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PAPERS AND PROCEEDINGS

ROYAL SOCIETY

TASMANIA,

1888.

TASMANIA :
FBINTED AT " THK UEBCUKT " Omca, KAOQUABIE BT., HOBiXT.

■• iV \

The responsibility of the statements and opinions
given in the following papers and discussions
rests with the individual authors ; the Society as
a body merely places them on record.

EOYAL SOCIETY OF TASMANIA.

patron :

HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN.

Preieitient :

HIS EXCELLENCY SIR ROBERT GEORGE CROOKSflANK

HAMILTON, K.C.B.

HON. J. W. AGNEW, M.D.

JAMES BARNARD, ESQ.

HIS HONOR SIR WILLIAM LAMBERT DOBSON, Knt., C.J.,

F.L.S.
THOMAS STEPHENS, ESQ., M.A., F.G.S.

dLonxuxl :

HON. J. W. AGNEW, M.D.

HIS HONOR SIR WILLIAM LAMBERT DOBSON, Knt., C.J.,

F.L.S.
RUSSELL YOUNG, ESQ.
C. H. GRANT, ESQ.
0. T. BELSTEAD, ESQ.
T. STEPHENS, ESQ., M.A., F.G.S.
J. B. WALKER, ESQ.
J. BARNARD, ESQ.
JUSTIN M'C. BROWNE, ESQ.
A- G. WEBSTER, ESQ.
COL. W. V. LEGGE, R.A.
K. M. JOHNSTON, ESQ., F.L.S.

C. J. BARCLAY, ESQ.

^onomrg ^ecretetg:

HON. J. W. AGNEW, M.D., M.E.C.

^ecreterg anJ TLxht&xi&xt:

ALEXANDER MORTON, ESQ., F.L.S.

^onorars PmttgI)tieimAn :

W. H. CHARPENTIER, ESQ.

^ttittorjei of linnttal ^cconnU :

FRANCIS BUTLER, ESQ.
JOHN MACFARLANE, ESQ.

^ttbttoria; of |ftontI)ls ^ccomttjei 2

JUSTIN M'C. BROWNE, ESQ.
a T. BELSTEAD, ESQ.

(S)0ntmU,

April Meeting , i

His Excellency's Opening Address „

Sir Thos. Brady „

The Hon. J. W. Agnew's Gift „

Sir Thos. Brady's Address n

Hon. P. O. Fysh's Bemarks VI

Mr. B. Henry, Submarine Mining vn

Mr. W. F. Ward, Experiments „

Mr. Perrin's Exhibits ,t

Tasmanian Photographic Exhibits i,

Platinotype Printing h

Lithographic Press vni

Oxyhydrogen Microscopy „

Salmon Ova to Tasmania, per B.S. Kaikonra IX

Observations as to temperature taken on the Voyage it

May Meeting xni

Election Mr. B. A. Bastow, Corresponding Member u

Election Fellows— Bev. Mr. McDowall, Canon Dicker, and Mr. F. M.
Young I,

SalmonidsB in Tasmania, by Mr. P. S. Seager. A Paper n

Sir Thos. Brady's Bemarks „

June Meeting XVii

Silver Extracting Process. A Paper xvm

Mr. Toplis' Paper xvn

Addition to Tasmanian Avifauna xix

Anseranas melanolenca it

Chibia bracteata it

Protection for the Seal and MuttonBird XX

Antarctic Begions, The u

August Meeting XXi

Dr. A. Von Groddeck, Death of n

Additions to the Library n

Problem of Malthus Stated. APaper tttt

Scott's Track to the West Coast. A Paper xxni

Highlands of Lake St. Clair n

Extraordinary Phenomenon at Beaconsfield. APaper xxv

Antarctic Exploration XXVI

Native Opossum, The it

October Meeting XXVII

Boyal Society, Address to Her Majesty xxxn

Aquatic Shells of Tasmania. APaper it

Daphnidoe, Notes on the n

Notes and Exhibits n

Eucalyptus Cordata, Notes on the n

Grallina picata, shot at Stanley u

An Art Exhibition m

Page,
VawBoiim Meeting ; , xxxv

French in Van Diemen'i Land. APaper xxxvi

Taimanian Unio. APaper xxxvn

Tippagory Coal

PAFEBS :
ObteiTations during the Voyage of the s.s. Eaikoura, on the recent
Shipment of Salmon Ova. By Sir Thomas Brady n

Silyer Extracting Process. By J. "W.Toplis xvm

Extraordinary Phenomenon at Beaconsfield. By Mr. J. Davis XXV

A Ck>ncise ffistory of the Acclimatisation of the Salmonidae in
Tasmania. By Mr. P. S. Seager, Secretary to the Tasmanian
Fisheries Board 1

Besnlta of the yarioos attempts to acclimatise Saimo Solar in
Tasmanian waters. By Mr. R. M. Johnston, F.L.S 27

Notes in Beference to *' Scott's Track," via Lake St. dair, to the
West Coast of Ttomania. By Mr. James Andrew 49

The Problem of Malthns stated. By Mr. B. M. Johnston, F.L.S. ... 63
Contributions for a Systematic Catalogue of the Aqnatic Shells of
Tasmania. By Mr. W. F. Petterd 60

Critical Obsenrations on Becent Contributions to our knowledge of
the Frediwater Shells of Tasmania. By Mr. R. M. Johnston,
F.L.S 84

Tabular History of the Classification of Tasmanian Freshwater Shells.
By Mr. R. M. Johnston, F.L.8 86

An Addition to the Ayifauna of Tasmania. By Mr. W. F. Petterd,
F.Z.S 91

Gooorrenoe of Chibea hracteata, Gould, in Tasmania. By Col. W.
V. Legge, R.A. 93

Obeervations on the variability of the Tasmanian Unio. By Mr. R.
M. Johnston, F.L.S 95

The French in Van Diemen's Land, and the First Settlement at the
Derwent By Mr. J. B. Walker 97

R E PORT

OF THE

KOYAL SOCIETY

TASMANIA

FOR THE YEAR

1888.

Caismanta:

imriULrAii thohas strutt, goyernment printer, hobart.

1889.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF TASMANIA.

Matron :

HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN.

9re0tTrent :

HIS EXCELLENCY SIR ROBERT GEORGE CROOKSHANK

HAMILTON, K.C.B.

HON. J, W. AGNEW, M.D., M.E.C.

JAMES BARNARD, ESQ.

HIS HONOR SIR WILLAM LAMBERT DOBSON, KNT., CJ.,

M.E.C, F.L.S.
THOMAS STEPHENS, ESQ., M.A., F.G.S.

• 0. T. BELSTEAD, ESQ.

•T. STEPHENS, ESQ., M.A., F.G.S.

•J. B. WALKER, ESQ.

•J. BARNARD, ESQ.

R. M. JOHNSTON, ESQ., F.L.S.

JUSTIN M'C. BROWNE, ESQ.

A. G. WEBSTER, ESQ.

COL. W. V. LEGGE, R.A.

HON. J. W. AGNEW, M.D., M.E.C.

HIS HONOR SIR WILLIAM LAMBERT DOBSON, KNT., C.J.,
M.E.C., F.L.S,

RUSSELL YOUNG, ESQ.

C. H. GRANT, ESQ.

i^on. €xtamvn :

C. J. BARCLAY, ESQ.
HON. J. W. AGNEW, M.D., M.E.C.

Sbtetetatu anir WLitvaxian :

ALEXANDER MORTON, ESQ., F.L.S.

9iUittot0 of Annual S^ccounts :

FRANCIS BUTLER, ESQ.
JOHN MACFARLANE, ESQ.

SliUittor0 Of MontUVi Secounto :

JUSTIN M*C. BROWNE, ESQ.
C. T. BELSTEAD, ESQ.

* Members who next retire in rotation.

Jilotuitstfi fiSltt(Att$i*

* Baron F. von Miiellep, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,

&c., Government Botanist, Melbourne, Victoria.

* Rev. J.E.Tenison-Woods, F.L.S., F.G.S.,F.R.G.S., Sydney.
Mrs. Charles Meredith, Malunnah, Orford.

* Hon. W. Macleay, M.L.C., F.L.S., Sydney.

Dr. Edward Pierson Ramsay, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,
&c.. Curator Australian Museum, Sydney, N.S.W.

* Members who have contributed Papers which have been published in the

Society's Transactions.

Professor John Agardh, M.D., University of Lund, Sweden.

W. H. Archer, Esq., Melbourne.

Frederick M. Bay ley, F.L.S., Brisbane, Queensland.

G. Bennett, Esq., M.D., F.Z.S., Sydney, New South Wales.

William Thompson, Bednall, Esq., Adelaide, South Australia.

John Brazier, Esq., C.M.Z.S., Sydney.

Rev. J. J. Bleasdale, D.D.. F.G.S.

Rev. George Brown, C.M.Z.S., Sydney.

* B. Carrington, Esq., M.D., Eccles, Manchester, England.
R. J. L. Ellery, Esq., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Government

Astronomer, Melbourne.

* Robert Etheridge, jun., Esq., F.G.S., Bntish Museum.
Professor W. Harkness, U.S.N., United States Naval

Observatory, Washington.
H. H. Hayter,Esq.,C.M.G., Government Statist, Melbourne.
Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, C.B., K.C.S.I., &c., London.

* F. W. Hutton, Esq., F.G.S., C.M.Z.S., Professor of Biology,

Canterbury Cottage, Christchurch, New Zealand.

James Hector, Esq., M.D., C.M.G., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Director Geological Survey of New Zealand, WeUington,

R. L. Jack, Esq., Government Geologist of Queensland.
♦Colonel W. V. Legge, R.A., F.Z.S., M.R.A.S., Hobart.

Archibald Liversidge, Esq., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.L.S.,
F.R.G.S., &c., &c.. Professor of Chemistry and Miner-
alogy, University of Sydney.

* G. M*Intyre, Esq., Christchurch, New Zealand.
Professor F. M*Coy, F.R.S., F.G.S., Melbourne University.
Professor G. Neumayer, Munich.

*W. H. Pearson, Esq., Manchester, England.
The Right Rev. D. F. Sandford, LL.D., England.
G. S. Perrin, Esq., F.L.S., Conservator of Forests, Victoria.
J. S. Stirling, Esq., F.L.S., F.C.S., Assistant Government

Geologist, Victoria.
W. Saville Kent, Esq., F.L.S., Brisbane, Queensland.

ILi^t of jTrtlotoie;

Fellows who have contributed Papers which have been published in the
Society's Transactions, t Denotes life Membership.

The addresses of Fellows residing in Hobart are omitted.

* Andrew, James.

* Abbott, Francis.
Adams, G. Patten.
Adams, R. Patten.

* Agnew, Hon. J. W., M.D., M.E.C.
Aikenhead, Hon. J., M.L.C., Launceston.
Allport, Morton John Cecil.

Archer, W, Henry D., M.H.A., Brickendon, Longford.
Archer, Rev. Canon Geo. Fred.

* Atkins, Charles J.
Atkinson, Thomas R.

Barclay, C. J.
Barclay, D.

* Barnard, James.

* Barnard, C. E., M.D., F.L.S.
Barnes, William, Trevallyn, Launceston.

* Beddome, C. E., Formby.

Bedford, W. J. Guthrie, M.R.C.S., Waratah, New Town.

Belstead, C. T.

Belbin, W., M.H.A,

Bernacchi, Diego A. G., Maria Island.

Bethune, John C, Dunrobin.

Benson, Wm.

Bidencope, J.

* Biggs, A. B., Launceston.
Bird, Hon. B, S., M.E.C.
Braddon, Hon. E. N. C, M.E.C.
Bright, R. S., M.R.CS.
Browne, Justin M'C.

Brown, Hon. Nicholas J., M.H.A.

Brufoitl, H. B.

Buckland, Rev. J. Vansittart.

Buckland, W. Harvey, B.A.

Butler, Francis.

Butler, A.

Burgess, Hon. W. H., M.H.A,

Clarke, Rev. George, New Town.
Clark, Andrew I., Hon., M.H.A.
Clemes, S.
Cook, Henry.

* Crawford, Lieut.-Colonel Andrew, Castm.
Crosby, Richard.

Crosby, William, Hon., M.L C.
Crowther, E. L., M.D., M.H.A.

* Crowther, B., M.D.
*Crouch, E. J., M.R.C.S.

Davies, J. George, M.H.A.

Davies, Charles Ellis.

Davies, J., Beaconsfield.

Dobbie, E. David.

Dobson, Hon. Alfred, M.H.A.

Dobson, Henry.

Dobson, His Honor Sir Lambert, M.E.C., F L.8.

Dodds, Hon. J. S., M.H.A.

Douglas, Hon. A., Launceston

Duffy, W.

Dundas, Very Rev. Chas. Leslie.

Eehlin, J. F.
Eldridge, W.
Elliston, C. H.
Evans, T. M.

Featherstone, C. E.
Fincham, James.
Fitzgerald, George, P., M.H.A.
Fysh, Hon. P. O., M.L.C.

Gellibrand, Hon. W. A, B., M.L.C, Hon. Member Leeds

Institute, River Ouse.
Giblin, Edward O., M.D.
Gill, H. H., M.H.A.

Graham, Albert W., L.S.A., M.R.C.S., Circular Head.
Grant, C. H.
Grant, James.
Gray, Thomas, M.D., New Norfolk.

Hamilton, John., M.H.A.
Hardy, Dr.

* Henry, Robert*

Hinsby, Greorge.
Hookey, Vernon W.
Huybers, James Alfred.

Jefirey, Molesworth, Boumbank, Lachlan.

* Johnston, R. M., F.L.S.
Jones, W. J.

Kermode, W. A., Mona Vale.

* KingsmiU, C. H., M. A.
Knight, William J., M.A.

Legffe, W. v., Colonel, R.A.

Lewis, N.E , M.H.A.

Lodder, Miss Mary, Louah, Leven, N. W. Coast.

Lord, Hon. John, M.L.C.

Mace, Frederick, Buckland.
Macfarlane, W. H., M B., New Norfolk.
Mac&rlane, James.
Mac&rlane, John.
*M*Clymont, James R., M.A., the Cascades, Tasman's
Peninsula.

* M*Cance, John, F.R.A.S.
M'Mullen, J. F.
Macmicbael, John C,
Maning, H. T.

Maddox, Wm. Gordon, M.R.C.S., Launceston.
Marsh, H. J.
Mather, J. B.

* Mault, Alfred.
Maxwell, C. M.
Maxwell, J. Crawford.
Milles, R., Sydney.

* Moore, T. B.

* Morton, Alexander.

Murphy, Most Rev. D., Bishop of Hobart.

Nairn, C. C, New Town.
Napier, G. R., Avoca.
Nicholas, Wm., Nant, Bothwell.
Nicholas, Geo. C, Mill Brook, Ouse.
North, A., Launceston. -

* Nowell, E. C,

O'Callaghan, Rev. T. M., New Norfolk.

Park, Archibald, M.R.C.V.S.
Parkinson, C. J., M.D., Melbourne.
Payne, C. A., M.R.C.8.
Pedder, Frederick.
*Petterd, W. F., C.M.Z.S., Launceston.
Pillinger, John, Antill Ponds

Raynor, Rev. T. E.

Read, R. Cartwright, Redlands, New Norfolk.

Rex, R. R.

Riddoch, Alexander.

Ritchie, A.

Roberts, H. L.

Rodway, Leonard.

Rooke, H. I., M.H.A., Launceston. •

* Ross, J., Clunes, B.S.C., F.G.S., &c., Bathurst, N.S. W.

Salier, Frederick J.
Seal, Matthew.
Sharp, John.
Shaw, Bernard.
*Shoobridge, W. E., New Norfolk.
Shoobridge, R. W. G., New Norfolk.

* Shortt, J., Capt., R. N.
Simmons, Rev. J. Wilkes.

* Simpson, Augustus, Launceston.
t Solomon, Joseph.
•Stephens, Thomas, M.A., F.G.S.

* Swan, Edward D.
Symc, J. Wemyss.

Tabart, T. A.
Taylor, A. J.
*Thureau, G., F.G.S., Launceston.
Toplis, W. J.
TurnbuU, T.
Triffit, J. T., Ouse.

* Tfavers, 8. Smith.

Walsh, James H. B.

Waller, G. Arthur, M.A., Cangort, New Town.

Walker, James Backhouse.

Wallack, E,

• Warrl, W. F.

liVaterhoase, George Wilson, B.A., Laoiiceston,

• Webster, Alex; G.
Weymouth, W. A.
Wiison, Edward P.
Wise, Fred. H.
Wolfhagen, E. H. W., M.D.

• WooUnough, Rev. J. B. Williams, M.A.

Young, Russell,
Young, F. J., B.A.

MINUTES of the Annual General Meetiftg of the
Royal Society of Tasm^nia^ held at the Mtistum on
Friday evvening, 2dth Marchy 1889, — James Barnard,
Esquire^ Vice- President y in the Chair.

The following gentlemen were elected Corresponding Mem-
bers of the Society : — Right Rev. D. F. Sandford, LL.D.;
Messrs. James Stirling, F.L.S., F.G.S., Assistant Government
Geologist, Victoria ; G. S. Perrin, F.L.S., Conservator of
Forests, Victoria.; and W. Saville Kent, F.L.S., &c. Fellow
of the Society — Rev. J. W. Geiss,

The Annual Report.

In the absence of the Hon. Secretary, the Secretary (Mr.
Alexander Morton) read the following Annual Report : —

Mr. Seal moved —

That the Report now read be adopted, printed, and cir-
culated among the Fellows of the Society.
Mr. E. A. Counsel seconded the motion, which was carried.

Moved by Mr. Wm. Benson, and seconded by Mr. James
Andrew —

That Messrs. R. M. Johnston, F.L.S., Justin Browne, A.
G. Webster, and Col. W, V. Legge, R.A., the retiring
Members of the Council, be re-elected ; also Messrs.
Francis Butler and John Mac&rlane be re-elected as
Hon. Annual Auditors.
Carried.

Moved by Mr, E, D. Swan and, seconded by Mr. C. T.
Belstead —

That the thanks of the Royal Society be presented to the
gentlemen who have performed the duty of Auditors ol
the Annual Accounts during the year.
Carried.

Mr. Justin Browne moved that a vote of thanks be given
to the Press for its valuable services in promoting the
objects of the Royal Society by its early and accurate
reports of the proceedings of the evening meetings, and
in various other ways. He was sure it needed no
words from him to recommend the motion to all present.
The Press, he might say, was one of the Society's best
allies, and he had pleasure in moving the motion.

Mr. T. Stephens seconded, and the motion was carried
unanimously.

Correspondence.

The Secretary said he had* received letters of apology for
non-attendance from Colonel Legge and Mr. U. H.
Grant. He also read a letter from the Hon. E. N. C.
Bi^ddon, Agent-General, to the Premier, foi*warding a
copy of letter from Lieut.-General Sir J. H, Lefroy,
K.C.M.G., C.B., offering to present to the Royal
Society of Tasmania two volumes, entitled " Franklin's
Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea,
1819-22, and his narrative of a second expedition in
1825-27." The books were forwarded by the eame
mail, together with the following letter from Sir. J. H.
Lefroy to the Secretary of the Society.

Leumme^ Liskeard^ ComtoaU^ Englandy
January 28, 1889.
Dear Sir,

When I was in Tasmania I had occasion to refer to
Franklin's Journeys to the shores of the Polar Sea — once a very
celebrated book of travels, and still a very interesting one. To my
surprise I could not discover a copy in any library in the Colony.
I thought he would have presented one himself. As the Royal
Society will, I am sure, like to pos&ess this memorial of a former
Governor, I have the pleasure in presenting a copy.

I am &c.

J. H. LEFROY, General.

On the motion of Mr. T. Stephens, seconded by Mr. C. T.
Belstead, it was resolved —

That the best thanks of the Society be transmitted to
Lieut.-General Sir J. H. Lefroy, for his contribution
to the Library of the Society.

The Chairman stated that during General Lefroy's short
term of office as Governor of the Colony he had always taken
a lively interest in the affairs ot the Society. He might state
that he believed that copies of the volumes forwarded had at
one time been deposited in the library knowu as the Franklin
Museum, but owing to the books afterwards being distnbuted
it was difficult to say what had become of them.

A vote of thanks to the Chairman terminated the proceedings.

REPORT.

The Council of the Royal Society have great pleasure in
presenting their Report for 1888. The work of the
session commenced most auspiciously on the evening of
April 24, in the recently erected v^ing of the Museum.
On the occasion the Fellov^s had the privilege of intro-
ducing friends, and accordingly the attendance was much
more numerous than had ever been the case previously.
About 300 visitors and members were present, including
Lady Hamilton and Sir Thomas Brady, Inspector of
Irish Fisheries. His Excellency Sir Robert Hamilton,
as President of the Society, took the chair, and opened
the proceedings by a speech in which, after congratulating
members on the new addition to the Museum, he referred
at length to the recent successful importation of salmon ova
by Sir Thomas Brady, whom he had then the pleasure of
introducing. Sir Thomas, who was received with great
enthusiasm, gave an elaborate and interesting account of
his management of the ova whilst under his care from the
time he obtained them (through the kindness and liberality
of Mr. R. D. Moore, Molenna, Londonderry) to his arrival
with them in the Derwent. Other matters of general
interest were brought forward during the evening.
" Submarine Mining, illustrated by experiments," by Mr.
R. Henry ; " Experiments illustrative of the Elasticity of
Gases," by Mr. W. T. Ward; "The Oxy-hydrogen
Microscope," by Messrs. J. F. Echlin and A. L. Sutler,"
" Platino-type Printing," by Messrs. Echlin and Scott, &c.

To the May meeting Mr. P. S. Seager contributed " A
Concise History of the Salmonidee in Tasmania," an
excellent paper, containing in small and readable compass
much information on the subject, not only of present
interest, but of permanent value for future reference.
A thoughtful and elaborate paper which claims special
notice — " The Problem of Malthas stated " — was read

by Mr. R. M. Johnston at the August meeting. In
^November a paper of much historic interest, " The
French in Van Diemen's Land," was read by Mr. J B.
Walker; and the other contributions were all highly
appreciated, as evinced by the subsequent discussions.

At the close of the session the President gave a review
of the work which had been done, and took the opportunity
for suggesting that the scope of the Society's efforts might
be advantageously extended so as to embrace such subjects
as engineering, agriculture, use of timbers, &c.

The full list of contributions is as follows : — .

1. Observations during the voyage of the s,s. Kaikoura^
on the recent shipment of Salmon Ova. By Sir Thomas
Brady.

2. " A concise history of the Acclimatisation of the
SalmonidcB in Tasmania." By Mr. P. S. Seager.

3. " Results of the various attempts to acclimatise
Salmo salar in Tasmanian waters."

4. *'Tbe problem of Malthus stated."

5. " Critical observations on recent contributions to our
knowledge of the Fresh Water Shells of Tasmania."

6. " Observations on the variability of the Tasmanian
Unio." By Mr. R. M. Johnston, Jb'.L.S.

7. " On the various methods employed in extracting
Silver from argentiferous Galena and other ores." By
Mr. J. W. Toplis.

8. *'An addition to the Avifauna of Tasmania. —
Anseranas melanoleuca, the semi-pal mated goose."

9. " Contributions for a systematic Catalogue of the
Aquatic Shells of Tasmania." By Mr. W .F. Petterd,
C.M.Z.S.

10. "Notes on a Bird new to Tasmania — Chibia
bracteaia" By Colonel W. V. Legge, R.A.

11." Notes on an extraordinary phenomenon observed
at the Tasmanian Mine, Beaconsfield." By Mr. J.
Davies.

12. " Notes in reference to Scott's Track, via Lake St.
Clair, to the West Coast of Tasmania." By Mr, James
Andrew.

13. "The French in Van Diemen's Land, and the first
Settlement at the Derwent." By Mr. J. B. Walker.

As these papers are for the most part already in type,
the zeal and energy of our Secretary will ensure their early
distribution.

Council.

By the departure from the colony of the Bishop of
Tasmania, the Councir has been deprivedof the services of
one of its most valued members. The seat recently occu-
pied by Dr. Perkins is also vacant. Mr. J, B. Walker
and Colonel Legge, who have both shown much interest in
the affairs of the Society, have been proposed for the vacant
seats, and, in accordance with the Rules, were balloted for
and elected to fill the vacancies.

Library.

The Library, in addition to the ordinary periodicals, has
been enriched by valuable donations from the Royal Society
of Canada and other scientific. bodies.

Fellows.

Five new members have been admitted, and six have
been lost through resignation or death.

Finance.

The income has been — Subscriptions to Royal Society,
£202 lOs. ; fixed deposit of the late Dr. Milligan's legacy,
£200 ; interest on same, £8 ; held in trust for the Museum,
£100 ; interest on same £15 85. 9d, — making with balance
from 1887, £638 7s. 4d. The expenditure amounted to
£196 11 5. 7d, — leaving a balance to credit with fixed de-
posit, £458 Is. 5d,

ALEXANDER MORTON,

Secretary and Librarian,

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O M

H M

KOYAL SOCIETY.

APEIL, 1888,

The opening meeting of the 1888 session of the Royal Society of
Tasmania took place on Monday evening, April 23rd, and was held in
the upper room of the new wing recently added to the Museum, which is
intended to be ultimately used as a temporary picture gallery, but was
made use of last night for the special purpose of permitting some technical
subjects to be dealt with by the aid of bome large apparatus for illus-
tration. A large number of Fellows, and an unusually large number of
visitors were present, including Sir Thomas Brady, the Inspector of
Fisheries for Ireland, who accompanied Sir Kobert and Lady Hamilton
and a party from Government House.

His Excellency the Governob, who took the chair as President of the
Society, said : Ladies and gentlemen, let me first say how pleased I am
to see such a large gathering here this evening. The fact of the
addition of these two tine rooms to the Museum buildings enabled the
Council of the Royal Society on this occasion to depart from the usual
programme of opening nights, and instead of having papers read and
discussions upon them, to have a meeting more of the character of a
conversazione, with the exhibition of certain mechanical processes. But
we have also another item on the programme here this evening which I
think will interest you all. There was no matter which the Royal
Society took up last year which was of greater interest than the
introduction of a new stfpply of salmon ova under the superintendence
of Sir Thomas Brady. (Cheers.) As you all know, it was through the
liberality of Dr. Agnew that this experiment was enabled to be tried,
and I am sure you will all regret, as I do, the absence of that gentleman
this evening. (Cheers.) I begged him to come and stay at Government
House and meet Sir Thomas Brady, and be present at the unpacking of
the ova, but he was most unfortunately prevented. Sir Thomas Brady,
as you are no doubt aware, has arrived. The Council has made him an
Hon. Member of this Society, and he has been good euough to undertake
to make a few remarks upon the work he took in hand for this Society.
From the columns of the Press we have heard a good deal about what
has happened since the ova arrived here, but a great deal of the work
began before the ova arrived here, and we hope to hear from Sir Thomas
some account of this work, and I do not think I need ask you to give
him, what I am sure you will give him, a very warm reception. (Cheers. }
It would be unreasonable to expect Sir Thomas Brady would to*night
give us an elaborate paper, for the preparation of which he would have
had but very little time, and all that we can expect him is to give us the
Mklient points of his observations, and the steps he took to ensure
success. After he has expressed these to us I would ask him to be kind
enough to tell us what his opinion is as to the fish we really have here,
for I am sure it would be very interesting to have his opinion. I am not
going to anticipate anything he will say to you, but there is one point I
particularly wish to notice. He will tell you that through the kindness
of Mr. Robert Moore, of Londonderry, not only was this ova given
gratuitously, but that gentleman's hatcheries and men were placed at the
disposal of Sir Thomas Brady so as to allow the ova to be developed
into that state most suitable for the voyage. I think the colony owes
a great deal of gratitude to Mr. Moore. (Cheers). I will not detail

ii PROCEEDINGS, APEIL.

yon longer, as there is a great deal to do this evening, bat will now
introduce to yon Sir Thomas Brady, and, in doing so, I introduce an old
and valued friend and colleague. Sir Thomas Brady is not like some of
us, a merely dilettanti fisherman, nor is he a mere scientist. He has had
40 years of public service, and during the whole of that time has been
engaged in regulating the fisheries of Ireland — a most important in-
terest— looking after the public rights in these fisheries, and developing
them in the interest of commerce and the improvement of the food
43upply of the people. I think we are to be congratulated upon the
presence of Sir Thomas amongst us. I can only hope that his visit here
will be as pleasant to himself as I am sure it will be profitable and
pleasant to us. .

Sir Thomas Brady, who was greeted with prolonged applause on
rising, said : Your Excellency, ladies and gentlemen, — Before entering
into details of the observations made by me in the recent transport m.
ova to this colony, will you permit me in the first place to express,
however inadequately, the great gratification it affords me to stand on
the present occasion within the precincts of the Royal Society of Tas-
mania, and to congratulate its members on the success it has obtained
by the magnificent Museum which gave me such pleasure in visiting on
Saturday in company with His Excellency. It would be idle for me to
speak to you of the generous patriotic conduct of Dr. Agnew, who is so
well known to you aJl, for the desire he has always shovm to promote
the interests of the colony, or to comment on the munificent contri-
bution he has given towards promoting an industry which I hope, and
have every coi&dence, may become one of the most important products
of the island. I trust it may prove to be only the pioneer for other yet
undiscovered or undeveloped natural resources of the island, and that
the example so nobly given by him may be imitated not only here, bat
in other places, and may be followed in that country which is my birth-
place and has my love, and to which Tasmania is again indebted for
another supply of salmon ova. Though perhaps trespassing too far on
your indulgence in these preliminary observations, I cannot refrain from
mentioning the name of another to whom the colony is indebted for the
unprecedented success that has attended our late work, and for the
details I will have the honour to give you by and bye, which may
probably in future years tend to facilitate fish acclimatisation in this or
other colonies, and to dispel some of the mysteries which at present
surround it. No doubt money could have procured salmon ova, without
my aid, from any country in which that noble fish exists, but, without
egotism or claiming to deserve any thanks whatever, I cannot help
feeling some doubt as to the wishes of Dr. Agnew or your Socie^
having been so successfully carried out this year as they have been, but
for the great interest felt and the prompt action taken by His Excellency
the Governor, who has in this matter only given another proof of his
anxiety to promote the material interests of any country with which he
may be connected, thus confirming the opinion entertained by all who
know his pubUc character, that the country over whose councils or wel-
fare he is called on to preside must be benefited if his advice prove of
any avail. The colony of Tasmania is to be congratulated in having as
•Governor an able statesman — one who will spare no exertion to promote
its interest as he has done in other places and other climes, where his
absence is now deeply deplored by the many, and where he has left
behind him a name respected and honoured — '* the best to live for and
the best to die for." The salmon ova which has been landed and placed
in the hatchery was taken from salmon in the celebrated salmon river,
in the county of Donesal, the property of Robert L. Moore, Esq., D.L.,
of Molennan, Londonderry. The intimation I received from the chair-
man of the Society arrived too late to enable me to obtain ova from

PROCEEDINGS, APRIL. iii

other rivers, of which I tried several without saccess. Owing to the
very mild winter in Ireland salmon were found on the spawning beds
much earlier than usual, and in many rivers which were tried only
spawned fish were found. I was almost in despair of being able to get
a sufficient quantity of ova to export, when Mr. Moore, animated by
that kindness and public spirit which have always governed his actions,
in the most generous manner placed at my disposal any fish from any of
the rivers held by him, and also his very complete hatchery on the
banks of the river Erne, so as to enable the ova to be all " eyed " before
being sent away. It is to that gentleman, and not to me the colonists
are deeply indebted for the present large supply of ova. The fish from
which tne ova were taken varied very much m size, from 10 to upwards
of 201bs. each in weight. They were stripped in the middle of January
and placed in the hatchery where they remained till removed by me on
the 28th and 29th February, and Isb March last. The eyes in the ova
were first observed on the 23rd February by the superintendent of the
fishery, so that before being packed for their ultimate destination, all
the ova had been ** eyed " for fully a week previously. The mode of
packing and transit was that so successfully adopted by Sir James
Maitland on a shipment of salmon ova by him to New Zealand in 1886.
The trays in which the ova were packed, consist of a light wooden frame,
lOin. square by 27in. deep, bottomed with perforated zinc. Into these
trays was placed at the bottom on the perforated zinc, a layer of clean
weU-picked fresh moss (sphagnum). On this moss was placed a layer of
ova taken from the hatching rills. Above that, another layer of moss,
and on this latter another layer of ova, and finally another 7ayer of
moss. Of these cases or trays there were 120, each of whi. h contained
about 18,000 ova. The number was ascertained by counting the number
of salmon ova in a given space on the rills, and making a calculation
accordingly with reference to the size of the trays in which they were
placed. It was the most accurate way of computing the number of
ova. Six of these coses were placed in what might be called refri-
gerating packing boxes, consisting of an inner box gin. larger than
the frames of the trays or cases ; the outer box was 4in. deeper than
the inner and 3in. wider for sawdust to be packed between the two
boxes, to serve not only as a protection against frost, but to act as a
•cushion and minimise the effects of rough usage. An air space surrounds
the trays to secure an equal temperature to each. These boxes are 2ft.
7in. long by 1ft. 6iin. wide, and 1ft. 8iin. high outside measurement.
The inside box is sufficiently smaller to allow a few inches of sawdust
between the two boxes. Charred fillets are fitted into the inside box,
which is also charred, to hold the trays half an inch clear Each tray
has four holes cut in the sides to admit air freely to the moss and to
facilitate adjusting. A large ice tray rests on the top of the ova trays,
but clear of the moss covering the ova, and is bevelled outwards so
as to entirely close the inside of the outer box. This most successful
mode of transporting ova was invented by Sir James Maitland, Bart.,
of European celebrity, for hatching and transporting ova of many
species of fish from his great fish hatching at Hawisto\ivn, and the
description given by me is taken from his book. Having packed these
120 trays or cases into 20 of these transport boxes, I found that I
had a large quantity of ova still over — which I brought to London
with me in bottles, swung in trames in a particular manner invented
by myself, and which I packed in London in 30 boxes, of about
ISin. by 12in. by about 4in. deep, in the same manner as I had
already packed the cases for the refrigerating transport boxes. The
aorpliis of ova was caused by my having placed only two layers of
ova in each tray instead of three, which they were originally designed
for, having learned that a good deal of the ova in the wider la^ex
irhiere there were three, sent to New Zealand, had not reacYied \ihe\t

iv PROCEEDINGS, APBIL.

destination in as good order as the other two layers where there was
less pressare. I determined, therefore, that it was better to have a
less quantity with only two layers in better condition, or at least with
less risk, than a larger quantity with more risk of loss. .1 called the
ova packed in these 30 boxes my surplus ova, and they could not
have been less in number than 60,000 at the very lowest calculation.
I need hardly describe the journey, which was only a short mile from
the fishery to the railway station, with the precious loads each time,
and the care that they should get no concussion, against which a
plentiful supply of straw was provided. Straw mattresses were
placed on the floor of the railway waggon on which the boxes were
put, and firmly wedsed with plenty of straw so that they could not
collide or move. I left by train on the evening of 2nd Maich and
remained at Ennlskillen all that night. At 6 o'clock next morning we
left for Dublin, when all the boxes had to be shifted on board the
steamer from Holyhead, and on arrival there we had a special waggon
ready in waiting, into which the boxes were removed and packed in the
same manner as at first start. On arrival in London on Sunday
morning, I had all the boxes examined and replenished with ice, of
which I carried a good supply with me, and on Monday morning,
March 5, they were carted to the docks, where they were put on
board the s.s. Kaikoura. The chamber constructed for their reception
on board the vessel was between decks in the forward part of the
vessel, and contained a space of 1,953 cubic feet. It was thoroughly
insulated and lined out with lead fitted for cold air blast from ship's
refrigerating chamber to regulate temperature. It had ice racks for
store ice, and inside were formed one double refrigerating case, and
two single ones for holding the transport boxes already described.
The 20 boxes were placed in these refrigerating chambers, the doors
of which were regularly supplied with ice from the ship during the
voyage, and ice packed round the boxes. The 30 boxes containing the
surplus ova were placed on the top and outside of these refrigerating;
cases, there being no room for them in the inside. As I had not much
confidence in their keeping alive under the conditions under which
they had been packed in London by water supplied at the London
docks, aud the position in which I was obliged to place them in
the chamber, I would not waste any of the Wenham Lake ice on them,
and they were during the whole voyage consequently only supplied
with ice made on board ship from condensed steam. On arrival here
and being opened I expected to have found them all dead, but to my
surprise the ova in them was found to be in almost as good condition as
those which had received such extra care and constant attention.

I have drawn out a table showing the temperature of the air on deck
— the sea water inside the chamber, but outside the refrigerating cases
in which the ova boxes were placed — and that inside the double
refrigerating cases, which I have called Nos, 1, 2, and 3, No. 1 being
nearest the door entering into the chamber, and which might be more
or less affected by the opening of the door— No. 2, the one further from
the door, and No. 3, the one furthest from the door. In considering
these tables and the positions of the allotment of ova in the chamber
it will be seen that on some days the temperature in the chamber in
which these boxes with the surplus ova were placed ran up as high as
47 degrees, while the highest temperature inside the refrigerating cases
only reached 35ideg. 1 hough the inference to be drawn from this
is that ova may be safely carried when the air is at so high a tem-
perature as 47 and the outer air at same time up to 78 and 79, yet
I would not think of trusting a shipment of ova to the dangers
attendant on such a high temperature, but I think it solves this
problem at any rate that all the elaborate arrangements of perfectly

PROCEEDINGS, APRIL. V

insulated cases are not necessary, and that, with ordinary care and
watchfulness in keeping up a proper supply of ice, and not allowing
the ova to get frozen, are all that are required in the case of eyed
ova. The great thing to be observed is the proper impregnation of
the ova and careful hatching till it has arrived to the eyed state.
The tables of temperature may, and I hope will, lead, after careful
scrutiny, to important results in a scientific point of view. A large
quanti^ of ship's ice was used during the voyage, but only for the

Snrpose of packing and filling in doors, casements of chamber, etc.,
ut all from the water of which the ova was to be fed was Wenham
Lake ice, of which I brought with me from London four tons. I also
used one ton in Ireland and between that and London. On the 10th
April, finding the ova in Bnoh a forward state of development, I
determined to try the experiment of hatching a few on board. The
commander kindly gave me the use of a spare cabin, and in this I
erected a temporary hatchery. My appliances were not of a first-class
order. My hatching box consisted of a portion of an old tobacco
box, which I had emptied, and got cut in two by the engineer, and a
lip soldered on it. My water holder consisted of a common oil can
inverted with a pipe and a tap in the neck to allow the water to run
into the tobacco box. The water was obtained from a breaker lying
in one of the ships boats on deck, and which had been brought on
board at Plymouth exactly one month previously, and was thick with
sediment, and lastly I sot a foot bath to receive the water as it flowed
from the hatchery. These were my materials for making a most
Important experiment. I never had much of a faint heart, but I could
not help feeling I was working under great difficulties, but I remem-
bered the expression of our immortal poet — "Never say fail," and to
work I went. I lifted with a teaspoon from one of the trays out ot
the refrigerating case, which then stood at 34 degrees, 43 ova, and
placed them in my new hatchery in the cabin, which then stood at
SSJdeg. Next morning the water was up to fiOdeg., and on the
13th at 1 o'clock I had the gratification of seeing one fish
swimming about and another just coming out of the shell.
The teniperature of the air and water in the cabin then stood at
60deg. The fish were actually hatched out under all the difficulties
I have mentioned, and in addition a great rolling of the vessel,
in 74 hours. On the 15th we had a stiff breeze and a high sea,
which caused the vessel to roll very much, disturbing the ova, tossing
them about from end to end of the vessel in which they were in such a
maimer that I felt assured ail would be killed, but the only effect it had
was that several of the young fish partly out of the shell had been
ajpporently strangulated. Whether this was caused by the rolling of
the ship or the great sediment in the water I could not tell, but before I
lefttheshipevery ovumof the 43 promiscuously taken from the trays
had hatched out either fully or in part, and I left the living fish with
the commander to be carried to New Zealand, and thence, if possible,
again to London. I look upon this experiment as valuable to show that
there is little or no danger m removing ova when hatched for a certain
time from a low to a very high temperature. One more experiment I
made with living salmon fry, and I will not detain you longer. I
brought 12 fry of a year old from the River Foyle, in the county of
Londonderry, to try how far I could carry them safely. I had two
glass jars fitted into a case and placed in the cool chamber. In the one
jar I had water in which I had kept the fish in London, and in the
other water supplied to me from the ship. In the latter I placed five of
the fry, and next morning to my horror all were dead. The rest
ooatinueid slive and weU, and fed daily on flour and water rubbed in my
hand into Uttle strips resembling worms until the 18th inst., when we
were in latitude 17deg. N., when six out of the seven died. I luad beea

VI PROCEEDINGS, APBIL.

induced the previous evening to give them vermioelli for food, but
whether that killed them or not I conld not say. I have, however,
brought a little of it with me to have it analysed. It was certainly not
the temperature, for it stood on that day at 40. I removed the only
living one into Plymouth water, but it took no food, and on the 20th,
when we were in the 6th deg. of latitude, it died while I was looking at
it. The temperature of the water was then only 35. I have by this
experiment proved that there cannot be the slightest doubt about
carrying living fry safely if any proper precautions about the water
being supplied with the necessary quantity of oxygen are taken, and
that there can be no difficulty in doing this. I will now conclude these
too lengthy and perhaps somewhat tedious observations by asking your
indulgence, and saying that having examined the fish lately taken by
the Governor I had no hesitation in pronouncing it a true salmon, and I
am quite convinced that no practical ma^ who would see the fish would
ever think of calling it anything but a salmon. Whether it be the true
salmo solar or not, it is, at any rate, a fish which would be considered
and treated as a salmon in salmon countries ; would be sold and
purchased as such, and if the colonists of Tasmania seek for more than
Ireland, which now exports salmon to the amount of over £600,000
worth annually, I cannot help saying that I think they are hard to be
pleased, and ought to go without them.

The paper was listened to with marked attention and freouently
applauded, and at its conclusion Sir Thomas said no scientist would
consider or talk of the fish we have in Tasmania in any other way but
as a salmon. He remembered three or four years ago Mr. Seager sent
him three fish which; after writing his own opinion of, he submitted to
an eminent member of the Royal Society of Dublin, an icthyologist and
a well-known scientist, who was not aware of his opinion and wrote one
that exactly coincided with it. It was that one fish was a true salmon,
one was not, and there was a doubt about the third. He took this fish
before one of the most celebrated scientists and icthyologists, a man
with a European reputation, but this gentleman would not give an opinion
until he knew where it came from. After some demur the information
that it came from Tasmania was s^iven, and the authority then said it
was not a salmon. (Laughter.) As he went away this gentleman said,
" You are going to take it to somebody else. You may take it to the
six best scientists in England, and you will get six difirerent opinions."
Sir Thomas concluded by apologising for taking up so much time, but
as he had heard it whispered that the Royal Society had conferred the
honour of electing him an honorary member, he desired to take the
opportunity of saying that he felt deeply indebted to the gentlemen
composing this Royal Society for the very kind manner in which they
had appreciated any little exertion of his in trying to benefit the colony.
He had only to assure them, to assure all present, and to assure every
colony that wherever it was possible for him to assist them, either by
advice or work, it would afford him the greatest pleasure to do so.
(Cheers.)

The Hon. P. 0. Ftsh regretted the absence of the Hon. Dr. Agnew, whose
name would ever be mentioned with great respect for his professional and
private worth, and for his munificence to this Institution. He would desire,
as he was sure all present would do, to tender to our distinguished visitor.
Sir Thomas Brady, this public and hearty welcome, accompanied with
congratulations upon the successful fruition of the important work which
he has travelled so far to accomplish. We welcome him as a scientist
eminent in his speciality, and have much gratification in learning his opinion
that the fish before us, caught by His Excellency, is a true ScUmo salar,
and, therefore, about its character their existed no longer any dubiUty.
It was his duty to regard Sir Thomas' mission, from a utilitarian point

PROCEEDINGS, APBIL. vii

of view, as adding to the food of the people and increasing the commercial
value of the Fisheries of Tasmanian waters. In these waters, the nurseries
of fish, the harvests of the future are to be gathered for Australasia, and
remembering that the Board of Trade returns of England show a value of
£10,000,000 per annum as the product of the Fisheries of Great Britain,
that gave some indication of the commercial importance of Fisheries here.
This experiment has demonstrated the kinship between the philosophical,
practical, and profitable. Ova brought from rivers 13,000 miles away,
under circumstances of suspended animation, passing through the Torrid
Zone, and reaching a Southern sphere to be revitalised, with the result
that the living fish are exhibited upon the table as examples of the teeming
life now existing at the Salmon Hatchery, thus gaining practical evidence
of the commercial value of science to this ooijimunity. Apart from
that aspect, however, the occasional advent of scientific men at this
Institute gave a new inspiration to the work of the Fellows, and leave
behind not only pleasing memories, but incentives to renewed efforts.
The archives of this Institute wHl hand down as public benefactors the
names of Dr. Agnew, Sir Thomas Brady, and Mr. Moore, and in years
to come, when future generations shall enjoy the sports of our rivers
and partake as food of the king of fish, the record of this work, in which
Dr. Agnew, Sir Thomas and Mr. Moore have been engaged, will be reviewed
and the great value of their services re-acknowledged, and not the least
that assistance afforded by Mr, Moore's lavish gift. That Irish gentleman
has learnt from his associations with Nature's bounties himself to be
bountiful. Nothing could be more so than his gifts of ova to this
community. This, the second important donation, this time of half-a-
million ova, without fee or reward, no, not without reward, for the
scientist finds his high reward in the success of his experiments, and in that
respect Mr. Moore reaps a great reward, and he is rewarded also by the
fact that he has ministered to the commercial success of a people akin with
himself — British Colonists.

He called upon the assembled company to welcome Sir Thomas with the
heartiness with which Tasmanians knew so well how to greet their
friends.

The audience rose and expressed their response to the invitation by
loud applause.

Mr. KoBEBT Henby then gave a short explanation of submarine
mining, illustrated by apparatus and illustrations of the working of
electro-contact mines as used for the protection of our harbour. Mr. W.
F. Ward, the Government analysist, followed with some simple but
interesting and rapidly performed experiments with the air pump, to
illustrate the elasticity of gases and modern theories deduced from such
phenomena.

In the lower room there was a display of exhibits, a collection of photo-
graphs, a lithographic press, and an oxy-hydrogen microscope.

Great interest was manifested in Mr. Perrin's exhibits, especially in the
proposed design for the timber trophy in the Melbourne Exhibition. The
photographs represent the work of an eight months old association — The
Tasmanian Photographic and Art Association — and are worthy specimens
of this beautiful Art. Mr. Echlin, secretary to the association, gave
practical demonstration of platinotype printing — this process is the inven-
tion of and patented by Mr. Willis (a relative of our worthy citizen, Mr.
Clemes), and consists of sensitising the paper with platinum-chloride,
printing as in silver, but in about an eighth of the time, and developing in
an aqueous solution of neutral oxalate of potash, at a temperature of
150d^. to 170deg. Fahr. — then fixing in an 8 per cent, bath of hydrochloric
acid, the result being a picture bearing a resemblance to fine steel
engraving, and having the inestimable advantage of being permanent ; the

VIU PBOCEEDINOS, APBIL.

subject chosen by the demonstrator was a copy of an engraving, the
property of the Royal Society, of Sir John Franklin; upwards of 200 prints
were developed and distributed to the visitors.

Mr. E. Scott presided at a small lithographic press, by Waterlow,
London, and printed some excellent work from a very fine drawing of a
portion of Mr. B. M. Johnston's work (about to be published), the
delicay of the lines proved the efficacy of the machine under Mr. Scott's
able manipulation.

The oxy-hydrogen microscope was also demonstrated by Mr. Echlin,
assisted by Mr. A. L. Butler. This instrument is probably the only one
of its kind in the colonies, patented by Newton, London. It will project
the smallest microscopic object on the screen eight feet in diameter or at
will the image can be deflected on the table, rendering it applicable either
for copying the object with pencil or photograph ; with the latter an
exposure of a fraction of a second will suffice.

The photograph of His Excellency, party, and members of the Council
was taken by a charge of gun-cotton and magnesium powder discharged
by electricity by Mr. Henry, the management being under the direction
of Mr. B. McGuffie.

At the conclusion of the meeting a formal vote of thanks was passed
to Messrs. B. Henry, Lieut. Mathieson, W. F. Ward, S. Clemes, F.
Echlin, A. Butler, and W. F. Scott for lending apparatus and explaining
their use.

PBOCEEDIHGS, APBIL. IZ

SALMON OVA TO TASMANIA, PER S.S. "KAIKOUEA."
Makch and April, 1888.

Ohternation* as to Temperature vtade on, Yoyaae.

Inside KefriseiEltii,

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PBOOEEDINOS, APBIL.

45 *^

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Date.

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PBOCEEDINGS, APRIL.

Hour.

111

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8 a.m.

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PB0CEEDIN6S, APRIL.

111

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Date

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In No. 2,

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PROCEEDINGS, MAY. Xlll

MAT, 1888.

The usual monthly meeting of the Royal Society of Tasmania was
held on May 14th, when there was a moderate attendance of
Fellows. Amongst others present were His Excellency the Governor
and Liady Hamilton, Sir Thomas Brady, Sir Lambert Dobson, and Col.
L^e, R.A.

The President (His Excellency the Governor) took the chair at 7*30.

NEW MEMBEBS,

The President said the first business on the paper was the nomination
of Mr. R. A. Bastow as a corresponding member of the Society. They
were all aware of Mr. Bastow*^ position as a scientist, his work in
connection with the Society being of an extremely valuable character,
but it was necessary to go through the form of an election.

Mr. Bastow was elected a corresponding member, and the following
new Fellows were elected : — The Rev. Mr. McDowall, Canon Dicker,
Mr. F. M. Young.

the SALMONID^ in TASMANIA.

Mr. p. S. Seageb read a paper, entitled "A concise history of the
acclimatisation of the ScUmonidce in Tasmania." He pointed out that
the subject of acclimatising English salmon in Tasmanian waters was
first considered by Captain F. Chalmers in 1841, but the experiment
failed through entire want of experience. The matter next engaged the
attention of Mr. James L. Burnett, of the Tasmanian Survey depart-
ment, and Sir William Denison warmly interested himself in the
matter. In this second attempt, which took place in 1852, when
50,000 salmon trout ova in a tub were imported, the ova hatched on
the voyage, but there was no trace of either spawn or fish on arrival
at Hobart. It then occurred to Mr. Burnett that the temperature
should be regulated by means of ice. In 1858 the Government referred
the matter to the Royal Society, and had already taken great interest
in it, with a reward of £500 from Parliament for the successful
introduction. At this time the idea of introducing the living salmon
was prominent, and the committee recommended the use of ice to lower
temperature, and the construction of breeding ponds. The next
experiment was made in 1860 through the efforts of the Australian
Association in England working under the guidance of Mr. J. A. Youl,
who, from that time, became closely associated with every succeeding
shipment ; but this attempt also failed, as the ice melted before the
voyage was over. In anticipation of the arrival of this shipment the
Government had caused ponds to be constructed at North West Bay,
though these ponds were never used, and the site was abandoned in
favour of the River Plenty site. In 1862, 50,000 ova were shipped for
Tasmania in the Beautiful Star, with iced water flowing over the trays
containing the ova. Severe gales and the failure of the ice supply
made this attempt another failure. In October 1861 the Government
had appointed a body of gentlemen as honorary commissioners, to
whom the future management of the whole business was entrusted.
In the failures up to the date experience had demonstrated the perfect
practicability of the project under proper conditions easily attainable.
A little box containing ova, packed in layers of moss and charcoal, had
been placed in an ice-house by Mr. Youl, and forgotten by Mr.
Ramsbottom, until 60 days after the Beautiful Star had left England,
led to further experiments, in which there were many claimants for
the credit of the discovery that ice retarded the development of ova.
Mr. Brady, who was much impressed with the idea, sent a sketch of

XIV PROCEEDINGS, MAY.

ova packed in damp moss under an ice tank, and with a tap to draw
off water, to Mr. Yoal. The original of this sketch the writer of the
paper produced. Mr. Brady recommended a small trial in this way,
adding that if they did not hatch before arrival it would be a decidedly
safe wey of transporting them. In 1862 a number of experiments in
this direction were made by Messrs. R. and W. Ramsbottom, Thos.
Johnston, and others under the direction of Mr. Youl, and after some
difficulties in obtaining ova and proper accommodation on board ship,
Messrs. Money, Wigram, and Co. placed 50 tons of space on the clipper
ship Norfolk at Mr. YouFs service gratuitously. Mr. Youl has been
enabled to ship 106,000 salmon ova packed in the following manner,
which has since bean repeated with little alteration : — *' A couple of
handsful of charcoal are spread over the bottom of the box, then a
layer of broken ice ; after this, a bed or nest of wet moss is carefully
made and well drenched with water. The ova are then very gently
poured from a bottle, which is kept filled with water. The box is now
nlled up with moss, and pare water poured upon it until it streams
out from all the holes. Another layer of finely pulverised ice is spread
all over the top of the moss ; the lid is then firmly screwed down.
The boxes used measured 11 Jin. long, 6|in. wide, and 5Jin. deep,
perforated top and bottom." As doubts had been expressed whether
the true salmon had ever been received, Mr. Seager gave full par-
ticulars of where the ova were taken, and the names of the ditferent
persons of well-known experience who obtained it from the various
rivers, also an article from The Times of January 18, 1864, giving
particulars with reference to what had been done. The Norfolk
arrived in Melbourne after a voyage of 84 days, and the ova were
transhipped in the Victorian Government sloop Victoria, and brought
on to Hobart. They were deposited at the hatchery on the 91st day
after shipment, when it was estimated that there were 35,000 living
ova. The ova hatched out well, and the mortality amongst the fry was
very trifling. It was estimated that 1,500 of the fry escaped through a
leak, and that gave rise to a statement that the Norfolk shipment had
died ; but upwards of 3,000 fry were admitted to the pond from the
breeding boxes, and fish in a more mature stage were subsequently
liberated. In 1866 another 102,500 salmon ova with 15,000 ova of sea
trout were shipped in the Lincolnshire, and 50 per cent, were deposited
at the ponds. Of this shipment the commissioners reported on
September 2, 1869, that 6,000 salmon and 900 salmon trout had been
liberated. In 1882 Dr. Agnew, then in London, was entrusted by his
brother commissioners with the direction of a further shipment, but
that gentleman was, from various causes, unable to carry the object to
completion, though he visited and secured the co-operation of Messrs.
Youl and Brady, who secured and packed 80,000 ova, which were
despatched in the Abington on the 19th February, 1884. On July 1
there were 1,825 fry of thb shipment in the boxes at the ponds — a
comparative failure in this shipment arising from a defect in the
drainage of the ice-house. Thirty fish of this lot were retained in the
ponds for breeding purposes, and 300 fry of their progeny were
liberated last season. In 1885 Messrs. Brady and Youl packed 160,000
which were sent direct to Hobart in the Yeoman, and resulted in a
greater success than any of the preceding shipments. Of this lot
10,000 arrived in such a state of development as to have the eyea
visible, and revealed so few dead eggs that it was decided to ship ova
in the "eyed" stage in future. After paying a high compliment to
the Salmon Commissioners who resigned in 1887, Mr. Seager referred
to the noble offer of Dr. Agnew and the last shipment under the charge
of Sir Thos. Brady, and concluded by quoting some passages from
the writings of Mn B. M. Johnston and others as to the character of
the fish we have succeeded in acclimatising.

PEOCEEDINOS, MAY. XV

Mr. B. M. Johnston followed with a paper on the same subject,
dealing in a Boientific manner with the evidence as to the fish
we have secured. He was not aware, in preparing his paper, that
Bfr. Seager was engai^ed in writing such an important paper, and
would therefore omit the brief reference he had made to the history
of the subject, which Mr. Saager had already so exhaustively dealt
with. Takinfl^ up the subject from the discovery of the proper means
of conveying the ova, he spoke in very high terms of the services
rendered by Sir Thomas Brady and Dr. Agnew, and said the problem
to solve was whether the progeny of the real Salmo scUar when liberated
perpetuated their species in Tasmanian waters ; for no specimen hitherto
caught in Tasmania could be decidedly classified with the S. scUar of
Europe. But if the fish in the water here referred to as S, truUa and
iSL faario, liberated in 1866, what had become of the far greater number
ot 8, solar then liberated ? The theories advanced to account for the
supposed non-appearance of 8, solar might be briefly referred to as the
hyDrid theory; the extinction theory — that the environment, food,
cumate, and enemies had killed them ; and the exodus theory — that
they had wandered away from our shores and had not returned. That
hybrids of scUmonidoi existed was confirmed in other parts of the world,
but the facts of the history of acclimatisation here would not admit of
the assumption that hybrids were introduced, as there were five ship-
ments obtained at different times, different places, and by different
people all skilled in the work. Granting that a few mistakes might
occur, it was preposterous to assume that hybridism should have
resulted in all the cases, and the facts stated were sufficient to
dismiss it at once. The extinction theory was more reasonable, as
it was conceivable that extremes of temperature, or sach enemies as
tiie barracouta, might account for the extinction. Still, the variation
in the temperature of deep water was not very great, while in the
shallow ponds of the Plenty they had the undoubted progeney of Salmo
salary not only surviving, but actually bred in the ponds. There was
no means in the colony of obtaining accurate information of temperature
at a depth, and it was absurd to gauge isotherms on shallow sand flats,
where in England an equally high temperature will be discovered. At
the Clyde sea area and other places a series of temperatures had been
taken with deep sea thermometers, revealing the fact of very slight
variations at a depth. Looking at the characters of the waters here,
there was every reason for distrusting the temperature taken on a sandy
shallow. Regarding the presence of enemies such as the barracouta,
there was no reason for supposing that the Salmo solar should fall a
prey to these fish, while others survived. The exodus theory also
depended upon temperature. It was not unreasonable, but the evidence
was against it. Mr. Kent had suggested that the fish had wended
their way towards Japan, but this was improbable, and opposed to
the known instincts of all animals who were prompted to return, if they
wandered, to the homes of their ancestors. If the heat caused them to
migrate they would travel south, and be lost in the wilderness of waters
in the Antartic Ocean. The question then was, had the Salmx) solar
migrated to the waters around the South Pole, or was the migratory
fish now in our waters the true descendants of the Salmx) solar of
Europe, modified by the difference of enivronment. The classifications
of museums were not reliable when applied to the various intermediate
forms of the fish marVet, where the doubts of the classifiers were set
aside as the vivialities of naturalists and the fish bought and sold as
salmon. Nor did individuals agree on the points of determination.
What n&turalist was prepared to declare the limits of individual varia-
tion in form, colour, ete., in the growth of one fish through its various
stases, under changes of food, climate, and other circumstances of
environment? He did not urge these remarks against the classification

XVI PB0CEEDIN6S, MAT.

of maseums, but against the arbitrary adoption of fixed forms, and
then applying them to fish under such chanses as those presented in
acclimatisation here. He pointed out the undoubted variation existing
in the trout, and asked how naturalists could affirm the non- variation
of salmon in Tasmanian waters, where they were preserved from the-
interfusion of other local types to break down the developing variations.
In this respect European opinions were not of much value, as they were
not aware of the limit of rareability in the new environment of
Tasmanian waters. Classification had undoubtedly failed to deal with
the difficulty, as Sir Thomas Brady had instanced the case of an
ichthyologist with a European reputation, who had plainly said that if a
specimen shown him from Tasmania were taken to six different autho-
rities, six different opinions would be given. What, then, was the
verdict? Between extinction or exodus, and modification produced
by environment he would decide in favour of the latter. He had
prepared a table of measurements, which would show that all the
classifications overlapped, except as to the number of scales to the
adipose fin. Not only did the characteristic overlap in different species
but individuals exhibited in different specimens the extreme of variation.
We had two classes of fish here known, and a third, a migratory fish
partaking of the characteristic of the other two, but differing from the
English S. ScUar. He could not say definitely that the fish caught
by His Excellency was the English S, Solar, but he would suggest
that it be designated S. ScUar Tasmanicus. '

Mr. MoBTON said the difficulty Mr. Johnston had laid before them
bad been dealt with by Ramsbottom in 1854, who quoted LyeU's
opinion that '* future inquirers have yet to determine the number of
species of Salmonidce." The true salmon kept in the ponds did not
agree with the measurement of the maxilary bone, but the scales did
agree. Few had s^one so clesely into the ichthyology of Tasmania
as Mr. Johnston, but he (Mr. Morton) could not quite see that Gunther
and other authorities had disregarded all the facts advanced. The
fish presented by the Governor, after Che opinion of Sir Thos. Brady and
Mr. Johnston, he intended to label S, Scdar, but paying due regard to
the criticism which might be brought to bear upon the specimen, he
intended to add Tasmanictis, because the fish would not fit with the-
classification of Salmo solar. The subject was beset with difficulties,
but Mr. Johnston's paper would be printed, and he would see that
Gunther, Day, and other authorities received it.

Sir Thomas Bbady spoke in the highest terms of the papers, and
looked upon Mr. Johnston's as important, not only to the colonies,
but to every salmon producing country. He had noticed such variations
in fish from different rivers that fishermen could pick out of a sea catch
the fish that came from the Foyle, the Ban, or the Ballycastle Rivers..
As to colour, he had seen a haul of 2,100 salmon and fish picked out,
the flesh of which were both white. He intended to send one of theso
and the salmon sold in the public markets out to the Museum.

Sir Lambert Dobson thought a few words would sum up Mr. Johnston's
paper. It seemed to him that Mr. Johnston had gone back to first
principles, and abolishing the terms salar, tnitta^ and fario he simply
said — *' We have the salmon in different variety."

The President, in proposing a vote of thanks to the readers of the
papers, and Sir Thomas Brady for his valuable remarks, spoke very
highly of the value of the papers and the interest he had in listening to
them. He thought Mr. Johnston had disposed of the various theories
very ably, and had almost ruled that we have the salmon in some
variety.

The 70te of thanks was carried, and owing to the lateness of the hour
the reading of some other papers was postponed.

PKOCEEDINGS, JUNE. xvii

JUNE, 1888.

The nsaal monthly meeting of this Society was held on June 11th, at
the Museum, but owing to the unpropitions weather the attendance was
much smaller than usual. In the absence of the president (His Excel-
lency the Governor) Mr. James Babnabd took the chair, and in opening
tiie meeting, stated that His Excellency Sir B. G. C. Hamilton was absent
in the country, but had expressed his desire that the business of the even-
ing should not be postponed. Although the attendance was small, he (the
chairman) should proceed with the reading of the papers, and not break
the regularity of their meetings. (Hear, hear.) Mr. Barnard directed
the attention of the ladies and gentlemen present to the bound book of
proceedings for the past year as printed and published at The Mercury
office, and which were laid on the table for the use of members. He
said the book had been well printed, and was ^ot up in a most
creditable manner, it having received the attention which it deserved.

Additions to the library during the months of April and May: —

American Agriculturists, Current Nos.

Annals and Magazines, Natural History, current Nos.

Athenaeum, current Nos.

Boletiro da Sociedade de Georaphia de Lisboa, 7th Serie, Fos.
3, 4. — From tbeSociety.

BoUettino della Societa Africana, D'ltaliana, Anno Y., Fac. III. —
From theSoeiety.

Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College,
Cambridge, Mass. Vol. XIII., No. 6. On the Eyes of Scorpions, by
6. H. Parker. No. 8. On certain vacuities or deficiencies in the crania
of Mammals, by D. D. Slade. From M. Agassiz. Vol. XVI., No. 1.
On the petrographical characters of a dike of diabase in the Boston
Basin, by W. H. Hobbs. Vol. XIX., No. 7. Studies from the Newport
Marine Laboratory. On certain Medusae from New England, by J.
W. Fewkes. From A. Agassiz.

Bulletin of the New York State Museum for 1883-4. — From the
Department.

Bulletin of the New York State Museum of Natural History, Vol.
L, No. 2, 1887.— From the Department.

Bulletin du Comite Geologique, St. Petersburg. Vol. VI., Nos. 1 to
10. — From the Society.

Catalogue of Canadian Plants. Part III., '* Apetalae,'' by J. Macoun,
B.A. — From the Society.

Characese of America. The Introduction, Morphology, and Classifi-
cation, by Dr. T. F. Allen. — From the Author.

Bulletin du Mus^e Royal D'Histoire, Naturelle de Belgique. Tome
v., No. 1. — From the Society.

Colonial Museum and Geological Survey of New Zealand.

Geological Report, No. 18. Index M useum Report, No. 22. Studies
in Biology, No 2 — From the Department.

Die Internationale Polarforschung, 1882-3. Band I., II. — From the
Government.

Ergebnisse der Meteorologischin Beobachtungen in Jabre, Berlin,
1886.— From theSoeiety.

Flora of British India. Pt. XIX. By Sir J. D. Hooker, C.B.—
From the Record Office, India.

G^logical Magazine. Current Nos.

Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, Vol. IV. — From the Depart-
ment.

xviii PBOCEEDINGS, JUNE.

Guide to the Shell and Starfish Galleries in the British Musenm, 1887.
— From the Trustees.

History and description of the skeleton of a new sperm whale, lately
set up in the Australian Museum, Sydney, hy W. S. Wall. (A reprint.)
— From the Trustees.

History and description of Mr. Tebutt's Observatory at Windsor,
N.S.W., by Mr. J. Tebutt.— From the Author.

Ibis. Current Nos.

Journals and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales.
Paits II., III. Vol. XXL— From the Society.

Journals and Papers of the Parliament of Tasmania. Vols. X., XI. »
Xn. — From the Government.

Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, London (current numbers).
— From the Society.

Journal of the Royal Historical and Archaeology Association of
Ireland. — From the Society.

Manual of the Geology of India. Part IV. Mineralogy (mainly non-
economic). By F. R. Mallet (bound). — From the Department.

Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Vol. XXIV., Part L
The Southern Coalfields of Sarjuroa Gondwana basin. — From the
Department.

Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Paloeontologica Indica.
Ser X. Indian Tertiary and Post Tertiary Vertebrata. Vol. IV.,
Part III. Eocene Chelonia from the Salt Raoge. By R. Lydekker,
B. A. — From the Department.

Memoires de la Society Royal des Sciences de Liege. Tome XIV. —
From the Society.

Memoires du Comite Geologique, St. Petersburg. Vol. I. IL,
No. 1-6. — From the Society.

Monthly Weather Review, January, 1888.— From the Meteor. Office,
Canada.

Morse collection of Japanese pottery, reprinted from the American
Architect of May 28, 1887. Salem. Essex lustitute. — From the
Society.

Proceedings and Transactions of the Queensland Branch of the Royal
Geographical Society of Australasia, 1886-7. Pt. III. — From the Society.

Proceedings and Transactions of the Victorian Branca of the Royal
Geographical Society of Australasia. Pt. I. Vol. I. — From the Society.

*' Psyche " : A Journal of Entomology Pts. — From the Society, Mass.

Resultados del Observatorio Nacional Argentine en Cordoba. Buenos
Aires. Vol. IX. 1876.— From the Department.

Seventh Annual Report of the State Mineralogist for the year ending
October 1, 1887. — From the Californian State Mining Bureau.

Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. IV., current Nos.— From the
Society.

Sidereal Messenger The Minnesota, by Mr. W. V. Payne, 1887.
— From the Society. Statistical Papers of New Zealand. — From the
Government.

Teaching of History in Schools, an address delivered October, 1887»
by Oscar Browning, F.R. Hist, S. — From the Royal Historical Society.

Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, Vol.
XXIV., Part 1, 1887.— From the Society.

THE SILYEB EXTRACTING PROCESS.

Mr. J. W. ToPLis read a paper on the various methods einployed in
extracting silver from argentiferous galena and other ores. The paper
was one of much interest and importance. Mr. Toplis prefaced his
remarks by stating that now silver oids fair to become the source of a
large revenue to the colony, owing to the enormous deposits recently

PEOCEEDINGS, JUNE. XIX

discovered afe Mount Zeehan and Heazlewood, he hoped that the varioas
methods of extracting the precious metal from hoth galena and its ores
put before them in a consolidated and condensed form, would prove both
interesting and instructive. He went on to explain that galena was
almost invariably associated with silver to a greater or less extent, and
that when the precious metal was present in sufficient quantities to
render it payable, it was extracted by various methods, which he pro-
ceeded to explain. The process which Mr. Toplis detailed was mu'jh
less expensive than that formerly adopted. Under the old process the
whole of the lead had first to be reduced to the oxide on a large hearth
covered with bone ash, the silver escaping oxidation then being separated
from it. This process was on account of the very great expense only
applicable to very rich ores. To Mr. Pattinson he said must be awarded
the palm, for by his valuable discovery he had cheapened the process to
such an extent that any lead containing over 5oz. of silver to the ton
would pay for treatment. Mr. Toplis went on to explain the ptocess
of cupellation on the larger scale, and the construction of the cupel,
etc. He succeeded in giving those present a very good rough idea of
the treatment through which galena must pass before the precious metal
could be obtained, asking them to always bear in mind that the process,
although a long and tedious one, was comparatively inexpensive. The
first part of the process — smelting — cost about 10s. per ton, and the
desilverising from 12s. 6d. to 15s. per ton. He referred briefly to the
enormous deposit of silver lead at Mount Zeehan. He believed that
before the next year had passed Tasmania would be known as one of
the largest silver-lead producing countries in the world, and this opinion
of his, he said, was shared by some of the leading mining experts who
had visited Tasmania from the other colonies. The galena from Mount
Zeehan was most remarkable for its extreme purity. They had lodes
there 6ft. and 8ft. wide of pure metal, which in some cases assayed
about 75 per cent, of lead. The lead itself not only paid all expenses
of working, but also yielded a large profit. He spoke at some length on
the enormous value of the fields, and concluded by expressing a hope
that ere long they would see smelting-works and foundries in their midst.
(Applause.)

In the course of the discussion which followed on the paper, Mr.
W. F. Ward (Government Analyst) said he thought Mr. Toplis was too
sanguine in giving them one year only in which to develop the Moun^
Zeehan mines. He (Mr. Ward) thought it would take rather more
than that.

Mr. A. J. Taylor said he fully believed that before many months
were over Tasmania would be one of the best silver-producing countries
in the world. One great thing in favour of their silver-mines on the
West Coast was that the metal was very pure ; in fact, it was so clean
that it was only necessary to bag it and send it right away. He thought
they were much indebted to Mr. Toplis for the interesting information
he had given them.

AN ADDITION TO TASMANIAN AVIFAUNA.

A paper in the absence of the author, Mr. W. F. Petterd, F.Z.S., of
Launceston, was read by Mr. Morton, entitled ** An addition to the
Avifauna of Tasmania Anseranas Melanohuca^ ** the Semipalmated
Croose." This bird, a species of goose common in the North of Australia,
was lately shot in the Lake district, near Cressy. It was noticed with a
small flock that had lately been seen in the neighbourhood of Launceston.

another new VISITOR.

A paper, by Colonel W. V. Legge, also dealt with a new bird not
previously found in Tasmania, belonging to the Order of Fly-catchers
(Chibia bnicteeUaJ, This bird was shot on the East Coast, and the

XX PE0CEEDING8, JUNE.

colonel, in bis paper, stated that it was qnite possible that the islands
in the Straits proved to be a resting place for birds on their way from
Australia to Tasmania.

PROTECTION FOR THE SEAL AKD MUTTON BIRD.

Mr. C. Allport called attention to the desirability of getting protec-
tion in Tasmania for the seal and the mutton bird. The former he said
were becoming in very large numbers the victims of poachers from Kew
Zealand. At one time as many as a 1,000 seals were to be counted on
Clarke's Island in one day, but they were rapidly being killed, and would
soon become extinct unless protected. As to the mutton bird, their
eggs were being destroyed, as well as being sent away wholesale, and
the birds themselves were being destroyed in immense numbers. The
bird was a most valuable one, its oil being an excellent thing for con-
sumptive persons ; its feathers were marketable, and the flesh on the
bird was excellent eating.

In the course of a very lensthy discussion which took place on the
matter. Bishop Sandford said he lived at one time for 10 days on an
island on the mutton bird, not having been able to get anything else. A
young delicate friend of his was with him at the time, and he greatly
improved in his health, through, he (the Bishop) believed, eating the
bird named continuously.

Mr. E. Swan did not agree with the Bishop that the bird was a good
article of food, and Dr. Barnard said the oil from it could be made much
more palatable than cod liver oil, which was so much used for con-
sumptives.

The Hon. B. S. Bird said the Government before they took steps for
protecting the mutton bird would require sound information as to the
necessity for such protection.

Mr. ¥, Belstead, Mr. F. H. Wise, and other gentlemen having
spoken, the matter dropped.

THE ANTARTIC REGIONS.

Bishop Sandford introduced the subject of appointing an exploring
party to proceed to the Antartic regions. If, his lordship, said, Tas-
mania did not do something, Melbourne would take the matter out of
their hands, and he reminded them that Germany had its eye on the
regions named. He had no doubt whatever that the starting-point
should be from Hobart.

The Chairman said the question had now become a national one. He
thought representations for assistance in the matter of an expedition
should be made to the Imperial Government.

Votes of thanks were accorded to the gentlemen whose papers had
been read to the meeting, and a similar compliment having been
passed to the Chairman, the proceedings terminated.

PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST. XXI

AUaUST, 1888.

The monthly meetiDg of the Royal Society was held at the Tasmanian
Museum on August 13th. The president (His Excellency, Sir Rohert
O. C. Hamilton, K.C.B.)f occupied the chair.

Mr. Alex. Morton read a letter from Mr. G. Thureau, F.G.S., calling
the attention of the society to the following announcement which
appeared in the illustrated Leipziger News of July 30, 1887 : — ** Dr.
Albucht von Groddeck, Royal Mining Counsellor and Director of the
United Mining Academy and School of Mines, at Clauthsal, Hanover,
on the 18th June, 1887, 50 years of age." The deceased gentleman
was a foreign correspondent of the Society.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

The following list of additions to the library during July was
tabled : —

Account of the operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of
India. Vol X. Electro-Telegraphic Longitude operations executed
during the years 1881-2, 1882-3, and 1883-4, by Major G. Strahan,
R.E., and Major W. J. Heaviside, R.E. (Bound.). — From the Survey
Department.

American Agriculturist. (Current Nos.)

Annals and Magazines of Natural History. (Current Nos.)

Annual Report of the Department of Mines, New South Wales,
for the year 1887. From the Department.

Bibleoth^que deM. L'Abbe Favre (pamphlet), Paris, 1888. — From the
Society.

Boletin da Socicdade de Geographia de Lisboa, 7a. serie., Nos.
5.6-7-8.— From the Society.

Bollettino della Societa GcogratiQa Italiana, serie III., Vol. 1.,
Fascicolo V., Maggio, 1888. — From the Society.

Boletin Mensual del Observatorio Meteorologico del Colegio Pio de
Villa Colon. Ano. I. mes de Enero No. 2 (Montevideo).— From the
Society.

Bulletin of the New York State Museum of Natural History, No. 3,
March, 1888. — From the Museum.

Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. Alfred R. C.
Selwynn, C.M.G., L.L.D., etc.. Director."

Summary Report of the operations of the Geological and Natural
History Survey, to 3l8t December, 1887, being Pt. III.

Annual Report of the Department of the Interior, 1887. — From the
Department.

Geological Maciazine. Current Nos.

Goldhelds of Victoria. The Reports of tho Mining Registrars for
the quarter ended 3l8t March, 1888. — From the Secretary of Mines.

Iconography of Australian Species of Acacia and Ognate Genera,
9th, 10th, 11th Decade. By Baron F. Von Mueller, K.C.M.G. From
the Government.

Imperial Federation (current Nos.) From the Editor.

Journal of the Royil Microscopical Society, Pt. 3, 1888, June. From
the Society.

List of Hepaticae, collected by X«lr. Thomas Whitelegge in New South
Wales, 1884-5, by B. Carrington, M.D., F.R.S.E., and W. H. Pearson.
(Pamphlet.) From the Authors.

Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made at the Observa-
tory, Bombay, in the year 1888, under the direction of Charles Cham-
bers, F.R.S. — From the Gk)vernment.

XXll PEOCBKDINGS, AUGUST.

Memoini of the Geological Survey of India, " Paloeontologia Indica.
SerXm., Salt Range fossils, by W. Waagen, Ph. D.S.F.G. 1 Pro-
dnctas — ^Limestone fossils ; 7 Coelenterata, Amorphozon — Protozoa. —
From the Department.

Monthly Weather Review, current Nos.— From the Signal Office,
Washington.

Monthly weather report. (Current Nos.) — From the Meteorological
Office, London.

Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, April.

Monthly Weather Report. Meteorological Service of Canada. March,.
1888. (Pamphlet.) From the Department.

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. XLVIII.
No. 7, May, 1888.— From the Society.

. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wiales. Vol. III.
Part I, 1888.

Proceedings and Transactions of the Queensland Branch of the Royal
Geographical Society of Australasia, 3rd session 1887-8. Vol. lU.,
Part I. — From the Society.

Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geographical and Polytechnic Society,
N.S. Vol. IX., Part III. pp. 337-498.— From the Society.

Report on the Meteorology of India in 1886, by J. Eliotopia. — From
the Department.

Report of the Technological, Industrial, and Sanitary Museum,
Sydney, for 1887. — From the Department.

Scottish Geofi;raphical Magazine, Vol. IV. V, Nos. 6, 6, 7. — From the
Society.

Sixty- eighth Report of the Council of the Leeds Philosophical and
Literary Society at the close of the session, 1887-8 (pamphlet). — From
the Society.

Statistics of the Colony of New Zealand for the year 1887. Pt. III.
Trade and Interchange. — From the Registrar-General's Office.

Transactions and Proceedings and Report of the Royal Society of
Australia. Vol. X. for 1886-7.— From the Society.

Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft Fiir Erdkunde Zu Berlin. Band
XV., No. 4, 6, 6.— From the Society.

THE PROBLEM OP MALTHUS STATED.

A paper of considerable length, bearing the above title, was read
by Mr. R. M. Johnston, F.L.S. He stated tnat he had prepared
the paper mainly with a view to force the noble aims and ideas
of Malthus from the great misconception which existed in regard to
his problems. The paper opened with the following remarks : — Darwin
has observed '* that in a state of nature almost every full-grown plant
annually produces seed, and amongst animals there are few which do
not annually pair. Hence we may confidently assert that all plants and
animals are tending to increase at a geometrical ratio — that all would
rapidly stock every station in which they could anyhow exist. And
this geometrical tendency to increase must be checked by destruction
at some period of life," and, as an inevitable consequence, he goes on to
add ** that each individual lives by a struggle at some period of its life,
that heavy destruction falls either on the young or old during each
generation, or at recurrent intervals. Lighten any check, mitigate the
destruction ever so little, and the numTOr of the species will almost
instantaneously increase to any amount." These considerations, the
writer submitted, when fully appreciated, formed the foundation of
the problem of Malthus. [An Essay on the '* Principle of population.'*
Malthus. London, 1826.] Much attention was devoted by Mr. Johnston
to Mr. Henry George's views on the problem of Malthus. He remarked,
" That Mr. Henry George altogether failed to grasp the various elements

PKOCEEDINGS, AUGUST. XXIU

of this problem is at once apparent by the manner in which in his other-
wise yery able work ' Progress and Poverty,' he has attempted to refute
the conclnsions of Maltbus. When Malthus affirmed that the ratio of
increase of population increased faster than the ratio of increase of means
of subsistence, he never stated or conceived that population could
actually outstrip the means of subsistence as interpreted and discussed
by Mr. Henry George ; and hence the whole of Mr. George's citations
and reasonings are either fallacious, or they never touch upon the real
causes at the root of Malthus' problem. That there is a thorough
misconception on the part of Mr. George is clearly proved by the
following quotation from Malthus : 'According to the principles of
population the human race has a tendency to increase faster than food.
It has, therefore, a constant tendency to people a country fully up to the
limits of subsistence ; but by the laws of nature it can never go beyond
tiiem, meaning, of course, by theoe limits the lowest quantity of food
which will maintain a stationary population. Population, therefore, can
never, strictly speaking, precede food.' This clear expression on the
part of Malthus casts aside the whole of Mr. George's ratiocinations as
worthless. His inability to grasp the most important elements of the
problem is still further made manifest by his query, ' How is it, then,
that this globe of ours, after all the thousands, and it is thought millions,
of years, that man has been upon the earth, is yet so thinly populated? "
The paper went on at great length to deal with the subject
of checks, and the fallacy of Mr. George's arguments, and the writer
maintained that when population is declining it is rather because misery,
disease, and vice have abnormally raised the death rate higher than
the birth rate, and not because of any material tendency to a decline in
the birth rate. While there are different stages of civilisation in
existence, over-population is a relative term applicable to the particular
country, and not an absolute quantity to be determined by an absolute
number of persons to a given area as most erroneously indicated by Mr.
George. This is clear to any one who studies the civilisation and the
sanitary state of different countries.

Mr. J. S. Laubie said the whole question was in a nutshell. There
was a sufficient supply of food for a family of a certain number, but
when fresh births occurred in that family without any fresh avenues
of work with which to obtain the means of sustenance, trouble began.
This principle, when extended, of course, narrowed the pleasures of a
certain number, because of there being too large a number to participate
in them, Population, however, was fairly balanced by disease, famine,
war, etc. As to moral restraint, however, the lower orders knew nothing
whatever about it, and had no powers of restraint, aod consequently
overwhelmed the world by imprudence. This was the reason of the
overpopulation in many countries, and he took it that the art of living
was to live without making life a burden to one's self. The French
adopted this plan, and their families averaged three. In Scotland the
average was eight, six or seven in England, and in Ireland 12 or 15. The
soil could not produce more than a maximum portion of food, and when
there was no further opening for employment, and no further source from
which to obtain food, there must be disaster.

scott's track to the west coast.

Mr. James Andbew read a paper entitled ''Notes in reference to
Scott's Track, via Lake St. Clair, to the West Coast of Tasmania."
In the notes he said he had been requested by a fellow of the Society
whom circumstances prevented from himself representing the subject,
to call attention to an error in the designation of a track which appeared
in a paper on ** The Highlands of Lake ^t. Clair," read at the Novem-
ber meeting by Colonel Legge. The member referred to was Mr. T. B.

XXIV PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST.

Moore, a well-known explorer, and he had asked him (Mr. Andrew) to
bring under the notice of the Society that Scott's Track along the
Cnrvier Valley, and westward to the coast is as such incorrectly
described. It was, he knew of his own personal knowledge, Mr.
Moore who explored the route and cut the track referred to along which
many weeks later the Hon. J. B. Scott travelled. Colonel Legge in
speaking of Scott's Track used the name recently adopted by the Lands
Office, and it would be most unlikely that he should have any cause to
imagine that the gentleman whose name it bore had any claim to sucli
credit as might be attached to developing the first overland route from
the southern side of the island to Mx)unt Heemskirk. The notes went
oa to give a condensed chronological statement of the movements of the
two gentlemen referred to and their parties with the view of establishing
Mr. Moore's claim as the pioneer of this particular portion of the colony.
Encouraged by the indications of gold and tin found in the vicinity of
tne Pieman and its tributaries by Mr. Sprent's party, Mr. T. B. Moore
started from New Norfolk on January 1, 1877« his brother (Mr. J. A.
Moore), and the writer of the present notes, with the object of finding
a practicable overland route to the West Coast in the deviation
recommended. The party were provisioned for four months, but in spite
of loss in sapplies from depredations from bush vermin, remained in the
field for five months. Two months after the party left Mr. Scott started
for the coast, and on the 13th of that month he (Mr. Andrew) returned
for supplies. He left his companions on the Mount Dundas Range, hard
at work cutting through some of the worst scrub that could exist. The
distance then reached was, according to Mr. Scott's own estimate, 60
miles from Lake St. Clair. He met Mr. Scott half-way back, and
directed him as to where he could best pick out Mr. Moore's route.
The Messrs. Moore had meanwhile made to the main depdt, and they
met Mr. Scott near Lake Dora, and they gave him further directions to
assist him. When he (Mr. Andrew) returned to join the Moore party
on April 2, when nearly to the limit of their track, they found warm
ashes at a camp recently occupied by Scott, and indications of the route
he had taken in the shape of three direction notices, one pointing east-
wards to Mount Heemskirk, another along Moore's route north-westerly
to the summit of Mount Dundas, and another towards home, giving the
distance from Hobart 176 miles. It was on May 13 that Mr. Andrew
next joined his comrades, and he then learnt that they and Mr. Scott's
party bad combined to cut the track down the spur of Mount Dundas
to the open coast. Moore's party returned to Hobart in May, 1877t
when Mr. J. A. Moore wrote to the Lands department, detailing what
occurred in connection with Mr. Scott, and stating that they (Moore's
party) were the first white men ever in Dundas, and, judging from
the look of the country, he (Mr. Moore) doubted whether a blackfellow
had ever been there. It took them 10 days to get from the foot of
Mount Read to the top of Dundas. The then Minister of Lands and
Works (the Hon. N. J. Brown) at that time wrote to the Hobart Mercury
stating that as to Mr. Moore's statement that his party had been through
the country before the Hon. J. R. Scott, he (Mr. Brown) asserted from
his own knowledge that his statement was correct. The notes concluded
by pointing out that further testimony as to Mr. Moore's priority as the
explorer in this part of the colony was borne by the late Mr. Sprent in
his paper on recent explorations on the West Coast. Mr. Sprent did not
mention that Mr. Scott in any way assisted in the exploration and
development of the Western country.

Mr. R. M. Johnston said he readily endorsed the statement that Mr.
Scott would be one of the first to acknowledge the claim of the Messrs.
Moore to having discovered the track. He thought it due to Mr. Moors
that the track in question should bear his name.

PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST. XXV

The Hon. N. J. Brown said he conld confirm in every particular the
atatements made by the reader of the paper with regard to Mr. Moore.
He was living in that part of the country at the time Mr. Moore went
through, and knew the whole history of his expedition.

EXTBAOBDINABY PHENOMENON AT BEACONSFIELD.

Mr. R. M. Johnston read the following paper, which was contributed
by Mr. Joseph Davies, the manager of the Tasmania gold mine at
lieaconsfield : —

"Being connected with the Tasmania mine, and a resident in that
district since 1877^ I have had the pleasure of witnessing a very extraor-
dinary phenomenon, which has been perceptibly in operation during the
past three years. Parallel with the Cabbage Tree Range, the course of
which is 30deg. east of south; on the eastern side of the range (at the
base), three-quarters of a mile south-east from the Tasmania mine, there
is a depression in the surface, which forma a small lagoon, 140 yards in
circumference, and 10ft. deep, dish-shaped. (See on No. 1 sketch, section
No. 1.) Half a mile further south-east there is a flat almost oval-shaped
area, about 20 acres. The Junction Creek passes through the flat
between No. 2 and No. 7. No. 2 is a lairne lime quarry hole, 400 yards,
in circumference ; average depth, 24ft. No. 3 is also a lime quarry hole,
100 yards in circumference, and .35ft. deep. Large quantities ot lime-
stone were taken out of them 46 years aince. The water that was
flowing into the two holes was kept under control with pumps driven by
water wheels. The quarries were abandoned in the year 1852, and
remained full of water, the surplus being one sluice-head in the summer
and four io the winter, flowed out of the byewash into the creek. In
December, 1885. water at No. 1 commenced to subside, and very soon
disappeared. Before the end of the same year the water at Nos. 2 and 3
started subsiding, and within three weeks were quite dry. Just at that
time I had a large increase of water in the Tasmanian mine, at the 360ft.
level. The increase flowei through the joints of sandstone on the south-
east part of the mine. In order to take limestone from No. 4 the creek
was diverted into No. 2. I measured the water just a few feet before it
passed into the hole, and immediately it passed out, and found that
more than one sluice- head had disappeared. Nos. 5, 6 and 7 are small
depressions that occurred in September last year, and are the receptacle
for an immense quantity of storm- water, which passes down through the
fissures and joints in the limestone. There is 10ft. thick of clay, sand,
and conglomerate boulders underlaying the lime bed between No. 2 and
No. 7. I first saw No. 8 on the 7th of last month ; it is 4ft. deep and
20ft. in circumference. No. 9 depression was first seen on March 17, 1886.
The subsiding lasted 10 days^ leaving a hole 14ft. deep and 90ft. in cir-
cumference. While the subsiding continued, the water being pumped by
the Tasmania, Florence Nightingale, and Lefroy mines was almost as white
as snow. The hole was filled up with sand, and remained quiet until
the 16th of last month, when the sand vanished from sight. The sub-
siding lasted for seven days, making the hole 25ft. deep and 146ft. in
circumference. I examined the bottom part of the hole, and found that
it contained soft limestone. I have filled up the bole with 280 cubic
yards of clay, and diverted the water from No. 2 hole, which is now
dry, and now I find that the water has decreased in all the mines. The
strike of the strata which is in parts of the mines (Lefroy mine excepted)
is almost on its edge, and cross-course cuts the Junction Creek, also
ancient channel, which no doubt has allowed the water to percolate
not less than one mile and a half to the mines. As a proof of this, in the
year 18S0, while the Daily's United Co. was driving at their 200ft. level,
towards No. 9 they cut a huge body of water, which filled up drive
240ft. long, and shait 2(X)ft. deep within 40 minutes, and three sluice-

XXVI PBOCKEDINGS, AUGUST.

heads flowed over the sorface of the shaft for three years. When the
other mines sunk below 200ft. the water subsided. Another proof, the
three mines, viz., Lefroy, Florence Nightingale, and the Tasmania have
been pumping 1,852 gallons of water per minute, which is far in excess
of what might reasonably be expected from a quartz lode only 400ft.
below the natural surface. No. 2 sketch shows ancient channel."

At the conclusion of the paper Mr. Johnston said he could quite
confirm what Mr. Davies had said. He had an intimate knowledge of
the district, and the fruit and flowers he had obtained from that part
of the country during the last eight or ten years had enabled him to
increase his store of the tertiary flora of the island. His. own
impression with regard to the phenomenon was that there was a large
nnderground channel ranning through the limestone, the upper part of
which constituted the roof of the channel. The extensive pumpins
operations which had been going on had reduced the water, whicn
previously supported the roof, and its withdrawal had caused the roof
to fall in.

VOTE OP THANKS.

The President moved a vote of thanks to the gentlemen who had
contributed papers, and the motion was carried by acclamation.

ANTABCTIC EXPLORATION.

Bishop Sandpord mentioned the matter of Antarctic Exploration, as
he noticed that the Germans were moving in the matter, ana the various
Australasian societies were quiet about it. The President also asked
to be informed as to the exact position of affairs connected with the
question. Mr. Morton stated that the Imperial Government having
refused to submit proposals to the Legislature for the undertaking it
had dropped for a time, but meetings would be held in Melbourne and
Sydney shortly.

the native opossum.

Mr. A. J. Taylor drew attention to the destruction of the native
opossum, and said that something like 75 per cent, of the animals killed
had young in the pouch at the time. The opossum had a large com-
mercial value, and he .mentioned the matter, as there was a member of
the Government present, but thought the Society should make represen-
tations to the Government for the protection of the animals.

Mr. Bird (the Treasurer) said he would be pleased to receive any
information upon the matter.

This concluded the business of the evening.

PBOCEEDINGS, OCTOBER. XXVU

OCTOBER, 1888.

The usnal monthly meeting of this Society was held at the Museum
on Monday, the 8tb October, the president (His Excellency, Sir Robert
G. C. Hamilton, K.C.B.) in the chair. There was a lar^e attendance
of Fellows of the Society.

Liat of additions to the Library during the months of August and
September.

Annual report of the chisf sis^nal officer of the Army to the Secretary
of War for the year 1887. (Washington, bound). In two parts, part
1. — ^From Brigadier-General A. W. Greely.

Abhandlungen der Mathematisch — Physikalischen classe der Kone-

flich Bayerisohen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 1887. — From the
department.

Anales del Museo Nacional Republica de Costa Rica Tomo I. Ano de
1887. — From the Department.

Annals and Magazines, Natural History.

Annual Report of the Board uf the Smithsonian Institution, showing
the operations, expenditures, and constitution of the Institution to
July, 1887. Pts. 1.2 (bound).— From the Institution.

Annual Report of the Clandian Institute Session, 1886-7, being part
of Appendix to the Report of the Minister of Education, Ontario,
1887.— From the Institute.

Ajinual Report of the Chief Signal Offices of the Army to the Secre-
tary of War for the year 1885-1S86, Washington, bound. — From the
Department.

The AtJiencBum,

Bollettino della Societa Geografica Italiana. Serie III., Vol. I.,
Fascicolo VII. Luglio 1888, Roma. — From the Society.

Bollettino dei Musei di Zoologia ed Anatomia Gomparata della
B. Uuniversita di Tornio, N. 44 to 48. Vols. III. (pamphlets). —
From the Society.

Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College.
Vol. XITT. No. 9. The superior incisors and canine teeth of sheep, by
Florence Mayo, with two plates. (Pamphlet).

Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard Col-
lege, vol. XIII., No. 10. "The Rattle ot the Rattlesnake." By
Samuel Garman.

Vol. XVII., No. 1.— Studies from the Newport Marine Labor-
atory.— Communicated by A. Agassiz. XX. — On the development of
the calcareous plates of Asterias. By W. Fewkes. — From Professor
A. Agassiz.

Bulletin de la Soci^t^ Imp^riale des Naturalistes de Mosco<9,
No. 2. Moscow, 1887. — From the Society.

Bulletin of the Californian Academy of Sciences, vol. 2, Nos. 6,
7, 8. January, June, and November, 1887. — From the Academy.

Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. Article
L— The West Indian Seal (Monachus tropicalis). By J. A. Allen.
Article II. — Note on Squalodont remains from Charleston, S.C. By
J. A. Allen. Vol. II., No. 1. — From the Department.

Bulletin de la Soci4te4 de Geographic. Pts. 1 to 4, 1887. From
the Society.

Bulletin of the Essex Institute, Salem. January to December,
1886. Vol. 18, Nos. 1 to 12. From the Institute.

Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. Vol. V., No.
2. The Gape Worm of Fowls (Syngamus trachealis). The Earth

XXViii PBOCEEDINOS, OCTOBER.

Worm (Lumbricas terrestris), its original host. Also, od the pre-
vention of the disease in fowls called gapes^ which is caused by this
parasite. By H. D. Walker, M.D. From the Society.

Catalogue of the Fishes in the collection of the Australian Museum,
Sydney, Part 1. Recent Paloeichthyan Iilshes, (pamphlet), by J.
Douglas Ogilby, F.L.S. — From the Trustees.

Contributions to the Matural History of Alaska, results of in-
vestigations made chiefly in the Yukon district, and the Allatian
Islands, conducted under the auspices of the signal service, United
States army, extending from May 1874, to August 1881
(bound), by L. M. Turner. — From Brigadier General A. W. Greely.

Darwinism.— A lecture by Prof. F. W. Button, F.6.S. at the Philoso-
phical Institute of Canterbury, September 12, 1887 (pamphlets). —
From the author.

Department of the Interior. — No. 34, on the relation of the
Laramie Molluscan Fauna to that of the succeeding Freshwater
Eocene and other Groups. No. 35, Fbysica] properties of the IrOB-
Carburets. No. 36, Subsidence of fine solid particles in Liquids.
Washington, 1886. Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey
No. 37. Types of the Laramie Flora, No. 38. Peridotite of
Elliott county, Kentucky, No. 39. The upper beaches and Deltas of
the glacial lake. Lake Agassiz. From the Department.

Eruption of Mount Tarawera. — Report on the Tarawera volcanic
district. By Professor F. W. Button, F.G.S. (Two pamphlets.)—
From the author.

Essex Institute. — Historical Collections, January to December, 1886.
Vol. XXm. Salem, Mass. — From the Institute.

" Faraday," a lecture by Cbas Tomlinson, F.R.S. From Mrs. Davies.

French CJolonies and their Resources, by James Bonwick, F.R.G.S.
(bound), London, 1886. — From the hon. the Chief Secretary.

Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1882-3. (Bound.) By J. W.
Powell, Director. — From the Institution.

Gedachtnisrede auf Joseph von Fraunhofer zur Feier seines
hundersten Geburtstags von Carl Max V. Bauerfeind. — From the
Department.

History of Geological Magazine.

Howietown, containing a full description of the various hatching
houses and ponds, and of experiments which have been undertaken
there, from 1873 to the present time, and also of the Fish Cultural
work and the magnificent results already obtained. (Bound).
— By Sir James Ramsay Gibson Maitland, Bart.

Imperial Federation, current Nos. — From the Editor.
. In halts verzeichniss der Sitzung — sberichte der mathematisch — phy-
s^kalischen classe dee k. b. Jahrgang 1871*1885. Munchen 1886. —
From the Department.

Journal of the Linnean Society, London. *' Botany," Vols. 22 to
24, Noa. 149 to 152. «* Zoology," Vols. XX. to XXH., Nos. 117 to
140. — From the Society.

Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, London. Vol. L., Pts.
n., III., IV., 1887, Vol. LL, Pts. L, IL, 1888.— From the Society.

Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, August, 1888. — From the
Society.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland
(new series), Vol. XIX., Pts. III. and IX., 1887, Vol. XX., Pts. 1-2,
1888.— From the Society.

Journal of the Royal History and Archaeological Association of
Ireland. Vol. VIII., fourth series, April 1887, No. 70. Vol. VHI.,
July 1888, No. 75.— From the Society.

PROCEEDINGS, OCTOBER. XXIX

Journal of Comparative Medicine and Surgery, edited by W,
A. Conklin, Ph., D.D.V.S., Director of the Zoological Gardenj,
Kew York. — From the Department.

Life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiography
chapter ; edited by his son, Francis Darwin, in three volumes.
Second edition (bound), London, 1887.

List of the Linnean Society of London. Session, 1887-1888. — From
the Society.

List of the Geological Society of London, November 1,1887. — From
the Society.

List of members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. November,
1887.— From the Society.

Minerals of New South Wales, etc., by A. Liversidge, M.A. F.R.S.,
Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney.
With map. (Bound). London, 1888. Purchased.

Memoirs of the Boston Societv of Natural History. Vol. IV., No. 1.
The significance of bone structure. By T. Dwight, M.D. No. 2. The
development of the ostrich fern. No. 3. The introduction and spread
of Pieris ropae in North America, 1860, 1865. by S. H. Scudder.
No. 4. North American Geraniaceae. By W. Trelease. No. 5. The
baconic of Georgia and the report on the geology of Vermont. By
Jules Marcon. No. 6. The Entomophthoreae of the United States.
By R. Thaxtor. — From the Society.

Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and Philosophic Society. Vol.
X. Third series Vol. XXX. (old) (bound). — From the Society.

Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, London, Vol 41,
Pt. 1. — From the Society.

Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. Ill, Pt.
2, Washington. Ninth memoir contributions to meteorology. — From
the Department.

Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. XL VIII,
No. 8, June 1888.-— From the Society.
Nature.

Naturhistorisches Museum, Zu, Hamburg. Bericht des Direktor,
Professor Dr Pagenenstecheifur das Jahr 1887, abgestattet in dem
Jahrbuch der wissenschaftlichcn Anstalten, Zu, Hamburg, fur 1887. —
From the Society.

On some effects of Lightning by Chas. Tomlinsoo, F.R.S. —
From Mrs. Da vies.

On the colour correction of Achromatic Telescopes : a reply to
Prof. Chas. S. Hastings. By iVm. Harkness, Washington, 1888.
(Pamphlet). — From the author.

On the Progress of Science, as exemplified in the Art of Weighing
and Measuring, being the Presidential Address delivered before the
Washington Philosophical Society. December 10, 1887. By Wm.
Harkness, in which are appended some Historical Notes and a Biblio-
graphy. (Washington, 1888.) Pamphlet. — From the Author.

Observations made during the year 1883 at the United States Naval
Observatory. Rear-Admiral R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.N. (Bound).—
From the Department.

Pioneering in New Guinea. By Rev. J ames Chalmers. I^ondon, 1887.
(Bound.)

Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute. Vol. XVIIL, 1886-7.
Vol. XIX., 1887-8. (Bound).— From the Institute.

Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Vol. XII.
Pt 1. List of the Members, Officers, and Professors, etc., for 1887. —
Froai the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and monthly record
o! Geography. Vol. IX. Nos. 6 to 12, 1887. Vol. X. Nos. 2
to 8, 1888.— From the Society.

XXX PROCEEDINGS, OCTOBER.

Proceedings of the Scientific Meetings of the Zoological Society of
London, Pts. I., January and Febraary ; XI., March and April ; III.,
May and June ; IV., November and December, 1887. Pt. I.» January
and February, 1888. — From the Society.

Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
Vols. XXV., VI. Sessions 1885 6-7.— From the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Sessions 1883-4,
1884-5, 1885, 1886, 1886-7. Vol. XIV. —From the Society.

Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London, July, 1888. From
November, 1886, to June, 1887.— From the Society.

Proceedings of the Linnean Sociely of New South Wales (second
series, vol. III., pt.) the second. April, May, and June, 1888. — From
the Society.

Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, Toronto. Third series, vol. V.
Fasiculus No. 2, April 1888.— From the Society.

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (new
series). Vol. XIV., whole series. Vol. XXIL, Pt. ], from May, 1886,
to December, 1886, selected from the records, Pt. 11, from December,

1886, to May, 1887.— From the Society.

Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, thirty-fifth and sixth held at New York, August, 1886-7. Vol.
XXXV., XXXVL— From the Association.

Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, thirty-fourth meeting, held at Ann Arbor, Mich., August,
1885.— From the Society.

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society held at Phila-
delphia for promoting useful knowledge. Vols. XXIV., XXV., Nas.
125 6-7.- From the Society.

Piroceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
Pts. I., II.. III., January to December, 1888. — From the Society.

Queensland Post and Telegraph Department. — Weather Chart of
Australasia at 9 a.m., August 31, 1888. — From Clement L. Wragge,
Government Meteorologist.

Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, Vol. XLIII., Pts.
3, 4, No9. 171, 172; Vol. XLIV., Pts. 1,2, Nos. 173-4.— From the
Society.

Refraction in the principal Meridians of a Triaxial Ellipsoid, with
remarks on the correction of Astigmatism by Cylindrical Glasses ;
and an Historical Note on Corneal Astigmatism by Swan M. Burnett,
M.D., with a communication on the Monochromatic aberration of the
human eye in aphakia, by Professor W. Harkness (pamphlet),
Washington, 1888. — From Professor W. Harkness.

Report of the Trustees of the Australian Museum, Sydney, for

1887. — From the Trustees.

Raising Diatoms in the Laboratory, by Prof. Samuel Lockwood, Pt.
10. Read before the New York Microscopical Society, December 19,
1886. From the Author.

Report of tne Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey, showing the progress of the work during the fiscal year ending
with June, 1886. Pt. 1. Text. From the Department.

Resultados del Observatorio Nacional Agentido. Vol. VI., 1887.
From the Department.

Summary and Review of International Meteorological Observations
for the month May, 1888, with charts. Published by order of the
Secretary of War, A. W. Greely (pamphlet). — Washington, 1888.

Statistics of the Colony, of New Zealand for the year 1887. Part
I, Blue Book. Part II, Population and Vital Statistics. Part III,
Trade and Interchanjy[e (unbound). — From the Registrar.

Scottish Geographical Magazine. The Vol. IV., No. 8. From the
Society.

PROCEEDINGS, OCTOBER. ' XXXI

Scientifio Writings of Joseph Henry. Vols. ], 2. Published by
the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 1886 (bound). From the
Institute.

Sixth annual report of the United States Geographical Survey to the
Secretary of the Interior, 1884-5. By J. W. Powell. (Bound.)
— From the Departinent.

Sitzungsberichto der Mathematisch-Physikalischen Classe der k.b.
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu MtiDchen, Heft III, 1876. — From
the Department.

Sketch of the Geology of New Zealand. By Professor F. W.
Hntton, F.G.S. (Pamphlet. )^From the Author.

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. XXVII. Meteorological
and Physical Tables, by Arnold Guyot, Vol. XXX. Catalogue of
Scientific Periodicals, by H. C. Bolton, Vol. XXX. Scientific Writings,
by Joseph Henry, Vol. XXXI. Synoptical Flora of North America,
by Asa Gray. — From the Institution.

Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, J. W. Powell,
director. Bibliography of the Siouan Languages. Bibliography of
the Eskimo Languages. By J. C. Pilling.

Work in Mound Exploration of the Bureau of Ethnology. By
C. Thomas.

The Use of Gold and Other Metals among the Ancient Inhabitants of
Chiriqni, Isthmus of Darien. By W. H. Holmes. — From the Depart-
ment.

Society de Geographic, Compte Rendu, Nos. 10 to 16, 1887 ; Nos.
1 to 13. 1888.— From the Society.

Soci^te Boyale Malacologique de Belgique. Process — Verbal de
I'Assembie g^neral^ annuUe du 3 Juillet, 1887 (pamphlets). — From
the Society.

Transactions of the Seismological Society of Japan. Vol. XII. — From
the Society.

Transactions of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in
Scotland, Vol. X.X.X., 30fch session, 1886-7 (bound).— From the
society.

United States of America War Department. — Monthly Weather
Review, general weather service of the United States. — From the
departmemt.

United States of America War Department, office of the Chief
Signal Officer. — Tri-daily Meteorological Records for 1878. — From tho
department.

United States GeoloG;ical Survey, J. W. Powell, director. ''Dino-
cerata," a monograph of an extinct order of gigantic mammals. (Bound.)
By O. C. Marsh. — From the Department.

United States Geological Survey, J. W. Powell. Mineral Resources
of the United States Calendar Year 1886. David T. Day, Chief of
Division of Mining Statistics asd Technology. (Bound.) — From the
Department.

University of Cincinnati. Publications of the Cincinnati Observatory
of Zone Catalogne of 4,050 Stars, 1887. — From the University.

War Department, Office of the Chief Signal Officer of the Army
of the United States. Summary and Review of International
Meteorological Observations July to December, 1885.— From the
Department.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Letter from His Excellency's private secretary :— ** I am directed
by His Excellency Sir Robert Hamilton to acquaint you that by the last
mail he received a despatch from the vSecretary of State for the Colonies,
in which he was requested to inform you ' that the address of congratu-

XXxii PROCEEDINGS, OCTOBER.

lation from the Boyal Society of Tasmania to Her Majesty on the
occasion of the 50th anniversary of Her reign, was duly laid at the foot
of the throne, and that Her Majeety has commanded us to convey
Her thanks for the dutiful and loyal sentiments expressed in the address.
The Secretary of State reports that owing to an oversight the
acknowledgment of this address has been delayed."

The Secbetaby, Mr. Morton, read a letter from the curator of the
Technological Museum, Sydney, respecting a cutting from the Pharmd'
cetUiccU Journal to the effect that a M. Guilmeth had discovered in
Tasmania a mammoth deposit of honey, the work of native bees, and
asking for information as to the probabilities of the story contained in
the paragraph, which spoke of M. Guilmeth having come upon a grove
of gigantic Eucalyptus trees, from 260ft. to 390ft. high. The largest
individual store of honey weighed as much as 11,0001b. (The tale,
which is utterl}» without foundation, was published in the columns
of The Mercury some 18 months ago.) The writer stated that he
^ had received a small quantity of the honey from Paris and had analysed
it, proving it to be an artifical compound of common honey with
20 per cent, of Eucalyptus oil.

AQUATIC SHELLS OF TASMANIA.

The Secbetabt, in the absence of Mr. W. F. Petterd, F.Z.S., read
a paper entitled *' Contributions for a systematic cai-alo^ae of
the aquatic shells of Tasmania, in which the author expressed his
intention, in a series of papers, of revising the somewhat large
amount of work already done, recording omissions and describing
newly discovered species and varieties of the fresh water shell-
bearing moUusca of the island, preparatory to the compilation of a
systematic catalogue in which tne groups would be defined, the
specific characteristics explained, and geographical distinction
recorded. Such a catalogue, carefully criticised with the necessary
bibliography, would in his opinion supply a desideratum much
required by the general collector, and might also be of service to the
more philosophical student. It was now a well established tmth
that examination of shell coverings was an almost infallible guide for
the determination of species, so that it was necessary to undertake
an extensive seiies of comparisons from as many localities as were
accessible, before a systematic catalogue could be so worked out as to
become of scientific value and service. The primary reason for his
recent investigations was to endeavour to discover the correct genus
in the system of classification in which to place the many species of
minute paludinous aquatic shells so abundant in streams and pools.
With this end in view he had selected the most abundant widely
dispersed and characteristic form for special examination. The ^ older
conchological writers were satisfied in placing those in what, to oar
* modern eyes, mixed genus Pcdudina, which then included a
heterogeneous assortment of small shells of a conical form, without
reference to their habitat being fluviatile or marine. More recent
scientists had annexed them to a numerous variety of genera of
more or less staple definition, but unfortunately almost all writers
simply devoted their attention to the outline of the shell, and
structure of the operculum, few, if any, devoting the amount of
attention to the malacological characters that the more irodem and
elaborate system of classification demands. After further remarks
on the system of classification, the writer said his investigations had
led him to place without any hesitation our most prominent species in
a genus quite new to Tasmania or even Australia — that of
Potamopt/rgua, established by Dr. Stimpson in a volume of the
American Journal of Conchology for the analogous minute aquatic
pnlmonate moUnsca of New Zealand. The paper then went on to

PBOCEEDINGS, OCTOBEE. XXXIU

enumerate species already described by several authorities, and forming
others into new genuses and species.

Mr. B. M. Johnston read a paper entitled *' Critical observations
on recent contributions to knowledge of the fresh water shell of
Tasmania," in which he gave the Rev. J. E. Tenison Woods the
distinction of having been the first to make a systematic attempt to
arrange the fresh water shells of the island. He dealt in an elaborate
manner with the general classification of the fresh water shells,
showing that they present many difficulties, and accompanying the
paper was an exhaustive tabular history of the classification of the
Tasmanian fresh water shells, quoting the Bev. Tenison Woods and
Professor Button.

DAPHNIADiE.

Mr. C. J. Atkins read some interesting notes on the genus
Daphniadoe allied to the water flea of Europe, and after reading the
paper examples of these water insects were shown in living form by
the aid of the microscope and a powerful lantern.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

In the absence of Mr. T. Stephens, F.G.S., Mr. Mobton read some
notes from that gentleman on the rare Eucalyptus cordcUa^ which h&^
been sent to the author by the Bev. C. J. Brammall from Nelson's
Tier, where he found it growing abundantly over a range of from 6
to 10 miles from Sorell. This species of Eucalypt was noted in the
transactions of the Royal Society for 1881, and had been described
as named by Labillardiere in 1793. It was not again met with until
1842, when Sir Joseph Hooker and the late Mr. Ronald Gunn met
with it near the Hi\on district! It was then lost sight of for nearly
40 years, till again in 1880 the author obtained a specimen at
Beoherche Bay, and another from near Leslie in 1881, and in the
same year he, with Mr. Abbott found it growing abundantly near
the Huon-road, about four miles from Hobart.

Mr. B. M. Johnston said the variability of all forms of eucalypti
was so great that the final classification of • various descriptions was
not yet made, nor could it be until a representative collection of
them in their different forms throughout Australia was got together
for determination.

The CmEi* Justice remarked that one thing he found with regard
to the foliage of Eucalyptus cordata, was that while in its young
state it closely resembled E, Risdoni the latter in its more advanced
state WdA more lanceolated, and not glaucus as in E, cordata. So
difficult was it to classify many of the eucalypti, that Baron Von
Mueller had found it necessary to make sections of the anthers for
purposes of determining the several species,

Mr. Mobton exhibited a bird new to Tasmania, Orcdina picata,
a female, the specimen being shot at Stanley, and kindly forwarded to
him by Dr. Holden.

Mr. A. J. Taylob exhibited two specimens of abnormal growths
on trees, which he said were obtained at Mount Heemskirk, the one
from a sassafras, and the other from a manuka.

AN ART exhibition.

The Hon. W. H, Bubgess, M.H.A., brought forward the question
of an exhibition of pictures from the British Art Society in Tasmania.
He wished for some help in inducing the Society of British Artists to
send an exhibition of pictures, which were being sent to Sydney, to
Tumania sd^ter they left that city. While he was in London he met
tiie President of the Society on the subject, and told him a wing
bad been added to the Society's building in Hobart, and that it was

XZXIV PB0CEEDIN6S OCTOBEB.

intended to form the nacleus of an art gallery for Tasmania, asking
whether there would be any likelihood of the pictures being sent on to
Tasmania after the Sydney Exhibition closed. The President replied
that the proposal might be entertained if a guarantee was given to
cover the expense. Eventually he obtained from the President his
views in writinsr, and the note in which they were embodied specified,
among other things, the provision of galleries for the Society, and a
guarantee that the sum of £500 would be raised in the event of the
exhibition not realising that sum from entrance money. He felt
confident that a large proportion of the sum would be realised by
the charge for admission. In return, the president would give his
large picture, '* Helpless," painted by himself and J. C. Gotch, R.A.,
for presentation to the trustees of the National Gallery. The picture
was 14ft. X 8ft., and its price was l,000gns. A photograph of the
picture was laid on the table. If a committee were appointed to
take up the matter and wait on the Government for assistance, there
would be no doubt whatever the pictures would come here for
exhibition. In addition to other works it was more than probable
Firth's celebrated pictures, entitled ''The Koad to Ruin/' which
created such a furore, when they were first exhibited, would be sent
to Sydney, and Mr. Ingram, the president, promised him that if they
went there they should come on to Hobart, provided the arrange-
ments were made.

Mr. Russell Young thought great credit was due to Mr. Burgess
for taking such an interest in the subject. It would be a good
opportunity to raise the status of artistic ability in Tasmania, and as
it appeared to him simply a matter of guaranteeing the difference
between the sum taken at the doors and £500, he thought there
would not be much difficulty in obtaining the requisite guarantee.

Mr. Ghabfentieb said he had pupils in the Technical School who
would, if they could only see something to stimulate their ambition,
produce work which would be astonishing. We had nothing what-
ever here whereby any person attempting to learn anything^ of art
oould see any technical methods by which certain results were arrived at,
or any high standard of art.

Mr. GuBZON Allfort thought the matter had best be referred to
a committee. He doubted whether the room in the Museum was
altogether suitable for an art exhibition, on account of the arrange-
ment of the lights.

Bishop Sandford thought it would be as well to give Launceston
the benefit of such an exhibition if possible, as well as Hobart.

The Ghief Justice would be very glad to see all the assistance
possible given to such an exhibition as this, but was afraid the best
of the pictures would never reach Hobart, as they would be sold in
Sydney or perhapa Melbourne.

After further discussion, Mr. Allfort moved the appointment of a
committee, consisting of Bishop Sandford, the Ghief Justice, Hon. W. H.
Burgess, Messrs. Russell Young, R. M. Johnston, W. Benson, A.
Morton, Golonel Legge, and the mover, to arrange preliminaries. This
was seconded and carried.

His Excellency then proposed a vote of thanks to the gentlemen
who had prepared piipers, those who had taken part in the discussions,
and to Mr. J. F. Echlin and Mr. G. J. Atkms for the lantern exhibition.
He was sorry Mr. Petterd was not present, but he had contributed a
very valuable paper. Mr. Johnston's paper was also very valuable.

The vote was carried, and those present then examined several natural
history specimens under the microscope, after which the meeting
terminated.

PBOOEEDINOS, NOYEMBEB. XZxv

NOVEMBER, 1888.

The monthly meeting of the Royal Society was held in the new wing
of the Tasmanian Museum on November 13. The chair was occupied
by His Excellency Sir Robert George Crookshank Hamilton, K.C.B.,
President of the Society.

ADDITIONS TO LIBBARY.

List of additions to the library during the month of October : —

Annual Report of the Secretary for Mines and Water Supply^
Victoria, '* On the working of the Regulation and Inspection of Mines
and Mining Machinery Act during the year 1887." — From the
Department.

Annals and Magazines of Natural History.

BoUettino della SocietdGeograficaltaliana, Serie m., Vol. I., Fasicolo
Vin., Agosto 1888.— From the Society.

Classified Index of the Second Supplement to the Indigenous and
Naturalised Plants of Queensland, with alphabetical index of Genera
by F. Manspn Bailey, F.L.S. — From the Author.

Die Internationale Polarforschung 1882-83, Beobachtungs-Ergebnisse
der Norwegischen Polarstation Bossekop in Alten. — From the Depart-
ment.

Geological Magazine, current numbers.

Iconography of Australian species of Acacia and Cognate genera, by
Baron F. Von Mtteller, K.C.M.G. (Twelfth decade.)— From the Govern-
ment.

Journal and proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales,
Vol. XXn, pt. 1,— From the Society.

Meteorological Service, Dominion of Canada. Monthly Weather
Review, June, 1888. — From the Department.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, 1888, Vol. V,, pt. 11.
— From the Society.

Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria, decade XVI., by Frederick
McCoy, C.M.G. — From the Government.

Report on the Geological Features of the Mackay District by R. L.
Jack, Government Geologist. — From the Department.

Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. IV., No. 9. — From the Society.

Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, vol. V., VI., parts
7, 8, N.S. parts 1, 2. — From the Society.

Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, vol. Ill,, series
n. XV.— The Echinoderm Fauna of the Island of Ceylon, by F. Jeffrey
Bell, M.A. Vol. IV., series II. — On Fossil — Fish Remains from
the Tertiary and Cretaceotertiary Formations of New Zealand, by J. W.
Davis, F.G.S.— From the Society.

Summary and Review of International Meteorological Observations
for the month of July, 1887, United States. — From the War Department.

Synopsis of the Queensland Flora, containing both the Phoenogamous
and Cryptogamous Plants, byF. M. Bailey (bound). — From the Author.

Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of
Australasia (Victorian Branch), Pt. 1, Vol. VI. — From the Society.

Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, Vol.
XXIV., Pt. II.— From the Society.

Transactions of the Geolological Society of Australasia, Vol. I., Pt.
in. — From the Society.

Transactions of the (Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol.
Vn., Pts. 1 and 2.— From the Society.

Victorian Year Book for 1887-8, Vol. 1.— From the Government
Statist,

ZZZVi PBOCEEDINGS, NOYBMBEB.

THE PBENOH IN VAN DIEMEN's LAND.

Mr. J. B. Walkeb read a paper on " The French in Van Diemen'a
Land and the first settlement at the Derwent." The paper had been
written at the request of the Premier (Hon. P. O. Fysh), and was fonnded
principally on documents relating to the early history of Tasmania,
preserved in the English Record Office, and copied by Mr. James
Bonwick (the well-known writer on the Tasmanian aborigines), under
instructions from the Tasmanian Government. The paper began by a
reference to Professor Seeley's statement in his work on " The Expansion
of England," that the wars of last century between England and France
had been a duel for the possession of the new world. The writer pro-
ceeded to trace the influence of that rivalry on the colonisation of
Australia. At the end of the last century France had lost nearly all
her colonial possessions, and England had lost her North American
colonies by revolt. This loss was probably one potent moving cause in
the settlement of Australia. When it was found necessary to provide a
new method of disposing of the criminal population, English statesmen
naturally turned to the new land in the south just made known by
Captain Cook. French writers many years before had advocated the
settlement by convicts and foundlings of some land in the South Sea,
and England in 1788 carried out the idea by the settlement of New
South Wales. There had long been a keen rivalry between the two
nations in discovery in the South Seas. France did not relinquish her
designs on Australia because of the English colony, and the Derwent had
always been a favoured spot for her navigators. After Tasman's dis-
covery of Tasmania in 1642, the first visitor to our shores was the
Frenchman Marion in 1772,and although Cook and others had touched at
Adventure Bay, the French Admiral Bruny D'Entrecasteaux in 1792 was
the first to discover and^explore the channel which bears his name and the
magnificent harbour of the Derwent. The expedition remained some
weeks in the channel, and made surveys indicating an intention
to colonise. The French expedition of Baudin was sent out expressly
to further explore Tasmania and the coast of Australia, probably with
a view of forming a settlement. The French ships spent weeks in the
Derwent, and then visited Sydney, where they were received with great
hospitality, though France and England were chen at war, in striking
contrast to the French treatment of Captain Flinders, who less than a
year afterwards had his ship seized at Mauritius, and was imprisoned
for six years, while his discoveries were claimed by the French as having
been made by Baudin's expedition. The settlement of the Derwent in
1803 was made by Governor King, in consequence of a report which
reached him that Baudin had orders to plant a colony at the Derwent.
King sent a little vessel after Baudin, to inform him that he woald
resist by force any attempt on the part of the French to occupy any
portion of Tasmania. This vessel — the Cumberland, 29 tons — was
commanded by Captain Bobbins, who examined King's Island, then
proceeded to Port Phillip, made the first survey of that port, and
returned to Sydney. The Governor then determined to be on the safe
side, and anticipate any action by the French, by sending Captain John
Bowen with a small establishment to Bisdon on the Derwent to form a
settlement. Bowen sailed from Sydney in June, 1803, but was driven
back by stress of weather. On August 31, 1803, he sailed again in the
Albion whaler, with the Lady Nelson in company carrying the bulk of
his people. The Lady Nelson arrived at Kisdon on September 7, and
Bowen himself in the Albicn on the 12th of the same month. Bowen's
civil establishment consisted of three persons, himself, a doctor, and a
storekeeper ; his military establishment of a corporal and seven privates
He took 21 male and three female convicts, and four free settlers.
Altogether 49 persons^ of whom 13 were women and children. They

PROCEEDINGS, NOVEMBER. XXXVii

had aiz months* provisions, 10 head of cattle, and about 60 sheep. This
was the first settlement in Tasmania. Kisdon was abandoned in the
following year when Lientenant-Oovemor David Collins founded
Hobart.

His Excellency said he was only expressing the feelings of every one
present at the satisfactory account which Mr. Walker had given of the
early history of the colony. He invited any person present to speak
upon it.

The Hon. P. O. Ftsh said he confessed that he had been at a
loss what to do with the historical papers which had been left as a
legacy by his predecessors in office, and he had cast about him to see
how that could best be dealt with. There was a mass of manuscripts
comprising 600 pages, and he thought that in Mr. Walker there was a
friend to whom he could refer them. That gentleman had made the
Btndy of Tasmanian history a specialty, and for that reason he was
pleased to hand them over to him. The documents came down to him
early in the present year and when looking over them with Mr. Walker,
they noticed a very curious coincidence that whilst England at the end
of last century was engaged in a difficulty with the French in regard to
the settlements in Tasmania, at the time the papers reached them there
were also difficulties with the French in regard to the New Hebrides.
The papers dealt with brought them down to 1805, but there
were some 700 pages more which brought them down to 1807, and
unless he could get Mr. Walker to undertake to deal with them he did
not know how the historical facts would obtain publicity. Mr. Bonwick
was still going on searching the archives of the War Office in Paris, and
various places in England, and he proposed to bring this batch down to
1824, the time of Governor Sorell. It could not, however, be expected
that Parliament would undertake the publication of the whole of the
facts which were thus obtained, and he was in hopes that after the
reading of Mr. Walker's paper, the Society would assist the Govern-
ment by appointing a committee which would advise Mr. Bonwick as to
the matters which should have special attention. He had had very
much pleasure in listening to the paper read by Mr. Walker, and trusted
that he would have his help in future.

Bishop Sandfobd said with regard to Antarctic exploration, he
thought that if for meteorological purposes only they were bound to
explore the lands near the South Pole. He thought they might very
largely increase the knowledge of the earth by further Antarctic ex-
plorations.

Mr. J. B. Walkeb briefly acknowledged the kind terms in which
His Excellency and other Fellows had spoken of the paper. With
respect to the State documents copied by Mr. Bonwick, he suggested
that the Government or the Bioyal Society should have them abstracted
or calendared for public information. He wished also to cake the
opportunity of calling the Premier's attention to the fact that no official
papers before 1821 were to be found in the Chief Secretary's office. On
enquiring for these earlier records of the colony, he had been informed
that they were supposed to be lying hidden away in the cellars of the
Houses of Parliament. He trusted that the Premier would take steps
to rescue from destruction by damp and neglect papers of so much
value for the future historian of Tasmania.

THE TASMANIAN UNIO.

Mr. R, M. Johnston, F.L.S., said as the hour was late, he would
not read the paper he had prepared on *' Observations on the varia-
bility of the Tasmanian Unio," but would simply give an abstract of it.
He gave a description of the variability of the freshwater Unio which
inhabited and was restricted to the northern rivers of the colony, and

ZZZVIU PBOOEEBIKOS, NOVEMBEB.

especially the South Esk. He gare drawings of seven stages of growth,
and showed how that if the variability of these stages (be taken into
consideration it would indicate that many of the Australian forms,
regarded as distinct species, may be due to the accidental selection of
different stages of growth of one widely distributed form. He urged
that beforet the perfect classification of the Unionidce of Australia, a
similar study of variability of widely-scattered habitat? must be made
before satisfactory classification could be established. For these
reasons he felt disinclined , to accept another synonym for our local
form at the present time.

TIPPAGOEY COAL.

Mr. R. M. Johnston also made some observations upon a specimen
of coaly shale obtained by Mr. Hackett whilst exploring on the
Tippagory Bange, near Mount George, in the vicinity of George Town.
He said it was a coaly shale containing abundant impressions of
Oangamopteris spatidata, McCoy, and therefore allied to the coal
measures of the Mersey, rather than to those of the south-eastern
portions of Tasmania, and would, therefore, be much older than the
latter.

BEVIEW OF THE SESSION.

The President said :—

Gentlemen, — We have now come to the last of our meetings in' the
year 1888, and following the precedent of 1887, I propose to sum up
briefly the results of the session. The number of our Fellows is some-
what in excess of last year. The additions to our library have been
very satisfactory, and the number of societies with which we exchange
our publications has been increased by the important additions of the
Royal Dublin Society, and the Royal Geographical Society of Edin-
burgh. In referring to the additions to our library, I would call special
attention to Mr. Johnston's great work, " A Systematic Account of the
Geology of Tasmania," published by the Tasmanian Government, who
are highly to be commended for the handsome contribution to the cause
of science which the cost of the production of this elaborate work must
have involved. We opened the present session with a conversazione
held in the new rooms recently added to the Museum, which was largely
attended, and at which some very interesting mechanical processes were
exhibited. We heve held five meetings, and have had submitted to us
the following papers, viz., in *' Ichthyology," from Sir Thomas Brady,
Mr. Johnston, and Mr. Seager. In '* Ornithology "from Mr. Petterd
and Colonel Legge ; in ** Conchology " from Messrs. Johnston (2), and
from Mr. Petterd ; in " Mineralogy " from Mr. Toplis ; in *• Geology "
from Mr. Davies ; in '* Exploration " from Mr. Andrew ; in
"Topography" from Mr. Walker; and in '* Statistics " from Mr.
Johnston. We have no reason to be ashamed of the quality of the work
of the session, but the quantity is not so great as usual. A glance at
the list of contributors shows how much we owe to one or two of our
members, notably Mr. Johnston. If, through any misfortune the Society
were deprived of the work of some half-dozen members, as we have
already, I am sorry to say, been deprived of Mr. Bastow's work though
he has become a corresponding member, I fear the record would be very
meagre. Now, is it not possible to remedy this ? I find on looking at
the reports of the other Australasian Societies that they include many
more subjects than we do, such, for instance, as engineering, agriculture,
use of timbers, etc. I feel pretty sure that some of our members might
usefully contribute on some of these subjects. Then, again, we have no
papers this year on health matters — drainage and sewage. Considering
that we have among us so many medical men — men of science capable
of dealing with these subjects^I think this is matter for regret, and I

PBOCEEDmOS, NOVEMBEB. XXXIX

hope it will be remedied next Bession. It cannot be held that our
position in respect of sanitary matters is such, notwithstanding our
great natural advantages, as to make them subjects of indifiference to
us. It is satisfactory to find that the attention given by this society to
the necessity for preventing the wholesale slaughter of the mutton bird
and the opossum nas borne fruit» and that Acts have been passed by
Parliament this year which afford them some protection. •'^ It may be
remembered that at the closing meeting of last session a very interesting
paper was read by Mr. Laurie, showing the necessity of scientific and
technical education. Since then two ^chnical schools have been estab-
lished, the one in Launceston, and the other in Hobart, which are
attended by about 150 pupils, and are doing good work. In the matter
of art, we are endeavouring to secure au exhibition in Hobart of a
collection of pictures from the British Artists' Society about to be
exhibited in Sydney. The subject was brought under our notice by the
Hon. W. H. Burgess on his return from England, and a committee has
been appointed to communicate with that society on the subject. There
is almost no limit to the useful work which a society like this, having
for its object the advancement of science and investigations of a physical
character, can undertake, and I hope that next session we may have
papers on some of the subjects to which I have referred, respecting
which we have had no contributions this year. In a small community
like ours, the minute subdivision of subjects which properly exists in
large centres like London would be out of place and practically
impossible. There you have separate societies for every important
branch of investigation. Here we combine all, and we do more, for we
endeavour, as far as possible, to make our meetings attractive by a
judicious mixture of subjects so that they are not all merely food for
■oientista but are of general interest as well. Such papers for instance
u those read by Sir Thomas Brady, Mr. Seager, and l^r. Johnston, on
the acclimatisation of the salmonidsB in Tasmanian waters were not alone
of interest and value to the scientist and naturalist. The subject of
acclimatisation is of great interest to us all, an interest not connned to
Tasmania, for numerous articles have appeared in the Enclish press
commenting upon the good work done in this direction by Tasmania.
We have still much to learn, not only as regards the effects of acclimati-
sation on the salmonidse, but also on the trees and shrubs, and flower
and vegetable life which has been transplanted here. This opens a wide
and interesting field for observers, and I trust we may have the results
of their observations submitted to this Society in its future sessions.
In such matters, too, as a native shrub like the wattle tree there is room
for interesting observation. The wattle tree bark is now so important
an article of commerce that it would be very desirable to know whether
it is necessary in Tasmania, as is done in some of the other colonies, to
re-plant trees to take the place of those stripped of their bark, or
whether they reproduce themselves sufficiently without planting. This
year has witnessed the establishment of an Australasian Association for
the Advancement of Science based on the same lines as the British
Association. It does not interfere with the ground occupied by any of
the existing scientific societies in the various colonies, although its
objects are somewhat similar. Its objects are to give a stronger
inpnlse, and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry, to promote
the intercourse of those who cultivate science in different parts of the
British Empire with one another and with foreign philosophers; to
obtain more general attention to the objects of science, and a removal
of any disadvantages of a public kind which may impede its progress.
This IS a direction in which no difficulties ought to stand in the way of
federation, and we have given this association our warmest support.
It will no doubt have the effect of attracting more attention to the
nfantifio work turned out in the colonies than I fear it has hithAtto

xl PBOCEEDINGS, NOVEMBEB.

received at the hands of soieotista at home, and may lead to the pro-
ceedings of this and kindred societies in the other colonies beinff more
studied. It is true that our publications go home now, but people live
at such high pressure that they have little time to unearth the many
gems these contain unless they are directly brought to their notice. But
an associati^i of this sort, by directing attention to what is being done
in the causi^of the advancement of science generally, cannot fail to
secure greater attention being paid to the work in these colonies, much
of which is on a level with similar work produced at home. Our society
was worthily represented at the first meeting of the association which
was held in Sydney in August last by our senior vice-president, Mr.
Barnard, who did his utmost to secure that the next annual gathering
of the association should be held at Hobart. In this, I am sorry to
say, he was not successful ; but when the meeting does take place here
we shall accord the representatives from the other colonies a most hearty
welcome. Our Society naturally takes great Interest in the Centennial
Exhibition now being held at Melbourne, and we are particularly pleased
at the completeness of the Natural History collection in the Tasmanian
Court. The exhibits also from the technical schools of Tasmania are
very creditable, considering how short a time the schools have been in
operation. In conclusion, our best thanks are due to those of our
members who have submitted papers and taken part in the discussions
upon them, and to our secretary, Mr. Morton, who is as indefatigable as
ever. To the Press also we are much indebted for their accounts of the
proceedings at our meetings. We hope that from a business point of
view it suits their purpose to give the full reports they do of our pro-
ceedings, but nevertheless we are under obligations to them for the
space which they always ungrudgingly allot to the operations of the
Society. In bidding you farewell till next year, I would again impress
upon you, as I did last year, the importance of more members doing
work for the Society, and especially I would ask our medical friends,
who are experts in matters relating to health and sanitation, not to let
another session pass without contributing to the Society some papers
on these all-important subjects. I know how valuable the time of
medical men is, but I know also how much science owes to them, and I
dare hope that the medical men of Hobart will not be behind their
fellows elsewhere in that devotion to the cause of science for which the

frofession is so worthily distinguished. I hope also that a suggestion
made last year, although it has not been acted upon this session, may
be acted upon in future sessions, and it is this. As you know, we receive
from other scientific societies copies of their proceedings in exchange
for ours, and I would again suggest to some of our members how
advantageous it would be to us if they would, in the shape of papers
which could be read at our Society, tell us something of the work those
other societies are turning outonkindred subjects to our own. This would
not only be very interesting and instructive, but I believe that it would
both directly and indirectly tend to improve our original work, and thus
still further increase the usefulness of this society, whose interests we
all have so much at heart. I regret that this is the last occasion on which
we shall be favoured at this Society with the genial presence of His
Lordship the Bishop, and I assure him that the best wishes of the
Society will follow him into his new sphere of labour. (Loud applause).
Sir Lambebt Dobson said their president had summed up the work of
the session so compactly that it was almost presumptive for him to say
anything after it. They owed a great deal to His Excellency for the
great interest he took in their Society. He had at times ttembled for
the Society when he had seen men like Mr. Spicer, Father Julian Woods^
and others going from them, and he hoped yet to see something done to
enlarge the scope of the Society as suggested by His Excellency. The
Society was started by Sir John Franklin as a recording society, and

PBOCEBBINGS, KOVEKBEB. zU

they were gradually ranning down that line ever since. It was true
that there were only a few who worked in the Society, hut there were
many difficulties in the way. It was a question, however, whether they
miflht not enlarge their work by having lectures on such subjects as light
and heat, etc. He was glad to see that technical education had been
introduced, and he would like to see it extended much further, as he
believed that to keep pace with the world they must go in for education.
With regard to art, a subject on which His Excellency had touched, he
believed there was a brighter time coming in this direction after the lull
which had been experienced. They suffered by the superior attractions
of the other colonies, and as soon as they got good men amongst them
they lost them again. He was reminded whitet speaking of this that
one of the exhibits of drawing which had been forwarded by the
Technical School to the Centennial Exhibition had been sent for by
Yiotorians, and lost to the colony simply because their friends over the
water had noticed the lad's ability. However, he did not think they
should be discouraged, but go on and do their best in educating the
youth of the colony.

Mr. Basnard made the following remarks : As Your Excellency has been
pleased to make mention, in your interesting address, of my recent visit to
Sydney, to attend the meeting of the Australian Association for the Pro-
motion of Science, I may be permitted to give some particulars of that
visit. Up to the last moment I had no intention of being present, until I
learnt that our highly esteemed Honorary Secretary and Vice-President,
the Hon. Dr. Agnew, had excused himself on the score of illness from
giving attendance at the meeting, where he was to have read a Presidential
address on the science of Anthropology. As I had been appointed, in con-
junction with His Lordship the Bishop, to represent our Boyal Society at
this meeting of the Association, I determined, although at the eleventh hour
(not liking our Society to be unrepresented), to attend the meeting, knowing
that the Bishop could not possibly leave the more important work of his
diocese. The proceedings of the Association commenced on the 28th of August ;
but owing to imtoward circumstances I was unable to leave Tasmania before
thai very day, arriving in Sydney on the 30th, so that all the bloom was, as
it were, taken off, as the various Presidential addresses had been delivered
before my arrival. However, I at once set to work to make the best of the
fra^ent of time remaining ; and I accordingly devoted myself to two
Bubjects which I conceived would be of especial interest to our Boyal
Society. The first of these was the fixing by the general body of members
of the places of meeting of the Association for 1889 and 1890. In the
discussion I urged the claims of Hobart for the distinction of being chosen
upon several grounds which appeared to me sufficiently cogent. The first
ground was the priority over other scientific bodies in Australia of our
Royal Society, which was founded in 1843, and of its predecessor, the
Tasmanian Society, established in 1840. The second ground was, that it
must prove agreeable to the members of the Association to escape from the
sultry heats of Australia to enjoy the cool breezes of Tasmania. The third
ground was that Hobart was a city when Victoria was in the cradle. The
fourth and last ground was, that Victoria owed its parentage to Tasmania
its first settlers having come from our island ; and then I was guilty of the
pedantry of quoting horn an ode of Horace which came into my mind —

" O matre pulchra filia pulchrior ! "

Although my motion was seconded by Professor Ellery, who spoke strongly
in its favour, we were outnumbered in the voting, and it was lost in favour
of Melbourne for 1889, and of New Zealand for 1890. However, there is
little doubt that in 1891 Hobart would be chosen in preference to Adelaide,
which had much fewer supporters in the divisions which took place. On
the second question, relative to the contemplated Antarctic Expedition, I
met with greater success. An excellent paper was read beioi^ \3i;»

idii FKOOKIDHIQSi MOVBHlUdt

Geogrftphica] seotioii by Hr. G. S. Griffiths, F.G.S., of Melbourne, pointing
otit the Boientiflc and commercial advantageB which m^ht be expected to
remit ; and the proposition received genend support. Knowing the strong
leeUng wb^ bad been manifested in its faTour by our R<^al Sodetr,
drawn forth bj the admirable and exhaustiye paper of the lato deeply
hsnented Mr. Sprent, and having taken a peculiar interest from my re-
oollectiona of the previous expedition under Captains Ross and Crozier on
its return to our waters in 1842, I entered into the discussion at some
length ; and concluded by moving that the whole subject should be referred
to a general meeting of tifie members, with a view to take further action.
Accordingly this was done, as will be seen by the following report of the
proceedings of that meeting, quoted from the Sydney Monwng Herald of
Si^rtember 11, with which I will conclude : —

"▲NTABOnO SXFLOBATION.

" Mr. J. Babkabd called attention to a motion passed at the last meeting
of the €(eographical Section of the Association recommending the appoint-
ment of a committee to consider the question of Antarctic ]&ploration. It
had been thought that they should seek the assistance of the Imperial
Gkyvemment, and make the question one of Imperial policy in conjunction
with Australasia. It was also thought that it would be best for the
movement to emanate from Australasia, with the co-operation of England ;
but^ as the ships and officers that would take part in the expedition would
very likely oome from England, the matter had better be viewed as an
Impenid question. He moved that a committee be appmnted to cany out
the objects in view.

" The motion was seconded and carried.

" On the motion of the Hon. J. Fobbbbt the following were appointed a
committee, with power to add to their number : Professor Stephens, Mr.
Bllery, Mr. G. S. Griffiths, Professor Baldwin Spencer, Mr. J. Barnard and
Hon. J. Forrest.

" The meeting then terminated."

CONCISE HISTOET OF THE ACCLIMATISATION
OP THE SALMONID^ IN TASMANIA.

By p. S. SEAaBB,
Secretary to the Fisheries Board of Tasmania.

The idea of acclimatising the English sdlmon (Salmo salar)
ia Tasmanian waters was entertained hj some of the colonists
tA a very early period in our history. In the year 1841, as
recorded in Vol. 1, p. 281, of the '* Proceedings 9f the Eoyal
Soiciety of Tasmania," the late Captain Frederick Chalmers, of
Brightoi^, in Tasmania, applied to Dr. Mackenzie, of Kinillan-
by-Dingwall, Eoss-shire, Scotland, for salmon fry to bring to
l&smania. The fry were not supplied, but the correspondence
18 interesting, and shows how little was then known of the
flubject when Dr. Mackenzie suggested that artificially
impregnated ova deposited in a basket of fine gravel and
plunged in a tank would require no more attention until it
was umded in Tasmania, where it could be put into a pail and
4»rried to any stream and there deposited. Dr. Mackenzie's
last letter to Captain Chalmers, of 12th July, 1841, says : —
**Next year you can have some vry sent south to you in better
time if you like, or if you will give me the address of some
careful confidential friend, I will send him south two baskets
containing impregnated roe, say in September, one basket t6
be sunk in water in England to produce live fish for your next
year's trip, and the other to be shipped to your address in
Australia, where it is probable you will receive it long before
tbe fry begins to chip the shell. All that will be necessary is
to direct your friend to keep the basket under water in some
£resh stream till the ship is ready to sail, when one can be
transferred to the ship's tank." Dr. Mackenzie had evidently
a very limited knowledge of the difficulties which had after-
wards to be overcome in the transport of salmon ova before
success was secured. There is no record that Captain Chalmers
proceeded farther with his experiment.

In the year 1848 Mr. James L. Burnett, of the Tasmanian
Survey Department, when on leave of absence, visited the
Duke of Sutherland's salmon fisheries in InveimesS'Shire, und
consulted the manager, Mr. Young, on the practicability of
introducing salmon and trout into Tasmania. Mr. Young
Miggested two methods — one to bring out the spawn, and the
ether to bring out young fish, giving the preference to the
, htter. In a letter to Mr. Burnett, of 23rd Ooiober, 1848, he
fmj%: — ''It would be a grand undertaking, and perfectly

2 ACCLIMATISATION OF THE SALMONIDiB IN TASMANIA.

practicable if it could be accomplisbed during the time between
extracting the eggs and their hatching ; but unless that could
be done, I fear the delicate state of the new-hatched fish could
not endure the fatigues of a long yojage." Mr. Young's plan
was to erect boxes or tanks about 18ft. long by 4ft. deep and
broad, in which salmon smolts were to be placed, and regularly
and slowly supplied with water from' the sea, and fed with
salted liver, boiled, and coarse flour bread, broken up smalL
A paper on Mr. Burnett's visit to Mr. Young, written by
Captain C. E. Stanley, E.E., with the correspondence, was
read before the Eoyal Society of Tasmania on 12th September,
1849, and is recorded in its proceedings, YoL 1, p. 135. With
reference to Mr. Young, Mr. Morton Allport, in his " Brief
History of the Introduction of Salmon to Tasmania," says : —
'' Mr Young gave the preference to the latter method (young
fish), which is the more remarkable, as from the account of one
of his experiments it is clear that he had accidentally been
upon the verge of discovering the very method which, after
many years, led to success. In the experiment alluded to Mr.
Young caused the fecundated ova packed in baskets of gravel
to be hung in a running stream at different distances from the
shore. During a severe frost one or two of the baskets nearest
the bank, and those which were in comparatively still water
were frozen hard on the surface, and Mr. Young supposed
that the vitality of the eggs was destroyed ; but he let them
remain, and discovered that the onl^ effect of the reduced
temperature was to delay the hatching of the ova for several
days."

The result of Mr. Burnett's enquiries was, that the'then
Lieut. -Governor of Tasmania, Sir William Denison, whose
name is associated with so many important undertakings in
the colony during the term of his governorship, and who had
already evinced the greatest interest in the salmon question,
wrote to the Secretary of State to allow of tanks constructed
for the purpose, and supplied with salmon fry or smolts taken
at the right season, being placed on board some of the convict
vessels, and brought out under the immediate care and super-
vision of the surgeon-superintendent.

Some such efforts must already have been made, for on 13th
August, 1849, Sir William Denison, writing to Earl Grey on
he subject of the introduction of salmon, says : — " Several
attempts have been made to bring out the spawn, but they
, have all failed ;" but there is no record of such experiments.
A long correspondence between Sir W. Denison, the Home
authorities, and Mr. A. Young, appears in the " Proceedings
of the Royal Society of Tasmania," Vol. 2, p. 40, wherein the
employment of a welled fishing smack to convey adult salmon
and smolts to the colony was advocated, and it is closed by a*

BY P. S, SEAGER. 3

despatch from Earl Grey, in which he states that it was
impracticable to carry the fish in tanks on the deck of the
prison ships, " while, on the other hand, the alternative of
using a welled smack for their conveva.ice has, for the present
at least, been abandoned as being attended with too much
expense."

In the year 1852, through the efforts of those interested in
the subject, and at the instance of the Governor, Sir William
Denison, an attempt was made to introduce both salmon and
trout by means of ova. This effort is the first of which any
detailed record exists. A paper read before the Eoyal Society
of Tasmania (see its Proceedings, Vol. 2, p. 288) by Mr. J. L.
Burnett, describes the arrangements made, and gives details of
the voyage of the vessel selected — the Columbus. The ova
were shipped on the 3 1st January, 1852, and the plan adopted
is thus described by Mr. Burnett : — " About 60,000 ova of
salmon and trout were placed in a large oval tub or Tessel
with a false bottom, 4ft. Gin. by 3ft. 4in., 1ft. 8in. deep,
double-sided, made of wood, cased in lead, and capable of
containing 60 gallons of water, besides the requisite quantity
of gravel. . . . The tub was slung just under and on one
side of the fore hatchway, with directions that every six hours
a fresh supply of six gsdlons of water should be added by
means of a funnel inserted in a tube entering below the false
bottom, the old or original quantity (or the greater portion of
it) being drawn off by a stop-cock placed for that purpose in
the upper part of the tub, and that the six gallons of water
were to be supplied six times a day as the vessel approached
the Equator, making 36 gallons in the 24 hours, and to be
again reduced in the cooler latitudes to the original quantity
of 24 gallons per diem."

Mr. Gottlieb Boccius, who was employed by the Home
Government, through the Land and Emigration Commis-
sioners, to procure the ova, fixed the 15th and 20th April as
the dates upon which the trout and salmon respectively would
hatch, but the hatching commenced on 1st March, in latitude
14*^ 30' north, longitude 26° west, and the fry were seen in
the tub until the water became thick and putrid. On arrival
of the vessel at Hobart the tub was examined by Dr. Milligan,
the then Secretary of the Royal Society of Tasmania, and Mr.
J. L. Burnett, and it is not surprising to read, " without
finding any traces of either spawn or fish."

Mr. Burnett in his paper gives his opinion as to the causes
of failure, and his suggestions as to future efforts, one of which
was that the temperature of the water should be regulated by
means of ice. This is the first recorded suggestion for the
regulation of temperature, the importance of which appears
previously to have been entirely overlooked.

4 ACCLIMATISATION OF THE SALMONID^ IN TASMANIA.

The cost of this experiment is stated to have been about
J6dOO, and it appears from a despatch from the Buke of New-
castle to Sir W. Denison, dated 2nd June, 1853, which covered
a detailed account of the Columbus experiment by Mr. Boccius
(see proceedings Koyal Society, Vol. li., p. 437), that in-
structions were given to renew the experiment under the
same supervision.

Arrangements for this further experiment were made with
Mr. Boccius, who provided the necessary appliance, wbidi
were placed on board the " Duke of Eoxburgh." The sailing
of the vessel was delayed, but owing to a severe frost having
set in when the ova was required, artificial spawning could not
be successfully completed. The attempt was therefore aban-
doned, and the spawn-tub landed from the vessel.

The interest of the Boyal Society of Tasmania in the subject
still continued, and the matter was frequently referred to at
its meetings, at one of which, held on 11th August, 1S52, the
Secretary read a letter from Mr. J. C. Bidwell, Commissioner
of Crown Lands in New South Wales, to Sir William Denison,
covering '^ Notes on the Establishment of the Salmon and other
fish in the Rivers of Tasmania and New Zealand" (see pro-
ceedings Boyal Society Tasmania, Yol. ii., p. 326), in which be
thus writes upon the introduction of salmon : —

" Now, to do this it would be necessary to bring and hatch
the spawn, and I think that by packing spawn in ice the^
would be no difficulty in preserving its vitality for a much
longer time than would be required. It is not probable that
the vitality of fish spawn would be destroyed even by freezing,
but by merely packing it in ice there would be no danger of
actual freezing as the ice would always be in a melting state."

Mr. Bidwell, in writing, explains that he would have written
long before, but that he had suffered a long and severe illness,
and it is more than probable that his health failing prevented
his practical views being more prominently considered and
carried into effect. However much we may be indebted to
those who afterwards adopted, to a large extent, the same
method which Mr. Bidwell suggested, it is due to the latter
gentleman that the credit of first suggesting the packing of
spawn in ice should be prominently mentioned in any history
of the subject.

On 9th February, 1858, the then Colonial Secretary of Tas-
mania submitted certain questions to the Boyal Society
** relative to the introduction of salmon into Tasmama," and
the payment of a Parliamentary reward of £500 for anch in-
troduction, and a committee, consisting of the Hon. £. S. P.
Bedford, M.L.C., J. W. Agnew, Esq., M.D., Morton Allporf,
Esq., and Joseph Milligan, Esq., E.L.S., was appointed, whose
report appears in the proceedings of the Society, Vol. iii., p. 283*

BY P. S. SEAGER.

Tne idea of the introduction of living salmon was still promi-
nent, as the committee state in the first paragraph of their
report *' that the mere introduction of spawn, even though
properly fecundated and in a state of vitalitj, ought not of
itself to entitle the person introducing it to any portion of the
reward." Members of this committee lived to learn that the
most successful means of conveying salmon to distant parts is
by means of spawn, and that the introduction of living fish as
then strongly advocated at the time proved to be a failure. This
committee also advocated the use of ice to regulate temperature
during the voyage, and they recommended the construction of
breeding ponds, which recommendation was afterwards carried
out.

Sir Thomas Brady has, however, recently demonstrated the
possibility of carrying live salmon to the colonies by success-
fully conveying some fish, twelve months old, to the south of
the line, where their deaths were caused by improper food.

The next experiment was made in 1860 through the efibrts
of a body of colonists then in England, known as the Austra-
lian Association — amongst whom was Mr. Edward Wilson,
President of the Victorian Acclimatisation Society, — working
under the guidance of Mr. James Arndel Youl, who from this
date was closely associated with every succeeding shipment of
ova from England to Australia and New Zealand, with, I
believe, one exception only, and who has displayed the most
praiseworthy zeal and self-denial in his efibrts. It is said that
Mr. Youl's attention was drawn to this work by the experi-
ment of Mr. Boccius, and that in the year 1 854 he commenced
to study the artificial propagation of salmon and transport of
their ova. The association raised by subscription a sum of
£600, and the experiment made under their management cost
nearly that amount. The vessel selected for the experiment
was the S. Curling, which sailed from Liverpool for Melbourne
on 25th February, 1860, with 80,000 salmon ova, collected by
Mr. H. Ramsbottom, from the River Dovey, in Wales. The
shipment was under the care of Mr. Alexander Black. The
apparatus consisted of a supply tank on deck of 200 gallons
water, the water being conveyed from this tank by means of a
fin. pure block-tin pipe, which passed through the deck into
an ice-house containing, when the vessel sailed, 15 tons Wenham
Lake ice ; the pipe was taken twice round this house, a length
of pipe of from 80 to 100ft., when it found its exit into the
vessels for the ova, which comprised a stout framework 4ft.
sooare, surrounded on all sides by a continuous wooden trough,
lu. wide, 6in. deep, lined with pure block tin, with stops at
intervals to divide and regulate the depth of water, the steps
acting as falls for the purpose of aeration, and a further fall of
1ft. from the upper series of troughs to the lower was made to

6 ACCLIMATISATION OF THE SALMONID^ IN TASMANIA.

aid in the same direction. The bottom of this trough was
covered with fine gravel, in which the ova was placed. The
ova apparatus was swung with chains and pulleys to keep it
steady and counteract the pitching and rolling of the vessel.
The water, after passing through the ice tank, flowed over the
ova, fell into a tank below, from which it was pumped up
again to the tank above, thus maintaining a regular stream :
1,800 gallons of spring water was shipped, with a supply of
charcoal for purification. The experiment failed, as on the
24th April, and the 59th day out, the last of the ice melted^
and the last ovum died.

In anticipation of the arrival of this shipment the Tasmanian
Government caused ponds to be constructed at North-West
Bay for the reception of the ova ; but these ponds were never
used, and the site was afterwards abandoned in favour of the
present position at the Eiver Plenty, where hatching-boxes
and ponds, after the model of those at Stormontfield, in
England, were constructed, the sketches of Stormontfield
ponds having been supplied by Mr. Curzon Allport, then in
England, to his brother, Mr. Morton Allport. Although this
experiment failed, Tasmanian s should always acknowledge
their gratitude to the subscribers to the fund and the Com-
mittee of the Australian Association, who bore the whole
expense of the shipment, and consigned it to the Koyal Society
of Tasmania as a gift to the colony.

This effort is also memorable from the fact that Mr. Black's
journal was submitted to Mr. (now Sir Thomas) Brady, of the
Irish Fisheries, for his opinion as to the causes of failure.
From this time up to the present date Mr. Brady has been
closely connected with each shipment to Tasmania. In the
year 1860 a joint committee of both Houses of the Tasmanian
Parliament, consisting of Mr. "William Archer (chairman),
Messrs. Maclanachan, Henty, Chapman, Dr. Butler, Dr.
Officer, and the Colonial Treasurer, was appointed ** to take
into consideration the report of Mr. Black on the introduction
of salmon into the rivers of Tasmania." In their report, dated
31st August, 1860, they stated that " they deem themselves
justified in coming to the conclusion that our rivers and the
adjacent seas are adapted in point of temperature and in all
other respects to the habits and constitution of the salmon,"
and that they " have good reasons for believing that it is quite
possible to introduce the salmon by means of their ova."
Their estimated expense of the introduction was £2,400, and
they recommended that its conduct and the appointment of a
manager, etc., should be confided to the Australian Associatioii
which had managed the previous experiment. The report
appears in Tas. Parliamentary Journals, 1800, No. 87.

Up to this date the more active portion of the work in

BY P. S. SEAGEB. 7

Tumania had been carried out by the Boyal Society, but now
a wider interest was being felt in the subject, with stronger
hopes of success. The Government, on 21st October, 1861,
mpointed a body of gentlemen as Honorary Commissioners in
tKismania, and entrusted to them the management of the whole
subject.

The Commissioners at once entered heartily into their work.
Prior to their appointment, however, the Government of
Tasmania, acting in accordance with the reiommendation of
the Parliamentary Committee last referred to, had authorised
another experiment under the direction of the Committee of
the Australian Association in London, and the Commissioners
found upon enquiry that all such arrangements were completed.
The association in England derived great assistance from Mr.
Edward Wilson, of Melbourne, but the chief worker was Mr.
James A. Toul, who really directed all matters in connection
with the experiment. Mr. TouPs great desire was that the
shipment should be direct to Hobart, and possibly to some
extent the giving effect to this desire contributed to the
fiiilure which followed, as at the time he had under offer a larger
vessel bound to Melbourne, in which the apparatus required
would probably have worked more satisfactorily. After much
difficulty he secured a small iron steamer of 120 tons (the
Beautiful Star), at a cost of £500, which was, however, to sail
to the colony under a jury rig, and not to use her steam power.
The apparatus used consisted of trays, one set hung on gimbals,
and another large swinging tray, in each of which the ova was
laid on gravel, over which iced water flowed at the rate of 500
^dlons per day. Mr. William Kamsbottom, a son of Mr. R.
Bamsbottom, of Clitheroe, had been brought to England from
Melbourne and appointed to conduct the experiment. He
sailed in the Beautiful Star from London on 4th March, 1862,
with about 50,000 salmon ova. Full particulars of the voyage
and its disasters appear in the report by Mr. Bamsbottom,
which discloses that the simbal apparatus proved a complete
fidlure from the outset, the ova dying in great numbers on the
first day at sea, caused by the violent rolling of the apparatus
keeping them continually in motion. The swinging apparatus
worked successfully, so far as the limited space in the vessel
would permit it to do so. Ova hatched, and the fry survived
for a limited period only, owing principally to a succession of
aevere gales, and Anally to the failure of the ice supply, which
was exhausted at 12*30 on 17th May, on which date the whole
of the remaining ova died at 1 p.m., with the exception of a
fisw taken from a small box in the ice-house, which lived for
eight hours beyond this time, 74 days after the date of sailing,
and 88 days from the time of the ova being taken from the
parent fish.

8 ACCLIMATISATION OP THB SALMONID^ IN TASMANIA.

Notwithstanding this failure, the experience gained was
such that in reporting to the Chief Secretary the CommicH
sioners wrote " they were justified in expressing a confident
opinion that that experiment, though unsuccessful, had demon-
strated the perfect practicability of the project, and the
certainty of success under proper conditions easily attainable.'*
This shipment was the last failure and the cause of future
successes. The little box already meationed containing ova
packed in layers in moss and charcoal, which had been placed
in the ice-house by Mr. Toul, and forgotten by Mr. Eams-
bottom until he stumbled against it 60 days after the Beautiful
Star had left England, led to further experiments and the
institution of a similar system of packing ova adopted after-
wards in most of the future shipments. It is only natural to
suppose that there would be many claimants for the credit of
this discovery. The suggestion to retard the development of
ova by the use of ice was made long before by Mr. Bid well, as
already mentioned, and there exist many records of somewhat
similar suggestions by other individuals at various times in
this colony and elsewhere prior to the experiment in the
Beautiful Star. The credit of the first practical attempt to
test what had previously been many times suggested lies,
therefore, with Mr. Toul, who has stated that the idea was
first mentioned to him in Paris by M. Girley, who showed
him how fish ova packed in wet moss in earthenware jars
were sent long journeys. But prior to the shipment of ova
per Beautiful Star our present guest. Sir Thomas Brady,
then secretary to the Fisheries Board of Ireland, had by his
practical views on pisciculture attracted the attention of Mr.
Toul, and the latter gentleman several times visited Dublin
to consult with him. Mr. Brady was much impressed with
the packing of ova in moss, and writing to Mr. Toul on 24t]i
December, 1861, he says : — " It strikes me that you ought to
try the ova in moss also. J got it up the other day in
beautiful order in moss, and it kept very good for several
days in the damp moss, and might keep so a very long time,
I think. I send you a sketch of what I would propose." [I
have this sketch, which shows a box of ova packed in layers
in moss, with a tank for iced water at top and a false
bottom, with tap to draw off the water after it passed
through the moss.] "If by means of the iced water
you can retard the hatching of the ova I think it will be the
easiest way of preventing them being tossed about by the
rolling of the ship as the moss will keep the ova steady. I
never saw any ova in such good condition as that I lately
received in the moss, and I am trying an experiment with it,
and also purpose sending some ova to Italy in this way ;
at any rate a small trial in this way would do no harm, and it

BY P. 8. SEAGEB. 9

-can easily be watched to ascertain if they are coining to life.
If they don't hatch before the arrival it will he a decidedly safe
way of transporting them." Mr. Youl sent the letter to
Tasmania with an endorsement : " Requested Mr. B. to have
made for me an apparatus such as he describes to hold from
one to two hundred ova. I will feed them with ice-water
from the melted ice drawn from ice-house."

This letter was written on 24th December, 1861, and the
Beautiful Star sailed on 5th March, 1862, with a box packed
almost exactly as per Mr. Brady's sketch, but without the water
tank. Mr Youl, writing some years afterwards, 26th March,
1867, thua refers to Mr. Brady's value to him at the time.
^* So important did I think Mr. Brady's instructions that I
paid three visits to Dublin to learn all I could on the subject,
and it was there I consolidated all I had read and previously
seen on the subject." It affords me the greatest pleasure in
stating my belief that Sir Thomas Brady's advice had much
to do with the experimental box placed in the Beautiful Star
and also to place on record the fact that, from the date of
his letter, thenceforward to the present time, Sir T. Brady
has worked zealously, heartily, and gratuitously with Mr.
Youl and others, in relation to all or nearly all the shipments
of ova to this colony, and that his interest in the acclimati-
sation of salmon in these Southern waters has never flagged,
but has now culminated in the most successful shipment of
salmon ova ever made. In recording this tribute to Sir
Thomas Brady let it be well understood that I do not in any
way ignore the self-denying work of our good friend, Mr. J.
A. Youl, C.M.GI-., whose value in this cause I so well know,
and whose work can never be forgotten by those acquainted
with the history of salmon acclimatisation in the Australian
colonies and New Zealand. I feel sure that should Mr. Youl
read this paper, he will be pleased to think that the services
of his coadjutor. Sir Thomas Brady, are appreciated so well
by the colonists of Mr. Youl's former home, who have so
many times admitted their indebtedness to himself in the
same direction.

The experience gained in the Beautiful Star experiment
was a ma.tter of much consideration bv the Commissioners
and Mr. Ramsbottom, who were equally anxious that the
method of packing ovain moss and ice should be practically and
thoroughly tested. The Commissioners forwarded a report to
His Excellency the Grovernor,T. Gore Browne, on 1st September,
1862 (Parliamentary Paper, No. 82, 1862), in which they
recommended the immediate return to England of Mr.
Ramsbottom to arrange another experiment, and " during the
approaching winter Mr. S. would be able — first to put to the
test of further experiment the preservation of the ova in

10 ACCLIMATISATION OF THE SALMONID^ IN TASMANIA.

moss, of which his late experience in the Beautiful Star has
led him to think so favourable ; and secondly, to ascertain
"whether and for what period the ova can be preserved alive
in a state of congealation." At the date of this report it was
considered that the latter method would be supplementary to
the main plan. At the same time Mr. Youl was also working
in a similar direction, as shown by a letter addressed by him
to a member of the Salmon Commission, dated 27th October,

1862, in which he writes : " So impressed am I with the little
experiment in the box with moss that I mean to try an
experiment at my own expense this year, to test it by placing
some 20 small boxes, with from 800 to 500 ova in an ice-
house, containing 25 tons of Wenham Lake ice ; " the experi-
ment was to be made, if possible, in a ship direct to Hobart.
Mr. Toul was afterwards in treaty for space in the s.s. G-reat
Britain, but the expense involved being greater than he
anticipated, and being afraid of the effect of the vibration
of the screw on the vitality of the ova, this shipment did
not take place, but he afterwards secured necessary space in
the Dunrobin Castle sailing for Hobart direct, had everything
arranged, and orders given for the construction of the ice-
house, when the owners, fearing injury to the cargo from the
melting ice, withdrew their promise and the shipment was
abandoned.

In the meantime with the use of the Wenham Lake Ice
Company's vaults in London, and the assistance of Messrs. B.
I^msbottom, W. Eamsbottom, Thos. Johnston, and others, a
series of experiments were being carried out under the direction
of Mr. Youl with ova packed in moss in boxes similar
to the box placed in the ice-house of the Beautiful Star.
The boxes were covered with ice and examined at different
periods of 45, 57, 90, 120, and 144 days, with perfect success,
the vitality of the ova having been in no way impaired, and
ova of each lot being successfully hatched. Thus, at last,
the long cherished hope of the successful acclimatisation of
the salmon species in distant lands was in a fair way of
accomplishment, the expensive and somewhat cumbersome
mode hitherto adopted by means of trays with gravel, etc.,
was at once abandoned, and Mr. Toul, writing on 25th May,

1863, says : — " It does, therefore, appear that the best way of
making another attempt next year would be with ova in an
ice-house, and not to attempt it again by placing them in a
running stream, which not only entails a much greater
outlay, but is attended with so much risk."

The Salmon Commissioners again entrusted the manage-
ment of a further experiment to the Australian Association
in England, who delegated to Mr. Youl " the sole superinten-
dence of the necessary preparation of the renewed experiment

BY P. S. SEAGER. 11

about to be tried." Mr. Toul found great difficulty in pro-
curing a suitable vessel, the desire of the Commissioners
being that tbe experiment should be made in a ship sailing
direct to Hobart. Although arrangements were nearly com-
pleted with the owners of a barque named the Alfred Hawley ,
circumstances arose which rendered this impossible, and Mr.
Toul, fearing the loss of another year, sought the aid and
assistance of Messrs. Money Wigram and Sods, who
generously allotted to him 50 tons of space in their well-
known clipper ship, the Norfolk, advertised to sail for Mel-
bourne on the 20th of January following. Messrs. Wigram
first intimated that the space was without charge, but Mr.
Toul offered them 100 guineas from his private purse,
which were subsequently declined, Messrs. Wigram being
desirous that the service should be entirely gratuitous. Mr.
Toul, having overcome one great obstacle, was almost im-
mediately met by another. He had engaged Mr. Robert
Bamsbottom, the well-known pisciculturist, of Clitheroe, to
forward a supply of salmon ova from the Eibble, for shipment
per the Norfolk, but every fish captured in the Eibble was
foand to have shed its spawn. In this dilemma Mr. Youl
published in The Times an appeal for assistance, and des-
patched Mr. Bamsbottom with his son to the Dovey, in Wales,
and Mr. Johnston, another experienced pisciculturist, to the
Tyne, and their efforts were successful, about 100,000 salmon
ova reaching London on 18th January. The ova was at once
packed and shipped in the Norfolk : the mode of packing at
that time adopted has been repeated with little alteration in
each succeeding shipment, and is thus described by Mr.
Toul: — " A couple of handfuls of charcoal are spread over
the bottom of the box, then a layer of broken ice ; after this,
a bed or nest of wet moss is carefully made and well drenched
with water. The ova are then very gently poured from a
bottle, which is kept filled with water. The box is now filled
up with moss, and pure water poured upon it until it streams
out from all the holes. Another layer of finely pulverised
ice is spread all over the top of the moss ; the lid is then
firmly screwed down. The boxes used measured llfin. long,
6|in. wide, and 5 jin. deep, perforated top and bottom.

In addition to the salmon ova, a small consignment of
trout ova (Salmo fario) was placed in the ice-house, con-
tributed by Admiral Keppel through Frank Buckland and by
Francis Francis. All the boxes were placed in the ice-house ;
the remaining space was filled with blocks of Wenham Lake
ice, and the house securely closed. The Norfolk sailed from
the London Docks on 21st January, 1864, arriving at
Melbourne on 19th April following. Before stating the
procedure on the vessel's arrival at her destination it may be

12 ACCLIMATISATION OP THE SALMONID^ IN TASMANIA.

well to here enter into rather full details in relation to this
shipment of ova, as the produce formed the first stock of
salmon and trout liberated in Australian waters. Many
theories are now advanced as to the various species to be
found in these waters, and doubts have frequently been
raised as to whether true salmon ova were ever received ;
various opinions have also been expressed npon different
specimens of trout (8, fario), which have been called fario
erioxy etc. Under these circumstances I have thought it
well to record all available information in my possession,
which may help to set at rest unfounded theories and
incorrect assumptions upon so important a matter. The
salmon ova were obtained from the following rivers in
England and Wales : —

River Dovey, 17,000, obtained by R. Ramsbottom.

Rivers Ribble and Hodder, 35,000 to 45,000, obtained by

Westell Ramsbottom.
River Severn, 30,000 to 40,000, obtained by W. Ramsbottom

and Allies.
I^ver Tweed, 20,000, obtained by Johnston.

With regard to the salmon the names of those who
collected the ova are well-known as men of experience who
were not likely to err in the choice of fish for stripping ; that
the greatest caution and care were exercised does not admit
of a doubt Mr. Youl has always indignantly repudiated the
suggestion that any mistake could possibly have been made
by sending for salmon ova that of another species.

I have a newspaper clipping which thus refers to Mr.
Ramsbottom's proceedings at the River Dovey : —

" The Dovey Fisheries at Machynlleth. — Mr. Ramsbottom,
who has been so successful in the artificial propagation,
of salmon, has lately visited the Dovey for the
purpose of obtaining salmon ova to send to Tasmania.
He commenced netting in Mr. Bulkeley's water on the upper
part of the Dovey, but here only succeeded in getting two
fish suited to his purpose. These he put in a small piece of
water near the river at Mallwyd, secured by a cord to their
tails ; but, although he had paid the men very liberally, and
explained throughout the neighbourhood the great object the
fish were to be used for and the enormous expense already
incurred, and that the ship that was to convey the ova was on
the eve of sailing, some scoundrels actually cut the cords and
stole the fish during the time of service on Sunday. He
subsequently, with the permission of the Preservation Society,
succeeded in getting from the lower part of the Dovey at
Derwenlas two splendid female salmon of 281b. and 141b.
weight, laden with spawn, from which he obtained all that

BY P. S. SEAGER. 13

he required. He captured numbers of very large salmoi^,
"both in the upper part of the Dovey and at Derwenlas, but
all had spawned."

I have also a clipping from The Times of 18th January,
1864, with reference to the ova obtained from the Severn : —

" Salmon Spawn for Tasmania. — Mr. Youl, who has been
deputed by the Tasmanian Grovernment to procure from the
English rivers a supply of salmon spawn for the purpose of
introducing that fish into his own country has, after many
difficulties, at last succeeded in obtaining a supply from the
Severn, which the Inspectors of Fisheries pronounce one of
(he best salmon rivers in England. Last week he went down
to Worcester, and on Friday a number of fishermen were
employed, under the direction of the officers of the United
Association for the Protection of the Severn Fisheries, in
netting the river near Worcester. The result was that 18
salmon were taken, from which five were selected as being fit
for the purpose required. These were fish of from 161b. to
181b. each, three spawners and two milters just ready to shed
their spawn and milt. The fish were kept until Saturday,
when the spawn was pressed from them and the milt of the
male fish also shed over the spawn, which was deposited in a
vessel prepared for the purpose. When this was done — and
it was accomplished very successfully — the fish were returned
to the river apparently none the worse for the operation.
The spawn thus impregnated was to be conveyed to London
to-day, and will be at once despatched to its destination, a
vessel having been detained on its voyage for the purpose.
It is hoped that the experiment will be crowned with success.
Some interesting facts in connection with the salmon came
out in the conduct of this experiment. In a tributary of the
Severn — the liver Terne, which falls into the Severn near
Worcester — all the fish taken were found to be spent fish.
We believe that neither a new river fish nor an unspent fish
was taken. In the Severn out of 18 fish taken several were
spent, some were not sufficiently advanced in spawn for the
purpose of the experiment, and only two were fresh river fish.
The last-named fact at once affords ample proof of the good
policy of making January a close month^ as it was done under
the last Salmon Fisheries Act. In order that the fishermen
might perfectly understand the object of the netting on
Friday last they were assembled and a local magistrate
explained to them that it was only legal to capture salmon for
the purpose of artificial breeding, and that even if fresh river
fish should be taken they must be returned to the water. The
fishing was witnessed by many."

Can it be seriously suggested in the face of these extracts
ihat the ova obtained on these occasions was other than that

14 ACCLIMATISATION OF THE SALMONIDiE IN TASMANIA*

of S. solar. The trout ova were obtained from the river
Itchin, from the Wey and High Wycombe, Bucks. The
former are thus described by Frank Buckland: **I have obtained
about 1,000 eggs, regular beauties, of * Itchin Trout ; ' " and
the two latter are referred to by Francis Francis in a letter to
Mr. Toul : " The ova sent is the finest trout ova I ever saw,
andwastaken from 81b. and 101b. fish which had all but finished
spawning." These trout ova were the first and only lot which
reached Tasmania alive, a second consignment in the Lincoln-
shire being all dead on arrival in }!ilelboume. From the
produce of the Norfolk trout ova the rivers of Tasmania and
the adjacent colonies have been stocked, and it will be at once
seen that, beyond the changes produced by food and water,
it is a popular error to suppose that many varieties of brown
trout are to be found in our rivers.

The Norfolk arrived in Hobson's Bay on 16th April, after
a voyage of 84 days. She was immediately boarded by Mr.
Edward Wilson, the presidcDt, and other members of the
Acclimatisation Society of Victoria, in whose presence the
ice-house was opened and an ova box examined, a consider-
able portion of the ova being found alive. Steps were at
once taken to tranship the ova-boxes and ice to the Victorian
sloop Victoria, which was placed at the disposal of the
Tasmanian Government for the purpose of conveying the ova
to Hobart ; 170 boxes were distributed in 11 strong wooden
cases, each being covered with a quantity of ice and enveloped
in blankets ; 11 boxes of ova were retained by the Victorian
Acclimatisation Society for the purpose of being hatched in
Melbourne. Of these the first egg hatched on May, and
ultimately from 200 to 300 fry appeared, the temperature of
the water having been kept at from 60*^ to 54** by means of
ice, and the fry were afterwards transferred to a tank, 120
being ultimately liberated in Badger Creek and never heard
of afterwards.

The Victoria sailed for Hobart on 18th April, arriving at
her destination on 20th April. The cases as packed in
Melbourne were at once transferred to a barge which was
towed by steamer to New Norfolk. Intense excitement existed
in the locality, and the greatest desire was evinced by the
residents to render assistance in transporting the boxes to the

Eonds on the Plenty. The larger cases containing the ova
oxes, were slung on bamboos and placed on the shoulders of
men who thus carried them to the hatchery where Mr. Eams-
bottom, with the assistance of Mr. Morton Allport, at onco
proceeded to unpack the ova and place them in the hatching
boxes, where they were deposited on the 91st day after
embarkation in the Norfolk. The temperature of the water
was reduced by means of the remaining ice to 42°, and

BT P. S. SEAGEB. 15

averaged about 47" up to 12tli May, from whicli date to 5th
July Uie average was about 41*". It was estimated that there
were about 35,000 living ova, including trout ova. On the
4th May the first trout ova hatched, and on the following day
the first salmon; the hatching of the trout continued
until the 25th May, and of the salmon until 8th June ;
the salmon fry were kept in the hatching boxes until
early in August, when they were permitted to pass
mto the rill attached to a large salmon pond. The
trout were kept in the boxes until the end of August,
when owing to several deaths and the appearance of disease
amongst them, they were removed to a specially prepared
rill, when their number was found to be nearly 30D. The
mortality amongst the fry was very trifling, and the fish
continued to feed and thrive well in their new home. The
prospect so long hoped for of establishing the salmon in these
Bouthem seas seemed about to be realised. So much has
been said and written of late years in relation to this experi-
ment, and so many misrepresentations and misstatements
made in reference thereto — ^frequently by those who should
have hesitated to make assertions without due enquiry, and
assertions which could not be supported — that it seems
desirable to give in rather full detail the number of fish
liberated from the ponds, and the date of liberation.

A statement has been made that all the fish resulting from
"the Norfolk shipment died before reaching the Dei went, but
this statement has arisen from the circumstance that on
-4th October following the hatching, when the fry were about
five months old, a leak was discovered from the salmon pond
•communicating with the Eiver Plenty, through which it was
found that the fry were escaping, as one was captured in a
box placed at the outlet of the leak. A trench was at once
cut, and the leak repaired, which occupied 19 days, and
during that period 240 fry passed from the pond into the
leak, and were captured and returned to the pond. A very
large number must have already reached the Plenty, the
number escaping being estimated at 1,500. This estimate
was arrived at from the fact that upwards of 3,000 fry were
admitted to the pond from the breeding boxes, that the mor-
tality to the discovery of the leak was trifling, and that
owing to the careful watch kept night and day by Mr. Eams-
bottom and his assistants, the natural enemies in the shape
of water rats and platypi were destroyed. Mr. Eamsbottom,
in his diary, referring'to tlie water bursting upon them when
repairing the leak, which necessitated the immediate filling up
of the trench, writes : — " As to how many of our young fish
passed away with this terrible flow of water, I cannot give
the shadow of an idea, only that a vast number must have

16 ACCLIMATISATION OF THE SALMONID^ IN TASMANIA.

found their way into the Plenty." Owing to a rather heavy
mortality amongst the salmon parr in the pond, it was deter-
mined to liberate in the Eiver Plenty those remaining.
The morfcalitv could not be accounted for by Mr.
Kamsbottom, who said the fish affected, '' when dead>
look as bright and as healthy as any I ever caught with the
fly and gentle in the Eibble ; fine plump fish they are, and I
may say I never saw any so large for their age." The water
in the Salmon Pond was lowered and from the 19th to 22nd
March, 1865, 419 young salmon, 10 months old, measuring
from 5 to 6 inches long were liberated in the Plenty, 14 parr
were retained being immature, and it was afterwards dis-
covered that others were unintentionally kept back, as on ^th
January, 1866, 33 smolts were taken from the pond and
liberated in the Plenty, and on 6th August, 1866, 76 smolta
were also liberated.

The result of the Norfolk shipment of salmon ova waa
528 salmon counted into the Plenty and an estimated number
of at least 1,500 by the rush of water when the leak in the
pond was being repaired. In January, 1866, 38 trout were
liberated in the Plenty, and 133 were retained in the pon4»
these fish formed the stock from which and their progeny, an4
the rivers of this colony, Australia, and of New Zealand,,
have been supplied. It is well to bear in mind, as already
stated, that these trout were the first and only importation
of S. fario into Tasmania, and that the very common opinioix
that there are several species of brown trout in the colony
is thus manifestly inaccurate. Any variability existing must
arise from local causes connected with the water and food of
the rivers in which the fish are found.

The Salmon Commissioners having strongly urged the
necessity for a further supply of salmon ova, the Government
provided the necessary funds, and the task of management
again fell to Mr. J. A. Youl who, through the aid of Messrs.
!B&,msbottom, sen., Westell Ramsbottom, F. Allies, and Thos.
Johnson, procured the following lots of ova from the
rivers Eibble, Hodder, near Clitheroe, the Itchin, and its
tributaries, near Southampton, the Severn, and Teme, near
Worcester, and the Tyne, and Tweed.

Mr. Eamsbottom, sen. ... ... 41,000

„ Westell, sen 16,000

„ Allies ... ••• ••• ,•« uOU

„ Johnston ... , 45,000

102,500

There were also obtained 15,000 ova of sea trout (JS.
tndta), and a box of trout ova, 8. fario. The ova were packed
in 161 boxeS; in the same manner as in the previous shipment

BY P. S. SEAGER. 17

per Norfolk, and were shipped in an ice-house on board the
ship Lincolnshire, which sailed from England on 8th February,
1866, arriving in Hobson's Bay, 30th April, 1866, where the
boxes were transhipped to the Government steamer Victoria,
with the ice remaining, and sent to Hobart, which was reached
on 4th May, and on the following day the ova were all placed
in the hatching boxes at the Plenty, it being estimated that
50 per cent were alive. The hatching was complete on 30th
Jane, the first salmon ova having hatched on 8th May, 1866,
and the first sea trout on 12th May, 1866. In October, 1867,
it was determined to liberate the young salmon and sea trout
as they had assumed the small form, and they were permitted
to pass into the Plenty. In the Commissioners' report, dated
2nd September, 1869, the numbers liberated are stated to have
been nearly 6,000 salmon and 000 salmon trout. A few pairs
of sea trout were detained as a breeding stock.

For many years subsequently to this date the work of
acclimatising trout and salmon trout was carried on at the
breeding ponds with great success as to trout, but with only
modified success as to salmon trout, which spawned for the
first time in Tasmania in fresh water, without having been
to the sea, in June, 1869, as after a few years it was found
that although the few salmon trout detained, and their
increase, continued to deposit ova, their fertility ceased and at
last the fish were liberated.

But in 1882, a Royal Commission having been appointed
to enquire into and report upon the fisheries of the colony,
it was recommended by that body that further importations
of salmon ova should be procured. Parliament acting upon
their recommendation provided the necessary funds, and the
Hon J. W. Agnew, a member of the Salmon Commission visit-
ing Europe in 1882, was entrusted by his brother Commis-
sioners with the uncontrolled direction of a further shipment of
salmon ova. Dr. Agnew, from various causes, was unable to
carry this object to completioo, but he was able to correspond
with and to visit Mr. J. A. Toul and Mt. T. F. Brady, whose
co-operation he secured, and those gentlemen, with the assist-
ance of Mr. Eichard Philpott, Merchant, of 3, Abchurch
Lane, London, were afterwards appointed a Committee of
Management to conduct the next shipment, the latter gentle-
man acting in finance and the two former in packing and
collecting the ova. Through the co-operation of E. L. Moore,
Esq., Molennan, Londonderry, E. J. Mahony, Esq., Dromore
Castle, County Kerry, and Samuel L. Alexander, Esq., Eoe
Park, Limavady County, Londonderry, Mr. Brady was
enabled, with the assistance of his son Mr. Herbert Brady,
and Mr. ISTevin, head-keeper to Mr. Moore, to secure upwards
of 80,000 ova, presented by these gentlemen through Mr.

Its ACCUMATISAHOM OF THB SALUONIDS IN TABHANIA.

Brad; to the colony, wMch were conveyed to London and
there packed by Mr. Toul in the usual manner in moaa, and
shipped ia an ice tank in the a.B. Abington, sailing for
Hobart on 19th February, 1884; she arriTed in the
Derwent 1st Mar, after a passage of 71 days; the ova
being deposited in the hatching boxes at the Plenty on the
following day. The following tables extracted from the
Salmon Oommisaioners' report, dated 15th July, 1884
(Parliamentary paper, No. 68, Session 1884), furnish fuU
particulars relating to this shipment : —

The hatching continued up to the Ist July, and on that
date there were in the boxes 1,825 fry.

The following return shows the mortality of ova and fry
from the date of the first count, 5th May, to the end of tke
hatching, 1st July.

Oiadied.

Fit died.

III

BIaA.ngBOalH.,e..

Keny

EtuB and Brae Top

UmflTBdy

X -,

Eyed ova.

3)6

360
1I3B

00
20

162

...

1574
1331

IDS
903

£0.000
27,OW
lO.MO
20,000
UDknown

-93

* Not Including 3,000 sent to lAuncsatan.

MMWuBBonTMies.

Nnmber
i£ip^

Living

Date of

taking dts
from ^.tent.

^11

'4i

Kerry

20,000'

1,085

6.47

17*22 Dec, 1888

OMfty

mdajB

Etoe and Brae Top..

50,000

1 m'

[.-27

16 Jan., 188*.

BMay

llEdMO

">n»™dy

io,w»

1,27*

12-74

16 Jan., 1884.

6 May

llSdaya

20,000

1,331

fl'65

2S Jan., 1S84.

MM. J

US days

Eyedo™

Unknot

...

1 Dec., 188S.

3 May

ISGday.

The canse of comparative failure on this occasion was a
defect in the drainage of the ice-house which became choked
with debris, thus preventing the exit of the melted ice and
causing the ova boxes to 3oat and knock about with the rolling

BY P. S. SEAGEE. 19

of the ship, and also saturating the moss and decomposing it
and killing the ova. From this shipment, 229 smolts were
Hherated in the Eiver Plenty during 1885, and 730 in
October, 1886.

Thirty fish of the Abington shipment were retained in a
special pond at the Plenty hatchery, and although their
growth has not been very great they were artificially spawned
daring last season, producing 3,140 ova, from which 300 fry
were liberated, the majority being forwarded to the Northern
side of the colony under the care of the Hon. James Smith,
M.L.O., whose attention to his charge was so great that he
succeeded in liberating 800 in the rivers selected, and 50
were also placed in the Plenty- It is hoped that for a time,
at least, ova will be obtained from the stock detained which,
however, thrdugh deaths is now reduced to 9 fish.

Parliament having supplied a vote for another shipment,
Messrs. Toul and Brady again offered their valuable services,
and Mr. Brady gave his personal attention to the fertilising
of the ova from carefully-selected fish from the rivers Erne
and Blackwater, Messrs. Mahony, Moore, and Alexander
having a second time generously granted the use of their
waters for the purpose and presented the ova to the colony.
The Salmon Commissioners had also made suggestions to
Mr. Toul as to improvements in the ice-house, profiting by
the experience of the defects on the previous occasion in the
Abington. Mr. Brady succeeded in securing about 160,000
ova, which were packed by himself and Mr. Youl in 101
boxes, and shipped in an improved ice-house in the s.s.
Yeoman, which sailed from London on 27th February, 1885,
arriving at Hobart on 4th May. On arrival the ice-house
was opened, and the result found to be highly satisfactory.
The ova were at once removed to the ponds at the Plenty,
and the hatching was completed in June with greater success
than had hitherto been obtained, and much of this success
may fairly be attributed to the improvements in the ice-
house. Ten thousand ova of this shipment were ** eyed ova,"
i.e., ova arrived at such a state of development as to have the
eyes visible in the ovum, and the unpacking of this lot
revealed so few dead eggs that in their report to Parliament
upon the shipment, the Commissioners wrote : — " This cir-
cumstance would seem to indicate that in future experi-
ments ova alone which have arrived at the ' eyed ' stage
should be packed.^'

Prior to the shipment per Yeoman, a small lot of about
10,000 ova had been shipped to Hobart per s.s. Tainui, in an
iosulated case placed in a small room adjoining the refrigera-
ting machinery. The case had a series of six trays for ova,
with an ice tray above each, the ice being suppKed from the

20 ACCLIMATISATION OF THE SALMdNID^ IN TASMANIA.

refrigerator during the voyage. The care of the room was
entrusted to a gentleman passenger travelling to Hobart, who
was fully instructed in his duties, and faithfully performed
them. Although on arrival a large percentage of the ova
were alive, the result after hatching was very indifferent.
It is, however, impossible to assign accurately any satisfactory
reason for this result, which may have arisen from one of
several causes. When writing of this experiment to Sir
Thomas Brady, while advocating the old sjstem of shipment
in an ice tank, I admitted that the refrigerator boxes in the
hands of a skilled attendant would be a great success, and the
recent great success of Sir T. Brady's shipment, per Xaikoura,
conducted upon a somewhat similar principle to that adopted
in the Tainui, but upon a larger scale and improved arrange-
ments, bears out wlmt I then wrote. I am still, however,
inclined to support the old method of the ice tank, as pro-
viding an even temperature and requiring no supervision or
attention during the voyage, in preference to the insulated
cases, which really need the attention of a skilled attendant,
thereby adding considerably to the outlay. The fry from the
Teoman and Tainui being so large in number could not be
conveniently detained in the ponds, and it was determined to
liberate them when the umbilical vesicle was absorbed, and
27,000 salmon fry were placed in various rivers of the colony
between 18th August and 2nd December following. For the
first time in the history of salmon acclimatisation in Tasmania
j8^. solar were liberated in other rivers than the Derwent, the
allotment being as follows : —

Eiver Derwent and tributaries 10,950

South Esk (71 died) 6,000

North Esk 250

Eiver Huon (10 died) 4,000

River Mersey (40 died) 4,000

Eiver Pieman (all died) 50O

Eiver Leven (25 died) 2,000

Eiver Inglis (86 put in Inglis, about 25 put in South

jjSKy ,,, ... ••• (•• ,., ,,, aUv

27,900

735 therefore died in transit.

This shipment was the last carried out under the direction
of the Salmon Commissioners, but before closing the record
of their work it should be stated that in addition to 8, salary
8, truttaf 8. fario, they have successfully introduced to the
waters of the colony the American brook trout, 8, fontinailis,
ova of which were obtained from New Zealand in 1883, the
increase from which has been distributed amongst many

BY P. S. SEAGER. 21

streams and lakes in Tasmania. The fish is a great acquisition
being a handsome, plump fish, very game and taking the flj
readUy ; it is in great demand, and justifies all that had been
reported of the species prior to its introduction at the
instance of Mr. W. Tarleton, a member of the Commission,
whose attention was drawn to the fish in New Zealand when
visiting that colony.

The Commissioners tendered their resignation on 20th June,
1887, and closed a history of 26 years' useful and valuable
work performed amidst many difficulties and discouragements.
They have often been assailed as incompetent, but when the
names of the more prominent are considered such charges
entirely fail. Who would have dared to have challenged
the scientific knowledge and attainments of the late Morton
Allport, who was so closely associated with the experiments
until success was attained, and whose memory still lives in the
records of his work amongst the papers of this Society.
Self-denying, an ardent lover of nature in every form, his
death created a blank which has not yet been supplied. I
speak thus feelingly of him, having had the privilege of his
fnendship and a personal knowledge of the zeal he threw
into the work of salmon acclimatisation. He was also the
means of introducing other fishes to the colony. Sir Robert
Officer, for many years Chairman of the Commission, was
also well known as a man of science and a zealous worker.
Mr. R. M. Johnston, F.L.S., etc., another member, needs no
eulogy from me. He is the author of the only complete
catalogue of Tasmanian fishes, and his general scientific
attainments are universally acknowledged. Mr. Matthew
Seal's practical knowledge in fishery matters are also admitted
by all. The Hon. J. W. Agnew, the last Chairman of the
Commission, and Hon. Secretary of this Society, and a
member of the committee which reported on the subject in
1858, is a worker of no mean order, and the other members
of the Commission at different times — the Hon. Captain
Langdon, Thos. Giblin, the Hon. W. Archer, W. A. B.
Jamieson, the Hon. Dr. Butler, R. C. Read, John Swan, A.
a. Webster, A. Riddoch, W. Tarleton, H. Weedon, R. P.
Irvine, Bernard Shaw, J. H. Wedge, J. Buckland, C. E.
Beddome, the Hon. W. A. B. Gellibrand, and Ebenezer
SbQobridge — make up a roll to whom Tasmanians should be
glad to acknowledge their indebtedness for years of self-
imposed labour. If all the success desired has not been
attained, it is from no lack of zeal or labour on their part.

I may be pardoned for having thus referred to the mem-
bers of the late Commission, having worked with them as
their Secretary for many years, and I submit with confidence
that an impartial study of what they performed during

22 ACCLIMATISATION OF THE SALMONID^ IN TASMANIA.

their tenure of office well entitled thena to the com*
mendation they received from Hia Excellency the Governor
on their retirement, which was conveyed to them by the Chief
Secretary as follows ; — " His Excellency accepts with regret
the resignation of these gentlemen, and the members of the
Government desire to join with him in expressing the high
sense entertained of the valuable services rendered by "^e
Commissioners in their efforts to introduce the salmon inta
the waters of Tasmania. The services thus voluntarily
rendered to the colony for so lengthened a period, during
which the Commissioners had to combat with difficulties and
discouragement of no ordinary character will, it is hoped,
result in the acclimatisation of the true salmon, as it has-
alreadv in the propagation and distribution of the salmon
trout."

Thus ended the labours of the Salmon Commission, but the
work was not to stop there, as by a singular coincidence its
further prosecution has again fallen into the hands of this
Society, whose Ist volumes of records of 1841 contains corre-
spondence on the subject of salmon acclimatisation. Dr.
Agnew, Hon. Secretary to the Society, the only surviving
member of the Committee who reported on the subject in
1858, was so much impressed by the success of the last ship-
ment of " eyed ova " that he generously proposed to the Eoyal
Society of Tasmania, that if they would appoint a Committee to
undertake the conduct of another shipment, to consist of " eyed
ova" only he would personally meet all the expense of the
undertaking. The Society willingly accepted so noble an offer
and appointed a Committee of Management, consisting of
Messrs. A. G-. Webster, Matthew Seal, E. M. Johnston, C. T.
Bel stead, R. C. Read, and A. Morton, to which committee I
had the privilege and honour of being elected a member. It
was Dr. Agnew's express wish that the whole management in
relation to the collection of ova was to be entrusted to Sir
Thomas F. Brady, who was invited to accompany the ship-
ment to the colony. His Excellency the G-overnor also lent
his willing aid to further the object. It is unnecessary for
me to do more than allude to the shipment per Kaikoura, as
our guest Sir Thomas Brady has, so recently at the opening
meeting of the session, given the fullest details of his work.
Those who, like myself, have been many years connected
with the Salmon Commission know well how to appreciate
the work Sir Thomas Brady has done for the colony on this,
occasion. Those unacquainted with the subject know little
of the privations to be undergone in the collection of salmon:
ova during the most inclement season of the year — the
many miles of travelling to be endured and the anxiety in
relation to the numerous minute details necessary to ensure

BY P. S. SEA.GEB. 23

Buocess ; were sach difficulties more widely known the great
Talue of such work would be more highly appreciated. Sir
Thomas has received a hearty welcome and I trust he will
carry away with him from our colony the most pleasing
lecollections of his visit, and live long to learn of the success
attending his recent labours and tibe establishment of a
taluable salmon industry in the colony.

Before closing this history I must draw attention to the
important fact that although large sums of money have been
expended by this colony in the work of salmon acclimatisa-
tion, great assistance was rendered at various times by other
members of the Australasian group. The following sums of
money having been contributed, «£995 by the Government of
Victoria, J6200 by the Acclimatisation Society of Victoria,
J6300 by the Provincial Government of Canterbury, New
Zealand, £200 by the Provincial Government of Southland,
New Zealand, and .£150 by the Provincial Government of
Otago, New Zealand. The Victorian Government also on two
occasions generously gave the use of their sloop Victoria to
convey ova from Hobson's Bay to the Derwent.

I regret that I do not feel myself competent to enter
scientifically into the result in relation to the efforts made to
acclimatise salmonidse in Tasmanian waters, but in this
respect I am somewhat relieved by my friend, Mr. E. M.
Johnston, who has prepared an exhaustive paper dealing with
the matter from sever^ standpoints. I can, however, claim
that success has been secured in the thorough and unques-
tioned establishment of salmon trout and brown trout, both
of which species are now abundant. The establishment of
the true salmon, however, is still to some extent a matter of
uncertainty. It must, however, be borne in mind that more
than one specimen submitted for scientific examination to
Dr. Gunther and others have been pronounced 8, salar, and
that Sir Thomas Brady has publicly stated his belief that
specimens shown to him are of the same species. In speaking
of them commercially. Sir Thomas states that such specimens
in a salmon producing country would be accepted as salmon
without a doubt. This being so, I may almost claim that
ibe establishment of 8, solar is an accomplished fact, and
express my earnest hope that the grand result attending Sir
Thomas Brady's shipment per Kaikoura will be the means
of so establishing the species as to admit of no doubt in the
future. The question of a change of character to some extent
in 8. salar by a new environment is so ably dealt with by
Mr. B. M. Johnston in his " General and critical observations
on the fishes of Tasmania," that I may be pardoned for con-
cluding my short history of the subject by quoting the
following extract from that work : —

24 ACCLIMATISATION OF THE SALMONIDiB IK TASMANIA.

" With respect to the exact nature of the Derwent migratory
Salmonoicls, there has been much discussion as to whether
the 8, solar has really established itself or not. The
handsome fish which is now so numerous in the estuary of
the Derwent is, within certain limits, a most variable form —
some individuals being almost identical in all specific
characters with the grilse form of 8, salar, while others
partake more of the character of the equally valuable 8,
iruUa, and its still more closely allied congener, 8, camhrieua.
It is clear to me, however, that the prevailing form found in
salt water is a mean between these, and it is this overlapping
of the closely agreeing characteristics of these so-called
species which renders it so puzzling to determine to which of
them any one individual belongs. The question, which has
excited much interest in Tasmania, is confused by the notions
of imperfectly informed persons, who, by the use of such a
misleading common name as ' bull trout,' have led many to
think that we have only succeeded in acclimatising the
common brown trout and its varieties in our waters, and
they often, in ignorance, speak of our fine migratory fish as
if it were a coarse, destructive fish of no value. It is to be
regretted, where legislation may be concerned, that erroneous
notions should be circulated in this way. By such people
the fanciful views of amateur pisciculturists or sportsmen are
deemed to be of equal value to the utterances of learned
ichthyologists such as Dr. Gunther, whose profound know-
ledge forces them to speak with extreme caution.

" We only know as yet that we have a fine non-migratory
trout (the brown trout), and a splendid sea- going migratory
salmonoid. The question is, not 8. fario versus S. trutta, or
8. fario versus 8. salar^ but the more difficult one of deter-
mining whether the variable, handsome, migratory fish, which
is frequently captured far out at sea, is (1) 8. trutta, (2) 8.
cambricusj (3) 8. hrachypoma, (4) 8. salar, (5) all of these in
variable numbers, (6) a hybrid partaking in varying degrees
of the characters of the four named species, or (7) one or
other of those named but modified by transfer to a new
environment. If the individuals which prevail agreed with
or fell within the classified limits of any one species we would
not have the slightest difficulty in determining their specific
value ; but when no one individual comes exactly within the
limits of the written characters, it is necessary that the seven
propositions advanced by me should be answered satisfactorUy
before any one can pronounce with confidence on the subject.

** Mr. Allport, who knew very well the niceties of distinction
between 8, aala/r and 8. trutta, inclined strongly to the opinion
that our Derwent salmonoids are grilse of the former, and
not 8, trutta. Dr. Gunther and Rrofessor M'Coy have had

BT P. S. SEA6EB. 25

the disadyantage of determining tlie nature of the species
from single individuals sent to them at odd times. Thej
consequently, from such disconnected points, could have no
means of determining the curve of variability, and I am not
surprised therefore that, respectively, at different times, they
lukve pronounced certain individuals to be S. salary S, truUa,
8. eambricus, and a hybrid between S. salar and 8. trutta. Old
n>ecimens cannot determine the curve of variability, nor can
tney determine whether the four fish, so differently named,
were not after all the progeny of the same parents."

Mr. Johnston's observations are also supported by the Chief
Inspector of Fisheries of England, Mr. A. D. Berrington,
who in his report to the Board of Trade, dated 31st March^
1887, thus writes : —

'' The artificial propagation and acclimatisation of fish is one
of the hobbies of the day ; and the results which it is pro-
ducing are of great value. It has added much to our know-
ledge of the l^e history of fish, and consequently of the lines
on which their increase may be promoted. It has served to
show us more clearly how small are the differences which
separate the varieties of our salmonidse, and has furnished
proofs that in many instances these varieties are not of a
permanent character, but depend upon food and other cir-
cumstances of position. These are facts which must be borne
in mind if we would hope to avoid disappointment when intro-
ducing fresh strains into our rivers. According to all analogy
it must be advantageous to cross the existing breed, and in
80 doing to bring in the best form of the race we desire to
improve and multiply ; but it must not be expected that the
special characteristics of the fish we turn out will necessarily
be perpetuated in the offspring, as under changed conditions
these peculiarities are apt to disappear."

I trust, therefore, that with these opinions strengthened by
the views of Sir Thomas Brady, we will in the future hear of
fewer doubts upon the subject and accept the one broad fact
which is beyond dispute, that a fish has been acclimatised in
Tasmania which is of considerable commercial value, that it
is the means of attracting visitors to our shores, and that with
proper care and attention, it will in the future afford
profitable employment to our fishermen, and add wealth to
our Island home.

ACCLIMATISATION OF THE SALMONID^ IK TASMANIA.

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• 1-4

EESTJLTS OP THE VARIOUS ATTEMPTS TO
ACCLIMATISE 8ALM0 8ALAB IN TASMANIAN
WATERS.

By R M. Johnston, F.L.S.

Tasmaiiia has some reason to be proud of her efforts to
acclimatise the most important edible fish of Europe, well
named the " King of Fishes" (Salmo salar). It is now 36
years since the first attempt was made in the ship Columbus.
This, with the two succeeding others, in 1860 and 1862 failed,
simply because the artificially impregnated ova were not
supplied with the more perfect arrangements subsequently
discovered for preserving a low temperature throughout
the whole period of transport by means of ice.

Nothing daunted, however, the original acclimatisers
persevered in their efforts, for in the years 1862-3 James A.
Toul, R. Ramsbottom, W. Ramsbottom, and Thos. Johnston
carried out a series of experiments in the ice- vaults of the
Wenham Lake Ice Company with such success that they
actually hatched artificially impregnated ova which had
previously been buried for 90 days in ice refrigerators in the
Wenham Lake Company's vaults. Frank Buckland, who
was asked to witness these experiments, was enthusiastic with
this proof of the vitality of ova whose incubation was so long
artificially retarded, and declared '* these results most en-
couraging," and expressed the hope " that next season the
actual experiment of sending the eggs to Australia in a fast
sailing ship, packed in ice according to the experience now
gained will be attempted." The actual attempt was made,
under the supervision of Mr. (now Sir Jas.) Youl, on
the 24th January, 1864, in the ship Norfolk, to Mel-
bourne, and although the refrigerator boxes (170°) had to be
transferred to the steamship Victoria in Melbourne, they
finally were successfully transferred to the hatching boxes at
the River Plenty on the 21st day of April, 90 days after the
ova were shipped in London. The proportion of living ova.
was estimated to be about 45 per cent, of the whole shipped.

The subsequent mortality in the process of hatching, how-^
ever, was very great, for of the original 90,000 of ova of
Salmo salar, only 3,000 fry were distributed in our waters as
healthy salmon fry, and of the original 1,500 ova of Salmo
fario (brown trout), 300 fry were liberated in a healthy
condition.

28 RESULTS OF THE ATTEMPTS TO ACCLIMATISE SALMO SALAB.

This shipment was, however, a great success, for the
Tasmanian experiment demonstrated to the world that it was
possible to retard incubation without destroying vitality for
a period sufficiently prolonged to cover the transport of ova
to the remotest parts of the globe. It also gave a fresh
impulse to acclimatisation generally, for now that the main
difficulty had been successfully disposed of it caused
increased attention to the discovery of improved methods
in the important details of packing and insulating.

One of the most important discoveries in this respect was
the result of general observation, viz., that if the ova had
arrived at the eyed stage of development prior to being
insulated in refrigerating boxes and chambers they would be
more able to survive the adverse conditions to which they
would be subjected by artificial refrigeration and the
accidents during prolonged retardation of development when
transported to long distances.

Another important lesson taught by noting causes of
failure was the necessity for guarding against the ice doing
damage as it melted into smaller dimensions by arrange-
ments which would confine its mass in separate though
contiguous receptacles while securing a continuous supply of
the melting ice to each tray of ova embedded and overlapped
with clean pressed layers of soft moss. The beneficial result
of these improvements in matters of detail is exemplified by
the last splendid experiment carried out from start to finish
by the grand veteran of acclimatisation, Sir Thomas Brady ;
for out of the 400,000 eyed ova packed by him in insulated
boxes there were not more than 2 per cent, of mortality when
transferred to the hatching boxes of the Eiver Plenty on
April 19th, 1888.

This most successful result has far surpassed the expec-
tations of the most hopeful, and the colony owes a deep
debt of gratitude to Sir Thomas Brady, " the Grand Old
Man," who has in this and in former experiments
enthusiastically traversed the length and breadth of " Ould
Ireland," collecting ova, capturing and stripping mature fish,
and fertilising and packing ova. No one but those engaged in
such work can form an estimate of these loving labours ; the
long weary miles of travel in rain and snow ; wading in rivers
up to the armpits for hours together ; the laborious hours
preparing trays and tenderly laying out the thousands of tiny
pink eggs ; and the anxious care of packing and provision for
transport. All these matters would be bejond the powers
of ordinary men, but they have been joyously and success-
fully overtaken by this grand enthusiast who has shown
Tasmanians, that indomitable energy and enthusiasm in a
good cause breaks down all difficulties, laughs at mere

BY S. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 29

inoonyenience or exertion, and overthrows obstacles of everj
kind. If Tasmanians are thus deeply indebted to Sir
Thomas Brady, the generous protector and friend of the poor
struggling fishermen of Ireland, they are also under the
deepest obligation to Dr. Agnew, whose unabated interest in
the acclimatisation of edible fishes in Tasmania is proved by
his munificence in bearing the whole expense of the last
splendid enterprise.

The princely gift is not merely creditable to himself, but it
adds lustre to the colony which produces men like him, who
are as much distinguished for wisdom in the conception of
making such thoughtful provision for the material welfare
of the land of their adoption as for the generosity which
carries it into effect. The " Aguew " experiment deserves to
be a success.

OTHER PEOBLEMS STILL AWAITING SOLUTION.

While we have to congratulate ourselves on the success so
far of the Agnew experiment, there is still another problem
to solve. Will the veritable progeny of SaJmo solar, when
liberated in our waters, survive and perpetuate their kind ?
This is now our real trouble and anxiety. It formed the
subject of many interesting papers read before the members
of this Society by the late Mr. Morton AUport, whose name
will always be remembered in connection with the acclima-
tisation of the salmonidse. That we have good reason to be
anxious still of this result, and to discuss its probabilities, is
manifest to every one who has taken any interest in the
acclimatisation of the true salmon {Salmo solar). It is now
twenty-two years since the first live fry of Salmo salar have been
liberated in our waters, since which time repeated successful
hatchings have added to the original stock. Notwithstanding
this, no fish of the salmon family, now so common in our
seas, has been captured, which can with confidence be referred
to the European type of Salmo salar. The type of migratory
salmonoid, now so common in the Derwent, in certain respects
comes close to the smolt and grilse form of Salmo salar, but
in a greater degree — although extremely variable within
limits — its characters correspond more closely with the chief
Tarieties of Salmo trutta {S, eriox, S, hrachypoma, and S, cam'
hricus). If, therefore, we assume that the varieties so
common in our waters are actually the descendants of the
few individuals of S, trutta originally liberated (496 fry
liberated) in 1866, what has become of the many thousands
of fry of Sahno salar liberated in our waters in the several
experiments since the year 1864?*

* Exclnding the last snccessf ol shipment it is estimated that out of the 88,000 fry
hatched from British and Irish ecgs, there were about 07 per cent, of S, salar
Spar 00^ of S. tnota, and scarcely 1 per cent, of S. fwio.

30 KESULTS OF THE ATTEMPTS TO ACCLIMATISE SALMO SALAB.

To this question several rougli guesses have been made hj
various authorities, but all of which are most unsatisfactory,
as in my opinion none of them were arrived at either by a
scientific method or in a scientific spirit. They were purely
rough guesses, as already described.

It is not necessary to discuss the whole of the opinions
advanced at different times. It will be sufficient to bring
under review the three which have found more or less favour
with some. These are —

1 (the Hybrid Theory). — That the ova introduced were

not derived from parents that were true types of
Salmo salary but owing to mistake either the ova of
hybrid forms were introduced, or that the ova of
S. salar by mistake were fertilised (artificially) by
the semen of 8. trutta or vice versa,

2 (the Extinction Theory). — That the conditions of the

new environment in Tasmania, whether of tempera-
ture, food, or enemies, were so adverse to the young
of the S, salar that they speedily died out.

3 (the Exodus Theory). — That the tempei'ature of our

waters range so high that in consequence the fish

do not return to their native rivers, but wander

away fi'om our shores to more congenial waters.

Thus we have to examine three distinct conceptions, which

for convenience may respectively be classed as (1) the hybrid

theory, (2) the extinction theory, and (3) the exodus theory.

THE HYBRID THEORY.

That hybrid breeds between the various species of salmon
exist in large numbers in European and American waters is
too well confirmed by Johnson, Gunther, Day, Brady, Francis,
Buckland, and other authorities, whose observations have
been extensive and accurate. That these hybrids interbreed
and perpetuate their several overlapping varieties has also
received the most ample confirmation.

To assume, however, as Dr. Gunther seems to have done in
his " Study of Fishes " (p. 642), that only hybrid forms have
been introduced to Tasmania, is quite a different matter, and
is, moreover, without justification, when all the facts of the
case are judicially examined.

In the first place, let it be clearly understood that the ova
stated to have been obtained from hona fide examples of
Salmo salar have neither been collected at one time, at one
place, nor from one particular pair ; neither have they been
selected and fertilised by one particular person.

On the contrary, there were five distinct shipments of ova
successfully transported and finally hatched and liberated in
Tasmanian waters in the years 1864, 1866, 1884, 1885, and

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, P.L.S. 31

1888. The ova of 8almo solar thus transported, amounted to
about eight hundred and fifty thousand.

The ova were obtained under the direction of Youl,
Buckland, Francis Francis, Brady and others eminently
qualified to judge — aided in each district by the most skilled
local experts. The pairs of parent fish, as might be expected,
represent many distinct individuals taken from many -widely
separated salmon rivers in England, Wales, Scotland, and
Ireland, including the Rivers Eibble, Hodder, and Tyne in
England ; the Dovey in Wales ; and the rivers Shannon,
Liffey, and Erne in Ireland.

Now, assuming that one or two mistakes might have been
made by these various experts, this would, not in any way
affect the greater number of ova collected and fertilised at
other times and places ; and surely it would be too prepos-
terous to assume that all the separate selections made by so
many experts failed owing to a similar mistake in each
separate case, in different districts, and at different periods.
The idea of hybridism under all such circumstances is
certainly extremely improbable.

The names already mentioned as being concerned in the
selection are quite sufficient to dismiss the hybrid theory as
untenable as an explanation of the apparent absence in
Tasmanian waters of the pronounced types of the European
Salmo aalar,

THE EXTINCTION THEOBT.

The second gViess is not so easily disposed of, viz., that the
conditions of the new environment in Tasmania, whether of
temperature, food or enemies, were so adverse to the young of
Salmo sala/r that they speedily died out. The non-appearance
of unmistakable examples of Salmo aalar after so many
years certainly adds great force to this conception, and would
of itself be conclusive if there were no alternative presented
to us accounting for the absence of typical forms of S. salar.

As, however, alternative theories hereinafter discussed may
also account for the absence of the normal European type it
is necessary to examine the present theory most carefully.
First, let me confess that the extinction theory is sujficiently
reasonable to demand serious consideration.

It is conceivable that the extremes of temperature in our
rivers and seas, or the numerous powerful enemies, such as
the barracouta, are such as may have accomplished the des-
truction of the progeny of Salmo salar.

There are strong reasons, however, for the belief that the
theory of extinction on such grounds is unsatisfactory if not
untenable. In the first place the assumption that the local
temperature of our waters would cause the extinction of
Salmo salary although apparently confirmed by the somewhat

32 BESULTS OF THE ATTEMPTS TO ACCLIMATISE SALMO SALAB.

•

higloL range of surface or shallow water, is open to several
objections.

Ist. We haye positive evidence to the contrary, gained from
the close observation of many years of the progeny of 8almo
salar in confinement in the shallow artificial ponds connected
with the Hatchery at the Eiver Plenty.

It is reasonable to infer that the water of these shallow
ponds are more subject to extremes of temperature than our
open rivers and seas, where the fish are at liberty to seek for
the more congenial temperature in the deeper waters. When
we find, however, that under the most unfavourable conditions
for anadromus fishes — viz., confinement permanently in shallow
fresh water ponds — the undoubted progeny of Salmo salar
Bot only survive for very many years, but even breed there,
we have the best of reasons for being dissatisfied with the
temperature argument.

Apart from this: the idea that the temperature of our open
waters of rivers and seas varies to any material degree from
that of the southerly portions of Ireland and England where
the salmon exists is based upon very imperfect reasoning.
The vertical isotherms of our estuaries and seas have never
been properly investigated, and so far I am aware we are not
providing Tasmania as yet with appliances for conducting
investigations of this kind.

It is true we have perfect records of fresh water shallows,
as at the Plenty, and of sandy flats, as at Mr. Saville Kent's
late salt water enclosures at Sandy Bay; but these are utterly
deceptive as affording an index of the variations or mean
temperature of neighbouring depths of the estuary, far less
of the submarine depths of the various sea-basins lying
beyond and hidden to ordinary observation. It must be borne
in mind that the sandy flats at the old Fisheries Establish-
ment at Sandy Bay are exposed in summer, and especially
in January, to the direct rays of the sun at low water, and at
high water stage the sands are only covered for a very brief
period by one to two feet of water. It would be absurd,
therefore, upon such evidence, to gauge the varying isotherms,
even at a distance of 400 yards from the shore line. In
shallows laid bare to the sun's rays for many hours at each
tide, it is natural to expect that the surface layer of
shallow water would indicate a very high range in January^
but similar shallows in Great Britain and England might be
selected showing a nearly equal high range in the height of
summer. The proper way to ascertain the temperature of
our waters is to follow the scientific method as carried out
recently by Dr. Hugh Eobert Mill* in the investigation of
** The temperature of the Clyde sea area." In Dr. MUl's

; Nature^ Rlay, pp. 37-39 ; 56-58.

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, P.L.S. 33

interesting account he states that he emplojed Messrs.
Negretti and Zambra's patent standard deep-sea ther-
mometers. The temperature was ascertained at the surface,
at 5 and 10 fathoms, and at a distance of 10 fathoms down
to the bottom. The Clyde sea area extends over 1,300 square
miles, and includes three grand plateaux, whose mean depths
were respectively 27 fathoms, 60 fathoms, and 80 fathoms.
The depth oft Skate Island, near Tarbert, was as much as
107 fathoms. One of the most instructive investigations was
carried out at Strachur, in Upper Loch Fyne, where a depth
of 50 fathoms exists.

In this region eight sets of observations were made with
the following results : —

SuBFACE. Bottom.

April 20

... 42-6

41-9

June 21

... 49-2

441

August 11 ...

... 541 ... 44-2

August 25 ...

... 53-5

44-2

September 27

... 52-4

44-1

November 17

... 46-4 ... 44-2

December 29

... 41-0

44-7

February 4 ...

... 43-0 ... 45-9

The remarkable lesson to be derived from this investigation
is that the effects of the surface temperature in summer does
not penetrate to depth of 50 fathoms until the following Febru-
ary, and that even then, when at the maximum of bottom tem-
perature, itis lower than maximum surface temperature by 8*2°.
It is also instructive to observe that while the surface tempera-
ture ranges from 41*0° in December to 54*1° in August, ^.e.,
total range of 13*1°; the bottom temperature only ranges
between the extremes of 41*9° in April, to 45*9° in February,
I.e., a total range of 4°. Thus the bottom depths only feebly
follows at a wide interval the variations of the surface
temperature.

Besides, it is clearly shown that in the hidden depths of
the sea there are hills, valleys, and protected basins, whose
temperatures vary with their depths, and with the physical
barriers which isolate basin from basin. When, therefore,
we realise that shallows bared at low tide were not even taken
into consideration, and when we have good reason for
assuming similar variation in the far-reaching Derwent sea
area of Tasmania, we have the strongest reasons against
resting upon any argument which assumes actual knowledge
of the temperature of its varying depths.

At any rate these observations are sufficient to cause us to
distrust theories based upon guesses or imperfect observation

With respect to natural enemies, it is undoubted that in

34 RESULTS OF THE ATTEMPTS TO ACCLIMATISE SALMO SALAB.

the barracouta {ThyrsUes atunj and kingfish (ThyrsUet
solandri)^ the sea-going salmonoids have swift and rapacious
foes to contend with ; but surely if the existing migratory
salmonoid of the Derwent is able to survive among them,
there is less fear that the normal European type of Sdlmo
solar would stand a smaller chance of escape.

The food of our waters, suitable for the salmon, is at least
as rich and varied as in the waters of Great Britain and
Ireland, and for this reason we may dismiss the last argument
in favour of the extinction theory.

THE EXODUS THEORY.

The exodus theory is a very old one, indeed. It was
advanced originally as an argument against the introduction
of Salmo solar to Tasmanian waters prior to the first attempt
made to transport live salmon ova to Tasmania. Owing to
the absence of any sign of the normal type of the European
Salmo solar it has been recently revived by Mr. Saville-Kent,
who even went so far as to suggest the coast of Japan as the
favoured shore to which possibly our wanderers directed the
march of their exodus from the assumed uncongenial
warmth of the temperature of Tasmanian waters. The
conception of an exodus from these waters is not
regarded by me as unreasonable. Far from it. Never-
theless I am not convinced that the reasons for the exodus
are sufficient. Mr. Saville-Kent*s suggestion that they have
possibly wended their way to the coast of Japan appears to me
to be altogether improbable and opposed to all our notions
with respect to the instinct of animals. It is conceivable,
although improbable, that some hereditary instinct of the
Tasmanian salmonoids might lead them to pierce the highly-
heated isotherms of the equatorial latitudes — a physicked
barrier as compared with the worst possible condition of
Tasmania — corresponding to " jumping out of the frying-pan
into the fire." But if they did attempt this strange freak of
instinct, they would be guided by some notion of the natal
locality of their ancestors, and that would be in the direction
of the Irish coast, following the great flow of the Gulf Stream
through the Atlantic, and not in the opposite direction of
Japan.

If the exodus was carried out in obedience to some in-
stinct of temperature without reference to a possible heredi-
tary instinct of locality, we ought to expect them to
travel in a southerly direction, that is, towards the latitudes of
the Antarctic circle. But of this possible migration -we have
not the slightest evidence. On the contrary, the evidence of
New Zealand acclimatisation afEords a complete parallel to
that of Tasmania. Surely we might hope that in the most

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 35

southerly shores of the Southern Island the progeny of the
normal type of the European Salmo solar might find tolerably
suitable conditions as regards temperature. ObseryatioUy
however, discloses the important fact that the only type of
migratory salmonoid found in their seas corresponds in all
respects with that of the Derwent.

The only conclusions left to us, therefore, so far as I can
judge, are : — either that the assumed wanderers have lost them-
selves in the wilderness of waters in the direction of the
South Pole, or — ^that many of the variable types of salmonoids
now inhabiting the Derwent are in reality the actual descend-
ants of the Salmo solar of Europe, modified by the combined
influences of retarded incubation in transit, and the varying
-conditions of their new environment.

MODIFICATION DUB TO ENVIRONMENT, ETC.

To assume, as a last resource, that arrested incubation,
together with the changed condition of a new environment,
may have modified some of the few remaining characters
{such as the size of scales, relative size of maxillary and
snout), 'which in European waters now alone serve satisfactorily
to distinguish Salmo salar from some of the larger protean
forms of 8. trutta, is not so extravagant a notion that it may
be dismissed without thoughtful enquiry.

If, on the one hand, the lack of special knowledge on the
part of practical fishermen and pisciculturists frequently lead
them to ignore important although variable characters (often
hidden to common-sense appreciation), which distinguish
•closely allied forms ; yet it must be confessed that naturalists
in dealing with a protean genus having a wide range of
variability, may have a tendency to err at times in seizing
arbitrarily upon certain extreme types, and upon these base a
classification of a complicated nature, which may serve some
useful purpose in grouping the few specimens preserved in
Museums, but which may be of little practical value in
-classifying the myriads of intermediate or overlapping forms
•captured and sold in the fish markets. Classifiers in
Museums may easily resort to the theory of hybridism for
labelling the few perplexing intermediate or overlapping forms
which find their way to Museum collections; but .what
resources have the fishmonger and purchaser when such forms
are brought in large numbers to market. Take, for example,
the many examples of large-sized silvery forms of salmon
■caught in salt water, whose maxillary largely exceeds the
length of snout, and whose transverse series of scales between
root of adipose fin and lateral line exceeds 11 in number. Are
these forms sold as real salmon or as salmon trout ? If we
•examine the fish stalls, or question the pisciculturist or fish-

36 BESTJLTS OF THE ATTEMPTS TO ACCLIMATISE SALMO SALAB.

monger, we ascertain that in nine cases out of ten the silyery
form, the colour of the flesh, and the size alone determine
their opinion, and all such forms are pronounced and sold as
Salmo salar. All doubts of the classifler regarding the nicer
points are readily set aside as the trivialities of naturalists^
with perhaps the contemptuous obserration "that no two
men of science are able to agree with each other's views in a
matter of classiflcation."

As regards the fish market it may be practically ascertained
that there are only three forms of the salmon family re-
cognised, viz.: (1) The common river or lake trout. (2)
The smaller sizes of migratory species, generally recognised
either as grilse or salmon trout. (3) All the large-sized
migratory forms, almost invariably recognised as salmon, ie.^
Salmo solar.

In some cases the brown shade or colour, and number*
colour, or disposition of spots, may cause ordinary persons to
allow the possibility of hybridism ; but this admission ia
rarely made in respect of characters which escape their
observation — such as the length of the maxillary, the develop-
ment of the limb of the prse-operculum, and the number and
size of the transverse series of scales. J^or is this to bo
wondered at. As regards the genus Salmo, nearly all the
characters selected by the classifier are of the most unsatis-
factory nature. No two individuals agree in any point
exactly ; every selected character varies in the widest manner,,
and the greater number of these overlap the bounds which
ideally separate the various species of the classifier.

So long as the limits of variability of individuals of tho
same parents in freedom are uncertain or obscure, reliance
upon the minute differences of many trivial characters must
certainly be a fertile source of error. Even observationa
made in respect of fish in artificial confinement show that
within such restricted conditions individual variation is very
considerable. But this is a small matter. What naturalist
is prepared to declare the full extent of the limits of
individual variation as regards form, colour, and ornamenta-
tion throughout the whole life development ah ovum, under
all the possible changes of environment, including differences
in food, temperature, and other important conditions charac-
teristic of the different localities open to the migration of
fishes ? It does not follow because we are unable satisfac-
torily to view the free movements of fish throughout their
life history in different localities, as in terrestrial forms of
life, that the changing conditions of environment do not
equally produce marked differences in many of the characters
now depended upon for the distinction of species.

So long as individual variation, together with the influence

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 37

of difEering environments are unknown or obscure, so long
must we be dissatisfied with a classification which so largely
depends on the theory of hybridism to account for the vast
number of intermediate forms which link together the several
closely-allied types, now artificially erected into species for
the mere convenience of local classification.

These remarks are not intended to reflect upon the necessary
dassification adopted locally for museum collections. They
are only intended as a protest against the classification so
artificially based when it is assumed to be in truth naturally
fixedy and capable of maintaining the various characters
unmodified by transference to the widely changed conditions of
a new environment ; as for example, the transfer of selected
types of European species to the waters of Tasmania.

When the few trival distinctions which alone serve to
support the adopted nonemclature of Europe fail to appear
in what in all probability are deemed to be the true acclima-
tised descendants of such species, we have no right to
assume upon such uncertain ground that the characters of
their descendants are so fixed as to remain unaffected by the
new conditions under which they live. It is quite possible
that it may be so ; but that is an open question. That they are
not so fixed is at least equally possible ; and this conception,
moreover, is more probable when all the facts of the case are
taken into consideration. When individuals show one or
two peculiar characters in one environment which are not
reproduced by what appears on good evidence to be their des-
cendants in another widely differing environment, it is more
reasonable to assume that the characters have been modified
by the transfer, than that the extreme forms so largely and
successfully introduced into our waters should altogether
eease to exist, or vanish from our shores. It must be borne
in mind that among fishes showing every gradation of change
within the limits of variability, the predominant types in one
locality may be due to the influence of local environment,
rather than to hereditary influences. To assume, as is too
frequently the case, that such prevailing types indicate
greater purity of breed, is to beg the whole question at issue.
It is well known that the prevailing forms of sea-trout in
English, Welsh, and Scotch streams, differ so considerably
with the locality that classifiers regard them as distinct
species. The forms known as 8. truUa, 8. gellivensis, 8.
Catnbricua, 8. hrachyjpoma, are examples of this class.

But although the minor characteristics which served im-
perfectly to distinguish these types are admitted, there is
no proof that the prevalent type characters are not purely the
effect of local environment which might be speedily obliterated
or transformed by transfer to a different environment. The

38 BBSULTS OP THE ATTEMPTS TO ACCLIMATISE SALMO SALAE.

writer drew attention to this uncertainty in the years 1879*
and 1882t. Writing of the new modification produced in
the prevailing forms of migratory salmonoids acclimatised in
the Derwent, he states : " Whether this local form is the
result of hybridism, as suggested by Dr. Gunther, or is
simply the effects of the differing conditions of a new environ-
ment, I am as yet unable to decide — perhaps a good deal may
be due to both influences. It is noteworthy, however, that
already in New Zealand X and Tasmania the allied species
S, fario var. Ausonii has developed into types which are
characteristic of particular local streams. This variability in
relation to environment is very suggestive, and may yet help
to explain the trifling variable differences in character often
overlapping between S.camhricus, S.gallivensis, 8,hrachypomay
and S. trutta of Scotch, English, and Irish streams. Characters
which may be greatly affected by environment are not to be
depended upon, and in the opinion of some authorities in other
branches of natural history such differences would not bo
recognised as of specific or even sub-specific rank. The
assumption of hybridism is to me extremely unsatisfactory^
for the reason that the extreme types steadily perpetuate
themselves in European waters, notwithstanding the extra-
ordinary facilities among fishes for intercrossing by
natural means which probably have existed unrestricted for
ages.

The reasonableness of this opinion has received strong con-
firmation subsequently by Dr. Day in his works on " British
and Irish Fishes," and " British and Irish Salmonidse," where
he actually reduces all the types named to varieties of one
species (8, trutta).

It is not an easy matter to tell what characters are of
specific value and what are not, even when the fullest infor-
mation has been obtained as to the variability of the
individuals of a group ; and the greatest living authorities
often come to different conclusions. It would be unreason-
able, therefore, to expect, in the absence of the fullest know-
ledge respecting variation of size, colour, sculpture, distribu-
tion, etc., that any author could determine with accuracy
those characters which alone should entitle certain
forms to specific rank. Of course, I am aware of the
difference of opinion which existed, and which still exists in
a more modified form, with respect to what constitutes a
species and what a variety ; but there is now, with few
exceptions, sufficient agreement among the leading philo-
sophical naturalists to leave little room for doubt in cases

* Mercury f Hobart, Nov. 26, 1879 : t Fishes of Tasmania, p. 130, Hobart,
1882. X Chi the Brovm Trout introduced into Otago, By W. Arthur, O.E.
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1883.)

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 39

where the definition of a species is based upon the observation
of a large number of specimens from different localites. I do
not use the words species as the type of a group of allied
organisms which have a rigidly determinate number of
immutable characteristics in common; for the characters
which, as a whole, are relatively constant in those sections
which we group under a specific name are themselves variable,
and are frequently to be found interlapping other groups
of merely relative constant characters, but which we yet
acknowledge as belonging to a distinct species.

The type of a group termed species is fixed upon mainly to
define the maximum of relatively constant characteristics
around which all the individual varieties may cluster, and
which shall serve to distinguish the type species from a closely
allied group of a similar character. Indeed, we may picture
species as the nodes of an irregularly moniliform series,
whose extremities are in some cases sharp and distinct, and
in other cases mere constrictions, where the extreme indi-
viduals of each node or group meet, and can hardly be dis-
tinguished from each other. But even when we clearly
understand, and agree with each other as regards the prin-
ciples which determine classification, it is often perplexing to
fix upon characters whereupon to erect the standard of a
species or variety, for it is well known in practice that
characters are seized upon rather from stability and associa-
tion with certain other characters than from absolute
differences in particular features. Gwyn Jeffreys thus
defines the degrees of difference which should determine
species : — " They constitute more or less extensive groups of
individuals which resemble each other as well as their parents
and offspring to the same extent as we observe in the case of
our own kind. These groups to deserve the name of species
must be distinct from others : because, if any of them are so
intimately blended together by intermediate links, so as to
make the line of separation too critical, the test fails, and a
subordinate group, or what is called a 'variety,' is the result.
For this reason it is indispensably necessary to compare as
great a number of individuals as possible, and especially a
series of different ages and sizes, commencing ah ovo, as well
as specimens collected from various localities" And again,
he states in respect of what are termed varieties, that " the
characters by which they usually differ from species consist of
size, comparative proportions of different parts, colour, and
degree of sculpture ; " and he remarks that such differences
" originate in some peculiarity of climate, situation, composi-
tion of soil or water which they inhabit, the nature or supply
of food, and various other conditions." These latter, he
adds, may be " permanent or local." When permanent he

40 RESULTS OF THE ATTEMPTS TO ACCLIMATISE SALMO SALAB.

calls them races, but, as he himself remarks, it would " be
difficult " to discriminate between a race and a species.

When we consider all such matters, what assurance remains
to us *' that the remaining and only trustworthy specific
character differentiating f^almo salar from Sahno trutta"*
— viz., " eleven rows of scales in an oblique row from the
adipose fin to the lateral line, all forms of 8. trutta having
fourteen or more such scales," — does not break down or
become modified in the totally different environment of the
antipodean waters of Tasmania to which S. salar has been
so largely introduced ?

Are English ichthyologists prepared to declare a priori that
the scales of the variable genus Salmo are alone fixed, and
cannot be modified by the changed conditions of a totally
different environment ? Surely not

If this possible modification be admitted by them, what
becomes of the classification which depends upon this last
critical test for the separate specific recognition of the large,
mature silvery forms of Salmo salar and Sahno trutta. The
answer is simple enough : the classifier's final test breaks down
entirely as a guide to the proper classification of the two
supposed distinct species. The experience of acclimatisation
of S. salar, and its results in the waters of Tasmanifti
formerly devoid of any form of the genus Salmo, affords
better evidence to naturalists bearing upon variability than
can possibly be obtained in regions, as in Europe, where the
variability due to influence of any one locality or river is
being disturbed, and inferences obscured, and made hazardous
by the constant influx of stragglers originally bred in other
localities where other characteristics have been developed, and
which may be perpetuated for a considerable time with more
or less persistency in foreign waters among the prevailing
local types.

No such interfusion from foreign sources can affect the
progeny of undoubted S, salar, largely introduced at different
times, and 8, trutta only once introduced in small number,
in Tasmanian waters; and consequently in such a region
there is less uncertainty as to what may or may not be the
extent of the modifying effect of environment per se than in
European waters where each region's locally-bred forms are
continually being interfused with immigrants bred in distant
regions.

The conclusions to be drawn from these differing conditions
have not yet received that amount of attention from classifiers
which they deserve, for it is too evident that a priori and not
a posteriori argument still largely colours the opinions of
many, and this arises, no doubt, from the treacherous tendency

* See Nature, January 12, 1888

BY E. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 41

to restrict ohservation to the local region best known to the
particular observer.

Unfortunately, opinions expressed hitherto with respect to
the odd examples sent to English authorities for deter-
mination, have merely added confusion to the whole question.
Different specimens at different times have been doubtfully
pronounced to be S, salar, S. trutta, S, fario, and a hybrid
between 8. trutta S. fario, without any detailed reasons
baying been given for arriving at these very opposite
•conclusions.

Authoritative opinions of this kind are worse than useless,
as we do not know the points of evidence upon which the
separate opinions were based. A knowledge of the local
range of individual variability is absolutely necessary before
a reliable opinion could be expressed by any scientific expert ;
and as this knowledge was not possessed by European experts I
am of opinion that their decisions are not of much value in
matters which relate to variation induced by local conditions
in Tasmania. Besides, as urged by me in my observation on
" The Fishes of Tasmania," in the year 1882, " Odd specimens
cannot determine the curve of variability, nor can they
determine whether the four fishes so differently named were
not after all the progeny of the same parents."

I am not finding fault with the authorities referred to, as
possibly they did their best in relation to the fixed classifica-
tion of English types ; but seeing that the new environment
might be expected to produce remarkable modifications of
many characters it might be expected that such considerations
should have been allowed for and specially commented upon.
It is true some of our types examined seemed to puzzle the
best authorities, but it is significant that the nature of the
variations which caused hesitation has not been publicly
recorded in support of whatever opinion was expressed.

That I am not overstating the case in this respect is borne
out by the high testimony of Sir Thos. Brady. In his address
to the Members of the Royal Society of Tasmania on April
23rd, 1888, Sir Thos. Brady stated that three or four years
ago, Mr. Seager — Secretary to the Salmon Commission of
Tasmania — sent him three fish, which, after writing his
opinion of, he submitted to an eminent Member of the Royal
Society of Dublin, an ichthylogist, and a well known scientist,
who was not aware of his opinion, and wrote one that exactly
coincided with it. It was, that one fish was a true salmon,
one was not, and there was a doubt about the third. He
took this fish (the salmon) before one of the most celebrated
scientists and ichthyologists, a man with a European reputa-
tion, but this gentleman would not give an opinion urdil he
hnetu where it came from ! After some demur the information

42 BESTJLTS OF THE ATTEMPTS TO ACCLIMATISE SALMO SALAB.

that it came from Tasmania was given, and the authority then
said it was not a salmon ! As he went away this gentieman
said — '^ You are going to take it to somebody else. You may
take it to the six best scientists in England^ and you vrill get six
different opinions " / / K such be the perplexity with respect
to the progeny of well-known English species now inhabiting
Tasmaniau waters in such numbers, what shall we say of
the sufficiency of the established classification which fa^ to
determine satisfactorily their true relationship.

The fishes which in size, colour, and general form, ap-
proach the true salmon of England, as developed in Tas-
mania, although they will not fit the Englisn classifiers'
limits as regards the relative length of snout, the reUtive
length of maxillary to snout, and the exact number of rows of
scales between adipose fin and lateral line, yet conform so
closely in the more apparent characteristics recognisable by
fishermen and pisciculturists, that even Sir Thos. Brady —
who has the widest knowledge of the common salmon of
Ireland and of the fish supplied as salmon in the English
markets — has no hesitation in pronouncing a fine specimen
(39 inches long, and 281bs. weight, caught in the Huon River
by His Excellency Sir Eobert Hamilton) to be " a true salmon,"
and he further added '^ that no practical man who would see
the fish would ever think of calling it anything but a salmon."
He further stated : " Whether it be the true Salmo salar or
not, it is, at any rate a fish which would be considered and
treated as a salmon in salmon countries; which would be sold
and purchased as such; and if the colonists of Tasmania, seek
for more than Ireland, which now exports salmon to the
amount of over d£600,000 worth annually, he could not help
saying that . . . they are hard to please and ought to go
without them."

And yet, after all, this fine fish had 14 or 15 scales in a
series between adipose fin and lateral line, had a slightly
brownish tinge on sides though very silvery, and the maxHlary
greatly exceeded the distance between the end of snout and
eye, and therefore, according to the recognised classification
of England, it would be pronounced Salmo trutta. What
shall the verdict be, therefore? Has the Salmo salar so
largely imported and liberated in Tasmanian waters failed to
survive or vanished from our shores ; or has the transfer to
the totally different environment in antipodean waters broken
down or modified the one or two trifling characteristics which
now alone serve to mark the critical passage between the
allied English types of Salmo salar and Salmo trutta ? If I am
asked to choose between these two alternatives I un-
hesitatingly accept the latter.

In support of this view I have to add that my opinion is

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 43

not based upon the casual examlDation of one or two speci-
mens. During the last twelve years I have carefully
examined and noted the varying characters (over thirty in
each specimen) of himdreds of examples taken in various
localities. I have not made £nal comparison of the relative
size of fins and other essential characters of different sized
specimens until each absolute measurement was reduced to a
common equivalent.

That is, I have been in the habit of regarding the total
length of each fish as 1,000, and by computation I have
reduced all other parts in relation thereto.

In no other way can the observer appreciate with the
fullest accuracy the relative agreements and differences of
individuals of different sizes and ages. In no other way can
the various modifications of locality, age, and variety, be
satisfactorily compared and appreciated.

That due attention has been paid to the many nice dis-
tinctions which characterise the individuality and species of
the English and local salmonoids may be admitted upon
reference to the following tabular analyses of the principal
typical specimens deposited in the British Museum, for which
measurements have been recorded in Dr. Gunther's Catalogue
of Fishes, Vol. VI. ; with which typical individuals of the
three principal groups of Tasmanian salmonoids are com-
pared according to a common standard ; all the measurements
have been carefully reduced by me, a work of considerable
labour in itself.

44 RESULTS OF THE ATTEMPTS TO ACCLIMATISB SALMO SALAB.

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BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 45

A study of the analytical table given reveals the fact that
with the exception of one, or perhaps two, out of the 32
points, all the characters not only vary with each individual
of the same species, hut the range of this individual
Tariability covers or overlaps the whole of the different species
in EngHsh and Tasmanian types. The characters which
alone serve to distinguish the English S. solar are — ^the trans-
Terse series of scales between lateral line and root of adipose
fin, and the relative length of maxillary in adult specimens.

The specially distinguishing characteristics of Tasmanian
fishes as compared with their British and Irish progenitors
are common to the migratory and fresh- water forms, viz. : —

1. The prevailing greater relative depth and girth of the

body.

2. The prevailing higher number of pyloric csBca*

ranging as high as 56 in the brown trout form ; the
range of the local analogue of S, solar reaches as
high as 72.

3. The prevailing greater relative length and depth of

the dorsal and anal fins.

4. The prevailing greater relative distance of the dorsal

fin from the occiput.

6. With the exception of the small silvery form of sea
trout, the prevailing larger size of the adipose ^^
with about six well-marked rows of rudimentary
scales ascending upwards some distance from its
base ; the only distinguishing test between some
of the large brown trout of the Great Lake and the
migratory fish entering the sea is one of colour and
ornamentation, No two specimens of the Great
Lake fish agree in size, form, and number of the
spots, nor in the general colour of the body ; some
having a deep brownish shade, while others are of a
bright silvery colour, without a red spot or shade of
brown. Between these there is every possible
gradation. Every river has the effect of producing
some more or less marked local characteristics.

Where the brown trout inhabit streams near to the sea
they enter the salt water freely, and soon assume a bright and
silvery appearance, although in most cases the tinge of the
golden shade and their greater size readily distinguish these
from the smaller 8, trutta, which seems to linger in the salt
water for a longer period (usually from July to November and
I>ecember), and ranges farther towards the open seas.

• This great increase in the number of pyloric caeca has also been noted
specially in New Zealand by Mr. Arthur.

46 RESULTS OF THE ATTEMPTS TO ACCLIHATISB SALMO SAIAB.

We have, therefore, three races or varietieB, if not
three species, each with a wide range of variation.

1. S. fario var. Ansoniiy attaining a very much larger

size than the Engtish type restricted to fresh water
lakes and rivers.

2. The analogue of the English white trout, B. ifmnHkk*

3. The intermediate form partaking soti^ewhat of the

characters of 1 and 2 attaining a much larger idze
and entering salt water freely. This is the groupto
which the fish belongs recently caught by His
Excellency, Sir Bobert Hamilton, and deemed by
Sir Thomas Brady to be a true salmon.

If it be the true analogue of the English 8. saJar it certainly
has local characters which serve to distinguish it. And if the
classifier persists in retaining the maxillary and scale tests, we
must recognise it for the time being by a local name, and I
propose for it the name of S, aalwr var. Tasmanicua^ thus
standing as a variety within the same species as varieties
Oaimckrdi and Anaonii within the species 8. fario. The
characters given in table are sufficient for its determination.

By the characters already tabulated the three principal
groups in Tasmania may also readily be determined.

That the introduced fishes will ultimately become an im-
portant article of food, and afford a large revenue to the
colony, I have little doubt.

In conclusion, I have only to add that the peculiar
nature of the problems demanding solution in the classifica-
tion of our acclimatised fishes demanded of me that I should
fearlessly express my convictions, as I have done in this paper.
The great respect which I have for the wisdom and learning
of the leading ichthyologists of England is none the less
sincere because I am now obliged to state fully and clearly the
nature of our difficulties, and I only hope that my observa-
tions may be of some use in establishing a more satis&.ctory
basis for the classification of the salmonidsd of Tasmania.

'ElfPTS TO ACDLOUTISB SAUEO BAIAB. 4B

TYPES.

IN TASMANIA.

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dtot

NOTES IN EEFEEENCE TO " SCOTT'S TRACK/' VIA
LAKE ST. CLAIR, TO THE WEST COAST OP
TASMANIA.

By James Andbbw.

I have been requested by a Fellow of this Society, whom
circumstances prevent from himself representing the subject
dealt with in these notes, to call attention to an error in the
designation of a track which appeared in a paper on *' The
Highlands of Lake St. Clair," read at the November meeting
by Colonel Legge.

The member to whom I refer, Mr. T. B. Moore, is well
known as an explorer, and he asks me to bring under the
notice of the Royal Society that " Scott's Track," along the
Ouvier Valley and westward to the coast, is, as such, incor-
rectly described.

Of my own knowledge I can state that it was Mr. Moore
who explored this route and cut the track referred to, along
which, many weeks later, the Hon. J. R. Scott travelled.
Having preserved my notes taken at the time, and from
reference to various public documents, I am enabled, with
the permission of the Council of the Society, to lay before
you a brief statement of the nature desired by Mr. Moore.

Colonel Legge, however, in speaking of " Scott's Track,"
used the name recently adopted by the Lands Office, and it
would be most unlikely that he should have any cause to
imagine that the gentleman whose name it bears had no
claim to such credit as might be attached to developing the
first overland route from the southern side of the island to
Mount Heemskirk.

It was owing to the untimely death of Mr. Scott, shortly
after his return from this trip, that Mr. Moore neither ob-
tained, nor has ever sought to obtain, what may seem a
trivial privilege, but which is, nevertheless, one of an esti-
mable value in an explorer's eyes — that of having his route
charted in his own name, and of suggesting to the Govern-
ment the adoption of such designations as he might select,
by right of discovery, for mountains, lakes, or rivers, which
were previously undescribed or unknown. It is not my
object, therefore, in calling attention to this error, to seek to
have it rectified, but merely to place on record in the pro-
ceedings of the Society such a condensed chronological state-
ment of the movements of the two gentlemen referred to, and

50 NOTES IN EEFERENCB TO SCOTT's TBACK.

their parties, as may, I trust, clearly establish the justice of
Mr. Moore's claim as the pioneer of this particular portion
of the colony.

The late Mr. C. P. Sprent, then a Government surveyor,
in a report dated May 3rd, 1876, to the Minister of Lsmds
and Works, of his explorations in the country between Mount
BischofE and Mount Heemskirk, stated that to completely
open up the West Coast to prospectors, three main tracks
were required, of which one should be from Lake St. Clair to
some point on the coast.

Encouraged by the indications of gold and tin found in the
vicinity of the Pieman and its tributaries by Mr. Sprenfs
party, Mr. T. B. Moore started from New Norfolk on January
1st, 1877, with two companions — his brother, Mr. J. A,
Moore, and myseK—with the object of finding a. practicable
overland route to the West Coast in the Erection recom-
mended, and also with the view of prospecting the country
passed through for minerals. The party were provisioned
for four months, and in spite of heavy losses in supplies
from depredations by bush vermin, remained in the field
for five months.

Of the country traversed, of the magnificent scenery in the
Western ranges, and of the incidents of travel, except so feir
as they relate to Mr. Scott's journey, I do not propose to
speak this evening. As previously stated, the parly, of which
I was the jimior member, left on the 1st of Januaiy, 1877,
and it was not imtil two months later, viz., on the 1st March,
that Mr. Scott made a start for the coast. On the 13th of
that month it was necessary for me to return for supplies^
and I left my companions on the Mount Bead — Mount
Dundas range — hard at work cutting through some of the
worst scrub it has ever been my bad fortune to become ac-
quainted with. The distance reached by this date was,
according to Mr. Scott's own estimate, 60 miles from Lake
St. Clair. On the 15th March, having then travelled about
half this distance, I met Mr. Scott with two men, and did
all in my power to facilitate his westward journey by direc-
tions as to where he could best pick up our route. The
Messrs. Moore had, meanwhile, decided to make a trip to
our main depot, and they also met Mr. Scott near a lake now
charted as Lake Dora, and gave him further directions with
the object of assisting him on his way.

The next entry in my diary in reference to the subject of
these notes occurs on April 2nd, when having again tmvelled
back with the Moores nearly to the limit of our track, we
found warm ashes at a camp recently occupied by Scott, and
indications of the route he had taken in the shape of three
direction notices, placed in cleft sticks, one pointing coast-

B7 JABCES ANDREW. 51

irards to Mount Heemsldrk, another along our route westerly
to the summit of Mount Dundas, and the third towardis
home, giving the distance from Hobart as 176 miles.

On the 3rd April I again left my companions, and thus
had no opportunity of learning how far Mr. Scott had pro-
ceeded before they overtook him, but as both parties camped
together that evening, the distance could not haye been very
great, nor was the country difficult.

It was on the 13th May that I next joined my comrades,
and I then learnt that they and Mr. Scott's parfcy had com-
bined to cut the track down the spur of Mount Dundas to the
open coast country, and that they had separated on the 6th
April.

Of the remainder of Mr. Scott's journey I need only make
brief mention. At Moimt HeemsHrk and on the Pieman he
fell in with Donnelly's party and the Brothers Meredith —
besides ourselves, the only prospectors up to that time on the
coast — and he naturally avaoled himself of their tracks, as far
as available, for the completion of the round journey to
Mount Bischoff. I am not aware, however, that this portion
of his route has ever been charted or referred to as '^ Scott's
Track."

Upon our return to Hobart at the end of May, 1877, some
notes of the expedition were communicated by Mr. John A.
2f oore to the Lands Department, and I quote his remarks so
&r as they bear on the subject dealt with. Mr. Moore
states : —

" Our party had reached Dundas with our track, and went
l)ack for provisions to what Scott had named Lake Dora
l>ef ore we met him on his way out, being quite six weeks
tihrough that country before he was. We were the first
"white men ever on Dundas, and I doubt whether a black-
:f ellow ever was there, judging from the look of the country."
He adds : " It took ten days to get from the foot of Mount
IBead to the top of Dundas, and hard work, too."

The Hon. Nicholas J. Brown, then Minister of Lands and

"Works, supplied a copy of these notes, with a map, to the

IBditor of the Hobart ifercury, and wrote that "with reference

tx> the statement made in the latter portion of Mr. Moore's

^otesas to his party having been through a considerable

portion of the western country before the late Hon. James

£eid Scott, I can assert that &om my own knowledge this

statement is correct, and I am quite sure that but for the

premature death of that lamented gentleman, the claims of

the Messrs. Moore to some credit for having materially

assisted in exploring that hitherto almost unknown region

would have been fully recognised and borne out by him."

{Vide Mercury 26th November, 1877).

52 NOTES IN KEFEBENCE TO SCOTT's TBAGK.

Further testimony as to Mr. Moore's priority as the ex-
plorer of this part of the colony is borne by the late Mr.
Sprent, who, in a paper on " Recent Explorations on the
West Coast of Tasmania," read before the Victorian Branch
of the Eoyal Geographical Society of Australasia on the 4th
September, 1885, spoke of the work done in 1877. He stated
that " besides the parties who were working from the Pieman,
one party had succeeded in reaching the locality from Lake
St. Clair, and had cleared and marked a good foot track.
This work was accomplished by Messrs. T. B. and J. A.
Moore and James Andrew. It was in every respect most
useful and interesting. The route they had adopted passed
over a most mountainous country, and it was only by dint of
much toil that provisions could be got out."

Mr. Sprent, who was well acquainted with the details of
these journeys, does not mention that Mr. Scott in any way
assisted in the exploration and development of the western
country, and on the chart attached to his paper the track is
correctly ascribed to T. B. Moore.

In May, 1878, Mr. E. A. Counsel, G-overnment Surveyor,
who had been commissioned to ** cut, mark, and clear a track
from Lake St. Clair to the deep waters of the Pieman River,"
which work was discontinued owing to scarcity of provisions
and bad weather, returned to Hobart along our route in
company with Mr. T. B. Moore. That the difficulties of the
small section of track formed conjointly by Scott and the
Moores were not very great, may be estimated from the fact
that on the first night after leaving Mount Heemskirk, the
party camped between Mounts Dundas and Read. Of the
succeeding day's tramp Mr. Counsel remarks : — " We had to
journey over the top of Mount Read, the roughest piece of
track from Mount Heemskirk to Lake St. Clair ; the day's
march must be experienced to be understood." This was
the section which was completed weeks before Mr. Scott
passed through, and on which three of us were occupied for
ten days in cutting the track.

Mr. Scott's most deservedly high reputation as an explorer
and as a bushman is far too firmly established in the memories
of those who knew him, to suffer in the least degree from any
remarks of mine in reference to this particular journey. It
would, I feel sure, cause either of the Messrs. Moore as much
annoyance as it would myself, should anyone imagine that
the object of these notes is to detract in any way from the
credit which was due to Mr. Scott, and I trust that the
statement given has been fully sufficient to acquit me of any
such intention.

THE PEOBLEM OF MALTHUS STATED.
By E. M. Johnston, F.L.S.

Darwin (page 52, Origin of Species) has observed " that
in a state of nature almost every full-grown plant annually
produces seed, and amongst animals there are few which do
not annually pair. Hence we may confidently assert that all
plants and animals are tending to increase at a geometrical
ratio — that all would rapidly stock every station in which
they could anyhow exist. And this geometrical tendency to
increase must be checked by destruction at some period of
life," and, as an inevitable consequence, he goes on to add
" that each individual lives by a struggle at some period of
its life, that heavy destruction falls either on the young or
old during each generation, or at recurrent intervals.
Lighten any check, mitigate the destruction ever so little,
and the number of the species will almost instantaneously
increase to any amoimt."

These considerations when fully appreciated form the
foundation of the problem of Malthus.*

That Mr. Henry George altogether failed to grasp the
Tarious elements of this problem is at once apparent by the
manner in which in his otherwise very able work, " Progress
and Poverty," he has attempted to refute the conclusions of
Malthus.

As he has fallen into the most simple errors in his adverse
comments upon Malthus, it may be as well to state with
greater precision the factors of the problem, thus ;

P. — Actual population.

I. — Natural tendency to increase.

(a) At its maximum in an ideal state of perfect
health, virtue, peace, and prosperity.

(6) At its minimum when' the opposite of this
state obtains.

T. — Natural limit of life ; death at extreme old age.

C. — Checks, cutting off life before the healthy limit
of life has been reached, among which are promi-
nent : —

(a) Competition of other forms of animal
life — zymotic diseases, parasites, attacks
by beasts of prey, etc.

* An EsBay on the Principle^of Population. Malthus. (2 vols. London,
1826.)

64 THE PBOBLEM OF MALTHUS STATED.

(6) Insufficiency of food or famine^ whether
from seasonal inflaence, poor soil,
climate, ignorance, wilful waste, or im-
providence.

causes, such as earthquakes or yolcanic
outbursts, cannibalism, infant and senile
murder, massacre.

(d) Diseases, whether due to ignorance, vice,

human neglect of hjgiene, climate, cos-
mical influences, etc.

(e) Diseases due to the tendency of civilised

communities to aggregate in dense num«
bers, as in cities and towns.
(/) Misery the close attendant of these evils.

M. — ^Moral restraint operating upon I.

E. — Means of subsistence, varying with season, but
increased absolutely by numbers and increasing
knowledge of natural resource; the ratio per
individual, however, gradually lessening as the
poorer lands and waters are invaded by swelling
numbers.

F. — The absolute limit when a greater density for
each square mile of the earth's surface is reached
by removal or the minimising of all checks.

G. — The final stage, the world peopled to its full
limit, and the struggle for existence only per-
mitting a perpetuation of the maximum population
at F by the effects of T, and the &ilure of either
in any degree, again re-introducing of necessity
checks 0, a, 5, c, d, e, and so producing a decline in
population, although the natural tendency (I) to
multiply may still be conceived to be as vigorous
and prolific as at the first.
When Malthus affirmed that the ratio of increase of popu-
lation advanced faster than the ratio of increase of means of
subsistence, he never stated or conceived that population
could actually outstrip the means of subsistence as inter-
preted and discussed by Mr. Henry Gteorge (p. 17, book ii.),
and hence the whole of Mr. George's citations and reasonings
are either fallacious, or they never touch upon the real causes at
the root of Malthus' problem. That there is a thorough mis-
conception on the part of Mr. George is clearly proved by the
following quotation from Malthus (p. 243, vol. ii. Malthus on
Population) : " According to the principles of population the
human race has a tendency to increase faster than food. It
has, therefore, a constant tendency to people a country fully

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 55

up to the limits of subsistence (F or Of), but by the laws of
nature it can never go beyond them, meaning, of course,
by these limits the lowest quantity of food which will main-
tain a stationary population. Peculation, therefore, can
neTer, strictiy speaking, precede food." This clear expression
on tibe part of Malthus casts aside the whole of Mr. George's
raliocinations as worthless. His inability to grasp the most
important elements of the problem is still further made
mamifest by his query, p. 17, '' How is it, then, that this
fflobe of ours, after all the thousands, and it is thought mil-
fionSy of years, that man has been upon the earth, is yet so
thinly populated ?"

I can hardly conceive that a man of Mr. G-eorge's intelli-
gence could put forward such a plea in proof of his con-
tention that the natural tendency of population (I) is not
towards an increase in the direction of the limits of
subsistence.

His query indicates unmistakably that he confounds the
product with the ever-varying factors jplus and minus I, T,
and C, which make the product (P). There is no argument
necessary to show the absurdity of ignoring the value and
tendency of I, because the product P does not disclose a
similar value and tendency.

For example, the query entirely ignores the whole burden
of Malthus' problem by the effects of the checks T and C.
The mere fact, notwithstanding the powerful influence checks
T and C, which have always been in operation — the human
race is now, after a million years, still vigorous, and numbers
over 1,480 million souls, is in itseK the strongest proof that
"the natural tendency to increase has been the powerful
influence counteracting the terrible effects of C, which we
"too well know have always exerted a most powerful and dire
influence in preventing a large increase of population.

The fallacy of Mr. George's arguments is more clearly
appreciated by stating the problem thus :

Let. L — Natural tendency to increase (birth rate).

D. — A^ctual rate of increase or decrease of popu-
lation (a) surplus of births over deaths ;
(6) stationary state, etc.; (c) surplus of
deaths over births.

T. — ^Death as the full termination "^

of a natural healthy life > Death Bate.
C — Deathfrompreventible causes )

M. — Moral influence lowering the value of L

S. — Prosperity heightening the effect of I.

P. — ^The result upon the population (a) increase ;
(h) stationariness ; (c) decline.

THE PROBLEM OF MALTHUS STATED.

D. — The actual surplus (a) ; statioDariness {b) ;
decline (c) per year.

1. When I + S — M exceeds T + C, the result wiU be

P a or D a, or an increase of population.

2. When I + S — M, only equals T + C, the result will

be F 6 or D 6, or a stationary state of population.

3. When I + S — M falls below T + 0, the result will

be P c or D c, or a decline in population, caused by
the checks being greater than the birth rate.

What folly, therefore, to conceive a stationary state of
population as being due to the lowered absolute influence of
I alone, when the same result, according to our experience,
based upon the vital statistics of all countries, is due rather
to the increased value of C, the root evil, which Malthus
wished to see eliminated.

That a high death rate has a greater influence than a low

b irth rate in diminishing the surplus of births over deaths is

easily proved by reference to vital statistics — our only guide

in such matters. For example, take the case of Norway and

Spain and Hungary for the year 1885.

I + S — M

C + T

Birth rate

Death rate

Surplus of births

per 1000

over deaths

persons.

persons,

per 1000 persons.

Norway

... 30-9

171

13-8

Spain

... 36-6

30-6

6-0

Hungary

... 45-3

32-6

127

No better example from actual facts could be obtained to
show that the increase of disease and misery, as shown by
the death rate C + T has more influence in lowering the
value of B a, or surplus of births over deaths, than the
lowering of the rate of births ; for Norway's actual rate of
increase is higher than that of Spain and Hungary respec-
tively by 7*8 and 1*1 per 1,000 persons ; although its birth
rate is actually lower than in these countries by 5*7 and 14*4
per 1,000 respectively. In a healthy, happy, prosperous, and
peaceful country, the actual rate of increase is invariably
high, due to a high birth rate and a low death rate.

In an unhealth}, miserable and savage society, the
tendency, while these conditions last, is invariably shown in
a higher death than birth rate, resulting in a positive decline
in population.

It is clear, therefore, that when population is declining it
is rather because misery, disease, and vice have abnormally

BY E. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 57

raised the death rate higher than the birth rate, and not
because of any material tendency to a decline in the birth rate.

While there are different stages of civilisation in existence,
oyer-population is a relative term applicable to the particular
country, and not an absolute quantity to be determined by
an absolute number of persons to a given area as most
erroneously indicated by Mr. George. This is clear to any
one who studies the civilisation and the sanitary state of
different countries.

When peoples who have attained to the same state of
dvilisation are so situated that the struggle for existence is
made lighter for a given community by local causes,
such as may be seen in the comparison between the
Australian colonies and the older countries of Europe —
theo, the increased prosperity, the diminution of com-
petition for labour, the increased health due to the
smaller density of population, and other advantages —
climate not being too unequal — would show such an
improvement in the actual rate of increase from natural
causes alone that their effect is significant and instructive.
Thus, although the actual rate of increase in the colonies,
during many years, is equal to about 20*05 per
1,000 (not including the effects of immigration) or
about 10 per 1,000 above the rate of Europe, nevertheless,
its average birth rate is only about 1*5 per 1,000 higher. This
again, forcibly proves that the higher rate of actual increase
to population is due mainly to favourable circumstances
lowering checks C, or deaths from preventible causes. These
illustrations by explicit reference to actual facts entirely
overthrow the arguments of Mr. George, which solely
confine attention to one of the two great factors in the
problem relating to the causes of the increase, stationariness,
or decline in the population of different countries. Malthus
was not so visionary as to expect the entire elimination
of any of the factors. He only hoped to regulate population
in relation to means of subsistence, by the substitution of an
increased power of check M., in place of the terrible check
C. He conceived that as man grew in knowledge and
dignity, he might be able by degrees to lower the terrible
influence of C, thus favouring the state P a ; the latter being
prevented from again re-introducing the evil effects of C by
the substitution of influences increasing the power of the
superior central check M. If the check C now ruthlessly in
operation be removed altogether or reduced to a minimum — a
most desirable thing for its own sake — it is certain that the
geometrical increase of I would produce a maximum effect as
J) a, and this would sooner or later, if unchecked, over-populate
the whole earth. No matter in what degree the final stage

58 THE PROBLEM OF IIALTHUS STATED.

was delayed by increased knowledge and piodndayeiiefla,
fairer modes of wealth distribution, and the gradual spread
over all habitable areas ; or hastened by exhaustion of existing
sources of wealth, or a state of anarchy ; ihe stage would
in effect be often reached in particular isolated districts,
although not in all, by reason of human ignorances, jeolounes,
prejudices, not to mention lower types of human beings
unfitted for the reception <^ a higher civilisation.

Had it not been for the fortunate discoyeiy of the steam*
engine, the perfecting of means of transport, and the
discovery of new fertile continents (Australia and America)
thinly populated, opening out vast additional sources of pro*
duction and affording relief to the pressure of crowded
European centres, it is certain the state of Europe would be
very different at the present hour ; and the check C would
long ere this have reduced existing crowded centres to half
their present numbers. What would England do with her
present population (37 millions) if America and Australia
were no longer open to her emigrants and no longer furnished
food and other products. England is now a striking example
of a country whose population has rapidly outstripped
the means of subsistence so far as local supply of food is
concerned.

You will readily conceive, therefore, that the complicated
problem of Malthus is, — the elimination of C altogether,
or, as far as it lies within man's control, with the substitution
of an increased power of M, only when deemed to be
absolutely necessary to banish the dire influence of C.
Both Malthus and Mr. Henry George agree in desiring the
elimination of check C, but Maltiius showed that this
constant effect, due to vice, ignorance, disease, and misery,
could only be finally grappled with effectually, by never
allowing P, or density of population, to press too strongly on
the means necessary to preserve a population in a healthy and
happy state, and this could not be practically effected without
some such controlling influences as M. The nobleness of
Malthus' aims, and the problems which he endeavoured to
grapple with, are altogether misconcieved by Mr. George and
other opponents. Some (might I not add the popular view)
even maliciously or carelessly identify the Malthusian problem
with the revolting physical check of Condorcet and others;
and also of the view which rests in considering vice and
misery as necessary evils. This proves that such people have
not honestly studied the views of this much-wronged
philanthropist. This is indisputably proved by the followmg
quotation from his writings, pp. 478, 479 : " Vice and misery,
and these alone, are the evils which it has been my great
object to contend against. I have expressly proposed moral

BY B. M. JOHIfSTOK, FJLS. 59

restraint (M) as their rational and proper remedy; and
whether the remedy be good or bad, adequate or inadequate,
the proposal itself and the stress which I have laid upon it
is an incontrovertible proof that I never can have considered
vice and misery as tiiemselves remedies." In connection
with these unmir charges urged by a Mr. Graham, he, in a
diffnified rejoinder, maintains '' It is therefore quite inconceiv-
able that any writer with the slightest pretension to
respectability should venture to bring forward such
imputations, and it must be allowed to show either
sudi a degree of ignorance, or such a total want of candour,
as utterly to disqualify him for the discussion of such
subjects.'* And with respect to charges identifying his view
with die restraints prescribed by Condorcet, he distinctly
afirms, " I have never adverted to the check suggested by
Condoroet without the most marked disapprobation. Indeed,
I should always particularly reprobate any artificial and
unnatural modes of checkiug population on account of their
immorality and their tendency to reinove a necessary stimulus
to industry . . . the restraints which I have recommended
are quite of a different character. They are not only pointed
out by reason and sanctioned by religion, but tend in the most
marlced manner to stimulate industry. It is not easy to
conceive a more powerful encouragement to exertion and good
conduct than the looking forward to marriage as a state
peculiarly desirable, but only to be enjoyed in comfort by the
acquisition of habits of industry, economy, and prudence,
and it is in this light I have always wished to placed it."
How clearly and nobly Malthus explains his check of moral
restraint is a matter which ought to leave no doubt of the
purity and nobleness of his views, whatever doubts mav
remam as regards the efficacy of the moral check in itself.
The possibility of the check, too, pre-supposes the general
possession of moral strength sufficiently adequate, not
merely during large intervals of time, but at all times ; for
the effects of opposing passion might wreck its efficacy at any
moment if we do not contemplate the superior strength and
continuous exertion of the higher moral virtue.

I think I have in these observations fairly vindicated the
nobility of Malthus' ideal, however we may demur to it as
regards adequacy. It has also been clearly shown that the
problem is a serious one ; and individuals, and the poorer
classes often reach the limit of the means of subsistence
long before society as a whole feels its pressure. How are we
to eliminate the elements of disease, vice, and misery which
at present form the only check (C) against over-population
in crowded centres without substituting some adequate
check of a superior kind. This is the problem of Malthus,
Can you answer it ?

CONTRIBUTIONS FOR A SYSTEMATIC CATALOGUE
OF THE AQUATIC SHELLS OP TASMANIA.

By W. F. Pkttebd.

PartL

I purpose in a series of papers revising the somewhat large
amount of work that has already been done, recording
omissions, and describing newly discoTered species and
Tarieties of the fresh water shell-bearing mollusca of tliis
island, preparatory to the compilation of a systematic
catalogue in which the groups will be defined, the specific
characteristics explained and geographical distribution
recorded. Such a catalogue carefully criticised with the
necessary bibliography will, 1 think, supply a desideratum
much required by the general collector and may also be
of service to the more philosophical student.

All workers in this special field of zoology well know
the extreme difficulty to be surmounted as to specific
limitation from the great variability of aquatic testacea in aU
parts of the world. This is caused by a very large number of
local influences retarding, or otherwise, the development of
the more pronounced and important specific characteristics,
so that many supposed distinct species collected from special
localities prove not to be so when a large series are examined
from many habitats ; on the other hand, it sometimes occurs
that what are considered simple varieties prove to be
specifically distinct when carefully compared with typical
examples. The most apparent infiueoces are the greater
or less rapidity of the streams in which they live, the
chemical effect of the mineralogical formation through
which they flow, the variety and more or less abundance
of the requisite food-plants, combined with the varying
altitude of the habitat ; all are important factors
in producing modification of the shell covering, but
fortunately the animal is far less susceptible to variation.
It is now a well established truth that its examination
is an almost infallible guide for the determination of
species, so that it becomes absolutely necessary to under-
take an extensive series of comparisons from as many localities
as are accessible before a systematic catalogue can be worked
out so that it may be of real scientific value and service.

The primary reason for my recent, investigations was to
endeavour to discover the correct genus in the system of

BY W. P. PETTEBD. 61

classification in which to place the many species of
minute paludinoidal aquatic shells, so abundant in all
our streams and pools, and with this end in view I
have selected the most abundant, widely dispersed, and
characteristic form for special examiDation.. Moreover, it was
the first species to be recorded, having been discovered in our
streams by those illustrious early French naturalists, Quoy
and Qaimard. The older conchological writers were satisfied
in placing those then known in that, to our modern eyes,
mixed genus Paludina which then included a heterogeneous
assortment of small shells of a conical form without reference
to their habitats being fluviatile or marine. More recent
scientists have annexed them toanumerous variety of genera of
more or less stable definition ; amons^ others the following
generical t,erms have been applied to many of our indigenous

Siecies : — Paludina, Bythinia, Bythinella, Paludestrinaf and
ydrohia, but unfortunately almost all our writers have
simply devoted their attention to the outline of the shell and
structure of the operculum, few, if any, devoting the amount
of attention to the malacological characters tiiat the more
modem and elaborate system of classification demands. All
scientific conchologists agree that the inhabitant of the shell
requires thorough examination before the generical position
can be with certainty decided ; more especially in reference to
the lingual membrane and the form and arrangement of the
denticles thereon. This mixed and varied arrangement can well
be overlooked when we consider the lack of information at the
disposal of classifiers, for almost the total of the <iiagnosis
that they could give had to be obtained from the extremely
limited number of examples contained in the cabinets of the
general collector and the cases of museums. My investiga-
tions have led me to place, without any hesitation, our most
prominent species in a genus quite new for Tasmania or even
Australia, it is that of Potamopyrgits, established by Dr.
Stimpson in the "American Journal of Conchology," Vol. I.,
1865, for the analogous minute aquatic pulmonate mollusca
of New Zealand, having conically ovate shells, horny opercu-
lum, animal with long slender tentacles and peculiar formula in
the arrangement of the denticles on the membrane. The species
have hitherto been supposed to be peculiar to the moUuscan
province of New Zealand. The most characteristic form
of this island {Palvdina nigra, Quoy and Craimard YojSige
Astrolabe, III.^ p. 174.) agprees with all the essential characters
of Dr. Stimpson's diagnosis of his genus, both as regards
outline of shell and animal as well as in the arrangement of
the dental formula. Professor Hutton has very concisely
worked out the various forms peculiar to New Zealand
(Trans. New Zealand Institute, 1882), and that
learned conchologist therein refers to the general similarity of

62 CONTBIBUnONS FOB SYSTEMATIC CATALOGUE AQUATIC SHELLS

Potam(myrffU8 antipodum (the Amnieola antipodum of Orei/t
vide Dieffenbach's New Zealand, 1843), a form of extreme
variability in the outline of its shell to the species described by
Quoj and Gkdmard, so abundant in almost sJl the slug^d^
streams of this island.

I also describe several apparently new species that in all
probability belong to the same group, but in most instances
the opportunity of a careful examination of the fl.Tiifnq.1ft hat
not occurred.

Several species I purpose placing in a new sub-genus, and
add one or two others, but with no little hesitation, as in
most cases the animals have not been examined.

In the genus Litnncsa a great amount of confusion has
been caused, principally by the well known general variability
of all the members of the family, and also from the fact that
an European form — the L. peregra — has been acclimatised^
the young immature shells of which have been mistaken for
an indigenous species, and also that one observer has confused
it with an undoubted native kind.

I think I shall be able to show that we have at least four indi-
genous species, one of which at least has been placed in a genus
that has been established upon malacological characters. I
have known for many years that the species referred to— £•
Launcestonenms — Tenisoti'Woode, was really an Amphij^lMf
with the lobed mantle extending over a portion of the slielL
Professor Balph Tate has described a species under the name
of A. papyracea (Trans. Eoyal Soc. of South Australia, 1880)
from iPenola, S. Australia, and more recently recognised
several examples in a collection of aquatic shells, forwarded
him by Mr. E. M. Johnston, mostly obtained from the Huon
River (see "On the community of species of acquatic pul-
monate snails between Australia and Tasmania." Pro.
Boyal Soc. Tasmania, 1884, pages 214-17.) XTpon careful
examination of a very numerous series of examples from
many localities, I feel confidant that this species with the £•
LauncestonensissindL, HiMnensis of TenUon-WoodSfSxe simply
variations of one common form, apparently well dispersed
over this island. The shells show a limited variation within
certain well-defined limits, but the animal is invariably
constant. This at once sets at rest the idea that one or other
of the above-mentioned forms was identical, or a variation
of the introduced Limnoea peregra of Europe.

The three new species of true •Uiiwncea were obtained in
localities that preclude the supposition of having been
introduced, and their form totally separates them from their
congeners already known to exist here, or in any part of
Australasia. They show considerable specific difference i^
both outline of shell and form of animal ; in habit also they
are wide apart, two being confined to pure limped streams.

BY W. F. PETTSBD. 63

and the other liyes oii the surface of mud, within the influence
of the tide«

In the JPhyscB a large amount of work remains to be done,
so as to arrange the species with satisfaction, and no doubt
many of the forms described as distinct species, will require
reduction. Their inyestigation and determination has been
difEicult wherever undertaken. In the genus Planorhia there has
also been some little confusion, for I find upon the examina-
tion of Inrpical specimens, that the P. meridionalia, Br., is yery
distinct urom the sheU named by the Sey. Tenison- Woods, as P.
Tamnanica^ which name was withdrawn by that learned gentle-
man in favour of the former, under the supposition that they
were identical. An examination of the drawings — taken
from undoubted typical examples — ^will at once show the great
amount of difference in form, and a careful investigation of
many hundreds of specimens has not resulted in the finding
of any intermediate variations, so that I consider that both
species should be retained. That described by Mr. E. M.
Johnston under the name of P. Athinsoni, I find to differ
very materially from either, although it clearly shows a nearer
approach to the P. Tasmanica, than to P. meridionalis.
Another, but smaller form, will be given in the catalogue, it
is the P. ScoUiana, a shell of very constant character, with-
out any likeness to the three species mentioned. In the
Ancylince but little remains to be done, although I have
examples from the Liffey and Scamander rivers that differ
very much from described species. We have two remarkably
large species, one of which, the Ancylus Cummingianus, Bor,,
forms the type of the genus Cummingia, established by
C^essen, for its reception ; this was proposed many years ago
by Hanley. The animal of this shell, as well as that of its
congener, A. Irvince, mihi, will repay examiDation ; a dis-
tinguished American conchologist tlunks they will show a wide
departure from that of the typical Ancylince. Two additional
species of Assiminea- have been recently added to our fauna,
one an Australian form, and the other, so far as at present
known, restricted to a single locality on the North Coast.
The Riaaoa marioB of Tenison- Woods presents the form of
Hydrobia, and Professor Tate is of opinion that it would be
better placed in that genus, in which I think it will be also
necessary to place the Eissoa Brazieri, T, Woode ; the habit of
the latter is much the same as typical Hydrohice, but an
investigation of the animal in both cases would be of some
importance, and moreover settle the point. In the genera
Fuidium and Sphcerium some little dif&culty will be
encountered, and it may be necessary to add a new species to
each. The 8. Taamanicum will require careful comparison
with examples of British species, as it may prove to be an
acclimatised form.

64 CONTRIBUTIONS FOR SYSTEMATIC CATALOGUE AQUATIC SHELLS.

I have thought it well to reproduce the original descrip-
tions of several obscure Tasmanian aquatic shellB that were
published in the proceedings of the Vienna Society of Zoology
and Botany many years ago from specimens sent to Europe
by the late Mr. Ronald Gunn, and also of one collected in the
island by Professor Braun. These extracts I consider of
very great value and interest, as they no doubt will have an
. important influence upon the nomenclature of the subject
and furthermore open quite a new and unexpected field
for careful investigation — later on I will endeavour to
identify the species described by the various authors. I may
state that the Ampullaria Tasmanice, Le Chiillon (Revue
Zool. page 105, 1842) is no doubt the shell now known as
belonging to the more modem genus Amphiholaj which is
generally considered as more fittingly placed in the marine
molluscan fauna. I have to thank Mr. John Brazier, F.L.S.,
for the arduous task of supplying ne with exact copies of
the descriptions taken from the extretaely rare scientific pub-
lications in which they appear, and to Mr. Thureau, F.Q-.S.,
I am indebted for the kind and cheerful manner in which
he undertook to give me literal translations.

So far as investigation has gone very few of our species
have been found to be identical with those known to exist in
the mainland of Australia, although a very large amount of
practical work has been done since the publication of the
catalogue of the fresh water shells of this island by the Rev.
Tenison- Woods (Proc. Royal Soc. Tas., 1875) ; more recently we
have had the useful reference summary of Professor Ralph
Tate and Mr. John Brazier, entitled "Check List of the Fresh-
water Shells of Australia" (Pro. Linnean Society of N.S.W.,
1881), the elaborate and beautifully illustrated catalogue by
Mr. Edgar A. Smith of the British Museum ("On the
Fresh-water Shells of Australia," Journal of the Linnean
Society, London, 1882), and many valuable and important
papers by several well-known specialists all materially
enhancing our knowledge of this comparatively neglected de-
partment of natural history. In Australia the cosmopolitan
genus Physa is very largely represented, for of this group above
50 species have been recorded of which number only two or
three have the faices of our insular forms. Lirnnaea has 16
species, one of which is certainly, and another doubtfully,
identical with forms common here. Planorbis is represented
by but six kinds, all different from those known to exist in
our streams. The genus Unto has about 17 species to our
peculiar one which is restricted in habitat to northern rivers.
In the Bithynia-group only six species are quoted ; here we
have a much larger number. Only one form of Ancylus has
been discovered to our four — the two giants of the genus
have •no congeners in the mainland. The northern form of

BY W. F. PETTBED. 65

Oundldchta luis been discovered by Professor Tate in a
small stream near Adelaide, South Australia.

The foUcwing genera having representatives in Australia
are not known here, viz., Neritina, Melania, Corhicula,
SegmerUina and Vivijpara, the first two are more characteristic of
tropical than temperate climates. Some few of our
aquatic moUuscahave a resemblance to those of New Zealand,
notablj the l7"mo,the species o£ Potamopyrgus, and one of the
Ly7rmoea,iAie L, ampulla Bt^ffow, very closely approaches a small
species that I have named L. Gunnii. The wide difference in
the fluviatile and terrestrial — only about nine species of our
land shells extend in range to the mainland — molluscan fauna
of the island from that of Australia, proves that they have
been separated for a considerable geological time, although,
no doubt, the severance occurred during the earlier tertiary
period.

It will be found that the fresh-water shells of Tasmania
present a peculiar series of forms that are well worthy of
careful study; and no doubt as the examination of the streams
in the more remote portion of the island is undertaken, many
additional species will be brought to light and the range
of many found to be more extended than is at present known.

Amphipeplea Latjncestonensis. Tenison-Woods.

Plate n. Fig. 11.

Limnosa Launcestonensis, T. Woods, Pro. Royal Soc. Tas.,
1876.
Limnoea Huonensis. T. Woods, op. cit.

Habitat — River Huon, Hamilton, River Ouse (Dyer), River
Glenelg, South Australia (Tate), many places about
Laimceston, St. Leonard's, Carrick, Deloraine, Circular Head,
Rivers Mersey, Forth, Leven and Piper, Flinders* Island,
King's Island, Cape Barren Island.

A careful examination of the types of the two species
erected by the Rev. Tension-Woods, preserved in the Hobart
Museum, and a comparison with many hundreds of examples
collected at numerous localities, in all stages of growth fuUy
prove that they are but specimens in different stages of develop-
ment. It is general ly to be found crawlin g on the margins and the
bottoms of quiet secluded pools, and is not often met with in
running streams.

It is very different to the introduced Limnoea peregra of
Europe (Plate HI. Fig. 13), which I have not met with in the
northern portion of the island.

66 GONTBIBUTIOKS FOB ST8TEMATIG CATALOOUfi

A.H«"—

Tar. a. Paptsacba. Tate. Traas. fiojal Soo. 8Jk^ 1880.

Plate n. Pig. 12.

Hahitat — Penola, Adelaide, and Kangaroo Island, South
Australia (Tate) ; Merrigum, Victoria (Bailej, apud. Tate) ;
Ouse Eiver (Dyer), Mowbery, Waverley, St. Leonard^ and
many other places near Launceston, Pingal, Si Mary's, Huon ^
Biver, etc.

I am of opinion that this is but a variety of the above ; they
are found living together in the same pools about Launceston.
I cannot see any difference in the animals. At Penola, S.A.,
Professor Tate found numerous dead shells in tiie bed of a
dried up marsh ; here they may be often obtained under
similar circumstaiices.

LiMNCEA SXJBAQXJATILIS. Tote,

lAmncea mbaquatilis. Tate. Trans. Soy. Soc. S. Australia,

p. 103, t. 4 fig. 6.
Habitat — "Among paludinal herbage growing on the
marshy margins of the Eiver Torrens at Adelaide, S. Australia"
(Tate).

var. a. neolecta.
Plate n. Fig. 13,
Shell, thin, pale greenish horn colour, broadly ovate,
ventricose, with irregular longitudinal lines of growth ; spire
short, suture very much impressed ; aperture ovate, more than
half the length of the shell ; columellar fold indistinct, joined
to the labrum by a very thin shining callosity.

Lengthy 7. Breadth, 5 fnill.

Animal (Plate IV. Figs. 1 and 2), short and broad, not
showing beyond the shell behind, yellow brown colour, darker
above with specks of darker shade and irregular flakes of a
lighter colour; foot broad and pointed behind; tentacles
short and blunt ; eyes very distinct, distant from the margin.

Hahitat — Found living on damp moss and mud in the Ti-
tree swamp, near Launceston.

This interesting shell I have made but a variety of Professor
Tate's species with considerable doubt, but the similarity of
the figures and somewhat peculiar habitat of both has
restrained from erecting it into a distinct species until the
animal of the type has been examined. The animal does not
glide as is usual with the species of the genus, but moves
with a peculiar jerky motion.

LiMNCEA GUNNII. n, Sp,

Plate n. Fig. 10.
Shell thin, fragile, shining, yellowish horn colour, ovate,
marked with very fine longitudinal lines of growth ; whorls

BY W. F. PETTEBD. 67

4|, rounded with a moderate satural impression ; spire very
short and small, pointed, acute ; aperture ovate, columellar
arched and a little reflexed near the umbilical region ; fold
small and inconspicuous ; labrum very thin, acute.

Length, 7. Breadth^ b\ mill.

Animal, pale bluish white; head very broad; tentacles
short, flattened, of a pale milky white ; muzzle expanded.

Plate m. Fig. 9 and 12.

Habitat — South Esk Eiver, near Launceston.

This specie differs very much in form from its nearest
congener X. suhaqtiatilis var» neglecta, both Jin the outline of
the shell and animal. It lires in clear, ^ntly flowing water,
attached to the submerged rocks about which it smoothly
glides without any of the jerky motion so characteristic of
neglecta.

The animal at once separates it from Amphipeplea
Launcestonensis, and from the introduced L, peregra, it may
be known by its smaller size, form and texture of the shell.
The L, ampulla, Hutton, from Hasterton, New Zealand, is
nearly the same in size and form, but quite specifically
distinct.

LlMN(EA LUTOSA. n, Sp.

Limncea Tasmanica miJii. M,S.

Plate II. Pig. 13.

Shell, narrowly ovate, pointed above, brown-horn, duU ;
Whorls 5, flatly convex, coarsely marked with lines of growth,
spire turreted, apex acute ; body whorl elongated ; aperture
ovately pyriform about two-thirds of the total length of the
shell ; GoluTnella almost straight, flattish and reflexed, with a
thick shining, arched deposit of callus which forms a false
but minute umbilicus.

Animal ?
Length, 12. Breadth, 6 milh

Habitat — Brighton, River Jordan {Dyer).

A shell with much the appearance of L. Victorice, from
Bamsdale, Yictoiia, but more acute in form, and almost
subperf orate. Prom the other Tasmanian species it is widely
different. I have several examples in my collection and all
are constant in form.

Planobbis mebidionalis Brazier,

Plate I. Figs. 4, 6, and 6.

Planorhis meridionalis, Brazier, Pro. Linn. Soc, N.S.

Wales. P 20, 1875.

68 CONTRIBUTIONS FOB ST8TEMATIC OATALOOUB AQUATIC SHELLS.

PUmarhia ccUhcarti miki. M,8.

HahUat — ^Upper Ouse Biver {Masters). Ghreat Lake {Irvine).

This species was first discovered by Mr. Qeorge Masters, ot
the Sydney Museum, in 1864. It is the largest species found
here, and the least understood. The three type specimens,
from one of which the drawings are taken, were lately sent
me for comparison, by Mr. J. Brazier, and I find that what has
been generally taken for meridionalis by concholo^sts here,
is not in reality so, and that the form described by the Bct.
Tenison- Woods, under the name of P. Tumumicus^ is quite
another kind. This species may be known by its comparatively
large size, sharply carinated periphery and depressed
aperture. I have not seen this shell from any locahty but
those given. It has no representative in Australia.

I am informed by Mr. Brazier that the Thmorhis Austra-
liamLSf Martens, (I^tel, Cat. der Conch, 1873), is simply a
catalogue name, the shell never having been described.

Planobbis Tasmanicus. Tenison-Woods.

Plate n. Figs. 8 and 9.

Flanorbis Tasmanicus. Tenison-Woods. Pro. Roy. Soc.

Tasmania, p. 79, 1876.
Habitat — Circular Head, South Esk, and Liffey rivers.

A minute, flatly discoidal shell, which is widely umbilicated
above and below, freely showing the whorls on both sides ;
it is but obscurely angled below the periphery with an ovate
aperture. It is totally distinct from the preceding, as the
illustrations will clearly show. The Eev. Tenison-Woods
withdrew his specific name, as he thought that he had
described the same form as Mr. Brazier (Pro. Boyal Soc,
Tas., 1878).

At Circular Head I have collected it in vast numbers,
harbouring among acquatic weeds on the surface of small
pools, and in marshes in the same neighbourhood. About
Launceston it is not abundant, being only occasionally
obtained in the South Esk, here the smaller P. Seottiana
seems to take its place, The nearest Australian form is P.
Brazieri, Clessen, from Ipswich, Queensland, but that species
is more acutely keeled and even flatter.

Planobbis Atkinsoni. Johnston.

Plate n. Figs. 6 and 7.

Flanorbis Atkinsoni. Johnston. Pro. !Boy. Soc. Tasmania,

1878.
Habitat — South Esk Eiver.

BT W, F. PETTEBD. 69

Of t^ shell I have examined a great number of specimens,
«nd I have ,m^raxi$h\j found it constant in its specific
ehaiaeters. Its i^sutel^ keeled peripheij, and remarlj^blj
swollen iwd angled aperture, at once separates it not only
from our other forms, but also from all the known Australian
representatiyes of the genus. In colour evea it differs from
ihe other Tasmanian kmds ; for it is always of an extremely
pale greenish horn, almost white. It is commonly found
4ittac£iBd to the leaves of aquatic plants, sometimes in
swiftly running water ; at Clynevale it is very plentiful.

POTAMOPYEGUS, StIMPSON*

SheUf ovate-conic or oval, imperforate ; body whorl more
than hsJf the length of the shell ; aperture ovate, the outer
lip acute ; peritreme continuous or discontinuous. Opercutum
homy, subspiral, without any internal process. Animal with
the foot rather short, slender, tapering and pointed. Eyes
on very^ prominent tubercles. Dentition. Median tooth
trapezoidal, the inferior margin more or less trilobate. First
lateral broad and excavated in the middle, contracted into a
long peduncle, the denticles nearly equal. Second lateral
pointed at the inner extremity; the shank broad, and
thickened on its outer margin. Third, lateral with the inner
extremity broad and rounded, constricted at its junction with
the very broad shank, which is thickened on its outer margin.
Number of transverse rows of teeth, 55 to 69.

Formula of the 7 or 9 . ,-i ^/^ «o o/%^ jr.

aenticlea, 3 or 4 — 3 or 4 » ' '

The formula of the denticles differs widely from that

-of Bythnella, and approaches more nearly those of Stomato^

^yrusBJidAmnicola; hut Potamopyrgiis is readily distinguished

from both these genera, by the shape of the third lateral

tooth.

The above is the diagnosis of this genus, as given by
Professor F. W. Hutton, in his paper on the New Zealand
Hydrohiine; it is a slight modification of Dr. Stimpson's
original description that was found necessary on more
-extended investi^tion.

The distribution is given in Tryon's '' Structural and
^Systematic Conchology," as New Zealand and Cuba.

PoTAKOPYEOus NiOEJL Quoy and Oaimard.

Plate ni. Figs. 2 to 8.

Paludina nigra, Quoy and Qaimard. Yoy. Astrolabe, iii.|

p. 174.
BishyniaLegrandif Tasmanica andunicarinaia. Tenison^Woods.

Fh>. Eoyal Soc. Tas., 1867.
Trans. New Zealand Institute, 1882.

70 CONTEIBUTIONS FOR SYSTEMATIC CATALOGUE AQUATIC SHELLS.

Palvdestrina Legrandiana and Wisemamana. Brazier. Pro.

Zool. Soc. London, p. 678, 1871.

Amnicola Petterdiana. Brazier. Pro Linn. Soc. N.S.
Wales. Vol. 1., p 19, 1875. (Tenison-Woods.)

Bythinella exigua, Tenison -Woods. Pro. !Boyal Soc.

Tas., 1878.

Animal, with a narrow foot which is expanded in front,
opaque, white shaded with very pale bluish- grey. Tentacles,
long, slender and pointed. Eyes plainly visible, under the^
lens, at the outer base. Bostrum, thick, projecting and
wrinkled. The tentacles and rostrum shaded with dark
bluish- grey.

Operculum, thin, yellow-horn, paucispiral.

Dentition, The central basal lobe of the median tooth is
much produced, the first lateral is very much bent, and has
from 12 to 13 small rounded denticles thereon. In the second
they are also of the same rounded form but are not con-
tinuous.

Formula of denticles, ^ — - ; 12 to 13 ; 11.

o — o

Var, A. Legrandiana. Brazier,

Shell, conical, with the last whorl keeled below the suture,
and furnished with small, solid, stimted, hair-like spines.
Aperture ovate.

Habitat — Widely distributed. Streams and pools near
Hobart and Launceston. Huou Eiver, Elizabeth Eiver,
Eiver Mersey.

Yar. B. unicarinata. Tenison- Woods,

Shell, conical, thin, last two whorls with one interrupted
keel. Ajperture, ovate.

Habitat — With the last.

Var, C.

Shell, elongately conical, tapering, narrow.

Aperture, narrowly ovate.

Habitat — On stones and mud within the influence of salt
water. Eiver Tamar and other places.

The " minute shining ovate scales " referred to by the Rev.
Mr. Woods are simply an incrustation of the frustules of
Cocconeis, a species of Diaiomaceoe, This specie is extremely
variable in form^ size and ornamentation ; for these reasons I
have taken the plain, unadorned minute blackish shells, so
abundant in our streams, as the type of the specie under which,
with the three extreme modifications given, the great majority
of the examples generally to be obtained may be arranged.

In size, with the relative length of spire and aperture, it
varies almost indefinitely, so much so that almost every little
stream or pool has its own special variety, so that it is quite

BY W. F. FETTERD. 71

impossible and certainly unnecessary to enumerate all tlie
modifications. In many localities the whorls are more
or less sharply carinated, with sometimes the additional
ornamentation of a line of interrupted pointed spines, but
plain, carinated and spinose specimens are often found living
in the same pool. The same pecularity has been noticed in
one or two of the New Zealand forms of the genus.

In clear ranning streams the shells are often sub-
«translucent and of a pale yellowish horn colour, but in quiet
still water they are usually coated with a thick covering of
decaying vegetable matter, generally of a rusty brown colour ;
often a closely packed mass of Diatomacece covers not only
the shell but also the operculum. In a small variety, collected
^t Deep Creek near the Duck River, the penultimate whorl is
abnormally developed and the aperture constricted ; it is
possible that some conchologists may consider this and others
worthy of enumeration as varieties. Its nearest congener in.
New Zealand is P. Antipodum, Gray ; it is also a variable shell,
extending in range throughout the whole of that colony ; it
is also found in brackish as well as fresh water. The teeth
agree in form with Dr. Stimpson's diagnosis, but the number
of denticles on the laterals present some modification ; this I
do not think of great importance.

POTAMOPYRGUS WOODSII. «. Sp,

Plate I. Fig. 12.

Shell, small, turbinately conical, thin, brown-horn colour,
covered with a thin epidermis, marked with irregular very
fine lines of growth. Whorls 6, very convex, suture impressed,
spire short, apex obtuse, rounded. Body whorl large, inflated.
Aperture somewhat large and full, ovate, nearly one-third
length of shell. Peristome continuous, inner margin free,
forming an indentation behind, labram thin. Operculum,
yellowish horn, thin pancispiral, with an internal submarginal
elevation. Animal, with long tapering tentaculae and project-
ing muzzle, coloured dark lead-grey, foot of moderate width,
white. Dentition, median both with the base broadly and
roundly expanded, pointed on either side, first lateral club
shaped, but little bent. Second much curved and broad. The
third is much rounded above, and the constriction at its
junction with the shank is deep, so that it forms a prominent,

rounded, and curved tooth.

9
Formula of denticles, ^ ^ ■ 11 ; 20 to 23. Number of

transverse rows, nearly 70. ^

Length, 3J; breadth, 2 J milL

72 CONTBIBnTIOKS FOB SYSTEMATIC CATALOGUE AQUATIC SHELLS^

Plate IV. Fig. 3.

Ifadtfaf^Soxxih. Est River.

In the First Basin near Laiinceston this species is in extreme
profusion both in swiftly runniDg and almost still water. On
the large boulders of diorite it may be seen in countless
thousands in company with one or two other small forms. In
coloration it is subject to considerable variation, sometimes
the edge of the aperture is almost white, and much resembles,
the tint of the rock to which they adhere. In this
locality it appears to take the place of jP. nigra^ a species that
is not found with it. The arrangement of the denticles on
the radula shows all the essential characteristics of the genu&
in which I have placed it, and their form differs so very
materially from those of the last described, that no doubt can
exist as to their specific difference.

POTAMOPYEGUS SmITHII. n, 9p,

Plate I. Fig. 10.

Shell, very minute, subpupiform, brownish horn, glossy^
almost smooth. Whorls, 6 to 6, veiy convex, suture much
impressed, body-whorl moderate size. Aj^erture, ovate
pointed above, straight, peristome continuous, free, labrum
thin, not expanded. Operculum, thin, homy, pancispiral.

Length 2; breadth 1 mill.

Habitat — Heazlewood, Arthur, Waratah, and Castray rivers,,
abundant on stones, etc.

This little species has somewhat the appearance of
Amnicola Sim^oniana, Brazier (Plate II., fig. 6), but differs in
its much smaller size and more swollen whorls; it may,,
however, prove to be an extreme variation. So far it has-
only been obtained in the western streams of the island,,
where it no doubt has a wide range. I have named it after
Mr. James Smith, the veteran explorer and discoverer of tho
Mount Bischoff Tin Mine.

PoTAMOPYEGUS BeOWNII. fl, Sp.

Plate m. Fig. 14.

Shell, minute, turbinately conical, thin, greenish brown,,
dull, covered with a thin epidermis. Whorls, 5, rounded,,
suture deep, spire somewhat short and small, obtuse.
Aperture, ovate, distinct, labrum thin. Operculum, homy,,
pancispiral.

Length, 2 ; breadth, \\ mill.

Habitat — St. Paul's River, near Avoca (Mr. J. Brown),
Scamander and Styx rivers, George's Bay, St. Mary's (Mr. A.
Simpson). This shell has no important specific character

BT W. F. PBTTEBD. 73

except its dimmutire size and rounded whorls, in both of
whidi it appears to be yerj constant. At some future time I
hope to be able to describe the animal with the dentition,
not only of this, but also of other species that I haye named.

POTAMOPTBOXTS (?) MABaiNATA. M. «p.

Plate I. Fig. 9.

Skellf small, elongately conical, thin, almost smooth, whitish
horn colour, somewhat glossy. Whorls, 5| to 6, scarcely
rounded, margined with a fine line above the sutures, apex
very obtuse and mammillated. Aperture^ small, ovate a little
expanded below, peristome continuous, attached to the body-
whorl. Operculum, homy, thin, pancispiral.

Len^hf 4 ; breadth, 1^ mill.

Habiiat — a small trickling stream near the Heazlewood
Siver, which is tributary of the Whyte.

I have no hesitation in describing this, in some respectsy
remarkable little shell as quite a new form, as will be seen by
the figure ; it differs widely from all its congeners. The
sutural line and mammillate apex are peculiar to it, and it
alone. It was collected rather sparingly attached to small
stones and decaying leaves in a scarcely noticeable little
stream.

Bbddombia. new sub-genus.

Shell, globosely conical, thin, umbilicate, or sub-umbilicate.
Spire, short. Body-whorl, inflated. Aperture, ovate, columellar
margin more or less thickened. Operculvm, homy, paucispiral.
Animal, with a somewhat broad foot, tentacles long, slender,
and pointed, eyes sessile at outer base of same, muzzle broad
and projecting.

Dentition as in Totamopyrgus, but the trapezoidal median

tooth has quite a different arrangement of the inferior basal

row, which consists of two ovate elevations on either side of

a curved central tooth

7 or 9
Formula of denticles on median tooth ^5 — -. — 5-

This new sub-genus it is necessary to form for the reception
of the globosely conical forms of Fotamopyrgua, which also
show the above-mentioned modification of the formula of
the denticles on the median tooth.

I have named it in honour of my esteemed friend, Mr. 0.
E. Beddome, the well known conchologist.

74 CONTSIBUnONS FOS STSTEHATIC CATALOGUE AQUATIC SHELLS.

Beddomela Launcestonensis. Johnston,

Plate I. Fig. 2.

Amnicola Launcestonensis , Johnston. Pro. Boyal Soc. Tas.,
1887. Animal with the foot of medium size, opaque white,
tentaculsB extremely long and pointed, of a dark lead grey
colour, muzzle broad, wrinkled and prominent, the same
colour as the tentaculse, but freckled with a darker shade.
The eyes are distinctly Tisible when the animal is in motion.

Lingual membrane is somewhat long but narrow, with about
100 close set rows of very minute teeth, the formula of which

is as follows:— , ^ ^ ! 8 ! 18 to 20.

2—1—2

Plate IV. Fig. 4.

The median tooth is much arched, has a deep indentation
on the upper margin, and the lower central lobe is not vary
pronounced. The first lateral has a rounded protuberance on
the upper inner margin at its juncture with the peduncle
and the denticles are pointedly serrate. The second lateral
is curved, angular, and much thickened behind, and has
18 to 20 extremely fine roimded denticles. The third is not
nearly so much arched and has also a prominent lump on the
inside margin.

Operculum, thin yellowish horn, pancispiral.

Habitat — South Esk Eiver.

Var. A. tumida.

Shell, thin, greenish horn colour, marked with fine lines of
growth, perforate. Aperture, more regular in outline than in
mature typical examples ; outer lip thin, not reflexed.

Length, 4; "breadth, 3 mill.

Habitat — The Great Lake.

Var, B. MINIMA.

8hell, very much smaller than type, black, granular on
surface, perforate. Aperture, contracted above.

Length, 2\ ; breadth, 2 mill.

Habitat — In a small stream near Scottsdale.

The typical shell is extremely abundant in many parts of
the South Esk ; it more especially loves the quiet secluded
lock pools on the margins of the swiftly running portions of
the stream. About the Cataract near Launceston it is very
plentiful, often in company with the form I have named
P. Woodsii ; in the First Basin and higher up the river it is
more globose in form and of a paler colour, and thus in many
respects approaches the variety collected in the Great Lake.
The variety minima will require further examination as it is
possible that the animal may be different to the type ; should
such be the case it will be necessary to rank it as a species.

BY W. F. PETTBBD. 76

Beddombia Tasmanica. Tenison-Woods.
Plate I. Pig. 11.

Valvaia Tasmanica. Tenison- Woods. Pro. Eoyal Soc. Tas.,

1876.
I find upon examination that this interesting little species
has not the true multi'Spiral operculum, which constitutes
the most important character of the genus Valvata ; in this
shell it is paucispira/ and it is therefore necessary to place
it in another genus. Its only known habitat is a small stream
in Gould's Country.

Beddomeia Bellii. n, sp,
Plate I. Fig. 7.

Shell small, thin, globosely conical, brown, rather dull.
Spire small, apex obtuse. Whorls 4|, very convex, suture
impressed, marked with lines of growth. Body-whorl large,
inflated with a peculiar open excavated and sharply margined
false umbilicus. Aperture ovately expanded almost semi-
lunar, peritreme continuous, almost straight, thickened and
reflexed at the columellar margin, expanded but not reflexed
on the labral edge. Operculum^ thin, dark horny, paucispiral.

Lengthy 3| ; breadth^ 3 milL

Habitat, — Small stream near the Heazlewood River.
Castray and Waratah rivers.

The unique character of the umbilical opening separates
this well-marked species from the many other small forms
that inhabit our streams. In shape it is not unlike J5. Sulliy
but its colour, combined with the umbilical opening at once
separates it. It is named after Mr. W. G. Bell, one of the
pioneer prospectors of the western portion of the island, who
moreover, takes a very great interest in all scientific matters.

Beddomeia LoDDERiB. n.sp.
Plate ni. Pig. 1.

Shell, small, globosely conical, thin, brownish horn, covered
with a very thin epidermis. Whorls, 4|, flatly convex, the
penultimate large, inflated. Spire, somewhat small, acute.
Aperture, large, broadly ovate ; peristome, thin, acute,
columellar margin rather thickened, depressed and united to
the termination of labrum with a very thin, shining callus
deposit. Operculum, horny, paucispiral.

Length, 4 ; breadth, 3 mill.

Habitat — Creek, upper Castra, Eiver Leven (Miss Lodder),
Deep Creek, near the Duck River, North-west Coast (Rev. Mr.
Hull).

76 CONTBIBUnOKS FOB SYSTEMATIC CATALOGUE AQUATIC SHELLS.

A plain, variable and widely distributed shell. It is
generally covered with a thick tenacious coating of rusty
coloured decomposed confervse.

It appears to be distinct from all other described species^
and may be recognised by its inflated form and large
aperture.

It is certainly not the immature form of any other spedes,
for I have examined a rather large number from both the
localities mentioned.

Beddomeia Hullil n. »p.

Plate I. Fig. 8.

Shell, small, pyramidally conical, subperforate, thin, pale
horn, glossy, obsoletely keeled at the periphery. Whorls 4f|,
moderately convex. Spire, short, finely marked with lines of
growth. Aperture, large, acutely ovate, peristome, thin,
continuous, feebly expanded on outer margin. Operculum,
thin, horny, pancispiral.

Length, 3 ; breadth, 2 mill.

Habitat — Near the Heazlewood Eiver with B, Belli and
P. marginata.

This is a small pale shell with a closer affinity to S.
Lodderce, mihi, than to any other form, but it is no doubt
specifically distinct. I have named it honour of the Rev.
Mr. Hull, a gentleman much devoted to natural history
studies.

Bbaziebia. New Gentis,

Shell globosely rounded, imperforate ; spire small, body-
whorl large ; aperture very oblique, effuse ; outer lip acute,
inner lip thickened ; operculum horny, subspiral. Animal ?

Bbazieria Tasmanica. TeniBon-Woods.

Plate I. Fig. 1.

Ampullaria Tasmanica, Tenison-Woods. Pro. Eoyal Soc.

Tas., 1876.

Amnicola Tasmanice, Tenison-Woods, Tate and Brazier. Pro.
Linnean Soc. N.S.W. Vol. VI., 1881.

Sabitat — Abundant upon stones in a small tributary of the
Arthur River, west of Mount Bischoff (Mr. James Smith).

When describing this shell the Rev. Tenison-Woods
expressed great doubts as to its correct generical position,
and only provisionally placed it in the genus Ampullaria, of
which no Australasian forms have hitherto been discovered.

BY W, F. PETTEBD. 77

I haye sabmitted examples to several of the recognised
oonchologioal authorities, and all are of opinion that an
entirely new genus is absolutely necessary in which to place it.
I have very great pleasure in naming the genus after my
friend, Mr. John Brazier, F.L.S., of the Australian Museum,
Sydney, N.S.W., a gentleman well-known in the scientific
world, and one who has done an enormous amount of work
in the Zoological field of Australia.

ASSIMINEA BICINCTA. n. Sp,

Plate n. Fig. 4.

Shell small, conical, thick, brownish horn, banded with
dark brown, covered, a thin epidermis ; whorls 4J^, convex,
obtusely angular near the base. Aperture, ovate, pointed
above, bands of colour clearly showing within, columellarwith
thick shining callus deposit below, thm above at junction of
labrum. Operculum, dark homy.

Length, 4 ; breadth, 3 mill.

Habitat — Mouth of the River Don, North Coast (Rev. Mr.
HuU), obtained Hving on stones and grass within the influence
of the tide in company with Tatea rujilabris. The
bi-coloration of this specie is very constant, which, with its
small aperture, constitute its most notable characters ; in both
respects it differs from the A, Tasmanica, of Termon-Woods
(plate n., fig. 2), as it is not so large or globose as A,
Australie, Tate fplate m., fig. 10). The last mentioned has
been collected by Mr. C. E. Beddome, at Kelso, near the mouth
of the River Tamar, on the mud flats.

In the " Check List of the Fresh Water Shells of Australia"
the A, Tasmanica is given as a synonym of A. granum, Menhe
(MoU., Nov. HolL, 1843).

Hydbobia tubbinata, n, sp.

Plate n. Fig. 3.

Shell small, turbinately elongate, thin, brownish green, often
much corroded, subperforate. Whorls 6|, very convex,
suture deep. Aperture small, ovate, continuous, columellar
margin a little reflexed, outer lip thin, acute. Operculum
homy.

Lengthy 4 ; breadth, \\ mill.

Habitat, — River Styx, near Falmouth, East Coast and
George's River (Mr. A. Simpson).

This shell was collected in great abundance at the first
locality by Mr. A. Simpson ; it was living in almost salt water
ith true marine species. I have placed it in he genus

78 CONTRXBUnONS FOB SYSTEHATIC CATALOGUE AQUATIC BHELDS.

Hydrobia, because Trjon retains it for small turbinatehr
elongate shells inhabiting brackish water. The animal is
thus described : '' Eostrum rather long, tentacles somewhat
tapering, but blunt at extremity, foot somewhat pointed
behind." I have not had an opportunity of examining the
arrangement of the teeth in the radular. Many of the
examples from the River Styx have Serpuke^ and marine
Polyzoa attached to them, the corrosion often extends to the
body-whorl.

Tatba rupilabbis. a. Adams,
Plate n. Fig. 1.

Biala rufildbris^ A. Adams, Ann. and Mag. N. Hist., 1862.

Hydrobia rufilabris. Smith, pro. Zool. Soc, 1875.

Bythinia Huonensis, Tenison- Woods. Pro. Eoyal Soc. Tas.,

1876.
Tatea Huonensis, Tenison- Woods, op. cit., 1878.

Operculum J thin, brownish, horny, paucispiral, with a vertical

submarginal claw.

Habitat, — Port Lincoln, S.A. (Adams), Clarence River,
N.S.W. (Brazier), near Melbourne, Victoria (Woods) ; in Tas-
mania it has been collected at the following localities: — Huon
River (Woods, Legrand, and Beddome), opposite Risdon near
Hobart (Simpson), GFeorge's Bay (Simpson), River Don Heads
(Hull), Rivers Leven and Forth (Mies Lodder). In Tidal
Creek at the head of North- West Bay and obtained living with
the dredge in from 5 to 7 fathoms of water, 300 to 400 yards
off shore at the same locality (Beddome). I have collected it
in many localities, including several of the above ; at many
favourable places in the Tamar river it is plentiful and near
Bridport it lives in great profusion.

The identity of the Rev. Tenison-Wood's shell with that
described by Mr. A. Adams was proved by Mr. E. A. Smith
(On the fresh- water shells of Australia. The Journal of the
Lin. Soc. of London, 1882). The fact of its being obtained
alive in from 6 to 7 fathoms of water by Mr. C. E. Beddome
is very intesesting, the examples did not show any variation
of the shell. The figure of Mr. Smith does not represent the
ordinary form of the species.

Hydrobia Tasmanica. Y, Martens,

" Weigmann's Archives for Natural Science, 24. Vol. 1.,
page 185. PI. V. Fig, 12, 1858.

Sifielly 2^ to 3 M M. long, conical, acute and consisting of
4| to 5 arched whorls of regularly diminishing sizes;
suture moderately deep (angle of tangent about 35 degrees).

BY W. P. PETTERD. 79

proportion of length to width = 5:2. The mouth,
^ewise occupies 2-5ths. of the whole length (with young
specimens it stands nearly yertical) ; the upper angle of the
same clings to the preceding whorl and appears rounded off;
the columnal rim is bent, and closes wholly the umbilicus (in
young examples it does not quite do so). Shell, thin,
glistening with lines of growth, brown, like Helix lucida, or
brown-red, edges of aperture white in colour. Apparently
it occupies the central position between thermalis and acuta,
as proved by size and colour, which, however, deviate some-
what. (Spiral cover.)

Discovered by Professor Braun, in large quantities with
Chara macropogon, A. Br. in Van Diemen's Land."

** H, Tasmanica, V. Martens.

Von Frauenfeld, in Trans, of K. K. Zool. and Bot. Soc,
page 653. No. 830. Vol. XIV., 1864.

This has been described by V. Martens, in Weigmann's
Archives, 24, 1, page 185, illustrated on Table V,, fig. 12.
The reference to " Spiral cover " appears as certainly remark-
able."

Hydeobia ceistaiiLina. Ffr,

This appears to be one of the earlier described species, and
judging from the reference made to it, certainly anterior to
the next. In the next portion of my summary of our aquatic
shells I hope to be able to supply the full original diagnosis.

Hydeobia Gunnii. Frauenfeld.

''Transactions of the K. £. Zoological and Botanical
Society, Vienna. Vol. XIII. No. m. and IV., page 1,025,
1863.

In Cumming's collections, marked by Mr. Gunn, as from
Van Diemen's Land, this shell is found intermingled with
Hydrohia cristallina Ffr, and likewise Amnicola diemense
Frfld.

It is characterised by its beautifully formed mouth, which
is almost without traces of any edge. Shell, slender, conical,
grayish-brown in colour, semi-transparent, frequently with
h\ turns and confined cicatrix, small opening of mouth, round,
with totally free edge which arches or overlaps outwards.

Lengthy 3 mm\ width, 1*5 mm.

(Prauenfield).

R. Gunnii, V. Frf. Transactions of the K. K. Zoological
and Botanical Soc, Vol. XV., page 526, 1864.

Distinguished by its equally formed mouth or orifice, the
edges of which as standing somewhat apart from the spin-
didar cell sides makes one to remember it as similar to a

80 CONTBIBUTIONS FOB SYSTBMATIO CATALOGUE AQUATIC SHXLL&

Truneatella. It is of a still more slender torm^ than as shown
in ijie illustrations, which represent some as of a yery
compressed nature.

Mydrohia Ounnii. Y. Frfld, this was already described
amongst the number and species of these shells in the
Transact, of the K. K. Zool. and Bot. Soc., 18dSf page 1,025^
also in same Transact., page 612, No. 387, 1864"

Ahnicola diemensb, !Fbfli>.

<' Transact, of the K. K. Zoological and Botanical Society,
Vienna, Vol. XHT. No. HI. and IV., page, 1,028, 1863.

In Mr. Cummin gs ' collection from Van Diemen's Land, this
is represented (as intermingled with Hydra Gunnii, Frfld.
and cristallina Pfr.) This shell is acute, conical, brownish in
colour, almost non-transparent, 4^ turns or windings, slightly
arched, and gradually becoming more so towards lower
extremity, last whorl largely developed. The mouth is almost
circular, large down to half of the length of the shell, edge
somewhat wider, not clinging to whorls ; umbilicus distincuy
visible and deep.

Lengthy 27 mm. widths 1*9 mm. There were several
specimens much smaller, slender, and obtuse, with smaller
orifices, so that it was difficult at first to classify between
these extremes, though, at last I discovered a medium by
means of which these difficulties were put aside.

Note. — I am not quite certain whether these species could
not be more properly designated with Hydrohta, Frfld.

Hydrobia cristallina, Pfr.

2. Van Diemen's Land, Mr. Gunn ; intermingled as afore-
said with Hydrobia Gunnii Frfld and Amnicola diemense Frfld,
As referred to in the Transact, of the K. K. Zoology and
Botanical Society, Vienna. Vol. XTTT. No. m. and IV.
Page, 1,024 1863."

Amnicola diemense, V, Frfld.

" Transactions K. K. Zool. and Bot. Soc. Vol XV. Page
529, 1865, pi. X. fig. 2.

At the same place the shell described as Al, floridana V.
Frfld,y I noted that it was not quite sure whether or not these
two species were not to be better incorporated with Hydrobia,
In these cases where the shells are so similar in form, it is
often very difficult to decide such a question, and it requires
some skiU to do so.

In the next following newly discovered species, it appears
that the slightly compressed forms, the graduated windings
or turns, the more open umbilicus, the larger lower mouth or
orifice, decided me \o classify same as Amnicola^ which differs
but little from Hydrobia^ and it doubtless renders this classi-
fication as very delicate under the circumstances.

BY W, F. PETTERD. 81

Ammcola diemense V. Frfld. Trans. K. K. Zoo. and Bot.
Soc YoL XIV. F&.ge, 599. No. 268, 1864, in the prelimi-
nary examination of tlie genera and species of Hydrobia^
AmnUola^ &c. See Trans. K. K. Zoo. and Bot. Society, 1863.

JNots. — ^The plates are missing in the volume of the Vienna
Societies Transactions, contained in the library of the Austra-
lian Museum, Sydney, N. S. Wales. The Linnean Society of
N. S. Wales do not possess a copy for the year 1865.

This species will probably prove to be the Beddomeia
LautuesicnensiSj Johnston , in which case Von Frauenf eld's
name will have to be retained.

TJnio Legrandi. n. sp.

Unio 3foretonicus. JReeve, Woods, Pro, Eoy, Soc, Tas., 1876.
Tate and Brazier, " Check list of the Fresh-water Shells of
Australia:' Fro. Linn. 8oc,, N.8. W., 1881.

Of the widely distributed and extremely variable genus
UniOf we have but a single representative, the one that is
peculiar and so abundant in our northern streams. To this
shell tradition has applied the specific term Moretonicus, under
which name it is given by the Bev. Tenison -Woods in his
list of the fresh- water shells of this island (Pro. Boy. Soc.
Tas., 1876). How this identification originated or by whom
appHed I have quite failed to discover, but that it is an error is
fully elucidated by Mr. E. A. Smith in his paper on the fresh-
water shells of Australia (Pro. Linn. Soc. of London, 1882);
there the learned author gives an exhaustive summary of the
numerous species occurring on the mainland with their full
bibliographical history, and the results of a careful study of the
extensive series of examples contained in the collection of the
Sritish Museum is fully explained. Under Uhio d^ressiis^
Xam.y a species common to the Nepean, Began, Brisbane, and
Murray rivers, it is stated that '' The TJ. depresstis of the
* Conchologia Iconica,' fig. 81, is a very distinct species, and
approaches certain varieties of U. amhiguus^ the specimen
figured being from Tasmania ; " an examination of the figure
proves this statement to be correct, although the shell
Tepresented is not nearly so elongated as the great majority
of the examples that l' have collected. The TT. MoretonieuSf
Beeve (Con. Icon., fig. 118), is given as a variety of
17, Australis Fhilippi, but without any precise locality. The
plate illustrates a shell of quite a different outline to any of
the many hundreds of Tasmanian specimens that I have
carefully examined.

The U. amhiguuSf Parreyss, is from the Balonne, Began, and
the Qnkaparinga rivers, and although in many respects it
approaches the species of our streams it is clearly specifically

82 CONTBEBUTIONS FOB SYSTEMATIC CATALOGUE AQUATtC SHELLS.

distinct. All writers upon the subject gire special
prominence to the general confusion into whicli the
Australian forms of Unionidoe have fallen, principally
caused by slight yariatlons and immature examples having
been described as distinct species ; this has been renderedmore
confusing by erroneous habitats often given, and the now
well known incorrectness of many of the localities recorded
in the *' Conchologia Iconica " has also caused several recent
authors to fall into error.

After carefully studying the subject and comparing
numerous specimens from ahnostall parts of Australia with an
extensive series collected in our streams, I have come to the
conclusion that our form, that has been known to
conchologists for so many years, is in reality an undescribed
species, so that it is therefore necessary to bestow upon it a
specific appellation, in doing which I have embraced the
opportunity of recording my obligation to Mr. W. Legrand
for my early instruction in the study of shells.

In any case the specific term Moretonicue, is a geographical
misnomer, and, to my mind, it should be altered if oidy for
that reason. The figure given by Eeeve, No. 118, very closely
represents a variety of JJMenziem^ Ghray, of New Zealand, from
rapid fiowingstreams when it is much shorter and thicker than the
more typical form. In TT. Leqrandi the teeth are small and
the interior is clear bluish white with faint iridescence of pink
and green. Its home is the sandy beds of shallow clear
running streams, where, as in certain parts of the South Esk
and the St. Paul's Eivers, it can be obtained in considerable
numbers. As is the case with many species of the genus, the
sexes differ in the outline of the shell.

Plate 1.

Fig. 1. Brazieria Tasnianica, Tenison- Woods j Arthur Eiver.

2. Beddomeia Launcestonensis, Johnston, South Esk Riven

3. „ ,, Ytix. minima, Scottsdale.
4-5-6. Planorbis meridionalis, Brazier, Ouse River.

7. Beddomeia Belli, mihi, Heazlewood River.

8. „ Hulli, mihi, „ „

9. Potamopyrgus marginata, mihi, near Whyte River.

10. . „ Smithi, mihi, Waratah River.

11. Beddomeia Tasmanica, Tenison- Woods j Gk)uld's Country.

12. Potamopyrgus Woodsii, mihi, South Esk River.

Plate U.

1. Tatea rufilabris. A, Adams, River Don.

2. Assiminea Tasmanica, T, Woods, Brown's River.

3. Hydrohia turbinata^ mihi. River Styx.

Plate 1

J .

'im.'i

'tm-

tisW

,j^

Plates

Plate 3 A

Plate 4

V «.

V w

BY W. P. PETTEBB. 83

„ 4. Assiminea bicincia, mihi^ River Don.
„ 5. Potamopyrgus (P) Simsoniana^ Brazier, Brigliton.
„ M, Planorbis AtMnsoni^ Johnston, South Esk River.
„ 8-9. „ Tasmanica, Tentson- Woods, Circular Head.

,, 10. Limncsa Gunnii, mihi. South Esk River.
„ 11. „ Launcesionensisy Tenison- Woods, Waverley.
„ 12. „ „ y, var, papyracea, Tate,

„ 13. 99 subaquatalis Tate^ var, neglecta, Launceston.
„ 14 „ lutosa, mihi. River Jordan.

Plate m.
Fig. 1. Beddometa Lodderce, mihi, Castra, River Leven.
„ 2. Potamopyrgus nigra, Quoyand Gaimard, Brown's River
3. „ „ var, Legrandiana, Launceston.

„ „ unicarinata, Invermaj.
„ „ Launceston.
„ dentition.
„ operculum.
„ animal.
9. Limnosa Gunnii, mihi. South Esk River.
10. Asseminea Australis, Tate, Kelso, Tamar Heads.

4
„ 5.
„ 6.

99
99
99

11. Beddomeia LauncestonensiSy Johnstofiy var, Tumiday
Great Lake.

12. Limncsa Gunnii, mihi, animal. South Esk River.

13. „ peregra. Mull,, Hobart.

„ 14. Potamopyrgus Brownii, mihi, St. Paul's River.

Plate IV.
Fig. 1 and 2. Limncea subaquatalis var, neglecta, near

Launceston.
„ 3. Potamopyrgus Woodsii, dentition,
„ 4. Beddomeia Launcestonensis, „

CEITICAL OBSERVATIONS ON RECENT OONTBIBF-
TIONS TO OTJR KNOWLEDGE OF THE FRESH
WATER SHDELLS OF TASMANIA.

Pabt I.

By R. M. Johnston, F.L.S.

In August, 1875, the Rey. J> E. Tenisou- Woods contributed
a paper to this Society on the fresh water shells of Tasmania.
Pnor to this date no systematic attempt had been made to
arrange the fresh water shells of this island. It is true that
five or six species were actually described in the scattered
works of earlier writers, but these isolated observations in
foreign works attracted little notice locally ; indeed, without
special research and access to a good library of reference it
would be impossible for ordinary students to obtain certain
guidance on the subject.

Mr. Woods fully described the shell characters of all the
four forms known to him at this time, and from such
characters, and from former references by other observers,
he determined them to consist of 12 genera and 34 species,
all of which, with the exception of five, he considered as new
to science. The following is a complete list of the species
described by him : —

Univalves —

1. Ancylus Cummin gianus, Bourg,

2. Tasmanicus, Ten, Woods.

3. Limnsea Tasmanica, Ten, Woods,

4. Huonensis, Ten, Woods,

5. Hobartensis, Ten, Ifoods.

6. Launcestonensis, Ten, Woods.

7. Physa aperta, Ten, Woods,

8. ebumea, Ten, Woods.

9. mamillata, Ten, Woods.

10. nitida, Sowerby.

11. Bruniensis, Sowerby.

12. Vandiemenensis, Sowerby.

13. Huonensis, Ten. Woods.

14. Legrandi, Ten, Woods,

15. Tasmanica, Ten. Woods.

16. ciliata, Ten, Woods.

17. Tasmanicola, Ten, Woods.

18. Huonicola, Ten, Woods.

19. Bythinia Legrandi, Ten, Woods.

20. Pontvillensis, Ten. Woods.

BT B. X. JOHNSTON, F.I»& 85

31. Dolvartonensis, Ten, Woods.

2^ Hiionensis, Ten, Woods,

23. unicarinata. Ten. Woods.

24. Doorobiuensis, Ten. Woods.

25. Tasmaoica, Ten. Woods.

26. Pomatiopsis striatula, Menke,

27. AsBiminea TasmaDica, Ten, Woods.

28. Planorbis Tasmanicus, Ten. Woods.

29. Paludestrina Legrandiana, Brazier.
80. Wisemaniana, Brazier.

31. Unio Moretonicus, Sowerby,

32. PUidiam Tasmanicum, Jen, Woods,

33. Dulvertonensis, Ten, Woods.
34 Cjclas Tasmanica, Ten, Woods.

la this first paper of Mr. Woods', he was on] j able to deal
ifith the sheH or exo-skeleton ia this scheme of classification.
"That this was due to lack of materials at the time, however,
rather than choice, is amply proved by his elaborate memoir
^ On some Tasmanian Patellidse," contributed in the following
year (May, 1876), where he minutely describes in an ad-
mirable manner the various species examined by him (eight) ;
the malcological characters of each animal, including the
odontophore, lingual plate, or radula, having received the
greatest attention.

The appearance of Mr. Woods' paper, therefore, was hailed
with much satisfaction by local naturalists, and it speedily
had the efEect of drawing the attention of other observers to
this neglected branch of study. Among these, the writer
was the first to follow up the work begun by Mr. Woods, and
the results of many observations were communicated to this
Society in the year 1877, in a paper entitled " Further Notes
on the Fresh Water Shells of Tasmania."

My numerous explorations in nearly all parts of the island
afforded me rare opportunities for collecting and for observing
the varying character of the same species in different habi-
tats. The extreme variability of the prevailing forms par-
ticularly arrested my attention, and a lengthened examination
of some of them enabled me to draw particular attention to
the unstable character of some of the distinctions which Mr.
Woods deemed at first to be of specific value. Among these
I specially drew attention to the influence of local environ-
ment, such as altitude, volume, and degree of brackishness
of water, in modif jing size, transparency, and colour ; and in
the genera Physa Lymnsea and Bithynella, I pointed out the
danger of depending upon the presence or absence of con-
tinuous or discontinuous cilise, spiniform cilise or ciliated
membranous keel, as characters of specific value.

86 CBinCAL OBSERVATIONS ON BECENT CONTRIBUTIONS, ETC.

With respect to the genus BithyneUa^ I particularly noted
that the species vary widely with the slightest difference in
the conditions of their environment. In my notes I showed
that the degree of bracMshness had a very marked effect.
The variety then known as B, unicarinatay T. Woods, in the^
drain near the Eailway Station, Lannceston, partly influenced
by the tidal waters of the Tamar, has six whorls, shell
moderately thick, coated with reddish decomposed confervae^
About a mile distant, where the water is still more brackish,
the shell of the same species is of a very delicate pale horn
colour, transparent, six whorls, and scarcely half the size of
the individuals in the habitat previously mentioned. , The
carina of epidermal membrane, at that time deemed to be of
specific value, was observed to be very inconstant, sometimes
in awl-shaped spines, as in B, Legrandianay Brazier ; in inter-
rupted lines, as in Biihynella unicarinata ; in continuous lines
simple ; in continuous or interrupted lines fimbriated ; and
most frequently without any apparent carina, as in Paludes^
irina Wisemanianay Brazier, or its synonym Biihynella
TasmanicUy Ten. Woods. iCTor was my attention confined to
the exo-skeleton. The malacological character of the animals,,
mcluding the odontophore, were frequently examined by me
under the microscope, and careful drawings were made of the
various parts. Descriptions of the animal and its dentition
and external characters were given in my paper, together
with similar descriptions of several interesting new forms not
previously observed. Lithographs of these drawings were
prepared at the same time, but these came to hand too late-
to be inserted in the proceedings along with the paper^
These lithographic sheets, however, were preserved, and I
now present them as an accompaniment to these notes. The
following is a list of the species then described for the first
time : —

Gundlachia Petterdi, Mihi.
Amnicola Launcestonensis, Mihi.
Planorbis Atkinsoni, Mihi.
Scottiana, Mihi.
Pomatiopsis Badgerensis, Mihi. (fossil)
Ancylus Woodsii, varieties A., B., T., Mihi.
Bithjnella nitida, Mihi. (fossil)

With the necessary exception of the fossil forms, the mal-
cological characters of all these species were obseiTed and
described in addition to those of various forms of Biihynella
and Physa Tasmanica, T. Woods.

So far as I am aware, these were the first descriptions pub-
lished of the malcological characters of Tasmanian £resh
water shells.

I claim no special credit for this, because with the exception^

lN frei

B. M. J«

April,

ProcKoy.

Announces
covery of I
Ampullarial
T. woods, a
it under Am,'.

>>tf kV^H

tJn

lN frei

B. M. J<

April,

ProcKoy.

Announces
covery of 1
Ampullarial
T. Wood«, a
it under Aim

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 87

"perhaps, of Mr. Woods and Mr. Petterd, the naturalists at a
•distance from Tasmania, who described the first four or five
forms, had no other characters at their command than the
shell afforded.

I merely make these observations in justice to myself,
because Mr. Petterd in his otherwise excellent paper* read
this evening, has remarked that hitherto "unfortunately
almost all our writers have simply devoted their attention to
the outline of the shell and structure of the operculum, few,
if anyj devotic^ the amount of attention to the malcological
characters that the more modem and elaborate system of
classification demands."

I think Mr. Petterd is somewhat unjust as well as inac-
curate in making this statement without further qualification.
So far as local observers are concerned, it is true, neither
himself, in the description of the two fresh water forms, viz.,
Gundalachia Beddotnei and Ancylus Irvinice, published by him,
nor Mr. Woods in the first and most important of all con-
"tributions to our knowledge of Tasmanian fresh water shells,
give any description of the animals other than those relating
to the exo-skeleton, and the operculum where present; but it
is not true so far as I am concerned, as the statement I have
already made proves.

As some confusion has already occurred, owing to the
alterations in nomenclature more recently made, I have
thought it desirable to draw up a tabular historical list
showing the various modifications and additions which have
been made in connection with Tasmanian fresh water shells
since Mr. Woods* paper was published in 1875.

Classification.

The classification of the various forms of Lymnseidfie and
Hydrobiinse presents many difficulties, and these already
•have been the principal cause of the present overload of
synonyms, which must be a fruitful source of error to many.
The confusion now existing will not be dissipated by the
mere creation of fresh names for genera. Already, owing to
the various modes of classification adopted by independent
authors, the sxxhAdjmij JfydrobiincB is broken up into an inter-
minable number of genera, each with a host of synonyms,
while the characters of many of them do not justlEy their
separation from each other.

Certain genera are based upon the form and character of
the shell and its operculum. Others are established upon
the form of the muzzle and tentaculse of the animal, while
not a few are erected upon the character of the odontophore
and its denticulse. So long as there are .different methods

* Contributions for a Systematic Catalogue of the Aquatic Shells of Tasmania.

88 CBinCAL OBSEBVATIONS OS BECENT CONTBIBUTIONS, VIC

employed — ^where in each the characters depended upon hj
all other authorities are reduced to play a subordinate part
in determining the limits of a genus — so long will we be in-
volved in contradiction and confusion. This must certainly
be the case when we are assured that no single character can
be made to harmonise with any other character in a commoni
generic range.

But we have still another difficulty. The local worker may^
zealously, as in Mr. Petterd's case, work up the hidden
characters of the denticulse, and show clearly the differences,
so far as local examples are concerned, but if he have no
reliable knowledge that genera already established for similar
forms of shell may or may not have corresponding dentition
characters, what justification is there for creating a new
genus for a local form of shell which in all respects corre-
sponds with one already established for this particular form,
irrespective of the character of its denticulse ?

Take, for example, Mr. Petterd's sub-genus Beddomeia pro-
posed for globosely conical shells, spire short ; body whorl
inflated.

So far as apparent form of shell and animal is concerned,,
it answers exactly to Ltihoglyphus, of Muhlfeldt, or with
Gillia^ of Stimpson. Why, therefore, create a new genus for
a similar form in Tasmania. But it may be said that the
denticulated teeth justifies the separation. To this I reply,
Good. Show us proof that this is so. Have you examined
the denticulse of the various species of Lithoglyphus and of
Gillia ? K you have done so, why neglect to show the marked
contrast of dentition in forms externally alike ?

When genera are established after the fullest comparison
in this way few will object, but I need hardly say that
thrusting fresh generic names into our nomenclature is far
from satisfactory when the dentition of allied forms of other
countries have not been thoroughly examined and compared
with the local types.

While it is admitted that all external and internal charac-
ters of the animals should be studied together, where possible,
few will altogether agree with Mr. Petterd's observation
" that in all cases the inhabitant of the shell requires thorough
examination before the generical position can be with certainty
decided."

For, we may exclaim with Binney, " Supposing the dentition
of all living forms to be examined (an impossibility), we are
still confronted by the fossil shells. What shall we do with,
them? Shall we use for these 30,000 species obvious ex-
ternal universal characters, yet discard these in the recent
mollusca for the modifications of a partial character, the very
slight observation of which has sufficed to show that it may

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 89

not be predicted with certainty from either the shell, oper-
oulum, external features, or anatomy of the animal." These
are weighty considerations.

Mr. Petterd forgets that all systems of classification,
ancient and modem, are more or less arbitrary and artificial,
whether based upon the " infallible criterion '* lingual den-
tition, respiratory organs, muscular impressions, or external
form generally. Young observers, enthusiastic with a new
idea, are apt to forget that all fresh discoveries, however
valuable, only cover a small space of the whole field, and are
usually accompanied by fresh germs of error which must
also be reckoned with. Defective exo-skeleton is dead : long
live defective endo-skeleton !

So far as true progress in the exact sciences is concerned,
a celebrated writer has well said : " Assuredly he will not
be most capable of discoveries who despises the theory
of yesterday and swears by that of to-day ; but he who
sees in all theories but a means of approximating to the
truth and of surveying and mastering the facts for our
purposes."

The best systematists of the modem school do not share
Mr. Petterd's distrust of our old valued friend, the shell and
Us fomif and some of them are even bold enough to trust to
its guidance in cases of conflicting evidences rather than to
any other singular characteristic.

That this is the opinion of two of our best modem system-
atists (Tryon, unfortunate to science, recently deceased ; and
Mr. Wm. G-. Binney, who has devoted a number of years to
the study of the dentition and anatomy of terrestrial mol-
lusks), is shown by the following utterances.

G-. Tryon, who has a high opinion of lingual dentition as an
auxiliary aid, in his recent work on ''Structural and Systematic
Conchology," concludes that there is "a growing conviction
that there are no sharply defined groups in nature ; that a
generic character, for example, cannot be made to cover all
its species ; that upon its borders occur forms which partake
of the characters of other so-called genera, and that families,
orders, etc., similarly coalesce upon their confines. We may
anticipate a period when our larger collections, together with
our better knowledge of external influences and of the power
of adaptation to them of these creatures, shall reveal to us a
series of recent and fossil forms having relationship so inti-
mate that our present system of classification, and resulting
nomenclatures shall become utterly valueless.

" In this point of view classification is essentially arbitrary.
The value of a classification founded on a single organ (the
lingual ribbon), which does violence to other apparent afi&ni-
ties, whilst at the same time it fails of signification even in

90 CBinCAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEGENT CONTRIBUTIONS, ETa

one of the moat important functions with which it is con-
nected, in that it does not enable us to certainly separate the
phytophagous from the zoopbagos animals, may be seriously
questioned.

'' We have many most important characters of the mollusks
which impress themselves upon their shells, so that they are
in. accord, and enable us to predicate reciprocally their
relationships; and such characters appear to be much more
useful for classification.' Binney expresses bimself in a
similar way, and states briefly : " If it be proposed that a
single arbitrary standard shall be used because it ia arbitrary
• . . . then the standard selected should be the most
universal and the most apparent, namely, the sheW

Binney, who has devoted many years to the special study of
dentition, goes so far as to say, '^ Is it not impertinent to
make use of a few hundred observations of an organ which
only pervades a portion of the mollusca, to establish a classi-
fication which is frequently in violent contrast with natural
affinities ascertained by long examination of all the species,
recent and fossil ? "

Enough has been stated to show that we have no new
" divining rod " to help us in classification difficulties. Wide
careful comparison of all characters are certainly necessary,
but so long as local workers only trouble themselves to single
out extremes of each type for the information of others, so
long will a satisfactory classification of our shells be a thing
of the future.

Local workers would better advance the cause of science if
more regard were paid to the study of the variability of char-
acters of the shell and of the animal. Little is known yet how
far the denticulee of the lingual ribbon varies in animals of
the same genus, and this must be well studied in every group
before we can depend upon their form and numbers for
determining the limits of a genus.

Is our knowledge of the constancy of form and number of
denticles on the median tooth of fresh water shells wide enough
to enable us to rely upon its indications alone for marking the
limits of a genus? This is a most pertinent question. Some
of our best classifiers, who have tested this matter system-
atically, insist that reliance upon such characters are decep-
tive, and are not so reliable as the more obvious ones.

AN ADDITION TO THE AVIFATJNA OF TASMANIA.

Order Anseres,

Family Anatidce.

AnseranoB Melanohmca Latham ?

(The Semipalmated Goose).

By W. F. Pettbed, F.Z.S.

The example of this interesting species that I sent as an
addition to the Museum collection is that of a young female,
probably a first year bird. It was shot on the Lake River,
near Cressy, on the 20th inst., and no doubt formed one of a
small flock that have lately been observed in the neighbour-
hood of Launceston. Another specimen was shot on the
outskirt of the town, and at about the same time two others
were noticed flying at a great height over Invermay, and still
another I hear has been simultaneously seen in the vicinity
of the township of Westbury, so that there is little doubt
that at least five individuals have made their appearance
here. In aU probability they have been carried away from
their distant native haimts by high wind currents of unusual
force. The specie belong to a genus peculiar to Australia,
containing but a single form whose true home is the eastern
portion of the continent, having been recorded from almost
every favourable portion, with the exception of the western,
the interior, and the extreme north at Cape York. In
Victoria and Southern New South Wales it is fast becoming
extirpated, and it is now only in the most out-of-the-way
and secluded fresh-water lagoons and rivers that it is to be
still met with, but in the more northern portion of the latter
colony, and in Queensland, it is to be seen in some plenty
where a suitable locality exists for its requirements. In the
wild and less frequented extreme north of Australia it is very
abundant, and forms one of the chief sources of food for the
natives. Gould states — (The birds of Australia, Vol. 11., p.
352-53) that it " was of the utmost value to Leichardt and
his party, during their adventurous journey from Moreton
Bay to Port Essington, as shown in numerous parts of his
interesting accoimt of the expedition. So dense are the
flocks that occur in the northern parts of the country, that
the natives are enabled to procure numbers of them by
spearing."

Like many of the order, mature specimens show a peculiar
elongated conformation of the trachea, but in the yoimg
example that I have had the pleasure of manipulating, this
was not so noticeable as in those of older growth recorded by

92 AN ADDITION TO THE AVIFAUNA OF TASMANIA.

Gould and other observers. In fully mature spedmens, the
colouration is more developed, the head, back, wings, tail^
and thighs then being of an intense glossy greenish black,
the bill a reddish brown, and the protuberance in the fore-
part of the head much more conspicuous. The specimen I
have obtained shows the colouration of a greyish-black, but
the sex may in some way modify the colour. The time of
incubation is between September and December, the nest
being built in the delise ruddy banks of lagoons, the eggs, of
which but very few have been obtained by Oologists, are of
a brownish-white colour 3 3-16th inches in length by 2
2-16ths in breadth.

It is sincerely to be hoped that the remainder of the little
flock will be able to find their way to the more secluded
portion of the Lake district beyond the reach of the sport-
man's gun, there find a congenial home, sufficient food in
the sedgy herbage, and in course of time increase its numbers
so that we may be able to add this island to its list of
permanent habitats. It is worthy of remark that while the
eastern portion of the Australian continent is the native
habitat of this specie, the home of the " Freckled n>uck,
8tictonella ncevosa Gould), a small flock of which appeared
on the Lake River three years ago, in the western and
southern portion, so that here we have an admixture of
species in our chance visitors.

_ *

OeCOEEENOE OF GHIBEA BEAGTEATA (GOULD)

IN TASMANIA.

By Col. W. V. Leooe, E.A., F.Z.S.

I liave mucli pleasure in bringing to the notice of the
Fellows of the Society this evening the occurrence of the
Australian Drongo in Tasmania, and exhibiting a specimen of
this bird, which was shot on the 1st of May, at Falmouth, by
Master Steele.

Of all the occasional visitants to Tasmania, which have
from time to time been recorded, the present is, perhaps,
oneofthemostinteresting,asonreferencetoMr.Eamsay'sdistri.
bution list it does not appear to hcive been hitherto noticed
farther south than New South Wales, on the mainland, and
its occurrence, therefore, in the more southern locality of
Tasmania, is all the more remarkable. Its having been met with
on the East Coast, tolerably far North, is a proof that the Bass
Straits Islands form a halting or resting place for any birds
that may imder pressure of strong northerly winds, wapder
beyond their usual habitat in this direction, and taking a
farther flight southwards arrive on the shores of Tasmania,
about the locality where this bird was killed. It is note-
worthy that once before an occasioDal visitant to this island
was flrst recorded from the same place. I speak of the
Leaden Flycatcher, Myiagra ruhedula, obtained by myself
when on a visit to this island in 1868.

The Drongo now before us was killed on the skirts of the
bush, a short distance from the sea. It was there, probably,
frequenting the dead or overspreading branches of trees, and
following its flycatching habits, when it was espied and fell
a victim to the youthful sportsman. It is not a bird of long
flight, merely launching itself about from tree to tree in
pursuit of flies and beetles, with an occasional stretch, when
it compasses longer distances, with the object of changing its
position in quest of food.

A few remarks on the interesting family to which this bird
belongs may not be out of place here.

The Dicruridoe — Drongos or Drongo-shrikes — is a family
numbering 10 recognised genera containing about 40 species
(if sub-species or varieties be counted), and which has an
African, Asian, and Austro-Malayan distribution, extending
laterally from Western Africa to New Britain, and vertically
from Japan to South Africa and New South Wales. The
occurrence, therefore, of the present species in Tasmania
ertends the southerly range of the family to the farthest point
yet reached.

94 OCCTJSBENCE OF CHIBEJL BSACTEATA (GOXTLD) IN TASICANIA.

In Africa the family is represented by only five species^
tliree of which belong to the genus Dtcums, the fourth to
Buchanga, and universally distributed throughout that
continent, and the fifth to the peculiar Madagascar genus
Edoliua, The genera Dicrurus, Chibia, and Buchanga^ contain,
the most species, and Chibia is the genus so largely repre-
sented in the Austro-Malayan region, our present bird being
one of its members ; other species of the genus are found in
Lombock, Mores, Batchian, Gilolo, Am Islands, Ceram, I^ua^
Sirla Islajids, New Britain, Celebes, and Ke Islands. There
are likewise the peculiar Papuan genus Choetorhynchus, and a
member of the genus Chaptia (C, Mala/yensis), from Sumatra
and Borneo to swell the list of Drongos from Austro-Malaya.

In no single country, however, do the Drongos come so
prominently forward as in Ceylon, in which there are no fewer
than five species, three of wluch belong to Buchanga^ and the
other two to IKf^emt^rtea and 2>id«emterot^(the crested Drongos)
and the kings of the whole family. The large Eacket-tailed
Drongo, D. paradiaeiis, which is one of the crested species, is
remarkable for the varying form of the beautiful outer-tail
feathers, from which it derives its name, as well as for its
extraordinary power of mockery. It imitates ahnost every
bird in the forest, which has loud notes enough to attract itA
attention, and is a very tyrant in its habits, selecting the Bed
Woodpeckers of the Ceylon forests for its special attacks.
I have seen it swoop across open spaces in the jungle at these
bird, seemingly with the sole object of disturbing them while
in search of their food ; it would then perhaps dart up to a
bush and commence mocking other birds with all its power.

OBSEEVATIONS ON THE VAEIABILITT OP THE

TASMANIAN VNIO.

By E. M. Johnston, F.L.S.

Having collected many specimens of the genus TInio
inhabiting the northern rivers of Tasmania, daring the last
seventeen years, more especially those found in varions parts
of the South Esk Eiver, I have often been much impressed
with the extreme variability of form and colour exhibited by
different individuals. This is more particularly remarkable
if specimens marking different stages of growth are compared
with each other.

If specimens marking seven successive stages of growth be
compared together as in the plate accompanying this paper, It
will be observed that the variation in form — from youth to
the adult stage — embraces characteristics which cover most
of the distinctions upon which many of the Australian forms
mainly depend for the recognition of distinct specific rank.
Nor is this variability confined to the form of the shell. In the
first four stages of growth the examples collected by me near
Carrick, on the South Esk, correspond in nearly in all respects
with J7. Wilsoni (Lea), as figured and described by Beeve
(fig. 472), ^.e., " Shell thin, rather depressed, elliptic, oblong,,
somewhat retuse below, with delicate and concentric grooves,,
shining, olive green, obscurely rayed (some examples only) ;
umbonas ridge rounded and scarcely raised; beak a little
prominent and not sculpturic ; nacre, bluish white ; primary
teeth small, oblique, lamellar ; lateral teeth, long, straightish."

Among these stages of growth some are to be found which
are with difficulty distinguished from TJ. Stuartii, Adams and
Angus, especially in its young stage.

Many of the individuals of the fourth and fifth stages of
growth agree in most respects with 17, N&peanensis, Conrad,
while the individual variations of the adult or sixth and
seventh stages, embrace generally all the characteristics of the
following Australian forms, viz. —

Unio Australis. Lamarch

depressus. Lamarch

ambiguus. Parreys

Balonensis. Conrad

Phillipianus. KtLster

Moretonicus. Beeve

Vittatus. Lea

If such be the variability of our local form in the indivi-
duals of the various stages of growth, there is good reason for
the belief that the several forms erected into specific ranks in

96 OBSEBVATIONS ON THE VARIABILITY OF THE TASHANIAN UNia

yarious paxts of Australia loaj ultimately prove to be UhnJ
varieties, or particular stages of growth of one widely
distributed species. Indeed, any of those named have already
been linked together in the very interesting communications
contributed by Edgar A. Smith, F.Z.S. (0, Prof. Tait and
J. Brazier, F.Z.S. ('). For these reasons I, at least, am
disinclined to accept a fresh synonym for the Taamanian
variable form. Among the individuals which prevail loeaUy,
of course, it would be easy to select some one or two types
which would slightly differ in size and form with any one
type-figure of allied Australian forms, but such a proceeding
would be very misleading when we regard the extreme
variability of our local example. As an illustration of what
might be done in this way, I may observe th^t the manner in
which the umboes of the shell are eroded by carbonic acid,
often produces malformation or some considerable modification
in the form of adult specimens.

This is conspicuously the case with one of the specimens
figured (No. ) ; and it is also remarkable that in tlds same
specimen the animal has almost completely absorbed the
primary teeth in both valves, while the lateral teeth have
been partly absorbed towards their extremities.

Under these circumstances it is apparent that a satisfactory
classification of the TJnionidoe of Australia cannot be
established until the various stages of growth, and the
individual variability of the forms of each Australian habitat
have been properly studied. The observations made in this
paper, together with the accompanying figures of Tasmanian
forms, will, I hope, be of some help in this direction.

1 On the Fresh Water Shells of Australia (Journ. Lin. Soc, April, 1882).

2 Check List of the Fresh Water Shells of Australia (Pro. Lin. Soc. N.S. Wales,
Jtfay, 1881).

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fin .'fc> r ' .

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THE FRENCH IN VAN DIEMEN'S LAND,
AND THE FIRST SETTLEMENT AT THE
DERWENT.

BY JAMES B. WALKER.

Prefatory Note.

As the subject of the present Paper may appear to be
scarcely within the scope of the objects of the Royal
Society, it seems proper to state briefly the occasion of
its being written and submitted to the consideration of the
Fellows.

Some two years ago, the Tasmanian Government — of
which the Hon. James Wilson Agnew, Honorary Secretary
of the Royal Society, was Premier — following the good
example set by the Governments of New South Wales,
Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, and New Zealand,
directed search to be made in the English State Record
Office for papers relating to the settlement and early
history of this Colony. The idea originated in a suggestion
from Mr. James Bonwick, F.R.G.S., the well-known
writer on the Tasmanian Aborigines, who had been
employed for years on similar work for various Colonial
Governments, and to him the task was entrusted by Dr.
Agnew. Mr. Bonwick searched, not only the Record
Office, but the papers of the Admiralty, the Foreign
Office, the Privy Council, and the British Museum, and
discovered and copied a large mass of documents relating
to the early days of Tasmania. In the early part of
this year, these copies, extending over some 640 foolscap
pages, were received in Hobart, and the present Premier
— ^the Hon, Philip Oakley Fysh — obligingly allowed me
to peruse them. I found them to be of great interest.
They thr6w quite a new light on the causes which led to
the first occupation of this Island ; gave a complete
history of Bowen's first settlement at Risdon Cove ;
and supplied materials for other hitherto unwritten

96 FRENCH IN VAN DIEMEN's LAND.

chapters of Tasmanian history. Upon informing Mr.
Fysh of the result of my examination, he entered warmly
into my proposal to put before the public in a narrative
form the information acquired, and placed the documents
at my disposal for that purpose. It is at Mr. Fysh's
suggestion that this first paper on the subject is now sub*
mitted to the Royal Society. The introductory sketch
of the operations of the French in Tasmania has been
compiled from the original pubhshed narratives of the
expeditions. Some history of preceding events seemed-
necessary for a proper understanding of the transactions
referred to in the documents under notice. My object
has been, not to give a history of the discovery and
early exploration of our island, but merely such an outline
of the rivalries of the French and English in these seas
as would suffice for a better apprehension of the motives
which prompted the first occupation of the Derwent.

The story of the first settlement of Tasmania, and of
Lieutenant Bowen's little colony at Hisdon Cove, has
never yet been told, so far as I can discover. West,
Fenton, and other authors give meagre, inaccurate, and
contradictory particulars. No writer records even the
date of Bowen's landing. Mr. Bonwick's researches now,
for the first time, enable us to give this missing first
chapter of Tasmanian history.

I. — ^The French in Van Diemen's Land.

The Cambridge Professor of Modern History, in a
recent remarkable book, has shown that the great English
event of the 18th century, indeed, the greatest fact of
modern English History, has been the expansion of
England into lands beyond the seas — the foundation and
growth of a Greater Britain. Professor Seeley holds
that the great hundred years' struggle between England
and France, lasting from the time of Louis XIV. to the
days of Napoleon, was, in the main, a duel between
the two nations for the possession of the New World.
Even in the English conquest of India the Professor
traces, not so much the ambition of conquest and the lust
of empire, as fear of the French and rivalry with them.
By the close of the last century the issue of the strife
was no longer doubtful. In India, Wellesley had anni-
hilated French influence, and was rapidly consolidating the
English dominion. France had lost for ever her finest

BY JAMES B. WALKER. 99

possessions in America, though she on her side had
dealt us a return blow in assisting to tear from England
her North American Colonies.

But the struggle was not over, and it was destined to

Jield yet wider triumphs for the English race. The very
amikation which France had helped to inflict oh her
rival was to prove a potent factor in the further expansion
of "Greater Britain." It is probably no exaggeration
to say that it is to the hostility of France, and her action
in America, that we owe in no small measure the British Expansion of
colonisation of Australia — a work which must ever stand ^'^^^^'i^*
as the most momentous event of our century.

The secession of her North American provinces had well
nigh left England without a colonial empire. English-
men straightway set themselves to search for a com-
pensation for their lost possessions, and to find a new
outlet for their energies and for their surplus population.
A new world lay ready to their hand. As David
Livingstone, in our own days, has called into existence
a new realm in the dark continent of Africa, so in the
days of our great grandfathers, the genius of Captain
Cook, England's greatest circumnavigator, had opened
up a new realm in the unknown and mysterious seas
of the South. But in these Southern seas, as formerly
in America and India, England and France were, and
indeed still are, rivals. In exploration each nation can
boast of distinguished names. The English navigators,
Anson, Vancouver, Cook, Furneaux, and Flinders, had
active competitors in the Frenchmen, Bougainville,
Marion, Surville, La P^rouse, D'Entrecasteaux, and
Baudin. Nor were the English the first to entertain the
design of colonising the new lands. So far back as the

Sear 1766, an eminent and learned French advocate,
I. le President Charles de Brosses, in his Histoire des
Navigations aux Terres Australes, had strongly urged
upon the Government of France the wisdom of establishing
a French colony in the South Seas. In the work cited, the
author passes in review the relative advantages of various
portions of the Southern world, and concludes that some
part of Australasia^ offers the best prospect for settle-
ment, the country being favourable, and access easy, with

• De Brosses was President of the Parliament of Uijon. To him
we owe the invention of the name Atistralasia. Nav. aux Terrep
Aiut)].,80.

100 FRENCH IN VAN DIEMEN's LAND.

Pondicherry as a base of operations.* He rejects New
Zealand and Van Diemens Land as too remote; and
after hesitating for a while over Quiros' Terre da St. Esprit
(the coast between Cooktpwn and Townsville), finally
inclines to New Britain as the most suitable locality.
With a sagacious foresight, since amply justified by events,
he declares that any colony planted in these regions would
hold Ariadne's clew for the whole Southern world. From
such a centre, every part of this new realm could in
time be explored and conquered, from the Equator to the
Antarctic Circle. He elaborately discusses the best means
of forming such a settlement, and recommends that after
its first establishment a certain number of convicts, male
and female, should be sent to it every year to supply the
necessary labour, and to be in time transformea from a
danger and burden to the State into industrious and
useful citizens.t Still further to strengthen the new
colony, he would deport to it, as free citizens, numbers of
foundlings, who are in a sense the property of the State
which has reared them, and can therefore dispose of them
at its pleasure. He warns his countrymen against the
danger of waiting until some other nation had proved the
practicability of a colony by trying the experiment ; for
when once any nation has gained a foothold it will not
suffer another to share the territory to which it has thus
acquired a right by conquest.^ Although various dis-
covery expeditions were despatched from France to the
South Seas after the days of De Brosses, the President's
warning remained unheeded. France missed her oppor-
tunity, and it was left to England to take the first step,
and found a new empire in these southern seas, from
which — justifying the Frenchman's forecast — she did not
scruple from the very first peremptorily to warn ofi' all
intruders.

It was probably due to the fact of the coincidence of
Captain Cook's discoveries with the loss of the American
colonies, quite as much as to her naval supremacy, that
England chanced to be beforehand with her rival. It
takes an effort of imagination to realise the New World
which Cook revealed, and how he opened up to men's
minds the possibilities and promise of the new field for
enterprise. Until his time. New Holland — ^for as yet

.♦Nav. aux Terres Aust., ii., 367, et seq. f ^m?-j i«) 28, et seq.

*' " J iWef., ii., 408.

BY JAMES B. WALKER. 101

Aastralia was not* — had been little more than a
geographical expression. Parts of the Northern and
Western coasts, and one ominous Bay of Storms at the
South, were laid down more or less vaguely on the maps
firom the reports of Dutch navigators of the preceding
century, and those old and infrequent voyagers had
brought back only reports of forbidding shores and
desolate territory. The right to these dreary coasts was
conceded without dispute to the Dutch, for it was a land
that no man desired. The English had no part in its
discovery. One Englishman, indeed, and one only —
William Dampier — had touched on the Western coast
in the year 1 688, had found a barren sandy soil, inhabited
by wretched savages, with no redeeming advantage, and
had left it gladly, thinking it the most miserable spot on
the face of the earth. Such was the state of affairs when
Cook appeared on the scene. In 1770, on his return from
the observation of the Transit of Venus at Tahiti, and in
pursuance of instructions to try to solve the mystery of the
great South Land, the Endeavour^ after rediscovering and
surveying the islands of New Zealand, sailed west till the
eastern shore of New Holland was sighted. Cook
explored the coast from Cape Howe to Cape York ;
landed at Botany Bay, hoisted the English flag, took
possession of the country in the name of King George,
and returned home to report the existence of a fine and
fertile territory in a temperate climate, well suited for
English settlers. At home the growth of feeling in favour
of a milder penal code had rendered it necessary to devise
some scheme for disposing of criminals, and Pitt and the
English Government resolved to choose Botany Bay as
the field for a project which should relieve English diflS-
culties, and lay the foundation of a new colony. The first
fleet sailed from England, and in January, 1788, Governor
Phillip planted the first settlement in New Holland, sub-
stantially on the lines indicated in detail by the French
President more than a quarter of a century before.

• Qqiros (1606) named his discovery Austrialia del Espiritu
Santo, in honor of Philip of Austria. Purchas, in his English
translation of Quiros' voyage (1625) called it Australia Incognitar—
(Sfc Petherick's Bibliography of Australasia). Dalrymple, in his
Collection of Voyages (1770) suggests the name, and Flinders
revived it in the Introduction to his Voyage to Terra Australis,
1814, p. iii.

102 FRENCH IK VAK DIEM£N*S LAND.

But the French had never ceased to turn longing eyes
towards the new Southern world. If the mind of Franee
had not been so fully occupied in the desperate effort to
maintain her naval power against the English in other
seas, it is quite possible that to her, and not to England,
would have fallen the dominion of Australia. And,
probably, suspicion of French designs had its effect in
hastening English action. Already, in 1785, the French
Government had despatched the celebrated La Perouse
with "an expedition to circumnavigate the world, and
explore the coasts of New Holland, doubtless with some
more or less definite design of settlement. When, on the
26th January, 1788, La Perouse, with his ships, the
JBoussole and the Astrolabe, sailed into Botany Bay, he
found an English fleet at anchor there, having arrived five
days before him. Governor Phillip had just left the Bay
in the Supply to find in Port Jackson a more suitable
site for a town ; and on the very day La P6rouse's ships
Collins' New came to an anchor the city of Sydney was founded. The
&)uth Wales, French remained in Botany Bay for six weeks, the
English and they maintaining a friendly and pleasant
intercourse. Collins says that the French were very
unfavourably impressed with the prospects of the settle-
ment, the officers having been heard to declare that in
their whole voyage they had never found so poor a
country, or such wretched people as the natives of New
jbid,U2o. South Wales. On the 10th March La Perouse sailed
from New South Wales to vanish into space — ^the mystery
which shrouded his fate not being solved until nearly 40
years had elapsed.

The English foothold on the Australian continent was
now securelv established, and disregarding the western
half, to which the Dutch were still considered as having a
title — something like their present title to Western New
Guinea — England, by solemn proclamation, formally laid
claim to the whole eastern territory from Cape York to the
extreme South Cape of Van Diemen's Land, and as far
west as the 135th degree of east longitude.

Still France did not relinquish her dreams of colonisa-
tion, but seemed to cherish the idea of disputing with
her great rival her exclusive possession of the new
territories. There is reason to think that the French
designs, if ever distinctly formulated, pointed to the
southern extremity of Van Diemen's Leind as the locality

BY JAMES B. WALKER. 103

for a settlement. The Terre de Diemen and the Baie des
Tempfites exercised a particular fascination over successive
French navigators, and excited the attention of the French
(jovernment. It was a spot known only for a forbidding
rock-bound coast, washed by an angry sea, and lashed
by perpetual tempests. For more than a century after
its discovery by Abel Tasman in 1642 no European had
invaded its solitudes, until on the 4th March, 1772, the
French navigator, Marion du Fresne, anchored his ships,
the Mascarin and the Castries^ in the Frederic Hendric
Bay of Tasman*. He remained there six days, landed,
and attempted to establish intercourse with the natives,
the attempt resulting in an encounter in which the fir^t
Tasmanian aborigine fell under the fire of European
muskets. After Marion, the English navigators Fur-
neaux (1773) Cook (1777), Cox (1789), and Bligh (1788
and 1792) paid ptissing visits to Adventure Bay ; but it
was a Frenchman, again, who made the first survey of the
approaches to the Derwent. The instructions to La
Perouse in 1786 had directed him to explore this, the
extreme southern point of New Holland; and the last La Porouse,
letter written by him from Botany Bay, on 7 February, 7Md,'iv!,203.
1788, notes his intention to proceed there before his
return, — an intention there is some reason to believe he
executed^. I'he exploration was made four years later
by Admiral Bruny D'Entrecasteaux, Commander of the
expedition sent out by the National As ;enibly in 1791 to
search for the missing navigator. It was to Storm Bay
that his ships, tlie Recherclie and JSsperance, first directed
their course from the Cape of Good Hope. The autumn
of 1792 was far advanced before the French Admiral
sighted the basaltic cliffs of Van Diem en's Land.
Through an error of his pilot, Itaonl. he missed
Adventure Bay, which he had intended to make, and on
21st April cast anchor at the entrance of the inlet after-
wards known to the English as Storm Bay Passage, but
which now more fittingly bears the name of D'Entre-

* This is not the Frederic.'k Henry Bay of the colonists, but
that marked on the maps as Marion Baj', on the East Coast.

t Bont's Alniaiiac for 1827 states that in the year 1809 Captain
Bunker, of the ship Vntus^ tbund, burird on the shore of Adventure
Bay, a bottle containing let tejs iron I La Perouse dated one month
after his leaving Port Jackson. In the year 1826 Captain Peter
DilloT discovered traces of La Perouse's expedition at Vanikoro, in
the Santa Cruz Group.

104

FRENCH IN VAN DIEMBN'S LAND.

casteaux Channel, after its diseoverer. Recherche Bay,
close at hand, offered a safe and commodious harbour for
the ships ; and here they remained for a month, their
boats exploring and surveying the channel and the various
inlets on the coast, while the scientific men journeyed
inland, made observations, collected specimens of natural
history, and revelled in the examination of a new flora
and fauna. The natives, at first timid and distrustful,
were soon conciliated, and showed themselves most fi'iendly
to the Europeans. On the 17th May the ships entered
the Channel, and the French viewed with astonishment
the extent of the harbours which unfolded themselves to
their delighted gaze, affording a secure shelter spacious
enough to contain easily the combined fleet of all the
maritime powers of Europe. After a fortnight employed
in examining the Channel, the Admiral sailod out of th >
Passage into Storm Bay, rounded the Pilltrr, ai»d pro-
ceeded to New Caledonia. In J;he summer of tlr^,
following year he returned to Van Diemeu's Land, and
spent another five weeks in the Channel ^21 January
to 28 February, 1793). During this second stay the
French completed the surveys which they had begun
in the preceding autumn, explored Norfolk Bay and
Frederick Henry Bay (Baie du Nord), and ascended
20 miles up the Derwent, which they named. Kiviere
du Nord. Flinders, with his usual generous recognition
of the work of previous navigators, says of the charts
of Beautems Beaupre, the hydrographer of the exy)edition.
that " they contain some of the finest specimens of
marine surveying perhaps ever made in a new conntry."
Labillardiere, the naturalist and historian of the expedition,
devotes more than 1 60 pages of his work to a description
of the Terre de Diemen. He speaks with enthusiasm of
rec^ercht^e La ^^^ country and its productions, of its magnificent forests
ne-iorkndi^^* ^^ blue-gum and other timber, of its soil and fertility, and
428— II.', p. 80.' 'of the amiability of its ])eaceful inhabitants, and dilates
with pardonable pride and satisfaction on the grandeur
and extent of the harbours which French enterprise had
discovered in this hitherto dreaded coast. The Icugthenerl
stay of D'Entrecasteaux, the minute and elaborate nature
of his surveys, and the space his historian devotes to a
description of the country and its advantages, indicate
some further object than mere geographical research.
The names which stud our southern coast, and are

Flinders' voy.
Intro., p. 93.

Lablllardldre,

BY J4MB$ B. -^ALKE^. 106

familiar in our moutlis as hoiiseliold words, — Bruny
Island, D'Entrecasteaux Channel, Recherche Bay, Port
Esperance, River Huon, Cape Raoul, and others, — stand
a perpetaal monument to the memory of the French navi-
gi^tors.

And now, at length, English explorers appear upon the
scene. In 1 794, Lieut. John Hayes, of the Indian navy,
was despatched from India in the ships Duke of Clarence
and Duchess on a voyage of discovery, including the
exploration of the coasts of Van Diemen's Land. He
sailed up the Riviere da Nord — which he re-christened
the Derwent — as fai- as Herdsman's Cove. As the
admirable charts of D'Entrecasteaux were unknown to the
English until long years afier, it was on Hayes' sketch Flinders* inti
that subsequent visitors had tq rely, and in many cases ^*
the names he gave have been substituted for those given
by the French.

In December, 1797, t.!)e adventurous Bass, leaving
Port Jackson in an open wh^leboat, had solved the vexed
problem ol the strait which bears the name and immortalises
the intrepid daring of its discoverer ; and late in the year
1798, Bass and Flinders, in the Norfolli, a little sloop of
25 tons, sailed through Bass' Strait, explored Port Dal- *
rymple, circumnavigated Tasmania, and mqide a careful
examination and survey of the Derwent and its a])proaches
and neighbourhood.

On the 19th October, 1800, when Bontfparte was First
Consul, an expedition, consisting of two ships, the Geo-
gruphe and Naturaliste, sailed out of Havre, amidst great
demonstrations, for a voyage of discovery round the world.
Commodore J^audin, in iho Gfo(/ro.p/ie, was chief of the
expedition; Captain Hamelin commanded the NaturaJisie.
Althouf2:h fierce war was ra«:iu2: at the time between the
two nations, the English Admiralty granted a passport or
safe conduct to Baudin, on the ground that scientific
expeditions should be exempt from hostilities. Notwith-
standing these C()nrt(?sie.s ,ot' tlio Enghsli Government to
the French commandei', it was shrewdly suspected tliat
the real design of the expedition was to s])y out the state
of the English possessions in Nqw Holland, and, if
practicable, hoist tlio standard of Bonaparte at some con-
venipiit j)oint of tiic coast and establish a French colony. Eainhurgii,
Certain it Is tliat Bandin's instructions — afterwards pub- jJugj'cu's^^i^iJc
iisheJ in P<^;:on's six^count of tlie voyage — give colour ,to PortPhiiiip,ii

106 FRENCH IN VAN BIEMEN's LAND.

the belief. They direct the captain to proceed direct
from the Mauritius to the southern point of the Terre de
Di6men, double the South Cape, carefully examine the
Canal D'Entrecasteaux in every part, ascend all the rivers
in this portion of the island as far as they were navigable,
explore all the eastern coast, carefully survey Banks'
Straits, sail through Bass' Strait, ana after exploring
Hunter's Islands, proceed to the continent of New
Holland and search for the great strait which was sup-
posed to separate the eastern part occupied by the
English, from the western portion claimed by the Dutch.
All this certainly looks very like some further object than
geographical discovery. The French expedition doubtless
stirred the English to renewed activity, and through the
influence of Sir Joseph Banks, Earl Spencer (then at the
head of the Admiralty) consented, early in 1801, to

Flinders, i., p. 4. despatch the Investigator, a sloop of 334 tons, to niako
a complete survey of the coast of New Holland. The
command was given to Lieut. Matthew Flinders, who had
already distinguished himself by some daring explorations
in company with Dr. George Bass : and amply did he

ibidy p. 15. justify his appointment. The ship's complement was 88
persons, amongst whom served, as a midshipman, John
Franklin, afterwards destined, as Sir John Franklin, to
become the Governor of Tasmania, and to die in solving
the problem of the North- West Passage. The Investigator
sailed from Spithead on the 18th July, 1801, and sighted
Cape Leeuwin on 6th December following. Meantime
Commodore Baudin, deviating from his instructions, had
gone to the western coast of Australia, and it was not until

pferon, 1, p. 218. the 13th January, 1802, that he sighted the De Witts
Islands (known to our fishermen as *' The Witches "),. off
the south coast of this island. The French commander
anchored next day off Partridge Island, in the Channel ;
remained there until the 17tii February — 36 days;
occupied the warm summer season in making a very
complete examination and survey of the Channel, the
River Huon and Port Cygnet, Frederick Henry and
Norfolk Bays, and exploring the Derwent carefully nearly
as far as Bridgewater. The French had many interviews
with the natives, doing everything in their power to con-

/wd, pp.218. ciUate them, and with complete success. Peron, the
naturalist, who wrote the history of the expedition,
devotes nearly 100 pages of his first volume to Van

BT JAMES B. WALKER. 107

Diemen's Land. He gives a glowing description of the
beauty and capabiKties of the country, and a poetical i\iu\
highly-coloured picture of the kindliness and good qualitivs
of the aborigines. On leaving Storm Bay the French rnoji
sailed for ttie east coast; they examined Maria Island, ivi on, i.,pp,
visited the Schoutens and Freycinet's Peninsula, and snr- '^^^•'''^•
veyed the remainder of the coast until they reached Banks*
Strait. Here the ships were separated by a storm. The
Naturaliste surveyed Banks' Strait, and explored the
Hunter Islands and other islands in Bass' Strait; and the
Geographe sailed for the south coast of New Holland —
or, as Baudin christened it, Napoleon Land — to search for
the channel which was supposed to divide New Holland.
The French expedition had surveyed the whole coast-line
of Van Diemen s Land, with the exception of the west
coast from Cape Grim to Port Davey.

On the 8th April, 1802, the ships of Baudin and Flinders, i.,p.i89.
Flinders met off Kangaroo Island. Flinders states that
Baudin was communicative of his discoveries in Van
Diemen's Land, and declares that he, on his part, furnished
the French commander with every information as to his
own explorations of the coast, and gave him directions for
his guidance. Peron, in his brief notice of the interview p6ron,i.p.326.
between the two commanders, simply remarks that
Flinders showed great reserve on the subject of his own
operations. The object of this suppression of facts by the
Frenchman will appear later on.

On the 2oth April, 1802, Captain Hamelin, in the
Naturalistey arrived off Port Jackson. His provisions
were exhausted, his crew prostrated by scurvy. He was Jdi^ p. ses.
in urgent need of succour. Yet he approached Port Jack-
son with many misgivings. War, so far as lie knew, was
raging in all its bitterness and fury between France and
England, and though he bore a safe conduct from the
Admiralty, he fully anticipated that he would not be
allowed to enter the Port, or, if he was, that the aid
he so much needed would be refused him. But his doubts
were soon dispelled, for, as he says, he was instantly
welcomed by the English with magnanimous generosity.
Not only were all the resources of the country placed at
the disposal of the French captain, but the most dis-
tinguished houses of the colony were thrown open to
his officers, and during the whole time they remained they
^experienced that delicate and affectionate hospitality

108 FRENCH IN VAN I^^|t^ f^ LAND,

which is equally honorable to those vfh^ oppi^r H aod
to those who are its objects." The WWS ^f the Peace
of Amiens (proclaimed 27 March, ISQ^,) whiab reached
Sydney a short time later, though it i^ade intercourse
more pleasant, " could not,'* PeroA s^ys, " inc^aase the
kindness which the English displayed tftW^rds us." A
fortnighl. later (May 9) Flinders, who bfid Goo^pjeted a
thorough survey of the South C^^^st, fu*]4ir§4 at Port
Jackson in the Investigator,

Baudin, in the Gtographe^ had bi^n ^oii^e ati:^ wpoks on
the South coast of New HoUaijd, r^disppveriftg and
renaming the discoveries already made by Flir^dPF^* His
crew were suffering terribly from scurvy, ^pd his pfficers
urged his going to Port Jackson to recruit. Whether the
Commodore doubted the nature of his reception, or whether
the attractions of the Terre de Dierpen proved irresistible,
does not appear, but Baudin disregarded their protests,
and to their intense chagrin, though winter Wjaj^ fast
approaching, headed hig ship for the cold and $tprmy
south, and on 20th May once ?4ore cast S-Bi/cbpr in
Adventure Bay. 'J'he state of his ship's company, how-
ever, was such that after oply two days' stay hp was
obliged to give orders to sail for Sydqey. Bgffled by
contrary winds, battered by vix)Jent storms, i^^rith a cfew
unable, from illness, to handle the ship, it tpok J^iip a
whole month to make the passagjc. On the 20th June
the Gi'ographe approached jihe hestds of Port J^kson.
Not only were they apprehensive respecting the ^e of
the Naturaliste^ and ?is to the naturae of their p^wn
reception, but the condition pf the cvQjff w^s most

Fiindor?, 1., 230. deplorable. Flinders says "it was grievoigis to siee the
miserable condition to which both officers and c^^w were
reduced by scurvy, tliere b,ei9g% according ito the Com-
manders account, out of 170 xi\&f^ »ot nvore th^n 12

Pcron,!.,]!. c-io. capable of doing their duty." Perpn quotes the ]Co|n-
mander s journal as stati;:ig .that but io^ of the ^r<ej»%
including a midshipman, w^re abje to keep th/e deck, jaji?d
he adds there was not one ^on boijurd who was fr^e
from the disease. Many had 4ied, aijd the surgeon,
M. Taillefer, gives a horrible description of the suffe^ipgs

jW(7,p. 3!3. Qf the survivors.^' Ijn fact, on arrivi^ag off Port .Jackson

* The scurvy was at this period the scourge of the naval and
mercantile marine, and especially of discovery exjjeditions. Van-
couver attributes the high position £Uiglaiiid hod «JM;fdP€d, in a

BT JAMES B. WALKER. 109

the Geographe was unable to make the harbour, until
Groyemor King had sent the Investigators boat with a
number of hands to work the vessel into port. It is
hardly necessary to say that the distressed FrenchiniMi
were received with the greatest kindness. The numerous
sick were removed to the Colonial Hospital, and tenderly
cared for by the English surgeons. Whatever they had
need of that the place could furnish was placed at their
disposal, and the Governor gave the Commander an
unlimited credit at the Public Treasury to enable him to
re victual and refit, and also purchase a third vessel. More Poron,p.377.
than this: the Colony was at the time in gieat want of
fresh provisions, floods on the Hawkesbury having
destroyed the wheat harvest, salt meat was exceedingly
scarce, and fi*esh meat almost unprocurable ; yet so soon
as the strangers' necessities were knowj], Government
oxen were killed, and by a common consent the ration of
wheat issued to garrison and inhabitants, including the
Governor and officers, was reduced one-half, so that the
scurvy-stricken crew might not want what was so essential
for their recovery. This statement is made on the authority Fimders voy.,
of a letter written by Baudin himself. Both he and Peron "' ^' '^^*
handsomely acknowledge the kindness they received, and
exhaust their phrases in describing the affectionate and
obliging care of Governor King and his unexampled
conduct, the courtesy and unremitting attention of the
inhabitants, the generosity of the Government, the absolute
freedom accorded to their movements, and the sentiments
of gratitude which these kindnesses inspired.

I have dwelt particularly on these incidents, not only
because it is matter of pardonable pride lo record how

^eat degree, to the attention her captains paid to n^ival hygiene.
The French discovery crews always suffered terribly from want
of proper precautions, and from Peron's account Baudin's ships
were miserably victualled, and their commander culpably indifferent
to the health of his men. Out of 23 scientific men who left France
in the Geographe and Naturaliste only three returned to their
country. Out of 219 men who sailed with D'Entrecasteaux, 89 died
before the ships returned to Mauritius. The French voyages ot
discovery were singularly fatal to their commanders. Besides La
Perouse, who perished with all his ship's company, not one of the
commanders who visited Tasmania lived to return to his native
country. Marion du Fresne was killed at New Zealand. Admiral
D'Entrecasteaux died at sea off the Admiralty Isles, and his second
in command, Huon Kermadec, at New Caledonia. Baudin himself
died at Mauritius on the voyage home.

110 FIRST SETTLEMENT AT DERWENT.

chivalrously Englishmen can behave towards an enemy
in distress, but because of the striking contrast which the
aid and courtesies extended to the Frenchmen by Governor
King and the English colonists offer to the treatment
Flinders experienced from the Governor of a French
Colony within little more than a year of the arrival of
Baudin's expedition at Sydney. In December, 1803, on
his way to England in the little Cumberland^ Flinders was
obliged to put into Mauritius in distress ; when, in spite
of his safe conduct from the French Admiralty, his ship
was seized as a prize, he himself subjected to close
imprisonment, his papers and charts confiscated, and
when, after three years, tardy orders for his release came
from France, he was detained on one pretext or another
until 1810, six years and a half after his seizure. In the
meantime the narrative of Baudin's voyage was published
in Paris, all mention of Flinders' explorations being
suppressed, and the credit of his discoveries being claimeq
by the French for themselves. In Sydney, at any rate,
the French oflScers had made no pretensions to priority of
discovery, for Flinders tells us that Lieut. Freycinet (the
joint editor of the history of the voyage), remarked to
him, in Governor King's house — " Captain, if we had
not been kept so long picking up shells and collecting
butterflies at Vun Diemen's Land, you would not have
discovered the South Coast [of New Holland] before us ;"
and Flinders, in Peron's presence, showed his chart to
Baudin and pointed out the limits of his discovery.
Flinders generously acquits Peron of blame in the. matter,
and says that he believes his candour to have been equal
to his acknowledged abilities, and that what he wrote was
from overruling authority, and smote him to the heart.
He attributes the suppressions in Peron's work, and his
own treatment, to the secret instructions of the French
FiiuderH voy., Govemmeut, and possibly to have "been intended as the
forerunner of a claim to the possession of the countries so
said to have been first discovered by French navigators."

11. The first Settlement at the Derwent.

The foregoing sketch of the operations of the French
navigators in these waters will, I tliink. have made it
pretty plain that the French Government entertained
serious designs of planting a colony at the first convenient
opportunity somewhere in Tasmania, presumably in the

11., p. 470.

BY JAMES B. WALKER. Ill

neighbourhood of the Derwent. How disastrous to the
English colonies in Australia the successful accounplish-
ment of such a design would have been we can partly
appreciate from our recent experience of the trouble and
vexation caused to the Australians by the existence of a
French penal settlement even so far removed from our
shores as New Caledonia.

The following particulars of the circumstances which
were the immediate occasion of the English occupation
of Van Diemen's Land are drawn almost wholly from
unpublished documents preserved in the English State
Record OflSce, and which I have already referred to as
having been lately copied by Mr. Bonwick for the Tas-
manian Government. They will show that the colonisa-
tion of Tasmania was not au isolated or chance event, but
one link of a chain, — a ripple in the great current of
influence which has been shaping English and European
liistory.

On the 18th November, 1802, after a six months' stay,
the two French ships sailed out of Port Jackson for Bass'
Straits. The Naturaliste was intended to take home the
sick, leaving the Geographe to complete her voyage of
discovery alone. Governor King had not been without
misgivings respecting the movements of the French, and
had given expression to them in a despatch to Lord King to Hobart,
Hobart written a few days before ; but his suspicions only 23 Nov. 1802, p.
proceeded from the circumstance of the long time they
were engaged in surveying at Storm Bay Passage.
Moreover, the recent discovery of Bass' Straits, by
proving Van Diemen's Land to be an island, had given
rise to a new cause for apprehension, since it might now
be fairly contended that the island could not form part of
the territory of New South Wales, and that the English,
having no prior right of discovery, could not make good
their claim, while the French expeditions by their
explorations and surveys had established a superior title.
But a few hours after the French ships were out of ihia.
sight, a piece of gossip reached the Governor's ears
which fairly startled him out of his equanimity. This
was a report that some of the French officers had stated,
in conversation with Lieut.-Colonel Paterson and others,
possibly in a convivial moment, that a principal object

112 FIRST SETTLEMENT AT DERWENT.

of their voyagt3 was to fix on a place at Van Die-
men's Land for a settlement. The alarmed Governor
sent off fortlnvith to Colonel Paterson for more precise
information, and the answer he received, on that same
Tuesday morning on which the ships had sailed, more
Paterson to than confirmed his worst fears. Not only had the talk
S^*p!^8L^^' among the French officers been so general that the
Colonel could not understand how it was that the
Governor had not heard of it, but one of the oflScers had
sent Paterson a chart, and had pointed out the very spot
selected — the place where they and D'Entrecasteaux also
had spent so much time — the Baie du Nord [now known
as Frederick Henry Bay], in Storm Bay Passage, or, as
the French called it, Le Canal D'Entrecasteaux. King,
of course, knew very well that Baudin could, at most,
take formal possession, for, with his small and sickly crew,
and without stores or provisions, he had not the means to
found a colony. There was no immediate danger on that
score, but he did not know what recommendations might-
have been sent to the French Government, or how soon a
properly equipped expedition might be on its way from
France to plant a settlement, and, being a man of action,
accustomed to act promptly and on his own responsibility,
without waiting for instructions that might be twelve
months in reaching him, he proceeded forthwith to take
steps to prevent an invasion of His Majesty's territory of
New South Wales, of which territory he was the guardian.
His first diflSculty was to find a ship. The naval strength
at the command of the Governor of New South Wales
was not large. His Majesty's ships in these seas were
few in number, small, and often unseaworthy, and there
was a constant difliculty in finding vessels that could be
spared for any special service. Of those under his orders
the Buffalo was essential at Port Jackson, the Lady
Nelson was oflF north with Flinders, the Porpoise^ the
only other king's ship, was away at I'ahiti salting pork
for the necessities of the colony. But there was in JPort
Jackson a little armed schooner called the Cumberland,
which had been built at Sydney a few years before for
the purpose of pursuing runaways. She was only 29 tons
burden, it is true, but she would do to checkmate French
designs. This little craft was therefore hastily prepared
for sea, a crew was selected, Lieut. Chas. Kobbins,
master's mate of H.M.S. Buffalo, was put in command,

BY JAMES B. WALKER. 113

and in four days she was ready to sail. Robbiris received King's ordei-s to

, ^ /.•'. , ,. . <, . ^, , ' J. ' . ■ Robbins, 22 Nov.

several sets oi instructions, indicating the uncertainty into 1802, p. 65-72.
which the Governor was thrown. His general instructions
required him to proceed without loss of time to Storm
Bay l^assage, — ^" the dominion of which, and all Van
Diemen's Land, being," says King, " within the limits
of His Majesty's territory and my government," — and
to fix on the most eligible places in Frederick Henry
Bay and the River Derwent, agreeable to the separate
instructions on that head. If, however, Robbins met p. 65-72
with southerly or westerly winds, he was to go to King's p- ^^•
Island and Port Phillip, for the examination and survey
of which places he had separate instructions, and after-
wards proceed to Storm Bay Passage. He was to hoist
the English flag whenever on shore, placing a guard at
each place, who were to turn up the ground and sow
seeds. As the Porpoise was intended to follow with
soldiers and settlers immediately on her return from
Tahiti, he was to keep the King's colours flying to
indicate the intended settlement. Captain Robbins was
also charged with a letter from King to the French com-
mander, if he should happen to overtake him in Bass'
Straits; and he received very precise instructions respecting
the action he was to take lo assert English rights if the
French ventured to infringe them. Having his prepara-
tions made and his little vessel ready for sea. King sat
down to report to Lord Hobart the position of aSairs.
He tells the Secretary for War* that, on hearing Colonel
Paterson's report, he had lost no time in expediting the
Cumberland, armed colonial schooner; that she was on
the point of sailing, and that, from the arrangements he
had made, His Majesty's claim to the threatened part of
this territory could not be disputed ; for, whatever might
be in contemplation, it could not be performed by Baudin
in his present condition ; it was only necessary to guard
against any action of the French Government which
Baadin might have recommended. It was his intention,
therefore, when the Porpoise arrived from Tahiti, to
despatch her with a small establishment to the most
eligible spot at Storm Bay Passage, and also with one for
Port Phillip or King's Island.

•The Secretai^ for War was also at that time Minister for the
Colonies.

114 FIRST SETTLEMENT AT DERWENT.

Fiemming's The Cumberland sailed the same day (23rd November).

ouma. gj^^ j^^j ^^ board Mr. Charles Grimes* (Acting Sur-

veyor-General), M*Callura (the surgeon), Jas. Flemming
(the gardener), and three marines ; with the crew, 17
persons. In the journal t kept by Flemming, the
gardener, who was sent to report on the soil and pro-
ductions of the almost unknown regions to which they
were going, we have a chronicle of their proceedings.^
They had a quick run of two days to Cape Howe, but,
baffled by contrary winds and calms, were nine days more
in reaching Kent s Group, and it was not until the 8th
December — a fortnight after leaving Port Jackson — that
they made Sea Elephant Bay, on the east coast of King's
Island. Here they found the French ships lying at
anchor, and at 5 o'clock on that summer evenmg the
little Cumberland dropped anchor alongside them. The
Naturaliste was on the point of sailing for France.
Captain Robbins boarded the Geographe^ announced his
mission, and delivered to the Commodore the Governor's
letter. It was short, and friendly in tone. King begins
by remarking that his intention to send a vessel to the
southward to fix on a place for a settlement was already
known to Baudin himself. He then mentions the report
that had led to the departure of this vessel being hastened,
and goes on to say that, while wholly disbelieving that
the French commander had any thought of such a design
as had been imputed to him, yet it seemed but proper that
he should be informed of the rumour, and of the orders the
captain of the Cumberland had received in consequence.
The version of the Governor's letter given by Peron in
his history of the expedition represents it as couched in
more forcible and less conciliatory terms. Peron says
that hardly had they anchored at King's Island when
the little schooner Cumberland arrived from Port Jackson,
bringing Surveyor-General Grimes, who had been sent
by Governor King to make a declaration, as singular
in its form as it was remarkable in its object, "A
report having reached me," wrote Mr. King to our Com-

* Grimes was one of the first, if not the first, to cross Tasmania
from north to south. — See Flinders' Chart, 1807.

t Fiemming's Journal was disinterred from the Records in the
Colonial Secretary's Office, Sydney, by Mr. J. J. Shillinglaw, in
1877, and was printed in that gentleman's " Historical Records of
Port Phillip." Melbourne, 1879. X Ibid, pp. 16-30.

BY JAMES B. WALKER. 115

mander, "that you entertain a design of leaving some
people either at Diemen's Land or on the south-west
coast of New South Wales, to found a French Colony
there, I deem it my duty to declare to you. Monsieur
le Commandant, that by virtue of the proclamation of
1788, whereby England formally took possession, all these
countries form an integral part of the British Empire,
and that you cannot occupy any part of them without
breaking the friendly relations which have been so recently
re-established between the two nations. I will not even
attempt to conceal from you that such is the nature of
my positive instructions on this point that it will be my
duty to oppose by every means in my power the execution
of the design you are supposed to have in view.
Accordingly, H.M.S. Cumberland has received orders
not to leave you until the officer in command of her is
convinced that your proceedings are wholly unconnected
with any attempt at invasion of the British territory in
these parts."* With King's own copy of his letter before
usf we can hardly accept Peron's version as accurate.
Probably, while professing to give the letter textually,
he really relied on his memory, and interwove tne
substance of the English Captain's verbal communications
to the Commodore. It is suflSciently clear, however, that
Bobbins, with the downrightness of a sailor, had left
nothing doubtful or ambiguous with respect to the object
of bis mission. During the week after the arrival of the
Cumberland and the delivery of the despatches, the
representatives of the two nations fraternised and inter-
changed hospitalities on the disputed shores of King's
Island. The French meanwhile set up an observatory
on land, and pitched their tents near the beach. Perhaps
it was this proceeding that confirmed Bobbins' suspicions,
or perhaps the French Commander would not give him
the assurances he wanted ; at all events, before the end
of the week the Englishman made up his mind that the
time for decisive action had come; so on the 14th he
made a formal landing in full view of the Frenchmen,
marched his little party to the rear of the tents, hoisted
His Majesty's colours on a large tree, posted at the foot of
the tree his guard of three marines with loaded muskets,

♦ P^ron'fl Voyage, 2nd ed., vol. 3, p. 11 ; and see Appendix B.
t See Appendix B.

116 FIRST SETTLEMENT AT DERWENT,

fired three volleys, gave three cheers, and took formal
possession of the island in the name of King George.
This defiant assertion of British claims by a handful of
English sailors in the teeth of ten times their number of
traditional enemies, might well have wounded the vanity
of people less susceptible than Frenchmen, and we need
not therefore wonder that we hear of no more mutual
hospitalities. Peron remarks that " such 'proceedings may
probably seem childish to people unacquainted with the
English policy, but to the statesman such formalities
have a more important and serious aspect. By these
repeated public declarations England continually aims at
strengthening her claim, and establishing her rights in a
positive fashion, and uses these pretexts to repel, even by
force of arms, all nations who may desire to form settle-
ments in these lands.""*^ Peron must often have recalled
to mind the warning of the President of the Parliament

* The high-handed and exclusive policy of the English is a
frequent topic of complaint in Peron's work. Thus, he relates that
two days after leaving Port Jackson they fell in with a schooner,
on board of which w?is a M. Coxwell from the Isle of France, who
had accompanied another Frenchman, Lecorre, on a sealing cruise
to Bass' Straits in the Enterpinse^ of Bordeaux. He goes on
to explain that while other nations had been indifferent to the
importance of New Holland, England had in 1788 despatched a fleet
thither and founded a Colony, and had, without remark from
European statesmen, taken possession of half the Continent.
Emboldened by the silence of other Governments, the British
Government had published the instructions to Governor Phillip
claiming the country from Cape York to the South Cape flat. 10° to
48" S.), and as far to the West as the 185th parallel, besiaes all the
islands in the Pacific, and had established a policy of exclusion of
other nations from the fisheries. So that on the arrival of the
Enterprise^ Governor King, although peace had been declared,
warned Lecorre ofi' the coast under a threat of seizing his vessel,
and though he finally allowed the Frenchmen to fish at the Two
Sisters, it was only on the condition that he should undertake not
to enter Bass' Straits, and that no vessels in future would be allowed
even so much indulgence. Lecorre's vessel was wrecked at the Two
Sisters, and he himself and two-thirds of his crew perished. Peron
says it is plain that the intentions of the English Government
are so hostile that it will be dangerous for other speculators to
venture into these waters. (Peron^s Voyage, 2nd ed., vol. 3, p. 8.)

Governor King, in a despatch to the Admiralty (9th May, 1803^,
states his intention of restricting seal fishing by foreigners ; and m
another despatch to Lord Hobart, referring to Lecorre's vessel,
remarks witn some satisfaction that the French schooner had been
wrecked at the Cape Barren Islands, *' which may stop more
adventurers from that quarter."

BY JAMES B. WALKER. 117

of Dijon half a century before, and reflected with some
bitterness how amply the prophecy had been fulfilled.

The French Commander's answer to Governor King's
letter is worthy of notice as showing that the French had
by no means relinquished their claim to a share of
Australian territory. His letter is dated from the
Oeographe^ and bears date the 3rd of the month JSivose,
in the 11th year of the French Republic (23rd December,
1802). He tells King that the arrival of the Cumberland^
and espedally the letter which the Governor had done him
the honour to write, would have surprised him iC Mr.
Robbins had not, by his conduct, made clear to him the
true motive of the expedition which had been despatched
afler him in such headlong liaste. " But perhaps," says
the Commodore, "' after all it may have come too late, for
several days before the gentleman who commands it
thought proper to hoist his flag above our tents, we had
taken care to place in four prominent parts of this island —
which I intend shall continue to bear your name — proofs
sufficient to show the priority of our visit." He then
declares that the report — of which they suspected Captain
Anthony Fenn Kemp to have been the author— was
entirely without foundation, and he does not believe that
his officers or scientific men had by their conduct given
any ground for it. " But," he concludes, " in any case,
you ought to have been perfectly certain that if the French
Government had given me orders to establish myself in
any place, either at the nortii or at the south of Diemen's
Land — discovered by Abel Tasman — I should have done
so without keeping it a secret from you.""*

A week after the date of his letter to King (31st
December), Baudin sailed from King's Island for the
Gulf of Carpentaria, and from thence made his way to
Mauritius, where he died. Surveyor-General Grimes and
Flemming spent some six weeks in a thorough exploration
of King's Island.f Their report of the island as a place

* See Appendix B for Baudin' s letter.

t The bland was in those days a favourite resort of sealers.
Peron hays that when they reached Sea Elephant Bay the beacli
was covered with sea elephants, their brown colour making thoni
strikingly visible on the white strand, vhere they lay like great
black r.*cks. At the approach ol* the i'rench soiiio of the aniiniils
planned into tlie sea, roaring irightfully, while others reniaiiud
motionless on the sand gazing on their visitors with a placid and
inditi'erent air. In the same year Captain Campbell, of tlie Sivixc

118 FIRST SETTLEMENT AT DEHWENT.

for settlement was unfavourable. They then proceeded in

the Cumberland to Port Phillip, where they remained six

weeks, Grimes making an accurate survey of ihe Port

both by sea and land, discovering the River Yarra, and

bringing away a more favourable impression of the

King to Hobart country, but, as King says, with no very promising

p.^7ficf^^* hopes that either that place or King's Island would ever

be found an eligible place for an agricultural settlement.

Jie^jng'8 On leaving Port Phillip, Robbins sailed direct for Port

'^* Jackson, where he arrived on 7th March, having been

absent about three months and a half. It does not appear

why he did not fulfil the rest of his instructions and go on

to Storm Bay Passage. Perhaps, having seen the French

ships sail away to the westward and fairly off the English

premises, he conceived the danger to be at an end.

King, at any rate, was perfectly satisfied, and writes to

the Admiralty that Robbins had conducted the service

entrusted to him very much to his satisfaction, and reiuarks

K^g 0 Nepean, that " making the French Commander acquainted with

^' my intention of settling Van Diemen's Land was all I

sought by this voyage."

The fear that the French might yet make a descent on
Van Diemen's Land still weighed on King's mind. As
we have seen, before tlie Cumberland sailed he had
determined to send the Porpoise, on her arrival from
Tahiti, to make a settlement. The return of Robbins
with unfavourable reports of King's Island and Port
Phillip had satisfied him that neither of those places was
adapted for settlement, and he once more fixed his
attention on the point which, now that Baudin had left
Bass' Straits, appeared to be most threatened. He
therefore resolved to limit his action to Storm Bay
Passage, and immediately took steps to carry out his
resolution.
King to Nepean, He reported his intention to the Admiralty, and says in
9May,i803,p.7o. j^jg d^gpatch, '' My reasons for making this settlement are
the necessity there appears of preventing the French
gaining a footing on the east side of these islands; to
divide the convicts ; to secure another place for obtaining
timber with any other natural productions that may be
discovered and found useful ; the advantages that may

Harrington, at New Year's Island, on the western side of King's
Island, in 10 weeks (19th March to 27th May) killed 600 sea
elephants and 4300 seals.

►

BT JAMES B. WALKER. 119

be expected by raising grain ; and to promote the seal
fishery."

There is no doubt that Governor King was in perfect
accord with the Home Government in his apprehension of*
French designs, and in his policy of anticipating them by
occapyin^ important points " for political reasons."*

Already, in January of this very year the Authorities in
Downing-street had determined to form a settlement at
Port Phillip, and had selected Lieut.-Col. David Collins
to be its Lieutenant-Governor, and the date corresponds
with the communications that King had made to the
English Government with respect to Baudin's expedition.

Five months later (24th June, 1803), in consequence of see Memo, of
King's despatch of 23 November, 1802, informing theJJ*^^'^^'
Admiralty of the report that the French were about to
colonise Van Diemen's Land, Lord Hobart instructed the
Gtovemor to remove part of the establishment at Norfolk
Island to Port Dalrymple, " the advantageous position of Hobart to King,
which, upon the southern coast of Van Diemen's Land and pt429f * ^^^^'
near the eastern entrance of Bass' Straits, renders it, in a
political view, pecuUarly necessary that a settlement should
be formed there." The amusing confusion of localities
does not say much for the state of geographical knowledge
at Downing-street, but the anxiety of the Government
to anticirate French action is very clearly indicated.

The Governor's mind was now firmly made up to
establish a colony at the Derwent, but some months were
et to elapse before he could carry out his plans. One of
difficulties had been to find, out of the slender
establishment at Port Jackson, a competent ofHcer to
whom he could entrust the command of the intended
settlement. The arrival of H.M.8. Glaiton at Sydney,
in March, 1803, reUeved him from this embarrassment.
There was on board the Glatton a Lieutenant who had
made several voyages to the colony, and so far back as
1792 had been engaged in conveying cattle and pro-
visions from Bengal to New South Wales in tlie Atlantic
storeship, at a time of great scarcity .+ He was a son of

• See Professor Seeley on Napoleon's intentions in the war that
ensued on the rupture of the Peace of Amiens, 18th May, 1803.
Exp. of England, p. 34.

f So Mr. Bonwick, who gives an extract of a letter from Bowen
to the Under-Secretary of State, dated from the storeship Atlantic^
March 1792; Collins, however, gives the name of the Admiralty
Agent on bo«rd the Atlantic as Richard Bowen. Collins, New
South Wales, i., 174,

yet
his

120 FIRST SETTLEMENT AT DERWENT.

Commissioner Bowen,"^ and we hare King's testimony
that he came of a family various members of which,
including his &ther, had distinguished themselves in the
navy during the French wars. Peace had now been
declared, and Lieut. John Bowen saw little prospect of
King to Hobart, speedy promotion. When, therefore, the Governor spoke
iso^^w^'^' of the difficulty he was in through not being able to find
^jen to King, a man competent to take charge of the Derwent establish-
p. 137. ' ' ment, it occurred to Bowen that here was a chance for
him to earn a claim to notice as the founder of a new
colony, and so possibly win a promotion he could hardly
hope for as a junior lieutenant in time of peace. He
obtained Captain Colnett's permission, and offered his
services to the Governor. King was glad to accept them,
J>^der 28 March, and ou 28th March, 1803, he issued a Commission in
which, after premising that it had become necessary to
establish His Majesty's right to Van Diemen's Land,
within the limits of the territory of New South Wales,
he directed Lieut. John Bowen to proceed in H.M.
armed tender Lady Nelson to choose a suitable place
for an establishment, and appointed him Commandant
Instructions, 28 and Superintendent of the settlement. The more detailed
March, 1803, instructions to the new Commandant, bearing the same
date as the commission, direct him to proceed in H.M.
armed vessel Porpoise, or Lady Nelson tender, with
people and stores for a settlement, and fix on a proper
spot in the Derwent, about Risdon's Cove; to begin
immediately to clear ground and sow wheat and other
cro[)s; and to furnish full reports on the soil, timber,
capabilities, and productions of the country. He was to
have six months' provisions ; was to employ the convicts
in labour for the public good ; to hold religious services
every Sunday; and to enforce a due observance of
religion and good order. No trade or intercourse was to
be allowed with any ships touching at the port. AiTange-
ments were to be made for laying out a town, building
fortifications, and appropriating land for cultivation on
the public account. The free settlers who accompanied
him, in consideration of their being the first to volunteer,
were to have a location of 200 acres for each family, and
be allowed rations, the labour of two convicts each for
18 months, and such corn, seeds, and other stock as could
?803%!9a*King ^® sparcd. Bowen also received sealed orders with

to Collins, .____^_^»^»«_«-____^^_

30 Sept. 1804, "

p. 889. "^ Jorgensen's Shred of Autobiography in Ross' Almanac, 1835.

BY JAMES B. WALKER. 121

respect to any French ships which might arrive ; he was
to inform them of IJis Majesty's right to the whole of Van
Diemen's Land, and was to repel any attempt to form
a settlement, — ^if possible, without recourse to hostile
measures.

Another three months elapsed after Bowen had received
his Commission before King had vessels at his disposal
which he could spare for the service. It was not until the KingtoHoba
30th June, 1803, that at last the Porpoise and Xa<y K^^iJ^piS
Nelson sailed from Port Jackson with the Commandant 29 ^pt.i804,
and people and stores for the Derwent. Yet even then FUnders, u., j
the attempt was destined to be thwarted for a time. Both ^^^\^^
ships were much out of repair and sadly leaky, and on aa to' Porpoia
leaving Port Jackson they met with such strong ^^^d J^^®"' ^•' ^
winds that they were compelled to give up all idea of j^^' 299,
proceeding on their voyage, and put back to the harbour,
arriving on the 4th July. The Porpoise was now required
to take Flinders to England, and after undergoing repairs,
she sailed on 10th August, only to be lost a week after-
wards, in com[)any with the Cato^ on Wreck Reef, to the
north of Rockhampton (Lat. 22° \V 8.). King forth-
with ordered the Colonial vessel Francis to be fitted out to
accompany the Lady Nehon on a second attempt, and
wrote to Lord Hobart that he hoped these ships would King to Hobi
complete the service, which he deemed the more essential p.^Jf* ^^^^'
from the inclination the French had shown to keep up a
correspondence with Port Jackson.

In those days the exigencies of the service compelled
Governors to take whatever offered to aid them in
accomplishing their plans. Many were the missions of
relief or mail despatch that were entrusted to whalers,
or even American sealers, and their remuneration was
sometimes odd enough. Thus, on one occasion Governor
King desired Governor Collins to pay for the despatches
sent to him by a sealing sloop going' to King's Island, by
giving the skipper 30 empty salt-meat casks — surely as
odd a postage as ever was paid. And it must be
admitted that at times the Yankees fleeced the Britishers
handsomely for the humane help they afforded — for a
consideration.

Let us be thankful that it was not a Yankee sealing
schooner that carried the first Governor of Tasmania to
tiie seat of his Government, but a British whaler, which
turned ap at the right moment — ^the Albion^ 326 tons —

122 FIRST SETTLEMENT AT DERWENT.

whose skipper, Captain Ebor Bunker, was afterwards well
known at the Derwent Settlement in early times.*

On the 31st August, 1803, the Albion and Lady Nekon
set sail from Port Jackson. The Lady Nelson took the
bulk of the people and stores. She was a brig of 60 tons
burden, and had been originally sent out in 1800 under
the command of Lieutenant Grant to explore the newly
discovered Bass' Straits. A little while before she bad
been employed as a tender to Flinders' vessel, the
Investigator^ on the survey of the coast within the Great
Barrier Reef. She was commanded by Acting Lieutenant
C. G. Curtoys, and had for Chief OflScer the redoubtable
Dane, Jorgen Jorgensen, the conqueror of Iceland. The
same plan of colonisation with convicts and a few free
settlers that had obtained in the planting of the settlement
at Port Jackson 16 years before, and in settling Norfolk
Island in 1788 by King himself, was followed in this little
KingtoHobart, offshoot from the parent colony. Governor Bowen's Civil
p. 77."'^* ' Establishment consisted of three persons, including himself.
His subordinates were Dr. Jacob MountgaiTet, Surgeon of
the Glatton, as Medical Officer, and Mr. Wilson as Store-
keeper. His military force consisted of one lance corporal
p. 96. and 7 privates of the New South Wales Corps. There

Bowen's retumi, were 21 male and 3 female convicts. Three free settlers
p!m**^^^' accompanied the party — Birt, who took his wife; Clark,
a stonemason ; and another whose name is not given, who
was made overseer of convicts. Three other free persons,
a man and two women, also obtained leave to try their
fortunes in the new settlement. Thus the whole colony
consisted of 49 persons, of whom 13 were women and
children. They took about six months' provisions and
some live stock — viz., 10 head of cattle and about 60
sheep — while the Governor had the only horse, and the
settlers a few goats, pigs, and fowls.
Bowen to King, The Albion and Lady Nelson put to sea on the 31st
30 ^pt. 1803, August; but Governor Bowen was invariably unlucky
at sea, and on the second day of their voyage they
encountered a heavy gale, which obliged the Albion to

* In 1809, when in the ship Venus^ he put into Adventure Bay
and there found a bottle containing the last letters of the unfortunate
La Perouse. And his name is yet perpetuated on a tombstone a
Crayfish Point, near Hobart. which records that under it lies buried
James Batchelor, Second Officer of the ship Venus^ commanded by
£. Bunker, and that he died 28th January, 1810.

BY JAMES B. WALKER. 123

beave-to, and cost them heavy losses among the live
stock. Then it fell calm, for which, however, Captain
Bunker found consolation by catching three sperm whales.
The Albion had a reputation for fast saihng — having made
the passage from Spithead to Port Jackson in the then
unprecedented time of 108 days — but, baffled by hght
un&vourable winds, she did not make Storm Bay until
the tenth day out. Even then she was two days beating
up the river against head winds, so that it was not until
Sunday, the 12th September, 1803, that, passing along
the lonely and thickly wooded banks of the Derwent, the
Albion^ with the first Governor of Tasmania on board,
came to an anchor in Risdon Cove. Here they found the
Zittdy Nelson already lying at anchor, having arrived five
days before, on the 7th September.

I have searched in vain hitherto in printed accounts for
the correct date of Bowen's settlement. The dates given
vary from June to August, but I think we may henceforth
consider it settled, on the authority of official documents,
that the birthday of Tasmania was Tuesday, the 7th day
of September, 1803.

Here I must pause. On a future occasion I hope to be
able to draw further on the store of material which has
been provided by the wise liberality of the Government,
and to give some particulars of the history of Bowens
abortive colony at Risdon, and of Collins' settlement at
Solliyan's Cove.

Appendix A.

BUKMART OF DOCUMENTS COPIED BY Mr. BoNWICK
FOR THE TaSMANIAN GOVERNMENT.

1. British Museum Discovery Papers ; viz. —
Fomeaux, in the Adventure, 1773 ;
Grant, in the Lady Nelson, 1800 ;
Ffinders to Sir J. Banks, 1 802 ; Sealers
in Bass' Straits, 1802; Exploration of
River Huon, 1804 ••••••••••t 69 pages.

134 FRENCH IN VAN DIEMEN'S LAND, &G.

2. Despatches relating to supposed French

designs on Australia ; especially the pro-
ceedings of Baudin's Expedition, and
the measures taken by Governor King
to anticipate the French in forming a
Settlement in Van Diemen's Land,
1802-3 25 pagpes.

3. The Bowen Papers — First Settlement at

Risdon Cove, 1803 .,.. 48 pages*

4. The Collins Papers — Settlement of Hobart

Town, 1804 300 pages.

5. Exploration of Port Dalrymple and River

Tamar — Settlement at York Town

under Colonel Paterson , 1 804 1 24 pages.

6. The Bass Papers ...r 44 pages.

7. Papers on the Aborigines 37 pages.

Appendix B.

Governor King's Letter to Commodore Baudin.

(From the copy in the Record Office, London.)

Sydney y November 23rdf 1802.

Sir,

You will be surprised to see a vessel so soon after you.
You know my intention of sending a vessel to the southward
to fix on a place for a Settlement, but this has been hastened
by a report communicated to me soon after your departure —
"that the French intended to settle in Storm Bay Passage,
somewhere about what is now called Frederick Hendrick Bay,
and that it was recommended by you to the Republic,*' as a
proof of which a chart pointing out the situation (Baye du
Nord) was, as Colonel Paterson informs me, given him a
short time before you sailed by a gentleman of your ship.

You will easily imagine that if any information of that
kind had reached me before your departure I should have
requested an explanation ; but, as I knew nothing of it, and
at present totally disbelieving anything of the kind ever being
thought of, I consider it but proper to give you this informa-
tion. In case the Cumberland should fall in with your ships
the Commander of that vessel has my directions to commu-
nicate to you the orders he is under.

BT JAMES B. WALKER. )05

Myself and family join in the kindest good wishes for yo«r
health, and shall long remember the pleasure we enjoyed in
your society. We request you will offer our good wishes to
Captain Hamelin and all your officers.

I have the honor to be, Sir,

Your most obedient humble Serrant,

PHILIP GIDLEY KING.

To Ckmmedore Baudik, Commander-in-Chief
of the French Expedition of Dis€ove7nes.

Psron's Vehsion of the above Letter.

[••Voyage de D^couvertes aux Terres Australes." 2^ edition.

Tome 3»>% p. 11.]

" Le bruit s'etant repandu — ecrivoit M. King k notre com-
mandant— que voire projet est de laisser quelques hommes,
soit k la terre de J>iemen, soit k la c6te sud-ouest de la
Nouvelle-Galles, pour y jeter les fondemens d'une coloDie
frangoise, je crois devoir vous declarer, monsieur le Com-
mandant, qu'en vertu de I'acte de prise de possession de 1788,
solennellement proclame par TAngleterre, toutes ces contr^es
font partie int^grante de I'empire britannique, et que vous ne
sauriez en occuper aucun point sans briser les liens de Tamitie
qui vient si recemment d'etre r^tablie entre les deux nations.
Je ne chercherai pas m^me a vous dissimuler que telle est la
nature de mes instructions particulieres k cet egard, que je dois
m'opposer, par tons ]es moyens qui sont en mon pouvoir, k
Texecution du projet qu'on vous suppose ; en consequence, le
navire de Sa Majesty le Cumberland a regu Tordre de ne
vous quitter qu'au moment oii I'officier qui le commande
aura le certitude que vos operations sont etrang^res k toute
esp^ce d'envahissement du territoire britannique dans ces
parages . . ."

Commodore Baudin's Reply to Governor King

[From the copy in the Record Office, London.]
/

A Bord de la Corvette le Geographe, Isle King, le
3Tne jVn'(?5«, an 11"«. [23 Decembe?-, 1808.]

Le ^ Commandant en Chef V Expedition de Decouvertes
A Monsieur le Gouveimeur King au Part Jackson.

Monsieur Le Gouverneur,

L'arrivee du Cumberland ra'auroit surpris par le contenu de
la lettre que vous m'avez fait Thonneur de m'ecrire, si Mr.

126 FRENCH IN VAN DIEMEN'b LAND.

Robeu qui le commande n*avoit par sa conduite fait connoitre
le veritable motif pour lequel il a ^t^ si pr^cipitamment
6xp6di6 ; mais peut-«tre est il yenu trop tard^ car, plusieors
jours avant qu'il arbora sur nos tentes son payillon, nous
avions laiss^ dans les quatre points principaux de Flsle k
laquelle je conserve rotre nom des preuves de F^poque ou
nous Tavons visitee.*

L'histoire qu^on vous a fait, et dont on soup^onne Mr.
Kemp, Capitaine Regiment de la Nouvelle-Gralles da Sad,
etre 1 auteur, est sans fbndement. Je ne crois pas non plas
que les officiers et naturaliste qui sont k bord puissent j avoir
donne lieu par leur discours, mais dans tons les cas vous deviez
etre bien persuade que si le Gouvemement fiungois m'avait
donne ordre de m^arreter quelque part au Nord ou au Sad
de la terre de Di6men decouverte par Abel Tasman j'y aurais
reste, et sans vous en faire un secret.

Le dixHsept le Naturaliste a mis k la voile et doit se rendre
droiture en France.

Malgre toutes mes recherches avant le depart il s'est trouve
trois hommes caches k bord du GSographe ; cinq autres 6toient
sur le Naturaliste, et trois sur le batiment Am^ricain la Fanny
dont le mauvais temps nous a s^par^. J'ai, comme nous en
^tions convenus, mis sur Tlsle Kmg les huit hommes qui nous
concernoientjt on leur a donn6 un pen de pain et quelques
vetements ; vous trouverez cy-joint leurs noms ou du moins
ceux quUls ont donnes.

J'ai I'honneur d'etre avec la plus parfaite consideration,

Monsieur Le Gouvemeur,
Votre Serviteur,

N. BAUDIN.

[Mr, Chapmani Colonial Secretaryi certified the foregoing
as a true copy of the original letter.]

* Governor King has written in the margin : — ^^ If Monsieur
Baudin insinuates any claim firom this visit — ^the island was first
discovered in 1798 by Mr. Reed in the Marthay afterwards seen by
Mr. Black in the Harbinger, and surveyed by Mr. Murray in
February, 1802."

t Kinff notes : — ^^ Most of these found means to go on board the
Oiographe before she left the island."

PAPERS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

TASMANIA,
1889.

TASMANIA:
FBINTSD AT " THR MBEC0BY " OFFICE, UACQTTABIE ST., HOBART.

The Kesponsibility of the Statements and
Opinions given in the following Papers and
Discussions rests with the individual Authors;
the Society as a body merely places them on
record.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF TASMANIA-

HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN.

IprejEittient :

HIS EXCELLENCY SIR ROBERT GEORGE CROOKSHANK

HAMILTON, K.C.B.

liter Jrejsibetitjs :

HON. J. W. AGNEW, M.D.

JAMES BARNARD, ESQ.

HIS HONOR SIR WILLIAM LAMBERT DOBSON, Knt., C.J.,
F.L.S.

THOMAS STEPHENS, ESQ., M.A., F.G.S.

Clounctl :

HON. J. W. AGNEW, M.D.

HIS HONOR SIR WILLIAM LAMBERT DOBSON, Knt., C.J.,
F.L.S.

RUSSELL YOUNG, ESQ.

C. H. GRANT, ESQ.

C. T. BELSTEAD, ESQ.

T. STEPHENS, ESQ., M.A, F.G.S.

J. B. WALKER, ESQ.

J. BARNARD, ESQ.

A G. WEBSTER, ESQ.

COL. W. V. LEGGE, R.A.

R. M. JOHNSTON, ESQ., F.L.S.

HON. N. J. BROWN, M.E.C.

Sottoraru jSemtarij:

HON. J. W. AGNEW, M.D.

^ubitor of ittotttl)l8 llccoutttjs :

C. T. BELSTEAD, ESQ.

^ubitorjBi rf llttttual ^ccoutitjBi :

FRANCIS BUTLER, ESQ.
JOHN MACFARLANE, ESQ.

?|ott. Sreajsurer:

C. J. BARCLAY, ESQ.

jSecretaru anb ILtbramtt :

ALEXANDER MORTON, ESQ,, F.L.S.

ROOT MATTERS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC

PROBLEMS.

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.

Average Bate of Wages. At page 25 the average rate is based
upon all kinds of breadwinners'; at page 48 the average
rate is based upon the wages of Tnale adults of about
12 selected occupations.

Definition of Certain Terms Employed.

Wants. This term is used in a double sense throughout the
various chapters : (1) the term is often used in its more
legitimate sense^ viz., appetites^ cravings^ or desires ; (2) the
term, however, is also employed less correctly in the sense
of the thvngSy objects, or desiderata which satisfy cravings.
It is used in the latter sense when such terms as tne
following are used : — " creation of wants," "wants in
exchange," "aggregate of primary wants." "wants essential
to life." "wants essential to comfort, "production of
wants, " struggle for wants," " supply of wants," etc It
is used in the former sense in the following phrases : —
"wants are interminable," "satisfaction of wants,"
"sufficiency for the wants of all," etc. On recon-
sideration it would, perhaps, have been an improvement if
the term vmnts had been restricted to its more legitimate use,
as indicating cravings and desires, or lacks ; and that the
term satisfactions should have been substituted where
the things wanted are concerned.

ERRATA.

Page 6, line 8, For are greatly ... are eryoyed read is

greatly ... is enjoyed.
Page 6, line 16, For satisfaction read satisfactions.
Page 10, line 28, For very read fairly.

Page 15, line 5 from bottom, For satisfaction read satisfactions.
Page 17, line 9, For increase read decrease.
Page 19, line 8, For polemist read athlete.
Page 20, line 28, For the ideal state read the people of the

ideal stata
Page 22, after line 31, For figures given substitute ^?^ = 10'^^

hours.
Page 22, line 37, For per day read per day fully.
Page 23, line 5 from bottom. For £130,000,000 read £1,300.000,000.
Page 25, line 10 from bottom, For ditto read earnings of ditto.
Page 25, line 7 from bottom. For ditto read average wages per

head.
Page 26, line 19, For her purchasing read England's purchasing.
Page 29, line 1, For casual read causal
Page 31, line 4, For them read proprietors of land.
Page 31, line 6, -For thus read this.
Page 31, line 23, For it as a possible ingredient read them as

possible ingredients.
Page 31, line 24, For it no more read they no more.
Page 36, line 32, For variety redd rarity.
Page 64, line 31, For unsoluble read insoluble.

^0ttt^2.

SIRS.

Page
ART. L—The «*Iron Blow" at the Linda Goldfields. By G. Thureau,

f •XjfaO* ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •• ••• t*a ••• ••• ••• ••• vt* X

ART. n. — Od Some Tide Observations at Hobart during February and

March, 1889 (with diagram). By A. Mault 8

ART. III.— On the Encouragement of a More General Interest in

Scientific Pursuits. By Wm. Benson 13

ART. IV.— Notes on the Possible Oscillation of Levels of Land and Sea

in Tasmania during Recent Years. By Capt. Shortt, R.N. ... 18

ART v.— The "Iron Blow" at the Linda Goldfield. ByR. M. Johnston,

Mm • JU« 9^» ••• ••• «•• ••• ••• ••• ••• •■• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• «l J*

ART. YI.— Notes on a Case of Poisoning through Eating a Portion of

the *'Brugmansia." By Dr. Hardy 29

ART. Yn.— Notes on Augora Goat Farming. By James Andrew ... 31

ART. YIIL— Protection of Tasmanian Owls. By Col. W. Y. Legge, R. A. 40

ART IX.— l*rotection of the Cape Barren Goose. By Col. W. Y. Legge,

£w« XL* ••• ••« ••• ••• «•• ••• ••• ■•• ••• ••• ••• ••« ••• ••• *X

ART. X.— A Preliminary Critique of the Terra Australii legend. By

J. R. McClymont, M.A 43

ART. XI.— Macquarie Harbour Leaf Beds. ByR. M. Johnston, F.L.S. 53

ART. XII— Foraminifera in Upper Palseozoic Rocks. By T. Stephens,

f • VJI • lO» ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •«• ^^m

ART. XIII. Australian and Tasmanian Sandarach. By J. H. Maiden,

f aJIJvK)*! f AVXaO***! ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• OO

ART. XIY.— Notes on the Last Living Aboriginal of Tasmania. By

James j5arnaTci ... ou

ART. XY. — The English at the Derwent and the Bisdon Settlement

(Diagrams). By J. B. Walker 65

ART. XYL— Smut in Wheat. By T. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S 94

ART. XYIL— Smut in Wheat. By Francis Abbott 95

ART, XYIII.— A New Dark-field Micrometer for Double • star Measure*

ment (Diagrams). By A. B. Biggs 98

ART. XIX. — Notes on the Discovery of a Ganoid Fish in the Enocklofty
Sandstones, Hobart. By Messrs. R. M. Johnston and A.
Morton (Two Plates) 102

ART. XX. — Observations of Comet of July and August, 1889, taken at
Launceston, Tasmania, Lat. 41° 26' 0" ; Long. 9° 48' 31". By.

^^« J[3« •DIkKB •■■ ••• at* ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• t*« ••• ••• XvtJ

ART. XXI. —Recent Measures of "a Centauri." By A. B. Biggs ... 106

ART. XXII. — Notes on Charts of the Coast of Tasmania, obtained
from the Hydrographical Department, Paris, and Copied by
permission of the French Government (Four Charts). By A.

Jf^CTVH V ,.a •«• ••• ••• *•• ••• ••» ••• •#• •#• ••• ••• ••• ••• A\3%

Page
ABT. XXni.— The Detention of Flinders at the MaoritiuB. By A.

xmmx w • # # t*« ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• t** ••• ••• ••• ••* ••• x^x

ART. XXIV.— Observationa regarding Pjrramid Numbera (Diagrams).

By B. M. Johnston} F.L.S. ... .* 125

ART. XXY.— Note on the Australian Curlew and its Closely Allied

Congeners. By Col. W. Y. Legge, R.A 133

ART. XXVI.— Additions to the List of Tasmanian Fossils of Upper

Palseozic Age (I^te). By R. M. Johnston, F.L.S 137

ART. XXVII.— Root Matters in Social and Economic Problems. By

R. M. Johnston, F.L.S 143

ART. XXVIII.— The Expedition under Lieut..Govemor CoIUds in

1803-4. By J. B. Walker 205

ART. XXIX.— The Founding of Hobait by Lieut. -Governor Collins.

j5y V . j3. *v aLKer ... •«. ... .•• .•• ... ... ... •.. *•« ... £iuo

ART. XXX. — Notes on a Grub found Infecting the Orchards of Hobart,
with a few Remarks on the Subject of Insect Pests generally.
By A. Morton, F.L.S 249

ART. XXXI.— The President's Address. By His Excellency Sir Robert

Hamilton, Iv.C/.B «0a

Proceedings \ i to xxxviii

ROYAL SOCIETY.

APRIL, 1889.

A meeting of the Royal Society of Tasmania was held at the
Tasmanian Museum on April 16th. The President, His Excellency Sir
Robt. G. C. Hamilton, K.C.B., presided, and there was a large
attendance of Fellows and ladies, including Lady Hamilton.

The secretary laid en the table the following additions to the
library : —

Annual Report of the Curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology
at Howard College for 1887-8. — From the Department.

Boletem da Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa, 7a serie. No. 9,
10. — From the Society.

Bolelin Meusual, Mexico. Tomo 1. Nos. 8 to 10. — From the
Department.

&llettino della Societa Geographica Italiana, Serie III., Vol. 1,
Fase IX. XII.— From the Society.

Bulletin de la Soci^t^ Imp^riale des Naturalistes de Moscow, No. 3,
Moscow. — From the Department.

Bulletin de la Soci^t^ D'Ethnographle, Paris. — From the Society.

Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Howard College,
whole series vol. XVI , Nos. 2 and 3, ** On the geology of the Cambrian,
District of Bristol, County Mass. By JN. S. Shaler.

" Fossil Plants collected at Golden, Colorado." By Leo Lesquerliex.

Bulletin de laSoci^t^ Acad^mique IndoChinoise de France. Deuxi^me
S^rie — Tome Deuxieme. — From the Society.

Descriptive Catalof^e of the Sponges in the Australian Museum ^
Sydney. By K. Von Lendenfeld, P L. D. — From the Trustees.

Flora of Bricish India, The. By Sir J. D. Hooker, C.B. Part XV.—
From the Department.

Indian Meteorological Memoirs. Vol. TIL, parts III., IV.; Vol.
IV., part 5. — From the Department.

Journal of the Koyal Microscopical Society. Current numbers. —
From the Society.

Key to the system of Victorian Plants, Dichotomous arrangaments
of the orders, genera and species of the native plants, with annotations
of primary distinctions and supporting characteristics. Parts 1 and 2,
1887-8. By Baron Mueller.— From the Author.

Meteorologische Bebbachtunjen, Moscow. — From the Department.

Meteorological Report of New Zealand for 1885. — From the Depart-
ment.

The Mineral Wealth of Queensland. By R. L. Jack, F.G.S.— From
the author.

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Current
Kumbers. — From the Society.

Monthly Weather Report, Canada. — From the Department.

Vol. XVn., No. 2, on the lateral canal system of the Selachia and
Holoephold. By Samuel Green. — From the Department.

Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, October 1888. —
From the Society.

Pfoceedincs of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, vol. in.>
ffa% 3rd.— From the Society.

U PBOCEEDINaS, APBIL.

Prodromns of the Zoology of Victoria, Decade XVli. By Prof. F.
McCoy, C.M.G. — From the Department.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Qaeensland, 1887, vol. IV.;
1888, vols. nT. IV. v.— From the Society.

Psyche, a journal of Entomology, vol. 5, Nob. 149 to 153. — From the
Society.

Report of the Mount Morgan gold deposits, Queensland, 1889. By
R. L. Jack, Government Geologist. — From the Author.

Scottish Geographical Magazine. Current l^umbers. — From the
Department.

Select Extra-Tropical Plants, readily eligible for Industrial Culture or
Naturalisation, with indications of their native countries,, and some of
their uses. By Baron F. Von MUeller. From the Author.

Systematic Account of the Geology of Tasmania. By R. M. Johnston,
F.L.S. — From the Government.

Tabular list of all the Australian birds at present known to the
author, showing the dbtribution of the species over the continent of
Australia and adjacent islands. By E. P. Ramsay, LL.D., etc. — ^From
the Trustees Australian Museum.

Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan. VoL X.V.I., Part
II. — From the Society.

Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of
Australasia (Victorian Branch). Part II., Vol. VI. — From the ISociety.

Verbandluogen des naturhistorischen, Vereines des preu&sischen
Rheinlande, Westfalens und des Reg. Bezirks OsnabiUck. — From the
Society.

Verhanalungen der Gesellschaft Filr, Erdkunde Band, XV., Noa. 7, 8,
10. From the Society, Berlin.

Victorian Year Book for 1887-8. — From the Government Statist.

His Excellency stated that there were two interesting papers to be
read, and a number of equally interesting ones were promised durioe
the session. Many of the subjects brought forward did not lend
themselves readily to discussion, but he would like to see the Fellows
of the Society intimate with any subject laid before them to give them
the benefit of their opinions. This would make their meetings more
lively and interesting, and also gave an opportunity to those who had
read papers to correct any misunderstandings or wrong impressions
that may have arisen from the reading of those papers. He trusted,
therefore, that they would have freer and fuller discussions than they
had had during previous sessions.

PAPERS.

THE "lEON blow" AT THE LINDA GOLDFIELD.

Mr. Alex. Morton, F.L.S., read a paper by Mr. Gustav Thurean,
F.G.S., on "The * Iron Blow 'at the Linda Goldfield." In it the writer
gave his opinion that this unique gold formation was due to volcanic
agency, and not as Mr. R. M. Johnston contended, to local decom-
position, especially as far as^ the dark-coloured and pulverulent masses
are concerned. Decomposition, he believed, was a chemical process by
which the destruction of one or more substances leads to the su ostitution
and depositing of quite different matters, thereby bringing about the
re-3rrangement of the former original substances in quite different forms.
The analyses of Mr. Ward conclusively proved the almost total absence
of gold in the pyrites veins or beds, which are very dense and
excessively solid, and which have undoubtedly resisted both decom-
position and dissolution for ages, therefore he asked how it was possible
that these almost non-auriferous vein bi-sulphides produced on their
supposed (inert) decomposition that peculiar purple mineral, assayingy

PROCEEDINGS, APRIL. ill

•M reported, considerably above 170oz. of gold to the ton. Again, those
Tery solid pyrites contain no barytes, which latter minerals he first
"discovered as the necessary adjunct to the gold. Supposing, however,
as Bir. Johnston had stated, that the "Iron Blow is the result of
oxidation of pyrites similar to that now so largely associated with it,"
it would be necessary to bear in mind that as proved from analysis they
had first to deal with a nearly non-auriferous bi sulphide of iron, con-
taining no baryta to speak of, and, secondly, that water is assumed
to have produced the rich pulverulent gold rock by means of the
decomposition of the former, and contemporaneously or subsequently
by means of infiltration filled the fi&sure, and that small disseminated
particles of baryta appeared either before or during the process of
oxidation. In his (Mr. Thureau's) opinion everything points to a more
drastic process of origination than simple and quiescent decomposition,
-and to him it becomes clear to the close and careful observer of these
unique gold deposits in situ that dynamical geology can alone account
for these strictly speaking volcanic products. Having had opportunities
for examining active " mad volcanoes " in the United States, and as the
process observable there in active progress assimilates a great deal
to what can be seen in its " dead state " at the *' Iron Blow " of baryta
is substituted for silica, as matrix in the Utter case, the question of
origin as to both metalliferous deposits is not only in his opiniou, very
suggestive, but forms the only possible true solution of the case.

In consequence of the absence of Messrs. Johnston and Ward it was
decided to postpone discussion until next meeting.

TIDE OBSERVATIONS AT HOBART.

Mr. A. Mault read a paper on "Some tide observatioDs taken at
Hobart during February and March, 1889," in which he stated that with
-a wish, firstly, to obtain information connected with the drainage of
Hobart, and, secondly, to fix the mean sea level for geodetic and
engineering matters to get a series of tidal observations, he had arranged
with Captun Oldham, of H.M.S. Egeria, that observations be taken
at the New Wharf by the automatic tide gauge belonging to that boat,
and the result briefly was as follows: — 1. The tides are subject to a
large diurnal inequality, the highest high water being followed by the
lowest low water. The tide then rises to a lesser high water and falls
to a lesser low water. 2. With the moon's declination north the higher
high water follows the superior transit of the moon; with the moon's
-declination south the higher high water succeeds the inferior transit. 3.
The greatest range of tide appears to occur about two days after the
moon has reached its greatest north or south declination : the least
range when the declination is zero. 4. H.W.F. and C. occurs at
HoSart at 8h. 15m. Springs rise 3|ft. to 4ift. and 2ft., neaps 2ift. In
the letter to him from Captain Oldham the following words occur : —
*' From these observations the mean tide level is 8ft. 2'7in. on the gauge
•or 35*255ft. below the datum mark on the Town Hall." In the letter it
was also stated that, as these observations were only for one month
and as probably the mean tide level vaiies at different seasons, to get a
•4Mtisfactory result a year's observation shouid be obtained." He (Mr.
•Mault) was glad to say that the Hobart Marine Board were obtMning
an automatic gauge, so that the observation could be continued. For
the purpose of more readily comprehending the information contained in
those observations, he had prepared diagrams showing the occurrence of
aprings at greatest declination, and oot at new and full moon, and that
there is no **age of the tide" at Hobart, Diagrams were also
-appended, showing, for comparison, a fortnight's tide curves at Hobart,
^Md afortBight*s at Bombay, and another representing a normal curve of
luitldid -intervalf. The IrregularitieB which appeared by these

iv PBOCISEDINQS, APRIL.

diagramB showed that no time of high water on the day of new or loll
moon conld be fixed, althouffh Captain Oldham mentiona 8h. ISmin.
He pressed on the Society the need of co-operating with the Marine-
Board in the taking of observations. The force and direction of the
wind also had an influence that must be noted. The highest tides
occarred with the wind blowing from north and north-easterly points^
The barometer also shoald be noted, as a fall of lin. in the barometer
meant a rise of 20in. in the sea level. He also suggested that the
Marine Board be asked to get their lighthousekeepers to keep a
register of the high and low water times.

A DESIKABLE CHANGE.

Mr. W. Benson read a paper in which he pointed out that the work
of the Society had and was rendering practical and substantial benefita
to the colony at large, but was of opinion that it might be made
of still greater interest and value. There were two classes amongst
the memoers, first savants or specialists, and secondly those who had
not thoroughly studied any special subject. So far as the meetings of
the Society were intended for the interchange of notes upon new dis-
coveries, the reading of papers prepared by savants ana specialists
was natural and proper, though he doubted whether those who
merely heard them read could gain as full a knowledge of their con-
tents as they could by studying them in the Society's printed proceed-
ings. Opportunities for self-instruction in all local branches of science —
local geology, botany, natural history, and the like — were very few
compared with what had been provided for English students. Here
text books hardly existed, and English works were in many cases unsuit-
able. He would therefore ask the Society to consider whether means
could not be devised for affording icstrnction of a more elementary
and general kind, and he did not know of any other organisation so
well qualified to do the work. He wished the rising generation to
become more interested in the physical history of their native land,
its fauna, flora, and so forth. The taste for such studies when once
acquired rarely left a man, and developed afterwards along the lines
of his peculiar preference, and thus the whole field of scientific enquiry
became gradually occupied. He proposed for consideration the desir-
ability of initiating courses of popular lectures on scientific subjects,
under the auspices of the Society, not restricted to members, but open
to all. He would like to see the Museum made use of on all occasionb
where its cabinets could be used as illustrations. Another thing which
might be attempted in connection with the Society, was the forma-
tion of a Field Naturalists' Club. One other matter which might
well interest the Society was the introduction of local science primers
for school use. His chief desire was to supplement rather than subvert
the work of the Society. For years science stood apart, its afi^irs were
assumed to be above the popular understanding, but that had all
been changed, and in Huxley, Tyndall, and many others they saw
men of the highest scientific rank taking the lead in bringing their
chosen studies home to the minds of the masses ; consequently the
Society need not fear that anything it might do would be infra dig.
He hoped the love of science for its own sake would suffice to
induce one or more of their savants to lecture, and permit the ex-
periment to be tried. If the Council of the Society could keep an
open eye for any opportunity that might arise tu interest the public,
and especially the young, he had faith that good results would follow.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

The Secbetaby drew attention to a rare bird that had lately been
ahot near Muddy Plains. It was commonly known in Au9tndia as the

PROCEEDINGS, APRIL. V

*' nankeen kestrel," TinnunctdtM dnhceroidea, Mr. Morton stated
^at it was a singular coincidence that in April 1875, two specimens
now in the Museum, were shot at Sorell. On dissection the bird now
exhibited proved to be a female. The habitat of this bird, as recorded
in Br. Bamsay's list, was N.W. Australia, Queensland, and Victoria.

Another specimen, '* the golden plover," Charadrius fulvus, shot at
the Great Lake by Mr. T. Clarke, as also a grebe, Podiceps Auatratis^
shot by the same gentleman, was shown, having been shot at the
Great Lake.

The Seobetaby also drew attention to a valuable collection of
minerals from the great Broken Hill Mine that had been kindly pre-
sented to the Museum by Mr. F. Back, Generid Manager Tasmanian
Government Railways.

Mr. J. B. McClymont, M.A., stated he had much pleasure in placing
<m record a new bird to the lists of birds at Tasman's Peninsula, the
brown quail, Synoicus AustrcUis, He also exhibited a specimen of
native bread, with a peculiar fungus growing from the bread.

▼1 PBOCEEDINOS, ICAT.

MAY, 1889.

The monthly evening meeting was held on May 14th. The Presideikt, His-
Excellency Sir Robert G. C. Hamilton, K.C.B., presided.

Mr. R. Price- Wniiama was iatroduced as a visitor.

OSCILLATION OF LAND AND SEA LEVELS.

Captain Shortt, B.N., read > paper on "The possible osoillatioii
of levels of land and sea in Tasmania daring recent years.*' He referred
to the earth tremors experienced during the years of 1883-86, prior
to the Tarawera eruption, in this and adjacent colonies, and these
phenomena being knovrn to often be associated with local changes of
sea and land, he was led to form the opinion that it was of great
importance that it should be ascertained whether recent changes
could be traced along the coast line of this island. Great difficulty
naturally arose owing to the fact that with but one isolated exception
no definitely fixed marks were in existence. This exception was a
tide mark taking the form of a broad arrow on the Isle of the Dead,.
situate off Point Puer, Port Arthur. This mark was cut in the rock by
Mr. Lempriere. He had made efforts to discover further records relating,
to Mr. Lempriere*8 observations, having applied to Mr. Wharton, Hydro-
grapher of the Admiralty, but without success. By observations made in
February of last year, it was apparent that there had been no practical
alteration of the levels of sea and land during the past 47 years. This,
however, only bore reference of a reliable character in so far as the
southern portion of the island is concerned. Regarding the northern
portion no reliable data existed, but it was interesting to note that
Captain Miles had learned from the half-castes of the Fumeaux Group
that they had noticed an apparent decrease of depth of water over
certain well-known rocks during recent years. He had taken steps to
fix a tide mark on Flinders Island, permitting of observations being
made in future, and urged the necessity of making such marks on
various parts of the coast line of the colony.

CONGRATULATORY.

Mr. Barnard desired, on behalf of the Royal Society, of which he
was one of the oldest vice-presidents, to thank His Excellency for
the part taken by him in that afternoon's proceedings relative to
the new wing now added to the Museum building. He referred to the
small beginnings in the matter of a museum first taken up by the
Tasmanian Scientific Institution, of which Institution only two members
— Dr. Agnew and himself — now remained alive. They then had an
exhibition of specimens in a room in Macquarie-street without any
attempt at classification. He congratulated tlie Royal Society on the
progress made, and also the Museum Trustees on the fine addition
to their building, for despite the fact that there were some persons
who regarded the Museum and Royal Society as separate institutions, he
could not in his mind separate them, for they had one object, the
advancement and increase of knowledge. He also referred in con-
gratulatory terms respecting the movement in the direction of an art
gallery.

PAPERS.

THE ENGLISH AT THE DERWENT AND THE RISDON SETTLEMENT.

Mr. J. B. Walker read a paper on this subject. He referred to a
paper read by him last November on French visits to this colony and

PBOCEEDINGS, MAY. YU

their Bupposed design of .oolonisine it, and stated that the present
paper would follow the coaise of English discoveries in Soathem
TWabania. The English discoverer of the Derwent was Lieut. John
Hayet, of the Hon. East India Go.'s Service. In those days the East
India Co. olatmed a monopoly of the trade, not only \»ith India and
China, but with the whole of the Pacific and New Holland. So late
as 1806 the company successfully resisted the landing and sale in
England of a cargo of oil and seal skins shipped by a Sydney firm, the
ground being that . it was infringement of their monopoly. Hayes'
expedition was the only one ever sent by the company to assist in Aus-
tnuian discovery. Hayes was i^orant of D*Entrecasteaux's surveys,
mnd when he came up the river in 1794 he thought it was an original
dlfloOTery, and named it the Derwent. He also named Mount Direction,
Prince of Wales Bay, Cornelian Bay, Bisdon Cove, and other places.
The vessel carrying Hayes' charts and papers to England was captured
hy the French and all his journals taken to Paris, and the result of his
Yoyage was lost. The next visitors to the Derwent were Flinders and
BasSy in the Norfolk. They circumnavigated Tasmania for the first
time and surveyed the Derwent. Bass gave a favourable description of
tiie country on the shores of that river, and was particularly struck with
tiie advantages of Bisdon. It was probably owing to his report that
Governor King instructed Lt. Bowen to form his settlement there.
The paper then proceeded to give the history of the Bisdon settlement,
principuly f rom information contained in documents preserved in the
Iteglish State Becord Office, and which were lately copied by Mr. Jas.
Bonwiok for the Tasmanian Government. The first settlement in
Tasmania was made on September 12, 1S03, on the hill near Bisdon,
on which the house of the late Mr. T. G. Gregson stands, a most
unsuitable site, as it afterwards proved. From the very commencement
Bowen had great trouble wiih his people, the prisoners being of a very
had dass, l£^, useless, and ill-behaved. The few soldiers who formed
his guard were discontented and almost mutinous. A few weeks after
Bowen's arrival a reinforcement of prisoners and soldiers was sent from
Sydney, making the number up to about 100, but the new arrivals
proved no better than the first. Very little in the way of progress was
accomplished, and when Governor Collins arrived in February, 1804, he
found no ground had been prepared for sowing. Prisoners escaped from
the colony, and the soldiers robbed the stores. In February, 1804,
€U>vemor Collins abandoned the proposed settlement at Port Phillip^
and brought his colony to the JDerwent. He abandoned Bisdon as
unsuitable, and chose the present site of Hobart. for his new town.
Bowen was at the time absent in Sydney, whither he had taken a soldier
to be tried for robbery. When he returned he found Collins in
command at the new settlement in Sullivan's Cove. The little party
at Bisdon were in a sad condition, short of food, and altogether
demoralised. Lt. Bowen was still left in charge of the Bisdon colony,
and on May 3, 1804, the first affray took place between the English and
the aborigines at Bisdon. The cause of this unfortunate occurrence was
the arrival of 200 or 300 natives who had come to hunt kangaroo. They
did not attack the settlers, but their appearance created a panic, which
leanlted in the soldiers firing upon the blacks, killing a number
variously estimated at from three to 50. This was the beginning of
the troubles with the natives which lasted for nearly 30 years, and
ended in the almost complete destruction of the native race, and the
removal of the renmant to Flinders Island, In May 1804 the Bisdon
settlement was abandoned, and all the soldiers and the prisoners
oomprising it, except about a dozen were sent back to Sydney in the
month of August. Lieut. Bowen's pay for 14 months governorship was
lOOgns. He returned to England, and as captain of an English man-of-
war, served during the later years of the French war, dying in 1828.

Tlil PBOCEEDINGS, ICAY.

OPINIONS OF A YISITOB.

Mr. Price- WiLLiAics expressed the deep interest he had felt in the
papers read that evening. He was of opinion that the snggestioa
respecting the recording of the earth's changes and the relative levels of
the earth and sea should be given efifeot to in all purts. It was hiehly
gratifying to find to what extent the scientific efforts were carried m
tills colony.

THE ntON BLOW AT THE LINDA OOLDFDU)

Mr. B. M. Johnston read a paper on this subject, in which he set
forth that the differences of opinion as between himself and Mr* Thnrean,
fortunately, were not of a serious nature, and, according to Mr. Thurean's
recent explanation, he perceived they were more due to the confused
way in which descriptive terms were employed than to any real
differences of opinion. The question between them had been altogether
misconceived by Mr. Thureau. If Mr.Thureau had discussed the Iron
Blow question without confusing these two fundamental considerationB
it would have placed the issues between them in a very small compasr .
In the course of the paper he contended that the fissure at the Linda was
originally caused by the same dynamic forces which caused the tUting^
foldiug, and metamorphoses of the crystalline rocks, and that these
mighty effects were primarily caused by the gravitation of the outer crust
towards the shrinking and cooling central mass of the earth. Mr.
Tbureau*s reply firmly established ms opinion " That the four principal
elements — iron, barytes, sulphur, and gold — were originally precipitated
from solution." That both decomposition and recomposition in mineral
veins are among the most common of all occurrences and cannot
reasonably be disputed ; and finally that true mud volctknoee differ
widely in characteristics from the phenomena associated with the
Linda Iron Blow, and neither in their mode of appearance, nor in their
characteristic contents, show the slightest correspondence with the
metalliferous fissure lodes of the Lioda district. Further discussion
was postponed till the June meeting.

COMPLIMENTABY.

Votes of thanks to the writers of papers, dosed the proceedings.

PBOCBE0tNGS, J17NE. IZ

JUNE, 1889.

The monthly evening meeting was held on June lith. The President,
His Excellency Sir Robt. G. C. Hamilton, K.C.B., in the chair.

NEW MEMBERS.

The foUowins gentlemen were balloted for, and declared elected
«■ Fellows : — Messrs. H. Herbert Oakley, Chas. E. VValch, Howard
Wright, John Mitchell, and Geo. Lightly.

LABGE AUSTBALIAN TREES.

The Secretary (Mr. A. Morton) read the following letter, under
date 2uth ult., received trom the Hon. F. Stanley Dobson, Mel-
bourne:—

My Dear Sir, — Instigated by Oliver Wendell Holmes, I have been
trying to get ascertained the actual height of our tallest gum trees.
Baron von MUller in his *< Botanic Teachings'' speaks of 500ft. ! Li
our recent Exhibition was the photo of the butt of a tree called
" The Baron," which was stated, as per note thereto anuexed, to be
464ft. measured. I gravely doubted this, and I arranged with the Hon.
Jaa. Mnnro, who was appointed with myself to control and appro-
priate the expenditure of £100 from the trustees of the Public Library ;
£100 from the Commissioners of the recent Exhibition, and any further
earn np to £800 that might be necessary from our Lands department —
to have this specially-named tree measured and photoed. Mr. Munro
advertised a reward of £100 from his own pocket for any one who
would point out to a licensed Government Surveyor a tree reaching
400ft. Mr. Munro and I obtained through the Hon. Mr. Dow, Minister
of Lands, reports from the surveyors in his department as to any
exseptionally large trees within their knowledge. The highest turned
out to be a tree near Ueerim, in Gippsland, which reached (I am
speaking from memory) 325ft., at any rate it was the largest that our
surveyors and photographers could get at. "The Baron" was known
only to a Mr. Boyle, and to a photographer, Mr. Carie, the gentleman
whose photo of the butt appeared in our Exhibition. Mr. Carie
would not say where it was, so 1 wrote to Mr. Boyle, and he consented
to ffuide anyone whom I choose to send to the tree. I saw Mr. Perrin
and Mr. Dow, and it was arranged that Mr. Perrin and Mr. Fuller,
a €k>vemment surveyor, should arrange to go with Mr. Boyle to the
sjpot. They went, and when Mr. Perrin saw that the trees on the
Sassafras Valley were very tall, he set four men to work to clear
the scrub and undergrowth away, so as to allow both a theodolite
and a camera to work on '* The Baron," and to other trees in the neigh-
bourhood. Allowing time for the clearing, he returned with surveyor
and photographer, and we now find that the *< Baron" instead of
being 464ft. is only 219ft. 9in. No tree in the neighbourhood reached
9C0ft. Now, I believe that your Tasmanian trees beat ours, and as
I am most anxious to set the matter finally at rest, I am writing to

rn and through you to the members of the Royal Society to get, if
can, verified statements of the height of Tasmanian trees. I
remember that Sir William Denison measured some trees near the
Huon, and in one of the Tasmanian Exhibitions the printed catalogue,
unless my memory fails me sadly, was contained his measurement
of the tree, and a further statement of the number of 8ft. and
({ft. palinffs, the number of shingles and laths cut out of it, and the
vAoe which this timber realised in the Melbourne market— something
nke £250, as our first goldfield rush was then at its height, say.

X PBOCEEDiDrGS, JUNE.

1853 or 1854. Sir William's tree reached, I think dimly, 290ft.
before a branch was given off and then ran up some 50ft. or 60ft.
more. Now, I want to ask you to turn up this record and to let me
know the results. Yon must have other records of big trees — some
which were cut down by the convicts near Port Arthur must, I believe,
have exceeded any record I have seen, and probably none remains.
This is a matter of Australian interest, aud 1 feel sure that your
Society will aid us now that we are tr^ring — with sufficient funds at
our back — to fiud out the height of the tallest gum-tree in Victoria. It
is humiliating to have to give up the idea of the 500ft. tree of which
the Baron V . Muller wrote, but the close investigation now going on
will serve to give us data from actual measurement, and not from the
excited fancy of bush explorers. If you can assist me in this matter I
shall be very grateful.

Mr. Swan stated that the late Anthony Trollope had expressed the
opinion that the Victorian trees equalled in height those of America.
His own personal observations had, however, been only in regard to
girth measurement.

Colonel Leoge, R.A., expressed the opinion that it would be well if
the Government would assist in the matter of obtainiug reliable infor-
mation as to the height of their forest trees. Doubtless great misap-
prehension existed on this subject. Personally he had never seen any
trees which exceeded 250ft. in height.

Mr. C. H. Grant exprsssed the opinion that the Maraposa and
Calaveras trees were larger than those of these colonies.

Mr. Madlt explained the method in which the height of trees might
be easily ascertsiined. He thought the maximum height brought
under his notice was about 283ft.

PAPERS.

anooba goat fabming.

Mr. James Andrew read a paper on this subject which had not come
under the notice of the Society since 1874, when an effort was made to
stimulate popular interest in f&vour of a trial in this colony of a descrip-
tion of stock-farming, elsewhere found so profitable. This, however,
has proved ineffectual, and it was a regrettable matter that mohair
(the fleece of the Angora goat) was absent from the list of our exports.
In Asia Minor, the natural habitat of the Angora goat, the present
value of hair exported from the province amounted to £200,000 per
annum. Col. Henderson was the first introducer of the goat in the
Cape Colony, aijd from an export of l,0861bs. in 1862 up to 1887 the
trade had grown to 7,154,000, of a value of £268,500, a fall of Id. per
lb. on the preceding year's clip. An additional item of export was the
skins, valued at £100,000, and even these figures failed to represent
the total value of the products of this useful animal, for the flesh of
the wether had been proved to be an excellent article of food. Latest
returns from the Cape showed the number of Angora goats in the
colony to be two and a half millions. Mr. Scott, Minister to Turkey
in 1848, was the introducer of the goat into America, but the industry
had not equalled the South African. As an evidence of the market
which existed for the fleeces he quoted from the Tariff Commission
of the United States, in which it was stated that — '* The supply pro-
duced in the States, if multiplied threefold, would not be sufficient
to furnish material for the plushes now used in the railway cars of that
country alone." The history of the endeavour to establish the industry
in Victoria had not been very satisfactory. It was feasible to cross with
the common goat the fleece of the fourth generation, pure sires being
nsed being equal for market purposes to that of the pure-bred ; 5lbs.
might be taken as a fair average of a well-kept grade flock shorn

PBOOEEDINGS, JUNB. XI

ODee a year. Any staple of over din. in length would suffice for
maanlactaring purposes. Shearing in South Africa was usually
oondacted in a somewhat slovenly manner, and sorting but inefficiently
carried ont. Some trouble arose at kidding time, owing to the
helplessness of the young, and the want of strong maternal instinct on
the part of the dams. The trouble and expense of managing the
flodc wonld be less than in the case of uheep, goats being the more
iiitelUg«nt, and less liable to destruction by dogs. Their attachment
to home enabled dependence to be placed on their return at night.
Their introduction would not encroach on the pasturage available for
flheep ; indeed, the reverse, for Angoras had been found to be excellent
pioneers in clearing up new country for sheep and cattle, and
were positively a benefit to other stock, especially sheep. An immense
amount of land now valueless could be utilised for good farming, and an
Important fact was that they did not appear subject to dietetic influences
each as were sheep, and appeared to suffer no inconvenience from
heing depastured on country where plants abound which, when eaten
by aheep, prove fatal. The climate of Tasmania and Australia had
Men proved to be peculiarly suitable for goat farming. Islands were
specially adapted for farming goats, and one he could recommend for
tentative occupation was West Hunter Island, to the north- west of
Tasmania, in Bass Straits, obtainable on a 14 years' lease from the
Crown for £20 per annum, and which was unsuitable for sheep-
iarminff, as the poisonous tare — lobelia — of King's Island abounded, and
mvariably proved fatal. If it was found that the goat enjoyed immunity
from the evil effects of the plant an illimitable scope for goat-farming
was opened up on the unstocked islands of the Straits. The stocks
i^golations at present in force prevented the importation of goats from
any place outside Australasia, but prize-bred Angoras could be obtained
hi neighbouring colonies where small flocks are maintained. He had
made enquiries to ascertain particulars of the Angora goats still re-
maining m the colony, but these had proved unsuccessful. Possibly the
non-success of previous attempts at goat-farming here might be attri-
boted to the fact that the goats had been kept on an open gra^s country,
clearly a mistaken policy : rough, mountainous, and scrubby country
being for more suitable.

Mr. Justice Adams pointed out that between Latrobe and Ulver-
stone there was a considerable flock of Angora goats in existence. He
coald not say if they were pure breds. He estimated the flock to
namber between 50 and 60 anin^als. He had also seen another flock
of these goats, but could not call to mind the exact locality.

Mr. James Babnabd confirmed what had been mentioned by Mr.
Jnstice Adams. The flock was owned by Mr. James Smith, of
Westwood.

Mr. A. J. Taylor suggested that the secretary should communicate
with Mr. Smith for the purpose of obtaining information on the
anhject.

CHILD POISONING BY EATING THE TRUMPET LILY.

Br. Hardy read a paper describing a recent case of poisoning
occasioned by a child eating a portion of the common trumpet flower —
Brugmansia sp. The plant he pointed out was allied to the Solanacia
hunily, known to be poisonous. He treated the case in queption
witii success, but concluded the paper by directing attention to the
derirableness of an investigation of the qualities of Australasian flora
from a medicinal point of view, respecting which at the present moment
bnt little is known. He had little doubt that if this was done the result
wonld be the discovery of remedies for diseases which might be classi-
fied as having become peculiarly localised — as for instance typhoid
fever and cancer.

211 PBOCEEDIKGS, JUNE.

Mr. Ward supported the saggestion contained in the conclading
portion of the paper. He purposed making an examination of the
plant which had been eaten by the child treated by Dr. Hardy.

THE IBON BLOW : LINDA GOLDFIBLD.

Mr. Wabd, in continuation of the discussion already opened, in which
he maintained that the composition of the Iron Blow completely showed
that they were not of volcanic origin, as such materials were seldom
found in masses such as in the present instance. This, with the
exception of specular iron which is occasionally of volcanic origin. He
laid particular stress upon the presence in all of them of peroxide of
iron and pyrites, from which, he asserted, was derived the large
proportion of sulphate of Barium. He also contended that Mr. Thurean
was incorrect in contending that the presence of gold in small quantities
was to be taken as evidence of volcanic origin.

Mr. A. J. Taylor produced specimens obtained from the Iron
Blow, and pointed out that he considered the papers read by Messrs.
Ward and Johnston had fully established the nature of the present
case. He believed the plain inconsistencies in Mr. Thureau's paper
were attributable to that gentleman's mistaken estimation of the yalae
of various equivalents of the English 1an&;uage.

DISCOVERY OF FOSSIL FISH.

The Secretary stated that at the next meeting, in conjunction with
Mr. Johnston, he would lay before the Society a paper on the discovery
by an enthusiastic collector — Mr. Nicholls — near Hobart, of a fossil fish*
The specimen, which he placed on the table, and which had been secured
for the Tasmanian Museum, was, he believed, the first discovery of its
nature in the colony.

AUSTRALIAN TURQUOISE.

Mr. A. J. Taylor exhibifced a beautiful specimen of turquoise, the
latest found in Australia of a mineral suitable for jewellery purposes,
obtained at Wangaratta.

complimentary.

In moving the customary \ ote of thanks to the authors of papers.
His Excellency mentioned that Mrs. Meredith had added her ex-
perience to the effect that the Angora goat could be successfully
farmed in this colony, and would thrive where no other animid
would. He referred in complimentary terms to the other papers, and
the vote having been passed the meeting terminated.

FBOOEEDIKGS, JFLY. Z1U

JULY, 1889.

The monthly evening meeting was held on July 9th. The President, Hi&
' Szoellency, Sir Bobert G. C. Hamilton, K.C.B., presided, Lady Hamilton
-was also present.

Mr. F. Back, General Manager Tasmanian Government Bailways,
was elected a Fellow of the Society.

TASMANIAN TREES.

COBBESPONDENCE.

Bell-street, Domain, Hobart, Jane 12, 1889. Dear Sir,— ^By thi&
morning's Mercury I observed an interesting letter from Mr. F. Stanley
Bobson, referring to what steps had been taken in order to ascertain
by careful measurement the height of forest trees in V^ictoria. We
have very little reliable evidence as to the exact height of the tallest
Tasmanian trees. Some years ago, the Rev. T. J. Ewing, of the Orphan
Sohools, New Town, was engaged under the authority of the Govern-
ment to compile a short paper on the statistics of the colony, wherein
was mentioned the measurement of several trees of exceptional size, but
none (trusting to my memory) reached 300ft. One was stated to be
240ft. to the first branch, where the tree had been broken off by wind,
and the remaining portion guessed at 50ft. or 60ft., therefore the
tme height was left still conjectural. Many years ago I accompanied
the late James Sprent (Surveyor-General) up the spurs of Mount
Wellington, where it was thought the tallest trees of Tasmania would
be found. We, however, did not meet with anything like .300ft. We
measured the root of a large stringy bark {E. Robust), and ascertained
its circumference to be 14ft. close te the butt. On my own farm. Circu-
lar Head, I had a tree felled away from the house, upon which I placed
the 2ft. rule, and found the heigbt to be 218ft. 6in., 12ft. at the butt
in diameter. About 24 miles south of Stanley, Circular Head, I met
with at the foot of a steep hill, near the banks of the River Arthur, a
bed of trees of extraordinary height, where some might possibly reach
300ft. There are exceptionally large and tall trees at Table Cape,
North- West Coast, growing all along its summit and in the deep
gullies, attaining great height, but whether above or below 300ft. could
only be ascertained by proper tests. I employed splitters at Circular
Head who produced 13,000 and 11,200 5ft. palings from two trees,.
some of which were sold at Melbourne at the rate of 105s. per
1(X), 1852 and 1853. It would be very interesting if the Royal Society
of Tasmania took steps to procure authentic statements of the
height of our forest trees, and to clear up as well the statement that
the trees of Tasmania in their growth make two rings every year ; upon
one occasion I put it to the proof by cutting down a young" sapling 16
yean after it had been planted, and found 16 rings only. I think the
age of our trees has been much exaggerated, and that the true time
of growth is far less than is generally supposed. I cut a tree at
Piper's River evenly with the crosscut saw, and found 151 rings dis*
tinctly visible ; its heigbt was 155ft., and thickness when felled 5ft. 2in.
and 4ft. lOin., or about a mean of 5ft. I refer you to Ainsworth's
"All Bound the World," 1st and 2nd vol., for photos, of giant trees
of Sonora, 460ft. high. — Yours truly,

S. B. Emmett.

Dear Sir, — Having read the enclosed slips which appeared in our

iper, and observing your name mentioned in one of them, I take the

iberty of telling yon that I discovered a clump of trees (silver topped

317 PBOOEEDINOS, JTTLY.

Btringy bark we call them) some 15 years ago nnder the soath end of
Mount Barrow. Having noticed in Sturt's map a patch marked
*' impenetrable scrub" I had the cariosity to force my way through
it, and so found the trees in question. As well as I can remember,
there may be about a hundred of them, one bein^ 33ft. through by
actual measurement with a tape, and, I should judge, 400ft. high.
The others are all about 20ft. to 25ft.athrough, and as square as a
dry goods box, and would split like matches. None of them, except
the large one, have a blemish of any sort, but run up hundreda
of feet without a bough. The large tree is burnt through, there
being a passage wide enough for a man to walk. The first time I
saw it I could only measure it by pacing, but a few days afterwards I
got two of my brothers to go up with me, taking a tape, and we then
found its actual measurement as stated above. In all my travels
about Tasmania, prospecting and otherwise, I have never seen a
tree to compare in any way with this colossus, and it is worth going a
good way to see. I often think of these trees and endeavour to form
an idea as to how many palings one of them would split. I may say
that I was one of the Qovemment party that cut and surveyed the traek
through the great Gippsland scrub from Moe to Stockyard Creek and
saw some big trees, but none to compare with the one in question.
Apologising for trespassing on your valuable time.— I am, dear sir, yonrs
very truly and obliged,

Chas. 6, Babeley.

A letter from Mr. A. Johnston, addressed to Colonel Legge, was also
read, wherein he directed attention to having brought nnder Colond
Legge's notice some years since a tree measuring 295ft.

SELl'-BEGISTEBING THEBMOMETEB.

Captain Shobtt laid before the Society a chart showing the registra-
tion of temperature by a self-registering themometer recently received
from Paris. He explained that the instrument did not move by means
of spirit or mercury, but on an entirely new principle, i.e., the expansion
of a curved piece of brass.

TERBA AUSTBALIS.

^ Mr. McClymont read a paper on the misconception existing in earlier
times on this subject. He dealt with the probable discoveries made by
early Portuguese and French voyageurs.

OLD TASMANIAN CHABTS.

Mr. Mault apologised for his inability to lay his paper on this snbjeet
before the Society at that meeting.

Mr. McClymont explained the circumstances which had given rise to
inquiries being made respecting charts captured from Captain Hayes by
the French.

THE TBUMPET FLOWEB.

Mr. Ward related the results of recent analysis of a portion of the
plant mentioned by Dr. Hardy at the last meeting. He had discovered
-only a small trace of atropine present.

PBOGESDIKOS, JX7LY. XV

SMUT IN WHEAT.

Mr. Joseph Babwick oontribu'sed the following PftP^r on this subject
to the Council of the Royal Society of Tasmaoia, and it was read by
the Secretary at Monday night's meeting. In his paper Mr. Barwick
said : — My apology for addressing this paper to you is that we have
no Farmers' Club in Tasmania, or experimental farm, and my object is
to ask that a small space in your Botanical Garden may be granted to
test the cause of smut under your manager ; but before asking for this
imiisaal concession it is due to you that I should explain a few of the
teets that I have practised for the last 15 years. It is a fact that this
pest has hitherto defeated all attempts to discover the cause, which
I can fairly claim to have discovered, and it was in this way. In 1873
I had a small paddock to sow with wheat, which I sowed with wheat
threshed by steam machine, but in completing the sowing I had not
sufficient dressed, as we term it, with blue stone, and I took sufficient
from a bag, which I sowed without dressing. The result was that only
aboat 25 per cent, of the dressed wheat came up, but that which was
sown without dressing produced upwards of 80' per cent, of plants ; but
npon the wheat coming to maturity I found that there was no smut in
that which was dressed, but that the small piece sown without dressing
contained more than 60 per cent, of smut. I then measured a square
rood of each, and counted the plants which had produced perfect wheat,
with the result that the number was nearly as possible equal, which at
once struck me that the dressing had simply destroyed that which would
have proved smutty. This induced me to enter into further tests the
follewing year, which I applied as follows : — (I must explain that in
those days it was not safe to sow wheat threshed by steam, consequently
we used to get sufficient threshed by hand for seed. ) I rubbed out 20O
grains of wheat from stock which we were then threshing. I took
another 200 grains of that threshed by steam, 200 do. threshed by hand.
I divided these into two equal parts of 100 grains each. The first division
I dressed with bluestone, the other division I planted without dressing,
with the following result of that which was dressed : — ]No. 1. The
100 grains rubbed out by hand produced 96 plants of perfect wheat. No
2. Threshed by flail, or what is called hand-threshed, produced 81
plants of perfect wheat. No. 3. threshed by steam, produced 60 perfect
plants. 1 will now ask you, gentlemen, to mark the result of that
which was not dressed. The 100 rubbed out by hand produced 98
perfect plants and no smut. That threshed by hand produced 90 plants,
81 beins: perfect and nine smut. That threshed by steam produced 81
plants, 50 being perfect and 31 smut. This result confirmed my previous
experience that it was the damaged grain that produced smut, and that
the dressing simply destroyed these grains and prevented them from
germinating, but I did not stop here. I planted other beds with samples
threshed as described, and took up the plants as soon as they came
out of the ground, and I discovered that these damaged grains, unlike
perfect ones, came to the surface before shooting any roots, and that the
roots when they came they differed from the perfect roots by spreading
in to a delicate form near the surface, instead of a strong, healthy, root
penetrating downwards, and during one test I divided my plot, and by
trying the plants with the finger and thumb upon one half of the plot,
and taking out those that came too readily I succeeded in taking out all
the defective plants but one, as shown when the wheat ripened, for I
had only one smut plant left when in the other half, I had 31 smut
plants. I have followed up my tests from year to year with the same
ceralt, and have never produced a smut plant from grain mbbed out by

XYl

PB00EEDIKQ8, JULY.

hand, and not injared, and I have come to the conclotion that ftmnt it
the result of defective rooting of these damaged grains, and if my con-
tention proves correct an enormous saving can be effected by introancing
machines coated with gntta percha, including loss of time, oost of blue-
stone, and destruction oT wheat would amount to a saving of fully 38. per
•ore, but there are other causes of smut quite bejrond the control of man,
another strong proof that I am correct, and that is atmospheric influence ;
for instance, the past season was most prolific in smut, and in every case
I found it was upon the high lands, it being too dry to allow the roots
to penetrate to a sufiScient depth to mature the grain. I found during
the last season heads one half smnt the other half perfect wheat, and in
one case one grain half smut and the other half contained flour, and in
all cases the upper half is the smut. Again, in the very wet season
amut may be found, but it will be found in the low and wet portions of
the field, the root having been injured through too much moisture. Oor
grasses often prove smutty, but it is only the annual variety that can be
loond smutty. The perennial plant has establishe'i the roots to a
anfiicient depth to mature. I have read, from time to time, the theory
that smut is caused by infection in the stack, and, giving as a proof that
aelf-sown or shook wheat is never found smutty. The truth is that this
aelf-sown grain is not subject to injury in threshing, and will support
my experience with reference to infection. I have, upon several oocMOons
coated wheat that I had carefully rubbed out of the head with smut
dust, but have never produced a smut head from sound grain. I hope
tiie tests explained have had the effect I desire of interesting you in a
problem that has hitherto baffled all attempts to solve. To permit some
tests to be carried out in your gardens under your manager, I will
undertake to supply seed prepared in various forms for the test and
numbered. I am sure the tests would be interesting. Again apologising,
gentlemen, for bringing under your Society what very properly shouM
Save been a farmers' subject to deal with.—I am, etc.,

JOSEPH BARWICK.

The Secretary intimated that the sug(;;estions would be laid before the
Trustees of the Museum and Botanical Gardens.

The President, in moving the usual vote of thanks to the contributors
of papers, expressed the hope that something would be done to meet Mr.
Barwick's suggestions.

PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST. XVU

AUGUST, 1889.

The monthly eveniDg meeting was held on Monday evening, August
19tb, the President, His Excellency Sir Robert G. C. Hamilton, K.CB.i
in the chair.

THE LATE MB. JUSTIN BROWNE.

The President said : Grentlemen, before W9 proceed to business
to-night I would remark that siace our last meeting this Society
has suffered the loss of a very old member who had been, I understand,
21 years a member of the Council — Mr. Justin McC. Browne; I am sure
we should wish to place on record our great regret at his death, and
our heartfelt sympathy with those he has left behind.

TALL TASMANIAN TREES.

The Secretary (Mr. Alex. Morton) stated that since the last meeting,
mt which the question of the height of some of the tallest Tasmanian
trees had been discussed, he had been making inquiries by circular
on the subject and had received some replies of value thereon. He
intended to have a paper on the subject at a future meeting of the
Society. Baron Von Mueller had written on this subject asking him
to mention at this meeting that he (Baron Von Mueller) had never
made himself responsible for measurements of 400ft. in height of any
enoilyptns trees, and that in nearly all his writings on this subject he
tSkYe the names of those on whose statements he had relied too hastily
in reference to exaggerated data concerning the supposed exceptional
heights of certain eucalyptus. In the Argus of May 25 last he had
set forth some of the best information obtainable, and urged new
measurements of trees in Tasmania and West Australia, It would
be [pleasing if the Tasmanian members of the Australian Association
for the Advancement of Science, who will attend the Melbourne
meeting to be held in the early part of next year, could furnish for the
biological section genuine measurements of Tasmania's tallest trees, or
trustworthy records of past discoveries in this direction. He further
Boggeated that an officer from the Survey Department should visit
the group discovered by Mr. C. Barkley at Mount Barrow to obtain
reUable data on the height of these trees.

Mr. T. Stephens furnished the following memorandum on the subject
of Lady Franklin's tree : —

In June, 1881, I measured the trunk of a large tree near the Huon
road, which had gone by the name of Lady Franklin's tree, and was
probably identical with one of those described by the Rev. T. J. Ewing
m the proceedings of the Royal Society of May 9, 1849. It had been
blown down in the gale of December 26, 1880, and had been paitly
burnt in a bush fire some two months afterwards. The circumference
of the trunk at the ground was about 70ft., but measurements round
the buttresses of these large trees are not worth much for purposes
of comparison. At 26ft. from the root the circumference was 27ft.,
and at 56ft. upitwas21fti. The total length of the stem to where it
ended abruptly, being free from branches the whole way, was 266ft.,
and it was theie 9lt. round. Sixty or seventy feet is a very moderate
estimate for the height of the rest of the tree, and the total height could
not be less than 330ft., and might have been much more. The tree
was too much burnt to enable one to determine the species, but Mr.
Swing calls his big tree a swamp gum. My impreasion at the time
was that the greater part of the top had been blown off, as often
happens, hm^ before the tree fell. More remains of it would have
been left if it had been down only six months.

XYl PB00EEDIKQ8, JULY.

hftod, and not injured, and I have come to the concIuBion that amat ia
the result of defective rooting of these damaged grains, and if my con-
tention proves correct an enormous saving can be effected by introducing
machines coated with gutta percha, including loss of time, oost of blue-
atone, and destruction of wheat would amount to a saving of fully 38. per
•ore, but there are other causes of smut quite beyond the control of man,
another strong proof that I am correct, and that is atmospheric influence ;
for instance, the past season was most prolific in smut, and in every case
I found it was upon the high lands, it being too dry to allow the roots
to penetrate to a sufiScient depth to mature the grain. I found during
the last season heads one half smut the other half perfect wheat, and in
one case one grain half smut and the other half contained flour, and in
all cases the upper half is the smut. Again, in the very wet season
amuv may be found, but it will be found in the low and wet portions of
the field, the root having been injured through too much moisture. Our
grasses often prove smutty, but it is only the annual variety that can be
found smutty. The perennial plant has establishe'i the roots to a
aufiicient depth to mature. I have read, from time to time, the theory
that smut is caused by infection in the stack, and, giving as a proof that
self-sown or shook wheat is never found smutty. The truth is that this
self-sown grain is not subject to injury in threshing, and will support
my experience with reference to infection. I have, upon several occasions
coated wheat that I had carefully rubbed out of the head with smut
dust, but have never produced a smut head from sound grain. I hope
the tests explained have had the effect I desire of interesting you in m
problem that has hitherto baffled all attempts to solve. To permit some
tests to be carried out in your gardens under your manager, I will
undertake to supply seed prepared in various forms for the test and
numbered, I am sure the tests would be interesting. Again apologising,
gentlemen, for bringing under your Society what very properly shoukl
Save been a farmers' subject to deal with. — I am, etc.,

JOSEPH BARWICK.

The Secretary intimated that the sug^iiestions would be laid before the
Trustees of the Museum and Botanical Gardens.

The President, in moving the usual vote of thanks to the contributors
of papers, expressed the hope that something would be done to meet Mr.
Barwick's suggestions.

PROCEEDINGS, AUGUST. XVU

AUGUST, 1889.

The monthly evening meeting was held on Monday evening, August
19th, the President, His Excellency Sir Robert G. C. Uamilton, K.CB.^
in the chair.

THE LATE MB. JUSTIN BROWNE.

The President said : Gentlemen, before W9 proceed to business
to-night I would remark that since our last meeting this Society
has suffered the loss of a very old member who had been, I understand,
21 years a member of the Council — Mr. Justin McC. Browne; I am sure
we should wish to place on record our great regret at his death, and
our heartfelt sympathy with those he has left behind.

TALL TASMANIAN TREES.

The Secretary (Mr. Alex. Morton) stated that since the last meeting,
mt which the question of the height of some of the tallest Tasmanian
trees had been discussed, he had been making inquiries by circular
on the subject and had received some replies of value thereon. He
intended to have a paper on the subject at a future meeting of the
Society. Baron Von Mueller had written on this subject asking him
to mention at this meeting that he (Baron Von Mtleller) had never
made himself responsible for measurements of 400ft. in height of any
encalyptns trees, and that in nearly all his writings on this subject he
tSkYe the names of those on whose statements he had relied too hastily
in reference to exaggerated data concerning the supposed exceptional
heights of certain eucalyptus. In the Argus of May 25 last he had
set forth some of the best information obtainable, and urged new
measurements of trees in Tasmania and West Australia. It would
be [pleasing if the Tasmanian members of the Australian Association
for the Advancement of Science, who will attend the Melbourne
meeting to be held in the early part of next year, could furnish for the
biological section genuine measurements of Tasmania's tallest trees, or
trustworthy records of past discoveries in this direction. He further
Boggedted that an officer from the Survey Department should visit
the group discovered by Mr. C. Barkley at Mount Barrow to obtain
reliable data on the height of these trees.

Mr. T. Stephens furnished the following memorandum on the subject
of Lady Franklin's tree :—

In June, 1881, 1 measured the trunk of a large tree near the Huon
road, which had gone by the name of Lady Franklin's tree, and was
probably identical with one of those described by the Rev. T. J. Ewing
m the proceedings of the Royal Society of May 9, 1849. It had been
blown down in the gale of December 26, 1880, and had been paitly
burnt in a bush fire some two months afterwards. The circumference
of the trunk at the ground was about 70ft., but measurements round
the tuttresses of these large trees are not worth much for purposes
of comparison. At 26ft. from the root the circumference was 27ft.,
and at 56ft. up it was 21ft. The total length of the stem to where it
end^ abruptly, being free from branches the whole way, was 266ft. ,
and it was theie 9ft. round. Sixty or seventy feet is a very moderate
estimate for the height of the rest of the tree, and the total height could
not be less than 330ft., and might have been much more. The tree
wia too much burnt to enable one to determine the species, but Mr.
Swing calls his big tree a swamp gum. My imprejsion at the time
was that the greater part of the top had been blown off, as often
hi^pens, Xoxkf^ before the tree fell. More remains of it would have
been left if it had been down only six months.

XX PBOCEEBINGS, AUGUST.

OLD CHARTS OF TASMANIA.

Mr. Mault read a paper dealing with certain old charts captnred
from Captain Hayes by the French, and now lodged among the archives
of France, but copied by the permission of the Government of that
country. The paper dealt at length with each of the charts, and
illustrated the origin of many of the original names of the Derwent and
its sarroundings.

Mr. McCltmont complimented Mr. Manlt on the care bestowed on his
paper, and reviewed the earlier part of the voyage of the Marion.

Mr. Walker also spoke on the paper, quoting from the Braboume
Papers to illustrate the possibility that Flinders at the time of his
detention at the Mauritius was carrying despatches from Governor
King, which were res^arded by his captors as a violation of the passport
held by him from Bounaparte.

DISCOVERT OF A FOSSIL FISH.

Mr. B. M. JoHKSTON read a paper, the joint production of Mr.
Morton and himself, respecting the recent discovery by Mr. H. Nicholls
of a fossil fish, presented by him to the Museum. The specieshad been
named Acrolepis Hamiltoni, in recognition of the deep interest always
observed by the President in the afifairs of the Society.

The SzcRETABT read a communication from Mr. Petterd, referring,
to a fossil fish discovered by him in a quarry near Knocklofty 18 years
back, but which had not been described, but had been lost.

Mr. Stephens referred te certain correspondence received by him
from Professors Stephens and McCoy asking for particnlars of this
discovery.

AUSTRALIAN AND TASMANIAN SANDARACH.

The Secretary read a paper by Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Curator, Teobnological Museum, Sydney. In it the writer referred
to the fact that a specimen of resin irom the Oyster Bay Pine of
Tasmania, sent to the Exhibition of 1851, first drew the attention of
experts to the possibilities of Australian Sandarach. For this exhibit
and other gums and resins, Mr. J. Milligan was awarded honourable
mention. Sandarach is one of the most valuable of Australian and
Tasmanian vegetable products, a market is ready for it, and it seems
strange that it should have been so long neglected. No statistics are
available in regard to the importation of Sandarach into these colonies,
but to bring it here at all is a veritable *' carrying of coals to Newcastle.''
In various parts of Australia and Tasmania there are vast numbers of
Ccdlitria trees, and their resin, often abundant, can readily be collected,
and the author is sure that even with the cheap labour of Northern
Africa to contend against, it can be profitably gathered during a
portion of the year. The approximate price of Sandarach in London,
is 60- 115s. per cwt., and there is no difierence between it and the
colonial article. As to the cultivation of the trees. Baron von Mueller
states, " Probably it would be more profitable to devote sandy
desert land, which could not bo brought under irrigation, to the
culture of the Sandarach cypresses, than to pastoral purposes, but
boring beetles must be kept off. It is also to be borne in mind that
CaUitris timber is valuable."

Mr. Stephens referred to the manner in which these trees were
destroyed in clearing for sheep farming.

The President said he had frequently noticed the destruction of
these trees.

COMPLIMENTARY.

The President moved the usual vote of thanks to the contribulora
of papers.

FBOCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBEB. xxl

SEPTEMBEE, 1889.

The monthly meeting of the Royal Society was held on Monday,
^September 9th. The Pbesidei^t (His Excellency Sir Robert Q. C.
Hamilton, K.C.B.) presided. Mr. J. Pro vis, of South Australia, was
elected a corresponding member of the Society ; Mr. Chas. Guesdon a
member.

The Pkesident desired to bring a matter concerning the young
salmon now at the Salmon Ponds before the Society. These were the
undoubted product of the ova brought out by Sir Thomas Brady,
which had been stripped from the male and female fish and artificially
fertilised, and the utmost care had been taken to keep them apart from
any other fish bred in the Ponds. He recently visited the Ponds,
accompanied by the Chairman of the Fisheries idoard, the Secretary,
and two of the members, when they carefully examined a number of
the young salmon, among which they were surprised to find marked
-<Li£ferences existing, not only in size, but in their characteristics. It
has often been held that the scUmomdoe caught in Tasmanian waters
cannot be true ScUmo solar because so many of them have spots on the
dorsal fin, and a tinge of yellow or orange on the adipose fin, but nearly
half of the young salmon they examined, which had never left the
Ponds, had these^racteristics. Again, many of them were almost
'' bull-headed " in appearance — another characteristic which is not
supposed to distinguish the true ScUmo scUar. He would suggest to
the Chairman of the Fisheries Board, whom he saw present, ^t the
Secretary should be asked to make a formal report of the result of this
Tisit, and to obtain some specimens of the young fish, which could be
preserved in spirits, and perhaps sent to Sir Thomas Bra^ to be
sabmitted for the consideration and opinion of naturalists at Home.

Mr. Allfobt directed attention to the desirableness of placing young
fish in the West Coast rivers, which were entirely free at present of
fish of a migratory character.

Mr. Johnston pointed out the difficulty of transit in stocking these
rivers. He thought Lake Dixon would afford an excellent home for the
salmon, equal to any of the Scotch waters ; and as it is one of the
affluents of the Franklin and Gordon Rivers, the young fish would find
their way to the Western Ocean.

Mr. MeBTON drew attention to a specimen of the fish referred to, one
that had been bred from the late shipment of ova brought out by Sir
Thomas Brady. The fish exhibited had no markings on the dorsal fin,
bat, as had been stated by His Excellency, there appeared to be quite an

S[iial number in the pond with markings on the dorsal as those without,
e hoped the recommendations of His Excellency, that specimens of this
jronnff fry should be sent to some of the leading ichthyologists in Europe
for their opinion would be carried out, because from the care and
attention bestowed on the late shipment of ova there could be no
question but that the ova was from the true fish, ScUmo aalar.

SMUT IN GRAIN, AND DEPOSIT OF SALT.

The Secretary (Mr. A. Morton) read the following correspondence
torn Mr. Joseph Barwick, relating to smut in wheat, and also to a large
deposit of salt found on the plains near Mona Vale.

" To the President and Council of the Royal Society of Tasmania.
'Gentlemen, — After reading the two high class, and what would seem
imanswerable papers upon the above subject, read at the last meeting

XXU FB0CEEDIN6S, 8EPTEMBEB.

of your Society, it will seem presnmption for me to agMn trespaas vLWUk-
you. However, I respectfully ask leave to do so in support of my nrst-
paper. The learned writers, Messrs. Abbott and Stephens, conclude,
from the tenor of my paper, that I had not made myself acquainted
with what had been done la attempting to elucidate the mystery of smut.
I desire to say that for the last 14 years I have obtained and read all
the papers I could find upon the subject, but scarcely two of the writers
agree in the most important points, and the whole of the writings that I
have read deal more with effect than cause, that is, with the diseased
plant. We all know that when we see either cattle or horses infested
with vermin that the animal is weakly and poor ; but we do not believe
that the vermin cause the poverty, but the reason we knowis that poverty
from disease or starvation breeds vermin, and this is my experience with-
plants and trees ; and I am strongly of opinion that it is the same witii
our crain plant, the plant being weakly from defective rooting it is
attacked by fungus. My object in asking for space in the Botanical
Gardens was not with a desire to carrv out scientific examinations^
but to demonstrate that sound grains will not produce smut, and that
the so-called spores are as harmless as soot dust, that is if practical tests
of sixteen years are of any value, and I further concluded that the oody
way to interest the public and induce other societies to take the matter
np, was to carry out the tests in some public place, and if my experience
was confirmed that some means might be devised by which the seed graiD'
could be threshed without injury, which would prove an enoimons saving
of grain, labour, expense, and a more vigorous plant. The tests I
enumerated were only a few of the many ; I tried all with the same-
result. I have now one and a half acres sown this year with wheat
collected upon stock that had been shaken out in removing sheaves ;.
this I have not dressed. I do not fear the result. It is too late to
carry out any further tests this year,"

'' Tea Tree, August 23, 1889. Curator of the Museum, Uobart— ^ir»
— In forwarding the exhibit of salt it cannot be classed as one of our
manufactures, as it is a natural product of the centre of Tasmania,
and it seems to me more of a curiosity, or more properly a source of
undeveloped wealth, as nothing has ever been done to ascertain the
source of the constant and inexhaustible deposit. These chains of lagoons,^
or what are known as the salt pans, are situated nearly in the centre of
the colony, and are situated on the estates of Lower Park, Balochmyle,
EUenthorpe, and Mona Vale. I am well acquainted with these pans,
having known them for nearly 50 years. They extend for a distance of
seven miles, running as nearly as, 1 should say, south-east by north-west,,
and there are to my knowledge 10 of them, in area from one acre to 100.
There may be more beyond my travels, and I think if a line was drawn
it would be found that they are not over one mile out of line. To my
mind, the most mysterious fact is that on either side of this line there
are similar pans containing fresh water. In one case at EUenthorpe
there is one large pan of probably 100 acres, and within 10 chains
on either side there is a lagoon of fresh water. The most prolific
in salt of these pans is Ballochmyle and Mona Vale, as over
50 years ago I went with my father to these pans for a supply, and in dry
seasons large quantities have been taken from those pans, many hundreds
of tons ; the surface, about 2in. deep, is scraped up for domestic use, and
the soil is used for manure. A very old hand in the colony, John Duffield,
who came in the prison ship Dromedary, informed me that this salt was
formerly a source of wealth to the aboriginals who owned the surrounding
lands, and was often the ecene of hot battle and bloodshed. I have heard
several theories of the source of supply, but none of which are tenable.
The one is that it is brought from higher levels by streams, but
most of them are situated upon a level surface and have no inlet. Another
is that the land is impregnated with salt, and that the supply is kept up

PBOCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBEB. XXUl

hy aoakaae, but if this was so it wonld f olbw that the whole of these
pMM would be salt, which I have shown is not the case. My idea is
that a reef extends throughout the length of these pans. Supposing this
to be so, would the salt rise from any great depth ? I think not, and if
my theory is correct, the reef cannot be far from the surface.

Mr. Stephens said Sir Lambert Dobson, who had had a lengthy
knowledge of the district, might impart some information.

Sir Lambebt Dobson had known the salt pans district for a period of
68 years. They were really small lakelets which contained salt water,
and from which, during summer, the evaporation caused the layer of salt
to form. In past years this was made a source of revenue by collectors of
thesalt, which was of excellent quality, and suitable for domestic purposes.
Some of the lakelets provided richer deposits of salt than others, but no
reliable information, so far as he was aware, was forthcoming respecting
the origin ef these deposits. Evidently they did not originate from springs,
becanse during summer the lakelets dried up. The soil around was
fertile, the native grasses growing well. This suggested that the water
became impregnated with salt below the surface.

Mr. Johnston considered the subject one of deep interest, and worthy
of oonsideration at the hands of members of the Society. He thought
that Mr. Barwiok had given good reasons in favour of the idea that the
■ait was derived from some underlying rock formation of marine origin —
probably of upper palsBozoic age — whose members are often highly
idiarged with saune matter.

Mr Stephens said it would be interesting to ascertain from the
inhabitants of the district if the trade in the salt had been discontinued
owing* to a decrease in the supply, or market influences. The difference
between salt and fresh water las^oons was that the latter always had
natural outlets, and even if some of these lagoons having outlets
contained a percentage of salt from the solid deposits, the outflow
natarally brought about a reduction of this. Many of the sandstone
formations in Tasmania were particularly saliferous, and contained
large percentages of all the salts, from Epsom salt and alum to
eUorlde of sodium. This especially was noticeable in caves which
proteeted the deposits from being carried away by the rain. It should
Im remembered that a large portion of this district had been under the
•ea about the tertiary period, if not in post tertiary times. The
possibility of the existence of a solid bed of salt, as suggested by Mr.
Johnston, should not be ignored.

Mr. Johnston doubted this.

Mr. Stephens said that the district, as far as Antill Ponds, gave
evidence in favour of this. Marine fossils were not likely to be found
where the land had been rising or in drift.

the last living ABOBIOINAL of TASMANIA.

Mr James Barnard read the following paper compiled by him upon
this subject : — It has been generally supposed that the grave has
dosed over the remains of the last of the aborigines, and that the
extinction of the race has been final and complete. This supposition,
however, is believed to be erroneous ; for there still exists one female
descendant of the former *' princes of wastes and lords of deserts ' in the
person of Fanny Cochrane Smith, of Fort Cygnet, and the mother of a
urge family of six sons and five daughters, all of whom are living. Some
doubts have been cast in Parliament and elsewhere upon the claim of
Fknny (to keep to her pre-nuptial and first Christian name) to be of the
pure blood of her ancestors, but after searching the records, and upon
her own personal testimony, and from other evidence, there seems to be

XXIY PROCEEDINGS, SEFTEMBEB.

lifctle reason to doubt the fac^. It appears, theo, that Fanny was bom
at Flinders Island in 1834 or 1835, and is now aboat 65 years of age.
Sarah was the name of her mother, and Eugene that of her father,
and both were undeniably aboriginals. Sarah first lived with a sealer,
and became the mother of four half-caste children ; and was subsequently
married to Eugene (native name, Micomanie), one of her own people,
and had three children, of whom Fanny is the sole survivor and
representative of the race. Lieut. Matthew Curling Friend, R.N., ia
a paper read before the Tasmanian Society, on March 10, 1847t "On
the decrease of the Aborigines of Tasmania," in alluding to the curious
theory propounded by Count Strzelecki, that the aboriginal mother of a
half-caste can never produce a black child should she subsequently
marry one of her own race, controverts this notion of invariable sterility
by quoting two instances which came under his notice while visiting
the aboriginal establishment at Flinders Island. I give his own words : —
'* One was the case of a black woman named Sarah, who had formerly
four half-caste children by a sealer with whom she lived, and has had
since her abode at Flinders Island, where she married a man of her uim
race, three black children, two of whom are still alive. The other, a
black woman named Harriet, who had formerly by a white man with
whom she lived two halt-caste children, and has had since her marriage
with a black man a tine healthy black infant, who is still living.**
Commenting upon this doctrine of Strzelecki, West observes (Hist, of
Tasmania, vol. 2, p. 75.)* *' A natural law by which the extinction of a
race is predicted will not admit of such serious deviations." Some
explanation may properly be expected from me for reviving a questioii
wnich was supposed to be set at rest when Truganini was consigned to
the tomb, and declared to be the last woman of her race. I wfll
therefore mention the incident which has given me something of a
personal interest in the matter. It is now nearly 40 years ago that I
was accustomed occasionally to accompany my friend, the late Br.
Milligan, the Medical Superintendent of the Aborigines, to the settlement
at Oyster Cove, where I saw a good deal of tue native people, at that
time some 30 or 40 in number. Among these I have a distinct recollection
of Fanny, who was then apparently about 17 years of age, slender and
active, less dusky in colour, but rather more prepossessing in appearance
than any of her kind ; and certainly at that time I never heard a
doubt expressed of her not being a true aboriginal. There was one
circumstance in particular which impressed her upon my remembrance,
and that was on one occasion we crossed over in a boat from Oyster
Cove to Bruni Island, rowed by four of the black men, and Fanny taking
the steer-oar, which she handled with marvellous skill and dexterity. My
visits to the settlement shortly after ceased, and from that time to the
present, until a few weeks ago, when I was greatly surprised to receive a
visit from this identical Fanny, who had become transformed into
a buxom matron of considerable amplitude. By the courtesy of the
Hon. P. 0. Fysh, Chief Secretary and Premier, I have been permitted
access to the official records bearing upon the subiect of this investigation.
The first documents brought under my attention were two letters under
date June 23 and 26, 1882, embodying a report from the Police Magistrate
of Franklin, the late E. A. Walpole, emphatically stating that Fanny
** is a half-caste, bom of an aboriginal woman, by a white man whose
name is unknown, at Flinders Island on or about the year 1835." No
authority beyond the expression of his individual opinion is adduced
by Mr. Walpole in support of his statement. The next document was
a letter by the late Dr. Milligan, Medical Superintendent of Aborigines,
under date July 17> 1854, enclosing William Smith's consent to marry
Fanny Cochrane, and describing her as an aboriginal girl belonging to
the establishment at Oyster Cove. This afiords strong evidence in
support of the opposite view of the case, as those who knew Dr,

PROCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBEB.

Milligan would remember how precise and accurate he invariably was in
Aoy statement of facts. A point of some importance in the contention
woold arise from Fanny's second name, Cochrane. According to
B«nwick, in his ''Last of the Tasmaoians,'' p. 282, this was taken from
the sealer who lived with Sarah, whose name was Cottrel Cochrane.
Were this so, it would have at once have gone far to settle the question
of parentage, and show her to be the half-caste supposed. Bonwick is
obTionsly in error in his statement ; for I have lately ascertained from
the lipe of a married lady living in Hobart, a daughter of the late
Mr. Robert Clark, catechist at the aborigines establishment, that
Cochrane was the maiden name of her mother, and that it was given by
her father to Fanny when a child, and residing in his family. Again,
Bonwick writes (p. 310) : " We read of a sawyer, one Smith, and his
Uaok friend, Mrs. Fanny Cochrane Smith, receiving £25 a year for their
half-caste child." Instead of *' black friend " he niieht have written
*' black wife ;'' for the parties were duly married at Hobart by the Rev.
Frederick Miller, Congregational minister, in 1854. As respects the
oanse assigned for the annuity, this writer wmi also in error, for the sum
of £24 (not £25) was bestowed upon Fanny on the occasion of her
marriage, and not for the reason stated. The next document is a
letter dated 8th December, 1842, conveying the ofiScial approval of the
admiseion into the Queen's Orphan School of the three aboriginal
childien named in the margin — Fanny, Martha, Jesse. Then follows in
the records under same date an application from Mr. Robert Clark, late
oatechist of the aborigines on Flinders Island, for permission to receive
into his family '* an aboriginal child named Fanny, upon his engagement
to feed, elothe, and educate her as one of his own children."

Next is an extract from an official document dated 8th March, 1847 : —
*' fingene and his wife, the father and mother of Fanny and Adam,
being aaked if they were willing that their children should be sent
back to Mr. Clark, said they were not. Fanny being asked if she
understood the nature of an Odth, answered, * No,' and the doctor
explained it. Fanny said she did not wish to return to Mr. Clark."

Fromalong report to the Government by Dr. Milligan, dated November
29, 1847, 1 have taken the following extract : — *' The fifth girl, Fanny
CSoiohrane, almost a woman, might remain with her half-sister, Mary
Ann. Indeed, I can scarcely say how otherwise she could be satisfactorily
diipoted of." There being no difiference of opinion as to Sarah being
the mother of boch, this testimony, given by Dr. Milligjin as to a
diilerenoe of parentage in the case of the father, at once discriminates
her from Mary Ann, and in itself affords a strong presumption in favour
of the contention.

The superintendent at Oyster Cove, under date 4th November,
1857, reports to the Colonial Secretary the death of Adam, aged 20 years,
the yonngest of the aboriginals ; and states that daring his illness
he was waited upon by his mother, sister, and the latter's husband ;
these being respectively Sarah, Fanny, and William Smith. Up to
this point my researches have been eminently satisfactory, and have
tended to confirm the theory of Fanny being an aboriginal ; bat another
document has been brought under my notice which, unexplained,
certainly discountenances that theory. It is the report of certain
proceedings taken before Dr. Jeanneret, the superintendent at Flinders
Island, on the occasion' of certain allegations made against an officer of
the eetablishment, and in which is a deposition made by Fanny, dated
March 25, 1847, commencing with these words, — '* I am a half-caste of
Van Diemen's Land. My mother is a native. I am about 13 years
of age," etc., with her signature attached at the foot. At first
light this admission would appear to be conclusive and unanswerable ;
hat, npon reflection, I am led to believe that there must be a mistake

XXIY PBOCEEDINOS, SEPTXMBEK.

little reason to doubt the fac^. It appears, theo, that Fanny was bom

at Flinders Island in 1834 or 1835, and is now aboat 65 years of age.

Sarah was the name of her mother, and Eugene that of her father*

and both were undeniably aboriginals. Sarah first lived with a sealer,

and became the mother of four half-caste children ; and was snbseqnentiy

married to Eugene (native name, Micomanie), one of her own people,

and had three children, of whom Fanny is the sole survivor and

representative of the race. Lieut. Matthew Curling Friend, R.N., im

a paper read before the Tasmanian Society, on March 10, 1847, '*0n

the decrease of the Aborigines of Tasmania," in alluding to the cnriona

theory propounded by Count Strzelecki, that the aboriginal mother of a

half-caste can never produce a black child should she subsequently

marry one of her own race, controverts this notion of invariable sterility

by quoting two instances which came under his notice while visiting

the aboriginal establishment at Flinders Island. I give his own words : —

'* One was the case of a black woman named Sarah, who had formerly

four half-caste children by a sealer with whom she lived, and has had

since her abode at Flinders Island, where she married a man of her uim

race, three black children, two of whom are still alive. The other, a

black woman named Harriet, who had formerly by a white man with

whom she lived two halt-caste children, and has had since her marriage

with a black man a line healthy black infant, who is still living."

Commenting upon this doctrine of Strzelecki, West observes (Hist, of

Tasmania, vol 2, p. 75.)* *' A natural law by which the extinction of a

race is predicted will not admit of such serious deviations." Some

explanation may properly be expected from me for reviving a quesUon

which was supposed to be set at rest when Truganini was consigned to

the tomb, and declared to be the last woman of her race. I wiU

therefore mention the incident which has given me something of a

personal interest in the matter. It is now nearly 40 years ago that I

was accustomed occasionally to accompany my friend, the late Br.

Milligan, the Medical Superintendent of the Aborigines, to the settlement

at Oyster Cove, where I saw a good deal of tue native people, at that

time some 30 or 40 in number. Among these I have a distinct recollection

of Fanny, who was then apparently about 17 years of age, slender and

active, less dusky in colour, but rather more prepossessing in appearance

than any of her kind ; and certainly at that time I never heard a

doubt expressed of her not being a true aboriginal. There was one

circumstance in particular which impressed her upon my remembrance,

and that was on one occasion we crossed over in a boat from Oyster

Cove to Bruni Island, rowed by four of the black men, and Fanny taking

the steer-oar, which she handled with marvellous skill and dexterity. My

visits to the settlement shortly after ceased, and from that time to the

present, until a few weeks ago, when I was greatly surprised to receive a

visit from this identical Fanny, who had become transformed into

a buxom matron of considerable amplitude. By the courtesy of the

Hon. P. 0. Fysh, Chief Secretary and Premier, I have been permitted

access to the ofBcial records bearing upon the subiect of this investigation.

The first documents brought under my attention were two letters under

date June 23 and 26, 1882, embodying a report from the Police Magistrate

of Franklin, the late E. A. Walpole, emphatically stating that Fanny

*' is a half-caste, born of an aboriginal woman, by a white man whose

name is unknown, at Flinders Island on or about the year 1835." No

authority beyond the expression of his individual opinion is adduced

by Mr. Walpole in support of his statement. The next document was

a letter by the late Dr. Milligan, Medical Superintendent of Aborigines,

under date July 17, 1854, enclosing William Smith's consent to marry

Fanny Cochrane, and describing her as an aboriginal girl belonging to

the establishment at Oyster Cove. This afiords strong evidence in

support of the opposite view of the case, as those who knew Dr.

PBOCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBEB.

MilUgan would remember how precise and accurate he invariably was in
Aoy statement of facts. A point of some importance in the contention
woald arise from Fanny's second name, Cochrane. According to
Banwick, in his **La8t of the Tasmanians,'' p. 282, this was taken from
tha sealer who lived with Sarah, whose name was Cottrel Cochrane.
Were this so, it would have at once have gone far to settle the question
of parentage, and show her to be the half-caste supposed. Bonwick is
obTioosly in error in his statement ; for I have lately ascertained from
the lips of a married lady living in Hobart, a daughter of the late
Mr. fiiobert Clark, catechist at the aborigines establishment, that
Cochrane was the maiden name of her mother, and that it was given by
her father to Fanny when a child, and residing in his family. Again,
Bonwick writes (p. 310) : '* We read of a sawyer, one Smith, and his
black friend, Mrs. Fanny Cochrane Smith, receiving £25 a year for their
half-caste child." Instead of *' black friend " he might have written
** black wife ;" for the parties were duly married at Hobart by the Rev.
Frederick Miller, Congregational minister, in 1854. As respects the
cause assigned for the annuity, this writer wm also in error, for the sum
of £24 (not £25) was bestowed upon Fanny on the occasion of her
marriaffe, and not for the reason stated. The next document is a
letter dated 8th December, 1842, conveying the ofBoial approval of the
admission into the Queen's Orphan School of the three aboriginal
children named in the margin — Fanny, Martha, Jesse. Then follows in
the records under same date an application from Mr. Robert Clark, late
catechist of the aborieioes on Flinders Island, for permission to receive
into his family '* an aboriginal child named Fanny, upon his engagement
to feed, clothe, and educate her as one of his own children.''

Nextb an extract from an official document dated 8th March, 1847 : —
*' Eugene and his wife, the father and mother of Fanny and Adam,
being asked if they were willing that their children should be sent
back to Mr. Clark, said they were not. Fanny being asked if she
understood the nature of an Odth, answered, *No,' and the doctor
explained it. Fanny said she did not wish to return to Mr. Clark."

Fromalong report to the Government by Dr. Milligan, dated November
29, 1847, 1 have taken the following extract :— *' The fifth girl, Fanny
Cochrane, almost a woman, might remain with her half-sister, Mary
Aim. Indeed, loan scarcely say how otherwise she could be satisfactorily
disposed of." There being no difiference of opinion as to Sarah being
the mother of boch, this testimony, given by Dr. MilUgjin as to a
difference of parentage in the case of the father, at once discriminates
her from Mary Ann, and in itself affords a strong presumption in favour
of the contention.

The superintendent at Oyster Cove, under date 4th November,
1857, reports to the Colonial Secretary the death of Adam, aged 20 years,
the youngest of the aboriginals ; and states that daring his illness
he was waited upon by his mother, sister, and the latter's husband ;
these being respectively Sarah, Fanny, and William Smith. Up to
this point my researches have been eminently satisfactory, and have
tended to confirm the theory of Fanny being an aboriginal ; bat another
document has been brought under my notice which, unexplained,
certainly discountenances that theory. It is the report of certain
proceedmgs taken before Dr. Jeanneret, the superintendent at Flinders
island, on the occasion of certain allegations made against an officer of
the establishment, and in which is a deposition made by Fanny, dated
March 25, 1847, commencing with thesb words, — '* I am a half-caste of
Van Diemen's Land. My mother is a native. I am about 13 years
of age," etc., with her signature attached at the foot. At first
sight this admission would appear to be conclusive and unanswerable ;
hat, upon reflection, I am led to believe that there must be a mistake

XYl PB00EEDING8, JULY.

hand, and not iojnred, and I have come to the eonoluaion that amat is
the resnlt of defective rooting of these damaged grains, and if my con-
tention proves correct an enormons saving can be effected by introducing
machines coated with gntta percha, Including loss of time, cost of blne>
■tone, and destruction o? wheat would amount to a saving of fully 38. per
acre, but there are other causes of smut quite beyond the control of man,
another strong proof that I am correct, and that is atmospheiio influence ;
for instance, the past season was most prolific in smut, and in every case
I found it was upon the high lands, it being too dry to allow the roots
to penetrate to a sufficient depth to mature the grain. I found during
the last season heads one half smut the other half perfect wheat, and in
one case one grain half smut and the other half contained flour, and in
all cases the upper half is the smut. Again, in the very wet season
amuii may be found, but it will be found in the low and wet portions of
the field, the root having been injured through too much moisture. Our
grasses often prove smutty, but it is only the annual variety that can be
found smutty. The perennial plant has establishei the roots to a
aufficient depth to mature. I have read, from time to time, the theory
that smut is caused by infection in the stack, and, giving as a proof that
aelf-sown or shook wheat is never found smutty. The truth is that this
aelf-sown grain is not subject to injury in threshing, and will support
my experience with reference to infection. I have, upon several occasions
coated wheat that I had carefully rubbed out of the head with smut
dust, but have never produced a smut head from sound grain. I hope
the tests explained have had the effect I desire of interesting you in a
problem that has hitherto baffled all attempts to solve. To permit some
tests to be carried out in your gardens under your manager, I will
undertake to sapply seed prepared in various forms for the test and
numbered. I am sure the tests would be interestiog. Again apologising,

gentlemen, for bringing under your Society what very properly should
ave been a farmers' subject to deal with. — I am, etc.,

JOSEPH BARWICK.

The Secretary intimated that the suggestions would be laid before the
Trustees of the Museum and Botanical Gardens.

The President, in moving the usual vote of thanks to the contributors
of papers, expressed the hope that something would be done to meet Mr.
Barwick's suggestions.

PBOCEEDINGS, AUGUST. XVU

AUGUST, 1889.

The monthly evening meeting was held on Monday evening, August
19th, the President, His Excellency Sir Robert G. C. Hamilton, K.CB.i
in the chair.

THE LATE MB. JUSTIN BROWNE.

The President said : Gentlemen, before we proceed to business
to-night I would remark that since our last meeting this Society
haa saffered the loss of a very old member who bad been, I understand,
21 years a member of the Council — Mr. Justin McC. Browne; I am sure
we Bhoold wish to place on record our great regret at his death, and
our heartfelt sympathy with those he has left behind.

TALL TASMANIAN TREES.

The Secretary (Mr. Alex. Morton) stated that since the last meeting,
at which the question of the height of some of the tallest Tasmanian
trees had been discussed, he had been making inquiries by circular
on the subject and had received some replies of value thereon. He
intended to have a paper on the subject at a future meetiog of the
Society. Baron Von Mueller had written on this subject asking him
to mention at this meeting that he (Baron Von Mueller) had never
made himself responsible for measurements of 400ft. in height of any
cncalyptos trees, and that in nearly all his writings on this subject he
leave the names of those on whose statements he had relied too hastily
in reference to exaggerated data concerning the supposed exceptional
heights of certain eucalyptus. In the Argvs of May 25 last he bad
set forth some of the best information obtainable, and ursed new
measurements of trees in Tasmania and West Australia. It would
be fpleasing if the Tasmanian members of the Australian Association
for the Advancement of Science, who will attend the Melbourne
meeting to be held in the early part of next year, could furnish for the
biological section genuine measurements of Tasmania's tallest trees, or
tmstworthy records of past discoveries in this direction. He further
suggested that an officer from the Survey Department should visit
the group discovered by Mr. C. Barkley at Mount Barrow to obtain
reUable data on the height of these trees.

Mr. T. Stephens furnished the following memorandum on the subject
of Lady Franklin's tree : —

In June, 1881, 1 measured the trunk of a large tree near the Huon
road, which had gone by the name of Lady Franklin's tree, and was
probably identical with one of those described by the Rev. T. J. Ewing
m the proceedings of the Royal Society of May 9, 1849. It had been
blown down in the gale of December 26, 1880, and had been paitly
bomt in a bush fire some two months afterwards. The circumference
of the trunk at the ground was about 70ft., but measurements round
the tuttresses of these large trees are not worth much for purposes
d comparison. At 26ft. from the root the circumference was 27ft.,
and at 56ft. upitwa8 21f6. The total length of the stem to where it
ended abruptly, being free from branches the whole way, was 266ft.,
and it was theie Oft. round. Sixty or seventy feet is a very moderate
estimate for the height of the rest of the tree, and the total height could
not be less than 330ft., and might have been much more. The tree
was too much burnt to enable one to determine the species, but Mr.
Swing calls his big tree a swamp gum. My impreasion at the time
was that the greater part of the top had been blown off, as often
happens, long before the tree fell. More remains of it would have
been kit if it had been down only six months.

ZXZ PBOCEEDINGS, SEPTEMBEB.

ProceediDgB and Tmnsactions of the Qaeensland Branch of the Royal
Cleographiod Society of Aostralaaia, 1888-9, Vol. IV. From the Society.

Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. Vols,
m., 1885 ; IV., 1886 ; V., 1887 ; (bound). From the Society.

Psyche, a Jonmal of Entomology, Mass., U.S. (Carrent numbers.)
From the Society.

Report of the Trustees of the Australian Museum for 1888. From
the Trustees.

Report of the Public Library, [Museum, and Art Gallery of South
Australia for 1887*8. From the Trustees.

Report of the Zoological and Acclimatisation Society of Victoria for
the year 1888. From the Society.

Report of the Surgeon-General of the Army to the Secretary of War
for the fiscal year ending June, 1888. From the Department.

Report of the Auckland Institute and Museum for 1888-9. From the
Trustees.

Report of the Mining Registrars of the Goldfields of Victoria for the
^quarter ended 31st March, 1889. From the Department.

Report, Twenty- third Annual, on the Colonial Museum and Laboratory,
etc.. New Zealand. From the Trustees.

Reports of Geological Explorations during 1887*8, with maps and
■sections. New Zealand. From the Department.

Revista do Observatorio, Rio de Janeiro, 1889. From the Departments

Records of the Geological Survey of India (current numbers). From
the Society.

Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Melbourne Observa-
tory in the years 1881 to 4 (bound). From the Department.

Scottish Geographical Magazine (current parts). From the Society.

Scientific Proceedings of me Royal Dublin Society (current numbers).
From the Society.

Scientific Transactions of the Koyal Dublin Society. II. A monograph
of the marine and freshwater ostracoda of the North Atlantic and of
North- Western Europe. Section I. Podocopa. By G. S. Brady, M.A.,
and Rev. A. M. Norman, M. A. Plates. III. Observations^of the Planet
Jupiter made with the reflector of three feet aperture at Birr Observjitory,
ParsonstowD, by Otto Boeddicker, Ph.D. Plates. IV. A new deter-
mination of the latitude of Dunsink Observatory, by Arthur A. Rambaut.
V. A revision of the British Actiniae, Part 1, Alfred C. Qaddon, M.A.,
etc. Plates. From the Society.

Studies from the Newport Marine Laboratory. Communicated by
Alexander As^assiz. XVI. The Development of Osseue Fishes. II. The
pre-embryonic stages of development. Pt. la. The history of the egg
from fertilisation to cleavage. By A. A(;assiz and C. O. Whitman.
With 12 plates. From A. Agassiz.

Statistics of the colony of New Zealand for 1887. From the Depart-
ment.

Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria, Vol. 1., part I. The
Anatomy of Megascolides Australis. The giant earth worm of Gipps-
land, by W. Baldwin Spencer. From the Author.

Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, 1888. Vol.
XXI. From the Department.

Transactions and Proceedings and Report of the Royal Society of
South Australia. Vol. XI., for 1887-8. From the Society.

Text Book of Geology, by Archibald Geikie, London 1882 (bound).

Verhandlungen des naturhistorischen vereines (current Nos.) From
the Society.

Verhanalungen de Gesellschaf t FUr Erdkunde zu Berlin (current Nos,)
From the Society.

Victorian Naturalist (current Nos.) From the Society.

Victorian Year Book for 1887-8, Vol. m. From the Department.

PBOCEEDINGS, OCTOBEB. XXXI

OCTOBEE, 1889.

The monthly meeting was held on Monday evening, October 15.
There was a large attendance of Fellows and several lady visitors were
present, including Lady Hamilton. His Excellency (Sir Bobt. G. C.
Hunilton, K.C.B.), President of the Society presided.

NEW MEMBER.

Mr. Alex. Montgomery, M.A., Government Geologist and Inspector
of Mines, was elected a Fellow of the Society.

THE PRESIDENT AND "LYNX."

The President said : My attention has been drawn to a paragraph
in last week's Tasmanian Mail in a column headed, ** Echoes " by
*' Lynx," in which an amusing account is given of an error I am
sapposed to have fallen into in describing some of the young salmon
hatched from the ova brought over by Sir Thomas Brady, as *' markedly
ball headed." I am supposed to have seen them, as I think the
writer sometimes sees things, through a distorted medium. (Laughter.)
Kow, I am sorry to spoil so good a story. The fish I examined were
not looked at through a glass, and there is now here, in the Museum,
one cf these fish which is *' markedly bull headed." I do not have
the aoqnainntace of ''Lynx," or I may have that pleasure without
knowing it, but if he will call here, or if ho is here now, he can take
the fish out of the bottle and look at it for himself, and I am sure he
will agree with my description of it. But a more interesting point
irises as to these fish. It almost seems as if some of the characteristics
ol these young salmon vary with their size, or the season of the year,
or whereas a short time ago certainly half the fish had spots on their
dorsal fin and a coloured tip to their adipose fin, the Curator the other
day could only find one possessing these characteristics, and that a
somll one. This is a matter which mi&;ht also be brought under Sir
TbxnoBa Brady's notice when the specimens are sent to him. (Applause.)

Mr. B. M. Johnston felt glad that His Excellency had noted these
peculiar characteristics, because Tasmania was the first to demonstrate
totibe world the possibility of safely transporting fish over a great
diitanoe. They had many things to consider in connection with the
lodimatisation of the fish, and it was a matter of great importance that
tiie resolts of their observations should be communicated to the experts
in the Old Country.

EARLY SETTLEMENT OF TASMANIA.

Mr. J. B. Walker read a very interesting paper entitled ** The
settlement under Collins in 1803-4 : The failure at Port Phillip." The
paper was a continuation of the very complete and graphically historic
aoooont of the foundation of the colony which he has compiled from
official papers, reports, etc., obtained at the instance of the Tasmanian
Government, by Mr. James Bonwick, in London. Former papers
prepared by Mr. Walker dealt with the early visits of French and
English navigators to the colony, and in this one he gave an account
of the voyage of Lieut. Collins when under instructions to found a
oolony at Port Phillip, and the failure to do so. The paper was
attentively listened to, and upon concluding the writer was heartily
apj^uded.

Mr. A. J. Taylor favoured Mr. Walker's suggestion because he had
no doubt these documents would be more highly prized. He was
in hopes that before long they would have an opportunity of securing
ior tiie Ifablic Library a large number of works^ relating to the early
history of the colony.

ZZXU PBOCESDINGS, OCTOBER.

THE AUSTRALIAN CURLEW.

Mr. Morton, acting for Colonel Legge, read a note embodying a
comparison of the Australian Curlew with its near Asiatic ally, and its
more distantly related representative in Europe and Western Asia*
The curlews of the old world, like other members of the Wader family
{Charadriidce), resemble one another in plumage. Unlike the American
curlews, which have a distinguishing characteristic in the buff tinting of
the under wing and axiliaries, the old world species differ chiefly in
the character of the markings of the breast. A marked characteristic,
however, of the Australian bird is its length of bill. As regards our
Curlew (N. Cyanopus) on arriving in Tasmania in Septeml^r, some
specimens have the buff tinge of the breeding season still remaining
on the breast and flanks, and accompanying this is a rufescent hue on
the longer upper tail coverts and central tail feathers. Although
the Australian Curlew is a migratory species, breedint; in northern
climates in summer and ** wintering" here in our summer, many seem
to remain throughout the year with us. It migrates north as far as
Hakodadi, in Japan, and east as far as New Zealand. GThe Eastern
curlew rauges across the continent to China, southward to China, and
down the East coast of South Africa. The range of the European
Curlew is throughout Europe, taking in the Orkney, Faroe, and
Shetland Isles, and extends down the coast of Africa to Damara Land.
It would therefore appear to take in the west coast, while the Asiatic,
or '* Eastern" Curlew monopollBes the east coast and the extreme
south in its wanderings.

astronomical papers,

Mr. A. B. Biggs, of Launceston, forwarded two papers, which were taken
as read. One was entitled *' Observations of comet of July and
August, 1889, taken at Launceston, Tasmania," and "B>ecent measure-
ments of a Centauri."

silver ore.

Mr. A. J. Taylor exhibited a specimen of the silver ore struck at the
100ft. level in the Silver Queen mine at Mount Zeehan.

PAL-EOZOIC FOSSILS.

Mr. Johnston tabled a paper, which he 8%id formed a sequel to a
paper he had read some time ago dealint; with additions to the list of
upper palaeozoic fossils. The paper, at the author's request, was taken
as read.

FUTURE subjects.

Mr. Johnston reminded those present that some time ago the
President had suggested that the Society should deal with a wider
range of subjects. He had brought down a paper, "Boot Matters
in Social and Economic Problems," and if thought desirable it might
be printed and circulated amongst the Fellows in time for discussion at
the next meeting.

The President stated that the Council would be pleased to consider
the suggestion.

votes of thanks.

The President, in moving a vote of thanks to the authors of the
papers, referred in flattering terms to the one read by Mr. Walker.
It was well that they should now perfect the early history of the
colony for they were nearer to the old times than those who had to
follow, and it was aworK which the Society should take in hand, as it
was to a Society of this sort that anyone would come for accurate
records of their early history.

The vote was accorded by acclamation, and the meeting terminated.

^PROCEEDINGS, NOVEMBEK. XXxiii

NOVEMBEK, 1889.

The last meetiDg of the Boyal Society for the present session was
held at the Tasmanian Museum on Monday evening, November 18,
1889. There was a large attendance of Fellows and several ladies,
and His Fzcellency the Governor (President) presided.

ELECTION OF FELLOWS.

Bishop Montgomery and Mr. J. H. Innes were elected Fellows, and
Dra. Schewiakoff and Lanterbach and Mr. F. D. Power were elected
correspood'ng members. The President, in declaring the results of the
hallot, said he was sure they would all sympathise deeply with the
Bishop in the trouble with which his family were afflicted, and had it
not been for that he had no doubt they would have had him present with
them that evening.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS.

Mr. B. M. Johnston, F. L.S., read copious extracts from a very able
paper, which he had prepared, entitled ''Root Matters in Social and
£<M>nomio Problems." When he had concluded, the President said
sach a paper required the most careful study and thought before
anyone should speak upon it, but he hoped next session they would
have certain points in the paper discussed, which he was sure would
raise issues of the fi^reatest interest. The reading of the paper was re-
ceived with loud applause.

the founding of hobart.

Mr. J. B. Walker read a paper entitled "The Founding of Hobart."
This was a further contribution to the series of articles by that gentleman
upon the early history of the colony, based upon original official
dccnments preserved in the English State Record Office, and recently
copied by Mr. Bonwick for the Tasmanian Government. A former
pap?r had given the history of Lieutenant-Governor Collins' expedition
in 1803 down to his abandonment of Port Phillip as unsuited for
settlement. The present paper took up the story from the sailing of
the first detachment from Port Phillip in the ships Ocean and Lady
Nelson for the Derwent. The ships arrived on February 15, 1804,
and Collins, being dissatisfied with Risdon, chose Sullivan's Cove as a
better locality, and on February 20 pitched his tents on the site of
Hobart. The landing place was Hunter's Island, now part of the Old
Wharf, but then an island connected by a sandbank with the mouth of
the rreek, which at that time fell into the river at the Fishermen's Dock.
A dense scrub bordered the creek, along the barks of which grew gum*
trees of the largest size. The camp was pitched on the slope between
the creek and the cove, and extended up towards the present site
of the Cathedral. The description was illustrated by a very beauti-
foUy executed plan by Mr. A. Mault, showing the alterations made
by subsequent filling in of the harbour. Governor Collins' despatches
and general orders, and the diary of Mr. Enopwood, the chaplain,
■applied the materials for an interesting account of the progress of
«ettlement during the first months, the clearing of the ground now
forming the centre of the city, the building of the first Government
House— a wooden cottage on the site of the Town Hall — the location
of the settlers at New Town Bay, the formation of a Government
farm at Cornelian Bay, and the building of huts of '* wattle and dab "
for the prisoners. The prices of labour were fixed at 3s. 6d. per day
for mechanics, and 2s. fid. for labourers. Workmen were paid in
proTisioDs, too often in rum, and the only currency was small pro-

XXxiv PBOCEEDiNGS, NOVEHBEIL

misBory notes issued by the Government. Kangaroo, emn, pigeons,
qaail, aiAl black swans were plentiful, and during the winter months
black whales abounded in the river, as many as fifty being seen
at a time. Explorations were made up the Derwent as far as Mac-
quarie Plains, and the Huon was visited. The new settlement received
the name of *' Hobart Town" after the removal of the Risdon oolony,
but for years it was generally known as *' The Camp." The second
detachment from Port Phillip did not arrive until the 25th June,
the Ocean being five weeks on the passage. A census taken at the
end of July gave the total population at 433.

LIST OF ADDITIONS TO THE LIBKARY.

List of additions to the Library of the Boyal Society, November.

Abhandlungen der Matiiematisch Physikalisohen classe, der Koniglich
Bayerischen, Akademie der Wissienschaften. From the Society.

American Museum of Natural History. Annual report of the
Trustees, etc., for the years 1887-8-9. From the Trustees.

Annual report of the Canadian Institute. Session 1887-8. From the
Society.

Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1886 (bound).
From the Commission.

Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey. No. 40. Changes in
river courses in Washington Territory due to Glaciation, by B. »ViUis.
41. On the fossil faunas of the upper Devonian, the Genesee seclion,
N.Y., by H. S. Williams. 42. Report of work done in the division of
chemistry and physics mainly during the fiscal year 1885-6, by F. W.
Clarke. 43. On the Territory and Cretaceous strata of the Tuscaloosa,
Tombigbee, and Alabama rivers, by E. A. Smith and L. C. Johnson.
44. Bibliography of North American Geology for 1886, by N. H.
Darloo. 45. Present condition of knowledge of the geology of Texas,
by R. T. Hill. 46. The nature and origin of deposits of Phosphate of
lime, by R. A. F. Penrose, junr. 47. Analyses of waters of the Yellow-
stone, National Park, with an account of the analyses employed, by F.
A. Gooch, and J. E. Whitfield. From the Department.

Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, Central Paik,
New York, Vol. II., No. 2, March, 1889. From the Society.

Bulletin of the Essex Institute, Vol. 19, 1387, Nos. 1 to 12. From
the Institute.

Bulletin de la Society de Geographie, Redig4 avee, la concours de la
section de publication, par le secretaires de la commission Centrale
Trimestre 1 to 3, Tome IV., 1888. From the Society.

California State Bureau Mining. Ei^ht annual reports of the State
Mineralogist for the year ending October 1, 1888. From the
Department:.

Department of the Interior. — U.S. Geological Survey, J. W. Powell,
director. Mineral resources of the U.S. calendar year, 1888, by D. T.
Day, Chief of Division of Mining Statistics (bound). From the Depart-
ment.

General Index to the first twenty volumes of the Journal (Botany), and
the botanical portion of the proceedings, November, 1838, to June,
1888, of the Linosean Society oi London (bound). From the Society.

LIST OF ADDITIONS TO THE LiBRARY. tXxV

Geolc^ioal and Nataral History Survey of Canada, annaal leport
(U.S.), Vol. n., 1886, reports and maps of investigations and Eurveys.
From the Department.

G^logical and Natural History Survey of Micnesota. Sixteenth
aonnal report for the year 1887. Two plates and 80 other illustratfons.
From the Department.

Hiatorical Collections of the Essex Institute, Vol. XXIV., January
to I>ecemher, 1887* No8. 1, 2, 3. From the Institute.

Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, of London, General Index,
pt. 4, Vols. XXXVI. to L, 1173 87, Vol. LI , pts. III. IV., September-
December, 1888, Vol. III., pts. I-II., March and June, 1889. From
the Society.

Jonrnal of the Lionsein Society of England (Botany), Nos. 156 to
1.773 (Zoology), Nos. 19, 20, 21, 32, Vol. XX., Nos. 129, 20, 21, Vol.
XXI., No. 132. From the Society.

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Biitain and Ireland
(new series), Vi 1. XX., pts. 3 and 4, July and October, 1888. From
the Society.

Joamal of the Royal Historical and Archaeological Association of
Ireland,. Vol. VIII., fourth series, Nos. 76, 77, 1888-9. From the
Society.

Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Vol. XI.,
No. 4. From the Society.

Journal of the Trenton Natural History Society, No. 3, January, 1888.
From the Society.

List of the Linnaean Society of London, session 1888-9. From the
Society.

List of Geological Society of London, November 1, 1888. From the
Society.

Meteorological observations made at Hobart, and ether places in
Tasmania dutiog the year 1888, by Captain Short, R.N., Meteorological
Obeerver. From the Department .

Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences Vol. IV., part 1.
First memoirs. The Cave fauna of North America, with remarks on
the anatomy of the brain, and origin of the blind species by A. S.
Packard. From the Society.

Proceedings of theRojal Colonial Institute, Vol. XX., 1888-9 (bound).
From the Institute.

Proceedings of the Scientific meeting? of the Geolof^ical Society of
London, for the year 1888, parts 2, 3, 4 ; 1889, part 1. From the
Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, and monthly record
of (^ograpby, Vol. X, Nos. 9 to 12, 1888 ; Nos. 1 to 8, 1889. London.
From the Society.

Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Vol XII., part
II., No. 82; list of members, etc. From the Institute.

Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural history. Vol. XXIII.
Pt. in. February, 1886, December, 1887. Ft. IV., December, 1887,
May, 1888. From the Society.

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Pt. II., March and September, 1888. Pt. III., October and December,
1S88. From the Society.

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, held at Phila-
delphia, for promoting useful knowledge. Vol XXX., No. 128,
XXXL, No. 129. From the Society.

Proceedings ot the American Academy of Sciences, U.S. Vol. XV.,
whole series. Vol. XX II., pt. 1, from May, 1887, to May, 18Sis,
•elected from the records. From the Society.

Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, April, 1880, third
•eriesy Vol. VI., Fax., No. 2. From the Society.

XXXYl LIST OF ADDITIONS TO THE LifiSABlT*

Quarterly Journals of the Geological Society, Vol. XLIV., pt. 3,
No8. 175-6. Vol. XLV., pts. 1, 2, 3, Nos. 177-8-9, August and
November, 1888 ; February, May, and August, 1880. From the
Society.

Report of the Board of Governors of Public Library, Musenm^ and
Art Gallery of South Australia, with the report of the library
Committee for 1888-9. From the Trustees.

Report upon Internation Exchanges under the direction of the
Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1888. By J.
H. Kidder. From the Department.

Rpport oi the Superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory
for the year ending June 30, 1888. From the Department.

Report upon Natural History collections made in Alaska, between
the years 1877 and 1881 by E. W. Wilson, edited by H. W. Henshaw.
No. III. Arctic series of publications issued in connection with the
signal service U.S. Army (two plates) (bound). From the Depart-
ment.

Report of the committee appointed January 6, 1888, by the American
Philosophical Society to assist the Commission on amended Orthography,
created by virtue of a resolution of the Legislature of Pennsylvania.
From the Society.

Re vista do Observatoria Rio de Janeiro. From the Department.

Rude Stone Monuments of Ireland (Co. Sligo and the Island of
Achill), by W. C. Wood -Martin. From the Royal HiBtorical and
Archaeological Society of Ireland.

Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. V, No. 10, October, 1889.
From the Society.

Sitznngsberichte, der Mathematisch — physikalisohen olasse der K. B.
Akademic der Wissenschaften zu MUochen, 1886, Heft 1, II. From the
Society.

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. XXXII. The Constanta
of Nature, a table of specific gravity for solids and liquids, by F. W.
Clarke. Vol. XXXIII., Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of
Washington, Vol. VI. From the Institution.

Societe de Geographie, Compte Rendu, des Seances de la Commission
Centrale Paraissant deux fois par mois, Nos. 1 to 17 1887. From the
Society.

Table Generale des Annales de la Socidtd, Entomologique de Belgique,
Vol. XXX., et catalogue des ouvrages Periodique de la Bibliotheque,
26th December, 1887. From the Society.

Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of
Australasia (Victorian branch), Part I, Vol, VII. From the Society.

Transactions of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in
Scotland, Vol. XXXI., 31st session, 1887-8 (bound). From the Society.

Transactions of the Seismological Society of Japan, Vol. XIII., part 1.
From the Society.

United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Part XIIL
Report of the Commission for 1885. A. Inquiry into the decrease of
food fishes. B. The propagation of food fishes in the waters of thd
United States (bound). Illustrated. From the Commission.

United States Geological Survey. Clarence King, Director. Geology
and Mining Industry of Leadville, Colorado, with atlas. By S. F.
Emmons (bound). From the Department.

Victorian Naturalist, Vol. VI., No. 7. ninth annual report, 1888 9.
From the Society.

Visitor's Guide to Salem, Mass. From the Editor.

Astronomical and Meteorological Workers in New South Wales, 1728
to 1860, by H. C. Russell, B.A. From the author.

BoUetino delta Societd Geografica Italiana, Ser. Ill , Vol. II., Fas.
VIII. Agostol889. From the Society.

UBT OF ADDITIONS TO THE UBBABT. ZXXTU

Bolttim da Sooiedade de Geographia de LiBboa. 8a Ser., Nos. 3 to 6.
From the Society.

Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Vol. XVII., No. 4.
Studiea on the Primitive Axial Segmentation of the Chick (two plates).
By Julia B. Piatt. Studies from the Newport Marine Laboratory.
Gommnnioated by Alexander ^gassiz. XVI. The Development of
OtoeooB Fishes. II. The Pre-£mbryonic Stages of Development, pt.
first. The History of the Egg from Fertilisation to Clearage. By
Alexander Agassiz and C. O. Whitmau (with 12 plates.)

Catalog 51, Americana Kartem und iiber oder gedrnckt in Nerd und
Sttd— Amerik. From the Society.

Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia, and Amphibia in the British Museum,
Pt. IL, oontainiog the orders. '* Ichthyopterygia and Sauropterygia "
(boond). From the Trustees.

. Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion, Pt. III.,
Vol. L, "Medical History," being the third Medical Volume (bound).
From the Department.

Monthly Weather Review of the C States (current parts.) From the
Department.

On a new self-recording Thermometer by H. C. Russell, B.A., Sydney
Obeervatory. From the Author.

Preaident's address, by H. C. Russell, B.A., F,R.S., at the first meet-
ing of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science.
From the Society.

Proceedings and Scientific Transactions, U., UL, IV., V. of the
Roval Sodety of Dublin. From the Society.

Prooeedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, vol. 1, pt. I. From the
Society.

Proposed method of recording variations in the direction of the
vertioal by H. C. Russell. From the author.

Prooeedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, 1889, vol. xi., pt. v.
From the Societv.

PhKseedings of the Royal Society of England, vol, 39 to 45, pts. 241 to
280. From the Society.

Becorda of the Ceological Survey of India, vol. xxii., pt. 3, 1889.
From the Department.

Records of the Geological Survey of India (current numbers.) From
the Department.

Beocnrds of Observations for 1881-4. From the Government Astronomer,
Melboame (bound).

Report of the Victorian Zoological Society, Annual. From the
Sookity.

Report of Surgeon-General of Washington for 1888. From the
DsMurtment*

Beport of the Auckland Institute and Museum for 1888 9. From the
IhiatiBea.

Report of the Mines Department, Victoria, for quarter ending 31st
If arohy 1889. From the Department.

Twenly-third Annual Report of the Colonial Museum, Wellington,
New Zealand, From the Department.

Reports of Geological Explorations during 1887*8. From the Mines
Bmrtment, Wellington, New Zealand.

Report of the Trustees of the Queensland Museum Annual. From
the :unistee8.

Report of Mr. Tebutt's Observations at Windsor, N.S.W., for 1888,
ilso on the high tides of June 15, and 17, 1889, New South Wales.
From the Author.

Bq^ort of the Secretary for Mines to the Hon. Duncan Gillies, M.P.,
on tiSe Mineral Statistics of Victoria for the year 1888. From the
BtpwUneiit*

XXZYIU LIST OF ADDITI0K8 TO THE UBEABT.

Report of the Teohnologioal Mnaeom of Sydoqr for 188H. From tlu
Trotteec.

Report mod Ptoceedingt of the Royal Society of Soath Anstnik foi
1887-8. From the Society.

Reyista do Obeervatocio Rio de Janeiro 1888. From the Department

ResnltB of Meteorologioal obeervatioas made in New Sonth V¥ala
daring 1887 under the cUrection of fl. C. RotMU, 0.A., F.R.S Fioo
the Department.

Thonderstorm of October 26, 1888. The Sydney Obienratory. Froa
the Department.

Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institnte for 1888
V6L XXL From the Department.

Victorian NatoraUst. (Cnrrent numbers). From the Society.

Victorian Year Book for 1887-8. Prom the Department.

Scottish Geographical Magazine (corrent nnmbers). From the Society

Resnlts of Rain, River and Evaporation Observations made in N.S. W
daring 1888. By H. C. Rnssell, B.A.,F.R.S. From the Departmeok

Statistics for 1887, New ZeaUnd. From the Department

The Storm of 2l8t September, 1888. By H. C. Rossell, QovernmeBl
Aatronomer, Sydney, N.S.W. From the Antiior.

THE "IRON BLOW" AT THE LINDA QOLDFIELD.

By G. Thueeaxt, F.G.S.

In the recently issued printed Papers and Transactions of
the Royal Society of Tasmania, on page 216, are published
some notes by Mr. B. M. Johnston, F.L.S., an esteemed
member of the Society, on the " Iron Blow " at the Linda
€k>ldfield, his conclusions having been based upon the
examination of some rocks and specimens from that locality
received from Mr. Crotty and Mr. Belstead, the Secretary for
Mines.

It is upon that remarkable gold-deposit that I desire to
offer a few remarks, at the same time embracing the
opportanity of supplementing and elaborating my report, No.
146 of 1886, presented to Parliament.

In the following remarks, I shall exclusively confine myself
to the question of the probable origin of this unique gold
formation in furtherance of my theory of its being due to
** volcanic agency," and not, as Mr. Johnston contends, to
local decomposition, especially so far as the dark coloured
and pulverulent masses are concerned. I may likewise
observe that in my report to the Government such questions
as these concerning and referring solely to the more scientific
aspect, must of necessity be very brief, because the larger
questions as to the present or ultimate value of any mineral
or metalliferous discovery, are of more immediate practical
value as affecting directly the progress of the community at
large.

In the first place, it appears that the Secretary for Mines
obtained the specimens in question from Mr. Crotty, the
discoverer of that " Iron Blow." Subsequently, Mr. Johnston,
aided by Mr. Ward, the Government Analyst, concluded that
the soft purply black and so highly auriferous mineral was
the result of decomposition of some of that immense bed or
vein of solid pyrites (iron) filling the greater width of the
fissure on its "hanging wall," or about 225 feet out of a total
width of 280 feet between walls of that chasm.

Dismissing all speculations as to whether it has been
prudent to base any reliably practical opinion, such as to the
question of origin of that valuable deposit, upon the examina-
tion of ** specimens" only, even though, such was to some
degree supported by chemical analyses, it further appears
from the late Mr. C. P. Sprent's report that, but a very
eorsory examination of that deposit, in iitu, had been made
during that gentleman's and associates' tour from the Ouse

2 THE "ikon blow" AT THE UNDA GOLDVIIELD.

to the West Coast. Thus, on the whole, a settled and
reliable opinion as to the causes governing the past geological
history of the *' Iron Blow/' accounted for bj Mr. Johnston
as a process of decomposition of materials at hand, in opposi-
tion to the theory of volcanic agencies which I have advanoed
in my report, deserves to be treated in detail, as involving
important issues.

Decomposition is, I believe, a chemical process by which
the destruction of one or more substances leads to ihe sub-
stitution and depositing of quite different matters, thereby
bringing aboufc the rearrangement of the former original
substances in quite different forms.

In this case it has been attempted to be proved that those
massive beds of pyrites on their decomposition from
local causes, were replaced by that highly interesting
pulverulent mass reported so rich in gold. Now, I have
before me two letters from the G-overnment Analyst, viz.:
one dated November, 1824, and the other October,* 1885, in
which the results of the analysis of "solid pyrites" from
that "Iron Blow" are given thus: — In the first letter
Mr. Ward states : " I have carefully tested the minerals
received .... have not been able to detect the
presence of tin or any other metal of commercial value;"
in the second he says : " In none of the samples forwarded
for assay have I been able to find more than traces of gold."
To these may be added those examples cited in Mr. Johnston's
paper, viz.: No. 9, "A sample of Iron Pyrites in which gold
is not mentioned as being present, and in No. 7 the sample
only shows " fine specks of gold just visible to the eye," but
this is not from pyrites, but from the soft purply pulverulent
mass, which is about 56 feet wide.

On page 219, the author states: "Whether we suppose
that the * Iron Blow' is due to hydrothermal agency or not,
there is nothing in the composition of the iron pyrites or the
dark purplish rock which necessitates their having been
originally formed in the way of volcanic mudJ' It is more
probable that the four principal elements, iron, barjtes,
sulphur and gold, were originally precipitated from solution."

Leaving out the references made in the paper in question
as to the production of gold elsewhere as foreign to the subject
under discussion, and which, however, are not altogether
accurate, I beg to direct your attention to the facts upon
which I join issue with Mr. Johnston's theory of origination.

The ajialyses of Mr. Ward, cited by Mr. Johnston and
myself, conclusively prove the almost total absence of gold in
the pyrites, veins, or beds, which may be described as very
dense and excessively solid, and which undoubtedly have
resisted both decomposition and dissolution for ages ; how is

BY G. THUBEAtr, F.G.S. 3

it possible then, I may ask, tliat these almost non-auriferouB
iron bi-sulpliides produced on their supposed (inert) decom
position that peculiar purple mineral, assaying, as reported,
•considerably above 170ozs. of gold per ton ? Again, those so
very solid pyrites contain no barytes, which latter minerals I
first discoTered as the necessary adjunct to the gold. " Ex
nihil aut nihilo fiV*

It may also be fairly questioned how it is that these veins
•or beds of pyrites, so dense in character, must have un
-doubtedly withstood atmospheric influences for immeasurable
periods, on decomposition (?) filled, with new substances
resulting from that process, over 50 feet in width by over a
mile and a half in length, and to unknown depth of an open
fissure with a ** solution'* only. Such a fissure or chasm
would have collapsed at the sides long before the decomposition
process had even been initiated, as the adjacent and super-
incumbent rocks could not have withstood the lateral and
vertical pressure their own great gravity would produce, had
not the walls of that fissure been kept apart by some heavy
filling material of a homogenous kind, exerting in itself a
sufficiently powerful resistance to the overhanging walls of
this fissure.

Supposing, however, decomposition was the cause and effect
of tms rich aggregation of minerals and metals, or, in the
authors own words : " That it (the Iron Blow) is the result of
oxidation of pyrites similar to that now so largely associated
with it ; the hydrated oxide first formed, being subsequently
metamorphosed sufficiently to get rid of its combined vapour
and produce the slight change in the form of disseminated
particles of harytes, as revealed by the microscope ; or, this
process may have occurred during the process of oxidation,"
-etc., etc.

It will therefore be necessary to bear in mind that, as

E roved from analysis, we have, firstly, a nearly non-auriferous
i-sulphide of iron (pyrites) to deal with, containing no baryta
to speak of ; and secondly, that water is assumed to have
produced the rich pulverulent gold rock by means of the
decomposition of the former, and contemporaneously or subse-
quently by means of infiltration filled the fissure, and that
■small (?) disseminated particles of baryta appeared either
before (whence ?) or during the process of oxidation.

Now, it is a fact that baryta is the " matrix" of that purple
rock, exceeding " thirty (30%) per cent, of the whole of the
vein-matter, being disguised by coatings and linings" of
specular iron, and exhibiting gold in fine crystalline and
fOiagree forms ; that auriferous rock Hkewise exhibits a dis-
tinctly recognisable vesicular structure, the cells and cavities
being now, however, filled by means of similar rock of a

4 THE "iron blow" AT THE LINDA OOLDFIELD.

denser kind and of a darker colonr, as, in all probability, the^
result of these ore-deposits haying become saturated with
stesun or hot- vapours, and by means of segregation and
expansion of these high-pressure volcanic emanations, the
cavities or cells were firstly formed and subsequently filled,
thus explaining the so-called "schistose" appearance, which»
from all appearances was principally due to the gradual
cooling of a seething mass of volcanic mud or ash which was^
ejected in combination of several kinds of metallic vapours,
such, as for instance, specular iron, which not only forms a
conspicuous constituent of that volcanic material, but also
occurs quite frequently in the wall-rocks of that immense
fissure. In my opinion everything in connection points to a
more drastic process of origination than simple and quiescent
decomposition only.

That there is strong evidence of the former ebullition and
belching forth of metalliferous and mineral vapours at high
temperatures within certain ejective points of discharge with
the volcanic muds and ashes, is clearly demonstrated by the
occurrence of elongated or spherical nodules in these muds
and ashes, which nodules on examination are found to
contain, within hard crusts of " Limonite " — sesqui-oxide of
iron — nuclei of pure iron pyrites, thus pointing the way how
the decomposition of pyrites under precisely similar circum-
stances has actually occurred, and caused the formation of a
secondary and hydrated iron ore, and not of jmrple roch,
though in very close contiguity to the massive pyrites vein
and beds referred to. Those nodules, it is submitted, present,
neither more nor less, former gaseous bubbles surcharged
with vaporous sulphuretted solutions of iron, becoming rigid
when nearer the cooler atmosphere, and which from compres-
sion by the surrounding muds, etc., assumed their present
characteristically elongated forms.

When it is borne in mind that geologists have concluded
that " the nature of vapours evolved depends on the tem-
perature or degree of activity of the volcanic orifices ; chlorine
and fluorine emanation indicating the most energetic phase
of eruptivity, sulphurous gases, a diminishing condition and
carbonic acid (with hydro-carbons) the dying out of that
activity, and that sublimed by volcanic heat or chemical re-
actions, causing the decomposition of metals and minerals from
condensing vapours along crevices and surfaces wherein they
reach the outer air and are cooled ; and further that, besides
sulphur there are chlorides, and in a lesser degree, iron,
copper, and lead; also free sulphuric acid, sal amonia,
specular iron, oxides of copper, boracic acid, alum, sulphate
of lime, baryta and others, are formed whilst at very high
temperatures, and in connection with simultaneously en-

BY G. THUEEAU, F.G.S.

gendered electric currents " it becomes clear to the close and
careful obserrer of these unique gold deposits, in situ, that
djnamical geology can alone account for these, strictly
speaking, Tolcanic products.

HayiDg myself had opportunities for examining active
^' mud volcanoes " in 1877, near Carson City, State of Nevada,
IT.S^, these " Steamboat Springs " were most interesting,
■and I can therefore speak with some authority upon the
mibject. There, as is held by American geologists, these
volcanic "vents" occur on the line of continuation of the
fiunous Comstock Lode (silver-gold), and each spring or
geyser is indicated at the surface to the visitor, at a distance
by a thin column of white steam. When more closely
approached, it is found that the discharges of heated mud
and vapours are intermittent, and that previous to each of
such discharge a greyish semi-liquid mass rises slowly within
the mouth of the ** f umaroles " below, and en reaching the
top of the respective orifices, the carbonic, sulphuretted and
otuer gases encompassed beneath, cause, through pressure, a
dome-like expansion of the " volcanic mud," which, however,
with increasing subterranean pressure eventually bursts, and
allows the " mud " again to subside. Each discharge, it is
noted, however, leaves a thin deposit or lamina in the "cups"
at the surface, which, after hardening, was found on analysis
to be chiefly charged with silica (quartz), and to also contain
a sensible percentage of gold and silver. This process is
even now in active progress, and as it assimilates a great deal
to what can be seen in its " dead state " at our " Iron Blow '*
— if baryta is substituted for silica as matrix in the latter case
— ^the question of origin as to both metaUiferous deposits is
not only, in my opinion, very suggestive, but forms the only
possibly true solution of the case.

By way of further analogy, I would likewise draw attention
to the fact of Senor Santos having found "Lead" in the
"volcanic ash" from the eruption of Cotopaxi, of August
^rd, 1878, and in a paper read before the Eoyal Society of
England, on January 6th, 1887, Mr. J. W. Mallet, M.D. and
F.B.S., etc., reports upon the *' Occurrence of Silver in Volcanic
Ash, from the Eruption of Cotopaxi, L'cuador, of July 22nd
and 23rd, 1886."

A condensed extract may prove of interest ; — He, Dr.
Mallet, received a specimen of volcanic ash from Senor
Julian B. Santos, of Ecuador, which was collected at his
residence, Bahia de Caraguez, about 102 miles nearly due
west from Cotopaxi. This is the highest and most mighty
of the active volcanoes of our globe ; it erupted on the 22nd
of July, and the ash began to fall at Bahia de Caraguez next
morning, to a depth of several inches, thus representing an

6 THE "IBON BLOW" AT THE LINDA GOLDFIELD.

enormous discliarge of yolcanic and metalliferous as well a»
mineral matter. The specimens consisted of a finely divided^
powder, mobile and soft to the touchy hrovmish grey in colowr.
Under the microscope, the following minerals could be
distinguished in the granules and spicules, viz.: quartz, two
felspars (one white and one pink), augite, magnetite (strongly
magnetic, and scales of deep red specular iron oxide. After
subjecting this ash to several experimental tests, it was, as a
prefiminarj, found to possess a specific gravity of 2*64 at 18^
C, as compared with water at the same temperature. An
analysis of the material taken, as a whole, i,e,, without any
previous mechanical separation of its constituent minerals,
and without previous digestion with water or acid, but dried up-
100 C, gave no less than sixteen separate ingredients,
amongst which were traces of silver. That metal was
subsequently obtained by wet assay ; and it was also after-
wards found that it could be obtained from the ash by furnace
assay — fusion with pure lead carbonate, sodium carbonate-
and a little cream of tartar, and cupellation of the lead button
so obtained or produced, which gave a minute bead of
metallic silver; the same reagents were tested in larger
quantities, leaving out the ash, when negative results followed.
It was subsequently ascertained that silver could be extracted
from this volcanic ash by boiling it with a solution of
ammonia, or of potass, cyanide, or of sodium sulphate."

The discovery of silver in the ash or mud, adds, for the
first time, this metal to the list of elementary substances
observed in the materials ejected from volcanoes, and the
addition derived some special interest from the fact of this
ash having come from the greatest volcanic (active) vents of
that great "argentiferous*' zone of the Andes. Small as
would be the proportion of silver, it must represent a very
large quantity of that metal ejected during the eruption, in
view of the vast masses of volcanic ash, etc., distributed over
the large area which is indicated by the fall of argentiferous
ashes at a distance of 102 miles from the central crater to
Bahia de Caraguez.

There cannot be, it is submitted, much difference of opinion
that, if silver, lead, iron, manganese, titanium, chlorium,
mercury and other less important metals occur in volcanic
ash or mud shown by frequent analyses, as derived,
inter alia from the immensely rich argentiferous formations
which that gigantic " vent " cotopaxi protrudes ; a similar
occurrence here on a smaller scale, within a well-known
^^ auriferous zone** is not only feasible, but can be, or is now,
demonstrated to be a fact. The only, and to us most valuable
difference, is, that the South America ejecta expelled the
silver in its ashes, whilst, with our " Iron Blow " the ash or

BT G. THUBEAU, F.G.S. 7

^mud** is still retained within the "dead" vent or closed
fissure, and happily for the colony at large, it is comeatable,
and it can be extracted by future systematic mining operation s»
followed by skilful treatment for the rich gold it is reported
same contains.

"With regard to the opinion I have had occasion to express
in mj report to the Government, I may add that the mining
operations carried on since still expose rich ores at times, and
as Mr. Johnston concludes his Paper by saying: It — the
hydroihermal theory — had also been adopted by Mr. Thureau
in respect to such mineral formations as the Iron Blow at the
Lmday although the latter " seems to be unaware of the fact
that the mode of origin of the more common quartz reefs are
also frequently ascribed to the hydrothermal agency."

I may be permitted to state that, in the years 1845 to 1848,
when a student at the Boyal School of Mines, Clausthal,
Hannover, Germany, I studied under several eminent pro-
fessors of geology, and at that time no less than five or more
theories — ^including what is now termed hydrothermal — were
known, recognised, and applied practicaUy. Since then I
have been, and am still, an ardent student of mining geology
in several countries, so that it is not likely that I am ignorant
of so important a portion of that science.

When I held, in 1875 to 1877 inclusive, the position as
Lecturer at the Bendigo (Victoria) School * of Mines, of
" Geology as applied to Mining," Mineralogy ; also Practical
Mining, the Administrative Council of that institution
arranged during each winter for a series of public lectures on
Popular Science, and at such I elaborated a series of lectures
upon the hydrothermal origin of the famous Bendigo Quartz
Seef s, without controversy. It appears that at those lectures,
— illustrated by models, diagrams, geological specimens, and
analysis, — visitors from England, New Zealand, and America
attended, and as one result of the interest they must have
taken in the subject dealt with, I was subsequently elected,
mon unsolicited nominations and recommendations, as a
Ifellow of the Geological Society of London, which honour-
able position I still hold and treasure.

ON SOME TIDE OBSERVATIONS AT HOBAET
DURING FEBRUARY AND MARCH, 1889.

By a. Matjlt.

Wishing, primarily in connection with the obtaining of
necessary information for purposes connected with the
drainage of Hobart, and secondarily, to fix the mean sea level
for geodetic and engineering matters, to get a series of tidal
observations, I spoke to Captain Oldham, of H.M.S. "Egeria,"
on the subject and he at once arranged to fix the automatic
tide gauge of his ship on the New Wharf, and to have
observations taken for as long a period as the sojourn at
Hobart permitted. I am indebted to him for the accompany-
ing remarks and tables of observations. To enable him to
connect his observations with the level of some permanent
object on shore, I took the levels from the town datum mark
fixed to one of the steps of the Town Hall to the graduated
staff fixed at the New Wharf in connection vnth the gauge.
In his letter to me enclosing the remarks and tables^
Captain Oldham says : — " From these observations the * mean
**tide level* is 8ft. 2*7 inches on the gauge, or 35*255 feet
" below the datum mark on the Town Hall.

** Please note that these observations are only for one
" month, and that, as probably the mean tide level varies at
''different seasons, to get satisfactory results, a year's
" observations should be obtained — this could easily be done
" with an automatic gauge."

I am glad to say that this will be done, as the Hobart
Marine Board is taking the necessary steps to procure and
fix such a gauge. When it arrives I shall be happy to fix
the graduated staff so as to coincide with the datum of
Captain Oldham's observations.

The following are Captain Oldham's remarks and observa-
tions : —

"Remarks on Tides Observed at Hobart.
February and March, 1889.

1. The tides are subject to a large diurnal inequality; the

highest high water is followed by the lowest low
water, the tide then rises to a lesser high water, and
falls to a lesser low water.

2. With the moon's declination north, the higher high

water follows the superior transit of the moon ; with
the moon's declination south the higher high water
succeeds the inferior transit. .

3. The greatest range of tide appears to occur about two

days after the moon has reached its greatest north or
south declination, the least range when the declination
is zero.

BY A. ILLULT.

i. H-W-F, & C. occurs at Hobart at Sh. Ifimin.

Springs
Month of

■s}

610 a-Si

4;50 9;fii

8-40 MM 1000
9 'SO S0'16 loss
lo'-h 2fl'63 06i»

»M ao-aj -10 T'st Soifl

.. WU 3-8S S'lO 30-21
1'4! M-71 2-96 7-6i 29-fl5

£-62 e-6 SOU

6 -as T'l z»-se

e-SO 7-6 M-80

7-10 7-0 M-87

7-16 7-8 29-82

!i-10 e-6 SO-07

S-4D O'll 29-SO

5-40 8-8 29-70

N.W.byW,
W.N.W.
W.S.W.
North
N.N.W.
S. by B.

1 [0|

MONTH of MARCH.

10 SOME TIDE OBSEBVATIONS AT HOBABT.

For the purpose of more readilj comprebending the
information contained in these observations, I bave prepared
diagrams — the greater part drawn to scale — and setting
forth : —

1st. The curve of tidal action for every day during wbicb
observations were taken, from the 4tb February to
the 6th March, showing the levels of high and low
water in comparison with mean tide level, and the
times at which they occurred.

2nd. The moon's course so as to show the times of superior
and inferior transit of the moon's phases and apogee
and perigee.

3rd. The moon's north and south declination.

4th. The intervals, called by Dr. Whewell ^'Lunitidal
Intervals," of time between the moon's transits and
the succeeding higb water; the extreme intervals
caused by the diurnal inequality being faintly
marked, and the mean intervals more strongly.

6th. Wind force and direction at every time of high water ;
and

6th. Barometric pressure at every time of high water.

The graphic presentation of all these elements synchronically
enables one to judge better of their influence upon the tide.
The diurnal inequality of spring tides is not only shown,
but is shown to follow the usual law, as pointed out by
Captain Oldham, in connection with the north and south
declination of the moon. Equally clearly appears the
occurrence of springs at greatest declination, and not at new
and full moon, so that at Hobart there is no " age of the tide ;'*
and in connection with this the influence of perigee is sbown
in the higher tides at south declination. Captain Oldham's
caution is very useful while looking at these diagrams that we
must remember that we have here only one month's observa-
tion. But it is not likely that a year's observations will
modify the abo'^e-mentioned facts. I believe they will be
chiefly useful in showing that there is some regularity in the
sequence and circumstances of the great apparent irregularities
shown by these observations for one month. To show the
nature and extent of these irregularities I have appended two
diagrams showing for comparison a fortnight's tide curves at
Hobart and a fortnight's at Bombay, and a diagram repre-
senting a normal curve of lunitidal intervals in contrast with
the zig-zag mean line of such intervals at Hobart. These
irregularities will, I think, show that no " estdblishment,'*
that is — time of high water on the day of new or full moon —
can be fixed, although on the month's observations Captain
Oldbam mentions 8h, lum. At Hobart this is of no great

—

, 1-

—

■\

)

{

S i

^^ / 1

?i-

St\-^^

^rd^

1—

BY A. MAULT. 11

consequence, as the depth of water in the harbour is such
iihat the comparatively small rise and fall of tide does not
xnuch affect sailing arrangements.

It is, however, very desirable that the observations to be
taken should be as complete as those given by Captain
Oldham, and I would press on the Society the desirability of
co-operating with the Marine Board to secure this. The
importance of the registration of the actual tidal action
speaks for itself, and equally so does the necessity of com-
paring continually such action with the age and position of
the moon. The force and direction of the wind have also
an influence that must be noted. In connection with this I
may mention that during this month's observations, as shown
on the large diagram, the highest tides occurred with the
wind blowing from north, and north-easterly points — that is
more or less down the Channel. The barometer should also
be carefully observed, if a mean sea level is to be fixed, as a
fall of one inch in the barometer means a rise of 20 inches
in the sea level.

Another important matter can only be secured by the co-
operation of the Marine Board;— the progress of the tide
wave roimd the coast. I would suggest that they be asked
to get their lighthouse men to keep a register of the actual
times of high and low water as nearly as can be ascertained
by them during all the time that registers are being kept
here. This is a matter of general interest.

I have to apologise to the Society for the presentation of
such a meagre paper, but must plead the engrossing nature
of my other occupations, and the time that the preparation
of the diagrams has taken. But I hope I have said enough
to show the desirability of pursuing investigation in this
channel.

Discussion.

Mr. A. G. Webster stated that the Marine Board would
be willing to render any assistance in its power.

Sir Lambert Dobson said that a namesake of his, who
was head-master of the High School, had manufactured an
automatic tide gauge himself, and kept a register of tides for
some time. He could not say when it was, but he thought it
would be about 1853.

Mr. W. E. Shoobridge stated that at one time he used to
register the tide in the Derwent, and found it varied very
much, the lowest tides occurring about February and March.

His Excellency thought it would be very important to
have the observations in regard to the tidal wave aroimd the

12 DISCUSSION ON SOME TIDE OBSEBVATIONS AT UOBABT.

country. With regard to the point raised bj Sir Lambert
DobsoD, he had been told by fishermen and others that low
tides were a sign of fine weather, and high tides of bad weather,
and if they had a series of observations extending over some
time the value of them in this direction would be seen. He had
thought the highest tides would have been experienced when
high winds blew in through the Channel, keeping the water
up, instead of finding the highest tides when the winds came
from the N. or N.E., as Mr. Mault had stated.

ON THE ENCOUEAGEMENT OF A MOEE GENERAL
INTEREST IN SCIENTIFIC PURSUITS.

By Wm. Benson.

The object of this short paper is to offer a suggestion for
the consideration of this Society.

It is a very simple one, and perhaps ought rather to be
made to the Council privately than be brought forward in a
general meeting. But there seemed some advantage to be
gained by mentioning it here, inasmuch as an opportunity
.would be afforded for ascertaining how far other members
coincide in the views expressed.

Our Society unquestionably has rendered, and is now
rendering, practical and substantial benefits to the colony at
large, but I think it may be made of greater use, and may
influence a still wider circle than is at present the case.

Also with regard to its meetings I venture to think that
improvement is possible, which would increase their general
interest and value.

There are amongst our members two classes — first our
savants, or specialists, all more or less entitled to speak with
authority on some particular branch of scientific enquiry ; and
secondly, there are those who possess a general acquaint-
ance with and taste for such matters, but who have not
thoroughly studied any special subject. It is as one of the
latter class, and in their primary interest that I speak, having
heard many say that they do not care to attend these meetings
because the papers read are often abstruse, fragmentary and
dry.

It is obvious that this want of interest arises from our want
of knowledge ; our previous acquaintance with the special
subject brought forward has been to slight to enable us
perfectly to follow the reader. The fault very rarely rests
with him, for it is almost impossible briefly to handle in
detail any scientific topic in a manner that can be readily
comprehended by an unprepared hearer. Even the language
is often strange, for diffuseness can only be avoided by the
free use of technical and unfamiliar words.

So far as the meetings of the Royal Society are intended
for the interchange of notes upon new discoveries between
savants and specialists only, the reading of such papers is a
natural and proper course, though it may still be questionable
whether those who merely hear a technical paper read gam
as full a knowledge of its contents as they would by studying
it at leisure in the Society's printed proceedings.

14 ENCOUBAaEMEirr OF INTEBEST IN SCDENTIFIO PUBSUITS.

But while I would not depreciate the yalue of such papera,
which are and must be the most important that can come
before the Society, yet I would urge whether papers of
another kind might not also be encouraged.

In so small a community as ours the savants can never be
numerous, but there is, or with a little encouragement there
might be, a considerable number among us who would eagerly
and intelligently enter on scientific pursuits if facilities were
ofEered : and surely the fostering of this general interest^
and the creation of a wide-spread scientific taste throughout
our community are well worthy of any attention and assistance
this Society can give. In the long run they will yield
results of practical value, and also materially add to the
prosperity and influence of the Society itself.

It must be remembered that opportunities for self-instruc-,
tion in all local branches of science (by which I mean our
local geology, botany, natural history and the like) are very
few as compared with what have been provided for Engli^
students.

Ihere every branch has not only its well recognised and
standard authorities, but also its popular text-books in which
the subject is presented in a simpler and more approachable
style.

Here our authorities are few, text-books hardly exist, and
English works are in many cases unsuitable. We are at a
great disadvantage in this respect, and are much more
dependent upon the direct teaching of our scientists them-
selves, and for this reason I would ask this Society to consider
whether means cannot be devised for affording instruction
of a more elementary and general kind.

There must be not a few who sometimes attend these
meetings, and very many others who at present never think of
becoming members, to whom such opportunities would be
welcome, and, who by means of such assistance, would be
enabled to follow up chosen studies on their own accoimt, and
to take a livelier interest in the more advanced and specialised
papers that are read here, which at present are too often, I
fear, interesting only to a few.

It is not to be expected that we can inspire everybody with
a love for scientific pursuits. The tastes and talents of many
will always lie in other directions. But good only can result
from any effort that may be made to encourage and develop
such a love wherever its germ exists, and I do not see any
other organisation that is as well qualified to do the work as
tins Society.

I want to see the rising generation more interested than
they appear to be in the physical history of their native
colonv, its fauna and flora, and so forth. At present these

BT WM. BENSON. 15

flrabjects bave attracted but little attention, tbougb tbey are
eaolj made attractive, and this neglect is largely attribut-
able to the absence of accessible sources of information.

The taste for such studies when once acquired rarely leaves
a man, and developes afterwards along the lines of his
peculiar preference, and thus the whole field of scientific
enquiry is gradually occupied, though only a few branches be
«t>ecially taught at first.

At present the Royal Society occupies a somewhat isolated

height, and my wish is to see encouragement offered to

•dimbers from the lower level, and means of ascent provided.

Many plans might be proposed for carrying out such

educational work, and the following suggestion may not

be the best, but there is an advantage in having something

definite before us to be amended if it cannot be approved, and

therefore I would propose for consideration the desirability

of initiating courses of popular lectures on scientific subjects

to be delivered under the auspices of this Society. Such

lectures might alternate with the ordinary meetings, and they

should not be restricted to members, but be open to all who

desired to attend. I do not know whether this room would

be available. It is not spacious enough for a large audience,

but doubtless if the attendance became considerable a suitable

hall would not be wanting. Personally, having great faith in

object lessons, I should like to see the Museum itself made

use of on all occasions where its cabinets could be used as

illustrations, and the lecture would be none the less valuable

to the hearers, and might perhaps be less arduous to the

lecturer if it were so delivered.

Another thing which might be attempted in connection
with this Society is the formation of a Naturalist's Field Club,
similar to what exists iu Melbourne and other Australian
cities.

These two suggestions are much alike in character, and
both the lectures and the excursions might be expected to
give rise to papers, for the discussion of which opportunity
should be found, though of course not at our regular meetings.
One other matter might well interest this Society, but it is
probably one which must originate with some individual
privately, and need only be hinted at here. I mean the
mtroduction of local science primers for school use.

Some may think such work, as is here suggested, too
elementary for our Society to recognise.

This would be true enough if it were proposed to abandon
the Society's present work, or to lower the standard of the
papers submitted to its meetings. But the desire is to
supplement rather than to subvert, and the hope is to obtain
in the end a wider circle of contributors and papers,
embodying more varied original researches.

16 ENCOURAGEMENT OF INTEREST IN SCIENTIFIO PUSSUITS.

Also, if there were any other organisation capable of taking
the matter up, or if the work coald originate spontaneously, I
would not bring it before this Society's notice, but it seems
to me a case where our recognition and help may make the
difference between failure and success.

For years science stood apart. Its affairs were assumed to
be above the popular understanding. But all that has now
been changed, and in Huxley, Tyndall, and many others, we
see men of the highest scientific rank taking the lead iik
bringing their chosen studies home to the minds of the
masses. We need not fear that anything we may do will be
infra dig.

Any proposal for delivermg popular lectures, pre-supposes
the presence amongst us of gentlemen qualified and wuling
to come forward as lecturers. That we have the qualifi^
men none will deny, but it is not everyone who would be
willing to devote the necessary time and thought to the
preparation of such lectures as have been indicated, for it would
involve much trouble, and at first, until public attention had
been thoroughly aroused, there might appear to be too
little interest manifested to warrant the effort. But I
hope the love of science for its own sake, which animates
all who have advanced any distance into its mysteries,,
may suffice to induce one or more of our savants to
offer their services, and to permit the experiment to be
at any rate tried. It is hardly probable that we
should ever have a continuous succession of lecturer
all the year round, but if from time to time such series could
be delivered, and if the Council of this Society could keep an
open eye for any opportunity that may arise to interest the
public, and especially the young, I have faith that good
results will follow.

Discussion.

Sir Lambert Dobson said he had heard many lectures in
his early days which had furnished him with a great deal of
information, and which had been of great use to him sinco
then. He was thoroughly in accord with Mr. Benson that
the Society could be much more useful than it is at present.
The start wanted to be made, and there was no reason why
they should not have, say, half-a-dozen lectures in the course
of a session. Geology was a subject which might well be
introduced, and there were many other subjects which would
be found both interesting and useful.

Mr. James Barnard thought it would be very practicable
to follow out the idea suggested by Mr. Benson, and he
heartily supported and concurred in this.

DISCUSSION ON INTEREST IN SCIENTIPIC PUBSUITS. 17

The Hon. Nicholas Bbown said there could be no doubt
fliat if it were possible to carry out a system of popular
lectures they would gather in a much larger interest in the
proceedings of the Society than at present existed. He
thought the Council of the Society shoidd take the matter up
and endeavour to ascertain whether or not it would be
possible to give effect to the suggestions made by Mr,
Benson.

Mr. Mault agreed wjth the suggestions contained in the

Siper, and ei^cially the one relating to the formation of a
atontlist's Field Cflub, which could work during the receas
of the Society. He would particularly urge this upon the
Council, because during the summer months they would
probably gain a good deal of knowledge through coming in
oontact with members of similar clubs from the other
colonies.

The Bev. E. G. Pobtbb (United States), on being intro-
duced and requested by His Excellency to give some idea of
the working of American societies, said he was cordially in
s]rmpathy with the objects of the Society and the paper
irhicii had been read by Mr. Benson. In America people
were glad to study and glad to learn. They had many
societies, and although none of them were ''Eoyal," he
thought they were doing " Eoyal work." (Laughter.) He
gaTC an interesting account of the scientific work undertaken
by the American societies, and stated that the results were
that science became popular, and that large audiences could
be secured at lectures, not only in the cities but in smaller
towns.

Mr. MoBTON stated that the Technical School Board had
already arranged for a course of lectures to be delivered in
connection with the work of the schools. Dr. Giblin, at the
special request of the Board, had undertaken to give a series
of lectures on " Human Physiology." His lectures would be
illustrated by means of an excellent collection of slides. As
secretary to the Society he would take care that the sug-

Sstions contained in the paper should be brought before the
^uncil.

Mr. W. E. Shoobbidgb thought the Society should also
take up the question of advising in regard to text books
suitable for schools.

The Pbesident (Sir B. Hamilton), in moving a vote of
thanks to the readers of the papers, said he thought the
suggestions made by Mr. Benson might be left to the
Council.

A vote of thanks was carried by acclamation.

NOTES ON THE POSSIBLE OSCILLATION OP

LEVELS OF LAND AND SEA IN TASMANIA

DUEING EECENT TEARS.

By Captain Shobtt, E.N.

During the years 1883, 1884, 1885, and 1886, or immediately
prior to the eruption at Tarawera, this island, and the South-
Eastem portion of the mainland of Australia, were frequently
shaken by earth tremors ; and as such disturbances are often
known to be associated with local changes of sea and land, it
appeared to me to be of great importance to ascertain whether
any recent change could be traced along the coast-line of this
island.

This enquiry in a young colony is attended with many
difficulties, as with one isolated exception, hereafter discussed^
no definitely fixed tide marks are in existence by which satis-
flEictory conclusion might be drawn.

The exception, however, is of peculiar interest, as it affords
us some information, so far as the locality is concerned, in
which this fixed tide mark occurs. The tide mark here referred
to is situated on the North side of the " Isle of the Dead,"
which lies off Point Puer, Port Arthur. This mark was cut
in the rock broad arrow form, on the 1st July, 1841, by the
then Deputy-Assistant Commissary- General, Mr. Lempriere.
The circumstances under which this mark was placed there is
explained by Captain Sir James Clark Eoss, E.N., in his work
entitled " A Voyage of Discovery andEesearch in the Southern
and Antarctic Eegions during the years 1839-43." Thus Page
22 : — My principal object in visiting Port Arthur was to afford a
comparison of our standard barometer with that which had
been supplied to Mr. Lempriere, the Dupty- Assistant Com-
missary-General, in accordance with my instructions ; and also
to establish a permanent mark at the zero point, or general
mean level of the sea, as determined by the tidal observationa
which Mr. Lempriere had conducted with perseverance and
exactness for some time ; by which means any secular variation
in the relative level of the land and sea, which is known to
occur on some coasts, might at any future period be detected,
and its amount determined. The point chosen for this purpose
was the perpendicular cliff of the small islet off Point Puer,
which being near to the tide register, rendered the operation
more simple and exact ; the Governor, Sir John Eranklin, whom
I had accompanied on an official visit to the settlement, gave
directions to afford Mr. Lempriere every assistance of labo^^reni

Bi CAMAIK &HOUTT, B.TX. 19

lid required, to have the msak cut deeply in tiie rock, in the
exact spot which his tidal observations indiieated as the mean
level of the ocean.

I may here observe, that it is not essential that the mark b^
made exactly at the mean level of the ocean, indeed it is more
desirable that it should be rather above the reach of the highest
tide, and the exact distance above the mean level recorded.

The most desirable position for such another mark would be
near the North- West extremity of the island, in the vicinity
of Cape Grim.

Mr. Lempriere, it is evident, carefully carried out these
directions^ for on a tablet still existing a Httle above the tide
mark in question is the following record. "On the rock
fironting tnis stone a line denoting the height of the tide now
struck on the Ist July, 1841, mean time 4h. Mm. p.m.;
moon's age 12 days ; height of water in tide gauge 6 ft. lin."

It is stated by my informant, Mr. T. Mason, that the words
4md figures underlined are nearly obliterated, and that he has
IpLven what they appear to be. It is unfortunate, also, that no
other records can be found relating to Mr. Lempriere's tidal
observations, although I have searched all local records. I have
also applied to Capt. "W. J. Z. Wharton, R.N"., Hydrographer
of the Admiralty, with the view of ascertaining if they had
any records relating to Mr. Lempriere's observations at Port
Arthur, but in answer I learn that no records of tidal
observations have ever been received at the Admiralty.

Capt. Wharton at the same time informs me that the
approximate time of high water on 1st July, 1841, was
5 n. 35 m., p.m., that is nearly an hour later than the apparent
record on the tablet. If we now assume that the tide
now strucJc refers to high water, which is most probable, we
have some means of determining whether any change has since
occurred in the relative levels of sea and land.

Mr. Mason, at my request, very kindly ascertained the time
of low water on February 24th, 1888, at 11 h. 45 m. a.m., which
day corresponds relatively with the moon's age 47 years
previously.

At this low water level the mark was found to be 2f ft. above.
This very closely corresponds with the normal difference between
these levels of low and high water, and would therefore indicate
that there has been practically no alteration of the relative
levels of sea and land during the last 47 years. This, however,
only bears witness to possible movements in the Southern
poition of the island. As regards the Northern portion there
18 no definite knowledge ; but it is interesting to place on
record, that Captain Miles has learnt from the half-casts in the
Fomeaux G-roup they have noticed within the last few years

20 POSSIBLE OSCILLATION OF LEVELS OV LAJBO) AHD SEA.

that there seems to be less depth of water oyer certain well-
known rocks near the islands than formerly. This, howerer, if
tme, does not seem to have been a sadden change, but rather a
slow elevatini; movement possibly still going on. As it is of
the greatest importance to get more definite information with
regard to this locality^ I have already taken some steps te fix
a tide mark on Hinders Island, so that in future years obser-
vations may be made upon some certain data that we at present
possess.

It would be desirable also in the interest of Navigation te
have such marks carefully made on various parte of our coast
line.

It might be of value, therefore, if this important matter
received the attention of the Members of this Sociefy.

THE "lEON BLOW" AT THE LINDA GOLDFIELD.

By E. M. Johnston, r.L.S.

At the last meeting of this Society a paper, contributed by
Mr. G. Thurean, F.G.S., was read, which calls for some
•observations from me. Before commenting upon the matters
which have caused differences of opinion, however, let me
•express my sincere regret that any unfortunate remark of
mine should have led him to suppose that I do not appreciate
iihe scientific ability of the author of the paper in question.
Having said this much, it will, I hope, be granted that the
existence of differences of opinion upon geological matters
which are obscure may nevertheless exist, and, in fact,
oontinually happen — between the greatest names in science —
without questioning the talents or training of those who may
espouse irreconcilable opinions.

The differences of opinion as between myself and Mr.
Thureau, fortunately, are not of a serious nature, and,
according to Mr. Thureau's recent explanation, I perceive they
are more due to the confused way in which descriptive terms
are employed than to any real differences of opinion. The
question between us has been altogether misconceived by Mr.
Thureau, and even in his last paper he often leaves me in
doubt whether he is referring (1) to the original agencies by
which the original metalliferous deposit was formed, or (2) to
the causes wluch produced subsequent modifications. If Mr.
Thureau had discussed the Iron Blow question without
•confusing these two fundamental considerations it would have
placed the issues between us in a very small compass. I shall
endeavour to keep free from this confusion by discussing the
iiwo questions separately : —

I. (a) Under what circumstances and by what agency was
the fissure formed originally ?
(p) From whence and by what agencies were its present

altered and unaltered contents derived P
(r) By what mode were the original matters deposited
or obtained ?

First, then, we have to enquire —

Under what circumstances and by what agency was
the fissure originally formed i

The schists and conglomerates in which the great fissure
occurs are evidently of Silurian age, and the forces which
operated in dislocating them must, therefore, have been
exerted not earlier than this period. From the abundant

CC -rrt^-Kr -nx /^«n- »

22 THE "mON BLOW" AT THE IINDA 60LDFIELIX

evidence at our command of crumpled, distorted, folded, and
metamorphosed strata, common in rocks of this age, there is-
little doubt of the fact that the dynamic forces at work were
fflu: more potent than at present, although not difEerent from
forces still in operation, whose throes, like those of Krakatoa-
and Tarawera, are still mighty enough to produce vast local
disturbances. There is little doubt m my opinion, therefore^
that the fissure at the Linda was originally caused by the
same dynamic forces which caused the dilating, folding, and
metamorphosis of the crystalline rocks, and that these mighty
effects were primarily caused bj the gravitation of the outw
crust towards the shrinking and cooling central nmss of the
earth. Mallet's lucid exposition of this theory, many years
ago, has convinced the large body of geologists of the
reasonableness of this ; and I may be pardoned if I cannot
discover any flaw in its sufficiency to account for all the
dynamical phenomena observable at the Iron Blow.

The next consideration is — Was the opening of the fissure
accompanied by the expulsion of heated materials from the
interior of the earth by volcanic agency ? This brings us to
the second part —

From whence and by what agencies were the present
altered and unaltered materials derived i

With respect to this question, I am still in accord with Mr.
Thureau, for I am of opinion that the expulsion of heated
materials from the interior of the earth by volcanic agency
has occurred, and to this expulsion may be attributed the
immediate cause of the opening of the Iron Blow fissure. My
original suggestion, that the materials now forming the
contents of the fissure does not " necessitate their having
been formed originally in the way of * volcanic mud,' " is
incorrectly interpreted by Mr. Thureau as a denial of volcanie
action.

This interpretation, moreover, is hardly warranted; for
Mr. Thureau is well enough aware that elements such as
barium, sulphur, iron and gold, now contained in the fissure
are, and may have been, expelled from the interior of the
earth as volcanic products by way of sublimation or heated
solutions, or by both together or alternately. Mr. Thureau
elsewhere admits this, for he states the discharges of the
volcanic vents alluded to by him "leave a thin deposit or
lamina in the * cups ' at the surface which, after hardening,
was found on analysis to be chiefly charged with silica
(quartz), and to also contain a sensible percentage of gold
and silver." Now this deposit, it is clear by his own showing,
was not composed of ''volcanic mud" seen in ebulition as
" a greyish semi-liquid mass . . . within the mouth of
the ' f umaroles,' " but was essentially a distinct chemicat

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.& 3f

d^sii formed from associated heated solutions. If, therefore,
fu8 be the process — a4si Mr. Thiireau avers it to be—'' which
assimilates a great deal to what can be seen in its ^dead
state ' at our ' Iron Blow/ " it is Mr. Thureau himself who
OTerthrows his own argument, for it is not "volcanic
mud " which he likens to the baryta of the Iron Blow, but the
mlica found as '' lamina in the cups " which, without doubt,
by his own showing, was formed as a precipitcUion from
solution! Where, then, is Mr. Thureau's logic in finding
firalt with me for preferring to believe the same thing in my
statement, quoted by him, viz., " It is probable that the four
p!rincii>al elements — iron, baiytes, sulphur, and gold — were
mif^msSij precipitated together from solution ? "

That there can be no mistake that the contents of the Iroji
Blow were considered by him to be the analogues of the silica
precipitated from solution, and not the " greyish semi-liquid
mass," is proved by the following sentence : — ** If baryta is
substituted for silica (as matrix?) in the latter case, the
question of origin as to both metalliferous deposits is not
only, in my opinion, very suggestive, but forms the only
possible true solution of the case."

I am, of course, extremely gratified to find in this clear
expression of opinion that he thus agrees with me that
precipitation from solution is " the only possible true solution
of the case ;" for while it refutes his " volcanic mud " theory,
it more firmly establishes my opinion " that the four principal
elements — ^iron, barytes, sulphur, and gold — were originsdly
precipitated from solution."

Besides this, there is no evidence at the Iron Blow to show
fliat the respective solutions were in anyway associated with a
•* volcanic mud " corresponding to the " greyish semi-liquid
mass within the mouth of the fumaroles" of America, of
whose composition Mr. Thureau's description does not afEord
us the slightest enlightenment.

Strictly speaking, mud is a term more appropriately applied
to mechanical mixtures of various hydrous aluminous silicates,
and such mixtures are fundamentally different from the
definite chemical compounds ^ pyrites and barytes^ which form the
characteristic contents of the lode at the Lron Blow.

Causes which produced subsequent modificcUion of
materials as originally precipitated.

This part of the subject does not concern me so much as
Mr. Ward, who is well able to defend his own views. I may,
however, be allowed to observe that Mr. Thureau's denial
that the soft and pulverulent combination of iron peroxide
md barium sulphate of a deep purplish colour, togetiier with
tiie still more modified massive blocks forming the cap of this

U-r^MT «T/v-»'>

24 THE "ntON BLOW" AT THB LDXDJL GOLDFISLIX

part of the lode, have been derived by sabsequent decom-
position of the parts more exposed to deoomposing agencies,
IS a most unsatis&ctory position for him to assume. £i is not
true, as stated by him, that the iron pyrites contain ** no
baryta to speak of." At page 218, " Eoyal Soc. Proc, 1886,"
the analysis given by Mr. Ward shows iron bisulphide pyrites,
83*0 per cent.; barium sulphate (barytes), 17 per cent., i.e.,
actually 2*85 per cent, less than the decomposed pulverul^
mass, which Mr. Ward, no doubt, rightly attributes to oxida-
tion of pyrites.

Mr. Ward nowhere states that the entire mass of pyrites
has undergone decomposition. On the contrary, he refers to
the exposed surface of one portion of the original lode. The
very fact that the undecomposed pyrites analysed by him was
stated to be taken from a section described as two chains
wide is proof that this is so. Mr. Thureau's most extravagant
allusion to the fissure collapsing in consequence of a partial
decomposition is therefore too preposterous to dwell upon. Has
Mr. Thureau ever known pyrites, long exposed in lodes to air
and water, not to have suffered from decomposition ? That both
decomposition and recomposition in mineral veins are among
the most common of all occurrences cannot reasonably be
disputed. G^ikie, surely, may be trusted in a simple matter
of this kind. At page 697, " Text Book of Geology," he
states : — '^ It has been noticed that the ' countiy ' through
which mineral veins run is often considerably decompos^
In Cornwall this is frequently very observable in the granite.
Moreover, in most mineral veins, there occurs layers of clay,
earth, or other soft, friable, loamy substances, to which various
mining names are given. In the south-west of England the
great majority of the remarkable minerals of that district
occur in those parts of the lodes where such soft earths
abound. The veins evidently serve as channels for the
circulation of water both upward and downward, and to this
circulation the decay of some bands into mere clay or earth,
and the recrystallisation of part of their ingredients into rare
or interesting minerals are to be ascribed." So much for
decomposition. Mr. Thureau, curiously enough, makes no
allusion to the remarkable strings and veins of solid barytes
penetrating the decomposed part of the lode. He would
find it a difficult task to account for these strings on the
assumption that they were formed contemporaneously with
the pyrites mass, or even with the decomposed portion of the
original lode.

Mr. Thureau's inexactness is also conspicuous in his
references to baryta. In the first part of his paper, referring
to iron pyrites (bi-sulphide), he states that it containij '' no
baryta to speak of," and yet he had Mr. Ward's analyses

BT B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 26

before him proTing that it actually contained 17 per cent, of
baiyta, thus : —

Ibon Pybitbs.

(Section : 2 chains wide.)

Per cent.

Iron bi-sulphide (pyrites) 83'0

Barium sulphate (barytes) 17*0

100-0

The only difEerence of composition between the pyrites and
Hie purple rock is due to oxidation of pyrites, thus :

Per cent.

Iron peroxide 77*75

Barytes 19*86

Water, etc 2*40

100*00

It will be seen, therefore, that the derivation of the one from
the other is not such an inconceivable matter as Mr. Thureau
wtLB led to imagine from his inaccurate interpretation of the
data at his command.

Mr. Thureau again makes a curious reference to the baryta
of this purplish rock, in his expression — " Now it is a jact that
baryta 18 the 'matrix' of that purple rock." How baryta
can be the *^ matrix*' of the larger constituent iron peroxide
{the latter being nearly four parts iron peroxide to one part
baiyta) is a puzzle to me.

The word matrix is usually employed by geologists to
designate the rock or m>ain substance in which a crystal
mineral or fossil is embedded. According to this meaning of
the word, Mr. Thureau is far from correct in stating that
^' it is a foot that baryta is the matrix of that purple rock."

MUD VOLCANOES.

As regards mud volcanoes, there are two well-known kinds,
both of which differ widely in characteristics from the phe-
nomena associated with the deposits of the Linda Iron Blow.

The furst kind is not volcanic in the proper sense of the
term, although variously named mud volcanoes, salses, air
volcanoes, and maccUubas, G^ikie describes these as forming
groaps of conical hills formed by the accumulation of fine
and usually saline mud. They are distinguished from true
mud volcanoes in having their chief source of movement in
the escape of gases due to underlying chemical changes, usually
carbon dioxide, carburetted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen,
and nitrogen. The mud is usually cold.

BT B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 26

before him proying that it actually contained 17 per cent, of
baiyta, thus : —

Ibon Pybitbs.

(Section : 2 chains wide.)

Per cent.

Iron bi-sulphide (pyrites) 83*0

Barium sulphate (barytes) 17*0

100-0

The only difEerence of composition between the pyrites and
the purple rock is due to oxidation of pyrites, thus :

Per cent.

Iron peroxide ... 77*75

Barytes ... ... 19*86

Water, etc 2*40

100*00

It will be seen, therefore, that the derivation of the one from
the other is not such an inconceivable matter as Mr. Thureau
was led to imagine from his inaccurate interpretation of the
data at his command.

Mr. Thureau again makes a curious reference to the baryta
of this purplish rock, in his expression — " Now it is a jact that
baryta is the 'matrix' of that purple rock." How baryta
can be the *^ matrix*' of the larger constituent iron peroxide
{the latter being nearly four parts iron peroxide to one part
bo^a) is a puzzle to me.

The word matrix is usually employed by geologists to
designate the rock or main substance in which a crystal
mineral or fossil is embedded. According to this meaning of
the word, Mr. Thureau is far from correct in stating that
** it is a fact that baryta is the matrix of that purple rock."

MUD VOLCANOES.

As regards mud volcanoes, there are two well-known kinds,
both of which differ widely in characteristics from the phe-
nomena associated with the deposits of the Linda Iron Blow.

The furst kind is not volcanic in the proper sense of the
term, although variously named mud volcanoes, salses, air
volcanoes, and macalubas, G^ikie describes these as forming
groups of conical hills formed by the accumulation of fine
and usually saline mud. They are distinguished from true
mud volcanoes in having their chief source of movement in
the escape of gases due to underlying chemical changes, usually
carbon dioxide, carburetted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen,
and nitrogen. The mud is usually cold.

BT B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 26

before him proTing that it actually contained 17 per cent, of
baiyta, thus : —

Ibon Pybites.

(Section : 2 chains wide.)

Per cent.

Iron bi-sulphide (pyrites) 83*0

Barium sulphate (barjtes) 170

100-0

The only difference of composition between the pyrites and
the purple rock is due to oxidation of pyrites, thus :

Per cent.

Iron peroxide 77*75

Barytes 19*86

Water, etc 2*40

100-00

Mr. Thureau again makes a curious reference to the baryta
of this purplish rock, in his expression — " Now it is a jact that
baryta is the 'matrix' of that purple rock." How baryta
can be the '^matrix*' of the larger constituent iron peroxide
(the latter being nearly four parts iron peroxide to one part
baryta) is a puzzle to me.

The word Tnatrix is usually employed by geologists to
designate the rock or main substance in which a crystal
mineral or fossil is embedded. According to this meaning of
the word, Mr. Thureau is far from correct in stating that

it is a fact that baryta is the matrix of that purple rock."

MUD VOLCANOES.

As regards mud volcanoes, there are two well-known kinds,
both of which differ widely in characteristics from the phe-
nomena associated with the deposits of the Linda Iron Blow.

U-r^r^^ «-r/>-Rr»

86 THE "ntON BLOW" AT THE LINDA OOLDFIELD.

The inie mud volcano occurs in volcanic regions proper,
and '' is due to the escape of hot water and steam through
beds of tuff or some other friable kind of rock. The mud is
kept in ebulition by the rise of steam through it. As it
becomes more pasty the steam meets with greater resistance;
large bubbles are formed which burst, and the more liquid
mud below oozes out from the vent."

These true mud volcanoes, in my opinion, neither in their
mode of appearance, nor in their characteristic contents, show
the slightest correspondence with the metalliferous fissure
lodes of the Linda district.

I may mention that although my examination of the
various lodes in this district was necessarily limited, they
occupied my close attention for the better part of three days,
at a time when they were well exposed by working opera-
tions;

DiscrssioN'.

Me. W. !P. Waed, Government Analyst, said : —

The point under discussion is the origin of the "formation"

known as the " Iron Blow," the oxidised portion of which was

described by Mr. Thureau as " volcanic mud or ash." Mr.

Johnston, however, from close examination on the spot, and I

myself, from the " internal evidence " yielded by specimens,

etc., attribute to this a non- volcanic origm.

The materials of this formation are (1) barytes, sulphate of

barium, or heavy spar, (2) iron pyrites, or disulphide of iron,

(3) hsematite, or sesquioxide or peroxide of iron.
I will glance briefly at the usual modes of occurrence of each,

as showing in the first place that they are not usually

** volcanic products."

1. " Heavy spar" occurs commonly in connection with beds
or veins of metallic ore as part of the ** gangue " of the ore.

It is found crystallised in the Cumberland haematite mines
in the carboniferous limestone, and as much as 14 per cent, of
sulphate of barium has been found disseminated in hsematite
from another district.

2. " Iron pyrites " is very widely distributed and abundant
in rocks of all ages. By the decomposition (by the action of
water and air) on the large scale of masses of pyrites, deposits
of brown iron ore may be produced, sulphur being lost and
oxygen and water tsJcen up by the iron, and a very moderate
heat suffices to convert this hydrated brown oxide into the red
oxide or haematite by driving out the combined water.

8. ^' Hsematite " occurs in many forms differing in texture
and state of aggregation as: (a) crystallised, forming

DiaOUBSION ON THE "iBON BLOW ' AT LINDA GOLDFIELD. 27

^speoalar iron;" (h) fibrous, red b»matite; (p) earthy,
oooze, but all conBistmg essentially of peroxide of iron.

In the Cumberland deposits are found hard or *' blast " ore,
and Bofib, or " puddler's " ore, from its use in the puddling
fiomace : the hard, fibrous, and more common form often passing
into the crystallised condition.

In Elba, bsematite occurs 'crystallised between talcose (or
perhaps hydro-mica) schists and crystalline limestone, and the
CBtystaU are frequently associated with iron pyrites. It is also
loand with other minerals as an abundant component of
mineral veins, also in beds interstratified with sedimentary or
■chistose rocks.

On the other hand ** specular iron " in some cases is a result
of igneous action, is abundant around some volcanoes ; and as
pointed out by Mr. Thureau, scales of specular iron were
&und with 15 other minerals in " ash " from Cotopazi.

To return to the formation, and quoting Mr. Thureau, we
have ''An immense bed or vein of solid pyrites filling the
greater width of the fissure on its hanging wall, or about 225 ft.
out of a total width of 280 fb. between walls of that chasm."
Alao '^ A soft purply pulverulent mass of oxide of iron about
56 ft. wide " on the foot-wall.

Now, as we have abeady seen, the pyrites decomposes sooner
or later according to circumstances, and Mr. Thureau himself
found '' elongated and spherical nodules, which on examination
were found to contain within hard crusts of sesquio2dde of iron
(hvdrated), nuclei of pure iron pyrites . . . the nodules
bem^ in very close contiguity to the massive pyrites vein
or bed;'* these showing that, as might be expected,
decomposition is still taking place.

To the analysis made by me in connection with Mr.
Johnston's origmal paper, I appended a note thiEit " there seems
little room for doubt that the ' Iron Blow ' is the result of
oxidation of pyrites similar to that now associated so largely
with it ; the hydrated oxide first formed subsequently losing its
combined water," and I was not a little influenced in forming
this opinion by finding 17 per cent, of sulphate of barium
intimately mixed with the pyrites, and 20 per cent, of that
substance, in similar condition^ intermixed with the peroxide of
iron. This sulphate of barium Mr. Thureau claims to have
"first discovered as the necessary adjunct to the gold." While,
however, Mr. Thureau ignores or misquotes the evidence from
the presence of this common constituent, and also deprecates
fixnmng opinions from the examination of specimens only, he
yet advances as a most, if not the most, cogent argument in
fiivour of ''volcanic agency," the "almost non-auriferous"
character of the scraps of pyrites assayed, as contrasted

28 DISCTJSSIOK ON THE ''iBON BLOW" AT UNDA 60LDFIELD.

with the high result of assay of one sample of the oxide of
iron. Li addition, he calls in to explain tne presence of this
always irregularly distributed metal gold, as I contend, quite
unnecessarily, " a more drastic process of origination than
simple and quiescent decomposition only,'* applying this
only to the 02dde of iron and not to the bulk of the pyrites
which fills four-fifbhs of the same ''chasm."

To return for a moment to the nodules of decomposing
pyrites found in the Blow itself, to quote Mr. Thurean again,
" these present, neither more or less, former gaseous bubbles
surcharged with vaporous sulphuretted solutions of iron
becoming rigid when cooled, elongated or rounded by com-
pression." This form isalmost certainly also due todecomposition
which, acting more rapidly on edges and comers of irregular
fitigments, more or less rounds them off.

In conclusion, therefore, I maintain that ordinary processes of
decomposition are sufficient to account for all the phenomena
presented by the oxide of iron portion of the formation, and
that there is no necessity to invoke " a more drastic process of
origination strictly speaking volcanic."

The SficEETABT (Mr. A. Morton), read a letter received
from Professor Liversidge, Sydney XJniversity, in which he
stated that his impression formed upon Mr. Thureau's paper,
and without having specimens before him, was that the !&on
Blow was not of volcanic origin. It would be almost im-
possible to form a decided opinion without actual examination
of the Blow.

NOTES ON A CASE OF POISONING THEOTJQH
BATING A POBTION OF THE " BRUGMANSIA."

By Db. Habdt.

The case which I bring before you is one of poisoning
Arough eating a portion of the common trumpet flower
(Bmgmansia) now shown to you.

This plant belongs to the order of solanacisB and is there-
fiire allied to a number of others which are recognised as poisons
for example : stramonium, belladona, tobacco, also potato and
tomato. Gl^hese latter being classed as poisons appear at first
aiffht contradictory, but although the tuber of the potato is
wholesome when cooked, the leaves and other parts of the
plant are poisonous.

Stramonium and belladonna, although in common use as
medicines, are highly dangerous if taken in improper
doses.

The potato is a powerful narcotic and has been used in
ifaeumatism, while henbane is in common use as a sedative in
irritable conditions of the brain.

With these introductory remarks I will narrate the case in
question : —

On Thursday last a child, a&;ed 2, after having a good dinner
and appearing in perfect health in all respects, ate a portion of
a trumpet lily, which had been picked in the garden of a
gentleman living in this town. Within a short time symptoms
manifested themselves, and I was called in to what the
messenger described as a case of convulsions.

On examining the child I was struck by certain peculiarities
in the symptoms unlike those of ordinary convulsions. The
child's face and greater portions of the body were red, the eyes
staring and the pupils widely dilated, the head and shoulders
bent back, and tne position almost that usually seen in tetanus
or lockjaw ; the feet pointing inwards and the great toes drawn
up and stiff, an appearance of fear in the face and starting at
times as if a&aid of falling off the nurse's knee and finally
arms moving irregularly, power of co-ordination partly
lost, and the hands picking at imaginary objects. I
was struck by the resemblance to a case of poisoning in a
child by drinong some belladonna liniment, which I attended
some 8 or 10 years ago, and so questioned the mother as to
whether any medicines of any kind had been lying about.

30 NOTES OK A CASE OF POISONINa

However, no such cause was to be found but she said the child
had been eating the plant she produced, which is said to have
a pleasant taste. Under prompt treatment the child improved
and next day was nearly well, and on the following day
apparently none the worse for its botanical experiments, but
the parents have decided not to grow a trumpet lily in their
garden, as they had intended doing. I have heard that a
similar case occurred here some years ago, but have been
unable to find out the particulars, or how the case terminated.
My object in bringing forward this case, apart from the
scientific interest, is, that although proverbially "a little
knowledge is a dangerous thing," still, the knowledge of the
unsuspected dangers existing in our gardens is of interest to
those of us, like myself, having chLdren of an inouisitive turn
of mind

NOTES ON ANGORA GOAT FARMING.
By James Andbew.

This is not the first occasion on which the advantages and
profits of Angora goat farming have been brought under the
notice of the Eoyal Society of Tasmania, but as fifteen years
have elapsed since the late Mr. John Swan read a paper on
the subject, and the Honorary Secretary, Dr. Agnew, laid
upon the table a letter with covering correspondence from
the British Consul at Angora, giving particulars of the
industry as conducted in A^ia Minor, I may be excused for
re-opeuing the question.

Since 1874, when this effort was made to stimulate popular
interest in favour of a fair trial, in Tasmania, for a descrip-
tion of stock farming elsewhere found so profitable, little or
nothing has been done ; and although a few very small flocks
of indifferently bred goats still remain in the colony, they do
not appear to receive the attention they merit, and mohair, as
the fleece of the Angora is termed in trade returns, does not
figure amongst our exports.

It is my aim in submitting the following notes, to revive if
possible the spirit of experiment which induced Mr. Swan —
an experienced flock owner — to advocate the claims of goat
farming as worthy of careful consideration.

In Asia Minor, the natural habitat of the Angora goat,
whence the progenitors of all the stock now found in
America, Africa and Australia were obtained, the hair of
Bome of the best flocks, which is invariably pure white, was
at one time so highly valued that its export was prohibited,
and later, permission was granted to send it out of the
country in a manufactured state only. At the present time
the value of the hair exported from the province amounts
to «£200,000 per annum, which, however, is far exceeded by
the production of other countries in which goa^; farming has
become a settled industrv.

The Cape Colony owes the introduction there of Angora
goats, in the first instance, to a Colonel Henderson of Bombay^
afterwards some were forwarded to the colony through Sir
!Qtns Salt, who was the first English manufacturer of textile
&bricsfrom their hair, and later Messrs. Mosenthal Bros., in
the year 1856, secured some pure bred animals from Asia
Minor. Since then there have been many private importa-
tions of stud stock, one of the most important of which was
that of a Mr. J. B. Evans, who personally selected goats in
the mountain districts round Angora.

32 NOTES OK ANOOSA GOAT FABMING.

This was in 1880, and in the following year I had an
opportunity of inspecting some of the rams — ^which had sold
at from <£100 to <£200 each— in the Graaf Beinet and
Eastern districts. It was in 1862 that mohair first appeared
amongst Cape exports, the quantity being 1,036 lbs., in 1865
the export was 7,000 lbs., valued at .£368, but in the next
decade the increase was marked, the figures being
1,148,000 lbs., valued at nearly 06135,000 ; still another ten
years, and although the clip was more than quadrupled, being
5,250,000 lbs., the price obtained for it had suffered great
depreciation, the value being only ^6204,000.

The last published returns for 1887 show weight of hair
exported 7,154,000 lbs., worth 06268,500, a fall in price of Id.
per lb. on the previous year's clip. la addition there must
be taken into account the value of exported skins during the
same year, viz., <£100,000,and even these figures fail to represent
the total value of the products of this useful animal, as a
large quantity of skins and leather are absorbed by home
consumption. It is further necessary, when estimating the
economic value of Angora goats, to remember that the meat
of the wether or " kapata," as it is called in the Cape Colony^
is excellent. Sir Samuel Wilson, to whose monograph on
" The Angora Goat " I am much indebted for information,
states that : — " Its flesh when in good condition is not inferior
to mutton." He adds, 'M have Baten the flesh of a half-
bred which could not be distinguished from mutton, even in
the carcase, and which on the table was considered quite a.
luxury." Further testimony is bom by a Victorian sheep-
owner of repute, who in February, 1873, reported to the
President of the Acclimatisation Society in that colony
that: — "Last winter I killed two wethers, fall mouthed,
which each weighed when dressed 80 lbs., the flesh of which
when put upon the table was pronounced most delicious,,
being more rich and juicy than the best Merino mutton." I
can fully endorse, from a somewhat lengthy experience of
goat's flesh as an article of diet, all that these gentlemen say
in its favour.

At the date of the compilation of the last returns,
the number of Angora goats in the Cape Colony
was 2f millions, and the other countries of South Africa,
Natal, the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal also maintain
a considerable number, and mohair is an important item of
their exports.

A Mr. Scott of South Carolina, minister to Turkey in 1848,.
was the first to take Angoras to America, and there have
been many subsequent importations ; but the industry has.
never assumed the proportions attained in South Africa. I
have not been able to obtain any recent returns, but fr(^.

BY JA1CB8 ANDSEW. 93

efidence given before the United States Tarriff Commission
in 1882, it appears there were then an estimated number of
100,000 goats in the country, yielding hair of over 200,000 lbs.
weight per annum.

Mocks are now. to be found in various states of the Union,
in Yery varied climates, such as Oregon, Wyoming, Colorado,
Texas, California, Missouri, and Arkajisas, whilst an absolutely
pure flock is owned by a Colonel Peters in Georgia.

iPor some years the growers in the States maintained their
flocks under great discouragement, as the demand there for
Bueh fabrics as the hair was used for, fell off very rapidly.
But the introduction of new materials gave a fresh impetus
to their energies, and, to again quote the Tariff Commission,
•*The supply produced in the States, if multiplied threefold,
would not be sufficient to furnish material for the plushes now
used in the railroad cars of that country alone."

The industry had hardly been successfully established in
the Cax>e Colony and America when steps were taken to
introduce Angora goats into Victoria. A small flock was
purchased at Broussa, near Trebizond, and shortly after
arrival in the colony they were transferred to the care of the
Acclimatisation Society. An addition to their number was
made in 1863 when twelve pure rams of a very high-class
were received as a present from the Imperial Acclimatisation
Society of France. Two years later a further shipment of
93 carefully selected animals was forwarded from Asia
Minor, via London. These cost the Society about £16 per
head.

As the numbers increased the accommodation at the !Royal
Fiork, Melbourne, was found too limited, and the flock was
dispersed in 1870. A large number of the inferior
animals were sold, the price being flxed at Ave
guineas per head — less than their actual value — but
about fifty of the choice animals were sent to the
Wimmera district to the care of Sir Samuel Wilson, who
three years later reported : — " The flock of Angora goats now
on the Wimmera is 108 in number besides a few young kids.
From calculations carefully made this small flock, if well
managed, and sufficient pasture allowed it to graze upon,
wifl at the ordinary rate of increase reach in thirty years the
very large number of 442,868. This number should be
sufficient to displace all the common goats in the colony. In
forty years at the same rate the pure flock would increase to
over seven millions."

But to contemplate obtaining a flock of Angoras by
depending on the natural increase of such pure bred animals
18 could be secured for a moderate expenditure of capital
woidd prove both tedious and disheartening, and we have
tiie pronounced success of cross-breeding in other countries

34 NOTES ON ANGORA GOAT FARMING.

to guide those who may be desirous of commencing the
industry. It has been found that the progeny of pure
Angora rams and common goat ewes, produce in the third
generation — the sire in each case being of pure stock-
animals, which in appearance and characteristics are hardly
to be distinguished from their male ancestors. Every
succeeding cross more nearly approaches perfection, but the
plebian taint is almost completely eliminated, and quite
sufficiently so for commercial purposes, in the fourth genera-
tion. No matter what the colour of the female goat, black,
brown, or grey, her offspring present the male characteristics
to a pronounced degree, and in the third cross nearly every
trace of colour has disappeared.

Thus a stock-farmer has at his disposal practically
unlimited scope for increasing his general flock. It is
manifest, however, that a small stud herd would have to be
maintained to keep up the supply of pure bred males, which
are of course alone used for breeding purposes, and the
purchase of a few carefully selected Angora ewes would there-
fore be necessary. Many objections and as many defences of
cross-breeding have been ably discussed at various times. On
this subject Sir Samuel Wilson writes : — " It is stated by Mr.
V. A. Niessen that the hair from the half-bred Angora is
worth a shilling per pound, that from the three-quarter-bred,
one shilling and sixpence per pound, that of the third cross,
or seven-eighths-bred, would nearly equal in value that from
the pure bred, and the fleece of the fifteen-sixteenths, or
fourth remove, would be quite equal to that of the sire in
purity, lustre, fineness, and length of fleece." He quotes also
a letter addressed to the President of the Victorian
Acclimatisation Society from the Hon. Robert Simson, " a
large sheepowner, and a distinguished breeder of the Merino,"
dated 18th February, 1873. who enclosed samples of hair from
descendants of three-quarter-bred ewes from the Cape
Colony, and a pure bred ram. In regard to which Sir
Samuel states : — " The specimens were aU of excellent quality
and excepting a greater degree of lustre which those from
the pure bred Angora exhibited, they appeared so equal in
value as scarcely to be distinguishable from each other. On
the question of the cross between the Angora and
common goat, I am ready to admit that crossing with the
Angora, with a view gradually to improve the common
goat, may produce valuable results ; I wish it to be
clearly understood that such animals or their progeny,
even if pure sires be used for a thousand generations, can
never become pure bred. The stain can never be washed
away. Each cross with the pure blood reduces it by one
half, but as division is infinite it never entirely
disappears."

BY JAMES ANDBEW. 35

Theoretically, Sir Samuel Wilson's views are no doubt
-correct, practically, in connection witli goat farming, they are
unworkaJble. In the Cape Colony all the flocks, now
numbering 2| millions, have been raised by cross breeding,
and a simHar course has been followed in the United States
with equal success ; indeed, Mr. John Swan stated that he
was informed, " the best flock in America never contained a
pure bred female." Sir Titus Salt, too, is known to have
raised a flock in this manner in England.

I sincerely regret that my specimens of hair, from a
celebrated flock of goats in the Graaf Eeinet district of the
Cape Colony, have so suffered from moth during eight years'
inattention that they but very imperfectly exhibit the
gradations of successive crosses aud the perfect sample which
it is the aim of every flock owner to equal. They may,
however, suffice to give some idea of the various grades
through which animals with fleeces of good enough quality
for a general flock are obtained.

It is hardly necessary to remark that the degree of
-attention given to the selection of the best stud rams, the
proper classiflcation of ewes, and the systematic culling of
nocks, will determine the value of the staple product.

The fleece of the pure bred Angora often reaches to the
'ground, the locks measuring 12 or even 14 inches in length.
The kind most in demand is only so much matted as to
cling together near the root, remaining free and separate
to the tip. The weight of hair varies as much in different
individuals as does the yield of wool in sheep. Mr. Swan
exhibited samples from the fleece of a pure goat which
weighed 8 lbs. 10 oz. realising 2s. 6d. per lb. in the Home
market ; but perhaps 5 lbs. may be taken as a fair average of
a well-kept grade flock shorn once a year. From my notes
taken during shearing time at Graaf Eeinet I And that ewes
•cut as much as 6f lbs., whilst a ram was relieved of
an 8 months' fleece weighing 7 lbs. Kids of 8 months old
<nit an average of 2 lbs. of very fine hair.

Sir Samuel Wilson advocated shearing twice a year,
and his returns shows that the general average of both clips,
the first in May, the second in October, was over 3f lbs.
Even although the expenses are largely increased there may
be much to be said in favour of this double clip, for, as ft
unshorn the goat naturally sheds its hair in early spring, it is
loimd necessary to remove the fleece — if only one shearing be
adopted — in mid- winter when its protection is most required.
The growth in the former case is probably stimulated by
Nature making an effort to provide for the wants of the
animal ; and felting or matting is no doubt prevented by not
allowing the hair to attain full length. For manufacturing
purposes any staple over 4 in. in length is found sufficient.

36 NOTES OS ANOOBA QOAT FABMXNG.

SO that the shorter clip is not detrimental to the value^
of the fleece

Shearing in South Africa is generally conducted in what, in
Australia, would be considered a most slovenly manner. It
is not unusual for a farmer to have the work done in the-
" kraals," or yards, and even if under cover the floor is more
often than otherwise of earth. Goats are less troublesome
to shear than sheep, but owing to the decided " lay " of the
hair, men who can use both hands equally well have a
considerable advantage. Sorting is, as a rule, very inefficiently
carried out.

About the 1st June is the usual date for commencing
operations, and in the Karoo, where a large proportion of the
Angoras in the colony are kept, the nights at that time of
the year are often bitterly cold. Bad weather
immediately after shearing may cause terrible mortality
amongst a flock if proper precautions are not taken, but the
general conditions affecting stock farming are comparatively
so unfavourable in the country alluded to, that but little
harm need be anticipated in Tasmania. Cold alone does not
appear to have a particularly bad effect, nor does a warm
shower of rain ; but cold and wet together are very
destructive and should be carefully guarded against by
providing shelter. In the Cape Colony all flocks are
"kraaled" or yarded at night for protection against wild
animals and depradatory natives, and slight shelter is often
contrived for newly shorn goats, but in the Karoo there is no
scrub or timber to afford a friendly lee should the flock be
caught in a storm during the daytime, and thus the mortality
is often great.

Goats are much more prolific than sheep, but Angoras less so
than the common species, still a very large percentage of the
ewes bear twin kids. The young are at birth very helpless,
in marked contrast to lambs, and remain so for ten or twelve
days, and as the ewes display maternal instinct in a very
modified form, some trouble may be anticipated at this time,
which is usually between August and October. Here, again,
experience gained in South Africa is of little value when
applied to Tasmania, but the advantages are all in favour of
the latter, as the ewes would here be disturbed as
little as possible until their kids gained strength and
intelligence.

Mr. Swan states that: — " The trouble and expense of
managing a flock would be less than that required for sheep.
Goats are much more intelligent and are less liable to
destruction by dogs." He adds : — " No ordinary fence will
restrain them, and as they are restless, energetic, and
destructive, cultivation is not profitable in their vicinity.
Hawthorn hedges and ornamental shrubs possess peculiar

BY JAMES AKDBEtr. 37

attractions for them." Mr. Swan further remarks : — ''They
have great attachment for home and can be depended upon
to return to their sheds at night. Shelter should be
provided for them, as they evince great aversion to rain and
will remain under cover all day in wet weather."

There is no reason whatever why, if the goats kept here or
in other colonies become very numerous, the area of
pasturage available for sheep need be encroached upon.
Lideed, the reverse would be found to be the case, as Angoras
have been proved to be excellent pioneers in clearing up new
^sountry for sheep and cattle, and they not only do not injure
but positively benefit other stock, especially sheep. An
immense amount of land now almost, if not quite, valueless
could be utilsed for goat farming, for these animals will live
and thrive where others would starve, and mountainous,
scrubby, and wooded country, barren ranges, and heathy
plains are alike suitable for their requirements ; and by their
activity, superior intelligence and fearlessness, they obtain
sustenance where sheep would be incapable of venturing.
They are also, with the exception of a short period
immediately after shearing, as indifEerant to climatic as they
are to dietetic influences. In further reference to the latter
there is one very important point to notice ; they appear to
■suffer no inconvenience from being depastured on country
where plants abound which, when eaten by sheep, prove fatal.
In South Africa I know this is the case and Sir Samuel
Wilson bears similar testimony, stating : — " Its freedom from
disease, its activity, and endurance, and ability to feed on
shrubs, bushes, weeds, and even poisonous plants with
impunity give it a special value as the animal suited to
the selector or the small freeholder with limited means."

It has been conclusively proved that the climate, as well as
the pasturage and herbage of Australia and Tasmania, are
peculiarly suitable for goat farming. No large oatlay is
required to form the nucleus of a flock, nor is any special
knowledge requisite for their management; there are vast
iureas of vacant land awaiting settlement, and the inquiry
naturally suggests itself how it is that the industry has
&aled to command the attention here or on the continent of
Australia, which it has received elsewhere.

If some one of enterprising spirit will embark a few
himdred pounds in such a venture the investment will, I am
-confident, prove remunerative. Islands are peculiarly
adapted for the purpose, as secure boundary fences are
naturally provided, and subdivision can often be arranged
ifith the minimum of material.

There is one which I can recommend for tentative occupation,
viz., the West Hunter Island to the north-west of Tasmania,
in Bass Straits. It has an area of 20,000 acres, most of

38 NOTES OK ANGOBA GOAT FABMIKa.

whicli is rough feed very suitable for goats, and it may be-
rented from the Crown for .820 per annum on a 14 years'
lease. Sheep cannot be kept there as the "lobelia" or
poisonous tare of King's Island abounds and invariably
proves fatal. The last attempt at stocking this island of
which I have any knowledge was in 1882, when 600 owes
were placed there as an experiment, of which only 30-
survived in about 6 months' time. The same plant has
proved most disastrous to the efforts made to depasture
sheep on King's Island, and if my conviction as to the
immunity of the goat from its evil effects prove correct — and
at least an inexpensive trial might be made— there is
practically unlimited scope for many years to come in the
unstocked islands of the Straits for the development of goat
farming.

On the coast in various parts of the colony there are l^^rge-
heath -covered plains which may be similarly utilised, and
experience might show that even the much-abused button
rush country can be turned to account. Perhaps the
energetic gentleman who has obtained the lease of Maria
Island from the Government may be induced to set apart the
southern end as a goat farm; the ground is poor, can
maintain only few sheep, but has considerable capabilities as>
pasturage for the more active animals which feed principally
by browsing.

The Tasmanian Stock Regulations at present in force
absolutely prohibit the importation of goats from any place
outside the Australasian colonies, but there are, no doubt^
some perfectly pure bred Angoras to be secured in Victoria,
Kew South Wales or South Australia, where small flocks are
maintained. The common goat ewes are not difficult to-
obtain.

A certain amount of surplus stock must accumulate until
after the third or fourth cross, when the hair of all should be
of nearly equal value. The skins of such half-bred or three-
quarter-bred *' kapatas " or wethers as are killed for meat
will be found for tanning purposes of far greater value than,
sheepskins, the leather being substantial and of attractive
appearance. When the goats are killed carrying a medium
length of fleece the skins make excellent and most ornamental
mats, whether dyed or left of their natural colour, and find
purchasers at all prices up to .£1 each.

Croats have much more intelligence than sheep, are easily
trained, and the employment of "voorboks" or leaders, kapatas
of the common breed — chosen for size and strength — is
infinitely better than to attempt working a flock with dogs.
These leaders are considered indispensable in South ALfrica,
they march in the van on making for the feeding ground in
the morning, and lead the way home at night. As decoys.

BY JAMES ANDBEW. 39

for yarding the flock at shearing time they are invaluable,
and I have known them pilot slaughter stock on board
Tessels in the Cape Town docks without the least difficulty.
Being of an otherwise valueless breed and having no fleece
worth shearing they are consequently rarely handled and so
losing all timidity amongst men they fully enjoy the dignity
of their position.

Enquiries I have made to ascertain particulars of the
Angora goats still remaining in Tasmania have not been
saccessful. There is some reason for suspecting that attempts
previously made here, and perhaps in the other colonies, to
establish the industry have not been so successful as other-
wise might have been the case, owing to the goats having been
kept on open grass country. This is clearly a mistake. !l&>ugh,
mountainous and scrubby ground is far more suitable, and it
is with a view to encourage the occupation of such districts and
so assist to a small extent in developing the natural resources
of the colony that I venture to recommend the farming of
Angora goats as an industry quite worth a patient and
carefdl tnal.

PBOTECTION OF TASMANIAN OWLS. *
By Col. W. V. Lxggb, E.A.

I desire to bring to the notice of the Fellows of the Boyal
Society to-night the advisability of protecting the owls of
Tasmania, inasmuch as they are the most useful vermin-
killers of any known family of birds, while at the same time
no birds are more persecuted by well-meaning people through
ignorance of their true mode of life and also by pot-hunters in
search of so-called sport. It is thought by the majority of
people that owls destroy birds to a great extent, whereas, in
reality, there are few species of this large family which are
partial to birds. Owls are either twilight or night feeders, at
which time vermin or other small animals are chiefly about,
and, therefore, in the economy of nature, tbey form the natural
food of these birds.

Any of us who have studied works on British ornithology are,
perhaps familar with the story of the farmer who, missing his

Eigeons from his dovecote night after night, laid in wait with
is gun. knowing that a pair of barn owls inhabited his
premises, and shooting at the supposed offender, whom he
caught issuing from the pigeon-house, brought him down with
a huge rat in his talons. •

The large owls which kill birds in any quantity, such as the
genera Buho, Surnia, Nyctea, arid others are absent from
Australia and Tasmania, and in fact the only species in this
quarter of the globe which feeds much on birds is the large hawk
owl, Ninox Strenua, Gould, of Eastern and * Northern
Australia. We have only three species in this island : the
well-known chesnut-faced owl. Stria: Casfanops, Gould,
belonging to the "Barn Owl" section, and strictly a vermin-
killing species, and the two little hawk-owls, Ninox Boehook and
Ninox Maculata, which are chiefly insect-feeding species. In
Victoria all owls are strictly protected, and in South Australia
and New South Wales I believe they are partly so. I would
therefore suggest that a deputation from the Royal Society
wait on the Premier and request him to take steps at the
forthcoming session of Parliament to have our owls protected,
shooting them being forbidden, except for scientific purposes,
when specimens may be required to assist naturalists in any
research they may be engaged in.

I may add that my friend, Dr. Agnew, is very anxious to see
this step taken, and though I myself have long wished to see
our owls protected, it is mainly at the Doctor's suggestion that
I put the matter before the Society.

* I was not aware, when I read this Paper, that the owls were protected by
Act of Parliament, passed in 1887.— W.V.L.

PEOTBCTION OF THE CAPE BAEEEN GOOSE.

By Col. W, V. Leggb, E. A.

There is another bird for the protection of which I would

suggest steps be taken by this Society. It is the Cape

Sarren Q-oose (Cereopsis Novos SoUandice), a bird of very

limited distribution, which is only found to inhabit the

Bass Straits Islands, and according to Oould, the adjacent

Bhores of Victoria. I make the suggestion purely in the

interests of science, and I am therefore aware that it will be all

the more difficult to carry out the matter. This goose is one

of the very interesting monotypic generic forms which exist

«mong the Anatidce in Australia, the others being the Semi-

■j .palmated goose, Anseranas Melanolettcosy the pink-eyed duck,

A jjSfialacorjfj^nchus MemhranaceuSy the musk duck, Biziura Lobata,

•and the freckled duck, Stictonetta Noevosa. There is but one

t9pecies to each of these remarkable genera (all forms peculiar

to the Australian region) and it would be a thousand pities to

«ee any of these birds become extinct. In Gould's day he

found that the Cape Barren Goose must become extinct owing

to its tame disposition, terrestial mode of life, feeding on the

lands near the shore to a great extent. So inert is it described

to be that numbers can be knocked down with sticks. The

probability is that in the present day its numbers are much

fewer than 40 years ago, and it is therefore not an exaggerated

view of the case to say, that there is danger of this species

being shortly relegated to the category of the Dodo and the

Great Auk, a contingency that would be viewed with deep

regret by the ornithologists of the whole world. The Cape

Barren Goose, it is true, can be easily domesticated, and it

breeds in confinement, though apparently not continuously

out of its native country. It formed part of a collection given

by Eing William in 1830 to the London Zoological Society, and

from 1835 to 1860 it bred 20 times, but after that until 1880 no

instance of its breeding occurred. I think the best course to

pursue would be to shorten the open season for it by three

months and to alter the close season according to observations

to be made in the Straits Islands at an early date, to the time

best suited to its breeding.

I suggest the latter course, because, if it is desired to
preserve our wild fowl to the best advantage, it will be
necessary to alter the " open " season to suit the breeding
babits of the various species better than it does at present. This

42 PBOTEGTION OF THE GAPE BABBEN GOOSE.

can only be done after more careful observation of the breeding of
our wild fowl than has been the case hitherto. Some naturalists
might visit the Straits Islands, and after observations on the
Cape Barren Goose and eoquirj from the inhabitants of the
island, smight afford us valuable information respecting it. At
present the open season for it, though it inhabits a milder climate
than other members of its family in this colony, is the same as
the latter^ and this cannot be correct. I trust other
members of the Society will support me in my plea for this
species, and that we shall be able to have something done
towards the protection of this very interesting member of the
great family of the Anatidce.

A PBELTMTWAEY CEITIQT7E OF THE TEBBA

AU8TBALI8 LEGEND.
By JA.MES E. McCltmont, M.A.

I, MISCONCEPTIONS DUB TO THE " NOVUS OEBIS."

In the Latin edition of the Novus Orhis, first published in
1532 in Basle and Paris, a letter from Lorenzo Cretico,
Ambassador of the Venetian Eepublic to the court of Emanuel
of Portugal, is translated from the Paesi nouam&ate retrouati,
Yicenza, 1507, cap. cxxv. The letter treats of the Portuguese
expedition to Lidia, conducted by Cabral in 1500-1501, for
aluiough Cabral in not mentioned by name, we know that at
ihe date of this letter (June 27, 1501,) his fleet had newly
arrived in Lisbon, and was that to which the words of
Cretico must apply when he spoke of the expedition '* which
the king sent most recently to Lidia."

The letter begins with a brief itinerary of the voyage.
They sailed along the African coast as far as Cape Yerde,
where they saw the Hesperides (Cape Verde Islands) and the
coast of Lower Ethiopia, beyond which the ancients rarely
travelled. From that point the coast trends eastwards until
it reaches the meridian of Sicily ; in latitude it is four or
five degrees north of the equator ; about the middle of it is
the gold mine of this monarch (El Mina). A cape, called
the Cape of Good Hope, rises further to the south, nine degrees
south of the tropic of Capricorn. Thence the distance to
our Barbaries is five thousand miles, coming towards our
own shores. When you have passed that cape, the coast
curves towards the promontory called Prasum, which the
ancients, and chiefly Ptolemy, held to be the limit of the
Southern Hemisphere; the land beyond he termed "Unknown."
Thence their route was to the Troglodites and the gold mine
called Sofala, where the ancients affirm that there is a
greater quantity of gold than in any other place. Here they
enter the Barbaric Gulf (from Mozambique to Mogadoxa),
then the Lidian Ocean, and Anally reach the city of Calicut.
Such was their route, which you will find to be almost
fifteen thousand miles in length ; but if you sail direct, it is
less. Near the Cape of Good Hope they were driven by a
Bouth-west wind and discovered a new country, which they
called the Land of Parrots — " Supra Caput bonse spei lebegio
Tecti vento nacti sunt novam tellurem quam apellarunt

44 A PaELlMlNAHY CEITIQDB OP THE TEBBA ADSTBALIS I.EGKND.

PBittacoram "— because they found these birds there ia
incredible number ; some of them exceed a cubit and a, half in
length, and are of many colours; we have seen two, so that
there is no doabt of the truth of it. Wlien the ■ulors saw
this coast, tiiej beliered it to be r contioentt becwiue thej
sailed for two thonsand miles vithont wining to tiie end of
it H'tuaerooB naked uid rather handsome men inhaMt
this country. Nowt Orbie, civp. cssv. Exemplum. Uterarum
cuiusdam, Creiici.

Thia new land, discovered by Cabral, was. owing to the
inaccuracy of the ttanslator, located in a quite erroneous
direction. If the shipa were driven on it by a south-west
wind, it must have lain to the east of their route, and it was
placed by Mercator and other geographers west of the Cape of
Good Hope and on a parallel somewhat south of it, and appears
in Mercator'a Magna orhig ierrce de&criptio ; Duisberfr, 1569,
reproduced by Jomard, Monunumls de Gi'ographie, No. XXL,
under the nanjo Psittaoontm Begio, with an erplanatory note
to the effect that it was discovered by the Portuguese when
on tbeir way to Calicut they were driven upon it by a south-
west wind. Where the Novus Orhis has " lebegio vecti vento,"
Mercator's map has "libegio vento appulsi." Cornelis do
Jode says nothing about the direction of the wind, but simply
that the Faittaeorum Segio, which he places 8.W. of the
Cape of Glood Hope, was so called by the Portuguese on
account of the incredible size of these birds in that country,
and on another map that the Portuguese in rounding the
Cape have seen "this southern \a,ti^" (the Terra. AuBtralis)
extending opposite, but have not yet explored it — " sed
nondvm imploravere." Cornelis de Jode. — Speculum orhig
terrarum. Antwerp, 1593. The maps entitled OrhU univeraalia
descriptio, 1589, and Hemtspheritifn oi isquinoetiali liTiea ad
circwlutnpoK antarcUci.

A blind adhesion to Mercator led subsequent cartographers
to include this Land of Parrots in maps of various langu^es
down to a comparatively recent date. M. d'Avezac mentions
several of them. Relation da CapUaine de^ Qonneville, p. 20.
note ; p. 22, p. 22, not«.

This Southern Be^o Ptittaeorum had, however, a Bynonym
in a quite different part of the world. Johann Schoner's
globe of the year 1520 bears the inscription " America vd
Brasilia tive PapagalU Terra" placed between 10 deg. and
20 deg. 8.; Petrua Apianua places in a similar position the
legend " Brasiliei give PaTagalli." Cogniti orbie tab^a.
Ingolstadt, 1530. How comes it that landi bo far apart as
Brazil and the legendary Terra Auetralis should be brought
into conjunction P The answer is to be found in comparing
the letter of Oretico, as translated in the Sovut Orbia, with the
version in the Pam, published twenty-fire years earUer. We

BT JAMES B. M^CLTMONT, ILA. 45

shall find that the cartographers wore right or wrong in their
location of the Begio Ptittacorum, according as they took the
one or the other of these texts for their guide.

The critical method of Kant has taught us modems
to place no futh in second-hand testimony, or in reason-
ings based upon plausible conjecture to which antiquity
and authority have added a specious prestige. But in the
days of the Noima Orbie, and even down to the confines of our
own age, a conjectural theorising held the place which
criticism now holds. The theory which taught the existence of
an antipodal continent as necessary, in order to maintain the
globe in a condition of counterpoise, is to be met with in a
multitude of geographical treatises, in maps, and even, at a
later period, in actual expeditions undertaken with the object
of discovering the antipodal world — a striking instance of
the infiuence of the philosophic upon the practical mind.
Wben any fresh discovery was made, tliis favourite theory
and the innate love of systematisation combined to induce
geographers of the Ptolemaic school to identify the new land
of fact with the old land of phantasy, and so a southern
continent was pieced together out of the figments of men's
brains and the inadequately recorded details of actual
voyage. The compiler of the Novus Orbia, Jans Huttich,
was, like his contemporaries, predisposed to adjust any
fresh discoveries to the current misconceptions regarding the
« configuration of the globe and the distribution of land and
water.

The Paesi, one of the first, if not actually the first
collection of voyages compiled in modern times, was the
work of Montalboddo Fracan, and was first published in
Yicenza in 1507, and in Latin and German versions in 1508.
The passage referring to the discovery of the Begio Psittacorum
is thus worded in the Italian version : — " Di sopra dal capo
d Boasperaza uerso garbi hano scopto una terra noua la
chiamao d li Papaga." The words ** uerso garbi " are those
over which the translator has stumbled. They mean
"towards the south-west." The German version has " gegc
nidergage aufE d' seite " — " towards the side of the west." The
passage will run thus : — " Above the Cape of Good Hope
they discovered a new land towards the south-west, which
they called the Land of Parrots," With this indication of
Oabral's landfall the above cited inscriptions of Schoner and
Apianus agree, as well as the independent accounts given in
lEhiinusio (i., 121), and in the letter of Emanuel to the Spanish
sovereigns. (Navari'ete, Viages y descuhrimientos iii., 94)
Instead of lying to the east of the route to India the Begio
Psittacorum actually lay to the west of it, — was in fact the
Vera Cruz of Cabral, which appears on a map by Johan
Buysch in a Ptolemy published in Home in 1608 — " TTniver-

46 A PBEUMINABT CBITIQTTE OF THB TXBBA AUSTBAIIS LBGEin>.

aalior cogniH orhia tabula '* — under the name ** Terra sancte
crticis iive Mundus novtes*' but which was known to French
sailors as " Terre de Br6sil."

II. MISCONCEPTIONS OF FBENCH OABTOOBAPHEBS.

At the time of the publication of the Novus Orhis a French
geographer and mathematician, named Oronce Fine, had just
published, perhaps in Venice, a heart-shaped map of the
world, — the second of its kind known to us. It was entitled,
Nova et integra uniyersi orhis descrijptiOf and dated 1531. This
map was issued a second time in 1532 in the Paris edition of
the Novus Orhis, It represents a Terra Australis brought up
to about 25 deg. S. in longitude 210 deg. to 240 deg. E. from
Ferro, and bearing the legend " Terra Australis recenter
inventa sed nondum plene cognita,** a phrase of which the
" sed nondum imploravere " of de Jode's map sounds like an
echo. There is no Regie Fsittaeorum on Finn's map, but there
is what we have seen to be its true equivalent, a Begio
JBrasilie, transferred, however, from its true American
position to the legendary Terra Australis without further note
or comment, and as if to clinch the error, a Megio Pafalis,
or jpratalis as well, that is, the country of silver, of La
Plata.

This obvious and hopeless confusion of places was further
augmented in the MS. maps of other French cartographers.
Jean Eotz, Guillaume le Testu, Nicholas Desliens, and others,
mostly Norman pilots, represent a country which they
denominate " Jave la Grande," midway between Africa and
South America, and inscribe on it a number of names, some
in French and some in Portuguese, and the figures of men
and animals. That this Jave la Grande is only an imaginary
place is adniitted by one of the draughtsmen himself. In a
MS. atlas, finished in 1555, and dedicated to Admiral de
Coliguy, who was then sending out a Huguenot colony to
Brazil, are twelve maps numbered xxxi. to xliii., in which the
space comprised between 1 deg. and 84 deg. S. is occupied by
a fertile country. " But these twelve maps," says their
author, Guillaume lo Testu, of the town of Fran9oyse de
Grace, " are only meant to warn those who may voyage in
these parts to be careful when they think they are approaching
land. Farther than that, all is imaginary, for no man has
made any certain discovery there." (Margry, Navigations
frangaises, p. 138.) The title " Jave la Grande " on these
charts is derived from the travels of Marco Polo, who
designated Borneo under the name ** Java," whilst the island
known to us as Java was named by him "Java Minor."
(Marco Polo's Travels, edited by W. Marsden. Book iii.,
chap, vii.) The coast lines and coast names are not, as Le
Testu says, '* all imaginary," for they are in part derived from

BT JAMES B. M'CLYHONT, H.A. 47

the actual names and outlines of the South American coasts,
with which, in some charts, the purely imaginary outlines of
the Terra Australia of previous geographers are combined.
Only the east coast of South America is inverted and so
becomes the west coast of '' Jave la Grande," whilst the east
coast of '* Jave la Grande," less salient in its physical features
than the west coast, and therefore less easily identified, may
be either inverted or simply transferred from the west coast
of South America, or may be, as Le Testu s^ys, ''all
imaginary." In some of these charts, as in the Dauphin map
(about 1580), one of those of Jean Eotz (1542) and that of
Desceliers (1550), the eastern coast-line ceases or becomes a
vague featureless line at about 35 deg. S. The chart of
Desliens (1566) prolongs that coast to about 65 deg. S., and
gives to this prolongation features as specific as to the northern
part of it.

By inverting the western coast line of " Jave la Grande "
we find the following coincidences with the east coast of
South America. Beginning from the north we have a
"** Grant Baye," and another unnamed inlet, probably
representing the mouths of the Amazon and Tocantins. '' B.
Grande " in some of the charts forms a strait between " Jave
la Grande " and an island named '' Jave ;" in that of Desliens
it is a deep bay and unnamed. ** Baye Bresille " in about 18
degrees S., may coincide with Porto Seguro, immediately to the
Bouth of which place, and in the same latitude as the ''Baye ^
Bresille," a "E. daBrasill" is marked on these chartSi To the //^ J /■{'
French sailors is due this- name "Brazil," as the distinctive /t, ^^
appellation of the country whence they brought brazil-. ''^' '.
wood to Europe. " The French alone," says La Popelinifere, '

''called it 'Terre de Brdsil,' in ignorance of what is above ^' '•// ,
narrated," — (namely, that Cabral had called it " Vera Cruz ")
— "because they found brazil-wood there in abundance,
although it is only in one part of it, and that produces many
other woods as well." Les trois mondes, iii. p. 16. verso. A
number of names cluster round the vicinity of Cape Frio and
Gape St. Thom^, such as C. Quiesco in Desliens, C. de Sr
Diao, and C. de Grace in the Dauphin chart. The last is
probably a Norman sailor's reminiscence of his native Havre
de St. Francoyse de Grace ; the second may be mis-written
for the name of some merchant adventurer — " sieur," in the
language of the time. The next notable feature is the
Havre de Sylla, between 25 deg. and 30 deg. S.,
toparently intended for Bio de Janiero. Desliens marks a
Gkufe des Ysles in from 40 deg. to 45 deg. S., resembling the
Gulf of St. Mathias. If we so understand it, and if Havre
de Sylla represents Eio de Janiero, then the Eiver Plate has
been omitted. A parallel to this would be found in the
Toyage of Diaz de Solis, who sailed along these coasts from

7 -^. /

50 A PBEUMINABT CBITIQITE OF THE TEBRA AUSTBALIS LEGEND.

other countries, as well as tlie worship of cattle, both of which

n r I cults are ascribed by him to the Javanese.

^^^^/ The deer, of which numerous small species exist in South
America, and the peccary Dycotyles torquatus and lahiatus, are
both pourtrayed. Perhaps both, certainly the latter, is
represented as tame ; the Indians of to-day keep it as a
domestic animal. (Humboldt's Travels in America, ii.
chap., XX.) Two species, at least, of palms are represented,
one with palmate and the other with pinnate leaves ; a tree
of the former species, the Corypha tectorum, or roofing palm,
is described by Humboldt as affording the Chaymas Indians
the leaves with which they roof their huts. (i. chap, xx.)
The existence in France of a MS. chart as early as 1580,
which shows the east coast of South America to about
26 deg. S., and which is derived from French sources, is thus
no matter of wonderment. But the possible acquaintance on
the part of the French with the western coast of South
America, even at that date, is a matter on which we can as
yet throw but little light. In these circumstances a passage
quoted by M. Margry from the MS. Cosmogra'phie of
Jean Alfonce (1545), is not without interest. " La Grande
Jave" says the writer, '*is a land which extends to the
Antarctic Pole and joins the Terra Australis on the west and
the land of Magellan's Straits on the east. Some say that
it consists of islands, but as far as I have seen it, it is a
continent, and when all is said, the whole world consists of
islands, for land and water form one body. The ocean
encircles everything by means of arms of the sea, which are
in the ball (pomme) of the earth. What is called Java
Minor is an island ; but Jave la Grande is a continent." In
another place Alfonce remarks : — " There have been no
discoveries beyond Java on account of the great cold under
the Antarctic Pole. I have been in a place there where day
lasted for three months, allowing for the reflection of the sun ;
I did not wish to remain longer in case night should surpiise
me." Margry, Navigations francaisesy pp. 316-317. The
only continental land to which this description can approxi-
mately apply is the west coast of South America. That
coast joins the land of Magellan's Straits towards the east,
and although there is no Terra Australis of fact with which
it can be joined towards the west, there was a Terra Australis
of fiction real enough to Jean Alfonce in the position required.
At another part of his Cosmographie, Alfonce brings his
" Grand Jaive " up to 21 deg. S., or about the latitude to
which Desliens traces the eastern coast of ** Jave la Grande."
Besides the French names on the MS. charts, of which I
have spoken, there are others in Portuguese. The latter
generally differ from the former, inasmuch as they are rather
nautical than topographical, and correspond to the phrases

BY JAMES B. m'CLTMONT, M.A. 51

prmted on the Admiralty Charts for the purpose of directing
masters of ships where thej are to look out for shoals,
eddies, or other dangers. Thus we find terre ennegada,
or anegada, — sunken shoal — and haixay — shoal. This intro-
duction of Portuguese nautical expressions is an indica-
tion of the superior skill of the Portuguese pilots of the
time, which has left traces in the adoption of their language
by foreigners, — as in the word abrolhosy breakers, — just
as in our own day English nautical terms have been adopted
in continental navies. But we know that the intercourse
between Portuguese and French, as well as Spanish and
French sailors, was from the fourteenth century onwards a
peculiarly intimate one. Commercial privileges with French
ports were accorded to both these nations. (Margry, p. 123
note.) On the other hand the vessels of Honflenr merchants
had access to the port of Lisbon, and in 1503 three of these
merchants, De Gonneville, Jean TAnglois, and Pierre le
Carpentier, having seen at Lisbon the rareties that had lately
arrived from the East in the ships of Yasco da Gama and
Cabral, engaged the services of two Portuguese pilots who
had been to Calicut, Bastiam Moura and Diego Cohinto, in
order that they might despatch a ship of their own to the
same destination. The two Portuguese accompanied the ship
in its wanderings about the Atlantic ; and touched at several
points of the South American continent. Barros relates
that a vessel from Dieppe, commanded by a Portuguese
captain, Stevam Diaz, arrived at Diu in July 1527, and that
in the same year another French ship, piloted by another
Portuguese sailor, called " O. Eozado " or " The Rosy," was
in the Indian seas and was ultimately lost on the west coast
of Sumatra. (Margry, p. 192.) Similarly, French sailors
sailed in Spanish and Portuguese vessels, and Navarrete
preserves the names of twelve French companions of
Magellan, the half of whom were Normans^ or Bretons.
Viagesy iv. 12.

III. MISCONCEPTIONS ARISING FBOM THE VOYAGE OF

MAGELLAN.

A claim to the discovery of the Terra Australis has been
recorded on behalf of Magellan in an atlas by Fernando
Vaz Dourado, Goa, 1570, in which a coast lying to the east
of New Guinea, and trending east and west with a little
southing, bears the superscription "Esta costa descubri6
Fernao de Magalhaes natural! portuges por mandado do
emperador Carllos o anno 1520." This claim occurs also on
maps by Eumoldus Mercator (1587), Ortelius (1587), and
De Jode (1589), in the words, — placed on a northward
projection of the Terra Australis immediately to the south

52 A PBELDONABT CBITIQnX OF THE TEBKii AUSTSAUS LEGEND.

of New Guinea: — ''Hauc continentem australem nonulli
Magellanica regionem ab inventore eius nuncupant."

From the facts that the coast-line so described is in the
map of Dourado disconnected by an interrening scale of
latitude from the rest of the map, and that it bears some of
the same names as were bestowed bj Magellan on places
Tisited by him in South America, Mr. Major supposes that
it is *^ a memorandum or cartographical side-note of the real
discovery by Magellan of Terra del Fuego." Terra Australis,
p. xxvi. The position of this coast on Dourado's map may
have led to its being confounded with the north coast of
New Guinea by Mercator, who adopts some of Dourado'a
coast names ; but transfers them to the above-mentioned
island. Amongst these are 0. de las Yirgenes, and C. del
buen Deseo equivalent to Oabo Deseado, Magellan's names for
the capes at the entrance and exit of the Straits. Some of
the names used on the coasts of Jave la Grande much
resemble others in the atlas of Dourado, and on a map
by De Jode, entitled Brasilia et Peruvia, but they are
placed by these cartographers in or near the Straits of
Magellan. Such are Baia Fremosa in Dourado and De Jode,
corresponding to 0. Fromose in the Dauphin map, and in De
Jode, C. Blanco corresponding to Coste Bracq, C. de las
Baixas to Baye Bassa, B. d muchas islas to E. de Beaucoup
Disles, and Oosta dos Dheos to Baye des Ys. This parallelism
is suggestive of a community of origin, and raises the
question whether the voyage of Magellan may not in some
degree have contributed to originate the MS. charts of Jave
la Grande.

It has been recently upheld by Mr. Petherick that Del
Cano on his return voyage in 1522, sighted some part of the
west Australian coast. (Atlienoeum, May 24, 1884.) This
opinion is based on a passage in Galvano's Discoveries of the
World, to the effect that that navigator discovered certain
islands one hundred leagues beyond Timor and under the
tropic of Capricorn, and further on others, all peopled thence-
forward, when he was shaping a course which should carry
him well south of the Cape of Good Hope. It is not
impossible that in a zig-zag course Del Cano may have sighted
some islands very near the Australian mainland.

MAOQTJABIE HAEBOUE LEAJ' BEDS,

By E. M. JoHKSTOM", E.L.S.

In the Tasmanian Museum there is a most valuable collec-
tion of fossil leaves belonging to the earlier tertiary period of
IDasmania, but in respect of which there is no record as to the
locality from which they were originally obtained. I was long
at opinion that this peculiar group of fossil plants was obtained
by Ijt. Milligan from Macquarie Harbour in the early days of
the colony's history, and this conviction was one of the main
reasons which induced me to visit and examine the leaf
deposits of Macquarie Harbour in the year 1887. In this
examination I was unsuccessful in discovering the exact
deposit from which the Museum collection was obtained, but
Hhe discovery of the same forms in the lacustrine beds in the
neighbourhood of Long Bay tended to confirm me in the
notion that the unknown deposit was a member of the
lacustrine leaf beds extending from the latter locality to Kelly's
Basin ; and in my work on geology (p. 203, " Geology
of Tasmania"), I ventured to predict that an examina-
tion of the many fine sections further east " may in the future
determine this matter." I am happy now to be in the position
to declare that the hitherto unknown locality has been dis-
covered; for in a fine collection of fossils made by that
indefatigable member of our society, Mr, T. B. Moore, and
sent last year to Mr, Belstead, I was fortunate in recognising
the identical rock, together with the usual impressions of leaf
forms, so characteristic of the museum collection referred to.
I now present a specimen of the rock in question, in order
that those interested may be able to judge of its value in
clearing up this interesting point in our tertiary geology.
On a future occasion I may be able to give a description
of the more remarkable plants contained in this deposit.

POEAMINIFERA IN TJPPEE PALEOZOIC EOCKS.

By T. Stephens, F.G.S., M.A.

At former meetings of the Eoy al Society I have incidentally
mentioned a foraminiferal limestone as occurring among the
Upper PaleBOzoic rocks of the North-Eastem district.
Several years ago on one of my official cross-country journeys
I met with specimens of limestone dotted with minute white
spots, and on closer examination detected two or three more
or less perfect forms of Foraminifera, one of them resembling
genus Spirillina ( Trochammina,) and another like Valvulina,
In the absence of any local palaeontologist competent to
determine the specific character of these fossils, and having
myself to attend to other business, I had put the specimens
away until a few months ago, when I had an opportunity of
submitting them to Mr. E. Etheridge, jun., who is engaged in
working out the paleeontology of New South Wales, and the
following is an extract from a letter lately received by him : —
" I have at last had time to examine the pieces of supposed
foraminiferal rock you left with me. There is no doubt but
that is their nature, and, so far as I know, it is the first
record of such in the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of Australia
or Tasmania. I have sent the material to a foraminifera man,
so we shall hear more about it soon." The difficulty of
separating these small fossils from the matrix is very greats
but I have roughly mounted a few for inspection.

AUSTRA.LIAN AND TASMANIAN SANDARACH.
Bt J. H. Maidbn, F.L.S., F.C.S., Etc. (Curator of the

Te3hnological Museum, Sydney).
Gommunicated by A. Mobton, F.L.S.

It was a specimen of resin from the Oyster Bay Pine of
Tasmania, sent to the Exhibition of 1851, which first drew
the attention of experts to the possibilities of Australian
Sandarach. For " the fine pale resin of the Oyster Bay Pine
{Oallitris australis), from the eastern coast of Van Diemen's
Itfuid,'' and other gums and resins, Mr. J. Milligan was
awarded honourable mention (Jury Reports, 1851 Exhi-
bition, p. 182).

This is one of the most valuable of Australian* vegetable
products, a market is ready for it, and it seems strange that
it should have been so long neglected. There are no statistics
ayailable in regard to the importation of Sandarach into these
colonies, but to bring it here at all is a veritable ** carrying
coals to Newcastle."

Ordinary Sandarach exudes naturally, but the practice in
Northern Africa is to stimulate the flow, making incisions in
the stem, particularly near the base. In various pnrts of
Australia and Tasmania there are vast numbers of Gallitris
trees, their resin, often abundant, can readily be collected,
and the author is sure that, even with the cheap labour of
Northern Africa to contend against, it can be profitably
gathered during a portion of the year, by parties of men, or
tiie families of settlers. The approximate price of Sandarach,
in London, is 60-115s. per cwt., and there is no difference
between it and the colonial article. As to the cultivation of
the trees. Baron von Mueller (Select extra-tropical plants,
Victorian Edition) states, " Probably it womd be more
profitable to devote sandy desert land, which could not be
brought under irrigation, to the culture of the Sandarach
cypresses, than to pastoral purposes, but boring beetles must
be kept off." It is also to be borne in mind that Gallitris
timber is valuable.

The Sandarach, or Gum Juniper of commerce, is the product
of a Gallitris (quadrivalvis), and the latest classification of
Australian Sandarach trees (that of Baron von Mueller),
places them under OaZZt^m likewise. The following summary
of the uses of Sandarach, is taken from Morel (Pharm, Journ.

* This word is here used in its widest sense, and, of course, includes
Tumumia.

56 AUSTBALIAN AND TASMAIOAN SANDABACH.

[3]. viii. 1,024.) " According to Gubler, the Arabs used it as
a remedy against diarrhoea, and to lull pain in haemorrhoids.

The Chinese employed it ((7. sinensis) as a stimulant in the
treatment of ulcers (as promoting the growth of flesh), as a
deodoriser, and to preserve clothes from the attacks of insects.
In Europe it is used very little in medicine. It is most
frequently employed as an ingredient in varnish, to increase
its hardness and glossiness. It is used also as a fumigant,
and in powder (" pounce") to dust over paper from which the
surface has been scraped, to prevent the ink running. Rarely,
it enters into the composition of plasters." In Southern
New South Wales (Snowy Eiver), Callitris resin is often
mixed with fat by the settlers, to make candles.

All our native Sandarachs possess a pleasant aromatic
odour, similar in character to that emitted by Sandarach.

When the trees are wounded the resin exudes in an
almost colourless, transparent condition. It has obviously
high refractive power, and is much like ordinary pine resin
in taste, smell, and outward appearance, when the latter is
freshly exuding. This transparent appearance is preserved
for a considerable time, the resin meantime darkening a little
with age. Old samples possess a mealy appearance, but this
is merely superficial. The origin of this appearance has been
explained as follows in regard to Sandarach, and doubtless
the simple explanation holds good here : —

** The surface of the tears appears to be cohered, more or
less, with powder, but this character is not to be attributed,
as alleged by Herlant, {Etude sur les produits resineux de la
famille dee coniferes, p. 38), to the friction of the fragments
one against another, but, as has been ascertained by a
microscopical examination by Dr. Julius Wiesner (Die che-
misch-technisch verwendte Gummiarten, Harze and Balsame,
1869, p. 129), to the unequal contraction of the resin while
drying, resulting in a mass of fissures that form, as in the
case of several kinds of copal, facets that gradually separate
from the mass, and constitute the "powder" of many authors."
(Morel, op. cit.) Evidence against Herlant's supposition is
also found in the fact that resins of the Sandarach class are
mealy while on the trees, after they have been exuded some
little time, showing that the appearance is brought about by
exposure to the weather.

The Callitris resins soften slightly, but do not melt in
boiling water, and a sample of commercial Sandarach behaves
similarly. In the mouth they feel gritty to the teeth, and m
no way different to Sandarach. When freshly exuded they
are very irritating to a cut.

Following are descriptions of actual specimens of resins of
different species. For the results of analyses of Sandarach
for comparison, see Gmelin, xvii., 429.

BY J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., F.C.S., ETC. 57

CATiTiTTBIS CUPRESSIFORMIS. Vent.

Muell., Cens. p. 109. Syn. 0. australia (ined.). Frenela
rhomboidea Endl. Var, Tasmanica, Bentli. F, Ventenatii
Mirb., B. FL, vi., 238, and others.

" The Ojster Bav Pine of Tasmania." Found in all the
colonies except Western Australia (normal species).

This is the pine already referred to, and a brief account of
the resin has been copied into many of the text-books. I
have collected resin of this species from Port Jackson, clear
and transparent as water. It turns pale amber coloured in
12 months if placed in a bottle, but its brilliancy shows no
sign of diminution in that time. The Sydney trees readily
exude their resin on slightly wounding, and the same remark
apply to the Tasmanian.

CALLITRIS CALCARATA. J2. Br.
Syn. Frenela Fndlicheri Parlat., B. Fl., vi., 238.

Found from Northern Victoria to Central Queensland.
" Murray Pine," "Black Pine," Red Pine," ''Scrub Pine,"
" Cypress Pine."

Sample 1. " Murray Pine," Quiedong, 3rd March, 1887.
Has a pale, bleached appearance, much lighter than ordinary
Sandarach. Externally it has a very mealy appearance.
Water has no efEect on it. In rectified spirit it almost wholly
dissolves, leaving a little whitish, resinoid substance.
Petroleum spirit dissolves 5 per cent, of a perfectly colourless
and transparent resin.

Sample 2. I have received a quantity of flesh-coloured
resin from the Snowy River, N.S.W., belonging to this
species. It is so different in appearance from the normal
resin, that no market can at present be found for it, and as
this is the first time such resin, in quantity, has come under
my notice, it is well worth describing. It is of the consistence
and general appearance of Manila elemi, differing from that
substance in being of a flesh-colour, and having a pure
turpentine odour, instead of a turpentine-fennel one.

There is no doubt that it would form a valuable ingredient
in plasters, and an enterprising pharmacist would doubtless
find it worth his while to follow the matter up.

It is a remarkable circumstance that the trees yielding this
resin had also, at other portions of the stem, more or less of
the normal Sandarach.

Sample 3. ** Red Pine." Lachlan River, N.S.W. Feb. 1885.
This has comparatively freshly exuded, and has the colour
and appearance of the best selected Sandarach.

Rectified spirit nearly wholly dissolves it, forming a
beautifully clear, slightly yellowish liquid; 1*3 percent, of

58 AUSTBALIAN AlH) TASMANIAN SANDABACH,

residue remains. Petroleum spirit extracts 22*1 per cent, of
an appaxentlj perfectly colourless and transparent resin.

CALLITEIS COLTIMELLAEIS. F. v. M.

Syn. Frenela rohusta A. Cunn., var. microcarpa Bentb. B.

El. vi. 237.

Sample 4. "Cypress Pine," etc. Found in New South
Wales and Queensland. Eeceived from the Botanic Qurdens,
Sydney, Dec. 1887.

'This is in much larger masses than the others, and some
of it has been exuded for a considerable time. It is next
lightest in colour to No. 1.

It almost wholly dissolves in rectified spirit, forming a pale
yellow solution. The insoluble residue amounts to 4*6 per
cent. Petroleum spirit, when digested on the residue,
removes no less than 35*8 per cent, of a transparent colourless
resin. This is a remarkable percentage, and it would be
worth while to enquire whether Australian Sandarach becomes
increasingly soluble in that menstruum by age. An ordinary
sample of commercial Sandarach yielded 8*9 per cent to
petroleum spirit.

CALLITKIS VEERUCOSA. B. Br.

Syn. GalUtris Preissii Miq. Frenela rdhusta A. Cunn. and

others. B. PI. vi, 236.

The following note by Dr. Julius Morel (Pharm. Joum.
[3] viii. 1,025), in regard to a South Australian specimen, is
interesting ! " With Sandarach resin may be connected
another resinous substance, which was exhibited in the Paris
Exhibition of 1867 from South Australia, under the name of
"pine gum." It is the resin of GalUtris Beissii Miq. (a
misprint for Preissii), This product resembles Sandarach,
and might become an important article of commerce. . . .
This resinous substance occurs in the form of slightly
yellowish tears, thicker and longer than those of ordinary
Sandarach. In consequence of unequal contraction, it pre-
sents, like Sandarach, numerous facets, and consequently the
surface appears to be covered with a white powder. By
examining this resin under the microscope, Wiesner ascertained
that the finer fissures were derived from the larger ones. In
its transparency and hardness the resin corresponds to
Sandarach. Its odour is very agreeable and balsamic, and
its taste is bitter and aromatic."

" Mountain Cypress Pine," ** Desert Pine." ** A Sandarach
in larger tears than ordinary Sandarach is yielded by this
species. It yields it in considerable abundance, eight or ten
oimces being frequently found at the foot of a single tree,

BT J. H. MAIDEN, F.L.S., F.CS., ETC. 59

but although this exudes naturally, the supply is stimulated
by incisions." Vict(ynan Cat, Col. and Ind. Exhib., 1886.)

"It is a transparent, colourless, or pale yellow body,
fragrant and friable, fusing at a moderate temperature, and
burning with a large, smoky flame, very soluble in alcohol
and the essential oils, and almost totally so in ether ; turpen-
tine at the ordinary temperature does not act upon it, nor do
the drying oils, but it may be made to combine with these
solvents by previous fusion." (JReport on Indigenous Veget
Svhst. Victorian Exh,, 1861).

Sample 5. Obtained from the Botanical Gardens, Sydney,
29th December, 18*87 ; no particulars available.

Of a dark amber colour, and externally possessing the
dulled appearance found with lumps of amber. It is the
darkest resin examined by me.

It almost wholly dissolves in rectified spirit, yielding a
bright yellow liquid, leaving 2*5 per cent, of insoluble residue.
Pe^oleum spirit removes 22*8 per cent, of a clear resin when
the original substance is digested in it.

Discussion.

Mb. Stephens remarked how unfortunate it was that
people in the colony were so little alive to their own interest.
The Oyster Bay Pine was useful for a variety of purposes,
being suitable for light hurdles, gates, and other uses for
which the common hardwood timber was ill adapted, while
the advantage gained from shelter to stock was far superior
to any that could result from its wholesale destruction. This
beautiful and useful tree had, however, been destroyed, so far
as it could be destroyed, by riog-barking over thousands of
acres on the East Coast.

The Pbssident stated that he had had his attention
directed to the state of things mentioned by Mr. Stephens.

NOTES ON THE LAST LIVING ABOEIGINAL

OE TASMANIA.

By James Babnabd, Y. P.

It has been generally supposed that the grave has closed
over the remains of the last of the aborigines, and that the
extinction of the race has been final and complete. This
supposition, however, is believed to be erroneous ; for there
still exists one female descendant of the former '' princes of
wastes and lords of deserts " in the person of Eanny Cochrane
Smith, of Port Cygnet, and the mother of a large family of
six sons and five daughters, all of whom are living.

Some doubts have been cast in Parliament and elsewhere
upon the claim of Eanny (to keep to her pre-nuptial and first
Christian name) to be of the pure blood of her personal
ancestors, but after searching the records; and upon her own
testimony, and from other evidence, there seems to be little
reason to doubt the fact.

It appears, then, that Fanny was born at Flinders Island
in 1834 or 1835, and is now about 56 years of age. Sarah
was the name of her mother, and Eugene that of her father,
and both were undeniably aboriginals. Sarah first lived with
a sealer, and became the mother of four half-caste children ;
and was subsequently married to Eugene (native name,
Nicomanie), one of her own people, and had three children,
of whom Fanny is the sole survivor and representative of
the race.

Lieut. Matthew Curling Friend, R.N., in a paper read
before the Tasmanian Society, on March lOth, 1847, " On the
decrease of the Aborigines of Tasmania," in alluding to the
curious theory propounded by Count Strzelecki, that the
aboriginal mother of a half-caste can never produce a black
child should she subsequently marry one of her own race,
controverts this notion of invariable sterility by quoting two
instances which came under his notice while visiting the
aboriginal establishment at Flinders Island. I give his own
words : — ** One was the case of a black woman named Sarah,
who had formerly four half-caste children by a sealer with
whom she lived, and has had since her abode at Flinders
Island, where she married a man of her own race, three black
children, two of whom are still alive. The other, a black
woman named Harriet, who had formerly by a white man
with whom she lived two half-caste children, and has had
since her marriage with a black man a fine healthy black
infant, who is stUl living."

BY JAMBS BAENAED, V. P. 61

Clommenting upon this doctrine of Strzelecki, West
observes (Hist, of Tasmania, vol. 2, p. 75), " A natural law by
which the extinction of a race is predicted will not admit of
such serious deviations."

Some explanation may properly be expected from me
for reviving a question which was supposed to be set at rest
when Truganini was consigned to the tomb, and declared to
be the last woman of her race. I will therefore mention the
incident which has given me something of a personal interest
in the matter. It is now nearly 40 years ago that I was
aceostomed occasionally to accompany my friend the late Dr.
imiigan, the Medical Supeiintendent of the Aborigines, to the
settlement at Oyster Cove, where I saw a good deal of the
native people, at that time some 80 or 40 in number. Among
these I have a distinct recollection of Fanny, who was then
apparently about 17 years of age, slender and active, less
dusky in colour, but rather more prepossessing in appearance
than any of her kind ; and certainly at that time I never
heard a doubt expressed of her not being a true aboriginal.
There was one circumstance in particular which impressed her
upon my remembrance, and that was on one occasion we
crossed over in a boat from Oyster Cove to Bruni Island,
rowed by four of the black men, and Fanny taking the steer-
oar, which she handled with marvellous skill and dexterity.
My visits to the settlement shortly after ceased, and from
that time to the present, until a few weeks ago, when I was
greatly surprised to receive a visit from this identical Fanny,
who had become transformed into a buxom matron of
considerable amplitude.

By the courtesy of the Hon. P. O. Fysh, Chief Secretary
and Premier, I have been permitted access to the official
records bearing upon the subject of this investigation.

The first documents brought under my attention were two
letters under date June 23 and 26, 1882, embodying a report
from the Police Magistrate of Franklin, the late E. A,
Walpole, emphatically stating that Fanny ** is a half-caste,
bom of an aboriginal woman, by a white man whose name is
unknown, at Flinders Island, in or about the year 1835." No
authority beyond the expression of his individual opinion is
adduced by Mr. Walpole in support of his statement.

The next document was a letter by the late * Dr. Milligan,
Medical Superintendent of Aborigines, under date July 17,
1854, enclosing William Smith's consent to marry Fanny
Coclurane, and describing her as an aboriginal girl belonging to
l&e establishment at Oyster Cove. This affords strong
evidence in support of the opposite view of the case, as those
who knew Dr. Milligan would remember how precise and
accnrate he invariably was in any statement of facts.

62 NOTES ON THE LAST LIVING ABORIGINAL OF TASMANIA.

A point of some importance in the contention would arise
from Fanny's second name of Cochrane. According to
Bonwick, in bis '' Last of the Tasmanians," p. 282, this was
taken from the sealer who lived with Sarah, whose name was
Cottrel Cochrane. Were this so, it would have at once have
gone far to settle the question of parentage, and show her to be
the half-caste supposed. Bon-wick is obviously in error in his
statement ; for I have lately ascertained from the lips of a
married lady living in Hobart, a daughter of the late Mr.
Eobert Clark, catechist at the aborigines establishment, that
Cochrane was the maiden name of her mother, and that it
was given by her father to Fanny when a child, and residing
in bis family.

Again, Bonwick writes (p. 310) : " We read of a sawyer,
one Smith, and his black friend, Mrs. Fanny Cochrane
Smith, receiving £25 a year for their half-caste child." Instead
of " black friend" he might have written "black wife " ; for
the parties were duly married at Hobart by the Rev. Frederick
Miller, Congregational minister, in 1854 As respects the
cause assigned for the annuity, this writer was also in error,
for the sum of dS24 (not <£25) was bestowed upon Fanny on
the occasion of her marriage, and not for the reason stated.

The next document is a letter, dated 8th December, 1842,
conveying the official approval of the admission into the
Queen's Orphan School of the three aboriginal children named
in the margin — Fanny, Martha, Jesse.

Then follows in the records, under same date, an application
from Mr. Robert Clark, late catechist of the aborigines on
Flinders Island, for permission to receive into his family " an
aboriginal child named Fanny, upon his engagement to feed,
clothe, and educate her as one of his own children."

Next is an extract from an official document dated 8th
March, 1847 : — " Eugene and his wife, the father and mother
of Fanny and Adam, being asked if they were willing
that their children should be sent back to Mr. Clark, said
they were not. Fanny being asked if she understood the
nature of an oath, answered, * No,' and the Doctor explained
it. Fanny said she did not wish to return to Mr. Clark."

From a long report to the Government by Dr. Milligan,
dated November 29th, 1847, I have taken the following
extract : — " The fifth girl, Fanny Cochrane, almost a woman,
might remain with her half-sister, Mary Ann. Indeed I can
scarcely say how otherwise she could be satisfactorily disposed
of." There being no difference of opinion as to Sarah being
the mother of both, this testimony, given by Dr. Milligan as
to a difference of parentage in the case of the father, at once
discriminates her from Mary Ann, and in itself affords a strong
presumption in favour of the contention.

BT JAMES BABNARD, Y. P. 63

The superintendeut at Oyster Cove, under date 4th
November, 1857, reports to the Colonial Secretary the death
of Adam, aged 20 years, the youngest of the aboriginals ;
and states that during his illness he was waited upon by his
mother, sister, and the latter's husband; these being
respectively Sarah, Fanny, and William Smith.

Up to this point my researches have been eminently
satisfactory, and have tended to confirm the theory of Fanny
being an aboriginal ; but another document has been
brought under my notice which, unexplained, certainly
discountenances that theory. It is the report of certain
proceedings taken before Dr. Jeanneret, the superintendent
at Flinders Island, on the occasion of certain allegations
made against an officer of the establishment, and in which is
a deposition made by Fanny, dated March 25th, 1847,
commencing with these words, — " I am a half-caste of Van
Diemen's Land. My mother is a native. I am about 13
years of age," etc., with her signature attached at the foot.
At first sight this admission would appear to be conclusive
and unanswerable ; but, upon reflection, I am led to believe
that there must be a mistake somewhere. In the first place
a child of her age, with imperfectly developed intelligence,
would scarcely be likely to volunteer that statement, or do
more than give a mechanical assent to the question when
asked, without, perhaps, at all understanding its import.
Again, possibly the clerk writing the deposition may have
understood that Fannv was sister to Mary Ann instead of
half-Biaier, and naturally assumed them to be the offspring of
the same parents. Besides, it conflicts with all the official
correspondence in which she is referred to with Dr. Milligan,
the medical superintendent, and Mr. Clark, the catechist, in
all of which the term " half-caste " never once appears, and
she is invariably designated an aboriginal girl, and
distinguished from Mary Ann, her half - sister, and an
undisputed half-caste. I may add, also, that Fanny wholly
repudiates all knowledge or recollection of the evidence
referred to. The paper of Lieut. Friend, which I have
quoted, in which he refers to Sarah, the mother of Fanny,
in support of his hypothesis, as well as the official statement
given of Eugene being her father and Adam being her
brother, should remove all doubt as to Fanny being a true
aboriginal. While it is not to be denied that difEerences of
opinion exist on the point, I think it must be allowed,
from the facts brought forward, that the weight of testimony
is in its favour.

The characteristics of the complexion and of the hair have
been cited as favouring the opinion that Fanny must be
deposed from the pedestal claimed for her as a pure aboriginal

64 NOTES ON THE LAST LTVTNG ABOBIOINAL OF TASMANIA.

and placed in the ranks of the half-castes. Mr. Walpole
states that " her colour is a very dark brown," but I should
rather term it a blackish-brown, and showing the true
aboriginal tint. On this point it must be remembered
that from her infancy she has been encircled within
the pale of civilised life, and shielded from the
severities of weather and privations to which otherwise
she would have been exposed, — all this, together with her
surroundings, must naturally have, in some degree, tended to
exercise a modifying influence. The same as to her hair,
which, if less woolly and like a mop, has no doubt been
combed and brushed out to some small extent of its original
fluffiness to reconcile it to the model of the hair of the white
children with whom she was brought up, and which she would
naturally strive to imitate.

The question at issue may appear, at flrst sight, to be a
mere personal matter, and of comparative unimportance, but
it is in reality much more than that, and has acquired a
sdentiflc aspect deserving of attention. There is reason to
believe that the theory of Strzelecki has influenced many to
concurrence in his views, and to disregard or overlook the
cogency of facts opposed to it. Lieut. Friend, as we have
seen, disputes the dictum referred to, and has adduced
strong evidence in support of his objection. Thus an interesting
problem has been presented for solution.

All controversy, however, must now be regarded as finally set
at rest, since the adoption by Parliament, after due inquiry,
of two resolutions passed, respectively, in Sessions 1882 and
1884, by the first of which the pension of Fanny Smith was
increased from £24i to .£50 per annum, and by the second
that a grant deed of the 100 acres of land she at that time
occupied, and for the 200 acres additional then presented to
her, should be issued to Fanny, free of cost ; both votes
being passed on the ground specified of her being the last
survivor of the aboriginal race.

Discussion

Mr. Stephens asked the writer of the paper not to press
the matter too strongly on the Society. While Parliament
was free to act at its discretion in entertaining a claim, the
Eoyal Society would not be justified in showing any amiable
weakness in the same direction. If, however, he threw out
a challenge to ethnologists, he ran the risk of depriving
Fanny Smith of what she now enjoyed. He was certain the
paper would be well received, and the writer must not
attribute any failure to discuss it on its merits to any lack
of appreciation.

THE ENGLISH AT THE DERWENT, AND
THE RISDON SETTLEMENT.

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER.
Read October 14th, 1839.

]. The English at the Derwent.

In a paper which I had the honour to read before the
Royal Society last November, entitled " The French in
Van Diemen's Land," I endeavoured to show how the
discoveries of the French at the Derwent, and their
supposed design of occupation, influenced Governor
King's mind, and led him to despatch the first English
colony to these shores. That paper brought the story
to the 12th September, 1803, when the Albion whaler,
with Governor Bo wen on board, cast anchor in Risdon
Cove, five days after the Ladt/ Nelson, which had
brought the rest of his small establishment.

The choice of such an unsuitable place as Risdon for
the site of the first settlement has always been something
of a puzzle; and, in order to understand the circumstances
which led to this ill-advised selection, it will be necessary
to go back sopae years, and follow the history of English
discovery and exploration in the South of Tasmania.

I have already noticed the elaborate and complete
surveys of the Canal D'Entrecasteaux, and the Riviere
du Nord, made by the French navigators in 1792, and
again in 1802 ; but it must be remembered that the
results of these expeditions were long kept a profound
secret, not only fi*om the English, but from the world in
general. Contemporaneously with the French, English
navigators had been making independent discoveries
and survevs in Southern Tasmania ; and it was solely
the knowledge thus acquired that guided Governor
King when he instructed Bo wen *' to fix on a proper
place about Risdon's Cove'* for the new settlement.

The English discoverer of the Derwent — a navigator
who, though less fortunate than Admiral D'Entrecasteaux,
yet merits the title of original discoverer equally with the
illostrious Frenchman — was Lieutenant John Hayes,
of the Bombay Marine, to whom I have already alluded.
The occasion of Hayes' expedition is sufficiently curious
to justify a few words of remark. It was the only
exploring expedition ever seni out by the East India
Company into Australian waters. In those days the
great Company was at the height of its power. Its

66 THE ENQLISH AT THE DERWENT.

royal charter secured it an absolute monopoly of trade,
not only with India and China, but with the entire East,
including the whole of the Pacific Ocean. So exclusive
were its privileges, and so jealously maintained, that the
colonists of New South Wales could not trade with the
home country except by permission of the Company.
So late as the year 1806* it successfully resisted the sale
in England of the first cargo of whale-oil and sealskins
shipped by a Sydney firm in the Lady Barlow^ on the
ground that the charter of the colony gave the
colonists no right to trade, and that the transaction was
a violation of the Company's charter and against its
welfare. It was urged on behalf of tne Court of
Directors that such " pii-atical enterprises " as the
venture of the owners of the Lady Bariom must at
once be put a stop to, as " the inevitable consequence of
building ships in New South Wales will be an intercourse
with all the ports of the China and India Seas^ and a
population of European descent, reared in a climate
suited to maintain the energies of the European
character, when it becomes numerous, active, and
opulent, may be expected to acquire the ascendancy
in the Indian Seas." The Lords Commissioners of
Trade decided that the action of the colonists was
irregular in respect to the Company's charter. Sir
Joseph Banks exerted himself strenuously on behalf of
the colonists, and represented to the Court of Directors
Brabourne that the Lords Commissioners in future cases " are
Pamp., p. 14. (jigpQsed to admit the cargo to entry, in case the Court
of Directors see no objection to this measure of indul-
gence towards an infant and improving colony," and
further, that their Lordships intend, without delay, *'to
prepare instructions for the future government of the
shipping concerns of the colony, on a plan suited to
provide the inhabitants with the means of becoming less
and less burdensome to the mother country, and framed
in such a manner as to interfere as little as possible with
the trade prerogatives and resources of the East India
Company. It was mainly owing to Banks* diplomacy
and energy that an Order of Council was obtained
allowing future cargoes from Sydney to be landed and
sold in England.

It is, perhaps, not surprising that the Company should
have contributed so little towards the exploration of
regions which it held to be an appanage to its Indian
dominions, for at that time the Southern Seas offered few

* See Pamphlet containing a summary of the contents < the
Brabourne Papers, Sydney, 1686, p. 11.

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 67

or no temptations of profit to a g^reat trading corpomtion.
As to New Holland, and Van Diemen's Land, its
supposed southern extension, they were merely obstacles
in the way of the lucrative China trade — jutting out incon-
veniently into the South Sea, lengthening the voyage
and increasing its dangere. For the sake of the vessels
employed in this trade, a knowledge of the Australian
coast and its harbours was desirable."' It was probably
with the object of finding a convenient harbour of refuge
for ships following the southern route to China in their
passage round the stormy South Cape of the Australian
continent, that, in the year 1793, the Company fitted out
an expedition destined for Van Diemen's Land. Cook
and Bligh had recently brought home reports which
encouraged the idea that a suitable port might be found
there, and it is quite possible that rumours of the visit of
D'Entrecasteaux the vear before had stimulated the
Board of Directors to action.

Lieutenant John Hayes was appointed to the com- Low's Hist, of
mand of the expedition, which consisted of two ships, the *J® Indian
Duke of Clarence and the Duches.% and was despatched 2(XK2b5.' ^^
from India to explore the coasts of Van Diemen's Land
and its harbours, and to make its way back to India by the
South Sea Islands and the Malay Archipelago. This
service Lieut. Hayes peiformed in a very satisfactory
manner. He surveyed the coasts of Tasmania, parts of
New Caledonia, of New Guinea and other islands,
his voyage extending over two or thi*ee years. Un-
happily, the results of these valuable surveys were lost
to his employers and to England, for the ship taking
home his charts and journals was captured by a French
man-of-war, all his papers were taken to Paris and have
never since seen the light.t A rough sketch of the Flinders'
Derwent made by Hayes found its way to Sydney, and Voyage,
18 frequently referred to by Flinders in the account of ^^^^'^'j ?• ^»
his voyage. This is all we know of his exploration of
Tasmania, and of the Honorable East India Company^s
first, last^ and only discovery expedition to Australian
waters.

• It was considered a chief object of every exploring expedition
to find harbours soitable for the East India Company's ships. When
Flinders was about to saii in the Investigator to explore the Aus-
tralian coast, the Court of Directois, on being applied to, made him
an aUowance of £1200 as *' batta money ''—a practical recognition
oftheir interest in his expedition.— Braboume Pamphlet, p. 13.

t There is good reason to believe that Hayes' charts and journals
tie in the National Library in Pai-is, or possibly in the Department
of Hazine and Colonies. It would be well if an effort were made
to disooyer them and have them published. See Appendix.

68 THE ENaLISH AT THE DERWENT.

Lieut. Hayes' ships reached Storm Bay in the year 1794.
He had heard of the visit of the French to these shores
two years before, but knew nothing of what D'Entre-
casteaux had done. He explored and surveyed the
approaches of the Derwent, and sailed up that river
nearly as far as Bridgewater ; while, in the belief that he
was making an original discovery, he gave new names
to various localities. These have in some instances
superseded those bestowed by his predecessor D'Entre-
casteaux. Thus it is to Hayes that we owe the name of
the Derwent, which has replaced the French appellation
of the Riviere du Nord, and D'Entrecasteaux Channel
was long known to the English by the name of Storm
Bay Passage, which it bears on Hayes' chart. Other
names which are still remembered are Betsey's Island,
Prince of Wales Bay, Mount Direction, and, lastly,
Risdon Cove.* It is said that Risdon Cove and River
were named by him after one of the officers of the ship,
but this I have not been able to verify.t

Flinders* Jt ^as in the early spring of the year 1798 that

Intro^% 138 Gr^vernor Hunter gave to Flinders — then a young
'* * ' Lieutenant of H.M.S. Reliance — the Norfolk^X a little
colonial sloop of 25 tons, to try to solve ihe vexed
question of the existence of a strait between New
Holland and Van Diemen's Land. Flinders secured
Dr. George Bass as his companion in the expedition, and
on the 7th October, 1798, the Norfolk sailed from Port
Jackson with a crew of 8 volunteers, taking twelve
weeks' provisions. They examined the North Coast of
Tasmania, entering Port Dalrymple, and sailed for the
first time through the Straits, to which, at Flinders'

* Adamson's Peak, Mount Lewis, Cornelian Bay, Taylor's Bay,
Court's Island, Fluted Cape, Ralph's Bay, were also named by
Hayes.

t Mr. Justin Browne informs me that Risdon is a name borne by
a county family of Devonshire ; (see " Marshall's Genealogist's
Guide," p. 524), and that it occurs also as a place name in
Gloucestershire, (see also Burke's Armoury, Ed. 18.) The popular
deriyation from a supposed ** Rest-down " may perhaps be credited
to the fancy oi the enterprising and pugnacious printer, Andrew Bent.
So far as I have been able to discover, it first occurs in ** Benfs
Tasmanian Almanac " for 1827. It has been copied by Wert tad
other writei*s.

X The Norfolk^ which has the credit of hvrlBr
gated Van Icemen's Land, was built al *—****
for which that island is celi»br»**^
Flinders in his exploratUm ^
History of Victoria. Yel *

BT JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 69

request, Governor Hunter gave the name of Bass'
Straits.*

Leaving Bass' Straits the Norfolk sailed southwards
along the West Coast — Flinders naming Mount Hecms-
kirk and Mount Zeehan after Tasman's two vessels — and
on 14th December, arrived at the entrance of Storm Bay.
Flinders had with him a copy of Hayes' sketch chart of Flinders,
the Derwent, but had never even heard of D'Entre- ^"^^0., p. 181.
casteaux's discoveries six years before. Bass, in
speaking of Adventure Bay, says, — " This island, the Collins' New
Derwent, aijd Storm Bay Passage were the discovery South Wales,
of Mr. Hayes, of which he made a chart." More than ^^-^l^- ^*^'^-
a fortnight was employed by Flinders in making a Flinde^^,
careful survey of Norfolk Bay, and of the Derwent from Intro., pp.
the Iron Pot to a point some 5 miles above Bridgewater. 181-181).
In the Introduction to his Voyage to Terra Avstralis,
he gives the result of his observations. Bass devoted
his attention more particularly to an examination of
the neighbouring country, its soil, productions, and
suitableness for agriculture. He took long excursions
into the country, having seldom other society than his
two dogs, examining in this way the western shore of
the river from below the Blow Hole at Brown's River
to beyond Prince of Wales Bay, visiting various parts
of the eastern shore, and ascending Mount Wellington
and Mount Direction. His original journal has never
come to light, but the substance of it was published in
1802, by Collins, in the second volume of his Account r>/'Collins,li., pp.
New South Wales. US-W4.

It is interesting to learn how the country with which
we are so familiar struck the first visitor to its shores,
when as yet the land was in all its native wildness, and
untouched by the hand of man, and I shall therefore
give some of Bass's observations on the country about
the Derwent. The explorers had some difficulty in
getting the Norfolk as far up the river as the mouth of
tne Joitlan, which Flinders named Herdsman's Cove.
Thence they proceeded in their boat some 5 or 6 miles ibJd, p. 18C.
higher up. They expected to have been able to reach
the source in one tide, but in this they were mistaken,
falling, as they believed, some miles short of it. I regret
to say that Bass did not show the good taste of the

* '* No more than a just tribute," says the generous
Flinders, " to my worthy friend and companion for the extreme
dangers and fatigues he had undergone in first entering it in the
whiJe-boat, and to the correct judgment be had formed from
varioas indications of the existence of a wide opening between Van
Diemen's Land and New South Wi^los," — Voyage to Terra Aus-
tralig^ Intro., p. 103.

70 THE ENGLISH AT THE DERWENT.

Frenchmen who were so enthusiastic on the grandeur
and beauty of the harbours and rivers which they had
Collins, ii., entered. Ho describes our noble river as a " dull, lifeless
p. 183. stream, whieli after a sleepy course of not more than 25

or 27 miles to the north-west, falls into Frederick
Henry Bay. Its breadth there is two miles and a
quarter, and its depth ten fathoms." He further remarks,
" If the Derwent River has any claim to respectability,
it is indebted for it more to the paucity of inlets into
Van Diemen's Land than to any intrinsic merits of its
own." Yet his impression of the country on its banks
was distinctly favourable. "The river," he says, " takes
its way through a country that on the east and north
sides is hilly, on the west and north mountainous. The
hills to the eastward arise immediately from the banks ;
but the mountains to the westward have retired to the
distance of a few miles from the water, and have left in
their front hilly land similar to that on the east side. All
the hills are very thinly set with light timber, chiefly
short she-oaks ; but are admirably covered with thick
nutntious grass, in general free from brush or patches of
shrubs. The soil in which it grows is a black vegetable
mould; deep only in the valleys, frequently very shallow,
with occasionally a mixture of sand or small stones.
Many large tracts of land appear cultivable both for
maize and wheat, but which, as pasture land, would be
excellent. The hills descend with such gentle slopes,
that the vallevs between them are extensive and flat.
Several contain an indeterminate depth of rich soil,
capable of supporting the most exhausting vegetation,
and are tolerably well watered by chains of small ponds,
or occasional drains, which empty themselves into the
river by a cove or creek." Black swans were seen in
great numbers, and kangaroo abounded, but Bass came
to the conclusion that the natives must be few in number,
as although they frequently found their rude huts and
deserted fires, during a fortnight's excursions they fell in
with none of the aborigines, except a man and two
women, with whom thcv had a friendlv interview some
miles above Herdsman's Cove. Bass contrasts New
South Wales and Van Diemen's Laud in respect of
their fitness for agriculture : his opinion was that they
were both poor countries, but in point of productive soil
the preference was to be given to Van Diemen's Land.
He found on the banks of the Derwent various tmcts of
land which he considered admirably adapted for grain,
for vines, and for pasturage, and no place combined so
many advantages as Risdon Cove, Bass grows almost

BT JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 71

enthusiastic in describing Risdon. ^' The land at the Collins^ ii.,
head of Risdon Creek, on the east side," he remarks, P- 185.
*' seems preferable to any other on the banks of the
Derwent. The creek runs winding between two steep
hills, and ends in a chain of ponds that extends into a
fertile valley of great beauty. For half-a-mile above the
head of the creek the valley is contracted and narrow,
bat the soil is extremely pich, and the fields are well
oovered with grass. Beyond this it suddenly expands
and becomes broad and fiat at the bottom, whence arise
long grassy slopes, that by a gentle but increasing ascent
continue to mount the hills on each side, until they are
hidden from the view by woods of lar^e timber which

overhang their summits The soil along the

bottom, and to some distance up the slopes, is a rich
vegetable mould, apparently hardened by a small mixture
of clay, which grows a large quantity of thick juicy
grass and some few patches of close underwood."

Flinders was, however, disappointed with Hayes' Flinders.
Risdon River, and notices the insignificance of the little Intro., pp.
creek, which even his boat could not entet, and at which ^®^' ^®^*
he could barely manage to fill his water casks. Among
" the many local advantages of the Derwent " to which King to
Kin&^ alludes in his despatch to Lord Hobiirt, and which Hobart, 9th
determined him to choose that place for a settlement, ^^^^> ^^^'
there is no doubt that Bass's glowing description of the
beauty and fertility of Risdon filled a large place, and
induced him to direct Bowen to choose its neighbour-
hood for the new colony.

2. The Risdon Settlement.

It is now time for us to return to Lieut. Bowen and
his little colony, whom we left on the 12th September,
1803, in the Albion and Ladi/ Nehon at anchor in
Risdon Cove. A week later Bowen writes to Governor Bowen to
King by the Albion, I'e porting his arrival, and his Kinsr, 20th
definite selection of Risdon as the site of the new ^®JJ^®"^^*^^'
settlement. He seems to have accepted Risdon as a
foregone conclusion, for although he tells the Governor
that he had explored the river to a point rather higher
than Flinders went, it does not appear that he made any
sufficient examination of the western bank. If he had
done so he could hardly hare written to King — ** There
are so many fine spots on the borders of the river that I
was a little puzzled to fix upon the best place ; but there
being a much better stream of fresh water falling into
Risdon Cove than into any of the otherajand very extensive
valleys lying at the back of it, I judged it the most

72 THE RISDON 8ETTLB1IBNT.

convenient, and accordingly disembarked all the men
and stores." He could never have written thus if he
had examined either Humphrey's Rivulet or the stream
falling into Sullivan's Cove. Bowen's choice of Risdon
does not lead us to form a high opinion of his qualifi-
cations as the founder of a new colony. On the other
hand, it is oiilv fair to take into account his difficulties.
Doubtless he felt himself in a great degree bound by the
instructions he had received from Governor King to fix
on a spot in the neighbourhood of Risdon Cove. 1 1 e
also knew that Bass had carefully examined both shores
of the river and had found no place so eligible. Moreover,
it would be unjust to judge his choice by our present
knowledge. Every settlement in an unknown and thickly
wooded country must be more or less tentative, and the
objections to the locality were not so evident in its
original state as they now are. At present the Cove is
silted up in consequence of a causeway having been built
across it, but when Bowen entered it it was a fairly
deep and commodious harbour. There was much to
recommend thtf site to a new comer. When the Albion
sailed up the Derwent the best valleys running down to
the river were full of a dense scrub, most discouraging to
a settler, and at that period Risdon probably presented the
most open land on this side Herdsman's Cove. It was early
spring, and at that season there would be a good stream
of water in the creek, the open land of the Risdon valley
was covered with rich and luxuriant grass, and higher
uj) the creek was a fair amount of the good agricultural
land described by Bass. The unsuitability of the
valley as a site for a large town would never occur to
Bowen, who was cont( nt if he could find for his
handful of settlers a sufficient space for their gardens,
and a few cornfields to suj)])ly their immediate require-
ments. The small scale of the establishment with which
he was entrusted would inevitably limit his ideas.
Still, after every allowance has been made, it remains
evident that Lieut. John Bowen was not one of the men
who are born to be the successful i'ounders of new States.
The site of this first settlement is on the farm so well
known as the home of the late Mr. Thos. Geo. Gregson,
M.H.A. It lies about two miles i'rom the landing-place
of the Risdon ferry. A stone causeway crosses the cove
not flir from the mouth of the creek. For some 100 or
150 yards before the little stream falls into the cove it
finds its way through a small marsh of some 20 acres,
shut in on each side by steep hills. In Bowen's time
this stream was fresh and clear-flowing; now it is brackish,

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 73

sluggish, and muddy, choked with weeds and slime, and
altogether uninviting in aspect. At the upper end of
the marsh, where the valley suddenly contracts, a dilapi-
dated stone jetty marks the old landing-place on the
creek, at present quite inaccessible for a boat. On the
narrow strip of flat ground between the jetty and the
steep hill beyond are the barely discernible foundations
of a stone building, the first stone store in Tasmania.
From this point a road leads upwards along the hillside
for some 150 or 200 yards to the top of the rise, where
there is a level piece of land of no great extent, bounded
on the north by I'ough hills and on the south sloping
steeply to the valley. On the edge of this level ground,
overlooking the flat and commanding a fine view of the
Derwent and of the mountains behind it, stand some
dilapidated wooden buildings, for many years well known
as the residence of Mr. Gregson, the little cottage in
front being not improbably Lieut. Bowen's original
quarters. A good gardon extends to the rear of the
bouse, and in this garden, about 100 yards behind the
cottage, there still stand the ruins of an oven with brick
chimney, which Mr. Gregson for many years religiously
preserved as the remains of the first house erected
m Van Diemen's Land. From this point the va!!oy is
narrow, tlie ground sloping down steeply, but there is
good agricultural land in the bottom, and on the northern
slope where Bowen's free settlers were located — the
other side being atony and barren. A plan which Bowen
sent to Governor King enables us to identify the locality
with absolute precision. He tells King — " We are
situated on a hill commanding a perfect view of the
river, and with the fresh water at the foot of it — the land
excellent."

Afier pitching his tents at Risdtm, Bowen was not
idle. He set his people at once to work to build huts.
During the first week he made a boat excursion up the
river ; examined Herdsman's Cove, and thought of
locating his free settlers there. He describes the Der- Bowen io
went as " perfectly fresh " above Herdsman's Cove, King, 20th
and '* the lanks more like a nobleman's park in England fgno^^^®'^'
than an uncultivated country ; every part is beautifully
green, and very little trouble might clear eveiy valley I
have seen in a month. There are few rocky spots except
on the high hills, and in many places the plough might
be used immediately ; but our workmen are very few and
very bad. I could with ease employ a hundred men
upon the land about us, and with that number — some
good men among them — we should soon be a flourishing

THE RISDON SETTLEMENT.

Bowen to
King, 27th
September,
IS03, per
Lady SeUon,

King to
Hobart, 1st
March, 1801.

Bowen to
King, 27th
September,
1803.

Ibid.

colony." Next week he made another trip up the
Derwent, but without further results. He sends King a
plan of his settlement,* and already within a fortnight of
his arrival he had got quarters built for his soldiers and
prisoners, had located his free settlei-s on their five-acre
allotments up the valley about a quarter of a mile from
his tent, and had Clark, the stonemason, at work
building a stone store.

He had — probably in accordance with King's in-
structions— named the new settlement " Hobart/'t afler
Lord Hobart, the Secretary of State for the Colonies.

His Returns, dated " Hobart, Van Dieraen's Land,
27th September, 1803," show an effective strength of 22
men — 21 convicts and their overseer — of whom 2 were
in charge of stock, 4 employed on buildings, (viz., a
blacksmith, carpenter, and two sawyers), the bulk of
the convicts forming a town gang. The three women
are returned as " cutting grass," probably for thatching.
Of the stock, the Government owned 9 cattle and 25
sheep, the Commandant had a mare, and the Doctor a
cow, while the Oflicers and Birt and Clarke, the free
settlers, were possessors of 7 sheep, 8 goats, and 38
swine.

Within a fortnight from his landing, as I have said,
Bowen had all his people housed, and reports to King
that the soldiers and prisoners have got very comfortable
hills. He fixed his own quarters on the spot where
Mr. Gregson's house now stands; the soldiers' huts were
a little behind Dr. Mountgarret's quarters, and the
prisoners' huts were placed on the brow of the steep
bank overlooking the creek. (See plan). The Command-
ant tells King that he has not yet drawn any lines for
the town, waiting till he can cut down the large timber
wliich obstructed his view. To lay out a town in such
a situation must have been a difficult problem, for his
little settlement was perched on the top of a high almost
precipitous bank, on the edge of a very narrow gully,
and the narrow plateau on which it stood, shut in at the
back by rough hills, did not afford room for a fair sized
village. But the difficulties of the locality were as
nothing to the difficulties of the human material out of
which he had \o form his colony.

The soldiers of the New South Wales Corps, who
formed his guard, and on whom he had to depend for

* See Appendix.

t "Town " was not added to the name until some time after the
settlement was removed by Collins to Sullivan's Cove.

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 76

the maintenance of order, were discontented, almost
mutinous. Within a week of his arrival they were

frumblinor at the hard duty of mounting one sentry
uring the day and two at night. The Commandant
thought they had been spoilt by too easy a life in
Sydney, and begged the Governor to send him down an
active officer or sergeant who would keep them to their
duty.

As to the prisoners, they were of the worst class,
ill behaved, useless, and lazy. Indeed, when we find
that some of the worst offenders in New South Wales
had been sentenced by the Criminal Court in Sydney to
serve a certain number of vears at Risdon Creek, we
cannot wonder at Bowen's complaints of their conduct,
nor can we be surprised that he was able to effect so
little.

Meanwhile, Governor King did not forget the interests
of the new colony. In his reply to Bowen's first letters, Kinj^to
he expressed himself as well pleased with the selection of Bowen, l8th
Risdon, and with the progress that had been made with October, 1803.
the settlement. He also promised the reinforcements for
which Bowen asked, and, accordingly, towards the end of King to
October the Dart brig was despatched to the Derwent. Hobart,
She took 42 prisoners— of whom 20 were volunteers —and ^f^ October,
these latter were told that, if their behaviour was good,
they should be allowed at the end of two years to choose
-between settling at the Derwent and returning to Sydney.
The Goveraor also strengthened the Military force by
sending down 15 soldiers nndei the command of Lieut.
Moore. He strongly urged Bowen to leave their discipline
entirely to their officer, to give them good huts, full
rations, a plot of ground for a garden, and to employ
them on militarv dutv onlv, so that thev mig^ht have no
just ground for complaint. The Dai't took six months'
supplies of pork and flour for the new arrivals, and also
two carronades which had belonged to the Investigator,
and as to the care of which King gave the Commandant
very special cautions. No more free settlers were sent,
as the Governor wished first to get a better knowledue
of the country and of its suitableness for agriculture. To King to
this end he sent down James Meehan, a surveyor who Howen, l8th
had done good work in New South Wales under Sur- ^'^^^^h 1803.
yeyor-General Grimes, and had recently formed one of the
party who had made the survey of Port Phillip in tho
Cumberland, Meehan was to be employed in surveying
and making observations on the soil and natural pro-
ductions of the colony, and was to advise with respect to
the distribution of tlie town, church, and school lands,

THE RISDON SETTLKMBNT.

Knopwood*8
Diaiy, Gth
March, 1804,

Collins to

King, 2Uth

February,

1804.

Harris's

statement.

fortification^ court-house^ settlers' allotments, and govern-
ment grounds for the purpose of agriculture and grazing.
He remained some four months at Hobart, returning
to Sydney in March, 1804, after having completed the
fii-st surveys in Tasmania. Flinders' map shows that
Meehan explored from the Coal River in a north-east
direction, returning by way of Prosser s Plains and the
Sorell District, but we have no particulars of the result
of his observations.

Bowen's little colony now numbered something like
100 souls. It had been established about two months,
and might fairly have been expected to have made at
least a start towards definite progress. But it was pre-
destined to failure. The few meagre facts that can be
gleaned from the Record Office papers show that matters
went most persistently wrong. The Commandant may not
have been to blame for this ill success — possibly no man
could have achieved success with the like material. The
first arrivals had been bad, the second batch was certainly
no better. We have Collins' testimony, very emphatically
given, that many of them were " abandoned, hardened
wretches" — "more atrocious than those imported from the
gaols of England." The story of the escape of seven of
these convicts, under the leadership of one Duce, gives
us an idea of their lawlessness, their ignorance, and their
utter recklessness. One night, Duce and his six com-
panions stole the Commandant's boat as she lay in the
cove, gained possession of two guns, and got away down
the river. Some of the party wanted, without compass
or provisions, to run for New Zealand, which they
thought could easily be done. Others, not quite so
ignorant, preferred to try to make Timor. Violent
quarrels ensued, but they kept on their coui"se along the
east coast, living on fish and such vegetable food as they
could collect on the shore, and constantly on the verge
of murderous conflict, until they reached Bass Strait.
Here one of the party was left on a desolate rock, Duce
threatening to shoot any one who interfered. The rest
made Cape Barren Island, where they fell in with a
sealing party. Duce and three others designed to seize
the vessel, but were betrayed by their companions. The
sealers overpowered them, and put the four, with some
provisions, ou one of the islands, where they left them.
Whether they perished, or whether they helped to swell
the number of lawless runaways who for so long a time
infested the islands in the Straits, no one knows.

The soldiers were almost as great a trouble to the
Commandant as the convicts, They were always

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 77

discontented, occasionally mutinous. At times, instead

of guarding the stores from depredation, they connived

at the prisoners plundering them. An occasion of this King to

Bort, when a soldier was proved to have been accomplice Hobart, Ist

in a robbery, led to Bowen taking a very extraordinary ^*^^> ^®^»

step. He could not try the man, not being able to

constitute a court martial, and was so pjizzled to know

what to do with him, that when the Ferret whaler

chanced to put into the Derwent, he actually determined

to leave his post, and himself take the culprit to Sydney

for trial. Accordingly, he sailed from Risdon for Sydney

in the Ferret, on the 9th January, 1804.

With all these signs of the utter disorganisation of the
settlement, we cannot wonder that no progress had been
made, and that when Collins arrived a few weeks later,
he found that after five months' residence not a single acre Collins t<>
of land was in preparation for grain upon Government King, 29th

account Ja^^'^'

Bat the Risdon settlement was already doomed, owing
to a series of events of which neither Governor King
nor his Commandant was yet aware. Before Bowen
had made his first abortive start for the Derwent, and
before Governor King's despatch of 23rd November,
1802, respecting French designs could have reached
England, the Home Government had taken a resolution
which — not by any intention of theirs — was destined to
bring Lieut. Bowen 's colony to an end, by its extinction in
a more systematic and extensive settlement on the banks
of the Derwent. In January, 1803, an Order in Council Downing-
appointed Lieut.-Colonel David Collins, of the Royal ^^^®®* *^
Marines, Lieutenant-Governor of a settlement intended °"™ ^^'
to be formed at Port Phillip, in New South Wales.
The new establishment sailed from Spithead on the 24th
Aprily 1803 — a month before King had given Bowen Knopwood's
his commission as Commandant of Hobart — had just left Diary.
Cape Town when Bowen sailed from Sydney in the
Attnony and arrived in Port Phillip on the 9th October,
1808.

This is not the place to give an account of Collins'
mroceedings, at Port Phillip or elsewhere, except in so
mr as they affected the fortunes of the Risdon settlement.
Saffice it to say, that Collins found, or fancied, that Port
Phillip was unfit for a settlement, and after corresponding
with (ioyemor King, and dawdling near the BTeads for
some three months, he finally decided to remove his
establbhment to the Derwent. Thereupon^ King sent King to
Collins a letter addressed to Bowen, directing the latter Bowen, 26th
to hand over to Collins his command at the Derwent, |^°^

78 THE RISBON SETTLEMENT.

and to send back to Port Jackson his detachment of
the New South Wales Corps. And so a p^me of cross
purposes began. For while Collins was still fuming and
fidgetting at Port Phillip, balancing the comparative
advantages of Port Dalrymple and th6 Derwent, and
gradually making up his mind in favour of the latter
9th January, place, Bowen had sailed from Risdon in the Ferret
1804. with his burglal'ious soldier, and had presented himself

23rd January, to the astonished Governor King at Port Jackson. The
Governor seems to have taken no pains to conceal the
annoyance he felt at his Commandant leaving his post
on so trifling an occasion, and sarcastically remarks in a
1st March despatch to Lord Hobart, that Bowen's " return was
1804. occasioned by the necessity he conceived himself to be

under of bringing up a soldier who had been implicated
with the rest in robbing the stores." He was the more
vexed at this inopportune return, as he knew that Collins
was on the point of leaving Port Phillip, and he was
particularly anxious that the Risdon Commandant should
be at hand to give the new Lieutenant-Governor the
benefit of his experience and knowledge of the locality,
j^^ The colonial cutler Integrity had just been launched.

She was hastily fitted for sea, and Bowen was ordered
to return in her to the Derwent forthwith, calling at
Port Phillip to join Collins, to give him all necessary
assistance, and accompany him to Risdon. The In-
tegrity sailed on the 5th February ; but Bowen's ill
luck still attended him. When he reached Port Phillip
he found only a remnant of Collins' establishment, under
the charge of Lieut. Sladcjen, the Lieutenant-Governor
30th January, himself having sailed for the Derwent in the Ocean
1804. ^iijj ^|jg \yxx\\i of his people two or three days before.

King's Order Bowen accordingly hastened on with his despatches, but
90 h*A^^^' f shortly after sailing the cutter's rudder fastenings carried
1804 ^^^^ ' a^vay, and she was placed in a very dangerous position.
However, she managed to reach Kent's Bay, Cape Barren
Island, and there they found a sealing parly belonging
to the American ships Pilgrim and Perseverance, The
necessity for getting on was imperative ; so Bowen made
a verbal agreement with the American skipper, Captain
Amasa Delano, to carry them on in his ship, and after-
Knopwood's wards, if required, to proceed to Port Jackson. From
Diary^ 10th ^he diary of the Chaplain of Collins' party, the well
*^^ * known Rev. Robert Knopwood, we learn that the Pilgrim

cast anchor in Sullivan's Cove on 10th March, and that
at six in the evening, a boat brought ashore " the Governor
of Risdon Creek, Lieut. Bowen, of the Royal Navy."
It must have proved a considerable mollification to

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 79

the Ooyemor of Risdon Creek to learn the events that
had occurred during his unlucky absence. Lieutenant-
Governor Collins had arrived in the evening of the 15th
February, and next morning had landed at the Risdon
settlement under a salute of 11 guns from the Ocean.
On landing, he had been received by the officer in charge,
Lieut. Moore, of the New South Wales' Corps, and the
rest of the establishment — consisting of the doctor, store-
keeper^ and military force of 16 privates, one sergeant,
and one drum and fife. After examining the camp,
gardens, water, &c., the new Lieutenant-Governor had at
once come to the conchision — which indeed was pretty
eyident — tliat Risdon was not, in the Chaplain's words,
" calculated for a town." Accordingly, on the following
day the Governor, with the Chaplain and Wm. Collins,
had gone exploring, and had returned much delighted,
haying found at a place on the opposite side of ihe riven
six miles below Risdon, "a plain well calculated in
every degree for a settlement." Forthwith the tents
of the new establishment had been struck and taken on
board the ships, which had dropped down the river to
the selected spot, and anchored in Sullivan's Cove Si>
that on the 20th February — five davs after Collins' Knopwood.
arrival — his tents had been pitched at the mouth of the
creek on the present site of Hobart, and the glory of
Risdon had departed.

Bowen's settlement had had its own internal troubles,
which, no doubt, Lieut. Moore duly reported to the
Governor of Risdon Creek. On the 21st February, the Collins to
day after the founding of the new Hobart at Sullivan's Kinp, 29th
Cove, a further batch of five convicts had escaped from Febmary
Risdon, having found means to steal half a barrel of
gunpowder fix)m under the very feet of the sentry, and
also two "musquets," with which they had got off into the
woods. The runaways, however, did not find the woods
mTitiiig enough for a permanent residence, and one of
them having voluntarily come in, the others followed his
example next day, bringing the arms and ammunition
with them. It was too troublesome and expensive to
send them to Sydney for trial; they were therefore
heavily ironed, and kept to work as a gaol gang.

The only consolation that the Risdon Governor could
have found in his adversity — besides the greater oppor-
tunities of good fellowship which were now afforded nim,
with no doubt better fare than the salt pork and bread,
which had hitherto been the regulation diet— was the
consideration that the religious wants of his people,
abont which Governor King had been so emphatic.

THE RISDON SETTLEMENT.

26th March.
17th April.

King to
Palmer, 29th
Augrost, 1804.

Kuigto
Hobart, 20th
December,
1804.

American
sealers —
Murreirs
statement.

Khigto
Hobart, 20th
December,
1804.

were now under proper regulation, and that on Sundays,
when the weather was not unfavourable, the Chaplain,
after divine service at Sullivan's Cove, had occasionally
pfone over to llisdon in the afternoon, and^ as he phrases
it, " done his duty to all the convicts, &c., &c.," dining
aftei^wards with Dr. Mountffarret.

Captain Delano, meanwhile, was making a good thing
out of Bowen's misfortunes. The Integrity was still
lying at Cape Barren Island, disabled, and she had to
be brought on. So after enjoying and returning the
hospitalities of the place for a fortnight, the American
captain sailed again for the Straits, with new rudder
fastenings for the disabled vessel, and in less than a
month ihe Pilgrim once more appeared in the Derwent
with the Integrity in company. The Pilgrim sailed
away a few days later to continue her sealing voyage,
and her captain carried with him not only the reward
of an approving conscience, but- also Bowen's bill on
Governor King for £400. When the bill was pre-
sented in the following August, King's surprise was
considerable, and he made some vigorous protests. But
the bill was in due form, for services performed, and
the Governor had to pay. He could only relieve his
feelings by writing to Lord Hobart in strong terms as
to the American's conduct ; but he says, " I did not
consider I could, with that respect due to the British
character, either curtail or refuse payment of the bill,
notwithstanding the extortionate advantage that had
been taken of Mr. Bowen's necessities, and his not
entering into a written agreement."

We hear again of Captain Delano and his party a
month or two later, and they seem to have been very un-
desirable visitors. Not only had they been smuggling spirits
against the stringent regulations and decoying prisoners,
but they had made themselves still more obnoxious by
their brutal treatment of a sealing party at Kent's Bay
belonging to the Surprise sloop, of Sydney. According
to the statement of the master of the Surprijse, he had
been flogged and nearly killed by Delano's men for
venturing to come into the Straits and intei'fere with
them by killing seals in their neighbourhood. Governor
King was inclined to take vigorous measures to put a
stop to the lawless conduct which was then only too
common amongst the American sealers in Bass' Straits,
and proposed to the Home Government that he should
be authorised to go the length of seizing their ships as
the only means of teaching them better behaviour.

But to return to the fortunes of the Risdon Settlement.

BT /AMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 81

Lientenant-Goveraor Collins was altogether disappointed Collins to
with the condition of Bowen's colony, and made a very Kingr, 29th
nn&Yoarable report on it to Governor King. The site was f^"*^^'
quite unsuitable ; the landing-place on the creek was
choked with mud, and only accessible at high tide ; the
stores were placed on a low position, and likely to be
flooded by any heavy rain ; the land was by no means
first class ; and the rivulet, on which they depended for Oillins to
their fresh water, and which in September had been a Hobart, 31 st
running stream, was in February dwindled to a few pools ^^^^* ^^^'
of dirty water. The indifferent capabilities of the place Collins to
had not been made the most of. No grain had been King, 29th
sown, snd no Government land had been even prepared February,
for sowing. Dr. Mountgarret, and Clark and Birt, the ^^^'
free settlers, had each about five acres ready, but they
had no seed, so Collins- had to supply them with suf- Collins to
ficient to crop their land. The five months' occupation Hobart, 31st
had been wasted ; there was nothing to show but a few ^^^^^ ^^^^'
wretched huts, cottages somewhat better for the officers,
and a few acres of land roughly cleared of trees and
scrub. The people were in a miserable condition, having Collins to
been for some time on two-thirds of the standard rations, Hobart, 3i*d
so that Collins had to supply them with food, and even -^"ff^st^ 1^04.
to remove their starving pigs to his own camp to save
their lives. A more dismal failure for a new colony
could scarcely be imagined. It is difficult to decide how Collins to
far Bowen was to blame for this wretched state of things. King, 29th
The human material that had been given him to mould f^ijf"*^^'
into shape was desperately bad. Collins says that the
officer in charge on his arrival (probably Lieut. Moore)
described them " as a worthless and desperate set of
wretches ; " and this language does not appear to have
been too strong. The Sydney authorities seem to have
taken the opportunity of Bowen's settlement to rid them-
selves of their worst criminals, including the most tur-
bulent of the United Irishmen, who had lately given so
much trouble by their rising in the older colony. Even
the soldiers of the New South Wales Corps, sent to curb
these undesirable colonists, were lazy and mutinously
inclined. It is a satisfaction to know that Collins
eventually shipped the whole lot back to Sydney — both
soldiers and convicts, with but few exceptions — so that
they never had any part in the new Hobart.

Collins did not interfere with Bowen or with Lieut. Ibid,
Moore in their command, but left them in uncontrolled
charge. Indeed, be seems to have been only too anxious
to wash his hands of Risdon and all its works. Governor
Bowen and the Risdon officers, however, made the best
of their circumstances^ and^ if we can trust the chaplain^s

THE RISBON SBTTLEMENT.

Knopwoody
26th March.

1 AprU.

Collins to
Kingr, •i4th
April, 1804.

diaiy, took life easily — shooting, hunting, excuraionising,
and exchanging frequent visits with the officers of the
new camp. Towards the end of March Mr. Knopwood
goes to Kisdon for a few days, and " they caught six
young emews the size of a turkey, and shot the old
mother.'* On Easter Sunday, after Divine Service,
they all go to the chaplain^s marquee at the camp, and
" partook of some Norfolk liam, the best we ever eat"
At 4 P.M. he adjourns to Lieut. Lord's to dinner, " and
was very meriy." Mr. Knopwood records many visits
to Risdon, and excursions with Bowen up the river, to
Mount Direction, to Ralph's Bay, and other places.
" The Governor of Risdon Creek," as Knopwood called
hin?, had, however, enough trouble with his refractory
people. His soldiei-s had long grumbled at the sentry
duty as too hard for their smkU numbers ; and the dis-
content at last broke out into direct mutiny. On Sunday,
22nd April, the men flatly refused to mount guard, and
became so insolent and insubordinate that Lieut. Moore
promptly put four of the ringleaders into irons, and took
them down to Sullivan's Cove. Lieut.-Governor Collins
sent the mutineers under a guard on board the Colonial
cutter Integrity, then on the point of sailing for Port
Jackson. At the same time a plot was on foot amongst
some of the Irish convicts at Risdon. Their object was
to seize the storehouse, supply themselves with provisions,
and make good their escape from the settlement. On
the discovery of the plot three of the ringleaders were
forthwith flogged, and to prevent further mischief Cap-
tain Bowen and Mr. Wilson, the storekeeper, a few
days later took the mutinous prisoners to Norfolk Bay
in the Risdon whaleboat. ^* Eight of them, and all
Irishmen," remarks the chaplain. They were left on
Smooth Island (now known as Garden Island), with a
month's provisions, and Bowen went on to explore the
River Huon.

With that fatality which always kept Bowen out of
the way when he was wanted, an important and disastrous
event occurred at Risdon in his absence. This was the
first affray of the English with the natives. It was on
the 3rd May, 1804, that this first of the long series of
fatal encounters between the two races took place.
Up to this time it does not appear that any natives
had been seen in the neighbourhood of Risdon. Knop-
wood relates that there had been some friendly intercourse
with the tribe on the other side of the river, and that
some of them had come to Collins' camp. We also leam
from him that he and Bowen had seen many natives in
the neighbourhood of Frederick Henrv Bay. The blacks

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER, 83

had always shown themselves shy and suspicious, but
relations had hitherto been quite friendly. The unhappy
event of the 3rd May sowed the seeds of a hostility on
the part of the blacks, which, exasperated from time to
time by mutual injuries, filled the colony with deeds of
outrage and horror, with savage murders of innocent
settlers, and almost equally savage retaliation, until the
native race was nearly exterminated, and the misemble
remnant removed to Flinders' Island, to perish of slow
decay. Of the origin of the affray the accounts are very
contradictory. Two of these are contemporary ; one re-
corded by Mr. Knopwood in his diary, the other in a
letter by Lieut. Moore, the officer in charge of Risdon.
The Chaplain says, under date Thursday, 3rd May : —
"At 2 P.M. we heard the report of cannon once from
Risdon. The Lieut-Governor sent a message to know the
cause. At half-past 7, Lieut. Moore arrived at the camp
to Lieut.-Governor Collins, and I received the following
note from Risdon : —

Dear Sir,

I beg to refer you to Mr. Moore for the particulars of an
ftttaiik the natives made on the camp to-day, and I have every
reason to think it was premeditated, as their number far
exceeded any that we ever heard of. As you express a wish
to be acquainted with some of the natives, if you will dine
with me fo-morrow, you will oblige me by chnstening a fine
native boy who I have. Unfortunately, poor boy, his father
and mother were both killed ; he is about 2 years old. I have,
likewise, the body of a man that was killed. If Mr. Bowden
wishes to see him dissected, I will be happy to see him with
you to-morrow. I would have wrote to him, but Mr. Moore
waits.

Your friend,

J. MOUNTGARRBT.

Robert, six o'clock.

The number of natives, I think, was not less than 5 or 6
hundred. J. M."

Knopwood continues :

** At 8, Lieut. Moore came to my mar(]^uee and stayed some
time ; he informed me of the natives being very numerous,
and that they had wounded one of the settlers, Burke, and
was going to burn his house down, and ill-treated his wife,
&c., &c."

Lieut. Moore's letter — ^a copy of which is preserved in
the Record Office— is dated Risdon Cove, 7th May,
1804, and is addressed to Governor Collins. He says —

Sib.

Agreeable to your desire, I have the honor of acquainting
you with the circumstances that led to the attack on the
natives, which you will perceive was the consequence of
their own hostile appearance.

THB RISDOK SBTTLBMBKT.

MUitary
operations
against the
aboiig^es of
V.D.L.,
House of
Commons
Paper, 28rd
September,
1831^ p. 59.

It would a{>pear from the numbers of them^ and the spears,
&c., with which they were armed, that their design was to
attack us. However, it was not until they had thorouehly
convinced us of their intentions, by using violence to a settler's
wife, and my own servant — who was returning into camp with
some kangaroos, one of which they took from him — that they
were fired upon. On their coming into camp and surrounding
it, I went towards them with five soldiers. Their appearance
and numbers I thought very iar from Mendly. During this
time I was informed that a party of them was beating fiirt,
the settler, at his farm. I then despatched two soldiers to his
assistance, with orders not to fire if they could avoid it
However, they found it necessary ; and one was killed on the
spot, and another found dead in the valley.

But at this time a great party was in the camp ; and, on a
proposal from Mr. Mountearret to fire one of the carronades
to intimidate them, they departed.

Mr. Mountgarret, with some soldiers and prisoners, fol-
lowed them some distance up the valley, and have reason to
suppose more was wounded, as one was seen to be taken
away bleeding. During the time they were in camp, a num-
ber of old men were perceived at the foot of the hill, near the
valley, employed in preparing spears.

I have now. Sir, as near as I can recollect, given you the
leading particulars, and hope there has nothing been done but
what you approve of.

I have the honor to be, &c.

William Moobe,
Lieut. N.S.W. Corps.

It will be noticed that in this letter Lieut. Moore,
who had every reason to represent the conduct of the
natives in the worst light, can show no direct act of
hostility. He assumed that they were hostile, from their
numbers ; and, for the beating of Birt, and the proposed
burning of his hut, he has no evidence to offer but a
report brought to him in the midst of the panic which the
appearance of the blacks had caused among his people.
That the doctor's proposal to fire the carronade should
have induced savages, who did not understand the
language and had never seen fire-arms, to withdraw, is
too great a stretch on one's credulity. We know, from
Knopwood, that the gun was fired ; but, whether it was
loaded with blank cartridge or with grape we have no
means of deciding.

The only other eye-witness of the afifair whose account
we have directly contradicts Lieut. Moore ; and his
story looks probable, like the story of a man who had
kept his head amidst the general panic. This witness is
one Edward White, who was examined before Governor
Arthur's Aborigines' Committee in 1830. In considering
his evidence it should be remembered that at the time he
gave it the exasperation of the whole colony against the

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 85

blacks, on account of their brutal outrages, was at fever
heat, and the witness had every inducement to repre-
sent their conduct in this affair in an unfavourable light.
White canie to the colony with Bowen, and was an
assigned servant to the settler Clark. He was the firet
man who saw the approach of the natives. He was hoe-
ing new ground on the creek near Clark's house, which
was about half a mile up the valley behind the camp.
As he was hoeing, he saw 300 natives, men, women, and
children, coming down the valley in a circular, or rather
a semi-circular, form, with a flock of kangaroo between
them. They had no spears, but were armed with
waddies only, and were driving the kangaroo into the
bottom. On catching sight of him they paused astonished,
and, to use his expression, 'Mooked at him with all
their eyes." White had very probably been accus-
tomed to the Port Jackson natives ; at any rate, he says
that he felt no alarm at the approach of the blacks, but
he thouffht it advisable to go down the creek and inform
some soldiers. He then went back to his work. On
his return the natives, •were near Clark's house. They
did not molest him or threaten him in any way. Birt's
house was on the other side of the creek some hundreds
of yards off, and White was very positive that so far
from attacking Birt or his house, they never even crossed
over to that side of the creek, and " were not within half
a quarter of a mile *' of the hut. He knew nothing of
their going into the camp itself; but they did not attack
the soldiers, and, he believed, would not have molested
them. When the firing commenced there were a great
many of the natives slaughtered and wounded, how many
he did not know.

The Rev. Mr. Knopwood gave evidence before the h. of Com.
same committee. He stated that he had heard different Paper, 88rd
opinions as to the origin of the attack ; that it was said ^P**> ^^^>
the natives wanted to encamp on the site of Birt's hut, ^* '
half a mile from the camp, and had ill-used his wife,
but that the hut was not burnt or plundered. They did
not attack the camp, but our people went from the camp
to attack the natives, who remained at Birt*s hut. He
thought only five or six natives were killed. The
general opinion was that the blacks had gone to Risdon
to hold a corrobberry.

These accounts throw great doubt on the accuracy of
Lieut. Moore's version of the affair. It is significant i
that Knopwood, who had every opportunity of learning
the truth at the time, should state so positively that the
natiTes never left the neighbourhood of Births hut, but
that the soldiers went out to attack them.

THE RISDON SETTLEMENT.

King to
Collins, 30tb
September,
1804.

Collins to
King, '29th
February,
1804.

King to
Collins, 30th
September.

Knopwood,
3rd Sept.

King to
Palmer, 29tli
September.
King's Com-
mission, 31st
August, 1804.

King to
Collins, 30th
September,
1804.

King's memo,
to Palmer,
29th Septem-
ber, 1804.

Bowen to
King, 17th
Novembc!*,
1804.

King to
Hobart, 20lh
December,
1804.

The other settler, Birt, had applied for and obtained
leave to remain ; but at the last moment he changed
his mind, an.l sailed with the rest in the Ocearij which
broufjht him under the displeasure of Governor King,
who refused to allow him a grant of land. Dr. Mount-
garret also at first desired to stay, as he had been
combining commerce with medicine, and- had a lai^e
stock on hand which he wished to dispose of; bat he,
eventually, changed his mind, and he also sailed in the
Ocean.

The net balance of the Risdon Settlement, therefore,
remaining with Collins was Richard Clark and the
1 1 male and 2 female convicts above mentioned. Collins
afterwards ordered all the houses at Risdon to be pulled
down ; but it does not appear whether this was carried
into effect. The Ocean did not arrive in Port Jackson
until the 23rd August, King having almost given her np
for lost. Dr. Mountgarret got a fresh appointment as
Surgeon to the new Settlement at Port Dalrymple,
under Lieut.-Colonel Patereon.

Lieut. Bowen had left a mare at the Derwcnt for
which he had paid «£12(>, and he offered her to King at
that piice. The Governor agreed to purchase her on
Government account, and paid Bowen with four cows,
which he stopped out of his next shipment to Collins.
This was the first lioree taken to Van Diemen's Land.

It only remains to state what more we know of the
Governor of Risdon Creek. On his arrival at Sydney
he was desirous of returning to England, in order that
he might again enter on active service in the navy.
Governor King had offered him the munificent pay of
5>'. per day from the 30th June, 1803, when he first
sailed from Sydney in the JPorpoise, to the 24th August,
1804, when lie returned thither in the Ocean, viz., 420
days, at 5.9. per day, or <£105 — exactly one hundred
guineas for 14 months' governorship — certainly not an
extravagant salary for a Governor — not enough to pay
his passage to England. He refused the colonial pay
offered, and addressed a letter to King, in which he
remmds the Governor that pecuniary considerations had
not been in his view in accepting the appointment, but
simply the advancement of his interest in His Majesty's
naval service ; but that, as he had been at great expense
consequent on that appointment, lie trusted the Governor
would recommend him to the Home authorities for a
sufficient remuneration. Kinij enclosed the letter to
Lord Hobart, strongly recommending the application, as
he believed Bowen had done his utmost to forward the
service he undertook, and expressing a hope that, in

r.t

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 89

addition to this, his character, and that of his father and
other relatives in the navy, might open a way for the

Eromotion he was so anxious to obtain. King also paid
is passage home in the Lady Barlow^ amounting
to £100.

It would seem that Lieut. Bowen obtained the promo-
tion he sought. Jorgensen — who, however, was not the
most accurate of men — states in his autobiography that
the Commandant of Risdon was a son of Commissioner
Bowen. Mr. Leslie Stephen's '* Dictionary of National Rosa* Hobart
Biography," in a notice of Captain James (afterwards Town
Admiral) Bowen, who performed brilliant services at sea fl^^^^*
daring the French wars, mentions the feet that he was * -
one of the Commissioners of the Navy from 1816 to 1825,
and that his son John, also a captain, after serving in
that rank through the later years of the war, died in the
year 1828.

With this brief notice of its founder, I close the story
of the first Settlement at Risdon Cove.

APPENDIX A.

Captain Hayes' Charts.

A manuscript map, evidently the result of Lieut. Hayes'
surveys of the Derwent, was recently discovered by Mr.
James R. M'Clymont in the National Library. Mr. Alfred
Mault has obtained through his friends in Paris a fac simile
of this map, which he has courteously placed at the disposal
of the Royal Society, and a photo-litnograph of it will appear
in this year's volume of the Society's Proceedings. The map
bears the imprint of A. Arrowsmithj London, but apparently
was never published. Mr. Mault thmks it is Lieut. Hayes'
own draft of his chart prepared for publication. This is pro-
bable ; but the map in question is not identical with the
sketch FUuders refers to, since that sketch showed Risdon
Cove, which does not appear in Mr. Mault's/ac simile. His
Excellency the Governor has kindly interested himself in the
matter, and it is probable that through his influence some
further information respecting Hayes' expedition may at last
be brought to light.

APPENDIX B.

Population of the Australian Colonies at the time of the
Risdon Settlement (1803) :—

New South Wales 7134

Norfolk Island 1200

Van Diemen's Land ' 49

Total 8383

See Collins' ** Account of New South Wales," ii., 333.

90 ABBBKDA BT COBBIGBHBA.

Addenda bt CoBBieiBirDi.
^'thb ntBvoH nr yan dibmbh's IiAvd.''

(See Btqrml 8oel0ty'i TnuuMtkiiH, 1888.)

P. lOl^Note.— The name ^^Anttrafia.''— Ina deepatefa to Lord
Bathnrst, dated April 4th, 1817, Governor Macauarie says —
'' The Continent of AuttraHOf which I hone will be the name
given to this cowitry in fhtnre, instead of the very orroneons
and misapplied name hitherto given it, of Neu> HoOand^
which, properly speaking^j only ap^es to a part of this
immense continent. — Labdlierrs ^ Early History of Yic-
toria," i., 184.

P. 100, line 8.— << Qmros' Terre du St Esprit, the coast
between Cooktown and Townsville." — It is so placed l^ De
Brosses in the chart appended to his ^ Navigations anz Terres
Aostrales.^' It is now identified as the island of Espirita
Santo, one of the New Hebrides group.

P. 108, line 16.— <'Cox (1789)."— Throoeh inadvertence
Cox is mentioned as having touched at Adventure Bay.
He did not enter Storm Bay, but visited Oyster Bay and
Maria Island.

P. 110, line 9. — ^^ In spite of his safe conduct from the French
Admiralty, [Flinders'] ship was seized as a prize.'' — In a
pamphlet published in Sydney in 1886, containing a summary
of the contents of the BralMume Papers, it is stated that
amongst the despatdies carried by the Cumberland was one
from Governor Kine jpointing out the opportunities which
Port Jackson afford^ for the concentration of troops, which
might at any time be sent against the Spaniards in South
America, and it is suggested that the discovery of this de-
spatch amongst Flinders' papers gave Governor De Caen a
plausible excuse for the detention of the English navigator.
It is difficult to believe that this surmise has any sumcient
foundation, since, if such a despatch had come to the hands
of De Caen, he would certainly have produced it as a justifica-
tion of his action, and would not have been driven to the
paltry pretext drawn from an entry in Flinders' journal.

It may be mentioned that in a paper dated 1809 — while
Flinders was still a prisoner — Governor King states that
there was no doubt that the French entertained the design of
attacking New South Wales from Mauritius. He says that
Baudin had taken correct plans of Port Jackson, and had
explored the passage to Mauritius through Bass Straits, and
that had he lived another year the Commodore would most
likely have visited the colony for the purpose of annihilating
the settlement. — LabilUere's " Early History of Victoria," i.,
121. See also Jorgensen's Autobiography in Ross's "Hobart
Town Almanack for 1835," p. 138.

DISCUSSION ON THE FRENCH IN VAN DIBMBN'S LAND. 91

Discussion.

The Eev. F. H. Cox referred to the interest always mani-
fested in tracing the past history of peoples and places. Mr.
"Walker had taken up the position of a Goldsmith in relation
to this deserted village of Eisdon, and traced a reason for this
desertion. In a sense he might claim a relationship to Mr.
Knopwood mentioned in the paper, in that he had succeeded
Mr. Bedford, and Archdeacon Davies, who had immediately suc-
ceeded Mr. Knopwood.

The Rev. Geo. Clarke congratulated the writer of the
paper, and referred to the value of such information being
placed on record. It also removed several mistaken impres-
sions which had been allowed to gain ascendency.

Mr. Mault asked Mr. "Walker if the chart referred to by
liim was similar to one which he had brought under that
gentleman's notice a few days ago.

Mr. Walker said it was not. The Sydney chart gave further
particulars than in the one mentioned.

Mr. Mault explained that he had, through the medium of
friends in Paris, obtained permission to copy certain of the
maps in the archives at Paris. There was one map alleged to
liave been issued by Arrowsmith, but of which no trace could
"be found in the publisher's house. The theory he formed was,
that Lieut. Hayes was seized, together with his charts, by
Trench vessels when proceeding to London, and that this map
was in manuscript at the time of seizure. He should be happy
to place the copy at Mr. Walker's disposal should he so
desire.

Sir Lambert Dob son endorsed the remarks made by the
Eev. Geo. Clarke. He referred to the statement made in
Hopwood's Journal, in which it was asserted that the river
was endangered by the number of whales, and also to the fact
that a former Governor had enjoyed snipe shooting near
Hobart. All this was changed and gone. He did not think
the full blame for the exterminatory war lay on the shoulders
of Lieut. Moore. It was bound to come in time. He also
mentioned that the site of Hobart was densely covered with
Bcmb, and therefore the first settlers might be forgiven for
choosing a more favourable spot. These changes that had
occurred he hoped were for the better.

His Excellency congratulated the writer of the paper.
He endorsed the opinion made by Mr. Mault respecting the
existence of old records in France. He would be prepared to
xiae his influence in the direction of making a request to the
Home Government on the subject. (Applause.)

SMUT IN WHEAT.

Bt T. Stbphbws, M.A., P.G.S.

The letter of Mr. Joseph Barwick, read at the last meeting
of the Eoyal Society, is speciallj interesting as showing a
spirit of intelligent enquiry, and a desire to work out the
solution of one of the numerous problems connected with
natural phenomena, which are to some extent a matter of
uncertainty even to those who have devoted their lives to
scientific research. Mr. Barwick's long experience as a practical
farmer, and the results of his special experiments, have shown
him that the origin and spread of the parasitic disease to
which he refers is involved in much obscurity. He has,
however, perhaps not sufficiently realised that a thorough
knowledge of the general history of these low forms of
vegetable life must be acquired before one can be
sure of a satisfactory basis for experiments. The absence
here of facilities of access to standard works and recent
reports increases the difficulty of investigation, but the main
facts of the propogation of the disease in question are
sufficiently well-known for all practical purposes. Smut
and bunt may be regarded as convertible terms. Though
they are spoken of as distinct species by some authorities, I
can say from personal knowledge that what is called smut in
Tasmania bears the same name in some parts of England,
while elsewhere it is known as bunt. It is a minute fungus
belonging to the family Coniomycetes, sub-order UstilagineU
and has been described at different times under various names,
as Uredo caries, Uredo foetida, Tilletia caries, and UstUago
segetum ; but it is pretty well-known now that the form in
which the disease is always recognised is simply one of
the conditions or stages in the life of a fungoid plant, which
in other stages is known by a different name. In the case of
animal parasites, such as the sheep fluke {Fasciola hepatica),
the stage in which it appears to the ordinary observer is
only the final development in the sheep of a cycle of changes,
one of which, at least, cannot take place except in the body of
an animal belonging to a totally different class. Again, the
disease in sheep caUed ** sturdy " or " staggers " — the common
term in Tasmania is a " cranky " sheep " — is derived from the
ova of the tape worm {Taenia) in a dog which, voided on the
.grass, are taken up by the sheep with its natural food, and
find their way through the circulation into the brain, and
are there developed into a new form called Ccentmis cerebratu,
which, lodged near the inner surface of the skull and pressing
on the brain, produces the symptoms which are well-known
to most sheep farmers. So the blight known as ** corn
mildew " (JPuceinia graminis) has been definitely connected

BT T. STEPHENS, M.A., F.Q.S. 93

iriih a fuDgns {^cidium herberidii) found on the wild
barberry, and is said to have disappeared from some
localities when this hedgerow tree had been extirpated. As
regards smut, it is sufficient to know that the disease generally
springs from seed infected by the minute spores of the fungus
Imown by that name, which explains the use of sulphate of
-copper or some other fungus destroyer, as a preyentive, and it
is probable that the intermediate changes take place in
dinerent parts of the wheat plant, reaching their final
development in the ear. It is well known that self-sown
wheat, such as grows on headlands, is very rarely affected by
the disease, and the probable explanation of this fact is that
it is not so much exposed to infection as that which has
j>assed through the steam-threshing machine. The myriads of
^spores beaten out from eyen one smutted ear form a cloud of
impalpable slightly glutinous dust, which adheres to the
grain with which it comes in contact, and this applies also to
hand-threshed wheat, though in a much less degree. When
the machines first came into use, English farmers still pre-
ferred to use the flail for wheat intended for seed, because in
machine-dressed wheat some of the grain is often so much
broken by the beaters as to be unfit to produce healthy plants.
They do not omit in either case to use some preventive
against smut, the experience of generations have proved that
if properly applied, it very rarely foils to check its ravages.
Of course wheat selected from sound ears and rubbed out by
hand, as described by Mr. Barwick, would be in a condition
analogous to that of self- sown wheat, having been free
from exposure to the ordiaa'ry causes of infection. I doubt
very much whether any trials of seed at the Botanical Gkkrdens
•€Oiild be of much practical value in a matter of this kind ; but
iiuther experiments by Mr. Barwick and other intelligent
farmers might prove interesting. As the mode of dressing
wheat against smut varies considerably, and some kinds of
treatment may do as much harm as good, I will conclude these
remarks with a brief description of the process adopted by
the best farmers in the North of England, where it was
always regarded as an almost infallible preventive. A solution
is prepared by dissolving powdered sulphate of copper in
water, at the rate of 2ozs. to a pint for each bushel of wheat.
The grain is emptied on a floor, a little of it is shovelled to
one side by one person, while another sprinkles the solution
over it, and this process is continued until the whole quantity
is gone over. The heap is then turned repeatedly, the men
working with shovels opposite to each other. After lying for
•a few minutes the grain is ready for sowing either by hand or
machine. The seed ought not to be steeped in the solution,
bat merely wetted. A too strong solution may kill the seed
as well as the fungus, and damaged grains are probably often

94 DISCUSSION ON SMUT IN WHEAT.

destroyed by the ordinaxy process of pickling ; while too long
soaking in even a weak solution may cause premature
germination, resulting in a badly-rooted and unhealthy plant.

Discussion.

Mb. E. M. Johnston said he had studied this matter IT
or 18 years ago, and had found that the same form of
fungoid growths prevailed in all these cases. At that time
he took occasion to make enquiries among the western
farmers as to the surroundings which usually proved most
favourable to the development of the pest, and the prevailing
opinion was that it was most prevalent in newly cleared
lands, adjoining forest lands, and that the further removed
the land was from the timber growth, the pest sensibly
decreased. Perhaps, in view of aU this, it might be wise on
the part of farmers, when selecting seed wheat, to obtain it
from districts which were free, or almost free, from the
pest.

Me. Mault directed attention to the fact that the Agri*
cultural Department of the Privy Council, Great Britain and
Ireland, issued reports by experts on all these subjects, and
that copies thereof were furnished to the Tasmanian
Parliamentary Library. These reports embraced works deal-
ing with the latest information, respecting both agriculture
and fruit culture, and he thought the fact was not generally
known that copies existed in the colony.

Me. Waed called attention to the fact that sulphate of
copper contained a percentage of sulphate of iron, which
was a decidedly more powerful germicide than sulphate of
copper. It also appeared that the iron sulphate formed a
chemical compound with the cellulose portion of the coating
of grain.

SMUT IN WHEAT.

By p. Abbott, Superintendent of the Botanical

Gardens.

At the last meeting of the Eoyal Society a communication

from Mr. Joseph Barwick was read on Smut in Wheat, in

which he relates his own tests for the purpose of ascertaining

the cause, and suggests that further experiments should be,

carried out in the Botanical Gardens for a like purpose.

Having carefully read Mr. Barwick' s communication, I can

but think that he, as well as others with whom I have

•conversed, are not acquainted with much that has been done

-of late in the investigation of this subject, and that,

therefore, the following general notes may interest many : —

The various species of Ustilaginse, especially U. Segetum,

causing smut in wheat and other plants have been under

observation by a host of competent scientific observers for

many years past, and it is only of late, after much patient

research and many thousands of anatomical observations,

ipore in the laboratory than the field, that the life history of

ihe fungus has been elucidated. In the Gardener^ a Chronicle

for February 23 and March 2, a detailed account of recent

-discoveries as to the nature of TJstilaginse is given by H.

Marshall Ward. As this account is replete with information

^t present little known, arrangements have been made for its

publication in Webster's Gazette for August and September,

where full details may be found. To others into whose hands

this publication may not come, the following brief notes may

be of interest ; The dark substance, popularly called smut, is

in reality dense masses of spores arising in tufts at the ends

of fine filaments, formed in the ovary or young grain at the

expense of the food material, which is destroyed. These

spores, of which there are enormous numbers, every ear of

smutted com producing, it is estimated, not less than ten

millions, are capable of germinating when placed under

favourable circumstances, and multiply their conoidal cells

with great rapidity in the soil ; fresh manure or manure

washings greatly favour their development, and should in all

cases be avoided ; in material of this description the fungus

produces generation after generation in vastly increasing

niunbers, waiting as it were for the coming of its host, into

which it quickly penetrates, and with which it continues to

grow. The spores ripening in the grain of the smutted

cereal are garnered with the latter, become scattered on the

healthy grain and are sown with it, the fungus germinating

at the same time as the cereal, produce their prymocella, the

g6rm tubes of which penetrate the embryo plant. Experiments

96 SMT7T m WHEAT.

have proved that the fungus is only able to effect an entrance
to its host by attacking the embiyonic tissue; once inside, it
gradually permeates the whole plant, extending with its growth
from, cell to cell, and finally meeting in the young fruit con-
ditions favourable to the production of spores. As the fungus
can only enter the tender tissue at the color of the young seed-
ling, it is very important that the cultivator should endeavour,
by the selection of good, sound, clean seed only, and a good and
properly prepared seed bed, to encourage a rapid growth from
the first. Anything that tends to retard this growth in its.
earliest stages lengthens the time during which it is possible
for the fungus to effect an entrance, and greatly increases
the chances of infection ; a few hours even may make all the
difference, for though thousands of sporidea may be near the
color of the young seedling, no entrance can take place unless
the germ tubes reach it at the critical time. Experiments
have been made with a view of infecting the leaves and stem
of the growing corn with the germinating spores, but have
invariably resulted in failure, except on the tender growing
point, where the tissues remained sufficiently soft for the
sporidea to effect an entrance, but under natural conditions
this point is not subject to attack. As regards suit-
able dressings, there is yet a large field open to
investigators ; if freeing the seed coat from spores super-
ficially attached was all that was necessary, the matter would
be simple enough, but much more than this is required, as
the smut fungus may be present in the soil itself, ready to
attack the grain at the critical time. Dressings, to be
effectual, must be sufficiently permanent to destroy in the soil
any prymocelia or conoidal cells that may happen to be in
proximity with the seed corn. The following are said to be
as efficacious as any at present known : — A strong solution of
Glauber's salts, in which the seed grain is to be well washed,,
and afterwards, while still moist, dusted over with quicklime ;
by the application of the lime the caustic soda is set free and
destroys any fungoid growths it may come in contact with.
The application of copper sulphate to the grain as a dressing
before sowing is a well-known remedy, but though it destroys
the fungus it greatly retards the growth of the wheat, which
is an objection to its use. Lime applied after the copper salt
neutralises its prolonged effect, and is a good practice. The
presence of lime itself in the soil is likewise beneficial. The
foregoing notes are the result of the labours of many com-
petent investigators, who have bestowed much time and care
on the subject, the elucidation of which necessitated thousands
of artificial cultures of the fungus and microscopical examina-
tions. One or two points in Mr. Joseph Barwick's
communication will be better accounted for, if viewed with the
light thrown on the subject by recent investigations. Mr*

BY F. ABBOTT. 97

Barwiok points out m one of his experiments that it was the
strong and deep-rooted plants tliat escaped infection ; this is
only what might hare been looked for, as upon the strength
and rapidity of growth of the plant depends in great measure
its immunity from infection. And, again he points out that
it was only in the annual species of grasses that he detected
smut ; here again is precisely what might be expected, as the
perennial grasses would have become too consolidated at the
part subject to infection for the fine filaments of the fungus
to efTect an entrance, and thus would remain free &om attack
TVlth reference to the suggestion that experiments should be
undertaken in the Botanical Gardens for the purpose of
throwing light on the subject, I doubt much if any good
result could be obtained by such experiments. There is no
doubt but the life history of fungoid .pests effecting cultivated
plants is one of great interest to the cultivator, but the
subject is so intricate, the same fungus presenting many
varying forms during its growth, that if any satisfactory
progress is to be made in its elucidation, it is absolutely
necessary that cultivators in many and varying localities
accurately record &>cts coming under their notice, and these
&cts, which are only so much crude material, wlU need to be
arranged and investigated by the mycologist. Only after very
many and oft repeated experiments, made for the purpose of
verification, have been made can any definite result be
obtained.

A NEW DAEK-FIELD MICEOMETER POR DOUBLE-

STAR MEASUREMENT.
By a. B. Bioas.
Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4.

I often think it must be very pleasant for the ardent
votary of science to have unlimited means at his command
for obtaining such apparatus as he requires in the pursuit of
his favourite study ; apparatus elaborately finished, and
perfectly adapted for the work for which it is designed. Yet
it too often happens that such apparatus becomes a mere toy
in the hands of its possessor, he merely contenting himself
with its possession, and the enjoyment of its beauties. On
the other hand, it remains a fact that some of the grandest
achievements of science are due to workers who have had to
be content with very simple and perhaps roughly constructed
apparatus, the outcome of their own ingenuity, called forth
by the necessities of the case. The writer claims the
applicability of the foregoing remarks to his own case only
so far as they relate to the necessity of trusting mainly to
his own resources in his very limited field of scientific work.
The instrument of which the following is a description, has
been in this way the outcome of his necessity. Its special
function is the measurement of very minute angular distances,
such as those of double stars, giving at the same time the
angle of position with reference to the meridian.

A few preliminary remarks on some of the existing forms of
Micrometer may help to elucidate the special adaptability
of the instrument to be described for the work for which it
was designed. The Reticle Micrometer is specially useful for
mapping star fields, but a driving clock for the telescope is
almost essential. My first Micrometer was of this form, and
consisted of a photograph (on thin micro, coverglass) of a
scale,' ruled on a sheet of glass coated with black paint, and
having lines cut through the paint with the point of a pen-
knife. The figure was a square subdivided into 400 by
parallel lines each way (20 x 20). Each interlinear space
was divided by a line running from the centre to the outside
of the square each way. The one for use with my highest
power is only iVin. square, the spaces between the lines
being only 2ofrin. It is, however, quite inadequate for
double-star work.

The Ring Micrometer is adapted for distances occupying a
considerable portion of the field, by timing the passages across
the ring. But unless the passage describes chords at some
distance from the diameter the measures are unreliable. It
involves somewhat tedious calculation for differences of
declination.

BY A. B. BIGGS. 99

A very useful dark-field Micrometer, embracing the greater
portion of the field, is the Bar Micrometer. My own form
■of it is a modification of that used by Lacaille in the prepara-
tion of his valuable Catalogue of Southern Stars. His was a
rhomboid cut out of a piece of thin brass and placed in the
focus of the eye-piece ; mine is an equilateral triangle, formed
of watch hair-spring. The differences of right ascension and
declination are obtained by timing the passages in and out of
the triangle. It is a very useful instrument for faint objects
which will not bear illumination of the field, and especially
for comet work.

The Micrometer, par excellence, for general work is doubt-
less the Filar Position Micrometer. A description of this is
of course superfluous to those at all acquainted with telescopic
work. The measurement is effected by parallel spider lines,
moved to and fro by fine screws, the measu es being read off
by the number of turns, and by graduatious on the screw
heads. The scale is revolved by a pinion and wheel, so as to
make a cross spider line intersect the objects to be measured,
and the position angle is read from a graduated circle. This
instrument is specially convenient for differences of declin-
ation ; but for direct oblique distances, is difl&cult to use with-
out a steady driving clock for the telescope. It is a delicate
and expensive aparatus.

Many other forms and methods of Micrometer measurement
are adopted, which it will be unnecessary to fiirther refer to.
I will now go on to describe my own, first giving the general
principle.

If a strip of s^lass (A), coated with black paint, and having
two fine converging lines cut through the paint, at an angle
of 10 or 15 deg., be placed face to face with another piece
of glass (B), similarly coated, and having a single line ruled
across it — this line being placed so as to cross the lines of A
— the intersection of the lines will show as luminous points
by transmitted light. On sliding the slip A along, these
points will recede or approach until they coalesce at the
point of the angle. Now, if an image of these points can be
projected into the field of the telescope, and brought into
juxtaposition with the pair of objects whose angular distance
is to be measured, we obviously have the means, by a proper
adjustment of the points as to distance and parallelism, of
determining the measurement required. The position of the
sHde A is read upon a graduated scale, the value of which
ifl determined by well-known astronomical methods.

The projection of the image into the telescope is effected
by means of an adjustable camera-lucida, constructed from
a selected micro, cover-glass and attached to the eye-piece. The
Whole carrying arrangement of the glass plates is made to

100 A NEW DABK-FIBLD MIGBOMBTER.

rerolye in a suitable frame, so that the luminoos points maj
be brought into parallelism with thepair of stars to be measured^
and the angle read off from a graduated circle on the rim,,
the zero point being first ascertained by revolving the scale
until a star shall run along the single Ime of plate B. The-
difEerence of readings will give the position angle withe
reference to the meridian, it being supposed that the telescope-
is mounted equatoriallj.

The foregoing will, I think, make the principle clear*.
Dimensions will depend very much on the size of the telescope.
In my case, the glass slides are 7in. x 4in., the opening of
the circle or ring 4in. The telescope is a Newtonian reflector
— speculum 8|in. The apparatus is fixed perpendicularly on
the telescope tube at a distance (towards the speculum end)
of 19|in. from the eye-tube, this distance being adopted for
convenience, as giving a value of ^ sec. of arc with the
power I generaUy use for double stars. The sliding glasa.
slip fits into a brass sliding frame, or carrier, which moves by
a rack and pinion. A scale of lOO divisions is engraved on
the side of the frame, answering to the length of the glass,
slide. (See A and F, Fig. 1.)

For the glass slides I prepare a coated slip three lengths ia
one, ruling the diverging lines the whole length of the slip„
from the angle at one end to an opening of about 3|in. at the
other. This slip is then cut into 3 lengths (commencing from
the point of the angle), each length being exactly equal ta
the 100 divisions on the frame. This gives scale readings to
100, 200, 300, the glasses being interchangeable in the frame.
The whole arrangement, with its graduated circle, revolves in
the frame which supports it, by a pinion in the support,
working in a toothed wheel on the circle. My apparatus is
fitted with a small electric lamp (2 J candle), with a contact
conveniently near the eje-piece. At the back of the lamp is a.
concave reflector, to throw a parallel beam of light upon the
scale. It is of advantage to frost the back surface of the
glass (next to the lamp). The coated surfaces should be next
each other without rubbing.

The measurement is effected, not by direct coincidence, but
by coTJiparison. Supposing we are working without a driving-
clock, the ** ghost," as I will call it (i.e., the image of the
points), is brought to about the middle of the field, and the
star brought into position with it. The circle is then revolved
until the ** ghost " is sensibly parallel with the line joinings
the components of the star, and the slide moved to correspond,
with the distance. When these adjustments are perfect, as
the star approaches and recedes from the " ghost," the four
points will form a perfect parallelogram. (Fig. 2.)

Practically it will be found that the eye is very sensitive te

FlOl (PACE3)

The-Arrpw skews ^MfpeLtiuofihe^Starao'oss M«. Aitld'

Fla^

• The/ ^Givost

X X

X >i2Jieystarpassizigih^6fwst

Fig 3 Page 4.

F/C4 Pace 4

BY A. B. BIGGS. 101

aaj irregularity in the figure; I think more so than with
respect to coincidence with spider lines, as in the use of the*
filar micrometer, especially when, without a driving-clock, the
object is moving obliquely across the field, and only a.
momentary contact can be obtained in passing. The similarity
of the images in the former case favours the comparison.
Fig. 3 shows the general arrangement of the apparatus,
as applied to a Newtonian reflector.

My first experimental arrangement was fitted to my Sin.
refractor, and was a very primitive affair, the carrier being of
tin, revolving in a paper tube. For a refractor, a different
arrangement from that described above has to be adopted.
With the Newtonian reflector, the position of the scale being
at right angles with the direction of vision, a single reflection
at 45deg. throws the image into the eye-piece. With the
re&actor, on the other hand, the only practicable position for
the apparatus is on the body of the tube towards the object-
glass ; that is in the direction of vision. This necessitates
an intermediate reflection at an angle of 45, to throw down
the image of the scale upon the camera-lucida. (Fig. 4.)

The apparatus admits of very considerable elaboration and
development ; as, for instance, star photometry. Further ;
the whole apparatus may be made to travel to or from the eye
on a suitable slide, having a graduated scale ; a single plate
with parallel lines being placed in the plate-holder. By this
arrangement planetary discs and differences of declination
may be read off, as with the filar micrometer. I will not,
however, add to the tediousness of this paper by further
reference to this matter.

I must, in closing, express my obligation to Mr. Alex.
Wallace, of this city, a clever amateur mechanic, for hia^
kindness and generosity in the successful construction of my
present apparatus.

102

NOTES ON THE DISCOVERY OF A GANOID FISH

IN THE KNOCKLOFTY SANDSTONES, HOBART.

By Messrs. R. M. Johnston and A. Mobton.

Two Plates.

The recent discovery of the very perfect remains of a
Ganoid Fish, closely allied to the genus Acrolepis, in one of
the beds of the Knocklofty sandstones, is of the greatest
interest. Several fossil fishes are said to have been found
previously in the flagstone quarry near the Cascades, but,
unfortunately, the quarrymen regarded them as being of
little or no importance, and although, from curiosity, one or
two specimens had been preserved for a time by one of the
workmen, they were soon lost or thrown away. The specimen
now referred to was discovered by Mr. H. NichoUs, who,
with commendable thoughtfulness, at once presented it to
the Tasmanian Museum.

Fortunately the casts of the specimen are remarkably
perfect. The only parts imperfect, or missing, are the ventral
fins, part of the anal fin, and the anterior part of the head.
The strongly pronounced heterocercal tail and the scales of
the body are remarkably well preserved. The following is
a description of the fish, which is named, provisionally, in
honour of His Excellency Sir Robert Hamilton, to whom, as
its President, the Royal Society is so much indebted for the
enthusiastic manner in which he' has ever promoted its
interests.

Acrolepis ? Hamtltoni, Johnston and Morton.

Body compressed, elliptical, elongate ; length from snout to
end of caudal fin about 7 inches ; length of body 5| inches ;
depth at a vertical line through occiput, 12 lines, increasing
to 14 lines at greatest depth near ventrals, and from thence
gradually tapering to peduncle, where it measures 5 lines ;
length of heterocercal tail — which is inclined upwards at an
angle of about 22 degrees — 14 lines; length of lower ray
lobe of caudal, 5 lines ; length of head about \\ inches, or
scarcely one-sixth of the total length; length of dorsal,
about 8 lines; fin low, with fine rays, probably 15 or 16;
anterior end situated about 39 lines from end of caudal, and
the posterior distant about 31 lines from the same point.
The anal fin is inconspicuous and imperfectly preserved, but
it appears to be similar to the dorsal, and it is situated fully
half the length of that fin nearer the tail. The ventrals are

BY MBS3BS. B. M. JOHNSTON AND A. MOBTON. 103;

scarcely visible, but appear to be small ; and the root is only
about 10 lines distant from a vertical drawn through posterior
portion of head. Pectorals about 7 lines in length, and
consists, apparently, of about 15 slender rays.

There are 56 rows of small rhomboid scales, longitudinally
arranged in an inclined dorso-ventral series ; the caudal series
being more perceptibly angled than the anterior series. The
inner surface of each scale is alone visible, from which it clearly
appears that each one is finely ridged longitudinally, as in
the scales of Acrolepis. There are usually 4 slightly curved
ridges, radiating longitudinally from posterior angle of
rhomboid scale to the two inner ones, almost invariably
becoming furcate as they approach anterior inner margin ;
the outside one on either side smaller and almost invariably
simple. The upper margin of tail is markedly serrate,
indicating the presence of numerous pointed fulcral scales.

The only Australian fish which appears to come near it is
the well-known Myriolepis Olarkei, Egerton, but it is evident
from the description and drawings that the Tasmanian
Qanoid has relatively much smaller fins, and the scales, though
belonging to a specimen half the size, are relatively much
larger and consequently less numerous.

Age of the Rocks in Which the Pish Remains Occur.

The discovery of this interesting fossil is another proof of
the aqueous origin of the important series of sandstone beds,
of which the section from Cascades to Knocklofty affords the
best and most fully developed example. Although the shales
contain impressions of what appear to be fucoids, the
evidences are not sufficient to determine whether these basins
were estuarine or lacustrine; or whether the waters were
fresh, brackish, or salt. Ganoid fishes of the period are found
under aU such conditions ; and therefore their discovery in
such deposits prove little further than to indicate the aquebu»
origin of the beds in which such remains occur. It is most
probable that the waters were of the nature of brackish
lagoons. The exact position of these sandstones in relation
to the Mesozoic Coal Measures, on the one hand, and the
Upper Paleozoic Mudstones, on the other, has ever been one
of much doubt.

It is true a similar series of sandstones at Adventure Bay
appear to immediately succeed the Upper Carboniferous Coal
Measures without any sign of stratigraphic break; and
again at Passage Point this succession appears to be very
complete in immediate relation to beds of the Upper Marine
series. But the absence of fossil evidence, and the manner
in which the several deposits are separated from each other^
by distance or faults and intrusive rocks, make it a doubtful

104 NOTES Oir THS DISOOYSBT OF A QASfOTD FOH.

matter whether these apparently similar formations are, in
Tealitj, members of the same horizon. The evidence of
breaks in the series at Enockloffcy, and on the Huon Bead
near the Old Toll Bar, also adds perplexity when relationships
are sought to be established. And much observation is yet
needed before it is possible to satisfactorily determine the
true relations of the various separated sandstone formations,
lying either between the Upper Paleozoic Mudstones or
Upper Carboniferous Coal Measures, and the Coal Measures
of Mesozoic Age.

Section Fbom the Cascades to Knocklopty.

The series of sandstones and shales between the bed of the
creek at the Cascades, and the blow of intrusive greenstones
forming a conical knoll above the highest sandstone quarry
on Knocklofty, is about 800 feet thick, measuring from the
bed of the creek. At this point it is not known to what
depth the series extend, but it is probable the thickness
altogether will exceed 1,000 feet.

The following is a description of the series exposed^ taken
in ascending order : —

1. Yellow fissile sandstones, splitting up

into thin evenly bedded flagstones ... 20

2. Greyish or blackish micaceous bed of flaggy

sandstone, with hardened ferruginous
nodules, sometimes enclosing remains of
fossil fish ... ... ... ... ... 5

3. Friable mottled shales — green, red, or

yellow — with obscure impressions of
minute strap-shaped plants (apparently
slightly unconformable with No. 3) ... 60

4. Thick bedded sandstones — ^white, red, and

yellow, worked throughout for building
stone with thin bands of fine friable
yellow or grey shales intercalated
irregulary at intervals 715

Total Thickness 800

f J

105

OBSBEVATIONS OF COMET OF JULY AND AUGUST,
1889, TAKEN AT LAUNCESTON, TASMANIA,
LAT. 4r 26' 01" ; LONG. 9^ 48' 31" EAST.

By A. B. Biaos.

The comet was first observed here on 26th July, faintly
Tisible without telescope. Tail about Ideg. in length, its
position angle estimated at 140°+,* Nucleus, sharp and
starlike, about 7 mag., surrounded with considerable nebu-
losity. Position (approximately) R.A., 13hrs. 21|min. S.
Dec. 23° 07'. (This and the position readings given below
were merely the readings of the rough home-made circles of
the equatorial, and make no pretension to exactuess.) The
star comparison measures were all taken with a Bar Micro-
meter, equilateral triangle, aud are apparent difEerence
measures only, uncorrected for refraction, etc. Owing to
persistent cloudy and unsettled weather, very few oppor-
tunities for star measures were afforded. Circle readings for
position were taken as often as opportunity ofEered.

Telescope, — ^Beflector, 8Jin., silver on glass by Browning.

Appabent Dipp. .

R.A. AND N.P.D. Comet

PBOM

Stab.

Date.

Time

Diff. E.A.

Diflf.
N.P.D.

Star.

Comet.

Approximate
Place of Comet.

Aug.
2

h. m.
20 31

a.
13

m. 8.
+ 0-18-75

m. s.
+ 2 15-8

b(see below)

S.F.

B.A

h. m.
14 24

s.
30

O
-50

21 67

+3-02-5

-14 52-2

a (104 Virg.)

N.F.

*»

22 11

-1-06-7

+ 0-36-8

S.P.

14 31

- 3 05

22 27

+0-20-5

-17-26-3

N.F.

21 66

-1-08-4

+ 20-03-3

17 Serp.

S.P.

15 31

—

+14 61

22 24

+1 -52-6

-23-28-8

19 Serp.

N.F.

15 38

—

+16 43

19 40

-1-07

+ 24-21

10 Hercnlis

S.P.

16 6

— +28 25J

Notes and Eepebbnces. — ^August 2. a. — 104 Virg. (?)
h. — About 7 mag., close to a small nebula, ** 70 " ^Proctor's
Atlas), looking like a detached wisp of the comet, c. — A
minute star (lOllm.).

August 3.—" c " "d "—Not identified, each 7m. +
17. — ^Brightness of nucleus, about 8m.
„ — ^Tail estimated about 10' length.
„ „ — „ Position angle, 120°_+

N.B.— The brightest star available always selected, except
4Ui to 5, August 2, on account of proximity to nebula.

106

RECENT MEASURES OF •* a. CENTAURL"

By a. B. Biaas.

As an illustration of the efficiency of the Micrometer
described in my former paper, I give the following series of
measures, in their order, extending from 26th May to 21st
November, 1888 :—

Distance Readings 15"-60 16"01 17"13 17"-40 16"-93 17H6
Position Angle 201°-5 203°-5 204° 204°-2 205°-4 203°-7

Summary Table, Mean Date 188871 ) Total No. of

Distance 16"'71 > Observations

Posn. Angle 203°-7 ) 25.

I also give for comparison, measures taken with the Filar
Micrometer, from 19th March to 26th May, 1888 ; and from
19th September to 2l8t November, 1888 :—

Mean of both
Columns.

1888-58

16"77

203^-97

Mean Date

„ Distance

„ Position Angle
Total No. of Observa^'

1888-35
16"-45

203''-34
14

1888-82
17"10
204-6
29

I reckon the variation at the present time at + l"-00 per
annum for distance, and + 0°'7 for position angle. To
the foregoing means of measures up to epoch 1889*00, we
shall have to multiply these rates of variation by (1889-
1888-71 = ) 0-29:— and (1889-1888*58 = ) 0*42 respectively.
Applying the corrections thus obtained, we may make the
following comparisons. In the third column I give the
corresponding figures from my Ephemeris — (Society's Vol.,
1887, page 82) :—

EPOCH, 188900.

Micrometer
Distance
Position Angle

Filar
17''-19
204°-26

Ephemeris
17"-00
202°*90

ABB

17"-00
203°*90

I think it probable that the Ephemeris is in error about
1 degree in Position Angle.

The measures of distance by the Filar were all taken as
differences of Declination, and were reduced to direct distance
by the secant of the Position Angle.

The specially favourable conditions which this star affords
for double star observations, as well as the particular interest
which attaches to it on many accounts, especially to us in the
South, will, I ti-ust, be sufficient excuse for my having dealt
with so much detail

107

NOTES ON CHAETS OF THE COAST OF TASMANIA,
OBTAINED FROM THE HYDROGRAPHICAL
DEPARTMENT, PARIS, AND COPIED BY PER-
MISSION OF THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT.

By a. Mault.

(Chabts I, n, III, IV.)

More than a year ago Mr. McCljmont spoke to me of the
charts of which copies are attached to this paper. He
explained at the last meeting of the Royal Society the
manner in which he had become acquainted with their
existence. I am sorry that it has not fallen to his lot to
formally present them to you, for the Society is really
indebted to him for their possession. Furthermore, in
making the presentation he would have been much more able
to accompany the gift with an explanation of the character
and history of the charts. Another gentleman to whom
thanks are due is my friend Monsieur Adelphe Patricot, of
St. James's, Paris, who, after some little difficulty, overcame
the prejudice that the French authorities have to allowing
plans and maps to be copied, and then insisted on taking
apon himself the cost of having fac-simile tracings made«
Ajisknowledgments are also due to the Hon. E. N. C. Braddon,
who, when Minister of Lands and Works, authorised the
reproduction of the charts at the Government Photo-
lithographic Establishment.

Charts op Mabion's Expedition, 1772.

The two charts that are respectively called (1), Cote des Terrea
de Diemen parcovruea en Mars 1772 par la jflute du Boy le
Mascarin, and (2), Terres de Diemen faisantpartie de la Nouvelle
SfoUande la phis grande Isle conniie leve du tord du Vau le
Marquis de Castries enfaisant route le long de la cote. Par
Mr. du Clesmeury are particularly interesting. It will be
remembered that the first visitors to land in Tasmania after
Tasman's time were the French in these vessels. The
expedition carried out in them was undertaken at the cost
of Captain Marion du Fresne, whose grade in the French
Navy was " Captain of fire-ship." The authorities of
Mauritius allowed him to charter two of the Government
Vessels in the Colonial Service, the storeship Le Mascarin^
fhe tonnage of which is not given^ and the Marquis de
CattvieSi apparently a smaller vessel, and to man them at his
own pleasure. He himself took command on board the

108 NOTES OK CHABTS OF THE COAST OF TASMANIA.

Mascariny with Mons. Crozet, who also was Capitaine de
bnilot, as his second on board, and gave the command of the
Marquis de Castries to the Chevalier du Clesmeur, who was
second in command of the expedition, and succeeded to the
entire command on the death of Marion.

An account of the expedition, under the title " New Voyage
to the South Sea," was published in Paris in 1783, being
compiled from the plans and journals of Crozet. Crozet
ignores as much as possible Captain du Clesmeur, who
evidently knew it, and also of the proposed publication of
the journal. For the editor of the journal prefixes to it a
" preliminary discourse," the reading of which, he says, " is
indispensable to rectify some important points in the narra-
tive of the voyage ; " and in which he declares that it was
only on the eve of publication that he learnt that du
Clesmeur succeeded to the command on the death of Marion.
For in the journal Crozet never once mentions du Clesmeur's
name, from the time of Marion's massacre until the moment
when the vessels are parting company at MamUa, but always —
even in relation to matters on board the Castries — says, " I
did this," " I ordered that," as if he were in supreme com-
mand. The editor of the journal therefore requests the
reader to note that everything done after Marion's death
was done imder the command of du Clesmeur and not of
Crozet.

It is necessary to note this jealousy, as it explains some of
the events that came to pass, and some of the results of the
expedition. Its main object was to seek the great south
land. Marion left the Mauritius in October 1771, and after
some detention at Bourbon, Madagascar, and the Cape of
Good Hope, left this last on the 28th December in that year.
On the 19th January, 1772, he discovered, after having
looked for Losier-Bouvet's Cap de la Circoncision in the wrong
place, — ^the islands now called Prince Edward's or Marion's,
but which he himself named Terre d' Esperance. WhUe
examining the islands, the Mascarin, by disregarding the then
acknowledged " rules of the road," ran foul of the Castries,
which was lying to, and carried away her bowsprit and fore-
mast. Crozet, who mentions the accident, carefully avoids
details as to cause. Jury masts were rigged up, and it seems
that the Castries after the accident was still a better sailor
than her consort, and du Clesmeur told Marion he was ready
to go wherever he wished. But Crozet says that the condition
of the Castries prevented Marion from carrying out his
intention of going southward. Sailing eastward, the islands
now called the Crozets were discovered on the 22nd January, —
they were first sighted from du Clesmeur's ship, — but like
other injustices in nomenclature, record the name of a man
to whom none of the credit of their discovery is due.

By A. MAULT 109

Xearing the Crozets the ships were steered due eastward
until thej passed the longitude of St. Paul's Island, and then
were headed towards the land discovered bj Tasman. This
was first sighted on the 3rd March, when Crozet calculated
that they were in latitude 42deg. 56min. south. The
longitude as given in the " New Voyage " is so evidently
incorrect — 126deg. 20min. east of Paris — that I will not
here allude to it but to say that it certainly is a misprint.

Crozet gives no account of the voyage round the south end
of the island, simply saying : — " The chart that I have
prepared of the Terres de Didmen will give an exact idea of
the configuration of these lands, and of the route we followed
till we anchored in a bay named by Abel Tasman, Frederic
Henry's Bay, which, according to that naviagator, is situated
in 43deg. lOmin. of south latitude." The chart thus referred
to is given in the " New Voyage " od a very small scale — the
whole south coast of the island being shown in a space of
less than two inches, and no latitude or longitude is marked.
Flinders, in the introduction of his "Voyage to Terra
Australis," says of it : — " The chart of Mons. Crozet, which
accompanies the voyage, appears, though on a very small
scale, to possess a considerable degree of exactness in the
form of the land. The wide opening called Storm Bay is
distinctly marked ; as is another bay to the westward with
several small islands in it, the easternmost of which are the
BoreeVs Eylanden of Tasman."

A very cursory examination of this small engraved chart
will show that it is a reduction made from the first of the
charts mentioned above, and this leaves no room for doubting
that the manuscript chart copied at Paris is the original one
prepared by Crozet himself on the Mascarin and during its
passage along the coast. The track of the course made is
given, with soundings and with the position of the ship at
various hours every day during the passage. These details
enable us to correct an error into which Flinders has fallen.
He says, after mentioning the sighting of land on the 3rd
March, 1772 : — " Steering eastward round all the rocks and
islets lying off the south coast, he arrived on the evening of
the 4tli in Frederik Hendrik's Bay." Flinders obtained this
second date by deducting the six days Marion is said to have
stayed in the bay from the date— the 10th March — when he
quitted it for New Zealand. But the " New Voyage " is so full
of misprints in figures that it is not to be depended upon
without checking. This chart of Crozet' s affords such a
check. From it, it is evident that after sighting land, Marion
in the Mascarin, steering south-east, arrived south of the
Mewstone about 6 o'clock in the evening of the 3rd March.
He probably lay to for the night, but by 5 o'clock on the
morning of the 4th he had drifted down to 44deg. of south

110 KOTBS ON CHABTS OF IHB COAST OF TASMANIA.

latitude o£E South-east Cape. Then steering north-east, at
midday he was south of Tasman's Head, and passed the night
off Storm Bay. He doubled Tasman's Island at 8 o'clock on
the morning of the 5th, — at noon was off the Yellow Bluff,
and must have anchored in Frederik Hendrik Baj, now
called Marion Bay, early in the afternoon.

I do not think that flinders, if he had seen Crozet's chart
on this larger scale, would have expressed the flattering
opinion above given as to its exactness in the form of the
land. The longitudes given on this chart and in the *^ New
Voyage " are so far out as to be inexplicable. On the chart the
longitude of the anchorage is given as 14>ldeg. 30min. east of
Paris — this probably being the result of reckoning and
observation during the voyage. At the anchorage Crozet
says, ''I made several observations for longitude and I found
it to be 143deg. east of Paris." This is more than 2^deg. out !
In the simpler matter of latitude he is also wrong, giving quite
a false impression of the trend of the south coast by making
South-west Cape more southerly than South-east Cape.

But it is in comparing this chart with the one made at the
same time, and in similar circumstances by du Clesmeur on
board the Castries, that the work of Crozet most shows its
inferiority. From the tracks laid down on the respective
charts, and from the soundings given, it is evident that in
sailing down the west coast the McLscarin was the nearer in
shore. Crozet could therefore see the opening into Port
Davey, which du Clesmeur could not. This, and perhaps the
entrance to D'Entrecasteaux Channel, are the only points in
which the Mascarin chart is superior to the Castries one.

From du Clesmeur' s chart it is evident that the Castries had,
as usual, outsailed the Mascarin^ior she had to lie to to allow
Marion to come up. The rocks and high land near Mainwaring
Cove were, in the distance, taken to be islands. Rocky Point
is distinctly and accurately laid down. The De Witt range
and the hills on Point St. Vincent which mask the entrance to
Port Davey were mistaken for islands, the h^wer land between
them not being seen. If the coast-line be carried along
the west side of these mistaken islands and carried back
along the eastern side. Point St. Vincent and the entrance to
Port Davey wiU be more accurately shown than on Crozet's
chart. All the salient points of the south coast, from the
South-west Cape to Tasman's Head, are accurately given with
the islands lying off. The far end of the bays and bights, not
being seen, are less accurately shown. In Storm Bay and
eastward and northward to the anchorage in Frederik Hendrik
or Marion Bay, the Castries went farther in, and along this
part of the course the chart is wonderfully accurate — in fact
in some places more accurate than Flinders'.

It is not often that one has a chance of comparing the

BY A. MAULT. Ill

impressions made by the same coast-line, seen at the same
lime, and in almost identical circumstances, by two navigators
of the same nation and of equal standing. The result of the
comparison in this case makes us regret that the recording of
the whole of Marion's expedition had not fallen to the lot of
<lu Clesmeur instead of Crozet. One more word and I have
done with this part of my subject. What is now called Maria
Island, Marion named St. Mary's Isle. Could not the proper
name be reverted to ?

Chart op Captain Hates' Discoveries.

Mr. J. B. Walker has recently called your attention to the
sole expedition for discovery sent under the auspices of the
East India Company into these seas — that commanded by
Oaptain, afterwards Sir John Hayes, who visited the Derwent
in 1794. Mr. Walker further told you how " the vessel carry-
ing Hayes' charts and papers to England was captured by the
French, and all his journals taken to Paris, and the result of
his voyage was lost." I think this is rather too sweeping an
assertion, for it is evident from the narrative of Flinders
that ** sketches" of Hayes' charts were known, and that
Hayes' nomenclature of localities was in many cases adopted.
I think it probable that the originals or copies of these charts
were kept in the Marine Office at Calcutta, and it was from
iJiese that the chart published by Arrowsmith in 1798 was
taken. It is a copy of this chart (3) that I now present to
you.

As for the history of this copy I think that probably it is
as follows : — It is entitled, Chart of Several Harbours in the
South East 'part of Van DiemarCs hand, London : Published
January 1st, 1798, By A. Arrowsmith, Rathbone Place,
^ough it is said to be " published," the copy in the French
archives, from which this copy I have was traced, is in manu-
script and is kept with the next chart I have to describe, that
is, one of Flinders'. In the " Observations " on this latter
chart. Flinders says : — " The details of the south-east part of
Van Diemen's Land are taken from a manuscript plan made
hj Mr. J. Hayes who visited that part in a ship called the
Vuke sent out from Bengal. Henshaw's Bay and Cape
Hanson of his chart are Frederic Henry Bay and Cape
Pillar, of which we have restored the names," etc. Now the
parts of D'Entrecasteaux Channel not seen by Flinders
are exactly reproduced by him in his chart as they are laid
down in this published chart, but the names mentioned by
him are different. I would therefore venture to suggest that
Flinders, when at home in the winter of 1800-1801, obtained
a copy of Hayes' published chart, which was not identical with
tibe manuscript one he had before seen, and that it was found
among his papers when they were taken from him in the

112 NOTES ON CHABTS OF THE COAST OF TASMANIA.

Mauritius ; that tho draughtsman who copied Minder's charts
that I am about to describe, seeing the reference therein to
Hayes' chart, copied the published one as giving further,
details about the country that was evidently then cledming .
much attention from the French, and that it was thus that a
manuscript copv of an engraved chart found its way into the
Hydrographical Office at Paris.

This copy of Hayes' chart is furthermore interesting in
connection with the history of names of places in these partSc
For instance, it is curious to note how Ray-Taylor's Bay
has become Great Taylor's Bay. And the name»
"Admiral D'Entrecasteaux Bay" shows that Hayes had
heard of the French navigator's voyage.

I may mention that one of our fellow-members. Colonel
Cruickshank, is a great-grandson of Sir John Hayes, and have
pleasure in adding that he has promised to obtain, if possible,
copies of all documents relating to the expedition that may
exist among the family papers in England, or in the Marine
Office, Calcutta.

Chart of Flinders' and Bass' Discoveries.

The last of the charts (4) I have to describe is one of
exceptional interest. It is entitled, Garte du DStroit de
Basse entre la Nouvelle Galles Meridionale et la Terre de
Diemen Levee par M. Flinders, Lieutenant du Vaisseau
Anglais la Reliance, par ordre de M. le Gouverneur Hunter en
1798 et 1799." Notwithstanding the title, it embraces the
whole island of Tasmania, and there are laid down on it the
tracks made in the following voyages : —

1. Bass' voyage in the whaleboat from Sydney to Western

Port in 1797-8, whereby the existence of a strait between
Australia and Van Diemen's Land was virtually proved.
I am not aware of the existence of any other chart dhow*
• ing this track.

2. Flinders' voyage in the schooner Francis from Sydney

to Furneaux Islands in 1798.

3. Flinders' and Bass' voyage in the sloop Norfolk round the

Island of Van Diemen's Land in 1798-9. In the chart,

the Frenchman who was stealing Flinders' observations

has called this sloop the " Jackson,'^ in specifying the

routes, confusing the name of the little vessel with that

of the port from which she sailed. He calls her by her

right name elsewhere. He frequently mistakes English

manuscript figures, especially a long drawn 1 for the long

drawn French 5, the 3 for the 5 also, and the 6 for

the 8.

The longitudes on the chart are taken from the meridian of

Paris. Thefollowing" Observations" are made: — "The voyage

of M. Flinders, second lieutenant of the English ship, the

BY A. MAULT. 113

Beliance, round Van Diemen's Land, was made in the colonial
sloop Norfolk of Port Jackson. The position of Port Dalrjmple
is fixed by 6 sets of lunar distances, taken in each direction
with 2 sextants. The rest of the northern and western
coast have been traced by estimates corrected by observations
along the coast ; but on arriving at South-west Cape our
longitude, compared with that deduced from Cook's
observations, was only 3min. in error. This error seemed to
us so small that we changed nothing in the chart we had
made. Adventure Bay is copied from the plan of Captain
Cook (8th Edition, Dublin), Swilly Rock or Pedra Blanca is
placed 69min. of longitude to the east of South-west Cape,
according to the table in Cook's voyage, which agreed with
the observations we made. The east coast, where shown by a
simple line without shading, is traced from Captain Furiieaux',
and copied from a chart of New South Wales, of which the
scale was about an inch to the degree of longitude. The
shaded part of the coast in the neighbourhood of Oyster
Bay is copied from a plan of 7in. to the deg. made by J. H.
Cox and published by Mr. Balrymple in 1791. The details of
the south-east part of Van Diemen's Land are taken from a
manuscript plan made by Mr. J. Hayes, who visited that part
in a ship called the Duke, sent out from Bengal. We cannot
answer for their exactitude. Henshaw's Bay and Cape
Hanson of his chart are Frederic Henry Bay and Cape
Pillar, of which we have restored the names in this : we have
also made some slight changes in the names of points
surveyed from the sloop : the ports and bays of his chart
were called coves, and the rivers creeks.

" The coast of New South Wales from Port Jackson to
Western Port was surveyed by Mr. Bass in a whaleboat. The
shaded parts are copied from a sketch he made of it by sight.
The cape called Eam's Head having been placed in the
position fixed by Cook and taken as a datum point, the long
coast beyond it has been extended further than shown in the
sketch, in order to place Cape Wilson in the position it ought
to have relatively to Fumeaux Islands. Little confidence
can be placed in estimates of courses made in waters like
these, where there are strong currents, and it is only by
estimate that these points have been fixed. The islands
were placed by Captain Furneaux eastward of their real
position : they have been marked here after the observations
made at Port Dalrymple and the estimated course from that
Port to the Swan Islands.

" The beginning and end of an eclipse of the moon, observed
at the east end of Preservation Island, gave 148deg. 37min.
SOsec. of east longitude from Greenwich, 148deg. (146deg.)
17min. SOsec. east of Paris."

Then follow the symbols giving the various routes ; after

114 NOTES ON CHABTS OF THE COAST OF TASMANIA.

which the " ObBervations " continue : — " The double arrows
show the direction of the tides.

" In thq Eiver Derwent, high water at 8 hours. Height
above low water 4 or 5 feet. "Hiese tides are feeble, and do
not appear to always coincide with full and new moon.
Sometimes they have an opposite course. We have grounds
for suspecting an under-current in a contrary direction."

What is the history of this chart ?

Tou will remember that when Flinders was kept prisoner
in the Mauritius his books, charts and papers were taken
from him. After many reclamations most of them were
returned to him in the seventh or eighth month of his
captivity. In recording this he says : — " Word had been sent
me privately that the trunk had been opened and copies taken of
the charts — (the italics are Flinders') but to judge from
appearances this was not true ; and on putting the question
to Colonel Monistrol, whether the trunk or papers had been,
disturbed, he answered by an unqualified negative." No
one who knows Colonel Monistrol from Flinders' graphic
narrative will doubt the Colonel for a moment. But no one
who knows from the same source the Governor of the colony,
General De Caen, will hesitate for a moment in thinking that
he was capable of tampering with the charts, and that if he
did so he would take good care that the honest Colonel should
not know it. Mj own opinion is that the private letter was
right — the trunk had been opened, and the charts copied —
and the manuscript from which this photo-lithograph was
taken is one of the copies. I think this is capable of as much
demonstration as is possible in such a matter.

Apart from tlie fact that other information was sent to
Europe about Flinders* voyages that could only have been
obtained from Flinders' papers — for instance, that which
he refers to as having been given in the Moniteur of July 7th,
1804— which shows that the papers had been read and a
jprecis made or copies taken, there is a great deal of internal
evidence that the copy of this chart was made during the
time of Flinders* detention in the Mauritius.

In the first place this chart contains exactly all that
Flinders knew of Van Diemeu*s Land at that time— no more
and no less. It is true that some of Flinders* charts had
been published in England after the return of the
Reliance in the end of 1800, but it is hardly likely that they
were so published till after Flinders had left England in the
Investigator in May, 1801. I have not seen one of these
published charts, but think that they were not precisely
similar to this, seeing that Flinders, in his published charts,
puts in only his own course, whereas in this he marks Bass*
whaleboat track. Again, if this copy were not taken from
Flinders' papers, why was it taken at all ? if the published

BY A. MAXJLT. 116

aShaxt was in French hands there was no need to copy it in
manuBcript.

Then there is some internal evidence. In the '' Observations "
al)ove given the French copyist begins in the third person,
but at the end of the first sentence incontinently drops it,
and evidently translates exactly what is before him. This
greatly differs from Flinders' style when relating any of hia
own proceedings only, for he always uses the first person
singular. I think, therefore, that the '^ we " used here showa
that these *' Observations " were written while Bass was still
with him, aud before Bass had made any separate report to
the Port Jackson authorities.

• Again, when Flinders was surveying Frederic Henry Bay
he had not seen any charts or details of D'Entrecasteaux'a
expedition, and consequently it is quite natural for him then
to copy from Hayes' chart and make the observation above
quoted. But when in England in 1800 he could have
obtained details of the French discoveries, and would hardly
have published the less accurate work. In his great atlas he
unhesitatingly prefers D'Entrecasteaux, and dismisses Hayes
ndth rather scant courtesy.

As for the object for which the chart was copied it was
probably in connection with some designs of the French
tolonial authorities in regard to the occupation of Van
Diemen's Land. G-eneral De Caen do doubt fully shared in
the desire to extend French territory in this direction, and
thought that all information regarding the island, and
especially the south-east part of it, would be useful. If he
knew of the beginning made of English occupation, he was
not the sort of man to be turned from his purpose by such
an act. It may hereafter be found that the real explanation
t)£ Flinders* unjustifiable and otherwise inexplicable deten-
tion at the Mauritius was connected with De Caen's
eug^estions to the French Government of an occupation of
Van Diemen's Land. No doubt it was thought that the
^ihangiug of English into French longitudes would facilitate
the comprehension of the chart in Paris. It would be easily
done by ruling the parallels 2deg. 20min. east of those given
en the original. It is pleasant to note tdat the copy contains
no trace of a desire to rob Flinders of the credit of his
discoveries.

But the chart taken by itself is very interesting as showing
ifhat was known of our island at the moment of its first
t>coapation by our countrymen, and as such I have great
pleasure in presenting it to you. The concluding paragraph
t)f the " Observations " shows how careful an observer
Flinders was, and contains a suggestion in regard to the
anomalous cha,racter of the tides in the Derwent that may be
t>f great use, and which I will not forget.

6 notes on chabts of thb coast of tasmania.

Discussion.

Mb. J. B. McClymont complimented Mr. Matilt on the
3areful stady he had made of these charts. Their friends in
Canada had set them an example in this department of work.
The Eoyal Society there published from time to time
historical researches, largely regarding the early exploration
of their noble Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Canadians had to
go back 350 years ; as we stood much nearer the origins of
our history than they did, it would be a crying disgrace to us
if we allowed them to out-distance us, and if we sluggishly
left to our descendants historical work that could bettor and
more easily be undertaken to-day. He referred especially to
the discovery and exploration of the Derwent and its
approaches, and hoped that Mr. Mault, or some other equally
competent person would take the matter up thoroughly, and
he, for one, would be most happy to render all the assistance
in his power. They had a glorious heritage in this river^
with its maze of bay and island, strait and peninsula^
wrought out of the blue incandescence of a summer sea.
This intricate net had involved one navigator after another ;
to bring order out of the confusion by tracing the develop-
ment of our completed knowledge of it would be an
admirable intellectual exercise.

The voyages of Kerguelen and Marion du Fresne, were
historically connected with those of Bouvet de Lozier
and .Bougainville, and Marion's later discoveries were the con-
firmation of those of Tasman. The voyage of Bouvet, in turn»
was undertaken for the French East India Company for the
purpose of discovering in the Southern Ocean a port for
their outward-bound vessels — an idea that was su^ested to
the minds of these merchants by an imperfect record of the
voyage of Gonneville in 1503-1505^ The tradition in France
was, that this merchant of Honfleur had been cast upon a
fertile continent and amongst a race of genial pagans when,
after rounding the Cape of Good Hope, he had encountered
a violent tempest which drove him out of his course to India.
The tradition has been traced as far back as the year 1668;
when the Abbe Binot-Paulmier de Gonneville — a descendant
from the union of a native of the land on which Gonneville was
cast with a relation of the navigator — addressed a memoir to
the Pope begging that a mission might be sent to the land of
his origin. Whether the Abbe merely adopted a current
tradition regarding the discovery of his ancestor, or himself
misinterpreted the account of the voyage as given in a
judicial declaration signed by Gonneville and his officers, we
cannot tell. At all events he placed the discovery south of
the Cape, and identified the land so fortuitously found with
the legendary Terra Australis, Bouvet's attempt to follow the
course taken by Gonneville led to his discovery, on the Ist

DISCUSSION OK NOTES ON CHARTS OF THE COAST OF TASMANIA. llT

Janiiaiy, 1739, of the Cap de la Circoncisiony in 55 deg. S.»
5 deg. E. The extreme rigour of its climate was incom-
patible with Qonneville's account of the country visited
by him. Despite much difference of opinion as to
Gk)nneyille's actual landfall, some placing it in Virginia,
others in South America, and others in the lately coasted
New Holland, two fresh attempts were made with the object^
not only of finding some compensation for the loss to France
of its American territory, but also to discover the southern
land supposed to lie near the route to India. These voyages
were undertaken by the captain Kerguelea de Tremarec, and
were as fruitless as that of Bouvet, for they only resulted in
the discovery of the barren Kerguelen Land, in 49 deg. 3 min.
S., 68 deg. 18 min. E. Kerguelen returned full of tho
persuasion that Madagascar was the Southern Indies of
Gonneville. When Kergaelen*s crews were freezing on
the shores of his new antarctic island, Marion was
altering his course from an easterly one between the parallels
of 46 deg. and 47 deg. S., to one with sufficient southing in
it to fetch his ships off the west coast of this island, some-
where between Port Davey and Macquarie Harbour. He too
had been disappointed in the weary search for a southern
continent, and had only added the Prince Edward and
Crozet groups to our cognizance of the Southern Ocean.

The interest of Marion's voyage lies in this — that it was
the last Prench voyage ostensibly undertaken with the object
of discovering the Terra Australis^ and with it and the con-
temporary voyages of Cook the belief in the existence of a
continent reaching as far north as 45 deg. or 50 deg. S , may
be said to expire. But this was not Marion's own opinion or
the opinion of his officers. On the contrary, Crozet says
expressly, ''At that point where we then were," namely.
Possession Island, "everything promised the discovery of
the southern continent could we only have continued to the
S.E., but, unfortunately, the state of the Castries since she
had lost her masts (through a collision), did not permit M.
Marion to follow in its full extent the careful project he had
formed for the discovery of these lands." Nouveau voyage^
p. 28. Eochon, editor of the journals of Crozet who was
lieutenant on the Mascarin, does not agree with the opinion
that the change of route was due to the accident to the
Castries, for he says that its commander, M. Duclesmeur^
"assured M. Marion so often and so positively of his ability
aad willingness to follow his leader that M. Marion must have
had some other reason for abandoning his original plan than
that above assigned." As for Marion's place in relation to
his loocessors, it is this. Our complete cognition of any
partioD of the earth's surface is generally preceded by a
cjyneCiil hydrographical survey, and that again by a cursory

118 IHBCnmMION ON NOTBS ON C^LASTS OF THE COAST OF TASMAinA.

one, which has confirmed the original discoveiy. Thus, in
Tasmania, the labours of Hayes and Flinders, of Baudin
and D'Entrecasteaux, had their raison d^Stre for the English,
in the flying visits of Pumeaux and Cook, for the French, in
that of Marion, whilst in turn Marion, Pumeaux, and Cook,
were the men who established the indications given by
Tasman. Marion is in an intermediate position. He Iookb
back 130 years and — his own plan of original discovery
having failed because it was based on insufficiently digested
data — ^he is obliged to be satisfied with the seconda:^ but
still honourable and necessary position of the man who
confirms another's effort and renders it possible for that
effort to flower into scientific achievement.

The islets in the Southern Ocean discovered by Bouvet,
Kerguelen, and Marion, may be regarded as so many step-
ping stones to Australia. To Tasman, who held a more
northerly course than the French captains did, the stepping
stones were the islets of St. Paul and Amsterdam. To the
French captains, they were the Cap de la Circoncisionf Prince
Edward and Crozet groups, and Kerguelen Land, the last three
being discovered within a month of each other. Their dates
are Prince Edward's Island, January 13 ; Crozets, January 24;
Kerguelen Land, February 13, 1772. Sixteen days out from
the Cape the first land was sighted by Marion, and named
Terre d'Esperance, *' because its discovery flattered us with
the hope of finding the southern continent which we sought."
Cook re-named it Prince Edward's Island, after the Duke of
Kent, the father of Her present Majesty. Its mountains
were visible at a distance of twelve miles, and were covered
with snow. Marion was unable to land and explore it because
of the accident to the Castries, which happened when the
ships were about to take soundings preparatory to casting
anchor. A smaller island was seen to the N.E. of the larger
one ; on its N.E. side, according to Crozet's account, or on its
east side, following Ross, is a bay with a large cave ; round
the cave were a number of white flecks like a flock of sheep,
perhaps patches of moss, which Moseley describes as forming
principal features in the vegetation of Marion Island as seen
from a distance. Had the weather permitted, they would
have found an anchorage in this bay which was frequented
by sealers at a later date. The island was seven or eight
miles in circumference. Crozet places these islands in
46 deg. 45 min. S., and 34 deg. 31 min. E. of Paris ; Crozier,
the companion of Ross, places the North Cape of Prince
Edward's Island in 46 deg. 53 min. S., and 37 deg. 33 min. E.
of Greenwich, and Cave Bay in the lie de la Caverns of
Marion, is reported by Boss to lie in 46 deg. 40 min. S.
There is a discrepancy in the nomenclature of these islands :
Ross calls the larger island, which it may be presumed is

DIBOUSSION ON NOTES ON CHABTS OF THE COAST OF TASMANIA. 119>

Marion's Terre d^ Eeperance, Prince Edward's Island, and
gives no name to the smaller island; his reference to the
cave on it identifies it with Marion's He de la Oaveme,
Moseley of the Challenger, on the contrary, says that the
Prince Edward group consists of Marion and Prince Edward
Islands, of which Marion Island is the larger, and contains
80 square miles. Authorities on the Prince Edward and
Crozet groups are C. M. Q-oodridge*s Narrative of a Voyage
io i%e 8ov£h Seas, Lond., 1883 ; Capt. Lindesay Brine's
VtsU io the GrozetSf in Q^ogr. Mag., Oct., 1877, and the
accounts of the Challenger expedition.

On the sixth day after leaving the Terre cT Esperance
Marion sighted two other islets in 46 deg. 5 min. S., and
42 deg. E. of Paris by dead reckoning, and named them
Lea lies Froides, They are the Penguin and Hog Islands
of the Crozet group. On the morning of the following day
(January 23), they were no longer visible ; but Possession
Island — He de la prise de possession — was sighted from the
Castries, and next day both Possession Island and East Island,
the He Aride of Marion, about ten miles apart, were in sight;
the former is placed in 46 deg. 30 min. S., and 43 deg. E. of
Paris ; Boss places its southernmost point in 46 deg. 28 min.
S., its northernmost in 46 deg. 19 min. S., and gives the
longitude of these points as 51 deg. 53 min. E., and 51 deg.
66 min. E. respectively.

When the ships were lying off Possession Island, Crozet
was sent ashore and annexed it in the name of the King of
France, and deposited, according to custom, a bottle containing
the declaration of annexation on the summit of a pyramid
of rocks about 50 feet above sea level. Not a tree or shrub
was visible on the island. He mentions only a species of
leed (jonc) growing along the shores, a small delicate grass
(gramefi), and a plant he calls ficoides. Penguins, Cape
pigeons, cormorants, and other marine birds were so tame
as to allow themselves to be taken by hand, and continued to
sit on their eggs without apprehension, whilst the seals
gambolled undisturbed by the presence of man. Strangest
of all, one white pigeon was seen, from which circumstance
Crozet supposed that a land producing the food proper to
that family could not be far distant. Nothing further of
interest occurred till the arrival of the ships in Frederick
Henry Bay, on the 5th March, 1772.

Mb. J. B. Walker said that the Society was imder great
obligations to Mr. Mault for having obtained copies of the
interesting maps which he had laid before them, and for his
descriptive paper, and also to Mr. McClymont for his
criticisms on the sketch charts relating to Marion's expedition.
The map of the Southern part of Van Diemen's I^nd was
evidently that of Lieutenant Hayes, though he thought not

120 DISCUSSION ON NOTES ON CHABTS OF THE COAST OF TASMANIA.

absolutely identical with "Captain Hayes* sketch," which
Flinders mentions as having had with him on his visit to the
Derwent, in the Norfolk, in 1798. The latter contained some
names — such as Risdon Cove, — which did not appear on the
map they had now before them. Of the Dames on this map
very few were now in use. Some of them were given in
honour of the captain's fellow-officers in the Bombay Marine.
Following His Excellency's suggestion at a former meeting,
he had searched fot further particulars respecting Captain
(afterwards Sir John) Hayes, and his expedition in 1794^ He
had not succeeded, however, in finding more than was con-
tained in Lieutenant Chas. R. Low's " History of the Indian
Navy." That work gave a short account of the discovery
expedition, and of Hayes' services in the Lidian Seas, from
which it appeared that he was a most distinguished naval
officer. He was afterwards appointed Master Attendant at
Calcutta, ranking next to the officer in Supreme Command
of the Indian Navy. As they had in Hobart a descendant
of Sir John (Colonel Cruickshank, of New Town), he hoped
some clue might be found which would lead to the discovery
of the lost journals of the expedition. The map of Van
Diemen's Laiid, purporting to be from Flinders, was most
probably copied from one of the manuscript charts which
were seized in the Cumberland at Mauritius. In a tracing
made by Mr. Bonwick from Flinders' original chart, the
precise phrases occurred which were here translated into
French. With respect to Flinders' detention by Q-ovemor
De Caen, he had observed in a pamphlet containing a
summary of the Brabourne Papers, a statement that amongst
the despatches carried by the Cumberland was one from
Governor King, suggesting the possibility of using Port
Jackson as a centre from which to attack the French. The
writer of the pamphlet suggested that this despatch might
have afforded De Caen a pretext for detaining Flinders, as
being a violation of the terms of his safe conduct.

Me. Matjlt could not give credence to the latter statement,
seeing that Captain Flinders had always been regarded by him
in the light of a true man, in every sense in which that could
be applied, and strictly honourable in eYerj sense of the
word, and he could not credit it that he would so ignore the
terms upon which he held his passport from Bonaparte.
If sucli papers were found on him he could not have been
aware of their contents.

Mr. Walker fully shared Mr. Mault's admiration for
Flinders, who was a man wholly incapable of doing a dis-
honourable action. If he carried such a despatch, it was
certain that he was unaware of its nature. It should also be.
remembered that the Cumberland left Port Jackson during
the peace of Amiens, and therefore there would have been no
impropriety in Flinders carrying despatches.

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121

THE DETENTION OF PLINDEES AT THE

MAURITIUS.

By a. Mault.

To the passport dated at Paris the 4 Prairial, An neuf de
la Republique Frangaise, to the " corvette Investigator, its
officers, crew, and effects, during their voyage, to permit
them to land at the different ports of the Eepublic, as well
in Europe as in other parts of the world, whether they be
forced by bad weather to there seek refuge, or that they come to
ask for succour and the means of repairs necessary to continue
their voyage," there is added the proviso : — " It is well under-
stood, nevertheless, that they shall not thus find protection
and assistance, but in the case that they shall not have wil-
lingly turned out of the course they should follow ; that they
shall not have committed, nor announced their intention to
commit, any hostility against the French Republic and its
allies ; that they shall not have procured, nor sought to
procure, any succours to its enemies ; and that they shall not
nave occupied themselves with any kind of commerce nor of
contraband/' It should be also borne in mind that in the
preamble to the passport. Captain Matthew Flinders is n9.med
as commanding the Investigator, Flinders himself records
that the Lords of the Admiralty directed him ** to act in all
respects towards French ships as if the two countries were not
at war ; and with respect to the ships and vessels of other
powers with which this country is at war, you are to avoid, if
possible, having any communication with them ; and not to
take letters or packets other than such as you may receive
from this office, or the office of His Majesty's Secretary of
State."

We all know that, the passport notwithstanding, when
Flinders and some of his crew — the Investigator having been
condemned and the Porpoise lost — came in the little sloop
Cumberland to Port Louis in December, 1803, " to ask for
succour and the means of repairs necessary to continue their
voyage," to use the words of the passport, G-eneral De Caen,
Governor of the Mauritius, refused the request, and made the
captain and crew prisoners of war. Till recently this action
of De Caen's has been as universally as righteously con-
demned. But in 1886, in an official, or quasi-official docu-
ment, published by the New South Wales G-ovemment (a
summary of the contents of the Brabourne Papers), the
following passages occur : — " Much trouble had been taken
to obtain this scientific passport for Flinders. Why, then, was it

122 THE DETENTION OF FUNDEBS AT THE MAIJItITIU&

not respected ? We find a satisfactory answer here. . . »
Captain Flinders was going home. Governor King took
the opportunity of sending home some despatches, and these
despatches, there is little doubt, were the cause of all poor
Minders' trouble. We have here (unfortunately, without a
date) a memorandum from Captain Kent, of H.M.S. Buffalo^
for G-ovemor King, in which it is stated that the colony * ia
admirably situated for sending forth a squadron against the
Spaniards on the coast of Chfli and Peru.* Gk)vernor TTfng
makes this idea the subject of a despatch. He enlarges upott
the opportunities this most excellent harbour offers for the
concentration of troops, which might at any time be sent
against Spanish America. This despatch he entrusts to
Captain Flinders, and this Governor De Caen finds when, Ids
suspicion aroused by the peculiar appearance of the little
Cwmherlandj he seizes her and detains all her papers. Now
Flinders' passport was granted to an officer commanding a
ship to be employed on scientific work only, and here Flinden
was found conveying a despatch to England, England being
at the time engaged in a life and death struggle with France,
which, if delivered and acted on, would have the effect of
placing points of vantage, and possibly valuable colonies^
within easy striking distances. A despatch of this sort could
hardly be considered as a document of purely international
scientific interest. Governor De Caen did not so consider it>
and having a natural animus against all Englishmen, con-
sidered himself justified in using the excuse this paper gave
him to justify a rigorous imprisonment." And the writer
goes on in a rather sneering style about " poor Flinders."

I confess that I have " a natural animus " against special
pleading of this sort. If it had to be answered from infor-
mation given by itself the task would be difficult, for the
information given is so vague. The only one of the documents
above referred to, which is specifically said to exist among the
papers, is the memorandum " unfortunately without a date '*
from Captain Kent. But Governor King's' despatch founded
thereupon ; is it among the papers ? If so, why is it not to be
published as Captain Kent's memorandum is ? Again, what
is the proof that Flinders took this despatch, and that it fell
into the hands of De Caen, and when did he use " the excuse
this paper gave him to justify a rigorous imprisonment?"

On the contrary there is much to prove that no such
despatch was carried by Flinders, and that consequently none
such could have been taken from him by De Caen. Flinders
did take despatches from King to the Secretary of State in
England, and those despatches were taken from him and
never returned; but they could not have been of this
contraband character, for in almost all certainty they were
papers relative to Flinders' expedition, detailing the arrange-

BY A. MAiriiT. 123

ments the G-overDor had made, and the orders he had given
in consequence of the abandonment of the Investigator, This
is proved as clearly as such a fact can be by the conduct of
both Flinders and De Caen. Flinders would not willingly
have taken general despatches, much less such an one as this
particular one of Governor King's isdescribed to be, for he would
not carry any from the ships at Madeira and the Cape. And
he blames the captain of Le Oeographe for taking some from
Mauritius, which, had he been guilty of the same offence, he
could hardly have done at the time he was claiming the
benefit of his passport on the ground of not having broken its
conditions. While the despatches were in De Caen's hands.
Flinders writes to Admiral Linois, asking for his intervention,
and says : — ** I should willingly undergo an examination by
the captains of your squadron, and my papers would either
prove or disprove my assertions. If it be found that I have
committed any act of hostility against the French nation or
its allies, my passport will become forfeited, and I expect no
favour ; but if my conduct hath been altogether consistent
with the passport, I hope to be set at liberty, or at least to be
sent to France for the decision of the Government." Is it
likely Flinders would have challenged this enquiry if he knew
that De Caen had written proof that his conduct had not
been " consistent with the passport ? "

But it may be said that Governor King may have sent the
despatch without letting Flinders know its contents. That
is true. But if it had been among Flinders' papers De Caen
would have found it, and it is certain, notwithstanding all
that the author of the summary of the Brabourne Papers
says about De Caen's finding it and acting upon it, he never
did find anything of the sort. It was exactly the kind of
thing he wanted to find, and had he found it, it would have
a£Eorded the only possible justification of De Caen's after
conduct, and he would not have been driven to make the
paltry excuses he was reduced to. But not finding any such
thing he had to fall back on a passage in Flinders' journal,
in which, after giving his main reasons for running into Port
Louis rather than to the Cape, he adds, as a subordinate one,
that it will give him an opportunity of making meteorological,
and other observations on the Mauritius. If De Caen had
the despatch which would have constituted a real proof that
the passport had been forfeited, would he have withheld it
and put forward the fictitiously hollow reason that by the
passport Flinders " was certainly not authorised to put in at
the Isle of France to be able to observe the periodic winds,
the port, the actual state of the colony, etc., that thus by thia
conduct he had violated the neutrality under which he had
been indirectly permitted to land in this island." Such is
the only excuse De Caen offers, not only to Flinders in hia

Ii4 THE DETENTION OF IXJNDEES AT THE MJLnBITIU&

oaptivitj, but to the French GoTemment at Paris. For in
tlie communique of the Government in the Moniteur of the
22 Messidor, An. XH. (Llth July, 1804) on the subject of
the arrest, detention and falsely reported release of Flinders,
it is said : — " In fine, the passport granted to M. Flinders did
not admit of any equivocation upon the objects of the
expedition for which it was given ; but we read in one part of
his journal that he suspected the war ; and in another, that
ho had resolved to touch at the Isle of France as well in the
hope of selling his vessel advantageously, as from the desire
of knowing the present state of that colony, and the utility of
which it and its dependencies in Madagascar could be to ]rort
Jackson." Now is this language compatible with the
existence of King's despatch among Flinders' papers? If
Flinders had carried what was clearly contraband of war,
would the French G-overnment have been content with the
above lame apology for his arrest P There can be but one
answer.

No ! De Caen's conduct admits of no palliation. It brands
him with everlasting infamy. The finding of King's despatch
after he had arrested Flinders, would not much exonerate
him. When Baudin came to Sydney was he arrested, and
his ship searched for compromising documents to justify the
arrest ? I am only sorry an Australian should attempt to
whitewash De Caen by a method which, if successful, would
tarnish the memory of Flinders.

Discussioi^.

Mr. J. B. Walker said that Mr. Mault had undoubtedly
made out a good case, but there was independent evidence to
show that Flinders did carry despatches to the Secretary of
State. Amongst the State papers in the Record Office, lately
copied by Mr. Bonwick for the Tasmanian Government, was
a despatch from Governor King to Lord Hobart, dated 8th
October, 1803, in which the Governor refers to previous
despatches sent by the Cumberland. What was the nature
of these despatches did not appear, but they probably related
to Flinders' explorations, and were not in any way a violation
of the conditions of his safe conduct from the French Govern-
ment. Mr. Mault's strongest argument— indeed, an un-
answerable argimient — was, that if these despatches had been
of the compromising character suggested by the writer of the
pamphlet on the Braboume Papers, Governor De Caen would
have produced them in evidence against Flinders as a complete
justification of the detention, and would not have been driven
to find a paltry excuse in an entry in Flinders' journal. In
any case Flinders' himself was without blame in the matter.

125

OBSERVATIONS EEGAEDING PYEAMID NUMBERS,

By R. M. Johnston, F.L.S.
(Diagrams.)

The ancient structures of Egypt, especially the pyramids,
have ever been regarded with the most prof ound interest.
Travellers and historians find in them an everlasting theme
for description. Geometricians also find in their designs,
magnitude and dimensions, much matter for scientific
speculations ; and the mystic inspired by their age, grandeur,
and mystery, is disposed to gather from their every feature
some more or less fancifully conceived revelation or miracle.

Nor can we wonder at this. Egypt is the land of wonders.
Great pyramids covering acres of land ; colossi sitting silent
in granite thrones ; obelisks of prodigious height wonderfully
carved from a single stone ; and temples, sphinxes, and canals,
of stupendous proportions. When we consider that all these
monuments were hoary with age at the time of Herodotus,
and that a close study of their works and hieroglyphics
reveals that their builders had attained great knowledge in
astronomy, geometry, architecture, engineering, and various
arts, we may readily admit that our highest modem
civilisation was cradled in the land of the Pharaoh's.

It is not my intention, however, to enter into the enquiry
of Egyptian civilisation at present. The observations which
I have to make are confined to the pyramid structures them-
selves. It is now well established that pyramidal structures
were peculiarly characteristic of the most ancient civilisations
of India, Babylon, Nineveh, Egypt, China, North America,
Mexico, and even in islands of the Pacific; and that the
whole or greater part of them are associated with sepul-
tures for the dead. But while it is most probable that
originally such monuments were built solely for com-
Inemoration and for the preservation of the remains
of noble persons, there are also good reasons for
supposing that some of them — such as the Great Pyramid
of Gizeh or Cheops — fulfilled a double purpose. The Great
Pyramid of Cheops covers a space of about 13*05 acres. If
we make allowance for slight disturbance, due to pressure of
the enormous superincumbent weight, we must assume that
its designer intended its base to form a perfect square, and
its shape a true pyramid. The various measurements of the
most competent engineers only show a variation of 11, 13,
and 19 inches in the length of each side, and with such
doubtful data the side has been variously estimated at between
9,129 and 9,164 inches, and the mean of the five most careful

126 OBSERVATIONS BEGASPHTG PYRAMII) NTTMBEES.

measurements give a length of 9,137 inches, or 36,548 inchesfor
the circuit of the four sides. Ferguson's, Duf ell's, and Colonel
Howard Yyse's measurements of height are the most reliable^
and they only vary between 450| feet and 456 feet, or 5,472
English inches. Broadly speaking therefore its circuit re-
presents about 100 inches for each day in the year, and its
height almost exactly fibs, of its side base. The orientation
or eastward aspect is almost true, being 0 for South-East,
'+ -1 for North-East, + -1 for South- West, and + •0*636 for
North- West. Subsequent settlement or earth tremors might
easily account for these minute divergences from absolutely
true orientation.

While rejecting the many fanciful interpretations of
piystical writers drawn from known facts with respect to
shape, dimensions, measurements, and orientation, I have long
been convinced by the reasoning of sober minded investi-
gators that the principal characteristics were probably
j^etermined as a base or fixed standard for measures
of space and capacity; and if so, the shape and
dimensions themselves might have been suggested to the
skilled geometricians of the time by reference to some
astronomical fact of importance known to them, in conjunction
with significant properties of number and proportion dis-
covered by them to belong to the structure of cubes in
pyramidal form. That men who taught the modem world
mensuration and astronomy, should strive to attain a sure
method for securing uniformity in standards as applied to
weights and measurements, is a most reasonable supposition.
That these standards should be symbolised by some
striking or well-known astronomical fact, is in the
highest degree probable, and corresponds exactly with the
idea of the French astronomers, who determined the length
of their metre in relation to the ascertained length of a
meridian line drawn from the Pole to the Equator. (The
metre representing the tenth millionth, or 39*37079 English
inches ; the centimetre being one hundredth of a metre. The
gramme or standard of weight is derived from the centimetre,
I.e., a cubic centimetre of distilled water at the temperature
of maximum density, nearly equal to '0022054 of an English
avoirdupois pound, or 15,438 English grains.)

Impressed with this idea, and with the conviction that the
Egyptian builders were adepts in the construction of models,
I sought to obtain some light upon these matters by studying
the numerical combinations of simple cubes built upon the
pyramid type. I was guided to a considerable extent in these
investigations by the wide prevalence of multiples of 7, 12, and
10, in the existing subdivisions of time, space, weight and value.
How has it come about, for example, that a certain sacredness
attaches to the number 7 ?' Why was the important division

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.I*& 12^

x>£ the year (a week) determined to be seven days, for it waa
in common use long before the birth of Moses ? Why was the^
seventli day originally set apart as the Sabbath p Why have
we the day divided into two parts of 12 hours each, and why
do multiples of 12 so commonly appear in weights and
measures, especially in astronomical divisions ?

In many combinations conducted with the hope of throwing
light OQ such matters, I failed to get any remarkable indica-
tions, with three important exceptions. These three exceptions
possess so many remarkable proportions and numbers relating
to existing sub-divisions of weights, measures, and values, and
•especially with the proportions and dimensions of the Great
J^ramid, that I have been induced to risk the appellation of
** pyranud mystic," and to lay the remarkable results before
the members of this Society.

The models which appear before you have each some,
particular claim to notice, and whether any of them may ofEer
^sufficiently remarkable characteristics or not as bearing upon
the Great Pyramid, they are all well worthy of close attention as
offering a natural solution to the genesis of particular numbers
as used in sub-divisions or measures of time, space, weight, or
value.

Pyramid op Ctpj> Nxjmbbes, Having 7 as a Base.

As shown in diagram, the most remarkable characteristic is

the fact that the cube root of its basal layer, 49 or 7^, enters

into and agrees with all the important dimensions of the

<3-reat Pyramid, including length of complete circuit ; length

of side ; height ; length of Egytian cubit ; English inch ; and

through the latter it harmonises in the most obvious and

simple multiples with these dimensions- and the days in the

year, days in the lunar month. Other natural proportions of

the three angled sides of pyramid connote the months in

the quarter and year ; while its aggregate number of cubes,

84 or 7 times 12, suggest the alliance of 7 and 12 in

measurement of time.

*****

Demonstration indicating that the Great Pyramid dimen-
sions were probably determined by the radix of sacred num-
ber (7), which in itself has probably been selected because
the cube root of its square contains nearly the exact figures
representing the known days in the year : —

Badix (V7'') = B = 3-6593.

1. Circuit of pyramid in inches 36593 = lOOOOR

, 2. Length of each side (4) „ „ 9148 = lOOOOR

S. Height of pyramid „ „ 5488« = *(10000B)
= 457 •• feet 2

^8 oBsiBVATiQiini BaaAJUxme fibaiod nuxhbbs.

FoTM.^- § Heifllit proportion may have been
Aon. g ideeted necaaie 8 ex^Mes the

umuberof dimentionfl in a cube :
and 1 «-£- 2 exactlj expresses tlie
felatiTe elevation surface of a
triangle and square resting upon
a common base and of equal ver-
tical height at its maximum, in
a vertical line drawn at right '
angles to base line.

4. Principal unit of measurement in 1 0OOB

inches 25*^ = 12* or 14^

Nearly equal to existing cubit
in Egypt.

HoTE — 12** most probably was adopted as a

divisor, because curiously enough
the actual number of square cubes
contained in a pyramid of even
numbers, which most nearly
approaches the number of days
in a year, is 364, and the base of
such pyramid or Ist layer contains
12 X 12 cubes or 144 : the second
layer in importance succeeds it
with 10 X 10 cubes or 100 (see
plan).

lOOOR
5. Cubits in circuit of pyramid, No. 1440 == — ^qi-

lOOOOE lOOOOB

10000E^12? 25-*^

lOOOOE

6. Ditto in each side (mean) 360. [iqqqq^j:^i2.2) ~ ^

„ TT -t 1 looooE :yl^

7. rmtoryearorl=:-3^ggg-^ or ^^^

7-2 49
8. Days in Week or 7 = -=- or y

BT B. IL JOHNSTON, F.L.& 129

9. Months in Year or 12 = Angles on 4 faces 4X3:

also eqtial to base of a
simple pyramid of even
nnmbers whose aggre«
gate represents 364: also»
the seventh of the aggre-
gate of a simple pyramid
of odd having 7 for its
base.

10. Lunar Months in year orl3» nearly (lS-«0 = i2222£

7X4

S<)XTABE Pyramid of Mixed Odd and Even Numbebs,
Having fob a Base (7 x 2)* ob 14* = 196.

Perhaps this forms the most interesting of all the com-
binations. Its natural proportions and naturally related
numbers are most suggestive.

The following combinations are most striking : —

1. If we take either the exposed cubes on the margin of each

layer, or the total faces of distinct cubes- in the four
sides, the aggregate comes exactly to 365, or the exact
number of days in the year ; and therefore the propor-
tional number of cubes on each triangular face is 91^,
corresponding to days in the quarter of a year.

2. If we now take the basal layer alone, we find the exposed

number of cubes in the square to be 52, corresponding
to weeks in the year.

3. If again we take the aggregate of all cubes in the pyramid,

we find they amount to 1,015, and if this number be
multiplied by 36, or 4 times 9 (the latter number repre-
senting the number of verticle angles on faces of the
four wedges or prisms of which the pyramid is built, as
indicated by its diagonals), we obtain 36,540, or within
8 inches of the best actual measurements of its present
state, which has no doubt undergone some slight settle-
ment due to superincumbent pressure.

4. A quarter of this gives 9,135 inches, or within 2 inches of

the mean of the best actual measurements obtained by
competent investigators.
6. If we now take the square of its basal layer, 14 x 14, we
get 196, and it is remarkable that if this number be
multiplied successively by half the side, and by the
number of sides, i.e., 196 x 7 x 4, we get 5,488, or within
16 inches of the best estimates of the present height of
the Great Pyramid, any two of which differ far more
seriously with each other than this curious combination.

130 OBSXBVATIONS BBQABDINO PTBAHID NUMBEB&

6. The basal layer lias 13 distinct cubes in each side^
ponding to* number of weeks in eacb quarter, whick^
side typifies naturally; while the three angles of
triangular face makes 12, corresponding with the
in the year or hoxurs in the day.
These combinations are all natural to the ps

structure, and are not selected in arbitrary or forced

as in many suggestions found in works referring to

pyramids.

Sqxtabe Pyramid of Eten Numbers Haying 12 fob

Base.

The remarkable characteristic of this pyramid is that— ^

1. The aggregate of all the cubes, if capped with an odd

as a finishing point, numbers 365, corresponding to
number of days in the year. It has 12 cubes along
basal layer of each side, corresponding to moi
There are exactly 36 cubes in each triangular face, jj
144 in basal layer. If each of these be multiplied'^
the number of cubes in side of 2nd layer, and ta^ken
divisor of the circuit and side of pyramid they
results .which almost exactly correspond with the exu
cubit of Egypt.
The same result is very closely attained bp multij)lying

aggregate number of cubes (365) by 7, and diviaing tl

result by the square of the second layer (100).

2. But perhaps the more interesting numbers in this pyi

of even numbers are those of the cubes of the exp(
sides of squares, and the aggregates of the cubes H
each layer.
It is singular that in the first series the sequence 1, 4,
20, should exactly correspond with the sequence of Englii
standards of money value, viz.: Earthing, farthings in penn]
pennies in a shilling, and shillings in a pound.

The figures of the base, 12 and 144, are associated wil
sub-divisions of square measured multiples or suU
divisions of 28, as 7, 14, 28, 56, 112, 2,240 as in sub-divisioi
of weight ; and in the second series of aggregates we have ii
the second layer the numbers 10, 220, and in the basal^
exposed margin of circuit 44, all suggestive of some connectioft'^
with reasons which originally entered into the determination *
of subdivision of 44, 220, 440, 1,760, in the English mile.

Conclusion. *

Taken by themselves the remarkable coincidences with<*
known facts relating to measurement of time and space might ]
only be construed as simple examples of the facility with
which many numbers may be made to coincide with known ■

■es an -f^u
viSecttcCt

BT B. IC JOtfKfii^N, F.L.S. 13t

measurements or proportionals relating to the earth's diameter,
circumference, distance from the sun, annual period of
revolution, etc.; for it is easy by slight variations of any root,
arbitrarily made, and arbitrarily selected raultijples, to make
any number approximate to some important terrestrial
measurement, provided that the computer is himself pre-
viously aware of the proportional, size, or measurement, with
which a show of correspondence is desired. Much of the so-
called remarkable coincidences of mystical writers are of this
class ; for it not unfrequently happens that the same root
measurement, by slight alteration, is worked up to bring about
coincidences with very different things. Thus Mr. Piazzi
Smith, by taking the height of the niche of the Queen's
Chamber of the Great Pyramid as 182*62, and multiplying it
by 2, he obtains 365 242, equivalent to the days in the year;
and again by arbitrarily taking the same dimensions as 185,
and multiplying it successively by 3*1416 and 10, he obtains
5,812, which he arbitrarily concluded to be the height
of the Great Pyramid in inches. But curiously enough
the same dimensions, 182*62, multiplied by 10 and divided
by 2 (why not at once multiply by 5*") is made to show an
approximate to length of one of the sides in inches. These
are common examples of the facility with which many fancy
the discovery of purposeful design in numbers or dimensions,
when dealt with in a fanciful and arbitrary way.

It seems to have been forgotten by such persons that any
root figure, by the arbitrary selection of a multiplier or divisor,
may be made to coincide exactly with any other number
provided the manipulator Tcnows hefcrehand the number or
proportional with which correspondence is sought to be
established.

But making all allowance for the vagaries of the mystics,
there are many legitimate subjects of enquiry, upon
which some light might be thrown by the careful investigation
of ancient structures At the present day it is remarkable
how largely the numbers 7, 12, and 10, or simple multiples of
these enter into standards of space, time, weight, and value.
It is easy to imagine how 1 0 was seized upon so frequently as
a standard of measurement ; for counting by means of the
digits of the two hands so universal and so natural at once
suggests a probable reason ; but the reasons for the original
selection of 7 and 12 for a similar purpose are not so easily
conceived.

What, for example, were the determining causes for the
selection of the many sub-divisions of weights, values, time,
lineal and square measure P

Why have we a sequence of 4, 12, 20, in English money
in sub-divisions of the penny, shilling and pound ; of 14, 28,
56, 112, 2,240, in sub-divisions of a ton weight ; of 44, 440,

132 OBSEBVATIOKS BXOAXDWQ PYRAMID NUMBEB&

1,760, in sab-divisions of the English mile ; of mnliiplea of
12 in square measure; of either 8 or 7 as a root of wine
measure ?

8x42

8x1 I gall.: ^^AA tierce: ^ «q hogshead

8x84
7x96

7x48
8 X 126

8x62

puncheon : 7 ^ j^^ pipe : 7 ^ ggg

7x72

8x252

tun

The German elle }► „ ^ ^||®

Then going to the survivals of ancient systems of linear
measurement, how can we account for the origin of lineal
measures, such as —

The English foot ... Equivalent to 12 English inches
The ancient *' Pied de

Eoi" of France ... „ 1279 „

The Italian pie ... „ 22*428

The common guerze of

xcrsia ... ... ,, Au „

The pic of Turkey ... „ 26 8 „

The braccio of Ancona „ 25*83 „

The short pichaof Greece „ 25 „

The long „ „ „ 27 „
The existing derah or

cubit of Egypt ... „ 25*488 „

Jewish cubits ... j^ „ {2474 "

May it not be possible therefore that the ancient draftsmen
or modellers of pyramids had seized upon many of these
characteristics shown in the forms and figures referred to,
both for sub-divisions of measures and weights, and also to
typify in their important fixed standards some of the more
remarkable facts of astronomy then known to them ?

133

NOTE ON THE AUSTRALIAN CUELEW AND iTS
CLOSELY ALLIED CONGENEES.

Bx Coi.oinsi< W. v. Lbsge, E.A., F.Z.S.

A comparison of the Australian Curlew with its near
Asiatic ally, and its more distantly related representative in
Earope and Western Asia, may not be uninteresting to
Members of this Society who study ornithology.

The Curlews of the old world, like other members of the
Wader family (Gharadriide), resemble one another in plumage,
and hence we find that a few years ago Naturalists con-
fused them not a little; we have the Indian and the
Chinese Curlew spoken of as the European bird, and there
seems to be some confusion about the European and South
African species. Unlike the American Curlews, which have a
distinguishing characteristic on the buff tinting of the under
wing and axdiaries, the old world species differ chiefly in
character of the markings of the breast and axiliaries and
in the ground colour of the rump, and it is by deferring to
these parts that a correct diagnosis of the above species, on
which I make this note, can be founded. A marked charac-
teristic, however, of the Australian bird is its length of bill.

The European or common Curlew is : — Numenius Arquata
(Linn), described as Scolopax Arquata, LlnnsBus, Syst. Nat.
Ed., 12, 1. p. 242 (1766).

The Eastern, or Asiatic Curlew is : — Numenius Lineatus
(Cuvier), Eeg. An., 2nd Ed., 1. p. 62 (1829).

The Australian Curlew is : — Numenius Cyanopus (Vieillot),
2nd Ed., du Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. Vol. viii., p. 306
(1817).

The latter is the Numenius Major of Schelgel from Japan,
and the Numenius Australis of Gould from Australia, and like-
wise the Numenius Eufescens of Gould, in the proceedings
of the Zoological Society, 1832, p. 286 — which name appears
to have been founded on a specimen in breeding plumage.

The following diagnostic table will tend to illustrate the
characteristics above alluded to : —

134

NOTE ON THE AUSTRAUAK CUSLBW.

Hi
M

a p^9t

3.S

a"
I-

o o
feu

5.2

no • pj
•" Ife a ^

OQ O -«J

-*3

•1^

-i

-fd

€>

^ a
is 2 ®

^ pja «H °°

g .-§ .§ .2

* oo-S

-M CM pi3

i QQ a

fl bog

^i' fl fe

^ s ®

^ '^

^ d o

CO S -M

>-i l> c3

a> o -S

43 ^ o

-»d

• «H

•1^

r—t

,-*3

*t3

^pfl

-fi

;-4

a-a

2:S

a ^

QQ J3

H
OQ -^

QQ
P

O
WO

BY COLONEL W. V. LEGGE, B.A., F.ZS. 136;

As regards our Curlew, N. Cyanopus, on arriving in Tas-
mania in September some specimens have the buff tinge of the
breeding season still remaining on the breast and flanks, and
accompanying this is a rufescent hue on the longer upper tail
coverts and central tail feathers. This species no doubt varies
in size, length of wing and length of bill, as much as its
congeners. But, unfortunately, I have not yet got together
a series of specimens, and cannot give much information on
the subject. A pair shot in Ealph's Bay, by my son, on the
14th September, measured as follows : —

0 Length, 24*75 in.; wing, 12*25; expanse, 42*0; tarsus,
3*5 ; bill along culmen, 6.9. 5 Length, 22*0 in.; wing, 11*1 ;
tarsus, 3*4 ; bill along culmen 5*5. In both, the legs were
bluish grey, with the toes darkish ; iris, very deep brown ;
bill, dark brown ; tip, blackish ; base beneath, fleshy reddish.

Oeographical Distribufion, — Although the Australian Curlew
is a migratory species, breeding in northern climates in
summer and " wintering " here in our summer, many seem to
remain throughout the year with us. This is a common
feature in the economy of the "Waders. I have found several
species of well-known "northern breeders" remaining in
Ceylon in considerable numbers in the cool season, but not to
breed ; and thuugh our Curlew remains with us in the winter
it is impropable that it breeds here.

It migrates north through the Malay Archipelago, being
there met with on passage in Borneo, New Guinea, the
Philippines and other islands ; thence northward along the
coast of China to Amoor Land, and up to Lake Baikal, in
which region it is supposed to breed. In Japan, it has been
met with as far north as Hakodadi. According to Buller it
only occurs sparingly in New Zealand ; but nevertheless seems
to remain there in winter. New Zealand is probably its
eastern limit ; for farther east it is replaced by the oceanic
species, N. femoralis, with curiously formed tibial feathers,
and which occurs in the Marquesas Islands. Eamsay records
our bird from all the Australian Colonies.

EoUowing the principle advocated here, that the Asiatic
Curlew, N. Lineata, is distinct from the European bird, we have
the range of the former across the continent to China, down the
peninsula of India to Ceylon, and likewise southwards from
China to the Malay islands, where it has been procured in Java,
Sumatra, and Borneo. The same form of bird is known to
migrate down the east coast of Africa, and Layard records it as
a resident in South Africa.

Its range would appear to be over-lapped, so to speak, by
that of the Australian Curlew in Amoor Land and Japan, the
present bird not being found north of the south-eastern part of

136 NOTE ON THE AUStBAIIAN CUBLEW.

Mongolia — where it breeds, quitting the southern portions of
the continent in April for that purpose.

Lastly, the range of the European Curlew may be defined to
extend throughout Europe, taking in the Orkney, Faroe, and
Shetland Islands. It Imewise occurs in Western Asia. It is
found in the Azores and in North Africa, extending down the
coast of that continent to Damara Land. It appears not to
wander to the extreme south, for all the South African Curlews
I examined in the British Museum when compiling my work
were inseparable from the foregoing species as round in India,
China, and Ceylon. It would therefore appear to take in the
west coast, while the Asiatic or " Eastern *' Curlew monopolises
the east coast and the extreme south in its wanderings.

137

ADDITIONS TO THE LIST OF TASMANIA^ FOSSILS
OF TJPPEE PALEOZOIC AGE.

By Bobeet M. Johnston, F.L.S.

(Plate.)

The mudstone beds (Upper PalsBOzoic) in the neighbourhood
of Hobart are extraordinarily rich in spirifers. Fourteen species
have already been noted in my recent work on the Geology of
Tasmania. A number of other interesting forms have been
collected by me during the last two or three years ; but
hitherto I have not had time to study them with that care
which is desirable ; for any one who has worked long in
our rocks must be aware of the many difficulties which are
presented when any attempt is made to determine the
characters of the Protean-winged spirifers of Tasmania. In
the mudstone rocks casts alone are generally found ; and
although these are numerous and sharply marked, the casts
present such a wonderful range of variation when large
numbers of the same species are subjected to examination that
the task of determining the central or most typical represen-
tative of each species is extremely puzzling. If attention
were confined to a single specimen — as is often the case where
odd specimens are despat-ched to palseontologists at a distance
— there would be less perplexity ; but it need hardly be stated
determinations so made, without the knowledge of local vari-
ability, must add greatly to the perplexities of the field
worker who may have to determine whatever variety comes to
his hand by the aid of descriptions based upon odd types.

All the winged spirifers of Tasmania are extremely variable,
and many species among these extreme forms are scarcely
separable from similarly variable allied species. 8, convoluta, S^
hisculcata, S* ves]pertilio, 8, duodecimocosta, and /S. avciula are
remarkable for the extreme variability in form and sculpture.
Added to the difficulties of the observant field worker are the
variety of modes in which they are presented in casts ; some
showing sharp details of external surface of right valve; some
of left ; some of more or less blurred surfaces of one or both
sides of internal casts. The greater number, again, are
curiously distorted. It is not surprising, therefore, that many
able authorities have had frequently to revise the classifica-
tion of many of these forms, when other examples of an
abnormal form or type have been submitted to them. The
following six species, as determined by me from a series of
specimens of each kind, presented all the difficulties referred

138

ADDITIONS TO THE IJST 07 TASMANIAS FOSSIU.

to ; but after careful comparison I was enabled to account for
young and adult forms, and to mark individual variation ; and
nually I could, with some degree of confidence, select tbe most
' utal of eich group. By this meana I have ledifffld a^ largb

. ^ sber of Toriabie specimens to aix Bpecies, all of which X fan*,

bean able, ^th some degree of con£aence, to refer to types 6~
well-known fossils occurring with many of their asHOCutei; X
rocks of tbe same age in Europe. Fairly good photo "
have been taken of theie, and the following are the d '
tions wliicb I have been able to arrive at.

Tasuahiah Bbachiopods.

1. 1, 4. Spirifem striata
2, ?. laminosa

- cristata

Martin
K'Coy

IdeC. Sow.

var. octoplicata )
duplicostata
alata Schi.

triangularis Mariin
veapertllio Q. Sow.

Lous

Hupn^iQqad

.rV'-'

As the descriptions of tbe same specieB taken from Davidson's
" British Carboniferous Bracliiopoda" auswer elosely to local
forms, I bave appended descriptive extracts from this eminent
authority, for the convenience of local students.

Figures of local forms are taken from select types by photo-
graphy. I bave also to announce tbe discovery of Lophof nullum
comiottlum, de Konwick. Collected by Capt. Beddome iri tte
mud stone beds near Fin gal. -

DESCKIPTlOy 01' Sl'SCIES OcCUEEINU IN EuROPEAK Bo(iBft.'

AccoHDiKo TO T. Datidsoh, F.E.3.

Spirifeva striata, Murtin. /

A very large and variably shaped shell, transversely Semi-
circular, or sub-rhomboidal ; valves almost equally convex.
In the dorsal valve the mesial fold is of moderate alerttii
while tbe sinus in tbe opj^oBiteone is both variable in its ^'£3
and deptb. The hinge-line is either a little shorter, (
aa the greatest width of the shell, tho cardinal angles being ti
or less rounded in adult individuals. Tbe area is ot-sao^'
widtli, with sub-parallel sides ; fissure triangular, anS "pSt

(

BY BOBEBT M. JOHNSTON, F.L.& 139

covered by a pseudo-deltidium. The external surface of the
shell is ornamented by a variable number of radiating ribs,
which augment in number to a greater or lesser extent, from
intercalations at unequal distances from the beaks ; so that from
70 to 90 may be counted round the margin of each valve in
adult individuals. The ribs on the fold and sinus are likewise
more flattened than on the lateral portions of the shell. The
Burfaoe is closely and finely reticulated. In the interior of the
dorsal valve, under the extremity of the incurved umboual beak
there exists a small cardinal process or muscular fulcrum, and on
either side are situated the dental sockets. The spiral cones which
fill the larger portion of the shell are attached to the extremities
of the inner socket-walls. The lamellae, after having converged
and given birth to the crural processes, diverge, and form the
first of the 20 or 22 convolutions of which each spiral is
composed. Four impressions left by the adductor muscle are
visible in this valve. In the interior of the ventral valve a
strong hinge-tooth is situated on either side at the base of the
fissure, and is supported by a vertical shelly plate of much
strength, but not advancing to any great length into the interior
of the valve. Between these a large portion of the free space
at the bottom of the shell is occupied by the adductor and
cardinal muscular impressions, which are divided by a blunt,
central, longitudinal ndge. The dimensions of one of the
largest examples are : —

Length, 4| in.; width, 6 in. 1 line ; depth, 3 in. 1 line.

Spirifera laminosa, M^Coy,

Transversely sub-rhomboidal ; valves nnequally convex, the
ventral one by far the deepest. The lateral portions of the
shell are regularly curved, forming with the extremities of the
hinge-line, acute, but not prolonged cardinal extremities ; area
large, triangular, more or less elevated, and divided by a fissure
of moderate width. Beak small, not much produced above or
beyond the level of the area. The mesial fold in the dorsal
valve is broad, and more or less elevated without ribs, and
corresponding with a deep and rather wide longitudinal sinus
in the ventral one. Each valve is ornamented by about 20 or
22 narrow radiating ribs, intersected by closely disposed, sharp,
oncentric, undulating laminae. The measurements from two
examples have produced —

Length, 12 ; width, 21 ; depth, 10 lines.
„ 8 „ 11 „ 6^ „

Spiriferina cristata, var, octophcata, J, De O, Sowerhy.

Transversely sub-rhomboidal, valves about equally convex,
and at times rather gibbous ; hinge-line as long as the greatest
width of the shell. Cardinal angles acute or shghtly rounded ;
area concave, triangular, and of variable width ; fissure partly
covered by a pseudo-deltidium ; beak small and incurved. The

140 ADDITIONS TO THE LIST OF TASMANIA^ FOSSILS.

mesial fold of the dorsal valve is more often composed of a
single rib which is much larger than those situated on the lateral
portions of the shell; its crest being in general rounded
m)m the umbone to about half its length, when it gradually
becomes more and more flattened as it approaches the frontal
margin, but at times it remains angular during its entire
length, with a tendency to the formation of a rudimentary
plait on either of its slopes, so that in these rarer cases the
fold assumes towards the front an obscurely triplicated
appearance. The sinus in the ventral valve is deep, acute,
and generally simple, but also more rarely interrupted by a
rudimentary rib, which becomes visible in the proximity
of the front. The valves are ornamented by from S to 12
angular ribs, which are, as well as the sinus and fold, inter-
cepted by closely disposed, concentric, scale -like lamin®. The
surface of the shell is also closely beset by numerous small
granular (spinose) asperities ; the shell-structure being likewise
perforated by minute tubili or perforations.

In the interior of the ventral valve there exists a sharp
elevated mesial septum, which rises from the bottom of the
valve, and partly divides the spiral cones. Dimensions very
variable. Three examples, of which the first two are Sowerby's
original types, have afforded the following measurements : —

Length, 9 ; width, 13 ; depth, 8 lines.
» 6 „ 11 „ 6 „
» 5 » S » 5 „
Spirifera duplicicosta, Phillips.

Transversely sub-rhomboidal when adult, longer than wide,
or almost circular when quite young ; valves moderately convex,
with a more or less produced mesial fold in the dorsal, and a
corresponding sinus in the ventral one. The hinge-line is
shorter than the width of the shell, the area of moderate
breadth, beak incurved. Valves ornamented by numerous
radiating ribs, which rapidly augment at various distances £rom
the beaks by intercalation as well as bifurcation. Two examples
have afforded the following measurements : —

Length, 16 ; width, 20 ; depth, 11 lines.
„ Ibg^ „ 17 a „ i\J-2 ),

Spirifera alata, Schlotheim,

S. alata varies considerably in shape, according to age and
individual. When adult or full grown it is transversely fusi-
form, being twice and even three times as wide as long (PI. 1, figs.
23 and 27). Valves convex, deepest at a short distance from
the umbone ; hinge-line as long as the greatest width of the
shell, the cardinal extremities being more or less attenuated in
different individuals. The area is wide with sub-parallel sides ;
fissure triangular, and in great measure covered by a convex
f seudo-deltidium ; a narrow rudimentary area may be seen

BY BOBEBT M. JOHNSTON, F.L.a 141

likewise in the smaller valve ; beak small and incurved. The
mesial fold is simple, of variable width, and flattened along its
upper surface ; while in the ventral valve there exists a shadow
«inus, interrupted by the presence of a rounded slightly elevated
mesial rib. The valves are likewise ornamented by a variable
number of rounded, or but slightly angular, ribs ; these are
simple, or here or there augmented by an occasional intercalca-
tion. In number they vary from about 8 to 30 on each valve,
the larger number occurring on the most adult individuals.
The ribs are also at times of unequal width, even on the same
example ; and the entire surface of the shell is omamened by
dose and regular scale-like, concentric, imbricated laminsB.
The interior of the ventral valve does not show a trace of that
devated mesial septum which is always present in Spiriferma
cristata, 8p. octoplicata, Sp, Munsteri, rostrata, Tessoni, and
other forms composing that sub*genus. The dental or rostral
plates in S. alata are also much smaller, and I might almost say
rudimentaiT ; the muscular impressions are likewise exactly
similar to those peculiar to the genus Spirifera, In the dorsal
valve, under the extremity of the umbone, there exists a small
striated cardinal process or boss, but no hinge-plate, and a
little lower is seen the quadruple impression left by the adduc-
tor (PI. I., figs. 31, 32, 33a).

Spirifera triangularis, Martin.

T^angular, twice as wide as long, with a straight elongated
hinge-line, and slightly concave, nearly parallel-sided area,
towards the attenuated extremities of which the lateral margins
of each valve converge, forming acute angles with the hinge.
The fissure is triangular, and partly covered by a pseudo-
deltidium. The dorsal valve is less convex than the opposite
one with an. elevated mesial fold which commonly assumes the
character of a single produced and acutely angular cuneiform
ridge or rib, at times considerably prolonged beyond the frontal
level of the lateral portions of the valve. On either side of
this central ridge from 6 to 10 smaller ribs ornament the
lateral portions of the valve. The beak of the ventral valve is
narrow, produced, and incurved. A shallow mesial sinus
commences at the extremity of the beak, and extends to the
fronts but at a short distance from its origin a mesial or
central rib originates, which becomes wider and more elevated
and produced as it approaches the front, and corresponds with
the central ridge of the dorsal valve. Seven to 11 smaller ribs
exist also on the lateral portions of the valve, on either side of
the sinus. The dimensions taken from a perfect individual have
produced : —

Length, 10| ; width, 21^ ; depth, 6| lines.

142

CONTENTS.

1. Is the Poverty of the Masses a Necessary Concomitant of Increasecl.

Accumulation of Wealth in the Aggregate ?

2. Wants of Man.

3. Division of Labour and Means of Exchange — Advantages and Defects.

4. Further Difficulties — ^Allocation.

5. Proportional Classification of Occupations.

6. Causes of Existing Poverty and Misery.

7. Satisfaction of Wants and Theory of Obstacles Considered.

8. The Best Mode for Effecting Exchanges Depends Greatly Upon the

Extent and Value of Local Natural Sources.

9. Buy in the Cheapest Market.

10. Free Trade.

11. Aggregate Wealth and Individual Wealth.

12. The Effect of Strikes or a Rise in Wages in Food-producing and Food-

lacking Countries.

18. Rent Monopoly.

14. Monopoly of the Gifts of Nature.

15. Middlemen.

16. Distribution of Consumable Wealth.
i7. Capital and Wages Difficulty.

18. Improvement in Social Conditions Largely Due to the Savings of Anterior

Labour.

19. Comparative Progress in Modern Times Due to Increased Productive

Power.

20. Past and Present Contrasted.

21. Comparative Effective Purchasing Power of Labour.

22. Present and Past Condition of England Contrasted.

23. Increasing Numbers.

24. The Struggle for Existence.

25. Can a Higher Culture be Maintained in Any One Country Without

Regulating its Intercourse with Other Races of Men in a Lower Plane
of Civilisation?

143

EOOT MATTERS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC

PEOBLEMS.

By E. M. Johnston, P.L.S.

Is THE Poverty of the Masses a Necessary Concomi-
tant OF Increased Accumulation of Wealth in
the Aggregate ?

All observers are nearly -agreed that the accumulation of
wealthandwealth-producmg power haveprodigiouslyincreaaed
within the present century. Of this there can be little
doubt. Modem discoveries— as regards the properties of
matter, the discovery and development of new lands, the uses
of steam, electricity, and labour-saving inventions in every
department of social and industrial life — have enormously
increased man's power over the forces of nature. With this
immense gain of power vast continents of virgin forest and
barren swamp have become gardens of plenty. Eivers,
mountains, and other formidable obstacles to communication
or distribution of products have been bridged or pierced by
railways, roads, and other superior means of distribution;
4Uid the wide ocean, connecting far distant lands, now forms
the easy and open highway of magnificent steamers, which
vie in regularity and speed with the railway train in bringing
ix> local markets daily supplies of the fresh meat, fish, £ruit,
{uid cereals of lands many thousand miles away. As a
natural consequence famines, such as are known to have been
«o common and so terrible in England in the immediately
•preceding centuries, are rendered an impossibility.

How is it, then, that we are again brought face to face with
the old terrible problems: ''The Misery of the Masses,"
^' The Labourer's Struggle for Existence," *' The Growth of
Poverty," " The Increase of Pauperism and Crime ? " If we
<can judge by the popular literature of the day, the state of
the masses in Europe seems to be verging into as hopeless a
•condition as that which existed prior to the introduction of
our vaunted discoveries.

Indeed, one writer, who recently has been heard above all
^ther claimants for reform, confidently affirms that *' it is
true wealth has been greatly increased, and that the average
•of comfort, leisure, and refinement has been raised; but
these gains are not general. In them the lowest class do not
■shareJ' He broadly insists that increase in poverty is the
•constant concomitant of increase in aggregate wealth, and

144 BOOT MATTEBS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS

that tills constant '' association of povertj with progress m
the great enigma of our times." Is it true, as this writer
confidently affirms, that with all the advantages which man
has gained in his increased and increasing command over the^
forces of nature, our present civilisation has by its customs
and provisions barred the effectual distribution of accumu-
lated wealth ; and the only effect produced is that of making
the rich richer and the poor poorer ?

This cannot be answered effectively without some enquiry
into that form of wealth which constitutes man's chief
satisfactions.

Are these sufficient in the aggregate to suffice for all, if
proper means for effecting distribution were employed^
supposing such means were possible ? Or is the aggregate
supply of primary wants insufficient to provide all needs, even
were the most thorough means devised for its distribution ?

Wants op Man.

The satisfaction of the wants of man is the mainspring of
all his activities. Wants are interminable. Some affect his
very existence, while others only concern his greater degree of
comfort or happiness. In all enquiries into matters deeply
concerning the existence and welfare of man it is well,,
therefore, to keep these fundamental distinctions clearly in
view ; for not a few of oar misconceptions arise from a failure
on the part of social and political economists to establish a.
satisfactory classification of wants according to their varying
importance.

Broadly speaking, these may be divided into three great
groups : —

(1.) Wants Essential to Life Itself.

(2.) Wants Essential to Comfort.

(3.) Luxurious Wants.

Whatever eccentricities may be exhibited by isolated
individuals at times, it is unmistakable that the fierceness or
intensity of the struggle for wants among communities is:
determined by the ruiture of the wants ; and, invariably, sa
long as the reason of man is preserved, the greater intensity
of the struggle — beginning with the most important — is in
the order before given, viz.: —
Wants essential to —

(1.) Life.

(2.) Comfort.

(3.) Luxury.

Man can, and, unfortunately, the masses of men are oftea
obliged to, exist without the enjoyment of luxurious wants«
He may even be deprived of all wants beyond the first group

BT B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 145

and still maintain a more or less extended life-straggle with
misery of some kind : but if the wants of the fivBt growp be
ever so little curtailed below a certain minimum, lie will
speedily perish miserably.

Preserve to man bis life, and if needs be be will eagerly
exchange for its preservation all his comforts and luxuries.
Deny lum Hfe, and all the Economist's wealth of exchange
becomes to him as dross — absolutely valueless. This being
80, let us endeavour to investigate some of the more important
social problems closely connected with the welfare and
progress of man. It is for many reasons necessary at this
stage to confine attention to those primary wants essential to
life itself ; and for greater clearness these may be restricted
to that minimum of each great want necessary to maintain
the life of each person. The exact minimum of these, what-
ever their form may be, depends upon the energy destroyed
by work, and upon the physical condition of the labourer's
environment, and may be stated thus : —

The minimum to maintain existence of

Food.

Shelter.

Best.

Without a certain minimum of these, man, like all living
organisms, must perish inevitably.

Division op Labour — ^Advantages and Defects. .

Division of labour necessary to produce necessary satisfac-
tions, and to distribute them in large civilised communities,
undoubtedly ensures greater skill, and prevents unnecessary
wast-e of the aggregate time and energy of the individuals.
Were it not for this provision no country could sustain the
life of large numbers. This division of labour, however,
rests upon the tacit understanding that energies in other
directions than that of actually producing food may
constantly be exchanged for food and other primary wants.
Individual societies, communities, and nations are alike in
this respect; for no matter the skill, time, and labour
proffered or applied for or in the production of other than
primary wants, it is necessary that they be constantly
exchangeable in sufficient amount to obtain at least that
minimum of primary needs from other persons or communi-
ties, who, under this system, are supposed to produce a
sufficient surplus for the satisfaction of all other members of
society not immediately engaged in the production of primary
wants. Were it not for this understood assurance, the
present civilisation — with special centres of manufactures for

146 BOOT MATTERS IN SOOIAL AND EOONOmO PBOBLEMS.

tbe world at large, its defined local division of labour and
individual rights in large areas of land — ^would be altogether
impossible.

Among the conflicting opinions of Political Economists,
Socialists, and Communists, there is at any rate this one
fundamental point of agreement, viz.f that by a proper
division of labour or services, the sum total of human
satisfactions are greatly superior, and are enjoyed by vastly
greater numbers than would be possible to men were each to
work in a state of isolation, and each one obliged to attempt
to create the whole round of his own requirements. Let us
take it for granted, then, that division of services is a
necessity ; but while so doing let us bear in mind that the
greater satisfaction of wants in the aggregate may be attained,
and yet owing to an imperfect scheme of distribution a
sufficiency, nay, even the minimum of primary satisfaction
necessary to maintain life, may failto reach many ; and hence
it may appear that mudb of the idleness, pauperism, crime,
misery and death experienced in crowded centres is due to
the defects of distribution.

Let us therefore examine this root difficulty, free from the
clouds of irrelevant or less urgent considerations. Division
of labour without facilities for exchange may render a unit
more helpless in such a scheme than he would be in a savage
state. Much ingenuity and ability has been exercised by
many writers in showing to us, as Bastiat does, the glorious
provisions of one of the so-called social harmonies (Liberty
alixys Competition) in preventing monopoly, and in effecting
the distribution of wealth. And it may be at once conceded
that human society does reap all the advantages claimed on
behalf of competition.

The question, however, is not — ^Does competition effect
much good P That may be readily conceded. But confining
attention to the minimum of primary wants alone — Do the
combined effects of division of services, competition and
modes of exchange now existing, provide for the preservaiion
of due proportions between the different classes of services, so as
to ensure the production of primary needs in sufficiency for
the wants of all ; and are the means of exchange sufficiently
perfect to secure with more or less certainty a due modicum
of primary needs to all. In a word, is the *' all for each " as
effectively complete as the " each for all ? "

If this latter provision be defective — and this unfortunately
seems too true — can the defects be removed ? And if this be
impossible — can the evils be minimised to any extent ? All
possessors of services must be enabled to secure primazy
wants, or they perish. Eeferences to the wide distribution
of wealth in exchange or commercial valtie ; or to standard

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 147

^prices or wages — low or liigh — are utterly misleading.

Without tlie power to acquire, or the actual possession of a

"due provision of that portion of exchange wealth — not

necessarily possessing a high exchange value — the whole

: aggregate of the remaining part of the world's wealth in

•exchange would be worthless ; for it would fail to preserve the

life of the man destitute of primary wants. This is the root

difficulty ; and it is forcibly exemplified in the $rst notable

•exchange recorded in sacred history between the typical

representative of the hunter of wild animals, and the more

filalled and peaceful agriculturist.

" . . , And Esau was a cunning hunter, a man of the
field : and Jacob was a plain man dwelling in tents. . . .
And Jacob sod pottage : and Esau came from the field and he
was faint : And Esau said to Jacob, Feed me, I pray thee with
that same red pottage, for I am faint. . . . And Jacob said.
Sell me this day thy birthright. And Esau said. Behold I am
at the point to die, and what profit shall this birthright do to
me P And Jacob said. Swear to me this day ; and he sware
unto him: and he sold his birthright unto Jacob. Then Jacob
cgave Esau bread and pottage of lentiles ; and he did eat and
drink, and rose up and went his way ; thus Esau despised his
birthright." — (Genesis xxv., 27-34.)

It is fortunate for Esau that he had the power of effecting
^an exchange, and that, notwithstanding the exorbitancy of the
^seller's terms, he had no hesitancy in exchanging (or
•despising as it is stated) the less needful wants for the more
pressing or primary ; for in the trial of Job's integrity and
fortitude it is affirmed, with truth, that skin for skin, all
iihat a man hath will he give for his life.

Unfortunately for the working class breadwinner, his
only birthright is physical power and manual skill, and
Although these are all he can offer for his life needs, he cannot
always as a competitor effect the necessary exchange ; and
too often he, and those depending upon him, travel the swift
road to beggary and death.

Thus there are still defects, whether remediable or other-
wise, in the present civilisation, so long as these fundamental
necessities of a power to exchange with primary wants are
imperfect, e.g, : certain divisions of humankind are not directly
engaged in producing primary wants for themselves. They
•are mostly engaged merely in rendering more or less skilled
services, in return for tokens (money or other medium)
understood to have at least the power of effecting correspond-
ing definite supplies of primary wants. But this division has
itnother difficulty.

The actual owner of the power (rich capitalist^ to effect
the production of things which may be exchanged for a

148 BOOT MATTEBS IN SOCIAL Ain> ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

corresponding quantity of primary wants, may in all likelihood
be able to effect sach exchanges; bat the poor capitalist, the
possessor of the power of mere seryices, such as the navTy,
the house servant, the blacksmith, may often be unable to
exchange his services towards the production of these very
things ; and under such conditions as the needful, exchange
cannot be effected, the unemployed wage-earner in tibie
division of human labour must be supported by drawing
upon a more or less limited surplus previously earned;
idling that he must either borrow, take the risk of violent
means to secure primary wants, be fed by private or public
charity, or die of starvation.

This, then, is the problem of problems of the present day.
Beferences to current high rates of wages, the low prices of
provisions, or the increasing aggregate value of wealth in
exchange, do not always disclose this skeleton in the
social cupboard. When the ship of society is barred
into many more or less water-tight compartments the
ship itself may not founder, although one or two minor
chcunbers be damaged and water-logged, and their contents
destroyed. If the larger and more important chambers,
however, be destroyed the whole ship may founder, and
those who may effect escape may be small indeed. This-
allegorical picture must not be pressed too hard. It may be
sufficient, however, to draw attention to a dangerous side of
the division of labour composition of modern society.

But, says the theorist : True, his services were shut out by
over-competition in that particular place or in that particular
occupation ; but if he only knew at that moment that by
transferring his services to other employments, or to the
same occupation in another place, the balance of service for
service would be adjusted, and the life of himself and hia
dependants would be saved. Ah, if he only knew ! But the
possession of knowledge is in itself practically a form of
wealth, and that he did not possess any more than he did the
necessary capital to acquire the necessary skill in the new
occupation calling for services, or in the necessary capital
to transfer himself and his household to a great distance
where his own special skill was then in demand. We may
therefore summarise the difficulties lying at the root of all
social problems as follows : —

(1.) All breadwinners and their families to maintain
existence must possess primary wants, whether
they can effect exchange of services or not.

(2.) Many breadwinners — whether due to lack of know-
ledge or inability to change their occupations or
, locality — cannot obtain employment, and therefore
cannot effect exchange.

BT B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.& 149

(3.) Such of the latter as by former misfortunes have
been deprived of every form of wealth in exchange,
must beg or steal from public or private resources,
or die of starvation.

Thus it is shown that one of the great economic harmonies
in competition, while it effects much good in distributing
wealth and breaking down monopolies and privileges, and in
enlarging the domain of community in the enjoyment of the
gratuitous products of nature and invention, it also, as one
of the mills of God, directs its force terribly on the mere
monopolists of bone and muscle ; competition grinding them
smaller and smaller as its force is augmented by increasing
numbers.

Ftjrthbb Difpictjltibs Connected With the Division

OP Labour — Axlocation.

One of the most formidable difficulties connected with the
division of labour is allocation. ; for it is evident that if in
the technical training of the young due regard be not paid to
the chances of finding employment in the service to which the
future breadwinner aspires, disaster or a disappointed life may
be the result. This, being a relative matter, applies to a
small community as well as to a large one. Few take into
consideration that there is a natural law in operation which
as surely determines the numbers required for each great
class of employment as do the natural laws which locally
determine the times and relative heights of the tide. No
social advancement by means of the higher education of the
people can ever alter the relative numbers of the various
branches of human service ; and should it be thought possible
that the education of the masses exerts any influence in the
nature of its training in disturbing the necessary proportions
of each great group of services upon which our lives and our
civilisation depends, it would certainly prove that the general
spread of higher education was a curse and not a blessing.

Services would never become a marketable commodity of
value in exchange if it were not for wants. Kinds of services,
therefore, must be exactly proportionate to kinds of wants.
The wants which demand the expenditure of the greater
amount of labour must necessarily absorb the greater amount
of persons requiring employment without regard to their
capacities, attainments, or personal desires ; and, so far as the
mass of human beings are concerned, there is no choice.

The great wants, food, clothing, and shelter, are by far the
greatest factors in the determination of the aggregate numbers
tiiat must be employed if the wants are to be satisfied. The
same three great wants also determine the necessary amount
and proportions of capital^ machinery, and land to be employed.

150 BOOT MATTEBS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

together with the necessary proportion of labourers for each
Idndof occupation which directly or indirectly is somehow
utilised in the production of the said three great wants.

It is true the strict average proportions of the various
classes of labour machinery may not he found to be quite the
same in each country ; but this does not affect the aggregate
of all countries. It is not absolutely necessary that the
manufactures and agricultural industries of any one country
should preserve the world's strict average proportions to each
other, so far as that one country is concerned, so long as it is
free to make necessary exchanges with other countries for
disposing or making good their respective local surpluses and
deficiencies. Nevertheless, countries confined to the produc-
tion of their own wants— -or, what is the same, the world as a
whole — ^must preserve the strict average proportion and
quantity of labour and machinery in the production of those
three great wants which are the mainsprings of all human
activities and e£Ebrts. It is necessary, therefore, to make a
very wide net to obtain approximate information with respect
to the amount and due proportions of all kinds of services
employed in the production of the whole round of wants of
each country. It is unfortunate that figures relating to the
occupations of all countries are not accessible, but reference to
the ascertained occupations of Australasia, ITnited States of
America, British India, and seven principal States of Europe^
embracing 433 millions of people, and representing all climes
and all forms of industry, adOEord a basis wide enough to
secure very accurate information.

The figures contained in the following table of classified
occupation of these countries afford valuable information
with regard to the definite proportions of the division of
labour engaged in the production of human wants : —

BY B. H. JOHNSTON, F.LS.

PROPORTIONAL CLARIFICATION OF THE OCCUPATIONS
OF ALL PEi^ONS ENGAGED IN THE SUPPLY OF
HUMAN WANTS:-

[Percentage)

AH.

a 1 3 1 4 ! fi 1 i-fc,: fl 1 7

fl-T

a 9

...

1-a

AU.

.£■

COUNTHY.

1 1

o 5

1
1

•5

s'.

Englsmi, WHlM .-

3,735
B,l-4

S'l

::j:;

2'S»

j;.'

■ i

Unitid KHifTdom .

SB,003

«,

,,l,.

,-.

4.,

...

2-iS

Six Cokaxiei <if Aw
rretart).—

'•■

61)

*-l

1-4

la-B

16-7

0-3
D-3

0-2

D-C

0-7

H-fi
M'7

BS-O

10*

IJoDtli AiistiBlin ...
WBHteni Australia .

sib"

2-IS

BewZeaLmd

■■■"

Tatai nf Six Cohmis
of AtHlralatia . . .

1,091

.-.

13-7 41-7

0-8

Sfl-fl

O'o

„..

™

Units d StBtea

60,1B6
37.270

■■J.,

3-fl

id::

...

■■■

...

E-S8

Trance

"i":j;;.j;.j:.;

a-W

!S3,891 IS 1-1

■ l- ,---

:::;::i3::i-

218

4.'4

Totals

tsj.804 I'a a-o

'■■IH-

...

S-2S

152 BOOT MATTEBS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

Erom tliis table we learn that all peo^e are divided into
two important groups: — Viz,, breadwinners, representing
about 44*2 per cent, of all persons, and non*breadwinners or
dependants, composed mainly of wives and children, repre-
senting 55 '8 per cent, of the total populations. Thus it
appears that the wants of all must be provided by the service
of less than half the total number of those who consume
wants. The proportions of the breadwinners necessary to
effect this service are as follows. That is to say, for every
100 persons engaged in services of exchange value there must
be on the aggregate the following proportions nearly : —

Pebcbntagb Pbopobtion.

Agricultural and Pastoral services . . . 52*5

Industrial services ... 30*1

Domestic services ... 6*8

Commercial services ... 5*2

Professional and other undefined services 5 4

Total 100*0

It will be seen that the simple services of the agriculturist
and herdsman are by far the most important (52*5 per cent.),
ai;id that the next in importance are the industrial services,
embracing all artisans and labourers, representing 30*1 per cent.
The higher skilled workmen of this group only represent about
11 per cent, of all services. As the balance of services — com-
mercial and professional — only amount to 10*6 per cent., it
follows that of all services required only 21*6 per cent
demand skill of a higher order; and that 78*4 per cent,
represent agricultural and other labourers and domestic
servants, in respect of which skill of a high order is not
absolutely requisite.

It is largely due to the flooding of particular kinds of
employment beyond the strict proportions which local wants
demand that inconvenience or distress is felt in young as well as
old countries. The numbers which can find entry into the higher
industrial, the commercial, and professional divisions cannot,
without unhealthy competition, be increased beyond the
relative proportions which these divisions must bear to the
producing industries of the particular country ; and these
dominating industries in Australasia are agricultural, pastoral,
and mining. Employment in other divisions can only follow
substantial tncreases in the three industries named ; for
manufacturing industries cannot alter their present propor-
tions independently, as in England, until such time as they
are able to manufacture for the markets of other countries
than the local one. This applies much more strongly to the
smsLller division represented by unskilled labour (not agri-

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.LS. 153

cultural), and by the commercial and professional classes.
These certainly may only increase according to their rigid
proportion ; and this must be determined by a previous
increase in the fundamental producing industries of the
particular place.

The principal producing industries of the place may
increase irrespective of other local divisions (i.e,, agricultural,
pastoral, and mining), as their products may find the neces-
sary consumer in foreign markets. . Whatever influence,
therefore, may bar the progress of the dominating producing
industries of the place must also bar occupations in all oiher
divisions of services.

It is clear from what has been stated that applicants for a
given kind of employment may often fail, not because there
is no room for more labour, but because the direction in which
the applicants have been trained, or in which they desire to
be employed, is out of harmony with the natural or local
proportions of that particular service necessary in the pro-
duction of general wants.

From this cause arises much difficulty and distress. It
largely adds to the proportion of dependants, and consequehtly
the direct or indirect strain (i.e., support of friends, relatives,
private and public charities) upon the actual breadwinners
becomes oppressive. I do not here touch upon artificial aids
to local production in its effects upon the alteration or dis-
turbance of the relative proportions of the division of services
upon which such aid must have an immediate effect, further
than to remark, that if the aid by tariff duties or other means
enables the local division at once to cover the ground formerly
supplied by foreign industry, it can only do so either by
increasing the machinery or the relative proportion of numbers
employed locally in the division of service affected. The
advantage or disadvantage of adopting such a policy is here-
after discussed. It is sufficient for the present purpose to
show the possible effect it may exert upon local employment
alone.

Causes op Existing Poverty and Misery.

It cannot be denied that iu spite of the great accumulation
of wealth, and the increased command over .the forces of
nature during the present century, that there is still to be found
much poverty and distress, and that much of it is due to the
unequal distribution of wealth ; and whether we may or may
not be able to point a remedy, it is utterly repugnant to the
best feelings of human nature to sink into the despair or
apathy of many who say; '' Let alone ; whatever is is oest or
worst, and cannot be helped." Whatever errors the Socialists
and Communists are chargeable with they must be credited
with warm aspirations for the amelioration and improvement

154 BOOT MATTEBS VX SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

of sofferinpf humanity, and are free from the charge of indif><
ferenoe. The latter, however, are too emotional to perceiye
the great difficulties of the problems which haye always
engaged the deepest attention of earnest Social Economists,
and are too ready to advocate the introduction of their own
pet schemes, without having taken sufficient trouble either to-
test their adequacy, or to fathom the true nature of funda-
mental difficulties, which would in most cases be made vastly
more formidable by the various plans propounded by them
for their removal. Thus some, having been misled by the
assumption that all our evils are due to individual property
right and unequal distribution of wealth, employ all their
ingenuity to show that all existing evils are attributable to
these, and to these alone.

Yet there are many other influences far more potent for-
evil which no scheme yet propounded by Political Economists,
Socialists or Communists may wisely undervalue or ignore.
Of such are the following ; —

(I.) The superabundant proportions of human beings
in existence who, free from restraint, are naturally
disposed to be idle, sensuous, and wicked ; or who
are ignorant, foolish, and improvident.
(2.) The difficulties of supplying other motives more
adequate than self-interest to so many in effecting
conformity to the necessary social laws and virtues,
and as a spur to industry and useful application of
powers.
(3.) The inequalities of difEerent habitable portions of
the earth as regards productiveness, climate^
disease, density of population, and the difference^
of civilisation and racial characteristics.
(4.) The periodic failure of food supply (famine),,
whether due to seasonal influence, exhaustion of
soil, violence, wilful waste, or improvidence.
(5.) Effectual means for elimination from society of the
more pronounced forms of hereditary vice and
madness which, if allowed to persist, would
endanger society.
(6.) Absence of facilities for relieving the pressure of

population in over-peopled lands by migration.
(7.) Difficulties connected with free exchange of products
between different nations whose artisans and
labourers are living under different material and
social conditions, e.g., slave labour and free labour.
(8.) Difficulties in effecting adequate exchange of pro-
ducts with other nations where, as in England,,
local foods, products, and the raw materials for
manufacture are locally far below the level of
requirement of an ever-increasing population.

BY E. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 155

(9.) Difficulties and dangers arising from local increase
of population, especially when foreign, tliinly-
populated lands are forciHj closed to emigrants,
as in the experience of the Chinese.

(10.) The misery caused by war, strife, murder, accident,
painful disease, and preventible forms of death.

(11.) The terrible root difficulty connected with either (1)
decrease, (2) stationariness, or (3) rapid increase
of population.

(12.) The absolute limits-of space requisite for the recep-
tion and sustenance of man.

The last two form (he popidation difficulty; in itself the chief
cause of human trouble.

This difficulty cannot be banished by sentimental tirades
or bad argument. No tinkering with schemes affecting
*' Eights of Property," " The Battle of Interests," *' Com-
petition," or " Community of Goods," can do other than make
the dominant difficulty more formidable. As this great
difficulty is often denied or misunderstood by those who
attribute all the evils to rent and free competition, it may be
well to touch upon these important subjects separately.

Satisfaction of Wants and Theory of Obstacles

considsbed.

Human satisfactions are enjoyed to the fullest extent with
the smallest expenditure of time and human energy in regions
where the natural sources of human satisfactions are vast and
rich, and under conditions where the fewest obstacles
intervene between actual producers and actual consumers.
Extra time and labour, often necessarily spent in mere
distribution^ are in themselves obstacles, and directly tend to
lessen the quota of satisfactions which might be enjoyed by
each individual. All conditions, therefore, which necessitate
the larger expenditure of time and labour — (such as extreme
distance between the several kinds of producers and
manufacturers) as well as conditions which necessitate extra
provision against loss or waste of satisfactions produced or
being produced (such as dangers from loss by storms,
inundations, fire, waste by war, civil strife, robbery, depreda-
tions by wild animals, idle and useless de|>endant8, plagues
of parasites, disease, etc.), curtail of necessity the amount of
necessary satisfaction which otherwise might be enjoyed by
each useful human unit. Obstacles, therefore, greatly
reduce the amount of human satisfactions so far as each
individual is concerned, although in the aggregate this is not
80 easily comprehended. Lowness of nominal prices is not &

156 BOOT MATTEBS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

correct index of conditions most favourable for the attainment
of the greatest amount of satisf actions, with the smallest
expenditure of time and human energy : for it often happens
that low prices may be caused bj excessive easpenditure of
human energy forced upon a struggling producer; or by
poverty due to forced idleness on the part of a large body of
consumers. While it may often happen — as in young
colonies — that a high price is no index of a lower supply of
satisfactions ; but rather of the smaller amount of obstacles
intervening between consume and producer, and gratuitous
sources of nature ; the smaller amount of enforced idleness
on the part of consumer, giving him a greater purchasing
power; and the greater advantage of the producer, due to
similar causes, enabling him to obtain all the most necessary
round of satisfactions with a smaller expenditure of time ana
labour. Mere cheapness of satisfactions, therefore, is not a
reliable index of individual welfare. Purchasing power, as
indicated by expenditure of time and labour, is the only true
index as between countries differently circumstanced, and
this purchasing power of the consumer — unlike the unreliable
fiominal cost or wage — is always in harmony with the amount
of obstacles intervening between the actual producers of
satisfactions and the actual consumers.

TLis method of determining the condition of different
communities will be better understood if we carefully
investigate the effect of obstacles more closely. As the
factors are variable and numerous, the only way to arrive at
true conclusions is to approach the question by the
mathematical method : thus : —

Let N=Natural agents and products ; or the gratuitous
forces of nature.

P=Productive power of human agencies, including
skill and energy, and skilled appliances.

0=Obstacles intervening between NP or producer
and consumers.

C=Producers, dependants, distributors, etc., repre-
senting the living population ; or consumers.

^J!\xQn NP 0

p — =Represents the amount of the average satis-

factions provided for each individual.

— p — =Represents the nominal cost of satisfactions
for each individual on the average — or it
may fairly represent the amount 9f exertion
or energy expended by human energy.

Having stated the general effect of obstacles between direct
producer and consumer as minimising the actual supply of

BY E. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 157

necessary satisfactions to each consumer where tlie values of
N and P and C are constant, it follows inevitably that the
amount of satisfactions to each individual is in direct corre-
spondence to the amount of 0 ; increasing with its decrease,
and decreasing with its increase.

The effect nj^on price, however, is exactly the reverse of this,
as a definite amount of aatiaf actions increase in price in corre-
spondence with the increase in obstacles (0), and decrease
correspondingly with its increase.

This law is not invalidated, because in particular cases (1)
price is comparatively low when 0 is absolutely great, and
conversely (2), price is comparatively low when 0 is absolutely
small; for in every such case there must be corresponding
dissimilarity in the other elements to explain this effect : i.e.: —

The effect (1) could only happen in cases where either N
or P is abnormally or relatively great, or C is comparatively
small ; and similarly the effect (2) coidd only happen in cases
where either N or P is abnormally or relatively small or C
is comparatively great.

The failure to grasp these fundamental considerations is
the chief cause of the blunders in all reasonings connected
with questions related to the policy of different nations in
respect of artificial restrictions, hindrances or facilities in
the interchange of foreign products.

To make this matter more clear it may be advantageous in
•demonstration to set forth a number of examples for the sake
of illustrating the important truths involved in the effects
produced where one or all the factors are different in value : —

(1.) Where soil, climate, or natural utilities are particu-
larly advantageous the value of N is at its best or
maximum=N"'

(2.) Where skill and energy exist and are employed to
the best advantage the largest results are attained
for P=P-

(3.) Where the smallest number of obstacles occur
between NP and C, the largest amount of satis-
factions fall to the share of C=C"'

(4.) The most perfect conditions favourable for effecting
the highest amount of satisfactions to each indi-
vidual consumer coincide with N* P" — 0"

Or,

If we separate P" into labourers (L), and instruments
(1) the fruit of former efforts saved from previous consump-
tion, and devoted by inventive skill and energy to more or

168 AOOT MATTEBS IX SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

less permanent aids to L, we have a more perfect statement
of (4) thus : —

(A) S" = jg^-^ =Tlie ideally best conditions for

Or greatest (juota *^^ attainments of tlie

of satisfactions. highest satisfactions of

human wants with the least
expenditure of htiman
energy.

Understanding by m and n the indices of the maxiuum and
minimum of the various conditions, then it would logically
follow that the converse or worst possible conditions for
attaining the necessary satisfactions of human wants, involving
also the greatest expenditure of human energy, would be
when the equation becomes

(B) w (Trr)—(r ^
c= ~^

This being so, it also follows that this stage will be
coincident with conditions which favour the maximum of
cost for each satisfaction, thus ; —

N° (L" T) 4- 0-

Similarly the conditions favourable to the attainment of
minimum of lowest cost or price (P") would coincide with
stage A, thus : —

N*" (L" P) + O"

Reasoning from these premises it is clear that the results
S and P, or their values, can never be satisfactorily known,
unless we can gauge the values of their respective co-efficients.
That is, we must know not merely what is the tendency of any
one factor — but we must also know the tendency of all
factors affecting the problem. Nay, more ; if Political
Economy is ever to be dignified bj the name of ** The Science
of Political Economy," it must not merely take cognisance of
the tendency of every one of these factors, but, like the
skilled physicist, its disciples must not talk of the ** teachings "
** or conclusions " drawn from them until they are prepared
to place approximate values against the tendency of each
factor, and then to strike a balance showing the ultimate
effects of the ever-varying combinations in ever-varying
localities.

The difficulty of the problem is no excuse for ignoring the
necessity for the adoption of this course. Hitherto, to a
great extent, the subject has been governed by the more or

BY B. IC JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 159

less plausible generalisations of mere literary men; and
their des^rve^ feime and undoubted ability and skill as such
have given them a prestige in political matters to which
they are not entitled from a practical or scientific point of
view. That they have done good service in arousing and
sustaining attention on such important matters is readily
admitted ; but further progress is impossible so long as the
inexact methods of the mere literaiy polemist are employed.
In future the progress of Political Economy as a science
depends upon demonstrations basedupon quantitative analysis,
and not as heretofore upon authoritative dogmas based upon
the qualitative analysis of any one factor of the problem
arbitrarily chosen from a compound or complex equation.

It is obvious that we may concur with most of the writers
on Political Economy as to the general tendency of any one
influence ; but while this is so it may not be a safe proceeding
to trust the effect of this one tendency — even admitting its
importance — as determining the ultimate conclusion; for
other tendencies, minus or plus, must be reckoned with before
any reliable conclusion can be arrived at. Pathos and
literary merit are powerful adjuncts, no doubt, but in the
solution of political problems they are worse than useless
where complete and exact methods are eschewed.

Ths Best Mode fob Effecting the Highest Quota of
Satisfactions with a Minimum of Tbottble Depends
Upon the Local Value and Extent of Natubal
SouBCEs of Supply.

The principal material satisfactions essential to the hap-
piness and cultured content of human life primarily depend
upon natural sources of supply, and that country whose
natural sources afford the greatest potential of elements
which may be made to contribute to the material satisfactions
of cultured men, is also the country wherein the greatest
number of people may best fulfil all those mutual services to
each other which cover the whole round of wants of an
ideally happy community. The essential natural conditions
for the sustenance of a highly-cultured community, and
permitting a natural, healthy expansion, are : —

(1.) Large area covering all zones of climate favourable
for the production of all reasonable wants, and
possessing richly all the elements essential to
production, such as water, fertile soil, the varied
mineral and vegetable products, and such flocks
and herds as most contribute to the welfare of
man.

160 BOOT MATTERS IX SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

(2.) Division of labour — each, division carefully appor-
tioned in relation to the probable amount of
different satisfactions required ; and each labourer
in every division carefully trained in that branch
of work to which he has been apportioned.

(3.) The creation and maintenance of instruments whicb
best supplement man's efforts in modifying and
distributing the products derived from natural
sources, and so enabling each unit to enjoy the
maximum of desirable satisfaction with that
minimum of exertion which is most conducive to
the health and happiness of the individual.
Now, if it were possible to find such a combination of
favourable conditions, wherein all the wants of man could be
completely met, it follows that interchange with other
countries, so far as material needs are concerned, would not
only be unnecessary, but disadvantageous.

It is true, on moral grounds, a nation enjoying the
maximum of satisfactions with a minimum of exertion or
maximum of ease, might either reduce the amount of satis-
fjEbctions or increase its exertions for purposes of benevolence
as directed towards a country less favourably situated ; but
there would be no such necessity on commercial grounds as-
laid down by the earlier economists, except upon the plea
that we should buy in the cheapest market. But this last
plea, the favourite maxim of Free Trade theorists, ignorea
many consequences of the most vital importance.

First, the ideal state contemplated had already discovered
and achieved that final state of content or end to which a
people can aspire to — that is, a maximum of desirable satis-
factions combined with a minimum of reasonable exertion^
This being so, why should they attempt to procure this end
by another method untried by them, seeing that they could
not improve their condition in this way, but might make it
worse. But as this plea must be discussed, let us see under
such circumstances what it might lead to.

Buy in the Cheapest Mabket.

In our ideally perfect state, let us for convenient reference
call it ** Euphrasia." One of the fundamental conditions
regulating its well-being is, that all for each is considered of
as great if not greater importance as each for all.

The favourable natural conditions were experienced to be
such that the round of wants of all might be satisfactorily
supplied without demanding from any one group of its divisions
of labour more than 44 hours of public labour per week. But
it was also carefully determined that although a certain
aggregate of labour when properly directed would affect this

B7 B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 161

desirable end, a corresponding or even a much greater amount
of labour could not produce the same result if the previously
carefully arranged and periodical regulation of the apportion-
ment of labourers were subsequently disturbed in an arbitrary
way. Every arbitrary disturbance of the proportion of
labourers trained and originally apportioned to a special work
or function, has the effect of lowering the purchasing power
of the section which was arbitrarily increased, because it
introduced either curtailment of employment, wrongful com-
petition, over-production, or diminished purchasing power
within that particular section of the division of labour ; and
in the section from which they were arbitrarily withdrawn, it
either lessened the amount of aggregate satisfactions required
for all ; or, if it have not that effect, it increases the hours of
labour of those within the division beyond the maximum
standard without additional recompense for increased exer-
tion. If, however, the additional hours are rewarded by
extra satisfactions, it must be at the expense of the general
consumers, thus lessening their average of aggregate satis-
factions.

The wrongful over-production is a direct loss to the whole
community so healthfully regulated by community of in-
terests.

Oh ! but your ideal Euphrasian forgets, says the Economist,
that the surplus of A division might by interchange with
another nation be made to restore the balance thus arbitrarily
destroyed by A recompensing through products needed in
division B where a deficiency was caused. This is true, but
at best this course only helps to restore the loss occasioned by
the arbitrary disturbance of the apportionment of the local
Euphrasian division of services. Nay, more ; the loss occa-
sioned could not be fully restored by an equal exchange of
labour and skilly for the exchange with the distant foreign
country involved a fresh expenditure of labour in transfer
and agencies of exchange — thus increasing the value of 0 or
obstacles —between producer and consumer, and so inevitably
lessening the quota of the essential material satisfactions to
be divided among consumers. It must be borne in mind
that Euphrasia is assumed to possess the maximum of favour-
able natural resources — plus best art appliances — and con-
sequently the restoration of the destroyed equilibrium in
Euphrasia could only be effected by a skilled people, who
of necessity were forced to adapt themselves to circumstances
by either being satisfied with a lower requirement of wants
than that enjoyed by the Euphrasians, or by a similar standard
of material satisfactions gained at a much greater expenditure
of labour.

For the sake of illustration, let us further examine this
theory of obstacles. It will readily be granted that where

IQS BOOT MATTERS XNf SOCIAL Ain> iBCOXOMIC PROBLEMS.

two producing centres are situated at vastly different distances
from consuming centres, that supply from the nearer pro-
duciog centres can be effected by a much smaller expenditure
of labour than by the more distant centre of production.

Thus, if A be 8,000 miles distant, and B 40 miles, it
follows that the extra labour and time consumed in carrying
the extra 7,960 miles is a serious disadvantage. Men do not
consume distance. In itself it does not add a jot to the
ultimate material wants of man otherwise produced. Dis-
tribution is certainly a necessity, but the smaller the need for
distribution the larger the produce to be divided, for it is
obvious that the more machines and human beings that are
abstracted from direct production of essential satisfacti(m8,
the smaller is the quantity falling to the share of each
consumer of wants. Thus, if 100 producers and 50 distributors
provide the ideal quota of wants of an Euphrasian at the
maximum of eight hours per day — say 10 wants per day^
then the 100 producers must each have produced 15 wants,
for consumers include producers, and non-producers or
producers and distributors, and these number 150> an^

100 X 15 ^ nQ

160

for each consumer : or on the basis of exertion which lies at
the root of price or cost, we might put it that for the aggre-»
gate hours of labour in producing and distributing each
consumer was put in the possession of 10 wants. Now, if we
increase obstacles we cannot supply the same number of
wants without individually increasing the hours of labour.
Thus, if the additional distance involves the labour of 50
additional-distributors, and if producer and consumer alike
share the additional labour thrown upon them^ we have

200 X 10

'200 ~^^
= X =10>'

Thus, to maintain the same share of wants as formerly, the
necessary increase of 50 non-producers or distributors involved
an extra two hours labour per day, or 25 per cent, extra
exertion on the part of all breadwinners. In like manner it
may be shown if tbe amount of exertions per individual
remain undisturbed — then the amount of wants formerly
supplied to each consumer must be lessened, thus : —

150 X 10 ^ ^

— r — =7*5 wants per consumer

Thus we have with the increased obstacles a diminution in
the satisfaction of wants equivalent to a reduction of 25 per
cent.

BY B. M. JOHNSgrON^ r.L.j3. 163

In these sioiple illustrations the direct effects of increased
obstacles between producer and consumjer are set forth i^
plain terms, so far as interchange with a distant country
affects the conditions of a country circumstanced like our
ideal Euphrasia. To apply the argument iuTolTing obstacles
to other countries not so favourably conditioned as Euphrasia
might favour the adoption of interchange between two or
more distant countries, as effecting improvement in the
<;ondition of consumers in each country — but this improve-
ment could only reach the highest possible quota for such a
place where the exchanges are confined to the necessary
products, which are either naturally easily produced beyond
local needs, or in respect of products which are naturally
deficient within its own border. Iq such case the exchange
•of the former by exports would have to be met with a similar
value of imports of the latter. But even here the disadvan-
tageous effects of obstacles are not a whit lessened. The
disadvantageous effects of obstacles have to be endured so
long as they do not outweigh the advantages of the desired
exchanges.

Nay, there is one form of want— Food — which no obstacle
can outweigh so long as the energies of the labourer in other
directions remain unexhausted. The unfortunate country so
circumstanced must of necessity effect exchanges with food
countries, or perish as a community. Still more terrible is it
for the masses of this country if it should happen that it lacks
the natural or raw products upon whose manufacture the
exchanges for the food of other countries depends.

In such a case the friction of obstacles (distance) between
(1) producer of raw products (2), manufacturer, and (3),
consumer — attains its maximum — notwithstanding thajb
science and skill may have done, and are still doing, wonders
by steam and other contrivances on sea and land to minimise
its lowering influence on the amount of satisfactions propor-
tionate to labour exerted.

TheEconomistmay here exclaim : How does the Euphrasia!!
argument from obstacles reconcile itself with such a case as
the United Kingdom. He will no doubt proceed to show that
no nation on earth has carried the method of interchange
with other countries to so high a pitch as the United Kingdom.
Her vessels are found laden with the products of exchange
in every important harbour of every country.

Her aggregate wealth is the envy of nations, amounting to
a sum something approaching <£130,000,000 as a yearly
income. Her external interchange trade amounts to 64&
millions yearly, 362 millions being imports and 281 millions
being exports. Her annual value of real estate alone reaches
<£196,000,000. Surely, he would continue confidentlyi this

164 BOOT MATTEBS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

is the most complete yindication that could be giyen
practically, that the nation which has the greatest amount of
foreign interchange trade and, presumably, the greatest
amount of obstacles — is also the nation which, by her great
wealth, affords the greatest amount of satisfactions to
divide among her consumers.

The answer to this supposed objection certainly involves
many complex questions, but it may at once be af&rmed that
it does not in the slightest degree diminish the value of the
argument from obstacles as applied to Euphrasia. In
making this afi&rmation it is not denied that the wealth of the
United Kingdom in the aggregate is unbounded, and no one
can reflect upon her grand achievements in science, wealth,
and progress, without admiration and pride. The skill and
energy of her people are marvellous, and our admiration is
not lessened, but increased, by the thought that her vast
resources and enormous interchange of trade have been built
up by her prodigious energy and industry in spUe of dbstaclea
of every kind. Her skill, daring, and enterprise have giveii
her the command of important lands under every clime.
This skill and enterpiise, however, could not within her own
borders increase, beyond a certainlimit, the necessary supplies
to meet her rapidly growing needs, as regards food and
clothing for her people and raw products to supplement her
needs for supplying manufactures in exchange for prime
necessaries, failing which she could not support the lives of
her people. It is necessity, therefore, which inevitably forced
her to direct her industries in such a manner that her lack
in food and other raw products at home should be purchased
by a surplus creation of manufactures. Food, being one of
the prime essentials to the life of each person, must be
secured in sufficient quantity, or the lives of her workers
cannot be sustained. A nation possessed of all the world's
wealth of exchange could not preserve the lives of her people
if this one form of wealth — Food — be lacking or insufficient.
With such a nation — so unfavourably conditioned — her
existence depends upon her power to command supplies of
the food of other countries in exchange for such products as
food-producing countries may think it desirable to take from
her.

The food -producing countries may carry on this exchange
as a matter of choice or preference ; but with the food-
requiring country the exchange must be effected — on the
best terms possible — but if necessity presses hard, it must he
effected upon any terms forced upon her.

Fortunately for such a country all lands capable of pro-
ducing large food supplies are not in the condition of our
ideal Euphrasia, and hence there is little danger of a

BT B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 165

stoppage of food exchanges for manufactures so long as the
food-producing country is tempted by cheapness to buy those
of the food-lacking country in preference to making them for
herself; or of buying them from a rival manufacturing
country on still more advantageous terms.

Fbee Trade.

A food-lacking country must therefore favour free inter-
change of trade, for it is necessary to her existence. A
country with ample natural sources unutilised or partly
utilised would only suffer a temporary inconvenience by the
cessation of imports of foreign manufactures, and it is
pbssible that this inconvenience which forced her to supply
her own wants from sources and agencies within her own
borders might result in increasing the amount of satisfactions
for each consumer with an expenditure of a smaller amount
of exertion on the part of each producer and distributor.

Aggregate Wealth and Individual Wealth.

But let us again return to the outward indices of the
prosperity of the United Kingdom. Admitting that she has
great wealth in the aggregate, it does not necessarily follow
that the share of satisfactions falling to the bulk of her
people compare fsivourably with countries whose aggregate
weaJth is comparatively smalL In point of fact any aggregate
respecting the wealth of a country is a pure abstraction. It
is as such enjoyed by no one. It is the share falling on the
average to each individual which is the true indication of real
wealth, or of the satisfactions enjoyed by the unit.

This is significantly demonstrated by contrasting two
widely differing countries in respect of that abstract idea
called national wealth : —

■xvxea ... ... ... ...

Ditto per head of population
.Aggregate earnings of wages

Class ••• ••• •••

Working class breadwinners,

estimated ...

Ditto per head

Average hours employed per

WcCJx ... ... ...

Ditto per week

Average wages per hour ...

Average cost of one quarter

of wheat 32s. 6d. ... 32s. 6d.

Equivalent of ditto in true

purchasing power, viz.y

hours labour 41'" hours ... 92*' hours

Tasmania.
16,778,000
11413

United Kingdom.
... 77,800,000
... 2-05

5,519,340

... 800,084,000

61,326
de90

... 15,884,000
... dfiSl

348. 6d.
9«d.

... 55
... 198. 3d.
... 4-»«d.

166 BOOT MATTERS IN 90QUL AST) EQONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

Thus it will be aeeci that i^ojbwithst^ading the impo9ing
efEect of the yaist aggregate wealth of labour 19 Engl^ad
representing over eight hundred million pouads sterling — the
pnrdiase of one quarter of whe^, the staff of life — demsuidB
of her workmen the expenditure of 92' hours time in labour^
whereas in Tasmania the same amount of satisfactions can
be gained by the expenditure of 41* hours of labour. That is,
the English workman would have to work — if work could be
placed at his disposal (in itself a greater difficulty) ^123 per
cent, more hours to attain the same purchasing power pos^
sessed by the Tasmanian workman^ whose aggregate weaMh
only represents 0*69 per cent, of the corresponding aggregate i&
Eoglaod.

This clearly proves how misleading are the efiEects produced
by allowing the mind to d'well upon mere abstracticHis based
upon aggregates.

The Effect of Stbikes ob a Bise in Wages in Food-
Pbobtjcino and Food-Lacking Cotxntbies.

But the difference in the puxohasio^ power of the Bngliib
breadwinner is not the only disadvantage, Qer purcha^ipg
power is also not merely limited by tibe extent of the vaarlM:
for her manufaictures^ but upon her saeoess in wderselliog
foreign rivals who are also by necessity compelled to exchange
manufactures for the prime necessaries of raw products o£
food and clothing ; and hence her success depends either upon
her superiority in skill and local appliances, or in cheapness
or extending the hours of labour. It is a necessity that a
manufacturing country must produce cheaply, and necessity
will force her to attain this end by extending the hours of the
labourer without extra recompense, should other means &dl
her as a competitor for the bread and raw products of food-
producing countries. Strikes and combinations among
workmen are only of value to them within very narrow limits.
For let us suppose that England's supremacy as a manufac-
turing country depends upon her present power to undersell
rival countries to the extent of 15 per cent., it would then
follow that any now.inal success attained by the combined
strikes of her workmen, thereby improving their hours of
labour or rates of wages to the extent of, say, 16 to 20 per
cent., would be altogether disastrous ; for it would destroy
the competitive power of England as a manufacturer for other
countries than her own. But if England was thus shut
within herself there would probably be no employment
whatever, and no means of subsistence for perhaps 20
millions of her present population of 38 millions. This
would be a terrible result arising out of the success of
combined strikes among her manufacturing workmen.

BY S. H. JOHNSTON, P.L.a t&T

That an increase of the cost of her products to the extent of
what has been indicated is not a very improbable matter
springing from strikes has been foreshadowed by the recent
combination among English dock labourers, who succeeded in
having their rate of wages raised 2d. per hottr. As the
{Average rate of workmen in England is only 4*'®d. per hour,
a general increase of IJd. per hour would raise the cost of
wages 35*' per cent.; and as the price of labour is the chief
item of cost in all manufactures, it is not improbable that tfae
ultimate cost of her manufactures would be raised 20 per
cent., thus cutting her off from her previous advantage, which
enabled her successfully to outrival all other countries in
supplying the external markets of the world with manufac-
tures.

In countries where food and raw products is or can be
produced far in excess of local requirements, the effect of
prohibitive tariffs in raising local prices would not have a
similar effect. K the cost of living would be nominally
raised thereby, it would be exactly or nearly counterbalanced
by a nominal increase in earnings locally. Thus, for example,
if the consumer had to pay 20 per cent, extra for all articles of
consumption it is probable that even this would not be dis-
advantageous ; for it is almost certain that the true purchasing^
powers of labour — relative to staff of life — ^would be very
little altered, as the price of labour would also tend to
approach an increase of 20 per cent.

But there is one effect which this would have upon a food-
producing country, which would show a decided contrast with
a similar rise of wages in a manufacturing country such as
England, viz., it would draw to the former the manufacturing
labourers of manufecturing or densely-peopled centres ; for
instead of cutting off sources of employment, as in England,
it would of necessity require her to import labounrers to
produce those wants locally, or a great portion of them, which
formerly had been supplied to her by the manufactures of
external labour. That is, broadly, its main effect would be to
increase the local labour market or widen the field for the
employment of local labour. At first this would also have
the effect of diminishing the aggregate extent of external
commerce: but it need hardly be discussed, all things being
fairly equal as regards natural sources, that the supply of
exchanges by home products, instead of by foreign, is all in
favour of diminution of dbstaclesy and therefore, upon the
whole, advantageous. . . . This problem has already been
worked out in the United States of America, and whatever
the ultimate effects may be when local population approachea
too close to her limits of natural powers for producmg food
and necessary raw materials for her own people, it is undoubted

168 BOOT MATTSBS m SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEM&

that 60 millions would not be profitably employed and well
supported if it were not for her policy of faTounng the
creation of her own wants as far as possible by the energies of
heal labourers.

It must be granted, however, that the policy which is
advantageous to a rich food and raw-producing country, such
as America, would be annihilation to a country such as
England, where the population by far exceeds her natural
sources of supply as regards food and other essential raw
products.

A country so circumstanced must maintain a Free Trade
policy or perish. With countries thinly populated, possessing
illimitable sources of natural wealth, including soil, climate,
and all conditions favourable for the production of food and
raw products in excess of local wants, it must inevitably follow
that the tendencies and influences arising from the desire to
extend the local field of emploj/ment must be in the direction
of Protection, or restrictions upon foreign trade. It is the
conditions of the various countries which determine means to
ends. In one country the means is Protection, in the other
Free Trade ; but the end in both cases is the same, viz,, the
best available mode of supplying the greatest amount of satisfac-
tions to each individual (including local employment to the
rising generation) with the least expenditure of individual
effort.

If Mr. Henry M. Hoyt, who has so ably defended the
American policy of Protection, had premised that he was
referring solely to countries rich in all natural sources — far
surpassing the demands of all possible local requirements —
we might agree with his ideal as regards the policy to be
pursued, viz.; — "The nearer we come to organising and con-
ducting our competing industries, as if we were the only
nation on the planet, the more we shall make, and the more
we shall divide among the makers. Let us, at least, enter
upon all the industries authorised by the nature of our things.
Ihus we shall reach the greatest annual product of the
industry of the society.'*

When, however, any country's population fails or is unable
to cultivate 2**^ acres per head within her own borders the
policy suggested by Mr. Hoyt must of necessity be abandoned
in favour of Free Trade. This necessity — involving the
population difficulty — is, however, an evil, and not an advan-
tage to the masses.

Eent Monopoly.

Emotional and inexact writers, carried away by some
foregone conclusion, or by the fascinating exaggerations of a
certain literary style, are constantly blundering when they

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.& 169

attempt to investigate the casual relations of complicated
matters. Eent presents a fertile theme for mere emotional-
ists, yet no subject presents greater difficulties to the earnest
and more exact investigator than that of rent, whether
regarded as (1) a proper object to be included among
individ/ual rights of property, or (2) in its effects, in the
opinion of some, in increasing bj its amount the cost of
production.

(1.) What is the peculiar claim upon land which, when
used or let to a tenant, is called rmty and when
occupied by the legitimate owner is in official
assessment rolls termed annual value ?

(2.) How has the owner acquired such a right to land
which empowers him to monopolise its uses in
any way not otherwise restricted by law, or to let
it to another for an equivalent in value termed
rent?

Perhaps the progress of property afi^uirement in a young
•colony affords the best means for giving a correct answer to
these questions.

In Tasmania, for example, there is an area of 16,778,000
acres, of which, up to the present time, 4,572,649 have been
<3onverted by purchase or grant into private property, and
whose annual value equivalent to rent is estimated at
•£860,555, or 3s. 9'16d. per acre. The remainder, representing
nearly three-fourths of the whole, is still owned by the State.
JBut this includes the land and its improvements. If we
eliminate the value of buildings alone — which we could not
put at a much lower figure than <£584,000, viz., 29,200
buildings, most habitable at .£20— this leaves only <£276,555y
or a value of Is. 2|d. per acre for lands and other improve^
ments, embracing fencing, grubbing, clearing, burning timber
and scrub, etc.

It is true that of the 4,572,649 acres private property only
About 150,000 acres are imder tillage, and about 410,000 laid
in permanent grasses, fenced, cleared, or otherwise improved ;
this represents only 12*22 per cent of all private property.

Even if we suppose the 87*78 per cent, of uncultivated
land to possess no exchange value whatsoever, and that the
existing rent only bears relation to the 560,000 acres of
cultivated land, then this (| JMM) only provides 9s. 10|d. per
acre as the proprietor's recompense for capital (the fruit of
previous labour or service, paid for the proprietorship), and
for the labour value expended in bringing the wild bush land
of nature into a condition fit for the plough. Leaving out
the loss to the owner expended in obtaining the riqhts of
proprietorship, it follows that there is now only 9s. 10|d. per
acre per annum of exchange value left to cover former outlay

170 BOOT MATTERS IN" SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PEOBLEMS.

which, in a rough bush country like Tasmania, would hardlj
compensate the actual labour of the pioneer bushman in
leclaiming it. Here, then, vanishes the last trace of the
element in rent supposed - to form an important proportion
accruing to the landlord without the expenditure of labour.

But some may object on the ground that I leave out of
consideration the increment from which favoured properties
derive the benefit, in consequence of the enhancing effect of
subsequent iufluences (not the proprietor's) as, for example: —
(1.) The establishment of a town or city continually
raisiDg the value of lands within or near its
bounds.
(2.) The establishment of roads and railways* at the public
expense — improving means of communication, and
saving time and money in the transit of persons
and products — and thus directly enhancing or
diminishing the value of the property.
(3.) The limited nature of naturally fertile land.

Such enhancement, for the most part, I fully admit, is in
itself an unearned increment, and cannot always justly (from
this point of view) be claimed by the proprietor as a value
produced by his individual services.

But it must also be remembered that this increment in the^
aggregate is already included in the <£276,555 present value
of aggregate annual rental of all cultivated lands.

If, therefore, the present annual value of land, with
incremental value, does not cover the actual value of the
original services in rendering it fit for tillage or stock, it
follows either that the exchange value of the land, as a whole,
has fallen below the original cost of services rendered to as
great or to a greater extent than property value, as a whole,
has been raised by the unearned increment. It becomes a;
fair contention, therefore, on the part of the proprietors of
land to say that the possible loss from downward fluctuations
in the exchange value of land would hinder the development
of the occupation and cultivation of wild forest land, or
obtain a lower value from purchasers if it were not for the
hope that other influences — unearned increment, for example —
gave promise, as in other speculations, that such possible
losses might be compensated for by such possible gains ; and
we might also urge that if the community does not share in
the gain of unearned increment it is compensated by its
freedom from sharing the actual losses which are brought
about frequently by external influences effecting a gradual or
sudden depression in exchange value below the original cost
of preparing the soil for tillage, or below the price of original
purchase.

* In a colony where these works are constructed at the cost of the pablic, it must,
also be conceded that the proprietor contributed his shaxe of the general cost.

BY B. IC. JOHNSTON, F.L.& 171

It is fairly consistent, therefore, to contend that so long as
unearned increment does not exceed in amount the limits of a
possible downward depression in exchange value (i.e,, risk of
loss), it would be unjust to depriye them of the benefit of com-
pensation in an upward direction (i.e., chance of profit), and
thus improvement in value, however caused, cannot rightly be
claimed by the community as an unearned increment until its
amount, as a whole, exceeds the original cost of services in
converting the original land to the condition necessary to the
uses to which it may now be devoted.

Monopoly op the Gifts op Natube.

But, say others, have you forgotten the free gifts of
Nature — the oxygen, carbon, rain, and the forces of life — called
into play by man's industry, increasing his original stores
every year forty, fifty, and a hundredfold ; these forces
silently working, whether the proprietor sleeps or wakes, are
surely embraced in the products reaped. Most certainly;
Man's labour woxQd be of no avail without these natural
forces. But who reaps the benefit of these general gratuitous
services ? Most clearly it is the consumer. The free lorces
of Nature common to all lands are not produced at the
expense or by the labour of the producer, and it would scarcely
ever occur to him to introduce it as a possible ingredient in
the selling value. It no more can enter into the selling value
of common terrestrial products than can the value of the free
winds of heaven enter into the merchantman's freight charges.
In truth, the selling price of products — such as wheat, for
example — is not now determined by the producers of any one
country ; nor by the immediate actual cost of production
defrayed by any particular producer ; nor by the greater or
smaller natural fertility of the soil of any one place or
country.

It is not now faim against farm, but terrestrial region
against terrestrial region, in which natural agents, such as
climate and largenees of cultivable area play a greater part
than human sloll or even richness of soil.

The aggregate quantity produced in relation to present demand
is the only determining measure of selling price. When supply
is much above demand the producer must often sell under
cost price. When supply falls short of demand the profit is
still measured in the same manner without reference to
immediate cost of production. Competition forces all pro-
ducers to give the consumer the benefit of all gratuitous
aids — whether natural or artificial — that are free to all other
producers, and the only effect of actual cost of production is
that it determines the extent and quality of the lands which
are best capable of promising success in the competition for

172 SOOT MATTESS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

supply. It also spturs industry and invention in the direction
of lessening cost, all of which benefits inevitably are reaped
by the community. No gratuitous element entering into
products can ever form part of exchange price so long as there
are many competitors and free competition. In the case of
the products of agriculture, too, there is the greatest possible
security against the arbitrary acts of monopolists in the
hugeness and the universality of producing operations which
can be focused at any point of demand in the globe by the
mighty steamships on the ocean highway, and which would
require omnipotence and omnipresence to monopolise.

If any one country had a monopoly of the production
and supply of an important product of the land, such as
wheat, I frankly admit that the owners of more fertile parts
would reap the sole advantage of this limited gratuitous gift
of Nature (the one rent of Political Economists), provided that
in the acquirement of these more valuable parts the present or
original possessor had not given the state or community an
equivalent in purchase value; but this monopoly of good
lands, while securing a better return locally as compared with
poor lands, may not secure as much additional profit as the
difference in the fertility of rich and poor lands would seem
to indicate.

The world's supply, if not artificially barred or shut out from
any country, determines the actual price of com, and it is
significant that America, with her bonanza method of farming
on a scale far grander than is possible in England, is enabled,
with a much lower natural yield per acre, to grow grain
cheaper, and in much larger quantities than in England ; and
consequently she regulates the price of com in England more
by her methods and scale of farming than by higher fertility
of soil. The nature of the season's rainfall, too, falling
indifferently, and often irregularly on good or bad tracts of
lands, and sometimes restricted in sufficient quantity for
produce, a high yield to particular provinces further breaks
the influence of fixed fertility of soil in any one country as a
regulator of price. The mere difference of fertility of soil of
any one country may not, therefore, be the dominating
influence in determining price to consumer, and hence the
consumer may even have the advantage of the gratuitous
influence — a more fertile soil — in reducing the general average
of the price of com.

In the century ending 1888 it is estimated that the popu-
lation of Europe and North America increased from 150 to 470
millions, that is, 180 per cent. This must have correspond-
ingly increased the demand for food and the unearned
increment of land. Notwithstanding this, such were the
mighty effects of steam and electricity introduced, adding to

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 173

the effectiye force of man's labour and time, that the supplies
were multiplied at a greater rate, and relatiyelj at a much
smaller expenditure of man's labour.

Abolish the Middleman and the Monopoliser of

Natural Wealth.

Many are of opinion that the consumer of wants would be
greatly benefited if he were brought more immediately into
contact with the producer without the intervention of the
middleman. No doubt some of thelatter, where circumstances
favour them, succeed in monopolising a larger share of profits
than he is entitled by his services, but the evil may well be
left, in the long run, to be remedied by the action of rival
competitors for custom. True the co-operation of consumers
may successfully employ salaried agents for performing the
same services, but this is not abolishing the middleman, but
rather controlling his charges by con vei ting him from an
independent dealer or agent into a salaried servant. It is
not always possible, however, for consumers to secure wise
and trustworthy agents, and there are many advantages
valued by many consumers profitably risked by energetic,
independent middlemen which would not be safe to commit
to a hired servant, and hence it seems improbable that
association, often necessary and successful, will entirely occupy
that division of the social exchanges of services.

Not a little of the objection to middlemen, however, arises
from the misconception that the wealth earned by middlemen,
professional men, and the rich, is equivalent to wealth
individually consumed by them.

This naturally leads on to

Distribution and Consumption op Wealth.

There are many fallacies current with respect to the dis-
tribution of wealth. If all the enormous wealth year by year
created by stored fruits of previous labour (capital), current
labour, and the gratuitous forces of Nature, were directly
devoted to consumption or enjoyment, no doubt the pro-
portion per head allotted to the industrial labourer would be
small indeed in comparison with the rich. Indeed, it is urged
by Lange ^ that it might be better for society generally,
as well as for the rich industrial chiefs, that if all those who
have acquired a more than moderate income were to retire
from business life, and henceforth devote their leisure to
public affairs, to art and literature, and in fine to a cultured
enjoyment of life upon moderate means*, " not only would
those people lead a more beautiful and worthier existence, but
there would also be secured an adequate material basis to
maintain permanently a nobler culture with all its require-

1. ^ Lange's " History of Materialifm." E. C. Thomas' translation. VoL iii, pp.
237, 238,2^, 241.

174 BOOT MATTEBS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

ments, and thus to give a higher content to our present epoch
than that of classical antiquity.*' As it is, he charges not
inaccurately the few colossal capitalists and industrial chiefs
of the present age with miserly abstemiousness as regards the
proportion of the wealth gained by them which they devote
to immediate personal enjoyment and consumption. He
adds : — " It is true that forces on forces are created, new
machinery continually devised, new means of communication;
it is true that the capitalists, who have the means at their
command, are ceaselessly active in creating, instead of
enjoying^ i^e fruits of their toil in dignified leisure ; but,
nevertheless, the constantly increasing activity aims directly
at anything rather than the furtherance of the common
weal (?)... The great interest of these times, however,
is no longer, as in antiquity, immediate enjoyment, but the
accumulation of capital,'*

Again he states (p. 241) : — " We live, in fact, not for
enjoyment, but for labour and for wants ; but amongst those
wants that of pleonexia is so over-bearing that all true and
lasting progress, all progress that might benefit the mass of
the people, is lost, or, as it were, gained only incidentally."

If this be a true picture, and it must be confessed it is to
some extent borne out by experience, we may ask. Who
derives the benefit of the capitalised wealth ? This requires
careful analysis ; for the conclusion to be drawn as regards
the public weal may be widely different from that indicated by
Lange.

We may truly premise, in the first place, that capital in the
hands of the rich, in so far as personal consumption is con-
cerned, is as much a tool of trade as is the plough to the
farmer. By its means he sets in motion the wheels of many
industries, and so enables the smaller capitalist of muscular
services to exchange his capital for primary wants, necessary
minor tools of trade, and such comforts as his varying rates
of profit may afford. The rich capitalist in like manner, but
with much larger profit, reaps the reward of his ventures.
But there is this important difference: The rich capitalist
cannot or does not abstract from his profits the same propor*
Hon of earnings towards his personal wants and enjoyments
as the workman does. On the contrary, what he can
directly consume personally of the said primary wants and
comforts is limited by the same natural law as his humblest
workman, and the necessities of tear and wear in his machine
(capital), or the passion or necessity to increase the number
and power of his machines, and to keep them ever at work,
abstract the greater portion of his increasing or decreasing
profits. In consequence of this inevitable tendency it is
really a difficult question to say which of the two — rich
capitalist or workman — personally consumes the largest

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 175

portion of products created each year for actual CDnsumption.
and enjoyments. It is almost certain that as regards some of
the most valuable necessary natural products the balance
would be in favour of the workman. What immense capital
is devoted to making and working or developing railways,
steamships, sailing vessels, telegraph lines, machinery of all
kinds agricultural, farms for food and various textile products,
pastoral farms for the produce of animal meal and materials
for clothing, houses for shelter of men, animals, and products.

What is usually termed " The Enormous Accumulations of
Wealth in our Times," **The Eiches of Capitalists," are
really those tools or instruments themselves. But the owner
no more consumes or personally enjoys this form of commercial
wealth than does the poorest labourer who toils upon these
machines and instruments of his employer. This is seen at
once by asking for what purpose is it that so much of the
vegetable and mineral products of the earth, and so much of
the former energies and labours of man have previously been
saved, abstracted, or diverted from former possible powers of
consumption and personal enjoyment ; and for what purpose
is it that capitalists and workmen alike devote such a large
portion of their present services in fresh creations, and to the
repairs of the consumption (tear and wear) of these very
machines which do not themselves enter into their personal
consumption or enjoyment, although they nominally make up
the greater part of the so-called accumulated wealth of
capital ? The answer is very simple. Their sole end is the
production, transport, distribution, and protection of man's
primary wants — Food, clothing, shelter. Luxurious articles
of consumption are insignificant as compared with the
necessaries.

It is mainly for food and clothing, therefore, that all this
vast machinery of the capitalist has been created and set in
motion by the savings of previous efforts. How much, then,
of this ultimate fruit of the combined result of the capital of
machines and instruments, the forces of Nature, and men's
labour, is actually absorbed or consumed by the rich capitalist,
as compared with the poor servant or artisan ?

Let us see :

(1.) The human body can only consume and assimilate a
certain quantity of food per day. The old, sickly,
and Yery young cannot consume or assimilate so
much as the strong, healthy persons of youth and
prime of life. Health and hard physical employ-
ment cause the body to burn more food just for
the same reason as greater enersy exhausted by a
steam engine demands a much higher consumption
of fuel.

176 BOOT MATTESS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

This is the reason whj an average, strong, healthy navvj
can and does consume a much greater quantity or weight of
food in the day than the less robust city clerk or the brain-
worried financier. Similarly, it is safe to affirm this of all
persons who are obliged to put their bones and muscles into
greater activities than their brains, and hence it is reasonable
to state that man for man the average food consumed and
enjoyed during the life of a labourer is much greater than
that personally consumed by those whose physical exertions are
smaller, as in the case of clerks, shopkeepers, teachers, pro-
fessional men, bankers, and rich people. As the production,,
transport, and distribution of this food for consumption is by
far the greatest object for which all the capitalist's savings
and machinery have been put in motion, and must continue
so, it follows that at least in this respect the wealth of food,
the chief primary want ; wealth in highest utility as well as
their wealth of exchange, the end and aim of the greater part
of all wealth in capital, is more largely distributed among
and consumed by the poorer classes than is the case with the-
rich. It is true luxurious foods, having a relatively higher
jprice, are to be found more on the rich man's table ; but the
limits which determine what the rich man really nan consume
of common and rare substances must again be reckoned with^
When we regard the cheap foods now found on the humblest
cotter's table, and much of which, because of former rarity
and price (tea, coffee, spices, etc.), are still termed luxuries,
we can well perceive the utter insignificance of the limited
quantities of rare food monopolised by the rich, more costly
because rare ; not because of superiority, or because in its
production it originally demanded more of the gratuitous
forces of Nature, the devotion of more capital^ or the expendi-
ture of more labour — but mere variety — one of the chief
characteristics of that part of nominal exchange wealth termed
pleonexia.

The next item, clothing, has to be considered, and here again
it may be affirmed that the tear and wear of hard work of the
labourer demand that his clothing should be stronger. He, as
a rule, therefore, personally consumes a greater weight of the^
produce of the sheep and the cotton plant than the rich man, and
howcFer dirty and ill-looking they may seem from the nature
of the labourer's employment, the production is as great a tax
upon the land and the forces of nature ; upon the means of
transport, upon the capitalist's looms, and upon manufacturing
labour, as the clothes of his employer. The silks and satins,
like rare foods, are more beautiful and rarer ; but their high
price is on account of rarity, not because they are more useful.
Indeed, they are for the real purpose of clothing far inferior
in general utility to the commoner cheap woollen and cottoa

BY B. H. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 177

fabrics. The same reasoning is applicable to the remaining
portions of the real wealth of primary wants and ordinary
comforts, all going to show that underneath the nominal
proprietorship of the means which produce consumable
wetdth, the share allotted and falling to the humblest classes
is greater than is generally supposed.

If the material comforts are, as shown, most fully dis-
tributed according to wants, and not to relatiye powers of
purchase, it may also be shown that the highest forms of
culture and enjoyment are within the reach of all.

We have but to refer to cheap periodicals, cheap editions of
Taluable works, newspapers ; the stage, music, fine arts. In
fact, it is notorious that the more elevated and healthful
amusements are obtainable at the least cost, and, owing to the
spread of education, it is curious to observe that the children
at public schools are now better trained in reading music at
sight than are the children of the wealthy in the higher
academies.

If it were possible for the skilled craftsman of the present
day to compare his condition with that of his representative
of the last century, or even with the rich of the same period,
he would realise that, whatever misery or difficulty still exists
among us, the condition of the masses is vastly superior ; and
this improvement could not possibly have taken place if the
rich in past times had personally consumed their yearly profits
in the same proportion as the poor ; for if they had the capital,
now engaged in meeting the demands of increasing millions
of men would not have been saved, and further increase in
population would be impossible.

Capital and Wages Dippicxtltt.

It may seem a bold and hazardous thing to propose new
definitions for terms so frequently defined by the ablest
minds, but as in their application it is undoubted that in the
many definitions of capital and wages each varies considerably
from the other ; and as most of them fail more or less
in consistency and relevancy with the matters upon
which they are brought to bear, it is not unreasonable nor
over-presumptuous on the part of anyone to attempt the
solution of the difficulty, so long as these difficulties are also
fairly appreciated.

The expansion or limitation of the meaning of the words,
Capital and Wages, I am of opinion, would not be the source
of so much confusion if it were more firmly grasped by each
one that the terms belong to two important and distinct
categories ; the first either wholly or partly related to the
agents or powers involved in the Creation or Production of
Wants in Exchange; the second either wholly or partly
related to the Appropriation of the Wants of Exchange
Produced,

178 BOOT MATTEBS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

Instead, therefore, of dwelling upon the contradictions
involyed by the inconsistent use of these terms, it may serve
a good purpose if we discuss ideas rather than tfrms before
involying the issues with a fruitless logomachy regarding
unstable definitions. First, let us honestly try to bring under
the first category all the elements or ideas that are necessary
to be reckoned with in making it complete, viz.: —

What are the necessary powers and forces now used in
the effectual production of wants in exchange.

To realise these powers and forces it will admit of clearer
apprehension if they be classified in tabular order thus : —

(A.) AOBNTS OB POWEBS NeCBSSABY TO BE EMPLOYED IH
THE PbODUCTION AND PbESEBYATION OP WaNTS IK

Exchange.

a. Laboxjb 1. Of highl^'sJcilled minds in the

(Present Labour). detemuDation of the modes in

which labour may be made
most productive; labour thus
devoted may be the means of
adding from two to many
times the effective power of
the physical force of the
labourer of mere brute force.
Types : The inventor of spin-
ning jenny, steam-engine,
director of operations, etc.

2. Highly-skilled hands. Types:

Mechanic, carpenter, weaver.

3. Ordinary skilled hands. Types:

Navvy, messenger, ploughman,

shepherd.

J. Indibect Fbtjits op Products of food, clothing,

Laboub and Skill shelter, etc., on hand in smaller

(Anterior Labour of or greater proportions by dif-

Bastiat). ferent persons ; the fruit of

previous labour and other forces
saved (1) partly by greater
individual economy, or abste-
miousness in the consumption
or enjoyment of wants pre-
viously earned ; or (2), the
saved and preserved surplus of
previous earnings, due to the
products of previous labour and
skill being much greater than
the power to reasonably con-
sume or enjoy.

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 179

c. Indirect Fruits op The possession of lands, mines,

Labour and Skill costlv machines, railways,

(Anterior Labour of canals, ships, buildings, instra-

Bastiat). ments of all kinds that have or

maj be bought or sold bj the
accumulated previous or current
savings of skill, industry, or
common physical labour.

If capital, as a term, be confined to h and c, there could be
no objection if it were not assumed afterwards that these
alone formed the whole of the forces necessary to produce
fresh wants in exchange in sufficiency for all. Similarly,
there would be no objection to confine the term capital to
labour, if it were not ignored in after applications that the
important portions, viz., Indirect Fruits of Previous Labour
and Skill or Anterior Labour (h c) are also necessary for the
effectual production of the wants of all, and that those gained
by right of previous savings are not generally distributed
possessions.

We come now to the second great category : —

(B.) Modes op Appropriation op Wants in Exghangb
Created or Produced, or About to be Created or
Produced.

Mode.
a. (By Wages or Salary.) Labourers or poor capitalists share

in respect of personal services
mainly,
h, (By Commission^ In- Employers or possessors of a
terest Bent, or Income,) more than ordinary share of the

equivalents of previously stored
ktbour and skill — rich capi-
talists— obtained mainly from
the possession of a larger
share than ordinary of the
actual fruits, or the equivalents
of previouslv stored labour and
skill.
From this analysis, which is sufficiently comprehensive, it
would appear that labourers are simply poor capitalists, and
employers and wealthy people are rich capitalists; that both
forms of capital are necessary to the production of fresh wants
for all, and that both — whether as wages or salary, or whether
as commission, interest, rent or income — derive their share of «
these wants by the aid of the combined action of the two
groups. In this sense it is no more true or false that wages
are derived from capital, than that commission, interest, rent,
or income is derived from capital. If this view of the case be

180 BOOT MATTERS IN SOCLAX AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

correct, it would seem to appear that certain EconomistSy as
well as their critic, Mr. Henry George, are wrong,* for if the
former maj be justlj accused of ignoring B a'« part in the
production of wants in exchange (in their wages fund theory),
the latter errs quite as much in ignoring the rast part which
the increasing store of previous savings, or more or less
permanent creations (anterior labour), represent in the
combination necessary to produce in sufficiency for all the
ordinary wants of exchange of human heings,

Impbovbmbnt in the Condition op the Individuai.
Labgely Due to the Savings of Antebiob LABOUtK
(Capital) Skilpxtlly Applied as Instbumbnts AiDiNa
Pboduction.

This solution of the vexed problem of the so-called " Wages
Fund " is, moreover, in harmony with all related facts, and it
clearly establishes the important truth that it is to pre-
served previous savings (anterior labour) skilfully appUed,
that the powers to further increase of production per head is
mainly secured ; for if the increase in appropriation to neces-
sary machines and instruments be oidy proportionate to
increase in mouths to be fed, there would be no improvement
in the appropriation of wants per individual, even though
"each mouth" be accompanied by "two more hands," as
urged by some. It follows, therefore, that if the individual
necessary wants be now better supplied than in former times,
it must either be due to relative diminution of the mouths to
be fed, or to the multiplication of productive power (anterior
labour) largely due to the great advances made in recent
years in the power which man has obtained over the forces
of Nature. As it is undeniable that population has largely
increased since the beginning of the eighteenth century, and
as it is also demonstrable, notwithstanding the great simul-
taneous increase in population, that the supply of wants per
head, rich and poor, have also materially improved, while the
hours of labour have been shortened, it follows logically that
this improvement, in the aggregate and per head, is entirely

* The admirably expressed views of Bastiat, however, are in entire accord with
these views.

Thus Bastiat writes (p. 43, " Wages— Harmonies of Political Economy ") :— " As
capital is nothing else than human services, we may say that capital and lahour are
two words which in reality express one and the same idea ; and consequently the
same thing ma^ be said of interest and wages. Thus, where false science never fails
to find antagonism, true science ever finds identity.

" Considered, then, with reference to their origin, nature, and form, wages have in
them nothing degrading or humiliating any more than interest has. Both constitute
the return for present and anterior labour derived from the results of a common
enterprise. Only it almost always happens that one of the two associates agrees to
take upon himself the risk. If it be the present labour which claims a uniform
remuneration the chances of profit are given up in consideration of wages. If it be
the anterior labour which claims a fixed return, the capitalist gives up his eventual
chance of profits for a determinate rate of interest.*

BY B. IC. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 181

due to the vastly increased productive power obtained through
a greater knowledge of Nature's forces — more especially in
the uses of steam and electricity. The contrary allegation by
Mr. Henry George and others has no support from reason or
facts.

It is clear, therefore, that the greatness or smallness of
accumulated wealth is not necessarily an index to the presence
or absence of individual comfort and happiness, but rather
both depend upon the relative proportions which the total
wealth and total population bear to each other.

From this it is easy to show that the chief source of misery
and discomfort — or the diminution of necessary supply of
wants per head — ^is mainly due to the tendency of population,
in times of distress, to increase in a greater ratio than the
powers of production.

The extravagant statement of Mr. Henry George, that
" there is nowhere any improvement which can be credited to
increased productive power," is too absurd, perhaps, to require
serious consideration. Yet it may be well to show by a simple
illustration its utter fallacy.

Let us take one of the most important wants of man,
necessarily consumed alike by rich and poor, viz., common
water. 4-^though in natural reservoirs or channels, as in
springs, lakes, and rivers, it is generally a gratuitous gift of
Nature to all men, it has to be transferred to points of con-
sumption ; and although the gratuitous element never enters
into exchange price, it is generally a marketable commodity in
large centres of population where a large daily supply is
absolutely necessary. The element which here forms price is
labour of transfer. The labour of transferring water by
primitive means is great, as one gallon weighs 101b., and if
the distance be considerable both time and muscular powers of
labourer must be consumed, and, therefore, the carrier must earn
the equivalent of such time and labour as may be expended in
this most necessary service. It is true water, for the support
of a few individuals, may be supplied at a minimum of the
expenditure of time and labour; for their habitations might
be fixed contiguous to the natural supply; but for large
towns this, for the most part, is quite impracticable. In the
latter case water supply would fall into one of the most
important divisions of marketable labour, and the price of
water to the consumer would be determined by the present
time and labour bestowed by water carriers engaged in the
service, plus the proportion of cost and maintenance of
equipment necessary — (anterior labour).

Now, if we were to confine attention to the producer (only
about 44*2 per cent, of living persons are producers of
marketable wants), we would never perceive the full signi-

182 BOOT MATTEES IN SOCIAX AND ECONOMIC PEOBLEMS.

ficance of the statement that the greater the proportion of
skilfulli/ applied previous labour or service (tools, instruments,
appliances, etc, or anterior labour) introduced as auxiliaries to
present labour or services, the greater is the power of production
and supply, and the smaller is the price of the product.

But if we bear in mind that all persons are necessarily
consumers, we can at once perceive that abundance and lessened
cost of primary needs, consumed alike by rich and poor, by
producers and dependants, are real benefits in which all mufft
equally participate. If it can be shown, then, that the state-
ment respecting the introduction of anterior labour is correct,
it follows unmistakably that Mr. Henry George's statement is
contradicted in the experience of all men as consumers of
marTcetahle wants.

The City of Launceston contains about 15,000 inhabitants.
Each person consumes on an average at least 20 gallons of
water per day = 2001b. weight. Thus the population con-
sumes each day at least 1,342 tons weight of water per day,
or 488,840 tons per year, and each person consumes 7,300
gallons per year.

The transit of this 488,840 tons over 13 miles from source
is at preseot easily effected by permanent waterways, iron
pipes, reservoirs, etc. (representing anterior labour), in conjunc-
tion with a staff of men engaged in the maintenance and
working of the water supply {representing present labour), and
there is ample power (potential) in the store of existing
anterior labour to double the supply, if required, without any
addition to cost.

Now, the exchange value of anterior labour and present
labour, combined in effecting this service each year, is estimated
to be d868,243 and d82,133 respectively, or about oe32 to £1.

The only way to measure the true value of the benefits
effected by the direct influence of anterior labour as an
auxiliary to present labour, is to try and estimate the number
of men required to effect the same work of transfer, viz.,
488,840 tons per year a distance of 13 miles by more primitive
means. It is impossible for men to do any part of this work
without some anterior labour in the shape of instruments ; but
if we reduce the latter to the most simple form, it will be
sufficient to demonstrate the enormous advantage gained by
every accession to the power of anterior labour. Let us
suppose, therefore, three modes of transfer : —

(1.) The primitive mode by pails of 2-gallon or 201b.
capacity, requiring 5 men and 10 pails per day
for carrying one day's supply to each person, viz.,
20 gallons or 2001b. weight.

(2.) One man and a horse and water cart effecting the
transfer of 224 gallons per day.

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 183

(3.) A system of pipes and waterworks, with a staff of
men to maintain and work the system, capable of
transferring at least 1,342 tons of water per day,
le,, 300,000 gallons.

We may now, in a tabular form, compare the effectiveness
and cost of the three modes as follows. To supply 15,000
persons : —

1st Mode. 2nd Mode. 3bd Mode.
Water transported 13

miles per head of popu-
lation per day... ... 20 gallons 20 gallons 20 gallons

Number of men required

per day 75,000 1,342 23 or 1

or 3261 or 68-35

Cost of present labour

service per year ... £6,844,8/5 £122,290 £2,133

or 9973 or 6457 or 3*03

Value of instruments —

Anterior labour ... £18,750 £67,100 £68,243

or 027 or 35-43 or 96-97

Cost of ditto per year ... £1,125 £4,026 £4,094

Total cost of transit to

consumer per year ... £6,844,875 £126,316 £6,227
Cost per 100 gallons ... £6 10 0 £0 2 3^ £0 0 V^

It is here clearly demonstrated that by the accession of
anterior labour, or the fruit of applied previous labour saved
from personal consumption, and skilfully applied in accord-
ance with the knowledge which man has gained with respect
to natural laws, the effective power of each man's labour is
multiplied 3,261 times, and the cost to consumer is reduced
thereby to about x^^yj^th of that which it would cost if the
proportion of anterior labour was at a minimum.

That is— when in the combined service of anterior and
present labour, anterior labour only represented 0*27 per cent,
of the combined service — the cost of water would be £6 10s.
per 100 gallons to consumer ; but when the proportions were
reversed, and anterior labour represented 96 '97 per cent, of the
combined service, the cost of water would be reduced to 1*^
per 100 gallons. It will readily be perceived, therefore, that
the mere accompaniment of '^ two hands to each fresh mouth **
is insignificant as a foi^^e to effect improvement in the con-
dition of the individual consumer of needs without a cor-
responding gain in anterior labour.

Why the present population of the United Kingdom and
her colonies do not individually perceive the full benefit of
the immense addition made to ike store of anterior labour
now used as an important auxiliary to the force of present-
labour, is not because of a failure in the production or in the

184 BOOT MATTEBS IK SOCIAL AKD ECONOMIC PBOBLEICS.

distribution of the products or wants created, but primarilj
because tbe numbers of consumers of wants have kept pace
hitherto with the increased producing power.

The individual does not necessarily benefit by the aggregate
increase in production, as it depends upon the proportion
which consumers bear to aggregate production. Thus: —

AvEBAGB Ikdividual Shabe OP Pboducts.

Let A=Aggregate products created by anterior and

present labour.
C=Number of consumers.
P=Average proportional share of products falling

to each individual.

Then A^_p
C

It follows, then, that P will only improve so long as A
continues to increase faster than C. The aggregate of A,
however large, is of no account. It is the proportional relation
to C which determines increase or decrease to P.

Denial of Compabative Pbogbess in Modebn Times
Due to Incbeased Pboductivb Poweb.

** the BICH ABE becoming BICHEB, AND THE POOB POOBEB,'*

There is nowhere any improvement which can be credited to increased produc-
tive power.

The tendency of what we call material progress is in nowise to improve the
condition of the lowest class in the essentials of happy human Ufe. Nay ... it
is to still further depress the conditions of the lowest class.— " Progress and
Poverty."

Of all the mischievous and erroneous statements current,
perhaps these are the most notable. The statements imply
that the relative state of rich and poor were formerly more
equable, and that the working classes, or the lower zone of
them, have not benefited by the introduction of steam and
electricity, the occupation of vast new virgin lands, and by
manifold inventions and improvements in labour-saving
machinery, and in knowledge during the present century. It
would be nearer the truth to say that, owing to increase in
productive power, at no time in human history has the con-
dition of the vast masses of skilled and unskilled workmen
been so highly raised materially, intellectually, and socially.
No one who has studied the writings of one of the ablest
living authorities on this subject — Robert Qiffen, President of
the Royal Statistical Society of England — can help admitting
that the humblest workmen of the present generation in
civilised countries have marvellously improved their condition
as compared with any known period in past history.

Material improvement, unfortunately, cannot eradicate all
evils so long as we have those who are vicious, idle, and
improvident, and the fruit of these evils must ever fill our

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 185

records witli statistics of crime and pauperism. Paradoxical
as it may appear, it is in itself a grand index of moral
improyement moor modem civilisation that we are able to refer
to State-supported paupers, even although this beneyolence
may itself be the fruitful cause in time of adding to our social
difficulties.

To state, however, or to imply that pauperism is propor-
tionately greater now than when productive power was much
less, is contrary to reason and fact.

The chief advantages of the present century in Europe and
in English colonies are, that owing to the wonderful progress
made in means of communication, in knowledge, and in labour*
saving machinery, the masses of men

(1.) Are better fed, clothed, and housed than formerly
and are almost free from the terrible periodic
famines which were so common in the four
preceding centuries, and Which still afflict the
masses in India nearly every third year.

(2.) Are able to obtain primary wants, and even luxuries,
with less hours toil.

(3.) Education and luxuries are now more diffused
among the wage-earniog classes than among the
ruling classes two centuries ago.

(4.) Freedom and privileges, social and political, are
immeasurably greater than in former times.

(5.) Notwithstanding that within the same area (United
Kingdom) the wants of 37 millions have to be
supplied, instead of 2,300,000, as at the close of
the fourteenth century, and about 7^ millions at
the beginning of the eighteenth century, these
wants are now supplied much more certainly and
in much superior quantities per head.

(6.) Life of each individual on the average is greatly
prolonged, owing to improvement in hygiene, social
habits, and in the improvement in material con-
dition.

(7.) There is a much smaller mortality per 1,000;
pauperism and crime is greatly reduced propor-
tionally, and the effective power of labour is
immeasurably superior.

Past and Present Contrasted.

Therefore, whatever evils remain they may still be con-
sistently admitted without denying the great comparative
progress made generally in the age in which it is our good
fortune to live. If we could really picture to ourselves the
actual condition of society in former times, all doubts regarding
progress made in recent times would be speedily set aside.

186 BOOT MATTERS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PBOBLEMS.

Let US for a moment take a glimjpse into past history, as
revealed to us in the pages of Hallam, the historian. Passing
orer the Dark Ages, when the husbandman was either degradea
to menial slavery by brutal predatory lords, or, what was little
better, was afforded suph miserable tenure of villenage as the
feudal lords were pleased to allow, we find the ruling classes
themselves brutal, poor, and ignorant. Thus Hallam writes
of the fifteenth century :— * " It is an error to suppose that the
English gentry were lodged in stately or even m well-sized
houses. ... A gentleman's house, containing three or
four beds, was extraordinarily well provided ; few, probably,
had more than two. The walls were commonly bare, without
wainscot or even plaster. It is unnecessary to add that
neither libraries of books nor pictures could have found a
place among furniture. . . . "No mention is made in
inventories of such conveniences as chairs or looking glasses.
Oottages in England at this time seem to have generally
consisted of a single room without division of stories.
Chimneys were unknown."

Even at the close of the seventeenth century the progress
made was comparatively small. Draper states : — ^ " For a long
time London had been the most populous capital in Europe ;
yet it was dirty, ill-built, without sanitary provision. The
deaths were one in twenty-three each year ;* now, in a much
more crowded population, they are not one in forty " (one in
fifty in the year 1886).

Much of the country was still heath, swamp, and warren.
Nothing more strikingly shows the social condition than the
provisions for locomotion. In the rainy season the roads were
all but impassable. Through such gullies, half filled with
mud, carriages were dragged often by oxen. ... If the
country was open the track of the road was easily mistaken.
It was no uncommon thing for persons to lose their way and
to spend the night out in the air. Between places of con-
siderable importance the roads were sometimes very little
known, and such was the difficulty for four-wheeled carriages
that a principal mode of transport was by pack horses, of
which passengers took advantage by stowing themselves away
between the packs. The usual charge for freight was 15d.
per ton per mile. The country beyond the Trent was still in a
state of barbarism, and near the source of the Tyne there were
people scarcely less savage than American Indians, their "half-
naked women chanting a wild measure, while the men with

1. " Hallam's View of the State of Europe During the Middle Ages." (Murray
and Son, London, pp. 779, 781).

2. " Draper's Intellectual History of Europe," vol. ii., pp. 238, 239.

3. i.e., 43*48 per 1,000, or higher than the birth rate.

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 187

brandished dirks danced a war dance." At the beginning of
the eighteenth centurj even, the only press in England north of
the Trent was at York. Social discipline was verj far from
being of that kind which we call moral. The master whipped
his apprentice, the pedagogue his scholar, the husband his
wife. ... It was a day for the rabble when the culprit
was set in the pillory to be pelted with brickbats, rotten eggs,
and dead cats ; when women were fastened by the legs in the
stocks at the market place, or a pilferer flogged through the
town at the cart tail. ... To a debased public life priyate
life corresponded. The houses of the rural population were
(chimneyless) huts covered with thatch; their inmates, if
able to procure fresh meat once a week, were considered to be
in prosperous circumstances. One-half of the families in
England could hardly do that. Children six years old were
not unfrequently set to labour. In London the houses were
mostly wood and plaster, the streets filthy beyond expression.
There were no lamps. ... As a necessary consequence
there were plenty of shoplifters, highwaymen, and burglars.*'

No earnest and dispassionate person can contrast the con-
ditions of the past with those of the present without frankly
acknowledging the great progress among all classes, including
the lowest in the scale ; and further, that were it not for the
yast increase in productive power the 30 millions of souls
added to the population of the United Kingdom since the
beginning of the eighteenth century would not have been
caUed into existence. Misery and death would have arre^ted
population at the limit of its old lower productive power, just
as it has in all times prevented population from passing
beyond the productive power of the respective times and
places. Nay, no reasonable mind can for a moment doubt
that the extra 30 million souls— with wants supplied more
effectively than were the 7 millions at the beginning of the
eighteenth century — is in itself the best proof that can be
conceived of the beneficial influence exerted by the knowledge
which man has gained over the forces of Nature since that
time. Indeed, so palpable must this appear to any thoughtful
mind that he or she would readily assent to the proposition
that increase of population is possible only so long as the
productive power makes a corresponding advance. When it
becomes stationarj population must become stationary ; and
that means intense competition for primary wants of existence,
resulting in misery and starvation to the weakest, and
indicated most infallibly by a sudden rising of the death rate
to, or even above, the birth rate. These inevitable con»
sequenct'S will be more fully discussed hereafter under the
heading " Population Difficulties." In the meantime, instead
of making idle assertions, let us contrast the present with the

188 BOOT UATTBBS IM SOCIAL ASD RCOKOiaC PBOBLEMa.

past as regards the comparative progreii made in popgl&ti(Ma,
and in material and Bocial eondition.

This can beat be realised by tabulating for distinct pro-
gressiTe periods, statistics bearing upon popalati(m, cnme>
pauperism, effective purcbaaing power of tbe labourer in
relation to primarj wants and comfort. The condition of the
United Elngdom since Ifill affords the beat index of com-
parative progress.

OOMPABVTITB EPFBCTITE PuBCHASINO PoWBB <

LiSOUJL

Much information of value is lacking in the earlier periods
referred to, but what is locking would tell all the more in
favour of the condition of the labourer in existing times : —

Bitimated
Population.

li1

Paupers Per

'is

Year.

No. Pop.

M-

a. d.

B. d.

DaTs' Laboor

Able-
liDdied

1843-1702

S,3W,000

7,600.000
16,237.300

;aince"l.«0)

87,370
E71,0M

laioi

36 1

6 11

eoj

3109

190

10 La 7 .

The few figures in the preceding table tell a significant
tale. Of course, it would be alleged by all who had pre*
conceived notions that rates of wages and prices do not
always reveal the effective power of the labourer to command
primary wants. But no index of this relative power can be
so satisfactorily shown than by reference to the relative pur-
chasing power of the labourer aa regards the Btaff of life.
Whatever qualification may be urged, it ia undoubted that
the purchasing command of bread is the most powerful index
to purchasing command over other wants.

Now, when it is shown that the average weekly wage of
the wa^e-earning class at the present time, by the expenditure

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 189

•of 6*86 days' labour, commands as much power in purchasing

one quarter of wheat as it would take the same class

16*30 dajs in the period 1541-1582

40-28 „ „ „ 1583-1642

31-09 „ „ „ 1643-1702

what possibly could be more conclusive ?

Especially favoured is the wage-earner of Australasia who
can command the same power by the expenditure of 4*34
days' labour; whereas it would cost the same class in 1583-1642
the fruits of 40*28 days, i.e., nearly ten times more. Surely
this alone should dispose of all reckless statements having a
contrary tendency in measuring comparative advantages with
the present time. The lowering of. the death rate, and the
consequent more rapid increase of population; the relative
decrease in the proportion of paupers, especially the able-
bodied ; the decrease in serious crimes, all tell the same tale
of unparalleled progress.

The Present Condition op the Masses in England and
Wales as Compared with Their Condition During
the 200 Years Ending in the Year 1800.

If still we must admit that the present condition of England
and Wales is such that great misery oppresses many, it must
also be borne in mind that her present death rate, 19-3 per
1,000, is the lowest upon the records ; and her natural rate of
increase, although far below that of the colonies, shows an
increase of 1-4 per cent, per year.

No statistics directly bearing upon the misery and death
rate of the 200 years ending 1700 are available, but there is
good evidence to show that the population in the year 1500
numbered about 2,300,000. In the year 1700, or 200 years
later, it only numbered 5,475,000, i.«., an increase of 3,175,000
in 200 years, equivalent to an increase of one per 1,000 per
year. There is every reason to believe that the birth rate was
at least as high as in recent years ; and if this be correct, it
follows that the death rate must have averaged 34*3 per 1,000,
instead of 19 3 per 1,000, as in recent years.

Now, what does this mean. Why, that formerly the struggle
for means of existence was so terrible that 15 deaths per
1,000 persons took place beyond the number now occurrinjg.
This lamentable state of things is better realised when we.
see that it represents the destruction of the possibility of
2,364,800 lives in the 200 years referred to, above the average
rate now occurring.

Surely this evidence should dispel all doubt respecting the
•comparative state of misery, past and present.

Nor is this fJL Mr. Qmen (1) has shoim byunmisla^ble
reference to facts that in the admitted great increase of

190 BOOT MATTERS IN SOOIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS.

wealth during the last fifty years the rich have not improyedi
their incomes in the same ratio as the working classes^
Thus:—

Pbogbess of National Income in Millions of £*b.

Income.

Increase.

In 184a

Present
Time.

Amount.

Per Cent.

Capitalist Classes from
Capital

Working Income in
Income Tax Return

Working Income Not
Included in Income
Tax Return

190
90

235

400
180

620

210
90

385

110
100

160

—

615

1200

686

130

Thus we perceive the falsification of Mr. Henry George's
statement with regard to the alleged exemption of the worfing
classes from any share in the present progress in the aggre-
gation of wealth ; for not only do they also share in the
material progress of our times, but it is shown that the pro-
portion of the lowest group in the increased wealth (160 per
cent.) is by far greater than that of the two higher (100 ta
110 per cent.) It is impossible to enumerate all the com-
parative advantages of those who live in the present day, due
to improvements in knowledge, but the indices given should
decide all earnest enquirers that whatever difficulties still
exist are small, indeed, in comparison with what men suffered
from in former times. The greatest difficulty which now
threatens, is not that man's power to further command the
forces of Nature may fail, but the far more serious con-
sideration : Will the increase of such power be commensurate
with the high rate of natural increase which is the
inevitable concomitant of a comfortable existence ? This
brings us to the problem of problems — Population.

Increasing Numbers.

Residents of new countries, with a scant population, and
with vast natural resources in the shape of unlimited areas of
unoccupied and unutilised virgin lands, longingly picture the-
transformation of these areas into yellow cornfields, fruitful

BY B. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 191

gardens, verdant pasturage teeming with browsing cattle,
busy industrial centres crowded with the homes of industrious
and happy people.

Ah ! little do they know of the never-failing Nemesis which,
like a sleuth hound, dogs the steps of an ever-increasing
population. Happy selectors of easily-acquired choice lands
may luxuriously grumble at the amount of their taxation, the
low price of mutton and corn, their bad roads, and the impos-
sibility of extending their operations in the production of corn
•and wool, so long as the wages of farm and other labour are
so high.

The professional and merchant class may reasonably
grumble at the scarcity of men and products which restricts
their respective callings, and may impatiently rail against the
slow progress which the country is making in population and
ihe creation of products. The few wealthy men of leisure may
hanker after the amusements and honours so common in
thickly-crowded centres, where the attractive ministry of cheap
labour is but too common.

The comparative comfortable artizan or labourer, under
such favourable conditions, may in verbal or literary debate
still wage a lively dispute whether the irksome eight hours'
labotir — or weekly half -holiday — may not be further improved,
and the rate of wages further raised above the rates of over-
peopled old countries, but he does not view with favour the
fresh introduction of labourers in his own craft.

The consumers of the services of local dear labour may
desire the introduction of the surplus cheaper labour of
Europe, and for the sake of Protection may urge upon the
Oovemment the necessity of extending the advantages of
external Free Trade. On the ather hand, the protector of a
local monopoly of relatively high wages or more dearer local
manufactures, may more strenuously advocate the necessity
of increasing the tariff on all manufactures from other
countries, especially on such as may be produced locally. It
will be seen, therefore, that in young countries, as well as in
the old, we have the battle of interests still waged, if not so
keen. The competitor or seller of serrices cries for Protec-
tion ; and the user or consumer of services enlarges upon the
harmonies and advantages of universal Free Trade.

Few recognise the truth that individual welfare depends
less upon the greatness of the aggregate wealth of a country
than upon the proportion which freedom from excessive
competition gives each individual over the local natural
sources of utility, including primary wants ; and that the
country possessing the greatest aggregate of material wealth
may, owing to the competition of excessive numbers, present
the spectacle of a small privileged minority absorbing an

192 BOOT MATTSBS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOHIO PBOBLEMS.

unparalleled share of luxurious wealth, while the masses are-
struggliag^for the barest subsistence.

AU other things being equal, it follows that in the country
where Nature's gratuitous stores of wealth, as regards food
and other essential products, far exceeds the power of its^
inhabitants to utilise, yet, notwithstanding the comparative
insignificance of its accumulated wealth in exchange, its
inhabitants on the average are individuallj happier, and enjojr
a much larger share of material comforts, than the inhabitaiitft
of countries, however great the aggregate wealth, but whose
natural resources as regards food products are far below the
local requirement of its teeming inhabitants.

Two nations standing in this relation to each other would
correspond to the relation of two individuals where one is the
privileged capitalist or buyer, and the other the unprivileged
seller of labour service. In other words, the latter would be
in the position of the needy Esau in being forced to sell his.
whole birthright to preserve his life ; the former would occupy
the favourable position of Jacob, who had merely to part with
a portion of his surplus of primary wants (red pottage) to
secure a large augmentation to his wealth of pleonexia.

This, unfortunately for many old centres of civilisation, is-
no overdrawn statement — the creation of enthusiastic declama-
tion or sentimentality — for if we take one of the most vigorous
countries of Europe (England), with its untold wealth in the
aggregate, and compare it with the young colony of Victoria,
we may readily demonstrate the verity of what has been
alleged.

Population Difficulties, ob the Stbuggle fob

Existence.

Darwin (page 52, Origin of Species) has observed " that
in a state of nature almost every full-grown plant annually
produces seed, and amongst animals there are ifew which do
not annually pair. Hence we may confidently assert that all
plants and animals are tending to increase at a geometrical
ratio — that all would rapidly stock every station in which
they could anyhow exist. And this geometrical tendency to
increase must be checked by destruction at some period of
life," and, as an inevitable consequence, he goes on to add
** that each individual lives by a struggle at some period of
its life, that heavy destruction falls either on the young or
old during each generation, or at recurrent intervals. Lighten
any check, mitigate the destruction ever so little, and the
number of the species will almost instantaneously increase to
any amount."

These considerations, when fully appreciated, form the
foundation of the problem of Malthus.*

* An Essay on the Principle of Population. Malthus. (2 vols, London, 1826.)

BT S. H JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 193

That Mr. Henry George alto^ther failed to grasp the
Yarious elements of this problem is at once apparent by the
manner in which in his otherwise very attractive work,
<< Progress and Poverty/' he has attempted to refute the
conclusions of Malthus.

As he has fallen into the most simple errors in his adverse
comments upon Malthus, it may be as well to state with
greater precision the factors of the problem, thus : —
P. — ^Actual population.

I. — Natural tendency to increase.

(a) At its maximum in an ideal state of perfect

health, virtue, peace and prosperity.
(h) At its minimum when the opposite of this
state obtains.
T. — ^Natural limit of life ; death at extreme old age.

C. — Checks, cutting off life before the healthy limit
of life has been reached, among which are pro-
minent : —

(a) Competition of other forms of animal life-
zymotic diseases, parasites, attacks by
beasts of prey, etc.
(h) Insufficiency of food or famine, whether
from seasonable influence, poor soil,
climate, ignorance, wilful waste, or
improvidence.

causes, such as earthquakes or volcanic
outbursts, cannibalism, infant and senile
murder, massacre.

(d) Diseases, whether due to ignorance, vice,

human neglect of hygiene, climatOi
cosmical influences, etc.

(e) Diseases due to the tendency of civilised

communities to aggregate in dense num-
bers, as in cities and towns.
(/) Misery the close attendant of these evils.

M. — ^Moral restraint operating upon I.

E. — Means of subsistence, varying with season, but
increased absolutely by numbers and increasing
• knowledge of natural resources ; the ratio per
individual, however, gradually lessening as the
poorer lands and waters are invaded by swelling
numbers.

P. — ^The absolute limit when a greater density for each
square mile of the earth's surface is reached by
removal or the minimising of all repressive checks.
About 2'83 acres in cultivation is now necessary
for the support of each person living.

JL94 BOOT MATTEBS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS.

G. — The final stage, the world peopled to its fall Umit^
and the struggle for existence only permitting a
perpetuation of the maximum population at E
by the effects of T ; and the failure of either in
any degree, again re- introducing of necessity
checks C, a, h, c, d, e, and so producing a decline
in population, although the natural tendency I to
multiply may still be conceived to be as vigorous
and ])rolific as at the first.

When Malthus affirmed that the ratio of increase of popu-
lation advanced faster than the ratio of increase of means of
subsistence, he never stated or conceived that population
could actually outstrip the means of subsistence as interpreted
and discussed by Mr. Henry George (p. 17, book ii.), and
hence the whole of Mr. George's citations and reasonings are
either fallacious, or they never touch upon the real causes at
the root of Malthus' problem. That there is a thorough
misconception on the part of Mr. Henry George is clearly
proved by the following quotation from Malthus (p. 243, vol.
ii. " Malthus on Population ") : — " According to the principles
of population the human race has a tendency to increase faster
than food. It has, therefore, a constant tendency to people a
country fully up to the limits of subsistence (F or G), but by '
the laws of Nature it can never go beyond them, meaning, of
course, by these limits the lowest quantity of food which will
maintain a stationary population. Population, therefore, can
never, strictly speaking, precede food." This clear expression
on the part of Malthus casts aside the whole of Mr. George's
ratiocinations as worthless. His inability to grasp the most
important elements of the problem is still further made
manifest by his query, p. 17, ** How is it, then, that this
globe of ours, after all the thousands, and it is thought
millions, of years, that man has been upon the earth, is yet
so thinly populated.

I can hardly conceive that a man of Mr. George's intelli-
gence could put forward such a plea in proof of his con-
tention that the natural tendency of population (I) is not
towards an increase in the direction of the limits of sub-
sistence.

His query indicates unmistakably that he confounds the
product with the ever-varying factors plus and minus I, T,
and C, which make the product (P). There is no argument
necessary to show the absurdity of ignoring the value and
tendency of I, because the product P does not disclose a
similar value and tendency.

For example, the query entirely ignores the whole burden
of Malthus' problem by the effects of the checks T and C.
The mere fact, notwithstanding the powerful influence checks

BY B. H. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 197

the increase, stationariness, or decline in the jpopulation of
different cotintvies. Malthus was not so Tisionaiy as to
expect the entire elimination of anj of the factors. He only
hoped to regulate population in relation to means of sub-
sistence, by the substitution of an increased power of check
M, in place of the terrible check C. He conceived that as
man grew in knowledge and dignity, he might be able by
degrees to lower the terrible influence of C, thus favouring
the state P a ; the latter being prevented from again re-intro-
ducing the evil effects of C by the substitution of influences
increasing the power of the superior central check M. If the
check C now ruthlessly in operation be removed altogether or
reduced to a minimum — a most desirable thing for its own
sake, it is certain that the geometrical increase of I would
produce a maximum effect as D a, and this would sooner or
later, if unchecked, over-populate the whole earth. No matter
in what degree the final stage was delayed by increased
knowledge and productiveness, fairer modes of wealth dis-
tribution, and the gradual spread over all habitable areas ; or
hastened by exhaustion of existing sources of -wealth, or a
state of anarchy ; the stage would in effect be often reached
in particular isolated districts, although not in all, by reason
of human ignorances, jealousies, prejudices, not to mention
lower types of human beings unfitted for the reception of a
higher civilisation.

Had it not been for the fortunate discovery of the steam
engine, the perfecting of means of transport, and the discovery
of new fertile continents (Australia and America) thinly
populated, opening out vast additional sources of production
and affording relief to the pressure of crowded European
centres, it is certain the state of Europe would be very
different at the present hour ; and the check C would long ere
this have reduced existing crowded centres to half their
present numbers. What would England do with her present
population (37 millions) if America and Australia were no
longer open to her emigrants and no longer furnished food
and other products ? England is now a striking example of
a country whose population has rapidly outstripped the means
of subsistence so far as local supply of food is concerned.

It will readily be conceived, therefore, that the complicated
problem of Malthus is— the elimination of C altogether, or,
as far as it lies within man's control ; with the substitution of
an increased power of M, only when deemed to be absolutely
necessary to banish the dire influence of C. Both Malthus
and Mr. Henry George agree in desiring the elimination of
check C, but Malthus showed that this constant effect, due to
vice, ignorance, disease, and misery, could only be finally
grappled with effectually, by never allowing P, or density of
population, to press too strongly on the means necessary to

196 BOOT MATTESa IN SOCIAL AND BCOKOiaC PBOBLEBI&

No better exiample from actual facts could be obtained tp
show that the increase of disease and miseiy, as shown bj
the death rate C + T has more influence in lowering the
value of B a, or surplus of births oyer deaths, than the
lowering of the rate of births ; for Norway's actual rate of
increase is higher than that of Spain and Hungary respec*
tively by 7*8 and 1*1 per 1,000 persons ; although its birth
rate is actually lower than in these countries by 5*7 and 14*4
per 1,000 respectively. In a healthy, happy, prosperous, and
peaceful country, the actual rate of increase is invariably
high, due to a high birth rate and a low death rate.

In an unhealthy, miserable, and savage society, the ten-
dency, while these conditions last, is invariably shown in a
higher death than birth rate, resulting in a positive decline in
population.

It is clear, therefore, that when population is declining it
is rather because misery, disease, and vice have abnormally
raised the death rate higher than the birth rate, and not
because of any material tendency to a decline in the birth
rate.

While there are different stages of civilisation in existence,
over-population is a relative term applicable to the particular
country, and not an absolute quantity to be determined by
an absolute number of persons to a given area, as most
erroneously indicated by Mr. George. This is clear to any
one who studies the civilisation and the sanitary state of
different countries.

When peoples who have attained to the same state of
civilisation are so situated that the struggle for existence is
made ligther for a given community by local causes, such as
may be seen in the comparison between the Australian colonies
and the older countries of Europe — then the increased pros-
perity, the diminution of competition for labour, the increased
health due to the smaller density of population, and other
advantages — climate not being too unequal — ^would show such
an improvement in the actual rate of increase from nattiral
causes alone that their effect is significant and instructive.
Thus, although the actual rate of increase in the colonies,
during many years, is equal to about 20*05 per 1,000 (not
including the effects of immigration), or about 10 per 1,000
above the rate of Europe, nevertheless, its average birth rate
is only about 1*5 per 1,000 higher. This again forcibly proves
that the higher rate of actual increase to population is due
mainly to favourable circumstances lowering check C, or
deaths from preventible causes. These illustrations by explicit
reference to actual facts entirely overthrow the arguments of
Mr. Henry George, which solely confine attention to one of
the two great factors in the problem relating to the causes of

BY B. H. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 197

the increase, stationariness, or decline in the jpopulation of
dcfferent countries. Malthus was not so Tisionaiy as to
expect the entire elimination of any of the factors. He only
hoped to regulate population in relation to means of sub-
sistence, by the substitution of an increased power of check
M, in place of the terrible check C. He conceived that as
man grew in knowledge and dignity, he might be able by
degrees to lower the terrible influence of C, thus favouring
the state F a ; the latter being prevented from again re-intro-
ducing the evil effects of C by the substitution of influences
increasing the power of the superior central check M. If the
check C now ruthlessly in operation be removed altogether or
reduced to a minimum — a most desirable thing for its own
sake, it is certain that the geometrical increase of I would
produce a maximum effect as D a, and this would sooner or
later, if unchecked, over-populate the whole earth. No matter
in what degree the final stage was delayed by increased
knowledge and productiveness, fairer modes of wealth dis-
tribution, and the gradual spread over all habitable areas ; or
hastened by exhaustion of existing sources of wealth, or a
state of anarchy ; the stage would in effect be often reached
in particular isolated districts, although not in all, by reason
of human ignorances, jealousies, prejudices, not to mention
lower types of human beings unfitted for the reception of a
higher civilisation.

Had it not been for the fortunate discovery of the steam
engine, the perfecting of means of transport, and the discovery
of new fertile continents (Australia and America) thinly
populated, opening out vast additional sources of production
and affording relief to the pressure of crowded European
centres, it is certain the state of Europe would be very
different at the present hour ; and the check C would long ere
this have reduced existing crowded centres to half their
present numbers. What would England do with her present
population (37 millions) if America and Australia were no
longer open to her emigrants and no longer furnished food
and other products P England is now a striking example of
a country whose population has rapidly outstripped the means
of subsistence so far as local supply of food is concerned.

It will readily be conceived, therefore, that the complicated
problem of Malthus is — the elimination of C altogether, or,
as far as it lies within man's control ; with the substitution of
an increased power of M, only when deemed to be absolutely
necessary to banish the dire influence of C. Both Malthus
and Mr. Henry George agree in desiring the elimination of
check C, but Malthus showed that this constant effect, due to
vice, ignorance, disease, and misery, could only be finally
grappled with effectually, by never allowing P, or density of
population, to press too strongly on the means necessary to

198 ROOT MATTERS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS.

preserve a population in a healthy and happy state, and this
could not be practically effected without some such controlling
influences as M. The nobleness of Malthus' aims, and the
problems which he endeavoured to grapple with, are alto-
gether misconceived by Mr. George and other opponents*
Some (might I not add the popular view) even maliciously or
carelessly identify the Malthusian problem with the revolting
physical check of Condorcet and others ; and also of the view
which rests in considering vice and misery as necessary evils.
This proves that such people have not honestly studied the
views of this much-wronged philanthropist. This is indis«
putably proved by the following quotations from his writings,
pp. 478, 479 : " Vice and misery, and these alone, are the
evils which it has been mj great object to contend against. I
have expressly proposed moral restraint (M) as their rational
and proper remedy ; and whether the remedy be good or bad,
adequate or inadequate, the proposal itself and the stress
which I have laid upon it, is an incontrovertible proof that I
never can have considered vice and misery as themselves
remedies." In connection with these unfair charges urged by
a Mr. Graham, he, in a dignified rejoinder, maintains, " It is
therefore quite inconceivable that any writer with the slightest
pretension to respectability should venture to bring forward
such imputations, and it must be allowed to show either such
a degree of ignorance, or such a total want of candour, as
utterly to disqualify him for the discussion of such subjects."
And with respect to charges identifying his view with the
restraints prescribed by Condorcet, he distinctly affirms, *' I
have never adverted to the check suggested by Condorcet
without the most marked disapprobation. Indeed, I should
always particularly reprobate any artificial and unnatural
modes of checking population on account of their immorality
and their tendency to remove a necessary stimulus to
industry . . . the restraints which I have recommended
are quite of a different character. They are not only pointed
out by reason and sanctioned by religion, but tend in the most
marked manner to stimulate industry. It is not easy to
conceive a more powerful encouragement to exertion and good
conduct than the looking forward to marriage as a state
peculiarly desirable, but only to be enjoyed in comfort by the
acquisition of habits of industry, economy, and prudence, and
it is in this light I have always wished to place it." How
clearly and nobly Mai thus explains his check of moral
restraint is a matter which ought to leave no doubt of the
purity and nobleness of his views, whatever doubts may
remain as regards the efficacy of the moral check in itself.
The possibility of the check, too, pre-supposes the general
possession of moral strength sufficiently inadequate, not
merely during large intervals of time, but at all times ; for

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, F.L.S. 19d

the effects of opposing passion might wreck its efficacy at any
moment if we do not contemplate the superior strength and
continuous exertion of the higher moral virtue.

I think 1 have in these observations fairlj vindicated the
nobility of Malthus' ideal, however we may demur to it as
regards adequacy. It has also been clearly shown that the
problem is a serious one ; and individuals, and the poorer
classes often reach the limit of the means of subsistence long
before society as a whole feels its pressure. How are we to
eliminate the elements of disease, vice, and misery which at
present form the only check C against over-population in
crowded centres without substituting some adequate check of a
superior kind ? This is the problem of Malthus.

Let us see what a small percentage of increase in population,
would effect in a short period of time.

If murder, war or epidemic, disease or misery, be not
further increased, it woiild follow inevitably —

That the offspring of eight persons alone, at the present rate
of natural increase in Australasia, would so multiply that : —

(8 persons) In 961 years they would number 1,480 millions,

equal to the whole present popula-
tion of the globe.

1314*3 years they would place one person on
every 100 square yards of the land
surface of the globe.

1527 years they would place one person on
each square yard of the estimated
cultivable portion of the earth'a
surface.

1543*9 years they would place one person on
each square vard of the total sur-
face of the land of tiie globe.

But it is more terrible still if we contemplate starting with the
existing population of the earth, t-M., 1,480 million persons^
and if we also reckon that the same number of acres must be
cultivated to supply each person, as at present, tnz., 2*83 acres
per head nearly.

With these conditions —

(1,480 millions) In 85*03 years there would be one person to

every 2*83 acres of all the culti-
vable laud surface of the globe.

122*48 years there would be one person te
every 2*83 acres of land surface,,
whether cultivable or not.

^XSO BOOT MATTEBd IK SOCIAL AND £C6K0HIC PROBLEMS.

167*6 years, or in the year 2047, there
would be one person to every <icre
of land open to the foot of man,
supposing that one acre was by
some miracolons means sufficient'
for his support, and that all arctic
and torrid parts of the earth
could be made habitable.

586*15 years, or in the year 24769
there would be one person ta
every square yard of total land
sur&ce on the globe, supposing
that by miraculous interrention
life could exist under such con-
ditions.

United Kingdom,
The natural increase of the population of the United
Kingdom in recent years, owing to comparatively low death
rate, has been increasing at the rate of 1*4 per cent, per year.
The density of population of London is at present about one
person to every 90 square yards.

In 339 9 years— if misery and disease does
not increase the death rate —
her population would cover the
whole land as a vast city with a
density equal to the present City
of Loudon.
157*7 years this density would be reached
under the same conditions, if the
death rate was as low as in Aus-
tralia at the present time.

United States.
The present limits of the United States are stated to be
about 2,291,855,000 acres, and her present population may be
stated at about 57,000,000. Allow that the present average
of 2*81 acres per head in cultivation is necessary to supply the
wants of each person, and that f ths of her whole area are
available for cultivation. Then if her death rate be not raised
by misery and disease, the population would increase at the
rate of 2 per cent., as at present in Australia (i.e., if no ^ro-
mdential influence checks the birth rate), and

In 119*8 years, or in the year 2009, the limits
of available land would be reached,
viz.,
134*4, or in the year 2023, under the same
conditions, this limit would be
reached, even if it were possible
to cultivate every square yard of
the whole country.

BT B. H. JOHKSTONV F.L.S. 2ai

NothitLg shows better the incohereooe of Mr. Henry George's
80<-oalled disproof of the Malthusiaii theory as in tmit portion
where he deals with man as limited by space. The figures
referred to show, without doubt, that if misery as a check to
population be banished, the increase to population would at
least be not less than 2 per cent, per year, and this would in
85 years, or within the limits of the life of persons now livings
ezluiust all available lands, even if all available lands (pro-
viding 2*81 acres for each person) could be made to yield the
same average as the better lands now cultivated ; and this
near contingency Mr. Henry George scoffs at as something so
distantly remote " as to have for us no more practical interest
than the recurrence of the glacial period or the final extinguish-
ment of the sun.'' Bhapsodical nonsense of this sort ill-
becomes one who professes to discuss so momentous a question,
and one who professes to be so enthusiastic in attempting to
grapple with the real difficulties which hitherto have barred
the material, intellectual, moral, and social progress of
mankind.

On the other hand, it is logically impossible by any scheme
of civilisation yet propounded by man, except that suggested
by Malthus (moral check), to dispose of the existing misery
of mankind.

It would be inhuman to perceive this terrible dilemma, and
not in heart and spirit rebel against it. Who does not flinch
as he gazes upon this terrible enigma P It is no wonder,
therefore, that manv emotional natures are either struck
mentalljr blind at the fierce light, or try to escape the bitter
conclusions which calm reason points out as inevitable by
concealing, ostrich like, the eyes of reason in the sands of
passionate rhetoric. The worst calamities that exist seem to
be far more easily borne if we could but suppose them to be
solely the results of man's own doings. In this conclusion
there is a hope of escape in the thought that man may undo
or amend what he has done amiss. Hence, no doubt, the
natural repulsion of Mr. Henry George to the terrible thought
that the inexorable laws of Nature dominate, corporeally at
least, over the single life, and over the types of Adam's race,
much in the same way as Nature has hitherto dealt with the
thousand types of earlier races that have vanished. He but
utters the human cry of passion when he urges that this is not
the doing of the Almighty Euler. " We degrade the Ever-
lasting ; we slander the Just One. A merciful man would have
better ordered the world." Alas ! alas ! Who does not, oc
has not at times, made similar despairing exclamations and
passionate protests.

With respect to the statements of Mr. Henry Gteoige, which
led to this outburst of declamation, they are but a repetition of

202 BOOT MATTERS IN SOCIAL AKD ECONOMIC PROBLEMS.

the atticude of the gifted and eloquent M. de Lamennais that
drew from Bastiat the following just rebuke, which applies
equally to writers of Mr. Henry George's class : — ^ ** In all this
we see only fallacious declamation which series as the basis
of dangerous conclusions ; and we cannot help regretting that
an eloquence so admirable should be devoted to giving popular
currencv to the most fatal errors."

The possible annihilation of our race, like those races that
have gone, has weighed upon the thoughtful and pitiful in all
ages, but nowhere does tbis feeliug find nobler expression than
in the words of the most thoughtful and tender of living
poets : —

" Are God and Nature then at strife,
That Nature lends such evil dreams :
So careful of the type she seems.
So careless of the single life ?
* So careful of the type !' but no^

From scarped elm and quarned stone
She cries, A thousand tvpes are gone ;
I care for nothing ; all shall go ;
Thou makest thine ai)peal to me ;
I bring to life, I bring to death.
The spirit does but mean the breath ;
I know no mora* And he— shall he,
Man, her last work, who seem'd so fair
Such splendid purpose in his eyes.
Who roird the psalm to wintry skies,
And built his fanes of fruitless prayer, —
Who trusted God was love indeed,
And love Creation's final law.
Though Nature, red in tooth and claw,
With ravine shrieked against his creed —
Who loved, who suffered countless ills,
Who battled for the true, the just,
Be blown about the desert dust,
Or seal'd within the iron hills 1
No more ! A discord. A monster then a dream.
Dragons of the prime
That lure each other in their slime
Were mellow music, match'd with him.
O life, as futile then as frail —
O for thy voice to soothe and bless
What hope of answer or redress.
Behind the veil, behind the veil !"

Thus the poet's refuge is in the after life. But have we no
hope of amelioration in the present. Yes, we do hope. But
all our hopes may prove fruitless if we do not bravely face the
real difficulty.

The substitution of the providential preventive check (the
moral check of Malthus) to over-population, for the hitherto
prevailing misery or repressive cbeck is the one escape for

1. Baiitiat. '* Harmonies of Political Economy." (Part ii., p. 90).

BY R. M. JOHNSTON, P.L.S. 203

society, even if it be only to maintain the social advantages that
we now enjoy. Of countries which have as yet shown any
tendency to successfully grapple with this problem, the only
examples known to us are those of Switzierland and France,
notably the latter.

The average birth and death rates of 14 States of Europe,
and seven colonies of Australasia, afford some idea of their
relative influence upon population, thus : —

Per 1^0. Percentage

Birth Kate. l)eath Eate. Increase.
Average of 13 European

States 33*8 23*5 1'03

Seven Colonies of Aus-
tralasia 34*4 13*6 208

France ... 24*8 22*2 0*26

The low birth rate of France (not her death rate, which is even
below the average of Europe) is the special reason why her
population remains almost stationary.

That her birth rate should be 9 per 1,000 below the average
of Europe is a remarkable thing. Is it due to a lowered racial
vitality, or to moral and providential causes ? If it be due to
the latter influence, a study of the conditions of social life in
France is of peculiar importance. The Hon. Gr. Shaw Lefevre,
M.P., in his work on *' English and Irish Land Question," has
carefully studied the influence of large and small ownerships of
the land, and unhesitatingly concludes that to the large pro-
portion of small owners in France, as compared with England,
is to be attributed the great superiority of the great mass
of its industrial population. He states: — '*The prophecies
of Arthur Young and McCuUoch that her system of small
cultivation would lead to her becoming the pauper warren
of Europe, and her sons the hewers of wood and drawers
of water for the rest of Europe, have not been fulfilled. On
the contrary, * Production has been greatly stimulated by
the sense and security of ownership; hut the population
has not increased relatively in the same proportion; the
average condition of the people, therefore, is vastly improved.
Pauperism is almost unknown in rural districts ; the habits of
industry and thrift are universal.' " The same author wisely
observes : — " If the institutions of France have resulted in a
self-acting process of adapting the growth of her population to
the means of subsistence, it would seem to be not the least
merit of a system which is based upon the wide distribution of
property, bringing home to the lowest, as well as the highest, the
motives of restraint." If only a portion of this be true, the
world will owe to France the grandest lesson in social economy.
Here we see a possible escape from the terrible Malthusian
dilemma. France has attained her present state of social
welfare in rural districts by legal restriction against family
entails, which lead to the agglomeration of big estates in few

204 ROOT MATTERS IN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIO PROBLEMS.

hands, and by legal facilities for land transfer; and Mr. Lefevre
urges that England should follow her example. This matter
should receive the greatest attention at the hands of legislators
in these colonies, for mighty issues are at stake, socially and
politically.

Can a Higher Culture be Maintained in any one
Country Without KEauLATiNa its Intercourse with

OTHER EacES op MeN IN A LoWER PlANE OF

Civilisation ?

There is still another difficulty to face, even if one en-
lightened country by providence had succeeded in adapting the
growth of that population to the means of subsistence.

And this difficulty now presses hard upon the labourers of a
higher civilisation open by Free Trade to the competition of
the labour market of a lower or more degraded form of civili-
sation. The partial exclusion of cheap Chinese labour from
America and these colonies may, or may not, have been in
accord with the principle of Free Trade ; but it opens up a
grave subject. For if a higher culture could be enabled by pro-
vident moral or self-control to successfully grapple and overcome
the present enigmas of social science, how is it possible that such
a culture could be effectually preserved if it were open to be
disturbed by the cheap labour or the starvation price products
of other nations, who, by improvidence and lack of moral
control, were still sunk in the abyss of that wretchedness which
is due to over-population ? In this aspect I am humbly of
opinion the doctrines of Free Trade and Protection require
further consideration ; and it is with the hope that the reason-
able discussion of such matters may shed fresh light upon this
and related problems that I have had the courage to address
you upon these old, well-worn, but hitherto uusoluble difficul-
ties belonging to social and economic science.

One thought impresses me not a little. It is this: All
truths that are painful are blindly and passionately resisted by
the majority, who also are ever pror,e to reward skill when it is
employed in opposing or obscuring what is hateful. It cannot
be hoped, therefore, tliat the warnings given with respect to
the danger that awaits ue in the near future will be much
heeded at present. The world's greatest intellects and genius
are, for tlie most part, supported in defending popular views ;
for it is not found to be a difficult matter for men of greatest
literary talent and skill to show, where complications abound,
that the true is false, and the false is true. Popular favour is a
terrible taskmaster, for she refuses bread to those who fail to
work her pleasure. I do not, therefore, undervalue the temp-
tation which ensnares the majority of able minds to continue
tlie defence of pleasant delusions, when these alone find a ready
market of txchangc value. But the evil time draws too near
for delusive teaching. It is now necessary that those who
see the rocks ahead should speak out faithfully.

205

THE EXPEDITION UNDER LIEUTENANT-
GOVERNOR COLLINS IN 1803-4.

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER.
Head 14th October, 1889. *

1. The Origin of the Expedition and the
Voyage to Port Phillip.

In former papers which I have had the honor to read
before the Royal Society, I have endeavoured to trace
the influence of French rivalry in hastening the English
settlement of Australia. I have shown that to the
pioneer work of French navigators we owe the first
admirable surveys of the southern coasts of Tasmania,
and that it was wholly due to the apprehensions that
those surveys excited that Governor King sent Lieut.
Bo wen from Port Jackson to take possession of the
Derwent.

I have also briefly touched on the explorations of our
own English sailors in the neighbourhood of the Derwent
and in Bass' Strait, and the influence of their reports in
deciding the choice of localities for new colonies, while I
have followed the misfortunes of the unlucky settlement
at Risdon, and described its collapse after a short and
troubled life of little more than half a year.

The real history of Tasmania as an English colony
begins with the departure from England, in the spring of
1803, of the expedition of Lieutenant-Governor Collins,*
the founder of Hobart; and it is with the origin and
misadventures of that expedilion on its way to the
Derwent that I have to deal in the present paper.

The project of the English Government to found a
colony on the shores of Bass' 'Strait, and the unsuccess-
ful attempt of Governor Collins to plant that settlement

♦The first lieutenant of the Calcutta published a narrative of the
voyage of the expedition to Port Phillip, and of its &ilure there.
"Account of a Voyage to establish a Colony at Port Phillip, in
Bass' Straits, in H.M.S. Calcutta, in 1802-3-4. By James
Kingston Tuckey." London, 1805.

The principal official documents relating to the expedition down
to the date of its departure from Port Phillip, have been printed by
Mr. Francis Peter Labilliere, in his *' Early History of the Colony
of Victoria," 2 vols., London, 1878, and also by Mr. James
Bonwick, in his " Port PhiUip Settlement," London, 1883. The
Hev. Robert Knopwood's Diary has been printed by Mr. John J.
Shillinglaw in his " Early Historical Records of Port Phillip,"
Melbounio, 1878 ; 2nd edition, 8vo., 1879. The diary was coi)ied
from the original Ihen in the possession pf the late Mr. Vernon W,
Hookey, of Hobart,

206 EXPEDITION UNDER LIEUT.-QOV. COLLINS.

Labilliere,
L, 125.

Homo Office
to Colonial
Office, 17tli
Dec. 1802.

at Port Phillip in 1803, may at first sight appear to
be beyond the scope of the history of Tasmania, and
to belong exclusively to that of Victoria. But Collins'
expedition has absolutely nothing to do with the history
of our Victorian neighbours. The sandhills of Port
Phillip merely served for a month or two as a resting
place for the colonists on their way to the Derwent.
The short stay of Collins' people on Victorian soil was
only an incident in their passage from England to Van
Diemen's Land, like their touching at Rio or the Cape ;
and the story of those months is an essential part of the
history of the first settlers of Hobart.

The idea of the settlement emanated from Captain
Philip Gidley King, the then Governor of New south
Wales, and was, doubtless, suggested to him by the
arrival at Port Jackson of the French ship the
Naturaliste from Bass' Straits, and the suspicions thus
excited in his mind with respect to French designs on
His Majesty's territories in New Holland.

On the 21st May, 1802— shortly after the arrival of
the Naturaliste^ but before Commodore Baudin's own
ship had reached Port Jackson — the Governor addressed
a despatch to the Duke of Portland pressing upon him
the importance of founding a colony at the newly dis-
covered harbour of Port Phillip, of the soil, climate, and
advantageous position of which he had just received a
very favourable report from Captain Flinders, who had
explored it in th6 preceding month. The reason most
sironglj urged by King was the necei^sity of being before-
hand with the French, who, in Ins opinion, were bent on
getting a footing somewhere in Bass' Straits.

When the Governor's despatch reached England there
was for the moment peace with France, but French
movements were viewed with the utmost suspicion, and
a speedy renewal of the war was regarded as inevitable.
H.M.S. Calcutta was under orders to take to New South
Wales a further detachment of 400 male convicts and
some 50 free settlers, and preparations were being made
to send her off immediately. King's recommendation
therefore came at an opportune juncture, and was at
once taken into consideration.

Amongst miscellaneous Colonial Office documents in
the Record Office, Mr. Bonwick found a paper which
records the result of these deliberations. It has neither
subscription nor address, and is undated, though from
other evidence its date can be fixed at somewhere in the
latter half of the month of December, 1802.

This docunient is of so much interest as setting forth

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. S07

the Yiey/B of the Government on Australian colonisation
at this important period, that it is here given in full : —

"Memorandum of a Proposed Settlement in

Bass's Straights.

** The attention of the French Government has recently
been directed to New Holland, and two French ships
have, during the present year, been employed in survey-
ing the western and southern coasts^ and in exploring the
passage through Basses Straights to New South Wales.
By the accounts which have been recently received from
Governor King at Port Jackson, there is reason to
believe that the French navigators had not discovered
either of the two most important objects within those
Straights, namely, the capacious and secure harbour in
the North, to which Governor King has given the name
of Port Phillip, nor a large island called King's Island,
situated nearly midway on the western side of the
Straights, and which extends about 50 miles in every
direction.

"Governor King represents each of these objects as
deserving the attention of Government, but especially
Port Phillip, where he urgently recommends that an
Establishment should be immediately formed, at the same
time observing that, if the resources of his Government
could have furnished the means, he should have thought
it his duty, without waiting for instructions, to have
formed a settlement there.

" The reasons adduced by Governor King in snpport
of this opinion are principally drawn from the advantages
which the possession of such a port naturally suggests for
the valuable fishery that may be carried on in the
Straights, where the seal and the sea elepha&t abound,
and from the policy of anticipating the French, to whom
our discovery of this port and of Kine^s Island must soon
be known, and who may be stimulated to take early
measures for establishing themselves in positions so
favourable for interrupting in any future war the com-
munication between the United Kingdom and New
South Wales, through the channel of Basses Straight.

" In addition to these reasons, it may be stated that it
would be of material consequence to the settlement at
Port Jackson, which has now arrived to a population of
near six thousand persons, if an interval of some years
were to be given for moral improvement, which cannot
be expected to take place in any material degree while
there is an annual importation of convicts, who neces-
sarily carry with them tnose vicious habits which were the
cause of their having fallen under the sentence of the law.

208 EXPEDITION UNDER LIEUT.-OOV. COLLINS.

Downing-
street to
Admiralty,
Jan. 1808.

" From a due consideration of all these circumstances,
it is proposed to adopt the recommendation of Governor
King, and to appoint a competent person to proceed in
the Calcutta^ direct for Port Phillip, for the purpose of
commencing the establishment there, by means of a
certain number of settlers and male convicts, now ready
to be embarked in that ship, and, further, that the
establishment shall be placed under the control of the
principal Government at Port Jackson, upon a similar
footing to that on Norfolk Island.

" The expense of this new settlement, beyond what
would necessarily attend the conveyance and supplies for
the convicts if sent to Port Jackson, may be calculated
at a sum not exceeding ^615,000 a year, subject to a
small additional charge, if circumstances should render it
advisable to send some of the convicts under a sufficient
guard to secure the possession of King's Island.

" With a view to this service, and for the purpose of
keeping open the communication between the two settle-
ments and with Port Jackson, it is thought necessary
that a small vessel should be stationed in the Straights,
to be employed in such manner as the Lieut-Governor,
acting under the orders of Governor King, may point out.

" Experience having proved the great inconvenience
arising from the establishment of the New South Wales
Regiment at Port Jackson, it is conceived that consider-
able benefit would result from selecting a detachment of
the Royal Marines for this service.

''With a view of exciting the convicts to good
behaviour, it is proposed that such of-them^as shall
merit the recommendation of the Governors abroad shall
be informed that their wives and families will be permitted
to go to them at the public expense as indentured
servants ; and, to render this act of humane policy as
conducive to the benefit of the Colony as the circum-
stances of the case will permit, it will be necessary that
these families shall on no account be sent upon ships on
which convicts shall be embarked, and that they shall be
informed their reunion with the objects of their regard
would depend upon their own good behaviour, as well
as upon that of their husbands."

The recommendations of the memorandum were
adopted by the Cabinet. Early in January, 1803, it
was ordered that the destination of the Calcutta should
be changed, and that the convicts, with a detachment
of 100 Koyal Marines as guard, should proceed direct to
Port Phillip, under the command of Lieut .-Colonel

BY JAMBS BAOKHOUSB WALKBR. S09

David Collins, who was appointed Lieut- Governor of
the new Settlement. An urgent appeal was made to
the authorities by Mr. Secretary King, of the Home
Office, to send a proportion of women — to allow the
wives of the married convicts to accompany their
husbands, and to add a number of female convicts.
Secretary King pointed out the mischief that had ensued
in the Port Jackson colony from the disproportion of
the sexes, and remarked, " To begin with a colony of
men, popultis vij'orumj will do for nothing in nature but
what Virgil applies it to — a Hive of Bees." It would
have been well if this sensible advice had been acted
upon ; as it was, out of 307 convicts who sailed from
England, only 17 were accompanied by their wives.
The military guard, officers and men, consisted of
51, of whom some seven had their wives with them.
Free settlers were not much encouraged in those days ;
for, though it was the policy of the Government to
introduce a certain proportion, the number was rigidly
limited. Mr. Bon wick says that up to the year 1803
the whole number of free settlers introduced into New
Holland was only 320, to a total population of over
7000. Thirteen persons obtained Lord Hobart's permis-
sion to throw in their lot with the new colony as
settlers ; and, of these, not more than three or four had
wives with them. The Civil Establishment consisted
of a Chaplain, the Rev. Robert Knopwood ; three
Surgeons, Messrs. Wm. I'Anson, Matthew Bowden, and
Wm. Hopley; a Commissary, Mr. Leonard Fosbrook;
a Surveyor, Sir. George Prideaux Harris ; a Mineralogist,
Mr. Adolarius William Henry Humphreys ; and two
Superintendents of Convicts.

The Colonial Office could probably have chosen no
more suitable man than Lieut.-Colonel David Collins
as Governor of the new settlement. Collins was an
Irishman, having been bom in King^s County in
1756. He had seen military service ; and^ as a young
Lieutenant of Marines, had been present at the battle of
Bunker's Hill. When Governor Phillip sailed with
the '* First Fleet " in 1788, to found Sydney, Captain
Collins accompanied him, as Judffe Advocate. He
served in this important capacity, ana also as Secretary
to the Governor, for eight years, returning to England
in 1796, with high recommendations from Governor
Hunter to the Duke of Portland for his merit and
services to the young colony. During his stay in
England he wrote and published his well known and
valuable ''Account of the English Colony of New South

210 EXPEDITION UNDER LIEUT.-GOV. COLLINS.

Wales," the first volume appearing in 1798, and the
second, which carried on the history to August, 1801 , being
published in 1802. The book met with a very favour-
able reception, and was reviewed by Sydney Smith, in the
Edinburgh Review. The reviewer says, " Mr. Collins's
book is written with great plainness and candour: he
appears to be a roan always meaning well; of good plain
common sense; and composed of those well- wearing
materials which adapt a person for situations where genius
and refinement would only prove a source of misery and
error." Collins is said to have been a remarkably hand-
some man, with delightful manners. He seems to have
had not a little tact in managing men, and to have
possessed many of the qualities requisite in the founder of
a colony. If he erred in his judgment of the capabilities
of Victoria as a place for settlement, he certainly showed
sagacity in his choice of a site for Hobart.

The preparations for the new settlement were quickly
pushed on ; and, in April, 1803, the expedition was
ready for sea. The 807 male convicts, and their military
guard, were to be conveyed by H.M.S. Calcutta^ in
which vessel the Lieut.-Governor himself, and a select
few of his staff — viz., Lieut. Sladden, the First Lieutenant
of Marines ; Mr. Knopwood, the Chaplain ; and Mr.
I'Anson, the Principal Surgeon — were also to be accom-
modated. At the period of which we are speaking,
March, 1802, which was during the short peace which followed upon
to May, 1803. the Treaty of Amiens, the ships of the Navy were
frequently employed for the conveyance of convicts to
Bonwick*8 New South Wales. In the early days of the colony the
"First Twenty convicts were brought out under contract, — the con-
ti-aHa.'* tractors receiving as much as £17 Is. 6d. per head for

all shipped. The contractors had no interest in treating
the people well, or even in keeping them alive. The
consequence was a most scandalous state of things. It
was estimated that during the first eight years at least
one-tenth of those transported died on the voyage. In
the ** Second Fleet," in 1790, the mortality was awful.
In one ship more than a fourth part died on board, and
a large number after arrival. The unhappy people
were shut up below, in filthy and stifling quarters;
seldom allowed on deck, for fear of mutiny ; kept under
no discipline; and often subjected to brutal ill-usage.
Besides the dreadful mortality on the voyage, the
survivors arrived so enfeebled that the hospitals were
filled with sick, many of whom succumbed ; while a
considerable proportion of the remainder never recovered
from the effects of the passage. Afterwards, by the

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 211

adoption of the system of paying a premium for each
person landed, thereby giving the contractors a direct
interest in caring for the health of the convicts, a great
improvement in their treatment was secured. During Gentleman's
the peace, however, the Government preferred using Magazincy
ships of the navy as transports, thus giving employment ^^^^'
to officers and seamen whom it was undesirable to dis-
charge, in view of a probable renewal of hostilities, and
at the same time ensuring that the convicts would be
kept in a better state of order and cleanliness. The
vessels could also, on their return voyage, bring home
cargoes of timber for naval purposes at a small expense.
The ships best adapted for transports were those which
had been originally built for the East India Company,
and had been purchased into the King's service during
the war. The Calcutta was a ship of this class. She
was commanded by Captain Daniel Woodriff, who had
been in New South Wales in 1792 and 1793, and had
been so favourably impressed with the capabilities of the
settlement that, when he received orders to take out a
transport, he petitioned Lord Hobart for a grant of land
for his sons, with the view of settling his whole family in
the colony. He had as his first lieutenant Lieutenant
Tuckey, a young Irishman of great energy and ability,
who afterwards wrote an account of the expedition, which
was published in 1805.*

The Calcutta was to take the convicts and military,
but a tender was necessary to carry the stores for the
whole establishment. For this purpose the Transport
Office chartered the Ocean, a ship of 481 tons, belonging

• " An Account of a Voyage to establish a Colony at Port Phillip
in Bass' Strait, on the South Coast of New South Wales, in H.M.S.
Calcutta,** By Lieut. J. K. Tuckey. London, 1805. Lieutenant
James Kingston Tuckey was bom in 1776, at Mallow, County* Cork.
He entered the navy at an early age, and served with distinction in
the Eastern Ai*chipelago and the Indian Seas, and afterwards in the
Red Sea. Broken in health, he was in 1 802 appointed first lieutenant
of the Calcutta, and served during the voyage to Port Phillip,
returning to England in 1804 and publishing his book. In 1805 the
Calcutta, in convoying ships from St. Helena, was captured by the
French, after a gallant defence, in which Tuckey particularly distin-
guished himself. He remained in a French prison for nine years.
During his imprisonment in France he married a lady who was his
fellow prisoner. On his release in 1814 he was made conmiander,
and in 1816 he obtained the command of an expedition to explore
the River Congo. The members of the expedition suffered ten*ibly
from fever, whidi was fatal to 21 out of a total number of 66. Tuckey
was one of the victims, dying on 4 October, 1816. — *^ Narrative of
an Expedition to explore the River Zaire (Congo) in South Africa
in 1816." London, 1818.

212 EXPEDITION UNDER LIEUT.-GOV. COLLINS,

to Mr. Hurris, of JN ewcastle, and commanded by Captain
Transport John Mertho. The stores, exclusive of provisions,
7th Trir"^^* amounted to the value of £8047*; the freight and pro-
1808.^"' bable demurrage were put at £2568; total, £10,615.
The remainder of the civil establishment, seven in num-
ber ; two of the officers of the Royal Marines (Lieuts.
J. M. Johnson and Edward Lord) ; and the 13 free
settlers and their families, were passengers on board the
Ocean.

On Sunday, 24th April, 1803, the Calcutta and the
Ocean left Spithead in company, and three days later
took their final departure from the Isle of Wight. For
the events of the voyage Mr. Knopwood's diary is our
principal source of information.f The diary is taken
ioT the most part from the ship's log ; and the chaplain,
while he tells us a great deal about the ports at which
they touched, and about the dinners and amusements
which they enjoyed at those places, says nothing about
the condition of the convicts, and but little of the in-
cidents of the voyage. The ships touched at Teneriffe
and at Rio de Janeiro, where they stayed three weeks.
Off the island of Tristan d'Acunha the Ocean was lost
sight of in a storm, and the Calcutta put into Simon's
Bay, Cape of Good Hope^ where she remained a fort-
night. The good chaplain was a man who dearly loved
good company and genial society, and from the fond way
in which he lingers over the delights of Rio and the
Cape, at both of which he managed to have a very good
time, we can judge how irksome he must have found the
long sea life of five months. Though well on in middle
age he was still susceptible, for at Rio he remarks of the
Convent de Adiuda, which received as boarders young
ladies who had lost their parents : — " This I frequently
visited, where I conversed with a very beautiful young
lady named Antonia Januaria. Her polite attention I
shall not easily forget, having received great friendship
from her, and should I ever return there again shall be
happy to see her." And a few days later ne writes : —
" 1 visited De Adjuda for the last time. I saw Antonia
this eve at 5, and we took leave of each other with regret.
Vale r

It is so seldom that the chaplain indulges in sentiment

* In the list of stores are the following items: — Ironmongery,
£2625 ; clothing, &c., £1930 ; naval stores, £723 ; carts and im-
plements of husbandry, £600; medical and hospital stores, £1380;
six pipes port wine, £282.

t Mr. Labilliere discovered the log book of the Calcutta at
Deptford Dockyai'd, and gives estracts from it in his book.

BT JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 218

that I cannot forbear quoting his reflections on leaving
the Cape. "On our departure from the Cape," he
writes, " it was natural for us to indulge at this moment
a melancholy reflection which obtruded itself on the
minds of those who were settlers at Port Phillip. The
land behind us was the abode of a civilised people — that
before us was the residence of savages. When, if ever,
we might again enjoy, the commerce of the world was
doubtml and uncertain. The refreshments and the
pleasures of which we had so liberally partaken at the
Cape and Simon's Bay were to be exchanged for coarse
fare and hard labour at Port Phillip, and we may truly
say, all communication with families and friends now cut
off, we were leaving the Avorld behind us to enter on a
state unknown." After leaving the Cape the Calcutta
encountered a severe storm, and reached Port Phillip on
the 9th October, where she found the Ocean at anchor,
having arrived two days before her.

From the Chaplain's diary it appears that the voyage
was uneventful, and that good order was preserved
throughout, for there are only two or three entries of
punishments, for trifling offences. The health of the con-
victs must have been fairly looked afler, only four deaths
from illness being noted and one from drowning. This
presents a pleasing contrast to the mortality and ill usage
which had been too common in the transports to New
South Wales.*

2. The Port Phillip Failure.
Collins' ships anchored within Port Phillip Heads Collins to

about a mile and a half to the eastward of the entrance. 5^°^\o!!i
Nov. 1803,

• Lieut. GoyemoT Collins in his despatch to Goyemor King *^°JJJ*®^>
reporting his arrival, states that he had brought with him 290 '
male convicts and 16 married women. From this it would appear
that 8 convicts and 1 convict's wife had died on the voyage. It
is difficult, if not impossible, to reconcile the varying statements
contained in different documents with regard to the number and
names of the free settlers. In a despatdi to King, dated 16th
December, 1803, Collins says that he has eighteen free settlers with
their families, yet his official returns of 26th February and of July,
1804, show only thirteen at the Derwent. We have a list of thirteen
persons who had obtained permission from Lord Hobart to
accompany Collins' settlement, but apparently this list does not
contain the names of all who eventually sailed with him. Thus,
it omits the names of Messrs. Pitt, Nicholls, Ingle, Dacres, and Blink-
worth, who are known to have come out with Collins to the Derwent
as free settlers. The Calcutta* s log records receiving on the 17th
October six passengerb from the Ocean to proceed fi'om Port
Phillip to Port Jackson. Deducting these from, the total so far as
known, would leave the balance witi^n one of the number given in
Collins' return.

216 EXPEDITION UNDER LIEUT.-GOV. COLLINS.

Collins to
Hobart, 28th
Feb. 1804.

King to
Collins, 26th
Nov. 1803.

Mertho to
King, 26th
Nov, 1803.

King to
Collins, 26th
Nov. 1803.

Grovernor was anxious to detain the Calcutta as long as
he could, both for protection and to be at hand to assist his
removal if afFaii*s took a more serious turn. In this
dilemma he found a friend in need in one of the settlers,
Mr. William Collins, formerly a master in the navy, who
had come out in the Ocean on a seal-fishing speculation.
This William Collins volunteered to go to Port Jackson
in an open six-oared boat to carry despatches to
Governor King and to bring back his reply. Six /X)n-
victs volunteered as a crew,* the boat was victualled for a
month, and on the 6th November Mr. Collins started on
his plucky trip. The surf was so bad at the Rip that he
could not get out of the entrance for four days. A week
later the Ocean was ready for sea, and sailed out of Port
Phillip on her way to China. She was, however,
destined to play a further part in the history of*Tas-
manian colonisation. When within 60 miles of Port
Jackson Captain Mertho came upon William Collins in
his cutter. The boat had been nine days at sea, and had
had a verj'' rough time of it. The captain took the
people on board and carried them to Sydney, arriving on
the 24th November, and the despatches were delivered
to Governor King. King acted promptly, the more so,
as from Grimes report he was prepared for Collins'
unfavourable account of Port Phillip. The Lady Nehon
was on the point of sailing for Norfolk Island ; he
immediately changed her destination and sent her to
Port Phillip with what little fresh provisions and live
stock he could spare, and with orders to return with
despatches. He wrote to Captain Woodrifl^ ^^ggj^g
him, if it was consistent with his instructions from the
Admiralty, to assist by removing the convicts to the
Derwent or Port Dalrymple ; and, finally, he arranged
with Captain Mertho for a charter of the Ocean for four
months, at \Ss. per ton per month, to proceed to Port
Phillip to remove the stores. The Ocean and Lady
Nelson sailed within four days after receipt of the
despatches.

Governor King, in his despatch, fully endorses Collins'
opinion about Port Phillip. "It appears," he says,
" as well bv Mr. Grimes' and Mr. Robbins' survevs, as
by your report, that Port Phillip is totally unfit in every
point of view to remain at, without subjecting the Crown
to the certain expensive prospect of the soil not being
equal to raise anything for the support of the settlement,
unless you shall have made any further observations to

For this service the six men received conditional pardons.

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 215

the Port, there was no land within five miles of the water
which would grow corn. Water was everywhere scarce.
Snakes were common, and insects innumerable and tor-
menting, but game was not plentiful and fish scarce. At
the head of the Bay, where a level plain stretching to the
horizen appeared more promising, the blacks were
numerous and hostile. A mob of 200 attacked Tuckey's

?arty, and were so pertinacious and threatening that
'uckey had to fire upon them with fatal effect.
Tt seemed to the Lieut.-Governor that any attempt
to plant his colony in this apparently more fevourable
situation, amidst swarms of hostile savages, with his
little military force of 40 men — already hardly sufficient
to restrain the convicts — must only end in disaster.
He wrote to Lord Hobarti ** Were I to settle in
the upper part of the harbour, which is full of natives,
I should require four times the strength I have
now." Yet this was the only alternative he could see
to his present position in a waste of waterless sand.
So gloomy was the view he took of the situation, Collins' to
that he even found the Bay itself wholly unfit for King, 6th
commercial purposes on account of its difficulty of^°^'^®^^*
access, and that, owing to the dangerous entrance and
strong tides, it required a combination of favourable cir-
cumstances to enable a vessel to enter without disaster.
His sole idea was to remove as soon as possible from
these forbidding shores. His instructions from the Tnstnictions,
Colonial Office had contemplated such a possibility, and 7th Feb. 1803,
allowed him considerable latitude of choice as to the final
destination of the colony. " Although Port Phillip has
been pointed out as the place judged most convenient and
proper for fixing the first settlement of your establish-
ment in Bass^ Straits, nevertheless you are not positively
restricted from giving the preference to any other part of
the said southern coast of New South Wales, or any of
the islands in Bass* Straits, which, upon communication
with the Governor of New South Wales, and with his
concurrence and approbation, you may have well-
grounded reasons to consider as more advantageously
situated for that purpose." With the idea, therefore,
fixed in his mind that at Port Phillip nothing but &ilure
was possible, it became his most anxious thought to
obtain Governor King's permission to remove his settle-
ment. But here was a new source of embarrassment.
By the beginning of November the Ocean had landed
her stores. Captain Mertho was anxious to jproceed
on his voyage to China, and to charter the snip for
Port Jackson would entail a heavy expense. The

216 EXPEDITION UNBBB LIBUT.-GOV. COLLINS.

Collins to
Hobart, 28th
Feb. 1804.

King to
CoUinSySetli
Nov. 1803.

Mertho to
King, 26th-
Nov, 1803.

King to
Collins, 26th
Nov. 1803.

Gk)vernor was anxious to detain the Calcutta as long as
be could, both for protection and to be at band to assist his
removal if affiiirs took a more serious turn. In this
dilemma he found a friend in need in one of the settlers,
Mr. William Collins, formerly a master in the navy, who
had come out in the Ocean on a seal-fisbinp^ speculation.
This William Collins volunteered to go to Fort Jackson
in an open six-oared boat to cBrry despatches to
Governor King and to bring back his reply. Six ix>n-
victs volunteered as a crew, the boat was victualled for a
month, and on the 6th November Mr. Collins started on
his plucky trip. The surf was so bad at the Rip that he
could not get out of the entrance for four days. A week
later the Ocean was ready for sea, and sailed out of Port
Phillip on her way to China. She was, however,
destined to play a iiirther part in the history of^Tas-
manian colonisation. When within 60 miles of Port
Jackson Captain Mertho came upon William Collins in
his cutter. The boat had been nine days at sea, and had
had a very rough time of it. The captain took the
people on board and carried them to Sydney, arriving on
the 24th November, and the despatcnes were delivered
to Governor King. King acted promptly, the more so,
as from Grimes report he ivM prepared for Collins*
uniavoifrable account of Port Phillip. The Ladif Nelson
was on the point of sailing for Norfolk Island; he
immediately changed her destination and sent her to
Port Phillip with what little fresh provisions and live
stock he could spare, and with orders to return with
despatches. He wrote to Captain Woodriff begging
him, if it was consistent with his instructions from the
Admiralty, to assist by removing the convicts to the
Derwent or Port Dairy mple ; and, finally, he arranged
with Captain Mertho for a charter of the Ocean for four
months, at 18s. per ton per month, to proceed to Port
Phillip to remove the stores. The Ocean and jOadi/
Nelson sailed within four days after receipt of the
despatches.

Governor King, in his despatch, fully endorees Collins'
opinion about Port Phillip. " It appears," he says,
" as well by Mr. Grimes' and Mr. Robbins' surveys, as
by your report, that Port Phillip is totally unfit in every
point of view to remain at, without subjecting the Crown
to the certain expensive prospect of the soil not being
equal to raise anything for the support of the settlement,
unless you shall have made any further observations to

^ For this service the six men received coxKUtional pardons,

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 217

encourage your remaining there. Perhaps the upper
part of the bay at the head of the rivers may not have
escaped your notice, as this is the only part Mr. Grimes
and those that were with him speak the least favourably
of. From this circumstance, I shall presume, it will
appear to you that removing from thence will be the
most advisable for the interest of His Majesty's Service."
He then refers to Bowen's settlement at Risdon, and the
reports from thence, and sends to the Lieut.-Governor
Bass' and Flinders' MS. journals containing a description
of the Derwent. He next discusses the relative advan-
tages of the Derwent and Port Dalrymple (Le.j the Tamar).
The Derwent has the recommendation of being already
settled on a small scale, and as being an excellent
harbour for the China ships to touch at, and also for sealers
and i?Aalers. However, if it were not for the difficulties
of approach in the channel of Port Dalrymple, and the
possibility of not finding good land there, he would
decidedly prefer the northern locality, as more advan-
tageously situated, and particularly as a place of resource
for the sealing and fishing vessels in Bass* Straits, and to
protect the fisheries at Uape Barren and King^s Island
from the Americans. However, he leaves to Collins full
freedom of choice between the two places.

In the meantime Governor Collins had got all his Collins to
people encamped in tents, and had placed his sixteen Hobart, l4th
settlers in a valley near his encampment, where they ^°^' ^^^^•
established themselves in temporary nuts. For the first
few weeks the general health was good, but afler that
time sickness began to appear, and he had some 30
under medical treatment. A matter which troubled
Collins more was the desertion of the convicts. The
people had been very orderly for the first three weeks,
but soon a spirit of discontent arose, and, immediately
afler the boat left for Sydney, three men absconded, — with
some vague idea of reaching Port Jackson, or getting on
board a whaler off the coast, — and within a week twelve
were missing from the camp. Parties were organised in
pursuit, and, at a distance of 60 miles from the camp,
five of the runaways were recaptured and brought back.
Hitherto the Governor had not caused his commission to coiuns to
be read, reserving this ceremony till he should be finally Hobai-t, 28th
settled. Now he wished to make a public example of ^«^« 18^-
the delinquents; and, to add solemnity to the punishment,
he had the garrison drawn up under arms, the convicts,
clean dressed, on the opposite side, while the chaplain
read the commission, the marines fired three volleys,
and all gave three cheers for His Honor, The Governor

218 EXPEDITION UNDER LIEUT.-QOV. COLLINS. ..

then addressed the people, pointing out the comforts
they enjoyed and the ill use they made of them, and the
folly of desertion, which could only end in suffering and
death, either from the attacks of the savages, or from *
starvation and hardships in the fruitless attempt to travel
1000 miliBs through a wild and inhospitable country
inhabited only by savages. The five deserters were then
brought up for punishment, and, in the presence of all,
received 100 lashes each, administered by the drummers.
Notwithstanding this example, desertions still continued
in spite of all the vigilance that could be exercised.
Some of the runaways, after a bitter experience of the
miseries of the bush, voluntarily returned, in a deplorable
state of illness and exhaustion, having travelled over 100
Collins to miles and subsisted on gum and shellfish. One or two
King, 29th were shot, others were recaptured, but on Cgllins'
Feb. 1804. departure at least seven were left in the woods. What
became of them was never known, except in one instance.
Thirty years after, when the first party from Launceston
went over to settle Port Phillip, they found amongst a
tribe of blacks a white man, unable to speak English,
and hardlv distinguishable from an aborigine. This was
William ^Buckley, one of the runaways from Collins'
• settlement. Buckley received a free pardon and settled
in Tasmania. His huge ungainly form and lieavy face
were familiar in the streets of Hobart in the memory of
many now living.

Considering the character of the people, and the fact
that they were broiling on the sandhills in a Victorian
summer, with an insufiicient supply of water, and unem-
ployed on any useful work, it is not to be wondered
that disorder broke out in the camp. From Collins'
General Orders, and Mr. Knopwood's diary, we learn of
drunkenness amongst the marines, of plundering of the
stores by the convicts. After some particularly daring
robberies on Christmas eve, it was found that the military
Knopwood, guard was insufficient, and, by the Governor's desire, the
4th Jan. 1804. officers of the civil establishment, including the chaplain,
formed themselves into an association to patrol as a
watch at night for the protection of property and the
maintenance of order.

The Governor did his best to find employment for his
men by setting them to build huts, and to construct a
stone magazine for ammunition, but he made no further
effort at explorntion, nor did he attend to King's hint that
better country might be found at the head of the port.
If he had done so it is probable that the systematic
settlement of Hobart might have been long deferred,

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 219

It is the more inexplicable that the country on which Calcutta's
Melbourne now stands was not examined, as the Calcutta }^^f ^^^ ^
proceeded up the Harbour and anchored in Hobson's jgos/^ ^
Bbj off the present site of Williamstown, actually
taking in 55 tons of water from the River. Yarra. Yet
although the ship was away for some ten days no attempt
was made to explore the shores of that river.

On the 13th December the Ocean returned from
Port Jackson, and with her the Francis schooner
bringing despatches from Gk)Yemor King. The appear-
ance of the Ocean was hailed with delight, and the
satisfaction of Collins was shared by all when they learnt
the news of Bowen's settlement at the Derwent, and that
the Ocean had been chartered to remove the people
thither, or wherever the Lieut-Governor thought proper.
Collins' pleasure was rather damped by Capt. Woodriff's
informing him that as the Ocean had arrived to remove
the Colony, the Calcutta, in accordance with the
Admiralty instructions, must immediately proceed to
Port Jackson, where a cargo of timber for the use of
the navy was awaiting her, and that she could give no
assistance in removing the settlement. This would
render it necessary to divide the convicts, the military
and civil establishments, and the stores into two detach-
ments, as the Ocean could not take them all at once.

Collins immediately set to work to prepare for removal.
He set the people to build a temporary jetty, 500 feet
long, over the flats, and soon had all hands busily at
won^ loading the Ocean. As to his ultimate destination
he was still m much perplexity, and for some weeks it
was doubtful whether the Tamar or the Derwent would
be the site of the principal settlement in Van Diemen's
Land. Indeed, in those days the ignorance of the different
localities was so great — being limited to the information
acquired by Flinders in his flying visits — that the data
upon which to base a decision were wanting. By the
Calcutta^ which left him on the 18th December, he
writes to King that he will not come to a decision on a
point of so much importance until Port Dalrymple
nad been examined by Wm. Collins, who was leaving
in the Francis for that purpose. He will, in deference
to King, give the nortnern port the preference, though
he himselt inclined to the Derwent. King in reply tells
him that a schooner which had just arrived from Port
Dalrymple reported the entrance and channel very
dangerous, and the natives troublesome, and advises
him to give up the idea of going there, and to decide for
the Derwent.

220 EXPEDITION UNDER LIEUT.-GOV. COLLINS.

Collins to
King, 28th
Feb. 1804.

Collins to
King, 27th
Jan. 1804.

This advice only confirmed the conclusion to which
Collins had at last brought himself. He gives as his
reasons, in addition to King's recommendation, that the
advantag^es of being in a place already settled had great
weight with him, but that a stronger consideration was the
mutinous spirit amongst his soldiers, which, he thought,
would be checked by the presence of the detachment of
the New South Wafes Corps at Risdon ; and, moreover,
that he considered the Derwent better for commercial
purposes than any place in the straits, and that he hoped
before long to see it a port of shelter for ships from
Europe, America, and China, and a ^vourite resort of
whaling ships.

The Lieut.-Govemor was so anxious to get away from
the place he detested that he kept his people at work
loading the Ocean all the week round, Sundays included.
He says, in his General Order of Sunday, 31st
December, " It has never been the Lieut.- Governor's
wish to make that day any other than a day of devotion
and rest ; but circumstances compel him to employ it in
labour. In this the whole are concerned, since the sooner
we are enabled to leave this unpromising and unpro-
ductive country the sooner we shall be able to reap the
advantages and enjoy the comforts of a more fertile
spot; and as the winter season will soon not be far
distant, there will not be too much time before us
wherein to erect more comfortable dwellings for every
one than the thin canvas coverings which we are now
under, and which are every day growing worse."

When Wm. Collins, on 21st January, returned from
Port Dalrymple in the Lad^ Nelson — which vessel had
taken him from Kent's Group, the Francis having
proved too leaky to venture across the straits — he found
the Ocean loaded and ready to go to the Derwent. The
fact that he brought a report on the whole very favour-
able to Port Dalrymple did not induce the Lieut.-
Govemor to alter his mind.

A few days sufficed to select the people he intended to
leave behind him, some 150 in number, of whom Lieut.
Sladden, with a small guard, was to have charge, and
to embark the majority, some 200 souls, on board the
Ocean, the settlers finding a place on board the Lady
Nelson, On the 27th January Collins writes to King
that he was now only waiting for an easterly wind to clear
the Heads and leave this inhospitable land behind. Thev
had to wait four days for the wind 5 and on the 30tii
January, 1804, the Ocean and Lady Nelson sailed out
of Port Phillip in company, and headed for the Derwent,

BT JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER, 221

In his narratiye of Collins' expedition Lieut. Tuckey
sajs of the country he had just left : *' The kangaroo
seems to reign undisturbed lord of the soil^ a dominion
which, by the evacuation of Port Phillip, he is likely
to retain for ages." — Surely as unlucky an attempt at
prophecy as was ever made !

Could some truer prophet have lifted the veil of the
future for Collins^ he would have shown the disappointed
Lieut.-Governor a picture which would have more than
surprised him. He would have shown him, within
little more than thirty years, a small party of adventurous
squatters leaving Van Diemen's Land to seek a new land
of wealth on the shores of Port Phillip. Amongst them
he would have noticed a man — whom he himself had
brought out as a boy in the OceaUy and taken to the
Derwent,* and who was now returning to the unpromis-
ing and unproductive country which the Lieut.-Grovemor
had abandoned in despair, to find in it a land of fair
plains and of springs of water — a land of promise — a
veritable Australia Felix — soon to be wealthy in flocks
and herds. Such a prophet would have shown him this
country, which he and Governor Kin^ agreed in think-
ing wholly unsuited for settlement, within another fifteen
short years invaded by tens of thousands of eag^^r
emigrants rushing to secure at least some small share
of its wonderftil wealth, until in another generation it
had grown into a land of gardens and farms, rich in
corn and wine, crowded with villa^s and cities ; and on
the unpromising shores of Port jPhillip there stood a
great city, the centre of a free and prosperous state
numbering more than a million souls.

* Mr. John Pasooe Fawkner.

THE FOUNDING OF HOBART BY LIEUT.-

GOVERNOR COLLINS.

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER.
Read 14th October, 1889.

1. The Choice of Sullivan's Cove.

On the 30th January, 1804, the Ocean and Lady
Nehon, with the first detachment of Lieut.- Governor
Collins' establishment, sailed from the Heads of Port
Phillip for the Derwent. The Lady Nelson was com-
manded by Lieut. Simmons, with Jorgen Jorgensen as
first mate. She took the settlers and their families, and
the stores. The Ocean had on board 178 prisoners,
with some women and children, a guard of 25 marines,
under Lieut. Edward Lord, and the civil establishment,
consisting of the Lieut.-Governor, the Rev. Robert
Knopwood, Surveyor-General Geo. Prideaux Harris,
Mr. Adolarius W. H. Humphreys, the mineralogist,
Dr. Bowden, and two Superintendents of Convicts. The
ship was greatly overcrowded. She had been fitted up in
England to carry some 30 people besides her crew. She
had now over 200 souls on board, and we can well
believe Mr. J. P. Fawkner when he says that they had a
miserable time of it during their 15 days' passage, cooped
up in a small vessel of 480 tons. Fawkner says they
suffered terribly from tie want of cooked food, as the
cooking accommodation for 25 had to serve for the whole
200. They were 10 days reaching the Pillar, and were
there caught in a heavy south-wester, which kept them Oceania Lo|p.
two davs off" the Raoul. It then came on to blow hard
from the north west, which obliged Capt. Mertho to
bear up for Frederick Henry Bay, where he came to an
anchor off Pipe Clay Lagoon. Here Lieut. Lord and Knopwood, ,
Mr. Humphreys were lanoed, with four men, to walk up ^^^^ ^®^'
to Risdon with despatches, while the vessel lay wind-
bound for another three days, the officers amusing

224

THB MUNDINQ OF HOBART.

Knopwood,
17th Feb.

4th March,
1804,

themselves by going ashore^ where they were very much
pleased with the appenrance of the country and the
abundance of game and wild fowl. The boat's crew
filled their boat with fine oysters in half an hour on the
shores of the lagoon. They also fell in with a party
of 17 natives, wko were very friendly. On the 15tn
February a change of wind enabled them to make the
entrance of the river, where they were met by the boat
of the Lady Nelson^ which had arrived berore them,
and they ran up before the sea breeze, anchoring at half-
past six in Risdon Cove, off the settlement of which
Lieut. Moore was in charge, Lieut. Bowen being absent
at Port Jackson.

At 10 the next morning, the Lieut.-Governor, with
Lieut. Lord and the Chaplain, landed under a salute of
11 guns from the Ocean — the first salute fired in the
Derwent — to inspect the Risdon settlement. They were
received with military honours by Lieut. Moore and the
16 privates of the New South Wales' Corps drawn up
under arms. After inspecting the settlement, ^e liieut.-
Governor came to the conclusion that Risdon was not a
suitable site for a town, and returned on board the Ocean
very much disappointed. Ii was the report of the
advantages of Risdon that had led him to decide in
favour of the Derwent rather tlian the Tamar, and now
he had brought his people to a spot that promised as
little as the abandoned Port Phillip. However, the next
morning was bright with sunshine, and as he looked out
over the waters of the Derwent, with its picturesque
scenery of hill and valley and thickly wooded plains,
things looked less gloomy. To be prepared for the worst,
he directed the tents to be pitched at Risdon. Then the
boat was ordered out and put in charge of the trusted
William Collins, and the Governor, taking with him his
favourite companion, Mr. Knopwood, was pulled down
the river to a cove on the opposite shore some five miles
below Risdon, and which had probably attracted attention
on the way up. Here Collins landed, and, after a short
examination, made up his mind that it was the very place
for his settlement. We can imagine his admiration of
the fine cove, with deep water up to the shore, and his
profound satisfaction, after four months on the dry sand-
hills of Sorrento, at finding himself on a well-wooded
and fertile plain, lying at the foot of the great Table
Mountain, and watered by a copious stream of splendid
fresh water. In his first despatch to Lord Hobart, he
savs that the situation was all he could wish. Th^re

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 225

was land of good quality immediately about him
sufficient for extensive agricultural purposes. The timber
and stone were in sufficient quantity and quality for all
his needs, and the cove would make an admirable
harbour. Knopwood desciibes the site, not very
accurately, as an " extensive plain, with a continual run
of water, which comes from the lofty mountain much
resembling the Table Mountain at the Cape of Gocd
Hope. The land is good, and the trees excellent. The
plain is calculated in every degree for a settlement. At
five we returned and dined with the Governor, much
delighted with the excursion." Collins devoted another
day to the examination of a plain further up the river —
probably in the neighbourhood of Glenqrchy — which,
he thought, might serve for the location of his free
settlers. The trees were large and good, but the ground
was so cut up by torrents that he decided it to be unsuit-
able. In the meantime the officers had been sent to look
at the first site, and they returned with their unanimous
approval of it. The Governor forthwith ordered the Ocean'a Log.
tents to be struck and sent on board the Lady Nehon,
and the two ships were moved out of the cove. On the
Sunday morning, in a strong northerly breeze, they
dropped down the river and anchored ofi* the bay, to
which the Lieut.-Governor gave the name of Sullivan's
. Cove, in honour of his friend Mr. John Sullivan, the
Permanent Under-Secretary at the Colonial Office.

Monday morning (20th February) was squally and KnopwootL
wet, but in the afternoon the weather cleared, and a body
of prisoners with a military guard was landed to pitch the
tents on the selected site. At four o'clock the Lierut.-
Governor himself, with his officers, went on shore for
a short time to superintend operations. That night the
marines and convicts slept at the new camp — the first
Europeans to sleep on the site of the future capital of
Tasmania.

In a despatch to Governor King, Collins gives a 29th Feb.
description of the Cove in its original state. "In the ^®^'
centre of the Cove," he writes, "is a small island, con-
nected with the mainland at low water, admirably
adapted for the landing and reception of stores and pro-
visions. Round this island is a channel for a boat, at
the head of which is a run of clear fresh water, pro-
ceeding from a distance inland, and having its source in
a rock in the vicinity of Table Mountain. The ground
on each side of the run is of gradual ascent, and upon
that next the Cove I have formed my camp. The Ocean

226 THE FOUNDING OF HOBART.

and Lady Nelson are lying within half a cable length of
the shore in nine fathoms water.'* The inhabitants of
Hobart will hardlj recognise their harbour in Collins'
description. The filling up has been so considerable as
to obliterate the original natural features. The creok has
been diverted from its course, and the island, which
Collins named Hunter's Island, af^er his old patron, has
been swallowed up in the Old Wharf. Originally the
Cove was much more extensive than it is at present.
The island, which now forms the extremity of the Old
Wharf, was then in the middle of the bay. This island
was connected with the mainland by a long sandspit,
covered at high water, and the site of which is now
occupied by the long range of stores forming the Old
tean*$ Log, Wharf. The bbttom of the Cove was marked by a
yellow sandstone bluff, since cut away, and now forming
the cliff" overhanging the creek at the back of the hospital.
A little below this was the original mouth of the creek,
which issued out of a dense tangle of tea-tree scrub and
fallen logs, surmounted by huge gum trees. It fell into
the river just at the intersection of Campbell-street and
Macquarie-street, at the lower angle of the New Market
building. The land at the creek mouth was flat and
marshy for some distance. On the side towards the
town the beach curved round the site of the old Bonded
Stores, thence, along a slope covered with gum trees, by
the back of the Town Hall, by Risby's Saw-mill and the
Parliament Houses, past St. David's churchyard, and
thence along the line of stone stores on the New Wharf
to the Ordnance Stores, and round the old Mulgmve
Battery Point. On the side of the creek towards the
Domain was a low swampy flat, extending over Wapping
and Lower Collins and Macquarie Streets to the Park-
street rivulet and the present bridge leading to the Domain.
Thence the beach ran round the foot of a wooded slope
by the present Gas Company's office, along the course
of the railway embankment, to Macquarie Point*

* I am indebted to my friend Mr. Mault for a beautifully executed
plan {see Appendix) which shows very clearly the original features
of the ground, and the position of the first camp, and silso indicates
the alterations which have since taken place. It is taken from a sur-
vey made by Surveyor- General Harris in 1804-5. The original plan
was discovered many years ago in the Land* Office at Sydney, and
was presented by the New South Wales Government to our Lands
Department. The Deputy- Commissioner of Crown Lands, Mr,
AJbert Reid, kmdiy presented me witji a tracing of it.

BY JAMS8 BACKHOUSE WALKER. 227

2. The Founding op Hobart.

On Tuesday, the 21st February, 1804, the Ocean and
Lady Nelson were warped up to within half a cable length
of Hunter's Island, the rest of the people were landed, and
the discharge of the stores began. The Lieut.-Govemor's
tent was pitched on the slope overlooking the cove near
the spot where the Town Hall now stands. The Chap- Knopwood.
Iain's marquee was pitched next to the Governor's, and
those of the other civil officers in close proximity on the
same slope. The tents of the convicts were further
inland, extending from about the present Telegraph
Office at the comer of Macquarie and Elizabeth Streets,
back to Collins Street to the edge of the scrub in the
valley of the creek. The camp of the marines was
placed higher up towards the Cathedral. On the Tuesday
night, Knopwood says, " I slept at the camp for the
first time, and so did the Lieut.-Governor.*' Jorgensen, JorgenBon's
who as mate of the Lady Nelson j had assisted at the aMtobiog. in
settlement of Risdon in the preceding September, and J^^^
was now in the same capacity assisting at the founding i^^, '
of Hobart, gives us a graphic sketch of the scene on that
first day. As soon as the tents had been pitched under
the shadow of the great gum-trees, spades, hoes, saws,
and axts were put into the hands of the prisoners, and
they began clearing away as fast as they could. The
block just opposite the Tasmanian Museum, behind
the old Bank of Van Diemen's Land building to the
neighbouring mouth of the creek, was then an impervious
grove of the densest tea tree scub, sunnounted by some
of the largest gum-trees that this island can produce.
All along the rivulet, as far up as the old mill beyond
MoUe Street Bridge, was impassable from the denseness
of the scrub, and the huge collections of fallen trees and
dead timber which had been washed down the stream
and were strewed and piled in confusion in its bed. In
many places the stream was dammed back, and spread out
into marshes covered with rushes and wat^r. ^

Governor Collins had amongst his various stores a
•mall printing press, which had already done service at
the Port Phillip camp. This was set up under a con-
venient gum-tree, ana on the day of landing the first
printed work issued from the Tasmanian press. It was
a General Order, fixing the weekly rations to be issued
to each person — viz., 7 lbs. beef or 4 lbs. pork, 7 lbs.
flour, ana 6 oz. sugar. The second day's order, with a
backward glance at the casks sunk at the foot of the Port
Phillip sanohills, expressed the Oovemor's satis&ctioa at

228 THE FOUNDING OF HOBART.

having been enabled to fix the settlement advantageously,
and in a situation blessed with that great comfort of life, a
permanent sujiply of pure running water, and cautioned
the people against polluting the stream. On the third
day the hours of labour were fixed. The Lieut-Governor
having thus given his people some elementary lessons,
enforced by appropriate sanctions, on the mutual rights
and duties of the individual and the State, proceeded to
care for their spiritual requirements, and on the fourth
day issued an order for a general muster of the prisoners,
and notified that on Sunday, weather permitting, divine
service would be performed, at which all were expected
to attend.

Hunter's Island had been appropriated for the site of
the store tents, for which purpose it was admirably
adapted, not only on account of its handiness as a landing
place, but also because its isolated position made it com-
paratively safe from plunderers. All available hands
were now employed to discharge the stores. The ships
were moored at a short distance from the shore, and the
cargo taken off in boats. A whai*f was begun at the
landing-place on the island, and a way was formed along
the sandspit by means of which the mainland could be
more conveniently reached at low tide. These works
were placed under the superintendence of Mr. William
Collins, the hero of the boat expedition to Port Jackson,
and who had already given the Governor many proofs
of his capacity. Even the Chaplain, usually the only
idle man in the settlement, found employment during
the first week. His diarv tells us that it cost him three
days' work to prepare a sermon worthy to be the first
preached in the new colony. On Sunday, then, under
the gum-trees on the slope near the Governor's tent,
overlooking the waters of the Derwent sparkling in the
bright February sunshine, the military paraded, the
piisoners were drawn up, the officers and settlers formed

nopwood ^ group apart, and the Rev. Robert Knopwood conducted
the first service in Tasmania. " The sermon, by request
of the Lieut.-Governor, was upon the prosperity of the
new settlement, and to pray to God for a blessing upon
the increase of it." This first Sunday had, however,

csan'g Log, practical duties, and after service the Ocean's boats
moved the settlers, with their families and baggage, to
the spot which had been fixed upon for them on the
shores of New Town Bay, then known as Stainsforth's
Cove, not far from where the Risdon Road leaves the
Main Road.

BY JAMBS BACKHOUSE WALKER.

229

On the same day the first oensus was taken, and it
appeared that the population consisted qf 262 souls, of
whom 16 were women and 21 children.*

Of the group who landed at Sullivan's Oove in Feb-
ruary, 1804, with our first Governor, the best remem-
bered, and, indeed, the only one of whom tradition has
anything to say, is the Chaplain, the Rev. Robert Knop-
wood. The survivor of all Collins' officers, he lived to
times well within living memory, and many an old
settler still tells stories of his eccentricities. His spare
wiry little figure, on the well-known cream-colored pony,
is familiar to us from Mr. Gregson's painting, taken in his
later days when the camp had grown into a town, and he
had bachelor quarters at Cottage Green. Of his qualifi-
cations as the spiritual guide of the young colony not
much can be said, and of this he must have been fully
sensible if the tradition is correct which reports his
favourite saying to have been, " Do as I say, not I as
do." The choice of Mr. Knopwood as chaplain was an
unfortunate one. There was a fine field in those early
days for a man who would have devoted himself-^as
Bishop Willson and others did in later years — ^with
wise enthusiasm to the elevation of the society in
which his work lay. It is doubtfiil whether Mr,
Knopwood, clergyman though he was, ever made any
serious attempt to raise the moral or religious tone of the
community. He had been a chaplain in the navy, and,
like too many chaplains of those days, was content to
acquiesce easily and without uncomfortable protesta-
tions in the ways which were current. As a colonist, or

*Xiijnber yictualled at SuUivftn's Cove, Derwent River, 36th

February, 1804 :—

Qualitiei.

JUien,

Wwnsn*

Children,

Over 10.

Over!.

Under 5.

Military Sitablishment.
Civil

26
6

178

6
9

—

Settlert

Convicti • • . .

Bapemumeraries*

Total

S86

*llr. BrowiLBotanlst.
Hacking.
Balasumder, a Fort Jaokion nativt.

Heory Back

230 THE rOUNBINO OF HOBART.

in any other capacity than a clergyman, he would have
been valuable ; as a chaplain he was a failure. Yet he
was a genial little fellow, fond of good company and of a
good dinner, not averse to a glass of good wine or a pipe
with a friend, a lover of animals, an ardent sportsman, of
a kindly nature, always ready to give good-natured help
to any one in need. In spite of his grave deficiencies,
and the conviction that he would have been better in a
secular calling, one cannot help having a kindly feeling
for the man who was always popular in the settlement,
and was long familiarly remembered amongst early
settlers as " Old Bobby Knopwood." The diary of the
chaplain is the only contempowtry material, except grave
official documents, which we have for the history of the
founding of Hobart. It runs to the end of 1804. The
entries are meagre, and too much limited to records
of dinners and the interchange of hospitalities amongst
the officers ; yet it is naive and candid, and supplies
interesting detail. Official records are dry reading, but
even they yield unexpected treasures to careful study;
and, from the early despatches of Lieut.-Govemor Collins
to Governor King and Lord Hobart, and from Collins'
General Orders, with occasional side-lights from the
Chaplain^s diary, we can form an idea of life in the quaint
little, camp which at the beginning of this century was
pitched on the narrow rise between the waters of Sul-
livan's Cove and the thick belt of tea-tree scrub shading
the course of the Hobart Creek.

The Governor had planted his settlers at a safe distance

at New Town Bay, and his total strength at Sullivan's

Cove consisted of 178 convicts and the guard of 25

marines under Lieut. Edward Lord. The selection of

prisoners for the settlementhad been very carelessly

Collins to made. The frequent burden of Collins' complaint to the

Hobai't, 4th Colonial Office is that he was encumbered with so many

March, 1804, qJj^ worn out, or useless men, who ate the precious

provisions, better bestowed on artificers and stout

labourers. Out of the whole 307 men who sailed with

Bonwick. him 137 were labourers, but the trades useful in a new

colony were very insufficiently represented, and the

weavers, silversmiths, engravers, and clerks supplied to

him by the authorities with more than sufficient liberality

were likely to have long to wait before finding scope for

their talents. In fact, the usual official bungling was

Collins to Suir exemplified in the new colony. The stores supplied

M"\^*ift(U ^y contract were as bad as usual. The Governor makes

" ' an exception in favour of the provisions, which he says

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 281

were excellent, the salt beef and pork being better than
any he had seen in New South Wales. Bat with
respect to the other stores he has one long complaint
to make. The tools were bad ; the axes so sofl that the
commonest wood would turn their edges ; of the gimlets
scarce one in a dozen would stand boring twice. The
materials for clothing were of poor quality, and the
thread rotten. The shoes were made of inferior leather,
and were all of one size. The surgical instruments were
of an obsolete pattern, and many of them worn out. The
iron was rolled and not wrought, while neither glue,
borax, rosin, nor bar steel had been thought of, so that
the carpenters and smiths were in difficulties. The
ordnance that had been given him for defence was in-
complete, the guns of different sizes and patterns, while
the ammunition was all of one sort. The seed corn brought
from England would not vegetate, and if it had not been
for some good seed which he obtained at the Cape, and
some more which Governor King sent him, he could
not have raised a crop of wheat. Except the provisions,
the printing press was the only item of which he could
speak with satisfaction, but for this they had not given
him a sufficient supply of type or of paper. Of course,
when the contractors were communicated with they all pro-
tested that the goods were carefully selected, of a quality
superior to the pattern, and quite equal to those which
the convicts had had heretofore. Perhaps this last state-
ment was correct.

In spite of these minor difficulties, the work of settle-
ment and improvement was pushed on with an energy
and system presenting a strong contrast to the inaction
and disorder of the Port PhilSp camp. When the land-
ing jetty at Hunter's Island was completed, all the
strength that could be spared from the work of clear-
ing was bent to the building of a Government House.
He had 178 men in all, but when the necessary deductions
were made for overseers, servants, cooks, boats' crews,
labourers clearing away scrub or employed in other
necessary work, and for the sick — alwavs a large item,
owing to the prevalence of scurvy and other ailments
induced by the exclusive use of salt provisions — it will
be seen that no large number would be left for the actual
work of building.* It is most probable that the Governor
selected and brought with him in the first detachment
all the skilled workmen, leaving the most useless at

* See AppexuUz : Betum of Employmenti.

882

THE FOUNDINO OF HOBABT.

Gen. Orders,
22nd Feb.
30th April.

Gen. Order,
27th Feb.

Gen. Order,
27th July.

Port Phillip with Lieut. Sladden;* bat still the namber
available was small.

No idle time was allowed in the settlement. The bell
rang at five in the morning, and the convicts turned out,
clad in blue kersey jackets and trousers, and proceeded
at once under their overseers to their various employ-
ments. Work was continued, with intervals of an hour
for breakfast and an hour and a half for dinner, until six
o'clock in the evening, when the bell gave the signal for
the close of the day's labour. On Tuesday an extra
hour was allowed for the issue of rations ; Saturday was
a half holiday afler 11 a.m.; and it was only under
exceptional circumstances that any labour was required
on Sunday.

There was ample work for all hands. A large pro-
portion of the people had to be employed clearing away
and burning the scrub, grubbing stumps, trenching,
digging and preparing garden ground. Building opera-
tions were necessarily slow. A quarry had to be opened
on the sandstone Point near the mouth of the creek to
supply stone for foundations. Oyster shells were gathered
from the beaches and burnt for lime. Governor King
had sent a quantity of bricks from Port Jackson, and
these were utilised for chimneys. The fine gums on the
banks of the creek furnished an abundant supply of good
timber. Stringent regulations were enforced against the
useless destruction of the timber, and no trees might be
felled without the permission of the Superintendent of
Carpenters, to which office the Governor had appointed
Mr. Wm. NichoUs, who had come out in the Ocean as
a free settler. With the inferior axes supplied by the
Government contractors, and which had their edges
turned by the hard gum wood, felling was a tedious
operation ; and when the trees were felled and sawn into
lengths, the logs had to be dragged to the sawpits by
hand labour, and the sawn timber carried thence by the
same means, for as yet there were neither horses nor
oxen in the colony. The sawyers, of whom it appears
there were nine, were constantly employed at the saw-
pits cutting the logs into posts and planks — two men at
each log with a ripping saw — in the slow and laborious
method so familiar to those whose memory goes back to
the days when steam saw-mills were not. The progress
at the sawpils was so slow that the Governor, notwith-
standing his preference for day work, found it necessary
at a later period to put the sawyers on task work ; and
no sawyer was allowed to work for his own profit unless

BT JAMES BACKHOUSB WALKER. 289

he and hia mate had turned out at least 400 feet of sawn
timber in the week on the public account. It speaks
well for the industry of the community and the energy
of the administration, that the sawyers, carpenters, and
other mechanics made such good progress with their
work that in less than three weeks from the day of
landing Government House was completed, and the
Chaplain records in his diary on the 9th March, '^ The
Lieut.-Goyernor slept in his house for the first time."
This first wooden Government House was not on the
same site as the brick building of later years, but stood
on the spot now marked by the main entrance of the
Town Hall.

So soon as the Lieut.-Governor had got his house Gen. Order,
built he turned his attention to agriculture. A gang of ^^^^ March,
some thirty men was sent to prepare ground for wheat for
the use of the settlement. The place chosen was near
the locations where the settlers had been set down a
month before, on the shore of a bay named Farm Bay.
This appears to have been at Cornelian Bay, at what
was long known as the Government Farm, but is now
occupied by the Cornelian Bay Cemetery. The farm
was placed under the charge of Mr. Thomas Clark, who
had been brought out firom England as Agricultural
Superintendent.

Collins' next care was to get his people housed under
better shelter than canvas tents afforded. They were
encouraged to use their spare time in building huts.
This was an employment for Saturday afternoons, for
Sundays — after service, when that was held — and for the
occasional holidays allowed for the purpose by the
indulgence of the Governor. The huts were of most
primitive construction, being for the most part what
old settlers will remember under the name of wattle-
and-dab— or wattle-and-daub— with a rush thatch. Let
me give you an idea of what a wattle-and-dab hut
was like, and how it was built. Four comer posts were
stuck in the ground, and upon these wall-plates were
rested or nailed ; further uprights were then added, and
long rods of wattle from the bush were interwoven with
the uprights, openings being left for door and windows.
Mortar was then made of clay and loam, into which was
mixed and beaten up wiry grass chopped up as a substitute
for hair. This mortar was dabbed and plastered against
the wattles outside and in, the roof covered in with flag-
grass, a chimnev built of stones or turf^ a door and
window added, the earthen floor levelled, and a coat of

334 THB FOUNDING OF HOBABT.

Watt, i., 36. whitewash completed the cottage. It is said that the
first house in Hobart was a wattle-and-dab hut bailt by
Lieut. Lord on land adjoining Macquarie House. In
less tlian two months afler the Ocean and Lady NeUon
had anchored in Sullivan's Cove the huts were com-
pleted and the people were all provided with fairly
comfortable habitations, occupying a line from the Com-
mercial Bank to the Hobart Club in Collins Street, and
thence along the edge of the scrub to the Australian
Mutual Provident Society's Building. A General Order
of 17th April enjoins strict attention to the cleanliness
and order of the huts, and to precautions against danger
by fire.

When the huts were finished the prisoners were at
liberty to work in their spare time for the officers and
settlei-s, in clearing locations, preparing and fencing in
gardens, trenching and hoeing the ground for com or
vegetables, and building houses. Labour was scarce,
and the demand being greater than the supply, the work
people were not slow to take advantage of the necessity
by demanding exorbitant prices for their labour. The
aouse became so considerable that by General Order
(Ist June), the Lieut.-Govemor appointed a Committee
composed of the civil and military officers, together with
three of the settlers, to meet on Sunday after service and
fix the rate of wages. The new prices for labour were
promulgated by General Order of 22nd June. Mechanics
for tlie day of 10 hours were to be paid 3«. 6e/., and
labourers 2*. 6^. For felling and burning timber, 30;?.
per acre ; for grubbing and burning, jE4 per acre ; for
breaking up new ground, £2 per acre. For reaping
wheat, 10^. per acre. For sawing, 8*. Ad, per 100 feet.
Splitting 7 feet palings, 35. per 100 j 5 feet palings, 1*. 6e/.
per 100. Oyster shells for lime, ^d per bushel. Thatch,
Qd, per bundle of 9 feet girth. The workmen were oflen
paid for their labour in provisions, and the Order fixed
the following equivalent rates : — Salt beef, ^d. per lb. ;
Salt pork, 1«. ; Kangaroo, ^d, per lb. ; Flour, Is. per lb.
So that for a day's work of 10 hours, a labourer could
procure 1 lb. of pork and 1^ lbs. of flour, and a mechanic
2 lbs. of beef and 2 lbs. flour. Payment for labour,
however, was oflen made in a more objectionable medium.
Gen. Order, raw spirit. At a very early period the Governor issued
27th Feb. ^ stringent order against this most pernicious practice.
Nevertheless, in spite of Government regulations it
continued to be a crying evil, and for many a long year
the abuse continued. Many a Hobart building has

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALESR. 235

been paid for in rum. More could be got for spirits than

for cash. A bottle of rum was long recognisea currency

for j61, or even a higher value. It is probable that very

little labour in those early days was paid for in cash. The Collins to

want of specie prevented the payment of the salaries of the Hobart, 3rd

officers and superintendents, and to meet this difficulty, ^^^' ^®^*'

and to supply the officers with the means of purchasing

necessary articles brought by vessels coming from Sydney,

the Commissary was directed to is4fc small promissory

notes of not less than £1 sterling in value. These were

to pass in circulation until specie was sent out.

The little camp on the hill above Sullivan's Cove
must have been a grotesque and rough-looking village,
with its collection of wattle-and-dab huts thatched with
grass. The officers, for the most part, still occupied
tents, the hospital was a marquee, and the only piece of
architecture making any pretence to be a civilised dwel-
ling was the wooden cottage of the Governor. Hunter's
Island was the citadel of the colony. Here all the stores
were kept in large tents under a strong guard, which,
however, did not always prevent robberies. At low
water the island could now be reached by the sandspit.
The approach was carefully guarded, and the most
minute regulations were laid down for the issue of stores
and provisions, only one person at a time being allowed
to come up to the store tent. Those who landed at the
jetty were not permitted to make any stoppage at the
island ; no boat was allowed to land passengers at the
jetty or come into the creek after sunset, nor was any
person suffered to approach the island afler that hour
without a special permit from the Governor. These
precautions were necessary, not only for the protection of
the stores, but to secure the safety of the boats, always
in danger of seizure by intending runaways. The
boats were moored every night by a locked chain, a
sentinel was always on guard over them, and one of the
earliest works, afler the completion of Government
House, was the building of a boat-house for their security.

Mr. William Collins was supreme in the direction of
the works in and about the island, and the Governor was
already planning the erection of substantial store-houses
there, in which the precious provisions and stores, on
which the very existence of his little community depended,
might be safely housed beyond the reach of marauders.
This William Collins was a prominent man in the new
colony, a position which his training as a master in the
navy, his enterprising character, and his capacity and

236 THB FOUNDING OF HOBART.

judgment fullj justified. His adventurous and plucky
voyage in an open boat from Port Phillip to Port Jack-
son with despatches will be remembered. Since that
time he had done good service in examining Port
Dalrymple, in company with Surveyor-Greneral Harris
and Agricultural Superintendent Clark, while the
Governor was still lingering at Port Phillip undecided
as to his final destination. He was now raised to the
dignity of Harbour^ffaster of the port, and was a person
of no small consequence in the settlehient.
6th Aug. 1804. The Lieut-Governor, in his despatches to the Colonial
Office, enlarges on the advantages of Hobart for pur-
poses of commerce, and speaks of the spot chosen
ibr the settlement as *' a port the advantages of which,
when once known, will ensure its being the general
rendezvous of all shipping bound into these seas. For
the present, however, merchant ships were absolutely for-
bidden, under severe penalties, from entering the Derwent,
Sydney except in case of absolute necessity. Tne masters of

Gazette, 25th vessels sailing from Port Jackson for Van Diemen's
March, 1804. j^a^d bad to enter into a recognizance of JEIOO, and two
sureties in £50 each, to be forfeited if they landed any
person or took any one away without the Governor's
written permission. No one but the Harbour Master
was allowed to board any vessel arriving in the river.
These restrictions on merchant ships were not removed
until the year 1813.

But while trading was thus prohibited, the develop-
ment of the whale fishery, from which Hobart in afler
years drew so much wealth, early engaged the Governor's
Memo. 4th attention. By bis desire William Collins drew up a
Aug. 1804. scheme for the establishment of an extensive whaling
station at Sullivan's Cove. This memorandum, which
was forwarded to the Secretary for the Colonies for
his approval, is well written, and shows that the
Harbour Master was a man of good education and
shrewd practical sense. He works out a plan for making
Sullivan's Cove the centre of a South Sea sperm whale
fishery, — advising on the description of the vessels to
be employed, their plant and equipment, the number
of men required, the mode of their remuneration by
lays on the take, the necessary local superintendence,
and all the details of the scheme, with an estimate of
probable profits. The sperm whale season lasted from
December to April. William Collins says that when
the season for sperm whales and for sealing on the
islands was over, the vessels could arrive in the Der-

BT JAMBS BACKHOUSE WALKER. 237

went in time to get rid of their catchy and then pursue
the beach whale fishery, which commenced early in
July and continued until September. During these
months Storm Baj Passage, Frederick Henry Bay, and
the Derwent abounded with the black whale or right
fish, and a dozen vessels yearly could be freighted
and sent home with their oil. The ri^ht whale was
frequently seen in the Derwent in considerable numbers
out of the regular season, but during the months of
July, August, and September they were so numerous in
the shoal parts of the river that from his tent in the
camp at Sullivan^s Cove he had counted as many as 50
or 60 whales in the river at one time.*

The Lieut.-Govemor had his time fully occupied in
directing the development of the settlement. Every-
thing had his daily supervision. The planning of the
buildings, the clearing of the ground, the marking off of
gardens, tlie allotment of servants to the officers, the
regulation of labour, the provisions, the stores, the
punishment of offencfes, and the general discipline and
regulation of the people, down to the ^lallest detail,
required the personal sanction of His Honor. In addi-
tion to the care of the camp, the new Government farm
demanded his constant attention, for the prosperity
of the new settlement largely depended on the progress
of cultivation. The intervening scrub made it difficult
to reach the farm by land, and Henry Hacking, the
Governor's coxswain, with his boat's crew, frequently
pulled His Honor to Cornelian Bay to inspect the work
of Superintendent Clark and his thirty men, who had
now some 19 acres in crop, and to pay a visit to the settlers*
locations a short distance bevond at Stainforth's Cove.
The officers of the settlement, too, had little spare time
on their hands, for the Governor was eager to get on
with the public buildings, and the workmen coula only
be kept industrious by close and constant supervision and
the strictest discipline. The Chaplain was probably the

* Kuopwood in his diary (Ist July) speaks of whales being so
numerous in the river that his boat had to keep close along the
shore, it being dangerous to venture into the mid-channel. The Knopwood.
Alexander whaler, Captain Rhodes, fished in the Derwent and
Storm Bay Passage fi*om August to the end of October in this same
year, and went home a full ship. There are persons yet living who
can remember the time when bay-whaling, as it was called, had
not ceased to be profitable. We have a reminiscence of this old
indu8ti7 ui the name ot Trjrway Point, by which one of the promon-
tories in the Derwent is still sometimes known.

238 THE FOUNDINa OP HOBART.

only really idle man in the camp. His professional duties
were not heavy, consisting of one service and a sermon
on Sundays, when the weather was fine, for there was
no building large enough for the people to assemble in.
Occasionally there was a burial or a marriage. During
Knopwood. tlie first six months there were three weddings. On Sun-
day, the 18th March, Corporal Gangell of the Royal
Marines was married to Mrs. Ann Skelthom, the widow
of a settler, at Governor Collins' house. On the 1st July,
at the same place, Mr. Superintendent Ingle was married
to Miss Rebecca Hobbs, and on the 23rd July, Mr.
Gunn to Miss Patterson. But the Chaplain had plenty
of idle time. His poultry yard occupied a good deal of
his attention, and he chronicles his successes with sittings
of eggs, and the raids made upon his hens by spotted
cats, which he occasionally captured. His chief resource
was his gun. During the first fortnight he shot quail in
the camp, on one occasion putting up three by Mr. Bow-
den's marquee and bagging them. Bronze wing pigeons
he sometimes shot. On the 13th*March he iilled his
first kangaroo, adding — ** the first kangaroo that had been
killed by any of the gentlemen in the camp." Many a
walk through the adjoining bush he took, gun in hand,
and accompanied by his dog "Nettle." Sometimes
he went by himself, sometimes with his man Salmon,
who was a better sportsman than his master, and shot
the largest kangaroo recorded as being killed on the
present site of Hobart. Mr. Knopwood has preserved
the weight and measurements. It weighed 150 lbs., and
measured 3 feet 10 from the tip of the nose to the root
of the tail, the tail being 3 feet 4 long, and 16 inches in
girth at the root. Sometimes Lieut. Bowen, or some
of the officers from Risdon joined the Chaplain in
his shooting expeditions, more rarely Surveyor-General
Harris, or Mr. Humphreys, the minei-alogist. The
parson's skill was scarcely equal to his zeal, for though
he extended his walks as far as the Government farm
and the settler's locations at Stainforth's Cove, and
game was fairly plentiful, the diary often contains the
entry "no success." It was not altogether the love of
sport that spurred the Chaplain to these excursions — he
went to shoot something for dinner. Twelve or fifteen
months of salt beef and salt pork, without even vege-
tables, would have made a man less fond of good things
than the parson long for a change, and kangaroo was
greatly appreciated. Of the first kangaroo he tasted at

BY JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER. 239

Port Phillip, he says " and very excellent it was." He

is equally emphatic as to the excellence of emu, on which

he dined at Risdon. On one occasion he gave a dinner

in his tent to all the civil and military officers. Here is

the bill of fare : — " Fish, kangaroo soup, roast kid

saddle, roast kangaroo saddle, 2 fowls pellewed with

rice and bacon, roast pig." ,Game was plentiful at the

camp, and kangaroo sold at Sd, per lb. Sometimes good

hauls offish were made. Soon after his landing, the Lieut.- 4th ^ar. 1804.

Governor tells Lord Hobart that on the preceding day he

had served out 328 lbs. of fish, thereby saving 164 lbs.

of salt beef. At Risdon game was much more abundant

than in the neighbourhood of the Camp. Kangaroo, emu,

ducks, and black swans were very plentiful. Immense

flights of black swans frequented the river above Risdon

in the breeding season. The people destroyed them so

recklessly that the Governor, fearing lest such a valuable

resource for fresh food might be extinguished, issued an

Order prohibiting their being molested during the breed- lOih March.

ing season. This first game law was one of the earliest

products of civilisation.

We have little information respecting the numbers of
the natives about the neighbourhood of the Camp.
During the first week their fires were seen at a
little distance, and Mr. Kuopwood in his walks saw
many of their huts. There is no doubt that they
reconnoitred the stmngera closely, but they wei'e very
shy, and only once did a party of them approach
the settlement. Captain Mertho and Mr. Brown, the
botanist, had an interview with them on the beach
near Macquarie Point, but could not induce them to
venture into the Camp. They were probably not very
numerous about Sullivan's Cove — at any rate we hear
nothing of such large bodies of them as visited Risdon
and caused n panic on the 3rd May, when the fetal
affray took place. At other places, such as Frederick
Henry Bay and the Huon, they were numerous, and
quite friendly \^h the English.

During this first year few attempts were made to explore
the neighbouring country. In a former paper I noticed
Mr. James Meehan*s exploring trip from Risdon in the
early part of 1804, by way of the Coal River to Prosser's
Plains, and through the Sorell district. Of Meehan's jour-
ney there is no record, except the track of his route given
in Flinders' map. The few ofiicers at Sullivan's Cove had
too much to do at the Camp to allow of their leaving it
for any extended excursions. The first explorations from

240 THB Foux]»i||[a 6v hobArv,

the H<4)art settlement were inade by Mr. Robert Brown,*
the celebrated botanist, who bad come to the Derwent
with Collins' settlers, to examine the flora of Tasmania.
Lieut. Bowen had ascended the river for some distance
above Bridgewater, bnt on 5th March Mr. Brown,
accompanied by Capt. Mertho and Mr. Knop woody »^t
out in the Ocean\ boat on a more extended exploration .-
They were three days absent, and Knopwood says they
reached a spot more than 40 miles from the Camp,
where was an extensive plain, with very few trees-^pro-
bably Macquarie Plains. Gam^-^kangaroo, emu, and
pigeons — ^was abundant. They saw many traces of the
blacks, who, however, carefully avoided them. Towards
the end of the month Brown and Humphr*eys, with a
party provisioned for ten days, made a lurther attempt
to reach the sources of the Derwent, but had to return

Knopwood. disappointed. A few days later the indefatigable botanist
set off alone through the bush, intending to gd to the
Huon. He was unable to get further than the North
West Bay River ; but on the 1st May he and Humphreys
started again, and this time they succeeded in reaching
the Huon, returning to the Camp after an absence of
sixteen clays. Lieut. Bowen had already been a short
distance up this river, and had given but a poor account

Ibid. of the country. In June, William Collins, the Harbour

Master, went in the white cutter to Betsy's Island, to laud
two refractory convicts there, and to look out for the
anxiously expected ship Ocean, with the rest of the people
from Port Phillip. From Betsy's Island Collins pro-
ceeded up the Huon River. He was away a fortnight,
and on his return reported that it was a very favour-
able site for a settlement, with an abundance of fresh
water, good fend, and line trees. He saw many of
the natives, who were friendly and took him to their
camp, where there were about twenty families. Knop-
wood says that on this tilp Cpllins saw three of tlie
native " eatamarans, or small boats made of bark, that
would hold about six of them."

Ibidj 18 June. The only other exploration recorded is Surveyor-
General Harris' survey of the Hobart Rivulet. Harris
was accompanied by Mr. Humphreys, the mineralogist,
and three men. They followed the rivulet to its source,

* Robert Brown was a botanist of Euiopean reputation, and his
" Pr«di'omus Florse Novse-Hollandifo et Insula) Van Diemen( London,
1810], is still a standard work. lie arrived at the Derwent in the
Lady Nelson early in February, 1804, and returned to Port Jaoksoi^
|n the Ocean, 9th August in the same year.

BY JAMBS BACKHOUSE WALKER. 241

anl thence went to the top of the mountain. The old
plan which I have mentioned was probably the result of
this survey.

It will be remembered that when the Lieut.-Governor
removed his people to Sullivan's Cove, he did not inter-
fere with Lieut. Bowen at Risdon, but left that officer
in charge at the site chosen by him in the previous
September. It was not until after Lieut. Moore's fatal
afiray with the blacks (3rd May) that Collins took over
the command of the unlucky first settlement, and removed
the people to Sullivan's Cove preparatory to their being
sent back to Port Jackson. The Risdon colony had
been named " Hobart," under instructions from Governor
King, and, on the abandonment of that place, Collins
appropriated the name, and called his new settlement at
Sullivan's Cove "Hobart Town." This name it retained
until 1881, when the Legislature dropped the superfluous
" Town," and reverted to the simple original designation
"Hobart." The name "Hobart Town" first appears
in a General Order of 15th June, 1804. Hobart Town
was henceforth the official designation of the colony ;
but the m«mory of the first encampment lingered
long with the early settlers, and at that time, and for
long years afterwards, even as late as the year 1825, the
new town at Sullivan's Cove was familiarly known as
" The Camp."

The Lieut.-Governor had now been settled at the
Derwent for four months, and as yet had only half his
establishment with him. The Lad/y NeUon^ after land- Knopwood,
ing the settlers and the stores, had sailed for Port Jack- 6th March,
son early in March, and before the end of the month the
Ocean also had left for Port Phillip to bring Lieut. 24th Mar^h.
Sladden and the remainder of the people. The Ocean
might have been reasonablv expected to be back in a
month at ftirthest ; but week after week went by, April
and May had passed, June was well advanced, and yet
there was no sign of the missing vessel. The Governor
grew very anxious, and almost made up his mind to give
ner up for lost. The Harbour Master was sent at inter-
vals to Betsy's Island to look out for her, but returned
without news. At last, on the 22nd June, the Governor's
fears were set at rest by her appearance in the river.
Liett. Johnson landed, and reported that they had been
33 days on the voyage, during which they had had
violent gales, the ship liaving been under hite poles for
days at a time, the captain hour by hour expecting her to
founder. It took her three days to jcome up the river.

242 THB FOUNDINQ OF HOBART.

making her total passage 36 days. The misery and semi-
starvation of those wretched five weeks, during which
they were cooped up and tossed ahout in that litue vessel
of 480 tons, were not soon forgotten by her 160 pas-
sengers. The live stock brought in the Ocean also
suflfered severely during the long rough passage, and
Collins ruefully enumerates the losses, which he could
ill afford, seeing that the whole of the live stock at the
settlement at the end of July consisted of only 20 head of
cattle, 60 sheep, and some pigs, goats, and poultry.

The reinforcement of people he had received now
brought up the strength of the Governor's establishment
to 433 persons — viz., 358 men, 39 women, and 36
children.* The new arrivals were temporarily distributed
amongst the huts already built, and the considerate
Governor allowed them a rew days' exemption from work
to enable them to build themselves houses. He was so
pleased with Lieut. Sladden's report of his little detach-
menl of marines that he issued a Garrison Order
commending them, and expressing his gratification at
their soldierlike demeanour. His civil staff was now
complete. Mr. Leonard Fosbrook, the Deputy Com-
missary-General, who had been lefk at Port Phillip in
charge of the stores and live stock, was quartered m a
Gen. Order, marquee on Hunter's Island. Three magistrates were
29th June. appointed under a Commission from the Governor-
General King. This first Tasmanian Commission of the
Peace consisted of the Rev. Robert Knopwood, Lieut.
Sladden,and Surveyor-General Harris. The night watch
was also reorganised, and placed under the direction of
Mr. Wm. Thos. Stocker, who in afler years became a
respected citizen of Hobart as the proprietor of the best
inn in the town, the Dem^ent Hotel, situated in Eliza-
beth-street, on the spot now occupied by Mr. Henry
Cook's tailors' shop. Collins was not altogether satis-
fied with this night watch, for he had to complain of
frequent robberies, which he characterised as a aisgrace
to the settlement, and which he was of opinion could not
have been perpetrated if the watch had been properly
vigilant. Such irregularities were, no doubt, inevitable

•The return is printed in the Appendix. It bears date July,
1804, and is, presumably, the record of the muster taken about three
weeks after the Ocean's arrival, and referred to in General Order,
17th July. It does not include Lieut. Bowen's Risdon people, who
were separately victualled. A comparison of figures leads to the
belief that it does include the few prisoners selected from the Risdon
establishment, and whom Collins retained at the Derwent.

^T JAMBB BACKHOUSB WALKBB. 248

with the class of people the Governor had to control ;
but^ for all that, the community, taking all things into
consideration, seems to have been fairly orderly and well
behaved^ and to have been free from the flagrant abuses
and geneml demoralisation which disgraced the early
years of the Port Jackson settlement, and which
afterwards sprung up in this colony under less capable
governors than Collins.

That Collins must have had first-rate qualities as a
ruler is evidenced by the fact of the rapid progress made
by the colony during the first six months of its existence —
from February to the beginning of August — the time
covered by the present paper. When, on the 9th August,
1804, the Ocean sailed for Port Jackson with Lieut.
Bowen and the rest of the Risdon people, whom the
Governor was so glad to be rid of, the new settlement at
Sullivan's Cove was already organised, and with every
prospect of permanent success.

After the lapse of well nigh a century, we, the inhabi-
tants of the fair city which has arisen on the site of the
Camp of 1804, would show ourselves strangely unmindful
of what we owe to the past if we did not hold in honour
the name of David Collins, and if we failed to keep in
grateful remembrance the sagacity and energy which he,
our first Lieut.-Governor, displayed in the founding of
Hobart, 85 years ago.

244 THE FOUNDINa OF HOBART.

APPENDIX.

RETURN of Inhabitants at the Derwent River,
Van Diemen's Land, July, 1804.

Men. Women. Children.

Civil Department 1,8 ^ 5 9

Military Department 48 ' 9 3

Prisoners 279 2

Prisoners' wives and children 16 8

Settlers 13 7 16

358 39 36

Total 438

Note. — ^This roturn does not include the people belonging to
Lieut. Bowen's Risdon Settlement, who were sent back to Port
Jackson by the Ocean, 9th August, 1804.

Free Settlers.

The names of the free settlers were sent with a letter
of April 6th, 1803, from Mr. Sullivan to Lieut-Governor
Collins. — Labilliere's "Early History of Victoria," i., 148.

" LIST of Persons who have obtained Lord Mobai^fs
permission to proceed to Port Phillip,

Names. Occupations. Remarks.

Mr. Collins Seaman

Edw. Newman Ship carpr.

Mr. Hartley Seaman

Edwd. F. Hamilton.

John J. Grarie.

Mr. Pownall.

A female servant.

Thos. Colli ngwood Carpenter

Duke Charman.

John Skilthorne ... Cutler

Anty . Fletcher Mason

T. R. Preston Pocket-book maker."

[This list is incomplete.]

BT JAMES BACKHOUSE WALKER.

245

RETT] RN of the Officers, Superintendents ^ and Ocer-
seers belonging to the Civil Establishment at Sobart
Towny Rivet' Denvent, Van Diemen's Land. [Julu,
1804.]

Karnes.

David Collins, Esq

Rev. Robt. Knop-

wood
Benjn. Barbauld *

Win. TAnson

Mattw. Bowden

Wm. Hopley

Leond. Fosbrook

Geo. Prid. Harris
A. W. H. Hum-
phreys ^
Wm. Collins ^

Thos. Clarke

Wm. Patterson

Wm. Nicholls*
John Jubal Sutton *
Richd. Clark «
John Ingle ^
Wm. Parish^

Appointments.

Lt.-Governor

Chaplain

Depty. Judge

Advocate
Surgeon

1st Asst. Sur-
geon

2nd Asst. Sur-
geon

Depy. Commis-
sary

Depy.Surveyor

Mineralogist

Harbour Mas-
ter
Superintendent

Ditto

Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Overseer
Ditto

Where
disposed.

At Hobart
Town
Ditto

InEngland
on leave

At Hobart
Town
Ditto

Ditto

Ditto
Ditto

Ditto

At Farm

Bay
At Hobart
Town
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto

Date of
Appoiutment.

2 April, 1804

-21 Jany.1804
27Feby. „
I June

* Mr. Barbauld never came out to the Colony. ' Afterwards
Police Magistrate at Hobart. ® Came out as a free settlei*.

* Came out as a free settler ; appointed Superintendent of Car-
penters at Port Phillip. * Came out as Corporal of Marines.

* Came with Lt. Bowen to Eisdon in Sept., 1803, as a free settler ;
appointed Superintendent of Masons. ' Appointed at Port Phillip ;
seem to have been free settlers.

246 THB FOUNDINa OF HOBART.

QUARTERLY employment of the Prisoner's in His
Majesty^s Settlement^ Derwent River, Van DiemerCs
Land, July, 1804.

Agriculture and Stock.

Overseers 2

Agriculture on the public account 28

Care of Government Stock 5

— 86

Buildings,

Stone Cutters and Masons 3

ftiiwyers and Timber Measurer 11

Carpenters and Labourers 11

Blacksmiths, Armourer, Tinman, and File Cutter... 8

Lath and Pale Splitters 2

Bricklayers. Plasterers, and Labourers 10

Lime and Charcoal Burners ; 5

Timber Carriage 26

— 76

Boat Builders, Sfc,

Shipwrights and Caulkers 3

Labourers 1

— 4

Various Employments.

Clerks 2

Overseers 7

Taking care of Government Huts 4

Public Stores and Cooper at ditto 5

Boats' Crews 21

Government Gardens 7

Town Gang 38

Night Watch 7

Attending Hospital 6

Bellringer and Barbers 3

Tailors and Shoemakers 6

Printer' 1

Thatchers and Toolhelver 5

Cook, Baker, and Drummers to the R. M. Detach-
ment 4

Jail Gang 1

Tanner and Gluemaker 1

— 118
Servants,

To Commissioned Officers, Civil and Military 21

To Superintendents and Overseers 8

To Non-commissioned Officers of the Royal Marines 2

To Settlers 1

— 32
Sick and Convalescent 14

Total "^

BY JAHES BACKHOUSE WALKBR. 247

RETURN of Live Stock in His Majesty's Settlemmt,
Derwent River, Van Dierneti's Land, 4tk August,
1804.

?a.

To wliom belonBlns.

GovemmeiJt ,

^.1

afl

Lieuc.-Govenior Collins ,

MiUtary Officers ..

Civil Officera

Settlers and others

178

248

Discussion.

Mr. Nicholas Brown said the very clear historical account
they had been listening to formed a very fitting sequel to the
papers which Mr. Walker had previously read and which he
was glad to say had been printed as a Parliamentary paper.
He was very pleased that Mr. Walker had dealt with these
matters in such an interesting way, and he thought they were
all amply rewarded for any expense which had been incurred
by employing Mr. Bon wick in collecting the information, and
they were especially indebted to Mr. Walker for the way in
which he had handled the subject.

Mr. McClymont thought it would be a good thing if the
papers were published in a more popular form than as a mere
record of the Society's proceedings.

Mr. Walker said there was a large number of the early
documents relating to Tasmania, and the Society might
endeavour to get the Government to publish a selection of
them. Another thing he hoped was that the Government
would continue to employ Mr. Bonwick collecting these
documents. He had only gone as far as 1806, and he might
go on to the death of Collins through Governor Davey's term
of office, and possibly part of SorelPs. As the settlers went
through some very great privations a selection of these
documents, if published, would be of very great interest and
value.

Mr. E. M. Johnston thought if the sequence of papers
which Mr. Walkei* had undertaken to prepare were published
in the form of a hand-book they would be better for general
reference and become more popular. If the series of papers
were reproduced in this form they would be much better and
more valuable than publishing a few disconnected documents.

NOTES ON A OEUB POUND INFESTINa THE
OECHAEDS OF HOBAET, WITH A FEW
EEMAEKS ON THE SUBJECT OP INSECT
PESTS OENEEALLY.

By Alex. Mobtok, P.L.S.

On the 9th of November I received a number of cherries
from Mr. E. Walker, of Hobart, which were infected with
a small grub. After examination, I am led to believe that
the grub is identical with a native of the United States, known
there as the plum curculio (Conoirachelus nenuphar), of the
family Curculionide. I understand it was first noticed about
Hobart last year, but has enormously increased since its first
approach, and is attacking the best kinds of cherries, such as
the Florence and Bigaroo. It is so destructive that the most
vigorous measures should be taken by orchardists in whose
gardens it appears to prevent it spreading to places as yet free
from its ravages. From William Saunder's " Insects injurious
to fruit," I extract the following : — " This insect is, without
doubt, the greatest enemy the plumgrower has to contend with,
for when allowed to pursue its course unchecked it often
destroys the entire crop. The perfect insect is a beetle
belonging to a family known under the several names of
curcuHos, weevils, and snout beetles. It is a small, rough,
greyish, or blackish beetle, about one-fifth of an inch long,
with a black shining hump on the middle of each wing case,
and behind this a more or less distinct band of a dull ochre
yellow colour, with some whitish marks about the middle. The
snout is rather short. The female lays her eggs in the young
green fruit shortly after it is formed, proceeding in the foDowinff
manner : Alighting on a plum, she makes with her jaws, which
are at the end of her snout, a small cut through the skin of the
fruit, then runs the snout obliquely under the skin to the depth
of about one-sixteenth of an inch, and moves it backward and
forward until the cavity is smooth and large enough to receive
the egg to be placed in it. She then turns round, and
dropping an egg into it, again turns and pushes it with her
snout to the end of the passage. Subsequently she cuts a
crescent-shaped slit in front of the hole so as to undermine the
egg and leave it in a sort of flap, her object apparently being
to wilt the piece around the egg and thus prevent the growing
fruit from crushing it. The whole operation occupies about
five minutes. The stock of eggs at tiie disposal of a single

250 KOTfiS OK A GBTTB FOimD 4ltFESl!lNa t^E OBCdJL&bS.

female has been yariously estimated at from 50 to 100, of
which she deposits from 5 to 10 a day, her activity varying
with the temperature. In warm and genial weather it will
hatch in 3 or 4 days, but in cold and chilly weather it will
remain a week or even longer without hatching. The youii^/j
larva is a tiny Ai^d footless grub, with a horny head. It
immediately begins to feed on the green flesh of the fruit,
boring a tortuous channel as it proceeds until it reaches the
centre, where it feeds around the stcme. It attains its full
growth in from 3 to 5 weeks, when it is about 2-5th8 of an
inch long, of a glassy yellowish-white colour, with a light
brown head, a pale line along each side of the body, a xow.of
minute black bristies below the lines, a second row^ less
distinct, above, and a few pale hairs, towards. tha hiudf^r,
extremity. The insect is single brooded, the beetle hibernating,
in secluded spots, under the loose bark of trees, and in other
spots. Besides the plum, the peach, nectairine, and. apricot
also suffer much from its attacks, aud it is very injurious .:tQ
the cherry. When the plum curculio is alarmed it suddenly
folds its legs close to its body, turns the snout under its breast^
and falls to the ground, where it remains motionless, feigping
death. Advant^e to be taken of this peculiarity to catch .and
destroy the insect, a ^heet to spread under the trees, and the
tree and its branches ace sudd^y jarred, when the beetles fall
on the sheet, where they may be gathered up and destroyed."
This extract will sufficiently show the serious nature of the
new invasion, and it seems to me of sufficient importance to
sound a note of alarm on the subject. How can we best deal
with the insect pests that are iDJurioos to fruit ? The quefiition
must be answered if the fruitgrowing industry is to live, and
answered in a vigorous and indisputable fashion, or the industry
will utterly perish. We have in our midst not one pest
but many, and though some of the fruit inspectors have a
general knowledge of the codlin moth, there is probably not
one qualifled to deal with any new pests that may be developed.
"What we need is to have one competent practical entomologist,
with a knowledge of actual orchard work, to take charge of
the entire department, make such regulations as he may see to
be necessary, and be responsible only to Parliament. As no
country in the world has paid so much attention to the subject
as America, it might be necessary to send there for the man
we require, but no time should be lost in setting in motion the
machinery for the subjugation of our insect foes. Another
aspect of the same subject is the danger we incur in importing
fruit from the United States. When we know that in
America there are 210 species of insects known to be injurious
to apples, the gravity of the danger in introducing American
iruit to TaSimania may be understood. Dr. Packard, a well-

BY ALEX. MttBSON, f.L.S. ^5l

known entomolo^st, has estimated that there are within the
limits of the United States 50,000 species of insects ; another
writer says, that of the 325,000 species of insects known to
exist by name and description, 25,000 belong to the United
States, Of thOfiiQ. 15^^00 at :leaat>.w(>ald ;b9)>. regarded as
injurious, from preying upon material serviceable to man. Of
these 7,000 or 8,000 mayj'ustly be regarded as fruit destroyers.
A winter 14 America^ referring to the increase in insect pests,
thuS: writes :-—:" The fruil^ower can no. longer ignore the.
insects as insigniflcaat obJQcts in nature almost unworthy. of
regard. The myriad hosts confront him on every side, and
deuiapdhis attention. They claim the choicest products of
his labour, not a tithe of1;hem, which might, perhaps, . be
gruited, but the entirety. It is a struggle for mastery, in
wifuch he must conquer the insect, or the insect will conquer
him." It is to be hoped, that Parliament will seriously
consider this matter and devise prompt measures, in . the
interests of the whole colony, for the eradication of enemies
that seriously threaten one of the most important industries
in Tasmania. In the meantime, let the orchardists bestir
themselves and remove the breeding grounds that many of
them coii^iderately leave to encourage the growth and spread
of insects. Let them see to it that no long grass or weeds are
allowed to grow in their orchards, that all trees are planted at
a considerable distance from fences or fallen timber, and that
all rubbish in the orchard be promptly and constantly burned.
Then the pests would be kept at any rate within manageable
limits, and the losses would be considerably reduced. With a
view of studying the development of the Curculio, and aqy
other insects th&t infest Tasmanian orchards, Mr. Creswellj the
Chairman of the Hobart Fruit Board, has kindly promised to
be good enough to have forwarded to me grubs in different
stages of development, and at different seasons, and am about
procuring a case for. their reception, in which their changes and
development may be noted. I have also written to several
prominent entomologists in America on the matter, and hope
during next session to give some further information on the
subject.

852

THE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.

Fbllows op the Royal Society op Tasmania, — PoUowing
the precedent of the lajst two sessions, during which I have had
the honour of holding the office of your President, I now
proceed, on this our closing meeting for 1889, to sum up
briefly the results of the session. The number of our Pellows
has increased since last year, and the additions to our library
have been most satisfactory. The attendance at our meetings
has been much larger than in previous sessions, and owing
mainly to the general interest attaching to many of the
papers submitted, and, perhaps, to some extent, to a sug-
gestion I made at our opening meeting, more members have
taken part in the discussion of papers than has hitherto been
the case, and in this way our meetings have been made more
lively and interesting. And here I must say one word in
commendation of the full and accurate reports which the
Press have been good enough to give of our proceedings, and
I am happy to place on record the fact that I have found
persons in all parts of the island taking a deep interest
in what goes on at our meetings, of which they would have
known nothing except from the reports in the newspapers.

The close association of our Society with the Museum, with
which we have many objects in common, justifies me in
referring to the very important addition made during the
session to the accommodation of the Museum by the opening
of a new wing. It will be in your recollection that it was at
a meeting held in this room on 22nd May last that I per-
formed the pleasing duty of declaring this new wing to be
open. On that occasion I referred to the excellence of the
description and classification adopted by our Curator, and
since that time Professor Flower, F.R.S., the President of
the last meeting of the British Association held at Newcastle-
on-Tyne on September 11, devoted a considerable portion of
his address to pointing out the extreme importance of the
classification and descriptions of specimens in Museums. He
goes so far as to say that a well-arranged Museum should be
" a collection of instructive labels illustrated by well-selected
specimens." The Curator, he says, ** must carefully consider
the object of the Museum, the class and capacities of the
persons for whose instruction it is founded, and the space
available to carry out this object. He will then divide the
subject to be illustrated into groups, and consider their

BT HIS EXCELLENOT. 253

relative proportions, according to which he will plan out the
space. Large labels will next be prepared for the principal
headings, as the chapters of a book, and smaller ones for the
various sub-divisions. Certain propositions to be illustrated,
either in the structure, classification, geographical distribu-
tion, geological position, habits, or evolution of the subjects
dealt with, will be laid down and reduced to definite and
concise language. Lastij will come the illustrative specimens,
each of wMch, as procured and prepared, will fall into its
^)propriate place. As it is not always easy to obtain these at
the time they are wanted, gaps will often have to be left, but
these, if properly utilised bv drawings or labels, may be made
nearly as useful as if occupied by the actual specimens." He
says further : — '* A local collection, illustrating the fauna and
flora of the district should be part of every such museum."
This description of what a museum should be exactiy accords
with the method pursued by our Curator, and I think it is a
matter of which we may well be proud, that we have been for
some time and are now proceeding in this respect upon the
exact lines laid down by so great an authority as Professor
Flower. I have, perhaps, now spoken of the Museum as far
as is admissable on an occasion of this sort, but as I have re-
ferred totheadditionof thenewwing, I cannot pass over in silence
the appropriation of part of it to form the nucleus of an Art
Gkkllery, and I am sure you all unite with me in hoping that
this may develop and increase the taste and love for art
amongst us.

We have held eight meetings this session, and have had
some very admirable papers submitted to us. On our first
meeting Mr. Benson read a ver}'' interesting paper on the
question of popularising scientific societies by supplementing,
not by subverting, their work, and while our Society, who
have carefully considered this matter, have not yet seen
their way to give effect to Mr. Benson's excellent sugges-
tion, it is satis^ctory to note that, under the auspices of the
Technical Education Board, several interesting popular
lectures, which have been well attended, have been delivered
in connection with such scientific subjects as ''Human Phsyio-
logy," ''Chemistry," and " Art in !ESelation to Construction."
Acting upon a suggestion of mine made some time ago that our
Society might deal with a wider range of subjects, Mr. Johnston
has submitted to us to-night a very elaborate paper, and a
ver^ able paper, as all his papers are, on '' Boot matters in
social and economic problems." This subject is far too wide,
covering as it does the whole range of economic science,
to admit of discussion without much study and consideration,
but I hope that next session we may have some interesting
discussiops upop it.

' S64 THK nUWDENT'S' ADDRESS.

In G^logy we have had papeni on '*ThelPoarBlow>iat'the
L^da Gh>ld-fields,"' by Mr. <i. Thureau and 'Mr. IL -M.
JohtMsttOD, and on l^e diseoyerj of a fossil fish by Mrt'E^ M.
Johnston and Mr. A. Morton, whkh they did me the honour
to name after me, A<m>l^pii-SaimdUom, Mr. J(dm€lton also
laid before ns a paper supplementary to one }>re¥iou8ly
submitted by him, : giving additions to ^he list of ITj^r
FSEtteozoic fossils.

In ornithology Col. Legge submitted a paper' on the
Australian Curlew, and Mr. Morton called attention to one
or two rare birds, of which specimens have recently been
obtained for the Museum.

In astronomy we have had papers from our valued con-
tributor, Mr. A. B. Biggs, on '* A new dark field micrometer
for double star measurements," or ''Observations of the
comet of July and August, 1889, taken at Launoeston,"iand
on recent measurements of ** a Oentauri."

An interesting question respecting smut in grain was raised
by a letter from Mr. Joseph Barwick, and was commented on
in papers submitted by Mr. P. Abbott and Mr. T. Stephens ;
and another question raised by the same gentleman (Mr.
Barwick) respecting the value, probable extent and soxtrce
of supply of the salt to be found in what is ' known
as the Salt Pans in the Midland district, gave rise to some
interesting discussion.

Mr. J. H. Maiden, Curator of the Technological Museum,
Sydney, a corresponding member of our Society, was good
enough to send us a paper on Australian and Tasmanian
Sandarach, pointing out its value as an article of commerce.

Dr. Hardy read a paper on a case of poisoning of a child
by eating a portion of the trumpet lily flower, in which he
suggested that much valuable information, from a medical
point of view, might he obtained from an investigation into
the properties of the Australian flora. I ventured last year
to appeal to the medical fellows of our Society to do some
work for us, and I hope that next session we may have further
contributions from Dr. Hardy, and also from other of our
medical friends.

We have had to-night some valuable notes, by Mr. A.
Morton, on an insect found infesting the orchards of Hobart,
with a few remarks od the subject of insect pests generally,
a matter of great importance in a fruit-growing community
like ours.

At our June meeting a very interesting letter was read from
the Hon. Stanley Dobson on the height of trees^ pointing out

BY HIS EXCELLENCY. 255

that in Victoria this had been greatly exaggerated, and asking
for information as to the highest Tasmaoian trees. Our Society
thereupon addressed a circular to several persons liring in
different districts where large trees grow, but although we
have had many communications in reply to our request, wo
have not yet received authentic information of any existing
tree exceeding 331ft. in height. I would ask every one who
may read these remarks, who is in a position to send authentic
measurement of any tree exceeding this height to be good
enough to do so. Mr. E. A. Counsel, the Deputy- Survey or
Oeneral, has also instructed his surveyors, whenever possible,
to find the elevation of any unusually large trees they come
across, and to furnish the result to this Society.

Mr. James Andrew submitted a very suggestive paper on
Angora goat farming, and this was followed by an interesting
letter on the subject from Mr. J. Smith, of Westwood. I
h(pe the attention called to this subject by our proceedings
may lead to the utilisation in this way of some of our rough
mountainous and scrubby country, which is practically value-
less for feeding sheep or cattle.

Mr. Johnston, whose range of subjects is about as wide as
our Society itself, submitted a paper on pyramidal numbers,
which seemed to me, as I listened to it, to be more ingenious
than the most ingenious puzzle, but I feel sure when it comes
to be studied, that like all his work, it will be a worthy
addition to the proceedings of the Society.

Our respected Vice-President, Mr. Barnard, laid before us
ji most interesting paper on the last living aboriginal of
Tasmania. Mr. Barnard's long connection with this Society
has taught him the true method of scientific inquiry, viz., to
take nothing for granted, even although accepted by the
bulk of opinion, and to give categorically his own reasons for
his conclusions. We all hope the Society may long continue
to receive papers from him.

Captain Shortt read an interesting paper on the possible
oscillation of levels of land and sea in Tasmania, and
he submitted a chart to us showing the registration of
temperature by a self-registering thermometer recently
received from Paris. This instrument will no doubt become
of great value, as it shows the precise time of each day at
which the greatest heat and cold are experienced, and also the
duration of the varying temperatures during the 24 hours,
which cannot be ascertained from the present maximum and
minimum thermometers. We hope we may have a paper
from him on this subject next session.

256 THE president's ADDBESS.

Mr. Mault read a paper on certain tide observations taken
at Hobart during February and March, 1889, which showed
some very curious irregidarities, and the thanks of our
Society are certainly due to him for the trouble he has
taken in getting copies for us of the old charts of Tasmania.

Mr. McGlymont read a most curious paper, illustrated by
charts, of the misconceptions existing in early times re-
spectiog the terra Australis^ and gave some very ingenious
explanations of how they had arisen.

Then last, but by no means least, we have had the three
excellent papers by Mr. J. B. Walker on the early settlement
of Tasmania. The first, following up his paper of last session
on the early visits of the French to this island, deals with the
English at the Derwent and the Eisdon settlement. The
second deals with the settlement imder Collins in 1803-4,
and the third, which we have heard to-night, with the first
settlement at Hobart. It is impossible to attach too great
importance to an authoritative compilation from official
documents of the early history of the land in which we live,
and it is meet and fitting that such a compilation should
take its place on the recorJs of our Society. It certainly
is well worthy of consideration whether a popular handbook
of the early history of Tasmania might not be compiled from
these interesting papers of Mr. Walker's.

It is too early yet to speak of the results which we hope
will follow from the generous gift of Dr. Agnew to the colony
of the large quantity of salmon ova which Sir Thomas Brady
brought out, and which are being distributed under the
auspices of a committee of this Society, but it may be interest-
ing to refer to the fact which I have already brought under
the notice of this Society, that marked variations exist in the
characteristics of the young salmon even before their libera-
tion from the Salmon Ponds, and to the fact that specimens
showing these variations have been obtained, which will be
sent to experts in the Old Country. We had hoped to have
welcomed Dr. Agnew amongst us this evening, and we all
regret his absence, for no individual member has done more to
secure the advancement of this Society than Dr. Agnew.

I think, gentlemen, we may regard with satisfaction the
work of this session. Our best thanks are due to those
gentlemen who have done work for us, and have taken part
in our discussions, but still I should like to see more work
done, and more of our Fellows doing it. Since last session a
great step in advance has been taken by the colony in founding
a school for technical instruction, and I trust and hope that the
facilities afforded to the rising generation of Tasmanians for
the study of science will help in time to come to Tdifie up an

THE PRESIDENT S ADDBESS. 257

army of workers for this Society who will greatly add to its
success and usefulness. It is our earnest hope and desire that
this Society may flourish more and more. I need not
commend it to those who love science for its own sake, but
those whose other avocations may not permit of their personally
devoting time to research, or who may not have any bent
in that direction, will nevertheless by attendance at its
meetings and studying its proceedings, derive much pleasure
and profit, and experience a relaxation from their daily work
which carries no enervating tendencies with it. While to
those who judge everything from a material standpoint, I
would say, Do not forget that many of the investigations of
science, which is a main business of societies like this, lead
directly and indirectly to the opening up of new industries^
and to the development of existing ones, while they con-
tribute much to the comfort and, sometimes, even to the
extension of the duration of human existence.

Mb. James Babnabd, V.P., said we have all, I am sure,
listened with equal pleasure and profit to the highly interesting
address with which we have been favoured by His Excellency
the President, reviewing the work of the Royal Society during
the session about to close ; and, if I interpret aright the feel-
ings and wishes of the Fellows present, they would desire not
only to thank His Excellency for his valuable paper, but also
to acknowledge their deep obligations to him for the unceasing
interest which he has shown in the Royal Society, as well as
for so regularly attending its evening meetings.

Three sessions have now passed since His Excellency'^
assumption of the Chair of the Society as its official President ;
and I think it will not be denied that His Excellency has amply
fulfilled his expressed intention of attending all the meetings
he could, for I believe it has only been on some two or three
occasions during the whole of this long period that His
Excellency has been absent, and then arising from some
imavoidable cause.

And here I cannot refrain from remarking upon an innovation
— and that of an especially gratifying character — which we owe
to His Excellency, and that is the admission of ladies to our
evening meetings, and which has procured for us the pleasure of
the frequent presence of the accomplished lady who is at the
head of society in Tasmania, and thus reviving the practice
that prevailed at the meetings of the original Tasmanian
Society more than forty years ago, at which that noble woman
Lady Franklin was invariably present.

Digressing for a moment to another subject, I would observe
that in politics intercolonial federation is believed to be the

258 BY JAMES BABNABDjV.P.

dream of colonial statesmen; but in science we have the
satisfaction of knowing that federation has been already
attained by the *^ Australasian Association for the Advancement
of Science," which has gathered into its ranks and welded into
one body representatives from all the several scientific societies
of Australia and New Zealand: and here I may remark that our
Soyal Society is to be congratulated that it is sending to that
Association early in January one of its most distinguished
members, who is second to none in scientific acquirements, and
who has been selected by the Council of that Association to be
the President of an important section in the programme for
the year.

But I have been getting off the rails, and must now come
back to the pleasing duty which I have undertaken, and that is
to offer to His Excellency the President our best thanks for
his admirable closing address of the session, as well as our
hearty acknowledgments of the eminent services which His
Excellency has rendered to the Royal Society during the past
three years.

Page
Aboriginal of Tasmania, the

last living xxiii

Aborigines of Tasmania 60

Abbe Binot — Paulmier de

Gonneville 116

Acacia, Iconography of Aus-
tralian ii

Account of New South Wales

(Collins') 69

Acroltpis. {Acrolepis Hamil-

toni) 102

Account of The English Colony

ofN.S. Wales 209

Adamson's Peak 68

Adventure Bay 68-90"

Admiral D'Entreoasteaux Bay 112
Additions to The List of Tas-

manian Palaeozoic Fossils 137

jEcidium berberidis 93

African Species of Curlew ... 133

Alf once Jean 'Cosmography' 50
American Sealers in Bass'

Straits HO

Angora Goat Farming ... x-xi-xviii

Antarctic Regions 18

Angora Goat Farming, Notes

on ■«. .. ... ... «}X*t)«7

Angora Rams 34

Angoras, Pure Bred 38

Anatidce 42

AvUhropophttgi 49

Arabs, Sandarach used by ... 56

Arrowsmith 91

Asiatic or Eastern Curlews ... 136

Astronomical Papers xxxiii

Australian Trees, Large ix

Australian Curlew xxxii

* Baron' The. (Large Trees) ix

Bass' Straits xi

Bar wick, J. (Smut in W h eat,

a letter) xxi

Bahia de Caraguez 5

Bass' Description of Risdon ... 71
Bastiat, Harmonies of Political

Economy 180

Betsey's Island 68

Birds of New Zealand, History

of the xxviii

Biziura Lohata 41

Blinkworth 213

Boobook ninox (Protection of

yJYfLa) ... ••* ... ,, ... tH/

Bowen, Lt. John (Settlement

at Risdoo) 79

Bombay Marine and Lt. Hayes 129

BonwickJas 120

jjoroeo ... ... ... J.o4

Bowen, Lt 205

Bowden, Matthew 205

Bonwick's "First Twenty Years

of Australia" ... . ... 210

Braboume Papers 66-124

Page
Brachiopods, Tasmanlan and

British 138

Bubo, (Paper on Owls) ... 29

Buffalo, H.M.S 122

Clark, Robert, Catechist, Flin-
ders Isld XXV

Collins, Governor vii

Cochrane, Fanny (Smith) ... xxv

Cotopaxi, Eruption of 5

Courts Island 68

Collins, New South Wales, 11,

X^ • XOO ••• ••• •■• ••• ••• O v

Collins' Account of New South

Wales, ii, 333 89

Coniompcetes 92

Cosnurua cerebratia 92

Coal Measures, Mesozoic ... 103
Cook's Observations at Ad-
venture Bay 113

Communists and Socialists 146-155
Collins', Governor, Expedition

in 1803-4 205

Collins, Lieutenant-Governor,

Founder of Hobart 205

Collins' Ships 213

Collins' Unfavourable Account

ofPt.PhiUip 216

Cretico 43

Crozetslslds 109

Cumberland Ship 120

Curlew, Notes on the Austral-

lan j.o«5*o

Curlew, European, Asiatic, or

Eastern 136

Cape Barren Goose 41

Cape Barren Island 76

Calicut 43

Cabral 44

CalUtria quadrivalvia 55

„ sinenm 56

„ cupressiformis 67

„ calcarata 57

„ coluTnellaris 58

,, verrucosa 58

Cascades Flagstones, Fishes in 102

Caen, General de 115

Calcutta, H.M.S 205

Charadrius fulvus v

Charts of The Coast of Tas-
mania. 107

Charts of Marion's Expedition,

l!tt*/ 107

Chart of Capt. Hayes dis-
coveries Ill

Chart of South Eist Van

Diemen's Land Ill

Cheops, The Great Pyramid of 125

Charadriide 133

Dauphin Chart...
Davey Port
Dalrymple Point

• •• •••

••• ••• ••• •••

• •• • •

49
110
lU

260

Denison, Sir Wm. (on large

wFGCo^ ••• ••• •«• ••• ••« 1^

Derwent, The English at the. . . 65
Derwent , Approaches of the . . . 68

Delano, Captain 80

Derwent, Surveys of the ... 89

D'Entrecastcaux Bay 112

Death Rate per 1000 188

Death, as Termination of

Healthy Life 195

Death from Preventible Causes 195
Discussion of Papers —
Remarks by— Mr. A. G. Webster,
Sir Lambert Dobson, Mr. W. E.
Shoobridge, His Excellency Sir
Robert Hamilton, Tide Obsenxi-
tioTu at Hobart, 11-12. Sir Lam-
bert Dobson, Mr. James Barnard,
Hon. N. J. Brown, Mr. Mault,
Rev. E. G. Porter, Mr. A. Mor-
ton, Mr. W. B. Shoobridge, The
President, Encountgeinent of
Interest in Scientific Pursuits,
]6.17. Mr. W. F. Ward, The
Secretary, The **Iron Blow'*' at
Linda Goldfield, 27-28. Mr.
StephenSjThe TreBident, Austral-
ian and Tasmanian Sandarachf
59. Mr. Stephens, Notes on tJie
Last Living Aboriginal of Tas-
maniayfyi Rev. F. H. Cox, Rev.
Geo. Clarke, Mr. Mault, Mr.
Walker, Sir Laml)ert Dobson,
His Excellency, French in Van
JHemev^H Land, 91. Mr. R. M.
Johnston, Mr. Mault, Mr. Ward,
Smut in Wheat, 94. Mr. J. B.
Walker, Mr. Mault, Notes on
Charts of the Coast of Tasmania,
120. Mr. J. B. Walker, Deten-
tion of FlinderH at the Mauritius,
124.

Direction, Mt vii

Dictionary of National Biogra-
phy (L. Stephens) 89

Dourauo, Map of 52

Egcna, H.M.S. (Tide Observa-

tionH at Hobart) iii

Emmett, S. 15., on Large Trees xiii

Eucali/ptics robusta xiii

Eucnlypts, Height of xvii

Fawkner, John Pascoe 221

Field Naturalist Club iv

Fie'd Club, Formation of a ... 15

Flora of British India i

Flinders' Detention at Mauri-
tins xxviii

Flinders' Voyage 08

Flinders' bnd Basn' Discoveries,

Charts oi U^i

Flinders' Arrest '^^

Foraminifera in Upper Plabeo-

zoic Rocks

Foraminifera Rock

Foebrook Leona'd

French Visits to Tasmania ...

Franklin^s, Lady, Tree

Franklin and Ciordon Riven...
French Cartographers

f A lO v/wvK^C ••• ••• ••• ••• •••

French m Brazil

French Companions of Magel-

M,iMmm ••• ••• ••* •■• •••

Frenela endlichtri

„ rhomboidea

„ robusta

French Navigators in 1792 ...
French in Van Diemen's Land

Frederic Henry Bay

Free Trade

Ganoid Fish, Discovery of a ..

Geology of Tasmania

Greneiuogists, Marshall's Guide

Gizeh or Cheops

Goldfield, The Linda

Goat, Angora

Gold6eld, The Iron Blow at

the Linda

Goodridge's Narrative of a

Voyage to N.S. Wales ...

Gonneville, de, Capt

Goose, Cape BiEmren

Gregson, T. G

Grim Cape

Grime«', Surveyor-General ...

209

vi
xvn

46
47
48

51
S7
58
58
65
90
109
165

102
53
68

125
ii-viii

119
50
41

19
75

Hanover, Geimany, School of

XU XlAt^vf ••• ••■ ••• ••• ••• f

Hayes', Lieut. John, Expedi-
tion 65

Hayes' Ships 65

Hayes' Discoveries Ill

Hanson, Cape Ill

Harmonies of Political Econ-
omy (Bastiat) 180

Hallams' Europe during the

Middle Ages 186

HarriF, G. Prideaux 209

Henderson, Col. (Angora Goat

Farming) x

Henshaw's Bay iii

History of the Birds of New

Zealand xxviii

History of the Indian Navy

Low's 67

History of Materialism,

Lange'd

Hobart, Tide Observations at iii

Hobart, Site of 91

Hobart, Lord 124

Humphreys, A. W. H 209

Hydrographical Departmenti

^\^WQ,^ 107

261

Iconograj)hy of Australian

^^C8 Clck ••• ••• ••• ••• ***

Indian Navy, Low's History of

vuO ••• * •• **•

Indi J , Population of

Industrial Services

Indirect Fruits of Labour

Ingle, John

Insect Pests (a Paper)

Iron Blow at the Linda Gold-
fields

•«« ••• *••

Jave la Grande

Jorgensen's Autobiography,

«7v*iw ••• ••• ••• ••• ***

Key t ) the System Victorian
X lancs ... ••• •

Kent, Gapt

Knopwood's, Rev. Eob., Diary,
76-77-78-82-218

Knopwood's Evidence Abori-
gines Gommittee

Knocklof ty Sandstones

Land and Sea Levels, Oscilla-
tions of

Labilliere's Early History of
Victoria

lammosa (Spirifera)

Labourers Struggle for Exis-

u6Uww ••• •■• ••• ••• ••■

Labour, Division of

Labour and Skill ... ... ...

Lange's History of Materialism
Launceston, Population of ...
Labilliere, Francis Peter ...

Lady Nelson Vessel

Lempriere's Observations on

^ lCXt?D ••• ••• ••• ••• •■•

Leptcena sp,

Linda Goldfields

lineattis (Numenitts)

Live Stock, Return of, 1804 ...
Lophophyllum comiculum ...

p^gQ Marjiuis de Gastries Ship

67
151
152
178
245
250

49
227

122

205

85
102

68-90
138-9

143
145

178
173
182
205

220

vi
138

11
133
247
138

macvlata(Ninox)

Malacorhynchus membrana-

O^X^o ••• ••» ••• •■• •••

Marco Polo's Travels

Major, R. H,, on Magellan s

1*1 £LO ••• ••• ••• •«• •••

Macquarie Harbour Leaf -beds
^a X apery ••• ... ••• ...
Marion's Expedition

• f • • • •

41
46

53
107

MarioUj Massacre of
Mascarm Ghart

Page
107
108
110
116
118

Marion du Fresne

Marion Island

" Materialism, History of,"

ijaoge s ... «•• ... ...

Malthusian Problem

Macquarie Point

Macquarie House

Macquarie Plains

MelanoI^itcosfAnseranasJ ...

Mertho, Gaptain

Mehao, 'lames

Millig4n's, Dr., Report ... .•.
Micrometer, for Double-star

Measurement

Micrometer Reticle

Ring

^./CwX ••• ••• •••

Measurement
Filar Position ...

Misery of the Masses

Monuments de Olographic ...

Morell, Dr. Julius (on Sandar-

ClwXX J ••• ••• ••• ••« •••

Mountain Gy press Pine

Moreton Bay, Exploration of...

Moimt Garrett, Dr

Monopoly of Natural Wealth

171-173
Museum, Opening of NewWing vi

Mun-ay Pine 57

munsteri Spirifera 141

Myriolepis Clarkei 103

173
194-198

226

.. 234

.. 240

216
.. 239
•. xxiv

98
98
98
99
99
99
143
44

58
58
68
74
142-

• • • • • •

Naturalists Field Olub ...

Navarette ..

Navigations Aux Terre Aus-

xr alls ••. ... ... ... ...

Newtonian Reflector

Ninoxmaculata^ (Strenua) ...
Notes on a Grub Injurious to

Fruit ..
*'NovisOrbis"...
Nord, Rivure du

Norfolk, Golonial Sloop

Namenius arquata

lineatus

lyanopus

major

auUralis

rufescens

••• ••• ••• •••

••• ••• •••

• • • • • •

>>
»»
»»
»>

• • • • • •

15
45

101

249

133

Ocean Ship

, , JjOg ... ..• ... ••. *■•
Oldham, Gapt H.M.S. Egeria

Ortelius 1587 ^

Owls, Tasmanian

Oyster Bay Pine

Oyster Gove

219
223
8
61
40
57
61

862

Papagalli Terra

Palseozoit Bocks, Upper

„ Mudstones

Pauperism and Crime

Permo-Carbonifeious Rocks ...

Phormium tenax

Pine, Ked

„ Cypress

Plants, Key to the Sjrstem of

Victorian

Podiceps Austialis

Population of Launcestt m ...
Poisoi^ing Through Eating

Trumpet Lily

Possession Island

Port PhiUip Settlement . ...

„ ,, Failure

,, ,, Camp

Portland, Duke of

Problems, Economic

Present Condition rf the

Masses in England

Property, Rights of

Psittacorum Regio

Page

103

143

XJQX

57
58

182

119
205
213
231
208
xxxii

189

155

Quiedong, 3 March, 1887 . . .
Queensland, Population of ...

Ralph's Bav

Red Pine, [Callitris • alcarata)

reissiif {Callitris)

Kei)ort on Indigenous Vege-
table Substances

Reliance, H.M.S

Record Office, Copy of Lt.
Moore's Letter m the ...

Rectile Micrometer

Rent Monopoly 142-168

rhomhoidea {Frenela) 57

Risdon Cove, Naming of ... vii-68
,, ,, New Settlement

*^^ •■• •• ••• ••• ••• •••

,, Settlement, Landing
of Governor Collins at the

,, L/TeeK

Ring Micrometer

" Rozado O " or The Rosy .". .

rohustay {Frenela)

Rock iu which Fish Remains

occur

Rumoldus Mercator, Maps by

57
151

57
58

58
G8

79
79
98
51

103
51

Sassafias Valley, Tall Trees at
Sandarach, Australian aiid

Tasmanian

Sandarach, or Gum Juniper...

Sahno Salary l^otes on

Salt, Deposit of

Salt, Sir TituF, (on Angora

GoatFarning)

Vll

xxi
xxi

Sandstones, Knocklofty

Segetum (Uttilago)

Select Extra Tropical Plants
Section from The Cascades to

Knocklofty

Settlers, Free

Silver Ore, From 100 Feet

Level, Silver Queen

Simmons, Lieut. Commander
of The Lady Nelson

Simon's Bay

Sladden, Lieut

Smut in Wheat, (Notes on) ...
f» ,» t) Two Papers

Snowy River

South Sea, New Voyage to The

Sorrento

Spirillina

Spirifera convoluta

hiaculccUa

vespertilio

duodecimocosta

avicula

gtrmta

laminosa

cristata

duplicicosta

aldUa

triangularis

Strix castanops

Sirenua {Ninox)

Stidoiietta n/gvosa

Stevam Diaz Arrived at Diu
1527

Star Measurement

Stocker, W. Thos

Sullivan's Cove, New Settle-
ment at

Suraia

*' Surprise " Sloop of Sydney

Sullivan's Cove, The Choice of
,, ,, Camp at ...

Sullivan, John

»>
»>
>>
i>
»»
»
•»

ft
»»

Paee

102

104
244

xxxii

223
213

210

92-95

108

224

137

138

139

140

141

242

vii

223

237

225

Tasmanian Trees, Heights of ix

„ Sandarach xx

„ The Last Living

Aboriginal xxiii, 60

Tasmanian Aboriginals xxiii

Tasmania, Early Settlement of xxxi

„ First Surveys in ... 7G
„ First Visitors to

Land in 107

Tasmania, Population of ... 151
„ Aggregate Wealth
and Individual "Wealth of 1G5
Tasmania, Documents Relat-
ing to 248

Taylor's Bay 112

Terra Australis Legend 43

,, „ Discovery of... 51

Thermometer, Self-registering xiv

Tinnunculus cinhceroides ... iv

Tilletia caries 92

263

Page

TmmpetLily xi

„ ,, .Analysis of the xiv

Tfotkammvna 54

tftycary Point 237

Tackoy, Lieut. James Kingston 211

Uredoea/ries

„ fcetidia ...

XlMtiUifinei (or Smut in Wheat)

United Kingdom (population)

„ States „

,^^ Kingdom, Aggregate

Wealth, etc

Van Diemens* Land, Chart of

the South-East part
veapertUw (SpvrifeTa)

151

165

111
138

Victorian Forest Trees

Victoria, Angora Ooats in ...

V leiio u

Volcanoes, Mud

Voyage to the S. Seas (Good-
nuges/... ••■ ••• ... ...

to Port PhilUp

(Tuckeys)

•1

Page
xm

3:^

133
25-26

119
205

>»

»>

Walpole, E. A

Wants of Man (Root Matters)
Webstev^i Quzette (Smut in

Wheat)

Wheat, Smut in

Wimmera District (Angora

Groat Farming)

Wilson, Sir Samuel (Angora

Goat Farming)

61
143

95-

The Mercury" Office.

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