosser, W J McGee, 
W.M. Davis and D.S. Martin. In the mineralogical depart- 
ment the following gentlemen wil] lecture: Messrs. W. O. 
Crosby, 8S. L. Penfield, W J McGee and A J. Moses. 

Dr. Perstror FRAZER, who obtained the one hundred sub- 
seribers which were required in order to secure the geologi- 
cal map of Europe of the International Geological Congress 


330 The American Geologist. November, 1895 


for the United States with the same concession as to price 
which was enjoyed by the citizens of other “large countries” 
whose governments furnished subsidies to the work, is in cor- 
respondence with the committee of publication, and hopes to 
be able to announce to the survivors of those subseribers in 
the next number of the AMERICAN GroLocist the manner in 
which their subscriptions should be paid and the separate 
copies distributed to their several owners. 

Ture Norrawest Mrnine Association met in the city of Spo- 
kane, Washington, October 2d, as stated in this journal last 
month, at which time a permanent organization was effected. 
There was an interesting session of two days’ duration, perti- 
nent subjects being discussed. The attendance was large, 
about three hundred delegates being present. The following 
named officers were elected: G. B. Dennis, president; A. P. 
Curry, first vice president: L. K. Armstrong, secretary; F. L. 
Kershaw, assistant secretary; W. J. C. Wakefield, treasurer. 
Several committees were also appointed, as were the second 
vice presidents. The meeting adjourned after the members 
had voted to hold the next annual meeting in Spokane next 
year on the same date, when a large and permanent ore ex- 
hibit will be arranged from all the districts of Washington, 
Idaho, Oregon, Montana and British Columbia. 

Tue American Institute oF Mrininc Enarnerrs held its 
sixty-ninth meeting at Atlanta, Georgia. Eight days, from 
October 8th to 15th, were devoted to the meeting and to ex- 
cursions to points of interest in the vicinity of Atlanta. The 
following papers bearing on geological subjects were presented : 

The present development of gold mining in the southern Appalachian 
states. H. B.C. Nirze and H. A. J. WILKINS. 

The gold regions of Georgia and Alabama. W. M. Brewer. 


The mineral resources of northern Georgia and western North Caro- 
lina. W. P. BuaKkeE. 

Kaolins and clays of the south Appalachian region A.J Homes. 

Underground currents of drinking water. A.J. HoLMEs. 

Notes on certain water-worn specimens. F.C. Houtman. 

The geology of northern Georgia and Alabama. C. WiLLarp Hayes. 

Monazite deposits of North and South Carolina. C. A. MErzcEr. 

A section of Rich Patch mountain at Iron Gate, Va. E. J. ScHMirz. 

The phosphates and marls of Alabama. EUGENE A. SMITH. 

Precious stones of the South. Gero. F. Kunz. 

Chrome ores in the southern Appalachian region. WM. GLENN. 

The eastern coal regions of Kentucky. GraHAM McFaruane. 

Onyx marbles. Courtney DEKas sn. 

Folds and faults in Pennsylvania anthracite beds. B.S. Lyman. 

The geological structure of the western part of the Vermilion range 
of Minnesota. H. L. SmyrHe-and J. R. FINvey. 

The form of fissure walls as affected by sub-fissuring and by the flow 
of rock. Wm. GLENN. 


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